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Manufacturing of Bricks in the Past, in the Present and in the Future: A state
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International Journal of Advances in Applied Sciences (IJAAS)
Vol. 2, No. 3, September 2013, pp. 145~156
ISSN: 2252-8814  145

Manufacturing of Bricks in the Past, in the Present and in the

Future: A state of the Art Review

Alaa A. Shakir1, Ali Ahmed Mohammed2

1
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research- Office Reconstruction and Projects Department, Iraq
2
Departement of Civil and Structural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)
43600Bangi, Selangor DarulEhsan, Malaysia, Assistant Lecturer in Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific
Research- Office Reconstruction and Projects Department, Iraq

Article Info ABSTRACT

Article history: The most basic building material for construction of houses is the
conventional brick. The rapid growth in today’s construction industry
Received Nov 4, 2012
has obliged the civil engineers in searching for more efficient and
Revised Jul 16, 2013
durable alternatives far beyond the limitations of the conventional
Accepted Aug 5, 2013
brick production. A number of studies had taken serious steps in
manufacturing bricks from several of waste materials. However, the
Keyword: traditional mean of bricks production which has brought hazardous
impacts to the context has not yet been changed or replaced by more
Clay brick efficient and sustainable one. This paper aims to compile this state of
Conventional brick production the art work of manufacturing bricks in the past and the current trend
Eco-friendly method in the bricks industry with respect to the raw materials, ways of
Energy consumption manufacturing and the out- comings. Moreover, the hazardous
Green house gas emission impacts of the conventional brick manufacturing will be wholly
Waste material covered as well as the attempts of the previous researches in treating
the problem properly. This paper is an attempt to fill the gap of the
past studies and suggest more sustainable and sophisticated methods
of brick manufacturing in the future.
Copyright © 2013 Institute of Advanced Engineering and Science.
All rights reserved.

Corresponding Author:
Ali Ahmed Mohammed,
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
Email: aliukm@yahoo.com

1. INTRODUCTION
Brick is one of the most important materials for the construction industry. The conventional method
of bricks production has brought undeniable shortcomings. The consumption of earth-based materials as clay,
shale and sand in brick production resulted in resource depletion, environmental degradation, and energy
consumption. Virgin resources are mined from riverbeds and hillsides to service brick industry leaving mines
areas un-reclaimed. Environmental degradation accompanies such mining activities with air pollution and
remains after the mines cease operations, leaves scars on the landscape.
The brick was anciently produced by mixing the virgin resources, forming the bricks, drying them
and then firing them [1]-[3]. The current trend in bricks manufacturing has major emphasis on the use of
post-consumer wastes and industrial by-products in the production process. Most of the researches went
through enhancing the clay brick quality and properties by mixing the clay with various recycled wastes as
foundry sand, granite sawing waste, harbor sediments, perlite, sugarcan baggase ash, clay waste and fine
waste of boron, sewage sludge, waste glass from structural wall and other different wastes [4]-[32]. More

Journal homepage: http://iaesjournal.com/online/index.php/IJAAS

146  ISSN: 2252-8814

researches were held in developing bricks from wholly waste materials without exploiting any sort of natural
resources, in order to achieve sustainability. They used entirely wastes in bricks making like waste treatment
residual, granite waste, paper sludge, straw fibers, waste treatment sludge, fly ash and with few other wastes
[33]-[65].
The conventional method of bricks making has caused serious environmental contamination
represented by the enormous emissions of green house gases (GHG) resulted in unusual climate changes as
smog, acid rain and global warming. Furthermore, energy as fuel and electricity showed a drastic
consumption during the traditional manufacturing of bricks led to highly economical expenditures. As a
result, vast forests are in current deforestation in order to utilize their woods and trees as source of energy in
the firing stage of bricks production. Hence, recycling the wastes in the bricks production appears to be
viable solution not only to environmental pollution but also economical option to design of green building.
However, the chronicle problem of (GHG) and energy consumption has not yet been tackled properly as
most of the previous works were mainly focused on recycling the wastes traditionally in the bricks. Several
researches addressed the amount of (GHG) emission and their impacts on the context as well as the energy
consumption [65]-[70]. Few researches took the initiative in developing eco- friendly bricks in an economical
environmental concern [71]-[74].

2. MANUFACTURE THE BRICKS IN THE EARLIEST DECADES

The brick was historically manufactured by an ancient method dating back to 6000 B.C called the
soft mud process in which a relatively moist clay is pressed into simple rectangular moulds by hands .To
keep the sticky clay from adhering to the moulds, the moulds may be dipped in water immediately before
being filled, producing brick with a relatively smooth, dense, surface know as water struck brick [1]. The
bricks manufacturing was slightly developed from the sift mud process to the dry press process was used for
the clay that shrinks while drying. Clay mixed was placed in steel moulds and pressed by a machine. The
ancient civilians recognized the fired brick as more durable and weathering resistance. Therefore, the fired
brick was more favourable than the sun dried brick [2]. The ancient fired brick was manufactured by forming
the mixed clay in molds and then bricks were fired by stacking them in a loose array called clamp covering
the clamp with earth or clay, building a wood fire under the clamp and maintaining the fire for several
days[3].

3. MANUFACTURING OF BRICKS IN THE PRESENT

This section of paper will exhibit the classification of bricks, raw materials and way of
manufacturing with respect to the current trend within the current twenty years

3.1. Concrete Bricks

Concrete blocks are made by blending Portland cement, sand and other aggregates with a small
amount of water, then blowing the mixture into molds. The blocks are removed from the molds, held for an
initial setting period, and then cured in a kiln or autoclave. The entire curing process usually is accomplished
within 24 hours [3].

3.2.Model structure Calcium Silicat Bricks

It can be called as sand lime and sometimes flint lime .They are made from carefully selected clean
and high grade sand or crushed flint is mixed intimately with (5-8)% of high calcium hydrated lime
[Ca(OH)2] with controlled quantity of water. The plastic mixture is then molded into bricks and autoclaved
under pressure at steam atmosphere at (3-8) hours depending on the pressure-temperature level. Under these
conditions lime react with silica to form a complex of hydro di-calcium silicate, similar to those form when
the water react with Portland cement that act as cementing material and provide high dimension stability [3].

3.3. Clay Bricks

The majority of bricks used are made from clay and shale; they are used preliminary in the
construction of walls by bleeding and jointing of bricks into established bonding arrangement. Clay is an
abundant raw material with a variety of uses and properties .It is a complex of group of material that consist
of minerals commodities, each having somewhat different mineralogy, geological occurrence, technology
and applications .They are natural earthy fine grained minerals of secondary origin and composed of an
aluminates silicate structure with an additional iron, alkalis and alkaline earth element. Common clays are
sufficiently plastic to permit ready molding and when firing, they vitrify below 1100°C [33].

IJAAS Vol. 2, No. 3, September : 145 – 156

IJAAS ISSN: 2252-8814  147

The clay brick has been traditionally manufactured by mixing the ground clay with water then
forming into desired shape and size, drying and firing. Clay brick can be classified based on the compressive
strength and water absorption values according to BS 3921, 1985 as illustrated in table 1.

Table 1: The clay brick classification according to BS 3921

Average compressive Average absorption
Designation Class
strength (N/mm2) (5hourboiling) %by the weight
Engineering A 70 4.5
Engineering B 50 7.0
Load bearing brick 5-100 No specific
Damp-proof course1 5 4.5
Damp-proof course2 5 7.0

The excessive extraction of clay and the removal of top soil have resulted in an enormous depletion
of the virgin clay. Therefore, there have been remarkable efforts from researches in producing new type of
clay bricks developed from various waste material. Hence, recycling the wastes in clay brick will save the
clay from the evitable depletion and reduce the environmental contamination of waste, whereby contributing
to sustainability. Aeslina et al. [4]. produced bricks by recycling cigarette butts (CBs) into fired clay bricks.
Physico-mechanical properties such as density, strength, and thermal conductivity and leachate
characteristics of fired clay bricks manufactured with different percentages of CBs were investigated and
discussed.
Hanifi et al. [5] presented an earthquake-resistant material with high compressive strength. He
elaborated the compressive strength of fiber reinforced mud bricks made out of clay, cement, basaltic
pumice, lime and gypsum using plastic fiber, straw, polystyrene fabric as fibrous ingredients, each at a time.
The behavior of the fibers in mud bricks and the effects of the different geometrical shapes of the interface
layers were investigated in detail.Rahman [6] produced bricks from clay-sand mixed with different
percentages of rice husk ash and burnt in a furnace for different firing times. The firing durations at 1000°C
were (2, 4, and 6) hours. The effects of rice husk ash contents on workable mixing water content, atterberg
limits, linear shrinkage, density, compressive strength and water absorption of the bricks were investigated.
Demir et al. [7] investigated the utilization potential of kraft pulp production residues in clay bricks. Due to
the organic nature of pulp residue, pore-forming ability in clay body was investigated. For this purpose,
increasing amount of residue (0, 2.5, 5, and10) percent by weight was mixed with raw clay brick. All samples
were fired at 900°C. Effect on shaping, plasticity, density and mechanical properties were investigated. (2.5–
5) percent residue additions were found to be effective for the pore forming in clay body with acceptable
mechanical properties.
Demir [8] investigated the utilization potential of processed waste tea (PWT) in clay bricks. The
effects of (PWT) material addition on the durability and mechanical properties of the bricks were
investigated. Due to the organic nature of PWT, pore-forming in fired body and binding ability in unfired
body in clay body was investigated. In order to get comparable results, different ratios of the waste (0, 2.5,
and 5) percent by mass were added to the raw-clay brick. Test specimens were produced by the extrusion
method Caroline et al. [9] investigated the liability of recycled slag of welding flux (SWF) as substitute of
sand in the production of multiple- use mortars and clay for the production of ceramic bricks. Ceramic pieces
have been made containing kaolinitic sedimentary clay up to 10 percent by weight of SWF. The pieces were
prepared by uniaxial pressing and fired at 950°C. The various properties determined after firing were: linear
shrinkage, water absorption, apparent porosity, apparent density, and flexural strength. For ceramic bricks,
SWF can also be used as partial substitute for red clay. Both the applications of SWF significantly
contributes for the reduction of the ambient impact: on one hand, reducing the extraction of natural sand and
clay, on the other hand, contributing for the reduction of the risk of ground water contamination due to the
inadequate disposal of the SWF.
Alonso et al. [10] developed a comparative study to produce ceramic bricks from clay with two
types of foundry sand (green and core sand) (0-50) percent by weight. The specimens were physically and
mineralogical evaluated the scaling up analyzed and an optimization study was developed. Clay/green sand
bricks with (35 percent green core and 25 percent green sand) fired at 1050°C have the better physical
properties values, while the mineralogy is not significantly affected. Romualdo et al. [11] investigated the
possibilities of using the granite sawing wastes as alternative ceramic raw materials in the production of
ceramic bricks and tiles. Granite sawing waste was mixed (20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, and 60) percent by
weight of red clay. Characterization of samples was carried out with the determination of density, particle
size distribution, surface area and chemical composition. Results for the tests in ceramic compositions
showed that the samples with (10-30) percent granite wastes have physical and mineralogical characteristics
similar to those of conventional ceramic raw materials.

Manufacturing of Bricks in the Past, in the Present and in the Future: A state of the Art (Alaa A. Shakir)
148  ISSN: 2252-8814

Kay et al. [12] conducted a pilot experiment at a full-scale in recycling the harbour sediments 40
percent by weight mixed with waste bricks and clay. The leaching of the bricks were not hazardous to soil or
groundwater neither by their use, for example, in masonry, nor afterwards, when they will be deposited as
mineral demolition mass. lker et al. [13] had done an investigation in producing high heat conductivity
resistance bricks from perlite and clay with some binding materials such as cement, gypsum, lime, bitumen
and clay were used for manufacturing perlite brick. Mechanical properties as unit weight, compressive
strength, volume reduction and heat conductivity values were examined according to combination properties,
and specialties of perlite bricks at various weights.
Faria et al. [14] recycled the sugarcane bagasse ash waste through replacement of natural clay by up
to 20 percent by weight. The waste sample was characterized by its chemical composition, X-ray diffraction,
differential thermal analysis, particle size, morphology and pollution potential. Technological properties as
linear shrinkage, water absorption, apparent density, and tensile strength were evaluated. Results for scanning
electro microscope (SEM) showed that the sugarcane bagasse ash waste is mainly composed by crystalline
silica particles and it could be used as a filler in clay bricks, thus enhancing the possibility of its reuse in a
safe and sustainable way. Taner [15] studied the feasibility of utilizing clay and fine waste (CW and FW) of
boron as a fluxing agent in production of red mud (RM) brick. The mineralogical and mechanical tests
showed that the usability of boron wastes as a fluxing agent in the production of RM bricks was possible.
J.A. Cusido´et al. [16] had successfully developed lighter, more thermal and acoustic insulating clay
brick, compared with conventional clay-bricks by mixing sewage 15 percent by weight sludge, with 5 percent
by weight forest debris mixed with clay. The study was conducted using an Environmental protection
Agency recommended sampling train and portable sampling tubes that were thermally desorbed and analyzed
by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Eliche et al. [17] recycled the waste produced in biodiesel
production plants, as spent earth from biodiesel filtration and the by-product of glycerin, in producing
lightweight structural bricks. Spent earth from biodiesel filtration were mixed (5, 10, 15, 20) percent by
weight, (5, 10, 15) percent by weight of glycerin were all mixed with clay. Results for chemical composition
and physical properties are indicated that the use of waste decreased bulk density and increased apparent
porosity of sintered samples. Values on mechanical properties decreased, due to the increase in water
absorption and water suction, but were higher than those required by the standards
Carretero [18] produced clay brick from very different clay, calcareous and non-calcareous. The
mechanical resistance, pore size distribution and critical pore diameter did not clearly reflect the influence of
shaping techniques. Vorrada et al. [19] recycled wasted glasses from structural glass walls up to 45 percent
weight into clay mixtures. Physical and mechanical properties of clay bricks were investigated. The
compressive strength as high as (26–41) MPa and water absorption as low as (2–3) percent were achieved for
bricks containing (15–30) percent by weight of glass content and fired at 1100°C. When the glass waste
content was 45 percent by weight, apparent porosity and water absorption was rapidly increased.
Martínez et al. [20] replaced clay in a ceramic body with different proportions of sludge. Clay brick
was incorporated waste sludge in (1, 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, and 15) percent by weight. Bulk density, linear
shrinkage, water suction, water absorption and compressive strength were evaluated. Michele [21] studied the
potential utilization of tionite as coloring agent in clay bricks by admixing up to 9 percent to four industrial
clay bodies. Mechanical properties of the bricks were assessed. No relevant changes of process and product
parameters were found up to 3 percent tionite. Additions over 5 percent induce significant variations, such as
increase of working moisture and water absorption, decrease of bulk density and bending strength. Therefore,
the optimum proportion of tionite was found to be 3 percent.
Ismail [22] investigated the potential utilization of organic residues in clay bricks as sawdust,
tobacco residues and grass were mixed with clay at (0, 2.5, 5, and 10) percent by weight. Effects on shaping,
plasticity, density, and mechanical properties were investigated. It was observed that the fibrous nature of the
residues did not create extrusion problems. However, higher residue addition required a higher water content
to ensure the right plasticity. The organic residue can be utilized in an environmentally safe way as organic
pore-forming agents in brick-clay. Dondi et al. [23] investigated the utilization of funnel and panel glass of
TV and PC glass waste up to 5 percent mixed with clay. Results for leaching test demonstrated no significant
environment. Kae Leong [24] investigated the addition of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash slag
(MSWI) on fired clay bricks. Results for leachates test met the current thresholds. Results for the mechanical
properties met the Chinese National Standard (CNS) for building requirements for second-class brick. Eliche
et al. [25] recycled various industrial wastes such as urban sewage sludge, bagasse, and sludge from the
brewing industry, olive mil wastewater, and coffee ground residue were blended with clay to produce bricks.
The influence of the waste on the mechanical and thermal properties was investigated. The incorporation of
coffee grounds and olive mill wastewater of clay was more beneficial, with compressive strength values
similar to bricks without waste and with a 19% improvement in thermalconductivity.

IJAAS Vol. 2, No. 3, September : 145 – 156

IJAAS ISSN: 2252-8814  149

Ismail et al. [26] studied the addition of waste-brick material to clay bricks. The durability and
mechanical properties of the bricks were analyzed. The results showed that the reuse of this material in the
industry would contribute to the protection of farmland and the environment. Pai-Haung et al. [27]
manufactured bricks from clay and steel slag. Slag addition was added up to 40 percent by weight mixed with
clay. Results showed that when the firing temperature was greater than 1050°C and the slag addition less
than 10 percent, the bricks met the Chinese National Standards for third-class brick for builders.
Mucahit and Sedat [28] developed porous and lightweight bricks with reduced thermal conductivity
and acceptable compressive strength by using paper processing residues as an additive to an earthenware
brick to produce the pores. Chemical analysis of the paper waste and brick raw material was perforated. The
granulated powder mixtures were compressed in a hydraulic press, and the green bodies were dried before
firing at 1100°C. Dilatometric behaviors, drying and firing shrinkages loss on ignition, bulk density, apparent
porosity, water absorption and thermal conductivity values of the fired samples were performed within the
acceptable limits.
Eduardo et al. [29] tested the use of clay in the formulation of ceramic body incorporated steel dust
and met the environmental regulation. The bricks met the standard commercial regulations being inert to
leaching tests and the ceramic process had law immersion of dangerous gases. The addition of steel dust
reduced the firing temperature of the ceramic process meeting the recycling Environmental Protection
Agency requirement for the disposal of hazardous waste. Abdul et al. [30] recycled the sewage sludge as a
raw material in clay brick making process up to 40 percent by weight. Results for the physical and
mechanical properties of bricks were capable of meeting the relevant technical standards. However, bricks
with more than 30 percent sludge addition were not recommended for use since they were brittle and easily
broken even when handled gently. Therefore, sludge bricks of this nature were only suitable for use as
ceramic bricks which are normally not exposed to view because of poor surface finishing.
Acosta et al. [31] developed red mud brick by mixing sterile clay deposit with IGCC slag. Results
for this experimentation suggested that the IGCC can be applied to the ceramic process. Moreover, it had
exhibited other advantages as water savings and improvements on the properties of the final products. Geiza
et al. [32] recycled the solid waste generated by the steel work in Brazil for manufacturing clay-based
structural products. The physical- mechanical properties were determined .Leaching tests were performed
according to Brazilian standards. The tests results indicated that the solid generated by steel works can be
used in construction materials, thereby increasing reuse in an environmentally safe manner.

3.4. Development of Bricks from Wholly Waste Materials

The conventional method of bricks manufacturing has left the important material lots of in
advancement. The infrastructure such as buildings for housing and industry, and the facilities for handling
water and sewage requires large amounts of construction material. Since the large demand has been placed
on building material industry especially in the last decade owing to the increasing population, there is a
mismatch between demand-supply management of these materials. Hence to meet the continuously
increasing demand, researchers are attempting to design and develop sustainable alternative solutions for the
construction material.
Brick is one of the most accommodating masonry units as a building material due to its properties.
Attempts had been made to incorporate wholly waste in the production of bricks without the use of virgin
resources as clay, shale or sand in the production process. Hence, the natural resources, besides, the
engineering properties and the durability will be developed. Thermal conductivity was reduced in bricks by
addition of waste material to the bricks before firing [33-40]. Another advantage of lightweight bricks is
reduced transportation costs. The cementitious binder, fly ash–lime–gypsum (FaL–G), finds extensive
application in the manufacturing of bricks, hollow bricks and structural concretes [41–52]. The needs to
conserve traditional building materials that are facing depletion have obliged civil engineers to look for
alternative material. Recycling of such waste by incorporating them into building material is a practical
solution to the pollution problem.
Chihpin et al. [53] did a study on recycling the water treatment residual (WTR) and the excavated
soil, the ceramic bodies were prepared and sintered to formulate into building bricks and artificial aggregates.
The sintering temperature requirement by WTR was higher than normally practiced in brick works due to the
higher Al2O3 and lower SiO2 content. Test results of specific gravity, water absorption, and compressive
strength of the artificial aggregates confirmed its applicability in constructions as various degrees of light-
weight aggregates. Rania et al. [54] recycled marble and granite waste of different sizes in the manufacturing
of concrete bricks, with full replacement of conventional coarse and fine aggregates with marble waste
scrapes and slurry powder of content up to 40 percent by weight. Results on the physical and mechanical
properties of the bricks qualified them to be used in the building sector as non load bearing spacing

Manufacturing of Bricks in the Past, in the Present and in the Future: A state of the Art (Alaa A. Shakir)
150  ISSN: 2252-8814

construction materials, where all cement brick samples tested in this study complied with the Egyptian code
requirement for structural bricks.
Chin et al. [55] developed a technology for reusing the paper sludge and co-generation ashes
generated by the paper industry in producing bricks. The constructional bricks made from co-generation
ashes and other raw material had a water absorption rate lower than 15 percent, and compressive strength
greater than 150 kg/cm2, conformed to the relevant specifications. Quintilio et al. [56] produced an earthen
brick from straw fibers and coarse sand by manual compaction. Mechanical properties had been investigated
by a combined experimental and theoretical approach. Results were discordant because of the lack of more
statistically relevant data.Cheng et al. [57] investigated the properties of water permeable bricks made of
water treatment sludge and bottom ash (BA) without involving an artificial aggregate step. The mechanical
properties of the sintered brick were examined with respect to relevant standards. It was found that 20 percent
by weight content of bottom ash under a sintering condition of 1150°C for 360 minute could generate a brick
with a compressive strength of 256 kg/cm2, a water absorption ratio of 2.78 percent and a permeability of
0.016 cm/s. Bricks developed in this study could be used as water permeable, environmentally friend product
as pavement brick in an urban area.
Chiang et al. [58] produced novel lightweight bricks by sintering mixes of dried water treatment
plant sludge and agricultural waste with rice husk ash. Materials containing 40 percent by weight rice husk
were sintered at 1100ºC produced low bulk density and relatively high strength material that were compliant
with relevant Taiwan standards for use as lightweight bricks in future green building. Results for toxic
characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) concentration indicated that TCLP concentrations of Cu, Zn, Cr,
Cd, and Pb in the sintered products were lower than regulation thresholds. Kidsarin et al. [59] developed a
new approach in developing bricks from 100 percent lingnite fly ash. The bricks developed in this study
showed superior mechanical strength especially compressive strength as well as compared with red-fired clay
brick, facing bricks and other types of fly ash bricks.
Badr et al. [60] investigated the complete substitution of clay brick by sludge incorporated with
some of the agricultural and industrial waste, such as rice husk ash (RHA) and silica fume (SF). The physical
and mechanical properties of the produced bricks were then determined and evaluated according to Egyptian
Standard Specifications (E.S.S.) and compared to control clay-brick. Kumar [61] had undertaken the study on
the production of fly ash–lime–gypsum (FaL–G) bricks and hollow blocks to solve the problems of housing
shortage and at the same time to build houses economically by utilizing the industrial wastes. The
compressive strength, water absorption, density and durability of these bricks and hollow blocks were
investigated.
Weng et al. [62] developed bricks from dried sludge collected from an industrial wastewater
treatment plant. The bricks conformed to the Chinese National Standards for building bricks. Technical
properties as well as mechanical properties were evaluated to determine the quality of bricks. Following
criteria evaluation, the tests of toxic characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) were performed to investigate
the leachability of metals from bricks made from sludge. Malhotra and Tehri [63] developed brick from
granulated blast furnace slag, a byproduct of the iron and steel industry. The physical and chemical properties
of the slag as well as the mechanical properties of bricks were carried out. The study revealed good quality
bricks can be produced from a slag-lime mixture and sand by pressing the mix at a pressure of 50 kg/cm2.
Sengupta et al. [64] utilized the petroleum effluent treatment plant sludge in preparing environmentally
acceptable masonry bricks in a commercial brick plant. The effect of the sludge on the plasticity behavior of
the brick raw mix was investigated. The addition of the sludge reduced the requirement of process water and
fuel. The fired bricks met all the requirements of the Indian Standard Specification.
Turgut and Bulent [65] examined the potential use of crumb rubber– concrete combination for
producing a low cost and lightweight composite brick with improved thermal resistance. The physico-
mechanical and thermal insulation performances of the rubber-added bricks were investigated. The obtained
mechanical properties and the durability values were satisfied with the relevant international standards. The
experimental observations revealed that high level replacement of crumb rubber with conventional sand
aggregate didn’t exhibit a sudden brittle fracture even beyond the failure loads, high energy absorption
capacity and smoother surface

4. THE HAZARDOUS IMPACTS OF THE CONVENTIONAL METHOD OF BRICKS

MANUFACTURING
Based on the intensive and comprehensive study which has been conducted by the authors of this
work on the traditional method of bricks manufacturing in the past as well in the present, it was indicated that
the manner of bricks manufacturing has not been significantly converted since centuries. Although, many
efforts were considerably laudable and rewarding in applying remarkable evolutions on the bricks industry as

IJAAS Vol. 2, No. 3, September : 145 – 156

IJAAS ISSN: 2252-8814  151

recycling various waste material. However, they did not consider the urgent environmental threat and the
intensive consumption of non-renewable energy and associated emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon
dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) and other pollutants considered to accelerate climate change. As a
vitrified or semi-vitrified ceramic, clay brick achieves a crystalline or semi-crystalline structure due to the
action of heat, it becomes hard and durable by firing in a kiln.
The catastrophic consequences of the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission from the traditional brick
industry have considerably contaminated the surroundings with smog, fog, acid rains, global warming and
climate change, human beings have massively suffered from asthma and heart disease due to the wide spread
of the GHG in the atmosphere. Therefore, the dangerous impacts of the bricks manufacture have been a
serious problem that has alarmed the environmental protection agencies and dragged substantial attention
from the researches. The drawbacks of the bricks manufacturing will be addressed accordingly
Atmospheric emission as SO2, CO2, NOX ,VOC, CH4 and particulates (PM)are generating in all
steps of clay bricks manufacturing process mainly because of the use of the energy in the raw material
transportation, in the manufacturing process mainly (from Kiln combustion) as well as in the transportation
of finished ware. High temperature in the kiln is responsible to produce thermal NOX as well as fuel NOX.
Facts by numbers about (GHG) emission during bricks production has been cautiously considered by various
researches.
Jeorge et al. [3] stated that pollutant gasses originated from the raw material emitted from the brick
kiln as well as the energy consumption in Canadian brick plant. According to his investigation, the pollutant
emissions includes fluorine (0.7- 4) ppm in stack gasses as well as SO2 and CO2. As the green brick
approaches (500-600) °C of firing hydrogen and fluorine gas are formed. The environmental impacts of
fluorine and chlorine are responsible for acid precipitation, and possible resulting acidification of surface
water as well as tree and crop damage. According to this investigation the energy consumed through the
extraction, transportation and forming of the clay raw material approached 4.5884GJ/tone and around 6.5382
GJ/tone for finished clay brick. The energy consumed through the production of sand lime brick approached
1.16498GJ/tone. Whilst, the total energy consumed for producing one concrete block approximated
2.91483GJ/tone. The average energy consumed during the manufacturing process in Canadian brick plant is
illustrated in table 2.

Table 2: The average energy consumed during the manufacturing process in Canadian bricks plant
Consumed energy
Clay brick Calcium silicate brick Concrete brick
(GJ/1000 brick)
Raw material extraction 0.169 0.116 0.100
Raw material transportation 0.083 1.772 0.0603
Drying/ firing 8.630 0 0
Preparation/Forming 6.487 - 1.239
Conveyance in pant 0.0928 0.175 2.682
Brick processing 15.210 2.737 1.443
Natural gas 3.674 3.549 1.803
Diesel road 0.147 0.815 0.711
Electricity 2.761 0.437 0.323
Total 22.046 9.601 8.361

Michael et al. [66] did a survey on the energy consumption and the (GHG) emission during the clay
brick production in United States. According to his observation the embodied energy for a common fired clay
brick was about 9.3MJ/brick. The GHG emission per common clay brick fired using fossil fuel was around
0.6kg of CO2 to the atmosphere whereas; one common concrete brick emits 0.3kg of CO2. Toledo et al. [67]
analyzed the gas release, crystalline structure and ceramic properties formed during firing of clay raw
materials and extruded bricks. Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and methane emissions
were measured during the firing cycle. It was found that CO2 emitted from the powder was 8600 ppm and
from the extruded sample was 6500 ppm, CO emission was found to be 1100 ppm from the powder and 800
ppm from the brick and with some minor emission from N2O and CH4. González et al. [68] evaluated CO2
emissions from raw material, fired in the structural ceramic industry in Andalusia. The overall amount of
carbon content was determined by elemental microanalysis. CO2 from carbonates and organic matter was
evaluated by calcimetry.
Syed et al. [69] investigated the role of fired clay bricks making Industry (BMI) on deforestation
and GHG emissions in Sudan. He stated that the energy consumption in the annual deforestation associated
with the (BMI) for the whole of Sudan is 508.4×103 m3 of wood biomass, including 267.6×103 m3 round
wood and 240.8×103 m3 branches and small tree. The total GHG emission from the Sudanese (BMI) were
estimated at 378028 tone of CO2, 15554tone of CO, 1778 tone of CH4, 442 tone of NOX, 288 tone of NO

Manufacturing of Bricks in the Past, in the Present and in the Future: A state of the Art (Alaa A. Shakir)
152  ISSN: 2252-8814

and 12 tone of N2O per annum. The combined CO2- equivalent (global warming potential for 100 year time
horizon) of the GHG emission (excluding NOX and NO) is 455666tone year-1.
Christopher et al. [70] investigated the energy consumption and the GHG emission during the bricks
production on a bricks plant in Greece. According to his investigations, the GHG emissions were found to be
220.68kg of CO2, acidification emission added up to 2.23kg, and winter smog emission approached 2.012kg.
The energy consumption were around 1458.6 kWh is derived from diesel which can be divided into
351.56kWh for shaping processing of clay, 182.99kWh are consumed for clay kneading, and 95.88, 98.62
and 93.13kWh for smashing, sheeting of kneaded clay and cleaning of clay, respectively. The dying process
uses 102.66kWh produced from diesel. Pet coke consumption in firing stage was estimated by 39.121 kWh.
There was also 119.05kWh electricity used during the process. Products distribution to the merchant
consumed around 2841.3kWh of diesel fuel.

5. MANUFACTURING BRICKS IN THE FUTURE

The brick industry continues to seek more sustainable means of manufacturing as using alternative
fuel sources and incorporating recycled content in order to alleviate the hazardous impacts of the GHG
emission and save the non-renewable source of energy from the none escapable depletion. The brick industry
has recently encountered a substantial evolution represented by launching new approaches in manufacturing
non fired bricks. From the economical and environmental point of view, the unfired bricks diverse sharply
from the conventional fired brick. Developing bricks by more sustainable, sophisticated, constitutional and
eco- friendly approach will contribute to environmental protection.
Oti et al. [71] produced unfired clay brick by recycling a ground granulated blast furnace Slag
(GGBS) activated with an alkaline lime and Portland cement combined with clay soil. The mixed material
were manually pressed with 140 bar. Mechanical properties and durability assessment were all within the
acceptable engineering standards for clay masonry units. Yin sung [101] produced bricks from reservoir
harbor sediment mixed with fly ash. The mixed materials were then pressed by 15000psi. Halil et al. [72]
recycled cotton and limestone powder waste (CW) and (LW) in producing new low cost and light weight
composite building material. The mixed material were pressed in the moulds within two minutes and the
pressure ranged from (2-40) tone. Results for the physical and mechanical properties for the products were
rewarding and promising. The samples were sturdy lighter weight composite having a potential to be used in
walls, wooden board substitute, ceiling panels, concrete bricks.
Saeed et al. [73] investigated the feasibility of utilizing copper mine tailings for producing of eco-
friendly bricks based on the geo-polymerization technology. The mixed material was placed in a miniature
compaction cylindrical mould with minor compaction. The compacted specimens were then compressed with
a Geo-test compression machine at different loading rates ranged from (0.5-30) MPa. The physical and
mechanical properties of copper mine tailings-based geo-polymer bricks were investigated using water
absorption and unconfined compression tests. The results showed that the copper mine tailings can be used to
produce eco-friendly bricks based on the geo-polymerization technology to meet the American Society
Testing Material (ASTM) requirements.
Sivakumar et al. [74] manufactured bricks from thermal power plant bottom ash, fly ash mixed
along with water and cement. The brick was produced by making flow-able mix with high w/c ranged in
(1.5-5.5). Results for compressive strength ranged in (5-10) MPa at 28 days, the water absorption varied from
(7-14) percent, ultra sonic pulse velocity fell in range between (2.556-2.819) km/s. Unlike the conventional
method for producing bricks, the new procedure neither used clay and shale nor required high temperature
kiln firing, having significant environmental and ecological benefits.
Alternative fuels should be further studied since most of the brick plants depend on fossil fuel as the
main source of energy for the industrial operation. Although, few plants went through utilizing of pet coke
which is a by- product of oil refining, others utilized methane gas which is natural gas as a source of energy
as an initiative to reduce the energy resources depletions, but these gases still consume lots of energy and
emit lots of GHG emission [75].Therefore, serious steps should be taken in this endeavor and the promotion
for the usage of renewable energy as solar energy, wind energy or water energy will be the optimum solution
for this issue.

6. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

This paper has reviewed the existing work on the mean and materials of the brick manufacturing.
Based on the aforementioned review, it is evident that there are gaps in the previous researches which should

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IJAAS ISSN: 2252-8814  153

be contemplated. Below are the main points which can be considered as conclusion and directions for future
works in order to fall the gap which exists in the work carried out this far.
1. Prevent the natural resource consumption as clay, shale and sand in the brick production. Most of the
researchers investigated the possibility of developing clay bricks from waste. Although, their efforts
were valuable and worthy but they didn’t save the virgin resources from the evitable depletion since they
are still extracted and utilized in the production processes. Therefore, more efforts should be directed
toward different types of industrial waste. For instance, Billet scale, Quarry dust, Fly ash, Bottom ash to
be utilized as the main constituents in the bricks.
2. Seek for an alternative fuel and promote the usage of renewable energy for the brick plants that still
fellow the conventional mean of brick manufacturing, since there was no research in this area, so more
studies regarding the alternative fuel should be conducted.
3. Firing of bricks should be prohibited from the manufacturing process and the bricks industry in the
future should be held in an ecological basic, since few studies were conducted in developing bricks in an
eco-environmental method. Therefore, more studies showed be held in this area.

ABBREVIATION
Symbol Description
Ref.No Reference number
Min Minute
Hr Hour
Cm Centimeter
M Meter
C Centigrade
MPa Mega Pascal
Ppm Pound Per million The mass of the dry brick in (gram).
MJ Mega Joule

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks and appreciation is given to my fiancee in accomplishing this work.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY OF AUTHORS

Mr Ali Ahmed Mohammed His obtained graduated BSc in Civil and Structural Engineering,
Department of Building and Construction, University of Technology, IRAQ (1st Class Honours).
The M.Sc. degree in Civil and Structural Engineering, National University of Malaysia (UKM)
(Graduated with Honours) in the year 2010 with specialization in Transportation Engineering ,
Sustainable urban design, Intelligent Urban Traffic,Materials , Advanced theory of Traffic Flow,
modelling, logit, Computational in Highway &Transportation, Remote Sensing GIS, Coastal
Engineering, Urban Transportation. Currently He was Assistant Lecturer in Ministry of Higher
Education and Scientific Research- Office Reconstruction and Projects Department, IRAQ, He
has many papers published in various National and International Journals in USA, Canada,
Malaysia,indonesia, India, Iraq, Singapore, Germany and Australian.

IJAAS Vol. 2, No. 3, September : 145 – 156

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