Automotive Technology

Principles, Diagnosis, and Service
l a m e s D . ^ a l d e r m a n f e
FFI NATEF
Automotive
Technology
Principles, Diagnosis, and Service
THIRD EDITION
James D. Halderman
I I ' p f i Sad*lit- lvi\»t, V \ \ ,),.r

(-ollUltl)US, O h i o
1
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H i i i J C > SOW
eaejs de22
2008013083
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1098 76 54 32 1
ISBN-13: 978-0 13-175477 5
ISBN-10: 0-13-175477-7
Updates to the third edition include: ASE AMD NATEF CORRELATED
1. The number of chapters has increased from 50 to 103 This comprehensive textbook is divided into sections that cone
2. Whereas many large chapters were split into smaller, more man- spond to the eight areas of certification as specified by the National
ageable ones to teach or learn from, most of the new Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASEj and the National
chapters represent new content. Automotive Techr.aans Education Foundation (NATEF). The areas
3. Greatly expanded content on both hand and power tools of the ASE material certification test are listed in the objectives at
4. Hundreds of new and updated topics, Including: the beginning of each chapter and all laboratory worksheets are
• Electronic suspension systems and electronic stability correlated to the NATEF Task List.
control (ESC)
• Electronic throttle control (ETC)
• Satellite radio and On-Star DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
• Navigation systems, backup cameras, and sensors The primary focus of this textbook is to satisfy the need for prob-
• New chapters on alternative fuel, including biodiesel and E85 lem diagnosis. Time and time again, the author has heard that
• Three new chapters on hybrid electric vehicles (HEVsl, technicians need more L-ai--..ng in diagnostic procedures and skill
including first responder safety procedures development. To meet v. is need and to help illustrate how real
• New chapter on light diesel operation and fuel systems, plus problems are solved, diagnostic stories are included throughout.
emission controls Each new topic covers the part: involved plus their purpose,
• Expanded coverage on automotive electrical accessories, function, and operation, as w e j as how to test and diagnose each
including Bluetooth, memory seats, heated and cooled seats, system.
and automatic dimming mirrors
• Expanded coverage on airbag circuits, now including side and
curtain airbags and data recorder information MULTIMEDIA
• New chapter on computer network communication
The multimedia DVD that accompanies and supplements the text-
• Expanded coverage on fuel delivery systems
book is informative and also makes leammg more fun for the stu-
• Expanded coverage on scan tools and engine performance
dent The DVD includes:
diagnosis
• Greatly expanded coverage on automotive and light 1. Live action videos and animation to help students understand
truck/van braking systems, including antilock brake systems complex systems.
(ABSs) and traction control systems (TCSs) 2. PowerPoint slides.
• Tires and wheels area expanded to two chapters which 3. Chapter qi_:: and cr.apter review questions.
include nitrogen inflation and tire pressure monitoring system 4. ImageLibrarv.
(TPMS) operation, diagnosis, and service procedures 5. ASE content list far each erf the eight ASE areas.
• Automatic and dual climate control systems added to the 6. A glossary of automotive terms.
coverage on HVAC systems 7. Spanish transiaton : f the text and Spanish glossary.
• Updated chapters on manual and automatic transmissions
5. Over 20 new photo sequences are included, which help WORKTEXT
students visualize actually doing the procedure.
A worktext is also available for purchase and each worksheet
6. All topics include theory and servicing either in one chapter or in
correlates to the NATEF task list. The worksheets in it appiv tr.e
the very next chapter, which makes studying, learning, and
text materials to everydav-type activities and typica. ser. ce ar.i
teaching a particular topic easy.
testing procedures. Further, the worksheets show ..ice/,
7. Hundreds of new color photographs and line drawings make the
and a listing of what could be defective if the test - e ^ . ' i ire net
subject come alive.
within the acceptable range. These sheets help tuila l a r . s s - c
and testing skills.
CHAPTER COMPONENTS
Hundreds of Tech Tips, Real World Fixes, and Frequently Asked TEXT ORGANIZATION
Questions make the book easy to read and help illustrate complex • Each chapter opens with a list of learning object \ s -. in;..dir. „• r.e
technical information by giving examples from actual real-world ASE content area covered by the chapter. These objectives ser.nn.-
experiences by master technicians. the topics covered and goals to t e achieved m the :hapv.:.
The third edition of Automotive Technology: Principles, Diag- • Most chapters contain Tech Tips, Real Worid Fixes, Frequent^
nosis, and Service is organized around the eight ASE automobile Asked Questions, Hfgh-Perfomanze Tips, and _\i v r
test areas and is correlated to the NATEF Task List. Terminology • All chapters contain a summary at tre ond that -
throughout the text reflects the SAE J1930 standard. material coveted in the chapter.
* PflEMCS
* » •• " • set |uf onsi an . red at the end Goodson Auto Machine Shop Tools and Supplies
of each chapter. Greenlee Brothers and Company
* Hennessy Industries
Hunter Engineering Company
Jasper Engines and Transmissions
INSTRUCTOR PACKAGE John Bean Company
A comprehensive instructor package is ava-.la',. free w h e n ' le Modine Manufacturing Company
text is adopted for classroom use from Prentice H ill Publishing Neway
Company -800 520-0485 or visit Prcnticc • r.e at Northstar Manufacturing Company, Inc.
M t M . D e j r s c n e d . c o m ) . This instructor pacta;.', nciu - the Oldsmobile Division, CMC
following: Parsons and Meyers Racing Engines
Peril i Hofmann-USA
• Instructor's Resource Manual. Raybestos Brake Parts, Inc.
• Instruaor DVD to accompany the Instrustor's Resource Manual Reynolds and Reynolds Company
with suggested student activities, a test bank, image library w t Robert Bosch Corporation
hundreds of digital color photos, as well as many other useful. e Rottler Manufacturing
raencs for the classroom. Shimco International, Inc.
• PowerPoint presentation on all topics covered in thi- :ex: SKF USA, Inc.
• Answers to all questions in the textbook. Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
Speciality Products Company
The following list contains the instructor resources also
Sunnen Products Company
included online: PowerPoint presentation, image bank, instruc-
Toyota Motor Sales, USA, Inc.
:o:'s manual, and test generator. To access supplementary mate-
TRW Inc.
na-s oai.ne, instructors need to request an instructor access
Wurth USA, Inc.
code. Go to www.pearsonhighered.con: ire w h e r e you can reg-
ister for an instructor access code. Within 4 8 hours after regis-
renr.g , u wl!.! receive a confirming e-mail including an instructor
access code. Once you have received your code, go to t h e site TECHNICAL AND CONTENT REVIEWERS
and log on for full instructions on d o w n l o a d i n g t h e materials
The following people reviewed the manuscript before production
you wish to use.
and checked it for technical accuracy and clarity of presentation.
Their suggestions and recommendations were included in the final
Acknowledgments A large n u m b e r of people and organiza- draft of the manuscript. Their input helped make this textbook
tions have cooperated in providing the reference material and tech- clear and technically accurate while maintaining the easy-to-read
ffica.' -formation used in this text. T h e author wishes to express style that has made other books from the same author so popular.
:.acen? thanks to the following organizations for their special
Jim Anderson
contributions:
Greenville High School
Accu Industries, Inc.
Victor Bridges
Allied Signal Automotive Aftermarket
Umpqua Community College
A r r o w Automotive
ASE Dr. Roger Donovan
A u t o m o t i o n . Inc. Illinois Central College
A u t o m o t i v e Engine Rebuilders Association (AERA) A. C. Durdin
Automotive Parts Rebuilders Association (APRA) Moraine Park Technical College
Automatic Transmission Rebuilders Association (ATRAI
Battery Council International (BCI) Herbert Ellinger
Chrysler Corporation Western Michigan University
Clayton Associates Al Engledahl
Cooper Automotive C o m p a n y College of Dupage
Dana Corporation, Perfect Circle Products
Defiance Engine Rebuilders, Incorporated Larry Hagelberger
Delphi Chassis. C M C Upper Valley Joint Vocational School
T h e Dow Chemical Company Oldrick Hajzler
Duraican USA
Red River College
EIS Brake Parts
Envirotest Systems Corporation Betsy Hoffman
Fel-Pro Incorporated Vermont Technical College
Fluke Corporation
Steven T. Lee
FMS1
Lincoln Technical Institute
Ford Motor Company
General Electric Lighting Division Carlton H. Mabe, Sr.
Ge-.'-ra! Motors Corporation Service Technology Group Virginia Western Community College
Roy Mark*
Owen',' >m: t.
Tony Manin
University of
Kerry Meier
San Juan College JamnaD.
Fritz Peacock
Indiana Vocational Technical C
Dennis Peter
NAIT (Canada |
Kenneth Redick
Hudson Valley Community College
Mitchell Walker
SL Louis Community College at Forest Park
ex pert 22 fl/ia h t t p : / / r u t r a c k e r . o r q
J M H 0 Kuoerman ... Ohio, and is the holder of a U.S. patent 5,SG ;
. • ransmmioc control device. He was named o^ a
its: HaJenaac brags a worid of experience to ha wntmg. He .Us
from Ohio Northern University and outstanding • 4
tees i ppotouou! Cuinie service technician. business owner, and i
l m u v f t O'.eraJ Motors Corporation.
professor »i a naoariaL'y known college for over 20 yean. Jim has a
j member imember grade) of the Society of Auto jc
bachelor's oegrt* from Ohio Northern University and a master's in Ed
v... .-.. • SA • is well as the North American Council of Automo:.ve
u a a o c Ones Mum. Utuvmuy ;Otuoi and is an ASE Certified Master
reac.'.Lts : JACA r, and has given technical presentations tor mar. > /ear.
Techaican ptus LI and Alternative Fuel. Jim has written many auto-
at California Automotive Teacher. (CAT), Illinois College Automc/.vc
siocw textbooks published by Prentice Hall Publishing Company and
Instructor Association (ICAJA), and NACAT national conferences Jim is
a cae dxk-Qur. aîomocve textbook senes editor Jim also writes a
mamed, has two children, and lives in Dayton, Ohio.
weecv newspaper column Qtled "Straight Talk" tor the Dayton Duty
Careers in the Automotive Service Area 1 Vehicle Service Intorr-aoon and Routine M a r t e n a n c e 109
1 Automotive Background and Overview 1 1 5 Service --/-- a - x 108
2 Careers in the Automotive Service Industry 7 16 »V o e o e ' ' var on ar< E-TBSOT Rafcr<gs 116
3 Starting a Career in the Automotive Industry 14 17 Prever- ve a r e a e r / c e Procedures 120
teJWj
4 Working as a Professional Service Technician 21
5 Technician Certification 30
Engine Repaid '39
SECTION 18 Gasot r * E n g r e Opera; or Hagnoss 139
Safety, Environmental, and Health Concerns 37 19 3 « s e Eng n e j p e r a u o r a - : D a g n o s e 149
6 Shop Safety 37 2 0 >:» ' r s r r / j anc Dfe;~os<s 163
7 Environmental and Health Concerns 43 21 -UbricaDcr rjertrxr arc Degress 178
22 nta*s and Ex~a. r : .-ssr: 136

SECTK* I 2 3 " j r t x x l w g t n g a->c S u & e r a n p x 194
Tools, Shop Equipment, and Measuring 51 2 4 E a g r e ConarOon D o o m s 201
8 Fasteners and Thread Repair 51 2 5 Engine D t s a s s e - : :.-ea- 7!4
9 Hand Tools 61 26 C> nder --sacs and . a v e s 227
10 Power Tools and Shop Equipment 74 27 C a n s h a ^ s a - : Vave ~~a i s 241
11 Vehicle Lifting and Hoisting 82 2 8 ^ s t o n s . n i g s anc C c r n e c s n g HoGs 252
12 Measuring Systems and Tools 87 29 Engine B o : G a - w s - a f t s arcBean^: 269
30 Eng '-a B u e p r r t m g anc Asser-1 294
Principles, Math, and Calculations 95

JK-VII
1 3 Scientific Principles and Materials 95 Electncal and Electronic Systems 317
1 4 Math, Charts, and Calculations 104 31 Etectnciai ^ j n o a ^ e m a i s 317
3 2 Electncal G r e e t s and O f - s L a * 325

3 3 Se e s Paraitei and S e n e s - P s - a i t e C i r c t t s 330 5 8 Fuel Pumps. Lines, and Filters 691
3 4 Dfgfo M e t e ^ and S c o p e Usage 340 5 9 Fuel-Injection Components and Operation 706
3 5 Autpr-ofcvev\ — a ano Aire R e p a r 360 6 0 Fuel-Injection System Diagnosis and Service 71
36 W i g S c h e m a t i c s and Troubleshooting 370 6 1 Vehicle Emission Standards and Testing 733
3 7 C a p a c i t a n c e a n d Magnetism 382 6 2 Emission Control Devices Operation and Diagnosis ' 2
3 8 Sectiontc Fundamentals 393 6 3 Scan Tools and Engine Performance Diagnosis 762
3 9 B a r t e ^ e s a n d Battery Testing 403

^ SECTION A
40 talking System Operation and Diagnosis 417
Hybrid and Fuel Cell Vehicles 779
4 1 Charging System Operation and Diagnosis 435
6 4 Introduction to Hybrid Vehicles 779
4 2 u g ^ n g and Signaling Circuits 459
6 5 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Safety Procedures 787
4 3 Dnver ^formation and Navigation S y s t e m s 476
6 6 Fuel Cells and Advanced Technologies 796
4 4 Horr A'.per and Blower Motor Circuits 495
4 5 Accessory Circuits 505
4 6 Restraint S y s t e m s and Airbags 524

Brakes 811
4 7 A^dto System Operation and Diagnosis 534
6 7 Brake System Components and Performance
Standards 811
Samoa VIII 6 8 Braking System Principles 818
Heating a n d Air Conditioning 547
6 9 Brake Hydraulic S y s t e m s 825
4 8 Heating and Air-Conditioning C o m p o n e n t s
7 0 Hydraulic Valves and Switches 840
and Operation 547
7 1 Brake Fluid and Lines 849
4 9 Automatic Air-Conditioning System Operation 565
7 2 Brake Bleeding Methods and Procedures 860
5 0 l e a t s n g and Air-Conditioning System Diagnosis 571
7 3 Wheel Bearings and Service 868
5 1 Heatmg and Air-Conditioning S y s t e m Service 579
7 4 Drum Brake Parts and Operation 883
SECTION IX 7 5 Drum Brake Diagnosis and Service 897
Engine P e r f o r m a n c e 587 7 6 Disc Brake Parts and Operation 909
5 2 3 a s c i e and Alternative Fuels 587 7 7 Disc Brake Diagnosis and Service 923
5 3 C o m p u t e r and Network Fundamentals 606 7 8 Parking Brake Operation, Diagnosis, and Service 938
5 4 On Board Diagnosis 616 7 9 Machining Brake Drums a n d Rotors 950
5 5 Computer Sensors 623 8 0 Power Brake Unit Operation, Diagnosis, and Service 978
56 ignr.on S y s t e m C o m p o n e n t s a n d Operation 657 8 1 ABS C o m p o n e n t s and Operation 990
57 ig- ton S y s t e m Diagnosis and Service 673 8 2 ABS Diagnosis and Service 1003
awcarws *
joints 1238
; . nt Sen ? 1247
Suspensio a 1015
96 Were s 1258
8 3 Tires and Wh 1015
-ee re and Att-Wheet Dnve 1274
8 4 Tire and Wheel Service 1036
8 5 Suspension System Components and Operation 1051

s^XIV
86 Front Suspension and Service 1073
Automatic T rar srmsswn and Transaxtes 1289
8 7 Rear Suspension and Service 1095
1 0 0 Ajto-"5r , x''an&"- s>wn/TraTsaxlePnnciptes 1289
88 Electronic Suspension Systems 1102
101 r^ydraL c Components and Control Systems 1300
89 Steering Columns and Gears 1117
90 Steering Linkage and Service 1130 102 A l ~ r a r ? . ~ sswnfTransaxte Diagnos . and

In-Vetafe Service 1314
91 Power-Assisted Steering Operation and Service 1145
103 Automatic ^ n s i r srs. "-ar-saxie Urrt Repair 1321
92 Wheel Alignment Principles 1165
Appendix 1 ASE O a r e & x r t Chart 1333
93 Alignment Diagnosis and Service 1180
j g j f f l Appendix 2 'iAIEFlas* _ r 1353
Engiisf Glossary 1373
Manual Drivetrain and Axles 1205 Index 1413
94 Clutches 1205
95 Manual Transmissions/Transaxles 1220

Technician JobClassifications 9
SECT* Lube Tech/Quick Service Technician 9
New Vehicle Preparation for Delivery 9
C a r e e r s in t h e Automotive Service Area 1 General Service Technician 9
Technician Team Leader 10
1 Automotive Background and Overview 1 Shop Foreman 10
Service Advisor 10
Historical Background 1
Service Manager ]]
Bodies 2
Paris-Related Positions 12
Chassis Systems Overview 2
Parts Counter Person 12
Body Terms 2
Parts Manager 12
Frames 2
Sales Jobs—Used Vehicles; New Vehicles 12
Unit-Body Construction 3
Salesperson 12
Space-Frame Construction 3
Sales Manager 12
Engine Design Evolution 3
Inline versus V-Type Design 3 Other Careers in the Automotive Industry 12
Valve Location Design 4 Typical Automotive Orgar.âtion Arrangement 12
Engine Systems Overview 4 Large Comprehensive New Vehicle Dealer 12
Cooling System 4
Lubrication System 4 3 Starting a Career in t h e Automotive Industry 14
Air Intake System 4 Preparing for an Automotive Service Career 14
Fuel System 5 Desire and Interest 14
Ignition System 5 Technical Knowledge and Skills 14
Emission Control System 5 Job Shadowing 14
Power Train Overview 5 Cooperative Education Programs 14
Rear-Wheel-Drive Power Train 5 Apprentice Programs 15
Front-Wheel-Drive Power Train 5 Part-Time Employment 15
Four-Wheel-Drive System 5
Developing an Employment Plan 15
Electrical/Electronic Systems Overview 5
Soft Skills 15
Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Overview 6
Locating Employment Possibilities 15
Eight Areas of Automotive Service 6
Engine Repair (Al) 6 Preparing a Resume 15
Automatic Transmission (A2) 6 References 16
Manual Drive Train and Axles (A3) 6 Preparing a Cover Letter 17
Suspension and Steering (A4) 6
Contacting Potential Employers 18
Brakes (A5) 6
Completing the Employment Application 18
Electrical/Electronic Systems (A6) 6
The Interview 18
Heating and Air Conditioning (A7) 6
Engine Performance (A8j 6 After the Interview 18
Accepting Employment 18
I C a r e e r s in t h e Automotive Service Industry 7
Technician Pay Methods 18
The Need for Automotive Technicians 8
Straight- Time Pay Methods 18
The Need for Continuous Vehicle Service 8
Flat-Rate Pay Methods 18
Warranties 8
Increasing Age of a Vehicle 8 Payroll Deductions 19
Technician Work Sites 8 Gross versus Net Compensation 19
New Vehicle Dealerships 8 Retirement Information and Payments 19
Independent Service Facilities 8 Additional Service Technician Benefits 19
Mass Merchandiser 8 Housing and Living Expenses 19
Specialty Service Facilities 9 Becoming a Shop O w n e r 20
Flppt Facilities 9
*(v rev srs
4 •-.'..•••«.;•«: Technician 21 How A re the Tests Scored? 33

What Percentage Do I Need to Achieve to Pass the ASE
•'* fess What Happens If I Do Not Pass? Do 1Have to Wait Ye.
iFfWrs Trying Again? .13
( • 22 Do / Have to Pay Another Registration fee ( f t Alread
• ;..,1*,.. „? >
l.OI Once? 33
<. v 22 How l ong Do 1 Have to Wait to Know the Results? .
i Cv -mkatton 22 Will 1 Receive Notice of Which Questions '/ Missed?
Te&zft. me Cm mnicatkm 22 Will ASH Send Me the Correct Answers to the>Ouestion\
Hrrry J3 So / Will Know How to Answer Them in the Future?
-«r "J Test-Taking Tips 33
Whac Happens the First Day? 23 Start Now 33
£\.-cs 3 Se-.1ce Technician 24 Practice Is Important 33
Keys to Success 33
-y rte H&?* Order 24
Prepare Mentally 33
Li \! -y ro Customers 24
Prepare Physically 33
Estimating a Repair 24
One Month before the Test 34
Cwunevtng the Work Order 25
The Week before Che Test 34
R-'L-v, <••%• Recommended Procedures 25 The Day of the Test 34
Customer Pay 25 •What to Bring to the Test 34
Nondealershlp Rat-Rate 2S During the Test 34
i Work Order 25 Canada's Automotive Apprenticeship Program ((Red Seal:) 36
Sublet Repairs 26 Update Training 36
Replacement 26
-y 'ml Equipment Parts 26
Aftermarket Parts 26 SECTION
S'ev, t/ersus Remanufacrnred Parts 26
Usee Parts 26 Safety, Environmental, and Health C o n c e r n s 37
"iV>;rieng with a Mentor 26
6 Shop Safety 37
si; !ft :at&ms of a Good Mentor 27
l e a - .vork 27 Personal Protective Equipment 37
Team Building 27 Safety Glasses 37
Steel-Toed Shoes 37
Leadership Rotes 27
Gloves 37
Advancement Skills 27
Bump Cap 38
He ^sefceeping Duties 28
Hands, jewelry, and Clothing 38
S;i: ' 'aiagement 28
Safety Tips for Technicians 38
job Evaluation 28
Cleaning Methods and Processes 40
Fc-r-al Evaluation 28
Power Washing 40
hk-mal Evaluation 28
Chemical/Microbe Cleaning 40
5 : an Certification 30 Abrasive Cleaning 40
A ;:c r 'Me Technician Certification Tests 30 Thermal Ovens 40
.: - i• •• as of t'ehide Service Are Covered by the ASE Tests? 31 Electrical Cord Safety 40
H: .v Can / Contact ASE? 31 jump-Starting and Battery Safety 40
'•'-•
Fire -Extinguishers 41
. V-i •;•, Have to Do to Register? 31
types of Fire Extinguishers 411
.- • v. ' far/ t'i.i". of Work Experience Are Needed? 31
••• re y> •• v A -, Ha.nds On Activities on the ASE Test? 31 'Fire Blankets 4$
ii + 0 W1the ASE Questions? 31 First-Aid and Eye Wash Stations 41
Key and Dist'acter 32 First-Aid Kit 41
~ i t O . ^ . ' or,', Are Asked on the ASE Test? 32 Eye Wash Station 42
9- .'d Ksjezs if I 'joo't Know the Answer? 32 7 Environmental and Health Concerns 43
iS Earh re.' the Same Every Time / Take It? 33
Cr -1 Write or Draw on the Test Form? 33 Occupational Safety and Health Act 43
- / : h p. ',.;•> •: r,; / far,'(Know and Come Back Hazardous Waste 43
to Ans w er Later? 33 Reactive 44
He w Much Tim.e Do 1 Have to Take the Tests? 33 Corrosive 44
Willi Have '0 Know : fications and Gauge Readings? 33 Toxic 44
Can / lake a Break during the Tes($ 33 Ignitable 44
Can /Leave Early If I Have Completed the Testis)? 3.3 Radioactive 44
cam ant •»
Resouro (
Right to-Kn
Clean Air A
Material Sal'
Thf Dangers n,' ( o s 45 »t>ie - o2
Disposal of Brak Oust and Brake Shoes 45
Used Brake Fluid 45 Raich* octets, and Extension: 63
Crowfoot Sockets 63
Used Oil 45
Torque Wrenches 63
Disposal of Used Oil 45
Screwdrivers 65
Used Oil Storage 45
Used Oil Filter Disposal Regulations 46 Offset Screwdrivers 65
Impact Screwdriver 65
Solvent Hazards and Regulatory Status 46
Coolant Disposal 46 Hammers and Maiiets 66
Lead-Acid Battery Waste 46 Hammers 66
Mallets 06
Battery Handling and Storage 47
Pbers 66
Fuel Safety and Storage 47
Slip-foirs Pliers 66
Airbag Handling 47
MciriGroove Adjustable Pliers 66
Used Tire Disposal 48
Lries -12r i Pliers 67
Air-Conditioning Refrigerant Oil Disposal 48
Diagonal Pliers 67
Infection Control Precautions 48
Needle Sose Pliers 67
Locking Pliers 67
SECTION
Snap-Ring Pliers 67
FUes 67
Tools, Shop Equipment, and Measuring 51
Cutters 68
8 Fasteners and Thread Repair 51 Snips 68
Utility Knife 68
Threaded Fasteners 51
Punches and Chisels 68
Metric Bolts 51
Punches 68
Grades of Bolts 52
Chisels 68
Tensile Strength 53
Removers 69
Nuts 54
Damaged Heads 60
Taps and Dies 54
Broken Bors, Srjds, or Screws 70
Taps 54
Hacksaws 70
Dies 54 Basic Hand Tool List 70
Proper Use of Taps and Dies 54 Tool Sets and Accessories 71
Thread Pitch Gauge 55 Seal Drivers and Pullers 72
Sheet Metal Screws 55 Seal Pullers 72
Washers 56 Seal Drivers 72
Snap Rings and Clips 56 Electrical Hand Torts 72
Snap Rings 56 Test Lights 72
Door Panel Clips 56 Soldering Guns 72
Pins 57 Safetv Tips for Using Hand Tools 7 3
Rivets 57 Hand Tool Maintenance 73
Locking Nuts 57
How to Avoid Broken Fasteners 58 1 0 Power Tools and Shop Equipment 74
Left Handed Threads 58
Air Compressor 74
Penetrating Oil 58
Air and Electrical Operated Tocis
Proper Tightening 58
Impact Wrench 74
Thread Repair Inserts 58
Air Ratchet 76
Helical Inserts 58
Die Grinder 7b
Threaded Inserts 50 Air Drill 70
Self-Tapping Inserts 59 Air Blow Gu- 7c
Solid Bushing Inserts 59 Air Operated Grease Gl~ ""
Key Locking Inserts 59 Batter, Powered Grease Or. 7:
m COTBiTS
T h a i * Lgf.ts f t Power 97
9*ctf*Sescent 76 Horsepower 97
/ M t f t m n r 7b Newton's laws of Motion 98
LED 7>sue*l«* 76
Kinetic Energy 98
Besdv P W t s a ; C r - < k r 77
Kinetic Fne'$y and Brake Design 00
Brv* jr ,><* i'M Moused Otuder 77
Inertia 99
5«K!:V« 77
/.' : al Principles 99
HvdrauSc Pr«ses 77
He • id Temperature 100
Potable Crane and Chain Hoist 78
Heat 100
L-ôe 78
temperature 100
Car* and Maintenance of Shop Equipment 79
Adds and Bases 101
11 U f . nfl » * J Hotstng 82 Acids 101
FVoor.'adc 82 Bases 101
pH Scale 101
Safe i'se of Floor Jacks 62
Gas Laws 101
Oeepcrs 82
Boyle's Law 101
Use af Creepers 82
Charles's Law 101
\W»cieHo«8 82 Sound and Acoustics 101
Seaing the Pads Is a Critical Part of This Procedure 82
Acoustics 102
DrtveOc Ramps 34
Plastics 102
12 Measuring Systems and Tools 87 Thermoset Plastic 102
Eagfcl Customary Measuring System 87 Thermoplastic 102
Metric System of Measure 88 Plastic Identification 102
Linear Metric Measurements 88 Iron and Steel 102
Volume Measurement 88 Cast Iron 102
Weight Measurement 88 Ductile Cast Iron 102
Pêss^t Measurements 88 Gray Cast Iron 102
Deryed Units 88 SAE Steel Designations 102
Lrear Measurements Tape Measure/Rule) 88 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys 103
Micrometer 89
C-anks*aft Measurement 80 1 4 Vrttti, Charts and emulations 104
Carâ/t Measurement 80 Decimals 104
Tejescopc Gauge 90 Tenths 104
SmaE-Hote Gauge 90 Hundredth 104
' J e r ^ t t Dial Caliper 91 Thousandth 104
Feeier Gauge 92 Adding and Subtracting Decimals 104
S e t gh* edge 93 Percentage 104
Dial lodfcator 93
Scientific Notation 105
Dial Bore Gauge 93
Adding and Subtracting 105
DeptS .Micrometer 93
Fractions 105
Multiplying and Dividing 105
IV Mathematical Formulas 105
Fuel Economy Calculator 106
and C a t a t e f i o o s 95 Gear Ratios 106
ij £ pr -cc'-1?? and Ifetertjte 95 Direct Drive 106
Gear Reduction 106
Soentfic MeAod 95
Oi'erdrive 106
I teng the Sder, ttflc Method 05
Graphs, Charts, and Diagrams 107
Et*~ples of the F*vt Wh/s 05
Graph Reading 107
Energy P-.r>cipia 96
Chart Reading 107
T'rjue 96
Diagram Reading 108
Wort 96
Vehicle Service rmat odflouiiieV
15 Service information 1/}
Vehicle Service History Records 109
Owner's Manuals 109
Lubrication Guides 109
Service Manuals 110
General Information HO MomVbcemy iypx OEs 123
Maintenance and Lubrication Information HO O M M F U O API B U G , 123
Engines 110 iLSACOifcaa* 124
Automatic Transmission/Transaxle III SyafiiKjcEngwOB 125
Electrical Systems III OS feting Swttrr- 2S
Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning 1 / /
EngseOSttopoKi 12S
Engine Performance /Drtveabillty and Emissions HI
Advantages of Hard Copy versus Electronic Service CMFSsra 126
Information 111 CooSog S j h c s Semce 127
Disadvantages of Hard Copy versus Electronic Service T?pe» of CociaKs .27
Information 111 Inorganic AOOcae W r27
Types of Service Information 111 Orgaik Add Zecfr :•:?. OAT 128
Labor Guide Manuals 113 ffytrtd Organic Add Tecfmctop HOAT, 128
How to Use Hard Copy Manuals 113 Ar&reeze. jooszs Ospool .28
Electronic Service Information 114 Radaar and Hsaser H a ® 28
Home Screen 114 A---JH335C TT3CK33E/OB ?/3jt C w t 28
Toolbars 114 Tvpes of A I H D E E Z X I R S E S S I A K J B R U D 29
Electronic Service Information 114 Power Sffieri^ Fhad 530
Technical Service Bulletins 114 WindsJaeJfi Washer R o d 130
Internet 114
Accessory Drrw Set rsaecaaB , 30
Recalls and Campaigns 114
Set Sestaa i t o w 13/
Hotline Services 114
Cbecteng Tre Pressure 32
Speciality Repair Manuals 115
Tire Roasrc 132
Aftermarket Supplies Guides and Catalogs 115
Wheei .Vteansg '.y-rje 132
16 Vehicle Identification and Emission Ratings 116 Tire b s p e o ' i 13
Parts of a Vehicle 116 Oj<ait LuSnoooe "<34
Left Side of the Vehicle—Right Side of the Vehicle '.' Chassis Grease 134
Front and Rear 116
Front-Wheel Drive versus Rear-Wheel Drive 116 DHerbcH H a d C- ?ct 25
Vehicle Identification 116 1-tresis 3C
Vehicle Safety Certification Label 116 M a n * Tracsrasax. Tiasaxte U f e r i c a t ' eat >
VECI Label 117
Emission Standards in the United States 117
Tier land Tier 2 117
Federal EPA Bin Number 118
Engne Repar 139
Calibration Codes 118
Casting Numbers 118 I S Sascfcie E n g r e O w a w ^sisarc Specfes x
Energf aM Power J39
17 Preventative Maintenance and Service Procedures "2C
Eagne Cbcsaorica O e r r e v 1 «5
Getting Ready for Service 120
Stock 140
Wiper Blade Inspection and Replacement 120 Rotary.•Isx-tAV I4C
Cabin Filter Replacement 121 Cylinder Heads 140
Air Filter Inspection Replacement 121 Imake and Exfmzz Mart/bta l«
NM CWBFTS
Cooiinf S.-ttem '40 Compression Testing 160

Lubrication $*ste>r I JO Glow Plug Resistance Balance Test 160
Fuel System trtd igrdtkm 5, stem 140 In|ector Pop Testing 161
F e u r S a u t a Cvtie Operation 141 Diesel Emission Testing 161
Tbe "^0° Cvcie M l Snap Acceleration Test 161
Engine Classification and Construction 142 Rolling Acceleration Test 161
E r x - r R c j •;;.-. Direction 144 Stall Acceleration Test 161
Bore 145 > em Operation and Diagnosis 163
Stroke 145 Cooling System Purpose and Function 163
Fngne DuoLacement 145 Low-Temperature Engine Problems 163
Engine Size versus Horsepower 146 High-Temperature Engine Problems 163
Compression Ratio 147 Cooling System Design 164
The Crankshaft Determines the Stroke 147 Thermostat Temperature Control 164
Torque 147
Bypass 165
Power 148
Testing the Thermostat 166
Horsepower and Altitude 148
Thermostat Replacement 166
19 0 -.se- Enc > ne Operation and Diagnosis 149
Antifreeze/Coolant 167
Diesel Engines 149
Antifreeze Can Freeze 168
n dree and Direct Injection 149
Hydrometer Testing 168
Diesel Fuel Ignition 150
Recycling Coolant 168
Three Fhases of Combustion 150
Disposing of Used Coolant 168
Diesel Engine Construction 150
Radiator Design and Function 168
Fuel Tank and Lift Pump 150
Pressure Cap 170
feqectkm Pump 151
Surge Tank 170
Distributor Injection Pump 151
Metric Radiator Caps 170
High-Pressure Common Rail 152
Coolant Recovery System 171
HEUI System 152
Testing the Cooling System 171
2 :eseJ in Sector Nozzles 153
Pressure Testing 171
E asei Ir.ector Nozzle Operation 154
Coolant Dye Leak Testing 172
GiowPiug; 154
Water Pump 172
Engine-Driven Vacuum Pump 154
Operation 172
Diesel Fuel 154
Service 173
D:ese. - Specific Gravity Testing 156
Cooling Fans 173
Diesel Fuel Heaters 157
Thermostatic Fans 174
Heated Intake Air 157
Electric Cooling Fans 174
Accelerator Pedal Position Sensor 157
Coolant Temperature Warning Light 175
Soc" Tt Particulate Matter 157
Common Causes of Overheating 175
D e v Oiti'la-.on Catalyst |DOC) 158
Cooling System Maintenance 176
-•• Exhaur Particulate Filter |DPF) 158
Flush and Refill 176
Exhi'^z Gas Temperature Sensors 158
Burping the System 176
DPF Differential Pressure Sensor /DPS) 158
Hoses 176
Dir>ei Parv.-.ate filter Regeneration 159 Cleaning the Radiator Exterior 177
DPF Regeneration Process 159
Types of DPF Regeneration 159 2 1 Lubrication System Operation and Diagnosis 178
DPF Service Regeneration 159 Lubrication Principles 178
Conditions for Running a DPF Service Regeneration 159
Engine Lubrication Systems 179
Ash Loading 160
Oil Pumps 179
Diesel Exhaust Smoke Diagnosis 160
Oil Pressure Regulation 180
Black Smoke 160
White Smoke 160 Factors Affecting Oil Pressure 180
Gray or Blue Smoke 160 Oil Pump Checks 181
v a n Tool Diagnosis 160 Oil Passages in the Block 181
Valve Train Lubri. ilion i 82 •aii' • e Test 206
Oil Pans 183 • ' b'.c • Tei' Prt':<ssftHe 208
Oil Coolers 184
Oil Pressure Warning Lamp 184 Stranking I'as. uurrt Test 209
Idle Vacuum Test 209
2 2 Intake and ha 186
Lo w and Steady Vacuum 209
Air Intake Filtration 186 Fluctuating Vacuum 209
Filter Replacement 186 Exhaust Restriction Test 211
Air Filter Elements 186 Testing Back Pres; -.re with a Vacuum Gauge 211
Remotely Mounted Air Fitters and Ducts 187 Testing Back Pressure with a Pressure Gauge 211
Engine Air Temperature Requirements 187 Diagnosing Head Gasket Failure 211
Throttle-Body Injection Intake Manifolds 188 Dash Warning Lights 212
OH/Engine Light 212
Port Fuel-Injection Intake Manifolds 188
Coolant Temperature Light 212
Variable Intakes 188
Plastic Intake Manifolds 189 2 5 Erg re - ^ s e r r i b i / , Clearing, and Crack Detection 2
Exhaust Gas Recirculation Passages 189 Engne Removal 215
Upper and Lower Intake Manifolds 190 Engine Disassembly 215
Exhaust Manifold Design 190 Checking Cvtmder Bore 216
Exhaust Manifold Gaskets 191 Removing the Oil Pan 216
Mufflers 192 Removing the C vender Ridge 216
2 3 Turbocharging and Supercharging 194 Removing the Pistons 217
Airflow Requirements 194 Removing the Harmonic Balancer 217
Volumetric Efficiency 194 Removing the Timing Chain and Camshaft 218
Engine Compression 194 Removing die .'.lain Bearing and Crankshaft 218
Supercharging Principles 194 Remove and Disassemble the Cylinder Head 218
Boost and Compression Ratios 195 Mechanical Q e a n r g 2.5
Superchargers 196 Chemical Cleaners 219
Supercharger Boost Control 196 Solvent-Based Gleaning 220
Supercharger Service 196 Water-Based Chemical Cleaning 220
Turbochargers 196
Sprev Washing 220
Turbocharger Design and Operation 197
Steam G e a n a g 220
Turbocharger Size and Response Time 198
Thermal Cleaning 220
Boost Control 198
Cold Tank Cleaning 220
Wastegate 199
Hot Tank Cteaning 220
Relief Valves 199
Turbocharger Failures 200 Vapor Cleaning 221
Ultrasonic Cleaning 221
2 4 Engine Condition Diagnosis 201
Vibrator; Cleaning 221
Typical Engine-Related Complaints 202 Blasters 221
Engine Smoke Diagnosis 202 \Tsual Inspection 221
The Driver Is Your Best Resource 202 Magnetic Crack Inspection 222
Visual Checks 202 Dye-Penetrant Testing 222
Oil Level and Condition 202 Huorescent-Penetrant Testing 222
Coolant Level and Condition 202 Pressure Testing 222
Oil Leaks 203 Crack Repair 222
Engine Noise Diagnosis 204 Crack-Welding Cast Iron 223
Oil Pressure Testing 205 Crack-Welding Aluminum 223
Oil Pressure Warning Lamp 205 Crack Plugging 224
Compression Test 206
Wet Compression Test 207 2 6 Cylinder Heads and Ve es L '
Running (Dynamic) Compression Test 207 The Hemispherical C o r . : r harsher II"
Performing a Running Compression Test 207 The Wedge Combustion Cr.ar.w: 11*
Cylinder Leakage Test 207 Multiple-Valve Combussxi '.aar.:-- 225s
K* CONTENTS
Snake ana Exhaust Ptets 2CS Piston Pins 250

Removing the Ov erhead Camsha.'t 228 Piston Fin Offset 256
Cvhr4er Head Reconditioning Sequence 230 Piston Pin Fit 2SS
Dfsas$emk8<ig fie Cylinder Head 23C- Piston Pin Retaining Methods 258
CvSntkr Head Resurfacing 231 Full Floating 258
Ssric.e Finest! 23! Interference Fit 258
Valve Guides 231 Piston Ring Grooves 259
Valve Guides for Wear 232 Piston Rings 259
Oversite Stem Valves 232 Compression Rings 260
Guide knotting 233 Ring Gap 260
Vive Guide Replacement 233 Piston Ring Cross Sections 260
VaAf Guide Inserts 233 Chromium Piston Rings 261
Li take and Exhaust Valves 233 Molybdenum Piston Rings 261
laive Materials 234 Mofy Chrome Carbide Rings 262
Valve Springs 234 Oil Control Rings 262
Piston Service 262 '»alve
Vah*e Rotators 235 Connecting Rods 263
\ aive Reconditioning Procedure 236 Cast Connecting Rods 263
Valve Seat Replacement 237 Forged Connecting Rods 263
V i v e Stem Height 237 Powdered Metal Connecting Rods 263
Checking Installed Height 238 Connecting Rod Design 263
Vive Stem Seals 238 Rod Twist 264
Instiling me Vives 238 Connecting Rod Service 265
Piston and Rod Assembly 265
2 7 Carnstafts and Valve Trains 241 Piston Ring Service 266
Camshaft Function 241
Camshaft Location 241 2 9 Engine Biocks, Crankshafts, ar:. S e a ' ~ '.'•-••
Camshaft Problem Diagnosis 242 Engine Blocks 269
Block Manufacturing 269
Camshaft Removi 242
Aluminum Blocks 270
Caffisfaafe Drives 242 Bedplate Design Blocks 270
Camshaft Belt Drives 243 Casting Numbers 270
Rocker Arms 245 Block Deck 271
Feshrods 245 Cooling Passages 271
CaBsnaft Duration 246 Lubricating Passages 272
Main Bearing Caps 272
'Cam Timmg Chart 247
Engine Block Service 273
Installing the Camshaft 247
Main Bearing Housing Bore A ligament 273
Degreeing the Camshaft 248 Machining the Deck Surface of the Block 274
Lrfters 240 Cylinder Boring 274
Sleeving the Cylinder 276
28 - 3 .35 and Connecting Rods 252
Cylinder Honing 276
Purpose and Function of Pistons, Rings, and Connecting Cylinder Surface Finish 277
Rods 252 Block Cleaning and Preparation for Assembly 278
Pistr.r; and Rod Removi 253 Block Detailing 278
P5SKKI Design 253 Crankshaft Purpose and Function 278
Piston Heads 254 M i n Bearing Journis 278
Cam Ground Pistons 255 Rod Bearing Journis 279
Piston Fisst 255 Surface Finish 280
Pisior. Head Size 255 J o u m i Hardness 280
Piston Strut Inserts 255 Forged Crankshafts 280
Hyperestecgc Pisrans 256 Cast Crankshafts 281
Foiled Pistons 256
V-8 Engine Crankshafts 281
Four-Cylinder Engine Crankshafts 281
CSHWItt m
Flvf Cyllndfi M , c<

Three Cylind" I
Odd-1-1 ring 90 • •
60Degree V-6 11, •<<•<;> 1 an . 2fi>

Couniervwlglits >;,>\
Vibration Damagt 282
I'.xternally and Internally Balan.. .j Ei k n<
Crankshaft Oiling Holes .284
Crankshaft Inspection 285 km*.'** M*r 309
Crankshaft Grinding 285
Welding a Crankshaft 286 Cm* Cmn* H6
Relieving Stress on the Crankshaft 286 HbtrGmtot 310
Engine Bearings 287 Srnm^r b .Vm comets HO
Setters HO
Bearing Loads 287
tomriM Cmwmt* 310
Bearing Fatigue 288
Bearing Conformablllty 288 iTKUitns T n m | Coven 310
Bearing Embedablllty 288 i a s u t t n t (fee Vfcnoae Draper 311
Bearing Damage Resistance 280 f M f c & f A t CM P u o p 311
Bearing Materials 280 The OB h o 311
Babbitt 290 tetany the Water tap 312
THMetal 290 Lnsrw Purting 312
Aluminum 290 Cbedaog for Proper o a P n s n r e ) t 2
Bearing Manufacturing 290 M2
Bearing Sizes 290
Bearing Clearance 290
Bearing Spread and Crush 291
St VII
Camshaft Bearings 292 31;
30 Engine Blueprinting and Assembly 294 31 Efedrtotf

Blueprinting 294 B e c a t t y 318
Block Preparation 294 fixO* mt *itfrtm Omês 319
Installing Cups and Plugs 294 fikanM: J/O
Installing Cam Bearings 295 Fm ami Band FHrmm m
QmOuooa 31»
Causes of Premature Bearing Failure 296 havimrs 320
Measuring Main Bearing Clearance 296 •SWWLVHdteKW 1 1
Correcting Bearing Clearance 297 EJKVttS Uorr rVc^-5 4 Conduct • 3*
Lip Seal Installation 297 I Theory wrrsm Bkctm Thton XX
310
Rope Seal Installation 298 tt»*S 331
Installing the Crankshaft 298 Ohm 321
Measuring Thrust Bearing Clearance 290 32!
Tightening Procedure for the Main Bearing 290 Sources ot D e c o v t y 322
Installing Timing Chains and Gears 299 Ment» <22
Piston Fitting 300 Hut 322
322
Ring End (Up 100 r-nsurt 323
Installing Piston and Rod Assemblies 300 CV*<toy 323
Connecting Rod Betting < mice <v.' Comtocten jkM Rexstnor 32J
Connecting Rod Side t '.'e.iw, v >W Itesatm 333
Installing the Camshaft for Overhead Cam Uiitfc*- trustors 123
Engines 303 32 BectfKal ('.KAAts and 0 - * s •i 2!
Head Gaskets 103 OrcuRs 32S
/Vrflm<\i Steel <• r c kskets ! ton of* Compete Ocwr JOB
MultlUirnJ Steel C.ish !> >' 11 Open Onrti 12$
Installing the Head Gasket 505
oil COT9CS
Using Scope Leads 353

sv- - 32$ Measuring Battery Voltage with a Scope 353
M^fi itesBfi x« 327 Graphing Multimeter 353
Oftani U « 327
cVsn 5 Lm vtf rc 5tapte Circuits 320 35 tomotive Wiring and Wire Repair 360
Liiw 328 Automotive Wiring 360
-Vfcu* Orrff jt?5 American Wire Gauge 360
3 3 S » -fs. Rara ••- Series-Parallel Circuits 330 Metric Wire Gauge 360
Braided Ground Straps 361
Seres C - c a t s 330
Battery Cables 362
Cftm - Law and Series Circuits 330
Jumper Cables 362
K. -;r. - Voltage Law 330
Fuses and Circuit Protection Devices 362
. • ig MnrfrhcFs Voltage Law 331
Blade Fuses 363
. te of otoge Dnps 331
Mini Fuses 363
Seres Circuit Laws 332 Maxi Fuses 364
S e r ^ G r a n t Examples 332 Pacific Fuse Element 364
e Grcuits 333 Testing Fuses 364
L n A b o f f s Current Law 333 Circuit Breakers 364
Para <e. Circuit Laws 333 PTC Circuit Protectors 365
Fusible Links 365
I r.:r.g Total Resistance in a Parallel Circuit 334
:
Checking Fusible Links 366
walle: Circuit Examples 336 Terminals and Connectors 366
Senes-Paraliel Circuits 337 Wire Repair 366
Series Parallel Circuit Faults 337 Solder 366
5: - r z Senes Parallel Circuit Problems 337 Crimping Terminals 367
5«r- es Para.lel Circuit Examples 337 Heat Shrink 367
Crimp and Sea! Connectors 367
3 4 Digit* Meters and Scope Usage 340 Aluminum Wire Repair 368
Test Lights 340
3 6 Wiring S c h e m a t i c s and Troubleshooting 370
v- - Powered Test Lights 340
Wiring Schematics 370
LED Test Light 341
Log-c Profce 341 Circuit Information 370
L r. J- Multimeters 341 Schematic Symbols 371

•.lea;. ring Amperes 341 Battery 371
- '. : . CiampOn Digital Multimeter 342 Wiring 372
"•Vasjr.-.g Voltage 342 Electrical Components 373
' '-••.. > g R e s i s t a n c e 344 Electric Motors 373
I -'.rj: Prefixes 345 Resistors 373
H. Read 0:2jtaJ Meters 346 Capacitors 373
• . Average 348 Electric Heated Unit 373
ke-s* jrion. Digits, and Counts 348 Boxed Components 373
Accuracy 349 Separate Replaceable Part 374
Switches 374
Digital Storage Oscilloscope 349
Relay Terminal Identification 375
(r. r/ope Lnspiay Grid 350
Relay Voltage Spike Control 375
> . ' e . ' : e Base 350
Common Power or Ground 376
>•*..'.;• rt;-.; Per Division 350
Using Schematics for Troubleshooting 377
,'X.Cv.:-? 350
Locating a Short Circuit 378
AC Coupling 351
Fuse Replacement Method 378
pj..ve Trains 351
Circuit Breaker Method 378
Frequency 352
Test Light Method 378
D-JP/ Cy' >-
Ohmmeter Method 378
p-jlv Width 352
Gauss Gauge Method 378
F./""t.4' lngyer 352
Electronic Tone Generator Tester 378
Trigger Level 352
Electrical Troubleshooting Guide 379
trigger Uope 352
Step-by-Step Troubleshooting Procedure 380
ccurars
;
3 7 Capacitance i
Capacitance 382
Capacitor Construction and Operation 382
Factors of Capacitance 383
Measurement of Capacitance 383 Volar Ceils 400
Capacitor Uses 384 i i-jw to "'est Ltiodes and transistors 400
Computer Memory 384 Diodes 400
Condenser Microphones 384 Electronic Component Failure Causes 400
Capacitors in Parallel Circuits 384 Poor Connections 400
Capacitors in Series Circuits 384 Heat 401
Fundamentals of Magnetism 385 Voltage Spikes 401
Lines of Force 385 Excessive Current 401
Attracting or Repelling 386
Electrostatic Discharge 401
Permeability 386
3 9 Batteries and Battery Testing 403
Reluctance 386
Purpose of a Battery 403
Electromagnetism 386
Battery Construction 403
Creating an Electromagnet 386
Straight Conductor 386 Grids 403
Left-and Right-Hand Rules 387 Maintenance Free versus Standard Battery Grids 404
Field Interaction 387 Radial Grid Design 404
Motor Principle 387 Positive versus Negative Plates 404
Coil Conductor 387 Separators 404
Electromagnets 388 Cells 404
Relays 388 Partitions 404
Electromagnetic Induction 388 Electrolyte 405
Voltage Strength 388 How a Battery Works 405
Self-induction 389 During Discharging 405
Mutual Induction 389 The Fully Discharged State 405
Ignition Coils 390 During Charging 405
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Suppression 391 Specific Gravity 405
EM! Suppression Devices 391 Charge Indicators 405
Resistance Suppression 391 Specific Gravity versus State of Charge and Battery
Suppression Capacitors and Coils 392
Voltage 406
Shielding 392
Ground Straps 392 Valve Regulated Lead Acid Batteries 406
Battery Hold-Downs 407
3 8 Electronic Fundamentals 393
Battery Ratings 407
Semiconductors 393
Cold-Cranking Amperes 407
N-Type Material 394 Cranking Amperes 407
P-Type Material 394 Ampere- Hour Rating 407
Resene Capacir. 407
How Holes Move 394
Summary of Semiconductors 394 Deep Cycling 408
Diodes 394 Battery Service Safety Considerations 408
Zener Diodes 395 Battery Maintenance 408
Clamping Diodes 396 Battery Voltage Test 409

Zener Diode Despiking Protection 396 Hydrometer Testing 409
Despiking Protective Resistors 396 Battery Load Testing 410
Diode Ratings 397 Electronic Conductance Testing 411
Light-Emitting Diodes 397 Battery Charging 412
Photodiodes 398 Jump-Starting 412
Photoresistors 398 Battery Date Codes 412
Varistors 398 Battery Electrical Drain Test 414
Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers 398 Procedure for Battery Electrical Dra.' Test 414
Thermistors 399 Finding the Source of the Drain 415
Rectifier Bridges 399 What to Do If a Battery Drain Scili i 4i i
xx* COKTEirS
HiJden Bateries 415 Electronic Voltage Regulators 442

Bare-v Symptom Guide 416 Computer-Controlled Generators 442
argir'R System Testing and Service 443
40 (19 Syster Operation and Diagnosis 417
harging Voltage Test 443
CrarJong Circuit 417
Mag ' d Rear Bearing Test 444
Corpuier-Controiled Starting 418 AC Voltage Check 446
rfow the Starter Motor Works 418 Qurging System Voltage Drop Testing 447
How Magpet: c Fields Turn an Armature 419 General Motors SI Test Light Test 448
Tvpes of Starrer Motors 419 V, rmal Operation 448
Series Motors 420 Problems and Possible Causes 448
Sham Motors 421 Ge ral Motors CS Series AC Generators 448
Compound Motors 421 Diagnosing Problems with the General Motors
CS Series 448
Armature and Commutator Assembly 421
Generator Output Test 449
Permanent-Magnet Fields 422
How to Determine Minimum Required Generator
Gear-Reduction Starters 422
Output 450
Starter Drives 423 Generator Disassembly 450
Starter Drive Operation 424 Testing the Rotor 451
P o s eve-Engagement Starters 424 Testing the Stator 452
Solenoid-Operated Starters 424 Testing the Diode Trio 452
Starting Svstem Troubleshooting 425 Testing the Rectifier Bridge (Diodes! 452
• ::age-Drop Testing 425 Brush Holder Replacement 453
Bearing Service and Replacement 453
Centre Circuit Testing 427
Generator Assembly 454
Specifications for a Starter Amperage Test 427
Remanufactured Generators 454
Stzrer Removal 427
Sorter Disassembly 428 4 2 Lighting and Signaling Circuits 459
Testing Sorter Armatures 428 Lighting 459

A mature Service 429 Bulb Numbers 459
Testing Staner Motor Field Coils 429 Brake Lights 462
Stater Brush Inspection 430
Headlight Switches 462
Bench Testing 430
Starter Installation 430 Removing a Headlight Switch 462
Staner Drive to Flywheel Clearance 431 Sealed-Beam Headlights 462
Staring Svstem Troubleshooting Guide 432 Headlight Aiming 463
Composite Headlights 463
41 Chary - g System Operation and Diagnosis 435
Halogen Sealed-Beam Headlights 463
: of Generator Operation 435 High-Intensity Discharge Headlights 464
Ai1er.a'ong-Current Generators lAlternators) 436 Parts and Operation 464
Generator Construction 436 Bi-Xenon Headlights 466
Alternator Overrunning Pulley 436 Failure Symptoms 466
Purpose and Function 436 Diagnosis and Service 466
Diagnc sis and Service 437 Adaptive Front Lighting System 466
Rotors 437 Parts and Operation 466
Generator Brushes 437 Diagnosis and Service 467
Statots 436 Daytime Running Lights 467

Dimmer Switches 467
Diodes 436
Stop Lamp and Turn Signals 468
How 3 Generator Works 438
Flasher Units 470
Wye-Cor. n e t t e d Stators 438
Bimetallic Rashers 470
De. :a-Connected Stator, 439
Hybrid Rasher (Flasher Relay! 471
Generator Output Factors 439 Solid-State Rashers 471
Generate- Vbitage Regulation 440 Hazard Warning Flasher 471
(. nargtng Voltage Control 441 Electronic Rasher Replacement Units 471
Temperature Compensation 441 Lighting Symptom Guide 471
D»ode Tno Generators 442 Courtesy Lights 472
Illuminated Entry
Fiber Optic:, 472
Feedback 473
Feedback Example 473
Lighting System Symptom Guide 473 r, - Vi jftjj Wasoef Systtffi 49ft
4 3 Driver Information and Navigation Sy

Dash Warning Symbols 476 Wfndsfiletd Wiper Diagnosis 499
MnebMeU Wiper Testing 499
Analog Dash Instruments 476
Windshield Wiper Service 500
Computer-Controlled Instrument Panels 476
Pu be Wipe Systems 500
Stepper Motor Gauges 476 W 'dst iekl Washer Diagr o is SO I
Head-Up Display 476 Windshield Washer Ser/ice 501
Night Vision 476 Rain Sense Wiper System 502
Parts and Operation 476 Pans ar:d Operation 502
Ram Sense Wiper Diagnosis and Service 502
Diagnosis and Sen/ice 478
Blower Motor Operation 502
Dash Instrument Diagnosis 478
Blower Motor Diag-jcse 502
Telltale Lamps 478
Electrical Accessor^ \ m r s . ~ Guide 503
Oil Pressure Warning Devices 479
Oil Pressure Lamp Diagnosis 480 4 5 Aafcssary O c u f t s 505
Temperature Lamp Diagnosis 480
Cruise Control 505
Brake Warning Lamp 480
Cruise Corttro, Ovemson 505
Digital Electronic Dash Operation 480
NonajnwueFCiaMKMM time Type Cnme Control 506
LED Digital Displays 480 CotnptMer-Omroaed Cnjise Control 506
Liquid Crystal Displays 480 Bear:mc TVorfc Cruise Cc"roi 506
Vacuum Tube Fluorescent Displays 481 Diagnos-s and Service 506
Cathode Ray Tube 481 Troubleshooting Z-jxse Onroi 506
Cold Cathode Fluorescent Displays 484 Healed Bear- Wiodow Defo®er. 508
Electronic Analog Displays 484 HotUeshooOng a -ie&ed Bar-Window Defoggtr 50v
Other Electronic Gauge Displays 484 Homemx Parage 1-.;- 'jqkx: 509
The WOW Display 485 Operas*:- 509
Electronic Speedometers 485 Programmingi .fes :Je jarage Do'.r Opener
Electronic Odometers 486 Diagnose a m ie-.ice 5
Electronic Speedometer and Odometer Service 436 Power Windows 510
Electronic Fuel-Level Gauges 487 Troubleshooting Power Windows 510
Navigation and GPS 487
Power Seats 510
Background 487
ZiMbiesôoang rywer Seats 511
Navigation System Parts and Operation 487
Memory Seas 512
Diagnosis and Service 489
Comoonents 512
Onstar 490
Programming 513
Parts and Operation 490 Opermcn 513
Diagnosis and Service 490 Di^nosis 514
Backup Camera 490 LectncaLy Heated Seats 515
Parts and Operation 490 Parts and Operation 515
Diagnosis and Service 491 Diagnoss and Service 515
Backup Sensors 491 Heated and Cooled Seats 515
Components 491 Parts and Ope ration 515
Operation 491 Diagnosis and Service 515
Diagnosis 492 Heated Steering Wheel 515
Lane Departure Warning System 492 Parts invoked 515
Parts and Operation 492 Operation 515
Diagnosis and Sendee 492 Diagnosis and Sev.Jt • f
Electronic Dash Instrument Diagnosis and Troubleshooting 492 Ac u s a b l e Peca. 5 c
Testing Results 492 Diagnosis and Service 5:6
Maintenance Reminder Lamps 493 Automatic Dnr.mar.; V . . - . - . •
WW
Parts and Operj - ,— 5!o Speaker Types 539

Ptignots& andSmke 516 Tweeter 539
Midrange 539
Oucside forcing Mmofs 517
Subwoofer 539
Electric Fewer Door Locks 517
Speaker Frequency Response 539
Keyless Entry 518
Crossovers 539
- - . t p Cade Reset ?>vcedure 518 Passive Crossover 539
• • -. Diagnosis 518 Active Crossover 539
Pnagnz r.-'Tg- i .Vcw Remote 518 Capacitor Installation 539
Anti-Theft Systems 510 Voice Recognition 540
4 - " Theft System Diagnosis 519 Parts and Operation 540
An-. .'V* System Testing and Service 519 Diagnosis and Service 540
ThnslerFeimte Kevless Entry System 520 Bluetooth 541
F: ~J PATS System 520
Operation 541
Ge - - j ' Afoftire .4 nti Theft System 520
Eiectricai Accessory Symptom Guide 521 Satellite Radio 541
Parts and Operation 541
4 6 Restraint Systems and Airbags 524 XM Radio 541
Reception 542
N-r'e-- Beits and Retractors 524
Antenna 542
Safety Belts 524
Diagnosis and Service 542
Be:: Retractors 524
Radio Interference 543
& fety BeIt Lights and Chimes 524
Pretensioners 524
Airbags 526 SECTION
Operation 526
Types cf Airbag /nftators 526 Heating a n d Air Conditioning 547
Sensors 527 4 8 Heating and Air-Conditioning Components
Wiring 527 and Operation 547
T'vubieshooting 527
Airbag Diagnosis Tools and Equipment 528 Principles of Heating and Refrigeration 547
Changes of State 547
Precautions 528
Heat and Temperature 548
Airbag Testing and Service 529 Latent Heat 548
C river-Side Airbag Module Replacement 530 Temperature, Volume, and Pressure of a Vapor 548
Safer/ When Manually Deploying Airbags 531 Pressure-Temperature Relationships 549
Gccupsit Detection Systems 531 Humidity 549
Diagn : sing Occupant Detection Systems 531 Heating System 549
Sea: and Side-Curtain Airbags 532 Air-Conditioning Refrigeration Cycle 549
Expansion Valve Systems 551
Event Data Recorders 532
Orifice Tube Systems 551
Thermostatic Control 552
Data Extraction 532
Refrigerants 553
17 Audw System Operation and Diagnosis 534 Refrigerants and the Environment 553
Montreal Protocol 554
Aud Fundamentals 534
Refrigerant Oils 554
Modulation 534
Condenser 555
Radio Wave Transmission 535
Noise 535 Evaporator 556
FM Characteristics 535 Receiver-Drier 556

Accumulator 556
Radios and Receivers 535
Refrigerant Lines and Hoses 556
Types of Antennas 535
Thermostatic Expansion Valves 556
Antenna Diagnosis 536
Fixed-Orifice Tubes 558
Antenna Testing 536
Compressors 558
Power Antenna Testing and Service 537
Positive-Displacement Piston Compressors 559
Speakers 537
Pistons and Rings 560
Impedance Matching 537
Variable Displacement Compressor 560
Speaker Wiring 538
Compressor Controls 562
4 9 Automatic A .
Airflow Managemen: 565 Seerwn
Automatic Air Conditioning 565
Brtgirsa Pet rnwrtcs 6%7
Outside Air Temperature fOATi Sensor 500
Inside Vehicle Temperature Sensor 560 52 : 1 f e ' T itive f u e l s 587
Discharge Air Temperature Sensor 566
AiaofloC-re I tie! defining 588
Evaporator Outlet Temperature Sensor 566
Sunioad Sensor 566 Processes 586
Actuators 566 iteUtlatm 588
Dual-Position Actuator 566 Cracking S88
Three-Position Actuator 566 Shipping 598
Variable-Position Actuator 566 Gasr. r,e 588
Cabin Filters 566 Volatility 588
Vacuum Control Circuits 566 Winter Blend 588
Electric Servomotor Circuits 566 Summer Blend 588
Blower Motor Control 566 Volatility problems 589
Dual-Zone Air Climate Controls 566 Distillation Curve 590
Rear Air-Conditioning System 568
Normal and Air.ormai Combustion 590
Recirculation Operation 568
Octane Rau-g 591
Hybrid Electric Vehicle Heating and Cooling Systems 568
Gasoline Grades and Octane Number 591
5 0 Heating and Air-Conditioning System Diagnosis 571 Octane Improvers 592
Hvac Diagnostic Procedure 571 Oxygenated Fuels 593
Heater Diagnosis 571 Methyl Tertiary 8ut> Ether fMTBE 593
Tertiary Am. Method Ether 593
Heater Problem Diagnosis 571
Ethyi Ternary B ~. Ether 593
Heater Trouble Diagnosis 572 Ethanoi 593
Visual Inspection 572 Methanol 593
Checking A/C System Performance 573 Alcohol Additives—Advantages and Disadvantages 593
Temperature and Pressure Measurements 574 Advantages 593
Leak Detection 576 Disadvantages 553
51 Heating and Air-Conditioning System Service 579 Testing GasC'liae for Aicohc Cor,lent 594
Blower Motor Service 579 Combustion Chenusoy 594
Air-Fuel Ratios 594
Cooling System Service 579
Stoidaometric Ar-Foel Raoc 594
Cooling System Thermostat Replacement 579
StDichi: metric A. --Fx: Ratio for Various Fuels 5 95
Heater Hose Replacement 579
High-AMmde Octane Retirements 595
Cooling Fan 579
Refbrmuiaied Gaso. ne 595
Refrigerant Recovery Procedures 579
General Gasoline Recommendations 59t
Leak Repair Procedures 579
Repairs or Replacement of Components 580 Alternative Fuels 5 L ~
Refrigerant Line Connections 580 Ethanoi 507
Service Valves 581 E-85 598
Schrader Valves 581 Methanol 600
Evacuation Procedures 581 M-85 600
Noncondensable Gases 581 Propane 600
Refrigerant Recycling 582 Compressed Natmai Gas CNC; 6C1
Recharging a System 582 P-Series Fuels 602
Retrofitting a CFC-12 System to a HFC-134A System 583 Biodiesei 602
Compressor Service 584 E-Diesel Fuel 603
Compressor Drive Belt 584 Cetane Rating 603
Compressor Clutch Service 584 Synthetic Fue.s 003
Compressor Removal 584 Coal to Luuid CTL :04
Condenser Service 585 Methanol to Gasoline A(M
Evaporator Service 585 Future of Synthetic F:els • -
Safety Procedures When '.'• jrkr.s
Receiver/Drier or Accumulator Drier Service 585
Vehicles 604
Orifice Tube Expansion Valve Service 585
CONTENTS
5 3 Computer and Network Fundamentals 6 f; Enabling Conditions or Criteria 620

Computer Control 006 Pending 620
The Four Basic Computer Functions 606 Conflict 620
input 607 Suspend 621
Rationality Test 621
Processing 607
Functionality Test 621
Storage 607
Electrical Test 621
Output 607 Generic OBD II 621
Lo>* Side Drivers 60S
High Side Drivers 608 Diagnosing Problems Using Mode Six 622
Pulse Width Modulation 608 5 5 Computer Sensors 623
Digital Computers 600 Engine Coolant Temperature Sensors 623
Parts of a Computer 609
Stepped ECT Circuits 624
Computer Programs 609
Testing the Engine Coolant Temperature Sensor 624
Clock Rates and Timing 609
Testing the Engine Coolant Temperature by
Co mpurer Speeds 610
Visual Inspection 624
Baud Rate 610
Testing the ECT Using a Multimeter 624
Control Module Locations 610
Testing the ECT Sensor Using a Scan Tool 627
i mputer Input Sensors 610
Intake Air Temperature Sensor 628
Computer Outputs 611
Testing the Intake Air Temperature Sensor 628
Module Communication and Networks 611
Transmission Fluid Temperature Sensor 629
Serial Data 611
Cylinder Head Temperature Sensor 630
Multiplexing 611
Engine Fuel Temperature (EFT) Sensor 630
SAE Communication Classifications 612
Exhaust Gas Recirculation /EGR/ Temperature Sensor 630
Class A 612
Engine Oil Temperature Sensor 630
Class B 613
Temperature Sensor Diagnostic Trouble Codes 630
Class C 613
Throttle Position Sensors 630
Module Communication Diagnosis 613
OBD II Data Link Connector 613 Potentiometers 630
TP Sensor Computer Input Functions 631
54 Onboard Diagnosis 616 PCM Uses for the TP Sensor 631
On Board Diagnostics Generation-!! (OBD-ll) Systems 6I6 Clear Flood Mode 631
OBD II Objectives 616 Torque Converter Clutch Engagement and Release 631
Rationality Testing for MAP and MAF Sensors 631
Diagnostic Executive and Task Manager 617
Automatic Transmission Shift Points 631
Monitors 617
Target Idle Speed (Idle Control Strategy/ 631
Continuous Monitors 617
A ir• Conditioning Compressor Operation 631
Noncontlnuous Monitors 617
Backs Up Other Sensors 632
OBD II Monitor Information 617
Testing the Throttle Position Sensor 632
Comprehensive Component Monitor 617 Testing a TP Sensor Using the Min/Max Function 632
Continuous Running Monitors 618
Testing the TP Sensor Using a Scan Tool 633
Once per Trip Monitors 618
TP Sensor Diagnostic Trouble Codes 633
/ -pone ntially Weighted Moving Average (EWMAj
MAP/BARO Sensors 633
Monitors 618
Air Pressure—High and Low 633
Noncontinuous Monitors 618
Enabling Criteria 618 Principles of Pressure Sensors 633
Trip 618 Construction of Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP)
Warm Up Cycle 619 Sensors 634
MIL Condition: Off 619 Silicon Diaphragm Strain Gauge MAP Sensor 635
MIL Condition: On Steady 6 / 9 Capacitor—Capsule MAP Sensor 635
MIL Condition: Flashing 619 Ceramic Disc MAP Sensor 636
MIL Off 619 PCM Uses of the MAP Sensor 637
OBD II DTC Numbering Designa tion 619 Barometric Pressure Sensor 637
DTC Numbering Explanation 619 Testing the MAP Sensor 638
Types of DTCs 619 Testing the MAP Sensor Using a DMM or Scope 638
D:agn< - .tic Trouble Code Priority 6 1 9 Testing the MAP Sensor Using a Scan Too! 638
OBD H Freeze Frame 620 Fuel-Rail Pressure Sensor 639
CUMW3
M A P / B A R O t ( ' M
Airflow Sensor;. ' >
Analog and Digital IA> — w 640
Mass Airflow Sensor T/pes 640
Hot Film Sensor 640
Hot Wire Sensor 640
Knock s r -xn 670
Karman Vortex Sensors 640
.'Augfl trig the Knock Sensor 671
PCM Uses for Airflow Sensors 641
Replacing a Knock Sensor 671
Testing Mass Airflow Sensors 642 Spark Y, 67)
MAFSensor Output Test 642
Rotator Spark Plugs 671
Tap Test 642 Platinum Spark Plugs 672
Digital Meter Test of a MAF Sensor 642 iridiur Sjsirtr Ptugs 672
Contaminated Sensor 642
5 7 ignftxx 1 l y s t e r Diagnosis and Service 673
MAF-Related Diagnostic Trouble Codes 643
Oxygen Sensors 643 Checking for Spark 673
Zirconia Oxygen Sensors 644 Electronic Igrirjoo Trc .iiesr.'/Mtag Procedure 674
Titania Oxygen Sensors 645 Igratwc Cofl Ter_r.g Using an Oh ~ meter 674
Wide-Band Oxygen Sensors 645 Pickup C a t Testing 675
Closed Loop and Open Loop 646 Tesfef M a g x b c Sensor. 675
PCM Uses of the Oxygen Sensor 646
Testing ha.. E S e r S e a a t r i't
Fuel Control 646
TesfeiE Of.-.a :-«nsor. t
Fuel Trim 646
Diagnosis 646 igrJton yrBBM Diapxx-u .stagVfcua. i n j e c t ; - ft?'
Testing an Oxygen Sensor Using a Digital Voltmeter 647 T e s t r g for Poor ? e - ' : — i - :e
Testing the Oxygen Sensor Using the M1N/MAX T e s m g for a - :• Star CoB : v r . 678
Method 647 fcpfcioo Svrem S e m c e 173
Testing an Oxygen Sensor Using a Scan Tool 648 Firing Order 678
Testing an Oxygen Sensor Using a Scope 649 S m w f a i y jganoc l a a e c u a . 678
0 2 S Readings 649 Spark D o g Wire Inspect on '~
Lean Indications 650 Spark Plug Service 68C
Rich Indications 651 Soat . nspecSor. 68'
Post-Catalytic Converter Oxygen Sensor Testing 651 Cfeack and Easv Sec codary igrtWB Tests 6 8 2
Oxygen Sensor Inspection 651 IgK2or. Timing o&l
Oxygen Sensor-Related Diagnostic Trouble Codes 652 Prt&rnmg Checks 683
Ttmirtg -g~:t Con -ecadhs 'A3
5 6 Ignition System Components and Operation 657 Detemtmg Cytoder 1 683
r
Ignition System Operation 657 Checîg Az-jsfjig >fiRior ig C84
Ignition Coils 657 Scope-Tesmg tiie Ign.ion System 685
Self-induction 658 firing Lne 685
Mutual Induction 658 SoarkLine 685
How Ignition Coils Create 40,000 Volts 658 Imermatbax QscSatio- 586
Primary Ignition Circuit 658 '-artsstoron Poml 686
LhneESection 686
Secondary Ignition Circuit 659
Patter-. Selection 686
Ignition Switching and Triggering 659
Readrg the Scope on Dtspiay Parade 686
Primary Circuit Operation 660
Reacting Ote Spark Lines 687
Distributor Ignition 662 Spark Line Slope 688
General Motors HEI Electronic Ignition 662 Reading the 'nte'-nediate Secx - 688
Ford Electronic Ignition 663 Electroniclgr_;r." and :he Jwe . >- -
Operation of Ford Distributor Ignition 663 Dwell Variation Electronic lg-. no - "
Chrysler Distributor Ignition 663 CoR Polarity 689
Waste-Spark Ignition Systems 664 Acceleration Check 68Q
Rotor Gap Voltage 66t
Ignition Control Circuits 665
Scope-Testing a Waste-Spark * •
Bypass Ignition Control 665
Scope-Testing a C C L - O E - F .C.. -
Diagnosing a Bypass Ignition System 666
Igpitkm System 7: ^ e s . ' : •„.-; *-•»
Up-Integrated Ignition Control 666
m CWTBTS
5 8 Ft*?. Pumps. L i f t s , «nc fi :»f• • 6 9 1 Closed Loop Mode 716

Acceleration Enrichment Mode 716
Fori D e u w Svsretr.
Deceleration Enleanment Mode 716
Fa«T«5to t*3:
Fuel ShutoffMode 716
ran* Lxx~:i and M&cm&tg 692 Idle Control 716
rBrr Tides 0G2
Stepper Motor Operation 716
> S K J I » . xuur~ FHier Car 693
PtmffictiB ~ut>e Electronic Throtde Control 717
—Reottner-eits 0Q3 Failure Mode 717
er leakage Protection 603
6 0 Fuel-Injection System Diagnosis and Service 719
Fad Lines 603
fljgfc? Lines 604 Port Fuel-Injection Pressure Regulator Diagnosis 719
Flexible Lines 604 Diagnosing Electronic Fuel-Injection Problems Using Visual
F-je . ne Mounting 604 Inspection 719
--- - r ctkm Lines and Clamps 604 Scan Tool Vacuum Leak Diagnosis 720
- .'nx ction Fittings and Nylon Lines 605 Port Fuel-Injection System Diagnosis 721
Ft.-:. Line Layout 606
Testing for an Injector Pulse 722
Been*: Fuel Pumps 696
Checking Fuel-Injector Resistance 723
r s —• y.sz acement Pump 606
Measuring Resistance of Grouped Injectors 723
- tdrokinetic Flow Pump Design 607
'fed: ir Fuel Sender Assembly 607 Measuring Resistance of Individual Injectors 724
Eiecr>: Pump Control Circuits 608 Pressure-Drop Balance Test 724
Pomp Pulsation Dampening 600 Injector Voltage-Drop Tests 725
Variable Soeed Pumps 690 Scope-Testing Fuel Injectors 725
F a d FSters 700 Saturated Switch Type 725
Fuei-Pump Testing 700 Peak-and Hold Type 726
Testing Fuel Pump Pressure 700 Pulse- Width Modulated Type 726
Rest Pressure Test 702 Idle Air Speed Control Diagnosis 726
D-nan:: Pressure Test 702 Fuel-Injection Service 727
Testing Fuel Pump Volume 702
Fuel-System Scan Tool Diagnostics 729
Fue -Pump Current Draw Test 704
Fuel-Pump Replacement 704 61 Vehicle Emission Standards and Testing 733
5 9 Fuef ijection Components and Operation 706 Emission Standards in the United States 734
Eiectr : Fuel-Injection Operation 706 Tier 1 and Tier2 734
Federal EPA Bin Number 734
Speed-Der.sity Fuel-Injection Systems 707
Smog Emission Information 734
'.'ass A.-f. ow Fuel-Injection Systems 707
California Standards 735
Thnde-Body Injection 708
European Standards 735
? - Fuel In ection 708 Exhaust Analysis Testing 735
Or: iped Double-Fire 708 Federal Test Procedure IFTP) 735
J mjltaneous Double Fire 700 l/M Test Programs 736
Sequential 709 Visual Tampering Checks 736
Direct Fuel Infection 710 One-Speed and Two-Speed Idle Test 736
• -•• ' • err. :n Fuel Delivery System 710 Loaded Mode Test 736
Acceleration Simulation Mode (ASM) 736
y nee In;? ''ion Fuel Injectors 71 /
l/M240 Test 737
F x . Press ure Regulator 711
OBD-1I Testing 737
. -. :r. £ Fuel-Pressure Regulator 712 Remote Sensing 737
Becoror. :c Re-jmiess Fuel System 712 Random Roadside Testing 737
Mecr.cT.ca. ?e-.r. ess Fuel System 712 Exhaust Analysis and Combustion Efficiency 737
Demand De., very System DDS) 712 Hydrocarbons 737
Fuel injectors 7J4 Carbon Monoxide 738
Carbon Dioxide (COJ 738
Cer.va Port Ir. ection 715
Oxygen 738
pjeHr.iection Modes of Operation 715
Oxides of Nitrogen (NOrf 738
Starting Mode 715
HC Too High 739
C lear Flood Mode 715
CO Too High 739
Open Loop Mode 715
Measuring Oxygen (0 2 ) and Carbon Dioxide (C0 2 )
CONTENTS nod
Photochemical Smog F >rr ,ati >n 740

Testing for Oxides of Nitrogen 740
Specifications pr NOx 740 1 uennanteM Evgp•• »c Control Systems 757
6 2 Emission Control Devices Operation and Diagnosis

Smog 742 Canister Purge Solenoid ICPSI Valve 758
Exhaust Gas Recirculation Systems 742 Leak Detection Pump System 758
NOx Formation 742 Pump Period 758
Controlling NOx 742 Onboard Refuel,ng Vapor Recovery 758
ECR System Operation 743 State Inspection EVAP Tests 758
Positive and Negative Backpressure ECR Valves 743
Diagnosing the EVAP System 759
Computer-Controlled EGR Systems 744
Locating Leaks in the System 759
EGR Valve Position Sensors 744
Digital EGR Valves 744 Evaporative System Monitor 759
Linear EGR 744 Engine Off Natural Vacuum 760
OBD-II EGR Monitoring Strategies 744 Typical EVAP Monitor 760
Diagnosing a Defective EGR System 745 Running the EVAP Monitor 761
Crankcase Ventilation 747
PCV Valves 747 6 3 Scan Tools and Engine Performance Diagnosis 762
Orifice-Controlled Systems 748 The Eight-Step Diagnostic Procedure 762
Separator Systems 748 Step 1 Verify the Problem Concern 763
PCV System Diagnosis 748 Step 2 Perform a Thorou&i Visual Inspection and Basic
Tests 764
PCV System Performance Check 748
Step 3 Retrieve the Diagnostic Trouble
The Rattle Test 748 Codes iDTCs 766
The 3 x 5 Card Test 748 Step 4 Check pr TechnicaI Service Bulletins TSBsi 766
The Snap-Back Test 749 Step 5 Look Caref^ y at Scan Tool Data 766
Crankcase Vacuum Test 749 Step 6 Narrow the Problem to a S-stem or Cylinder 767
PCV Monitor 749 Step 7 Repair the Problem and Determine the Root
Air Pump System 749 Cause 767
Step 8 Verify die Repaid and Clear Any Stored DTCs 767
Air Distribution Manifolds and Nozzles 750
Scan Tools 767
Exhaust Check Valves 750
Retrieval of Diagnostic Information 768
Belt-Driven Air Pumps 750
Troubleshooting Using Diagnostic Trouble Codes 768
Electric Motor-Driven Air Pumps 750
Methods for Clearing Diagnostic Trouble Codes 769
Secondary Air Injection System Diagnosis 751
Flash Code Retrieval on OBD-I General Motors Vehicles 769
Retrieving Ford Diagnostic Codes 770
Four-Gas Exhaust Analysis 751
Key On Engine OffTest On -Demand Codes or Hard Faults 770
Catalytic Converters 751
Continuous Memory Codes Soft Codes 770
Ceramic Monolith Catalytic Converter 752
key-On-Engme Running KOER Test 770
Catalytic Converter Operation 752
Steering, Brake, and Overdrive Switch Test 770
Converter Light-Off 752
Rash Code Retrieval on Chrysler Vehicles 770
Converter Usage 752
OBD-II Diagnosis 771
OBD-II Catalytic Converter Performance 753
Converter-Damaging Conditions 753 Retrieving OBDll Codes 771
Diagnosing Catalytic Converters 753 OBD-11 Active Tests 773
The Tap Test 753 OBD ll Drive Cycle 773
Testing Backpressure with a Vacuum Gauge 753 Types of OBDll Codes 773
Testing Backpressure with a Pressure Gauge 753 OBDll Freeze Frame 773
Testing a Catalytic Converter for Temperature Rise 754 Diagnosing Intermittent Malfunctions 774
Catalytic Converter Efficiency Tests 754 Service Flash Programming 774
J2534 Reprogramming 775
OBD-II Catalytic Converter Monitor 754
Manufacturer's Diagnostic Routines *""o
Catalytic Converter Replacement Guidelines 754
Completing System Repairs 776
Evaporative Emission Control System 755 Procedures for Resetting the PC M 770
Common Components 756 Road Test (Drive Tracei 776
How the Evaporative Control System Works 750 Universal Drive Cycle 77c
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/Via/ or the Pedal Goes to the Floor 905
5t - ' e w r . - ' n v i S t r v c Act*:--: 883
Spring,. Spongy Pedal 005
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Stop the Vehicle 905
S-at*? F.ade 883 Light Pedal Pressure-—Brakes Too Sensitive 006
Stake j - Brai. Pedal Travel Decreasing 906
Srate PBK 385 PL • sing Brake Pedal Parking Brake Apply
Drerr Brake P a r a 885 Pulsates Also 006
SVlTiter jH A55 Brakes Fade Temporary Loss of Brake Effectiveness
flSsrriSfiMB When Hot! 006
Shoe Click 906
Shoe Support Pads 886
Snapping Noise in the Front End 906
Wheel C^Men 886
Thumping Noise When Brakes Are Applied 906
D r a r . Brass Shoes 886 Grinding Noise 906
- — i ' . : Secondary Brait Shoes 887 One Wheel Drags 006
L " J- A s s s t ? M e t h o d s 887 Vehicle Pulls to One Side 006
L u a n g W g e Codes 889 Wet Weather: Brakes Grab or Will Not Hold 006
5-S' if Shoe Reiu— Springs 889 Brakes Squeak 006
Brakes Chatter 906
Brake 9)oe Hokidowns 889
Faring Brake Linkage 890
Brake Drum 800 Disc Brakes 909
D - ^ r . B-c*e Design 8 0 0
Disc Brake Advantages 909
S Servo Brakes 891
f Fade Resistance 909
Sei -Energizing Action 891
Double Trailing Brake 891 Self-Adjusting Ability 911
Leading Trailing Brake Design 891 Freedom from Pull 911
Dâi Ser/o Brake Design 892 Disc Brake Disadvantages 912
D<M Servo Brake Construction 892 No Self-Energizing or Servo Action 012
Adjusting Link 892 Brake Noise 912
and Secondary Brake Shoes 892 Brake Dust 912
D-Jî Sena Brake Operation 892 Poor Parking Brake Performance 912
Sen: Action 893 Disc Brake Construction 912
- isotcatic Brake Adjusters 893 Caliper 912
-- --ate Su-//'eel Automatic Adjusters 893 Splash Shield 913
'•or Ser/o Stanvhee! Automatic Adjusters 895
Disc Brake Pads 913
Ratchet AUTO natic Adjusters 895
Pad Wear Indicators 913
Pad Assembly Methods 914
Drur. Brake Diagnostic Procedure 897 Brake Lining Composition 915
Brake Drum Removal 898 Semimetailic Friction Material 916
Hut or Fixed Drums 898 Nonasbestos Friction Material 916
Hj t or Floating Drums 898 Carbon Fiber Friction Material 916
L r . ~ Brake Disassembiy 899 Ceramic Friction Material 916
: - ipe- - • - z ± e Backing Plate 899 Lining Edge Codes 916

Brake Rotors 917
Bra* e L n i n g Inspection 900
Disc Brake Design 917
Spr - i ".cec'.on 901
Fixed Caliper Design 917
fefurn Springs 901
Roaring and Sliding Caliper Design 919
Hoid down Springs 901
Roaring Calipers 919
Cornering Spring Adjusting Screw Spring/ 901
Wheel Cylinder, 901 Sliding Calipers 921
Rear Disc Brakes 921
ofthe Wheel Cylinders 902
Rear Disc Parking Brakes 922
D ' . r . Brake Hardware Kit 903
77 DIM: B r a k e D i a g n o s i s a n d Service 923
;.'. Drum Bra<ce Shoes 903
Disc Brake Diagnostic Procedure 923
Real " g the D r , r . Brake 904
Ai;'uar.rig Drum B r a « i 904 Disc Brake Caliper Service 924
Removal 924
Inspection and C i. .. en'hy 025
Phenolic Caliper Ptn •us 925
Steel Caliper Pistons 920
Reassembling Disc Brake Calipers 928 " Z i c . - e w " ,-er 'Discard" 954
Caliper Mounts 929 i t e i o f o r Equal Drum [trade Diameter 954
Rotating Pistons Back Into the Caliper 930 Meas j r i r . «-n Machirung Brake Drums 954
Test Drive after Brake Replacement 030
Bedding In Replacement Brake Pads 931
AkKMnuo M e u Matrix Composite R o w s 956
Disc Brake Squeal 932
L x brake Rotor Distortion 956
Causes 932
Rotor Lateral Runout 956
Correcting Disc Brake Squeal 032
Lubricate All Caliper Slide Points as per Manufacture • Rotor Lack o f f araOeiism 956
Recommendation 033 M o m u m Thtctaess 959
Machine the Brake Rotor as Little as Possible and with When the fexws Should Be Mac&ned 959
Correct Surface Finish 033 BotorfinsT: 960
Disc Brake Symptom Guide 933 Positive Rait* Versus Megjdw Rase Brake Lathes 961
Pulls to One Side during Braking 033
Mactunmg i Use Brake Rour 961
Brake Roughness or Chatter /Pedal Pulsates 034
Excessive Pedal Effort 934 Rough Cat 962
Excessive Pedal Travel 034 Finish Cut 962
Dragging Brakes 034 Nondirectiona! Finish 962
Front Disc Brakes Very Sensitive to Light Brake Surface FtrusHr ; the Rotor 963
Applications 035 On-the-Veru:le Bern* M x f e a o g 9
Rear Drum Brakes Skidding under Hard Brake
Applications 035
7 8 Part ig Brake Operation Diagnosis, andServ-ce 938
Parking Brake 938 The Need for Po»wer Brace Aîst 978
Pedals, Levers, and Handles 938 Principles at Vacuum 978
Parking Brake Pedals 038 Measures Vacasn 979
Automatic Parking Brake Release 939 Booster tfcamm Sapc< 970
Parking Brake Warning Lamp 940 Vacuum Boosxr Theory 9 7 -
Parking Brake Linkages 940 C h a n m F3ter 960
Linkage Rods 040 Vacuum Check Valve 981
Linkage Cables 040 Vacuum Brase Booster Operaicc 981
Linkage Levers 041 Released Position Ooeratkm 06'
Linkage Equalizers 941 ADphed-Postron OpeoOor 0S2
Linkage Design 942 Hold Position Operate' 962
Front and Rear Entry Parking Brake Cables 942 VacuumFaHore Mode 983
Drum Parking Brakes 942 Dual- Tandem L a : t r a g m Vac .urn Booster 983
Integral Drum Parking Brakes 942 Brake Assist Svstem 9 8 3
Rear Disc Auxiliary Drum Parking Brakes 942 Operation 983
Caliper-Actuated Disc Parking Brakes 943 Vacuura Booster Operator. Test 983
Ball and Ramp Actuation 943 Vacuum Booster Leak Test 983
Screw, Nut, and Cone Actuation 943 Hvdra c S y v ; . - w a x i e s t 984
Parking Brake Cable Adjustment 945 Pushrod Clearance .Ad .sonent 984
Vacuum Be-: >ter t isassembiy and Service 984
Hydrofloost Hv-dracu: Brake Booster 385
Brake Drums 950 Operation 985
Brake Drum and Rotor Damage 950 Diagnosis 985
Scoring 950 Hydro-Boost Function Test 986
Cracking 951 Hydro-Boost Symptom Based G - . x 987
Heat Checking 951 Excessive Brake Pedal Effor 087
Hard or Chill Spots 951
Slow Brake Pedal Retu m 08$
Brake Drum Distortion 952
Crabby Brakes 989
Drum Distortion 952
Bocste- Chatters—PecUt i brau o&i
U*« <1* >«'§
I • i hi ii i<'ii iij a u s vi iNonintegrtl) iooh

Hetrltvbw Dllgnonlli-i eitlf, I (MM
Alb < J t * « ' t < n " ¥ 0 0
AA% fit* tf* rm 990 Win H ' : • • • ) ' 1 ii or Diagnosis, 1010
In, p m4 MritoHf [Nturf u gOQ /„ i til. • Mi .i • i f f tin m 1010
it-. J t f , . i <,ttib if ••iMbUity 990 (,tn f , i •./rift I" (iW/tid 1010
•!>.,., f . ' j t , vv/ A- Vi.ll.iy.' Chi, * /0/0
i ir>ntil. VJI St tifM luting 1011
A!--,' a'tur <W\ •n an I09I/filing 1011
wtji-( 1 - p. h '•! nv/r A'limtmern 1011
• < luhWt Alts 992 Digital Whrrl ,.I ',<• im>r Plagnosh 101.'
11 ,. t tiannn Ali ', W llydi.iHlk Ali'i Vrvlif 1012
' 'tig* < fumnti ABS 99J HletdlngAUS 1012
I nit/1 at an,j NoftUUtgrtl 99 J ABS ',afi-ty Pre< autions 101 1
Ah < '<fij()i/t.nils v ; )
H'V * i 1**4 Sanson 99)
< II /pelallut) VVJ
cm if Air Cap VW
if A ,'fplb alluns iiiul Pre, euliom 994 S u s p e n s i o n and Stfj«rlng 101?)
: vili Wheel '/.,,.•/ Senton 995
8 3 Tires and Wheels 1013
AHSl •Mini Module 99s
\i.. i iu Input* 9'A Pwte of a Tin- 1015
Ma hilt ope/Wan 905 I read 1015
U f . Wi'-runt lamp W5 'UdewtU 1010
Ih.jt^.ii, ModulatorAi .tnbly 906 Head 1017
4h\ wo
Body Ply 1017
•e ' .nihilI'n mi \tfit*%y 900
Bill 1017
Ivmi Motor and An titniilxlot W'/
A• • nhtiUWr 1'rvcnittonn V90 Inner l iner 101/
llt.ijr I'r-J.ii 99H Ma/at Splice 1017
Tlrt' Molding 1018
... If l.i I/.r/(l '-/VII. Ii (Si,-.',|| 99H
M«'irl( Designation 1018
•• • ',/Ttrol 778
American Metric lire sue Designations 1018
/fiput) trv} Outpulh 999 Service Description 1020
• 1 ..riinsl 0/ii'i.itlon 999 High Flotation I In- Sizes 1020
Ira. /i fi Anl,e lamp 1000
l/>a<i Indi*/ and Equivalent I/iads 1021
11 • tion i/u' hvaUdu h 1000
'ipecd Ratings 1021
I ..•,<!•,!«•( 0|4-l.m<Jf| 1000
lire Pressure and rracdon 1023
.Ul/iniy « .i/MtTO! 1000
Tlr<? tonicity and Ply M m 1023
Ovrun'rtnf 1000
Vfliitle Handling and lit'' Slip Angle 1023
• .-Irl •/.. rllhi- 1000
Kim Width and Tire Slz<- 1024
Uniterm lir« Duality f,radlng System 1024
I'... «li)f. 1004 Triad Wear IOJ'i
V Uu.pOix-iitlon 1004 Traction I02">
Warning I amp 1004 lempergture Henltlaiu 1025
i ••>• rAir. Warning /amp /004 All-Season lire D'-tilgnation 1025
. . ; < ! • • lion 100'/ Do) lire Code 102')
i"-'" I.-3 Vr-'if/ 111.- lault 1006 Span-••||i« 1020
. •/'.> Ifo.jMi ' ,./.1< 1006 kiin-Flat Tin-, 1026
•7 .VLM.7M l| 1006 PAX Hun Tint Tim I0.ro
•n rvlcliiH 'I I'AX Wheel/ Tire At .embly 1026
/»• !> >, • /11 lUbh Cm It 100(1
in fi(-i,.i Motors r P ' : Hating 1026
h • II..- • //;«•" .«• Iloutile CotJfS 100'/
lliv 1'ie .uri Monluirlflg Sytrtun III'MS) 1026
• i'.- • n;. .. 1007
Mti ei i 1027
/- ' .- /'.','• /' nihil' I ti/ii 100'/
Direct 1 IMS 1(128
!' /'-»bAafr 1/ >007
I I'MS Semwrt 1029
I'rlih ,1/1! /..-,, < ti.lt ml/It11 'a It • 100/
i trih, i„j,... tt. itii'ihh <. h Irion I'litf/iaiillllllig the 1'1'M KectlVft 1029
Whi- 10
WhettVfj • I l
PotlH/f tfyfr'l /()>/
Negative <>fl t toil
Back 'tit* ing. 10 U
Pt tr mil rung Mi' '.In" 10'U
*• H • % <jC4
•ill-el Wwtlt I" <7
w i t AiAt'-s-t Ujt.-i
Aluminum Wlv > I 1017
"lire Valves 103'i ftAtr. t*r(jp< .-'m t<A\
Unsprung Wf-iiît 1033 <"„*»< harp 1066
Lug Nut* 1034 Alt . iv - '. >'
An 'spnry tOM
Slue 1034
ton fjvt r VMXfc 1008
84 Tim and Win <r v w . e 10%
l i r e Inflation 10 )0 Mar (tenor.'Xnta 1068
N l t w u Inflation 1037 Mom\fn* suit 1070
fhveof, Mjf* W7O
TIre Mounting l<«ommendadom. 1038
Whi'el Mounting Fofque 1039 96 f'V • and \Q7%
lire Rotation 1040
H w \ a f e m o a 1rpa 1073
lire Inspection 1041
Mid Arm 1073
Radial Runout 1041
tiryjpira 167}
Corn'> ting Radial Runout 1042
TwtrlBejns 1074
Lateral Ruruml 1043
'MOOAM > Ann %Mfxoanjm 1974
Corn" ting /.tieral Runout 1043
S e u t Swper&«s* 1075
lire Balancing 1044
- -vk ••< • rsuir 1076
Static: balance 1044
fkma 7 « t 1076
Dynamic Balance 1044
Dry 'xaftumi 1078
Mul,met' Chech 1044
Whiil Weights 1044 Vtsut 1078
Hubble Balancer 104 b taSbtoa 107V
Computer Unlaw cr I04S Dt*fnom md toxp* 'tor 1079
Replacement Wheels 1046 H* km firmt**! 1082
lire Repair 1046 tavgun Dugwmti and Semoe 1084
A b h u t » m ana k r * n 1084
8 5 Suspension System Components and Operation 1051
Inagnati 1084
Frame Construction 1052 Fecrv \hock RrptscerT.-tf 108',
ladder Frtme 1052 MM S e w t e t ^ r - ew 1085
I'eHmtfet Frame I OS'
Scafafttm far Ltf* and fcwhtr<» 1087
'•iiuli type Frames 10',.'.
>087
Unit Body C"ii',tructlon 105
Repîenwm 1088
Space I r.ime ( j instruction !> '<-'
5 t n g Rod 8oi>itngs 1088
Platforms t 0 5 3
Unsprung Weight lOVi Apetii
IVpee ul suspensions 1 0 5 1 RrpiMtmetu 1088
Springs 1054 lromCoiiSprtB» 1089
DHgruxu HM>
Hooke'i Law 1054
Replacement 108v
Coll Springs 1054
S t r i n g KjuxWb 1001
Spring Rate I OSS
Dtagft: .tl 1091
Spring Frequem > 1056
Rrpbr emtnt lOUf
Wheel Raw IOSf>
t oil spring Mounting low Toftlufi UN I
tprtng C'Wing-, K'O AdfuitmrrX 100
U a f Springs 1056 Control Arm B 4 . #
Composite MSprings im.' ftajnttO mi
krptnew 1091
I'm'lion n.irs 10SM
rav* CONTENTS
8 7 Rea- S u s p e n s e ir>d Service 1095 9 0 Steering Linkage and Service 1130

S a i i R e a - \x.e> '005 Steering Linkage 1130
Lea: >p - -s. Rear Suspen> « s 1095 Tie Rod Ends 1132
Tr? _-.g Arm Rea- Suspensions 1096 Rack and-Pinion Inner Tie Rod Ends 1132
S e r " - i :-; Arm Reir Suspensions 1097 Staked 1132
" - x o e r d - - : Rear Suspensions 1097 Riveted or Pinned 1132
S e r . Independent Rear Suspensions 1098 Center Take Off Racks 1132
S r i - S ^ s p e - s i o n Ser.-,ce 1099 Front Steer versus Rear Steer 1132
Rear a ck Replacement 1100 Four-Wheel Steering 1133
•i t Shock Installation 1100 Ouadrasteer 1134
Hear CM Springs 1100 Rear Wheel Steering Control Module /134
Rea-Leaf Springs 1100 Rear Wheel Steering Mode Switch 1135
T r o i e s b o o o n g Rear Electronic Leveling Systems 1101
Steering Linkage Lubrication 1136
8 8 Bectromc Suspension Systems 1102 Dry Park Test 1137
F . e c r r n . ; Controls and Sensors 1103 Common Wear Items 1138
Heigh: Sensors 1103 Under-Vehicle Inspection 1139
Genera Motors Electronic Suspension Sensors 1104 Steering Linkage Replacement 1140
Sen —g Wheel Position Sensor 1105 Parallelogram Type 1140
• en:: e Speed Sensor 1105 Service of Ball Socket Assemblies 1142
Pressu -e Sensor 1105
91 Power-Assisted Steering Operation and Service 11
Liters. Accelerometer Sensor 1106
Yaw Rate Sensor 1107 Power Steering Hydraulic Systems 1145
Driver Selector Switch 1107 Power Steering Pump and Reservoir 1145
ESecOcnic Suspension System Actuators 1107 Power Steering Hoses 1149
Solenoids 1108
Integral Power Steering 1149
Actuator Motors 1108
Integral Standard Steering Gear 1149
Types of Electronic Suspension 1109
Rotary Control Valve 1149
Selectable Ride /SRI 1100
Automatic Level Control 1109 Power Rack-and Pinion Steering 1150
Air Suspension iASi 1110 Flow Control Valve Operation 1151
' ariatx e Rare A ir Springs 1110 Variable-Effort Steering 1153
Gi-.eralMotors Computer Command Ride 1111 Electronic Variable Orifice /EVO/ System Components
Ren Ti~ e Dampening and Road-Sensing Suspension 1111 Two-Flow Electronic/ TFE') System 1154
E- State and Tri-State Dampers 1112 SSS System 1155
- -- -r.iiz Level Control (ALC) 1113 Magnasteer 1156
- tstor or Compressor Relay 1113 Electric Power Steering System 1156
Compressor 1114 Steering Shaft Torque Sensor 1157
'.aster-Xheoiogical (MR) Suspension 1114 Steering Wheel Position Sensor 1158
Power Steering Motor 1158
8 9 Stee- ng Columns and Gears 1117
Power Steering Control Module (PSCMj 1158
Steermg Wheels 1117 Self-Parking System 1158
Horn Operation 1117
Diagnosis and Testing 1158
Airbags 1117
Electrohydraulic Power Steering 1158
Steering C o h m n s 1118
Steering Shaft 1118 EH PS Module 1158
Unr/ersaljoint 1118 Power Steering Diagnosis and Troubleshooting 1159
Rextbte Coupling 1118 Power Steering Fluid 1160
Column Cover 1119 Power Steering Fluid Rushing Procedure 1160
Collapsible Column 1119 Bleeding Air Out of the System 1161
Tib Mechanisms 1120 Hose Inspection 1161
Teiescop-r, je*ring Columns 1120 Pressure Testing 1162
Steer,ng Column Construction 1120 Pump Service 1163
Convert,onaJ Steering Gears 1122
9 2 Wheel Alignment Principles 1165
Steering Gear Ratio /122
Retire ..ati.tr Bali Steer ng Gear 1123 Alignment-Related Problems l l 66
Pull 1166
Steering Gear Adj-j '.meats 1125
Lead or Drift 1166
Rack and-Rn.on Steer'2 Gear 1126
Road Crown Effects 1166
Rackind-hnkmAdj. 'rner.t-. ] 129
Wander 1166
'.ohtent* «3o
Stiff Steering or Slo .. Return to Center !

Tramp or Shimmy Vibration 1166
Camber 1167 Aie•• : - • v Methods U 9 8
Caster 1167 Ai r; - ., • .per.ion VeW 1199
Toe 1171 Aligi ig Mr.dified Vehicles 1200
Steering Axis Inclination (SAI| 1174 Hid-ter. Structural Damage Diagnosis 1200
Included Angle 1175 Frame /Body Diagonals 1200
Scrub Radius 1175 Alignment Trout, Wioottng 1200
Turning Radius (Toe-Out on Turns) 1176
Setback 1176
Thrust Angle 1177 SECTION
Tracking 1177
Four-Wheel Alignment 1178
9 3 Alignment Diagnosis and Service 1180 94 U A es K05
Prealignment Correction Techniques 1180
Purpose and Function of a Clutch 1205
Prealignment Checks 1181 Component Parts and Operation of a Clutch Assembly 1205
Lead/Pull 1182 CWtch Pedal Linkage 1206
Diagnosis 1182 Clutch Disc 1206
Memory Steer 1182 High Performance Cbitdi Disc 1207
Diagnosis 1182 Stock dutch Disc 1208
Correction 1182 Pressure Plates 1209
Torque Steer 1183 Flywheels 1210
/Vot Bearing or Bushing 1211
Diagnosis 1183
Release Bearing 1212
Correction 1183
Release Bearing Construction 1212
Alignment Specifications 1184
Release Bearing lr ;:aIlation 1212
Reading A lignment Specifications 1184 Types of Release Bearings 1213
Degrees, Minutes, and Fractions 1184 Release Bearing Lubrication 1213
Angle Unit Conversions 1184 Clutch Problem Diagiosis 1213
Finding the Midpoint of Specifications 1184 Clutch Replacement 1214
Alignment Setup Procedures 1185 Clutch Pedal Adjustment 1216
Measuring Camber, Caster, SAI, Toe, and TOOT 1185 Bleeding the Hvdraulie Clutch 1216
Camber 1185 Clutch Symptom Guide 1217
Caster 1186 Clutch Slips 1217
SAI 1186 Clutch Grabs 1217
Toe 1186 Clutch Noises 1217
TOOT 1186
Specifications Versus Alignment Readings 1186 9 5 Manual Transmissions/Transa/les 1220
Checking for Bent Struts, Spindles, or Control Arms 1186 The Need for a Transmission 1220
Checking Frame Alignment of Front-Wheel-Drive Gear Types 1220
Vehicles 1187 Bevel Gears 1221
Types of Alignments 1187 Hypoid Geais 1221
Geometric Centerline 1187 Gear Ratios 1221
Thrust Line 1187 Direct Drive 1222
Total Four- Wheel Alignment 1189 Gear Reduction 1222
Sample Alignment Specifications and Readings 1189 Che-drive 1222
Adjusting Rear Camber 1190 Idler Gears 1222
Simple to Use 1190 Torque, Speed, and Power 1223
A djusting Rear Toe 1190 Torque and Speed Relationship 1223
Guidelines for Adjusting Front Camber SAI and Included Torque Multiplication 1223
Angle 1192 Engine Torque Characteristics 1223
Front Camber/Caster Adjustment Methods 1192 Power Tram Gear Ratios 1223
Adjusting Front Camber/Caster 1193 Transmission Construction 1224
Setting Toe 1194 Torque Flow Through a M a n u i Transtr - 2^4
Centering the Steering Wheel 1195 Speed Gears 1225
» trnigm
S m t i ^ a m ? V r and 0 » e n f e r 1225 Differential Disassembly 1207

^wi twâr Crsns.rxyf 225 ?ir; ion Shaft Bearing Replacement 1267
»7i n tssw OmraP&t 1220 Drive Pinion Depth 1267
F-vr Spf- -i Ccxfeea Tor:.« Hew 1228 Pinion Gear Preload 1267
r e ten? and Correcting Backlash 1268
M v c a - a o a a i r CdrisraofaB 1230 J Bearing Preioad 1269
Tnr&Mfe' - T r » - i n k '230 - D "erential Assembly 1270
- ~ •- - D>-iv^n-,:. r 1231 ' Lubricant 1271
- r ? ®-Sfc - Prt&ern Diagnow 1233
V i c j l 'Ttraacssicr - - a a o o n 1234
F m: V .eel-Drive Systems 1274
•ear L-ancaaon 1234
Method I—Locking Hubs 1274
9 t flrv* Arte Sr -Tfts and C V J o r t s 123?' Weth o d 2—Autolocking Hubs 1275
Method 3—Full Time Four Wheel Drive 1276
• ?-.-.- Desjsr. 1240
All-Wheel Drive 1276
r-v-s.-.i^- 5fcjr.ee 1240
Front and Rear Differential Axle Rados 1277
- • :'*?s jr. and Operation 1241
Transfer Case 1277
->. v.-ctf a -ting Angle . 1241
Gear to Gear Transfer Cases 1278
.-.tar• Ve -ctyJoints 1242
Planetary Gear Set Transfer Cases 1278
O . v - CYJWtts A24J
Interaxle Differential 1278
* «r CVJoints 1243
hafts 1244 Four-Wheel-Drive Axles 1282
0 '? Boor Materials 1245 Transfer Case Service and Problem Diagnosis 1282
CV.btnt Crease 1245 Diagnosing and Servicing Locking Hubs 1283
§7 .- A» - Shaft and CV Jew* Service 1247 Transfer Case Service 1284
• ^ • if U-Jocit Inspection 1248

- • Septocemtn* 1249 SECTION
.' nang Angies 1250

. -' b.agpG'.,:. 1252 Automatic Transmission and Transaxles 1289
- ; tu- • -if- AssemMiet 1252 100 Automatic Transmission/Transaxle Principles 1289
CV -• Service 1252
Torque Converters 1289
-tr-, i 1258 Torque Converter Attachments 1290
' . " ' . a - a-.-; Functor of a Differential 1258 Torque Converter Operation 1291
Torque Multiplication Phase 1291
of a Differential 1258
Coupling Phase 1292
' --p" fttnq tears During Operation 1258
Stall Speed 1293
- Gear Ram* 1250 Torque Converter Diameter 1293
- -, - - Pi. • r. n Gear Set Types 1260 Lockup Torque Converter 1293
1261 Converter Clutch Control 1293
Automatic Transmission Fluid Cooler 1295
; /. T' ^ w a Standard Open Differential 1261
Planetary Gear Sets 1295
—ed Differential:. 1261
One type 1202 Planetary Gear Set Torque Flow 1295
• .- . : L i m i t e d Stp Units 1262 Simple Planetary Gear Set Systems 1296
•••••;- mUc,"r"Differential 1262 Simpson Gear Set 1296
Dffmntial. 1263 Ravigneaux Gear Set 1296
1263
Lapelleties Gear Set 1 2 9 6
>-/*• . t Vi-Ad-jvmeni Depth 1264
Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) 1297
» Be-.'ngt 1264
Purpose and Function 1297
tri-:*. 'etmkte, J264
-., • > - B e a v j f . ?ear AxJ^. 1264 Servicing Continuously Variable Transmissions 12W
r-. Axies 1265
I- • < f/av,; 1265 101 Hydraulic Components and Control Systems 130<
> "• ' rr • -/aDifferential 1265 Apply Devices 1 3 0 0
Hydraulic Servos 1 3 0 0
on 1266 Servo Linkages 1300
Accumulators 1301
Multiple-Disc Cli . l JO I
Holding Clutche:, 1301
Driving Clutches 1302
Clutch Operation 1303
One-Way Clutches 1303
One Way Roller Clutch 1303
One Way Sprag Clutch 1304
:' ir «£<:. as/ffcmsajie for
Pump 1304
Pressure Regulation 1304 ' - T r s r a a t e Dtassemcly 132!
Pressure Regulating Valves 1305 17txjue Convener Check 1321
Electronic Pressure Regulation 1305 Pump 1321
Row Directing Valves 1305 Valve Body 1321
One Way Valve 5 1306 C Jtch Packs 1323
Manual Valve 1306
f-r-.' Disc inspet:lor. 1323
Transmission Pre;. we Valves 1307
Stee' Disc Inspectior . 324
Shift Valves 1307
C Jtch Piston P.emova, ami Inspection 1324
Valve Body 1308
Return Spring Inspection 1324
Shift Solenoids 1300
Typical Torque Flow 1310 Clutch Pl-Jon Inspection 1325
Park and Neutral 1310 Hubs, > - . '•. s. Shells, and Planetaries 1325
Overdrive First 1310 Reassembling ar. Automate Transmissan/Transaxie 1325
Overdrive Second 1310 Air Pres:sre Checks 1325
Overdrive Third 1311 Valve Body Checks 1326
Overdrive Fourth 1312 F!i the Cooler and Torque Converter 1326
Reverse 1312 Dyr.ol' 'ins the A siatic Transmission Hransaxie 1327
Reinstalling the Automatic Tra.ismis.iion/Transajle 1328
1 0 2 Automatic Transmission/Transaxle Diagnosis and Road Test 1328
In-Vehicle Service 1314
Preliminary Automatic Transmission/Transaxle Problem Appendix 1 ASE Correlation Chart 1333
Diagnosis 1314
Road Testing 1314 Appendix 2 NA7EF Task bst 1353
Stall Testing the Torque Converter 1314
Torque Convener Clutch Diagnosis 1315 English Glossary 1373
Scan Tool Testing the Automatic Transmission/
Transaxle 1316
Index 1413
Testing the Vacuum Modulator 1316
Range Chans 1317
FEATURES TEXT J
V>Q '?nQ>-; £ we-- « l e t h : text is packed with many special features
A ito'i live Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, ant

E i arranged into 14 major sections. These
the eight Automotive Service Excellence
' E; - eas as well as several new areas such as Caree n
is Automotive Service Area and Principles, Math, and
Calculations.
PHOTO SEQUENCES show in details the steps involved

in performing a test or service procedure. The Photo
Sequences reinforce classroom instruction by allowing
students to viev/ the important elements in automotive
procedures as they learn specific topics.
3 7 0 0 PHOTOS and I L L U S T R A T I O N S , m o s t in full color, graphically depict critical c o m p o -

ar-o procedures students need to understand to be successful automotive service technicians.
f
•VMM ACTUATOR
£ lift
ttUf A4XKO i iE&TiOM'«,
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
^tt'C-vTa to ouestor
Does t h e Governr IK •/ Where I Am'' \f.) * j . and ng service techr
No I k wlwn (tisfymg cech iterative w p c s

•RTOAK THE -
from
M:lî! y . ' H W t i ¥ 3 T l » The S p e t d o m e ! r Wo a
thenMMMMNMHAili i Each REAL WORLD FIX presents a problem or
i l n | ,, Tachometer
.itjataori that the service technician might face ese
the c ^ owner of a Lmcoin Town Car comp ; ! t < of
speedometer needle went up and down with enone spe*: 'i* stones exptan 9k steps taken to arrive at a sal .' on to
S A F E T Y TIP tot action Control Precautions atechr.tcaproose"
Workrg on a vehicle can result r personal njury, r d u d n g the pokA y T

- % SAFETY TIP 'eature w a n s students ataxr
of beng cut or hurt enouî to cause bleedng Some ntecticas sudi ar.
p o t a b l e hazards on the job and how to avoid ftarr
hepe
(A1D1
TECH TIP Oops!
tecti After replacing valve cover gaskets on a Chevrolet V-8. the technician 3&xn- TECH T I P S "-êse 'ea<-*orW exampies "«tp
that ered that the oil pressure-warning lamp was on. After checking the W -.-.• -'-•1 students gain -.ns«pt into specific situations they may
,0
* finding everything else okay, the technician discovered a wire p r . ercounler on ( h e p e
the valve cover.
The wire went to the oil pressure sending unit. The edge of the valve coves-
had cut through the insulation and caused the current from the oil lamp to go to
ground through the engine Normally the oil lamp comes on when the sending
unit arounds the wire from the lamp
- "a* tMxB 2
REVIEW QUESTIONS and ft OK M

3. <• -v£>t~-. :
a CHAPTER QUIZ at the end - J O U ot opae _ a
of each chapter will help

students prepare for the ASE s. r r:
certification exam.
4. "
k. S
CKAFTBKMZ
1 Automotive B a c k g r o u n d
and Overview
2 Careers in the Automotive Service
Industry
3 Starting a Career in the
Automotive Industry
4 Working as a Professional Service
Technician
5 Technician Certification
C H A P T E R
Automotive Backgro
OBJECTIVES: After studying Chapter 1, the reader will be able to: Explain the evolution of the automobile. • Discuss the major components of a
vehicle. • Describe the evolution of engines. • List the common components of most vehicles. • List eight areas of automotive service.
KEY TERMS: air filter • body • body-on-frame (BOF) • carbon monoxide (CO) • catalytic converter • chassis • coolant • drive shaft
• evaporative emission system (EVAP) • exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) • flat head • frames • hydrocarbon (HC • anition control module ICM)
• inline engine • intake manifold • internal combustion engine • malfunction indicator lamp (MIL) • manufacturer's suggested retail price -MSRF
• OBD-II • oil filter • oil galleries • oil pan • oil pump • oil sump • overhead cam (OHC) • overhead valve (OHV) • oxides of nitrogen;NOX)
• PCV valve • pillars • positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) • propeller shaft • radiator • scan tool • self-propelled vehicle • thermostat
• transaxle • transfer case • unibody • universal joints (U-joints) • water jackets • water pump
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND • 38% were battery/electric powered

• 22% were gasoline engine powered
For centuries, man either walked or used animals to provide power
for transportation. After the invention of electric, steam, and gaso- 1902 Oldsmobile, founded by Ransom E. Olds H 864-1950), produced the firs; ;arje-sca5e
line propulsion systems, people used self-propelled v e h i c l e s , affordable vehicle.
which are vehicles that moved under their own power. 1908 William Durant 11861-1947) formed General Motors.
Major milestones in vehicle development include: 1908 The Ford Model T was introduced.
1912 The electric starter was invented by Charles F. Kettering .-S76-195S' c< Dayton.
Ohio, first used on a Cadillac. The starter was produced by a new c w c a r v called
1876 The OTTO four-stroke cycle engine was developed by a German engineer. Mlkolaus Otto.
Delco. which stood for Dayton Electric Laboratories Company
1885 The first automobile was powered by an OTTO cycle gasoline engine designed by
1914 First car with a 100% steel body was made by the Bucd C o n j c a t c for Dodge
Karl Friedrick Beary 11844-1929). 1922 The first vehide to have four-wheel hydraulically operated brakes .\3S1 CueserSers
1892 Rudolf Diesel (1858-1913) received a patent for a compression ignition engine. The built in Indianapolis. Indiana.
first diesel engine was built in 1897. 1940 The first fully automatic transmission was introduced by OWsmobile
1896 Henry Ford (1863—1947) built his first car. called the Quadricyde. See Figure 1-1. 1973 Airbags were offered as an option on some General Motors vehicles
1900 About 4.200 automobiles were sold, including: 1985 Lincoln offers the first four-wheel antilock braking system
• 40% were steam powered 1997 The first vehicle with electronic stability control was ofered by Cac Sac
Hgvn 1-J Mo^kW** bocNe cwtsffvctwi Wtr I wood (r»m«»wk
50CES
a r j 1 " carnages a s b a s i s a-. •
> »erv w v « t N • jure
v ^ = .• \ • • .• es
r w . AS r o d e> d e p e r a e d o r 3 fra~e of
w chas> ? ewr.pocKRts
"-ASS'S STS^MS OVERVIEW

.Vaces the .blowing
• " .\t.c* > -s«d w v v a e thesup-

• • •>. .-<aai coapOQenB as wel is the
s r - — : _ * » veiatie, w - cfe provides a smooch

ngiM 1-3 l „-MK56 t '9505 era «atiid« sNoanng the «ng ne .'t vetrair
• •- ; - • .v:-.v• a r • -.dps the res rema^. on
' n ' l i f *m
• c > ra.e a •." a^h roads
• nc: a S e ' s r . r g s mA c a n c e l arms which
• «-w •- . •- ar.d ar'AT and keep the tires on the Often, these chassis w e r e so complete that they could t
driven - . v . r o u : a Sodv. Figure 1 - 3 .
X *mOf — " "-he vefcxie s used to stow aril stop fee ro- Manv of t h e expensive automakers - the 1920s and 193C
n-.cr ~ stops tit* tracfe. The braking bodies bull: bv another companv. Eventual v. ntas: b o d i e s .
•— . : : - r.* M k e p c t f . teasteror r der. plus wheel . r.structed ; f $&••; ana - an withe at the need for a frame to sup
;-ja -•>' • " i s of whees brakes art ased. Disc port the drivetrain and suspension.
- - g. .. j ^-jijpe- •,.-- ci» jp.
: : mvj »a x s h siaes of a rotating disc or rotat
Body Terms The r.v: • .. . - .r. -C1: pillars rc
are tabeied A. B. C. and D from the front to the rear of the vehicle.A
. f r r i s • sr v ? .v-_cft are ape, *c r . - . i * a . :c
vehicles have an A p u a r at the windshield but manv. such as a har
:-•• . i~i i -xatarg irake drum. The brake drum
top, do not have a B pt'lac. Station wagons and sport utility vetoao
: : • reraran af the Drum rrakes
>'. Vs cren. r.a e • D r . ar a: the rear the vehicle. See Figure
- - asea i f rear of most »efacies.
a *c v - " <- ate aricr.ec » the r e a n r g hues
ss a a c d e e fcr accelerating,
- - • . a; as p r : ae a con;: rtabie ride.
TECH TIP Treat a Vehicle Body with Respect
ra.• k .-re: - i . i r . . r a a B e . aidmoa-to Do not sit ar a wftde The neta aan easily be oisforted. wticn couic
.-v i r • •• ar - re tightened
"Lra-sds ct doiats to repair This .ndudes sitting an me hood rool and ^
. • t o t ' k 2se j r . ^ e a r p a e .
tmr* c as wefl as tenders. Wsa, do not nang on any opened door as tins a '
~a» c r a s s c o a p c a e o s m d u d e : aistort toe range arsa causing the door not to dose pnpe 1.
i
i jco-f wreeis and ares
Kfacf FRAMES
SJDBJ Frame c - • a : :•< • a " a n n e <hared - •
taanaa and or fi<*.cr.ed t o a e t h e t Vehicles with i separate
HOOD PANEL
OWE PIECE ORlLLE
SOFI COLOR KEYED

BUMPER
/
— S
SIDE MARKER AND TURNING LAMP

ROCKER PANEL
HEAR AIR DEFLECTOR WITH
S IMTEORATEO STOP LAMP
REAR VIEW MIRROR INTEGRATED
BACKLIGHT WITH WTTH A PILLAR AMD SIDE GLASS
REAR WIPEF1
RUNNING TAIL
BELT LINE
SOFT COLOR-KEYED
BUMPER
TAIL LAMP WITH STOP

AND TURN FUNCTION
QUARTER PANEL D L 0 (DAYLIGHT OPENING)
Figure 1 - 4 Body tn« terns
and body are usually called b o d y - o n - f r a m e vehicles (BOF). M k

terms are used to label or describe the frame of a vehicle
including:
Unft-Body Construction Unit body construction .sometimes

called u n i b o d y ' is a design that combines the body with the s t r .
ture of the frame. The body is composed of many individual
stamped-steel panels welded together. The strength of this type of
construction lies in the shape of the assembly. The typical vehicle
uses 300 separate stamped-steel panels that are spot-wclded to-
gether to form a vehicle's body. Sec Figure 1 5.
HOTT A typical vchkl* contains about 10,000 separate lixJMd'jai part'
S p a c e - F r a m e Construction Space frame construction c> • s •

of formed sheet steel used to construct a framework of the entire vc
h i d e . The vehicle is drivable without the body, which uses plastic or
steel panels to covcr the steel framework. See Figure 1 - 6 .
Figure 1-5 v ' • ••
cty^sJ-.cTo" si f*s
ENGINE DESIGN EVOLUTION
All gasoline and dlesel engines are called internal c o m b u s t i o n
e n g i n e s and were designed to compress an Ignltable mixture. This Inline versus V-Type Design M
mixture was ignited by using a spark (gasoline' or by heat of com or sit cyl -deis a r r i v e d Inline The*.- wcr: ci". J inline e n g i n e s
pression (diesel). Early engines used valves that were In the engine and are still produced today. Soot- *r." < C\ 5 .2, or
block, which also contained the round cylinders where piston* 16 cylinders were a.Ti.".ged with hatfof'-V c v - i & i - .'.
were fitted. The pistons are connccted to a crankshaft, which cor. a *V* and connected to a common craM-s^ft iti the tx m tS
nects the u p and down motion of the pistons to a rotary force "V." The crankshaft changed the up-ar.dd nvtivr :
which is used to propel the vehicle. to rota^ motion, allowing the e-p'-.e to p s ^ w C x d - .» .v
Figure 1 - 8 A Mora onev label as shown on the side window of a new vehicle
AQi i-awWkr we body Note that me vemde is complete enough ID be By the 1050s, most engine designs placed the valves in the
i a n a me Canede Museum m Bowling Green, Kentucky cy rider head. Thi: ca ed an o v e r h e a d valve or O H V de ign,
E en newer engine design;, feature o v e r h e a d camshafts
(OHC). If - placement of the camshaft, which results in better
flow of intake air into and exhaust out of the engine.
The need for reduced emissions and greater fuel economy led
to advances in engine design. These changes included:
• Electronic ignition systems

• Electronic fuel injection
• Computerized engine controls
• Emission control devices, including the catalytic converter used in
the exhaust system to reduce emissions
» Improved engine oils that help reduce friction and reduce emissions
ENGINE SYSTEMS OVERVIEW

Every engine requires many systems to function correctly.
Cooling System While some older engines w e r e air cooled,

all engines currently in production are liquid cooled. Coolant is
1 1 - 7 A -•: : ' <itrm0 V I engine Tlub engine deasn was used by Fort Motoi
pumped t • a w a t e r p u m p through passages in the cylinder block
'jtmm, 4B2 imuoti 1953
and head called w a t e r j a c k e t s , t h e c o o l a n t is a mixture of an-
tifreeze and water to provide corrosion and freezing protection.
r a m * Location Design The design where the valves were After the coolant picks up the heat from the engine, it flows through
i> • • - 3 flathead de gr. because the b radiator, which cools the coolant by releasing the heat into the
' . i - • ' --<=- • covered the combustion chamber and included air. The temperature of the coolant is maintained by using a
- • • e :.ur> p „g. The engine block contains passages for t h e r m o s t a t located in the coolant passage, which opens to allow
• - * e. a l i t ' . e a t i n g oil and is the support for all other coolant to flow to the radiator or closes until t h e coolant is hot
e a s r * y m e s m . See f-igitre 1 - 7 . enough to need cooling.
Lubrication S y s t e m All engines need a supply of lubricating

ASKED QUESTION oil to reduce friction and help to cool t h e engine. Most engines
are equipped with an oil p a n , also called an oil s u m p , contain
IjM? ing 3 to 7 quarts liters) of oil. An engine driven oil p u m p forces
the oil under pressure through an oil filter, then to passages in
*er or tr* vefu'je mal lists trie manufacturer's
the block and head called oil g a l l e r i e s , and then to all of the
i "AM tret , • aot'emaisd MSRP The la* that requires this
moving parts.
w . a -c t - M1.' aney caw riamed for tie congressman
f ^ f m / i n . t * • j tan*-/ . <082 980, a U.S farm repreaen- Air Intake System All engines, both gasoline and diesel en
Mb* -p«r ' m a w - - y "iV and* - Senator from 1951 to 1969 gine:-., draw air from the atmosphere. It requires about 0,000 gal
/«aw»«M»|WMlir the pnee of a vehicle was Ions of air for each gallon of gasoline used. The air must be drawn
y> ..»> «mmw>«* .,, ft -k , r trie otnv tor pricing Besides where deep water in the road cannot be drawn into the engine
tt t - - : » • 0rr*A eu , tr* Momwiey latiei also The air is then filtered by a replaceable air filter. After the air
M d c 'J* and arfi*.* trrmta rt>jr*af«ir. 'jet Figure 1 -6 filtered, it passes through a throttle valve and then into the engin f
I through an i n t a k e m a n i f o l d .
Fuel S y s t e m
nentt > nd system:.
• Fuel U :
• F • ne
• Fuel , t ,
• Electronic control of the fuel pump and fuel miecrior.
The fuel injectors are designed to atomize
into small droplets so they can be n xed wi'.r
engine. This mixture of fuel and tit r then ignited • ,
• Engine starting and charging systems, which include the battery,

starting (cranldng) system and charging system compn- en- -i: 1
circuits
Ignition System The ignition system use-, b-'er

creates a high-voltage spark through the use of ar: ignition control
m o d u l e (lCM) that ; sent to the sparK : . hgmt 1-4 > •am c r - . msflj>- a l a tow vr**k-dnw
electrodes of the spark plug ignites the air-fuel mixture ir, - e COG
bustion chamber and the resulting pressure pushes the pist - : -
on the power stroke.
e n g a e torque PIT it rass™ SSJBE to afiow th* drver ic sfcit1
Emission Control System The control of vehicle em from one gear ratio * vstxses. Tne transmission contain: wan a d
includes controlling gasoline vapors from being released into the other a;.serr.1 jes trtat w r5t r.aaa torque aunyjt at tow jpe<tis far
atmosphere in addiUon to reducing the emissions from the ezha _st. acae^rati'.". and u s e • :t~jue o u t p c 9ut a n^her speeds tor ma*
Unburned gasoline emissions are called h y d r o c a r b o n (HC) - i n urn ftjfc eon. xsi ? a&rtOK iseea:
sions and exhaust gases that are controlled include c a r b o n m o n o x - • Drive S h a f t drive s h a f t a*: propeller shaft.
ide (CO) and oxides of nitrogen ( N O x | . The e v a p o r a t i v e to connect aad transr.:: a n s a e tOHpr froci tne transm:aaior> to the
e m i s s i o n control system, usually called the EVAP s y s t e m , •»ar Universal omts 'U-jomBi . •di
designed to prevent gasoline fumes and vapors from being releaser. rear -3?rer'aa. tc rr.are 19 ani dowe qc Lie rear -.spensr-U and
Other emission control systems include: still be atue to I o m b c enene a r j a e .
• Positive crankcase ventilation (PCV). This syster, uses a vt e • Differential. i ddferertra! s usee at the r e v x the vehicle and
called a PCV valve to regulate the flow of gases created in performs two r j M K E c :
crankcase of a running engine, which are routed back into the ir • The diflerenia. aareases a e torque applied to the rear anve
take manifold. The engine will then draw these gases into the com- wheels in reducing m e speed.
bustion chamber where they are burned to help prevent the release • T 1 1 an ii u 1 rtn i f c n i t o i if flu qaiftii 1 m i n
of the gases into the atmosphere. torq-je and axle ssafts ta Erarster the torque to the 1t-rve
• Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). The EGR system meters wheels.
about 3% to 7% of the exhaust gases back into the intake where F r o n t - W h e e t - D n y e P o w e r Train
the gases reduce the peak combustion temperature and prevent e transaxie.
:
the oxygen (0 2 l and nitrogen (NOI from the air from combining to and differential m one aasetisly. Drive axie shahs m transftv
form oxides of nitrogen. the engine torque 1 ffle h a m d r e wtiee. from A e output at
• Catalytic converter. The catalytic converter is a unit it>cated ii he t h e transaxie.
exhaust system usually close to the engine, which causes changes in
the exhaust gases. Four-Wheei-Dnve System ~ mar -vpes
• On-board diagnostics means that the engine as well a> • • e eng.:.: of p u w u u i g aD foar wheeis Aa: nei x a t r a n s f e r case
management systems can test itself for proper operation and alert the engine torque to both the from and the rear wheeix See c g i r t
driver if a fault is detected. The warning lamp is called the
malfunction indicator light (MIL) and lab. -.-a "Che.t Ei
or "Service Engine Soon." The on-board diagnosua system is:urrenr.
ELECTRICAL/ELECTROHIC SYSTEMS OVERVIEW
in the second generation and is called OBD-ll. Electrc r han be a Early vehicles did not have an eaectrica, system because ere: he
testers, called scan tools, are needed to access r u n e '• - at ignition did twt require a batten' Ea::v engines user a r n a p n * a
nostic trouble codes (DTCsl and view sensor and system data create a spark instead of using electrical p : wer from 3 bar e n as.
ased today.
The first eiecmca components or. vehicles were barsen p. mereC
POWER TRAIN OVERVIEW lights. not oniv for the dnver to see the road, nut also sc o f t e n
The purpose of the power train is to transfer the torque output of see ar. approaching vehicle at night
the engine to the drive wheels. CWy after 1012 and m e mveniKic :>: se s a n i d \-.-r
use of a batten' become commonp.dce. Cranes F Ketse-j»ia>. at
Rear-Wheel-Drive Power Train A rear - e •.•
vented the point-type ignition svstem aaou: tne s a n e *..:ae as •: -
uses the following components to transfer engine torque iv the rear
self-starter Therefore, the e a r v b a t & r ^ ere after: t i e - - a «
drive wheels:
SL1 batteries meaning starang. i^htmg. aac gr.rase. -• - the
• Transmission. In a manually shifted transmission, the dnvetraln 1020s into the 1950s other eiecncai ; a m s e c e r n w t r t
contains a clutch assembly, which allows the dnver to disengage such as radios, defroster fans, ana r.a— it was r . ' m . t * Jf»j»
1-10 j e r a r a t / a w - a S r s <r W heart of the electncal system Figure 1 - 1 1 Test registration booklet that includes details or aH vehicle-related
certficaboii tests given by ASE.
eras. s e a n c i accessories, such as air conditioning, power seats,

a r c power -«Bdows. becar.e common.
Automatic Transmission (A2) This content area includes
ii'. . w r _ d e s require generators alternators that are capa-
general automatic transmission/transaxle diagnosis, including hy-
: :' r r o c - j d a g a fcgfter amount of electricity than was needed in
draulic and electronic related systems.
t r e : a s . and the r.^xber of electronic components has grown to
tic r- stem in the vehicle, including; Manual Drive Train and Axles (A3) This content area
• A s t : r e . j r e n .Storing system for the tires includes clutch diagnosis and repair, manual transmission diagnose
• -eated ar.d cooled seats and repair, as well as drive shaft, universal, and constant velocity
• - meiazc dfcoate control joint diagnosis and service. Also included in this content area are
• er sws rear differential diagnosis and repair plus four-wheel-drive compo-
• Sec™ - . f.:-etns nent diagnosis and repair.
• Eyerie power steering
Suspension and Steering (A4) This content area include
• Eiecrau: ispenskm
steering and suspension system diagnosis and repair, including
See figure 1 - 1 0 . •.vhee; alignment diagnosis and adjustments, and wheel and tire ::
agnosis and repair procedures.
HEATING, VENTILATION. AND AIR CONDITIONING Brakes (A5) The brake content area includes the diagnosis anc
OVERVIEW repair of the hydraulic system, drum and disc brake systems, plus
Ear.v r . ewe ve'.cies aid not include any heaters or other methods power assist units, antilock braking, and traction control systems.
i~ -r.ee c r . f o r the driver and passengers. Most early vehi-
Electrical/Electronic Systems (A6) This content area in-
- - - - - per a simple removable top. Some had optional
cludes many systems, including the battery, starting, charging.
t * : .r>:r. that provided >1-weather proteaion. in the 1930s
Sighting, gauges, and accessory circuit diagnosis and repair.
: - - > A-rer. folly enclosed bodies became common, the vehi-
cle - > - . f a r . r e r s started to include heaters, which were small Heating and Air Conditioning (A7) The heating and aire®
-5-ia*:-. er.gxe coc.ant flowing through them. About the ditioning content area includes air-conditioning service, refrigerat'
canse u r » and into the 1050s, about the only options that many systems, heating and engine cooling systems diagnosis and repair, s
er..-. e . -.ad were a radio anc 'neater, abbreviated R & H. well as refrigerant recovery, recycling, handling, and retrofit.
Today. sl'-cond V/rjng systems are purchased on most vehicles
defrosters and passenger compartment heating, Engine Performance (A8) The engine performance conta-
-jfter - . zones for maximum comfort of the driver and passen- area includes diagnosis and testing of those systems responsible for t»
- r i r e ^ e d comfort options today include heated and proper Pinning and operation of the engine. Included in this area af?
coo e c ea : ar. d heated r e e l i n g wheels. general engine diagnosis, ignition and fuel systems, as well as eroS'
sion control and computerized engine control diagnosis and repair.
This textbook covers the content of all eight ASE areas plus all -
EIGHT AREAS OF AUTOMOTIVE SERVICE the background and fundamental information needed by technician
<72 ".e ".athr.a; Irstitute for Automotive Service Excel-
- - t*- a*gar '-a1 on known as simply ASE, created a
. e.gr.* l e t s mat cover the major vehicle systems. See SUMMARY
F gire J - t l , 1. Major automobile milestones include: the OTTO cycle engine
the first diesel engine i I892|, Henry Ford's first car (1896), Oldsnr^
Engine Repair (A1) - a n i e n t area includes questions re-
large scale production H 9021, the first Model T Ford 11908), thefi"j*
nted " tioc/: and c- - d e ' head diagnosis and service, as with four-wheel hydraulic brakes (1922), the first automatic nans"1'®
we. - e . . i f cation, ignition, and exhaust systems 11940.1, the first vehicle to use a four-wheel antilock braking '
nspeer-'jfi and service. (1985), and the first vehicle with electronic stability control (1997
to it the front inA -„, - the &-.<*
tra emission, at we 7..: ~r./ ,
3. A
4.
to new double<jveit«ad carahafr dedgv, wt n
5
tion, fuel, ignition, and emission control.
c !
4. AS 9
from no electrical drcuits in the earty day. : -
computer-controlled accessory and climate conm Tttem < 6.
a. C " ^ tnt
7. b. Toer- nar
ma tic transmission/transaxJe A2 , manual trans-. . or, \-ar c. G . ' i x »,
suspension and steering; A4), brakes A5), electncai ar.d etec d. fe»£aur
I AO i, heating and air conditioning |A7 , and engine perfo-r-ance A < .
REVIEW QUESTIONS a.
b. Service vaoc
1. in 1900, v.-har the most produced vef. le l by? c. MJL
2. What parts are included in the vehicle chassis? d. .
3. Why were early engines called Bat heads? 8. . -- - > " : - - 3= .
4. What is the difference between a umtbody and body<»-trame vehicle?
5. The power train consists of what components? a. ;
1 b. lap- .
6. What are the eight automotive service content are; C. i C^Si J" C ' --
d. Scar
CHAPTER QUIZ 9. A - - - -
wtsea
1. Thefirstsett-propelled vehicle that used an OTTO cycleto..- -.- see ga:
a. : - - - -
engine was produced in .
b. _-t
a. 1885
b. 1900
d. T. '
c 1902
d. 1908 10. AaoEsoove rer ar- - -
tent areas?
2. Early vehicles were constructed mostly of what material?
a. 4
a. Steel
b. o
b. Cast iron
c. 8
c. Wood
d. 0
d. Tm
3. Which component is nor pan of the chassis system?
a. Frame
b. Electrical system
c. Suspension
d. Brakes
2
CHAPTER
Careers in the Automotive

Service Industry
OBJECTIVES: After studying Chapter 2, the reader will be able to: Dri- Oe notrve s e ' . . - • : —T -
and expenence needed for each position. • Describe the technical shi«s needed tor each posrton. • Exptan h e r e b f t a a r i a p a f t e servce Tanagerto
others in a shop and company
KEY TERMS: entrepreneur* on-the-)ob training (OJT) • parts counter person • service advtsor • servce consiflant • senate manager
• service writer • shop foreman • team leader • technician itechi • WN • work order
THE KEEP FOR AUTOMOTIVE TE^hNiClAkS /-•creasing Age of a Vehicle The average age of a A ,
The aeec ar j-aa.v; a_~a •• . . . a a.;.rr.or.ve technicians me road today has increased to older than seven years. : ,.ncj
-.".ar e\< - :a: s e v t ' i . reasacs, -.ck-aung; .-.•.ear.-, that more vehicles than ever are not covered by [., toiy
warranty and are often in need of repair. Aftermarket v
• ..-_..:_.• aecer ..-4 r . c o n : .ex anc require a higher level of a,so can be used at most repair facilities, making it very c. e.aier„
ar.r ska_s. far vehicle owners.
• a r aa : . -.a-; - :<:,.mpc rentsaria sensors are included
rrrougaixs: a i veraa.e. TECHNICIAN WORK SITES
• : --ctic r o f : arcs ar. a materials being usee has changed over the
Service technician work takes place in a variety of wc. sites
aa: re.-. -eas. r.ein£&tfcst all service work most be done to speci-
a : s a i j e tc raip avoid carnage being done to the vehicle. including:
• • ar. _ . r ; asaaaaers or i _rr.cants and coolants make even routine N e w Vehicle Dealerships Most dealerships handle one or
more brands of vehicle, and the technician employed at dealerships
usually has to meet minimum training standards. The training js
. are aa .. ve .ssaes take proper training and the ability to usually provided at no cost to the technician at regional training
: a _ : f a c t o r y specSei procedures to ensure customer satisfaction. centers. The dealer usually pays the service technician for the
Tb= r._mrer ci service technicians needed is increasing due to day(s) spent in training as well as provides or pays for transports
r v e r _ c . e s cr. the road. A good service technician can find work lion, meals, and lodging. See Figure 2 - 1 .
ar _ r a : . : ar.v air.' or town in the country, making the career as a
pratcssaaca. service technician an excellent choice. Independent Service Facilities These small- to medium-size
repair facilities usually work on a variety of vehicles. Technicians
employed at independent service facilities usually have to depend on
THE NEED FOR CONTINUOUS VEHICLE SERVICE aftermarket manufacturers' seminars or the local vocational school or
are .astirg longer due to improved materials ana more ex- college to keep technically up-to-date. See Figure 2 - 2 .
aair.a aaiararxes. Every year, vehicles are being driven further than
ever ze:;re. I: used to be (in the 1950s) that the life of a vehicle Mass Merchandiser Large national chains of vehicle repair
ccraaaerea to be 100,000 miles or 10 years. Now achieving facilities are common in most medium- and large-size cities. Same
r _ e s without a major repair is common with proper
zaaanasiar.ee ana routine service. However, even the amount of
raurme service has been reduced due to changes in the ve-
'_a.es. as racial tires that now last 40,000 miies instead of
i i e t wracn were worn out and needed to be replaced every
15,000 aSes.
W a r r a n t i e s A warranty is a guarantee to the purchaser of a ve-

"na: .: wai function as specified. The warranty covers the
a.-...- ar.a performance of the product and states the conditions
_raa=r avriar. me warranty will be honored. Vehicle warranties vary
-.ar-ar.tes indicate a time ana mileage restriction. The ex-
a.-âsec warranties often include the following areas:
• .-a.-. a.-_aae Smiied warranty that covers all components (except

: a aac s commonly cailea a bumper-to-bumper policy.
m varrar.r/covers the engine, u-ansmission/transaxie
a r c v a . a.ive units. This coverage usually is ionger man the
bemper-co-pumper coverage, Figure 2 - 1 A service technician working on tne Drakes of a vehicle in a new-venicle
m raeta: rust through warranty is usually longer than the dealership service department.
a ar.d power tram warranty and covers rust if a
.-.a.r a;:_.~ -'arar.g roar. .r.siae the outer metal surface of the body.
• ar a a r c i dev.ee warranties depend on the emission rating,
aa ->ra,;e of the power train control module (PCM), and the
raaa -.. a cocverer ar.a are covered for 8 years and 80,000 miles fflS SERVICE CENTER
_a -a . D years ar.a 150,000 miles.
A«rTi-'iea. unless an emergency repair, must be per-
rorr.al a: a ze£e?J:ip. //nxfc is certified by the vehicie manufacturer
aa perx.r~ £ e r e f e r s . At the dealership, the technician performing
•jjc mua: ce certified by the vehicle manufacturer.
-i:ar..-..a.a.-.. c r . ' ^ d i e familiar with what may be covered
v.e aa-a: ar, arrar.t.e', to help ensure that the customer does not
r^ve & pay for a rspa..- -.-.a: maybe covered. While warranties do
Figure 2 - 2 A typical independent service facility, independent garages often work on a
cover man / composer.a of tae rebide, wear and service items are
variety of vehicles and perform many different types of vehicle repairs and service. Some
.-. a covered o / a >varrar.r; r.:.'.'/.: cases ar.a therefore, offer excel- independent garages specialize in just one or two areas of service work or in just one or w
oppcrt . r . r / for traced service technicians. makes of vehicles.
3KI
. .- • - . . -
. b e cr.v-: v . i - m e s or - e w vaucle preparation are general;

l e a s e d o c the .he _e manufacturer publishes gtHdeiiniB
•hit - - , . he ". ' • • 1 an-i is the responsibility of the new vehicle
- jjjhftfz*, ] preparation person to see that ail items are checked and serviced
and ill associates paperwork s completed. The activities n o n a a j y x
socialad with preparing a n e w vehicle for delr/err include:
F i g u r e 2 - 3 This NAPA parts store also performs service work f r o r the
• : tal r , '.enxerciss0" v. -.eel covers ..tused}
side of the building.
« InstaLrx - - rxr- - . o o a r . a n d •:•*- ar dealer-installec
orsec&g Pre pressures
examples of these chains include Sears, Goodyear, Firestone, and
NAPA, as shown in Figure 2 - 3 . Technicians employed by these
chains usually work on a wide variety of vehicles. Many of the
SOTS: Mar. *"tus3e .naae&ru-as step a * vehli.-es to Pie
companies have their own local or regional training sites designed
p-ife fees o.-eflcSalec -- a s ; msrsesc ssvesierxt of
to train beginning service technicians and to provide update train-
miopia?.
ing for existing technicians.
Specialty Service Facilities Specialty service facilities usu-

ally limit their service work to selected systems or components of • Checlking all fiuics
the vehicle a n d / o r to a particular brand of vehicle. Examples of spe- * Caeclcng the: e v e r , - " ; -J rks tefasfcz*r.a remote key fob and
cialty service facilities include Midas, Speedy, and AAMCO Trans- all accessories
missions. Many of the franchised specialty facilities have their o w n * Ordering any p a r s feasc -.: x i r e - • s , missing, and damaged in
technician training for both beginning and advanced technicians. trstsit
• Semcv.ng all p - e c u v s s t j v s s g aad clasu: fr. - he seats, carpe-
Fleet Facilities Many city, county, and state governments and steering wheel
have their own vehicle service facilities for the maintenance and re- • "SSsfeing the vehicle
pair of their vehicles. Service technicians are usually employees of
the city, county, or state and are usually paid by the hour rather
than on a commission basis.
F R E Q U B f T U ASKED QUESTION ? r r
TECHNICIAN JOB CLASSIFICATIONS Why Is the Work Order Important 7

There are many positions and jobs in the vehicle service industry. The work orter s a ieaa J x a . t r - r a t r e me tescripsy r f * e .v
In smaller service facilities (shops), the duties of many positions and the wtrt twrjesSC r. --: ojsSxner Tie assKsrosr the' - grs r e •••-.'•
may be combined in one job. A large city dealership may have all of order finiwli>B f a d r e s a s c oe s e f r m e d tf w
the following vehicle service positions. A technician Is often feute fbunc Sen r e s t e rajs: Sie diStorser and perr. sscr
referred to as a t e c h . mange the a r o t t i r t < r - me .vr« sngiraBy aufioraed As wort s
Lube Tech/Quick Service Technician A lubrication techni- fortosd on the ve-«3e me sards _sed and ma labor aperaaort serfcraied
cian should be trained in the proper use of hand tools anc In- added. This treses a sarcpiets • < : - r e -ess-. TPs r e a r s Satme -- : a
structed h o w to properly service various types of vehicles. The has e Se d'ec r> t -c me vehicle identification namber
training could be on-the-job (OTJ) or could be the result of high (V5N) 5-me worx c-:sr."here s cr •, one .•••- e with thatVSt .--' J ray
school or college automotive training. Some larger companies pro- Se nam 'wnse J w w e t p i c l a c trjete."
vide in-house training for n e w technicians and as a result they are yder is me oaser tra- r a t shows a operators •
trained to perform according to a specified standard. It Is important anc pars used when r e venc'a was m csnr: re s n c c . : - : « • :
that the lubrication technician double-check the work to be certain efee required » e r wrte^ r e tec'—sss' s w o w s on fas or h e r . - - : -
that the correct viscosity oil has been installed and to the specified
level. The oil plug and oil filter must also be checked for leakage.
Lubrication technicians are trained to perform routine services General Service Technician -
including: usyaDy has r a m l r . g as an a u t c m c i v e 3echn.ua" s 2 s e r in. cm? :
m o r e of the following;
• Oil and oil filter change
• Chassis lubrication • ifigiischool—Technicalr v?capcr= -
• Fluids check and refill high school that has an Automotive Vcuta Eu-jcaP sc. Svtrem
• Tire inflation checks AYES program.
• Accessory drive belt inspection • CcUegeortedr.caisc-.*-.—'a -rv z ~ — . r -•
• Air filter check and replacement earn the student an associates degree.
• Cabin filter replacement • Cajger college or i n s t a t e — I ... - - - - -
• Windshield wiper blade replacement program earring the graduate a cemScata.
to stcx*
Automotive s e r * s ttcfenaam perform preventative mainte- beatings; performing steering component Inspection and i
nance. tiagrwse tauirs. and '-rpair automotive vehicles and light placement; and performing wheel alignment and vlbratl<
trucks. • Electrical related diapiosls and repair Including starting, .. )r j'
A • v r nve service technicians adjust, test, and repair engines, :ng problems; correcting lighting and accessory faults; ar ra)
v t e n a g svTOrttLs. braking systems, drivetrains, vehicle suspensions, service uch as light bulb replacement and key fob repro, min
e ;al j v s v t r s and air conditioning systems, and perform wheel • Eng.ne performance-related diagnosis and repair includln P|a,
air---- • a - j s - - c n . some technicians specialize in repairing, ing fuel pumps and filters; cleaning or replacing fuel Inject ,0]v.
ret : - v m a K r . :-ng specific parts, such as braking systems, ing emissions related failures; and determining the caus<
->r«f- ~. srsd steering systems. In smaller shops, automotive ser correcting "Check Engine" lights.
•:» sechr car.:- may work on a wider variety of repair jobs. • Manual transmi . ion service and repairs including replacin i utc j,
A service technicians begin by reading the work es; adjusting, or replacing clutch linkage; and performing f.
and e i a m m n g the vehicle. To locate the cause of faulty oper wheel-drive diagnosis and service procedures.
a- ' ir«t repair it, a technician will: • Automatic transmission service and repairs Including performing
routine automatic transmission service; removing and replacing
• g e-3 j;pmenr. take the vehicle for a test-drive, and/or
automatic transmissions; and performing diagnosis and service
manufacturer's specifications and manuals
checks including fluid pressure and scan tool diagnosis.
• fa.:ty; emblies, repair, or replace worn or damaged parts
• • : a d JSL and test the repaired mechanism The vehicle is then driven by the service technician to verify
the repair.
Au' imotive service technicians also may:
Technician Team Leader A t e a m l e a d e r is an experienced ser
• -• cheduled maintenance services, such as oil changes,
vice technician w h o is capable of performing most if not all of the
iubncafons, and filter replacement
work that the shop normally handles. The team leader then assigns
• - : se . miers on work performed, general vehicle conditions,
work to others in the group based on the experience or competency
and future repair requirements of the technician. The team leader then checks the work after it has
Work 109 Conditions Most automotive service technicians work a been completed to be sure that it has been correctly performed. The
4 0 r .jr, He-day week. Some evening, weekend, or holiday work number of hours of labor for each member of the team is totaled each
- av be required. The work is sometimes noisy and dirty. There is pay period. Each member of the team is paid an equal share of the
T - • of injury involved in working with power tools and near time but at different rates. The team leader gets a higher per hour rate
exhaust gases. than the others on the team. The rate of pay per hour is based on the
level of training and experience. A beginning technician may or may
SkKis and Abilities The work is most rewarding for those w h o
not be paid as part of the total team hours depending on how the
<-r ;. doing precise work that is varied and challenging. Also, tech-
team system is organized. While some shops do not use teams, many
- ar- . >uai:y achieve job security and a feeling of independence.
large shops or dealerships have two or more teams. The advantage of
To be successful in the trade, automoUve service technicians
a team-type organization is that everyone on the team looks out and
need"
helps each other if needed because they are all paid based on the
• r ng. eyesight, and manual dexterity lability to work number of hours the team generates. The team leader performs the
wuh rands 1 duties of a shop foreman but only for those members on the team and
• hanical aptitude and interest not the entire shop. The team leader is under the direction and con
• The ty to lift between 25 and 50 pounds (II and 25 kilograms) trol of the service manager.
• ngness to keep up-to-date with changing technology
Shop Foreman A s h o p f o r e m a n I usually employed in larger
A Aorking knowledge of electricity, electronics, and computers dealerships and vehicle repair facilities) is an experienced service
; > required for many service procedures. technician who is usually paid a salary (so much a week, month, or
Imptoymeat and Advancement Automotive service technicians year). A shop foreman is a knowledgeable and experienced service
employed by automotive repair shops, specialty repair shops, technician w h o keeps up-to-date with the latest vehicle systems,
:«:.;:'.•<".. car and truck dealerships, and by large organiza- tools, and equipment. Typical shop foreman's duties include:
oor. thai own fleets of vehicles.
• Test-driving the customer's vehicle to verify the customer concern
• • ed automotive service technicians may advance to
(complaint)
rr anager or shop foreman. Some automotive service techni-
cs'.-. a f t , ihe.r own repair facilities. si Assigning work to the service technicians
Ma: can also start work in a shop or dealership and • Assisting the service technicians
• Assisting the service manager
Mo-' technicians keep up-to-date by attending update
• Verifying that the repair is completed satisfactorily
>--r. ~.nr. 'i- ' m m classes on specific topics throughout the year.
' -a-.KS performed by a general service technician can The shop foreman is under the direction and control of the ser
mc! the foiiowtng: vice manager.
• performed by the lubrication technician.
Service Advisor A s e r v i c e advisor, also called a servic (
• dir.,- intake manifold gasket replacement; cylin-
w r i t e r or s e r v i c e c o n s u l t a n t , is the person at the dealership 1
-*-! -• p:* -•:.' ;,•, and oil and water pump replacement plus
shop designated to communicate the needs of the customer and &
other engine related tasks.
curately complete a work order.
• Brake apMUB service and repair including disc brakes; drum brakes;
A service advisor should:
par'nr ar : ar.tiiock brake ;ABS| diagnosis and service.
• .Suspensionrelated service including tire inspection and replace- • Have a professional appearance
••'• ' nr,d .'r.jr replacement; servicing or replacing wheel • Be able to speak clearly
mm «
REPLACED PARTS WILL BE RETURNED K » YOUR

INSPECTION IF YOU DO NOT WANT TWTM PLEASE
CHECK THE BLOCK BELOW
A OIBCARO REPLACED RAFTS
,JI ) | .N, . IBIIITTT WIIIII-» ^ —
Figure 2-4 Typical work order. (Courtesy ol Reynolds and Reynolds Companyi
• Be able to listen carefully to the customer Check the ttahide before

• Write neatly and/or type accurately TECH TIP
Work ts Started
• Be familiar with industry and shop standards and procedures
As part ot the won :>-*» trrwq p t m toe sernce aewnr vmux! TO* m
Most service advisors would benefit from taking a short course the vetude anc make a w.«w > * af an* oody arcane 'rat may treaty a m
on service advising skill development and interpersonal relation- i4 airy damage s -wed it 3®u« ae -rattenedfc"Sie vusaoner and notes or
ship building. A service advisor should be familiar with the opera- work order Often r e o s c y - v s u aware -b ivy Sarrage esoecaAy sr M
tion of the vehicle, but not to the same level as a service technician. passenger 9de and CVJS would M M tte awefc*» e t
A service advisor should not diagnose the problem, but rather state wrttwaspedonned.
clearly on the work order what, when, and where the problem
occurs so that the service technician has all the needed information
to make an accurate diagnosis. See Figure 2 - 4 for an example of a
typical work order. Service M a n a g e r service m a n a g e r . »
The service advisor's duties include: de but instead rear._zes the service farifity and < eeps it open
smooth!:.. A sersice manager can be a fame' serr-ce ratinicar <
1. Recording the vehicle identification number (VIN i of the cle many .ager dealerships, a business major grad uate w h o •< >t» ied
on the work order ganizacon and record keeping. The service manager tvp ca. • ' a
2. Recording the make, model, year, and mileage on the WOK ordet all of the paperwork associated with operating a service«
3. Carefully recording what the customer's complaint Iconcem is •
that the service technician can verify the complaint and make the
proper repair BOTE in a sm; shop, the shop owner
4. Reviewing the customer's vehicle history file and identifying ' a shop foreman asd serr<e
additional required service mam cases.
5. Keeping the customer informed as to the progress of service
work
Typical duties o l a service manager " thai
A service advisor must be at the shop early in the morning to
greet the customers and often needs to stay after the shop closes lot • Establishing guidelines to determine tbe icans e s s e
business to be available when the customer returns at the end of • Supe- ngar, . v n r . ~ ... - tittve&cfc
the day. turer or independent .r.surer
« SKf*
iX'.-^-.-c tarsfcx m l ? a s r f t f p M * - ' - * • f-j . s as v eB as be fami'iar with the local and reg
aim
servwr . : e p a ~ r < * V j - . M s p e ^ s r . aoc! ipl r - ee r e able tc complete ail of the paperwork associa
ith th^
sale a .ehicle. The usual duties of a vehicle salesper ude.
i -JOOTE arid pa ice r e d r v c a s s and ™*Jjrrs ci fine
» Greet me cu. dmer
• Introduce >urv:lf and v. Icome the customer to the
• tfis&rrr- an : : • a- ; cyan
• Qualfv the customer as to the ability to purchase a vet..
aer r . o e ' -
• Demonsrate and ride with the customer on a test-drive
• Be able to find the answer to any question the customer may a ^
PARTS-RELATED FOSTOOWS about the vehicle and or financing
c a r s - i - i - - - a r . : u f l w pans o r r - . such a- the pans • Be ahie tc complete the necessary paperwork
l u n t r ; p e r s o n are r e s x x i - : >:• r the correct p a r for the • - up the sale with a telephone call or card
stnice teebntear. Sales M a n a g e r A sales manager is an experienced salesperson
P a r t s C t w t e r Person A pa-.- ; .liter pe - on often J e a n s the w h o is able to orgar.ize and manage several individual salespeop;*
r - n . . . :• :* j e t A gpod p a r s c : s a n e r person must be T h e duties of a sales manager i n d u d e :
i: - greet a r c easr-. r> c v o m e r s and technicians. A parts • Estab h a schedule where salespeople will be available during a
r e - s o n a a a a t e o - . « c o r . : . : e r s k . - s a n d the vr .tcgiess hours of operation
T. -- r t u n e - : • Consult with salespeople as needed on individual sales
"fee p a r a c t r a s e r p e r m _<-.-.Sjr has t h e k O m r i n g duties: • Train new salespeople
• - - riecmidar • Conduct sales promotion activities
• par - v.e - - ttdautiar.orcustcr.er • .Attend or assign someone to attend vehicle auctions to sell and/or
• Si r r-'-ra. : purchase vehicles
• Keep cHo-date with the automotive market
• i-rri jars • Purchase vehicies that sell well in the local market
• ' - • Answer the general manager or dealership principal
• : 5Se o a r s department d e a r
• r e maraser
OTHER CAREERS IN THE AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY
Parts Manager The specSc d uties of a pans manager usually Other careers in the automotive industry i n d u d e :
adade • Saie< representative for automotive toois and equipment
- r p a r r from tr* veiade manufacturers and aftenaaiket • Technical trainers
• Technical scho: instructors
» •: • Wholesale parts warehouse management
• :-..-„ : c a n r . e t r n a d e a r and -rderfv febc' • insurance ad ester
• 1
irjr. f e pars i e p a r t r rr • Automotive technical writer
• :.ar. .r: p a r s departmenta m other load dealer • iVarrantv claim examiner
- : : - . - y a-srs taat are nor. an stock can &e : .-.-chased quickly
c i t i reas : r a i s e cor.
TYPICAL AUTOMOTIVE ORGANIZATION ARRANGEMENT
Large Comprehensive New Vehicle Dealer
SALES JOSS—USED VEHICLES; NEW VEHICLES
Independent Shop An independent shop may or may not have <
Salesperson j vetadeas sols. :t generates a coter.tiai cus-
shop foreman depending on the n u m b e r of technicians and the i
v - :e b e p a r s a a H . N e w and m a r / ased vefccie sales
. m e of vork. Larger independent shops have a shop f o r e ® '
=•-.-. • ssespe-:<pie r help t h e customer s e l e a and
whereas at sma .er shop;, the o w n e r is t h e shop foreman.
- 7:*s4e^perv,r. have ejfceLent mtetper-
Oofcn*? Pra«p*S <C>»or: i
Graced Mxufa
VAirieMjfugw I sed Vehicle Mûpr'
Office Suff Office S o f t
"I MpTachmcnn SaletPeojOe

i
CHAPTER QUfZ
t. I ucx-aiMMrfctaiMa
a. hof •.'JttrJK.
b. ' j e m - '.'.ar
c. Serm- . f - f s
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION ^ d. leer - cm
2. jr " J •
What Is an Entrepreneur? a. m v - smA - ~ v • a r *
At entrepreneur j a person who Sarts and operates a business Ma-y kphx b. VIM
C MBeagt
technicians want to eventuaOy own their own shop and become an entrepre-
4. OaaSftac / m -* jes&:
neur However, operating a shop involves many duties and responsiW<ties toat
many service technicians lack, including: 3. Ali . t* Y» -.. . - sjx a -at ir fan i tri f w f t
Bookkeeping and accounting skiRs a. CtOB2f

Tax preparation (local, state, and federal) b. MrSxerJK --
Sales tax ootecbon and payment c. ( t e p u ^ K f t a o n t
Health insurance arrangements tor employees d. Acceaer- irrve i e - saped -
;
Unemployment compensation payments 4. w 'jide - - ej xaR '
Workers' compensation payments aid vaaftr Evokes o d-j3etf
Uniform payment a. t n - i . i - j *- ~ -. a t
Real estate taxes b. Oawttmg t * j
c. B e n m a t a f a l s
Garage keepers ItaMrty insurance
d. AS of tee.
While at first it may seem like owning your own shop would be great a 5. .'. bar - •: : - j«
good technician can often make more money, and have fewer headaches, by a. Ha --- -
simply working for someone else b. rfcr tee para needed
c. IDiap : ve cmetxof
d. - — fftnc - -
SUMMARY 6. " : —: . -:-
a. A stated:
1. A service advisor is the person at a dealership or shop who greets the
b. At
customer and writes the work order stating what repairs and service the
c. A<
customer wants.
d. As
2. A lube or quick service technician performs r >utine service, s net a< .
7. T w o - - :— v
changes, eaten and air Siter replacement, and other common service
—anagrr Tecsacao AsafsOat as'
procedures. oar. B savs mat dae server rat
3. A new vehicle prepaiat - -echnKiar. " a person * - • pre part a r •. • yfTtnran is conecs?
vehicle for delivery to the customer a. Tecix-zac -
4. A general service technician has training and experience in a wide range b. i^K-JCJT "
of automotive systems, including engines, brakes, suspensions, manual c. s e t t Tecrrve a c at,: &
transmissions, electrical, heat. a;r conditioning, engine performnce, and d. er * -r . a c A 3
automatic transmissions. 8. Vfec d * person ma" n r . tee sern c and canplesEi t* •
5. A shop foreman is an experienced service technician w i n performs Oder?
diagnosis, as well as helping other techn.c,ans. a. servee nacafjg-
6. A service manager handles financial response a «.v. < a-. • b. Sen . »; .- -
proper operation of the service department or shop. r.< jdiag budgets, c. Service W i *
7
equipment purchases, and maintenance arrangement, as we., as wortirsg d. • *» -
hours, pay rate determination, and efficiency ratings. 9. Wtoa - a be . ixoaed wat die a u m , ? s ••
eq-.oratr.*"
7. Parts departments are a key part of a dealership and pans defivery a a d o r
a. Scr^ce aar-agcr
inventory is a targe pan of any shop operation.
b. S h o p a r e r i i
8. Vfe ::e alt , both new and r i . - •- . c Sfcor owner
and the salespeople must have good inteipersona stalls. d. Aav tie ixree
10. Wladlt : w r w d t e . - . roe; :.-
REVIEW QUESTIONS a. S e r n a canagt*
b. maaME
1. What should be Incl uded on a wort Jder; c. Ser :e idrôr
2. Why should a vehicle be inspected when the wort order ts being wrtoen? d. -.--;- - "
C H A P T E R
At iy iiol if ndustry
O e j e c n v E S After studying Chapter 3, the reader will be able to: Explain the steps and processes for applying for a job • Describe hat the
es. me s - > x « rdude • Explain why having a good dnving record is important to a shop owner.
HE* TERMS: apprentice program • clock-in • clock time • commission pay • cooperative education • entrepreneur < • federal tax • f i ^
• Hat--ate Grass • housing expense • incentive pay • job shadowing • net • part-time employment • references • resume • soft skills • state tax
• straight une
PREPARING FOR AN AUTOMOTIVE SERVICE CAREER

If in D o u b t , A s k
Desire and Interest If a person has an interest in automobiles
and tracks and .ikes computers, the automotive service field may No one expects a beginning sen/ice technician to know everything, but other
re a career choice. Computer skills are needed in addition to technicians do not know what you do or do not know. It is usually assumed that
- jnris-oc skills for several reasons, including: the beginning technician will ask for help if they think they need the help. How-
ever. asking for help is very rare and requires the beginning technician to admit
• Sere ce information, such as diagnostic procedures and specifica- that they do not know something. Not asking for help can cause harm to the ve-
tions. is commonly available in electronic format. hicle or the service technician. If in doubt—always ask. No one will be upset
• Work orders are commonly written and sent to the technician elec- and learning the answer to your question will help in the learning experience.
trofaca&v- The technician therefore needs typing skills to type the
r s z -. taken during the service or repair procedures.
• Warranty claims are often submitted by the Internet and computer
sictils are reeded to quickly and accurately submit claims and an- Job S h a d o w i n g A great w a y to see w h a t it is really like to
nua- questions from the insurance company. work as a service technician is to follow a professional around for a
irterest in vehicles is also very important toward being Suc- day or more. J o b s h a d o w i n g is usually arranged through an auto-
re as a professional service technician. Most technicians enjoy motive program, and the shop or dealership has agreed to allow
•• aricis; on vehicles, not only professionally, but also during their someone into the shop area to observe.
::are time. Many technicians own a project vehicle, which could While it does allow the student to observe, job shadowing does
sr-dude: not allow the person to perform any w o r k or help t h e technician in
any way. During the day, the person w h o is job shadowing has to
• Drag race vehicle
wear all personal protective equipment as required by the techni
• Kace vein tie used in road racing
cian and must observe all safety regulations. T h e advantages of jot
• \ r . .-erode used on sunny weekend days and evenings
shadowing include:
• Maaorvde
• Scawmoir.e or jet ski • Being able to observe a typical day in the life of an automotive
• Traci for rack crawling technician
• Being able to talk to the working technician about what is being
Technical Knowledge and Skills The e n j o y m e n t of being
done and why
- - d - t r ,-chides is very important because the job of
• Being able to observe other technicians and seeing the various skill
. -.z and repairing automobiles and trucks can be hard and
levels that often exist in a shop
: m • -k. l « t a r ; men and w o m e n enjoy being around and
A i - . - . i a b o c t i e details of vehicle operation. With these Cooperative Education P r o g r a m s C o o p e r a t i v e education
i- - and " t e r e r . working in the automotive service field is programs are formal programs of study at a high school or college
a area- career. Technical information, skills, and tools needed w h e r e the student attends classes at the school, and also works at-
.nctude: local shop or dealership.
If a cooperative education program is held at t h e high sclw°
• Hand tools a n d tool usage. Owning and experience using hand
level, the work at the shop or dealership occurs d u r i n g the afr
ciporar. 'or a service technician. All service technicians
noon or evening and during the s u m m e r b e t w e e n the junior (
exceed r e ar e \s, retrieve and replace parts and compo-
senior year. The most c o m m o n high school cooperative p r o g r a f f
nents as needed in a timely manner.
called AYES, which m e a n s Automotive Youth Education Sys^
• Technical k n o w l e d g e . While Knowing how all aspects of the
. e- c e /. orks - r, •/ expected of a beginning service technician, (see www.ayes.org). The vehicle m a n u f a c t u r e r s involved in
program include:
rr,po«ar.• mat the techr.idan have a basic understanding
•/' ; « r r j and : "Xf-i .res needed at least for routine service • Genera] Motors
procedure. • Chrysler
rrutft IS
• Toyota
• Honda i soft skills.
• Nissan
• BMW
• Kia
O tr. it effectively with j f t e r w e r b a l f v 'speech! and in
• Subaru
• Hyundai
W. • kir i < -•• - : • r of a te«n tor - ne benefit of all
If the cooperative education program is held at a Be -« able: work bv . ourseif to achieve a goal or complete a job
college, the work at the dealership occurs around the tra
sions, usually the first or second half of a semester < < Being able 'o eaa or v pc.-iw others
semesters. The most common college programs indu ; Wiiimgn^. to wore with others with a different background or
country of origin
• General Motors ASEP (Automotive Service Educational Program i
(see www.gmasepbsep.com) While it is almost impossible to be able to answer all of these
• Ford ASSET (Automotive Student Service Educational Program i questions, just looking at these items and trying to identify your in-
(see www.fordasset.com) terests and talents will help in your selection of a career that gives
• Chrysler CAP (College Automotive Program! you lifelong satisfaction.
(see www.chryslercap.com)
Locating Employment Possibilities Locating where vou
• Toyota T-TEN (Toyota Technician Education Network
wish to work is a ver important part of your careen Of course,
(see www.toyota.com/about/tten/index.htmf\
where you would like to work may not have an opening and you
Another factory sponsored program open to those w h o have al may have to work hard to locate a suitable employer Fust, try to s e
ready completed a postsecondary automotive program is BMW lect a shop or dealership where you think you would like to work
STEP (Service Technician Education Program) (see www.bmwusa. because of location, vehicles serviced, or other factors. Ask other
com/about/techtraining.htm). technicians who have worked or are presently working there to be
sure that the location would meet your needs.
Apprentice Programs An a p p r e n t i c e p r o g r a m involves a
If looking for employment through a want ad in a newspaper
beginning service technician working at a shop or dealership dur
or employment Web site, check the following:
ing the day and attending training classes in the evening. The key
advantage to this type of program is that money is being earned • Job description. Is this a position that could advance into a more
due to full-time employment and getting on-the-job training (OJT technical position?
during the day. Often the shop or dealership will help pay for • Tools n e e d e d . Most professional service technician positions
training. While this program usually takes more than two years to require that the technician provide their own tools. The shop or
complete, the work performed at the shop or dealership usually dealership provides the shop equipment. Do you have the tods
becomes more technical as the apprentice becomes more knowl- needed to do the job?
edgeable and gets more experienced. • Hours n e e d e d . Are you available during the hours specified in
the ad?
Part-Time Employment Working part time in the automo- • Drug testing, k a drag test needed tor anployment and are you
tive service industry is an excellent way to get hands-on experi- prepared to pass?
ence, which makes it easier to relate classroom knowledge to
everyday problems and service issues. Working part time gives
the student technician some flexibility as to college schedules PREPARING A RESUME
and provides an income needed for expenses. Often p a r t - t i m e A resume a :• :...:• it dipt: r. / . t. ?nts. :
e m p l o y m e n t becomes full-time employment so it is important cation. It is used by prospective employers to help narrow the field
to keep attending technical classes toward becoming an asset to of applicants for a job or position. The number one purpose of a re-
the company. sume is to obtain a ob interview. A good resume should include
the following items:
DEVELOPING AN EMPLOYMENT PLAN Personal Information
An employment plan is an evaluation of your skills, interest, and • Full given name avoid nicknames'
talents. Selecting a career is different than getting a job. A typical • Mailing address ido not use a post office jPO| boxi
job, while it does involve some training, usually can be learned in a • Telephone and ar cell phone number
few days to several months. However, a career requires many years
• E-mail address
to achieve competence. Therefore, selecting a career should re-
quire a thorough self-examination to determine what your true in- • Avoid using dates which could indicate
terest is in a particular career field. Some items that you should Educational Information
enjoy or would be willing and able to learn include:
• Highest education level achieved
• Working with your hands, using tools and equipment • Major, if in a college or in a training pr
• Computer usage, including typing skills Experience and Skills
• Working in an area where lifting is often required
• Being able to read, understand, and follow service information, • Work or volunteer experience that may be helpful or useful to an env
technical service bulletins, and work orders ployer. For example, if you took a course in welding, tha may br ae-
• Being able to perform diagnostic work and figure out the root ful to a shop owner who is looking for a service technician who . a o d
cause of a problem do welding, even though this fact was not r.c . > a * .-.«• a - a n a
V m ^ ^ m ^ M M ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ m H m fe Most e®pfoye*s. m m g $ to,s^som>h<?.wiv - w
m i you and your family, such as. a priest, minister, or < ,<•
chmh Some teachers. or„co;ac,Ues atsacan be asked to .* a EM
• eSow a she? «w»? »> a pooiylfivtag tecstC, et>ce. Always ask the person fox approval before tocluc; ^ ^
A. reference., is someone who is willing to tell a rS^recJtPwnSTSome S a m w O M . '
•possSfc m g m about you, Lnciudjng y t » j i « m 0 m m ffl outa^reference ' i m m s m seat b? U W c o p i e s , it 3
v ^ j s ^ ^ M n m and work habits. ence sends you a written rfecowmeâtton, have copies
- - I s M b e , i n c M e d y A y o u t • " ?
ro,uJi.ne.vehicKs,ejyiC!e,
PREPARING A COVE flH
When answering an adv< mem in a • • 7-4
sure to Include the detai of wt re- you * aw •
letter to the employer. For example: "I am apply
as an entry-level service technician as publ 1
edition of the Daily New:
Sample Cover Letter
301 Main Street

City, State 40005
Telephone: (555) 555-0170
Cell: (555) 555-1139
Date
Mr. John Smith

Smith Dealership
800 North Street
City, State 40010
Dear Mr. Smith:
I am applying for the position of general service t e c h n i r i a r a: . : j r 3eaJe r ship as

advertised in the Sunday, January 7, edition of the Da ly News
I am currently finishing my studies in Automotive Tec^noiog. at C ty Cc ege and

have worked part time at Miller Service for the past tw d years a ~ a s e zen fied
in Brakes and Engine Repair and plan to become certified n a!' e c - : a eas
I have my own tools and currently can work in the afternoons a^c ever ngs. A^ter
May 15, I will be able to work full time after completing rr> automot e courses.
I look forward to an interview when I can discuss my SK IS a.nc my r esume with you
Thank you for your consideration.
Sincerely,
James Hartman
Enclosure (1)
is sen.-s
Also include contact information such as your cell ph< irnber

Always Be Truthful and mail address so the service manager can easily ge ontact
v\ ,uwi vou. A quick review of your skills and talent will a « help
V- i » 6 m t er»xgr to be a tar. I you say something mat is not true, then fu '0 the shot owner or service manager.
«x tz«e * «nat was sad forever or your lie win often be discov-
« w I asxee aooul i c u e«enance or knowledge try to be as truthful as pos-
a c * l « f t a n c s w « s a r tie teamed and not knowing how to do everything that ACCEPTING EMPLOYMENT
i snoc 'lav ue solved *rtn is not an indication that you will be refected from When a job is offered, there will likely be some paper, rk that
*»jOfeapran» needs to be filled out and decisions made. Some of the requested
information could include:
• Social security number (social insurance number in Canadai

CONTACTING POTENTIAL EMPLOYERS
• W-4 tax withholding form
V"--:- a oc ; p e r ^ posted in a newspaper or it is mentioned by a • Emergency contact people
- : s i x ?aaerts recommend that you visit the shop or dealership • Retirement plan selection (This is usually given t o y o u t o s t u d y and
- r e r v r to see w h e r e the job is located, the condition of the build- return at a later date.)
- a ar.c "r sur-ounding areas. This trip could also be used for you • Other information which may be unique to the shop or dealership
:: : r ~ ' vour resume and cover letter in person unless the com-
After accepting the employment position, be sure to determine
: a r r r a a t e s otherwise. Be prepared to be interviewed when sub-
exactly what day and time you should report to w o r k and try to de-
— a r a viaar - e r a n e . Even if the position has already been filled, the
termine where your tools should be placed. Most places will show
—p p v « v : j experience in meeting people and seeing the shop,
you around and introduce you to others you will w o r k with.
•>.- r he:?-; ".crease your confidence during the job search. Searching
• - a o t s a full-time :ob in itself. Be prepared every day to answer ads
ana t r a v e l : . shops or dealerships. TECHNICIAN PAY METHODS
Straight-Time Pay Methods When the particular s e r v i c e or re-
COMPLETING THE EMPLOYMENT APPLICATION pair is not covered or mentioned in a fiat-rate guide, i t i s c o m m o n
practice for the technician to clock-in and use the actual t i m e spen;
V. : h a r n e s s e s require that an employment application be com-
on the repair as a basis for payment. The technician u s e s a flat-rate
: ered iecause it not only asks for all necessary personal information
time ticket and a time clock to record the actual time. Being paid for
- - e r e c . but also references and emergency contacts. Most employ-
the actual time spent is often called s t r a i g h t t i m e or clock time.
app .aation forms ask for previous employers, the names and
Difficult engine performance repairs are often calculated u s i n g the
e - : - • - ambers of contact people, and other information which
technician's straight time.
. -ra not remember. It is wise to have all of the information writ-
ten down ahead of time and take it with you for reference w h e n
Flat-Rate Pay M e t h o d s Beginning service technicians are
. err.g the application. Always answer questions honestly and
usually paid by the hour. The hourly rate can vary greatly depend
- .--..gSi'. as possible. Never lie on an employment application. ing on the experience of the technician and type of w o r k b e i n g per
formed. Most experienced service technicians are paid b y a method
THE INTERVIEW called flat-rate. The flat-rate method of pay is also called incentive
or c o m m i s s i o n pay. "Flat-rate" means that the technician is paid a
' - - - meeting for the job interview, be sure to dress appropriately
set amount of time (flat-rate) for every service operation. The
V - z'A.zon. For example, a suit and tie would not be appropri-
amount of time allocated is published in a flat-rate manual. For
- ar. r terview for a service technician position. However, the
example, if a bumper requires replacement, the flat-rate manuai
- t a g may be a helpful guide:
may call for 1.0 hour (time is always expressed in tenths of an
• that are not sneakers and be sure they are clean hour). Each hour has 6 0 minutes. Each tenth of an hour is l/lOol
• ear :tacxa, not eans 6 0 or 6 minutes.
• r a r.:rr with a collar
• Do a r t wear a hat 0.1 hour = 6 minutes
• Be - . - aver. or have beard/mustache neatly trimmed 0.2 hour = 12 minutes
• -. - ->i: ri-j 0 . 3 hour = 18 minutes
• mrt
0.4 hour = 2 4 minutes
r e rterview, try to answer every question honestly.
0 . 5 hour = 3 0 minutes
- - : • . . j are capable of providing to the shop including:
0 . 6 hour = 3 6 minutes
• P.- • . a i m
0.7 hour = 4 2 minutes
• Ex;
• .ngr . to work 0 . 8 hour = 4 8 minutes
0.9 hour = 54 minutes
• ' • •re-% I wwk mg hours a n d / o r long weeks 1.0 hour = 6 0 minutes
Many service operations are greater than 1 hour and are <
AFTER THE INTERVIEW pressed as such:
- •:.*. - • • .a jp / a letter thanking the shop for
2.4 hours - 2 hours and 2 4 m i n u t e s
".« r . r e r / e * Ir ' r e y * ' A t v h e n the Interview occurred
4-d - r e - ' v - v i o r - o j received, that you are very inter- 3.6 hours 3 hours and 3 6 minutes
. . ; .. ] i z a t l 0 n (shop or dealership).
unoOr: 19
The service technli n would thr-refo" » unt'crsti < ^ v m f f p t a ded'ictten;

time regardless of how ,>.; 1 a< tually took
Often, the technician tar fla rate try pe
in less time than the publr hc-d time, it is there .
technician not waste time and work efficiently \<
for a day's work. The technician also has to be ca Hourty Rate to Annua! Income
service procedure correctly because if the job ne*")-
due to an error, the technician does the repair at no to ctfoulaie fre v <xa* of Wesme ttiaJ will In earned using an howly 'ate do
the technician needs to be fast and careful at the the tolrowviB'.
The vehicle manufacturer determines the flat r-: MuflxJy the hourly rale times 2 and Ben time-, 10®
labor operation by having a team of technicians perfort Forexanpie f W p e r b o * ' 2 1000 S20 000 per year
tion several times. The average of all of these times
! - « eaiy-fcj* torn ,1a assumes working 50 weeks instead of 52 weew in
lished as the allocated time. The flat-rate method wa
developed to determine a fair and equitable way to pay d< di< - - me yean.
for covered warranty repairs. Because the labor rate differ The reverse can f tie easily cabwMK
out the country, a fixed dollar amount would not be fair compe- a
Divide tre yearn - twne oy i W . ~r*f oy 1060 tourty rate
tion. However, if a time could be established for each ope-
then the vehicle manufacturer could reimburse the dealers! p fc For example S36 000 per year 2 = 1 ^ 000 1000 $18 per hour
the set number of hours multiplied by the labor rate appro-zed for
that dealership. For example, if the approved labor rate is $60.00
per hour and: R e t i r e m e n t I n f o r m a t i o n a n d P a y m e n t s Some shops or
dealerships offer y.rne retirement savings plan bat the most c o r
Technician A performed 6.2 hours x $60.00 = $372.00 moniy used is an e - r v e r - p r /.red 401 ki account named after a
Technician B performed 4.8 hours x $60.00 = $288.00 section of the U.S. interna Rewr.ue Code. A 401 k account a;
The total paid to the dealership by the = $660.00 lows a w o r k e ' to save for recrement wr.Ie deferring taxes on the
manufacturer saved money and e a r i n g - " 1 v.-j-.drawaL Most 401 V.\ plans
This does not mean that the service technician gets paid $60.00 per allow the emplt e r ' s e f e r ~<m ::ock mutuaj funds or other in
hour. Sorry, no! This means that the dealership gets reimbursed for vestments. A 401 i: - e t r e n eir c.an offers w o advantages com-
labor at the $60.00 per hour rate. The service technician usually pared to a a m p l e savings account.
gets paid a lot less than half of the total labor charge.
• The contributions loooey deposited into tike account) are tax de
Depending on the part of the country and the size of the deal-
ferred. The amc-Jtt wL increase i x to interest and no taxec are
ership and community, the technician's fiat-rate per hour income
due until the rr.onev is vr.thcrawn.
can vary from $7.00 to $20.00 or more per flat-rate hour. Remem-
• / a - em: m : ' x "
ber, a high pay rate ($20 for example) does not necessarily mean
account which car. range &oa ; - > mat:r.:r.g cr ntributions
that the service technician will be earning $800.00 per week
to 100%.
|40 hours x $20.00 per hour = $800.00). If the dealership is not
busy or it is a slow time of year, maybe the technician will only The savings rea. . a c : ever time. For example, if you start
have the opportunity to "turn" 20 hours per week. So it is not re- saving at age 25 and our ir.c m e a erases S3.000 per ~ nth
ally the pay rate that determines what a technician will earn but :$36,000per - ear and Y: JC -.tribute - afyour pa. Mid the e~
rather a combination of all of the following: ployer contributes 3 . after 4 . . ears at age r 5, the acco ml w i .
worth $1,70C'.CKX n e m . . . n, seven hundred tin - .ir.c c ars
• Pay rate
assuming a 10 3 . average rer_m.
• Number of service repairs performed
In retirement, most experts agree that 4 of the toad C2r. be
• Skill and speed of the service technician
withdrawn each year and not reduce the capital investment. Four
• Type of service work (a routine brake service may be completed
percent of SI."00.000 is S08.COO per ear or over SS.60C per
faster and easier than a difficult engine performance problem
month everv month for t h e rest of your life.
A service technician earns more at a busy dealership with a lower
pay rate than at a smaller or less busy dealership with a higher
Additional Service Technician Benefits '.'.2
erships and service facilities often offer some or all of the foiiowtr.g
pay rate.
• Paid uniform d e a l i n g
• Vacation time
PAYROLL DEDUCTIONS
• Update tra.- .r. ^ iespec il new ve: deali -
Gross versus Net Compensation Most beginning techni • Some sort of retirement a contributr.i -s zn
cians start by receiving a certain amount of money per hours • Health and dental nsurance • usual not .- :
worked. Gross earnings are the total amount you earned during • Discounts on parts and veh. : es purchased at the lealer lip
the pay period. The paycheck you receive will be for an amount or shop
called net earnings. Taxes and deductions that are taken from your
paycheck may include all or most of the following: Not all service facilities offer ail of these addit. na: b-
• Federal income tax

• State income tax (not all states HOUSING A N D LIVING E X P E N S E S
• Social Security taxes I labeled FICA, which stands for Federal As a general guideline, h o u s i n g e x p e n s e s
Insurance Contribution Act) gage payment should not exceed 30 - of the cr ss monthly nc tot
• Health/dental eye insurance deductions For example.
BECOMING A SHOP OWNER
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION ??? Manv servicc technicians want to start and operate thi
Hhop
Becoming .1 •' op o w n e r results in handling m a n y n. i
So? hOtiVr-
related duties that some technicians do not feel qualifi.
iiandic
J steessee^ te «»<*;> ttsaooes' For example.* a soft drink and a including:
rag r e s t ^ v jvc^ssre day at wort, tor S2 V this amounts to
• Handling customers
r : S * a w * j S5C or morCl •'ncfi is 1600 per veai. l»se the toimwing
• Ordering d paying for shop equipment and supplies
sap xnerr tap jofp-
• Bookkeeping, including payroll
• Budgeting for and paying for garage owner's insurance a worketv
L a & r t » f je- W - v A e r ,7f lours worked =
compensation
• Paying rent, as well as h e a t air-conditioning bills
iM'"1 i ? appkeabte -
• Advertising expenses
^ - t ^ w o r n g i werixnds
• Hiring and firing employees
TfTAL WEEKLY MCOME
, ?> 1 ; tB Oft ne MONTHLY INCOME
TECH TIP Find Three Key People
Expenses
An entrepreneur is a person who organizes and manages their own business
assuming the risk tor the sake of a profit. Many service technicians have Die
desire to own their own repair facility. The wise business owner (entrepreneur
seeks the advice of the following people when starting and operating their own
FFLOC
business
»«ttoQSarrestai«rws -
nearar
- ana oectnc neat air conditxxwngl = 1. Attorney (lawyer)—This professional will help guide you to make sure
that your employees and your customers are protected by the laws of
your community, state, and federal regulations
~jt»e ^VVfcmet access = 2. Accountant—This professional will help you with the journals and
CWNng X3UOOQ oeanmg"' = . records that must be kept by all businesses and to help with elements
such as payroll taxes unemployment taxes, and workmen's
Cieflt care osvient =
compensation that all businesses have to pay
-OTAL MOrTHLY EXPENSES
3. Insurance Agent—This professional will help you select the coverage
rmwMj tola xome s more than the total expenses! needed to protect you and your business from major losses
do ara per hoar times 4 0 hours per week = $ 4 0 0 per

a A-eeks n a month = SI 6 0 0 per month. Thirty pet- SUMMARY
s ' 600 is S480 per month for rent or a mortgage payment.
1. When applying for a job, list in your cover letter where you saw tlx
opening and also mention that you meet all of the requirements for tt»
position.
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION ???
2. A resume is a brief description of your education and experience.
er Contract Labor? 3. Present a professional appearance during an interview.

4. Net pav is gross pav minus all deductions, such as federal taxes and I
r u e s am! oeaierships fwe service technicians as employees However
5. Housing and vehicle payments each should not exceed 25% of y»f
ar businesses w.« pay a technician for services performed on a
monthly income.
Mas ^ "rears that they are not hinng you as an employee, but sim-
0. Becoming a shop owner involves more paperwork than most sen -
~T- >5fora ienuee s.- ,iar to hav-ng a plumber repair a toilet The plumber
technicians realize.
' Je"3»- c a * f i<jt and <s pad for the job rather than as an employee of the
«<* Ar tr,oever neiabonship exists if the shop meets two factors.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
'-i eiaf the employer can direct the technician to
I
»sor * m/> to jertorn service work. 1. What facts should be included on the resume?
t "->- -rears Biai the employer can direct the hours and days 2. What are five interviewing tips?
mrt u tc r» performed ana at the employer s location
3. What is the difference between gross pay and net pay?
A 4 x i asMceinr ex^ts if the repairs are performed without 4. What taxes are usually withheld from a paycheck?
inane a r t <*»w of toe shop 5. What are five duties of a shop owner -
r * ( . / <• a t w es:jt»6hed then no taxes are withheld. It is
a* S* '-fjcMinan to make the necessary and required
and pay all taxes cm tone
CHAPTER QUIZ
1. A resume should be how many pages long?
a. 1
A >-er:,-:s. - . 1 not exceed 25% of the gross earn- b. 2
« Ir. the * x a n p * • e r e " • • p a y was S10 per hour, the maxi- c. 3
•uar. r . - • i e p a v r e - • told be $ 4 0 0 p e r month. d. 4 or more
2. W
a. Address
b. Cell or
c. Aft-
d. Work c xpt
3. Why is having a good driving record (pod for the shop?
a. Allows the use of» company v« hide
b. Lovw insurance <
c. Allows you to drive customers'veh
d. Permits you to use vcur ve! cic to i pa a. et n a d s t A c
4. Which is riotrecommendedduring an interview? b. r - c a r . »«oiy
a. Wear shoes that are not i-neakers c. Botfi TeciiracjftsAjnd B
b. Wear a shirt with a collar d. 'M&ET TEDW'-an A IWR 6
c. Have clean hair 9. A bq) -' ' J4C0 - *- t - •
d. Wear jeans (he ledfflidaG gpend oc tvoQ
5. During an interview, try to . a. W X per oocrr
a. Show enthusiasm b. $500 per s s n £
b. Explain your work experience c SSOOperx -sab
c. State your willingness to work d. SI0QC p e m o r . S
d. All of the above 10. "A> •, - - "-: -- :< trot' "Oft - .< i '
6. Ten dollars per hour is about how much income per year? dnp?
a. $20,000 a. .
b. $25,000 b. Apf -- - - - ~ ~
c. S30.000 c job rarkw
d. $35,000 d. ?ar - -.? er :kr<- e "
4
C H A P T E R
Working as a Professional
Service Technician
OBJECTIVES: After studying Chapter 4, the reader will be able to: D'scuss hc.% \- rs.il
mentor. • Explain how a mentor can Improve on-the-job learning • Discuss the rote of flgtrweewO a i w l < • E q M n lorms and rtvmat
evaluations. • Describe the role of a service technician • Explain how the flat-rate oav plan »*orKs • Describe type and pncmg ot oarts
KEY TERMS: advisor • advocate • aftermarfcet parts • coach • core • : : :- • • •

• flagging • formal evaluation • informal evaluation • jobber • mentor • original equipment (OB • rcbuR • remove and aspect <R & f)
• remove and replace (R & R) • renewal parts • repair order (R01 • role model • service bay • s M • teacher • twee Cs (concern cause
correction) • trainee • warehouse distributor
PROFESSIONALISM 4. Become a teammate with your co-workers.

Professionalism and personal credibility are important and can de- sucoessl - vr.r others stows thai - -awe .-.-.
termine success as a service technician or as a customc- service can bene® from the specSc sL s of oSiers.
provider. A true professional does the following on a regular bavs. 5. Apologize if vou are wrong. :
time.
1. Practice consistency. Be positive, profi t
times.
2. Keep your w o r d . Follow throughw c on TECH H P Clean Clothes Are a Must
you make. People will not have faith in you if vou break w a r
promises. Aône who meeB the Pui»c - apv twsmess w ; x* arry Se :
3. Develop technical expertise. Become w-v k- « Kit pro** b * » » etottwe should be dean ajso oe so*
about the vehicles being serviced. Attend regu ar update era n ng beer sbeiea (Ml, dfety » settee snoes ar
classes to keep up with the latest technical information and unprolessiona ook
equipment.
Ethics ' W h e n dealing w i t h people from other culture?., c ^sej.
r a._ • - •.• tern • c providers should be aware of cultural difference many
a p t a e a o d are p a c e w c pepySar choices or behavior by the peo- o - . e r cultures eye avoidance is a sign of respect. Be /E IQ
eie V. o t h e r ^ r v s t h e spectrum of potential choices fells ithers but use eye contact w h e n e v e r possible.
• - cr« sb w h i r . ' h e or " w r o n g " course of action
flSr-5 o r a r « i * t a r e s . .hte to identify. W h e n faced with an et'ni
a i l a a - ^ a a : - 5 ; i r a a c o - . asic youraeif the foIlowJng questions: Never Use Profanity
•
r- '" n a true professional never resorts to th-
• — • •. : •- r. gh tne discussion becomes heated, tr, Mine
• - • 1> it agamsr the teachings of my parent or • ; . m 1 5 try; vaafion over to someone else.
~ , reSss st?
• " nr. be: • • • -.: rr
\ \ > i l s • reappoint my JamBy? Nonverbal Communication The tone and inflt
• Aa t of what those I trust would say about mv actions? voice, facia! expressions, posture, and eye contact are all form of non-
o t s i x hurt or a p s e i someone did this to me? verbal communications. These nonverbal indicators can contradic
the message conveyed through another method of communication.
T h e a r v - e questions can be quite revealing w h e n attempting
Nonverbal communication includes body posture such as hav-
s> choose a r ethjeau course of action.
ing the arms crossed. W h e n a person crosses their arms, or looks
other thing? rather than paying attention to w h a t you are discussing
COMMUNICATIONS these actions could indicate o n e of several things including:
The fr/e m a r . methods of commur.cation used in effective customer
1. They are not interested in what you are saying
v--.-. - m-jeractio-r. include listening, talking, nonverbal communica-
2 . Thev dor.'' believe what you are -r.-.ng
•mbs. reaemg. and writing. 3 . They are not listening
Listening • - ng the ability to hear and understand If this type of nonverbal communication is noticed, there &
•via' speaker is saying. To listen to your customers or other several things that could be done to overcome this barrier including
tec mm a am .; to s h e w them that you care about and respect their
maeffi ara; and c o n c e r n i: is not easy to be a good listener; it takes 1. Ask questions, which would require them to pay attention p a
peacare and dedication to improve your listening techniques. shows that you are interested in what they think.
JKZC 5 a s c J that must continuously be developed. 2 . Give the customer options rather than just ask them what they
Sevg-ai barriers tc good listening exist. A listener may be dis- want such as saying "would you prefer to have this work done i.
r v z e t I r r r . what is being a i d . have a ciosed mind to the speaker and at the same time or spread out over several weeks?"
r . - - : . a a - . won't stop talking, or is lazy and unwilling to make the Telephone Communication A large p e r c e n t a g e o f c a
_ , Q ^ a g ^ iistenet
tomers m a k e first c o n t a c t w i t h a s h o p or d e a l e r service depart
_ :r.sz requires t h e listener to stop talking and to hear what m e n t by telephone. Service t e c h n i c i a n s n o r m a l l y d o not talk r
7 a t.<er a va vteg. > has been said that h u m a n s were given two c u s t o m e r s directly but m a y be asked to h e l p clarify a repair o r s
e a r r ; one m o u t h because w e are supposed to listen twice as
service p r o c e d u r e .
- -* speak. T h e best way to keep your mind focused on the
Some suggestions w h e n talking on t h e telephone include:
s e a r a a d to avoid becoming distracted is to pay attention. We
t i n t a i r x abour 10 times fester than w e can speak, so frequently
• Use proper titles for the people with whom you communicate. If •'•
< - • a e processed what speakers have said and are waiting for
doubt about whether to use a first name, call the person by the more
" i catch u p with v . . By focusing on speakers and on w h a t is
formal Mr. or Ms. If they prefer the more informal first name, they
hem i 'x-i w e are -est Aety to miss the message* being delivered.
will say so. It is better to be a little too formal than overly familiar
F r 2 r ; r . a : - t o practice is not as easy as it sounds.
• Thani. people for calling. "Thank you" is the most powerful phras
A : • » : rer. - i-o^s the following:
in human relations and it reassures customers that you are interest?:
• • • •. .• • r . a A-nat • aa in serving.
• --a— -:r and makes e j e contact when possible. • Try to avoid technical terms and abbreviations such as EGR and
• -y. 3d. other terms commonly used in the trade but will not be under-
• v ^ - a -o c that " ••• " e n d e d message is stood by the customer. Try to phrase the technical description b
saying that you replaced or serviced a part in the emission conn®
• A g p o d f e t s s e : knows tbe joy of sharing and communicating with system and include the entire name of the part such as the
V '•'<•• -<- v - .sme the best listener you can be. "exhaust gas recirculation valve."
• Keep your c o m m e n t positive and focused toward solving the
Talking - speaki-.?,. using words and terminology problem or concern.
'•' •• - £•--:• contac* is always important w h e n • •' oi-1 saying anytf ng that mak- people or yr> ;r shop look unprr -
v- -re - - . r j c a - - ; >. otliers. Eye contact is allowing our siona! or uncaring. When dealing with customers, some words a
"•rer •• r v r a c t v i t h someone elseY In our culture, more positive and appropriate to use. Some customer service
- c ' • • • . . . - • - • : - i d merest. Avoiding eye contact provider, find it helpful to list words to use and words to avoid
- i ; y ' -' - cem or ack of honesty. Customers may a card so that it is available for easy reference.
v • - < • v - a r provider is not interested in what • Speak c arty and d>-tlnctly. Hold ' h e telephone mouthpiece ai>
' the-' 1o ra ' periodica 1 make eye contact with a half-inch from your lips. Speak naturally and comfortably. Tal*1
're your caller as you would to a friend.
•
TECH Tl *>'< • , >H f ip*r tn4 a t'
'W wtdw IKAMNHM
When .
are! a p>Tfy.il w frf-f : .., - rff
<*rV>< • "1 -wr r/f
• t o * * * »M
Reading trieans *he % read <-<3 - r> r*na

written word. Al. un-
demand, and 5'/i w m e r astrjaior.-, and -"pair k t r x a t i f t t . if
some worts are .A^-SttA jve a <J<-jfr : f ^ mr/lMT
technician for rieip r-sr e z a r f t e . a - Mdan read •
Figure 4-1 Wtien sewering the tefeu»»w De « « to have paper a>v: irper the i e m c f i r f w a - . t i a m ft* m 'a*tac<w 0
to rtcord me customs intormatldri the coolan- ' e s e r r o t ' T>* tecJsasc* a s w m d e m a » d wfcar - v
word adjacent truant ae~ ' v . - c w anotf-<T tedcr-iewr r.tal '
meant "nert or doae to*
TECH TIP Smile While Vou Talk If reading a nose fro® a amnatr t another aoz^m do
not jnderstand n v u * * ' M a m * e a e to car -»ac •
If you smile <vtnle talking on the telephone, your /oiee w refeti a
and helpful attitude wtiKl) r.iretomers or vendors w'i eauiy r t v w z t
telephone 'j«6 f igure 4-2
)C it * e M s * tf 1
H*ce al mmmtmBam J M i S M <
; at at**,- ot a
M :
tMmrt at « * • 6 * r * « M r Nry WW> or 1
WHAT H A P P E N S T H E R R S T DAY?
Figure4-2 *yo-.vw«•*••>< '»'«"*) •' »•«•-<•;.••. • MHUdXMite inc

the customer She
Writing Wrltin/
that other, can under.'and Ihc t n n - n M tnr.sagr Vrv . ; •
clans are required to document the work that was performed on a
er each training a
vehicle. For some technicians thl s the rr t C ; an ••
vice. Writing or typing in the description of the stepa f« • rn • i c • R e n e w tfte sramUr
Ing the diagnosis and repair of the v. hi. !<• -.»».,i(:.j t<- wordî 4-. i' the Trr to direct work I
technician is talking to the customer For e*.itnpi>-. if ^ con'ant material.
24 SSCTCN
firrt day o r the t h e boj&rspss tec&nSSan- should: f h e work order should be written so that the technic
icrly what needs to be done. However, if there is an
• ' ; - - • : a s f c :.. - " . - r • if n e e d e d t o c h r i f v p r o o
technician should clarify the needed task with the so:
recaiatjerr-.
or the person w h o spoke to the customer
• Be crsssna* take asd pass a drug test.
• Assam? 'he seprtc-r o n a g e r or tmop owner thatTOOare serious
a i w r a career as ar : automotive technician.
Si/; Ask Me about This
& oocd service advisor will document what the customer wants : w ^
TEC* TIP Oont Toacft Other Technician's Toots
work order. However, there are times when the explanation an-:
A -sctâsr. seldom nas 21 of the toofs needed to perform an of the would fake too long and too much space to be practical, in fees: »s, ^
and - r e " taste. How*?- a technicianstoofsaiS very important and if wise service advisor simply states on the work outer for the serve-- :1nicte
s so! - r e beg-reing technician sBdSe ask to s o n w fee too: and oe » see fee service advisor to discuss the situation. The service adv r can wnfe
w* r w * w fee too" was returned and «clean eoodfflon. the basic request to document what is needed.
Talking tc Customers The typical service technician usua"-

A w o r k order, also called a r e p a i r o r d e r or RO is assigned to a does not talk directly to a customer. However, there may be cause
aecESican w h o is best qualified to perform the work. The techni- w h e r e the technician will be asked to clarify a procedure or r e s t
- a r • •.; the kevs and drives the vehicle to an assignee s e r v i c e to a customer. Many technicians do not like to talk to the or-
b a y aic-o called 3 stall s gets the necessary parts from the parts de- tomers and fear that they may say too much or not enough. If:
t e r m e n t and completes the repair. technician is asked to talk to a customer, try to keep the discussir
Aire: m e ser.lce work has been performed, t h e service techni- to the following without being too technical.
c s should then SB out the work order and describe what work
was :-?- ; - m ? i . These are called the " t h r e e C s . " • C o n c e r n (customer complaint). The service technic an she-;.:
repeat the original concern. This is to simply verify to the custc~ -
1. Concern—Write on the work order what was done to confirm
and the technician the goal of the service or repair.
m e customer's concern. For example, "Drove the vehicle at high-
• Cause. The cause of the fault should be mentioned. If further
way speed and verified a vibration."
diagnostic steps needed to find the cause are requested, discussfe
2 . Cause—The service technician should write the cause of the
steps followed and the equipment or tools used.
r:mb'.em. For example. "Used a scan too! and discovered that
• Correction. Discuss what was done to s a v e the concern,
cv r d e r *3 was misfiring."
including what part or parts were replaced. This step may also
3. Correction—The service technician should write what was done
Include what other service operations were needed to complete
tc correct the problem. For example, "Removed the spark plug
the repair, such as reprogramming the computer.
v.-r-? . T o m •cy'rrsder number three and bv visual inspection found
ma: the boot had been arcing to the cylinder head. Replaced the
spark plug wire and verified that the misfire was corrected."
tfOTE If the customer speaks a foreign language that you do not urea-
stand, excuse yourself and locate someone in the shoe -.vho can assist v:.
TECH T I P ^ Regulated Terms to Use •wife communicating with the customer Avoid using slang or abbrev-aSr
of technical terms. Ask fee person if they understand and be wffisg'
- ass!* states r »«as where automotive service is regulated, such as in restate. if needed, until fee situation is understood. This can ofaa t?
a v ^ - - * c ttchigsR. it $ important that the term used to describe a labor difficult if discussing technical situations to persons of another language
s tens defined by fee state agency. This means feat some terms culture.
-,-sec r jam; and ame guides may not be the same terms used by the state.
>-. u - w th« the terms used are in compliance wttti all regulations. Some
r a t souic be aSected mc&jde rebuild, repair, overhaul, inspection and
=• K - w i r t reptacc), and safety inspection. TECH TIP Car, Truck, or Vehicle?
When discussing a vehicle with a customer, ft is best to avoid creating problem5
For example, if a technician asked about a customer's "car," the customer coo*
become concerned because they drive a truck and many owners of trucks do -
TECH T I P ff Late—Can
want their vehicle caned a car. Use of the term "vehicle." a generic term, is
recommended when talking to customers to avoid possible concerns
-r. *»,• «•" only be a few minutes late to worn, but your boss does
--*•--: a ?* wher yoaur* not on time If you are going to be late, even
-. a - v t s e shop and let them know. This does not eliminate your
>—s a * ftwi w r nseoaf, fes S ft*-; show correctly to your service manager Estimating a Repair Sometimes a service technician is
y-C o s w who y e comShg on your being on time to work every to help create an estimate for the customer. It is usually the ie?r
sibilitf of the service advisor or shop o w n e r to create estimates
technician may be helpful by pointing out all of the needed Or
tions that need ' " b e performed to achieve a repair. The estimate
a repair includes:
DUTIES O f A SERVICE TECHNICIAN
• Parts n e e d e d - - This fist would also include any gaskets and '
Reading the Work Order A w o r k order is selected or as- supplies needed. The technician can help identify if extra sapp
ho then performs the listed taste. mav be needed.
Labor A pu ii is usually ut - 1L
options such t 'liming or four wl;
substantial tlmf to • ion. The technl utc
estimate by making vu the options are poln
service advisor or shop -
D o c u m e n t i n g the Work Order The service tec

document the work order. It. m> ire thalttw
write (or typel what all was done to the vehicle '•<•
often called "telling the story" and .hould n 1 >
• The test equipment used to diagnose the problem, hat example:
Used a Tech 2 scan tool to retrieve P0300 random r 1 •> >: •
trouble code.
• Used a digital multimeter to determine a spark p . vir
defective.
• List what parts or service operations were performed. F-- -
Replaced the spark plug wire on cylinder number 3. Used a : - •
tool to clear the diagnostic trouble codes and verify that the < - . . i e
is operating correctly.
TECH TIP i S M I Level and Severe Service
Following Recommended Procedures All servic
clans should follow the diagnostic and service procedure' specif Moot -rv« semce n — r o u M a gadi1* 1
ate nsMve lwei
by the vehicle manufacturer. Following service information proce- d » » toemcar $ * # reawee la e e r t ' - i * e w a semce rxedurw Tvm
dures includes the following:
• Follow and document the diagnostic procedure. Writing down tlx • •:. -
results helps the customer see all that was involved in the procedure l jyOrnu
and monitors the proper paper trail for future reference, if needed tncMrwceaoli
• Follow the recommended removal and reinstallation R & R> proc •4uot d n c sderieiT
dures. This step helps prevent the possibility of doing harm to the
Many tec juoes p r v o aaoexr?. *y v V a c t t l M t
vehicle if an alternative method is attempted.
avdy rjsfcd te t
• Always torque fasteners to factory specifications. This step is very
s u e ID sua® S * n g n r -afc * m i d I
important because under-or overtightened fasteners can cause
See i
problems that were not present until after the repair. The wise
technician will document torque specifications on the work order
C u s t o m e r P a y Customer pay (CP) means that the

will be paying for the service work at a dealership rather thar. the war
ranty. Often the same factory flat-rate number of hours is used to cai
culate the technician's pay, but customer pay often pays the service
technician at a higher rate. For example, a service technician earning
$15.00 per flat-rate hour for warranty work may be paid S18.00 per
hour for customer-pay work. Obviously, service technicians prefer to
work on vehicles that require customer-pay service work rather than
factory-warranty service work.
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION y ^
What Can a Service Technician Do to Earn More Money''
Because service technicians are paid on a commission bass iflat-rate r *

more work that is completed, the more hours the technician can "tur- T, iefe
tore, to earn the most money, the service technician could do the toflowmo to
Increase the amount ot work performed Ftgm M v « ! » »
4 vorti flibv
• Keep up-to-date and learn the latest technical intorinatior'
. Practice good habits that help avoid errors or incomplete 'ecu is
• Learn from experienced and successful teltow lecrm-oans a v try to
approach the repair the same way the successful technician does FLAGGING A WORK O R D E R
. Purchase the propel tools to do the work efficiently
tes a s t r w e p r o c e c . r e
I SOCK t fctewine
NOTE: This does not mean mat every tec hnician newts to pi . Ms<? 3»
possible tools Purchase only those toots that vix kilow vou * need a o . s<
T tiur a aarse a .,
tut a»e -o 4 m m -.«* » -
• •edt-.cun ~
26 SEl'nOft
V\jfv a. r e n e w a l p a r t s . M o s t a f t e r m a r k e t parts are sold at motive

' t ssmt attecand to the retair expressed in tours and • stores or j o b b e r s . A jobber or parts retailer usu.ii •ts p a r t s
i r - . ^ - d ar V ; * arpt gional w a r e h o u s e d i s t r i b u t o r . T h e w . 'se dis
tributor can c i t h e r p u r c h a s e parts directly from t h e m a n "neror
" V artr .'j* " ' o v - r t c e t e c h n i c i a n s sticker to t h e back of t h e
irom an oven larger central w a r e h o u s e . Because eat business
. nagging the w o r k order.
n e e d s to m a k e a profit (typically, 35%), t h e cost to th user
may not be l o w e r t h a n it is for t h e s a m e part p u r c h a s e d dealer-
sh p itwu-step process instead of t h e typical three-st' rocej
assign! • ct of ti» time Is often done by another person e v e n t h o u g h it costs m o r e to m a n u f a c t u r e t h e original iipment
w o t tadfctv. This procedure assures that the correct
part. To d e t e r m i n e w h a t a 35% margin increase is for an . produo
.;. » v j v. -<• WC:K order and to the technician ticket
simply divide t h e cost by 0 . 6 5 . To illustrate h o w this w o r k s , com'
pare t h e e n d cost of a part (part A) f r o m a d e a l e r s h i p and a parts
store.
SUBLET REPAIRS
a repair or a part of a repair! is p e r f o r m e d by a n o t h e r person
Retail Parts Store New Vehicle Dealership
or : 'T.party % a s i d e of t h e dealership or service facility. For e x a m -
: -.. a n e n g i n e n e e d i n g repair that also h a s a defective or leaking ra- Manutacturer's selling price S17.00 Manufacturer's selling p r i c e - $25.00
v - d be repaired by t h e original repair facility, b u t t h e Warehouse distributor's selling price Parts department selling p r i c e
-ad a s 2v be s e n t t o a specialty radiator repair shop. T h e radiator $26.15 (Si 7.00 0.65 = $26.15) $38.46 ($25.00 + 0.65 $38,461
r-::asro - H e n e n t e r e d o n t h e w o r k o r d e r as a sublet repair. Retail store selling price $40.23

($26.15 0 65 - $40,231
PARTS REPLACEMENT
P a i s replacement is often called R & R, m e a n i n g r e m o v e and
N0T£: The cost of the part to the customer where service work is per
replace.
formed is increased about 35% over the base cost of the part. For exam-
ple, a part that cost the repair facility $40.23 will be billed to the
customer at about $01.00. The retail service customer at the dealer may
•CT! remove and repair, but this meaning is gen
pay $59.17 ($38.46 -h 0.65 = $59.17).
- : jird as much now as It used to be when components such as
r
-i»d . r o . in: ring compressors were repaired rather than re-
: j îC as i t i>semMv.
N e w versus Remanufactured Parts N e w parts are manu
factured from r a w materials and h a v e n e v e r b e e n used on a vehicle.
R A I • n _ ,.>d to indicate r e m o v e a n d i n s p e c t to check a A r e m a n u f a c t u r e d c o m p o n e n t (also called r e b u i l t ) h a s been used on
- • : - damage. The old replaced part is often r e t u r n e d for a vehicle until t h e c o m p o n e n t w o r e o u t or failed. A remanufactura
r - . . . . and is called a c o r e . A c o r e c h a r g e is often totally disassembles t h e c o m p o n e n t , cleans, m a c h i n e s , and performs
- . : : . parts stores w h e n a n e w (or r e m a n u f a c t u r e d l part is pur- all t h e necessary steps to restore t h e part to a "like n e w " look and
r n a t > T • c ire charge usually represents the value of t h e old com- f u n c t i o n , if properly r e m a n u f a c t u r e d , t h e c o m p o n e n t can be ex
- - - B e c a .se it is needed by the r e m a n u f a c t u r e r as a starting p e c t e d to deliver t h e s a m e length of service as a n e w componeni
- - r - - r e m a n ifacturing process, the core charge is also an in- part.
-* - - - ' jrr. the old part for credit (or refund) of t h e core charge. T h e cost of a r e m a n u f a c t u r e d c o m p o n e n t is o f t e n less than the
cost of a n e w part.
Original Equipment Parts Parts at a n e w vehicle dealership
- - - - * ,-ectlv from t h e vehicle m a n u f a c t u r e r or a regional
ifriifci ittj>. If o n e dealership p u r c h a s e s from a n o t h e r dealership,
- - par • gher, but n o w a i t i n g is required. If a dealer M M Do not always assume that a remanufactured component Is less
expensive than a new component. Due to the three-step distribution
-: - a f r o m t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r directly, t h e cost is iower,
process, the final cost to the end user (you) may be close to the same!
oat t h e r e is o f t e n a 7 to 10-day waiting period. O r i g i n a l e q u i p -
mer.r • • . ed O E , are generally of t h e highest quality be-
• - . • • ' ' r: • t p e r f o r m a n c e a n d durability s t a n d a r d s n o t
Used Parts Used parts offer a n o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e to either ne
t r e p l a c e m e n t parts m a n u f a c t u r e r s .
or r e m a n u f a c t u r e d parts. T h e cost of a u s e d c o m p o n e n t is typicJ-
one-half t h e cost of t h e c o m p o n e n t if p u r c h a s e d n e w . Wreckir-
and salvage yards u s e a H o l l a n d e r m a n u a l t h a t lists original e q " 1
Var >-'•. - - -.'... wtU use only OE parts for certain critical
m e n t part n u m b e r s a n d cost a n d c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e s t h e m to oth1
./-.>- » - i .gr. tion system components because, In
parts that a r e t h e s a m e .
••>--' :r.e pr.ce is often higher, the extra quality
> /. --. . . • • .• - • r.-.v to <r.« owner of the vehicle but also to
•t* •• »- v* . -.ot: i it to worry about having to replace WORKING WITH A MENTOR
*mt a w w e e . sepd*
A m e n t o r is a person at t h e job site w h o h e l p s t h e b e g i n n i n g
t e c h n i c i a n , also called t h e t r a i n e e . T h e w o r d m e n t o r comes fro"1
G r e e k mythology. In H o m e r ' s The Odyssey, M e n t o r w a s the fa"'
After m a r k el Parts s r-s :factured to be sold for u s e after c o m p a n i o n a n d friend of Ulysses (Odysseus), t h e King of
t h e v e h i c l e m made a r e o f t e n r e f e r r e d to a s aftermarket parts or Before Ulysses w e n t to t h e Trojan Wars, h e instructed M e n t o r to • '
song S»vteeTeo 27
• rniorfng si . i, and technique* The in"'

T E C H TIP V Work Habit Hint* tot • r r,s : / Ke an a be ^/tiling to help the trainee tw ex
piair • ;(th sfe ed to complete a service procedure.
The following stateni. i> ith '<|« lalionsol
• Leadcfthlp/role model The mentor should take pride m berny
owners lor their techniciai
a profe« ,-r.a 1 service technician and have high ethical and profcs
1. Report to work every day on time Being several minute* earty <•„•:<, aay atonal standards.
is an easy way to show your service manager and fel »
Mentoring a ua r.ee can be frustrating for an experienced tech
you are serious about your gob and career
nician Tr,i» occurs because the mentor needs to verify almost every-
2. If you must be late or absent, call your service managt
thing the trainee does until satisfied that competence has been
3. Keep busy If not assigned to a specific job. ask what a
achieved. Even very bask procedures need to be watched, such as
manager or supervisor wants you to do
hoisting the vehicle, chanjjng the oil and oil filter, plus many other
4. Report any mistakes or accidents immediately to your sup«
operations. As a result, the time taken to help the beginning techni-
leader. Never allow a customer to be the first to discover a mista.
cian will reduce the efficiency, and therefore, the pay of the men-
5. Never lie to your employer or to a customer
tor. However, ahe: several weeks, the trainee can start helping the
6. Always return any borrowed tools as soon as you are done with I
mentor, thereby increasing efficiency.
in clean condition. S/iowthe person you borrowed the tools from that y,
are returning them to the toolbox or workbench
7. Keep your work area neat and orderly. TECH TIP Adhere to t h e Times
8. Always use fender covers when working under the hood
9. Double-check your work to be sure that everything is conect sttftmg a new job at a snap or dealership be sure to ask about the
a. Remember: "If you are forcing something, you are probably doing following
something wrong."
. mat lime aha*} I arrwe si morf> Thu may be different than the
b. Ask for help If unclear as to what to do or how to do it
scheduled worii start-ig tme % example ">e wort day could start at
10. Do not smoke in a customer's vehicle.
8 a m . but Ihe shop tamer or serwce manager may want aU technicians to
11. Avoid profanity.
arrive and start to get -eady to a n * at 7 50 am
12. DO NOT TOUCH THE RADIO! If the radio is turned on and prevents you
• When is b r a * S m e ? B r e a « « a y ! * f ^ not be regularly scheduled and i t s
from hearing noises, turn the volume down. Try to return the vehicle to
important tor the Degmrwig l e c m o a r o iciow and adhere to brea* times
the owner with the radio at the same volume as originally set.
• mien is tottiflme^ln some busy steps. s c Imchpenod s staggered to
be sure that some technicians are aeoap abatable far wort. Always be
NOT! Some shops have a policy that requires employees to turn the
willing to adhere to the r eqyestec -uicfe period.
radio off.
13. Keep yourself neatly groomed including:

a. Shirttail tucked into pants (unless shirt is designed to be worn outside)
TEAMWORK
b. Daily bathing and use of deodorant
T e a m B u i l d i n g A team is a group of individuals working to-
c. Clean hair, regular haircuts, and hair tied back if long
gether to achieve a common goal. Even shops or service depart-
d. Men: daily shave or keep beard and/or mustache neatly trimmed
ments that do not use a team system with a group of technicians is
e. Women: makeup and jewelry kept to a minimum
still a team. All members of the service department are really part
of a team effort working together to achieve efficient vehicle ser
vice and customer satisfaction. The kev to building a team that
and take full charge of the royal household. This meant that Mentor works together is selecting employees that are willing to work to
had to be father figure, teacher, role model, counselor, trusted advisor, gethet While the shop owner or service manager at a dealership
challenger, and encourager to the King's son in order that he become has hiring authority, everv technician should consider what is best
a wise and good ruler. for the entire group to help increase repeat business and satisfied
Therefore, a good definition of a mentor would be, "A highly customers.
qualified individual who is entrusted with the protection and devel-
opment of the young." Leadership Roles As a technician jpins experience. •
A mentor therefore fulfills many roles, such as: often asks for guidance, not only for technical answers, but also for
how to handle other issues in the shop, such as paperwork, ase of
• Teacher—helps teach information and procedures aftermarket parts, and other issues. Therefore, the more experience
• Coach—has trainee practice service procedures the technician has, the more likely he or she will be placed r. a
• Counselor—concerned about, but not trained to offer advice leadership and role model position.
• Advisor—helps with career-type decisions, such as what tools are
needed
• Advocate (stands up for the trainee]—represents and helps the ADVANCEMENT SKILLS
trainee's concerns be expressed to others T h e job of a s e r v i c e t e c h n i c i a n b e c o m e s m o r e v a l u a b l e t o t h e : a
• Role model presents a positive role model every day o r d e a l e r s h i p if w o r k c a n b e a c c o m p l i s h e d quickly a n d w i t h . u t a n v
m i s t a k e s . T h e r e f o r e , b e i n g c a r e f u l t o avoid e r r o r s is t h e first c o n s i d
Q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of a G o o d M e n t o r A good mentor should be e r a t i o n for a n y s e r v i c e t e c h n i c i a n . T h e n , w i t h e x p e r i e n c e , the
assigned to a new technician. Qualifications of a good mentor s p e e d of a c c o m p l i s h i n g t a s k s c a n a n d « . . . i n c r e a s e .
include: M o r e t h a n s p e e d is n e e d e d t o b e c o m e a master t e c h n i c a n . It
• Trade proficiency The person selected should be a highly r e q u i r e s p r o b l e m s o l v i n g a n d critical t h i n k i n g skills, t o o W h i l e re-
skilled technician. g i n n i n g t e c h n i c i a n s a r e usually n o t required to d i a g n o s e p r o b l e m s .
txMMestorcagJMfe f anpi<rur t ©wanJ b e c o m i n g a t r a c e r
• t f r c a s . M y n n s t a r w a n t o n s M t o w a plan w h i c h includes
I. ? n ten*- r t » l a s o n e r n o t e r r P needs to nave another technician finish a repair due sso,

2 " " - raaddfe forpt^site ca^-.- v I Jre ID write down exactly what was done 3R '••eeas
r * TJc* - a c - s i ng damage true) rwd debris or accidents. communication, while very effective, is often not a -ay to
1 v i <k~ \ ac . s v v • r enred diagn Bdc trouble codes '.DTC-. u : or processes For example, the other technician easily
4. .r- im»~ techrjca service bulletins (TSBs. *i not yet been added to the engine, which could c asen-
i, > • • .-S3' : ar i fcfiow a'. diagnostic trouble char: t engine were to be started. If in doubt, write it down
* a » ate . o r s c t 8 K P> •* cause of the problem.
7 • arrf dccuTiaa the work order
" V ~ r - 5 « t rait of the diagnostic process is to locate the root JOB EVALUATION
c a - s e - r * r - o t » e r a . The process of analyzing and evaluating In-
In most jobs, t h e r e is a n evaluation of p e r f o r m a n c e . A beginning tech.
2 - .s !ed critical t h i n k i n g .
nician is n o t e x p e c t e d to p e r f o r m at t h e s a m e level as a n experienced
m a s t e r t e c h n i c i a n b u t s h o u l d be able to d o t h e f o l l o w i n g :
HOUSEKEEPING DUTIES
• F o l l o w i n s t r u c t i o n s . The trainee should follow t h e instructions
~ • • T. J < - :e tecnniciar is usually responsible for k e e p i n g of the m e n t o r or service manager. This includes m a k i n g sure that
- - . v : -. a t a ; .ear. and tidy. Good h o u s e k e e p i n g includes all the person is notified w h e n t h e job has been c o m p l e t e d and if
e f t v to - w a g there w e r e any problems.
m Oeac floor iant or of! s spilled on the floor during a repair • D o n o h a r m . Avoid exerting a lot of force to door panels or other
: . id be cleaned before starting another job. components to help avoid breaking clips or c o m p o n e n t s . Always use
• t r a s k e p t off t h e door—It is easy to allow parts and other the right tool for the job. For example, never use pliers to remove a
> vr*d in and around the toolbox and in comers. How- bolt or nut, which could round off the flats of t h e fastener. Always
; -er on 'he floor makes keeping the area d e a n and think before acting, "Am I going to hurt s o m e t h i n g by doing this?"
ae*. MCCS very difficult • K e e p a n e a t a n d c l e a n a p p e a r a n c e . It is normal to get dirty w h i l e
performing service work on a vehicle. However, after each job is com
pleted or even during the repair, try to keep as clean as possible.
Keeping "Things" off the Floor • A s k t h a t y o u r w o r k b e c h e c k e d . Even though t h e trainee thinks
that the service or repair was d o n e correctly, until confidence has
wer and lor a more professional shop appearance keep
been established, it is wise to ask to have all w o r k double-checked.
n R* *VKX that have to be on the floor and find a place off the
tar«r«al
Never allow a mistake to reach the customer. It is only a

problem If it cannot be corrected.
• I ' e a i a r o u n d e x i t s a n d fire e x t i n g u i s h e r s clear. Do not
-- -; : - , boxes, or shop equipment, such as floor jacks
.- • -(• J- a - e r . s and fire extinguishers. This helps ensure
•.-. > ; • a - " o / e easy access to exits or the fire extinguishers Formal Evaluation T h e m e n t o r a n d / o r s e r v i c e m a n a g e r ma
- *y*nt of an emergency. or m a y n o t c o n d u c t a w r i t t e n e v a l u a t i o n o n a r e g u l a r basis. If a
• Arcid raving c h e m i c a l s in t h e air. To help keep the air in the w r i t t e n e v a l u a t i o n is p e r f o r m e d , this is called a f o r m a l evaluation
»ir t of spray chemicals, such as brake cleaner. A f o r m a l e v a l u a t i o n usually i n c l u d e s m a n y p o i n t s of discussion. Se
rj
• - a r : a. 1 sprav-.ng where it could result In affecting the sample evaluation form.

S y s r x v r breathe.
TECH TIP Don't Cover Up M i s t a k e s

SELF-MANAGEMENT
Everyone makes mistakes While a damaged component or vehicle is never a
-- e I- hmcian should try to maintain a professional
good thing to have happen the wise technician should notify the service
' a! :r For example, if coolant or automatic transmis-
manager or other person in charge as soon as a problem or accident occurs
• J i s h . r or pants, the wise technician w o u l d
Only then can work begin to correct the problem. If a mistake is hidden,
rr, before working on another vehicle. M a n y
eventually someone will learn about the error and then people will not think it
- ~ r t • managers recommend that shirttails always
was wise to ignore or to cover up the situation
m ensure a more professional appearance.
L M t at t h e Shop f r o m a C u s t o m e r ' s
Informal Evaluation in m a n y c a s e s , a b e g i n n i n g technician
PoMtetView activities are s i m p l y o b s e r v e d and noted, which is a type
i n f o r m a l e v a l u a t i o n . Both a r e u s u a l l y d o n e a n d b o t h c a n i n f l u f -
oak professional, step outside
t h e t e c h n i c i a n ' s pay.
r as * customer Now look around
D m the shop gne the appearance
0li MM *r> *. ftci -f> * r*t try to «npr*e the look by asking the
4
0 w*c* to fc M M m t w g r ar attempt to create a NOTE: Most employees are fired from a job as the result of not being
to get along with othets, rather than a lack of technical skills.
ra-j-atSsrviwTeciwtcfep 29
Samp « Technician Evaluation
P l e a s e c h e c k o n e o f t h e s p a c e s t o t h e l e f t of e a c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w h i c h b e s t e x p r e s s e s y o u r j u d g m e n t of t h e
technician:
ATTITUDE-APPLICATION TO W O R K INITIATIVE
outstanding in enthusiasm p r o c e e d s well o n h i s or h e r o w n
very interested and industrious _ p r o c e e d s independently at t i m e s
average in diligence and interest _does all assigned work
somewhat indifferent hesitates
definitely not interested must be pushed frequently
DEPENDABILITY RELATIONS WITH OTHERS
completely dependable exceptionally well accepted

above average in dependability works well with others
usually dependable gets along satisfactorily
sometimes neglectful or careless has difficulty working w/ others
unreliable works very poorly with others
QUALITY O F W O R K QUANTITY OR WORK
excellent usually high output

very good more than average
average normal amount
below average below average
very poor low output, slow
MATURITY J U D G M E N T
shows confidence exceptionally mature

has good self-assurance above average
average maturity usually makes the right decision
seldom assertive often uses poor judgment
timid
ATTENDANCE
brash
regular
ABILITY TO L E A R N irregular
learned work exceptionally well
PUNCTUALITY
learned work readily
regular
average in understanding work
irregular
rather slow in learning
very slow to learn
SUMMARY 7. If a technician is asked to talk to a customer about a repair, discuss the

original problem (concern), what was found (causel, and what was dor-:
1. Professionalism and personal credibility are important to the success of any to correct the fault (correction).
service technician.
8. A technician should always document the work order and f . « the
2. A mentor is an experienced technician who helps a beginning technician vehicle manufacturer's recommended procedures.
in all aspects of the trade.
9. Most technicians are paid on a flat rate basis.
3. A mentor can help a beginning service technician not only quickly learn
how to perform automotive service and repair procedures, but also can
provide career and personal development guidance.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
4. The beginning service technician (trainee) has the responsibility to ask
questions and act in a professional manner. 1. What factors are pan of being a professional service technican:
5. Evaluations can be formal or Informal. 2. What is a mentor?
6. Before a technician starts to work on a vehicle, the work order should 3. What are the roles of a mentor?
be read carefully to determine exactiy what service needs to be 4. What are the responsibilides the beginning technician has to the stop
performed. and or mentor?
t I ft. Wlw i Important lhat a service technician have a valid dri,
and a good driving record? "n*
lO* d I i-i i: whiii' - m and out of the shop 1« required in r l0
7. Wta: v .« 2w e '.V w<rt o r * after the rrpnlr his been ' Ps
b !.,. i. cd i» bo tei'ti'd on public roads to verify cot
and
repairs
c. I n • • "iiipanlf. often require lhat shops only hln mi-
cm wim •• I driving record
d. AD ol the above
CHAPTER QUIZ
7. B i i r u i i . ' 1 Hi*' i •<< 'mldanshould .
i v s d u t e wnrfi factor a. i • 1 1 i -:t 1 letthem know you will be late
* -.wi :.. • a wont b. Speed up
b. S - j i -rimraite with v<"ir co-worker. c. Call the she ind take the day off
c. Apu<og.T*g tf you are wrung d. ituf iii'i t-ji ti go i breakfast before going to the shop
d. * ST* Jfcriw 8. Rat rat'' pay means.
' B* a( cooif jnnanons include • a. The same pay |flat rate) every week
b. The same number of hours every week
i I
c. The technician Is paid according to the job, not by thp number ol
b.
hours worked
c. Nonvvrtui
A AEdtt»4bove d. the technician Is paid overtime
Tht Gi indude and 0. Customer pay (CP) mean-. . ..

a. Customer pays for the repair or service
b. Warranty does not pay for the repair or service
a • m t w , c i r e f t torque, and customer name
c. The technician often gets paid more for each job
b rr,. 1 1 . e, and correction
d. All of the above
c. < i . » , cost, and caller name
d . --r i data, uuse, and cow (of the repair! 10. A mentor performs all of the following except
a. Helps guide diagnosis of a problem
4 . . . .:•-" . t h e w.ik order, what things should be listed?
b. Signs paychecks
a. . ^ i p m e n t used 111 the diagnosis
c. Offers advice on how to do a job
b ' test procedure Ihil was followed
d. Advises on professional behavior
t T * parts that were replaced
d. Aii rf the above
5 . i . , tonier-pay rate is sometimes higher than the fac
- - v v - :• ;„... ;.in 8 say. that the factory fiat rate times are usually
• . - a - ' -r rime) compared to aftermarket flat rate time guides.
jecrx'ijan is correct?
a. Technician A only
B. Trthmcan B only
c 6< 't Te nnicians A and b
d Technician A nor 8
C H A P T E R
!J8 i c . r r v t S
5
I
Technician Certification
After studying Chapter 5, the roader will be able to: Explain the requirements for becoming an ASE certified technician.
' questions asked on the certification tests • Explain how to prepare to take the ASE certification tests • Describe test
* » .•> • . : J p i/> the certification tests • Explain how to register and take the ASE certification tests
* £ 1 TFUMS question • A5.E (National Institute for Automotive service Excellence) • distracter • experience-based questions
• . . . . n t nw:iy type question • master certified technician • most-likely type question • multiple-choice question
• • !• •. B , • tion • work experience
Excellence, belter known by Its abbreviation, ASE.

AUTOMOBILE TECHNICIAN CERTIFICATION TESTS
Figure 5 I. J
and c o m p a n i e s o f t e n certify AS I Is a nonprofit association founded in 1 9 7 2 , a n d its main r J
..", .).'. •:..-.. . -i naViriaily r e i o g n i z e d certificate Is lo I m p r o v e t h e quality of vehicle s e r v i c e t h r o u g h s t a n d a r d ' '
National ln\titute for Automotive Service tesUng a n d v o l u n t e e r certification.
and locattorn of the
• BT? /on can register lot the
I • iona that m the registration booklet

2 . H- ."ww.s /'.com
3. r.-k?hor,» *i 806) 427 3273
' ' ASE toll fre at I 888-ASE TEST or visit the Web site lot
details about cost and dates.
How Many Years of Work Experience A r e Needed?

ASE reqn res that you have t w o ot m o r e years of full-time, hands
WE SUPPORT
on w o r k i n g e x p e r i e n c e ither as a n automobile, truck, track
VOLUNTARY TECHNICIAN e q u i p m e n t , or school b u s technician, engine machinist, or in colli-
CERTIFICATION THROUGH sion repair, refir; thing, or d a m a g e analysis and estimating for certi-
fication, e x c e p t ai rioted below. If you have not previously provided
N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e tor w o r k experience information, you will receive a Work Experience
AUTOMOTIVE Report Form w i t h y o u r admission ticket. You must complete and
return this form t o receive a certificate.
SERVICE
EXCELLENCE S u b s t i t u t i o n s tar Wtork Experience You may receive credit for
I - .-_.-.. , u p t o o n e year of d i e two-year w o r k experience requirement by

substituting relevant formal training in one, or a combination, of
t h e following:
Figure 5 - 1 The ASE logo (Courtesy ot ASE) High S c h o o l T r a i n i n g : T h r e e full years of training, e i t h e r in
a u t o m o b i l e / t r u c k / s c h o o l b u s repair or in collision repair,
What Areas o fVehicle Service Are Covered b ythe ASE refinishing, or d a m a g e estimating, may be substituted for o n e
Tests? Automobile test service areas include: year of w o r k e x p e r i e n c e .
A1 Engine Repair P o s t - H i g h S c h o o l T r a i n i n g : Two fu; years of post-high school

training in a public or private trade school, technical institute,
A2 A u t o m a t i c T r a n s m i s s i o n / T r a n s a x l e
c o m m u n i t y or four-year college, or in an a p p r e n t i c e s h i p program
A 3 M a n u a l Drive Train a n d Axles
may be c o u n t e d as o n e year of w o r k e x p e r i e n c e .
A 4 S u s p e n s i o n a n d Steering S h o r t C o u r s e s : For s n o r t e r p e n o d s of post-high school training,
A 5 Brakes you m a y substitute t w o m o n t h s of training for o n e m o n t h of w o r k
A 6 E l e c t r i c a l / E l e c t r o n i c Systems experience.
A 7 H e a t i n g a n d Air C o n d i t i o n i n g You m a y receive full credit for t h e two-year w o r k experience

A 8 Engine P e r f o r m a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t w i t h t h e following:
If a technician takes and passes all eight of t h e a u t o m o b i l e tests C o m p l e t i o n of A p p r e n t i c e s h i p : SaUsfactory c o m p l e t i o n of either

and has achieved t w o or m o r e years of w o r k e x p e r i e n c e , ASE will a three- or four-year b o n a fide a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p r o g r a m .
a w a r d t h e designation of A S E C e r t i f i e d M a s t e r A u t o m o b i l e
Are T h e r e Any H a n d s - O n A c t i v i t i e s o n t h e ASE Test?
T e c h n i c i a n . C o n t a c t ASE for o t h e r certification areas.
No. All ASE tests a r e w r i t t e n using objective type questions,
H o w Can I Contact ASE? m e a n i n g that y o u m u s t select t h e correct a n s w e r f r o m four possible
alternatives.
ASE Toll-free: 1-877-ASE-TECH ( 2 7 3 - 8 3 2 4 )
W h o W r i t e s t h e ASE Q u e s t i o n s ? Ail ASE st
101 Blue Seal Drive, SE 1 -703 669-0600
written by a panei of industry experts, educators, and experienced
Suite 101 W e b site: i w v w . a s e . c o m ASE certiSed service technicians. Each question is reviewed by the
Leesburg, VA 2 0 1 7 5 committee a n d it is checked for the following
W h e n Are the Tests Given and Where? T h e ASE w r i t t e n • T e c h n i c a l l y a c c u r a t e . All test questions so the ^ x "
tests are given a t h u n d r e d s of test sites in early May a n d early and only test for vehicle manufacturer's recommended ser.~:e pn
N o v e m b e r of each year. cedures. Slang is not used nor are any aftermarket accessories
eluded on the ASE test.
• M a n u f a c t u r e r n e u t r a l . All efforts e mide
cle or procedures that are manufacturer s p e d : c s -ch a. - rwri
NOTt: AS! also offers tests at other limes ol the year electronic!iy. Go to
the ASE Web site for details. Motors vehicles or to Toyotas. A service tecnniciar sh lid feet
comfortable about being able to answer the quesu >r s re gardiess ?
the type or brand of vehicle.
D e a d l i n e for registration is usually in late M a r c h for t h e M a y tests • Logical a n s w e r s . Ail effort ad .-;
and In late S e p t e m b e r for t h e N o v e m b e r tests Consult t h e AS! (not just the correct answers are possible. While this may seem v
31 StvTT*
- ivr • .> r e s t a t e to test for real Knowledge of the Eianuftcrurec Is uthracan B correct? The answer is yes becausi
S&MCi open r-;-,-lator with a weak spring could be the cause of lower fli
Sec pr.ss«e. The corroatanswer is therefore c (Both Techn.
• fUoJosB m w r • : ms i:-.- : 3> be sure that the correct ^ oBo
B arc correct-,.
. • - • - . - •- •; answer that one k-ttet such
c, > ' asad r v r e 'JUT, a s f otherSetter. • Mcsi-iiki ly-type questions. a p e of question asks 0.
• ExpeTHTftoe-based q u e s t i o n s . P r e quest .•:.as asked are generally the four a ssible items listed is the most likely to cause the j - l e m
-.. . .••.- b s e c v . c -'.-jns. but rather require experience t o or s'.mtptom. This tvpe of quest cn is often considered to be -
sr. •-.. - a . - a r v . Spec.ncatjans are not asked for, but instead a because recent expenenoe may iead you to answer t h e que:. . ^
.-.est. i.- • : w h a t w o u l d moot likely occur if the unit is out-of- correctiv because even though it is possible, it is n o t the " m o jkely.-
c a o o c s co-aJcj be a s e e a
Example:
Key and Distracier 7 r . . k e y is t h e correct answer. As part of Which of the items below is the most iikely to cause blue exhaust at
av A- sessions, t h e c o m m i t t e e is asked to create o t h e r an- engine start?
a~- a - . a r s _-.a feasible but are n o t c o r r e c t T h e s e incorrect an- a. Valve stem seals
• • - . r-a - a aa distracters b. Piston rings
c. Clogged PCV valve
Wfeat T y p e s of Q u e s t i o n s A r e A s k e d o n t h e A S E Test? d. A sruck oil pump regulator valve
A1 A>i: :esr q i f c s n o r s are o b j e c t i v e This m e a n s that there will not
Analysis:
a s a - r ^ t o e s w h e r e y o u will have to w r i t e an answer, instead, all
. • . rave dc is select o n e of t h e four possible a n s w e r s and place The correct answer is a because valve stem seals are the most likely to cause
• mart; r. t h e c o r r e c t place o n t h e score s h e e t this problem. Answer b is not correct because even though worn piston
rings can cause the engine to bum oil and produce blue exhaust smoke, it is
• M u l t i p l e - c h o i c e q u e s t i o n s . This type of question has one cor- not the most likely cause of blue smoke at engine start. Answers c and d are
•car or mostiv correa a n s w e r , c a l l e d the key: and three incorrect not correct because even though these items could contribute to the engine
ar-. A en. A muitiple-choice question example: burning oil and producing blue exhaust smoke, they are not the most likely.
v\ parr of an automotive engine does not move?
• Except-type q u e s t i o n s . ASE will s o m e t i m e s use a question that
a. v includes answers that are all correct e x c e p t o n e . You h a v e to deter
b. ---caagrod mine which of the four answers is not correct.
c . Block
d. V£ve Example:
A radiator is being pressure tested using a hand-operated tester. This test will
Tr.e -at answer is c block). This type of question asks for a
check for leaks in all except:
.-- ;.-.a answer. Answer a pistoni. b connecting rod), and
d . ; .- move during normal engine operation. The best an- a. Radiator
* er a c block because even though it may vibrate, it does not b. Heater core
c. Water pump
m o v e as m e other parts do.
d. Evaporator
• Technician A a n d Technician B questions. This type of question
Analysis:
_ generally considered to be the most difficult according to service
t e c h r a c a o s '.'.ho take the ASE test. A situation or condition is usually The correc; answer is d because the evaporator is not included in the cool-
ins system and will not be pressurized during this test. Answers a . radiator),
a r c r.vo technicians (A and B) say what they think could be
b , neater core), and c (water pumpl are all being tested under pressure
r.e correct answer and you must decide which technician is correct
exerted on the cooling system by me pressure tester
a. 7- .a-i.-. A only
b. - ar, Bonly • Least-likety-type q u e s t i o n s . A n o t h e r type of q u e s t i o n asked on
c . i a r 7ear_-jaans A and B many ASE tests is a question that asks w h i c h of t h e following is
d. - a -r Techmciaa A nor B least likely to be the cause of a problem or s y m p t o m . In other
The oes r A«V to answer this type of question is to carefully read the words, all of t h e a n s w e r s are possible, b u t it is u p to t h e reader to
a or. a r : consider Technician A and Technician B answers to determine w h i c h a n s w e r is t h e least likely t o b e c o r r e c t .
> ... a. :<a a mue or false question. If Technician A is correct,
Example:
rr.TC xi the res' by Technician A the letter T for true. (Yes, you can
Which of the following is the least likely cause of low oil pressure?
A-- ar. m e t e s t If Technician B is also correct, write the letter T
r.-t Tecnrucian B. T h e n mark c on your test score sheet, for a. Clogged oil pump screen
i t / : v j c h m o a n s are correcL b. Worn main bearing
c. Worn camshaft bearing
Example: d. Worn oil pump
v . - - : . j v s^caisfcg an engine that has lower than specified fuel
Analysis:
> • r.-rar A •:*£,"> tha' the fuel pump could be the cause. Techni-
z*r. i v . w are fye> prepare rejaa'a tor could be the cause, Tne correct answer is c because even though worn camshaft bearings can
•fete", :cc-eslcar 3 correct? cause low oil pressure, me other answers are more likely to be the cause.
S h o u l d I G u e s s If I D o n ' t K n o w t h e A n s w e r ? Yes. A ^
b . Te: - ,
tests s i m p l y r e c o r d t h e c o r r e c t a n s w e r s , a n d b y g u e s s i n g , y o u ^ •
c b..::- ^ n s k and 6
h a v e a t least a 2 5 % (1 o u t of 4) c h a n c e . If y o u l e a v e t h e answer
- - - - - - :.,ir; A nor B
blank, it will b e scored as b e i n g i n c o r r e c t . I n s t e a d of g u e s s i n g entire '
teaiyws: try t o e l i m i n a t e as m a n y of t h e a n s w e r s a s p o s s i b l e a s n o t b e i n g v ^
.. r A c >r«r. - r.e a r . . vft seta ase J the fuel pump was de- likely. If y o u c a n e l i m i n a t e t w o o u t of t h e four, y o u h a v e increase®
> a ^ a , ,-<>-.-,.- M- ... r m a n specified by the vehicle y o u r c h a n c e of g u e s s i n g t o 5 0 % ( t w o o u t of f o u r ) .
j / Newer Cftar.gi ,,
i Some research has shown thi.' ,

is human nature to read too m .
How f i-.'O t o -.'ui'. i i B w the Results? You
question as it was written wilj rece.ve wi itier. nonce withi; two itiontns alter the test. Notf-
Is E a c h T e s t t h e S a m e : .ve; Y.rvn
~passed a test(s) or that more preparation is needed," mear.ir^
writes many questions for each area ar,d •
that you did not .core high enough to pass the test ana oe re-
bank" for each test session. You may see some or - . .
warded with certification in the content area.
tions if you take the same test in the spring ar . a w r.
fall, but you will also see many different question'. Wiii i R e c e i v e N o t i c e of W h i c h Q u e s t i o n s I M i s s e d ?
ASE sends out a summary of your test results, which shows now
Can I Write or D r a w on the Test F o r m ? Yes. You may many questions you missed in each category, but not individual
write or figure on the test, but do not write on the answer forrr. r
it can be misread during scanning and affect your score. You turn
in your test and the answer form at the end of the session and the Will A S E S e n d M e t h e Correct A n s w e r s to t h e
test is not reused. Q u e s t i o n s I M i s s e d S o I Will K n o w H o w to A n s w e r
T h e m in t h e F u t u r e ? No. ASE will not send you the answers
Can I S k i p Q u e s t i o n s I D o n ' t K n o w a n d C o m e B a c k to to test questions.
Answer Later? Yes. You may skip a question if you wish, but
be sure to mark the question and return to answer the question
later. It is often recommended to answer the question or guess TEST-TAKING TIPS
and go on with the test so that you do not run out of time to go Start N o w Even .:' you have beets working on vehicles for a
back over the questions. long time, taking ar. .ASE certification test can be difficult. The
questions will not include h o w things work, or other "textbook^
H o w M u c h T i m e D o I H a v e to Take the Tests? All ASE knowledge. Trie questions are based or. Teal-world" diagnosis and
test sessions are 4 hours and 15 minutes long. This is usual ;v service. The tests may seem tricky to some because the wrong an-
enough time for you to take up to four certification tests. ASE swers are designee to be Similar to the correct answer.
recommends that you do not attempt to take more than If this is your first time taking the test or you are going to
225 questions or four tests at any one session. The ASE tests are recertify, start n o w to prepare. Allocate time each day to study.
spread over four days so it is possible to take all eight ASE test
areas during a test period (spring or fall). P r a c t i c e Is I m p o r t a n t Many service technicians do not .ike
taking tests. As a result, many technicians rush through the test to
Will I H a v e t o K n o w S p e c i f i c a t i o n s a n d G a u g e R e a d i n g s ? get the pain over with quick!" Also, many service technicians have
Yes and no. You will be asked the correct range for a particular lots of experience or. many different vehicles. This is w h a t makes
component or operation and you must know about what the speci- them good at what tney do. cut w h e n an everyday problem is put
fication should be. Otherwise, the questions will state that the into a question forma: —,_iiple choice), the answer may n o : b e as
value is less than or greater than the allowable specification. The clear as your experience has taught you.
question will deal with h o w the service technician should proceed
or what action should be taken. Keys to Success T h e keys to successful test taking include:
C a n I T a k e a B r e a k d u r i n g t h e T e s t ? Yes, you may use the • Practice answering similar-type questions.

restroom after receiving permission from the proctor of the test site. • Carefully read each question two times to make sure you
understand the question.
C a n I L e a v e E a r l y If I H a v e C o m p l e t e d t h e T e s t ( s ) ? Yes, • Read each answer.
you may leave quietly after you have completed the testis). You • Pick the best answer
must return the score sheet(s) and the test booklets as you leave. • Avoid reading too much into each question.
H o w A r e the Tests Scored? The ASE tests are machine • Do not change ar. answer unless you are sure that the answe - is
scored and the results tabulated by American College Testing ACT . definitely wrong.
• Look over the glossary of automotive terms for words thai are r. . :
What Percentage Do I Need to Achieve to Pass the A S E familiar to you.
Test? While there is no exact number of questions that must be
T h e best preparation is practice, practice, and more practice.
answered correctly in each area, an analysis of the test results inc.-
This is where using the ASE Test Prep practice tests car. he.p.
cate that the percentage needed to pass varies from 61% to 69
Therefore, in order to pass the Engine Repair (Al i ASE certification
Prepare Mentally Practicing also helps relieve another :•:::-.
test, you will have to answer about 39 questions correct out of oG.
tiai problem many people have called "chronic test s'.r.crerr.;.*
In other words, you can miss about 21 questions and snl. pass.
This condition is basically an inability to concentrate or i o c s c a r
ing a test. The slightest noise, fear of failure, and worries about
W h a t H a p p e n s If I D o N o t P a s s ? D o I H a v e t o W a i t a Y e a r
other things ail contribute. The best medicine is practice, practice,
Before Trying A g a i n ? No. If you fail to achieve a passing
and more practice. With practice, test taking t e c ernes s<c
score on any ASE test, you can take the test again at the next test-
one nature.
ing session (in May or November).
D o I H a v e t o P a y A n o t h e r R e g i s t r a t i o n F e e If I A l r e a d y Prepare Physically Be prepared physical . Get. : . ,

Paid It O n c e ? Yes. The registration fee is due at every test session and eat right.
34 secxm
2 . A u t o m a t i c T r a n s m i s s i o n / T r a n s a x l e s ( A 2 ) ASE T U»t
One Month b e f o r e ttw Test
- • •. dne r s I w * . On average you will need four to Questions • "tag*

sa of stutfv 1 * eetfr. test that you are taking. Content Area in Test Test
• ' ,. tf - ASE Test F*«p Or r»e test preparation service three or 25
A General Transmission/Transaxle Diagnosis s s r i
r**e ; t » s a »*ek lor four practice.
1. Mechanical/Hydraulic Systems (ill
• Stej - w i a-lerxl or a poup if possible. ZBectroric Systems (14|
B. Transmission/Transaxle Maintenance 4 8% I
The Week before the Test and Adjust.
• ~ ; •• ic • -••• of about t w o hours of reviewing for each C. In-Vetiide Transmission/Transaxle Repair 8 16%
test b r a g taken.
D. Ott-Vehide Transmission/Transaxle Repair 13 26%
• '.'j- ire you Icvov. how to get to the testing center. If possible
1. Removal. Disassembly, and Assembly (3)
irr»« to 6te test site and locate the room. Z Gear Train. Shafts. Bushings. Oil Pump, and
• v - t ptentv of rest. Case (4)
3. Fnctkxi and Reaction Units (4)
T h e D a y of t h e Test
Total 50 100%
» >rj2v '.me ts over.
• êec • wort schedule light or get the day off if possible.
• Eat a - a ight meal the evening of the t e s t 3 . M a n u a l D r i v e T r a i n a n d A x l e s ( A 3 ) ASE T a s k List
• : - s j i a arae glass of water one to two hours before the test.
The era;- and body work on electncal impulses, and water is used Questions in Percentage
Content Area Test of Test
as a conductor.)
• \rr . •'as; 30 minutes early at the test center. Be ready to start 15%
A. Clutch Diagnosis and Repair 6
or. time.
B. Transmission Diagnosis and Repair 7 18%
W h a t to B r i n g to the Test C. Transaxle Diagnosis and Repair 8 20%
• A photo ID. D. Drive (Half) Shaft and Universal Joint/ 5 13%

• • Entry Ticket that came with your ASE packet. Constant Velocity (CV) Joint Diagnosis and
• "wo sharpened #2 pencils. Repair (Front And Rear Wheel Drive)
E. Rear Axle Diagnosis and Repair 7 17%

D u r i n g the Test 1. Ring and Pinion Gears (3)
Z Differential Case Assembly (2)
• BREATHE oxygen is the most important nutrient for the brain).
3. Limited Slip Differential (1)
• Read every question TWICE.
4. Axle Shafts (1)
• Read ALL the ANSWERS.
• . . have trouble with a question, leave it blank and continue. F. Four-Wheel Drive Component Diagnosis 7 17%
and Repair
At t h e end of the test, go back and try any skipped questions.
Frequently, you wiU get a hint in another question that follows.) Total 40 100%
T h e r e are eight automotive certifications including:

4. Suspension and Steering (A4) ASE Task List
1. Engine Repair (A I) ASE Task List
Questions in Percentage
Questions Percentage Content Area Test of Test
Content Area in Test ot Test A. Steering Systems 10 25%
A General Engine Diagnosis 15 28% Diagnosis and Repair
1. Steering Columns and Manual
B Carder Head and Valve 10 23% Steering Gears (3)
Trar Degrees and Repair
2. Power-Assisted Steering Units (4)
C Engine BtoOr Diagnosis and Repair 10 23% 3. Steering Linkage (3)
0 u c n a f t o i i and Cooling e 14% B. Suspension Systems 11 28%
Sftaerr, Diagnosis and Repair Diagnosis and Repair
E. PuB. b e c t n a i ignition, and 1. Front Suspensions (6)
7 12%
2. Rear Suspensions (5)
Ertausr Systers Inspection and Service
3. Miscellaneous Sen/ice (2)
Total 50 100%
C. Related Suspension and 2 5%
Steering Service
0. Wheel Alignment Diagnosis, 12 30%

Adjustment, and Repair
E. Wheel and Tire Diagnosis and Repair 5 12%

Total 40 100%
5. B r a k e s (A5) ASE Task L
Question, Percentage
Content Area Test ef T o t
A. Hydraulic System
Diagnosis and Repair 9. Refnârai '
1. Master Cylinders (non-ABt., ',)
2. Fluids, Lines, and Hoses (3 1. Compressor and Out. r V
3. Valves and Switches (non-ABS) (4) 2. Bra(XT* v
4. Bleeding. Flushing, and Leak Related Components
Testing (non-ABS) (4)
C, rteai - g a n c En r e ' < - - 4 10%
B. Drum Brake Diagnosis and Repair 5 11% Diagnosis and fie;>a»
C. Disc Brake Diagnosis and Repair 10 D. Operat ' - j V - ' * '•* vk Re ated 19 34%
D. Power Assist Units 4 Controls Dagnosre and ftepar
Diagnosis and Repair 1. Bechcal
ZVacuxtVMecftaracS
E. Miscellaneous Diagnosis and Repair 7 16% 3. Automate and Semi Q u o r a t e
F. Antilock Brake System 7 16% Heating. itentMIng, and
Diagnosis and Repair A/CSyStema 5-
Total 45 100% L Refrigerant Reawer 4 12%
Recycling, and Handling
6. E l e c t r i c a l S y s t e m s ( A 6 ) ASE T a s k List Total 50 100%
Questions in Percentage 8 . E n g i n e P e r f o r m a n c e A 8 ASE T a s k List

Content Area Test of Test
A. General Electrical/Electronic 13 26% Questions m Percentage
System Diagnosis Content Area Test of Test
B. Battery Diagnosis and Service 4 8% A Genera Engine Diac- os s 10 17%
C. Starting System 5 10% B. Ignition System Diagnosis and Repair 10 17%

Diagnosis and Repair C.Fue: Air Inductor anCEnaist It 18%
D. Charging System 5 10% Systems Diagnosis and l e o a r
Diagnosis and Repair D. Emissions Conjol Systems 9 15%
E. Lighting Systems 6 12% Diagnose and Repair
Diagnosis and Repair 1. Positive Crarocase V e t later "
1. Headlights, Parking Lights, 2. Exhaust Gas ftearcjiaso- 3
Taillights, Dash Lights, and 3. Secondary Air Irnector lAF and
Courtesy Lights (3) Catalytic Converter {2
2. Stoplights, Turn Signals, 4. Evaporative Emissions G c - . s 3
l
Hazard Lights, and Back-up E. Computerized Engine ConMte 16 27%
Lights (3) Diagnosis and Repair InckxtngOB)
i
F. Gauges, Warning Devices, and 6 12% F. Engine Electrical System; 4 6%
Driver Information Systems Diagnosis and Repair
Diagnosis and Repair 1. Battery i
G. Horn and Wiper/Washer 3 6% 2. Starting System "
Diagnosis and Repair
3. Charging System I
16% Total 60 100%

H. Accessories Diagnosis and Repair
1. Body (4)
8
, I
2. Miscellaneous (4)
Total 50 100% To b e c o m e c e r t i f i e d by ASE. t h e s e r v . c e t e c h n i c i a n m a s t nave

t w o y e a r s of e x p e r i e n c e a n d pass a t e s t in e a c h area. If a t e c h n i c i a n
passes all e i g h t a u t o m o t i v e certification tests, t h e n t h e t e : h n a c ar a
c o n s i d e r e d a m a s t e r certified a u t o m o b i l e serv.ce t e c h n i c i a n . Test
a r e a d m i n i s t e r e d t w i c e a y e a t ; i n M a y and again m N o v e m b e r Reg
istration a n d p a y m e n t a r e r e q u i r e d to be e n t n ear; r Apn •.-•
M a y test a n d in e a r l y O c t o b e r for t h e N< member test. > • res .
a r e mailed to v o u r h o m e or w o r k a d d r e s s a b a n e r • week;
after t h e testis! is t a k e n .
Jt l.'S
CANADA'S AUTOMOTIVE APPRENTICESHIP CHAPTER QUIZ

P R 0 6 R A M (RED SEAL) I. Which ASE certification test would cover experience in reading
I v arwaa.
• t . r r r . - « s a n d territories but Q u e b e c and British schematic?
I n t e r P r o v i n c i a i (IP) C e r t i f i c a t e required. An ap- a. Aft
o-vnaefc-.-.ip . - - c a m at place that takes a m i n i m u m of four b. A7
ears ~ - - ths m a shop and about t w o m o n t h s in c. A 8
d. All of the above are possible
- -rjir r ri r or the four years. Most apprentices m u s t un-
der* >: r of training before they can complete the IP e x 2. H many ASF •:• pj.- t) to become a mastet l0tjvt
x- \ 5 E c t r a r k a t i o c s are currently used o n a voluntary technician?

1 0 0 3 , h o w e v e r an I P Certificate Is still required. O t h e r
b. 6
" : ~ oove technicians may be required in s o m e cases.
c. 4
. .n t - en - r a n m e n ta. substances, liquefied p e t r o l e u m gas. or
d. 2
steam operators.
3. How manv year- of exp- -ence are required to achieve ASE cei n j
a. 8 '
b. 6
* m \ TSJM driver's cenv s a must for anv automotive service C. 4
d. 2
4. Credit for how many years of work experience can be substituted by
attending automobve service training?
UPOATE TRAINING a. None—no substitution for work experience is permitted
b. I year
K A S E certifications expire after five years and t h e technician
c. 2 years
r e e d s to take a recertification test to remain certified. As vehicles
d. 3 years
a n d t e c r r o l o g y change, it is important that all technicians attend
5. When taking an ASE certification test, .
:a:e ai asses. Most experts r e c o m m e n d that each technician
a. You can write on the test itself if you wish
- . ; nave at least 4 0 hours lone full weekl of u p d a t e training
b. No marks are allowed on the test
ever. ear. Update training classes can be found through m a n y
c. Only one test can be taken
sources, including; d. Some hands-on activities may be required
1. Mar parts stores and warehouse distributors provide training 6. A type of test question not asked on the ASE certification test Is
- asses throughout the year. a. Most likely
1. ate or regional associations, such as the Automotive Service Asso- b. Least likely
awr. •'-.'.w.asashop.orgi. offer update conferences. c. Fill in the blank
d. Multiple choice
3. : eges or training companies offer update training. Other
• \ - ng can be found listed on the International Automotive 7. Which type of question is the same as two true-and-false type quesdons?
Tecftn a a n s Network (www.iam.net). a. All except type
b. Technician A and Technician B
c. Least likely type
SUMMARY d. Most likely type
1. - • ... 3D atoreviation for the National Institute for Automotive Service 8. Technician A says that you should guess if you do not know the correct an
f>-;<•. a nonprofit association founded In 1972. swer. Technician B says that ASE will send you the correct answers to the
questions you missed with your test results. Which technician is correct?
2. : ; ' \SE test content areas Include: A! -Engine Repair, AH—Auto
- a a c Trar - . ion, A3—Manual Dnve Train and Axles, A4—Suspen-
b. Technician B only
- »nd Steering, A5—Brakes, Afr—Electrical/Electronic Systems,
c. Both Technicians A and B
H*a* r.g and Air Conditioning, and A8—Engine Perfonnance.
d. Neither Technician A nor B
J. > • - ar ASE certified technician, two years of experience are re-
9. The written ASE tests are given every _
. . • • : ; • ' ' evLng a passing test score on one or more ASE certlflca-
a. January and June
ten ten.
b. May and November
* ': -led on an ASE certification test Include: multiple c. February and September
ca. ,, Technician A and Technician B quesdons, most-likely- d. March and October
- • • except rvpequestions, and least likely-type questions.
10. A technician should do all of the following to prepare to take the AS!
certification test except .
REVIEW QUESTIONS a. (let a good night's sleep the night before the test
b. Try to keep work schedule light the day of the test
1. Whir JP» r e e^jit ASE test areas? c. Eat a big meal
2. ' - e> /-mer ASE tests given? d. Have photo ID, entry ticket, and f»2 pencils
X • v . ' / qp*s'.ons are asked on the ASE certification tests?
* do to help prepare to take the certification tests?
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ti V • )
fe . * -
te Hm
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HB"<:
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C H A P T E R
f
' SrSS S S l E I i f — S ^ j B B f •Znf^ "' " i •
fc JtfenttûaSons -"tee ^ a ^ p f ^ . e c ^ o r start.be JJfecoss
• .Jo.sately .handle,tooIs,an.(tisUop..equipjm,eq,t ^ .Oescobelw.w.to pKjperiy.use a . 5 c e . a x 5 p g u ^ e t - » . D s c t ^ . s h c s s a ^ procedures.
f p ^ J f m & M S h * .biiwpsOP •• decibel (dB) .eye .wash station-* SreJMaciwts • ffl&sS• ^ ^ p r c ^ e . e q u i p m ^ ^
v > * .spontaceous.corobus.tioo
^mSOmfflOIECIlVEfQUlPidJENT - M .tatex.<ufgj<al glove*. T h e s e g f t v e s a r e re?at5yeSv Ine^gsrsSve.

>jt o f t -r
Safety is no.t j u s t a b u z z w o i d o n .a p o s t e r i n .the w o r k area. Safe
.solvents.
w o r k jiabits.can x e d u c e , a c c i d e n t s , a n d Aajuries._ease .the workload.
'-.aQdiieep.ynpJloy.ees p a i n i r e e .
.Safety Glasses l i f e . m o s t i m p o r t a n t p.e*s.ojaal proactive
.glasses, .wjjicli m e e t s t a n d a r d A N . S U 8 7 . 1 , See f i g u r e 6 - 1 ,
>
^ S f e e H , o . e , d . , S f o o e s .Steel-toed,safety s h o ^ . a r e . a i s o ,a g » d in-
. -.vestment & e f i g u r e if safety .shoes a r e n o t available, t h e n "
^ o m d a u t o j t j x o . t i v . e liqiolds s u c h ^ e j a g j x e ofl J i a t i f a e r e > Jwosmis- - II' - "I - • T - • -•• •- " " 1 '
Figure 6-5 "Remove a ;ewelry before performing service work on any vehicle
^ f n H flâma gimt «ucr m men <fom ate »«atttte * tenia turn
t m c RE » « «M> t » f M to * m f t Vln»l ad J long tune and olten car
» pnnec* f M rare* from i)n and pmtft materials •OTfc A typical lawnmower produces noise at a level of about 110 dB.
Tha meant that everyone who uses a lawnmower or other lawn or garder.
equipment should wear ear protection.
• Woyl ( l o m . T h e * j?Jov« are also inexpensive and are not
t/f pt, oil. or totvents.
• P o t y u r e O u n e tfovet. These gloves are rriore expensive, yet very
"a*"* E •SYs.fr these gloves are also not affected by gas, oil, P r o f e s s i o n a l B e h a v i o r in t h e S h o p Is a Must
or v. - w do rend to be slipper/.
• N i t r i e |love*. These gloves are exactly like latex gloves, but To be respected as a professional sen/ice technician and for safety, always
*•• ' jfie- bv i t i , oil, or solvents, yet they tend to be behave in a professional manner These behaviors include but are not limited to
the following:
• M e d i a n * • ( l o m . Tnese gloves are usually made of synthetic
. Show respect to other technicians and employees For example, the shop
.»v*r spandez and provide thermo protection, as well as
owner or service manager may not always be nght, but they are always IW
• ' g r . - " See f i g u r e 6 3. boss
i Cap ter•miciam working under a vehicle should • Avoid horseplay or practical |okes
bump cap ear! a. . - . • . • . • der vehicle object:, • Act as if a customer is observing your behavior at all times because this is
<r: .• - •• t, 4. often the case
J, a n d C l o t h i n g Rerr <<ve > w e i r / that may get

ry 'ir act ai a conductor to an exposed electrical
SAFETY TIPS FOR TECHNICIANS
. Seeh®*e
v
'•»" K'-ep your hands clean by washing • When lifting any object, get a secure grip w i t h solid footing. KeeP
" " • -*'< W> '•'>'• » * ' "a* a' least 110 h 14TC). Avoid loose the load close to your body to minimize the strain. Lift with Y our
*.<••/,', A to, ear protection .'.ould be worn If the legs and arms, not your back.
•isd a - . • 1 i ... rj-âr y w raise your voice Isound level • Do not twist your body w h e n carrying a load. Instead, pivot yo u r
< decibels |dB| feet to help prevent strain o n the spine.
• Ask for help w h e n moving or lifting heavy oi.?
• Push a r ea y ot<
way you should work w i n ten ver
and a bolt or nut loosens, y• - • • ' re -m
hand's) forward. Thi ly r<-*
ln|uiy.)
• Always connect an exha a t h e ' o t r . e
vehicle to help prevent die build 'jp of cartsc
closed garage space. See figure 6 - 6 .
• W h e n standing, keep obje< , p a " :
working between chest height and waist he i :
tasks that are at elbow height.
• Always be sure t h e hood Is securely he : op
(b)
Figure 9-76 A om -- - -tn •ae. Caf-p *-.-•• - t<r

orange a g fc ne® r e a m «eccn<cap * - e w e the da** 9e»or? Wen***
10 dOGe Vv TOOC The nooc cooc ae fient ^fcvee• jietf X> dose fee nootf IMBI
tie c a r t r giace
S h o p O a t h Disposal
Figure 6 - 6 Always connect an exhaust hose to the tailpipe ol the engine of a venoe to be
run inside a building.
Always depose t* o»» snoc a r r : - a i enaosec : o o & ' e r t pre»e-? a ' •«•
See Figure 6 - : m e w n e : - i-e r — « - r ~ e "••/» or
bench a cftenea eactior car x a r M c - car me d o r ever i
an open Same. process sf ^ f t o r Mflbout an open o
spontaneous eonOusiwn
Figure 6 - 7 a A crude but effective method to use locking pliers w ttw - >ated — — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
shaft of a hood strut Locking pliers should only be used on defective stiuts because tf» ,j«s Ftgure6-8 Moilyshoi: >aeM . - „» . ...
of the pliers can damage the strut shaft he® prevent spontaneous complex*
«i SB.' \
ELECTRICAL CORD S A F E T Y
T E C H TIP wfOi SwDfttMn^ S o f t w
Use correctly g r o u n d e d t h r e e p r o n g s o c k e t s a n d extensl> rds to
- s m t i .V s o - i w v be sure to use a tool that is softer than what operate pi>wer tools. Some tools use only t w o - p r o n g plug esure
• .>jei-T ic x v i OP fc j i - M i damage Examples are given m the following these are double insulate d a n d repair or r e p l a c e a n y elec; cords
that are cut or d a m a g e d t o p r e v e n t t h e possibility of a n ctrlcal
shock. W h a n not in i.v k v r -iectrical c o r d s off t h e floor •event
tripping >ver t h e m , i IDI rh ords d o w n if t h e y a r e p l a o i high
MM tc round <
foot traffic areas.
Brass a iluminufn h«mmer or punch
âssc or wwfide ousel w plastic-cowed
JUMP-STARTING AND BATTERY SAFETY
tfeadoip* hammer
RMtw* mo*el or plaslic (lead-Mow hammer
To jump-start a n o t h e r vehicle w i t h a d e a d battery, c o n n e t good-
quality c o p p e r j u m p e r cables as i n d i c a t e d in F i g u r e 6 - 9 < >r use a
i u m p box. T h e last c o n n e c t i o n m a d e s h o u l d a l w a y s b e o n the en-
gine block or a n e n g i n e b r a c k e t as far f r o m t h e b a t t e r y a s possible.
CLEANING METHODS AND PROCESSES

TO STARTER
- - ire ' .- tas a types of cleaning methods and processes used MOTOR
sr retcc.-c service, n d u d i n g :
Power Washing Fewer washing uses an electric or gasoline

red compress r to increase the pressure of water and force it
: - m e . The pressure of the water itself is usually e n o u g h to
• - - n r . . p e a s e , and grime from vehicle components. Sometimes
• - - . a . c... a a e t such as a detergent, is added to the water to help
wTth o e a m r g .
Sate IIM of PQMT Washers Because w a t e r is being sprayed at

ar. :•• are. i face shield should be w o r n w h e n using a p o w e r TO ENGINE
GROUND STEP 3
- i £ e r : ; r " - c t not only the eyes but to also protect t h e face in
- ' me spray being splashed back t o w a r d t h e technician.
STEP 4
- . • a :-essure washer in an area w h e r e t h e runoff from t h e
E N G I N E B L O C K OR
• t contaminate local g r o u n d w a t e r or cause h a r m to M E T A L BRACKET
p i a n o or animals. O N E N G I N E BLOCK
Oemicat/Microtoe Cleaning Chemical cleaning involves o n e Figure 6 - 9 Jumper cable usage guide
• - era. eanmg soiuuons, including detergent, solvents, or small,
; v t : ed m i c r o b e s that eat oil and grease. T h e
- - • .: water and eat the hydrocarbons that are the basis of SAFETY TIP [ + ] C o m p r e s s e d Air S a f e t y
c e a s e and aQ.
Improper use of an air nozzle can cause blindness or deafness Compressed air
U e Us* of Chemical Cleaning A face shield should be w o r n
must be reduced to less than 30 PSI (206 kPal See Figure 6 - 1 0 If an air nozzle is
• •-- e a r . - ; p a n s using a chemical cleaner. Avoid spilling t h e
used to dry and dean parts, make sure the air stream is directed away from any-
• • ' : - f.oor to he'.p prevent slipping accidents. Clean and
one else in the immediate area Coil and store air hoses when they are not in use
: Ki . chemical cleaner regularly.
Abrasive Cleaning Abrasive cleaning is usually used to clean

--: c a r s such as engine blocks. The abrasives used in-
~ mot, ground w a l n u t shells, or in t h e case of c l e a n i n g
: j . e body, baking soda can be used.
Salt use ol Abrasne Cleaners Always wear a protective face

- - : ar a p r a ' e c t v e clothing, including gloves, long sleeves, and
lo&g pants.
Thermai Ovens .ai cleaning uses heat to bake off grease

: a r • •; spea a ragf, temperature ovens. This m e t h o d of
«r .se of expensive e q u i p m e n t b u t does not
-- . . - ~ caa and is environmentally safe.
l a t e Use of T h e r m * Ovens Because t h e r m a l o v e n s operate at

higfc t e m p e r a t u r e s , o f t e n e x c e e d i n g 6 0 0 ° F | 3 1 5 ° C ) , t h e oven
sb . aid tie r j m e d off ar.d aJ. a w e d t o cool overnight b e f o r e remov-
ng ' h e t i t s from tr.e o v e n to avoid being exposed to t h e high
temperature. Figure 6 - 1 0 The air pressure going to the nozzle should be reduced to 30 PSI or less
It is normal for a spark to U
complete t h e j u m p i n g clrcu
sion of t h e gases a r o u n d t b
special ground c o n n e c t i o n s t
purpose of jump-starting. C h e c k t:.-
formation for t h e exact location.
Batteries contain acid and should b'
tipping t h e m greater t h a n a 45-degree a
w h e n w o r k i n g a r o u n d a battery to avoid ':
shock or b u r n s , w h i c h can occur w h e n the m e t
with a 12-volt circuit and g r o u n d , such as the be : / o' ••
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
There are four classes of fire extinguishers. Each d a :
used on specific fires only:
• Class A is designed for use on general combustibles. :cn a

F i g u r e 6 - 1 2 AC V t e t t n p o i e r tang MA or a • re w t «i ar ooen stset drum 4.- -q
paper, and wood.
a demonOraKr at a ft* aeoart-er- fraemg center
• Class B is designed for use on flammable liquids and grease in
eluding gasoline, oil, thinners, and solvents.
• Class C is used only on electrical fires.
• Class D is effective only on combustible metals such as powdered
aluminum, sodium, or magnesium.
T h e class rating is clearly m a r k e d on t h e side of every fire ex-

tinguisher. M a n y extinguishers are good for multiple types of fires.
See Figure 6 - 1 1 .
W h e n using a fire extinguisher, r e m e m b e r the w o r d " P A S S . "
P = Pull t h e safety p i n .
A = Aim t h e nozzle of t h e e x t i n g u i s h e r at the base of the fire.
S S q u e e z e t h e lever to a c t u a t e t h e extinguisher.
S S w e e p t h e nozzle f r o m side-to-side.
See Figure 6 - 1 2 .
T y p e s of Fire E x t i n g u i s h e r s Types of fire extinguishers in-

clude t h e following:
Figure 6 - 1 3 * tiuMjfl t m i i a n -: wxr - c. - - t w
should be placed r a centrateec ocs&or ii trie y t o c
• Water. A water fire extinguisher, usually in a pressurized container,
is good to use on Class A fires by reducing the temperature to the
point w h e r e a fire cannot be sustained. • Dry c h e m i c a l ( y e l l o w ) . A dry chemical fire extinguisher is good
• C a r b o n d i o x i d e ( C 0 2 | . A carbon dioxide fire extinguisher is good for Class A. B. or C fires by coating the fiammable materia...
for almost any type of fire, especially Class B or Class C materials. A which eliminates the o r v g e n from the fire. A dry chetr-cai fire
C 0 2 fire extinguisher works by removing the oxygen from the fire extinguisher tends to be verv corrosive and will cause damage '
and the cold C 0 2 also helps reduce the temperature of the fire. electronic devices.
FIRE BLANKETS
Fire b l a n k e t s r - e c - t r e d : be avat.ar.e ~
person is o n fire, a fire b l a n k e t s h o u l d b e r e m o v e d frorr.
bag a n a t h r o w n over a n d a r o u n d t h e victim to s m o t h e r t h e f re **
Figure 6 - 1 3 s h o w i n g a typical fire b l a n k e t
FIRST-AID A N D EYE WASH STATIONS

All s h o p areas m u s t b e e q u i p p e d witr. a ?_- * -.z ar.d e •«•
w a s h station centrally located a n d k e p t stociced v . - r .
supplies.
F i r s t - A i d Kit A ?.r*-.-aic
• Bandages var.er
• Gauze pads
• Ro_ gauze
F i g u r e 6 - 1 1 A typical tire extinguisher designed to be used on type A. B. or C tres • Iodine swab stick;
«t SfOCN»
• AH If such an emergency does occur, keep eyes In a con-.m

waii r and call fur professional assistance. See figure 6
» t re .
• !
• 1 T E C H TIP Mark ofl th' Service Area
»
• Some hapsropf Him a«r • 'n help keep traffic and
Hfe
a mm *•.: . .•!:»- injury See Figure 6 - f f t
• I • ..: i. t
See fi< ire *- 14. Every shop should have a person trained In first
aid. ' • • -e t sr. a c a d e n t . call for help Immediately.
Eye Wash Station eye w a s h station jld bi entrally lo

r e d and rfd whenever any liquid or chemical gets into the eyes.
Figure 6-16 This area has been blocked oH lo help keep visitors Irom the dangerous v. .
area
SUMMARY
Figure 6 - 1 4 A M - a c box should be centrally located m the shop and kept stocked with 1. All service technicians should wear safety glasses that meet standard |
l applet ANSI Z87.1.
2. Ear protection should be worn anytime the noise level Is at 90 decite.
(dB| or higher.
3. Safety should be exercised when working with electrical cords or *
lump-starting another vehicle.
4. if a fire extinguisher Is needed, remember: pull the safety pin, aim th
nozzle, squeeze the lever, and sweep the nozzle from side-to-side.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List four Items that are personal protective equipment |PPE).

2. What are the types of fire extinguishers and their usage?
3. What Items are included in a typical first aid box?
CHAPTER QUIZ
1. What do you call the service technician's protective head cover?

a. Cap
b. Hat
c. Bump cap
d. Helmet
2. All safety glasses should meet the standards set by ——
a. ANSI
b. SAE
c. ASE
d. DOT
3. When washing hands, the water should be at what temperature?
a. 98°F ( 3 7 * 0
b. llO°F(43*C)
Figure 6 - 1 S I f * - , -in < w « Ofl-' a thvomfi flushing of the eyes with water is c. 125°F(52"C)
t * m« ranrt r L»> M M of e p c M r w r t o n d. 135°F|57°C|
4. If irir>iC protectio:
a. 60 dB
b. 70 dB
c. 80 dB
d. 90 dB
5. Two technician:, are dlt". •
that a wrench should be p'llM ••>!,
wrench should be pushed away fr.m •/< W
b. Technician H .nly
c. Both Technicians A and B 10 Whic!
d. Neither Technl in A r a.
6. Exhaust ho-,.- should t ::
high concentration. This gas Is • c
a. Carbon monoxide (CO) 4.
b. Carbon dloxidi CO
c. Hydrocarbons |HC|
d. Oxides of nitrogen (NO
7. The process of combusdon occurring without an open flame & called
a. Direct Ignition
b. Non-open flame combustion
c. Spontaneous combustion
d. Cold fusion
7
CHAPTER
Environmental
and Health Concerns
OBJECTIVES: After studying Chapter 7, the reader will be able to
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). • Identify hazardous waste materials in accordance MFFI stale and I M I ^ M H a n d M o w proper safety
precautions while handling hazardous waste matenals • Descnbe the steps requred to safety nmSe and M R Mtonatwi cftenacato and M a l e
KEY TERMS: Aboveground Storage Tank (AGST) • asbestosis • Battery Counci m t e m a t a H (BCT. • Q a n Ar Ad iCAAi • Code of Federal taguMom
(CFR) • Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) • hazardous waste material • Material Safety Data 9 n b 9 E 0 S < * roerory • m d M M
• Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) • Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (HCRA, • n ^ - M m taws • tfnat • tntargrawf
storage tank (UST) • Workplace Hazardous Materials Information Systems [WHMIS
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY A N D HEALTH ACT HAZARDOUS WASTE
The United States Congress passed the O c c u p a t i o n a l Safety a n d

H e a l t h A c t ( O S H A ) in 1970. This legislation w a s designed to as-
sist and e n c o u r a g e t h e citizens of t h e United Stales • their eff "
to assure safe and healthful w o r k i n g c o n d i u o n s by p- d:.-.g
search, information, e d u c a t i o n , a n d training in the fit i of occ pa
tional safety and health, as well as to assure safe and >a .ful
working conditions for w o r k i n g m e n and w o m e n t ith
e n f o r c e m e n t of t h e standards developed u n d e r t h e Act. Since ap-
proximately 2 5 % of w o r k e r s are exposed to h e a l t h and -afe haz
ards on t h e job, t h e OSHA standards are necessar
control, and e d u c a t e w o r k e r s regarding health a r i sa' in the H a z a r d o u s w a s t e m a t e r i a l s ar
workplace. t h e shop n o kmger needs thai pose a
fl/ifl http://rutracker.org
and tf rrv- are : of ir ordinary garbaite cans or sew RIGHT-TO-KNOW LAWS
e- H - : . •:* vho. : note that no material is considered haz The right-to k n o w l a w s state that e m p l o y e e s h a v e a ri,
know
u > waste u-.tai shop has finished using it and is ready to wh - • • - l i v n a i h e y use at w o r k are hazardous. T h e n , know
E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n A g e n c y (EPA) pub laws • , . , H i ard Communication Standar ^hed
ashes a 1st of hazardous materials that is included in the C o d e of t y th< . ,t.-•, and Health A d m i n i s t r a t i o n if
A | in
F e d e r a l R e g u l a t i o n s (CFRI. The EPA considers waste hazardous • . •• do irnent w a s i n t e n d e d for c h e m >mpa.
r - - - o aded - the EPA list of hazardous materials or If it has r • - j t required e m p l o y e e s t o t ha2-
one or t m v ot the following characteristics.
ard' ;•• . t e r n ir '-'.ark situation. M e a n w h i l e , federal
courts 1 : \ 3 J i*.: to apply these laws t o ail c o m p a n i e iuding
Reactive T r -.al which reacts violently with water or
automotive service shops. U n d e r t h e r i g h t - t o - k n o w laws, • P'oyers
i x a c a considered hazardous.
havf r e v r t i.'ities regarding t h e h a n d l i n g of h a z a r d o i "Jterials
Corrosive matera; b u m s the skin, or dissolves metals and by t h e i r . mpi • ye« All e m p l o y e e s m u s t b e trained abo\. types
ot? - a techr ;tan should consider It hazardous. A pH of h a z a r d o u s materials t h e y will e n c o u n t e r in t h e w o r k p l a c e . The
•caie . - e d . with the number 7 indicating neutral. Pure water has employees m u s t be informed a b o u t their rights u n d e r legis ion rel
a pH ' 7. Lower numbers indicate an acidic solution and higher garding t h e h a n d l i n g of h a z a r d o u s materials.
• _- >;-- .niicaie a caustic solution. If a material releases cyanide
: a - lrogen sulfide gas, or similar gases w h e n exposed to low pH
CLEAN AIR ACT
t . d 1- • .t ons, it is considered hazardous.
Air-conditioning | A / C ) systems a n d r e f r i g e r a n t a r e r e g u l a t e d by the
Toxic Materials are hazardous if they leak o n e or more of eight C l e a n A i r A c t ( C A A ) , Title VI, Section 6 0 0 . T e c h n i c i a n certifica
• heavy metals in concentrations greater than 100 times the tion and service e q u i p m e n t a r e also r e g u l a t e d . A n y technician
prtmarv drinking water standard. w o r k i n g on a u t o m o t i v e A / C s y s t e m s m u s t b e certified. A / C refrig-
erants m u s t not be released or v e n t e d i n t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e , and
l^nitaMe A Lquid is hazardous if it has a flash point below used refrigerants m u s t be r e c o v e r e d .
: " ,, and a solid is hazardous if it ignites spontaneously.
R a d i o a c t i v e Any substance that emits measurable levels of radia- MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS (MSOS)
3 ' a--adioactive. When individuals bring containers of a highly ra-
All h a z a r d o u s materials m u s t be p r o p e r l y l a b e l e d , a n d information
: a - • a stance into the shop environment, qualified personnel
about each h a z a r d o u s material m u s t be p o s t e d o n M a t e r i a l Safety
a- the appropriate equipment must test t h e m .
D a t a S h e e t s ( M S D S ) available f r o m t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r . See
Figure 7 - 1 . In C a n a d a , t h e s e s h e e t s a r e called W o r k p l a c e
Hazardous Materials Information Systems (WHMIS).
Hazardous waste disposal laws Include serious penalties for The e m p l o y e r has a responsibility t o p l a c e M a t e r i a l Safety Data
qnaslbie for breaking these laws. Sheets w h e r e they are easily accessible by all e m p l o y e e s . T h e Mate
rial Safety Data S h e e t s p r o v i d e t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n about the
h a z a r d o u s material: c h e m i c a l n a m e , physical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , pro-
RESOURCE CONSERVATION ANO RECOVERY tective h a n d l i n g e q u i p m e n t , e x p l o s i o n / f i r e h a z a r d s , incompatible
materials, health hazards, medical conditions aggravated by exposure,
ACT (RCRA)
e m e r g e n c y a n d first-aid p r o c e d u r e s , safe h a n d l i n g , a n d spill/leak
-i state a w s control t h e disposal of h a z a r d o u s w a s t e
procedures.
~av: J ever,' shop employee m u s t be familiar w i t h these
laws. Hazardous waste disposal laws include t h e Resource
C o ' . e r v a t i o n a n d R e c o v e r y Act ( R C R A ) . This l a w states that
= . mate* a. users are responsible for h a z a r d o u s m a t e r i a l s
e • - • they b e c o m e a w a s t e until t h e proper w a s t e dis-
. < : eted. M a n y shops hire an i n d e p e n d e n t h a z a r d o u s •RIGHT TO KNOW-
- ; . - - to c: p o s e of h a z a r d o u s w a s t e material. T h e s h o p INFORMATION
>:'-• • m a n a g e r should have a w r i t t e n c o n t r a c t w i t h t h e haz-
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS
'•>.••:•-- aaa.er. Rather than have h a z a r d o u s w a s t e material FOR HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
USED IN THIS AREA
-.a. - : approved h a z a r d o u s w a s t e disposal site, a s h o p m a y
-v - ' ; e : v : i e t h e material in t h e s h o p . T h e r e f o r e , t h e u s e r
- . • -e -.azartio. w a s t e material properly and safely a n d be
r >.',y.'. -t". n a z a r d o v , waste disposal site, w h e r e it can be

M A T E R I A L SAFETY
pra-aei -•i a : : a r d -o t h e law. T h e RCRA c o n t r o l s t h e s e types DATA SHEETS
of a w o w o c v e w a s t e ;
• ' / ' A ..". waste

• -XK: cleaning
•
I Mild acids used for metai cleaning and preparabon

i •• or a — e » - z e
I • j.-.-J o Figure 7 - 1 Material Safely Data Sheets (MSOS) should be readily available for use by
' Engine oil Slim anyone in the area who may come Info contact with hazardous materials
The employer also ha. i t•
ardous materials are pro) ,
include health, fire, and r
well as the protective equip :'
The manufacturer must supply all
mation about hazardous m .;ri; i
and understood by the employer USED OIL
Used oil is any petroieum-ba^d or synthetic oil that has been used.
During norma! use, impurities such as dirt, metal scrapings, wa--:-.
THE DANGERS OF EXPOSURE TO ASB' or chemicals can get mixed in with the oiL Eventually, tl edoti
Friction materials, such as brake and clu mui' be replaced with virgin or re-reSned oi
asbestos. While asbestos has been eliminated f
equipment friction materials, the automo e
cannot know whether or not the vehicle be • 2 1 K i t Tbe rtiease ot only t gallc ». »
not equipped with friction materials containing air.: mike > n -- p i k a s < f fresh water o o d m U
portant that all friction materials be handled as if the , -.<
asbestos.
Asbestos exposure can cause scar tissue to form in the If used oil .s damped down the drain and enters a sewage treat
This condition is called asbestosis. It gradually cause' mer.t plant, conceatrat - . a .tr.a.: as SO to i 00 pptr. par
shortness of breath, and the scarring to the lungs is permane- •. ir . ior. in the waste water car. foul sewage treatment p r o c e s s
Even low exposures to asbestos can cause mesothelioma, a Never mix a listed hazardous waste, gasoline, waste water, ha'.o-
type of fatal cancer of the lining of the chest or abdominal ca; ty. genated solvent, antifreeze. or an unknown waste material with
Asbestos exposure can also increase the risk of lung cancer as we used oil. Adding any of these ibstances will cause the used oil to
as cancer of the voice box, stomach, and large intestine. It usually become contaminated, which classifies it as hazardous waste.
takes 15 to 30 years or more for cancer or asbestos lung scarring to
Disposal of U s e d Oil r.oe has oeet lsed, :an be
show up after exposure. (Scientists call this the latency period
lected, recycled, and j s e ' over and over again. An estimated
Government agencies recommend that asbestos exposure
380 million gal;: " - • used : . ;re -ecvded each year Recycled ised
should be eliminated or controlled to the lowest level possible.
oB can sometimes be used again for the same iofc or can take on a
These agencies have developed recommendations and standards
completely different task. For example, used engine oil can be re
that the automotive service technician and equipment manufacturer
refined and soid ai the store as engine oil or processed for furnace fuei .
should follow. These U.S. federal agencies include the National In-
oiL After collecting used o i in ar. appropriate container le.g., a 55-gallor.
stitute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Occupational
steel drum . the materia t a t j t be disposed of in o n e of t w o ways:
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and Environmental Pro-
tection Agency (EPA). • Shipped - - -- v : ;
• Burned in an onsite or ofiste EPA-approved heater for energy
recovery
Never use compressed air to blow brake dust. The fine talc-like U s e d Oil S t o r a g e Used m - 1 be stored r compiian
brake dust can create a h e a l t h h a z a r d even if asbestos is n o t p r e s e n t o r Is an exist - 2 u n d e r g r o u n d s t o r a g e t a n k (UST) - • a b o v e g r o u n d
present i n d u s t r a t h e r t h a n fiber f o r m .
s t o r a g e t a n k ( A G S T t a n i a r c or kept - separate •• - -
Figure 7 - 2 . Containers are portable receptacles, such as a 55-za:. r.
steel d r u m .
Keep used oil storage d r u m s in good condition. Th.s rr.ear.: that
Disposal of B r a k e Dust and B r a k e Shoes The hazard of
drums should be covered, secured from vandal;., proper';,- labeled, a r :
asbestos occurs when asbestos fibers are airborne. Once the asbestos
has been wetted down, it is then considered to be solid waste rather
than hazardous waste. Old brake shoes and pads should be enclosed,
preferably in a plastic bag, to help prevent any of the brake material
from becoming airborne. Always follow current federal and local
laws concerning disposal of all waste.
USED BRAKE FLUID

Most brake fluid is made from polyglycol, is water soluble, and can
be considered hazardous if it has absorbed metals from the brake
system. The following safety tips should be followed mind when
handling used brake fluid:
• Collect brake fluid in containers clearly marked to indicate that it is
designated for that purpose.
• If your waste brake fluid is hazardous, manage it appropriately and
use only an authorized waste receiver for its disposal.
• If your waste brake fluid is nonhazardous (such as old, but un-
used), determine from your local solid waste collection provider
what should be done for its proper disposal. Figure 7 - 2 An aboveground storage tank tor .sec
lir • • l » •«'' • iMp«tk»w
tviwk«, ( k> tt,tnd *i<* j ' • v p m v f u x i u t n e t main
i « n t n c * H k K on m#y tko to m H in u n i t s t h a i a r - pdnrnt»ed to
ASM P p i l i l r i l h4SafdO>," w a t t e
U s e d 0;. - tt f f ..v tx hazard'/"; - W o r * M dB /!»•* i l
flared a 'Se - • *. <ji u, be r e c y V«J. m i .t be drained unrig
W /. • , • :•• : tthod" ; ; ,roved by i f ' I HA
• it »«,:.•< 'i; ! dome ••' ! and

s w tor a( feast 12 h n t f i
• • •i . fl
•
• toforn: any <*her hot drawing method, which will rmort all ihe
t a f i 'Al ( r a n 9 * SHcr
• ? • • • •. 1:- • i ' r , " • >/.) filter, "r» f(."**r ho s:ru

- a* 1 • ,v.< • -i o't. r- t oi the following r
•
• t 1 : i**. ty a t or,*;'.'/ffipanir
Figure / 4 ,:• • Utyn/t • m -.»*.-,• • . r e *
'.;/•':."!'> . WS .tr- ,',.;/«• -J flash pottl' (/•;'/// 1 4 0 ' I '>') 1 ,

IP!
/' /:,
SAFETY TIP Wash Hands or a q u e o u s pan-, cleaners m a y be used t o avoid d i s p o s i n g of spen
v ; /«•(:• as h a z a r d o u s waste. Solvent type p a n s clean* . //ith ;,-•<•
' • •'• <• ••. ft" v.*. .•<*) V *«<-" '.
a r e available to greatly e x t e n d s o l v e n t life a n d r e d f <- -.pent iolv<
- '•' t"» " . i t or!«i-ar protftcow rueoer
disposal cost*. Solvent r e c l a i m e r s are available t h a t c lean and
9KM4 V* 7-1
stole it»- solvent so It lasts indefinitely.
SOLVENT HA/ARDS AMD REGULATORY STATUS COOLANT DISPOSAL
solvent* *•<• • led as J...-/.:'d</.-, wavej. Other charatter f/Xylan' is a m i x ' ir" of a n t i f r e e z e arid w a t e r N e w anttfr«-«•/.<• s • •
v- -/V. /«•". -uds t h e fOUOWlftg; c o n s i d e r e d t o be h a z a r d o u s e v e n t h o u g h It < -in c a m e death l;
vested. I Jsed a n t i f r e e z e m a y I/- h a z a r d o u s d u e t o dissolved rnev.;
• y - v. -.//|40'I 6 0 " f , , fr ,. ror,s.d"f
f r o m t h e e n g i n e a n d o t h e r c o m p o n e n t / , of t h e c o o l i n g systetr
- <--; f •/r./. -.<•, u* Ie4tt'. 1 r<->;. Ved by tji<-
T h e v : rnr-tab t a n i n c l u d e iron, t>tee|, a l u m i n u m , c o p p e r , brass, an--
' ^ • - r - j - f ' / IrawporaOori ( 0 0 1
lead (from o l d e r radiators a n d h e a t e r < ore*.]. C o o l a n t can be t
• v, 140*1 . y r - M of in t h e following w a y s ;
. •V % • »id, '<• • o i l , are also regulated by
' f (r 7 4 I . fxx/lari' should be recycled either on site or off-slt'
2 > 1 coolant f / / i i d fx '.'"I r .'id - on*
' •< pair v ' i p t o d m r r .•<• ! it;, s p e w
jntll It ' a n be d b p r ^ 'l ot, See Figure 7
v / l v e n t s «nat a r e rontfeJered
3. ' .'sed •>• * < ar o('< •. tx- spr/x') of r to rnun < pal •//'•/ /
a permit Ct.< - k witt. k x a l authoriu/ s and obtain a permit txfs"
div t arg)fig i., / ' d rrx,..int .rito ' ^ w ' ^ r / s e w e r s .
LEAD-ACID B A n E R Y WASTE
About 7 0 mlllfon s p e n t lead acid b a t t e r i e s a r e g e n e r a t e d each y f l
; i Jru'erj States aiorie is classified a» a toxic metal,
I ' . ' i ' /J ; > d ..'. . e * j a ' i d b a t t e r i e s ,s higjjii/ c o r r o s i v e . I t ' vait r'<
ty V'/X to '/'•,/, of 0,ev- U ' " T ! ' - , are rerycl'-d «f.ro<-y:
f ' •<>." -;'i'»ri ofxratiotiS and v-condary lead «,m«-l'ers lor u.m- m "
ma/wfar.'ure of new batterte.
.'•'' - i'i W r , a - e n . . n, ,t tx (aimed or re< ycled in
"/ fx ' / ' • ;/ t.-azartfou'. //.is»e r r ; , . . . ; ' / , n s leaking l»f""
• /.• tx .tored ar,d r / . p r ^ t e d a> h a z a r d r x i * w a s t e Some
• < / e r,'ior< t/i' r ' 7 ; i a t on',, //tiir.h c q u i r e special h^mttlnK P"
/"<•,', Battery Council
rMiiorMl | P / , I ) , iffy ,N ||y , i, - , //.' ;
• I • id id batieiy di .(// • pr(,iiit„ied Ir aridflll* or In'Jru f ^ ' ^

• i'.-:- -c ' ' i . ter) to tx 'jisfx/x-'l of -ii a b a t t e r / retailer, W
• y ilr.jr' enter, or lea/J w w i ' e r
Figure 7-fi J v : w * « m » - m ••• . A't >
UCil (1 'At' IX! r t t y t M V '**/«»></f HJJ/HSH^ ''/ t.
Note trvrt thefWrcge t/Wlf »(iw-wl n u n * v / - v w '.<, • ,-t,
WMMadhKnNtoMrrK
• A KtJi.lcriol SlUlMIXit /' !. ••

display, the universal recycling, symbol and Indicates *•.«• A
•.perlfi' r c j ,ir< m<-nr:, for at' < pfifijf u v d ba'K-r."-..
B»««y "kctrolyti c»ii« • '.uDuric << .4, wfck • 4 wsy

••••/«• '-ibiiaji'o capable '<f • . w i g vriwjs pr •
t u r n s w * l « j i » f o a d t f i ' X M ^ D w yp •• -A • •
Mrity w / i n e m . For tW» reason, disponing of to ••<
- <•)* eri/ifonm«iuJ coniasDinauon and l « d w v- / « « ; - -
frr*B
Battery Handling and Storage Batu /. •
u i e d , s h o u l d b e k e p t Indoor* ifpov,ible,Th<-»tcrj;:< •
tc- an area specifically d e s i g n a t e d for b a i f r y uora> ar.d
well ventilated (to t h e o u u i d e | . If o u t d o o r -.tor
native, a s h e l t e r e d a n d s e c u r e d arc;: w i t h a- I f
c o n t a l n h c n t r, strongly r'-comrwnc< i. It 1 •
resistant sec o n d a r y c o n t a i n m e n t I/- r i e d for index.; w • „ • ,
lion, b a t t e r i e s s h o u l d b e placed o n and-i* '•••
•,ta< Iced,
char*, wfrtft w ' a mi mmttm*
FUEL S A F E T Y A N D S T O R A G E
'/d',oline r , a / t - r y ' / p l ' / M / ' : 1 I. 1 > • •. • ,
AIRBAG HANDLING
f r o m gasoline a r e e x t r e m e l y d a w f / w r . Aifbag iTKiduia w e t v r o w d s t i r »tptonv«, & .
1
e v e n In cold temperature*;. Vapor, tottm-d ... • *t« ntt«d exposed n d K S f M c t x r y or »f 'r.» fcwty• h e iwtw *
m a n y vehicles are c o n t r o l l e d , but vapors from , » m b r t e d to a t d o d t Aiitag s a l r t v i h o o l d kv: M me ;
e s c a p e from t h e c a n , resulting In a h a z a r d preoMMns:
place gasoline storage c o n t a i n e r r a w< ••> *'
1. Dwarr, » r w 8 w 9 be wert , • 1* m «
t h o u g h d l c v l fuel Is n o t a i volatile pa •
t&K&aipd i m i 1 'And mace o s n t a n nvtm a r t p u r f • 9a#t
apply t o di'-iel h w l a n d g.r.niir« ••, 1 -
Convuvt sertit* ' fcwnon for CT» exact •<• . » sr
following
(he vehldv being »amce4.
• Approved, '•'<•>', 2. . . u. .• •
outlet I T m e Kreen*. p r e w r i t H t t e m a iv 3 . Always c i-ty • ' f U - . v
Ing t h e gasollm within th'- < an w(»-r . . •1 4. K ' > -r -v - •> ' t '
or dlesel fual
• l«hnklant m 1st aiwiy < red a i ;. a»rt-w Hs{**a ir rnyc r * B« f ^ luaro m m t
fltow for proper h « * r d « r - 1 1 .• • ' > • , • . • 4urtn)itfUpmML
x S»xr. 9 ••mitM H e t p ' r & i to a • - a s t J»\ s B, HTV' iwhich can cat.
w i s j r n v e d a c i & j * iter- r n o t a i n. no:-' . * v r.r.dr me, c r AIDS), h e p a t i t i s C v r
a:? - ••-.• t; Tl-fse 'iectiOTis are c
•esw saad t i Set n d atrDag. blood ocrne pathogens, e o o r t a n y i n j u r y that ;r<\
v - ••-.••' take "ie necessary precautions to
1c
: r» c cy : :': a-, ither person. °f.r.
J S E C TWE DISPOSAL
wC w r : are v epvv - - ratal concern lor severi reason, .a-
z^t • rawest components That Conta
L - * (r ^ - A W - e r a ro *«OK" u p ' J m w y i ihe odier trash Sie«- e or-ver s side door mat
S v surface •ena M CC- - me heavy i -tat. mercury. See figure 7-fl
2. • - j b t j ; - aril holds tainwatet wtacti is a breeding These components should be removed from Die v e t o * •
there.
r jbc y o c v r i n s e s I A * p t a > b o r n e diseases Include or the body a sem ic ne recycled to help prevent releasing
•noes fx c i J m a f ^ H f . mwranmenL
1 a hazard ana, w h e n burned, crease a l a r j ^
j r uf : • a d s m o t e thar contaminates die ale
vr> ,-!• 3 o* disposed of n* one of the (oBowing way.:

1. • a e :« - d ur.ui 'he end of their useful life.
2. Sobs car St ""meaded.
3. " - - .ar be Ttcvded or shredded for use in asphalt.
4. > — m e d car fle ser • to a land!!., roost landfill operators
* - the t r e s because ir is :uegai .n many states to landfill
wtsdeflw.
5. Ms -ja be Parried ic cement kilns or other power plants where
rac s s n t o b be controlled.
0. » icrap tire handler can be used to transport tires for
itspo&i or recycling.
A J R - C O N O f T I O N I N G R E F R I G E R A N T OIL D I S P O S A L Figure 7 - 8 Placard near drive- s door induftng what devices m the vehicle contain mer./.
- - -- Ttgerart oil contains dissolved refrigerant a n d is
. --- . - , 4 e r e d to be h a z a r d o u s waste. This oil m u s t be kept
< other w a s t e oil, or t h e entire a m o u n t of oil m u s t be SUMMARY
—-: - d <sr. -Jtzankiu Used refrigerant oil m u s t be s e n t to a licensed
1. Hazardous materials include common automotive chemicals, liquids, £
.. waste disposal c o m p a n y for recycling or disposal. See
lubricants.
hqstl-1.
2. Right to know laws require that all workers have access to M a m
Safety Data Sheets iMSDS).
• R C T W W CONTROL PRECAUTIONS J. Ashes;, .s fibers should be avoided and removed according to current
- « , e r d e can result in personal injury i n c l u d i n g t h e and regulations.
77. :. be ' i ct.' or hurt e n o u g h to cause bleeding. S o m e 4. Used er.wne oil contain-, metals worn from parts and should be har:
and disposed of property.
5. Solvents represent a serious health risk and should be avoided as im-
possible.
6. Coolant should be recycled.
7. Ba t' - • are considered to be hazardous waste and should be d
to a recycling facility.
REVIEW QUESTIONS -
1. Ust five common automotive chemicals or products that may be

ered hazardous materials.
2. 1 • five precautions to which every technician should adh-:''
working with automotive products and chemicals.
CHAPTER QUIZ
I. Hazardous materials include all of the following except_

a. Engine oil
b. Asbestos
ftpr* 7-7 i sKV't* . <* M <>» w r a l e d from other oife because c. Water
« Mm* 9K.U* * *****» hBBJrtout «Me d. Brake cleaner
2. fete-ac*
a. Adkfiooarf
b. Ar. M S t
c. SAE standard!
d. EPA r defim
a
j . Expose? to ar.c«E
a. Aibewy
d-j D v - . - WIA- a n d ' : acr .--
8. W K H a a . '
i "
'gKn aaac
b. Mf J t h e f c -
a. Gevi A." to O A
c. Lung cancer
b. MSDS
d. All of the aix
c. WHM1S
4. Wetted asbestos d u a a considered: be ,
d. Code a? Federal ies-a* -<s CFr
a. Solid waste 0. Gaaofme be k r s r qpDnI o a t a tar ado*
b. Hazard; .. waste
c. Tojdc a. A fed ronaner WE.-. f * > » eoerc*
d. Poisonous b. A red cnaoiner
5. An oil filter should be hot drained for bow long before d k p n k i g oi the c A wflow coriaaser
filter? d. A wfenrcotaaer w8£ -ed <rarrj
a. 30 to 60 c r.utes 10. Wttcb of the _-ed .-ass is not a -Jdered tc » perstti
b. 4 hours e<?J4raenc PFE)?
c. Shouts a. Safetygasses
d. 12 hours b. S^r*
6. Used engr.e c should be deposed of by i i e ?pr c_ SeeeHoecj sraes
methods. d. G:o»a
a. Disposed of in regular trash X
b. Shipped off ,:te for recyclr.;
c. Burned on-site in a waste ou approved heater
d. Bumed off-site in a waste oil-approved heater
A/ia http://rutracker.orq
m
8 Fasteners and Thread Repair
g H a n d Tools
10 P o w e r Tools a n d S h o p E q u i p m e n t
11 Vehicle L i f t i n g a n d H o i s t i n g
12 M e a s u r i n g S y s t e m s a n d Tools
OBJECTIVES: After studying Chapter 8, the reader will be able to: Explain the terms useu to dertrfy L. t< . : " e t :>:• ers.
• Explain the strength ratings of threaded fasteners. • Describe the proper use of nonthreaded'as:c•-•- •
KEY TERMS: bolts • cap screws • capillary action • Christmas tree clips • cotter pins • rest • : e • . • — •
• jam nut • metric bolls • pal nut • penetrating oil • pitch • pop rivet • prevailing torque .ts • ••• • .. • • • .•„ ; •
• lap • tensile strength • threaded insert • UNC (unified national coarse) • UNF (unified n.it \t ' • • i
THREADED F A S T E N E R S are called U n i f i e d N a t i o n a l F i n e (UNF). ; . :

Most of the threaded fasteners used on vehicles are cap screws. of sizes and number of reads pet nch '.called p i t c h • -
Tltey are called cap s c r e w s when they are threaded into a casting. Pitch can be measured with a thread pitch gauge as s h e w n m
Automotive service technicians usually refer to these fasteners as Figure 8 - 2 .
bolts, regardless of how they are used. In this chapter, they are Bolts are identified by their diameter and length is measured
called bolts. Sometimes, studs are used for threaded fasteners. A from below the head, and not by the ? u e of the head j t the ze of
stud is a short rod with threads on both ends. Often, a stud will the wrench used to remove or install the fcoit. Boits and ••,>. >vs
have coarse threads on one end and line threads on the other end. have many different-shaped heads. See figure 8 - 3 .
The end of the stud with coarse threads is screwed into the casting. Fractional thread sizes are specified by -he I.ameter -KI-
A nut is used on the opposite end to hold the parts together. tions of an inch and the n u m b e r of threads per nch. 7 p x a l 1 N C ,
The fastener threads must match the threads In the casting or thread sizes would be 5 / 1 6 - 1 8 and I 2-13. - miiar UNF thread, ,
nut. The threads may be measured either in fractions of an inch sizes would be 5 16-24 and 1 2 20. See F gure a V
call® fractional) or in metric units. The size is measured across the
"utside of the threads, called the crest of the thread. See Figure 8 - 1 . M E T R I C BOLTS
Fractional threads are either coarse or fine. The coarse threads The size of a m e t r i c b o l t is specified by the letter .W M k w r e d h f
-'e called Unified National C o a r s e (UNC), and the tine threads the diameter in millimeters mm: across the .tside crest A f » *
52 SECTON*
Throads per Inch

HEAD le "I
Sire NC NF 'er
I ING UNF "8
80
0
i 84 10
72
i •10
2 56 MO
64 1 >jO
2
3 48 i'i90
56 m
3
4 40 >• 1 120
48 0 1120
4
5 40 0.1260
44 U 1250
5
6 32 0 1380
40 0.1380
THREADS 6
8 32 0 1640
36 0 1640
8
10 24 0 1900
32 0 1900
10
12 24 0.2160
28 0.2160
12
1/4 20 0 2500
1/4 28 02500
5/16 18 0.3125
5/16 24 0.3125
3/6 16 03750
3/8 24 0.3750
7/16 14 0.4375
7/16 20 0.4375
1/2 13 0.5000
1/2 20 0 5000
9/16 12 0 5625
9/16 18 0.5625
figure 8 - 1 The dimensions of a typical bolt showing where sizes are measured 5/8 11 0 6250
5/8 18 0.6250
3/4 10 0 7500
3/4 16 0 7500
7/8 9 08750
7/8 14 08750
1 8 1 0000
1 12 1 0000
1 1/8 7 1.1250
1 1/8 12 1 1250
1 1/4 7 1.2500
1 1/4 12 1 2500
1 3/8 6 1 3750
1 3/8 12 1 3750
1 1/2 6 1.5000
1 1/2 12 1 5000
1 3/4 5 1 7500
2 4 1/2 2 0000
figure 8 - 2 Thread pitch gauge used to measure the pitch ot the thread This bolt has 2 1/4 4 1/2 22500
2 1/2 4 2 5000
13 m a d ) ID the inch 2 3/4 4 2 7500
3 4 3 0000
3 1/4 4 3 2500
e
3 1/2 4 3 5000
3 3/4 4 3 7500
<s> <s>
4 4 4 0000
F i g u r e 8 - 4 The American National System is one method of sizing fasteners
BOUND FLATHEAD CAPSCREW HEX-HEAD

HEAD SCREW BOLT
threads. Typical metric sizes would be M8 and M l 2 . Fine mc";
SCREW
threads are specified by the thread diameter followed by A'anJ
distance between the threads measured in millimeters (M8 x
See Figure 8 - 5 .
GRADES OF BOLTS
Bolts are made from many different types of steel, and for thi
son some are stronger than others. The strength or classificat ;
TOR*' ALLEN CHEESE PAN HEAD
a bolt is called the grade. The bolt heads are marked to ini:
BOLT BOLT HEAD SCREW their grade strength. Graded bolts are commonly used in t*1'
SCREW
pension parts of the vehicle but can be used almost anyvh''"
the vehicle.
figure 8 - 3 ftcvts and tcmm lave i f i o j drflerert heads which determine what toel must The actual grade of bolts is two more than the numj
Detaed lines on the bolt head. Metric bolts have a decimal num"
M
METRIC HEXAGON HEAD CAP SCREWS

A L L M E A S L I R E M E N R$ I N M I L L IMF R» RS
irg ®i *g NOMINA! THRCAO

OIAMITCR
PITCH
SAE Bolt Designations
HEAD * U < SAE Tamil*

ACROSS FLATS
Grade itrangMi, Head
No. Size range PSI Material marking
M P D M P D I M | P 0 . tit'jtp t i, 60.000 Low or medium
16 0 35 3.2 10 1 00 17 20 1 50 20 carbon steel
1.7 0.35 3 5 10 125 17 20 2.50 KL 74.000
2 0 40 4 10 1 50 17 22 1 VJ •N
23 0 40 4 5 12 1.25 19 22 2 50 12 SOOQO
2.5 0 45 5 12 1.50 IB 24 J IX) M
3 0 50 5.5 12 1 75 19 300 36
IS 0 60 a 14 1 50 22 27 3 00 41 120000 Medium carton « e i .
7 200 22 JO 3 50 1/41
4 0.70 14 *
S 0.60 e 16 1 50 24 13 3 V/ % 35 DOG auenrned S tempered
5 1 00 10 18 2 00 24 36 4 00 55 tow* 1-1
7 1 00 11 16 1.50 27 39 4 00 60
a 1 00 13 18 2 50 27 42 4 50 65
a 1.25 13 45 4 SO 70
52 I fmugr' 12C'/» u m carbon martenatt
Peer ouenctiedi,
F i g u r e 8 - 5 The metric system specifies fasteners by diameter, length, and pitch tempered
itraugk' t 133 000 Medwm carbon alloy

stoei, quenched I
8 i airouff. • •*, •56.00C Meaun carbon aMy

Steff jjenctwd &
tempered
ROLLING THREADS as througn' HUH taw carbon marfensite

riser quenched*
F i g u r e 8 - 6 Stronger threads are created by cold-rolling a heat-treated bolt blank

of cutting the threads using a die.
*Mar!ensaestee- s steei —•=• - a s d e a n c o o e c - s t c . "-r-et>y r .'".as - q

hardness It is namaci after a Gemari T>e*aH _rn«1 A***4 Martane
indicate the grade. More lines or a higher grade number indicate a

stronger bolt. Higher grade bolts usually have threads that are
rolled rather than cut, which also makes them stronger. See
Figure 8 - 6 . In some cases, nuts and machine screws have similar
TECH TIP A 1 2 -Inch Wrench Does Not Fit
grade markings.
a 1 2-Inch Bolt
A common rrasfate trade by persons new to me autonwwe W d s a f -»tbst
Neveruse h a r d w a r e store ( n o n g r a d e d l b o l t s , studs, or n u b t the see of 3 bolt or nit is the s e e at the nead The see ot the bat or nut • ouwdr
a n y v e h i c l e s t e e r i n g , s u s p e n s i o n , o r brake c o m p o n e n t . A l w a y JSC- the aamettr o< the threads' is usual* smaier than the sue at »ve wrench, or vexer
e x a c t s i z e a n d grade of h a r d w a r e t h a t is specified a n d used by t h e . cie that fits the head a( the bat or nut Examples are gnon in tne tadonwnQ a t *
manufacturer.
Wrencfc Size T V u d So*
7 1 6 in. TMn
TENSILE STRENGTH
y i t n
Graded fasteners have a higher tensile strength than nongriêd 4 1 6 B. H >
fasteners. T e n s i l e s t r e n g t h is the m a x i m u m stress used u n d e r
M i l
tension (lengthwise force) without causing failure of the fastener.
K4r. 17 »
Tensile strength is specified in pounds per square inch PSI S< e
18 mm
the following chart that shows the grade and s p u •"ted tens
12 mm or 13 mm" San
strength.
14 mntar t ? ew>* M a n
The strength and type of steel used in a bolt is supposed
b
e indicated by a raised mark on the head of the bolt. The type
* European Svswne *temstmrat it'Uo<to'»
of mark depends on the standard to which the bolt was manufac- HUT An opm-«na mma can Se jsed m q*i
tured. Most often, bolts used in machinery are made tc SAE « m e Treads of a VS-tn aw
Standard J 4 2 9 .
54 si r
jfjtss METRIC
at 9 6 10.9 CLASS
APPROXIMATE
MAXIMUM POUND
80.000 120 000 130.000 150.000
FORCE PER F i g u r e 8 - 9 A typical bottoming tap used to create threads in holes that are not ^ ^ ^
SQUARE INCH stop In a casting, such as an engine block. " N
8 - 7 Heme M icap scrawl grade martungs and approntmate tensile strength
1/2-20
USA
DRILL
2SH64
V
Figure 8 - 8 Types ol loc* nuts On the left, a nylon nng in the center a distorted shape.
m a t r B e n g h l a castle lor use nwth a cotter key
NUTS
Most n u t s used on cap screws have the s a m e hex size as t h e cap
v r e .v head. Some inexpensive nuts use a hex size larger than the
. J : s c ' e w head. Metric nuts are often marked with dimples to
•:: -w t.hetr strength M o r e dimples Indicate stronger nuts. Some
r. and cap screws use interference fit threads to keep t h e m from
a c c i d e n t a l , loosening. This m e a n s that the s h a p e of t h e n u t is
iijihtr. distorted or that a section of the threads is d e f o r m e d . Nuts
F i g u r e 8 - 1 0 Many taps, especially larger ones, have the tap drill size printed on the top
a.vi he kept from loosening with a nylon w a s h e r fastened in t h e
- • - vtth a nylon patch or strip on the threads. See Figure 8 - 8 .
DIE
*OTl V • V thr • ^ kinft nuts" are grouped together and are com-
• - - e l ' i prevailing torque nuts. This means that the nut will
' : ' •-iStrrv or t.-rque and not loosen with movement or vibration,
v, - : pr-- i "i tt/rtjue nut» should be replaced whenever removed to en-
• -.' 'he ' lit w. 11>.' 1. osen during service. Always follow the manu-
. v-'i it-; r-r-r.ditions, Anat-rob:c sealers, such as Locate* are used
•e*is where the nut or cap screw must be both locked and sealed.
F i g u r e 8 - 1 1 A die is used to cut threads on a metal rod
TAPS AND DIES

Dies A d i e is a h a r d e n e d steel r o u n d c u t t e r w i t h teeth on t
Taps a n d dies a r e used to c u t threads. Taps a r e used to c u t t h r e a d s
side of t h e c e n t e r h o l e . S e e Figure 8 - 1 1 . A die is rotated using''
: - - d to an exact size d e p e n d i n g o n t h e size of t h e tap. A
h a n d l e r o v e r a rod to c r e a t e t h r e a d s .
die . t c cut threads on r o u n d rods or studs. M o s t taps a n d
- - - : 3 c o m p ere set for t h e most c o m m o n l y used fractional Proper Use of Taps and Dies Taps and dies are used '
a n d metric t h r e a d s . t h r e a d s o n roll stock in t h e c a s e of a d i e or in a h o l e for a tap *
t a p can b e held u s i n g a T - h a n d l e b u t for larger taps a tap
Taps • t w o ( T.monly used types of taps, including:
n e e d e d to apply t h e n e e d e d force t o c u t t h r e a d s . S e e Figure
• Tapered u p . t h e r .st c o m m o n l y used tap and is designed and 8 - 1 2 b .
» c a thread bf gradually enlarging t h e threaded hole. r r the tap1
• B o t t o m i n g t a p . T h s 'ap has a Cat bottom instead of a tapered tip to Tap U s a g e Be s u r e t h a t t h e h o l e is t h e c o r r e c t s i z e tor w ^
> reads ••••. bottom of a drilled hole. See Figure JM>. start by i n s e r t i n g t h e t a p s t r a i g h t i n t o t h e h o l e . L u b r i c J ' ^ ^
111
u s i n g t a p p i n g l u b r i c a n t . R o t a t e t h e t a p a b o u t o n e full ^
A ••>; rr . ' > . * i . : " • p r o p e r si; e h o l e called a " t a p drill
w i s e , t h e n r e v e r s e t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e t a p one half turn „
' ' " • ' i m p e d o n t h e u p itself or in a c h a r t
the chip that w a s created. Repeat the p r o c e d u r e until
that udetf w,:: j u p a n d 3 e tool s e t S e e Figure ft-10.
completely threaded.
fRKAfJhllJB
/TAP W h « f l « H
ib : '.-•'./••• ' - o : • ' • v . j i w ^ r -,,)' Xfipti'i
v; , n • : . a fewiort'ii m and a ( A r t ,
A Vj> .! ••'•<:ry/ thr<iH.i:),')V<mo'H»i t'f(F>
'• f> "/."•.Ml '1V.V. ( i n i t i v M t y ' H '

Uiri^KW/MMtt •
( M i i» t i w j j i «thiflttfi«io.niit8i; •/ 1 Jiwimuli| , .,'ifr,:,.i ihe
:m o f ' •••• !i«it It/fat
iWANDiTAP'.WRBNCH
IDIEIHAMDUG
Figure 8 - 1 5 A thread chaser .i she/,* af'fre top c h a r e d to a rap on ttie'Koltom.

tlr|0iiro!0-^t3 /AtUroHuiiitJlouâUUoiriitrttort 4Jla.vimro;ouil(Mo: Uiroaif^ or»«niotol totJ. A thread chaser is used to & a n threads with** nsmW/to metal,
OVAL HEXAGON TRUSS
lOIo l l a n u G / / M i l e t i l i o i i K l i b e u s e d o n i t h e s p e c i f i e d d i a m e t e r r o d f o r
i t h e s t a e >df i t h e ( t h r e a d . feitll t h e , d l e s e c u r e l y - I n t o t h e d i e h a n d l e .
:Saeiltl8ui'e(8-il3.
Figure 8 - 1 6 Sheet iiwUl xrewscooie wJfi many feaif f j p w .
UiilWIcate M e d i o a n d ithe rod a n d place the, die o n t o t h e e n d
Vof i t h e r o d ; i t o ! | ) , e ' t h r e a d e d . R e s t a t e t h e d i e h a n d l e o n e h i l l t u r n
-dlwofldn -and rotate the die handle
SHEET METAL SCREWS
•About hrilf ittiini . c o u i u e r d l o e l t w i s e u o b r e . d k t h e c h i p t h a t w a s
'OWfitadi, i R q p e a t i t h e ( p r o c e s s <ioiiiplot(id, s h e e t m e t a l . A l s o c a l l e d self'tapping screws, O w y
m a n y p l a c e s o n . t h e v e h l e l e , i n < i K i ' d l n g tenors, f i l t h , m \ t m f W
els. S e e Figure 8 - 1 6 .
T h e s e s c r e w a r e vised- i n • \ i j t t t b r e . i « t e d . , h o l e s , a r t d f i f t t . " ^ m
M f o t e a t f i p U o f t . g a u g e I s , a ' h a n d t o o l ' t h a t h a s t h e o u t l i n e eif v a r i o u s t h r e a d s c m t h r e a d a s t h e y a r e r e t a i l e d . T h i s e V k s . «••* 1 < ,r
llhte'adislzesiihftdlilned o n s t a m p e d blades, T t v d e t e t m t n e the thread easy installation w h e n installing n e w pArtt, t u t ^ t r;.,-,
,of,a I p W ' ( h e i $ l i # ; i | | H the thread o f t h e s c r e w c a n e a s i l y s t r i p o u t t h e i h m . v l s •sWn ^ w l -..n. stue fat*:. 11
itiiread p l t o l v g a n g e t o - t h e t h r e a d s o t i t h e fastonet', S e e F i g u r e 8 - 1 4 . oyer a n d oyer, so care i s n e e d s d .
. * t * . j : v -g first turn the s c r e w A special tool is o f t e n u s e d to r e m o v e interior « anels
t*.-. • , .v v r i .'•aead d r o p nto the existing w i t h o u t c a u s i n g a n y h a r m See figure 8 20.
•v . i r - -evi ... her. turn t h e screw m: if it threads ui
•v gM»n t h e j c r e w . t he screw seems to turn
-r ac «CT • i - d s about another half turn to locate s< I'TOvme care when removing panels thai , t§ ' , r
• tJ-âj i - jgato. Th.-s technique can h e $ p r e v e n t jwtoo cfif 1 1 ' very • '-sy to damage 'he door pant! or cap duHr.: on-*
a • and plastx parts,
v - ? e : ; - o r * * are sired according to their m a j o r thread
sa Jnweni1 OK*«t
c >1
inch) diameter Nearest Fraction Inch
71S4
QO€Wuj
EJPANOINO EXPANCHNG ECUP EXPANCHNCL CONTRACTING .-CL»
« IM 9*4 o* KTimAi o n EXTERNAL OH INTERNAL OBEXTEHNAI
i as? S1<«4
« 14 an Figure 8-18 Some different types ot snap nng«. An mtemal snap ring tits ms«e ot a
'2 02 ins housing or bore. Into a groove An external snap mgtits into a groove on the outside ot a
S4 M snaft or axle in E-Chp Ms into a groove «i the outyoe ot a shaft AC-Ctp thown ,3 used e
retain a window regulator handle on its shaft
WASHERS
>ec Jercap-v; w heads and under nuts.
SeeFiptt&l?.
• at washers are used to provide a n e v e n c l a m p i n g load
a i 'urertef. Lock w a s h e r s a r e a d d e d to p r e v e n t a c c i d e n t a l
; -a >ene accessories, t h e w a s h e r s a r e locked o n t o t h e
ts. r.t'v-de easy assembly.
SNAP RINGS AND CUPS

Snap Rings Snap rings • eat- fasteners, t ' instead
i~jc . - a spring, .ke action. Snap rings are constructed of spring
• ar.: are used t- > attach parts w i t h o u t using a threaded fasienet
The-? i r e several d;ffe-ent types of snap rings and most require the
-v - s » c a pair of p ers, called snap ring p!:ors, to release or in-
' -/pes of snap rings include:
•
• ?rr
•
• Figure 8-19 A typical door panelretainingc<ip
• be xp. d:nc .•<J«.'«mractmgsr;!e$
Door Panel dips lr.ter.cr door panels and other t r i m pieces

. - - - : < : b p'^ce w i t h plastic clips. Due to the tapered and
: • Christmas tree clips. See
FrrtA 10.
© ® ©H? x JAM NYLON CASTLE ACORN

NI.T *WT LOCK NUT NUT NUT
© © © I ®
njr LOCK STAR STAR
*ASMER WASHER DASHER WASHER
F*gur»8-1T WPSCTNWI VS rC JKX>W. ten* dAinrt purpose* anO Figure 8-20 "test* or new trim Hon are available to help the technician tenon* v
•I e»4 » w* wt * w w Oooi paws am) other trti" without causing harm

L2J
cievis TAPtH BOil
f«|ut»lHS1 PWs come . .
BLIND (POP! 8TRAIGHI • • A . ' . HI
Fiyuieft-22 Various tj®»s avets
C AiTL 11 l ATfcC'
P l u s C o t t e r p t a s , also called a . > • .-s, in NU1
age Oi A t h r e a d s ! nut m place 01 to keep .t r e u r •
totter is an Old l ngtish verb w e a n i n g "to Uose oi
are many o t h e r types or puis used in v e h k i e s , •„. a . e. •
roll pins, a n d hair puis. See Figure 8 21.
Pins aie used to hold together shafts and itkages, • .orrta
linkages a n d . a b l e linkages. T h e clevis pin is. held n . ... - * t
cotter pin, w h i l e t h e taper a n d roll pins are driven in ar-' h e .
friction. The hair pin snaps into a groove on a shaft.
1-kju.t » M 4 l a - . dmi
Kivets Rivets are used in m a m o c a t i o m to t e t j
3Fe a.-
such as w i n d o w m e c h a n i s m s , that d o not e v. t.
have a She - i it
arid or do not have access to t h e back side foi a nut A .
ally used to r e m o v e a rivet a n d a rivet g u n is ".-.v.- • •.-.•
stall a i ivet. Some rivets are plastic and are used u r v
trim pieces. The most c o m m o n type of u v e t ca - . J p o p n v e t
because as the rivet tool applies 4 force to the st:jf.
it , a « s e s t h e rivet to e x p a n d and tighten the -
W h e n t h e shaft ol t h e rivet, w h i c h looks j ••..: •.
m a x i m u m , t h e shaft breaks, causing a "pop* ••
0vet a a ^ ; i , . eve**..
Rivets may be used m aieas of the Vetiu -e ..
nent a t t a c h m e n t fc. n e e d e d a n d tn places w h e ' e . e . ••-..••
n a s - . - :.>.> ri •. . id a •-. .
to t h e back side of t h e w o t k p i e c e f h e v aie •• . • Unit 4K JSafagtrrC'
gun ar by p e e n m g w i t h a ball p e e n h a m m e t See • , •,- j: . v ' -.g type v«. i a • -.
ftoth types of blitvdi rivets l e q u u e the • .. ..• . '.he f.i . Nut . l^g r m i . '
m t The straight rivet is placed through f * * . - v .. • ti* v. -una.
peened ovei w i t h a hail p»*n r u m • t h r e a d s to p r e v e n t | d v . *r
plastic rivet is used u . t h a i vet gun to \ a .• ^ uêd on » a . . 'ne cie
9oJ. : : •
Locking Nuts Some nuts . • s I uJa .
holts and s a e w s u>m tooae lam nuts . AliOLVi il-c • .-. . . ; S: ' . V. sfi
fefnui a n d agftirw the regular nut to pieve A ix'tt CW J e .. - V "
is so called because .<t lis I'lU-i'.ieU •., 1 . • B e U l t t v i u i e -.-X # » t < * , r . - -V.-,'. rt i.
sign. Some jam n u t s ate thinner than J SU 1. A ate useo of-ef; ..• etc. . - . -
Also called p a l n w t s . Nee s it >.•« e : . -s trie v.- - . . . • * <w «mm» *
T h e r e a i e also ig :•....> o: \.» ..•.-• ••.--•• •• -a., ..V ! --V - o . .
threads thai a i e b e n ' m w a i d u» gi .•• v.v> v. • . . .• • . l t ; « Vka.c.. a t i ftj. .. . ») S
w
H O W TO AVOtO B R O K E N FASTENERS
» bn-oX, > - . . — t>d or! listeners in t h e first place. Therv
NI * J V S T-at IOT; can minimize the n u m b e r of fasteners you
Frst. re* • • face f a u n a s loose d u r i n g disassembly. Talcing
a fc* R J - t-V ER> A o f t e n prevent d a m a g e . If a bolt or n u t
* '. - • c r t n e -x-Mf v t h n o r m a l force, try tightening it in slightly
a- .i then h * v it c . S o m e t i m e s t u r n i n g t h e fastener t h e other
« * "tvak c . f r o s w D loose, and the fastener will then c o m e o u t
i> • v i e t e t h o d that w o r k s well is to rest a p u n c h on the
vac a c i t f a o r - bolt and strike it a sharp blow w i t h a h a m m e r .
O f t e a tr - m e t h o d will b r e a k the corrosion loose. Figure 8 - 2 5 Helical inserts look like small, coiled springs The outside is a Itvead t o i ^
the coil in the hole, and the inside Is threaded to tit the desired fastener
Left-Handed Threads Although rare, left-handed fasteners are
a •• found on engine assemblies. T h e s e fasteners will
-. • • - • v . • tn ' h e m clockwise, and tighten w h e n you turn
- . nterc ockwise. l e f t h a n d e d fasteners are used to fasten
• -•• ertds .:' rotating assemblies that turn counterclockwise,
.- ^ c r a r k s h a f c and camshafts. Most automobile engines d o not
. v eft - art > d --.reads: however, they will be found on m a n y older
- - - . . - engines, v w i e left-handed fasteners are marked for
: r . r ' c a a o n . others are not. Left-handed threads are also
I .«0 :tsx>e s o m e transaxles.
Penetrating Oil Penetrating oil is a lightweight lubricant sim

-- <e-osene. w h t c h soaks into small crevices in the threads,
capillary action. The chemical action of penetrating oils
Figure 8-26 The insert provides new. stock-size threads inside an o v e r s i z e hole so that
- r break up and dissolve rust and corrosion. The oil forms a
the original fastener can be used
• t a n lubrication on t h e threads to reduce friction and
n k t the fastener easier to turn.
P : ' best results, allow the oil time to soak in before removing
- r.-.-s and bolts To increase the effectiveness of penetrating oil,
.:: - •-• : .: head or nut with a hammer, or alternately w o r k the
fait- - ' i s . • and forth with a w r e n c h . This m o v e m e n t w e a k e n s
• - - . - - : " he c o m * on and lets more of the lubricant w o r k d o w n
r . t o the threads.
Proper Tightening Proper tightening of bolts and n u t s is criti-

< clamping force, as well as to prevent breakage. All
-. • - - r. , .d be tightened using a torque w r e n c h . A t o r q u e
- - - - - i . a- the technician to exert a k n o w n a m o u n t of t o r q u e
• --•-. • - However, rotating torque on a fastener does n o t
. - - . : t r ; • tree because up to 80% of the torque used to ro-
- : absorbed by friction by the threads. T h e r e f o r e ,
• . - .-. • z' -. - . n g . t w o things must be performed:
Figure 8 - 2 7 Hellcotl* kits, available in a wide variety of sizes, contain everything n e w
• a: be clean and lubricated If service information
to repair a damaged hole back to its onginal size
9e V s that they be lubricated.
• ise a • jnjue wrench to not only ensure proper clamping
an insert is o f t e n s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e original t h r e a d s , especially
-.. o c . i .re that all fasteners are tightened the same.
a l u m i n u m castings. S o m e v e h i c l e m a n u f a c t u r e r s s u c h a s BM1
specify that t h e t h r e a d s be r e n e w e d u s i n g a n i n s e r t if t h e cylindi
T H R E A D REPAIR INSERTS head has to be r e m o v e d a n d reinstalled. Plus m a n y h i g h - p e A
- . - • : : - - • " s are used to replace the original t h r e a d e d hole m a n c e e n g i n e rebuilders install inserts in b l o c k s , m a n i f o l d s , ar
l a - . a g e d beyond use. T h e original t h r e a d e d cylinder h e a d s as a p r e c a u t i o n .
e r . a ' i e t f and a threaded insert is installed to restore t h e O n e of t h e best k n o w n of t h e helical f a s t e n e r s is t h e Helicoil
threads to t h e original size. m a n u f a c t u r e d by Helicoil® P r o d u c t s . To install Helicoil® in--'
you will n e e d to h a v e a t h r e a d repair kit. T h e kit i n c l u d e s a drii. •
Helical Insert* h e l i c a l i n s e r t looks like a small, stainless-
tap, installation m a n d r e l , a n d inserts. Repair kits a r e available'
steel spring. See Figure 8 - 2 5 .
w i d e variety of d i a m e t e r s a n d pitch to fit b o t h A m e r i c a n S t a r -
• v. a - < sert, a hole must be drilled to a specified over-
and metric t h r e a d s . A simple kit c o n t a i n s t h e t o o l i n g for o n e sf
' <, tapped wtrr. a special tap designed for the thread in-
cific t h r e a d size. M a s t e r kits t h a t c o v e r a r a n g e of sizes arc»
•- -; - - • - the hole. See Figure 8 - 2 6 .
available. Installing an insert is similar t o t a p p i n g n e w thread
-" v. .!• -.rg»' a p e r m a n e n t repair and bolts s u m m a r y of t h e p r o c e d u r e s i n c l u d e s :
ar • • - 4 w i t h o u t disturbing t h e insert. O n e
a: • ..• •• t t h e original bolt can be u s e d be- 1. Select t h e Helicoil kit designed for t h e specific diameter an j
:••. < " •. - - .• are • same /' W h e n correctly installed, thread pitch of the hole to be repaired. See Figure 8 - 2 "
2. Use the drill bit supplied
on the Hellcoil tap, t o .
diameter and depth.
3. Tap the hole with the II' 5. , -) ne\ nreadlfe.'? ready :•--"
Turn it In slowly and rot. • • « .
me chip that Is formed.
Key . o c k i n - b inserts are sin a to sc 1-
4. Thread an insert onto th
b u r i t i n g inserts, tn. • - • • • • ilace c. nail keys. After tr ? u t ^ - r
Apply a light coating of the r< comn
pound to the external threads of the ..
5. Use the mandrel to screw the in r-rt int.
started, spring tension prevents the inse
when the top of the insert Is 1 / 4 to 1 / 2 turn b- 1
6. Remove the mandrel by unscrewing it from the insert, and then
use a small punch or needle-nose pliers to break off the tang at
the base of the insert. Never leave the tang in thf: bore
ished thread is ready for use immediately.
Threaded Inserts Threaded i n s e r t s are tubular, c e

hardened, solid steel wall pieces that are threaded inside and oi ,ide.
The inner thread of the insert is sized to fit the original fastenc-r f the
hole to be repaired. The outer thread design will vary. These may be
self-tapping threads that are installed in a blank hole, or machine
threads that require the hole to be tapped. Threaded inserts return a
damaged hole to original size by replacing part of the surrounding
casting so drilling is required. Most inserts fit into three categories:
• Self-tapping
• Solid-bushing
• Key-locking
Self-Tapping Inserts The external threads of a self-tapping in-

sert are designed to cut their o w n w a y into a casting. This elimi-
nates the need of r u n n i n g a tap d o w n the hole. To install a typical
self-tapping insert, follow this procedure:
1. Drill out the damaged threads to open the hole to the proper size,
using the specified size drill bit.
2. Select the proper insert and mandrel. As with Helicoils . the drill
bit, inserts, and mandrel are usually available as a kit.
3. Thread the insert onto the mandrel. Use a tap handle or wrench to
drive the insert into the hole. Because the insert will cut its own
path into the hole, it may require a considerable amount of force to
drive the insert in.
4. Thread the insert in until the nut or flange at the bottom of the
mandrel touches the surface of the workpiece. This is the depth
stop to indicate the insert is seated.
5. Hold the nut or flange with a wrench, and turn the mandrel our
of the insert. The threads are ready for immediate use.
S o l i d - B u s h i n g I n s e r t s T h e external threads of solid-bushing

inserts are ground to a specific thread pitch, so you will have to run
a tap into t h e hole. See Figure 8 - 2 8 .
Some inserts use a machine thread so a standard tap can be used:
others have a unique thread and you have to use a specia: tap. The
thread inserts c o m e with a matching installation kit. See Figure 8 - 2 0 .
To install t h r e a d e d inserts, follow this p r o c e d u r e :
1. Drill out the damaged threads to open the hole to the proper s e e
The drill bit supplied with the kit must be the one used because
it is properly sized to the tap. See Figure 8 - 3 0 .
2. Cut the recess in the top of the hole with the special tool, then
clean the hole with a brush or compressed air.
3 . Use the previously detailed tapping procedures to thread the hole.
See Figure 8 - 3 1 . Be sure to tap deep enough: the top of the nsert
must be flush with the casting surface. Figure 8-30 Onlt out tre 3ar a g e r e a d s . » - - -
fifv* 8 - 3 2 Ptf some thread-locking compound on me insert F i g u r e 8 - 3 4 The insert and Insert locks should be below the surface of the workpiece
-a nstaued, the keys are driven into p l a c e — p e r p e n d i c u l a r to 6. Other commonly used fasteners in the automotive service industry
- - - -• i d s - l o keep the insert from t u r n i n g o u t . A typical installa d u d e sheet metal screws, snap rings and clips, door panel clips, con-
pins, and rivets.
r :eC ure includes the following steps:
7. Threads can be repaired using a Helicoil® or threaded insert.
1. D - • the damaged thread with the specified drill size.
2 ed hole with the specified tap.
3. - r e - - , 1 ''.read locking compound on the insert, use the man- REVIEW QUESTIONS
: - the Inser :nto the tapped hole until it is slightly 1. What is the difference between a bolt and a stud?
> • • - -i surface See figure 8 - 3 2 . The keys act as a depth stop
2. How is the size of a metric bolt expressed?
and v . • the insert from t u r n i n g
3. What is meant by the grade of a threaded fastener?
4. >. . d o w n using the driver supplied with the insert
• . - r e keys are Bush with the top of the insert. See 4. How do prevailing torque nuts work?
r s r s m * - 3 3 and 8 - 3 4 . 5. How are threaded inserts Installed?
SUMMARY CHAPTER QUIZ

1. Ti» ~'t ~ - . - • .pe <*. fastener Is a threaded one often referred to as a 1. The thread pitch of a bolt is measured in what units?
>r « 'i. ho» ased at the end of a bolt to fasten two parts a. Millimeters
vâlsc b. Threads per inch
2. f l x t s c f dceaded fasteners includes the diameter, length, and pitch of c. Fractions of an inch
ft* a * e S » tor shape of the head of the bolt. d. Both a and b can be correct
2. Technician A :,ays that the diameter of a bolt is the same as the wrenJ
3 ' -- ; • an * M ; arxJ the diameter across the threads
used to remove or install the fastener. Technician B says that the lenfT
" - / : . . - e t* ween the threads measured
measured from the top of the head of the bolt to the end of the bolt. W
m r t m t r e r . , iijty. u M6 x 1.5.
technician is correct?
4 '•' < v. i'.d ar< capab.o of providing more holding
tone "San r/Agrad«d b o b .
$. Ma- - a- < - < • • atur ried to'r,c bolt regardless of vi- c. Both Technicians A and B
t v . . ' T h e * r<pe- r / j , are of-eri cai.<-4 prevail.ng torque nuts. d. Neither Technician A nor B
3. The grade of a fastener.
a. Tensile strength
b . Hardne'.s
c. Finish
d. Color
4 . Which of the following 3 rneu 1?
a. 5 / 1 6 - 18
b. 1/2 20 a.
c. M I 2 x 1.5 b.
d. 8 m m c.
5. A bolt that is threaded into a casting Is often <L
a. Stud 10. interior door par*:-.
b . Cap screw
c. Block bolt b.
d . Crest bolt c.
6. The marks llines) on the heads of bolts indicate d.
a. Size
b . Grade
c. Tensile strength
d . Both b and c
7. A bolt that requires a 1 /2-inch wrench to rotate is usually wha; ize >:• m
measured across the threads?
a. 1/2-inch
b . 5 / 1 6 inch
c. 3 / 8 Inch
d . 7 / 1 6 inch
9
C H A P T E R
Hand Tools
OBJECTIVES: After studying Chapter 9, the reader will be able to: Descnbe what tool is the best to use for each joO. • Dscuss how to sately use
hand tools. • Explain the difference between the brand name (trade namei and the proper name for toots. • Expiaai how to martam hand toots
KEY TERMS: adjustable wrench • aviation tin snips • beam-type torque wrench • box-end wrench • breaker bar iflex handlei • cheater bar
• chisel • clicker-type torque wrench • close end • cold chisel • combination wrench • crowfoot socket • dead-blow hammer • diagonal
(side-cut or dike) pliers • double-cut file • drive size • easy out • extension • files • fitting wrench • flare-nut wrench • flat-tip (stagffl wade
screwdriver • hacksaw • locking pliers • multi-groove adjustable pliers • needle-nose ptters • nut splitter • offset left aviation snip
• offset right aviation snip • open-end wrench • punch • ratchet • removers • screwdriver • seal driver • seal puller • single-cut file
• slip-joint pliers • snap-ring pliers • socket • socket adapter • straight cut avtation snip • stud removal tool • stud remover • tin s n p s
• torque wrench • tube-nut wrench • universal joint • utility knife • VISE GRIPS' • v a l e r p t - : ; rrs •
WRENCHES
W r e n c h e s are t h e most used hand tool by service technicians
Most w r e n c h e s are c o n s t r u c t e d of forged alloy steel, usually
c h r o m e - v a n a d i u m steel. See Figure 9 - 1 .
After t h e w r e n c h is f o r m e d , the w r e n c h is hardened, and then
tempered to r e d u c e brittleness, and then c h r o m e plated. There are
several types of w r e n c h e s .
Open-End Wrench An o p e n - e n d w r e n c h is. 1

loosen or tighten bolts or n u t s that d o not require a lot of torque
An open-end w r e n c h can be easily placed on a bolt or nut w i t h ar.
angle of 15 degrees, w h i c h allows the w r e n c h to be flipped over and Figure 9-1 A twged wrench alter I h a Been target!
used again to c o n t i n u e to rotate the fastener. The major disadvantage around the wrench has Seen teroved
62 St, » "
B j u r e ^ i M p n a m w m * — « * nw
» «dM*** m met ml mc nt»c» »xt B»
M E E MFKM IS *grew s MCK en)
F i g u r e 9 - 6 An adjustable wrench. Adjustable wrenches are sized by the overall length 01

the wrench and not by how far the jaws open. Common sizes of adjustable wrenches include
8,10, and 12 inch.
F i g u r e 9 - 3 * typical box-end wrench is able lo gdp the bolt or nut at points completely
• tenw Each end is a different size.
ANGLED SHANK
F i g u r e 9 - 4 The end of a box-end wrench is angled 15 degrees lo allow clearance tor

TearUi a j e c o or other fasteners. F i g u r e 9 - 7 The end of a typical line wrench, which shows that it is capable of grasping
most of the head of the fitting
BOX END
A combination w r e n c h allows the technician to loosen or t
OPEN END a fastener using t h e box e n d of t h e w r e n c h , t u r n it a r o u n d , a n d use
t h e o p e n end to increase t h e speed of r o t a t i n g t h e fastener.
Adjustable Wrench An a d j u s t a b l e w r e n c h is often used

w h e r e t h e exact size w r e n c h is n o t available or w h e n a l a r g e nut,
s u c h as a w h e e l spindle n u t , n e e d s to be r o t a t e d b u t n o t t i g h t e n e d .
F i g u r e 9 - 5 t a - oration wrench has an open end at one end and a box end at the An adjustable w r e n c h should n o t b e u s e d to l o o s e n o r t i g h t e n fas
3 t e n e r s b e c a u s e t h e t o r q u e applied to t h e w r e n c h can c a u s e the
m o v e a b l e jaws to loosen their grip o n t h e fastener, causing i t t o be
c o m e r o u n d e d . See Figure 9 - 6 .
a t ipfr. e.-id 'wrench is t h e lack of torque that can be applied d u e
- :.-.- • the open jaws of the w r e n c h only contact t w o flat Line Wrenches Line wrenches are also called flare-nm
.rfa -- / t h e fastener. An open-end w r e n c h has t w o different w r e n c h e s , f i t t i n g w r e n c h e s , o r t u b e - n u t w r e n c h e s and a'f
si2es; o n e ar e a c h e n d . See Figure 9 - 2 . designed to grip a l m o s t all t h e w a y a r o u n d a n u t u s e d to retain >
fuel or refrigerant line, and yet, be able to be installed over the line.
Box-End Wrench A b o x - e n d w r e n c h is placed o v e r t h e top
See Figure 9 - 7 .
of t h e f a s t e n e r a n d grips t h e points of t h e fastener. A box-end
ar.Îed 15 d e g r e e s to allow it to clear n e a r b y objects. S a f e Use of W r e n c h e s W r e n c h e s s h o u l d b e i n s p e c t e d befc •
See Figure 9 - 3 . u s e to b e s u r e t h e y a r e n o t c r a c k e d , b e n t , o r damaged. A
T h e r e f o r e , a b o x e n d w r e n c h should be used to loosen or to w r e n c h e s s h o u l d be c l e a n e d a f t e r u s e b e f o r e b e i n g returned
i & f e n fasteners. A box-end w r e n c h is also called a c l o s e - e n d t h e t o o l b o x . A l w a y s u s e t h e c o r r e c t s i z e of w r e n c h for the i-
w r e n c h . A box-end w r e n c h has t w o different sizes; o n e at each t e n e r b e i n g l o o s e n e d or t i g h t e n e d to h e l p p r e v e n t t h e round' •
e n d . S e e Figure 9 4. of t h e flats of t h e f a s t e n e r . W h e n a t t e m p t i n g t o l o o s e n a fast''111
M o s t service technicians p u r c h a s e c o m b i n a t i o n wrenches, pull a w r e n c h - d o n o t p u s h a w r e n c h . If a w r e n c h is p ^ | l l f
w h i c h h a v e t h e o p e n e n d at o n e e n d a n d t h e s a m e size b o x e n d on y o u r k n u c k l e s c a n b e h u r t w h e n f o r c e d i n t o a n o t h e r object ii 1
t h e o t h e r e n d . S e e figure 9 5. fastener breaks loose.
RATCHETS, SOCKETS, A'
A s o c k e t fits o v e r t h e fasti
1 • the same size w t
bolt o r n u t . T h e s o c k e t t , rota t > ••!
a b r e a k e r bar (flex h a n d l e ) iatr h i
A r a t c h e t t u r n s t h e s o c k e t In o n l y on<
r o t a t i n g of t h e r a t c h e t h a n d l e ba< I a n d
Socket e x t e n s i o n s and u n i v e r s a l j o i n t s
ets to a l l o w a c c e s s t o f a s t e n e r s in r e s t r i c t e d R( *« s: - ' - v < j « M d ) } . t . ; t o n t a t e a t i i ( a n c h a t * c r u a 4 r t v a r . eape
S o c k e t s a r e available in v a r i o u s d r i v e s i z e s , " e ' « a t 5 t , ' • spomflne wayfnsrotJDu To help vfcuatea
3 / 8 - i n c h , a n d 1 / 2 - i n c h s i z e s f o r m o s t autorr iiwtr taste-sr at'ti&b tufa ntj loosey
9 - 1 0 and 9 - 1 1 .
RATCHET Crowfoot Sockets t crowfoot socket s a socket tha a:

REVERSING
o p e n - e n d o r : • e wrench to a l l o w a c c e s s t o fasteners that c a n n o t b e
LEVER
reached nsj a c o r . / e r v . ' . a T e n c h . S e e figure 9 - 1 2 .
Crowfoot s o c t e are a m i a b l e in t h e f o l l o w i n g categories:
• Fractional opet>ead wrench

• M e t r i c ope r.-end
• Fractional line w r e n c h
i l
it:, I • Metric wends
— > J I - * — 1/2 - 3/4 INCH
. ! SQUARE DRIVE Torque Wrenches Torque wrenches are .ocket i m i n ? har,
LUG
a l e s t h a t a r e d e : . g r . r ; -. • ; : ; •" a r r / . u r / . >f f o r c e t o tiie fas
t e n e t T h e r e a r e r-v- basic t v p e s r y j e w r e n c h e s i n c l u d nap
Figure 9 - 8 A typical ratchet used to rotate a socket. A ratchet makes a ratcheting noise
when it is being rotated in the opposite direction from loosening or tightening. A knob or lever 1. C l i c k e r t y p e . A d i c k e r - r v p e t o r q u e w r e n c h
on the ratchet allows the user to switch directions. specified t o r q a e and men. it " c l i c k s ' w h e n t h e set t o r q u e va. ê
has been reached. W h e n force.: remo fed from the torque
w r e n c h h a n d l e , a n o t h e r z2c(. is h e a r d . T h e s e t t i n g o n a clicker
t y p e t o r q u e w r e n c h s h e J d h e s e t bac£ tc z e r : a f t e r re and
checked for ; - : p e r aJbra--: n retptaly. See figure 9 - 1 3 .
2. beam-type torque wrench : _ mea .*€ m e , bu-
stead of presetting the value, the actual torque is dispiayed on
Figure 9 - 9 A typical flex handle used to rotate a socket, also called a breaker bar because
it usually has a longer handle than a ratchet and therefore, can be used to apply more torque
to a fastener than a ratchet.
Figure 9 - 1 2 A LIIMAII socxet s sesgneS tc -eac* tasteners jsng a - w c r * or

bar wttfi an ertensor
Figure 9 - 1 0 The most commonly used socket drive sizes Include i/4-mch, 3/8-inch. and
1 /2-Inch drive.
6-POINT SOCKET 12-POINT SOCKET
Figure 9 - 1 1 A six-point socket fits the head of the bolt or nut on all sides. A twelve-point
socket can round oft the head of a bolt or nut it a lot ot force is applied. Figure 9 - 1 3 Using a torque wer;.-tc ' ;rter . o r r e r js -
M 5S
•> cr b e i n s t i g h t e n e d . Beam-type TECH TIP Double-Check the Specification

' \: - : . .1 ..?:•'•<• n I 4 i n c h . 3 '8-inch, a n d I 2 - i n c h
'- • - ".'. " 1 : m e t r i c units. See Figure 0 - 14. Misreading torque specifications is easy to do but can havo
'"Ôing
results Specifications lor fasteners are commonly exprc
" Man,
smaller fastens .e tightened to specifications expressed in l
11b-ft 12 Ib-ln.
ii 3 fastener were to be accidentally tightei

24 Jb-f,
1
insti-. in., the actual torque applied to the fastener w 2881b
In.
Inste ut ihi: specified 24 Ib-in.
This extra torque will likely break the fastener, but it could i l s o warp
distort the part being tightened. Always double-check the torqu ificationa
Figure 9 - 1 4 x txir rfae lonjue wench itiat displays the torque reading on the face of
-- : - "V MB> : tat as the beam defects, which is in proportion to the amount
f ut Kpurc »the fastener
ME REGULAR
Check Torque Wrench Calibration Regularly
SOCKET
DEEP
<• >e- . '•TS should Be checked regularly. For example. Honda has a torque
SOCKET
wremr :.adrason setup at each ol their training centers It Is expected that a
c ^ e «n»ich be checked for accuracy before every use. Most experts recom-
r-ene r a t aygue wrenches be checked and adjusted as needed at least every
, a r a t more often if possible. See Figure 9-15
F i g u r e 9 - 1 6 Deep sockets allow access to the nut that has a stud plus other locations
needing great depth, such as spark plugs.
Sate Use of Sockets and Ratchets Always use the proper size socket
that correctly fits the bolt or nut. All sockets and ratchets should be
cleaned after use before being placed back into the toolbox. Sockets
are available in short and deep well designs. See Figure 9-16.
Also select the appropriate drive size. For example, f o r small
work, such as on the dash, select a 1/4-inch drive. For m o s t general
service work, use a 3/8-inch drive and for suspension and steering
and other large fasteners, select a 1 /2-inch drive. When loosening a fas
tener, always pull the ratchet toward you rather than push i t outward.
TECH TIP Use Socket Adapters with Caution
Socket adapters are available and can be used for different drive size sockels
on a ratchet. Combinations include:
'/,-inch drive—? 8 -inch sockets
%-mch drive—'/,-inch sockets
%-inch drive—'/ 2 -inch sockets
'4-inch d r i v e — V i n c h sockets
Using a larger drive ratchet or breaker bar on a smaller size socket can cause
the application of too much force to the socket, which could crack or shatter. Using
a smaller size drive tool on a larger socket will usually not cause any harm. Wl
F t g m 9-15 Tvr,je m« calibration checker would greatly reduce the amount of torque that can be applied to the bolt or nut
F R E Q U E N T L Y A S K E D Q U E S T I O N ???!
TECH TIP Avoid Using "Cheater Bars"
H It L b - f t o r R - U b of T o r q u e ?
Whenever a fastener is difficult to remove, some technicians will insert the ha"*
'•> •'/ • •• v . a force t.mes the distance (leverage) from of a ratchet or a breaker bar into a length of steel pipe. The extra length of J
W *#<* 9 t f H t e j » jnfl for torque it Ib-ft (pound-feet) or Newton- pipe allows the technician to exert more torque than can be applied using
s m e r i -.a tore* M e t a M a n c e i However it is commonly expressed in tt-lbs drive handle alone. However, the extra torque can easily overload the socke
and m*t torque wrenenea are labeled with this unit ratchet, causing them to break or shatter, which could cause personal injury
m
SCREWDRIVERS
Many smaller fastener: ar< >
driver. Screwdriver:. are availabl in
The most commonly used : wdn K
blade.
Flat-tip screwdrivers an sized by ii"
this width should match tin width of
Figure 9-17.
doei, • wj - : • ii- a force downward holding the tip

| uuiTtpfl do not use a screwdriver as a pry tool or as a chisel. Always use screwdriver n 'he WA and then aooltes a twistlne force 10!
! the proper tool for each application.
Another type of commonly used s c r e w d r i v e r is called a Phillip-,

screwdriver, named for Henry F. Phillips, w h o invent- :
crosshead screw in 1934. Due to t h e s h a p e of t h e crov.hear.
and screwdriver, a Phillips screw c a n b e d r i v e n w i t h m o r e
than can be achieved with a slotted s c r e w .
A Phillips head screwdriver is specified b y t h e length f
handle and the size of the point at the tip. A #1 tip h a s a - •-;>
point, a #2 tip is the most commonly used, a n d a #3 tip . bin t a - d
is only used for larger sizes of Phillips head fasteners. For exar i
a # 2 x 3-inch Phillips screwdriver would typically measure 6 i n c h e ;
from the tip of the blade to the end of t h e handle (3-inch-long h a n d l e
and 3-inch-long blade) with a #2 tip.
Both straight blade and Phillips screwdrivers are available w i t h Figure 9-19 An o«se-
enougr space aoove r. a t
a short blade and handle for access to fasteners with limited room.
See Figure 9-18.
Figure 9 - 2 0 An
cannot be
Figure 9 - 1 7 A flat-tip (straight blade) screwdriver The width of the blade shouid .;
E
the width of the slot In the fastener being loosened or tightened.
ii
What Is a Robertson Screwdriver?

A Canadian -ameo p l Robertson mvanted the Rooertsw screw anc v <tu«m
in 1908. nvmcn uses a square-shaped ® with a sajfittaper The ^ s e n s o r , acre*
dnve> uses color-cooee handles because different s i e screws 'towoe a
tip sizes, "he color and sues .ndude
Orange i#00l—Number 1 and 2 screws
lteilow s#Gi—Number 3 and a screws
Green i#D—Number 5 6 a n d 7 screws
Red t#2)—Number 8 . 9 , and 10 screws
Black (*3)—Number 12 and larger screws

The Robertson screws are rarely found <n KM janed Stale* out are .
Figure 9 - 1 8 Two stubby screwdnvers that are used to uc. ess si rev« mat na\r - 'ed Canada-
space above A straight blade Is on top and a «.' Phillips saewdrivet is on the bottom
66 SE
S a f e H s a af S c m r t m n \ i w a v s u s e ' h e p r o p e r type a n d size

s a e w d n v e r that matches the fastener. Try to avoid pressing d o w n
or a 3rwer because f it slips, t h e screwdriver tip couid go
vow: h a a d . c a i -.ng serious personal injury. All screwdrivers
sh _ : be l e a n e d arte: -jse. D o n o t u s e a screwdriver as a pry bar;
a > r."5 . s e :r< c o r r e c t t o i for the job.
H A M M E R S AMD MALLETS
Hammers H a a a n e r s and mallets are used to force objects to-
- - aoan. The shape of the back part of the hammer head
...-.: p e e n _• :i. determines the name. For example, a
: : : • . . - -3.mr.er has a rounded end Lke a bail and it is used to
n.c.-';- pans a r t valve covers, using the hammer head, and
• - - ; metai. .sir.g the ball peen. See Figure 9 - 2 1 .
Figure 9 - 2 3 A dead-blow hammer that was left outside in freezing weather The plastic
MOTE a ctew bansaer has a claw used to remove nails and is not used for covering was damaged, winch destroyed this hammer The lead shot is encased >n the mea
servke. housing and then covered.
A h a m m e r is usually sized by the weight of die head of the

h a m m e r and the length of the handle. For example, a commonly
. s e c hall-peen h a m m e r has an 8-ounce head with an 11 -inch
handle.
SLIP-JOINT
M a l l e t s Mallets are a type of hammer with a large striking sur-
face. which allows the technician to exert force over a larger area
a hammer, so as not to harm the part or c o m p o n e n t Mallets
ire r . ; : e from a variety of materials including rubber, plastic, or
WCOCL See Figure 9 - 2 2 . SMALLER LARGER
Asiiot-fiHed plastic hammer is called a d e a d - b l o w h a m m e r .

T h e i m a i i lead bails shot inside a plastic head prevent the Figure 9 - 2 4 Typical slip-joint pliers which are also common household pliers The sup
n a n m e r from bouncing off of the object w h e n struck. See joint allows the jaws to be opened to two different settings.
Figure —23.
Sate u s e of H a m m e r s a n d Mallets All mallets a n d hammers

: r c _ . : oe cleaned after use and not exposed to extreme tempera-
ture: Sever jse a hammer or mallet that is damaged in any way and
i w a r _se caution to avoid doing damage to the components and
r e r. . r o u n d i n g area. Always follow the hammer manufacturer's
- e c c r m e n d e d procedures and practices.
Figure 9 - 2 5 Multigroove adjustable pliers are known by many names, including the trade
name "Channel Locks'
PLIERS
Figure 9-21 i -fjrsi oat-peer> tenner.
S l i p - J o i n t P l i e r s Pliers are capable of holding, twisting, t>er;
ing, and cutting objects and are an extremely useful classification^
tools. The common household type of pliers is called the slip-j 0 '"
p l i e r s . There are two different positions w h e r e the junction of
handles meets to achieve a wide range of sizes of objects that -
be gripped. See Figure 9 - 2 4 .
M u l t i G r o o v e A d j u s t a b l e P l i e r s For gripping larger objects-

set of m u l t i g r o o v e a d j u s t a b l e p l i e r s is a commonly used tcx
choice by many service technicians. Originally designed to reff> '
F i g u r e 9 - 2 2 * - t/vf - iesc • vr /er a twee to ar oojed without harming the the various size nuts holding rope seals used in water pumps-
aarfne name w a t e r p u m p p l i e r s is also used. See Figure 9 - 2 5 .
:' I «Sr rm ST
Linesman's Pliers Lin.

for cutting, b e n d i n g , a n d t w r v.> /u '
construction w o r k e r s a n d eo: m:
useful tools for t h e service re v
c e n t e r parts of t h e jaws are d( gn< d f
pipe or t u b i n g w i t h o u t slipping. S<.' Figure V 2<
Diagonal Pliers Diagonal pliers

The c u t t i n g jaws are set at a n angl - to m a -
Diagonal pliers a r e also called s i d e c u t - d i k e Figure V*0*-n<sse0*nart .wS **r<! there « I Macon* a m a r
c o n s t r u c t e d of h a r d e n e d stee! a n d t h e y arc . - : that rwe* fc v. r-mrtf. a w m e
wire. See Figure 9 - 2 7 .
Needle-Nose Pliers Needle-nose plieri

small objects or objects in tight l o c a t i o n s . ! Jeedie - - e
long, pointed jaws, w h i c h a l l o w t h e tips to reac - r.*r; r.arr per.
ings or g r o u p s of small objects. See Figure 9 2 8 .
M o s t n e e d l e - n o s e pliers h a v e a w i r e cutter located at v . - - e
of t h e j a w s n e a r t h e p i v o t T h e r e a r e several variat of r e e d i e
nose pliers, i n c l u d i n g right a n g l e j a w s or slightly angled t a.
access to certain c r a m p e d areas. Figure 9-29 Locwig tten are tier mm t) Snar -.-aie >om rtSE (MPS*
FLAT GRIP CUTS SOFT WIRE

Locking Piters Locking pliers
be locked :c re.:. t . t i. " - - " :.-* as*
have wise o u s t - b c _ : i-.i : • "ear r e i ••*:••.:-- " Lc-:<c r;2
pliers c o m e in a variery :-' jr.'.es a r . : sjtes a r . : are coir.nori v re-
ferred c h e . : t r a c e r a r . e VISE GRIPS
( r f t t e p t o s . n o : h-o'.v v . r a - : : - - See ? 3 i a e 9 - ; v
S a f e Use c* P e r s ?';.-•- - ..: sot be ed • 'err. .-: . • *

o t h e r f a s t e n e r PZe~- st: _ : ae her. s p e e S e j ,'cr
d i e vehicle m g : i a r r : j e c
TECH I P ' ante versats Proper Term
Tecmcans Tsr use san^ y aranc -3^>es tools rafter ran 9m paper
wr,. -esu'S - s n e cants o r Igr tie* 1EcJwcant Some sens*? are
gwsn r ne tiltwng a a e
1,1
Brand *amt JVK l a m
^sscers •ancr A^-^sa M l . a , n in

Figure 9-26 A linesman's pliers are very useful because they car help pertxm man
automotive service )Obs. flse Sro _KMT<
?annp Lsxs tofer: KH/JBW P
OoBtR• ca»ng seers OMscr
Snap-Ring Pliers Snap-ring puers 1:

sr.a: - .-.. M a i y - r - .: : • - ar ; :•• ..: : r
remove a n d m s t a i n w a r d , as w e i i as o u t w a r d , e x p a n d : sr.ac
n a g s . S n a p - n n g p _ e r s c a r b e e q L . c p e o w f t t s e r r a t e : •„::•?: a w t
for p a s t i n g t h e o p e n i n g in t b e s n a p - n g , urbue : are eqtspped
w i t h points, w h i c h a r e i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e r. ies r. the - r a j ~ r i . V
Figure 9 - 3 0 .
vo Files Files : a
h a r d e n e d steel w i t h j a g o n a i t o w s titers. r u e s i r e a * a * a e - > b
a single r : 1 : t e e : " :a : : single-cut file. 5-
PULLING OUT AND SPREADING COTTER PIN
t e e t h c u t at an a p site ar.gle . : . : : d o u b l e - c u t fiie.
available in a variety of shapes and s o e s : : . : : -j*. f j z fiea.
Figure 9-27 Diagonal-cut piers are another cannon to that has -3 -. names. r o u n d fifes, a n d t r a r . g u i » E e s . See F sr-re - - 3 .
SS StCnOK
S T R A I G H T C U T TIN S N I P
OFFSET RIGHT-HAND AVIATION SNIP
F i g u r e 9 - 3 2 Tin snips are used to cut thin sheets of metal or carpet
EXTERNAL
S N A P RING
F i g u r e 9 - 3 0 Snap-nng pliers are also called lock-nng pliers and are designed to remove
F i g u r e 9 - 3 3 A utility knife uses replaceable blades and is used to cut carpet and other
i and external snap nngs (lock rings).
materials.
TRIANGULAR
A
to make straight cuts in a variety of materials, such as sheet stee
aluminum, or even fabric. A variation of the tin snips is called
aviation tin snips. There are three designs of aviation snips it
HALF ROUND
eluding one designed to cut straight (called a straight cut aviation
snipi, one designed to cut left (called an offset left aviation snip
and one designed to cut right (called an offset right aviation
snipi. See Figure 9-32.
Utility Knife A utility knife uses a replaceable blade and is used

to cut a variety of materials such as carpet, plastic, wood, and paper
HANDLE
products, such as cardboard. See Figure 9 - 3 3 .
Safe Use of Cutters Whenever using cutters, always wear eye
F i g u r e 9 - 3 1 Files come m many different shapes and sizes Never use a file without a handle.
protection or a face shield to guard against the possibility of met
pieces being ejected during the cut. Always follow r e c o m m e n d s
Safe Use of Files Always use a file with a handle. Because files procedures.
r. . cut when moved forward, a handle must be attached to pre-
• ; ble personal injury. After making a forward strike, lift the
S e ar.: return the file to the starting position; avoid dragging the PUNCHES AND CHISELS
£Je backward. Punches A p u n c h is a small diameter steel rod that has
smaller diameter ground at one end. A punch is used to drive
pin out that is used to retain two components. Punches come
TECH H P Use Chalk a variety of sizes, which are measured across the diameter of the
machined end. Sizes include 1 / 1 6 inch, 1 / 8 inch, 3 / 1 6 inch, aW
Oten s o " <*>«aI particles can become stuck in a file, especially w h e n using it to
1/4 inch. See Figure 9 - 3 4 .
fxe a i u r n j n or other soft metais Rub some chalk into the file before using it
to prevent trus Von) happening. Chisels A chisel has a straight, sharp cutting end that is used f
cutting off rivets or to separate two pieces of an assembly. 1 h e
common design of chisel used for automotive service work is c a ,l
CUTTERS a cold chisel.
Snips - ans are often asked to fabricate sheet metal Safe Use of Punches and Chisels Always wear eye P r o t ^,|
-; r,ea' shie.d need to use one or more types of cut- when using a punch or a chisel because the hardened steel is n
' ' . c: ed tin snips, which are designed and parts of the punch could fly off and cause serious personal«
QmtK 9- Hard totfi »
See the w a r n i n g stamp' .

Figure 9 35.
P u n c h e s and chisel', ca
is called " m u s h r o o m e d . " I i
avoid the possibility that t h
b e c o m e s airborne d u r i n g u:.' ,
Reroo .en. ate a ci - .cation erf tool used to remove .tuck us
broken f a s t e n e r , Ove: time, and corrosion can cause the threads
REMOVERS of t h e fastener to be a - a c h e d to the nut or the casting m a k i n g i»
R e m o v e r s are tools used to rern. ./c- very diffir ..;* © r e m o t e . There are several special tools that can be
tool is not normally n e e d e d d u r i n g ro-ji •jsed t o r e m o v e d i l a t e d fasteners. Which one to use d e p e n d s or.
1
tener is corroded or has b e e n broken or dai • m e type of m ag<=
attempt to r e m o v e t h e bolt or n u t .
Damaged Heads b o r 1 •••/A or a nut becom> -i -
To help p r e v e n t t h e need for a r e m o v e r t 1,
corroded fasteners should be sprayed with penet • . r o u n d e d , there are t w o special tools that can be used, inc u d i n j
trating oil is a low viscosity oil that is designed to f v • • Stud r e m o v e r grips the par
the threads of a fastener or o t h e r small separ;/ or; b e 1 above ' . r e s u r f a c e and uses a cam or wedge to grip the stud as ;t
parts. C o m m o n l y used p e n e t r a t i n g oils include YVD-40 ' . • • being rotated by a rate bet or breaker b a t See figure 9 - 3 7 .
and CRC 5 - 5 6 . • Nut splittet nut splitter thr b-, ;
it from t h e bo:: A n u : i p t r . e r i used by inserting the cutter
agamst a fiat of the r „: ar.d '. r;.'en:r i -he threaded bolt of the
s p . t t e t The r w . be .p. t away i r o n t h e bolt and can then be
removed. See F ? i r e ' - 3 8 .
Do got - raw •: ecrire pL-er or i a r n s j i the ."'flu

wedge w - J a c r j r
Figure 9 - 3 4 A punch used to drive pins from assembled components. This type of p. - h
is also called a pin punch.
Rj«re9-37 »st>u--.--y ar — setst—jw: • yasf - - •„; - • » >

rooffid when 2 -aasiet ar breaker bar s jsed I - t a l e the asserô f
Figure 9 - 3 5 Warning stamped in the side of a punch warning that goggles si- -. - -
nn
CUTTER
when using this tool. Always follow safety warnings
/
/
CHAMFER
V —7 MUSHROOM
RIGHT WRONG
F l g u r e 9 - 3 6 Useagnnderorafiletoremovetnemusi-w nate a j n t - e - - a Figure 9 - 3 8 J nut 5; cer ; _=ecs : ; -sn» • - - w i c «- M

punch or chisel d e e f ! ? « . a c f i s e 3 MER _seo te -WTKM « * v
70 sasx*
B r o k e n S o f t s . S t u d s , or S c r e w s Often, bote, studs, or .screws

Jrns or befcw ft? vtrfoce. making stud removal tools im- FR6QUENTLT ASKED QUESTION fiffl
•: - ' err*-..-•:- tr*.1 commoniv called "easy outs." An
• c m v x n of hardened steel with flutes or edges ground I Broke Off an ';>«> Oft—Now What?
- '.itros'rc direction of roost threads. See Figure o- 30. An exfro t m « - •»') is Moot mi removing thlr. two
'*r> S t J
is n o » t job fo> a pre!' veto) '' • ''• w shop. The part, which c<< laf
0» i
as :>n tvnifie b>i<r'-. " « t e Sii ' m o w * ftJHI viWOte " " t o n !
:
. WfflE • • »>•• 3rsi»»t fSMit-jr that can be uvd totlcip avoi'3 th?
machl v shop • • -. co to ft this tvpe ot job. One » ivolve,;
joseS-:" * Sr-zujrg th» rxvacW w W attemp®K tft-wmow the bole
using an e l e c t n a ! d i s c i n g ' - : >C ' t'Mi. An EDM use-: :> iserjj,
elec trie at current to produce tho "d ot w e s between the eir 1
•wd tv
- v.-;? is drilled into the center of a broken bolt. Then, the broken too! T?»» part is submental m a nonconducting liquid i Mch tiny:
so.vk vaporizes a small piece of the broken tool.
e x s a c t e - ieasy out; is Inserted into the hole and rotated counter-
:'.-.<«:wise usn.j; a wrench. As the extractor rotates, the grooves
—r tight? - into the wall of the bole drilled in the broken bolt. As a
_v , f X „ a c t o r < . ^ c a p a b i e 0 { removing most broken bolts. HACKSAWS
A h a c k s a w is used to cut metals, such as steel, aluminum . brasTn-
copper. The cutting blade of a hacksaw is replaceable and the sharp,
ness and. number of teeth can be varied to meet the needs of th«
job. Use 14 or 18 teeth per inch (tpi) for cutting plaster or soft ov-
als. such as aluminum and copper. Use 24 or 32 teeth per inch fc
steel or pipe. Hacksaw blades should be installed with the teeth
pointing away from the handle. This means that a hacksaw cuts while
the blade is pushed in the forward direction, and then pressure shouicf
be released as the blade is pulled rearward before repeating tfc?
cutting operation. See Figure 9 - d l .
Safe Use of Hacksaws Check that the hacksaw is equipped wi-

the correct blade for the job and that the teeth are pointed aw?
from the handle. When using a hacksaw, move the hacksaw slow;-,-
away from you, then lift slightly and return for another c u t
^ g u r ? 9 - 3 9 A set of W t extractors, coraroonlv called easy outs BASIC HAND TOOL LIST
Hand tools are used to turn fasteners (bolts, nuts, and screws). The
The Wax Trick
following is a list of hand tools every automotive technician shot::
possess. Specialty tools are not Included.
Man? v i e s mstet) fasteners can be removed by using heat to expand the metal j
Safety glasses
305 5rea« the -vst bond between the fastener and the nut or casting. Many tech-
Tool c h e s t
scHns host t > fastener usmg a torch and then apply paraffin wax or a candle to
heated 'zien<* See figure9-40. The wax will melt and as the part cools, will 1 / 4 - i n c h drive socket set ( l / 4 t o 9 / 1 6 in. s t a n d a r d a n d deep
S W the tamd w w down between the threads After allowing the part to cool. sockets: 6 to 15 m m standard a n d d e e p s o c k e t s )
•j-vV to ••:-"yf. the fastener It will often be removed without any trouble.
1 / 4 - i n c h drive ratchet
1 / 4 - i n c h drive 2-inch e x t e n s i o n
1 / 4 - i n c h drive 6 - i n c h e x t e n s i o n
1 / 4 - i n c h drive h a n d l e
3 / 8 - i n c h drive socket s e t ( 3 / 8 to 7 / 8 in. s t a n d a r d a n d deep
sockets; 10 to 19 m m s t a n d a r d a n d d e e p s o c k e t s )
3 / 8 - i n c h drive Torx set (T40, T 4 5 , T 5 0 , a n d T 5 5 )
3 / 8 - i n c h drive 1 3 / 1 6 - i n c h plug s o c k e t
3 / 8 - i n c h drive 5 / 8 - i n c h plug s o c k e t
r ^ j u r e 3 - 4 0 rvwow^ ,-f or txXts ' eas <v * the ptog is first heated to cherry red
v u r - i v c I "r— arvi ' m j t During cw-nc *ie m i flows m between the Figure 9 - 4 1 A typical hacksaw that Is used to cut metal « cutting sheet metal or
t fas»r So objects, a Wade w t h more teeth should be used.
I a mi Ii d r i v e r<ii( In i
1 h Inch d r i v e I 1 / 2 In ,i
I n iii< Ii d r i v e i inch iv 1.1
I m Inch d r i v e 6 Inch n u n
1 / 8 Inch d r i v e 18 Ini ii i
l / i i lm h d r i v e u n l v e i il
I / 2 Inch drive ••<« koi , n 11 at a* MpwiBu- aowit & IUTM «*'» a*
I l Inch d r i v e r a t c h e t
>*•* V- * MMM* W WW"-* iM'
wt Hi ( M M ) •<* *M « i iftmim
1 / 2 Inch d r i v e b r e a k e i h.ir
mm* ww*>>*. >*mmv>
1 / 2 Inch d r i v e 5 Inch e x t e n s i i W f . * vm4 o a « M l * « * , « * t * " * *
1 / 2 Inc h drive 10 Inch e x t e n s i o n « faMt W MM * » MW *
ItlJtGVM M t a M A I
1 / 8 inch to 1 / 4 Inch a d a p t e r
1 / 2 Inch lo 3 / 8 i n c h a d a p t e r
3 / 8 Inch to 1 / 2 Inch adapt' i I M terww a fed M w *
1 1
C r o w f o o t sut (fraclion.il inch) ' K M t w i c e ' buy lt<
C r o w f o o t set ( m e t r i c ) Ms* m*e* u c m o m «M f * am a baptnaa twawaufctt*
3 / f l t h r o u g h I Inch c o m b i n a t i o n w r e n d i ,ei *a a tad m i * * t» %u <<• u m Hi mtt t than tana
•naa n» « « » j u w w a r it * «> -i m M m Mm> «nan«tr « tact •
10 m i l l i m e t e r s t h r o u g h 19 m i l l i m e t e r s c o m b i n a t i o n
"x*rt w atM M yta. d a » tHt sal «* IM w M o r Sor>e«**i
1 / 1 6 Inch t h r o u g h 1 / 4 - I n c h h e x w r e n c h let v** Know t » fan a n o k m a q m ma Tmm acaaaa <* a * » *<
2 m i l l i m e t e r s t h r o u g h 12 m i l l i m e t e r s hex w r e n c h v-i • m o SMaMQi wit* t e w M N a b M
1 / 8 Inch h e x s o c k e t
13 m i l l i m e t e r s to 14 m i l l i m e t e r s flare nut w r e n c h
15 m i l l i m e t e r s to 17 m i l l i m e t e r s flare nut w r e n c h
5 / 1 6 inch to 3 / 8 inch flare n u t w r e n c h
7 / 1 6 i n c h to 1 / 2 inch flare n u i w r e n c h
1 / 2 Inch t o 9 / 1 6 i n c h flare nut w r e n c h
Diagonal p l i e r s
N e e d l e pliers
A d j u s t a b l e jaw pliers
Locking pliers
Snap ring pliers
S t r i p p i n g or c r i m p i n g pliers
Ball p e e n h a m m e r
Rubber h a m m e r
Dead b l o w h a m m e r
Five p i e c e s t a n d a r d s c r e w d r i v e r set
Four-piece Phillips s c r e w d r i v e r set
HI 5 Torx s c r e w d r i v e r
# 2 0 Torx s c r e w d r i v e r
File
Center punch
Pin p u n c h e s ( a s s o r t e d -,i/es)
Chisel
Utility k n i f e
Valve c o r e tool
Filter w r e n c h (large filters)
Filter w r e n c h ( s m a l l e r filters)
lest light
Feeler gauge
Scraper
Magnet
r? N- e*
y T l w V s f v e b r i a G m g C i M n p o u n d Trtct. HAMMER
« . w ^ m m w t o y * v*»a c t w f o u r t tt a PWityw « I o n acre* or

W T W ; ••» -gt J CMPAUI4 *GN»' U» SIR«<*IVW or (PEL M
MC « * tX «>,«*• » , p # t .if out 01 IC(«M d V .tfvt> g/HKjlJHJ
.'.»»•• t M •atuoe i w iswt aufcnutoe salts s t o w
CALIPER
BODY
SEAL DRIVERS AND PULLERS
P u l l e r s Grease seab are located on many automouve
; • .•..; < brake rotors. transmission housings, and dif
\ seal puller • :<n gi«-u* seals, as
• w . 11 . a r e w 4 4 .
Sea! Drivers A s e a l d r i v e r . .: be e i t h e r plastic i>r metal, usu

i . .. . - . . . is used to seat t h e o u t e r lip of a grease seal into
. . • •e.; pocket. A seal is usually driven into position using a
. . a let and a al driver that is t h e s a m e size as the outside
:.' - of t h e grease seal retainer. See Figure 0 - 4 5 .
ELECTRICAL HAND TOOLS

BOOT DRIVER
Test Lights A test light is used to test for electricity A typical
a m <tive te-.t light consists of a clear plastic s c r e w d r i v e r l i k e han
ti at c o n t a i n s a light bulb. A w i r e is attached to o n e terminal of Figure 9 - 4 5 A seal driver or Installer is usually plastic and is designed to seat the seal
v I s . t , w h i c h t h e t e c h n i c i a n c o n n e c t s to a clean metal p a n of t h e
le. i h e o t h e r e n d of t h e b u l b is attached to a point that can be
test for e i e c t n c i t y at a c o n n e c t o r or w i r e . W h e n there is
• er ar t h e point a n d a good c o n n e c t i o n at the o t h e r e n d , t h e
,•: i b u b lights. See Figure 0 4 0 .
Soldering Guns
• Electric soldering gun. This type ol soldering gun is usually pow

i i-i b', 110 volt Ai: and often has two power settings expressed In
i". i\[ ic j; electric soldering gun will produce from 85 to
; «'.i a dtf, ot heat at the tip, which is more than adequate for
vjidertng See Figure 0 - 4 7 .
• Electric soldering pencil. This type of soldering Iron Is less
• - x p f i . : a n d . reates less heat than an electric soldering gun.
A • ,-p'cai eiei trie soldering pencil (tronl creates 30 to 00 watts of
- it ar.d .. .unable tor soldering smaller wires and connections.
Figure 9 - 4 6 A typical 12-volt test light
• Butane p o w e r e d soldering Iron. A butane powered soldering
. P' it 'able and very useful for automotive service work
J i an electrical cord is not needed. Most butane-powered
BUTANE POWERED
ELECTRIC
H g u i o t t 47 An electric soldering j u n used to irmip olactNoal repairs Soldetlitp|W

ate sold by the wattage rating Itie higher llie wattage. Hie giealet amount ol heal
created Most ttoldei guns used lor automotive electrical work usually tall within the"
Ftgura ( I 44 * ! - -.1 ia • - i ._n«i lo remove a «,it trwn a rear axle to 160-wntt range
soldering Irons product- ,>
tor most automotive sola.
In addition to a solderlr.,
electrical related work should '
• Wit' • ilte
• Wli Ippii
• Wire . i impers
• Heat gun
fc/ Use a Binder Clip
A digital m e t e r Is a nec . ,
and troubleshooting. A digital multi r, IX* ' N a UMD OY «ME ACMCNRA ID NAP MW,
usually capable of m e a s u r i n g the folio .'. •" pkee SM »-4» a n n o CM a n t-Tund «l M fetal)
• Dl ,'olts
• At volts
• Ohms
• Amperes
TECH TIF It Just Takes a Second
Whenever removing any automotive component, n wn.

into the holes a couple of threads by hand lhi - n-,i - Hwt
used in its nriginal location when the component or pan is put - ji •
Often, the same diameter ot tastenei is used on a uimpune. .t oo' •
bolt may vary. Spending just a couple ot seconds to put me boil-,
where they belong when the part is removed can save a lot of' e w
being reinstalled Besides making certain that the nynt tast; « t*
the right place, this method helps prevent bulls ami nuts hoi" n-tt
away How much lime have you wasted looking lor thai Kist bolt
SAFETY TIPS FOR USING HANO TOOLS

Fi|inHt •nut* i • M
I he following safety tips should be kept in mind w h e n . . •
working w i t h h a n d tools:
• Always pull A w r e n c h toward you for best . .•:• SUMMARY
Never push a w r e n c h . -mii and .(ii^»n»«ir aid
• Keep w r e n c h e s and all hand t o o l s , lean to help prevtnl M B and to
allow for a better, firmer grip. 1 KM II
2.
• Always use a 6-point socket or a box . id w rer • t
tight bolt or nut. K t r r t o t i w n*\iA|
J. L
• Use a box end w r e n c h tor torque and an open-end wrench for speed
o** f u e l » Nll|Liw>*
• Never UM- a pipe extension or othe • " c h e a t e r bar
srvaaef bat m . a
wrench or ratchet handle. If more force is required, u a 1. >
Ma*.
or use penetrating oil and or heat on the fi ten ta
used on a bolt or nut to remove it, always repU it v h a .-« S
• Always use the proper tool for the . »t> I: J. I, A.
use the proper tool and do not try to use another t. > w naii
• Nevei expose any tool to excessive heat. High temperature* can ft. ft*l»
reduce the strength ("draw the tempei of et.:
• Never use a h a m n v i on any w . » l.vfcm# paer-
are using a special "staking face" wrench d> ed b< I .v 4. . . j. i .. .
a hammer, -und**, cftMb. a n i
• Replace any tools that are damaged or worn.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
HAND TOOL MAINTENANCE
5 upvml
Most hand tools are c o n s t r u c t e d ot im
1 Wtat ar.-1 e 0!(wr tee taralWM
can still rust or c o r r o d e if n o t propi k . >u \i I.
and long tool life, t h e following steps should be taken i. * t u - - .UT.14K
4. .',
• * I' II each tool I" loll I w\\ '
m
K l . p l , , , , ,,u M. 5. \\ --
more leadllv it the tools are in i i u a w.ta aiiotht 6. '•
ft, vvi 0 If thl-tr
CHArrtRQu;
»S>yr :h< .vt i f * I W t o r r
t W V w^riL r * » "t a A t . • •••v«|r •
haft A t aws> M V'wfJ M {I •h , n 1," I."
W I' l « - t Imwi t » ;
A -.«. M n t d. R u f p t s o h .crvvfli'vurr
ft. v - 4 . ... T. WIwt is 'tic "(Yvn* al tft» f."im«>
h, • Mm Mrtat* ttw 'ttiiiinj ftc*
c. : « tSm t . rt*t w .>ti.-
* " . ^ MltaMNf p a c n C. t f w pan o t H v t t r Ih* sinking ItCt
X ' - • \w » rt, I In • • •• tliat 1 tc Nndlr
* V 8. W . i tvi* of hemmet U plsstu snatttf. h u 11 metal cailt-,,- „....
k . V , .v an mini with mitli IMCI N k r
« - .. a. IVad blow lummer
4 tin | ( r x w »•!• a t t N * ptK-rc b sonblow tammtr
c, Mnlgr hammer
% L a v •% cwrcs d. PlasHc hammer
b « * \' 0. Wt-. t\|» ot plhiN MpabltofBttliinovrr t large ob|e. 1'
t Srtfcumft a. Mi|> lotnt pliers
i Vb* Grips b. I itwmntA pin-tv
J - IT •..
- ins'.'Rjii^ w w x h * ttchnkMn A a y i ih*c • c. I ocklnR pliers
i-r . capw-. HI i .Jiii tii I* i ftoieiwr with mow torque thin 4 d. M u l n « w v e td|UM.iWr pliers
m am*' k M k r t tar w tatchft T»ctmlcian B my* tfwt a torque 10 \\ti h i,h- I1.1. - irpl.neaNc ciltllliK edge'
i.*- «s ettoeCA txr.-J Tjtulwtv ft* the nwst ecruratr rrsults. Whkh a. sidr . ut pliers
•Krtwcan ncomtV b. Tin snips
4. > s fr... c»r A only c. I Itllltv knife
b. TtcbS in B only d. Avlitlon snips
c. Both T<chr,nun.v A tnd R
d \ - Ifi hnldiri A ftor B
Power Tools and Shop

Equipment
M>
' vr After studying Chnpter 10, Iho reader will bo able to Identify commonly used power tools • Identify commonly used Shop
" • proper U98 ot powiM tools and '.hop equipment, • Describe the safety proceduins that should ha followntl when working Willi
mm tools and shop equipment
• • ilr compressor • air drill • air ratchet • bearing splitter • bonch grinder • bench vise • din grinder • engine Blond
• • impact wrem ii • incandescent light • light emitting diode (LED) • portable crano • stone wheel • trouble llQht
• A. bri. ri *ii.'(H • work light
AIR C O M P R E S S O R to cause serious personal in|tiry. All OSHA approved air noz<
have air vents drilled around tin- outside ol the main dlschWBc "
•• . . n -lally located in .1 separate room or ,m
to help reduce the force of the air blast. Also, the air p t ' - : f , r ' ' ' ' '
ut 1'ip An a i r c o m p r e s s o r r.
by an air nozzle Iblow gun) must b« kept to 30 I'Sl (207 kl-1
• tA 1V At 1 • Tic motor and Include'. .1 storage lank
less. See Hgure 10 2.
- . • • • • • ' . ! well a. the pressure switches, which
• r'ain riilmtnum k-vrl of air pressure In the
• r' • • yr lank, < x p r e w d in gallon,, the AIR A N D ELECTRICALLY O P E R A T E D T O O L S
/.•i- ' i- ••(.' rat'-'l in th<- '.hop without having I m p a c t Wriinr.h An I m p a c t w r e n c h , ellln > .ilr l p l " ' u n ' , l l | i ,
>- rat -Iy v>- F i g u r e 10 I. electrically powered, Is .1 tool that Is used to remove an' 1 |t,i
1
fasteners I hr alroperated 1 / 2 Inch drive Impact wrench
&ala Um tH ( a n e n u e i *w A ; u h d " pn .iure ran create dan motit commonly used unit. See Figure 10 1,
': : .11 ohi' • 1, .uch <1 .1 '.rriall piece of The direction of rotation it. controlled by a " i W l u
l.r • ^fi mr tiOV'blow jruti with enough forte Figure 10 4.
! k
Figure 1 0 1 ftvplonUhnpcoiiipi Urtiiwnliy pii .1,1.1,
lo pcovMp lof mtintttwm n in n » unit
»-
t h . r.a.o at lh« Pu«»» M> I m p " ' '

Hqiirn 1 0 - 2 A typical air noille Always uss an air hof/ln thnt la OKHA nppt>. ,„, Wmwrin
Hi gn» h««y «hnp H <mk <vi py « m l i « I h i « i < »wt m P " * " » h*""<l
PMMPHJ tt»migh lt» m r a i | i n n n D m .ail »» 0 *' ' » • '
WWK^W P0IWIPVW Pipy y*m* iwpd H « ™»m«l <«wffltMfcffew In
rtpnim i t tfw a.r g t m ^ n m m ( » » ( « i 0n» n t » » =<"•'
prm4W*t Mte>*»•> » » «» • • m p " " " ' """d

l
dislnm'mitf**! W the HI inmpisjsn. p*uiw nlw» '••up * J *
I W i ranOlMrt t t w n .wnemtipmt ttwi »*»• « « » «1
piwwrt .Hiuntfil 'WW Pw pqrfa rtPonnwrf " -""•* "*"
ikwMng Pip tart. Ppm Wpi A t " " M "•"* "
Ipm pl WBtw m P » »«««nM»i rh. «...»» ' * » W
dmin lh# m t w PWt * y «m) » > * ^ ^
|,hn
oil In Hip W V H " * * "y"' "
Mypwlff • tuPpf^MSH
•>'!." I*
BP HI
fl
B u r e 10 A
1)0
lypii nl 11J Irish iIhwp Imp II1 wion. I. pf'll, »«! '' 1
75 sa ON
A l A I.'S u ( - - a c t s o c k e t s w i t h i m p a c t wrenches, and be sure

- c a w . * s i x k e t Of fastener shatter'. Impact sock-
e t s AN - f t f t r * « r M M « d c o s s r u c t e d w i t h p r e m i u m alloy steel. They are
Alt : w : T a t .id: ox j - fjus' o help prevent corrosion and dlstin-
i nwa fro:* n-c j r sockets. See Figure 10-0.
Figure 10-8 This typical die grinder surface preparation kit includes the air-operated die
grinder, as well as a variety of sanding discs for smoothing surfaces or removing rust.
to allow air to escape outward at the nozzle, thereby relieving pres-

sure if the nozzle were to become blocked.
A i r - O p e r a t e d G r e a s e G u n An air-operated grease gun uses

shop air to operate a plunger, which then applies a force to grease a
grease cartridge. Most air-operated grease guns use a 1 /4-inch air
inlet and operate on 90 PS1 of air pressure.
Figure 1 0 - 6 A Dtack impact socket Always use impact-type sockets whenever using an B a t t e r y - P o w e r e d G r e a s e G u n Battery powered grease guns
-pact wrench to avoid the possibility of shattering the socket, which can cause personal injury. are more expensive than air-operated grease guns but offer the con-
venience of not having an air hose attached, making use easier.
Many use rechargeable 14- to 18-volt batteries and use standard
grease cartridges.
TROUBLE LIGHTS
I n c a n d e s c e n t I n c a n d e s c e n t lights use a filament that pro-
duces light when electric current flows through the bulb. This was
the standard t r o u b l e light, also called a w o r k light for many years
until safety issues caused most shops to switch to safer fluorescent
or LED lights. If incandescent light bulbs are used, try to locate
bulbs that are rated "rough service," which is designed to with-
stand shock and vibration more than conventional light bulbs.
Figure 10-7 An ar ratchet is a very useful tool that allows fast removal and installation of
">'•-' especially m areas that are difficult to reach or do not have room enough to move WARNING: Do not use incandescent trouble lights around gasoline or
a Kane -atchet wrench other flammable liquids. The liquids can cause the b u l b to break and the
hot filament can ignite the flammable liquid.
A i r R a t c h e t An air ratchet is used to remove and install fasten-

•:• r.a: • ouid normally be removed or installed using a ratchet and
F l u o r e s c e n t A trouble light is an essential piece of shop equip-
a . eke' An air ratchet is much faster, yet has an air hose attached,
ment, and for safety, should be fluorescent rather than i n c a n d e s -
//h:ch reduces accessibility to certain places. See Figure 10-7.
cent. Incandescent light bulbs can scatter or break if gasoline w e r e
D i e G r i n d e r 1 die g r i n d e r is a commonly used air-powered to be splashed onto the bulb creating a serious fire hazard. Fluores-
too . which can a. ;o be used to sand or remove gaskets and rust. cent light tubes are not as likely to be broken and are usually P r0
See Figure 10-8. tected by a clear plastic enclosure. Trouble lights are usually
attached to a retractor, which can hold 2 0 to 50 feet of e l e c t r i c a l
A i r Drill An air drill is a drill that rotates faster than electric cord. See Figure 10-9.
drills up to 1800 RPM Air drills are commonly used in auto body
work when mar:; holes need to be drilled for plug welding. L E D T r o u b l e L i g h t Light e m i t t i n g d i o d e (LED) trouble ligM5
are excellent to use because they are shock resistant, long lasting-
Air Blow Gun v air b l o w gun is used to clean equipment and arid do not represent a fire hazard. Some trouble lights are batterV
other purposes where a '.'.ream of air would be needed. Automotive powered and therefore can be used in places w h e r e an attach^
i ' j blow guns should mêt ( 6 H A requirements and include passages electrical cord could present problems.
• V'jpr •; r v v f , at.: bits
r
• Gnr.omg •-- ' :s e*s or par
• , h a i p r ' r ."leei r- ..art ' • c u w r fitting
• f. react si
BENCH VISE
b e n c h vise ^: r a- • b<
formed or. the u n i t T V ut of a v.se s determined by the lengtt
Figure 10-9 A fluorescent trouble light operates cooler and ••. safer to ,
of t h e i ws. T w o c . r — • • z«r. v s e t a r e 4 - . r c h a n d 6 inch m o d
because it Is protected against accidental breakage where gasoline of other ft ••• T
liquids would happen to come in contact with the light. els. The ,awt erf n o t 1 .-.ses are serrated and car cause damage to
s o m e co-.oorier - .: e: pr-.«er.er Mar.v -,-pe: of protect!or ar
d? uied, r.-r - a r.-ers or by s.:nply ptac.-y
w o o d b e t w e e n t h e t i e jaws ar.d t h e c o m p o n e n t being held. See
Figure 1 0 - 1 1 .
Safe Use of Voec The av :: vser ran cause damage to rhe p a t

ot component being held e piece; 7: wood or rr.er .ft m a ' e r .
between the -ted aw: a n : _ e • • - - • : ere •• t e i p avoid ca ising
damage. Manv v s e i art cud -•— 5 aw covert
When fir-shed using a s e . be _te ' : sse '.be aws and place the
handle straight up a t d 27*7.:r • - : : ar. .-3 petsonal r j y • ar. / ->re
walking near the voe.
HYDRAULIC P R E S S E S
Hydraulic presses _ -.1-.: . -
m o u n t e d to a stand a a t r e u s e d • rres bearings r or ft .(
Figure 10-10 A typical pedestal grinder with a wire wheel on the left side and a stone shafts, as well as other component:.. To press off a bean- s, a m t
wheel on the right side. Even though this machine is equipped with guards safety g r s :s. • : : b e a r i n g s p l i t t e r
a face shield should always be worn when using a grinder or wire whee inner race of a bear - c. - v a r a . . : rre.se-: j s e a pressure gauge
show the pressure be.r.g spp_3d. Aiwa ' w r h e o ' / r , n-
BENCH/PEDESTAL GRINDER structkKSssppSed i -herrmn-.rtactarerr -_-.e r v r - - . . . c Se-
A grinder can be mounted on a workbench or on a star j-a ~e Figure : 5 - 1 2 .
pedestal.
Bench- or Pedestal-Mounted Grinder These gr:

grinders can be equipped with a wire brush wheel and - :
wheel.
• A wire b r u s h w h e e l is used to clean tt
to remove gaskets from sheet metal engine parts.
• A stone w h e e l is used to grind metal
room from the top of punches or chisels. See Figure I C'-H
Always wear a face shield wh > « i

Winder. Also keep the pan v . ; ;
Most b e n c h g r i n d e r s equ
(stone) on o n e side a n d a w i r e b r u s h w h e c j n the "
A bench grinder is a very seful p,'.\
wire wheel end can be used for the fo ov
• Cleaning threads of bolts
• Cleaning gaskets from sheet metal pans, such as steel valve covets Ftgwe I d - I t « TTOca t : « » » «
Sab- Use o\ Portable Cranes Always be sure to attach
of the portable crane to a secure location on the unit I
Nfted
T h e hook sh uld also be attached to the center of the w-
of th e
©bjeu so cart be Sifted straight up without tilting.
Aiwars keep feet ir.i Mr*r r : • cans out from under h

the
e n g i n ? or unit b e i n g i t e c -.vot» at a portable c r ® lithe
chain or scrap could break a? ars te.
ENGINE STANDS
An e n g i n e s t a n d is designed to safe old an engine a rjjjjjT j
it to be rotated. This allows the technician to easily remove, install
and perform service work to the engine. See Figure 1 0 - 1 -
Most engine stands are constructed of steel and s u p : rted by «
four casters to allow easy m o v e m e n t . There are t w o basic places I
w h e r e an engine stand attaches to t h e engine d e p e n d i n g on the
size of the engine. For most engines and stands, t h e retaining bolts
attach to the same location as the bell h o u s i n g at t h e rear of the
engine.
On larger engines, such as the 5.9 C u m m i n s inline six-cylinder
diesel engine, the engine m o u n t s to the stand using the engine
figw* i - f t n . . :nsssL-s..= sed to press beanngs or and off on rear axles mounting holes in the block. See Figure 1 0 - 1 5 .
F i g u r e 1 0 - 1 4 Two engines on engine stands. The plastic bags over the engines help
1 H 3 i - i : j i prrante -.rane .sed to lift and move heavy assemblies, such as
dirt from getting onto these engines and engine parts
iwdi
Cover Work While Pressing
t P w r n x yesarx; v a searing or other component, use an old brake drum

•jte arc Tie b r a m g h 5ie event the beanng shatters during the
j yjf&f r<e wane dwm will prevent the parts of the beanng from
V * 5 xifewrJ '-fltfdcatse senoos personal injury
PORTABLE CRANE AND CHAJN HOIST

p o r t a b l e crane : ' - o v e and in tall e n g i n e s a n d o t h e r
1
ver.' M r / • prjrtablccranes use a hand-oper-
v.tfi cv . ' . 3 - - n r a s e <••"! o w e r a b o o m that is e q u i p p e d
v. ' ,:.z ' . / • ' e n d of t h e s t r a p or c h a i n is
a » » ; - VA '0 •,-«" a r o u n d a b r a c k e t or auxiliary lift-
n* ce. See figure J O - i 3. F i g u r e 1 0 - 1 5 An engine stand that grasps the engine from the sides rather t h J
^to Operation of TO f n g t m .V>,
fcfltf hSWK b e s t r t tfiat the ensjr.e h W r j ,
m e . Be sure the attaching t o t e •:>: 5 , , -» ..•
& as the threaded holes In the b!r«"<. p. • • , a • • . - . - . ,
vsieciirety tightened before releasing the we..-; • qr* -n ' : »«*' . wiut-tf t>. ,'1 '
c e n n e . Use caution w h e n loosening the r-< r
.iise the engjne could rotate rapidly .-.-,• :-;ng f •
A R E AND MAINTENANCE OF SHOP EQUIPMENT

.9 shop equipment should be maintained in safe W ' - : 1 ,r4et ' , m • . .. - . ..
Maintenance of shop e q u i p m e n t usually Includes i f * • . r.g - ^ y ' - i .• > •
cerations or procedures:
PtO-2 Start By attaching the ippropriate rp to P13-3 Eat v '.vie Ha» a egiaSor assenftf /rth
the torch hardie. The Iffflng -J-oM orrfy be t gf-tsred gauges. j r w a r t jauje v c a s b c C e
hand tight Make sure the va\es on the *vch \ v 3 e :otf "he'cw pr?».re jfcfl* rvJcstOi
are closed at this time. •cAing
P10-5 Open the oxygen vafve on the M i v.-<J» PI3-6 \ • - 1 * ityger ?s_idSor a m dout> >»
1'4 turn In preparation for adfcstr^ :>.:•••- :as and xf^st a>-,gen jas ;<;ssu« x JO PSl O c a Jw
pressure. :<Ygen yaNe on ihe torcn - ^ f S s .
1 0 - 7 Open the acetylene valve on me torch hantfe PI0-9 Put an s a f e r -<

torn and adjust acetylene qas pressure to 7 PSl twn and use an ipproprate see Bp » csan . i \ e fe tr* urea \ * > a « 4 i r r a 1
n * * the acetylene valve on me torch handle. the Ho orifice FWsh by dcslng the o n w i vaNt t o g p t e ^ u V n j B u i i i r i n w l . *
PHOTO SEQUENCE Setup ami Lighting a Torch—continued
J
?-'tf aqbst ac^-.-^ne valve until the base of P10-11 Once work is complete, extinguish the flame P 1 0 - 1 2 Close the valves on both bottles an'j urn the I
-•f? : >J£ S x t h Pp. SJovA open the by quickly closing the acetylene valve on the torch regulator handles CCW until they no longer contact
r w >~ * • f S r t f i handle and adjust for a handle. Be prepared to hear a loud "pop" when the the internal springs. Open the gas valves brf? y on
? blue c c f e is we'l-de*>ned}. flame goes out Close the oxygen valve on the torch the torch handle to release gas pressure from the
handle. hoses. Close the gas valves on the torch handle 3 n?
put away the torch assembly.
~ V 3 ^leaSK a a c f t - e ^ s include ordinary P 1 0 - 1 4 Note that while acetylene bottle pressures P 1 0 - 1 5 Any time heating or cutting operations are
•<z~—.~! * c h t and a "rosebud" (leftv are relatively low, the oxygen bottle can be filled to being performed, be sure that any flammables have
-._ -J5S work f , rw for most purposes. over 2000 PSi. This can represent a serious hazard if been removed from the immediate area. A fire blanket
Set occzscraOv She rosebud is utilized when a great precautions are not taken. Be absolutely certain that may be placed over floor drains or other objects to
'f heat 5 needed the bottles are chained properly to the cart before prevent fires. A fire extinguisher should be on hand in
attempting to move it! case of an emergency.
P H M 5 8e sure i d » appropriate persona! P I 0 - 1 7 Note that heating operations should be P 1 0 - 1 8 When heating steel, move the torch in a
p n a w O e e a s pmertf d o m g f ^ g y t g and cut&ic performed over steel or firebrick. Never heat or cut circular pattern to prevent melting of the m e t a l K" 1 •
•JtwaSu'S steel close to concrete, as it could cause the concrete hold the torch too close to the w o r k as this will cause
to explode. a "snapping" or "backfire" that can extinguish the
flame
P 1 0 - 1 9 Affix the cutting attachment to the ton • PI 0-20 Fully the W f f r r*it v the P10-21 0«wan ga» preswre 9 * « * l »BwsW fc
handle. Note that the cutting attachment has a handle Oxygen n* no» be contrrtted «nn 30 P 9 ****** iSing «ie culling aftarhmert
cutting handle and a separate oxygen valve valve on the cutting adachmenf t o f f r e tnsem n * 7 PS
P 1 0 - 2 2 Open the acetylene valve on the torch PI 0-23 Dined theflame-jnto a t~..r spot r Tar. pi&-24 aMsr*eaetalc0as<«I * s * e » S * a « * g
handle 1/4 turn and light the torch Adiust the flame of the metal to be cut The w* budd He neat q u e e r • a n * a r -•y«»ie torn;;- advance the a * <wi
until its base just touches the cutting tip. Slowly open in order to get the cut started. m o to • > r * torSi tasW a«en cutting Mwar
the oxygen valve on the cutting attachment and P^ff-: 3 f w e > nam pieces port the cunm? K
adjust the flame until the blue cone is well-defined nefteswewo-tteat
SUMMARY CHAPTER QUIZ

1. Most shops are equipped with a large air compressor that supplies pres- 1. W t e j s n i c a s r e s s e ar a r t »li
surized air to all stalls for use by the technician. aspresai?'
2. An air impact wrench is the most commonly used power tool in the shop. a. 1 0 P S
It is used mostly to remove fasteners. Caution should be exercised not l h. 20 VS
overtighten a fastener, using an air impact wrench. c. 3C PS
d. 40 PS
3. Other air-operated tools include an air ratchet and a die griadet
2. W - * t e s » c s sr.-i at L -_-«•
4. A bench or pedestal grinder usually has both a grinding stone and a wire
a. '.-a nek
brush wheel. b. 3
5. Trouble lights should be fluorescent or LED for maximum safety la fce shop.
6. A hydraulic press is used to remove bearings from shafts and otter s t a t e d. 1 4 n e t
operations. X For safc -r,pressed m m !a i s . ae;
7. A portable crane is used to remove and install engines or engne tract -
transmission assemblies from vehicles. a. iCPSl
tk. 30 PSI
8. Engine stands are designed to allow the technician to rotate the e s g t e lo
C 30 PS!
get access to the various parts and components.
d. « r a
4. W-Jt can be sed : »et tHe . trfai
REVIEW QUESTIONS beOgtekff
1. Ust the tools used by service technician? that use compressed atr?
b. Wood
2. Which trouble Ught designisl is tare) the recommended type for macmaia c Ptasac
safety? d. A^sf
3
- What safety precautions should be adhered to when working with a vse?
When using a blow gun. what precautions need to be taken'
* Ttov.-ttmx*! • • 'tji itiel?' recommended for use tn the shop
4 Mart oxs* Inst a. facandeicent
b. fluorescent
d. nrerfea
mnang i • v engine stand, wtiat grade of nmm
« d i tvpu; bench, 'pedes* a. i or 4
m a wvr bmt, wheel can In uaed to b. 4 or 7
:~jlJW B Wf. r jcvxtna tfone can be uaed to c. 3 or 5
ft t a w u i d. I or 4
a. Tuning up .'?ry 6r.ont)is

b. f.eepicg eq.i-pm-'t c!>-an
c. Keeping equipment lubricated
I shift. What d. Both b and c
• prwmg operation?
Vehicle Lifting and Hoisting
• After studying Chapter 11. the reader will be able to: Identify vehicle hoisting and lifting equipment, Discuss safety procedures
•r iq a vehicle • Dea ribe the proper methods to follow to safely hoist a vehicle.
i f - ruuift , . wxx|ack • iar,k stands • safetystands
FLOOR JACK S a f e U s e o f C r e e p e r s Creepers can create a fall hazard if left

floor lack <s hand operated hydraulic device that is used to lift on the floor. When a creeper is not being used, it should be picked
- rr.r'.ir.enti, ,uch as engines, transmissions, and rear up and placed vertically against a wall or tool box to help prevent
toGft asverncîes. M w floor lacks use four casters, which allow the accidental falls.
! - • • - } . , rr oved around the shop. See Figure 11 - 1 .
S a l e I H e of F l o o r J a c k s Floor jacks are used to lift a vehicle or VEHICLE HOISTS

• ; • ent, but thev are not designed to hold a load. Vehicle hoists include older in-ground pneumatic/hydraulic
•i/<>ry stands, jack stands hould always be pressure over hydraulic) and above-ground units. Most of the vet
After the floor jack has lifted the vehi d e hoists used today use an electric motor to pressurize hydraul
jld be placed under the vehicle, and then, fluid, which lifts the vehicle using hydraulic cylinders. Hoists at-
iwered onto the safety stands. The floor rated by the maximum weight that they can safely lift, such
- :.'. • • «. another safety device but the load 7,000 lbs to 12,000 lbs or more. Hoists can also have equal leng-
A
. *- /': 'he floor jack. If a load Is retained on the arms or can be equipped with different length arms allowing 1
1 d ran leak past seals in the hydraulic cylin- vehicle to be set so the doors can be opened and not hit the cer.-
• . i . ' the vehicle, possibly causing personal support column. Many chassis and underbody service proced •
tr - .-ttrj t 112. require that the vehicle be hoisted or lifted off the ground
simplest methods involve the use of drive-on ramps or a floor i3;
and safety (jack) stands, whereas in-ground or surface-mounte--
CREEPERS
provide greater access.
•• a v e h i e, most service technicians use
- creeper, ' . or coti' aved surface equipped S e t t i n g t h e P a d s Is a C r i t i c a l P a r t o f T h i s P r o c e d u r l
reCo(
- • ' < •-• a " f - p e r ai;o*rs the technician to maneu- All automobile and light-truck service m a n u a l s include
vehic'11'
ver -jn<Jer the vetlide e a y . mended locations to be used w h e n hoisting {lifting) a
g and H | <3
Figure 11-3 I t e fwwf a t a n g * syrntsc -vScaang laamraended
A
Figure 11 - 1 hydraulic hand-operated floor jack.
Figure 1 1 - 2 Safety stands are being used to support the rear of this vehicle Notice a
creeper also.
Newer vehicles have a triangle decal on the driver's door indicating

the recommended lift points. The recommended standards for the
lift points and lifting procedures are found in SAE Standard JRP-
2184. See Figure 11-3.
These recommendations typically include the following
points:
1. The vehicle should be centered on the lift or hoist so as not to

overload one side or put too much force either forward or
rearward. See Figure 11-4.
2. The pads of the lift should be spread as far apart as possible •
provide a stable platform.
3. Each pad should be placed under a portion of the vehicle
that is strong and capable of supporting the weight of the
vehicle. Figure 11-4 3 Tall safety slants can isedlc: : . :-act r .- r - . r >t
a. Pinch welds at the bottom edge of the body are general v while on a hoist ibi A block ot wood should be j s e d r: n s c r * p e s s t . . n, ?. r ^ i
considered to be strong. to components supported by the stand-
H
, S M > V • fit 4 « W . f I H i . t B ''"V

" • » > ! » - > I t ' 1 1 ' *
1 4 t(k - (MP>' ' *
•*V* l V
m * - i f < 11 *»t^;«*/«»{• -
V *» • »•'*•» '( JW*?!, L'fy'M tow*

r - - (A| N t
i l l M o u N r ' - r r p
1
» » • I n r4 11 ' 50 <••' " "1
.« • ^t, - ] ( ,1 ^ k4 ' " * 1*
K '» - v j . r q ' l i l « 0 £ 4 t ' < 1 < > 4 i 1 H * » f * «t t : *
-V» V s "» ' < • - j r V v V j >M »<Mi'/« k M ' "
•n * « W.--I J > » n » i I • * « V V » . r>«
V»< w t i t i t n V ni-ri
/»*» V r r s J C f M I I ' M ' * *

-«» ft it i n T O t
— •
4 -! > If V f J « fH «M M
W A j S M ^ i >1(1
A) ^ » « * - 1 r« M o5» ^ *« ^ to t * j J r « .m
to A l B r a <
t V ' * ' ' . V - ^ h r N v a

OfllVC ON RAMPS
f t * r / : t 11 A ? 4 ' k « ' M «0 tp,t ' } < f i t n t * i

t ^ j .4<Nl»M>-tjiJt'.'V » N fl ,thi(j« on'jj fir
C- • F M - > • tf n « < <r-t* fe . » fKrp Ui*.*'.Uv :

. 4 . I.** rit • ' d U i t R f i l i r t .
SUMMARY
I . . V . « ,t I \St I r » i H d id f ) . t 4 e JL U : '
v A f ^ . l
1. •« I».«v -I rxtTfV}(.t J> i ^ i s l Z ^ t
>4 (>•-•! 1 ?U i*r> CJI tisi
), S * r f f U b t n H £4 ,• • >• « a k-^xJ fl * * * *
tktrtfxA.
«. U t f M " i .- *» »ft ".rfr-irt »{*• h o b t f f ***
/ tl'X
i (fttf.fj and Hoisting 86
R E V I E W QUfc&T ;.-
t. Why i ; r,icl« with a floor jack?
2. lo A»when I r m ^ a creeper?
J . W » « •. lildbesi!: to w h e n hoisting a vehicle?
C H A P T E R QUIZ
1 . A safety stand Is also called a .
a. Jack
b. lack stand
c. Bottle lack
d. Safety stool
2. A creeper should be stored .
a. Vertically
b. 1 nder a vehicle
c. Flat on the floor
d. Upside down on the floor
3. The SAE standard for hoist location is .
a. I 1080
b. SAE 2009
c. JRP-2184
d. I 14302
4. Tall safety stands would be used to .
a. Support an engine while the vehicle is hoisted
b. Lift a vehicle
c. Lift a component such as an engine high off the ground
d. Both b and c
5. Commonly damaged areas of a vehicle during hoisting include
a. Rocker panels
(b) b. Exhaust systems
c. Tires or body panels
d. All of the abov'
Figure 11-7 lal In mis ptioto the pad arm is just contacting the rocker panel of the vehicle
6. Pad extensions mav be needed when h . ting what type of vehicle'
ibi n«8 photo shows what can occur it the technician places the pad too far inward
a. Small cars
jndamealh the vehicle Tbe arm of the hoist has dented in the rocket panel
b. Pickup trucks
c. Vans
d. Either b or c
7. Technician A savs that a hoist can be stopped at any level as long as the
safety latch engages. Technician B says that the vehicle should be
hoisted to the top ol the hoist travel for safety. Which technician is
correct?
b. technician B only
8. Before lowering ihe chicle, what should the technician d
a. Be sure nothing is underneath the vehicle
b. Raise the >• hide enough to release the safe'. atch
c. Be sure no one will be walking under or near the vehicle
d. All of the above
9. Technician A says that a creeper should be stored vertically. Technician B says
t ) - 8 Dove on-type ramps the wheels on the ground level must be chocked that a creeper should be stored on its casters. Which technician ts correct?
'" lo preveni accidental movement down the ramp
10. When checking for proper pad placement, how high should the vehicle be
raised?
a. About 2 inches |5 cm i
b. About 0 inche- 15 cm
c. About one foot 130 cm
d. About 3 feet | 9 l ctr
P 1 1 - 2 MOM vehicle, will be correctly positioned Pt i- u Most pads at the end of the hoist a m o n g ,
w h e n the left front tire is centered on tno tire pad. r o w e d to allow for m a n y different 'VP' of vchiflc
construction.
x - v e , o f e m itft, can w retftsded or 1*11 - 5 Most Wis are equipped with short pad P 1 1 - 6 Tall pad extensions c a n also be used togau
vetue'es of many different extensions ttiat are often necessary to use to allow the access to the f r a m e of a vehicle. T h i s position is
pad to contact tho frame of a vehicle without causing the needed to safely noist m a n y pickup trucks, vans, aim
arm of tht lift to hit and damage parts of the body. sport utility vehicles.
r- v »s3<aw5« may oe necessary to P i 1 - 8 Position the from hoist pads under m « P i l - 9 Position the rear p a o s u n d e r the vehicle uflW
- ; ' ; - v . » <? « » • agi*e{>ed with r u m w g boards to recommended locations as specified in the owner's the r e c o m m e n d e d locations.
* * " v
aaussa^y a e r a n c e manual and for service information for the vehicle
being serviced.
uoset irft wrmre Pi 1-11 After being sure ail pads are correctly P 1 1 - i 2 Raise thd vehidfi a b o u t one foot (30 <
• are - - f t / S r ff/i". ?y} < « & a m t T l t e posrttoncd, use the electromechanical controls to
•stop to douoie-check that all p a d s contact tne
' • a i B & K j V t . v . =wo the rarsc the vehicle.
f r a m e in t h o correct positions.
Nr vw=> tie floor can
* * •*'• f . i Q t j r t s & G ® e t e f t g j t support
PHOTO S E Q U E N C E Hotttlng th« V
P11-13 With the vehicle raised about one foot off i- • P11 -14 This photo shows the pafc set flat and P11-15 Where additional clearance nec«sa>y tor
ground, push down on the vehicle to check to zi < if it contacting the pmcti wekfc o< the body To* "leftod the arms to clear the rest ot the body, the pads can be
is (table on the pads If the vehicle rocks, lower the spreads the load over the entire lengtf) - i the pad and •aned and placed under the pinch weld area as
vehicle and reset the pads If the vehicle is stable, the 19 less likely to dent or damage the pinch weld area
vehicle can be raised to any desired working level Be
sure tho safety is engaged before working on or
under the vehicle
P 1 1 - 1 6 When the service work Is completed, the P11-17 After lowenng the vehicle, be sire al arris P I " - 1 8 Care*j**nao tne yetucie out of the stati
hoist should bo raised slightly and the safety released of the lift are moved out of the way bet&re vtng r * . • H o e t o t a l of * a m s nave been neatly moved
before using tho hydraulic lever to lower the vehicle vehicle out of the work stall. oir T f » e nay B provide clearance so that the tires
wft • « contact n e ams when the vehicle is driven
tatoftetf
12
C H A P T E R
Measuring Systems and Tools
OBJECTIVES: After studying Chapter 12, the reader will be able to

dial caliper. • Describe how to use a telescopic gauge and a micrometer to measure cytnOer and lifter bore^ • Discuss how to measire varve ûoes
using a small-hole gauge • Calculate engine displacement fine como ess --
KEY TERMS: barrel • feeler gauge • small-hole gauge • spindle • spiit-baH gauge • straightedge • ttadmese gauge • ttwrtte
came from Reman days and w a s angzr.iiy •- .

ENGLISH CUSTOMARY MEASURING SYSTEM traveled by a soMier in 1,000 paces or steps, e e Enetefe s u m ,
The English customary measuring system was established about such as the pound w e j g i t and volume r, -.-,»- t x
1100 in England during the n?tgn of Henry .•: " » ' vears from Roman and Engj.sh measure-rer.ts
termlned to be 12 inches and was taker, from the lengt .• a ty;\c.-. The Fahrenheit temperature scale « z > create- - sna
foot l h e yard (30 inches was dete " ned to be « .cJi ' " Fahrenheit t lOSo-; " 3 c arte he . t as t x u s t v e n e m s i
K'ng Henry's nose to the end oi his outstretched a • v the human body, which . nssec : - c - f - ' " >
m
• CTOM
T> m l Hl«pl f u l l I (X. ft* ftetrBifse; Enery*

w « 1 2 T *r*2 w r b o * at 212 f f w
WTlUC S t S T W OF M E A S U R E LINEAR M E A S U R E M E N T S (TAPE M E A S U R E / R U l f

Mo* - f w o r t ! jaa S.v n e a i c - i t r e a s u r e . The m e o i A tape meat. r t w . - r . < , r s f e divides t n c b e s ( n t o a n i
• * T X t s - 8 * tale 1700s tr. France arxl . the pfcya- Eac ins er . •: avm • it.v • fine shorter t h a n t h e
k w : !w ftt saa* vt the measurements. For example, the The umt of m e * siarin? the largest i n c M e :
- ' -m >'-<-} as s r n g 1 '40,000,000 of the circumference of
^ «sr9 - 1 3 aoce around the earth at the poses,. The Celsius I inch
- >r l e a p e d by Ander Ce.s .. 1701 1744, used % Inch
-•> t n * pot-- of water as CTC i 3 T h and the tolling pomt of Ktnch
wv>rm M » ' C 212 f Other units include a liter of water, which
% inch
/sed at a standard of weight where 1 liter of water about
?ar I kilogrmu 11.000 grams. Units of measure are K- inch
t i e * tifttted or «rjWflied by 10, 100, and 1,000 to arrive at us- Some rules s h o w 1 3 2 of an inch. See Figure 1 2 - 1
a t , e m s . r e m r r t s . For example, a kilometer is 1,000 meters and A metric scale is also included on m a n y t a p e measures am
' h e r a ; commonly ised metric measurement for distance for machinists rules. See Figure 12 -2.
Barrel. O t t e r prefixes include:
si mifli 1/1,000
k = kilo 1,000
M -new 1,000,000
Linear Metric Measurements

1 kilometer 0.62 miles
1 meter 30.37 inches
I centimeter 11/100 meter) - 0.39 Inch
1 millimeter (1/1,000 meter) 0.039 inch
Volume Measurement
1 ct icublc centimeter) 0.06 cubic inches
I liter 0.26 U.S. gallons (about 1 quart)
Weight Measurement
I gram - 0.035 ounces
1 nlosram 11,000 grams) 2.2 pounds
What Weight a Gram?
T-; better .jnd*«tan<l the metric syitam measurements, it Is often helpful to

a certain object and relate it to a metric unit of measure For example, Figure 12-1 A rule showing thai the larger the division, the longer the line
Wowmg objects weigh about one gram
. AdoftxMf
• A van paper dtp
Pressure Measurements
1 kllopascallkPa) 0.14 pounds per square Inch (6.9 kPa I PSI)
1 bar 14.5 pounds per square Inch
Derived Units Ail >inits of m < u r e , except for the base units, are
a '.rrifclfu'ior, of units that are referred to as derived units of measure.
Som< n . s p» . of derived units Include:
Torque
Figure 1 2 - 2 A plasii'. rule thai has both lnche« and centimeters Facli line betw'"' 1 '""
Velocity
numberi on the cenllmolers represents one millimeter because thore are 10 miHimo!''''
Oetwlty l centimelei
MICROMETER
A jnsofwi&ettr .* 1 rr«
a n l R a n d repast. S o FV-rr
thimble
40 t h r e a d p e r i r n h E «r
spindle J2.
therefore, each Bne ret
she. i , i b e c h e c k e d tar caLc
•hrou^r. 12 6 .
ANVIL
RATCHET
STOP
Figure 1 2 - 3 A typical micro eter showmg r«ol m

: r*. • '
*ac*Tv specrfscatjoc
- j iff gfc •-•••Is <»

Camshaft
! t i a a M « H f i (ecitn 9 K
- t - ' r 12 8
Figure 1 2 - 4 All miciometera should be checked and calibrated •

gauge rod
!
J > a « •
0 0212 I N C H 0 077S INCH • S7M«tCM

ItM
Figure 12-8 TT" thr»

nuaaummenl the numbr lhal It jiigntii ' » i w i a ih» d*?' "waMî
V i ^ ' V H
0.187 MM 3.601 MM
(a) (b)
Pljurj ' 1 -4 ••''.*•< < ''.<« (Mdirvjs that use ifw veiner scale on ihe sleeve to rend to tlw nearest 0 001 millimeter.
Figure 1 2 - 9 Camshaft journals should be measured in three locations, 120 degrees apse,
lo check for out-ol-roond.
T h e lift c a n a l s o b e m e a s u r e d w i t h a m i c r o m e t e r a n d compare:
w i t h f a c t o r y s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , a s s h o w n in F i g u r e 12-10.
TELESCOPIC GAUGE
A t e l e s c o p i c g a u g e Is u s e d w i t h a m i c r o m e t e r t o m e a s u r e t h e Ins®
d i a m e t e r of a h o l e o r b o r e .
T h e c y l i n d e r b o r e c a n b e m e a s u r e d b y i n s e r t i n g a telescope
gauge into the bore and rotating the handle lock to alio
t h e a r m s of t h e g a u g e t o c o n t a c t t h e i n s i d e b o r e of t h e cyl»
Tighten the handle lock and remove the gauge from
c y l i n d e r . U s e a m i c r o m e t e r t o m e a s u r e t h e t e l e s c o p i c gauge-
1-1 . dmeMflMttmqmiJowmIlorout-ot-round
Figure I2-11.
A telescopic gauge can also be used to measure
following:
• C a m s h a f t bearing. See Figure 1 2 - 1 2 .

• Main bearing bore (housing bore) m e a s u r e m e n t
• C o n n e c t i n g rod b o r e m e a s u r e m e n t
SMALL-HOLE GAUGE ^
• —• — • — ——-—i.•, . • .— — - - . ^jf
Pfr* >2 9 /-•»•» -,/n w * fadip/r* to,id fie measured in at A small-hole gauge (also called a split-ball gauge) i s *
' '-•'••>• ». /•--// J . v / v . / i l i r n * m<!*9* tttrm m*4 w i t h a m i c r o m e t e r t o m e a s u r e t h e I n s i d e d i a m e t e r of small >.
ft pr*. s u c h a s a v a l v e g u i d e in a c y l i n d e r head. See Figures
and 12-14.
yssmsatdTooH W
Figure 12-10 Checking a camshaft tor wear by measuring the lobe height with a
micrometer
(b)
Figure 1 2 - 1 2 ol A telescopic gauge being used to measure the inside diameter Q o(a
camshaft beanng. ibi An outside micrometer used to measure the telescopic gauge
Figure 1 2 - 1 3 Cutaway of a valve guide with a hole gauge adiustec to the loie
(b) VERNIERDIAL CALIPER

A v e r n i e r dial c a l i p e r is n o r m a i l v used to meas the outside
Figure 12-11 When the head is first removed, the cylinder taper and out-ot-round diameter or length of a c o m p o n e n t such as a : .. -. i ameter
should be checked below the ridge (a) and above the piston when it is at the bottom ot the or crankshaft and camshaft bearing mrna* ammeter. ->ee
stroke (b). Figure 12-15.
FEELER GAUGE
A f e e l e ' g a u g e lalso k n o w n as a t h i c k n e s s g a u g e | is
rr.an • ' •• ' ' n e t a l that is used to d e t e r m i r
clearance b e t w e e n t w o c o m p o n e n t s . See Figure 1 2 - l f >
A ' - e : ? r g'ur.c can t c used to check t h e following:
• '12-17.
• P • nr ' dearancc
• '. -od :••> c l e r a n c e
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION Q
What Is t h e Difference b e t w e e n the Word Gage a n d Gauge?
The word gauge n.i-ans measurement or dimension to a standard ot reference.

The word gauge can also be spelled gage Therefore, in m o s t cases, the words
mean the same
I N T E R E S T I N G N O T E : O n e vehicle manufacturing representative told me

that gage w a s used rather than gauge because even though it is the second
acceptable spelling of the word, it is conect and it saved the c o m p a n y a lot of
money in pnnting costs because the word gage has one less letter' One letter
multiplied by millions of vehicles with gauges on the dash and the word
gauge used In service manuals adds up to a big savings to the manufacturer
^ q u r t 1 2 - 1 4 T e ouade of a hole gauge being measured with a micrometer
KNIFE EDGE JAWS ROD USED TO M E A S U R E

DEPTH OF R E C E S S E S
OUTSIDE JAWS USED TO

MEASURE OUTSIOE DIAMETERS
Figure 1 2 - 1 6 A group ot feeler gauges (also known as thickness gauges), used to
EACH S M A L L LINE is measure between two parts The Iilong gauges on the bottom are used to measure the
e q u a l T O 0.002" piston-to-cylinder wall clearance
FEELER GAUGE
PISTON RING
AOO READING ON B L A D E (5.5")

TO READING ON DIAL FO 036") TO
G E T FINAL TOTAL M E A S U R E M E N T (5 536")
fiflurt 12-15 *1 f a w t ' m s very useful measuring tool for

t " . ' < -wcauw - 'asfo* y maturing .nside and outside
I/»*er-, r. v, -far- * «rner fe -jkper simply add the reading on the blade to the F i g u r e 1 2 - 1 7 A feeler gauge, also called a thickness gauge,
-eaOog or m to clearances such as the end gap ol a piston nng
/-.ten* and Toots 83
STRAIGHTEDGE DIAL BORE GAUGE

A s t r a i g h t e d g e is a preci A dia. bc-'e ; , fc important, gauge used to
is used to check the flatne i,f e "ir- measure , >=: ar :out-of round ; well as main bearing
a feeler gauge. A straight*." i i • (block : v , bo • for tap- and out of-round. See Figure 12 2 0
following: A dial bore gauge ' a s to be adjusted to a dimension, sixth a t the
factory spe-:':ca T ;<>r.. The reading on the dial bore gauge then -va-
• Cylinder heads. See Figure 1 2 - 1 8
cates phis +1 or m i n u s ( - j readings from the predetermined di
• Cylinder block deck
mension. This is w h y a dial bore is best used to measure taper and
• Straighmess of the main bearlni sa
out-of r o u n d because it s h o w s the difference in cylinder or bore
rather than a n actual m e a s u r e m e n t .
DIAL INDICATOR
A dial indicator is a precision measuring instrument iea
DEPTH M I C R O M E T E R
sure crankshaft end play, crankshaft runout, and valve guide weai
A dial indicator can be m o u n t e d three ways, including: A depth m i c r o m e t e r Is similar t o a conventional micrometer except
that it is designed t o m e a s u r e t h e d e p t h from a flat surface. See
• M a g n e t i c m o u n t . This is a very useful method because a dia • j Figure 1 2 - 2 1
cator can be attached to any steel or cast iron part.
• C l a m p m o u n t . A clamp-mounted dial indicator is used in mani
places where a mount could be clamped.
• T h r e a d e d r o d . Using a threaded rod allows die dial indicator to
be securely mounted, such as shown in Figure 12-19.
Figure 1 2 - 1 8 A Straightedge is used with a feeler gauge to determine if a cylinder head is

warped or twisted
Figure 12-20 A dial txKe gauge t jsed to - e a s j e . nders and other »-g ie para -.1
out-of-round and taper uxidftufc
Figure 12-19 A dial indicator is used to measure valve litt dunngflowtesting of a high Figure 12-21 A depth mcnxnew De»i» jsoS B r-ieMM a l*xm 1mm
performance cylinder head pump from the ajrtace of Bie houanj.
M erne* •
SUMMARY 3. <» ,ft...jxj,Km (outrii

sure! In at least How many Ideational'
J. A <w ~• - t.t cm t* 'o measure -wr a. Two
dhRHMEi. to. I a
2. A • • "iff - m (>001 Jting t thimble tte* has. C. Sin
•••tin f- I K ; rouoor- of the •> mbte m m the thimble d. Eight
j2 5 n I t 1 >-s cttcwnterenee oi thimble is g r a d u a l into 25 narks, 4 . A tetev-rpr. gauge can be used to measure a cylinder bora if whart other
rath repreeeri'tr.g 0 0 0 1 Inch. measuring device u used to measure the telescopic gauge?
J. i >.( < die diameter -rf a war• : •• mat as a. Mlcroraeicr
» r . e tt* and .jt-of round b. feeler gauge
c. Straightedge
4. A . - t»ri- f and : be can be rv.-.iviied .sing am -ometer.
d. Dial indicator
i. A -m.'.&c gauge a uved wtth a micrometer to measure the inside
5. Toll' dyiro i<ure the dlamet r o f t valve guldi n a cyhr .
<rf a or bore, such as the big end of a connecting rod or a cylinder
micrometer and a , .
bore
a. Telescopic gauge
ft. A v r « • «,.;; called a split ball ga jge . used with amicrome b. feeler gauge
ter to raeasure smid boles such as the inside diameter of a valve guide in c. Small-hole gauge
a counter head d. Dial indicator
7. A .-truer diai u per is used to measure the outside diameter of compo 6. Which ol the following cannot be measured using a feeler gauge?
s o b ajch as p .'DM or crankshaft beanng ioumab. a. Vaive guide clearance
8 A - i- (also calied a thickness gauge is used to measure ihe gap b. Pr ion ring gap
or . -jiar > between 'v.o component,', v. i as piston ring gap, piston c. Piston ring side clearance
rins side clearance, and connecting rod side clearance. A feeler gauge is d. Connecting rod side clearance
a v , ,sed with a precision straightedge to measure the flatness of blocks 7. Which of the following cannot be measured using a straightedge and i l
and cylinder heads. feeler gauge?
9. A : r.dicator and dial oore gaug< an- . *?•; to measure differences in a a. Cylinder head flatness
component sv.h as crankshaft end play -iiai mdicatorj or cylinder taper b. Block deck llatness
• : b e t e ga.?» c. Stralghtness of the main bearing bores
d. Straighmess of the cylinder bore
8. Which measuring gauge needs to be set up |ad|usted| to a fixed dimensul
REVIEW QUESTIONS
before use?
1. Expl- how a mlcromeier is read. a. Dial indicator
2. I > rtbe how to check a crankshaft journal for outof-round and taper. b. Dial bore gauge
c. Vernier dial gauge
3. . er.gim components that can be measured with the help of a
d. Micrometer
telescopic gauge
9. The freezing point of water Is .
4. gaps - f i a n c e s that can be measured iising a iMlerfthlclOK-
a. O T
b. 32°F
5. r w h y a dial bore gauge has to be set to a dirriension before using. c. 0°F
d. Both a and b
C H A P T E R QUIZ 10. Which metric unit of measure Is used for volume measurement?
a. Meter
I. -;ded movable pan thai rotates on a micrometer is called the
b. cc
c. Centimeter
a. Barrei
d. Millimeter
b. Thimble
c. Spindle
d. Anvtl
2- ' i crankshaft tournal for taper, the journal should be measured in
«' .• how many locations?
a. One
b. Two
c Four
d. Six
Scientific Principles a n d W a ^ r
14 M a t h , Charts, and Calculations
2-
2
2
2
Scientific Principles
and Materials
After studying Chapter 13, the reader will be able to
important to brake design • Discuss mechanical advantage and how it s used n a veto* • E^MtecaMccrtrf tactan • D e s e r t * Bw
difference between heat and temperature. • Descnbe the methods used to tiertrty p a s t e , ran. s t e a l a t f A w n w
KEVTHHMS: acid material • alkaline • brake • drake iwsepoowr (bftpi • BTU <BrtM 1 M I M " c a s * n o t e n a • C O M t c a a g n t o
• conduction • conductor • convection • dynamometer (dyno or dynt • enerpr • f * e * e t • tatdaiMr • taw • M m m
• horsepower • hypothesis • inertia • insulator • kinetic energy • leverage • mass • raC»w aaantige « M w r t a n a i — el mmm
• pedal ratio • pH • potential energy • power • propagation • radosor • TW cause • u e l l i a d W • « » M B I B W •
lever • torque • weight • work • wrought at .s
SCIENTIFIC M E T H O D Using t h e Scientific Method

The scientific method is a series of steps taken to solve a proMem Tot p e r f c * » m a r c h . u s i n g a s c i e a t t k a p p r o a c h j o p n t x e s - +
These steps help e l i m i n a t e errors and t o achieve i" accurate n a wry i a p a n a i
This 3>e*ns that e v e r y £aak sfioukl be - vesjjjpieii ' > U s e s
A scientific m e t h o d i n v o l v e t h e following :eps
~ae 'Ix " o t ca j e r a t N ? t h a - set • its r '"" J " '
Stop #1 Observe t h e conditions or problem and define be the m .s x or i u i t . T w r o o c c a u s e
problem. a r e . w t i K b r a i f a c t b e n o t i c e d a t iSrsi. M a i f l e m c e ta&Mcas i
St
®P « Formulate an explanation that could be e ^ s t Jte ask t h e « E i * e s " w t r v " w t i e n they 4aa**-'a *"-" '' : l
problem. to w x J w r possfcie p r o b l e m a n d t h e n ' i * Br: J w d a o »r. m*
other "tktv." This s c i e n J x m e t h o d aI t n d n c r * lum A «r
S t o p # 3 Use the exp'.o (hypothesis)
a u t o m o s v e p m t . e m is o f t e a c a i e d t h e *• ft r*
the existing problem. If not. then refurr. •er 2 t / fo~ .Me sr.
t h e a d t r a c ^ h a s asked " w l s r * 6 w \ CM- a * r « * a t w .
other explanation.
iscovweri.
s
' e p « 4 Aifterthe explanation ha- proved be»| »
problem, additional tests should be performed to w n N •'•.at the Examples ot t h e Five Whys
method works ell of the time. aflc Bedded a p p r t a c r . to w a a e * N e ••..•. c =• '-•«
» K-
potential enetxv
• - ch j m v j v .
v • . .-• . e At the t o p of a bill. In t v
. • . >-• . • -.tesv but it : h e b a t h
•.t^.'tV- - H r J S*MMW> » M b « ' .... . - a ».!tl b u l b , or t h e v, ' i-ts p. *
.••>• v - be g t e e a s e d .
. . •• v •»*«!* "Mid the r u s "
TORQUE
• - Torque - • desc a rotating t o \ .
. x ' i i t t V'.s ^.-wKJastfhrsec r a not r e s u h in motion Torque is m e a s u r e d as ? '
; : .tr k n r t 4 s d w j r t f 1Kb -at *l » w * forte . . . he lever t h r o u g h \
.v* r m ust aeeas J * -*-'«} * w e * •'t{* a - e • v . o n * w v \ - ••> . <ed t o apply 10 p o u n d s of >rc,
Acs • - Msmm t v - n arc - w a c*as. S m thai e-.d . ' t h e w r e n c h to t . : : : a bolt. t h e n v o u a r e e x e r • t o pc
s i s i s n was s o t « « • « ? oitw. feet , - .e. See 1 i.tre ! > : r h e m e t r i c unit or twq^'"
• .-v. t*~ V..\to- ' . - r e . , ' se N e w t o n > t h e m e t r i c untt t o r f o t w t e
. - . i -..i - .-.Bd ^'•••••k* a i w n w * the distance s expressed in meters,
r - • S»- - * * I V c » propi* o o c m t the generator
i -aa - H e t K - n a d a s aewts t • as* an? t h t - i wf-.. *Whv b 1 pound foot .3S>8 Newton meters
3 * accessor • — * befc st . k x w t f I N-ewwn m e t e r 0 7 3 " o pcumd foot
•
. i j n ! x a iritam K Q S K K V : If the w i s i w e r tae.f was not
WORK
K : r th*- *» -v" n > dSK * * k e d
• •• > - , :r- acc«fc.Ti III! • r t W I h g M M B «4M okav. H P * W o r k - .1 r.ed as actual'.v a c c o m p l i s h i n g m o v e m e n t when ,
r . - > • - ixnesagKioa w - c be r e e d e d » find the m o t cause. For : •• > aprited to an object. \ sen-tee technician can apply v-;:.
a r : "is * ' : ' - ;.•'>-••-• ... rig bolts xise. m t t f i * front v a r.*:t in a", attempt to loosen it, vet n o w o r k is d o n e um
a : - - • as l e p a r " * H i * could be the root cause. acrua!i\ moves. Work is calculated by multiplying the apt',
force r. pounds* by t h e distance the object m o v e s (in feet), I; •
applied lOt 1 p o u n d s of force to m o v e an object 10 feet, then you a,
m i W H H J E S
c o m p l i e d 1 . 0 0 0 foot-pounds of w o r k 1 0 0 p o u n d s x 10 feet
Energy at or the capac tv to do work. There are many 1,000 foot p o u n d s See Figure 13 3.
- -.- : it ca . mechanical, a n d electrical energy
are . - w f a r '.ar icrsJs Involved in the operation of a n automo-
kinetic energy c-
f a r . " g object. An example of kinetic energy is a
1 FOOT
10 P O U N D S
J
Figure 1 J - 2 torque is a twisting lorce equnl to the distance troin the pivot point t i l *
torce applied enpressed in units called pound teet (Ib ttl or Newton-meteis (N-mi
M£AT AND LIGHT MECHANICAL
10 F E E T
CHfJUKAL SOUND
F i g u r e 1 3 - 3 Woik is calculated by multiplying torco times distance It you P'IS"

IJ-F ? v „ »-'- I N ty ts purtorm wortt e<ats m many forma 100 pounds 10 feel, you have done 1,000 toot pounds ol wotk
Newton-Meters to Py
fiN-m o ::t
t>« N-ft* tt-ft
5.74 2?
27 28 20.7 =•3
735
1 5.0 215 54 - »
S 3.7 3G 222 55
e 4.4 22.9 W
52 32 r> » 422 S r ' 32
$ 5.9 35 24.4 55 129 83
6.7 34 252 59 437 34 .4c ji 47 c
822
44 4 S41) jf,
« r.4 35 25.9 60 85
8.1 3$ 26.6 6' 45.1 86 63? 4 'jt '•je.4
12 59 37 27.4 62 159 87 64.4
•3 9.5 35 28.1 63 46.8 88 65.1
14 10.4 39 28.9 « 47 4 89 659 14 3S
»5 11.t 40 29.6 65 48.1 90 66.6 Pf « *8 SIS
IS its 41 30.3 66 48.8 91 973 IS 22"4 4-

<r 12.8 42 35,1 67 49.6 92 68.1 23* <2 584 •EJ.S w
ts 13.3 43 31.5 65 50.3 93 85.8 ®

19 14.1 44 32.6 69 51.0 94 696 26.6 ** 9 i t
14.5 45 33.3 70 51.5 95 7tX3 20 45 »« ; «

Zt 155 46 34.0 71 52.5 96 710 29.4
22 16.5 47 34.8 72 53.3 97 71.8 22 3C.f. 47 'flea ; c 1,55-
23 17.0 4S 35.5 73 54.0 98 72.5 22 522 572 "2 2 p. 157
24 17.5 49 36.3 74 54.5 99 733 24 45 65.5
25 t5.5 50 37.0 75 55.5 too 74.C 25
What Is t h e Difference in Torque and Work?
The designations for torque and work are often confusing. Torque 13 expressed
in pound-reet because it represents a force exerted a certain distance f r e r the
object and acts as a lever. Wdrk. however, is expressed in foot-pounds because
work is the movement over a certain distance (feet) multiplied by the forte
applied (pounds) Engines produce torque and service technicians exert torque
represented by the unit pound-feet.
POWER
Figure 13-4 Owe
The term p o w e r means the rate ol doing work. Power equals work
divided by time. Work is achieved w h e n a certain amount or m a s
1 weight! is moved a certain distance by a force. If the obtect is rnov ed
in 10 seconds or 10 minutes does not make a difference n the d y n p'sco:
amount of work accomplished, but it docs affect the amount of pi w- - twjstmg for
load holds braict
needed. Power is expressed in units of foot-pounds per minute.
power derh 1 -2 avTiamo bf-aKe feefsepower
HORSEPOWER ( b h p l . The >meter a c o
The power an engine produces is called horsepower hp'-. O n e

h o r s e p o w e r is t h e power rec tired to move 5 5 0
: various e n g j n e
in o n e second, or 3 3 . 0 0 0 pounds o n e foot in one m i n u t e 550 lb \
60 sec - 3 3 . 0 0 0 lb!. This is expressed as 5 0 0 foot-pounds n lb
Hrsepc* f
per second or 3 3 . 0 0 0 foot-pounds per ntiri:;t-' See Figure 13 4.
The actual horsepower produced by an engine is measured with
a d y n a m o m e t e r . A dvnarobmeter ioiVn jbbre\i.itc dyne
* SECT** %
T -: • . - : d r - * "tee's* as the vehicle is being accelerated.

» • ••• " T-. •:.- - ; a fejgh RPM may have the same h o n e - = 90,301 FT-1
>.* v • - c 3 - c • r x n e Derating at a low RPM.
30 MPH
V- . » tw bi -fit • oraula to: horsepower, the higher the

: 3. • of rque, the greater the horsepower
S ^
H E W T O N S LAWS O F MOTION 6.000 LB = 1 8 0 6 0 2 FT LB

' -
Sir o : N- . - • 1 0 4 3 - 1 7 2 7 was an English physicist and math-
etc i t . r v r e :--.eloped many theories of science, including three 30 MPH (J>
laws of motion.
Figure 1 3 - 5 Kinetic energy increases in direct proportion to the weight of the vehicle
1. N e w t o n ' s ' law of motion states that an object at rest tends
• a: rest and an object in motion tends to stay in motion
. - . r -. acted on by an outside force. For example, it requires a
UTK; rorce to get a vehicle that is stopped into motion, it also : 90.301 FT-LB
r e : _ r e that a force be applied to slow and stop a vehicle that is
in motion. 30 MPH t>
2. - v . r." = second law of motion states that the force needed to
- e an obiect is proportional to the mass of the object multiplied
: -- - acceleration rate of the object. This means that it requires a
e - . : : deal nore force to accelerate a heavy sport utility vehicle
3.000 LB ^ M P - , = 361,204 FT-LB
5UV than a small economy vehicle. The rate of acceleration also
:-:r3!ds on the amount of force that is applied.
60 MPH
J. vtor. s third law of motion states that for every action, there
:_ an oppos:te and equal reaction. For example, when the air-fuel
- .v-_re is ignited in an engine, the force is exerted on the piston, Figure 1 3 - 6 Kinetic energy increases as the sguare of any increase in vehicle speed.
which is forced downward, which causes the crankshaft of the
er.&ne to rotate. The opposite action is applied to the cylinder
head of the engine and applies the same force although this part 3 , 0 0 0 lb x 30 2 mph
a designed not to move. = 9 0 , 3 0 1 ft-lb
29.9
6 , 0 0 0 lb x 30 2 mph
KINETIC ENERGY = 180,602 ft-lb
209
Kinetic e n e r g y is a fundamental form of mechanical energy. It is
t i e e n : ? '>' mass in motion. Every moving object possesses ki-
The results s h o w that w h e n t h e w e i g h t of a vehicle is doubled
- - .c tnrg,. and the amount of that energy is determined by the
from 3 , 0 0 0 to 6 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s , its kinetic e n e r g y is also doubled from
; - :• rr.iss and speed. The greater the mass of an object and the
90,301 foot-pounds to 1 8 0 , 6 0 2 f o o t - p o u n d s . In mathematical
a - . - ' . ^yjvg^ ^ m o r e Noetic energy It possesses. Even at low
terms, kinetic energy increases proportionally as w e i g h t increases.
;• . i ~ .r.ng vehicle has enough kinetic energy to cause seri-
In other words, if the w e i g h t of a m o v i n g object d o u b l e s , its kinetic
. r ; r . ar. 1 damage. The job of the brake system is to dispose of
energy also doubles. If the w e i g h t q u a d r u p l e s , t h e kinetic energy
"rjt: er - " a safe and controlled manner.
becomes four times as great.
calculate kinetic energy using the following formula:
If a 3,000-pound vehicle traveling at 3 0 m p h is c o m p a r e d to
mv 2 the same vehicle traveling at 6 0 m p h (Figure 1 3 — 6 } , t h e equations
= E» for computing their respective kinetic energies look like this:
29/P
3,000 lb x 30 2 mph
wtierer = 9 0 , 3 0 1 ft-lb
209
/.r.^ht of the vehicle in pounds
' . < / . : ; of Tie vehicle in miles per hour 3,000 lb x 60 2 mph
= 3 6 1 , 2 0 4 ft-lb
i. f. - : er.ergy in foot-pounds |ft-lb) 29.9
At • v :o express this equation is as follows.

The results s h o w that the vehicle traveling at 3 0 m p h has o ve[
9 0 , 0 0 0 foot-pounds of kinetic energy, but at 6 0 m p h t h e figure if
weight x speed2
kinetic energy creases to over 3 5 0 , 0 0 0 foot-pounds. In fact, at twice the s p e e d ,
vehicle has exactly four times as m u c h kinetic energy. If the
would
were doubled again to 120 m p h , the a m o u n t of kinetic energy
: V/fi-y.d «; '.raveling at 30 mph is compared to grow to almost 1,500,000 foot-pounds! In m a t h e m a t i c a l term^
a './//, v»r a.so traveling at 3 0 mph as s h o w n in kinetic energy increases as the square of its speed, in other wor&-
r . i ^ ' . , > 5. 'or c o m p u t i n g their respective kinetic the speed of a moving object doubles (2), t h e kinetic energy b ® 0 0 ^
ftOttl
energies look. *e tf-s: four times as great (2 3 = 4j. And if the speed q u a d r u p l e s (4), say
id MaMrtite 89
15 to 60 mph, the kinetic ener, y : 16

This is the reason speed has such an mipaf t or,
o n the snort e ; . . . n oe ii? i oy only a > ; jnd force a ' ' i c o n g
e n d . However, th<- irt e n d of the lever will travel only half as far
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION as t h e long e n d . M o v i n g t h e fulcrum closer to t h e weight will fur
t h e r r e d u c e the force required "o lift it, b u t it will also decrease t h e
What Is the Difference Between Mass and Wc distance t h e weight is m o v e d .
A s e c o n d - c l a s s l e v e r Increase*, .e force applied to ar i
Mass is the amount of matter in an object. One of ttu-
passes :• along in *J- e -xune direction. See Figure 1 3 - 8 .
inertia. Inertia is the resistance to being put in motio
With a second-class lever, t h e fulcrum is located at one end while
remain in motion once it is set in motion
t h e lifting force is applied at the other. The weight is pos.'joned a;
The weight of an object is the force of gravity on the objec
s o m e point iri b e t w e e n . If a 10-pound weight is placed a' the center
defined as the mass times the acceleration of gravity
of t h e levet; it can be lifted by only a 5-pound force at the end of the
Therefore, mass means the property of an object and we:gut is a force
levee However, t h e weight will only travel half the distance the e n d
of the lever does. As t h e weight is moved closer to the fulcrum, the
force required to Eft it. and d i e distance it travels, are both reduced.
Kinetic E n e r g y a n d B r a k e D e s i g n The relationships be A t h i r d - c l a s s l e v e r ic" r e d - ' e t h e force applied to it, t , r
tween weight, speed, and kinetic energy have significant practice t h e resulting force moves f a r t h e r and faster. See Figure 1 3 - 9 .
consequences for the brake system engineer. If vehicle A weighs With a third-cia:: lever, -.he f u l c r u m is located at o n e end and
twice as much as vehicle B, it needs a brake system that is twice as t h e weight is placed at the other. T h e lifting force is appiied at some
powerful. But if vehicle C has twice the speed potential of vehicle D, point in b e t w e e n . If a 10-pound w e i g h t is placed at the end of the
it needs brakes that are, not twice, but four times more powerful. levet; it can be lifted by a 20-po'und force applied at t h e middle of
t h e lever. Although t h e force required :o m o v e t h e w e i g h t has dou-
INERTIA bled, t h e w e i g h t is m o v e d t w i c e a : r'ar and twice as fast as t h e point
on t h e lever w h e r e t h e force w a s applied. T h e closer to t h e fulcrum
Although brake engineers take both weight and speed capability into
the lifting force is a p r - e d . t h e greater t h e force required by t h e
account when designing a brake system, these are not the only fac-
weight and t h e farther s r . ; far.er t h e w e i g h t wCi move.
tors involved. Another physical property, inertia, also affects the brak-
T h e levers in brake svstems are _sed to increase force, so they
ing process and the selection of brake components. Inertia is defined
are either first- or second-class. Second-class levers are the most
by Isaac Newton's first law of motion, which states that a body at rest
c o m m o n , a n d t h e serv:;e brake pedal is a good e x a m p l e . In a typica.
tends to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends to remain in
suspended brake peda:, t h e pedal at— Is the lever, t h e pivot point is
motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an outside force.
the fulcrum, a n d t h e force is applied at t h e foot pedal pad. See
Figure 1 3 - 1 0 . T h e force a p r u e d to t h e m a s t e r c . U n d e r bv t h e peda.
pushrod attached to t h e pivot is m u c h greater t h a n t h e force appiied
TECH TIP Brakes Cannot Overcome the Laws of Physics
at the pedal pad. but t h e pusfcrod does not travei nearly as far.
No vehicle can stop on a dime. T h e energy required to slow or stop a vehicle Leverage create ; m e c h a n i c a l a d v a n t a g e that, at the b n e
must be absorbed by the braking system. All drivers should be aware of this fact pedal, is called the p e d a l r a t i o . F: r e x a m p l e , a pedal -atio of 5 to I
and drive at a reasonable speed for the road and traffic conditions. is c o m m o n for m a n u a . brakes, w h i c h m e a n s that a force of
10 pounds at t h e brake pedai wffl result in a force of 5 0 p o u n d s a -
MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES
The primary mechanical principle used to increase application force
in every brake system is l e v e r a g e . In the science of mechanics, a
lever is a simple m a c h i n e that consists of a rigid object, typically a
metal bar that pivots about a fixed point called a f u l c r u m . There
are three basic types of levers, but the job of all three is to change a FULCRUM
quantity of energy into a m o r e useful form. 10-LB / FORCE
WEIGHT LEVER
A first-class l e v e r increases the force applied to it and also
changes the direction of the force. See Figure 1 3 - 7 .
With a first-class lever, t h e w e i g h t is placed at one end while Figure 13-8 A second-dass lever increases force in the same direction as it
the lifting force is applied to t h e other. The fulcrum is positioned at
-1 FT-»- -2 FT-
5-LB
FORCE
FULCRUM
10-LB
WEIGHT LEVER
F i g u r e 1 3 - 9 A third-ciass lever reduces force bLt l a a t M K I K

Figure 1 3 - 7 A first-class lever Increases force and changes the direction ot the force. resulting work.
WASTE* CV UNDER
r 2 0 , ^ 6
1
2m?Wm IC
N. 10
40 < 12 ]A
Figure 13—11 A typical outdoor thermometer which is used to measure temperature
H p n 13-10 ""» Wm pedal assembly provides 15 1 mechanical advantage because a not heat-
*na ««ul in a 50-t> force « * me master cylinder
—*. pi-la. p ; t.rod. In practice, leverage is used at many points in hot gas in the balloon causes it to rise above the surrounding
:• r . sf-vice and parking brake systems to increase braking cooler air.
- e ntjlong it easier for the driver to control the amount of • Radiation—Radiation is a method of energy transfer where heatis
(ore* applied. transmitted through the air. Heat from the sun is transmitted
through the atmosphere where it heats the ground. Heat can be
felt above a hot stove.
HEAT A N O T E M P E R A T U R E
- it J ' d temperature are related but are not the same. Tempera- Temperature Temperature is the m e a s u r e m e n t of the ability to
: the intensity of the heat source, whereas heat is the quantity give up or absorb heat from a n o t h e r body. H e a t always flows from a
• .-.eat For example, the heat from a match and a large fire may warmer object to a colder object. See Figure 1 3 - 1 1 .
r e * .r- the same temperature, but the amount of heat generated
: t:re is far greater than the amount of heat generated by a
smjtfe match. F R E Q U E N T L Y A S K E D Q U E S T I O N ???
HMt Heat is measured in units called British T h e r m a l U n i t s , How Does a Coat Keep You W a r m ?
al ted BTUs. One BTU Is the amount of heat needed to raise
A coat is worn in cold weather to keep warm. Does it keep the cold out or B>-
•• -.p-ra* .re of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit. For
heat in? Actually, both, but because heat travels from a warm object (human
• t " i ' • «ra hearers and air conditioners are rated in how many
body) to a colder object (outside cold air), the primary purpose of a coal is to
»
-" -< jt can be added (heater) or removed (air conditioner)
keep the body heat from escaping into the cold air.
fr-itna space in one hour.
Hec' energv can be transferred by three ways, including:
• Conduction < onductlon Is the process of the heat traveling Temperature is measured using t w o scales: C e l s i u s (alsocafc
- -> a -r part to a colder part of the same object or by direct c e n t i g r a d e ) and F a h r e n h e i t T h e Celsius scale w a s devised bytt
' f"-r example, if one end of a steel bar is heated, then the ing the freezing point and the boiling point of w a t e r and dividing
• i travel by conducUon toward the colder areas of the bar. into 100 equal parts.
re metal were touched, heat would travel from the steel The Fahrenheit scale w a s d e v e l o p e d by Gabriel Fahrenfit
• • :.ser. Metals are good conductors of heat, whereas plas (1686 - 1 7 3 6 ) , a G e r m a n physicist w h o p r o p o s e d t h e scale in I
: ; and ceramics are poor conductors of heat and are called He w a n t e d to avoid using negative n u m b e r s , so t h e scale used b;-
insulators. zero degrees representing t h e coldest o u t s i d e air temperature r
had ever measured and used his o w n b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e to repre
sent 100 degrees. Later, m o r e a c c u r a t e m e a s u r e m e n t s indicate tt
Conductors and Insulators average h u m a n body t e m p e r a t u r e to be 9 8 . 6 d e g r e e s so he was
by 1.4 degrees. Also, negative o u t s i d e air t e m p e r a t u r e s can «cC'J
in •% i conductor of heat, it is also a good conductor of electricity.
See the comparison chart.
I >< - eta:', SUCH as steel, copper, aluminum, and brass Most
art - - i i such as plastic and rubber Therefore, if a material
( it unolly will not conduct electricity Temperature Symbol Degree Celsius °C Degree FahrenM"
Boiling point of water 100.0 212.0

Average human body temperature 37.0 98.6
Convection , is the transfer of heat through a liquid
Average room temperature 20.0 to 25.0 68.0 to 77 0
v a •• h t t i i e t i f ••) rise whll" the cooler liquid or gas
1 Melting point of ice 00 32.0
" ** ' - ' A ' m air balloon is an example w h e r e
Wj 191
TECH TIP
0 Quick and Easy Temper
Many service information ant,

which is often confusing to Bio-.e u •
degrees A quick and easy way In gi-i
degrees in Celsius, double it anrl irtrt
proferS/jn rrnrs
be w e 4 .
For example,
Celsius x 2 + 25 approximate I
0°C • 2 « 0 f 25 25"f lactia, Wfl
10°C x 2 - 20 f 25 45°F(act. 5CTF, FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
15°C x 2 = 30 + 25 55°F (actual 59T)
20°C x 2 = 40 + 25 eST (actual 68*t, Can Water and Acid Be Mixed Together?
25°C x 2 = 50 + 25 » 75°F (actual 77"F)
30°C x 2 = 60 + 25 85°F (actual 8PF) Acids have a •ery strong affcnrty tor water and as a result if water a poured into
35"C x 2 = 70 + 25 95"F (actual 95°F| apd. the r e a f t n j reaction woutd be extremely violent and aud would be 'orcec
40°C x 2 = 80 + 25 - 105°F (actual 104°F outward - % (Martens A.'ways pour acid into water, never water mtr, m
45°C X 2 = 90 + 25 = 1 1 5 ° F (actual = 113°F| Tecnr ictas seldom need to work with acids because even battery el*
50°C X 2 = 100 + 25 = 125°F (actual = 122°F) tratytes fror 1>e waier arc ac£ are pre ' ted to help prevent the possib My of a
techfcan creat"g a tar-M rewt«r
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION GAS LAWS

Gas laws are a set of characteristics that describe how gases act
What Is Thermodynamics? and the relations!: 3 b e ~ " e e - their temperature, pressure, and
volume. Gas laws have application in most systems of the vehicle,
Thermodynamics is the study of the relationship among temperature pressure
including tires, air-ccr.dit rung systems, and anywhere etee gases
and volume changes. The laws of thermodynamics help engineers design and
are present-
develop engines with higher efficiency. Thermodynamics is therefore used in
the design of the cooling system, as well as in the engine, because the more B o y l e ' s L a w Bov:? la' was fin: written in 1662 by Robert
heat created by the burning of fuel in the engine, the more power the engine Boyle 1627-1691 and describes the relationship between vol-
can develop using the same or less amount of fuel. ume and pressure of a gas in a closed container. Boyle's law states
that the volume of a gas varies inversely opposite' with the pr< -
sure exerted aga i s i . - :r a :.osed container Therefore, :f a closed
ACIDS A N D B A S E S container is comprecsed. t h e vc - m e of the gas inside is reduced
but the pressure is increased.
A c i d s Acids are substances that can corrode metals and some
can cause severe burns to the skin. Common household acids that C h a r l e s ' s L a w Charies': Law was L - - im ated a t
are not harmful and taste sour include vinegar and lemon juice (cit- by a French scientist, 'accrue Ovaries i 1 7 4 6 - 1 8 2 3 : . Aco r d : r ? •
ric acid). Stronger acids include: Charles's law w h e n the temperature of a gas increases, the volume
increases. When the cemperarure of a gas decreases, the vc _rr.e
• Hydrochloric acid
decreases.
• Nitric acid
• Battery acid
SOUND AND ACOUSTICS
B a s e s A base is a substance that can also burn the skin if strong
enough and is also referred to as alkaline. Common household Sound is the movement of air which the ear interprets as • -
bases are generally not harmful unless eaten and have a bitter taste, Sound travels through the air, which a called p r o p a g a t i o n .
including baking soda, soap, and antacid, such as Milk of Magnesia Son of sound is norma..'; thought to be only transr. "ed througfc
Stronger bases, which can burn the skin include: but liquids can also transmit sound waves. Sound has two proper -
• Frequency. This is also called the pitch o - ' r.e , u : : .. s

• Lye (sodium hydroxide)
measured to H e r e or cycles per second. Normal hearing rrecuer
• Bleach
ranges from as low as 2 0 Hertz to 20,000 Hertz. Very *
• Drain cleaner
aes, such as the heart beat, of one or two Hertz canr oz be r ear!
p H S c a l e Most chemical cleaners used for cleaning carbon -type High frequencies over 20,000 Hertz also cannot be aetec-«J z.
deposits are a strong soap, or caustic material. A value . a .1 p H . humans.
measured on a scale from 1 to 14, is used to indicate the amount of • Intensity. The intensity of sound, which i ..
chemical activity. The term pH is from the French word pom • ' ?» measured in decibels dB named for Alexande- > a r a r . Bei
drogine, meaning "hydrogen power." Pure water is neutral. On the (1847-1922 . the invent" r erf the telephore. Re a: - ' - ».
pH scale, water is pH 7. Caustic materials have pH numbers M m 8 (loudness .using the decibel scale, includes '-he fol-owina t r a m p l e *
through 14. The higher the number, the stronger the caustic acti< n • Whisper 10-20 dB
will be. Acid m a t e r i a l s have pH numbers from 0 thro .. 1. - • Normal conversa . m
lower the number, the stronger the acid action will be. Caustic ma- • Thunder •-
terials and acid materials neutralize each other, such as when baking • Threshold of pair
• - N of v . an.i how n ts generated
v w . «•:•>» v* - «.v . .^.fd hv vehicle nam;
• ri*. ml toagnuig methods to reduce or
8..- - into tN p*ss« :j(er i m p a r t
^ Ik. s:w rtv nvfx, afcuut W * of the
i tw> on 8 * tuatl is transmitted
. • < w \ about 2 0 % o f t h e
avx-njn cuntpartmew through the air
M M HMMR^ PiotoitHM
i euctaia), a person snouM WMI

i Ml w r e t» matt m onto lo
t M *> A ivqum use Ot Ml pnXKMKI ID
w W «e Fetertee a M d t» mem whin usng a F i g u r e 1 3 - 1 2 This mitrior ptasw pari is tatwlMl P E - H D , which moans polyethylene-high
r M u t n o an « « i - ( « r t or iw l a t e w t Ml)
Slap «3 Observe the burning of the plastic:

PLASTICS • No v .smoke means that the plastic is polvpropylen,
types of plastic. • \ isible black smoke means that the plastic is ABS.
P U s t i c T> r.pe 1 pa.-'. .hanged chemically Step $4 To determine if a part to be painted is polyvinyl chloride, i
, : j - *<>: plait,. material that cannot be remelted and and then touching the heated wire to a hidden back side surfact
-— >.Hher example of thertnoset plastics include: of the pan being tested. After melting some plastic onto the cop-
per wire, return the wire to the flame and observe the color of th
• flame. 11 the color of the flame is green blue or turquoise, Die
• ares the plastic is polyvinyl chloride (vinyl).
•
After the type of plastic has been Identified, then check with
The type of piastic is flexible at room tempera- service information and paint literature to determine the propc
, ;, i be r*v-. led b>. c • sdmg it into pieces and re paint and preparations needed to refinish the plastic part.
• ' _••:» arv-tVr shape F»amples of thermoplastics include;
IRON A N D STEEL
•
ICHMdtiFVC) Iron is a chemical element with a symbol of Fe. It is one of the
'PS) most commonly available elements on earth and is refined fror.
iron ore. Steel is made from iron after further refining. The ma::
• ditterence betw een iron and steel is the a m o u n t of carbon. I'
amount of carbon is critical to the strength and characteristics >
While It is not important for the a v e r iron and steel.
i lo determine what Kind of plastic is being used
• . - . -•• . ' • u o r a n t to know when restoring a part C a s t Iron Cast iron contains 2% to 4% carbon and this carbon is
i ? par. ' . ' example, n « r <>r plastic parts can usually in the shape of flakes of graphite 0.001 to 0.004 inches Ions-
• s a d r Jrrs: he W o w i n g plasoc material: Cast iror. is used in many automotive applications, including en^'
• blocks, rear axle assemblies, and some suspension components.
• - * c ,J li D u c t i l e C a s t Iron In ductile iron, the carbon in the alloy w-

• • tr» silicon are small ball shapes called spherloidols. Ductile Iron is at
• .-• y^.-t called malleahie iron and Is used to make crankshafts.
•
G r a y C a s t Iron Gray cast iron is cast iron that has anothe* •
piece*. are libeled on the inside with letters, mem, silicon, in the alloy giving the metal a gray color. Gray <-«' >•
a . trark.- c >s visible, it is still possi iron is used for engine blocks.
- pe of ptas . - g a simple basic test. A painter
I - : t * " ' pe : f . o : : if reftn shing these parts.
• £ parts are at a able in only one color and W i t v a»t run contains graphite, which acts as a lubricant when t* •
- . - rial» ' en be ng replaced. A bum r,4ctiin«l. As a iwu:. cooling oil or water Is not needed when mac*
.'"t - ; ^ • . M" :rcf-v.-eneorABSplasnc cast iron brake rotors or brake drums.
w t e a c g a * to&iwtns fleps
SAE STEEL DESIGNATIONS

Steels ate designed bv a system established bv the Society of
,' 
carbon Is 0.01%. In other woi
1 % . The percentage of carbon In
strength and characteristics of th
• Mild (low carbon) steel h,

(0.02%). Mild steel Is soft and casii
Common usage of low carbon stt f i Is the energy of mass in motion.
cle body parts where strength Is noi 7. . principles include levers, pulleys, Bid screws,
• Medium carbon steel usually I 8 asured In BTlb and temperature Is measured ic dtjrrfv
carbon (0.25% and 0.50%). This typo of • 9. valet is 7 with acids being lower Stan 7 and caustic
create steel that is ductile (flexible! and yet h
type of steel is usually used in forging? and machined <
• High carbon steel usually has bei >veen 0 0 ar I
and 1.00%l of carbon and is very strong. It is con.n REVIEW QUESTIONS
vehicle springs and can be hardened. 1. What a UneOc energjt?
2. I advarage ed In the braking system?
3. Wha , the fli3e«ace b t r m m torque and power?
Both medium carbon and high carbon steel can be harde d t
heating and then cooling, using water or oil to rapidly cool the n,- 4. How can a teri tea help Identify the type of plastic used?
Therefore, if heating any metal, always allow it to cool slowly to avoid 5. What pH -jfacc ar-dtaMS?
changing the hardness of the steel.
CHAPTER QUIZ
The SAE numbering designation usually includes four numbers: 1. All jf the t j.Soi -1 at :ce?ec sawmens about braking except:
a. L t o enerfv c u r Be absorbed by the braking system.
• The first two numbers indicate the type of alloy which could in b. fcnet;: enery, A a feiac doubles when the speed doafites.
dude several alloy elements. c. The Iwavier the wtacie. the gn?ai£r the ionetk energy wtiea
• The last two numbers designate the points of carbon.
1 xxx = plain carbon steels d. lf!he»el»cle«ezrr s touted.'J* rjieiic enei® <* a
2xxx = nickel steels
3xxx nickel-chromium steels 2. B K brake pedal assess* use a aedaracal lever to .
4xxx = molybdenum steels a. tacr-:a>e orvrs foea x state ped- app -d tc tile r.n
5xxx - chromium steels wcjfoder
6xxx = chromium-vanadium steels b. Dec-t.- a s a x t -•• i-uexu -eed :• : :-•-
7xxx = tungsten-chromium steels the infer.
Oxxx = silicon-manganese steels c. Decrease i-; -., u t e t n u e p e e a app ti
maszr cySnder.
A commonly used alloy for forged crankshafts is SAE 4340. d. - ant ; M i pedal and tt* i
The analysis of this designation is: 4 3 4 0 = An alloy that contains the traces art appn«-
1.82% nickel, 0.5% to 0.8% chromium, and 0.25% molybdenum
with 4 0 points of carbon. VP the otaee does act r a m . Te±rudac B says that torque b a twW»(
lorce that asas sr a * ' rwresaleE mooon. Wbca *ctwosi a : : ' » r
a. "echni- ir A a:
ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM ALLOYS b. . -r. 8
Aluminum is a lightweight metal that is used in many automotive c. B . " T e i V . A i - - *
applications, including suspension components, engine blocks, i r : d. S -her -, . - x s - - rr
cylinder heads. Aluminum is almost always combined with small 4. " : v. aa .' . z."' • : ra I
quantities of other metals to form an alloy, using copper, manganese, car. A ^ <*fje 5 W N N I T EN a dracooaMet - C A N ^ - 8 A»
-
;inc, or silicon. Aluminum and aluminum alloys that are mechar tea- hcrstpgwtr ^ jeasaed J i a dr-joceeat Wrxh wtwna - _ rw:
haped are called w r o u g h t alloys and art ibe . .. a. 'ft.rfflKaB A
International Alloy Designation system. The system uses a four-dig: b.
C. - - . ..• K • ' :
number, which identifies the allovtng elements, followed by a c„
d. V a Tec a ir - -
I and then a letter identifying the type of heat treatment. This > v :
S • .. I- £»J»
lowed bv a number identifying the specific hardness or temper
the finished alloy. A typical example would be oOol T6. The 6 0 c 1
a. •
is a 6000 series alloy with magnesium and silicon The *61* furth b. . -.
identifies other elements and their percentages. The number nc c.
system for cast aluminum alloy is similar but is designed standards d. Ba-:-
of the Aluminum Association AA1. T*T> techrjcais ire
uha: !Kape-i?_-e s the
bNt s the araobS! ef li
SUMMARY
a. Tet" . ar \ - y
1. Energy is die ability to do work. A vet- c < in moooa recres. ts kmetn b. ir. B :
eneip- wis c l must be absorbed bv the braking s>stttr • n r ^ i s : C c. So :r A i i E : i - s A i d 8
d.
i - Tonjueisans >• -i#:.-r>..
2
*. C S*1* .-Jf toi :
•ma ar 5j f ie. Tar " -'-''xt *rtri
*
a. e c t ^ i L i f ; / .
t 7 tEsiiari
c. J • " ' - - J C A r : ?•
iJL Te - •".: « e r g « f M K f c f c x
r
. 1.:.•••. " K S 2 -. ~fTJL «ne?7Y -„• ,
. : • • • L ' •aedssider ^
x. I n a. tec'' r -z -
c. SBC '. c j a a f 1&3 ? b. Te-iE- rSr.i
4. ^ - r " : « - - i C. I>- A JDS B
a.
Math, Charts, and Calculations
Arte? s t j s y w Chapter 14 9 * reader m t be able fcr. Aoc and s . r r a c : de: ~\a rumbers • Head a chart grap-
serjsrr&xz
a - • o- - s j - • lagra" • -wer orwe • gear • r *en pear • fractions • gear -eduction • graph • overture
:*-- fere?. • saerr c n e a r • n t & e
DeaMALS Notice that d i e top n u m b e r :s e x p r e s s e d in t h o u s a n d t h s a n : :

.are:— •• • . « ver/ace « ± R i c a n s . T h e p l a c e m e n t - er r. . . r . b e : is e x p r e s s e d in h u n d r e d t h T h e final figure _ .
. - y . - - d x x a v.e • a. . e of nhe r . u r r j e t H i e n a m i n g s h o w n in t h o u s a n d t h s .
vr:->. -: -jeCTs.. . n d r e c t t . v j a u a n d t f e s . a n d h i g i e t
- - i -. -eprese-- f r a t v o n ; of a : r . . . isg a d o t
= decimal p e r m . -: v - e n . - s b e r s a dec rr.i.. • C r E U these .-.umberi were meas jreniecc. die fiist resxt o n o a *
" v . accurate than the :<ast accuate measurement. This means 4a: 3
TtnUu - ie: - \r o n e r . to t h e right of the d e c m a i
- ' A', -ii be expressed in hundredths .ritead of thousandth
: • •: r « / ' ; or •'. . F o r « a r . ? J e , 0 . 7 the
- i- 0 ar-. pBo-.o ..iced - s e v e n t e n t h s " or " z e r o point
- ' - - v . car, j i c r.c . d e r . . t i t e r , .arzer t h a n zero, t u t
:
< • . ' s o : u r a c / r a e a v . r e d in t e n t h s , such as in 1 4 . 7 . W h e n s u b t r a c t i n g or multiplying d e c i m a l s , k e e p the I
points aiigned or use a calculator m a k i n g c e r t a i n to inciuce
MMdretftfc > c -ra with t w o r .rubers to t h e right of t h e d e d - decimal point.
" n-i.-oase a i v . LTCOV to 1 / 1 0 0 or 0 . 0 1 . For e x a m p l e , 0 . 4 7
-.".ed"" > e- - .ndredffc" or "zero point four s e v e n . "
PERCENTAGE -^rjl
Thousandth A -x. • ;th -.ores n u m b e r s to t h e right of t h e
Percentage - . e reiatior.-.n.p of a v a l u e o r n u m b e r
1 " j l y. - - •: -.i'ei ar. accuracy t » 1 / 1 0 0 0 or 0 . 0 0 1 . For e x a m -
r U ,.ng m o n e y as an e x a m p l e , t h r e e q u a r t e r s ( 2 5 c e n t s eachi - I
j'"/' -• - 1 'e.g.-.- r. .\<ired sixty-seven t h o u s a n d t h "
7 5 c e n t s <S0.75. or 7 5 % of a dollar S I . 0 0 ) . M a n y
r "ze-o - • e.gr.' x nr/en.*
n o t that easy, for e x a m p l e , 7 0 is w h a t p e r c e n t a g e of 120: cw
MC ^ and Subtracting Decimals 'A'hen ado.r.g or sut^ rr.,r,e th,e p e r c e n t a g e , divide t h e first n u m b e r 170) b y the
i - - - - dec pt-.r:' l a s to b e aligned. This e r . v i r e s number 1120).
- p aoe-3 .oto '.oe correct position of t e n t h , h u n -
0-K-- <- o t • . jjers.T.i. F o r e x a - p i e : 7 0 -i- 120 = 0 . 5 8
To c o n v e r t this n u m b e r to a p e r c e n t a g e , m u l t i p l y the ^ ^
0.147
by 1 0 0 o r m o v e t h e d e c i m a l p o i n t t w o p l a c e s t o t h e righ _ } pf
t h e n add a p e r c e n t a g e symbol to i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e n u m b e f
0.107 centage '58%).
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
m •H'tv
Vary a r s e a n e . m s m a i e c a
usrg soer.iSc t»oador; Scientific M t t t i o -
s . - S f . - e d t r t J * m - r b e r aJ z r
posHL Far e i i - T f * e . 6 8 . 0 0 0 t » -
rsg 2 s t tiK . i n t e r slw.- - - r 3 s j
teas a p a r a . S j r . a i l i u n b m . : JC-
trv€ ssgn t e s 3 e t h e n u m b e r o v w '/.
rati tx&a needs « be mowed tow ard FRACTIOUS
Fnrtiwa, *} a l 1 -5 h t ; • • fc -
ADDING A N D SUBTRACTING 'xar.-ru for nose r w i e * ,rrtrier nxsc . - i m A tape m e i or
n x ' s a s s a rule car. Su used TE measure the f ~ • g s* the ^ T J I
Techinnans are often required » add .• t n r sea —.
pan. Samesi&es. Sracaor need *o ae converted * aecs~ i t : r '
* ' w : r £ a g on vehk • F r e x a ~ : -
d s e replace sent p c ^ t wk .: 3* tât mr K ,
Deeded to select shims thin pieces of for a: sotg tt. e / f b e a ccmp*®6 ^racfiem » d e e r a l ar.ts. e*ak
clearance or diSerential preload measraemer. berofcesru- £ a d a t a .
For example, if the valve clearance spedficstioi : 3.012
a d the clearance is actuaSv 0.0161"-. and the srjjm r a- : - : : l / 2 * £ a r = 50 (
Between the camshaft lobe and the valve : . : . < « is 0.080 Quarter = 25
what size Sickness, of stnra needs to be installed to achieve dae
1/1© i f f c w = 10 <
correct valve clearance?
Solution: The slum thickness of 0.080 HL resets us a v i ve 1/20 ( m d r = 5eeffl±
clearance of 0.016 in. The specification requires that the r ~ nee Other feaa as. s a c s b 3 i . S B, e d 5 Ift a * tauter
to be thicker to reduce the valve clearance. See Figure 14-1. to d e t e r s m e . B a cisart is not m arte. ••* b c r . T i
To determine the thickness of a slum, the amount of clearance number, ca-ee tse a e a o r - j e r a the tec i
needed to be corrected needs to be calculated. The oingina: dear- B K t t
ance 15 0.016 in. and the specification is 0.012 in. The difference is
determined by subtracting the actual clearance from the ;peci5ec 1 / 8 = 3.0 divided 8 = 0375
clearance: 5 8 = 5 C djv.aeC r . B = 1 i 2 5
0.016 - 0.012 = 0.004 in. 5 6 = 5.0 sr. bed r- : = 3 :25
M U L T I P L Y I N G A N D DIVIDING
''._rj.--.gr a - e m sua. : •. *
ratios and tc * « H S T « fce " > a cf s n s r ;
amp.e. a e fica. a r e r a t s e a : - a n : _s e e t e r m m e d r
âcsnffis.TE a e a : raba tor —e fci t v j r a s e x i . : a:sr
in^BdspBL
i>.vkSBg _- c ; ~ . T . : r.c- : i.rs
d mam Tesasances c o t w a e d r. parajel. Is s s ruar » -e
value of Hx resSince cs srssied tar the number of •
VALVE
STEM
ar.:es. " aiar.c ' . : .: - -a ur. - --
c o n n e c * d m paraêu s>e ^ s s t a n o e would be . •
(a 0.4 4 = 0.1 ,.
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAS
A ; - m _ a uses -epreser.- ^j-jes : - - . a . _-•—•-•.
CAM
VALVE : . c a i e s b c w a e s e r _ - . 3 e r > are v c e - . v . : ; : r r J e t i
CLEARANCE
s u b e m e d . To use a t t . a . : k * tec - - . : c • eees
HEEL .•iters w . C "JK a c t u i l n a a t a r ar.c pert"—, r e
fancDons
For example, a •. — _ $ « it re -u -
r e v & ^ t i o n s p e r a l n u ' e RPM and ::•; •-
SHIM formula:
mpb x r neoci x 336

(b) RPM =
R()«ire 1 4 - 1 Valve clearance alowsHwrneMMits to oqavOxd i

This j o o n h is 'used to d e a r - m e fee a e c I
operation, twtti wtwattie engine s coM or at normal <**rabng i tmer s
achieved by brong the adjusting screw » i Ac ustotent s K r t w c h dang "S 9<e
pared lo the sear raSo a n d Ore siae
lioness ol toe admstrng slum sizes are changed a n d l t n o . v - : - s
m screw*
o >11'-fldx -peed. "J* at" ai information needs to G E A R RATIOS

b e r acsc t r » a * icviaua. When o n e gear turns another, the speed that the t w o
• t u m in
Mst> • 70 mph relation to each otr.< r is the gear ratio. Gear ratio is
•essedjj
Oca; -at » 2:41:1 the r ;mt-.••••' rt a: ms the d r i v e g e a r must m a k e ir
-<• to ro.
T r e i a i r e ' e r - 2b inches tate the d r i v e n g e a r throuph o n e revolution. To o 3 a
gear
ratio, simply divide th- n u m b e r of teeth on t h e driver
^ by the
: K.-X " r i t h e actual n u m b e r s results in the n u m b e r of tee th on th< drive :ar. Gear ratios, w h i c h i cpressed
fcsovtoe relative to the n u m b e r one, fall into three categories:
x 2.41 x23t 5008 • Direct drive

VM = - 2180 RPM
2C I T • Gear reduction
• Overdrive
FUEL ECONOMY CALCULATOR Oirect Drive If t w o meshed gears are t h e s a m e size and have
the same n u m b e r of teeth, they will turn at t h e s a m e speed. Since
.- . e c o n o r v ir. miies per gallons, t w o factors must
the drive gear turns once for each revolution of t h e driven gear, the
be Ck-TTt:
gear ratio is 1:1; this is called a d i r e c t d r i v e . W h e n a transmission
1. - o w far was t t e vehicle dnven. is in direct drive, the engine and transmission turn at the same
Z. - - a - g t ' t « s of fti-, were needed. speed.
7 - .• - requires that the fuel tank be filled two times; Gear Reduction If one gear drives a second gear that has three
- r the rest and then at the end of the test distance. times the number of teeth, the smaller drive gear m u s t travel three
Faresamcie: complete revolutions in order to drive the larger gear through one
rotation. See Figure 1 4 - 2 . Divide the n u m b e r of teeth on the driven
Saesrt P_ tank until the nozzle clicks off.
gear by the number of teeth on the drive gear and you get a 3:1
gear ratio i pronounced three to one). This type of gear arrange-
ment, w h e r e driven gear speed is slower than drive gear speed, pro-
vides g e a r r e d u c t i o n . Gear reduction may also be called underdrive
as drive speed is less than, or under, driven speed. Both terms mean
the same thing and use is a matter of preference.
S t e s «2 a reasonable distance. For the example, we drove Gear reduction is used for the lower gears in a transmission.
220 ~ .es First gear in a transmission is called " l o w " gear because output
Suet * tai>: and record the number of gallons used. For speed, not gear ratio, is low. Low gears have numerically high gear
e i a a p l e . exactly 10.0 gallons. ratios. That is, a 3:1 gear ratio is a lower gear t h a n those with a 2:1 •
Sfee** :e fijei economy: MPG = Miles driven divided by the or 1:1 gear ratio. These three ratios taken in order represent a typ: j
cal upshift pattern from low gear (3:1), to s e c o n d gear (2:1), tc j
of o i i o n s used.
I
drive gear (1:1).
= 220 divided bv 10.0 = 22.0 miles per gallon
Overdrive O v e r d r i v e is the opposite of a gear reduction condi
tion and occurs w h e n a driven gear t u r n s faster t h a n its drive gear.
R E O U E N T L Y ASKED QUESTION For the gears s h o w n in Figure 1 4 - 3 , t h e driven gear turns three
times for each turn of the drive gear. T h e driven gear is said toovr
near ts H e t n c Fuel Economy Measured? drive the drive gear. For this e x a m p l e , t h e gear ratio is 0.33:1
Overdrive ratios of 0.65:1 and 0 . 7 0 : 1 are typical of those used in
*. - wi Slates economy is expressed ui miles per gallon Outside of automotive applications.
re r w i a g j fje- economy is measured in the number of liters of fuel
i " X uometerj i62 miles; abOreviated L/100 km. This means
r c e a s e s the fuel economy decreases For example 24 TEETH
m% L/100 tan
470 B TEETH
w 235
15.7
9P 11 8
» 94
X 78
u 87
as 59
DRIVE
at S2 GEAR
% 47
Figure 1 4 - 2 The drive gear is attached or is closer to the power source and n
drives the driven gear.
t«r
24 T E E T H AX TORQUE a 1530
178, 1 175
8 TEETH 150 1S0

c
<E
111
| 1*5 125
11
•n
§ 100 100
z
ui
CD
$ 75 75
DRIVEN
GEAR
DRIVE 50 50
GEAR 30
20 40 50 60 70
RPM (X100)
iigure 14-3 II the driven gear is rotating faster than the drive gear, it is called an overd- ve
ratio.
Figure 14-4 A /aph :..->; •. <•/. w l "argue Notice thai fte curves crass at
5252 RPM or a « 3 e M to the . f t d fie 50 tutted Is enpressed m hundreds ttr-es
10ithousards)o<RPM.
MOTE: Ratios always end in I with a colon in between. Therefore, the first
number Is less than 1 if it is an overdrive ratio and greater than 1 if it is a
gear reduction ratio.
w h e r e t h e line a p p e a r s . .Stark t h i s spot a n d t h e n look directly to the
left a l o n g t h e vertical axis Y axis :o s e e -what v a l u e Is r e p r e s e n t e d
by t h e points o n t h e g r a p h .
JRAPHS, C H A R T S , A N D D I A G R A M S Chart Reading A c h a r t s ised -o r e p r e s e n t d a t a , s u c h as n u m
iraph Reading A g r a p h is a visual display of information, bers or specifications, a l o r g .vith a n o t h e r ."ariable, s u c h as m o d e ,
jraphs are c o m m o n l y u s e d in t h e a u t o m o t i v e service industry to or year of v e h i c l e . A c h a r t is v e r y u s e f u l for s h o w i n g m a n y different
llustrate t r e n d s or specifications a l o n g w i t h time or s o m e o t h e r specifications or o t h e r facts In an easy to-read f o r m a t . S e e Figure
variable. A v a r i a b l e is a m e a s u r e m e n t of s o m e t h i n g that changes, 1 4 - 5 for an e x a r p!e f a t r a n mission s p e c i f i c a t i o n s c h a r t , w h i c h
uch as e n g i n e speed or t i m e . A graph h a s t w o variables displayed. s h o w s t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n p a r t s :.-:ed a l o n g t h e h o r i z o n t a l ax..;
J n e variable c h a n g e s f r o m left to right on t h e horizontal axis. This (X axis) a n d g e a r of t h e a u t o m a t i c t r a n s m i s s i o n a l o n g t h e vertical
s called t h e X axis. T h e o t h e r variable is displayed on t h e vertical or Y axis.
ixis, called t h e Y axis.
Interpreting a Chart A c h a r t c a n look c o m p l i c a t e d b u t if s t u d i e d ,
A graph is c r e a t e d by m a k i n g a series of dots at various loca-
it is easy to i n t e r p r e t Start bv looking a l o n g t h e h o r i z o n t a l o r v e r a
10ns and t h e n c o n n e c t i n g t h e d o t s w i t h a line. See Figure 1 4 - 4 .
cal axis for t h e i n f o r m a t i o n , s u c h as m o d e l y e a r of t h e vefclc
nterpreting a Graph To i n t e r p r e t a graph, select a point along the T h e n , look directly a b o v e t h e m o d e l y e a r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s p e c f .
lorizontal axis (X axis) a n d t h e n look directly above the point cation for that particular m o d e l y e a t
REVERSE FORWARD
2-4 INPUT OVERRUN FORWARD SPRAGCl. 3—4 LO-ROLLER LO-REVt
RANGE GEAR BAND CLUTCH CLUTCH CLUTCH ASSEMBLY CLUTCH CLUTCH CLUTCH
PARK-
NEUTRAL
FIRST GEAR APPLIEO HOLDING HOLOING
SECOND GEAR APPLIED APPLIEO HOLDING

OVERDRIVE
THIRD GEAR APPLIEO HOLDING APPLIED
FOURTH GEAR APPLIED APPLIED APPLIED
FIRST GEAR APPLIED APPLIEO HOLOING HOLDING
DRIVE SECOND GEAR APPLIED APPLIEO APPLIEO HOLOING
THIRD GEAR APPLIED APPLIEO HOLDING APPLIEO
FIRST GEAR APPLIEO APPLIEO HOLDING HOLOING

MANUAL
2ND SECOND GEAF APPLIED APPLIED APPLIEO HOLDING
MANUAL APPLIED HOLDING HOLDING

FIRST GEAR APPLIED
1ST
REVERSE REVERSE APPLIED APPUTO
A
h u m 14-5 tvnital chart shtiivimt.ivhal is ujulnxt n what IIUI ID an automatic. transmission.
IM S W %
5. H> i luci . . unomy I'xpri ' .ed In the metric system:

r>. W t n .ith function i needed to calculate the over
II INM.IL . T ,NID MINI MINI ratios arc both known ' ratio i,
C H A P T E R QUIZ
1. I- : 30 ivJUeleschi -ii I during a snlnty®lspefflpn l • |,, ls| i
that was undt'i Inflated. This I. pii: i'nt.s ivhai pencntag. "'" ' '
nlcl6
a. 25% «
b . 33%
c. 43'V.
d. 67%
2. Wlilch of the following shows the relationship of parts?
a. Chart
b. liraph
c. Diagram
d. Schematic
3. Add 0.102 in. and 0.080 Inch. The answer Is
a. 0.182 Inch
b. 0.1082 Inch
c. 0.0082 Inch
d. 0.8200 Inch
4. Which Is the largest?
a. I 10
b. .25
c. .375
f i g u r e 1 4 - 6 An eipioden view showing how the theimostat is placed in the engine d. 1/50
5. What Is 26 out of 87 In percentage?
a. 33.5%
Oiagram Reading A d i a g r a m is a graphic design that explains b. 11.3%
or ,r i t h e arrangement of parts. Diagrams are commonly used c. 29.97%
: the automotive service industry to show h o w a component is as d. 61,0%
<mbled and in which order the parts are placed together. See 6. What number is being represented by the scientific notation 6.28 x In
I igure 1 4 - 0 for an example. a. 6 . 2 8
Interpreting a Diagram A diagram usually shows the relationship b. 628

c. 6,280
• rr. : .>. parts. Lines are used to show the centerline of the part and
d. 62,800
tr. identity of the part is often shown as a n u m b e r or letter. A sepa
.- • •-• chart or area of the diagram needs to be looked at to determine 7. 3/16 Is what number in decimal form?
a. 0.1875
- . name of the part. Diagrams are most helpful w h e n disassem-
b . 1.875
: . r .i or assembling a component, such as a transmission. For best
c. 0.5333
re . v . jse electronic Information and print out the diagram so it
d. 5.333
:.e written on and can be thrown away w h e n the repair has
8. How Is 0.183 pronounced?
r.' -r. completed. This process also helps prevent getting grease on
a. One hundred eighty-three thousandth
• ~ pa^-s of a service manual.
b. One thousand eighty-three
c. Zero dot one hundred and eighty three hundredths
SUMMARY d. One tenth and 83 hundredths
9. Metric fuel economy Is measured In what units?
I . - a. ; .-a in many auiomollve applications and specifications. a. Miles per gallon
2 •.. . t i •-•ittracLng decimal numbers are needed for many automotive b. Miles per kilometer
ce procedures. c. Liters per 100 kilometers
J to determine the volume of something if other values d. Kilometers per liter
are known. 10. Which number Is the smallest?
4 • *rf,ir,«d by dividing the number of teeth on the driven a. 1/16
U r of teeth on the drive gear. b. .25
c. 3 / 8
d. 33
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 f., ' r d'tt-rmining fuel economy?
2 s.-.d r , •/,v/er of an engine equal al 5252 RPM?
3 ' : .!•. r - j i,re the technician to add and subtract/
4 rrijiit.'e the technician to multiply or divide?
15
C H A P T E R
OBJECTIVES: After studying Chapter 15. the reader will be able to: D scuss . * '
information. • Read and interpret service manuals and electronic s e n n c e ^ ' y — ' - • >-:-—- . - -•• •-
KEY TERMS: Julian Date (JO) • labor guides • service information • tec*~ca s s - v c
VEHICLE S E R V I C E HISTORY R E C O R D S 3. T - to. - - - : -• - t r i and t - SOT.
W h e n e v e r s e r v i c e w o r k is p e r f o r m e d , t h e record of w h a t w a s
d o n e is usually k e p t on file by t h e s h o p or service d e p . 1 " " ' " ' -
a n u m b e r of years. T h e w i s e s e r v i c e t e c h n i c i a n w i! c h e c k :h<
h i d e service history If w o r k i n g on a v e h i c l e w i t h o"> • : - ••• r
problem. O f t e n . 3 p r e v i o u s repair may iidicat'- "he •
the c u r r e n t p r o b l e m or it could b e related to t h e s a m e c r c u '
components.
LUBRICATION GUIDES
OWNER'S M A N U A L S : j M c a t f t n jrj.de*-. -,-ch a s t h e s e pofc - ' •• •-.- r
ChSbos. :nc'tx!e a?. s p e c : J k a t J e 3 s foe '.Bteto' <
It has been said by m a n v a u t o m o t i v e profession?' techn c J
irxladisjc
service advisors that t h e o w n e r ' s mam.:.--: =< - o r read bv rcarr veh c e
owners. M o s t o w n e r ' s m a n u a l s contain all or most v the - w ••.-. • u , , - -.- - - a t -
information:
• brier npefe-
1. How to reset the maintenance remind*" light * Grease *5d vr. scec I c a ' J c - 1
2. Specifications. Including, v•«>• n ofot' 3
r
quarts (liters) systems, and e"®* ^ d
• acnonv
• Lock : reeding
£AL WORLD RX O w n e r ' s M a n u a l Is t h e K e y • Fastener ir.funnation
to P r o p e r O p e r a t i o n • D e c i m a l a n d metric equivalents
• Abi)revta:; m s and standard n o m e n c l a t u r e used
( O rtkatr ai % met fcrtiac toe and comotonad to a snap mat me
• Service parts Identification label a n d process c o d e in/ormatij
• • n & t l a r t t a d to be reset « Owen betow 25 mph
s c r v - c a r « a s able to w m a t « t a c t t n s occurred, but Maintenance and Lubrication Information RJ
* art tao* T M «b or not The tacftncan checked the a n d lubrication i n f o r m a t i o n includes topics s u c h as:
m w c «B0BNfe4 M l too w h d e was desgnea to operate Ihs
M c m s * o a n M s y s t e m ( u s e systems on Toyota-based vem • S c h e d u l e for " n o r m a l " as well as " s e v e r e " usage time and
srett to snut <* m m 25 mpft, tnjurmg toe d r w to r?aet the de- mileage charts
r>* t • was »ttof'oed that nothing couM be done to coned • S p e c k e d oil a n d o t h e r lubricant s p e c i f i c a t i o n s
a r c r e W n o » also teamed something Vertcies that use the • Chassis lubrication points
c o n M wtston ndude d Toyotas, plus Lexus. Pontiac Vtbe and • Tire rotation m e t h o d s
• Periodic vehicle inspection services ( i t e m s t o c h e c k and
time mileage intervals I
Karv w m w maradactre's ortet owner s manuals an their website for • Ma ntenance item p a n numbers, s u c h a s oil a n d air filter numtJ
and specifications, such as oil capacity a n d tire pressures
a feat tennud
Engines
• Engine electrical diagnosis i battery, charging, cranking, ignition,

SERVICE MANUALS and wiring]
• Engine mechanical diagnosis
Fac -v a n d a f t e r m a r k e t service m a n u a l s c o n t a i n specifications a n d
• Specific engine information for each e n g i n e that m a y be used in
p r o c e d u r e s . W h i l e factory service m a n u a l s c o v e r just o n e
the vehiciefs) covered by the service m a n u a l , including-
a n d o n e o r m o r e m o d e l s of t h e s a m e vehicle, m o s t a f t e r m a r k e t
• Engine identification
<«-'. ; e m a r - a j » c o v e r m u l t i p l e y e a n a n d / o r m o d e l s in o n e m a n
• On-vehide service procedures
j a L S e e F-ijtyre 1 5 - 1 .
• Description of the engine and the operation of the lubrication
Inc tded in m o s t service m a n u a l s are t h e following:
system
• ana ^ c o r -iended jpeci ' . a t i o n s for all fluids • Exploded views showing all parts of t h e e n g i n e
• .• . • r . • • . , \ • ± ••;.•••*.• \ n n f e l nMtetWWftce I M W • Disassembly procedures
• i srocedures • Inspection procedures and specifications of the parts and
• Service procedures Including the use of special tools when needed subsystems
• Assembly procedures
KV - - s o m e factory service m a n u a l s are [Hinted in o n e volume,
• Torque specifications for all fasteners, including the torque fl
s e r v i c e i n f o r m a t i o n is printed in several volumes d u e
sequence
* -Ê an A W and d e p t h of Information presented. The typical factory
s e - . i c t m a n u a l is divided into sections.
TECN TIP Exploded Views
General Information General information includes topics
s u c h as Exploded views of components such as engines and transmissions are availat*
IT. r and cautions in shop manuals and electronic service information, as well as in parts anc
• IN '-muficatior. numbers on engine, transmission/transaxle, and labor t m e guides These views showing all of the parts as if the assemNi
body parts blown apart, give the service technician a clear view of the various par's
their relationship to other parts in the assembly S e e Figure 1 5 - 2 .
IS-t Mart tame* i dagntMc rtnmalon » we* as

Figure 1S-2 An exploded view ol an engine as shown in a lime and parts 9 " " *
fosj til
Automatic Tr'ansmisslon/Transa/l.! AOVAN. W i i . HARD C C P f V E R S U S

f U C i a O M M J SE»wiC€ iMfORMATipN
g General information Udentlfk atii n and spfcti . *) Hû—
p Diagnosis procedures, I n c M l n s - ; r , , , ... All form. d p e r v ' c e -WrtratVn m g f t y r . i a t t n j f o f r i f
• procedures
g Genera! service, Including leak •!•-'ectlor:.. I ; t r & •
I Cooler 'lushing procedures EJtotrcni: S«r<<« 'ml.
• Unit removal procedures
• i'fl«<anSe;
a Unit disassembly procedures and preca* •
& fa?*-, -am R a * « ! t o T * rtN *
• Unit assembly procedures and t o q u e spec iP arions
• m* a wach V<9on lor
» Cj»*jt "A£> to 7* fe 'or i-oo
Electrical Systems • v*"«tofSet»eA ftt* x
• Zevct at •xattow n T« .'"op
• Symbols used
• Troubleshooting procedures
• Repair procedures (wire repair, connectors, and t e r m i n a l
DISADVANTGE8 O f HARD COPY VERSUS
• Power distribution
• Ground distribution ELECTRONIC SERVICE INFORMATION
• Component location views Ali forms <kservice :;for-ia*&r i - a v e s o . r e ;-advar.'a<.es, including
• Harness routing views
' • Individual electrical circuits, including circuit operation and
schematics t
fan) Copy Settrjofc SerAe rnformatkw
• CanSe'<mor'<ftin ?e de • res i, .:<rpO(r and ar'-> W

Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
• Cost'« t* each '<?« > '.vcA xcess an 5» a
• Heater system
> | . j , G e n e r a l description • Can get (Srtj and ^.-eadaae
Heater control assembly
Diagnosis, including heater electrical wiring and vacu itn
system
• Blower motor and fan assembly diagnosis and servicing
procedures
jHESE1 look for Severe Service TTmes
Mary time jiides p : .<* atMFc-a'' '<* vefwfts ?<at r a y « ?«ess-'.

Air distribution values rusted tocSr:te a f t i T w * -?.<e beer- -.t.^ted to Jt-'-e :</e 'a
Fastener torque specifications quote the--after -afc • snj al iortfPors are cn '-*»tjSffcWi
• Air-conditioning system vehicle See F^tfe-r 5 - 1
• General description and system components
• Air-conditioning system diagnosis, including leak d e l e t i o n
Air-conditioning and heater function tests
• Air-conditioning service procedures P f P E S Of S E R V O : : N f C P M A T 1 0 l l
• Refrigerant recovery, recycling, adding oil, evacuating Various hard copy t a n .als an? j ' . i n a t t e , > :' wfTng;
procedures, and charging procedures
• WV-gfagra-s ^ e Ftg-.rc ' 5 - 4 .
9 • Troubleshooting guide
• V k u u m hose i ' i t - i 3 » - s e e F g j e 1 5 - 5 .
• ESectical treci'-.-s-hcodng « r : o r s o m a t i c n j a e n . i i ee
Engine Performance (Driveability and Emissions) Fsg-tres i 5 - 6 anc 5 - 7 .
Vehicle emission control Information (VECI ! abel, visual physical • Eectrcjt.comjx- v n t 5 x a t x n g i < & e 3
i under-hood Inspection and 1 5 - 0 .
• On board diagnostic system
• Scan tool values
• Wring harness service
• Symptom charts
m Print It Out
"'s often a benefit to have the written instructions or .viu'o^ dâms at
•We While diagnosing or performing j epjir. One adwtaga ot a -aid copy
sstvlce manual ts that it can be taên to the vehicle and ^ as -cedejyKw-
ditty hantfe can often cause pages to become un oa^'-aWt. TV -!aj»
electronic format service information is that the • aterf* caa be X
M taken to 11® vehicle for easy access Wis aiso aiicws the $*>« tecMt-'an
® 'îte or draw on the printed copy, which can be a Dig NHp *'•<;••. e '«* •• g
'wts such as ef&trlcal system measu. e.neote. These cteS can the- 5* -sal to
®*umont t^ test result? on the work or .'<* r ^ M t S - 3 6tra--H ; . v . J t > ' < * * , - < * # t ••.- v» r j *
i « s s > e -iSt Ot .TV k ' rrs ft'iWed X
5 jpc vacuum (Bugrmsare axntmed ^to one manual Figure 1 5 - 7 Typical factory service m a n u a l wiring s c h e m a t i c
110 44. 4 '<1 INMO'Enpni

•
0 4-41 / i 4- 1?t tng,r+) , H V » Stfand
r ' « i > H 4-fSS Cn^na) l h | » M M
4-41 /7 OC 4 ttl) tHrnmCo"«a(
4- >S9 fngmmf LH I rnOamm<Ji
b f M CaApWhw*
ConT'lo' 4 43 13 41 4 143t/.r " t ngm*
•rwpwm
Cwvwetor A-«><1CI r»
Co^ct-^ * 4 l i o.
f t r --
C*Wmc«Or MJUfc 4 I rU ( a
C«nn«C«o» 4-44 i>4l 4-1. r- 2>
npm i »4~4 1
- « " Figure 1 5 - 9 A component location guide typically s t o w s Itie location of c o m p e l * " ' 5
words and in figures
Figure 1 5 - 1 3 Many a = r,unoereo with die section. as ji m s c a s e ' Tonowec oy
TC page ruraoer 27 m tret secaoc
Figure 15-10 Some guides include laDor information only.
s?
// J
Figure 1 5 - 1 4 Tne am&r&" . i i - : o n seesonat a semce marwal .s very ne;p*u
Figure 1 5 - 1 1 A typical time guiae showing the times specified for tne replacement or especially wnen working on an urearemar venae.
reconditioning of components.
for technicians. Some m a n u a l s also i n c l u d e a p a n s list, inclocBng

the price of t h e p a r t :o h e l p service advisors c r e a t e complete est-
mates for b o t h labor a n d p a n s . Tr.ese m a n u a l s are usually c a J e d
"parts a n d t i m e g u i a e s . " S o m e g u i a e s i n c l u d e labor l i m e or_y. See
Figure 1 5 - 1 0 .
See Figure 15—11 for a n e x a m p l e of a time g u i c e s h o w i n g b o t h
standard a n d severe service times.
HOW TO U S E H A R D C O P Y M A N U A L S
The m o s t efficient w a y to find information in a m a n u a l Is to . o c i
at t h e table of c o n t e n t s in t h e f r o n t of t h e book See
Figure 1 5 - 1 2 .
Figure 1 5 - 1 2 The wise service technician starts to look for service information at the front N e x t , go to t h e page (or pages') w h e r e t h e ceslrcc ..-.:.:v ..
ot tne manual in the table of contents. is located. See Figure 1 5 - 1 3 .
If bulb i n f o r m a t i o n or location of a c o m p o n e n t is n e e c e c ,
check t h e table of c o n t e n t s for t h e location of mis I n f o r m a t i o n . S e e
LABOR GUIDE M A N U A L S Figure 1 5 - 1 4 .
Labor g u i d e s , also called flat-rate m a n u a l s , list vehicle service pro- Service i n f o r m a t i o n a n d testing p r o c e d u r e s .
cedures and the time it should take an average technician to complete followed i n c l u d i n g a n y s y m p t o m c . i a n s or:'..:.-. A. ^
the task. This flat-rate time is t h e n t h e basis for estimates and for pay of a s y m p t o m i n f o r m a t i o n c h a r t Is s h o w n in 7 a c . e I S . . .
114 SKTWt*
TABLE 15.1 HSSttabOO
Reason
• TP sensor should be within the specî. • i • idlfi l l too high or too low, 'lie computer may not provide ngonougi^
extra pulse to prevent a hesitation
• An open or short in the TP sensor can result m station because the computer would not be receiving correct nation
regarding the position of the throttle
An a^dlow restriction at the throttle plates creates not only less air reaching the engine but also swirling air due to the
i) deposits. This swirling or uneven airflow can cause an uneven air-fuel mixture being supplied to the engine, causing poor idle quality
and a sag or hesitation dunng acceleration
pressure (MAP) sensor fault The MAP sensor detects changes in engine load and signals to the computer to increase the amount of fuel needed lor proper
operation Check the vacuum hose and the sensor itself for proper operation.
linkage lor binding A Kinked throttle cable or cruise (speedl control cable can cause the accelerator pedal to bind.
Fuel contaminated with excessive amounts of alcohol or water can cause a hesitation or sag during acceleration H I N T : To easily
check for the presence of alcohol in gasoline, simply get a sample of the tuel and place it in a clean container. Add some water
and shake It no alcohol is in the gasoline, the water will settle to the bottom and be clear If there is alcohol in the gasoline, tie
alcohol wilt absorb the water The alcohol-water combination will settle to the bottom of the container, but will be cloudy rattier
than clear.
dogged, shorted, or leaking fuel injectors Any injector problem that results in less than an ideal amount of fuel being delivered to the cylinders can result In a hesitation, a sag.
or stumble during acceleration
Spark plugs or spark plug wires Any fault in the ignition system such as a defective spark plug wire or cracked spark plug can cause hesitation, a sag, or stumble
during acceleration. At higher engine speeds, a defective spark plug wire is not as noticeable as it is at lower speeds, especially in
vehicles equipped with a V-8 engine.
ESfl ratve operation Hesitation, a sag. or stumble can occur if the EGR valve opens too soon or is stuck partially open
A loose or cracked intake hose between the mass airflow (MAF) sensor and the throttle plate can be the cause.
ELECTRONIC SERVICE INFORMATION to join. For a small monthly sponsor fee, t h e s h o p or service techni
cian can gain access to the archives, w h i c h i n c l u d e thousands of
T h e r e are m a n y programs available that will provide service infor-
successful repairs in the searchable d a t a b a s e .
rr.aî - for t h e a u t o m o t i v e industry. S o m e t i m e s the vehicle makers
m a k e n f o r m a t i o n available online. However, m a n y shops choose to Recalls and Campaigns A recall or c a m p a i g n is issued bya
: _rchase software from an a f t e r m a r k e t supplier. ALL Data and vehicle m a n u f a c t u r e r and a n o t i c e is s e n t to all owners in the
' '.itchell O n - D e m a n d are c o m m o n l y used software programs that e v e n t of a safety- or emission-related fault o r c o n c e r n . While ;
i n c . - d e service i n f o r m a t i o n for m a n y vehicles. these faults may be repaired by i n d e p e n d e n t s h o p s , it is generally
handled by a local dealer. Items t h a t h a v e c r e a t e d recalls in the i
Home Screen T h e H o m e screen is t h e first screen displayed
past have included potential fuel system l e a k a g e problems, e x h a u s t
TOU s t a r t It displays b u t t o n s that represent the major sec-
leakage, or electrical m a l f u n c t i o n s t h a t c o u l d cause a possible fire!
" r . of trie program. Access to t h e H o m e screen is available from
or the engine to stall. Unlike t e c h n i c a l s e r v i c e bulletins w h o s e
ir.--A-.ere within t h e program by clicking t h e H o m e button on the
cost is only covered w h e n t h e v e h i c l e is w i t h i n the warranty \
toolbar
period, a recall or campaign is a l w a y s d o n e a t n o cost t o the •
Toolbars A m a i n toolbar is displayed on most screens, providing vehicle owner.
; :.• a t c e s : to certain functions. This toolbar varies s o m e w h a t , de-
per.cing u p o n w h a t information is being accessed.
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION 9 9 ?
Electronic Service Information Electronic service informa-
". . r : available mostly by subscription and provides access to an In-
What Is t h e Julian Date?
r e w h e r e service m a n u a l - t y p e information is available.
/er..:le m a n u f a c t u r e r s also offer electronic service information The Julian date (abbreviated JD| is the number ot the day of the year. Januar.
. ' deaiers and to m o s t schools and colleges that offer corporate 1 is day 001. The Julian date is named for Julius Caesar, w h o developed W
current calendar.
training programs.
T e c h n i c a l S e r v i c e B u l l e t i n s Technical service bulletins,

- a r c rev atec T S B s , are issued by the vehicle m a n u f a c t u r e r to
H O T L I N E SERVICES
r v . h v r :e technicians of a problem and include the necessary
• a c r . o r . Tec m i c a ! service bulletins are designed for dealer- A hotline service provider is a subscription-based helpline to as>.
- .p - ^ - - ' . r a r bur are republished by aftermarket companies and service technicians solve technical p r o b l e m s . W h i l e services u t
- r f d e a va a.-, e along w i t h o t h e r service information to shops and ve- most charge a m o n t h l y fee for a certain a m o u n t of t i m e each m°
il ' e repair facilities. to talk to an experienced service t e c h n i c i a n w h o has a
a m o u n t of resource materials available for r e f e r e n c e . Often. _
Internet e i r r e m e t h a s o p e n e d t h e field for information ex- technician hired by the hotline services specializes in one v e ^
a-: t e c h n i c a l advice. O n e of t h e most useful web- m a k e and is familiar with m a n y of t h e p a t t e r n failures that are ^
-. . . r e i r e r h a V / T . a A u t o m o t i v e Technician's n e t w o r k at www. by other technicians in t h e field. Hotline services are an L'1 11
T r r . . . a free v e but service technicians need to register way to get information on an as-needed basis.
a * / ! « Use a Bluetooth H
When talking to B hotline service provid'

dunng the call to be able to provide mi
the sugges ted tests This makes the |oO ot tr
C H A P T E R UUIZ
both the technician and the service provitin
Using a Bluetooth hands-tree telephone >ho i1'. • • I . Wha* type of intomad - & commonly included in tit
which means the cost will be less tor the help -
a. Maimer,ar u reminder 4:.resetprocedurr
b. pr
c. M; - h-.s.'. len speaficaUons
Some e x a m p l e s of h o t l i n e a u t o m o t i v e service pro • - ^ d. All 0 irx.ve
• ldentifix 2 c "ie needforthe li ny olthe vehicle. Tea
• Autohotlineusa niaan A says thai an accident could can a occur after the repa
• Taylor Automotive Tech-Line due (0 hidder innit/p. Technical! B say: e faults could be relate
to a previous repair. WMdi technician iscorrect?
• Aspire
a. V.' •
b. iec"—-.i-
SPECIALITY REPAIR MANUALS c. by Tee • cut&Atr.i B
d. Neaher • tan- ai A nor B
Examples of specialty repair m a n u a l s include unit repair for assembled
c o m p o n e n t s , s u c h a s a u t o m a t i c transmission/transaxle, manua. 3. ' " Vficr/S ""• ' ••/.- .
a. 0 » T i e r ' : mar;,-.
t r a n s m i s s i o n / t r a n s a x i e , differentials, a n d engines. Some special',
b. Far- ry sen - - • . - • senh:e ir' nrjUor.
repair m a n u a l s c o v e r o l d e r or a n t i q u e vehicles, which may include
c. UtoicaCoo guide
unit repair s e c t i o n s .
d. All of the atom
4. VI -ngaiasrsT .ar . ..*: *-•-
AFTERMARKET S U P P L I E S GUIDES A N D CATALOGS a. Owi* mar ...:,
b. Factor,- se-vice mat
Aftermarket s u p p l i e s g u i d e s a n d catalogs often include expanded
c. Kr.* repij- mar, jail
views of a s s e m b l e d parts a l o n g w i t h helpful hints and advice. d. Lufcricar. -. guide)
Sometimes t h e o n l y place w h e r e this information is available is at
5. What type of niar.-ji _nc.-udes -jse needed to perform service procedures?
trade s h o w s associated w i t h a u t o m o t i v e training conferences and
a. Fiat-rate man.:.
expos. G o to t h e f o l l o w i n g w e b s i t e s for examples of training confer- b. Owner' xar.jai
ences w i t h t r a d e s h o w s : c. Factory senr.ee manuals
d. Pam guide
• www.lindertech.com
• www.avtechexpo.com 6. Component cad - car trrm o
a. Factory service rnanua.
• www.visionkc.com (Vision Expo)
b. Owr er r.ai .a
c. Compooen: yr tr-cuac
d. Both a and c
SUMMARY
7. Afee—.a:--- ; - — r . . - . : ar - - w-a* rr.a*
1. Vehicle history records are sometimes very helpful in determining prob- a. ?Aar.,ais
lems that may be related to a previous fault or repair. b. CDs 0* DVDs
2. The vehicle owner's manual is very helpful to the service technician be- c. Internet
cause it includes the procedures for resetting the maintenance reminder d. All af the above are posaU• .rce fomats
light (oil change light), as well as how to reset the tire pressure monitoring 8. Hotline services are
system after a tire rotation, and other important settings and specifica*. ins. a. Free
3. Lubrication guides provide informadon on the specified oil and labncants b. AvaJat i for a semoe fee
needed along with the capacities and the location of lubrication points. c. V-aâble onCD or DVD format
4. Factory service manuals or electronic services include inlorma': r d. Accessed by :> - teniet
vehicle and year specific and very detailed. 0. Afteroartet pens ;aa-JB car be ausef 1 - -..-jet ! nfomaa r and **-••
5. Other types of service information are labor and parts guides, vai are usualh'
a. Free
hose and wiring diagrams, component locator manuals, specialty manu
b. ta d: by paid • .rscipt. n
als, and aftermarket supplies guides and catalogs.
c. AvaJat e on CI' ir DVD
6
- Hotline services are subscription based and allow a technic ar
d. Ava able for a fee on a secured Interne* -
an experienced technician who has many resources.
10. Which type of manual or sendee hformaaon includes -he 5at rate doe mi
the cost of pans?
REVIEW Q U E S T I O N S a. Pans and time guides
b. Factor. . snrtce - anua •
'• What is included in the vehicle owner's manua: that could be c. Component cation guides
a service technician? d. Fret Internet sites
2
- Lubrication service guides include what type ot inform.'-
3
- Explain why factory service manuals or factory electron
nation Is the most detailed of all service Information.
16
C H A P T E R
0&SCTSV5S: After studying Chapter 16, tfie reader will be able to: Identify a vehicle. • nrerp t . , c h i c l e identification numbers and placara
• .rri.-rret vetscfe emissions and emission control information. • Read and interpret casting numbers. • Locate calibration coaes.
KFt THSMS: o n r ^ n b e t • calendar year (CY) • calibration cooes • California Air Resources Board (CARB) • casting numbers • country c: origin
• •: - - i - a Prateccor Agency iSPAi • gross axle weight rating iGAWR) • gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) • model year (MY) • tier n
• 2 • .er^cie emissions control information (VECI) • vehicle identification number (VIN)
PARTS O f A VEHICLE
. :•_• z z z x z or parts of a vehicle are based on the location a n d
purpose or t h e component.
L e f t S i 2 6 of t h e V e h i c l e — R i g h t S i d e o f t h e V e h i c l e Both
:: zz-zx a n a s refer to the left and right as if t h e driver is sitting
& e steering wheel. Therefore, t h e left side [including
; . - i - : r . e r . s under the hood) is on the driver's side.
F f C " a n d R e a r The proper term for t h e back portion of any

• i rear for example, left rear tire,.
F R O N T - W H E E L DRIVE V E R S U S R E A R - W H E E L D R I V E
drive : F W D m e a n s t h a t t h e front w h e e l s are being
~ . s r . : r . c engine, as well as turned by t h e steering w h e e l . Rear-
Figure 1 6 - 1 Typical vehicle identification number (VIN) as viewed through trie w i n o s M i
zr::e RWD; m e a n s t h a t t h e rear w h e e l s are driven by t h e
c ' z r - i - 1 : m e e n g n e is m t h e front, it can be either front- or rear-
. :.-. ire. fa m a n y cases, a f r o n t engine vehicle can also drive all l -- United States 6 = Australia L = China V = France
: - A T . a s o i l e d iour-wheel drive I4WD) or all-wheel drive iAWD).
2 = Canada 8 = Argentina R = Taiwan W = Germany
v.- - . r ; l o c a t e d a t t h e rear of t h e vehicle, it can be rear-wheel
3 - Mexico 9 = Brazil S = England X = Russia
.:.-..e r c w - w a e e ! iAWD, drive.
4 - Uniteo States J = Japan T = Czechoslovakia Y = Sweden
5 = United States K = Korea U = Romania Z = Italy

V E H I C L E IDENTIFICATION
AL service work: requires that the vehicle, including the engine and
The eighth character is often the engine code. (Some engines cannot
i : ; > . . . \ r . . a properly identified. The most c o m m o n identification
be determined by the VIN number.)
, -rie saice, model, and year of the vehicle.
The tenth character represents the c a l e n d a r y e a r (abbreviated
Maice: e.g., Chevrolet CY) on all vehicles. See the following chart.
M o d e l ; e.g., Trailblazer
Year, e.g., 2 0 0 7 VIN Year Chart (The Pattern Repeats Every 30 Years)
7 r e ear ci tr.e vehicle is often difficult to determine exactly. A = 1980/2010 J = 1988/2018 T = 1996/2026 4 = 2004/2034
- v, r o i i introduced as the next year's model as soon as B = 1981/2011 K - 1989/2019 V = 1997/2027 5 = 2005/2035
J m a / f of t h e previous y e a r Typically, a n e w m o d e l y e a r (abbrevi- C = 1982/2012 L - 1990/2020 W - 1998/2028 6 = 2006/2036
. MY r. September or October of the year prior to the 0 - 1983/2013 M = 1991/2021 X - 1999/2029 7 = 2007/2037
a d n a i s e w • . b e e n K always. This is w h y t h e v e h i c l e i d e n t i f i - £ = 1984/2014 N = 1992/2022 Y 2000/2030 8 = 2008/2038
cation n u m b e r , . . . a abbreviated V I N , is so important. See F = 1985/2015 P 1993/2023 1 - 2001/2031 9 - 2009/203S
ftgyre 1 6 - 1 . G = 1986/2016 R 1994/2024 2 - 2002/2032

Sir.ce 1 vfc! i L vehicle manufacturers have used a VIN that is H 1987/2017 S = 1995/2025 3 - 2003/2033
f a c e r s A : r . O u g h every vehicle manufacturer assigns van-
... -,r r.u.r.iers ,'..:r.,r. t h e s e 17 characters, there are s o m e
cosssBt. i n c h i n g VEHICLE SAFETY CERTIFICATION L A B E L _. ....
• . ; country of origin. A vehicle safety certification label is a t t a c h e d to t h e left side pill3;
• v - ? i c o m m o r . i y t h e fourth a n d / o r fifth post o n t h e rearward-facing section of t h e left f r o n t door. This lab*1
character. indicates t h e m o n t h and year of m a n u f a c t u r e as well as the gros*
M W M H Iff
mi
M M
Figure 18-3 .-oe-noe ' i" -•* . « « W-i30 -wis •->m

Figure 1 6 - 2 AVECI label on a 2004 Pontlac GTO ' Vc 3K E ano cmrm .£• -'Si -»9JB6r-- Sanoarts
vehicle w e i g h t r a t i n g ( G V W R ) , the g r o s s axle w e i g h t rating • ULEV f a j s o l o w w r a » U L £ V I i s;

(GAWR), and t h e vehicle identification r ml- r stronger California standard e r . z t a j . ' g v e r . low HC emr. ota,
• H I T II n i l 111 II r w i i r i i " r t i f j - • -'
average v e r b i s : e r f.ed . • Ser the ?r.ase " . s' s a r . d a r l
VECI L A B E L
HvdrocaAoo and c a i c r . t a c - w W e e r u s s i O B leveir are n e a r ? 5 0 *
The v e h i c l e e m i s s i o n s c o n t r o l i n f o r m a t i o n (VECI) lower (ban r o s e c f a LE : > e n a e d i - . - j t . : * e R p - « 16-3.
the hood of t h e vehicle s h o w s informative settings and er • S U L E V — S v o e ' J ! t r » - w Eos m VeiicJe-
hose routing i n f o r m a t i o n . See Figure 1 6 - 2 . standard ever, t s s s e 'Jar, UlEV. a r i - i - j - .idi ywer HC and
The VECI label (sticker) can be located on t h e bottom side erf t h e SO, e n s s r i o t s : r o . z r . -•:> ler 2 ; n 2 vehicles.
hood, the radiator fan s h r o u d , t h e radiator core support, or the strut • Z E V — Z e r o - E m i s n o n V e t o d e — C c J a r o t a standard prodbffing
towers. T h e VECI label usually includes t h e following information: x r ? oOpipe e E S r . a i B " i x Z T - r r t p r s .arser -<=-"?ic5edK)eiectrt;
• Engine identification •vehicles and i r - ' l r a g g e * . ; 3 . te "hese case?, anv emissicm
• Emissions standard that the vehicle meets that a e created are vrx- .rer. another s s ucr a; a p o w e r : an: ,r
• Vacuum hose routing diagram hydroger - t e r ^ oeases. j i i e s . . w - - x rerewat. e e ' - T .
• Base ignition timing (if adjustable)
• Spark plug type and gap
• Valve lash •OTt: A r a ^ e r r ; f?
• Emission calibration code I wfflr_ie J S ... a m i
1 ova rtc,- reroe^TTflt Baes.
I
EMISSION S T A N D A R D S IN T H E U N I T E D STATES
In the United States, emissions s t a n d a r d s are managed bv the
T h e c o r r e n ; California Z E . regntaeos a i j o v n m a n u f e r >T=--S
E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n A g e n c y (EPA) as we ~e ^
a choice erf t w o opticr_- far —eerrvg i r e ZE - r e : - : r e ~ e -
state g o v e r n m e n t s . S o m e of t h e strictest standards in t h e w< i are
formulated in California by t h e C a l i f o r n i a A i r R e s o u r c e s B o a r d 1 . \ f c b i d e m a n r f a c r u r e t s c a c m e e t a e ZEV' - - c . ^ r o r s or • rig
(CARB). standards Stat are s . r _ a r to t h e ZEN rule a s . : trjsue .a 20O
This m e a n s using a fcuMufaa w h , c e n i x at 2- p i «
Tier 1 a n d T i e r 2 Federal emission standards are
ZEVs, 2% A5T-PZF. s veruc-es e a r _ n g advanced : e ; r _ r o i o f . : >r
Clean Air Act A m e n d m e n t s (CAAA) of 1 9 0 0 grouped bv tier. A
ttau ZEV credits . w d C t , ? Z E \ ; e r r e n r e i v c « n a c v e r u c A
hides sold in the United States m u s t m e e t T i e r 1 s t a n d a r d tha:
v e N d e s . The ZEV obBgaSor-. a cased OB t h e r r a m i w c ' r a a e r
into effect in 1 9 9 4 and are t h e least stringent vdc. nai T i e r 2 sta
ger cars and sma. r u c k s a m a n u f e c t u i w l e f t L-. C . r - i
dards have been optional since 2 0 0 1 , and are currer.ih x . r . c
2 . Mar. r a c t - r e r s r a v 2 - cnoose a i t e s a r eZF : r.; ar. -
in to be fully adopted by 2 0 0 9 . T h e current Tier 1 stand
arategi'of r c e e r ^ p a n o* Lhe ZEV req wiser.: C^-:-c«l '
ent between automobiles and light trucks (SUV's, pick :-ucks. a r j
sale*weighted m v i E a s h a » of qpaic:**:. 2S: Sat. cefi
mlnivans), but Tier 2 standards are the s a m e for both, tvpes.
d e s by 2 0 0 8 . The remainder of toe ZEV r e r u r e a e n c s a t»
There are several ratings t h a t c a n be given to vehu s. =.r.d a .
achieved b r p r o d u c r . g 4% AT-PZE\'s and flt ''ZE'- e neqalntf
tain percentage of a m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s vehicles must nee
e
niEnber of fuefcell vehicles • * « increase a 2MH roc. 2Q( •
' s in order for the c o m p a n y to sell its p r o d u c t s r
2011.25,000from30!2through2020. and5 •• • r X
Beyond Tier 1, a n d in order by stringency, are the following levels;
ftnwgi 2 0 5 7 . Mar. x ^ c t u r e r s can J f i s r r j t e b a & r e j e c r r
• TLEV—Transitional Low-Emission Vehicle ciesfor J p » 5 0 % ( r f t h e h s e i - c e . e r . c i e r ' - r . r::--;: s .
for H C t h a n T i e r 1, • PZEV—Partial Zero-Emissjon V e v c . e
• LEV—(also k n o w n a s LEV I ) — L o w - E m i s s i o n V e h i c l e - the SULEV standard; a a : . r a. ^ -i- r n w n :
i n t e r m e d i a t e California standard about tww : as - -m.ie a> emisswns ar«d a 15-year 15C.-»- z . a * i r . - . . i
for H C a n d N O x . emissicr. control e q m p c e v
: OOM*'****
00
21
H
4}
41
42
IIS 42
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4.2
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42
MK 14
• 4
M
TMMW4 to
U l
1 k 1 - « M f ' « w H r i < Scan

• * * L i r- M f t d t
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k t
rav
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Mil
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•DitMllVtcM
Dp I
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la art Ute • « n
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S«i4) 0410* nm m
cm 14M2I 02«* •» I « « M T« I cm
i r # n l l t l im n
» 1 4 i#J)
KMt
t M I W irflu oaaeoi)
-(I* «ar
* 1*1. M I XI 4 » « » CAUMATKM
( 4iibr»tK»fi KKifi . ,*!>y )0C*W4 « pomi «nin
moduta iPtMs v o t h e r c o n t m t k n . S o m e cibfcretMfi c s d * »
ont* i c c e t u M r w t t h a i c a n t o o l W h e n t m " ^
o ^ M O n i (fcuiuti « o A n n c c m a r r to n i x m the iQUnn
*U rJMfJBi
b* \ u r * ( M t h e r t h t c * l i to* s u f e t c t o f i t e c h n i c a l l e r r k f
or o t h e r a t r n c r p r o e m , S « * Figure 1 6 4
J V h w m r ar. m p n e part w c h * * b k x k is c u t . a n u m b e r ft
t h e n o t d to H e M J * t h e c a K t f * See F « u r e 1 6 - 5 . rr.rt*
n u m b e r s L«R 6» j e d to c h e c k i t a n s w m w c h a s t h f c u » |
1 4 * r r w r t »nd other r f c m a a o n Some'mas c h a r t s ^ ,
• At rr, rt. wt tr* tamnf number is ».i chanwd Met?:
tattni r .rr,t*r ft the best P»c* erf identifying information
err* i technician o n use far d u i d l y t m an en^ne
i~nm> if i (ten* 119
O t t H B t M »
1. T h t p a s w t» t » ,
a. ftjsf t s. h
b. I rtl vJ<
c. Either tig t or left tide, leper; i - i g o e b o » the vehicle * viewed
d. Both a and b
2. A whlcle with t h e . • ftitw in the ftem can be
a. Front wheel drfvt
b. Rear wheel drfw
c. Four-wheel d n w
d. Any of the above
I. The vehicle i.lentlfU atlon number |VIN) Is» ,» many t racers it • $
a. 10
b. 12
c. 17
d. 21
4. The tenth character represents the year of the vehicle. If me tenth charac
» r is a "Y," what ve*r Is the vehicle?
«. 1008
b. 2000
c. 2002
d. 2004
5. The first character of t h i vehicle Identification number Is the c •untrvr.' n
gin. Where was the vehicle built that his a "5" as the first chare, :er?
a. United Staffs
b. Canada
c. Mexico
d. lapan
6. The VI CI label Includes all except
a. Engine Identification
b. Horsepower and torque rating of the engine
c. Spark plug type and gap
d. Valve lash
7. 1 he vehicle safety certification label Includes all except,.. . .
a. VIN
> « v t o a l x f e m»a»or* n i M d l a b. GVWR
c. Tire preuure recommendation
d. flAWR
H. What ara the characters that are embedded In most engine buvks and are
SUMMARY used lor identification?
1
a. VIN
I 1> i w . • , j I nah' tk)» at • ehtck w u viewed from the
b. Calibration codes
drntrtiML
c. Bin number
4. -V • <T*N - i t u n r .inter (V1N| Ii m y Important I I It Includes d. Casting number
tfw v*hit> w w built, » * ' l l « the engine o d e and many other
9. If the first number of the VIN Is an "S," where was the vehicle made?
*MKit about «-•» v c t e k
a. United States
1
• I hood )("rin<w(l« to b» checked by the utchnktUn b. Mexico
h! ^.swrty m r n t t Ou reftic* c. Canada
4
"-.j n that the technician may need tor a service or d. I nglind
" " W a*: ^ I . - J ' o t cades, cuflng numbers, and emission! rating. 10. lechnli Ian A says that the lower the Bin number is, the cieam r Technician B
says that SULEV has cleaner standards than UlEV. Which technician Is
correct?
H V I f W QUESTIONS
' «-*»• p i m t i a j are the t#mu left and right determined? b. Technician B only
1
'' « m*|or i » c o H information that OT Included In the vehicle
d. Neither Technic!* , A nor B
• m a l w t M number (VtNj?
1 1
«' i t i i m i j d e d on tfwVECI label under the hood?
* WHAT H*T 2 Bin 5 mean?
•expeKtjZg h t t p : / / r u t r a c k e r . o r q
17
O f t j e r n w t S After studying Chapter 17. the reader will be able to: 3 r e w e f A; E ' it content area
jrren. ingr* D-agncss and content area "0 Lubrication and Cooing Systems Diagnosis and Repa.r • Pe-^rm routine fluid and ser, chedtt
• : e s . » hpw t ratal wheels aofl tignten lug nuts using a torque wrench and the proper sequence • Descr.oe the proper procedure for 5 n g , r . „ ,
rcne , - c a e ^ r — n g :o~;Mele cnasss system jbnca'jon and „ndef-veh c:e i n s p e c t c • Beginning automotive service technicians a r -
r r y j y v se<vce aperaSons S is the purpose of this chapter to otroduce the reader to these var ous service procedures
KYTlRbfS arbiter • abmSe fifcr.qs • algorithm • American Petroleum Institute <AF • American Society for Testing Materials (ASH;
• artMraroadt vatve • Association aes Constructews Europeens d'Automobiies 1ACEA1 • automatic transmission fluid (ATF) • brake fluid • bypass
• a o n Wer • t*psbc* • O O T 3 * O O T 4 * O O T 5 * National Lubricating Grease Institute INLGI) • penetration test • polyglycol • s e r p e n t i n e
'- . • : one s r a c e f . d • syraomesti transmsssior fluid 'STF • ,-iscosity • winter (Wi • left, fittings
B e f o r e - st service work is done, protect the inside of the vehicle by

commercially available plastic or paper protective coverings for
v - -.4c-- foot, ar.d steering wheel. See figure 17-1. The hood len-
g n e c . - p a m e n t coier must be opened. Often the stmts that hold a
Figure 17-2 An exhaust system hose should Be connected to the tailpipeis) whenever
engine is being run indoors.
hood open are weak or defective. Therefore, before starting t o WOK

under the hood, always make sure that t h e hood is securely h e l d ope-
Also be sure to connect an exhaust system hose to the tailpipe
before w o r k is started that will involve o p e r a t i n g t h e engine, fc
Figure 1 7 - 2 .
WIPER BLADE INSPECTION AND R E P L A C E M E N T ^

Windshield wiper blades are c o n s t r u c t e d of r u b b e r and tend tote
come brittle d u e to age. Wiper blades should be cleaned wher.i
the vehicle is cleaned using w a t e r a n d a soft cloth. Wiper blade
wiper blade insert replacement includes t h e following steps:
• Turn the ignition switch to on (run).

• Turn the wiper switch on and operate the wipers.
• When the wipers are located in an easy-to reach location, turn
ignition switch off. The wipers should stop.
• Remove the Insert or the entire arm as per the Instructions on
replacement windshield wiper blade package. .-,
• After double-checking that the wiper is securely attached, t u
ignition switch on (run).
• Turn the wiper switch off and allow the wipers to reach the .
position. Check for proper operation.
' t " * ' 7 - 1 i s - t r t < tag- - - !*. w e to cover the aeata floor, and Hearing wheel
See Figure 1 7 - 3 .
in
CABIM F I L T E R R E P I A C E M l ,
w n u w M
A cabin niter it a fBttr UM4 'A n •EMIHT
i o M i a o r t r . g ( H V A Q Vfatm <!w - '«Ut An Wf ffltef *.Vf
,i(<J
<ouM Include K t l w e d < r u w * l t o t ->>•
ill C n r tfwiM b e r e p l a c e r e g u l u t y a t o u l e v « y t w o
< U • « 50,0001
24,000 milM 139,000 km). Ttifufctnitr I C j ' i « IJU
I U r v l « fti hood u t h e cowl
i UrvJw t h e d u h , otuaOy t t h t M 1 h e tar* <orcpvt?t««
(IMBurr.fnt p v . t l { o a i p u n r t n t l
8 M K I F U J I O I E V E L INSPECT 1 0 *
S e e p a g e 17-4. B n k t fluH s «t:/ - . . f i icM « .
t n i i p e i i i VQ k « t « i b r i i « . IT* t n i a M - J - J v ^ d be
"f-jtfif I j d a f ^ d l o w r l . O O ? :
KMC < fcfcnwoccwtai.TStrr
• T>M«p«f«i m e n w O TMi'vpeifoWTrtrlPitiattnUXi
'Kid hyfrauBt d M d i - a t w c y t o l t f I»tqiffttfi vp.Vxi ( M g
u rtcaovt *ht < o * k i "he recrete ' « P $ j f t 17-A.
t* VSN --rJc-.a)) >v*l a O u t t i t o ) 4 «
' . ' A t c a f c a . 'iPfA r & M t d «n d o t jiiatic x y a v h .
• Mttrf or (MttraMpartMplMfcrMefMfr-rcfr typed
mtrr&t oo rJ4*s H&fjn reqfiWs OK 'At c o m t e
r r a ? i H <o chedc l e M 4 1 < V i U J i x l Tht jifcptt > n l « l
take Md ihcnid it 11€ « toj Dots ^
y j m w Do Bite - - t : • vir'i'.Vr " i t * ' v r t ir"> -»»

» • i < t n t a cr .*£ d r j i St m i la * t C M t i t r M
rim—a I g a t w o fc»< a q g a a t
UNDER HOOO
« . O V l CCUM-4TVOT
»n-« i i • - J jywef** -wervor The Urate "-jKl jrwuc
MI AI mscflw or tne -eaerwr
V U A f FUflO T T P t S
S~ a I - j d = a d e frcrr. a combination of various types of glycol, a
- - - p r r : - ( a l i a s e d luid. Brake fluid Is a polyalkylene-glycol-
•- - polygtycol lor short All potygtycol brake fluid
s tiasfor.
Figure 1 7 - 7 DOT 3 brake fluid Always use brake fluid from a sealed container because
theflu*)ateoros moisture from the air Such contaminated brake fluid has a lower boiling
- DOT 3 Br*te Sad H a very strong solvent and can remove palm!
point and can cause rust to form in the brake system components
Z m ' i m ^ d w l i e c i K r t t e | w ! a DOT 3 brakefluidtt>avoid contact with
It ilsc takes the color out of leather shoes.
DOT 5 brake fluid is purple (violet) in color to distinguish t
from DOT 3 or DOT 4 brake fluid.
i . - j c t v e brane luid aiust meet Federal Motor Vehicle
5aSr- Socdard 116. The Society of Automotive Engineers iSAEj DOT 5.1 DOT 5.1 is a non-silicone-based polyglycol fluid and:
r- ~<e Depanneat of Transportation IDOT) have established clear to amber in color. This severe d u t y fluid h a s a boiling poir.::
> f .:C j p e c i c j a o n standards. over 500°F equal to the boiling point of silicone-based DOT 5 flu:
Unlike DOT 5, DOT 5.1 can be m i x e d w i t h either DOT 3 or DOT-
3 C 2 D O T 3 a i-.e brake fluid most often used. It absorbs mois- according to the brake fluid m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s recommendations.
mfi a c : : - i r 4 'n SAE, DOT 3 can absorb 2% of Its volume in
«r Mcrs« absorbed by the brake fluid through
- j r - . v „ x i c seaa t the brake system and around seals. Over time, Some vehicle manufacturers such as Chrysler do not reccc
- - v r «•-_ : - - ' j S e the system and thicken the brake fluid. The mend the use of or the mixing of other types of polyglycol brake Cuic
r . = - ; -jc, a spongy brake pedal action due to reduced and specify the use of DOT 3 brake fluid only. Always follow an
; ; • -,;< - m e n o n * . See Rgare 17-7. DOT 3 must be used from vehicle manufacturer's recommendation.
i K - s a p p e - -.cr.-a»Kt If avowed to remain open for any length
" ~ «* y ~ 3 w l a a o r t moisture from the surrounding air.
Brake Fluid Boiling Point
DOT 4 souf . . 1 is formulated for use by all vehicles, im-
I---", x :• x commonly called LMA (low moisture ab- Dry
KtTQoc j « a u K DOT 4 does not absorb water as fast as DOT 3. It *
DOT 3 401
x r . ISK - ctsture, however, and should be used only from a f
DOT 4 446
m?. T u z o K t f DOT 4 is approximately double the cost t
DOT 5.1 500 *
rfDCTS.
DOTS' 500
y.' 5 DOT 5 silicone brake fluid and is •Do not use DOT 5 in vehicles with ABS
rjrfe - v v ' J c i a n e s . It does not absorb any water and
>-,• • c a a K • *•„• y y . / j p i c . DOT 5 bTake fluid does not mix ENGINE Oil LEVEL AND CONDITION
• i -J a w h DOT 3 or DOT 4 brake fluid.
The oil level should be c h e c k e d w h e n t h e v e h i c l e is parked on •
ground and after the engine has b e e n off for at least sev ®; a '
Mh Vf, 5 Qc M*i5U.ty KrtOft watei, It it Kill utes. Remove the oil level indicator,» c o m m o n l y called —a dip i
•me. m^tetx-. w. Ufc j«w«4u» • a bmMtci chamber After a wipe the oil off, and reinsert it all t h e w a y d o w n . See Figure ^
j- •»-. So? to : * point. Since it O n c e again r e m o v e the dipstick a n d c h e c k w h e r e the _
-ww.caui'/s *»<•_•» e k a & < «f»r thts lequence touches the indicator. T h e " a d d " m a r k is usually at the on '
k "jtieS 3k r . r r c w s w y • ^ low point. See Figure 1 7 - 9 . If oil n e e d s to b e a d d e d , use in •
oil and add to t h e engine t h r o u g h t h e oil Wl o p e n i n g - t n F
<"-•' ' l e y i a s t c • Sthei ' - - m p r i e u - s i v
true erf the '.> *> . <-»ponsitjie t c several vehicles « helpful
method for 'ememter ng wher trie oi should be changed is to cnange me oil at
the start of each season of the year.
. Fall (September 21)

. Winter (December 21)
• Spring March 21)
. Summer June 21)
Remembering that the oil needs to be changed on these dates helps

owners budget for the expense and the time needed
Figure 1 7 - 8 A typical engine oil level Indicator (dipstick).
VISCOSITY O F OIL (SAE RATING)

The w o r d v i s c o s i t y m e a n s resistance to flow. An oil with a high
viscosity has a higher resistance to flow and is thicker than a lower-
viscosity oil.
Oil is tested a n d assigned a viscosity n u m b e r according to stan-
dards established by t h e Society of Automotive Engineers SAE . It
is tested at t w o different t e m p e r a t u r e s and assigned a n u m b e r
MIN s—J'-' based on t h e oil's flow characteristics at that temperature. A thin oil
is assigned a lower n u m b e r and a thicker oil is assigned a higher
number. Oil tested at 0°F - 1 8 ° C has t h e letter W after its n u m -
Figure 1 7 - 9 The oil level should read no higher than the "MAX" level and no lower than
ber. The W represents w i n t e r . For e x a m p l e , a SAE 1 0 W engine oil
the "MIN" level when the vehicle is parked on a level surface and the oil has had some time
was tested at 0 ° F a n d assigned a thickness rating of 10. Oil tested
to sit with the engine off. This time is necessary to allow the oil to flow from the upper region
of the engine down into the oil pan.
at 2 1 2 ° F (100°C) has n o letter after its n u m b e r Again, t h e higher
the n u m b e r assigned, the thicker t h e oil. For example, a SAE 3 0 oil
is an oil tested a t 2 1 2 ° F .
specifications a n d t h e p r o c e d u r e for changing the oil are included
later in this chapter. Multi-Viscosity E n g i n e Oils Viscosity i n d e x iVI) improvers
can be added to engine oil to prevent it from b e c o m i n g thin at
higher temperatures. For example, SAE 5 W oil w i t h t h e VI im-
ENGINE OIL C H A N G E S provers added can be rated as a SAE 30 w h e n tested at 212°F. This
Most a u t o m o t i v e e x p e r t s r e c o m m e n d that the engine oil be re- oil is therefore rated as a SAE 5W-30 indicating that it flowed t h e
placed and a n e w oil filter installed every 3 , 0 0 0 miles (4,800 km) same as a SAE 5 W w h e n tested at 0 ° F a n d flowed t h e s a m e as a
or every t h r e e m o n t h s , w h i c h e v e r occurs first. Most vehicle manu- SAE 3 0 w h e n tested at 212°F.
facturers r e c o m m e n d that t h e oil be changed according to a "nor- Because of the w i d e range of t e m p e r a t u r e s at w h i c h this oil
mal" or "severe u s e " s c h e d u l e , described below. can function, multi-viscosity oils such as SAE 5W-30 and SAE 10W-30
are often the only oils r e c o m m e n d e d for use.
Normal Use Severe Use

NOTE: Some vehicle manufacturers such as Ford and Honda recommend
Most trips over to miles (16 km). Most trips less than 4 to 10 miles (6-16 km).
the exclusive use of SAE 5W-20 or SAE 0W-20 engine oil. The owner*
Operating a vehicle when the outside Operating the vehicle when the outside
manual warns that this is the only viscosity that is acceptable to use under
temperature is above freezing temperature Is below freezing (32°F/0°C).
all temperatures and operating conditions. Always follow the vehicle man-
I32,F/0'Q.
ufacturer's recommended engine oil and viscosity.
Most trips do not include slow or Most trips Include slow or stop-and-go
stop-and-go driving driving.
Not towing a trailer or carrying a Towing a trailer or hauling a heavy load.
heavy load QUALITY OF OIL (API RATING)
Driving without dusty conditions. Driving In dusty conditions. Although it is generally difficult to purchase low-quality oil todav. it
No police, taxi, or commercial use Use by police, taxi, or commercial operation is possible to select t h e incorrect grade for the intended application.
of the vehicle
The quality rating is established by test procedures set u p by the
The oil change interval recommended The oil change interval recommended by American Petroleum Institute (APIl, formerly the American Socie?.'
by most vehicle manufacturers under most vehicle manufacturers operating under
for Testing and Materials (ASTM), with the cooperation of t h e Soc;
normal conditions Is 7,500 miles severe conditions Is every 3.000 miles
112,000 km) or six months, whichever (4,600 km) or every three months,
ety of Automotive Engineers.
occurs first. whichever occurs first. In gasoline engine oil ratings, the letter 5 m e a n s service, b u t it
can be r e m e m b e r e d as standing for oil to be used in speak igniticr.
engines. The rating system is open-ended, so newer, improved rat-
Most vehicles are driven u n d e r severe conditions If all of the ings can be readily added as necessary (skipping t h e l e t t e r . to avc.d
factors above are considered. confusion w i t h the n u m b e r 1).
-
>A S O W * " < « H > W E tor u s e i n a n y
Si
tttfiiuwn » control wear and oil
• I M M
£>
2
. ^ M M
0 M M
SAE
9 Okaotot 5W-30
j C O M M I W
91 J t o o M 19«3)
a . a o e i tc
SM 2 0 0 * -
w o *
'CONS'
Figure 1 7 - 1 0 A/t dougnnut for a SAE 5W30. SM engine oil When comparedtoa
i w r i un fc» wtucfi order, tier* o t a o i r * racnp « w e reference o>> the •energy conaerving' designation indicates a 1 1% better tual economy i»
v s . hj|Mr-rat«d <o|tne «H Newty overhauled an SA£ 10W-30 oiis and 0 5% better fuel economy tor SAE 5W-30 oils
^cjp, e q p r j * o r . M K J * die W E improved o!i». The new o t i
ofa»r net, p t a iddraonal prowcaon
D l O C ! OAS' eej?:r. w i t h t h e t e t t e r C, w h i c h s t a n d s for

cfc car. also b e r e m e m b e r e d as s t a n d i n g f o r oil
a s i t e ignition o r diesel e n g i n e s .
O M M I Engine*
fame*
P / JW r 2007 ana nawar (Mae* tngtfttt oaaignad to

ooaratt OF' jrw-ww-tufyr <Mwi IUISO fuai
irtcducMDkwtW I ISM For tugti-aeaea tour ttrotie
0M
r v m » daagnad ic meal IBM a«hau«i m a n o r
H M M i C V M a M n pMc* at CO. C t C M and
f I g u r t 1 7 - 1 1 Tha international Lubricant Standardization and Approval Committee O "
CM u t
ttartwrit lympoi it mil lymboi n on the front of the container of oil, then It la a c c « ® w »
rvofacae n For m r i duly r»gf, tpead foul
u*a in al moat any gaaoline engine
r . « « w i g m u»fHi M r w*h M > Stan 0 8% weight
0 t * j u t i piaca o» CO CI, and C M om
k n o w t h a t t h e oil Is s u i t a b l e for u s e in a l m o s t a n y gasoline engine
AM < - A S M m W ; For tdgr «pa«d W a t r o t i a naturally
T h e o r i g i n a l G F - 1 ( g a s o l i n e f u e l e d | r a t i n g w a s u p d a t e d to G F 2 -
aac««t*o M twttnehargad angnvm Can m uaafl m place
* CO and Ct M i 1 W 7 , t o G F - 3 in 2 0 0 1 , a n d G F - 4 in 2 0 0 4 . S e e F i g u r e 1 7 - 1 1 .
(M MnxkcM m >M4 For wvere out/ Kro itrofcj cyda

» 1 Can M ua*d m {Met ol C0-I on* FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION ???
9 i®W For r# • m\ Mirtctmtactad and
• nngmaa including tnoaa uamg <uai with ovar How Doe* an Oil Lite Monitor Work?
l a u t w Can M uaad m fnea of CO o*a
3 >' 1907 Fw r^r.-ipaaa tour-atroM naturally While M vehicle manufactures, tuch as Mercedes, use a sensor to m *
t t n l txtoc* argad engmw Can tw uaad in place oil temperature moat vehicle oil change monitors function two ways
tfCCartCOaft.
« * < M u c * d n 1 M 7 For v«r, w o m cyo* angmaa 1. Vehicle m i n a g a this « t n « moat commonly used vehicle service
m r.tMb r. 1 4 % For c a n * " naturally aapvatad and

monttonng ayslem When a certain number of miles has occurred s ^
w a i reaet the control lusualiy the power train control m o d u l e — '
MwMgMingMl
a tum on a dash light that states that maintenance is required
Far (Mfraa rtimuail« t«i
a 2. Oil lit* computer program A computer program called an alg<^'
F v " . K r a M y m g m i from t » 4 S B t M O
a tados of mathematical calculations is used to determine the n'6
far i f * M y angnaa 0 WOa and 1 MOei
angina oil For example when the oil change warning light i s _
irte is reset to 100% Than the power train control module (PCM
I U A C O H RATING
track ot tn« number of engine starts, me outside temperature, ' ^
< > . ' l z a n o r . and Approval Commit- •ngine was itarted. based on intake air temperature (lATi W" 91 ^ y
- u t c o n s o l i d a t e s t h e SAE irts- well as the number ot miles traveled Because long drives are ^
.*/ - y If ar. e n g i n e oil m e e t s t h e engine oil than short stop-and-go dnvlng. the PCM deducts nui;i c
.r •/,. d i i f r ^ / e d o n tf,e f r o n t of t h e oil faater during this condition

. p r « * - •, v e r . i d e o'OTier a n d t e c h n i c i a n
• v • tut' :$p<vMim ra
uvrng r / r ' h e f i c engf&e < i a i a

. -.ezoerature*. Tius c h a r a c i e r t r f e
of syr.v.e-Jc oi : -ice , pc . to In o l d e r c i t o a t e * w h e r e co'l
e n g i n e cranJcing is i m p o r t a n t
T h e m a j o r disadvantage is c o j l The com of synthetic e n g i n e o2»
can be four or Bve times t h e c o n of Group B m i n e r s e n g r . e o O t
S o m e synthetic engine oil', are blended with Group II mineral otis a n d
t h e s e m u s t be labeled as blends.
E U R O P E A N OIL RATING SYSTEM

The Association d e s C o n s t r u c t e u r s E u r o p i e m d'Automo-
biles (ACEAj ra'- r.e 1 a c c o r d i n g to the foilcwir.g:
Gasoline Engine Oils

Figure 1 7 - 1 2 Mobil 1 synthetic engine (HI It used by several vehicle manufacturers m new
engines ACEA A1 Low-friction, low-viscosity oil (not suitable for
some engines).
SYNTHETIC ENGINE OIL ACEA A2 G e n e r a l - p u r p o s e oil i n t e n d e d for n o r m a l oil

c h a n g e intervals. N o t suitable for s o m e
According to t h e Society of A u t o m o t i v e Engineers publications, en-
e n g i n e s o r e x t e n d e d oil drain intervals in any
gine oil is classified i n t o g r o u p s as follows.
engine.
G r o u p I — M i n e r a l , n o n s y n t h e t i c , b a s e oil w i t h f e w if any ACEA A 3 Oil is d e s i g n e d for h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e engines
additives. This type of oil Is suitable for light lubricating needs a n d / o r e x t e n d e d oil d r a m intervals and u n d e r
and rust p r o t e c t i o n a n d is n o t to be used In an engine. all t e m p e r a t u r e ranges.
G r o u p I I — M i n e r a l oils w i t h q u a l i t y a d d i t i v e p a c k a g e s . Most
ACEA A 4 Designed to m e e t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s for
of the c o n v e n t i o n a l e n g i n e oils are G r o u p II. gasoline d i r e c t Injection (GDI) e n g i n e s .
Group III—Hydrogenated (hydrolsomerized) synthetic
ACEA A5 A low-viscosity, low-friction oil n o t suitable for
c o m p o u n d s c o m m o n l y r e f e r r e d to as h y d r o w a x e s or
some engines.
h y d r o c r a c k e d oil. T h i s Is t h e l o w e s t cost of synthetic engine oils.
Castrol Syntec Is a G r o u p 111 oil.
Diesel E n g i n e Oils
G r o u p I V — S y n t h e t i c oils m a d e f r o m m i n e r a l oil a n d
m o n o m o l e c u l a r oil c a l l e d p o l y a l p h a o l e f i n or PAO. Mobil 1 Is an ACEAB1 This diesel e n g i n e oil is d e s i g n e d for u s e in a
example of a G r o u p IV s y n t h e t i c oil as s h o w n in Figure 1 7 - 1 2 . passenger vehicle diesel e n g i n e that is
G r o u p V — N o n m i n e r a l s o u r c e s s u c h as a l c o h o l f r o m corn e q u i p p e d w i t h a n indirect injection system.
called d i e s t e r s or p o l y o l e s t e r s . Red Line synthetic oil Is an This low-viscosity oil is not suitable for s o m e
example of a G r o u p V oil. diesel e n g i n e s .
Groups 111, IV, a n d V are all considered to be synthetic because ACEA B2 Oil m e e t i n g this designation is d e s i g n e d to be
the molecular s t r u c t u r e of t h e finished product does not occur nat- used in passenger vehicle diesel e n g i n e s using
urally and Is m a n - m a d e t h r o u g h chemical processes. All synthetic indirect Injection a n d using n o r m a l oil drain
engine oils p e r f o r m b e t t e r t h a n G r o u p II (mineral) oils especially intervals.
w h e n tested a c c o r d i n g to the N o a c k Volatility Test ASTM D-5800. ACEA B3 Oil m e e t i n g this designation is i n t e n d e d
This test p r o c e d u r e m e a s u r e s t h e ability of an oil to stay in grade for u s e in a h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e , indirect-
after it has b e e n h e a t e d to 3 0 0 ° F (150°C) for o n e hour. The oil is injected p a s s e n g e r vehicle diesel e n g i n e a n d
then m e a s u r e d for p e r c e n t a g e of w e i g h t loss. As the lighter compo- u s e d u n d e r e x t e n d e d oil d r a i n interval
nents boll off, the oil's viscosity will increase. If you start with an conditions.
">AE 5 W oil, it could test as an SAE 15W or even an SAE 2 0 W at
ACEA B4 Oils m e e t i n g this standard are i n t e n d e d to be
'he end of t h e test. It is I m p o r t a n t that the oil you buy stay In grade
used in direct-injected passenger vehicle
for the proper lubrication of your engine.
diesel e n g i n e s a n d used year round and can b e
u s e d in a n indirect-injected diesel engine.
Use S y n t h e t i c Engine Oil In l a w n ACEA B5 A low-viscosity oil designed for e x t e n d e d o
a n d Garden Equipment drain intervals and not suitable for s o m e
M
«<t 4-cycle lawn and garden equipment engines are air cooled and operate engines.
hotter
tban many liquid cooled engines Lawn mowers and other small engines ACEA C I , T h e ACEA C ratings are specifications fcr
a
'« often operated near or at maximum speed and power output for hours at a C2, C 3 catalyst compatible oils, w h i c h have limits on
, rn
' " Th »se operating conditions are hard on any engine oil. Try using a syn- t h e a m o u n t of sulfur, zinc, a n d o t h e r additives
tn<mc
of The cost is not as big a factor because most 9maH 4-cycie lawn that could h a r m the catalytic c o n v e r e r .
"">wer «ngine« require only about t/2 quart (1-2 liter) of oil. The synthetic oil is
a b l e 10
Perform under high temperatures better than conventional mineral oils Starting in 2 0 0 4 , the ACEA began using ; ; r - o . - . e c -y-.z.
such as A l ' B l , A3- B3, A 3 B4, and A5 B5.
1» H."T*»
fc^.'lt J . M a t e S u n t t * Oil MeetsSpecific

• M M * VvMcfc Specifications
Sen* ?as a r r e -ausfry sp»o*:33ons. such as SAE, API. and/or ILSAC

Xit » s s •>« lists *>ecA8d by the vehicle manufacturer The oil used
si**: i«at n s t W » » ntKte irwtflacturBf «hich include the following
^ 96 aK <ng*i»-01 iaoon!»at»d U.-01), LL-04

> W J M m t v - U W S094M, GM 4718M (synthetic oil specification)
Q a n w Met-?—GM tx-A-25 (gasoline engines) and GM LL-B-25 for GM
• t f v l K Jcjooec «Ktr aesei or Eurooean-buitt engines
«SS-U2C153-« WSS-M2C929-A flow viscosity rating—SAE 5W-20),
«SS-»CC930-A. *SS-M2C93i-A, and WSS-M2C934-A
—MS-6396 (2005 + vehicles). MS-10725
%teT80es—229 3.229 5.229 1 229 3 229-31.229.5. and 229 51
«*swage<- (VW aid Au(tt—502.00,505 00. 505.01.503, 503 01.505.506
F i g u r e 1 7 - 1 3 (b) When the pick is removed, a small hole allows air t
aeset 506 1 dies*. and 507 diesei
of the filter which then allows the oil to drain out of the filter and back into the engine"1
londi—rfTO-06
E N G I N E OIL D I S P O S A L
A.. .sed engine oil should be disposed of or recycled according to
federal, state, provincial, or local rules and regulations. Used engine
:. J considered to be hazardous due to the dissolved metals and
a c d i that are created in an operating engine.
OIL F I L T E R S
The ofl within the engine is pumped from the oil pan through the
t : e : before.: goes into the engine lubricating system passages. The
T E C H TIP The Pick Trick
Rencvng ar ol filter that is installed upside down can be a real mess. When this
*ter is loosened, oil flows out from around the sealing gasket To prevent
< r r -acpewig. use a pich and poke a hole in the top of the filter, as shown
- Rgiys 1 7-13 This small hole allows air to get into the filter, thereby allowing
i e » t dram back into the engine rather than remain In the filter. After punch-
' s r « noe •r the filter be sure to wait several minutes to allow time for the
—cxxc » to dram down into the engine before loosening the filter.
F i g u r e 1 7 - 1 4 A cutaway of a typical spin-on oil filter. Engine oil enters the filter M M f
the small holes around the center of the filter and flows through the pleated paper ( M M
media and out through the large hole In the center of the fitter. The center metal cylind* *
holes is designed to keep the paper filter from collapsing under the pressure
filter is m a d e from either closely packed cloth fibers or a Por°"

paper. Large particles are trapped by t h e filter, while micros^
particles will flow t h r o u g h t h e filter pores. T h e s e particles a •
small that they can flow through t h e b e a r i n g oil film and not
the surfaces, so they do n o d a m a g e . See Figure 1 7 - 1 4 .
Many oil filters are equipped w i t h an a n t i d r a i n b a c k
that prevents oil from draining o u t of t h e filter w h e n the m
shut off. See Figure 1 7 - 1 5 . This valve k e e p s oil in the f ^ " * I
lows t h e engine to receive i m m e d i a t e lubrication as soon as
gine starts. notf1111
Either t h e engine or the filter has a b y p a s s that will ai 1
oil to go around t h e filter e l e m e n t . T h e bypass allows the e j ^
be lubricated w i t h dirty oil, rather than h a v i n g n o l u b r i c a t e
filter becomes plugged. T h e oil also goes t h r o u g h the b - P ^ f .
the oil is cold and thick. M o s t engine m a n u f a c t u r e r s rec •
What Is the M, • tct?
:
The Mag -W . <• ®ed intc n in 1975 and allows the m e of
-- 'he service 'epairtfaver
ale without asirig the factory warn • - "hismear hat any 01 or air ttter jfte< ,
plug, or other service part can be used unless the vehicle manufacturer fur-
rastiea these parts i v free during the s
The >ehKSe manufacturer cannot deny paying a warranty daim for a fault
OIL DRAIN-BACK V A L «
. ' ' s s " e replacement part is proved to be the cause of the condition needed
•o t * cove'ed by the A-arranty
Therefo-e rt $ jp to the buwness owner, service manager, or the technician to
determine if the -placement part« of good quality. While this is very difficult v im-
possible i-'-ess defects are obviously visible, the best solution is to uae the ortgcai
p m e i manjfactjw ',€M parts v service parts from a well-known company.
FREQUENT!? ASKED QUESTION |

Figure 1 7 - 1 5 A rubber diaphragm acts as an antldralnback valve to keep the oil in the
filter when the engine is stopped and the oil pressure drops to zero
Does the Oil Filter Remove All the Dirt?
Many persons oei^/e r a t a ' Sera A remove all dirt from the oil being circu-
lated througr the Wtemg r a t a l s Mo® on 'iters wJ: filter particles that are about
10 to 20 herons - size. A merer s a m wnffi of a meter or 0.000039 inch.
Most dm and earner sarSoet that engine or, aiack are less than a mi-
cron in size. r other words it *a>.es socut 3 000,000 'three million) of these car-
bon par&des to cover a pmheart To - r e t . s-aize how sma 3 micron is, consider
thatatypica - u m a n t ® ' s 5 C micronBfcdtameter - "act anything smaller than
40 microns is not visible to toe human eye DepeTants are added to engine oil to
prevent dirt from adhering together to *orr s-' j3ge ft is me same dispersant addi-
tive that prevents dirt f m r being fitBreC y -emoved by other means, if an "liter
could filter particles dowr » y * - c r a r in aze the engine would not receive suf-
ficient oil through the filter *or ijcncaoo" Oil recycling companies jse spew;
chemicals to break d e w Tie depersants which permits the dirt in the cut to com-
bine into larger units that can be '"seed or bmcessed out of the oil
The coc.ast eiei s h o i i our.' be checked wben the engSae is

Figure 17-16 A typical filter crusher. The hydraulic ram forces out most of the oil from the cool Removing the press-.se car f r e e a hot e n g a e w t i release the cce
filter. The oil is trapped underneath the crusher and is recycled. ing system presrjre witen the coolant temperature is above its stmov-
pheric t Dliir.g temperature. When the cat s removed, the pressure w„
instantly drop to isrcjpber.c faessure .evei, causing the cooani tc boi:
immediate;-)'. Vapors from die botftng Squid Wow cootan: from the
system. CDoiar.t * i i be osi. and a person may be injured or burned i
filter c h a n g e s at e v e r y o t h e r oil c h a n g e period. Correct oil filter the higb-tempemn»e coolant that is Mown out of the filer cp«-_rtg.
selection i n c l u d e s u s i n g a filter w i t h an internal bypass w h e n t h e
engine is n o t e q u i p p e d w i t h o n e .
Oil filters s h o u l d be c r u s h e d a n d / o r drained of oil before dis-
carding. See Figure 1 7 - 1 6 . After t h e oil has b e e n drained, the filter T Y P E S OF C O O L A N T S
can usually be disposed of as regular metal scrap. Always c h e c k and .Antifreeze coolant c o n t a i n s a b o u t 93% e t h y l e n e g!y: : •vare:
follow local, state, or regional oil filter disposal rules, regulations, a n d additives. T h e r e are t h r e e basic types of coolant ava_a%e
and p r o c e d u r e s . todav. w h i c h are g r o u p e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e additives u s e : : : r rust
and corrosion protection.
COOLING S Y S T E M SERVICE Inorganic Additive Technology (IAT) T

Normal m a i n t e n a n c e involves a n occasional c h e c k o n t h e co .ant coolant that has b e e n used for over 5 0 years The a i d i t v e s - s e c x
level. The f r o n t of t h e radiator s h o u l d be carefully inspected a n d protect against rust a n d corrosion include p h o s p h a t e j r . : j . „ c a t «
cleaned of bugs, dirt, or m u d t h a t c a n often restrict airflow . Mainte- Silicates have b e e n f o u n d to be t h e cause : : erosnre w e a : t c ". i t e r
nance should also include a visual inspection for signs of coolant sys- p u m p impellers. T h e color of LAI coolant is c e e n :r...v
tem leaks a n d for t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e coolant hoses and accessory phates in these coolants c a n cause d e p o s i t :c : ; — . f -sed ss.
drive belts. w a t e r that is hard j c o n t a i n s minerals
>3 i
1?-17 - i - 390s.nanj r ' - 3 e ' j n ^ m ^ W l W i i n g

t f i t i c I M • and phcspTite *-ee s n w j j c ^ r < cwr-er'i i r t t t a l tor
r * Ks^scsrcns t» r * -aca- ~4ndW e - y * coc'snt
Figure 1 7 - 1 8 J-sed antifreeze c o o i * should be kept separate and stveH n a teak-;™
Organic Acid Technology (OAT) This type of coolant uses or- container ytSScanbe rec/C-ed or deposed of according to federal, state, and local < «
rV Note that the storage barrel is paced inside another container to catch any coolant far -«
a r i c ac:ds t o h e l p protect .e x.eta!s !n t h e coollr.g system from
spil out of the inside barrel.
c o r : r . r _ C A T c o o l a n t Is usua.If orange. DEX-COOL is an e x a m -
- ' c o f a n OAT coolant. See F g u r e 1 7 - 1 7 .
Hybrid Organic Acid Technology (HOAT) Hybrid organic

a d d technctfogy HOAT 1 coolant contains organic acids for corto-
s'.ca p r o t e c d o n p ' - s a t o w a m o u n t of silicates. HOAT coolants can
h e g r e e n , o r a n g e , yellow, gold, pink, red, or blue.
S o m e samples of HOAT coolants Include:
• V W A-vH pink
• 'tejvies yellow
• Ford e::ow
• - -!a'fcheiriTE2ji
• E . r t p e a n i.'oe
L
• - - . -ed—this coc-lant contains no silicates but has some
phosphate

Figure 1 7 - 1 9 This c<d upper hose had a sp it causing coolant to squirt out
W a t Is Pet Friendly" Antifreeze?
tiffm gVed a^tVeeM, regardless of the additives used, is

" v : .e a> pets aM animals because it is sweet Ethylene glycol is fatal to any RADIATOR AND HEATER HOSES
' ' h z ' c ^ t i and fMretae, any spiH should be cleaned up quickly
Upper a n d l o w e r radiator h o s e s m u s t b e pliable, yet not soft-
( • • • i i - ' - ' A U coolant, caned propylene glycol, is less attractive to
l o w e r h o s e m u s t h a v e a s p r i n g inside t o p r e v e n t the hose i-
> " . 5 ' ' a r i r d b h e ^ - c e 4 is 'ess s//eet but 1$ still harmful if swallowed. Ths
b e i n g s u c k e d closed, since t h e l o w e r h o s e is a t t a c h e d to the
7 - / -. y?.5 -: ? a M -ot be nvxed with ethylene glycol coolant
tion side of t h e w a t e r p u m p . T h e b y p a s s h o s e (if equipped' -
h e a t e r hoses h a v e a 1 / 2 " , 5 / 8 " , or 3 / 4 " i n s i d e diameter and •
CAtfTKHfc ' o r e /e^rfe manufacturers do rot recommend the use of
n e c t t h e e n g i n e c o o l i n g s y s t e m to t h e h e a t e r c o r e . (A heater --
vs.;<•••*. it-? ' / / v t Cfisck the recommendation in the owner's manual
looks like a small radiator located Inside t h e vehicle.) All ac-
y v t i ya - ^ n a t i o n before using it in a vehicle.
tive h o s e is c o n s t r u c t e d of r u b b e r w i t h r e i n f o r c i n g fabric ^
for s t r e n g t h . All hoses should b e inspected for leaks (especially -
hose d a m p s ) , cracks, swollen areas i n d i c a t i n g possible broken
forcing material, a n d excessively brittle, s o f t , a n d swollen s e ^
ANTIFREEZE/COOLANT DISPOSAL Using a h a n d - o p e r a t e d p r e s s u r e p u m p a t t a c h e d to the B ?
V x d COO .r i r « : * & i f r o m vehicles can usually be disposed of by o p e n i n g Is an e x c e l l e n t w a y to c h e c k for leaks. See Figure
ComtSnlr • v:-o e n g i n e oil. T h e e q u i p m e n t used for recy-
ci r g t e e n g i n e oil c a n eas'-jy separate the c o o l a n t from t h e
•*is'e Check recycling c o m p a n i e s authorized by local or AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION FLUID
>:• • > i r - " 'or t h e e x a c t m e t h o d r e c o m m e n d e d for disposal The a u t o m a t i c transmission f l u i d ( A T F ) is another .
in y i x / area. f t ? i r e 17 18. t a n t fluid t h a t s h o u l d be checked r e g u l a r l y . M o s t aui ^
TJt
wjjjjl/j The Cut a n d r . . i i , . ,
I « g s u n d r t c u t so r e r c » e * r a ~ i . « . *
u n a a or r « a u r care To a . . J p o « , « _ Jt ; £f 'J
OMl»«r».aOI*>lpulO»UWtth»! • .
M j s i i t tne nose iengtnMse and tr*i j*,. j 4 / f#
t a w l f l f or neaiar core Adhoughtr . . . . .. - » MMlfiM
leuiod, it is a teal time sa>w /uteri it ct- .ts u iep j .
• L o o k at (be < i d . It i. v :
MTK IlfCWfl CI
TECH TIP Qulck-and-Easy Cooling System
Problem Diagnosis d S a t n o d i of c
1! o.arteating occurs « SJC* stop-and-go trarte. •-"« usual cause «

mroogH t r e radiator. Check for a * f l a * Wooages or coocrg 'an iVcScr 1 ! ~
u.«r<eatirg occurs at highway speeds, r e Muse s .suaiy a ratfcur gr c o f r - i wrt nra f j t ukx and sztS W A re/be >•»-•
arcuabon prooiem. CnecK tor a restricted or dogged f a t t t o r .
itcx&foti%tSf** 2*4ismdrr^cmireTJct«ira 200D i
: z t M yeat acd * i : r . v « r a r c h i ' j r tartnj w r j i ;ss r i d • j
! a x an e i " J <M*af--J5oo. ANnyi 1* f M A -ao.
i act-la's M c a a w a d a t k *
transmission fluid levels s h o u l d be c h e c k e d 'under the fcllcwir.g
conditions:
• T n e v e h i c l e s h o u l d b e p a r k e d o n a level s u r f a c e . f ^ ^ ^ J ^ "he Paper

• T n e t r a n s m i s s i o n fluid s h o u l d b e at n o r m a l o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e .
'ieu KT wf 1 f - 9 jseerfOwfCTflnxnor*
This m a y r e q u i r e t h e v e h i c l e t o b e d r i v e n several miles before t h e
j a* - a t place y -« « * * 1 êr 1
level Is c h e c k e d .
jrtfli rf _5«e ATF » r * h W <»1* 7 A M t a n f i O i i t r c n M
• T h e e n g i n e s h o u l d b e r u n n i n g w i t h t h e transmission ir. r.e i t n l c :
'or X - . - . 1 8 1 n i i-OK rtrmat m j f in aper
p a r k as specified b y t h e vehicle m a n u f a c t u r e r
-XD v r » rap r» K a n s ad ^ s ->«l a n sM » 1
1
1 unarm snoJd * Aar^d xrodhg s n»
-inJxtstfi TV*—erOM
JtOTfc Hor.da ar.d Acura manufacturers 'usually specify that the transois-
s:on fluid be checked w i t h the engine off. The recommenced procedure j
usually stamped o n the transmission dipstick or M i t t e n in the c w i a r t
manual ar.d/or service manual.
TYPES OF AUTOMATIC T R A N S M I S S I O N FUJIO

AuioaadcCrar..-_ - . s r . : 2 h ^ ^ r y o o - r a t > * a
To c h e c k t h e a u t o m a t i c t r a n s m i s s i o n fluid, s t a r t t h e e n g i n e ar.d
t h a t resist oiSdaS.. n . ~<i V r ^ S o o . aT»cw t B |
m o v e t h e g e a r s e l e c t o r t o all g e a r p o s i t i o n s a n d r e t - r r . to p a r k i r
S o w easily at ail : e m ; < r a r _ - e s . 1 h e a u t o m a t i c t r a n s m i s s i o n
n e u t r a l as s p e c i f i e d b y t h e v e h i c l e m a n u f a c t u r e r Remove the dyed red f x i e r r 5 c a & f i . Var y s vehicle r a n u & c n r e n
t r a n s m i s s i o n / t r a n s a x l e d i p s t i c k (fluid l e v e l i n d i c a t o r ) ar.d w i p e .: m e n d a p a t t i c u U r t y p e ol A I T h a s e d m a _ r > :r. I F - f l cta n c z
off u s i n g a c l e a n c l o t h . T h e n r e i n s e r t t h e d i p s t i c k u n t i l r i l y s e a t - 1 istics. F t k t i o o is r e e d e d b e r . v e e n t h e b a n d s , r ' a t e s , i r d c\
R e m o v e t h e d i p s t i c k a g a i n a n d n o t e t h e level. S e e f i g u r e 1 7 - 2 0 . an automatic LransnLss»Q/tra.r>ii5e. There t h r e e "."pes
Sonfrktioa mod *e4— s " d f res v i s a MV 5>
W i t The *add" mark on most automatic transmission, t n n s a i e Spsotics r e d u c i n g a d i i m . 7."p< F s an c i a r . p l e .V

of xa 1r.-jiJK.-
|
mean that | / 2 quart 11 / 2 liter) of automatic transmission : seeds to ^ ATF. It w a s j r ' - a r p f j e d n h a n d - r y j * F c r t r / - - a*5c
addedi siocs - r i W " .
Friction noodiSed—^Js " . . d - . 7 * h 3 s a d d : t r « .-a:
xDerv- l " a n d '.'.ere .-.'»•• are >•--:"« • -
D o n o t o v e r f i l l a n y a u t o m a t i c t r a n s m i s s i o n / t r a n s a x l e . I en m o o Sed ATF.
just 1 / 2 q u a r t t o o m u c h w e r e a d d e d by mistake .for t u r ; e.

•
V « f t c o r t j i a c e d f i r l c Ford AJT i j e c A i - . n H C H a i W
i
• HrjWt Wctioo modified- ~ 1 " : 7 * h a addfeiornl S1rto®>

r e d u c i n g additives t e y o n d ftose ® e o l < o feraM. - - ' *• 1
.VTF.DeircoVI,Chêr V , - ; u ' \ ' \ \ l ~ - l V.c-3CaJF-4
Honda, and Tofota s j e c S c AlFi."? u a r 0 f <
h ' ^ h l y friction mco.."edL See ^ r . i 17-Z1
; a ' g g 11 > « • < • r < |
Always >ise he erxt AlF recotr.T^'irt r« - d t
" a w » 1 7 - 2 0 A typcal a u t o - a x transmsson cSpstck manufiwurtt
PROTECTS TO - » f
• -(UtH • POISON
DANGEF KUGWn ,
(b)
Figure 17-23 ia) Windshield washer fluid caps are usually labeled with this symbol
ibi Only use the recommended windshield washer fluid Do not use water in climates when
freezing temperatures are possible or damage to the reservoir, pump, and lines could renin
when the water freezes and expands
WINDSHIELD WASHER FLUID

W i n d s h i e l d w a s h e r fluid level s h o u l d be c h e c k e d regularly and n
filled as necessary. Use only t h e fluid t h a t is recommended for us
In v e h i c l e w i n d s h i e l d w a s h e r s y s t e m s . S e e Figure 1 7 - 2 3 . Mc
w i n d s h i e l d w a s h e r fluid usually looks like b l u e w a t e r . It is actua
w a t e r w i t h a n alcohol ( m e t h a n o l ) a d d i t i v e to p r e v e n t freezing f
* r r - a War j m » c w J m w i o r M a r can and level indicator (dipstick) that
'.vraoir M m itw ressnrair The power steenng fluid should
to h e l p clean t h e w i n d s h i e l d by dissolving b u g s , e t c .
• r m the system or contamination
Some muted fluids are for summer use only and do not cor ^
P O V E * S T E H U N G FLUID antifreeze protection. Read the label carefully! Some fluids must be nw
with water because they are in concentrated form. Follow the dirt^ _
. -m<-i. -o t h e operation a n d service
on the container exactly. If not enough water Is used, the additives 'h
v - - . The e w c f p o w e r steering fluid to
washer fluid could damage the paint on the roof and trunk lid Win> •<
me -, ->r -.J- . s c . : ? ' a n d s o m e t i m e s b e t w e e n m o d e l s
washer fluid may also be flammable because it often contains ai
r a r J i T y - t j f e c m r e r because of differences a m o n g Keep the fluid away from open flames or excessive heat.
c o m p o r t m a n u f a c t u r e r s . See Figure 1 7 - 2 2 .
ACCESSORY DRIVE BELT INSPECTION -rd

- . v."/.'* .<••:-., ".aid does not mean There should be a maximum of 1 / 2 " of play w h e n a J
tcmr ' i >•',. •/ it# p a f i t t steenngreser- pressed m i d w a y b e t w e e n pulleys. P o w e r s t e e r i n g (PSl
• - - •• J I "/f the 1 *acr f. .id to be used d i t i o n i n g ( A / C i belts usually m u s t b e e v e n tighter. T h e w o ,
i OK Mr I tmuA belts a r e r e q u i r e d to p e r f o r m is d e c e p t i v e . For e x a m P • f
tlC
conditioning belt must transfer approximately 12 '
v & e n e v e r t h e A / C is b e i n g u ; ..
a belt w h i c h d e p e n d e d or. . • M Bm
this because of t h e i r s h a p e , are 3 - T
ride t h r o u g h is generally 3 0
suits in a w e d g i n g a c t o r , a n c s t a k e s ;
but it is i-so t h e r e a s o n w h y \ -cc.ti :. .. ;
It is generally r e c o m m e n a e d that ail bolts . the
s e r p e n t i n e or P o l y V belts z . . . ..
belts couic be k e p t in t h e t r u n k for use „-. ar. e n t e r s • ' a
belt that s a s t h e w a t e r p u m p breaks, t h e engine c . . :
overheat causing serious e n g i n e d a m a g e , a n d ii o n e belt breaks, it
orter. causes t h e o t h e r beits to b e c o m e tangled, causing t h e m to
break. See Figures 1 7 - 2 4 t h r o u g h 1 7 - 2 6 .
Beit T e n s i o n M e a s u r e m e n t T h e r e are four ways that vehicle

F i g u r e 1 7 - 2 6 A.-wsys check tne oert routing wnenever replacing or checking tne operator,
manufacturers specify that t h e belt tension is within factory
or naise m me accessary anve oeits.
specifications.
1. Belt t e n s i o n g a u g e — A belt tension gauge Is needed to achieve

the specified belt tension. Install the belt and operate the engine
with all of t h e accessories turned on to "run-in" the belt for at
figure 1 7 - 2 7 A spnng-loaaeC accessary cnve oett tensioner.
least five minutes. Adjust t h e tension of the accessory drive belt

to factory specifications or use the table below for an example of
the proper tension based on the size of the belt.
Serpentine Belts
Number of Ribs Used Tension Range (lbs.)

figure 17-24 A special tool is useful when installing a new accessory drive Delt Tne
lang-nanalea wrencn tits tne hole in tne Pelt tensioner. 3 45-60
4 60-60
5 75-100
6 90-125
7 105-t45
traditional V-Betts
V-Bett Top Wiath fin.) Tension Range flbsj
1/4 45-65
5/16 60-65
25/64 8S-115
31/64 105-145
Replace any serpentine belt that has more than t h r e e crac.^ any
one rib that appears in a 3-inch span.
2 . M a r k s o n a t e n s i o n e r — M a n y ter.s.one.-s r.r.v.
figure 1 7 - 2 5 Typical worn serpentine accessory anve belt A selective or worn Delt can cate the normal operating tension range for the accessor.- c r . v :
cause a variety ot noises, induomg squealing ana severe knocking similar to a mam Oeanng belt. Check service information for the :ocation c: the tensioner
knack, if giazea ar loose mark. See Figure 17-27.
HMW
iat? o n »* t
-.inc.-' «M«l
ri»if.t» Mt<( i i n n 1
r < M i ' n r i irrin r r - ' t t tf?iwt*»
w ..» i >«»i »11«
u«Vit >' - tr. u »i' tarn
'* * aa i * H
CtBSR^f Trtck
XV13I Zt SStitt Of " c ^^S* Of >t Of

... -1 — — . .^j: $ l&sfete?,C¥ s-'-iaie be
Rgwe17-28 >•:: r a - i ^ - ' t i s t h e r a c o m m e n d e a 'repretvreona
âca^c aSacêS to the dnwes door or tne doer ;«7a
- - y s^ A. a fee
: a iQiaslfef ' property
w . j - - •;* ? » » a w * t& t>~ ««as»d <st&<* a-"' l > e r e c o m m e n d e d tire pressure o f t e n specifies a different pr«-
<V" 51^16sorrepo<v- ; u r e f w front and rear tires. T h i s is v e r y i m p o r t a n t to remember es-
SO! >- Si' eKKJj sc.vie: « « fly pec ai:v When t h e tires are b e i n g r o u t e d . Tire p r e s s u r e should be
a a -e i wet We ftaae f t erig»* a M t it the oeRs checked and a d j u s t e d If necessary after a tire r o t a t i o n has bees
.•saBf**- aw tss! < we? the gssied Seft «hr " a 4 e me rwse. c o m p l e t e d . The r e c o m m e n d a t i o n o f t e n i n c l u d e s a s t a t e m e n t aboc
•ire prer. j r e s to use if operating u n d e r all h i g h w a y driving conf-
v " sxsidi e a e s - *.e a o w y twar-s 'Hstfm*. t>e&<t • ons or operating the vehicle In a fully l o a d e d c o n d i t i o n . Specifics
» w a r c !«psat:-sj paris. fry the hand deaner trick • :-jr these conditions c o m m o n l y i n c l u d e increasing fe
pressure u?ua^, a b o u i 4 t o 6 P S I o r 2 7 t o 4 1 k P a .
v
t •;:• '-•;.- - s saw: cleaner vwfl « f n » e the gaze tnjm the Sett
. • - - ~ >..;.• ,< • • ,-„•- h o m ^ s <c*sen>6 ootsorloow.JhenaaewS
TIRE ROTATION
- - - tr-z »«- aert stourc »rejRacec A f a r a2er-a? * -wthod & determine If
- - s>.v ; - w « » scfa.i «at«f f t r - a stjuirt baffle ar the ««8i To c s ire long I:fe and e v e n tire w e a r , it is i m p o r t a n t to rotate o d t
•.re to a n o t h e r location. S o m e rear-wheel-drive vehicles, for exam-
-» •- " r o s e sfcps. Me Sett 5 9 * caase of 9ie noist The
ple. may s h o w p r e m a t u r e tire w e a r o n t h e f r o n t tires. The wee
• .•-•> and Sief«tor* ur -<? tne jnay hand cleaner, water
uaiiv starts on t h e o u t e r tread r o w a n d usually a p p e a r s as a front-
S3 e we • s—«lots pwvtK a Sort-tern
back high and low; w e a r pattern o n individual tread blocks.
: he .<- Wo< fcs of tread r o b b e r are d e f o r m e d d u r i n g c o r n e r i n g stop-
pir.g. a n d turning, w h i c h can c a u s e tire n o i s e a n d / o r tire rouge-
CHtECKiMG T W E P R E S S U R E r.ess. While s o m e s h o u l d e r w e a r on f r o n t tires is n o r m a l , it cants
---'c' be c h e c k e d w h e n t h e tires are cold. As a ve- reduced by proper inflation, a l i g n m e n t , a n d tire rotation. F o r t e :
- < feting the tire and friction b e t w e e n t h e tire results, tires should be rotated every 6 , 0 0 0 m i l e s or six months.
a n ' crease > t e m p e r a t u r e . As t h e tire h e a t s See Figure 1 7 - 2 0 for suggested m e t h o d s of r o t a t i o n .
e ' - i * v e also increases in t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e in-
• of - r e air increases the air p r e s s u r e inside t h e
v . ' e ' / p x i l i y increases in p r e s s u r e 4 to 6 PSI after
M T E Radial tires can cause a radial pull due to their construction. lfti»
s**r. driven sererai miies. If ait is then r e m o v e d
* ' a i t g r j n e n t is correct, attempt to correct a pull by rotating the tires
Tie tire w c id be u n d e r i n f l a t e d . T h e tire pressure
front to rear or, if necessary, side to side.
that aas n o t b e e n d r i v e r a n d is t h e r e f o r e cold,
re r-recSd b e c h e c k e d before t h e vehicle has b e e n
1 2 miies i 3 k m ; .
WWT- ic-lp rem-'-mber when to rotate the tires, just remember that It
" i f ' /Pi.' y to tit •--nspera: jr» about I PSI per should be done at every other Oil change. Most manufacturers recomtne"5
•-;<!• t x ' w i a o r 5 * s * ptet.sj» ha-. » be ad- Changing the engine oil even' 3,000 miies 14,800 fan I or every tin®
h- • anjftet of 80*F changes to months and recommend lire rotation every 6,000 (0,600 tan I miles«
- ..'•-. .v... I'Gpat-. : 4 PSI SO 4!, • 40;. ever/ six months.
g a u g e a n d p u s h It against t h e
2 t h e c a p . C o m p a r e t h e p r e s s u r e read WHEEL MOUNTING TORQUE
îure specified p r e s s u r e is lo- M a k e certain that t h e w h e e l studs are c l e a n a n d d r y a n d torques j
t-o 7 / - dr-vvr's d o o r or d o o r post or in m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s specifications. M o s t vehicles specify a t i g h t e n ^
; >•17-28. t o r q u e of b e t w e e n 8 0 a n d 1 0 0 lb-ft.
r , r v . r y.ort tire sidev/ail, ' " "

:
•< •. . • - ' ( . ' ' Jjrf, inflating Most nunubaurc-rs warn that the wheel studs should not t'-
:, • •:• ..'A ot'-r. unac : oiled or lubricated with grease because this can cause the wheel lug nUl5
:
to loosen while driving.
FBOW T-WHEEL D«VE
A
-
MODIFIED X"
(PREFERRED METHOD)
FRONT OR REAR FRONT OR REAR

WHEEL DRIVE WHEEL DRIVE
FRONT
<t»
F i g i m 1 7 - 3 0 ; A r - - £ . arszrz-z ~ i r -2i.fr. s - r ' i âec r 59"?-

ug u s H e a3KT3- srouc * c 3e nee 2 * a * aange t a t r u e c a e r a w y
0 5 1
oeTa^JVy'tâa^" ' i ^ m e r * 0! arr»* - A i g ^ W
FRONT/REAR
FULL "X"
(ACCEPTABLE) (ACCEPTABLE)
figure 1 7 - 2 9 The preferred method most often recommended is the modified X method REAL WORLD R X Waiting tor the Second Click Story
l*ng this method, each we eventually is used at each ol the tour wheel locations. An easy
A student service technean was observed appyng a lot of force to a torque
*ay to remember the sequence, whether front wheel drive or rear wheel drtve. is to say to
wrench attached to 1 wheel ug nut When the instructor asked what he was
yourself, -Ori»e wheels straight, cross the nondrlve wheels."
lotng . the student replied that he was turning the >ug nut tighter jntit ~e "ward a
Always t i g h t e n l u g n u t s g r a d u a l l y tighter in t h e proper se second dck from the torque wrench.
quence (tighten o n e n u t , s k i p o n e , a n d t i g h t e n t h e n e x t n u l l . See This was confusng to the instructor until the student expianeO t r a he iae
Figure 1 7 - 3 0 . T h i s h e l p s p r e v e n t w a r p i n g t h e b r a k e d r u m s or ieard a second d c k of the tonjue wrench during the demonsfratnn t h e n a n j c -
rotors, or b e n d i n g a w h e e l . or at once realcefl mat the student had heard a click vrtien 9ie proper torque a a
ichewd. plus another <Sck when the force on the torque wrench was releasee
No harm occurred to the vehicle because al of the lug nuts were r
i Anytime you Install a brand-new set of aluminum wheels, retorque
tnd property torqued The instructor learned that a more complete <
the wheels after the first 25 miles. The soft aluminum often compresses
for the use of dick-type torque wrenches was needed
'•lightly, loosening the torque on the wheels.
QjQi Wy Two Quick Checks

,h
" e vehicle Is hoisted on a frame-contact lift, spin each tire to check that
' h e b ' a k » 8 are not dragging You should be able to turn all four wheels by TIRE INSPECTION
" " " " the parking brake Is off and the transmission is in neutral Also when .Ail nres s h o u l d b e c a r e f u l l y i n s p e c t e d for f a u l t s in t h e lire tseif o r
spinning the tire, look over the top ef the tire to check if it is round An Im- for signs t h a t s o m e t h i n g m a y b e w r o n g w i t h t h e s t e e r - g - le-
Wop«,iy mounted tire or a tire that is out-of round can be detected by watch-
sion systems of t h e v e h i c l e . S e e F i g u r e s 1 " - 3 1 t h r o u g h I " - 3 3
"'0 'or the outside of the lire to move up and down as it is being rotated
e x a m p l e s of c o m m o n p r o b l e m s .
154 SE KWV
figure 1 7 - 3 4 A hand-operated grease gun is being used to lubricate a grease fitting on a

pitman arm.
FIGUC 1 7 - 3 1 AJ tires should tie checked tor wear by observing the wear bars These
arc tfe Ore to be bald in this area when the tire tread depth is less than 2/32".
CHASSIS LUBRICATION
Chassis lubrication refers to t h e greasing of parts that r u b against
each other or installing grease into a pivot (or ball joints) through a
grease fitting. Grease fittings are also called Z e r k f i t t i n g s (named
for Oscar U. Zerk] or A l a m i t e f i t t i n g s ( n a m e d for t h e manufacturer
of early grease fittings). These fittings c o n t a i n a o n e - w a y check valve
that prevents the grease from escaping. See Figure 1 7 - 3 4 . Grease
fittings are used on steering c o m p o n e n t s , s u c h as tie-rod ends, and
in t h e suspension ball joints, w h i c h r e q u i r e lubrication to prevent
w e a r and noise caused by t h e action of a ball r o t a t i n g within a joint
during vehicle operation.
M If too much grease is forced into a sealed grease boot, the boot
itself may rupture requiring the entire joint to be replaced.
F i f w * 1 7 - 3 2 This lire is worn on the outside. If both front tires are worn the same way.
tner e> . h & k Be-In is most likely the cause If |ust one tire snows this type of wear, then
*> rot c o r e d and the vehicle should be inspected for a fault in the suspension
C H A S S I S GREASE
f
Vehicle m a n u f a c t u r e r s specify t h e type a n d c o n s i s t e n c y of grease
for each application. The technician should k n o w w h a t these sped
fications m e a n . Grease is an oil w i t h a t h i c k e n i n g a g e n t added to
allow it to be installed in places w h e r e a liquid lubricant would not
stay. Greases are n a m e d for their t h i c k e n i n g a g e n t , such as alu-
m i n u m , barium, calcium, lithium, or s o d i u m .
The A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y f o r T e s t i n g M a t e r i a l s ( A S T M ) sp«
ifles the consistency of grease using a p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t . The
N a t i o n a l L u b r i c a t i n g G r e a s e I n s t i t u t e ( N L G I ) uses t h e penetra
tion test as a guide to assign t h e grease a n u m b e r . L o w numbers arc
very fluid and higher n u m b e r s are m o r e firm or h a r d . M o s t vehic!e
m a n u f a c t u r e r s specify NLGI # 2 for w h e e l b e a r i n g a n d chassis lubn-
cation. See Figure 1 7 - 3 5 .
NLGI also specifies grease by its use:
The " G C " designation is acceptable for w h e e l b e a r i n g s .

The "LB" designation is acceptable for chassis l u b r i c a t i o n .
17-33 . W - . . V rerf n v . The u> JSUal wear pattern Indicates a p M a n y greases are labeled w i t h b o t h G C a n d LB a n d are t h ^
N M I M or a M p a r & o n w t that n caused the wheel/tire assembly to wear fore acceptable for both w h e e l bearings a n d chassis u s e , such as
lubricating ball joints, tie-rod e n d s , etc.
1 r
w r
R o l l e / a n d i
tjoctric M o t o r 0
J
nrovy-Out Bean
E " N o 2»E.P. L i t h i u m co.
p
t o 3 5 0 o F c o n t i n u o u s *
8
- ^ u c k s a n d of1-h>ghw '
K ^ D A t ^ -
, 7-iS Most vehicle manufacturers recommend the use of grease rated N t a Figure 17-37 x - i d K « s » - a * * : * • « a « » w e c d r and yet «M m/
K ^ w h e e l bearing, and "LB" for chassis lubrication Many grease, have octt detected by t e « w i
designations and are therefore acceptable tor use as wheel bearing grease as wet. as
chassis grease for ball joints and tie-rod ends.
BROKEN SPRING
Figure 1 7 - 3 6 This broken coil spring was found dunng an under-vehide Insoect: - 1> - Figwe 17-38 Are
owner was unaware of the problem and it did not make any noise. afer noting thr a e a fas oawsfl
OTHER U N Q E R - T H E - V E H I C L E LUBRICATION CHECKS to the differential ir. t h e rear. To c h e c k t h e dLferer.t.ai 8u*J lewd
Other items u n d e r n e a t h t h e vehicle that m a y need c h e c k i n g or and conditMTi, perioral t h e fcwMriag;
bricating include:
• Hoi t h e l e t ;ie safe i
• Shock absorbers and springs. See Figure 1 7 - 3 0 . • V*suaBy ciaeck fcr a n y s i p s of leakage. See Figure 1 7 - 3 8 .
• The transmission/transaxle shift linkage i check the •• • Remove t h e t n s p e c n o c p l u g Irani t h e side of the differential
for the correct lubricant to use) assembly.
• Exhaust system including all pipes and hangers. See Pgu-e I ~ • Insert TOUT A T F L finger Into the hole in t h e S i t i n g a r c tftet
• The parking brake cable guides remove vour finger
1. the i f i e m i n a i S u a is or. your f i r * * ther. -Jm -eve. v*
fluid is okay. Rut the Suid between your fingers. If tae 9c*2 _
W K W : Do not lubricate plastic-coated parking brake cables. The M M not gr.rrv feeiing, remsoL the tepee - pmg, If
cant can destroy the plastic coating. ghtty feeling, hmher service will oe necessary to *
the cause and c o r r e a i t
2. It the : temtiai S-vJd s n ..- '
d the fluid is too low.
IFFERENT|ALFLUIDCHECK
Rear wheel-drive vehicles use a differential in t h e rear of t h e vehi-
rear wh 6
'he direction of P°wer flow :he
-: • ' mm- Tine reason fcr the tow fctf lew. i t a e U A enaaM. j »•
crea T h e differential
^ provides a gear r e d t . . ' n to in are not completed imme<te«;% a M H o o ^ a f c i t m m | . ; ;
vehw e n
f n e t0rque applled t0 the drive
w h e e l s . Four-wheel drive added tv pumping it Into the te u . tfenkgn a *
also use a differential at t h e front of t h e vehicle - add t. r
136 Si »
DIFFERENTIAL LUBRICANTS until it stops The correct level of fluid Is at the bottoi
spection hole.
A : T \ ~ . i > .>. : Tv : sets and a special lubricant is neces-
If low, first determine the correct fluid to use and t h e r int||
ji-v r \ . a . v e bocf. -oil and slide between their meshed
fluid level is a: t n e b c t t o m of 'he inspection hole or ui
American Petroleum Insti-
runs out of the Inspection hole.
tute t APty. N - — . - require
U ' S A i >•." -•) GL 5 « r TECH H P Use a h,,lrti..; • ion Detector
2. ~5 - . . . 5 c-
i . SA - GL 5 One o( the many items that should be inspected while underneath vehicle
>. c ± f e : e n : ; a . s often abbreviated LSD) usually use an the condition ot all the fuel lines Many gasoline (fuel) leaks do noi
. - r.a: - : the friction characteristics of the rear axle areas. A hydrocarbon detector available from automotive test equipi nt suppi,
. r - c a a t : : prevent chattering while cornering. ers is an excellent tool to use to locate small gasoline leaks that may not be
visible See Figure 17-39.
MANUAL TRANSMISSION/TRANSAXLE
LUBRICANT CHECK
ar. transmissions transaxles may use any o n e of the following
• -..• _:• .a SAE80W-90)

• - - - j ' . . transmission fluid (ATF
• £ ; _sua.:v SAE 5W-30j
• Manual transmission Quid isometimes called s y n c h r o m e s h
t r a n s m i s s i o n fluid (STF)—this type of iubricant is similar to
specai additives to ease shifting especially w h e n cold]
7 : :r.eck mar.ual transmissions transaxles lubricant, perform
four wing:
• - the - • icie safely.
• : r e the transmission transaxle inspection ifill) plug. Consult the
~eC::~ service manual for the proper plug to remove to check the
Enid )EKL
• --e ' :.t drips out of the hole, then the level is correct. If the F i g u r e 1 7 - 3 9 An electronic hand-held hydrocarbon tester is an excellent tool to use to
runs out of the hole, the level is too full. Allow it to flow out check for possible gasoline leaks from lines or components
PHOTO S E Q U E N C E Oil Change
W7-1 - e-'-'ing the customer's car for the first P17-2 Run the engine until it Is close to operating
i e - - M > » -cta> a seat cover as well as a temperature. This will help the used oil drain more
;eer <•? xneti cover to protect the vehicle's interior. quickly and thoroughly.
PI 7-4 H e r o * the (Kuq arc ar.ow the hot oil to drain P17-5 While the engine oil continues to drain, Pi7-6 Compare the new oil filter with the oit
frwn 8 * engine ,jse ca/hor dwing ir»s step as hot remove the engine oil filter using a filter wrench be sure that it Is the correct replacement.
v can caute painful burns Some oil will drain from the filter, so be sure to have
the oil drain container underneath when removing it.
PHOTO S E Q U E N C E Oil Change non
P17-7 The wise service technician adds oil to the PI 7 - 8 Apply a thin layer of dean *-.g»ne « l » t n e PI7-41 Ciea- area where the oil fitter gaakst
filter whenever possible. This provides faster filling of gasket of the new filter This oil rum will aSow the seats to oesi*e that no part of the gaskei remains
the filter during start-up and a reduced amount of rubber gasket to slide and compress a6 me 0» « t t r « "sat cou*) cause an on leak 1) not fully removed
time that the engine does not have oil pressure. being tightened.
Pi 7-10 Install the new oil filter and tighten it by P17-11 Carefully inspect the o drain c .3 ana Pi 7-12 j x m r «e*»de and dean around the f
hand. Do not use an oil filter wrench to tighten the gasket Replace the gasket as needec -sta r e cae x k r * -eratwng it
filter! Most filters should be tightened 3/4 of a turn drain plug and tighten firmly but do no! c grner
after the gasket contacts the engine.
P17-13 Use a funnel to add the specified amount of PI 7-14 Start the engine and aiio« 5 to Hie * rme P i 7 - i 5 3toc engne and « to a lew
oil to the engine at the oil fill opening. When finished, watching the oil pressure gauge ana or > y s s s a e - ".as a 3m & a Ora* roc* »hb tne at far
replace the oil fill cap. warning lamp. CHI pressure shomc be nxatec n*r - •jx* jnoe—e^- n e venoe t elwck tor try » en
15 seconds of s t a t i c ne engne al 9 » ot Oran (Sups) or oi Ster
»A 1
P17-16 Remove the oil-level dipstick and wipe t P ! 7 - t 7 Re s t s l w e o eveiors: • piT-ia 1 * y SVXA: a* n a w w r m 1
clean with a shop cloth. dipstx> .1 second Te ana read ~e o> ev« trie MAI mes w t w a * n e » w e t M w e
ear*****
"3£ SECPOHV
S U M WART 2. '.05- -chide mants&cturers specify brake fluid that meets v.-
a. DOT 2 ^
:. : i c g 3 v^cc ; ~ r t e c - - ~ crverlapSwaJd be used on the b. DOT 3
s t s s r ; whee seas. asd Zee: c. DOT 4
Z. t - v x : 3 K k s i a s a a r i v and sol Sled above 1 r Som d. DOT 5
•-t rs r i i : v ? fee - a x i m u m " Bne Reprinted on die 3. The thicker the engine oil. the better the quality.
7•:t*>; r a r f r r . S d e r . a. True
3. . r . • v • z t - i r - A c r a t s specjv DOT 3 brake S£d. b. False
4. is5.es s e c S - SAE 5W-30 or 10W-30 engine oil 4. The letter Was fa SAE 10W-30 means
ar. AT - a x •:: ?*•'. and ar. USAC rating o: G M . a. Weight
;. r r c :. r-ir-ldie charged more SequerJy ' the vehicle is driven b. Wrought
se"*re : —m -cr.s such as stop-and-go city-type driving. c. With
d. Winter
e. " her s s p l a a g ar.v ndator c: heaar hose, the end of the hose should
5. Most antifreeze coolant is
: treveK ics^fcje damage to the radiator or heater core.
a. Phosphate
r . -. -VST? the specified amcradc transmission fluid when topping o3 or
b. Propylene glycol
• : — .—.--r-.- me Slid. Using the wrong type of ATF can cause me
c. Ethylene glycol
v.- — < - j - ; ; ; ha^my or cause a Titration when the transmis-
d. Dexthylene
sasSEs.
6. Dexron and Mercon are examples of which type of ATF?
8. The me r-rastre should be checked when the ares are cold, and the tires
a. Nonfriction modified
sl-.rJ: be fafiaad to me pressure specified on the door placard or in the
b. Friction modified
rTver's manual
c. Highly friction modified
o. strafe! be mated even- 5,000 to 7,000 miles :8.000 to 11.000 km) d. Straight-weight mineral oil
: : at other o£ change. 7. Using the modified X tire rotation method on a front-wheel-drive vehicle
10. "•heels s h r i s always be tightened with a torque wrench to the proper would place me right front tire on the .
t r r r a and m a S3: pattern. a. Left front
! I. A1 s e s s fimrgs should be cleaned before using a grease gun to lubricate b. Left rear
a=r jsaseaile joists under the vehicle. c. Right rear
d. Right front
12. Y.cr. t - a a r a ^ require a SAE 80W90 GL-5 rated lubricant.
8. Most vehicle manufacturers specify a lug nut (wheel nut) tightening torque
13. M a r a l transrLssidnS/ trar.saies may require one of several different specification of about .
. m - t a r t - iac-tyfing gear iube such as SAE 80W-90. ATF, engine oil a. 80 to lOOlb-ft
SAS Stft'-SC . or special manual transmission 2uld. b. 100 to 125 Ib-ft.
c. 125 to 150 Ib-ft.
REVIEW QUESTIONS d. 150 to 175 lb-ft.
9. A grease labeled NLGI #2 GC is suitable for use on what vehicle
' . zxzXr. w i v make fluid should not be filled above me full or MAX level components?
as indicated or. me raster q/lfaaer reservoir. a. Wheel bearings
Z ztijr v,-rv crake fluid should be kept in an airfight container. b. Chassis parts
3. Ecia-r d a terms SAE 5W-30, .API SM. and G M . c. Bom wheel bearings and chassis parts
d. Door hinges only
4. Us: £hae r.-pes of automotive transmission fluid.
10. A service technician removed the inspection/fill plug from me differed
5. Desmlie i s most common sequence for tire rotation.
of a rear-wheel-drive vehicle and gear lube started to flow out. T e c h n i c s A
6. I.mess.- a check differential fluid. says to quickly replace me piug to prevent any more loss of gear lube. Ted-
-s" lubricants that a manual transmission/transaxle may require nician B a y s to catch me fluid and allow me fluid to continue to 6ttb
d y r f r; exact Yea; make, and model of vehicle. Which technician is correct?
CHAPTER QUIZ b. Technician B only
c. Bom Technicians A and B
1- ''"rar.sa-.OL rating? d. Neither Technician A nor B
a- ACEAC2
b. 229.1
c.
d. rf. me abcrre
18 Gasoline Engine Operation, Parts,
and Specifications
19 Diesel E n g i n e Operation
and Diagnosis
Cooling S y s t e m Operation
20
and Diagnosis
21 Lubrication System Operation

and Diagnosis
22 Intake and E x h a u s t Systems
Turbocharging and Supercharging

23
Engine Condition Diagnosis
24
Engine Disassembly, Cleaning,
25
and Crack Detection
26 Cylinder Heads and Valves
27 Camshafts and Valve Trains
28 Pistons, Rings, and Connecting Rods
29 Engine Blocks, Crankshafts, and Bearings
30 Engine Blueprinting and Assembly
18
C H A P T E R
Gasoline Engine Operation,

Parts, and Specifications
O B J E C T I V E S : After studying Chapter 18, the reader will be able tc
Engine Diagnosis). • Explain how a tour-stroke cycle gasoline engine operates • list the w n o u s characteristics by which vefocte engines are d a m r t a e
• Discuss how a compression ratio is calculated. • Explain how engine size is determined. • OescrOe now turbochargng or a*)ei c h a r i n g u i u e i i M
engine power. • The engine converts part of the fuel energy to useful power This po, e n s used te ~ etne en : -
KEY TERMS: block • bore • boxer • cam-in-block design • camshaft • combustion • c o m f e u s S m c h a r a h e r • c o m p r e s s o r ratio <CB
• connecting rod • crankshaft • cycle • cylinder • displacement • double overt**) camshaft (DOHC) • exhaust Mine • external c o n t a n g o
engine • four-stroke cycle • intake valve • internal combustion engine • roechawcal farce * m e c h r t n l power • n a t u a l y aspirated
• nonprlncipal end • oil galleries • pancake • piston stroke • principal end • p u s h r o d e n g n e • notary e n g n e • s n g i e wertwad c a w n a f t S O N ©
• stroke • supercharger • top dead center (TDC) • turbocharger • Wankel engtee
ENERGY AND POWER

En
e r g y is u s e d to p r o d u c e p o w e r . T h e c h e m i c a l e n e r g y n f u e s
converted to h e a t by t h e b u r n i n g of t h e fuel at a c o n t r o l l e d rate.
This process is called c o m b u s t i o n . If e n g i n e c o m b u s t i o n o c . .rs
within t h e p o w e r c h a m b e r , t h e e n g i n e is called a n i n t e r n a l Engines used tn a u t o m o b i l e s "r-a. - t e a ? -.-•
combustion engine. gines. T h e y c o n v e r t t h e c h e r r - c x e n e r r ;• -.-» ias. ..:< ?«•
4t V<,
••'.•V..': r .: . - j c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r . Hf at
\tfart- l ^ y o s f c '.N' c?-<sraj?er raises the t e n p j n u M o '
N £ w e s ' v > t Y » $ « •.'hamSw T b r l3ic?e»e'fc $as.
preswte v t h e t o i n c r e a s e . T h e p x s s u r e d e -
V<< V MS ^ C C - M R S * câriifcer is applied to t h e h e a d of i
•;•'•>'r- i t ~ a t j ^ j f o e to p r o d i s e a usable m e c h a n i c a l f o r c e .
•;• -•»; ' . mechanical power.
KiP'^ ' .' ' • I: '••.'!)'•
J C O H S T ^ T J O N DVEWIfW
Stock -,S .. •: arid jffcclt engines are constructed using a
.-..•: i r c : « a b l o c k . A r.->c< is c o n s t r u O e i of cast iron or
3 k f ^ o d a - j o n fot t r o s t of the engine corn-
.1 dra v - e r a The h! Kk is cast and then m a c h i n e d to eery
-u • . e - a f c a s ;.*• a : : . " .other p a r t ' to fee installed.
Figure 1 8 - i A cylinder hotici with tout vaWs par cylinder, two intake valves' parget;
BgMSffg Assembly f f r m are installed in .the block and two exhaust vaWM i6mali«rip9t cylinder.
..: d;'«.T during,engine operation. Pistons are c o n n e c t e d
;v 'Jng rctcs which c o n t i f c t t h e pbtoite t o t h e crankshaft.
a t . " o r . w t s the u p a n d - d o w n m o t i o n of ' h e piston to
•u i r. .-., /-h ch h t h e n transmitted t o the dftve wheels and
p?t ' i h i c t e See Figure ! 8 - 1 .
Cylindw Heads englr.et use a cylinder head to seal the top

f :v.< ; ..' dent, ttiict are ir. the engine biock. The cylinder heao
.. - va'< Itat allow alt and f a d into the cylinder called
\.\c.<£ a n ; e x h a u s t v a l w s , which -jpen after combustion to
i Vot giE<s tif; over tc escape from t h e engine. Cylinder
• •,<:. are . . ' . c ; . , ' - : of cast iron or a l u m i n u m and are then ma-
•..*.-- •• ;*.t va and u:her ' aivc-reiated c o m p o n e n t s . Cooling
;•,• are Vinned JUilttgth.e muting process and coolant is circu-
ii ' A t ccmflnaGoti c v a m b e r j o k e e p temperatures con-
-•>1 Fig-T 5-2.
h'VsMt. U h 6 E r t h s t u s t M a n i f o l d s Air and fuel e n t e r s the en-

. . j : intake manifold and e x i s the e n g i n e through the
Figure 18-3 The cuoianl temjwiature is continued by the ItiumiosM which opotsa's
..y z a r J l u s ir a k e manfloids operate cooler tfian e x h a u s t
allow roaiarrl tt (In1* to Die •nd'ator wliun ths tamiiofature reaches the ratinj tenipev-'-
• ir.. ... ar.d s i un.-rfifure uinsffuctt-d of nylon reinforced plastic
o' itif thermostat
•..:- .- • l r . K < : iTiîiffi'ids must b e able t o w i t h s t a n d h o t « •
m t ! and therefoif most are ;:or:s:ructed from cast iron. cooled, ail c u r r e n t p r o d u f f l o s p a s s e n g e r v e h i c l e engines are cacSf
by circulating a n t i f r e e z e coolant t h r o u g h p a s s a g e s in t h e block t
t m f m Sytfw* Ai: vngine} must h e v e a cooling r ^ t e m to
cylinder h e a d . T h e c o o l a n t picks u p t h e h e a t f r o m t h e engine v
; ..-. ;-'.Miures. . ' h i l e some older engines w e r e air after t h e t h e r m o s t a t o p e n s , t h e w a t e r p u m p circulates the cock'
t h r o u g h t h e radiator w h e r e t h e e s c e s s h e a t is released to the a.
side air, cooling t h e Coolant. The c.oolar;t is c o n t i n u o u s l y circular
t h r o u g h ' h e c o o l i n g system and t h e t e m p e r a t u r e is controlied •
t h e t h e r f o o s t a t See Figure 1 8 - 3 .
Lubrication System All e n g i n e s c o n t a i n m o v i n g and slid)

p a r t , that m u s t be kept lubricated t o r e d u c e w e a r and friction
oil p a n , bolted t o -he h o n o r of t h e e n g i n e block, holds 4 to 7
[liters, of oil. An oil p u m p , w h i c h is driven b y t h e engine, force -
oil t h r o u g h ' h e oil filter and t h e n into passages in t h e crankshaf
block. T h e s e passages are called oil g a l l e r i e s . T h e oil is also tsj.
up to t h e valves and t h e n falls d o w n t h r o u g h ' o p e n i n g s in ^
der head and block back i n t o t h e oil p a n . See Figure 18-4.
r-UDi S y s t e m a n d I g n i t i o n S y s t e m All e n g i n e s requi^",

and an ignition system to ignite the f u e l - a i r m i x t u r e in the O p
l h e fuel system i n c l u d e s t h e f o l l o w i n g c o m p o n e n t s :
• Fuel rank w h e r e fuel is stored

• Fuel filter and lines
VjMm it-1 Tryrrtîy t u * ^ V t * W i w * * tpffiutxixttng • Fuel injectors, which spray fuel l i t o t h e intake manifold W ° | r '
ta. « f . • •/. WW.Vf Into the cylinder, depending oo the type of system used
T h e i g n i t i o n s y s t e m is d e s i g n e d to t a k e 12 volts from the battery A piston that -noses up and i c w n . or ^cipnxates, m a
and c o n v e r t it t o 5 , 0 0 0 t o 4 0 , 0 0 0 volts n e e d e d to j u m p the gap of a c y l i n d e r car, be In -hi; ill-sire-on. "he pi-: :-r •<. attached tc a
spark p l u g . S p a r k p l u g s a r e t h r e a d e d into the cylinder head of each crankshaft r a connecting "id. s ir-angement ill • : &t
cylinder, a n d w h e p t h e s p a r k o c c u r s , it ignites the air-fuel mixture
piston a r e d p n c a a tytarx j ? and dewn in the cvSader as Has
in t h e c y l i n d e r c r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e a n d forcing t h e piston d o w n in the
crankshaft r-.'-ates. See F.gsre '.3-0.
cylinder. T h e c o m p o n e n t s i n c l u d e d o n t h e Ignition system include:
The fqtnbusSoc 'passxse . d e e p e d in the combtsttoc cl in.
• Spark plugs ber at the correct tfene «31 p u s h M piston dowswani tc mftte the
• Ignition coils crankshaft
• Ignition c o n t r o l m o d u i e (1CM)
• Associated wiring TH£ 7 2 0 ° C V O f
Each cycle of ever® tttjuires that the engine ccanfc h i f ' tr.c-ke
FOUR-STROKE CYCLE OPERATION complete revolutions ar ?2C C Sofi* • 2 = " 2 0 ' The jêas?
M o s t a u t o m o t i v e e n g i n e s u s e t h e four-stroke cycle of events, begun number of cylinders, the cJtsaf together 2 a p c w r - r l<a tan
by t h e s t a r t e r m o t o r w h i c h r o t a t e s t h e engine. The four stroke cycle To find the A N G E BETWEEN c 'LINDEN J ' u j engine i- titt.
Is r e p e a t e d for e a c h c y l i n d e r of t h e e n g i n e . See Figure 1 8 - 5 .
Aiigie with three cylinders = " j ' . 3 = : a 0 *
• I n t a k e s t r o k e . The i n t a k e v a l v e is open and :he piston Inside
the cylinder travels d o w n w a r d , d r a w i n g a mixture of air and fuel Angle with four cylinders = 730'' 4 = 180 s
into t h e cylinder. Angle with,five c y l f r u l e a 7 2 0 " 5 = 144°
• C o m p r e s s i o n s t r o k e * As the engine continues to rotate, the in- Angle with six c y « n d e » - 720' 6 = '20'
take va|»e d o s e s a n d t h e piston m o v e s upward in the cyOtufcc
Angle with eight c y B f l « e s = 72C-' 8 = H'"
c o m p r e s s i n g che a i r - f u e i m i x t u r e .
• P o w e r s t r o k e . W h e n the piston gets near the top .>; :':e " '.n.ier Angie with ten cylinders = ?2C' IS = 7 2 '
•-•ailed t o p d e a d c e n t e r ( T D C j , the spark at the spa-., ping ig- Th.s M a n s that in a fojir-^nsler a ^
nites t h e a i r - f u e l m i x t u r e , w h i c h forces the pisum d o w n w a r d . . 1
curs at eve.'v 180° of the crar.&haff nxafioc ev«rv 2 -t.>.
* E x h a u s t . s t r o k e . T h e e n g i n e c o n t i n u e s to rdtare, and the piston
A v"-8 is j much smoother o.watifig -ngrn* cr.-vu-e a -.-.«? tr fee
agnin tiioyes u p w a r d in the cylinder fljjte exhaust valve opens, and
occurs twice as often .c e r : W o f i T W & h J * •''St'ine
the piston forces the residual b u r n e d gases out of the e x h a u s t
Engine cycles are iitenBffec by ate s u f f e r afpfcssw *
v a l u e and into t h e e x h a u s t jjianhvid and exhaust system.
qjyfred to complete the cycfc - piston - i i r a k e : -: ••••<;•.• :••••'
This sequence r e p e a t s as t h e e n g i n e rotates. To stop the engffte. miv.emenr ber.vcen the tup a n c : ritum SZse itfiiste '£••-.•»
;
the electricity to t h e ignition f v e m is s h u t off by :he ignitior switch. stroke. the d f i p h a f t revy-v-* I v Xit cycJe • .
142 SECTION W
PISTON DESCENDS.
DRAWING FUEL AND AIR
INTO THE CYLINDER PISTON RISE:,
C O M P R E S S I N i , TH1
INTAKE CHARC
CRANKSHAFT
DOTATION
THE INTAKE STROKE THE COMPRESSION STROKE
SPARK PLUQ FIRES
AIR AND FUEL

IGNITE
PISTON FORCED DOWN

PISTON RISES,
IN THE CYLINDER 0 FORCING EXHAUST
BY EXPANDING OASES
GASES FROM THE
CYLINDER
THE POWER STROKE

THE EXHAUST STROKE
^ "* ' **d « ,he " l8,on draws ,he * * * 'mo the cylinder through the intake valve on the intake stroke. On the compression stroke, the mbM*
.-,: >•. ,r. ot the piston with both valves closed Ignition occurs at the beginning ot the power stroke, and combustion drives the piston downward to productr'
. r - > » tne ^ward-moving piston forces the burned gases out the open exhaust valve.
c - r r . p . e t e se.-.e: or' ever.'/. t h a t c o n t i n u a l l y r e p e a t . M o s t a u t o m o b i l e straight line. Four , five-, and six-cylinder engines are commontf
e - f o u r - s t r o k e cycle. manufactured inline engines. A V-type engine, such as a V-6 or
has the n u m b e r of cylinders split and built Into a Vshape. See
ENGINE CLASSIFICATION A N D CONSTRUCTION Figure 1 8 - 7 . Horizontally opposed four- and slx-cyllnder engU1' |
- * are - .a: ..'led by several c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Including: t w o banks of cylinders that are horizontal, resulting In a low c «
This style of engine Is used In Porsche and Subaru engines and .
• N u m b e r of s t r o k e s , Most a . o m o t i v e engines use the four-stroke often called the b o x e r or p a n c a k e engine design. See Figure
cycle. L o n g i t u d i n a l o r t r a n s v e r s e m o u n t i n g . Engines may b'
• Cylirvt'-r a r r a n g e m e n t Ar <?: #Jth more cylinders Is smoother either parallel with the length of the vehicle (longitudinally)
'-pra-.'.g « J > 7 e s o w e r p j m produced by t h e power strokes crosswise Itransversely). See Figures 1 8 - 9 and 1 8 - 1 0 . T h '
are - or* - / v y spaced. Ar, r.Hne engine places all cylinders In a engine may be m o u n t e d In various vehicles In either d i r e c t
UWVtMA*. TRANSMISSION f
JOIWT^
CI.UTCM OR
TOROUt CONVtHTIR
I I M A rz-ftr,-m , engine driven ww rtv wtwu through i

t r m t r y a a o n . OTMTFTAFTWH; MMffllDy.
TRANSMISSION
TRANMMMION WTTH THE RfHTIAL BELOW AND n i r r r NINTIAL
TRANSVERSE ENQINC LONGITUDINAL CNOINI
Figure 18-10 Twctyi>« a1 <~rt-«»•;-•• < t * «h»e>

Figure 1 8 - 6 Cutaway of an engine showing the cylinder, piston, connecting rod. and
crankshaft.
W T f c A l t h o u g h A Bright b e P O K S M t » a i- £r.e In different Villi
cles both longso-d - i i anc enzirc component parts may
not be interchangeable, . !e dHferent engine fciocki
and crankshaft;., as M S as
Valve a n d c a m s h a f t n u m b e r a n d location. The number of

valves and the number and location of camshafts are a major factor In
engine operation. A typical older n o d e engine uses one Intake valve
4 CYLINDER 5 CYLINDER
and one exhaust valve per cylinder Many newer engines use two
INLINE • T Y P E ENGINES
Intake a i d two exhaust valves per minder. The valves are opened bv
a camshaft, For gr p e e S e n K x petition -fct amshtf hotudbe
overhead ver the valves. Some engines ose one camshaft for the
Intake valves and a separate camshaft tor the exhaust valves. When
the camshaft Is iacatec ir. t i e block, the valves are operated by afters,
pushrods. and roctser arms. See Figure 18-11. This type of engine is
called a p u s h r o d e n g i n e • cam in block design. An ov»r ad
camshaft engine has the camshaft above the valves In the cylinder
V-4 E N G I N E V-6 E N G I N E V-8 E N G I N E
head. When one overhead camshaft is used, the design is called a
V - TYPE ENGINES - * •
single o v e r h e a d c a m s h a f t (SOHC) design. When two ovr* 1
at; • :.re' : K , r 'd a d o u b l e o v e r h e a d
Figure 1 8 - 7 Automotive engine cylinder arrangements c a m s h a f t (DOHC) design. See Figures 18-12 and 1 H 3 .
AVtypei
CRANKSHAFT design therefore
PISTON of cvfoderv A
Type of fuel. Most engines operate on gaso tie, w f e r e * r - ••

engines are designed to operate on methanol, natural fas. propane,
or diesel fuel.
Cooling m e t h o d . Most etiR • art j'jld d,
models were air cooled.
Type of i n d u c t i o n p r e s s u r e , tfaurwspher air pr
to force the air-fuel mixture Into the c n d t n , the engine t #d
naturally a s p i r a t e d . turhocharier
Figure 1 8 - 8 A horizontally opposed 8 n 0 l n « ^ m * to lower the w h i n * enter supercharger Urn- ,
even greater power.
ot gravity.
\*i sec
p r i n c i p a l e n d of the engine. The n o n p r m r i p a l er,

FREQUENTLY A S K E D Q U E S T I O N opposite the principal end and is generally referred ne g ^ i
the engine, w h e r e t h e accessary belts are u s e d . See . ..
t s a Rotary E n g i n e ? In m o s t rear-wheel-drive vehicles, t h e r e f o r e ,
i sjcaasssi it:-' a r . c c n p i e « tne rotary engine, also called the m o u n t e d longitudinally w i t h t h e principal e n d a t t>. ..- o r % v 2
Wank* aigme ars? ts .rwens* The Mazda RX-7 and RX-8 represents tne only gine. M o s t L r ansversely m o u n t e d e n g i n e s also a a h e . •-, ^ ^
wSfi a roar engine. Tne rotating combustion chamser engine s t a n d a r a for direction of rotation. M a n y H o n d a e n g . . ^ ^
".rs smocm > a x c -produces tagft power for its size and weight. m a r i n e applications m a y differ f r o m this s t a n d a r d . "" u'"6
"he sa&i " s t r . c comoustion chamber engine nas a tna-gular-shaped
max - - s a -ûang. "he nousmc is m tne shape of a geometric figure
r _ .ee c t*o-)oC£c ec-trocrc,; A sea, or: each comer, or apex, of me rotor is ,n ???
^ • s u r a r m r . a.~ me nousng, so me rotor must tjrn with an eccentric
rtcaca. Ths means mat me center a: me rotor moves around the center of tne Where Does a n Engine S t o p ?
Tê eccenr.c irwoor. can oe seen in figure 1S-14
When the ignition system is turned off, the firing of the spark plugs stops ar-
the engine will rotate until it stops due to the inertia of me rotating p a n s
greatest resistance that occurs in me engine happens during the compress,;-'
ENGINE ROTATION DIRECTION stroke, it has been determined that an engine usually stops when one of tre
cylinders is aDout 70 degrees before top dead center (BTDC; on the compres-
7 : . ; S.-.E s ^ n d a r c for automotive engine rotation is counterclockwise
sion stroke with a variation of plus or minus 10 degrees.
C C . V as v i e w e d from t h e flywheel end .clockwise as viewed from
This explains why technicians discover mat the starter ring gear is worn;;
r . e r : n ; of t h e engine;. T n e flywheel end of t h e engine is the end to
two locations on a four-cylinder engine. The engine stops at one c
w h i c h t n e o o w e r is applied to drive the vehicle. This is called the
sibie places depending on which cylinder is on me compression stroke.
figje 1 S - 1 1 Cutaway of a V-3 engine snowing the litters, pusnrofls, roller rocker arms. F i g u r e 1 8 - 1 3 A dual overhead comsnaft (DOHC) V-8 engine with the cam cover
removed.
CAMSHAFT
Sih&i-E O V E R H E A D CAMSHAFT DOUBLE OVERHEAD CAMSHAFT
F i g u r e 1 8 - 1 2 S O * - «•' ---- > . re c o r r i p r . s u c h as a rocker arm to operate all of the valves. OOHC engines often operate the valves directly.
ECCENIinr
O N SHAF r
"WtSSlON
INTAKE
PORT
EXHAUST
PORT
ROTOR
INTAKE
SPARK COMPRESSION
PLUGS
Figure 1 8 - 1 4 Rotary engine operates on the four-stroke cycle Hut uses a rotor instead al a pst .
• t W I M l 1'HIWMU R M M U W O t t l
BORE
The diameter of a e v a d e r ts called the bore. The iar. w
DIRECTION die greater the area on which the gases have to work. Press-.re *
OF measured to units, such as pounds per square inch >PSI The
ROTATION
greater the area iin square inches!, the higher the force exerted hv
FLEX-PLATE the pistons to rotate the crankshaft. See Figure 18 10.
(DRIVE-PLATE)
PRINCIPAL N O N PRINCIPAL
STROKE
END END The distance the piston travels down in die cylinder b caftM
stroke, I"he tiger this iwancf .
air-fuel mixture that can be drawn into the cytacW, Thr n r-
DIRECTION alr-foei mixture tnside the cylinder, the more force w t l
OF when the mixture is Ignited.
ROTATION
^gure 1 8 - 1 5 Inline lour cylinder engine showing pirn ii>.n aim nonr. A Nc,
ENGINE DISPLACEMENT
rectlon ot rotation Is clockwise (CW) as viewed tram the front oi accessor»Delt «nd
0|
Engine size Is described as dlsp.a..-VJU. Displacement
•"onprlnclpal and) cubic Inch (cu. In.i or cubic centimeter cc mi ; . •
146 SECTION N
Engine Size Conversion Chart

Liters lo Cubic Inches
Liters Cubic Inches Liters >ic Inctiei
1.0 61 4.2 0/258
1.3 79 4.3 'Z262/265

1.4 85 4.4 287
1.5 91 4.5 273
1.6 97/98 46 260/281
1.7 105 4.8 292
1.8 107/110/112 4.9 300/301
1.9 116 5.0 302/304/305/307

2.0 121/122 5.2 318
2.1 128 5.3 327

BOTTOM DEAD CENTER TOP D E A D C E N T E R
2.2 132/133/134/135 5.4 330
2.3 138/140 5.7 350

Figure 1 8 - 1 6 The bore and stroke of pistons are used to calculate an engine's
2.4 149 5.8 351
i h i <ii l i m i t
2.5 150/153 6.0 366/368
2.6 156/159 6.1 370
2.6 171/173 6.2 381
2.9 177 6.4 389/390/391
s w e p t by all of t h e pistons. A liter (L) is equal to 1 , 0 0 0 cubic 3.0 181/182/183 6.5 396
c e n t i m e t e r s ; t h e r e f o r e , most engines today are identified by their 3.1 191 6.6 400
d i s p l a c e m e n t in liters. 3.2 196 69 420
3.3 200/201 7.0 425/427/42M8

1 L = 1,000 cc
3.4 204 7.2 440
1 L = 61 cu. in.
3.5 215 7.3 445
1 cu. in. = 16.4 cc
3.7 225 7.4 454
T n e f o r m u l a to calculate t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t of a n e n g i n e is 3.8 229/231/232 7.5 460
basically t h e f o r m u l a for d e t e r m i n i n g t h e v o l u m e of a c y l i n d e r 3.9 239/240 7.8 475/477
m u l t i p l i e d by t h e n u m b e r of cylinders. H o w e v e r , b e c a u s e t h e
40 241/244 8.0 488
f o r m u l a h a s b e e n publicized in m a n y d i f f e r e n t f o r m s , it
4.1 250/252 8.8 534
s e e m s s o m e w h a t c o n f u s i n g . Regardless of t h e m e t h o d u s e d , t h e
res j i t s will be t h e s a m e . T h e e a s i e s t a n d m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d
f o r m u l a is
Bore x bore x stroke x 0 . 7 8 5 4 x n u m b e r of cylinders
For e x a m p l e , take a 6-cylinder engine w h e r e , bore = 4 . 0 0 0 in.,

stroke = 3 . 0 0 0 in. Applying t h e f o r m u l a ,
TECH TIP
1Z[ All 3.8-Liter E n g i n e s Are Not t h e Same!
Most engine sizes are currently identified by displacement in liters. Howe*

4 . 0 0 0 in. x 4 . 0 0 0 in. x 3 . 0 0 0 in. x 0 . 7 8 5 4 x 6 = 2 2 6 cu. in. not all 3.8-liter engines are the same. See, for example, the following table
Because 1 cubic inch equals 16.4 cubic centimeters, this e n g i n e

Engine Displacement
d i s p l a c e m e n t equals 3 , 7 0 6 cubic c e n t i m e t e r s or, r o u n d e d to 3 , 7 0 0
c u b i c c e n t i m e t e r s , 3 . 7 liters. Chevrolet-built 3 . 8 - L , V-6 229 cu. to-
H o w to c o n v e r t cubic i n c h e s to liters: 6 1 . 0 2 cubic i n c h e s = Buick-buitt 3.8-L, V-6 (also called 3,800 cc) 231 CU. in-
1 liter Ford-built 3 . 8 - L , V-6 2 3 2 CU. in-
Example:
The exact conversion from liters (or cubic centimeters) to cubic incnes
f r o m iiter to cubic inch—5.0 L x 61.02 = 305 CID
231.9 cubic inches. However, due to rounding of exact cubic-inch displace 1
h - cubic inch to liter—305 * 61.02 = 5.0 L
and rounding of the exact cubic-centimeter volume, several entirely & -
engines can be marketed with the exact same liter designation. To reduce •
Engine Size versus Horsepower The larger the engine, the
fusion and reduce the possibility of ordering incorrect parts, the vehicle >fr
m o r e p o w e r t h e e n g i n e is c a p a b l e of p r o d u c i n g . Several sayings are
cation number (VIN) should be noted for the vehicle being serviced TW
often q u o t e d a b o u t e n g i n e size:
should be visible through the windshield on all vehicles. Since 1980, tnef •
identification number or letter is usually the eighth digit or letter from the r
" T h e r e is n o s u b s t i t u t e for c u b i c i n c h e s . "
Smaller. 4-cyllnder engines can also cause confusion because many»
" T h e r e is n o r e p l a c e m e n t for d i s p l a c e m e n t . " manufacturers use engines from both overseas and domestic manuW-
Always refer to service manual information to be assured of correct -
A i ' r . r , c large e n g i n e generally uses m o r e fuel, m a k i n g a n identification.
e n g i n e larger is o f t e n t h e easiest w a y t o i n c r e a s e p o w e r .
ii5<wufcjh«- Ml
C O M P R E S S I O N RA
PISTON
ATTDC
Figure 1 8 - 1 7 Compression ratio is the ratio ot the total cylinder vohnre * h e r tne p stt ;
at the bottom ot its stroke) to the clearance volume (when the piston is at the top o l « s r - -
Figure 18-18 JOwe the PMDO wtti 9M piMMi
at toe dead &fler
COMPRESSION RATIO
The compression ratio of an engine is an important consideration \vr. er
rebuilding or repairing an engine. C o m p r e s s i o n ratio (CR) the r-.\
of the volume in the cylinder above the piston when the piston is at the
bottom of the stroke to the volume in the cylinder above the pistor.
when the piston is at the top of the stroke. See Figure 18-17.
It Compression Is Lower It Compression Is Higher
Lower power Higher power possible
Poorer fuel economy Better fuel economy
Easier engine cranking Harder to crank engine, especially when not
More advanced ignition timing possible Less Ignition timing required to prevent
without spark knock (detonation) spark knock (detonation i
Volume in cylinder with piston at bottom of cyl:r.de:

CR =
Volume in cylinder with piston at top center Figure 1 8 - 1 9 Mtarce s n o w « e u r m - •- ~ f xam) our* -•
oertertne^wsrnea-if t c a m x»i i w u W j t o s m c •»»
See Figure 1 8 - 1 8 .
i 1 l » w i l m l i M i H * i w i i
For example: W h a t is the compression ratio of an engLne v. v
mouses x a 9 T v-6ar;.* ssijr.
50.3-cu. in. displacement in o n e cylinder and a comb . tier : -.aroce:
volume of 6 . 7 cu. in.?
pistor, from travehrsgax a r op r . t h e cyUndet Changtag tie coraect
50.3 + 6.7 cu. in. = 57.0 ing roc l e n g t h . : « n:: c r i n g e tne s c : <e of an e c c r e . ' hanging:h -
CR = • 8.5
6.7 cu. in. connectmgnxi only changes the p o t i o n of t h e piston ir. rise a f a d a
THE C R A N K S H A F T D E T E R M I N E S THE STROKE TORQUE

The stroke of an engine is the distance the piston travels f ::;: - Torque is the terrr, u s e d to describe a rotating force that ma r
center (TDC] to bottom dead center (BDC). This distance is d e w - may c o t result In. n o t i o n . T o q u e is measured ss tne am ; .-
mined by the t h r o w of the crankshaft The throw is force tr.u.ttpêd b y t h e i e n p h of t h e iever tfcrougi which t ..'
the centerline of the crankshaft to the center me f e era v a one-foot-tang w r e n c h e used x apply i 0 p o o a d i ot k m the
journal. The throw is one-half of the stroke. See Figure 18- r ar end of t h e w r e n c h to t u n i a boit, then you are e i e r . t g pocad
example of a crankshaft as installed in a G M V-6 cr.cne. feet of torque. See Figure 1 8 - 2 0 .
If the crankshaft is replaced with o n e >v th a . e The metric unit for torque is I f e a n m m e t s s because S e n i o r
pistons will be pushed u p over the height cf the c of the - is die metric unit far farce and t h e distance k expressed r i
(deck). The solution to this problem is to tr.sto re . . .
one pound-foot = 1 . 3 5 5 8 Newton m e t e r s
with the piston pin relocated higher on the p;s . \ncthe alterr.3: e
is to replace the connecting rod with a shorter one tc e r r i t the- one Newton-meter = 0 . 7 3 7 6 poond-fooc
148 SK'-'NV
4. Engine size is called displacement and represents the vol ^

ce<l
swept by all of the pistons. ot
REVIEW Q U E S T I O N S
1. Name the strokes of a four-stroke cycle.
2. If an engine at sea level produces 100 horsepower, how many tln
power would it develop at 6,000 feet of altitude?
C H A P T E R QUIZ
1. All overhead valve engines .
Figure 1 8 - 2 0 Tortjue is a twisting force equal to the distance tram the pivot point times a. Use an overhead camshaft
T * tore n M expressed in units called pound-teet (Ib-ft) or Newton-meters (N-m) b. Have me overhead valves In the head
c. Operate by me two-stroke cycle
d. Use me camshaft to close me valves
POWER
2. An SOHC V-8 engine has how many camshafts?
The terra power m e a n s the rate of doing work. Power equals w o r k di- a . One
vided bv time. Work is achieved w h e n a certain a m o u n t of mass b. Two
w e i g h t s moved a certain distance by a force. If the object is moved c. Three
in 10 seconds or 10 minutes does not make a difference in the d. Four
a m o u n t of w o r k accomplished, but it does affect the a m o u n t of power 3. The coolant flow through me radiator is controlled by me _
n e e d e d . Power is expressed in units of foot-pounds per minute. a. Size of me passages in me block
b. Thermostat
c. CooUngfan(s)
H O R S E P O W E R A N D ALTITUDE d. Water pump
B e c a u s e t h e density of t h e air is lower at high altitude, the p o w e r 4. Torque is expressed in units of .
t h a t a n o r m a l engine can develop is greatly reduced at high alti- a. Pound-feet
t u d e . According to SAE conversion factors, a nonsupercharged or b. Foot-pounds
nor.rurbocharged engine loses about 3% of its p o w e r for every c. Foot-pounds per minute
1 . 0 0 0 feet 1300 m e t e r s |m|) of altitude. d. Pound-feet per second
Therefore, an engine that develops 150 brake h o r s e p o w e r at 5. Horsepower is expressed In units of .
sea level will only produce about 8 5 brake horsepower at the top of a. Pound-feet
Pike's Peak in Colorado at 1 4 , 1 1 0 feet (4,300 meters). Super- b. Foot-pounds
charged and turbocharged engines are not as greatly affected by alti- c. Foot-pounds per minute
• u a e as normally aspirated engines. Normally aspirated, remember, d. Pound-feet per second
m e a t s engines that breathe air at normal atmospheric pressure. 6. A normally aspirated automobile engine loses about _powe
per 1,000 feet of altitude.
a . 1%
|
TECH TIP Quick-and-Easy Engine Efficiency Check
b . 3%
c. 5%
A good, efficient engine is able to produce a lot of power f r o m little displace-
d . 6%
r e t » c o m m o n rule of t h u m b is that an engine Is efficient If It can produce
• • ^ r s e p o w e r p e r cubic inch of displacement. Many engines today are capable 7. One cylinder of an automotive four-stroke cycle engine completes a cycU
of t t w f e a t such as the following:
every
a. 90=
Fort 4 . 6 - L V-8 (281 c u i n . ) — 3 0 5 hp b . 180°
Chevrolet 3 4 - L V-6 (207 cu. i n . ) — 2 1 0 tip

c. 360°
d. 720°
Onysier 3 . 5 - L V-6 (214 cu. I n . ) — 2 1 4 hp
8. How many rotations of me crankshaft are required to complete each sc. "
Acuca 3 . 2 - 1 V-6 (195 cu. i n . ) — 2 7 0 hp of a four-stroke cycle engine?
a. One-fourth
Ar engine is very p o w e r f u l for its size if it can produce 100 hp per liter
b. One-half
efficiency goal is harder to accomplish. Most factory stock engines that
c. One
c a n a c r e v e t h e j f e a t are s u p e r c h a r g e d or turbocharged
d . Two
9. A rotating force Is called .

a. Horsepower
SUMMARY b. Torque
c. Combustion pressure
1. " , - e s of the four-stroke cycle are intake, compression, power, d. Eccentric movement
and e x t e n t 10. Technician A says mat a crankshaft determines me stroke of an eW-
2. Ef.gr s are clar-stfieA by number and arrangement of cylinders and by Technician B says mat me length of me connecting rod determines
r u - and .'/:<' in of valves and camshafts, as well as by type of stroke of an engine. Which technician Is correct?
s r . ' . & Ia cooLrgmethod, and Induction pressure. a. Technician A only
3. V. , ; as viev/ed from me front (accessory) end b. Technician B only
'.he eng.-,* The SAE standard Is counterclockwise as viewed from me c. Bom Technicians A and B
prtncipa; tflywhee, end ot the engine. d. Neither Technician A nor B
Diesel Engine Operation
and Diagnosis
OBJECTIVES: After s t u d y i n g C h a p t e r 19, t h e r e a d e r will be able I * prepare for AS€ Engine Performance (AS) c o W c a t o n t a t content area T JW,
Air Induction, and Exhaust S y s t e m s Diagnosis and Repair) • Explain how a d i e t s ! e n p w wo*to. • Describe the difference between O r e d mnjctwi iDt
and indirect injection (IDI) diesel engines. • List the part* <# the typical ( t e c * e n g i n e fceUptsm • E a p t e t bow glow plugs work • ustthe
advantages and d i s a d v a n t a g e s of a diesel engine • Dev.-u ow
k e y TERMS API gravity • c e t a n e number • d o u d point • diesel oxidation c a O p t t f X C ! • d M e r e W pressure t e n s o r ;DPSi • Direct
injection (Dl) • f l a s h p o i n t • glow plug • heat of compression • r*gh-pre«aure common ra* (HPCR) • h y d r a * e l e c t o r * unrt injection iHEUTi
• indirect injection (IDI) • injection pump • lift pump • opacity • pop tester • t e g m e n t a l • water-tuei separator
DIESEL E N G I N E S involve t h e p o w e r n e e d e d m a g a s o f t o e e n g i n e t o d r a w air past a

closed o r p a r c a C y a o s e d t r r •,••„«.
In 1 8 9 2 , a G e r m a n e n g i n e e r n a m e d Rudolf Diesel p e r f e c t e d -.?
ir. a g a s c - n e e n g i n e t h e r o e e s <od p o w e r are c o n t r o l l e d tr,
c o m p r e s s i o n - i g n i t i o n e n g i n e t h a t b e a r s his n a m e . T h e diesel e n g i n e
the throttle valve, w r . : : - t B s r o j t i e a m o u n t of air e n t e r i g t h e
uses h e a t c r e a t e d b y c o m p r e s s i o n to i g n i t e t h e f u e l , so • rec .
e n g i n e . A d d i n g ~ x e feel t o t h e c y i i n d e n agasoime engine w -
no spark i g n i t i o n s y s t e m .
o u t a d d i n g m o r e air or,-ger. w L 30" r x r e a s e t o e s p e e d or p o w e -
T h e diesel e n g i n e r e q u i r e s c o m p r e s s i o n ratios of 16:1 and
of t h e e n g i n e . In a d i e s e ; e t a u n e . a n : p o w e r are n o t con
higher. I n c o m i n g air is c o m p r e s s e d u n t i l its t e m p e r a t u r e r e a c h e s
t r : .ed b v t h e a s x m r . - c-f x zaaag ~ bea.-e the
about 1 0 0 0 ° F ( 5 4 0 ° C ) . T h i s is called h e a t of c o m p r e s s i o n . A
e n g i n e a : r i n t a k e sahre t * : e ope- '-•-•.'--e. tneeng.--: always
the piston r e a c h e s t h e t o p of its c o m p r e s s i o n s t r o k e , fuel is injected
h a s e u w $ o z v g e n t o tru— r . e fue n t r e c y i i c d e r and w in
into t h e cylinder, w h e r e it is i g n i t e d b y t h e h o t air. See Figure 1 9 - 1
creasespeec a c d p o v r e r w&er. adc.v.-.a. .ppue-1
As t h e fuel b u r n s , it e x p a n d s a n d p r o d u c e s power. Because of the
Diesel e n g i n e a r e f c u i l t r . b o d i - * : s t r o k e f o - r s;ro*e -*r
very high c o m p r e s s i o n a n d t o r q u e o u t p u t of a diesel engine, it :s m a d e
sions. T h e m o t c o ~ n o r t » : s t r o t e C b n r h w e r e t h e t n . ; < a n d :r,
heavier and s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e s a m e size gasoline-powered engine.
dustrial e n d u e s m a d e b v D e r : : : Diese. Ir. r i s e e n g r . e s . a:- m a k e
A c o m m o n diesel e n g i n e u s e s a f u e l s y s t e m precision i n j e c t i o n
is t h r o u g h p o r t s i n t h e r e n d e r walL F r h a i . v : a t h r o u g h p o p p e t
p u m p and i n d i v i d u a l f u e l i n j e c t o r s . T h e p u m p delivers fue :
valves m l i e h e a l . A o . o w e r z_-.net air i a o " r e air x x - r ' .id
injectors at a h i g h p r e s s u r e a n d a t t i m e d intervals. Each injector
ingtaecpons:: rjp; • a r f c r : jsioc i r . : tc : ow the e i h a . . •
sprays fuel i n t o t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r at t h e precise m o m e n t re-
gases o u t of t h e e m a t s : v a j v e s .
quired for e f f i c i e n t c o m b u s t i o n . S e e F i g u r e 1 9 - 2 .
In a diesel e n g i n e , air is n o t c o n t r o l l e d b y a throttle as in a Indirect and Direct twjectioe indirect injection &
gasoline e n g i n e . I n s t e a d , t h e a m o u n t of f u e l i n j e c t e d is varied t o b r e v i a a : IDI it . - f - - -a. - - -
control p o w e r a n d s p e e d . T h e a i r - f u e l m i x t u r e of a diesei car. v a n w h i c h is connected to m e : r _ r . 3 « t v a tacw-*. o p e n i n g , T h e initia
from as lean as 8 5 : 1 a t i d l e t o a s r i c h a s 2 0 : 1 at full load. T h i s combustion takes ?«ace in r t r s prechassbes. T i t s has t i e sflec of
higher a i r - f u e l r a t i o a n d t h e i n c r e a s e d c o m p r e s s i o n p r e s s u r e s ma? -1 slowing the rate at o o e a b B t i o n . wr..:.i t e n d s t o r e d u c e r See
the diesel m o r e f u e l - e f f i c i e n t t h a n a g a s o l i n e e n g i n e in p a r . because Figure 1 9 - 1
diesel e n g i n e s d o n o t s u f f e r f r o m t h r o t t l i n g losses. T h r o t t . . r . i : . . sses
RETURN
INJECTOR UNE
INJECTOR LINE •HJECTOR
_ i
AIR
EXHAUST FUEL
INTAKE
VALVE INJECTION y
VALVE
PUMP
S g g w
FUEL
TANK
i
TRANSFER
INLET PUMP
SUPPLY
UNE UNE
' ' U r e ' M Diesel combustion occurs whan fuel - • * > • • : '
^Preweaatrlnthecylmder F i g m 1 9 - Z »tyoc* " k c x d u u o - k -
ISO sscnoNv
cylinder, a n d t h e e x h a u s t valve is still o p e n for a fe ,• ; to :
all of tlf. t x h a u s - sases t o e s c a p e . O n t h e c o m p r e s s o r ke, a f \ t <

pis?-. - 1 • - BP . the " i t a l e v a l v e c l o s e s a n d t h e ) raiel, . .
1
TD( Co ' r of the iir t c r a n k s h a f t r o t a t i o n ] . O n t iwersj
the f ton r.ejr- TDC on the compression stroke, the el fuel
jected by t h e inject a n d t h e f u e l s t a r t s t o b u r n , fu r heatino
gases in t h e c y l i n d e r D u r i n g t h i s p o w e r s t r o k e , t h e pi o n passe •
and t h e e x p a n d i n g gases f o r c e t h e p i s t o n d o w n , r o t a t i n g the cranfah
O n t h e e x h a u s t s t r o k e , as t h e p i s t o n p a s s e s B D C , t h e exhaust v;
o p e n a n d t h e e x h a u s t gases start t o f l o w o u t of t h e cylinder. This c I
t i n u e s as t h e piston travels u p to T D C , p u m p i n g t h e s p e n t gases out - 1
t h e cylinder. At T D C , t h e s e c o n d c r a n k s h a f t r o t a t i o n is complete
THREE PHASES OF COMBUSTION

T h e r e a r e t h r e e d i s t i n c t p h a s e s o r p a r t s t o t h e c o m b u s t i o n ii I
diesel e n g i n e .
1. I g n i t i o n d e l a y . N e a r t h e e n d of t h e c o m p r e s s i o n stroke, fuel :r
figure 1 9 - 3 Ar indirect miecbon diesel engine uses a prechamber and a glow plug jection b e g i n s , b u t ignition d o e s n o t b e g i n i m m e d i a t e l y . This per
od is called delay.
2 . R a p i d c o m b u s t i o n . This p h a s e of c o m b u s t i o n occurs when
fuel first starts to b u m , c r e a t i n g a s u d d e n rise in cylinder pressure.
It is this rise in c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r p r e s s u r e that causes the char- I
acteristic diesel e n g i n e k n o c k .
3 . C o n t r o l l e d c o m b u s t i o n . A f t e r t h e rapid c o m b u s t i o n occir I
rest of t h e fuel in t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r b e g i n s to burn and it I
jection c o n t i n u e s . T h i s is a n a r e a n e a r t h e i n j e c t o r that contaiH I
f u e l s u r r o u n d e d b y air. T h i s f u e l b u r n s a s it m i x e s w i t h the air
INTAKE
VALVE — >
CYLINDER
DIESEL ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Diesel e n g i n e s m u s t b e c o n s t r u c t e d h e a v i e r t h a n gasoline engir; I
b e c a u s e of t h e t r e m e n d o u s p r e s s u r e s t h a t a r e c r e a t e d in the qfe I
d e r s d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n . T h e t o r q u e o u t p u t of a d i e s e l e n g i n e is oft
d o u b l e o r m o r e t h a n t h e s a m e s i z e g a s o l i n e p o w e r e d engines. See I
the comparison chart.
Figure 1 9 - 4 A (Veer n/ecXat dtese: engine miects the fuel directly Into the combustion System or Component Diesel Engine Gasoline Engine
c s s r w Many designs do not use a glow olug Block Cast iron and heavy Cast iron or aluminum anf
See Figure 19-5. light as possible
Cylinder head Cast Iron or aluminum Cast iron or aluminum
Compression rabo 17:1 to 25:1 8:1 to 12:1
AL. i n d i r e c t diesel i n j e c t i o n e n g i n e s r e q u i r e t h e u s e of a g l o w 2,000 to 2,500 RPM 5,000 to 8,000 RPM
Peak engine speed
plug. Aluminum with combusfion Aluminum, usually W W '
Pistons and
- a direct injection a b b r e v i a t e d DI d i e s e l e n g i n e , f u e l is in- pockets and heavy-duty rods with valve relief but no
connecting rods
z c £ c d recti'/ .r.to t h e cylinder. T h e p i s t o n i n c o r p o r a t e s a d e p r e s - See Figure 19-6 combustion pockets
r . e r e Initial c o m b u s t i o n t a k e s p l a c e . D i r e c t i n j e c t i o n d i e s e l
er.zr.es are generally m o r e efficient than indirect injection engines,
i.' h a v e a t e n d e n c y t o p r o d u c e g r e a t e r a m o u n t s of n o i s e . S e e
F U E L TANK AND LIFT P U M P
F.g-r? 19-4.
-'• " . . e s o m e d i r e c t i n j e c t i o n diesel e n g i n e s u s e g l o w p l u g s t o A f u e l t a n k u s e d o n a v e h i c l e e q u i p p e d w i t h a d i e s e l engine
0
' . e ; cold s t a r t i n g a n d t o r e d u c e e m i s s i o n s , m a n y d i r e c t i n j e c t i o n f r o m t h e o n e u s e d w i t h a g a s o l i n e e n g i n e in s e v e r a l w a y s , inclu J -
i ic n o t u s e g l o w p l u g s . • A larger filler n e c k for diesel fuel. G a s o l i n e filler n e c k s are s o ^

for t h e u n l e a d e d gasoline n o z z l e .
Diesel Fuel Ignition Ign tlon o c c u r s in a diesel e n g i n e by inject-
• N o e v a p o r a t i v e e m i s s i o n c o n t r o l d e v i c e s o r c h a r c o a l (carbc'
' - -- ' v - ' • ' 4 . r c h a r g e , / / h i c h has b e e n h e a t e d by c o m p r e s s i o n t o
ter. Diesel fuel is n o t as volatile a s g a s o l i n e a n d , therefore,
; -'.-.-jirv grea-er t h a n t h e Ignition point of t h e fuel or a b o u t
v e h i c l e s d o n o t h a v e e v a p o r a t i v e e m i s s i o n c o n t r o l devices.
'////? W . Trie '.'.err .-.a! r e a c t i o n of b u r n i n g t h e fuel liberates
* ' ' -'- • *.'.« j a s « t o e x p a n d , f o r c i n g t h e piston to r o t a t e t h e T h e d i e s e l f u e l is d r a w n f r o m t h e f u e l t a n k b y a lift P u t T l F
' ' ' . K k e sel e n g i n e r e q u i r e s t w o r o t a t i o n s of t h e delivers t h e fuel to the injection p u m p . B e t w e e n the f u e l t a n .
- «,r.e cyc,e. O n t h e i n t a k e s t r o k e , t h e piston t h e lift p u m p is a w a t e r - f u e l s e p a r a t o r . W a t e r is heavie: .
pajie DC, - e --a* 1 1 o p e n , t h e fresh air is a d m i t t e d i n t o t h e d i e s e l f u e l a n d s i n k s t o t h e b o t t o m of t h e s e p a r a t o r . Part c'
Figure 1 9 - 5 The common rail on a Cummins diesei engine. A high-pressure : „p t
Figure 19-7 jvoisnaaaTtUBXtv'jsrrvtmnmMar
30,000 PSI) is used to supply diesei fuel to this common rail, which has cubes njimno ••
each injector. Note the thick cylinder walls and heavy-duty construction
Figure 19-fl A t y i x a asrauw-tme - « « i pumo tmi-q "*. -,-rt, iei trG

talhr
INJECTION PUMP
Figure 1 9 - 6 A rod/piston assembly (ram a 5 9-liter Cummins dies' engine used ir A iesel engine _-.«£•_ or. p t r . p .: .:ed tc increase press „-e '
Dodge pickup truck. t h e diesei fuel frotr. v e r y w r a / j e s f r o m t h e 1:4 p u r . o t o t r e e r
t r e r a e h high p r e s s u r e s r e e d e d fer in e c t w r , .
i n j e c t i o n p u m p s a r e j s u a & y x n v e n b y t h e c a m s h a f t at t h e t- "
routine m a i n t e n a n c e o n a v e h i c l e e q u i p p e d w i t h a diesei e n g i n e of t h e e n g i n e . As t h e i n j e c t i o n p u m p s h a f t r o a t e s , t h e i
to drain t h e w a t e r f r o m t h e w a t e r - f u e l separator. A float :s i fed f r o m a E i p o r t t o a h i g h - p r e s s u r e c h a c o e t If a d i s t n . - ;r type
used inside t h e s e p a r a t o r , w h i c h is c o n n e c t e d t o a w a r n i n g ugh: r. injection p u m p is u s e d , t h e f u e l is f o r c e d o u t of t h e inject, en p e r •
the dash t h a t lights if t h e w a t e r r e a c h e s a level w h e r e it needs to bt the correct injector n o z z l e feough t h e high p r e s s u r e one Set
drained. Figure 1 9 - f l .
•OTt: Water can cause corrosive damage as well as wear to a e e. engtiw

l » r e because water is not a good lubricant. Water c a r . it be a- : xs tv
a diesei fuel Injector nozzle and will often "blow out" ths c .
M a n y diesei e n g i n e s also u s e a fuel t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s o t The Distributor Injection Pump

c o m p u t e r u s e s t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n t o a d j u s t foel del. very based or. t h e j w m p _ a hsgh-pre ...-ej.-.c
density of t h e fuel. See Figure 1 0 - 7 . dividual x . j e c t a T h e high-ore: . <j
«K » C E *
INJSCTIOW
T**NG
STtWER
MCTOFL
ADVANCE
PISTON
/
I
FUEL TANK
r j a turner* Mml fu» .npcwy puir» m - n a y Ifwwmg a* of in* r«a)M componentl tCourtny <* Sttntdym Corporation!
••' - w r x t r . e » n c r s a m e l e n p h t o e n s u r e p r o p e r Injection that replace the traditional mechanical I n j e c t i o n p u m p IncSude

- * -:m\ f a t a r « s Che t n | e c h o n a d v a n c e n e e d e d a h i g h p r e s s u r e oil p u m p a n d r e s e r v o i r , p r e s s u r e r e g u l a t o r to tw
• c f l u k i k a n d t h e fuel Is discharged Into t h e lines. oil, a n d p a s s a g e s in t h e cylinder head f o r f l o w of fuel to fr
.5*5-r,.':R IO o p e n . D u e the Internal Injectors.
• -- .s a ttlav before fuel p r e s s u r e o p e n s Fuel Is d r a w n from the t a n k by t h e tandem f u e l po®
* e Figure 1 9 - 9 w h i c h c i r c u l a t e s f u e l a t l o w p r e s s u r e t h r o u g h t h e f u e l filter
separator f u e l h e a t e r b o w l a n d t h e n f u e l is d i r e c t e d back U
f u e l p u m p w h e r e f u e l Is p u m p e d a t h i g h p r e s s u r e I n t o the c
• » tew* m. in*ctwti «s*nt Th» a how am der head fuel galleries. T h e injectors, w h i c h are hydraulic
* f.. ri 3:« t toe it picked up Hf i a c t u a t e d b y t h e o i l p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e h i g h p r e s s u r e oil P l
are then fired b y t h e p o w e r t r a i n c o n t r o l m o d u l e IP' M
c o n t r o l s y s t e m f o r t h e f u e l i n j e c t o r s Is t h e P C M a n d trie;
t o r s a r e f i r e d b a s e d o n v a r i o u s i n p u t s r e c e i v e d b y t h e P< •
Figure 1 0 - 1 1 . .
Had tiese engines use a fuel d e
H E U 1 i n j e c t o r s r e l y o n O r i n g s t o k e e p f u e l a n d oil from
m g h p r e s s u r e c o m m o n rail | H P C R ) d e
or escaping, c a u s i n g p e r f o r m a n c e problems or englnt
.£ y w a i wet 2 0 1 ) 0 0 P S 1 1 1 3 8 . 0 0 0 k P a , k
HEU1 i n j e c t o r s u s e five O - r i n g s . T h e t h r e e e x t e r n a l O - r l n g S s . .
-'« by a jotenoid controlled by the
b e r e p l a c e d w i t h u p d a t e d O - r i n g s if t h e y fail. T h e two
- a t v j i r v . - * CBBtroiled, the combustion
O r i n j p a r e n o t r e p l a c e a b l e a n d if t h e s e fail, t h e i n j e c t o r or I-
V 1df - \ A i a . j i . e n p n e efficiency
m u s t b e r e p l a c e d . T h e m o s t c o m m o n s y m p t o m s of injector
,»..-• - -•/**> e r r a ^ o n s . See Hgure 1 9 - 1 0
trouble include:
• CHI g e t t i n g in t h e fuel
MEIJT S M T M _
• T h e f u e l filter e l e m e n t t u r n i n g b l a c k
Hydraulic • Long c r a n k i n g t i m e s b e f o r e s t a r t i n g
Lteciroft* Inêcswt HEW The components • Sluggish p e r f o r m a n c e
nrt Regno*'. 153
PRESSURE
%
. . L I M I T I N G VALVE
RAIL PRESSURE
SENSOR COMMON RAIL
(RIGHT B A N K )
HIGH PRESSURE PUMP
SENSORS ACTUATORS
FILTER
WITH WATER
SEPARATOR
ELECTRONIC TANK
AND INTEGRATED
CONTROL
HAND PUMP
MODULE V C D HIGH PRESSURE
E n LOW PRESSURE
Figure 1 9 - 1 0 Over view ol a computer-controlled high-pressure common rail V-8 diesel engine
TECH TIP Change Oil Regularly In a Ford Diesel Engine
Ford 7.3- and 6.0-liter diesel engines pump unfiltered oil Irom the sump to the
high pressure oil pump and then to the injectors This means that not changing
oil regularly can contribute to accumulation of dirt in the engine and will subject
the fuel in|ectors lo wear and potential damage as particles suspended in the oil
get forced into the injectors
T h e t o p of t h e i n | e c t o r n o z z l e h a s m a n y h o l e s t o d e l i v e r an at
o m i z e d spray of diesel fuel i n t o t h e cylinder. P a r t s of a diesel injec-
tor n o z z l e I n c l u d e :
• H e a t s h i e l d . This is the o u t e r shell of t h e injector nozzle and has

external threads w h e r e It seals in t h e cylinder head.
Figure 1 9 - 1 1 A Htm injector Irom a Ford PowerStroke diesel engine. The grooves indicate
• I n j e c t o r b o d y . This Is t h e inner part of t h e n o . v - and contains
the location ol the Ormgs the Injector needle valve and spring, and threads into the outer
heat shield.
• Reduction in p o w e r • D i e s e l i n j e c t o r n e e d l e v a l v e . This precision m a c h i n e d valve
• i vised oil c o n s u m p t i o n o f t e n a c c o m p a n i e s O rtng problems or and t h e tip of t h e n e e d l e seal against t h e i n j e c t o r b o d v w h e n it
any fault that lets fuel In t h e oil is closed. W h e n t h e v a l v e Is o p e n , diesel fuel Is s p r a y e d i n t o
t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r . T h i s passage is c o n t r o l l e d by a sole
nold on diesel e n g i n e s e q u i p p e d w i t h c o m p u t e r - c o n t r o l l e d
DIESEL I N J E C T O R N O Z Z L E S Injection.
" - • e : i n j e c t o r n o z z l e s a r e s p r i n g l o a d e d closed valves that spray • Injector pressure chamber. The pressure c h a m b e r i a m a c h o d
' directly i n t o t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r or p r e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m cavity in the in|ector b o d y a r o u n d the tip of the iniector n e e d l e In-
ber. I n j e c t o r n o z z l e s a r e t h r e a d e d Into t h e c y l i n d e r h e a d , o n e for jection p u m p pressure forces fuel into this chamber, forcing t h e
each cylinder, a n d a r e r e p l a c e a b l e as an assembly. needle valve o p e n .
154 SECT** •
Nevef Allow a Diesel Engine

per.)"ire and intake air temperature. The glow plup
net
T E W TIP or puis d on or off depending on the temperature Hn
to Run Out ol Fuel : e
nglti(
The PCM will also keep the glow plug turned on af
9 a g a s o w - d o w w w ! v e r s e * runs o u l o l gasoline, it is an inconvenience and a starts to rt'doce white "xhnust smoke (unburned fu
to i r j l
MG»tv addremai expense to get some gasoline However, if a vehicle prove idle qualitv after starting. See Figure 19-13.
• x j L S v e c w i ? a 3 » s e i engine runs out of fuel it can be a major concern. The "wait to start" lamp will light when the t > ^
Besides j » " c de$8> *uel to the t a n k the other problem is getting all of outside temperature is low to allow time for the glo jgs t c , . :
• ^ f cut the P U P » ''pes and injectors so the engine w i l l operate correctly. hot. The "wait to s t a r " lamp will not come on wt:;n the J . '
T i e o o c e c u r s usually involves crankmg the engine long enough to get liq- plugs are operating after the engine starts.
. < :>ese "-je- Back into the system, but at the same time keeping cranking time
s r c r t enough to avotd overheating the starter Consult service information for
the exact s e r v c e procedure if the diesel engine is run out of fuel
WT£: The glow plugs arc removed to test cylinder compt ,mn using,
special high-pressure reading gauge.
Some diesel engines such as the first generation General Motors Duramax
«-? arv e o B c e o w t h a pnmmg pump located under the hood on top of the fuel filter
a
j s n r c dowr" arxl releasing the primmg pump with a vent valve open will purge any ENGINE-DRIVEN VACUUM P U M P
t r a a e c air from system Always foliow the vehicle manufacturer's instructions. Because a diesel engine is unthrottled, it creates very little vacu'.-l
in the intake manifold. Several engine and vehicle components o: I
erate using vacuum, such as the exhaust gas recirculation |ECR I
valve and the heating and ventilation blend and air doors. Mc; |
diesels used in cars and light trucks are equipped with an engine
driven vacuum pump to supply the vacuum for these componen I
What Are Diesel E n g i n e A d v a n t a g e s a n d D i s a d v a n t a g e s ?

A diesel engine has several advantages c o m p a r e d to a s i m i l a r size gasoline-
powered engine including:
1 . More torque output

2 . Greater fuel economy
3 . Long service life
A diesel engine has several disadvantages c o m p a r e d to a similar see

gasoline-powered engine including:
Figure 1 9 - 1 2 T
ypteal computer-controlled diesel engine tuel injectors 1 . Engine noise, especially w h e n cold and/or at idle speed
2 . Exhaust smell
3 . Cold weather startability
DIESEL INJECTOR NOZZLE OPERATION
4 . A vacuum p u m p is needed to supply the v a c u u m needs of t h e heat,
The eiearic solenoid attached to the injector nozzle is computer ventilation, and air conditioning system
; jr.re.-'Jed and opens to allow fuel to flow into the injector pressure 5 . Heavier than a gasoline engine. See Figure 1 9 - 1 4 .
chambs. See Figure 19-12. 6 . Fuel availability
The diesel injector nozzle is mechanically opened by the high-
:"-. ire fuel delivered to the nozzle by the injector pump. The fuel
f. do ATI through a fuel passage in the injector body and into the
pre.. ire cnambet The high fuel pressure in the pressure chamber DIESEL F U E L
?:::es the needle valve upward, compressing the needle valve re- Diesel fuel must meet an entirely different set of standards than
• -T. spring and forcing the needle valve open. When the needle line. The fuel in a diesel engine is not ignited with a spark, but,s
= - pem diesel fuel is discharged into the combustion chamber nited by the heat generated by high compression. The pressure
in a bo Sow cone spray pattern. c o m p r e s s i o n ( 4 0 0 to 7 0 0 PSI or 2 , 8 0 0 t o 4 , 8 0 0 kPa) generates
Any i.e. that leaks past the needle valve returns to the fuel p e r a t u r e s of 1 , 2 0 0 ° to 1 , 6 0 0 ° F ( 7 0 0 ° to 9 0 0 ° C | w h i c h speer
rank thr, ugh a return passage and line. preflame reaction to start the ignition of fuel injected into the
All diesel fuel must be clean, be able to flow at low temper*
GLOW PLUGS and be of the proper cetane rating.
..' > ; are always used in diesel engines equipped with a pre- • Cleanliness. It Is imperative that the fuel used in a diese! ei >-
o ~ . i . l >n chamber and may be used in direct injection diesel be clean and free from water. Unlike the case with gasol"'e
. : t a r r.g, A glow plug is a heating element that uses engines, the fuel is the lubricant and coolant for the diesel m
• 2 . -- f f , i r batter/ and aids in the starting of a cold engine. pump and Injectors. Good-quality diesel fuel contains addmu
A: tr* tempera' jre of the glow plug increases, the resistance of the such as oxidation inhibitors, detergents, dispersants, rust
r e v t.j element ins.de increases, thereby reducing the current in preventaUves, and metal deactivators. i v,
a m p e r e needed by the glow plugs. • low-temperature nuidity. Diesel fuel must be able to f
Most j/>*. v.%, ;sed .n newer vehicles are controlled by the at all expected ambient temperatures. One specification '"".îi*;
p ,-Kir tra r ~<a ..<•. PCM which monitors coolant tern- fuel Is its "pour point," which Is the temperature below w t
OLOW LEIIOIIIF
'PLUG CONTROL
FUSE
RELAY j M O D U L E
BLOCK - ' <
3OWTR0LJ ( E C M ) WeUTIOW
UNDCnHOOD
FUSIBLE OLOW
FUBIBLE LINK PLUOINTAKE
UNK HEATER RELAY
GLOW INTAKE ASSLMBLY
PLUO AIR (IA)
RELAY HEATER
RELAY
FUS«LE
JNK
FUBIBLE
UNK
INTAKE
AIR (IA}
HEATER
OLOW OLOW OLOW OLOW

PLUO 2 PLUO 4 PLUGS PLUG 8
OLOW OLOW OLOW GLOW

PLU01 PLUGS PLUGS PLUG 7 » CI 6? • C2
ftlff* ~ " " C.SMfif ' " 7,
IA HEATER WTAKE *TAK£ f! ENGINE
RELAY BEATER HEATER 1 CONTROL
CONTROL DUG 1 IXAC2 '''MODULE
Figure 10-13 A schematic of a typical glow plug circuit. Notice that the relay for the glow plug a i d Intake al- heate^ are computer e w t r j S e d
fuel w o u l d stop f l o w i n g C l o u d p o i n t is a n o t h e r c o n c e r n w i t h
diese 1 fuel at lower t e m p e r a t u r e s . C l o u d point is t h e l o w tempera-
ture point at w h i c h t h e w a x e s p r e s e n t In m o s t diesel fue! t e n d to
form w a x crystal! that clog t h e fue: fiitei. Most diesel fue! ? ..pp!:ers
distribute fue! w i t h t h e proper p o u r point and cloud point for t h e
climate conditions of t h e area.
• C e t a n e n u m b e r . T h e c e t a n e n u m b e r for dlese! fuel is t h e ppcelte
of the o c t a n e n u m b e r for gasoline. T h e c e t a n e n u m b e r is a tne*-
sure or the ease w i t h w h i c h t h e fue! can b e Ignited. T h e c e t a n e
rating of the fue! d e t e r m i n e s , to a great e x t e n t , Its ability to start
the engine at l o w t e m p e r a t u r e s and to provide s m o o t h w a n e - u p
and even c o m b u s t i o n . T h e c e t a n e rating of dlese! fuel should be
b e t w e e n 4 5 and 5 0 . T h e higher the cetane rating, the m o r e easily
t h e fuel is ignited, w h e r e a s the higher (he octane r a t i n g the raont
slowly t h e fuel b u r n s .
O t h e r diesel f u e l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s Include its flash p o i n t ,

c o n t e n t , a n d classification. T h e f l a s h p o i n t Is t h e t e m p * : • tf
w h i c h t h e v a p o r s o n t h e s u r f a c e of t h e fuel wffi ignite if e x p o s e d to
a n o p e n flame. T h e flash p o i n t d o e s n o t O e c i diesel j u g f e t ? :>per%
FlQlire 1B-14 Roller llftor from a CM DuromiS6.6-Htor V-8 dioso' engine Notice the size Hon. H o w e v e r , a l o w e r t h a n n o r m a ! flash p o i n t c o u l d incT:: ate con-
'I this llftor tyiYiiwert to n roller lifter used In a onwillno engine t a m i n a t i o n of t h e d l e s e ! f u e ! w i t h g a m i n e o r a similar s u b * '
156 SECTION V>
API Gravity Comparison Chart

TN.* s-j'Ar c or ciesel fuel is # r y important to the life of
• v ervSrsr >:,•:• r-t - i - diesel fuel has to have less than Values for API Scale Oil
i S t r - r t s 1 - ? : ' V :" sulfurand is called ultra tow sulfur diesel
" . 5 ? T'-s zc&~ from fee previous limit for low sulfur Specific Gravity Weight Density, l b / f t
API Gravity Scale : u
d ?• 5 :•? ; V„ S u l r : - in t h e fuel creates sulfuric acid during the 5 P ' nds
c s s & t s s o n process, w h i c h can damage engine components and

0
c a s s e r'sr.-r Federal regulations are getting extremely
2
iit* r ~ l f . r r r r r e n : . High-sulfur fuel contributes to acid rain.
ASTY. a i r classifies diesel fuel by volatility (boiling range) into 4
i S e *r">r-'.rr.g grades: *
8
G r a d e = 1. This grade of diesel fuel has the lowest boiling point 62.36
10 1.0000
a n d the lowest cloud and pour points: it also has a 8.337
0.9861 61.50
12 8.221
l o w e r BTU content—less heat per pound of fuel. As
14 0.9725 60.65
a result, grade is suitable for use during low- 8.108
0.9593 59.83
terr.perature iwinter! operation. Grade #1 produces 1$ 7.998
0.9465 59.03
less heat per pound of fuel compared to grade 32 and T8 7.891
0.9340 58.25
may be specified for use in diesel engines involved 20 7.787
in t e q u e n t changes in load and speed, such as those 0.9218 57.87
22 7.736
found in city buses and delivery trucks. 24 0.9100 56.75
7.587
Grade - 2 . This grade has a higher boiling range, cloud point, 26
0.8984 56.03
7.490
and pour point as compared with grade # 1. It is 28 0.8871 55.32
7.396
usually specified w h e r e constant speed and high 30 0.8762 54.64
7.305
loads are encountered, such as in long-haul trucking 0.8654 53.97
32 7.215
and automotive diesel applications. 0.8550 53.32
34 7.128
0.8443 52.69 7.043
36
DIESEL FUEL SPECIFIC GRAVITY TESTING 38 0.8348 51.06 6.960

0.8251 51.46 6.879
7r.-i c E r s i - of diesel rue! should be tested whenever there is a dri- 40
v e a s 3 r y concern. The density or specific gravity of diesel fuel is 42 0.8155 50.86 6.799
r . € 2 r r e d ir. u r J S of API gravity. API gravity is an arbitrary scale 44 0.8030 50.28 6.722
e.~-?ssir-g t h e gravity or density of liquid petroleum products de- 46 0.7972 49.72 6.646
vised :ir~ v by the American Petroleum Institute and the National 48 0.7883 49.16 6.572
B -reat; of S a a d a r d s . The measuring scale is calibrated in terms of 50 0.7796 48.62 6.499
.API. Oil with '-he least-specific gravity has the highest API 0.7711 48.09 6.429
52
The formula for determining API gravity is as follows: 6.359
54 0.7628 47.57
Degrees API gravity = < M l .5 specific gravity at 60°Fi - 131.5 56 0.7547 47.07 6.292
0.7467 46.57 6.225

58
T i e t.'—.21 API gravity for #1 diesel fuel is 3 0 to 4 4 (typically 401.
0.7389 46.08 6.160
Tz: al .API gravity for « 2 diesel fuel is 3 0 to 3 9 i typically 3 5 1 60
6.097
A h rdrometer calibrated in .API gravity units should be used to test 62 0.7313 45.61
6.034
cSesd reel. See Figure 1 9 - 1 5 . 64 0.7238 45.14
5.973
66 07165 44.68
5.913
63 0.7093 44.23
5.854
F R E Q U E N T L Y A S K E D Q U E S T I O N 7V 70 0.7022 43.79
5.797
72 0.6953 43.36
5.741
74 0.6886 42.94
How Can Ton Tell ff Gasoline Has Been Added to t h e
5.635
76 0.6819 42.53
Dwssef Fuel by Mistake? 5.631
78 0.6754 41.72
•* 5393 r e -as aecidentaBy added to Ciese' fuel and is burned in a diesel 5.577
80 0.6690 41.32
r5-520
On
~ "esue a f i be vet- (foraging to me engine. The gasoline can ignite
82 0.6628 41.13
SSSbt ~ s r Sssef Sbef. which w a r t tend to increase the temperature of com-
84 0.6566 40.95
: : - " " : ' ~ • ^ j e r a a . ' s e can h a i r kgectcxs and glow plugs, as well as e A?4
85 0.6506 40.57
asssrs "esc p a s t e s . and other najor diesel engine components, if contami- 5.374
88 0.6446 40.20
- m - sssoeded smeli *ue! a! the filter neck if the fuel smells 5.326
i w g S K S t e Jser jTOtfkl oe drained and refilled with diesel fue;. If the 90 0.6388 39.84
5.278
y*«B y r ? f r . i d b a s a gasoSne far any rancid smeS), then test a sample 92 0.6331 39.48
5.231
94 0.6275 39.13
5.186
95 0.6220 38.79
5.H1
98 0.6116 38.45
IffTE V •ss&r-sc tor o<v*oad use s t a r t be green m color. Red see*.
y c ' v/*--r G a t e -r-> be fguad o?-mad or farm equipment. 100 0.6112 38.12
MdOngnew Iff
2V
1V
o
2S% 6C% 75% 100%
PERCENTAGE THROTTLE OPENING
Figure 19-17 A 'ypc* xsjemn satin pwBor, AFC « » urn OVM (Mlntm
i t r t v i « one parage « r mp- vmdm; a unarms mifiage at Su tccaiarattr in mom)
Figure 1 9 - 1 5 A hydrometer Is used to measure the API specific gravity of dtese '„•
Because a diese! e n g i n e does n o t -se a throttle In the air intake,
unit ot measure is usually the American Petroleum Institute (API) scale
the only w a y to c s v - . e n g i n e peed by controlling the
a m o u n t of fuel b e i n g jr. e c t e d t n t o t h e c i nders. Instead of a m e
chanical link from t h e a c c e l e r a t o r pedal to t h e diesei Injection
p u m p , a throttle b y w i r e system ses an accelerator pedal po
tion s e n s o r To e n s u r e safe",. it c o n sts of t h r e e separate sensors
that c h a n g e in voltage as t h e acce e * a : : r pedal is depressed. See
Figure 1 0 - 1 7 .
The c o m p u t e r checks far errors tr/ comparing t h e voltage out-
put of each of t h e three sensors r s . o e t h e APP and compares t h e m
to w h a t they should be it t h e r e are n o faults. If an error is detected,
the engine a r : v e : c e speed arc f t • • - • . ced
SOOT OR PARTICULATE MATTER

Soot particles v c o m e directly from t h e e x h a u s t tailpipe or
they can also forr i w h e n emissions of n i t r o g e n o x i d e and v a r i o u s
sulfur oxides c h m i c a H y r e a c t w r t h o t h e r pollutants s u s p e n d e d in
t h e a t m o s p h e r e . S u c h reactions r e s u l ' In t h e f o r m a t i o n of
ground-levei ozone, c o m m o n l y Known as s m o g . S m o g is t h e
Figure 1 9 - 1 6 A wire wound electrical heater Is used to warm the intake air on some most visible form of w h a t is g e n e r a . . r referred t o as p a r t i c i p a t e
diesei engines.
matter. Particulate m a t t e r refers t o t i n y p a n i c l e s of solid or semi
solid material s u s p e n d e d a t h e a t m o s p h e r e . This i n c l u d e s p a r :
cles b e t w e e n 0 . 1 m i c r o n a n d 5 0 m i c r o n s m diameter. The
DIESEL F U E L H E A T E R S heavier particles, arger t h a n 5 0 m i c r o n s , typicailv t e n d *o se-tle
o u t quickly d u e to gravity. Particulates are generally categorized
Diesel fuel heaters help prevent p o w e r loss and stalling in cold
as follows:
weather. The h e a t e r is placed in t h e fuel line b e t w e e n the tank and
the primary filter. S o m e coolant heaters are thermostaticall con- • TSP. Total S u s p e n d e d Particulate -R
trolled, w h i c h allows fuel to bypass t h e heater once it has reached tween 0 . 1 and 5 0 microns. Up until 1087, the EPA i
operating t e m p e r a t u r e . particulates was based o o levels of TSP.
• PM10—Particulate m a n e r ol 10 m i c r a a t c r l
1 o the diameter of a h u m a n hair). EPA has a i
HEATED INTAKE AIR
based c n levels of P M 1 0 .
Some diesels, such as t h e General Motors 6.6-liter Du . max 6 • PM2.5—Particulate matter of 2 . 5 microns or I n <appnxmaittr
use an electrical heater w i r e to w a r m t h e intake air to h> :p i - 1.- 2 0 the diameter of a h u m a n hair . also called "fine" p s t i u e B
weather starting and r u n n i n g . See Figutc 1 0 - 1 6 . inly )7, the EPA approved a standard for PM2.5.
In general, soot panicles produced cy diesei

ACCELERATOR P E D A L POSITION S E N S O R into the categories of fine, that k , less than 2-5 m k
Some light t r u c k diesei e n g i n e s are e q u i p p e d w i t h ar. olec fine, less than 0.1 micron. Ultrafltoe particles make o f | j » a »
throttle to c o n t r o l t h e a m o u n t of fuel injected into the engine 05% of soot.
msEsemE
What a a t S19 tkai tor fee kect to Control
*ary S a u B Soot P i r a c i e s ?
h - « B > ••S*a» JOS * jafaodaifc S A W WAS tnousftt to M less o< a

s « a « carwB. SIMS sar—s: o s t s s a r * n a n ggso&v ensiles. a was telt Eta
i s o s sa-c-.. sat s s « g e n u m e w c a u s i n g any nooceaae nam to i
s t a t e * He t>vv*roa»x. Kiwwf. e ttocovc'ea ma! me small soot par- |
acutia : arssfflec • act ttam the MISS l i e larger parta: et
ats >â>aaej $*t sagpec »•- S e Seep areas ol me lungs wnere mey accumulate
DtESEl OXIDATION CATALYST (DOC)

FIGURE 19-18 A diesei exnaust particulate row on a Cummins 6.7-im aie^ci enjuie
D r f v r . oXidanoii catalyst (DOC) insist a Sow t h r o u g i honey
c ^ r i - i r . x s i s s f c structure thai is wasacoated with a layer ofcata-
."ys © tiiose used in a gasoline engine catalytic
. . . . . . c - ; 7 : r u - rtatenais t a d u d e m e precious metals platinum ana
•.- v. x < i . a o t r . e r basemeeiscatalysts. Catalystschemically
rear a .v. gas to convert harmful nitrogen oxSde into nitrogen
i . - . - t i i j i i z e ansorbee hydrocarbons. The chemical reaction
i. i for the t u r n e d fuel that is characteristic of
i . .t,-. ;. .giioon. The mair. function of the DOC is so start a
.viiri-ri-ir. sy converting the fuel-rich exhaust gases to heat.
:.-..- S O i . i c reduces carbon rnonox.ee, hydrocarbons, plus
, : .r co-.pouncs such as aldehydes and sulfur; and the sol-
r o r . of particulate matter. During a regeneration
- Cataiyst System Efficiency test will run. The engine control
SC.V. monitors this efficiency of the DOC by determining
_• e2£2u£t gas temperature sensor jEGT Sensor l j reaches a
.. temperature during a regeneration event.
DffiSEL EXHAUST PARTICULATE FILTER (OPF) F i g u r e 1 9 - 1 9 A aitterential pressure sensor snowing tne two noses from me aiesel
exnaust particulate filter.
7n; - =ri'-£- -. • : . : . . . from the DOC Sows into the diesel particu-
^•s D?F : , which captures diesel exhaust gas particulates isootj
pre • irom being releasee into the atmosphere. This is
: - : . . . ?CT:g the exnaust through a porous cell which has a silicon ground on t h e l o w reference circuit to EGT Sensor 1. When fc
- . ^ . - j i u witr noneycomixeil-type channels that trap the EGT Sensor 1 is cold, the sensor resistance is h i g h . As the tempt'
Tc - Zizrjsz are washcoatee wtth catalyst materials similar to a t u r e increases, t h e sensor resistance d e c r e a s e s . W i t h high sense:
- - D O C -fitfet The main difference between the DPF and a resistance, t h e E C M d e t e c t s a high voltage o n t h e signal circiit
^ i-i-;-- - . c t e r is that the entrance to every other cell channel With l o w e r s e n s o r resistance, t h e E C M d e t e c t s a l o w e r voltage 01
~ '---- - - - - i t e i i^ciceo at one ene. So instead of flowing ci- t h e signal circuit. Proper e x h a u s t gas t e m p e r a t u r e s at the inlet c
r
. v :.i cnanr.ee, the exhaust gas is forced through t h e t h e DPF are crucial for p r o p e r o p e r a t i o n a n d for starting the s
per-. _ 0: clocked channels ana exits through the adjacent g e n e r a t i o n process. Too high a t e m p e r a t u r e at t h e DPF will
-;••' •• T hi - type 0: niter is also referred to as a "wail- t h e DPF substrate to m e l t or crack. R e g e n e r a t i o n will be tenr-
r.ated at t e m p e r a t u r e s a b o v e 1 4 7 0 " F ( 8 0 0 ° C ) . W i t h too low s
. p a r - a - a t e - - .r. tr.e gar, remain trappee on the DPF channel t e m p e r a t u r e , s e l f - r e g e n e r a u o n will n o t fully c o m p l e t e the see'
VUC-. m e trapped particulate matter v/iii begin to
b u r n i n g process.
cc« L-ar. Tr.e niter must therefore be purged periodically to re-
- • •i .- • • ' - pimcies. The process of purging s o w from DPF Differential Pressure Sensor (DPS) The DPF ^
• - r e g e n e r a t i o n . See i . ^ r e IV f e r e n t i a l p r e s s u r e s e n s o r ( D P S ) has two pressure sample
• One line is attached before the DPF, labeled PI

Ejrr.aait Lai. Temperature Sensors mere are two exhaust
• The other is located after the DPF, labeled P2
.:•: -•-.at x r . c u c n ir. much the same way as engine
-X- - - •• - --.-v.-. £CT i a ^ a t 1 powtiotved between the DOC T h e exact location of t h e DPS varies by vehicle model j v
a.-.-. U f r A t ^ r e . : ^ r . .v.easure the temperature of the exhaust gas (medium duty, pickup or van). By m e a s u r i n g PI exhaust r
enicfj-.,; x e W ? . £ 6 : iens6r 2 measures the temperature of the ex pressure from t h e D O C , and P2, post D P F p r e s s u r e , t h f i E < > ; ' : '
t f c s t >>. s y e t t ; - r ^ e d a e l y a-'wr it exits fee DPF. e e t e r m m e differential pressure, also referred to as "delta" P ^ " '
; • r . - . ^ u . e . t C M j monitors the signals from across the DPF. Data f r o m t h e DPF differential pressure sens;
s e » « i ^ part c f . . . caiitranons to control DPF regenera- used by the E C M to calibrate for controlling D P F exhaust SIP
tion. Tr.e fC,.V. v.pp.'jn, v.asc-4 i veils to the iigriai circuit and a operation. See Figure 1 9 - 1 9 ,
What Is an Exhaust Air Coo
to exhaust air cooler Is simply ;i ••

that acts a» a venfurl. The cooler r, attach
provides -i gap between the two As not - •>•
effect draws surrounding air Into the
ture. The cooler significantly lowers ext M ten .
potential 788" to 806°F (420" to 430 C) to .ipproxt / ,/
notify t h e vehicle operator that t h e l i t e r requires clear
Diesel P a r t i c u l a t e F i l t e r Regeneration
F f t C Q U O T U r ASHED QUESTION r m
the gas remain trapped on the DPF channel walls wher* , •>,
the buildup of trapped particulate matter will begin to <
Will the Post-Injection Pulses Reduce Fuel Economy?
The filter must therefore be purged periodically to remove a a .
lated soot particles. The process of purging soot from the DPF by • Mayfce Due fc Me afloed ' x --ecson ruteee and late fuel injection timing, an
eratlon is described as regeneration. W h e n the temperature of 'r e increase n tet consul W -nay be netted on the Driver Information Center
exhaust gas is Increased sufficiently, the heat incinerates the soot p a - (DIC; (bring the regenersson i m e pengd A drop m overall fuel economy should
cles trapped in the filter, leaving only residual ash from the engine's flotfienofeeaMe
combustion of lubrication oil. The filter Is effectively renewed.
The primary r e a s o n for soot r e m o v a l is to prevent the buildup
of exhaust back pressure. Excessive back pressure increases fuel DPF Service Regeneration a- er act, •> ^genera'
consumption, r e d u c e s p o w e r o u t p u t , a n d can potentially cause en- m e t h o d , t h e " D P F Service R e g e n e r a t i o n " .3 a useful too) for t h e
gine damage. T h e r e are a n u m b e r of operational factors that can dealership technician. T h e p r o c e d u r e w o u l d typically be used to
trigger the diesel e n g i n e control m o d u l e to initiate a DPF regenera- d e a n t h e DPF w h e n vetucie o p e B s a g c o a d t c o n s did not allow t h e
tion sequence. T h e E C M monitors: DPF to regenerate r ormaHy w h i l e t h e vehicle is dr.ven. A service
regeneration p r o c e d u r e car: m : be ran .r rder to .ean d i e DPF
• Distance since last DPF regeneration
w h e n t h e r e is a n u n k n o w n a m o u n t of soot present. This might re-
• Fuel used since last DPF regeneration
sult from e n g i n e or e n g i n e c o r . r o ; errors caused by a C h a r g e Air
• Engine run time since last DPF regeneration
Cooler leak or l o w c o m p e r e on. l a these cases, a D T C P 2 4 6 3
• Exhaust differential pressure across the DPF
w o u l d normally set, wA t h e D P F w o u i d h a v e 8 0 grams or less of
DPF Regeneration P r o c e s s A number of engine componer are accumulated s o o t if over 1 0 0 grams of soot a r e p r e s e n t . P 2 4 4 B
required to function together for the regeneration process to be performed. sets and a service light c o m e s o c tc warn t h e d r i v e r
ECM controls that impact DPF regeneration include late post-injections, Conditions for R u n n i n g a DPF S e r v i c e R e g e n e r a t i o n
engine speed, and adjusting fuel pressure. Adding late post-injection pulses
service regeneratiai c a n n o t b e i n s t a t e d if there are active diagnos-
provides the engine with additional fuel to be oxidized in the DOC which
tic trouble codes D T C s p r e s m . O t h e r r e n d i t i o n s t h a t t h e E C M
Increases exhaust temperatures entering the DPF to about 900 F |500°C
checks are as follows:
and higher. The intake air valve acts as a restrictor that reduces air entr. to
the engine which increases engine operating temperature. The Intake • The battery voltage is greaser than 10 v o t e .
air heater may also be activated to warm intake air during regeneratior • The engine speed is b e t w e e n 0 0 0 and 1250 RPM.
The variable v a n e t u r b o c h a r g e r also plays a role in achieving • The brake pedal is in the released p o a t i o c .
regeneration t e m p e r a t u r e s by r e d u c i n g or increasing boost depend • The accelerator pedal is in the released p o d d e n .
Ing on engine load. • The transmission must be an park or n e u t r a l
• The engine coolant temperature ECT: is b e t w e e n !58*F > 7 0 * 0
Types of DPF R e g e n e r a t i o n DPF regeneration can be and 23Q°F ' 1 S T
ated in a n u m b e r of ways, d e p e n d i n g on the vehicle application • Thi e h - -tar- . it tje ber.vee ar.: •
and operating c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h e t w o main regeneration tvpes are capacirv. For safer.', refueling should r.-ver be performed during
the regeneration process.
• Passive
• The exhaust gas temperature ECT Sensors 1 and 2i must be l e a
• Active than 7S2°F 400*Cj
Passive R e g e n e r a t i o n D u r i n g normal vehicle operation w h e :
driving conditions p r o d u c e sufficient load and exhaust , - c e ..
TKMfc To avoM errrenveiv eSevated exbsua tempewum.
tures, passive DPF r e g e n e r a t i o n may occur. This passive r e g e r e r a
exhaust cooler vent located at the tatlptye and rttnow aay
tion occurs w i t h o u t i n p u t f r o m t h e E C M or the driver. A passive
that w-ciuU itspede Ic operation.
regeneration may typically o c c u r w h i l e t h e vehicle is being d- .
at highway speed or t o w i n g a trailer. I . DO NOT coanect an? shop ahatat IWBONI tws« » t h e *eftOe\
<*9p«p«.
Active Regeneration Active regeneration is c o m m a n d e d Z. fari'-N •: - . l i t - . .• ' " ' -' - - • ••' '•
ECM w h e n It d e t e r m i n e s that t h e DPF reqi. :< - ft to remove excess materia, a sate distance wary Irom aw w t o set
•oot buildup and conditions for filter regeneration have been met. 3. I : • ave the - . . o u s e r u«3 : ..- wws »-*;«:
Active regeneration is usually not noticeable to the driver. The
«Mfcn,-r. Tiippt ouLet crhs-it ter^seratu!*wsS w greaterthan 572'F
' sssiag ieWoM r^Kerioec To prevent persona: injury or
1 sipqgar?. trosc ^re o: trînii, iieesp vehicle exhaust away ho.T. art\
ASM LOADING
R e g s o s a s s a w l r.ot bum of ash. Only the particulate matter (PM|
. :_med :.: re^r.eratori. Ash is a noncombustible by-prod-
_;-. r . r : . r.omai ct. consumption. Ash accumulation in the DPF
1.11 c .-er.r-i.lv cause a restriction in the particulate filter. To service
ar. a»r. loaded DPF, the DPF will need to be removed from the vehi-
cle anc - i z r . e z or replaced. Low ash content engine oil iAPI CJ-4)
Is requrec to: vehicles with the DPF system. The CJ-4 rated oil is
iuncea to ' ^ ash contenL
D I E S E L E X H A U S T S M O K E DIAGNOSIS F i g u r e 1 9 - 2 0 A scan tool is usee to retrieve diagnostic trouble codes ana to perform
injector balance tests.
-,V-„.~ s c - e exhaust smoke is considered normal operation for
mar.-, aiesel engines, especially older units, the cause of excessive
esnaus; smoke should be diagnosed and repaired.
B l a c k S m o k e Black exhaust smoke is caused by incomplete
_shon oecause of a lack of air or a fault in the injection system
that c i u l i cause an excessive amount of fuel in the cylinders. Items
mat saouJd be checked include the following:
• Check the fuel specific gravity (API gravity;.
• ?ef: ar. injector balance test to locate faulty injectors using a
scar, tool
• Iheck tor proper operation of the engine coolant temperature
HCT; sensor.
• cc.v :or proper operation of the fuel rail pressure (FRPj sensor.
• .reel-: tor restrictions in the intake or turbocharger.
• Cr.eo: to see it the engine is using oil.
». 'Unite Smoke White exhaust smoke occurs most often during
B| cold engine starts oecause the smoke is usually condensed fuel
1
White exhaust smoke is also an indication of cylinder mis-
f' Sre or. a warm engine. The most common causes of white exhaust
F i g u r e 1 9 - 2 1 A compression gauge designed for the higher compression rate of a oiesc
engine should be used when checking the compression.
• Ir.operanve glow plugs
• artgne compression least 300 PSI (2,068 kPa) of compression pressure and all cylinder;
• . correct r. ector spray pattern should be within 50 PSI (345 kPa) of each other. See Figure 10-21.
• A xolar.t lea*c into the combustion chamber
GLOW P L U G R E S I S T A N C E B A L A N C E T E S T
Gray or £iue Smoke Blue exhaust smoke is usually due to oil
con. caused by worn piston rings, scored cylinder walls, or Glow plugs increase in resistance as their temperature increase
All glow plugs should have about the same resistance un-
defect, »e va.ve stem seals. Gray or blue smoke can also be caused
checked with an ohmmeter. A similar test of the resistance pt
a detective Jijectorfs).
glow plugs can be used to detect a weak cylinder. This test is
ularly helpful on a diesei engine that is not computer controller
SCAN TOOL DIAGNOSIS
test for even cylinder balance using glow plug resistance, pe®
e.-.^r >. sx.ee the late 1980s have been computer controlled the following on a warm engine.
and are equpped with sensors and activators to control functions
1. Unplug, measure, and record the resistance of all of the glowpW
that trev. v i a , mechanically controlled. All light truck diesels
2. With the wires still removed from the glow plugs, start the engi *
'.'/,-. nave z..', actered to on-board diagnostic systems (sec-
3. Allow the engine to run for several minutes to allow the comb
ond generator, jOSD-II-. The use of a scan tool to check for diag-
tion inside the cylinder to warm the glow plugs. _ ,-,
nostic t r e b l e codes DTCs; and to monitor engine operation is one
4. Measure the plugs and record the resistance of all of the glow p
tse t.rst iagn-o t c reps. See Figure 19-20.
5. The resistance of all of the glow plugs should be higher t h a n h .
beginning of the test. A glow plug that is in a cylinder that is n
COMPRESSION TESTING ing correctly will not increase in resistance as much as the otn
•-• -' .'..: -•--.. >.-. test. ... t.r.iarr.er.tai ror determining: the mechanical 0. Another test is to measure exhaust manifold temperature a^-
cor.c.-tor. of a c: engine. Won; piston nngs can cause low power exhaust port. Misfiring cylinders will run cold. This can
and excessive exhaust smoke. A diesei engine should produce at with a contact or noncontact thermometer.
:
j 0 . i Fr> •• » 18t
• A 01 .1 km tftat .He *xKsiet has no vjsibtt smoke afot <te<»

not 'clock l.'gfu .«on - te-un projected through the t*fta««t smoke.
• A I W i op. './ means 'hat the exhaust Is so dirk that it complex!'/
blocks tyit frorr t beam projected through the exhaust smoke.
• A 50% opiciif m e a n ® at the exhaust blocks half of the light from
a beam projected through the •:xhJ?Sj smoke.
fef 20% opacity
<10% opacity
• 60% opacity
90% opacity
f f k opacity
S n a p A c c e l e r a t i o n Test "r. a -•ap acce'etjlfitjon test, the vehicle

Is held stationary with .'/heel chocks wA brakes released as the engine
Is rapidly accelerated to r ' g h die with the transmission in neutral
while smoke emissions are measured. This test Is conducted a mini-
mum of six rimes ar.d the three most consistent measurements are av-
eraged together for a Tr.al score.
Rolling Acceleration Test •:-.; -.--m; n i : r,

are rapidly accelerated in lew gear 'r<m a". '.'4 peed r o a maximum
Figure 1 9 - 2 2 A typical pop tester used to check the spray pattern ofa diesel engine injector. governed RPM while the smoke emissions are measured.
Stall Acceleration Test .'-'- s >•.*•. ••: • mv. ;

INJECTOR POP TESTING are held in a stationary position v tfc the part:. r .g: âfce and v r . ice brakes
applied while the transmission is placed in "drive." The accelerator Is d e
A p o p t e s t e r is a device used for c h e c k i n g a diesel Injector nozzle
pressed and held mcmerraiEy wh£e smoke emissions are measured.
for proper spray p a t t e r n . T h e h a n d l e is depressed and pop off pres-
The standards for diesels vary according to t h e type of vehicle
sure Is displayed on the gauge. See Figure 1 9 - 2 2 .
and other, factors, but usually m c l . d e a 4 0 » opacity or less.
The spray p a t t e r n s h o u l d be a h o l l o w c o n e . This will vary de-
pending on design. T h e n o z z l e should also be tested for l e a k a g e -
dripping of t h e n o z z l e w h i l e u n d e r pressure. If the spray pattern T E C H TIP | Do Hot Switch Injectors
Is not correct, cleaning, repairing, or replacing of the injector nozzle
| in the past it .vas com mon prect ce to swtcft diesel '.e» f;«cW» Irom one
may be necessary.
• cylinder to another when tfagnosftg a dead qdrder prttSem Hfrw.ef. rr .si
' Mgb-pressura common -a* sysserss « -e« ^ prec'w?/ <afc- j
Orated injectors «hat sho^d not b e - - a d -P service Eacn \ectw "as !
Always Use Cardboard to Check its own calibration m. -ber See fi^re 19-23.
for H i g h - P r e s s u r e Leaks L _ — 9 .J
If diesel fuel Is found on the engine, a high-pressure leak could t e present.
When checking for a high-pressure leak, wear protective clothing including
safety glasses and face shield plus gloves and long-sleeved shirt. Then i>se a
piece of cardboard to locate Hie high-pressure leak. When a diesel is running,
llw pressure In (he common rail and injector lubes can reach over 20,000 PSI
At these pressures the diesel fuel Is atomized and cannot be seen but can pen-
0,
rate the skin and cause personal injury A leak will be shown as a dark 3rea on
the cardboard. When a leak Is found, shut olf the engine and locate the exact
location of the leak without the engine running.
CAUTION: S o m e t i m e s a leak c a n actually cut through the caidfcoard. so

use extreme care.
° ! g S E ! J M I S S I O N TESTING
Ttle
most c o m m o n l y vised diesel e x h a u s t emission test used in state
j! r '°cal testing programs is called the o p a c i t y test. Opacity m e a n s Figure 19-23 tilefetters& 4deoTr^s ' s i- ' '>•*•• r •t
he
Percentage of light that Is blockod by the exhaust smoke. Te castwlfcn nuntser 'or the lector.
a a " o « v>
SUMMARY 2. Which type of diesel inle. don produces less noise?

a. Indirect ln|ection (ID!)
1. % d j t x : ergsx c - x t p e s s t o r . » i g n i t e the diesel fuel when it b . Common rail
j - •e.'ws tr-. . repressed air i the combustion chamber. c. Direct Injection
1 ~ > r e ire r « : of combustion chambers used In diesel en- d. Distributor Injection
-uu-ec. .- e c r c r . ID: uses a ptectHobusdon chamber whereas a 3. Which diesel injection system requires the use of a glow plu;
- e c i : r . C i x c s s d i r e c t s unto the combustion chamber. a. Indirect injection (IDI)
b. High-pressure common rail
J. ^ u-jee p f a e e s . e s t combustion include-.
c. Direct injection
a. :-:.av
d. Distributor injection
b. Saz.d c c m t u s c o c
e. .uncoiled cociusson 4. The three phases of diesel ignition i n d u d e
а . T>.« ~ diesel engine fuel system consists of the fuel tank, lift pump, a. Glow plug ignition, fast burn, slow burn
••i i : f\.-e. separator and f a d filter. b. Slow b u m , fast b u m , slow burn
c. Ignition delay, rapid combustion, controlled combustion
5. eBgine-dnven m;ecnon pump supplies high-pressure diesel fuel to
d. Glow plug Ignition, Ignition delay, controlled combustion
tise injectors.
5. What fuel system component Is used in a vehicle equipped with a d i ^
б. m u s t c o m m o n types of fuel injection used in automotive diesel
engine that is not usually used on the same vehicle w h e n it Is equips
en?uies are;
with a gasoline engine?
a. DOTSttutoMjpe injection pump
a. Fuel filter
b . Z - 3 m o c rau design where all of the injectors are fed from the same
b. Fuel supply line
- . e . ruppIT irom a rail under high pressure
c. Fuel return line
7. - e r ~ r tvozzies are either opened by the high-pressure pulse from the dis- d. Water-fuel separator
: - pump or electrically by the computer on a common rail design.
6. The diesel injection pump is usually driven by a .
8 . Ga ' plugs are used to help start a cold diesel engine and help prevent a. Gear off the camshaft
easessrre wblte smoke during warm-up. b . Belt off the crankshaft
0 . The t u o e r die cetane rating of diesel fuel, the more easily the fuel is ignited. c. Shaft drive off of the crankshaft
10. ' lost automotive diesel engines are designed to operate on grade # 2 d. Chain drive off of the camshaft
i e s e . tue. in moderate weather conditions. 7. Which diesel system supplies high-pressure diesel fuel to all of the inject®
1 1 . The API specific gravity of diesel fuel should be 30 to 39 with a typical all of the time?
-eaumg of 15 for *2 diesel fuel. a. Distributor
b. Inline
12. D-.esr engines can be tested using a scan tool, as well as measuring the
c. High-pressure common rail
gaow p i j g resistance or compression reading to determine a weak or
d. Rotary
rnrrfcnctioning cylinder.
8. Glow plugs should have high resistance w h e n and lower
resistance when .
REVIEW QUESTIONS a. Cold/warm
b. Warm/cold
1. W ' a : j 4 e difterence between direct injection and indirect injecbon?
c. Wet/dry
2. ' -jr. are the three phases of diesel ignition? d. D r y / w e t
3. ' / b a t are the two most commonly used types of automotive diesel Technician A says that glow plugs are used to help start a diesel engine and
ut-eraon systems? are shut off as soon as the engine starts. Technician B says that the glow
4. v — are glow plugs kept working after the engine starts? plugs are turned off as soon as a flame Is detected in the combustion cham-
5 '-bat u the advantage of using diesel fuel with a high cetane rating? ber. Which technician Is correct?
0. .-: rwr is the specific gravity of diesel fuel tested?
b . Technician B only
C H A P T E R QUIZ d. Neither Technician A nor B
1. - v u 4et«. fuel Ignited in a warm diesel engine? What part should be removed to test cylinder compression on a diesel engine-
a. Glow plugs a. An Injector
b. Heat of compression b. An intake valve rocker arm and stud
c. Spari plugs c. An exhaust valve
d. Dac&utorlesf ignition system d. A glow plug
Co(: Oyster oration
arid Dipgriosis
OBJECTIVES: 'After studying C h a p t e r 20, the reader will be able to: Prepare for Engine Repair (A1)ASE certification test content area "D" (lubrication
anircodllng SystemsiDlagnoals and Repair). • Describe how coolant flow, through an eng>e • 7 y . /.-, • • w M m nf the 'hermostat. • Explain mo
purpose and'function d f t h e radiator pressure cap, • Describe the various types of antifreeze and how to recycle and discard used coolant « Discuss
how to'diagnose cooling system problems.
KEY TERMS: ibar • b y p a s s • cavitation • centrifugal pump • coolant recovery system • core v,<r, • etf/e-.e glycol • fins • impeller • reverse
codling • scroll • silicone coupling • surge tank • thermostat • thermostatic spring
S
atisfactory 'codling s y s t e m operation d e p e n d s on the design and
operating conditions of t h e system. The design is based on heat output T E C H TIP O v e r h e a t i n g Can Be E x p e n s i v e
0 "
of the engine, iradiator size,'type of coolant, size of w a t e r p u m p (coolant
A taut/ cooling system set*'-'. % tie * ~>a// ca-.-e of err,ire failure. Engine rg.
pump), 'type of fan, t h e r m o s t a t , a n d s y s t e m pressure/Unfortunately, the
buyers often have mg'-nares at/.'.! seeing " e - ret A engine placed tack in
codling system lis 'usually n e g l e c t e d until there Is a problem. Proper
ser/ice In a vehicle with a clogged -adie'or Most etgine 'eclrioans routinely re-
rodtine m a i n t e n a n c e c a n p r e v e n t problems.
place the water pump and a." IOOA: she' a-, Argrne overt-atii or repair The radiator
should also be checked (or ;eaks and y-.jer '-.; .v tr-erstm rre engine is repaired
COOLING S Y S T E M P U R P O S E A N D F U N C T I O N or replaced. Overheating is one of trie -nasi c o r n c n causes of engine failure.
The -cooling system must allow utoe engine to warm up to 'the required
operating temperature as r-apldra as possible and then maintain that
temperature. 'It'must he able to do this When the outside air tempera- LOW-TEMPERATURE ENGINE PROBLEMS
We Is as tow as - 30°F'(- 3S^Q) and asihighas 1 ( 4 5 ° C ) . Engine operating temperatures must be a £ « a minimum tempera-
'Peak combustion temperatures In the engine cycle run from ture for proper engine operation. Gasoline combustion is a rapid oxida-
4000° to <f(000oF (2200° to |0OO°Cjl The'Combustion temperatures tion process that releases heat as the hydrc-cartwr. fuel chemically
will average between 1200° and 1700°iF {650° and 925°C). Con- combines with oxygen from the air for each gallon of fuel used,
tinued temperatures as ihtgh as this would -weaken engine parts, so moisture equal to a gallon of water is , ced It is a oart of this
heat must 'be 'removed from 'the engine. The cooling system keeps moisture that condenses and gets .r.ro the oil pan, along with m-
the head and 'cylinder -walls a't a temperature that is within the burned fuel and soot, and causes sludge formation. The condensed
rangeformaximum eiffioiency. 'See Higure 20-1. moisture combines with unbumed hydrocarbons and additives to
form carbonic acid, sulfuric add. nitric add, hydrobromic add, and hy
drochloric add. These acids are responsible for engine wear by causing
corrosion and rust within the engine. Rust occurs rapidly when the
coolant temperature is below i 30 : F 55X-. High cylinder waK wear
rates occur whenever the coolant temperature is below 150=F i 5 V .
To reduce cold-engine problems and to help start engines In
SPARK cold climates, most manufacturers offer block heaters as an option.
IPUUQ
These block heaters are plugged into household current 110 volts
AC- and the heating element warms the coolant.
EXHAUST
HIGH-TEMPERATURE ENGINE PROBLEMS

Maximum temperature limits are required to protect the engine
COOLANT
High temperatures will oxidize the engine oil. This breaks the oil
down, producing hard carbon and varnish, if high temperatures are
allowed to continue, the carbon that is produced wili plug piston
COOLANT
rings. The varnish will cause the hydraulic valve lifter plungers to
stick. High temperatures always thin the oil. Metal-to-metal contact
within the engine will occur when the oD is too thin. This will cause
high friction, loss of power, and rapid wear of the parts. Thinned
will also get into the combustion chamber t y going pas? '.ft* ;,'. ; • r.
rings and through valve guides to cause excessive o.. c ;. --.r.
High coolant temperatures raise the combustion tensperatwes
PISTON to a point that may cause detonation a r t preigr-i-cn '•:. ccc..' l": <• .v-
are common forms of abnormal combustion, if they are allowed o
p|
UUri
8
continue for any period of time, the engine will he -Jam
% l o i l l combustion and exhuust tumparntures
m
B"' PASS =•£ WATER JACKf
T « * i ? * I Exttaast r w i i i M w i
RA»ATOR
S Of . P W SBRes m e C * \ a o j mm f o s j s e ^ s s s s y .
I -C » a r : • rjv-v:
v
«ss. J? s . ' t
* V f a » -e.uce ( C
~ r e v -- >.•• ^Sl
-orat^ taaaaMM VWc* n # W a c t r w s > - -»!«r c -or-\i . w s t
1
, ^ y- 4 ' ..
1. . -as? w t & c x s e s V : a r t I-TBSS^-SC

v
t 9KT-: c**s8a«
Se M l r e »<v -- <s s e e r ^ i t s e n n a w a t t * » - W f » S b f e be-

w B6WS s*nauS far xst M u t e • » w ^ c * sf**>o be J THERMOSTAT
ma*XmlK cartas f a * » « e c i a > Y * a r * r t l H P C «n- FAN
WATER P U M P
> m W9 as r e a w a r t r ? st v W a p e m h r t rt»s s parfcyany
<w-r. ~ x K v & r w r Most r v e « s a « t B w r e : r*>f MWT»H»*
f m m : c w* s a r s "tewng n e >saw. The ->eat t n n tne Rguns 2 0 - 2 Ooa-t thronjh a t>vc» ^ caaog s\-ste •
-•saw K c a a a r Mas i w o r - w ; tfai m? Be

fc * a a w — B i 3 ( 5 si r v s s anc r a t t » s t a > * be wa-êc up
>3T.-}si:* tffcr JSS a r---»ae ar (NO to rib* I w o» pressure ® tx«W
COOUNG SYSTEM DESIGN

; ; ; 2 r : :"..-.«•$ t r r c u g h t h e e r . j r . c . w h e r e . : picks u r n r . it t h e n
COMBUSTION
l e w - : c a * n i i a t c s . w h e r e fee ilea: 3 g i v e n u p t o t h e o u t s i d e air.
CHAMBER
T b » ::•:• i r . : c c n i r u a i i v r e c r c u U t e s t h r o u g h t h e c o o l i n g s v s t e m . as
WATER
srre: " F x r e s 2 0 - 2 ar.d - • -3.
JACKET
Its r s e s a s r u c h as 1 5 = F ; 6 5 C as i g o e s t h r o u g h
e r g r . e : t h e n :t reoools a s : goes through the r a d j a t o t CORE CORE
rr -:.- Tf be is hig* is : - Zes . r -rt'tuuv PLUG PLUG
r~="r~^rtt rrr'ures.
-••;;; -R: c c r e s e u r o : t h e t h e r m o s t a t h o u s i n g OB t h e t o p of
r . * e n g n e T h e e r . c r . e c : c a n t o . : e : is cc-.-.ected to ± e top- of t h e
.-aSu::-: r.e h u r u u u ~ p s . T h e c o c l a n : i n t h e r a d i a t o r is
:-. e : ; r r : :.-.*.:ugh t h e r s i a t o r . As 1: cools, it m o v e s from
r . : : : r . e h e r : - , of t h e r a d i a t c c C o o i c o o l a n t i e a ^ t h e l o w e r
- s i r - . • r ? a r r : . c . ar. : u u e : a n : l o w e r h o s e , g o i n g i n t o t h e inlet
- *e * r . e : : r r . r . w h e r e : : is r e c i r c u l a t e s t h r o u g h t h e e n g i n e .
C3 COOLANT
• I t 5one ae • a e a g a e iesigps sue- us Q r n e r i 4J-L, V-8 and Geseta!
• • u.- S J ? . " . a a a c . H V ^ s f i a c e d » i t e f f l c f i o t o i i t h e B t i e t s > i e o l
u * f i l e r : *of \s o a M eooian: tuts te t t w r a s a t . i t s t b e n a o s a t Figure 20-3 Cootart areutates ttnouî me watef jackets in the engine t*xfc a r c '
ise caaaru -Êpeattue a c A i causes u so open. P'acing the t h e r Head
a r ^ i T i i a t v n e r pnesp therefore reduces thenaat cwSiig
r "r- tit w a p e r a s a e ciarges that could c a ^ e s m s s tr. ibe
SPRING
m z r ' . especa- i a j a e u n a a reads are used wtit a cast-iron Mode PISTON
UPPER
HOUSING
. . . : : : : r . e : : o u n g o p a r . r . - of t h e c o c ; . n g s y s t e m is b a s e d o n
r. - •_-.:-„:: ."i : r . e r a i a t o t R a d i a t o r s are d e s i g n e d for t h e m a x i -
r..r. ' n r . transfer using m i n i m u m space. Cooling airflow
rr .i: •-: aided t v a belt- o r electric motor-driver,
coo. - a i r . .
THERMOSTAT T E M P E R A T U R E C O N T R O L
'-in - i v —a u i u " s t e m p e r a t u r e range b e t w e e n l o w - t e m -
.re r : ^ ".err p t . - a r u r e e x r e m e s . T h e t h e r m o s t a t c o n t r o l s
• The t h e r m o s t a t us a t e m p e r : LOWER COPPER WAX
".re: tr..-.: a. - e : a c e d a : '.r.e e n g i n e c o o i a n t o u t l e t . A n e n c a p - HOUSING CUP PELLET
i-J'e-d. • v i x - t a s e i . c i a s n c - p e i i e t h e a t s e n s o r is l o c a t e d o n the
engine ' th« t h e r m s t a t i c v a l v e . As t h e e r . a n e w a r m s , h e a t Figure 2 0 - 4 A coss-suction of a typical m l . actuated memsostat » o » » 9 " "
swe the heat serjo:. See figure 20-4. the wax pellet and spring
HpMl 30-**
I 0 U^fC
COOLANT MOT -
FLOWS TO RADtATOfl
THERMOSTAT OPEN BYPASS
•ttS&AGE
Figure 2 0 - 5 3 WHar the e i g ne s COM coottit t .-.vs :.3«R

W miê* tne t h e m o s W eoens me cootant car to tr<e n d a »
A mechanical link, connected to the "eat ser.s.u; e?er.> - e TECH T V j / 8 a * * '
thermostat valve. .As the thermostat begins to open. : a vs sor.e

coolant to flow to the radiator, where it is cooled. sr.:.- c
pan of the coolant continues to flow through the -ercr
bypassing the thermostat and flowing back thro . gh the e r e
Figure 20-5.
The rated temperature of the thermostat r .t cates the \-~r<
ture at which the thermostat starts to open. The therrr.:.-:a: -
open at about 20°F higher than its opening temperature. See the
following examples.
Thermostat Temperature Rating Starts to Optn Own
1WF 18CTF
1S5*F 195*F
If the radiator, water pump. an,-, coe ar.: c a s s i s art

correctly, the engine should alwavs be opera :.rg ' ' --
» d fully open temperature ranjse of the the r \ v . « . v e . . :
> < i s»mm w w « *
Bypass A bypass r c v. te c . •
MS « k I M - ---mm mm wvtmf '
part of the coolant to circulate wit;-.::-the
* i small passage that leads frvm -e c • - . - ' o . v •
to the inlet side of the water pump I: a. -wss. c.v.a- . rass V V s ra || w -wC * "
m
the thermostat even when the t h e n o e t r •< orer .• . I M mg*t 4 » » • » *
be cast or drilled into the engine and pump parts. See Figures 2 0 - ?
and 20-6.
The bypass aids n ur.;torra c:tg-:w wa - ... > vce f
- « e s hot spots and prevents-re r c o' e\c - f > -.a
sure in the engine when the thermostat s c osed.
-SB? &CHA.
2 . I n f r a r e d p y r o m e t e r m e t h o d . An infrared pyr i car) ^

used to measure the temperature of the coolant n the thej-
mostat The area on the engine side of the t h e t m r at should b=
at the highest temperature that exists in the englt : A properly"
operating cooling system should cause the pyrOmeu. to read ^
follows:
A. As the engine warms, the temperature r e a c h e s n e a r thermo-
stat-opening temperature.
B. As the thermostat opens, the temperature drops just as the
thermostat opens, sending coolant to the radiator.
C. As the thermostat cycles, the temperature should range be
ween the opening temperature of the thermostat a n d 2 0 ' F
(1 T C ) above the opening temperature.
BOTE: If the temperature rises higher than 20°F 11 T O above the open
ing temperature of the thermostat, inspect the cooling system for a restric-
y»sra >;<»'.-8srwrtnj»*passajefro"the tion ot low coolant Row. A clogged radiator could also cause the excessive
9 t * leac t-z-.-r r*>rt < F t o Seifeîostal temperature rise.
3 . S c a n tool m e t h o d . A scan tool can be used on many vehicles tc

read t h e actual temperature of the coolant as detected by the en
gine coolant temperature ( E C T ) sensor. Although the s e n s o r ot
the wiring to and from the sensor may be defective, at least the
scan tool can Indicate what the c o m p u t e r "thinks" the engine
coolant temperature is.
THERMOSTAT REPLACEMENT
An overheating engine may result from a faulty thermostat. A
engine that does not get warm enough always indicates afiut
thermostat.
To replace the thermostat, coolant will have to be drained fro:
the radiator drain peicock to lower the coolant level b e l o w th
thermostat. It is not necessary to completely drain the system. Tt-
upper hose should be removed from the thermostat housing neck
then the housing most be removed to expose the thermostat. Se:
Figure 20-10.
The gasket Ganges of the engine and thermostat housln.
should be cleaned, and the gasket surface of the housing must fc
20-S > -c fc * e c i I * ope- -.; tenperaW or a thermostat
TESTtNG THE THERMOSTAT

~ v •>> ..: r e t h o d s t h a t can be used to check t h e opera
v o f eve erajosfat
J. H t t ' « « e r method.!? - e & - rnwstat is removed from the vehi-

<"•>. i-' iteti. Snse: a 0.015 inch !0.4-2r;l'.;imeier; feeler gauge
fc v *. '•>?' : i. v. that v e tr-err ostat wSI hang on the feeler
I'. T:a SfeoJd then be suspended by the feeler
t < s t i*:.:. a.'y> / > tr'.-rmomeie;. See Figure 20-9. The
:* • . : fef heated -ir.t£ the thermostat opens enough to
ifiease r d fa fry: tr e fee e: ga The temperature of the
tes*i: tr.e •;•.»-:.• •/.:*• fa . is t'r.e open r.g temperature of trie
the—.y. I';-.' - 5 ' r 4 ' Q of the temperature stamped
or t/.e the titer:: y . v sa*.' f a o r y for use. If the F i g u r e 2 0 - 1 0 Some thermostats are an integral part of the housing Tn.s thermos! 3 -'
tessera, y t d-Serer. y Is p e a ' e : tre tbermyfa''shyild be radiatey hose housing is serviced as an assembly Some thermostats simply snap l " t 0
rep^cel engine radiator (Hi tube underneath the pressure cap
Chapter 20: Cooftng System Operation and Diagnosis 187
flat. The t h e r m o s t a t should be f d th phosphates. Organic additive technology lOAT ; coolant c o n t a i n s

Sensing pellet toward the en? e. M s inorganic acid salts icarboxylates] additives that are n o t abrasive t o
position is correct, a n d install the t h e r m - at water pumps. Hybrid organic additive technology H O A I coolant
gasket. contains inorganic acids and some silicate but is p h o s p h a t e free
Failure to set the thermostat into the recessed grw, ca t

the housing to become tilted when tightened. If
housing bolts are tightened, the housing will usually crack, creating i eai
The upper hose should t h e n be installed and the system re

filled. Install the proper size of radiator hose clamp.
ANTIFREEZE/COOLANT
Coolant is a m i x t u r e of antifreeze and water. Water is able to ab
sorb more heat per gallon t h a n any other liquid coolant. Under
standard conditions, w a t e r boils at 2 1 2 ° F (100°C) and freezes at
32°F (0°C). When water freezes, it increases in volume about 9%.
The expansion of t h e f r e e z i n g w a t e r can easily crack engine blocks,
cylinder heads, and radiators. All manufacturers recommend the
tf 50% Is Good, 100% Must Be
use of e t h y l e n e glycol-based antifreeze mixtures for protection R E A L WORLD FIX
against this problem. Better
A curve depicting freezing point as compared with the percent- A vehicle owner s a d that n e c o o i n g s y r . e - u s vehicle w o c i d never freeze
age of antifreeze m i x t u r e is s h o w n in Figure 2 0 - 1 1 . or n s t He saw that he j s e a ' DOS a n t ^ e e z e ethylene g i y r o ; nstead o t a
It should be n o t e d t h a t t h e freezing point increases as the an- 5IV50 mature with wasr
tifreeze concentration is increased above 60%. The normal mixture However after the tonperakee yapped to -20-F :-29°C the 'adiator
is 50% antifreeze and 50% water. Ethylene glycol antifreezes froze and cracted. [Pure anSf-eeze ^-eezss at a t x c O f - 18=C After thaw-
contain anticorrosion additives, rust inhibitors, and water p u m p ing. tne radiator had to De repaired The j w n e - «as u c k y that the e n g i n e otock
lubricants. did not also crack.
At the m a x i m u m level of protection, an ethylene glycol con- For Pes: freeze Detect*;- M t jooc êat transfer jse a 50/50 fixture of
centration of 60% will absorb about 85% as m u c h heat as will antifreeze and water A 50r5C mature r amUreeze arc water ts the Best com-
water. Ethylene glycol-based antifreeze also has a higher boiling promise oetwee- s m o e - a t i r e v u a n c ra " e a t transfer that is neces-
point than water. See Figure 2 0 - 1 2 . sary for cooling system aerator 3c n t eceed 7Vh -eeze 30% waten
If the coolant boils, it vaporizes and does not act as a cooling As the percentage of a w ^ s e z e - : - e a s e s De txwng temperature increases,
agent because it is n o t in liquid form and in contact with the cool- and f*eezig arotecsoo -.-.-eases j p tt "0% art-freeze:, sut the neat trans*?-
ing surfaces. performance of the r-xture decreases
All coolants have rust and corrosion inhibitors to help protect
the metals in the engine and cooling systems. Most conventional
green antifreeze contains inorganic salts such as sodium silicate and
340
200
"0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 3 0 40 50 6 0 70 30 9 0 100
P E R C E N T A N T I F R E E Z E IN C O O L A N T P E R C E N T A N T I F R E E Z E IN C O O L A N T
fl
'gure 2 0 - 1 1 Graph showing tne relationship ol the freezing point of the coolant to tne Figure 20-12 Graoti slwiwig now tne so, -gpenor " e :ooram a -ne
oefcw
t a g e ol antifreeze used m the coolant. percentage of arufreezs - ifie cootar: ^creases
ANTIFREEZE CAN FREEZE
Ignore the Windchill Factor
. v . irrfreeu-s' a a w t e : : : u r e is ar. e x a m p l e w h e r e i n t h e f r e e z i n g
p e r : t S e r s r o r . r . - . fre*i z & g p e r . : of e i t h e r p u r e a n t i f r e e z e o r p u r e The windcniil factor is a temperature that combines the a t . nperatwe •
v. isucr the wind speed to determine tne overall heat loss effect . sea sklr(
cause it is the neat loss factor for exposed skin, the windc. iperature is
to oe considered when determining antifreeze protection 1 .
Freeiing Point
Although moving air does make it feel colder, the actuai u ueratureis-..
«J3S 32*F(0X) changed by the wind and the engine coolant will not be aiu 1. a by thewir,-
.renwar 0 ' F ( - 18°0 chiH. Not convinced? Try tnis. Place a thermometer in a room and wait until a
SSSE -34 a F (-37"C) stable reading is obtained. Now turn on a fan and have the air Siow across n (
-84*F( M*0 thermometer. The temperature will not change.
* s -S-J. , ettsywie siysM. 2Sa to crater, and 2 % to 3 % additives.
D e a e z z r ^ or. r.e exact percentage of water used, antifreeze, as RECYCLING COOLANT

sc-i r . c o r o n e r s , freezes between - 8 C F and -r8 a F i - 1 3 ° C and Coolant (antifreeze and water) should be recycled. Used cooiu
- 2 1 C . Tr.erei'ore, .: is easiest just to remember that most an- may contain heavy metals, such as lead, aluminum, and iror
r r s e r e freezes at aboui 0°F , -18°C>. which are absorbed by the coolant during its use in the engjne.
Tne bailing posit of antifreeze and water is also a factor of mix- Recycle machines filter out these metals and dirt and reinsi
r_re cur.uerratiors. the depleted additives. The recycled coolant, restored to be:.
new, can be reinstalled into the vehicle.
Boiling Faint Boiling Point w i t t i
at Sea Level I S PSI Pressure Cap
. ... . . . . Most vehicle manufacturers w a r n that antifreeze cools:

tat 212*F ( 1 0 0 * 0 257-F (125'C)
should-not be reused unless it is recycled and the additives restored.
5tSC -vest 21ff"F (103*Q 265"F (130°C)
T4i£23<e 225ffl07"Ci 276°F ( 1 3 6 * 0
DISPOSING OF USED COOLANT

HYDROMETER TESTING Used coolant drained from vehicles can usually be disposed oi.
; be checked using a coolant hydrometer. The hydrome- combining it with used engine oil. The equipment used for recycle
e : measures the density of the coolant. Tne higher the density, the the used engine oil can easily separate the coolant from the waste
r.cre corcenranon of antifreeze in the waten Most coolant hy- Check with recycling companies authorized by local or state gover
rror.eicrs reao the freezing point and boiling point of the coolant. ments for the exact method recommended for disposal in your are:
See .• . 20-13.
U tr.e engine is overheating and the hydrometer reading is near RADIATOR DESIGN AND FUNCTION
— 5C"F - 4 5 ^ 5 5 ' C i , suspect that pure 100% antifreeze is present.
Two types of radiator cores are in common use in domestic vehicle,
? - ses: . the coolant should have a freezing point lower than
the serpentine fin core and the plate fin core. In each of these tyu
- 2 0 F ana a ooilingpoint above 234CF.
the coolant flows through oval-shaped core tubes. Heat is tr:
ferred through the tube wall and soldered joint to fins. The Sri :
exposed to airflow, which removes heat from the radiator and car:
it away. See Figures 2 0 - 1 4 through 2 0 - 1 6 .
TUBES
COOLING
FIN
f i g u r e 2 0 - 1 3 •'•« « . . ' - . ^ i s o - ' j fOttmn « o r the coolant using a

F i g u r e 2 0 - 1 4 The tubes and fins ot the radiator core
A
v Cooling S/stem Operation and DagnoM m
T O P TANK
QMer mobile radiators were made from yellow brass
ince e \W) TIC-- radiators have been made from aluminum,
riese mater als ar- corrosion resistant, have good heattransferrir?
ability, and are easfly formed.
Core tubes are mad? from 0.0045- to 0.012 inch 10.1 so
0 . 3 • • meter, sheet brass or aluminum, using the thinnest possible
m c e r i i s 'or each appLcaiion. The metal is rolled into round tubes
and t h e joints are sealed with a locking seam.
The mam taKa* <n of hear transfer in a cooling system is in
the transfer from t h e radiator to the ait Heat transfers from the
water t o the fins as r ich as seven times faster than heat transfers
from t h e 5ns t o the air. a s s u r i n g equal surface exposure. The radi
a tor must be capable of removing an amount of heat energy ap-
proximately equal to t h e heal energy of the power produced by the
engine. Each horsepower is equivalent to 42 Btu /10,800 calories:
per minute. As t h e engine power is Increased, the heat-removing
requirement of t h e cooling system is also increased.
With a given frontal area, radiator capacity may be increased
by increasing the core t h i c k n e * , packing more material Into the
same volume, or both. The radiamr capacity mav also be increased
OIL COOLER by placing a shroud around t h e f a r so that more air will be pulled
through t h e radiatot
RADIATOR
CAP
Radiator h e a d m and ranks m a t ci nse off the ends of the core

w e r e m a d e of sheet brass 0 . 0 2 0 •; . .050 ,nch 1 5 to 1.25 mil
limeters thick and a o w H e m a d e of molded plastic. When a
transmission Oil cooler is _sed .-. the rad.ator. it is placed m die
FINS outlet tank, where t h e coolant ba> the l o w e r temperature. See
Figure 2 0 - 1 7 .
TUBES
TRANSMISSION
OIL COOLER
TRANSMISSION F L U B COOLER
Figure 2 0 - 1 5 A radiator may be either a down-now or a cnoss-now type
FLUID
CROSSFLOW RADIATOR
" W W 1 0 - 1 8 Cutaway of a typical radiator snowing w s t n r t W t f M * C M * M Figure .'O-1

DudcooMr
antitre«?a frequently helps prevent this type ol proWem
VACUUM
VALVE
OVERFLOW
TUBE - COOLANT FLOW GASKET
TO RECOVERY
TANK
VACUUM VALVE OPERATION PRESSURE VALVE OPERATION
Rows rc-' ? - a m a s y s t e m m l a'lows excess pressure to vent The vacuum valve allows coolant to return to the system from the recovery tank.
PRESSURE CAP
T-e filer neck is fired with a pressure cap. The cap has a spring-
.race- valve that doses the cooling system vent. This causes cooling
pressure to buSc up to the pressure setting of the cap. At this point,
the valve -eiease the excess pressu-e to prevent system dam-
22?. See Rgtre 20-18.
crxr.e cooling systems are pressurized to raise the boiling tem-
perature c'' the coolant. The boiling temperature will increase by
i r r ~ - ~ stely 3"F 1.6°Cj for each pound of increase in pressure.
-• " 2 , - i i - i atmospheric pressure, water -will boil at 212®F
' " : . 'fil-h 3 15 PSI : lOO kPa) pressure cap. water will boil at
I : " - :25'0. Which is a maximum operating temperature for an
enszne.
7 v e high coolant system temperature serves two functions:
1.1- iiir.vs the engine to run at an efficient temperature, dose to
20C-F : 03"C'. with no danger of boiling the coolant.
2. The higher the coolant temperature, the more heat the cooling Figure 20-19 Some vehicles use a surge tank, which is located at the highest level <f f -
e - can transfer The heat transferred by the cooling system is cooling system, with a radiator cao.
proportional to the temperature difference between the coolant

and r e outside air This characteristic has led to the design of
- trail, high -pressure radiators that are capable of handling large Working Better Under Pressure
~ 0' heat For proper cooling, the system must have the A p r o b l e m t h a t s o m e t i m e s occurs w i t h a h i g h - o r e s s u r e c o o l i n g system involve*
-ght pressure cap correctly installed. t h e w a t e r p u m p . For the p u m p t o f u n c t i o n , t h e inlet s i d e of t h e p u m p must have
a lower pressure than its outlet side. If inlet p r e s s u r e is l o w e r e d too much-
• coolant at the o u m p inlet can boil, p r o d u c i n g vapor. The p u m p w i l l then spin 11*
W t r e s e t o p e r a t k m of the pressure: cao is especially i m p o r t a n t at
i coolant vapors ant) not p u m p coolant. This c o n d i t i o n is c a l l e d p u m p cavitation-
• '.'JT-. • prr«*. < . ' v . - a : < = - t o w e r e d by a b o u t P F f o r e v e r y
Therefore, a radiator cap c o u l d be t h e c a u s e of a n o v e r h e a t i n g problem. A
" - S B "Therefore r Denver; Colorado altitude
w i l l not p u m p e n o u g h coolant it not k e p t u n d e r t h e p r o p e r p r e s s u r e for pre**""'
5.23C feesjt, fist i o G t e g c c i r n of w a t e r Is a b o u t 2 0 2 ° F . and at t h e t o p of
ing vaporization of t h e coolant.
- r. - ' 1 4 ! 10 feet) '•rate' b o i i s a t 1WF.
SURGE TAW METRIC RADIATOR CAPS

:
"' < surge tank, which is located at the highest According to the SAE Handbook, all radiator caps must in<®y
level of -.-.e cooling 7,ram and holds about l quart H liter) of their nominal (normal | pressure rating. Most original equipmen -
vsiK.'. A ".-oe attaches to the bottom of the surge tank to the inlet diator caps are rated at about 14 to 16 PSI (97 to 110 kPa). „r
- wr.e: put:?, A smail«»r Weed hose attaches to the side of However, many vehicles manufactured in Japan or EuW
"». highest p o i ' t t h e radiator.The bleed lineal- have the radiator pressure indicated in a unit called a ®
-/."-- mrixt Cv.. V on through the surge tank, and air in One bar is the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level or
•re r-f. below the radiator cap and be forced from the 14.7 PSI. The folio-wing conversion can be used when replay
9r:.<rr if the cress a e m the system exceeds the rating of the radia- 3 radiator cap to make certain it matches the pressure ra'aw
tor cap. See r-ru-e 20-10. the original.
m
Bst or Atmoipharos
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8 1
0.7
0.6
0.9 7
NOTE: Many radiator repair shops use a 7 I'M io .

paired radiator, A 7-PSI cap can still provide boll pro /. x
7 PSI 2 1 ° F ) a b o v e the boiling point of the coolan
Ingpolnt of the antifreeze coolant is 223 1,21 f- . ruled
and boil over will not occur until about 244' f 223 24
Even though this lower pressure radiator cap d> pi Ide Figure 20-21 *«atw IMMg M mn} A fypcal nanfl-opawted preaan
and will also help protect the radiator repair, I;K; tester < w « s p r e s w e e » a « r « j H M u r e Tinpraaaun*mmhoM,«N
the "hot" dash w a r n i n g light comes on and therefore, li- Inr/r 1. drop• M n a o l l D i i W H r n n n r 5» cooing (ytiem tr MtXv * lmo |O jajch
trie pumptotr* cap t <Mfr->f* it me -awerear noMpnaaue tnj retaaaa (t wfian
pretext ntta. above m aaamua -Wi ) n m n MMg
COOLANT R E C O V E R Y S Y S T E M
PRESSURE
Excess pressure usually forces some coolant from the system TESTER
through an overflow. M o s t cooling systems connect the overflow •/,
a plastic reservoir to hold excess coolant while the system is hot.
When the system cools, the pressure in the cooling system is
reduced and a partial v a c u u m forms. This pulls the coolant from
the plastic container back into the cooling system, keeping the s
tem full. Because of this action, this system is called a c o o l a n t re-
covery s y s t e m . T h e filler cap used on a coolant system without a
coolant saver is fitted w i t h a v a c u u m valve. This valve allows air to
reenter the system as t h e system cools so that the radiator parts will
not collapse u n d e r the partial v a c u u m .
TESTING T H E C O O L I N G S Y S T E M
Pressure Testing Pressure testing using a hand-operated pres
sure tester is a quick and easy cooling system test. The radiator cap
is removed (engine cold!) and t h e tester is attached in the place of
Figure20-22 ' h e y e s s a * c v a n c » 3 a M k » « » a p « r * c < jonga graaau>
the radiator cap. By operating the plunger on the pump, the entire tester as p v i erf v * c u i n g a p M m tagnoct
cooling system is pressurized. See Figure 2 0 - 2 1 .
i t, > Doaet jpSie presort x m i t i e ^ e c s V l Srflit wh.

THERMOSTAT
de BUT Jtaum. Most sotens sh. ja aor be p r a u r t n d trrood 14 r s
1100 kP»j. B a pwaer presirr s jsea. s i n cfcae te « w pmn*, ndl
inc. better cow, or bests n U .
If the cooling svstem is free from leaks, the pressure s h a u d SOT

and not drop. H the pressure drops, look for evidence of leaks »nv-
where in the cooling system including
t. Heater hoses
2. Radiator hoses
1 Rao;;- r
4. Heat core
5. * .. c e : h e a d
6. re : . p in T * s :• : -..".e : .. - irdft • :
C L O S E D LINE C O N N E C T I N G
R A D I A T O R TO E X P A N S I O N TANK Pressure testing should be performed whenewr t i e r ? _s a n k
suspected leak. The pressure tester can ais. be -ed - test t; •• sc: j : r
Figure 2 0 - 2 0 The level In the coolant ret over* s\stem ra cap. An adapter is used to connect the pressure teste; B t m - y ,aor
tomperatuie cap. Replace any cap that will not hold p r a u r e . S«e flf--- 2 0
>T3
Figure 20-24 Coolant flow through the impeller and scroll of a coolant pump for a v-im
engine
• • H
t h r o w s t h e c o o l a n t o u t w a r d s o t h a t i t Is discharged at the impel*
t i p s . T h i s c a n b e s e e n in F i g u r e 2 0 - 2 4 .
i 29-23 •»«.• m m * to '.ixxw« w l w cf»Uii<ifl (or u*ng a W c * As e n g i n e s p e e d s I n c r e a s e , m o r e h e a t is produced by the a
g i n e a n d m o r e c o o l i n g c a p a c i t y is r e q u i r e d . The p u m p tapeft
speed increases as t h e e n g i n e s p e e d i n c r e a s e s to provide em
Dye Leak Testing O n e of t h e b e s t m e t h o d s t o c h e c k c o o l a n t f l o w a t t h e v e r y t i m e it is n e e d e d .
i «r: tt a t o <jte a f l u o r e s c e n t d y e In t h e c o o l a n t . U s e a C o o l a n t l e a v i n g t h e p u m p i m p e l l e r is f e d through a scroll
ft > ~ « r ca a r t . O p e r a t e t h e v e h i c l e w i t h t h e d y e to t h e scroll is a s m o o t h l y c u r v e d p a s s a g e t h a t c h a n g e s the fluid flow i
i " m . i e T v i n * reaches normal operating temperature. r e c t i o n w i t h m i n i m u m l o s s In v e l o c i t y . T h e scroll is connected
- i : «• • i n t t o a s p e c t all a r e a s of t h e c o o l i n g s y s t e m . W h e n t h e f r o n t of t h e e n g i n e s o a s t o d i r e c t t h e coolant into the e n p
t w t i l b e e a s v t o s p o t b e c a u s e t h e d y e in t h e c o o l a n t b l o c k . O n V-type e n g i n e s , t w o o u t l e t s a r e usually used, one : I
• - - - as t r a h t green. See Figure 2 0 - 2 3 . e a c h c y l i n d e r b a n k . O c c a s i o n a l l y , d i v e r t e r s are necessary in is
w a t e r p u m p s c r o l l t o e q u a l i z e c o o l a n t f l o w between the cylins?
b a n k s of a V t y p e e n g i n e t o e q u a l i z e t h e c o o l i n g .
U s e Dtetilled W a t e r In t h e C o o l i n g S y s t e m
<McuK.sitg refilling the radiator after changing antifreeze

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION Ejj
ay. mal nwttlied water n beet to use because it does not
ttwt car cost the parage* of the cooling system The other
How Much Coolant Can a W a t e r P u m p Pump?
ffw arry water that m lurtable to drink can be used in a cooling
r -^r^r.-tne are correct It water contains minerals, however, it can A tvijii.rtl wstnr pump can move a maximum ot about 7,500 gallons (281
r W eoamo lystem that could prevent proper heat transfer ntwsi of coolant per hour, or recirculate the coolant in the engine over 20 Hi
I = »•• • gf mou water it unknown, distilled water, which

to j*e Although the cost of distilled water must be
per minute this means that a water pump could be used to empty a typical
vate swimming pool in an hour' The slower the engine speed, the less (XW
t - amount of watH< required | usually about 2 gallons (8 literal or consumed by the water pump However even at 35 miles per hour (56 U W
i minor m comparison with the cost of radiator per hourj the typical watei pump still moves about 2.000 gallons (7,500 n
per hour or 1/2 gallon (2 liters) per second1 See Figure 20-25
WATER Ptl*P
e * iter p imp also called a c o o l a n t pump] is

r
: t h e c r a n k s h a f t or d n v e n by the c a m s h a f t .
• r o t a t o r to the engine and back to t h e
r- ature coolant leaves the radiator by the bot
; . T j p e d i n t o t h e w a r m e n g i n e b l o c k , w h e r e It
--. From the biock, the w a r m coolant flows to the
: wt *-• It p : k i u p m o r e h e a t .
> - . r w r u ewrtmg. T r m r a thai trie coolant flows

1
f' • 1 ..-• -».«•. uetrm la«wr * to the engine block.
- r • .-•/ • /» disp« e m e n t p u m p s . T h e water

centrifugal p u m p - m r< a l a r ? e v o l u m e of
> < pr< . - t of t h e c o o u m t T h e p u m p F i g u r e 2 0 - 2 5 A aemorutration engine showing the amount ol water tbel c a n r '
i m p e l l e r . < entnf jgal lorce through the cooling system
(Deration avt 9 •serosa 173
P o u r ? 2 0 - 2 6 This severely corroded water o u n o could not ctrcttWe enough coolant to

keep the »npif e coot As a result, the engine overheated and blew a head gasket
F i g u r e 2 0 - 2 8 A cuSway of a typical water pump showing the lona bearing assembly and
the seal t > weep t * w •s " o c a K between the seal and the beanng. if the seal 8 b , Sen
coolant rows out of the weep hot? to prevent the coolant from damaging the Sea^-a
F i g u r e 2 0 - 2 7 The bleed weep hole in the water pump allows coolant to leak out ot the
puno and not be forced into the bearinp. if the bearing failed, more serious damage could
result.
Service A worn itnpeUer o n a w a t e r p u m p can reduce the

a m o u n t of c o o l a n t f l o w t h r o u g h t h e e n g i n e . S e e F i g u r e 2 0 - 2 6 . If
t h e s e a l of t h e w a t e r p u m p fails, c o o l a n t w i l l l e a k o u t of t h e h o l e a s
s e e n in F i g u r e 2 0 - 2 7 . T h e h o l e a l l o w s c o o l a n t t o e s c a p e w i t h o u t
l e t t i n g t r a p p e d a n d f o r c e d i n t o t h e w a t e r p u m p b e a r i n g assembly.
F i g u r e 2 0 - 2 9 A tvpictii engine-driven cooling fan.
If t h e b e a r i n g is d e f e c t i v e , t h e p u m p will u s u a l l y b e n o i s y a n d
'Alii h a v e t o b e r e p l a c e d . B e f o r e r e p l a c i n g a w a t e r p u m p t h a t h a s
failed b e c a u s e of a l o o s e o r n o i s y b e a r i n g , b e s u r e to d o all of t h e
'ollowing:
1. C h e c k b e l t t e n s i o n
CROSSFLOW
2 . C h e c k for b e n t f a n
RADIATOR
3- Check fan for b a l a n c e
if t h e w a t e r p u m p d r i v e b e l t is t o o t i g h t , e x c e s s i v e f o r c e m a y
be e x e r t e d a g a i n s t t h e p u m p b e a r i n g . If t h e c o o l i n g fan is b e n t o r
of b a l a n c e , t h e r e s u l t i n g v i b r a t i o n c a n d a m a g e t h e w a t e r p u m p RADIATOR
hearing. S e e F i g u r e 2 0 - 2 8 . FAN S W I T C H
AUTOMATIC
COOUMG F A N S
is f o r c e d a c r o s s t h e r a d i a t o r c o r e b y a c o o l i n g f a n . O n o l d e r OIL
FITTINGS F A N MOTOR
' " g i n e s u s e d in r e a r - w h e e l - d r i v e v e h i c l e s , it is a t t a c h e d to a f a n hub
' h a t Is p r e s s e d o n t h e w a t e r p u m p s h a f t . S e e F i g u r e 2 0 - 2 9 .
M a n y installations w i t h r e a r - w h e e l d r i v e a n d all t r a n s v e r s e Figure 2 0 - 3 0 A typ'o" etectrle cooli-c ^ r assembly shew «e the T i - r r sre r
"stines d r i v e t h e f a n w i t h a n e l e c t r i c m o t o r . S e e F i g u r e 2 0 - 3 0 . components.
I 0 RPM 3500 RPM
BIMETAL
STRIP
F i g u r e 2 0 - 3 2 The bimetallic temperature sensor spnng controls the amount ot silicon

that is allowed into the drive u n i t which controls the speed of the fan
Fvgure 2 0 - 3 1 f e r a e cooling far blades change shape as the engine speed changes
W E V. .r. dearie cooling fans are computer controlled. To save energy,

e o c cc c i n g tans are turned oS whenever the vehicle is traveling faster
tbati 15 a p f c 55 km hi. The ram air from the vehicle's traveling at that
speed s t t uk! Pe er.c jgh to keep the radiator cool. Of course, if the computer
I ' . - S t a t tne temperature is still too high, the computer will turn on the
t x . j a g fan, to "nigr.," if possible, in an attempt to cool the engine to avoid
sesere engine damage.
T h e far. is d e s i g n e d t o m o v e e n o u g h air a t t h e l o w e s t f a n
t o c o o i t h e e n g i n e w h e n it is a t i t s h i g h e s t c o o l a n t t e m p e r -
s ' ^ . - e . T h e f a n s h r o u d is u s e d t o i n c r e a s e t h e c o o l i n g s y s t e m effi-
ciency. T h e h o r s e p o w e r r e q u i r e d to drive the fan increases at a F i g u r e 2 0 - 3 3 A typical electric cooling fan assembly after being removed from them
- a s t e r rate than the increase in f a n s p e e d . Higher fan the vehicle.
: n e e d s a . ; ; i n c r e a s e f a n n o i s e . F a n s w i t h f l e x i b l e p l a s t i c o r flexi-
: - r e e l b l a d e s h a v e b e e n u s e d . T h e s e fans h a v e high blade an- A s e c o n d t y p e of t h e r m a l f a n h a s a t h e r m o s t a t i c s p r i n g add::
; th at p oil a h i g h v o l u m e of air w h e n t u r n i n g a t l o w s p e e d s . A s t o t h e s i l i c o n e c o u p l i n g f a n d r i v e . T h e t h e r m o s t a t i c s p r i n g opera®
- - - 'ar. : : e e c increases, t h e fan blade angle flattens, r e d u c i n g t h e a v a l v e t h a t a l l o w s t h e f a n t o f r e e w h e e l w h e n t h e r a d i a t o r is cod
: "•ô'/.-er required to rotate the blade at high speeds. See As t h e r a d i a t o r w a r m s t o a b o u t 1 5 0 ° F ( 6 5 ° C ) , t h e air hitting®
figure 20-31. ' t h e r m o s t a t i c s p r i n g will c a u s e t h e s p r i n g t o c h a n g e its shape,
n e w s h a p e of t h e s p r i n g o p e n s a v a l v e t h a t a l l o w s t h e drive to op?:
a t e like t h e s i l i c o n e c o u p l i n g d r i v e . W h e n t h e e n g i n e is very colo-
THERMOSTATIC FANS t h e f a n m a y o p e r a t e a t h i g h s p e e d s f o r a s h o r t t i m e u n t i l the d p ' r
S r.:e the early 1980s, most cooling fans have been computer- fluid w a r m s slightly. T h e s i l i c o n e f l u i d w i l l t h e n f l o w into a reset ,
ccvcl.ed electric m o t o r units. O n s o m e rear-wheel-drive vehi- voir t o l e t t h e f a n s p e e d d r o p t o i d l e . S e e F i g u r e 2 0 - 3 2 .
; -t i ' ostatic c o o l i n g f a n is d r i v e n b y a b e l t f r o m the
•.-'.-< ' . a " . It t u r n s f a s t e r a s t h e e n g i n e t u r n s f a s t e r . G e n e r a l l y , t h e
. required to p r o d u c e more power at h i g h e r speeds. ELECTRIC COOLING FANS
c o o l i n g s y s t e m w i l l a l s o t r a n s f e r m o r e h e a t . In- Air is f o r c e d a c r o s s t h e r a d i a t o r c o r e b y a c o o l i n g f a n . O n older t
far. s p e e d a i d s in t h e r e q u i r e d c o o l i n g . E n g i n e h e a t a l s o g m e s u s e d in r e a r - w h e e l - d r i v e v e h i c l e s , it is a t t a c h e d to a fan
<t l o w e n g i n e s p e e d s in t r a f f i c w h e r e t h e v e h i c l e t h a t is p r e s s e d o n t h e w a t e r p u m p s h a f t . M a n y installations ••
m o v e s s!ov.'7. r e a r - w h e e l d r i v e a n d all t r a n s v e r s e e n g i n e s d r i v e t h e fan wi
ran . d e s i g n e d s o t h a t it u s e s little p o w e r a t h i g h electric motor. See Figure 2 0 - 3 3 . m
VAZ and :r n ; m i z e s noise. The thermal fan has a A t y p i c a l e n g i n e c o o l i n g f a n s y s t e m c o n s i s t s of o n e c o o l l % (

s i l i c o n e c o u p l i n g 'ar. d r e mourited b e t w e e n the drive pulley a n d t w o r e l a y s o r t w o s e p a r a t e f a n s . If o n l y o n e f a n is u s e .
far c o o l i n g f a n h a s t w o w i n d i n g s in t h e m o t o r . O n e w i n d i n g i s 1 0 ^
s p e e d a n d t h e o t h e r w i n d i n g is f o r h i g h s p e e d . W h e n the c .
f a n 1 r e l a y is e n e r g i z e d , v o l t a g e is s e n t t o t h e c o o l i n g f a n low _ p
mm • • . • ) >.- o*err ear problem, look carefully at the winding. The ECM controls the high-speed fan operao ;
. V , ' r
- :'ar ay not be able to function g r o u n d i n g t h e c o o l f a n 2 r e l a y c o n t r o l c i r c u i t . W h e n the c
con*f£& a r 4 v. y .1d i e -effaced. f a n 2 r e l a y is e n e r g i z e d , v o l t a g e is s e n t t o t h e c o o l i n g ' a n it
s p e e d w i n d i n g . T h e c o o l i n g f a n m o t o r h a s its o w n g r o u n d i-1 L
* ITS
The ECM c o m m a n d s I.ov, :

conditions:
• Engine coolant tempeiatu;.; K<

(106°C).
• A / C refrigerant pressure exceeds 1 ;0 . ' .
lly and
After the vehicle is s h u t off, tl e ECT
284°F ( 1 4 0 ° C ) a n d s y s t e m voltage ! .:. -n 12 . I t s .
v/ill stay on for a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 m i n u t e s .
The ECM c o m m a n d s High Speed Fans O N u n d e r ?•-.'• COMMON CAUSES OF OVERHEATING
conditions: O v e rfceatihg can be caused ,y defects in the cooling system. SoT.e
• ECT reaches 2 3 0 ° F | 110°C). mon (ri1 ftf f,'jc>thpztn g include:
• A / C refrigerant pressure exceeds 2 4 0 PSI 1 1 , 6 5 5 kPa .
1. Low COOtiDt level
• When certain diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs) set.
2. P'u^ged, I r t v , of ttocVed radiator
To prevent a fan f r o m cycling O N a n d O F F excessively at idle, 3. Delecdve 'an d u f c h or e" sctricfan
the fan may not t u r n O F F until t h e ignition s w i t c h is moved to -he 4. Incorrect !gr "ion dining
OFF position or t h e vehicle s p e e d e x c e e d s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10 m p h . 5. Low engine oil l e . d
6. Broken far belt
7. Defective radiator :ap
NOTE: To save energy and to improve fuel economy, most cooling ISns are 8. Plrso^na
turned off whenever the vehicle is traveling faster than 35mph . 55 km h . 9. Frozen coolant In ffeezi £ WSfluXT)
The ram air from the vehicle's traveling at that speed should be enough to 10. Defective thermostat
keep the radiator cool. Of course, if the computer senses that the tempera
11. Defective '.rater pump 4* - p e S e r sJTppIng on the shaft
hare is still too high, the computer will turn on the cooling fan, to "high,"
intern ally!
if possible, in an attempt to cool the engine to avoid severe engine dam-
je. Some engines, such as the General Motors NorthStar engine, can dis-
able four of the eight cylinders from firing to air cool the engine in the
event of a severe overheating condition.
ffl Highway Overheating
VTH'III' l i ' l -j
Ayshkieoivnertjrr.pia-sdo'ari -4 bufheprtsemaccured
C a u s e a n d Effect only white driving at big1- »ay speeds * h e .-ef.de :-ee P g w e 2 0 - 3 4 . m j u U nrfi
in a perfectly n o r m a l n a r o e r . - city-driving < , K - : ;>•&.
A common cause of overheating Is an inoperative cooling fan. Most front- The ! e c h n < i a i \ j s h e d ?•« c o o B i g system a n d replaced the radiator cap
wheel-drive vehicles and many rear-wheel-drive vehicles use electric motor- and the water p a n ® . W i n * n g "vat t e s W e f e i coolant floji w a s the cause of the
driven cooling fans. A fault in the cooling fan circuit often causes overheating problem. Further ' e s t i g -T .eased " : • ' * < spray : ut of one cylinder •'•hen
(luring slow city-type driving. engine was t a r e d : i e r by the s t i t e ' * i i the spa/k plugs r e m o v e d .
Even slight overheating can soften or destroy rubber vacuum hoses and A i e w head gasket sotted the p r o ^ e m . O b v ^ s l y . the head g a s k e t ' •
gaskets. The gaskets most prone to overheating damage are rocker cover (valve was not great enough to M u s e any p r o b e r s the engine speed and l.-ad
cover) and intake manifold gaskets. Gasket and/or vacuum hose failure often re- created enough t o w and h e a l to cause the coolant t e m p e r a t u r e to s o *
sults In an air (vacuum) leak that leans the air-fuel mixture. The resulting lean The technician also replaced the o x y g e n (0 5 ) sensor, because son*
mixture burns hotter in the cylinders and contributes to the overheating problem. coolant contains p h e s p . - t e s a i d silicates that often c o n t a m i n a t e the sensor.
The vehicle computer can often compensate for a minor air leak (vacuum The deteriorated oxygen sensor w e ' d h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d to the p r o b ^ t i
leak), but more severe leaks can lead to driveability problems; especially die
Quality problems. If the leak is severe enough, a lean diagnostic trouble code
iDTC) may be present If a lean code Is not set, the vehicle's computer may indi-
cate a defective or out-of-rAnge MAP sensor code in diagnostics.
Therefore, a typical severe engine problem can often be traced back to a
simple, easily repaired, cooling system-related problem.
COOLANT T E M P E R A T U R E W A R N I N G LIGHT
Most vehicles are e q u i p p e d w i t h a h e a t sensor for the engine operat
in
8 temperature. If the " h o t " light c o m e s o n d u r i n g driving (or the
temperature gauge goes into the red danger zone), then the coolant
temperature is about 2 5 0 ° to 2 5 8 ° F ( 1 2 0 ° to I26°C), which is still
w o w the boiling point of t h e coolant (assuming a properly operat-
in
8pressure cap and system). If this happens, follow these steps:
S,e
P # 1 Shut off the air conditioning and turn on the heater. The heater
w
ill help rid the engine of extra heat. Set the blower speed to high.
Ste
P "2 If possible, shut the engine off and let it cool. (This may take
ov
e r an hour.) Figure 20-34 When an : Nj.r* ;>i "en J * c
13* • -X5SV
COOUftG SYSTEM MAJHT04ANCE

:'tv. . > . t,- , - . : . o-t (flew maintenance tree systems in
gWvt Nvo.:: ,: itsiSiiertaSVO involves..Is <WiM«>ts.l! <*fWR oft the
v s s w t » , v e ft also iadude ,, v&ai inspection :<sr sagni of
vt'Nifi:;; svsajfa *vwts asc kg the condition of the eoolaffl hewes ancs
;t level shmik! only tSr dlgine

Bresson cap from a host f s g j j i e will release the
white We coalsnt t c f f s f c w t u f c is above its 4t
i>;cratu«. When t h e ' t a g removed* the pressure
4- iiOiDtlvTU' pSi'M-Ure tovri, a u a n j t the c o s t a s t to
<sn ttflft'i (tic Soiling liquid Will blow! coolant from
wtii bt lost, someone tfflSy be injured or
eWKor-usste soofcmt that blown out ut the tiBet
„v™r,i .m-stree.-e mixture it. renewed at periodic inter-

Kc vs'tinU- manutacturers recommend that coolant sys
icrfk pellets bi- installed whenever tho coolant is
•Ml Motvrv -.fatr.riii'nds the use Of these MOp-leak pellets

sr,Sines, trying tficsc pjfi&SS in .some; ermine.-;could cause a
•• .-oafcij! .'lid an overheating condition. figure 20-35 (a) Chrysler recommends that the bleeder valve be opened whenever
W i l l i n g We cooling system, (b) Chrysler also recommends that a clear plastic h o s e < .
M attached to the oieeder valve and directed into a suitable container to keep trorr. •;};. ,
coolant onto the around and on the engine and to allow the technician to observe tne u
belt condition and proper installation are important tor coolant tor any remaining oil bubbles.
- operation of the cooling system.
HINT; Hie cooling system will not Junction correctly if air is not..
FLUSH AND REFILL
I burped) from the system after .1 refill. An easy method involves KpU
,-:;r<-n. recommend tli.it a cooling system be flushed and the radiator cap after the refill, but only to the first locked position, i' •
-r/itree.:." be replaced at specified intervals. Draining the vehicle lor several minutes and check the radiator level. Withou: ir-
w.vrs the engine is cool eliminates the danger of being in- radiator cap tightly sealed, no pressure will build in the cooling syst''" j
..-,: c VfWnt The radiator is drained by opening a petcock Driving the vehicle helps circulate tne coolant enough to force all air;
-i. u u . and tne coolant m the block is drained into a ere up and out ot the radiator tiller, fop oft the radiator after burpinj
v->r;;j:r,.t ov oper.mg plugs located in the lower part of the replace the radiator cap to the luliy locked position. Failure to
cooling system to remove all the air will often result in lack olfc-a.•'••''
the heater and may result in engine overheating.
be run into the tiller opening while the drains
r,u.v.;r,g should be continued until only clear water
t h e os.lii:fi, t.vstem m u s t h e d e t e r m i n e d . It is HOSES

thi • •>. r , e r m a n u a l and in the engine service man
Coolant system hose;, are critical to engine cooling. As fiw
• , - qiunuty needed lor the protection desired is
get old, they become either soft or brittle and sometimes^"'
that comes with the antifreeze. Open the
diameter. Their condition depends on their material and on o»\
a i : tne voriect amount of the specified type
Sine sen-ice conditions. If a hose breaks while the engine i> ".
iOw< 1 b •• enough water to completely fill the sys-
rung, all coolant will be lost. A hose should be replaced m v " '
- 2 . ; . . T c coolant recovery reservoir should
appears to be abnormal. See f igure 2Q-3r>.
ivla" mark with the correct antifreeze
HINJT lo make how removal easier and to avoid passible dare.-.-"

radiator, use a utility finite and sin the hose lengthwise ftwn i S W '
BUAPIFIG THE S Y S T E M the hose off.
•t . tan occur. The engine must be
r.»- tnermosut. fins allows full
1
Fr,e neaier must also be Care should be taken to avoid bending the soft ,,,
neck on ihe radiator. The hose neck should be cleaned t1'
( HAPBDOI
H wt«n«Y« pOKibl»
driw ilr through the ridlator to ltd in us*
f the hen (mm thi coolant ind trinitefrteg
he radiator.
SOFT AND SPONtiY
be tattod lot 'tin utlni a hand <>p
p e r m i t of the coolant can tx tntad u i i n i 1
REVIEW QUESTIONS
I. £xpUin wtrr t l » twrr.J • penting coolant temperature Is about 200* to
2. Exp inn w«f a ' - .»• of in: t ind watsr is commonly at<l
3. Eip-lar. the flow' - 'WKJJ tJ» fngm and radiator.

4. V.-, iiC'-x •!$•
5. Describe tJ* d3rr-.ee b e » r " i • aeries md l piriikl coolant Bow lyiwm.
6. EXf i ' 'he purpc-v tr t fwerr bvpai
7. Doatbe bow to p r i o r - i d'Ui. Sail, and r - ' j procedure art I cooling
toflt a: » (n.
1
'Tg-
Figure 2 0 - 3 6 All cooling system hoses should be checked lor wssr or damage CHAPTER QUIZ
1. Permanent mnlrwje Itrnastrr

new hose Is slipped In place. The clamp Is placed on the hose; then a. Mtthini
the hose Is pushed fully over the neck. The hose should be cut so b. Glycerin
that the clamp Is close to the bead on the neck. This Is especially c. Kermear
Important on a l u m i n u m hose necks to avoid corrosion. When the d. Etirylent gluai
hoses are In place and the drain petcock Is closed, the cooling sy 2. As the pen. " i g r •• s:-«tst - •
tern can be refilled w i t h the correct coolant mixture. a. The frft» point 3ecr*a««s i point:
b. The boit-.:^ poest d e o r i v
c. The h u t innster crtuas
CLEANING THE RADIATOR EXTERIOR 4 Afl at the abovt occurs
Overheating can result from exterior radiator plugging as well as n 3. Heat tran*r s .mpr-wd §esn ti* i rwnen
ternal plugging. External plugging Is caused by dirt and Insei t; 1'h a. Tbf «rr.peri-^t i . f c a n c t ts *r« - .
type of plugging can be seen If you look straight through tho radla b. Thetempari.. • una
tor while a light Is held behind It, It is most likely to occur on off c. The coolant » OJ i s u t n t ^ e
road vehicles. T h e plugged exterior of the radiator core can usual! d. Botha and c
be cleaned w i t h w a t e r pressure from a hose. The water is aimed at 4. A w i w pump » i poddvt dbptocroenvtrp* pump.
the engine side of tho radiator. The water should flow freely & True
through the core at all locations. If this does not clean the core, the b. False
radiator should be r e m o v e d for cleaning at a radiator shop. $. Stglnt-drtvw water pumps
«. 0- * at .-.. ind spec is. t j »
higher speeds
RHffi ^y Quick and Easy Cooling System

Problem Diagnosis
b. Usr engine oil a i i u M c i m ind coolant
c. Rotate It Iteut the saf.e spwd as the
d. D S, rtmsr during flftf ;.!KJ vrnthe- • o
If OverliMting occurs In slow stgp-iind-QO tr»ttu\ HV , 6. The p • thi i br • • in
through the radiator Check lot airflow blockafl«s m i.,vwn) i -v. .• « • Indudei flit foltawtnf .
overhaating occurs at highway speeds, the cause 1 • usually a a. Determine capacity, then ' !» co .«
circulation problem Check for ,t resti feted m ctogge. uvato indftwzt ind tfe« r«st of tft« wiv wtt!» w s i r
b. IllU.-mpkte-x wit -vera,I- t TUJ I V so-
overflow bottle
c. Fill tht btiv k and one N . ' c! ttu r
SUMMARY
inttttmodfuithtr
The purpose and function of the wolln* » w « d. Rtl ft* radiM*w«a mag».-t. tiar t v t * 0 m , > • 1 m m .
engine operating wmptrttuu-. and wftU with i St: » of MM r w r •,
7. Wbicfi sawrnent ts flw about thermostats? 0. An engine falls to reach normal operating temperattir
tau
t. tempantaiR marked on the thermostat Is the temperature at likely fault? %
which the thermostat should be fully open. a. Defective thermostat
b. T h e n r o g a o often cause overheating. b. Low coolant level
c. The terapetature marked on the thermostat is the temperature at c. Wrong antifreeze coolant
which the thermostat should start to open. d. Partially clogged radiator
d. Both a and b. 10. The normal operating temperature (coolant tempi i„ of
an
8. Tecbmcim A s a p that the radiator should always be inspected for leaks and equipped with a lOS'F thermostat Is '' enj^
? - x : Sow before installing a rebuilt engine. Technician B says that over- a. 175° to 195°F
headngduring slow city driving can only be due to a defective electric cool- b. 185° to 205°F
ing ar.. Which technician Is correct? c. 195° to 215°F
a. Technician A only d. 175° to 215°F
C H A P T E R
21
Lubrication System Operation
and Diagnosis
o: ",VES: After studying Chapter 21, the reader will be able to: Prepare for Engine Repair (A1) ASE certification test content area " D " (Lubricate
and Cooling Systems Diagnosis and Repair) • Explain engine oil ratings. • Describe how an oil pump and engine lubrication work. • D i s c u s s howan
when to change the oil and filter • Explain how to inspect an oil pump for wear.
E f TERMS: boundary lubrication • hydrodynamlc lubrication • longitudinal header oil gallery • positive displacement pump • pressi
regulating valve • viscosity • windage tray
E ngine oil is the lifeblood of any engine. The purposes of engine oil
include the following:
block w o u l d slide m o r e easily t h a n if it w e r e pushed a c r o s s a r
surface. T h e reason for this is that a w e d g e - s h a p e d oil film is to-
u p b e t w e e n t h e m o v i n g block and t h e surface, a s illustrat
1. Lubricating all moving parts to prevent wear
in Figure 2 1 - 2 . This w e d g i n g action Is called hydrodynait:
2. Helping to coo/the engine
3. Helping to seal piston rings
4. Cleaning, and holding dirt in suspension in the oil until it can be
drained from the engine
5. Neutralizing acids that are formed a s the result of the combustion
process
6. Reducing friction
7. Preventing rust and corrosion
LUBRICATION PRINCIPLES
Lubrication b e t w e e n two moving surfaces results from an oil film
that separates t h e surfaces and supports the load. See Figure 21 - l .
Although oil does not compress, it does leak out around the
o\. ' . > a r a n c e b e t w e e n the shaft and the bearing. In some cases, the
-4 BLOCK MOVEMENT
. , thick e n o u g h to keep the surfaces from seizing, but can
ii/,7i r,:- <• contact to occur. This condition Is called b o u n d a r y
l u b r i c a t i o n . The specified oil viscosity and oil clearances m u s t be
adrift) i;jring service to help prevent boundary lubrication
ar.d wear from occurring, which usually happens w h e n the engine
is -r.der a heavy load and low speeds. The m o v e m e n t of the shaft
'•'••V- '•"•*• contact with the bearing. If oil w e r e put on a flat
surface and a h e a r / block w e r e pushed across the surface, t h e
flcaHgnS
OIL H l i
CAMSHAFT
/
WEDGE-SHAPED
OIL FILM
DRIVE GEAR
FOR DISTRIBUTOR
AND OIL PUMP
Figure 2 1 - 3 Wedge-shaped oil film curved around a bearing joom<.
Figure 21-4 Ar u pump :, r * earwaf

l u b r i c a t i o n and d e p e n d s on t h e force applied to h .'.
speed b e t w e e n t h e objects a n d t h e thickness of the oil. Th. <n<r.,
of oil is called the v i s c o s i t y a n d is defined as t h e ability of the INNER ROTOR
resist flow. High-viscosity oil is thick and low-viscosity oil OUTER i POINT 1
The prefix hydro- refers to liquids, as in hydraulics, and dynar. ROTOR INLFT OUTLET /
refers to m o v i n g materials. H y d r o d y n a m i c lubrication occ urs v. • -
a wedge-shaped film of lubricating oil develops b e t w e e n two
faces that have relative m o t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m . See Figure 21 - 3.
The engine oil pressure system feeds a continuous supp of
into the lightly loaded part of the bearing oil clearance. Hydr :
namic lubrication takes over as the shaft rotates in the bearing to
produce a w e d g e - s h a p e d h y d r o d y n a m i c oil film that is curved
around the bearing. This film supports t h e bearing and reduces the
* oc ft n c « s u» M • M or o i r » MTO*
turning effort to a m i n i m u m w h e n oil of the correct viscosity is used. B OIL ts newt: m LOK or :xrrt» trxjm TO m/ru*
Most bearing w e a r o c c u r s d u r i n g t h e initial start-up. Wear con c on. O WWCEC our o r O</TIJT •
MESH TOO TOMTIT IT tamp • M -HT o*. : I M r H U rxnouax
tinues until a h y d r o d y n a m i c film is established.
Figure 21-5 The 0*

ENGINE LUBRICATION S Y S T E M S
The primary f u n c t i o n of t h e e n g i n e lubrication system is to main
tain a positive a n d c o n t i n u o u s oil supply to the bearings. Engine shaft, often with a hexagon shaped shaft Some engines nave a s b c r
pressure m u s t be high e n o u g h to get t h e oil to the bearings with shaft gear that meshes wttti t h e cam gear to drive both the (fistrihu
enough force to c a u s e t h e oil flow that is required for p r o p e r , a * and oil p u m p . With these drtve methods, the pump turns at one
ing. The normal e n g i n e oil pressure range is from 10 to 6 0 PSI i 2 0 0 half engine speed. In other engines, t h e oii pump is driven by the
to 400 kPa) (10 PSI per 1 0 0 0 engine RPM). However, hydrodynamic front of the aealcsiufL to a setup similar to that of an automatic
film pressures developed in t h e high-pressure areas of the engim transmission pump, so that it turns at the same speed as the crank
bearings m a y b e over 1 , 0 0 0 PSI ( 6 , 9 0 0 kPa). T h e relatives ov <: s h a f t Examples erf a crankshaft-driven a . pump w • •
glne oil pressures obviously could not support these high be; Figures 2 1 - 6 and 2 1 - 7 .
loads w i t h o u t h y d r o d y n a m i c lubrication. Most automotive engines use one of w o types of <>.. purr ps- gar
or roar. A. oil pi mps are caile . p o s i t i v e d i s p l a c e m e n t p u n p s .
Bid each rotation o l the pump delivers the same volume o f i»..
OIL PUMPS
thus, everything that enters must exit. The gear type I p • - "
All production a u t o m o b i l e e n g i n e s have a full-pressure oil system. sists off two spur gears in a close-fitting housing—one r a jmws
1
he oil is d r a w n from t h e b o t t o m of the oil pan and \. - while the other idles. As the gear teeth c o n e out ol i
the lubrication system u n d e r pressure. tend to leave a space, w h i c h is Ailed by oti drawn
pump M e t When the pump Is pemprtig, oil ts s~amee
the outside ol etch gear in the space between the gear and the
housing, as shown In Figure 2 1 - 6 .
N0Tf
fhe oil pump is ttw only engine u>n As the teeth mesh in the center, oil t* fbrcr-t t o o tne t e r n
into an oil passage, thus producing oil press-re. The i
pump consists essentially of a special ioheshape j
In most engines that use a distributor, the di> 1 b u t o ; .v v the inside of a lobed rotor The center k * * d J <
meshes with a gear on the camshaft, as showt n F i b r e s 2 1 - 4 the outer section Idles. As the .*«< -*para». , a. Jrawn a
an
d 21 5. T h e oil p u m p Is driven from the m d f the d b t - i it is drawn into geartype p u . - ; As the p s m p •
CALIBRATED
SPRING
CLOSED OPEN
Figure 2 1 - 9 Oil pressure relief valves are spring loaded. The stronger the spring te-- -
the higher the oil pressure.
OIL PRESSURE REGULATION
I n e n g i n e s w i t h a f u l l - p r e s s u r e l u b r i c a t i n g s y s t e m , maximutr.
- V X J . od g v n c irwynted m the tronf cover e» the engine that is driven fry s u r e is l i m i t e d w i t h a p r e s s u r e relief v a l v e . T h e relief valve (son
t i m e s called t h e p r e s s u r e r e g u l a t i n g v a l v e i is located?,::
o u t l e t of t h e p u m p . T h e relief v a l v e c o n t r o l s m a x i m u m pressure:
b l e e d i n g off oil t o t h e i n l e t s i d e of t h e p u m p . S e e Figure 21-5. \
The relief valve spring tension determines the maximum
pressure. If a p r e s s u r e relief v a l v e is n o t u s e d , t h e e n g i n e oil press:
w i l l c o n t i n u e t o i n c r e a s e a s t h e e n g i n e s p e e d increases. Maxiix
p r e s s u r e is u s u a l l y l i m i t e d t o t h e l o w e s t p r e s s u r e that will de'r
e n o u g h l u b r i c a t i n g oil t o all e n g i n e p a r t s t h a t n e e d to be lutac: ..
Three to 6 gallons per minute are required to lubricate the ens:
T h e oil p u m p is m a d e s o t h a t it is l a r g e e n o u g h t o p r o v i d e pressure:
l o w e n g i n e s p e e d s a n d s m a l l e n o u g h s o t h a t c a v i t a t i o n will not ?•:.
a t h i g h s p e e d . C a v i t a t i o n o c c u r s w h e n t h e p u m p tries to pul
f a s t e r t h a n it c a n f l o w f r o m t h e p a n t o t h e p i c k u p . W h e n it can-
g e t e n o u g h oil, it w i l l pull air. T h i s p u t s air p o c k e t s or cavities '.'
oil s t r e a m . A p u m p is c a v i t a t i n g w h e n it is p u l l i n g air o r vapors.
Rgwr? 21 - 7 -j- type > pump dhven by the crankshaft.

The reason for sheet-metal covers over t h e pickup screen b : •
vent cavitation. Oil Is trapped under the cover, which helps prevent fr-
t INLET p u m p from drawing in air, especially during sudden stops or during -
acceleration.
A f t e r t h e oil l e a v e s t h e p u m p , it is d e l i v e r e d to the oil ^

a n d t h e n t o t h e m o v i n g p a r t s t h r o u g h d r i l l e d oil passage*-
PUMP BODY
F i g u r e 2 1 - 1 0 . It n e e d s n o p r e s s u r e a f t e r it r e a c h e s the .
a r e t o b e l u b r i c a t e d . T h e oil f i l m b e t w e e n t h e p a r t s is deve.i-
a n d m a i n t a i n e d b y h y d r o d y n a m i c l u b r i c a t i o n . E x c e s s i v e oil p ^
requires m o r e horsepower and provides no better lubricate
t OUTLET the m i n i m u m effective pressure.
* ri * • < ;-•!• ~f>r ; the o>) flows through the pump around the outside of
FACTORS AFFECTING OIL P R E S S U R E
H e r >-.' * - : 5- • / 3 pus»¥e ftwacernent Dump. wherein everything entering
PA e - "a* Oil p r e s s u r e c a n o n l y b e p r o d u c e d w h e n t h e oil p u m p h a s * ;
ity l a r g e r t h a n all t h e " l e a k s " i n t h e e n g i n e . T h e leaks are
a n c e s at e n d p o i n t s of t h e l u b r i c a t i o n s y s t e m . T h e e n d poi ^ .
-. * ' As the lobes m e s h , they force t h e t h e e d g e s of b e a r i n g s , t h e r o c k e r a r m s , t h e connecting
o . , f r v r . -..-.'-rr. u n d e r p r e s s u r e in t h e s a m e m a n n e r a s h o l e s , a n d s o o n . T h e s e c l e a r a n c e s a r e d e s i g n e d i n t o t h e f --
O •• p - i m p r . Sized s o t h a t it will m a i n t a i n a a r e n e c e s s a r y for its p r o p e r o p e r a t i o n . A s t h e e n g i n e par'--
•/ r teas' 10 r :
7 0 k f ' a i in t h e Oil g a l l e r y w h e n t h e e n - c l e a r a n c e b e c o m e s g r e a t e r , m o r e oil w i l l l e a k o u t . I' 1 * ,
£>-• . r , v m e id P r e s s u r e w i l l i n c r e a s e b y a b o u t 1 0 PSI f o r capacity m u s t b e g r e a t e n o u g h t o s u p p l y e x t r a oil f ° r '
sacr *//. PPM increases, because t h e engine- T h e c a p a c i t y of t h e oil p u m p r e s u l t s f r o m i t s s i z e , ^ ^ e s ?
d r f r e s p ® r . p * ; v * < b e » « faster. a n d p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n . If t h e p u m p is r o t a t i n g s l o w l y a-
m
5®LA5W
OIUNG
WD
RETURN
TOSUW
•TLTSR
SPLASH
VALVE C L I N G TO
CY'-WJEf
WALL?
^lLTEP EEEO
OALLERT
<3 = GRAVITY RETURN PICKUP TUBE AND SCREEN

4 a PRESSURE SIDE VIEW ENO VIEW
Figure 21-10 A typical engine design thai uses both pressure and splash lubnt?: on Oil trawh una* rase" rrw?- g a S r * * saasts • - • ? * " r e -x- engfe 0 R « r » 1 s » t i
lubricated as the oil flows back down into the oil pan or Is splashed onto cart
is idling, oil p u m p c a p a c i t y is l o w . If the leaks ate greater than - "?->

pump capacity, engine oil pressure is low. As t h e e n g i n e s p e e d in H0TC; The.- c u r : - -s t h e " & ' the e s t ' * v ^ e s e . Ar- am- >'
creases, t h e p u m p c a p a c i t y i n c r e a s e s a n d t h e p u m p tries v
m o r e oil o u t of t h e l e a k s . T h i s c a u s e s t h e p r e s s u r e to rise until \
reaches the regulated m a x i m u m pressure.
T h e v i s c o s i t y of t h e e n g i n e oil a f f e c t s b o t h t h e p u m p c a p a c y
a n d t h e oi! l e a k a g e . T h i n oil o r oil of v e r y l o w viscosity slips oast A l w a y s refer -c- t h e m a n e s c r u r e r t -.peaScasiofts w h e n
t h e e d g e s of t h e p u m p a n d f l o w s f r e e l y f r o m t h e leaks. Hot oil h a s 3 ins t h e on p u t r f: - ear. TVaica -11 r . r r . r c l e a r a n c e s re'v:
low viscosity, a n d t h e r e f o r e , a h o t e n g i n e o f t e n h a s low oil pres- following:
sure. C o l d oil is m o r e v i s c o u s ( t h i c k c r ) t h a n h o t oil. t his resu
1. End ctete d e a r z s c e 1 v ' 5 tech 0 masmeter j
higher p r e s s u r e s , e v e n w i t h t h e cold e n g i n e idling. High o ; : p r e ;
2 . Side rotor £ c a r a s K : ? : S c h 0 30 n S & s e t e r
sure o c c u r s w i t h a c o l d e n g i n e , b e c a u s e t h e oil relief valve r . :
3 . Rotor i t clearance: OLDK irsch ; 0 2 S fsSBraettr
o p e n f u r t h e r t o r e l e a s e e x c e s s oil t h a n is n e c e s s a r y w i t h a h o t e n
4 . - c a r e - - , 3 cl-earKve DO* 0.
ftine. T h i s l a r g e r o p e n i n g i n c r e a s e s t h e Spring c o m p r e s s i o n force,
w h i c h in t u r n i n c r e a s e s t h e oil p r e s s u r e . P u t t i n g higher-viscosity oil A ' p a r t s s h o u l d also b e m s p e r a e d closely fcr w e a r -sec
in an e n g i n e will r a i s e t h e e n g i n e oil p r e s s u r e to t h e r e g u l a t e d sc t relief v a l v e for s c o r i n g a n d c h e c k t h e c o a f f i S o n of t h e s p r m g . V
ting of t h e relief v a l v e at a l o w e r e n g i n e s p e e d . installing t h e oi! p u m p , c o a t t h e s e a l i n g v a r i c e s w i t h e n s n e a s
K v l u b r i c a n t This h i b n e a n t h e l p s d r a w o i l from t h e p a n •••
start-up.
OIL P U M P CHECKS
The c o v e r is r e m o v e d t o c h e c k t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e oil p u m p ,
gears a n d h o u s i n g a r e e x a m i n e d f o r s c o r i n g . If t h e pears a n c h o is OIL PASSAGES IN T H E BLOCK
tag a r e h e a v i l y s c o r e d , t h e e n t i r e p u m p s h o u l d be replaced. :• •-..•• F r o m t h e a t e : , oil goes t & r o u g i a dri'ied h , - e t h a t *r
are lightly s c o r e d , t h e c l e a r a n c e s in t h e p u m p s h o u l d b e m e a s u r e d . - • • - oil g a D e r y - longitudinal header
1 hese c l e a r a n c e s i n c l u d e t h e s p a c e b e t w e e n t h e g e a r s and h o u s r hole drilled from t h e f r o n t of t h e b l o c k t o t h e t a c s . rofcpe erre
the s p a c e b e t w e e n t h e t e e t h of t h e t w o geare, a n d t h e s p a c e be u s e o n e oil ggilery; V-tvpe e n g i n e s ma'- u s e r-v • - three a . v
t w e e S t h e s i d e of t h e g e a r a n d t h e p u m p cover. A t e e . .•> Passages drilled t h r o u g h t h e block b u l k h e a d s a l o * S x • ~~ t "
o f t e n u s e d to m a k e t h e s e m e a s u r e m e n t s . G a u g i n g t v . . . be t h e m a i n oil gallerv t o t h e m a i n a n d cam hearings. >ee R p s r e J
used to m e a s u r e t h e s p a c e b e t w e e n t h e side of t h e g e a r - a n d o n p a g e 1 8 3 . In s o m e e n g m e s . oil goes » h e cant c.-
cover. T h e oil p u m p s h o u l d b e r e p l a c e d w h e n e x c e s s i v e c l e a r a n c e a n d t h e n to t h e m a m b e a n . - ® .
or scoring Is f o u n d . S e e f i g u r e 2 1 - 1 1 It is i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e OK h o l e s in t h e ! 1 i t t a g l r i i ' r t f WHR
O n m u s t e n g i n e s , t h e oil p u m p s h o u l d b e r e p l a c e d as p a r t of drilled passages l a d i e h e a r i n g s a d d l e .•» -PA: •*•» fceanrs - a r
w y e n g i n e w o r k , e s p e c i a l l y if t h e c a u s e for thi repair s lack of property lubricated. O v e r a l o n g p e n . x i 0?use. D e a r r s » - : w t r j
lubrication. w e a r c a u s e s e x c e s s c l e a r a n c e . T h e e s c ess c r e a r a s c e aSum
igur» 21-11 m* . 'mpection indicated ttiat this pump cover was worn (b) An
' u a x 3arte» & v.nettvng was found on one ol the gears, making this pump worthless
Dopt V Krao "ieta
- a ' ' r om the side of the bearing. When this happens,

• .. or n o oil left for bearings located farther down- Figure 2 1 - 1 2 (a) The oil pump is the only part in an engine that gets unfilteredW
- -.e . ;ng system. This is a major cause of bearing The oil is drawn up from the bottom of the oil pan and is pressurized before flowing tc
bearing were installed in place of the oil-starved filter (b) If debris gets into an oil pump, the drive or distributor shaft can twist and011
When this occurs, the engine will lose all oil pressure.
- -, - >-, wo J d (ail unless the bearing having the excess
:a:..'jt >• aa also replaced.
the oil to a rocker arm shaft. Some engines use an enlarf-

ft TRAIN LUBRICATION hole to carry lubrication oil around the rocker shaft cap
" • r/>r e n ' s are the last parts to get oil from the oil the rocker arm shaft. Holes in the bottom of the r o c k e r arr
-- - . -• - - - . / . - tersect or have drilled passages to the allow lubrication of the rocker arm pivot. Mechanical loa&
;rvr ••, ..-.- • the lifter. When hydraulic lifters are valve train hold the rocker arm against the passage in t!'- .
•":.<•': . . . - - <- galie/y keeps refilling them. On some arm shaft. This prevents excessive oil leakage from the
o . ' - ; vi". up the center of a hollow pushrod shaft. Often, holes are drilled in cast rocker arms t o c a r r ' . „ :
tear* the p - v ; l i , v.* rocker arm pivot, and the valve pushrod end and to the valve tip. Rocker arm assemblies
See : 21 Ir. o?her engines, an oil passage Is drilled a surface coating of oil, so the oil flow to the rocker a ^ . ,
tfver • - * c a r . bear ng to block deck, w h e r e it minimized using restrictions or metered openings. The r e ^
l / • :, -r -e a r»<e drijled ,n the head to carry metering disk is in the lifter w h e n the rocker a s s e m b l y
cation System Operation and Diagnosis 183
BEARING
CAVITY r Figure 2 1 - 1 3 A(1 intermediate stiatf <Jmei the o*
pump on this oveitiead camshaft engine Note the man
CAMSHAFT
gallery and other drilled passages •<• He Okxk am)
LUBRICATION cylinder head
CYLINDER AND
OIL G A L L E R Y
CYLINDER
CAMSHAFT HEAD OIL
JOURNAL GALLERY
SLOT
HYDRAULIC
LIFTERS
TURBOCHARGER
LUBRICATION
(IF EQUIPPED)
MAIN
GALLEFtY
BALANCE
SHAFT
GALLERY OIL PUMP
INTERMEDIATE
SHAFT
t h r o u g h t h e p u s h r o d . C a m j o u r n a l h o l e s t h a t line u p w i t h oil pas-

sages a r e o f t e n u s e d t o m e t e r oil to t h e r o c k e r s h a f t s .
Oil that seeps from t h e r o c k e r assemblies is returned to the oil
pan through drain holes. T h e s e oil drain holes a r e often placed so that
the oil drains o n t h e c a m s h a f t o r c a m drive gears to lubncate t h e m
S o m e e n g i n e s h a v e m e a n s of d i r e c t i n g a positive oil S o w to t h e
c a m drive gears o r c h a i n . T h i s m a y b e a n o z z l e o r a c h a m f e r o n a
bearing p a r t i n g s u r f a c e t h a t a l l o w s oil to spray o n t h e loaded por-
tion of t h e c a m d r i v e m e c h a n i s m .
OIL PANS
As the vehicle a c c e l e r a t e s , brakes, o r t u r n s rapidly, t h e oil rands to
m o v e around in t h e p a n . Pan baffles and oil pan shapes are o f t e n used
to k e e p t h e oil inlet u n d e r t h e oil a t all times. As t h e c r a n k s h a f t ro-
tates, it acts like a fan a n d c a u s e s air within the crankca<e to r o t a t e
w i t h it. This can c a u s e a s t r o n g draft o n t h e o.i. c h u m r s g . : so that
Figure 2 1 - 1 4 Oil is sent to the rocker arms on this Chevrolet V-6 engine through the air bubbles e n t e r t h e oil, w h i c h then causes oil f o a n u n g . Oil w i t h air
0w
Pushrods. The oil returns to the oil pan through the oil drainback holes in the cylinder will n o t lubricate like liquid oil. so oil f o a m i n g car. cause bearings to
fail. A baffle or w i n d a g e t r a y is s o m e t i m e s installed in e n g j n s IB
iiu stcnoNv
Figure 2 1 - 1 5 A typeal oil pan with a built-in windage tray used to keep oil from Being
Figure 2 1 - 1 7 A typical engine oil cooler. Engine coolant flows through the cooler a5 .
c A m e d uc by the njtaftng crankshaft
that fits between the engine block and the oil filter.
Figure 2 1 - 1 8 The oil pressure switch is connected to a warning lamp that alertsK:
of low oil pressure.
f i g u r e 2 1 - 1 6 A suaigRtedge and a feeler gauge are being used to check that the oil pan
-as teen a y e c S y instated on me 5 7-lrter Chevrolet V-8 engine The oil pan is part of the
err« ' and r^jsr be property installed to ensure that other parts attached to the engine
are not G e n ; placed m a bind
e_T..r.ate t h e o.. c h u r n i n g p r o b l e m . This may be an a d d e d part, as

r . r . r r . - e 2 1 - 1 5 , or it m a y be a part of t h e oil pan. W i n d a g e
•jc na-.e t h e good side effect of r e d u c i n g t h e a m o u n t of air dis-
t u m e d ir.- T.e c r a n k s h a f t , so t h a t less p o w e r is drained f r o m t h e en-
z s . k at r,:gr. c r a n k s h a f t speeds. Oil p a n s on m a n y engines are a
: i rt of t h e e n g i n e . See Figure 2 1 - 1 6 .
(ML COOLERS
Figure 2 1 - 1 9 A typical oil pressure sending unit on a Ford V-8.
O n tem&eratu.-e m u s t also be controlled on m a n y h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e
- . - v / i - . i - ^ e : e n g i n e s . See figure 2 1 - 1 7 for an e x a m p l e of an
e r . e n e o c.-joier j . e d or, a p r o d u c t i o n h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e e n g i n e . OIL P R E S S U R E WARNING L A M P
- . p a n also helps t o control oil t e m p e r a t u r e . All vehicles are equipped w i t h an oil p r e s s u r e gauge or a ^
C o o i a r r f o w s t h r o u g h '.he oil cooler to help w a r m t h e oil w h e n t h e lamp. T h e w a r n i n g lamp c o m e s o n w h e n e v e r t h e
engine cs,d a n d c o o tr.e oil w h e n t h e e n g i n e is h o t . Oil t e m p e r a - sure h a s dropped to 3 to 7 PSI. N o r m a l oil pressure is c o n ^ \ i
ture sr.ovd a&cr/e 2 1 2 F 1 0 0 ' C i to boil off a n y a c c u m u l a t e d be 10 PSI per 1 0 0 0 RPM. An electrical s w i t c h is used to ^
m o i s ' . r e t r • . h o . , d not e x c e e d a b o u t 2 8 0 ° to 3 0 0 ° F ( 1 3 8 ° t o g r o u n d circuit of t h e oil pressure w a r n i n g l a m p if the oi • ^ ^ "
148 ' C . below the rating of t h e s e n d i n g unit. See Figures 21 1 "
- r ^ i fcrthi mo Oufnm t»
t- iff.- : J ^ . v e car be as a pa
FREQUENTLY A S K E O QUESTION Y f >
a. I0tt09
What Is A c c e p t a b l e Oil Co c. 2 0 0 to <50

<t :..«r 1.000
Theie are a number ol oprnu/ s
3. A I f . pis-.pentpaip?
Most vehicle owners do not
a. Pojivie dfcptacer-
cnanges even il they do not change it more , j tc.
b. C f r t r ? lei
(12,000Kilometers). Engineers ' j . e yum 1 c. Pbtoof/pe
nng designs to help eliminate od cor. . - r p t . 1. <L Hydra.iCaSydr.ven
Many stationary or indusU i ; e n g « « s i ' i . . 4. ir r/e fli p a s i n aa x %re Hoc* ire oSti ,
they do not accumulate mites, yet they stilt may cor . . . r « t> - sy<« o* J. OB ^
A general rule lor •acceptable' od const- ptx.•. a t a t • . : a act .t b. OBgaSertei
0.002 to 0.004 pounds per horsepower per hour. To figuf 3 c Weepiw^s
dL Ot •: «s
1.82 •< quarts used
• = Kxhprtir 5 . Teehocian A s r p that the 06 pump draws t z i S x e d ofl !rws tbe b o n a i
Operating hp < total hours the c i p » . > ->:'jB B that theoipuntp Sdrhren ftnm twit of
the crr>a.'aft ie w o e englnev Which techrjdan Is carect?
Therefore, oil consumption is based on the amount of wcA an in-
a. as A t-
forms. Although the formula may not be usable for vehicle ergres jr
b. 7 K - icac E oo-V
daily transportation, it may be usable by the marine of industrial ernye ^
c. 5 A aod B
Generally, oil consumption that is greater than 1 quart for every 600 ~
d. ' - - -«<- - • A aar B
(1,000 kilometers per liter) is considered to be encessr.e A-.th a motor vetnoe
6 . Tec - a A v . . y pr?- i c e i afefted tv the .-* of P i n aft)
rod bear.-? dei-srce. " K t r x l a D 5 sivs (bat the oil ( t e s M t a v-jtb- r - - -
4 e o i a » hoc thac wteri It is raid. WTicii a t t j x i a n 3 correct?
SUMMARY a. ar. A
b. Ttsdoicaai B x
1. Normal engine oil pump pressure ranges fror. 10 '.:> CO C c. Both T e e - . i i s A a c d 3
4 0 0 kPa) or 10 PSI (or every 1000 engine RPM. d. — r " - ' A *<: B
2 . Hydrodynamic oil pressure around engine beatings is usually over 1.000 7. - a - -iii -e i •• - Use —•• " - e t-J
PSI i6,900 kPal. T e d s a c a s B says that i i e e n g ? i f f l are equipped i r i d i a c c i c o d a W'tici
3 . The oil pump is driven directly by the crankshaft or by a gear or sbaft t e c i a c a i is cotrea?
from tbe c a m s h a f t a. T e d x K 13 A -it
b. Tedrtjcar. :
4 . Tbe last components to get oil from the oil pump are the valve traai para.
c. Bott Ttcbrjc l i s A and B
5. Some engines use an oil coolet d. .-- i e r " -- A- r 3
& ThediptasiwwaningWtnoraialjfaieQe00svnmtfieSftosi't*
REVIEW QUESTIONS os f t t s s t imps Selew .
a. 50 PSI
1. What causes a wedge-shaped film to form in the :i.1? h. 50 PSI
2. What is hydrodynamic lubrication? t 10 PSI
3. Explain why the oil filter is bypassed when the engine oil is cold and thick. d. 3 to 7 PSI
9. A w p c i 7 - - : -atPjap:- « - » S T j C - tsper r - . v ?
4. Explain why internal engine leakage affects c:. pre.-a
a. 5 t o f g H x s
5. Explain the operation of the bypass valve located in the ofl filter or 08
b. 6 - o : 0 ga -3
filter adapter.
c. 101: a -j
6- Describe how the oil flows from the oil pump, through the filter and m a n d. 50 to 1 CO ga - i
engine bearing?, to the valve train. i a i s tvpical enjjne ' J t - c j i r. sysrans. ct-rîooess ire V u t v>
7. What is the purpose of a windage tray? receh* o i aod tbe tot to s«der frees 1 tadt el o l or o i pressure?
a. ' U a b e a a n 9
b. - . J be
CHAPTER QUIZ c. V i , * compoc<nt5
I . Normal oil pump pressure in an engine i s . d. O i Etets
a. 3 to 7 PSI
b. 10 to 60 PSI
c. 100 to ISO PSI
d. 180 to 210 PSI
f\r\9\ h t t p : / / r u t r a c k e r . o r q
Intake and Exhaust System:
After s t u d y i n g Chapter 22, t h e reader will be able to: Prepare for ASE Engine Performance (A8) certification test content area "C"
- ana Exhaust Systems Diagnosis and Repair) • Discuss the purpose and function of intake manifolds. • Explain the differences betvve
- hie 1 - niectran manifolds and port fuel-injection manifolds. • Describe the operation of the exhaust gas recirculation system in the intake mali...
• List trie materials used in exhaust manifolds and exhaust systems.
annealing • exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) • hangers • helmholtz resonator • micron • plenum
AIR INTAKE FILTRATION cleaner housing is located on top of t h e throttle-body injection iTj'
unit or is positioned to o n e side of t h e e n g i n e . See Figure 2 2 - 2 .
Gasolene m u s t b e m i x e d w i t h air to form a combustible m i x t u r e .
A : r m c v e m e n t i n t o a n e n g i n e o c c u r s d u e to low pressure (vacuum) Filter R e p l a c e m e n t M a n u f a c t u r e r s r e c o m m e n d cleaning?
b e i n g c r e a t e d in t h e e n g i n e . See Figure 2 2 - 1 . replacing the air filter e l e m e n t at periodic intervals, usually liste: :
l i k e gasoline, air c o n t a i n s dirt and o t h e r materials w h i c h can- terms of distance driven or m o n t h s of service. The distance as
n o t b e a l l o w e d t o r e a c h t h e e n g i n e . Just as fuel filters are used to time intervals are based on so-called n o r m a l driving. More freqi
c l e a n ' t t p u r i n e s f r o m gasoline, a n air cleaner and filter are used to air filter r e p l a c e m e n t is necessary w h e n t h e vehicle is driven ur: i
r e m o v e c o n t a m i n a n t s f r o m t h e air. T h e t h r e e m a i n jobs of the air dusty, dirty, or o t h e r severe c o n d i t i o n s .
c l e a n e r a n d filter are to:
It is best to replace a filter e l e m e n t b e f o r e it becomes too dir.
• Clean t h e air before it is mixed with fuel to be effective. A dirty air filter passes c o n t a m i n a n t s that ca
• Silence intake noise engine wear.
• Act as a flame arrester in case of a backfire
Air Filter E l e m e n t s T h e paper air filter e l e m e n t is the it
T h e a u t o m o t i v e e n g i n e uses a b o u t 9 , 0 0 0 gallons ( 3 4 , 0 6 9 liters) c o m m o n type of filter. It is m a d e of a c h e m i c a l l y treated papers:
of air for e v e r y gallon of gasoline b u r n e d at an air-fuel ratio of 14.7 that contains tiny passages in t h e fibers. T h e s e passages form at
tc 1. W i t h o u t p r o p e r filtering of t h e air before intake, d u s t and dirt direct path for the airflow to follow. T h e airflow passes through:
t h e air seriously d a m a g e e n g i n e parts and shorten engine life. eral fiber surfaces, each of w h i c h traps microscopic particle
W h i l e abrasive particles c a n c a u s e w e a r any place inside the dust, dirt, and carbon. M o s t air filters are capable of trapping :
e n g i n e w h e r e t w o surfaces m o v e against each other, they first attack and o t h e r particles larger t h a n 10 to 2 5 m i c r o n s in size. <
p stor. rings a n d cylinder walls. C o n t a i n e d in the blowby gases, they m i c r o n is equal to 0 . 0 0 0 0 3 9 in.
p a s by t h e piston rings and into t h e crankcase. From the crankcase,
v . - p a r t i e s circulate t h r o u g h o u t the engine in the oil. Large a m o u n t s
of abrasive particles in t h e oil can d a m a g e other m o v i n g engine parts. NOTE A person can only see objects that are 40 microns or larger in s
Tr.e filter that cleans t h e intake air is in a two-piece air cleaner A human hair is about 50 microns in diameter.
r. zsmg m a d e either of stamped steel or composite materials. The air
INTAKE
VALVE
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
LOW PRESSURE
(VACUUM)
PISTON
Figure 22-1 f u- tc*r. a' piston lowers the air pressure inside the
they
C M M N g n d u m b e r The p r e t u r e drfferenfeai between the atmosphere and the inside ol the Figure 2 2 - 2 Dust and dirt in the air are trapped in the air filter so
erqtm tarc»» a r flto »» M p n engine.
iptor 22- WaV* Vwj F i h » i U 187
W ' h e .-.r ,-otwol valve generally is located in r f e j'r t r

s n o r k e l , It m a / b e In t h e air intake housing o r ducting o( r e m o t e air
c l e a r e r * . M o s t ' el Injection systems do n o t use t e m p e r a " ; ! * ccffitrol.
S m^ °hn<*Airn,w
A t * , , « .r.êtt 9 » * ! and tha n r M a n system c a n i t y m / h
s t r A i . OeW» of objects deposited by a n f t n k ran causa a r w r t c v * v, t *
a i r f l o * a M c a t r e t f x e engine pertormanca. Set Rgur» 2 2 - 4
FREQUENTLY A S K E D QUESTION Q
What Does This Tube Oo?
# h a t is the p u f p o i e -J f * <MVaped tube attached to the W a t duct between

t r * air fitter and H e U - r * */yJy as ceen in Pgure 2 2 - 5 ?
F i g u r e 2 2 - 3 Most air tutor housings are located on the side o( the engine uKnpar -- • m
use flexible rubber hose to direct tlie airflow into the throttle body ol the engine. The t A e tftape -5 d t s ^ ' M ' 3 dampen out certain resonant frequencies
that can o c o r at certain e n g r « r e e d a l i f e length and shape ot t h s lube * a
d e s e e d >0 a b s * : . V c * - a t are created A air Intake system a i d to
;xcv«de a r e o e r w t f ' / " * « a * t h a i trier t * eteised ''"to the airstream during
NOIEt D o n o t a t t e m p t t o c l e a n a p a p e r e l e m e n t filter by r a p p i n g t - 3
Of - s of towef y ^ M t s - varet tube s often called 3 Helmholiz
sharp o b j e c t t o d i s l o d g e t h e d i r t , o r b l o w i n g c o m p r e s s e d air t h r o u g h the
filter. I h l s tends to c l o g t h e paper pores a n d further reduce the a r f i . H
resonator, a n e d ' / Te 1 scm&Vt i ~e - i l o r s h p between shape and
capability of die filter. i&jl at frequency Herman L F. v-yt B b & V k A z • 321-1394) at me W w s l t y <A
Hornzsterg ii East P r u s s i a r h e j i l f e l r ' s t i 4 --wonance t u b e s . » t o
reduce ffie r v s e of tie -at entering engine
Remotely M o u n t e d Air Filters a n d Ducts Air cleaner and

d u c t d e s i g n d e p e n d o n a n u m b e r of f a c t o r s s u c h as t h e size, shape,
and l o c a t i o n of o t h e r e n g i n e c o m p a r t m e n t c o m p o n e n t s , as well as
the vehicle b o d y s t r u c t u r e .
P o r t f u e l - i n j e c t i o n s y s t e m s g e n e r a l l y u s e a horizontally m o u n t e d
t h r o t t l e b o d y . S o m e s y s t e m s a l s o h a v e a m a s s a i r f l o w (MAF) s e n s o r
b e t w e e n t h e t h r o t t l e b o d y a n d t h e air c l e a n e r . S e e Figure 2 2 - 3 .
B e c a u s e p l a c i n g t h e a i r c l e a n e r h o u s i n g n e x t to t h e t h r o t t l e b o d y
w o u l d c a u s e e n g i n e a n d v e h i c l e d e s i g n p r o b l e m s , it is m o r e effic>. i t
to u s e t h i s r e m o t e a i r c l e a n e r p l a c e m e n t .
T u r b o c h a r g e d e n g i n e s p r e s e n t a s i m i l a r p r o b l e m . T h e air c l e a r e r
c o n n e c t s t o t h e air i n l e t e l b o w a t t h e turbocharger. However, t h e
t r e m e n d o u s h e a t g e n e r a t e d b y t h e t u r b o c h a r g e r m a k e s it impractical to
place t h e air c l e a n e r h o u s i n g t o o c l o s e to t h e turbocharger. For better
p r o t e c t i o n , t h e M A F s e n s o r is installed b e n v e e n t h e turbocharger and
the air c l e a n e r in s o m e v e h i c l e s . R e m o t e air c l e a n e r s a r e c o n n e c t e d
to t h e t u r b o c h a r g e r air i n l e t e l b o w o r fuel-injection t h r o t t l e b o d y by
c o m p o s i t e d u c t i n g , w h i c h is u s u a l l y r e t a i n e d b y d a m p s . The d u e ting
used m a y b e rigid o r f l e x i b l e , b u t all c o n n e c t i o n s m u s t b e airtight.
ENGINE A I R T E M P E R A T U R E REQUIREMENTS
S o m e f o r m of t h e r m o s t a t i c c o n t r o l h a s b e e n used on vehicles
e q u i p p e d w i t h a t h r o t t l e - b o d y f u e l i n j e c t i o n to c o n t r o l i n t a k e l i r
t e m p e r a t u r e f o r i m p r o v e d d r i v e a b i l i t y . In a t h r o t t l e b o d y fuel E l e c -
tion s y s t e m , t h e f u e l a n d a i r a r e c o m b i n e d a b o v e t h e t h r o t t l e platei
and m u s t t r a v e l t h r o u g h t h e i n t a k e m a n i f o l d b e f o r e r e a c h i n g : e
cylinders. A i r t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r o l is n e e d e d u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s
to h e l p k e e p t h e g a s a n d a i r m i x t u r e c o m b i n e d .
H e a t r a d i a t i n g f r o m t h e e x h a u s t m a n i f o l d is r e t a i n e d by t h e
heat s t o v e a n d s e n t t o t h e a i r c l e a n e r i n l e t t o p r o v i d e h e a t e d air to
the t h r o t t l e b o d y .
A n air c o n t r o l v a l v e o r d a m p e r p e r m i t s t h e air i n t a k e oft J «. . - 0
,1S
F i g u r e 2 2 - 4 .a) -tote the Oscmery 13 i*e v ' - X ' •> -r
• H e a t e d air f r o m t h e h e a t s t o v e a f t r t u c Sonne. 3 * the nuts .vera .-towns!» J a p c - . » : » -c- * v
"' " ''
" Cooler air f r o m t h e s n o r k e l o r cold air d u c t s t*^
HD<M only v>a the housing « ( f V M h . 1 ttftss P * *••
" A r o m h i n i l l n n .if K,%ih indicating thai tfts .elude had > * Seen a r - v a 1 » ••"•)' " *
R f w e 2 2 - 5 t -esorance t u t t catted a Henhottz resonator, is used on the intake duct power. T h e cross-section m u s t be small e n o u g h t h a t the flow ve
1 * aa *•>> and mrottle body to reduce air intake noise during engine ities of the charge will be high e n o u g h to k e e p t h e fuel droplet. •
acceWraoor. suspension. This is required so t h a t e q u a l mixtures reach ear}
cylinder. Manifold cross-sectional size is o n e reason why engine ]
designed especially for racing will n o t r u n at l o w engine speei:
Racing manifolds m u s t be large e n o u g h t o r e a c h maximum he •
power. This size, however, allows t h e c h a r g e to move slowly, an:
t h e fuel will separate from t h e c h a r g e at l o w engine speeds, h
separation leads to poor accelerator r e s p o n s e . See Figure 22"
Standard passenger vehicle e n g i n e s are primarily designed for eccr.
o m y during light-load, partial-throttle o p e r a t i o n . Their manil -
therefore, have a m u c h smaller cross-sectional area than do th
of racing engines. This small size will h e l p k e e p flow velocities
the charge high t h r o u g h o u t t h e n o r m a l operating speed rati?
of the engine.
T E C H TIP Check t h e I n t a k e If a n E x h a u s t Noise
Because many V-type engines equipped w i t h a throttle-body injection art

EGR valve use a crossover exhaust passage, a leak around this passagei
create an exhaust leak and noise Always check for evidence of an exhaust if
around the intake manifold whenever diagnosing an exhaust sound.
C i q u r t 2 2 - < 1 Ihr ->-oodv injection (TBI) unit used on a GM V-6 engine
T H R O T T L E - B O D Y I N J E C T I O N INTAKE M A N I F O L D S PORT F U E L - I N J E C T I O N I N T A K E M A N I F O L D S
•p-t :"}ir? manifold is also called the inlet manifold. Smooth opera- The size and shape of port fuel-injected e n g i n e intake mar,'1
' sr. " an on. , occur w h e n each combustion chamber produces the
can be optimized b e c a u s e t h e only t h i n g in t h e m a n i f o l d is1
-- - ; -...re as every other chamber in the engine. For this to be The fuel injection is located in t h e i n t a k e manifold a b o u t 3 I
i . : - • s . each cylinder must receive a charge exactly like the charge 4 inches (70 to 100 m m ) f r o m t h e i n t a k e valve. T h e r e f o r e . '
„ •, •• '/.net cylinders in quality and quantity. The charges r u n n e r length and s h a p e are d e s i g n e d for t u n i n g only. There i>
- .-.' ' i . e t n e same physical properties and the same air-fuel need to keep an a i r - f u e l m i x t u r e h o m o g e n i z e d througho"1
mixture. trip f r o m the TBI u n i t to t h e i n t a k e valve. Typically, long runr
- - oody fue, .njector forces finely divided droplets of build low-RPM t o r q u e w h i l e s h o r t e r r u n n e r s provide ma*1®
. * r.to the incoming air to form a combustible air-fuel mix- high-RPM power. See Figures 2 2 - 8 a n d 2 2 - 9 . Some engine-
.-- r.z re 2 2 - b for an example of a typical throttle-body in- four valve h e a d s utilize a dual or variable intake runner desigP
"sl . ' T h e s e droplets start to evaporate as soon as they lower engine speeds, long intake r u n n e r s provide low-speed w
--. • e ; - ."->• .-. body injector nozzles. The droplets stay in the At higher e n g i n e speeds, s h o r t e r i n t a k e r u n n e r s are open?-
•». the - barge flows at high velocities. At m a x i m u m m e a n s of a computer-controlled valve to increase hig!*'5'
hi • <• • - oc *:es may reach 3 0 0 feet per second. Sepa- power.
..,. ..j. : . f r o m the charge as it passes through the man-
:. v r .- r - r e velocity drops below 5 0 feet per second.
:- • '.:-,> <• v . • <-, die speeds are often below this value. VARIABLE INTAKES
»Vr.er. pita* v . v . t . ' . v low engine speeds—extra fuel m u s t Many intake manifolds are designed to provide both short ru
v . -.sfy >•: •:.<• order to have a combustible mixture best for higher engjne speed power, and longer runners.
r--.. • -r.e — r.. • .' chamber. lower engine speed torque. T h e valvels) t h a t control the fl°"
'.•'.• 1 s.zn-. *ept- . - • a .omprornise. They must have a through the passages of the intake manifold are computer con
crov '.v- er.o ,?/ t o allow charge flow for m a x i m u m See Figure 2 2 - 1 0 .
C h a p t e r 2 2 Intake and E x h a u s t Sy s t e m s 189
PLASTIC INTAKE M A N I F O L D S Becat ; of the efficiency of computer-controlled fuel injection,

Most t h e r m o p l a s t i c intake
some newer engines do not require an EGR system to meet em -
r e i n f o r c e d n y l o n . T h e pi a'
•ion standards. Some engines use intake and exhaust valve over-
molded. Some manifolds are molded in t w o p a r t s and bonded
lap as a means of trapping some exhaust in the cylinder as an
alternative to using an EGR valve.
t o g e t h e r Plastic i n t a k e m a n i f o l d s a r e l i g h t e r t h a n a l u m i n u m m a n i -
folds a n d c a n b e t t e r i n s u l a t e e r . n n ,
The EGR valve opens at speeds above idle on a warm en-
plastic intake manifolds have smoother interior surfaces gine. When open, the valve allows a small portion of the ex-
than do other types of manifolds, resulting n •:;<_. er., - haust gas |5% to )0%: to enter the intake manifold. Here, the
Figure 2 2 - 1 1 .
exhaust gas mixes with and takes the place of some of the in-
take charge. This leaves less room for the intake charge to enter
the combustion chamber. The recirculated exhaust gas is inert
EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION PASSAGES and does not enter into the combustion process. The result is a
To reduce the emission of oxides of nitrogen (NO,), engines have lower peak combustion temperature. As the combustion tem-
been e q u i p p e d w i t h e x h a u s t gas recirculation (EGR) perature is lowered, the production of oxides of nitrogen is also
From 1973 until recently, they were used on almost all vehicles. reduced.
RAM-TUNING INLET TUBE

LENGTH COMPARISON
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
800 1600 2400 3200 4000 4800 5600
ENGINE SPEED (RPM)
Figure 2 2 - 8 The graph shows the effect of sonic tuning of the intake manifold runners.
Ttie longer runners increase the torque peak and move it to a lower RPM. The 600-mm-long Figure 2 2 - 1 0 the a? flam»ig into the engine can be directed through long or snort
intake runner is about 24 inches long. runners for best performance and fuel economy
IDLE AIR
BYPASS
UPPER INTAKE
VALVE
MANIFOLD
PLENUM AREA
AIR FUEL PRESSURE

RELIEF VALVE
INTAKE
FUEL PRESSURE
REGULATOR
FUEL RAIL FUEL INJECTOR
8Ur
* Airflow through the large diameter upper Intake manifold is distributed to smaller diameter individual runners m the lower manifold m r *
1ST N:
• An upper manifold connects to the lower u n i t , . |U(jes ^

long passages needed to help provide the ram eff at ^ "
engine deliver m a x i m u m torque at low engine sp . The thrr
body attaches to the upper intake.
T h e u s e of a two-part intake manifold allows for easier mi-

facturing as well as assembly, b u t can c r e a t e additional location; ••
leaks. If t h e l o w e r intake m a n i f o l d g a s k e t leaks, n o t only cou -
v a c u u m leak o c c u r affecting t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e engine, b
c o o l a n t leak or an oil leak c a n also occur. A leak at the gasketi
t h e u p p e r i n t a k e manifold usually results in a v a c u u m (air) leak r -
EXHAUST MANIFOLD DESIGN

T h e e x h a u s t m a n i f o l d is d e s i g n e d t o collect high-temperature spc-
gases f r o m t h e h e a d e x h a u s t p o r t s . S e e Figure 2 2 - 1 3 . The j
gases a r e s e n t t o a n e x h a u s t p i p e , t h e n t o a catalytic convener,
t h e muffler, t o a r e s o n a t o r , a n d o n t o t h e tailpipe, w h e r e they;-:
v e n t e d to t h e a t m o s p h e r e . T h i s m u s t b e d o n e w i t h t h e least-possit •
a m o u n t of r e s t r i c t i o n or b a c k p r e s s u r e w h i l e k e e p i n g the exhaiir
F i q u n 22-11 Many piasac intake manifolds are constructed using many parts glued n o i s e at a m i n i m u m .
aperv x conpiei passages for airflow into the engine
E x h a u s t gas t e m p e r a t u r e will v a r y a c c o r d i n g to t h e power pro-
d u c e d b y t h e e n g i n e . T h e m a n i f o l d m u s t b e d e s i g n e d to operate 1:
EGR VALVE b o t h e n g i n e idle a n d c o n t i n u o u s full p o w e r . U n d e r full-power con
d i t i o n s , t h e e x h a u s t m a n i f o l d will b e c o m e r e d - h o t , causing a gtei-
d e a l of e x p a n s i o n .
E1HAUST
GAS TUBE
At i d l e , t h e e x h a u s t m a n i f o l d is j u s t w a r m , c a u s i n g little expat
s i o n . A f t e r c a s t i n g , t h e m a n i f o l d m a y b e a n n e a l e d . Annealing
h e a t - t r e a t i n g p r o c e s s t h a t t a k e s o u t t h e b r i t t l e h a r d e n i n g of the car
ing to reduce the chance of c r a c k i n g from the temperat®
c h a n g e s . D u r i n g v e h i c l e o p e r a t i o n , m a n i f o l d t e m p e r a t u r e s usual'
r e a c h t h e h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e e x t r e m e s . M o s t e x h a u s t manifolds an
INTAKE VALVE
CLOSED
22-12 *>« exhaust gas rearaiiatwri system is more efficient at controlling NO,
EXHAUST
e a m o m * r * etfaust jases are cooled A long metal tube between the exhaust manifold
VALVE
m e * * * - C ~ a r * M anon* the exhaust gases to cool before entering the engine
EXHAUST
GASES
t1/? • fern n a s s o m e m e a n s of i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g t h e e x
-an " nuke m a n i f o l d s . T h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g p a s s a g e is c o n -
- : "it PGR v a i v e . O n V-type e n g i n e s , t h e i n t a k e m a n i f o l d COMBUSTION
-, -- . - >ec! a s 2 s o u r c e o f e x h a u s t g a s f o r t h e E G R s y s t e m . A CHAMBER
sty c o n n e c t s t h e e x h a u s t c r o s s o v e r to t h e EGR valve. O n

PISTON
- engines, a n external t u b e is g e n e r a l l y u s e d t o c a r r y e x
c . ,..• ' - EOF vaive. T h e e x h a u s t g a s e s a r e m o r e e f f e c t i v e in
sf. % '/>. of n,rroger. 'NO, emissions if t h e e x h a u s t is
; • - - d r a w n i n t o the c y l i n d e r s . T h i s t u b e is o f t e n d e -
, -- / j that the exhaust g a s is c o o l e d b e f o r e it e n t e r s
:
e ,'r i re. , ure 2 2 - 1 2 s h o w s a t y p i c a l l o n g E G R t u b e .
AMD LOWER INTAKE M A N I F O L D S

- are constructed in two parts.
p l e n u m , i ' a c h e s to the cylinder Figure 2 2 - 1 3 The exhaust gases are p u s h e d out of the cylinder by the p i s ' 0 0
cuds « ' / ' - ; l e j p a s - i ^ s from ' h e m u k c ports. exhaust stroke

Chapter 22: intake and Exhaust Systems 191
made f r o m cast iron to w

changes. T h e m a n i f o l d is t F R E Q U E N T L Y A S K E D QUESTION ???
expansion a n d c o n t r a c t i o n . I'
used to m a i n t a i n a gas-tight a whil lorma e / p a How Can a Cracked Exhaust Manifold Affect
sion and c o n t r a c t i o n . Engine P e r f o r m a n c e ?
T h e e x h a u s t m a n i f o l d is designed to all i tl.' iw ' ex
A crack in an exhaust manifold will not only allow exhaust gases to escape and
haust gas. S o m e m a n i f o l d s u s e internal cast rib defle tors or d . ders cause noise but the crack can also allow air to enter the exhaust manifold. See
to guide t h e e x h a u s t gases t o w a r d t h e outlet as tie figure 22-16
S o m e e x h a u s t m a n i f o l d s a r e d e s i g n e d to go above the '.park
Exhaust flows from the cylinders as individual putts or pressure pulses
plug, w h e r e a s o t h e r s a r e d e s i g n e d to go below. The spark plug and
Behind each of these pressure pulses, a low pressure (below atmospheric
carefully r o u t e d ignition w i r e s are usually shielded from the ex
pressure) is created Outside air at atmospheric pressure is then drawn into
haust h e a t w i t h s h e e t - m e t a l deflectors. M a n y exhaust manifolds the exhaust manifold through the crack This outside air contains 21 % oxygen
have h e a t shields as s e e n in Figure 2 2 - 1 4 . and is measured by the oxygen sensor (02S). The air passing the 02S signals
E x h a u s t s y s t e m s a r e especially d e s i g n e d for t h e engine-chas- the engine computer that the engine Is operating too lean (excess oxygen)
sis c o m b i n a t i o n . T h e e x h a u s t s y s t e m l e n g t h , pipe size, and si- and the computer not knowing that the lean indicator is false, adds additional
lencer a r e d e s i g n e d , w h e r e possible, to m a k e use of t h e tuning fuel to the engine The result is that the engine will be operating richer imore
effect of t h e gas c o l u m n r e s o n a t i n g w i t h i n t h e e x h a u s t system. fuel than norma and spark plugs could become fouled causing poor engine
Tuning o c c u r s w h e n t h e e x h a u s t p u l s e s f r o m t h e cylinders are operation
emptied i n t o t h e m a n i f o l d b e t w e e n t h e pulses of o t h e r cylinders.
Figure 2 2 - 1 6 A crack in an exhaust manifold is often not this visible A crack in the
exhaust manifold upstream of the oxygen sensor can fool the sensor and affect engre
operation
EXHAUST MANIFOLD GASKETS

Figure 2 2 - 1 4 This exhaust manifold has a heat shield to help retain the heat and help
Exhaust h e a t will e x p a n d t h e manifold m o r e t h a n it will expand
reduce exhaust emissions.
t h e h e a d . It causes t h e e x h a u s t manifold to slide o n t h e sealing
surface of t h e h e a d . T h e h e a t also causes t h e r m a l stress. W h e n
the manifold is r e m o v e d from t h e e n g i n e for service, t h e stress is
relieved a n d this m a y c a u s e t h e manifold to w a r p slightly. Ex-
haust manifold gaskets a r e i n c l u d e d in gasket sets to seal slightly
w a r p e d e x h a u s t m a n i f o l d s . T h e s e gaskets should be used, even if
t h e e n g i n e did n o t originally u s e e x h a u s t manifold gaskets.
W h e n a perforated c o r e e x h a u s t manifold gasket has feeing o n
o n e side only, p u t t h e facing side against t h e head a n d put the
manifold against t h e p e r f o r a t e d metal core. The manifold can
slide on t h e m e t a l of t h e gasket just as it slid on the sea: sur-
face of t h e h e a d .
Gaskets are used o n n e w engines with tubing- or header-type
exhaust manifolds. T h e gaskets often include heat shield- to •.eep
exhaust heat from the spark plugs and spark plug cables. T h e may-
have several layers of steel for high-temperature sealing. The layers
are spot-welded together. Some are embossed w h e r e spec a. sealing
is needed. See Figure 2 2 - 1 7 .
Many n e w engines d o not use gaskets with cast exhaust mani-
folds. The flat surface of the n e w cast-lrrn exhaust mam:, .i :>_:.
f '9ure 2 2 - 1 5 Many exhaust manifolds are constructed of pressed steel and are free
tightly against the flat surface of the n e w head.
"°wing to improve engine performance
and allowing t h e m to b e released at an e v e r j t ^
d o e s t h i s t h r o u g h t h e u s e of p e r f o r a t e d t u b >he 1
c h a m b e r . T h e s m o o t h - f l o w i n g gases a r e relea <-. r ^ ./,
this w a y . t h e m u f f l e r s i l e n c e s e n g i n e e x h a u s t • • met®',?;.,.
o n a t o r s a r e u s e d in t h e e x h a u s t s y s t e m a n d r .~\r Con.™.,';
also a c t s a s a m u f f l e r . T h e y p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l - -.v m S p 3ce

critical p o i n t s in t h e e x h a u s t s y s t e m t o s m o o t ' •'•.<• e x h a i n •
Sow; See Figure 2 2 - 1 9 .
M o s t mufflers have a larger inlet d i a m e t e r . n outlet
ter. As t h e e x h a u s t e n t e r s t h e m u f f l e r , it e x p a n d s and coo:: I
c o o l e r e x h a u s t is m o r e d e n s e a n d o c c u p i e s l e s s v o ' i m e . The dia-
t e r of t h e o u t l e t of t h e m u f f l e r a n d t h e d i a m e t e r of t h e tailpipe,,
b e r e d u c e d w i t h n o d e c r e a s e in e f f i c i e n c y .
T h e t a i l p i p e c a r r i e s t h e e x h a u s t g a s e s f r o m t h e muffler to
air, a w a y f r o m t h e v e h i c l e . I n m o s t c a s e s , t h e t a i l p i p e exit is*--
- W ? 2 2 - ^ 7 Trewa) O t a a S manifold oaskete Nor? how they are laminated to allow the
r e a r of t h e v e h i c l e , b e l o w t h e r e a r b u m p e r . In s o m e cases, the =-
---- 5 ; 'ct? s Boare ?nd contract due to heating and cooling.
h a u s t is r e l e a s e d a t t h e s i d e of t h e v e h i c l e , j u s t a h e a d of or . •• I
hind the rear wheel.
T h e m u f f l e r a n d t a i l p i p e a r e s u p p o r t e d w i t h brackets <£> I
?' - * S T h e C o r r e c t Tools S a v e Time
h a n g e r s . T h e h a n g e r s a r e m a d e of r u b b e r i z e d fabric with tr-
I V T - c a s t - " o n e x h a u s t n a n r f o f d s are removed, the stresses built up in the e n d s t h a t h o l d t h e m u f f l e r a n d t a i l p i p e i n p o s i t i o n so that the;;
~ . r - *ok5s o f t e n cause t h e m a n i f o l d s t o t w i s t or bend. This distortion even not touch a n y m e t a l p a r t . T h i s h e l p s t o i s o l a t e t h e exhaust a •
or; . t K--V- ^ e e x h a u s t m a n i f o l d s have been a l l o w e d t o cool before removal. f r o m t h e r e s t of t h e v e h i c l e .
i r e i - s t a " distorted exhaust manifolds is often a t i m e - c o n s u m i n g
s r : " - i s t r a t w g exercise
FREQUENTLY A S K E D Q U E S T I O N Q
" o w e v e t special spreading j a c k s can be used t o force the m a n i f o l d back
y y s - y y . so tâ* the f a s t e n e r s c a n be lined up w i t h the cylinder head See
W h y Is T h e r e a Hole in M y M u f f l e r ?
-•our? 2 2 - ' 5 .
M a n y m u f f l e r s are eguipped w i t h a s m a l l hole in t h e l o w e r rear part to (to" .:
c u m u l a t e d water. About 1 gallon of w a t e r is p r o d u c e d in the form of steam 7
each gallon of gasoline burned. T h e w a t e r v a p o r o f t e n condenses on ttie coo?
surfaces of t h e exhaust s y s t e m unless t h e v e h i c l e h a s been driven lone
to fully w a r m t h e m u f f l e r above t h e boiling p o i n t of w a t e r (212°F [100°CII.Ss
Figure 2 2 - 2 0 .
Figure 22-19 Exhaust gases expand and cool as they travel through the passa?»'
muffler.
Pfflare 2 2 - 1 ? Ar e t e j s t manifold spreader too! is a tool that is absolutely necessary to
a* -«• -c exhaust manifolds. When -hey are removed from the engine, they tend
- mz • eve- —/.-r ••>?engine is a'lowed to cool before being removed. The
OTSic "-C ! flwn "<e technician to tne up the bolt holes without doing any harm to the
MUFFLERS
''•*-er e x h a u s t v a l v e o p e n s , it r a p i d l y r e l e a s e s h i g h - p r e s s u r e
7- • 2 s t r o n g air p r e s s u r e w a v e t h r o u g h t h e a t m o s p h e r e ,
- - p r o d u c e s a s o u n d v / e call a n e x p l o s i o n . It is t h e s a m e s o u n d
p r o d u c e d -when high-pressure gases from b u r n e d gunpowder
7*;<3**d ~ 4 In a n e n g i n e , '.he p u l s e s a r e r e l e a s e d o n e
cr. T h e v t r J . f i / H K > c o m e s o fast t h a t t h e y blend, t o g e t h e r
:r. a ~ « a t f y roar.
Sound is a ' - v i b r a t i o n . W h e n '.he v i b r a t i o n s a r e l a r g e , the
r/;'.d Vryt. T h e rr j f f k r c a r c h e s *r e l a r g e b u r s t s of h i g h - p r e s s u r e
e z h a u " gat from ' h e cylinder, - , " / y / . h i i g o y t h e oressure pulses
e'er 2? Kake v< Ejftawt Vaenw MB
jjjjjjjjjjjm^ CHAPTER QUIZ
More Airflow M o r e P< •

a- -. > - y*Mid
One ol the most popular high p' " t>. SO V per *coad
tory exhaust system with a low C 1 % - ' per seenne
filter and air filter housing with a low- : Yt ' r d. 3&0 fcec per second
The installation of an aftermarl< air f >er 2. late - jei - . i r e d e a g e r _
also increases air induction noise, which many drivers prefer. The aAermartwt a. i e : a d u a ".ear riser
filter housing, however, may not bt v to b. G r r a x * a '.a - r&t -„-an te-je - g
drawn into the engine if the vehicle is tra veiing throt de of a TBI astern
c. 0>r.'A_rs or. r fuel IgaaoiAe
Almost every modification that increase-! peîrniy -
d. C m r a cniy air
feet on some other part of the vehicle, or e <- -
the change at the factory 3. •'•• - ..•--•• -
a. O.- e r t a t s - - o r e e f c ~ e a t " - -
b. Tc> Sdp pt?7ent the s t a t i s t from s*wfc)r down
c. prewer.t damage to A c intake f i v e
4. peereot heating (hear ' a d m i i t m a the cvusaa
4. - - - - sari ;«r: J e . .—
abttfyoo
a. r , - T d r-e-r - - em:
b. Thryflc bady fct jjjerJon sterns
c. Bofc a p e r r erted aad ftrode-body Stiedeo engine
d- Any f a d * e c e i e-izaue
5. Ar - - - . e parades anc fir as szaS as .
a. 5 l - 1' r _ : - as
b. 1 0 * o 2 5 EHCKGS
c. 3C » 40 miCTces
d. 40 SB
6. Whrdoaarry port foe jeaed eaôes org iraae manifad rtanes?
a. Tc rec _:e e z i o a t e m - i ra
b. To bear tbe mc:rLing a_*
c. TJ zicreae ; : wer
d. To increase J W RPM :arque
Figure 22-21 A high-performance aftermarket air filter often can increase airflow into the
engine for more power. 7. F r t s ~ pas are -z.--.i-. r •-.-. r a t e TecSn c a r A -. -
t h a the eihaur. pessaaes are -jsed far eita-ist a s recrtalador EOS sys-
tems. Tectescas B savs that tbe e i t a j s i iea: is -sed to w a r n die S a t e
SUMMARY charge ac socse er pries eqiapped wife a ttrjate-boav-ripe S«4 rrecttoc
system. Which g r i r i a is ooaec?
1. All air entering an engine must be filtered. a. Technician A only
2. Engines that use throttle-body injection units are equipped with intake b. -rK*r...".*r. 3 ar_v
manifolds that keep the airflow speed through the manifold at 50 to c. BothTataidasi AandB
300 feet per second. d. N d t e Tecijc.sE A nor B
3. Most intake manifolds have an EGR valve that regulates the amour 8. The lower a o n k n af a two-pan -take manix 1 is ;reE .-..ied
recirculated exhaust that enters the engine to reduce NO, emissions.
4. Exhaust manifolds can be made from cast iron or stainless steeL a. Kocsrg
b. Lowerpart
5. The exhaust system also contains a catalytic converter, exhaust pipes, and
c. Plemm
muffler. The entire exhaust system is supported by rubber hangers r.ai
d. Mic-cim chamber
isolate the noise and vibration of the exhaust from the rest of the vehicle
0. Technician A says that a cracked exhaust r a d i i . n car afiec: e c e r e -cc:-
tksa. Technician B savs that a leaking lower s a k e marafc - cc
REVIEW QUESTIONS cause a vacuian leak. Which technician a correct?
a. Techni.ran A oriv
1. Why is it necessary to have intake charge velocities of about 50 fee'
b. Tecr-ican B cr.v
per second?
2. Why can fuel in|ected engines use larger land longer) intake manifolds d. Neither Technician A nor B
and still operate at low engine speed?
Technician A says that some intake manifolds are (tone Tecfccan r
What is a tuned runner in an intake manifoid? •Jiat some intake manifolds are c o c s c w e d In twe cars : set- ~
How does a muffler quiet exhaust noise? and Icwet Which, technician is conec?
a. Techuidan A only
b. Technician B or-v
e H A
yTm, Turbocharging
"J I and Supercharging
i After studying Chapter the reader will be able to Prepare for ASE Engine Performance (A8) certification test u Ba *c
•- a \ \ ;• • >0 Exhaust Systems Diagnosis and Repair) • Explain the difference between a turbocharger and a supercharge) •Describes
s \ txxus . a r e controlled • Discuss maintenance procedures for turbochargers and superchargers.
— • boost • bypass valve • compressor bypass valve(CBV) • dump valve • intercooler • naturally (normally) aspirated •
• e e - » j i \ e • roots-type • superchangei • turbo lag • turbocharger • vent valve • volumetric efficiency • wastegate
AIRFLOW REQUIREMENTS SUPERCHARGING PRINCIPLES

V - \ . ' a . aspirated engines with throttle bodies rely on atmo- The amount of force an air-fuel charge produces when it is v- •„
>rhe- c rress. re to push an air fuel mixture into the combustion is largely a function of the charge density. Density is the mass
crar.tttr vacuum created by the downstroke of a piston. The mix- substance in a given amount of space. See Figure 23-3.
t . r e is tnen compressed before ignition to increase the force of the
• xpanding gases. The greater the mixture compression,
'>? greater the power resulting from combustion.
Ail gasoline automobile engines share certain air- fuel require-
ments. For example, a four-stroke engine can take in only so much
I.. IR.c -..-A much fuel it consumes depends on how much air it
taxes ir. Engineers calculate engine airflow requirements using
these three factors
• fcngire displacement
• v e revolutions per minute IRPM)
• V m r c efficiency
Volumetric Efficiency Volumetric efficiency is a compari

... r. " rte a c .a. volume of air-fuel mixture drawn into an engine
me treoreucal maximum volume that could be drawn in. Volu-
-- , efficiency i> expressed as a percentage, and changes with
- - 1 ;t.eJ. For example, an engine might have 75% volumetric
F i g u r e 2 3 - 1 A supercharger on a Ford V-8
-- . , r. 1000 RPM. The same engine might be rated at 85% at
2 v RPM ar.d 6 0 a t 3000 RPM.
." '.re engine takes in the airflow volume slowly, a cylinder
- •- capacity. It takes a definite amount of time for the air-
: ass through all the curves of the intake manifold and valve
. - .-.t-e:ore. volumetric efficiency decreases as engine speed In-
- ^ - A- ;gh speed, it may drop to as low as 50%.
i . - v . - street engine never reaches 100% volumetric effi
. -- . . •*>•-. j >::ver engine, the volumetric efficiency is about 75%
• peed, or 8. at the torque peak. A high-performance
- - , • - -i about 85% efficient, or a bit more efficient at peak
.. A '.< r engine usually has 95% or better volumetric effi
- c_ apply only to naturally aspirated engines,
A-,- ar.: •.rixx • arged and supercharged engine.s easily
e t".<»r 100 volumetric efficiency. Many vehicles are
. * ' J - .percharger or a turbocharger to increase power.
See r v - W 2 3 - 1 and 2 3 - 2 .
E n g i n e C o m p r e s s i o n Higher compression increases the ther

a -** '_•,<- ...re be< a . s e it rai>es compression temper-
r . .---, r .tter mure complete combustion. However,
s ' «"'" mp-es> jr. .an cause an increase in NO* emissions
t : : a - . : req j > >.A n;gn octane gasoline with effective
Mttkaocfc add:t>«n. F i g u r e 2 3 - 2 A turbocharger on a Toyota engine
Ml
hapwr M rumotiwgtno and Superdwemg »»
the recipn.•citing n o t i o n of t h e pastor-.- W h e n a p . e n H W J

d o w n w a r d d u r i n g its intake stroke, it creates a n e m p t y s p a c e , of
. • • • «. va ; .rr„ in tl svlinier. Although a t m o s p h e n c p r e s s u r e r>. ->es a t

to fi i f i> r u c h of this e m p t y space as possible. .• - a tffiru'
path '.. 'ravel The air m u s t pass t h r o u g h t h e air f tfe throttle
body, t h e manifold, a n d t h e intake port b e f o r e e n t e r i n g t h e cy m
d e t Bends a n d restrictions in this p a t h w a y limit t h e a m o u n t of asr
m m rear tig t h e cylinder before t h e intake valve d o s e s ; t h e r e f o r e t h e
vc .-• e t n c efficiency ts less than 100%.
P . " ping air i n t o t h e intake system u n d e r p r e s s u r e f a r c e s It
LOW DENSITY HIGH DENSITY t h r o u g h t h e b e n d s and restrictions at a greater speed than it w o u l d
travel u n d e r normal a t m o s p h e r i c pressure, allowing m o r e air t o
Figure 2 J - 3 The more air and luei that can be IU'. Kec : enter t r e - .<.-. pi - be tore • tioses. By inoreasin* t h e i rfl w in* •
of the air-luel charge t h e intake, a c r e fuel can b e m i x e d w i t h t h e air w h i l e stiS m a i n
t a n m g t h e s a m e a f r - f a r i ratio. T h e d e n s e r t h e a i r - f u e l c h a r g e e n
T h e g r e a t e r t h e d e n s i t y of a n a i r - f u e l charge forced a teriRg t h e e n ^ a e d a r i n g its n t a k e stroke, t h e g r e a t e ' t h e potentia.
cylinder, t h e g r e a t e r t h e f o r c e it p r o d u c e s w h e n ignited, energy 'eieased d - i i n g c o m b u s t i o n . In addition t o t h e i n c r e a s e d
greater t h e e n g i n e p o w e r . power r r . tig f r o m c o m b u s t i o n , t h e r e are several o t h e r a d v a r
An e n g i n e t h a t u s e s a t m o s p h e r i c pressure for inta-.v tages of ssper.-.a-gtr ,- an e n g . : i t n c l . i i n g
n a t u r a l l y ( n o r m a l l y ) a s p i r a t e d eng::.. A r -
air density in t h e c y l i n d e r is to u s e a p u m p . • vide -:s
W h e n air is p u m p e d i n t o t h e cylinder, t h e combustion chart pressure wher. power a -eqtsrad, But i J o w s the engine n> n m on
ber receives a n i n c r e a s e of air p r e s s u r e k n o w n as b o o s t and lower pressures wr - a a d e tsoaai power j, not requêd.
measured in p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e inch (PSIi. a t m o s p h e r e s ATM , c- • The pumped a s pushes t t N B k i D g exhaust m x n the c o m f i t s
bar. While boost p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s air density, friction heats a:- in nor. chamber <jtr.3g r a c e a a d e x t a n t valve overlap.
motion a n d c a u s e s a n i n c r e a s e in t e m p e r a t u r e . This incre. - • he - - e ; ar <f r
t e m p e r a t u r e w o r k s in t h e o p p o s i t e direction, decreasing air i - : temperar j r e oi the cvir>3er iseari, JXSIOES. a n d valves, aod helps
Because of t h e s e a n d o t h e r variables, a n increase in p r e s s v e doe extend the itie of the e c ^ e .
not always r e s u l t in g r e a t e r air density.
A supercharger p r e s s u n s a s « r » greater :r sn atmospheric p r e » u r e
A n o t h e r w a y t o a c h i e v e a n increase in m i x t u r e compression is
The pressurizaoon abcwt a e n e q t e r i c pressure, or boost. car. be
called s u p e r c h a r g i n g . T h i s m e t h o d uses a pump .
measured :r. the s a m e w : - ' as a n a o s p r e r t c pressure. A t m o s p h e r i c
air-fuel c h a r g e i n t o t h e cylinders. Since t h e density of the air-fuel pressure drops as a m r j c t e increases, h u t nocst {aess^-e reraasts t" *
charge is greater, s o is its w e i g h t — a n d p o w e r is directly -elated : same. Sf a s i f e r c s a r a e r d e w . a s 2 PS? 8 3 k ? a b o o a a t s e a i e v e . , :
the w e i g h t of a n a i r - f u e l c h a r g e c o n s u m e d w i t h i n a given time pe- will develop the s a m e a r : unt at a SjOOO-jBot attitude b e c a u s e b o o s t
riod. T h e result is similar t o t h a t of a high-compression ratio, SL: pressure is m e a s u r e d -aside the r . r a i e w w i H r t See R g s r e 2 3 - 4
the effect c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d d u r i n g idle a n d deceleration to a-. :
high emissions. Boost and Compression Rat»s
Air is d r a w n i n t o a n a t u r a l l y aspirated e n g i n e bv atm.>pher.c o l aff d r a w n teto t h e c t f t n d e r during t h e s a u t e s r . t e . T h a e x t r a a i r
pressure f o r c i n g it i n t o t h e l o w - p r e s s u r e area of the intake m a r causes t h e effecnve o p p r e s s : . r . ran-e » be j r e a a e r t h a r h e raechao-
fold. T h e l o w p r e s s u r e or v a c u u m in t h e manifold results fror icai compressi. r tanc desigaed _kd t h e engine. The b i g . - the t e a
Figure 23-4 Atmosphere pressure decreases

with increases in altitude
v in i n-mpmssion Ratio Chart at Various Boost Levels
Momr Boost (PSI)
? < « 8 10 12 14 16 18
20
14 u 10 10.9 11.8 12.7 13.6 14.5
15.3
« 9 9 10S 118 12.7 13.6 14.5 15.3
16.2
116 126 136 146 15.7 167
as 1Q.fi 17.8
3 »i 103 11 3 124 13.4 14.5 15.6 16.7 17.8
18.9
1} 131 143 15.4 16.6 17.8 18.9
19.8
11 4 127 13.9 15.1 163 17.6 188 20
21.2
134 14 7 16 17.3 18.5 19.8 21.1
111 22.4
H « 1j 7 14 1 15.4 168 18.2 19.5 20.9 22.2
23.6
t , (he greater t h e c o m p ession rat;,-. See the following table Figure 2 3 - 5 A roots-type supercharger uses two fog,
c x a n t a l e ol ht the effective compression ratio is force the air around the outside of the housing and (0^5.
i boo t pressure. into the intake manifold.
SUPERCHARGERS
• i r s t r s an eng. -.»• driver, air pump that suppl es more
• r.t ' J - into the "take manifold and boosts
•;.-. a v - v r c ' - i r g e r provides an instanta- LOBE
- f.-,iv- without the deiay or lag often associated

a-ce-s H . w w . a supeKh.iiger, because It is driven The airflow is directed around the supercharger whenever r
t • ^ - c -e « y v -eq-. re v - N e p o w e r to operate and is not as ef of the following conditions occur:
V e r y as a t L T t e e h n g e t
• T^.e boos: pressure, as measured by the MAP sensor, indicates to:
- . „ v r \ a s.-tvrtharste- ;> nothing more than an air
•.make manifold pressure is reaching the predetermined boost lew.
. . • . - •• . •• . < j r . c n fcv engine .tsdf. Gears, shafts,
• During deceleration.
."a . - :•-• •> • — the crankshaft can be used to turn the pump.
• Whenever reverse gear is selected.
- . i t , f c e .>. c --. c or s .oercharger pumps a:: in direct
jstr » speed. Supercharger Service Superchargers are usuallv lubnlci:;:
-f i - - v a c r c r a r.zv> •.>• supercnaijprs: with synthetic engine ot'. inside the u n i t This oil level should 3
• toooa-tw* s u p e r c h a r g e r . V j - ed for Phi'aadl- and Francis checked and replaced as specified by the vehicle or superctet?
: v-. 3T-.V-S C a - n e > v ..<\ Indiana, w h o patented the manufacturer. The drive belt should also be inspected and tefiax
• . • .1 n->. ' « » ' p t . - r to be -sec in mines. Later as necessary.
.. . e : ' ; ; • ! • ' s -><d :.\Jav >n twe stroke evele
-c.t: : -•. roots TURBOCHARGERS
s-êrctMrper positive d i s p l a c e m e n t design
Tne . - disadvantage of a supercharger is its reliance or. ecp
:- £ " r K tJ-.az en :t:s s forced !fe.*o_gh ' h e unit.
pow er t : drive the unit. In some installations, as much as -
: i. - ' - -.«--.< • s ^ r c h a n s r Indudethe J.MC6-71
•• the er.cn.es power :s used bv a mechanical s u p e r d -
. - : • - . VC M g h « that had six cylinders
H .-'.s ever, t • c0njtecting a centrifugal supercharger to a tuifcK -'
-- - i - : Er.n supercharged 3800 V o
•vheel and Installing it n the exhaust path, the lost engK
• • See Figure 2 3 - 5 .
is regained to perform other work and the combuscor
• Carci*—< - . • ; • - . u . • .--.-."inier s stmUr
enetf.- .or. in the engine exhaust ias much as 40% to 5C a j
'i*.:r:_:• ~ . ; • r i v e r , t v t h e t - c n e instead
- " a t ~c nxexitii-Stgtses. AcensrifugA.super nansessei tc do -.vorlc This .5 the concept of a turtodu-T
. , - i t . » . - . • z i z - a a r - : - : ptscp and aS of the a ? that The UHbochaiger's ma.n advantage over a mechanics,
: • -. _ j r 2 * JST Ai* e - t « a cer.tr super- supercharger is that the t u r b o c h a r g » does not drain, pewe"
tne encn.e. In. a naturallv asp mated engine, about half o f ' - |
. <t a r -" e x e a t t i e outer edges of t t e
ener?. ccr.tar.ed in the fuel goes o u t the exhaust systf"
er speed d-« sooeensfugpl
Ftîre 2 3 - " Anothen 2 5 : : is . o a through radiator coo "s
; . •"- -v- ' * * S g 5 * f tna- t-^ztspeed
i b o . t 2 5 \ s acraallv converted to mechanical p r - « : "
ss>-.: r . a n d t» crankshaft
i r . c i - v inven. pump _ses some erf this mechanical ;
> - - - n a gear M I a e n x n a g
tumochargH g e e 3 energv ftoc. the exhaust gases- c:*
3M - - ' a ttc:. Esaertpses of r r m f \ i & >
~:re .-.estece—- r.t: mechanical energy.
i si d t w * c * tec for x.
A firfsocharger a r t n e looks m u c h _l<e a t v c . a
' lac a c m .nstaJei super- .: -se-i fc: s - p e r c - i r c r t g . See Figure 2 3 - 8 . H o t e i n *
- .raws valve trae a f c w s r.adse atr to i c v t r T . ± e c - j s t t - c c chamber to t h e t t r t r . e v t e e -
« , ; - -> -joi; 3 : zx&sj. rt K ^ i e r r r a n K The are - - . r e : and expanded as thev .eave t h e engine.
x s m r ficwb r - a r t n c J S X v * F i w e 23-0. speed of force w i h e e i h a j s t g a s e s t h a t forces t h e turt n
</ ter n Tutbocharstrxj am) r,up»ciiartjmg 197
BYPASS ACTUATOR
DRIVE P U L L E Y
TO VACUUM SOURCE
\
(CONTROLLED BY THE COMPUTER)
\
SUPERCHARGER
\
THROTTLE BODY
BYPASS VALVE
LOWER INTAKE
PLEUM
Figure 2 3 - 6 Ttie bypass actuator opens the bypass valve to control boost pressure
RADIATOR
COOLING
25%
fi90re23-7 A Urtocharger uses some of tfie heat energy that would nomty be wasfec
EXHAUST
To 2 k e i a l a d v a n t a g e of te e i h a u r r x a i * M : ' -jm- ^ e
the r o u r r - g farce, a n a t o d i a r g e r r J S t e p o s i i r i e e a : :.se as
p o s s U e as i e e x i a _ s : s a c J : . : . l i s s i x - , r . e " " e a r s . ' a
pass d i r e c t s i a m e w l t i : s — n - . - j f - t i - a s As
exhaust 2 2 enters r . e • r o o c i a r g e z . * :OKS ^ e :zr.r*
tiades. The t t a f e s e wheel and compresicr "zee i r e qb a i
X s a m e s h a f t so t h a t t h e ? Q B B a : t h e s a m e j p e e : S t a a t -
EXHAUST c o m p r e s s o r w h e e l r r a w s sir in r r t - ^ h a c e r . u a n l r J C :
tnfugpl - ; : c e P'-^scs r r x s g t a s o c t e t a : tr.e e r a s •:e 1
•trig A pair of bears.2 j t i e :ez:e: ol .sz : :
23-8 * t r e r e aneei s Wnee :, T« eicaion; e < a s ^se;
s a d 0 3 m p r e s : : r wrêe s h a f t a c c are jl-jszj?i r
See figure 2 3 —
as is c o m m o n l y t h o u g h t , b u t t h e expansion of hot gases
S a t r e t r i n e arS coraprescr " e e s
a
P O s t ifte turbine w h e e l s blades.
enremehr cose oearacces • B M M I
fartjocharger Design and Operation A t r b o c h a t g e r con- s e r LaSas. A n .esxafE a n m i the r_*r j e a » 3 t -jr. - :
J B of t w o chambers c o c n e c t e d bv a c e n t e r h o u s o g . Toe t w o M D :•: r e heat e a a g rjqszei far a
c i a m i e r s c o t t a r . a oirfccne w h e e l a n d a compressof w h e e i COD- antral the : .-rressor c-aoa ptenesss x
^ • e d b f a shaft w h i c h passes t h r o u g h t h e c e n t e r bousLTg. deicfcfxflg i s M Mas: a n s J t

las stent**
W ~t - rt- • , , • j njns a t ]<jW s p e c ( j i both ex- airflow capacity for an engine. To minimize t
haust hat tad -.--. v are and the turbine runs at a low and exhaust breathing capacities oi an engine ^ 1
speed ar?.- . • • . ' Rev ise the compressor does the exhaust and intake airflow capabilities ot tv . t'i^H,'
oof --- -isc t to dei c boost pressure, air simply passes
!
tine i f r md r . c.-ie «• rics ; Jce any naturally aspirated en-
BOOST C O N T R O L
gire. A- er gir-. - :ns raster or load increases, both exhaust heat
ar; 5 w ca sing the turbine and compressor wheels to Both supercharged and turbocharged systems aie i j j j x
ty'"Q \r\l
rotate faster. >" see thene is no brake and very little rotating resis- vide a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure j n tvag
vide a pressure
manifold. greater than
This increased atmospheric
pressure pressure inI
forces additional
tance or. fte turbocharger shaft, the turbine and compressor
manifold. This increased pressure forces additional amount' M1
wheels accelerate as the exhaust heat energy increases. When an
into the combustion chamber over what would tiotmaiw w ? 4 j vl
engine - naming at full power, the typical turbocharger rotates at
in by atmospheric pressure. This increased charge inctea% 1
speeds between 100,000 and 150,000 RPM.
power. The amount of "boost" lor pressure in the intake
Engine deceleration from full power to idle requires only a is m e a s u r e d i n p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e i n c h (PSI), i n i n c h e s oi ^
second or two because of its internal friction, pumping resistance, (in. Hg|, i n bar's, o r i n a t m o s p h e r e s . T h e following v a l u e s i ^ p 1
d u e t o a l t i t u d e a n d w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s ( b a r o m e t r i c ptessutei ^ I
iri irivecam load. The turbocharger, however, has no such load
and is already turning many times faster than the
m /ts s h a f t 1 atmosphere = 14.7 PSI
engine a: top speed. As a result, it can take as much as a minute 1 atmosphere = 29.50 in. Hg
~ r e aiier the engine has returned to idle speed before the fur-
1 atmosphere = 1.0 bar
r e :r.irb-ir also has returned to idle. If the engine is decelerated to
:d!e and then shut off immediately, engine lubrication stops flow- 1 bar = 14.7 PSI
izi tc the center housing bearings while the turbocharger is still The higher the level of boost (pressure), tine greater ft^ 1
at thousands of RPM. The oil in the center housing power potential. However, other factors must be consitati % I
r
±en subjected to extreme heat and can gradually "coke" or increasing boost pressure:
oxidize. The coked oil can clog passages and will reduce the life
of Ae turbocharger. 1. As boost pressure increases, the temperature oi the ait also
The high rotating speeds and extremely close clearances of the increases.
r j i m e and compressor wheels in their housings require equally 2. As the temperature of the air increases, combustion temperate 1
c~::al bearing clearances. The bearings must keep radial clear- also increase, which increases the possibility oi detonation.
.:! 0.003 to 0.006 inch (0.08 to 0.15 mm). Axial clearance 3. Power can be increased by cooling the compressed aii ate it
end pia; must be maintained at 0.001 to 0.003 inch (0.025 leaves the turbocharger. The power can be increased about
;•: ..08 mm}. If properly maintained, the turbocharger also is a 1% per 10°F by which the air is cooled, k typical cooling®
:-r^le-free device. However, to prevent problems, the following is called an intercooler and is similar to a radiator, whera
con: ions must be met: outside air can pass through, cooling the pressurized h e M t
See Figure 23-10.
• • .rbochzrger bearings lubricated with
must be constantly
Some intercoolers use engine coolant to cool the tot®'
: re:, engine oil-turbocharged engines should have regular oil
pressed air that flows from the turbocharger to the mtate.
n half tie time or mileage intervals specified for nontur-
ixicharged engines.
4. As boost pressure increases, combustion temperature w A p
Oi - pieces ind other contamination must be kept out of the in- sures increase, which, ii not limited, can do severe engtie 4'
age. The maximum exhaust gas temperature must he
tf exhaust housings.
|840°C). Higher temperatures decrease the durability olft
' :er.e,<: a basic engine bearing (crankshaft or camshaft) has been
turbocharger and the engine.
xed. turbocharger must be flushed with d e a n engine oil
u
er bearing has been replaced.
: xU-ger Is damaged, the engine oil must be drained and
m ci! filter replaced as part of the repair procedure.
i t 'mchargers all have center bearings

liquid cooled
' w (Image. In a liquid-cooled turbocharger, engine

. t / r j f r e d through passages cast in the center housing
- " ? excess heat. This allows the bearings to run cooler
ize the probability of oil c o k m when the engine is

spter 23 TurOochargtng and Supercharging 191
acrc the vanes < tfc turbocharger, the turbocharger decreases In

HIGH-PERFORMANCE TIP
speed and boost pressure is reduced. When the boost pressure drops,
the wastegate . s:ve closes to direct the exhaust over the turbocharger
Boost Is the Result of Restric
vanes and again allow the boost pressure to rise. Wastegpte operation
The b o o s t p r e s s u r e of a t u r b o t h.
is a continuous process to control boost pressure.
in p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e i n c h . If a cylinii
T r « wastegate is the pressure control valve of a turbocharger
valves a n d p o r t s , t h e t u r b o c h a r g e r w i l l qi • • . pr . • - • •• •.•••• system. The wastegate is usually controlled by the onboard com
w h e n t h e air b e i n g f o r c e d i n t o t h e c y l i n d e r r . puter thro jgh a boost control solenoid. See Figure 2 3 - 1 1 .
fast e n o u g h a n d " p i l e s u p " in t h e i n t a k e m a n i l o l d • // .,-.. , • •
Relief Valves A w a s t e g a t e c o n t r o l s t h e e x h a u s t side of t h e tur-
an engine had large valves and ports, the turbocharger could provide a much
bochargec A re valve controls the intake side. A relief valve
greater amount of air into the engine at the same boost pressure as an identical
v e n t s p r e s s u r i z e d air from t h e c o n n e c t i n g pipe b e t w e e n t h e o u t l e t
engine w i t h s m a l l e r v a l v e s a n d p o r t s . T h e r e f o r e , b y i n c r e a s ' g the y / e of the
of t h e t u r b o c h a r g e r a n d t h e t h r o t t l e w h e n e v e r t h e t h r o t t l e is closed
valves, a turbocharged or supercharged engine will be capable of pres .'. g
d u r i n g b o o s ' , s u c h as d u r i n g s h i f t s . If t h e p r e s s u r e is n o t r e l e a s e d ,
much greater power.
the turtwehargey jrfcine w h e e l will s l o w d o w n , c r e a t i n g a lag
w h e n t h e t h r o t t l e is o p e n e d a g a i n a f t e r a s h i f t h a s b e e n c o m p l e t e d .
Wastegate A turbocharger uses exhaust gases to increase boost, T h e r e a r e t w o tazk ".-pes of relief v a l v e s i n c l u d i n g :
which causes the engine to make more exhaust gases, which in t u r .
increases the boost from the turbocharger. To prevent overboos; and • C o m p r e s s o r b y p a s s valve or CBV Th type of relief valve
severe engine damage, most turbocharger systems use a wastegate. A r o u t e s t h e pressurized air t o t h e Inlet side of t h e turbocharger for
wastegate is a valve similar to a door that can open and close. The r e u s e a n d is quiet d uring operation.
wastegate is a bypass valve at the exhaust inlet to the turbine. It allows • Blow-off valve or BO V Tn ed a d u m p valve or vent
all of the exhaust into the turbine, or it can route part of the exhaust v a l v e a r : f e a t u r e s a : ad ustab -- p n t t g design that : ;eeps
past the turbine to the exhaust system. If the valve is closed, all of the t h e valve d o s e d until a s u d d e n release of t h e throttle. T h e result-
exhaust travels to the turbocharger. When a predetermined amount of i n g p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e o p e n s t h e v a l v e a n d v e n t s t h e pressurized
boost pressure develops in the intake manifold, the wastegate valve is air directly i n t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e . T h i s type of relief valve is noisy in
opened. As the valve opens, most of the exhaust flows directly out the o p e r a t i o n and c r e a t e s a w h o o s h i n g s o u n d w h e n t h e valve o p e n s .
exhaust system, bypassing the turbocharger. With less exhaust flowing See Figure 2 3 - 1 2 .
WASTEGATE
CONTROL
V A L V E (N.C.)
I ' VENT TO
_C AIR CLEANER
PCM
IGN.
- Q
BOOST PRESSURE
INTAKE •
COMPRESSOR'
TURBINE
EXHAUST
Fi
9Ure 2 3 - 1 1 A wastegate is used on the first-generation Duramax diesel to control maximum boost pressure
SFCnoi*
figure 23-12 At*c/, •.»• . r * -

-e**ve boost presage dunng aecenxatxr
T H R O T T L E VALVE
•UMQFF (CLOSEO)
M U t
• T A K E
EXHAUST
STROKE
COMP«»E.SSO«
TURB'NE
EXHAUST
TURBOCHARGER FAILURES
W h e n t u r b o c h a r g e r s fail t o f u n c t i o n c o r r e c t l y , a d r o p in pows
HIGH-PERFORMANCE TIP n o t i c e d . T o r e s t o r e p r o p e r o p e r a t i o n , t h e t u r b o c h a r g e r must be:

b u i l t , r e p a i r e d , o r r e p l a c e d . It is n o t p o s s i b l e t o s i m p l y rema -
' u r b o c h a r g e r , seal a n y o p e n i n g , a n d still m a i n t a i n d e c e n t driveatL"
H Owe to Good, Two Are Better
B e a r i n g f a i l u r e is a c o m m o n c a u s e of t u r b o c h a r g e r failure, &
» Bf J * ^ . * * e*tsiur.« f r o m the engine to spin a turbine w h i c h « r e p l a c e m e n t b e a r i n g s a r e u s u a l l y o n l y a v a i l a b l e t o rebuiideis. ;
( K f e - « j e a t j r t w c h a f g e r Ttv<, m p e f e r t h e n forces ait into o t h e r c o m m o n t u r b o c h a r g e r p r o b l e m is e x c e s s i v e a n d contir .
r* r y e pressure t u g r ^ m a n • normally achieved wrtnout a tur- oi; c o n s u m p t i o n r e s u l t i n g i n b l u e e x h a u s t s m o k e . Turbochatjp
- v j e r " > •aore a " Tsar can Ot taoed 'itt an er^me the greater the power u s e s m a l l r i n g s s i m i l a r t o p i s t o n r i n g s o n t h e s h a f t to preve:
(;-•>, a . -<pe w - , ne t w o e t t a u s t manrfoids and so t w o s m a l l tur- exhaust c o m b u s t i o n g a s e s ) f r o m e n t e r i n g t h e c e n t r a l bearing.!
• - ^ - v i - • > .-sec to ' p force greater Quantities o* a * into an engine as c a u s e t h e r e a r e n o s e a l s t o k e e p oil i n , e x c e s s i v e oil consump - :
r o w r t i ^ / e 23-13 usually caused by:
1. A p l u g g e d p o s i t i v e c r a n k c a s e v e n t i l a t i o n (PCV) system resuW

in e x c « s i v e c r a n k c a s e p r e s s u r e s f o r c i n g oil i n t o t h e air tale"
failure is n o t r e l a t e d t o t h e t u r b o c h a r g e r , b u t t h e turbochargf'
often blamed.
2 . A clogged air filter, w h i c h c a u s e s a l o w - p r e s s u r e area in the ta&
w h i c h c a n d r a w oil past t h e t u r b o s h a f t r i n g s and into the intake
manifold.
3 . A clogged oil r e t u r n I d r a i n j line f r o m t h e t u r b o c h a r g e r to tfc? •
pan i s u m p ) , w h i c h c a n c a u s e t h e e n g i n e oil p r e s s u r e to fotf e
past t h e t u r b o c h a r g e r ' s s h a f t r i n g s a n d i n t o t h e intake i n d t i
h a u s t m a n i f o l d s . O b v i o u s l y , oil b e i n g f o r c e d i n t o both the i n l -
a n d e x h a u s t w o u l d c r e a t e l o t s of s m o k e .
SUMMARY
1. Volumetric efficiency Is a comparison of the actual volume ol*
mixture drawn Into the engine to the theoretical maximum volar
can be drawn Into the cylinder.
2. A ipercharger operan , from the engine by a drive belt and,'
f i p n < - // . -- •,.- • 4W-. v / > C*ev««f dr.e-, consume -.<mt engine power, It forces a greater amount
the cylinders for even more power.
3. A '.rtwcharger
-urn an impe 1< r a- r. JL t t i a piB&urs: Z x too the e * 0 o e
on the same shaft and e
c. By ceased bearing*
4. eare ' • d- ifericattoi is needed aecaiise the isoxrjr.t set cuj& t
5 A s-.ia' valve supMUuigar
Installed supercr.srger. 6. " - e i a . - r,? these . - b e d o £ i^vo Vi-
6 - rcr/ •' zier. t e d e i r ; oerweer. wbea the e ^ a j s ; « -he rrSaSer a-;
$ r,es to reduce the ' : / • : » a r e 'he • j t u n e btad«; of . e a a t w d w ^ i l a S M o a ) B uy
power. e f e - to T * del*. : ixrx! p r e w j r t ' h i t o c c j n when fee®rcr. - .
7, a wastegate is used on most turbocharger systems to Smtt and control Erst opened. Which tecr-iciar. correct?
boost pressures, as well as a relief valve, tt. ' e e p the speed ••-e-jfe a. Tecrr. a; A
wheel from slowing d o w n during engine dece erai b. Tecr,r-:ian B •srjy
c is-vr ' f t - - ' s.-.; i
d . "ierher T e d f f . c a c A - o r B
REVIEW Q U E S T I O N S 7. . . - r . i - . - j . - K ;f »r. „'.:er:y.-.er=
a. ce r s temperance - / tne airenter.r^ tr.e e n s n e
1. What are the reasons why superchaigir.giiicreaseser.gjre pi
b . To the . . t c c sarger
2. How does the bypa.t vaive wori na
c To . e c g r e - " a turbocfearBed e r j p i e
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of supercharging? <L To cor -se e z n a - r before it enters the turbocharger
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of turbocharging? 8 . '.'.' ;• '- ' • f . " .'ST-:-'."- ' -jv'
5. What tinfoocharger control valves are needed for proper engine operation? a. A tr.-ii:-. -_v»
b. ABOV
c A diffap =.ve
CHAPTER QUIZ d. Both i a w :
1. Boost pressure is generally measured in . 9. >:-: • - '. • : - - '
a. in. Hg 02. T e d m a a r . B a r . that a i s g j e d PCV t.ssem can cause the engine to
b. PSI bum oiL Which B e t t e i d K J c o r e a ?
c. in. H j O a. T-:Sr_ - - -
d. in. lb b. ' e c i r u c a r . - "
c. Both T e d t r j c a n s A and B
2. Two types of superchargers include .
a. Rotary and reciprocating d. ther " e c r r . c a - A r c r B
b. Roots-type and centrifugal 10. .- ope-r.jr . ~;sr r : rsr.t r. ergmes ;
c. Double and single acting turbochagE!-?
d. Turbine and piston a. repiac.'x the aar t i e r -•: r - . i - .
b. Uppia.—----- - F u r nydjili-
3. Which valve is used on a factory supercharger to limit boost?
c. Regu^r osi change;
a. A bypass valve
d. - s r . a r e d a j s : .-.-rem~i~nr.zr.zi
b. A wastegate
c. A blow-off valve
d. An air valve
4. How are mos' uperchargers lubricated?
a. By engine oil under pressure through lines from the engine
b. By an internal oil reservoir
c. By greased bearings
d. No lubrication is needed because the incoming air cools the
supercharger
24
C H A P T E R
Engine Condition Diagnosis
„ k K.- prpmrp for ASE Engine Performance ( A8i certification test content r e a V
OBJECT.VES. After s t u d y i n g C h a p t e r 24, t h e r e a d e r « ' b e le to r pa > engine no.se and its relation to engine c o n d r t m
'General Engine Diagnosis,. • List the visual checks to 1 'ermine en^ne » Qrm a |(nder l e a k a g e test . 0 iscuss tviw to measure the a « u *
• Describe how to perform a dry and a wet compression test • Expia n o w V
o ' timing chain slack • D e s c r i b e how an 0,1 sample analysis can b e u s e d t o d e t e r m ^ ^ ^ ^ . ^ . ..
« Y TERMS: backpressure • c o m p r e s s i o n lest • crankingvacuum^ - c y l i n e r leakag ^ ^ ^ # ^ ^ .
' Inches of m e r c u r y (in. H g l • paper test • power balance test restricted

202 ON .
I f f » r e .$ a n e n g i n e o p e r a t i o n p r o b l e m , t h e n t h e c a u s e c o u l d b e
a n y o n e of m a . - y ,te i n c t u o ^ g t h e e n g i n e itself. T h e condition of
t n e e n g i n e S h o o j o e t e s t a e r . v . a v . e t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e e n g i n e is not
satisfactory.
TYPICAL ENGINE-RELATED COMPLAINTS

Many driveabiiity problems are nor caused by engine mechanical
problems. A thorough inspection and testing of the ignition and
rue. systems should be performed before testing for mechanical
enggae problems.
Typical engine mechanical-related complaints include the
following;
• Excessive oil consumption
• Engine misfiring
• Loss of power Figure 2 4 - 2 White steam is usually an indication of a blown (defective) cylinder heaa g^.
• Smoke from the engine or exhaust that allows engine coolant to flow into the combustion chamber where it is turned to steam
• Engine noise
THE DRIVER IS YOUR BEST RESOURCE
E N G I N E S M O K E DIAGNOSIS The driver of the vehicle knows a lot about the vehicle and howl:
Tne color of engine exhaust smoke can indicate what engine problem driven. Before diagnosis is started, always ask the following quesfc
might exist. • When did the problem first occur?
• Under what conditions does it occur?
Typical Exhaust 1. Cold or hot?
Smoke Color Possible Causes 2. Acceleration, cruise, or deceleration?
3. How far was it driven?
Slue Blue exhaust indicates that the engine is burning oil. Oil is
getting into the combustion chamber either past the piston After the nature and scope of the problem are determined,
rings or past the valve stem seals. 8lue smoke only after
complaint should be verified before further diagnostic tests a
start-up is usually due to defective valve stem seals. See
Figure 24-1.
performed.
Slacx Black exhaust smoke is due to excessive fuel being burned in
the combustion chamber. Typical causes include a defective or VISUAL CHECKS
misadjusted throttle body, leaking fuel injector, or excessive
fuel-pump pressure The first and most important "test" that can be performed is a carer-
M w e isteam) White smoke or steam from the exhaust is normal during cold visual inspection.
weather and represents condensed steam. Every engine creates
about 1 gallon of water for each gallon of gasoline burned. If the Oil Level and Condition The first area for visual inspection
steam from the exhaust is excessive, then water (coolant) is oil level and condition.
getting into the combustion chamber. Typical causes include a
defective cylinder head gasket, a cracked cylinder head, or in 1. Oil level—oil should be to the proper level
severe cases a cracked block. See Figure 24-2 2. Oil condition
fccte hSua smote can also be created when automatic transmission fluid (ATFj is bumeo. A
a. Using a match or lighter, try to light the oil on the dipstick; -
carasai source of ATF getting into the engine is through a defective vacuum modulator valve the oil flames up, gasoline is present in the engine oil.
3* sr.c transmission. b. Drip some of the engine oil from the dipstick onto the te-
exhaust manifold. If the oil bubbles or boils, there is coolant
(water) in the oil.
c. Check for grittiness by rubbing the oil between your nng< >
Coolant Level and Condition Most m e c h a n i c a l

problems are caused by overheating. The proper operatic
the cooling system is critical to the life of any engine.
NOTE: Check the coolant level in the radiator only if the radiator is ^
the radiator is hot and the radiator cap is removed, the drop in C
above the coolant will cause the coolant to boil immediately and c a n ^... ;
severe burns w h e n the coolant explosively expands upward and 0 L "'
from the radiator opening.
1. The coolant level in the coolant recovery c o n t a i n e r $ j h o u l
within the limits indicated on the overflow bottle. If W ^

too low or the coolant recovery container is empty, then >-
Figure 24-1 v.v.-. ... ; out of the crankcase vent hose Excessive amounts of the level of coolant in the radiator (only when cooll and
comoustio." .jases te* paa tr* pisaon rings and into the crankcase check the operation of the pressure cap.
2 iheojolani r.-
' freezing t e m p e r a t u i '
antifreeze Is sufficient
3 pressure test t h e cool
age c a n o f t e n be s e e n ai
because It will o f t e n can- '
a . A grayish w h i t e ,tal
b. A rusty c o l o r stain
c . Dye s t a i n s f r o m ant
o n t h e t y p e of c o o l a n t )
4 . C h e c k f o r cool a r e a s of t h e radiator Indicating d o g g e d s e a
5 . C h e c k o p e r a t i o n a n d c o n d i t i o n of t h e fan c l u t c h , fen, and
p u m p d r i v e belt.
TECH T I P | J W h a t ' s Leaking?
The color of the leaks observed under a vehicle can help it e tr

mine and conect the cause Some leaks, such as condensate <r
a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g system,are normal, whereas a brake fluid teak
ous. The following are colors of common leak:
Sooty black Engine oil
Yellow, green, blue, or orange Antifreeze (coolant)
Red Automatic transmission fluid
Murky brown Brake or power steering fluid or very

neglected antifreeze (coolant)
Clear Air-conditioning condensate iwater - -
Oil L e a k s O i l l e a k s c a n lead t o s e v e r e e n g i n e d a m a g e if tr~ --

ing l o w oil level is n o t c o r r e c t e d . Besides c a u s i n g an oily m< re
the v e h i c l e is p a r k e d , t h e oil leak c a n c a u s e b l u e s m o k e tc c;u-
u n d e r t h e h o o d a s l e a k i n g oil d r i p s o n t h e e x h a u s t system. Fin: -,'
the location of t h e oil l e a k c a n o f t e n b e d i f f i c u l t See Figures 2 4 - 3 a r . :
2 4 - 4 . To h e l p find t h e s o u r c e of oil leaks follow t h e s e steps:
S t e p # 1 C l e a n t h e e n g i n e o r a r e a a r o u n d t h e suspected oil leak. I'se a

high-powered h o t - w a t e r spray to w a s h the engine. While t "
is r u n n i n g , s p r a y t h e e n t i r e e n g i n e and t h e engine c o m p a r ~ t r '
Avoid l e t t i n g t h e w a t e r c o m e i n t o direct contact with the a.- '
and ignition d i s t r i b u t o r o r ignition coilis!.
"OTE: If the engine starts to r u n rough or stalls w h e n th

then t h e s e c o n d a r y i g n i t i o n w i r e s (spark p l u g w i r e s - o r d -
be defective or have w e a k insulation. Be c e r t a i n to w i p e ai
distributor cap d r y w i t h a soft, d r y c l o t h if t h e e n g i n e st.i
An a l t e r n a t i v e m e t h o d is to spray a degreaser on ttu re-

start a n d r u n t h e e n g i n e until w a r m . Engine r at
d e g r e a s e r p e n e t r a t e t h e g r e a s e a n d dirt. Use a water nose :
off t h e e n g i n e a n d e n g i n e c o m p a r t m e n t .
s,e
P # 2 If t h e oil leak is n o t visible or oil s e e m s to be c o m i n g from
" e v e r y w h e r e , " u s e a w h i t e t a l c u m powdei l"'.e
s h o w as a d a r k a r e a o n t h e w h i t e powder. See th
Foot P o w d e r Spray Trick."
S,e #
P 3 F l u o r e s c e n t d y e c a n be a d d e d to the e *
o z ( 1 5 c c | of d y e p e r 5 q u a r t s of e n g i n e oil. Stan the engine

and allow it to r u n a b o u t 1 0 minuti
t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n g i n e . A black light can t h e n b
e v
« y s u s p e c t e d oil leak location. The black light « <»
a
" oil leak locations because t h e d \ . will s h o w as a brt
figure 24-6 I -g i - q r j b •••..-
green a r e a . See Figure 24 5.
KM SECTVHW
most noticeable w h e n t h e e n g i n e Is c o l d a n d t e ,:re

•irOtfc Ru.-esc t Jw * - «st • <he.sc an o i l . stop m a k i n g noise as the piston e x p a n d s during . 0 pr;r't
• T i m i n g chain n o i s e . An excessively loose t i n
a severe knocking noise w h e n the chain hits tl chain"" 1

c o v e r . T h i s n o i s e c a n o f t e n s o u n dj hl ivk e a r o JdU- b. e Knock.
TECH TIP * The Foot P o w d e r Spray Trick • R o d - b e a r i n g n o i s e . T h e noise f r o m a defect!', s e a r i n g j<
s IJ
ally l o a d s e n s i t i v e a n d c h a n g e s in i n t e n s i t y a s tin i o n ttle
T h e s e u r s o t a r oil cu o t h e r fluid l e a k is o t t e n d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e . A q u i c k a n d
e n g i n e i n c r e a s e s a n d d e c r e a s e s . A r o d - b e a r i n g fai i c a n often
eas» w n o c t n a t w o r k s is tfie f o l l o w i n g F i r s t c l e a n t h e e n t i r e a r e a T h i s c a n b e s t
detected by grounding out the spark plugs one c ,. ;e r a t a ti -
?e J o n e b> u s i n g a c o r n m e r c t a l t y a v a i l a b l e d e g r e a s e r t o s p r a y t h e e n t i r e a r e a . L e t
t h e k n o c k i n g n o i s e d e c r e a s e s o r is e l i m i n a t e d w h e n a particul
t s e a * t o n o s e r a t a c c u m u l a t e d oil a n d g r e a s y d i r t . C l e a n o f f t h e d e g r e a s e r w i t h
c y l i n d e r is g r o u n d e d (disabled), t h e n the grounded c y l i n d e r is' -.
a (wser l o s e L e t t h e a r e a d r y . S t a r t t h e e n g i n e , a n d u s i n g s p r a y f o o t p o w d e r or
o n e f r o m w h i c h t h e n o i s e is originating.
other a e r r s o i p o w d e r p r o d u c t sorav the entire area The leak will turn the white
• Main-bearing k n o c k . A m a i n - b e a r i n g k n o c k o f t e n c a n n o t be -
a o w o e r aarK T h e e x a c t l o c a t i o n of any leak can be q u i c k l y located
l a t e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r c y l i n d e r . T h e s o u n d c a n v a r y in i n t e n s i t y anj
m a y d i s a p p e a r at t i m e s d e p e n d i n g o n e n g i n e load.
IftJTE M o s t 0 ' . l e a k s a p p e a r a t t h e b o t t o m of t h e e n g i n e d u e t o g r a v i t y . L o o k
i r trie h i g h e s t m o s t f o r w a r d l o c a t i o n for the s o u r c e of the leak. R e g a r d l e s s of t h e t y p e of l o u d k n o c k i n g n o i s e , a f t e r t h e extern?
c a u s e s o f t h e k n o c k i n g n o i s e h a v e b e e n e l i m i n a t e d , t h e e n g i n e shot
be disassembled and carefully inspected to determine the exact cat
E N G I N E NOISE DIAGNOSIS Typical Noises P o s s i b l e Causes
Ar engine knocking noise is often difficult to diagnose. Several Clicking n o i s e — l i k e the 1. Loose spark plug
clicking of a ballpoint pen
-•-:r; that can cause a deep engine knock include: 2. Loose accessory mount (for air-conditioning
compressor, alternator, p o w e r steering pump, etc
• Valves c l i c k i n g . T h i s c a n h a p p e n b e c a u s e of l a c k of oil to the
3. Loose rocker arm
.-ens T h i s n o i s e is m o s t n o t i c e a b l e at idle w h e n t h e oil p r e s s u r e is
4. Worn rocker a r m pedestal
the lowest
5. Fuel pump (broken mechanical fuel pump retumsprr
• T o r q u e converter. The attaching bolts or nuts m a y be loose on
6. Worn camshaft
tie f : e i p l a t e . T h i s n o i s e is m o s t n o t i c e a b l e a t i d l e o r w h e n t h e r e is
7. Exhaust leak. See Figure 2 4 - 7 .
n o ioad o n the engine.
• C r a c k e d flex p l a t e . T h e n o i s e of a c r a c k e d f l e x p l a t e is o f t e n Clacking n o i s e — l i k e tapping 1 Worn piston pin

on metal
m i s t a k e n for a rod-or m a i n - b e a r i n g noise. 2. Broken piston
• Loose or defective drive b e l t s o r t e n s i o n e r s . If a n accessory 3. Excessive valve clearance
f : . e b e l t is i o o s e o r d e f e c t i v e , t h e f l o p p i n g n o i s e o f t e n sounds 4. Timing chain hitting cover

similar to a bearing k n o c k . See Figure 24-6. K n o c k — l i k e knocking 1. Rod bearing(s)
• Piston pin k n o c k . T h i s k n o c k i n g n o i s e is u s u a l l y n o t a f f e c t e d by on a door
2. Main bearing(s)
or. t h e c y l i n d e r If t h e c l e a r a n c e i s t o o g r e a t , a d o u b l e knock
3. Thrust bearing(s)
' . . : • ? : s h e a r d w h e n t h e e n g i n e i d l e s . If a l l c y l i n d e r s a r e grounded
4. Loose torque converter
• o n e at a time and the noise does not change, a defective piston
5. Cracked flex plate (drive plate)
; n could be the cause.
Rattle—like a baby rattle 1. Manifold heat control valve
• P i s t o n s l a p . A p i s t o n slap is u s u a l l y c a u s e d b y a n u n d e r s i z e d or
r . p r o p e r ' . v >r,aped p i s t o n o r o v e r s i z e d c y l i n d e r b o r e . A p i s t o n s l a p is 2. Broken harmonic balancer
3. Loose accessory mounts
4. Loose accessory drive belt or tensioner
Clatter—like rolling marbles 1. Rod bearings
2. Piston pin
3. Loose t i m i n g chain
W h i n e — l i k e an electric 1. Alternator bearing

motor running
2. Drive belt
3. Power steering
4. Belt noise (accessory or timing)
C l u n k — l i k e a door closing 1. Engine mount
2. Drive axle shaft U-joint or constantt velocity

v P f c ,
TECH TIP
0 Engine Noise and
A light ticking noise often heard at one-half engine speed and

Cost
assoc a
' -i
v a l v e t r a i n n o i s e is a l e s s s e r i o u s p r o b l e m t h a n m a n y d e e p - s o u n d i n g ^
n o i s e s . G e n e r a l l y , t h e d e e p e r t h e s o u n d of t h e e n g i n e n o i s e , t h e m o i e t
Figure 2 4 - 6 «< •-. <•/ ;.-• - nsr . . - r Most >cns»;r*>rs nave a mark that indicates w i l l h a v e t o p a y for r e p a i r s . A l i g h t " t i c k t i c k t i c k , " t h o u g h o f t e n
« M operaang H c a a o * f » » D e * hae wretched. a m indicator mark will be outside of the usually far less expensive than a deep " k n o c k k n o c k k n o c k " from t l " ' ( '
-ar -ge Any*.* r,g wrong *», t*. b e * or t e n w x i e r can cause noise
ftapter 24. Etxpne CowMon OiaflnoBii
ge cart be made from another j

Mid aflexiblebrake hose,
t h e oil pressure sending m \
—
Step #3 Stan the engine and observe the gauge. Record the oil f
sure at idle and at 2500 R P M . Most vehicle manufacturers rec
CRACK —
mend a minimum oil pressure of 10 PSI per 1000 RPM. There!'
at 2500 RPM, the oil pressure should be at least 25 PSI. Atv
compare your test results with the manufacturer's recommend
ofl pressure.
Besides engine bearing wear, other possible causes for low
pressure include:
• Low e -
Figure 24-7 A cracked exhaust manifold on a FordV-8. • 1)1 red or.
OIL P R E S S U R E T E S T I N G • Stuck o i pcesnre relief vaive

Proper oil p r e s s u r e is v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n of any engine.
Low oil pressure can cause engine wear, and engine wear can cause OIL PRESSURE
The WARNING
red oil pressure warning LAMP
lamp i n the dash usually lights
low oil pressure. when the oil pressure is iess than 4 to 7 PSI, depending on vehi-
If m a i n t h r u s t o r r o d b e a r i n g s a r e w o r n , oil p r e s s u r e is r e d u c e d cle and e n g i n e . T h e oil light s h o u i d n o t b e o n d u r i n g d r i v i n g , f /
because of l e a k a g e of t h e oil a r o u n d t h e b e a r i n g s . Oil p r e s s u r e testing t h e oil w a r n i n g l a m p i s o n . s t o p t h e e n g i n e i m m e d i a t e l y . A l w a y s
is usually p e r f o r m e d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g s t e p s :
confirm oil pressure with a reliaKe mechanical gauge before
performing eng;tie repairs. The sending unit or circuit may be
Step #1 O p e r a t e t h e e n g i n e until n o r m a l o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e is
defective.
achieved.
Step #2 W i t h t h e e n g i n e off, r e m o v e t h e oil p r e s s u r e s e n d i n g unit or
sender, u s u a l l y l o c a t e d n e a r t h e oil filter. T h r e a d an oil pressure
gauge into t h e t h r e a d e d h o l e . See Figure 2 4 - 8 .
TECH TIP Use the KISS Test Method
Engine t e s t a e s none tr- f i r e tne cause j f an eigne p r o o f e d An tne simple

~n Just r e m e m f l e r « SS—-Keep if simple stupD.' A
things should be t e s t e d f
loose alternator befl or J o s e bofts o-- a torque converter c a n soi/nd s t Ske a
i f l e r or rod bearing 4 'dose s o a r * plug c a n - r a w the engine p e r f o r m 3s if "3d
a burned valve S o m e s i m : - e : e m s mat can cause senous p r c f c i e m ; nclude re
fottowmg-
Oil Burning
OIL PRESSURE • Lowoilievet

GAUGE . aoggedpci,v3:veorsysle^.causi'igbtoi«t)yandoiltobec'cwn, ~e
air cleaner
. Clogged d r a n b a c * passages in the cylinder head
. D o ait f i a t ' a s not been cfianged for a long time . Charge tne a i anc r.ne
for about • . 0 0 0 miies 11.600 kilometers) and change the a t a n d - iter
again.)
Noises
. Carbon on top of the p ' s t o r . s c a n s o u n d l i t e a bad roO bearing

called a carbon knack)
OIL PRESSURE
SENDING UNIT HOLE • Loose torque-to-flex plate bote tor nuts< causing a ioudfcnodung-s&se
NOTE Often this problem >•.. cause roise or^ at <fc tenose lends .
disappear dunng driving or when the encire s linoer oaG
. A loose and or detective drive belt MKf omt cause a t o or

mam-beanng knocking noise (A loose or uruker mum 'or r>e jenar mbt
laltemator], power steeringpump, or ar-corv)aorang s n n t f l m . i- j'sc
figure 2 4 - 8 To measure engine oil pressure remove the oil oressure st J ng isender
cause a knocking raisa1
unit usually located near tne oil filter. Screw the pressure gauge into the oil pressure sending
unit hole.
s» s t o w
earn its*
iV-X* Trf-^l • BTJC t extn arc SEATS adiaust AT
•*KW m m • tr. papsr toil. Mok) 3 pstct it papersr a
r 5" ea. a S t » M •orte) td' r c » " 5 c a n t o n e t a s i of
S e t M O * m —at wcs* -..-T-t-^ at d e See 24-4;
Moer •uc Bam cU ae«Mt V tne a v e r : drawn
r j r>e l a t t c e • w e s mtri-iT vanes in one or more cylinder;, cootd
cant the oa?er mgnt be Sucked toward the tailpipe
me M v.- • _
! fee Tus'inoq because of a lean conation that could F i g u r e 2 4 - 1 0 A two-piece compression gauge set The threaded hose is screwed ^
* w v tne e^gne ® ccM. Die spart plug hole after removing the spark plug The gauge part is then snapped onto
; cf me paper to—d the tailpipe coUd also be caused by a hole m end ot the hose
me e»*ajsr sysJer- » ettaust escapes through a hole in the exhaust

SWFCM arcoUBfte drawn IT during (he intervals between the exhaust
S t e p #2 Block open the throttle. This permits t h e m a x i m u m aire
*>e arte-* c tne hole m the exhaust causing the paper to be
of air to be drawn into the engine. This step a l s o e n s u r e s cor
n m n tan) me tanpee
tent compression test results.
W O o r < M causng uwfire
S t e p # 3 Thread a compression gauge into o n e s p a r k p l u g h o l e a
crank the engine. See Figure 2 4 - 1 0 .
Continue cranking the engine through . / b u r c o m p r e s s i o n stroke
Each compression stroke makes a puffing sound.
NOTE: N"'< the reading on the compression gauge after the first puff. Tts
reading should be at least one-half the final reading. For example, if the fin
PAPER highest reading is 150 PSI, then the reading after the first puff should
higher than 75 PSI. A low first-pufl reading indicates possible weak pktoc
rings. Release the pressure on the gauge and repeat for the other cylinders
S t e p # 4 Record the highest readings and compare t h e results. Mo

vehicle manufacturers specify t h e m i n i m u m c o m p r e s s i o n read:
and the m a x i m u m allowable variation a m o n g c y l i n d e r s . Ma
manufacturers specify a m a x i m u m difference o f 20% between £
highest reading and the lowest reading. For e x a m p l e :
If the high reading is 150 PSI

Subtract 20% - 3 0 PSI
i 24-4 hoidmg a piece of paper near the tailpipe ot an idling
A OO Lowest allowable compression is 120 PSI
produce even outward pufts ol exhaust II the paper is sucked
a burned M M s a posatvtity
MOTE: To make the math quick and easy, think of 10% of 150, wlitf
COMPRESSION TEST is 15 imove the decimal point to the left one place). Now double ;'
15 x 2 = 30. This represents 20%.
compression t e s t is o n e of t h e f u n d a m e n t a l e n g i n e
: cz -.. that car be p e r f o r m e d . For s m o o t h e n g i n e operation,
. ' d e r s - _s- h a v e equal c o m p r e s s i o n . An e n g i n e can lose c o m
-- - o f a . - t h r o u g h o n e or m o r e of only three routes: NOTE: During cranking, the oil pump cannot maintain normal oil
sure. Extended engine cranking, such as that which occurs during a
• i - exra • valve pression test, can cause hydraulic lifters to collapse. When the e >
• I ' - p pistor.. i! there is a hole) starts, loud valve clicking noises may be heard. This should be consul'"
• - -<ead ga • e ' normal after performing a compression test, and the noise shouldSt
after the vehicle has been dnven a short distance.
' > .r t h e e n g i n e should be w a r m e d to normal operating
•- -.'i a c c u r a t e c o m p r e s s i o n test s h o u l d be
P ^ - n v j t f at fc>>an:
TECH TIP The Hose Trick
i v ; , . Thi d.'iows the e n g i n e to be cranked
Installing spark plugs can be m a d e easier by using a rubber hose on the f
- ar » - - fc* . . '«• to label all spark plug wires.
the s p a r k p l u g The hose can be a v a c u u m hose, fuel line, or even an ok) 51
p l u g w i r e e n d See Figure 2 4 - 1 1 .
i «'.:»r by 1. y.onnecflng the primary leads The hose m a k e s it easy to start the threads of the spark plug into t h e "
.- - - / j J e - by p o u n d i n g the coil wire after der head After starting the threads, continue to t h r e a d the spark plug for
••' ' •'•. M t cap. A.vi disable the fuel- turns. Using the hose e l i m i n a t e s the c h a n c e ot cross-threading the plus
s'" " ' v.. - of f >>. .MO the cylinder. especially i m p o r t a n t w h e n installing spark p l u g s in a l u m i n u m cylinder head5
J
Figure 24-12 im son test o x nave raaaec a
praotsm. ana a o f t i uc rave oeec cseo » aeieioee g
Figure 24-11 Use a vacuum or fuel line hose over the sparK plug to mstaii it witnout exact prooiem.
danger of cross-tnreaOing me cylinder neafl.
Actually, the c p m p t t pressure o l a running e n g i n e is
m u c h tower t h a n cranian; ressior. pressure. This results n a m
t h e volumetric g S d e a c y . g i n e is revolving aster, a n a there-
WET C O M P R E S S I O N T E S T fore, t h e r e is less r.me k s e n t e r t h e combustion c h a m b e r .
If t h e c o m p r e s s i o n t e s t r e a d i n g i n d i c a t e s l o w c o m p r e s s i o n on o n e W i t h less air to c o m p r e s s , t h e compression pressure is lower. Typi-
or m o r e c y l i n d e r s , a d d t h r e e s q u i r t s of oil t o t h e c y l i n d e r and retest. cally, t h e higher t h e e p g c e RPM, t h e lower the running compres-
T is is c a l l e d a w e t compression test, w h e n oil is u s e d to help sion. For m o s t e n g i n e s , t h e v a l u e ranges are as M o w s :
seai a r o u n d t h e p i s t o n rings.
Compression d u r i n g r r a n k f t g : 1O0PS1
compression at ) 00 PS'
CMfT ; . . . Do n o t use m o r e oii m a n three squirts rrom a hand-operated oil Compression i t 2 0 0 0 RPM: >00 PSI
squirt can. Too m u c h oii can cause a hydrostatic lock, which can damage As with c r a n k i n g compression, the running compression of all
or break pistons or connecting rods or even crack a cylinder head.
cylinders shouia oe equai. Therefore, a problem is not Ekeiy to be de-
tected by single compression values, c u t by .-.-litMSS in r u n n i n g
compression values a m o n g t h e cylinders. Broken valve springs, w o r n
P e r f o r m t h e c o m p r e s s i o n t e s t a g a i n a n d o b s e r v e t h e results. If valve guides, bent pusnrods. and w o r n cam iobes are s o m e items
t h e first-purf r e a d i n g s g r e a t l y i m p r o v e a n d t h e r e a d i n g s a r e m u c h that would be ir.u.catec by a ic w t u n n i n g corapress.or, test reading
h i g h e r t h a n w i t h o u t t h e oil, t h e c a u s e of t h e l o w c o m p r e s s i o n is o n o n e o r m o r e cylinders.
w o r n o r d e f e c t i v e p i s t o n r i n g s . If t h e c o m p r e s s i o n r e a d i n g s in-
c r e a s e o n l y s l i g h t l y ( o r n o t a t alli, t h e n t h e c a u s e of t h e l o w com- Performing a Running Compression Test perform a
p r e s s i o n is u s u a l l y d e f e c t i v e v a l v e s . S e e F i g u r e 2 4 - 1 2 . r u n n i n g compression test, remove just o n e spark plug a: a time.
With o n e spark p l u g r e m o v e d from t h e engine, use a j u m p e r w-_-e
to ground the spark piug w i r e to a good engine ground. Tr_s pre-
fcOTE: During both the dry and wet compression tests, be sure that tne vents possible ignition coll oa.-r.age. Start t h e engine, push the pres-
battery and starting system are capable of cranking the engine at nortru. s u r e release on the gauge, and read the compression. Increase t h e
: cranking speed. engine speed to a b o u t 2000 RPM and push the pressure release or.
the gauge again. Read use gauge. Stop the engine, reattach the
spark plug w i r e , and r e p e a t t h e test for each of t h e remaining e v a -
ders. Just like t h e c r a n k i n g compression test, t h e n a m i n g compres-
RUNNING (DYNAMIC) C O M P R E S S I O N TEST sion test car. i n f o r m a technician of the j g & a w c o n p t s s s i o r . of - i
A c o m p r e s s i o n t e s t is c o m m o n l y u s e d t o h e l p d e t e r m i n e e n g i n e t h e cylinders.
c o n d i t i o n a n d is u s u a l l y p e r f o r m e d w i t h t h e e n g i n e cranlcing.
W h a t is t h e R P M of a c r a n k i n g e n g i n e ? A n e n g i n e idles a t a b o u t
6 0 0 to 9 0 0 R P M , a n d t h e s t a r t e r m o t o r o b v i o u s l y c a n n o t c r a n k t h e CYLINDER LEAKAGE TEST
e n g i n e a s f a s t a s t h e e n g i n e i d l e s . M o s t {Manufacturers' specifications O n e of t h e best tests that can be used t o d e t e r m i n e en&r.e
r e q u i r e t h e e n g i n e t o c r a n k a t 8 0 t o 2 5 0 c r a n k i n g R P M . Thereto*?, Don is t h e c y l i n d e r l e a k a g e t e s t This rest n \ \ ivos ir. ecu.-g a_-
a c h e c k of t h e e n g i n e ' s c o m p r e s s i o n a t c r a n k i n g s p e e d d e t e r m i n e s u n d e r pressure i n t o t h e cylinders o n e a : a time. Tne a m o u n t a s d j
t h e c o n d i t i o n of an e n g i n e t h a t does n o t r u n a t s u c h l o w s p e e d s . location of a n y e s c a p i n g air lie.ps the technician a e t e r m . n e
B u t w h a t s h o u l d b e t h e c o m p r e s s i o n of a r u n n i n g e n g i n e ? S o m e c o n d i t i o n of t h e e n g i n e . T n e air .s injected ..i:o t h e o u n c e . -
w o u l d t h i n k t h a t t h e compression w o u l d b e substantially higher; be- through a cylinder leakage gauge into the spark plug he - See
c a u s e t h e v a l v e o v e r l a p o f t h e c a m is m o r e e f f e c t i v e at h i g h e r e n g i n e Figure 2-1-13. To p e r f o r m the cylinder .oarage test, take t h e
speeds, w h i c h w o u l d t e n d t o i n c r e a s e t h e c o m p r e s s i o n . following steps:
A r u n n i n g c o m p r e s s i o n t e s t , a l s o called a d y n a m i c c o m p r e s -
s i o n t e s t , is a c o m p r e s s i o n test d o n e w i t h t h e e n g i n e r u n n i n g rather S t e p * ) For best results, the engine should be « ana: o p e r a t e .
' • J — • * ir< a regular c o m p r e s s i o n test. temperature i u p p e r O d i a t o r hose ioc and pres
b. I I a i r is o b s e r v e d b u b b l i n g o u t of t h e rac
possible b l o w n head gasket or cracked r
hea<t
c . If air is h e a r d c o i n i n g from t h e t h r o t t l e t
; * Wet on , c
i n i c c t i o n - e q u i p p e d e n g i n e s , t h e r e is a d-
d. If air is h e a r d c o m i n g from t h e tailpipe, V 3
êfectivp '
exhaust valvefsj.
CYLINDER POWER BALANCE TEST

M o s t l a r g e e n g i n e a n a l y z e r s a n d s c a n t o o l s h a v ? a cylinder
b a l a n c e f e a t u r e . T h e p u r p o s e of a c y l i n d e r p o w e r b a l a n c e test
to d e t e r m i n e if all c y l i n d e r s a r e c o n t r i b u t i n g p o w e r equally. j t
m i n e s t h i s by s h o r t i n g o u t o n e c y l i n d e r a t a t i m e . !f t h e e n g i n e ^
f R P M ) d o e s n o t c r o p as m u c h f o r o n e c y l i n d e r as for other c y l - i
of t h e s a m e e n g i n e , t h e n t h e s h o r t e d c y l i n d e r m u s t be weaker".,
P < s s r » 2 4 - 1 3 a I W a ! HaxJ-tietd cylinder leakage tester. t h e o t h e r cylinders. For e x a m p l e :
Cylinder Number RPM Drop When Ignition IsSho^-
75
70
15
65
75
70
C y l i n d e r # 3 is t h e w e a k c y l i n d e r .
B c u r e 2 4 - 1 4 A whrstle stop used to find too dead center. Remove the spark plug and
--j , m then rotate the engine by hand When the whistle stops making a
NOTE Most automotive test equipment uses automatic means fetesf;
•send, fte is at the top
cylinder balance. Be certain to correctly identify the offendag c r - f r
Cylinder # 3 as identified by the equipment may be the third cyliidr;
the firing order instead of the actual cylinder - 3 .
S t e p « 2 T n e cylinder b e i n g tested m u s t b e a t t o p d e a d c e n t e r f T D C i
o? t h e c o m p r e s s i o n s t r o k e . S e e Figure 7A-14.
«CTt greatest a m o u n t of w a r occurs at the top of the cylinder POWER BALANCE TEST PROCEDURE
: feecssK of -he heat senerawd near the top of the cylinders. The piston ring W h e n p o i n t - t y p e i g n i t i o n w a s u s e d o n ai! v e h i c l e s , t h e con®'
: Sex Kv. to the wear at the top o! the cylinder. m e t h o d f o r d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h , if a n y . c y l i n d e r w a s weak
r e m o v e a s p a r k p l u g w i r e f r o m o n e s p a r k p l u g at a tine
watching a tachometer and a v a c u u m gauge. This m e t h o d ®
S t e o » 3 fâ'ibrate t h e c y l i n d e r l e a k a g e u n i t as p e r manufacturers r e c o m m e n d e d o n a n y v e h i c l e w i t h a n y t y p e of electronic igr'- ::
x ' , tractions. If a n y of t h e s p a r k p l u g w i r e s a r e r e m o v e d f r o m a spark plug
Step M 1 n : e c air into t h e cylinders o n e at a time, r o t a t i n g t h e e n g i n e t h e e n g i n e r u n n i n g , t h e i g n i t i o n coil t r i e s t o s u p p l y tacreasmgj-
.?.-. -••••*.r-.sita-.-d b y firing o r d e r to test e a c h cylinder a t T D C o n t h e els of v o l t a g e a t t e m p t i n g t o j u m p t h e i n c r e a s i n g g a p as the r-
compression stroke. w i r e s a r e r e m o v e d . T h i s h i g h v o l t a g e c o u l d e a s i l y t r a c k the
S ? * p * 5 E v a i t a t e t h e results: coil, d a m a g e t h e i g n i t i o n m o d u l e , o r b o t h .
Less t h a n 10% l e a k a g e : g o o d T h e a c c e p t a b l e m e t h o d of c a n c e l i n g c y l i n d e r s , w h i c h wffl'*

o n all t y p e s of i g n i t i o n s y s t e m s , i n c l u d i n g d i s t r i b u t o r l e s s , is to f - j
Lest, ' r a n 20% l e a k a g e : a c c e p t a b l e
t h e s e c o n d a r y c u r r e n t f o r e a c h cylinder. S e e figure 2 4 - 1 5 . The •
less t h a n 30% l e a k a g e : p o o r d e r w i t h t h e l e a s t R P M d r o p is t h e c y l i n d e r n o t p r o d u c i n g I
More than l e a k a g e definite problem of p o w e r .
. HtPt: V<-T.-: imaccejstafejy high, repeat die test, being certain

VACUUM TESTS
{ A e ft r. bevy perfev&S < o t r e r t y and thai the cylinder being tested is at V a c u u m is p r e s s u r e b e l o w a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e a n d is tne®^.
f TOC <js gj* • t s ^ m v o r . s f o f e r . in i n c h e s o r m i l l i m e t e r s ! o f m e r c u r y ( H g ) . A n e n g i n e - >;,
m e c h a n i c a l c o n d i t i o n will r u n w i t h high m a n i f o l d v a c u o " .
i f o l d v a c u u m is d e v e l o p e d b y t h e p i s t o n s a s t h e y m o v e - ,
S l e d # 6 C h e c k t h e s o u r c e of sir l e a k a g e , t h e i n t a k e s t r o k e t o d r a w t h e c h a r g e f r o m t h e t h r o t t l e fitf
a. If air is h e a r d r a p i n g f r o m t h e oil filler c a p , t h e p/sfon rings i n t a k e m a n i f o l d . A i r t o refill t h e m a n i f o l d c o m e s p a s t t i * - . . .
are worn oriiroiwfc plate into the manifold. V a c u u m will increase anytime '"e •
SPARK PLU!.
WIRE
LIGHT
3" PIECE
OF HOSE
Rgure 24-15 Using a vacuum hose and a test light to ground one cylinder a' a • -ne < -
a dlstributorless Ignition system. This works on all types of Ignition tystems and provtdei
a method for grounding out one cylinder at a time without fear ot damaging a-, R g m 24-16 gooc seaBr»ca TO . ' induce 17tor • >ej ol
component. vacuum at dfc at sea ewi
turns faster or h a s b e t t e r cylinder sealing while the throttle plate

r e m a i n s in a f i x e d position. Manifold v a c u u m will decrease
w h e n t h e e n g i n e t u r n s m o r e slowly or w h e n t h e cylinders no
longer do an efficient job of p u m p i n g . Vacuum tests inc . d e Q Sf
testing t h e e n g i n e for c r a n k i n g v a c u u m , idle vacuum,
so **
vacuum at 2 5 0 0 R P M .
Cranking V a c u u m Test M e a s u r i n g t h e amount of man i ft :

v a c u u m d u r i n g c r a n k i n g is a quick and easy test to determine if the
piston rings and valves a r e properly sealing. |For accurate r e . ts.
the e n g i n e s h o u l d b e w a r m and t h e throttle closed. To perform the
c r a n k i n g v a c u u m t e s t , t a k e the following steps:
F q u t 34-17 i s t e : out » -ymtrr. n r n m .i« -.•-ar » • - •
Step #1 Disable t h e Ignition or fuel injection.

Step # 2 C o n n e c t t h e v a c u u m gauge to a manifold vacuum source Low and Steady Vacuum ffg a
V e t t h e g - x r E i : . - ; . rear., tr.e r.-st c-.nr: - ca. - .:
Step # 3 C r a n k t h e e n g i n e while observing the vacuum gauge.
• -etc.—--: r.•
Cranking v a c u u m should be higher than 2.5 inches of rr • .-: ... -
(Normal c r a n k i n g v a c u u m is 3 t o 6 inches Hg. If it is lower -.'.ar. timiag tab far proper araJiic -
2.5 i n c h e s H g , t h e n t h e f o l l o w i n g could be the cause:
See figure 24-
• Too slow a c r a n k i n g s p e e d
• Worn piston rings Fluctuating Vacuum the - ; e iropt
• Leaking valves ncma.-eadng, then drops ^ s n , and aj^.n t«unB,-r.a : .
• Excessive a m o u n t s of air b y p a s s i n g t h e throttle p.ate >c a sddangiaNe. A caramon cause of seeking trahre lack : tr
give a false l o w v a c u u m r e a d i n g . C o m m o n s o u r c e s . . te a arm the valvestems. See figures 24-16 thro .at I ' ••
throttle plate partially o p e n o r a high-perfo iance a - vaa gauje fluctuates above and bekw acertter:--'t -jr-.'
excessive o v e r l a p . ) vaires a weak vive srr.r25 mav oe indicated 4 >-.
si.:-v a r . j a n t e .nequi r_ei Eourture c . : oe tise .
Idle V a c u u m Test An engine in proper c -
idle w i t h a s t e a d y v a c u u m b e t w e e n 17 a n d 21 s f
Rgure 2 4 - 1 0 .
Wit Engine vacuum readings van,- \s t \ tv.:

H* Per 1,000 feet | i 0 0 : etc ol a, tx
expected values tf testing a v c h i d e above I .<XA rett - V ts
I 2 4 - 1 B * gauge r o d n g m m the need** fluctuating 3 to 9 In Hg below normal F i g u r e 2 4 - 2 2 II the needle dropt 1 or 2 in Hg from the norms reading, one t i a* ^
* now intake fygem values u burned or not Mating properly
l 24-19 ; ing I vr the needle to vibrate as it mo»es through F i g u r e 2 4 - 2 3 Weak valve springs will produce a normal reading at idle, t*/
a range r - - . " teiow lo aoow nwrrai speed increases , the needle will fluctuate rapidly between 12 and 24 in Hg.
, I S" 9f r * i I
- « K t s n nt;..-jt
. i.'-tmi.n-
/ i - ' h t • e er.ii it* ( a * r e c i r o r i a d o o Itf-C! vafve - »'

BGf <cu5 V -ycace a p i a w " - tar • e c %»% c/r*sHurt
W r j n f t * , air ' , J e t ? x « i r e a c t * ™ AfJt; h e t l t «aJ»»
r
.iieck ' i t t e *r •* " e o b m fetes >srj ' j V/wn x T * n t j e m t
mar,'' - / a : v « ».'•* < . > ~ * a d t ' o i e » agBnttM
.a • 'a './ - • - Ac a* >a p**ssu»e .as
Figure 24-26 A needle that rtf%'. to r 7< «- At use m a x ** - ~ c. ar 2 5 0 0 1 P M
0 ' . ' < , ar.d ' ' ' . ' ja- <
EXHAUST RESTRICTION TEST

DIAGNOSING HEAD GASKET FAILURE
If t h e e x h a u s t s y s t e m is r e s t r i c t e d , t h e e n g i n e w low - ;
S«?veri: l e n s ta* cr . s e d C s g p t a t e oeafl s s t ^ e r (j, re
yet s m o o t h . C o m m o n c a u s e s of r e s t r i c t e d exhaust
following: • txhaxni gas asatntx.
probe '.te - - . t * ana to?- a r / . > a f i r > * S r nr.-L 1
• C l o g g e d c a t a l y t i c c o n v e r t e r . A w ays - e c "
flKHC«eadtagtneean,êez&aaK jsniraed h y i m a f l h m •
injection s y s t e m s f o r f a u l t s t h a t c o u l d c a u s e e x c e s s i v e a r •
getarz rood* m t - " * -xe&ue - :-aefce£
u n b u m e d fuel t o b e e x h a u s t e d . Excessive u n b u m e d f j e l can over-
• Chemicai t e s t A -»• teaer a f a g Hue l o a d 3 a i x avaiiattr
h e a t t h e catalytic c o n v e r t e r a n d c a u s e t h e b e a d s o r s t r u c t u r e of e
T h e Squad : . r a eflo» c o t f n c x a gates are p r » « r n tne
c o n v e r t e r t o f u s e t o g e t h e r , c r e a t i n g t h e restriction. A d e f e c . e f u e
c o o a a L See ftgas*
delivery s y s t e m c o u l d a l s o c a u s e e x c e s s i v e u n b u m e d f u e ; .0 be
dumped into t h e c o n v e r t e r .
• Clogged or r e s t r i c t e d m u f f l e r . 1 : .a:
a d e f e c t i v e catalytic c o n v e r t e r w i l l s h e d p a n i c l e s t h a t c a n clog a
muffler. B r o k e n i n t e r n a l b a f f l e s c a n a l s o r e s t r i c t e x h a a r flow.
• D a m a g e d o r d e f e c t i v e p i p i n g . T h i s can r e d u c e m e
engine. S o m e e x h a u s t p i p e is c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h d o u b l e w a i and
the inside pipe c a n c o l l a p s e a n d f o r m a r e ha r
on t h e o u t s i d e of t h e e x h a u s t p i p e .
TESTING BACK P R E S S U R E WITH A VACUUM GAUGE

A v a c u u m g a u g e c a n be used t o measure m a v f o l d <'acu . r at a
h i g h i d l e 1 2 0 0 0 t o 2 5 0 0 R P M | . If t h e exhaust iter: is restr r e :
p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s i n t h e e x h a u s t system. This pre ure . cai.ec
b a c k p r e s s u r e . M a n i f o l d v a c u u m v,-•..•;• r
figure 24-2" «•
i s k e p t a t a c o n s t a n t s p e e d if t h e exhaust is restricted.
T h e r e a s o n t h e v a c u u m w i l l d r o p is t h a t ai; e x h a . : ea r : .
e n g i n e a t t h e h i g h e r e n g i n e s p e e d c a n n o t get t h r o j g h t h e r -
A f t e r a s h o r t t i m e (within 1 m i n u t e i , the exhaust tends
a b o v e t h e r e s t r i c t i o n and eventually remains in t h e c v h n d e r of -.-•
e n g i n e a t t h e e n d of t h e e x h a u s t s t r o k e . T h e r e f o r e , at t h e beg: " -
t h e i n t a k e s t r o k e , w h e n t h e piston traveling d o w n w a r d -h . i be
l o w e r i n g t h e p r e s s u r e (raising t h e v a c u u m in t h e i n t a s e -a:
t h e e x t r a e x h a u s t i n t h e c y l i n d e r lowers the norma; . -
exhaust restriction is s e v e r e e n o u g h , t h e v e h i : e ca be
u n d r i v e a b l e b e c a u s e c y l i n d e r filling c a n n o t o c c u r e x r
TESTING BACK P R E S S U R E WITH A P R E S S U R E GAUGE

Exhaust system back pressure can be me.; j r e : : • b
installing a p r e s s u r e g a u g e i n t o a n e x h a u s t o p e r . Tt car. tx
accomplished i n o n e o f t h e following ways:
' W h b a n o x y g e n s e n i o r . U s e a back p r e s s u r e g a u g e Hid a d a p t e r

o r r e m o v e t h e i n s i d e o f a n o l d , d i s c a r d e d o x y g e n sensor a n d t h r e a o Figure 24-28 - e s e r tnat a n 3 S w
to a n a d a p t e r t o c o n v e r t t o a v a c u u m o r p r e s s u r e gauge.
212 Sr S
• But'' always check the oil pressure using a r e l i a b l e ri

oil prw.
pre. n* p u s . : ns r.. R» ••• ••/« t h e r a d i a t o r c a p a n d s u n t h e gauge If low oil pressure Is suspected.
t n t ? n * If -: • a p p e a r tn t h e c o o l a n t b e f o r e It b e g i n s t o boii, a
s o- c r a c j 1 c y l i n d e r h e a d is i n d i c a t e d .
• t a w ^ w e a t u w a t s t e a m . If e x c e s s i v e w a t e r o r s t e a m is •>JTE: Some automobile manufacturer, combine i ''arnlng jjjj,,
• cc g f r o m t h e t a i l p i p e , t h i s m e a n s t h a t c o o l a n t is tor oil pressure and coolant temperatureinto one liyi,- iiiy labeled
glne." Therefore, when the engine light comes on, tr.- hnldan it**,
1 - rtir g - : o t • ffita: • o n c h a m b e r from a defective head gasket
check for possible coolant temperature and/or oil pr< .yjre 'f'blerm.
<• a .:.. - J b e a d . If t h e r e leakage b e t w e e n cylinders, t h e engine
: ua'.v - fires a n d a p o w e r b a l a n c e r t e s t a n d / o r compr< ion test
c a n be u s e d t o c o n f i r m t h e problem.
C o o l a n t T e m p e r a t u r e L i g h t M o s t vehicles are equipped i
I? anv ' h e p r e c e d i n g indicators of h e a d g a s k e t f a i l u r e occur,
a coolant temperature gauge or dash warning light. The warr
re n e v e tne cvi.nder h e a d ' s and check ail of t h e f o l l o w i n g : light may be labeled "coolant," "hot," or "temperature." I[
1. Head gasket coolant temperature warning light c o m e s o n during driving, ••
2 aiaig irfec< forwarpa^: usually indicates that the coolant temperature is above a safe leve .
3. -cracks above about 2 5 0 T (120°Cj. Normal coolant temperature sho.;-
about 2 0 0 " to 220" F-190° to 105°C).
r If the coolant temperature light comes on during driving, - .
A • thermal vac j -a valve can cause symptoms similar to following steps should be followed to prevent possible engine dam-.,.
t a d e e head gasket. Mov thermal vacuum valve, thread Into
a coo ant parsa*-. and they often leak only after they get hot. 1. Tom off the air conditioning and turn on the heater. The heater
L
will help get rid of some of the heat in the cooling system.
2. Raise the engine speed in neutral or park to increase the circiiaoot
of coolant through the radiator.
D A S H W A R N I N G LIGHTS 3. If possible, turn the engine off and allow it to cool (this may take
M o - vehicles are equipped with several dash warning lights over an hour).
-,'ter called "telltale" or "idiot" lights. T h e s e lights are often the 4 . Do not continue driving with the coolant temperature light «
w a r n i n g a driver receives that there may be engine prob • or the gauge reading in the red warning section or above 20O°f
letns. A . m m a r y of typical d a s h w a r n i n g lights a n d their m e a n - or serious engine damage may result.
ings follows.
Oil ( E n g i n e ) L i g h t T h e red oil light i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e e n g i n e oil NOTE: If the engine does not feel or smell h o t , It po ble tte'
----- ' ' too low j s u a l l y lights w h e n oil p r e s s u r e is 4 t o 7 PSI [ 2 0 t o problem Is. a faulty coolant temperature sensor or gauge.
5 0 <:r-a - ' .'orrnsl oil p r e s s u r e s h o u l d b e 10 t o 6 0 PSI 1 7 0 t o 4 0 0 k P a j
c 1 0 PS! p e r 1 0 0 0 e n g i n e R P M .
W h e n *n,s light c o m e s o n , t h e d r i v e r s h o u l d s h u t off t h e e n g i n e
^ : / a n d c h e c k t h e oil level a n d c o n d i t i o n for p o s s i b l e d i l u t i o n TECH TIP tf Misfire Diagnosis
v. -- i ^ y j i n e c a u s e d b y a f u e l s y s t e m f a u l t . If t h e oil l e v e l is okay,
- h e r e .. a possible serious e n g i n e p r o b l e m or a possible defective It a misfire goes away with propane added to the air inlet, suspect a lee' -
. ^re-.vjre e n d i n g sender i n n . The automotive technician should
PHOTO SEQUENCE Compression Test
W-1 ••>,•• ar«J m t needed to perform a P 2 4 - 2 To prevent ignition and luel-injection operation P 2 4 - 3 Block open the throttle (and choke, if ^
-.V ' • / ( < ; / / vw> m a compressor) gauge an air while me engine is being cranked, remove both the fuel is equipped with a carburetor) Here a scie i
"art' -re «*><* ratchet arifl e / t w u w * that miction fuse and the ignition fuse If the fuses cannot being used to wedge the throttle linkage op* #
'*•»/ V> to rer./,./e " <- -,p3rv plugs from be removed, disconnect the wiring connectors lor the ining the throttle open ensures that encuan
Iwewgne jectors and the ignition system. drawn into the engine 80 that the c o m p t e r
suits will be accurate.
vTTTli.
P24-4 Before removing the sparV plug:, ise v P24-6 fteriOKe a i o f - . ^ v a * / / . B e w t - . w S e e c t » proper aaaote- tor sw •
nozzle to blow away any dirt that may be around e the spar* plug/.^s, so (fiat t e y t ^ r Be rgWit A c / M b "t«a(S» / -/<? adaptor v w j e , - a * -
spark plug This step helps prevent debris from getting the correct «<ar» !*ug» a t e - c * - , r * r e » / -at s* A e s t a r - &. x.
into the engine when the spark plugs are remo red been perforrned
P24-7 tf necessary, connect a battery charger to the P24-8 Mate a note of me r e a d « r e gauge 2*ier
battery before starting the compression test. It is im- the first "puff, /vhicn - t i c a i e s h - s * - , ; ~ r i r e M i e f
portant that consistent cranking speed be available for strote that occurred on that cy&nder as the nos
each cylinder being tested being rotated it the first puff -ear - 3 s .•* are r *
readmg gradually increase; w f - eatf- « a » or
worn piston rings may tie nrtcates
P24-10 Record the first puff and this final reading for P24—11 if a cytmdr s s s n e t h r - x K :-<• P24-12 1* tt» a o g e -fac n g a ~om r- tx
each cylinder. The final readings should all be within ers use an oil can and sgurt two sgurfc of e n p r e > tf<e first test nssutts Iter t-e c a ^ i t ¥ a
20% of each other into the cylinder ana -epeat the u w p r t s s w s a t . r»*s aarapresseor s coe So wont or d e l e a v e f H r
is called p e r t o n w g a wet comprwsen test The oil r the cjandar iemporarty seae S * r ">q» w *
causes tfte r-igher -eac raj.
SUMMARY
1. The first step in diagnosing engine condition is to perform a thoroutJi
sual Inspection, Including a check of oil and coolant lev* - and a
2. Oil leaks can be found by using a white powder or a fluoresces! d y e .
a black light.
a . Many engine-related problems m a k e a characteristic noise.
4 . Oil analysis by an engineering laboratory can reveal engine problems
measuring the a m o u n t ol dissolved metals In the oil.
5. A smoothly operating engine depends on
REVIEW QUESTIONS
a. High compression on most cylinders
I . ?««.• > t N \ • cêc -.->• sfc : be performed on an engine if a b . Equal compression between cylinders
rrncna- a t n A a c a c K U - j s p e t t e i c. Cylinder compression levels above 1001
"Wai
70 PSI (500 kPa) of each other and
i i c a j s e exoassive oil consumption. *tf
d . Compression levels below 100 PSI (700 kl
J- ' .ause c g i n e n o i s e s .
LVIlri
6 . A good reading for a cylinder leakage test would I ^'
4. '---.r-.be w i tnpress> >r test and how to determine what
a. Within 20% between cylinders "
i - . - e g wais c «<3gr>« basec oo a compression test result b . All cylinders below 20% leakage
i. - >- 2 * -' .<a<tag» 'e: c. All cylinders above 20% leakage
0. : • - 3 vs. a jge would injicate if the valves were sticking d. All cylinders above 70% leakage and within 7 3f e a c h
;c t h « j p i c i e s . 7. Technician A says that during a power balance test, the cylinder I

7. I V s c r t e th-- * - procedure for determining if the exhaust system is the biggest RPM drop is the weak cylinder. Technician B s a w ? 0 1 8 6
•esrir.ed . ising a vacuum gauge. spark plug wire is grounded out and the engine speed does.
weak or dead cylinder is indicated. Which technician is correct? ^
C H A P T E R QUIZ b. Technician B only
t. A savs that "he paper test could d e t e a a burned valve. Techni
z j C 5 $a •-• that a s a v i s h white stain on the engine could be a coolant leak,
'•'•hich $ c h m d a c is correct? 8. Crankingâcuum should be _
a. Technician A only a. 2.5 inches Hg or higher
b- Technician B only b . Over 25 inches Hg
c. Both Technicians A and B c. 17 to 21 inches Hg
d. Neither Technician A nor B d. 6 to 16 inches Hg
2- T» > . - - . are. are discussing oil leaks. Technician A says that an oil leak 9. Technician A says that a worn |stretched) timing chain and worn geani
i r . Pe found jsing a fluorescent dye in the oil with a black light to check cause the valve and ignition timing to be retarded. Technician B says ft;
ias5 Technician B says that a white spray powder can be used to locate the timing chain slack is over 8 degrees, the timing chain and gearc sho.
oil te.- v; Which technician is correct? be replaced. Which technician is correct?
a. Technician A only a. Technician A only
b . Technician B only b. Technician B only
c. Both Technicians A and B c. Both Technicians A and B
d. Se "her Technician A nor B d. Neither Technician A nor B
3. '•'• - ; - of the following is the least likely to cause an engine noise? 10. The low oil pressure warning light usually comes on .
a. Carbon on the pistons a. Whenever an oil change is required
b. O.-acked exhaust manifold b. Whenever oil pressure drops dangerously low |4 to 7 PSI>
c. Loose accessory drive belt c. Whenever the oil filter bypass valve opens
d. Vacuum leak d. Whenever the oil filter antidrainback valve opens
4 . A w i i e c w ir. the engine oil can cause .
a. The oil to become thinner (decrease viscosity)
b . The oB to become thicker (increase viscosity)
c . The oil to congeal
d . Both b and c
C H A P T E R
25
Engine Disassembly, Cleaning,
and Crack Detection
i"A"(G<
After studying Chapter 25, the reader w i l l be able to: Prepare for ASE Engine Repair (A1) certification t e s t content area » ^"jstlH
h-Diagnose • Describe how to remove an engine from a vehicle. • Discuss how to remove cylinder h e a d s without c a u s i n g warpage
stepo ' - isafy to r e m o v e a piston from a cylinder. • Explain how to remove a valve from a cylinder head. • List the t y p e s of engine cleaning
• - ^ e ' - xis that c a n be used to check engine parts for cracks. • Describe crack-repair procedures.
, ac*J-atenals • agitation • a q u e o u s - b a s e d solutions • caustic materials • fogging oil • fusible link • harmonic balance'
• frftt v. • k e e p e r s • pH • putty knife • pyrolytic • soluble • stop drilling • ultrasonic cleaning • valve locks • vibration damp
• Zytfo
Eir, - e Disassembly, Cleaning, and Crack Detection 2tS
T he decision to repair an <
Hon about the engine that Is available to the service technician In

the
ide o
compressor and lines. The compressor can be fastened t o t h e
engine compartment, where it will not i n t e r f e r e w t t h e n -
gine removal. If it is necessary to disconnect t h e air-conditioning
some cases, the engine might i line., use a refrigerant recovery system to prevent loss of r e f r i g e r a n t
bility of the technician to discus to the atmosphere. All open air-conditioning lines should b e s e c u r e l y
the different repair o p t i o n s with the i.u : plugged immediately after they are disconnected to k e e p dirt a n d
moisture out of the system. They should remain plugged until Im-
ENGINE R E M O V A L
m e d i a t e l y prior to reassembly.
T h e e n g i n e e x t e r i o r a n d t h e e n g i n e c o m p a r t m e n t s h o u l d b e cleaned There are t w o ways to remove the engine:
before w o r k is b e g u n . A c l e a n e n g i n e is easier to w o r k o n and t h e
c l e a n i n g n o t o n l y h e l p s t o k e e p d i r t o u t of t h e e n g i n e b u t also rni - • T h e e n g i n e can b e lifted o u t of the chassis with the transmission/
mizes a c c i d e n t a l d a m a g e f r o m s l i p p i n g tools. T h e battery g r o u n d transaxie a t t a c h e d .
cable is d i s c o n n e c t e d t o a v o i d t h e c h a n c e of electrical shorts. An • T h e transmit; o n / t r a n s a x l e c a n be disconnected from the engine
even b e t t e r p r o c e d u r e is t o r e m o v e t h e b a t t e r y f r o m t h e vehicle. and left in t h e chassis.
U n d e r t h e v e h i c l e , t h e d r i v e s h a f t (propeller shaft) or half shafts

a r e r e m o v e d a n d t h e e x h a u s t pipes d i s c o n n e c t e d . In s o m e installa-
NOTE: Most technicians Ughtly scribe around the hood hinges prior to
tions, it m a y b e n e c e s s a r y to i o o s e n t h e s t e e r i n g linkage idler arm to
removal to make aligning the hood easier during reinstallation.
give c l e a r a n c e . T h e t r a n s m i s s i o n c o n t r o l s , s p e e d o m e t e r cable wiring,
a n d c l u t c h linkages a r e d i s c o n n e c t e d a n d tagged.
A sling, e i t h e r a c h a i n o r lift c a b l e , is a t t a c h e d t o t h e e n g i n e .
W o r k i n g o n t h e t o p of t h e e n g i n e is m a d e easier if t h e h o o d is
r e m o v e d . W i t h f e n d e r c o v e r s in p l a c e , t h e h o o d is l o o s e n e d f r o m
the h i n g e s . W i t h a p e r s o n o n e a c h s i d e of t h e h o o d to s u p p o r t it, t h e
HOT: For the best resi_-_, jse thefectory-iatalledlifting hooks that are
hood is lifted off a s t h e b o l t s t h a t h o l d t h e h o o d a r e r e m o v e d . attached to the engine. These boob were used in the assembly plant to
The h o o d is u s u a l l y s t o r e d o n f e n d e r c o v e r s placed o n t h e top of t h e install the engine and are usually «the best location to remove the engine.
vehicle, w h e r e it is l e a s t likely t o b e d a m a g e d .
T h e c o o l a n t is d r a i n e d f r o m t h e r a d i a t o r a n d t h e e n g i n e block
to m i n i m i z e t h e c h a n c e of c o o l a n t g e t t i n g i n t o t h e cylinders w h e n A hoist is a t t a c h e d t o t h e s u n g a n d s n u g g e d to t a k e m o s t of t h e
the h e a d is r e m o v e d . T h e e x h a u s t m a n i f o l d is d i s c o n n e c t e d . w e i g h t . T h i s leaves t h e engin resting n the m o u n t s . ( M o s t en-
gines u s e t h r e e m o u n t s , one o n e a c h side a n d o n e a t t h e back of
t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o r at t h e f r : - ' of the engine. The r e a r cross-mem-
HINT: O n some engines, it is easier to remove the exhaust pipe from the b e r is r e m o v e d , a n d or, r e a r - w h e e l - d r i v e v e h i c l e s , t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n
manifold. O n others, it is easier to separate the exhaust manifold from the is l o w e r e d . T h e h o i s t is t i g h t e n e d tr. J : t h e e n g i n e . T h e e n g i n e wiii
head and leave the manifold attached to the exhaust pipe.
h a v e to n o s e u p as i t . . r e m o v e d . and t h e front of t h e e n g i n e m u s t
c o m e a l m o s t straight u p as t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n slides from u n d e r t h e
floor p a n , as fllustrated in figure 2 5 - 1 . T h e e n g i n e a n d transmis-
O n K t y p e e n g i n e s , t h e i n t a k e m a n i f o l d m u s t b e r e m o v e d be- sion are h o i s t e d free of t h e a u t o m o b i l e , s w u n g clear, a n d l o w e r e d
fore t h e h e a d s c a n b e t a k e n off. In m o s t c a s e s , a n u m b e r of wires, o n t o a n o p e n floor a r e a .
accessories, h o s e s , a n d t u b i n g m u s t b e r e m o v e d b e f o r e t h e mani-
fold h e a d c a n b e r e m o v e d . If t h e t e c h n i c i a n is n o t familiar w i t h t h e
engine, it is a g o o d p r a c t i c e t o p u t t a p e o n e a c h of t h e i t e m s re- MOTE' The engine is lowered andremovedfromunderneath on many
m o v e d , m a r k e d w i t h t h e p r o p e r l o c a t i o n of e a c h i t e m so t h a t all front-drive vehicles. See Rgures 25-2 iad 25-3.
items c a n b e easily r e p l a c e d d u r i n g e n g i n e assembly.
ENGINE DISASSEMBLY
TECH TIP A P i c t u r e Is W o r t h a Thousand Words
T h e f o l l o w i n g d i s a s s e m b l y p r o c e d u r e applies primarily to p u s h r o d
Take pictures of the engine being serviced with a cell phone, digital camera, or e n g i n e s . T h e p r o c e d u r e will h a v e t o b e m o d i f i e d s o m e w h a t w h e r .
video camera. These pictures will be worth their weight in gold when it comes
time to reassemble or reinstall the engine It is very difficult for anyone to
remember the exact location of every bracket, wire, and hose. Referring back
to the photos of the engine before work was started will help you restore the
vehicle to like-new condition.
All c o o l a n t h o s e s a r e r e m o v e d , a n d t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n oil c o o l e r
lines a r e d i s c o n n e c t e d f r o m t h e radiator. T h e r a d i a t o r m o u n t i n g
bolts are r e m o v e d , a n d t h e r a d i a t o r is lifted f r o m t h e e n g i n e c o m -
p a r t m e n t . T h i s g e t s t h e r a d i a t o r o u t of t h e w a y so t h a t it will n o t b e
damaged w h i l e y o u a r e w o r k i n g o n t h e e n g i n e . This is a g o o d t i m e
to h a v e t h e r a d i a t o r c l e a n e d , w h i l e it is o u t of t h e chassis.
The air-conditioning c o m p r e s s o r can usually be separated from
toe e n g i n e , l e a v i n g all a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g h o s e s s e c u r e l y c o n n e c t e d t o Figure 2fr-1 An engine must be tipped as it is pucec fror me
Jte N.
CYLINDER
RIDGE
/ \
}
r .009'' W E A n ^
UPPER END O F
AREA Ol
TOP RING T R A V E L
anATt:
WEAR
< .0003'' W E A R y
UPPER END OF
PISTON SKIRT
TRAVEL
PISTON SKIRT
J T R A V E L S IN AREA
LOWER END OF O F L E A S T WEAR
BOTTOM RING
TRAVEL
Figure 2 5 - 2 VW»- i s w w i g -t the engine (ram a (ront-v»fieei-<Jnve vehicle. the Rgure 2 5 - 4 Most ol the cylinder wear Is on the top inch |ust below the cylinder ridge Tr •
- r s i r t -•, s i t s imported. Sf-cvw here s a typical fit\se that can be used to hold the wear is due to the heat and combustion pressures that occur when the piston linear Diet,
, •- • f r y - a r e «removed a to fold the transaite if the engine is removed. of the cylinder
With t h e manifold off of t h e V-type e n g i n e , loosen the rock-

arms, and r e m o v e the pushrods. T h e usual practice is to leave th-
lifters in place w h e n doing only a valve job. R e m o v e the head «•.
screws and lift the head from the block d e c k .
CHECKING CYLINDER BORE

At this point, t h e cylinder taper a n d out-of-raund of the cylinder
bore should be c h e c k e d just b e l o w t h e ridge a n d just above the pi:
ton w h e n it is at t h e b o t t o m of t h e stroke, a s s h o w n on the c.:
a w a y cylinder in Figure 2 5 4 . T h e s e m e a s u r e m e n t s will ind :;'
h o w m u c h cylinder-wall w o r k is required. If t h e cylinders are v r
beyond t h e specified limits, they will h a v e t o b e rebored to re -
t h e m t o a satisfactory condition.
fijW* 2 5 - 3 The eaflre jradle. wine* included the engine, transaxie and steering gear. R E M O V I N G T H E OIL PAN
-encweC and placed oro a stend The rear cylinder Head has been removed to check tor
To r e m o v e t h e oil pan, turn t h e e n g i n e u p s i d e d o w n . This w.
Tit " / t - a n * of a cooiat leak.
the first opportunity to see the w o r k i n g parts in the bottom end of P
* - . ' • . - s --. overhead cam er.gir.es. Engines should b e cold before engine. Deposits a r e again a good indication of t h e conditi'
: .-:. -- : -or. ntr. zt the chance of warpage. the engine a n d t h e care it h a s h a d . H e a v y s l u d g e indicates "
Per. . e the r j hold-down cap screws and nuts, and lift q u e n t oil changes; hard c a r b o n indicates o v e r h e a t i n g . The oil
pickup screen should b e c h e c k e d t o see h o w m u c h plugging t :
T h e connecting rods a n d caps a n d m a i n bearing caps should :•
checked to m a k e sure that t h e y are numbered, if not, they'
(He the Proper Disassembly P r o c e d u r e be n u m b e r e d with n u m b e r s t a m p s o r a p u n c h s o that the. -
be reassembled in exactly t h e s a m e position. S e e Figures --
• A ' - r - ' C " e « iperated it builds up internal stresses Even cast-icon parts
and 2 5 - 6 .
.. .- : - -tr ••iiir, car warp * the proper disassembly procedure is not
• . <n»d asassenwt v i engine Without causing harm, just remember
.-. - p o r v p o r t s REMOVING THE CYLINDER RIDGE
» : >-1>"6 y r : . t - n ar. engirr? OTy ater n has been allowed to sit for
T h e ridge a b o v e t h e t o p ring m u s t b e r e m o v e d before the f
w--i . H e r p g r « should be disassembled when the engine is at
and c o n n e c t i n g r o d a s s e m b l y is r e m o v e d . C y l i n d e r wear
•W 1armature
an u p p e r ridge a n d r e m o v i n g it is n e c e s s a r y t o avoid C2-'
ring o n t h e ridge a n d b r e a k i n g t h e p i s t o n . Failure t o r e r
- iiwa < s o r t v n j n r. the -eveê order of assembly Most
ridge is likely t o c a u s e t h e s e c o n d p i s t o n l a n d t o break
" r V . - >' v i rac-yt»r«rid tightening bolts from the center of the
e n g i n e is r u n after r e a s s e m b l y w i t h n e w rings, as pic'-"
avsKMMt wok M i cfktaer head toward the outside tends). Therefore, to
Figure 2 5 -7. T h e ridge is r e m o v e d w i t h a c u t t i n g tool ;
'.-.'.see ' s „ v t>oi!i ohoutd be loosened first
fed into t h e m e t a j ridge. O n e type of ridge r e a m e r is ^
's -.,-.«.• t c ' > -J:">r
figure 2 5 3 . A g u i d e or, t h e t o o l p r e v e n t s a c c i d e n t a l <••>
*v ' .ftps >'•• - . . p tne -/waftility pf warpage occurring b e l o w ' h e ridge. I h e r e a m i n g job s h o jld b e d o n e care?
* t * r t » tstrh 8 » ' t m o n e d f r e q u e n t c h e c k s of tile w o r k s o t h a t n o m o r e material , V i a
e t s a r y is r e m o v e d .
Figure 25-5 Diese competing M;. were —
3-4 ..• . • 'if

«*•»»•« letM*t
F * r » 25-4 »**«.
Figure 25-6 tnerodsarid n a m r e •••' maitiK

Orttfyttt marta ietoredsassemtHir orffieengine
REMOVINC THE " t S T M S
B i ' j t t | r * e n c a e u s t i . v * pi
4e»J certw TOO. I r w ^ • i B U S 8 * roe v .
•ar rae rod a? wrr. to t • "4M501 ' M L W
• t * rod h a t e w r j t p r o t e c t o r : • t a t f j 1 M B SMC
aBftj? attttva* M M B and -vi
R E M O V B K THE H A R M O M t C B A L A M C E R
TV oer nep 3 - lesnttty t t» jeaswe
M l t o t wfcrad'jrs doBpcr
tujancf rt, to jnc w r ^ - -^ - •
a m i Tars l a p c r n o t t u r i i c b e ' • m z m t a «
p u j c r < M A K tc. & e « n e ® h g ^ " * ^ .' ,
FifM25-7 'trie-log**t*U|MM artst&usc r n t p r nf jwM' " <- ;
i m * the wtvic 1 m a w - « ( l i n e w i w ptfw « i
iraaSKWiriSii -J* d a a p r m
" ,i i j i . . .
'«n»«i «<w tmnm* tptKts • ia r** M a n
718 S* V*
R E M O V I N G TH£ TIMING CHAJN AND C A M S H A F T

W i t h tt* 4 m ( W U m a t t f o f l . t h e timing cover can b e r e m o v e d ,
f j p a s r i i the a §r r t x u- . chain. Examine these parts for
« : « s s . v e *t-ar a n ' • - • ••... A vrarr t i m l n g d i r i n <>n a high-mileage
e r . c ~ f it sht a- ri F : . . t 2 5 - 1 0 . Bosted c a m sprockets c a n b e
r e o o w c i to free t h e c m i r g t h a n . If camshaft thrust plate retaining
s c r e w s are vaed, i t w u l b e n e c e s s a r y to r e m o v e them.
cgm.sr.aft car be removed at this time, o rftcan be removed
if*- • t1- .*arJc an • out. It must be carefully eas*d from t h e e n
c" -:' •> a a d ta~ ac - i the cam bearings or cam lobes. This Is d o n e
mas: ?as;VA»!'n •_".*; front -of the engine pointing up. Bearing surfaces
i - - - j . - ea v.andtN; cam lobes are hard and chip easily.
REMOVING THE MAIN BEARING AND CRANKSHAFT

• t . - b e a m * caps should be checked for position markings be-
• - are r>' . - 1 They have been machined in place and will
no- v petlectiy in any other location. See Figure 2 5 - 1 1 . After Figure 2 5 - 1 1 Most engines such as this Chevrolet v-8 with 4-boll mam bearing cap...
n a r t n g , they car. be removed to free t h e crankshaft. W h e n t h e arrows marked on the beanng caps which should point to the front ot the engine
cranfcsnaft .> removed, the main bearing caps and bearings are rein-
: j lied the ciock to reduce the chance of damage to the caps.
R E M O V E AND DISASSEMBLE THE CYLINDER HEAD

,: e head retaining bolts by loosening them from
(x.s::e toward t h e center to help prevent t h e possibility of
wspase - h e r.ead. Remove t h e cylinder head(s) and check t h e
z i x t r for signs of failure. See Figure 2 5 12.
Af>: t h e heads are removed and placed on t h e bench, t h e
.4 , -r- areremoved. A C type valve spring compressor, similar to the
25 3, • e d '<> r r - j t) • v a l v e l o c k s o r k e e p e r s ,
i.ve pr.ng compressor is air powered in production shops
*-.ere vafve jobs are done on a regular basis. Mechanical valve spring
r; are tsed where valve work is d o n e only occasionally,
t ' r ,-a.ve lock is removed, t h e compressor is released to free
- - - er and spring. The '.pring assemblies are lifted from
• - - ' . i l t u r n e r with any spacer, used under t h e m . T h e parts
Figure 2 5 - 1 2 This defective cylinder head gasket was discovered as soon as t t * ' ;
was removed This cylinder head will require machining or replacement
Figure 25-1C . • VAsetatthetiminjctam

.* K . - • / ' f-*-/r>/ •/»* Mr«« vrêmeCham«mcontact
•'-w V/ V »*• -<• -i- v.***! * ' / - oat* it fie Mock after
•emortl * tie j ^ - ' - » y / M m / w h/ft or darr-.*jed bote and nu» Figure 2 5 - 1 3 A valk spring compressor being used to remove the valve
ihoutd be r e m o v e d In ord'
any malfunction that sho u
should be lightly filed to r<
from the head. B u r r s will
W h e n all v a l v e s h a v e •:.
for each o n e , t h e v a l v e s p r i n g s , r
should be given a n o t h e r .. ,ua
M B I ^ H H I
Wk
-
Ss> at
• l XV J Figure 25-16 Ar w 'S.wr-4 y " V - ataOwd w a brfeae part * r , /witor * w - »
ml
VMketwtaceofaqikndermd Tne color of MMes ndfcafet He gnt numte T «
while »lhe vêfandsrcuitf oeueedonatowwn M o * a coarse an) <an oe used m
afum*ur> (yeen » deseed k r c a * - w par* ortytliifwieolcleanry) pad *i*4e wtee
jsed 'X Te enpne 5ir/> t r * - * e * y t y f <v. Tie erijne causer ar~ nftee
tie engne • ttafled and f » afcr Me isow
Figure 25-14 Alter removing this intake valve, it became obvious wh/ the enqine w
been running so poorly.
MECHANICAL CLEANING
Heavy dept t s t h a t r e m * : : , a f t e r c h e m i c a l c l e a n i n g wffi h a v e t o b e
The Wax Trick removed by mechanical c l e ' . n g . Mechanical cleaning :r.vo:/«
s c r a p i n g , b r u s h i n g , a n d a b r a s i v e W a s t i n g . It s h o u l d , t h e r e f o r e , b e
Before the engine block can be thoroughly cleaned, all oil gallery plugs must be d o n e very carefully o n soft raetals.
removed A popular trick of the trade for plug removal involves heating Oie plug T h e i c r a p e r mos* - e . -; 5 p u t t y k n i f e o r a pia tic
mot the surrounding metal) with an oxyacetyiene torch The heat tends to c a r d . T h e b r o a d b l a d e of t h e p u t t y k n i f e h e l p s a v o i d s c r a t c h i n g t h e
erpand the plug and make it tighter in the block. Do not overheat s u r f a c e a s i t is u s e d t o d e a r , t n e p a r s . A r o t a r y d i s c c a n be used on
As the plug is cooling, touch the plug with paraffin wax (beeswax or disassembled parts that w u l b e thorough. / cleaned to r e m o v e the
candle wax may be used). See Figure 25-15. The wax will be drawn Sown fine a b r a s i v e t h a t s p a r of t h e p i a s t i : bristles. S e e figure 25-16
around the threads of the plug by capillary attraction as the plug cools and
contracts After being allowed to cool, the plug is easily removed
c a n r m Do not a s e e . w a e brash on a f u n m s n parts' Steel ts !
harder than a-unsnun; and w £ remove tor* at t h e jroitwiB t r o n A e '
surface thincg cieanCig.
CHEMICAL C L E A N E R S
C l e a n i n g c h e m i c a l s a p p l i e d t o e n g i n e p a r t s will m i x w i t h a n d dis-
solve deposits. T h e c h e m i c a l s loosen t h e deposits s o t h a t t r e y can
b e b r u s h e d o r r i n s e d f r o m t h e s u r f a c e . A d e p o s i t ts said t o b e
soluble ••• • car. b e d i s s o l v e d W : t b a c h e m i c a l o r v<
Most chemical cleaners used for cleaning carbon-type ieposia
are s t r o n g s ps i caustic materials. pH :
a scale from 1 to 14, indicates t h e a m o u n t of chemical activ • .0 the
s o a p . The term pH is from t h e French pouvoir hydrogtne. m e a n i n g
" h y d r o g e n p o w e r " Pure w a t e r is neutral; o n t h e pH scale, water .
pH 7. Caustic materials have p H number, from 8 through 4.
higher the n u m b e r t h e stronger the caustic a . b e Acid
m a t e r i a l s have pH n u m b e r s from 1 through 0 The - -r " r
bet, the stronger the acid action will be. Causic matenais and aod
materials neutralize each other. This ii what "appens when bafcng
soda ia caustici is used t o dean the outside of the battery a.-. add
surface). The caustic baking soda neutraije. arv .Jur.c ac2 tha-
has been spilled o r splashed o n the outsxle of the barter,-
Figure 25-15 Atorch» used lo heat eêry plugs ParafH, wan i( ed and i ~ - » — "
atowd to flow around the threads This procedure r e « * i in easier removal o( me ptogs and * 8 R f » Whenever working witfc cne5aafc.-jai m a t u e e y t w s e a i r .
iDw threaded fasteners that cannot otherwiw be loosenec | tfcl M
Ot tv .
SOM3ft-$AS£? a t - V STEAM CLEANING

ft i was?** « asAtniccMtrME S t e a m c l e a n e r s a r e a s p e c i a l c l a s s of s p r a y e r . '
with hish-pfessure water and sprayed on the t
•VV T - ; t e a r n a n d t h e p r o p e i l a n t f o r c e of t h e h i g h - p ' e
••• d o •><> c l e a n i n g . S t e a m c l e a n i n g m u s t b e .
fsxz •-—:. 00 < tSfflS 3K c a r e . U s u a l l y , a c a u s t i c c l e a n e r is a d d e d t o
--.-• A t e f O u m cleaners inctude aid in t h e c l e a n i n g . T h i s m i x t u r e is s o a c t i v e t h a *
ever, r e m o v e paint, so painted surfaces m u s t t -
•^fror..-:
spray. E n g i n e s a r e o f t e n s t e a m c l e a n e d before
' r e m "he chassis.
5* c y t e B *
THERMAL CLEANING
Thermal cleaning uses heat to vaporize a n d char intoT^"
p o w d e r / a s h . T h ^ - m a l c l e a n i n g is b e s t s u i t e d f o r c r a n i n g c a r C .
w h e r e t e m p e r a t u r e s as high as 8 0 0 ° F l 4 2 5 " C i are used, w v -
a l u m i n u m should n o t be heated to o v e r 6 0 0 " F f 3 1 5 .
* S T E R - « 4 S E B CHEMICAL CLEANING T h e m s i o r a d v a n t a g e s of t h e r m a l c l e a n i n g i n c l u d e the follow-
5^3. - - - - - - - v j j j x . c o n c e r n s . r w r * c h e m i c a l c l e a n i n g is n o w
1. T h i s p r o c e s s c l e a n s t h e i n s i d e a s w e l l as t h e o u t s i d e of the a ? -
- • - - . aqueous-based
or part.
... .. -tgpt* r3 E x a l t e based a n d are mixed
2 . T h e w a s t e g e n e r a t e d is u n h a z a r d o u s a n d is easy to dispose of
--tt. s o M ' t s ran be sprayed o o o r used in a
H o w e v e r , - h e h e a t in ' h e o v e n u s u a l l y d i s c o l o r s t h e metal, leav •
•ate — - i s s s , Aluminas* beads a n d blocks usually require
it l o o k i n g d u l l .
----- - i >,<'••:*•<;.- k e p t j r a b o u t 1 9 0 ' T ' 9 0 * C l . F o r
-- - tp 7 e r - j t - \5t»n should be agitated. A p y r o l y t i c ( h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e ) o v e n c l e a n s e n g i n e parts bv
c o m p o s i n g dirt, grease, a n d gaskets w i t h h e a t in a manner sbfe
srnjsy WASWNG t o t h a t i»f a s e l f - c l e a n i n g o v e n . T h i s m e t h o d of e n g i n e p a n dear.
is b e c o m i n g t h e m o s t p o p u l a r b e c a u s e t h e r e is n o h a z a r d o u s TO?
- -i—• v j s > » - 2 r e c r s s t r e a m s of liquid t h r o u g h n u m e r o u s h i g h
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h it. L a b o r c o s t s a r e a l s o r e d u c e d b e c a u s e the O K -
jmj«ii a g a t e S f ^ ^ K l f * dirt a n d g r i m e on an e n g i n e surface.
t o r d o e s n o t n e e d t o b e p r e s e n t d u r i n g t h e a c t u a l cleaning o p -
. j feftriTg t h e s u r f a c e , c o m b i n e d w i t h the
tion. See Figure 2 5 - 1 8 .
x~rr .>' t h e c J w m r g s o l u t i o n , p r o d u c e s a c l e a n s u r f a c e ,
• - r • - • •• - r ~T- :••'."• p e r f c r r n e d in a n e n c l o s e d w a s h e r Hike a
£ r*TB-*— — » p a r t s <r<- r o t a t e d o n a w a s h e r t u r n t a b l e . S e e COLD TANK CLEANING
... , , . . . . „ 'v.-,:r t h a n s o a k i n g . A t v p i c a ! w a s h e r c y c l e is T h e c o l d s o a k t a n k is u s e d t o r e m o v e g r e a s e a n d c a r b o n . Th.edx
= t -"-j- T - r ires per load. o 'T.pared to eight o r m o r e h o u r s for s e m b l e d p a r t s a r e p l a c e d in t h e t a n k s o t h a t t h e y a r e compk
---- - a f aqueous-based c l e a n i n g solu- covered with the chemical cleaning solution. A f t e r a soak-
D'-iod. the parts are removed and rinsed u n t i l t h e milkvasr-
- ^ - - • W F -Tdf t o ' W O with foam suppres-
a n c e of t h e e m u l s i o n is g o n e . T h e p a r t s a r e t h e n d r i e d with ex-
- - ,r - i t m e t t s f a c t u r e r s use industrial dishwashing
p r e s s e d air. T h e c l e a n , d r y p a r t s a r e t h e n u s u a l l y g i v e n a ven- :•?
-.••• - - - ^ r ^ b l e d <>r.5Sr<es' c o m p o n e n t p a r t s .
c o a t i n g of c l e a n oil t o p r e v e n t r u s t i n g . C a r b u r e t o r deanet:
c h a s e d w i t h a b a s k e t in a b u c k e t , is o n e of t h e m o s t c o m m o n "
of c o l d s o a k a g e n t s in t h e a u t o m o t i v e s h o p . U s u a l l y , t h e r e vr "
l a y e r of w a t e r o v e r t h e c h e m i c a l t o p r e v e n t e v a p o r a t i o n ."
c h e m i c a l . This w a t e r l a y e r is c a l l e d a h y d r o s e a l .
P a r t s w a s h e r s a r e o f t e n u s e d jr. p l a c e of s o a k i n g tanks. Thisec
m e n t c a n m o v e p a r t s b a c k a n d f o r t h t h r o u g h t h e cleaning solu'-1-
p u m p s t h e c l e a n i n g s o l u t i o n o v e r t h e p a r t s . Thus moverae^'- ^
a g i t a t i o n , keeps fresh cleaning solution m o v i n g past the s t r ' ' '
' o o s e n . T h e p a r t s w a s h e r Is u s u a l l y e q u i p p e d w i t h a safety CO*'
1
•pen bv :<.<w t e m p e r a t u r e f u s i b l e l i n k . If a M occurs.''
'ink will m e l t a n d t h e c o v e r will d r o p c l o s e d t o s n u f f t h e fire <>''••
HOT TANK C L E A N I N G
' h e h o t s o a k t a n k is u s e d f o r c l e a n i n g h e a v y o r g a n i c depo s -
r u s t from iron a n d steel parts. T h e c a u s t i c c l e a n i n g s o l u t e
'.he h o t s o a k t a n k is h e a t e d t o n e a r 2 0 0 ° F ( 9 3 T ) f o r rapic :
actton. T h e solution must be inhibited w h e n alum:"'-'-'^'

cleaned. After the deposits have been loosened, the
X -îNwwhf T?*? r e m o v e d f r o m ' h e t a n k a n d r i n s e d w i t h h o t w a t e r o r stea"'_ •
w h i c h dries t h e m rapidly. T h e y m u s t t h e n b e g i v e n a ligh*c
oil t o p r e v e n t r u s t i n g .
lay, Ciear.i:.]. a«s Crack Detection 221
(a)
Figure 2 5 - 1 9 Smaii engine p a r i can oe oiastea dean m a sealed caornet
VIBRATORY C L E A N I N G
T h e v i b r a t o r y m e t h o d of c l e a n i n g is b e s t s u i t e d for s m a l l p a n s . P a n s
a r e l o a d e d i n t o a v i b r a t i n g b i n w i t h s m a l l , o d a - s h a p e d c e r a m i c or
steel p i e c e s , called m e d i a , w i t h a c l e a n i n g s o l u t i o n of m i n e r a l spirits
or water-based d e t e r g e n t s t h a t usually c o n t a i n a l u b r i c a n t a d d i t i v e t o
h e l p t h e m e d i a p i e c e s s l i d e a r o u n d m o r e freely. T h e m o v e m e n t of
t h e v i b r a t i n g s o l u u o n a n d t h e s c r u b b i n g a c t i o n of t h e m e c i a d o a n
e x c e l l e n t j o b ot c l e a n i n g m e t a i .
BUSTERS
(D) C l e a n i n g cast-iron o r a l u m i n u m e n g i n e p a r t s w i t h s o l v e n t s o r b e a t
usually r e q u i r e s a n o t h e r o p e r a t i o n to a c h i e v e a u n i f o r m s u r f a c e fin-
figure 26-18 (a) A pyroiytic (Oign temperature) wen cleans Dy oaking tne engine pans. ish. Blasting t h e parts w i t h steel, cast-iron, a l u m i n u m , o r stainless-
Aner inc ports nave oeon Cleaned, tney are tnen placed into an airless blaster. Tnis unn uses steel s h o t o r glass b e a d s is a s i m p l e w a y to a c h i e v e a m a n e o r s a t i n
- ^ j j i c 10 scoop gtainiass steel snot irom a reservoir arid lorces ii against me engine pan. surface finish o n t h e e n g i n e p a n s . T o k e e p t h e s h o t o r b e a a s r o m
: he pun-, ,7iuii oe nee or grcuse ana oil lo function correcily. (D) Stainless steel snot used in sticking to t h e parts, t h e y m u s t b e dry, w i t h o u t a t r a c e of oil o r g r e a s e ,
an airless Waster. p n o r to blasting. T h i s m e a n s t h a t blasting i s t h e s e c o n d c l e a n i n g
m e t h o d , after t h e p a n r.as b e e n p r e c l e a r . e d in a t a n k , s p r a y w a s h a ; o r
o v e n . S o m e blasting is d o n e a u t o m a t i c a l l y in ar. airless s h o t - q f e ^ g
m a c h i n e . A n o t h e r m e t h o d is to h a r d - b l a s t p a n s in a s e a l e d c a b i n e t .
See Figure 2 5 - I s ) .
m m : Fogging o i l trom - spray caja i o c s j n excellent job or coating met.il
wrts to keep them from rusting.
:...: Ciass fieaas oner, remain m internal passages a: e r ^ a t j a s s .

where they can come loose ar.d save! t h w u g n me cyiawtes r.-.e er.-
gjne is stanes. Amongoaser p - c e s , mese sma... o u desm_.-t.ve. .„-.
WPORCLEANING
easily oe uappea uoder the oil oatiles of rocker coves aad - pais ant
^ p u f c l e a n i n g is p o p u l a r m s o m e a u t o m o t i v e s e r v i c e s h o p s . T h e piston-ringgrooves.To help prevent the giass seadstrorr.stio..-.;, -
.-^"s to &e c l e a n e d are suspended in h o t v a p o r s a b o v e a per- t l u t the parts bemg cleaned are tree of grease a a j dirt aad CKssrfte •
^ • o r o e t h y i e n e s o l u t i o n . T n e v a p o r s of t h e s o l u t i o n l o o s e n t h e soil
!ro:r
' ^ m e i a l s o t n a t it c a n b e b l o w n , w i p e d , o r r i n s e d f r o m t h e
surtace.
VISUAL INSPECTION
A f t e r t h e p a r t s h a v e b e e n t h o r o u g h l y c l e a n e d , t h e y sfcocW b e x -
ULTRASONIC CLEANING e x a m i n e d for d e t e c t s . A m a g n i i y i n g g a s s is n e i p f u . in S a i n g
U l t r a s o n i c c l e a n i n g , s u s e d t o c l e a n s m a l l p a r t s t n a t m u s t o«r az>- Critical p a r t s of a p e r f o r m a n c e e n g i n e s h o u l d b e c h e d a c i o r c r a c k s
t o r e x a m p l e , h y d r a u l i c litters a n d diesel i n j e c t o r s . using specialised magnetic or penetration i n f e c t i o n equipment.
1
* aeassen&lcd p a n s w p l a c e d in a t a n k of c l e a n i n g s o l u t i o n Internal parts s u c h as pistons, c o n n e c t i n g rods, a n a crin.ss.tans
1 a V l b r i r e a
t'ofl^ ? « u l t r a s o n i c s p e e d s t o l o o s e n a., m e soil h a v e c r a c k s s h o u l d o e r e p l a c e d . C r a c i s ..-. cr.e c . o c i teacs,
:ne
7 * P ^ ' t s - T h e soil g o e s i n t o trie s o l u u o n o r falls t o t n e b o t t o m h o w e v e r , car. o r t e n b e r e p a i r e d , a n d t s e s e r e p o t : p r c c e c ^ r e s a r e
« t n e tank. d e s c r i b e d in a later s e c t i o n .
n j n a c r g g n f
hguec2>-22 "r^ . a wnage fore 23iV-8 tunc* ..«•> c^mmc Dyj*

Memo*- J»nt «ofce trying to nana* me ptufi trom 3ie otoc*. Trie uenne*
r w * UMC ftat J M not (my K. n u u me <00 easier. Out Also to pr evens
E*R*GTQ TM MOCK
PtE-PENETRANT TESTING
D y e - p e w g r a n t t e s t i n g a u s u a l l y u s e d o n p i s t o n s a n d other pc-
c o c s a u c t e c of a . j a u n u m o r o t h e r n o n m a g n e t i c m a t e r i a l . A d a t •
p e n e t r a t i n g c h e m i c a l is 5 r s t s p r a y e d o n t h e c o m p o n e n t being t s
A l t e r c l e a n n g , a w h i l e p o w d e r is s p r a y e d o v e r t h e test area. If i a n
... p r e s e n t , tfct r e d d y e w i l l s t a i n t h e w h i t e p o w d e r . Even tho
. . . . . t . c I ' . j c a . . . _ > g w o r k o n i r o n a n d s t e e l ( m a g n e t i c , pans,
. . . . . . . „ t e a o n . , or. n o n m a g n e t i c p a r t s b e c a u s e m a g n e t i c met:
do n o t w o r e o n these parts.
HJJORESCENT-PENETRANT TESTING
T o o e s e e n , !". . . o r e s c e n t p e n e t r a n t r e q u i r e s a b l a c k light. It cac
j s e d o n . r o c , ^ e e l , o r a l u m i n u m p a n s . C r a c k s s h o w u p as t s
:;r.c;. w h e n v i e w e d w i t h a b l a c k l i g h t . T h e m e t h o d is coma;':
. Z y g l o , a t r a a e n . j r x of t n e M a g n a i l u x C o r p o r a n o n .
PRESSURE TESTING
Cylinder h e a i . a n d blocks a r e o f t e n p r e s s u r e tested w i t h ar
c h e c k e d tor .oaks. AC c o o l a n t passages a r e b l o c k e d w i t h n4-
p l u g , o r gaskets, a n d c o m p r e s s e d a i r ts a p p l i e d to the *
l o c k e t s , . T h e h e a d o r b<ock is t h e n l o w e r e d i n t o water, w W * -
bubbles indicate < .eak. f o r m o r e a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s , t h e w a t e r s -
be h e a t e d b e c a u s e t h e hot w a t e r e x p a n d s t h e c a s t i n g by i t * ^ *
s a m e a m o u n t a> a n o p e r a t i n g e n g i n e w o u l d . A n a i t e m a o v e t n ^
involves r u n n i n g h e a t e d w a t e r w i t h a d y e t h r o u g h t h e c y t f f i ^
clock. Any ie.»*s revealed b y t h e d y e d w a t e r i n d i c a t e a crack
Figures 2 5 - 2 3 a n d 2 S - 2 4 .
CRACK REPAIR
Cracfc. m t h e e n g i n e clock c a n c a u s e c o o l a n t to flow into d *
ol n t o m e cooiant. A c r a c K e a block c a n a l s o c a u s e c o o l a n t
externally from a crack that g o e s t h r o u g h t o a c o o l a n t
C r a o t s x . tn«. r.ead w £ aiiow c o o l a n t t o leak i n t o t h e
they will allow c o m b u s t i o n gases t o leak i n t o t h e coolant- ^ '
acru^s the vaive seat cauê h o t spots o n t n e v a l v e , w h i c h * ~ '
m e valve race. A h e a d w i t h a c r a c k will e i t h e r h a v e t o b e K P *
or Oae crack wiii n a v e t o De repaired. T w o c o m m o n med** 5
c r a c k repair are w e l d i n g a n d plugging.
J
• and Crack Detetf.oo 223
Figure 25-23 To make sun mat the mark observed in the cylinder wall wis a crack,
unpened a* was laced Into the water tacket while soapy water was sprayed on the
Grander wall Buddies confirmed that the mark was indeed a crack
<e)
Figure 25-24 A . uuiei head is under walei and being pressure tested using compressed
* Note itwi (he m buD&es indicate a crack.
W f 1 1 -:e an be d-i.led at each end of the crack to keep It from

•<••' on i I s l o p d r i l l i n g . Cracks that do
1
•-» oi paiûrt, bolt holes, or seel surfaces can sometimes be left
*i°o» if Hopped.
CRACK-WELDING C A S T IRON
;
t a k e s a g r e a t d e a l of s k i l l t o w e l d c a s t I r o n . T h e c a s t i r o n d o e s n o t
Figure 25-25 ta) Belore welding, the crack a ground out using o i.vtade c••'Oe» : -we
P - - d i e o r f l o w a s s t e e l d o e s w h e n It Is h e a t e d . H e a v y c a s t p a r t s ,
the technician is practicing using the special cast -iron welding torch before weding me
- a s t h e head a n d block, c o n d u c t heat a w a y from the weld so
cracked cylinder head (cl The finished welded crack More final madunmg iffl the rrnsneo
' • 1 that it ts d i f f i c u l t t o g e t t h e part h o t e n o u g h to melt t h e iron for
cylinder head after the crack has been repaired using wekmg
Ae-dirtR. W h e n it d o e s m e l t , a c r a c k will o f t e n d e v e l o p n e x t to t h e
•'•e o f t h e w e l d b e a d . W e l d i n g c a n b e d o n e satisfactorily when
entire cast part is heated red hot. CRACK-WELDING ALUMINUM
A n e w t e c h n i q u e i n v o l v e s d a m e w e l d i n g u s i n g a special torch. C r a c k s in a l u m i n u m can be welded using a Heliarc - sunisr
S * R«ure 2 5 - 2 5 . w e l d e r t h a t is s p e c i a l l y d e s i g n e d t o w e l d a l u m i n u m . T h e ^ t j c k s n o t a
{N < ""» *
HAMMER
HACKSAW
SLOT
PA*
Figure 25-29 Cutting the plug with a hacksaw
ORIGINAL CRACK
FIRST PLUG F
SECOND PLUG PLUGS INTERLOCK
Figure 25-30 interlocking plugs
i25-27 g Wetarafftug
IFigure 2 5 30]. Interlocking plugs are placed a l o n g the entit? j

c r a c k , a l t e r n a t i n g s l i g h t l y f r o m s i d e t o s i d e . T h e e x p o s e d endso! ;
t h e p l u g , a r e p e e n e d o v e r w i t h a h a m m e r t o h e l p s e c u r e them ir ,
p l a c e . T h e s u r f a c e of t h e p l u g s is t h e n g r o u n d o r filed down m -
t o t h e g a s k e t s u r f a c e . In t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r a n d at the per:,
t h e p l u g s a r e g r o u n d d o w n t o t h e o r i g i n a l s u r f a c e using a ham
g r i n d e r . T h e g a s k e t s u r f a c e of t h e h e a d m u s t b e r e s u r f a c e d after " '
crack has been repaired. See Figure 2 5 - 3 1 f o r a n example of i -
cylinder head repair using plugs.
I 2V-2> V w w g « opr-tf pfaKi t the nam
SUMMARY
•• w a d i n g b e g i n s . T h e o l d v a l v e s e a t in 1. The factory Installed lifting hooks should be used when hoisting
i > •<-- f t h e c r a c k is in o r n e a r t h e c o m b u s t i o n engine.
2. Engine component par's should only be removed when the erf
cold. Also, the torque table should always be followed backward. W
CRACV PUHGHtG with the highesi number head bolt and working toward the 1
number. This procedure helps prevent warpage.
. / , ' s , 9 e r a e i , clrr.ed u s i n g i n t e r l o c k i n g
3. Tl • ridge at the lop of the cylinder should be removed before te
• ;•• • d an be performed to repair cracks
the plston|s| from the cylinder.
a-J ca • ron engine c o m p o n e n t s . T h e ends
4. I he conn tin, rod and m r> bearing caps should be marl
o • ' *"-* pi t H and drilled with t h e proper size
removing to ensure that they can be reinstalled In the M a c
' p . • b o i e r. r f - a m e d w i t h a tapered
location when the engine is reassembled.
5 ' <r<d t r h e n ' t p p e d t o give full t h r e a d s
5. lt» •••• .!•••• ••••!. sh< d t filed tWnre removing valvt
2 : . cn'id with s t a l e r ; t h e n it Is t i g h t e n e d
cylinder head lo help prevent damage to the valve guide.
/ •• 2 ' 28 a b o u t o n e f o u r t h of t h e w a y
6. M< nar.i.dl di-dtilntr -with Ktapers or wire brushes is " 5 t J
" - • •" ' i-i w i. < c o n t r o l s t h e b r e a k i n g p o i n t
deposits.
• 2' . , d b r e a k b e l o w t h e s u r f a c e , It will
" >
" •.•.••«/•,.>.' Toe plug should go 7. .:<•••; >a> br .• .he should never bi- i ,i-d to i an aluminum Pa
' * e x , ' " «-'ai A f t e r t h e first p l u g Is 8. M tch'-iii al ti. aners an-'itroi^ soaps called caustic materia1
- * • ,.f r. 4r ed if;** t a p drill s o t h a t 9. My/a; alutt nutri ,ale chemicals when cleaning alumW"
* •' ' " of " p g. t% n r * h o l e Is r e a m e d components.
< J
» v - -I'd - brton If pjug should fit 10. ft rir i ' M t . don, i n , j,/rolyti( oven in temper;
acMf one-fi/.''' 4 'tv,.;,- v, s firm pkjff KjckH Intopl$ee 800°F I42'> n to turn grease arid dirt Into harmless ash depo*
•• •''• • y, Cleaning, and Ciaci Detection 225
;
3. • two ,!• ; . [ iju- removal o l tiK ndge si the top of the cylinSet
4. I i i why the Duns must be removed from valves before renwvtng tf*
valves bom the o r & t t t e head,
$. DescrU> flvi methods that could be used to clean engines or m g a t
parts.
o. Explain mag;:- tic crack Inspection, dye penetrant tesung, and uowaflt
penetrant tcsUng methods and where each can be used.
CHAPTER QUIZ
1. Techr.: ian A says thai the Intake and exhaust manilokls havi- to be re
moved before removing the engine from the vehicle. Technician B says that
It is olten easier to remove the engine from underneath rather man remove
the engine from the top of the vehicle. Which technician is correct?
d. Neither Techr.:clan A nor B
2. lifting hooks are often Installed at the factory because
a. They make removing the engine easier for the technician
b . They are used to install the engine at the factory
c. They are par. of the engine and should not be removed
d . They make s e r v i n g '-He top ol the engine easier for the
technician
3. The ndgp at the top ot the c. under .
a. Is caused b. '.tear at the top of the cylinder by the nngs
b. Represent a ia „r«r o( the -op puton ting to correct:, sea. -J; ams
the cylinder wall
c. Should not be removed before removing pistons except when
rebortng the cylinders
d. Means that a .-ranksfcan with an incorrec stroke was instated a
the engine
4 . Before the timing chain can be inspected and removed, the following
component!*! must be removed;
a. Rodcer cover | valve coveri
b . Vibration damper
c. Cylinder headi s|
d. Intake manifold I'.-tvpe ecgmr only)
5. Before the valves are removed from the cylinder bead, what oprraanrs
need to be completed?
a. Remove valve locks keeper.
b. Remov e c. ander head : trom the e n g n e
c. Remove burrs trom die stem of the valveisl
d . All ol the above
6. Cleaning chemicals are usually either a caustic material or an acid ratten*.
Which of the tdllowing statements is true?
a. Both caustics and acids have a pH of 7 if rated according to
(c)
distilled water.
b . An acid is lower than 7 and a caustic is rugher than 7 :. t i e
Figure 25-31 (a) A hole is drilled and lapped lor me plugs. (6) The plugs are installed. pH scale.
' Alter final machining, the cylinder head can Be relumed lo useful service c An acid is higher than 7 and a ciu^Lc »lower than 7 on the
pH scale.
d. Pure water ,s a 1 and a strong acid i a i 4 on e pH ok
H . Blasters use metal shot or glass beads to clean parts. All of the metal shot
7. Many cleaning methods involve chemicals that are hiTanVxa to use a a d
or gfass teads must be cleaned from the part so as not to cause engine
expensive to dispose of after use. The least b a z a t o a s method i geneafiy
problems.
considered to be the .
12. All parts should be checked for cracks using magnetic, dye-penetrant,
a. PyrolyUc oven
fluorescent penetrant, or pressure tesung methods.
b. Hot vapor tank
'3. Cracus can oe repaired bv welding or by plugging. c. Hot soak tank
d. Cold soak tank
8 . Magnetic crack inspector
REVIEW QUESTIONS
a. Uses a ted dye to detect c r » n - i n
1. 'Mien should the factory installed lifting hooks be used? b . Uses a black light to detect cracks m won parts
Explain why tr.e < /Under bore .iiould be rnea .ured Kir taper and <">u: of c. Uses a fine iron powder to detect cracks .n r a c p a r e
d. I & a magnet id rem racts : m . : . . .. - .
round before conuriulng with an engine disassembly.
2K SECTION VI
U\i-:-\ r * saw that parts should be cleaned before a thorough 10. Plugging can be used to repair cracks
tot can r> j to i c v c t crocks. Technician B says that pressure testing a. In cast-Iron cylinder heads
ca-. be . • to ti'id cn:-s ir tv ks or cylinder heads. W h i c h technician is b. In a l u m i n u m cylinder heads
oomct? c . In both cast Iron and a l u m i n u m c y l i n d e r h
a. Technician A o n l y d . Only in cast Iron blocks
b . Tec 1 !- . n B o n l y
c. Both T e c h n i c i a n s A a n d B
P2S-1 Before beginning work on removing the engine, P25-2 For safety, remove the negative battery cable P 2 5 - 3 Drain the coolant and dispose of properly.
mack and remove the hood and place it In a safe to avoid any possible electrical problems from occurnng.
location
P25-4 Disconnect all cooling system and heater hoses P25-5 Remove the accessory drive belt(s) and set the P 2 5 - 0 Remove the air intake system including theatr
and remove the radiator. generator (alternator), power steering pump, and filter housing as needed
air-conditioning compressor aside.
P2S-7 fiemowe the electrical connector from all P25-8 Disconnect the engine wiring harness connec- P 2 5 - 9 Safely hoist the vehicle and disconnect .
sensors and label tor at the bulkhead. exhaust system from the exhaust manifolds.
P25-10 Mark and then remove the fasteners con P25-11 Lower the vehicle and rer,-j»e t x engne P25-12 Secure the lifting Cham to the engine hot**
necting the flex plate to the torque converter. mount twits and transaxle bed ftouvig fasteners and c a r e e r remove the engine tram the vetal*
26
C H A P T E R
Cylinder Heads and Valves
OBJECTIVES: After s t u d y i n g C h a p t e r 26, t h e r e a d e r will b e a b l e to: Prepare tor ASE E n g n e R e p a r tAli mtSut— taat content area "B* (Cylinder
Head and Valve Train Diagnosis and Repair). • Identify combustion chamber types. • u s t the steps necessanr to r e c o n M o n a cylinder h e a d .
• Describe how to inspect and m e a s u r e valve guides • Discuss valve-guide repair options. • Discuss v a r a e o n j a e w f r c types and materials
• Describe how to t e s t valve springs • Explain the purpose, function, and operation of v a b e r o t a t e s . • L s t fee s t o p s necessary to reface a valve.
• Describe how to grind valve s e a t s • Discuss how to measure and correct instated tiaght and v a t v e - s t o n h a j f l t
KEY TERMS: aluminum • arithmetic a v e r a g e roughness height (RAi • beehive spnng • bend • bronze • bronze g u d e W i s • cast iron • c o l e t
• concentric • cross-flow • deflector valve stem seal • displaces • distortion • fire deck • free rotators • fterrewedge • ntogral • Martoronca
angle • kidney-shaped • microinch (pi in.) • nickel cobalt • 0 - n n g valve stem seal • o v e r s z e fOS) • p e n t o r t • ptfysphencal • poppet valve
• port • porting • positive rotators • positive valve stem seal • powdered metal tPMl • quench area • r e t a n n g • s t a r t e s s steel • stetlite
• squish • truing the valve tip • twist • umbrella valve stem seal • valve face • valve g u d e inserts • t a k e nftatore • valve s e a t • valve spring
inserts (VSI) • valve spring lock (keeper) • valve spring retainer • .arpage
C
tated
ylinder h e a d s a r e t h e m o s t frequently serviced engine components.
The highest t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d p r e s s u r e s in the entire engine are
in the c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r The valves in the cylinder head.s
must open and close t h o u s a n d s of t i m e s e a c h time the engine is operated
Combustion c h a m b e r s of m o d e r n a u t o m o t i v e overhead-valve e n -
gines are of t w o b a s i c t y p e s : t h e n o n t u r b u l e n t h e m i s p h e n c a l c h a m b e r
and the turbulent w e d g e c h a m b e r .
THEJEMISPHERICAL COMBUSTION CHAMBER

ln n
° n t u r b u l e n t h e m i s p h e r i c a l c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r s , t h e c h a r g e is
'"ducted t h r o u g h w i d e l y s l a n t e d v a l v e s . T h e c h a r g e > c o - p r e s s e d
and t h e n i g n i t e d f r o m a c e n t r a l l y l o c a t e d s p a r k p l u g - Figure 2 6 - 1
1h e
spark p l u g is a s c l o s e a s p o s s i b l e t o all e d g e s of t h e c o m b u s t i o n
chamber. C o m b u s t i o n r a d i a t e s o u t f r o m it, c o m p l e t e l y b u r n i n g t h e
uel
in t h e s h o r t e s t p o s s i b l e t i m e . Figure 26-1 Hemisphencal cohOusSw cfwww a ••««>
Hemispherical combustion chambers are u s u a l l y fully m a -
n n e d to f o r m t h e h e m i s p h e r i c a l s h a p e . T h i s is a n e x p e n s i v e o p e r
l o n t h a t
increases t h e c o s t of t h e e n g i n e .
ZM St'.'
Figure 26-3 A General Motors Quad-4 engine with a combustion chamber shape ciifr
modified pentroof Note the central location el the spark plug.
A d d i n g m o r e t h a n t w o v a l v e s p e r c y l i n d e r p e r m i t s more gas?
f l o w i n t o a n d o u t of t h e e n g i n e w i t h g r e a t e r v e l o c i t y w i t h o u t exces
sive v a l v e d u r a t i o n . T h e m a x i m u m a m o u n t of g a s m o v i n g throupi
t h e o p e n i n g a r e a of a v a l v e d e p e n d s o n t h e d i s t a n c e around t:
v a l v e a n d t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h it lifts o p e n .
M o r e total a r e a u n d e r t h e v a l v e is p o s s i b l e w h e n t w o smal
valves are used rather than o n e larger valve at t h e same valve 1
T h e smaller valves allow s m o o t h low-speed operation (because
t h e i n c r e a s e d v e l o c i t y of t h e m i x t u r e a s it e n t e r s t h e c y l i n d e r as i
r e s u l t of s m a l l e r i n t a k e p o r t s ] . G o o d h i g h - s p e e d p e r f o r m a n c e w
s m a l l e r v a l v e s is also p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e of t h e i n c r e a s e d v a l v e art;
and lighter-weight valves. See Figures 2 6 - 4 a n d 2 6 - 5 .
INTAKE AND EXHAUST PORTS

Figure 2 6 - 2 Cutaway of a Chevrolet V-8 cylinder head showing a wedge-shaped
ambustior chamber T h e p a r t of t h e i n t a k e o r e x h a u s t s y s t e m p a s s a g e t h a t is cast in to
c y l i n d e r h e a d is c a l l e d a p o r t . P o r t s l e a d f r o m t h e manifolds to to
v a l v e s . E n g i n e s t h a t h a v e t h e i n t a k e p o r t o n o n e s i d e of the he;:
THE WEDGE COMBUSTION CHAMBER a n d t h e e x h a u s t p o r t o n t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e a r e s a i d t o h a v e a cross
The u-age-shaped c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r is d e s i g n e d t o produce f l o w head design. The cross-flow h e a d shown in Figure 26-'
smooth. i n i f o r m b u r n i n g b y c o n t r o l l i n g t h e r a t e of c o m b u s t i o n . A a l l o w s t h e v a l v e t o b e l o c a t e d a n d a n g l e d s o a s t o p e r m i t the B E
e z z o r X - l e w of a w e d g e - s h a p e d c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r is s h o w n in e f f i c i e n t e n g i n e b r e a t h i n g . It a l s o a l l o w s t h e s p a r k p l u g to be plat
F : r - ' r e 2 6 - 2 . In w e d g e - s h a p e d c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r s , t h e c h a r g e is n e a r t h e c e n t e r of t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r . All V-type engines has
thr . g h valves t h a t a r e side by side. As t h e piston n e a r s the cross-flow head design.
t h e t o p o f t h e c o m p r e s s i o n s t r o k e , it m o v e s t o a p o s i t i o n t h a t is T h e f l o w of g a s e s is o f t e n d i f f e r e n t t h a n o n e m i g h t e x p e c t -
cii • e - D a i o w o r flat p o r t i o n of t h e h e a d . T h e g a s e s a r e s q u e e z e d times, a restricting h u m p within a port may actually incre.
b t t m t h e p i s t o n a n d this h e a d s u r f a c e area, called a s q u i s h or t h e a i r f l o w c a p a c i t y of t h e p o r t . It d o e s t h i s b y r e d i r e c t i n g t h e ft
q u e n c h area. T h e gases squeezed from the squish area produce t o a n a r e a of t h e p o r t t h a t is l a r g e e n o u g h t o h a n d l e the ft
- . -:...er.ce w.-fun the charge. The turbulence thoroughly mixes M o d i f i c a t i o n s in t h e field, s u c h a s p o r t i n g o r r e l i e v i n g , '•'•'-
the r - r 7 1 fuel in the charge. T h e s p a r k p l u g is p o s i t i o n e d s o a s t o
r e s u l t in r e s t r i c t i n g t h e f l o w of s u c h a c a r e f u l l y d e s i g n e d p o r t - ^
t e .r. -..'.-• t j r b u l e n t p a r t of t h e c h a r g e . I g n i t i o n is f o l l o w e d b y
Figures 2 6 - 7 a n d 2 6 - 8 .
a r : r a p i d b u r n i n g of t h e t u r b u l e n t c h a r g e . T h e c o m b u s t i o n
T h e i n t a k e p o r t in t h e h e a d is r e l a t i v e l y l o n g , w h e r e a s the
f l a r e f r - - - a l a t e s o u t from t h e s p a r k p l u g .
h a u s t p o r t is s h o r t . T h e l o n g i n t a k e p o r t w a l l is h e a t e d by c
N e w de i t s use cast combustion chambers rather than expen- f l o w i n g t h r o u g h t h e h e a d . T h e h e a t a i d s i n v a p o r i z i n g the fuel
.-• - a m b e r s . T h e s e c h a m b e r s are called by s u c h n a m e s the intake charge. T h e exhaust p o r t is s h o r t s o t h a t the •
p o l y s p h e n c a l , h e m i w e d g e , kidney-shaped, and pentroof. a m o u n t of e x h a u s t h e a t is t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e e n g i n e coolant.
A_; ' . r . d e r h e a d d e i g n s t r y t o p l a c e t h e s p a r k p l u g in a n i d e a l
Ki\>' ' b e ' r.cjmb j s t i o n as s h o w n in F i g u r e 2 6 - 3 .
REMOVING THE OVERHEAD CAMSHAFT
T h e o v e r h e a d c a m s h a f t will h a v e e i t h e r o n e - p i e c e b e a r i n g s i n 1
MULTIPLE-VALVE COMBUSTION CHAMBER b e a r i n g s u p p o r t o r split b e a r i n g s a n d a b e a r i n g c a p . W h e n o n e f j
T h * p o w e r r a - a r . y / m e p r o d u c e s is directly related t o t h e a m o u n t b e a r i n g s a r e u s e d , t h e v a l v e s p r i n g s will h a v e t o b e c o m p r e s s ^
f aj: f > ..' •!.-' " . a t . . i g i t e d in t h e cylinder. Increasing cylinder a f i x t u r e o r t h e f i n g e r f o l l o w e r will h a v e t o b e r e m o v e d bef°<
dtt a - ,rr.mon m e t h o d of increasing engine power. Turbo- c a m s h a f t c a n b e p u l l e d o u t e n d w i s e . W h e n b e a r i n g c a p s arc1 u-s
charging a n d supe-re harj&ng also increase e n g i n e power, b u t these t h e y s h o u l d b e l o o s e n e d a l t e r n a t e l y s o t h a t b e n d i n g loads a r t
increase e n g i n e c o s t as well. p l a c e d o n e i t h e r t h e c a m o r b e a r i n g c a p s ( F i g u r e 2 6 - 9).
DISTANCE A R O U N D
1 3/16" EXHAUST
VALVE = 3.73"
DISTANCE A R O U N D AROUND
1 1/4" EXHAUST EACH 1 1/8" INTAKE
VALVE = 3.927" VALVE = 3.54"
F t g m 26-7 T3t ' t a c
TOTAL DISTANCE
AROUND BOTH
VALVE = 7.08
Figure 2 6 - 4 Comparing the valve opening areas between two- and three-va:.e
combustion chambers when the valves are open
* t
tto Audi live valve cylinder head TNs d m g n UMS * m " I W «•»•* ( • • » • •
valves ( b o t e .
a w J * srre sBat When
J - v a e r g sasscrgfrgfowsee !N> j?«s? arr? «anoo caps
Figure 2 5 - 1 0 A valve soring compressor ts used to comoress the valve spring before
removing the Keepers (locks).
L feosrejgftv ctcan fee h e j d s . See C h a p t e r 2 5 .

2. s • :•- a n c repair a s necessary. See O s p a r 2 5 .
3- C r > r s fee s r - c o r tfiar --catacts S t e engjit-.- block a n d m a c h i n e if
4. < s s - d e s a n d replace o r service as necessary.

5 . I f e r - ; S3?*»5 " reetstafi t h e valves in the cylinder h e a d w i t h n e w
seals.
& v ^ s f s p j f e g -orce a n d icstaSed h e i g h t
R g u r e 2 6 - 1 1 Sticking pushrods through a cardboard box is a method used to keeo He

c s a s s p s t s n c <r r?ass»«&®»g a cytoxJer head, always wear safety valve train parts m proper order.
gases. serves. compressed. represent stored energy Vatve kee&-
fi^ryse-r through tre asr by the force of an expanding valve soring,
a s e e a?, eye ar cause «ther physical hatcn.
SaasseffltJSBg Sse Cylinder Head T h e engine should be

•:•'. '•. r ^ 1 b e i > r ? t h e c ? U n d e r h e a d s .are r e m o v e d . A s
~ - r ' f e s p c r 6 . fee h e a d b o l t s s h o u l d b e l o o s e n e d i n t h e
- fee f o r n g h t e r . i n g t o a v o i d fee possibility of
z r z s , . c - s i a : w o r d s . tr>- h e a d b o t e s h o u l d b e l o o s e n e d f r o m
3 f t o s S ^ f i r - i /•>> stLMii-i v/orfc y o u r w a y t o w a r d fee c e n t e r of
ie fee vafcs"s f r o m fee c y h n d e r h e a d a s i l l u s t r a t e d
sre » $ e netecd must he kept

PUiferotSs can be
F i g u r e 2 & - 1 2 A precision ground straightedge and a feeler gauge are used to « P 5 ®
b o s as shown to
cylinder head for flatness.
Intake
• T h e h e a d should b e c h e c k e d in five planes.as s h o w n in Figures 26- >

Tr-- s . - ' - v - .-.-: y y rr-ic v -^roughly cleaned and. and 20 -13 for w a r p a g e , d i s t o r t i o n , b e n d , and twist.
x . JBSSWS.
T r y i n g to. s l i d e a 0 . 0 0 4 - i n c h ( 0 . 1 0 - m i l l i m e t e r ) feeler gauge ^
fees. ts Sjed a i m o w any a s t r a i g h t e d g e hseW a g a i n s t t h e h e a d s u r f a c e w i l l reveal
"rsi; t^rr. defects.
Figure 26-13 Cyfflxier beads shook) be cheeked "m -we saaws 'v war^c? <5:y«tiOP j W E A&zaw®. ss ysya&y a ^ f a a f g i e f e e - ' . S S g I
bend, or twist.
Surface Finish T h e s u r f a c e Sr-isS o; : a r e c o n d i s o j i e d p a r t is as

i m p o r t a n t a s 3 t e s j z e of v i e p a n . S u r f a c e S h i s h s m e a s u r e d i n > j n &
mbcrwnOies a b b r e v i a t e d . ? i n . . T h e s y m b o l in&3SM of t h e
i n c h a b b r e v i a t i o n is t h e G r e e k l e t t e r rm.
0 . 0 0 0 0 0 ! a c h e s ' 0 . 0 2 5 s s o o m e s e s s iifapft-
t i o n i n njjscrojacn-es. g i v e s t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n
a n d t h e d e e p e s t v a S e y . T h e u s u a l m e t h o d of e x p r e s s i n g s u s & c e «
average roughness h e i g h t , abbreviated
o f ' h e < S s a s c e s of ail p e a k s a n d ralteys
r
i r o n s t n e m e a n 2v e r a g e • . - > . S e e s u r e 2 6 - i 5.
-r._.- ' : .... ; .
a n d a l u m i n u m q S a d e r h e a d s a n d b-Iocfe a c h a t e t h e f o l l o w i n g :
* Cast Iron. Rsffi-trrseased r s j g r 60 to 500 RA

• Aluminum. Rev', ssatafetf 50 to 60 RA
Figure 26-14 A cylinder head being resurfaced. 77?e rougte~ :he s v f x z X ike hig&r the fniaoineh fi&ti
measurement wSl te.
; SOTE;;Tne cylinder head surface that mates with the top deck of the
| block is often called the Are d e c k . VALVE GUIDES
T h e valve guide supports the - — ™ "•'•
remain perfectly centered cubchiuk est- seat .
T h e h e a d s h o u l d n o t v a r y b y o v e r 0 . 0 0 2 i n c h e s ( 0 . 0 5 millime- v a l v e g u i d e is g e s e r a 2 ? i a t e g r a i w i t h t h e h e a d c a s t i n g t o r b e t t e r
ters) in any o-inch (15-centimeter) length, or by more than h e a t t r a n s f e r a n d for l o w e r m a n u a e t u p n g c o s s . S e e H s u e 26-te.
0.004 inches overall. A l w a y s c h e c k t h e manufacturer's recom Valve guide inserts aJway*. used where the va&e stem s r f
mended specifications. head materials are n o t compatible. See B g s r e 2 6 - 1 7 .
1
A v a l v e g m d e s s ; b e r e c o n d i s o r . e d t o m a t c h t h e vaive jfea:
Cylinder H e a d R e s u r f a c i n g T h e h e a d s h o u l d b e r e s u r f a c e d it t o b e u s e d w i t h i t . E n g i n e m a n u f a c t u r e ^ a s t ^ i s j « e c « s m e s d -the
t h e r e is a n y r o u g h n e s s c a u s e d b y c o r r o s i o n of t h e h e a d g a s k e t . T h i s roSowmg va-ve scem-io-valve g j j d e clearance?..
r o u g h n e s s c a n b e felt o n t h e h e a d s u r f a c e w h e n y o u r u b y o u r finger-
Intake valve: 0 - 0 0 ! to 0 . 0 0 3 i n c h e s t.0.02S t o 0 . 0 7 5 m S B m e t e w
nail across i t . I n p r e c i s i o n e n g i n e r e b u i l d i n g , both t h e h e a d a n d t h e
block d e c k a r e r e s u r f a c e d a s a s t a n d a r d p r a c t i c e . S e e F i g u r e 2 6 - 1 4 . E x h a u s t v a l y e : 0 . 0 0 2 t o 0 0 . 0 0 4 i n c h e s iO.OS t o 0 . 1 0 m a S i m e S H S
ALL PEAKS AND VALLEYS AVERAGED £
Fi
® W e 26-15 A grapi, showing a typical rough surface as W W be viewed tfirougn a <M&W>g glass. RA is 53 ao&irvsw»'ads®TOfcej v e t ^ teg*ar ftass
ir 6cnc*w
F^^n K 16 * m'. ' g, Is a ginth- Bwl has been Oniied r t o the cast-
Figure 2 6 - 1 9 Tne diameter ot the valve stem is being measured using a micnyVi'
difference between the Inside d.ameter of Die valve guide and the diameter of the vaV» >m
is the valve guldeto-valve stem clearance
HINT: A human hair Is about 0 . 0 0 2 Inches (0.05 millimeters) In dlatnW-

Therefore, the typical clearance between a valve stem and the valve f
Is only the thickness of a h u m a n hair.
Measuring Valve Guides for Wear V a l v e s s h o u l d be in-

u r e d for s t e m w e a r b e f o r e v a l v e g u i d e s a r c m e a s u r e d . Tne ft-
g u i d e is m e a s u r e d in t h e m i d d l e w i t h a s m a l l h o l e gauge l
g a u g e s i z e is t h e n c h e c k e d w i t h a m i c r o m e t e r . T h e dimens^
f v " 2S-57 »• » r • ' - 4 - I k ^ I , u v valve guide Insert. t h e v a l v e s t e m d i a m e t e r is s u b t r a c t e d f r o m t h e dimension o. -
v a l v e g u i d e d i a m e t e r . If t h e c l e a r a n c e b e t w e e n t h e stem sn3;.
g u i d e e x c e e d s t h e s p e c i f i e d c l e a r a n c e , t h e v a l v e g u i d e will 1« 1
be reconditioned. See Figures 2 6 - 1 8 a n d 2 6 - 1 0 . J .-:
!>'..••• — - ( i t •• s p e c i f i c a t i o n s for t h e e n g i n e b e i n g s e r v
Valve s t e m t o v a l v e g u i d e c l e a r a n c e c a n a l s o b e c h e c k "
n i s - i : v i . v f c u a ' a r v r e is g r e a t e r t h a n t h e I n t a k e v a l v e
a dial i n d i c a t o r ( g a u g e ) t o m e a s u r e h o w m u c h t h e valve if'
. <'.••.• •• I - - ' . . - tr.- ext.a j ' ' valve r u n s h o t t e r a n d therefore
w h e n It is lifted off t h e v a l v e s e a t . S e e F i g u r e 2 6 - 2 0 .
e r & ' / j . r o r e pwi' t r / . i n t a k e v a l v e .
f. - .4 - ••••• r r Jide c l e a r a n c e c a n c a u s e e x c e s - Oversize Stem Valves M o s t d o m e s t i c automobile i n ^ l ,
5 • ' • ; r / a i ^ e v a ' v < ? ild•'<• from r ' t o p of t h e c y l i n d e r h e a d d o w n v a l v e s w i t h o v e r s i z e s t e m s in e n g i n e s t h a t h a v e Integra,;,
ir.tr, t h e < M & / > s V y # \ r ^ m t e r
g u i d e s . W h e n a v a l v e g u i d e is w o r n , t h e v a l v e s t e m is a | s 0 "
mder Heads and Valves 23J
VAt
Figure 26-22 Tha :/ind-- * a d b e e - -estored to service by replacing ..

valve guides »fh bronze »S»e gudes
Figure 26-20 Measuring valve guide-to-stem clearance with a dial indicator while •,
the stem in the direction of normal thrust. The reading on the dial indicator should be
compared to specifications because it does not give the guide-to-stem clearance directly
The valve is usually limited to its maximum operating lift.
-X
ORIGINAL INSIDE
DIAMETER OF
GUIDE
Figure 26-23 A typical as::—en! r • -ea-iers as found in i r engine
/ rebuilding shop.
VALVE GUIDE R E P L A C E M E N T
RESTORED INSIDE
DIAMETER OF GUIDE W h e n a n engine a designed w i t h replaceable valve g u i d e s . their re
p l a c e m e n t is a l w a v s r e c o m m e n d e d w h e n t h e v a l v e a s s e m b l y is
being reconditioned. The -iginal valve g u i d e h e i g h t s h o u l d be
Figure 26-21 Sectional view of a knurled valve guide
m e a s u r e d b e f o r e t h e g u i d e is rer~ j v e a s o t h a t t h e n e w g u i d e car. x
properly positioned.
be w o r n . In t h i s c a s e , n e w v a l v e s a r e r e q u i r e d . N e w v a l v e s c a n just Replacement valve guides can also be installed to rep.- - w m
as well h a v e o v e r s i z e s t e m s a s s t a n d a r d s t e m s . Typically, a v a i l a b l e Integral g u i d e s . Both, c e ? : r o n a n d b r o n z e guides i r e avaiiafc :
sizes i n c l u d e 0 . 0 0 3 , 0 . 0 0 5 , 0 . 0 0 8 , 0 . 0 1 5 , a n d 0 . 0 3 0 i n c h e s o v e r Figure 2 0 - 2 2 . Three c o m m o n vaive guide sizes are:
size ( o f t e n a b b r e v i a t e d O S ) . T h e v a l v e g u i d e is r e a m e d o r h o n e d t o
1. 5 10 o r 0 . 3 1 3 i n c h e s
the c o r r e c t s i z e t o fit t h e o v e r s i z e s t e m of t h e n e w v a l v e .
2 . 1 1 / 3 2 or 0 . 3 4 3 inches
3. 3 8 or 0.375 inches
NOTE: Many remanufacturers of cylinder heads use oversize valve stems Valve Guide Inserts A badly worn Integra, -a.'.
to simplify production.
conditioned using an insert. This repair method is usually preferred m
h e a w - d u t y and high-speed engines. Two tvpes of guide inserts are ;•: r
moniv used for guide repair: a thin-walled bronze alios sleeve bushing
Valve Guide Knurling In t h e p r o c e s s k n o w n as v a l v e g u i d e and a spiral bronze alloy bushing. The thm-walled bronze sleeve truss
b u r l i n g , a t o o l is r o t a t e d a s it is d r i v e n i n t o t h e g u i d e . T h e t o o l ngs are aiso called b r o n z e g u i d e l i n e r s , fr.- aiv
displaces t h e m e t a l t o r e d u c e t h e h o l e d i a m e t e r of t h e g u i d e kit used to install each of these bushings includes all of the reamers, r
b u r l i n g is i d e a l l y s u i t e d to e n g i n e s w i t h integral valve guides stalling sleeves, broaches, burnishing tools, and cutoff tool.; that are
(guides t h a t a r e p a r t of t h e c y l i n d e r h e a d a n d a r e n o n r e m o v a b l e . It needed to install and property size the bushings. See F jure 2' - 1 3
is
r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t k n u r l i n g n o t be u s e d to correct w e a r exceed-
ing 0 . 0 0 6 i n c h e s ( 0 . 1 5 m i l l i m e t e r s ) . In t h e d i s p l a c i n g p r o c e s s , t h e
knurling tool p u s h e s a s m a l l t a p e r e d w h e e l o r dull t h r e a d i n g t o o l INTAKE A N D E X H A U S T VALVES
into t h e w a l l of t h e g u i d e h o l e . T h i s m a k e s a g r o o v e in t h e w a l l of Valves n e e d t o b e r e c o n d i t i o n e d m . re o f t e n -..- a r a n ther r.i.re
foe guide w i t h o u t r e m o v i n g a n y m e t a l , a s p i c t u r e d in F i g u r e 2 6 - 2 1 . part. Automotive e n g i n e valves are a poppet valve
a* s •>
f ^ g a * 26-24 • -cai ; and reebonsfup of valve components Note the different valve
; cr W exhaus- valve as compared to the intake valve The oil seals Figure 26-25 Hollow valve stem.
: j^flrena-type valve stem seals
i - j c e r . e d b y r . e a n s of a v a l v e t r a i n t h a t is o p e r a t e d b y a c a m .
^r.e l i s r s t i m e d to t h e piston position a n d crankshaft cycle. T h e
a - : by o n e or m o r e springs.
:•. c e n t e r e d river t h e v a l v e s e a t so t h a t t h e
v a i v e f a c e -r.z s e a t m a k e a g a s - t i g h t fit. T h e f a c e a n d s e a t will h a v e
an i r z - ' j . ' or 4 5 Actual service a n g l e s m i g h t b e a d e g r e e or
: f i ' i - . - ~ --a t h e .e. M o s t e n g i n e s u s e a n o m i n a l 4 5 ° v a l v e a n d
3-.g;e A ".-pica: v a l v e a s s e m b l y is s h o w n in F i g u r e 2 6 - 2 4 .
Hot Engine + Cold Weather = Trouble
y*-«5as vaive damage can occur if cold air reaches hot exhaust valves soon
erqne - turned off An engine equipped with exhaust headers and/or
- r v r .cr - j«iers can allow cold air a direct path to the hot exhaust
valve can warp and/or crack as a result of rapid cooling. This
-.ar ; . / cur cu.- rig cold, windy weather when the wind can blow cold out-
* * i " - j ' t O i up the exhaust system. Using reverse-flow mufflers with
~a arc a catalytic converter reduces the possibility of this occurring.
Figure 26-26 A valve assembly after being removed from the cylinder head. Hole
technician tried to keep the valve spring, retainer, and locks (keepers! together asase
style Ishapei of valve spring is commonly called a beehive spring
Valve Materials A l l o y s u s e d in e x h a u s t v a l v e m a t e r i a l s are
;ve :or o x i d a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e , w i t h s m a l l a m o u n t s of
reta r
e. and nitrogen added. M a n y vehicle manufactur- c o m p r e s s i o n to the valve s t e m t h r o u g h a v a l v e spring '
a - ' . a v e c h r o m e - p l a t e d s t e m s . B e c a u s e c h r o m e pro- and a valve spring lock ( k e e p e r ) , a s s h o w n in Figure 20--
a —-//r. -.jrface, this design feature helps prevent Variable-rate springs a d d s p r i n g f o r c e w h e n the valve15;
- gai.irjg, e s p e c i a l l y w h e n the engine is first o p e n position by u s i n g closely s p a c e d coils on the
a---. - aop: c a t i o n s , facing alloys s u c h as stellite are e n d of t h e s p r i n g . T h e c l o s e l y s p a c e d c o i l s a l s o tend t o ; ^
a r e a n d v a i v e t i p . S t e l l i t e is a n a l l o y of n i c k e l , v i b r a t i o n s t h a t m a y b e c r e a t e d b y a n e q u a l l y w o u n d coil spr ^ ^
-- ~ ^ . ,£ -r a n d :s n o n m a g n e t i c . S o m e h e a v y - d u t y ap- d a m p e r h e l p s t o r e d u c e v a l v e s e a t w e a r . S o m e valve s
Prl^t,
; • . . ' , / . - / e r r e x h a u s t v a l v e s t h a t a r e p a r t i a l l y filled flat c o i l e d d a m p e r i n s i d e t h e s p r i n g . T h i s e l i m i n a t e s s p r i n t
< - - a - A-.-.- Ar i n f i x e d h o l l o w v a l v e s t e m is s h o w n in adds s o m e valve spring tension. re q#
;
\i 2A :•<• '.oo r. - r e v a l v e b e c o m e s a liquid at o p e r a t - M u l t i p l e valve springs a r e u s e d w h e r e large life ar
' n(r(
- --- ' o -s r.e-. b a c k a n d f o r t h in t h e v a l v e s t e m , and a single spring d o e s n o t h a v e e n o u g h strength toLûni-
•re / a sr.: ".v '<•>.' '",::. ' r . e valve h e a d t o t h e v a l v e s t e m . v a l v e . M u l t i p l e v a l v e s p r i n g s g e n e r a l l y h a v e t h e i r coi -
Tr.e ' . " x -r.e / a ; v e g u i d e i n t o t h e c o o l a n t . opposite directions.
Valve Springs A - .- . . ' h e valve nghtly against t h e Valve Spring Inspection V a l v e s p r i n g s close the
.*•«- t . - . . - ' •:•• !'. - O r , e - nd o ' t h e valve s p r i n g is s e a t e d they h a v e b e e n o p e n e d by t h e c a m . Valve springs m u s t c o ^ ^
a^.a • 'r.e o ' r . e r •••• d of .pririg attached under s q u a r e l y t o f o r m a t i g h t seal a n d t o p r e v e n t v a l v e ste I
iter 26: GySnder Heads and Vata 235
w e a r . T h e v a l v e s p r i n g ? a r e c!
VaU*t Rotate me retainers have built-in devices called
o n a flat s u r f a c e w i t h a s q u a n valve rotators cause the valve to rotate in a controlled man
within 1 / 1 6 i n c h o r 1 . 6 millln n e r as it is opt h e purposes and functions of valve rotators
Figure 3 6 - 2 7 . A valve s p r i n g scale is used to measure the valve spring include the iwing;
force. O n e p o p u l a r t y p e of s c a l e , s h o w n in Figure 26- 28, measures
the spnng force d i r e c t l y . V a l v e springs are checked for the following
• Preventing carbon buildup from forming
• Red uc.: g hot spots on the valves by constantly turning them
1. Free height (without being compressed ) should be within • F.vening out the wear on the valve face and seat
1 / 1 6 (0.060) inch • Improving valve guide lubrication
2. Force w i t h v a l v e c l o s e d a n d h e i g h t as per s p
damper spring removed ) There are two types of valve rotators: free and positive.
3. F o r c e w i t h v a l v e o p e n a n d h e i g h t a s p e r s p - lot
F r e e r o t a t o r s . T h e f r e e r o t a t o r s simply take the pressure oH the
damper spring removed |
v a l v e t o a l l o w e n g i n e v i b r a t i o n to rotate t h e valve.
M o s t s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a l l o w f o r v a r i a t i o n s of p l u s or m;r. 1', P o s i t i v e r o t a t o r s . T h e o p e n i n g of t h e valve forces t h e valve to
from the published figures.
rotate.
BALL-TYPE SPRING-TYPE
Figure 2 6 - 2 7 All valve springs should be checked for squareness by using a square on a
flat surface. The spring should be replaced if more than 1/16 inch (1.6 mm) is measured
between the top of the spring and the square.
VALVE OPEN
BALL-TYPE SPRING-TYPE
-' VALVE CLOSED

Figure 2 6 - 2 8 One popular type of valve spring tester used to measure the compressed _
'orce of valve springs. Specifications usually include (1) free height (height without being
T
compressed), (2, pressure at installed height with the valve closed, and (3) pressure with the figure n » <* « * » i- - -- ' «
value „„....._»•- spnng-type operation is on the right
K* s
VAIYEREMARNO? ^ PROCEDURE
• C t V Scire c s i p c r j re\iomrr.ond using tapp. ..
TC - i - ~c -v v .-.', --.ed u>.rg & e following
;cat and \ alvc face and rotating the valve to m i p n
F A-.'e 2 6 - j 5 .
• The J ^ a i t V s e c Is lightly g w a n d a n d c h a m f e r e d . This

: " :• r ' . collet Idcr of
v i l a? ; r- : - - 4 v a l v e grlnc'.-g) of t h e valve g r i n d e r c o n e c t i y .
TOPPING"
. \ -ess 2< \ . i > c t r u i n g the valve tip.
• "N- - ' the ve I- g r j t d u>'.r.g a valve g r i n d e r See
>-30.
* T h e * a f c e s e a t is g r o u n d t o t h e h e a d ( t h e seat m u s t b e m a t c h e d t o
t h e valve "hat b e :vrd in t h a t position:. See Figures 2 6 - 3 1
through 2fr-34.
• Var • •••• J z . - r s r e c c r - e n d that the angle ground o n the
1 e a r d v a l v e f a c e b e 1° d i f f e r e n t to p r o v i d e a w e d g i n g force
• h a t t w C t s ' - . a b e t t e r initial seal. This 1° d i f f e r e n c e is called t h e
interference angle.
• • i £-i v i h t a r . i valve s t e m h e i g h t a r e c h e c k e d a n d c o r r e c t e d
3S n e c e s s i t y VALVE
-* SEAT
• A.~ a • - r : u g h c l e a n i n g , t h e c y l i n d e r h e a d is a s s e m b l e d w i t h
n e w valve s t e m seals installed. S e e t h e p h o t o s e q u e n c e a t c h a p t e r ' s
e r : ' y details o n v a l v e r e c o n d i t i o n i n g
Figure 26-32 Gnodmg a 30 angle removes metal from the top to lower and nano.v -.
•THROATING"
Figure 26-33 Gnnding a 60= angle lemoves metal from the bottom to raise am) ^ •1
F i g w e 2 6 - 3 0 fesy'acing IT* race ol a <alve. Both the valve and the gnnder stone or disc the seat
2 r > K e r a j t a smooth surface finish on the face of the valve.
1/32" 1/32"
OVERHANG MARGIN
GRINOING
STONE
45" \
VALVE
Figure 2 6 - 3 4 the seal must contact evenly around the valve tace. For 900*'
figure 2 8 - 3 1 "/ f . ' . r, , 4 ' / v.uo «/<e veal in the combustion chamber.
ttolh margin and overhang should be at least 1/32 inch (0.8 mm)
"OB M
(\t
vAtve
-STCIf
C U T BACK <30 )
(45"! VALVE FACE
MARGIN
CUT B A C K
TO INCREASE FLOW (30 )
F i g i m 2 6 - 3 6 Artw gr -Jne n t * *» l a f l u w M o f * tftgmt o t t (w

accamoKhed by grud^fl i * t i c t m g f c i n f l flw M m mo Ity sriQBng
or n w d n g V * - HtftalapafftiMNe.
Figure 26-35 After the valve face and the valve seat are ground irecondBnnedi . .• <;
compound is used to smooth the contact area between the two mating surfaces Notice ttwt
the contact is toward the top of the face. For maximum life, the contact should be r the
middle ot the lace.
H I G H - P E R F O R M A N C E TIP
Grinding t h e V a l v e s f o r M o r e P o w e r
A normal "valve job" includes gnnding the face ot the valve to dean up any nts
and gnnding the valve sterns to restore the proper stem height However a i.ttie
more airflow in and out of the cylinder head can be accomplished by performing
two more simple gnnding operations
• Use the valve grinder and adjust to 30° (for a 45° valve i and gnnd a
transition between the valve face and the valve stem area of the valve
While this step may reduce some desirable swirling of the air-fuel mixture
at lower engine speeds, it also helps increase cylinder filling, especially at
times when the valve is not fully open
• Chamfer or round the head of the valve between the top of the v alve a id
the margin on the side. By rounding this surface, additional airflow into
cylinder is achieved. See Figure 26-36.
VALVE SEAT
VALVE SEAT R E P L A C E M E N T
Valve seats need to be replaced if they are cracked or if the\ are
burned or eroded too m u c h to be resurfaced. Damaged Integra; FIGURE 26-37 « » VJK , * » « ><JMS usf MVC ss M t n m i a "
valve seats must be counterbored to make a place for the new (ost-nm DMA B m m . it cat M npiK«d M d t n
sert seat. oc**«t i,xuni*rt».w to maM a t s * * for W êw < n t s
Manufacturers of replacement valve seats supp \ at e-
specify the proper seat insert to be used. Insert exhaust vti scats
operate at temperatures that are 100" to 150°F So° to 83*01 hotter v a l v e ( s e e a r e g r o u n d , the v a l v e stem extends deeper n»
than those of integral seats. Removable valve seats arv ava able . >t combustion chamber and extends higher furthet ttoe
cvlinder head.
•n. s t a i n l e s s s t e e l , n i c k e l cobalt, p o w d e r e d metal ( P M I .
See Figure 2 0 - 3 7 . The valve is put in the head, and the e n p f t h e a.ve ;
measured. The up is ground to shorten th< v> w -
compensate for the valve b e t and -oat cr • dir < '"«•
VALVE STEM HEIGHT dose if the valve tip extends too fa- f r o ' < af
Valve stem height is different from installed height See t igtire 2 o 38 that have hydraulic .'.tiers and nonao .Mate vie?
Valve stem height is important to maintain for all engines, but espe may be ground bv as t r u t h a> 0
C|
ally for overhead camshaft engines. W h e n the valve --eat and the reduce its length.
738 s t r ^
V41VE STEW HE»GH T
figure 26-38 .asw» s e r is measured from the spring seat to the tip of the valve
r v 7* « » r -r<l » < e face nave been reftmshed If the valve stem height is too high.
* C n c car Se gra/id from the tips ot most valves Figure 2 6 - 4 0 Valve spring inserts are used to restore proper installed height.
SPRING RETAINER
VALVE STEM SEALS
Leakage past the valve guides is a major oil consumption I

problem in any overhead valve (or overhead c a m ) engine. H
A h i g h v a c u u m e x i s t s i n t h e i n t a k e p o r t . M o s t e n g i n e manufat I
t u r e r s u s e v a l v e s t e m s e a l s o n b o t h t h e i n t a k e a n d t h e exhaust I
valve.
T w o b a s i c t y p e s of v a l v e s t e m s e a l s a r e u s e d . T h e umbrelli
v a l v e s t e m s e a l h o l d s t i g h t l y t o t h e v a l v e s t e m a n d moves up at: I
d o w n w i t h t h e v a l v e . A n y oil t h a t s p i l l s o f f t h e r o c k e r arms is de I
f l e e t e d o u t o v e r t h e v a l v e g u i d e , m u c h a s w a t e r is d e f l e c t e d over r I
V
u m b r e l l a . A s a r e s u l t , u m b r e l l a v a l v e s t e m s e a l s a r e often calla I
SPRING SEAT deflector valve stem seals.
Positive valve stem seals hold tightly around ft
f ^ t n 26-39 nstaiwd height is determined by measuring the distance from the spring valve guide, a n d t h e valve s t e m moves t h r o u g h t h e seal. Tit •
Ka r. r * s o - rji tie valve spring retainer s e a l w i p e s t h e e x c e s s oil f r o m t h e v a l v e stem (Figures 26-41 •
through 26-43).
T h e C h e v r o l e t O - r i n g t y p e o f v a l v e s t e m s e a l keeps oil to"
l e a k i n g b e t w e e n t h e v a l v e s t e m a n d v a l v e s p r i n g r e t a i n e r . The oils
Checking Installed Height W h e n the valves a n d / o r valve
d e f l e c t e d o v e r t h e r e t a i n e r a n d s h i e l d . T h e a s s e m b l y controls«
v Lee:, m a c h i n e d , t h e valve p r o j e c t s f a r t h e r t h a n b e f o r e
like a n u m b r e l l a - t y p e oil s e a l .
- -- artr. side of t h e h e a d . ( T h e v a l v e f a c e is s l i g h t l y re-
- • , m e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r s i d e of t h e h e a d . ) T h e v a l v e
• -i •• >:. . ' t i e r e f o r e , r e d u c e d b e c a u s e t h e s p r i n g is n o t a s INSTALLING THE VALVES
- f A at. //a: originally. To r e s t o r e o r i g i n a l v a l v e s p r i n g
T h e c y l i n d e r h e a d c a n b e a s s e m b l e d a f t e r t h e h e a d is thorough
'....* a! v a t v e . p r i n g s p a c e r s or i n s e r t s a r e i n s t a l l e d u n d e r
c l e a n e d w i t h s o a p a n d w a t e r t o w a s h a w a y a n y r e m a i n i n g gr' -
t h e v a l v e s p r i n g s . T h e s e s h i m s are u s u a l l y c a l l e d v a l v e spring
m e t a l s h a v i n g s f r o m t h e v a l v e g r i n d i n g o p e r a t i o n . Valves ate
inserts iVSI). h e spring inserts are generally available in
b l e d in t h e h e a d o n e a t a t i m e . G i v e t h e v a l v e g u i d e a n d stew 3
t h r e e different thicknesses:
e r a l c o a t i n g of e n g i n e o i l , a n d i n s t a l l t h e v a l v e i n its guide- • •
1. 5i_ ' 0 38 rr.ilhmeter) for balancing valve spring u m b r e l l a o r p o s i t i v e v a l v e s t e m s e a l s . P u s h u m b r e l l a seals -
pressure. u n t i l t h e y t o u c h t h e v a l v e g u i d e . U s e a p l a s t i c s l e e v e over t*
2. . 0 . 7 5 mill:meteri generally, for n e w springs o n of t h e v a l v e w h e n i n s t a l l i n g p o s i t i v e s e a l s . M a k e s u r e that it1' •
:••••<.: have had the valve seats ground and valves t i v e seal is f u l l y s e a t e d o n t h e v a l v e g u i d e a n d t h a t it is squart
refaced t h e v a l v e a g a i n s t t h e s e a t a s t h e v a l v e s p r i n g s e a t o r insert. •
"J. ' . ''"-ri n e .->sary to bring assembled height to spring, valve seals, a n d r e t a i n e r a r e p l a c e d o v e r t h e valv ; s
hea
•;>• a.ly if the seats have been resurfaced m o r e Install t h e v a l v e s p r i n g s e a t if a s s e m b l i n g a n a l u m i n u m "s
than o r * time F i g u r e 2 6 - 4 4 . O n e e n d of t h e v a l v e s p r i n g c o m p r e s s o r p l ' s ^
• T : /•; thi - n e of t h e Insert to install, the retainer to c o m p r e s s t h e s p r i n g . T h e O - r i n g type o f v a
ar
rr. •<••" .' ".- •» '.pv,,< h e . ^ i i la% installed In t h e head). See seal is i n s t a l l e d in t h e l o w e r g r o o v e . T h e v a l v e l o c k s ® "J^t?
f i g u r e V> 30. w h i l e t h e v a l v e s p r i n g is c o m p r e s s e d . S e e F i g u r e 2 6 - 4 5 . T° ^
• If .- n e a t e r than specifications, select t h e seal, a t t a c h t h e h o s e f r o m a v a c u u m p u m p t o t h e t o p of the as* .
it ' • ismrr that brings the installed heidht to w i t h i n v a l v e . A vacuum will hold if the O-ring type of valve stf"1
s p e c i f f a t w r a . See H g n r e 2 6 4 0 . correctly installed.
Do Not r U n
New, assembled cylinder he

engine build up option How
and casting sand are often four n>
Before bolting on these ready to-instaii" heads, disassemble (hem and
clean all passages. Often machim
debris were to get into the engine th<
to the pistons, rings, block, and bear
but how much is your engine worth''
RUBBER AND ALL TEFLON*

TEFLON® SEAL SEAL
Figure 2 6 - 4 3 The pot: n valve seal s installed on the valve
VALVE
STEM »-
RUBBER Figure 26-44 A -.es. valve spring s e r i n e .sad between the n m <-.-, ar,: t *
JACKET aluminum cylinder heac Many Chrysler aluminum cylinder heads use a c
sprmg seat and vane stem seal
Figure 26—41 Positive valve stem seals are the most effective type because thev rema n
SUMMARY
stationary on the valve guide and wipe the oil from the stem as the valve moves up and
down. 1 . The most commonly used combustion chamber types * . ->- •
spherical, wedge, a i d p e n t r o o t
2. Crtinder head ecoRdiboning >h< . 4 a n . in cleaning j " : r ( a r i n g
needed, followed by resurfacing of valves and, foaiv. g i r . i T * '
©
and seats.
3 . Valve guides should be checked for wear using * M l W sr a d M

indicatot Typical valve stem-to-guide clearance is Q.OO I so 0 0 0 3 1
k ^ for intake salves and 0 . 0 0 2 to 0.004 inches tor eibacst raises.
4 . Valve guide repai prions include using
meat valve guides, valve guide inserts, and i j a a i n i a l t r * t
guide.
5 . Valve springs should be kept w R h the » a l * at d i e t i n e o i 23*aera*

F|
and tested for squareness and p r i c e r s t r n s force
9ure 26-42 An assortment of shapes, colors and materials ol pos tive valve stem
seals. 0. ree and - ire • -
2. Most vehicle manufacturers recommend repa:
_ Slides;
a. OS stem valves
b. Knurling
c. Replacement valve guides
d. Valve guide inserts
3. Tne typical valve stem-to-valve guide clearance b,
a. 0.030 to 0.045 inches (0.8 to 0.10 m i f c : rsj "
b. 0.015 to 0.020 inches (0.4 to 0.5 miliirr
c. 0.005 to 0.010 inches (0.13 to 0.25 miiiir. .-ters)
d. 0.001 to 0.004 inches (0.03 to 0.01 millimeters)
4. Which statement is true about surface finish?
a. Cast-iron surfaces should be smoother than aluminum sir-
b. The rougher the surface, the higher the microinch finish
measurement.
c. The smoother the surface, the higher the microinch fa
measurement.
d. A cylinder head should be a lot smoother than a crankshaft
journal
5. In a normally operating engine, intake and exhaust valves are opened -
cam and closed by the .
a. Rocker arms or cam follower
b. Valve spring
F i ^ j r t 2 6 - 4 5 AsserT-tame a race engine using a neavy-duty valve spnng compressor c. Lifters (tappets)
d. Valve guide and/or pushrod
6. If an interference angle is machined on a valve or seat, this angle is ess
7 . --.:-.. ..-j start v.-fh truing the valve tip; then the face should
a. 1°
A piiot :s placed into the valve guide to position the stone b. 0.005°
c-jzer correctiv for resurfacing the valve seat c. 1 ° to 3°
8. The height should be checked and corrected with valve spring d. 0.5° to 0.75°
- j e n J rêdec.
7. A valve should be discarded if the margin is less than t
0. • ne«ht should be checked and the tip of the valve ground if refacing.
nect8S8£ a. 0.001 inch
10. - j -. ceanmg. the cylinder head should be assembled using b. 0.006 inch
. i i e sasE seals. c. 0.030 inch
d. 0.060 inch
REVIEW QUESTIONS 8. To lower and narrow a valve seat that has been cut at a 45° angle. -
cutter or stone of what angle?
1- • ' • - 1 bv the term crossflowhead? a. 60°
2. j > v > ac. irtdges of using four valves per cylinder? b. 45°
1. reconditioning the first cylinder head servicing c. 30°
d . 15°
0. Valve spring inserts (shims] are designed to:
4. -— —
-'s - vai-.v up ground? How do you know how much to remove
a. Increase installed height of the valve
b. Decrease installed height of the valve
$. >-. :nrer:erence angle between the valve and the seat? c. Adjust the correct installed height
6. - , . • iive sea; insert installed? d. Decrease valve spring pressure to compensate for de^r^>-
7. - •• . t.< corrrct valve spnng insert (shim) selected and why are installed height
10. Umbrella-type valve stem seals ,
a. fit tightly onto the valve guide
b. fit on the valve face to prevent combustion leaks
CHAPTER QUIZ c. fit tightly onto the valve stem
i. —- - t ••:cylinder head, as measured with a straightedge, d. Lock under the valve retainer
..--;-.: 'J.- J nxsxooz vapaeon of .
a. - t - . - any t-mcr. length or 0.004 inches overall
t- - x ^ v 6-.se- length or 0.004 inches overall
c. ; art, ' V.rsdi *ngth or 0.020 inches overall
c. -: • • iengL-i or 0.008 inches overall
C H A P T E
bi Camshafts and Valve Trains
OBJECTIVES: After studying Chapter 27, the reader will be able to: Prepare for ASE Engine Repair (A1) certification test content area "C" (Engine
B l o c k Diagnosis and Repair). • Describe how the camshaft and valve train function. • Discuss valve train noise and its causes. • Explain how to degree
a camshaft. • Explain how a hydraulic lifter works
KEY TERMS: bucket • cam follower • camshaft bearings • contour • duration of the camshaft • finger follower • flat-link type • freewheeling
. hydraulic valve lifter • intake centerline • intake lobe centertine method • minutes • Morse • roller chain type • silent chain type • solid valve
lifter • straight up • tappets • valve lash
T he c a m is driven by timing g e a r s , c h a i n s , or belts located at the

front of t h e e n g i n e . T h e g e a r or s p r o c k e t on the c a m s h a f t h a s
twice a s m a n y t e e t h , or n o t c h e s , a s t h e o n e on t h e crankshaft. This
results in t w o c r a n k s h a f t t u r n s for e a c h turn of the camshaft.
The camshaft turns at one-half the crankshaft speed in all four-
stroke-cycle engines.
CAMSHAFT FUNCTION
DISTRIBUTOR
The c a m s h a f t ' s m a j o r f u n c t i o n is t o o p e r a t e t h e valve train. SHAFT
Cam s h a p e o r c o n t o u r is t h e m a j o r f a c t o r in d e t e r m i n i n g the
operating characteristics of the engine. The lobes on the
c a m s h a f t o p e n t h e v a l v e s a g a i n s t t h e f o r c e of t h e valve springs.
The c a m s h a f t l o b e c h a n g e s r o t a r y m o t i o n ( c a m s h a f t ) to linear
motion (valves).
OIL PUMP
Cam lobe s h a p e has m o r e control over engine performance
characteristics t h a n d o e s a n y o t h e r single e n g i n e part. Engines iden-
tical in e v e r y w a y e x c e p t c a m l o b e s h a p e m a y h a v e c o m p l e t e l y dif-
ferent o p e r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d p e r f o r m a n c e . See Figure 2 7 - 1 .
The c a m s h a f t m a y also o p e r a t e t h e f o l l o w i n g : Figure 27-2 In many engines se camshaft drives the distributor and the oil pump
through a shaft from the end of the (fistrtmtDr.
• Mechanical fuel p u m p
• Oil p u m p
• Distributor
See Figures 2 7 - 2 a n d 2 7 - 3 .
DIAPHRAGM
SPRING
PUMP
BODY
CAMSHAFT
BEARING OUTLET
CHECK
INLET VALVE
FITTING
PULSATOR DIAPHRAGM
Figure 27-3 The fuel pump plunger noes on the camshaft eccentn.-
CAMSHAFT LOCATION
P u s h r o d e n g i n e s h a v e t h e c a m located m t h e bloc-.. Thev are
smaller a n d lighter t h a n o v e r h e a d cam e n g r . e s . T h e c a m s h a f t is
s u p p o r t e d in t h e block by c a m s h a f t b e a r i n g s :r.d |
Jaure 27-1 this high-performance camshaft has a lobe that opens the valve quickly and the crankshaft with a gear o r s p r o c k e t a n d c h a i n drive, See
eps Figure 2 7 - 4 .
" open for a long time
Ml
2*2
F ^ a i r e 2 7 - 4 Cutaway of a Chevrolet V-8 showing tne valve train comDonents.
C A M S H A F T P R O B L E M DIAGNOSIS
- w o r n lobe or. the camshaft is often difficult to diagnose.
SometimeiS a valve "tick tick tick" noise is heard if the cam lobe is
•-vom. Tne ticking noise can be intermittent, which makes it harder to
i e t e n n i n e '.he cause. If the engine has an overhead camshaft (OHC),
~ ~ " • Hit
it is usually relatively easy to remove the cam cover and make a visual
. v o e c i o r of ai! cam lobes and the rest of the valve train. In an over-
^ *****
head vaive (OHVi engine, the camshaft is in the block, where easy
visuai inspection is not possible. See Figure 2 7 - 5 and Tech Tip
"The Rotating Pushrod Test."
The Rotating Pushrod Test (b)
T
e omcKly and easily test whether or not the camshaft is okay, observe if the
Figure 2 7 - 5 (a) Here is what can happen if a roller lifter breaks loose from its refe*?"
C^sTvods are rotating when the engine is running. This test will work on any
customer complained of "a little noise from the engine." (b) All engines equipped w?'
32 p U S hrod engine that uses a flat-bottom lifter. Due to the slight
lifters have some type of retainer for keeping the lifters from rotating.
o r the c a m lobe and lifter offset, the lifter (and pushrod) should rotate
w - e ' - e v e ' the engine is running. To check, simply remove the rocker arm cover
a^rt w s e r v e the pushrods when the engine is running. If one or more pushrods T E C H TIP The Tube Trick
.-• not rotating, this camshaft and/or the lifter for that particular valve is worn
arc to be replaced Valve lifters are often difficult to remove because the ends of the lifters tier-
mushroomed (enlarged) where they have contacted the camshaft Va"
buildup can also prevent the lifters from being removed. Try this method:
CAMSHAFT REMOVAL S1 " Raise the lifters upward as far away from the canu^*
1' the er.zine has an overhead valve design, the camshaft is usually possible.
Loca'ed in the block above the crankshaft. The timing chain and S t s D •. Slide in a thin plastic or cardboard tube with slots in place0
the .-e'olcie is so equipped! should be removed after the camshaft.
• :ha - gear) cover is removed. Loosen the rocker arms (or
S t e p # 3 Push the lifters downward into the tube. Use a long ^
rocker arm shaft! and remove the pushrods. Remove or lift u p the
retrieve the lifters from the end of the tube.
..... carefully removing the camshaft. See Tech Tip "The
T , , ^ TrO-V " This trick will w o r k on almost every engine that has the camsW •
block If the tube is made from plastic, it has to be thin plastic to allow!Jtr
slightly. The length of the lifters is greater than the diameter of the ;;
ings. Therefore, the lifter has to be pushed d o w n w a r d into the tube
allow the lifter room to fall over into the tube.
CAMSHAFT DRIVES sprocket may be m a d e of iron or it m a y h a v e an a l u n f ^ .

with nylon teeth for noise r e d u c t i o n . Two types of t i m « v
•tprockc: that drives the c a m s h a f t is
are used.
iron. W h e n gears are used, the camshaft
a d e from a soft material to r e d u c e 1. Silent c h a i n t y p e also known as a flat-link type.
is made of a l u m i n u m or fiber. See type for its original manufacturer). This type operates ?-1 •
2 n and sprocket are used, the camshaft tends to stretch with use. See Figures 2 7 - 7 and 2 7 - ^
CYLINDf I
BLOCK
Figure 27-8 The "id-jwyaanSa: hrwv.- B rtwace a liming d m and geara » when
1/2 inch 113 r o m e l m j a ri aaa * <neaa«d «i me chart However,it-,bestto
CAMSHAFT replace Tie tmng cftar a r : -jear any4rr« t e camsa* • 'egtaced or Die enpne s
GEAR iHasse-'tted lor 'enan a owrtai
CRANKSHAFT
GEAR
Figure 2 7 - 6 The larger camshaft gear is usually made from fiber and given a heiica it to
help reduce noise By making the camshaft gear twice as large as the crankshaft gear, the
camshaft rotates one revolution for every two of the crankshaft.
Figure 27-9 4 reoBce-wl p e i t a n u m x . ; - -oner erar t w Houfi a oe

noser man a Sai-«i« char 3 -Tie- c a p does v scatf as ruch and thwetore tie
able to matter. actuate value liming tar a e n j t a e
C A M S H A F T BELT O f i f V E S
M a n y o v e r h e a d c a m s h a f t e n g i n e s u s e a t i m i n g belt r a t h e r than
a c h a i n . T h e b e l t is g e n e r a . : v c o n s i d e r e d t o b e q u i e t e r , b u r t re-
quires periodic rep.sceraent usuaSv e v e r y 6 0 . 0 0 0 miles 1 X),00'
Figure 2 7 - 7 A replacement silent chain and sprockets. The ongmal camshaft sprocket
was aluminum with nylon teeth to help control noise This replacement set will not be
n> r. : - freewheeling,
noticeably louder than the original and should give the owner many thousands of r es of t h e v a l v e s if t h e b e ' ; b r e a k s . S e e F i g u r e s 2 7 - 1 1 t h r o u g n 2 7 - 1
useful service
1
REAL Fa B e s t to W a r n the Customer
MOTE; W h e n the t i m i n g chain stretches, the valve ti - r.jt >• N

4 technician - a t e : ad a tj-Tsng chain and gears on a Chevrolet < 4 H e t x c i
retarded and the e n g i n e w i l l lack low-speed power, i n somt ISM
the chain can w e a r t h r o u g h the timing-chain ver and create ASS accomptehefl correctly yet after starting ME engine DUNES ar
leak. amw-t oil Before the t am -epiacerêrt o* corswnceer « a - m
mat. The replacement timing cnam restored prefer operation or the «ng»» « 1
mc-eased engme vacuum, "creased vacuum can t m of tan me n M S M
2. R o l l e r c h a i n t y p e . T h i s t y p e is n o i s i e r b u t o p e r a t e s w i t h less
past worn piston " n g s and througn w o n <a*e gudes :.. me r «
f r i c t i o n a n d s t r e t c h e s l e s s t h a n t h e s i l e n t t y p e of c h a i n . S e e
Sm- iar -.-.-eased oii oonsjmpfcon snUeirs occur if a .-ar-? -ecnnd s jar
Figure 2 7 - 9 .
^ r m e d on a high-miteage engine wKti m o r a s w i - \ : s ar
S o m e f o u r - c a m e n g i n e s u s e a t w o - s t a g e c a m s h a f t dr svste.n fc satisfy the ownef of the y e n * * , the tecnociai -ao E fl
•efimsft the w i n d e r s ana repute s » p s s a r IVrf'v* •
Primary: f r o m c r a n k s h a f t to c a m s h a f t
should war- customers that ncreaseo o l ^sage n j f n u t I
Secondary: f r o m o n e c a m s h a f t to a n o t h e r repair to a rugft-mdEage engine.
See Figure 27-10.

SK'-AV
Figure 2 7 - 1 0 " . . . 3 duai overhead camshaft V-type engine that uses one primary timing chain and two secondary chains
FREEWHEELING INTERFERENCE
ENGINE DESIGN ENGINE DESIGN
NO VALVE/PISTON VALVE/PISTON
INTERFERENCE COLLISION
Figure 2 7 - 1 3 Many engines are of the interference design If the timing belt (or eta'
the piston still moves up and down in the cylinder while the valves remain stationary ft"
freewheeling design, nothing is damaged, but in an interference engine, the valves aie 0*
^W&ZJ-n - " - I n ,'jeit Also notice the missing teeth This belt broke at 88,000
" '•*''** ' " C l c 'eptace it at the recommended interval of 60.000 miles
R E A L W O R L D FIX The Noisy Camshaft
The owner o1 an overhead cam four-cylinder engine complained of a w

gme. After taking the vehicle to several technicians and getting high ft'
to replace the camshaft and followers, the owner tried to find a less
solution Finally, another technician replaced the serpentine drive 0-
front of the engine and "cured" the "camshaft" noise for a fraction of
ous estimates.
Remember, accessory dnve belts can often make noises similar t
bad-bearing types of noises. Many engines have been disassembled a ^
hauled because of a noise that was later determined to be from one ol
71
-V' * > s e c a n t an w k w torn one of the camshaft
• J"' '*>*») fee M * MMT *»pe<tt recommend replacing • Loose or defective drive belt(s)
r
* " " " " / « r -t *>/•>•• i 1 - Jig Pes « r e p « « i H tne timing • Loose torque converter-to-flex plate (drive plate) bolts (nuts)
x M w -e >««4 H» M U C * h j be reputed a t a • Defective mechanical fuel pump
paeaaM*
Ohapior 27 Camshafts »nd VWw TrWns 248
ROCKER A R M S 2. " > r , . i typt '.is a finger f o l l o w e r t h a t pre • ••;••! >

r a t i o s i m i l a r to t l i a t of a r o c k e r a r m . l i n g e r followers open the
Rocker a r m s r e v e r s e the
v a l v e s b y a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 1 / 2 t i m e s t h e a m lift. T h e p i v o t p o i n t
duce a d o w n w a r d move!,
o f t h e f i n g e r f o l l o w e r m a y h a v e a m e c h a n i c a l o r a u t o m a t i c i v-
signed to reduce the travel of t - n f< or iter
draulk a d j u s t m e n t .
and p u s h r o d while maintainir. t h e requit ft.
3 . A t h i r d t y p e m o v e s t h e r o c k e r a r m d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h a h y d r a il
doneby using a rocker a r m r a t i o o f . i p r in f 1 . y I, a m
lifter |Figure 27-17).
1
in F i g u r e 2 7 - 1 4 . For a given a m o u n t o f lift o n t h pu rod,
valve will o p e n u p t o 1 . 5 t i m e s t h e p u s h r o d l i f t d . T
allows t h e c a m s h a f t t o b e s m a l l , s o t h e e n g i n e c a n 1 r.a
HCTfc So: e w e r e n g i n e s h a v e t h e hydraulic ad|u u n w t In to r< sr
also r e s u l t s i n l o w e r l o b e - t o - l i f t e r r u b b i n g s p e e d s .
a r m a n d i r e called - y d r a u l i c lash a d j u s t e r s (Hl-A). See Figure 2 7 - 1
U s i n g rocker a r m s w i t h a higher ratio than stock can a

the valve s p r i n g t o c o m p r e s s t o o m u c h a n d actually bind. Valve irir i
T ^ j n j R o c k e r A r m S h a f t s Can C a u s e
occurs w h e n t h e v a l v e s p r i n g Is compressed to the point where there s n
clearance at all in t h e s p r i n g . (It is completely compressed.) When cor Sticking Valves
bind o c c u r s in a r u n n i n g e n g i n e , b e n t pushrods, broken rocker arms, or

As oil oxidizes, it f o r m s a varnish. Varnish buildup is particularly common
other valve train d a m a g e c a n r e s u l t .
on hot upper portions ol the engine, such as rocker arm shafts the varnish
estrtcts clean OH from getting into and lubricating the rocker arms The
a m lobe can easny force tl e valves open, but the valve springs oftsn
Rocker a r m s m a y be c a s t , f o r g e d , o r s t a m p e d . S e e F i g u r e 2 7 - 1 5 . do not exert enough force to fully dose the valves The result is an engine
mss, which may be intermittent Worn valve guides and/or w e a k valve
1. O n e t y p e of r o c k e r a r m o p e n s t h e v a l v e s d i r e c t l y w i t h a c a m
springs can also caus® occasional rough idle, uneven running, or missing.
f o l l o w e r or b u c k e t . See Figure 2 7 16.
See Figure 2 7 - 1 6
P U S H R O P S
Pushrods are designed t o fce a s l i g h t a s p o s s i b l e a n d still m a i n t a i n

t h e i r s t r e n g t h . T h e y m a y b e e i t h e r s o l i d o r h o l l o w . If t h e y a r e t o b e
SPECIAL TOOL USED

TO COMPRESS
CAMSHAFT VALVE SPRING
Figure 27-14 A1 5: l ratio rocker arm means that the dimension A Is 1.5 limes the length
ol B. therefore, if the pushrod is moved up 0.400 inch by the camshaft lobe, the valve will be
pushed down (opened) 0.400 inch 1.5, or 0.600 inch.
MAGNETIC
FINGER USED TO REMOVE
A D J U S T I N G SHIM
VALVE L A S H
ADJUSTING SHIM
figure 27-15 A high-performum e aluminum roller aim. Both the pivot and the lip thai Figure 27-16 Somi 1 « uii ul camshaft e I
"'"tacts the stem ol the valve aie equipped with rollers lo help reducc friction lor more uses valve lash adjusting shims to adiust the valve I,I J i A stv, ,ai t w i ••> isui«v r*Ousta iy
"Ower and better luel economy. compress the valve spring so that a magnet can rairave me shin-
Mk St.
H o l l o w P u s h r o d Dirt
kfany e n g o e reDuMers ana rernanjlacturers ao not

Dfft caroor. anc other aeons are CiTftcuH to tnorougnty
^•'"snear*
ow pusnroa. When an engine e rur. witn usea pusr • c .
trapped p a ^
car. be aisiocgea ana nan new oeanngs anc other new
• sat.
CAMSHAFT DURATION
Tr.e duration of t h e camshaft is t h e n _ ~ . o: ae^T"

crankshaft rotation for which t h e v a l v e is lifted off t h e "
S e e F i g u r e s 2 7 - 2 0 a n d 2 7 - 2 1 . T h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s for duration &
b e d i f f e r e n t f o r t h e i n t a k e v a l v e s a n d t h e e x h a u s t valves. Thespe
: r . c a t i o r . t o r c u r a t i o n c a n b e e x p r e s s e d b y s e v e r a l dinerect n ' -
o d s a n d m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d w h e n c o m p a r i n g o n e c a m to anon*
T h e t w o m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d m e t h o d s a r e t h e following:
1. D u r a t i o n of v a l v e o p e n i n g at z e r o l a s h (clearance), lis:..
d r a u l i c l i f t e r i s u s e d , t h e l a s h i s z e r o . If a solid lifter is used. &
e x p r e s s i o n r e f e r s t o t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e o p e n i n g of the valve sfe
r + m m S - t ? ~ i « * » i m i l nnr r | t - l r m ~ n r - t h e s p e c i f i e d c l e a r a n c e ( l a s h ) h a s b e e n closed.
• c .1 n MI — iw — i hi n n niTwi i imx rT)tlr>*r r nt r - " " "
LOBE U F T
*
Figure 2 7 - 2 0 the kjoe W n me amount me cam looe lifts tneiittisr. Because men*
arm adds to bus amount me wrote valve vain nas to tie considered wnen selectmc'
camsnan mat has me dewed im and duration
IZ7-V1 x today ua« v w f t s to m * p o r t raour arms m e n a s 0
I ttutuc m r « C U M of me cylindw head.
CLOSING OPENING
RAMP RAMP
topped Quddy. wrfuch LASH

RAMP
•A " j x . - a i e r o c k e r a r m s , t h e y must b e hol-

c . . - / i i . l or. t n e j - w e r e n d t h a t s e a t s in t h e
... a i s o a c o t v e x fca^ u n l e s s t h e r e is a n
r. • .'. t t £ . U t h e r&cker a r m . In t h i s
„.- ; .- . . - . < c o n c a v e s o c k e t . It
u or. ttc a & u n s e w s o e w in t h e r o c k e r Figure 2 7 - 2 1 The ramps on m e cam o o e aaow me valves to tie opened ana
.A t * K r * & « a 8 w i ~ * t a c r t o c h e c k :f t h e y QtxcKiy yet under control to avoid damaging valve train components, especially ^
• n o n e speeds
' •" - V O r r - ^ a n d V a ' v e Trams 247
2. D u r a t i o n a t 0 . 0 5 0 - i - r C A M TIMING CHART
specification method el - -
Du.mg ? o- a stroke-cycle gasoline e n g i n e ,
compensates for lifter (tappe* >-•'-• ' • . - - -
' b e c r a n k s h a f t *evo! ; : 7 2 0 ' • makes t w o compJSte revo-
method to use when c c - ? : - • . . -••• ••
i u t t o n s :2 x 3 6 0 " 7 2 0 ' ! . Camshaft specifications are given in
camshaft can be tested usl-j. a dia' - -
c r a n k s h a f t degrees. T h e usual m e t h o d of d r a w i n g a camshaft,
F.gures 2 7 - 2 2 ar.c 2 7 - 2 3 .
t i m i n g diagram is ; n a circle illustrating t w o revolutions 7 2 0 " ! of
t h e c r a n k s h a f t . In t h e e x a m p l e in Figure 2 7 - 2 4 , t h e Intake vaive
s ' a r t s t o open at 15° BTDC. remains open through t h e entire
WJTE: --actions of a degree are com-nordy c.-?-essed ir m i s o Jed j
180" of t h e intake stroke, and does n o t ' c l o s e -until 59° ATDC.
minutes . Sixty minutes equal one degree. • • • • -
' 30' - • 2'. and 15' = I/*". T h e r e f o r e , t h e duration, of t h e intake valve is 15° plus 130° nius
5 0 ° . or 2 5 4 ' .
T h e e x h a u s t valve camshaft in the example opens at 5 9 '
BBDC and closes at 15° ATDC. W h e n the exhaust valve speciSca-
tions are added to the intake valve specifications in the diagram,
t h e overlap penod Is easilv observed. The overlac Ln t h e examcie is
1 5 ' plus 15° or 3 0 ° .
INSTALLING T H E C A M S H A F T
When the camshaft is installed, the lobes must be coated with a
special lubricant containing molvdisulfide. This special lube
helps to ensure proper initial lubrication to the critical cam lobe
sections of the camshaft. Manv manufacturers recommend mul-
tiviscosity engine oil such as SAE 5W-30 or SAE 10W-30. Some
camshaft manufacturers recommend using straight SAE 30 or
SAE 40 engine oil and not a muitiviscosity oil for the first oil 51L
Some manufacturers also recommend the use of an antiwear
additive such as zinc dithiophosphate (ZDP). See Figures 2 7 - 2 5
and 27-2<5.
Figure 2 7 - 2 2 A camshaft can he checked for stra'Ohtness and as well as for lift and The camshaft must be broken in by maintaining engine speed
duration usino a dla1 "-d'cator on a Ixtur? that altows the camshaft to be rotated. This same
above 1500 RPM for the first 10 minutes of engine operation. If the
emdoment can used to check crankshafts.
engine speed is decreased to idle 'about 600 RPM'. the lifter (tap-
pet) will be in contact with and exerting force on the lobe of the
cam for a longer period of time than occurs at higher engine
speeds. The pressure and volume of oil supplied to the camshaft
area are also increased at the higher engine speeds. Therefore, to
ensure long camshaft and lifter life, make certain that the engine
will start quickly after a new camshaft and Lifters have been In-
stalled to prevent long cranking periods and subsequent !ow engine
speeds. When repairing an engine, follow these rules regarding the
camshaft and lifters:
1. When installing a new camshaft, always install new valve lifters

(tappets).
INTAKE
INTAKE C L O S E S EXHAUST OPENS
P i o o r * 7 7 - 2 3 The ' . f Of 3 camshaft lobe can be ou'ckly determined bv usino this dial
n d t t f t t w ' a t t a c h e s directly to the c a m s M f t . H g U r * 2 7 - 2 4 t , ^ , cam ttninc diagram.

2*& tk. 3K«
pistons with rods, and camshaft are install, -efore :he

der heads are installed. To determine the t
lobe, follow these steps, using a degree wl mounted 7
o n
crankshaft:
S i e p # 1 Locate the exact top dead center. In , :. legtee wheel

bring the cylinder #1 piston close to TDC tall a pisto-1
(a piston stop is any object attached to the block that can a-•
solid mechanical stop to prevent the piston from reaching t J.
of the cylinder). Turn the engine clockwise until the piston ^
hits the stop.
: Do not use the starter motor to rotate the engine. Use a spec;
wrench on the flywheel or the front of the crankshaft.
Record the reading on the degree wheel, and then turn the er.j-.
. - . j u r e 2 7 - 2 5 S f e c a lubricant such as this one from General Motors is required to be
in the opposite direction until it stops again and record that: -
_aec : - of me camshaft ana me bottom of me flai-oottomea lifters. The use of an
- .e =-. rv^rv en cfiange is recommended also because me new oils ao not contain
ber. See Figure 2 7 - 2 7 indicating a reading of 30° ATDC and 2cM
enougr. znc tor Sat bottom lifters ana cams. BTDC. Add the two readings together and divide by two (30=.
26° = 56° g 2 = 28°). Move the degree wheel until icis2€ ^
the engine has stopped rotating in either direction. Now TDC:
the degree wheel is exactly at top dead center.
Step #2 Remove the piston stop and place a dial indicator on a ;
take valve lifter. To accurately locate the point of m a r r r . .
(intake lobe centerline), rotate the engine until the lifter::::
0.050 inch on each side of the maximum lift point. Mark t - :
gree wheel at these points on either side of the maximum:
point. Now count the degrees between these two points:
mark the halfway point. This halfway point represents the in®
c e n t e r l i n e . This point is often located between 100° and
Step # 3 Now that both TDC and the intake centerline have :s
marked, compare the actual intake centerline with the specs-
tion. For example, if the actual intake centerline is 106° an:'-
camshaft specification indicates 106°, then the camshaft:-
stalled s t r a i g h t u p . See Figure 2 7 - 2 9 . If the actual reacr:
n g u r e 2 7 - 2 6 Care snouic be taken when installing a camshaft not to nick or scrape me 104°, the camshaft is advanced by 2°. If the actual readii-
casi bearings. 108°, the camshaft is retarded by 2°.
2 . V.'r.er. instating new lifters, if me original cam is not excessively

S.T. and if tne pushrods all rotate with the original camshaft, the
HIGH-PERFORMANCE TIP
c2L.r_r.af: may be reused.
3. Xever use a hydraulic camshaft with solid lifters or hydraulic
.liters with a solid after camshaft. Varying the Valve Timing to Vary Engine Performance
If the camshaft is slightly ahead of the crankshaft, the camshaft is

advanced. An advanced camshaft (maximum of 4°) results in more
Scra# r n a r . J a c t u r a s recommend that a n e w camshaft always be diss'
zsmiiad w h e s tefcting valve lifters. torque with a slight decrease in high-speed power. Some aftermarnet
manufacturers design about a 4 ° advance into their timing gears or c
This permits the use of a camshaft with more lift and duration,:
DEGREE!NO THE CAMSHAFT the smooth idle and low-speed responses of a milder camshaft
If the camshaft is slightly behind the crankshaft, the camshan >
Tr.e purpose: of degreeing the camshaft in the engine is to locate the
retarded. A retarded camshaft (maximum of 4°) results in more M
/i.v> a c t / , n exact.-/ as t h e camshaft manufacturer intended. The
power at the expense of low-speed torque. p
rr.etr.oc most often recommended by camshaft manufacturers is
If the measured values are different from specifications, sp ifli v ^ , ^
: - i n t a k e i o b e c e n t e r l i n e m e t h o d . This method determines the pins or keys are available to relocate the cam gear by the proper ai
exact ceotenine of the ::.:<./£ lobe and compares it to the specifica- manufacturers provide adjustable cam timing sprockets for o ve
uors /:.::. the replacement camshaft. On an overhead engines.
valve engine, tr.e camshaft is usually degreed after the crankshaft,
rttanflfcvalMa m
T friction (by up to 8%). This frfctiei

e c o n o m y and help to offset the gi<
roller iifters must use a retainer
Figure 27-27 Degree wheel Indi' .i
By splitting the difference between the two •arance so called v a l v e l a s h , va
be excessive, or it will cause noise at resu • in
oe
the degree wheel.
premat ? k are. Two methods are commonly used to make - • •
-ry > e c arance adjustments. One involves a solid valve
lifter • - , - . : ;
with an automatic /drauiic adjustment built into the lifter body,
led a h y d r a u l i c vahre lifter.
A h y d r a . ic J f « r consists primarily of a hollow cylinder body
encios ng a closely ' t t e d bo<:ow plunger, a check .alve, ar.d a
pushrod c u p . L i f t e r s t h a t Seed oil u p t h r o u g h the p u s h r o d have a
metering d i s k o r r e s t r c t o r v a . / e l o c a t e d u n d e r t h e p u s h r o d cup.
Engine oil u n d e r p r e t . -re is fed t h r o u g h a n e n g i n e p a s s a g e to t h e
exterior ter b o d y . A r jr. d e r a i l p o r t i o n a l l o w s t h e o i l u n d e r p r e s
sure to s u r r o u n d t h e i i f t e r b o d y . 0 8 u n d e r p r e s s u r e g o e s t h r o u g ;
holes in t h e u n d e r c - - s e c t i o n . n ' o t h e c e n t e r o f t h e p l u n g e r : F r o m
there, it goes d o w n t i r t t h e c h e c k v a l v e to a c l e a r a n c e spac--
b e t w e e n t h e bottom of t h e p . . - . 2 ? r a n d t h e i t e r i o r b o t t o m of t h e
Sifter body. It S i s this s p a c e # -.i o.. a t e n g i n e p r e s s u r e . S l i g h t l e a x
age allowance r 3 e . T i e d i n t t h e ; s o tha* t h e air c a r bleed
out and t h e lifter c a r . e a k c * n ? it s h o u l d b e c o m e o v e r f i l l e d . S e e
Figures27-31 throur/ I ' - 3 4 .
s_ig loo :rxi -iajsvtastf ac e r n e * c _ can Ci the by

drauhc B t o s t» bvdre-«jc iast i ( m - ' a n tieei dawn at b e as {her
shouki. This stow Meed i : .>-.23 cause a rtrci m r e a a s o p e n . wr, "
results in a : er^rie a m , U s e ? » SAf KJW 30 insteac :.f l»e aptiilwl
SAE 5W-3C c a s e the !
cause a dr î£rv-?rraie!n.e«pena3vfd»a i not changed at spec i e !
^Hervris.
SUMMARY
1. The cacis'aft t r a s s at one-hal; the cnni_.taft speed.
2. The • VA s .J--. - -•.-.
caxshaft and are okzv.
3. 0 - j f r h e a c "..--: the iar:i-£r •: - j l t pAted r ••• : m
ibove tj>e c s m b i u * . The lobes of the canaJurt are . . . z r e m i s«
i^tskauoB.
4. S t; . ftar. • • te*K! • • • •
5. TV: r u a t .. ..<:•: • : - -.rcs-.i -• •.-..-.-
(fisunce that die valve is Mted oS the valve sear.
ft. la r.anv e r . -<s. .-amshaft fift mnsfered tt-e -..- •
open die calve by the use of a rocker arm or (
7. Pushrods traraer camshaft aiotion upwara
redcrant.
Flflur» 27-28 (a) The setuprequiredto degree a camshaft- (61 Oose-UJ of tt>e pointer M
the degree wheel.
wtudi the i
0. • ' t h e -
are opes.
LIFTERS
Valve lifters (also called t a p p e t s l follow t h e c o n t o u r o r s h a p e of t h e 10. Ca-:siar- -cut be
mended procedures,
camshaft lobe. This a r r a n g e m e n t c h a n g e s the cam m. r v a re-
with eitjw'.c
ciprocating motion in t h e valve train. Most older <v c ifters have a
U. ttanewfarîstf!.
slightly c o n v e x s u r f a c e that slides on the cam. See Figure 27 50.
TOP DEAD CENTER
(TDC)
r m t Z I - U TDCOTIKIS afljiflte « i a ;«<••• |K.P<ORI«» W-i.%i.sllON
the lets sink i f UK cMls'iaf: lain «» I'H n M i - . r ^ v i..i;.'r:! ftttrio^ afi dcwjiM.li/
KiiwitiljVs [ijs'roiimr Igtmrini; Be v ./-• a' •,.••.< t w t f 1|» sdîtiiij
niilistliei'lijtlleiMJpm'OcWiclf 'ivSuto- : » c « «'.3' o «*»•.!ty.HnIwm
p t o ! lu" '
3. jfeirrilie tiic cipt-f.tiu • ' < • > < • , • ' : '.fir;.
Figure 27-32 Hydioullc llisli mljuslers (IILA) aro Iwlll Into tlie rocker ami on some OHC: 4 . D e t a i l * M y to aflj.iv. by3r»u1ir lilies
engines.
CHAPTER QUIZ
CAMSHAFT
1. HK-atirt'iafi • •_ _ ... teevay t f v y l u t i ^ f t ? 0 * '.r/.:il:$J^
a. OnequMlftt rewftuKo
b. One hi,!' j i i t m "i
c. One rtViOirj'.in
UIFTER HYDRAULIC <1. TWo.wji'ciiiiiiinv
ADJUSTER 2. Flit .'t.i'.Miu vfc'vt i.'vrv rv'.i'- during f<f*-«K'>a !.• • U"
of the c a m i M
a. TSJKT of the lobe
OIU t>. Itintttji'me
ENTERS
c. Chair* u w o n w
HERE
d. Beatings
3. II ill: a n i duM'.'Xi r<nia ; n coruta.it arid tlie ctTttit >.-.;> ton tot
a. The valve overlap decreases

b. "!he effective lift Increase;
c. The effective duration Increases
VALVE STEM
CONTACTS HERE d. The valve overlap increase:,
4. \Yh>;v :;:nlrigc>is''i !>-pe isaK railed' a "ji.fr.:
a. Roller
FlOUro 27-33 llydmullc llllws aro also built Into buokot tj-po Wl«$ w mwybHCwtfuw
b. Morse
c. Ratlin!'.
d. Both b and :
5. Onar. englni equipped with a tlri <.;,.- • :V •..• i-...
H Il*|il6ln why the lift and duration and lobccontcr dimension of the entfne Is which design?
camshaft determine the powei ohnraciciWlc.\of the engine. a. Preewhetifog
b. Interference.
2. llKHliilii lobe centerline. ' ° ' ' •1 lid ' . ' ; • . t'i((.;.»
••> •'. SUBBu.
ft. M l • wcht iac-. i'.'.v nc.s pushrods because . c. Overlap Is 80
a. It b • s s « v . - b •• t h i n c l e m d. Both a and b
b . A of the d b : r i ut from the hollow center 0. Hydraulic valve lifters can make a ticking nols. en
C. h f t h vis v . - i r j - «nekn
d . Pus .-hrtrx - r.jth :t removed from an engine a. The valve lash Is too close
7. I D O H C V c has hew nan', carr>-iafts? b. The valve lash Is too loose
a. 4 c. The lobe centerllne is over 110'
b. J d. Both a and c
c 2 10. Hydraulic lifters nr hydraulic lash adjusters ( H I A may „
d. 1 properly and cause an engine miss if
8. ? intake vatve pens at 30° BTDC and closes at 71° ABDC. The exhaust a. The engine oil is one quart low
valve opens at 78= BBDC and closes at 4 7 ° ATDC. Which answer is correct? b. The wrong API-rated engine oil is used
a. Intake valve duration is 110° c. The wrong SAE-rated engine oil is used
b . b. Exhaust valve duration is 125° d. Both a and b
C H A P T E R
28
Pistons, Rings,
and Connecting Rods
After studying Chapter 28, the reader will be able to: Prepare for Engine Repair (A1) ASE certification test content area "C"(Engine Bto I
Otagnosts and Repair) • Describe the purpose and function of pistons, rings, and connecting rods. • Explain how pistons and rods are constructed and t
to look for dunng an inspection, • Discuss connecting rod reconditioning procedures, • Explain how piston rings o p e r a t e and how to install them on at ::
HE'- back clearance • balancing b o s s e s (pads) • bleed hole • blowby • c a m ground • connecting rod bearing journal • compression
n n g s • crank throw • crankpin • dish • ductile iron • double-knock • e y e b r o w s • flat-top piston • full floating • g r o o v e s • gudgeon pins
• b e a t d a m s • hypereutectic • identification m a r k s • inertia f o r c e s • interference fit • lands • left-hand rule • lock rings • major thrust si":
• notch • oil control ring • piloting s u r f a c e s • piston • piston pin • piston ring • piston ring expanding tool • p o p - u p s • positive twist
• r e c e s s e s • reverse twist • ring g a p • s c r a p e r ring • skirt • side c l e a r a n c e • slipper skirt • slots • spit hole • s t r u t s • taper face ring
• valve pockets • valve reliefs • wrist pin
A lt e n g i n e p o w e r is developed by burning fuel in t h e p r e s e n c e of

air m t h e combustion c h a m b e r . Heat from t h e c o m b u s t i o n c a u s e s t h e
b u r n e d g a s to i n c r e a s e in p r e s s u r e . The f o r c e of this p r e s s u r e is converted
COMPRESSION
t t o useful work through t h e piston, connecting rod, and c r a n k s h a f t .
P U R P O S E A N D F U N C T I O N O F P I S T O N S , RINGS,
A N D CONNECTING RODS
"he p i s t o n forms a m o v a b l e b o t t o m to the c o m b u s t i o n chamber.
i're bed to t h e c o n n e c t i n g rod w i t h a p i s t o n p i n or wrist
p i n . S e e F i g u r e 2 8 - 1 . T h e p i s t o n p i n is a l l o w e d t o h a v e a r o c k i n g
rr / e r r . e n t b e c a u s e of a s w i v e l j o i n t a t t h e p i s t o n end of the
;c n n e c t i n g r o d . T h e c o n n e c t i n g r o d is c o n n e c t e d t o a p a r t of t h e
. ailed a c r a n k t h r o w , c r a n k p i n , or c o n n e c t i n g r o d
b e a r i n g j o u r n a l . This p r o v i d e s a n o t h e r swivel joint. T h e c e n t e r
of t h e c r a n k t h r o w is t h e a m o u n t b y w h i c h t h e l a r g e e n d of t h e
c o n n e c t i n g r o d :s o f f s e t f r o m t h e c r a n k s h a f t m a i n b e a r i n g c e n t e r -
Figure 2 8 - 1 All pistons share these parts in common.
l i n e . T h i s d i m e n s i o n of t h e c r a n k s h a f t d e t e r m i n e s t h e s t r o k e of
the engine.
P i s t o n rings seal t h e s m a l l s p a c e between the P^ ^
cylinder wall, keeping the pressure above the P _ j( f .
WOTfc r-.-. .tr-.** ,i d&tanc* from the center of the main bearing t h e p r e s s u r e b u i l d s u p in t h e c o m b u s t i o n chan1
, e pist"1'
ourr a tc : e center of the connecting rod journal times two. on the piston. The piston, in t u r n , p u s h e s on t ^
and upper end of t h e c o n n e c t i n g r o d . T h e 1°WI
2S2
connecting rod p u s h e s
force 10 turn the cranks!;.: 1 .. .
inertia. Inertia Is the /on
tinue rotating. I his actio. ; ,
nal position, w h e r e it will <
While the engine is r u n n i n g ,
ing as the piston reciprocal
crankshaft rotates.
PjSTON A N D R O D R E M O V A L
After the oil pan and cylinder head Is hav< been r r - <
ton and rod can be r e m o v e d by the follow
Step #1 The rod and caps should be checked for m a - ' ,

identify their location. / / the rod and caps are not marked
they should be marked before disassembly. If number •
are not available, punch marks, as shown in Figure 28-2. •-•
be used.
Powdered metal connecting rods should only be marked w th a

permanent marker to avoid damage to the rod. See Figure 28-3.
Step #2 The crankshaft is turned until the piston is at the bottorr, of

its stroke. This places t h e connecting rod nuts or cap screws
where they are easily accessible. They are removed, and the rod
cap is taken off. This may require light tapping on the connecting
rod bolts with a soft-faced hammer.
Figure 2B-3 '—mo&tc met* •maunv n t a n n e B » "»i sm-aoth
Step #3 Protectors should b e placed over the rod bolt thread to
appearance
protect t h e threads and t h e surface of t h e crankshaft iouma..
The piston and rod assembly is pushed out, with care being taken
to avoid hitting the bottom edge of the cylinder with the rod. PISTON DESIGN
When m e engine is n z r u n g . the f tot stars at the top of the cyl-.r
The rod caps should b e reattached to t h e rod after the assem- d e n A s it m o v e s d o w n w a r d . :t a c c e eraes una! ;t 'eaches a maxi-
bly has been r e m o v e d from the cylinder. The rod caps are not inter- m u m v e l o c i t y siighflv b e f o r e : is halfway down. The ptsron comes
changeable b e t w e e n rods. The assembly must be handled carefuii t o a s t o p a t m e b o t t o m of t h e c ode- at 180 degrees of crar ksha*
It should be placed o n a parts stand so that the piston and rod do r o t a t i o n . D u n n g t h e t i e r 80 degrees • a a n . - u . n a f - tati in, "
not strike each other. T h e a l u m i n u m piston can be easily scratched p i s t o n m o v e s u p w a r d , it ac:--.e*ases to reach a max.rnur veloc
or nicked. slightly a b o v e t h e h a l f w a v pc in: and then comet- '< • a .nop at t h e :
The rings are carefully removed from the piston to avoid j a m of t h e stroke T h u s , t h e piston starts, accelerates, and stops twice irt
age to either the piston or the ring. The best way to remove t h e n is each crankshaft r e v o f j u o n .
to u s e a piston ring e x p a n d i n g tool.
NOTE: A rvpcil pcaoo 2t ao ecpne at 4000 RPM accenerxts tram '

oO Tiaes per hour V taJoraetm per hour r it*-.* 0.004 mrr-i
4 nuSBeconds as it descavzs atwut tulfen dowr. :be c<<aAc
This reciprocating action of the piston produces Iarse i n e r t u

forces, nertiai: - :c- that .Da-
stopped or a part that is in motion to stay ir tr *. r. he «:'•-" -
pston can be made, the less inertia farce tha- is deve c-nt
inertia wili allow higher engine operating speeds -or - retail
pistons are made to be as ligh' as possible while sr.. n r r . i r -
strength that is needed.
The piston operates with its head exposed •to the bet a .•
gases, whereas the skirt contacts the reia:. • - - > - *.-,
Figure 28-2 Punch marks on connecting rod and rod cap to woty the<: w - me This results in a temperature difference of abou 2"S t' i
engine between the top and bottom of the ptsron.
clearance. Pistons used in h i g h - p o w e r e d er ina
TECH TTF V have
is t n q w t M t t d o m e s o r p o p - u p s o n t h e piston head1 rai
art
crease t h e c o m p r e s s i o n ratio. Pistons use ^ d >
r» ; - - •! <; tec a balanced en-
be provided w i t h a depression o r a d i s h ,
M H cha-viiig P iSans. Boat atU'Tinum
t h e dish provide different c o m p r e s s i o n rat
« c e s « s i to85: grams• oi 2535 e n t e n g i n e m o d e l s . Several piston head
gran R toe e^t-nder has been ooreo,
Figure 2 8 - 4 .
j r * ctonousiy required B the raptaceme"' pistons
*»s x T t m t f inertia toads on toe rod bearings Therefore, to
- Mr m -jaune ar a»< overhauled engine. toe replacement
I noc "mre 8 » r toe ongtnal pistons NOTE: Newer engines do not use valve reliefs bee • this requjrp.
the thickness of the top of the piston be increased to provide the n^ - • '
strength. The thicker the top of the piston, the lower down from thet •
B M : 1 Some less-expensive replacement cast pistons or htgh-
the top piston r i n g To reduce unburned hydrocarbon , HC) exhaus: i
aarter«Bic« "orjec ?<sSonK are much heavier than the stock pistons, even
slons, engineers attempt to place the top piston ring as close to the •
Bv say. s > fins means that toe crankshaft may need heavy
the piston as possible to prevent the u n b u r n e d fuel from being i n -
aoc-fl to toe caurterweights ot the crankshaft for toe engine to be
land not burned) between the top of the piston and the top of th(''
piston ring.
H-v toe i i - v -sason. if one piston is being replaced all pistons should
> -»c«cec or st least checked and corrected to ensure the same weight
Recesses m a c h i n e d o r cast into the tops of the pistonsfor%
clearance are c o m m o n l y called e y e b r o w s , v a l v e reliefs, orvabi
p o c k e t s . T h e d e p t h of the e y e b r o w s has a major effect on the cot
PISTON HEADS pression ratio and is necessary t o provide clearance for the valves
3- v . e p i s t e - h e a d f o r m s a portion of t h e c o m b u s t i o n the timing belt of an overhead c a m s h a f t engine should break. V;
c h a r a b e - . :ts s!"ape s v e r y i m p o r t a n t to t h e c o m b u s t i o n process. out t h e eyebrows, t h e pistons could hit the valves near TDCifii
G e n e r a l l y , k w - c o s t . l o w - p e r f o r m a n c e e n g i n e s have f l a t - t o p valves are n o t operating (closing) because of nonrotation of a
3 o r S o m e of t h e s e flat-top pistons c o m e so close to t h e camshaft. If an engine is designed not to have the pistons lte
or r:: - • that r e c e s s e s a r e c u t in t h e piston t o p for valve the valves, the engine is called f r e e w h e e l i n g .
:
'ore Ring' and Connecting Rods 255
CAM GROUND PISTON ;and more than the rest of the piston. See
Aluminum pistons expar ' : 2 ".. ria/. horizontal separation slots ' a'act
expansion control was de< > und as heat dams. •• reduce heat transfer from the hot piston
With this design, the plsi head to the lower skirt This, in turn, keeps the skirt temperature
cylinder, and the piston pin I lower so that there will be less skirt expansion. Because the slot is
the cam ground piston is heated jin placed in the oil ring groove, it can be used for oil drainback and
so that it becomes nearly round ar ts nor ai , pera expansion control.
tures. A cam ground piston skirt is Illustrated F . > 28-5.
See Figure 2 8 - 6 for an example of how to mea ,•< tf. di ter PISTON STRUT INSERTS
of a piston.
A major development in expansion control occurred when the
pi".'on a jminum was cast around two stiff steel struts. The
PISTON FINISH struts are not chemically bonded to the aluminum, nor do
The finish on pistons varies with the manufacturer, but they all are they add any strength to the piston. There is only a mechanical
designed to help reduce scuffing. Scuffing is a condition where the bond between the steel and aluminum. The bimetallic action of
metal of the piston actually contacts the cylinder wall. When the this strut in the aluminum forces the piston to bow outward
piston stops at the top of the cylinder, welds or transfer of metal
from one part to the other can take place. Scuffing can be reduced
by coating the piston skirts with tin 0.0005 inch (0.0125 mmj
thick or a moly graphite coating. See Figure 28-7.
PISTON HEAD SIZE

The top or head of the piston is smaller in diameter than the rest of
the piston. The top of the piston is exposed to the most heat and
DIRECTION OF
EXPANSION
SURFACES
Figure 28-7 A morv graphie coaling or tne sktft ot ths otston from a General Morors
3800 V-6 engine helps prevent piston sarf&ng wnen me engne is cold.
DIA. A - DIA. B = C A M PISTON SKIRT
030 TO .038" LESS

Figure 28-5 Piston cam shape The largest diameter is across the thrust surfaces and
perpendicular to the piston pin (lettered 4)
DIAMETERS AT (C) AND (D) THE ELLIPTICAL SHAPE OF

CAN BE EQUAL OR THE PISTON SKIRT SHOULD
DIAMETER AT (D) CAN BE BE 010* TO 012 LESS AT
.0015- GREATER THAN (C). DIAMETER (Al THAN ACROSS
THE THRUST FACES A T
DIAMETER 3 MEASUREMENT
IS MADE 1V BELOW LOWER
RING GROOVE.
f
'9ure 28-6 A piston diameter is measured across the thrust surfaces Figure 28-8 Piston swt cam sripe
STEEL
STRUT
F i g u r e 2 8 - 9 steel struts cast inside pistons help control expansion.
(a)
..i t s t h e piston pin. This keeps t h e piston skirt thrust surfaces

• m e x p a n d i n g m o r e t h a n t h e cast-iron cylinder in w h i c h t h e
P t o n o p e r a t e s . Pistons with steel strut inserts allow good pis-
t n to c . .tr.der wall clearance at normal temperatures. At t h e
s a m e t i m e , t h e y allow t h e cold operating clearance to be as
small a s 0 . 0 0 0 5 inch (one half t h o u s a n d t h of an inch) ( 0 . 0 1 2 7
millimeter). This small clearance will prevent cold piston slap
a n d noise. A typical piston expansion control strut is visible In
Figure 2 8 - 9 .
W i t h n e w e r engines, t h e n u m b e r and thickness of the piston
rings have decreased and the cast-aluminum piston skirt has
i reduced to a m i n i m u m by using an open-type s l i p p e r skirt.
Lxamples of the slipper skirt piston are s h o w n in Figure 2 8 10.
H Y P E R E U T E C T I C PISTONS
A standard cast-aluminum piston contains about 9% to 12% silicon
and is called a eutectic piston. To add strength, the silicon content
is increased t o about 16%, and t h e resulting piston is called a (b)
h y p e r e u t e c t i c piston. Other advantages of a hypereutectic piston
are its 2 5 weight reduction and lower expansion rate. The disad- Figure 2 8 - t O Two sectional views ol a slipper-skirt-type piston that uses a steel
vantage of hypereutectic pistons is their higher cost, because they expansion strut.
are m o r e difficult to cast and machine.
Hypereutectic pistons are commonly used in the aftermarket piston pin Is made from high-quality steel in t h e shape of a t :
and as original e q u i p m e n t in many turbocharged and supercharged to m a k e it both strong and light. S o m e t i m e s , t h e interior ho -
engines. the piston pin Is tapered, so it is large at the ends and SIP!-
the middle of the pin. This gives the pin s t r e n g t h that is p " ,
tional to the location of t h e load placed o n It. A double-w
F O R G E D PISTONS hole such as this is more expensive to m a n u f a c t u r e , so it
h r p e r f o r m a n c e engines need pistons with added strength. only w h e r e its weight advantage merits t h e extra cost.
rged pi 'ons have a dense grain structure and are very strong. Figure 2 8 13.
I - V ; f istons are often used in turbocharged or supercharged en-
. • <:•. pi'-cause forged pistons are less porous than cast pistons, they Piston Pin Offset The piston pin holes are not c e n t e r e d ^
- i . ..eat m o r e quickly. Forged pistons generally run about 20% piston. They are located toward the m a j o r t h r u s t surface,
r • an cast pistons. See Figure 2 8 11. Figure 2 8 12 is a imately 0.062 inch (1.57 millimeters) from the piston center
. ,- ; • avy : try truck aluminum piston, which shows the grain shown in Figure 2 8 - 1 4 . . e tl#!
of the a l u m i n u m . Pin offset is designed to reduce piston slap and the m " ^
can result as the large end of the connecting rod crosses <"
dead center.
PISTON P I N S I'he minor thrust side of the piston head has a g r e a t e r a
P ;.,..- ar ,-• i t o att>«<h t h e piston to t h e c o n n e c t i n g rod. does the m a j o r side, fills is caused by t h e pin offst'l. A - , ' , „ . v
g u d g e o n p i n s |a British term I. moves up In the cylinder on the c o m p r e s s i o n stroke, It
The puton pin transfers the force produced by combustion cham- the minor thrust surface. When c o m p r e s s i o n prcssur-
: : arid p ,tor. inertia t o the connecting rod. T h e high enough, the greater head area on t h e m i n o r shl'' "
J
P t t m . «mo» ar*) - u n m a n * * » *
TAPfRIO BORf
—• 1>i •• • "
A V\ A A \ Y v S
STRAIGHT BORE
XWXVAXMXXXXXXVXXXXXXXVXXWXS
FORGED 200'
bfmt » t ] Mw • f l f > • " to '«dM» mfl t *r»gr< wr»

Some p w » W*e< cw* 16 *
550° 500
350 4S0C
PISTON
CEMTERLINE
350 1
300'
MAJOR
THWJS*
SURFACE
CAST
Figure 2&-11 The critical crown temperature can be 100*F (38"D cooler on a torgec
piston compared to a cast piston.
TOWER
CONSTRUCTION
s;ijîtJr in the cylinder Thh keep the we c Sm

urtace on the cvtodet It forces the ft. r ~M:
i surface to contact '-he cylinder wail. to :Sse j
approaches top both thrust vjrttces tn
A T wall. When the crankshaft C-JMW am
Force on the connecting rod mows tne
the major thrust surface. The lower pernor if -r*
surface has already been in contact with the cvr ncer "htm
of the piston skin slips oto ft., cottar ate
point, thereby controibn* pfettm .jp. Th*
Figure 2 f t - 1 5 .
29-12 Grain now limw c«n t» t w .n ttxs tonjw rr • tn-* OttsettiRg the p o m toward Ar
skirt provide a better mechanical advantage H
CROSSOVER ATDC
•TDC AT THE START OF
POWER STROKE
COMPRESSION THE POWER STROKE
STROKE
fipaB-n r- - Jnw«i •. • • j w w sin** cauees the prtnn to press herder againtt one jicle o< tfw cylinder which is called the major ttirust surface
. F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s , t h e offset Is o f t e n pin is too tight in the piston, it will restrict piston e x p a n s i ®

t h r u s t s u r f a c e In r a c i n g e n g i n e s . N o i s e along the pm diameter. This will lead to piston scuffing. Norma
n p o r t a n t in r a c i n g e n g i n e s a s is m a x i m u m p 'on pin clearances range from 0 . 0 0 0 5 to 0.0007 inch (0.012f
to 0 . 0 1 8 0 millimeter!.
PISTON PIN RETAINING METHODS

cut |
sec fn (act. many e n j t f n n >p»raw wlthoui Full Floating It is necessary to retain or hold piston pirn st
k n i t at tne improve prtvtr.r and fuel l u n o m v
that they stay centered in the piston. If piston pins a r e not I
reta:ned, they will move endwise and groove the cylinder wi
full floating, with some type o l
located at each end.
ASKED QUESTION j g
Full floating piston pins in automotive engines are retained t» |
lock rings x a t e d in grooves in the piston pin hole at the ends o
i * me Major Thrust Side? the piston pin. See Figure 2 8 - 1 6 . Some engines use aluminum «r I
Btit V* ii/: points to m>*» the pawn « on the poww plastic plugs In both ends of the piston pin. These plugs toucf
(V ft or < S that mUHM rlockwise a vwvwd from the cytinder wall without scoring, to hold the piston pin centered s
m t cone p a * * m n « t tar: en the maide (cantor) of the piston.
*».i\t wm <K the outside at the Norn Th»
KUI ( M M Interference Fit The modern method of retaining the p
pin In the connecting rod is to make the connecting rod W
arm arant toward the front o< tne engine slightly smaller than the piston pin. The pin is Installed by heat."-
A oOEMng it* too m the engine
m w ! A t '•/>> tbffl represents the m a m thrust
> ttmpmv CIRCUP
rn unto He 'one so that the notch
• » «• M l « I front fl) M engme and the OS squat
ee a » - M B w a n f « ? * ; ward * * «M(or thrust moth your
•>tA t a r of p i s t o n p i n s a r e c l o s e l y
a r wt t t u i r r o r t i k e finish. T h e i r
; v of as m c h s o t h a i e x a c t fits
• p n iotrtf in t h e p i s t o n o r in
a 1 1n - t *r...» t h e e n g i n e ts r u n
4ovt>t# k n o c k The noise is
<pi *- ' n p renter and occurs
fjw^wart. creating a d o u b l e knock
"S x a wamg if t h e p i s t o n figure 28-16 Otdi'- hold tull floating piston ptns m place
R' *f Connecting ftods S9
the rod to expand the hole 3d lands is about 0.020 1 0.040 inch (0.5 to 1.0 millimeter) smaller
This retaining method will s - ;< • 2 8 than the s k i r t d i a m e t e r .
This press or shrink :'• it. e n e e fit
be taken to have t h e correct h o l e - . id • pin m u s t b e cen
PISTON RINGS
tered in the connecting rod. T h e .ntc r:.. - e n c e t' rr ethod is t h e
least expensive to use. It is. t h e r e f o r e , u s e d i n t h e majority of Piston rings serve several major functions in engines.
engines. • They form a sliding combustion chamber seai that prevents the
high-pressure combustion gases from leaking past the piston.
a They keep engine oil from getting Into the combustion chambec
REAL-WORLD FIX • The rings transfer some of the piston heat to the cylinder wall,
Big Problem, No Noise
where it Is removed from the engine through the cooling system
Sometimes the piston pin can "walk "oft the center of the piston and score See Figure 28-18.
the cytinder wall. This scoring is often not noticed because this type of wear
Piston rings are classified into two types: two c o m p r e s s i o n
does not create noise. Because tne piston pin is below the piston rings, little
rings, located toward the top of the piston, and one oil control
combustion pressure is lost past the nngs until the groove worn by the piston
ring, located below the compression rings. See Figure 2 8 - 1 9 .
pin has worn the piston nngs.
Troubleshooting the exact cause of the increased oil consumption is
difficult because the damage done to the oil control nngs by the groove usually
affects only one cylinder. N O t l : Some engines, such as the Honda high-fuel-economy engines,
Often, compression tests indicate good compression because the cylinder use pistons with onlv two rings: one compression ring and one oil con
seals, especially at the top. More than one technician has been surprised to see trol ring.
the cylinder gouged by a piston pin when the cylinder head has been removed
for service In such a case, the cost of the engine repair immediately increases
far beyond that of normal cylinder head service
PISTON RING G R O O V E S
Piston ring g r o o v e s are located between the piston head and
skirt. The width of the grooves, the width of the lands between
the ring grooves, and the n u m b e r of rings are major factors in de-
termlning minimum piston height. I h e outside diameter of the
PISTON
PIN
Figure 2ft-18 The rings conduct heat from the piston to the cylinder WE
Figure 28-19 Mo«t pistons use two compression ngns and ant »l . w t v
Interference fit type of piston pin
aw SECJUW
lB£ »».> • " C r\a±? with a s t r c . e rectangular R i n g G a p T h e p i s t o n r i n g g a p will all ne

crass f t A as " . . eel with tapers, cham- t h e t o p c o m p r e s s i o n r i n g . This leakage is Ileaka, Pit
S-v c «er? - - I : ejtpa- ters. Piston ring materials p r e s s u r e o n t h e s e c o n d r i n g to develop a dynamic s e a ' P " '
h a v e a 5 e e x r M S w r CM : tor. to r aterials such as pearlitic T h e a m o u n t of p i s t o n ring gap is critical. Too m.:;h
Ductile iron, which is very flex- e x c e s s i v e b l o w b y . Blowby is the leakage of combust'' ^1''0'1
t-caking, is also used as a piston p a s t t h e rings. Blowby will blow oil from t h e cvlind" 1 ^
T h i s oil loss is followed by piston ring scuffing. Too I r - *^
h o w e v e r , will allow the piston ring ends to butt wh ^
e n g i n e is hot. Ring end butting increases t h e mechanic T'
CO*PH£SSJON RINGS
agai— n s t. t h e c—y Il i; n_ dJ e r w„ a, rl il , c a u s i n g e x c e s s i v e wear and^ W a l W
- - ng i g - e i t o f o m a seal b e t w e e n t h e m o v i n g possible t-
gine failure.
i ? - w a l . . T h . s is n e c e s s a r y t o g e t m a x i m u m A butt-type piston ring gap is the most common type USp
•re c .•":• •-. p r e s s u r e . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e c o m - automotive engines. Some low-speed industrial engines
; - ..•€£ f r r . at a m i n i m u m . T h i s is m a d e possi- some diesel engines use a more e x p e n s i v e tapered or C ^
- v er jufct- s t a t i c o r built-in m e c h a n i c a l t e n s i o n ring gap. These gaps are necessary to r e d u c e losses of the
• ,r : - M . r w i t h t h e c y l i n d e r wall d u r i n g t h e in pressure combustion gases. At low s p e e d s , the gases have 2
- : . - chamber pressure during t h e compres- time to leak through the gap. Typical r i n g gaps are illustrate
- : . x h a us: str ,<er is a p p l i e d t o t h e t o p a n d b a c k of Figure 2 8 - 2 2 .
T rus pres ..re will a d d t h e f o r c e o n t h e r i n g t h a t is re-
: . . ' . e a : " •? c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r d u r i n g t h e s e s t r o k e s , P i s t o n R i n g C r o s s - S e c t i o n s As engine speeds have
'-"j-.-: . -.-.tra'es h o w t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r p r e s s u r e creased, inertia forces on the piston rings have also increased
a c c s force to the ring. result, engine manufacturers have found it desirable to reduce fee
f - e s t a c e :r t h e ring, groove a b o v e t h e ring is called t h e s i d e tia forces on the rings by reducing their weight. This has been don
clearance : . : . . • - ; : -, called t h e back clear- by narrowing the piston ring from 1 / 4 inch (6 millimetersl to;
re 28-21. little as 1/16 inch (1.6 millimeters).
A taper face ring will contact the cylinder wall at the
edge of the piston ring. See Figure 28-23. When either a chamfer ,
counterbore relief is made o n the upper inside corner of the pistes
COMPRESSION FORCE
ring, the ring cross-section is unbalanced. This will cause the ring:
twist in the groove in a positive direction. Positive twist will g;
the same wall contact as the taper-faced ring. It will also provide i;
BUTT GAP
I
T A P E R E D GAP
1
®-2D snsv- pressure forces the ring against the cyiinder wall and
<rr t f - r e f o r m e M M y sealing the cylinder
S E A L CUT GAP
BACK
Figure 2 8 - 2 2 Typical ring gaps
CLEARANCE
SIDE
TAPER FACE
CLEARANCE
Figure 2 8 - 2 3 the taper tace ring provides gpod oil control by scraping W
seal and
128-21 -v 'nrf.t compr(!9SK*)rinfl9to This style at ring must be installed right side up or the ring will not
wamptri* into the combustion chamber
Ptetor Rhgs, and Connecting Rods 261
line contact seal on the b o t t o m side of the groove. Sometimes, twist M o l v l - P.! ID 1 R i n g s Early in the 1960s, molybdenum
and a taper face are used o n t h e . m piston ring faces were Introduced. These rings proved to have good
Some second rings a r e n o i . service life, especially under scuffing conditions. T h e plasma
This, t o o , p r o v i d e s a positive ring twi • method is a spray method used to deposit molybdenum on cast
net b e c o m e s a s c r a p e r that helps in o iron t o produce a long-wearing and low-friction piston ring. T h e
has less c o m p r e s s i o n control than the p: . piasma method involves an electric arc plasma lionized gas) that
By c h a m f e r i n g t h e ring's lower inn< rco reverse twist generates an extremely high temperature to meit the molybdenum
produced. This seals the l o w e r o u t e r s e c t i o n of t a n d pi: n and spray-deposit a molten powder of it onto a piston ring There-
ringgroove, t h u s improving oil control. Reverse twist rings require fore, plasma rings are molybdenum (moty) rings that have the moly
a greater t a p e r f a c e or barrel face to maintain the desired ring fact coating applied by t h e plasma method. Most molybdenum-faced
to-cylinder w a l l c o n t a c t . See Figure 2 8 - 2 4 . piston rings have a groove that is 0.004- to 0.008-inch (0.1- to
A n o t h e r style of positive twist ring has a counterbore at the 0.2-millimeter deep cut into the ring face. This groove is filled with
lower o u t s i d e e d g e . S e e F i g u r e 2 8 - 2 5 . This ring is called a s c r a p e r molybdenum, jsing a metallic ior plasma) spray method, so that
ring b e c a u s e it d o e s a g o o d j o b of oil control and is usually recom- there is a cast-iron edge above and below the molybdenum This
m e n d e d for u s e a t t h e s e c o n d compression ring. edge may be chamfered in some applications. A sectional view of a
S o m e r i n g s r e p l a c e t h e outer ring taper with a barrel face. molybdenum-faced ring is s h o w n in Figure 2 8 - 2 8 .
The barrel is 0 . 0 0 0 3 i n c h p e r 0 . 1 0 0 inch (0.0076 millimeter per
0 . 2 5 4 m i l l i m e t e r ) of p i s t o n ring width. Barrel faces are found on rec-
tangular rings a n d o n torsionally twisted rings. See Figure 2 8 - 2 6 .
Chromium Piston Rings A chromium facing on cast-iron

ring life, especially where abrasive
rings g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e s p i s t o n
materials a r e p r e s e n t in t h e air. During manufacture, the
c h r o m i u m - p l a t e d r i n g is slightly chamfered at the outer corners.
About 0 . 0 0 0 4 i n c h ( 0 . 0 1 0 millimeter) of chrome is then plated on
the ring f a c e . C h r o m i u m - f a c e d rings are then prelapped or honed
before they are packaged and shipped to the customer. The finished
c h r o m i u m f a c i n g is shown in a sectional view in Figure 2 8 - 2 7 .
POSITIVE TORSIONAL
TWIST
Figure 2 8 - 2 6 The piston nngs are siigtUy used, so only ttie line contact shows Ttie upper
Parrel-laced nng has line contact in the center. The second, taper-laced ring has line contact
REVERSE TORSIONAL along the lower edge of the nng.
TWIST
CHROME
FACING
Figure 2 8 - 2 4 Torsional twist rings provide better compresslpn sealing and oil control than Figure 2 8 - 2 7 The chrome lacing on this compression nng is about 0.004-mcti ' 0-nnr
regular taper lace rings. thick.
S C R A P E R FACE
MOLY
FACING
Figure 2 8 - 2 8 The moly facing on this compression r > .tto • - - iv

Figure 2 8 - 2 5 Scraper rings improve oil control thick.
262 stent* *
V ••.', : • •: • • urvive u n d e r high-tern-

peratur* a - : sturr? ••; :>. e » b< ter Han chromium-faced rings.
!'" a: - . - . . . , y < . . • ions, c h r o m i u m faced rings will have a
better service life, There t- little measurable difference between
t h e s e t-Av facing r t a r s a l s v." if h respect to blowby, oil control,
b * e a k a n : - rsep- -wer. Piston rings with either of these t w o
-.;- - oi • a r t - : r . - ' t e r than plain cast iron rings with phos-
f •>-. . • - : A r v . b d e n u m - f a c e d ring, w h e n used, will be
: : 1 t h e top c > - . a n d a plain cast-iron or chromium-faced
- r \ g w : &«. found ir, t h e second groove.
M o l y - C h r o m e - C a r b i d e Rings Rings with moly-chrome-

.i-t :• a ting a'-; also used in s o m e original e q u i p m e n t (OE)
i n d r e p l a c e m e n t applications. T h e coating h a s properties that
tr> h a r d n e s s of t h e c h r o m e a n d carbide c o m b i n e d
w i t h t h e h e a t r e s i s t a n c e of m o l y b d e n u m . Ceramic-coated rings
Figure 2 8 - 3 0 This typical three-piece oil control ring uses a hump-type stainless stu
are a s b e i n g u s e d w h e r e additional heat resistance is n e e d e d ,
spacer-expander. The expander separates the two steel rails and presses them againstn,
i u c h a> m ~ o m e heavy-duty, t u r b o c h a r g e d , or supercharged
cylinder wall.
engines.
Oil Control Rings The scraping action of the oil control ring al-
. oil ' return through t h e ring and openings in t h e piston.
Figure 2 8 2 9 s h o w s h o w the scraping action of the oil control ring
car. be used to lubricate the piston pin. Steel spring expanders were
p i a t e d IT. t h e ring groove behind the ring to improve static radial
tension. They forced the ring to conform to the cylinder wall. Many
e x p a n d e r designs are used. O n the three-piece ring, a spacer-
e x p a n d e r lies b e t w e e n the top and bottom rails. T h e spacer-
e x p a n d e r keeps the rails separated and pushes them out against the
r.'lmder wall. See Figure 2 8 30.
PISTON SERVICE
T h e p.ston.s a r e r e m o v e d from the rods using a special fixture
ir.own in Figure 2 8 31. After cleaning, the skirts of the used indus-
try. : should b e resized, and a spacer is placed in the top of
tr.e u p p e r ring grooves.
A- t h e piston goes rapidly u p and d o w n in t h e cylinder, it
• y.v, t h e rings to t h e top and to t h e bottom of the ring grooves.
Tr.e p o u n d i n g of each ring in its groove gradually increases the pis-
• -. r.r.2 --id* clearance. Material is w o r n from both the ring and t h e Figure 2 8 - 3 1 A press used to remove the connecting rod from the piston.
zr.- See Figure 28- 32. Replace the piston if the ring groove is
larger than factory specifications.
PISTON
WRIST
PIN
CONNECTING
ROD
CONNECTING
ROD CAP
figure 28-29 - / , : . oy l h - m i control ring is directed to Figure 2 8 - 3 2 The connecting rod is the most highly stressed part of any e l
mental* tne prVv p«- m tin; dewgr combustion pressure tries to compress It and piston Inertia tries to pull11 a "
sa.'ig 20
CONNECTING R O D S
The c o n n e c t i n g r o d t r a n s ' ,
the piston to t h e c r a n k s h a f t
reciprocates with the plstot
crankpin. S e e F i g u r e 2 8 32
able to k e e p t h e c o n n e c t i n g od
ing a rigid b e a m s e c t i o n . S e e 1 ig
Connecting rods are m a n u f a c n
powdered (sintered) metal p r o a
Cast Connecting Rods Casting

been improved so that they are used in most vehicle engines with
high p r o d u c t i o n s t a n d a r d s . C a s t c o n n e c t i n g r o d : •
by their narrow parting line. A typical rough com
ing is s h o w n in F i g u r e 2 8 - 3 4 .
Forged Connecting Rods Forged connecting rods ave be?

used for y e a r s . T h e y a r e g e n e r a l l y u s e d i n h e a v y - d u t y a n d h i g h - p e r -
formance engines. Generally, the forging method p r o d u c e s lighter
weight and stronger, but more expensive, connecting rods. Forged
connecting rods can be identified by their wide parting line. Mar.,
high-performance c o n n e c t i n g rods use a bronze b u s h i n g in t h e
small e n d of t h e r o d a s s h o w n in F i g u r e 2 8 - 3 5 .
F i g u r e 2 8 - 3 5 ~ n » h jT-perto—a-ee r
; " * ! J S « i a t w n z e busNng m the sma)-
endoftherodanfloiintnelD aOom os r tac - f c r t n g praon p«n
Powdered Metal Connecting Rods : nev. produc-

engines, such as t h e G e n e r a Motd"' • tar and Chrysler Hemi.
use powdered metal (PM rods.
P o w d e r e d m e t a l connecting roa: ~ave m a n y advantages over
conventions, cast or forged ' i s : l a d u d i n g precise weight contra.
E a c h rod is c r e a t e d using a measured a m o u n t i materia. x> that
rod balancing, and therefore engine balancing, is n o w achieved
w i t h o u t e x t r a w e i g h t i n g a n d machining operations.
P o w d e r e d m e t a l connecting rods start as powdered metal,
w h i c h i n c l u d e s i r o n , c o p p e r , carbon, and other aiioving agents.
This powder is then piaced in a die and compacted forged 'under a
p r e s s u r e of 3 0 t o 5 0 tons per sqaare inch. After t h e p a r is shaped
in t h e die. it is taker, tit:: _gh a sintering operation w h e r e the part
;
is h e a t e d , without melting, t o about 2 0 0 0 F . During t h e sinterir.2
process, t h e ingredients are transformed into metal jrgicai oor.ds.
giving t h e p a n s n e e r - . . .Machining is v e r : .mited a n d . - ; ides
b o r i n g t h e small a n c big e n d s and drill r.g thte holes 'or ' n e - :
b e a r i n g cap retaining belts. The big end is then fractured . a
large press. T h e uneven parting ::ne helps ensure a perfec" mater
when the pieces are assembled. See Figure 2 8 - 3 6 .
CONNECTING ROD DESIGN

Figure 2 8 - 3 3 Even though different rods may have different cross-sections, most are The big end of the connecting rod must be a perfec" .ire a. T r e r e
I-beam shaped. fore, the rod caps must n o t b e interchanged. Assembly be - holes
are doselv reamed in both t h e cap and connect:ng rod to e n ire
alignmen Th-i connecting rod bolts - a v e piloting s u r f a c e s
closely fit these reamed holes. The fit of the connecting rod twits *s
so tight that a press must be used to remove t h e boits when they
are to be replaced, as shown in Figure 2 8 - 3 7
In some engines, offset connecting rods provide the ~ tst ec -
nomical distribution of main bea::.-.; pace ar.d ; r r j :._ nee*
clearance.
Connecting rods are made b a l a n c i n g b o s s e s MCS I
that their weight can be a a lusted to specification* Sc m e - a . e bal
anting bosses onlv on the rod cap. Others a^ e a balance
Figure 28-34 Rough casting tor a connecting rod
SM m *
BALANCE
PAD
F i g u r e 2 9 - 3 8 Some rods have balance pads on each end ol the connecting rod
CONNECTING ROD
F i g u r e 2 8 - 3 9 Some corroding rods have spit holes lo help tubrfcate m e o w * " *

pteton pins.
boss i S f A i .'he piston. S o m e m a n u f a c t u r e r s put balancing bosses o n used, It is called a b l e e d h o l e . Its only p u r p o s e is to
ha 'Me. rj -he rod, near t h e center of gravity of the c o n n e c t i n g rod. flow through the bearing.
Typiraf b a l a n c i n g t o s s e s can b e seen in Figure 2 8 - 3 8 . Balancing is
*>ne or 3 torrilk balancing m a c h i n e s as the final m a c h i n i n g oper-
ation Se.'o.'e t h e rod Is Installed in a n engine. ROD TWIST
Mo>? c u i c e o f f i g rods h a v e a s p i t h o l e that bleeds s o m e of the During c o n n e c t i n g rod r e c o n d i t i o n i n g , t h e rod should ^
oil from t h e c o n n o t i n g r o d journal. See Figure 2 8 - 3 9 . O n inline for twist. S e e Figure 2 8 - 4 0 . In o t h e r w o r d s , the hole - 0
efigfrca, ^ is t h r o w n u p from t h e spit hole into t h e cylinder In end a n d t h e hole at the big e n d o f t h e c o n n e c t i n g rou jjp
w h i c h t h e rod is located. O n V-type engines, it Is often t h r o w n into parallel. N o m o r e than 0 . 0 0 2 - l n c h (0.05-mlllimetef) iw ^

a cylinder in t h e apposite b a n k . T h e oil that is spit from t h e rod Is able. S e e Figure 2 8 - 4 1 f o r t h e fixture used to
aifl-.cd ;t will splash info the Interior of the piston. This helps rods for twist. I f m e a s u r e d r o d twist is e x c e s s i v e -
' o iubrteare the piston pin, A h o l e similar to t h e spit holes m a y b e shops can r e m o v e t h e twist by b e n d i n g t h e rod cow-
figure 28-42
•ear -cem-ae
Figure 2 8 - 4 0 ((the rod is twisted, it will cause d;ag re • t.- • - - r r .
SURFACE
Figure 28-43 fte - -: - : r" •

not? azxrm an: s r a g r ? - : : sn -<r at i-
— — — — — — — — — — — — —
WTL r-wdE-K a e s ^ " : :- --.-. r .-i -j
meSxA M t &rr scIT-.-::: vx* rowsfcrei - - - i .
"caectT-j rafe.
Figure 2 8 - 4 1 A r o d a i : g n m e r t t i i r t u r e b e i n g u s e d t o c S i e c k a c 0 < - ~ e : ' - o d •: see ' • s

bent of twisted
S t e p « The c a j - . : - the - .. and .ts ... .--
p o p e ) ? X K - a d . The be - e is then bored or boned to be per>c
forged rods can be straightened. Howevet; m a n y engine h.. re- round and of the s ^ e E d flaA r e t i r e d to g v e tne me
place the connecting rod if it is t w i s t e d . a e c & g rod b e i t m g ciksl Figure 2 8 - 4 3 j k o w j s r . ; lor
a s z e $ the rod o c a r r i c a . hone used in e n g n e r e c a r a i s a r -2.
CONNECTING R O D S E R V I C E Even t h o u g h materia. is being tetr - ved si tfee big e n d it tfle

As an engine operates, t h e forces g o through t h e arge end f the r o c . l i e coup-ess;; - - a n c is c-.ar.ged tot- . . r - " b e n > . i r r.e
connecting rod. This causes t h e c r a n k s h a f t e n d open . : nxi bore at t h e lag end s.-ja^d cave a oO- -.0 W n i d a i n e l i f n
eye) to gradually deform. See Figure 2 8 - 4 2 . The large e : o: the proper bearing cortac- and b e a t transfer
connecting rod is resized d u r i n g precision engine service.
S t e p # t T h e parting surfaces of t h e rod a n d cap a r e s r : : h e d t o re- PISTON A N D R00 A S S E M B L Y

move all high spots before resizing. A couple of thousandths of an Tc assemble t h e piston a r . i roc. ? e : scon c n . pi. - --- Sr -
inch of metal is removed from the rod cap parting su-face. Th - is the piston. The small er.d of the coanec'-Tg - i sr. .abg se .Teaart
done using the same grinder that is used to re . » s ght for proper size. Tie smaii e y e : i the .v. - r & i r . z roc s sn&eG s r
amount of metal from the patting surface of raain bearing -aps. fore the pin is instated. See B f a 2 B - 4 4 Th a
The amount removed from t h e rod and rodcap on.'y reduces the ;o expand so that t h e ptn can t e rasr.-ed r . : - *> Tt - j t too*
bore size 0.003 to 0.006 inch (0.08 to 0 . 1 5 t n , . m e t e r The pin m a s t b e rapidly pusfcec j m t h e c o r r e c t - - ;<•.- •-
NOTCH TO
THE FRONT
NUM8EKS
Fig w e 2 8 - 4 5 ft»Scr\ of t e (W:h at the front of fre piston, and the concede m-
ntjn'tefs.
NOTE- The cari5ha?t si if of an intine OHV e n # n e 1$ a t o the 00 Slat >

of most erigtas.
T h e n o t c h a n d n u m b e r s o n a piston a n d r o d assembly ca;

seen in Figure 2 8 - 4 5 . O n V-type e n g i n e s , t h e connecting rod $
der identification m a r k s are o n t h e side of t h e rods that can t e :
from the b o t t o m of t h e engine w h e n t h e piston and rod asset)
are installed in t h e engine. T h e service m a n u a l should be c j f c
28-44 ai. Ftairii-ty!;>) connectii'ijredfceafei.the f>se most cfttn utterfby for any special piston a n d rod assembly instructions.
r « ! i . t j v i cecause of Die ngM heating. Tne rorf $fiut,|(J rot I t fnotsd to man
& f f y . O It die "til turna Hue. if to fa fat.! (C| An operator removing the heated
••juSri; '-.it ic(J cmpanitG to install >1 on the pisftin. Nine ttte M i r ; uJfld to ItoM Ife P I S T O N RING S E R V I C E
j r a w fin, vi flte At, mllcatar .'gaudei u a d tu insure (f.'per ccmtHjiiirg.
Each piston ring, o n e at a time, s h o u l d b e placed backward if.
groove in w h i c h it is t o b e r u n . Its side clearance in the fT
should b e c h e c k e d w i t h a feeler gauge, a s s h o w n in Figure®'
There .is tm c h a s t e , to get ft'to t h e right place because the tod If a ring is tight at a n y spot, check for deposits or burrs in the
at' : . ' : • - . or, the. pin as t h e rod eye ii e x i l e d by t h e pin. groove. Each piston ring, o n e at a t i m e , is t h e n placed in tl«t?
Ft" i p'.ifor, plris o p e r a t e in a b u s h i n g in t h e small e y e der in w h i c h it is to o p e r a t e .
of c'.--.n«:;cir.g rod. The b< i »fc'.r.£can b e replaced. T h e b u s h i n g After t h e block a n d cylinder bores h a v e been recoH'£i"[
*r" So sV-Ai freely t h n w ^ i b o t h , T h e full-floating piston pin cylinder; t h e n m e a s u r e t h e ring gap. S e e Figure 2 8 - 4 7 . lt » '
is h t i t ! in p l a c e w i t h a lock ring at each e n d of t h e piston p i n . be approximately 0 . 0 0 4 i n c h for e a c h inch of bore W
T h e ,<;<•- rl'.j, e x p a : i > Into a small groove in t h e pin hole of ( h e ( 0 . 0 0 4 millimeter for e a c h c e n t i m e t e r of b o r e diameter}.
sary, use a file or hand-operated piston ring grinder to KM**
necessary ring gap. See Figure 2 8 - 4 8 . c;
• WWIIM»H»wImuMiHiiii.WWW
T h e ott rings are. installed first. T h e expander-spacer c* k
TV.. V , - i - ' b e ( i f i g M v,:v. r . w fagS- ring is p l a t e d in the lower ring groove. O n e oil ring rail is
placed above t h e expander-spacer b y w i n d i n g it into t t e s * .
T h e other tail is placed b e l o w t h e expander-spacer. The r w .
Ca.-V U t o fcw<*re th«S lihe pfeSotB and' r o d s a r e In b e rotated in t h e g r o o v e t o e n s u r e that t h e e x p a n d e r ^ • .
r.M * W ; R r > f y i T h e y m jv. fere i n t h e C M K W d i r e c t i o n . T h e r e t u v e n o t overlapped. If they have, t h e ring m u s t b e teP®'
fe i R o < c h <'• t h o jpstt--! he-ad ( n d l r a t i s l g t h ? front. UsCRS reassembled correctly. ,
S t o v.'., c . > " - . v . ' , fr,ii-s:i &!i f x , offeet toward t h e right side Installing t h e c o m p r e s s i o n rings r e q u i r e s t h e otf rt^
of toe tl'• cor. rod identification marks on fing e x p a n d e r l o o ! that will only o p e n t h e ring gap e % !
pyatrA s.-a^.fioff. p.itieA the camshaft sfcfe. slip t h e ring o n t h e piston. S e e Figure 2.8 -49. rA
'
Figure Vh-V> Tre s0e cfeawee C Itep/sta-. rug is cfieciutf neii-«cvarew ( t e w
juuse
PV5T0N
RING
/ . ' i 28-47 The ring w Ir, $grajrJv.Hh e feeler gauge
wiih the correct m up- The. top of the ccr-?r«>

f i ; ' w i t h a dot, the letter T, or tine word r . v Scc
After (he r i r . # a?e i n s t a l l , t h e , ' s h v v U k r o t a t e
J u , e H P 1 0 e w e that they move frwiy. and c t w t t « * to <r.
J P 1 v , ' i ) ! »> M V into the groovi w that the t i t * i x e »
KttoM,h? ««'«<* ol t h e p i s t o n tin,? Unit, to ti\S
3,1 L,
p:«orw tefiw any i f c w i a '*:
268 SEC.XV
SUMMARY 3 . A hypereutecUc piston h a s .

a. A higher weight than a eutectlc piston
1. r v . " • " • :>e marked before disassembly. b. A higher silicon content
2. - -- 1 s t -.ha; w h e n operating temperature is reached, c. A higher Un content
the c - m 1 expanded enough across the piston pin area to be- d. A higher nickel content
come round. 4 . The purpose of casting steel struts into an aluminum piston
;
3. : • r.t p ;t its si aid weigh the same as the original pistons to
Tr.j-~.a- engine balance. a. Provide increased strength
b . Provide increased weight at the top part . iston where
4. Sor ettsr.es . •• an offset piston pin to help reduce piston slap when the
needed for stability
ropne ts cold.
c. Provide increased heat transfer from the piston head to the
5. " r - g s ..- J LA include two compression nngs at the top of the piston piston pin
v . : art o : .-rtrol nng below the compression rings. d. Control thermal expansion
0. '.'. l ring end sap Is excessive, blowby gases can travel past the rings and 5. Full-floating piston pins are retained by .
into t i e crankcase. a. Lock rings
7 . Mar-. piston rings are made of coated cast iron to provide proper sealing. b . A drilled hole with roll pin
8. i the connecting rod is twisted, diagonal wear will be noticed on the pis- c. An interference fit between rod and piston pin
d . An interference fit between piston and piston pin
ton skirt.
o . F .vdered metal connecting rods are usually broken at the big end part- 6. When balancing pistons .
a. Choose the heaviest and add weight to the others
r; re. Because of this rough junction, powdered metal connecting rods
b . Choose the heaviest and grind weight off until it matches the
cannot be -econditioned—they must be replaced if damaged or worn.
average of all the others
10. The p s - on and the connecting rod must be correctly assembled according
c. Choose the lightest and grind material from the other pistons
to identifying notches or marks.
until all pistons are of equal weight
d . Balance the piston only after it is assembled with the
REVIEW QUESTIONS connecting rod
7. A misaligned connecting rod causes w h a t type of engine wear?
1. Describe the procedure for correctly removing the piston and rod assem-
a. Cylinder taper
bly from the engine.
b. Barrel-shaped cylinders
2 . What methods are used to control piston heat expansion? c. Ridge wear
3. Why are some piston skirts tin plated? d . Angle wear on the piston skirt
4 . De i b e the effect of the piston pin offset as it controls piston slap. 8. Side clearance is a measure taken between the ar.t:<
5. Wl is it important to keep the connecting rod cap with the rod on
wtsch it was originally used, and to install it in the correct way? a. Piston (side skirt); cylinder wall
b. Piston pin; piston pin retainer (clip)
6. What causes the piston ring groove clearance to widen in service?
c. Piston ring; piston ring groove
7. Ltecrlbe how connecting rods are reconditioned.
d . Compression ring; oil control ring
8. K : w is the piston pin installed in the piston and rod assembly? 9. Piston ring gap should only be measured _
a. After all cylinder work has been performed
b. After installing the piston in the cylinder
C H A P T E R QUIZ
c. After installing the rings on the piston
1. 'XR n e a m a rod caps should be marked I if they were not marked at the fac- d. Both a and c
• . - t>?fore the piston and connecting rod assembly is removed from the 10. Piston damage is most likely to be caused by
a. Valves hitting the piston head
a. Because they are balanced together b . Abnormal combustion
b . Because they are machined together c. Lugging the engine during operation
c. To make certain that the heavier rod is matched to the heavier d. High engine speeds that can break piston heads
piston
d. 7c make certain that the lighter rod is matched to the lighter piston
2 j. diLT. r im piston skirts are plated with .
a . Tin
b . Lead
c. Antimony
d. Terneplate
9L . .
fcng le Biock shafts,
and Bearings
OBJECTIVES: After studying Chapter 29, the reader will be aMe to ^ e p a r e for Ingme Repar (A1. ASE ceflttca "5! content area 'C tngsie
Block Diagnosis and Repair). • Describe the types of engine Mocks and how they are marwtadMrel • Uctthem ip operations required on rtv
engine blocks. • List the steps necessary to prepare an engine Mock tor assembly • Describe f i e pirpoae and ft i of a crankshaft • t i p
c r a n k s h a f t s are machined and polished. • Discuss engine bearing construction and m i K d W i l i i r r r i n w
KEY TERMS: aluminum • amplitude • Babbitt • ball-type degiazing hone • bank • oearmg crown • Dearng sued • Dedpiate • Mock fee*
• bores • case hardening • compacted graphite iron (CGI) • conformably • cooing jacket • oopper-lead atoy • core plugs • corrosion
resistance • counterweights • crankshaft centerlme • crosshatch fineh • crusfi • d e d n g t i e Uaek • rtrfleinijtiriii • dry cylinder s t e m
• elastomer • electroplating • embedability • fatigue life • flying web • freeze plugs • I n f a n c y • tout plugs • fun round bearings • M y
counterweighted • grit size • half-shell bearings • hub • inertia ring • left-hand tfepstK* • monattoc* • r # * i n g • oil gafcry • oi gaflery
plugs • overlay • plain bearing • plateau hone • precision insert-type beanng tfiels • rebate • r e v r a t e • saddes • score resistance
• Siamese cylinder bores • sizing hone • sleeve bearing • sleeving • splay antje • spit-type bearings • spread • spun beanng • tuftndmg
• wet cylinder sleeve • work hardened
ENGINE B L O C K S CYLINDER HEAD

BOLT MOLE
The engine block, which is the supporting structure for the entre
CORE
engine, is made from gray cast iron or from cast or die-cast alu-
minum alloy. The gray color is a result of the 3% carbon in the form
of graphite in the cast iron. The liquid cast iron is poured into a
mold. The carbon in the cast iron allows for easy machining, ofter
without coolant. The graphite in the cast iron also has lubricating
properties. Newer blocks use thinner walls to reduce weight. Cast
iron is strong for its weight and usually is magnetic. All other en
gine parts are mounted on or in the block. This large casting sup-
ports the crankshaft and camshaft and holds all the parts ir
alignment. Blocks are often of the m o n o b l o c k de •:.••
means that the cylinder, water jacket, main bearing supports
saddles), and oil passages are all cast as one structure for strength
and quietness. Large-diameter holes in the block casting form the
cylinders to guide the pistons. The cylinder holes are called bores
because they are made by a machining process called boring, am
bustion pressure loads are carried from the head to the cranksnaft
bearings through the block structure. The block has webs, wails,
and drilled passages to contain the coolant and lubricating oi. and
to keep them separated from each other. See Figure 20-1. Mount
ing pads or lugs on the block transfer the engine torque react; tc Figure 29-1 oWttr Met - a s * m n a . tnmtmoi
the vehicle frame through attached engine mounts. A large .T. ,nt deck surface a n Bo
jng surface at the rear of the engine block is used for faste~ ; a t •:
housing or transmission.
The cylinder head(s) attaches to the block. The attac: ::tg r.t-
the pieces of sand core are remowed throuzr the oper - a r. '
we sealed so that they do not leak. Gaskets are used -. the r.ts t:
block b\ viaorousiv shak..-.g the casting. These oper - 1 ..«
take up differences that are created by machining rregu ari::c<ar.d
al r e s u ate f » core plugs. 'r*«e
h from different pressures and temperatures.
plugs frost plugs. . . •*•-• '
Block M a n u f a c t u r i n g Cast iron cylinder block > : - plugs would be pushed outward if the coolant in : --: a * -: -
nol
°gy continues to be improved. The trend is to a k e b - v- ' to freeze, thev seldom work this wav. See Figure 2 2.
"get cores, using fewer individual pieces. Oil sand cores are One way to keep die engine weight as :ow as t * » . t e , .
g a t s h a P e the internal openings and passages in the e m a t e the btedt with minimuin wai' thickness '••: at ''
ore casting, the cores are supported within a o <? b• \ with thin wall casting techniques has higher nicxe. :tr.ier «
x also
has a liner to shape the outside of the ti.v s. Spec ai harder than the cast TOT. previously .V-T rrcr.E •<-•• iper.
s t lf
• on is poured into the box. It flows betwe. the c "cs a 1 used foundry techniques to make e r a s e s - % r : mawr;*
® core box liner. As the cast iron cools, the core breaks up. When the cast-iron biock wa..s ar.d bulkbead :*.. as • as i e e a a f f
cast iron has hardened, it is removed from the core box. and to support their required loads.
r o
Figure 2 9 - 4 Cast-iron dry sleeves are used in aluminum blocks to provide a hard am,
R g u r e 2 9 - 2 Ar plug is used to block the opening in the cylinder head or block for the rings.
Tie' T * core sand was removed after the part was cast
DECK SURFACE
WATER
±
FOR HEAD
JACKETS
GASKET
FSS A . w n
r
r
V
X 7
DRY CYLINDER CYLINDER W E T CYLINDER SEAL
SLEEVE BLOCK SLEEVE
! 29-3 A casting mold used to make the five-cylinder engine blocks for the
; >»-wo y c Hummer H2 The brown lines are glue used to hold the various parts Figure 2 9 - 5 A dry sleeve is supported by the surrounding cylinder block. A met slew
• iarc racxefl anxnd the mold and molten aluminum is poured into the sand, which must be thicker to be able to withstand combustion pressures without total support from f
- . a t x r a s ire Styratoam The aluminum then flows and tills the area of the mold. block.
A j u m m u m B l o c k s Aluminum is used for some cylinder blocks

. - . - - j n c enc and lightweight. See Figure 2 9 - 3 for an exam- FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
p - ' - : re ,sed to sand-cast an aluminum block.
A . . - . u r n clocks may have one of several different types of W h a t Is C o m p a c t e d G r a p h i t e I r o n ?
rvtnder waiis:
Compacted graphite iron (CGI) has increased strength, ductility, to#
ri
• . •- - tiocks may have steel cylinder liners (Saturn, ness, and stiffness as compared to gray iron. If no magnesium ; added'
* -r. and Ford modular V-8s and V-6s|. The cast-iron cylinder iron will form gray iron when cooled, with the graphite present in flake -
—. es are ether casr into the aluminum block during manufactur- If a very small amount of magnesium is added, the shape of the graph':
er . r j o tr.e aluminum block. These sleeves are not in gins to change to compacted graphite forms. Compacted graphite i
c o n t a c t wfcr. t h e coolant passages and are called d r y c y l i n d e r used for bedplates and many diesel engine blocks. Its enhanced s ^
s l e e v e s . See gore 2 9 - 4 . has been shown to permit reduced weight while still reducing noise vi
• - e m . - ..". slock design has the block die cast from silicon- and harshness. j
. " - • '• :'.r-no cylinder liners. Pistons with zinc-copper-
a . '
v.*: ..sed in these aluminum bores (some
Porsche engines :
structural n " ; '
• ' .• aluminum blocks with replaceable cast- Bedplate Design Blocks A b e d p l a t e is a cf.
• - - r
- e -eves are sealed at the block deck and that attaches to the bottom of the block and supports th'OS*'
a " e r s e e < / / . ar.* f.o >•. around the cylinder sleeve, so this type shaft. Under the bedplate is the oil pan, which in most ^ ,
w e t c y l i n d e r s l e e v e ' C a d i l l a c 4.1-, 4.5-, and also part of the structure and support for the block asse
4 v - 8 e- . See F:?j*e 29-5. Figure 2 9 - 6 .
hlC'
Cast rot - • bear - ? aps are used with aluminum blocks to C a s t i n g N u m b e r s Whenever an engine part such as a p
g, ,e the required strength. cast, a number is put into the mold to identify the casti
lirjiw.-EK ks. Cf8fiV.5l.3fii,. ant) Bf-3f.fig 271
On- c o o l i n g j a c k e t . ! : most skinless cylinder designs, t h e cooling

passages e x l ^ f f l neatly to ihe bottom ol the cylinder. In e x t e n d e d
skirl cylinder design ., the cooling passages ate limited to the upper
portion of the cylinder.
Sorn< engine*, are t> Jilt with S i a m e s e c y l i n d e r b o r e s v/here the
cylinder walis are cast together without a water jacket (passage] be,
t w e e n the cylinders. While this design improves the strength of Un-
block and adds stability to the cylinder bores, it can reduce the cooling
around the cylindets, Hgure 2 0 8 is a typical V-8 engine cutaway that
s h o w s the coolant jackets and some of the lubrication holes.
FREQUENTLY A S K E D QUESTION
What Is an Oil Jet?
Some twrbochjêd saso'ine engines and many diesel engines have an oil jel thai
direcls a shot of oil rftecty to the underside of the piston crown. See Figure 29-9.
Tne spray of oil no! onJy ly&rfcates but helps reduce piston temperature*.,
Combustion chamber te-nperatures are always hlgfier in turbocharfled and diesel
engines.
Figuro 2 9 - 6 A bedplate Is a structural part of the engine thai is attached between the
block and the oil pan and supports the crankshaft.
Figute 2 9 - 8 Cutanfj tf a Oe.-cfctV-S bk>:> s f w . - g as of the inte-ta" passages
Figuro 2 9 - 7 The deck is the machined top surface of Ihe block. Mote all ot the passages
and lioles tliat aic part of the typical block.
easting n u m b e r s can b e used to c h e c k dimensions such as the

cubic inch displacement and o t h e r information, such as year of
manufaclure. S o m e t i m e s c h a n g e s are m a d e to the mold, yet the
casting n u m b e r is n o t c h a n g e d . M o s t often t h e casting n u m b e r is
the best piece of identifying information that the service technician
can use.
Block Deck T h e cylinder h e a d is fastened to the top surface of

•he block. This s u r f a c e is called t h e b l o c k d e c k . The deck has a
smooth surface to seal against t h e head gasket. Bolt holes are posi-
tioned around t h e cylinders to form an e v e n holding pattern. lour,
five, or six head bolts a t e used a r o u n d each cylinder in automobile
engines. These boll holes go i n t o reinforced areas within the block
ftat carry the c o m b u s t i o n pressure load to t h e main bearing bulk-
heads. Additional holes In t h e block are used to uansfer coolant
and
oil, as seen in Figure 2 0 7.
Cooling Passages Cylinders are s u r r o u n d e d by cooling pas- Figure 2 9 - 9 0.1 jets are often used in some U'bxfta'flei. an-' ,
s e s . T h e ^ coolant passages a r o u n d t h e cylinders are often called cool the pistois
tubncat**; Passages as m a m oil holes that
'M i i i r t u i < V t h e - e n u r e d locations. D u r i n g m a n u f a c t u r e . all
c. oil l o t t e r y , . rw • •MtsMe t h e block.
• \ • : . . • r ^ - . .v v , t v x t ' s d- JtxJ holes are used.
- e x : . .•:> .ire psacec the oil holes to direct oil to an
' -> • tx" • •. • - n sack t h e tvrig t a hole, o n t h e opposite
s f l e se tSr c i ^ t W - ht-ies J'-, ort \ \ s . the uns e e d e d o p e n e n d s
- W v i l f e : . >.': cs. o . v . t j . or e u p t v p e soft p h i j p , o f t e n
oii f a f t e r y p h i g s , • or 1 r - an be a
•v v. - • .\-k-vv - . . - - - r . cvs See Kuure 2 9 10.
W t u t Does LHO M e a n ?
- • - *fl-ftand d w f t c * . * • s used fcy

Tprinu»»;iurd? Me e Jes: a 19 CJWvrotet sr' i
s t B H « v « 8ato* neouHWO "iwtsrr.i m x * Chevrolet V-8susad an
«t J«t m «rt swe n m w s srtei t* th* engme Mock Starting m
• M -SIS, ANGEN sensors «e-T hrst ..swj on tNs engwe the dvsftck
I f t m r«K 30e at • » Mock
» > se.-^"-.' at «Oe< 0 .v ve-n»g ttv correct e^gme
[ tne . - w o ocaew B OTttcaL An IMO Mock cannot t*> used with the
; s • * « s a t nriwles 8 * owxr f - s j r without major
Ia t * i v of w paa that nckties a prwswn tor an oil
j c s - . . i v u * l»K*s «*r n e <SrsJv» pad cast or nqW side are there-
tana a m e m - y t t u n e a p s s c Figure 29-11 Srali-Dlock Chevrolet block. Note the left-hand dipstick We art JJB
cast lor a right-hand dipstick.
"1 >>-» sncas ast f w c s * year 1980 are cast w-T. ootr -ight- and
-., - d . ~ < o«b. twt eisd ec tor a p s l r k tube See
STUD
BOLT-
ItMR Bearing Caps r . u n bearing caps are cast separatelv

-.-. -• •, it? - a : r d and n e r . installed o n t h e block
- a Such ng operaoor W.:h caps installed, t h e m a i n
•i " ..•-.-: - "esaremacr -ted(0thevjirectsize
l c .' trie e n £ o e > , these bores are h o n e d t o a vers'
THRUST
. : > . . •-. NV. b e a m s caps are not merchangeable BEARING
- '- ause t h e are m d i . i d u a i l v finished in place. M a i n •NSERT
MAIN BEARING
- cast' n d - c a r n g :.*ietr p o s a o n o n d i e
INSERT
3k a ? r -t. t" -y d w u d be n u r t w i .
- . ' . n j s r e s uswi • ,.se w o bolts to b t f d t h e •IAIN
-v .-..• ... : ye fipw 2 9 - 1 2 . H e a v y ^ u % - a n d high- CRANKSHAFT BEARING

INSERT
' jse«M:."-> r a m bearing support b d t s .
THRUST
BEARING
INSERT
CYLINDER
BLOCK
FRONT
figure 29-12 - i r bear cats trawde adequate brttor wd f S '

enjws.
A j u r - D o a n d e v e r s t x - t e i t . rr i n c a p c a n b e of a cross-t
r adeepscrtbkxXorofapaialki te in a shallow s t e t -
figures 2 Q - 1 3 and 2 9 54. E x p a c s a o f o r c e of t h e combust
ber gases wffl o v t p u s h thi h e a d off t h e top a n d the c a :
B-W » J gm> yj0 ,<--»• t *i " » • « « [ p i imii H it i IJIII " fc< - rr. jf t h e bkx.<_ T n e e n g i n e s h e l d t o g c t i e r *
••:>''* Btoete, Crankshafts, and War nigs 273
1 :,i1
f•<•!•) s i n g S o r e Aligetm?,»1 T h e main bearing
' ' haft are in alignment. If the main Uari;>?
' »••'. > H; i block are not in alignment, t h e crankshaft w21
b e n d a r rotates. Tt « ./111 lead to premature bearing fe'iure and i:
could lead to a broken crankshaft. T h e original stress in the Mock
casting is ciaduai!/relieved as the Mock is used. Some slight we/page
m a y oc'.ur as 'r e stress is relieved. In addition, the continued p o u n d
i n g caused by combustion will usuaBy cause some stretch In the
m a i n b e a r i n g c a p ; . See H g u r e | | - 1 5 . Tne main bearing bore: gradu-
ally b o w from trie cylinder heat) and elongate vertically. This m e a n s
that t h e b e a r i n g bore become;, smaller at the center 1 rw as the bt»:>:
distorts, p i n c h i n g trie bore i n w a r d at t h e sides. See figure 2 9 - 1 6 .
T h e first step in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e condition of t h e mair. bearing
b o r e s is t o d e t e r m i n e if t h e b o r e alignment in t h e block Is straigf. t.
T h e s e bores are called t h e s a d d l e s . A p r e r ston gro strait
Figure 29-13 High-performance and truck engines often use lou'-boil main beting ca;-
a n d a feeler gauge a r e used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a m o u n t of warpa»e.
lor greater durability.
T h e a m o u n t of variation a l o n g t h e e n t i r e length of t h e Mock shou'd
n o t e x c e e d O.OOl 5 inch 10.038 m m .
STUDS
SCREW
When perfcrra&ie t s i mea-urcaer, t, be sist that fbe fc/x* n 1

resting on a fat r.rfac? If r e e c g o e i mounted to a- e h g a e stattf, the
weight of the biodcot. t f * utuuppatterd eai car, a a e an error in the mea
suretoent of die n a i o beanag teres sod s a f t e tfigrsw:.
If t h e block s a d d . e s e x c e e d one-and-a-half t h o u s a n d t h of an
inch distortion, t h e n align h o s i n g is r e q u i r e d to restore t h e block ir
WASHED MA;>. BEARING

B O f t E CENTERLiNE
CROSS
BOLT
BOLT
Figure 29-14 Some engines add to the strength ot a tour-bolt ma i bearing cap by also
using cross bolts through the bott on the sides of the mam bearing caps.
BORE CENTERL'NE
bolts and main bearing c a p bolts screwed into bolt bosses and ribs in
the block. T h e extra bolts o n t h e m a i n bearing cap help to support the
Figure29-15 T - - r „ « o f i K - i - e c : > : . - : . . s«-: -
crankshaft w h e n t h e r e are high combustion pressures and mechanical
shape Tie g ;;"-\=t o & y r c e«-trw w t o t . j s .
loads, especially d u r i n g high-engine speed operation.
W A R P E D BORE
ENGINE BLOCK SERVICE ORlGtVAL BORE
i he engine block is t h e f o u n d a t i o n of t h e engine. Ail pa*ts of the OUTOF-

clock must be of t h e c o r r e c t size a n d t h e y m u s t be aligned The
parts must also h a v e t h e p r o p e r finishes if t h e engine is to f u n c t o r ,
dependably for a n o r m a l service life. Blueprinting is t h e r e c o r d
toning of all t h e critical s u r f a c e s a n d d i m e n s i o n s so that t h e ; x k
is actually like n e w .
After a t h o r o u g h c l e a n i n g , t h e block should be inspected for
-racks or o t h e r f l a w s b e f o r e m a c h i n e w o r k begins. If t h e Mock is ir.
A'.'iceable c o n d i t i o n , t h e block should b e prepared in the follow
- g sequence:
Align b o r i n g or h o n i n g m a i n bearing saddles and

Operation 1
caps
M a c h i n i n g t h e block d e c k s u r f a c e parallel to t h e
Operation 2
crankshaft R g m 29-16 5v r->-i -.; .-iCo >••• : • -•»«•» ••
Cylinder boring and honing swrtnglre
'Peration 3
174 Sa"V*W
T
V " ' 29-17 V rr;. - bearing bores can be checked using a precision stiaightedge and
a tee-*? ja-gt
: s a d d l e s are straight, t h e b o r e s s h o u l d b e m e a s u r e d to b e
s . - e t h a t t h e b e a r i n g c a p s a r e n o t d i s t o r t e d . T h e b e a r i n g caps
r : _ ' : be installed a n d t h e r e t a i n i n g bolts t i g h t e n e d to t h e specified
: b e f o r e m e a s u r i n g t h e m a i n b e a r i n g bores.
U s i n g a t e l e s c o p i n g g a u g e , m e a s u r e e a c h bore in at least t w o
d i r e c t i o n s . C h e c k t h e service i n f o r m a t i o n for t h e specified m a i n
b e a r i n g b re diameter. T h e b e a r i n g b o r e should vary by m o r e t h a n
o n e h a l c of a t h o u s a n d t h of a n inch or 0 . 0 0 0 5 inch ( 0 . 0 1 2 7 m m ) . F i g u r e 2 9 - 1 8 (a) Checking the flatness ot the block deck surface using a straighten t
See figure 29-17. a feeler gauge, (b) 1o be sure that the top ol the block is flat, check the block in sir to
A dial b o r e g a u g e is o f t e n used to m e a s u r e t h e m a i n b e a r i n g as shown.
b o r e . Se: u p t h e dial b o r e g a u g e in t h e f i x t u r e w i t h t h e n e c e s s a r y
e r i . n . l s n . to a c h i e v e t h e n o m i n a l m a i n b e a r i n g b o r e d i a m e t e r .
Check t h e service i n f o r m a t i o n for t h e specified m a i n b e a r i n g b o r e
i e t e r a n d d e t e r m i n e t h e e x a c t m i d d l e of t h e r a n g e .
Machining the Deck Surface of the Block An engine

st: u l i h a v e t h e s a m e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r size in e a c h cylinder.
:
• tc occur, e a c h piston m u s t c o m e u p a n e q u a l d i s t a n c e f r o m
's; : . d e c k . T h e c o n n e c t i n g r o d s a r e a t t a c h e d to t h e rod b e a r i n g
..-nal_ the c r a n k s h a f t Pistons are attached to the connecting
: A: As t h e c r a n k s h a f t r o t a t e s , t h e pistons c o m e to t h e t o p of t h e
. • - '•'• her; a!, parts a r e sized equally, all t h e p i s t o n s will c o m e u p
• . V ' sa.-ne level. This can only h a p p e n if t h e block d e c k is parallel
• r . e .-..i n b e a r i n g b o r e s . S e e Figure 2 9 - 1 8 .
Tne biock d e c k m u s t be r e s u r f a c e d in a s u r f a c i n g m a c h i n e that
car. c o n t r o l t h e a m o u n t of m e t a l r e m o v e d w h e n it is n e c e s s a r y to
--r:- sne s.ze of t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r s . This p r o c e d u r e is
. d e c k i n g t h e b l o c k . T h e block is set u p on a bar located in
F i g u r e 2 9 - 1 9 Grinding the deck surface ol the block.
v > r . a . r . b e a n n g saddles, or set u p on t h e oil pan rails of t h e b l o c k .
- - : >-. zi-i'ie: to t h e d i r e c t i o n of c u t t i n g h e a d m o v e m e n t . T h e
: / A . - e . e z s i d e w a y s , a n d t h e n t h e d e c k is r e s u r f a c e d in t h e
Figure 2 9 2 0 . T h e c y l i n d e r s h o u l d b e c h e c k e d for o u t - o ^
i . t h e h e a d is r e s u r f a c e d . Figure 2 9 19 s h o w s a
r ock d e c k U- r e s u r f a c e d b y g r i n d i n g . T h e s u r f a c e finish s h o u l d taper. See F i g u r e 2 9 - 2 1 . M o s t c y l i n d e r s a r e serviceable •
b e */} i 0 0 Vi (65 t o i I 0 R M S J for cast iron a n d 5 0 to 6 0 Ra ( 5 5 • M a x i m u m of 0 . 0 0 3 inch ( 0 . 0 7 6 millimeter) out-of-"> und
f / l ?•.'.'. for a; j r r J r . ;rr. b l o c k d e c k s to b e a s s u r e d of a p r o p e r • N o m o r e than 0 . 0 0 5 inch ( 0 . 1 2 7 millimeter) taper
nead s j r f a c e . 7 h e s u r f a c e finish is d e t e r m i n e d by t h e type of
• Have n o d e e p scratches in t h e cylinder wall
>.-.' • - a a-, t h e speed a n d c o o l a n t u s e d in t h e
NOTE: Always check the specifications for the engine b c ' ^ o l l | o "
Cylinder Boring ( . • de: should be measured across the
example, the General Motors 5.7-L, LS1, V-8 has a ma*' n' 0 F
s/ e p e r p e n d / . .>.• t o the c r a n k s h a f t ) , w h e r e t h e g r e a t e s t w e a r of only 0.0003 ( 3 / 1 0 of one thousandths of an inch). Nor y .
, : c . r . !/.'/.' > ev. • b e f o u r . d just b e l o w t h e ridge, a n d the cation is about three times that dimension or about 0.0
e a s t i " . s ,'.• of v/t.j o c c u r b e l o w t h e l o w e s t r i n g travel. S e e
RING
/ Ri:
M< Do I Dt i- miii. What Oversize Bore Is Heeded?

POCKET
An easy w'v to Icuats o >ze piston yze is to determine the amount ci
taper, double it .and add 0.010 inch (Tajw • 2 + ODIOr, » OS psferV CW»-
mon owefji/e measwements include 0020 inch, 0030 inch. 0.040 T<ti. an)
0 060 men ,se caute ivhr - boring tor an oversize measuremejii larger - a r ,
TAPEREt 0.030 Inch
CYLINDERWALL 1
D M 7r.e piston :nas w x should always be ichaod before the

cylinders are :ei>cr«j. The cylinders are then bored and baaed tt starch
t b e e i a ; ' size of the pe ons.
UNWORN
< CVLINDCnWALL
w
T h e c n d e r o u s t be p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e crankshaft for nor-
mal bearing a n a piston life. If d i e block d e c k has b e e n aligned
w i t h t h e c r a n k s h a f t , it t a n b e used to align t h e cylinders. Portable
cylinder b o r i n g b a r s a r e c l a m p e d to t h e block d e c k . Heavy-duty
production boring m a c h i n e s s u p p o r t t h e block on t h e m a i n bear-
Figure 2 9 - 2 0 Cylinders wear in a taper, with most of the wear occurrtng at the top of the ing bores.
cylinder where the greatest amount of heat is created. The ridge is formed because this very Main bearing caps should be torqued in place w h e n cylinders
top part of the cylinder is not worn by the rings. are being rebored. in precision boring, a torque plate is also bolted on
in place of t h e c der r e a d w h i l e bortng cylinders. In this way.
tortion is kept to a m t n i r m m . The general procedure used for rebor-
ing cylinders is t o set t h e boring bar u p s o that it is perpendicular to
the crankshaft. It m u s t b e . x a t e d e v e r t h e center of t h e cylinder The
cylinder c e n t e r Is found by i n s t a t i n g centering pins in t h e b a t The
bar is lowered s o that the centering pins a r e located near t h e bottom
of the cylinder, w h e r e t h e least wear nas occurred. This locates t h e
boring bar over t h e c r i p i a l cylinder r e n t e r O n c e t h e boring bar is
centered, the boring m a r i n e u d a m p e d in place to hold it securely.
This will aiiow t h e c u n d e r : : b i -ebored on the original c e r t e r l i n e .
regardless of t h e a m o u r . : f cylinder wear. A sharp, properly grounc
cutting tool Is installed and ad : -_-tec :o d i e desired dimension. Rough
cuts remove a great deal of metal on e a c h pass of t h e cutting tooL
The rough cut is followed by a fine c u t that produces a m u c h
CT
smoother and more accurate finish. Different-shaped tool bits are
used for rough and finish boring. T h e last cut is m a d e to p r o d u c e a
diameter that is at least 0 . 0 0 2 i n c h <0.05 m i l l i m e t e r smaller thar.
the required diameter. See figure 2 0 - 2 2 .
Figure 29-21 Using a dial bore gauge to measure the bore diameter at the top just below
the ndge and at the bottom below the ring travel. Take the measurements in line with the
crankshaft and then repeat the measurements at right angles to the center line ol the block
in each cylinder.
The most effective w a y to c o r r e c t excessive cylinder out-of-

round, taper, or s c o r i n g is to r e b o r e t h e cylinder. The rebored
cylinder requires t h e u s e of a n e w , oversize piston.
The m a x i m u m b o r e oversize is d e t e r m i n e d by t w o things: the
cylinder wall t h i c k n e s s a n d t h e size of t h e available oversize pistons.
If in doubt as to t h e a m o u n t of o v e r b o r e that is possible without caus-
ing structural w e a k n e s s , a n ultrasonic test should be performed on
the block to d e t e r m i n e t h e thickness of the cylinder walls. All cylin-
ders should be tested. Variation in cylinder wall thickness occurs be- Figure 29-22 A cywder tor % - • - e s j s e d " enlarge:-, -flei : si
cause of core shifting (moving) d u r i n g t h e casting of the block. For replacement overside piston car be usee to restore a nor - engne to SIB
best results, cylinders should be rebored to t h e smallest size possible. increase the displacement of the engine - an 3tteir;t to
S i e e v ' i g t h e Cyi:nDer • v nders have a gouge so A s i z i n g h o n e ;>n be used to sâiy'-t' •
fi«\T " w :-t • w " -vr. t ' V n vr- \ W - tne c y l i n d e r is r e b o r e d to t h e vide a suitable surface for the piston rings. . , 0 - tt®
—• - r .•' . K " .'" 't • p - m o v e d endways honed a m i n i m u m of 0 . 0 0 2 inch (0.050 jnr
arrf r u t * e d the cv-jnce- C y l i n d e r blocks w i t h d e e p g o u g e s below the rough surface and provide an .-
- - sleeving -- t h i s is d o n e by boring leaves a plateau surface that can s a p p o r t • . .Ho- -
the :-r i d j a e r s ? n t h a t is great/.' o v e r s i z e to a l m o s t m a t c h and piston skirt. This plateau surface is ac . t^
w r Cv*ssd» c a m - v r of "he cylinder s l e e v e . T h e sleeve is pressed coarse stone followed by a s m o o t h storn •
-•.'. - \ : the center t h e sleeve is bored t o t h e surface. T h e process of using both coarse -J- /rZJ'^
• r e c s r r f t% t h e r i s t o n . T h e c y l i n d e r can be sized to use a p l a t e a u h o n i n g . See Figure 2 0 - 2 5 .
>-e z'svn when s l e e v e d . See Figure 2 0 - 2 3 .
T h e h o n i n g s t o n e s a r e held in a rigid fixture with ?
Grander Honing !; i m p o r t a n t t o h a v e t h e p r o p e r s u r f a c e fin ing m e c h a n i s m to c o n t r o l t h e s i z e of t h e ho- - T nH / ®n ^
* , . .1- U.J.. . . - Sffln.-.
5h c e : cviSader wall for t h e r i n g s to s e a t against. S o m e ring can b e u s e d to straighten t h e c y l i n d e r taper by h o n i n g
. . r e c o m m e n d b r e a k i n g t h e h a r d s u r f a c e glaze on t h e cylinder d i a m e t e r m o r e t h a n t h e u p p e r diameter. As it V M '
-. waJl w i t h 3 h o n e b e f o r e installing n e w piston rings. H o n sizing h o n e only c u t s t h e high s p o t s so t h a t cylinder out-of
trsg c v i i j x f e r r e m o v e s t h e f r a c t u r e d m e t a l t h a t is created bv bor- also r e d u c e d . T h e cylinder w a l l s u r f a c e finish is about
w h e n t h e cylinder is r e f i n i s h e d w i t h e i t h e r typp 0< h '
- c y l i n d e r -.va" s h o u l d be h o n e d to straighten t h e cylinder
Figure 2 9 - 2 6 . ""
w h e n t h e w a l l is w a v y or s c u f f e d , if h o n i n g is b e i n g d o n e w i t h t h e
c r s n f e h a f " . r e t n a i n i o g in t h e biock. t h e c r a n k s h a f t s h o u l d b e pro-
• - c t e ; t o k e e n h o n i n g chips f r o m g e t t i n g o n t h e s h a f t .
' t y p e s of h o n e s a r e used for cylinder s e n d e e . T E C H T I P I f ^ j A l w a y s Use Torque P l a t e s
• - d e g l a z i n g h o n e removes the hard surface glaze remaining in Torque plates are thick metal plates that are bolted to the cylinder block v •
~<. r . ' n c ' - - It is a flexible h o n e that follows the shape of the cylin- plicate the forces on the block that occur when the cylinder head is T^
w a S . even w h e n the wall is wavy. It cannot be used to straight- Even though not all machine shops use torque plates during the tWn;~.-
.- - - -. A brash tvpe f b a l l - t y p e ) deglazmg - one is s h o w n tion. the use of torque plates during the final dimensional honing
in Figure 2 9 - 2 4 . very beneficial. Without torque plates, cylinders can become out-of-roun; •
0.003 inch) and distorted when the cylinder heads are installed ami
down. Even though the use of torque plates does not eliminate ail iifir-
their use helps to ensure a truer cylinder dimension. See Figure 29-27
ROUGH-BORED
T O <1.025 INCHES
C R A C K S AND PITS
TO 0.001 INCH
T A R G E T DIAMETER
| 4.030 INCHES
. ^ j r s 2 9 - 2 3 A dry cy! "der êeve can also be installed in a cast-iron block to repair a
antftracW
•'• - • " - . » • • v w d t s a z n j r w * - t s - - y p e of hone doris not Figure 29-25 After borlno. the cylinder surface is rough. pitted-
about 0.001 inch.
HOC**. Cr:- 777
ORl :
BOHFU TO 4 Wi mc • •«} .-HATCH PATTERN
FINISH HOMING >/<Y,

0.0028 INCH I > .mi ."AC. a
. FINAL HONfcO DIAMETER
4.030 INCHt'-
y
5
s/ o
•<
r~
Z
o
m
a
t 50' ANGLE
>
Figure 29-28 ne atarn-- th o « d e e p me • m
m excessively and m> ten* f . " g t a g w e r e eytnder wad a ga-tigN to
33
CD
o
X
z TECH TIP Bore to Size Hone for Clearance
a
/
Manj engine 'ebusdsrs m t m> ratodwers sore * e cyfcidws to m» m e t
r sue rt me owmze preens that are to * jsed After the Cock e otwd to a
standard owarsoe -neaw?T«r- cylinder a honed. The rigrt bone stone*
along «r*h an experienced operator a r n a e s s e 8 * bote «ae bji 0 001 to
C
0 003 nch ' to 3 VmsancAte t / a r -r2v tor 8 * ipcai d e m o t needed be-
tween He piston anc the q*noar « a h
Far u m u f t
Figure 29-26 Honing enlarges the cylinder bore lo the final size and leaves a
surface finish that retains oil Actual tustor dameter 4 ; 28 e
Bore tlamew = 4 028 r
Diameter after mng * 930
Amount 'emoveo t^ honing = 0 J02 ».
r v
NOTE: 1 l B « m r u r - r w «onr>a*dtotie'eiTcw«db»Borng s 005
inch to remow 8 * *racrjred meaf p S * q r m t e nan caused tjf boflng
Cylinder Surface Finish

t h e f i n d i n g and ho-.tag s t o r e corero. t h e surface finish. The - 4
of the abra e . grit size, he . a a re - :
mesh screen to sort o u t t h e g i t size. A coarse-mesh screen has
wires in each square inch, so large pieces can fail through r r , r* -
A fine-mesh screen h a s m a n v wires in each square inch so that orsh
small pieces can M through- The screen is used to separate the : ;
ferent grit sutes. T h e grit sax. is t h e n u m b e r of wires n eac* -are
inch of the mesh. A tow-numbered grit has large pieces of a i n a t
material; a high n u m b e r e d gnt has sma.; faeces of aixasi f t tr.ater
Figure 29-27 A torque plate being used during a cylinder hoi o = The higher the grit number, t h e smoother the sur&ce fSnisfc
Piece of metal is bolted to the block and simulates the forces exerted on Hie b * b\ • e A j j v e n grit size will p r o d u c e t h e same finish a . o n g a s ' h e .
head bolts when the cylinder head is attached ting pressure is c o n s t a n t . W i t h t h e s a m e grit sure, l i t - * : . t t m g p r »
sure produces fine finishes, a n d h e a w cutting pressure proffi*ces
rough finches.
The surface finish should m a t c h the .-race m q u . r e c • x "
T h e hone is s t r o k e d u p a n d d o w n in t h e c , n d e r as it t type of piston rings to b e used. Typical gnt and surfao* i
tates. This produces a c r o s s h a t c h f i n i s h • A dards include t h e following
typical honed c y l i n d e r is p i c t u r e d in Figure 2 0 2 8 . The a r ^ e ot
the crosshatch s h o u l d be b e t w e e n 2 0 a n d 0 0 d e g r e e s . Higher ar. • C h r o m e — # 1 8 0 p i t | 2 5 to 35 m i c r c i n c t a i
f t e are produced w h e n t h e h o n e is s t r o k e d m o r e rapid.\ :n t h e • Cast i r o n — # 2 0 0 gnt i 2 0 to 30 aucromcnes
cylinder. • MOIY—»220 grit 118 to 2 5 micromches*
IT*
BLOCK CLEANING AND PREPARATION FOR ASSEMBLY 3. Coat the newly cleaned block with f o j . to Prevent
Cover the block with a large p l a s t i c b a g 'list.
After *c cv - -s be h.med and before the block is > out dirt u
time to assemble the engine.
c'lear-ed i - . ; - . c h a i r , \ r t h e top edge of the cylin-
der "c : - e 1 - .-'.rsder wall ,$ an important part of the
.•vting r r v . x - ;• jr.* g n t remains on the cylinder wall, it will rap- H I G H - P E R F O R M A N C E TIP
; r the ; - ' gs. "hi- wear will cause premature failure of
the c c t f i t " : >t. d e c e a s i n g and decarbonizing procedures Install Lifter Bore Bushings
A-'. v rent v? tlvc -.oning oil. They will n o r remove the abrasive.
The rv.-\" AMY to clean the honed c y l i n d e r s i s 1 0 s c r u b 1116 cylinder Lifter bores in a block can be out-of-square w i t h thi haft, resulting,
wa!-'. w 2 brush using a mixture of soap or detergent mi water. mature camshaft wear and variations in the v a l v e t i m i n g from cylinder to
TV- :> c r a b b e d until it is absolutely clean. This can be deter- der. To correct for this variation, the lifter bores a r e b o r e d and reamed o v
weeing t h e cylinder wall with a clean cloth. The cloth will using a fixture fastened to the block deck to e n s u r e proper alignment 8-,'
: : k up no so J w h e n the cylinder wall is clean. lifter bushings are then installed and finish honed to achieve the correct -
to-bore clearance. See Figure 29-31.
Block Detailing Before the engine block can be assembled, a
f.-.i. detailed cleaning should be performed.
t . Ail .. pa sage- galleries) should be cleaned by running a long

bottle type brush through all holes in the block.
2. -. tapped holes should be chamfered and cleaned with the
~ect size of thread chaser to remove any dirt and burrs. See
Figures 2 0 - 2 9 and 2 9 - 3 0 .
Figure 29-31 High-performance engine builders will often install bronze sleevesmtt
valve lifter bores.
CRANKSHAFT PURPOSE AND FUNCTION

Power from expanding gases in the combustion chamber is if
Figure 29-29 Notice on this cutaway engine block that some of the head bolt holes do not ered to the crankshaft through the piston, piston p i n , a n d cor;
soo tai into the block and dead end Debris can accumulate at the bottom ol these ing rod. The connecting rods and their bearings are attache-
-c are,»must be cleaned out before final assembly bearing journal on the crank throw. The crank t h r o w is offse
the c r a n k s h a f t c e n t e r l i n e . The combustion force is applied
crank t h r o w after the crankshaft has moved past top center
produces the turning effort or torque, w h i c h rotates t h e era®
The crankshaft rotates on the main bearings. T h e s e bearing
split in half so that they can be assembled around the a -
main bearing journals. The crankshaft includes t h e f o l l o w i n g •
• Main bearing journals

• Rod bearing journals
• Crankshaft throws
• Counterweights
• Keyways
• Oil passages
MAIN BEARING JOURNALS

The crankshaft rotates in the cylinder block on mam d :
Figure 2 9 - 3 3 . The bearings support
upport the crankshaft
Figure 29-30 t - -.-. y.nwr • <) tap should be used in all threaded holes ofcyii"'
rotate easily w i t h o u t excessive wear. T h e number
fiefcre assemfilino ®ie engine ally determines the n u m b e r of main bearings.
FLYWHEEL
FLANGE
REAR MAIN CONNECTING OR.

CRANK CHEEKS PASSAGE
SEAL SURFACE ROD JOURNAL
journals that are supported by main bearings m tne Mock. Hoc journal- are « c a n t e r t n e
Figure 29-32 Typical crankshaft with main
STUD
BOLT REAR
CAP
FOUR MAIN BEARINGS
V6
SEVEN MAIN BEARINGS

IN-UNE 6
FOUR MAIN BEARINGS

V8
FRONT
Figure 29-33 The crankshaft rotates on main bearings, longitudinal (end-to-end Figure 29-34 'anger the crankshaft the -note mam Deamg-tnjmils
movement is controlled by the thrust bearing
one of the end main b e a r i n g s O n most engines, the bear - c

• Four-cylinder engines and V-8 engines usually have five main
f o - the main bearing is equipped with thrust bearing "ar.j
ride against the thrust surface.

• Inline ^cylinder engines usually have seven ma r. beanr.gs
• V-6 engines normally have only four main beanngf
ROD BEARING JOURNALS
See Figure 2 9 - 3 4 . . . .hnist loads from The rod bearing journals, also called crank pins, are offset 'he
The crankshaft also h a s to be able to absorb thrust l a w centeriine of the crank. Insert-type b e a m g s fit b e t w w r . rl-:e big e n d
clutch on a manual transmission vehicle or 1 oads of the connecting rod and the crankpL-. of the crankscah
a vehicle equipped w i t h an automauc t r ^ m j s a o n . i n The amount of offset of the rod bearing uroai i e t e n r - es tlie
* forces that push and pull the crankshaft ^ ^ ^ n stroke of the engine. The crankshaft with tnrows m a t .neas i r e < * •
" t h e engine block. A thrust bearing s u p p o r t s t h e * ^ Half of the stroke has a direct relationship to tne aiswaceraent ol
Wns the front-to-rear position of the crankshaft n t h e b i ; the engine. See R g u r e 2 0 - 3 6 .
F i ^ r e 2 9 - 3 5 . The thrust surface is usually located at the miaate
200 v
involves h e a t i n g t h e c r a n k s h a f t a n d a d d ii.; , [0 ^ .
w h e r e it c a u s e s t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e to becom< . than J 0 1 "";:
t h e c r a n k s h a f t . If t h e e n t i r e c r a n k s h a f t w a s . r,ed, it
c o m e t o o brittle to be able to a b s o r b t h e flsrsi. .tresses o f / ! : ' :
engine operation.
A n o t h e r f o r m of case h a r d e n i n g is called n i . .ding. The
s h a f t is h e a t e d to a b o u t 1 0 0 0 ° F ( 5 4 0 ° C ) in a : .mace j f f i j 1 '
a m m o n i a gas, a n d t h e n a l l o w e d to cool. T h e pr ocess adds niV'.
(from t h e a m m o n i a ) into t h e s u r f a c e of t h e metal-forming h a .c'
trides in t h e s u r f a c e of t h e c r a n k s h a f t to a d e p t h of about o'•
inch (0.8 m m ) .
THRUST
A n o t h e r variation of this p r o c e s s involves heating the cv
BEARING
s h a f t in a m o l t e n c y a n i d e salt b a t h . G e n e r a l Motors Corpc-a-
uses this process referred t o by t h e t r a d e n a m e Tuftriding.
FORGED CRANKSHAFTS
2 S - 3 5 ft jrouna ^ r t j c e on one of the cranKsnaft cheeks next to a mam beanng
C r a n k s h a f t s used in h i g h - p r o d u c t i o n a u t o m o t i v e engines iru
u^x-ra Bs-^s: :uacs an the crann e i t h e r forged or cast. Forged c r a n k s h a f t s a r e stronger than the c"
c r a n k s h a f t , b u t t h e y are m o r e e x p e n s i v e . Forged crankshafts hav;
w i d e s e p a r a t i o n line, as s e e n in Figure 2 9 - 3 7 .
M o s t h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e f o r g e d c r a n k s h a f t s are made frcm-v
4 3 4 0 or a similar type of steel. T h e c r a n k s h a f t is formed from a;,
steel billet t h r o u g h t h e u s e of a series of forging dies. Each &
c h a n g e s t h e s h a p e of t h e billet slightly. T h e crankshaft blank
finally f o r m e d w i t h t h e last die. T h e b l a n k s are then machine: r
finish t h e c r a n k s h a f t . Forging m a k e s a v e r y d e n s e , tough crank;:,
PISTON w i t h t h e metal's grain s t r u c t u r e r u n n i n g parallel to the prinu.
direction of stress.
T w o m e t h o d s a r e u s e d to f o r g e c r a n k s h a f t s .
• O n e m e t h o d is to forge t h e crankshaft in place. This is followed fe

straightening. T h e forging in place m e t h o d is primarily used wu
CONNECTING forged four- and six-cylinder crankshafts.
ROD
• A second method is to forge t h e crankshaft in a single plane. It-;
then twisted in the main bearing journal to index the throws a: v
CRANKPIN desired angles.
CENTERLINE
OF CRANKSHAFT
CENTERLINE
MAIN OF CRANKPIN
SEPARATION
BEARING
JOURNAL LINE
h g u r t 2 S - 3 6 ~ • • distance from the crankpin centerline to the centerlme of the crankshaft

> r- - i * strone. wncn is me leverage available to turn the crankshaft.
S U R F A C E FINISH SEPARATION
A -.-c.-.c.ur o u m a l s a r e g r o u n d to a v e r y s m o o t h finish. S u r f a c e LINE
;..-.. .:. .u r ;n m i c r o I n c h e s a n d t h e smaller t h e n u m b e r ,
ri* .-r.oGV.er tr.e - j r f a c e . W h e r e t h e s u r f a c e finish of a m a c h i n e d
.: h e a d m a y r a n g e f r o m 6 0 to 1 0 0 RA (rough-
. t r p i c a l specification for main a n d rod crank-
. . - . . i . . v. b e : - v e e n 1 0 a n d 2 0 RA. This very s m o o t h s u r f a c e
: . . . - . . a,;r..eyed V j p o u s n i n g t n e c r a n k journals a f t e r t h e grind-
ing operatjoe,
JOURNAL HARDNESS
To -.rr.pr »ve w e a r r e s i s t a n c e , s o m e m a n u f a c t u r e r s h a r d e n t h e crank-
. . . case hardening, where Figure 2 9 - 3 7 Wide separation lines where the flashings have been remow
•-,-... t h e o u t e r p e r n o r of r . v s u r f a c e is h a r d e n e d . Case h a r d e n i n g forged crankshaft show that it has been twisted to index the crank throws.
\e Blocks Crar'rfshafts. and Bearing* 28t
CAST CRANKSHAFTS >• t each 9 0 degrees of crankshaft rotation so 'hat

Casting materials a n d t e c h n l a; :: i />thly with even firing at each 9 0 d e z r ° e s r '
quality so that cast c r a n k s t u
motive engines. A u t o m o t i v e cr
lar iron, or malleable iron. T h e ma|or advarn casting FOUR-CYLINDER ENGINE CRANKSHAFTS
process Is t h a t c r a n k s h a f t material a n d m a c h i n i n g costs are iess
Tne c r a n k s h a f t used on four-cylinder inline engines has four t h r o w
than they are w i t h forging. T h e reason
o n a s - gle p ane. There / usually a main bearing journal b e t w e e r
made close t o t h e r e q u i r e d s h a p e a n d size, including all compli-
each t h r o w , making it a five-main-bearing crankshaft. Pistons also
cated c o u n t e r w e i g h t s . T h e only m a c h i n i n g req
m o v e a s pa r , r. this engine. Pistons in # l and # 4 cylinders move
designed cast c r a n k s h a f t is t h e g r i n d i n g of bear. - .
together; a n d p.:tons # 2 and # 3 m o v e together Each piston in
and t h e finishing of f r o n t a n d r e a r drive ends. Met ,
a pair s 3 6 0 degrees out-of-phase with the other piston in the
in the cast c r a n k s h a f t is u n i f o r m and r a n d o m thro
7 2 0 - d e g r e e four-stroke cycle. With this arrangement, the four
shaft is able to h a n d l e loads f r o m all directions. C o m v ' i r v
cylinder inline e n g i n e fires o n e cylinder at each 180 degrees of
cast crankshafts are slightly larger t h a n counterweigh' 1 , or ; : V . ;
crankshaft rotation.
crankshaft b e c a u s e t h e cast s h a f t metal is less dense and '.bereft -•
A fo .r cy 'ider opposed engine and a 90-degree V-4 engine have
somewhat lighter. T h e n a r r o w mold parting surface line- can be
crankshafts that look like that of t h e four-cylinder inline engine.
seen on the cast c r a n k s h a f t pictured in Figure 2 9 - 3 8 .
FIVE-CYLINDER ENGINE CRANKSHAFTS

V-8 ENGINE CRANKSHAFTS
T h e im.ne five-cv.inder e n g i n e has a five-throw crankshaft with one
The V-8 engine has four inline cylinders in each of the two blocks
t h r o w at each 7 2 degree-. Six m a i n bearings are used on this crank-
that are placed at a 9 0 - d e g r e e angle to each other. Each group of
shaft. T h e piston in o n e c . n d e r reaches top center at each
four inline cylinders is called a b a n k . The crankshaft for the V-8 en-
144 degrees of c r a n k s h a f t m a a t : r . T h e t h r o w s are arranged to give
gine has four t h r o w s . T h e c o n n e c t i n g rods from t w o cylinders are
a firing order erf 1-2-4-5-3. D y n a m i c balancing has been o n e of
connected to each t h r o w , o n e f r o m each bank. This arrangement
the maior problems with this e c g a i e design, yet t h e vibration war-
results in a c o n d i t i o n of b e i n g only minimally unbalanced. The V-8
satisfactorily d a m p e n e d and solated on both the Audi and Acura
engine c r a n k s h a f t h a s t w o planes, so there is one throw every
five-cylinder engines.
90 degrees. A p l a n e is a flat surface that cuts through the part.
These planes could be s e e n if t h e c r a n k s h a f t w e r e cut lengthwise
through the center of t h e main bearing and crankpin journals. Look- THREE-CYLINDER E N G I N E CRANKSHAFTS
ing at the front of t h e c r a n k s h a f t w i t h t h e first t h r o w at 3 6 0 degrees
A three-cvlinder engine uses a I20-degree three-throw crankshaft
(up), the second t h r o w is at 9 0 degrees (to the right I, the third
with four main bearings. This engine requires a balancing shaft that
throw is at 2 7 0 d e g r e e s (to t h e left), and the fourth throw is at 180
turns at crankshaft speed, b u t in t h e opposite direction, to reduce
degrees (down). In o p e r a t i o n w i t h this arrangement, one piston
the vibration to an a c c e p t a h e leveL
The Mysterious Engine Vibration
A Butt-butt. 3 S-Wer, -6 engine nitrated tne wtide car after a new short Hoc -
-;ad been msaied " V fficf-c ar who nad nstalled the rep-are-"?- e v *
did all of the foRomngi
1. Checked the spark pugs

2. Checkec the soark plug * nes
OVERLAP 3. Disconnected the torque converter from tne he* p ate Jr.ve - '
" a t e r e possit ty of a torcue converter or autocue transrr saor
MAIN BEARING
CRANK JOURNAL pump protterr
THROW 4. Reijved a .wcessory unve Sets one at a t n e
Itet the vibration still existed

CONNECTING ROD Another technician checked the engne noims and tand n r r * eft
JOURNAL
(driver's sue engine mount was out of location, -pped and cocked The -ar»-
iission Tiount was also defective After the tec—c ar -eo,«ec nosi -VJUMS
and made certain that ail mounts were properly set. the r t r 30or was M m
nated The design and location of the engine "noorts are • ' . . . a the e : T I B
tion of vibration, especialty on 90-degree V-6 ergmes
CAST MOLD
PARTING LINES ODD-FIRING 90-DEGREE V-6 ENGINE CRANKSHAFTS
The 90-degree V-o engine uses a t h r e e th? .-. crankshaft wtffl
Fi 1
9ure 2 9 - 3 8 Cast crankshall showing the bearing journal overlap ai J (straight .anow - *Ci •
1
«t moid parting line engines, each crank throw has t w o connecting rods T f w l . ait
f r o m each b a n k . This \ •> e n g i n e design d o c s n o t h a v e e v e n firing 60-DEGREE V-6 ENGINE CRANKSHAF
imruises becau>e the p.M >n.% c o n n e c t e d to the 120-degree T h e 6 0 - d e g r e e V 6 e n g i n e is similar to tin i , ^ , )()
c r a n k c m s . d o r. •: r t . v h t o p c e n t e r at e v e n intervals. T h e e n g i n e has V-6 e n g i n e . T h e a d j a c e n t pairs of c r a n k p i n s , ranksh if I
a firing p a t t e r n of 1 5 0 OQc i 5 0 ° - 9 0 < 1 5 0 ° - 9 0 ° , as illustrated in in t h e 6 0 - d e g r e e V-6 e n g i n e h a v e a splay an 6 0 degrees I* I
;
F.cure 3° his firing p a t t e r n p r o d u c e s u n e q u a l pulses t h a t h a v e this large 6 0 - d e g r e e splay angle, t h e flange • ,-., ^ I
WPb
to be tso'ated w i t h c r p n e m o u n t s that h a v e b e e n carefully designed t h e splayed c r a n k p i n s Is m a d e h e a v i e r th.» iankshafi' , I
smaller splay angles. This Is n e c e s s a r y to give v n g t h to t h e , I
EVEN-FIRING 90-DEGREE V-6 ENGINE CRANKSHAFTS shaft. T h e c r a n k s h a f t of t h e 6 0 - d e g r e e V-6 e n / m e also i 'fir" I
uses f,
m a i n bearings.
T h e c r a n k t h r o w s for an even-firing V-6 e n g i n e are split, m a k i n g
sc car .r.e c r a n k p i n s for e a c h cylinder. I h e split t h r o w can b e s e e n in
Figure > 0 - 4 0 . T h i s a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e c r a n k p i n s on t h e c r a n k s h a f t COUNTERWEIGHTS
- - cailod a s p l a y a n g l e . A flange w a s left b e t w e e n t h e split C r a n k s h a f t s are b a l a n c e d by c o u n t e r w e i g h t s , which arc ,
c r a n k p i n j o u r n a l s . T h i s p r o v i d e s a c o n t i n u o u s fillet or e d g e for ma- forged as part of t h e c r a n k s h a f t . A c r a n k s h a f t that has c
c h i n i n g a n d g r i n d i n g o p e r a t i o n s . It also provides a n o r m a l flange for °unter I
w e i g h t s o n b o t h sides of e a c h c o n n e c t i n g rod journal is called fun,
t h e rod a n d b e a r i n g . T h i s flange b e t w e e n t h e splayed c r a n k p i n jour- c o u n t e r w e i g h t e d . See Figure 2 9 - 4 1 .
n e t i m e s called a f l y i n g w e b . A fully c o u n t e r w e i g h t e d c r a n k s h a f t is t h e smoothest runn • I
and m o s t d u r a b l e d e s i g n , b u t it is also t h e h e a v i e s t and mcst . I
sive to m a n u f a c t u r e . M o s t v e h i c l e m a n u f a c t u r e r s do not use (i
c o u n t e r w e i g h t e d c r a n k s h a f t s in a n e f f o r t to lighten the rotatr I
m a s s of t h e e n g i n e . An e n g i n e w i t h a light c r a n k s h a f t allows the i I
gine to a c c e l e r a t e quicker.
J
3S4
5 & 6- T ^ J & 2 ' 2m 4 I S FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION ???
90° 4
W h a t Is a n Offset C r a n k s h a f t ?
To reduce side loads, some vehicle manufacturers offset the crankshaft to-
center. For example, if an engine rotates clockwise as viewed from the fiontt
crankshaft may be offset to the left to reduce the angle of the connecting it
during the power stroke. See Figure 29-42
The offset usually varies from 1/16 inch to 1/2 inch, depending on i»
F i g u r e 2 9 - 3 9 The tiring impulses ot this odd-fire V-6 are unequally spaced because two and model. Most gasoline engines used in hybrid gasoline/electric vehiclesu
cylinders share a common crankpin. an offset crankshaft.
VIBRATION DAMAGE
Each t i m e c o m b u s t i o n o c c u r s , t h e f o r c e d e f l e c t s the crankshaft a;
t r a n s f e r s t o r q u e to t h e o u t p u t s h a f t . T h i s deflection occurs in"
w a y s , to b e n d t h e s h a f t s i d e w a y s a n d t o t w i s t t h e shaft in tors
T h e c r a n k s h a f t m u s t b e rigid e n o u g h t o k e e p t h e deflection to
SPLAYED
to a m i n i m u m .
CRANKPIN
C r a n k s h a f t d e f l e c t i o n s a r e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to the ope®
r o u g h n e s s of a n e n g i n e . W h e n b a c k - a n d - f o r t h deflections oc®
t h e s a m e vibration f r e q u e n c y ( n u m b e r of vibrations per sea1"-
t h a t of a n o t h e r e n g i n e part, t h e p a r t s will vibrate together."
this h a p p e n s , t h e p a r t s a r e said t o r e s o n a t e . T h e s e vibration;
b e c o m e g r e a t e n o u g h t o r e a c h t h e a u d i b l e level, produ^;
I
t h u m p i n g s o u n d . If this type of v i b r a t i o n c o n t i n u e s , the par
] fail. See Figure 2 9 - 4 3 .
Figure 2 9 - 4 0 A i . -d to create an even-firing 90-degree V-6 Figure 2 9 - 4 1 A fully counterweighted lour-cyllnder crankshaft.
(WTON PISTON
CONNECTING CONNECTING
ROD
CRANKSHAFT OFFSET
REDUCES ANGLE
CENTERLINE OF ANGLE A 91 ANGLE B

CENTERUNE OF
CRANKSHAFT —
CRANKSHAFT —
MAIN BEARING
MAIN BEARING
MAIN HAM CONNECTING

CONNECTING
JOURNAL JOURNAL BOO JOURNAL
ROD JOURNAL
OFFSET
Figure 29-42 The crank throw Is hallway down on the power stroke Ttie piston or the left without an offset u j * « u n hat a slwser angle t a r ff* m f n e on Bie ngrn witri an offset
crankshaft.
Figure 29-43 A crankshaft broken as a result ol using the wrong torsional vibration
damper.
Figure 29-44 TteCJwy MtiBwomc tMncar a«o M a i n e cu- -time 'it*

Harmful crankshaft twisting vibrations are dampened v. :h a is used ID indicate ®O dead center to set the ignrtwi tHwg on engnes itBt are equAXtf
torsional vibration damper. It is also called a harmonic balancer wfft a distributor ignition.
This damper or balancer usually consists of a cast-iron i n e r t i a ring
mounted to a cast-iron h u b w i t h an e l a s t o m e r e> . . An e -
is shown in Figure 2 9 - 4 4 .
HINT: Push on the rubber (elastomer sleeve of the vibratv is-tpcr •.

High-Engine S p e e d s Require Higft-Performance Parts
your fingers or a pencil. If the rubber docs not spnn .
damper. Do not go racing with stock parts. The harmonc batancer i-ian r f ^ r e 2 9 ~ 4 *
came apart and the resuiftng vibration broke ttie cranwnati *r*n owner
attempted to race with his stock engine
Elastomers a r e actually s y n t h e t i c , r u b b e r like materials. The owner had made some engine T x H t a r o r e a . : < M v s r=arqt
The inertia ring size is s e l e c t e d to control t h e a m p l i t u d e the stock harmonc balancer ever thcugft the otner range stem?, r * i r ^ m
the crankshaft v i b r a t i o n s for e a c h specific engine model. See to rev to much higher speeds than sttc* parts <**~ai. m J C s e n t .
Figure 2 9 4 5 .
INERTIA
^-rmG
ELASTOMER
HUB
Figure 29-47 Crankshaft sawed in half, showing drilled oil passages between the <v
and rod bearing journals
i 25-45 t» -» ; 3 yxtf ite -•*> to thefrontof me cranwriaft
t M r 3 t » w f * .rerta [ i ^ m n center nut) atows the absorption ot
CHAMFERED
OIL H O L E
r nat separated at lagfi-aigne speed
Figure 29-48 Typical chamfered hole in a crankshaft beanng journal

EXTERNALLY ANO INTERNALLY BALANCED ENGINES
: - ' a " l i . i r : - . £ i done during manufacture. Holes are
irJec tfce cour terweigiH to lighten it to improve balance. CRANKSHAFT OILING HOLES
~ - - ' holes are drilled after the crankshaft is installed The crankshaft is drilled, as s h o w n in Figure 29-47, toa&
zj* Tie mar .facturers are abie to control casting qual- from the main bearing oil groove to be directed to the cor
y - > ' f j : co.-.terweight machining for balancing is not rod bearings. The oil on t h e bearings forms a hydrodynami-
Moonrt to support bearing loads. Some of t h e oil may be spt 2 "
Tup* •• • ' er.gme manufacturers balance an through a spit or bleed hole in t h e connecting rod. The rev
oil leaks from the edges of t h e bearing. It is thrown from
ing against t h e inside surfaces of the engine. Some of the
• h e f T T u . l i balanced igtt is added to the harmonic balancer
thrown from the crankshaft bearings will land on the car>
•fra i a c p e - and fivwheei or trie Bex piate.
lubricate the lobes. A part of the throw-off oil splashes on
• - i " . - p a r r s .? trie er.gine are indivldu-
der wall to lubricate the piston and rings.
i '. -.»• *.vt h a r r x x balancer and flywheel
0 ; Stress t e n d s to c o n c e n t r a t e at oil holes drilled
crankshaft journals. T h e s e holes are usually
/ . Cr,e fK • t V 8 ;.internally bal- the crankshaft loads and stresses are t h e lowest. The i - - ;
ar >-: - #/><•.;. -. - Chevrolet V-8 ,ses an externally oil holes are carefully c h a m f e r e d to relieve as
tafer -. ie • -rrr - ; b i a n c e r used on an externally c o n c e n t r a t i o n as possible. C h a m f e r e d oil holes are -
bajr<ced t-ngiry- has u t e - r n g x u & f p ' . Figure 2 9 - 4 8 .
fcx* r h a f t s andBean^ 285
"a Cioss-DnUf:
ed crankshaft m e a n s '
o toe main bearing
r\ b e a r a g toumals through m\ galtenes m the block. & cross-dotted
\ h a s two o u M holes tot
rod p u m a ! S e e Figure 2 S - 4 9
Figure 29-51 Connecting rod journal badhr "am from lac* of lubricator
C r a n k s h a f t journals s h o u l d b e inspected for nicks, pits, or cor-

rosion. Roughness and slight b e n d s in journals can be corrected by
Figure TO-49 », cross-dhWed crankshaft is used on some production engines and is a grinding t h e journals.
commonracingmodification
Hllfl: 'jy-'.rSr,(RTc. catch- an a F « v e when rubaed acrc-v- a bear.-.?

journal. the iounal 5 too rougn to reuse and must be regroual. Another
test is to rub a copper penny across the journal. If any copper remaL-IS oc
he crankshaft. - must be reground.
CRANKSHAFT GRINDING
Crankshaft journals that have excessive scoring, out-of-ro ..-.d. or
taper should be reground. See Rgure 2 0 - 5 1 . Crankshafts may re-
quire straightening before grinding.
Both crankshaft ends are placed in rotating heads on one
style of crankshaft grinder. The main bearing journals are ground
on the centerline of the crankshaft. The crankshaft is then offset
in the two rotating heads just enough to make the cranksiar
main bearing journal centerline rotate around the cenierune ol
the crankpin. The crankshaft wit! then be rotating around the
crankpin centerline. The journal on the crankpin is reground in
this position. The crankshaft must be repositioned for each diSe-
figure » - 5 0 Scwefl connectingrodBeanng journal ent crankpin center.
In another type of crankshaft grinder, the crankshaft always
turns on the main bearing centerline. The grinding head is pro-
CRANKSHAFT INSPECTION grammed to move in and out as the crankshaft rums 10 grind 'he
Shaft damage includes scored bearing journals, bends or warpage, crankpin bearing journals. The setup time is reduced when flus
and cracks. Damaged shafts must be reconditioned or replaced. type of grinder is used. Figure 2 9 - 5 2 shows a crankshaft being
The crankshaft is one of the most highly stressed engine parts. ground. Crankshafts are usually ground to the following undeisLze:
The stress on the crankshaft increases by four times every time
'he engine speed doubles. Any sign ol a crack is a cause to reject n 0.010 inch
'he crankshaft. Most cracks can be seen during a close visual in- n 0.020 inch
a c t i o n . Crankshafts should also be checked with Magnailux. • 0.030 inch
which will highlight tiny cracks that would lead to failure. The finished loumal should be accurate., gr: -.id :: ..ze with a
Bearing journal scoring is a common crankshaft delect. Scoring smooth surface finish. The radius of the Eliet area or. the sices, al
appears as scratches around the bearing journal surface. Generally, the journal should also be the same as the original. The at
'here is more scoring near the center ol the bearing journal, as is polished after grinding, using a 320-grir p< ..it:ng cloth and ...
in Figure 2 9 - 5 0 . to remove the fine metal "fuzz" remaining or. the : . - a
296 s : •<
F i g u r e 2 9 - 5 4 An excessively worn crankshaft can be restored to useful service by we to

the journals, and then machining them back to the original size.
F i g u r e 2 9 - 5 2 A crankshaft being ground GRINDING

S T O N E RADIUS
F i g u r e 2 9 - 5 3 All crankshafts should be polished after grinding. Both the crankshaft and CRANKSHAFT
the po a i -g clolh are being revolved FILLET
Figure 29-55 The rounded fillet area of the crankshaft is formed by the corners of W
grinding stone.
Ftg . r e 2 9 53. This f u z z feels s m o o t h w h e n t h e s h a f t t u r n s in its di-
r e c t o r . . A s t h e shaft t u r n s in t h e opposite direction, t h e f u z z feels
a r"r.e milling cutter. Polishing r e m o v e s this f u z z . T h e crank-
•haf* : r o u t e d in its n o r m a l direction of rotation so that t h e polishi- See Figure 2 9 - 5 4 . S o m e t i m e s t h e j o u r n a l is c h r o m e plated. CW>
n g : / / r : a n r e m o v e t h e f u z z . This leaves a s m o o t h shaft w i t h t h e plating m a k e s a n e x c e l l e n t b e a r i n g s u r f a c e w h e n the chrome i •
:- .:':<.-£ finish. Most crankshaft grinders grind in the direc- b o n d e d . If t h e b o n d i n g l o o s e n s , it will c a u s e a n i m m e d i a t e be -
• : - ; cd - re of rotation and then polish in the same direction as failure.
'o:r:c' h o l e c h a m f e r in t h e journal should be s m o o t h e d
x r . ' , ' -.i-p e d g e r e m a i n s to c u t t h e bearing. Finally, t h e crank-
.v.r o passayes a r e t h o r o u g h l y c l e a n e d . The r e g r o u n d journals
RELIEVING STRESS ON THE CRANKSHAFT _
are : /.• •:. oii to k e e p t h e m from rusting until t h e y a r e to be T h e g r e a t e s t a r e a of stress o n a c r a n k s h a f t is t h e fillet
tieaned for assembly. Figure 2 9 - 5 5 .
Stress relief is a c h i e v e d by b l a s t i n g t h e fillet area of the |0
w i t h # 3 2 0 steel s h o t . T h i s s t r e n g t h e n s t h e fillet area anu ^
WELDING A CRANKSHAFT p r e v e n t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of c r a c k s in t h i s a r e a . Gray d u d ^ f
V - • i ^ n t e v, viivage a crankshaft by building u p a c o m m o n l y u s e d to c o v e r t h e j o u r n a l t o p r e v e n t damage
..-v.' ar.d t h e n g r i n d i n g it to t h e original journal size. of it. Stress relief p r o c e d u r e s a r e u s u a l l y p e r f o r m e d after th
T h b is t o u a f l y d o n e b y e i t h e r electric arc w e l d i n g or a m e t a l spray. i n g a n d p o l i s h i n g of t h e c r a n k s h a f t .
PAF
FAC
The source of a knocking no>' i in

out disassembling the engine Ge
lhat serious damage haB occurn <i s
parts A flex plate (drive plate) is used i
gines to drive the tdrque converter and pro;,
to crank the engine. Two common flex pla
as follows
. Torque converter attaching bolts or nuts can loose <t i ,i- '
in four-cylinder engines, where vibration is more v; /ere th ;,
eight-cylinder engines). The torque converter can then pound on e -
of the flex plate, causing a loud knocking sound However if t c s a o PARTING
on the engine, as when the transmission is in drive er while d- . ng fer FACES
load, the sound should stop. At idle in park or neutral, the noise will be
loudest, because the torque converter can float and will hit the sides -.(the Figure 29-56 ~ie ws talw?. o< a ; ar. oeamg nest at the parting faces
holes in the flex plate
. if the flex plate is cracked, the resulting noise is very similar to a
connecting rod or main bearing knock The noise also seems to change at
times, leading many technicians to believe that it involves a moving internal
part that is lubricated, such as a rod or main bearing. The drive belts can
also make a similar noise when they are loose, and belt-driven accessories
can also produce similar noises.
Diagnosis should proceed as follows:

During the diagnostic procedure, the technician should disconnect one drive
belt at a time (if there is more than one) and then start the engine in an attempt
to isolate the noise. Noises can be transmitted throughout the enfire length of
the engine through the crankshaft, making the source of the noise more difficult
to isolate. If the flex plate is cracked, the noise is most noticeable when there is
a change in engine speed or load. To help diagnose a cracked flex plate, raise Figure 29-57 Beamc maraitacLrers reie- is Deamg *alf shape as an eccentric mall
engine speed to a high idle (1500 to 2000 RPM), then turn the ignition switch
off. Before the engine stops, turn the ignition back on. If a knocking noise is
heard when the engine restarts, the flex plate is cracked. come in contact with each other or when foreign particles are
present
Oil enters the bearing through the oil holes and grooves. It
ENGINE BEARINGS spreads into a smooth -.vedge-shaped oil Sim that supports the bear
Engine bearings are t h e m a i n supports for the major moving parts of ing load.
any engine. Engine bearings are i m p o r t a n t for the following reasons:
BEARING LOADS
1. The clearance b e t w e e n t h e bearings and the crankshaft is a maior
factor in maintaining the proper oil pressure throughout the en- It is important that the engine have large enough bearings that
tire engine. Most engines are designed to provide the maximum the bearing load is within the strength limits of the bearings.
protection and lubrication to the engine bearings above all else. Bearing load capac.r. .s calculated bv dividing the bearing 1 lad r.
2. Engine durability relies on bearing life. Bearing failure usually re- pounds by the projected area of the bearing. The projected area
sults in immediate engine failure. is the bearing length multiplied by the bearing diameter. The
3. Engine bearings are designed to support the operating loads of load on engine bearings is determined by developing a polar
the engine and, with the lubricant, provide minimum friction. bearing load diagram that shows the amount and direction of the
This must be achieved at all designed engine speeds. The bear- instantaneous bearing loads. Beanng load diagram; are shown rt
ings must be able to operate for long periods of time, even when Figure 2 9 - 3 f i .
small foreign particles are in the lubricant. The forces on the engine bearings varv with engine spee-:! ar.:
load. On the intake stroke, the inertia force is opposed by the farce
Most e n g i n e bearings are of t h e p l a i n or s l e e v e b e a r i n g
of drawing in the air-fuel mixture. On the compression and power
fype. See Figure 2 9 - 5 6 . M o s t bearing halves, or shells, do not
strokes, there is also an opposing force on the -od bearing: ~ the
have uniform t h i c k n e s s . T h e wall thickness of most bearings is
exhaust stroke, h o w e v e r there is no opposing force to counteract
'argest in t h e c e n t e r , called t h e b e a r i n g c r o w n . The bearing tc.. -
the inertia force of the piston coming to a stop at TDC. The result 5
ness then t a p e r s to a t h i n n e r m e a s u r e m e n t at each parting line.
a higher force load on the bottom rod beanng due to inertia at TE*.
See Figure 2 9 - 5 7 . T h e t a p e r e d wall keeps bearing clearances close
at
of the exhaust stroke. These forces tend to stretc-. the tig end t
the top a n d b o t t o m of t h e bearing, w h i c h are the more loaded
the rod in the direction of rod movement.
areas and a l l o w m o r e oil f l o w at t h e sides of the bearing. Both
nee
d a c o n s t a n t f l o w of lubricating oil. In automotive engines, the 1. As engine speed I RPM I increases, rod beanng iecrease
'"bricating s y s t e m s u p p l i e s oil to each bearing continuously w h e n because of the balancing of inertia and apposing oaih.
the
engine r u n s . Bearings a n d journals only w e a r w h e n the parts 2. As engine speed i RPM ncreases,the lain oea. aad toast
288 SI ' .
i AniNQ
ATf-RIAL
EL BACKING
SECTION OF A BEARING SHELL
Figure 29-59 Shape ol latlgue cracks In a bearing. II the beamm i |

ROD BEARING
high loads, the cracks expand and eventually cause the bearing mater ial to flake off iIOf
steel backing
1BO'
Jlfcf-
—
' I
. us
, ."c J 3 j
T* A "
270
- %
.' -
*
- i
Figure 29-60 Bearing material missing from the shell as a result of fatigue
Figure 29-58 Typical rod and main beanng load diagrams The circles on these polar
:»;rar- r a care die amount ot force on the bearing as it rotates Notice that most of the
rr r e connecting rod bearing are vertical tup and downi, as you would expect, mest
- -»tnr-.es or me -Bin beanng are downward, again as expected
BOTE: Thr helps explain why engine blocks with four-bolt main bearing
. uppers are realty only needed for htgh-englne speed stability.
Figure 29-61 Bearing matenal missing from the bearing as a result of fatigutfa
3 . Be:-:. ' h e loads on bearings vary and a/fect both rod and main
Lftir n z . . :t i; generally recommended that all engine bearings be
replaced at o n e time.
BEARING FATIGUE
Iify.r.'.i. tend to flex or bend slightly under changing loads. This is es-
vr:.*.:. in reciprocating engine bearings. Bearing metals,
...• e o7ier metals, tend to fatigue and break after being flexed or bent a
- . - - . v - A ttmes. Flexing starts fatigue, which shows up as fine cracks
m t n e bearing surface because the bearing material became w o r k
hardened. race gradually deepen almost to the bond be
••-' ' - t/.-irn? metal and the backing metal. The cracks then cross
-. . • / v . each other, as illustrated In Figure 2 9 - 5 9 . In
rr e . t . a . l o w a p.ece of bearing material to fall o u t The length Figure 29-62 Bearing wear caused by a misaligned journal. A bent connecting
i ed tin f a t i g u e life of the aHo came similar beanng wear
r , bear - , j y r ave a long fatigue life for normal engine ser
'• ' bfoi.t.gmaterial, the longer its fatigue life. Soft the shaft d u r i n g t h e e n g i n e break-in period. I n m o d e r n .
> :«•<• • - v . * .< life and low bearing load strength. They engines, there is little need for b e a r i n g c o n f o r m a b i l i t y
are n r . * - ' * - , J i f i tr. cost and can only be used w h e r e the bearing re because automatic processing has achieved m a c h i n i n g •
r m Se» f i g u r e s 2 9 6 0 arid 2 9 6 1 . that keep the shaft very close to t h e designed size. See HP1
BEARING CONFORMABILITY BEARING EMBEDABILITY

, / rr a'erlal! «, creep or flow '.lightly to match Engine m a n u f a c t u r e r s h a v e d e s i g n e d e n g i n e s to produce^ ^ t
c o n f o r m a b i l i t y . It." b , conform:, to i ranki a t e deposits. T h i s h a s b e e n d o n e by p r o v i d i n g ' .
SHAFT
figure29-63 Bearing material covers foreign mate'ia: a. '' • •••>'--
Figure 23-64 Foreign particles such as dirt embedded in the beanng material
filters, air filters, and closed crankcase ventilation systems that min-
imize contaminants. Still, some foreign particles get Into the bearings.
The bearings m u s t be capable of e m b e d d i n g these particles intc the
bearing surface so that they will not score the shaft. To fully embed
the particle, the bearing material gradually works across the p a r
cle, completely covering it. The bearing property that allows it :c
do this is called e m b e d a b i l i t y . Embedabiii-y is r . ^ r r / : r
Figures 2 9 - 6 3 and 2 9 - 6 4 .
BEARING DAMAGE RESISTANCE

Under some operating conditions, the bearing w * be t e m p o - - . -
overloaded. This will cause the oil film to break down and allow
the shaft metal to c o m e in contact with the bearing metal. As the
rotating crankshaft contacts the bearing high spots, the spots
come hot from friction. The friction causes localized ho* spots -
the bearing material that seize or weld to the crankshaft. The
crankshaft then breaks off particles of the bearing mater.al and ; .
the particles around w i t h it. scratching or scoring the tearing •-.-
face. See Figures 2 9 - 6 5 and 2 9 - 6 6 . Bearings have a c h a r a c t e r s : c
called s c o r e r e s i s t a n c e . It prevents the bearing materials from
seizing to the shaft during oil film breakdown.
By-products of combustion form acids in. the oi!. The bearings'
ability to resist attack from these acids is ca' ! ed c o r r o s i o n resis-
tance. Corrosion can occur over the entire surface of die bearing.
This will remove material and increase the oil clearance ' can a s
Rqurr 39-66
leach or eat into t h e bearing material, dissolving some the
teg material alloys. Either type of corrosion w i " reducc bearing
BEARING MATERIALS totPOttaa steel bac

force materials are used for automob e engine i v - ~ - babbitt, shell. -
copper-lead alloy, and a l u m i n u m . terial. The s & d provk
9-010 to 0 . 0 2 0 inch 10.25 to 0,50 fflffilfflr'er? th>< k s a r ? • i - v r • irsg material meets fis
we St. -*vt
ittt . . IJI.VI- D e a n n g materia!. Isaac BEARING MANUFACTURING

Ssfefcai: lek>2: f a r r . c i i : ^ sius material in 1 8 3 0 . A n ex- Modern automotive engines use p r e c i s i o ,
ry
o g f t e s t i n - t f ^ s s u - t e f o L a w a s o r i g n a l l y m a d e "rem a c o m b i n a t i o n s h e l l s , s o m e t i m e s called h a l f - s h e l l b e a r i r , . P e bear
a t teas, s r . . jr.ii a s r s o R v i U & a a n a tin are alloyed witis small q u a n - u f a c t u r e d to v e r y close t o l e r a n c e s o t h a t it
tides « s j p e r s a d a a t s s e n y to g v e it rhe r e q u i r e a s t r e n g t h , h^b application. T h e bearing, therefore, m u s t t-
j- « £ i a e c - - : . . r. w a i e b jRateriai is require 2 for soft the c o r r e c t m a t e r i a l s u n d e r closely c o n t r o l s . •-utacturingc <
••jr.ac m o d e r a t e loads a w s p e e d s , ft will w o r k w i t h tions. Figure 2 9 - 6 8 s h o w s t h e typical b e a r . . .
o c a s - -- M - a t i o n a n d oil s t a r v a t i o n w i t h o u t failure. • ^ f P e s Q
most engines.
Tn-Meai >p; • : . .i.loy is a s t r o n g e r a n d m o r e e x p e n s i v e

t h a n o a b b i t t . It is u s e d f o r i n t e r m e d i a t e - and BEARING SIZES
• . . a p p l i c a t i o n s . I ' m , .:. small q u a n t i t i e s , is o f t e n alloyed
Bearings are usually available in s t a n d a r d
-s :±; .-„• c-apper l e a d b e a r i n g s . T h i s b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l is m o s t easily m e n t s of 0 . 0 1 0 , 0 . 0 2 0 , a n d 0 . 0 3 0 i n c h undersize. See Fieiir-lr'''
• i a s s s g e a bv c o r r o s i o n f r o m acid a c c u m u l a t i o n in t h e e n g i n e oil. Even t h o u g h t h e b e a r i n g itself is t h i c k e r for u s e o n ;
C o r r o s i o n r e s u l t s in fearing j o u r n a l w e a r as t h e b e a r i n g is e r o d e d
c r a n k s h a f t , t h e b e a r i n g is r e f e r r e d t o as u n d e r e i z e becatr •
hy the a c a s . c r a n k s h a f t j o u r n a l s a r e u n d e r s i z e . F a c t o r y bearings may bbe 6-
Mar.-, of t h e copper-lead b e a r i n g s h a v e an o v e r l a y , or third able in 0 . 0 0 0 5 or 0 . 0 0 1 inch u n d e r s i z e for precision fitting 0
, » of m e a l . T h i s overlay ts usually or babbitt. Babbitt-overlayed —s Z 1 1 H e l l . . - | of a 5l,
duction crankshaft.
s e a n n g s h i v e h i g h fe&gue s t r e n g t h , good conformity, good e m b e d - Before p u r c h a s i n g b e a r i n g s , b e s u r e t o u s e a micrometer •
i - . c g o o d corrosion resistance. T h e o v e r r a t e d b e a r i n g is a m e a s u r e all m a i n a n d c o n n e c t i n g r o d j o u r n a l s .
:.- :.. .-.-. b e a r i n g . it is also t n e m o s t e x p e n s i v e b e c a u s e t h e over-
p » a a a g layer, rrom 0 . 0 0 0 5 to 0 . 0 0 1 i n c h •; 0 . 0 1 2 5 t o 0 . 0 2 5 millime-
:..._.-. .- put on t h e b e a r i n g w i t h an e l e c t r o p l a t i n g process. BEARING CLEARANCE
T n e l a y e r s of b e a r i n g material o n a b e a r i n g shell a r e illustrated in T h e bearing-to-journal c l e a r a n c e m a y b e f r o m 0 . 0 0 0 5 to 0.0025a
ftgare'29-67. ( 0 . 0 2 5 to 0 . 0 6 0 millimeter), d e p e n d i n g o n t h e engine. Doubling"
AluBKmijn Ai umin urn w a s t h e last of t h e three materials to b e used

*•>: a u t o m o t i v e bearings. Automotive bearing a l u m i n u m h a s small
qsaRSts • of o n a n d silicon alloyed with it. This m a k e s a stronger but
:-... ..-•.' e x p e n s i v e bearsag than either babbitt or copper-lead alloy.
M o s t oi its b e a r i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e e q u a l t o or b e t t e r t h a n
t h o s e or babbitt a n d copper-lead. A l u m i n u m b e a r i n g s a r e w e l l
• jo high s p e e d , high-load c o n d i t i o n s a n d d o n o t c o n t a i n
I x z z . wr.;ch is a b e n e f i t to t h e e n v i r o n m e n t b o t h at t h e m a n u f a c -
..--.;., p i a s t a n d for t h e t e c h n i c i a n w h o m a y b e e x p o s e d to t h e
searings.
F i g u r e 2 9 - 6 8 Typical bearing stiell types found in modern engines: 1.

bearing, (b) upper mam bearing insert, (c) iower mam bearing insert, (d) full rounfl-W4
camsnatt bearing.
BABBITT (3)
COPPER-LEAD (2)
ALLOY
STEEL (1)
F i g u r e 2 9 - 6 9 Bearings are often marked with an undersize dimension ; ^,

«go»»-6? l-fjcz. *K> swe tritotc used on a crankshaft with a ground lournal that is 0.020 inch smaller in dia
stock see. j
d (tearwcss
ANO.j .A
GROOV»
OIL
HOLt
BEARING TIGHT
1
Figure 29-70 Many bearings are manufactured with a groove down the .
the oil (low around the main Journal. r ~
AMOUMT
OF CRUSH
LOCATING
TANG sL0T
BEARING
causH
figure 29-72 Bear,-,-: -. .
Figure 29-71 The tang and slot help index the bearing in the bore
CRUSH
journal c l e a r a n c e will a l l o w m o r e t h a n four times as m u c h oil to RELIEF
flow from t h e e d g e s of t h e bearing. T h e oil clearance m u s t be large
enough to allow an oil film to build up, but small enough to prevent
excess oil leakage, w h i c h w o u l d c a u s e loss of oil pressure. A large
amount of oil leakage at o n e of t h e bearings w o u l d starve other bear
ings farther a l o n g in t h e oil s y s t e m . This w o u l d result in the failure
of the oil-starved b e a r i n g s . See Figure 2 9 - 7 0 .
BEARING SPREAD AND CRUSH

A lip or t a n g locates t h e b e a r i n g shell in t h e housing, as s h o w n in
Figure 2 9 - 7 1 . T h e b e a r i n g design also includes bearing s p r e a d
and c r u s h , as illustrated in Figure 2 9 - 7 2 .
Figure 29-73 Beings a n timer atine parting tne faces us proridi -jjm t
The bearing shell h a s a slightly larger arc than does the bearing
housing. This d i f f e r e n c e is called b e a r i n g spread and it m a k e s the
shell 0 . 0 0 5 to 0 . 0 2 0 inch ( 0 . 1 2 5 to 0 . 5 0 0 millimeter w der than
the housing b o r e . Spread h o l d s t h e bearing shell in t h e housing Replacement bearings s h o u l d b e of a quai:r. as gpoc i r ye-
while the e n g i n e is b e i n g a s s e m b l e d . W h e n t h e bearing is nsta led, a r than that of t h e original bearings. T h e r e p l a c e m e n t
each end of t h e b e a r i n g shell is slightly a b o v e the parting < irface m u s t also have t h e s a m e ot. noies a n d grooves.
When the b e a r i n g c a p is t i g h t e n e d , t h e e n d s of the t w o b e a r n g
shells t o u c h a n d a r e forced together. This force is cai a i b e a r i n g
crush. Crush holds t h e b e a r i n g in place a n d keeps the bearing fir, m S net- ir.-ai s u • • _ - .- - .--- .
turning w h e n t h e e n g i n e r u n s . C r u s h m u s t e x e r t a force : a t east are i«c:t«eBf - - . a l i e i r . - I n . Sew • •„>. • •».-
12,000 PSI ( 8 2 , 7 4 0 kPa) at 2 5 0 ° F ( 1 2 1 6 C | to hold t h e beat ng rods, vrtsch will resuk in :r -saai
securely in place. A stress of 4 0 , 0 0 0 PSI i : 7 5 , '<->0 kPal s consid
ered m a x i m u m to avoid d a m a g i n g t h e bearing or housing. S e e
Figure 2 9 7 3 . Bearing shells t h a t d o not h a v e e n o u g h crush ma- Modified, engines have m e r e l e x a a d m a o e a r . r . i
rotate with t h e s h a f t . T h e result is called a s p u n b e a r i n g , and therefore usual., r e q u i r e a h . z r e r r . i . r - -
Pictured in Figure 2 9 - 7 4 . satisfactory service.
_
W2 S>
CAMSHAFT
BEARINGS
FRONT
Figure 2 9 - 7 5 Cam-in-block engines support the camshaft with sleeve-type beanng
! 2 9 - 7 4 SCLT Dear tq The lower cap beanng has rotated under the upper rod
M n (
OIL H O L E TO
R O C K E R ARM
TECH H P C o u n t Your B l e s s i n g s a n d Your P a n B o l t s !
c a r oearmgs can be relatively straightforward or can involve keep-

r "he "•ijmoar ot od pan bolts' For example. Buick-buitt V-6 engines
, - cam Beanngs depending on the number ot bolts used to hold the
par toftebtodc.
fco-teer Dcfts in the oil pan The front bearing is special, but the rest of the
bearings are h e same
"A-—, bote m the od pan 8earings #1 and #4 use two oil feed holes
ftear K p #2 and 13 use single oil feed holes
CAMSHAFT BEARINGS
T'v i.- haft r p u s h r o d e n g i n e s r o u t e s in s l e e v e b e a r i n g s t h a t
=.-- —o b e a r i n g b o r e s w i t h i n t h e e n g i n e block. O v e r h e a d
" : " oearings m a y be e i t h e r sleeve-type b u s h i n g s called f u l l
-ind b e a r i n g s split-type ialf s h e i ' bearings, depending
- of t h e b e a r i n g s u p p o r t s , in p u s h r o d e n g i n e s , the
-.-. ar- n s t a l i e d in t h e b l o c k . S e e F i g u r e 2 9 - 7 5 . The
- -- . • . r . t t o f o l l o w is t o r e p l a c e t h e c a m b e a r i n g s w h e n - Figure 2 9 - 7 6 Camshaft bearings must be installed correctly so
, ... b e a r ngs are replaced. T h e r e p l a c e m e n t c a m bear- blocked
- - - a v e t h e c o r r e c t o u t s i d e d i a m e t e r t o fit s n u g l y in t h e
o e i : ' . z L o r e s of t h e b l o c k . T h e y m u s t h a v e t h e c o r r e c t oil
• . > ;': o e py u o n e d correctly. See Figure 2 9 - 7 6 . C a m bear-
'«: " . - / . - a <e t h e p r o p e r i n s i d e d i a m e t e r t o fit t h e c a m s h a f t
C a m s h a f t b e a r i n g s u s e d o n o v e r h e a d c a m s h a f t em
oea-" * ournais.
e i t h e r full r o u n d o r s p l i t d e p e n d i n g o n t h e engine
- - • ' • . . . o e s , e a c h c a m b e a r i n g is a d i f f e r e n t s i z e — t h e
Figure 2 9 - 7 7 .
-. - - ' f r o n t a n d t h e s m a l l e s t is in t h e r e a r . T h e cam
• ' > ." - ze r . r ' be checked and each bearing identified
.->-' ' ' i v s r . o • : w s . . T h e l o c a t i o n of e a c h n e w c a m bearing
.ar oe or '{.•- o u t s i d e of t h e b e a r i n g w i t h a felt-tip TECH TIP Do No H a r m
~ -.'<•'- ' . - o a/o d ~ j p b e a r i n g s . M a r k i n g in t h i s w a y
d
- a ' - ' - - v s . r> c - - i o i z e o r d a m a g e t h e b e a r i n g in a n y w a y . All engine parts should be stored in a safe location to help av0
'^|()
- o r - ; . ^ - ^d " d r y " ' n o t oiled] to p r e v e n t t h e to being installed in an engine. All camshafts and crankshaft ^ ^ K K - *
:a~ fro-:, rr.o ' - * •.p.nr.ir,?, a f t e r i n s t a l l a t i o n . If t h e c a m
vertically to avoid causing bending or warpage of these par^ ^
o—.- - . . «•.- . or of T . e c a m s h a f t c o u l d c a u s e t h e
difficulty when the engine is being assembled See Fiau"? •
car. :/•>,"•/ ••. ' v a » f ar.d b.v< oii h o i e s t h a t lubricate the
method of safely storing crankshafts.
camsha'-
Blocks. Crankshaft:,, and 8earmgs 293
BEARING
9. A vibraac damper, also known as a harmonic balancer. Is used to
CAP
da - pen harmful twisting vibrations of the crankshaft.
10. M ire internally balanced. Thismeans that the crankshafts ar.d
••^ration damper are both balanced. Other engines use the vibration damper
to balance the crankshaft and are called externally balanced engines
11. Most crar.shafts can be reground to be 0.010, 0.020, or 0.030 loch
undersize,
12. M • ne bearings are constructed with a steel shell for strength and
are covered with a copper-lead alloy. Many bearings also have a thin over-
lay of babbitt.
13. Bearing should have spread and crush to keep them from spinning
CAMSHAFT when the crankshaft rotates.
BEARING
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What does "decking the block" mean?
2. pla - • rot " means.
3. What the difference between deglazing and honing a cylinder:
4. w-.v • - K-- rlear. ar engine block after honin?:
Figure 29-77 Some overhead camshaft engines use split beanng inserts. 5. How manv degree- I cran-. r.af- - -.a-. n are there between cylinder Hr
ings on an inline four-cvL-.der engine, an inline six-cylinder engine, and a
V-8 engine?
6. List four engine bearlsg pr ipenes.
7. Describe beanng cr. t a- 3 t-ear-. sp-ead.
CHAPTER QUIZ^
1. The block deo: ; the .
a. Bottom ipan re o t t h e b i
b. Top surface of the fc» :k
c. Valley surface o; a V ~.-pe engine
d. Area where the engine x -its are attached to the block
2. The standard measurement for surface finish is the mkroinch. Which of
the following is correct:
a. The rougher the surface the -.tgher the raicroinch finisn
measurement
b. The sir. <tier the surface, the higher the microinch finish
measurement.
Figure 29-78 Crankshafts should be stored vertically to prevent possible damage or c. The rougher the surface, the lower the microinch finish
warpage. This clever bench-mounted tray for crankshafts not only provides a safe place to measurement
store crankshafts but it is out-of-the-way and cannot be accidentally tipped. d. Both b and c.
3. A fourcyiinder engine fires one cylinder at every degrees of
crankshaft rotation.
a. 270
b. 180
SUMMARY
c. 120
1. Engine blocks are either cast iron or aluminum. d. 90
2. Cores are used inside a mold to form water jackets and cylinder bores. 4. A splayed crankshaft is a crankshaft that
After the cast iron has cooled, the block is shaken, which breaks up the a. Is externaliv balanced
cores so that they fail out of openings in the side of the block. Core plugs b. Is internally balanced
are used to fill the holes. c. Has offset main bearing journals
3. The block deck Is the surface to which the cylinder head attaches. This d. Has offset rod journals
surface must be flat and true for proper engine operation. 5. B e thrust beanng surface ocated on :ne :: the T.i:r. beanng toco
4. All bolt holes should be chamfered and cleaned with a thread chaser be- thrust loads caused by .
fore assembly. a. Lugging the engine
b. Torque converter or clutch release forces
5- Forged crankshafts have a wide separation line.
c. Rapid deceleration forces
b. Cast crankshafts have a narrow mold parting line d. Both a and c
7
- Even-firing 90-degree V-0 engines require that the crankshaft be splayed 6. If any crankshaft is ground, it must also be
to allow for even firing. a. Shotpeened
8. Lubrication to the main bearings is fed through the main oil gallerv in the b. Chrome plated
block. Oil for the rod bearings comes from holes in the crankshaft drilled c. Polished
between the main journal and the rod journal. d. Externally balanced
A— .Iw flow? 9. Abe:-nf a ithdy . r arc ••
iflng
• difference is called , .
h ' pr>- is-ijTe 6 kept cowtant a. Bearing cru>,h
c b. Bearing rang
d. MBMKtf' c. Bearing spread
d. Bearing saddle
i n clearance
a. ( O f f l S w O O O O H - 10. Bearing occurs when a b e a r i n g
b CO*) ^ 0 0 0 2 5 inch parting surface of the bearing cap. as.
c. 8 ' VD to 6.250 inch a. Overlap
d. • '-JSinrr b. Crush
c. Cap lock
d. Interference fit
30
C H A P T E R
Engine Blueprinting
and Assembly
After studying Chapter 30, the reader will be able to: Prepare for Engine Repair (AI) ASE certification test content area " C " ( E n g i n e
» D'sow, and Repair) • List the steps for assembling an engine • Describe how to measure bearing oil clearance using plastic gauging i r -
ow to check for crankshaft end play and connecting rod side clearance • Discuss how to fit pistons to individual cylinder bores • Desr-
r o w to test for proper oil pressure before starting the engine
• • acetic acid • amine-type silicone • armor • braided fabric seals • cork-rubber gasket • crankshaft end play • fire ring*
• • jiM-iyno^j steel (MLS) • no-retorque gasket • piston ring compressor • room-temperature vulcanization (RTV) • strip feeler gauge • torque ;
• " ax to-yield • welsh plugs • wet holes
A i parts are attached to the engine block

1',-xt be prepared before assembly can begin The key to proper
assembly ot any engine is cleanliness The work area and the work-
The block, therefore,
oenr.n s p a c e must be clean to prevent dirt or other engine-damaging

v.T trom being picked up and causing possible serious engine
damage
BLUEPRINTING
I r.f t e r n blueprinting m e a n s that all of the c o m p o n e n t s of an e n
>„,,- b e e n carefully m e a s u r e d and c h e c k e d that they m a t c h
;.- ,pe .' rations listed by the m a n u f a c t u r e r . T h e e n g i n e m a n u f a c
• • . : a ri'-w e n g i n e to t h e d i m e n s i o n s and tolerances specl-
.-•J .:. r,i j e p r i n t , w h i c h Is t h e e n g i n e e r i n g d r a w i n g of t h e parts
r i< • •.••„., T h e r e f o r e , to " b l u e p r i n t " a n e n g i n e Is to m a k e s u r e
-'• • iru nt parts a n d d i m e n s i o n s are w i t h i n t h e range spec-
ified by rr,<- e n g i n e m a n u f a c t u r e r .
Figure 30-1 The best way lo clean cylinders is to use soap (detergentând^^ ^ _
thoroughiy clean using a large washing brush. This method floats the m>
BLOCK PREPARATION ol Ihe block and washes them away
A , ..'!.. < bkx k should also be checked for d a m a g e resulting
f r o m t h e m a c h i n i n g p r o c e s i e s . I t e m s that should be d o n e b e f o r e
.I. . ' ,'. :, r. l u d e t h e following:
INSTALLING CUPS AND PLUGS
I- • , • i.'-ry pa .tgi •., should be thoroughly Oil gallery d u g s s h o u l d be installed u s i n g s e a l a n t ^
• leaned. See hjiurr •. 50 I and 3 0 2. C o r e holes left in t h e e x t e r n a l block wall a r e m a u ^ (
2 . Antl i-.-ltc.!' • ole ,h«wld be chamfered, w i t h soft c o r e plugs or e x p a n s i o n p l u g s (also ca •

i ..sr. -.-! • ned w n h • tup. See Flgttf* 3 0 - 3 . welsh plugs i
m J
INSTALL
THIS SIDE
TOWARD
ENGINE
Figure 30-4 'acaeeep taoeres lange T>e flange r md be :-»tM «

<«3ter-<evaant sealer oeia« bee* "c * * > x »
Figure 30-2 All oil galleries should be cleaned using soap (detergent) and water using s
long oil gallery cleaning brush.
Figure 30-5 -iissngne j s e mart cw s>jgs » » r" ::oar! and

wet as a large Mug w r the ere: * fte camsiefl bons
shows ar. iasta-ied .-.-.: « t s aft pvjg. convex plug should oe ir. i
en in until it r e a d i e s the counter bare of the core piug hole.
C u p t y p e . T r m o s t c o m n s : : type ir.tc a c o o t h . •••
hoie. The « j r e r edge of the o p is slightly bell mouthea. Tne be
Figure 30-3 All threaded holes should be cleaned using a thread chase • j
mouth causes it to tighter, w h e n it is driven into ftoie w -
bottoming tap
eomect depth wftti a seating t o d .An installed o p type set; i
shown in figure 3 0 - 5 . A c u p plug a installed about 320
0.050 incfc 0 3 a 1.3 r.i. -aeter befew the sti-ace : t » t >;.r.,
using sealant to prevent leaks. See figure 3D-&
Avoid using Teflon tape on the threads of oil pal.'erv plugs. The
'ape is often cut by the threads, and thin strips of the tape are ~ee r.
flow through the oil galleries where the tape can c a . « a c INSTALLING CAM BEARINGS
limiting lubricating engine oil tolmpprtam par:-, thee
A cam beanng installing tool is required tc insert 'Joe
without damaging the bearing. A n u m b e r o f : >
sign and sell cam beanng insp'img, : x is Their
Soft plugs are of t w o designs:
shoulder on a bushing that fits .nsjde t h e c a r
1
Convex type. I he core hoi> • - of keeping the bearing a l l i e d as it s mssaile.
convex soft plug is placed in the counter bore, t nve\ - de • camshaft bearing on the rer v - . : n •:
ls
driven in and upset with a fitted seating tool. - ea >. \ placed on the bushing at the raoi and r o a e d «o
e
dge of the soft plug to enlarge to hi >id i: n place : 30 4 hole. The bearing b then Sauced i n t o t h e bearing b a t ol
A railing s c r e w type of tool CAUSES OF PREMATURE BEARING
'- " •-; r e a r i n g m u s t b e c h e c k e d t o A c c o r d i n g to a m a j o r m a n u f a c t u r e r of e r earinpTthT^
d that the oil h . ;e is indexed causes of p r e m a t u r e IshortJy after installation ,ig f ^ . I
r ^ - c s -n : . •:«. N o additional service is required on t h e following:
zs • - : • - i . . ->;-- : \ p e : . . - installed. T h e o p e n i n g at the
.in. >- r t a s e d \ t t r :in expansion plug. Dirt (45%)
M i s a s s e m b l y (13%)
M i s a l i g n m e n t (13%)
Lack of lubrication (11%)
O v e r l o a d i n g or lugging (10%)
C o r r o s i o n (4%)
O t h e r (4%)
M a n y cases of premature bearing failure m a y result from a comb®; -

of several of these items. T h e r e f o r e , t o h e l p p r e v e n t bearing fe I
keep everything as clean as possible.
MEASURING MAIN BEARING CLEARANCE

T h e e n g i n e is a s s e m b l e d f r o m t h e i n s i d e o u t . C h e c k s are made
ing assembly to e n s u r e c o r r e c t fits a n d p r o p e r assembly of then-1
T h e m a i n bearings a r e p r o p e r l y fit b e f o r e the crankshafi.
lubricated or t u r n e d . T h e oil c l e a r a n c e of b o t h main and cor-
ing rod bearings is set by selectively f i t t i n g t h e bearings. In thi I
Figure 30-6 S e w snoiafl be used on the cup plug before being driven into the block
t h e oil clearance can be a d j u s t e d t o w i t h i n 0 . 0 0 0 5 inch c::
desired clearance.
Avoid touching bearings with bare hands. The oils on

fingers can start corrosion of the bearing materials. Always wear pi >.
doth or rubber gloves to avoid the possibility of damage to the tea-
surface.
Bearings are usually m a d e in 0 . 0 1 0 , 0 . 0 2 0 , and 0.030 inch

dersize for use on r e g r o u n d j o u r n a l s . S e e Figure 3 0 - 9 for a tffi
m a i n b e a r i n g set.
T h e c r a n k s h a f t b e a r i n g j o u r n a l s s h o u l d b e measured with a'
c r o m e t e r to select t h e r e q u i r e d b e a r i n g size. Remember thai<:
of t h e m a i n b e a r i n g caps will o n l y fit o n e location and the L-
m u s t be positioned correctly. T h e c o r r e c t - s i z e bearings shout
placed in t h e block and cap, m a k i n g s u r e t h a t the bearing
Figure 30-7 Cam bearing tool being used to remove a used cam bearing
TWO PIECE PULLING

EXPANDING COLLET PLATE
THRUST
BEARING
BACK-UP NUT
PULLING
NUT
R ( m 3 M v <r* :,. . v.i •, a new w , bearing Most cam bearings a r e crush tit. The full, round bearing is forced into the cam bearing bore.
A
<;•' isf ,0 Engine Blueprinting and AsjemSf 297
UPHIifl
•
THRUST
BEARING
LOV/ER
figure 30-9 Typical main bearing set. Note that the upper halves are grooved for better oil
low and the lower halves are plain lor belter load support. This bearing set uses the center
main bearing lor Ihtusl control.
Rgure 30-11 Cheung the >' P* ; 'asCc gauging strip to deterr ne the ort
clearance of thema»i bearing. A- alternate iêffod <* determim'ng ol clearance includes
careful measurement ol the cnrt i-aft j a n a i an«J beanngs alter they are installed and the
mam housing bore cap6 are hrgued lo specifications.
The crankshaft is removed once the correct oil clearance has

been established. The rear oi! seal is installed in the block and cap;
then the crankshaft journals are lubricated with assembly lubricant.
•One to Three"
Figure 3 0 - 1 0 Crankslwlt being carefully lowered into place. When engine technicians are tafiung about clearances and specifications, r e
unit ot measure n>ost often used 6 thousandths ot an inch tO.OOt inch) There-
fore. a clearance expressed as "one to three" would actually be a clearance D)
locks into its slot. The upper main bearing has an oil feed hole. Care- 0 001 to 0.003 inch. The same appfces to parts of a thousandth of an -vh.
fully rest the clean crankshaft in the block on the upper main bear- example, a specification of 0 0005 to 0.0015 inch would be spoken rf as sc-piy
ings. Lower It squarely, as shown in Figure 30-10, so that it does not being "one-hall to one and one-halt.' The unit of a thousandth of ar. ck* S B-
•I'image the thrust bearing. Place a strip of Plastigage (gauging plastic) sumed. and this method ot speaking reduces errors and rofeyndwsta' i "gs.
on each main bearing journal. Install the main bearing caps and
tighten the bolts to specifications. Remove each cap and check the HINT: Most engine clearance specifications (alt wthin ono-to Bvae-thOisandlfw
width of the Plastigage with the markings on the gauge envelope, as oI an inch. The written specification could be a misprint, therefore I the speo-
shown in Figure 3 0 - 1 1 . This will indicate the oil clearance. If the fjcatjon does not fait within this general range, double-check B» cSearatw
shaft is out of-round, the oil clearance should be checked at the point using a different source.
that has the least oil clearance.
CORRECTING B E A R I N G C L E A R A N C E
r LIP S E A L INSTALLATION
he oil clearance can be reduced by 0.001 inch by replacing both
Seals are always used at the front and roar of the crank haft. •
-caring shells with bearing shells that are 0.001 inch undeisiae. The
head cam engines may also have a seal at the h.mt end j! 'he
clearance can be reduced by 0 . 0 0 0 5 inch by replacing only one of
th camshaft and at the front end of an auxiliary accessory <• it*..- dktr
<? hearing shells with a bearing shell that is 0.001 inch smaller.
r a lip seal or a rope seal is used in these iocati<>ns. See F'gure i O 12.
hls smaller bearing shell should be placed in the engine-block side
lf r h e rear crankshaft oil seal is installed after r.e r a.n be « - : . » . o
'he bearing (the upper shell). Oil clearance can be adjusted accu-
r 5(
' ely using this procedure. Never mismatch the bearing shells by been pn>perly fit.
^ r e than a 0.001 inch difference in size. Oil clearances normally rite lip seal may be molded in a >vel ;ase > r n a y t.e -r. Wed
" n from 0.0005 to 0 . 0 0 2 inch. around a steel sliffener. The counter t o r e < >r j.-lde 'hat u p ^ x a 1m
7* s
Teflon seals should not be tabrtwHw!

t r installed a n . W h e n the engine Is first started,
tors, to the crankshaft so a Teflon-to Tcfl<m M;,
ng seal with your hands could removi outerc
the seal and could cause a leak c.arcfully mar
the installation irMrc.ctions that sh«i.li|.-con i >• i t ) v seal.
R O P E SEAL INSTALLATION _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
R . .VM. ,s.. \ c a < d b r a i d e d f a b r i c s e a l s , are sonieij^

u s e d a s r e a r c r a n k s h a f t oil s e a l s . S o m e e n . anufecror -
Buick u s e rope-type seals at b o t h t h e f r o n t and rear of the c-V
s h a f t . R o p e t y p e oil s e a l s m u s t b e c o m p r e s s e d tightly into the r
s o t h a t n o oil c a n l e a k b e h i n d t h e m . W i t h t h e crankshaft Roiovt
t h e u p p e r half of t h e r o p e s e a l is p u t in a c l e a n g r o o v e and cor
P"Ou>-* 3&-1J ..' Nt* -PS na» ben "w In v t a t ' v e s t a l ! is -emoved
p r e s s e d b y r o l l i n g a r o u n d o b j e c t a g a i n s t it t oforce it tightly into;
g r o o v e . A p i e c e of p i p e , a l a r g e s o c k e t , o r e v e n a hammer ham
SEAL TOOL c a n b e u s e d for this, a s s h o w n in F i g u r e 3 0 1 5 . W h e n the s®
f u l l y s e a t e d in t h e g r o o v e , t h e e n d s t h a t e x t e n d above the pan
s u r f a c e a r e c u t t o b e f l u s h w i t h t h e s u r f a c e u s i n g a sharp s.ngle-ec.
r a z o r blade or a s h a r p tool specially d e s i g n e d t o c u t t h e s e a . "
s a m e p r o c e d u r e s a r e u s e d t o install t h e l o w e r half of the rope
1
the rear main bearing cap or seal retainer. See : re 3 0 - 1 6 .
INSTALLING THE O U U H C S H A F T
T h e m a m b e a r i n g s a d d l e s , t h e c a p s , a n d t h e b a o k of a l l the m a r :
ing s h e l l s s h o u l d b e w i p e d c l e a n ; t h e be.v g s h c . l s can er bet
in p l a c e . It is i m p o r t a n t t h a t e a c h b e a r i n g t a n g l i n e u p w i t h t h e
t h e b e a r i n g s u p p o r t . T h e b e a r i n g s h e , Is m u s t h a v e s o m e spread i
t h e m in t h e b e a r i n g s a d d l e s a n d c a p s as- ••; v. The -
of t h e b e a r i n g s is t h e n g i v e n a t h i n c o a t i n g of a s s e m b l y lubricr
p r o v i d e initial l u b r i c a t i o n f o r e n g i n e s t a r t - u p . S e e Figure 30-17.
3 6 - 1 3 Vm&K use It* oroper driver to instaf a mam sea, Never pound directly on The crankshaft with lubricant on the j o u r n a l s is carets
p l a c e d in t h e b e a r i n g s t o a v o i d d a m a g e t o t h e t h r u s t bearinc
f a c e s . T h e b e a r i n g c a p s a r e i n s t a l l e d w i t h t h e i r identificat
bets correctly positioned. T h e caps w e r e originalh -a;
p l a c e , s o t h e y c a n o n l y fit c o r r e c t l y i n t h e i r o r i g i n a l pcabor
OIL S E A L m a i n bearing cap bolts are tightened finger-tight, a n d the crai
is r o t a t e d . It s h o u l d r o t a t e f r e e l y .
INSTALLATION
TOOL
SEAL RETAINER
3 I M * T>« a <m to M eopmt mounts, tf a retainc plate The retainer ts then
f . ciear. In most cases, the back of the lip

• nsTiiied. Xxasiona, v, a manufacturer will
>• hoi na he sea . The engine service
I-- ..ten • spec f\ -ea .r.c instructions. The lip
tntfe*
*»• ihri. atefi hofore the shall and cap are m- Figure 3 0 - 1 5 Use a special tool or olhei 'nund obiert like a hsmmei ha
Kt 3 and 3 0 - 1 4 . to the bottom 01 the groove
Figure 3 0 - 1 7 Engine assembly lubncant is best to use because 3;- •
Fip»i3e-1S • - - • - - r r v - r ••
o'tiwde protection to engine parts during the critics! onginai start-up pbast
Vns B a n c cbmfcf " w w f c s w €u»w>
MEASURING T H R U S T B E A R I N G CLEARANCE
Pry t h e c r a n k s h a f t f o r w a r d a n d r e a r w a r d t o align t h e c a r t ; : ; : : n e
thrust b e a r i n g w i t h t h e b l o c k s a d d l e half. M o s t e n g i n e s p e c i f k a r
thrust b e a r i n g c l e a r a n c e i a l s o ca :ed c r a n k s h a f t e n d p l a \
range f r o m 0 . 0 0 2 t o 0 . 0 1 2 i n c h ( 0 . 0 2 t o 0 . 3 Hoi.imeter - 7 " s c ear
ance or p l a y c a n b e m e a s u r e d w i t h a f e r . c r g a u g e F c u r e 5
a dial i n d i c a t o r ( F i g u r e 3 0 - 1 9 1 .
If t h e c l e a r a n c e is t o o g r e a t , o v e r - . !»•>: h e a r ~a
he available for t h e e n g i n e . S e m i f i n i s h e d b r a - p- : *
purchased a n d m a c h i n e d t o s i z e t o r e s t o r e p r o p e r t n l e - a n o e .
TIGHTENING P R O C E D U R E FOR T H E MAIN B E 4 P VU

!;
ghten the m a i n b e a r i n g c a p s t c * spec Sed a s s c - :
=nd m t h e s p e c i f i e d s e q u e n c e . M a n . — ; -"act .--= t e c thai
:!,e
crankshaft be pried forward or rearw ard d ng t": T.ar
rntarm.: m
"'earing t i g h t e n i n g p r o c e s s . The crankshaft sho • ; " .•vTpm m n p w : v a w u i *
after all m a i n b e a r i n g c a p b o l t s a r e f u l l y t o r t j u e d . S e e c ne .-Trrecxc Mkvf asdtona ess
; should n e v e r r e q u i r e o v e r 5 p o u n d v e t c Nt t; te--
l N "®l of t o r q u e t o r o t a t e t h e c r a n k > - . * f t . Ar ancnv.se - *
IKSTALL1NG TIMIMG C H A I K S A W SEARS
"que n e e d e d t o r o t a t e t h e c r a n k s h a f t is o f t e n c a u s e d a for
p a r t i c l e t h a t w a s n o : r e m o v e d d u r i n g c eai p. r: be n O r nushroc eEgin&. tac t i r . j - 4 j u k :.: a
"f bearing s u r f a c e , on t h e c r a n k s h a f t p u m a ! . or b e t w e e n the insa-ad a f w cranitinar. nr n
^ " " i n g and s a d d l e a c c o r d i n g H t h e fact; - -oe. - it>
300 35 " ' . N
30-21 Tar ig cdam and gears can be installed after the crankshaft and camshaft
-.-: v- jeer -"-Tata: The technician isrotatingthe crankshaft using the harmonic balancer Figure 3 0 - 2 2 A feeler gauge is used to check piston ring gap.
be - r :•«•> tsr yzpei rotating torque and to confirm that the timing marks are aligned
-i - >: r e p l a c e a b l e f u e l - p u m p e c c e n t r i c is i n s t a l l e d as t h e c a m Each piston should be selec-

v a r i a t i o n in d i m e n s i o n s w i l l o c c u r .
: _ < e : f a s t e n e d to the cam. T h e crankshaft should be rotated tively fitted to each cylinder. This procedure helps to preve
• . c - a l s m e s t o s e e t h a t t h e c a m s h a f t a n d t i m i n g g e a r s o r c h a i n ro- m i s m a t c h e d a s s e m b l e d c o m p o n e n t s a n d r e s u l t s in a better- per
f r e e v. T h e t i m i n g m a r k a l i g n m e n t s h o u l d b e r e c h e c k e d a t t h i s f o r m i n g a n d l o n g e r - l a s t i n g e n g i n e . By c h e c k i n g all cylinders, the
: -.e If t h e e n g i n e is e q u i p p e d w i t h a s l i n g e r r i n g , it s h o u l d a l s o b e t e c h n i c i a n is a l s o a s s u r e d t h a t t h e m a c h i n i n g of t h e block wt
r t a i . e d or. t h e c r a n k s h a f t , in f r o n t of t h e c r a n k s h a f t gear. d o n e correctly.
i ' ii a s s u m e d t h a t t h e f r o n t oil s e a l is i n s t a l l e d in t h e c o v e r . T h e
Ring End Gap T h e b o t t o m of t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r is seal:
:z : . v e r a n d g a s k e t a r e p l a c e d o v e r t h e t i m i n g g e a r s a n d / o r
b y t h e p i s t o n r i n g s . T h e y h a v e t o fit c o r r e c t l y in o r d e r to seal f
j - . a m a n d sprockets. T h e a t t a c h i n g bolts are loosely installed to
erly. P i s t o n rings a r e c h e c k e d b o t h f o r s i d e c l e a r a n c e and for
-i • t h e d a m p e r h u b t o a l i g n w i t h t h e c o v e r a s it fits in t h e seal.
S e e F i g u r e 3 0 - 2 2 . Typical r i n g g a p c l e a r a n c e s a r e a b o u t 0.004 ind
""-.•? d a m p e r is i n s t a l l e d o n t h e c r a n k s h a f t . O n s o m e e n g i n e s , it is a
p e r i n c h of c y l i n d e r b o r e , o r a s f o l l o w s :
• ' a r : o n o t h e r s it is h e l d w i t h a l a r g e c e n t e r b o l t . A f t e r t h e
: ; - D e : is s e c u r e d , t h e a t t a c h i n g b o l t s o n t h e t i m i n g c o v e r c a n b e
nzh:e-.ed to the specified t o r q u e .
Piston Diameter Ring Gap
2 to 3 inches 0 . 0 0 7 to 0 . 0 1 8 inch
PISTON FITTING
3 to 4 inches 0 . 0 1 0 to 0 . 0 2 0 inch
After t n o r o u g h block cleaning, the piston-to-cylinder clearance
4 to 5 inches 0 . 0 1 3 to 0.023 inch
.id b e cr.ecked to ensure that the piston properly fits the
r. - w n i c h is t o o p e r a t e . T h e fit c a n b e c h e c k e d b y d e t e r -
r.r: th- a "»rence in t h e m e a s u r e d s i z e of t h e p i s t o n and
strip feeler gauge placed between the piston and MOTE: If the gap is greater than r e c o m m e n d e d , s o m e e n g i n e period
".he :vrder can be used to measure the piston-to-cylinder m a n c e is lost. However, too small a gap will result in scuffing because
: T h e g a u g e t h i c k n e s s is t h e d e s i r e d c l e a r a n c e measure- of ring butting during operation, w h i c h forces the rings t o scrape l » i
cylinders.
Typ : a : piston clearances range from about 0.0005 in.
2 - . d t r of a n i n c h ) t o . 0 0 2 5 i n . (2 1 / 2 t h o u s a n d t h s of a n
-. - - 0 02 to 0 . 0 6 millimeter).
7 r - "..ir.de-. a n d pistons, w i t h o u t rings, should be w i p e d thor- If t h e r i n g g a p is t o o l a r g e , t h e r i n g s h o u l d b e replaced''
i s
: ear to r e m o v e a n y e x c e s s protective lubricant a n d dust one having the next oversize diameter. If t h e r i n g g a p I
r a . - e acc e m u l a t e d o n t h e surface. T h e strip thickness small, the ring should be r e m o v e d and f i l e d t o m a k e the?" I
- " g a t e d m t h e c y l i n d e r a l o n g t h e t h r u s t s i d e . T h e pis- larger.
r :.r. erted ia t h e cylinder upside d o w n , with the piston thrust

• a g a i n s t t h e t h i c k n e s s f e e l e r ) g a u g e . T h e p i s t o n is h e l d in t h e
INSTALLING PISTON AND ROD ASSEMBLIES
c y l i n d e r w i t h t h e c o n n e c t i n g r o d a s t h e s t r i p g a u g e is w i t h d r a w n . A
Be s u r e t o n o t e w h i c h p i s t o n / r o d a s s e m b l y g o e s i n t o which 0'"'"
m o d e r a t e p .. from 5 10 p o u n d s ) o n the gauge indicates t h a t t h e
Double-check the following:
tiearar.ce i r - a w g a u g e t h i c k n e s s . A light pull i n d i c a t e s
that t h e c e a r a n i ' ' greater than the gauge thickness, w h e r e a s a 1. Be s u r e t h e p i s t o n n o t c h " f r o n t " o r a r r o w p o i n t s toward th f "L
h e a r , - pi. ndtcate ' h a t tfte e a r a n c e is s m a l l e r t h a n t h e g a u g e of t h e e n g i n e .
thickness. 2 . Be s u r e t h a t t h e valve reliefs e n d u p closest to t h e lifter valW
Ail pistons should be rested in all c y l i n d e r bores. Even V-type O H V e n g i n e .
though 31 cylinders w e r e honed to the e x a c t s a m e dimension 3 . Be s u r e t h a t t h e larger v a l v e reliefs a l w a y s m a t c h the inta
and a. piston ver- mach ned to the same diameter, some valve.
ir 30: engine S|IJI)0(1IOT aintAsMinijiy Ml
s e o o f i o (no. a)
COMPRESSION RING CAP
pisron
pin
fnonr<r r)
rop(no. DCOMPnessioM LOWER OIL niMG

niHG GAP (OIL niMO SIDE HAIL GAP
EXPANOEn GAP)
lijuia 30-24 Oilomelhod of piston ring Installation showing Uie location of ring qaps. VETJL
V.yiys [oilov/ Uto manufacturer's iccoiiimaiiilad method far the location olringgaps and for — ^ ^ ^ ^
ifisjwpspaclno, \ . -A
Make s u r e t h e c o n n e c t i n g r o d h a s b e e n Installed o n the piston

correctly t h e c h a m f e r ' o n t h e s i d e of t h e big e n d should face /""A
\ M S S S S S
U ^ L u Z ®
•mm
outward ( t o w a r d t h e c r a n k t h r o w ) . S e e Figure 3 0 - 2 3 . j M 1 \
5-'Be s u r e ' t h e p i s t o n r i n g g a p s a r e s e t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m a n u f a c t u r - \
" ^ r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s . See Figure 3 0 - 2 4 . \ J / ^
t h e c y l i n d e r is w i p e d w i t h a l i n t l e s s c l e a n i n g c l o t h . It is t h e n _ _ _ _
f
m a liberal c o a t i n g of c l e a n e n g i n e o i l . M i s oil is s p r e a d o v e r t h e —
in,
lre cylinder w a l l s u r f a c e b y h a n d . figure 3 0 - a s -.-Hja%.tw»tne«sB«aiowrta».
The connecting rod bearings are prepared for assembly in the

way, as are the main bearings. HJlte piston can be dipped in a ^HTSMING
of clean engine oil to lubricate the piston pin as well as the pis- ggMfg
stings. See Figure 30-25. ^
M P > , overlapping (gapless) piston rings are install*! d ( Y . «

n 30-26. m i manufacturers recommend oiling m «
I B 8' Always check 111 piston ring Instruction W for the e x W
HATCHET
W sh e t l , ,
««on,i! P l n 0 1 1 ls lifteci f r o m (hl
- Oil, it is held and let drip for
iiL'1 iBfli i m i , l l l 0 W ; i m e
^ m p,,rt ° f , h e oil to r i m o u t
n rill
i: ., P'U o n I » Hrooves. H i e p i s t o n r i n g c o m p r e s s o r is *<t ii
Ô-??,m-P|«on to hold t h e rings in their grooves. See
!)l.v 0 bea'rh
01|} is l0
° v e r th ? ' « o v a d f r o m the rod, and protectors are
ro<l
b o l t s . S e e F i g u r e 3 0 - 2 9 . T h e c r a n k s h a f t is
w w w < M m M M » t v n t f n < n g M l n
Figure 30-30 newkng a piston using a ring compressor to hold the nngs m die rng
gnomes oI me piston an) then tang t hammer handle to drive the piston into the HOT
Connect**) 'od M l protectors have been installed to help prevent possible damage to In
crankshafts during pflnn installation
TECH TIP y / ; Tightening Tip tor Rod Bearings
Even though the tjeanng clearances are checked, it is still a good idea to ctw
and record tr* torque required to rotate the crankshaft with all piston
dragging on the cylinder walls Next the retaining nuts on one bearing SUM
be torqued then the torque required to rotate the crankshaft slmtt »
•ww p r i s t not only MP align t » rod racheoed and recorded Follow the same procedure on all rod bearings
plate Ttw solt ends ate «w>
tightening any one of Vie rod bearing caps causes a large increase m ft
torque recused !o rotate the crankshaft immediately stop the bghtf
process Determine the cause ot the increased rotating torque using me a*"
' t m t n « c r a n k p t n is at t h e b o t t o m c e n t e r T h e u p p e r method as used on the maw bearings Rotate the crankshaft for several ft*
A S e a r a g b e .A c * id t n e rod. a n d t h e piston s h o u l d b e unions to make sure that me assembly is turning treely and that there a«1
• v r - - - ' . v . (feat ' ? * n o t t r or, t n e p t s t o n h e a d Is f a c i n g t h e f r o n t of tight spots
Hut e o g o e The rotating torque Ot the crankshaft with all connecting rod cap bo®
T y .. t Mt rod «%sembiy Is placed in t h e cylinder t h r o u g h torqued should be as totows
fle U r s t > i . T l ^ rtr > c o m p r e s s o r m u s t be kept tighdy against
r x i -.*£* a t T > p t o n is p u s h e d into t h e cylinder. T h e ring • tour-cylinder engine A) pound feet maximum (88 Newton mete'
i 'v** : s tt*> t n t P in their grooves s o that t h r y will e n t e r six-cylinder engine ?5 pound teet maximum {110 Newton mete'
t* / •> * * r\? jt* 30. Ttw pi ton ii p u s h e d into t h e cylin - eight cylinder engine 30 pound feet maximum M 32 Newt
ter . o n . h e rod b t w s t g • f itty seated on t h e journal.
Cmmmetm% M Clearance The rod cap, w i t h t h e

ta . / is p> ' ' v • id. Tin-re are r w o m e t h o d s thai can Connecting Rod Side Clearance The connecting
. x -*<l[ i r i f - " ^ o t i n e c t i n f rod clearance: should be c h e c k e d to m a k e s u r e t h a t t h e y still have the corw
• »p * 1 • r man clearance. This is m e a s u r e d by fitting t h e c o r r e c t thickness ^
gauge b e t w e e n t h e c o n n e c t i n g rod a n d t h e c r a n k s h a f t cheek
tea* » iMrafjce
b e a n n g journal. See R g u r e 3 0 - 3 2 .
* Irh • n a r a i i f W H i ii camecar* w d M g « n d devices with the
A dial gauge can also be set u p t o m e a s u r e t h e c o n n e c t s
Mar <rd • i v j s r . tc H » c i f i c j o o n . Subtract the
1 f side clearance.
m i ' J o o » i* d e a n i i l n r t h e hearing clearance. See
h^pse » i; • Ifthr Hide < tear art' e is too #rear, excessive amounts of o i l *
escape that can cause lower than-normal oil pressure. To c
excessrve clearance:
p • , »•>• •// .-.•*f»fiv; 1 l e v i 1. Weld and regrlnd or replace the crankshaft
a*xe Maw , */ O w O t w U L S MWwtfterv | 2. Catetuily n,<-a jm- all connectlng rod and replace tl
• J ^re tori thin or mismatched.
30 Eng-ie Btueprtrrfiog and Assembly 303
ADJUSTING
SCREW
VALVE
CLEARANCE
VALVE
STEM
(a)
CONNECTING
ROO B E A R I N G
INSIDE
MICROMETER
(b)
Figure 30-31 An inside micrometer can be used lo measure the inside diameter ol the big
n of the connecting rod with the beanngs installed This dimension subtracted from the rod
journal diameter is equal to the bearing clearance Figure 30-33 Valve clearance allows the metal parts to expand and maintain proper
operation, both when the engine is cold or at normal operabng temperature tai Adjustment is
achieved by turning the adjusting screw tbl Adjustment is achieved by changing the
thickness ol the ad|usting shim
t h e c a m s h a f t b e a r i n g s a r e s p l i t t o a l l o w t h e c a m s h a f t t o b e in-
stalled w i t h o u t t h e v a l v e s b e i n g d e p r e s s e d . T h e c a p s a r e t i g h t e n e d
e v e n l y t o avoid b e n d i n g t h e c a m s h a f t . T h e v a l v e c l e a r a n c e o r l a s h
Is c h e c k e d w i t h t h e o v e r h e a d c a m s h a f t in p l a c e . S o m e e n g i n e s u s e
s h i m s u n d e r a f o l l o w e r d i s k a s s h o w n in F i g u r e 3 0 - 3 3 . O n t h e s e ,
t h e c a m s h a f t is t u r n e d s o t h a t t h e f o l l o w e r is o n t h e b a s e c i r c l e of
t h e c a m . T h e c l e a r a n c e of e a c h b u c k e t f o l l o w e r c a n then be
c h e c k e d w i t h a f e e l e r g a u g e . T h e a m o u n t of c l e a r a n c e is r e c o r d e d
and c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e s p e c i f i e d c l e a r a n c e , a n d t h e n a s h i m of t h e
r e q u i r e d t h i c k n e s s is p u t in t h e t o p of t h e b u c k e t f o l l o w e r s , a s
s h o w n in Figure 3 0 - 3 4 .
HEAD GASKETS
T h e h e a d g a s k e t is u n d e r t h e h i g h e s t c l a m p i n g l o a d s . It m u s t seal
1 Ufe passages t h a t c a r r y c o o l a n t w i t h a n t i f r e e z e a n d o f t e n is r e q u i r e d t o
" ®-32 'he connecting rod side clearance is measured with a feeler gauge
seal a passage t h a t c a r r i e s h o t e n g i n e oil. T h e m o s t d e m a n d i n g j o b
of t h e head g a s k e t is t o s e a l t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r . As a r u l e of
side clearance Is too small, t h e r e m a y n o t be e n o u g h r o o m t h u m b , a b o u t 7 5 % of t h e h e a d b o l t c l a m p i n g f o r c e is u s e d t o seal
" expansion. To c o r r e c t a side c l e a r a n c e that is too small: t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r . T h e r e m a i n i n g 2 5 % seals t h e c o o l a n t a n d
' Regrind t h e c r a n k s h a f t oil passages. See F i g u r e 3 0 - 3 5 .
Replace the rods T h e gasket m u s t seal w h e n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e is a s l o w a s 40 c
below zero and as high as 4 0 0 ° F ( 2 0 4 " C l . T h e c o m b u s t i o n p r e s
s u r e s can get u p t o 1 , 0 0 0 PSI ( 6 , 9 0 0 kFaI o n g a s o l i n e e n g i n e s .
^STALLING THE CAMSHAFT FOR OVERHEAD
Cylinder head bolts are t i g h t e n e d to a specified t o r q u e , w h i c h
ENGINES
s t r e t c h e s t h e bolt. T h e c o m b u s t i o n p r e s s u r e t r i e s t o p u s h t h e h e a d
camshaft is usually i n s t a l l e d o n o v e r h e a d c a m e n g i n e s b e f o r e upward and the piston d o w n w a r d o n the p o w e r s t r o k e . This p u t s
. l» f a s t e n e d t o t h e b l o c k d e c k . S o m e e n g i n e s h a v e t h e a d d i t i o n a l stress o n t h e h e a d b o l t s a n d it r e d u c e s t h e clamping
!
'JCatr'd directly o v e r the valves. T h e cam bearings on load o n t h e h e a d g a s k e t just w h e n t h e g r e a t e s t seal is n e e a e d On
1 c a n b e
1 ^j'*"'" e i t h e r o n e p i e c e o r split. T h e c a m b e a r i n g s a n o r m a l l y a s p i r a t e d e n g i n e ( w i t h o u t t u r b o c h a r g l n i : . a p a r ' . i •. ac
Jrr
'<". are l u b r i c a t e d b e f o r e a s s e m b l y . In o t h e r e n g i n e t y p e s , u u m o n t h e i n t a k e s t r o k e tries t o pull t h e h e a d m o r e tight! v a g a m s t
SPEOAL TOOL USED
TO COMPRESS
VALVE S p Ri>«j
STEEL
FACING
MAGNETIC
F I N G E R U S E D TO REMOVE
A D J U S T I N G SHIM Figure 30-36 A typica' refloated steel core head gasket wilh a graphite or v r y .
facing material.
A D J U S T I N G SHIM
NOTE Oiier gasket designs often contained asbestos and required t y

the head bolts be retorqued after the engine had been run to o p n - ]
temperature. Head gaskets today are dense and do not compress like ft
olik; style gaskets. Therefore, inost gaskets are called no-retorque .;.
gaskets, meaning the cylinder head bolts do not have to be retorqued •<
the engine has m n . New gaskets do not contain asbestos. i
Wow — I Can't Believe a Cylinder

F ^ i X - 3 4 Son« owheed car'shaft t-g-ies use raiw bsh adr-etng shims lo arfcust T E C H TIP
t* est: »ipeya xsj t jsâi, tbjjieatocompress the rate spring so that a Can D e f o r m T h a t M u c h !
ar. ww rt ttUL An automotive instructor used a dial bore gauge in a four-cylinder, cast-iror r
gine block cylinder to show students how much a block can deform Usirgj* '
ooe hand, the instructor was able to grasp both sides of the block and s ^ - i
The dial bore gauge showed that the cylinder deflected about 00033r ,
VALVE EXHAUST
INTAKE
(3'10,000 of an inch) just by squeezing the block with one hand—and that »"-
COVER MANIFOLD
MAAtf-OLO GASKET GASKET with a cast-iron block!
GASKET After this demonstration, the students were more careful during enp-
assembiy and always used a torque wrench on each and every fastener t
was installed in or on the engine block
Perforated Steel-Core Gaskets A p e r f o r a t e d steel

g a s k e t u s e s a w i r e - m e s h c o r e w i t h fiber f a c i n g s . Another dcs- j
h a s r u b b e r - f i b e r f a c i n g s c e m e n t e d t o a s o l i d s t e e l core w i i " •
adhesive. See Figures 30-36 and 30-37. The thickness^
t h e g a s k e t is c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e m e t a l corf- ^
f a c i n g is t h i c k e n o u g h t o c o m p e n s a t e f o r m i n o r warpag? 1 ,
surface defects. ^ f
f t f u r t 10- 35 O a « l » prevent leaks between t m r t a c e s T h e fiber f a c i n g is p r o t e c t e d a r o u n d t h e c o m b u s t i o n cfa L
w'ith rnptal
ith a m e t a l a r m o r l[also
a k n ratlo/l Figure 30"-5® . »
c a l l e d fr .i r ce r il n gn )i . S e e FiPlire
m e t a l also i n c r e a s e s t h e g a s k e t t h i c k n e s s a r o u n d the c
K j
t h a t it u s e s u p t o 7 5 % of t h e c l a m p i n g f o r c e a n d f o r m s a
- K . tr.e c r a n k s h a f t r o t a t e s , t h e f o r c e o n t h e h e a d c h a n g e s
bustion seal. ,, I
f r o m p r e / > - r e or. tr.e c o m b u s t i o n s t r o k e t o v a c u u m o n t h e i n t a k e
".<•.:. < t o p r e y , i r e . N e w e r e n g i n e s h a v e l i g h t w e i g h t thin- i B P
i•<:. T n e c a s t i n g s a i e q u i t e flexible, so t h a t t h e y m o v e as Multilayered Steel Gaskets Multilayered stem
being used from the factory on m a n y n e w e r engine 0 ^ ^ ;
t h e pre-.. .:<-. ir. «,<• c o .'.o /.'..or. c h a m b e r c h a n g e s f r o m h i g h p r e s s u r e
au.,
s tHIV
h e W,LI1KQU
o v e r h e a d v-QJUMldll
camshaft F r uo ir ud V-8s.
v - o s . T111^
h e llldi'7
m a n y W e i..fjlll 1-. I,
dltl Kf'
Vj v a c u u m . Tr.e g a s k e t m u s t b e a b l e t o c o m p r e s s a n d r e c o v e r fast
steel r e d u c e b o r e a n d o v e r h e a d c a m s h a f t distortion * ^ . 3 ! I
e n o . g r . : / . n , a . : . t a . r . a s e a l a s trie p r e s s u r e in t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m -
c l a m p i n g f o r c e l o s s t h a n p r e v i o u s d e s i g n s . S e e Fig« r r-
b e r c h a n g e s b a c k a n d f o r m b e t w e e n p r e s s u r e arid v a c u u m . A s a
T h d u s e of m u l t i l a y e r e d s t e e l g a s k e t s a l s o r e d u c e s fj( „-r
r e . . , : . h e a d g a s k e t s a . " m a d e of s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s asscrn-
r e q u i r e m e n t a n d , t h e r e f o r e , r e d u c e s t h e s t r e s s e s o n tn
b . e d k . r. o n e r o u s v / a ( . . , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e e n g i n e .
and engine block.
1
BONDING
TEFLON*
COATING ) F R O N T ROV>
RUBBER
RBER
FACING Figure 30-40 "««cs -«ac :as<et rar--gs
STEEL CORE
posiflor. an>* head ^ s k e t w i t h m a r i t i n g sop, front, and s o f c r r
See Hg-jre 3 0 - 4 0 . T h e g z s k e : a n d head are piacerf or. the : «
figure 30-37 A soMsttel care head gasket with a non-sac* coat*: .• : r*
deck. A! "-he : e a d bolts a r e k w e ' . v -stalled. Veiv often, ± e r.ea:
cweroent between die bloc* and the head, wtwJi is especially inportar? on en^nes r e
bafts l a v e different l e n g t h s . M a k e : ^ r e feat a boil of the : - e c
3 cast-/on HOCKS with aluminum cylinder heads
length is p u t - t o each .ocaaofL
WTE The A -*d "STH" mesx tuwani the b e : r chaie eod «<
a * engne. Tbit car, he confusEg far a l e c t a ' c a n « c etc*
a a frx»-woee.-:-:re -r?- c t
-* ARMOR (FIRE RING) Put seaie: o n t h e t h r e a d s of : b e assembly b o h s t h a t go r / . o t h e

c o o i i r . ? r a t Pur c - . s e i z e c o m p e a r : on b o . t s t h a t .*•: i - • : .
haust m a n M i d . L g r . i tibe b r e a d s of b o t e that go into : . r d
holes. See t h e Teen Pip, - A a : ; . - C-_: far W e t a n d D r r f o l e s . '
•CTE: M a s restores raoand p t - s a a£ ac tSe -.tL-eais a boai
. . E L J i i s - e a: r - ; ^ r.îi;
tJsat are nrfaesed r r
: i
Figure 30-38 Head gasket with armor.
O f t e n , the a s s e n t v boits have zSezer: .eagih Ma>.; .-•

that the correct ieagth of bote.: p u : e a c r r. rle.
TECH TIP ^ Watch Out tar Wet and Dry Holes
Mary engnes, s u r as 3 * smaft-Mtk O w r s e t . - _se nerei M S mat ->

tend 3>e tap oec* of tne Stock 3nd ?no <n a a t f a r Mssagt r>>eseSc»!
x>es are "3»ec wet hotes. tfier -scale*: heao tW-; M M 4
a a ! oassaae jse sealer or the "reaas of - v head Dot Scene a ^ n e s v *
-eao bote tret are -wet." wtiereas otneis are *am" because fie. m t - smi
cast--c- - . a r e Dry hole bote do not requ'-e sealant a * me* 3 » -i^mt
someoitanther-eaBSJf tnetwtsfc; luOncater Do not put c»
because :Hebo«-ay Doctor- out - ®e ? «>uc a . m ® I
5ure
Mutblayer steel (MLS, gaskets are used on many newer at-; i>rn. - the Srce v the bolt bemg n g r e r e o s Katsierred v r e : o » ay
B We 3 5 en
'J^T " 9' nes that use a cast block with aluminum cylinder heads Tt»s type of Ibrce. wrech can :-ack me Mode
al
»ws the aluminum to expand without losing the seaiiig ability oi the a
•.n Apply ai lo a shop ctoffi m i -stat? tfie
—eaOs orxedure '-jbrcstes tne
'Stalling the head gasket
block deck and h e a d s u r f a c e s s h o u l d be rechecked for any han-
nicks
be' j. ^ a t could c a u s e a gasket leak. All tapped holes should
- aned
with t h e correct-size t h r e a d chaser. Also check t h e block HEAD BOLT TORQUE SEQUENCE
. -Under head s u r f a c e s for a n y dirt or burrs. T h e r e are usually The torque p . : on t h e h o i s ts _sed . " . . i ra
.,/ pins or d o w e l s at t h e f r o n t a n d rear of t h e block Jeck to T h e d a m p i n g force is correct - . v n e c m e threaas are an
the
gasket a n d h e a d . C a r e s h o u l d be taken to properly property i - c r i c a o d . In g e n e - : , -.r.e - e a : : l r e . a - t c i e a »
;T T* ( 1*Y t i g h t e n i n g t h e h e a d t o r q u e t h a i c a n b e a p p l i e d t o t h e boll w h i l e th
tftrw strps has time to c o m p r e s s and con- m a d e . I ' o r q u e t a b l e s In a s e r v i c e m a n u a l will
h o w
'" mucft
*>>•*•' ' t > K k j i ' - l c v l u M c r lv,v i Racket s u r f a c e s . F o l l o w lial t o r q u e s h o u l d b e a p p l i e d t o t h e b o l t a n d li man
HegreesJJ
\>' -. • r>t M i s to on< third the specified boll s h o u l d b e r o t a t e d a f t e r t o r q u i n g .
lijtf : v n M\t-«nd t i m e following the torque sequence
b •> r, :orque. tallow t h e s e q u e n c e w i t h a final
. <-<•:' j! ».< i- •<»•>! t , « ^ u r Si r I i g u n s 10 -II a n d 3 0 -I ' H o t f . The torque turn method does not neei • arii\ torquMr,
Some engine specifications call for a beginning t a r q u i r,d then a s '
•mule, bin the fastener is not designed to y i e l d . I t n
canon,..
TORQUE-TO YIELD BOLTS Iv reused \ l w j y s follow the manufacturer's ivcomrm n . i
procedure,
-,-•••.,• p r . M ' t l u n - tiled tin' t o r q u e t o -
VfW. t o r q u e .inglr, - . i h . > F h o p u r p o s e of t h e torque-to
• p.-.v».\ 4 . -i % h.tvi .i n w i i c o n s t a n t c l a m p i n g l o a d from b o l t H e a d b o l t s a r e t i g h t e n e d f o l l o w i n g a s e q u e n c e specified in g j
• -i s .i i g a s k e t s c a l i n g p e r f o r m a n c e a n d e l i m i n a t e s s e r v i c e m a n u a l o r t o r q u e t a b l e s . I n g e n e r a l , t h e tighteningseq u e r I
-.v. vv-mmng. Ilw torque t o - w l d head bolts arc made s t a r t s ai t h e c e n t e r of t h e h e a d a n d m o v e s o u t w a r d , alterr. I
n k i « v , n the head a n d threads As t h e b o l t s f r o n t t o r e a r a n d s i d e t o s i d e . T h e b o l t s a r e u s u a l l y tightened to', I
: ' « • " . d p a s ; t h e i r e l a s t i c l i m i t , t h e v vield a n d b e g i n t o s t r e t c h p r o x i m a t e l y o n e half t h e s p e c i f i e d t o r q u e , f o l l o w i n g the tighten- I
n his n a r r o w section. s e q u e n c e . T h e y a r e t h e n r e t o r q u e d t o t h e s p e c i f i e d torque (olio
-: . - • . • - . . ' < h e a d b o l t s w •!; n o t b e c o m e a n y t i g h t e r o n c e t h e y i n g t h e s a m e t i g h t e n i n g s e q u e n c e . S e e F i g u r e s 3 0 - 4 5 and 3(Ne I
... " - ' ast c i i m i t . a s y o u c a n s e e o n t h e g r a p h in F i g u r e 3 0 43.
. , • : .,••:,. m e t h o d a l s o decre.iM > t h e d i f f e r e n c e s in c l a m p i n g
* it \ a r k\ d e p e n d i n g o n t h e c o n d i t i o n o r l u b r i c a t i o n of
TIMING DRIVES FOR OVERHEAD CAM ENGINES
---.-a s e e Figure 3 0 44. A f t e r t h e h e a d b o l t s h a v e b e e n t o r q u e d , t h e c a m d r i v e c a n be
v 'ix . m a n v e n g i n e m a n u f a c t u r e r s specify new h e a d bolts s t a l l e d o n o v e r h e a d c a m e n g i n e s . T h i s is d o n e b y a l i g n i n g ; I
v a . 1 is i n s t a l l e d . If t h e s e b o l t s a r e r e u s e d , t h e y a r e t i m i n g m a r k s of t h e crankshaft and c a m s h a f t d r i v e sprock, I
; - du n g a s s e m b l y o r fa:! p r e m a t u r e l y a s t h e e n g i n e w i t h t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e t i m i n g m a r k s . T h e l o c a t i o n of t h e s e n u n I
•'xrr a n v d o u b t a b o u t t h e h e a d bolts, replace t h e m . differs b e t w e e n engines, but the marks can b e identified I
;..e t o -. old b o l t s a r e l i g h t e n e d t o a s p e c i f i c initial t o r q u e ,
- - 8 ' ->o 1 tee 1 | 2 5 t o 0 8 N e w t o n - m e t e r s ) . T h e b o l t s a r e
, •«'. a s p » \ ified n u m b e r of d e g r e e s , f o l l o w i n g t h e t i g h t e n -
; •. si T . e . a s e s t h e y a r e t u r n e d a s p e c i f i e d n u m b e r of
• .- . • thru nnies. S o m e specifications limit t h e m a x i m u m
C i o o « O'a 0 3 Or
1 O s O i o « OB BOLT TORQUE
TORQUE-TO-YIELD
Figure 3 0 - 4 3 Due to v,in.itions in damping force with turning force itwque' (rf '•' ^
scme engines ore specifying ttie torque-to yield procedure. Thefirststep is K-
tx^w t!> an even amcwni called the initial torque Final damping load is advened Kr
' f n o v toad ftgttenng stquencc the bolt a specified number of degrees Bolt stretch provides the proper dampms ^
> e .
I o T u T
_ ^
f S T <2> ® ® ©j ® ® ©^
I © ® © ® ®
Fqam » ~ 0 fmm
''•''Oliltf 30 Engifv.' BtueprVlH
TONOUR VI;, CL/.»,']• I ' / A O AUOl C- OF BOTATION VS CLAMP LOAD
i.ov/rnicjiou LOV/ I RICTIOtl

(oonocirAii (UpLTfl ClEAN
All!) OljLliD) '- AIIO OILED) \
3,000 LBS
y hakim DlfffRENOe
omtuuiKt it AM Of
AUOU
ROTATION
HIOHFRICflOH
(DiRIV THREADS)
IIIOII n u c n o i i
(OlfP IT THR£ A08)
DOLT TORQUE - Y-
60LT TORQUE >•
Figure 30-44 To unsure conslstonl damp Iwcofloadi,many manufacturers vt iv/s^m n tv** vtftvv-jA t i dytU'wj head Wu it* fintyr m,
specifies lightening faslonors lo a low torque selling and llion Jiving an addtionsi ang* <* fob-v/. Wm m v* tinto. r 't> if fore* rs rr»yc». k (fan II ytfuK) fiTkril • b
MCTKII wltli ONLY tiiioads WMC usod.
CAl/SXATf
VI*TEH PJV*
H)U£t
«Mlkst«n
Figure 30-47 v>-i.

Figure 30-45 Torque anglo can bo moasured using a special adaptor. &ifa It* wte-' pimp
looking carefully ar '.he sprockets. See F i g j j c s 3 0 - 4 7 c A 3 0 - 4 6

The tightening w.er may be o n either or b o t h *ide» of the li:' trij
bell or chain. After t h e camshaft drive Is e n g a g e d , f o t r . e t v <
crankshaft t h r o - g h t w o full r t v c ' •' O n the first f c " n....'..
tion, y o u shou'd sec t h e e x h a u s t valve almost close a - 1 the '
take valve just starting to o j x p. w h e n the cnnhha/i tlm • ,>. marV
a'igns, At the end of the s e c o n d revolution, b o t h valve; : l . ' 1
be closed, and all the tin,ing m a r k s should ai-grt o n m>-s:
This is the pos-tion t h e c r a n k s h a f t should h a v e wjfcft c> • ?:SM *i
is to fire.
Abxtfi cJxck Ok m M i : V t v s \ A i»Mfr>8>arf a

Stjilttkfl f that us< f f - t - *-«J v.
( j j ' t s o f t c requite an «i4v' 3: •••.vj f>w*j a t r p o { «
Va-j e«Mt> (Keommwe tMt i r«< - r •>; te » » < £ e » .-u

lo a s s r - ^ to h e f c I V ! M VhfljjlRix a ( m j * » « i r t - « ?•»•. VMAJ
eh** 6 one C the las' {fecel if' * * *> J»t - jr *•«•• f » «
firstssarts TH«prtecVf ma, t t , - r < ** Vt y t h r ;
S no**
PLATED LINK
F-JNCH MARK PUNCH MARK
Figure 30-49 With m-.- titter resting on tne base circle of tne cam. zero tash is atr?,
figure 3tM8 *»•»»"• j clans iww plrted mat v t usedtocontcKy posfton the
bgnten.iig me rocker aim lock nut until ttie pushrpd no longer lotates freely
UFTtR AND PUSHROD INSTALLATION

"-.-• .:• it 0' T.O lifters and tho lifter bores in the block should be
_ -: : c .:<-•; with t r e m b l y lubricant. The tillers are installed
• - •••- b c r « ate) the pushrods put In place. There are different-
-: • vrwte onpnes Make sure that the pushrods are
u location. The rocker a n t e arc then put in place,
i ..- •.. . and pushnxk Rockc arm shafts should have
. ... - t - ts t.^tuenea a little at a time, alternating between
• t- v This keeps the shaft from bending as the rocker
RR . - tats WT «r of the valves open.
HYORAUUC LIFTERS
*•-. •> .j. ' i r.„: " x rockf" arms mounted on studs can be
_ a :•-. torque The rocker arm will be adiusted
.— • . f -.-is t. - q v A'vti the valve up has the correct height.
• - .,-- jnns require tightening the nut to a position
Figure 30-50 Most aeiusntSe . i <rs use .i nut to Keep ttw »U;iistment horn t ® ''
»• -.-.i lifter The general procedure for ad
tortusithe w w the nut has to be loosened and the screwrotateduntil tlwpRf
-. rw • -a... tvpes ts to tighten the retaining nut to
Omrenc* e actwwd Then me screw should be netd while tightening ttw W* "
: 'T- last • « See Figure 3 0 40. The lifter the xMtnwm «om clangng OouOte-cheO. ttw vaiw de«sr>c* utter tighter**) w
. tr. • e f i t e r th* lash is gone. From this point,
- • - . - , - 'k' . i tv a specified amount, such as three
5 r®*. i x swn ,r oot i & j one-half tums.
requiring valve lash adjustment, rhe valve lash is adjusted *
valves completely closed. See Figure 3 0 - 5 0 .
After tho valve ash on o.linder #1 Is set. tho era v
' tH if ifcou "-ft tttmtk showinji i t o w rotated in Its normal direction of rotation to t h e next cyiin*'
rttraB: Chntw' eqtdpped with R«i finng ofdtr This is done by turning the crankshaft "X)
eight-cylinder engines, 120 degrees o n even-firing SA-
et>>—c>. and 180 degrxvs on four cylinder engines. The u -
this next cylinder are adjusted In the s a m e manner, as were :
cylinder * I. This procedure b repeated on each cvlindo- '
SOUO LIFTtRS the erigiru- firing cira.-until ail the valves h a w been adiust^
Uth < or, a sold lifter enpr.e, so Tho w e valve ish adi.istment s e q u e n c e ts used o n 1
- service manuals tow t n cam engines Then- engines with rocket arms or with »••
the Ush. If t h e ts not avui- • • - fo . Ac- pivots an- adjusted in the s a n w way. as
an be ua«d o r all engines enjur.es with rocker arms
Owpte* 30 Engne Sueprrtrx; ire M
ASSEMBLY SEALANTS Special primers are recommended far use on the vea..-g surface i
RT\I S i l i c o n e R l'\ ^ ne is used by m<> get a better bond with anaerobe sealers.
RTV, r r o o m t e m t
that the silicone rubber material will i
INSTALLING MANIFOLDS
not really the temperature that cau-e
The in take mam tod gas-.-:: for a V-type engine may be a ace-piece a s
the moisture in the air. RTV silicone c a
ket or it n a y have several pieces. Vtype engines with ocen-tvje two-
about 45 minutes. It takes 2 4 h o u r s to f
folds hare a cower over the lifter vaBev. The ewer mar be a sesara*
part or a may be part of a one-piece intake itanioib asker. Ctaed-
Some RTV silicone sealers use acetic a d d . ar.: :h- type intake manifolds on Vtype engnes reqtse psket pieces end
this tvpe can be drawn through the engine through (he PC\ s m sea . at the fror.t and rear ol the aitake marJoii See figa? 30-SL
u
.juse damage to oxygen sensors. Always use ar. amine type RTV iw Inline engjnes usually have a one-piece mtake marnfoid gaste.
or one that states on the package that It Is safe for oxygen sensors The intake manifold is put in place over the g e t e s . Use a cor;
tact adhesive to hold the gasket and end seal 3 there 5 a chatxe
they mi#K slip out of place, lust before the tnarJoid 2 s s n D e i pa.
RTV' silicone is available in several different colors. The < ide - a spot of RTV silicone 00 each of the four joints between ti* make
nSes the special blend within a manufacturer^ product r.e. Eqv mamioid gasket and end seats. Install die bolts and tighter, ID 3 *
rides of silicone made by different manufacturers may have a;rf>. specf.ed torque foflowring the correct nîter_ag secwoce.
colors. RT\' silicone can be used in two ways in engine Or.lv some exhaust m a n i k k k use gaskets. The exhaust asaa
fold operates at verv high temperatures, so there a tsoafhr >oax ex
1. It can be used as a gasket substitute between a stamped a v e r pansior. and c o H a a j o n movement tn the marJokHo-beK a n t !t
and a cast surface. is vers important t. tse attachment baits, cap screws, aad b a s i s
2. It is used to fill gaps or potential gaps. A joint between ( - of the correct tvpe and length. See figure 30-53. Thev sttst be
between a gasket and a seal is a potential gap. property torqued x avoid nor. leakage arid cracks.
»0Tt: RTV > . -o should ne>t>rbe used around fue beca

a- 11 cut tteough it. Silicone should not be used as a sea .t 1 ci.-
vitl squeeie out to leave a bead inside and a bead outside the Barge.
r.siie bead might fall into the engine, plug,: passages and ca- er
; dawajse Th« ti •• vim - tenia • v the ga •
.si as it would be in the original tube. The uncured s: cn< s <e.\ :;
•H P-v. t sir seal - p out of place. See Figure 30 51.
Anaerobic Sealers Anaerobic sealers are sealers that c..-e

absence of air. Thev are used as thread lockers sv. as \ r.e .
-"d thev are used to seal rigid machined joints between cast pars,
^•"•aerobic sealers lose their sealing ability at tempera: -v.- at *
<00"F 140 , O n production lines, the curing process s speeded
- bv using ultraviolet light.
w
hen the anaerobic sealer is used on threads. .1 r does r get
-a it so it hardens to form a seal to prevent the fastener from loos
Teflon is added to s o m e anacrobic scale* to sea i s be
v tic .0.1 ers can be .isod to seal n « c h r.ed >. - -
1u
" The surfaces r . r s r b e thoroughly c can to get a c.wi sea
ii*S«TS su.
sie A AI
w de. put the

heir., w mew! side of
tt-« g j p i t
— — r " i ^ • i \\
COVER GASKET MATERIALS
T.-v g a s k f t r - ye - i p f r m e a f r V e t o ttie Quids it is d e s i g n e d t o seal in
ir o u t . T N : g a s k e t j s t ccnfo~i t o t h e s h a p e of t h e s u r f a c e , a n d it
- si b e rts&enc < r e . i s n c . t o m a i n t a i n t h e s e a l i n g f o r c e a s it is c o m -
rn-ssec et> w o r k o e s : w h e n t h e y a r e c o m p r e s s e d a b o u t 3 0
Figure 3 0 - 5 5 Typical cast-aluminum cam (valve) cover Note the rubber gasket In ft, £
Cork Gaskets i. c > . is t h e b a r k f r o m a M e d i t e r r a n e a n c o r k o a k
groove ot the covei
h - m a d e erf v e r y s m a l l , flexible, 14 s i d e d , air-filled fiber cells,
c r c _ " :.•>:•'. i t c h | 0 . 0 2 5 m i l l i m e t e r in size. T h e air-filled cells act
ike a p r e . m a n e s y s t e m . T h i s gives resiliency t o t h e c o r k g a s k e t u n t i l
s u r f a c e . T h e s e a l e r fills t h e s u r f a c e v a r i a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e g a s k e t ®
r - : i " ;2.ss o u t . B e c a u s e c o r k is m o s t l y w o o d , it e x p a n d s w h e n it
the sealing surface.
-et ar.d s h r i n k s w h e n it dries. This c a u s e s c o r k g a s k e t s t o
S e a l e r m a y b e u s e d a s a s e a l i n g a i d o n p a p e r a n d fiber gaskets
{£ar; - . --; .vtien t h e y a r e in s t o r a g e a n d w h i l e installed in t h e e n
the gasket needs help with sealing o n a scratched, c o n o d e d , t •
cr-: c a d - . ' . v w i c k s t h r o u g h t h e o r g a n i c b i n d e r of t h e c o r k , s o a
r o u g h s u r f a c e finish. T h e s e a l e r m a y b e u s e d o n o n e side o r o n b o t
. - a - -' ften looks like it is leaking. P r o b l e m s w i t h c o r k g a s k e t s
s i d e s of t h e g a s k e t .
•:: -_--; ndustrv to develop cork cover gaskets using synthetic
n i t e r a s a b i n d e r for t h e c o r k . T h i s t y p e of g a s k e t is called a cork-
rubber gasket. 1 ;se c o r k r u b b e r g a s k e t s a r e easy t o u s e . a n d t h e y
Sealer should never be used on rubber o r c o r k - r u b b e r gas1, r .
v . e o.d cork gaskets. See Figure 3 0 - 5 4 .
Instead of holding the rubber gasket or seal, it will help the r u b b e r tc
Fiber Gaskets S o m e oil p a n s u s e fiber gaskets. C o v e r s w i t h h i g h e r out of place because the sealer will never harden.
f - c e s u s e g a s k e t s w i t h fibers t h a t h a v e g r e a t e r density. For
• : T ; m r ->. timing c o v e r s m a y h a v e e i t h e r fiber or p a p e r gaskets.
Antiseize Compounds A n t i s e i z e c o m p o u n d s a r e used o r fas
Synthetic Rubber Gaskets M o l d e d , oil-resistant synthetic
t e n e r s in t h e e n g i n e t h a t a r e s u b j e c t e d t o h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s t o pre
r u b b e r is b e i n g u s e d in m o r e a p p l i c a t i o n s t o s e a l c o v e r s . W h e n it is
v e n t s e i z i n g c a u s e d b y g a l v a n i c a c t i o n b e t w e e n dissimilar m e t a i
c - m p c - n d e d c o r r e c t l y , it f o r m s a s u p e r i o r c o v e r g a s k e t . It o p e r a t e s
These compounds minimize corrosion from moisture. Exha.:
a" ' e m p e r a t u r e s f o r a l o n g e r p e r i o d of t i m e t h a n d o e s a cork-
m a n i f o l d b o l t s a n d n u t s , o x y g e n s e n s o r s , a n d s p a r k plugs, especi
r u b b e - cover g a s k e t See Figure 3 0 - 5 5 .
t h o s e t h a t go i n t o a l u m i n u m h e a d s , a r e k e p t f r o m seizing. The a n : I
Sealers Sealers a r e n o n h a r d e n i n g m a t e r i a l s . E x a m p l e s of sealer s e i z e c o m p o u n d m i n i m i z e s t h e c h a n c e of t h r e a d s b e i n g pulled t :
~ : - . n a m e s i n c l u d e F o r m A G a s k e t 2 , Pli-A Seal, T i g h t Seal 2 , Avia- b r e a k i n g a s t h e o x y g e n s e n s o r o r s p a r k p l u g is r e m o v e d .
n " r o r r . A < . a s k e t , B r u s h T a c k , C o p p e r C o a t , S p r a y T a c k , a n d High
0
Tack. Seaiers r e a l w a y s u s e d t o seal t h e t h r e a d s of b o l t s t h a t b r e a k
: .ar.: passages. S e a l e r s for s e a l i n g t h r e a d s m a y i n c l u d e Teflon, TECH TIP Hints for Gasket U s a g e
r e c o m m e n d e d for u s e o n s h i m - t y p e h e a d g a s k e t s a n d
Never reuse an old gasket A used gasket or seal has already been compress*
- a s - - ar. • d g a s k e t s . T h e s e g a s k e t s h a v e a m e t a l s u r f a c e t h a t d o e s
has lost some ot its resilience, and has taken a set. If a used gasket does ressa
- - : - : — t o a n y small a m o u n t s of surface r o u g h n e s s o n t h e s e a l i n g
it will not seal as well as a new gasket or seal
A gasket should be checked to make sure it is the correct gasket v-
check the list on the outside ol the gasket set to make sure that the set l » i
the gaskets that may be needed before the package is opened
An instruction sheet is included with most gaskets. It includes a reviw
the things the technician should do to prepare and install the gaskets to g •
best chance of a good seal The instruction sheet also includes special W-
how to seal spots that are difficult to seal or that require special care t
a particular engine.
INSTALLING TIMING COVERS

M o s t t i m i n g c o v e r s are installed w i t h a gasket, b u t some u *
s e a l e r in p l a c e of t h e g a s k e t . C a s t c o v e r s u s e a n a e r o b i c '
a s a g a s k e t s u b s t i t u t e . A b e a d of RTV s i l i c o n e 1 / 8 t o 3. 10
d i a m e t e r is p u t o n t h e c l e a n s e a l i n g s u r f a c e . S e e Figure 30
befon •
circle t h e bolt holes w i t h t h e s e a l a n t . Install t h e cover
r
s i l i c o n e b e g i n s t o c u r e s o t h a t t h e u n c u r e d s i l i c o n e bonds to
ss i K |
Ftflure 30-54 ts Cat arm paper compo«le. and synthetic rubber surfaces. W h i l e installing the cover, d o not touch the
causing»
bead; otherwise, the bead might be displaced,
Chapter 30: Engine Blueprinting and Assembly 911
Figure 30-56 1/8- to 3/16-inch (3- tn 5-millimeter) bead pf RTV silicone on a parting Figure30-58 temgaha—er Itutra^nen the gasket rail surface before retail^ a new
surface with silicone going around the bolt hole gasket When the retonrg bob are tk^tfened. some distortion of sheet-metal coven OCCUB
«the area aroin)»»tx* nan s not straitened, leaks can occur with the new gasket
CM p u m p gears s h o u l d b e c o a t e d w i t h a s s e m b l y lubricant b e f o r e
t h e cover is p u t o n t h e p u m p . This p r o v i d e s initial lubrication, a n d
it p r i m e s t h e p u m p so t h a t ft will d r a w t h e oil from t h e p a n w h e n
t h e lubrication s y s t e m is Erst o p e r a t e d .
THE OIL PAW

T h e oQ pan should b e c h e c k e d a n d s t r a i g h t e n e d as necessary. S e e
R g u r e 3 0 - 5 8 . W i t h t h e ofl p u m p in place, t h e oil p a n g a s k e t s a r e
property positioned. A spot of RTV' silicone is placed at e a c h g a s k e t
joint just before t h e par, ^ x s t a f l e d . T h e o l pan is c a r e f u l l y placed
over t h e gaskets. AC ofl part bolts s h o u l d b e started i n t o t h e i r h o l e s
before a n y are t i g h t e n e d . T h e bolts twuid be alternately snugged
u p ; t h e n t h e y s h o u l d b e property t o r q u e d .
REAL WORLD R X \ The New Oil P u m p

That Failed
A techmcar- -eplacec the : punc j t c screen on a V-8 with low ol pressure.

After the repair the ol pressue - e u r « tc normal for turn weeks but tier the
oil pressure ngnt came or and the vahe tram started malung noise. The vehde
figure 30-57 Installing the harmonic balancer Always follow the manufacturer's owner returned to the serwce garage where the oil punc had beer replaced
recommended procedure and torque specificabons. The technoan -?-ioved n e oi ce- anc pump The screen was aimcst com-
pletely clogged w i t tie RTV sealant Hat the t e c t r a a i had used to 'seal" the
Carefully p r e s s t h e c o v e r i n t o p l a c e . D o n o t s l i d e t h e c o v e r a f t e r OH pan gasket 'he technical had failed to read the instructions that came «*8t
't is in p l a c e . I n s t a l l t h e a s s e m b l y b o l t s finger-tight, a n d let t h e the oa pan gasket raikire to toliow tSrectoons and usng too n « h of the wring
silicone c u r e f o r a b o u t 3 0 m i n u t e s ; t h e n t o r q u e t h e c o v e r bolts. sealer cost the repair shop an expensive comeback -epar
^STALLING THE VIBRATION DAMPER

Vibration d a m p e r s a r e s e a t e d in p l a c e b y o n e of t h r e e m e t h o d s .
• The damper h u b of s o m e e n g i n e s is pulled into place ..vng t h e

TECH TIP Oil P u m p P r e c a u t i o n s
K
ub-attaching bolt. See F i g u r e 3 0 - 5 7 .
' The
Thp second
SOrrvnW m
~ e.,.1 The o* pump «the heart at any engne andany f a t a e r f f i e o i c
t h o d u. .s .e.s. .a s p e c i a li •installing tool that screws into
tern oftr> 'esdts in severe and maior engine damage To help prwen ;
the attaching bolt h o l e t o pull t h e h u b i n t o place. T h e tool is re-
moved se HIUS oi pump- elated failures many E . - j n e t o s e i s m o a — f t * : 'crow-
B and t h e a t t a c h i n g b o l t is installed a n d t o r q u e d .
ing precautions:
The last m e t h o d is u s e d o n e n g i n e s t h a t h a v e n o attaching t
JTiese hubs d e p e n d o n a press-fit t o hold t h e h u b o n the crankshaft. 1. Always be sure that the oil pump pewc tube SD een s secure*!
The hub is seated u s i n g a h a m m e r a n d a special tube-type driver. atlacned to the oi Dump to pre»e«9<e(*dii» t o n e r - - .-oran-c ut t
toe pump.
2. use modeling clay to check ;cku> s o c m - H - a : ; * i ; m y
IN
STALUNG THE OIL PUMP proper operation there should Be about 1 4 « c r r - y » w
W h e n1 a; n e n the o l pump pickup screen and the o o t w of l a oa aar
r & n e is r e b u i l t , t h e oil p u m p s h o u l d b e replaced w i t h a
P ^ P - T h i s e n s u r e s p o s i t i v e l u b r i c a t i o n a n d l o n g p u m p life.
312 SKTÔH &
INSTALLING T H l WATER P U M P
A w c h r c B i - w t T f r j f i t - r o * * ry. i - p u m p s h o u l d b e used. O n c e
ar* Srtwl ,- { t e ct \. pump
. ; i * v u r w l w i t h assembly bolts
îftatMtf » the o a r w toque.
A ~rm t t t e n R o s a t is usually i n s t a t e d at this t i m e . It is p u t in
p a c e , wsf- a r e ten t a k e ' • J p a c e t h e correct side of t h e ther-
Tsetse reward she r !>.< t h e r m o s t a t gasket is put in place,
S e a i e s w e v »ifl o r t fasket w h e r e they are r e q u i r e d . T h e ther-
x s s a t teasing & a s ied, and the retaining bolts are tightened to
pr>per t o r q u e .
ENGINE P A I N T I N G
: i r e n . c n « helps p r e v e n t rust and corrosion a n d m a k e s the
•»-.. n e w . s t a n d a r d e n g i n e paints w i t h original colors are
. .4. i v a . ' 4 t e at a u t o m o t i v e parts stores. Engine paints should
> . - : -.han o t h e r types of paints. Engine paints are com-
;o - • . : • • tav •-. the metal as the engine t e m p e r a t u r e s c h a n g e .
S- — . : -i r.e £u;d> wiii n o t r e m o v e t h e m . T h e s e paints are usu
a..- : i s - - , a p r e s s u r e cans so that they can be sprayed from
die c a r d rectly onto the engine.
• r a - should not be painted m u s t be covered before
Figure 3 0 - 6 0 The engine can be pressurized with engine oil Irom an aerosol can as
CT. r"s.n. This can be d o n e w i t h old parts, such as old spark shown or Irom a pressurized oil containei designed tor preoiling the engine
: .z !'•. : u < y This can also be d o n e by taping paper over
--- >- c o v e r e d . If the intake manifold of an inline engine is
- > : s " t i t can be painted separately. Engine assembly can
spark plugs r e m o v e d t o e s t a b l i s h oil p r e s s u r e . T h e l o a d on the
: - - - .• .j". - t h e paint has dried.
s t a r t e r a n d b a t t e r y is r e d u c e d w i t h t h e s p a r k p l u g s o u t s o t j j
t h e e n g i n e will h a v e a h i g h e r c r a n k i n g s p e e d . A p r e s s u r i z e d o:
CHECKING FOR PROPER OIL PRESSURE c o n t a i n e r or a n e n g i n e oil a e r o s o l c o u l d also b e u s e d , a s shows
in Figure 3 0 6 0 .
r, '• • e n g i n e a n d t h e d i s t r i b u t o r out of t h e e n g i n e , oil
-.o.jid be e s t a b l i s h e d b e f o r e t h e e n g i n e is s t a r t e d . This
t a r be d o n m o s t e n g i n e s by rotating t h e oil p u m p by h a n d .
--
• ' .•• T.at iiil is d e l i v e r e d to all parts of t h e e n g i n e b e f o r e
• - . - i :s . t a r t e d . A socket speed h a n d l e m a k e s a n Ideal
for • > m t n g t h t mi p u m p . A flat-blade a d a p t e r that fits t h e
R E A L WORLD FIX
EF Oops"
After overhauling a big-block Ford V 8 engine, the technician used an electr

r. : j ' d <•• will o p e r a t e on General M o t o r s e n g i n e s . T h e
drill to rotate the oil pump with a pressure gauge connected to the oil pressure
• - • - , - r e n g i n e requires t h e use of t h e s a m e flat-blade
sending unit hole. When the electric drill was turned on, oil pressure would start
. : - . : • • - . c. ' ai>o r e q u i r e s an oil p u m p drive. O n e can be m a d e
to increase (to about 10 PSI). then drop to zero. In addition, the oil was very aa
-• T r n e êar from an old oil p u m p h e x d r l v e s h a f t . A
ated (lull of air) Replacing the oil pump did not solve the problem Alter hours
,-e socket can be used on Ford e n g i n e s . E x a m p l e s ol
troubleshooting and disassembly, it was discovered that an oil gallery plug to
- ; .i i r . Figure 3 0 - 5 9 . Engines that d o not d r i v e t h e
been left out underneath the intake manifold. The oil pump was working co
• . : . : ••• •: - distributor will have to be c r a n k e d w i t h t h e
rectly and pumped oil throughout the engine and out of the end of the u
plugged oil gallery It did not take long for the oil pan to empty; therefore, the1
pump began drawing in air that aerated the oil and the oil pressure dropped1
stalling the gallery plug solved the problem It was smart ot the technician
check the oil pressure before starting the engine This oversight of leavW
one gallery plug could have resulted in a ruined engine shortly after the
was started.
NOTE: Many overhead camshaft engines use an oil passage check valve''^
block neat the deck. The purpose of this valve Is to hold oil in the cylinder ^
around the camshaft and lifters when the engine is stopped Failure to 11
this check valve can cause Ihe valve train to be noisy after engine start-m1
SETTING INITIAL IGNITION TIMING

After oil p r e s s u r e is established, t h e distributor, If equipp e d • 0l,
installed. Rotate t h e c r a n k s h a f t In Its n o r m a l direction

Figure TO-Vt >• . <m • •,. , p,,. , • pri- .-,•, an parts of Ihe ongin* until t h e r e is c o m p r e s s i o n o n cylinder # 1 . This can be - 'j
taorf rotming Ihe < W M r and nartme Ifw «n^n» the starter or by using a w r e n c h o n t h e d a m p e r bolt. The <-,""t
Chaste' 30: Engine Bfoeprint-g artf k r ^ - V - t 313
^JJP can be d e t e r m i n e d b y c o v e r i n g • gear angle. After installation, t h e rotor should be pointing to t h e * ;

'l-rh a finger as t h e c r a n k s h a f t is ro*? <: .l : t o w e r of t h e distributor cap.
.l ^kshaft slowly a s c o m p r e s s i o n is f c ' : . The d i s t r i b u t o r pos t on should be close e n o u g h to t h e basic
."4 damper align w i t h t h e t i m i n g i n d i c a ' o : o n • t i m i n g position to "art '.he e n g j n e . If t h e distributor h o i d - d c w
The angle of t h e d i s t r i b u t o r g e a r d r / e v. ; c l a m p is slightly ' o o s e , t h e d i s t r i b u t e r h o u s i n g can be a d j u s t e d
tor rotor to t u r n a f e w d e g r e e s w h e n installed. ".-••.•< •• ? <« : to m a k e t h e e n g i n e nan s m o o t h l y after t h e e n g i n e has b e e n
,'r is installed, t h e s h a f t m u s t b e positioned to c< r sensate for "he started.
PHOTO SEQUENCE Freoiling an Engine Step-by-Step
P30-1 Fill the crankcase with the specified amount P 3 0 - 2 Attach an oil pressure gauge to the engine P30-3 To - a t e the oil py*o an distributor was
of Oil. On this small-block Chevrolet V-8. the c'1 pressure tap cot down and the shaft installed in the chuck of a"
h
is located near the distributor at the top of t e S'ock. electric ctrffl
P30-4 Rotating the oil pump using an electric drill P 3 0 - 5 The dnll should continue bemc useC to pnme P30-6 Atte- the engine u as been pnmed, the
Tsults in the oil pressure increasing to over 5 0 PSI. the engine with oil until Oil is observed coming f r t " dstributnr can be "lstaited ard the engine car be
the rocker arms, indicating that oil has reached the installed into tfle vehicle.
highest part of the engine.
Valve Adjustment S t e p - b y - S t e p
Before starting the process of adjusting the P 3 0 - 2 The tools necessary to adjust the valves on an P 3 0 - 3 An overaa view the ftor-cySwHsr r c - r e " a t
T w l 0 0 k u ° " w s ^ ^ a t i o n s and exact procedures. engine with adjustable rocker arms include basic « due for a scheduled vatve a C u s J - e - t act>>ang to
' •technicianIs checking this information from a hand tools, foeier gauge, and a torgue wrench the veMde TOrasfactwert t e c i x w r e ' i d a s s s i .
•™puter CO-ROM-based Information system.
P * - 4 SUT He «j»jstn«ii procedure by firs!
L
P30-5 The a r intake tube is being removed from the P30-6 With all vacuum lines and the intake tube
•scowwrsng la&ei-i5 if necessa-y as vacuum throttle body. removed, the valve cover can be removed after
Snss ne « to oe re,To*ed to gain access to the removing all retaining bolts.
• N e sower
P * - 7 toiK<: how ctean the engine appears This ts P30-8 To help locate how lar the engine Is being P30-9 The engine is rotated until the timing mafa
< <f proper mantenance and regular oil rotated, the technician is removing the distributor cap on the front of the crankshaft line up with zero
danges ft* the owner to be able to observe the position of the rotor degrees—top dead center (TDC)—with both rate
closed on #1 cylinder.
PX-IO Wff tie rx»jr ante contacting the base cirde P30-11 II the valve clearance (lash) Is not correct, P30-12 After adjusting the valves that are closed
1 t f . -sr rr&\ a tester gauge of the specified thick loosen ttie retaining nut and turn the valve adjusting rotate the engine one full rotation until the engine
v f K * i t e camshaft and ttie rocket arm There screw with a screwdriver to achieve the proper timing marks again align.
> i %u#t drag ontf<efeeler gauge clearance
n ^ U tne «ng ttmataitfuflt the liminj marks P30-14 On some engines, it is necessary to watch P30-15 The technician Is using a f e e l e r u » » ^
t r < tf.f* C* Mifipatiion cyhrider win ttie direction the rotor is pointing to help determine one-thousandth of an inch thinner and a n 0 ^
row be c Vy clearance measurement how far to rotate the engine Always follow the thousandth ot an inch thicket than the spe»
vehicle manufacturer's recommended procedure ance as a double-check that the cleaiance •
__ A
Pto-16 Adjusting a valve takes both hands—one to P30-17 After all vaves have bt<- pr'jperty Ptt-18 fleets^the«Ve W
-. a the wrench to loosen and tighten the lock nul measured and 3d;usted as necei'^ry c'aci ISs » rich a w i t 1 / w w » * hose between the own
and one to turn the adjusting screw. Always double reassembly process by replacing a' j a s l s r . ' cyfrrfe? lead
•ieck the clearance after an adjustment is made seals as specified try the vehic*e maufactacr
f.KMD Use a torque wrench and torque the valve P30-20 Reinstall the distributor cap sptft ph/9 ^ ^
cower retaining bolts to factory specifications.
f
Reconnect all vacuum and air hoses and P3D-23 Be sure that the dips a T P ' w i . P30-24 Dojt-'-e chec*. lor a-, o- y
Replace with new any vacuum hoses that are Start the engine and c h e A f y p ^ v ope-ate.-i ate-- s t a t n g Pie engoe
' or swollen.
SUMMARY 6. Cwtvpcti-.c red side ciea.-ance s - i be ch

'• A11 oil galleries must be thoroughly cleaned before engine assembly can ithitkness gauge.
begin. 7. Double-check the flatness of the block deer and
2
- All expansion cups and plugs should be Installed with a sealer to prevent instiling the cylinder head.
leak. Avoid the use of Teflon tape on threaded plugs. 8. Torque the cylinder bead b.Ots accord to r .
« m bearings should be installed using a cam bearing installation• procedures
4
' Maln
bearings and rod bearings should be checkcd for proper oil clearance 9. Many cylinder heads use the torque t o y e t i mett
^ precision measuring the crankshaft journals and inside diameter o! botts are tightened to a specified torque arJ thea ri
bearings or by using plastic gauging material. ber of degrees.
' , h t piston and rod assembly should be installed In the cytinder after 10. The oil pressure should be teswd before tettSatifl
king carefully fitted for each bore. vehicle.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 5. Piston ring end gap can be increased by.
a. Filing the ring to make the gap larg •
1. D - rrSx-.-- \ .j?J:n<r.£ DMorr '.'•>. crlnder. b. Installing oversize rings
2. " i ' . i r c sbouid be checked and fitted to the crank- c. Sleeving the cylinder
sfea?„ d. Knurling the piston
3. ' • ?•? , -: --. i - - . - . jsed to determine oJ clearance? 6. The cylinder head bolts should be tightened .,J)a)
sequence? ''
4. - •• : a ? *cr checking tftmst bearing clearance?
a. The four outside bolts first, then fron • -'-rov
5. H - v a s - i •'--. connecting rod sic-, clearance be measured and
b. From the outside bolts to the inside bor
ccsrecsd?
c. From the inside bolts to the outside b o b
6. ^ • s pis? •-» and connecting rod assembly installed in the engine? d. Starting at the front of the engine and torquir g boltsfromfa-
7. procedures should be followed for installing and torquing the to rear
cv'.'ndcr "i-ad? 7. The torque-angle method involves .
8. De t r i e StK corquerto-yieid bead bolt tightening procedure. a. Turning all bolts the same number of turn
b. Torquing to specifications and loosening by a specified numbg,.
degrees
CHAPTER QUIZ c. Torquing to one-half specifications, then to three-quan.er tor:.
then to full torque
1. ~ ~ : c i cistor.-to-cviinder clearance is .
d. Turning bolts a specified number of degrees after initial torcue
a. 0.001 to 0.003 inch
b. 0.010 to 0 . 0 2 3 inch 8. Turning the oil pump before starting the engine should be done.
c. 0.100 to 0.150 inch a. To lubricate engine bearings
d. 0 . ' 8 0 to 0.230 inch b. To lubricate valve train components
c. To supply oil to the camshaft
2. - the gauging piastic strip is wide after the bearings are tightened, this
d. All of the above
.ndicates .
a. A iarge oil clearance 9 . Most bolt torque specifications are for ,
b. An old. dried strip of plastic gauging material a. Clean threads only
c. A small oil clearance b. Clean and lubricated threads
d. A small side (thrust) clearance c. Dirty threads
d. Dirty threads, but 50% can be added for clean threads
3. most common cause of premature bearing failure is .
a. Vjsassemblv 10. Cam bearings should be installed •
b. Dirt a. Dry
c. Lack of lubrication b. Oiled
d. Overloading c. With at least 0.010 inch of crush
d. Both b and c
£.. Tvpical thrust bearing clearance is .
a. 0.001 to 0 . 0 0 3 inch
b. 0.002 to 0.012 inch
c. 0.025 to 0.035 inch
d- 0.050 to 0.100 inch
Electrical F u n d a m e n t a l s
31
Electrical C i r c u i t s a n d O h m ' s L a w
32
Series, P a r a l l e l , a n d S e r i e s - P a r a l l e l
33
Circuits
34 Digital M e t e r s a n d S c o p e U s a g e
35 Automotive W i r i n g a n d W i r e Repair
36 Wiring S c h e m a t i c s a n d
Troubleshooting
37 Capacitance a n d M a g n e t i s m
38 Electronic F u n d a m e n t a l s
39 Batteries a n d B a t t e r y T e s t i n g
40 Cranking S y s t e m O p e r a t i o n
and D i a g n o s i s
41 Charging S y s t e m O p e r a t i o n a n d Diagnosis
42 Lighting a n d S i g n a l i n g C i r c u i t s
43 Driver I n f o r m a t i o n a n d N a v i g a t i o n S y s t e m s
44 Horn, W i p e r , a n d B l o w e r M o t o r Circuits
45 Accessory C i r c u i t s
46 Restraint S y s t e m s a n d A i r b a g s
47 Audio S y s t e m O p e r a t i o n a n d D i a g n o s i s
31
C H A P T E R
Electrical Fundamentals
A f t e r s,u
a, ea d y < n g Chapter 31, the reader will be able to: Prepare lor ASE Eiectncat/Etectror
anii^ ' ^ n 9 r a l Electrical/Electronic System Diagnosis) • Define electricity. • Exp»a« the a n t e of electrical measurement • D m f e i M M t
uvolts
^ . amperes, and ohms. • Explain how magnetise is -a
a
' " i m e t e r . amperes • atom • bound electrons • concentric nngs • conftrtore • oonventanal theory • c a * w O • amm
P0,entlal
• insulatn * electricity . electrochemistry • electromotive force .EMP • electrons • electron theory • elements • fcwetacM
ion
He™, * * neutral charge • neutrons • nucleus • obmmeter • ohms • p«*er effect . photoetectroty . p * r o e e c t n c * • xmm
' « i e r m o c n C ? 6 f f i C i e n t ( P T C ) * Potentiometer • protons • resistance • - e s s w s • meosfat • senwonductors • s t t * • stake W M t
p e
* thermoelectricity • valence she • volt • v o t - e t e r • watt
^ S ? ? J y s t B m i s <™ the most important systems m a vehi- e ^ n c r t y Those « m fc- a* , 1

T
aa
y Every year, more and more components and systems use automotive elect j . a r d e ~
sta s K t u v
BJECTRICrnf W h e n an a t o m loses any e l e c t r o n s , it beetn< nbalanced

have more protons than electrons a n d t h e r e i n ; n âve ^
O u r universe s composed - atter, w h i c h is anything t h a t has
charge. If it gains m o r e electrons t h a n p r o t o n s , th.> atom will £
c u s s and occupies space. m a t t e r is m a d e from slightly over
tivelY charged. W h e n an a t o m is n o t b a l a n c e d , - becomes a ^ j
1 0 0 s r f --" d - a c w n p e - . e r . c •J led e l e m e n t s . T h e smallest panicle
panicle called an i o n . Ions try to regain their ba ; of equal p-
t n a : a r e s e m e n : c a n b e f ier. i n t o a n d still retain t h e properties
and electrons by exchanging e l e c t r o n s w i t h neighboring atom
<- r - - kr. r as an a t o m . See R g u r e 3 1 - 1 . Electricity
Figure 31 5. This is the Bow of electric c u r r e n t o r electricity!
the ~ • nwrct :>? es : t r o n s from o n e a t o m to another. T h e dense
: . ca -d t h e n u c l e u s . T h e nucleus contains
protons. c p< live c h a r g e , and n e u t r o n s , w h i c h are
r r :i r - i . e r. j c h a r g e . E l e c t r o n s s u r r o u n d t h e nu-
r. E a c h a t o m c o n t a i n s an equal n u m b e r of electrons
POSITIVE
asc : - • - B e c a u s e t h e n u m b e r of negative-charged electrons is
tejnced t h e s a m e n u m b e r of positive-charged protons, an
: n e u t r a l c h a r g e n o charge .
Ai c example at the relat - e sizes of the parts of an atom, consider

• i r i — were magnified so that the nucleus were the size of the
> - r r r - e e r ; of this sentence, the whole atom would be bigger than a
Ôise.
P o s i t i v e a n d N e g a t i v e C h a r g e s T h e parts of t h e atom have

d i f f e r e n t c h a r g e s . T h e orbiting e l e c t r o n s are negatively charged,
• tr.e p r o t o n s a r e positively c h a r g e d . Positive charges are indi-
c a t e d by - h e " p l u s " sign ( + , and negative charges by t h e " m i n u s "
s;gr. - 1 , as s h o w n in Figure 3 1 - 2 . T h e s e s a m e + a n d - signs are
-sec! to identify parts of a n electrical circuit. N e u t r o n s have n o
c h a r g e at all. T h e y a r e n e u t r a l . In a n o r m a l , or balanced, a t o m , the NEGATIVE
- h e r of n e g a t i v e particles e q u a l s t h e n u m b e r of positive parti-
cles. Tna" is, t h e r e are as m a n y electrons as t h e r e are protons. See
F r . r e 3 1 - 3 . T h e n u m b e r of n e u t r o n s varies according to t h e type Figure 31-2 The nucleus of an atom has a positive (+) charge and tne surra"**1
of a t o m . electrons nave a negative ( - ) charge.
Ar. o r d i n a r y m a g n e t h a s t w o e n d s , or poles. O n e end is called
f
.re sc . r . pole, a n d t h e o t h e r is called t h e n o r t h pole. If t w o mag-
rjets b r o j g h t close to e a c h o t h e r w i t h like poles together Isouth
to so j t h or n o r t h to n o r t h i , t h e m a g n e t s will push each other apart.
Ir.. s b e c a u s e like poles repel e a c h o t h e r If t h e opposite poles of
tr>e m a g n e t s a r e b r o u g h t close to e a c h other, s o u t h to n o r t h , the
>•... s n a p t o g e t h e r b e c a u s e unlike poles attract each other.
T h e positive a n d negative c h a r g e s within an a t o m are like t h e
r a n d / . p o l e s of a m a g n e t . Charges that are alike will repel
e a c r . r i i e r , • railar to t h e poles of a m a g n e t . See Figure 3 1 - 4 . That
. , . , "_r,e negative e l e c t r o n s c o n t i n u e to orbit a r o u n d the positive
p r ' T r - are attracted a n d held by t h e opposite charge of the
-„- , - • . - . !>.e e l e c t r o n s k e e p m o v i n g in orbit b e c a u s e t h e y repel
e a c h other.
Figure 31-3 This figure shows a balanced atom
s
0 >
KVCffiOGEN ATOM
Figure 31 1 - tc ntctom ortrf protons m trie nucleus )u«t as planets orbit

Figure 31-4 Unlike charges attract and like charges repel
,!er1t EXJrittl Pa rM® lit
OPîr FREE ELECTRONS

LEVELS
nju(S 31-5 An unbalanced, positively charged atom (ton) vol attract electro - m
vetoing atoms. VALANCE Ft,'»G 0OONO ELECTRONS
figure 31-7 f t > *r « ***

1 1 1 1
M n M c M n K K * ^
0
PROTON
SOO.EUS
ELECTRON
HYOROGEN ATOM ALUMINUM ATOM

(1 ELECTRON) (13 ELECTRONS)
3
FREE ELECTRON
Figure 31-« Sidrow * « ouSr art* or sfrf ca« eft* be drwi * *

and become tree eiicrani.
CONOOCTCRS
COPPER ATOM SILVER ATOM

(29 ELECTRONS) (61 ELECTRONS)
figure 31-6 The hydrogen atom Is the simplest atom, with only one proton, one neutron.
Wwe electron More complex elements contain higher numbers of protons, neutrons, and
?«trem
Figure 31-9 * oyO-.tor 3 aoy e v « * - -,t 'as -y* f * . " •>'» " » •-'« * *
Electron Shells Electrons orbit a r o u n d t h e nucleus in definite
paths. These paths form s h e l l s , like c o n c e n t r i c r i n g s , around the
nucleus. Only a specific n u m b e r of e l e c t r o n s can orbit within each These rightly held e l e c t r f s a r e called b o u n d electrons. •
shell. If there are too m a n y e l e c t r o n s for t h e first and closest shell to
Figures 31-7 and 31-3.
"ie nucleus, t h e o t h e r s will o r b i t in additional shells until all elec-
The m o v e m e n t of t h e s e drifting electrons is caiV-i c u r r e n c
Tons have an orbit w i t h i n a shell. T h e r e can b e as many as seven
Current can be small, w i t h o n l y a f e w electrons movi-,a, * .t can
'-hells around a single n u c l e u s . See Figure 3 1 6 .
be large, with a t r e m e n d o u s n u m b e r of electrons raw ' g. f ~<
fae and Bound Electrons T h e o u t e r m o s t electron s h e l l . r current is the controlled, directed m< v e r v - . t t "> -
% called the v a l e n c e s h e l l , is t h e m a s t important to . ur study atom to atom within a c o n d u c t o r
of
electricity. The n u m b e r of e l e c t r o n s In this shell d e t e r m i n e s the
v
&nce of the a t o m a n d Indicates its capacity to c o m b i n e w i t h Conductors C o n d u c t o r s ire matenals • th ' r ^ '
r
'îer atoms. electrons in their atom^s o u t e r orbit. See F ; . r e 3'. 0 . <J f f * r 1
an excellent c o n d u c t o r b e c a u s e it has only re r'K'n.o n s
If the valence ring of a n a t o m h a s t h r e e or f e w e r electrons in it.
outer o r b i t This orbit Is far e n o u g h i w a y torn rhe -. . v i e ' j .1 ' h e
, ' e ring has room for m o r e . T h e e l e c t r o n s t h e r e are held very
copper atom that t h e pull or force h o M l - i h e . - . si - : n
" ^ ' y . and It Is easy for a d r i f t i n g e l e c t r o n t o Join t h e valence ring
j*} P«sh another e l e c t r o n away. These loosely held electrons are in orbit is relatively w e a k . S e e Figure 3! 10. Ctptr s : xv
j m free e l e c t r o n s . W h e n t h e v a l e n c e ring has rive . r m o r e d u c t o r most u s e d in vehicles b e c a . e he ; r e I c>r i re»
, t c t fons in It, it Is fairly full. The e l e c t r o n s are held tightly, and it is sonabte c o m p a r e d t o t h e relative co- - ot 'yOw.r -J * « k
f
°r a drifting e l e c t r o n to p u s h its w a y i n t o t h e valence ring. similar properties.
a s v*;-
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION £
* '' »tfi-g is m the water, sucti as salt or

m~ t - ~~ - y • B e c a m e it e difficult to keep water
. w -X c '- w< ' $ usually thought ol as being capable ol
cMteang escet aiiy tvgh voltage such as from household 110-volt
m r r « * <k.«ts
C O P P E R WIRE
COPPER
POSITIVE
NEGATIVE
© © (-1
CHARGE CHARGE
Figure 31-13 Current electricity is the movement ot electrons through a conductor
>-
31-10 Coooer IS an excel lent conductor ol electricity because it has |ust one
»e»*r - s ortut making it easy to be knocked out ot its orbit and flow to other
Tn« causes electron tlow which is the definition ot electricity FLOW OF CURRENT
( C O N V E N T I O N A L THEORY}
INSULATORS
Figure 31-14 Conventional theory states that current flows through a circuit from
positive (+) to negative I I Automotive electricity uses the conventional theory in all
electrical diagrams and schematics
F l f v c 31-11 insutatxj are elements with live to eight electrons in the outer orbit How Electrons M o v e T h r o u g h a Conductor if an
s o u r c e of power, s u c h as a b a t t e r y , is c o n n e c t e d to the ends of •
Insulators T h e p r o t o n s a n d n e u t r o n s in t h e n u c l e u s a r e held to- ductor, a positive c h a r g e (lack of e l e c t r o n s ) is placed on one t
erv ' g h t l y . N o r m a l l y t h e n u c l e u s d o e s n o t c h a n g e . But t h e c o n d u c t o r a n d a n e g a t i v e c h a r g e is p l a c e d o n the oppos"^
of t h e c u t e r e l e c t r o n s a r e h e l d very loosely, a n d t h e y c a n of t h e c o n d u c t o r . T h e n e g a t i v e c h a r g e will repel the free e l e c
r ;>e ~ ~ o n e a t o m t o a n o t h e r . A n a t o m t h a t loses e l e c t r o n s h a s from t h e a t o m s of t h e c o n d u c t o r , w h e r e a s the positive charp
- . 1 ' • / e c h a r g e s I p r o t o n s ) t h a n n e g a t i v e c h a r g e s ( e l e c t r o n s i ; it t h e opposite e n d of t h e c o n d u c t o r w i l l a t t r a c t electrons. As a
; - l a r j t e d . An a t o m t h a t g a i n s e l e c t r o n s h a s m o r e nega- of this attraction of o p p o s i t e c h a r g e s a n d r e p u l s i o n of like c
• . e p a r . c l e s ; it is n e g a t i v e l y c h a r g e d . electrons will f l o w t h r o u g h t h e c o n d u c t o r . S e e Figure 31—1J-
/ - ' " i - f - ' i a l - : h o l d t h e i r e l e c t r o n s v e r y tightly; t h e r e f o r e ,
Conventional Theory versus Electron Theory
..... . . v r, o v e t h r o u g h t h e m very well. T h e s e m a t e r i a l s are
t h o u g h t that electricity h a d o n l y o n e c h a r g e a n d moved m>
I n s u l a t o r s are materials with m o r e t h a n four
tive to n e g a t i v e . T h i s t h e o r y of t h e f l o w of e l e c t r i c i t y through ^
* - ' t . c ' a t o m ' s o u t e r orbit. Because they have m o r e than
d u c t o r is called t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l theory o f current n ^
.'. - h e i r o u t e r o r b i t , it b e c o m e s easier for t h e s e
Figure 31 14. T h e d i s c o v e r y of t h e e l e c t r o n a n d i t s n e g a t ^
?.. ", v : : •• gain electrons than to release electrons. See
led to t h e e l e c t r o n t h e o r y , w h i c h s t a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s ele c 1
^
'-,..-<• i r . x a r . & i e t of i n s u l a t o r s I n c l u d e plastics, w o o d , glass,
from n e g a t i v e to positive. M o s t a u t o m o t i v e a p p l i e d " ;, tUd
-. w - » p . and v a r n i s h for c o v e r i n g (insulatingl
c o n v e n t i o n a l theory. T h i s b o o k will u s e t h e convention
o w n a ternatwrs a n d starters.
unless stated o t h e r w i s e .
rid •
Semiconductors M< " - / / i t h e x a c t l y f o u r e l e c t r o n s in t h e i r
over v ' . o r , d o c t o r , n o r i n s u l a t o r s a n d a r e called
Amperes The a m p e r e is t h e u n i t u s e d t h r o u g h o u t the ^ ,
elct
m e a s u r e c u r r e n t flow. W h e n 6 . 2 8 b i l l i o n billion ()V,e p^'
semiconductor < ; . il 12.
n a m e for t h i s large n u m b e r of e l e c t r o n s Is a c o u l o m b !
'.napter 31 Jactncei* m a a t
C O P P E R WIH
POSITIVE 6 . 2 8 BILLION B NEGATIVE

(+) ELECTRONS PEfI
CHARGE CHARGE
* M <
(1 A M P E R f i
VOLTAGE IS PRESSURE
Figure 3 1 - 1 5 One ampere is the movement of 1 coutomh <6
rtln 1 second. Rgure 3 1 - 1 7 Wtage the electrical pressure that cautee the electrons It tie*«
conductor
AMMETER
0 0 © © 0 © —
figure 31-16 An ammeter is Installed in the path of the electrons similar to a water meter
used to measure the flow of water in gallons per minute. The ammeter displays current (low
in amperes.
certain p o i n t in 1 s e c o n d , t h i s r e p r e s e n t s 1 a m p e r e of c u r r e n L See
Figure 3 1 - 1 5 . T h e a m p e r e is t h e e l e c t r i c a l u n i t for t h e a m o u n t of
electron f l o w j u s t a s " g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e " is t h e u n i t t h a t c a n b e
used to m e a s u r e t h e q u a n t i t y of w a t e r f l o w . T h e a m p e r e w a s n a m e d
for the F r e n c h e l e c t r i c i a n A n d r 6 M a r i e A m p e r e ( 1 7 7 5 - 1 8 3 6 1 . T h e
conventional a b b r e v i a t i o n s a n d m e a s u r e m e n t for a m p e r e s a r e s u m -
marized as f o l l o w s : Figure 3 1 - 1 8 "ras digits - . - - e m a r t s - s a c DC .-.ts s twng jsedtotef Ihe rottage
of a vehicle battery Most Tumnem can a n meaire resstanc? d m and antnttgw
1. The a m p e r e is t h e u n i t of m e a s u r e m e n t for t h e a m o u n t of
(amperesl
current flow.
2. A and amps are a c c e p t a b l e a b b r e v i a t i o n s for amperes.
3. The capital letter /, for intensity, is u s e d in m a t h e m a t i c a l calcula-
CURRENT
tions to r e p r e s e n t a m p e r e s .
4. Amperes a r e m e a s u r e d b y a n a m m e t e r (not a m p m e t e r . See
Figure 3 1 - 1 6 .
Volts T h e v o l t is t h e u n i t of m e a s u r e m e n t for e l e c t r i c a l p r e s s u r e .
It is named for A l e s s a n d r o V o l t a ( 1 7 4 5 - 1 8 2 7 ) , a n Italian p h y s i c i s t
I he c o m p a r a b l e u n i t u s i n g w a t e r a s a n e x a m p l e w o u l d b e p o u n d s
per square i n c h (PSI). It is p o s s i b l e t o h a v e v e r y h i g h pressures RESISTANCE
(volts) and l o w w a t e r f l o w ( a m p e r e s ) . It is a l s o p o s s i b l e t o h a v e high
water flow ( a m p e r e s ) a n d l o w p r e s s u r e ( v o l t s ) . V o l t a g e is also called Figure 31-19 'tessa^se e r e "v* of electrons thresh a amdj -.-.:
electrical p o t e n t i a l , b e c a u s e if t h e r e is v o l t a g e p r e s e n t in a . ohms.
ductor, t h e r e is a p o t e n t i a l ( p o s s i b i l i t y ) f o r c u r r e n t flow. Voltage d o e s
l o t flow t h r o u g h c o n d u c t o r s , b u t v o l t a g e d o e s c a u s e c u r r e n ' in
amperes) to f l o w t h r o u g h c o n d u c t o r s . S e e F i g u r e 3 1 - 1 7 . T h e con- Figure 3 1 - 1 9 . T h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a b b r e v i a t i o n s a n d n k . ' t r t r
'entional a b b r e v i a t i o n s a n d m e a s u r e m e n t for v o l t a g e a r e as ft ov. for r e s i s t a n c e a r e a s f o l l o w s :
The volt is t h e u n i t of m e a s u r e m e n t for t h e a m o u n t of c . e c t n c a . 1. T h e o h m is t h e u n i t of m e a s u r e m e n t for e t a a r i c a l r r s s u B c e .

pressure. 2 . The mr ,: - tors U ,reeic capita - sa a
E l e c t r o m o t i v e f o r c e , a b b r e v i a t e d E M F , is a n o t h e r term ' r letter of t h e G r e e k alphabet.
voltage. 3 . The symbo ised in c a . jjaticns is R, tor * '.
îs the generally a c c e p t e d a b b r e v i a t i o n for volts. 4 . O h m s are m e a s u r e c v th an o h m m e t e r .
T h e symbol u s e d In c a l c u l a t i o n s is E, for electrons a
Watts A watt s t h e ••. ~ . •.. ---..-
• v olts are m e a s u r e d w i t h a v o l t m e t e r . S e e Figure 31 18.
:
w o r k . It is n a m e d a f t e r a S c o t t i s h i.r/entce; arr.es A art !730-
0flms
Resistance to t h e flow of c u r r e n t t h r o u g h a c o n d u c t ir 1 8 1 9 ) . T h e s y m b o l f o r p o w e r . - P. E e c t n c a . :• *»: ' .A'ea as
Measured In u n i t s c a l l e d ohms, n a m e d a f t e r t h e G e r m a n p h v s amperes times volts:
(r " r ' e o r g Simon O h m ( 1 7 8 7 - 1 8 5 4 ) . T h e r e s i s t a n c e to t h e f l o w of
/"(power; = /;amperes ' E"»oia
electrons through a c o n d u c t o r r e s u l t s f r o m t h e c o u n t l e s s colli-
,ns
" toe e l e c t r o n s cause w i t h i n t h e a t o m s of t h e c o n d u c t o r . S e e See Figure 3 1 - 2 0 .
32S SOV*. V
Figure 31-21 Electronflowis produced by heating the connection ol two differ
P^n31-5." 13 . t f t v - . «o>« * fc,3-t«y MicWo»i, that ir«*jdes a LIGHT

v ••:•:••> and a sf bdbs THe- f ^ r t ! shows a young man SOURCE
t k bjtx a Ttu cnr« getiha-de-lc U>rr, as more bufcs
> y >.-.•...-* ' ixfc -«• !•>.-, te po3u>:* the n e c « w y wattso" tfecK*) ''ELECIR*
FLOW
S O - J R D E S OF ELECTRICITY _ _ _ _ _
SELENIUM
' •. 2s 1 K - i - i l s > . . . \ ? » of e l e c t n c a l e n e r g y , b u t o n l y a f e w of ALLOY
tr-:- ir-. •>. a t i t o f f i o t i v e e l e c t r i c a l s y s t e m s .
I R 0 N
TRANSLUCENT
Fricifofl v . c e r t a i n different materials a t e rubbed together, MATERIAL
--•5 fr,-:v:.r. ca uses e l e c t r o n s t o b e t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m o n e t o t h e
.v-- b.'z r s'erla's b e c o m e electrically charged. These charges Figure 31-22 Electron flow Is produced by light striking a light-sensitive maters
are n>y. ir. r . c . but stay on the surface w h e r e they were
: < . '• v J Sr t h e c h a r g e s a r e stationary, or static, this type
ot v , a ' -:d s t a t i c electricity. Vehicle tires rolling o n
x i f * : : o f t e r c r e a t e static electricity t h a t Interferes w i t h radio
-•-r •
H<iz\ ' • ' : ; ::• : ' rA"J m e t a l s a r e j o i n e d t o g e t h e r a : b o t h e n d s

a*: r . i<. h e a t e d , c u r r e n t p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e m e t a l s . T h e
' : or.';, r of a n a m p e r e , b-Jt t h i s is e n o u g h
v - < ar. a t e ^ p e r i ' . u r e - m e s s t a i n g d e v i c e called a t h e r m o c o u p l e .
See r - ^ . y . 3 : 2 1 . S c t r e e n g i n e u - m f e r a t o - ' e s e n s o r s o p e r a t e in t h i s
- • T • .'-— .' . ; • is c a l l e d t h e r m o e l e c t r i c i t y . ^ CRYSTAL J
r
T-i-r /r e . : ; . ' , w a s d i s c o v e r e d o v e r a c e n t u r y a g o . In 1 8 2 3 ,
"i* y .:is: T h o m a s J o h a n n Secbeck discovered that a
K—
in * l o o p c o n t a i n i n g t w o dissimilar m e t a l s ,
:• • r/."j • w e r e m a i n t a i n e d at different t e m p e r a
A i F r e n c h scientist j e a n C h a r l e s Peltier f o u n d
Figure 3 1 - 2 3 Electron HOA Is produced by pressure on certain crystals
i r . a solid c a n c a r r y h e a t f t o m o n e s i d e
et tix fcawiai k> t h e o t h e r s i d e . T h i s e f f e c t is c a l l e d t h e P e l t i e r
effect. - r - •• d e v i c e fc o f t e n u s e d it: p o r t a b l e c o o l e r s t o
' - : •.-; •• '.•/• '•/»«• c v - t e r i ' fiow> in o n e d i r e c t i o n a n d t o Pressure T h e first e x p e r i m e n t a l d e m o n s t r a t i o n of a
• * 1 ' c s ' j " e " s t B o w s in r e v e r s e . b e t w e e n macroscopic piezoelectric p h e n o m e n a and c r y s t ^ ^
s t r u c t u r e w a s p u b l i s h e d in 1 8 8 0 b y P i e r r e a n d J a c q u e s ^ ; ' ^ ;
li&A 1- :-Y' fr:- r. •".,-.<?•:! t h a t b y s h i n i n g a e x p e r i m e n t c o n s i s t e d of a c o n c l u s i v e m e a s u r e m e n t o f su
^ to^
> . < - • '>'. t ' ; d * k ? e r T Uq ar, e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t w a s appearing o n specially p r e p a r e d c r y s t a l s ( t o u r m a l i n e , q ^ ^ j f
> r •'• - r?.'->l e x f / w j t o l i g h t , s o m e of t h e cant- sugar, a n d R o c h e l l e s a l t a m o n g t l i e m ) , w h i c h w e r f •
l?;' <•• • :»• :?«-. '•• * ' . 'i - ?*••• e5ect:->rfc of t h e m e t a l . T h i s to mechanical stress.
e r > .v<v> • «>-.•• v fcorr t h e s u r f a c e of t h e W h e n subjected to p r e s s u r e , c e r t a i n crystals, sue
If.- i-' t ; f . " W ir; a c o n d u c t o r , develop a potential difference, o r v o l t a g e , on
v- •",. V j/ !r photoelectricity t •• • / > : d it. ligft 1 S e e f i g u r e 3 1 - 2 3 . T h i s c u r r e n t is u s e d i n P h o n ^ g ' % ) i n ^
.-•;• • < f ,:<•'' tt:/r.--;<. Rieters arid crystal m i c r o p h o n e s , u n d e r w a t e r h y d r o p h o n e s , ant) c e c
4 - . p i - .-.-.^s. scopes. The voltage created is c a l l e d piezoelectn
Copier 31 Efcctrccai FurrtafMrtsfli 383
rjtomobae engine c o n t r o l s e n s o r s , sue;

uje piezoelectricity to c r e a t e v o l t a g e or tc xi Rating (Starting with the Best)
-o: a computer i n p u t signal. J. Sinr
2. Copper
Chemistry Two different mater
3. Gold
- 3 conducting a n d r e a c t i v e c h e m i c a l a .
4 Alurrwxjsn
ence in potential, or v o l t a g e , b e t w e e n ther pr
5. Tungnen
ed e l e c t r o c h e m i s t r y a n d is
6 Znc
battery. 7 Bran( copper and are)
Conductors and Resistance AH con PHnum
8
S t a n c e to c u r r e n t flow. Several principles of c o n d . s t o - ar.d 9. Iron
their resistance i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g .
10 Nctei
i If the c o n d u c t o r l e n g t h is d o u b l e d , its r e s i s t a n c e d o u b l e s . 11. Tn
This is the reason battery cables are designed to be as short as 12. SKef
possible. 13. Lead
i If the c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r is i n c r e a s e d , its r e s i s t a n c e is re-
duced. This is the reason starter m o t o r cables are larger in diame-
ter than other wiring in t h e vehicle. See Chapter 7 for further
Resistors • s r . e e . . O p p - y ; u o n t o c . - r e n t f l o w Resistors
details on wiring sizes. represent an electrical ;oad, o r resistance, to c u r r e n t Sow. Most
• As the t e m p e r a t u r e i n c r e a s e s , t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c o n d u c - electrical a n d e i e c t r a m c d e v i c e s u s e resistors of specific values
tor also i n c r e a s e s . This is t h e r e a s o n for installing heat shields to limit a n d c o n t r a t h e S o w of c u r r e n t . Resistors can b e m a d e
on some starter motors. T h e h e a t shield helps to protect the con- from carbon or f r o m o t h e r materials that restrict t h e S o w of elec-
ductors (copper wiring inside t h e starter) from excessive engine tricity and a r e available ir. v a n : us ::zes a n d resistance values. M : :
.'-eat and so reduces t h e resistance of starter circuits. Because a resistors have a series of p a i n t e d color b a n d s a r o u n d t h e i r . These
conductor increases in resistance w i t h increased temperature, the color bands are c o d e d t o indicate t h e d e g r e e of resistance. See
conductor is called a p o s i t i v e t e m p e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t (PTC) Figures 3 1 - 2 4 and 3 1 - 2 5 .
resistor.
• Materials u s e d in t h e c o n d u c t o r h a v e a n i m p a c t o n its Variable Resistors Twc b a r : : -.-pes o: mecharJcaL :oen:iz
resistance. Silver has t h e l o w e s t resistance of any conductor; but variable res_~ are - a . : ~ : i v e s i p .rati:.-.. A potenti-
is expensive. Copper is t h e n e x t lowest in resistance and it is ometer 5 tr_ree-:enr_nal ariafc e r e s i s t : : '.ere t h e m a : r ~ . :•:
reasonably priced. See the following chart for a comparison of t h e current flow travels t h r o u g h t h e resistance of t h e unit a n d a
materials. wiper contact provides a variable voltage o u t p u t . See figure 3 1 - 2 0 .
FIRST AND EXAMPLES

SECOND BAND THIRD BAND
COLORS COLOR MEANS 470 Q
REPRESENT NUMBER OF -GOLD OF 5= = )
NUMBERS ZEROS
S + X
YELLOW VIOLET BROW N " ZERC
«> (7)
3900 a
J C GOLD (IF SN)
FOURTH BAND T O —
REPRESENTS
TOLERANCE
(ACCURACY) ORANGE. WHITE. RED 2 ZEROS'
(3) (9)
BLACK = 0 FOURTH BAND TOLERANCE CODE
BROWN = 1 NO FOURTH BAND = ± 2 0 %
RED = 2 SILVER = ± 1 0 %
ORANGE = 3 ' GOLD = i 5 \
YELLOW = 4 RED = ±2°°
GREEN = 5 BROWN = ± 1 %
BLUE = 6 - G O L D IS THE MOST
VIOLET * 7 COMMONLY AVAILABLE
GRAY = 8 RESISTOR TOLERANCE
WHITE = 9
6 3,
-24 tiK fiflare shows a resistor color code nterpretaso
32* J*C"ON,*
CHAPTER QUIZ
t . An electrical conductor is an element with .
outer orbit.
a. Less than 2
b. Less than 4
c. Exactly 4
d. More than 4
2. Like charges -
a. Attract
b . Repel
Pgure 3 1 - 2 5 '-^re stwos a trocal carton ressstc* c. Neutralize each other
d. Add
3. Which of Lhe following is the best conductor of electricity?
Q+ REFERENCE VOLTAGE
a. Silver
SIGNAL VOLTAGE (VARIABLE WITH b. Copper
POSITION OF MOVABLE CONTACT) c. Gold
T
d. Zinc
GROUND (0 VOLT)
4. Which unit of electricity does the work in a circuit?
MOVABLE a. A volt
CONTACT b. An ampere
c. An ohm
F g o r e 3 1 - 2 6 AIhree-a re va/able resistor is caned a totenbometer. d. A coulomb
5. As temperature increases .
a. The resistance of a conductor decreases
b. The resistance of a conductor increases
8*
c. The resistance of a conductor remains the same
_ c d. The voltage of the conductor decreases
o„-« OUTPUT TERMINAL
6. The is a unit of electrical pressure.
MOVA8LE CONTACT a. Coulomb
b. Volt
c. Ampere
Figure 3 1 - 2 7 A tvic-wre vanat* resistor is cafied a rheostat
d. Ohm
7. Technician A says that a two-wire variable resistor is called a tbeaat
P o t e n t i o m e t e r s a r e m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d a s t h r o t t l e position
nician B says that a three-wire variable resistor is called a pot
TP sensors o n computer-equipped engines. Which technician is correct?
A n o t h e r a p e of m e c h a n i c a l l y o p e r a t e d v a r i a b l e resistor is t h e a. Technician A only
r h e o s t a t A r h e o s t a t is a t w o - t e r m i n a l u n i t in w h i c h all of t h e cur- b. Technician B only
: e r . : ; .vs t h r o u g h t h e m o v a b l e a r m . S e e F i g u r e 3 1 - 2 7 . A r h e o s t a t c. Both Technicians A and B
is c o m m o n l y u s e d f o r a d a s h l i g h t d i m m e r c o n t r o l . d. Neither Technician A nor B
8. Creating electricity by exerting a force on a crystal is called —
a. Electrochemistry
SUMMARY
b. Piezoelectricity
1. Elei. -C.-V is the movement of electrons from one atom to another c. Thermoelectricity
2. - . r . e e electricity uses the conventional theory of current flow jelec- d. Photoelectricity
vric.-ry flows from positive to negative). 9. The fact that a voltage can be created by exerting force on a a y -
3 "• • a r pere : the measure of the amount of current Sow. in which type of sensor?
a. Throttle position (TPi
A. 3 the u - i t of electrical pressure.
b. Manifold absolute pressure (MAPI
5. The --ithe of electrical resistance. c. Barometric pressure (BAROl
6. ' : r-.es 'A electricity include: friction, heat, light, pressure, and chemical. d. Knock sensor | KS i
, wtiict -
10. A potentiometer, a three-wire variable resistor, is used in *
sensor?
REVIEW QUESTIONS
a. Throttle position |TP!
1. D e f c e e f c e t t c f t * b. Manifold absolute pressure (MAP)
2. D e ' r e «rtpere, v o i t and o h m . c. Barometric pressure | BAROl
d. Knock sensor i KSl
I. ' ' --• r-.ate" a Is 'ha? are c o n d u c t o r and three materials that are
4. : '- ' . - t e s of electricity.

g m i W B ! After studying Chapter 32, the reader will be aMe to «or ASE BecMcateecMnc Sydern tAft uattmhw M l o M M area
j-.General Electrical/Electronic Systems Diagncs' • • -« < sa-s * • MB • •»>--»
characteristics of an open circuit, a short-to-ground anc a 3hor ,.
KEY TERMS: circuit • complete circuit • continuity • etectncai load • ground trcMnt pati • f M M • < M M pa®i • M M a f t • Omrs o b
. open drcuit • power source • protection • shorted • short-to-grotn) • durt-to-voftage • Waffs law
CjBCMTS
A circuit is a path that electrons travel from a pov. - irce
as a batteryi through a load (such as a light bulb and back to -Jr.e
power source. It is called a circuit because the c u r r r rr tar
and finish at the same place ipower source . See Figure 3 2 - ! .
For any electrical circuit to w o r k at all, it must be cor.tir. _ s
- ~ the battery ipowerl through all the wires and components
and back to the battery (groundI. A circuit that is c c r . t " . . 9«XM
•hrcughout is said to have c o n t i n u i t y . COMNECTVON
Parts of a C o m p l e t e Circuit Every c o m p l e t e circuit

3 0 0 * SrlET" WE " i - BiGME BLOC*. ETC
tains the following parts:
1. power s o u r c e , such as a vehicle's b a n e - . . Figure 32-1 - - =er : i * t c a l f e r ' a r :

2. Protection rmm harmful overloads (excessive c u r e r . : •' ®e k o i -ame r » 3 '
Fuses. circuit breakers, and fusible links are examples of electric i.
circuit protection devices.
3. Ar. insulated p a t h for the current to flc through r ~
power source to the resistance. This path from a power sourceto
the load .a light bulb in this example; is usually an insulated cop- UOKT
perwire. BU.B
4. The electrical l o a d or resistance converts c . e c t r c i energy
A
heat, llgjit, or motion.
5. A g r o u n d ( r e t u r n ) p a t h for t h e electrical c u r e r . h - •_-.-: u:
back to the power source so that t h e r e is a ctxnpiete a r c - . : . Th> S«HTCH
ground path is usually t h e metal body. n a m e , and er.gr.-: b l o c k : :
the vehicle. See Figure 3 2 - 2 .
6
- Switches and controls t u r n t h e circuit o n and off. See figure 1 2 - 3
S A T ^
POWER SOURCE
(BATTERY) CONDUCTOR
(WIRE)
FINISH
s e a w t w e
3K>:R?E XSJX! - *
FUSE
Open Circuits ,\r. o p e n a r c u i t an

i t : ett. .'t eat l i d s ce-tr.-_:-r. See F gre 31-a.
RETURN Sc c o r m x a t f v r l i c w *±r: j & ir. .s
CONDUCTOR open oiru.: i * crea-ec : i tsren t Sa : r c a
(WIRE) LOAD
s w i t c h e c s a s off c i c r : t a
\ tLKJHT
3ULB
cuntnt ar.v d i e . t c t r / ^ a g i : cv r
it ' x - . . •:
r . ac i c
. I
fjj ^ \ i - - • m i • ar:
"M 32-1 A
wnpirte crairts -nust have a c o w source a p e w w o a * :• aaKSm wbide are e x a r : tes oi :•:«c«s " : .' a
* 'Wncai taao ;Hght but) r tms rase- and a reto • e a r tac* to«w t e w ? a v c e operation.
sect
PROTECTION CON" VICE
:
DEVICE (FUSE) (SWT N)
1 /
'MTERNALLY a m
w RE I— +
O P E N PART CONDUCTOR
POWER SOURCE (SWITCH CLOSEC (WIRE)
(BATTERY)
qVOAD
- 4
(EXTREMELY HIGH RESISTANCE
U- RETURN RETURN
u H W I L L A P P E A R AS O P E N CIRCUIT) CONDUCTOR CONDUCTOR
(GROUND) GROUND
SLCWN HJSE
Figure 3 2 - 6 A fuse or circuit breaker opens the circuit to prevent possible overheats
damage in the event of a short circuit.
CORRODED
CONNECTION LOOSE
CONNECTION
R c u r e 3 2 - 4 n»s figure shows examples of common causes of open circuits. Some of

R E A L WORLD FIX \ The Short-to-Voltage Story
causes are often di"icutt to find. A technician was working on a Chevrolet pickup truck with unusual electrics
problems including the following:
1 . Whenever the brake pedal w a s depressed, the dash light and the side
marker lights would light.
2 . The turn signals caused all lights to blink and the fuel gauge needle to
bounce up and down.
3 . When the brake lights were on. the front parking lights also came on.
The technician tested all fuses using a conventional test light (not a fc-
current test light) and found them to be okay. All body-to-engine block grant
wires were clean and tight. All bulbs were of the correct trade number as spec-
fied in the owner's manual.
NOTE: Using a single-filament bulb (such as a #1156) in the placet':

dual-filament bulb (such as a #1157) could also cause many of these sar:
problems.
P c i T E 3 2 - 5 A short circuit permits electrical current to bypass some or all of the Because most of the trouble occurred when the brake pedal
• T the circuit. depressed, the technician decided to trace all the wires in the brake light cto
The problem was found near the exhaust system. A small hole in the
(after the muffler) directed hot exhaust gases to the wiring harness contar-
all of the wires for circuits at the rear of the truck. The heat had melted«
TECH TIP Use a S c h e m a t i c a s a Road Map insulation and caused most of the wires to touch. Whenever one circuit f®
activated (such as when the brake pedal was applied), the current had -
schematic is the "road map" of a circuit and shows all electrical
complete path to several other circuits. A fuse did not blow because there
52—s f ^ open occurs in a circuit, the current stops flowing and the electri-
enough resistance in the circuits being energized so that the current
cal load device does not work. Trace the circuit by following the path from the
amperes) was too low to blow any fuses.
v r f < -hrsugto m e power side component, load, and on the ground. Check
r r z r s p r various points in the circuit to locate where the open is in the
afcmt
Short-to-Ground A short-to-ground i s a t y p e of circu:-

Sfiort-to-Voltage If a wire (conductor) or component is normal o r c t ^
u r e w h e r e i n t h e c u r r e n t b y p a s s e s p a r t of the
s h o r t e d » v o l t a g e , it is c o m m o n l y called s h o r t e d . See Figure 3 2 - 5 .
flows directly to g r o u n d . B e c a u s e t h e ground reft^.rrllit •
A sti-OTt c i r c u i t ; "ofci<:
is m e t a l ( v e h i c l e f r a m e , e n g i n e , o r b o d y ) , t h i s t y p e o
1 . . - a " " t e-.e c rcu:*. :n w h i c h t h e c u r r e n t b y p a s s e s s o m e o r a / / o f identified as h a v i n g c u r r e n t flowing from copper to
shon•ted''
t h e resistance n t h e circuit. F i g u r e 3 2 - 7 . A d e f e c t i v e c o m p o n e n t o r c i r c u i t t h a t is
IfaP^j
v
2. •. ••» p c of circuit. g r o u n d is c o m m o n l y c a l l e d g r o u n d e d . F o r e x a m p l e -
>t. t f e
3. .' > . oopper-ttKopper connection. w a s accidentally i n s e r t e d i n t o a c i g a r e t t e lighter sock? ^
4. a v j cai. a short-to-voltage. rent w o u l d f l o w t h r o u g h t h e p e n n y t o g r o u n d . Because
il
5. ; affecv. r . o r e " . a n o n e circuit h a s l i t t l e r e s i s t a n c e , a n e x c e s s i v e a m o u n t of c u r r e n t
6 . , ' / » / o r -ray not-J/;*; a fuse. See Figure 3 2 - 6 . the fuse to blow.
' iapter 32: Electrical Circuits awl Oftm'i Law
WATER FLOW IS
WATER HAS 1 2 F E E T OF CONSTANT. WATER
POTENTIAL ENERGY (AMPERES) D O E S
THE WORK WHILE
V THE P R E S S U R E
(VOLTAGE) IS
DROPPED TO Z E R O
FRAME 12 FEET
WATER HAS
figure 32-7 A shoit-to-ground affects the power side of the circuit Current flows u.iecti/ NO (0 FEET)
to the ground return, bypassing some or all of the electrical loads in the crcuit. There is <v I POTENTIAL
current in the circuit past the short.
High R e s i s t a n c e Another circuit f a u l t t h a t can c o m m o n ; ,

occur is excessive r e s i s t a n c e in t h e c i r c u i t . T h i s e x t r a resistance can
be caused by s e v e r a l c i r c u i t f a u l t s i n c l u d i n g :
Figure 32-8 BeOncMtomtnaf, a cacut to water flowing over a watervntie*
• Corrosion of wires on the terminals The more the water,amperes r Utttotfi the greafcr the amount of work (watarwheal)
• Poor electrical c o n n e c t i o n s at c o n n e c t o r s The amount or water remains concent yet the pressure <*xage in electricity) drops as the
• Loose ground c o n n e c t i o n current flows through me arcut
Any of t h e a b o v e w i l l c a u s e t h e c u r r e n t in a m p e r e s t o de-
crease in t h e c i r c u i t . As a r e s u l t of t h e r e d u c e d c u r r e n t flow, t h e
electrical load d e v i c e m a y o p e r a t e , b u t w i t h r e d u c e d s p e e d or
brightness. H i g h - r e s i s t a n c e faults can also b e intermittent and I = AMPERES CURRENT)
cause p r o b l e m s j u s t w h e n c o n d i t i o n s or temperatures cause a R = OHMS (RESISTANCE)
problem in t h e c i r c u i t . E = VOLTS iELECTROMOTIVE FORCE)
TECH T I P £J T h i n k of a W a t e r w h e e l
A beginner technician cleaned the positive terminal of the battery to correct the
problem of slow cranking. When questioned by the shop foreman as to why only
the positive post had been cleaned, the technician responded that the negative
terminal was "only a ground." The foreman reminded the technician that the
current, in amperes, Is constant throughout a series circuit (such as the crank-
ing motor circuit). If 200 amperes leaves the positive post of the battery, then
200 amperes must return to the battery through the negative post
The technician just could not understand how electricity can do worfc
fank an engine), yet return the same amount of current, in amperes, as left the
Figure 32-9 To cacuWe one i n l of electricity when tie other l*m are W.-mr n
battery. The shop foreman explained that even though the current is constant
your linger aid cover me ures you do not know: ft» example ,t Doth voltage 1E1 and
throughout the circuit, the voltage (electrical pressure or potential) is dropped to
resistance 'TOaeknown. cow tie letter i lamperesi Nonce that Ihe letter E e
wo in Ihe circuit. To explain further, the shop foreman drew a waterwheel See letter R so dmde the resetor's value into the mltage to determine the currairt «i Ihe
figure 32-a
As water drops from a higher level to a lower level, high potential energy
"" volta9«) Is used to turn the waterwheel and results in low potential energy O h m ' s l a w c a n also b e s t a t e d a s a s i m p l e f o r m u l a u s e d t o cal
lor l o w e r
voltage). The same amount of water (or amperes! reaches the pond culate o n e v a l u e of an electrical circuit tf t h e o t h e r t w o a r e k n o w n
IJ der
" the waterwheel as started the fall above the waterwheel As current See Figure 32-0.
ampefes
) through a conductor, it performs work in the circuit (turns the
waterwheel) while its voltage (potential) is dropped / = E/R
where
/ = Current In a m p e r e s i A
OHM^LAW £ = Electromotive force (EMF in volts i\

R = Resistance in o h m s ( Q
physicist
Press^T" ' G e o r g S i m o n O h m , e s t a b l i s h e d that electric
of U l J r " M F
' i n volts
> e l e c f r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e in o h m s , and t h e a m o u n t 1. Ohm's law can d e t e r m m e t h e resistance if t h e volts a n d amperes
0 h m ^ n t ln
a m p e r e s f l o w i n g t h r o u g h a n y circuit a r e all related are known: R = E L
st teles:
o/to',.
°f res,. i s: K requires I volt to push !I .mpere
" îres ampere tnrougn
through 1 ohn
in 2. Ohm's law cat: deterrr: ,ne tne rth* v - ' . r . -. - t
her of e
' rtlis m e a n s 1 , 1 3 1 if 1116 v o l t a
8e is
doubled, then the n u m amperes are k n o w n : E= 1 < R
e
ai
" P e r e s of c u r r e n t flowing t h r o u g h a cir<-»" also d o u b l t 3 . Ohm's law can d e t e r m i n e the amperes il the resiaaBce a n d « M
d i s t a n c e of t h e c i r c u i t r e m a i n s t h e s a m e age are k n o w n : / = E R.
lifted o u t of a m i n e . T h e p o w e r of o n e h o r s e
MVR, M b ' " jc: to each mat ol Mecaidty is 3 3 , 0 0 0 foot p o u n d s per m i n u t e . Electricity c * * * * *
iju : ••fl i " i'-: be cor,vetted to a u n i t of p o w e r called a watt and the relat
up is ^ . ^ d
eâOOotas r r A watt is a unit o f ,
W a t t ' s l a w , w h i c h states:
tricai ^ o v v n !
resented by a current of 1 ampere through a Power
W with
tial difference of 1 volt The symbol for a wat he - *
pital
- ' J o w t a g t a b l e f o r a s u m m a r y of O h m ' s l a w relationships. W. T h e f o r m u l a for w a t t s is: I
Ohm's Law Relationships W = / x £
A n o t h e r w a y to e x p r e s s t h i s f o r m u l a is t o use the letter P<,

Resistance Amperage
s e n t t h e u n i t of p o w e r . T h e f o r m u l a t h e n b e c o m e s :
* Down UP
*>
P= f x E
Same UP
* Up Same
S M Down Up
9m Same Same HINT: An easy way to remember this equation is that it spells "pie"
Smm Up Down
Oam Up Down
3 M Same Down
Ohm's Law Applied to Simple Circuits If a b a t t e r y w i t h Why Are Vehicle E n g i n e s f o r E u r o p e R a t e d i n Kilowatts?

'2 • : t s . c o n n e c t e d t o a resistor of 4 o h m s , a s s h o w n in R g u r e 3 2 - 1 0 ,
- i - i a - p e r e s will flow t h r o u g h t h e circuit? U s i n g O h m ' s law, Engine power is commonly rated in watts or kilowatts (1,000 watts equ
w e c a r c a l c u l a t e t h e n u m b e r of a m p e r e s t h a t will flow t h r o u g h t h e 1 kilowatt) because 1 horsepower is equal to 746 watts. For example;
200-hotsepower engine can be rated as having the power equal to 149.200 war-
a n d t h e r e s u t o t R e m e m b e r , if t w o f a c t o r s a r e k n o w n I volts
or 149.2 kilowatts (kW).
sr.z : h m s in t h i s e x a m p l e ( . t h e r e m a i n i n g factor ( a m p e r e s l can b e
t a i c u i a t e d J i n g O h m ' s iaw.
/= E/R = 12V/4 Q
_es for the voltage (12 and the resistance 14) were To calculate w a t t s , b o t h t h e c u r r e n t in amperes and the voltage:
i r s t r j t e d f o r t h e v a r i a b l e s E a n d R, a n d / is t h u s 3 a m p e r e s t h e circuit m u s t b e k n o w n . If a n y t w o of t h e s e factors are knc >•:
12 4 = 2 t h e n t h e o t h e r r e m a i n i n g f a c t o r c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y the folic*":;
L' w e w a n t t o c o n n e c t a r e s i s t o r t o a 12-voIt b a t t e r y , w e n o w equation:
t h a t t h i s s i m p l e circuit r e q u i r e s 3 a m p e r e s to operate. This
P= I x £ | w a t t s e q u a l a m p e r e s t i m e s voltage i
- a. h d p us for t w o reasons.
/ = P/E{amperes e q u a l w a t t s d i v i d e d by voltagei
1 . •'• e c a r r o w d e t e r m i n e t h e w i r e d i a m e t e r t h a t w e will n e e d
bfevsd o r t n e n u m b e r of a m p e r e s f l o w i n g t h r o u g h t h e circuit. £ = £ / / | v o l t a g e e q u a l s w a t t s d i v i d e d by amperes- |
2. 7he . r r e c t f u s e r a t i n g c a n b e selected to p r o t e c t t h e c i r c u i t
A Watt's circle c a n b e d r a w n a n d u s e d l i k e t h e O h m ' s law c -
diagram. See R g u r e 3 2 - 1 1 .
WATTS LAW M a g i c Circle T h e formulas for calculating any c o m b i n g

• 1 7 3 6 - 1 8 1 9 ) , a S c o t t i s h i n v e n t o r , first d e t e r m i n e d t h e electrical u n i t s a r e s h o w n in F i g u r e 3 2 - 1 2 .
•/. o ' i t y p i c a . h o r s e w h i l e m e a s u r i n g t h e a m o u n t of c o a l b e i n g
CLOSED CIRCUIT
TECH TIP Wattage I n c r e a s e s by t h e S q u a r e
. . tI h e V o l t a g e
of
The brightness of a light bulb, such as an automotive headlight or' -
RETURN PATH 1
depends on the number of watts available. The watt is the unit by w ^ ...
FUSE k POWER
cal power is measured. If the battery voltage drops, even slig ^ ;
SIDE
1
becomes noticeably dimmer The formula for calculating power
START P I E This can also be expressed as Watts Amps * Volts ^ ^ l(
According to Ohm's law. I E/R Therefore. E/R can be su s

the previous formula resting in P = E/R x EorP - f!/fl
P means E multiplied by itself A small change in the voltaff ^ >
effect on the total brightness of the bulb (Remember, househo ^
sold according to their wattage.) Therefore, if the voltage to a n ^ ^ N
«reduced, such as by a poor electrical connection, the brio'" " ^ ^
greatly affected A poor electrical ground causes a voltage drop
32-tO ' . < <jroj ' O / W ; i •/>** YAf'S. VOMf voe Wire, circuit the bulb is reduced and the bulbs brightness is reduced
! 0 u « -,oj roturn pati w»e
jftandOhmtUw
CHAPTER QUIZ
I. ar, ' •
/ 'wan use wnwi t*
<afled . .. ... i
1 b. - -a
E
\ (amperes) : (volts) j c Ar. ope-,
d. A ' -mb j o u n d
' 'off-'.Se: where the
r v v c r « etc- vfr t > - 'a -*e Wi .jd Sse called
a.
b. A IhotMOffO d
e 32-11 To calculate one unit when the other two are know c. Ac o p e
nlcnown unit to see what unit needs to be divided or multiplied to arrive s- the: d. • fi'jt •,
3. if 12 - v. are s t - j ape eJ a nesstarte af 3 otent.
asTBH ' . "km -
a. 12
b. 3
C. 4
d. 36
4. - ~.is ~ a 1- , . - r
n-ver. 12 was aie accieflr
a. 4.4 war
b. 144 warn
c. K w z r :
d. O.lOwac
5. How many w a g a « i r a w a a a i i f i t e n ISOarapera
at 10 vote?
a. 15
b. 150
c. '500
d. 1 5.0X
6. if a conductor I k e j l -vpe :aSet a ar.
a. Open
b. Short
c Hip: -e.nasce
d. Bnd»
7. An e.ecsica camerrr becDoe : > •.-.-..'..>.'. A a-.- that the a r
Figure 32-12 "Magic circle" of most of the formulas for problems involving Ohm s ia*
rem flow artpeter «•£ increase a t b e a r r J . Tedmtan B'-j-s f a -
Eadt quarter of the "pie" has formulas used to solve for a particular unknown value current
re-ram* ffi ttae tirrr.: « a be i s tfcar. :r* resss-:» •' "he •-not.
ansperesi. in the upper right segment; resistance (ohms), in the lowerrightvoltage f "
Which lecrr-scaE is oared?
lower left and power (watts), in the upper left
a. Tecnnc ar A an
b. TecferacsaE 8 an
c. Bos factacan - rr.: 3
d. NerJw TeckudiE A nor B
SUMMARY
8. acsper v- - five onnsia ! a saner. : . p t r w t f *
All complete electrical circuits have a power source <udj as a ba::e~ . a starter a w o t how man? amperes wfl Sow bade to the nqpeve r e e a a * i. •
circuit protection device (such as a fusel, a power-side wire or path, ar d*aaaervi
electrical load, a ground return path, and a switch or a control device. a. C u a c i be detertuaed
A short to-voitage involves a copper-to-copper oonnectic ana b. Zero
fects more than one circuit. c. Ab r ne-ha: arc-: -. ampere.
A short-to-ground involves a copper-to-steel connection i~l .. d. 200 amperes
causes the fuse to blow. 0. What rre symbol: : .. -jat .sec m a x ..it. - 1
4 An a. V
' open is a break in the circuit resulting in absolute no cum? •
b. H
toough the circuit.
c. EMF
d. I
REV
"EW QUESTIONS 10. Atfldicnciittthireisieom [ie!v :dcauses*"use : - 1
a. Open
'• Lkt the parts of a complete electrical circur
b. Sharr-to-graond
• S c r i b e the difference between a short to voltage and a shiy: t 1 c. Stcrto-voioge
• Describe the difference between an open and a <.-. d. Hjgbr- sta:
v
« * Ohm's law.
1
' Wain w h a t occurs to current flow (ampere and wattage if tiie rests-
4ncc
of a circuit Is increased because of a corroded connection.
Series, Parallel,
and Series-Parallel Circuits
. 1 — f
QSJECTWES: After studying Chapter 33, the reader will be able to: Prepare for ASE Electrical/Electronic Systems (A6) certification test I
Becbicat/Bectronic System Diagnosis). • Identify a series circuit. • State Kirchhoff's voltage law. • Calculate voltage drops in a
senes circuit • Explain series and parallel circuit laws. • State Kirchhoff's current law. • Identify where faults in a series-parallel circuit can be
detected or detennined.
KETTEPWS: branches • combination circuit • compound circuit • Kirchhoff's current law • Kirchhoff's voltage law • leg • parallel circuit
• series circuit • series-parallel circuits • shunt • total circuit resistance • voltage drop
SERIES CIRCUITS
TECH TIP Farsighted Quality of Electricity
A series circuit is a c o m p l e t e circuit t h a t has m o r e t h a n o n e
e i e c t r i c a ; load w h e r e all of t h e c u r r e n t has only o n e p a t h to flow Electricity almost seems to act as if it "knows" what resistances are ahead on
t h r o u g h all of t h e loads. Electrical c o m p o n e n t s s u c h as fuses and long trip through a circuit. If the trip through the circuit has many high-resistanc;
s w i t c h e s a r e generally n o t c o n s i d e r e d to be i n c l u d e d in t h e de- components, very few electrons (amperes) will choose to attempt to make s
t e r m i n a t i o n of a series circuit. T h e circuit m u s t be c o n t i n u o u s trip. If a circuit has little or no resistance (for example, a short circuit), then as
o : h a v e c o n t i n u i t y in o r d e r for c u r r e n t to f l o w t h r o u g h t h e many electrons (amperes) as possible attempt to flow through the comrs?
circuit circuit If the flow exceeds the capacity of the fuse or the circuit breaker, then fe
circuit is opened and all current flow stops.
f t r t : Because an electrical load needs both a power and a ground to

operate, a break (open! anywhere in a series circuit will cause the current
in i i e circu!*. to stop.
OHM'S LAW AND SERIES CIRCUITS

A s explained earlier, a series circuit is a circuit containing more
t h a n o n e resistance in w h i c h all c u r r e n t must flow through all re-
s i r ^ r . c e s in t h e circuit. O h m ' s l a w can be used to calculate the
v a h j e of o n e u n k n o w n (voltage, resistance, or amperes) if the other
~r:o values are k n o w n .
B e c a u s e all c u r r e n t f l o w s t h r o u g h all resistances, t h e total re-
s i s t a n c e is t h e s u m (addition) of all resistances. See Figure 3 3 - 1 .
T h e total resistance of t h e circuit s h o w n h e r e is 6 o h m s ( l f l +
2Q - 3Q>. T n e f o r m u l a for total resistance [RT) for a series
circuit is:
Rt = + R2 + R-i + • - •
Usrn ; O h m ' s ' a w to find the c u r r e n t flow, w e have
u3uic J^-I uiitunwnn inree uuid5.hu uuiicih'iv.w • - ,,hgbir^
1= E/R-<- 12 V / 6 S 2 -i- 2 A
(bulbs). The total resistance of the circuit is the sum of the total resistance o ^ ^
T h e r e f o r , w i t h a total resistance of 6 o h m s using a 12-volt battery the bulbs will light dimly because of the increased resistance and the reduc'
- t h e series circuit: s h o w n , 2 a m p e r e s of current will flow through flow (amperes) through the circuit.
"he er,*;'re e x u l t I' tne a m o u n t of resistance in a circuit is reduced,
n o r e c u r r e n t will flow.
Figure 3 3 - 2 , o n e resistance has been eliminated and n o w the KIRCHHOFF'S VOLTAGE LAW
total stance ;s 3 o h m s ! 1 £2 - 2Qi Using O h m ' s law to calculate The voltage that is applied t h r o u g h a series circuit drops J
c u r r e n t r .ow yields 4 a m p e r e s .
resistor in a m a n n e r similar to t h a t in w h i c h t h e stre t , ^ .
E/R- 12 V/3CI = 4A reie drops
lete 'Jiuys each
eacn time
u m e a s t r e n u o u s pnysicai
physical f e a t fiP- " ,
greater the resistance, t h e greater t h e d r o p in voltag • 4
Notice •ha: t h e c u r r e n t f l o w w a s doubled (4 amperes instead of A German physicist, G u s t a v R o b e r t Kirchho M
2 a m p e r e s w h e n t h e resistance w a s cut in half (from 6 o h m s to developed laws about electrical circuits. His secondJ W
3 ohm;:. v o l t a g e l a w , concerns voltage d r o p s . It states: m
Parallel, and Series Paradrt CircortB 331
6 IE
2 n ( H ) bulb.-
Sy™
1 ii
i(Bi)
@ 3
BULB 2
BULB 1
12-V BATTERY
SERIES CIRCUIT
3 3 - 2 A series c i r c u i t w i t h t w o bulbs.
Figure 33-4 to a seres arc jr the ooRaje e dipped J ooered by each resistance m the
cmoA. The lazier the -esistance tne thaler the top i voltage
(VOLT METER) (VOLT METER)
M - i r @ h law and calculating for vo/tage £ i s i a g t h e value of each resis-
tance individuaihr:
£=/xtf
(FUSE) (BULB)
where
£ = Voltage
/ = Current tn the circuit r e m e t r i w ; die current is constant in a
(SWITCH)
series a n a n t only tTie voltage varies
R = Resistance of ODIY one of the reastances
The vologe drops are as foikws:
Voltage drop for bulb ! : £ = I x R= 1A x 2Q = ZV
\foltage drop for t - I t 2: E= / x R= 1A x 4 f t = 4V

(GROUND)
Voltage drop far bulb 3: £ = / x I? = 1A x 6 Q = 6V
a circuit, the voltage drops in proportion to the

Figure 3 3 - 3 As current f l o w s t h r o u g h
amount ot resistance in the circuit. Most, if not all. of the resistance should occur across tne BOTt Nonce that ti* .-c-ltage TOP J. proportoMl - . )-;
tad such as the bulb in this circuit All of the other components and winng should product to other worts. the a e w a r - * . the g r « w the
"He, II any, voltage drop. It a wire or connection did cause a voltage drop, less voltage wcx A b ohir. rcar.i.ioe tacped the TOtoge three nmes as m i x - as the vc « e
I* available to light the b u l b a n d t h e b u l b w o u l d b e d i m m e r t h a n n o r m a l . d n * created by * e 2-ob« resSsance.
My closed circuit is equal to the sum /totalI of the voltage drops A c c o r c m g t o Kirchhoff, t h e s u m addition of t h e voitage drops
3
"oss the resistances. should equal the a p f . e d voltage battery voltage :
Applying K i r c h h o f f ' s V o l t a g e L a w Kirchhoff states in is Totai of voltage drops = ZV - 4Y - 6V = 12V - S a f e - . tame
second law that the voltage will d r o p in p r o p o r t i o n to t h e re- s-
lan This illustrates Kirchhoff's second I voltage .jw. Anc \-.er e u r
« and that t h e total of all v o l t a g e d r o p s will equal t h e ap-
P M voltage. See Figure 3 3 - 3 . U s i n g Figure 3 3 - 4 , the t o t ; pie is illustrated in Figure 3 3 - 5 .
distance of the circuit can be d e t e r m i n e d by a d d i n g the nc
U s e o f V o l t a g e D r o p s Voltage dr ;ps. due
'Qual resistances | 2 f i + 4 Q + O i l 1 2 i i - . The current t h r o u c are used in automotive electrical systems to drop the m , J i e r ' h e
e
circuit is d e t e r m i n e d by u s i n g O h m ' s law. s
following examples.
= 1A. T h e r e f o r e , in t h e circuit s h o w n , the : owing
Jlu
« are known: 1. Dash tights. Vtc
ming the brightness of t h e dash ugr.ts by turr n g a v a r a : * 1 -=-.-
Stance = i 2 u
ton This type of resistor can be changed a r c therefore a r s s u *
V
°Ne = 1 2 V voltage to the dash light butts. A t. nb * o . a g e to '.te b u t a * . s «
them to be bright, and a o w m u g e resotei ic » i r . agfet
^ ^ e r y t h i n g is k n o w n except t h e voltage d r o p caused by each 2. Blower motor If

controlled by a fan switch serdtng u r r w t t t e e u g b ' a g r
The voltage drop can be d e t e r m i n e d by using O h m ' s
111 •Hp,
rf
•
4AV -
• VG l }
4V . r
M.
• V
V Figure 33-6 r m s r ^ c r v j r . • 3 2-«*n rese*r ano 2 4-ohr, •

(2 e tie a ^ Swugh the vortage *«(k atfoss e a . ^
4 a 3A- 311
- W V -
R,
A. i . e m f r m * L • * »
8 <VOLTAGCAMY>
t2>«« 12 VOLT
3A
4T 4 I I RE V S TAMCC ,
E >2>«-*V
C ( > ! • « «
SUM OF VOLTAGE OROP
r2
EQUALS APOUED VOLTAGE
- w v -
?n
iO S t> 3A
Figure 33-7 Eancte 1
Law 2 The current is constant t h r o u g h o u t t h e entire dram. Ss

Rgure 33-6. If 2 amperes of c u r r e n t leave t h e battery. 2 aipe»
Sr. Jf k m r e s s a n c e wire r e a c t s . The h u f t e s resistance
of current return to the battery.
ap 'IK tfw m o t t . c a o s i r * the motor to r u n a t t h e
g w e i T h e { u » ! « t speed of the motor w i i occur when no Law 3 Although the current lin a m p e r e s ! is constant, the w r a
-are torn t h e a r e a * and fuM battery voltage s switched to drops across each resistance in t h e circuit. The voltage drop acs
maUL each :oad is proportional to t h e value of t h e resistance COEDK."
to the total resistance. R>r e x a m p l e , if t h e resistance is ooel'.as
the total res.s'ance, t h e voltage d r o p across that resistance 1
FUEQUEWTLT A S K E D Q U E S T I O N y one half ot the applied voltage. T h e s u m total of all individual v/
age drops equals t h e applied s o u r c e voltage.
SERIES CIRCUIT EXAMPLES

t i a x e a * « i t M M a « t a c < ( X t o r a a i A* *mm«ier car ee w d to Each of the four e x a m p l e s i n c l u d e s s o l v i n g for t h e following:
I * <*AA0K> Mi * n M the I I I M I I a oouM tie KM MduWig • Total resistance in the circuit
I m n t m a m a w tot one m swwc o n * t n t * * i a r t • ' irrer.t flow amperesi through t h e circuit
—mm UJ » the g u t A w « g e drop M • therefore a Mltor tost tc • Voltage drop across each resistance
M t i M M v * LumpmXi' lor h w reasons
E x a m p l e I:
S e e Future 33-7.1
The ^ i n o w n in the problem ts the value of /?>. The toul reasons
hnwrm can be calculated usmg Ohm's law.
' « a test tecauae u d e curtm (tours trvnuflr
^ = £ / / « 12 volts/3 A = 4£1
ocnduc*r acraaaM m 1 m * o m M a M c d n k m
• w M a drac « tessrg » * Because A ss 3 ohms and the total resistance is 4 ohms, the
m a p m t a r . w i a ttaratore me m a s accurate way <* s 1 ohm.
E x a m p l e 2:
At M » M r • M o a a a w to fmktm because to naatence t k w •See Figure 33-6.1
W jmeraed m w*ag» * a a r a * * o u « TV unknown In this problem is the value of Rv The total res»
A y m h r W V S M e t * tor an* 1 2 m R o c u t howevet, can be calculated using Ohm's law.
= 12 volts/2 A = M l
•>
K W J C M C U T T LAMTS The totti tess'ance oi ohmsi and 11 otunl equal> J ° h ®

a i R s ts the d "erence between the total resistance |0 on
S1/4 > -! a orr-i* k the m m total of the in
value of the known resistance 4 ohmsi.
* wMtar^ T r * n a M M K * v . i u « of each electrical load
• p * added t o o r V - 6 - 4 = 2 ohms = R3
s • ?araa~ y d Senes-Parate CircwS 333
2A- 311 r/j - 211 ?A-

- v W
W V
H,
Si
12 VOLT "J % in 12 VOLTS «2 % 20
w v - - w v -
?n 211
2A 2A ?A ?A
Fâre33-8 Sample 2. figure 3 3 - 1 0 Oampte 4
4A 111 4A-
6 1 1
i T?/'
W V
Ri
3 a
VOLTS = ? 2 S HI i 2A
- 4 JUNCTION A
"3
• V W t 6A
in
4A
fijre 33-9 Example 3.
Example 3:
See Figure 33-0.1
Tr.e unknown value in this problem is the voltage of the battery. To solve
far voltage, use Ohm Is law | £ = / x R). The in this problem refers to
the totai resistance The total resistance of a series circuit is determined Figure 33-11 ^ arvx.'r 2f e v e n t tlowmc nte ircrxx s o r t A egiÊ ff*
to adding the values of the individual resistors. of current Howng out ri me : x t - r
r,= in + in + in
in that branch. A break or open in one ieg or section of a paaffle!
R = 3Q
circuit does not stop the current flow through the remain:-g egs o:
®Ving the value lor the totai resistance | 3 U into the equation results in a the parallel circuit.
littery voltage of 12 volts.
£ = 4A x 3 « KIRCHHOFF'S CURRENT LAW

£ = 12 volts Kirchhoff's current law • ttrst a ""te -".
Example 4: into any junction of an electrical circuit is equal :o :h<? amen:
flowing out of that •unction. This first law can oe ..iuscatee u s i n g
•«fi*ure 33-10.)
V- "known in this example is the current I amperes1 in the circuit To
Ohm's law, as seen in Figure 33-11. Kirchhoff's a w states that the
w * far current, use Ohm's law.
amount of current f l o w i n g into j u n c t i o n A will e c r - a . the . u m -
flowing o jt of junction A.
/ = E/R = 12 v o l t s / 6 o h m s = 2A Because t h e 6 - o h m leg requires 2 a m p e r e s a n d t h e 3 - c r . r . resjsr
tfiat the total resistance in the circuit | 6 ohms was used in this exam- t a n c e leg r e q u i r e s 4 a m p e r e s , it is n e c e s s a n r tfcat t h e w i r e ~ - tr.e
'* b a t t e r y t o j u n e t a i A b e c a p a b l e of h a n d be
which l i ntotal
g 0 of
a mthe
p ethree
r e s , individual
v . - - ; t resistors
ce ,2Q + 2Q + 2il = O
omeat through the circuit is two amperes. t h a t t h e s u m of t h e c u r r e n t B o w i n g a . : of a _ r . c i r 2 + 4 s 6 : j
is e q u a l to t h e c u r r e n t flowing ito r.e jBctirrt c A :-.•••
Kirchhoffs current law.
?W
*ALLEL CIRCUITS
Parallel c i r c u i t is a c o m p l e t e c i r c u i t t h a t h a s m o r e t h a n one
V ''•• the c u r r e n t . T h e s e p a r a t e p a t h s w h i c h split a n d m e e t a t P A R A L L E L CIRCUIT L A W S
' po r.ts a r e c a l l e d b r a n c h e s , l e g s , o r s h u n t s . T h e c u r r e n t L a w 1 T h e total r e s i s t a n c e of a para; c i r c u i t . a. • v.-s e s s
" -"ougb each b r a n c h o r leg varies d e p e n d i n g o n t h e resistance of t h e s m a l l e s t r e s i s t a n c e leg. T h i s o c c . - < b e c a u s e rto» a t • -
* AM* 5
£ 3
AMPSs^ 3
<i*QLrs SrUBOLFOfi
A BArTERV 6<t
6 AWS
SVMBOC FOR
AW ELECTRICAL
BEStSTAMCE
• .jC ' .-i. m Nvit many branches, figure33—13 ¥ : a i » - • «*» f f m u M n e t ; / . o n ) .

: -. OFREN o r ) FOW f r o m the battery J.JSI a* mare vehicles car, (>(*<«* «W«pe(Trtef»r of otner ^ ot the circal
.r - .'at «d /. ' r > n M t cornpared to a road th only one
ar s * f bSM.
( , . : - ' . " : . " . , i i ' , '.'.e j t i - .'.^W - / - i 2 7 / it/ y
2 4,- v- - > tor each e g o f a pafi.ielf.tr . 1
(,'jrai—wgf 4li . - « / /./A' - I2V/40
3 Tftt . - .. .' e currents in each le,. wli. e o j a l the '. .:.rf-'.' tx jgr. ^ O-ii '• .'^ncf =/ /./A 27/(54/
vy* - i r M a . Tne a m o u n t of c i rent flow through a p&uiiei o r
I r.i- ttyi;. < .rrer.r flowing from t h e b a t t e r / is t h e s u m tota;
ay w r y f or t a d : K g <Jr-per»flmg o n the ret.:-.ce of that leg,
oi'/idual .rrents for f-ach leg. Total c u r r e n t frotr, the baoe
•-.- . • S o / .- ig tbrougr, each Kg u - .'>ir» the a n e voluge
merefore, 9 amperes !4A t 3A - 2 A - 9A» |
: - .. e power •••> t . tr*e ground as for e . e t y otner
If total circuit r e s i s t a n c e /?, j is needed, Ohm's la w <
t tr.- : . ' • . . • See Figyre 33— 12.
tc u k ;iate b e a n s e voltage ' £ ) a n d current (/) are r w w r
A, £// i 27/0/- - I i 3 ( i
v.e rtte&aice fc >eg tne c * o . Note the totai resistance '1 - 3 U - • .

smallest, r e i s t a n c e leg of the parallel c i r c u i t . T h i s characu
«parallel circuit holds t r i e bec« . > n o t all c u r r e n t fio //. •<:.
reststances as in a series circuit.
TUNTif j / f he P a t » of Least R e s i s t a n c e B e a j'ie rhe l u r r e n t has a l t e r n a t i v e p a t h s t o ground thrc. 6
nr.o ts legs of a paraiiel circuit, as a d d i t i o n a l resistance, leg:
. v * » / -if *«ar . ' / A awe/c taw w jat? tf ieact res*- sdded v , i p«rai.el o r ' " e '/>tal .:.''-:.' f . .. eba-
Tat e s t * - . * > / ' »«re • a tucr a± tte t^^mKry ii tgh- source) Increases.
>i - wsjrtis * t w « a pan. v, <p*sA rt.v t a n a A.ddi':or(al current can flow w h e n r e s i s t a n c e s are addec
* c ,. r v. tr* (. ' '••»'/ « * e o e spsrt tare tr» pet? r> aliel, h e a rse e^ch leg of a parallel d r c u i t h a s its o w n po
« a c c u s a n c e ( « pantief d r o * * n w e v>ere « rr ore ma- ' / * patt t<*
•smuu* & v* ufi** ti *!.n Burrjugr iftetjraf/,- otniteiOAer
der, or 'he re*,is'uncetf that leg.
«•> * -.> a <s«* w M a c 4 t a w K* flnrMug v*
-twwu fjf'-aijbe e * «*«- s-ctr pr/«/> a (.-,». « frr*avj, am) KtefrioO 2 If only t w o resistors are c o n n e c t e d in parallel, tr.e •<: /.
- * a»>>« <* / • ' < U m r " M p IM other CrandMt « v i & m m i by the resistance - an r.e found .sing the f o r m u l a R, = ^ / ^
wmim a« »e roftage m//*Or<r, % Or • s <a * •H • A, . ftweximple .,:ng ' ; . e circ in Figure 33-14<: •
' '/• , u t m (he paffi H teart rtt-Mxct . -r..\ . „ ' g 3 ohms for A and 4 a m p e r e s for R2, R, =- 1 3 ' - I
1+4 i2/7 1 . 7 0 . 1 tote that the total resistance 11.7 0 •*
'.'.at <rf '_'.<- sma.iest -re-., s t a n c e leg of the eft' •'
S C T F i t M i N t M C TOTAL R E S I S T A N C E
MiIt . ;//;..- . A. ;s no 1 IrnpottanL Tfe* f
M A PARAUXl ctRcurr
| id i • : . ' . . - , . . i » f f e r e n ' . e the ri'.uitipli'.ation a i d
r
/ J t c w n m ' / f . ! y jsed u> d e t e r m i n e total r e . : > U .-«•
. . .. .<-.
This formula car. be for m o r e t h a n w o re-./itances ;r.:

W^f . ... ''.'J«nt>••.:« ;,-::, - • . : -.p,,; f / j t or. : y' wo re.,.stances* c a n b e calculated at. a time. After
{
. . . : - i... - -,f ana A- e; / j « » r / «
/ / for i w o resisr.orf,, . t h e vai j e of R, a:. R and the
r" V " - '•! • ' ' or , Sfc'.t«» • ,.!4 «r paral.*i
- p a r a l l e l a ; / ' . f l.<-n solve for a n o t h e r R. t o " • ;
' •• C h J. " - itt ' / « / 7 . . IP r «
process for all resistance ley;, of t h e parallel d r c u i L H o " " '
• ' . v- . • /•• '.ire e ' d j.:vv . , ..<
n.ijd-.> be easier to W v e for R, -/vben t h e r e more
re . .v.r/.e../, p s r a : > , by . ..rig M e t h o d 3 or 4 .
,p< 'd ,. -jtefl! • r/y MetrM ' i / -a t.. ,-d to f. ' l ' i - '/'a! •
-/// vpa i /..rr mumpK circuit 'x* any r.'/mber of o . o ; r . " . in pa/allel is I / A , 1/^-.
• ; / •///,«• if-),and
I/A, + . jj
• • earrtteg:. /êpe/tdewtOf(ht To v/,ve for A, f-,r the three r e s i s t a n c e legs tn Fb< - ' '
s-jiAtitute fr.c yaioei of tl.r- resistances for
I
n,
12 V
3 Ii 4 11 12 y i o » ji i * I < J
L- — l 4.
'Hit A * t t C T K O W C
T
ftjjre 33-14 A S' - J*m < C A I ^ X - A 'Of- 0 TO / E
MOTE
*T«I 4 J 28
THE TOT At RfitSTAACE R
MOST BE LESS THAM THE
SMALLEST Pf 8I8TANCE
i t J m d s M -j
a -a
( U « HAH2«i(HW'Hrt
12 V
3 ii:. 4 ii;
: an
"> i
;
EXAMPLE*
±J rJ ^J
f
Fi^jrt33-15 A w * <• 'tuitft'J.it'W.'W-.W '- > .
«M'«MMKe<raf»MeuRur i• I*i#«m.mm*m******
< e s « a r « r f f w a i u t f t a n v n u t a w - > * < « • « « « r a « r it /w.
1
12 V 3 (i: 4 II 6 1is
i L
TO SOLVE THIS PARALLEL CIRCUIT
PROBLEM FOR R, (TOTAL RESISTANCE, 12 V 12 ( i s -2(i< 'ill
± ] > £ J
PUSH THE EXACT BUTTONS ON All
ELECTRONIC CALCULATOR ,—_
4J< » J NOTE BE CERTAIN TO PUSH THE - |
S'Q
BUTTON. FAILURE TO DO
SO WILL RESULT IN INCORRECT
ftgue 33-18 i s e r a e . . i - o w « M t n Me- i a n * •ff
ANSWERS WHEN USING MOST
CALCULATORS tfanoxereaaa o k .tens i cantttaemm * « « M * *
000
AtiauealfKmeanu :2mm*'. Ol|t«MW/l
A m tm oonpe, It an 2
(ANSWER = 1.3333)
•"•Surf 33-16 ifcng an etoti/vat. •JtoMtu to deternwM « » / i > . « < / a u n -

ONt
The memory MKiaajaf** =)&uasBHBW«fi*affl«r

k;- i / * / 1/3 + 1/4 - 1 / 6 . r h e fraction car on.- .:•>:
topve siec i i i u e far M a i f e a s r a c c e i.i; U T i t .f,<e»e
gfiffier jnlecs t h e y all h a v e t h e c a m e d e n o n i n a t I
i/XorX c .ton can be used wrh the sum SUM.- etcdft eo
ftvr. d e n o m i n a t o r i n t h i s e x a m p l e is 12. T h e r e t o , I 5 b-
s c e r o s f c u i a i i a w n i w . t i w m j s u g the m e m o r y b u r t m
4 / 1 2 , 1 / 4 b e c o m e s 3 / 1 2 , a n d 1 / 0 b e c o m e . 2 / 1 2 . 1/A, 4/12
3/12 < 2 / 1 2 or 9 / 1 2 . C r o s s multiplying 12/9 i i U M e t h o d 5 This m e t h o d c a n tie eauiy >w wtKnever * e r m x*
'tote that t h e r e s u l t ( I iifij - •, resistances c u n n e o e d in para.iel are of t h e sacs* « f u t .
^ (see M e t h o d I j . T h e j j j p s t d i f f i c u l t p a r t of u: « Figure 3 3 - 1 6 . To calculate m e t o a i ressunc- # < ol e t f ^ rout
besides u s i n g f r a c t i o n s ) is d e t e r m i n i n g t l , r iow> •o r i a resistors, divide t h e n u . r a e r of equal r- . j t o n into r e r». t of
' i n a t o r , e s p e c i a l l y f o r circ.jits c o n t a i n i n g a w;••!.- die rebalance. A . » o f e q c i rflHStanc* N - . - u f i e r a f t ^ .
•*'• tor t h e v a r i o u s l e g s . F o r a n e a s i e r m e t h o d u rei,. J n c e s = 1 2 U 4 - 3a
« « Method 4.
•'"".Ml 4 T'hto m e t h o d u s e wi e l e c t r o n i c u .. / .
*tM n /try low c o s r . I n s t e a d o f d e t e r n .: j) thf •• - : mor
M R i Since - v a m o c i c * and L,rr trweir «itc.- a. r. .. -. a n t i *
^'"Winator as m M e t h o d 3, one can i, =<» the el trc cu.- ..J maMqpIt ( n t d f t t t f » a e rnwaw*. use a w ? - * a :n» a a - .. w
f
to' on yen the fractions t o d e c i m a l equival« r. - The m e n ry esMBpte, if £ i «W;'JOfui 12-a , m M M < • ' .•- v
• o n most calculators '.an be ut < 1 to i - e p a i -.wng ' j U i iddUiaMl tfîtl woud fvpuoem n 2 i.-.'-w ^ rrairawn ; u '
''•'<« fractions values Uw figure 33- i o arm - a i e m e toiai ugtitt » - . T h t n 4 * t , 6 i B p e . v « > ::**-. >
"^BVice t f a by puriiina the I n d i c a t e d buttons on the calculator. iM addioer^ agrr? - f A « '.2 - 2U «A.
33F SKsen -
T?«eSre. the tnea' current thwugh the two taic • - ,;'15S

13A - «A = OA:. Because there are 12A leavjt: •...
i x T ^ r -r.'ssar'er- so v—gfer the M f o t f s g 7
«•wv — e n r flnar
v . the .-—en" "wrsrW 5,
low through A must
must be3A
b e 3 A ' 1' 2 " -f " ^fc
. r s i 753S23K tznee must therefore be i / = OT = 12VAtQ
v .—r— •• estS;£nHfl»'aS'w?2«VSB& Example 3:
'See Figure 33-21. 1
In this exartole. the voltage of the batter/ Is unX.-ic.va. The etnas,
solve for voltage accoriSg to Ohm's law is:
eerrrr E~ Ix R
' - cr_- - t K r--_.tr-: w?ags cf :-»-«— S sntacwn acd the esss&a to
Tr.e /fin this equate- refers to the total resistance. Because there are--,
• "- - • - Ssearal restatesofthecrcust
•resistors of equal value, the total can be determined by the equatic--' '
E E ^ ! »sr.->- -esters - r « l > i , the total tesKance is 6 ohrs.
g; 12 < 12 U* R-.., = Value of Resistors 'Number of Equal Resistors = 120/4 = jq
inserting the value ol the total resistors of the parallel circuit '30! Into
Ohm's law results in a battery voltage of 12V.
? tr* -csta: the estates res^t?~ a value for
-Tif -- of 12 ^ x t s . £=4Ax3n
E- 12V
/ x /?
Example 4:
£ = 12 v o l s
Seefigure33-22. i
Exac--?e 2:
The unloown is the amount of current in the circuit The Ohm's la*
-See 33-20. equator for determining current is:
— > «juu - t h e value of /?, Is wfcwwa. Because the voltage
; - . - -- - csrect 12 Ai ar? toowa, it is easier to solve for the /= E/R
—'- -easssxe tv treaflag each brar.cr. o-- teg as a separate circuit.
The R represents the total resistance. Because there are two equal rests
.'2=r & t — T i 'aw. i t * -•:•-«: current ecuals the total ctalatt 3ow through
tances {8Q>. these two can he replaced fay one resistance of 40 =
e s c * t r . ~ ~ c b m k l e w S a w s g t / ? • i s 3 A ! / = £/7?= 1 2 V / a a = 3A'
Value/Number = 8 Q / 2 =
•T.i '.rr P: Is 6A /-- = 12V/2Q « 6A1.
rn
2A
4A
f r
VOLTAGE = » R, < 1 2 n R j <Tl2SJ

VOLTAGE = ? - RX12O R2<12fl R,<12« R
'f
A '
Li
_
2A 4A
Pqire 33-'? • Figure 33-21 Examples.
'2fi • ?A
'2 R, < R, < 251 R 3 < ?Sl 12 VOLTS R, < sn R2
L -
?A
"/J.
Figure 33-22 Example 4.

. eo °arai!?; v : > ; 337
The total resistance of this parallel cirt •

S'-' cwit F a u l t s If a c o n v e n t i o n a l parallel cir
and one 4ohm resistor is 2 ohms. The cun • •
• -t rcust, h a d a n electrical(ae't that increased
calculated to be OA.
t h e r e s i s t a n c e in o n e b r a n c h of t h e circuit, t h e n t h e a m o u n t of c u r -
r e n t 'Sow t h r o u g h 'r. at o n d b r a n c h will be r e d u c e d . T h e a d d e d re-
/ « E/R- 12V/2Q = c s i s t a n c e , d u e t o c o r r o s i o n o r o t h e r similar c a u s e , w o u l d c r e a t e a
v o l t a g e d r o p . A s a r e s u l t of this d r o p in v o l t a g e , a l o w e r v o l t a g e
w o u l d b e a p p l i e d a n d t h e b u l b in t h e taiilight w o u l d b e d i m m e r
c F R l E S j A R A L L E L CIRCUITS
t h a n n o r m a l B e c a u s e t h e b r i g h t n e s s of t h e b u l b d e p e n d ; o n t h e
Series-parallel c i r c u i t s a r e a c o m b i n a t i o n • : ' : v o l t a g e a n d c u r r e n t a p p l i e d , t h e l o w e r voltage a n d c u r r e n t w o u l d
segments in o n e c o m p l e x c i r c u i t . A s e r i e s p a r a l l e ; :• 3;30 c a u s e t h e b u l b t o b e d i m m e r t h a n n o r m a l , if, h o w e v e r , t h e a d d e d
jiied a c o m p o u n d or a c o m b i n a t i o n c i r c u i t . Mar.', r e s i s t a n c e o c c u r r e d i n a p a r t of t h e c i r c u i t t h a t fed both feillights,
circuits include s e c t i o n s t h a t a r e in p a r a l l e l a n d in serie . t h e n b o t h taillights w o u l d b e d i m m e r t h a n n o r m a l . In t h i s c a s e , t h e
A series-parallel c i r c u i t i n c l u d e s b o t h parallel loads or - a d d e d r e s i s t a n c e c r e a t e d a series-parallel circuit t h a t w a s o r i g n a l l v
•ances, plus a d d i t i o n a l l o a d s o r r e s i s t a n c e s t h a t a r e electrics .' con- just a s i m p l e p a r a l l e l c i r c u i t
nected in series. T h e r e are two basic t y p e s of series-paralle:
circuits.
« A circuit w h e r e t h e load is in series w i t h o t h e r loads is parallel.
SOLVING SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT PROBLEMS
See Figure 3 3 - 2 3 . An e x a m p l e of t h i s type of series-parallel T h e k e y t o s o l v i n g series-para.'.el c i r c u i t p r o b l e m s is t o c o m b i n e o :
circuit is a dash light d i m m i n g circuit. T h e variable resistor is used simplify as m u c h a s p o s s i b l e . For e x a m p l e , if t h e r e are t w o l o a d s or
to limit current f l o w to t h e d a s h light bulbs, w h i c h are wired in r e s i s t a n c e s in s e r i e s w i t h i n a parallel b r a n c h or leg. t h e n t h e circuit
parallel. can be m a d e simpler t h e " w o a r e first a d d e d t o g e t h e r b e f o r e
• A circuit w h e r e a parallel circuit c o n t a i n s resistors or loads is in a t t e m p t i n g t o solve t h e parallel s e c t i o n . S e e R g u r e 3 3 - 2 5 .
series in one or m o r e b r a n c h e s . A h e a d l i g h t a n d starter circuit is an
example of this type of series-parallel circuit. A headlight switch is SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT EXAMPLES
usually connected in series w i t h a d i m m e r s w i t c h and in parallel
Each of t h e f o u r e x a m p l e s i n c u d e s s o l v i n g f o r ' h e following.
with the dash light d i m m e r resistors. T h e headlights are also con-
nected in parallel a l o n g w i t h t h e taillights a n d side marker lights. • Total resistance
See Figure 3 3 - 2 4 . • C u r r e n t flew a m p e r e s -..-•.-: -gin e a c h b r a n c h , as well as total
c u r r e n t flow
• Voltage drop across eac'- res 'ance
2 OHMS
- A M V Example I:
(See Figure 33-26.
The unknown resistor s ir. series wf® the « S e r two resistances, wftsd!
are connected ir. paoflel T i e OSES'* .a-.r equator to i e t e n a s s resistance
R= E .' = I2V.«S4Q
Figure 33-23 A series-parallel circuit.

The total resistance of the d m s t is ursrefore a ohms, and the value of the
unknown can be d e t a m a e d by stiJBacSng one value of the two resistors
that are connected in paraUd. The oaiailei Standi resistance is 2 Q .
XVDC 2 ueAl-,1 a air,

4 x i 10
R-= = — = ?o
(HIGH A N D LOW BEAM) i + l 8
TYPE 1 H E A D L A M P
The value of tbe unknown resistance is therefore 2 CL
Utei R = afl - xa = 2T2
3A R
G R O U N D
R, tn
12 VOLT ssi
DIMMER
&L
SWITCH
H I
TO POWER HIGH BEAM

SOURCE INDICATOR
(BATTERY) LAMP
3A r , * Rj = an
' J This complete headlight circuit with all bulbs and switches is a series -
"Slant Figure 33-25 Sotvma 3 series-twaw r.-r. r
Hi SECT*
?A 21!
TO
R2 < 811
12 VOLTS
a w L ^ ' 411 Rj < V
Li ?A
3 3 - » harem i Figure 33-28 Example 3
3A
rp R, <>41! R3<411
4A
V
?n
W
R,
411
VOLTS = ? 12 VOLTS
R, < 4 1 1 R, < 811
Rj<4I1 R<<'411
3A
4A
3 3 - 2 7 Example 2
Figure 33-29 Example 4
Example 2:
now containing two 8-ohm resistors in parallel, can be replaced with one
See Figure 33-27.1
4-ohm resistor.
a t j z i s o w D unit In this circuit is the voltage of the battery. The Ohm's
J * etjdanrr. B: /?, > R2 8 x 8 6 4 ^
r
~ R, + R2 ~ 8 + 8 ~ 16
£ = / x /?
problem. the total resistance must be determined. Because With the parallel branches now reduced to just one 4-ohmresistor,this cars I
' < reams two 4-ohm resistors in series, the value in each branch added to the 2-ohm (/?, | resistor because it is in series, creating a total am I
ye. > a f f i l e to heip simplify the circuit. By adding the resistors In each sistance of 6 ohms. Now the current flow can be determined from Ohm's I
- r e . • ugetner. tne parallel circuit now consists of two 8-ohm resistors.

/= E/R = 1 2 V / 6 Q = 2A
R R; fl x 864
Rr + R2
— = 4C1
8 + 8 ' 16 4 W E x a m p l e 4:
I See Figure 33-29.)

- strz t r e .i for the total resistance Into the Ohm's law equation
In this example, the value of resistor R, is u n k n o w n . Using Ohms la1 I
n o t e r. a ratae rf 12 vote for the battery voltage.
the total resistance of the circuit is 3 o h m s .
£ » / x /?
R = £ / / = 1 2 V / 4 A = 3£2
£ = 3A x 4 Q
men"
£ = 12 volts However, knowing the total resistance is not enough to determine
of /?,. To simplify the circuit, R2 and R, can combine to create a f » -
E x a m pte 3c branch resistance value of 8 ohms because they are in series. To simFj-
lac r S E . « 31-2?. further, the two 8-ohm branches can be reduced to one branch of -
»xir total current through the circuit is unknown. The
O f a r 'iUaraqsiaaor. to wtve far B is:
R\ x /?2 8 x 8 64
Rr--
R, + R, 8 T I =
U; = 4
"
I- E/R
Now the circuit has been simplified to o n e resistor in series W * ^
•* '• para.*- : • ' m u s t be determined before the branches with 4 ohms in each branch. These t w o branches cani •
.- .- /./el/ ampere- To solve for total resis- to the equal of one 2-ohm resistor.
'•<-•• • ^r'.'-be rr.p . ' e d b r adding A, and ft together be
n the Mine branch of the parallel R, xR2 4X4 16 _
-/c. . - - — - v ' r w i o n g paraliel lection of the d r a i n ,
-s. Parallel, and Series-Parallel Circuits 338
sjow the circuit includes just one 2-ohn • 2. "1 ti >• if? drops in a series circuit equals the
Because the total resistance is 3 ohms, the va a. Aroperag
b. Resistance
3ii 212 111
c. Source voitage
d. Wattage
SUMMARY 3. If the • ance and the voltage are known, what Is the formulaforfinding
the current (amperesi?
1. Series circuits: a. E= / x R
a. In a simple series circuit, the current remains cor u n t through , b. / -- E < R
but the voltage drops as current flows through the r ,t c. E' I
circuit. d. / E/R
b. The voltage drop across each resistance or load is directly propor
4. A series tin • •.. three re ors of 6 ohms each. The voltage drop across
tional to the value of the resistance compared to the total resistance
each resistor is 4 volts. Technician A says that the source voltage is 12 volts.
in the circuit.
Technician B says that the total resistance Is 18 ohms. Which technician is
c. The sum (total) of the voltage drops equals the applied voltage
correct?
(Kirchhoff's voltage law).
a. Techn ian A only
d. An open or a break anywhere in a series circuit stops all current
b. Techn an Bott.y
from flowing.
c. Both Tec: moans A and B
2. Parallel circuits: d. Neither Techn ar A rB
a. A parallel circuit, such as is used for all automotive lighting, has the
5. If a 12-volt batte:. c sneered to a series circuit with three resistors of
same voltage available to each resistance (bulb).
2 ohms, 4 ohms, and 6 ohrr:s, haw much current will flow through the circuit?
b. The total resistance of a parallel circuit is always lower than the
a. 1 amp
smallest resistance.
b. 2 amp
c. The separate paths that split and meet at junction points are called
c. 3 amp
branches, legs, or shunts.
d. 4 amp
d. Kirchhoffs current law states: "The current flowing into a junction
of an electrical circuit is equal to current flowing out of that 6. A series circuit has two 10-ohm bulbs. A third bulb is added in series. Tech-
junction." nician A says that the three bulbs wil, be dimmer than when only two
bulbs were in the circuit. Technician B says that the current in the circuit
3. Series-parallel circuits:
will increase. Which technician is correct?
a. A series-parallel circuit is also called a compound circuit or a
combination circuit.
b. Technician B cr.y
b. A series-parallel circuit is a combination of a series and a parallel
circuit, which does not include fuses or switches.
d. Neither Techntcan A r - B
c. A fault in a series portion of the circuit would affect the operation if
the series part was in the power or the ground side of the parallel 7. Technician A says that the sum of the voltage drops in a series circuit
portion of the circuit. should equal the source voltage. Technician B says that the current am-
d. A fault in one leg of a series-parallel circuit will affect just the peres) varies depenrfing or. the value of the resistance in a series circuit
Which technician is correct?
component(s) in that one leg.
a. Technician A c -
b. Technician B onlv
REVIEW QUESTIONS c. Both Tec r- ans A and 3
d. Neither Tecrjuc ar A nor B
1. What is Kirchhoff's voltage law?
8. Two bulbs are connected i paraiie t a 12-volt battery. One bulb has a re-
2. What would current (amperes) do if the voltage were doubled in a circuit?
sistance of 6 ohms and the other bulb has aresistanceof 2 ohms. Techni-
3. What would current (amperes) do if the resistance in the circuit were cian A says that onlv the 2-ohm bulb will light because all of the current
doubled? will flow through the path with the least resistance and no current will
What Is the formula for voltage drop? flow through the O-obtn bulb. Technician B says that the 6-ohm bulb will
5. Why Is the total resistance of a parallel circuit less than the smallest be dimmer than the 2-ohm bulb. Which technician is correct?
resistance? a. Technician A onlv
Why are parallel circuits (instead of series circuits) used in most automotive
applications?
7
- What does Kirchhoff's current law state?
9. Calculate the totalresistanceand current in a parallel circuit with three re-
8
- What would be the effect of an open circuit in one leg of a parallel portion sistors of 4 £1.8 i l and 16 Q . using anv one of the five me-tnods c a x j a t o r
of a series-parallel circuit? suggested). What is the totalresistanceand current?
What would be the effect of an open circuit in a series portion of a series a. 27 ohms i0.4 ampere
Parallel circuit? b. 14 ohms 0.8 ampere
c. 4 ohms 13.0 amperes!
d. 2.3 ohms |5.3 amperesi
CHAPTER QUIZ 10. A vehicle has four parking lights all connected ir parall and tie
I-The amperage in a series circuit is . bulbs bums out Technician A says that this could cause the parfcrg lar.t
a
' The same anywhere in the circuit circuit fuse to blow (open;. Technician B says that .r wouto decrease t v
b current in the circuit. Which technician is correct'
' Varies in the circuit due to the different resistances
c a. Technician A only
' High at the beginning of the circuit and decreases as the current
b. Technician B o n y
flows through the resistance
d
- Always less returning to the battery than leaving the battery c. Both Technicians A and 5
d. Neither Technician A nor 3
After s t u d y i n g Chapter 34, the reader will be able to: Prepare for ASE Engine Performance (A8) certification test content area "E»
Cwspssesrass s a g s * Controls Diagnosis and Repair) • Explain now to set a digital meter to read volts, amperes, and o h m s . List the precautio.
K o a s s r v ®f!ef *crtung w.thtesa equipment • Explain ROW a digital storage scope flitters from an analog scope. • Describe how to safely •
« ( P E r r » 8 or a r t o a circuit or component without doing any harm.
<CFr TESSSS- i > t o display • AC coupling • AC DC clamp-on DMM • alternating current (AC) • BNC connector • cathode ray tube (CRT)
• • cenwuity&gls • counts * current analog • Decoupling • digits • digital meter • digital multimeter (DMM) . digital stora
3 K 5 * B c o p e $ S C : • d ^ ' a . voit-ohm-m>ftammel8r (DVQNft • direct current (DC) • duty cycle • external trigger • frequency • — - --
- S U i f * ^ a a c u i e • rugh-impeoance meter • inductive ammeter • International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) • kilo • L E D test light. J f
j f c c e • s a g a » mtcro • ronii • oscilloscope • over limit (OL) • pulse trains • pulse width • pulse width modulation (PWM) . resolution
rooHaean-square iBRS) • scope • self-powered test lignt • test light • time base • trigger level • trigger slope • volts per division
T & s equipment muss be used by the service technician because

e e a n c a signals cannot be seen or felt and therefore must be
m e a s u r e d This c h a p t e r reviews tne basics of electrical measurement
and provides the background for measuring the components and
aceusts m Tx. remaining chapters.
BODY
GROUND
TEST LIGHTS
POINT
A t e s t l i g h t is simply a light b u l b w i t h t w o wires attached. See
3 4 - 1 . It is u s e i to test for low-voltage level (6 to 12 volts),
voltage c a n n o t be s e e n o r felt and can be detected only
sesf e q u i p m e n t . See Figure 3 4 - 2 . 12-VOLT
A test l i g s t can b e p u r c h a s e d or h o m e m a d e . A purchased test TEST
s g j s c o J i b e libeled as a o- to 12-volt test Ught. Do not purchase a
designed tor h o u s e h o l d c u r r e n t (110 or 2 2 0 volts). It will
: . - t U r . t w i t h 12 volts. Figure 34-1 A12-volt test 115m is attached to a good ground while Drafting for pw«.
TECH T I P A l w a y s Test Your Test Equipment BATTERY . A
r-sr one tecflnsoan res misdiagnosed a problem because the test equip-
t a c net *o& correctly fcanipies include me following:
Ssr • Sunxaout A test light bum can be easily checked by

resaiafty saeaig the test iigrst bub across a battery. A burned out test light
i n s j f i aot be sale to detact voitage.
H a g b s c a o m . if aa ammeter tee is blown (open), the meter will simply
ACCIDENTAL
reae S-& amperes. SAj and not conduct current m me circuit. S an inline fuse OPEN
- J * c * raessr leads, ai functions at tne meter will not work. Vbtts will
•TAT C ; •£. tra v b * and often w<li read OL (over limit) on all ohmmeter wst^
Figure 3 4 - 2 A rest light can be used to locate an open in a circuit. Note out
tcSMK.
is grounded at a ditterent location tnan the circuit itseit
Setf-ftHver&t Test Lights A s e l f - p o w e r e d t e s t l i g h t , also LIGHT

BATTERY IN
-. . , c o n t i n u i t y f i g h t , .-> similar to a test light but includes a bat- HANDLE IN TIP
: e r t A • : p c ? * a : e s right «wii light w h e n c o n n e c t e d to both e n d s of
i that h a s s e s a m e s 7 or t h a t ts n o t b r o k e n . See Figure 3 4 - 3.
1 r.< x*. * c o n t r a r y tev? iigf.r is recommended' on any

.. tfi»v.r. - v t i g M dofcu&s. <1 b a t t e r y a n d applies
.-.ifSt- &-.-A.X eitcsatst C(WTipr««S»tS. Figure 3 4 - 3 A continuity light should not De used on computer circu'i' J
applied v o t e o e m a a m a o f . ae|1(ate Blt!Clronlc components or circuits
CLIO
FLED. GREEN BALL-F-
OR YELLOW
INK IN?.'
CATHOOE T^ REPLA-
RESISTOR,
ANODE
(+)
K
2-FOOT 470-0 RESISTOR
WIRE LEAD (•WATT)
ALLIGATOR
CLIP
Y
NAIL OR PROBE
8A!1TWF
1 i
piqurcjM High-Impedance 'est light. An LED twtllght can be easily made • •- . • J
cost components and an old ink pen. With the 470-ohm resistor in series with 'he Iffl. •• AUXILIARY
POWER LEAO
t55tpr only draws 0.025 amperes (25 mllllampcres) trom the circuit being tented. T--. vjw
current draw helps assure the technician that the circuit or component be 1 ^ 'nted » • - •
H damaged by excessive current now
p - j i r » 3 4 - 5 • -nr. y r h r ' w e --'?»-Jj9d * ?»Oi <•*•.
power, groona, <r a
LED Test L i g h t A n o t h e r t y p e of t e s t l i g h t u s e s a n LED instead c '
a standard a u t o m o t i v e b u l b for a v i s u a l i n d i c a t i o n of v o l t a g e . An circuit, just a s a w a t e r S o w s j r a r s e a s u r e t h e a m o u n t of
LED test l i g h t r e q u i r e s o n l y a b o u t 2 5 m A 1 0 . 0 2 5 A] - • w a t e r S o w c u b i c fee* p e r m i a s f e . ' o r e x a r a p t e I.
can be used o n e l e c t r o n i c c i r c u i t s a n d o n s t a n d a r d circuits. See
Figure 3 4 - 4 for c o n s t r u c t i o n d e t a i l s .
te rzzxsmr tea it .nsaaed a Oe a taomg* the
LOGIC PROBE rw in *Se g a s e y grtn nadaggraif-ctaMecwtfin
para.--?-.
• logic p r o b e is a n e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e t h a t l i g h t s u p a -ed VJ;
s e f n t a T e desûvi*S b f te a r - - anSafiHeaBsw ^ e t w w *
LED if the p r o b e is t o u c h e d t o b a t t e r y v o l t a g e . If t h e p r o b e is
touched to g r o u n d , a g r e e n ( u s u a l l y ) L E D l i g h t s . S e e Figure 3 4 - 5 .
A logic probe c a n " s e n s e " t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n high- a n d low- Digital m e t e r s - r - •---. - - - b e m o v e d 'o t h e
voltage levels, t h u s t h e t e r m logic. A typical logic p r o b e c a n also Sight a m m e t e r s e r r t a a l s . M o s t S g t z l - a e t e r r h a r e a r a m p e r e sole Jhaf
another light (a " p u l s e " light) w h e n a c h a n g e in v o l t a g e levels o c c u r s . can a c c c m m o d a - - a - a r - . : - : 0 •'• S e e '„-- Tec> '
This feature is h e l p f u l w h e n c h e c k i n g f o r a v a r i a b l e v o l t a g e o t r t r i • Your M e t e r L e a d s . "
from a c o m p u t e r o r i g n i t i o n s e n s o r . Via.-.- - -: - - m d u c t r v e • r --".:-. ir
A logic p r o b e m u s t b e first c o n n e c t e d t o a p o w e r s o u r c e (vehi- ductrve m e a n s that the r e * ? - t — b ? • • ± ? "be w i r e • c a r r y - z
& battery}. T h i s c o n n e c t i o n p o w e r s t h e p r o b e a n d gives It a refer- the current and r a 2 s s t r e s s ^ " I t h e x a a g n e ; c SeW - a *
ence low Iground). surrounds any conductor -.z a :
Most logic probes also m a k e a d i s t i n c t i v e s o u n d ' n r e a c h high- a n d
"'.v voltage level, w h i c h m a k e s t r o u b l e s h o o t i n g easier w h e n p r o b ' n •
f-'tinectors or c o m p o n e n t t e r m i n a l s . A s o u n d (usually a b e e p is heard TEQf TIP = 8 s e " o u r Wteter L e a d s
wheti the probe tip is t o u c h e d t o a v o l t a g e s o u r c e t h a t is c h a n g j n ? , ~~
cJuoe v
changing voltage also u s u a l l y lights t h e p u l s e light o n t h e logic p r c o .
itiadsoftne'-w^'-nustsp
ilwefote, the probe c a n b e u s e d t o c h e c k c o m p o n e n t s s u c h as p i c k u p
rrr&j
HalJ effect sensors, m a g n e t i c s e n s o r s , a n d m a n v o t h e r circu •:>
4 cacracc ooWf'-r
NDaogl J * t e c m c a r t -
DIGITAL M U L T I M E T E R S
swrwwd Sac* » 2 * w e or m ses*r.
Dl
?ital m u l t i m e t e r ( D M M ) • : digital volt-ohm-milliammeter
s c s f i w -raufis »> v a r
!DV 1
O M ) are t e r m s c o m m o n l y u s e d for e l e c t r o n , high-impedance
ne(erar?»^sers«^
test meters, w h i c h h a v e a high i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e . V. v . :• a SsSffy "fcr^ fsses are t Q e r & y w e
10 m e g o h m s ( M S i ) ( 1 0 m i l l i o n o h m s ) o r m o -
îstsace. Analog (needle-type meters are almost w •*•• w e . See figw 3 « - 1 0 o r a a e e
and should not be used to measure an - -r v sar> on!* SeQsorers EmeriBiiLwS
high-impedance m e t e r c a n b e u s e d to m e a s u r e am -ot » sun®- the A 9M> - j s e s * a
within t h e ranges of t h e m e t e r . S e e F i g u r e s 3 4 1 ••• P rwi a "ta» «r S » r * ^ - rspf
,n
Page 343. a d U P f s» «Mnbre tee hotdnr a r c
me»r AH 6 m SOB
T U R I N G AMPERES vary - s s s i s x r vrthtenr J»
' ^ M S a e t t r m e a s u r e s t h e f l o w of c u r r e n t t h r o u g h a c o m p e t e cir tanco j s i B f t a r t y a c s j o f e o f ' w ^ s
r,jj! ' n IJnits

°f a m p e r e s . T h e a m m e t e r h a s t o b e a i l e d in t h e d t -
!
" ' ® » r t e s | s o t h a t it c a n m e a s u r e ail t h e c u r e : " r w n that
DIGITAL DISPLAY
CONTINUITY BEEPER
RELATIVE REA0INGS
FREQUENCY AND
DUTY CYCLE
= DIODE TEST
SCTA?"
smffTC* , = CAPACITANCE
0 = OHMS (RESISTANCE)
VOCS.OHMS
DGOt CHZCK iHPVT
T&VUHAL
„ v = DC MILUVOLTS
COMMON TEaWNiL (S£LOO« USED IN
A.JT.3MOTWE USE)
«i,LUA"f"M>C ROAW v -DCVOLTS

INPUT TERMINAL
*J»PtP£S 1WXJT "J* = AC VOLTS

TESVW.Au
it* - = AC OR 0C
A
AMPERES
MILUAMPERES
A = AC OR DC
~ MICROAMPERES
-SCLDOM USED IN
ALrrcuoTArt USQ
iac e paa* * r* COM arrraa- £>•-.»! wNsr. me current in amperes, me red meter test lead remains in the V* a s -
clamp t h e s a w of t h e m e t e r a r o u n d t h e p o w e r leadisl ot •
M£AMNG
!ead;si of foe c o m p o n e n t b e i n g m e a s u r e d a n d r e a d the i s - I
«c A;-.er*vat.n.3 current or voltage Most clamp-on m e t e r s c a n also m e a s u r e A C , w h i c h is helpx
ac i Omci current or voltage diagnosis of a generator ( a l t e r n a t o r ! p r o b l e m . Volts, otas.
Mtfnoo* (1/1000 volts) quenqr, arid t e m p e r a t u r e c a n a l s o b e m e a s u r e d w i t h flic- V -
X Arr.oere .ampsi. Current Sfetopon DMM.
Mui.-arapere . 11000 arr.pv,
• Percer' for duty cycle readings only!
GNN Resistance
<0.o*vr '.OOC otvross Resistance MEASURING V O L T A G E
1 **- 1.000.000 onms. Resistance A v o l t m e t e r m e a s u r e s t h e pressure o r p o t e n t i a l of electri-
*2 (1 Frequency
u n i t s of v o l t s . A v o l t m e t e r i s c o n n e c t e d t o a c i r c u i t to
* nonanz ' 300 cycl«s/*«c). Frequency
P***c>ut«©r.vm,r-,ute Counting one cycle per AU v o i m e t e r j j h a v e a l a r g e , b u i l t - i n r e s i s t a n c e s o t h a t tr.c;-
r e n t S o w t h r o u g h t h e m e t e r w i l l n o t a f f e c t e i t h e r the
s fltoftafuborw/mmute Counting 2 cycle per b e i n g t e s t e d o r t h e m e t e r . M o s t d i g i t a l m e t e r s h a v e an i'
resistance oi 10 M i l 1 1 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 o h m s ) o r m o r e o n t h e vc -
.-mooo teci tor Puise Widm
•aswytwwt scale only. T h i s is called t h e impedance of t h e m e t e r an-
s e n t s t h e total i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of t h e m e t e r c i r c u i t a - ;
t e n i a ! coils, c a p a c i t o r s , a n d r e s i s t o r s . A t y p i c a l a n a l o g v ; , _ ;
e ol msq "jf^'j: muwneters has only a b o u t 1 2 , 0 0 0 o h m s of i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e . • - - - "
this m a y s o u n d like a l o t of r e s i s t a n c e , i t is t o o l o w for
and c o m p u t e r c i r c u i t m e a s u r e m e n t . W h e n a v o l t m e t e r ; .
u j x . ajMr-w W & N T I . MULTIMETER n e c t e a to m e a s u r e v o l t a g e , t h e m e t e r itself b e c o m e s a P a r ^
A C / D C -ar:.;. o s D M 1 4 • ' y for a u t o m o t i v e circuit. T h i s is t h e Teason w h y v e h i c l e m a n u f a c t u r e r s spe^-
a high i m p e d a n c e d i g i t a l m e t e r b e u s e d . T h e h i g h intetr®
, t h a t t h e r e is t a n c e h a s little e f f e c t o n t h e c i r c u i t o r c o m p o n e n t
«•«.';. Simply s u r e d . See F i g u r e s *<- "•"
S Y S T E M C O M PC
CHARGING SYSTEL
GENERATOR ( A L T ' . - .
CONNECTORS 6 #
DIODES
•• •• |
REGULATORS • •
COOLING SYSTEM
CONNECTORS • • •
FAN MOTORS • • •
RELAYS «
TEMP. SWITCHES
• • :
•
IGNITION SYSTEM
COILS
• •
CONNECTORS • 6 •
CONTACT SET • •
MAF SENSOR • •
MAGNETIC PICK-UP
• •
• • •
MAP/BP SENSOR • • •
O} SENSOR
STARTING SYSTEM
BATTERIES • • •
CONNECTORS
• • •
INTERLOCKS • •
SOLENOIDS • • • •
STARTERS
fijura 34-8 A summary chart indicating vvtrat measurement type may oo used to tost wtucli vehicle system
34-9 An inductive ammotor uses a damp ttial measuros me current mrough ttw Figure 34-10 Noa ffieDiade-typetusariakwsoiaaiwn s e n e g a a w oinw
" ''•< tr* itiengtti of me magnetic lield surrounding tho wire- merer leads. A t O-amp tuse helps protect me internal meter tute1s pea m a I * n
itsetttromaamagamatmigmresulttromejffissswecurem(tow.: acadnBTy .sad
incorrectly
'tie Input impedance of a n y meter can be measured by using an Remember, the resistance of any meter is only effective m
' meter set to read o h m s and measuring the resistance of the test the meter is set on the voltmeter scales. This is the r.a-c: tea
r! ;
' to the voltmeter scale. w h y most automobile manufacturers r e c o m m e n d testing voXag
s e l e c t e d p o i n t s i n s t e a d of r e s i s t a n c e o r c u r r e n t .
SM Si.'VW
MEASURING RESISTANCE
T h e T-în ^ v a n t a g e
An o h n i m e i e i m e a s u r e s t h e r e s i s t a n c e iii o i : 0 [.
ciicuit s e c t i o n w h e n n o c u r i e n t is f l o w i n g t l i M ^ '
c o w ^ «ivvV>5 •: • • • sf»r$ and t « n S e c Figure34-14.
V - ct>8 jfre a-. e C i •..;•, helpV m S-vnlng icces to signals o h m n i e t e r c o n t a i n s a b a t l c t y (or o t h e i pov.-ei
*>\ »"> Tr»ts:- 1 ; „. 8*e commonly toond in 1.5-in. end leads a r e c o n n e c t e d to a c o m p o n e n t , c u r r e n t f l o w s
V i v s T.p:-, ts pwsf: the sha? end alongside the w e and posh

d ?<; »-.-e,-U>- Tty s'-.i-;. eif of the T-ptr win slide alongside the Insula-
te • arc ccota 1 Pv mete" termW3' inside the plask connect* tne 7 shape ol
t v p^- us i! easj to atbw$ scope probes ty mete/ snjgalcir c*ps lo It After
scape or measoreTiwts have beo^ oonip'eted. the T-pr can be eas^y
p dfei erf wihxit (fet-nag.ng the environmental seal of the connector.
C * - f T » \ Oc re! use T-pins or hig' -vota$e seconder Ignition csbfcs of

confcre--ts These ignr&»j syste-ns represent a se-'ious shock Iwa'd
we t-p -s on yohsjes less thai 30 vols AC or 60 vols DC
Figure 34-13 typiea' digital multimeter (DMMj set lo read DC volts
R g f l 34-11 A trPfcai ir->- cbnr^«n-t(pe dtfta' m.-i nete- Tns meter is cepAie of
Ms c*rre" (AC: end drect current {DCj v. thout req^nng thai t e Wcvt
; wertr' to t*. iietef ir, series Tr>e Ja*-s are plated over tie wire and
c..'--* fc« t-rxyj1 ft: cSfi^t is tf-spteyetf
Figure34-14 AtypWI-pin
BECAUSE THE SIGNAL READING IS BELOW WHEN THE VOLTAGE EXCEEDED 4 VOLTS, THE
4 VOLTS. THE METER AUTORANGES TO THE METER AUTORANGES INTO THE 40-VOLT SCALE
4 VOLT SCALE IN THE 4-VOLT SCALE, THIS THE DECIMAL POINT MOVES ONE PLACE TO THE
ME TER PROVIDES THREE DECIMAL PLACES. RIGHT LEAVING ONLY TWO DECIMAL PLACES.
1
— • • . • — .. t;:'
t ' l ' i VrY/ *>/''• " - " ' •<"*!«*/ »<Os tie proper K4* to read fe«n»ge beingtestedThe state selected is usually displayed ^
tt toft! •*: 4 tet W» inflfcan read up lo 4 vots (b; Tne range It am settotie 40-no't state. iheanng thai the meter can read up t o | ^
1,1X1 0
<..-. t f , »' t* i ne'.ertoftvt toateg'-e'tcaie Knotietoriaul/angiitg t e mete--(Ssp'a> WCU'D M«ale OL if a reading exceeds ' '
jetsefcj :»*•''.. % JKa >*
and Scope Usage
Ol J o e s Nut M e a n t h e M e t e r
H Reading "Nothing"
i 6<jfl t r i k if the meaning of the display on a digital meter
V/ .<- v * > ' •• - iBsoing A-tien OL is disp'u,ed on the meter lace
m "cy td'< ••••• •<t'i'> Many meters indicate Ot on the dispts> to
indicate C t o h t n i v o ^ n iao. a,c- Jttiit means that die reading ts over the mad-
mum Ptsrf «*• be d for tne tetected range For ejarnpte. OL is displayed it
1? «Dlts fcte-0 re-id M ' s • ' has been tettoroatfa maximum ol 4 ««».
Aytorangmg J ad, .! the rar ^ to match Miat is being measured.
I Here OL mea-it a > Iv/<tf than tie meter can read (unlikely on the voltage
scale t v automob'-e u s a y '/ nS v, ie measuring resotance lobmi:
Tnerefore. 0 : inv •'< v.- e m e a v A ' , 'K stance or an open circuit
Figure 34-15 Using a digital multimeter set to read ohms (O) to test th . rjti: I, n, Is being wd-cated T'ie r tier * -tad 00.0 * tie r e l i a n c e is zero See
rew reads the resistance ot the (liamcnt. Figure 34-17. - s t r i n g * r r ease n t a t e t w xflty ue<o IB stancei,
whereas OL w h a l e s rrlinite ressiance Tvierefcre. w i « i taftirtg with another
technician ato.it a meter read.-; r r ^ e surs rou know enacdy what the reading
-T-i—rv n — on the face of the meter mea* t See Figure i i - t s lor eM-nptesa! how tne meter
should be attached to read votage cw-e- • Samples and resistance lohms...
ELECTRICAL UNIT P R E F I X E S
Electrical units are measured ir; i: u m b e r s such as 12 volts,
1 5 0 a m p e r e s , a n d 4 7 0 o h m s . Largf u n i t s o v e r a 1 , 0 0 0 m a y be
e x p r e s s e d in kilo u n i t s . T h e p r e f . t k i l o m e a n s " t h o u and."
1 , 1 0 0 volts = 1 . 1 kilovolts (kV)

4 , 7 0 0 o h m s = 4.7 kilohm ikl:
FREQUENTLY A S K E D Q U E S T I O N ???
How Much Voltage Does a n O h m m e t e r Apply?
Most digital mete-s that are set to -neasj-e :-v tre .resistance, apply a vuitage ol
from 0.3 to 1.0 von to !V ooripme-: bang -Kasired The voltage comes Irom
the meter itself to measure the res.stance : thr-js are important to remem-
ber about an ohmmeter
1. The component or c*cui! must be tfecoonected Irom any etecfrical orewt

while the resistance is being tieasured
figure 34-16 Typical digital multimeter showing OL (over limit) on the readout with trie
2. Because the meter itself apples a voltage (even though it Is re&Wety
•r~' 'Ui unit selected. This usually means that Ihe unit being measured is open (Win ty
towi. a meter se' to measure ohms can damage etecl/onic circuits
rasance) and has no continuity.
Computer or electronic chips ca-. be Ms-ty damaged i! subjected to only a
few m:i'.a"iperes of current similar to the amount an ohr-meter appiiss
when a resista-ite measurene-. is being oe-formed
•?adsanjf actually m e a s u r e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e in v o l t a g e (voltage d r o p i
k ' M p i the leads, w h i c h t h e m e t e r r e g i s t e r s as r e s i s t a n c e on its
See Figure 3 4 - 1 5 . Z e r o o h m s m e a n n o r e s i s t a n c e b e t w e e n If t h e v a l u e is o v e r 1 m ton ) 0 , 0 0 0 . t h e n m e pref • m e g a
test leads, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e r e is c o n t i n u i t y or a c o n t i n u o u s (M) is o f t e n u s e d .
path for the c u r r e n t t o f l o w in a c l o s e d c i r c u i t . Infinity m e a n s n o
1 , 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 volts = 1.1 m e g a v o l t s (MV)
•ornection. as in a n o p e n c i r c u i t .
With a closed c i r c u i t ( l o w o h m s ) , m a x i m u m c u r r e n t f r o m t h e 4,700,000 ohms 4.7 megohms (Mfi)
- - ' in battery c a u s e s a l o w r e a d i n g , w h e r e a s a n o p e n circuit pre
See Figure 3 4 - 1 9 o n p a g e 3 4 8 .
;'•;'"• any c u r r e n t f r o m f l o w i n g . D i f f e r e n t m e t e r s h a v e d i f f e r e n t S o m e t i m e s a c i r c u i t c o n d u c t s s o littie c u r r e n t t h a t a s m a l l e r
! ' f °f indicating i n f i n i t e r e s i s t a n c e , or a r e a d i n g h i g h e r t h a n t h e
u n i t of m e a s u r e is required. S m a l l u n i t s of tneas j ; e of 1 1 . > . 0 a ; .
y * allows. For e x a m p l e , m o s t m e t e r s r e a d O L , m e a n i n g "ovct
ca ed m i l l i m .
whereas o t h e r s m a y s h o w a n u m b e r I o r 3 o n t h e left s i d e
,he
T h e m i c r o is represented fc; t h e ore-;'-. .•*.•-
display. S e e F i g u r e 3 4 - 1 6 . T o s u m m a r i z e o p e n a n d zero
m n
m i c r o a m p e r e is o n e - m i l l i o n t h M,000,000- of ar. a - . ; - -. T-.
& , remember:
summarize:
D
'°°{l zero r e s i s t a n c e m e g a (M) = 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 ( d e c i m a l p o i n t six place* to t h e right
OL
an o p e n c i r c u i t ( n o c u r r e n t f l o w s ) 1000000.)
M> SteneM*
, , « , X D
14-17 Many digital multimeters can hawe Die display indicate zero to compensate tor tea lead resistance. (t| Connect leads in the V1J and COM meter terminals. (2) Select the
"«/ MII« two mmer leads togettwi (4) Push the "zero" ot "relative" button on the meter |5| The meter display will now indicate zero ohms ot resistance
instructions that c o m e w i t h t h e m e t e r . U s e of t h e meter usuiS

u i o (k) 1,000 (decimal point three places to the right 1000.)
involves the following steps.
miUi (m) t / 1 , 0 0 0 (decimal point three places to the left
0.001) 1. Select t h e p r o p e r u n i t of e l e c t r i c i t y f o r w h a t is being
m e a s u r e d : volts, o h m s (resistance), or amperes (amount of cu:
iy• 1 / 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 (decimal point six places to the left
rent flow). If the meter is not autorangjng, select the proper SCK I
0.000001)
for the anticipated reading. For e x a m p l e , if a 12-volt battery is I
being measured, select a meter reading range that is h i g h e r w
!* »— e * m equals a small unit (mllli), whereas a capital M the voltage but not too high. A 20- or 30-volt range will accis®
m i a Iarj5? unit |mega|. show the voltage of a 12-volt battery. If a 1,000-volt scale is
selected, a 12-volt reading may n o t b e accurate.
2. Place t h e m e t e r l e a d s i n t o t h e p r o p e r i n p u t terminals
' - . p r e f i x e s c a n b e c o n f u s i n g b e c a u s e m o s t digital m e t e r s • The black lead usually Is inserted into t h e common l<
e i p r e - > s v a l u e s in m o r e t h a n o n e p r e f i x , especially if t h e terminal, and stays in this location for all meter function^
. - .' . r a n g i n g . For e x a m p l e , a n a m m e t e r r e a d i n g m a y • The red lead is Inserted Into t h e volt, o h m , or diode cne ^
• * VJ 7 m A o n a u t o r a n g l n g . W h e n t h e s c a l e is c h a n g e d to terminal usually labeled "V U , " w h e n voltage, reslstanc.
" A " iri t h e w i n d o w of t h e display), t h e n u m b e r dis diodes are being measured. t $$
; i • ••'. 0 . 0 3 7 A. N o t e t h a t t h e r e s o l u t i o n of t h e v a l u e is • W h e n current flow in a m p e r e s is b e i n g measured, mo.
reduced. meters require that the red test lead be Insertedjn'

ammeter terminal, usually labeled "A" or "mA.
. terrnina,s'
mm • > • 'he meter display tor the unit being mea- N If the meter leads are Inserted Into ammeter te >r a„ tnt"
, - e • . - what being displayed on the face ol a digital though the selector is set to volts, the meter may be d a m a g M „ c t y .
rx-. t :•.*•.. .4. ^4-'. 4. 1 rr.ove the selector until base units appear, nal (ute may blow II the test leads touch both terminals o! a
» • < A v.' nr, -S" '. ead ef mA for mBliamperes.
L the
j note
3. M e a s u r e t h e c o m p o n e n t b e i n g t e s t e d . Carefu V
H O * TO READ DIGITAL M E T E R S mal point and the unit on the meter face. ,(h a lo"
G e t n r . ; u , «••/<*• and t * a d i s t a l m e t e r t a k e s t i m e a n d practice, T h e • C o r r e c t s c a l e . A 12-volt battery is measured w ^ ^ ^
Bret - 1
, r e * l , . r / i ; - - v . ' . d , a n d follow all safety and operational voltage scale selected. T h e proper reading of
VOLTS
L_ j EJ
OHMS
T T T
VOLTS
AMMETER VOLTMETER OHMMETER

1. Connected in series IN a circuit t . Connected in parallel to a circuit 1 Has its own supply o* power
according to polarity. or part of a circuit according to 2. USED ONLY WHEN UNIT IS
2. Measures current flow. polarity. DISCONNECTED from U
3. Used in a closed circuit. 2. Measures voltage drop original circuit
This Is the difference between 3 Measures resistance directly on meter
voltage at Its two leads. 4. Low ohms means continuity.
3. Used in a closed circuit 5. Infinity ready means open
circuit
ALWAYS USE A LARGE ENOUGH AMMETER AND VOLTMETER
fisurt 34-18 Summary of test meter hookup
• Incorrect scale. A 12-volt b a t t e r y is m e a s u r e d w i t h a high

voltage scale selected. Use of t h e Incorrect scale results in a HMT: When converting fror. fclor.r.s to ohms, snake the decimal point a
reading of 0 . 0 1 2 . comma.
Ifa 12-volt battery is m e a s u r e d w i t h an a u t o r a n g i n g meter, the cor

rect reading of 12.0 is given. " A U T O " and "V" should s h o w on the Because this reading is well below the specified maximum allow-
face of the meter. able, the spark plug wire is usable.
4. Interpret the r e a d i n g . This is especially difficult on autoranging
meters, where the m e t e r itself selects t h e proper scale. The follow-
ing are two examples of different readings. TECH T I P
Purchase a Digital Meter That Wilt
• A voltage drop is b e i n g m e a s u r e d . T h e specifications indicate a
l*L Work lor Automotive Use
maximum voltage d r o p of 0 . 2 volt. T h e m e t e r reads " A U T O " Purchase a digital mattr mat s capable of reading the fotoamg:
and "43.6 mV." This r e a d i n g m e a n s that t h e voltage d r o p is
. DC volts
0.0436 volt, or 4 3 . 6 mV, w h i c h Is far l o w e r t h a n t h e 0 . 2 volt
. AC volts
(200 mV|. Because t h e n u m b e r s h o w i n g o n the m e t e r face is
. DCamperesiuptolOAor moreishe*pM
much larger than t h e specifications, m a n y beginner technicians
. Ohms up to 40 Mil ;40 miMon ohmsi
are led to believe that t h e voltage d r o p is excessive.
. OtodechacK
Additional features for advanced automotive diagnosis include
. Frequency [hertz (Hz)]

. temperature probe PF arxvor T )
. Pulse width [maisecond (ms)]
. Duty cyde CM
A spark plug wire is b e i n g m e a s u r e d . T h e r e a d i n g should be
le
If working on older-model vehicles, select a meter t
» than 10,000 o h m s for e a c h foot in length if t h e wire is
"sable. The wire b e i n g tested is 3 ft l o n g ( m a x i m u m allowable RPM (engine speedi
resistance Is 3 0 , 0 0 0 o h m s ) . T h e m e t e r reads " A U T O " and Dwell i degrees)
M.85 KU." This r e a d i n g is e q u i v a l e n t to 1 4 , 8 5 0 o h m s .
TtCHTIP f Think of Money
Tteter iteways c m oHao be contus«h) \ t

q
12 S w a s would be dtepiavM a s 12.50 V. k m ^
K
SO cants A 0 5 - w * raadKvj an i digital metei WHI > *%»J
as $ 0 5 0 is hall o l « ( W a r ' ' ^ t ^ J
Low «alue displays can be own mora contu g | I
rawing is 0.063 w * . an autorangmg meter v«M a , " • W M i ^
a wit or $63 of $1 000 (H takes 1,000 mV to eq. h t

T X SVMBCH. ON THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE DISPLAY
•NOCATES WHAT RANGE THE METER HAS BEEN one-tenth ol a cant w t h I wit betng $1 00 Theretott 63
SET TO READ MEANS OHMS TIMES 1000, Mi: IS ol St 00 (630 ant-tonO* of a cent or 6 3 centsi
OHMS T»»ES 1.000 000 To avoid contusion, manually range Hie meter to read base
.. = O H M S votes. If me meter is ranged to base unit volts. 63 mv would be
IF THE ONLY SYMBOL ON THE DISPLAY IS THE 0 063 or maytse just 0 06 depending on the display capabilities ot a * " *
OHMS SYMBOL THE READING ON THE DISPLAY
IS EXACTLY THE RESISTANCE IN OHMS
K_. = K I L O H M S = O H M S TIMES 1000

A "K" IN FRONT OF THE OHMS SYMBOL MEANS
Resolution, Digits, a n d C o u n t s Resolution refer,
M L O H U S THE READING ON THE DISPLAY IS IN small o r fine a m e a s u r e m e n t the meter c a n m a k e . Bv kn -
KILOHMS YOU HAVE TO MULTIPLY THE READING resolution of a D M M . y o u can determine if t h e meter c t -
ON THE DISPLAY BY 1000 TO GET THE RESISTANCE sure d o w n t o 1 v o l t o r t o 1 millivolt ( 1 / 1 , 0 0 0 of a volt
ft OHMS
You w o u l d n o t b u y a r u l e r m a r k e d in 1 -in. segments •
M-. = M E G O H M S = O H M S TIMES 1.000,000 c e n t i m e t e r s ! if y o u h a d t o m e a s u r e d o w n t o . 2 5 in. (or to i -
A M IN FRONT OF THE OHMS SYMBOL MEANS A t h e r m o m e t e r t h a t m e a s u r e s o n l y in w h o l e d e g r e e s is of
MEGOHMS THE READING ON THE DISPLAY IS IN
w h e n y o u r n o r m a l t e m p e r a t u r e is 0 8 . 0 ° F . You n e e d a t h e r
MEGOHMS YOU HAVE TO MULTIPLY THE READING
ON THE DISPLAY BY 1.000.000 TO GET THE with O.I c resolution.
RESISTANCE IN OHMS The terms digits and c o u n t s are u s e d t o d I
lution. D M M s a r e g r o u p e d b y t h e n u m b e r of c o u n t s or di.
display. A 3.5-digit m e t e r c a n d i s p l a y t h r e e full digits rare-, f
114-19 ta* at the meter frsotay when a ineasurement is being made.
0 t o 9, a n d o n e " h a i r digit w h i c h d i s p l a y s o n l y a 1 or is left h
. 4
i M g ar a j m w m riwtu
A 3.5-digit m e t e r will d i s p l a y u p t o 1 , 0 0 9 c o u n t s of res..
A 4.5-digit m e t e r c a n display u p t o 1 0 , 0 0 0 c o u n t s of resolution.
It is m o r e p r e c i s e t o d e s c r i b e a m e t e r b y c o u n t s of r t
RMS versus Average A l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t voltage waveforms r a t h e r t h a n by 3 . 5 o r 4 . 5 digits. S o m e 3 . 5 - d i g i t meters ha«
ur. be t r u e sinusoidal or n o n s i n u s o i d a l . A true sine w a v e pattern h a n c e d resolution of u p t o 3 , 2 0 0 o r 4 , 0 0 0 c o u n t s .
be the s a m e for both r o o t - m e a n - s q u a r e (RMS) M e t e r s w i t h m o r e c o u n t s o f f e r b e t t e r resolution for
a n d a . e r a g e r e a d i n g m e t e r s . R M S a n d averaging are t w o m e t h o d s m e a s u r e m e n t s . For e x a m p l e , a 1 , 0 0 0 - c o u n t m e t e r cannot;
-sed - m e a s u r e t h e t r u e e f f e c t i v e r a t i n g of a signal t h a t is c o n s u r e d o w n t o a t e n t h of 0 . 1 0 v o l t w h e n m e a s u r i n g 200
star v . changing. See Figure 3 4 - 2 0 . more. See Figure 3 4 - 2 1 . However, a 3,200-count mew
n l
\
1 /
f
f
\
i
1
\\
L FLUKE 87 mmmma RUKES! < m m r *
v
y 6.54 6.54
) 2 4 4 8 10 3 * S 10
CD (Mpuct BtsPQfonO
FLUKE 67 VKtiirr FLUKE 88 VOtM**
6.54 4.25
V
F*0ur« 34-20 mftaor U J M * a true A M S meter (such m a Fluke 87) provides a different reading than an average responding meter (such « ' F l u M
''
• m m i reodng * lo compared w i n a ipedflcalSon
ANAUKi vl Elft m n u . ST0M6f OSCIUOSCOK
-.:, o f t ill-)v. ip»> d ; scope si i! v t < t f * w a t f i a

onrr " '-Ji wt • » v h*n§n Ad tnffr
um » ' K t v x W ray t u b e lOKTl • lar to I r t r v t s o n tcrtr* to to
piar r n l t m r patterns rh» scopt mr\ tfesptoys 9* f«ttnc«i >#al
. orauoS. A %iu! of* oMJTxmln t e n a I C D . b u t a CJTT mm
t i n lar m e t o n m m - j f e t a l t c c p « A digital u o p e t a i n v a m p t n of
t h e u g n a n " a t car. b e I -pprd r M o n d ; b a n t the ' e m m&tt
storage o t d O o c c o p r (DSO| Becau- i ana i % g r i»pl»vi t
v o t e * t i f f i a b **•; d o a o a t w u a p i * it c a o n x m w a occur
r w t A • j j t a "ortff v can fws thai m a y o c c u r 6 »
fwwn a r a » » . a D S O w w i • hfch " w w p l l n p W » pw*rwfl
c u M e f a * of B n i * * » s j a f * f a r ateii i*w? ; • u p
For e a n p t e . g » tixotar PORTAAE * r s s r * r © 6 r I^TKL MI

HI a n a k * t c o p r a n d a D S O . W D S wo^M be » "Ô" 85 ®
Figures 3 4 - 2 2 m ) M-23.
Figure 34-21 INs melet display shows 052 2 AC wits Notee (hit the mo t m b t *
w j k s Ml tt« meter can read over 100 volts AC with (raaoMonol01 w *
IV
display 0 . 1 0 v o l t u p t o 3 2 0 v o l t s . D i g i t s d i s p l a y e d t o t h e far
right of t h e d i s p l a y m a y a t t i m e s f l i c k e r o r c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g e .
This is called digit rattle and represents a changing voltag
being m e a s u r e d o n t h e g r o u n d (COM t e r m i n a l of t h e meter
lead). High-quality m e t e r s a r e d e s i g n e d t o r e j e c t t h i s u n w a n t e d
voltage.
Accuracy A c c u r a c y is t h e l a r g e s t a l l o w a b l e e r r o r t h a t w
under specific o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . In o t h e r w o r d s , it is a n indica
tion of how close t h e D M M ' s d i s p l a y e d m e a s u r e m e n t is t o t h e ac
tual value of t h e signal b e i n g m e a s u r e d .
Accuracy for a D M M is u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d as a p e r c e n t ot rt a-.
log, An accuracy of ± 1 % of r e a d i n g m e a n s t h a t for a d t s p i a v e d r e a c
ig of 100.0 V, t h e a c t u a l v a l u e of t h e v o l t a g e c o u l d b e a n y w h e r e
» —
tetween 0 0 . 0 to 1 0 1 . 0 v o l t s . T h u s , a l o w e r a c c u r a c y perci a g e is TV
better w
T» S E M O U ar ABOUT
• I acceptable 1.00% oac-MALF THWJTTLI
1
'*ay 0.50*(l/2%)
1 r
'0od « 0.25% ( 1 / 4 % |
• Excellent - 0 . 1 0 % ( 1 / 1 0 % )
For e x a m p l e , if a b a t t e r y h a d 1 2 . 6 v o l t s , a m e t e r c o u l d x a d be-
^ n the following, b a s e d o n Its a c c u r a c y .
JV
0 1
* * high 12.61
TV
low 12.50
IV
high 12.63
low 12.57
TP SENSOR AT m o t -A***
high .12.66 TIWUIIU
low 12.54
l 0
°* high 12.73
low 12.47
Before you p u r c h a s e a m e t e r , c h e c k t h e a c o w e v . A c v u t w ? »
4
'V mdicated o n t h e m o t o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s h o t '
»CTM»»
MOLO ms. Division
f_A_
1 1
"»to.010^
10 0ms
"Hoc te
50
•""•m-sto*
100
' ^ n .OOOseci
500
» c (5.0 sec:
1000 10
(10.0 sit.
NOTE: Increasing the time basereducesthe number ot amples per seen-
[ J H 3 3S0Bi an 9 a g o * sstvage osafcsraoe SJSOi otsours tne entire

*or * tc w i r - e n r ?ira«B m c tnen reti/ns»de Tt» fcptay also rrtcates T h e horizontal scale is d i v i d e d i n t o 1 0 divisions. If each ^
j - . " ' « a d n g •» ~ V. a r e n e - -mcr 6SC n V a r O M V t T V Ospttj does not sion represented 1 s e c of t i m e , t h e n t h e t o t a l t i m e period (fob
w » » 1 » i tvcctp s epenec tsecaee t r * scope n«s beer set to orty start on the screen will be 10 sec. T i m e p e r d i v i s i o n c a n vary g r e a ^
- x a • • w t o r a a t V 3 t a r t a r nonage m e beer machad. TNs nonage is c M a u t o m o t i v e use. as follows:
Fuel injector—2 ms per division ( 2 0 m s total)

Throttle position (TP) sensot^—100 m s p e r d i v i s i o n (1 sectota
OSCILLOSCOPE DISPLAY GRID Oxygen sensor—1 sec per division ( 1 0 s e c total)
A - t ci face h a s 8 divisions vertically u p and down* and
The time per division is s e l e c t e d s o t h a t several events of
.TJ ho.izontaCv. The grid lines o n the scope screen are
waveform are displayed. This a l l o w s c o m p a r i s o n s to see if
. : a re r o e scale, w h c t s e e ed a g r a t i c u l e . This a r r a n g e
waveform is consistent or is c h a n g i n g . M u l t i p l e waveforms she • '
- - -> c — tnc-rjy called a n 8 x 1 0 d i s p l a y .
o n the display at t h e s a m e t i m e also a l l o w for measurements to bt
seen m o r e easily.
— — — — — — — — — — — — C o m m o n l v used t i m e p e r division u n i t s for various compoc-r
• F T These - u m b o s represent the metric cjnenswos of the graticule ui tests are as follows:
CExzzc.as. Tberefcre. the display would be 8 a n ,80 mm or 3.14 in.
• MAP M A F — 2 m s / d i v
tr: !0CE '.00 mm or 3.90 in. wide.
• Stepper m o t o r — 1 0 m s dlv
• Primary ignition—10 ms div
• Secondary ignition—10 ms div
V : j i s ts displayed o n a scope as a line vertically fromthe hot- • Voltage m e a s u r e m e n t s — 5 m s / d i v
• - T r f >c:pe l u s t r a i e s time left t o right as s h o w n in Figure 3 4 - 2 4 . • Display diode t e s t — 5 0 m s div
S r m H G THE T I M E B A S E SETTING THE VOLTS P E R D I V I S I O N

M a s t s c : : e s _se 1 0 divisions f r o m left t o right o n t h e display. T h e The vertical scale h a s eight divisions. If e a c h division is set to « a
• base jKbcatES h o w m u c h t i m e will be displayed in each divi- 1 volt, t h e display will s h o w 0 t o 8 v o l t s . T h i s is acceptable in a t
For e x a m p l e , if t h e s c o p e is set t o read 2 0 0 m s 0 . 2 0 0 si per 5-volt variable sensor s u c h as a T P s e n s o r . T h e v o l t s p e r divisk*
: . - . ' . . t h e n t h e total displayed w o u l d be 2 sec 0200 x 10 divi- V div. should b e set so t h a t t h e e n t i r e a n t i c i p a t e d waveform
« = 2 s e c t T h e n m e base s h o u l d be set t o an a m o u n t of time be viewed. Examples i n c l u d e :
that 3tws t w o t o f o u r e v e n t s t o b e displayed. Sample time is
TP sensor 1 V / d i v (8 V total)
- — s e c o n d s p e r drvisjon . indicated as m s divi a n d total time
•dudes: Battery, starting and charging 2 V / d i v ( 1 0 V total)
Oxygen sensor 2 0 0 m V / d i v (1.6 V W»
Notice f r o m t h e e x a m p l e s t h a t t h e t o t a l v o l t a g e to be dist:•
exceeds t h e voltage r a n g e of t h e c o m p o n e n t b e i n g tested. T:.-
sures that all t h e w a v e f o r m will b e d i s p l a y e d . It also a u t o -
some unanticipated voltage r e a d i n g s . F o r e x a m p l e , an oxygc
SOT should read b e t w e e n 0 a n d 1 V ( 1 , 0 0 0 m V ) . By setting-
V div to 2 0 0 mV, u p to 1.0 V 1 1 , 6 0 0 m V ) w i l l b e displayed.
DG COUPLING
D C c o u p l i n g allows t h e s c o p e t o d i s p l a y b o t h A C and IX
signals and is t h e m o s t u s e d s e t t i n g for a u t o m o t i v e apphcati
A flat horizontal line a c r o s s t h e d i s p l a y a t a level of 1 - v
n p t a -t » • same a r K r u c s o n as a stnotK d k a t e s the D C voltage signal. A D C v o l t a g e signal is the start *
ascârapr a i xsuar aameter The charging voltage m e a s u r e d at t h e b a t t e r y . W h e n t h e starter
r » rapat* «ttge TV scwe metrsts « n e tram energized, a load is applied t o t h e b a t t e r y a n d t h e batten
« MttfvMwaitsKn drops to a b o u t 10.5 volts. T h i s is d i s p l a y e d a g a i n as a
r 34 (Jvjr'i/ Meters .«Jd ffe*» l ^ Q i 381
|||1( but n o w .it a level l o w e r t h a n p r I i '' t >nd falls a b o v e a n d b e l o w t h e z e r o - l e v e l .

•nt'star«. I l i e g e n e r a t o r j t f j j p to c h a r g e To dlsp r t i n g c o n t i n u o u s l y v a r i a b l e v o i t a g i ' i»g
Ji(fe4$es 1 0 , l b o u t l ' 1 - 5 v o l t s ' A « a i M - t h " 1 nals, the i>p t division m u s t be a l e c t e d . H o u s e h o l d
tui wilh a higher level tlian b e f o r e thai electricity - "•>, . 6 0 c y c l e s p e r s e c o n d ) w h e r e 1 c y c l e
w y generator (alternator) ripple voltay/i < r e q u i r e s f u s t 18 m s ' 0 1 B sec)l O n e c o m p l e t e c / c t e d i s p l a y s a t
; l0 uld t e displayed as a n A C signal o n top o 0 . 2 m j / d t v 10 „..• ; .< 2 m s . div • 2 0 m s ) . B e c a u * it %
b e s ' o '/lev/ t w o or thn?<> c y c l e s , set t h e t i m e base t o 4 or 6 m i
p e r division.
• aCCOUPLIWG
S e t t i n g ( h e v o l t s p e r d i v i s i o n Is a little tricky. A 1 2 0 V A t ;
AC coupling allows i h e s c o p e t o r e a d a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t ( A C )
signal actually goes o v e r 1 2 0 volts positive and d o w n m o r e than
v o l t a g e signals and i g n o r e a n y d i r e c t c u r r e n t ( D C )
1 2 0 volts n e g n i v e . Therefore, to view the entire waveform,
in the circuit. For e x a m p l e , this s e t t i n g a l l o w s t h e •• hr,;.
t h e total v o l ' a g e r a n g e o n t h e d i s p l a y m u s t b e g r e a t e r than
V i e w the ripple voltage of t h e c h a r g i n g c i r c u i t w i t h o u t t e e i n g the
240 / o H s , B e c a m e t h e r e a r e e i g h t v e r t i c a l grids, a s e t t i n g of
|,| volts DC signal. For e x a m p l e , c o n n e c t t h e s c o p e probes to div
5 0 volts p e r d i v i s i o n w o u l d a l l o w t h e s c o p e t o display a total
fby 120 volts AC h o u s e h o l d v o l t a g e at a n o u t l e t .
of 4 0 0 v o l t s 150 V x 3 = 4 0 0 ) w i t h 2 0 0 volts p o s i t i v e a n d
2 0 0 volts n e g a t i v e ,
( KID : 110 V AC can cause bodily Injury. Always touch the m t t * r or

i p: 12tic portions of the scope probes when making measurements of any PULSE TRAINS
! circuit that exceed 30 volts (AC or DC). Also, some scopes, such « 'he A D C voltage t h a t t u r n s on a n d off In a series of p u l s e s Is called
MODIS, cannot handle household or industrial AC voltages. a p u l s e t r a i n . •-». i 3 4 - 2 5 . ?•.' e train signals c a n vary n
several w a y s .
I . F R E Q U E N C Y • F R E Q U E N C Y IS T H E N U M B E R O F C Y C L E S T H A T T A K E P L A C E P E R SECOND
T H E M O R E C Y C L E S T H A T T A K E P L A C E I N O N E S E C O N O . THE H I G H E R T H E F R E Q U E N C Y REAG.VS
F R E Q U E N C I E S A R E M E A S U R E D I N H E R T Z , W H I C H IS T H E N U M B E R O F C Y C L E S P E R • £ R - V , 0
A N E I G H T H E R T Z S I G N A L C Y C L E S EIGHT TIMES PER S E C O N O
I SECONO
ruinrmjwuui
T H I S IS W H A T A N 8 H E R T Z W O U L O L O O K LIKE • S HERTZ M E A N S 8 C Y C L E S PER SECCO
2. D U T Y C Y C L E - D U T Y C Y C L E IS A M E A S U R E M E N T C O M P A R I N G THE SIGNAL : N ' US ' G --£

L E N G T H O F O N E C O M P L E T E C Y C L E . A S O N - T I M E I N C R E A S E S . O F F ' 'JE 5 E C S 6 . A S C S
O U T Y C Y C L E I S M E A S U R E O I N P E R C E N T A G E O F O N - N M E . A SO"V O U T V C Y C L E IS S I G H A L A T H A T 3
O N 6 0 * I O F T H E T I M E , A N D O F F 4 0 % O F T H E T I M E . A N O T H E R WAY TC U E A S ^ S E OXJTY C ' C L E 5
O W E L L , W H I C H IS M E A S U R E D IN O E G R E E S INSTEAO OF PERCENT
-*- 1 CYCLE ->-
- >
n
ON-TIME
OFF
ON
O U T Y C Y C L E IS T H E R E L A T I O N S H I P 8 E T W E E N C N E C C U P ' U F E C>CL 6. I S O ' M E S I G N A L S OH-R U E
A S I G N A L C A N VARY IN OUTY C Y C L E W I T H O U T AFFECTING ' M E FREOOENCY
3 . P U L S E W I D T H - P U L S E W I O T H IS T H E A C T U A L O N - T U E C * » S > G V » L . U C A S C S E D I N VILUSECONCS
WITH P U L S E WIDTH MEASUREMENTS, OFF-TIME OOESN T R E A L O M A I M E R - T * £ C N L Y 3EALCCNCERN
I S H O W L O N G T H E S I G N A L S O N . T H I S IS A U S E F U L T E S T F O R U E . A S C S N G C O N V E N T I O N JC N.SO T: 9
O N - T I M E , TO S E E T H A T THE S I G N A L V A R I E S W I T H L O A D C H A N G E
— » - PULSE WIDTH
OFF
ON 1
["
n
P U L S E W I O T H I S T H E A C T U A L I ' M € A S W N A L S O N , U E A S U R E O N M>L I SECONDS.
T H E O N L V T H I N G B E I N G M E A S U R E O >S H O W L O N G T H S S I G N A L « ON
K
A
Pvtso Irani ^ any electrical s»}i\»l I M I tvurcs on aixJort, or $ w s > g h and c * n • seott ol (H MVet- -.'./ . M •'
[GROUND C O N T R O L L E D !
• ON-TIME »J L - » — ON-TIMF.
"T1 Is)
|
• l i i
1: 4 "
I! (M
£
OFF
1 i
I I J
1 P-J 1 | * * — * C O M P L E T E CYCLE
!£ ON A GROUND-CONTROLLED CIRCUIT. THE O N - T l l . r

PULSE IS THE LOWER HORIZONTAL PULSE.
I COMPLETE
CYCLE
ON-TIME
082.4
: :
ii
10
T V E - - SIGN IN THE UPPER RIGHT CORNER ( - » — I C O M P L E T E CVCLE
O f T H E DISPLAY INDICATES THAT THE METER ON A FEED-CONTROLLED CIRCUIT. T H E ON-TIME

IS R E A D I N G A DUTY C Y C L E SIGNAL. PULSE IS THE UPPER HORIZONTAL PULSE
<t»
Figure 3 4 - 2 7 Most automotive computer systems control the device by opening pe
r
w 3 4 - 2 6 a- A scope ^presentation ot a complete cvcfe showing both on-time arxj off closing the ground to the component
—- T display indicating thr on-time duty cycles percent (%). Note the trigoer
a r r -»<5>sv» • • -TYTTihrt Ttvs indicates that the meter started to record the percentage of
rr-—« the witsge drooped rstart of on-time).
frequency F r e q u e n c y is t h e n u m b e r of cycles per second,

r w a s w d i r h e r t z . Engine RPM signal is o n e example that can
occur at various frequencies. At low engine speed, the ignition
. . ... . . . . . . v w e * t i m e s per second (lower frequency) than w h e n
t h e e-tsc-e is operated at higher e n g i n e speeds (RPMsj. (a) (b)
Doty Cycle D u t y c y c l e refers to the percentage of on-time

Figure 34-28 (a) A symbol for a positive trigger—a trigger occurs at a rising ( P l -
' t r ' s r t ! d u r i n g o n e c o m p l e t e cycle. As on-time increases, the
edge ot the signal (waveform), (b) A symbolfor a negative trigger—trigger occurs - '
- - - • : - • •:' time t h e signal is off decreases. Duty cycle is
(negative) edge of the signal (waveform).
sailed p u l s e w i d t h m o d u l a t i o n ( P W M ) and can be
- v ..- decrees. An. electric fuel p u m p in an electronic retum-
•r. '.<= is an e x a m p l e of a P W M pulsed on and off with a Trigger Slope The t r i g g e r s l o p e is t h e voltage directed;
n r - J i t e du*v cycle. T h e solenoid activation is constantly changing a waveform requires to start display. M o s t o f t e n , the triff-
a- i 0 t m p e r s e c o n d 110 H z ) . but t h e on-time varies.'in this"ex- start a w a v e f o r m display is t a k e n f r o m t h e signal itself.
: •-:. • > r.-o'e is measured In degrees. See Figure 3 4 - 2 6 . trigger voltage level, m o s t s c o p e s c a n b e a d j u s t e d to tnggf •
; w h e n the voltage rises past t h e trigger-level v o l t a g e . c ,
P ' j i s z "Afaftti - - p u l s e w i d t h is a m e a s u r e of the actual on-
positive slope. W h e n t h e trigger is a c t i v a t e d by t h e voltage- ; ,
mill-seconds. Fuel injectors are usually controlled
past the trigger level, it is called a negative slope. The sw - .
i .-~ p-j'ae w i d t h . See Figure 3 4 - 2 7 .
play indicates both a positive a n d a n e g a t i v e slope syw- -
Extsrra! f n g a e r : r e x t e r n a J trigger occurs when the trace starts Figure 3 4 - 2 8 . 2 J » |
w h o - .-• - -t^rhved from another (external) source. A common For example, if a w a v e f o r m s u c h as a m a g n e t i c sens'-? ^ ^
' - r ? - r t f -- or-.p-na] trigger comes from the probe clamp around crankshaft position or w h e e l s p e e d s t a r t s m o v i n g •
cr r.c*r ' •©yy t o trigger the start of an Ignition pattern. tive slope should be selected. If a n e g a t i v e slope is s e c ; ; . (
waveform will not start s h o w i n g until t h e voltage reac. ^ ^ .. i
Trigger level A sdopc wi'l nor start displaying a voltage signal ger level in a d o w n w a r d d i r e c t i o n . A n e g a t i v e slope •
-" ' " 79 ' or i start. Thr t r i g g e r l e v e l must b e set when a fuel-injector circuit is b e i n g a n a l y z e d . In JjfS
v - - v d : - <r. !r- ''•"• e x a m p l e , w e w a n t the pattern to start at computer provides the g r o u n d a n d t h e v o l t a g e level a
l v / - . • > - 'j-e trace wil! displaying on the left side of t h e the computer c o m m a n d s t h e i n j e c t o r o n . S e e t h e rem*
s c r e f ' tft*rlhe - T C h a s r e a c h e d 1 volt. ters for examples of scope usage.
Chapter 34 Digital Maton and Seep* Uaaga 383
USING SCOPE L E A D S Meter Usage on Hybrid Vehicle*

' scopes, both a n a l o g a n d digital, n<
1 These leads usually a t t a c h t o t h e s n , | B M C r <»n-
Many hybrid (gaaollne and electric moton powered vehicles am equipped with a
k a
' rtor a miniature s t a n d a r d c o a x i a l c..t • i•
generator that can exceed 400 volts DC Be sure to follow all vehicle manufac-
"'inventor, Baby Neil C o u n c i l m a n . B N (
turer* testing procedures and if a voltage measurement is needed, be sure ts
'frd ihat Is used In t h e e l e c t r o n i c s Industry. I . i d ;
ua* a meter and test leaks that are designed to insulate against high voltages
Cached ground lead t h a t s h o u l d b e c o n n - ted to
The International Elaclrotachnlcal Commission (IEC) has several categories
metal engine g r o u n d . T h e p r o b e of t h e s c o p e l<
of voltage standard* tor meter and meter lead? these categories are rating* tor
or c o m p o n e n t b e i n g t e s t e d .
overvottage proteeaon and are rated CAT I, CAT n. CAT ill, and CAT IV The higher
the category the greater Ihe protection against voltage spikes Under each cat
MEASURING BATTERY V O L T A G E WITH A SCOPE egory there are vanous outage rafings
One of the easiest t h i n g s to m e a s u r e a n d o b s e r v e o n a scope i b<r
CAT I Typically a CAT l - -iter a usedtorlow-vott&ge measurement* such
icrv voltage. A l o w e r v o l t a g e c a n b e o b s e r v e d o n t h e scope displ;,
a* voltage measurement* at waH outlets in the home Meters with a
as the engine is s t a r t e d a n d a h i g h e r v o l t a g e s h o u l d b e displayed
CAT I ratng arc uau*r rated at 300 to 800 volt*
after the engine starts. S e e F i g u r e 3 4 - 2 9 .
CAT II A higher-rated - e'er tr at *».:« be typ* a.iy used for checking
An analog s c o p e displays r a p i d l y a n d c a n n o t b e set to s h o w o r
voltage* at the tuae panel m ma home. Meters with a CAT II rating are
facie a display. T h e r e f o r e , e v e n t h o u g h a n a n a l o g s c o p e s h o w s all
uauafty ratad at 300 to SOO « l t *
voltage signals, It is easy t o m i s s a m o m e n t a r y e v e n t (glitch) o n an
analog scope. CAT III The minimum a M that trouKS be used for hybrid vehicles.
The category • oeagnad tor oKage measurements at the service
pole transformer Meters with a CAT • rating are usually rated al 600
GRAPHING M U L T I M E T E R to 1.000 volts
\ graphing m u l t i m e t e r , a b b r e v i a t e d G M M , is a cross b e t w e e n a
CAT IV CAT iv meters are tor da-ip-on maters only it a clamp-on meter also
digital meter and a digital s t o r a g e o s c i l l o s c o p e . A g r a p h i n g m u l t i m e -
has meter leads tor voltage meaauraments that part dl the mater will
ter displays the voltage levels o n a d i s p l a y a n d a digital r e a d o u t . It is
be rated as CAT a
usually not capable of c a p t u r i n g v e r y s h o r t d u r a t i o n faults or
glitches that w o u l d likely b e c a p t u r e d w i t h a digital storage oscillo-
scope. See Figure 3 4 - 3 0 . NOTE: Always use the highest CAT rating meter ?spe aKy when working
with hybrid vehicles A CAT • MO-vort mat- a safer Pan a CAT I11.000 vat
meter because of the way the CAT rang • totermmei.1
For best personal pnxecbor i meters and metar leads that

are CAT HI or CAT IV rated wft nonage an a hybrid vehicle See
figures 34-31 and 34-32
" "Mlary wltaoa is rapresantad by a ftat horizontal lin« ftttusexjn -v. IN

«t ft,.»"d the battery voltage dropped to about 10 V »s shown on the left
b i n , . * " ' W i v When ihe engine started. Ihe generator laltoinatwi starteo lo charge the
Urn voltage is shown .is climbing Figure 34-30 r t o shows a tvue» anpnm; -
Figure 34-32 Always use meter leads that are CAT Ill-rated cn a meter that is aisr
CAT Ill-rated to maintain the protection needed when working on hybrid vehicles
34-31 Be sure ic om» jse a meter that s OT ID-rated when taking electncal 4. Voltmeters measure voltage and are connected in parallel.
aikytMnMde. 5. Ohmmeters measure resistance of a component and must be connt
in parallel, with the circuit or component disconnected from powa
6. logic probes can indicate the presence of both ground and powa
SUMMARY
I : > « t a tnaitraeter ;DMM and digital volt-ohm milliammeter |DVOMI REVIEWQUESTIONS
ar? • m a s commonly used (or electronic high-impedance test meters.
1. Why are most digital meters called high-impedance meters?
2. k a high impedance digital meter is required on any computer-
2. How should an ammeter be connected to an electrical circuit?
râted cSrcuit or component.
3. Why must an ohmmeter be connected to a disconnected ami
X Mffir.<r»rs treasure current and must be connected in senes in the component?
4. How should a voltmeter be connected to an electrical circuit?
P W T O S E Q U E N C E Digital Meter Usage « 1
' earn of mo bscome tangled Start work P3*-2 To help prevent the leads from becoming P34-3 For most electncal measurements, the W^
mmar by rtragnteraig the meter leads tangled tie a loose knot at the meter end of the leads meter lead is inserted in the terminal li
the red meter lead is inserted into the t
t l Jttatf^tilêfcreOTtMpQwerswitCb P34-5 If AC volts are selected (a V with a wavy line P34-6 Connect the red meter lead to £
MtMttMMritfeMcancairfcDefeatured m on toot The AC voltage shown is caused by the terminal ot a battery and the black mete ^
v m , « • iwary n r t r j - m to seieet DC ttoureacerrt lights negative ( (terminal of a battery The
the voltage difference between the lean
pj»-7 For most automotive electrical use, select DC P34-8 This jump start battery unit measures 13.151 P34-9 Another meter (Fluke 87110 displays four
volts with the meter set on autoranging on the DC digits when measuring the voltage of the battery jump
volts.
voltage scale. start unit
P34-10 Both meters are displayed side-by-side to P34-11 Meters can also be set to read different P34-12 Pressing the range button a second time on
show the readings of both. The Fluke 89IV (right) is ranges. A "range" button was pressed once on the the meter resLlts - the loss of 1 TO of a volt reading
capable ol measuring down to 1/1000 of a volt. meter on the left. Notice that the meter is now set to and the addmor of another zero on the left of the
read higher voltages. display
P34-13 To measure resistance turn the rotary dial to P34-14 The meter can read your own body resistance P34~15 When measuring anything, be sure to read
tie ohm (fi) symbol. With the meter leads separated, if you grasp the meter lead terminals with your fingers. the meter face. In this case, the meter is reading
Ihe meter display reads L (over limit). The reading on the display indicates 196.35 kii. 291.10k£>.
If"18 A
meter set on ohms can be used to check P34-17 A sealed beam headlight bulb is being P34-18 The otherfilamentreads 3 53 ohms.
merer
of a light bulb filament. In this case, the measured. The filament being measured has Obviously this filament is the iow beam hign
re
ads 3.15 ohms. If the bulb were bad (filament 1 52 ohms. resistance means less current flaw and a dimmer
"Hem, the meter would display OL.
light).
{amtmmfi
355
PHOTO SEQUENCE Digital Meter Usage #1—continued
P34-21 The spark plug wire measures 5 9001,,,

P34-19 j meter set to read ohms should P34-20 To measure theresistanceot a sparlv plug
(5900 ohms). This Moot-long spark plug m ,
- w a r e 0 . K as sJwwt when the meter leads ate wire, attach one lead ot the meter to one end and the
because It measures less than 10,000 ohms
ftucnefl together other meter lead to the other of length (5900 ohms Is less than 10,000 oh
P 3 4 - 2 2 A dtgttai multimetBr can also be used to P34-23 The outlet voltage is 119.76 volts AC Note
cnec* me voltage ot an electrical outlet. Set the meter the Z and V in the window display
10 raao AC volts
Digital Meter Usage 92
P 3 4 - I v< o^-ati view of a typical digital multimeter P34-2 The large letter V means volts and the wavy
P34-3 Turning the meter on AC ^ . ^ V e c ^ 1 6
ir center s a rotary switch that can be turned to symbol over the V means that the meter measures alter-
some voltage even if the leads are
(*»-' to tr»e ranous symbols around the switch nating cunent (ACl voltage if this position is selected
any vehicle or circuit.
P34-4 Tne ,-VJII symtiol is a V with a dotted and a P34-5 With the rotary switch on DC volts notice the
' igry une overhead Tins symbol stands for direct display The letter DC and V appear in the upper rraht P34-0 The symbol mV ' ^ ' ^ f j l e d ^ l ' '
tind 1
currant (DC) rem The position is most used lor of the display Also note the word auto In the upper ota volt (0 001) The solid and ' n 0 t tW
no'"
automot-ve sarwee left mV means DC mV. This P o S l l l °" ^
in most vehicle diagnostic 01 s
m
' j display is with DC mV selected Notice C34-8 the rotary »
of resistance me j -.j
SDC and mV in the display in the upper right. Tin-
symbol«Ihe deepen
Ssptay w a n s ffiat m e m e , 6 r ' S S 6 t t0 r M d UP10
400 mV (0.400 V) DC.
P34-I0 Another symbol to the right of the Q symbol P34-11 When the Hue butter s ;
s D» symbol for capacitance which is measured in rotary switch tsstdlon ohms tUi. the
TOootarads capacitance m rmcrotarafc
P34-14 The next ix®t*r

S/inru''"thet"odecheck
pointing tc is the poster u
"Deter m i k J " ' 6 u p p e r " 9 m - mdrcating that
' 0 6 lowing the voltage drop of a diode iA> and inaampe^s p *
COFTRU, . orftOOOOOiA) The p r e t i f i « wee ««

t j t o m d r t t serwee w o n
> e S toe Tost usefej teatwK ol ffus mele< P34-20 Pushing the MIMiAAX button puts the meter P34-21 Pushing the beeper button (below tt»
- f NfttMAX lEBBf? By putting Ihe M H I M X MIN/MAX button) places the meter into a 1 ms
into reconf mode tote the 100 mS and "rec" on the
- V ? " « e --PW * De ante ic msolay toe hignes! (0.001 sec) capture mode
display In tnis position, the meter is captunng any
v - « w e toe lowest V » , faaang voltage clange that lasts 100 mS (0.1 sec) or longer
' h e m a v n u n reading is bemg displayed P34-23 To show the lowest voltage recorded, touch P34-24 Become some voltages or other signals
xsvc us ts ong as the display shows 'rec ' it the Mlto'MAX button The lowest voltage will be change, it is often necessary to manually set tie
s - c a"> <*w 'ugh or low voltages that last displayed range of the meter.
r yie-tnousamSh ot a second (0.001 seci
eaa-B n « a e the 'aige at the meter touch the P34-26 Pushing the range button one more time
P34-27 Pushing the range button again change *
•arfle Nan me meter s set to read voltage up changes the meter scale to the 400-voltage range
meter to the 4000-volt range. This range is not
K 4 X Notice that the decimal point has moved to the right
suitable to use in automotive applications
P34-29 The relative or (A) mode sets the meter voltage c

P34-2S « n me totting toe rang* bottom P34-30 Frequency of a changing
tot m a w 0 * mm» » «*jrar»51 Aulorange • toe display to zero and is useful for eliminating any measured by selecbng hertz (Hz) wh' T n e HI
p r « ( e r v ; vtR*% >v tufitrtl**: meafiurerrênts resistance in the meter leads The relative mode is switch is on AC or sometimes DC volts
'so useful for voltage drop measurements.
>jua «EER jv w . mode symbol will appear in the display
»
Me ••--» and Sow* j w g e 399
H ^ p p i i n i i
P3W1 Percent (%i of duty-cycle (on-time of a P34-32 Two meters are being set up tc 'neasire P M - 3 3 The meter on the lefts set to read DC volts
sjgnaii can be measured by pushing the Hz button each other A Fluke 89 is on the left and a FkAe «7 » and fee meter on (he right is 90 to read resratance m
on the right By connecting tne-net* leads are
meter can measure the otner mete-
P34-34 The meter on the right is reading 10.983 MQ

(10.983.000 ohms). This is a high-impedance meter
and ttie reading should be greater than 10 MQ to be
safely used on computer controlled circuits.
CHAPTER Q U I Z
I • Inductive ammeters work because of what principle? c. 12'.

a. Magic d . 0.012 V
b. Electromagnetic induction
7. Tecfcaoar - . • as i - i . - ; scope ar. sow the - tar
c. A magnetic field surrounds any wire carrying a current lata Technician B SBVS thai the —jgs: has to be S» on TOOR scope IC
d. Voltage drop as it flows through a conductor view a chacgscg w a w f a m . WhcS » i n m tu, B correct?
A meter used to measure amperes is called a. TechrLoar A aolv
a. An amp meter b. Ted-j-jdan S
b. Anampmeter c l e t s Tecfenicans A i s a S
c. An ammeter d. Mesher TectaK&a A nor B
d. A coulomb meter 8. ">.c T K r . - : ' res that car.:-: read bv s e a e e *
A voltmeter should be connected to the circuit being tested 2-kQscaies .
a a. 2000 oteis
- In series
b b. :00ohms
- in parallel
c- Only when no power is flowing c 200 til;200.000 ohms
<1- Both a and c d. 20,000.000 ohms
An ohmmeter should be connected to the circuit being tested 0. ' f a i p - tarter tee sr. m : . 0 3 when set • read •-. raatSBg
a
- In series means .
b
- In parallel a. 93 ohms
c
- Only when no power is flowing b. 930 ohms
Both b and c c. 9300 ohms
' A
high-impedance meter . d. 93,000 ohms
*• Measures a high amount of current flow 10. A wading of 4 3 : shows >n the ftoe a Lie n « « ? « t •- ..2
Measures a high amount of resista: . - The reading means .
t
' in measure a high voltage a. 0.432 voir
d b. 4.32 rate
- Has a high internal re tance
C. 4 3 J Wfts
c is set to read DC volts on the 4-volt scale. The meter leads are
ecte<1
at a 12 volt battery. The display will read
«• 0.00
h. rn
imotive Wiring
Wire Repair
36, reader mm be * l e to: PreparetorASE ElectncaVElectronic Systems (A6) certification test c c m
i "» immm E « * a t m w Owgnos • Easter the <wre gauge number system • Describe how fusible links and fuses p." •
• -.iBBetorpertarmg a proper <r»e repar
sons • Vnercjr are gauge (MfG) • auk) Ink • Battery cables • biade-bme fuse • braided ground straps
rr part • connector poster assmnce iCPAi • connectors • copper • cnmp-and-seal connectors • tuse • im,^.
jrnr» » jumper caotes • lock tang • maxifuse • metric wire gauge • mini fuse • Pacific fuse element
rPTQ o r a * prelectors • primary w*e • rosn-core sokler • skm effect • solder • terminals - twisted pan
AUTOMOTIVE WIRING Wire Gauge Diameter Table

rtr* 15 mad* from strands of copper covered
American Wire Gauge Wire Diameter in hchs
Copper ar >, em o n d u c • 'if
-at s reasonably priced and very flexible. However, 0.03196118
break when moved repeatedly; therefore, most 0.040303

t a -•utrucred of multiple small strands that allow 0.0508214
bending and moving without breaking. Solid 0 064084
• r e • generally used for components such as starter
0.08080810
arasafttre and aiternaror juror windings that do not bend or
stem Csrr.g normal operation. Copper is the best electrical 0.10189
m m t j e m t r a d e s silver, which Is a great deal more expensive. 0.128496

1
» rum cnart 0 16202
0.18194
0.20431
0.22942
0.25763
Conductor Rating (Starting with the Beat)
0.2893
8 0.32486
DO 0 3648
Following are general applications for t h e most commonl

wire gauge sizes.
WW: Always check the nstalUlion Instructions or the mtf

ipf> flcabur.i for wire gauge size before replacing MY •
wirmj.
2 0 - 2 2 gauge: radio speaker w i r e s

18 gauge: small bulbs and s h o r t leads
16 gauge: taillights, gas gauge, t u r n s i g n a l s , w i n d s h •
Wiring zed and purchased accord
14 gauge: h o r n , radio p o w e r l e a d , h e a d l i g h t s , c i g a n
American wire gauge
brake lights
MrC. A . > ' • car i * confusing because as the
12 gauge: headlight s w i t c h - t o - f u s e b o x , r e a r w i n d o w "
. jf v • nea v » U z e r? • -,e conductor wire decretses.
i Wit* s n » er than a 10-gauge wire. T h e power w i n d o w s a n d locks
w -><- ,.•• • .••'•'• • < " p e - > . . thelirgerttvtconduct- 10 gauge: a m m e t e r , g e n e r a t o r , o r a l t e r n a t o r - t o b a f ' '
> • - < •••» -*e g t v n j r n w r ' ) required. See die chart
OH
- " t • ,n,tm to » ' wire diameter in
Metric Wire Gauge Most m a n u f a c t u r e r s indicate
wi.
diagrams the wire sizes measured i n square r m » " "
i S MomoBve Wiring and Wire Repair 361
•TOs-secfional area. T h e f o l l o w i n g ch,

-Bparisons b e t w e e n m e t r i c and A W G g a u g e sizes. Notice that
F R E Q U E N T L Y A S K E D QUESTION ???
^ metric wire size increases w i t h size tart AWG
s a w size gets smaller w i t h larger-size w i r e . Do They Make 13-Gauge Wire?
Yes. The American wire gauge (AWG) sizing of wire includes all gauge numbers,
even though the most commonly used sizes are even numbered, such as 12,
Metric-to-AWG Conversion Table
14. or 16.
Because Ihe sizes are so close, wire in every size is not commonly
Metnc Siren AWG Size
stocked, but it can be ordered for a higher price. Therefore, if a larger wire size
35 20
is needed, it is c o m m o n practice to select the next lower, even-numbered
OS 18 gauge See the chart for a comparison of the wire size.
16
U
20 14
AWG Gauge Diameter in Inches
3.0 12
10 0000 0.46
so
8 000 0.4096
80
13D 6 00 0.3648
4 0 0.3249
190
2 1 0.2893
320
520 0 2 0.2576
3 0.2294
4 0.2043
01819
5
The AWG gauge n u m b e r s h o u l d be decreased (wire size
0 162
increased) with increased l e n g t h s of wire. See the following
0 1443
chart.
0.1285
0.1144
9
01019
10
12 V Wire Gauge (tor Length in Feet)* 00907
1st
Amps 3' 5' 7' 10' 15 20' 25' 0.0808
12
5 18 18 18 18 18 18 1B 13 0072
7 18 18 18 18 18 18 16 14 0 0641
10 18 18 18 18 16 16 16 15 00571
12 18 18 18 18 16 16 14 16 0 0508
IS 18 18 18 18 14 14 12 17 0.0453
11 18 18 16 16 14 14 12 18 0 0403
20 18 18 16 16 14 12 10 19 0.0359
22 18 18 16 16 12 12 10 20 0.032
24 18 18 16 18 12 12 10 21 00285
3t 18 16 16 14 10 10 10 22 00254
« 18 16 14 12 10 10 8 23 0.0226
50
16 14 12 12 10 10 8 24 0 0201
too 0.0179
12 12 10 10 6 6 4 25
ISO 10 26 0,0159
10 8 8 4 4 2
so 0.0142
10 8 8 6 4 4 2 27
28 0.0126
mechanical strength is a factor, u s e t h e n e x t larger wire gauge.
29 0.0113
30 0.01
for example, a trailer m a y require 14-gauge wire to light all the 31 0.0089
iights, but if the wire required is over 2 5 feet long, 12-gauge 32 0 006
1
• - should be used. M o s t a u t o m o t i v e wire, except for spark plug
>ften calied p r i m a r y w i r e (named for the voltage range
J r
' the primary ignition circuit), because it is designed to oper-
: e
« or near battery voltage.
Figure 3 5 - 1 . it Is not necessary to insulate a ground strap because
it does not matter if it touches metal since it already attaches to
FIRA
'0ED GROUND S T R A P S ground. B r a i d e d g r o u n d s t r a p s arc more xibl* : trar.d :
y 'ehicles use ground straps b e t w e e n the engine and body a n d / o r wire. Because the engine will move slightly on its m o u n t s , the
bet*,
.,. the body and t h e negative terminal of t h e battery. Many of braided ground strap must be able to flex without breaking. The
°h|?lne to-body straps are braided and uninsulated, as s h o w n in braided strap also d a m p e n s out s o m e radio frequency interference
3S S K ~ \ * «
Figure 35-1 M ;fss and accessaries ground ID the tody ot the vehicle Body ground
•res sue-- as tr® one are needed to conduct all ot the arrent from these components back Figure 3 5 - 2 Battery cables are designed to carry heavy starter current and are ttes
- •» ijifm tinaiii at me battery lite body grouid one connects the bodytothe usually 4-gauge or larger wire Note that this battery is covered with a thermal blanket
engne Mas DatSery negative caWes attachtothe engine covering to help protect the battery from high under-hood temperatures. The wiring is
covered with plastic conduit also called split-loom tubing.
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION ^

12-volt electrical s y s t e m s , b e c a u s e t h e l o w e r voltage used in a
tique vehicles resulted in t w i c e t h e a m o u n t of c u r r e n t (ampere :
W h a t Is t h e Skin E f f e c t ?
supply t h e s a m e electrical p o w e r .
The slrin effect is the term used to describe how high-frequency AC electricity
' « w s f i r o u g f i a conductor. Direct current flows through a conductor, but alter-
JUMPER CABLES
r c - ng current tends to travel through the outside (skin) of the conductor. Be-
cause of d i e stun e f f e c t most audio (speaker) cable is constructed of very J u m p e r c a b l e s a r e 4- t o 2 0 - g a u g e e l e c t r i c a l cables with r.
s - a s - d c - ' e t e r copper wires instead of fewer larger strands, because the clamps attached a n d a r e u s e d t o c o n n e c t a vehicle that has
s r & k a • ire has a greater surface area and therefore results in less resistance discharged battery to a v e h i c l e t h a t h a s a g o o d battery. Good-qur
K the flow of AC voltage jumper cables are n e c e s s a r y t o p r e v e n t e x c e s s i v e voltage drop
caused by the cables' r e s i s t a n c e . A l u m i n u m w i r e jumper cable
should n o t be u s e d , b e c a u s e e v e n t h o u g h a l u m i n u m is a good elec
trical c o n d u c t o r ( a l t h o u g h n o t as g o o d a s c o p p e r ) , it is less fieiM
tiat o t h e r w i s e m i g h t b e t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h standard stranded
and can crack and b r e a k w h e n b e n t o r m o v e d repeatedly. These
w i r i n g . T h e c r o s s i n g of t h e w i r e s in a braided g r o u n d strap effec-
should be 4-gauge or larger. O u g h t - g a u g e w e l d i n g cable can be
tive:"." s h o r t s o u t a n y A C v o l t a g e signal t h a t could c o n t r i b u t e to
to c o n s t r u c t an e x c e l l e n t set of j u m p e r c a b l e s u s i n g welding e b -
radio interference.
on b o t h e n d s . W e l d i n g c a b l e is u s u a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d of many
fine strands of w i r e , w h i c h a l l o w s f o r e a s i e r b e n d i n g of the cable 1
t h e strands of fine w i r e slide a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r inside the cable
E: Body ground wires are necessary to provide a circuit path for the
1 , - t i and accessories that ground to the body and flow to the negative
tc-.-.ery terminal. FUSES A N D CIRCUIT P R O T E C T I O N D E V I C E S
F u s e s should be u s e d in e v e r y c i r c u i t t o p r o t e c t t h e wiring
o v e r h e a t i n g and d a m a g e c a u s e d b y e x c e s s i v e c u r r e n t flow as y
suit of a short circuit or o t h e r m a l f u n c t i o n . T h e symbol for a fu-
a w a v y line b e t w e e n t w o p o i n t s : • - •
A fuse is c o n s t r u c t e d of a f i n e t i n c o n d u c t o r inside a gte-• •;
W h a t Is a T w i s t e d P a i r ?
tic, or ceramic h o u s i n g . T h e tin is d e s i g n e d t o m e l t and ope
A b e s t e d pair s used to transmit low-voltage signals using two wires that are circuit if excessive c u r r e n t f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e fuse. Eacl
t w r - : ogethe- Electromagnetic interference can create a voltage in a wire, and rated according to its m a x i m u m c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g capacity- ^^
v. s. vgrti /.ires cancels out the induced voltage. A twisted pair means M a n y fuses a r e u s e d t o p r o t e c t m o r e t h a n o n e (or tt-
t - * t r < - c <vres ave aJ ieast 9 twists (turns) per foot automobile. See Figure 3 5 - 3 . A typical e x a m p l e is the f u * • ^
cigarette lighter t h a t also p r o t e c t s m a n y o t h e r circuits sucn ^
for the courtesy lights, c l o c k , a n d o t h e r c i r c u i t s . A fault 1 j
these circuits can cause this f u s e t o m e l t , w h i c h will pry
BATTERY CABLES operation of all o t h e r circuits t h a t a r e p r o t e c t e d b y t h e fuse-
B a t t e r y cables e largest w i r e s used in the a u t o m o t i v e electrical
s y s t e m . T h e c a b l e s a r e u s u a l l y 4 - g a u g e , 2 - g a u g e , or 1-gauge w i r e s
I ? rr r . or jarge-r. S e e figure 3 5 - 2 . Wires larger t h a n 1-gauge are MOTE The SAE term for a cigarette lighter is cigar tighter
:n'.ei 0 , a jge 1 pronounced "ought 1. Larger cables are labeled 2 / 0 ter of the heating element is large enough for a cigar. The term
or 0 0 2 ought a n d 3 / 0 o r 0 0 0 13 o u g h t ) . Six-volt electrical will be used throughout this book because it is the most common u
. terns r e - ; . r e b a t t e r y c a b l e s t w o s i z e s larger t h a n t h o s e u s e d for
Adlornrj*jv? M* jnd M r * Hwmp1
HEADLAMP ON WARN M (TEN) (S AMP) INSTRUMENT CIRCUIT BREAKER POWER WINDOWS,

IJMtMATINO LAMPS HEADLAMP HOOF AND FUEL CAP LOCK RELEASE
AND ELECTRONIC A/C
.(30 AMP.)
WARNING AMD ELECTRONIC A/C
FUSE (WHITE) (25 AMP J
WINDSHIELD. WIPER AND \ FUSE < YELLOW) (20 AMP FUSE (WHITE) (25 AMP.) HEATER,
WASHER AND LOW A/C. RADIO CAPACITOR AND
WASHER FLUID DECK UO
FUSE (TEN) (10 AMP.)

HAOK) CAPACITOR
HEADLAMP ON
/ FUSE (RED) <10 AMP)
WARNING.
/ ECM BATTERY FEED
MAPLIGHT.
TRANS-DOWN FUSE (YELLOW) (20 AMP.)
SHIFT STOP A NO HAZARD LAMPS
FUSE (YELLOW) (20 AMP.) SEAT BELT r BREAKER POWER SEAT.
LIGHT AND BUZZER, HEATED BACK- LOCKS HEATED BACKLIGHT
LIGHT RELAY. MAP LIGHT AND FEED ANO TACGATE WMOOW (30 AMP >
TRANS-DOWN SHIFT
FUSE 'YELLOW) (20 AMP I CLOCK
FUSE (YELLOW) (20 AMP.) TAIL,
OGAfl LIGHTER GLOVE BO* LAMP
SIDE MAKER, PARK. CORNER, SPEEDKEY BUZZER POWER ANTENNA
LICENCE LAMP AND CLOCK RADIO CLOCK RAOM ELECTRONIC A C
FUSE (RED) (10 AMP.) RADIO
FUSE tTELLOW) <20 AMP i SOME SA*.
FUSE (YELLOW) (20 AMP.) PANEL THUMK. READING VANITY.
TURN SIGNALS AND HEADLAMP ON WAAMMG. AUTO-DOOR
BACK-UP LAMPS LOCKS AMD REAR CJGAfl LIGHTER
TEST POINT FOR
TRANS-CLUTCH HEATED BACK LIGHT
CONVERTERS BODY WIRING JUNCT10W
NOT USED
BLOCK (POWER SEAT A M )
FUSE (RED) (10 AMP) INSTRUMENT
DOOR LOCKS)
GAGES. INDICATOR LIGHT. TRANS-
POWER ANTENNA. DKjfTAL
CONVERTER CLUTCH AND CRUISE
CLOCK RADIO. ELECTRON*:
CONTROL AND ECM
A/C
Figure 35-3 This figure shows a typical automotive (use panel.
Blade Fuses C o l o r e d b l a d e - t y p e f u s e s a r e also r e f e r r e d to . FUSE TEST

POPfTS
ATO fuses. T h e c o l o r of t h e p l a s t i c of b l a d e f u s e s i n d i c a t e s t h e m a x
imum c u r r e n t flow, m e a s u r e d in a m p e r e s . E a c h f u s e h a s a n o p e n
ing in the top of its p l a s t i c p o r t i o n t o a l l o w a c c e s s t o its m e t a l
contacts for t e s t i n g p u r p o s e s . S e e F i g u r e 3 5 - 4 . T h e f o l l o w i n g char*
lists the color a n d t h e a m p e r a g e r a t i n g of b l a d e f u s e s .
cAo
Amperage Rating Color
1 Dark green
2 Gray
25 Figure 35-4 8fcoe-*oetae
Purple
thetuse
3
Violet
4
Pink different c o m p o n e n t s a
5
Tan S o n b e c a u s e if o n e c o n
6
Gold Without s t o p p i n g e l e c t !
IS
Brown T h i s aiso r a t e s t r o u b t
9
Orange is s e p r a t e . T h e a m p c - ting,
10
Aed m i n i f u s e s inc. j d e t h e f
14
Black
15
Blue Amperage Rating MAR
20
25 5 TA
30 7.5 IKM*
ureen
IS DA
20
fuse s To save space, m a n y vehicles use m i n i s n u - iade 25 mm
i«.i_" ot only <j 0 ^ e y ^ y g s p a c e b u t t h e y a l s o a | | o w t h e v e h . ,
nRin 30 -INN*
« e r to f u s e i n d i v i d u a l c i r c u i t s i n s t e a d of g r o u ; n g ' a r
Hqur» 35-7 ft l a t i t a t JW t test light to check tor power at the power srtr J I
'•» w * t w d t y t s nev haw b be on before some fuses receive pew- /> I
»qnt or both sides (power side and load side/ of thetimI
MAIfUSf
b /*r. f t v j o n be detected q u i c k l y because t h e center f ( « ; . l

tor is mei'ed. Fuses can also fati a n d open the circuit beaux
p< .' <r cor.nect'-n in the fuse itself or in the f u s e holder. There*
' ,•' t e a I'M- a ';.>'! "looks o k a y " d o e s not m e a n that it Is oil r
fuses should be t f 'ed with a test light. The test light sbulttl
c •.-> .•«! *"5t to ne side of the fuse a n d then the other, k s|
linlit st..,>.;d light on both sides. If t h e test light only lights oc •
!'V the fuse is blown or open. If t h e test light does notfiglf>
either side of the fuse, then that circuit is not being supf
l<.Avr See h i u r r 55 7. list an o h m m e t e r to test f u s i b l e »
MtNIFUSI cartridges.
Circuit B r e a k e r s Circuit b r e a k e r s are used to prevent • J

p. pjqm J om« tn ratf unhides
ftil "verinad t*ca>st« current flow) in a circuit by opening the ^
cuit and stopping the current flow to prevent overheat® i1 i
[»'. .r.i< fit* caused by hot wires or electrical components. Ca-
M u i fuses wr t itr ,<*, ol Wade fuses and breaker are mechanical units made of t w o different metals i W
. - r t . to* tota in mar. vthnles Ma» fuses art II. that det.irm when heated and open a set of contact point- I
Wi « 4 * r o « «or*. The amperage m i n x and c o m werk in (he same manner as an "off" switch. See Figure 35-8.
kit fc» h a r , nictate the tollowmg Cvclinotype circuit breakers, therefore, are reset wt"" I
current stops flowing, which causes the bimetallic strip to cool
the circuit » close again. A circuit breaker is used in cfrcu®
could altect the safety of passengers if a conventional nonn *
hise were used. The headlight circuit Is an excellent exajnpl
ise ot a circuit breaker rather than a fuse. A short or ground
cuit anywhere in the headlight circuit could cause excessi
rent flow and, therefore, the opening of the circuit. Ob"1
bidden loss ot headlights at night could have disastrous re
circuit breaker opens and closes the circuit rapidly, thereto f
mjt the circuit from overheating and also providing sulBcif
rem flow to maintain at least partial headlight operation
Circuit breakers are also used in other circuits wher.
<f •. Pacific tuw floral fuses cannot provide lor the surges ol high
tank «MO Hnk r e u^-4 w> pitMct montv found m those circuits. See Figure 35-9 for t h e ' ^ -
* .- w.tv c , TV -mi contains a short symbols used to represent a circuit breaker. Examples are
•«*» - ith • vjwj TV transparent top cults tor thefollowingaccessories:
1 . P ' t W W s^ftt.s
i» •*• TV tuMitiai at a tu>» it 2. V-.JWWfloorloclcs
1 '
?V, r ng and Wire Rspair 365
FUSE BLOCK
6 AMP CIRCUIT
BREAKER
• p i CONTACTS
j i CLOSED
H J (b)
(a)
CURRENT
FLOW
Figure 3 5 - 1 0 (a) Normal operation of a PTC circuit protector in a power window motor
circuit Note the many conducting paths With normal current flow, the temperatwe of the PTC
circuit protector remains normal (bl When current exceeds the amperage rating of the PTC
Ftyura J 5 - 8 rypicaJ Made circuit breaker fits into the same space as a blade fuse. It
circuit protector, the polymer material that makes up the electronic circuit protector increases <1
i i «sve current flows through the bimetallic stnp. the strip bends and opens the contacts
resistance As shown here, a high-resistance electrical path still exists even though 8ie motor
IK WKH cunent flow When the circuit breaker cools, the contacts dose again, completing
will stop operating as a result of the very low cunent tlow through the very high resistance The
Kefecmc* circuit
circuit protector will not reset or cool down until voltage is removed from the drcuit
CIRCUIT B R E A K E R
Figure 35-9 These electrical symbols are used to represent circuit breakers
PTC Circuit Protectors Positive t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient

iPTC) c i r c u i t p r o t e c t o r s a r e solid s t a t e { w i t h o u t m o v i n g parts).
1 ike all other c i r c u i t p r o t e c t i o n d e v i c e s , P T C s a r e installed in se-
• in the circuit b e i n g p r o t e c t e d . If e x c e s s i v e c u r r e n t f l o w s , t h e
Tiperature a n d r e s i s t a n c e of t h e P T C i n c r e a s e .
This increased r e s i s t a n c e r e d u c e s c u r r e n t f l o w ( a m p e r e s l in t h e
'.ii; and may c a u s e t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o m p o n e n t In t h e circuit to
oction incorrectly. F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n a P T C c i r c u i t p r o t e c t o r is
in a p o w e r w i n d o w c i r c u i t , t h e i n c r e a s e d r e s i s t a n c e c a u s e s t h e
c<eraiion of the p o w e r w i n d o w t o b e m u c h s l o w e r t h a n n o r m a l .
Figure 3 5 - 1 1 PTC circuit protectors are used extensively in the power distribution cenlBi
Unlike circuit b r e a k e r s o r f u s e s , P T C c i r c u i t p r o t e c t i o n d e v i c e s
ol this Chrysler vehicle
' ' ' ! "pen t h e c i r c u i t , b u t r a t h e r t h e y p r o v i d e a very high resis
between t h e p r o t e c t o r a n d t h e c o m p o n e n t . S e e Figure 3 5 -10.
' ' " r words, voltage will b e a v a i l a b l e t o t h e c o m p o n e n t . This fact
• ' to a lot of m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a b o u t h o w t h e s e circuit protec-
devices actually w o r k . It is e v e n m o r e c o n f u s i n g w h e n t h e cir-
"Pent-d and t h e PT i : c i r c u i t p r o t e c t o r c o o l s d o w n . W h e n the
' t u r n e d back o n , t h e c o m p o n e n t m a y o p e r a t e n o r m a l l y for a
" time; however, t h e P T C c i r c u i t p r o t e c t o r will again get h o t
USIBLE LINKS
" > •'* too m u c h c u r r e n t flow. Its r e s i s t a n c e again i n c r e a s e s to
t e n t flow.
' (-'ie< t r o n k c o n t r o l u n i t ( c o m p u t e r ) u s e d in m o s t vehicles
incoiporates thermal overload protection devices. See
'•> 11. T h e r e f o r e , w h e n e v e r a c o m p o n e n t fails to o p e r a t e , d o
* the imputer. T h e c u r r e n t c o n t r o l d e v i c e is controlling cur-
protect t h e c o m p u t e r . C o m p o n e n t s that d o not o p e r a t e
" ' • six Jd be c h e c k e d for p r o p e r r e s i s t a n c e a n d c u r r e n t d r a w . BATTERY CABLE
J>
(TO • TERMINAL
'tsle L i n k s A f u s i b l e l i n k is a type- of f u s e t h a t c o n s i s t s of a OF BATTERY)
" W h of s t a n d a r d c o p p e r - s t r a n d w i r e c o v e r e d w i t h a special
~ mabie i n s u l a t i o n . T h i s w i r e is u s u a l l y f o u r w i r e n u m b e r s
:
'-han t h e w i r e of t h e c i r c u i t s it p r o t e c t s . For e x a m p l e , a
-- tf circuit p r o t e c t e d by a 10-gauge fusible link. T h e special Figure 35-12 Fusible links .imusu.iiit ., .it, . -v \ 'no
v - a t i o n o v e r t h e w i r e m a y m a k e it l o o k larger t h a n o t h e r attached to a lunction block Nolice that thev aie only 6 hi 9 inches ong aro i
' a m e gauge n u m b e r . See Figure 3 5 - 1 2 . one luae from each fusible link.
36® secnoh»
Iftiues:*e ccr-en.:'. a C 3 c s e d b y 3 s h o r t - t o - g r o u n d o r a de-

igcc - oaBpoaer.: occurs. r e s t i e link, w i l l m e l t in half a n d
• c c - etc circuit : r . 4 f,:e n a c a r d . S o m e f u s i b l e links a r e
kkt-S&c f ' j s & i e .:-.<* t ^ g s a t t h e j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n the
t u s f r l e s s k a a c r c s a n a a r c c h a s s i s w i r i n g , w h i c h r e p r e s e n t only CRIMP AND SOt OER
Ct _ - . c z . : r.. r - c r . o ore c a c k u p s y s t e m for c i r c u i t p r o t e c -
zcr. -- c _ r r c r : c x c c c : tne c u r r e n t used by the starter motor
3 . 1 - : . . c ' . r_5:~ie l i n k s a n d t h e n t h r o u g h i n d i v i d u a l circuit
.': p c s s - b l e r . a t a f u s i b l e l i n k w i l l m e l t a n d n o t b l o w a fuse,
e a r c i r . s a 3 e d a? c l o s e t o t h e b a t t e r y a s p o s s i b l e so t h a t
CORE CRIMP
— .• c a n p r o t e c t w i r i n g a n a circuits c o m i n g directly from the
Figure 35-13 Some terminals have seals attached to help seal the electrical connector
Qtecking Fusible Links Fusibie links c a n m e l t a n d n o t s h o w

cr e r a n a l e v i d e n c e of d a m a g e . To c h e c k a fusible link, gently
or: e a c h e n a t o s e e if it s t r e t c h e s . If t h e insulation stretches,
~ e r . '-.£ w i r e i n s i d e h a s m e l t e d a n d t h e f u s i b l e link m u s t be re-
r c c e c a f t e r d e t e r m i n i n g w i a t c a u s e d t h e link t o fail.
Ar. o t h e r w a y t o c h e c k a fusible l i n k is t o u s e a test light or a
.: ~e:er a r . c c h e c k for a v a i l a b l e v o l t a g e a t b o t h e n d s of t h e fusible
I: v o l t a g e Is available a t o n l y o n e e n d , t h e n t h e link is electrically
cr..: s h o u l d b e replaced.
figure 35-14 Separate a connector by opening the lock and pulling the two apart
Look f o r t h e " G r e e n C r u d "
Caraoed connections are a maior cause of intermittent electncal problems and

open Croats The usual sequence of conditions is as follows:
t . nea: causes expansion. This heat can be from external sources such as
correctors being too close to the exhaust system. Another possible
source of heat is a poor connection at the terminal, causing a voltage
drop and neat due to the electncal resistance.
2. Cooaefrsatioo is created when a connector cools. The moisture in the
caxfcnsation causes rust and corrosion. figure 35-15 The secondary locks help retain the terminals in the connector.
Tne scMitjoa is that if corroded connectors are noticed, the terminal should
ZK a r z tne condition of the electrical connection to the wire terminal 3 . Release t h e s e c o n d a r y lock, if e q u i p p e d . S e e Figure 35-15.
.v~? Many automobile manufacturers recommend using a dietec- 4 . Using a pick, d e p r e s s t h e lock t a n g a n d g e n d y remove the ter.'.- -
t r c s cone or i.traum-Based grease inside connectors to prevent moisture from from t h e c o n n e c t o r . S e e F i g u r e 3 5 - 1 6 .
geesrc (%> and auaoung the connector.
WIRE REPAIR
M a n y m a n u f a c t u r e r s r e c o m m e n d t h a t all w i r i n g repairs be sold1'
T E R M I N A L S A N D CONNECTORS Solder S o l d e r is a n a l l o y of t i n a n d l e a d u s e d to make a n-

.- l e r m i n a j a m e t a l f a s t e n e r a t t a c h e d to t h e e n d of a w i r e , w h i c h electrical c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t w o w i r e s o r c o n n e c t i o n s in an e * ^ .
: - . " al e . t n e c u o n . T h e t e r m c o n n e c t o r usually refers circuit. H o w e v e r , a f l u x m u s t b e u s e d t o h e l p c l e a n the area •
:-. - r p o r t i o n t h a t s n a p s o r c o n n e c t s t o g e t h e r t h e r e b y mak- help m a k e t h e s o l d e r f l o w . T h e r e f o r e , s o l d e r is m a d e w ® •.
.*;. " . c c r - a r J c a i c o n n e c t i o n . W i r e t e r m i n a l e n d s usually s n a p into irosin) c o n t a i n e d in t h e c e n t e r , called r o s i n - c o r e sol •
; - . : a. - rt s t a connector. M a l e and female connectors can then Figure 3 5 - 1 7 . A n a c i d - c o r e s o l d e r is a l s o a v a i l a b l e but shoii
5e x g e t T i e r , t h e r e b y c o m p l e t i n g an electrical c o n n e c t i o n . be used for s o l d e r i n g s h e e t m e t a l . S o l d e r is available w i n ^
' r. - ' o n . - / . y , x i t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a r e also e q u i p p e d w i t h a p e r c e n t a g e s of tin a n d l e a d in t h e a l l o y . R a t i o s a r e used w j ; . . -
//earner s o u . See Figure 3 5 - 1 3 . t h e s e v a r i o u s t y p e s of s o l d e r , w i t h t h e f i r s t n u m b e r don1 .
a r e re a i n e o m c o n n e c t o r s b y t h e u s e of a l o c k p e r c e n t a g e of tin in t h e a l l o y a n d t h e s e c o n d n u m b e r § ^.
tan?,. • ai f r o m a c o n n e c t o r i n c l u d e s t h e f o l l o w i n g p e r c e n t a g e of l e a d . T h e m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d solder ^
steps: w h i c h m e a n s t h a t 5 0 % of t h e s o l d e r is t i n a n d t h e ° t n
lead. T h e p e r c e n t a g e s of e a c h a l l o y p r i m a r i l y d e t e r m i n e t <-
c o n n e c t o r p o s i t i o n a s s u r a n c e ( C P A ) , if point of t h e solder.
iuA' r -- tr.e i t e r ; of t h e c o n n e c t o r from releasing
a c c i d e n t a l 7. 6 0 / 4 0 solder (60% t i n / 4 0 % lead) m e l t s at 3 6 l ° F 0 ® ^
2. ..-. . , ; cor.net tor by opening the lock. See 5 0 / 5 0 solder (50% t i n / 5 0 % l e a d ) m e l t s at 4 2 T F (210 ^
H j f j r e Y * 14. 4 0 / 6 0 solder (40% t i n / 6 0 % lead) m e l t s at 4 6 0 ° F ( • >
TOOL
AMP CONNECTOR
RAISING RETAINING
FINGERSTO REMOVE
CONTACTS Figure 35-18 A butane MBermg too. rhe cap hss a Omit in sinker to light a ', >n«ertar
the tip the 'ool Ttv< Tandy acManr'j M produces the equivalent ot 60 waft ol heat 1
operates lor about' f l nour on one ctar jefroma commonly available butane raw
LOCKING WEDGE CONNECTOR

B e c a u s e of t h e k w e r m e • .ng p o i n t , 6 0 / 4 0 s o l d e r is t h e m o s t
highly r e c o m m e n d e d »ier • ^ s e . f b v w e d b y 5 0 / 5 0 . W h e n sotder
tag w i r e s , b e s u r e t . h e a t ~ : e a re; -/.<t t h e s o l d e r ) u s i n g a seUer.t.n
g u n o r b u t a n e t o o i s u c h a s s h o w n In F i g u r e 3 5 - 1 8 . S o l d e r i n g a
w i r i n g s p l i c e i n c - a e s t h e fc o w i n g s t e p s .
1 . W r . e t n j . - - " . e •••:• > - • . • - . ;.e, ,ppfy •••,;d»-r ' n

t h e j u n c t i o n of t h e g u n a n d t h e w i r e .
2 . T h e solder wfl: start t o Dow. D o n o t m o v e t h e s o l d e r i n g g u n .
3. As t h e solder (tows Into and around the strands of the wire, keep
feeding more snider imo the spfcce.
4. After t h e solder hasflowedthroughout the splice, remove the K *
d e r i n g g u n f r o m t h e splice and aiiow the solder to coo; slowly.
T h e solder should have a shiny appearance. Duff-looking solder

may be caused by not reaching a nigh enough temperature, wr ,rr
r e s u l t s in a cold solder joint. Cheating the spi : an d - iwi .
to cool often restores t h e s h t a v a p p e a r a n c e .
PLASTIC ' \ LATCHING
SPRING TONGUE Crimping Terminals Ter car. be a ;
TANG CONNECTOR electrical connection if the proper type at crimping tooi is used. M M
vehicle manufacturers recommend that a W-shaped crimp be - 1
to force the strands of the wire tnto a tight space. See Fipire 3> 10
Figure 35-16 Use a small removal tool, sometimes called a pick, to release termiru s rron
Most vehicle manufactures also specify that all hand cr.mpd
thB connector.
terminals or splices be sobered. See F.gure 35- 20.
Heat Shrink Heat shrink :gi - .

vinyl chloride FVCl or polyoieSn and shrinks to about w of
its original diameter w h e n h e a t e d ; t h i s is u s u a l l y c a l l e d a 1 . i
ratio. Heat shrink b y itself d o e s n o t p r o v i d e
roston. b e c a u s e t h e e n d s of t h e t u b i n g a r e n o t sea
ture. Chrysler Corporation recommends t h a ' ail
may be exposed to t h e e l e m e n t s be repa r e d «
adhesive-lined
from fiame-retardant flexible p
special t h e r m o p l a s t i c a d h e . re. W h e n
o n e - t h i r d of its o r i g i n a l d i a m e t e 3: i
m e l t s a n d s e a l s t h e e n d s of t h e tubing. See Figure 3:
Crimp-and-Seal Connectors
a n d Ford M o t o r C o m p a n y r e c o m ~ t s : i c r i m p an<l
'"dim.,,! 17 Alwa
> a »rasm-corosolder tor elactrical oi electro '• connectors . - a> «-.-
"small.,
lor small soldering irons Use large-diameter sold*. only Mr a r e not s i m p l y b u t r c o n n e c t rs. Crime irsd <ea. :.'jn!wsm« c e
"»>Heter
(large-gauge) wlie and higher wattage soldering irons tgi. - a sealant and s h r i n k tubing in o n e piece. Sat H p * * 15-23
368 SECTOx.
FLATTENED CUTTING AREA
COMPRESSED STRIPPING AREA
WIRE
pâre 35-19 a.r to create a oood crimp Hie open part ot the terminal splacedm
-«s - - T n w a i tcnord the ami or the W-shape part Figure 35-22 A typical crimp-and-seal connector. This type of connector is firsl tigr-
chmped to retain the ends of the wires and then it is heated The tubing shrinks amun^
wire splice and a thermoplastic glue melts on the inside to provide an effective weato
resistant seal
SHINY
APPEARANCE
Figure 35-23 Heating the crimp-and-seal connector melts the glue and forms an e*
seal against moisture.
GOOD
FILLETS
T h e usual p r o c e d u r e s p e c i f i e d f o r m a k i n g a w i r e repair us -
Fhjbt% 35-20 M -*«d-c»nped ipHCN or terminals should be soldered to be assured ota crimp-and-seal c o n n e c t o r is a s f o l l o w s :
jaxaecrcacoflneann Gooc' et»" mean that the solder has started to flow out from
S t e p #1 Strip the insulation from the ends of the wire *
sow* tm spfce Op am are smooth and shiny
5 / 1 6 inch, or 8 millimeters).
S t e p # 2 Select the proper size of c r i m p - a n d - s e a l connecter
gauge of wire b e i n g r e p a i r e d . I n s e r t t h e w i r e s into tne
sleeve and crimp.
S t e p # 3 Apply heat to t h e c o n n e c t o r u n t i l t h e sleeve shrink -
around the wire and a small a m o u n t of s e a l a n t is observe!
the e n d s of the sleeve, as s h o w n in Figure 3 5 - 2 3 .
Aluminum Wire Repair M a n y automobile manufactu^ I

plastic-coated solid a l u m i n u m w i r e f o r s o m e b o d y wiring'
a l u m i n u m w i r e is brittle a n d c a n b r e a k a s a r e s u l t of vibra
only used w h e r e t h e r e is n o p o s s i b l e m o v e m e n t o f the •••• •
it along t h e floor o r sill a r e a . T h i s s e c t i o n of w i r e is static ^ . . .
t h e wire c h a n g e s b a c k t o c o p p e r at a j u n c t i o n terming ...
trunk o r rear section of t h e v e h i c l e , w h e r e m o v e m e n t ot
m a y b e possible. ^fc
If a n y a l u m i n u m w i r e m u s t b e r e p a i r e d o r replaced,
Ing p r o c e d u r e s h o u l d b e u s e d t o b<r a s s u r e d of a P r ° p ont juii-
a l u m i n u m w i r e is usually f o u n d p r o t e c t e d in a plastic co > ^

Figure 21 • *•.- • . 'rtwtkwm*** c o n d u i t is t h e n n o r m a l l y slit, a f t e r w h i c h t h e w i r e s j
irtfojt r ssw. M o t '/»*) caul* df-ag* r e m o v e d for repair. '
,
apMr 35: MomoOw Afmng and Wirt Hag* MS
5tep #1 Carefully s t r i p o n l y a b o u t I / 4
C H A P T E R QUIZ
don from t h e a l u m i n u m w i r e , b e i n g IT-
the a l u m i n u m w i r e c a s e . t . The .>wd*A
a.
Step <2 Use a crimp connector to Join
b. Tf
solder an a l u m i n u m w i r e repair. S o l d e r .•/.
c The i
aluminum b e c a u s e t h e h e a t c a u s e s a n o x d. T l * - i thee
of the aluminum. Mew
Step#3 To p r e v e n t c o r r o s i o n , t h e s p l i c e d , cr m p e d a. M e t e -
be coated w i t h p e t r o l e u m jelly. b. Cubic centimeters
Step The coated c o n n e c t i o n s h o u l d b e c o v e r e d •/ /- * c. V; .<•<- •
d.
plastic t u b i n g o r w r a p p e d w i t h e l e c t r i c a l t a p e t o seal • ri
3. Which staserrier • i r j e fuse rating?
a . The f j s e m g A o ..•: be 90% -Ather,ai.r- r ! . r * , ! ' ? r,e
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION dread
b. TtA ' • -e rating . i be r.igber *ran the normil t .rrern for the
cuattL
What Does t h e S t r i p e o n t h e P l a s t i c C o n d u i t Mean?
c. Bgr.ty percer.t of Sue f s e rating should ecpa t * c i t e r . ' 'he
Most electrical wiring is protected with a plastic convoluted conduit which circuit
comes in many different grades depending on the temperature of the surround- d . Both b and c.
ing area A painted stripe usually indicates that the conduit is designed for htg^
temperature applications and is used where it would be placed on or near the a. Wire a iead. aos re r.e-^ enc . a t - - n n r '
engine See Figure 3 5 - 2 4 b. A c o c n e s c t a s j h i a plat c p«ce where -e-mirals lock In.
c . A tead ar«j a m s m a i are the s a n e tiring,
Do not use inexpensive conduit around wiring that will be exposed to
d. Both a and c.
temperatures higher than 200°F (85°C).
a. Ro. -
b. Acid cone
c. 60 40 » i t DO S J
d. 50 50 » --iaoc paste Sax
6. A - e c r . l x S prixast a •»-.--: repair x a c r . a that jses «»
The pari i e p a r n a c te t m b a n i^gauge m . i w It does ham
I t ^ u ® w a s a a : 2 C > « a p e T e s i s s c a t Asaystousethe K g a - s e w s e
Technidaii B says B use fte S l ^ u g e wae. Wfoch technician 4 cored?
a. T e c h n c a c A o r j y
b. Terhr; ^ . - B
c. Both T e d s : : JSS A aod B
d. Neither T e d a a c a n A oor 3
7. Two W i h r t i a n are itiv ' i u « f fuse t a f t g . Tcctatidai A a y s flat a M
light shoufc jght oo both e s t p a r s of tne fuse if • s okay. Tetfr dan B
says die h s e is dejereve if a tea _IHT CDV JETS oe one side ot tne 'use.
Which rechracan s a r r e a ?
figure 35-24 The color stripe on the side ol the convoluted conduit indicates that the
a. TedKicar. A o r j f
'«h/it is designed for high-temperature applications. b. Tech-uoir. B orsiv
c. Both Tect^c-ans A and B
SUMMARY d. Neither 'echraoar, A nor 3
1. The higher the AWG size n u m b e r , the smaller the wire. & If a w -e t t p t e as irputs made j.se- the hood or rider th? m i tc k
a exposed vo the elements, wtach ripe ot resair simJd be aed?
2. Metric wire Is sized In square millimeters | m n i and the higher the r,
a. Wire nuts and eiectncal tape
her, the larger the wire.
b. SoMffandadhesrwHiaed heat shank or a t a p a o H M i a w r w
All circuits should be protected by a fuse. The current r. tf . . .it C. ButtCOTJMCnS
*ould be about 80% of t h e fuse r a t i n g d. fair, core solder and eiectncal tape
4
' Circuit breakers and fusible links are o t h e r circuit protec • levies.
9. MrL-vfT.'-ndstnpaare - . i s s u ed and braided beca-se
s
- A terminal Is the metal end of a wire, w h e r e a s a connecto- s the plastic a. Tber are more flesbie to a l c w movement ot the « g s e « "
f u s i n g for the terminal. bneakng the wtne
4
- All wire repair should use e i t h e r soldering or a c r i m p a n d seal connector b. Thev are less eapessive than oowenuoca; m x
c. Tbey help d i n p e n radio-i«ruerLO nierferenct IFi
d. Both a and c.
RE
VIEW Q U E S T I O N S 10. What causes a w e to blow?
lj
a. A decrease a ore j t reastar.ê
«tribe the American wire g a u g e (AWG) system and compare it » tn
b . .An a a t a s e in the cumesr Sew IBIS."
'he metric system.
c A sudden decrease - . f . vw " V v . c i - v j:
^<Plain the difference b e t w e e n a wire and a cable. d. B o t h a a n d b .
• 1 ipfaja the difference b e t w e e n a terminal and a i -a
fJi
' * u » how fuses, PTC circuit protectors, circuit breakers, and fusible
ilftk
» protect a circuit.
C H A P T E R
36
Wiring Schematics
and Troubleshooting
OBJECTIVES: After s t u d y i n g C h a p t e r 36, t h e r e a d e r will be able to: Prepare for ASE Electrical/Electronic S y s t e m s (A6) certification test
"4 Genera) Electrical/Electronics System Diagnosis). • Draw the symbols used on s c h e m a t i c s . • Discuss t h e v a r i o u s m e t h o d s that can be
X3tp a short circuit • List the electncal troubleshooting diagnosis steps.
KEY TERMS: doubie-pole. double-throw switch (DPDT) • double-pole, single-throw switch (DPST) • g a u s s g a u g e • m o m e n t a r y switch • norrr
\ : • normally open iN.O • poles • relay • short circuit • single-pole, double-throw switch (SPDT) • single-pole, single-throw switch S
• tern- - a l • throws • tone generator tester • wiring schematic
WIRING SCHEMATICS
a u t o m o t i v e m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' service m a n u a l s i n c l u d e w i r i n g s c h e m a t -
.. of ail t h e electrical circuits of a vehicle. A w i r i n g s c h e m a t i c ,
s c r n e t i m e s called a d i a g r a m , s h o w s electrical c o m p o n e n t s and
w i r i n g u s i n g s y m b o l s a n d lines to r e p r e s e n t c o m p o n e n t s a n d w i r e s .
A tvpical w i r i n g s c h e m a t i c m a y i n c l u d e all of t h e circuits c o m b i n e d Figure 3 6 - 1 The center wire is a solid color wire, meaning that the wire has rc;-' I
or. several large fold-out s h e e t s , o r t h e y m a y b e b r o k e n d o w n t o identifying tracer or stripe color. The two end wires could be labeled "BRN/WHT • rc j
s h o w i n d i v i d u a l circuits. All circuit s c h e m a t i c s or d i a g r a m s i n c l u d e brown wire with a white tracer or stripe
fee p o w e r - s i d e w i r i n g of t h e circuit a n d all splices, c o n n e c t o r s ,

electrical c o m p o n e n t s , a n d g r o u n d r e t u r n p a t h s . T h e g a u g e a n d
C-210
c o l o r of t h e w i r i n g a r e also i n c l u d e d o n m o s t w i r i n g d i a g r a m s .
0.8 PPL 0.8 PPL/WHT
Circuit Information Many wiring schematics include numbers
®
RH REAR
ar.d letters n e a r c o m p o n e n t s a n d w i r e s t h a t m a y c o n f u s e r e a d e r s of
MARKER
t h e s c h e m a t i c . M o s t letters u s e d n e a r o r o n a w i r e i d e n t i f y t h e LIGHT
color o r colors of t h e w i r e . T h e first color o r c o l o r a b b r e v i a t i o n is
t n e coior of t h e w i r e i n s u l a t i o n , a n d t h e s e c o n d c o l o r (if m e n -
v.-.ed is t h e color of t h e strip o r t r a c e r o n t h e b a s e color. S e e 0.8 BLK
Figure 3 6 - 1 .
W i r e s w i t h different-color t r a c e r s a r e i n d i c a t e d b y b o t h c o l o r s
1
Figure 3 6 - 2 Typical section of a wiring diagram. Notice that the wire color c w v
w i t h a slash i b e t w e e n t h e m . For e x a m p l e , B R N / W H T m e a n s a
connection C210.The " 8" represents the metric wire size in square millimeters
b r o w n w i r e w i t h a w h i t e stripe o r tracer.
AUOrerotrai The wire diagram also s h o w s that t h e color of t>e ^

Color
c h a n g e s at t h e n u m b e r C 2 1 0 . T h i s s t a n d s for " c o n n e i ^
MN Brown
a n d is u s e d f o r r e f e r e n c e p u r p o s e s . T h e s y m b o l for ^ i
Kit Black t i o n c a n v a r y d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r . The I
OW Green f r o m p u r p l e (PPL) t o p u r p l e w i t h a w h i t e tracer I .'.
«nr Whrte not i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t for k n o w i n g w h e r e the wire c t I
POl Purple in the circuit. T h e w i r e g a u g e h a s r e m a i n e d the s
'jg^j: |
PIK Pink s i d e s of t h e c o n n e c t i o n (0.8 square millimeters or ' -
ON Tan T h e g r o u n d c i r c u i t is t h e " . 8 B L K " w i r e . Fi
S"re,/\vinnf:
BLU Blue e l e c t r i c a l a n d e l e c t r o n i c s y m b o l s t h a t a r e u s e d i"
re yellow circuit diagrams.
am Orange
9* BUI Dart Hue
a tut Light blue TECH TIP Read the Arrows
giro**
w&m Dark green I look ii"e
Wiring diagrams indicate connections by symbols that L-
a em Light green
Rgure 36-4 _ ^ ' ,
m Red
Do not read these "arrows" as pointers showing n®
wr Gray
flow. Also observe that the power side (positive side) of tfe n e f W j. *"
female end ot the connector. If a connector becomes disco™ ^
flrffe 36 2 . . u r a t e s a r e a r s i d e - m a r k e r b u l b circuit d i a g r a m difficult tor the circuit to become shorted lo gro und
v er * ' t n < j -•<-. ' h e m e t r i c w i r e g a u g e size in s q u a r e millime- because the wire is recessed inside the connector .
•en rr m , a n d m l c a t e s a solid p u r p l e w i r e .
+ poemvr
DIODE
NEGATIVE
ZENER OtOOE
BATTERY LIGHT-EMITTING
i
OTOOE (LEO)
GROUND OR CAPACTTOR
'VP- FUSE
CIRCUIT BREAKER
—o MOTOR
CASE GROUNDED
- W l r RESISTOR
SCUD BOX
VARIABLE RESISTOR REPRESENTS
e>maE
COMPONENT
VARIABLE RESISTOR
(POTENTIOMETER) DASHED JME
REPRESENTS P O f ^ O N
PAP" OF A
I I COMPOWEN*
BULB (LAMP)
U T - NORMALLY OPEN
DUAL-FILAMENT
^ =—t-
:N.C RELAY
BULB
H 15HP k NORMALLY CLOSED

MALE TERMINAL * X RELAY
FEMALE TERMINAL
CONNECTOR
DELTA - WINDINGS
SPLICE
(S^—'THST*—€
WIRES NOT
ELECTRONICALLY
CONNECTED
WYE IT) WMOMGS

COIL WINDING
COIL WITH STEEL

LAMINATIONS 4
Tteligufe shows typical electncalana electorac symbols jsed ' e tmrng M areri
SCHEMATIC S Y M B O L S
In a schematic d r a w i n g , p f s o a s . or i r a w s r t a s -J
^BATTERY TO ELECTRICAL
nents an? nepiaced w i t h a r r a b o ' . r a t i t p u u m me
COMPONENT
Dent. T h e s v n a b o b and their
^ —
"^cfcr ITP"^ cwnectof note that the pos-.! te^nnal 5 j a a i y ^ ' e - * Battery
Hues. See Figure 3 6 - 5 .
372 SEC'-CS
HOT AT A L L TIMES |
"1 I t I 1 r
T s w r t T4
I START I, IGNITION
S W 1 T C H
L _ i - _ 1
rtfUTT 3 6 - 5 * > ? n t » XT • "T«e pos ^ve pale of a batte'y e represented by the B C2
OK8T mjfc « J » k aaie h B« s«ors< ane The voltage ol the Battery s usually
( t k !
0.5 YEL S
B3 C202
0.5 YEL
Rqwv 36—6 x^-rti sv-tw or the let represents earth ground The ground symbol
ir nqft -weserc a chassis growl
B6 C101
T h e l o n g e r : i n e r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o s i t i v e p l a t e of a b a t t e r y a n d
; _
~ l i n e r e p r e s e n t s t h e n e g a t i v e p l a t e of t h e b a t t e r y - T h e r e -
e a c - p a i r of s h o r t a n d l o n g l i n e s r e p r e s e n t s o n e cell of a bat-
B e c a i s e e a c h c e l l of a t y p i c a l a u t o m o t i v e l e a d - a c i d b a t t e r y h a s
: yc s . a b a t t e r y s v m b o l s h o w i n g a 1 2 - v o l t b a t t e r y s h o u l d h a v e
Figure 36-7 Starting at the top, the wire from the ignition switch Is attached to let
r j p a n s of . n e s . H o w e v e r , m o s t b a t t e r y s y m b o l s s i m p l y u s e t w o o r
of connector C2. the wire is 0.5 mm* (20-gauge AWG) and is yellow The circuit mane
n r e e p a i r s of l o n g a n d s h o r t l i n e s a n d t h e n list t h e v o l t a g e of t h e
The wire enteis connector C202 at terminal B3
u::er n e x t t o t h e s y m b o l . A s a r e s u l t , t h e b a t t e r y s y m b o l is
- r e r . y e t c l e a r b e c a u s e t h e v o l t a g e is s t a t e d . T h e p o s i t i v e t e r m i -
A
ng :*' t h e b a t t e r y is o f t e n i n d i c a t e d w i t h a p l u s s i g n i + ) , r e p r e s e n t -
.-.» t h e p o s i t i v e p o s t of t h e b a t t e r y , a n d is p l a c e d n e x t t o t h e l o n g
COOLING
r . e of t h e e n d c e l l . T h e n e g a t i v e t e r m i n a l of t h e b a t t e r y is r e p r e - FAN-
e r t e d b y a n e g a t i v e s i g n i - 1 a n d is p l a c e d n e x t t o t h e s h o r t e r cell LEFT
jtne. See Figure 3 0 - 6 .
Wiring E l e c t r i c a l w i r i n g is s h o w n a s s t r a i g h t l i n e s a n d w i t h a
'-- • n u m b e r s a n d or letters to indicate the following:
• W i r e s i z e — T h i s c a n b e e i t h e r A W G , s u c h as 18 gauge or in
square raiiianeters, s u c h as 0 . 8 .
Figure 36-8 The electrical terminals are usually labeled with a letter, as shown » »
• C i r c u i t n u m b e r s — E a c h w i r e in p a n of a circuit is labeled w i t h cooling tan motor
r * circuit n u m b e r t o h e l p t h e s e r v i c e t e c h n i c i a n trace t h e w i r i n g
i t a ail v s for a n e x p l a n a t i o n of h o w t h e circuit is s u p p o s e d to
wort SPLICE
• Wire color '.lost s c h e m a t i c s also indicate an abbreviation for the
. r of tine w i r e and place it n e x t to t h e wire. M a n y wires have t w o
c o o n : a solid color and a s n i p e c o l o r In this case, the solid color is Figure 36-9 Two wires that cross at the dot indicate that the two are electncattv
b r e c . and t h e n a d a r k slash i and t h e color of t h e s n i p e is listed. For connected.
-
a s : i t . red w h t w o u l d indicate a red w i r e with a w h i t e tracer: See
figure 36-7. WIRES NOT
• T e r m i n a l s - T h e m e t a l p a r t a t t a c h e d at t h e e n d of a w i r e is called a ELECTRONICALLY
terminal. A - sol for a t e r m i n a l is s h o w n in Figure 3 6 - 8 . CONNECTED
• W i r e c o n n e c t i o n s - W h e n t w o w i r e s are electrically c o n n e c t e d ,
- .- ,r. s h o w n w i t h a black d o t . See Figure 3 6 - 0 .
Figure 36-10 Wires that cross, but do not electncally contact each other are
A - - - - A o w i r e s cross in a s c h e m a t i c that are n o t electrically one wire bridging over the other.
- - -• • • - i . o r e if t h e w i r e s is s h o w n a s g o i n g o v e r t h e o t h e r w i r e
: J o e ; n o t c o n n e c t See Figure 3 6 - 1 0 .
• Connectors A- • -ctrical c o n n e c t o r is a plastic part that contains
5 0 0 to 5 9 9 Left-front d o o r
-<• "" — r ..ra:s. W h i l e t h e terminals provide t h e electrical
6 0 0 to 6 9 9 Right-front d o o r
-- - - a d r r . t , it is t h e plastic c o n n e c t o r t h a t k e e p s t h e
•-- -. ' . m e c h a n i c a l l y . C o n n e c t i o n s are usually labeled 7 0 0 to 7 9 9 Left-rear d o o r
< ' -. " . " ar<J ?r. •f r e e n u m b e r s . T h e t h r e e n u m b e r s indicate 8 0 0 to 8 9 9 Right-rear d o o r ^
- , - -a. l o c a t i o n of t h e c o n n e c t o r . Normally, t h e connector
E v e n - n u m b e r e d c o n n e c t o r s a r e o n t h e r i g h t (passenger ^ .
- - y : ' y - g e n e r a area of t h e vehicle including:
vehicle and odd - n u m b e r e d c o n n e c t o r s a r e o n the Ic - ,
100 lo 190 U n d e r the hood of the vehicle. For e x a m p l e , C - 1 0 2 is a c o n n e c t o r locat'
1
2 0 0 to 2 0 0 Under 0 * dash the hood i b e t w e e n 1 0 0 a n d 1 9 9 ) o n t h e right side ot i
leven n u m b e r 102). See figure 3 6 - 1 1 . i ^
3 0 0 lo 3V0 Passenger compartment
G r o u n d s a n d S p l i c e s — G r o u n d s a n d splices are als'1 }]
4 0 0 to A W d e a r p a c k a g e or t r u n k area
using t h e s a m e general f o r m a t as c o n n e c t o r s . T h e n * 1 1 1 •
Schematics and c'ng jq
B U L B I LAMP)
300-399
INSIDE PASSENGER
200-299 COMPARTMENT 400-490
UNDER TRUNK
DUAL-FILAMENT
DASH J BULB (LAMP)
' W
Figure36-13 T f e t ^ t v l f i a A t i o a t e l l t w i e n t ^ M M e . !
Figure 36-11 Connectors (C), grounds (G), and splices (Sj are I fry a repreje* tie 0m ampo> of me nub.
aenerally indicating the location in the vehicle. For example, G20S is a grou'n cor - -
located under the dash.
(7)1
Figure 3 6 - U k c«cr i i cxOe m Be aSB "M" a l a tenur

and Sin H a a s • « »e T«a» T w sjaM a taM n *
ttoiî Hie monr s a c
RESISTOR
-Vy^V- .ARIABLE RESISTOR
-v.-.v- . ARIABLE RESISTOR

4 POTENTIOMETER
Figure 36-12 The ground for the battery is labeled G305 indicating the ground connector
s ixated in the passenger compartment of the vehicle. The ground wire is black |BL> the Figure 36-15 TEAR ? -MAE ,S-
"uit number is 50, and the wire is 32 mm' (2-gauge AWG'
located u n d e r t h e d a s h o n t h e d r i v e r ' s s i d e could b e labeled G - 2 0 i

G m e a n s g r o u n d ) . A s p l i c e i n d i c a t i o n is a n "S" followed bv three
Figure 36-16 «rKasac a- - i
numbers, s u c h a s S - 3 0 1 . S e e F i g u r e 3 6 - 1 2 .
the other sattacfiecicw -
Electrical Components Most electrical components have

"eir o w n u n i q u e s y m b o l t h a t s h o w s t h e b a s i c f u n c t i o n o r parts.
• Bulbs—Light b u l b s u s u a l l y u s e a f i l a m e n t , w h i c h h e a t s and t h e :
gives off light w h e n e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t f l o w s . T h e symbol used f o r ; T T
light bulb s h o w s a c i r c l e w i t h a f i l a m e n t inside. A dual filament
bulb, s u c h a s is u s e d f o r taillights a n d b r a k e light t u r n signals, is h g m 3 6 - 1 7 Sinoosuseee tcreser: "one.-ne -*s -.-.»; - <
shown w i t h t w o f i l a m e n t s . S e e R g u r e 3 6 - 1 3 . ndcansMtheapcttrbemgiaHiasapoMt •h*»e«Be»#o*«arwe w a r
beroate: - thec'nut »»«»ut ameer mm xar-%
Eiectric Motors An electric m o t o r symbol shows a cirde >
> letter " M " in t h e c e n t e r a n d t w o e l e c t r i c a l c o n n e c t i o n s , to : Capacitors Capaci: -e:
top a n d o n e a t t h e b o t t o m . S e e F i g u r e 3 6 - 1 4 for a n e x a m p l e of
rtent and not a replaceable cotnecner.: u i e s s the w . ^ o e s r
a
doling fan m o t o r . older modei. Many older v e . V l e s used capact - : mxt -ad
interference and w e r e installed '-sit ater.at.-rs :•
Resistors W h i i e r e s i s t o r s a r e u s u a l l y p a r t of a n o t h e r t mpon
W r i n g connectors. See Figure
w n b o j does a p p e a r o n m a n y s c h e m a t i c s and wiring c i a . - A
' ^ t o r s y m b o l is a j a g g e d l i n e r e p r e s e n t i n g resistance •cunvn ' v. Electric Heated Unit L«. cr
• resistor is v a r i a b l e , s u c h a s a T h e r m i s t o r , a n arrov s shown and cigarette lighters an? shown .•• •:- : -:..-."
-inning t h r o u g h t h e s y m b o l of a fixed resistor. A p o t e n t i o m e t e r is a See R g u r e 3 6 - 1 8 .
f
w i r e v a r i a b l e r e s i s t o r a n d it is s h o w n w i t h a n a r r o w p o i n t i n g to-
'•'"ft the r e s i s t a n c e p a r t of a fixed resistor. S e e Figure 30- 15. Boxed Components a .
A t a a - a r i r p r h e o s t a t Is u s u a l l y s h o w n a s p a r t of a n o t h e r u n i t . scfidBne, the box s t h e a n t e a M p r e n t t f H
RBtrt SS-21 TW S ^ W Nrese^ a cmpo.iii'it ftst , m j.,,^
(
1 ••
I
I
-
I
t
'.t
—I
11
P<9i>*f I Sasv5 piiffiite •e;>-.,se%i{>o"fti' utacWsuwiN!.
Si>ST SPOT
t f y r f 36-39 i Miif B s s W i ah Hfifiiicurtlji-jnatlt'

(b)
.1 U I 11
tas "a a f j s e i Ofter. «©e or w o Fuses i r e h m i in a
f-fejfe V ' t , TOj n e t s * | i l | | a f u s e p a « l tos rr.vie f u s e s G«
:;•>. -itv S o e F l t - ' e s 3 6 - 1 9 ar.d 3 6 - 2 © .
S e p t r a ^ R e p l a c e a b l e P a r t Often p ^ w s ire iJ-.wn on

i <îw>t M ftjher i r e p a t of i cons-
J
pire W i i f t i V x i : < : - : £ « a k t e w g l of C e o e n l M o t o r s VC- - - ^-- H-r'T -
fcQc Is sf •:. ^ r u
• . ' » M i r . o Is .ir.Je-'. - t ' i . 3 t f a r e p l k t a M e p u t .

• 4 :i v s . ^ l i J e r T n e i . it if JVM as a rejitecetjik ['eft,
t o t 5s Tt^KS i H a c.'Sier | r J H SBcwn k A soM as
OPST opor
i.-. WW-"'Wy.
• .• ".V t a w twii? is if^fl, -Jte S j / j t f M s »e.Khe«J to the
o»vtKies.<! assJli-*?. in
Switches E S w j & i i sa-'-cJies i r e op a la

ftea; S ''T'A* p w •i'.ft. Jltfis c t f i b e o r * o f . W f a p o u f i e n s . Rgure 36-22 s ^ t a i tw a sVigleôle. sin^le-aircM* rutKfc Tha.VjP' *
wW> 1V.#na»jr open JD.Oj ta;<use oiMrfg is conoetled b (he lartnmol M * *
» v i * * . T h e r « r . c b , is o w w i M c U t i t o a ttfsrctod » x J . « >
it in ill fitrnat poaition A slTi/lf ptile. (k'uble-threw JSPOTj s*W
to t\:< f « t i 7 v :is N O
*
te-riinan, icj A dtiuMe-pate, single- thtCK ;Cif>sT) f mud! ?>as two pssiSoia lofi am!»'f
• S^ntaCy dosrtL 7\e s is t t a t f o i B y < « t « K ? « d t o a ccri-
am cpnttf Mm sfWDs 4 A Smfbte-pota. tfwbMhrtw . t W ) swsicr.
'.set *r<t! o » r r « / t .r t h e switch. T t o f j y e o f r w i ' c h K m M U m to escih pate. v and -re ( h a r s - o c s f . f » c « .
yte* t o t h e f ^ . b w of m i s c w n f J e t e d b y
: k -..h i.:--: " « <JM<OW» to the l « r of w S p u t c i r o ' t s . Ajk)t31er t , p e of s w i t c h t h a t is u s e d o,n m o s t vehicles
» s ? r . | J e - t h f c . w ( $ P $ I ) s w i t c h h a s cfc'y f w i m o r o e n u r y s w i t c h . T h i s s w i t c h is u s u a l l y used, to S ® ^ ^
? r . f j . e * ~ ' - r x i - a ' t A sir.gje-pc>5e, d o u W e - t h r c w ( S P O T ) r t f x h sge ^'grial t o a m o d u l e o r c O n f c o l l e r t o r e q u e s t . i b i t J
' '.v..*«e v r " rt're >i r w » -A-Ires <>ut A h e M ^ M tu(r=«J o n o r o f t T h e s w i t c h J u s t m a k e s ' m o m e n W Y c 0 ' f r .
-• i : • & ir. M i . - crfi r ^ W i l S f O T to or e p o d - to position. The symbol that r e p t e s » « ' ® 1
••(. • , f .rr-' i » Jo*-f'.i.-r.MW paC&i}; to ij>e o t h « n t « y .switch u s e s t w o d o t s for t h e c o n t a c t w i t h »
' h e y y f c f a & m hei<.f.2g,M. J l » r e i r e ^ j j o t h e m (A). A m o i t i e h w r y y M t c h , f o r R p f o e , c a n b e ^ ,
tootSt-pcS* vc.^Je t h r o w I&PST^ s^tcTies double-pote, or a dew l o t u r n tJte a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g o n or o 5
4:-J&lt-thr<s# ittfDT): % r ? 36- ?2. r i c e i K W m i t f j r d ^ r W h f c t h e « g h a l from t h e ffimt'^jj
•*>3 tfai» it o f f , a n d if it is o f f , t h e s w i t c h will
t ; / n a - g n u TTê fe'ajoi- - d v a n U g e o f m o m e n u i y
>Jf -«» of itifc-f'iito U .ptwtka. t h e y 4 « i b e v « y t ^ j t w e l g f i t a n d >n"all b e c i o s e
rtuir w t e s fostoim t i m m j u B , x we' n o t carty w y h e a v y e ^ W J c u r r e n t , j u s t a f t o i B
M w w/toer:».4ty s w i t c h e s u s e a m e m b r a n e c«jr.smsc«o v«'
«M«B • ' ' » • ' : ' ? » . •
* 1 t W t f r t t t S t t ftl
j t R M i H A l l O E N T t R C A f ION
ssff'iis -iiy slier Jtrat Ci^fjibS' c i - X i v . ; gfti*
. V f d n i if » S^tfC Ij'-.jt * ; • . : , • , v'ltier ttr"-: # :i1 î'VAJ. NJfc f'iy*
» hesw-f ^ f e t v r t c a l toil by • ng a ' ... , " V i •• ^ i
i ^ i d t Most ^ m o t i v e « - U y s <re t o - • i:;i * ) ; - ffTa. - i f i . 5 0 it s, '' II
fift&Ki. Utfc t e f t n j h a l f o i t ^ r -r. : hr'j, - 'ft V, QhX't •
, ;;?<s! ' t o » "rAvX. M 7til "ViVI If
i n i n d t r ^ i W e s h o o t l n g of a.-./ c j f c . ,t • - - • yM BC/Wiir- 5i: ii'H'. • 1 :j ciiA t i a > i^ T^jis'' 1.^1 '
Fishes 36 -24. *. • » •s d •>
lir^fct* it, ''A'Vjifs e •? is « t i! !'•'J a
• |elays y e found in m a n y c i K i f t t « c ® < j w i U ' i at
fe^ccctrcued b y c o m p u t e r s , y e t a r e * t ' e <o V e t ' * • •M i<f 'e--.'.- iv ^ S a f ' ^ e - e M t n a g ' '/".(C •'iflid )!i OKiSed l®
'•WW &'•>•
rcat to p o w e r m o t o r s a n d a c c e s s o r i e s . W e s t n'afi • J Of * ; t '• . i „ i' ' i ^ ' i t i t t . a t ii i * s i tie -ipJiy 5;;

as j p o i v s : f h e •" 4 . 7*ie v - : cirlpi
• •<>.4 j O i Vitf .Tx re: 5 :tn râj
a | M f t f o v i d e s to m a g n e t i c j ^ t t to a T o n b l e y ~ ; .re V v . )S if >« cir we
tj
, T t e r e S s U n o e of m o s t relay colls f a r . g s s f r o m 5 0 t o 1 SO '.f. ">s l-:t ,9-PJRF.
ry "'•K-rfle s- •
• b e t w e e n 6 0 i n d 1 0 0 c f . m s . t t e ;r.;enatv,-:;.. S a c k e d •res 5 6 - j
H-
(ISO) ".dentsacitlon of t h e c o g tertr.'.na's ire 3 6 * r 4
«S. The t e r o i f t a l n u m b e r 3 6 r e p r i n t s t h e p o w e r t o e relay BeTay 'i<Jfagt S p i t e C f ' / a l f ; . / I ' f e i r ' t i i f e1 .1 ittiS
a s l f l j e j P a p * ! l a b e l e d 8 5 r e p r e s e n t s i h e g r o u n d side of fle te'.a, 'Zy-ttziet ye**; JS^gfief -
cttO. The relay ttsl c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d b y w p j 5 > 1 f i g r;>o ver or co«co mi • " 8 E c o S ^ ^

tfwjd tO'tijfeJelary coll w i n d i n g . T h e ccC v t i n d & $ represents .the This •:- i a 0 vofJi ;ti i-,'i.re CM?
tH • .•as ht i veJîftL 'f'lir
SS 8 7 $7a
e t e r , ; l e , i n 5&Cif jS&y . ar J^1 'i •.f'jtt wJ a .•
tfie t a i l o . To •¥<?>, w.ww*8
(MOSTLY RELAY COKS

HAVE BFITYRTEN
86 • POYREN s i o e of THE C O M 5C-1SOOHMS
85 - GROUNO SIDE Of THE C C * . OF RESISTANCE)
M COMMON POWER FOR RELAY CONTACTS

IR - NORMALLY OPEN OUTPUT (N O.)
- NORMALLY CLOSED OUTPUT (N C )
rrtaw uses a Wov8W» a m to wi'npiete a a m * " w s fe > ) f M t

•terminal B6 aod a grounl it Vninal 8S Atypicalrelay oriljj 'eqiiis.es nt'iut 1 " 3 anpew
Wujii M relay cq*. muwabie arm Otm Pie w M srt.cw •(&»
JTimpmsi or Tiota
MOVABLE ARM
(ARMATURE)
lNSUtATEO
STOP
r^tt 3WS - s "< - *
CONTACT
PC-INTS
J.—O-JV"--!— r C i v ^
T .H.C,
|—
•fSgr ^fr^-MKfio-Ji'tii'Wfltitj'pwnvii l o - ' W ' '
• y*® ** <>ot "wmuM m w 85? r* »••- 8 P
the c t f ' N w * fte«•"* v
n-au-t 58-cs w ••««» -
tWffi
aaaHSMtt
A A
IPS
Figure 36-29 A resistor used In parallel with the coll windings is a comm
reduction method used in many relays. ' useil!»i
HOT AT ALL TIMES
r* #14 COURTESY
FUSE (15A)
LIGHT SWITCH
(NORMALLY CLOSED
UNDERHOOD LIGHT WITH HOOD OPEN)
S201
Figure 3 8 - 2 7 A typical hom circuit. Note that the relay contacts supply the heavy current
RIGHT INSIDE
1
x operate tne hom when the horn switch simply completes a low cunent circuit to ground.
LIGHTED MIRROR
caas*iq 9ie relay contacts to close
S319
TRANSISTOR
OFF
LEFT INSIDE
LIGHTED MIRROR
RIGHT SIDE
COURTESY LIGHT
S316
Figure 3 6 - 2 8 Wtien the relay or solenoid coil current is turned off. the stored energy in the
cai fv»3rd biases the clamping diode and effectively reduces voltage spike
LEFT SIDE
COURTESY LIGHT
d i o d e c o n n e c t e d a c r o s s t h e coil in t h e r e v e r s e bias d i r e c t i o n . See
figure 36-28.
When t h e c u r r e n t f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e c o i l , t h e d i o d e is n o t
p a r . of t h e c i r c u i t b e c a u s e it is i n s t a l l e d t o b l o c k c u r r e n t . H o w -
e v e r . w h e n t h e v o l t a g e is r e m o v e d f r o m t h e c o i l , t h e r e s u l t i n g
. - a g e I n d u c e d in t h e coil w i n d i n g s h a s a r e v e r s e d p o l a r i t y t o
t r . e a p e i e d v o l t a g e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e v o l t a g e in t h e coil is applied to
• h e cc in a f o r w a r d bias direction, w h i c h c o n d u c t s the current
ri.-. t h e w i n d i n g . A s a r e s u l t , t h e i n d u c e d v o l t a g e s p i k e is
eliminated.
M o t " r e i a y s u s e a r e s i s t o r c o n n e c t e d in p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e coil C101
n : ; ' . . ; r.e u s e of a r e s i s t o r , typically a b o u t 4 0 0 to 6 0 0 o h m s , re-
d . c m t h e . >ltage s p i k e b y p r o v i d i n g a p a t h for t h e v o l t a g e c r e a t e d DOME LIGHT
r. trie t o f l o w b a c k t h r o u g h t h e coil w i n d i n g s w h e n t h e coil cir-
c u i t is o p e n e d . S e e figure 36-29.
L H FRONT
DOOR JAMB
C O M M O N P O W E R OR G R O U N D SWITCH
V- - •- m 1 • - 4 a n electrical problem that affects m o r e than
• • o r s y s t e m , c h e c k t h e electrical s c h e m a t i c for a Figure 36-30 A typical wiring diagiam showing multiple switch
omrr...- o • .' ire o r a c o m m o n g r o u n d . S e e Figure 3 6 - 3 0 for one fuse.
>Virmg SeltamaBe* and TrouDMwoimg 37T
example w h e r e all of t h e f o l l o w i n g AOOED RELAY

J e (power s o u r c e ) . ADDED FUSE
, underhood light
, inside lighted m i r r o r s ADDED
BAT.
LIGHTS
a Dome light ~5T5T
, L e f t side c o u r t e s y light
„ Right-side courtesy light
T h e r e f o r e , if t h e r e w e r e a c u s t o m e r c o m p i ^ : nv SPLICE
more of t h e i t e m s l i s t e d , c h e c k t h e f u s e a n d t h e c o m m o n part of
t l ie circuit that f e e d s all of t h e a f f e c t e d l i g h t s . C h e c k for a
oround if several c o m p o n e n t s t h a t s e e m u n r e l a t e d a r e n o t : ict
ing correctly.
EXISTING LIGHT
Check Everything
Figure 36-31 To a « a d d o o o J " r - . v , tai •*> an eaating tight <we and c ied
Often, a customer will notice just one fault while other lights or system;, may not a relay Whenever the existing li£W • tared s* tie Co* of the relay s energized The arm ol
be working correctly For example, a customer noticed that the electric mirrors the relay then connects power enMe-jnsx 'jsei to He auxiliary kîti without
stopped working. The service technician checked all electrical component! -i onenoadng the easting ooat
ttie vehicle and discovered that the interior lights were also not working.
The interior lights were not mentioned by the customer as being a problem
most likely due to the fact that the driver only used the vehicle in daylight hours
The service technician found the interior light and power accessory fuse
blown. Replacing the fuse restored the proper operation of the electnc outside
mirror and the interior lights However, what caused the fuse to blow7 A . sual
nspection of the dome light, next to the electric sunroof, showed an area where
a wire was bare. Evidence was seen where the bare wire had touched the metal
roof, which could cause the fuse to blow. The technician covered the bare wire
with a section of vacuum hose and then taped the hose with electrical tape to
complete the repair.
USING SCHEMATICS F O R T R O U B L E S H O O T I N G
follow these s t e p s w h e n t r o u b l e s h o o t i n g w i r i n g p r o b l e m s .
Step #1 Verify t h e m a l f u n c t i o n . If, for e x a m p l e , t h e b a c k u p lights do

lot operate, m a k e c e r t a i n t h a t t h e ignition is o n (key o n , engine
°ff), with the gear s e l e c t o r in r e v e r s e , a n d c h e c k for operation of
the backup lights.
l)le
P 02 Check e v e r y t h i n g else t h a t d o e s or d o e s n o t o p e r a t e correctly.
For example, if t h e taillights a r e also failing to o p e r a t e , t h e profc
le
m could be a loose o r b r o k e n g r o u n d c o n n e c t i o n in t h e t r u n k
area that is shared by b o t h t h e b a c k u p lights a n d the taillights.
Figure 36-32 • - • • • - - • ; • - .. • • • -• • ^ •• ar»

testing MaySe a tai* r, another o n u t oonaoled D» 3ie same luse carfd have caused
Do It R i g h t — I n s t a l l a Relay •jsetcOBo Jse a test tgrve check mat ttthaoesof the fuse «mge.
, h e owner
* s of vehicles, especially owners of pickup trucks and sport Step < 3 C h e c k the f u s e for t h e b a c k u p lights. See Figure 3 6 - t
vehlclcs
,s te (SUVs), want to add additional electrical accessories or ightmg :
S t e p « 4 Check for voltage at t h e b a c k u p light s. . s e t T S . ar
^mptmg m these c a s e s t0 sjmp|y sp|jce jnto a n existing circuit Howeve- d o n e using a test light o r a voltmeter.
a n 0 H l e r c i r c u i t o r com
ihe r Ponent is added, the current that flows tri-ouc"
WtienM a d d 6 d c o m p o n e n t is a l s o
added to the current for the original MIT If voltage is available at t h e socket, t h e p r o t .em is either 2 Jefcc
simjl h S additional
' current can easily overload the fuse and * ng Oo not tive buib or a p o o r g r o u n d a t t h e s o c k e t o r a g r o u n d w i r e : r . « i c v . r.
for Insta
" 3 'arger-amperage fuse; the wire gauge size was not eng neered to t h e body o r frame. If n o v o l t a g e i s a r a i a b l e at t h e s o c t e t . c o n s t , * a
additional current and could overheat wiring diagram for t h e t y p e of vehicle being tested. T r e w t n n ; l s
netic J — ls t 0 l n s t a
" a
relay, which uses a small coil to . • its a mag- gram should s h o w all of t h e w i r i n g a n d c o m p o n e n t s ir*. u s e d r "i*
tyPlca| f that
Muses a movable arm to switch on a higher-cui rent c . u.t n>e circuit. For e x a m p l e , t h e b a c k u p light c u r r e n t m u s t 9 A dire «gr<
ano r eq e a y has from
50 to 150 ohms (usually 60 to 100 ohm-; of esrstence fuse and ignition s w i t c h to t h e gear selector r*Tfc.t " raven?*
small ^ | u s l 0 2 4 10
0-08 ampere when connected to a 12-volt w e e T
n<s t o t h e rear b a c k u p tight s o c k e t As s t a t e : * . ' e p
lite, 3 & m ° nal currenl
will not be enough to overload the eusting circuit See used for t h e b a c k u p lights m a y also o e used for ther -r..c.e : n a n a .
31
'or an example of how addibonal lighting can be added T h e w i r i n g d i a g r a m c a n b e u s e d t o d e t e r n u - e afi«.•.* e r s
n e n t s that s h a r e t h e s a m e fi. i . ii t ' fuse : eer
3C»
• . • . s suar.nj! the same to click w i t h all c i r c u i t c o m p o n e n t s u n p l u g the protj,..

. - r v r i must be switched on t h e wiring_/h?m t h e f u s e p a n e l to a n y o n e of j n i t s in the - I
- open - t h e s w i t c h can also Visual i n s p e c t i o n of all t h e w i r i n g o r f u r t h e ; :onnectin £ - I
' .nooning. n e c e s s a r y t o locate t h e p r o b l e m . ^>
Test Light Method To u s e t h i s m e t h o d , simply re,,,-

R E Q U E M T U ASKED QUESTION b l o w n f u s e a n d c o n n e c t a test light t o t h e t e r m i n a l s of the fuse -'
[polarity d o e s n o t m a t t e r ; . If t h e r e is a s h o r t circuit, current v 'f; |
r to Start? from t h e p o w e r side of t h e f u s e h o l d e r t h r o u g h t h e test light an- I
t o g r o u n d t h r o u g h t h e s h o r t c i r c u i t a n d t h e t e s t light will then I
m n e * z & z x r s artarv loss a ttcfiracor start »>e troubleshooting
U n p l u g t h e c o n n e c t o r s or c o m p o n e n t s p r o t e c t e d b y the fuse utit
M t i tJagrw i s d w u a W
test light goes out. T h e circuit t h a t w a s d i s c o n n e c t e d , which Q
' tt» - r r v crrtans 3 rway start yow diagnosis at the relay The t h e test light to go out, is t h e c i r c u i t t h a t is s h o r t e d .
car be tested at tne tenwuts of the relay
isescs- V K sseo s ID locate the UR*t on the schematic that is not Ohmmeter Method T h e f o u r t h m e t h o d u s e s an ohne
•crwsgatsf ar rW oortang correctly c o n n e c t e d to t h e f u s e h o l d e r a n d g r o u n d . T h i s is t h e recomrcp II
a. >ace tne jrat gets US ground connection m e t h o d of finding a s h o r t c i r c u i t , a s a n o h m m e t e r will;--. > I
: c p efierv the anil gets its power connection l o w o h m s w h e n c o n n e c t e d to a s h o r t c i r c u i t H o w e v e r , an ohr

j grtw< b used By more than one component. Therefore. t e r s h o u l d n e v e r b e c o n n e c t e d t o a n o p e r a t i n g circuit. The cot
--5--- ttiat everySwg is working correctly If not. then the p r o c e d u r e for l o c a t i n g a s h o r t u s i n g a n o h m m e t e r is as folic* I
tau* fiav «e at B*e common ground (or power) connection
1. Connect one lead of an o h m m e t e r (set t o a l o w scale) to a goc: I
i y * c c Tv t x a n ha» by locating a connector or a part of the circuit d e a n metal ground a n d t h e o t h e r lead t o t h e circuit side tit- I
o r b* accesvid easily Then check tor power and ground at this fuse holder.
•sopanr step could save you much time
Connecting the lead to the power side of the fuse hoW? 4

I O C A T W W A SHORT CIRCUIT cause current to flow through and damage to the ohmmetet
- ~ - . ually fc v s a f u s e , a n d a r e p l a c e m e n t fuse o f t e n
: : ' a r e r j p t to o c a t e t h e s o u r c e of t h e s h o r t circuit. A
2 . The ohmmeter will read z e r o or a l m o s t z e r o o h m s if the tin:
short circuit m <- • r t r i e - c o n n e c t i o n to a n o t h e r wire or to
shorted.
r. • -e t h e c u r r e n t flows t h r o u g h s o m e or all of t h e resis
3. Disconnect one c o m p o n e n t in t h e circuit at a time and w a r
- • • . - A s h o r t t o - g r o u n d will always blow a fuse and
ohmmeter. If the o h m m e t e r r e a d i n g g o e s to high ohms or ire
• - r a w -e o n t h * p o w e r side of t h e circuit c o m i n g in
the component just unplugged w a s t h e s o u r c e of the short a t
• - r r e ' a l Th - r e f o r e , a t h o r o u g h visual inspection should
- : a r o r d areas i n v o l v i n g h e a t or m o v e m e n t , especially
- f a p r e v i o u s collision o r previous repair that
•OTl Some meters, such as the Fluke 189, can be set to beep ••
- . • - > - beer, p r o p e r t y c o m p l e t e d .
whei the circuit doses or when the circuit opens. This is a verr u
- •- " ' j i - m a v o r m a y n o t c a u s e t h e fuse to blow and
feature.
ar.- her circ : t. Look for areas of heat or m o v e m e n t
* - -». - p o * e r w i r e s c o u l d c o m e tn c o n t a c t with each other.
5ei ~t ~ -.o<3s c a t b e u s e d t o locate t h e s h o r t . Gauss Gauge Method If a s h o r t c i r c u i t b l o w s a fuse, -
Fwe Reptacement Method [ c o n n e c t o n e c o m p o n e n t at a pulsing circuit breaker (similar t o a f l a s h e r u n i t ) can be instt
the circuit in place of t h e f u s e . C u r r e n t will f l o w through the r
• - -and t ^ p a c e t h e fuse. If the n e w fuse blows, continue the
until the circuit breaker o p e n s t h e c i r c u i t . As soon as tie -
, - JCOTJXI of t h e short Is determined. This method uses
r breaker opens t h e circuit, it closes a g a i n . T h i s onand-off curre"-
•Ear i'Zi - a p-eferred m e t h o d for finding a short circuit.
creates a pulsing m a g n e t i c field a r o u n d t h e w i r e carrying thf -
Q m m Breaker Method A n o t h e r method is to c o n n e c t an au- A G a u s s g a u g e is a h a n d h e l d m e t e r t h a t r e s p o n d s to v. can !
• • t contacts of the fuse holder w i t h alliga- fields. It is used to observe this p u l s i n g m a g n e t i c field, whic"
- • r o ' s a r e availab • that plug directly into the fuse cated on the gauge as n e e d l e m o v e m e n t . T h i s pulsing map •-
' •• - : - p e ' . f Thi- circuit breaker will alternately will register on t h e Gauss g a u g e e v e n t h r o u g h t h e metal r ^
r
j> r.* r •- \ protecting t h e wiring from possible over vehicle. A needle-type c o m p a s s c a n also b e u s e d to o b s e r v e
'» - • ' • - r " / l i n g c u r r e n t Bow through t h e circuit. ing magnetic field. See Figures 3 6 - 3 3 a n d 3 6 - 3 4 .
Electronic Tone Generator Tester A n electronic to

cart 1 br used In place ot a circuit > ator tester can be used to l o c a t e a s h o r t - t o - g r o u n d or an
W - A jnd «TT - Is must be rr.ade cuit. Similar to test e q u i p m e n t u s e d t o t e s t telephone
* t a * rwrwuliy p h i » » . ••;- in lines, a t o n e g e n e r a t o r t e s t e r g e n e r a t e s a t
be heard t h r o u g h a receiver ( p r o b e I . S e e Figure 3 6 - 3 5
T h e t o n e will be g e n e r a t e d as l o n g a s t h e r e is a 0
A y w r r n jitJ. def< cttve circuit should b e dis- electrical path a l o n g t h e circuit. T h e signal will stop ij
<0B*er'*f. at $ Xante .r< • w e a k e r stops clicking. T h e open 1 b r e a k | or short t o - g r o u n d in t h e c i r c u i t . See Fig"
<tr.,t tffir* v n t A w M o e e t e d < i w i tf* " reult b r e a k e r clicking and 3 6 - 3 7 o n page 3 8 0 . T h e w i n d i n g s in t h e solenoids
B the mu askfti ft* titer . . . ,.rf r breaker continues will increase t h e strength of t h e signal in t h e s e locations-
Chap W.TigScherna!i«.arvlTr(»ubiK^>^>nfl 3/
Figure 36-35 * tonegfî'.-typeteiter used to locate &t>Ms art v .'stha!

are shortej-to-gror-l Incl/fc? testr is a trans^-Ser (tone generator; rewire;
(probe), and headphones fer me <-, W j
i
Heat or Movement
Electrical shorts are a r r r , caused effher bj move-^!, aftch causes fte

Insulatiofi around the wi'-'<s to be wcer a*-;y, or by heat me'Ong the insufafcffl
When checkin; lor a Short c-'c-y, frit (he w!-ing thai Is fcscrfObfc to
heat, movement, and (ferriage
1. Heal Wiring near tea* so.rces. as the erfvau? system, dg-ette

Bghle-. or generalc
2. Nto mmttnefi Wring tret moves, sufih as ir area'- near ft* to.
ft» trunk, or hood
.CMMiL. . —.—' ... . —-—: I 3. Damage Wiring subje^ to mechatoa' tijurj su* • as r Ihe truoi
——————————————————————
heavy objects car move arcs/*! and of damage «ri-ir)g The cart
F - jure 36-33 ta) After removing the blown luse, a pulsing circuit breaker is connected to
also occur as a resjf o> ar ac&ie--'. or a preAvs repair
- • terminals of Ihe fuse, (bj The circuit breaker causes current to flow, then stop, then flow
a - through the circuit up to the point ol the short-to-ground. By observing the Gauss
•f tie location of the short is indicated near where the needle stops moving due to the
agnebc field created by the flow ol cunent throuQh the wire.
J j J J J j j / ] Wiggle Test
Intermittent electrical problems ve co^>.>" jet Sfcu". to locate Tors.,- vxate

these hartfto-firefproWe^s, tr> opraJoj Ihe t»cu;1 and start wggsng
wires and comectons lhat ccntrc' 9>e droit K n douM ft'-e-e Ihe wiring goer-
try moving ar the winng staging at the battery Pa> particular attention to *rvig
running nea- Ihe batteo or the windsfwy was-V? coruine: Coros«y> can
cause wiring to taJ. am! battery ack) fumes and alcohol-base! *•>Jsr^d
washer fluid can s t a l or contribute to the problem. I you notice any ciKange b
the operation o' the device be tested wtv'e wiggSng ihe wnop. toe* c<oser to
the area you were w>ggrnj untii the actua; problem is located and corrects"!
E L E C T R I C A L T R O U B L E S H O O T I N G GUIDE
W h e n t r o u b l e s h o o t i n g a n y electrical c o m p o n e n t , remember the
following h i n t to find t h e p r o b l e m faster a n d m o r e eas?y.
AFFECTED CIRCUIT
1. For a device to w o r k , it must h a v e t w o t h i n l y p o w e r and p < -ur>d
GAUSS GAUGE 2 . If there is no p o w e r to a device, an open p o w e r side .Kc w r 1
OSCILLATING BACK
etc.) is indicated.
AND FORTH UNTIL
GAUGE REACHES 3 . If there Is p. w e t on both sides of a device, ar grc a t i
POINT OF SHORT indicated.
CIRCUIT 4. Ha fuse blow* Imjnediately. a j j i u n d e d power - if wire Is Lid cated
5. Most elecfical f a u l t resuit from heat or m o v e : er.:
•'<1 A
k u s s gauge can be used to determine the location ol a short circuit even 6 . Most noncomputer-contro'led device^ operate b> o p e n l y and
•naipar*!.
closing the power side of the a r c j ' power sicV switch
3BP SET ,
LOAD SIDE
OF FUSE TERMINAL
GOOD CHASSIS
3 Q T GROUND
Kv<i)))
VLOCATION OF
SHORT-TO-GROUND
0 O T -
» - 3 $ * - . : - ' > ' r a s f - " t o - g r o u n d using a tone generate, connect the black transmitter lead to a good chassis ground and the red lead to the load side of the hiseterminal v
T a r s - tfer 7 and c - w k for t s i g n a l with the receiver Using a wmng diagram, fotow the strongest signal to the location of the short-to-ground. There will be no signal beyond tfeia
LOAD SIDE
OF FUSE TERMINAL
RED LEAD BLACK LEAD
TONE
GENERATOR
LOCATION OF
OPEN
3 n r
?
36-37 - - . • ar openiDrea*, conned the red lead of the tone generator to the load side of the fuse terminal and the black lead to
• « i^nai with me receiver aet m the open position Using a winng diagram follow the signal along the circuit until the tone stops, indicating Ihe location of the ope"
7. : : / - --controlled devices operate by opening and closing

b. Under what conditions does t h e p r o b l e m occur?
gr d side of t h e circuit (ground-side switch|.
c. Have there been any recent repairs to t h e vehicle which
could have created t h e problem?
2 . Verify the customer's concern by actually observing the fau-:-
S T E P - B Y - S T E P TROUBLESHOOTING PROCEOURE 3. Perform a thorough visual inspection and be sure to check
•' • ' r - - Hid b e d o n e a n d w h e n is a major c o n c e r n for everything that does and does n o t w o r k .
~ " ' s t o repair an electrical p r o b l e m . T h e follow- 4 . Check for technical service bulletins (TSBs). „„,
- . p - v --•:. re -.a-, beer. Seid t e - / e d for m a n y years and provides a 5. Check the factory service information and follow the trout) -
- ,fir P th e n t r o u b l e s h o o t i n g an electrical fault. ing procedure.
a. Determine h o w the circuit w o r k s lVnai
I. -v ' t o m e - c o n c e r n ' c o m p l a i n t | and get as m u c h
b. Determine which part of the circuit is good, based o
.*"''.."- a f t . - . as p o o t b i e (rorn t h e c u s t o m e r or service advisor,
works and what does n o t w o r k
a. w prot.K.-. H a r t ?
c. Isolate the problem area
Wiring Setamat anOTroirW Wting 381
3. List rhree ID : JT can be used to help locate a start circuit.

- S pii, the circuit In half to help I start ai die 4. Desi. De ho A ID use a tone generator to locate a short circuit.
,y, if the circuit has a relay).
C H A P T E R QUIZ
e D e t e r m i n e the root c a u s e a n d repair t h e vehicle- 1. O n a w r i n g diagram. SI 10 with a ".8 BRN/BLK " means .
7 Verify the repair a n d c o m p l e t e t h e r e p a i r nrd< P a. ' -cui' ».8, spitced under the hood
the three C's ( c o m p l a i n t , c a u s e , a n d c o r r e c t i o n ! b . A con err r with 0.8 square millimeter wire
c . A sr ' a t • wr, ••» - black stripe, wire size being 0 . 8 STjare
\
millimeters 118-gauge AWG)
Shocking Experience d . Both a and b
2. Where is connector C 2 5 0 ?
A customer complained that after driving for a while, he got a shock wi- ,,;r a. I r.der the bood
tne door handle was grabbed when exiting the vehicle. The customer thought b. Under - t e dash
ttiat there must be an electrical fault and that the shock was coming from the c. In the passenger corr.partmen-
vetiide itself. In a way, the shock was caused by the vehicle, but it was not a d. In the trunk
tault. The service technician sprayed the cloth seats and carpet with an antista- 3. AI.. .v • ••• . - •:-.rai\ are .
tic spray and the problem did not reoccur. Obviously, a static charge was being a. Showr in t h e j normal p tion
created by the movement of the driver's clothing on the seats and then dis- b. Always sr. wn n tfceU or. pos ' »
c. Aiwa-A shown in their off p o s n or.
charged when the driver touched the metal door handle. See Figure 36-38.
d. S- AT. ' - : . • ;-.:• • .- lighting v :he
4. When testing a relav usaig an vnr^neret which two terminals should be
touched to measure the co3 r e .nance?
a. 8 7 and 30
b. 86 and 8 5
c. 87a and 8 7
d. 86 and 8 7
5 . Technician A says that a good reiav should measure between 6 0 and
100 ohms across die coil terminals. Technician B says that OL should be
displayed on an ohmmeter w h e n touching terminals 30 and 87. Which
c. Both Technicians A ant: 3
d. Neither TechrJd2E A HOT S
6. Which relay terminal is tbe normally dosed I N . G I terminal?
a. 30
b. 85
c. 87
d. 87a
7. Technician A sav> inat " e r e s iter m ; :e tnan - e c u n _ : ce n ; r::-:ec*ei
by each fuse. Technician B says mat mare d u n one arcuit often shares a
single ground connBctot Which technician is correct?
f|
gure 36-3J Antistatic spray can be used to stop customers from being shocked when a. Technician A :NLV
% touch a metal obiect like the door handle. b. Technician B n.'v
c. Both Technicians A a n d B
d. Ne . ler Techn nan A n B
SUMMARY^
8. Two techn,cans are discussing Enitng a tort ' >ground using a •-.- • ght
Most wiring diagrams include the wire color, circuit number, and wire
Technician A says that the test light, connected in place of the fuse. wt_.
gauge.
light when the circuit that has the short is disconnected. Technician B says
2
- The number used to identify connectors, grounds, and splices usually in- that the test light should be connected to the positive i + and negative 1 -
dicates where they are located in the vehicle. terminals of the battery during this test Which technician is correct'
^ Îtches and relays shown on a schematic are shown in their norma: a. Tfechn c :an A on
Position either normally closed (N.C.) or normally open (N.O.|. b. Technician B onlv
• A short-to-voltage affects the power side of the circuit and usually in c Both Technicians A and ?
vt
"ves more than one circuit. d. Ne ther T e i - m c a n A nor B
0. A short circuit can be located using a
• A stion-to-ground usually causes the fuse to blow and usually affects on!.
one circuit. a. Test light
b. Gauss gauge
• Most electrical faults are a result of heat or movement. c. Tone generator
d. .All of the above
10. For an electrical device to operate, it must have
(QUESTIONS
a. Power and a ground
' ^ numbers used on schematics to indicate grounds, splices, and b. A switch and a fuse
Sectors and when they are used In the vehicle. c. A ground and fusible Unit
' Jst a n d Identify the terminals of a typical relay. d. A relay to transfer the current to the device
37
C H A P T E R
Capacitance and Magnetis
e&jt ' VCS After studying Chapter 37, the reader will be able to: Prepare for ASE Electrical/Electronic S y s t e m s (A6) certification test conte
-A Ge - ii E ectncatîectronic Systems) • Explain capacitance. • Describe magnetism. • Describe electromagnetism. • Explain how electr
can create magnetism and how magnetism can create electricity.
<Ft ' t P W S armature • capacitance • condenser • counter electromotive force (CEMF) • dielectric • e c o i l • electromagnetic induction
• etectrcmagnebc interference (EMI) • electromagnetics • farads • flux density • high energy ignition (HEI) • ignition coil • ignition control
.•noduie V • induced voltage • left-hand rule • lenz'slaw • leydenjar • magnetic flux lines • magnetism • mutual induction • permeabit
• K»ar<tv • pole • pnmary winding • radio choke coil • radio-frequency interference (RFI) • relative motion • relay • reluctance • right
rote • secondary winding • self-induced voltage • turns ratio
CAPACITANCE CAPACITOR CONSTRUCTION A N D OPERATION

C a p a c i t a n c e is t h e ability of an object or surface to store a n elec- A c a p a c i t o r consists of t w o c o n d u c t i v e p l a t e s w i t h an insulating
tr. cal charge. Around 1745, Ewald Christian von Kliest and Pieter terial b e t w e e n t h e m . T h e i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l is commonly cafe
'.-an M u s s c h e n b r o e k independently discovered capacitance in an d i e l e c t r i c . A dielectric is a s u b s t a n c e t h a t is a poor conduct'/
e.ectrlc c i r c u i t While engaged in separate studies of electrostatics, electricity a n d can i n c l u d e air, m i c a , c e r a m i c , glass, paper, plai
the.- discovered that an electric charge could be stored for a period or a n y similar n o n c o n d u c t i v e m a t e r i a l . T h e dielectric constat:
:' t i ~ e . T h e y w e r e using a device, n o w called a L e y d e n j a r , t h a t t h e relative s t r e n g t h of a m a t e r i a l a g a i n s t t h e f l o w of electrical
c .r.sisted of a glass jar filled with water, w i t h a nail p i e r c i n g t h e r e n t . T h e higher t h e n u m b e r , t h e b e t t e r t h e insulating properties.
topper and dipping into the water. See Figure 3 7 - 1 .
They connected the nail to an electrostatic c h a r g e . After dis-
connecting the nail from the source of t h e c h a r g e , t h e y f o u n d t h a t a Material Dielectric Constant
shock could be felt by touching the nail, d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t t h e de-
Vacuum 1.0
vice had stored t h e charge.
Air 1.00059
In 1747, J o h n Bevis lined both t h e inside and o u t s i d e of t h e jar
Polystyrene 2.5
with foil This created a capacitor w i t h t w o c o n d u c t o r s (the inside
and outside metal foil layers) equally s e p a r a t e d by t h e insulating Paper 3.5
gass. The Leyden jar w a s also used by B e n j a m i n Franklin to store Mica 5.4
"-he charge from lightning and w a s also used in o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t s . Rlnt glass 9.9
T he natural p h e n o m e n o n of lightning includes capacitance because Methyl alcohol 35
r. -ge ftiectric fields develop b e t w e e n cloud layers or b e t w e e n Glycerin 56.2
GOUC and the earth prior to a lightning strike. Pure water 81
SPARK
\ W h e n a capacitor is placed in a closed circuit, the voltage
(battery) forces e l e c t r o n s a r o u n d t h e c i r c u i t . Because elec ^
not flow t h r o u g h t h e dielectric of t h e capacitor, excess ^
collect on w h a t b e c o m e s t h e n e g a t i v e l y c h a r g e d plate - ^
time, t h e o t h e r plate loses e l e c t r o n s a n d , t h e r e f o r e , bee
f
tively charged. See Figure 3 7 - 2 . h e capaci'- '
C u r r e n t c o n t i n u e s until t h e v o l t a g e c h a r g e across t ij-

plates b e c o m e s t h pe camp
tes herr>mp<; s a m e a<
as trhp v o l t a g e At T , ,f the t^
h e cs on un r cr e voltage.
terminal
negative plate of t h e capacitor a n d t h e n e g a t i v e I ine|
tery are at t h e s a m e negative p o t e n t i a l . S e e Figure 3 / ^ ^
tive plate of t h e capacitor a n d t h e positive terminal 0 ^
are also at equal positive potentials. T h e r e is t h e n a v ^
across t h e battery terminals and an e q u a l voltage c h a £ n 0 oV ! \
capacitor plates. T h e circuit is in b a l a n c e , a n d there ^ P
An electrostatic field n o w exists b e t w e e n t h e c a P a L e , ; e(1er?3''
cause of their opposite charges. It is t h i s field t h a t stor
Figure 3 7 - 4 . cWrf
If the circuit ts o p e n e d , t h e c a p a c i t o r will not'u j t Cn

it is connected into an e x t e r n a l circuit t h r o u g h w ^ ^ m ' -
J
charge. W h e n the charged capacitor is c o n n e c t e d to ^ capa<-
Figure 3 7 - 1 * & at -r. .mH tc, store an electrical charge
cult, it discharges. After discharging, b o t h plates 0
382
PLATT
»*RRC*' KIT* TO*
•Wv
MTTMV
fr awrTCM/ gLtcnwn -
CAMOTOM
CHAKOMC
•p.' ' | v i
3 ! - FLOW
DIELECTRIC
CAWtaron
owcxAAoaM
M f JT-2 TOa simple capacitor, made ot two plates separated by an mMttng

T.itenal. * called a dielectric.
NEGATIVE PLATE —
%
EXCESS ELECTRONS
Figure 37-5
- i '
T '7 m L
ne-
BATTERY . ELECTRON CAP
CAPACITOR
FLOW ]
FIXED CAPtCrrOHS
POSITIVE PLATE —
DEFICIENCY OF ELECTRONS
Figure 37-3 As the capacitor is charging, the battery forces electrons through Ihe arcut
/ARLABLE CAFMCTTORS
Rgure 37-6
ELECTROSTATIC The larger the surface area of we puces, the greater the capac:
FIELD BETWEEN tance. This is because m a t e electrons coJec: on a arger piate area
CAPACITOR PLATES than on a small one.
The closer die pares are s» eacn other, nhe zreater the capaci-
Figure 37-4 When the capacitor is charged, there is equal voltage across the capacitor tance. This is because a stronger electrostatic fteid exists between
w
the battery An electrostaticfieldexists between the capacitor plates No arret*flowsr chained bodies that ate :.ose logeihet
meartuit The ins'jjatjng qualities of the dielectric material also affect
capacitance. The capacitance of a c a p a r . o : a higher . ' the (fieiec
are neutral because all the energy from a circuit stored in a capaci trie is a very good insulatot
•oris returned w h e n it is discharged. See Figure 3 7 - 5 .
M e a s u r e m e n t of C a p a c i t a n c e Capi - r . -
Theoretically, a capacitor holds its charge indefinitely. Actually,
farads, which is named - .Ma - *>; Fara:, 1701 I fit" -
'he charge slowly leaks off t h e capacitor through the dielectric. The
symbol far farads a F. If a charge of 1 COL jmb is placed or the
re'ter the dielectric, the longer the capacitor holds its charge. To
plates of a capacitor and the potential difference between them ft
aroid an electrical shock, any capacitor should be treated as if it
I volt the capacitance s then defined to be I ' a n d . One couiorofc
'*«re charged until it is proven to be discharged. See Rgure 3 7 - 6
is equal to the charge of 6.25 x 10" electrons. One farad a ar,
'or the symbol for capacitors as used in electrical schematics.
extremely large quantity of capacitance, fciicrofefa® O.OOOOC
farac or fiF are more commonly used.
The capadtance of a capactor is proportional® die quar:.f> if
" " t Capacitors are also called condensers This (arm developed be
tause electric charges collect, or condense, on the plates of a capac r charge that can be stored in it far each voit Ji/ference .n poreraa
Mi like water vapor collects and condenses on a cold bottle or glass. between its plates:
C = Q/K
Where C is capacitance in ferads. Ots the quancry of stored
ACTORS OF CAPACITANCE electrical charge in coulombs, and K is the difference a p o t e m *
-apacftance Is governed by three factors: in vote.
Therefore, stored electric charge can he <
, • surface area of the plates formula:
« distance between the plates
^dielectric material o= cv
384 SfCTWNVS
The d i - v r e n c c in or voltage of the capacitor can be plate. Decreasing the distance b e t w e e n t h e incwasi
calculated u s i n g t h e f o r m u l a : trostatii. attraction b e t w e e n t h e m , w h i c h r< i a Btiw"
to the negative plate. As ihe d i a p h r a g m flu out | n r
V Q/C sound waves, the diaphragm m o v e s f a r t h e r I m the
Increasing t h e distance b e t w e e n t h e plates d e c n , t h e eipn
CAPACITOR USES attraction between t h e m . This results in a flow i>1 current I,,!,
positive plate. These alternating flows of c u r r e n t provide we' ,
Because a capacitor stores a voltage charge, it opposes, or slows
tronlc signals which travel to an amplifier a n d then to a Ioud< ( .
d o w n . any voltage c h a n g e in a circuit. Therefore, capacitors are often
use\l a- voltage " s h o c k absorbers." You s o m e t i m e s find a capacitor
Capacitors in Parallel Circuits Capacitance can t,
a t t a c h e d to o n e t e r m i n a l of an ignition coil, in this application, the
creased in a circuit by c o n n e c t i n g c a p a c i t o r s in parallel, as
capacitor absorbs a n d d a m p s c h a n g e s in ignition voltage that inter
in Figure 3 7 - 8 .
fere w i t h radio r e c e p t i o n .
We k n o w that capacitance of a c a p a c i t o r can be increased
C apacitors are u s e d in m a n y ways in electronic circuits, such
increasing the size of its plates. C o n n e c t i n g t w o or more capac
as acting as barriers to direct currents, storing memory in a com-
in parallel in effect increases plate size. Increasing plate area a
p u t e r c h i p , or s t o r i n g a charge for an electronic flash camera.
it possible to store m o r e c h a r g e a n d t h e r e f o r e creates greater ca
itance. To determine total c a p a c i t a n c e of several parallel capac;
A Capacitor M a k e s an Excellent Sound simply add up their individual values. T h e following is the fort
T E C H TIP for calculating total capacitance in a circuit containing capacito
S y s t e m Noise Filter
parallel:
Interference in a sound system or radio is usually due to alternating current (AC)
C r = C, + Q + C , -
voltage created somewhere in the vehicle, such as in the alternator (AC genera-
tori A capacitor: Capacitors in Series Circuits C a p a c i t a n c e can be decre
• Blocks the flow of direct current (DC) in a circuit by capacitors in series, as s h o w n in Figure 37-9.
• Allows alternating current (AC) to pass We k n o w that capacitance of a c a p a c i t o r can be decrease
placing the plates farther apart. C o n n e c t i n g t w o or more ca;
By connecting a capacitor (also known as a condenser) to the power lead tors in series in effect increases t h e d i s t a n c e between the p
ot the radio or sound system amplifier, the AC voltage passes through the and thickness of the dielectric, t h e r e b y d e c r e a s i n g the amour
capacitor to the ground where the other end of the capacitor is connected. capacitance.
Therefore the capacitor provides a path for the AC without affecting the DC The following is the formula for c a l c u l a t i n g total capacitan<
power circuit. See Figure 37-7 a circuit containing t w o capacitors in series:
C, X Q
1
CT —
Computer Memory In most cases, the main memory of a com- c, + c2
p u t e r is a high-speed random-access m e m o r y (RAM). One type of
m a i n memory, called d y n a m i c random-access memory (DRAM), is
t h e m o s t c o m m o n l y used type of RAM. A single memory chip is
m a d e u p of several million m e m o r y cells, in a DRAM chip, each
m e m o r y cell consists of a capacitor. W h e n a capacitor ts electrically
charged, it is said to store the binary digit 1, and w h e n discharged,
it represents 0 .
Condenser Microphones A microphone converts sound waves

into an electric signal. All microphones have a diaphragm that vi-
brates as sound waves strike. The vibrating diaphragm in turn causes
an electrical c o m p o n e n t to create an output flow of current at a fre-
q u e n c v proportional to the sound waves. A condenser microphone
uses a capacitor for this purpose.
Figure 37-8 Capacitors in parallel effectively increase the capacitance
In a condenser microphone, the diaphragm is the negatively
charged plate of a charged capacitor. When a sound wave com-
presses the diaphragm, the diaphragm is moved closer to the positive
AC INTERFERENCE AMPLIFIER
OR RADIO
• 12 V FROM BATTERY
OR GENERATOR
(ALTERNATOR)
m
—m
CAPACITOR j
Figure 3 7 - 7 A capw 'tor biodis direct current (DC) but passes alternating current (ACi
4 cup* aw ' • >kn a very go™i noe/- suppressor because most ol the inlerterence Is AC and
tne OMXC itrv * • londuct thu AC to groiM before it can reach the radio or amplifier Figure 37-9 Capacitors in aeries decrease the capacitance
JW
yoff: capacitors i r e often used to

^ • f o r m M " ' « f • Wghpow. ir
"an,ih frt ' orc ' I*- added by a t U c f t t u g .
FUNDAMENTALS O F M A G N E T I S M
Magnetism n a f o r m of e m ,y
electrons in s o m e m a t e r i a l s . It is r e c o g i md •
erts on other m a t e r i a l s . L i k e e l e c t r i c i t y , m a g n - ' s m c .nc t* magnetic flux
flu* lines,
It can be e x p l a i n e d in t h e o r y , h o w e v e r , b e e -
the results of m a g n e t i s m a n d r e c o g n i z e t h e a c 11 •
Plujt density
Iron ore e x i s t s a s a m a g n e t in n a t u r e . S " f- . - r 37- i
other materials c a n be artificially m a g n e t i z e d to some
depending u p o n t h e i r a t o m i c s t r u c t u r e . S o f t i r o r . /ery ea
magnetize, w h i l e s o m e m a t e r i a l s - s u c h as a l u m i n u m , g k . i
and p l a s t i c — c a n n o t b e m a g n e t i z e d a t all.
TECH TIP A C r a c k e d M a g n e t B e c o m e s Two M a g n e t s
Magnets are commonly used in vehicle crankshaft, camshaft, and wheei s p e « a t h i n m a g n e t o r rr

sensors. If a magnet is struck and cracks or breaks the result « t w o s ^ a «r n e e d i e wtU roast
strength magnets Because the strength of the magnetic field e reduced the The n e e - ? can be r^rn fieldi. Sim
censor output voltage is also reduced A typical problem occurs when a "W"«6c a smatl m a g n e t , i c a r k e d N an
crankshaft sensor becomes cracked, resulting in a no-start condition Some-
U M the cracked sensor works well enough to start an engine that is crartwg
»t normal speeds but will not work when the engine is cold See Figure 37-1 1
_
Lines o f F o r c e T h e l i n e s t h a t c r e a t e a field of f o r c e a r o u n d a
magnet are b e l i e v e d t o b e c a u s e d b y t h e w a y g r o u p s of a t o m s a r e
aligned in t h e m a g n e t i c m a t e r i a l . In a b a r m a g n e t , t h e l i n e s a r e
concentrated a t b o t h e n d s of t h e b a r a n d f o r m c l o s e d , parallel loops
-tetsrr QUOA " t e Moras r a m a j n e <mam r m a e :

tor t» o r a n m c tne I W * M I >MR»
i tan "rmrr ".WW
kMoHs --atrwteT
figure 37-
10 A freely suspended natural magnet win port kwwtl • »
"Wtipole
K a n 37-17 A
1 Mr •»*?•«
majnet breaks or a cnckrt * beoo -**»
materials. As with electricity, magnetic fot ">ws the
least resistance. path m
ELECTROMAGNETISM
Scientists did n o t d i s c o v e r t h a t c u r r e n t - c a r r y i r nducto^^l
s u r r o u n d e d by a m a g n e t i c field u n t i l 1820. I , fields! ^ .
m a d e m a n y t i m e s s t r o n g e r t h a n t h o s e s u r r o u n d i n g conven-
m a g n e t s . Also, t h e m a g n e t i c field s t r e n g t h a r o u n d a conductor
b e c o n t r o l l e d by c h a n g i n g t h e c u r r e n t . As c u r r e n t increases •
flux lines a r e c r e a t e d a n d t h e m a g n e t i c field e x p a n d s . As cur-
decreases, the magnetic field c o n t r a c t s , o r collapses. This .
place w h e n t h e c u r r e n t is s h u t o f f . T h e s e d i s c o v e r i e s greatly broa
e n e d t h e practical u s e s of m a g n e t i s m a n d o p e n e d an area o f sta*
k n o w n as e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c s .
Creating an Electromagnet A m a g n e t can b e created in

m a g n e t i z i n g a p i e c e of i r o n o r s t e e l o r b y u s i n g electricity to make
an e l e c t r o m a g n e t . An e a s y w a y t o c r e a t e a n electromagnet is
w r a p a nail w i t h 2 0 t u r n s of i n s u l a t e d w i r e a n d connect the en
3 7 - 1 3 k t r filings on a compass can be used to observe the magnetic lines ot
to t h e t e r m i n a l s of a 1,5-volt d r y cell b a t t e r y . W h e n energized, fe
wee
nail will b e c o m e a m a g n e t a n d will b e a b l e t o pick up tacks s
o t h e r small s t e e l o b j e c t s .
UNLIKE
ATTRACT TECH TIP J J Electricity a n d M a g n e t i s m
Electricity and magnetism are closely related because w h e n e v e r an elecf<:

current is flowing through a conductor, a magnetic field is created When a y
ductor is moved through a magnetic field, an electrical current i s created U s
relationship can be summarized as follows
• Electricity creates magnetism.

• Magnetism creates electricity
F i g u r e 3 7 - 1 4 Magnetic poles behave like electrically charged parades—unlike poles
a n a m a me poles repel From a service technician's point ot view, this Is Important because wns
carrying current should always be routed as the factory intended to avoid cans
ing interference with another circuit or electronic c o m p o n e n t This is espeoat.
Attracting or Repelling T h e p o l e s of a m a g n e t a r e called n o r t h
important when installing or servicing spark plug wires, which catty high
N a r . : s o u t h |S b e c a u s e , w h e n a m a g n e t is s u s p e n d e d freely, t h e
and can cause a lot of electromagnetic Interference
p. i e s t e n d t o p o i n t t o w a r d t h e N o r t h a n d S o u t h Poles of t h e Earth.
M a g n e t i c flux lines exit f r o m t h e n o r t h pole and bend around
t o e n t e r t h e s o u t h p o l e . A n e q u a l n u m b e r of lines e x i t a n d e n t e r , so
m a g n e t i c f o r c e is e q u a l a t b o t h p o l e s of a m a g n e t . Flux lines a r e Straight Conductor The magnetic field surrounding
c o n c e n t r a t e d a t t h e p o l e s , a n d t h e r e f o r e m a g n e t i c f o r c e (flux d e n - straight, c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g c o n d u c t o r c o n s i s t s of several concent-

sir/ s s t r o n g e r at t h e e n d s . cylinders of f l u x t h a t a r e t h e l e n g t h of t h e w i r e . T h e c u r r e n t ® '
M a g n e t i c p o l e s b e h a v e like p o s i t i v e l y a n d n e g a t i v e l y c h a r g e d ( a m p e r e s ] d e t e r m i n e s h o w m a n y f l u x l i n e s (cylinders) there«
p : - W h e n u n l i k e p o l e s a r e p l a c e d c l o s e t o g e t h e r , t h e lines exit b e and h o w far o u t t h e y e x t e n d f r o m t h e s u r f a c e of the wire.
fr< m o n * - n a g n e t a n d e n t e r t h e o t h e r . T h e t w o m a g n e t s a r e pulled Figure 3 7 - 1 5 .
t r ^ e t h e r b y f l u x l i n e s . If like p o l e s a r e p l a c e d c l o s e t o g e t h e r , t h e
c u r . . n ; fl JX n e s m e e t h e a d - o n , forcing the m a g n e t s apart. There-
f o r ? . ....--• p o i e s of a m a g n e t r e p e l a n d t h e u n l i k e p o l e s a t t r a c t . See
figure 37-14.
Permeability M a g n e t i c f l u x l i n e s c a n n o t b e i n s u l a t e d . T h e r e is
K n o w n m a t e r i a l t h r o u g h w h i c h m a g n e t i c f o r c e d o e s n o t p a s s , if
t h e f o r c e is s t r o n g e n o u g h . However, s o m e materials allow the
f jrce • p : th ) izh m o r e e a s i l y t h a n o t h e r s . T h i s d e g r e e of p a s s a g e
1 permeability. I r o n a l l o w s m a g n e t i c flux lines t o pass
thro m - : h m o r e e a s i l y t h a n air, s o i r o n Is v e r y p e r m e a b l e .
Reluctance Vt- - •:.• rr- is n o a b s o l u t e i n s u l a t i o n for m a g n e t

i; m , c e r t a n m a t e r i a l s re >ist t h e p a s s a g e of m a g n e t i c f o r c e . T h i s c a n
b e c o m p a r e d t o r e s i s t a n t «• w i t h o u t a n electrical circuit. Air d o e s n o t
i pa-, .a* . .. - r t - a h i g h r e l u c t a n c e . M a g n e t i c flux lines
••nd I c o n - c e n t r a t e In p e r m e a b l e m a t e r i a l s a n d avoid reluctant Figure 3 7 - 1 5 A magnetic Held suirounds a • m i g h t , current carrying condu1
U W 37 U I M d t l K * M l m
and RiflW-Hand R u l e s f Motor Principle Electric motors, such as autumr \irter

ton |ust as the flux lines surrom mot • ijy> (hit fteid interaction to convert electrical energs • r>
Hon.' l' he left
" —hand rule met lanital energy, if two conductors carryini current to oppc 't
miction. When you grasp a conductor llrecuonj are placed between strong north and south poles, tbe
'rl ihumb points in the direction ol < magnetic field of the conductor Interacts wtth the majpetk fields
riiflh Id thf of the poles The clockwisefieldof the top conductor adds to the
in, e
,the
„,,conductor, yourllni»c
„Tni>Hr flu* fingers
V, I
' Hon of the mmagnetic flux lines s. h . ftekh of " e po n tod creates a strong field beneath the nduct<>t
Most automotive circuit use tht al theory of cur Hw conductor 'hen tries to move up to get out of this strong Held.
,nt i* to ). and therefore, the right-hand rule] used to deter The counierciodntfvefielderf the lower conductor adds to the field
mine the direction of the magnetic flux in ure 37-17. of the poles and creates i strong field above the conduc tne The
conductor tbeo tnes to move down to pit out of this strong field.
Field Interaction The cylinders of Thesefarcescaase the center of 'he motot, where the cooductors
conductors interact with other mat
c a r r y i n g fields are mounted, to tun dockwise. See Figure 37-19.
l o w i n g Illustrations, the cross symbol | + | indicatf current rr.-,
inward, o r a w a y from you. It represents the tail of an arrov Coil Conductor are nto«
dot symbol (-1 represents an arrowhead and indicat magnetic flu* densty s strengthened. Rui nes around a coil we
moving o u t w a r d . If two conductors carry current • 'he same is the fiui toes around a bar najBiet. See Figure 37 20.
directions, t h e i r magnetic fields also carry current In oppo They en; from the n o r pale ir.j en'er at the south pole, list the
directions ( a c c o r d i n g to the left-hand rule). If they are placed side left-hand thread r i e » deter- a * the north poJe of a cotl, «
bv side, t h e opposing flux lines between the conductors create a shown to Figife 37 2J G n * p the cod wtth your left hand so that
strong m a g n e t i c field. Current-carrying conductors lend
out of a s t r o n g field into a weak field, so the conduc irs e
away from e a c h o t h e r . S e e F i g u r e 3 7 - 1 8 .
If the two conductors carry current in the same direction, ti eir
fidds are In the same direction. The flux lines between the 11
conductors cancel each other out, leaving a very weak field be
ween them. T h e conductors are drawn into this weak field, ar d
they tend to move toward each other.
Route 37-19 •
"Sure 3 7 - 1 6 The left-hand rule (or magnetic Held direction is used * •

theory.
CURRENT FLOW
/
MAGNETIC FIELD
ftgm H-H "*» iimh m i %a
f,guro 3 7
" 1 7 r i n right-hand rule tor maonetic told tfiioctio - .and * " "
^ " O o n a l tlwory ot electron (low
37
A, ' 8 Conductor* with opposmfl mauiwt* MOs * *
SEC'tON f>
RELAY ARMA
COIL
" I n n n n n n l l .
F i g u r e 3 7 - 2 2 An iron core concentrates the magnetic lines ot force surrounding a coil.
Figure 37-23 This figure shows an electromagnetic relay
•'our fingers p o i n t in t h e d i r e c t i o n of e l e c t r o n f l o w ; y o u r t h u m b will

p o m t t o w a r d t h e n o r t h p o l e of t h e coil. T h e m a g n e t i c field of a coil TO SWITCH
c a n b e s t r e n g t h e n e d b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e n u m b e r of t u r n s in t h e w i r e , BATTERY + CONTACTS
•M
b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e c u r r e n t t h r o u g h t h e coil, o r b o t h . t t
+ f1 TO UNIT
CONTROL
Electromagnets The m a g n e t i c field s u r r o u n d i n g a c u r r e n t -
CIRCUIT
*•
(HEAVY CURRENT)
c a r r y i n g c o n d u c t o r c a n b e s t r e n g t h e n e d b y u s i n g a soft-iron c o r e . (LIGHT
B e c a u s e s o f t i r o n is v e r y p e r m e a b l e , m a g n e t i c f l u x l i n e s p a s s CURRENT)
t h r o u g h it easily. If a p i e c e of s o f t i r o n is p l a c e d i n s i d e a coiled con-
d u c t o r . t h e D u x l i n e s c o n c e n t r a t e in t h e i r o n c o r e , r a t h e r t h a n pass
t h r o u g h t h e air, w h i c h is l e s s p e r m e a b l e . T h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of Figure 37-24 In this electromagnetic switch, a light current (low amperes) products in
f o r c e g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e s t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e m a g n e t i c field i n s i d e t h e electromagnet and causes the contact points to close. The contact points then conduct!
c o i i . S e e F i g u r e 3 7 - 2 2 . C o i l s w i t h a n i r o n c o r e a r e called elec- heavy current (high amperes) to an electrical unit.
tromagnets.
Relays also m a y b e d e s i g n e d w i t h normally closed contaf-
Relays O n e c o m m o n a u t o m o t i v e u s e of e l e c t r o m a g n e t s is in a that open w h e n c u r r e n t p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t . See
dev e c a l l e d a r e l a y . A r e l a y is a c o n t r o l d e v i c e w h i c h allows a Figure 3 7 - 2 4 . A s o l e n o i d is a n example of an electromagnet
s m a i i a m o u n t of c u r r e n t t o c o n t r o l a large a m o u n t of c u r r e n t in s w i t c h . A solenoid u s e s a m o v a b l e c o r e r a t h e r than a movable air
a n o t h e r c i r c u i t . A s i m p l e r e l a y c o n t a i n s a n e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c coil in a n d is generally u s e d i n h i g h e r - a m p e r a g e applications, such as -
s e r e - ; w i t h a b a t t e r y a n d a s w i t c h . N e a r t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t is a starter solenoid.
- . i.-.e Rat b l a d e , or armature, of s o m e material which is
a t t r a c t e d b y a m a g n e t i c field. S e e F i g u r e 3 7 - 2 3 .
T h e a r m a t u r e p i v o t s a t o n e e n d a n d is h e l d a small d i s t a n c e ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
a w a v f r o m t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t b y a s p r i n g (or b y t h e s p r i n g steel of M a g n e t i c f l u x l i n e s c r e a t e a n e l e c t r o m o t i v e f o r c e , o r voltage
" h e a r m a t u r e itself). A c o n t a c t p o i n t , m a d e of a g o o d c o n d u c t o r , is c o n d u c t o r if e i t h e r t h e f l u x l i n e s o r t h e c o n d u c t o r is moving' 1
a t t a c h e d t o t h e f r e e e n d of t h e a r m a t u r e . A n o t h e r c o n t a c t p o i n t is m o v e m e n t is called r e l a t i v e m o t i o n . T h i s p r o c e s s is calk' 1 ^
'.zed a m a l : d i s t a n c e a w a y . T h e t w o c o n t a c t p o i n t s a r e w i r e d in tion, and t h e r e s u l t i n g e l e c t r o m o t i v e f o r c e is c a l l e d induce^
w i t h a n e l e c t r i c a l load a n d t h e battery. a g e . This c r e a t i o n of a v o l t a g e in a conductor by 51 •
r
W h en h e s w i t c h is c l o s e d : m a g n e t i c field is called e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c induction, ifin
d u c t o r is in a c o m p l e t e c i r c u i t , c u r r e n t f l o w s . uyi
1. . . - : - n t -ravels from t h e battery through the electromagnet.
Voltage is I n d u c e d w h e n m a g n e t i c f l u x l i n e s a r e br"•' s
2. : . ; -tic field c r e a t e d b y t h e c u r r e n t attracts t h e a r m a t u r e ,
c o n d u c t o r . T h i s r e l a t i v e m o t i o n c a n b e a c o n d u c t o r m o v i n g ^ . of
p, r.g it d o w n until t h e c o n t a c t p o i n t s m e e t . statK
m a g n e t i c field o r a m a g n e t i c field m o v i n g a c r o s s a ' " ^ c S , tit-
3. , ' h e c o n t a c t s a l l o w s c u r r e n t in t h e s e c o n d circuit f r o m the
d u c t o r (as in A C g e n e r a t o r s a n d i g n i t i o n c o i l s ) . In boil' ,
battery to the load.
i n d u c e d v o l t a g e is g e n e r a t e d b y r e l a t i v e m o t i o n b e t w e e n
W h e n t h e s w i t c h is o p e n : d u c t o r and t h e m a g n e t i c f l u x l i n e s . S e e F i g u r e 3 7 25.
1. • ,mag ' . Its c u r r e n t a n d Its m a g n e t i c field. Voltage Strength V o l t a g e is i n d u c e d w h e n a cond u C ^ p i . i r .'-

2 . S p r . . p r e v . . . r e b r r . « s t h e a r m a t u r e back. across m a g n e t i c f l u x lines. T h e a m o u n t of t h e v ® l l a f e n ) P r e flu*
1 lu
3. I ••• ; t : , « - n by t h e o p e n i n g of t h e c o n t a c t points. upon the rate at w h i c h t h e flux lines a r e b r o k e n .
Cfwptw 37 CcpacKano. art M v - m W
MAT-.M I
FLUX UM CONOUCTOB
FLUX MOVEMENT
UNES
VOLTAGE
INOUCCO
COMOUCTOW
figure J7-Z7 M i r m w a p • rox«3 <* - /ouxn cut warn "i«gr>«<r

MM 0 tote <lu> nr«» < t K -xgnt anpt
Sett-Induction to flow cc
Figure 37-25 Voltage can be induced by the relative motion between a r • - • ar<) net expand as vie • agr*"jc Seid 'vms and trengthens. At cur
magnetic fines ot force rent acsnes. the ' i jr.es ax t i n x v> expand, cut'ir, ic- *
the wires of r.e o ar: r . - i g a n o t h e r vol»a* w i t h i n
the sa~e c o i : Jtrz' r. " self induced voltage
tends to oppose the neat r a t prod xes rt. If the current contin-
ues tc increase. tbe set one railage o p p o s e s t h e m c r e a i e . W h e n
the c j o t t t stab- set tne cu tier r a v a g e , n o t o n g e r . n d u c e d b e
cause there areaoc t e i p r ::*.£ f ur. r - relat: n m o t i o n
When current to the cot c * . the a apsing ir agpetic Box
unes self-induce a Totaae tr. * ad inat tries to maintain the
ongra curem. The setf-.n; c e c aoaaae aepesw and
rfcivn t h e d e m i s e r . t h e origsai
The self i n d u c e d v a t
earnest-
age that opposes r a n g e , Sow j> an inductor cajed
x orrer-
counter electromotive force i C E M F ;
CONDUCTOR
Mutual Induction ta art
n a y be t r E s f c r e c fromone s the other ftf tujtne'jc coup.rg
figure 37-28 No voltage is induced if the conductor is moved in the saie drerfor as - • c a u e d r . ' - : -zxr..'.. Mutual r v d u c o o n - eans • •
magnetic lines of force (flux lines). son or c o l f s e of :Se 5ed a r t .ad one r trtfurr a
voltage r the sec a s ca;
U s u a l ? . t h e ? v i a . . : v- v : - j b C zr •'*•* im.» ' -r '*•
lines broken per unit of time, t h e g r e a t e r the induced v rage, a coil w i n i n g B c o n n e o e r i » a Banery t h r o u g h a swRcfi a n d h
single conductor b r e a k s o n e m i l l i o n f l u x lines per secc r.:. ca.iei t h ; p r i m a r y winding. ' -w . .
is induced. to a n e n e n a l a r c . t B i d is a . s e d t h - s e c o n d a r y w i n d i n g .
There are f o u r w a y s t o i n c r e a s e induced voltage. When i e switch s apen. there is HO ciirrer)- at the pr r u r
1 winding IheBf s ac raîe'jc SeM aod. rherefon- no vofcwe o
Increase the strength of t h e m a g n e t i c field, so there art
flux lines. the secooaarv w.r.iag. Whea the swach u dosed, oawrr . »
1 d u c e s ana a m a p e x 5eid b . ds up around bom w i n d i n g ' : *
Increase the n u m b e r of c o n d u c t o r s that are breaking r " ux -
1 p r o u n w.nxrg tkus cnanga eieencau energy !r«r. l v b a r * - .
Increase the speed of t h e r e l a t i v e motion between he c<
.SBataêoceretw ofd>eexpi^gEe1d.AstfieSetdeJi!Kia- "
the flux lines so t h a t m o r e l i n e s are broken per - e
1 cuts across the secontov and ndt>co a eciuie - ' A
increase the angle b e t w e e n t h e f l u x lines and the cor: c-
meter co"nec»; so the secoodw cirraa show* y»
"naximum of 90 d e g r e e s . T h e r e is no voltage induced
c Fi^re 37-28.
°nductors move p a r a l l e l t o . a n d d o not break an ' \ as
When the magrenc 5eW has expanded to a fc « e a ; r
shown in Figure 3 7 - 2 0 . M a x i m u m voltage s - ..
reT.a.tts steadv as cog at the tame amouct of
inductors break flux l i n e s a t 90 d e g r e e s , induced voltage
Juries proportionately a t a n g l e s b e t w e e n 0 and 90 degrees. See fiux lines have stopped as." cutting acoor Ther* a
"Sure 37-27. motor and no voitage in the secoodarf
themetet
, Vo|tage can be electromagnetically i n d u c e d a n d ca-. bo •<. Whee the switch ts opened, prtnarv
J !)
"' ' Induced voltage creates current. T d i r e c t fjesd cofiapses. As it dees. Cut ..tet at"a. ' v
"i ^ land the direction in vt i cum t $ winding b u t . . - the oppc-i.te iflwrr.oB T-.t - a
and depends upon t!v direct voitage with current in r e oppovte tree r u r
" S e c t i o n of relative motion.
,, Hn induced current moves so t h a t i t s m a g n e t i c field o p p o s e s M u r - i inductor a ^ e i tr p t j « r. e
. m o t i o n which induced the current. H p \ . • s ca low cottage pnmary cjrm rizua. a «
J r 1 taw. The relative motion of a conductor a n d a m a g n e o c b e c a u s e ot' t h e d d S t r e r t r . u a t e a 6
B
opposed by the magnetic field of the current it h a s w l u c e d . vecoodan- '*Trstr : j5.
- — N M MAGNETIC FIELD
NO MAGNETIC
™ BUILDING UP
FIELD
• '
H ' l ' l ' p ' ' r UUr • VOLTAGE
(
NO • , INDUCED
VOLTAGE
• ' IN
IN
SECONDARY'
« SECONDARY
-0—O- • i
SWTTCH OPEN SWITCH CLOSED J,
NO CURRENT
4
CURRENT
FLOWING BUILDING UP
MAGNETIC FIELD
MAXIMUM STRENGTH
-C | f MAGNETIC FIELD
AO.
AND CONSTANT
" COLLAPSING
1-0 — w w
SWITCH SWITCH OPEN V 7 "
CURRENT FLOW CURRENT FLOW V" —
CONSTANT STOPS
F*?IRS 37-28 »IT_I fttjcton OCCUR when the EWSMN of collapse of a magnetic field around one coil induces a voltage in a second coil.
HIGH-TENSION TERMINAL PRIMARY

(SECONDARY TOWER) COIL WINDING
PRIMARY I PRIMARY TERMINALS
(-)TERMINAL 1 (-R)TERMINAL
SOFT-IRON
SECONDARY WINDING SECONDARY

APPROXIMATELY TOWER
22-000 TURNS) TERMINAL
PRIMARY WINDING
(APPROXIMATELY
TURNS) MOUNTING
BRACKET
K I
PRIMARY
MAGNETIC FIELD
LAMINATED
Figure 37-30 Typical air-cooled epoxy-fiiied E coil.
SOFT IRON CORE
(approximately 1 0 0 : 1 ) . In m a n y coils, t h e s e w i n d i n g s are sur

Figure 37-29 consmjcaon of an oil-cooled ignition coil Notice mat the pnmary r o u n d e d w i t h a t h i n m e t a l s h i e l d a n d i n s u l a t i n g p a p e r and pla« c
aecrcaiy oyieaed to the secondary winding. The polarity (positive ot negative) into a metal c o n t a i n e r . T h e m e t a l c o n t a i n e r a n d s h i e l d help retain
1 i » a «serrr-ed Oy toe direction m which the coil is wound. t h e m a g n e t i c field p r o d u c e d in t h e c o i l w i n d i n g s . T h e primary 3 -
secondary w i n d i n g s p r o d u c e h e a t b e c a u s e of t h e electrical restf
t a n c e in t h e t u r n s of w i r e . M a n y c o i l s c o n t a i n oil t o help cool
IGWmON C O I L S
ignition coil. O t h e r coil d e s i g n s , s u c h a s t h o s e u s e d o n G M s w >
The bean of any ignition s y s t e m is t h e ignition coil. T h e coil creates e n e r g y i g n i t i o n ( H E I ) s y s t e m s , u s e a n a i r - c o o l e d , epoxy ^ '
= " tags . p a . " ir/ e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n . M a n y ignition E coil. T h e E coil is so n a m e d b e c a u s e t h e l a m i n a t e d , soft iron c o ^
— : t . . e p i r s " ; b u t electrically c o n n e c t e d w i n d i n g s of cop- E shaped, w i t h t h e coil w i r e t u r n s w r a p p e d a r o u n d t h e center
.on(j
•--. (s: c o d s a r e t r u e t r a n s f o r m e r s in w h i c h t h e p r i m a r y and ger" of t h e E a n d t h e p r i m a r y w i n d i n g w r a p p e d i n s i d e the
>".'lzr ' • . ' ' r.z- a r e r;o r electrically c o n n e c t e d . See Figure 3 7 - 2 9 . ary w i n d i n g . See F i g u r e s 3 7 - 3 0 a n d 3 7 - 3 1 . ^ of
. *•=• -.far ' . o n coil c o n t a i n s a c o r e of l a m i n a t e d s o f t T h e p r i m a r y w i n d i n g s of t h e c o i l e x t e n d t h r o u g h ^.^ttf
ror. " - •: of j o f t ror . This core increases the magnetic t h e coil a n d a r e l a b e l e d as p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e . T h e P ° s ' p|jc>
•re;r' of t h e - . I. S u r r o u r . d m g t h e l a m i n a t e d c o r e a r e approxi- minal of t h e coil a t t a c h e s t o t h e i g n i t i o n s w i t c h , w h i c h ^ ^
- i 2 turr /'--.'.re approximately 4 2 gauge). These current from the positive b a t t e r y t e r m i n a l . T h e n e g a t i v e ^
/ -: - , e d "-v s e c - ' i a r y coil w i n d i n g s . S u r r o u n d i n g t h e is a t t a c h e d t o an i g n i t i o n c o n t r o l module (ICM or lg
r, ;;
tec •..-1 - a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 5 0 t u r n s of h e a v y w i r e (ap- which opens and closes t h e p r i m a r y i g n i t i o n c i r c u i t b y ° P . , 0

p r o * m a t e , 21 r< T h e * * w i n d i n g s a r e called t h e p r i m a r y coil closing t h e g r o u n d r e t u r n p a t h of t h e c i r c u i t . W h e n the ^ (f(
0
A-r.dir.gs '. r.e s e c o n d a r y a- r . d . n g h a s a b o u t 1 0 0 u m e s t h e n u m b e r s w i t c h is o n , v o l t a g e s h o u l d b e a v a i l a b l e a t both the P ^ ^
of turns of the p r i m a r y w i n d i n g , r e f e r r e d t o as t h e turns ratio minal and t h e n e g a t i v e t e r m i n a l of t h e c o i l if t h e p r i m a r v •
Chapter 37 Capacitance and M a g w t a r »1
IGNITION COIL
PRIMARY POSITIVE +
SECONDARY WINDING
PRIMARY WINDING
SECONDARY OUT
(TO SPARK PLUG)
PRIMARY NEGATIVE
Figure 37-32 Atappec <nm>S K B ot gmt»n coil where the primary winding s
tapped 'connectedi to he secontlarr t t r n r ^
f, 37-31 Cutaway of a General Motors Type II distributortess ignition coil Note that
•tit Radto-fretrjency trterlerKice J PI is a par tf electromagnetic inter-
j J J L , windings are inside of the secondary windings.
ierence iEMIj. which deals w r i : terierecce that affects radio reception.
the coil h a v e c o n t i n u i t y . T h e l a b e l i n g of p o s i t i v e ( + ) a n d n e g a - As t h e u s e of e l e c t r o n i c a n d c o t n p u t e r t z e d c o m p o n e n t s a n d
- v - i of t h e coil i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p o s i t i v e t e r m i n a l is more systems increased, the problem c; etectromacetic interference
live (closer t o t h e p o s i t i v e t e r m i n a l of t h e b a t t e r y ! t h a n t h e increased.
-rgative t e r m i n a l of t h e c o i l . T h i s condition is c a l l e d t h e coil W h e n e v e r t h e r e is c u r r e r . : i n a c o n d u c t o r , a n e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c
wlarity. The p o l a r i t y of t h e c o i l m u s t b e c o r r e c t t o e n s u r e t h a t field is c r e a t e d . W h e n c u r r e n t s t o p s ar.z s a n t . a s in a s p a r k p l u g
-ctrons will f l o w f r o m t h e h o t c e n t e r e l e c t r o d e of t h e s p a r k p l u g cable or a switch t h a t o p e n s a n d : oses, 5e; j strength changes.
on DI systems. The polarity of an ignition coil is determined by Each time this h a p p e n s . t creates ar. e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c signal
•)e direction of rotation of the coil windings. The correct polarity resu tmg -.Igh-frequencv
w a v e . If it h a p p e n s r a p i d ! " e n : u g h , t h e
s then indicated o n t h e p r i m a r y t e r m i n a l s of t h e c o i l . If t h e c o i l signal w a v e s , or E M I , i n t e r f e r e radus a n d television transmis-
tntnary leads a r e r e v e r s e d , t h e v o l t a g e r e q u i r e d t o f i r e t h e s p a r k s i o n o r w i t t > t h e r e i e c t r o r _ : ~ e r . : : . : t as those under the
plugs is increased b y 4 0 % . T h e c o i l o u t p u t v o l t a g e is d i r e c t l y p r o - h o o d . T h i s is a n ondesirafeie side e?ect s? the phenomenon of
portional to t h e r a t i o of p r i m a r y t o s e c o n d a r y t u r n s of w i r e u s e d in electron) agnetism.
the coil.
Static e l e c t r i c c h a i g e s caused b y friction of t h e tires v.-.ss the
road, or the friction of e i g w e d r i v e fcelts contacting their pulleys,
also p r o d u c e E M I . D r i v e a x l e s , d r s M i y and clutch : : brake ...-.
FREQUENTLY A S K E D Q U E S T I O N tog s u r f a c e s a r e o t h e r s o u r c e sf s a t : elecrl: charges.
T h e r e a r e f o u r w a y ? of t r a n s m i t t e r E M I , ai! of w h i c h c a n b e
What Is a " M a r r i e d " a n d " D i v o r c e d " Coil D e s i g n ? f o u n d in a v e h i c l e .
to ignition coil contains two windings, a primary winding and a secondary • Conductive coupfing is actual physical contact through circuit
unding, and these windings can be either connected together at one end or conductors.
• CapacC •-: ecu: ng - J i e r a fer eners from • -. :.:•;
• Married. These are also called a tapped transformer design. See another through an electrostatic aeld between two conductors.
r!
9ure 37-32. The primary winding is electrically connected to the second- • Inductive c o q i f i n g is the nansfcr of eoa%/ from one arcuit to another
ary winding. This method is commonly used in older distributor-type as the ma^jetic Selds betwesr. two conductorsfarmand collapse
gnition system coils, a s well a s many coil-on-plug designs. The inductive • Electromagnetic radiat r. :s the transfe-:'
k
"*>also called flyback voltage, created when the pnmary field collapses radio waves from one circuit or component to another
ls
used by the PCM to monitor secondary ignition performance
f o r c e d . These are also called a true transformer design and used by
EMI Suppression Devices There sre g - r sra, :
WW waste spark ignition coils to keep both the primary and secondary
which EMI is reduced.
mn
ding separated. • B Y the addition of resistance to conductors t h a t suppraes conduc
dve transmission and radiation.
• sss . -s anc radio choke coil
duce capacitive and inductive co-piing.
HEC
TROMAGNETIC I N T E R F E R E N C E (EMI) SUPPRESSION
• By the use of metal or metalized plastic sbieidta&irttfch refects
EMI radiation in addition to capacs w and induct:-.* co . : _*,g.
a d V e n t of 1116 o n b o a r d
"Uerfe " computer, electromagnetic
re
n c e ( E M I ) w a s n o t a s o u r c e of r e a l c o n c e r t - , t o a u t e m • By an increased use of ground straps: iu ~
interferr i ers
' r h e
p r o b l e m w a s m a i n l y o n e of r a d i o - f r e q u e n c y sks a a d radiation by bypassing the unwanted s .naL : ;s
e n c e ( R F I ) , c a u s e d p r i m a r i l y b y t h e u s e of s e c o r d a r g
'safe flj
les
containing a high-resistance, nonmetallic core
Resistance Suppression vdding •• ar
^Phite carbon
- lin
e n , or fiberglass strands impregnated with
suppress RFI works only for higb-volage -.Terr - Tha las keen
done b y the use of resistance spars p l u g cables. r ------
38C SiCWmi
ar-: :••< s grease . - < d i s t r i b u t o r c a p a n d r o t o r of

s o w enear~rBC sru x &
Capacitors and Coils C a p a c i t o r s a r e installed

: - •:::. - - pc.-.ts to absorb voitage fluctua-
r p p l k t t i o n s , they are used:
Aocs . i- . \ . : c s o m e e l e c t r o n i c ignition m o d u l e s .
o & p a t t e r m i n a l of m o s t a l t e r n a t o r s ,
r - r a r r - . a r j * c r r r a i * of e l e c t r i c m o t o r s .
&ac : c - c e . r- r u c e current fluctuations r e s u l t i n g f r o m self

"i - - i i "•ft-, c o m b i n e d w i t h c a p a c i t o r s t o a c t a s E M I
.'.."-: - • • • T :: - ? [ a w . p e r a n d e l e c t r i c f u e l p u m p m o t o r s .
• : c r.a nc -porated m wiring connectors.
StaeKltng •; s h e l d s . s u c h a s t h e o n e s u s e d in b r e a k e r p o i n t
: r: - : •:• h e w a v e s f r o m c o m p o n e n t s t h a t c r e a t e RFi sig-
T h e : i r c - ts ?! n b o a r d c o m p u t e r s a r e p r o t e c t e d to s o m e de-
f r e m a l e : e : ' : o r r a g n e t i c w a v e s by their metal housings.
! Straps G r o u n d o r b o n d i n g s t r a p s b e t w e e n t h e e n g i n e and
- * r s - i ' - i m o b i i e h e l p s u p p r e s s E M I c o n d u c t i o n a n d radiation
: : - v zi-j. i w - r e s : s t a D c e c i r c u i t g r o u n d p a t h . S u c h suppression
c T i z - ape ;ften installed b e t w e e n rubber-mounted components
r r :. : par: O n sorr.e m o d e l s g r o u n d s t r a p s are installed b e t w e e n
: : :art. x h a; b e t w e e n t h e h o o d a n d a f e n d e r panel, w h e r e n o
- ; e x i s t s . T h e s t r a p h a s n o o t h e r job t h a n to suppress
: ' ' v •_• it, r h e s h e e t - m e t a l b o d y a n d h o o d could function as a
i c z E : : : i : 7 - T h e - p a c e b e t w e e n t h e f e n d e r a n d h o o d could form an
; .-. - i " . ; - - j a n d c o u p i e w i t h t h e c o m p u t e r circuits in t h e wiring
, - e c - e a r t h e f e n d e r p a n e l S e e Figure 3 7 33.
Figure 37-33 To help prevent underhood electromagnetic devices from interfering w i

the antenna input, it is important that the hood be grounded to the body to form one
• Cell P h o n e I n t e r f e r e n c e continuous metal covering around the engine compartment. This is particularly Important
the vehicle has a front fender-mounted antenna. If necessary, add a braided ground straps
p t m t emits a weak signal if it is turned on. even though it is not
this Ford Mustang owner did to eliminate radio interference.
" " i s signal is picked up and tracked by cell phone towers. When the
yxse caAed the eel' phone emits a stronger signal to notify the tower
t - v arti capable of receiving a phone call. It is this "handshake" signal REVIEW QUESTIONS
YTR J;.me '-•e'Vence in the vehicle Often this signal simply causes some
1. How does a capacitor store an electrical charge?
r «<s r » i ', scâkars even though the radio is off. but it can also cause a
2. How should two capacitors be electrically connected if greater capacity
-. - < • » -,-sre AfeSi trouble code to set These signals from the cell phone
Is needed?
a .- rage that rs induced in the wires of the vehicle Because the cell
3. What is the result of a cracked magnet?
j t . i y <«ve with pie customer, the service technician is often unable
4 k ojctomer concern 4. What Is the relationship between electricity and magnetism?
te«erf»
- interference occurs right before the cell phone nngs To fix 5. What is the difference between self-induction and mutual induction?
s r * - ' j o n r * & ar. »/temai antenna to the cell phone This step will pre-
-- M . c * o r of a voltage m the wiring of the vehicle.
CHAPTER QUIZ
1. A capacitor .
a. Stores electrons
SUMMARY
b. Passes AC
1 -.-. . : - . are .sed in numerous automotive applications. c. Blocks DC
>r-< - - - - ar, .*>• " j direct current and pass alternating cur d. All of the above
•K •.: radio-frequency interference and are in- 2. To increase the capacity, capacitors should be connected in
• • • - / • " . • to protect and control changing a. Series
b. Parallel
'i •• • - c. With resistors connected between the leads
t o t p o i n t s ijse magnetism, and the strength
< - - issr amount of current lamperes) and d. Series-parallel
--> . r.ter < * • i we of each electromagnet 3. Technician A says that electricity is created if a wirei i s g
magnetic field. Technician B says that a magnetic flew '
3. - , . - - -r-avedby v . i n g a soft Irop core.
flows through a conductor. Which technician is corrects
4 . ror * • " - ' to another.
5. -.* - • r-e«te$el«ctrt£Kr. b. Technician B only
f) > ' -.•'. '/ tier • ornagnerit inter- c. Both Technicians A and B
^ f CJS EM. d. Neither Technician A nor B
|Cjan A says that magnetic lines of fur
8. two technicians are div jv.;'.g electromagnet i n d - r ' rctbfcan A
J- ' on 3 piece of paper and then holding
11,31 m e e f f e c t s o f m a etJ says that the Induced voltage can be Incieated if the speed Is increased
B says 8n c lint using a between the conductor and the magnetic lines of force. Technic an B savs
* Which technician Is correct?
that the Induced voltage can be increased by increasing the strength of tne
magnetic field. Which technician is correct?
c' Both Technicians A and B b. Technic an B only
d Neither Technician A nor B c. Both Technicians A and B
5 Unlike magnetic poles and like magnet pole, d. N <• 'her Technician A nor B
9. Ar. • • -.oi <,pera'>- is ng the principle of .
a. Repel; attract a. Lec.-'.r-.agnetic induction
b. Attract; repel b. Self induction
c. Repel; repel c. Mutual induction
d. Attract; attract d. All of the above
a Tie conventional theory for current flow Is being used to determine the <: 10. U • . -vr-t-er.ee car. be reduced by u .- g a
rection of magnetic lines of force. Technician A says that the left hand rule a. Resistance
should be used. Technician B says that the right hand rule should be used. b. Capacitor
Which technician is correct? c CoB
a. Technician A only d. All of the above
7. Technician A says that a relay is an electromagnetic switch. Technician B
says that a solenoid uses a movable core. Which technician is correct?
38
C H A P T E R
Electronic Fundamentals
- FIVES: After studying Chapter 38, the reader will be able tot Prepare for ASE EledncaVBectronc Systems i t f l certificate! testcontent area
'A"(General Electrical/Electronic Systems Diagnosis) • Identify semiconductor components •
semiconductor circuits. • Discuss where various electronic and semiconductor devices are bwtot^d«d«aw
tranststora. . List the precautions that a service technician should follow to avoid damage to electronic components from electrostatic discharge 1ESO1
anode • base • bipolar transistor • burn in . cathode • ^ W ^ ^ g f ? i S ^ ^ S Z

control current • despiking diode • d,ode • doping • dual inline pins (DIP) • * * * * * * ^ D . m e t a S S r (MM
» • germanium - hole theory • holes • impurities • integrated circuit ilCl • luncbon • jght-anflSng dfade (LH)} * n M t m m m m m
• W v e ^ m p e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t ( N T C ) • NPNtransistor . N-ty^matenal
Photons • Dhotorpsistnr . nhototransistor • PNP transistor • polanty • P-type material • rectifier Dnage reverse mas .
S T . solar cells . sp.epro.ecbonres.snx • s * ^ dux* • thermistor . thresho* v * a g e •
wstors • zener diode
cannot conduct electricity because their atomic structure is stable

&iect°ntC COmponents a r e t h e h e a r i 01
c o w e r s Knowing how
C O m p o n e n , s w o r k f,e ps t a k e the (no free electrons).
•<« electro^"* ' m y s t e r y out of automo
S e m i c o n d u c t o r s arc m a t a.'- t r r
trons in the outer orbit of their atom structure and are, therefore,
neither good c o n d u c t o r s n o r good insulators. Two examples c:
semiconductor matenals are g e r m a n i u m an silicon,
Inductors
no free electrons to provide current flow. However, b o t - yi these
'lectncÛCt0rs a r e n e l t ^ e r conductors nor insulators. The flow of
semiconductor materials can be made to conduct a m e n t t.'anoCtr-
^ iurrent Is caused by the movement of electrons in materi-
: material is a d d e d to p r o v i d e the necessary cone :. ter eiecroc
\';i{]l K fewer than four electrons in their atom's outer orbit.
c
°ntain mnrp than four electrons in their outer orbit and movement When another material is added to i s e r . . r
cri • s called d o p i n g . T h e doping
. - • • • - s are i m p u r i t i e s ; a n d t h e r e f o r e , after their addi-
t v r - . t n e g e r m a n i u m a n d s i l i c o n a r e n o l o n g e r considered pure
clemenits T h e r r a t e r a l a d d e d t o p u r e silicon o r g e r m a n i u m to
maie : eiectrka . conductive represents o n l y o n e a t o m of impu-
- - Y for ever,- : V mi on a t o m s of t h e p u r e s e m i c o n d u c t o r mate-
m The resulting a t o m s a r e still electrically neutral, because the
n u m b e r of e l e c t i o n s still e q u a l s t h e n u m b e r of p r o t o n s of the com-
m a t e n a l s . T h e s e c o m b i n e d m a t e r i a l s a r e classified into two
o p s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e n u m b e r of e l e c t r o n s in t h e bonding
b e t w e e n t h e t w o m a t e r i a l s ; N - t y p e o r P-type materials. HOLE
Figure 38-2 P-type material Silicon (SI) doped with a material [such as
N-TYPE MATERIAL three electrons in (tie outer orbit results In a hole capable of attracting an electron
Willi
N - t y p e m a t e r i a l is silicon o r g e r m a n i u m that is doped with an ele-

m e n t s u c h a s phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony, each having five
elections m its o u t e r o r b i t . T h e s e five e l e c t r o n s are combined with HOLES N FREE ELECTRONS
t h e f o u r e l e c t r o n s of t h e silicon o r g e r m a n i u m to total nine elec-
t r o n s . T h e r e is r o o m for o n l y e i g h t e l e c t r o n s in the bonding be-
tween t h e s e m i c o n d u c t o r m a t e r i a l and the d o p i n g material. This
l e a v e s e x t r a e l e c t r o n s , a n d e v e n t h o u g h t h e material is still eiectri-
ca11 v n e u t r a l , t h e s e e x t r a e l e c t r o n s t e n d to repel other electrons
o u t s i d e t h e m a t e r i a l . S e e Figure 3 8 - 1 .
P-TYPE MATERIAL
P - t y p e m a t e r i a l is p r o d u c e d b y d o p i n g silicon or germanium with
t h e e l e m e n t boron o r t h e e l e m e n t i n d i u m . These impurities have
NEGATIVE | POSITIVE
o n l y t h r e e e l e c t r o n s in t h e i r o u t e r shell a n d , w h e n combined with CHARGES JUNCTION CHARGES
t h e s e m i c o n d u c t o r m a t e r i a l , result in a material with seven elec-
t r o s . o n e e l e c t r o n less t h a n is required for a t o m bonding. This
Figure 38-3 Unlike charges attract and the current carriers (electrons and holes) mm
a c k of o n e e l e c t r o n m a k e s t h e material able to attract electrons,
toward the junction.
e v e n t h o u g h t h e m a t e r i a l still h a s a neutral charge. This material
-er.as t o a t t r a c t e l e c t r o n s to fill t h e h o l e s for the missing eighth
e l e c t r o n in t h e b o n d i n g of t h e materials. See Figure 3 8 - 2 . SUMMARY OF SEMICONDUCTORS
The following is a s u m m a r y of s e m i c o n d u c t o r fundamentals.
HOW H O L E S M O V E 1. The two types of s e m i c o n d u c t o r m a t e r i a l s are P type and N type

C u r r e n t B o w is e x p r e s s e d a s t h e m o v e m e n t of electrons from one N-type material contains extra e l e c t r o n s ; P-type material
a t o m to a n o t h e r . In s e m i c o n d u c t o r and electronic terms, the move- contains holes due to missing e l e c t r o n s . T h e n u m b e r of excess
m e n t of e l e c t r o n s fills t h e h o l e s of t h e P-type material. Therefore, as electrons in an N-type material m u s t r e m a i n constant, and the
" i e h o l e s a r e filled w i t h e l e c t r o n s , t h e unfilled holes m o v e opposite number of holes in the P-type material m u s t also remain con-
. t h e fiow of t h e e l e c t r o n s . T h i s c o n c e p t of the m o v e m e n t of the stant. Because electrons are i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e , movement of
e called t h e h o l e t h e o r y of c u r r e n t flow. The holes move in electrons in or out of the material is possible to maintain a
r . e d i r e c t i o n o p p o s i t e t h a t of e l e c t r o n flow. See Figure 3 8 - 3 . balanced material.
2. In P-type semiconductors, electrical c o n d u c t i o n occurs mainlyiS
the result of holes (absence of electrons). In N-type semicondii.
tors, electrical conduction occurs mainly as t h e result of electrons
(excess of electrons).
3. Hole movement results from t h e l u m p i n g of electrons into ne»
positions.
4. Under the effect of a voltage applied to t h e s e m i c o n d u c t o r , e
trons travel toward the positive t e r m i n a l and holes move i' 1 ^
the negative terminal. The direction of h o l e current agrees *
the conventional direction of c u r r e n t flow.
DIODES
cor
A d i o d e Is an electrical o n e - w a y c h e c k v a l v e m a d e by "D'Je#
EXCESS (FREE) P-type material and an N-type m a t e r i a l . T h e w o r d d m t„(
ELECTRON "having t w o electrodes." Electrodes a r e e l e c t r i c a l connects ^
positive electrode is called t h e a n o d e , w h i l e t h e negative e <• ^
F i g i * e 3 ( M W m TO* ,- 'Howl *rtH a material (wch as phosphorus) with is called the c a t h o d e . See Figure 3 8 - 4 . T h e p o i n t where
*iv t ir< outer r e m * w. an extra free electron types of materials join is called t h e j u n c t i o n
JUNCTION
CATMODC ( ) CATHODE
ANODE
3 010 OE
DIODE
EATTEHY
^ (s a component with P and N-type m a " - .

mgl r Z c a t h o d e and the positive electrode ,s called me anode
Figure 38-6 On* t v r n c M « * Marty No current low acoM t * lunelon

betweer Hie and ma»ra "m » atee reverse oo»
CATHOOE
CURREtT NO CURRENT
A FLOW
FLOW
ANODE
DtOOE
Figure 38-7 OMesynw anc eiearadf
ZENER DIODES
^ zener diode ; spec.; . . , i"
fîre 38-5 Diode connected to a battery with correct polarity 1+ to * and - to -
with a reverse-bias currenL Zener diodes w e r e n a m e d in 1934 for
,-eitllcim through the diode. This condition is called forward bias.
their inventor Clarence ' . l e l v j i Zeoa, an American professor erf
physics. A zener dioae acts as any i o d e .n that t blocks reverse
The N-type material h a s o n e e x t r a e l e c t r o n , w h i c h can flow
bias current, but only up to a certain v o i a g e . Above this certain
intothe P-type material. T h e P t y p e h a s a n e e d for electrons to fill
voltage called the c r e a t e : w r v . -isfL or -_-.e z e n e r region.. a zener
is holes. If a battery w e r e c o n n e c t e d to t h e diode positive - to
diode will conduct a n i e n t w L- jt dair^ge to m e djode. A zery?r
P-type material and negative ( - ) to N-type material, as illustrated
diode is heavily doped, and t h e reverse-bias voltage does not harm
n Rgure 38-5, then t h e e l e c t r o n s t h a t left t h e N-type material and
the material. The voltage dron a c c s s a zener diode remains practi
Cowed into the P-type material to fill t h e holes w o u l d be quickly
cally the same before and after t h e breakdown voitage, and this fac-
-eplaced by the electron flow f r o m t h e battery. As a result, current
tor makes a zener diode perfect for voltage regulation. Zener diodes
'wuld flow through t h e d i o d e w i t h l o w resistance. This conditior
can be constructed for various b r e a k d o w n voltages a n d can be used
Jled forward b i a s .
in a variety erf automotive a s a e t e t f r c r j c applications, e j p e a a . y for
if the battery c o n n e c t i o n s w e r e reversed and t h e positive side
electronic voltage regulators. See figure 3 8 - 8 .
•'ihe battery was c o n n e c t e d t o t h e N-type material, the electron;
"ould be pulled toward t h e b a t t e r y a n d a w a y f r o m the junctior
fe N- and P-type materials. ( R e m e m b e r , unlike charges attract, -Bom to" ts Be Sore
"heteas like charges repel.) B e c a u s e electrical c o n d u c t i o n requires r - - — ™ • ^m •
> flow of electrons across t h e j u n c t i o n of t h e N- and P-type mate A common term heard f Ihe e f e c & w c and computer nduAry « b u m m 8vm
sals and because the battery c o n n e c t i o n s are actually reversed, the m means to o p e n s an e l e O i n c ttonce. such as a computer. lor a pence *ra»
- ode offers very high resistance to c u r r e n t flow. This conditior . several hoi»s te several days
* d reverse bias. See Figure 3 8 - 6 .
Most ancrorw dewces tat n rtancy or during o * teat to* I o n «f
Therefore, diodes allow c u r r e n t f l o w only w h e n c u r r e n t o f : e
operation eary failure occurs t ftere is a maajbeturmg detect i
orrectpolarity is c o n n e c t e d to t h e circuit. Diodes are used in a:ter
at S» P-* M<d»- d any semconducta levee The t n c u i a * r
,' o r s 10 control current flow in o n e direction. Diodes are also used
M i arty a ton aoeratng rvcJes
controls, air-conditioning circuits, and many other cir-
What Joes m H tes rtomsson mean to the average person'' * « r | »
^ * t 0 prevent possible d a m a g e d u e to reverse c u r r e n t flows that
cftaang a personal or harness computer nave the computet t a n e c b Mtatt
' « generated within t h e circuit. S e e Figure 3 8 - 7 .
Mnery n*s s w helps ensure that a* o > c r a M -lave sut»*< ->*ancy a *
that fhe dunces ot ch*j taftjre are greasy reduced Oot»a» s a n d or »
^QUENTLY ASKED QUESTION e v i » i aqupment - a y Oe a good value aecause dumg « a t a 0»
play model, it has been burned m THe auunotoe s e a t * M m * u a ae
18
toeDifference Between Electricity and Electronics? aware Wat f a -Bptacement electron* device tali snort* afto -jBftafcr tm
iC USUallv m e a n s t h a t jrottem n g m be a case ol aarty etectonc taAm
* solid-state devices are used in the electneai cir-
. 'ectrtclty as used in automotive applications usually means electr ca *SVb minever Swre 6 a fitois of a reptBcwnt part ne
,.' 'fl1 lowthrouoh roemtan™ >nri ino/ic w.thmit the use ot dudes. transistors. .Map check lor ecesswe vcrtage orheKioaM w e * e x * * * "
'Ottty
396 S fC T W , i i
REVERSE CURRENT TO C O N T R O L
C I R C U I T OR
ANODE CATHODE COMPUTER
2 E N E R DIODE S Y M B O L
> 3 S - 8 i n-e blocks ourent flow until a certain voltage is readied, then it
RELAY SPIKE
CONTACTS
\ X PROTECTION
DIODE
COIL
Figure 38-10 Spike protection diodes are commonly used in computer-controlled C l - -
to prevent damaging high-voltage surges that occur anytime current flowing through i M
stopped.
(a)
H2V
ELECTRONIC
C O N T R O L UNIT
ELECTRONIC ; FUEL-INJECTOR
SWITCH • C O I L WINDING
t !
(TRANSISTOR)
l-CATHODE
(b) -35-V
-ANODE ZENER
Rs R E S I S T O R < DIODE
Figure 3 8 - 9 ai Notice that when the coil is being energized the diode is reverse t
1
TO C O N T R O L £
arc 9ie cwrent is blocked from passing through ttie diode The current flows through the coil CURRENT
- Te -<—aj (Kectwi lbi When the switch is opened, the magnetic field surrounding the
•st :-«aoses pnxtoong a Ingfi-vottage surge m the reverse polarity of the applied voltage
"us w a g e surge torward biases the diode, and the surge is dissipated harmlessly back
r-aogh me nwongs of the coil.
Figure 38-11 A zener diode is commonly used inside automotive c o m p u t e r s to proled

CLAMPING DIODES delicate electronic circuits from high-voltage spikes. A 35-volt zener diode will conduct an
D o l e s car. be used as a high-voltage d a m p i n g d e v i c e w h e n t h e voltage spike resulting from the discharge of a coil safely to ground through a current-
://*<?- - s c o n n e c t e d to t h e c a t h o d e ( - ) of t h e d i o d e . If a coil is limiting resistor in senes with the zener diode.
: o n and off, a high-voltage spike is p r o d u c e d w h e n e v e r t h e

•: ' - - r e a off. To c o n t r o l a n d d i r e c t this possibly d a m a g i n g
Z E N E R DIODE DESPIKING P R O T E C T I O N
- oltage spike, a diode can b e installed across t h e l e a d s t o t h e
y . ". - i i r e a the high-voltage spike back t h r o u g h t h e coil w i n d - Zener diodes can also b e u s e d to c o n t r o l high-voltage spikes and k«-
- z "o p r e v e n t possible d a m a g e t o t h e r e s t of t h e v e h i c l e ' s electri- t h e m from d a m a g i n g delicate e l e c t r o n i c circuits. Zener diodes are
cs - e l e c t r o n i c circuits. A diode c o n n e c t e d across t h e t e r m i n a l s c o m m o n l y used in electronic fuel-injection circuits that control the
of a cofl t o control voltage spikes is called a clamping diode. See ing of the injectors. If c l a m p i n g d i o d e s w e r e u s e d in parallel with -
.--34 ' ^ m p i n g diodes c a n also b e called d e s p i k i n g o r injection coil, t h e resulting c l a m p i n g action w o u l d tend to dels
suppression diodes. closing of the fuel-injector n o z z l e . A z e n e r d i o d e is commonly use-
l. sste- w e r e first used on AC c o m p r e s s o r c l u t c h coils a t t h e clamp only t h e higher-voltage p o r t i o n of t h e resulting voltage spi*
- - " t e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e s w e r e first u s e d . T h e d i o d e w a s w i t h o u t affecting t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e injector. See Figure 38-1
. - . - s . s c r e v e n : d a m a g e to delicate e l e c t r o n i c c i r c u i t s any-
, - ,-c. - e h i c l e ' s electrical s y s t e m . See Figure 3 8 - 1 0 .
br.a r r ' , / a . o m o t i v e circuits e v e n t u a l l y are e l e c t r i c a l l y
DESPIKING PROTECTIVE RESISTORS
SOT - s s t e d ' o e a c h o t h e r in parallel, a high-voltage s u r g e any- All coils m u s t u s e s o m e p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t high-voltage
>- ' :r.e •".:,.••.,<: sould d a m a g e e l e c t r o n i c c o m p o n e n t s in o c c u r w h e n t h e voltage is r e m o v e d f r o m a n y coil. Instead of a .
other circuits installed in parallel w i t h t h e coil w i n d i n g s , a resistor can w .
and is c a l l e d a spike protection resistor. See Figure
Resistors a r e o f t e n p r e f e r r e d for t w o r e a s o n s :
. .- i to I* affected by the high voltage surge, 1. Coils will usually fail w h e n shorted r a t h e r t h a n open, as
. -., <•• -.'» • . is controlling the operation of the AC com shorted condition results in greater c u r r e n t flow in t h e f ! ; ; lt!l jj
- ' ' - :. • - r i ' ' r i ises » coil, such as those of the A diode installed in t h e reverse-bias direction cannot con
Blower nwror vA Ctfrr-s-e cowrol ur.to. red
extra current, w h e r e a s a resistor in parallel can help ' ^ ,j
potentially d a m a g i n g c u r r e n t flow if t h e coil becomes s h " r '
Chapter 38: Electronic F u m a r ^ : 387
ANODE
o . SPIKE
RELAY RELAY COIL
: PROTECTION
CONTACTS WINDING
) ' RESISTORS
CATHODE
f
Figure 38-13 A Ifltt-emffing diode (LED). This parftaiar LED is designed with a Dull
•I w M g r » t a 12 **. DC may be applied directly to the leads without an externa resstor
-ijure 38-12 A despiking resistor is used in many automotive ape caDo- • •
(*/mal)r a 300- lo 500-£i-«ott ' e a t t * s reqiwedtobe attached in senes with the LEO lo
- nfulhigh-voltage surges from being created when the magnetic fteil s j t o . - - a r-.. eontrr/ cunert low K m f 6 020 A (20 mA> or damage to »ie P-N junction can dear
•apses when the coil circuit is opened.
2. The protective d i o d e c a n a l s o fail, a n d d i o d e s usually k Ported : • co diode: Light-emitting diodes

before they b l o w o p e n , if a d i o d e b e c o m e s s h o r t e d , exces e ( L E D s ) radiate zr.t • -.en c a r e r ? : l o w s t h r o u g h t h e d i o d e in the
current can f l o w t h r o u g h t h e coil c i r c u i t , p e r h a p s c a u s i n g forward-bias direction. S e e F i g u r e 3 8 - 1 3 . T h e f o r w a r d - b i a s voltage
damage. A resistor u s u a l l y fails o p e n , a n d t h e r e f o r e , e v e n in required for a : LED t a r g e s b e r w e e n 1.5 a n d 2 . 2 volts.
failure, could n o t in itself c a u s e a p r o b l e m . An LED will or„v g r r if t h e v o l t a g e a t t h e a n o d e (positive elec-
trode? is a : least 1.5 to 2 2 »oiis t i g h e r t h a n t h e v o l t a g e at t h e cath-
Resistors o n coils a r e o f t e n u s e d i n c l i m a t e - c o n t r o l circuit sole
o d e negative e . e c t r o d e . .
noids to control v a c u u m t o t h e v a r i o u s air m a n a g e m e n t system
If a n LED w e r e c o n n e c t e d a c r o s s a 12-volt a u t o m o t i v e battery,
doots as well as o t h e r e l e c t r o n i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d a p p l i c a t i o n s .
t h e LED w o u l d light brigjrclv, b e o n l y for a s e c o n d o r t w o . Excessive
c u n e n t a m p e r e s S a t tows across t h e P-N j u n c t i o n of a n y electronic
DIODE RATINGS device c a n destroy t h e unction. A r e s s t o r must b e c o n n e c t e d in
Most diodes are r a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r m a x i m u m c u r r e n t f l o w in t h e series w i t h e v e r i c x i e Lnc tiding LEDs • :o control c u r r e n t flow across
forward-bias direction a n d t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e t o h i g h voltage in t h e t h e P-N unction. Trus p r o t e a o r . s h o u l d i n c l u d e t h e following:
reveise-bias direction. T h i s r a t i n g of r e s i s t a n c e t o reverse-bias voltage

1. The value of t h e t e a s : * she u.d b e from 3 0 0 to 5 0 0 o h m s for
is called the p e a k i n v e r s e v o l t a g e ( P I V ) r a t i n g ; also k n o w n as t h e
each P-N -unction. C o a n o r J v available resistors in this range in-
peak r e v e r s e v o l t a g e ( P R V ) r a t i n g . T h e p e a k i n v e r s e voltage is a clude 470-, 390-. and 3 3 0 - o h n resistors.
specification for d i o d e s . It is i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e s e r v i c e technician
2 . The res:;: rr car. b e : : m e e t ? : ' ' e t e e r t h e a n o d e o r t h e cathode
specify and use o n l y a r e p l a c e m e n t d i o d e t h a t h a s t h e s a m e or a higher
end. P o l a r i t y of r e re . deer oc - m a t t e r I Current flows
rating than specified b y t h e v e h i c l e m a n u f a c t u r e r . Typical 1 - a m p e r e
through the LED in series with t h e resistor, and t h e resistor will
diodes use a c o d e t h a t i n d i c a t e s t h e PIV r a t i n g . F o r e x a m p l e :
control t h e current flow through t h e LED regardless of its position
IN4001-50 V PIV in the circuit.

3 . Resistors p r e t e c t m g d : : i e s car. be actual resistois or o d e - current-
1N 4 0 0 2 - 1 0 0 V P I V
limiting l oads such as lamps or coils. Therefore, the symbol usually
IN 4 0 0 3 - 2 0 0 V P I V assigned tc P-N -taction protection is either R-or R:.
IN 4 0 0 4 - 4 0 0 V P I V
/?§ m e a n s r e s i s t o r i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e P-N j u n c t i o n .
IN 4 0 0 5 - 6 0 0 V P I V
RL m e a n s r e s i s t i v e load p r o t e c t i n g t h e P-N j u n c t i o n .
The third r a t i n g i n t h e list ( I N 4 0 0 3 - 2 0 0 V PIV) is t h e o n e With the current-limiting devices to control t h e current, the aver-
most c
°mmonly used for a u t o m o t i v e applications. age LED will require a b o u t 2 0 to 3 0 milliamperes iraAj, or 0 . 0 2 0
f h e " I N " m e a n s t h a t t h e d i o d e h a s o n e P - N j u n c t i o n . A higher- to 0 . 0 3 0 ampere.
c: r
' - 'g diode c a n b e u s e d w i t h n o p r o b l e m s ( e x c e p t for slightly
; # e r cost, e v e n t h o u g h t h e h i g h e s t - r a t e d d i o d e g e n e r a l l y costs
ess
than $1 j. N e v e r s u b s t i t u t e a tower-rated d i o d e t h a n is specified.
The voltage d r o p a c r o s s a d i o d e is a b o u t t h e s a m e v o l t a g e as
r at r e
' quired to f o r w a r d b i a s t h e d i o d e . If t h e d i o d e is m a d e f r o m
raanium, t h e f o r w a r d v o l t a g e is 0 . 3 t o 0 . 5 v o l t . If t h e d i o d e is How Does an LED Emit Light?
' a d e from silicon, t h e f o r w a r d v o l t a g e is 0 . 5 t o 0 . 7 volts. An l i D contains a chip that houses P-type and N-type matenats. The unctwr
between these regions acts as a bamer to the flow of electrons between Sie
two materials. When a voltage of 1.5 to 2.2 volts of the correct polanty s ap-
^ When diodes are tested using a digital multimeter, the meter w plied current will flow across the junction. As the etecfrons e t m tne P-ryoe
^'V ihe voltage drop across the P-N (unction labout 0.5 to 0.7 volt material, it combines with the holes in the material and releases energy r, the
0 t(l
e meter Is set to the diode check position. form of light (called photonsi. The amount and cot - he 'ight prod.. es Jepe^cs
on materials used in the creation of the semiam&jdw material
LEDs are very efficient compared to conve-'ona' neandeaont t u t a
^ - E M I T T I N G DIODES which depend on heat to create light. LEDs generate ver "-: eat m~ - . . »
of the energy consumed converted directly to It^tt.
J * " radiate s o m e energy d u r i n g n o r m a l operation. Most
ra
' d i a t e h e a t b e c a u s e of t h e j u n c t i o n b a r r i e r v o l t a g e d r o p
3W SEC'.Vs
wwioow
^W/v^
METAL
HOUSING
PLASTIC
0 -
3 8 - 1 4 "ycsca: pôtt?o»o(les
Figure 38-16 Either symbol may be used to represent a photoresistor

* -
ANODE .CATHODE
N
(+) (-)
R g u r e 3 8 - 1 5 SprOoi lor a photochode. The arrows represent light striking the P-N
3 a* tr® phototirode
GATE
PHOTODIOOES Figure 38-17 Symbol and terminal identification of an SCR.
AH P-N unctions emit energy, mostly in the form of heat or light

sucr. as w i t h an LED. In fact, if an LED is exposed to bright light,
LEFT RIGHT
: voltage potential is established between the anode and the cath- BRAKE BRAKE
ode. P h o t o d i o d e s are specially constructed to respond to various LIGHT LIGHT
w a v e l e n g t h s of light w i t h a " w i n d o w " built into the housing. See DIODES
Rgure 38-14. ,(1N4003)
P h o t o d i o d e s are frequently used in steering-wheel controls. If

several photodiodes are placed on the steering column end and
_EDs or phototransistors are placed on the steering wheel side, data
can be transmitted b e t w e e n the two moving points without the
.rtterference that could be caused by physical-contact types of units.
A p h o t o d i o d e is a diode that is sensitive to light. W h e n light
e n e r g y strikes the diode, electrons are released and the diode will
: . ' d u c t in t h e forward-bias direction. IThe light energy is used to
o v e r c o m e t h e barrier voltage.)
The resistance across t h e photodiode decreases as the intensity
of the light increases. This characteristic makes the photodiode a
useful electronic device for controlling some automotive lighting 470-n
RESISTORS
r.--.etr,s. T h e symbol for a photodiode is shown in Figure 3 8 - 1 5 .
Figure 38-18 Winng diagram for a CHMSL.

PHOTORESISTORS
- p h o t o r e s i s t o r is a semiconductor material lusually cadmium sul-
d e tr.it changes resistance with the presence or absence of light.
SILICON-CONTROLLED R E C T I F I E R S
Dark = high resistance
A s i l i c o n - c o n t r o l l e d r e c t i f i e r ( S C R ) is c o m m o n l y used in
Light = l o w resistance
electronic circuits of various a u t o m o t i v e applications. A n SC k
because re;..:.ranee is reduced w h e n the photoresistor is exposed semiconductor device that looks like t w o d i o d e s c o n n e c t e d enc •
gr.t, - - e photoresistor can be used to control headlight d i m m e r end. See Figure 3 8 - 1 7 . If t h e a n o d e is c o n n e c t e d t o a
-- = ' . also 'useful in m a n y other nonautomotive applications, voltage source than the c a t h o d e in a c i r c u i t , n o c u r r e n t w i P 1 ^ '
would occur with a diode. If, h o w e v e r , a positive voltage so •
||
. r e 3 8 - 1 6 for the symbols for a photoresistor.
connected to the g a t e of t h e SCR, t h e n c u r r e n t can flow,
anode to cathode with a typical v o l t a g e d r o p of 1.2 volts
VARISTORS the voltage drop of a typical d i o d e — 0 . 6 volt).
Varistors " o r . w h o s e resistance depends upon the level of If the voltage source at t h e g a t e is s h u t off, t h e current ••
urrent i
v.-. A ar or m e t a l o x i d e varistor ( M O V ) , oper- continue
itinui to flow through t h e SCR u n t i l t h e source a
a s . " ar to " u t , back-to-back zener diodes. Varistors offer high stopped c/-n«; cat
I
. a r - <• o w e r .oitages yet b e c o m e highly conductive at higher See Figure 3 8 - 1 8 for a typical a p p l i c a t i o n in which . ^ i
<•:.'•:. .">'•, are therefore commonly found in computer be used to construct a circuit for a c e n t e r h i g h - m o u n t e d s ^
: . - - ere \-> / r . e . p prever,' high voltage transients from damag- ( C H M S L ) . If this third stoplight w e r e w i r e d into either tn fl.,-
'•* v - - '.'or - . rcu ••.. If a high-voltage surge is applied to a the right-side brake light circuit, t h e C H M S L would a ^
/ar.vor. -he / a n v o r b e c o m e s conductive, and it can be connected whenever the turn signals w e r e u s e d for t h e side that ^
•; v. other v -lard resistor to c o n d u c t the high voltage to ground. nected to the CHMSL. W h e n t w o S C R s a r e u s e d , both br-
unapter38 EiscwntcH «wr « n a r
, he activated t o supply c u r r e n t t o th< TRANSISTORS

13
C H M S L is Shut off w h e n b o t h S C R :
A transistor is a conductor device that can perform ";e hi
, , h e I 1 the brake p e d a l is r e l e a s e d , which owng electrical functions:
^ brake lights).
1 . A c - as an electrical switch in a circuit
2 . AO ar, v a r ; . :? r : c jrTent io a circuit
THERMISTORS
3. • • - a :,- •
fthermistor is a semiconductor mate
been doped to provide a given resistance. Whet The word transistor, derived from the words transfer and
heated, electrons within the crystal gain enei resistor; used to describe the transfer of current across a resistor.
-. released. This means that a thermistor a c t u a A transatorfcmade of hree alternating sections or layers of P and
oitage when h e a t e d . If voltage is applied to a - • W " ' - -' -re s*or is usually called a bipolar
| a n c e decreases because the thermistor itself is acting as a c, - e n ' transistor, - - --/a -a F catena or each end, wi'j,
arTier rather t h a n as a resistor at higher t e m p e r a t u r e . .
:a e l a P N P t r a n s i s t o r . A
A t h e r m i s t o r i s commonly used as a temperature-sensing •V i y i ' . rent, is called an NPN
device for c o o l a n t temperature and intake manifold air ter: transistor.
perature. B e c a u s e thermistors operate in a m a n n e r opposite to - - --- .: :a.led the b a s e ; t c o n t r o
that of a typical conductor, they are called negative temperature current flow through t s * transistor. See Rgure 3 8 - 2 1 .
c o e f f i c i e n t (NTC) thermistors; their r e s i s t a n c e decreases as
Tne maie-.-J it one en: rar. slot is called the emitter and
the temperature increases. Thermistor s y m b o l s a r e shown in the material at tr- • - . s collector..- . transistor sym-
Figure 3 8 - 1 9 . bots contain an arrow sdtcathz the emirêr part of the transistor The
a n e w points in t-e s terJ r. of cvrer.t Sow (conventional theory).
RECTIFIER B R I D G E S
Mlt 'Ar.ec ar s r ifpex n r- est ssuror svmbc , it
The word rectify means " t o s e t s t r a i g h t " ; t h e r e f o r e , a rectifier is an
stands for a P-S sadtae aad pacts f r - t i e P-rvjer.atertal toward the
electronic device (such as a d i o d e ) t h a t is u s e d to c o n v e r t a chang- N-type aateriai The a—» awr.- star .ted w she emitter
• : voltage into a s t r a i g h t or c o n s t a n t v o l t a g e . A r e c t i f i e r b r i d g e side of the t r a s s o s
a group of diodes t h a t is u s e d t o c h a n g e a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t into
direct current. A rectifier b r i d g e is u s e d in a l t e r n a t o r s to rectify the
alternating current p r o d u c e d in t h e s t a t o r (stationary windings; of HOW A TRANSISTOR WORKS
the generator (alternator). T h e s e r e c t i f i e r bridges contain six
A transistor is similar to t r : sack so-back i s l e s that can conduct
diodes: one pair of d i o d e s for e a c h of t h e t h r e e stator windings. See
current in only one dsecaoo. As in a diode, N -.-pe material car
Figure 38-20.
conduct electricity t v means of It- njpiv offreeaeorons, and P-type
material conducts b r mean.' ss sstpph- jf positive holes.
A transistor w l aliorw currem Bow if the electrical conditions
allow it to switch on. in a tnanne: jrllar jo the wortungrf an electro-
magnetic relay. The eiectricai s o r . i n sns are determined, or switched,
by means of the base or & The base Jiffl carry currem only when the
proper voltage and p i . r i r are a s : , i i . Tne main circuit : s r » r
flow travels through the the: two parts erf t h e transistor: the emit-
ter f a n d the cnfiecOT C See F . p r e 3 8 - 2 2 .
Rjure 38-19 Symbols used to represent a thermistor.
U N V " P
EMITTER/- ^collector EMOTES/ VJUK-.»
V V
1,118
"•Sum, bridge contains si* diodes, three on each side and mounted m
Figure 38-21 Srmsotw syr>tws r e
" 1 u , n e d unit to help keep the diode cool during generator (alternator! operation.
CCLÊCTCW
EW— c
E
Figure 38-23 i tMK* awcr-ocve conputer with ttie case remoned to show all of 315
lanixs xitxs re rtegrated circuits ICsi Ttie arge red and orange lemcesj
ceranc capacitors
^ C
r* tee caret- , --tec «• o m m flow S o c € i-

: _ - --.- B o e . T b e o m t c o a a o E a f ti*
control airreftt - - (b)
-- .r • - r.r: r i r s s r c - :r. ar 5L " r j c c t r a l t i - a s s , a L ' e d

t r r w t o a M v o f c a g e . T ..." Eje : -. a ; : - : L t u o ' 0 3 to." foe Figure 38-24 • • -.•-•j.-s.-jtor a Uses me --e tor tne base. ib> does-ct
. x acc : - wj..cQCtrar>-stc^. Thecortcroicurrent
: k i o t T t e c S e " o r rajtsbtt tee « a f a d r o i t , in a m a n n e r similar
eiectrori witeir. the s t r u c t u r e . Solar c e i l s a r e stacked and -
K :!se j p e a o o c i f a w a t e r Sa<uc«-
gr: cpe^ ?. . r c e sections to e n a b t e t h e m t o s u p p l y useful anices
of c u r r e n t
S T T O U T E D CIRCUITS
Si a c e . ; - p o c e R S ar» j e t f i r c a r / electronic semiconductors
HOW TO T E S T 0 I 0 0 E S A N D TRANSISTORS
a-: 7 " h e r j r e c a £ e l "soud-staM" because tfry have no
- r . - . * p a r s . JS : i g 5 e r r tower voltage Serets within the circuit. D :des and transistors can b e t e s t e d w i t h a n o h m m e t e r . The :
' . m a t a t t a J r i - i a i diodes. t t a r ; i j * ; r s . a r c setr_coQductnr T traruistar being tested s h o u l d b e d i s c o n n e c t e d f r o m the ( t a t
aprcE • fter j e d x construct e » ! y electron* tpuaoft and •'.-best resets. Use t h e diode-check p o s i t i o n o n a digital mutem-
-kCTBT* ac-. T -jr^rt. Newer-stvle eiecforac devices use the t e t See Rgure 3 8 - 2 5 .
an ;.- ; r a a - . - i v a r e n o w c o m b i n e d integratec i s o o n e
Diodes A good diode s h o u l d g i v e a n o v e r limit (OL! reffife
- . ir: _ : ir i n t e g r a t e d circuit | 1 C | .
with the :esr. leads a t t a c h e d to e a c h l e a d of t h e d i o d e in one w;
- -sr. n d t ar- <auaL° - e r c a s e d n a piasac housing caBed
ar.: a vc -.age r e a d i n g of 0 . 4 0 0 V t o 0 . 6 0 0 V w h e n the l e a d s »
c - •- • • of c . t i . t.;s j f r a n s e T t e r • iscaited the
i'OBP t i p Se c - r e 3A-23. reversed. T h a r e a d i n g is t h e v o l t a g e d r o p o r t h e barrier v.vc;-
er-n? - i»r ; o n p j a r CTCura are n«*ised as an integrated acrc-i:. thie P-N 'unction of t h e d i o d e .
i U - CSC- 1. 1
' . itaî reading w i t h t h e m e t e r l e a d s attached both
across a diode means that t h e d i o d e is shorted and must be
^KruTpju^sTOflS replaced.
2. V :,L reading w i t h the m e t e r leads a t t a c h e d b o t h ways acres
: : phototransistor .
diode means that the diode is open a n d m u s t be replaced.
* sr. - base • / a traBSstor A phototransistor is an
rar - asac .-<. a e i p t s e c base area to permit bght to
1
* "" tec Therefore, a pfcototransistor ELECTRONIC C O M P O N E N T F A I L U R E CAUSES
•jr> - . - a U s e tel. If n o t . they h w e wily a collector Eiectro-jc c o m p o n e n t s , s u c h a s e l e c t r o n i c i g n i t i o n modu •
•' - ' * "'' t u n s t e o r is connected to a pow- t r r r j c v..-age regulators, onboard c o m p u t e r s . a n d a n v o t n ;
' " ' ' a 3rz-*ei trie ga,r. of the tran- : circuit, are general;-/ v e r y r e l i a b l e ; h o w e v e r , ta; -
a t e " . mat ire fceqMKfr used r steering-wheel OCCIJ-. Some f r e q u e n t c a u s e s of p r e m a t u r e M u r e inclu^
—.-:. .> ^ t f ' "ttanasanrsyaAcfe. fcfiowing.
Poor Connections it h a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d t h a t m a - "

s o u w c a i s
o . a p u : e i s r e t u r r e d as d e f e c t i v e h a v e s i m p l y h a d poor co - ^
r rJ
' * > i « r . o s O u a . ' device w h e r e iight at the w r m g harr.ess '.ermmal e n d s . T h e s e f a u l t s a r e o f t c "
» pr - i x - a s i t e : ~ e r - Sow bv dislodging t e - r and hard to find.
"raptsr jg. G e c f f y s f i
ranee«c a c r o s s A e c t r a : & r t x u . i the titeaft. E a r . - .rr

:. • il a x s t p o r e a t t are esed w i i t i i i n i l h M t t i l m o r z n m
a co w x d l n g resistance Is a.-. t r a d JS a a r f f i f r e t n o r
c Tpr -er.t m the tiKutt. tt a c o m p e a r ixk, .Lwtn mi a n "at
• e s s & o c e across » c o f s p a t e r o a e B s B e d rejtp and n t r a a i A T b e
» - s t a r x s t c . id be w r r u r . spec r ratiocs f e a e r a - v J * e r 2 B c t a a
for each c o m p o n e n t that is coraBuJKT CM&IQIKL
l£D T M I Octal i e s t
ANOOE
i My acut 5 m f i t i u t S' XB ti jne
t a aow.ra *ed JEE ntitcE-ef®
(a) r • easy S rate arc nsail
iej-w»1s»B3ra««atteri sir
7TfSeegK -zrrtcBtxi*sethat snot*at
( e r a t t k a i f A M M M l K Ssefi|LP»3Mi
• e i t e q M o n c n d f Us •xm* I w e T r i a y r e _5i x j r s r t
and S* term > xenm ttador arnj te |tw a t
«ne*»er tie ^--too • m. mm M e «e<t m l 5 jMh?'
a r t no o t a r a c w 5 -eaursg - 3CS*ae I w<er roa c m inur aiAce encacr
D trn » e qneos and m e e « e *
t
BUWUHG " S F OE~EPNE»^
ANODE CATHODE
(b)
RED LED STARTS * 0 FLASH WHENE"t"E= O n C I S
:
r ^ : OHM • u êsisÔR
tir» 38-S To cfleck a diode, select "(Sode check" on a digital multimeter The display pjtzn-ers
nacafe ~ereiticedrop differencei oetween tne meter leads. He ires tse* 3pc -ii •
agesigrd. usijlly afiout 3 volts) andtfsplaysthe difference on the display uWheq .....
• ICEStenantbased. Jie meter should display a voltage between 0.500 and 0 too «
;
x TC nW Si When tre meter leads are reversed, the meter should read OL rnver
»:iLse Tie diode s reverse biased and blocking current flow
• LED
' P\ rW36
* ."-en c vi- t g electronic contacts, use a pencil eraser. This dear

Etstias -Aitr it iiarming the thin protective coating used on most
HKt: nic 'enninals. f — wm
lOT A^LIMES AKf O i r O C O f l - ^ H :
SUCH A3
c z = u s e SUCK AS a r o
CLOCK. ETC.
Hie operation a n d resistance of e l e c t r o n i c components and JCHTER ETC mm SC1^. RISE
»e affected bv h e a t . Electronic c o m p o n e n t s should be kept
MB
- ' as possible and n e v e r hotter than 2oO J F (127"C).
CZi c m
' '"age Spikes A high-voltage spike can literal bum i : ; e
-- semiconductor material. The source of these high-voltage
tr.e discharge of a coil without proper >or with defec
-'spiking protection. = 4 5 ' SuMSERS ARE =RC« =Ar-0 SHACK
-
• poor electrical connection at the batten or other major elec-
;
"®a«aioii can c a u s e high-voltage spikes to occur, because HETTrtl
wiring harness creates its own magnetic field, si- '.it to
• -êi around a coil. If the connection is loose and r.'T.er
:
contact o c c u r s , a high-voltage surge can occur through
ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE
^ e l e c t r i c a l system.
"«•? prevent t h i s type of d a m a g e , e n s u r e that a.1 e l e c t r o
Electrostatic discharge ESD :
••---3oris, including g r o u n d s , a r e p r o p e r t y c l e a n a n d tight. b..KIup ~<hiManbocty w r i e c e v e r a c o e
r o n of the d o t h i n g i n a the m c v e m e r . : •: sboes i - a r s t a r w c r
Current circuits are designed to oper
All e l e c t r o n i c vir.v tooBCi-sea :c i c :. -.-:r . 1
"V 5 designated range of c u r r e n t i amperes). I f a sotenc d or canc-caw M t e n a . , s a d t s 1 d o c r o . ; --e iiric . ".: r
'. . ' r - i l e d bv a c o m p u t e r c i r c u i t , the resistance ot :ha; so > rjjchargsci. T - e s e c h a r g e s . : " . . -- r - .r
i r
'..' " - i becomes a p a n of t h a t c o n t r o l circuit. Ifaco * i n d r j cause severe carnage to care -; -.vr - . .-.— :• • : - • :
" solenoid or relay b e c o m e s shorted, the resulting lower foitowicgare tvpici s t a t e \ . ."opes.
• e sst-Wk^
2 . The a r r o w ffl a vytsbol tor j semiconductor devic.-

• - SSti
a. Pomes toward the negscve
* ~ . JSlS.OOt-sqififc
b. Poatb .way triitn the negaave
rn OS
c. is attached to the <-m;tter
| v< . - eer
the c-rwit, a amperes. a d. Bom i i n o c.
< •;orr.porieR2 sacfc as 3. lo &ruard t a s * siiutse d i o d e g
litru.raent past'. e.usi<ss car. be a. The .-oiDge i t ths a n o d e must exceed the vi„-itv at t h e c a l
• . a r - . calcific' - - . is 30 safe. This is a problem, because by 0.5 to 0.7 volt.
b. To- voltage at the a t h b d e m u s t exceed th. ..tagesteeai
- £t - . r ^ s s ijv.er than we can feel.
by 0.3 to 0.5 volt.
-.::.. 2 1 - s p o a a i s , foBsw these easy steps.
c The voltage at die anode must exceed the voltage at the cafc«,
1. sieg? a e tegecerâa eiecsauc eoEpaaes a tie protective by 0 . 3 to 0.5 volt.
«ns!3=« - r - aitafenegsauancn. d. The anode must ce connected to a resistor ( 3 0 0 to 500 ohm.
Z. •- c.eegry^ggpponent. g o a d yotasetf to a and 12.0 volti, with the cathode also connected to 12.0 volt
:
a s c t r^giSaOSE a s s s away a n y s a s c cha.'ge. 4. A z w s s t o r & conirolled bv the polar.ty and current at _
1 -.. the ' « a B a » or eêctronx components. a. Thecolleaor
b. The emitter
.-; _ sxctjs&ra see ooserved, BSD damage can be eiisir e. The base
îcic .-c—er. i & s e a b e i :a« hecatê the awsponent waSts d . Bom a and b.
i * s . :.o- rraac tlaac damage has not occurred, 5. A transistor can .
i seo.r. ot tr* electrons: component may be damaged, yet a. Switch on and off
i- . -JX severai aays or weeks iater. b. Amplify
c. Throttle
a . Do ail of me above
SOliMAKY
6. Clamping diodes .
.. . . s - i ? i K a > « r . » j r s « * 4 by doping seawonduaar siatenais such a. Arc connected into a circuit with m e positive ( + j voltage source
to me cathode and me negative ( - ) voltage to me anode
2. • • ^ - - - f <Y> i t - o.rr.rsficS to f'.rrr. diode.. Bsr-'.itocs,

b. Are also called oespilong dioaes
axfvutaaps. c. Car, suppress transient voltages
d. Are a ; of me above
1. ... sr. >- ••: : . and c^wroi c^rrwt few ir. circuit:, aid tc
p . f c s p a c s g pretecses. 7. A zener diode is normally used for voltage regulation. A zener diode, te
eves, car. ce used for high-voltage spike protection if connate
4. ..'...-•- trxcat,ac .vsir. mat car, iisa anpuf/.
5. ' - t c a r , ^c damagfd it sucâed to txctsive voltage, a. Posinve to anode, negative to cathode
er Seal. b. positive to cathode, ground to a n o d e
t. ~ ... • terrr.: . . of a cumpi.ttr 0? eiectrofiut aevKe; static c. Negative to anoce, cathode to a resistor then to a lower-voffigc
•.-.tr .r, Cif. l a r a a j r eieecoiBi: c a s p e n f f l s . terminal
d . Bom a and c.
8. 1. toward bias voltage required for an LED is .
RettE* QUEST10WS a. 0.3 to 0.5 volt
.. . . •. o Utweer. P-type mater*; a r t N type materia!. b. 0.5 to 0.7 voli
c. 1.5 to 2.2 volts
2. - : . .-. ; can t e t o soppiest rugSt,-voltage surges m
d. 4.5 to 5.1 volts
. .• ;..••:• i o : ttrc-.t •-r a c.-.-t.
9. A good l .f'N transistor s b o u l | test low resistance (low-voltage drop *
2 - t i .i-.... if w o n t ,
tweer, me and and high resistance •-'
« _.T •-/•-....:. i. ai: service t e c h n r i i t i s s h o t d d adheie I n
limit voltage drop) berweer. the and •
"v-- -'. t-etaeBwiit ajiS coiapcar crctafc.
a. Base; erruner; emitter; collector
b. Emitter; collector; gate; trigger
c. logger; base; collector; gate
a - J L ^ T E f ! QOJ2
d. Collector, base; emitter; base
.- ^ t i 4 T.^ttrr^:. . 10. ESD is at least tow nriany volts if you feel a shock?
i . : . •;. efcccoti .r. %r outer ort«tofttsatoms a. 1,000 volts
i • .-- . : •.'•••i.. u j t « r o t itsaions b. 3,000 volts
C. •- \ . T t r * s r . '-'.-J outer orfer of AI atoms c. 5,000 volts
4 - E-. I , '/FTER 'ACSORIEBFLABPE R.UTR:SERAFDTCK00S d. 10,000 volts
fv:i Li&
• s,-
•: -i-
t scTiVESs After studying Chapter 39. the reads' win be able to: Prepare the ASE batter/ • s r s n o r m e 'AS) v . - ' - / ns' / / " •
iT-'-j- • Describe how a battery works. • Ust t h e precautions necessary rc-'i-s- .vt- batter en * Explain t » w to safely '.targe a batter*
f^scoss how to perform a battery drain test.
rrr-'tRMS: absorbed glass m a t (AGM) battery • ampere-hour (Ah.rating • a n t ~ s - ; - • fcrr/efeTWcat d a m test • calcium • c e l b * ssn
X j w amperes (CCA) • conductance testing • cranking amperes (CA) • deep cycling - dynamic vottage » electrolyte * element • flooded
îsattery f gassing • gell battery • grids • ignition oft draw <:0D; test * ; u t n o - s t a r t • east perc-y^sj * lead '.uifate • toad test
v-vrater-loss battery • maintenance-free battery • marine cranking amperes (MC3J * meniscus * open circuit battery voltage test * parasSc
-fires;* partitions • pasting • porous lead • radial-grid design • recombinant d e s c - ;>-••- * r e s r / e c a p a c i t y ' 3 0 • sealed tead-ac-d
SA>S8ttery • sealed valve regulated (SVR) battery • sediment chamber • s e p a r a t r s • s p e c i f gravity • sponge iea£ • vafvereguiatsdtead-
battery
E veryaiitig electrical in a vehicle receives its current from the battery.

The battery is one of t h e m o s t important parts of a vehicle and is the
Nation for the entire electrical s y s t e m .
PURPOSE O F A B A T T E R Y
?Saar? purpose of an automotive batter/ is to provide a

s s e of electrical power for starting and for electrical demands
•hit exceed generator output. The battery also acts as a stabilizer to
v,e voltage for the e n t i r e electrical s y s t e m . T h e battery is a voltage
SSfflKr because it acts as a r e s e r v o i r w h e r e large a m o u n t s of car-
m amperes)! can be removed quickly during starting and x-
nsoa gradually by t h e g e n e r a t o r d u r i n g c h a r g i n g . T h e battery
~s'b? in good (serviceable) condition before the charging system
ad the cranking system c a n b e t e s t e d . For e x a m p l e , if a b a t t e r / is
-:-:ss;ged, the cranking circuit (starter motor) could test as being
•SKStte because the battery voltage might drop below speeiSca-
"f 5 - ^ charging circuit c o u l d also test a s b e i n g defective be-
^ of a weak or d i s c h a r g e d battery. It is i m p o r t a n t to test t h e
battery before f u r t h e r t e s t i n g of t h e c r a n k i n g or charging
-'"HRYCOSSTRUCTION
Z f , '.-'motive battery c a s e s ( c o n t a i n e r o r covers are con-
of polypropylene, a thin (approximately 0.08 filer. '.0 m
. ^ s j thick), strong, and lightweight plastic. Containers for
^ . . ^ t e f e f e s and some truck batteries are constructed of a
3 p
"V ^ A b e r material.
-» «se, there are six cells (for a 12-volt b a t t e r / E a c h
and negative plates. See Figure 39-1. Bull- -
of rasny rib
batteries s that support the iead-aSoy
s ^ J ® ® P'ovide a s p a c e for s e d i m e n t t o s e t t l e . T h i s s p a c e , or
chamber, p r e v e n t s s p e n t a c t i v e materia} from causing
b e t w e e n t h e p l a t e s a t t h e b o t t o m of t h e batter.-,
p e n a n c e - f r e e batteries d o n o t have a sediment cham
r h
- ?Y h a v e p l a t e s e n c l o s e d in a n e n v e l o p e - t y p e sep.s
GRIDS
m a t e r i a l f r o m s e t t l i n g t o t h e b o t t o m of t h e Each positive aae sesetrvs cits- s z : s r - . ; - .rs-s :
framework or grid made r — . - - cf lesd. •'• "
' . - - ^ ' ^ o a n c e - f r e e " d e s c r i b e s l a t t e r i e s t h a t u s e Jittie water and must be sSessTSt-ened far -sse -> sr 2sK«B3£?e Z s s r r %
^ ^ service b e c a u s e of t h e alloy material 'used so c o r - Adding ssSmonv or cakhst to tse p-jre 'esi accs snrrsinr no
v
- v m p ! a ; ? Rrids- M a i n t e n a n c e - f r e e batteries also a r e lead grids. Battery grids- ins s sne acfve m i s e r s ss s nr.
^ - w a t e r - l o s s batteries. eiectricai pathways fori&e cs&es^steae-n r ' > : *
Its.-
««
•S^tses S & n s i a r t Battery e n d s A sepi-ctc-;: that encase the enfire piste and he:-. •
• • .-•--• . •> K S S T C O C V ' ' v o ; the r&i tbJt may shed fretn the plates from causi- • ••aftcwj , > I
' t h e g r a t e r t h e a m o u n t of tween pbtes ?.t the bottom of the battery.
tisf r-; - f. s s s & g s h s i d r o g r a and
Cells Ceils v.rc contracted of positive nega*:v?
~xv3-rr- t s . . rr-; • J ^ ^ a - ^ s c s o r e battery wiS !
v.-ith insu!ot t;g separators between each plate. Most baferiest®
. • calcium C? a n t i m o n y ,
one more negative plate Shan positive plate each ceil.
ntct.-s^ - a f c & r t ' a s t h e j a n s e ' S r r n g j i as 0"'; s i f i r w w A
sewer batteries use the same number of positive and negaSv;
.. cic.er r : -jes cj'cius.
plates. A eel! is also called an e l e m e n t . Each, cell is acf;;"v •
i - " - - - . - ' — a kaf fflraasaajy of a.nStrony
2-voIt battery, regattas! of the number of positive or negatv^
IT • — c D t r o r v b t h ? c o s t i v e p ' a t e s arc!
plates used. The greater the number of plates used in each eel.
csl-riss 'he negative Sm> Hip txnrr&gps (kk rake up the great?- the amount of current that can be produced. Typicj!
----- - -' - v :-rU& fcKSS£aa®f i f t e n a / c r <J0fen»aoe 6 e
batteries contain four positive plates and five negative plates jf
• w r srr~rz2r~ ?-c tm&ten&rce&ee tett&ks. Tb* chgsicaJ re- cell. A 12-volt battery contains six cells connected in scis.
:•:: that o c r c ? e a c h b K t r y a r ? .der;.:ca2 regardless of t h e
which produce the 12 volts [6 x 2 -- 12) and contain 54 ?:?•'
r. - / rt .•••- £ c s e i t o c o n s t r u c t t h e grid p i s t e s .
plates per cell x 6 cells), tf the same 12-volt batter.- he: •' .;
Bat^-Srid Design S e m e b a t t e r i e s u s e a grid design w i t h positive plates and six negative plates, for a total of 11 plate; p?
-. r : Kid str.ps. T n e b a t t e r y p & t ? c r e a t e s elect-i ce" (5 - 6;. or 60 plates '11 plates x 6 cells'. ; t would have??
-- -,• chemical. ^nersy. and this current m u s t S o w from same voltage, but the amount of current that the batter,- CO-JJ:
v •• .: -j s e n e m ' e d t o w h e r e it Is c o n n e c t e d t o t h e o u t s i d e bat- produce would be increased. The capacity of a battery is detp
- . — : >sr. T h e c s r - e n t t t u s ? ^ t w e o v e r a n d u p a l o n g t h e grid strips. mined by the amount of active plate materia,' in the batten-
- : . r a d i a l - g r i d d e s i g n h a s ' e w e r resistance and can the area of the plate material exposed to the liquid. c?>:
- . — m o r e c u r r e n t m o r e r a p i d l y t h a n c a n t h e non-radiai-grid de- electrolyte. the battery.
r used - c o n v e n t i o n a l b a t t e r i e s . T h e radial s p o k e s a c t as 3 so-
...... vi.-fTn ' o r t h e c u r r e n t t o travel f r o © a S areas of t h e
Partitions Each cell is separated from the other cells 5?
t"-- - 00s:. See Figure 3 9 - 2 .
partitions, which, axe made of the same material as that u s e d \
the outside case of the battery. Electrical connections between eel
versus Negative Plates T h e positive plates h a v e are provided bv lead connectors that loop over the top of 'he rr.
tfioT.ide ( p e r o x i d e ) c'.accd o n t o t h e grid "raroework. T h i s 'Jon and connect the plates of the cells together. Many batteries
' ' •- p a s t i n g . T h i s a c t i v e m a t e r i a ! car- react w i t h "he r.ect the ceils direct'y -iroush the partition connectors. t
-J" ac-d of t h e b a t t e r ? a n d is d a r k b r o w r . in color. provides the shortest path for 'he current and the lowest resist?"?; I
• - -~ f •:• a:<?s :•>• p a s t e d w ; t h 0 : . r v p o r o u s l e a d , cailed See figure 30-3. Older-style truck and Industrial batteries cor
VXX3&- l e a d , j - o a r e s r a v In coior. Tor'y used connector that extended through the top of the m
and over and then down through the case to connect the ceils.
Vss p o s i t i v e a n d t h e n e g a t i v e s t a t e s m u s t b e l a -
v.temateiy next to e a c h other without touching. Noncon-
*••..: s e p a r a t o r s a r ? u s e d . w h s d allow r o o m f o r t h e reaction
» w - t i 5wSh p l a t e m a t e r i a l s v e t w h i c h i n s u l a t e t h e plates
-*•-.-•' - circGSis. Thes<? s e p a r a t o r s are o o r o u s Fwlth m a n y
h a v e r s s s feeing t h e positive o l a t e . S o m e batteries
ISber b e t w e e n ' h e positive plate a n d t h e s e p a r a t o r
• ' h " twvs o ! t h e a c t i v e m a t e r i a ' f r o m t h e grid p l a t e ,
r s a d e f r o m r e s i n coated paper, p o r o u s rubber,
i t r r c ' v . o- plastic. M a n v b a t t e r i e s u s e e n v e l o p e - t y p e
39-?. A cvtawgy ôwii^ »,<• cwiswSo^ <fi v , p c

- w
«ft
doctrolyte The alectrolyte ust-d in .iw Dining Charging
,„ |liquid c o m b i n a t i o n ) of to sulfuric
, .irt irolyte is u s e d for b o t h le.nt ant
jinienanc* (reel batteries. I he chemk .1
tide
.1 soiotionIsH ..SO,
jl . Symbol f o r h y d r o g e n ( t h e subsc ript 2 m< m th.11 if

two a t o m s of h y d r o g e n )
TICHFIP An Eaty Way lo Remember Battery
5 . Symbol f o r s u l f u r
Chemical Reaction*
i Symbol f o r o x y g e n ( t h e subsc rlpt 4 Indicates that tin- an
A KtWr .<titm te «*<*»»« (tf ** pWnt Iw* i twttey mto
lour a t o m s o f o x y g e n )
Dy dang tww mtf mt-to tmtmba iMtmentt
This e l e c t r o l y t e Is sold premlxed In the prop 1 roi Mfm me urwi • in***) MnliiOtliKitiwiiqM)
1
•dorV I n s t a l l e d . Additional electrolyte must nn< l» 11 #i«m Mhry a MCwpd »• tot (80 J M on p«n
I ery alter t h e original e l e c t r o l y t e fill. It is n o r m a l lot some war
H 1)1 to e s c a p e d u r i n g c h a r g i n g as a r e s u l t of t h e g a s s i n g th W*Mn M MMry • M * M W6 *»M Wi »«••
tuccd b y t h e c h e m i c a l reactions. Only p u r e distilled wat the (MM*. I t a n t » Mflvy • (MfMl. the oinirt Hom • •
•id b e a d d e d to a b a t t e r y . If distilled water is not availa! • towo • » * m *m m v m a r t a * m • » nwrt
•king w a t e r c a n be used.
HOW A B A n E R Y W O R K S SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Aitilly c h a r g e d lead a c i d b a t t e r y has a positive p l a t e o f l e a d d l u x I he amount ol sulfite la tf
peroxide) a n d a n e g a t i v e plate of l e a d s u r r o u n d e d by a ttolyte't ipeciflc craviry.
ru, a d d s o l u t i o n ( e l e c t r o l y t e ) . The d i f f e r e n c e In p o t e m >1
MKi'l b e t w e e n lead p e r o x i d e and lead I n a c i d Is a p p r o x i m a t
11 volts.
During D i s c h a r g i n g The positive plate lead dioxide |Pb<> Pure sulfuric K i d b m 1

lines with the St), from the electrolyte and r e l e a s e s its O into
ektrolyte, f o r m i n g H 2 0 . The negative p l a t e a l s o c o m b i n e s water, 36% aod* H I
' "• the S O , tioni t h e e l e c t r o l y t e and becomes l e a d sulfate the battery* speuflc gn whifged. See
''H)ji, See Figure 30 4. Figure 30 OL
Jfa Fully D i s c h a r g e d S t a t e When the battel\ CHARGE INDICATORS

' >Jd, both the positive a n d t h e n e g a t i v e plates are PbS0 4 dead
Some bittene* an- eq. 1; chary indict'
' i and the electrolyte h a s become w a t e r (HjO). It Is usualh nut
tor. nptr 1 wall ball ttpe
hie for a battery to become IOCS, d i s c h a r g e d . However, as the
stall) DvAqr etet .arsa pia I it (Viatt ' Ihr
• ii bfln^discharged, the plates and electrolyte approach the
• ely dead situation. There is also the danger of freeing when
nargfu1.
" ;'rrv is discharged, because the electrolyte is mostly watet
0ass,dM
I 11 CTRICAl
w
IOAD CHARGING
srsteM
1 1 TEN H O I Y I I
-J
••osmvt Ntv'.AIIVt
ALL (PBO«) I ' l A H (Pb)
KiwrnmiiiwuMftn»• iim.1 - * ^
"""by lin jhj, I.W. 1.1,. in
SEC'.**.
SPECIFIC
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
GRAVITY BELOW
1 260 80 1.230 - 50
FULLY CHARGED GOING DOWN
F i g u r e 3 9 - 8 Cutaway ol the battery showing the charge indicator. It the electrolyte leva
drops below the bottom of the prism, the sight glass shows clear (light). Most battery
manufacturers warn that if the electrolyte level is low on a sealed battery, the battery mm
be replaced. Attempting to charge a battery that has a low electrolyte level can cause a
buildup of gases and possibly an explosion.
Specific Gravity versus State of Charge a n d Batter)

Voltage Values of specific gravity, s t a t e of c h a r g e , and batten-
voltage at 8 0 ° F (27°C) are g i v e n in t h e f o l l o w i n g table:
Specific Gravity State of Charge Battery Voltage (V)

UNSAFE! DISCHARGED
1.265 Fully charged 12.6 or higher
1.225 75% charged 12.4
ACID WATER
1.190 50% charged 12.2
1.155 25% charged 12.0
Lower than 1.120 Discharged 11.9 or lower
Figure 3 9 - 6 As the battery becomes discharged, the specific gravity of the battery acid
VALVE REGULATED LEAD-ACID BATTERIES

There are t w o basic types of v a l v e r e g u l a t e d l e a d - a c i d (VRLA),
also called s e a l e d v a l v e r e g u l a t e d ( S V R ) or s e a l e d lead-acid
(SLA), batteries. T h e s e b a t t e r i e s u s e a l o w - p r e s s u r e v e n t i n g system
that releases excess gas a n d a u t o m a t i c a l l y reseals if a buildup of gs
is created d u e to overcharging. T h e t w o t y p e s i n c l u d e the following
• A b s o r b e d glass m a t ( A G M ) . The acid used in an absorbed glass

m a t (AGM) b a t t e r y is totally absorbed into the separator, m a k i n g
the battery leakproof and spillproof. The battery is assembled b y com
pressing the cell about 20% then inserting it into the container. The
compressed cell helps reduce d a m a g e caused by vibration and helps
keep the acid tightly against the plates. T h e sealed maintenance-free
design uses a pressure release valve in each cell. Unlike c o n v e n t i o n !
batteries, called f l o o d e d cell batteries, most of the hydrogen a n d
oxygen given off during charging remains inside the battery. T h e s e p
arator or mat is only 90% to 95% saturated with electrolyte, therebv
allowing a portion of the mat to be filled with gas. The gas spacesP^
vide channels to allow the hydrogen and oxygen gases to recomt®E
rapidly and safely. Because the acid is totally absorbed into the glass
Figure 3 9 - 7 \o r ^ r e ' r charge indicator If me specific gravity is low (battery mat separator, an AGM battery can be m o u n t e d in any direction.
- tt* dr-<r, a v . a / f r o m me reflective prism. When the battery is charged AGM batteries also have a longer service life, often lasting 7 to
Te. rjaf • cats a r e reflects the color of me ball (usually green) back up through me
10 years. See Figure 3 9 - 9 . Absorbed glass mat batteries are used a*
gtam and me tqn* glass « dart
standard equipment in some vehicles such as the Chevrolet Corve^'
• G e l l e d e l e c t r o l y t e b a t t e r i e s . In a gelled electrolyte battery, s1icJ 1
t h e h y d r o m e t e r is o n l y t e s t i n g o n e cell (out of six on a 12-volt bat- added to the electrolyte, which turns the electrolyte into a substan£f
tery), a n d b e c a u s e t h e h y d r o m e t e r ball can easily stick in o n e position, similar to gelatin. This type of battery is also called a gel battery
;• rwjid oe rr j.v*d to g i v e a c c u r a t e information a b o u t a bat- Both types of valve regulated lead-acid b a t t e r i e s are also c #
tery's s t a t e of c h a r g e . r e c o m b i n a n t d e s i g n . A r e c o m b i n a n t t y p e battery means that
•OKTTH
•SStTY
1000
T
Figure 3 9 - 1 0 ne taner, - 5 3 t c r * » n g a-perrs CAjonngof 1000 Tho meamlhat
Figure 39-9 An absorbed glass mat battery is totally sealed and is more vibra
• K Mlery 5, capable t cram«jw «njmtarX second! at a temperature of 32"f IPC)
a a m n r o w t* 1 2 W * per at 0 2 M M tar a 12-wK battery)
r^sOntttian conventional lead-acid batteries.
nygen gas generated at t h e p o s i t i v e p l a t e t r a v e l s t h r o u g h the d e n s e

..ectrolyte to the n e g a t i v e p l a t e . W h e n t h e o x y g e n r e a c h e s the neg
'tive plate it reacts w i t h t h e l e a d , w h i c h c o n s u m e s t h e oxygen ga
What Causes a Battery to Wear Out?
and prevents the f o r m a t i o n of h y d r o g e n gas. It is b e c a u s e of "':.:
v.-gen recombination t h a t VRLA b a t t e r i e s d o n o t u s e water. Every auto"®* battery -as = i~«c servce fe of appropriately three to
sever year; Owing ihe o< a batten the active ~iater:a sheds from the sur-
face of the positive oatr. "is jrac-ai* the sower ot "e banery T '«;
FREQUENTLY A S K E D Q U E S T I O N ? ? ? qtckng also car ause tne -regztw petes tc become sulfated, which wtfl also
cause eventua battery !aiij-e
Should Batteries Be Kept off of Concrete Floors?
AH batteries should be stored in a cool, dry place when not in use Many t e : " - MOTE.: A tatlerv beKnes Si."attc i w the ead suttate SOj remains y
: ans have been warned to not store or place a battery on concrete Accord ng the ptaes and does not r e v t St Secroiyte the satiety s dtarged
to battery experts, it is the temperature difference between the top and the bet-
tan ot the battery that causes a difference in the voltage potential betweer the Excessive uarasrst £ams asc ar cajse a saOery te fail premaa.'rety due
It® (warmer section) and the bottom (colder section). It is this difference - te - tc constant deep ejeire 11 the X3erf
serature that causes self-discharge to occur. L
In fact, submarines cycle seawater around their batteries to keep ai' sec
pa- ceil ar tHghei Tins mens tha the battery voltage wouid be
tons ol the battery at the same temperature to help prevent self-discharge
72 rote for a !2-voSt bant" and 3.6 its for a 6-volt be"-- The
Therefore, always store or place batteries up off the floor and in a location
cold-cranking performance -ating 3 callec c o l d - c r a n k i n g a m p e r e s
where the entire battery can be kept at the same temperature, avoidrc
(CCA). Tr? rur::.a e £ rare- -- rtghest
stole heat and freezing temperatures. Concrete cannot drain the battr
money. See vehide nanufecurers' specifications for recommended
t 'ectly, because the case of the battery is a very good electrical insulatr
battery capacity.
Cranking Amperes ~ e :- CA cranking am-

BATTERYHOLD-DOWNS peresi refers to the r u m b e : of a m p e r e •hat car. cc : : ed : • -
All batteries must be a t t a c h e d s e c u r e l y t o t h e v e h i c l e to prevent battery at 32°F (TC,. This rating results in a higher n u m b e r than
battecydamage. N o r m a l v e h i c l e v i b r a t i o n s c a n c a u s e t h e a . : .»• ma
the more stringent C C A rating. See Figure 3 0 - 1 0 .
trials inside the b a t t e r y t o s h e d . B a t t e r y h o l d - d o w n clar:,p.< ,-•:
Jackets help r e d u c e v i b r a t i o n , w h i c h c a n greatly r e d u c e t h e capac Ampere-Hour Rating Marine cranking amperes '-iCAi
uy and life of any battery.
are similar to cranking a m p e r e s a n d are tested at 3 2 ' F , ' An
ether r.pe f b a n e r c rating is called t h e a m p e r e - h o u r .Aft- rat-
3ATT
ERY RATINGS ing. number f ampere that a n be : ".
u
fr the battery before d r o p p i n g at 10.5 volts over a 3 0 ! K * s yr t'
' ' ies are rated a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a m o u n t of c u r r e n t t h e y car. p : -
battery that is able to supply 3 . 7 5 amperes for 2 0 ".ours - as i m a g
" wider specific c o n d i t i o n s .
of 75 ampere-hours 3 . 7 5 x 2 0 = 7 5
^'"•Cranking A m p e r e s E v e n a u t o m o t i v e ba Reserve C a p a c i t y The reserve capacity RC

'We to
o supply electrical p o w e r to c r a n k t h e e n c " i e in > :ner teries is the number of minutes for which the battery
5ti|
l provide battery v o l t a g e h i g h e n o u g h to operate the gn i o n 2 5 amperes and s i l l have a b a r : - . • a g e .-
^ for starting. T h e c o l d - c r a n k i n g p o w e r of a batterv is t h e nun 10.5 volts for a 12-voit barter. Th < n S s g actually a
; r'f amperes that can b e s u p p l i e d b y a b a t t e n - at CTT 18 L for ment of t h e time for w h i c h a v e h . d e car: * i " -er r.
' •onds while t h e b a t t e r y still m a i n t a i n s a voltage of 1.2 volts charging system failure.
batter* c a s e
s p l i t OPEN
o r p r t o V * "
tttnri urvau*
i taaay
• M M
CTOJMC
plat* w v p a g r . «** v
» i t grids Sv« warpa
l e w j i e d far repeated deep
A S K E D QUESTION \V>1
I M l a t t e r y to I«atada'
! • <Mla»ta K y O W 1 ( • ««l ( i W 1 —
"" < ;
n * * i i> »• H y d r o s |
imiii-i maw rf i a-iftir-'-i*"if" T*»• •»«>•
•~r- t» r »Duft J » - " * w r BWNiSri'11 c M r j r WBiefl^
, a a ?4 * » « < « > « " • ) • •**> * c K - f f i t t nada Kir ! Ftgura M 11 i » m « i i soar* ra*)e me battery w a s m e most likely cause ol ttus Dawn
«• «•<<»* M P — I m o w KM • GOTO * * H « i * * g n P » a o l l i » M n i ! f y i « ^ f t n r m m 30 t e e t M O m ) a n d luckily no one was aroimOl*
I
M M i a t v M a 0 ' rncium M a r y acid * a s spilled a n d sprayed around me battery«*
• mm <vm» « « > M t a r after unplugging the battery charger
ASKED Q U E S T I O N hw
nqtativ* cable is duconnected, all electrical circuits in t h e vehicle
Ito VMM S»motn«M ot a W«ak Of Detecltvt BaMery? *i i * open, which will prevent accidental electrical contact be
tweet ai trtcal component and ground. Any electrical spark
a * u inn ( r < l I M n w y nlKMM>>baOary a w twand
i,di the potential to cause explosion and personal in|ury.
«awM ma a m
2. 'Aear eve protection whenever w o r k i n g a r o u n d any battery.
rt
i «aar 0 00 0 0000 etto— * "dfc.iai Bat 9 a oatm 3. w«ar protecu«e clothing to avoid skin c o n t a c t with battery acid
tea a — n — r f l n f irwa— aw a o t n it t i t m c m t f l t « tamg 4. Aiwjvi adhere t > all safety precautions as stated in the service
«ae ind 'Wygr- g a a a procedures' it the equipment used for battery service and testing
a* M P V c a t * 0 a n w a r t u a -Canaan a m m 5. Never smoke or use an open flame a r o u n d any battery.
> • I - • Mnwy « k M M craatmg AM w o n on t » MM*
* * M t e r y * M f l « c l l | f f « d *w wilt tutm art torred out <t trie BATTERY MAINTENANCE
aaa « • « a t m M N r « t a H R and cnnnactna and atan n v a
Most new style batteries are of m a i n t e n a n c e free design that v
v«teinliin» tm wmry Sat 3B-1?
lead-calcium instead of lead a n t i m o n y p l a t e grid construction *
r a n a a r «»anfae*iartvnl«»liatl»>8
cause lead-calcium b a n e r i e s d o n o t r e l e a s e as much gas as - ;
n a v v a p » a M M y to b a a M to a m y t a
older style l e a d a n u m o n y b a t t e r i e s , t h e r e is less consumpti1"
» ttrtaqfteenQm any Duong com wMttw
water during normal service. Also, w i t h l e s s gassing, less cord-
is observed o n t h e battery t e r m i n a l s , w i r i n g , and support tr>
Side terminal banery design also h a s r e d u c e d the self-discharge
UTTIRF TT*YKF SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
can often occur as a result of dirt a n d moisture on the top
•->• «•<! if o w tip»Ai>f &je; hydrogen and
battery, which provide a c o n d u c t i v e p a t h for t h e c u n e n t to Do* <
a tr* - A a t v i r - . i c t u r g K i g and discharging cycles. To help
tween the terminals that can lead t o b a t t e r y d i s c h a r g e .
v - j® < .• ' the vefeKte. always a d h e r e to
Battery maintenance includes m a k i n g c e r t a i n that tlv
,*>e Is clean and checking and a d d i n g c l e a n w a t e r , if necessan
I. rv.*. <w«(>ofiew on a vtrikle, to Figure 30 13. Distilled water is r e c o m m e n d e d by all battery m a w
OGIJ^ _ N V r>ar • Hirers, but if distilled water Is n o t available, d e a n ordinary dnn
Dynamic versus Open Circuit Voltage
Open circuit voltage ,s tne voltage (usually of a battery: mat exists x i t a v t a

sad oe sg appfiec. Dynamic voltage is me voltage of the power source (bat-
tery. witn the circuit in operation A veh.de oattery. far example, may indicate
. s a t h a s l 2 . 6 v o t e or more, but that voltage may drop when the battery 5 put
-r.aer a ;oac such as cranking the engine, if the battery voltage S o p s a s mutr.
the starter motor will rotate more slowly anc the engine may net start.
if tne dynamic voltage is lower than specified, the battery may ce sveak or
defective or me etrctit may be defective, resulting r too much current o a n g
drawn from the battery.
B A n E R Y VOLTAGE TEST
G f o s w on a Battery cable could be an indication mat tne battery itself is
Testing the battery voltage with a voltmeter is a simple method for
°-r 1S s u ; t a t e c - creating a lot of gassing of the electrolyte.
determining tine state of charge of any battery. See Figure 39-14.
The voltage of a battery does not necessarily indicate whether tine
battery can perrorr. satisfactorily, but it does indicate to the techni-
cian more about tine battery's condition than a simple visual i n f e c -
tion, A battery that "looks good" may not be good. This test is
commonly catien an open circuit battery voltage test because::
is conducted with an open circuit—with no current Sowing and no
load applied to the battery
1. If the batters has j'ust been charged or if the vehicle has been
driven recently, it is necessary to remove the surface charge from
the batten: before testing A surface charge is a charge of higher-
than-nonnal voltage that is Just on tine surface of the battery
plates. The surface charge is quickly removed when tine batter.- is
loaded and therefore does not accurately represent the true state
of charge of the batiery.
2. To remove the surface charge, rum the headlights on high oeam
• s n B-13 A visual inspection on this battery snowed that the electrolyte level was ibrightsj for 1 minute, then rum tine headlights off and wait
i - t ^ s s i n a l i cells. 2 minutes.
3. With the engine and ail electrical accessories off, and the doors
-•'.-:.'anin mineral content, can be used. Because water is the only shut (to turn off the interior lights), connect a voltmeter to the bat-
s .ru battery that is consumed, acid should never be added to a tery posts. Connect the red positive iead to the positive post and
f S j Battery electrolyte is an exact mixture of acid and water (64% the black negative lead to the negative post.
:
i ad 36% acid;. Some of the water in the electrolyte escapes
-x normal operation of charging and discharging, but the acid
Che electrolyte, remains in the battery. Adding electrolyte t*0TE: if the meter reads negative, the barter,- has beenreversecharged
:
aaeases the acid content of the electrolyte and will shorten •has reversed polarity! ana should be replaced, or the meter has been
«tile cattery. Do not overfill a battery, because normal bub connected Incorrectly.
psingj or the electrolyte will cause the electrolyte to escape
® a c corrosion on the battery terminals, hold-down brackets,
jSery aajc Fill batteries to the indicator that is approximately 4. Read the voltmeter ana compare the results with the following
; «tott13.8 centimeters) from the top of the filler tube. Another state-of-charge chart The voltages shown are for a battery at or
5
» S i the battery until the water becomes "puckered," indi- near room temperature (70° to 80°F or 21° to 2TC
the electrolyte level is even with the bottom of the filler
" ^ t - Pickering of water in a tube is called the meniscus. Battery Voltage (V) State oi Charge
%Casey also should be secured with a hold-down bracket to
12 6 or higher 100% charged
~ s oration from damaging the plates inside the battery. The
12.4 75ô charged
" crss.cet should be snug enough to prevent battery move-
--yiiis: so tight as to cause the case to crack. Factory-original 12.2 50*crtargeo
brackets are often available through local automobile 12.0 25âiar3ee

^ universal hold-down units are available through local 11.9 or lower Dsshassea
-^•••e parts stores.
canie connections should be checked and cleaned to pre-
drop at the connections. One common reason for an HYDROMETER TESTING
.'.; "M star: is loose or corroded battery cable connections. if the battery has removable filler caps, the specific gravity of tits
"'" batter/ cable terminal ends are available at most auto- electrolyte also can be checked. This test also can ce pertc-rr.ec
stores. on most maintenance-free batteries because rhe filler saps are
TIC
65-5C EXAMPLE:
HYDROMETER REAC....
»C ELECTROLYTE TEU?-.
5J.5C SUBTRACT SPECIFIC -.,.= . . .
•iSC CORRECTED SPECIF ' .v~riS
«c
rrx EXAMPLE:
x x HYDROMETER READING
ELECTROLYTE TEHPEKAT^-: I yyj
zrc
ADD SPECIFIC GRAVITY
2lC CORRECTED SPEClP.C GRAVITY IS mj
15-5C
IOC
•S.SC
-1C
A FULLY CHARGED 3ATTERY HAS A Si>EC*C
-6.SC GRAVITY OF ABOUT 1.265
-12C
Figure 3 3 - 1 5 Uteriffis&nga nailery usng a hydrometer. tne reading mua lie corecs;
tre t r m w o a z e s a a w s or below 80"F (27°C>.
Speofcefrawty Battery Voltage (V) Stalest Our?
1.26S 12 6 or hijOer 100% OajsC

1225 12.4
1190 12.2 50% ctaga;
1155 12.C 25% W i ^
Loner c a i 1.120 l i i o r tower Oisciatsec
BATTERY LOAD T E S T I N G
The most accurate test to determine the condition of any teas
: the load test. Most automotive starting and charging testa. ;
u>: a carbon pile to create an electrical load on the baneiy. Tee
araourit o: the load a determined by the original capacity oi tr.c ;
bat!«y being tested. The capacity is measured in cold aaniag •
amperes, which is the number of amperes that a battery car.
pjy it 0"f i WCi for 30 seconds. The proper electrical to*"•
be tsetf » tesr a barter/ is one-half of The CCA rating or :•:•••:•
limes t f r ampere hour ruing, with j minimum of a lSO-aspe*
load See Figure 39- 10. Apply the load for a lull 15 secor.c-.-~
obser.-e the voltmeter at the end of the 15-second period •
tne battery & sui: unaer ioad. A good battery should incics
above >Jt>V. Many batter/ manufacturers recommend perioral
the joad test twice, usfiag the first load period to remove thess
race charge on the battery arid the second test to provide a true
fixation ot the ccn&uori of the battery. Wait 30 secor.cs fcctw«r
t&ts to atow time 6>r the battery to recover. See Figures 3'<
and 3v-!S.
i! the battery fails the ioac test, recharge the batter-; r.:
- ? i i <o» •:• Se-f^s-/ art M s -vhargwl oo&B reasc it the ioas test is failed again, replacement of the j w t r
• wv <n«S a I-j^W iHfer 9 » i j t o required.
The One-Minute Test
A nqa- tmttetj Uaoteasfisuld late one minute.

• Lias t o r " veixntss to nnnove ine surface charge.
- Alto* 'J3 SKSWSS fer t a t t t r y to recover
« U i 3 £ i o r l 3 secwds to t e a te battery.
jSgjBENTty A S K E D Q U E S T I O N
votls
:i-ef<d«s equipped with a diesel engine use two latteries ysusS-ry fcsae vol is
9.4 volts
® are efisctncatty. connected in parallel to piwde aSSbona! c o g * 9.3 volts
9.T volW
3.5 volts
heavy-duty trucks and buses connect two b a t t e r i e s s e n e s to pro-
5.7 voltl
JSJSWA8S sane current as one battery but with twice the voitase. as shown 8.5 volts
•tsuccesstuily test the batteries, they should be disconnected and tested

S just one battery is found to be defective, most experts recommend
-^KSiSattenes be replaced to help prevent future problems. Because the
# Kferssare electrically connected, a fault in one battery car. cause the ",2 V
. ^ s s a i y to discharge into the defective battery, thereby affecting both bat- tOOCA
sis. evenS jost one battery is at fault
ijes 3 - 1 6 Tins tottery nas cold-cranking amperes (CCA) of 550 A. cranking amperes
*•>'wW. and load test amperes of 270 A fisted ngbt on tne top label. Note all battenes
w S s f f c l information.
figure 3S-20 Many heavy-Cuty- sscte are; bases use wo 12-volt banana ajawceti in
senes to provide V vote.
through the battery and the conductance of the ceiis are cetermmed
by the electronics aad program inside the unit. The unit can desr-
tnine the CCA, state-of-chsrge. and voltage of the banery. See
Figure 30-21. Connect the unit to the posMve and negative
of the battery and after entering the CCA rating ftf 5se®r.t, push
the arrow keys. The tester determines one of the SaEovving:
• Good battery—the baseiy can return to service
• Charge and retest—fully recharge the battery sas rettas u to
service
m Replace the battery—the barter? is not serviced-: sad sicuii
be replaced
vgtttemrn-taHM. • Bad.cell—replace—the batter? is not saafeeab-.e s d sS&ii be
"4>ow me tetter ^ recover, and men reapplies tr.e- load for anorner
of ms (est then displayed
^ CONDUCTANCE TESTING Test --.'uit- can be ffixnet'-'v •v.-JreJ

Corporation. Chrysler Corporation, and Fore spec improper, uric lean connections » & e battery ase atade. A
^Ctronk conductance tester be used to test battencs ignition switch and ail accessories are ia (be off posiSoa.
under factor warranty This tester sends a signai
w r v v See figure 3 0 - 2 3 . W h e n charging a ma « - f r e e Ilea; I
c a ! c : b a t i e r v , t h e initial c h a r g e rate should b e 3 5 ampere I
for 3 0 m i n u t e s t o help start t h e charging process - h a t i n g a Is- I
t e n ' increases t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of the battery and c _ ausewaipingr I
the plates ir^tde t h e batten.'. Fast-charging also inert • the amour' I
of g a s ^ release of hydrogen and oxygeni, which can create. I
health and fire hazard. The battery temperature should not exce--1
125 F - o t to the touch i. Most batteries should be charged at a r ; .
eqm to 1% of the battery's CCA rating.
Fast c h a r g e : 15 a m p e r e s m a x i m u m
Slow c h a r g e : 5 a m p e r e s m a x i m u m
Always use a battery charger designed for absorbed glass oat

'ACM batteries because that type of battery can be damaged if charged
above 14.5 v-jiis. W h > AGM batteries can be charged at a high average
rare labnm 75 amp hour rating) the voltage m u s t be lower than the con-
ventional charger.
Always Use Adapters on S i d e - P o s t Batteries
S«Je-po6t batteries require that an adapter be u s e d w h e n e v e r charging the bat

tery if >t is removed from the vehicle If a bolt is t h r e a d e d into the terminal, only
the parts of the threads that contact the battery t e r m i n a l will be conducting all
ol the charging current An adapter or a bolt w i t h a nut attached is needed to
achieve lull c o n t a ' with the battery terminals See Figure 3 9 - 2 4
JUMP-STARTING
I vehicle with a dead battery, connect good
j u m p - s t a r t another
quali'v copper lumper cables using another vehicle or a batter*
imp box. See Figure 39 25. The last connection made should al
/.ay. oe < i the engine block or on an engine bracket as far from
th? baiterv as possible. It is normal for a spark to be created when
the , imper cables finally complete the jumping circuit, and this
spar- o J i cause an explosion of the gases around the batter.
Mar. , newer vehicles have special ground connections built away
!r - tr.e baiter, ust for t h e p u r p o s e of j u m p - s t a r t i n g . Check the
owner's manual or service information for the exact location.
To help avoid the possibility of a voltage surge causing damagf

to the c .mputer or electronic circuits of t h e vehicle, be sure t h a t t h e igni
ic - , in the i/ff position of both vehicles before attaching the lumper
cat . . After the Ii • connection has been made, start the good vehicle,
and then start tne disabled vehicle.
BATTERY DATE CODES

All maior battery m a n u f a c t u r e r s s t a m p c o d e s o n t h e battery -
that give the d a t e of m a n u f a c t u r e a n d o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n . Most U
tery m a n u f a c t u r e r s use a n u m b e r t o I n d i c a t e t h e y e a r of man '
yv v* - : tow r * # i M A n n mnm keys aft ture arid a letter to i n d i c a t e t h e m o n t h of m a n u f a c t u r e , skipping '•
M M «tTt»t*mry*KM(l
If tier I, because it c a n b e c o n f u s e d w i t h t h e n u m b e r 1. For example
< M i n o daixn « d u * M »wt ( M
rj« K, *mc« I A A M C O * A lanuary H - August
B February J September
C March K October
U T T f T ' CXAM4MG
D April L November
* n r at b e recharged. I t s best
p. •* damage to E May M December
• - " O f . c t a r g l n g rate. F June
'St to tun - i p.thf discharged r. - • •
Chapter 39 Batterie: 3ntJ Battery Testing 413
BATTERY SPE CHARGING TIME

0pEN CIRCUIT GRAVITY' TO FULL CHARGE AT 80' f"
VOLTAGE
him amps 1150 impt al 40 ampa al X ampa at 20 ampa at 10 ampe
1.265 100%
126
1.225 75% 15 mln. 20 mln 27 mln. 35 mln. 48 mln. 90 mln.
12.4
1.190 50% 35 mln. 45 mln. 55 mln. 75 mln. 95 mln. 180 mln.
12.2
1.155 25% 50 mln. 65 mln. 85 mm. 115 mln. 145 mln. 260 mln.
12.0
1.120 0% 65 mln. 85 mln. 110 mln. 150 mln. 195 mln. 370 mln.
11.8
•Correct lor temperalure " I I colder. It'll lake longer
TJW
1 mtterv charging guide Battery charging times vary according to state-ot-charge, temperature and charging rate
Figure 39-25 A typical battery lump bo* used to jump start vehicles. These hand-portable
units have almost made jumper cables obsolete.
The shipping date from the manufacturing plant is usually indi-

cated by a sticker on the end of the battery. Almost every battery
manufacturer uses just one letter and one number to indicate the
month and year. See Rgure 39-26.
« lypical industrial battery charger Be sure that the ignition switch is in the
co nec,in
" 9 any battery charger Connect the cables of the charger to the
e
the charger into the outlet. This helps prevent a voltage spike that
happened tto be accidentally left on. Always follow the battery
r,
*i%tuier'sinstrucbons
INSULATOR
PJJJJ^j It C o u l d H a p p e n t o Y o u !
STRAP The owner ot a Toyota replaced the battery After replacing the battery the
owner noted that the amber "airbag" warning lamp was lit and the radio was
locked out. The owner had purchased the vehicle used from a deaier and did
not know the four-digit security code needed to unlock the radio. Determined
to fix the problem, the owner tried three four-digit numbers, hoping that one of
them would work However after three tries, the radio became permanently
disabled.
Frustrated, the owner went to a dealer, tt cost over $300 to fix the prob-
lem. A special tool was required to easily reset the airbag lamp The radio had to
be removed and sent out of state to an authorized radio service centw and then
reinstalled into the vehicle
Therefore, before disconnecting the battery, please check with the o w r »
to be certain that the owner has the security code for a security tvpe - J d * A
"memory savei " may be needed to keep the radio powered up whan the battery
V is being disconnected See Figure 39-27
Pte
"'Should be US
M on side-terminal batteries whenever charging
414 5SST3KS.,
BATTERY E L E C T R I C A L D R A I N T E S T
Ir.c battery electrical drain test dett-rmino • :..;.-.
or circuit in a v e h i c l e is c a u s i n g a d r a i n o r ier/P.'.
e v e r y t h i n g is off. T h i s test is a l s o c a l l e d t h o i g r u o o n off d r a ,
( I O D ) or p a r a s i t i c l o a d t e s t . ! h i s t e s t s h o u l d 1 . ... ''
ever one of the following conditions exists:
1. W h e n e v e r a cattery is b e i n g c h a r g e d o r r e p l a c e d .. cattery
d r a i n c o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e c a u s e f o r c h a r g i n g o r replacing tne
battery 1
2. Waanever the batter,- is suspected or ceing dramad
PROCEDURE FOB BATTERY ELECTRICAL DRAM TEST_

The fastest and easiest method to measure battery electrical diair. -
to connect an inductive DC ammeter that is capable of measuring
low current i IGmAj. See Figure 30-28 for an example of a clamps
Figure S-2S T« ase Si'7 issc&s sas as Saoery «as sswppaa 6om »e digital multimeter ceing used to measure battery drain. Following
» 6 S I R « SFCR, 2 0 0 7
is the procedure for performing the battery e l e c t r i c a l d r a i n test using
a test light:
1. Make certain that ail lights, accessories, and ignition are off.
2. deck all vehicle doors to be certain that the interior courtesv
(dome) lights are off.
BATTERY REPLACEMENT
3. Disconnect the negative 1 battery cable and insta. a parasitic
STRAP S270-32S
load tool as shown to Figure 30-20.
I J
4. Start the engine and drive the vehicle about 10 minutes,
— 1 ceing sure to turn on all the lights ana accessories inciudmjthe
radio.
5. Turn off xc engine and ail accessories inducing use unoer-r.. 0:
3-VOLT
BATTERY
0. Connect ar. ammeter across the parasitic load tool switcr. ana ,v_r
10 minutes tor ail computers and circuits to shu: DO AT.
7. Open the switch on the load too! and read the barren elect,-.:..
Sjjaia on the meter display.
taj
Results: Normal - 10 to 30 mA ^0.02 to 0.03 A)
Maximum allowable = SO mA ;0.05 Ai
DIODE
Be sure to reset the clock and andtheft radio if equipped. 5&
Figure 30-30.
F»0tf , eti&-27 . Ur • - . rusnss; repress.; components from Raoc figure 39-28 This mini clamp-on ®gitat multimeter is t»mg used to measure Ow
>.*> - - - 4.-.*---, •>• -<f averse, savtr Some experts recommenousing ot unary electncal atari But 15 present in this case, a reaomg ot 20 mA iJisp"''-' 0 ''*''
a'. i aaer, a s & c a . S-vcf. oanery to netj> ensure mat mens will oe ~,eter i i oo.£i2Aj is w.trm trie normal range ot 20 to 30 mA. Be suro to camp * ^
: J s. ostfieo tr* «f»a) sanely ts osconnectea me positive battery cable 01 ail ot tne negative battery cable. Mrhictwver is easiest;o ^ '
wefc i ^ s 4 sr.*. 4-<e« cs»*y clamp arouno
Chapter 39 sjEanes and {Ua»ry '<• • <15
THE SOURCE OF THE DRAIN
* check and temporarily r econnect 2 * lo(.<wmi

carpooenjs
J. Jjfct gade a e r,aod
2.1 to: u : T a w lyb;
Iscoofiettisg ill three of these components :ae bat

try Jrac a n i ' * w more Sun 50 sl.: amperes U.05 Ai. discoo-
neoi one fuse «: a time w d leave It disconnected until the draw
is reduced. If ' J * escesuve draw is reduced after one fuse is dts
connected. ±t soma of the drain a located In that particular at-
c a t as atefad on car fuse has. Caodaae to disconnect ? v
pcr*<r side wj re co&r.eatrs tan each component Included m
that particular arc-', urui tie test L & i goes ofi. The source of
- ^ B - S «ti connocwg me jhutofl tool, start me engine and operate as the natter/ data can then he traced to an Mhriduai component
. .. * $W ttw engine ana turn ott everything. Connect the ammeter acroes ~r or pan of one cactf l
a sin*: Wait 20 minutes. Tits time allows all electron* orcus to t r < t
tU OM« Open Ihe switch—all current now will (low mrough me unamm A
,-ua MR specr-fd , usually greater man SO milloinperes (0 OS amps*. WHAT TO DO IF A BATTERY DRAJN STILL EXISTS
. * J wolsn trot mould be corrected If all the fuses 3 m bees ±sctr_aeaed aad rae drain still exists,
die source of die 2raa has a he stsweec the banery and (he hoe
box. The most common xxzoes of d n z ^nder the hood indude
thefatowmg:
J. T h e g e n e r a t o r .-• » • • • - • . : - he
excessr.e ainenr r x n suqs, a r pnttos a a defccavediodetsi
maegeiBaeK
2. The t u n e r soieooid r e l a y , a r WL-JSJ n e w i t s c o m p o -
nents. ~ * s e « a . Ia : •.-_-.• t lar - drair 2 -e
to high rjrrest Saw and v r . viae*: a s g a - a y a e « t r or
HIDDEN BATTERIES
Many vetucjf sun-ttc :j i d . r-icf tr* îrtcrv under a e
iacisea; or _nder toe _
even It s jxzx-z jap-
sorting a vehicle, cî mm li
M36-X The battery ABS replaced in tins Acura and me radio dspiayao "code" Men
figure 39-31.
-cram: aatter, was installed Thankfully, tne owner bad me tow-age code r m r e d
«kMMt
•,|c: Manv deenmic components draw a ca

ioct tne banery when the ignition is off. These compose ms b d u d e
taidocb
• tuned radios tor station memocy and ciocit d i e . . - - : -**
."^ssoequippfj
1
-^•cgneeontrolcomputer ;if the vehicle t s s o e q u p p e d .
::
*|nenior (alternator). through slight d t o d e leakage
' * wcponftic, may c a i w a v o l t m e t e r to l e a d r bi . »o .

-"-rtbrtween die negative battcrv tern: r.at and t! > - e t t j o w v -in:
•jttv» battery cable.
a voitBMtt to ro«a~..-> barters' 3 j

• tr.' Boat wiucle m a n u l i v t u r e ^ The higr. . t t *
t e w f c in an i n e k v a n t tva.i.ng that d>»-> n
^ • t a j d a j u i i t Intomiation about a problem:
t. Pw^.HÔ,
BHtOUWTl* fcSKEO GUtSTlOK j g j d PtSO, H « <
2 AW!)' cbatgrf 1 2voV.be-vryshould indicate _
, » t t ^ V r - ^ tatt<r)le ftecfea'sed i . 1 2 6 Wttsorhlgfet
b gr«v::V of I-WSor higher
c. 12 v o l U j K ? ^
| * tofcrj- J r t r ' V tow* I (004 MV d. Both « «nd b.
J. D « { eye - j means.
Cap- V a E * ^ K »\>y« i-e^^'v e > r p o l Tie a. Ovcrctiirg"rig the battery
; : > * o d K * ' ^ , i AHvcine arvrto (WCMV./ wiv <tf b. O erT.iiitjg or uriirtriiling the battery with wate;
[ I K K ' c v i k (penft srsfctr milage to c. The battery k fu'.ly discharged and then rccharged
«. •rsi^n * t * T a f t r - a v ; . o r be o ^ V a t e J eaus>% aflema d The batter, k overfilled with acid (HjSf >
I o I M 4. M i l / v t l . cle trautac^reri. recommend that t special electrica'
be tos^T<d betAtcr. the battery and the battery cable when l a r
a. Ba-.er,' drain Iparasltk drain;

E S T T W T S X M P I O M GUIDE
b Specif*: gravity
T?t I • . ••• i •• i • techf'iCiJTjIn diagno&igbatteries. t. Banery voitagr
d. &J"tT) charge rate
fsMfcit Cevsts n d o» SOMK»W 5. Re>crrt capa^ty lor batteries means .
a. 1 r* nuriber o' hours the battery can supply 25 amperes ar j r*
1 i n f e r s poo COTrcctnrstt
roairi higher than 10.5 vote
b. Tne number ofmfai/f« the batffly can supply 25 amperesarii I
l 2 Ov.Nr j t ^ ) » poft oomecfcns or t * b « V |
rerrJin higher than 10.5 volts.
c. Tne number of minutes the battery can supply 20 ampers vi
t « r cnrlri J Heir-, Ktf rtvstaree cat-« «r
rer i'": higl,e: than 9.6 volts.
arVartokxtt
d. The numbct of mlnjtrs the battery can supply 10 amperes art
* M r , « r Mi t o t ' I 4 1 » * M l " , m naîV^CT h e V f remain higVr than 0.6 volts.
t M - A r t ftetoVyteweilinirs • »*
t * *fnolau««titfi»/ r*.xe»«t»iV, 6. 1t> r • • a - aMe difference between the highest and tore:If-
J « ae^v a t t r $ Cn»>KCt» ly&-|ortoO>>#a«Aiy H e dr. • ter Ispecffic gravity j leading k .
4 »< * jhj»<nj V < Ol a. 0.010 I
1
b 0.020
«e.r>si*j c. 0.050
d. 0.50
7. A b i ' u - . b o r a t e discharK ilr«d capacity) test kbeingpertonwi»
12 volt ba'lep. Technician A says that a good battery should haw i r !
t • V - - •s Veil cakiuO grtd>Ir t i l 0(le»5 ».'llnKVi) U, -eaiing o! hight: thar: 9.6 vote While under load at the eni o! to
f - k rti J , p. 15 y md test. Technician B says tha' the battery should be dfccteF
2 ••'• -a n i l K t * d. « * acJi 5p IS BEING CHARGED. thr
b T«hr,<1ariBonl)
BUC V . pia'T> R 4 MeltTOWthr (kCtlAê
c. Both Technician A and B
J i* • t- «v'jri rev * * c»f>»ciTr
d Ne.ther Technician A nor B
< »• .<!»» w; a*utti(<: t» tt* *eh<le hotd4wn 8. W:..- . l ia' t ; r g» n s "enariceftco (lcad<aldum)battery,
The Inlt.a' charging rate should be about 35 ampere for
S t, - ,- -t • • • : ' • • I I O ' V to W- ofchi^ 30 minutes
' - tb* U ' y r . K. OM ha'« ot itt CCA r» > t A p o J b The ba'tery may no! accept a charge for several hours ye' WT
v. - . : <r ?>'. {lit-fr-d be < to w i i u'r. b i i U r « r : be a good (lefficelbfe) battery
• V I< R JS«;'/R>D KVL PER'IOD c. Tne ba''ery temperature should not exceed I25'F (hottow
* » >t -- lev c I U [r 4 ih. U"<T) ruri; iowr.. toiCbj
d AE of the abo ve
f . e ^ l C * (PJCSTlONS 9. Nor- bi-vr, dr< • (parasitic drain; with a vehicle tfflf. many
r . J etectrofiicdrc jits k -
1 fct, - S r t* r < c»- fr.. .<• • 2Ti to 30 mil amperes
2 Jt- • •!«• •# r ( v T u v d bi'-fTj n t j r f nxOiods. b. J lo 3 imperii
c. I50to300mn!iarriperes
J t- -• > ' « # •' •• • - k--: fl( « l a l f * to detcrmJrie lt»
d Now ol the above
•
10. Wf*r.|um^Junir<,_ .
4. flw i/ r-'s '4 • ks
a The la-.' co- action should be thv positive post of tM j
t • i dr»- to.'. b Tne last co: ection should be the engine block of the i c > -
veliicfe
t. Th.' UtetTiii' • must be disconnected on both vehicles
d Both a act! c.
^ *, r ; e- erjfiir* wvp.nr- _ -
• ' VvVi
fc K V v H/>
Cra g iystem Operation
40
C H A P T E R
and Diagnosis
^ f l y E S ; After studying Chapter 40, t h e r e a d e r will b e a b l e t o : P r e p a r e for (he ASE etectricaVetectromc s y s t e m s (A6I certification test c o n t e n t
; starhngsystem d i a g n o s i s a n d repair). • D i s c u s s h o w to t e s t t h e crank-ng rircu • . D e s c n b e h o w to p e r f o r - cranking s y s t e m testing
jêdures
. n TBtMS; a m p e r e - t u m s • a r m a t u r e • b e n c h t e s t i n g • b r u s h - e n d housing • b r u s h e s • c o m m u t a t o r - e n d housing • c o m m u t a t o r s e g m e n t s

. ampoond motor ( c o m p o u n d - w o u n d ) • c o m p r e s s i o n spring • counter electromotive force (CEMR • c r a t o ^ circuit • frivecoi • drive-end fDE)
^ . electromagnetic s w i t c h • field c o i l s • field p o l e s • gear-reduction starters • ground b r u s h e s • g r o w l e r tester • h o t t n g c o i l • hold-in
i-n(tng • hotbrushes • lap w i n d i n g • m a i n field h o u s i n g • m e s h spring • mica • movable pole s h o e • neutral safety switch • ovemmnng
a t * • p a m a n e n t - m a g n e t field • p e r m a n e n t - m a g n e t s t a r t e r motors • plunger lever • pole s h o e s • p o s i t i v e - e n g a g e m e n t s t a t e r • pul-inwmdng
. a a f e w H d e start (RVS) • s e r i e s m o t o r • s h i f t fork lever • shunt motor • solenoid-operated starter • s t a r t e r drive • s t a r t e r solenoid •
Doits • undercut • v o l t a g e - d r o p t e s t i n g • w a v e winding
F
y ary engine to s t a r t , it m u s t f i r s t b e r o t a t e d . It is t h e p u r p o s e a n d 4. Starter drive. Tr.e r^r-r :r - a z e n s t h a t : ctact
v\ct.on of the c r a n k i n g c i r c u i t t o c r e a t e t h e n e c e s s a r y p o w e r by the engine Svwhee: gear ar.d transmits starter motor power :o
-.'•ting electncal e n e r g y f r o m t h e b a t t e r y i n t o m e c h a n i c a l e n e r g y a t rotate the engine.
- rater motor and r o t a t e t h e e n g i n e . 5. Ignition switch. 7 ' r :r. " r : saJeq : o r ~ : :cr.es
control the starter motor o p e r a t e . See Ftgores 40-2 and 40-3.
CUMING CIRCUIT IGNITION LOCK AND KEY

cranking c i r c u i t i n c l u d e s those mechanical and electrical
"orients r e q u i r e d t o c r a n k t h e e n g i n e f o r s t a r t i n g . In t h e e a r l y
- the c r a n k i n g f o r c e w a s t h e d r i v e r ' s a r m . M o d e r n c r a n k i n g
-"-'i :r.chide the following:
Starter m o t o r . T h e s t a r t e r is n o r m a l l y a 0 . 5 - t o 2 . 6 - h o r s e p o w e r
'0.4 to 2.0 kilowatts! e l e c t r i c m o t o r t h a t c a n d e v e l o p n e a r l y
3 - orsepower 16 k i l o w a t t s ; f o r a v e r y s h o r t t i m e w h e n first crank-
a cold engine. S e e F i g u r e 4 0 - 1 .
' kttery. The b a t t e r y m u s t b e of t h e c o r r e c t c a p a c i t y a n d b e at
5 i charged to p r o v i d e t h e n e c e s s a r y c u r r e n t a n d v o l t a g e
•' correct o p e r a t i o n of t h e s t a r t e r .
tarter s o l e n o i d o r r e l a y . T h e h i g h c u r r e n t r e q u i r e d b v t h e
ianer
must b e a b l e t o b e t u r n e d o n a n d o f f . A l a r g e s w i t c h
* o a J d k r e q u i r e d if t h e c u r r e n t w e r e c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e d r i v e r
- ^ ' . . v . Instead, a s m a l l c u r r e n t s w i t c h ( i g n i t i o n s w i t c h ,
•>fra«s a solenoid or r e l a y t h a t c o n t r o l s t h e h i g h starter
current. IGNITION SWITCH
ASSEMBLY
figure 40-2 Some a*mMXM«Ba g i t or s w d e s act arecr, r ne ooracr

«ner93s oews jse a - < m r i tne <OCK cylnoer n 3ie greoor sunt*'
INHIBITOR RELAY
Kj^mOH . AUTOMATIC TRAXSMSS^N
0
SWITCH *'L,"
FUSE
1 FUSIBLE -
/
4 I P | INHIBITOR SWITCH
.s [If AUTOMATIC THANSM^SION -
L_J ONLY)
A 'STARTER
BATTERY U O T o r
® = AUTOMATIC TRANSI«SSION MODELS
0 = MANUAL TRANSICSSION UOOELS
figure 40-3 4 typical« ^ i se -sr c

""enoid -operated starter
4V
ttt SET
TJK - - •. ectric motor that is controlled by a R e m o t e v e h i c l e s t a r t ( R V S ) is a s y s t e m th.i , i i 0 w s the i,
fepropented s r a ~ switd. ' he ignition switch will not operate the to start the engine of the vehicle from inside the house or b u i j '
s a t r - - <n> tr-: i . \ - : ~ . c transr-ssion is in neutral or park. This is from a distance of about 200 feet (65 meters). The doors
v pre sr. acc der: that -igfct result from the vehide moving for- locked so the possibility of theft is reduced. This feature allows 1?
MS r p r e is staned. Many automobile man heater or air-conditioning system to start before the driver arrive
O C K B R B m e A N electric switch called a neutral safety switch that
See Figure 40-4.
. v- ; between "he igiiuon switch and the starter to pre-
. •_-• - - a - • > : • 2n• n unless the gear selector is in neutral or
c a d ? - : 5£vr : •.-•.;n car. be attached either to the steering column M O T : Most remote start systems w i l l t u r n off the engine after 10 minute
r:-,: : . - tuck near the Boor or on the side of the transmission. of run dree unless reset by the use of the r e m o t e .
M a r . ne strai safety switches can be adjusted by loosening the
- : : . . ' - crew ind moving the switch slightly to be certain that
ersme *. crank only with the transmission in the neutral and HOW THE STARTER M O T O R W O R K S
:< - •_ r. Var.. manufacturers use a mechanical blocking de- A starter consists of a main field h o u s i n g , one end of which is
-ce r . s i stee-ng column to prevent the driver from turning the called a c o m m u t a t o r - e n d (or b r u s h - e n d ) h o u s i n g a n d the other
- i swrchtc stan position unless the gear selector is in neutral end a drive-end housing. The drive-end housing contains the
:: car*. Mar.v manual transmission vehicles also use a safety drive pinion gear, which meshes with the engine flywheel geat
. -.-.- • ; r • permit c ranking only if the clutch is depressed. teeth to start the engine. The commutator-end plate supports the
end containing the starter brushes. T h r o u g h bolts hold the three
components together. See Figure 4 0 - 5 .
TECH TIP y ' Watch the Dome Light A starter motor uses electromagnetic principles to convert
electrical energy from the battery (up to 5 0 0 amperes) to mechan-
tagncsing any starter-related problem, open the door of the vehicle ical power [up to 8 horsepower (6 kilowatts)] to crank the engine.
tne brightness of the dome or interior lights) while attempting to The steel housing of the starter motor contains four electromag-
Swengme
nets that are connected directly to the positive post of the battery
. - n e w n e s s of any electncal lamp is proportional to the voltage
. V y - * operation ot the starter results in a slight dimming of trie dome light.
. - Tie iQm remans Wight the problem is usually an open circuit In the
coruro* circuit
• * tre ngnt goes out or almost goes out. the problem is usually a discharged
ar banery or a shorted or grounded armature of field coils inside
t w saner
C O M P U T E R - C O N T R O L L E D STARTING
i--:, operated ignition systems and most push-button-to-start sys-
v - . „ .< the computer to crank the engine. The ignition switch start
v r. •;-,- 00 me push-to-start button is used as an input signal to the
:< • -- n->.: control module (PCM). The ignition key can be turned to
the x a r piosttioii, released, and the PCM cranks the engine until it Figure 40-4 the top button on this key fob is the remote start button.
- -.nat nhe engine has started. The PCM can detect that the engine
nac aarsed by looking at the engine speed signal. Normal cranking
car between 100 and 250 RPM. If the engine speed ex-
--ar. i ' / j RPM, the PCM determines that the engine started and
v~ :- to the "S" (start) terminal of the starter solenoid. Be-
.--- ; - ' ' : ' cranks the engine, the following conditions must be met:
• ~ne brake pen^. is depressed.

• Tie i>ear s e c t o r .-. m Park or Neutral.
• Try s o r e r key fob code; is present in the vehicle.
< -c.-er'.'/iV'.. ed starting is almost always part of the system

f a pusti-fcyaon start is used.
TECH TIP Cfceck That Extended Cranking

May Be Normal Operation
V, •: -.• - j , i t f . , " r . < t engine crank* after they release the (FIELD
v ''-or key # 4 <• » a t t »-<« ts a faun with the ignition switch or starter DRIVE E N D FRAME)
r c u r If t i e . « ppwi * « h computer-controlled starting it is normal HOUSING
Mir- to tta' It ttarl* and it may crannonger than the customer (END F R A M E )
t w u it s t a n d e««Ki3»y in cald ttrnttv*
Figure 4 0 - 5 A typical starter motor

Chapter 40: Cranking System Operation and DugnoM 41»
,de a strong m a g n e t i c field i n s i d e th HOW MAGNETIC F I E L O S TURN AN ARMATURE

rt r is controlled by a s o l e n o i d o r relay
ihe
One basic principle of electromagnedsm is that a magnetic field
Hriveroperated ignition s w i t c h . T h e f o u r t
surrounds every conductor carrying a current The strength of
^ copper or a l u m i n u m w i r e w r a p p e d around a iron < ore the magnetic field is increased as the current flow (In amperes: is
re is contoured to fit a g a i n s t t h e r o u n d ' o Increased.
^ tarter frame. T h e soft iron c o r e s a r e called p o l e s h o e s , wo
Inside the starter housing is a strong magnetic field created by
p ifourpole shoes are wrapped with copper •/. < <*<- d r< • thefieldcoil magnets. The armature, a conductor, is installed inside
. :in' ,„ create a north pole magnet, and the other two pole shoes this strong magnetic field, with very little clearance between the
t a p p e d in the opposite direction to create a south pole mag armature and the Sekf coils.
v 'These magnets, when energized, create strong magne':c
The two magneticfieldsact together, and their lines of force
! ds inside the starter housing and therefore are called field
"bunch up" or are strong on one side of the armature loop wire and
coils. The soft-iron cores (pole s h o e s ) a r e o f t e n called field p o l e s .
become weak or 'he o t h e r side of the conductor. This causes the
Inside the field coils is a n a r m a t u r e that supported n conductor farmat jre vj move from the area of strong magnetic
vjshings at both ends, w h i c h p e r m i t it t o rotate. T h e armature > field strength toward the area of weak magnetic field strength See
instructed of thin, circular disks of steel l a m i n a t e d together and figures 40-7 and 40-8. This causes the armature to rotate. This
v.ound lengthwise w i t h h e a v y - g a u g e i n s u l a t e d c o p p e r wire. The rotation force (torque - icreased as the current flowing through
,-ninated iron core s u p p o r t s t h e c o p p e r loops of w i r e and helps the starter motor increases. Tlhe torque of a starter is d e t e r m i n e d
ncentrate the magnetic field p r o d u c e d by t h e coils. T h e ends of by the strengA of the r.agr.etic fields inside the starter. Magnetic
e copper armature w i n d i n g s a r e s o l d e r e d to c o m m u t a t o r seg- field :: ••• : ampere-turns. rrtn'
ments. The electrical c u r r e n t t h a t passes t h r o u g h t h e field coils is
number of turns of wire are increased, t h e magnetic field strength
ten connected to the c o m m u t a t o r of t h e a r m a t u r e by brushes that
is increased. Tine magnetic fe : of :\e s u r e r r o t o r is provided
can move over the s e g m e n t s of t h e r o t a t i n g a r m a t u r e . These
by two or more pole shoes a r c field w i n d i n g s . T h e pole shoes are
brushes are made of a c o m b i n a t i o n of c o p p e r a n d carbon. The
made of iron and are attacbec to t h e f n r e w.'_n large screws. See
.upper is a good c o n d u c t o r m a t e r i a l , a n d t h e c a r b o n added to the
Figure 40-0. figure 40-10 Horn nne p a t h : if magnetic f l u x lines
•alter brushes helps provide t h e g r a p h i t e - t y p e lubrication needed
within a four-pole motor. T b e Se^d w i n d i n g s are -suaify m a d e of a
reduce wear of the b r u s h e s a n d t h e c o m m u t a t o r segments.
heavy copper ribbon to increase their current-carrying c a p a r t y
The starter uses four b r u s h e s — t w o b r u s h e s to transfer the cur-
and electromagnetic field s r e n g i b . See R z j e 4 0 - 1 1 . Automo-
• ; from the field coils to t h e a r m a t u r e , a n d t w o brushes to pro-
tive starter motors usually have four poie s h o e s and t w o t o four
le the ground return path for t h e c u r r e n t that flows through the
field windings to provide a srrong m a g n e t i c ' e l d w i t h m t h e
armature. See Figure 40-6. Therefore, two hot brushes are in m o t o r Pole shoes that do not nave Selc windings are m a g n e t i z e d
"Iders, which are insulated from the housing, and two ground by Dux toes from t h e w o u n d poies
brushes primarily use bare, s t r a n d e d c o p p e r wire connections to the
Mies. The ground brush holders are not insulated and attach di-
"ectly to the field housing. TYPES OF STARTER MOTORS
The current travels t h r o u g h t h e b r u s h e s and into t h e armature Starter motors must provide rugr. oower at tow starter motor
•'" hidings, where other m a g n e t i c fields a r e created around each speeds to crank an automotive engine at all temperatures a n d at
* wire loop in t h e a r m a t u r e . T h e t w o s t r o n g magnetic fields the cranking speed required for t h e e n g i n e to s u n ( 6 0 to 2 5 0 en
tr
«ed inside the starter h o u s i n g c r e a t e t h e force that rotates the gine RPM 1 . Electric m o t o r s are c, ass J e d according t o t h e interna:
^nature.
electrical motor connections. The m e t h o d - ed d e t e r r net the
power-producing characteristics jf the electric motor. M a r . /
starter motors are series w o u n d , W+DC." m e a n s thai t h e c u " M T
FIELD
COILS
flows first through the field coils, then in series through the a n n a
ture, and finally to a gpocnd through t h e ground brushes, iee
figure 4 0 - 1 2 .
P I U N G UP" Of
MAGNETIC UNES
POLE Of F O R C E - mow
SHOES
TO OUTPUT
TERMINAL OF
BRUSH SOLENOIO
STARTER
- CASE
GROUND
S8flt 3
We J ' wound electnc motor shows the basic operation with orty two
-yJn ^ 'ol ^ and one ground brush the current (tows through Doth Held cols, then Figure 4 0 - 7 m n d H a» - > m a t - -me
N h ih. 01 a n d Ulrou
9 h the loop winding ot the armature betore reach ng g n u m creates a seonjer nagnelc t e « o« » e i w * fcejfaf .- n
"unumtnoh ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ loop to o n e n w 7 tie M l
WINDING
CONDUCTOR P O L E SHOE
MOTION
Figure 4 0 - 1 0 Magnetic lines ol force in a four-pole motor
F I E L D WINDINGS
ROTATION
POLE SHOE
Figure 4 0 - 1 1 A pole shoe and field winding
ARMATURE
-n,m^-
SERIES COIL
40-8 a n a t r e oops rotate due to the difference m the strength of me Figure 4 0 - 1 2 This wmng diagram illustrates the construction of a series-wound
« -. . - « t r Tne >-/*« - we »«or. a strong magnetic field strength toward a weaker motor Notice that all current flows through the field coils, then through the armature
- a y w s c Vie s n a g - series) before reaching ground.
POLE SHOE
Series Motors A series motor develops its m a x i m u m
the initial start |0 RPM) and develops less torque as the sp
. RCOCO* A
creases. A series motor — is commonly used for fnr an
an aautoi
staner motor because of its hioh
starter high starting Dpower
o w e r characte •
series starter motor develops less torque at high R? KPM, .yuen'-
st'the cug
current is produced in the starter itself that acts against tn 1
battery
from the battery. Because this current works against;
C E M F . ^
age, it is called counter electromotive force or fte*
counter EMF is produced by electromagnetic induction > c S :
L
mature conductors, which are cutting across the magne rar
force formed by the field coils. This induced v o l t a ^ h rl>dUcei
POLE WO€
WjtJHTtoC SCRE W against the applied voltage supplied by the battery, ^ tne^
the strength of the magnetic field in the starter and reduc •
rent draw of the starter. , of'
Because the power (torque) of the starter d e p e n jecrf;
Rgur«40-G >v*»««*)'-» 'V «!«-(»vjuwig strength of the magnetic fields, the torque of the starts
Chapter 40 Crankng Sjrste— O p e r s t w i a n d O o g n o w Ot
starterspeed increases. It is also c Compound-wound starter motors are commonly used n fivnl.
motors to k e e p i n c r e a s i n g in s p e e d <.'.ryjJe* and some GM starters. The shunt-wound Scfd col a
^ lead to the destruction of t h e s t a r t e r moi called a shunt coil and is used to limit the m a x i m u m speed of t h e
prevented. •Janet Because the shunt coil is energized as soon as the battery
current ts sent to the stxTer, it is used to engage the starter d r v r a s
^ Motors Shunt-type electric m o t o r s hav« 'ield coils in
f o r d poi '.ve-engagement starters.
e<,or shunti across t h e a r m a t u r e as s h o w n in I , . e 40- 3. A
njnt motor does not d e c r e a s e in t o r q u e , . <-:
S
,-2Use the CEMF p r o d u c e d in t h e a r m a t u r e d o e s not di ^ ARMATURE AND COMMUTATOR A S S E M B L Y
a coil strength. A s h u n t m o t o r , h o w e v e r , d o e s not produce as The motor a r - aon s h o r n m Rgure 4 0 - i 5 has a laminated e w e
- a starting torque as t h a t of a s e r i e s - w o u n d motor, and it Insulation between the lamination* helps to reduce eddy currents
for starters. M a n y small electric m o t o r s used n auv rr e in the core. For reduced resistance, the armature conductors are
• .-.vet motors, windshield w i p e r s , p o w e r w i n d o w s , and power made of a thick cop&er wire. Motor armatures are connected to the
use permanent m a g n e t s r a t h e r t h a n electromagnets. Because cor.r.ta- r K fr a l a p w i n d i n g . the two ends
vje permanent m a g n e t s m a i n t a i n a c o n s t a n t field strength, the each conductor are a" i:-ed • '•' ac acer.' comr. itator bars. See
v as a shunt-type motor, t h e y h a v e similar operating characte- ,- Rgure 4 0 - - : wave winding, : r. -nd •/. a c o r :
: :i To compensate for t h e lack of t o r q u e , all PM starters use gear are attached to c o r r n u a t n r cars that are 180 degrees a p a n on op-
reduction to multiply starter motor torque. posite sides of the comsoosor. A iap-wound armature :S more
common] j e d because : oflen .ess iesstar.ee.
Compound M o t o r s A c o m p o u n d - w o u n d , or c o m p o u n d .
The c o m n r j t a n . ' is m*x of copper tan insulated from each
motor has t h e o p e r a t i n g characteristics of a series motor and a shunt-
t h e - : mica r* * \ 1 i
-.•k T.oiot, because s o m e of the field coils are connected to the arma-
core, windings, and n n n m m m r are assemosed on a iong armature
ir. series and some (usually only one) are connected directly to
s h a f t This shaft also carries t h e p c a o n gear tnat meshes with the
battery in parallel (shunt) w i t h t h e armature. See Figure 4 0 - 1 4 .
ARMATURE
9OT 40-13 This wiring diagram illustrates the construction of a shunt-type electnc
•' ^"f-type electric motors have the field coils in parallel (of shunti across the
""anasstovm.
ARMATURE
SERIES COIL
o 1
S H U N T COIL
BRUSHES
JWi140-14 A compound motor is a combination of senes and shunt types, using part d
- c o n n e c t e d electrically in senes with the armature and some m parallel ishur: Figure 40-16 An arroJu-F Bp
COMMUTATOR
A R M A T U R E CORE
ARMATURE SHAFT ASSEM8LV
ASSEMBLED ARMATURE
A R M A T U R E CORE
ARMATURE LAMINATION
' starter motor armature

m - 1
* t e a cofis and : _
to W ^ ^ 0011 • Kher
THF W J W M O P T V N I W M M M
tlMTIiat Starter'
n c m *
^ ^ ^ n w ^ H f ^ rmafan awQtaim
I W—aw * ft* * Oof tnn»
It-Magnet ft**
•-»«• * * nwqnn • tntm t*
PM M l wapne* m , ^ *
11» Mt « M " - « • « « » * u c » a hMvy toot » * ^ ^ ^
«#> »rt» i f W m ® onto »*amaturt m **n,^
|> • J t » * * * S» hgn
ClAH REDUCTIO* STARTERS

Q w M l H M M m used by man-,
p mi reduction iryptcally 2:1 to 4 l
tr -• t* -he ar atur* at the starter and prow* -
wrjur r-tiOpliaODB r»r»sjr\ • cra\>. at. engine. See
H • a i t t M M M i M o r I M M W in rotational s p e e d , thf I
f n f t n a I m power, and ies* current Is drawn from the M v
h o w tor e m w t | m e w s p e a t e r CEMF as the starter M
" " • m i However; a inner motor's maximum t o r q u e ot c-n i
• k V i • • Vrr« with increasing RPM A
r
*"* r a f a ' « d two design can produce the « a
1
' '•'<• V w *••• • od starter a m p e r a g e req :
lower curwvf wflyireroers rr.«-Hn tha; smai r b a t t m cat
t* i M frmmr t -najti*? u a n e n u s e » planetary | W «
"f P * rafeatani t o p r o v i d e t h e n e c e a s a r y tor'j-j*
CLUTCH
MESH HOUSING
SPRING
DRIVE /
FLANGE / BUSHING
ROLLER
COLLAR
imnHMgntf tok) houamg was rumod wtvn jomeone

j <1 jttemot to fix" a start* lhat would not wort A FLGUR* 40-21 A cutaway ot i tyiwal startpi driffl
•twtmca*
200 TEETH
FLYWHEEL
RING
GEAR
STARTFR
DRIVE
M» > planetary gum raductlon a»emWy Fljum 40-22 llw ring g»w to pillion own mtk)» usually 15 t toTOt
f l y w h e e l Rear. Inertia Is t h e t e n d e n c y of a s t a t i o n a r y o b i e c t t o r e
m a i n stationary, b e c a u s e of Its w e i g h t , u n l e s s forced t o m o v e . O n
WWVtS
t h e s e o l d e r m o d e l s t a r t e r s , t h e s m a l l s t a r t e r p i n i o n g e a r w a s at-
in** n a MI,all p i n i o n g e a r t h a t m e s h e s w i t h a n d t a c h e d to a s h a f t w i t h t h r e a d s , a n d t h e w e i g h t of this g e a r c a u s e d it
" • fi / w h e e l f o r s t a r t i n g . T h e p i n i o n g e a r t o be s p u n a l o n g t h e t h r e a d e d s h a f t a n d m e s h w i t h t h e f l y w h e e l
Kirn tear slightly before the starter motor w h e n e v e r t h e s t a r t e r m o t o r s p u n . If t h e e n g i n e s p e e d w a s g r e a t e r
t damage to either t h e s t a r t e r g p a r o r t h e than the starter speed, the pinion gear w a s forced hack a l o n e t h e
ear must be disengaged after the engine t h r e a d e d s h a f t a n d o u t of m e s h w i t h t h e f l y w h e e l gear
arter pinion gear arc tapered to help the All s t a r t e r d r i v e m e c h a n i s m s u s e a t y p e ol o n e w a y c l u t c h t h a t
without damaging the flywheel ring gear a l l o w s t h e s t a r t e r to r o t a t e t h e e n g i n e , b u t t h a t t u r n s freely if t h e
T?.» ratio of the number of teeth on the e n g i n e s p e e d Is g r e a t e r t h a n i h e s t a r t e r m o t o r s p e e d . T h i s c l u t c h is
rr on thf itarter pinion Is between 15:1 tailed ,in overrunning clutch tnd ir
mall pinion gear has 9 teeth that turn f r o m d a m a g e If t h e Ignition s w i t c h Is h e l d In t h e start p o s i t i o n a f t e r
161, • I his provides an 18:I gear reduction; the engine starts. The overrunning clutch, whkh ts built in as a
f
i'' routing approximately 18 tim^s faster than pan of the starter drive unit, uses steel balls or rollers Installed in ta
p. for thf engine is 200 RPM. This p e r e d n o t c h e s . See figure 40-23. TIILS taper forces the balls or
"«>••>r speed Is 18 times lasier, or 3600 starter rollers tightly Into the notch, when rotating in the direction neces
If the engine started and was acceler sary, to start the engine Whenever the engine rotates faster than
rM rrn.î i old engine speed), the starter would be the starter pinion, the balls or rollers are forced out of the narrow
1
speed to,000 RPM I it not disengaged from tapered notch, allowing the pinion gear to tum freely IOVWTVCIM
The ' |intiR between the drive tang or pulley and the overrunning
often used a Bend I x drive mechanism, lut. ii ai i !•:•». . . alii d a m e s h s p r i n g md tt hi i s to , . , - : . , •
starrer pinion with the engine and control the engagement of the starter drive pinion with the
MOV/WIII P O H
SHOE
CONTACT
PIVOT I'lN
POINTS
DRIVE
COIL,
RF TUF 'F1INQ
DRIVE El
'•FAWN G
(D)
> 9ur» t d - T i • * the uvwnii . q Mutch tm Starlet motor is (inwng the startur
'Kr con-* urn Mnoowl igiiiMl «pfing lore* into ttwii slots
>• ••• •• ' --.!>' "i1 ii. Vv «tart«f armature Spring lore*
V« «**M <C O P ratM hMly
ARMATURE
DRIVE
SHAFT
YOKE
W oe v * n Lfvi R -STARTER SOLENOID STARTER DRIVE
PINION
COMHtCltON v OVERRUNNING
t o PI IINC.I R CLUTCH
Figure 40-25 A Fort) movable polo shoe starter
POSITIVE-ENGAGEMENT STARTERS
P o s i t i v e e n g a g e m e n t s t a r t e r s , U'.r d o n wnv old Ford
utilize t h e s h u n t coll w i n d i n g of t h e s t a r t e r t o e n g a g e them:
' MESH SI
drive. The high starting current Is controlled by an ignlfa
CUTAWAY O r
OVt-HMUNNING CLUTCH switch o p e r a t e d s t a r t e r s o l e n o i d , u s u a l l y m o u n t e d near the \
tlve post ol t h e battery. W h e n t h i s c o n t r o l c i r c u i t Is closed, cm:
flows t h r o u g h a h o l l o w coil ( c a l l e d a d r i v e coil/ that mix'
feQun 4 0 - 2 4 .ihwjjUh ui.:',..id V M.irttr inowmgthe solenoid,nhitt lew m o v a b l e p o l e s h o e . See Figure 4 0 2 5 . T h e movable metalpt
. ivwiiiii r ttiat HidijflM the starter ^.nion and overrunning clutch with I •hoe is attached to and engages the starter d r i v e with a lever Icilk
seemo ai one ufKt
t;. p l u n g e r leveri.
A', soon as t h e s t a r t e r d r i v e h a s engaged the engine flywht
thl- .prine r also called a c o m p r e s s i o n tang on the m o v a b l e pole s h o e "opens" a set of contact points, fl*
tpnnji t i rl '.tarter solenoid or starter yoke compresses the contact points provide t h e g r o u n d r e t u r n path for the d r i v e coil
• • , . ! • t t • -.pring, tension c a u s e s the starter pinion to engage er.itjon. After t h e s e g r o u n d i n g c o n t a c t s a r e o p e n e d , all of the star
• •• ':ywh« r i ',<•<• Figure 4 0 24 current can flow t h r o u g h the remaining t h r e e field colls ^ I
through the brushes to t h e a r m a t u r e , c a u s i n g t h e starter toopf"1'
I he movable pole s h o e Is h e l d d o w n ( w h i c h keeps the >'•"''
S T U T T E R DRIVE O P E R A T I O N
drive engaged | by a smaller coll o n t h e Inside of the ma/n drive
: ./> p i r . ' . n v - f ) must be moved Into mesh with the Tin-,' ml is. ailed i i " h o l d i n g c o l l a n d II fc. trong enough '
Tif . : ••• it.' u r i e r m o t o r Mart* to spin. Most auto- the '.tarter drive engaged w h i l e p e r m i t t i n g the flow ol " f T
- . . . riotd o r t h e magnetic pull of the shunt coll mum possible current to operate t h e starter, (f the groundiy
. •h . t t - w v f t h e starrer pinion.
tact points are severely pitted, t h e s t a r r e r may not "P*™ I
v i.'-rally a d e p e n d a b l e unit and does not re starter drive or the starter m o t o r b e c a u s e of the r e s u "' n f J l l ( ,
rr.' i i l l i. del'-', live or worn, The ma|or wear ground for the drive coll. II the c o n t a c t points are «*•»' f . ^ - t
/,/ - . t i n g d u t c h section of the starter drive unit, '•nough to prevent them from o p e n i n g , the starter will " c ^
w> ii and often d o not wedge tightly into starter drive Into engagement b u t will not allow the sinr
r. net i-.safy tor engjrie cranking. A worn to operate.
. • . -,Mrti-r motor to operate Ireely arid not
tori-, t h e starter male a "whining" noise.
• t h .tarter motor is operating and lhat SOLENOID-OPERATED STARTERS in" I
r o t j ' i.g the engine flywheel, The entire starter solenoid i in e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c s w i t c h » w
.'in I tn overrunning d u t c h section separate inn connected electromagnetic windings r
I or repaired separately be used in engage the larter drive and to < ontrol the cur •
dfl'/e III' mo .' likely Ii, lall ba"»ry to tin- srjrter motor. See Figure 4 0 20. I/IC
more frequently, until replacement I lie rwo Internal winding'
inningsr • " i n " ' " •"»1 'i ! P f l x *u2,,,£ e»V J i I
,r •• -tiii.i • Intern,Iiu rit narter drive number of turns but an made rrom a d/fferenr g« i ,
, i rr.'Ai nun/i niii* during cold nether both windings p r o d u o a s t r o n «
g m ag"1'"'
magnetic
metal plunger Into the solenoid. I h e plunger M l l»M
STARTER
DRIVE
ASSEMBLY
Figure 40-26 Wiring diagram of a typical starter solenoio. Notice that soft tne pus m
,ens ana the nold-in winding are energized when the ignition switch is sirs: tames to m-
sK postal As soon as the solenoid contact disk makes electncal contact wnfi tost sie
J j s «terminals, ttie battery current is conducted to the starter motor anc eiectricaisy
voitage-droj
v-ofaii-'es me pull-in winding.
testing:
saner drive t h r o u g h a s h i f t f o r k l e v e r . W h e n the i g n i t i o n s w :cr.

s-limed to the s t a r t p o s i t i o n , t h e m o r i o n of t h e p l u n g e r inr :.*.e
causes the s t a r t e r d r i v e t o m o v e i n t o m e s h w i t h t h e fly-
wheel ring gear. T h e h e a v i e r - g a u g e w i n d i n g [called the p u l l - i n
winding) is n e e d e d to d r a w t h e p l u n g e r i n t o the solenoid. '.".-.;•
K i r gauge w i n d i n g (called the hold-in winding .
though magnetic f o r c e t o k e e p t h e p l u n g e r i n position. T h e m a i n
Purpose of using t w o s e p a r a t e w i n d i n g s is t o p e r m i t as :;,ucr. cur-
« t s possible to o p e r a t e t h e s t a r t e r a n a y e t p r o v i d e the *:.'•'/.-.;
J^gneiicfieldr e q u i r e d t o m o v e t h e s t a r t e r d r i v e i n t o '
tne instant the p l u n g e r is d r a w n i n t o t h e solenoid e n o u g f . -
** starter d r i v e , t h e p l u n g e r m a k e s c o n t a c t w i t h a m e a l disk
l^tconnects the battery t e r m i n a l p o s t of t h e s o l e n o i d to me r . c : „ :
snanal. This p e r m i t s full b a t t e r y c u r r e n t t o flow -
to operate the starter m o t o r . T h e c o n t a c t disk ; . . - „ . . v . ; ;
passes-the pull-in w i n d i n g . T h e s o l e n o i d has t o w<,-.-. -
10
' h e starter. T h e r e f o r e , if t h e s t a r t e r m o t o r . i t e r a u • - . ~
* alerio| is working, even though it may
Usance that c o u l d c a u s e s l o w s t a r t e r m o t o r o p e r a : . , ; . .
PARTING S Y S T E M T R O U B L E S H O O T I N G
•'•"proper operation ol the .startingsystem ... , •
[ J - ' / M cables a n d c o n n e c t i o n s , a n d a .•••• ir. 8 e
" • • 4 aarting p r o b l e m c a n b e c a u s e d by a
W i m in the starting circuit, it is i m p "
'-"'r ''petition of each par; ot the •:ircuit• to
• quickly.
ÎTAGE.
DROP T E S T I N G
^ ''' ,h
' ' d r o p in v o l t j g e S » t oc< wnct
.'siK, <i r e s i s t a n c e . for e x . t m p i e , a v it dK
volt&ge .it t h e s o u r . . a n d th
1
'"'vice to w h i c h it Is f l o w i n g . T h e h i g h
SECTS* *
+ LEAD (RED)
- LEAD
- LEAD (BLACK)
* LEAD
7 = VOLTMETER
TESTING + BATTERY CABLE

3 -
" TESTING - BATTERY CABLE
V3 - TESTING SOLENOID
Figure < 0 - 2 7 : i r t t noonups (or voltage-drop testing of a GM-type cranking circuit
- LEAD s
V1
\
+ LEAD \
LEAD
- LEAD
- TESTING + BATTERY CABLE
V2 - TESTING + BATTERY CABLE
V3 ) - TESTING - BATTERY CABLE
TESTING STARTER SOLENOID
40-28 . ; — ere' -«*.ups tor voltage-drop testirg ot a Ford-type cranking circuit
Step 94 f a J u a t e t h e r e s u l t s . If t h e v o l t m e t e r r e a d s z e r o , t h e c a b l e
R E A L WORLD FIX \ B a t t e r y C a b l e H e a t a n d Counter EMF
- * > -ed a s r , o r e s i s t a n c e a n d is g o o d . If t h e v o l t m e t e r r e a d s
- g r e - t . ar 2 voir, t h e cable h a s excessive resistance and should When there is excessive current flow through the cable, battery cables can <»0
be replaced. H o w e v e r , b e f o r e replacing the cable, m a k e certain heat The amount of current (in amperes) is determined by the power n
' -.a- t n e c s - - e c f c o n s a t b o t h e n d s of t h e c a b l e b e i n g t e s t e d are operate the starter motor. A typical problem involved a vehicle dnven to F••."»
deac and from Michigan. The battery cables ovemeated when the driver tried to start the •
hide. Ai a service center, some technicians believed that the cause of tne •
heated cables was an oversized battery, which is often used in vehicles ^
TECH TIP Heat Equals Resistance northern climates. Although it is true that a smaller battery can be used in
climates a large battery does absolutely no harm and. in fact generally lasts ^
* a caM* * -/><- rncf<rvr j n o t t o the touch. there a eledncal resistance in the than a smaller battery. The cause of the problem was discovered (by
ertte / w w c e o r -<> e g j f t a n c e c f t a n g e s electrical energy mto heat energy. a defective starter motor that rotated too slowly. The too-slow rotation ' ^,,
r
-«r<sfrre ' a W n w H r i iwt availatte carefully touch the battery cables and meant that the starter was not producing the normal amount of cou ^
V t t n e o c m wnrte c o w * fte e n g i n e I any carte or connection is hot to the CEMF The overall result was a tremendous increase in current being .
loner • o e cteanefl or « p f a « d the battery, and it was this extra current flow that heated the battery V
Chapter 40 CrdnUng System Operation wdtSat <77
e>. rtncal system inspection. See Figore 40-32. Some service Wirr-a-
lor pecifies normal starter a m p e r a ^ for staner motors being tessed
jn the vehicle; h o w e v e r m a s t service i n f o r m a t i o n or,iy gives t h e spec
S c a t t e r s for b e n c h testing a s t a n e r w i t h o u t a load applied. These spec
xations a r e helpful in m a k i n g certain t h a t arepairedstarter meet
^ x a c t specifications, b u t t h e y d o n o t a p p l y t o starter testing on the
vehicle. If e x a c t specifications a r e not available, t h e f o l l o w i n g can be
jsed a s g e n e r a l specifications for t e s t i n g a starter o n t h e v e h i c l e :
• F o u r - c y t r . l e r engines: 1 5 0 t o 1 8 5 a m p e r e s MAX
• Six c i n d e r engines: 5 6 0 to 2 0 0 a m p e r e s M A X
• Eig." < y . ' d e r e n g i n e s : 1 8 5 t o 2 5 0 a m p e r e s MAX
Excessive c u r r e n t d r a w m a y i n d i c a t e o n e o r m o r e c4 t h e
following;
1 . Binding of s s a r e r a r m a t u r e a s a result of w o m b a s h i n g s
40-29 To test the voltage droo ot the battery cable connection, place one d u e l e r
W M((ery tenninal and the other voltmeter lead on the cable enfl and crj- <
3. ' ->z . ' . i o r cables
' • The loltmeter will read the difference in voltage between the two leads wtuct xxic
4 . Tig}/ or -jeized e n z n e
^ 0 2 volt (200 mV).
5 . r. -- i-y. - : - . .5 :<..-:: • ' - -
w o r n brusbesi
The Starter That Croaked

and t h e Jumping Battery Cables
Once upor a tne a n ' n t w f i x t start crartc * tectr r-ar. at test

-hat the prower iras a s w p e -jse-f :-:se or -,-jrrofled battery i r - -al er
•vttxri ait after r e t - r n i c a B zeanec the c a s e s the starter r . rr-ade no
l o s e wrier the oncon swier -j-etL t 9B sar? p o s t e r ~ne teenraaar
opened the reticle arte otserwB ~e a m rtenorl igrt The «jnt was
onght. r o c a t m c i t s zszefi ^••aoe was etaBne^v "Kjh and Siat the bat •
ery should ae dOeauaB* cnarged X .-ar* f i e engine -owever whe- the
- e c t n c s n turned the g t t r s m s r s; me s a r t josteon 5 * dome 1 0 * w e "
jut complete • This - O o f e d " a: Te t a f c r . « f t a g e « e n t down ;ons«deraory
K0Tt Hisnorrraifcrtheaornel^tte^-dur'âar. âsa'esiiitotS*

1
iwerec batffiry vtrtage t t r s c r r * ! * ; -dweotf the wrtage s f w i c x * dnx
" Jiirs 40-30 GM solenoid ohmmeter check. The reading between 1 and 3 tS tern- -31 and
stould be 04 to 0.6 ohm (hold-in winding). The reading between 1 and 2 (S terminal below 9 5 votes w n t J T o r r s y so r r a r t e acerbate wltage lo u g t t*
5m a|
" ) stow be 0.2 to 0,4 ohm (pull-in winding). danelgHMy
techrec®> ! w y a n g e c me t»o oatlery caxes so tat ftsy .
CONTROL CIRCUIT T E S T I N G parallel tor a shoe distance and •eoeatefi the t e s t As soor as me ton 9
was r j r e c lo n e star* n o s h c r r e batter/ tables , - a e d toward e a r
"e control circuit f o r the starting circuit includes the battery.
r "he tedimcar o e w t a t fl* engine was seirec or the stars- -ad a snored c
'-on switch, n e u t r a l or clutch safety switch, and starter sole-
araunoec 'eld » y y-nature "*ss prevrted a t$red t t gmrC tor t
- Whenever t h e i g n i t i o n s w i t c h i s r o t a t e d t o t h e s t a r t p o s :
n starter >-.31 ^suttee r a suorjnhafiy 7?3ter amou-r y : j r e m
. current flows t h r o u g h the i g n i t i o n s w i t c h a n d t h e n e u t r a ;
3moeres e a v - ^ the natter, tnar woiid ior- , ai)i x a r w«h a jooe start
% witch and a c t i v a t e s t h e s o l e n o i d . H i g h c u r r e n t t h e n flows
"Tcs arwut* of omertl dram ewereo tne barsen reitage so rvjcr r a : -
; ' ectl V from the battery t h r o u g h the s o l e n o i d a n d t o t h e s t a r t e r
Therefore, an o p e n or break a n y w h e r e i n t h e c o n t r o l dome kgM « not Hgtt.
- w i l l prevent the o p e r a t i o n of the s t a r t e r m o t o r . If a s t a r t e - d«l n e tKttery cables . j t r c " batter, : a i * s ttroet! * c a u m 1

:
°perative, first c h e c k f o r voltage at the 5 1 s t a r t t e r m i n a l : : tngh a r e n t flow created a slrons ttagneoc around eaer came Besaa
^"er solenoid. S e e F i g u r e 40- 30. S o m e n e w e r m o d e l s w i : -. one cable is posrtne and the other cable s negarve. the n
5>eft controls use a r e l a y t o open t h i s c o n t r o l c i r c u i t t o p r e opposte polar fi and were aOacteri toward e a c 3tr.er
." !ta «er operation. S e e F i g u r e 4 0 - 3 1 f o r a s t a r t e r s y s t e m
chart J
STARTER R E M O V A L
LT|
0NS F O R A S T A R T E R A M P E R A G E TEST
After testing has confirmed that 3 stare' -.--. r i e e d Q l
iss^0rmin« a
starter be certain that the bat-
a m p e r a g e test, placed, most vehicie nia- facture". . r r . e . - : r.e
barged |75% or more and capable of suppling eral steps and procedures:
current.
m p e r a Step #1 Disconnect the r - c r . , i , - - -
"o <**> S e test s h o u l d b e p e r f o r m e d w h e n e v e r t h e s t a r t e r
^ ra!e
n o r m a l l y (is s l o w in c r a n k i n g : o r a s p a n of a r o u t i n e Step#2 Hotst the veisnk safely
FiW.m.5 s vssn
SAITES ÎR*
VOCTAGE 0
SÂSTQtl
CTEAH SATTTHY
CA8LES VT PAHBRR
f j KVftvC'C.tOrsI TTFIUNALS ISO AT
STARTS* .SOIENOO
ANO W.OCX) I C M U V H
c h a n g e aAfiiSY
f ;J»
r i^fc'a*
I1 8
t Kvcvt
J L s S c ^ S i a <o|
• - S M J Exo-orSTAftrta
*:*a *
x i l H SANK ur>I
M ENGINE OOESN
OS®®*!
EW *
CRANK
I ROMCe-SEPA.-Al
"X • VSTASTt
I H K CWCUT
CAM MI VCTA'W r »
JWyEKsw-MfE* |
i «e- j i
Procedure B j " 5 ,
" i n c l u d e (he bllo'Mrt;
. .•sJ'f'i'.'B S f e p
^ P t , ' e 4 s f a / t e r aêintiY i f ^ V
a n J
^ ^ a r a t e the J H < = - '
it" , . t• (."« <••vi • > Vv ' »i " «' Cjt r U M p j *•>
n L fci - • » • « »i © S
' i , - •' - v - i ' . 1 . " - / t

<1 , * •> ' + U r"r,g 9U n r v g r f Also Arter the s t a r t e r ^ ""
I • • fr'vJfoI W '( " V-bw b e c h e c k e d for -

• oM '
* t S ^ ' ^ S C / 5
in FTgure -
3
$ $ 1 ' i f c ^ ^ o n l y b y u s e of 3 f
! 0 s t u n i t
-vi' g e n e r a t e s art
i m r u towimr W r l - ^ m a t u r e . .A s t a r t e r ^ ; ; ,
l ! p
a ,Z f * coo " P°«'on ot a Janr'nated a * - .
Wire. ttTwn the ^ w ^ .
vn, the moving
STAflr.NG
SAFETY
SWITCH
i t MOTE
STMTtfl
sWTCH
r * j j r t «0-3S r* t strw \x-. ^ x w

etr* j p m j o r t I ( W » f t » r o < « just r>n f xt
«orofl
. i O - . i l S r t e c j ' r t .Jfi t * ntssutc t r ,>sr>) i txfi c j T r t cUnp r c I

J f r * s i O C J M s t a r t s v>d c."w>>j 'esta.
P j u r t 40-38 it* ^ s > \ \ j < ; « ' . J.M l n r t: t r*> < jnjr*

I 1 7 n A kr| 0 J micvws
Afmature Service if v v c a r - . i r u . - e : • . c c c •
should be m e a s u r e d a n d i c a c h i r . e d o n a i a t h e , .f necessary; to b e
.Vstsser-^ of »-y stir'/*. m u t ft VxjVki j( ft f r . W l N*5 0*
certa.il t v a t h e surface is s m o o t h a n d r o u n d . S o m e r . a r . - J a c t o c e i s
^ V V ^ "S4 -MSS^ ^ MS«
recommend that the r ^ u i t c o n b e t w e e n t h e s e g r t j e r . o of t h e arma-
ture r . c i . : v a r d f .is Ai t e u n d e r c u t , as ^ . .v- - f -0 -0
M v a is h a r d e r t h a n c o p p e r a n d w t a form raised " b u m p s ' as .v.<
copper s e g m e n t s o l t h e c o m m u t a t o t w e s t U o d e c c u t t i r ^ t h e c : < a
permits a former s e o x e l i e for this a p e of starter a r m a t u r e .
Testing Starter Motor Field Coils .

moved f r o m t h e s t a r t e r m o t e . t h e 5eM c v ' s s h e - i d be a s t e d v-
o p e r a arsl p o u n d s . A p o w e r e d t e s t light or a n o h r . ~ e . e r can fce
•jjed. To test for a g n x n d c i i Ceid c o d , K-uch o n e .cad of the :t>:er
to a ficM b r u s h ,insulated o r h o t i a n d t h e o t h e r e o d :o rhe s t a r e r
5<M h o u s i n g H i e o h m m e t e r s h o u i d indicate -5.r..ty n o c x . : r . » -
ity>, a n d t h e test i # t t should net ljgf.t. if the-re s cor.tr.-X
replace t h e 5«!d coU R e u s i n g asseoibtyt r . e y o u n d I r - s h c s s h o u t f
s h o w con: nuiqr to t h e s t a r t e r h o u s i n g .
M m Mar.* ; : » r t w r e - . ' t t t e fred c s. i. J - c * c i •>: i t

.VMMai a i n t b « ' | » o s < f <«|uipawtt»i>4 a s - 4 c n r *
cost ortotved r*fi*.-4 fed owa *JK«JS . V cust i 1
.TflKf~«rrt startet
f a sobxxl to* W start® a* I GM-typt ass*"^
430 SECTION
COMMUTATOR
THROUGH. END FRAME GROUND
BRUSH
BRUSH
HOLDER
INSULATED
BRU
ARMATURE
SUPPORT DRIVE
SHAFT
SHAFT
SUPPORT
Figure 4 0 - 3 7 An exploded view of a General Motors starter
V-BLOCK
DIAL INDICATOR v
ARMATURE
V-BLOCK
Figure 4 0 - 3 9 Measuring an armature shaft for runout using a dial indicator andV-tlocfc
that are held in with screws and are easily replaced, whereas o i
starters may require soldering to remove and replace the bruslK-
Bench Testing Every starter should be tested before install-
in a vehicle. The usual method includes clamping the starter.
vise to prevent rotation during operation and connecting
gauge jumper wires (minimum 4 gaugel to a battery known1^
good and to the starter. The starter motor should rotate as -
specifications indicate and not draw more than the free-
Fwji*e 40-38 ". the starter drive unit, the retainer and clip must be removed from amperage permitted. A typical amperage specification f°r a ^
t« r j A t.-.. - - d *rencfl and a hammer can be used to pop the retainer off of being tested on a bench (not installed in a vehicle] u s u a i i )
from 60 to 100 amperes.
Starter Brush Inspection Starter brushes should be replaced STARTER INSTALLATION

• , < 'bar one hall of its original length (less After verifying that the starter assembly is f u n c t i o n i n g ^ T
r.ar , 2::'A 13". . r-^'c , . On some models ol starter motors, verify that the negative battery cable has been disconne ^ u,
• < • - -. - . - , w . ' . n the field coil assembly and the safely hoist the vehicle if necessary. The following a^ $er
, ,r 1 br. - • t . the b ' . r. holder. Many starters use brushes steps performed to install a starter. Be sure to cn^
MICA COMMUTATOR
INSULATION
figure 40-40 Replacement starter brushes should be installed so the bev«- »d

FLYWHEEL
• -tiies Die rotation ot the commutator
-formation for t h e e x a c t p r o c e d u r e s t o f o l l o w f o r t h e v e h i c l e be - g
GAUGE f DIAMETER DRILL
-:rriced. TOOL BTT OR EQUAL)
q #1 C h e c k s e r v i c e i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e e x a c t w i r i n g c o n n e c t i o n s
to t h e s t a r t e r a n d / o r s o l e n o i d . ARMATURE SHAFT
Step *2 V e r i f y t h a t all e l e c t r i c a l c o n n e c t i o n s o n t h e starter motor
a n d / o r s o l e n o i d a r e c o r r e c t f o r t h e v e h i c l e a n d t h a t t h e y are in
R g u e 4 0 - 4 1 *«rr- artet i w «a>»i
good condition.
beMeer tne f l n M S taT ot * c e r q m • i M i t l l i M
' " • Be sure that the locking nuts for the studs are tight. Ofter If t h e clearance 2 . x 1 r e a l the starter wSl produce a l^tgh-
'uning nut t h a t h o l d s the wire to the stud w i l l be properly - • . f
p i t c h e d w h i n e ±jmg c a r i n g . If t h e c l e a r a n c e it too smdi the
'x stud itself is loose, cranking problems can occur.
starter will p r o d u c e a - A-ptfcbed wtene after the enene sum,
just a s t h e i g L t r o c icev is •-:- eased.
j
'"pW Attach t h e power and control wires.
• ' f M I n s t a l l the starter, a n d t o r q u e all t h e f a s t e n e r s t o factor,

specifications. « T E . The r a t *
srsal a d e i - m c e .
s t a £ between 2K
rat breacof. a " w
Be sure to install all factory heat shields to he : en e : r
3rter
operation under all weather and driving con i
To be sure that the starter is shimmed cotrecCv. ~se the fc*:w«

rter O r i v e - t o - F l y w h e e l C l e a r a n c e For ing p r o c e d u r e
^ starter a n d a b s e n c e of a b n o r m a l s t a r t e r n o i s e , • ere S t e p # 1 Place d i e s o r t e r x p o s c o c a n d - - e t •
^ be a slight c l e a r a n c e b e t w e e n t h e s t a r t e r p i n i o n a n d t h e
' . ' W h e e l ring gear. M a n y G M s t a r t e r s u s e s h i m s :
Stw «S Use an 1 8 mdj d i n t t r dril, bit o r f j *
W between the f l y w h e e l a n d t h e e n g i n e b l o c k m o u n t ; pad f
e ,he between the a r m a t u r e s h a f t a n d a tooth ot t h e -»-«•
Proper c l e a r a n c e . S e e F i g u r e 4 0 4 1 .
# 3 If t h e gauge tool c a n n o t be inserted, sse a i -
across both m o u n t i n g holes, w h i c h m o w s tne saner 1
- - the flywheel
^nie manufacturers use shims under (he starter dn o •
Step 14 If the gauge tool is too* b e r w e e c the shift aad t
Production. Other manufacturers gnn a: a:
1
t h e engine flywheel, remove a ttxa or sr-ms.
S ^ ' " W P r o p e r starter pini : a-
S t e p « 5 II n o shims h a v e b e e s -set a n c t h e St '
, . ^ ' J i e starter pinion must be checked and c o m red as r
" i,an
e r damage and excessive nols<. oose. add a half s h i m to U s e o u t a d e OK oows 1*
starter closer to t h e teeth of d i e <
'torn TECH I * Reuse Drve-End Housing u r e
j » « * e t h r fioP> » e a m • M M S p a s * Motors starrer motors m e a pad mount a. ach to ^

p a Tnt s m man- MP) Sate tfwugfi tnedrive-end nosei housing Mar eeanenappfe,
m i m TC p a w U K I tWMflC ( i t rppMceo an a GM ^^fucie I t e s t a l e r m a t e s notse be i v of i m p r t p * ^
* J » r * » r < e to a l c r a r t s p n o r - I B - e n g i n e flywheel nng gear clearance Insteac ol spendsg a 0 .

i m e s i w r m m p pie S t a l e - s i m p l y remove tne d n end h o u a n j j ^ , .
• a d ««d» m e n K IwKw anC ongnal stater afx) instaii t on the replacement stanar Because I * „ .
• Weenal o He • a starter M not produce eicessive gear engagement n e, the r e p a c o
i P i e w a * «t a a r a i * starser s t a r t also De okay Reuse any srnms that were used wftti he or
mow SccauM starter Thrs method « better than having to remove and reinstall the rap*,
•m In rnmm af t i e u r a m m « « g t e n p men «artet several tenet untrf the proper clearance is determined
t «•» el M m m m M l r e t w to the v f *
• / « n «s*age r fte >elum ground) a r m * low
i a r m « y r p m i m i H P * * * bock to l » baser? STARTING S Y S T E M T R O U B L E S H O O T I N G GUIDE
• M u m i a M Oe tft m arge s Hit p o a t M caMe M
T h e ft S o w i n g list w i l l a s s i s t t e c h n i c i a n s i n t r o u b l e s h o o t i n g set
systems.
G m a d a o t o r p r g ^ h a n j n g leafing a r t 1 1 eehcfe
»<***) l » p o a t v e atm ama *
g u t fie WPtn »»• ampere preee t mere
Possible Causes
« » m c w a M 9 M r | k R ( « Wtfnmewriwfl.
»P M 0 < OR Me p o m * er negMve u n a He tauery Possible detective starter drive Worn starter drat
engagement yoke Defective flywheel
Possible high resistance m the battery cables o
connections Possible defective or dischargee taavi
Possible worn starter bushings, causing the stttr
armature to drag on the field coils Possible * n
starter brushes or weak brush springs PtssOe
-*r7t*t > ' h J I B m »r m m an u * i m m w r r defective (open or ihortedi field coil
. B r H H t H De m t ^ a M w t i r f , P k J f t , , ^ ^JJBJJ Possible defective ignition switch or neutral BMI
c a r a t ! M a n r ? >iM|riw « a s D» switch or open in the starter motor control crop
Possible shorted field coils Possible detective saw
armature Possible open in the power c r a p t m r
the battery and the starter Possible defective *
•Monoid
Sarter produca gnrang Possible detective starter drive unit Posstxe o e * *
flywheel Possible incorrect distance betwP J»
•tarter pimon and the flywheel Possible c r a o * '
broken starter drive-end housing
'2™*** «"• N t a f t • t a M t f
w i n >s t t m m e 'P « 0 - 3J Ar
r-v ok)
j r j starter
OUJ' IT field
IICI'J housing
l « being
•upport the drive end housing at the starte-
bfcng di&asaemoted This rebmtdef« *'
mpact wrench to remove the solenoid fasten
t - n driver Is used to remove m e soienuio P 4 0 - 5 After Die retaining screws have been P40-6 The through-bolts are being removed
removed, the solenoid can be separated from the
screws
starter motor This rebuiider always replaces the
solenoid
' > brusn end plate is removed P 4 0 - 8 The armature assembly is removed from the P40-9 Notice that the length of a direct-dnve starter
field frame armature (topi is the same length as the overall
length of a gear-reduction armature except smaller in
diameter
«"th a hammer dislodges the P40-11 This figure shows the planetary nng gear P40-12 A close-up of one of ttv- planetary gears
wf,ich
•<%„'''' "n the palm of the hand) from the and pinion gears shows the small needle bearings on me mswe
reduction assembly.
P40-15 The commutator oo ft i t m t w

'emoved from the shaft s o the P40-14 The !Jwtt assemtty i being ated ff n
discolored and tne baistwa may not iwve tH0>
'M '"^fifXy can be separated and the stationary gear assembly
miking good contact with the wgtr*r>B
i t . TVS
P40-18 Starter reassembly begins by install-

NO-tB K the starter components are placed in a P40-17 The finished commutator looks like new.
new starter drive on the shaft assembly The a»
tjwtser * ' t r *3ter-based deader Tie armature is
and stop ring retainer are then installer '^
ns&tod n a .She and Bie commutator is resurfaced
j s n o e^-ery dofh.
P a o - 1 9 The gear- reduction assembly is positioned P40-20 After gear retainer has been installed over P40-21 New brushes are being installed irrtothe
afcrg w t r the shift fork (drive leven into the cleaned the gear reduction assembly, me armature is brush holder assembly.
ante-end housing installed.
Pao-22 T--eDrush end plate and the through-bolts P40-23 This starter was restored to useful service
3re msaled being sure that me ground connection by replacing m e solenoid, m e brushes and me starter
t x t i e brjsnes • dean and tight drive assembly plus a thorough cleaning and attention
to detail in the reassembly.
SUMMARY REVIEW Q U E S T I O N S
1 . -.. rr - j s e the principle of magnetic interaction between the 1. List the parts of the cranking circuit.
V.i . . l e d to the housing and the magnetic field of the armature. and the power*
2. Describe the difference b e t w e e n the control circuit
2. .;--{ - starrer motor depends on the battery being at sections of a typical cranking c i r c u i t
« "S i r 3 ' h e b a t t e r y cables beingof the correct size Igaugei clicu"-
3. Explain how to perform a voltage-drop test of the crc. •
ana i rr.- more r.in 0 . 2 v o l t drop.
4 . 1 tth< ,teps necessary to overhaul a starter.
3 •> - . . d e s o a n i o r p the engine, measuring the drop in
t. 5 / "-.-• - - t a r e r / to the ttarten and meai'irtag the drop in voltage
*• — v » - w . te 'err .nal of the battery to the engine block.
C H A P T E R QUIZ
4 b e tested for proper amperage draw.
!
1. Starter motors operate on the principle that "TT^m
5. A r > ' . it car. prevent starter motor operaUon.
a. The field coils rotate in t h e opposite directio
b. Opposite magnetic poles repe !
Ijlte m a g i " ' ^
7
TIM armature rotate* (rorr.a M M . >
4
mianptk: field
Weaker magnetic field
i - y s wound electric m o t o n
J- p., duceelectrical p o w e r
I h prod J'-f maximum torq te at 0 RPM
t c pr d ice m a x i m u m torque a' •
d" 11st* a shunt coil
i L w ^ i i n A s a y i t h a t a defective solenoid can O U K a „ r a t > ± {
1
! ^ says that a defective starter drive cat
fltoch t c . ' i coned? c.
a. ftdinlclan A only p.
b . ftchnlcian B only 9. «
n$ tract-
4 The instani t h e Ignition switch Is turned to the sun puaon.
ifdmotf
a. Both the pull-in w i n d i n g and the hoi-i - * :-;.-•
b. The hold in w i n d i n g is energized
c. The pull-In winding is energized
d. The starter motor starts to rotate before enery
pinion gear
5. Technician A says that a discharged battery i lower than norrr a bare•-
agei can cause the starter solenoid clicking. Technician B says that a ds
charged battery- or dirty Icorrodedl battery cables can cause ê:
cftcking. W h i c h technician is correct?
a. T e c h n i c i a n A only
b. T e c h n i c i a n B only
6. Sbw cranking b y the starter can be caused by all except the f owing:
a. A low or discharged battery

b. Corroded or dirty battery cables
c. Engine mechanical problems
d. An open neutral safety switch
CHAPTER
41
Charging System Operation
and Diagnosis
J " ® " ® After s t u d y i n g C h a p t e r 41, t h e r e a d e r will be a t * to: M <*•»»» * ** L
. D i s c u s s t h e v a n o u s generator test procedures • &®tar Etteassernteige-tnttandWfcco^^^
AC voltage • b r u s h e s • charging voltage • d e H M m n e d e d • « • — « * « » » »

^ n d I D E ) housing • duty cycle • Electncal power management ( B W • * * * * * • p M a ^ M M - i
.^(OAD) • overrunning alternator pulley iOAPI . potes • recbfer bndge • r*« • s « * « • * > - N , and (SRE)
Mature c o m p e n s a t i o n • t h e r m i s t o r • wye-connected stat
A j w ^
3ie b a ^ , " l s
^ e ^ t e electrical c o m p o n e n t s
^ P u r p o s e a n d f u n c t i o n of
by taking c i r e n t • am the
t h e chargmg syste 'tc —::
PRINCIPLES OF GENERATOR OPERATKM
All eiectnca. generators use the prx.r-e ? dear-tr-ae*^
' ' the 2 y charged
- S o c e t y of Automotive Engineers SAt tern tjoti to convert mechanical cnsgj ewcnu est-:.
5 also rnm913' d e r a t e s electricity is t h e generator The teim ate~u«y magnetic t u t u c m unvote the gener* on t e - : ~ t * •
W ^ n l y before 1993 wto
u s e d , e s p e c i a l l y in s e r v i c e m a n u a l s in a conductor when the cooduc " - _ 'Jtrxjac a
^ ^ a s a d o p t e d by m o s t vehicle m a n u f a c t i r e r s
M6 S 'S
T
fieSd >- .•• g e n e r a t e d can be increased by the
V •• re i-: r^
I- • ;-ductor through the magnetic field

l . . ;.»as£ig : w'or.d uctors passing through the magneuc
field
3 -..-vas of the magnetic field
ALTERNATING-CURRENT GENERATORS
(ALTERNATORS)
-vT -a: "generates an alternating current when the current
c r . aritv dunng the generator's rotation. However, a battery
cr • ' -• -e" alternating current; therefore, this alternating cur-
j changed tn direct current (DC by diodes inside the genera-
Diodes are one-way electrical check valves that permit current
*.;• Sow .r. oruv one direction. Most manufacturers call an AC
ler.err.or an alternator.
Figure 41-1 A typical generator (alternator) on a Chevrolet V-8 engine

GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION
A generator is constructed of a two-piece cast-aluminum housing.
A. ..r.urr. :> used because of its lightweight, nonmagnetic proper- SLIP-RING-END
ties and heat transfer properties needed to help keep the generator HOUSING^
: : : A front ball bearing is pressed into the front housing (called
drive-end [DE] housing to provide the support and friction
-ecuctkr necessary for the belt-driven rotor assembly. The rear
-.. _ nz. i t e slip ring end (SRE), usually contains a roller-
beirir.g s jpport for the rotor and mounting for the brushes, diodes,
ar.a r.'emal voltage regulator {if the generator is so equipped). See
F.rires 41-1 and 41-2.
TECH TIP G e n e r a t o r H o r s e p o w e r and Engine Operation
v - , - y t e t - ' d a n s are asked how much power certain accessories require. A

STATOR
iOO-aroere generator requires about 2 horsepower from the engine. One
horsepower is equal to 746 watts. Watts are calculated by multiplying amperes
araes vcfls
Power in watts = 100 A x 14.5 V = 1450

1 hp = 746 W
Figure 4 1 - 2 The end frame toward the drive belt is called the drive-end housing and se
T
r « e f c r e 1450 watts is about 2 horsepower and the generator uses about rear section is called the slip-nng-end housing.
2sptogir-erateiOOA
A. 'AWS about 20% for mechanical and electrical losses adds another
pulley. The purpose of this pulley is to help eliminate noise a»
0 i 'orsepower Therefore, whenever anybody asks how much power it takes to
1
bration in the accessory drive belt system, especially when the-
p'vlyoe 0 0 amperes from a generator, the answer is 2.4 horsepower.
gine is at idle speed. At idle, engine impulses are transmitted ^
Mar • 3enerators delay the generator output to prevent the engine from
alternator through the accessory drive belt. The mass of the r
- . j - -. - 5 enever a heavy electncal load is applied The voltage regulator or the alternator tends to want to keep spinning, but the^ -
<efide a -pure? s capable of gradually increasing the output of the generator crankshaft speeds up and slows down slightly due to the pov'- .
o - ; per .1 of up to several minutes. Even though 2 horsepower does not pulses. Using a one-way clutch in the alternator pulley a - ^ , . ,
iconC kem/jcn a sodden demand for 2 horsepower from an idling engine can belt to apply power to the alternator in only one direction
cause tne er.c ne to run rough or stall The difference in part numbers of various
reducing the fluctuations in the belt. See Figure 41-3.
yem/atas s rAer. an indication of the time interval over which the load is
A conventional drive pulley attaches to the"alternator a l t e r . • J1
ipcwC r tre /a of the wrong replacement generator could cause the
shaft with a nut and lock washer. In the overrunningi Cl UtCH t-
dutc^
engne to sSa.-i
the inner race of the clutch acts as the nut and scr ^ ^
the shaft. Special tools are required to remove and insta
of pulley. ^nringi"5^]
'Another
u i u u n i type
' - / K ^ of' alternator
Ul L 1
'' pulley1 uses
pv-111%- ust/vw a dampenerjf^
- I . — ^ ^
ALTERNATOR OVERRUNNING PULLEY plus a one-way clutch. This unit is called an overrunm ^ jr,-
Purpose and Function Many generator, are equipped with tor dampener (OAD). An OAD is larger than an ^ ,
overrunning alternator pulley ( O A P ) , also called a clutch used on the Pontiac G8 and other vehicles. See Figure
437
u v , cnatfltng System OfxxaBon and Weflnoti*
ROTOI
!I." f H A . - / '
COOC«N
FAHS
, showing tueicto
Figure 41-6 the heal created **
Chevrolet CorveUe uxiiingfenttalat*^

cha-^ttiete^*^'
ROTORS
The rotor c r e a t e : - r r . a g
a current b y electrornagr
winding?.. T h i s differ* f r o
r e n t is c r e a t e d i n t h e s'.s -
generated in t h e r o t a : • ; a varnish tasu-
s t r u c t e d of m a n y t u - r . s o' attached to t h e
l a t i o n w o u n d o v e r a n ir are h e a v y - g ^ R *
rotor shaft. A : both e n d .ar fingers called
m e t a l plate.-, b e n t o v e r ti =.; t h e y a l t e r n a t e
poles. These p e r o w s through the
or interlace as s h o w n in S of t h e r o t o t b e
h pole m a g n e t k
rotor windings, t h e met
c o m e electromagnets 1
created depends on the
Because the pole piece
p o l e p i e c e will b e a n o
isassemWet). showing
: t h e o p p o s i t e e n d of t
jute 41-4 An overrunning altetnator dampener
w o u n d in t h e opposite
t h e r o t o r fingers a r e ;
.»,>enetic fields a ;
1
ut in a m p « e s
"the w i n d i n g s o f '
n l 0 another can f
negative, depend
1
eeneratoti
.Tested output. T
i m u n d on.
ASKED QUESTION
Insta
" an OAP or an OAD to My Alternate.?
shaft » **<
' %mat Q , needs to bo equipped with the proper 08
01
,l,onai
Z OAP or OAD II,is also means that a conven
o, d a m p e d
. '"Waco a Selective ovottunning alternate* pu c >
MAGNETIC LINES FIELD STATOR
Of FORCE WINDINGS WINDINGS
REGULATOR
SLIP
RINGS
BALL
BEARING
BRUSHES
SLIP
RINGS
ROTOR
ASSEMBLY
ROTOR WINDINGS
EXTERNAL
(ALTERNATOR SLIP RING END INTERNAL FAN
FIELD) (SRE) F R A M E FAN
ROTOR
STATOR
F i g w c 4 1 - 6 ^ 'IX a s s m t t y of a typical alternator (AC generator) Current through the slip
- |B c a a n t c 'tigers' ol me rotor to become alternating north and south magnetic poles,
k k t t t M N n . « n e magnetic Hues ot force induce a current in the stator windings Figure 41 - 7 A cutaway view of a typical AC generator (alternator!
STATORS
current in the windings of the stator by electromagnetic induction.
sipf -d between the two halves of the generator housing See Figure 41-10.
artr.ret copper wire windings wound on a laminated metal Field current flowing through the slip rings to the rotor creates
Set F iture 41-7. As the rotor revolves, its moving mag- alternating north and south poles on the rotor, with a magnetic
luce a current in the windings of the stator. See field between each finger of the rotor. The induced current in tie
Figure 41-«. stator windings is an alternating current because of the alternating
magnetic field of the rotor. The induced current starts to increases!
the magnetic field starts to induce current in each winding of to
TECH T I P The Snift Test stator. The current then peaks when the magnetic field is to
•
strongest and starts to decrease as the magnetic field moves awr
t checking tor the root cause ol a generator failure, one ol the first
from the stator winding. Therefore, the current generated is Jf
®«-<JI t h a i a technician should do is to snrtf ismell) the generator1 If the genera-
scribed as being of a sine wave pattern. See Figure 41-11. As to
t e s r - ^ h nut a dead rat irancid), the stator windings have been overheated by
rotor continues to rotate, this sine wave current is induced in eacl
-• <; » charge a discharged or defactive battery If the battery voltage is con-
of the three windings of the stator.
, cm the voltage regulator will continue supplying full field current to
t The cottage regulator is designed to cycle on and off to maintain
Because each of the three windings generates a sine wave cur
a • * * g w charging system voltage range
rent, as shown in Figure 41-12, the resulting currents combine»
* 8 * tattery nonage is continually below the cutoff point ot the voltage
form a three-phase voltage output.
s * ' - . - . / « * generator a continually producing current in the stator windings.
The current induced in the stator windings connects to die®
z n m j r charging can often overheat the stator and bum the insulating
(one-way electrical check valves] that permit the generator ouip*
I Bie stator windings II the generator tails the sniff test, the
current to flow in only one direction. All AC generators contain •
'eplace the stator and other generator components that are
diodes, one pair of a positive and a negative diode for each c
-» defect*** and replace or recharge and test the battery
three stator windings.
WYE-CONNECTED STATORS
DIOO£S The Y(pronounced " w y e " a n d g e n e r a l l y so w r i t t e n ! type ;
D M e t are C-J *r ted of a semiconductor material (usually sili- pattern is the most commonly used generator stator wt •
r -ar< .. a or,e way electrical check valve that permits connection. See Figure 4 1 - 1 3 . T h e o u t p u t current ^
j flow in only one direction. AC generators use six w y e - t y p e s t a t o r c o n n e c t i o n is c o n s t a n t over a broad ge"1
:.-.f -:•.-.• and one negative diode for each of the three speed range.
stator wttdiDfcst to convert alternating current to direct current. Current is induced in each winding by electromagneu
The 7.~,i>, 'orad de is shown In Rgure 41-9. tion from the rotating magnetic fields of the rotor. In a w v ^ j p p
tor connection, the currents must combine because two
are always connected in series. See Figure 41 14. Thecl" f,
M O * A G E N E R A T O R WORKS
duced in each winding is added to the other windings r"' ^
A r o t o r Jnfcfe t generator is turned by a belt and drive pulley then flows through the diodes to the generator output ^
,.- •- v r. : held of the rotor generates a One-half of the current produced is available at the neutra
Chapter 41: Charging System Operation and Diagnoses 439
STATOR
ROTOR
DRIVE \
RETAINER
END FRAME
DRIVE
PULLEY
FAN
GUIDE
REAR
END FRAME
DIODE
ASSEMBLY
REGULATOR
Figure 41-8 An exploded view of a typical generator (alternator) showing all ot its internal parts.
CURRENT FLOW
DELTA-CONNECTED STATORS
H The d e l t a w i n d i n g c:r.r.ec:ei n a triangular h a c e . as
in Figure 4 1 - 1 5 . i D e l t a is a G r e e k l e t t e r s h a p e d l i k e a t r i a n g l e
Figure 41—9 A diode symbol. C u r r e n t i n d u c e d in e a c h w i n d i n g flows t o t h e d i o d e s in a p a r a i i e .
circuit. M o r e c u r r e n t c a n flow through t w o parallel circuits
t h a n c a n flow t h r o u g h a s e r i e s c i r c u i t a s in a w v e - t v p e s t a t o r
connection.
A
Delta-connected stators re u s e d o n : e r -a' r - 'r
output at high-generator RPM is required. The delta-connected
generator can produce "3 more current than the same generator
with wye-type stator connections. For example, if a generator wr±
a wye-connected stator can produce 55 A, the same generator with
delta-connected stator windings can produce 73% rr. ore c„.-er.:. ;•:
05 A 55 x 1 "3 = 95 . The delta-connected generator, however,
LOAD
t ROTATING
MAGNETIC
produces lower current at low speed and must te operated higfc
speed to produce its maximum output.
CIRCUIT
FIELD
GENERATOR O U T P U T F A C T O R S
The output voltage and current of a generator depend c - several
" - 1 0 Magnetic lines ot torce cutting across a conductor induce a voltage and
' 'Winnieconductor factors:
1. S p e e d of r o t a t i o n .
labeled "STA" f o r s t a t o r ) . T h e v o l t a g e a t t h i s c e n t e r p o i n t is rotational speed u p to t h e generator's t r u e r . n r . s o u . :
. t y some g e n e r a t o r m a n u f a c t u r e r s ( e s p e c i a l l y Ford) to c o n t r o l output. G e n e r a t o r s normaliv rotate at a speed rwo tc t h r e e t o w s
, indicator light o r is u s e d b y t h e v o l t a g e r e g u l a t o r t o c o n - faster than e n g i n e s p e e d , d e p e n d i n g on t h e rei3C.-e : n a n 1 %se<,
" rotor field c u r r e n t . used for t h e belt drive.
rn StCTVnn
VOLTMETER
SLIP RINGS
45" 90' 135° 180° 225' 270°

DEGREES OF ROTOR ROTATION
figure 4 1 - 1 1 Since wave voltage curve ceated by one revolution of a winding rotating in a magnetic field.
DEGREES OF ROTOR ROTATION
R g u r e 4 1 - 1 2 When three «.nd,ngs iA. B. and C) are present in a state, the resulting current generation is represented by the three sine waves. The voltages are 120" out of phase. I K
•or -ectior al the ndividual phases produces a three-phase alternating voltage.
W Y E (Y) W O U N D STATOR 3 . S t r e n g t h of t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d , if the magnetic field is strong. *

high o u t p u t is possible b e c a u s e t h e c u r r e n t generated by electro
magnetic induction is d e p e n d e n t o n the n u m b e r o f m a g n e t i c lit* 5
of force that are c u t .
a. The s t r e n g t h of t h e m a g n e t i c field c a n be increased by in-
creasing t h e n u m b e r of t u r n s of c o n d u c t o r w i r e w o u n d o n •
rotor. A h i g h e r - o u t p u t g e n e r a t o r has m o r e turns of wire
generator w i t h a l o w - r a t e d o u t p u t .
b. The s t r e n g t h of t h e m a g n e t i c field also depends on the
c u r r e n t t h r o u g h t h e field coil ( r o t o r ) . Because m a g n e t
6-OIODE strength is m e a s u r e d in a m p e r e - t u r n s , the greater the ^
RECTIFIER a m p e r a g e o r t h e n u m b e r of t u r n s , or b o t h , the greater
generator output.
Figure 4 1 - 1 3 # y e -corrected stator winding.
GENERATOR VOLTAGE REGULATION

2. N u m b e r of conductors. A high-output generator contains m o r e
An a u t o m o t i v e g e n e r a t o r m u s t b e a b l e t o p r o d u c e e l e c t r o n
• r s of w r e in t h e stator w i n d i n g s . Stator winding connections
(voltage| h i g h e r t h a n b a t t e r y v o l t a g e t o c h a r g e t h e ^
* r tr's, e i /;,-< or deita also affect t h e m a x i m u m generator output.
sively high v o l t a g e c a n d a m a g e t h e b a t t e r y , e l e c t r i c a l w ^
See r i :e 4 1 - 1 6 for an exanriple of a stator that has six rather
and t h e lights of a v e h i c l e , if n o c u r r e n t ( z e r o a m p e r e ^ .
" ree w w h i c h greatly increases the amperage o u t p u t
in the field coil of t h e g e n e r a t o r ( r o t o r ) , g e n e r a t o r ou_tpu ^
of t h e g e n e r a t o r ^temator).
zero b e c a u s e w i t h o u t field c u r r e n t a m a g n e t i c field
Ml
VOLTAGE
RANGE
>
STATOR 6-DIODE
JTJ
— battel
RECTIFIER
— Figure 41-17 ve» m r •wqe

p^re <1-14 As the magnetic field, created in the rotor, cuts across tne wnangs ol » •
.'.J 3 .-jrrent is induced Notice that the current path includes p&v.lng 'rrougn t < •
<;,» -mode on the way to the battery and one negative i diode as a corner's- «
CHARGING VOLTAGE CONTROL
s i - : eted Urough the rectifier and stator If t h e a u t o r u c r v e b a t t e r y a d i s c t & n a d . - w i t a g e w il b e l o w e r
tea t h e v o r a s e of a M m d t a a e i h a e e r y . T h e g e n e r a t o r will sup-
piycharpog : j t irs ~ai '.*"•:<!." "•>. u a x . m u n charing
DELTA ( i ) WOUND STATOR voltage. _t : it"' : t

idle 2 0 0 0 R P M : t a e -nrzrs td-jm n a v b e c-r.'r ' 2 v. its. As t h e
battery b e c o n e s G b a q e d and the 'w>
c h a r g i n g v o l t a g e tr, . : caaat.
"is r e a c h e d ; t h e r . t h e v c i t a g e r e g ^ c t a r w .
- W - L -W-
,r.g v o t t a p . A good c j ' t i c r a r a s d sartt
TO( + ) ven i n t o chemical m a f f a> the rudest
BATTERY p r o d u c e . As ,:®g a; g e n e r a t o r ~ t a g e » n g f t e r
JL
age. ruirer.: w l S o w ~ r r ie ae-tr-rcr r..gr pt
ags HMbetaoerv ?wer p e s s u r e . : » r rage
wtenetEr c x s e r r : t : a i . crargBd ssJar.' v.— <
6-DIODE
ning, it mav a a f c a e c b a r c n z t a a r ' : . a : : c w*
RECTIFIER
acceptable.
In o t h e r w o r d s . 2 * ccmarooE a n d ventage of the baser.' db de
" < 1 - 1 5 Delta-connected stator winding.
tenrune the chare:".: a a •:>::-".•. r . " ' -
b a t t e r r is t h e r u e T i a g e r e t . . s " * * a r d tfa» t h e r e , tape r e g u a r - r
s t a p h ? acts as t h e t r a c r. .i-iee rtroL " - a - " e feasor
t h a t a n changing svster - r _ - r h e per*-•—e: w.t- i i r ••
k n o w n t o b e g o o c Darters. r. least '5charged. t o he at. ..---d
a c c u r a t e t e a results. If a d s c n a e p e d : : " * e r . : _sed : - n g .narstnj
s v s t e m testing, t e s s c o c l d r - r a t r r v a<;oie a defcer.-e genera'- •
a n c or voltage r e g m a s x
Temperature Compensation a -.-,.- gu

cal or eiecr. riic' provide a aethod tor inaea.- ng the arc.* >
age sligjtffc' at low temperatures and for *e-uig the 'antral
voltage at t- gh reraperarjres. A rarery retjL.-es a £he: rarp-;
voltage at tow terapermrures because f :fte re- tance » o s
teaca» dirges. Howews. the banery wc u.id be awrrctwged : r-
chargtng voitage were not reduced during wans weadw E r
trorac voltage regulators use a KrperarureênsRne i
W t 16 A stator assembly with six. rather than the normal three, igs regLiatordPC-:. This teas: :i.ied a thermistor nd
lower resistance £ the (emptraaa* increases. A - err ws
in the eiectror.sc circuie of tte wutage -eguatur » c
c u r r e m
voltage crm a wide iwue of undn^Nehood
j required by m o s t a u t o m o t i v e generators ess
f«ure 41-18.
^rnperes. It is t h e control of t h e field c u r r e n t t h a t ci r t r v -
^ - ' p u t of the g e n e r a t o r . C u r r e n t for t h e r o t o r f l o w s f r o m : t e
t r o u g h the b r u s h e s t o t h e s l i p rings. A f t e r g relator tr
'-he voltage regulator c o n t r o l s t h e c u r r e n t f l o w t h n ..gh - h e . ^nneter -waie "4s . • -
£
' ir,^ Figure 4
1 - 1 7 . T h e voltage regulator simply o p e n s the t « « « J at 3 2 * F (0*Ci se
v i ' n t if the v o l t a g e reaches a p r e d e t e r m i n e d K . e t h e n „• - XTC because a'
^ u i t again a s n e c e s s a r y ' t o m a i n t a i n t h e c o r r e c t c h a r g i n g
SECT**. ,
R ^ i r e 4 1 - 1 8 A typical electronic voltage regulator showing the connections and the

a r o a t s nwNed
OIOOE TRIO GENERATORS

S o m e generators a l t e r n a t o r s i u s e a d i o d e trio t o p r o v i d e c u r r e n t to
t h e • <:ot i f i e l d | a n d t o t u r n off t h e c h a r g e i n d i c a t o r light o n t h e
dash on non-computer-controlled c h a r g i n g s y s t e m s . A d i o d e trio
c o n s i s t s of t h r e e d i o d e s c o n n e c t e d in parallel w i t h t h e t h r e e a n o d e
e n d s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e t h r e e s t a t o r w i n d i n g c o n n e c t o r s a t t h e recti-
r
: e r b r i d g e . T h e s i n g l e o u t p u t t e r m i n a l of t h e d i o d e trio is applied t o
the ignition feed terminal. W h e n t h e i g n i t i o n is o n , 12 volts is
a p p l i e d t h r o u g h t h e c h a r g e l i g h t b u l b a n d is g r o u n d e d t h r o u g h t h e
r o t o r w i n d i n g . T h i s c u r r e n t is b l o c k e d f r o m f l o w i n g t h r o u g h t h e
d i o d e t r i o b e c a u s e t h e d i o d e s a r e r e v e r s e d b i a s e d . W h e n t h e stator
a n d t h e g e n e r a t o r s t a r t t o g e n e r a t e v o l t a g e , t h e 12-volt o u t p u t of
t h e d i o d e trio o p p o s e s t h e 12 volts from the ignition through the
c h a r g e l i g h t c a u s i n g t h e c h a r g e l i g h t t o go o u t .
X RECTIFIER
MOTE; If one of the three diodes is open, only 8 volts will be applied BRIDGE
afci.nst the 12 volts from the Ignition. The result is a dim generator charge
- :.cator ight. While this light may be a customer concern, the generator
Figure 4 1 - 1 9 Typical General Motors Sl-style A C generator with an Integral voltage regitf
*r_. prciduce normal output.
Voltage present at terminal 2 is used to reverse bias the zener diode (D2> that controls®'
hot bmsh is fed by the ignition current (terminal I) plus current from the diode trio.
E L E C T R O N I C VOLTAGE REGULATORS t h r o u g h t h e g e n e r a t o r ' s b r u s h e s , s l i p r i n g s , a n d rotor, and no x -

T h e e : e c t r o n i c c i r c u i t of t h e v o l t a g e r e g u l a t o r c y c l e s b e t w e e n 10 netic field is f o r m e d . W i t h o u t a m a g n e t i c field, a generato::
a r d 7 . 0 0 0 t i m e s p e r second a s n e e d e d to a c c u r a t e l y c o n t r o l t h e n o t p r o d u c e c u r r e n t in t h e s t a t o r w i n d i n g s . W h e n no v o l t a g e
f i e . d •: . r r e n t t h r o u g h t h e r o t o r , a n d t h e r e f o r e c o n t r o l t h e g e n e r a t o r plied to t h e z e n e r d i o d e , c u r r e n t f l o w s t o p s a n d the tas<? .
j i j ' p j t . T h e c o n t r o l of t h e field c u r r e n t is a c c o m p l i s h e d b y o p e n - transistor is t u r n e d o f f , c l o s i n g t h e field c i r c u i t . T h e m a g n ^ f ^
- « and c l o s i n g t h e ground s i d e of t h e field c i r c u i t t h r o u g h the is t h u s r e s t o r e d in t h e r o t o r . T h e r o t a t i n g m a g n e t i c j
rco' •' " h e g e n e r a t o r . E l e c t r o n i c v o l t a g e r e g u l a t o r s also u s e m a n y rotor i n d u c e a c u r r e n t in t h e s t a t o r , w h i c h is again f,
-- • - • h e l p r e d u c e t h e c u r r e n t t h r o u g h the regulator, and t h e t h e o u t p u t v o l t a g e e x c e e d s t h e d e s i g n e d l i m i t as det<
on
, - --a - m .ist b e d i s s i p a t e d i n t o t h e air t o p r e v e n t d a m a g e to the zener diode b r e a k d o w n voltage. D e p e n d i n g , l f t e I y this
^
th 1 des a n d t r a n s i s t o r s . W h e t h e r m o u n t e d inside the generator RPM, v e h i c l e e l e c t r i c a l l o a d , a n d s t a t e of c h a r g e of t h e ^ |fl ^
.- e x t e r n a l l y mder t h e h o o d , electronic voltage regulators are controlled switching on and off can occur bet'-'
, .r.-ed Ar.ere n o r m a l airflow can keep the electronic compo- 7,000 times per second. See Figure 4 1 - 1 9 .
nents. I h e z e r . e r d . - d e is a m a j o r e l e c t r o n i c c o m p o n e n t t h a t
Computer-Controlled Generators Computers c
- e*tr •• -«•; J i a t i o n p o s s i b l e . A z e n e r d i o d e b l o c k s c u r r e n t
w i t h t h e c h a r g i n g s y s t e m in t h r e e w a y s : „ 3n<f
:.%>. a >••• v o l t a g e is r e a c h e d , t h e n it p e r m i t s c u r r e n t to
hv turnins
f C -- / ' A w f r o m t h e s t a t o r a n d d i o d e s is first s e n t 1. The c o m p u t e r can activate t h e c h a r g i n g system
•v .,'.*• - •/ : :h c h a n g e s r e s i s t a n c e w i t h t e m p e r a t u r e , off t h e field. and
erator
;- • - •<>&•/. r . e r d i o d e . W h e n e v e r t h e u p p e r - l i m i t v o l t a g e is 2. The c o m p u t e r can monitor the o p e r a t i o n of t h e g ^ ^
rea - d ' h e / - e r d i o d e c o n d u c t s c u r r e n t to a transistor, w h i c h therefore can increase idle s p e e d t o compenS'' 1 ' ^ t
- t f / - fie i rotor, c i r c u i t . All t h e c u r r e n t s t o p s f l o w i n g load if t h e generator is p r o d u c i n g at m a x i m u m

Voltage reduction mode. I mod •;> ' m i : t
the strew or the battery duitng low load conditions. Thh mod* »
icrtraied wTienever the followlim condBtats are m e t
empe'anire a above 32"F |<TC|
•T* dacharge rate t i e s than 7 amperes!
jfgpaoB
:>.- . ire on low or off
v i s e z. :rrited to 12.7 » o t a
4. Start up mod* • n o d e it selected after engine star and
- a a a d t a c a s r g r j voyage of 14.5 v o t e (or 30 s e c o n d s
After YJ seconds, the n o d e K chsrvged depending on
COOtftOML
5 . &aru-ry vuXabon - , m o d e ts c o m m a n d e d 1! t h e o u t p u t
vokage s l e s tec 3 2 ' s t o r 4 5 m n u w s , w h i c h c a n M a t t
that suSaied pau% -> j d b e t h e case. T h e t a r g e t v o t u g r ts 1 3 0 ®
f p n <1-20 A Hall-effect current sensor attached to the negat w. bar -. 15.5 vote tor 3 rem A t e 3 i s u s , t h e s y s t e m r e t u r n * t o
Mrt of the EPM system another n o d e b a e d oc condMom.
6 . Headlight m o d e . IBoir - rvw the head
lights are « and the *arsei IS 1 4 . '
3. The c o m p u t e r can control the generator by not only turr g tr
field o n a n d off but can also delay or limit t h e o u t p u t of the -
eratot; d e p e n d i n g on o t h e r loads o n t h e engine, such as power
steering o r a n a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g compressor. TECH TIP
A typical system u s e d o n s o m e G e n e r a l M o t o r s vehicles ..
: Electrical p o w e r m a n a g e m e n t ( E P M ) and •
lea sensor attached to t h e n e g a t i v e b a t t e r y c a b l e to m e a s u r e the -JK Sow nwr oe norma m
current tearing and e n t e r i n g t h e b a t t e r y . S e e Figure 4 1 - 2 0 . roronands vanotft n e d c &
The engine control m o d u l e ( E C M ) c o n t r o l s t h e alternator by "Htm the « h e »
:Tangtng the on-time of t h e c u r r e n t t h r o u g h t h e r o t o r T h e on-time.
duty cycle, is v a r i e d f r o m 5% t o 9 5 % . S e e t h e following
Cifflt-
Beginning sn tne
smaller, VR. "-GH-OU^MT WHS
•"MOM Duty Cycle Alternator Output Voltage called 1
FODOWIM C S K E I E A W S MFIANNG I W
11.0V
9k ters of t h e stator l a r ^ i a ^ o e s . T v a c i s a t , i e s g r a o o n s , a n d o u '
11.6 V
J* p u t s include i i e fofiowing
12.1V
<0*
12.7V
CS-121. 5-9 74 A
SO*
13.3 V CS-130,O-Sl105 A
SOU
13.8 V C S 1 4 4 , 1 7 - S 120 A
%
144 V
«0» These g e n e r a i o n feature rwc. c o c w n g t a n me aoerra. a d
14.9*
t t t n t a a b desgned p e r x j t c o r o e r w c s t o ar. o n b c a r t b o d v e n
15.5V puter t * e m j . u b L a n d F.
T h e r e d u c e d - s i z e g e n e r a t o r s a l s o f e a t u r e ball
{ROCT a M r e a r a n d t o o 2 v s o k t e w ) i n t e r n a l e i e c a x a l
This
system has six modes of operation incur. :: T h e v o l t a g e is c o o t r o a e d o t h e r ts the body
d e is s o e q m p p e c * b y fiie b u u t tr.
®ode. The charge mode is activated whenever anv <4
j j j j t a g occurs
ofaboui 400 tar
. cooling fans are on high spec:
o n n o t a n d ofi t i m e of t h e h e k l
,' Bam
^ w i-n d o w uetogger
defogger is
is on
• jjjjs
e
t a t e
of c h101
a r g e ( S O C ) is less t h a n 8 0 %
w
Ollk'H J •
• Fî e T e |amb|
e n t | temperature is less than 32°F (0°C! CHARGING S Y S T E M TtSTWIG ANQ SERVICE
%I tê^ o n i y mode. This mode reduces the load an the Tbechar$ttfc system can be tested as p r t n t a I M B k w f e M t M
tfy-j^. , .
^ t hm o de generator (alternator) tor a n t o u m ftn>| t i o n « to d e t e r m i n e t h e reason for a a x J u t y x rwluc e^tJm
^ e is activated whenever the follow g c nd: ~s
c.rrail performance
' 5 ? ^ U e m p e r a t u r e is above 32 T ,0*C)

» Tht c e of c h ^ g e of the b a t t r n is 80% or NgUer Charging V o t t a ^ e Test »Strts
c h e c k si tlse g t n e r a t o r £ m r t £ u c a r « c f r '9 d i
. f a n s and rear defogger are off
«•* a "o- •
GENERATOR
OUTPUT (TO BAT +)
REGULATOR
ASSEMBLY
P TERMINAL = TACH
NOTE NOT ALL CS
L TERMINAL = INDICATOR LAMP (AND FEED
GENERATORS USE
TO VOLTAGE REGULATOR)
ALL TERMINALS -
F TERMINAL = FIELD MONITOR
BUT L IS ALWAYS
S TERMINAL = BATTERY VOLTAGE SENSING
USED.
Afura t'-F v • • *•> - v ettv'.if of fliodes m the 'ecM- to help control any high-voltage surges that could affect delicate computer circuits If a hign-voto
-> « jccy -> m v aodes «. t oe m e x c Msefl and me potential harmful voltage wid be safely conducted to ground Voltage must be preset at the L terminal to allow the genm::
B SBT z n c a c cwrwt
If t h e voltage is t o o h i g h , c h e c k t h a t t h e c h a r g i n g system
c o m p o n e n t s s u c h a s t h e g e n e r a t o r a n d v o l t a g e regulator
i if s e p a r a t e I a r e p r o p e r l y g r o u n d e d . If t h e b a t t e r y voltage is r.
h i g h e r t h a n s p e c i f i e d , t h e n t h e r e is likely a fault with the
electrical c o n n e c t i o n s a t t h e v o l t a g e r e g u l a t o r or generator
If t h e v o l t a g e is l o w e r t h a n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , t h e r e is a fault wit
t h e w i r i n g , g e n e r a t o r , o r r e g u l a t o r (if e x t e r n a l ) . Additional
t e s t i n g is r e q u i r e d t o h e l p p i n p o i n t t h e r o o t c a u s e .
The Hand Cleaner Trick
Lower-than-normal generator output could be me result of a loose or slipp

dnve belt. All belts (V and serpentine multigroove) use an interference angle t»
tween the angle of the Vs of the belt and the angle of the Vs on the pulley A be?
wears this interference angle off the edges. As a result, the belt may start to •
^ f / i l t - B ' - t v . ' - y n r ' s inside a GMCS generator and make a squealing sound even if tensioned properly
A common tnck used to determine if the noise is belt related is to use
a: the ba'tery. Use a digital m u l t i m e t e r t o c h e c k type hand cleaner or scouring powder With the engine off, sprinkle some pi-
per onto the pulley side of the belt. Start the engine. The excess powdet *»
... :j2 tat fcyix/w.r.g steps:
into the air. so get away from under the hood when the engine starts. If tnec
SMpr yt J D C volts. are now quieter, you know that it was the glazed belt that made the 1
-
Sag ' - ct " ted meter lead to the positive ( + 1 t e r m i n a l of Often, the grit Irom the hand cleaner will remove the glaze from the belt and
--- > . - ' and t n e black meter lead to the negative ( - ) t e r m i n a l noise will not return. However, if the belt is worn or loose, the noise win
and the belt should be replaced A fast alternative method to see if the not-
Irom the belt is to spray water from a squirt bottle at the belt with He •"
running if the noise stops, the belt is the cause of me noise The watet • •
UK, • - f :s " . t realis mtporunt when using a evaporates and therefore, unlike the gritty hand cleaner, water simply
... • . r ire connected backward on the bat problem—it does not provide a short-term fix
..-.,/•>. M K a rxwove • - . sign in front of
beW
NO 1 f Often, the noise sounds exactly like a noisy bearing Therefore
removing and replacing parts, try the hand cleaner trick
S t ^ r . 'fie engine speed t o about

flff 11
..-/, m o r i the charging voltage. See
Magnetized Rear Bearing Test All 12-volt autoruou^
P i , . r e s 41 2 3 r ". 4 1 -
erator systems use t h e voltage r e g u l a t o r t o control ^ •
1 3 . 5 to 1 5 , 0 V
t h r o u g h t h e r o t o r of t h e g e n e r a t o r . T h e r o t o r creates a " : ;
( l e n e n t Motors v e t w 14.2 to 15.2 V, field w h e n e v e r t h e r e is a c o m p l e t e c i r c u i t t h r o u g h t h e bru>
Chapter 41 Charging System Operation and OagrMsu 446
m s
L ,, L „ j j i J l
1
1 _ • >' '<1 4
C ! i «_
' i i
L
i ii
r-urt 41-23 The digital multimeter should be set to read DC volts, with the red tod
to the positive (+) battery terminal and the black meter lead connected to the
a M I i tattery terminal.
Figure 41 - 2 5 tf the rear h e ^ n g s magnetized, the roitage re^jtatw generator brushes.

and rotor are Functioning.
If t h e r e a r b e a r i n g is not m a g n e t i z e d , t h e n o n e o r m o r e of t h e
following problems e x i s t
1. T h e voltage r e g u l a t o r is n c t w . r k i n g .
2 . The generator b r u s h e s a r e w o r n o r s t u c k , a n d t h e y a r e n o t m a k i n g
good electrical c o n t a c t w i t h t h e rotor slip ring?.
3 . T h e g e n e r a t o r rotor c o u l d b e d e f e c t i v e .
If t h e r o t o r is n o t p r o d u c i n g a m a g n e t i c field, n o a u t o m o t i v e
g e n e r a t o r c a n p r o d u c e c h a r g i n g c u r r e n t It is t h i s r o t a t i n g m a g n e t i c
field c r e a t e d in t h e r o t o r t h a t i n d u c e s c u r r e n t i n t h e s t a t o r w i n d -
ings. T h e r e f o r e , b y c h e c k i n g f o r a m a g n e t i z e d r e a r b e a r i n g , the
technician can better d e t e r m i n e w h e r e the charging system prob-
l e m is l o c a t e d . If, for e x a m p l e , t h e r e a r b e a r i n g is m a g n e t i z e d , y e t
the "charge" ["GEN" light is o n a n d t h e g e n e r a t o r is n o t c h a r g i n g ,
the problem has to b e inside t h e g e n e r a t o r .diodes, stator, etc.).
rjrt
A scan tool can be used to diagnose charging system problems. The L i g h t e r P l u g Trick
Batten voltage measurements can be read through the grter socket See
:
of t h e rotor. If t h e r e is n o c u r r e n t t h r o u g h t h e rotor, t h e r e Figure 41-26 Slnply construct a test tool using a light® p-ug at one ire at»
•*> generator o u t p u t . W h e n e v e r t h e r o t o r is e n e r g i z e d , t h e e n t i r e •ength ot two-conductor vsve and the other end connected to a dcutte
" ' shaft and t h e g e n e r a t o r b e a r i n g s b e c o m e m a g n e t i z e d . T e c h n i - plug. The doubte banana plug wi* fit most meters in the common (COM
often use t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n to help diagnose a no-charging nal and the volt tenr nal of the rretw
"'Hem. With t h e e n g i n e r u n n i n g , use a screwdriver or other
e
'2lllc object t o t e s t f o r m a g n e t i s m a t t h e r e a r b e a r i n g of t h e
-"eratot See F i g u r e 4 1 - 2 5 .
U s e a T e s t Light to C h e c k
TECH TIP
f o r a D e f e c t i v e F u s i b l e Link
" J ® The front bearing is also m a g n e t i z e d , but testing for magnetism ot Most AC generators .alternators! jse a fusibie link :-jt»ter f e
" ^ t beartng with the engine r u n n i n g can be dangerous. vvated on the sllp-nng-end frame and the pestve, - arrsrai j f i * s o a r * t
this fusMe ft* is defective (Nmni. then ij-stam u
at at Many AC generates haw been repuced repeaswiy a « i » x a
fusible link that >*as not discovered unto atef A v a r t easy a a to ..'«-» *
. '-he rear b e a r i n g is m a g n e t i z e d , t h e n t h e following facts are the fusible link « okay <s to touch a test to the JUCLK e n n r a t »
•'"it:
other end ol the test lignt attached » a good g r a r a tt» tofetc • f
the tight lights The tast confirms thatffwarcut DoCmmo 0 » AC ytrmau art
]' voltage r e g u l a t o r Is w o r k i n g ,
B» battery has continuity See Fîre 41 ->7
j J ^ P n e r a t o r brushes are working.
- rotor In t h e g e n e r a t o r Is p r o d u c i n g a m a g n e t i c field.
ut
ttEA&umWO THE AC B I P ^ E FROM THE

AUERMATOfl TELLS A LOT ABOUT ITS
COWOmo»i If THE AC RIPPLE R ABOVE
500 MILLIVOLTS, OR 5 VOLTS LOOK FOR A
W08LEM IN THE CTOOES OR STATOR IF THE
a i P P L £ IS B E L O W 5 0 0 MILLIVOLTS. C H E C K T H E
ALTERMATOR OUTPUT TO DETERMINE fT9
CONOmON
-•z.r* r - 2 t Heowtjr
—.rrwEBrc 5 cr*"' * Ts .rur-mEr *r.i.qr < tfijne WwaSuv
OUTPUT
figtre 41-28 K ' w e a r e o m c o l i e r r ' rtg at tie generator « r v i a c t a * >»
>1
WSn; x ** MBB7 <te fc tie reasanee <* B» mnng betneen tie g m n t o M f e
s * r ; T h e t a d t e o a n « c meter k o n l y 78 « * » J J 7 8 t w X t a M k W
M t t at < a M e y-'ectf.
TECH TIP The Mini C l a m p - O n DMM Tesl
H e -ffti'Sis «jt»jt can t e easily measured twng a o g t e r v

r- <Sgts Tiue»r««er A tyt«tai damp-on r-«ter a capable eaJn; a <*
at M -i* 6 0 1 4. t 206 A or more See fcgure 41-29 Tc jc lor Te w
<V47 i -jn-ercr aW-ar.T re v < semncer -..-*>.•. 1 0 * <a«er a m n d jenerasor outpu* w t arm «ieci 0C a r w r a u
SEE" e j ^se'T jf He -jiitjur WK MtB? wHaqe ser.w mr-iraa t « cotrea yjae jfar t « a m t u - or a «grR am actevu «
"Mr X«r«s T* dteofer/ The r e j u j * tfnJd be wtfw
AC M b p e C h e c k --s r . - :• . *ed x r w s s r -asn; A- AGVC cwrert r j a n p adaWer can a«c ^ -sec ^
AC WMSK -- ; - * e : • ' ; -««tv - a C M N r v j a l a g e -rtMnUm y » or Bie DC - won scale -/«»t
i-.-iss 6<. • Tv. vmceam ' k AC *>* a m * - « * k b i » raster lo read ar-oeres arc r e a r t r e -s&v
". S k j-. -i A oi y s a s r Tar to a w s j AC deter.fr* ^ e r r . 7
r- v -<c - - - -- Kixt i.C

«5 : - - arc v x o k ai2f//. S t - <f*
• v •--.-. p r . de -..- g«i -.- e

if-'tr-aae.
- «i: . v e a a 3* w wtf : mrr.

t esc r. t » Kfflura -/ -te g e w a f i r . V» f-®ais «l 28
:
'*•• • - '• 'Ut ' St. . S/^ss^.
' - "•-•=•- - rx . : -.• v . ' •>
'•' '"' i J - are •feflec?.--
^•JMT* « ' • » » ••• . V * f t » •• J'.r • r r ^ n a t M a d » • « » • > » J

II It 2K> » ' / . -aw ware ''
• s -*» i t 'act fcir i Kfat»< r.r,
« « » « v ** iwm-mn- m w c v . yVJAt wmwr iwatifi is mtf*11"1
DfWA.
•jj^tnfl S y s t e m V o t t a g e Drop Tt
charging system, i t v m
« between Ihe totter/ positive terr « -j
- termmai T h e j e n e r a t o r m u t t a i v , i * y o ,
" j o e block.
f Ktucle manufacturers run the lead f r v ier
. . ' i the generator to other connectors or
^ i t r t c i i l y f l i w * * ^ 'o the positive tenr.;r.< of v,
s ^resistance a high voltag* droj - • -->• /-
- wiring itself, t h e totter/ will n o t b e w , - - •
Kheaewf t h e r e is a s u s p e c t e d c h a r g j n , t y v - P*-. <r
• / a charge i n d i c a t o r light o n | , s i m p t y fo
vottagp d r o p of t h e i n s u l a t e d ( p o w e r de har&r.; • •
3 9 * 1 Sutt the e n g i n e a n d r u n it a t a te' idle w j t 2V/, J

fU
H f f l Turn on the headlights to e n s u r e an electrtcai oe th
-.r-srpng system-
Lbtng aiy voltmeter, connect t h e positive lew >a<3 ivâ
•-1 v, the o u t p u t t e r m i n a l o f the generator. A r a -
«sea<5 •usually black) to the positive p « ' of t h e batter/.
"he results s h o u l d b e interpreted as follows:
i.! l m l e s s than a 0.4-volt reading, t h e n all wiring a n d w a s

t w o arelaflsflactory.
I , . » v o t a n e t e r reads h i g h e r than 0 . 4 volt, t h e r e a « c e u , v e resa-
'voltage drop) b e t w e e n the generator o u t p u t terminal m d
r a
at poadve terminal of t h e battery.
1 ; v kmeter r e a d s b a t t e r y voltage (or d o s e to battery m t a g e
'.'»:> s « i oper. circuit b e t w e e n the b a t t e r y and t h e generator
vatput terrr.naJ.
T Y P I C A L MAXIMUM N E A O H G
0^4 v <oa v F CAP HAS C W « e C LOK * > v
V O L TA £ f O M O P - O R O U M ) Q I M W D CMCUT
€ D
h&jniis? OUCSgeliiWorwinngpfcOidoriWiCa •"•'nrWdji;
> on gewroan.
GENERAL MOTORS CS SERIES AC GENERATORS

A General M o t o r s C S se.i«s g e n e r a t o r r e q u i r e s only two
operate- t h e Batter.- BAT) f e e d a n d t h e w i r e t o t h e L terri -
The C S s o w s g e n e r a t o r s a r e d e s i g n e d t o o p e r a t e as a stand-iii-
g e n e r a t o r o r be cojar.'.iled by a v e h i c l e c o m p u t e r system, fc
h g u r c -ii 3 2 tor t e r m i n a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ,
g T h e P t e r m u u l , s o m e t i m e s culled t h e s t a t o r u p , . . . v V „v.
j.w i, TO ME SMUT p r o d u c e s a b o u t o n e - h a l f of the sy-...'
a i t e m a & s g c u r r e n t a n d is u s e d a s a t a c h o m e t e r signal. Pis us«j j,
c a u s e : t . : . a:. a b b r e v i a t i o n f o r pseudo, m e a n i n g "alternat;:-,: >
straight' i ' u t p u t T e r m i n a l S is t h e s e n s i n g t e r m i n a l for true to:
voltage. Terminal r s t h e v o m p u t e r s e n s i n g t e r m i n a l . T h e coop-:,
IwtobtajcMiaiCvmcawuMCla' m o n i t o r s i n s t e r m i n a l a n d s e t s t r o u b l e c o d e s . m d alerts t h e •
t h e r e s a c h a r g i n g s y s w m m a l f u n c t i o n . T h e l e t t e r / is somefe*,
used instead ol f a n a this t e r m i n a l is u s e d a s a backup voltjg;
s o u r c e to the voltage r e g u l a t o r it t n e L t e r m i n a l c i r c u i t is lost.
S A G T F . . OOTOFIS » TEST U C H T TEST
... < -Jc . >>i Integration ' i n t e r n a l voltage tegula
_ - s .
.cegBQ i t n e M O B i«i:erftttoci.' c*n b e easily
i s r i & U' l £ \ » f c tot tijfit. See fcgu* 4 1 31.
toted REAL WORLD FIX \ The Chevrolet Van Story
T.V Saner* and generator .aitern.itWI had becin replaced Dy anotrwi Slwp ,-.:
apctsisoc. ,iv*p> ou.'isM t h e p r o c e d u r e :nc saSer, woukt &e totally aacturgoo after throe days A chucK of the e w , •
' for n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n : .,... n,... ..... a gut the g« nurator was not charginQ. Before another flew .
4 0 , 4 t£St l l j t t '-.."luuid Pe tingrit iC. the tecrin*âr, cliecêa lor voltage at Doth the Output tsrmifu. :•';
urui # 2 tenmaal. the g«notatui ($ terminal, and tne L terminal with the ignrtion switch in trie or.
.run: portion Trwre wan no voltage at the I terminal indicating that the jrofr
.rm was m ir<' w i n g to the 1. tomnrul tweauso without voltage a! this lartt*-
—- trw CS130 win not turn on icnarflei
mm <C s a H e r r x a * ' ' * tentatMt On ("<M i^ptc* ] Chr. the schematic m tn*. :orvice mtormation showoo that the
<4M» . ^ . ' M t ffiflfc^ UK SAX BKJui tii vmi.twi «Z to the i tormina, uime trom the gauges tuse and then through the charge
. •, as. .. ... a a r U^.-jbh••• W B U f - * i . T t m a * »l
^ iaffiv ixx< hgure 41-33 A visual inspection showed thai trio In • *•»
«.•••—• ,,.r,i . v
«ru: could have ca.,sod the fuse to OlOw' fuitlwi ChocKmg o( the ci«.
¥ « . . . - ' T t e - M i ^ r . ^ g Ji. .Ik tSte te>»WS S<K butt.
showed that the .Jaages tuse also led the automatic transmission WKJue
-
verier outcs circuit A visual inspection discovered a damaged wi(i) uMr
van i.'wsi .iKciy due to iuod OeO.'is Repairing (he wire and installing .. -c* •• -
-Si t ttuchiftj any of the t t o e c terminals sohmd ttici charging system prosiom
•. i.g.ii Tfte HAT trrrr,i,nai and terminal » 2
n: ajftf r « \ - a a * &oth are w t t e r v voltage
a.s. t.'jc rest ugM WigMly
• u p r o d u c n * a current, the internal DIAGNOSING P R O B L E M S W I T H T H E G E N E R A L
a 5 {gpfli.ng v o i a g r on the dash light MOTORS CS S E R I E S
:.. S..*-..-,^glKXdfe the bulb and 11 t n e i r o r g e i n d i c a t o r light is o n in t h e d a s h , u n p l u g the conr.o ^
Whwh . a n n a v e a p t o l o u r w t r e s c o n n e i H e d l . S t a r : t h e c : ; g >
o s ^ ' t v e t h e J a s n c l a r g e light, it t h e light is still o n , t h e r e ^ '
C»U»W 1/ crie test iijjht is n o t ort at t " g r o u n d in t h e I w i r e c i r c u i t b e t w e e n t h e g e n e r a t o r and :r.e •>•
/... ..' r" ..'..rr. .. JT.,»pet;cJXuit U the c h a r g e tight is o u t , c h e c k f o r v o l t a g e at t h e I
® -V i A i , jcJt 2 * <rr«ra:ot there voltage a v a i l a b l e ai t h e L t e r m i n a l ( r e m e m b e r , the • •
. .• 'V?,-,.: * • ; w t f . t.*i< k e y t u r n e d t o lor .S still u n p l u g g e d frtim t h e g e n e r a t o r i . t h e p r o b l e m 8 m ® '
if • «.<;>' a. « d e f e c t i v e i o p c n i eratur, if c n a r g m g is n o t o c c u m n g .
If t h e r e is n o v o l t a g e a v a i l a b l e a t t h e 1 t e r m i n a l , 4PP« ..
,,-jf:. ju* , u ' r ^ SAT tcrrru/ial o r t h r o u g h a s t a n d a r d test tight to t h e I. t e r m i n a l of t h e g e n e i * -
r , .. 'jc'trtcz 'J* pOSt Of suppin". tn.- p o w e r lor th.- r e g u l a t o r . ( T h i s » not
• j T T j r - i * / : »:;* ' H coufcticitv Of all tumble v n e r a t u r , but s i m p l y s u p p l y i n g p o w e r t o t h e i n t e r n a ! .
t h e g e n e r a t o r o u t p u t is n o w n o r m a l , t h e p r o b l e m is m ; "
^wsfl-33 A schematic stiowing a typical winng for a General Motors CS generator, stiowmg ttiat We L terras-' s W t w s r " * gauges?* •tt^ttsewssblww.sse n - ^ r o t « - j s
'ir. v6 tfw generator (alternator) will not charge.
• L t e r m n a l of t h e g e n e r a t o r . C h e c k ail f u s e s , all f u s i b l e Units.

B4ffie charge light i n d i c a t o r b u l b .
"«»ator Output Test A c h a r g i n g c i r c u i t m a y b e a b l e t o pro-

:
c w w | charging circuit v o l t a g e b u t n o t b e a b l e to p r o d u c e ade-
-•'•' aaperajK o u t p u t . If in d o u b t "about c h a r g i n g s y s t e m o u t p u t . Gnt
condition of t h e g e n e r a t o r d r i v e b e l t . S e e F i g u r e 4 1 - 3 4 .
I' - - engine off, a t t e m p t t o r o t a t e t h e f a n of t h e g e n e r a t o r b y h a n d .
i^jjr*-.^.. . . . r
tighten t h e d r i v e b e l t if t h e g e n e r a t o r f a n c a n b e r o t a t e d this
4
1 - 3 5 for typical test e q u i p m e n t h o o k u p ,
testing p r o c e d u r e f o r g e n e r a t o r o u t p u t is as f o l l o w s :
C
° w e c t t h e s t a r t i n g a n d c h a r g i n g t e s t l e a d s a c c o r d i n g to t h e
equipment m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s i n s t r u c t i o n s .
^ (ft T
1
irr J ' f Ignition s w i t c h o n ( e n g i n e off) a n d o b s e r v e t h e
This is t h e i g n i t i o n c i r c u i t c u r r e n t , and it s h o u l d b e figure 41-34 this accsssav enw belt static re -ecacjc 5=caus«* s f a s a s -
* * * » 8 amperes. cracks, the usual spethcatan tor w t w a s » t » : 3 « sec rscc-ra n c i a c r W . *
ttete are ttiree w more cricks m any one r t t. an»
2 - -sr. bf skipped If t h e a m m e t e r cunerit clamp can be c o n

; tt:r p j w r a t o r output wire instead of areop.d the b a t v r v Step <3 Start the engine and operate - ar JIOOO
t h e load i n c r e a s e c o n t r o l slowly 'a o t t a t r . t h e h i g h e s t t
t h e a m m e t e r scale. N o t e t h e a m p e r e r e a f o g .
450 SKTWV-.
LARGE CABLES
NEGATIVE
| BOTE: When appiving a load to the battery witti a .
j ing a generator output test, do not permit the b„ .' %j
I jetow 12 volts. Most generators Hm produce thei; ;' fy j
! amperes) above 13 voits.
T O STARTER How to Determine Minimum Required Ge aerator Outn

MOTOR All charging systems must be able to supply the viectrical de~-
of the electrical system. If lights and accessories are used consa'f'
and the generator cannot supply the necessary ampere om
the battery will be drained. To determine the minimum elect,-
load requirements, connect an ammeter in series with ethf
T E S T L E A D C O N N E C T I O N S FOR TESTING THE STARTING SYSTEM.
battery cable.
C H A R G I N G S Y S T E M . V O L T A G E R E G U L A T O R , A N D D I O D E STATOR.
Figure A1-3S Typicaf -O

I. OKUP of a starting and charging tester. NOTE: If using an inductive-pickup ammeter, be certain that the pickc; •
over all the wires leaving the battery terminal. See Figure 41-38.
to include the smali body ground wire from the negative battery terminal
to the body or the small positive wire (if testingfromthe positive sice ws.
greasy decrease the currentflowreadings.
After connecting an ammeter correctly in the battery c.r;_:.

continue as follows:
1. Start the engine and operate to about 2000 RPM (fast idle:.
2. Turn the heat selector to air conditioning j if the vehicle is so
equipped).
3. Turn the blower motor to high speed.
4. Turn the headlights on bright.
5. Turn on the radio.
6. Turn on the windshield wipers.
7. Turn on any other accessories that may be used continuous.;' :
F i g u r e 4 1 - 3 6 Tne Pest piace to install a charging system tester amp proOe is around tne not operate the horn, power door locks, or other units that are
g e n e t a r outpu: terminal w.re as siiown. not used for more than a few seconds).
Observe the ammeter. Tne current indicated is the elecr.^
ioad that the generator is able to exceed to keep the battery M
charged. The minimum acceptable generator output is 5 ^P®?
greater than the accessory load. A negative (discharge) reading-^
cates that the generator is not capable of supplying the curt -
i amperes) that may be needed.
TECH TIP , / Bigger Is Not A l w a y s Better
Manytechniciansare asked to install a higher-output generator to allow tw ^

emergency equipment or other high-amperage equipment such a
wattage sound system. . |tlSlfflPo<-
Although many higher-output units can be physically i n s t a l l s e t o r
tant nottoforget to upgrade the wiring and the fusible linWs) m' ^ ^
circuit failure to upgrade the wiring could lead to overheating. The u
locations are at junctions or electrical connectors.
Figure 4 1 - 3 7 The sutpu;MI R . I generator ts pnntefl on a latei.

GENERATOR D I S A S S E M B L Y
if testing has confirmed that there are generator p ^ Z g a ^ .
Step H 7 . 2 peres from step 2 and step 3. Results the generator from the vehicle after disconnecting u>e shor t _
: be within 10't tor 15 aroperesi of the rated output, tery cable. This will prevent the occurrence of d a m a g ^ p f 0 p *
scares outpa: aav be printed on the generator as shown in cults. Mark the case with a scratch or with chalk to
fcgsre 41-37. reassembly of the generator case. See Figure 41-39.
'2 C a O C K
BATTERY CPA' -
CHAPOINO '
CURRENT Ct W . /
I
^ Y Y BOO '
BATTCp'r
TO ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC
COMPONENTS A N D A C C E S S O P . ^ C O'CLOCK
-^.irt 41-38 ASiacram showing trie location o' '.^vz-r /

Z<_ sesttocafion to use to check for the generator ' a t t e m j ' c f i o r t . ' • . r '
(8AT1 tenrhet. Notice that the generator sucptie", <h*r n t
? w charges the SaKery it needed.
-OCT
Jjfa jrrr r jxr.rrz

3535?; - 530909? *r ; - f J j T rrzgr-z - r » •? frr Hf> m&rz
rrg?>; zt-urr: r. : S » saeter. the: 6 ' i O .

9«'dbc*. o- -2 c sossr r 5 e 3-r » n ? ^ssaC
T n e test j £ i t s r r c l : e r r . A s E S S s r s c a a r r r j x x : Is t o ' r e a s - ; . - ?
T I E RESSTEXE IWLWHSS t b e sllr R R R . V K T S zz z-r—r/r. "Tpica
41-39 Always mark the case of the generator before disassembly to be a s s r e i <f GM: 2 2 t s 3.5 d i s n
..-WBssemtXy.
Fordt 3.0 3 5.5
Chryslen 3.C tD 6.C cfcrr
The resssancc va&as ber? t r e — r t c i - e x a c *
-• •s MOK geseasocs of a particular manufacturer can he used on a TEXT." cadas S e g s a a a e r d c s - e r e i r - r i d be cor • :
• ~."-des. feci nay require vrtang connections placed in vano® locations. c c = i e s = S g 2 V - r t C t e s a r e - - s r . a l s o var.- - See
" asKk. a Chevrolet and an OldsmobHe generator swr be ' i e r m ex-
T.rcrs-1^1.
P«3ca of the rear section conainng the elecTcal errreer-rs.
wr through bolts that hold the two halves toge&er are eraSv spaoetis I. fftSe - e s s r z r c e s b e ^ r p e c S c z o n c . Sse r r r - Is s r e r e i .
J^wt.&erear generator housSngC37 b e InsaHed - a - :r? 'r-r: 2.1:".- : rtslrtrrrc r r e r i a r r t . i s r r * corsaocssare
'S&s ts oatch the wiring needs of various mode*. See Kgurc - ' -SC. c c r t c e d or :t*r_
?t»tor — s o e c t l c c s p e c " c z r - r r s a f t e r U x f c d e art a c c s p t s K e

average carrest a s xsstses ctxEKcad a sedes
••-„ Sirough-bolts h a v e b e e n r e m o v e d , carefu'ly separate the' batserr. c r r r t e c esse test > 2 d t S e c C " » fie pes^ve
haiv
« : t h e stator w i n d i n g s s t a y w i t h t h e rear case, re c f t i e b a r e - acd s "r t f e g . C o n n e c t r e -.' r *v ea«J
.5®
w••••SBlg. be
inspected and t e s t e d w h i l e attached to t h e rrcrt iecwaea fie ae&at-ê .rest t f r - : barter ^ ^
s ^ 9
^ Rotor T h e s l i p rings o n & e r o t o r s f e o o K b e s a c
and c?eas c taasretic Caapse -he zszserT- T a f c j
iwithin 0 . 0 0 2 i n c h o f b e i n g p e r f e c t * r o u n d . if p e c v e c . xsitBf t h e fflarrScrsrer? spec3§ca3cr

can b e
m a c h i n e d t o p r o v i d e a s u i t a b l e s u r f a c e for r arrd arrsesest. g t i s e c s r r e r t d r a w is aSc?e ci'.: r. r e ;
not
Jsspf^ machine b e v o n d t h e tririrrturtt s i r r r . i & - ; - . < • » is s l » f » d . I" t h e c i r r e r t d r < w r e ' r w rrecrca*. r<-
v
the manufacturer. rttr a s Isisrr - ^ s i s a c c e . c r r r o d e c c e e s 3 e r a » - '** "•"*
rings a r e d i s c o l o r e d o r c l r t v . t i t e r c a r b e c l e a n e d
or S n e
ff i s e r t r t s rtrtrc r b e oper. rr
V C S ? « o e r \ - (polishing) d o t h . T t e mast be
ie ein g r a d e d icopper © s s e ^ j , S e a s nsfi
•>,o'c ° S cleaned to 'prevent Ha? spots or the s' r -rtjs.
at a saeciaSsed s r c c . ' j x s t c a m e c t s x r at t r e -
"•••: t ^ r ® coR c o n t m u i t v tr. t h e r o t o r cart b e c h e d f f i d ire t c t x r i r s
bcreperec r resoscer. - : .
. ' * ? < * » . ! t O v o l t ! 1 5 - w a s b u l b ! t e s t e - o~ e a c > -rx
« a TO* .
T E S T I N G STAT
T T S T M 3 t s A U ^ a s a - o q ROTOR USING AN OHMMETER
(CHECK FOR O P E N S )
C M 6 C V N G ÔP G F I O u W S
( S H O U L D R t A r iMTNTTY IF
=»CTOB ! S N O T G B O U N P E D
OXIMETER
NOTE:
I T ? OHMMETER
SHOULD READ
1 I
LOW O H M S
STATOR I S O P E N IF O H M M E T E R READS
IF M E T E R R E A D S ANY RESISTANCE
INFINITY (OL) E X C E P T INFINITY (OL),
S T A T O R IS GROUNDED
Figure 41 - 4 2 If tne ohmmeter reads infinity between any two of the three stator windings
the stator is open and, therefore, defective. The ohmmeter should read infinity between
any stator lead and the steel laminations. If the reading is less than infinity, the stator
is grounded. Stator windings can be tested if shorted because the normal resistance is
very low.
OHMMETER
OHMMETER
7
Figure 4 1 - 4 1 es*rng a generator rotor u
w m •)• a replacement rotor may exceed the cost of an entire

. ' - B^ certain, nowever, that the rebuilt generator is rated at
••» .tpur as the original or highet
Testing the Stator T h e stator m u s t be d i s c o n n e c t e d from t h e

T vier - e c u f i e r s b e f o r e testing. Because all t h r e e w i n d i n g s of t h e
re - ectricallv c o n n e c t e d (either w y e or delta), a p o w e r e d
-r. : 2-volt test light o r an o h m m e t e r c a n b e used to c h e c k a
"r " ' . e - e iid b e l o w r e s i s t a n c e at all t h r e e stator leads (conti-
• . - r e ' e s t light should light. T h e r e should n o r b e continu-
. t h e r e s h o u l d b e infinity o h m s , or t h e test light
Figure 4 1 - 4 3 An open in a delta-wound stator cannot be detected using an ohmmelei
i:: w h e n t h e s t a t o r is tested b e t w e e n a n y stator lead
acc tre -etal i t a t o r c o r e . If t h e r e is continuity, t h e stator is
c u r r e n t to flow in o n l y o n e d i r e c t i o n . B e c a u s e trio m e a n s " ^ f ^ ,
, - . ' , g r o u n d ' a n d m u s t b e repaired or replaced. See
d i o d e t r i o is t h r e e d i o d e s c o n n e c t e d t o g e t h e r . S e e Figure 41
J ;
;. - ^ 2 . B e c a u s e t h e resistance is very low for a n o r m a l stator,
The diode trio is connected to all three stator winding?. The cur
- ^
. • - ^ v - z ^ e t o test for a s t o r t e t f (copper to copper) sta-
generated in the stator flows through the diode trio to the
- ' . .V v ; : , h o w e v e r , greatly r e d u c e g e n e r a t o r o u t p u t cm
voltage regulator. T h e d i o d e t r i o is d e s i g n e d t o s u p p l y ""t(l)f,
> , - r c o m p o n e n t s test okay and t h e o u t p u t is still
the field (rotor] and turns off the charge indicator light w h e n e V o [ [ t i e
- •.•(•. i rtr o w n g o o d stator a n d retest. If t h e stator is
generator voltage equals or exceeds the battery voltage. If one
• - - r.eck t h e vehicle for a discharged or de-
three diodes in the diode trio is defective (usually open), tne g ^
t e c t t e b a n e r y . If b a t t e r y v o l t a g e n e v e r r e a c h e s t h e voltage regula-
ator may produce close-to-normal output; however, the cnargt
/. - ••••- ? e r , e - a t o r //ill be c o n t i n u o u s l y producing
c a t ® light will b e o n dimly. „ raeter
- v.tor >"tr j, Tnis continuous charging often
A diode trio s h o u l d b e t e s t e d w i t h a digital m u l t i m e t e r , i n ^
should be set to t h e d i o d e - c h e c k p o s i t i o n . T h e m u l t i m e t e r s ^
' - - - 1 - d e ' e c t a n o p e n stator if t h e stator is delta
dicate 0 . 5 to 0 . 7 volt o n e w a y a n d O L ( o v e r l i m i t ) after r e v e
. j . • - -- - . sti i n d i c a t e l o w resistance b e c a u s e all
test leads and t o u c h i n g all t h r e e c o n n e c t o r s of t h e d i o d e trio.
three a r e e l e c t r i c a l l y c o n n e c t e d . See Figure 4 1 - 4 3 .
Testing the Rectifier Bridge (Diodes) Generator (ACj
Testing the Dtode Trio • viator, are equipped with a equipped w i t h six d i o d e s t o c o n v e r t t h e alternatings cur ^ w
. , A .<•..<-r OTIE v/ay c h e c k valve t h a t p e r m i t s generated in t h e stator w i n d i n g i n t o d i r e c t c u r r e n t il)u
Chapter 41 Charging System Operation 453
Figure 41-46 A bow Of aB^-itty stwmr assembled in the generator The brush
retaner« actual? a straipfene«j-out paper d o
„ 41-44 Typical diode trio. If one leg of a diode trio is open, the generator may produce group or combine ail positive and all negative diodes in the one re-
' I normal output, but the charge indicator light on the dash will be on dimly. The plus p l a c e a b l e rectifier c o m p o n e n t . G e n e r a l M o t o r s D e l c o t r o n g e n e r a -
ndicate the anodes, and the minus sign indicates the cathode terminal of the diodes tors u s e a r e p l a c e a b l e r e c t i f i e r b r i d g e c o n t a i n i n g all six d i o d e s in
one unit combined with a finned heat sink-
Brush Holder Replacement Generator carbon brushes often

ORIGINAL C O C A T I O N HEAT SINK last for many years and require no scheduled maintenance. The life
OF R E M O V E D D I O D E M of t h e because they conduct only the
g e n e r a t o r b r u s h e s is e x t e n d e d
field (rotor 1 c u r r e n t w h i c h is normally only 2 to 5 amperes. The
g e n e r a t o r b r u s h e s s h o u l d be inspected whenever the generator
d i s a s s e m b l e d a n d should be replaced when worn to ess than
1/2 i n c h in l e n g t h . Generator br-:hes are spring loaded, and if the
springs a r e c o r r o d e d o r damaged, the brushes will not be able to
k e e p c o n s t a n t c o n t a c t with the slip rings of the rotor. If t h e b r u s h e s
do not contact the dip n n ^ . SeJd current cannot create the -tag
netic field in the rotor to is necessary for current generation.
B r u s h e s a r e commonly purchased assembled together in a br_ish
3ure 41-45 A GM rectifier bridge that has been disassembled to show the individual holder. .After the brushes are installed usually retained by t w o o r
owes.
t h r e e screws and the rotor is installed in the generator housing a
b r u s h retainer pin can be pulled out through an access hole in the
rear of the generator, allowing the brushes to be pressed against the
vehicle's battery a n d e l e c t r i c a l c o m p o n e n t s . T h e six d i o d e s in-
slipringsby the brush spring. See Figure 41-46.
dude three
positive d i o d e s a n d t h r e e n e g a t i v e d i o d e s ( o n e positive
indonern e g a t i v e f o r e a c
•v,/ h w i n d i n g of t h e s t a t o r ) . T h e s e d i o d e s c a n be Bearing Service and Replacement T bearing
"j"1 d ' o d e s or
g r o u p e d i n t o a p o s i t i v e a n d a n e g a t i v e rectifier ator must be able to support the rotor and r e d u c e f r i c t i o n . A fere-
"ne'J"j contain three
d i o d e s . All six d i o d e s c a n b e c o m b i n e d into ator must be able to rotate at up to 15.000 R P M a n d w i t h s t a n d t h e
^ P w e a b i e unit called a r e c t i f i e r b r i d g e . T h e rectifjer(s) idiodesi
forces created by the drive b e l t The front b e a r i n g u s u a t v is a fcaJ
tested bearing type and the rear is a s m a l l e r r o l l e r b e a n n g . T h e fror.t bear
Krns , using a m u l t i m e t e r t h a t is s e t t o " d i o d e c h e c k " r
ing is located under a r e t a i n e r a n d p r e s s e d i n t o t h e fror.t g e n e r a : r
•o ^ c a u s e a
d i o d e ( r e c t i f i e r ) s h o u l d a l l o w c u r r e n t to f l o w in o n l y case. The pulley m u s t b e r e m o v e d b e f o r e t h e r o t o r c a n b e
: ^ r , a l j c t l o n ' each d i o d e s h o u l d be tested t o d e t e r m i n e if t h e rated from the c a s e . S o m e g e n e r a t o r p r e s s fit p u i l e . - m u s t oe re
• the i 0Ws cur
r e n t f l o w in o n e d i r e c t i o n a n d b l o c k s c u r r e n t flow moved using a puller, w h e r e a s Ford a n d G e n e r a l M o t o r s ger.e-a:. rs
'-cessauf? S ' t e direction
- T o test m a
n y g e n e r a t o r d i o d e s , it m a v b e use a n u t to h o l d t h e d r i v e p u l l e y t o t h e rotor. T h e £r n t ; - - -"
n unsolder sta be removed from m o s t G M g e n e r a t o r s b y u s i n g a 15 : ?-r.;r.
Possibl ° t o r c o n n e c t i o n s . Accurate testing
U n e s s 1116 d i o d e
w r e n c h w h i l e h o l d i n g t h e r o t o r s h a h to k e e p .: f r o m n t a u - . i - s - n z
Aerator / ' s a r e s e p a r a t e d electrically from other
om
a 5 16-inch h e x i Allen wrench.
>i;of ^ P ° n e n t s . S e e F i g u r e 4 1 - 4 5 . C o n n e c t t h e l e a d s to t h e
meter. V I O d e ,pigtail a n d h o u s i n
8 of
t h e r e c t i f i e r b r i d g e . Read
be poshed out .: fl*
T h e old o r d e f e c t i v e b e a r i n g s o m e t i m e s c a n
fSe t h e test leads A g o o d d i o d e s h o u , d h a v c !ligh
front h o u s i n g a n d t h e r e p l a c e m e n t pushed ..-. b - applying \
-'irice itM '
w i t h a s o c k e t o r p i p e a g a i n s t t h e o u t e r edge o f t h e I
1o n e wa
•'•In ik Y ( r e v e r s e biasl a n d low voltage d r o p , 0 . 5 to race!. R e p l a c e m e n t b e a r i n g s a r e . - . j . . - prefcir.carrc
Adding additional grease could cause :verheamg i:
er w a y
An ohm ( f o r w a r d bias).
% l l 0 V V v n 7 t e r a l s o c a n b e u s e d , if t h e o h m m e t e r r e a d s l o w reducing heat transfer from the seating .rfa.- 's.e ,
g e n e r a t o r front beanng? m be n
3ge d r o p l in b o t h
'^trietp d i r e c t i o n s , t h e d i o d e is s h o r t e d . If housing. Many
reads h i g h o h m s
°Pen l°LI in b o t h
d i r e c t i o n s , t h e d i o d e is r o t o r u s i n g a special puller.
0r
shorted diodes m u s t be replaced. Most generators
GffEHATOR 4SS£*Bvi
A.* v*-.-* - v—- m '3K r redder reguiatot statot

ar: ' •> < - ; • • taiahes are nxmaihr
mscr" •- - "* 2 ^ t r " - j - tf* t -es to the brush holder and in
3K f u m y m i •»» to--: • reate a * crushes lor reassembly, install
T • • Jrs. • • >J ~ • —» proper afrenment with the mark
r 5>acj. s v gnaraftor housing. Install the through
> • * 11 ftrt cm the brushes, spvr the
ae-R-jfc- r..--. •>: JF*> -y ••• B rosy or not rotating freeiv. the
B op eas. se d -^Bemfcted ijiam to check far the caice.
- f t r B K 3 I j e r a c " * R~-rator s free to rotate, remove the brush
fewe-per ana spr: ix gene-ara asair Iw band. The noise level may
i c r • * x -r w> - " e brta hes -eieased onto the slip rings.
G-.-ieaa - - o 1 be sered on a bench tester, if available, be
rt jm rrxsTjbed or. a verecie. When installing the generator
3E t x wfetcK, be certain -hat all mounting bolts and nuts are tigh'
V x aarrnr tenE.r.ai should be covered with a plastic or rubber
r—jv-..".'••» cac to v-lp p w r t accidental shorcrg to ground, which
: M M sertotslv damage the generator.
REMAJLUF ACTURED GEMERATORS

• r a " .c~jred or rebui? generators are totally disassembled and
. L. • - t ijth there are many smaller rebuilders who may not
-ecuce aC worr parts, the major national reman ufacturers totally re-
tjt. jnt the generator. 'Did generators icalled cores! are totally
Ssjiamxiied and cleaned. Both bearings are replaced and all compo-
fc:- ;-. are rewound to oniona. specifications if required,
r v • wirdinje are not counted but are rewound on the rotor
'S»*,* . the correct-gauge copper wire, to the weight specified
: • r e orjenai rr an jfacturer. New slip nngs are replaced is required
rr. >-e*1 to the rotor spool windings and machined. The rotors
a ' c e i and measured to ensure that tht outside diameter
jf 4 * r.i jt mee's specifications. An undersized rotor will produce
•-. ir-.r-c - itput because the field must be close to the stator
v a d . - * f ' maximum output. Individualdiodes iwithin the recti Figure 41-47 ia A generator tor a GEO Prism looks like a typical General Motors CS-130
lets, are --paced if required. Every generator is then assembled eicept to ttiis adapter that converted the Toyota wiring harness to the GM generator
i : •- •-. or p: per output, boxed, and shipped to a warehouse. ibi After lemowng the adapter, the onginal generator connection Is visible
: a r rires icalled Iobbersl purchase parts from various
•w. or ocai warehouses See Figure 41 -47.
The Two-Minute Generator Repair ^ The Weak but Good Generator
An 80-ampere generator was tested at 2000 engine RPM and found to MP"
* • *f T r* tat. tunugw to a Dealer lor routine service The owner ductng only 69 amperes The recommended specification for a generatoi is m
MM • - o k ' « > ! » * * « a |umo-start after a weekend of sating The the output should be within 10% of the rated output Ten percent ot 80 Mm*1*"
m ~ •< M M • ( tafery and d w g m g 'yslem voltage using a small hand- is 8 amperes, therefore, the minimum recommended output is 72 aiW f *
le '-»! M t e r f vmtage n o t 12 4 volts lat»ut 75% • 80 8 72) Because 69 amperes is less than 72 amperes, the general''
fjk JW < - «Mtog« 124 volts at 2000 RPM Because should be serviced (repaired or replaced) However, because the test result "<
• , r*Ato b* 13 5 to 15 0 it was obvxws that the so dose to the specifications, it was decided that a charging system W « » r '
- ! • » n i p N r n r y * a^jpMog c o r « c % rest should be performed This test determines the electrical load of the w i * *
- «<•' •» i - »>,ijrd thai me -cnarge" light was that may be requited on a continuous basis The test procedure is simple
v/ - -Mr Of • rv, or*- nor maqêiied ndKatmg that Bw on everything electrical, except the horn or othei short-term electrical a
r' -v . . r • ••'< . ffe generala tor service sones Add 5 amperes to the reading and the result is the minimum cut"
(f^rnr^r -> // v g«ineri!tof When the 1*0- required of the generator
1-vJB** rr»- w »-» the rwvwctor was discover»d lo Be The electrical demand test indicated that only 49 amperes was need^
nwr. M r f-» - awe ^ •' " • rgstored to nor Add 5 amperes 149 » 5 541 and you see that a 54-ampere generate * J
« - - -sar >-*t*tll -* fte w w trimgs should always ' that is needed Because the onginal generator is capable of 69 ampeie
toimo*) WMmMln(i*iri«'(i«iiiiw M mote than adequate tor the vehicle
Chapter 41 Charging System Operation and Diagnosis 455
The Cold W e a t SUMMARY

Charge Lamp I
1. Charging system testing requires that the battery be at least 75% charged
^ ^ ^ ,/ohirtp (Ford)
(R to be assured of accurate test results. The charge Indicator light should be
^PKght his vehicle to an Independent s
on with the ignition switch on but should go out whenever the engine
„ , f a i g f y whenever the temperatures dropped below 10°F ( 12°Q !
is running Normal charging voltage (at 2000 engine RPMI Is 13.5 to
. indKaf" lamp stayed on until he had driven tor sc v
raff 15.0 volts.
'-.jstomer left the vehicle overnight and the ter : t |
V* 2. If the charging system is not charging properly, the rear bearing of the
icnarge lamp was on after starting the vehicle the xtr -n ng Tht
generator should be checked for magnetism. If the rear bearing is magnet
immediately got out of the vehicle, opened the hood, and checked to
ized, the voltage regulator, brushes, and generator rotor are functioning
rear bearing was magnetized—it was not. After a few minutes of op-
correctly. If the rear bearing is not magnetized, the voltage regulator gen-
diarge lamp went out and the rear generator bearing was magnet-
w
erator brushes, or rotor is not functioning. Bypass the voltage regulator by
ylBir-
ite technician then knew that the problem was sticking generator supplying banery voltage to the field. If the rear bearing is now magnet-
tie brushes had worn to less than one-half length, and the springs ized and the charging system output is normal; the voltage regulator is at
ut strong enough, when cold, to exert sufficient pressure on the rotor slip fault.
5 „ conduct the current for the field (rotor). After the technician replaced the 3. To check (or excessive resistance in the wiring between the generator
^ and cleaned and checked all other generator components, the problem and the battery, a voltage-drop test should be performed.
1irt recur. 4. Generators do not produce their maximum-rated output unless required b
circuit demands. Therefore, to test for maximum generator output, the bai-
tery must be loaded to force the generator to produce its maximum output
5. Each generator should be marked across Its case before disassembly to er
sure proper clock position during reassembly. After disassembly, all gener-
Help! ator Internal components should be tested using a continuity light or an
ohmmeter. The following components should be tested:
incian wanted help in determining what the generator output should be
a. Stator
a Toyota truck. If the generator is protected by a fuse, check the fuse rating b. Rotor
• - :ase the fuse was listed as being 80 amperes The 80% rule states that c. Diodes
"iximum current in a circuit should not exceed 80% of the fuse rating. d. Diode trio |lf the generator is so equipped!
:~v percent of 80 amperes is 65 amperes. The generator output was e. Bearings
asured to be 62 amperes, well within the normal range of within 10% of f. Brushes ishould be more than 1/2 Inch in length!
-: Nations (10% of 64 is 6.4 amperes). 6. Electronic voltageregulatorscan be tested either off the vehicle using a
special tester or on the vehicle using the full-field bypass procedure.
[WTO SEQUENCE G e n e r a t o r (Alternator) Overhaul Step-by-Step
Befn/o»,
ine generator (alternator) is P41-2 The scope pattern shows that the voltage P41-3 The first step is to remove the drive pulley
This rebuilder is using an electric impact wrench to
W|
o check i S P m t e s , e d a n d connected to a output is far from being a normal pattern This pattern
w possible defective components indicates serious faults in the rectifier diodes accomplish the task.
P41-5 Remove Ihe external fan (if eguipped) and P41 - 6 Next pop off the plastic cover ,stnew
' '^njbh^f0'1116 drlve
qa«ey for damage covering the stator rectifier connection
t h e drive belt The sli htest then the spacers as shown
'âVh " 9
> r noise or
I % , ||'t ' Possible damage ijmthmf'
{Alternator) Overhaul Step-by-Step—continued
»«i-7 c o w has oexn removed, the stator P41-9 Before separating the halves of the case u
P41 -fl Using a diagonal cutter, cut ttie weld to
technician uses a punch to mark both halves '
zamnctam to B» rectifier can be seen. separate the stator from the rectifier
m< 10 V t a -rv. car* has been marked, the P41-11 The drive-end housing and the stator are P41-12 The stator is checked by visual inspection
Brougr -oons are removed being separated from the rear (slip-ring-end) housing. for discoloration or other physical damage, andthen
checked with an ohmmeter to see if the windings are
shorted-to-ground.
* f » • • oea' -g * removed from the drive- P41-14 A view of the sllp-ring-end (SRE) housing P41-15 A punch Is used to dislodge the plastic
anewMOTtMngaprev. showing the black plastic shield, which helps direct shield retaining clips
air flow across the rectifier
P4l-1«*>V*r t * D M M M !t"<tjt»i, the P41-J7 The hear transfer grease is visible when the
=***»•/ •/ MO -<Mm can be rectifier assembly is lifted out of the rear housing
wneta* -WVWIBJ retamng «cr«w*
K S S S is painting tne housing using P41-20 The clip rings or, me rotor are o a a c
P « - 2 l Tne rotor is being testec i&ng an onmmeter.
^rir"""
machined on a iatrie
Tre speotoaorii tot the resistance Between the skp
nngs on me CS-130 are 2.2 to 3.5 onms.
M-22 Tne rotor is also testeo between the slip ring P41-23 A new rectifier. This replacement u m is P41-24 S i e o n e n e a transfer compounds a p p M
M M rotor shaft. This reading should be infinity. significantly different than the orig.nai out .s acs.gr.cc to me neat sum at me new reamer.
to replace the original unitano meets me origtri,
factory specifications.
P41-26 The crushes are pusr.ee into tne orjsn ,Tower P41-27 nere .s *nat me CS generator iOwo.
and retained Dy a straight wire, wnicn eaencs tnroug.-. utter installing the new crush nower assembly,
the rear housing or the generator. Tins wire s men reenter onoge ana vomge reguatoc.
pulled out when the unit is assemaeo.
P41-29 The piasnc detiector snieia is snapped oack P41-30 Before tne sator WMJs Os.1 b e ~<Ce*KS
•au'dIOr«soioeSreCr'"eft)nd9e into location using a blunt chisel una a hammer Tiu$ to tne r e a f c r bridge. t i e var.w.
snieio directs the airflow from tne tan over tne removed trom tne e>*s at tne COCA.
rectifier bndge ano voltage regulator.
ijCCOatf,
4W
W W T O SEQUENCE G « i a * o r (Alttnutoi) Owtiaul Step-b»-St*p-COfltinued
N V J 1 U v M s t i C r <«sbK.ie$ftiM<*>rtt P4I-31 V e w S N m j s * * retried A s p a c e r s P 4 I - S J t h e sip-nog end t S ® h o u s e s

« YtS-.lf t * S K t MCS S . X W J 10 TV CMCW DttMt-y to 6ejn>j J r t tie s»p r*>gs to help vwtn the m a r t s made d u m g <isiss«r<tfj w , "
.-•Wr VjJS 1 1 * t a f u r Sroje prrmt* ins (»ss&*ft Ait t v o x j d TOM on pressed mto the dme-end tOQ housr>g.
r e sf\»t a m tfvrt j j m s t ifv S p rnj
- 3 4 ""v >•>]icv. M l jm Tvsided cto P t t - i 5 T h » o S f U t a n * > j dnw fxtey * e P41-36 The scope pattern stxws Tat t« Ma
and stator are functcrung cwrectfr and a ' ^ t s o
*» ( S a M . r A * sraft o f c a t e s that ttie voltage regulator a a s i
correct^
4. r e e - . c . A i *•*$ 'hit w o diodes are required f.-: CKh ais." »-"-•

REVIEW QUESTIONS
lead. Technician 3 says that diodes change alternating c u r a t z s £
I - - w » J ejeccoflo: v « u » rejxitot can control the output o j t w i t Which technician is correct?
< t O O m p e w generate* a. Technician A only
L : utx • • 3 •- >tttoe « v _ i ; f lrop ol the charingcircuit. t). Technician 8 or,:.'
X r . * . J t>c * *o eea&'-ne t£ generate* c. Bcii rechr.ciaiis A and B
d. V t.«f T«hr. ctin A nor B
a. •: - - -v he .aed to derennir* «!xther a diode or stater
5. Ar, a o a p u t i e charging circuit Yuitage on a l l v o t t system i»
a J r f K t w b d b r v : < a o i i c g the generator from tlx reticle.
a. 1 1 5 to 15.0 volts
b. l i . o t o 15.0 volts
CHAPTER QUIZ c. 12 to 14 H i t s
d. 14.9 t o 16.1 volts
I. Technam A ^ that ft* dudes the grrerator output voltage.
6. r t e . - ^ c a n A says that the computer controb the e a i t r i ^ t r
> - • iae S m • vh»t the !eM M i n t can be cccputM cocuuSed. WK<h
tmce to the output. Technician B says that the ootnputcr cccttw ^ ;
"*f- V J.-JO A C.iTTCtf
t r t K t output by c o n t n l l n g the field current through the B* x ' '
a ft i t w i n w A
technicun is comxt?
b. " r c ' - r x j A B <«-JT
A Tethnidan A only
C. 9 O G T T T - - J C J M A ART 8
d. ' t r « \ - . in A K r S b. Tethnictan B only
c. Both Tixhr_c:ins A and B
1 A -.<sr»*:< ' ' i l j creaeoi in S>f m i ff«riMr jAC gamut).
d. • i t r Tc. - c i a n A n o r B
«. f t a u
fc. D M a 7. r o c r - . c w A says that i v . u g K l r o p test of the c w r p r ; c n -
c. l o w enfy be p o f c n n t d when current is Bowing thiuugh the c ^ - ' J ®
A [>. <•<".'! Ytert B says to connect the itads of a volttneter to the p o s i a « » " y
J. f-- . tc - blhecjftwit • t a l i s ol the battery to measure the voiugr drop til the chatpr^
Which t e t h n i c i o is correct?
a rv.-.jD f t f i a w t trjJvi
A Technctaa A only
b. r.«*
b. Technk i n BCT. .
e. T>f o •£* ( r ' - r i M h > ]
e. Both Technicians A i o J B
4 AJ ! M - M M
d. Nt ther Tetta ciin A oof B
I ' ' -- jsr mf» and rotor Stit)
' > vi. r e m
Defcctf* i s t a t e d
4 Gtav W * '••ndtags v * ooer
dtodeis being tested
u ^ g K C A p.VVi i . c , ' a
tf JS* * » " i a w B ^ ffiode and
4. 500:300
^ -,-<.0.575
c OUO
i &05l;Ol
Lighting and Signaling Circuits
jgjfmvES After s t u d y i n g C h a p t e r 4 2 . t h e r e a d e r will b e abte to P r o a r : _

f ljgMgS£tom Diagnosis and Repam. • P i t n n m nluiti u i | t e i m K I 1 i > ) an jn i
sritosworv • Read and interpret a bulb chart • Discuss toUfestaor; pre taxes
& TBUBt adaptive IOT advanced) front l^ht system lAFS • brake igits • m t i g w w • i i a i q j i w r l u a j i ~ » r _ • xm am
• M p f t i l M i h j l i l • courtesy lights • daytimenmng kghts • teedbacx • toxics • « r r «ann; • ^ M M t t f W
taster • KetvmtK) • light-emitting diode (LEDl • reference wteoe flF • - « s r - • - • .S "'••! m i l i m w i — ) W
• won neadkghts
T * C'tmg and signaling circuits represent two of the roost

I J^rr, servceo automotive electrical areas.
-^htsng .s controlled bv the headlight switch, wr-ch s

• t Erectly to the batterv on most vehicles. Therefore, i the ogfct
?
eft on, it can drain t h e battery, Most beadfight SW.SSKS BULB NUMBERS
~ - built in circuit breaker. If excessive current Sows t \ c
e The ri.nfcer . s e c a n w m m > c i » r - S s • a « ttt : j t m *
circuit, the circuit breaker will roomer, tar oper -
number, s> -ec;-: v -- r. \ ar
--er. dose t again The result is head e r s that tjcte" • arc
w s i . a c c r * s a b e r s the s u a e i s a r t t e s of d * w f t '
' " W i
-XK taberevwr bJbstiiat.se a n a : e » «* soar:
wsh ir lor - J M j r . v i t fte a t tf fee s a t e tar a m
: x »: . r N A A *ss ( i ^ d s m a t e x i i u t a * ?KSM * *
R v t o t n j o n w d off ts t m s u n d e t s w o d r • s w
* * Because t h e ftkltenng is l i p i d , n u - . f f e e p * * ** t-afe n m a t e t s . ' sat. iapf. * ^
- caused bv a boose head of bv I d e f e c t f * > V *
arc » > a t -^r. w • t»St
power. -.'Vir : - r v . c T i . . • •
feature allows the headlights to function, a s » » » sec v ' aacvi? ris - v - - : : — •• ' 'x-
' V " s?«e of current overload The headlight switch c o r t n * t * r r b r a r ^ c a t , v t . \ J '
Bgflte MI most vehicles: dktsNducedt*aKiifcftÛKsswir* -bkjd.* < '
^ n t wtucS atao a f c e s *
i:
i r - £gfcts in t v S « H | i 2 » -C
' ^ s M f u w M i k i a t T M e i k i n r t t '
. | n ivpadMaerH B p r t ^ e e t .rrc. J '
-x- -i sn-c
Typical Automotive L i g m B u l b s
Design Volts Design A
Trade Number
Design Amperes Watts t nn
12.5 o.uu
1196
V 1*6 :os 13 14 4 0.13
1445
St Mi 009 13
13.0 0.33
1816
m 7 j 022 1.7 0.27
140
1889
32 144 012 17 0.24
14.0
1891
s T8 041 29
144 0.12
1892
9 u o 024 34
14 0 033
1893
srx 024 34
14.0 0.27
1895
m 7D 063 44
13.5 0.22
2033
f -15 059 80
12.8 2.10/0.48
2057
m 15.5 059 8.0
2057NA 12.8 2.10/0.48
n 14 C 015 21
2322-1 12.0 0.16
rs 14.0 006 1.1
2721 120 010
-a VfcO 010 14
2821 12.0 4.00
f 6.5 102 66
2825 12.0 0.42
m 13X1 058 75
3057 12.8 0.16
m 13.0 058 7.5
3157 12.0 1.10
m 13.0 058 7.5
3796 12.0 6.00
93 128 104 133
13 3 3893 12.0 3.00
128 1 04
'58 140 0.24 34 3894 12.0 4.00
W 140 019 2.7 3898 12.0 6.00
tfl 140 0.35 4.9 3966 12.0 4.00
130 033 4.3 5004 12.0 4.00

•9* 14 0 0.27 3.8 5006 6.0 1.20
•«4t-t 140 0.27 38 5007 12.0 2.40
140 027 3.8 5008 120 1.20
209 65 1 78 11.6 6418 12.0 0.42
211-2 128 0 97 12.4 6428 12.0 0.25
2T2-Z 135 0.74 10.0 6461 12.0 0.83
214-2 135 0 52 70 7230 12.0 2.40
»> 128 0.97 124 7301 12.0 3.75
92 135 074 100 7309 12.0 2.92
563 13.5 0.52 70 7506 12.0 0.60
<01 140 0 63 8.8 7527 120 0.69
m T2.8 2.10 27.0 7528 12.0 2.40
w 128 210 27.0 7533 12.0 0.80
•M 13.0 0 69 90 9004 H" 128 5.00/35.00
r'i 128 1 00 12.8 9005 H' 12.8 5.00
-0C3 128 094 12.0 9006 H 12.8
T£8 4.30
0.94 12.0 26736 12.0
tSM 128 0.83
1 80/0 59 23.0/7.6
64150 HI 12.0
'373 128 1 80 4.50
230
64151 H3 12.0
•C7« 128 1,80 4.50
23.0
64152 HI 12.0
64 263 8.30
16.8
64153H3
'733 82 3.91 12.0 8.30
24 2
64173 H2
'un 128 1.44 18.4
12.0 4 50
64174 H2
1146 128 1 44 12 0 8.30
18 4
64185 H4
84 2 63/0 75 12.0 2.90
16 8/4 5
64193 H4
-t. 128 210 26 9
12.0 5.00
P25-1
»*S7 124 2 1 0 / 0 59 13.5 1 86
269/7.6
P25-2
121 2 10/0 59 13.5 1.86
26.9/7.6
R19/5
124 2 10/0 59 13.5 0.37
26 9/7 6
"It f28 R19/10
1 34/0 59 13.5 0.74
17 2/7.6
12 S W10/3
3 00 13.5
37.5 0.25
Chapter 42. Lighting and Signaling C t a s t s 461
F i g u r e 4 2 - 3 ClosMp ofaouai-fitaiisent ;couDle-fiiament) bulb , ; l i 5 7 j mat tailed. Notice

mat one filament. a p i oroke trom its .Taunting ana meiteo onto the lower filament Trus DUO
caused the dash ligt® to come or; whenever tne brakes were appiied.
;
'ure 42-1 Bulbs that have the same trade number have the same operating voltage ana
rage The NA means that the bulb uses a natural amber glass ampoule with clear turn
DOUBLE C O N T A C T SINGLE CONTACT

1157/2057 B U L B S 1156 BULBS
WEDGE
194 B U L B
F i g u r e 4 2 - 4 BjiDS #1: 57 or ;2057 are typical.'; ^sed for Qillight and front a a k ' g tghS.
fi
These ouios contain o o - a low-intensity filament tor raiii.gms or parking i.ghts and i
5ure 42-2 This single-filament bulb is being tested with a digital multimeter set to read
high-intensity filament for Wane lights ano rum signals.
seance« ohms. The reading of 1 3 o h m s is the resistance of the bulo when cold. As soon
-• Mittflowsthrougn the filament, the resistance increases about 10 times. It is the initial
- V at current nowing through the filament when the bulb is cool that causes many bulbs
* M weather as a result of the reduced resistance. As the temperature increases,

increases.
•28303 Weird Problem—Easy Solution

" General Motors minivan had the following electrical problems:
• "is turn signals flashed rapidly on the left side.

tie ignition key off, the lights-on warning chime sounded if tne brake
56031
was depressed.
* w i the Drake pedal was depressed, the dome light came on.
of these problems were caused by just one defective 2057 dual-

^ as shown in Figure 4 2 - 5 . Apparently, the two filaments were
* ^ ' ^ V connected through the corrosion observed between the terminals of
e
This caused the electrical current to feed back from the brake light
"îi into the taillight circuit, causing all the problems. See Figure 4 2 - 6 tor
e
*ampie ot a weird bulb problem. Figure 42-5 Conosion caused the two terminals of mis daaHKanww w »oe
electrically connected
BRAKE LIGHTS
B r a k e l i g h t s use the high intensirv Alamo
bulb. !Thc lower intensity filament is for t>
light switch is a normally open (N.O.l s w i k »
- closed whstm
driver depresses the brake pedal. Since 1 «.-..•
the United States have a third brake light c o m e
center high-mounted stop light ( C H M S L ) . brake s w ^
also used as an input switch (signal) for t h e for • njj-
1. Cruise control (deactivates w h e n t h e brake tv.i 3 ! i j deBres

2. Antilock brakes |ABS1
3. Brake shift interlock (prevents shifting from "park" position
unless the brake pedai is depressed)
No Cruise Control?
TECH TIP
Check t h e Third B r a k e Light
! A common cause of an inoperative cruise c o n t r o l , especially on General Moto-
1 vehicles, is a burned out bulb In the third s t o p light. The cruise control oses»-
j filaments of the third brake bulb (CHMSL) as a g r o u n d and shuts off the cruise'
« c w » 4 2 - 6 C V - trie best diagnosis te a thorough vsual Inspection. This M b was found I the bulbs are burned out (open). See Figure 4 2 - 7
' - s - »-— cause*) werd problems.
HEADLIGHT SWITCHES
The headlight switch operates t h e e x t e r i o r a n d interior lights of most 1
vehicles. On non-computer-controlled lighting systems, the head'c: I
-» '_„•< - Heavy-Duty Automotive Bulbs switch is connected directly to t h e b a t t e r y t h r o u g h a fusible M M ) I
has continuous power or is " h o t " all t h e time. A circuit breaker; I
Warv a L ' r - C - v e bulbs have the same operating parameters (same wattage. built into most headlight s w i t c h e s to p r o t e c t the headlight draft 1
W i a c e anperage, and candlepower) yet have different trade numbers. Some See Figure 4 2 - 8 . The interior dash lights can be dimmed manuallv I
r"bers are *or standard duty, whereas others have heavier filament wire or by rotating the headlight s w i t c h k n o b , w h i c h controls a variable j
a s s w n ? raament support which qualifies them for a different trade number. resistor (called a r h e o s t a t ) built into t h e headlight switch.
- 'ees-duty designation represents some increase in durability, and a heavy-duty
The headlight switch also c o n t a i n s a built-in circuit break-- I
s s c n j w identifies the most severe service bulb
that will rapidly turn t h e h e a d l i g h t s o n a n d off in the event o! a j
short circuit. This prevents a total loss of headlights. If the head-
***** Fleet Duty Heavy Duty lights are rapidly flashing on a n d off, c h e c k t h e entire headlight c:
cuit for possible shorts. T h e circuit b r e a k e r controls only ft
«2 182 1445or53X
headlights. The other lights c o n t r o l l e d by t h e headlight switch (it j
5T 293 1895 lights, dash lights, and p a r k i n g lights) a r e f u s e d separately. Flastiis j I
57 97 97 headlights also may be c a u s e d by a failure in t h e built-in circu
m 96 96 breaker, requiring r e p l a c e m e n t of t h e s w i t c h assembly.
m 98 631
•X) 99 — Removing a H e a d l i g h t S w i t c h M o s t dash mounted h e a d *
t> 1093 switches can be removed by first r e m o v i n g t h e dash panel. Howevet
193 194 to get the dash panel off, the h e a d l i g h t s w i t c h k n o b usually has»
V 184 — removed. Some knobs can be r e m o v e d by depressing a small clip -
«xa 105 —
notch in the knob itself. O t h e r h e a d l i g h t s w i t c h knobs are renter-•
by depressing a spring-loaded release, w h i c h allows for rem°w •
VA 104 —
the entire headlight switch k n o b a n d s h a f t , as s h o w n in Figure
t m 198 1157
Headlight switches m o u n t e d o n t h e s t e e r i n g column affj;.
mm - 1157WV1157A
moved as part of the turn signal a n d w i p e r s w i t c h assembly - <•
•m 199 1156
can be easily r e m o v e d , w h e r e a s o t h e r s r e q u i r e the remova
tut '159 -
steering wheel and so forth. In o r d e r to b e assured of t h e C ' ^
W W 1393 1893 procedure, see t h e service i n f o r m a t i o n for t h e exact year an
*B3 — 4040 on which you are working.
mu — 6015
•-»-»''-- ' V y w r vehicle gives a trade number listed SEAUED-BEAM HEADLIGHTS —^S
r4* rr•. - v vMf switch to the trade number of bulb . Low beam headlights contain t w o Filaments: o n e for low fc
taSe-r - j m J e r " * < « • < m t f v For best operation of turn the other for high b e a m . H i g h - b e a m h e a d l i g h t s contain <• •.•
w r rr. < t — o f 'xftn f * of trade numbers should filament and have t w o terminals. B e c a u s e l o w - b e a m head » fii; .'
* m m 4 ffie y y - replaced. 1 ;
fr -. .. .".-• - - ••i. . - a v '>. "-: ' ttSaS i '".u- EES -'-'BHr =contain
:
-i-4 a high-beam filament, t h e e n t i r e headlight ass'
be replaced if either filament is d e f e c t i v e .
42 nfCMNll ®
« I'UWt"
'..MPnWIH 'T-J 0l»I»f»UTIO« * ator MAS
. nmnimiiiON / fU»>
i /'" •
i H U*
( 10 AMI'
c a K a m
ta|«4 I W e a l W J k e light and lalllighl circuit showing the brake switch «nd tf ol M
common p r a c e t have « o • J J »
A sealed b e a m headlight can b e tested with an ohmmeter. X
^Sandâittohatairnhadaâiwweoa inon rr,^
"M bulb should Indicate low o h m s b e t w e e n the ground termuu
aid both power-side (hot) terminals. If either the high bean 1 or
wbeam filament is b u r n e d o u t , t h e o h m m e t e r will indicate intin Z c l the mvner's ^ or the shop mx*M lor proper
"y ML). See Figure 4 2 10.
HEADLIGHT A I M I N G t * MI t a e ^ i rftwwttf
A, thf roit&off.
Wording to U.S. federal law, all headlights, regardless of shape,
EMKkTfed
be able to be aimed u s i n g h e a d l i g h t a i m i n g e q u i p m e n t
y -12 ll through 4 2 - 1 3 . Also s e e t h e p h o t o s e q u e n c e on
• " ^ ^ t aiming at the e n d of t h e c h a p t e r .
TKHTV ^ OtsqooM B a » Fadure

^ O S I T E HEADLIGHTS
H J B ^ bute a n «•! <«W« l SOM
^ P o l i t e headlights ,,re c o n s t r u c t e d u s i n g a replaceabl.
" " W lens cover that is part of t h e vehicle. Sec I •
'^'replaceable bulbs ar<' usually bright h a l o , - - irty c o l o r — » 6UP ie**c> W
ulbs
V W'i very hot d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n ( b e t w e e n 5 0 0 a. d ' 1/rm O n O i ) * m m >w»
& 7 0 0 - C | ) . It Is i m p o r t a n t ncv, Wanton** uM*|CMMD|
> N b w t t h bare fingers be<
2 ] * * bull, c a n c a u s e t h e bulb t o break w h e n it h e a t s
ôperation. NOU Hnm «>• tm *** *
pM tagm m <mm ***** *'
iN
S E A L E D - B E A M HEADLIGHTS MM mn€t *
" ' " d - U - a m headlights art- bnghte. • l • v

httdUghts Because of t h l » extra b r i g h t n e ® . " *
464 StCTOM
2 LAMP SYSTEM AND
• 38 BK/O
CIRCULAR 4 LAMP SYSTEM
CIRCUIT
BREAKER C270
^ ' HEADLIGHT
HEAD SWITCH HIGH
PARK
RECTANGULAR
MULTIFUNCTION 4 LAMP SYSTEM
STEERING
COLUMN-
MOUNTED
SWITCH
Figure 42-10 Typical headlight socket connections. Some vehicles may be different Tt»
high- and low-beam connections must be determined by visual inspection
TOP ADJUSTING SCREW
figure 4 2 - 8 Typical headlight circuit diagram Note that the headlight switch Is
-ror^sented by a dotted outline indicating that other circuits (such as dash lights) also
operate from me switch
AIMING UNIT
Figure 42-11 All vehicles sold in the United States must have provision for the use of
mechanical aiming devices. Even the halogen bulb units with plastic or glass lenses nave
locating points and adjustment screws.
Unlike a h a l o g e n b u l b , t h e H I D b u l b h a s n o filament. It creatf

light from an e l e c t r i c a l d i s c h a r g e between t w o electrodes ffl
gas-filled arc t u b e . It p r o d u c e s t w i c e t h e l i g h t w i t h less electn'
input t h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l h a l o g e n b u l b s .
T h e H I D l i g h t i n g s y s t e m c o n s i s t s of t h e d i s c h a r g e arc sour .
igniter, ballast, a n d h e a d l i g h t a s s e m b l y . S e e F i g u r e 4 2 - 1 0 -
T h e t w o e l e c t r o d e s a r e c o n t a i n e d i n a t i n y q u a r t z capsule
Figure 4 2 - 9 To remove the headlight switch from a vehicle that uses a knob and shaft, a
with x e n o n gas, m e r c u r y , a n d m e t a l h a l i d e saits. HID h e a d l #
r h a s to be pushed to release the shaft After the knob and shaft assembly has
wed " ihe retaining nut can be removed from the headlight switch so it can be are also called Xenon headlights. T h e lights and ^ p p o r u j ^ ^ .
1
'envwed from tie dash ics are e x p e n s i v e , b u t t h e y s h o u l d l a s t t h e life of t h e
physically d a m a g e d . red
HID h e a d l i g h t s p r o d u c e a w h i t e l i g h t , u s u a l l y l o w in *
the lamp a b l u e - w h i t e color. T h e c o l o r of l i g h t is expressed in ^
HIGH-INTENSITY DISCHARGE HEADLIGHTS
a t u r e u s i n g t h e Kelvin s c a l e . K e l v i n ( K ) temperature is tn
Parts and Operation High-intensity d i s c h a r g e (HID) head t e m p e r a t u r e plus 2 7 3 d e g r e e s . T y p i c a l c o l o r temperatures
pr • <• i di / n c t v e b l u e w h i t e light t h a t is crisper, clearer,
. - •<-- - !-. i s i t p r o d i< e d by a halogen headlight. • Daylight 5400"K
H r e v . i v •:. v.<<- srr.p . d o n o t u s e a f i l a m e n t like con- • HID 4100°K
« • ' . - - . a! o u l f r . b u t r a t h e r c o n t a i n t w o e l e c t r o d e s a b o u t • Halogen 3200"K
• Incandescent ( t u n g s t e n | - 2800°K
•i '• '> v apa-. A ' voltage pulse is s e n t to t h e bulb,
v,'. • .-.• s acr<..',tf.." tips of e l e c t r o d e s p r o d u c i n g light. See R g u r e 4 2 - 1 7 .
IV FUT(3 MINIMUM DISTANCE BETWEEN
HEADLAMPS
ADJU8TABI r
7IHTICAL TAPM
CENTER LINE OE
SCREEN
HORIZONTAL CENTI Ol
VEHICLE AXIS
OUGRAM Of LIGHT SCREEN
PAINTED REFERENCE LINE

ON SHOP FLOOR
A D J U S T I N G P A T T E R N FOR LOW BEAM
!
WC-12 Typical headlight-aiming diagram as found in a service manual
FREQUENTLY A S K E D Q U E S T I O N ???
"at Is the Difference B e t w e e n t h e T e m p e r a t u r e
" ' f a light and the B r i g h t n e s s of t h e L i g h t ?
- -emperature ol the light indicates the color of the light. The txK TOSS O<
* r s measured in lumens A standard 100-watt incandescent light M b
" s about 1,700 lumens A typical halogen headlight Bulb produces b- -.ve«i
000
W 2.000 lumens and a typical HID bulb produces about 2.800 lumens
Ttle
HID ballast is p o w e r e d b y 1 2 v o l t s f r o m t h e h e a d .£ht
. J 1 o n the body c o n t r o l m o d u l e . T h e H I D h e a d l i g h t s o p e r a t e
!ta
«es or states: IIHM)
2 j' ar! 'iip or stroke stale
3 state
" H state
Urt-O- a
Run i*o m o t After t h e arc ,5 e s a c . - ^
" Stroke State W h e n t h e headlight switch o keep i
higher t h a n . r e a d y s t a t e w t t a g e to t h e art u t * '
J ? i B « i . ' h e ballast m a y d r a w u p t o 2 0 a m p e r e s a t 12 v its a *c
S n a r e d . O n a cold bulb, this
.••.h sends m u l t i p l e h i g h - v o l t a g e p u l s e s t o t h e arc 'ul>e to
^ o n a hot bulb, t h e run-uf a * * * " " *
WIS
> ^ ' d e t h e b u l b . T h e v o l t a g e p r o v i d e d b v t h e ballast d u r
current w j u u e m e t t s d u r i n g t t e w * *
state ranges f r o m O 0 0 volts co + 0 0 0 v o t e , w t ch
from the ballast a n d a p o w e r levw n «
t, f y bv a transformer t o a b o u t 25,000 volts. T h e i n c r e a s e d
^ t o create a n a r c b e t w e e n t h e e l e c t r o d e s in t h e b u l b .
«K SfTWi
Figure 4 2 - 1 7 HID (Xenon) headlights emit a whiter light than halogen headlights arc
usually look blue compared to the parking light on the side
Fipv* 42-14 J c o o s * Teartaras assembly The lens housing and bulb

m o n k t r m r f i nauoeti aft a ajrtpwte asaemdy
Steady S t a t e T h e s t e a d y s t a t e p h a s e b e g i n s w h e n the powers
q u i r e m e n t of t h e b u l b d r o p s t o 3 5 w a t t s . T h e ballast provides j
m i n i m u m of 5 5 volts to t h e b u l b d u r i n g s t e a d y state operation.
Bi-Xenon Headlights S o m e v e h i c l e s are equipped with bj.

xenon headlights, w h i c h u s e a s h u t t e r to block s o m e of the light dic-
ing low-beam operation and t h e n m e c h a n i c a l l y m o v e to expose mote
of the light from t h e bulb for h i g h - b e a m operation. Because tenon
lights are relatively slow to start w o r k i n g , vehicles equipped with bi-
xenon headlights use t w o h a l o g e n lights for t h e "flash-to-pass" feature.
Failure S y m p t o m s T h e f o l l o w i n g s y m p t o m s may be noticed

indicating bulb failure:
• A flickering light
• The lights go out (this is caused w h e n t h e ballast assembly detect
repeated bulb restrikes)
• Color c h a n g e — t h e color of t h e l a m p m a y change to a dim pink gin
Bulb failures a r e o f t e n i n t e r m i t t e n t a n d difficult to repeat

However, bulb failure is likely if t h e s y m p t o m s get worse over tiite.
Always follow t h e v e h i c l e m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s recommended testing
and service p r o c e d u r e s .
Diagnosis and Service H i g h - i n t e n s i t y discharge headlig

will change slightly in color w i t h a g e . T h i s c o l o r shift is usualh"
n o t noticeable u n l e s s o n e h e a d l i g h t a r c t u b e assembly has been te
placed d u e to a collision repair, a n d t h e n t h e difference in «
may be noticeable. If t h e a r c t u b e a s s e m b l y is near the end of
f ^ n 4 2 - 1 5 V ' (.'- o r s w r 'aanert in mis halogen headlight bulb
life, it may n o t light i m m e d i a t e l y if it is t u r n e d off and then back
immediately. This test is called a " h o t r e s t r i k e " and if it fails.J
placement arc t u b e a s s e m b l y m a y b e n e e d e d or there is a n o t
fault, such as a p o o r electrical c o n n e c t i o n , t h a t should be check'
SOCKET
WARNING. Always adhere to all warnings because the high-voltage <

of the ballast assembly can cause personal injury or death.
ADAPTIVE FRONT LIGHTING SYSTEM

Parts a n d O p e r a t i o n A s y s t e m t h a t mechanically nw^
headlights to follow the direction of t h e front wheels
adaptive (or a d v a n c e d ) f r o n t l i g h t s y s t e m , abbreviav
cornen
The AFS provides a w i d e r a n g e of visibility during âi
headlights are usually capable of r o t a t i n g 15 degrees to
hg<*•&•'<!• ' . •• ' ' < ••• i <•• > t«Meo Is t u m t t lugh- 5 degrees to the right (some s y s t e m s r o t a t e 14 degrees and l J
'•'•ipter 42: Ujhtmg and -'•') inj Cirajtl 487
N RIGHT TURNS. STRAIGHT IN LEFT TURNS

ROUTES UP TO 5' AHEAD ROTATES UP TO 15
Figure 4 2 - 2 0 Typical u s - -,,->1 that allows the driver to disable the adaptr/e
Figure 42-16 Adaptive front lighting s y s t e m s rotate the low-beam headlight in the
front lighting system
KKWiiol travel.
• Verify that both low-beam and high-beam lights function correctly.

The system may be disabled if a felt with one of the headlights is
detected.
• Use a scan tort to test for any APS-related diagnostic trouble codes.
Some systems aLow the APS tc be checked and operated using a
STEERING A N G L E - scan tool.
VEHICLE H E I G H T -
Always foiicw the recommended testing and service procedures
VEHICLE S P E E D - as specified by the vehicle manufacturer in service information.
DAYTIME RUNNING LIGHTS

Daytime running lights DRLs - v •
lights or the headlights usua^v a: -educed current and voitage
whenever the vehicle is miming. Canada has required daytime run-
Figure 42-19 A typical adaptive front lighting system uses two motors—one for the up-and-
ning lights on all n e w vehicles since 1990. Studies have shown that
i w movement and the other for rotating the low-beam headlight to the left and right.
DRLs have reduced accidents where used.
Daytime running ughts primarily use a control module that rums
on either the low- or high-bear, tamps. The lights on some vehicles
•BHt These angles are reversed on vehicles sold in countries that drive come on whenever the engine starts. Some vehicles will turn on the
i the left side of the road, such as Great Britain, Japan, Australia,
lamps when the engine is running but delay their operation until a sig-
•ew Zealand, and others.
nal from the vehicle speed sensor indicates that the vehicle is moving.
To avoid having the lights on during servicing, some systems
will turn off the headlights whenever the parking brake is applied.
The vehicle h a s to b e m o v i n g a b o v e a p r e d e t e r m i n e d speed,
Others will only light the headlights when the vehicle is Ln a drive
Jally above 2 0 m p h ( 3 0 k m / h j , a n d t h e lights s t o p m o v i n g w h e n
J>le
gear. See Figure 4 2 - 2 1 .
' speed drops b e l o w a b o u t 3 m p h (5 k m / h ) .
AFS is often u s e d in addition t o self-leveling m o t o r s so
the headlights r e m a i n p r o p e r l y a i m e d r e g a r d l e s s of h o w t h e
C Most factory daytime twining lights operate the head:>is M
' • ;c)e is loaded. W i t h o u t s e l f - l e v e l i n g , h e a d l i g h t s w o u l d shine reduced intensity These are not designed to be jsed at rugn:. v - lai
ffl|1
. rtban normal if t h e r e a r of t h e v e h i c l e is h e a v i l y l o a d e d . See intensity of the headlights ;and operation of the other enema arps a
' W e 42-19. actuated by turning on the headlights as usual.
_ _ a vehicle that is e q u i p p e d w i t h a n a d a p t i v e front lighting sys-
lights are m o v e d b y t h e h e a d l i g h t c o n t r o l l e r o u t w a r d , a n d
hward, as well a s u p a n d d o w n as a t e s t of t h e system. This DIMMER SWITCHES
m
is very n o t i c e a b l e to t h e d r i v e r a n d is n o r m a l operation of The headlight switch controls the power or hot side o; the Head-
system. light circuit. The current is then sent to the dimmer switch, which
J allows current to flow to either the nigh-beam or me :cw beam fila-
gnosis and Service T h e first s t e p w h e n diagnosing an AFS
t!n ment of the headlight bulb, as shown in Figure 42-22. An m dtcaa*
" fault is to perform a visual i n s p e c t i o n including:
light illuminates on the dash whenever the mgh Deans are ieiectrd
tychecking that t h e AFS s y s t e m is s w i t c h e d on. Most A F S T h e d i m m e r s w i t c h can be either foot aperaafl r. :.ke font <g
' f l i g h t systems a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h a s w i t c h that allows the hand operated on the steering columr. The pc? ;.ar iteenng col-
, ^ r to turn the svstem on a n d off. See Figure 4 2 - 2 0 . u m n s w i t c h e s are actually attached to t h e outside ot me steering
«s ssrrv
• I FUSE
, O'T' TAIL L°S '

» JSEAKEB '
I /SOABF
1DK
BLU/WHT
1 TAN I 12
1LTGRN
- C y " " "| LH
L
I ( T > fi^Jfl COMPOSITE
I ( fr HEAP-'
• V R
T V UGHT I HEADUGIRTT . V 4 / UGHT I
ASSeMBLY in a . . HI .
>. - ~ J
1 DK BLU/WHT i 593
I 1 B L K I 151
e^crgi
" I I l~P101
i BLK i 151
J
1-T. ' r. -X rxpr* running light iDRU circuit Follow the arrows from the DRL module through both headlights. Notice that the left and right headlights are connected» ««*
. r w s f e o c e less current flow, and dimmer than normal lighting. When the normal headlights are turned on. both headlights receive full battery voltage, with the le
rft. T f , t r i e d module.
42-23.
switches, the steering column needs to be a fuse that is ignition switch controlled. See Figure -
lowered to access to the switch itself, which is also ad- the turn signal switch is moved in e i t h e r direction, t h e - p
. v '."><"' 'x operation. ing turn signal lamps receive c u r r e n t t h r o u g h the flash?'• ^
flasher unit causes the c u r r e n t to start a n d stop as the -
lamp Bashes on and off w i t h t h e i n t e r r u p t e d current. ^t
STOP LAMP AND TURN SIGNALS In many vehicles, the stop and turn signals are both P ^ P
,.., app\e<jt t h e brake Switch is closed and the one filament. When the turn signal switch is closed, the
• i•> • 7 r - switch receives current from a fuse that ceives interrupted current through t h e flasher unit, w h e
: -.- -. , •- 7 ; - * . z ' circuit, however, is controlled by are applied, the current first flows to t h e turn signal switch.
Chapter 42: lighting ami Stgn-t' ig Ctruut 468
RIGHT TURN
MOUNTING
"JHT® CANCELLING SPRING
SCREWS
SWITCH
OFF '
COMMON
3-LEAD LOW HIGH

HEADLIGHTS
DIMMER
SWITCH HORN
DIRECTIONAL CONTACT
I-E /ER
GROUND LEFT TURN
CANCELLING SPRING
POSITIVE SWITCHING NEGATIVE SWITCHING

Rgure 42-24 "n? -ypicaj signa s» — -dufes nanous springi and car- to control
the switch and to cause the smSD- 1D nnosi a ?arr has bwi competed
figure 42-22 Most vehicles use positive switching ol the high- and low-beam head .
, • a thai ootti filaments share the same ground connection. Some vehicles use negative
i * 9 and place the dimmer switch between the filaments and the ground
BRAKE SWITCH
Figure 42-25 Khp-i tne star arss .rr--r! »r> s r .omnon bur
light current flows through trie ag
The turn signal switch is mounted within the steering cc...-- - •-.:
o p e r a t e d t . ' a ' e v e : See Rgure 4 2 - 2 4 . Moving the lever ,z '
c o m p l e t e s Che circuit ftrougj t h e flasher unit and to the appropriate
t u r n signal l a m p . A turn sgnal switcr n d u d e s cams a r . : - c m ® . tnai
c a n c e l t h e signal a f t e r the r u m has been completed. .As the teems
wheel is t u r n e d i n t h e signaled direction and then returns :< to -orrx
position. the cams and springs separate the tum -goal s u r e r .
In systems using separate filaments for the st p r o r-sra
l a m p s , t h e brake a n d turn signal switches are not - c c n r e c r e a . . '
J b r a k e lights are powered directly tram the brake switch on vehide
sepa 3le
vehicle uses the s a m e filament for both purposes, tnen eras*
' ""lbs for brake lights and turn signals.
switch current i s routed through contacts within the "..r- ,ci.
switch. See cure 4 2 - 2 5 . Fv i r j c i r . g ce-a.r. vac: •.-:.;
. ^ • m o u n t e d stop, w h i c h is fed directly from the brake SUA can receive either braxe switch current or f a . her rurrer.r depend
Ijv^ ' " r n signal is o n , t h e n c u r r e n t t h r o u g h t h e turn signal s u i t e ing upon which direction Is being signaled
rear b r a k e li8hts
For example, Figure 4 2 - 2 6 shorn current tow through rhe
ttmn ' tf t h e t u r n ^ ^ s w i t c h * o p t > r a r e d '
tht switch when the brake switch is closed and a ngfct - . r r s
'Htn h ®u#1 f a s h e r unit o n t h e side activated and di-
: brake lam Steady current through the brake s u i t e r . . . ier.r: tr.e e
P o n ^ o p p o s i t e side. If the brake pedal is not
• ther > current flows t h r o u g h t h e flasher and onl\ to o n e side. Interrupted current Sotr "he rum s t s r i is sent •.. Lhe •
S E C » «
.- -rr'
-
L f n c W CUWWtWT FLOW
BBAMC SHWCX
• TO u r r BSUf E LAMP
. «-t!WU»TH> CUROEKT FLOO
**OM TU» S»C*AL FUISHCB
-TOMGf BMMt£ LAMPS
t <2—26 i - art s ngnaed I » km agnai sum* contacts senc

erf ttf. tnfcr a r m i to «* Wt-iand Sament
Figure 4 2 - 2 7 A replacement LEO taillight bulb is constructed of many small indwo.:
NgM-emitting diodes

Art LED* Used lor Brake Lights?
I M « t u y diode (LED) brate lights a n frwjuenBy used tor high-mounted

v CWSL far sewer* teasonsindudrng
1 Fartw * i m r a t o r t An LED mil ItgW up to 200 m f e a c a x k taster f a r an

w r j w c a n l t x * wtwh requires some time lo heat thefilamentbefore It Is
mi - n a j p to m u t e light The taster muntratior can mean Die diflerencefi
e at 60 mph (100 kmti) by about 18 feet (6 melersi due to
1 raacion * n e tar the driver of Ihe vehicle behmc
2. Lawnr tenwee if». LtDs are soM-datt devices mat do not use a
t to create ligK M a result, they am less susceptible to vibration
R the «fe of the vehicle Figure 4 2 - 2 8 Two styles of two-prong flashers
H7TE M a r - * k e f replacement LED Duihs that are used to replace con-

in the front a n d o n e in t h e rear) in o r d e r t o f l a s h . If o n e bulb t '
* « mar the use of a different type of flasher unit due to
s w e n t * a w of 8 » LED butos See figure <2-27
out, the c u r r e n t flow t h r o u g h o n l y o n ebulb is not sufficient s
make the unit flash; it will b e a s t e a d y light. These turn signal u®
are often called D O T flashers. W h e n t h e turn signalflasherun«
old, the lights will flash m o r e s l o w l y (both sides affected equ^j
The contact points inside t h e f l a s h e r unit may become comm-
and pitted, requiring h i g h e r v o l t a g e t o operate. To restore nor
' tne w-Mcies are equipped with outside mirrors that Include an
operation, replace t h e t u r n signal flasher unit.
• - . •• rfith the turn signal. These LEDs art not service
nearM bat are i t r n c f d wW, the rturrot as an assembly.
Bimetallic Flashers Bimetallic flashers units were the fin'
used and have generally b e e n r e p l a c e d w i t h other types thai n
longer service life. A bimetallic flasher unit uses strips of ^
F L A S H E R UMITS ferent metals b o n d e d together. B e c a u s e t h e t w o metals expand
> v •• ti* ' .. a metal or plastic can containing a ferent rates, w h e n electrical c u r r e n t flows t h r o u g h the strip,
' • ••: " i m s i g n a i circuit. See Figure 4 2 - 2 8 . and w h e n c u r r e n t stops, t h e strip c o o l s a n d u n b e n d s . At the t
' -' t : : •>..•- .:.• . - M y installed in a metal clip at- the strip is a c o n t a c t w h i c h m a k e s a n d b r e a k s the electnca
- :,'• • - .ow the "c ticking" noise of the flasher signal c i r c u i t h-veN*
> • -xf<5 o * c T»e ••ire ,.cial flasher is designed to if o n e bulb b u r n s o u t , e i t h e r in t h e f r o n t or rear or the•
•nr ' - • • •• 'o t : : "he front and rear bulbs on only one the flasher will not flash o n t h e s i d e w i t h t h e bad bulb. ^
<J S Department of Transportation (DOT) requires c u r r e n t to c a u s e t h e m e t a l strip to b e n d , not enou
^sl|j;. •
rr-, . , - ! * - . . •-• d - .<* v alerted w h e n a turn signal is flowing t h r o u g h o n e b u l b to m a k e t h e strip bend A s ^ ^
b . i & m <,.'.•/ • , * v d by ing a series-type flasher driver is notified of a b u r n e d o u t b u l b o n o n e side an
>r.'LThefi» ' - ' • :>•. -• . c . " " r f # f h r w g n t w o bulbs lone meets the Federal r e q u i r e m e n t .
w ugnsng ana atgr-^'ing (••
h r jd Flasher (Flasher Relay) A

, . „ e r relay, is a type of f l a s h e r u n i t
d r c u l t and a m e c h a n i c a l relay w h l
• ,Va) circuit. T h i s t y p e of f l a s h e r Is m o : than
'yjlUc-type f l a s h e r b u t it is l o n g e r lasting
' jjitrol of the turn signals is p e r f o r m e d by t • •
r e h o u s i n g . The e l e c t r o n i c c i r c u i t u s e - a
a current sensing c i r c u i t . If t h e c u r r e n t h ng circuit
. 3 , | 0 w e r t h a n n o r m a l c u r r e n t f l o w t h r o u g h t h e turn s tals.
. -atically f l a s h e s a t a f a s t e r r a t e ( t w i c e as fast as n o n r a
. faster flash r a t e i n d i c a t e s t o t h e d r i v e r t h a t a f a u l t h a s t e e n
:ed in the turn signal c i r c u i t a n d t h e r e f o r e meets the DOT
• , ^ e n t . If all b u l b s a r e b u r n e d o u t , t h e flasher will n o t flash
lilt
..rrt if the turn s i g n a l s d o n o t o p e r a t e at all, check the bulbs

re replacing t h e t u r n s i g n a l flasher unit.
F i g u r e 4 2 - 2 9 A hazard dasher u s e s a para e r e s s t o r a c r o s s the contacts to provide a

constant flashing rait regardless o« tne m m o e r ot bulbs used m the m a i l t
Solid State Flashers Solid state flashers u s e an electronic
telling circuit a n d an e l e c t r o n i c t i m i n g circuit to operate the turn
r i . v Because these units d o n o t u s e a m e c h a n i c a l switch or con-
> - open and close t h e t u r n signal circuit, these flashers last a
; t.me, but cost m o r e t h a n bimetallic or hybrid units. Similar to
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION S
•tnd Hashers, solid state flashers use a c u r r e n t sensing circuit and
flash rapidly if a bulb is b u r n e d o u t . What Are Puddle Lights?
Puddle lights are lights on the bottom of the outside rear-view mirror that shine
izard Warning Flasher T h e h a z a r d w a r n i n g flasher is a
downward when the door is opened They ate called puddle lights because they
Muce installed in a v e h i c l e l i g h t i n g s y s t e m w i t h t h e primary
light the area where the dnver and passenger are gomg to step, thereby iHumi-
action of c a u s i n g t h e l e f t a n d r i g h t t u r n signal lamps to flash
nating any hazards such as water puddles
'•tier: the h a z a r d w a r n i n g s w i t c h is a c t i v a t e d . S e c o n d a r y func-
may i n c l u d e v i s i b l e pilot i n d i c a t o r s f o r t h e hazard system
• :i an audible s i g n a l t o i n d i c a t e w h e n t h e flasher is operating. A
' ;al hazard w a r n i n g f l a s h e r is a l s o called a parallel or variable
LIGHTING SYMPTOM GUIDE
• dasher b e c a u s e t h e r e is a r e s i s t o r in parallel w i t h t h e
"Jets to p r o v i d e a c o n t r o l l o a d , a n d t h e r e f o r e , a constant
Other common turn signal problems and possibie solutions include
" rate, regardless of the n u m b e r of b u l b s b e i n g flashed. See the followingt
figure 4 2 - 2 9 .
t-"bination Turn Signal and Hazard Warning Flasher Problem Possible Causes and/or Solutions
- combination f l a s h e r is a d e v i c e t h a t c o m b i n e s t h e functions 1. Slow flashing on both 1. Replace the worn flasher unit Check me bittery a i d
3 turn signal f l a s h e r a n d a h a z a r d w a r n i n g flasher into o n e sides equally the charging voltage to Oe certain that the charpng
ackage. circuit and battery are supplying high-enough w a g e
(or proper operation o l the turn signals.
2. Slow or no flashing on 2. Replace the defective t x i b , or clean poor c o n w t n r s

T r o n i c Flasher Replacement Units O l d e r vehicles one side only on the front or rear bums on the s d e that does not
a few n e w e r o n e s ) u s e t h e r m a l ( b i m e t a l ) flashers t h a t u s e work.
1
s w i t c h o n a n d o f f . N e w e r v e h i c l e s u s e e l e c t r o n i c flashers 3, The most likely cause is a detective f t e h e r j \ \ •-
3. l u n signals not flashing
use microchips to c o n t r o l t h e o n / o f f f u n c t i o n . Electronic on either side which case replacement w 0 be necessary Hom«
are compatible with o l d e r s y s t e m s , b u t t h e r m a l flashers defective bulbs or connections on M l sides a u e *sc
;[JA>' compatible w i t h n e w s y s t e m s . E v e n t u a l l y a t h e r m a l be the cause
; e r will b u r n o u t (it m a y b e 100,000 m i l e s o r m o r e l , a n d will

*'^placed. E l e c t r o n i c f l a s h e r s d o n o t b u r n o u t , a n d t h e y pro-
i
crisper a n d f a s t e r " f l a s h " o f t h e t u r n signals. A n o t h e r rea Most turn signal flasher units are mounted in a metal d t p that
, r . u s e e l e c t r o n i c f l a s h e r s m i g h t b e if u p g r a d i n g to LED is attached to the dash. The dash panel acts a- a sounding boara. ~
." or l i g h t s . T h e s e n e w e r L E D b u l b s o n l y w o r k w i t h elec- creasing the sound of t h e flasher unit Most four-wav hazard fiashe*
;c
lashets. units are plugged into t h e fuse panei. S e m e twe-wav turn
^ easiest w a y t o k n o w w h i c h type of flasher can b e used is flasher units are also plugged into t h e fuse pare.. How do vou
the t y p e of b u l b u s e d in t h e taillamps a n d turn signals. If k n o w for sure w h e r e t h e flasher unit is located' v\.:r ooth Cte n r a
i;
a
' ' " e d g e " s t y l e ( p l a s t i c b a s e , flat a n d rectangular), the vehicle signal and the ignition o n , listen and or feci % r the cifctang. I t h e
. . / E l e c t r o n i c flasher. If it is a " t w i s t a n d t u r n " bayonet-style flasher unit. Some service manuals also give jtertera A J " . : - f o r
' ^ n e i t h e r t y p e of f l a s h e r c a n b e u s e d . the placement of flasher units.
FUSIBLE IGNITION FLASHER TURN
20 A
LINK SWITCH UNIT SIGNAL HEAOLIGhT
12 V
sSWITCH
A
-0—O 9 SWITCH
7
rt |i
S T
LEFT (L
<;<= vsa DASH
TURN
i
SIDE
MARKER
LIGHT ' I
PARK
60
LIGHT ^
figure 4 2 - 3 0 Tne side-man<er iigm goes out wnenever mere is voltage at Dotn point X m Y. These opposing voltages stop current flow through the sioe-market light. The left turn lighrana
<eH pane lignt are actually the same ouib (usually a #2057) ana are shown separately to help explain how tne sioe-marker light works on many vehicles.
ILLUMINATED ENTRY
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION 9 9 ? ;
Some vehicles are equipped with illuminated entry, to Life-
lights are turned on for a given amount of time whenever the
Why Does the Side-Marker Light Alternately Hash?
I
side door handle is operated while the doors are locked. Most vet.
A question that service technicians are askeo frequently is why the side-marker cles equipped with illuminated entry also light the exterior to
iigrc alternately goes out when the turn signal is on and is on when the turn sig- keyhole. Some vehicles equipped with body computers use s
: oat is off. Some vehicle owners mink that there is a fault with their vehicle while door handle electrical switch of the illuminated entry tiici;:
actualy it is normal operation. The siae-marker light goes out whenever the "wake up" the power supply for the body computer.
figras are on and the turn signal is flashing Because there are 12 volts on bom
sices of the bulb (see points X and Y in Rgure 42-30). Normally, me side- FIBER OPTICS
fnarxer light gets its ground through me turn signal bulb,
Fiber optics is the transmission of light through specia. pte
i
ipolymethyl methacrylate) that keeps the light rays parallel ever.:
the plastic is tied in a knot. These strands of plastic are common
COURTESY LIGHTS
used in automotive applications as indicators for the drive: data.'
Courtesy light is a generic term primarily used for interior lights, tain lights are functioning. For example, some vehicles r;
. r a c i n g overhead (domej and under-the-dash (courtesy, aghis. equipped with fender-mounted units that light whenever the i p
These Interior lights can be operated by rotating the headlight or turn signals are operating. Plastic fiber-optic strands, which oftec
switch knob faily counterclockwise (left) or by operating switches
l o c p p in the doorjambs of the vehicle doors. There are two types
of circuits commonly used for these interior lights. Most manufac-
r_-ers, except Ford, use the door switches to ground the courtesy
light circuit See Figure 42-31. Many Ford vehicles use the door
switches to open and close the power side of the circuit
Many newer vehicles operate the interior lights through the
vehide compute: or through an electronic module. Because the
isizz: wiring and operation of these units differ; consult the service
iisrsr-re for the exact model on which you are working.
TECH H P Service Information Diagnosis
7r.e s a s s i e s rCt me doooamb simply signal me computer that a door has been
tvefasd. I n e c a B & a a controls me lighting to help prevent accidental battery
i tsari. For ctzr.-^t i trie verscte door has been left open, me computer can
oper. xm cacoTi and prevent a oeaa battery.
Ihe schersaDc rare-y snows exactly how the circuit works. However, me
shn,Cc s t e n u * : t e S a y w tnroogn me diagnosis. Wim a service manual, or
Figure 4 2 - 3 1 A typical counesy light doorjamo switch. Newer vehicles use • ^
GWjsusri*o -rfoffflabc.'. seriwe, the technician is never lost Always follow tne
switcn as an input to the venicie computer ano tne computer turns on of ^j*
the p r c c e & a s exaciy Even .f me service procedure sounds long and involved, lights. By placing tne lights unoer the control of tne computer, tne vehicle engrn ^ j
r * procedure / x to me correct diagnosis. opportunity to delay the lights after the door is closed and to shut tnem on a e
time to avoid draining the cattery.

Chapter 42 Lighting and >'<ng twb <73
„w. standard electrical w i r e , trari. remained on. The cause was found to be a poor p o u n d c o n n e c t s *
Hkator on top of the f e n d e i o thai for '<t left front parking light socket. The front parking fight bulb is
" l a i n light Is operating. Fiberoptic a d l a m e n t : one filament for the parking fight idim > and o n e fli
s to indicate t h e operation of a l l lip, o ' for 'he t.rn signal operation ibright). A corroded ocket did
C o p t i c strands art al 0 c o m m o n l y . . not provide a irood enough ground to conduct afl c a r e m required
T door locks, a n d other a r e a s w h e r e a si to Lgh? the 1 -. lament of the bulb.
si
L The source of the light c a n b e a n y r ' i 'Operating light The two aments of the butt) share the same ground conrie*
W
|h which m e a n s that o n e b u l b c a n t<- Ion and are e > - •rtcaiiy connected. When ail the curren' could nor
. the fiber-op* l o w through the bulb's ground in the socket, it caused a feedback
',.','s A special bulb clip is u s u a l l y u s e d t<, -
Jastic tube near t h e b u l b . or reversed jr. .low through 'he other filament, lo<;king for ground.
The • urr g r a l ' .«~«nt : electrically connected to the dash indica-
tor 7;erefoPe. t e reversed current on its path toward p o u n d
FEEDBACK
could l;gh? the t jr. a g r a i indicator Hght Cleaning or replacing the
When current that lacks a g o o d g r o u n d g o e s ba<. •: socKe* u - i / fortes the prrxser if the p o u n d wire for the socio"
v/tT side of the circuit in s e a r c h of a return path gro jnd to v . making a secure i z . .: ground connection.
"j:':ery, this reverse f l o w is c a l l e d f e e d b a c k or r, ,er
• jw. Feedback can c a u s e o t h e r l i g h t s o r g a u g e s that should • ot be
working, to w o r k .
UGMTIMG SYSTEM SYMPTOM GUIDE
Feedback Example A c u s t o m e r c o m p l a i n e d that wr.er The fctiow-i a s s / 4 t e c r n i a a n s in troubleshooting lighting
deadlights were o n , t h e left t u r n signal indicator light on the dash systems.
ProMsn Possible Causes and/or Solutions
1 One headlight dim 1. Check lor poor ground connection on body

r
2. Possible bumed-out headhght filament Q « 4 1 h ! - -eatingm k i t ar r ^ i - a e r hHt s
: Dne headlight out |low or high beam) power-side comecton an) the ground IBTOB O! » E TAB
3. Check for bumed-out bubs Check tor votage ar the

! Both high- and low-beam headlights out
open [defective) dimmer switch)
4 Possible bumed-out flamente' al headhgto > e : - ir

' All headlights inoperative
Possible defective headlight switch
i Siiw turn signal operation 5. Possible defective flasher m t Possoe tagt< n t s a n - saKet r ;Tun- « s iwrsct Mb nunMri
fjm signals operating on one side only 6. Possible bumed-out bud on affected side Possible poo- pan! utmda a
bulb number on affected side
;
r-tenor light<s) inoperative 7. Possible humed-out but»s Possible oper m the n a w - s o e ~\g 4B-
a
5 Wenor lights on all the time 8 Possible shorted doorjamb s w i n i ^ s t n e neadbgrr a m tmea l A
9 Bute lights inoperative 9. Possible defective brake switch Possible oe^ 've i. > h n e e - * i t » M t 0 t ! M l » PMBthwencwtfor
poor ground comechon
Hazard warning lights inoperative
10. Possible defective t i a a r d flasher u r i Possible ooer l a z a r r -.'-ant
"sard warning lights blinking too rapidly
11. Possible incorrect flasher un*. P o s s i * s u m : n u n c f ~orc :
J W ) SEQUENCE TaillightBulb
dr
iver noticed that the taillight fault P42-2 * v sua' ispechon at tie m r of He ver-c* P42-3
IC011
" f on ' the dash was on any time the lights indicated that m e r e a r tajigW Soft did not'igM. asse-c , : i
Remowig a tew screws from me otistc cover counte'jodewe
revealed the taiUqht assemtny
S t e p — c o n t i n u e d
sfop-nr
P«2-« The new 7443 replacement bulb is being P42-6 The r e p l a c e m e n t bull) m ,
K M t N M t t c r ^ w a d l r a t r t t * s o c k e t by
checked with an ohmmetei to be sure that it is okay lailliQlit s o c k e t a n d t h e lights are l u r n ^ Z l
R 8 » A A N M M putting the butb i t m g h t
before It is installed in the which- d e r a t i o n b e f o r e p u t t i n g the c o n t p ^ J
- ' *» SVWW V r \ M 6 S • « W I D < I that you rotate
* * M b W I i * r i to m t e n w ! • » rrtstrxnq bulbs
•<2-1 fc-1-" • my the vehicle for headlight aim P42-2 The headlight aim equipment will have lo be P42-3 P l a c e a y a r d s t i c k or m e a s u r i n g t B p t V K M
t m t a l 9 » t i r e s a r t at t h e c o r r e c t inflation adlusted tor the slope ol the floor in the servlcn bay In front n l the c e n t e r of the front whoel, noting Iho
H i ' « 4 N i l i s u s p e n s i o n is in g o o d working Start the process by turning on the lasei light height o l IIIH l a s o t b e a m
generator on the Bide ol the aimur body
•<1-4 i f c v -« tn th* canter of the rsar P 4 2 - 8 II tho liisei bn.im height measurements atB P42-9 Plane the a i m e r In f r o n t of the h i t * 1 ' 1 " "
'' " " " •"'Kit <* me later Ixwm at not the samp the floor slupo ol the aiming oqulpmnnt checked, a l a d i s t a n c e of 1 0 lo 1 4 Inches (Z5 to
n a p e ' - m f • * tr» h i nt j n d rtai wheels must tx- (tdjunled Tum Ihe floor slope knob until the
3 5 c m ) Use the a i m i n g pointer to adjust the W
• O M M H a M mf.r.iirnmpnl'i nn- nqunl
Hi" aimer to tho middle of t h * hendlljht
• 4 ? -7 ft* ' '/ - V r ' IW P4V II I ,I'M,II .ilignmoril liillgninq THE I,I„|y OF |H«
t* hmmt* i. . ii. t»w i,/rdy nl the vohlcls) is dono liy looking
<"•, ,• I' ttm U|I|W VI'K>r rim lum In ttin uppor v l w t Is
tin a i m e d
.. will irrrui.eliir.iil p o M t on lint MhtclB body
m . , 3 View t t e light beam t h r o u g h t h e a i m e r P42-11 If the first headlight is aimed adequate-, P*2-t2 i-ad«-:smcntisroQU!fed. move the hoadftgW
w rtw position of the light p a t t e r n will be move the aimer to the headlight on the aoposte act aûstmg screws using a special B e J w a V A o drwe
of the vehicle. Follow ihe pnwous steps, U posSOB
r
H e ® ! tor high and low beams. .'aicievsocvet canomstiot!. Watch Bie light beam
the aimer accurately.
tsrxij': amer window ts verify the adjustment
3MMARV 4. Eire- . - - . _
a. Toe aigt a ?o&ge r . a s r c u a
I. Automotive bulbs are identified by trade numbers.
b. Too much casea* r. amperes z a a r e ®
I The trade number is the same regardless of manufacturer for the ex.... • c. Licit o> a prope" gnr>-nc
a w bulb specification. d. Bof a and I
3. Dsytiae running lights (DRLs) light the headlights, usually at reduced 5. Which i .s . « : ?:
tateisiiv. whenever the engine is running or the vehicle is moving. a. 3104
4. HtgS intensity discharge (HID) headlights are brighter and have a b. #!o8
Hue tint. C StftSiA
i. Ow defective turn signal bulb causes the turn signal on the affected side d. #1157
tostop blinking (flashing). 6. :• ; - j ' j j b were :• n a «S T ."* parting iigtu socket
Instead of j # 2 0 ^ 7 : w n a t v.. . . . se 2 * n x w a&efy resut:
REVIEW QUESTIONS a. Thete&iur: asgpt *.•<• gasS Jater
b. The .<- "urn .-.-. •• -'.u-.
t Expiain why the exact same trade number of bulb should be used as a c. r>ie ,ctt piricng be sotfitlv sngr.rer
t-placement. d. The Jeft parK n : :gr.: w: uki be .-.ig~;. v mer
^puin why you should not touch a halogen bulb with your fingers. 7. - - ' •• - 57A D .. A-...- --
Describe how to diagnose a turn signal operating problem. likely resuE
* Discuss how to aim headlights on a vehicle equipped with aerodynamic- a. The- bu2: • - ungate- secausc- h e « • ; S7A faaSepawer a. ^ s e r
headlights. b. Tne a a u w coi-v- : be - . .:• - s Utferer.' iiade
c. T r.e: vili t r x t e : txviMS tne = . . A canuk-powcr n
d. Botfefcandc
Cf|
APTER QU| 2
8. A customer coB5»4in«! that ever; a s , he turned oa his vehicle a j $ s
cian A says that the bulb trade number is the same for all bulbs of the left v i e rum signal indicator light on the dash remained oo. The BOS
Technician B says that a dual filament bulb has differon: -v.:. SSdy cause is
**Poww r^dngs for each filament. Which technician is correct? a. A pact ground to the. parkin*; ..ffa or t a u g h t bulb on tr -:
ter s a e
Technician A
Technician B only b. ApoorgPDund so the parting tight ;or taiigh- buit- on s *
c. Both Technicians A and B -,oe, caussngcurrent to Sow » t h e lefr-side Sgbs.
Neither Technician A nor B c. A jefevuv,- .open, parisnglight or a f f i ^ t i tj»
l
.eft slue
- " • '-"lictans are discussing flasher units. Technician A say. thy >r.v a
d. Both a and c
^ '"pproved flasher unit should be used for turn signals. Technic!.---: B
K 1 * a Parallel (vanabie-ioad) flasher will function for turn s>gnal 0. A defecftt aa^gbt or front pari, light t'«a> could
ii will not warn the driver if a bulb bums out. Which a ' tun: ilgni .nduiwr - ;ce uisn i s i -: f n i»r
turned on
••^'•sn is correct.'
K h. n » d a s h . i h b it. come on when !&e brake ligbrs are
Technic
"clan A only
Technician B only c. The lights-on warning chime to j o u r s if the beaiw pe6£ %
^ Technicians A and B depressed
1. i - . ^ * , a , a Technician A nor B d. Ail of the above
9Tw|
Scs'r " Wad light, (dome lights) are operated bv doonarafi switches 10. A defective b r a s switch ci-. :d --5-
£ '-^'Plete the power side of the circuit a. C.rufee control

b. ABS bxikes
v .^"T'Plcie the ground side of the circuit
c. Shift intertof k
4 ' t h e buibfsj into contact with the power and groun,:
Other 1 d. .All of the a t o w
^ ' Jll '' , r i w b depending on application
43
C H A P T E R
Driver Information
and Navigation Systems
O g j C C T V K After studying Chapter 43, the reader will be able to: Prepare for ASE Electrical/Electronic Systems (A6) certification test content are,
f 2 J jes M Devices, and Dover Information System Diagnosis and Repair). • Be able to identify the meaning of dash warning symbols
• : - . s s - - A a fuel gauge works. • Explain how to use a service manual to troubleshoot a malfunctioning dash instrument. • Describe how a
cat r system worio • list the vanous types of dash instrument displays.
<r- anaiog • backup camera • bulb test • cathode fluorescent lighting (CFL) • cathode ray tube (CRT) • combination valve
. __ - magnetic • electronically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) • global positioning system (GPS) • head-up display (HUD)
• nst panel HP) • lane departure warning system (LDWS) • light-emitting diode (LED) • liquid crystal display (LCD) • nonvolatile random
. - e r o r y iNVRAM> • permanent-magnet (PMi generator • phosphor • pressure differential switch • rear park assist (RPA) • stepper motor
• te-naie lamp • thermoelectric • vacuum tube fluorescent (VTF) • WOW display
DASH WARNING SYMBOLS Find Service Information and Use It

vehicies are equipped with warning lights that are often confusing 3 2 "
a d r i v e s . Because many vehicles are sold throughout the world, sym- Today's electronic circuits are o f t e n t o o c o m p l e x t o s h o w on a wiring diagram
:••... Irs :ead of words are being used as warning lights. See Figure 43-1 Instead, all electronics are s i m p l y i n d i c a t e d a s a s o l i d box w i t h "electronic mod-
fer examples and m e a n i n g of most symbols. Always check service ule" printed on the diagram. Even if all e l e c t r o n i c c i r c u i t r y was shown or Hit
- a — a n o n for the exact meaning on the vehicle being serviced. wiring diagram, it w o u l d require t h e s k i l l of an e l e c t r o n i c s engineer to deter-
mine exactly how the circuit w a s d e s i g n e d to w o r k . Study Figure 4 3 - 4
Note that the grounding for the " c h e c k oil" dash indicator lamp is acorn-
ANALOG DASH INSTRUMENTS
plished through an electronic buffer The exact conditions, such as amount of tire
E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c dash instruments use small electromagnetic coils since the ignition was shut off, are u n k n o w n to the technician. To correctly diag-
that are c o n n e c t e d to a sending unit for such things as fuel level, nose problems with this type of circuit, t e c h n i c i a n s m u s t read, understand, anc
w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e , and oil pressure. The resistance of the sensor follow the written diagnostic procedures specified by the vehicle manufacturer
7a-.es w th w h a t is being measured. See Figure 4 3 - 2 for typical
e errromagnetic fuel gauge operation.
HEAD-UP DISPLAY
COMPUTER-CONTROLLED INSTRUMENT PANELS The h e a d - u p d i s p l a y ( H U D ) is a s u p p l e m e n t a l display that ?
Many r.s'jTjment panels are operated by electronic control units that jects the vehicle speed and s o m e t i m e s o t h e r data, such as turn «
comir. -racate with the engine control computer for engine data such nal information, o n t o t h e w i n d s h i e l d . T h e projected image loo ^
a_ re jiunons per minute I RPM) and engine temperature. These elec- if it is some distance a h e a d , m a k i n g it easy for the driver ^
tronic r.strument panels (TPs) use the voltage change from varying- without having to refocus on a closer d a s h display. See Figur
resistance sensors, such as that of the fuel gauge, to determine fuel and 4 3 - 6 . 0j
Therefore, even though the sensor in the fuel tank is the same,
The head-up display can also h a v e t h e b r i g h t n e s s contro ^ ^
: e display itself may be computer controlled. Because all sensor
most vehicles that use this type of display. T h e HUD |(t.
- p u r . are interconnected, the technician should always follow the
stalled in the i n s t r u m e n t panel (IP) a n d u s e s a mirror to p ^
•V.- -jr, 'e-.-zfitnended diagnostic procedures. See Figure 4 3 - 3 .
hide information o n t o t h e inside s u r f a c e of t h e wina:>
Figure 4 3 - 7 . d j a g n o sC
STEPPER MOTOR GAUGES Follow the vehicle m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s r e c o m m e n c e " ^

and testing procedures if a n y faults a r e f o u n d with
/.: ana:og aa: r. displays use a stepper motor to move the needle.
display.
A s t e p p e r m o t o r s a type of electric motor that is designed to ro-
rate m smaB steps based on t h e signal from a computer. This type of
gauge Is very accurate. NIGHT VISION
Parts and Operation Night vision s y s t e m s use a c a ® g
capable
, of observing
„ objects in
,B tm
h ec dark
d a r k tto
o assisttm?
tfo0 deflf;
ae*'
v/r • - rrta etectwrtc gauge clusters can be checked by depress- driving at night. The primary night v i e w i n g l l l u m ' " d . u p
- /••,;• w . turning the .jfrudon switch to the on (key are the headlights. The night vision o p t i o n uses a n ^ o l "
or; - r 'I.iplay needles will be commanded to HUD) to improve the vision of t h e d r i v e r beyond i ^ c
'*. 2 i '--. -. . ys- .',- ixU*': pr irrnrig to their normal readings. ••«.AUU6IIU.. using a HUD display a l l o w s ARIVTI - ^
" " 4 • .- ^ ••<•••• r,h<-'< the operation of each Indl on the road and hands on t h e w h e e l for m a x i m u m j * seS a ^
n '•' .«• rr.t- mt&e instrument panelduster is
Besides the head up display, t h e night vision js ^
te*:; • a. Mupenthre gîge.
oal thermal imaging or infrared technology. T h e can ^
behind the grill in the front of the vehicle. See F i g ^
SYMBOLS DESCRIPTION
T
»Pical dash warning symbols and their meanings
478 S K n O N V*
SYMBOLS DESCRIPTION
LOW TRACTION D E T E C T E D
« o „ I TRAC j
T R A C T I O N CONTROL S Y S T E M IS F U N C T I O N I N G T O R E S T O R E TRAC HON
(USUALLY F L A S H E S W H E N A C T I V E L Y W O R K I N G T O R E S T O R E TRACTION)
WATER D E T E C T E D IN F U E L . NOTICE TO D R A I N T H E W A T E R FROM
Oi
THE FUEL FILTER A S S E M B L Y ON A V E H I C L E E Q U I P P E D W I T H A
D I E S E L ENGINE
HEADLIGHTS ON
MAINTENANCE REQUIRED. T H I S USUALLY M E A N S T H A T T H E E N G I N E

PWNT OIL IS S C H E D U L E D TO B E C H A N G E D O R O T H E R R O U T I N E S E R V I C E
ITEMS R E P L A C E D OR C H E C K E D
V E H I C L E STABILITY C O N T R O L S Y S T E M E I T H E R O F F O R W O R K I N G
vsc IF FLASHING
TRAC TRACTION CONTROL S Y S T E M H A S B E E N T U R N E D O F F

OFF
INDICATES THAT T H E C R U I S E C O N T R O L IS O N A N D A B L E T O MAINTAIN

CRUISE V E H I C L E S P E E D IF S E T
Rgure 4 3 - 1 continued.
T h e c a m e r a creates pictures based on the heat energy emitted stones or other debris can get past the grille and damage the lens of
t y o t i e c t s r a t h e r t h a n f r o m l i g h t r e f l e c t e d o n an o b j e c t as in a nor- the camera, if the camera is damaged, it must be replaced as an
m a l • Dtical c a m e r a . T h e i m a g e l o o k s like a b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e p h o t o assembly because no separate parts are available. Always follow
n e g a t i v e w h e n h o t objects (higher thermal energyl appear while the vehicle manufacturer's recommended testing and servicing
c o o l o h i e c t s a p p e a r d a r k o r b l a c k . O t h e r p a r t s of t h e n i g h t vision procedures.
system include:
• O n / O f f a n d D i m m i n g Switch—This allows the driver to adjust DASH INSTRUMENT DIAGNOSIS

t h e b r i g h t n e s s of t h e display a n d to t u r n it on or off as n e e d e d .
W i t h e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c g a u g e s , if t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e sensor is low,
• U p / D o w n S w i t c h — T h e night vision H U D system has an electric
t h e m e t e r r e a d s l o w . If t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e s e n s o r is high, the
til: a d ; u s t m o t o r t h a t a l l o w s t h e driver to adjust t h e image u p or
meter reads high.
d o AT, o n t h e w i n d s h i e l d w i t h i n a certain image.
Becoming accustomed to night vision can be difficult and may NOTE: Thermoelectric gauges are opposite from electromagnet"
•-.••- i e v e r t r.,?rits to get used to looking at the head-up display. gauges and read low w h e n resistance is high. T h e following p r o c e d u r e s
are given for electromagnetic gauges and should be reversed for working
on thermoelectric gauges.
Diagnosis and Service T h e first s t e p w h e n d i a g n o s i n g a f a u l t

t h e m g h t / i s i o o s y s t e m is t o v e r i f y t h e c o n c e r n . C h e c k t h e
When a technician is t r o u b l e s h o o t i n g a f u e l gauge, i ^
o w r . e ' ; m a n ; a i o r s e r v i c e i n f o r m a t i o n for t h e p r o p e r o p e r a t i o n .
F o r e x a m p l e , t h e C a d i l l a c night, v i s i o n s y s t e m r e q u i r e s t h e follow- p o w e r w i r e is u n p l u g g e d f r o m t h e t a n k u n i t w i t h t h e ignition ^
ac.onr, to function: the dash unit should m o v e t o w a r d full (high resistancel.

p o w e r lead is t o u c h e d t o a g r o u n d ( l o w r e s i s t a n c e ) , t h e f u e ^ ^
1 . T r « w . t f c m h a s t o b e in t h e o n (run) position. s h o u l d r e g i s t e r e m p t y . T h e s a m e o p e r a t i o n c a n b e used
2. r. >entinel p h o t o cell m u s t indicate that it is dark. pressure and w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e g a u g e s .
3 . The 'eat!: m u s t be o n .
4. ' - or - r ; g r ' man s y s t e m m u s t be on and t h e bright-
TELLTALE LAMPS
' ^ -.-if. v, i m a g e is p r o p e r l y displayed.
Telltale l a m p s (often called idiot lights) w a r n the d r i v e r ^ ^
: '. r . • . ,/vern r . " > a c a m e r a in t h e f r o n t of t h e vehi- failure. W h e n e v e r t h e i g n i t i o n is t u r n e d o n , ail w a r
e »r.a p r o t e c t e d f r o v. r o a d d e b r r . by a grille. H o w e v e r , small c o m e o n as a b u l b c h e c k .
Chaptar 43 Driver Information and Navigation f>in»m 479
B«
12 V
E L E C T R I C A L WIRING
INSIDE DASH UNIT
1 GAUGE
4 " GROUNDED
TO CHASSIS
D A S H UNIT - A N K UNIT
GROUNDED
GAUGE BODY WIRING TO C H A S S I S
( R E A R VIEW)
FRONT BODY
CONNECTOR
BATTERY
GROUNDED
TO C H A S S I S
T Y P I C A L G A S GAUGE SYSTEM SCHEMATIC
sensor m a jvu&x and M l amy

43-2 Electromagnetic tuel gauge wiring. II the sensor wire is unplugged and grounded, •• s-wno jaWttrE enc% t*
* » « . the needle should point to " F " (lull)
TECH TIP / Oops!

charging system-warning lamp may be labo.ed
'JARGE," " G E N , " o r " A L T " a n d w i l l light if t h e c h a r g i n g s y s t e m Vter replacing valve cover gastats on a Cfiemm *-6 me
" detected. See Figure 43-0. ered that the an pressure-warning lamp was x Alter aiedwg f *
tmdng everytomg else okay, the feetnaon ssccvered a a n
the valve cover.
- w u URE
u n i WARNING DEVICES The wire went tote on pressure a e n o m g . * * ^ edge 4 • »
*e Oil had cut through the msutaaor and causes na carrea tram na t » j
sensor
flltJ^re l a m p o p e r a t e s t h r o u g h u s e of a n oil p r e s s u r e B H 1
ground through the engine. Nomaffy the attempQOMt on anen
S c r e w e d int0
^WM , ^ e e n g i n e block and which grounds the
unit grounds the wire Irom the lamp
il Pt ,, , ' o r c u t t and lights t h e d a s h w a r n i n g l a m p in t h e e v e n t of l o w
1 3 1 0 7 PSI
The technician freed the pvcheo w e m : . • • « Ut cat i
S l ^ 1 2 ° to 5 0 k i l o p a s c a i s . k P a | i . See Figure 4 3 - 1 0
pressure sealant to prevent corrosoi
kPai L is g e n e r a l l y b e t w e e n 10 a n d 0 0 PSI ' 0 and
See
Figure 4 3 11 o n p a g e 4 8 4 .
480 SEcne
or brake hydraulic p r e s s u r e s w i t c h to compl-1

!!rj
w a r n i n g lamp circuit. If t h e w a r n i n g l a m p i r s t che jtl)t :
parking brake is fully released. If t h e p a r k i n p
the probiem could be a d e f e c t i v e parking . ! s swit
ke ^ " yh™
reCI
hydraulic brake problem. To test for w h i c h syste: causim,«?
; 1 „Hro tv, . . "^8tne lajf.
to remain o n , simply u n p l u g t h e w i r e f r o m t h e val
•onwH
wire on the pressure differential s w i t c h is disconnected and thf M
ing lamp remains on, then t h e p r o b l e m is d u e to a defective < warn
H I
justed parking brake switch. If, h o w e v e r , t h e w a r n i n g lamp
S
w h e n the wire is removed from t h e b r a k e s w i t c h , then the crob! °'J|
due to a hydraulic brake fault that c a u s e d t h e pressure diffe
switch to complete the w a r n i n g l a m p circuit. T h e red brake < - - 7
lamp also can be turned o n if t h e b r a k e fluid is low. See Figure <r .'
on page 4 8 3 for an e x a m p l e of a b r a k e fluid level sensor.
DIGITAL ELECTRONIC DASH OPERATION

figure 4 3 - 3 Main vehcies use a computer display for many (unctions including tnp Mechanical or e l e c t r o m e c h a n i c a l d a s h i n s t r u m e n t s use cab!i
'3d':1 dock, and air conditioning This vehicle is not moving and yet the engine is mechanical transducers, a n d s e n s o r s to o p e r a t e a particular-
i so ttie fuel economy is zero. instrument. Digital dash i n s t r u m e n t s u s e v a r i o u s electric and els
tronic sensors that activate s e g m e n t s or s e c t i o n s of an electror
display. Most electronic d a s h c l u s t e r s u s e a c o m p u t e r chip andvj-
Oil Pressure Lamp Diagnosis To test the operation of the
ous electronic circuits to o p e r a t e a n d c o n t r o l t h e internal pow--
L p r e s s u r e - w a r n i n g circuit, u n p l u g the wire from the oil
supply, sensor voltages, a n d display v o l t a g e s . Electronic dash d
..re-sending u n i t , usually located near the oil filter, with the ig-
play systems m a y u s e o n e or m o r e of t h e several types of displays!
- t o n s w i t c h o n . W i t h t h e w i r e disconnected from the sending
light-emitting diode (LED), liquid crystal display (LCD), vacuum
unit, t h e w a r n i n g l a m p should be off. If the wire is touched to a
tube fluorescent (VTF), a n d c a t h o d e r a y t u b e (CRT).
g r o u n d , t h e w a r n i n g l a m p should be on. If there is a n y d o u b t of the
: p e r a n o n of t h e oil pressure-warning lamp, always check the actual LED Digital Displays Ail d i o d e s e m i t s o m e form of energy dr |
e n g i n e oil p r e s s u r e using a gauge that can be screwed into the ing operation; the l i g h t - e m i t t i n g d i o d e ( L E D ) is a semiconducr
o p e n i n g that is left after u n s c r e w i n g t h e oil pressure-sending unit. that is constructed to release e n e r g y in t h e f o r m of light. Manyccte
For r e m o v i n g t h e s e n d i n g unit, special sockets are available at most of LEDs can be c o n s t r u c t e d , b u t t h e m o s t p o p u l a r are red, green,and
a i t o parts stores, or a 1- or 1 1/16-inch six-point socket may be yellow. Red is difficult to see in d i r e c t s u n l i g h t ; therefore, if an LEDs
_sed for m o s t units. See Figure 4 3 - 1 2 on page 4 8 3 for the location used, most vehicle m a n u f a c t u r e r s u s e yellow. Light-emitting diodes
of tvpical oil p r e s s u r e - s e n d i n g units. can be arranged in a g r o u p of s e v e n , w h i c h t h e n can be used to t I
play both n u m b e r s and letters. S e e Figure 4 3 - 1 7 on page 484.
An LED display r e q u i r e s m o r e electrical power than otfr'
TEMPERATURE LAMP DIAGNOSIS
types of electronic displays. A typical LED display requires 30 m:
T h e " h o t " lamp, or engine coolant overheat warning lamp, warns the iamperes for each segment; t h e r e f o r e , e a c h n u m b e r or letter d -
drr/er w h e n e v e r t h e engine coolant temperature is between 248°F played could require 2 1 0 m i l l i a m p e r e s ( 0 . 2 1 0 amperes).
120 Ci and 2 5 8 1 1126°C|. This temperature is just slightly below
tr.e boiling point of the coolant in a properly operating cooling system, Liquid Crystal Displays L i q u i d c r y s t a l d i s p l a y s (LCDs)
r r . e t e m p e r a t u r e sensor on older models was separate from the sensor can be arranged into a v a r i e t y of f o r m s , l e t t e r s , numbers, a n d •
- i e d fcy t h e engine computer. However, most vehicles n o w use the graph displays. LCD c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n s i s t s of a special fluid sar
engine coolant temperature iECT) sensor for engine temperature wiched b e t w e e n t w o s h e e t s of p o l a r i z e d glass. The s p e c i a l
operation. To test this sensor, use a scan tool to verify proper en- b e t w e e n the glass plates will p e r m i t light to pass i f a s m a l l voter-
z r . e terr.oerature and follow the vehicle manufacturer's recom- is applied to t h e fluid t h r o u g h a c o n d u c t i v e film laminated to ••
-r.enaea testing procedures. See Figure 4 3 - 1 3 on page 483. glass plates. ,
The light f r o m a v e r y bright h a l o g e n b u l b behind the
shines through t h o s e s e g m e n t s of t h e L C D t h a t have been p
BRAKE WARNING LAMP
ized to let the light t h r o u g h , w h i c h t h e n s h o w numbers or ^
-- e i sold in t h e United States after 1967 must be equipped Color filters can be placed in f r o n t of t h e display to c h a n g ^
>. : r a dual b r a k i n g system a n d a dash-mounted w a r n i n g lamp to color of c e n a i n s e g m e n t s of t h e display, s u c h as the m a ,ef
. r 6 •' - dr. / e f of a failure in o n e p a n of the hydraulic brake sys- engine speed on a digital t a c h o m e t e r . L C D s are used' ^
tem . See F i g - r e 4 3 - 1 4 o n page 4 8 3 . model Chevrolet C o r v e t t e s a n d s e v e r a l o t h e r m a k e s and m
T h e switch that o p e r a t e s t h e w a r n i n g lamp is called a p r e s s u r e
d i f f e r e n t i a l s w i t c h . Thi switch is usually the center portion of a
glass
m u t t p t e - p w p n s e b r a k e p a n called a c o m b i n a t i o n v a l v e , if there is i the
Be careful, when cleaning an LCD, not to p u s h ' • | thf
• i r a u l i c fffev ure n t h e braking system, t h e switch usu-
plate covering the special fluid, if excessive pressure is tl*
al /. i M s t h e 12-voi? lead at t h e switch and t h e l a m p c o m e s o n .
glass, the display may be permanently distorted. If the glass ^ ^
See By .re 4 3 15 on page 4 8 3 . fluid will escape and could damage other components in tne t
for ate t h e da ,h w a r n i n g lamp is often the s a m e lamp result of its strong alkaline nature. Use only a soft, damp 1
wam ver that t h e parking brake is o n . The these displays.
warr - . anr.t op*ra>ed by using the parking brake lever
m m m m m m m m
FUSE
BLOCK
INSTRUMENT
CUJgTBt
PBWTED
ORCUT
T CHECK GAUGES
INDICATOR SENDER " I
J
f (AMBER! INPUT CHECK
' y CHECK OIL
^ I Cr-^r-u
HECK
GAUGES
SOLID
STATE
GAUGES
BUFFER r-
LOW OIL
BUFFER CHECK
OIL
* Ot
I -EVEL
| SWTCH
FLOAT HAGHET | 'OPEN
• wrrw
JCMCM.
LEVEL
8 BLK
i G1«
5W43-4 The ground lor the 'check oil" indicator lamp is controlled by the electronic icw-o- s t e f e tmstWe- ; to an oi M sensor Jtedu-V
- ^ t a i the amount ot time the engine has been stopped mi the temperature of He m y * y « >• i. tr w < r agpose a Mli tne a c u l s t t uae » * :
:
'"*w>iae manufacturer. Besides, only the engineer that designed the etcu* knows to sure h e * ' s J^cosec tc
ma
i ° r disadvantage of an LCD digital dash is that the r . applied to the display. A typical VTF dash % •: -c
etters
slow to r e a c t or change at low temperature -. n«s whenever the parisi-;£g!as or headlights are vti
jspiavs use a photocell to mentor and ad us: the telaa-. ai i
iuores"' F'uorescent Displays The v a c u u m t u b e -.splay during daviight view ng. Most VTF tfec.avs c-
( N ^ ? ? 1 OfiT) display is a popular automot; sehold best viewing under most lighting cor. a sots.
strong P l a y b e c a u s e is very bright and can eas.V be viewed
•en The usual VTF display is green, but white is Cathode Ray Tube A cathode ray tube CRT
r hom
e appliances. T h e VTF dispiav generates its which is similar to a teievtson robe o r . .1 : i> • te-r. ^ tr*
•Tucai c ln a manner similar to that of a TV' screen, where a piav of hundreds of controls and diagp sue m e v J f B : 'e s
'i hjgi, a t e c l iight emitting e l e m e n t cai.ea phosphor > venient :ocaoon. See figure 43-1 J s i page 434
-'Tiined^ e l e c t r o n s - VTF displays are very bright and must U s i n g t h e t o u c h - s e n s i t i v e OL-ATE r a RM*. 1 * j r r m * «
y
"se of dense filters or by controlltrtg the voltage d a n c a n select troro m a n y c u 3 e t « : a s & a w . rcufeog : « i l
Fjuf t U 9 TM s r • td * to a (to cicut prct
r f n n 4 ta^ns** v Vad 4 J f f t i » Ml C a « t afcvm

r . * « - - a ~t « »« v*" » .MD-^V*
LAMP
IGNITION
SWIICH
CONCAVE MtflflCfl
a> '*t to ]<>JC4 44 a «rt*tffjat"a iro.ul by the 'J&-*
Climate, 'rip, and dash instrument infoimation. lite

x c « s an of these functions. F a t h e r diagnostic infoiir.iuon ^ c:C
p f A on the C R r if the proper Combination of a i r < < f f l « r ^

trots is touched. rhe diagnostic procedures for these
puling two or more buttons at the same time to access
r<tA\ *yj»'v* v<!
*i Hfl • 4 menu. Always follow the factory service manual tecomm -
RESIS1A .
SlIDINO > TO GAUGE

CONTACTS
DIAPHRAGM
SENDING UNIT
f (AT IACHEO
OIL PRESSURE TO ENGINE)
^ f l - l l A t>i>Vttl 0(1 pieissoro-scnding unit provides a vary<nt) ...ntofrc. • .

pressure changes
Figure 43-14 '»;• # ni U A f warning ump
LEAD TO BRAKE
WARNING LIGHT
BRAKE WARNING
LIGHT SWTTCH
PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL SWITCH

(USUALLY A PART OF THE
OIL FILTER COMBINATION VALVE i
Figure 4 3 - 1 $ --g swfflcv krated on Of n«r »-e

cyimtW
* r e 43-12 A Ford oil pressure-sending mill. Most oil ftesstire-sending units are
t&Jiwr the oil filler and are threaded into an oil gallery.
BRAKE W H O
LEVEL SENSOR
' A GM tempWAlure g a u g e l o w i n g norma' ofwat'*® leniperatiw t p f & w ^ ^ ^ ^
" <%ending cvt the specific vehicle and Ogine.

CArnooe
ANOOE
}J - . -c.j, Sftl j-i ,j,:|„ tf 1 , il 'r^t WittingflofeitEO).

" w e r t j *• 1 «rr/•»ta;'*|aicm-M^lUnt 1104>fp(ay«iti4 figure 43-19 (a) View of the vehicle dash with the Instrument cluster removed.
" ••/ ;••:•* to) the*isht&fi&teitcggm»*Mttafc(negatto)s*i« Sometimes Ifie dash instruments can be ser/lced by removing Ihe padded dash cortr [oii
pad)»'>11" access to the rear ot Ihe dash, (b) Tho front vlow of the electronic analog 4Wi
' - • " • ' .-j M iftfU-/ am w t aWhen nl seyr«nt$««turned
' & I * W:, raj display (c) the tear view ol the dash display showing that there are a lew bulbs thai tan»
sernced. but otherwise ihe unit is serviced as an assembly.
Electronic Analog Displays M o s t a n a l o g ilash displays since

the early 1990s are electronically or c o m p u t e r controlled, rhe sen
sors may be the same, but the s e n s o r information Is s e n t to the
body or vehicle computer and t h e n t h e c o m p u t e r controls current
through small electromagnets that m o v e t h e needle of the g a u g e - A
scan tool often Is needed to diagnose t h e operation of a compute
controlled analog dash i n s t r u m e n t display. S e e Figure <13-19.
Other Electronic Gauge Displays Oil pressure, water temp*

ature, and voltmeter readings are o t h e r c o m m o n l y used elesirc-j-
•lash displays. Oil pressure is monitored by a variable-resistance ser>
ing unit threaded into an oil passage, usually near the oil filter. A iff
leal oil pressure-sending unit will h a v e low resistance when lM®
pressure Is zero and higher resistance w h e n the oil pressure Is W ;
Water temperature Is also sensed by a variable-resistance - e l ' s
P f y j j ti-f* i .../<; vi», iy^miwpKjtMsonieoltha Ing unit, usually located near t h e e n g i n e ' s thermostat. SiniiU'.
-• «J V <''A'/\<H«.-.t<*) this particular unit the case with oil pressure, t h e h i g h e r t h e c o o l a n t temperature,
• • •'••» » » f M m Mfei .t« (ijps(to(Jisolay a map greater the number of segments that will be indicated, based oi
'/;('.' / T4 <r«i //jtif resistance of the coolant t e m p e r a t u r e sensor.
Co-'d C « t t v r t e f l u o r e s c e n t D i s p l a y s <;o!d cathode fluores-

ifghdrg K f l . f . ire . /-A t,f .'*<;/ vehicle manufacturers
HOfft On older vehicles, ihe coolant temperature sensor for th* ^
'm ' /. ..-.-. • .rr.p'.on n r . ^ s from 3 to 5 rnA 10.03 display was often a separate sensor from the engine coolant temp<
'> f > . w A: -h <r: life A V , ( / A hours. rill. replacing IF,a) sensor used by the engine computer.
'.or./e-'-vral r . c v . r f e y e r ; / / . t r / v . b v
( S a p i e N S DrtvenmmSlon and Navigation Systems 485
l m e [ e r is o f t e n i n c l u d e d i n a d i g i t a l
A
' , ' l e display r e p r e s e n t s a p a r t i c u l a r v o l ! A warning The Speedometer Works
•' ' n p a r t of t h e e l e c t r o n i c c i r c u i t s in >nic display as If It Is a T a c h o m e t e r
•;S ^ driver of h i g h o r l o w b a t t e r y v o t e
The owner of a Lincoln Town Car complained that all of a sudden the
speedometer needle went up and down with engine speed rather than vehicle
speed In fact the speedometer needle went up and down with engine speed
The Bulb Test
techtip even though the gear selector was in "park" and the vehicle was not moving
After hours of troubleshooting, the service technician went back and started
"Triton switches have six positions. See Figures 43 - 20 a ;• 2
checking the basics and discovered that the generator (alternator) had a bad
v ', i c e the bulb test position—the position between "on ;
diode. The technician measured over 1 volt AC and over 10 amperes of AC cur-
,. ignition is turned to "on" (run), s o m e dash warning lamps are ii'um
'ent us ng a damp-cm AC/DC ammeter. Replacing the generator restored the
> When the bulb test position is reached, additional dash warning imp
proper operation of the speedometer
, , ^ lighted. Technicians often use this ignition switch position to ch- •< the
i30 c of fuses that protect various circuits. Dash warning lamps are not a
- ed oy the same fuses. If an electrical component or circuit does not wort<
. power side (fuse) can be quickly checked by observing the operation of the ELECTRONIC SPEEDOMETERS
.lamps that share a common fuse with the problem circuit. Consult a wmng Electronic dash displays ordinarily use a n electric vehicle speed sen
. -an for fuse information on the exact circuit being tested sor driven by a small gear o n t h e output shaft of the transmission.
These speed sensors contain a p e r m a n e n t magnet and generate a
voltage in proportion t o the vehicle speed. These speed sensors are
fte WOW Display When a vehicle equipped w i t h a digital commonly called p e r m a n e n t - m a g n e t ( P M ) g e n e r a t o r s . See
s s t a r t e d , all s e g m e n t s of t h e e l e c t r o n i c d i s p l a y a r e t u r n e d o n Figure 4 3 - 2 2 .
yi brilliance for 1 o r 2 s e c o n d s . T h i s is c o m m o n l y called the
WOW display a n d is u s e d t o s h o w off t h e b r i l l i a n c e of t h e display.
• . r u b e r s a r e p a r t of t h e d i s p l a y , t h e n u m b e r 8 is d i s p l a y e d , b e TECH TIP The S o l d e r i n g G u n Trick
i j i this n u m b e r u s e s all s e g m e n t s of a n u m b e r display. T e c h n i
•• s can also u s e t h e W O W d i s p l a y t o d e t e r m i n e if all s e g m e n t s of Diagnosing problems wifr digdai or etectro^c dash instruments can be difficult
; electronic display a r e f u n c t i o n i n g c o r r e c t l y . Replacement pans generally are expensive and usuaHy not 'etumabte if in-
stalled in the vehicle A popular tr " a t W p s isolate the problem is to use a
soldenng gun near tne PM generator
LOCK
A PM generator contains a c o of wire As the magnet inside revolves, a
ACCESSORY UNLOCK
voltage is produced t is the '^Quency of r-is voyage that the das" or engine
computer uses to calculate ve^.de soeec
ON (RUN)
A soldenng gun pijggeo rtc " ' 0 volts AC wW prov.de a strong varying
magnetic field around the soldenng This -nagnefic field is constantly
changing at the rate of 60 cycles per second. frequency of the magnetic
BULB TEST
field induces a voltage ~ tne windings of the PM generator. This induced volt-
age at 60 hertz (Hzi is converted c. the conccite' c -cuits to a ~ les-per-hour
(mph) reading on the dash
START
To test the electror1:: speedo~eter turn the ignition to "on" lengine off
and hold a soldenng gun near the PM generator
lflnltlon s w i , c h
Positions. Notice the bulb check position between ON CAUTION. The soldenng gun tip can get hot, so hold the soldenng gur r,p
' ' 0 START
away from .v.nng or other components that may be damaged by the not sc
If the PM generator, wiring, computer, and dash are okay the speedometer
should register a speed, usually 54 mph (87 kilometers per hour [km" if r e
speedometer does not work when the vehicle is driven, the proWer s m r e
generator dnve
If the speedometer does not register a speed when the s o w i n g gun s
% used, the problem could be caused by
* Ui I 1. A defective PM generator tcheck the windings w th ar prm-vetc

2. Detective lopen or started) wiring from the PM c r v a o f to r e corner*
3. Defective computer or dash circuit
T h e o u t p u t of a P M g e n e r a t o r s p e e d s e n s ' : .s i n A v,va;e
t h a t varies in f r e q u e n c y a n d a m p l i t u d e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g v e h i c l e
s p e e d . T h e P M g e n e r a t o r s p e e d signal is scr.t to t h e i n s t r u m e n t
cluster electronic circuits. These spectacled electronic c u c u i s n-
d u d e a b u f f e r a m p l i f i e r c i r c u i t that c o n v e r t s t h e v a r a f c . e sine .vave
,"" d " y ne wer vehicles place the ignition switch on the dash and incorporate voltage from t h e s p e e d s e n s o r t o a n o n - o f f v e r a , t h a t car. o e êi
0,e 0,6
location of the accessory position. by o t h e r e l e c t r o n i c circuits to i n d i c a t e a v e h x l e spee: 1' -
a c o r n
MECHANICAL STEPPER
ODOMETER MOTOR
NUMBER
WHEELS
figure 43-23 Sry*vernces that _se a PV generator for a ven reec rsajt..
siepoer motortodrtve araecfianealodometerThe stepper motor receives a aya
Vera tne wrtde computer androtatesr "steps" correspondstothe distance D m
0 - 2 2 I EÎDE SPEEO SENSOR •• ihIn tr* €*1£-SJOr "cwssng of
digital o d o m e t e r s c a n read u p t o 9 9 9 , 9 9 9 . 9 miles or kflotwte

- then. C r a v e d bv either an e l e c c o r i c needle-tvpe
km), then t h e d i s p l a y i n d i c a t e s e r r o r . If t h e chip is damajK
s p e e d o n e t e r or tr; c u m b e r s o n a digital display.
or exposed t o static electricity, it m a y fail t o o p e r a t e and "enot"
may appear.
The Toyota Truck Story
T
"he wmer <0 a oyrt3 true* compared Set several electncal problems
; aguec s e rue*, ncludnc totowmg
REAL WORLD FIX \ look for Previous Repairs
1. Tie cruse 'Speed' control woud mc* out intermmentty. A technician was asked to fix the speedometer on a Portiac Grandfcrra
2. "he re«j irate warrq lamp would cane on esoecaly dwtng cold showed approximately double the actual speed Previous repairs had mtuoec •
new vetode speed sensor (VSSi and computer Nothing made any difference he
customer stated that the problem happened all of a sudder After hours cf rai-
~>e wmer nad replaced the pariung Irate switch th"<ing that was the tueshoobng, the customer just happened to mention that the automatic 7ar^--
cause sf Bie rec Orate warning amp comng or had been repaired snortty before the speedometer problem The root c a s e h
Ar expenenceo techraaar. cnected the wvng sagram or tne computer problem was discovered when the technician teamed that a final drive asse-:
tee Omc Onectaw the warrwig lamp arcut the technoar noticed that the from a 4T60-E transaxie had been installed on the 3T-40 transaxie The 4TS-E
jane went t Hie Crake flud level sensor The trare had was at the min-
final drive assembly has 13 reluctor teeth whereas the 3T-40 has 7 teetr
- v t m Rang Ihe -aster cytnder lo the maximum level with dean brake
difference m the number of teeth caused the speedometertoreadalmost 3. .:<
\ t c v t n c both proWems The eiectnywcs of the cruise canto stopped opera-
Bie actual vehicle speed After the corned part was installed, the speeder**
< r «*ier res; warring lamp was o^ as a safety measure
wotted correctly The technician now always asks if there has been an -ecr
worV performed on the vehicle before diagnosis is started
ELfCTRONIC ODOMETERS
Ar. OCGSJ! e t e r : ; a dash display that indicates the totai miles traveled ELECTRONIC SPEEDOMETER AND ODOMETER SERVICE
i v i e v e n c e . Some dash displays also include a trip odometer If the speedometer and odometer fail t o o p e r a t e , t h e speed sen- _
. ; t a c y •ese: a n d used to record total miles traveled on a trip or should be the first item c h e c k e d . W i t h t h e v e h i c l e s a f e l y r a i f t ;
- - t „ - a r t r a v e l e d b e t w e e n fuel t a p s . Electronic dash displays can the ground a n d s u p p o r t e d , d i s c o n n e c t t h e w i r e s f r o m t h e Sv
. .e e ar. e i e c o k a f l y driven mechanical odometer or a digital sensor near t h e o u t p u t s h a f t of t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n . C o n n e c t a ro' I
dbpla .3&-r eter to indicate miles traveled. A small electric meter set on A C volts to t h e t e r m i n a l s o f t h e s p e e d sensor -
- - ed a stepper motor is used to turn the number wheels of a r o u t e t h e drive w h e e l s w i t h t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n i n n e u t r a l . - -
m e c r a r J c a n . l e ocnnr.etet A pulsed voltage is fed to this stepper speed sensor should i n d i c a t e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 v o l t s A C i f l r i
- t>- •• -notes m relation to the miles traveled. See wheels are rotated by h a n d . If t h e s p e e d s e n s o r i s w o r k i n g - ^
F g a e 43-23. the wiring from t h e speed s e n s o r t o t h e d a s h c l u s t e r . If t h e w
L glial oC'-.r.erers u s e LED, LCD, or VTF displays to indicate e d. i n s t r u m e n t p a n e l ( I P ) s h o u l d b e s e n t I a sl-.
ên m u t , - b e retained w h e n the igni- pair facility. C o n s u l t y o u r local d e a l e r for t h e nearest a u t h o r
ices a • . Tted off or t h e b a t t e r y is disconnected, a special electronic pair facility.
c . p rr.v." be u s e ? m a t will retain t h e miles traveled. If t h e s p e e d o m e t e r o p e r a t e s c o r r e c t l y b u t t n e n ^
- p ca nonvolatile random-access odometer dof • not w o r k , t h e o d o m e t e r s t e p p e r motor, tne
m e m o r y (NVRAM), -onvoiatile m e a n s '.'at l i e information wheel assembly, or t h e circuit c o n t r o l l i n g t h e stepper mot ^
v *ed ' h e electronic tf-.ip s not I o n w h e n electrical power is fective. If t h e digital o d o m e t e r d o e s n o t o p e r a t e b u t t h e s p o • .
N i H M i S o m e vehicles use a c h i p called e l e c t r o n i c a l l y e r a s a - operates correctly, t h e n t h e d a s h c l u s t e r m u s t b e r e m . "
ble p r o f j r a m m a b l e r e a d o n l y m e m o r y IEEPROM). M t aVa
to a specialized repair facility. A r e p l a c e m e n t chip I s
juthortzed s o u r c e s , If Uic OOo
^ r t f l ! n u m b e r of m i l e s mi
... iv-Jefif chip
jk-tv Sortf g o f i v ^ i or.fy <t|aft>< l « ! W I tot

, - - , i r tte WHOP is turned off. Be c e r u I a k t e to.
I fg; yfcrr <|t«n{<Jhg 10 r e ^ ' - tf- o l tif.
> ^yfitOModometf.- chip* w e the type rr, ihirfS
*.'. v p r W i c i ^ ' r a t h e r Ifur, continixx
IT Eleclronlc Devices Cannol S r . -
:
H y r t r i t l M g e mini van oomp!a ned lhat a t e the *.- a ? . > '
FREOUEKTLJ i S ' l O QUC S T K H t 77
Wh! D k - . I k O « f m t i n t r ^ an M, F a r t
rt,v r i out«3- the temperature ga»g< fue' ga .-y r»J i p e - '
A'wa/s B e r t * 0 * ULtkfc1
ttoriwrtjng The vehicle speed sensor was c h e d e d and toird to t* !
j jquar? wav? signal that changed w"th yehWe speed A a c y to r c I fcrefotflfc*. to wtf or«- > -J* r » a ye: ]
asi i ret the speedometer dteptayed « r o ar the i»<t* fr t». art
r<ct te^ric^ checked the body computer to the rtgM ot toe a o .<• r v al pee, t V > i t \ pup » r •» IN**-"* tr J fl
»v'"Ofced that it had been wet—from the interior d e i - i r ^ D r y . ; h I n r r rar.i'«rat< tf »e r b a a i p w i ^ S a c ^ ' O - n 1
« n o t fu the probiem, but a replacement bod) compote* f u e l a' t c Tit s»r- dyte a r . - »• - yr- • • i
ftffaas The oA-wr ^ c o v e r e d that electronic de.'ces <Jo notte* »:•'• a- r i^". S r
M
cannot sw!m. fr re<»fr a r ^ ' j , r t r l r i r 9 * ^ sltct
I eafj f f t e sf ..-t g* h ^ . g ' i * II
o? p f r . - r t • I t r ^ < 5 a i- f j i O - J '
It S f V r v t k r flT p ^ y m . W . #%>") r<«Af k l B H l o (
* fte to-, ar f t * ^ rC »» » •« v 1 3
ElfCTRONIC F U E L - L E V E L G A U G E S
art t a ' t *
BeOdOjc fuel-level g a u g e s o r d i n a r i l y u s e t h e same f u e ' u - V J '
f ' - ' i u n i t as that used o n c o n v e n t i o n a l f u e ! gauges. T h e tank
• cofisists of a float a t t a c h e d t o a variable r e tor As t h e foe"
KA/KiATlON A M 6 P S
changes, the resistance of t h e s e n d i n g unit c h a n g e s A. -e
wjree of the tank unit c h a n g e s , t h e d a s h - m o u n t e d g ? a ' gJoba'p:- 'C- ' t j s > V « r fC^Sj Ic
roonfl fcarft
It j r o v i f c S r ^ ' " k r dr.i.r-
The only d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a digital fuel level gi- : a n d
g^ljtof-owm S ft f ki *r :
5: r
-t'tlojlffl n e e d l e t y p e is in t h e display. Digital fue: level ges,
or a bar graph display. A b a r g r a p h c o : - ^ of 1.-' s c ;

;
- be either n u m e r i c a l ( i n d i c a t i n g gallons o r liters- r e m a - £ in
k
States
use; I>K a -
of De '
F , A
often with e a c h s e g m e n t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a g a ' l o n o ' fue'

Ic-- Is op- <:ei ^ tt* l S e SetT'fiJ
'•^cironic circuits i n s i d e t h e c l u s t e r light t h e c o r r e c t n u n :-:: of RacAj'OuNf TN G- T>
cv-. Wa: y<c-.<?>:', I t t x
' remaining or t h e n u m b e r of s e g m e n t s , d e ; d i n g o - tf "e lOSOs r a flft-JU* )trt<sr< E Korea? M f . i t s . f i j ? 01 I t
; • « of the t a n k - s e n d i n g u n i t . For e x a m p l e , o l d r G c r . ^ M
sM do*" itr: I ha? f o x over j f ' * " ^ tpr\xir i ir- i e e 3 n * I T
tat units have 9 0 o h m s w h e n t h e fuel tank is full a - ' ?«- k~. M ) - a p f i V r u ' r, ri to 1 5 ™ j J O r
"-'when the tank is e m p t y . S e e F i g u r e 4 3 2 4 . "IhereJore. e v e r , use of t x C-fS ^ V f - t ' i i h a ' s t t x f e a r but wS) tev fcj-
used bs the TnitliC^ •
L'r J 2000, tv bocr)3t» av of ^ , 4 r
d e j - a d e d b) i oo«|H*eT oOed uka*-- r > • s A,
b^Tt kvto the sate" t W W a r t l i stgrvai A* - - JOOC, t r I Aw*<
oR, t * ' w i n g fccf -la* - ^ >,
b j n ^ y w ' J o r . Iror. (be C P > rtc< «ers. i
Ryvîor S y s J e r i P a r i s anc* O p e r t b o c s ,
u v the GP> ior tws\i tea r1 - ^ ' * ftr < •
The t u c ^ S y oofttjvflrr tectM l r Ri." » oOr
to4 i f . *
v
• CPSSj' fSisrka^ » to"
«n to toc*v
• 1** Sr or T> ' t » . * - •
tfs.- a l ' e d I V at" - 1 wtetx ^ * ••

1
fcrce of gr« • '.t>
K> r w s t a w C t* c « > » *
488
s -V\,
OIL PRESSURE GAUGE
OIL PRESSURE
SENDER
|-J (VARIABLE RESISTANCE FROM 10-74 OHMS)
F i g u r e 4 3 - 2 6 A typical magnetc and pressure gauge circuit. Notice that the oil pressure
gauge reading depends on the resistance of the sensor. The lower the resistance, the Ingle
the oil pressure on most Ford vehicles.
OIL PRESSURE GAUGE
Bo
OIL PRESSURE
SWITCH
(NORMALLY OPEN)
(CLOSES AT 4.5-7.5 PSI)
switch
F i g u r e 4 3 - 2 7 Whenever the oil pressure exceeds 4.5 to 7.5 PSI, Ihe oil
F%urt 43-25 ai A R y d dash display with the key on. engine off lb) As soon as the engine
closes and the meter reads in about the middle of its range due to the fixed 20-olun resistof
cars > pressure gauge goes immediately to tne midpoint on the gauge This seems
in the meter circuit.
5 tc some wtucte owners.
Vehicle Speed S e n s o r — T h i s sensor input is used by the naviga-

• -oKrcdler 'o determine the speed and distance the vehicle
•ra e.,. This Information is compiled and compared to the digital
- i - A GPS iatellite inputs to locate the vehicle.
Audio O u t p u t / I n p u t Voice-activated factory units use a built-in
.. .. . . a , jjjp c e n t e r top 0 f t h e windshield and the audio
spea/trrs speech o u t p u t
toe* the Government Know Where I Am?
"-e --. siqns;-. from the satellites and uses the signals
.. , - - r j y v, y f s f i e position if the vehicle is equipped with OnStar,
-t- -jr-i' -jf moc'itored by the use of the cellular telephone
'.-'.'k >. v.-'--, iWess <r». yehide has a cellular phone connection to
-- , . - v > r WO*, ir.-, will know the location of the vehicle are F i g u r e 4 3 - 2 8 Global positioning systems use 24 satellites In high eartn or
re j m . -woe<*wrsg'henavigationscreen. signals are picked up by navigation systems The navigation system compul' 1
calculates the location based on the position o l the satellite overhead
jfc , 4J-29 The navigation control unit is located in the trunk ot this Acura. Figure 43-30 I w c i a i y i
m m a x e s K Hew tactoa i t * .
Navigation systems i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g c o m p o n e n t s :
s e n s ® a n d v e t u d e s p e e d s e n s e c T h e following s y m p t o m s m a ?
1. A screen display o c c u r a n d b e a c u s t o m e r axop^nL K n o w i n g h o w t h e s y s t e m maF
2. A GPS antenna f u n c t i o n s h e l p s t o itetanwae the most liteSy cause.
3. A navigation control unit that u s u a l l y h a s a D V D w i t h t h e m a p
information. See Figure 4 3 - 2 0 . • If the vehicle icoo j u a p s d o w n t h e road, a Jault with t h e v e h i d e
s p e e d fVSl s e n s o r i n p u t i s matr ndScared-
The DVD includes s t r e e t n a m e s a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g :
• If the icon -rsates on the screen, but Use vehicle is not being driven
1 ; wits of interest |POI). T h e s e i n c l u d e a u t o m a t e d t e l l e r m a c h i n e s in circles, a fault with the y a w sensor or v w sensor input to t h e
ATMs), restaurants, schools, colleges, m u s e u m s , s h o p p i n g , a n d navigation controller is fretiramd
sports, as well as vehicle dealer locations. • If t h e i c o n g o e s a f i c o u r s e and s t o w s t h e w t s d e oo a road that it
2. Business addresses and t e l e p h o n e n u m b e r s a s w e l l a s h o t e l s a n d is n o t o n , a f a u l t with t h e GPS a n x e s i a s .ndicated.
restaurants. If the telephone n u m b e r i s listed i n t h e b u s i n e s s t e l e -
phone book, it can usually be displayed o n t h e n a v i g a t i o n s c r e e n .
If the telephone n u m b e r of t h e business i s k n o w n , t h e l o c a t i o n TECH T I P %/ Toad) S c r e e n Tip
can be displayed.
Most venae nsvâaor w s e " s use a w saner "or use o» the am a am-
sengerto nput recnaior or after or-scrser rrompB Most t u t > s o m a m f>
Private residences or cellular telephone numbers are not included i •tared beams projects bv f e t o e W o o f f r p u j c r a » i » s e r w to torn a
lata base of telephone numbers stored on the navigation system DM 1 and the svster- defces «IVE r Pie scree a t -caiec Of *V a Jxi '
the beams t a t are cut 3c not rusr Tarw x - y j h v > ' s * ir«t -togs •?
spend or damage B toe J s p a ant m * occur t no S W W ss fctoctod «mrr
lurn-by-tum directions can b e p r o v i d e d t o a d d r e s s e s t h a t a r e
iigrthr depressup ? * strsw- - a a B t h e ^ n g K t B t a u s e t t i e r ^ w e a t u B - s f c b e c j t
selected by:
' Points of interest (POI)
' Typed in using a k e y b o a r d s h o w n o n t h e d i s p l a y
S o m e t i m e s t h e -.jv.g3r.0r. s v s t e m itself w i l l dispiav a warnim
'to navigation u n i t t h e n o f t e n a l l o w s t h e u s e r t o s e l e c t t h e t h a t v i e w s from t h e sateliae arc not b e n g r e c e i v e d . See Figure 43- •.
® way to the d e s t i n a t i o n , as w e l l a s t h e s h o r t e s t w a y , o r h o w A l w a y s follow t h e displayed i n s t r u c t i o n s .
avoid toll roads. See Figure 4 3 - 3 0 .
FREQUENTLY A S K E D Q U E S T I O N
Window Tinting C a n Hurt GPS Reception
. 'Woty-installed navigation systems use a GPS antenna inside the ree What Is Navigation-Enhanced Climate Control?
, or under the rear package shelf. If a metalired window tint s a;v Some vehoes sue", as we Acura At. use data t i w the uv gaten s
" "'ar glass, the signal strength from the GPS satellites can be .-.:,.. t hetp control the automatic dmute control system OMiaDouttNt ocatwi *TC
'•'"'Wr concern includes inaccurate or nonfunctioning navigat* K vat** includes;
r
. !"*snddM~-This mtormefionariewstheautomate .wneto .vrtroi
system to determine where the sun is tocatud
. Dncton ol fttwf-Tha navigation system can afc»i V P the e - m
and S e r v i c e For t h e c o r r e c t f u n c t i o n i n g o
1
certoi system dstemnne the dmtion ot ttave
, system, t h r e e i n p u t s ctre n e e d e d , including:
As a result ot the «iput from me ramgafcr svsssm w a m n m arwto
i ! > n
control system can control cabn tenvwature r. jotter 10 s Mr m h
.Sfan
in the vet** For sample iflft»vefi*»t«Mtowe<inss**
Juty, the climate control system could emsm :MI »*• pass*** < HE
da would be warmed more by the sur than me .sâr > skip jno could n®
v N v i g a t i o n system u s e s t h e G P S satellite and n u p data t<
K a airflowtothe passenger skie to hetp 0 • w m » to tr* , v . . . . \ <*m <4
' location. D i r e c t i o n a n d s p e e d are d e t e r m i tod bv t'-<
^ ""Cimii.: mil
«c seer**.
The OnStar system includes t h e f o l l o w u -tures which

c
vary d e p e n d i n g on t h e level of service desired ;
hich will affec,
cost per m o n t h .
• A u t o m a t i c N o t i f i c a t i o n of A i r b a g D e p l o y m if the
deployed, the advisor is notified immediately and attempts to""-
the vehicle. If there is no reply, or if t h e occupants repon an em I
gency, the advisor will contact e m e r g e n c y servi f , and give the-
the location of the vehicle.
• E m e r g e n c y S e r v i c e s . If the red b u t t o n is pushed, OnStar
immediately locates the vehicle and contacts the nearest
emergency service agency.
• Stolen Vehicle Location A s s i s t a n c e .If a vehicle is reponed
stolen, a call center advisor can track t h e vehicle.
• R e m o t e Door U n l o c k . An OnStar advisor can send a c e l l u l a r tele
phone message to the vehicle to unlock the vehicle if needed.
4 3 - 3 1 * n w taptsy of i rawgation system that is unable to acquire usable
• Roadside A s s i s t a n c e . W h e n called, an O n S t a r a d v i s o r can locate
a towing company or locate a provider w h o c a n b r i n g gasoline or
change a flat tire.
• Accident A s s i s t a n c e . An OnStar advisor is able t o h e l p with the
best way to handle an accident. The advisor c a n s u p p l y a step-by
step checklist of the things that should be d o n e p l u s call t h e
insurance company, if desired.
• R e m o t e H o r n a n d Lights. The OnStar system is tied into t h e
lights and horn circuits so an advisor can activate them if requester
to help the owner locate the vehicle in a parking lot or g a r a g e .
• Vehicle Diagnosis. Because t h e OnStar s y s t e m is t i e d t o the
PCM, an OnStar advisor can help with diagnosis if t h e r e is a fault
detected. The system works as follows:
• The malfunction indicator light (MIL) (check engine) c o m e s o n
to warn the driver that a fault has been detected.
• The driver can depress the OnStar button to t a l k t o a n advisor
and ask for a diagnosis.
• The OnStar advisor will send a signal to the vehicle requesting
F i g u r e 4 3 - 3 2 The mree-Bunon OnStar contra on the inside rearview mirror. The left
the status from the power train control module (PCM), as well
viaet iconi is pushed it a hands-free cellular call is to be made The
1 t o contact an OnStar advisor and the right emergency button is
as the controller for the antilock brakes and the a i r b a g module.
: to - e o u M t a t t w o be sent to the vehicle's location • The vehicle then sends any diagnostic trouble codes t o the
advisor. The advisor can then inform the driver a b o u t the
importance of the problem and give advice a s to w h a t t o d o to
OUSTAR have the problem resolved.
Parts and Operation OnStar is a system that includes the fol- D i a g n o s i s a n d S e r v i c e T h e O n S t a r system can fail t o meet flu
w a n n t functions: needs of the customer if any of t h e following conditions occur:
I . Cei. telephone 1. Lack of cellular telephone service in the area.
2 . 0 '.'. posr ning antenna and computer 2. Poor global positioning system ( G P S ) signals, w h i c h c a n prevent a.
r l a- ... aandard or opuonal on most General Motors vehicles OnStar advisor from determining the position of t h e vehicle-
a- - ^ - other brands and models, to help the driver in an emer- 3. Transport of the vehicle by truck or ferry so that it is out i
vr< " . prov.de other services. Ihe cellular telephone is used to contact with the GPS satellite system in order for an advisor
- - - t »: -i-.e dnver from advisors at service centers. The ad properly track the vehicle.
•..-' v e v-rrtce center is able to see the location of the vehicle as
If all of the above are okay and the problem still exists, follo^*
-ir.." ta GPS antenna and computer system in the vehi
vice information diagnostic and repair procedures. If a n e * ^
' - s p Hi. OnStar does nor display the location of the vehicle to communication interface m o d u l e (VCIM) is installed in the folio"
•iv> i r -- . - . ' . . • : < • / e h . c l e . also equipped with a navigation system. the electronic serial number (ESN) m u s t be tied to the vehicle.
to follow
.' ' •• " A* NEGATION systems, the OnStar system requires a service information instructions for t h e exact procedures
- •- . 'r '-ax '/a first introduced in 1 W 6 as an option on
v. - ".'/"-• Early versions used a handheld cellular
•i> « c v - v e r :r itr, used a group of three-buttons mounted BACKUP C A M E R A
- -:-- - „••; a hands free cellular telephone. Parts and Operation A backup c a m e r a l s u s e ^ o « ^ J
V" • / 32. area at the rear of the vehicle In a screen display on the a ^ }
.<-...- .v-d ar.alog ' s ..at :/-rvite while later versions the gear selector is placed in reverse. Backup cameras
i •-•: • i fr service until 2007. After 2007, called reversing cameras or rear view cameras.
a (Jf&>•*: . : - • •>••.. , / - 1 c f n .lar'-^rvlce, which means that Backup cameras are different f r o m normal cameras irnapC
,v:-. /. et> « u > o r s . y need «> r>- upgraded. the image displayed on the dash is flipped so it is a mirr
Chapter 43. Driver Information and Navigation Systems 491
Always follow t h e vehicle manufacturer's r e c o m m e n d e d diag

nosis and repair procedures.
BACKUP SENSORS
Components Backup sensors are used to w a r n the driver if
there is an object behind the vehicle while backing. T h e system
L <:d General Motors vehicles is called R e a r P a r k Assist (RPA)
and includes the following components:
• Ultrasonic ob e : t sensors built into the rear bumper assembly

• A display with three lights usually located inside the vehicle above
the rear window and visible to the driver in the rear view mirror
• An electronic control module that uses an input from the transmis-
sion range switch and lights the warning lamps needed w h e n the
vehicle gear selector is in Reverse
Operation The three ght display includes two amber lights and
A typical view displayed on the navigation screen from the backup camera. o n e red light The following lights are displayed d e p e n d i n g on the
Frgure 43-33
distance from the rear b u m p e r :
• One amber .amp w zht hen the vehicle is in Reverse and

traveling at less than 3 mph 5 k m / b I and the sensors detect an
object 5 feet to 4 0 inches from the rear b u m p e r A chime also
sounds once when an object is detected to warn the driver to look
at the rear-parking assist display. See Figure 4 3 - 3 5 .
• Two amber lamps light w h e n the distance between the rear
bumper and an object is between 2 0 and 4 0 inches 150 and
100 cm) and the chime will sound again.
• Two amber lamps and the red lamp light and the chime sounds
continuously when the distance between the rear bumper and the
object is between I I and 2 0 inches 2 8 and 5 0 cmi.
If the distance between the rear b u m p e r and the object is less

Figure 43—34 A typical fisheye-type backup camera usually located near the center on the than 11 inches | 2 8 cm . ail indicator lamps flash and the chime will
•earof the vefiicie near the license plate. sound continuously.
The ultrasonic sensors e m b e d d e d in the rear b u m p e r "fire" in
"• scene at the rear of t h e v e h i c l e . T h i s r e v e r s i n g of the image is dividually every 150 ms 2 7 times per second See Figure 4 3 - 3 6 .
' " M because the driver a n d t h e c a m e r a a r e facing in opposite The sensors fire and then receive a return signal and arm to
erections. Backup c a m e r a s w e r e first u s e d in large vehicles with fire again in sequence from the left sensor to t h e right sensor.
wed rearward visibility, s u c h as m o t o r h o m e s . M a n y vehicles Each sensor has three wires:
' Mpped with navigation s y s t e m s t o d a y i n c l u d e a backup camera
added safety while b a c k i n g . S e e Figure 4 3 - 3 3 . 1. An 8-volt supp. v wire from the RPA module is used to power
lr
ie backup c a m e r a u s e d c o n t a i n s a wide-angle or fisheye lens the sensor
largest v i e w i n g a r e a . S e e Figure 4 3 - 3 4 . Most backup
weras are pointed d o w n w a r d so t h a t objects on the ground, as
walls, are displayed.
ll a
' 9nosis a n d S e r v i c e Faults in t h e b a c k u p camera system
* J * plated to the c a m e r a itself, t h e display, or the connecting
.' 'he main input to t h e display u n i t c o m e s from the trans
j" w range switch w h i c h signals t h e b a c k u p camera w h e n the
" f a o n is shifted into Reverse.
^ " " e c k the transmission r a n g e s w i t c h , c h e c k the following:
' if the backup (reverse) lights function when the gear s. A ctor
11'• " c e d ' * R everse with the ignition key on-engine off |KOEO).
the transm
When i ' s s l o n 'ransaxle is fully engaged in reverse
'he selector is placed in reverse.
M
°stofthe other diagnosis involves visual inspection, including:
1 hecktb a c k u p
1. r
3
sr scree
c a m e r a f r dama e
° 8 -
-',!„.,.j,
'"Ck ih
n display for proper operation.
p.vf/,.. vp*
or e wlrin
« from the rear camera to the body Is not cut Figure 43-35 A typical backup
vehicle ttie warning lights are visible m Ac
ELECTRONIC DASH INSTRUMENT DIAL S
AND TROUBLESHOOTING
If o n e or m o r e electronic dash g a u g e s d o n o t
check the W O W display t h a t lights all s e g r
w h e n e v e r the ignition s w i t c h is first s w i t c h e d
• a ?
If alh
the display d o not operate, t h e n t h e e n t i r e el onic C h^nts°j
be replaced in most cases, if all s e g m e n t s o p e r a i . d ju n
r HnTr^ttT
i n g the WQ^
display but do not f u n c t i o n c o r r e c t l y a f t e r w a r d
Problem»
most often a defective sensor or d e f e c t i v e w i r i n g t o t h e j ^
All dash instruments e x c e p t t h e v o l t m e t e r use a vari
resistance unit as a sensor for t h e s y s t e m b e i n g monitored M
new-vehicle dealers are r e q u i r e d t o p u r c h a s e essential test ?
ment, including a test u n i t t h a t p e r m i t s t h e technician to T '
various fixed-resistance v a l u e s in t h e s u s p e c t e d circuit. For & T
pie, if a 45-ohm resistance is p u t i n t o t h e fuel gauge circuit th-
reads from 0 to 9 0 o h m s , a p r o p e r l y o p e r a t i n g dash unit should
indicate one-half tank. T h e s a m e t e s t e r c a n p r o d u c e a fixed sir
"ôre *3-36 " - c una buttons m ffie rear bumper are ultrasonic sensors used to
to test the operation of t h e s p e e d o m e t e r a n d tachometer, re-
type of special test e q u i p m e n t is n o t available, t h e electronic dash
instruments can be tested using t h e f o l l o w i n g procedure:
2. - w or ground wire
3 - r a ne -sed to send and receive commands to and from the 1. With the ignition switched off, u n p l u g t h e wire(s) from the sen
K M module sor for the function being tested. For e x a m p l e , if the oil pressureH
gauge is not functioning correctly, u n p l u g t h e wire connector at
Diagnosis T-< rear parking assist control module is capable of the oil pressure-sending unit.
z* a and storing diagnostic trouble codes (DTCsi. If a fault 2. With the sensor wire u n p l u g g e d , t u r n t h e ignition switch on
- selected bv '.he control module, the red lamp flashes and the and wait until the W O W display stops. T h e display for the
. : sab ed. Follow service information diagnostic procedures be- affected unit should s h o w e i t h e r fully lighted segments or no
. . - --.-:• rear parking assist module cannot usually be accessed using a lighted segments, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m a k e of the vehicle and the
" •... Mas- systems use the warning lights to indicate trouble codes. type of sensor.
3. Turn the ignition switch off. C o n n e c t t h e sensor wire lead to
ground and turn the ignition s w i t c h o n . After the WOW display,
Check lor Repainted Bumper the display should be the opposite (either fully on or fully off) of
the results in step 2.
. v ? " s c s embedded in the bumper are sensitive to paint thickness
P K a o s e 9 * paint covers the sensors If the system does not seem to be re- Testing Results If t h e e l e c t r o n i c display d o e s function fully on
s x f o ->? to odtects and if the bumper has been repainted, measure the paint and fully off with t h e s e n s o r u n p l u g g e d a n d t h e n grounded, the
* s s j s m q a norterrous paint thickness gauge. The maximum allowable problem is a defective sensor. If t h e e l e c t r o n i c display fails to func
p a -1 - « - » n e s s is 6 mils (0 006 inch or 0 .15 mm). tion fully on and fully off w h e n t h e s e n s o r wire(s) are opened ana
grounded, the problem is usually in t h e w i r i n g f r o m the sensor
the electronic dash or it is a d e f e c t i v e e l e c t r o n i c cluster
LANE DEPARTURE WARNING SYSTEM Whenever working on or near any type of electronic dash dispj
Parts and Operation The l a n e d e p a r t u r e w a r n i n g s y s t e m always wear a wire attached to your wrist (wrist strap) connected » » £ •
LDW5) . • -a to detect if the vehicle is crossing over lane body ground to prevent damaging the electronic dash with static elei. -
- jr.es ir. the pavement. Some systems use two cameras,
- - --.'. .-•.--. - each outside rearview mirror. Some systems use
-.••-: •- seated under the front bumper to monitor the 1 1 / Keep S t o c k Overall Tire Diameter
ir * - : • *.3 jr. t h e road surface. and
•• - n:- detect that the vehicle is starting to cross over a Whenever larger (or smaller) w h e e l s or tires are installed, t h e speedornetej^
follows
• -. - . r,e. a w a r n i n g chime will sound or a vibrating odometet calibration are also t h r o w n off. T h i s c a n be s u m m a r i z e d
-- - " m the driver's seat cushion is triggered on IW
• Larger-diameter tires. The speed showing on t h e speedometer is
- • • • - d e o a t u r e ts being detected. This w a r n i n g will tha
the actual speed. The odometer reading will show fewer miles '^'l^ttian
.••-•.- on m the same direction as detected.
• Smaller-diameter tires. The speed showing o n the speedometei is ^
the actual speed. The odometer reading will show more miles than a ^
Diagnosis and Service Before attempting to service or repair
• H'f- - . : - , - - - -.; v ten ' f a u l t , check service information General Motors trucks can be recalibrated with a #
tor ar. e i p t « « £ S o n o n tow the system is supposed to work. If the (1988-1991) or with a replacement controller assembly called
. -- --.- / - , .. > . v . * * . perform a visual inspection of adapter controller (DRAC) located under t h e dash. It m a y be pos® ^ d e s
- - •• ••}•••/.• '.<,- damage from road debris or brate the speedometer and odometer on earlier models, before 1 1 •• ^ g s t f
... • > . - • A T r, ouid affect the sensors. After a that use speedometer cables by replacing the drive gear in t h ,
^ | C e d
m -- « •'• r i' > manufacturer's r e c o m m e n d e d Check service information for the procedure for t h e vehicle b e i n g s '
a ; •/ -.•, -. ar.d repair the fault in t h e system.
UW0UH 4JI UilVW IIUWIIHIWIJM NSvi&SbM SyifaM 4*3
PENANCE REMINDER LAMPS SUMMARY

^ - ^ T r e m l n d e r lamps indicate that t ~hould be
1. Most digital and analog ineedle-typei dash gauges use variable resistance
*'Win ed or that o t h e r s e r v i c e is r e q u i r e d , i
extinguish a m a i n t e n a n c e reminder
2. Dash warning lamps are called telltale lamps.
^ u s e of a s p e c i a l t o o l . C o n s u l t s e r v i c e l i t e r a t u r e or d e a l e r s h i p
;. ' n n e l for t h e e x a c t p r o c e d u r e f o r t h e vef if 3. Many electronically operated or computer-operated dash indicators
require that a service manual be used to perform accurate diagnosis.
-Sample- to reset the oil s e r v i c e reminder t <v, r .
'eneral Motors v e h i c l e s , y o u h a v e t o p e r f o r m t h e f o l l o w i n g ; 4. Permanent magnet PM| generators produce an AC signal and are used
for vehicle speed and wheel speed sensors.
Turn the ignition k e y o n ( e n g i n e off).
.. e pl2 Depress t h e a c c e l e r a t o r p e d a l t h r e e t i m e s and hold d o w n or REVIEW QUESTIONS
[he fourth.
1. Explain the difference between thermoelectric and electromagnetic dash
, e p # 3 When the r e m i n d e r light f l a s h e s , r e l e a s e t h e accelerator instruments.
pedal. 2. Describe LED. LCD, VTF, and CRT dash displays.
yeplM Turn the ignition k e y t o t h e off position. 3. Discuss how to diagr e a protlerr v h a red brake-warning top.
. ? p#5 Start the e n g i n e a n d t h e light s h o u l d be off. 4. Explain how to test the dash unit of a fuel gauge.
PHOTO SEQUENCE Fuel Gauge Diagnosis
10
™E
Observe the fuel gauge. This General Motors P43-2 Consult the factory service manual for the P43-3 A WSUE ispectw) indicated that the
"••-'e* shows an indicated reading of slightly a b o v e specifications, wire color, and recommended test electrical winng and connector were not damaged or
me-halftank. procedure. corroded
-
. J o test resistance of the sending unit (tank P43-5 Following the schematic In the service mama P43-6 The meter displays 50 ohms or siightfy above
digital multimeter and select ohms (ii) the sending unit resistance can be measured between the mwdle of the normal resistance value for the
the pink and the black wires in the connector vehicle of 012 (empty) to 9012 <fuii.
P43-8 As the connector is disconnected, the needle P43-9 After a couple of seconds the "eecie
•"fiectw r k ' ' ^ d a s h u n l t can move, the
of the dash unit moves toward full disappears above the fu wading "he ooer. comecw
^ unplugged with the ignition key on
represented infinity ohms and mmai maarwn
P43-11 A cheds of a dash unit indicated that the P 4 3 - 1 2 After testing, reconnect the electrical
-leeifle ooes accurately read empty connectors and verify for proper operation of the fug.
level gauge
CHAPTER QUIZ 0. Technician A says that LCDs may be slow to work at low temperatuip
Technician B says that an LCD dash display can be damaged if pr®-:
t. ' s - "- e r r on m iacjsang a fuel gauge oil a General Motors vehicle. is exerted on the front of the display during cleaning. Which technician
-- j.- \ says (bat f the ground wire connection to the fuel tank correct?
- r b e c o r ^ rusty or corroded, the fuel gauge will read lower than a. Technician A only
- srr.4. . n a a a n B says that If the power lead to the fuel tank-sending b. Technician B only
K : : • xrner.-^d ftotn the tank unit and grounded 'ignition on), the fuel
- -MR (Moid f i to empqr. Which technician is correct? d. Neither Technician A nor B
a. Teclsr tan A only
7. Technician A says that backup sensors use LEDs to detect objects. Tectu
b. T e d B s a a n B ooty
cian B says that a backup sensor will not w o r k correctly If the paint _
c Both Teetmiaans A and B
thicker than 0.006 in. Which technician is correct?
d. . V -her Technician A nor B
2. i- . pr«-s .re warning lamp on a General Motors vehicle is on all b. Technician B only
"fee tax, ye< t i e engine oil pressure is normal, the problem could c. Both Technicians A and B
ae d. Neither Technician A nor B
a. A i t f c c O K s h o r e d ' oil pressure sending unit (sensorl
8. Technician A says that metal-type tinting can affect the n a v i g a t i o n system
b- A aêctlve '.pen i oil pressure-sending unit Isensor)
Technician B says most navigation systems require a monthly payment fo
c . Ar. wire between the sending unit Isensor! and the dash
use of the GPS satellite. Which technician is correct?
wanung lamp
d. k/ifcandc
I -' : - - . . ' - drops to berween 3 and 7 PSI, the oil pressure lamp c. Both Technicians A and B
igsbr d. Neither Technician A nor B
a. Opening the circulr
9. Technician A says that the data displayed on the dash can come fror
b V o r j a g the circuit
engine computer. Technician B says that t h e entire dash a s s e m b l y may in" I
c . Crrrjnding die circuit
to be replaced even if just one unit fails. W h i c h technician is correct?
d. V^sdactjrtg cjrrern to the dash lamp by oil
* • !-- r.i .amp or. the dash remains on whenever the Ignition is on. b. Technician B only
tr* p---A.ir» differential switch lusually a part of a comblna c. Both Technicians A and B
- • mrr 'he master cylinder) is unplugged, the dash lamp d. Neither Technician A nor B
/ - « - .- V— r a u y s that this is an indication of a feult In the 10. How does changing the size of the tires affect the speedometer reading
- T e r - . r an B-jys that the problem Is probably due a. A smaller-diameter tire causes the speedometer to read Faster
r v e t • „ Maine cable switch. Which technician is correct? than actual speed and m o r e than actual mileage on the
a. icar A vrjf odometer.
b nr. mtor.fi b. A smaller-diameter tire causes t h e speedometer to read s s '
c fafr J e r t n t c a r i A and B than the actual speed and less than the actual mileage on tl»
4. - • ryjn AnorB odometer.
5 - . .-,-, •'">••- r.t the btfits are turned on In the vehicle, c. A larger-diameter tire causes the s p e e d o m e t e r to read fas-'-
- - ts- - ATHI the meat probable explanation? the actual speed and m o r e t h a n t h e actual mileage on the
a. v i -torforLED dash dispiayi odometer.
b sc.* frx VTf dash t'.-iplays d. A larger diameter tire causes t h e speedometer to read --i1 '
c , • ^ n v a voltage drop to the daih than the actual speed and m o r e t h a n t h e actual mileage on
Map odometer.
r - t e - ' c a t n e r ) by a short to-voltage
A e fo-iifUgi > and dash iisptay
d Blower
ill IS
ajfCTIVES: After s t u d y i n g C h a p t e r 4 4 , t h e r e a d e r will b e a b l e to: Prepare for ASE Electrical/Electronic Systems (A6) certification test content area
Jjoti and Wiper/Washer D i a g n o s i s a n d Repair) a n d content area "H" (Accessories Diagno i and Repair: • Describe how the horn operates.
components of a wiper circuit • Explain how the blower motor can run at different speeds.
(pfttBMS; horns p u l s e w i p e r s • rain s e n s e module (RSM) • rain-sense wipers • series-wound field • shunt field • variable-delay wipers
, a-ndshield wipers
by t h e d i a p h r a g m i s m a g n i f i e d a s i t travels t h r o u g h a t r u m p e t a t t a c h e d
r»iectrical a c c e s s o r i e s p r o v i d e c o m f o r t a n d a s s i s t a n c e to t h e driver and
t o t h e d i a p h r a g m c h a m b e r M o s t h o r n s y s t e m s typically u s e o n e o r
Eoassengers. T h e g r o w i n g l i s t of e l e c t r i c a l a c c e s s o r i e s m a k e s this an
t w o horns, but s o m e h a v e u p t o four. T h o s e w i t h multiple h o m s
5a of much c o n c e r n to v e h i c l e o w n e r s a n d s e r v i c e t e c h n i c i a n s
u s e b o t h high a n d l o w - p i t c h u n i t s t o a c h i e v e a h a r m o n i o u s t o n e .
Only a high-pitched onit is u s e d in s i n g l e - h o r n a p p l i c a t i o n s . T h e
HORNS h o r n a s s e m b l y is m a r k e d w i t h a n " H " o r " L " f o r p i t c h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n .
Horns a r e d e v i c e s t h a t e m i t a l o u d s o u n d a n d v e h i c l e s h a v e o n e o r H o m s are m a n u f a c t u r e d in several different t o n e s or frequen-

: horns. S e e F i g u r e 4 4 - 1 . W h e n t w o h o r n s are used, each has a cies r a n g i n g b e t w e e n 1 , 8 0 0 a n d 3 , 5 5 0 h e r t z . V e h i c l e m a n u f a c t u r e r s
, fferent tone w h e n o p e r a t e d s e p a r a t e l y , y e t t h e s o u n d combines c a n select f r o m v a r i o u s h o m t o n e s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r v e h i c l e s o u n d .
v-en both are o p e r a t e d . A u t o m o t i v e h o r n s a r e u s u a l l y w i r e d di-
Horn System Diagnosis T h e r e a r e t h r e e t y p e s of h o r n failure:
ed-/ t o b a t t e r y v o l t a g e f r o m t h e f u s e p a n e l . T h e m a j o r i t y of a u t o -
fciles, except f o r m o s t F o r d s , u t i l i z e a h o r n relay. W i t h a relay, • No h o m operation
1.1horn button o n t h e s t e e r i n g w h e e l o r c o l u m n c o m p l e t e s a cir- • Intermittent operation
to ground t h a t c l o s e s a r e l a y , a n d t h e h e a v y c u r r e n t flow • C o n s t a n t operation
•quired b y t h e h o r n t h e n t r a v e l s f r o m t h e relay to t h e h o r n . See
rare 4 4 - 2 . S o m e o l d e r s y s t e m s d o n o t u s e a relay, a n d c u r r e n t If a h o r n d o e s n o t o p e r a t e a t all, c h e c k f o r :
supplied d i r e c t l y t o t h e h o r n t h r o u g h a s w i t c h in t h e s t e e r i n g • Burned fuse or f u s i t : e link

column. • O p e n circuit
A vehicle h o r n is a n a c t u a t o r t h a t c o n v e r t s a n e l e c t r i c a l signal
• Defective h o m
•j'Jnd. The h o r n c i r c u i t i n c l u d e s a n a r m a t u r e a n d c o n t a c t s t h a t
• Faulty relay
-'-- i'tached to a d i a p h r a g m . W h e n e n e r g i z e d , t h e a r m a t u r e c a u s e s
• Defective h o m s w i t c h
iiaphragm to v i b r a t e a t a n a u d i b l e f r e q u e n c y . T h e s o u n d c r e a t e d
If a h o r n o p e r a t e s i n t e r m i t t e n t l y , c h e c k f o r :
• Loose c o n t a c t a t t h e s w i t c h
• Loose, frayed, or b r o k e n w i r e s
• Defective relay
HORN
BUTTON
HORNS
-"«not 1Wo h o , n s o n
" l i s vehicle were finally located under the front bumper F i g u r e 4 4 - 2 A typical hom circuit Note that the hom AUSOP coiwretes De : x r e : r:u*
" • " e until the vehicle was hoisted tor the relay
A v.~ M ••,-..-.:> v V . a n d c a t w o t b e - h u t of? is
.:.; ._s<>j •-. - >-. > tr-at a r e st;>ck c l o s e d , c r a short-to-
^ c \ .• ' > . . n a y b e t h e resell of a d e f e c t i v e
V " " . • > • • . •• • • • .:• ... .v:.ck ' y ; a ^ c o n : K t s k e e p the circuit MOUNTING
,\*8WijfSe s o ':".< v..--.- . D v . ' v w ! the h o m and SOU
•dfcwit c c r " ' - "•' "- - :*< h o m s w i t c h a n d r e l a y t o l o c a t e t h e

. v . . t>c*.%' t h e o m b t e n i .
V r ' " ' J c a i . v e erf ar. n c p e n t t r e horn, use a
..-„->- ir,;.. ect r t v . d to p o s i t , , e p o s t of t h e b a t t e r y HORN
ar: •• r e - c ~ r . t o :r e w i r e t e r m i n a l of t h e h o r n itself. If t h e h o m
« '<< ; r ; p . - o t a l e n > r. t h e , i r e . : s u p p l y i n g c u r r e n t t o t h e h o r n .
cr
: r c v ™ -Sore - v * - x o r i c . . c h< m hsdf c o u l d b e d e f e c t i v e o r t h e RIGHT °SSMEMBER
m resting S o c k e t s a n r r o t b e p j w k t a $ a good ground.
3 rt":3C.;-.tr!. "orr retired. a t t e m p t t o u s e a h o m of t h e
s i r e J J M as I I k Tr.e t o n e :s u s u a l l y i n d i c a t e d b y a n u m -
ber - e r . - . : s : . i m p e d o r . t h e b o d y of t h e h o m .
Hofn Service W - - -n a t f u n c t t o n s , e r c u i t tests a r e m a d e

: a e : . - ~ "c J t h e h o r n , r e - a y , s w i t c h , o r w i r i n g is t h e s o u r c e of
. . v ",-rica.iv. i a . c t a l m u l t i m e t e r DMA'-- is used t o per-
. : K i g e i r o c a n d c o n t i n u i t y c h e c k s t o isolate t h e failure.
M M j M M » i A - o n - - . n t a r y c o n t a c t s w i t c h Is u s e d to s o u n d
the - . r \ T b e h e m s w i t c h is m o u n t e d t o t h e s t e e r i n g w h e e l in t h e
. - e r r e r •• : r e s : s ? e n r . g c d H u m n o n s o m e m o d e l s , a n d Is p a r t of a mul- CROSSMEMBER LEFT
-r-AV t e n m t a i l e d o n t h e s t e e r i n g c o i u m n o n o t h e r m o d e l s .
See F gure 4 4 3 T h « e m a y require p u l l i n g o n t h e stalk o r depress-
; a t x t t t i M c ~ t h e e n d of t h e s t a l k t o s o u n d t h e h o m . figure 44-4 Homs typica lr mount to the fadiatw core support or brads* at r e tot-
t - i s \ . t c h h a s b e e n d i s c o n n e c t e d from t h e c i r c u i t , it is eas- ttieneN*.
-, i n o h m T . e W . There should be continuitv through
• - t cite • w h e n t h e h o m s w i t c h is d e p r e s s e d . H o m s w i t c h re-
c o n n e c t i o n s f o r t h e h o r n a r e c l e a n a n d t i g h t . M o s t horns g t . : :
: .:. . m e r i t n s . - . i i l e r e m o v i n g t h e s t e e r i n g w h e e l t o g a i n access
t h e chassis t h r o u g h t h e m o u n t i n g b o l t s . H i g h g r o u n d c i r c u i t re
t . cocnecaoos and mountings.
t a n c e d u e to c o r r o s i o n , r o a d d i r t , o r l o o s e f a s t e n e r s may c a t . •
- - • : r e - r . - i d e l v e h i c l e s , t h e h o m r e l a y is l o c a t e d in a cen-
or i n t e n n i t t e n t , h o r n o p e r a t i o n .
i >:•: p. -A t r d i s t r i b u t i o n c e n t e r a l o n g w i t h o t h e r relays, circuit
O n a s y s t e m w i t h a relay, t e s t t h e p o w e r o u t p u t c i r c u i t m
vi \ a" d T h e h o m reiav b o l t s o n t o a n i n n e r f e n d e r o r
c o n t r o l c i r c u i t . C h e c k f o r v o l t a g e a v a i l a b l e a t t h e hom, >o: .
- • c - i . r e a d in t h e e n g i n e c o m p a r t m e n t of o l d e r v e h i c l e s . C h e c k
available a t t h e relay, a n d c o n t i n u i t y t h r o u g h t h e switch. Who
re -•: .v- > v: - - i t- : t h e c o d s be.r.g e n e t g i i e d a n d if c u r r e n t
relav is u s e d , t h e r e a r e t w o w i r e s l e a d i n g t o t h e h o m s w i t c h .
; .-.- t h e p o w e r c i r c u i t w h e n t h e h o m s w i t c h is de-
c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e s t e e r i n g w h e e l is m a d e w i t h a d o u b l e c c r . i . :
. •••' i • •• t m e t ' . - t o t e s t i n p u t , o u t p u t , a n d c o n t r o l v o l t a g e . 1
r i n g Test p o i n t s o n t h i s s y s t e m a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e of a j j a t n
iaraoH t N t t o t V.a> .f s u r e t h e f . . * o r f u s i b l e link is good b e f o r e a relay, b u t t h e r e is n o c o n t r o l c i r c u i t .
. . . . • .j e s r . o o t t h e c i r c u i t . A J s o . c h e c k that t h e g r o u n d
Horn R e p l a c e m e n t H o m s a r e g e n e r a l l y m o u n t e d o n the r;
c o r e s u p p o r t b y b o l t s a n d n u t s o r s h e e t m e t a l screws. It
n e c e s s a i y to remove t h e g r i l l e o r o t h e r p a r t s t o access th
COM9»NATK>N OR mounting screws. To replace a h o m , s i m p l y r e m o v e the
WULTTFUWCnON SWITCH a n d lift t h e old h o r n f r o m its m o u n t i n g b r a c k e t . See Figure -
Clean t h e a t t a c h m e n t a r e a o n t h e m o u n t i n g b r a c k e t and r ^ -
' e r e installing t h e n e w h o r n . S o m e m o d e l s u s e a corrosion r<
mounting screw to ensure a g r o u n d c o n n e c t i o n .
WINDSHIELD WIPER A N D W A S H E R SYSTEM

Windshield wipers a r e u s e d t o k e e p t h e view '•'• >•
w i n d s h i e l d c l e a n of r a i n . W i n d s h i e l d w i p e r s y s t e m s tffl^
vary greatly b e t w e e n m a n u f a c t u r e r s a s w e l l as betw"-
w
Some vehicles c o m b i n e the windshield w i p e r and .
washer functions into a single s y s t e m . M a n y mini-"--1
utility v e h i c l e s tSUVs) a l s o h a v e a r e a n w i n d o w w ^ r * ....
\ :••••«tem t h a t w o r k s i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e w l n d s h . e . d (
BUCmCM.
of t h e d e s i g n d i f f e r e n c e s , all w i n d s h i e l d and :
CONHCCTO*
a n d w a s h e r s y s t e m s o p e r a t e in a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n . .
w m e basic e l e c t r i c a l t e s t s a n d t r o u b l e s h o o t i n g p n ^ ' -' .
any system. A c c u r a t e test s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a n d drcuii
3-aar* f -
1 3«S
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zi
x is
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It
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Atmnennr s lecassa-i » f t x o e s r v t t i
''.-'y <fiagBa>.r.g t h e > - > : e ~ . S e e — ~ - .

S f c r x r . A p e r a n d w a s h e r s y s t e m c o n s i s t s of: . r N - > 'r.i e a r - j f c f e - s ^ e d a . :ac
» '
i
•
rt ; S r > H I £ L D WIPER M O T O R S
, and linkage
.l^lfcffl: Tbe "»--"xis»fcJ .«-jr. jse a >
i ^ W j e o
s e n e s - w o t m Sex!. ; itasst i e t e .
i •:
t ^ ^ v s .. :«lt?V.:CT. •>.-.- r * • • . . - . _ - -
SWItCtl
-was i x O K . r -t _ . •
a n a g e a r f j o x assenabtv - , - D e o : o tfce - a s e s c . a w i i e JK - d o t i v c . . c e a s . . : -.- - s r v r * tea
J pa.~e. ?teer.ng - an Sre • c — c • i f af c < • • r e s . » Rpurs — * t r i z t z . . .
j v t e : •v.p*;-: a c e - ' - s s e n t - s a g p e t taoSS* wife a tow- of the capacitor controls the circuit for th.
sseS a-.:-' < " - ; r e e c rsush. The crush connects the bat- motor. See Figure 44-10.
s r - t h e s s r i w r ^ s g s o? the motor; and the two brushes The gearbox has an additional lin;.,-,.-
pressed parking for hidden wipers. This ' t o provide
p e s i e ::•: 3SC ciSsserc speeds. n d s to
T a e c : :t.£. r r - s r . - cc-p-osite the low-speed brash. Tne
speed hrash i o f to ssie of the low-speed brush. When '•^MBiy
oztss. tksws n i g w p e t g brush, there are fewer turns
c . — ^ r . ^ be r.eaen the hot and ground brushes, and there-
s e s s B r c v .s \VI3t less resistance, more current flows
^r.a arr^ture . . "ves faster. See figures 4 4 - 8 and 44-0.
Vanaiae-delay wipers ;aiso called p o i s e w i p e r s : use an
c-xtrcrjc wit. a vanahie resistor that controls the time of
— s i di-ichsis? a capacitor. This charging and discharging
figure 4 4 - 7 (a) A typical wiper motor with the housing cover removed. The mow M l
has a worm gear on the shaft that turns the small intermediate gear, which then roStesft
gear anc tube assembly, which rotates the crank arm (not shown) that connects to the « <
figsssit-S m a x and inkajg t»s to the Body and connect to the switch with a linkage, ft) If the brush retainer becomes loose, the wiper motor will stop because Us
isscaeaes. brushes get their ground connection through the retainer and housing.
RUN - C L O S E D BY RELAY
PARK - O P E N E D BY MECHANICAL L E V E R
FROM
IGNITION
FUSE SWITCH
WASH
WASHER
MOTOR ^
WIPER C O N T R O L
(MULTI F U N C T I O N
LEVER)
fies** 4 4 - % A: f j r z w n a j o a t f V - a ' -•*'•- vwes u r o m t circuit isigjjf a Bwee-brvsh. two-speed motor The dashed line for the multifunction lever indiwt?-
i * pv y a i i n w t M i i ^ t i i iwftiflgiWiiliH
tlfc*'« Oh" 10th HB
into rhe park p o s i t i o n w h e n t h n

^Tmfldirection. VVHh lepressed park,
'"'Tan internal park witch. Ihe pari p r o b l e m m a y tx flier 'Wtaflia
'' .irinaiurr polarity In the i to
r
Switch la turned off the park between in fllectflcal and flti p *>
in the p a r k p o s i t i o n .
jrall o t g r a? ' ' r n b l y a n d d i v » n i > ' ! ' ( i tn-- wtp»if arm
u
^diMe'd Wiper D i a g n o s i s Win i 'jor a n d t t c a i t o x . Ihen, switch the n -t on
,<• m o t o r o p e r a t e s l l tiJ s p e e d s , t i t ' profci' tn
L resOlt of an e l e c t r i c a l f a u l t o r .11 •
m o t o r ' till d o e riot o p e r a t e , t h e p r o b n i\
^ [ l i n k a g e . ( I r n i ' i . i l l y , il Hi. Ml, •
Ant d o t rtcri r u n at aii, C h e c k f o r «
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letaihAf • w t
fdNTBOL HI
SWITCH
MED
, tr,ji /. p» • d o nor., c h e c k lo
tv BWV7I
SWITCH 'lot conftrcttor
MUST BE •
GROUNDED
If t h e m o t o r d o r . r.r« ah',,' - - f . C h e r * to a :
a L>e(ecrnre p a r k i r ; . s w i t c h irtstdf A l H O t t r
WIPER • 1 >< i
MOTOH • I m r h
Windshield Wiper Testing • r mt • i•

1
jura 44-9 A typlr.iiI wiring dlngram ol n three speed windshield wlpm circuit ir,mg s o p e r a t e w i t h th< •w dtact - n e c e d * v m p f c v m r m r ' e r t«- t«,
i cutft motor, but both a snrlns and a shunt Hold coll quickly isolate t h e o r - i k t a u h RrV* ;o t h e circuit diagram or a
RullnACCV AmlltUNl WlVrAnn HUNl

Hot In ACC
Under hood
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»miiililn pulsfi rataWindshield WI|»« Circuit Ntilii» "Ml lha wi""U t r a y * l w » • »
' H v PORTION
COWL PANEL V
W I P E R MC ASSEMBLY
M ( l j l
0 T H E R POSITION
PLENUM
c A F i g u r e 4 4 - 1 2 The wiper motor a n d l i n k a g e m o u n t u n d e r t h e c o w l panel on many vehidR

0 B
TERMINAL OPERATION SPEED REAR

c LOW WIPER
MOTOFI
A HIGH
•i^Br* 44-11 A t f l K * miermotorconrecBrpmciiart
* ; - ; 3 a n for t h e vehicle being serviced to determine w h e r e

: • s' a g e leading?. See Figure 4 4 - 1 1 . To test t h e wiper system:
1 - • • ' t h e ignition o n and set the wiper switch to a speed at

" t s the tnotior does not operate.
2 • - : • fr.-rtenerv voitage available at the appropriate wiper motor F i g u r e 4 4 - 1 3 A single wiper a r m m o u n t s d i r e c t l y to the motor on most rear-wiper
'- — t - t h e selected speed. If voltage is available to the motor, applications.
ir. • •/•• >r problem is indicated. Replace the motor. No volt-
age a v ^ a t l r indicates a switch or circuit failure.
3. • •"at battery voltage is available at the motor side of the
• c - r • * tch. If battery voltage is available, the circuit is open
W I P E R SWITCH
> " * « = • ' the witch and m o t o r N o voltage available indicates ei-
FRONT O F V E H I C L E
a:. - >v. ' c h or a power supply problem.
4. <x ~ j r - - , voltage available at the power input side of the
: - ' ' ••• -ft. If voltage ts available, the switch is defective.
-: •„-•: w • ; - 'Jo voltage available to the switch indicates a
e m b l e m b e t w e e n the battery and switch.
Figure 4 4 - 1 4 The wiper s w i t c h a t t a c h e s to t h e s t e e r i n g c o l u m n on many vehicles

*>«idstueW Wiper Service W i p e r motors are replaced if
" r . • J' usually m o u n t s on t h e bulkhead (firewall).
a r e accessible from u n d e r t h e h o o d , w h i l e
either snap-in u n i t s o r a r e r e t a i n e d b y o n e o r m o r e screws coveff
>.'.-... r e r >ved t o service a m o t o r m o u n t e d in t h e c o w l ,
by a snap-in b e z e l .
fee f i g u r e 4 4 - 1 2 .
Steering c o l u m n w i p e r s w i t c h e s , w h i c h a r e o p e r a t e d by '
• •. ; - J i - t o t h e motor, removal is simply a m a t t e r of
o n t h e e n d of a s w i t c h s t a l k , r e q u i r e p a r t i a l d i s a s s e m b l y of the - •
- " - -r f lugging t h e electrical c o n n e c t o r s , and
ing c o l u m n for r e p l a c e m e n t . S e e F i g u r e 4 4 - 1 4 . T h e s t e e r i n g
- •. ' o r M o «e t h e w i p e r linkage t h r o u g h its full travel
m u s t be r e m o v e d to r e p l a c e t h e w i p e r s w i t c h o n s o m e models-
": - - - ar v riding rjefore installing the n e w motor.
' ",* are generally located inside the Pulse-Wipe Systems W i n d s h i e l d w i p e r s mn a y also ui n c o g
;. - v.--
- - •
•
--scnor
r . i y z «, or t h e rear h a t c h p a n e l o n vehl-
ftg*te. S e e Figure 4 4 - 1 3 . M
rate a delay, o r i n t e r m i t t e n t o p e r a t i o n , feature
p u l s e w i p e . T h e l e n g t h of t h e d e l a y , o r t h e f r e q u e n c y oi
tr m c o v e r i n g t h e motor, r e p l a c e m e n t PulseA
m i t t e n t o p e r a t i o n , is a d j u s t a b l e o n s o m e s y s t e m s . ', irjal
••••.*•:.>. x ' h e f r o r ' w i p e r motor.
terns m a y r e l y o n s i m p l e e l e c t r i c a l c o n t r o l s , s u c h as a , t
A . -.ei a r e e i t h e r Installed o n t h e s t e e r i n g col
resistance s w i t c h , or b e c o n t r o l l e d e l e c t r o n i c a l l y throug
trol m o d i ilp
n v M o t / dn , S SOt
ffACCY OB HUM I
W I P E R WAS
AND PUMP A ,
(RELAY OPENS
MECHANICALLY '/
WIPERS
PARK)
! SERIES
I FIELD
• ARMATURE
SHUNT
[ FIELD
i cmcwT
BREAKER
c
HOSE
WIPER WASHER
CONTROL
© RATCHET RELEASE SOLENOID

(OPERATED WHEN WASH SWITCH DEPRESSED)
@ WASHER OVERRIDE SWITCH
Rgure 44-16 Decomect «ie m the gwnp and operate tne switch to checfc a wanner
(CLOSED DURING WASH CYCLE)
3) HOLDING SWITCH punp
(OPEN AT THE END OF EACH SWEEP)
To quick-check any w a s h e r s y s t e m , m a k e s u r e t h e reservoir

44-15 Circuit diagram of a rheostat-controlled, electronically timed interval wiper has sufficient fluid, t h e n disco-.r ect t h e p u m p h o s e a n d o p e r a t e t h e
w a s h e r switch.
With any electronic c o n t r o l s y s t e m , it is i m p o r t a n t to follow
e diagnosis and test p r o c e d u r e s r e c o m m e n d e d by t h e manufac-
*OTl: Always use gaod-c.a. n »-_r.: -jerf w a s t e r flci.J t o r a t
rer for that specific vehicle.
container :c prerect " : "-an c j r r . i c n j -he washer
A typical pulse, or interval, w i p e r s y s t e m u s e s e i t h e r a gover-
Radiator anSSeeze etfcttene g™.'. sfci.uJd r.ener be jsed r. ar.-r
•r a solid-state m o d u l e t h a t c o n t a i n s e i t h e r a variable resistor or
shieki wiper system.
M a t and capacitor. T h e m o d u l e c o n n e c t s i n t o t h e electrical cir-
-titry between the w i p e r s w i t c h a n d w i p e r m o t o r . T h e variable re-
ctor rheostat controls t h e l e n g t h of t h e interval b e t w e e n w i p e r See R g u r e 4 4 - 1 0 .
:
-ses. A solid-state p u l s e - w i p e t i m e r r e g u l a t e s t h e c o n t r o l circuit of If fluid squirts from t h e p u m p , t h e delivery system is at fault,
• uulse relay to direct c u r r e n t t o t h e m o t o r at t h e prescribed in- not t h e motor, s w i t c h . •* c i r c j : ~ If - o fluid squirt* f r o m t h e
"'al. See Figure 4 4 - 1 5 . T h e f o l l o w i n g t r o u b l e s h o o t i n g p r o c e d u r e p u m p , t h e probiem ts m o s t Iikeiv a circuit fail i r e , defective p u m p ,
• m to most models. or faulty switch. However, a d o g g e d reservoir s c r e e n m a b e pre
If the wipers d o n o t r u n a t all, c h e c k t h e w i p e r f u s e , fusible venting fluid from e n t e r i n g t h e p u m p .
or circuit breaker a n d v e r i f y t h a t v o l t a g e is available to t h e
' tch. Refer to a w i r i n g d i a g r a m of t h e s w i t c h to d e t e r m i n e h o w Windshield Washer Service W h e n a fluid d e erv : r r
--fflt is routed t h r o u g h it to t h e m o t o r in t h e d i f f e r e n t positions. indicated, check for blocked, punched, broker., or disconnected n ses.
>e
®i disconnect the s w i t c h a n d u s e j u m p e r w i r e s to apply p o w e r clogged nozzles, or a biocked w a s h e r p . m p w i d e ' . :• the p u r : ~ ' "
-"ectfv to the motor on t h e d i f f e r e n t s p e e d circuits. If t h e m o t o r does not operate, c h e c k for batten- voltage available a: t h e . • • - . * •
' hins, the problem is in t h e s w i t c h o r m o d u l e . C h e c k for conti- operating the w a s h e r s w i t c h . If voltage is available a n d the p u m p Joe?,
in the circuit for e a c h s p e e d t h r o u g h t h e control-to-ground f not n i n . check for continuity o n t h e p u m p ground d j c u i L if t h a e m>
' "iper motor runs at s o m e , b u t n o t all, s p e e d s . voltage drop on the g r o u n d circuit, replace the p u m p m x r.
if batterv voltage is n o t available a t t h e motor, c h e c k for p o w e r
Windshield W a s h e r D i a g n o s i s M o s t v e h i c l e s u s e a positive- through t h e w a s h e r s w i t c h . If voltage is a v a u a c e at ar.d tr,r
-placement or c e n t r i f u g a l - t y p e w a s h e r pump located in the t h e switch, t h e r e is a p r o b l e m in t h e w i r i n g b e t w e e n t h e
-->r;er reservoir. A m o m e n t a r y - c o n t a c t s w i t c h , w h i c h is o f t e n part and p u m p . Perform v o l t a g e - d r o p rests to locate t h e Sauft. Re
•" steering c o l u m n - m o u n t e d c o m b i n a t i o n s w i t c h a s s e m b ' v , e n e r wiring as n e e d e d a n d retest If voltage is ava lab Se
6
the washer p u m p . through, the switch, replace the sw.rch. l o c a t e and
Inoperative windshield w a s h e r s m a y b e c a u s e d by a: o p e n or short circuit b e t w e e n t h e t w i t c h a n tne
J Si wn fuse voltage is n o t available t o t h e switch
, knpty reservoir Washer m o t o r s a r e n o t repairable a r c are S..TC: -ep«aced : »
fective. Centrifugal or p o s i t i v e : . : l a c ; - " pur :
, ' gged nozzle
, ' 'ken, pinched, or clogged h o s e or inside t h e w a s h e r reser.,- ir t a r .< : - c f : an :
or broken wire taining ring or n u t S e e Figure 4 4
reservoir screen Washer p u m p switches are .rstaHea e - •
ng reservoir u m n or on the instrument panel.
5<C
housing are fitted with eight c o n v e x clear p l . r :

tains four infrared (IR) diodes, t w o p h o t o c e l l s , i
-•-'Oprocessoj.
The ]R diodes g e n e r a t e IR b e a m s t h a t a . :Jcd
" by fo Ul -'.
the c o n v e x optical lenses n e a r t h e b a s e of t h e
through
windshield glass. Four additional c o n v e x ien
•ar the top of a, ,
RSM are focused on t h e IR light b e a m On t h e
side of the wind.
shield glass and a l o w t h e t w o p h o t o c e l l s t o sen.-.-
manges in their[.
tensitv of the IR light b e a m . W h e n s u f f i c i e n t m o : :
ureacctimuia&l
the RSM detects a c h a n g e in t h e m o n i t o r e d IR :
BAND PRESS COMPONENTS TOGETHER it beam intense'
The RSM processes t h e signal t o t h e B C M o v : :
^RETAINING RING t h e data bus jj
c o m m a n d a swipe of t h e wiper.
i t — ' 1 7 * a s . - « r c - y c p s csuae> m s ? into the reservoir and are held it place with a Rain-Sense Wiper Diagnosis and Service if there ;$ I
complaint ahout t h e rain-sense w i p e r s n o t f u n c t i o n i n g correc:
check t h e o w n e r ' s m a n u a l to b e s u r e t h a t t h e y a r e properly set sr-
adjusted. Also, verify t h a t t h e w i n d s h i e l d w i p e r s are functioning I
correctly on all speeds, b e f o r e d i a g n o s i n g t h e rain-sensor circuit
Always M o w t h e vehicle m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s r e c o m m e n d e d diagnos:
and testing procedures.
BLOWER MOTOR OPERATION

The s a m e blower m o t o r m o v e s air i n s i d e t h e v e h i c l e for air condi-
tioning, heat, and defrosting or defogging. T h e fan switch controls f=
path t h a t t h e current follows to t h e b l o w e r motor. The meter;
usually a p e r m a n e n t - m a g n e t , o n e - s p e e d m o t o r that operates at ;v
m a x i m u m speed w i t h full b a t t e r y v o l t a g e . T h e s w i t c h gets currer:
f r o m t h e fuse panel w i t h t h e ignition s w i t c h o n . t h e n directs Sal
battery voltage to t h e b l o w e r m o t o r for h i g h speed and to jb I
blower m o t o r t h r o u g h resistors for l o w e r s p e e d s .
FIGURE 4 4 - 1 3 A typical rain-sensing module located on the inside o! the windshield near
T* t s s r w e w mirror
MOTH: Most Ford and some other vehicles place the blower rr
tore or. the ground side of the motor circuit The location of the resstr
RAIN DROP does not affect the operation because they are connected in series.
See Figures 4 4 - 2 0 t h r o u g h 44-22.
WINDSHIELD LASER
BLOWER MOTOR DIAGNOSIS
If the blower m o t o r d o e s n o t o p e r a t e a t a n y s p e e d , the probte
LIGHT SENSOR
could be any of t h e following:
PHOTO OlODE
1. A defective ground wire or ground w i r e connection
2. A defective blower motor ; n o t repairable; m u s t be replaced
LIGHT SENSOR 3. An open circuit in t h e power-side circuit, including fuse, wiring-
or fan switch
4 4 - 1 S The e i e c s c - n v i n the rain-sense wiper module can detect the presence ot If t h e blower w o r k s o n l o w e r s p e e d s b u t n o t on high -S^'-
-iec-drocs J S f e - c e a s s lighting conditions. the problem is usually a n inline f u s e or high-speed relay t h a t »
trols t h e heavy c u r r e n t flow for h i g h - s p e e d operation. The
speed fuse or relay usually fails as a r e s u l t of i n t e r n a l blower c c -
RAm-S£NSE WIPER SYSTEM bushing wear, w h i c h causes e x c e s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e t o motor t e a - •
P a r t s a s f i O p e r a t i o n R a i n - s e n s e w i p e r systems use a sensor lo- At slow blower speeds, t h e r e s i s t a n c e is n o t a s n o t i c e a b l e ano^-
c a r s i & & e top ~A t h e windshield on the inside to detect rain droplets. blower operates normally. T h e b l o w e r m o t o r is a sealed u n f c ^
"-.. -..-• e r a i n s e n s e m o d u l e (RSM) by General Mo- defective, m u s t b e replaced as a u n i t . If t h e b l o w e r motor c p f f ^
tots arsi i: determines and ad fusts t h e time delay of t h e wiper based on normally at high speed b u t n o t at a n y of t h e l o w e r speeds, the -
s t w T.w-.r. rr.v. & r e .: detects o n the windshield. The wiper switch lem couid be m e l t e d w i r e resistors o r a defective switCi-^;
car: be on position all oi t h e time and if no rain is sensed, Figure 4 4 - 2 3 . T h e blower m o t o r c a n b e t e s t e d using a dan f -
t h e - w i p e s v«B cot swipe See Figure 4 4 - 1 8 . DC ammeter, as s h o w n in Figure 4 4 - 2 4 . ^ ^
Tr,- control i o c s rotated to the desired wiper sensibility level, M o s t biower motors d o not d r a w m o r e t h a n 15 A ^ ;;
v e f - j V - i 4 4 . v . T r * :. .cr;,c::c«3orin. the RSM sends a command speed. A w o r n or defective m o t o r usually d r a w s m o r e c u w -
3 w sotfy cofitrai s&ctsfe -:bCM>. The RSM is a triangular-shaped normal and could d a m a g e t h e b l o w e r m o t o r resistors or '
. -- . -. • , i- - . o p e r u n s or, the windshield side of the if not replaced.
fepraU-Z
iCetfm <*
— A t y p i c a l squirrel cage blower motor A raplacemen, M

" ^ p p e J with the squirrel cage blower so it has to be «w>t • n -• o
' * « U - 2 1 typical Noww motor resistors used to control bloww motor a
The 20-flmpere Fuse Test
^ £w
*«' motors operate at about 12 amperes on high speed B the NJ m •» met- .
« beannoa) on the armature ot the motor become worn or dry tr* moto
»"we slowly. Because a motor also produces counter EMF or CfM- as t
1
hirning motor will actually draw more amiv • • " f aMpaa
• " • t motor
" ' b , 0 W B ' motor draws too many amperes, the re- >! - tne i » > :
^tiontroliing the blower motor can tan Testing the actual i. f U n '
U t l l
&
b e t i m e s difficult because the amperage often aiieeds the [<•
i l 0 u n t
^ " 'or most digital meters
recon,n,8n
!* * * * d e d by General Moturs s to utipii .ithe.x.v •••! >•' u m i r t n l "
,„ "etain ground on the motofl and use a fused i. Mr
^ ^connected to the battery s positive terminal and the othei mv to « »
^WwtJ™"31 ^ a
^ ' ^ P e i B (use in the test lead, and o < * a »
. ^ ^ inoutes if thg blower motor is drawing mote tlv* • 20 : - ? v v
Some
i jn^ experts lecominend using a I S a m i * * * <
W * T ^ ^ the 20ampere fuse A * vt » * ' « ' *
"Oêr motor current draw
,CAl
ACCESSORY S Y M P T O M UUIDt
tet
' WW assist technic ians m t uble
^ systems.
FAX
COMTROL
SWITCH
BLOWER
MOTOR
RESISTORS
MOTOR
r-.--.i- • cter ^ fan swecs t j w , maSum-tow arid medium-high) use the blower motor resistors to drop the voltage to »e
srsrits •ncser. J s ' e s S a r e a w e y E s s i W ' h e 'Sistr position on B e <3.0 switch energies 2 reiay, which supplies the current for the blower on high BWJOQDJ
CHAPTER QUIZ
1. Technician A says that a defective high-speed blower motor relay could p-

vent high-speed blower operation, yet allows normal operation it
speeds. Technician B says that a defective (open) blower motor resstcrE
prevent low speed blower operation, yet permit normal high-speed 05®
fifflu Which technician is correct?
2. To determine tf a windshield wiper problem is electrical or m e c h a n i c a l . s
service technician should
a. Disconnect the linkage arm from the windshield wiper motor
• -. y n u r z i - v . mjtwneter to measure the current draw ot a and operate the windshield wiper
b. Check to see if the fuse is blown
_ _ _
c Check the condition of the wiper blades
d. Check the washer Quid for contamination
3. A weak-sounding horn is being diagnosed. Technician A saw tha^---
- - : • ar- ray- 'r** :,«0Gr>; 1,553 Hz. ground connector at die horn itself can be the cause. Technician o
2 '•• .- * asd Jive current ffiBtwgh the relay coil ts open relay can be the cause. Which technician is correct?
.---T'. " "SE-SCSR SSFSDI. a. Technician A only
- . .-••••-- .----:-- evefefcg p a n e b a f t electa-
. . . . f ; • .• d. Neither Technician A nor B
4. What controls the operation of a pulse-wiper system?
i. :• " ~ '"•--•r-, SB series to control blower
a. A resistor that controls current flow to the wiper m
b. A solid-state (electronic) module
- 31 <Sraw "Sir. 25 azqy=res. c. A variable speed gem set
d. A transistor
oySSBS&S 5. Which pitch horn is used for a single h o m application-
a. High-pitched
b . Low pitched
2 -.-- .. ... - - .V" , -. • iKHTt.
6. The bom switch on the steering wheel ? '
2. .. ..---• .' - / " r : - ••; tr-jr. pfobl^c: n electrical ar
a. Sends electrical power to the horns
r «r---• • i-.
b. Provides the ground circuit tor the horn
4, J; - .- - • » - -r- r & j z '-'--hi . tssffieres! c. Grounds the hom retey coii
<£ Provides- power 1 12 V) to the horn relay
wiper system uses a rain 9. A defecSve blower motor draws more • x m B t ' O B a p x t i '
4 an*"*
* jeagH the grille a. rv e'.oeed of the motor increase;

j,. Outside of the windshield at the tot. b. The CEMF decease
c inside the windshield at the top c. The airflow slows down, which ttectea-es the cooiir
d. Oft the roof d. Bothaandc
'x+.nidat A says a blower motor can tx> y
10. '^.ndsh^ld washer potfips can t?e daiMged i'
jxt!(Ûa B says a blower motor can be test'
a. Pare water is asetf tn freezing weather
b. Cor' irair^'.ed windshield washer fluid is i-ed
a. Technician A only c. Erhvtene glycol antifreeze) is used
h. Technician B only d. A, ot 'he
C H A P T E R
Accessory Circuits
3BJECT1VES: After studying Chapter 45, the r e a d e r will be able to: Prepare'or = - : : r ' — >: c e ^ c a t t o " w n v i -
J
' Accessories Diagnosis and Repair). • Explain how cruise control operates and how to diagnose the circuft • Describe how power door locks and
•-"•lows operate. • Describe how a keyless remote can be reprogrammed.

KFFLBMS: adjustable pedals • backlight • control wires • cruise control • direction wires • e t a S i c adjustable pedals (EAP) • electron* throBe
oW(ETC) • HomeLink • independent switches • key fob • lockout switch • lumbar • master const* switch • passive anti-theft system (PATS)
• rcsskey I and ll • passlock I, II, and truck • permanent-magnet (PM> electric motors • rubber soup • : - •---:•;.•• ^ . r y kev immobilizer
-vstem (SKIS) • thermo-electric device (TED) • troxler effect • vehicle anti-theft system iWS> •
WIISECONTROL
-niise c o n t r o l (also called speed control) is a combination of elect:

mechanical c o m p o n e n t s d e s i g n e d t o maintain a constant, set
* spwd without driver p r e s s u r e o n t h e accelerator pedal. Major
--raponents of a typical cruise c o n t r o l system include the following:
Servo u n i t . The servo unit a t t a c h e s to t h e throttle linkage

'-•'ough a cable or chain. T h e servo unit controls the movement
''' 'he throttle by receiving a controlled a m o u n t of vacuum from a
controf module. See Figure 4 5 - 1 . S o m e systems use a stepper
2 p,tor an<)
do not use engine v a c u u m .
• - w p u t e r or c r u i s e c o n t r o l m o d u l e . This unit rcce ves r.r.
•wi the brake switch, throttle position (TP) sensor, and veh - •'
s«Bor. It operates t h e solenoids or stepper motor to maintain
j speed.
• Peed s e t c o n t r o l . A speed set control is a switch - •!
on the steering c o l u m n , steering wheel, dash, or console
cruise control units feature coast, accelerate. and resume
< . ^ o n s - See Figure 4 5 - 2 . Figure 45-1 TNs raise con&of sovo untsosap »— «>-?.
.. . ^ r e | e a s e s w i t c h e s . W h e n e v e r the brake ped.tl ! s c c p - w e d . lotêtntset»Wfoduteo»S>ewr-re :•--:•••? - = -
, ' W s e control svstem is disengaged through use of an elect- ca> hoses supply en$»ie ""anrfpltJ vacuv^ to s>e -jMw ee«VsC-- re
Switch, usually located on t h e brake pedal bracket. wliage to mam&m ihe preset speed
1
J "Metrical and v a c u u m releases are used to be certain that
, v C ! V I * control system is released, even in the event of failure noncomputer-operated system, the m z s & x e r c o r e a b s a low
,Jf!
e of the release switches. electrical switch that closes w h e n e v e r • >; peed - - f . - r z s e c t s e H
the transducer senses a speed e s c e e d r i c t i e ~ : r ~ . . - . ; . - " S A c r
• • Control O p e r a t i o n A typical cruise control svstem
s?t speed.
if the v e h i c l e s p e e d is 3 0 m p h o r m o r e . I n a
Noncomputer-Controlled Resume-Ty
uise c
Most resume-style n o n c o m p u t e r - c o n t r o l l e d c °ntr0|
' control
use a t w o - p i e c e r u b b e r c l u t c h t o r e t a i n a " m e . lical
t h e vehicle road s p e e d . D e p r e s s i n g t h e b r a k e
release solenoid to r e l e a s e v a c u u m f r o m t h e
cruise c o n t r o l stops m a i n t a i n i n g v e h i c l e s p e e o . When 'resume"
pushed, the vacuum solenoid closes a n d v a c u u r l i s a
8 a i " appijed J
m>®0' C AC t h e s e r v o u n i t . T h e s p e e d is " r e m e m b e r e d " b y t h e ^jSitiAn

split r u b b e r c l u t c h .
position -i . •
of the'
Computer-Controlled Cruise Control Most

£Ty
coAsr controlled cruise control s y s t e m s u s e t h e v e h i c l e ' s s p e e d sensor r ^
to t h e engine-control c o m p u t e r for speed r e f e r e n c e . Comp'l?
controlled cruise control u n i t s a l s o u s e s e r v o u n i t s for throttle a '
trol, control s w i t c h e s for d r i v e r c o n t r o l of c r u i s e control 1 ® % !
and both electrical a n d v a c u u m b r a k e p e d a l r e l e a s e switches
Figure 4 5 - 3 .
- j ^ r e 4S-2 ~ c^:se contra used on a Toyotatexus.
Electronic Throttle Cruise C o n t r o l Many vehicles are
equipped with an electronic t h r o t t l e c o n t r o l (ETC) system. A; I
Tasca-feotit vehicles do not retain the set speed in memory if the electronic t h r o t t l e c o n t r o l s y s t e m u s e s a D C e l e c t r i c motor t c l
vescie s?ewi beicw 25 MPH >40 c n / h ; . The driver is required to m o v e t h e t h r o t t l e p l a t e t h a t is s p r i n g - l o a d e d p a r t i a l l y open. The
set tne jested vjeec a ^ i n . This is normal operation and not a fault with m o t o r actually closes t h e t h r o t t l e a t i d l e a g a i n s t s p r i n g pressure.!
. a e c u s c cv.-troi system. T h e spring-loaded p o s i t i o n is t h e d e f a u l t p o s i t i o n a n d results ir, j
high idle s p e e d . T h e p o w e r t r a i n c o n t r o l m o d u l e ( P C M ) uses t h e !
input signals f r o m t h e a c c e l e r a t o r p e d a l p o s i t i o n ( A P P ) sensor t c l
Wher. the set button is depressed on the cruise control, solenoid determine the desired t h r o t t l e p o s i t i o n . The P C M then com-1
".i-.es on the servo unit allow engine vacuum to be applied to one m a n d s t h e t h r o t t l e to t h e n e c e s s a r y p o s i t i o n of t h e throttle plate. I
•..Zi::' See Figure 4 5 - 4 . the liaphragm, which is attached to the throttle plate of the
• i - z r . e i r o u g r . a cabie or linkage. The servo unit usually contains T h e cruise c o n t r o l o n a v e h i c l e e q u i p p e d w i t h an electronic!
n s c solenoids to control the opening and closing of the throttle. throttle control s y s t e m c o n s i s t s of a s w i t c h t o set the desired I
speed. T h e P C M r e c e i v e s t h e v e h i c l e s p e e d i n f o r m a t i o n from the I
» r . i . :,anoic opens and closes to control the passage, which
vehicle speed (VS) s e n s o r a n d u s e s t h e E T C s y s t e m to maintain t h e !
a_.;vs a n g s e vacuum to be applied to the diaphragm of the servo
; . - ; r.areasing the throttle opening. set speed.
« .asotc to bieed air back into the sensor chamber to reduce
fie t t r o o l e opening.
Diagnosis a n d S e r v i c e Any fault in the A P P sensor o:
ETC system will d i s a b l e t h e cruise control f u n c t i o n . Always
T n e throttle position (TP) sensor or a position sensor, inside the follow t h e specified t r o u b l e s h o o t i n g p r o c e d u r e s , w h i c h w i l l u s v
servo sends tne throttle position information to the cruise con- ally include t h e u s e of a s c a n t o o l t o p r o p e r l y d i a g n o s e the H
t r a raoduie. system.
Bump Problems
TECH TIP v - Use Trailer Tow Mode
i
C m s s * proctem diagnosis can invotve a complex series of checks and
j Some customers complain that when driving in hilly or mountainous area^ ^
a s s '-sc. SouWeshootfng procedures vary from manufacturer to manufacturer
the speed of the vehicle will sometimes go 5 to 8 mph below the set spe^ ^
sac j s z r y e a r so a technician should always consult a service manual for
j automatic transmission then downshifts, the engine speed i n c r e a s e s ' a c c e iet-
" iC oensj serviced. However, every cruise control system uses a
vehide returns to the set speed. To help avoid the slowdown and rapi f
.. -jjxt aaa me ventcle has manual transmission, a clutch safety
ation, ask the customer to select the trailer towing position. When this^ ^
Tne v^m* ot i f s j t safely switches is to ensure that the cruise control
selected, the automatic transmission downshifts almost as soon as ^ ^
- • .'--jf.'iz if craves or clutch is applied. Some systems use redun-
speed starts to decrease. This results in a smoother operation an
daa i. s » saiejy switches, one electrical to cut oft power to the system
a ateed vacuum away trom me actuating unit. ticeable to both the driver and passengers. See figure 45-5 on I
i csx«e cortrot "cuts out" or Disengages itself while traveling over
- i f : , -t. -/Ar-.sr, cause is a misadjusted brake land/or clutch) j
•jm, DRtf i itfr.pte readiuKment ot these safety switches Troubleshooting
will Cruise C o n t r o l Cruise
Curetr-i - w r . c s f v . e o m t Mwga«errient problems. bleshooung is usually performed using the s t e p - b y - ^
.-'.••••
fcwa-A t c o * ma.v-.litfurw*' twxmmtot
-j-t^-e. • ff*
safety switch ad-n
•Mcwejj is maadjusted, it could 1
as specified by the vehicle manufacturer. o o r fagfl^
The usual steps in t h e d i a g n o s i s of a n i n o p e r a u v e
operating cruise control i n c l u d e t h e following".
to a n » a a « ferate cytader resulting m severe ' •
i slwosgt tc. tte sra<if!5 ryster:. Step s i C h e c k that t h e c r u i s e c o n t r o l f u s e is n ° l
rrvlise" .
the cruise control dash Wojjj "
turned <•>"
cnnw *6 hi-wmi atom
UNOE*HOOO'USI: I 0«'vt* S JhOtfl 0*SH

<j<> ntu»»ni
Clrcul
' diagram of a typical electronic cruise control sys!" i
nyjtc?ecl< for
proper operation of the brake and or clutch A quick method used by many dealer t h m knr•*' t <nA
components that can be quickly plugged in ro heck tor
eration. See Figure 4 5 - 6 .
um, " s p e c l ,h
e throttle cable and linkage between the n-nsor -
thro,t e
sTlcki ' Plate for proper operation without binding
VI
S|
tl5 fC tfle v a c u u m
hoses for cracks or other faults.
KM Most w h t d e M n i f i c a s B S warn ft t i e
cruise control should not be used vrtM « »-airang j r i
nnu. S»
r|
Q u i * control system operate the - h i t * « 4 » t « e i
* * hand operated vacuum p u m p and check that the jropte*. the vettcte fem. O H r c e * a w e -
i|e
P«g ' " 4 8 1 7 0 unlt
" n hold vacuum without leaking, imgine. When t&e erysne is j
i ^ ^ the servo solenoids for proper operation, Including a Tad surtoe. «*l*Je stats, tv w t f b r m*t i
nce
Measurement check.
90S ••
ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTflOL SYMP i
PROBLEM
Speed control operates, but 1. Control s

does not accelerate or coast 2. Control sw circuit
down properly 3. Servo ass
Speed changes up or down 1. Throttle link e adjustment

constantly 2. Servo asst.-:
3. Speedometer cable and senso
4. Amplifier or reserve
disengage when 1. Brake switch and circuit

applied 2. Vacuum dump valve
3. Servo assembly
Does not disengage when 1. Clutch switch

clutch pedal is depressed 2. Clutch switch circuit
j -rye- Sroes? w?> ?<e protective coven; removed
Speed does not set in system 1. Throttle linkage adjustment
2. Control switch and circuit
3. Vacuum dump valve
4. Clutch or brake switch
5. Servo assembly
6. Speed sensor
Speed wanders up or down 1. Actuator cable adjustment

after it is set 2. Vacuum dump valve
3. Servo assembly
System operates but does not 1. Control switch and circuit

resume properly 2. Servo assembly
Speed will resume below Control module

20mph
Speed engages without Control switch and circuit

operating set button
trjgtt to-*, - - i t v j r on tne aas* ot ttvs Cadi,:ac when the transmission trailer Figure 45-6 A cruise control symptom-based chart.
Check t h e Third Brake Light
> - V e e r s w t t d e s . t h e cruise control w i l l not w o r k if the third
v » - - --. — » K t t f t f S teaks 6ght r called the centrally high-mounted s t o p

y C*MSC K m ® . O R * t i e Oraxe lights first rf The cruise control does not
«sn> * a *?ae»a« Wostxs vefscte
M£ATE2 ?.£A*-WiNDOW SEFOGGERS

' - » e c r c a • s e a s e a rear-wirjdow defogger system uses an electri-
; r •-..- tne glass that w a r m s the glass to about 8 5 ° F
? r l i e . e a s 2 o f ! -v o r frost T h e rear w i n d o w is also called a
baO&gM. : •• ••.-.-» r co-'v defogger system is controlled by a
27 -- . w > - . a s d 3 r."ier relay. See Figure 4 5 - 7 .
Figure 45-7 A switch and relay control current through the heating grid o! a
Y~z - -. -i s necessary because t h e w i n d o w grid can d r a w defogger.
:: a ;'. i v : coBSfttied operation would put a strain
- ®r are: v ~ .yitem. Generally, the timer relay
rsr. .- t.-.v- threw%i t h e rear-window grid for only glass. Short b r o k e n s e c t i o n s of t h e r e a r - w i n d o w grid
v '£ - . > A -•;,-.-•.•. / j . <s*. clear of fog after 10 minutes, paired using a special e p o x y - b a s e d electrically conductive ^ ^
i-i - r r<- jsskt -is a ^ i f i . oat after the first l O m i n u t e s If more t h a n o n e s e c t i o n is d a m a g e d o r if t h e d a m a g e d p U,
<•• .-jper&ta** t o S ttiautesu is greater t h a n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 1 / 2 i n c h e s ( 3 . 8 cenUffi ^
... . - • : defcggets can b e d a m a g e d eas- replacement r e a r - w i n d o w glass m a y b e r e q u i r e d t o ie&to
'•. '-- •-.•- • r . i? the ; r . v i e of the rear-window defogger o p e r a t i o n .
h , f i n i c a l current t h r o u g h the »
dUI|V „ f the c o n d u c t o r grid'- rtM Hicdth T n t
r l
(I,® d i s t a n c e of the jy ids d'<t>
Ml- m to teni »<« ompr oporatffi ut * a 1
hilplng to w a r m t h e rear gui A
>0 M M * M d M happen* to to ciwred >w A
the resistance o f the i o n i i n I M «ort* it to U » on IM iter tMeugar ant WTS* onto IM
' i m . n i (low decreases. I h e r e f o r e , the » * » « n d w 0 m to t maimer vmtlai in Kwt ai coup*
'. , i l l j l t . the electrical c u r r e n t r e q u m n « * < e m t f t r t i tn» (»(> rtfuit t m k K M a temporary log i»>" - *> - a i
| detagglng- 0 M c t M d h e rear gndi can qmcuy tw eh*k«d t<w projw
s,mie vehicles us? the wire grid of the

jjvdiiwni. Therefore, It the urid Is dam.i|ted, u.- j H O M E U N K GARAGE DOOR O P E N E R
JfKWd Operation Home Link it a device installed in many ixa yen
cles that dupflcaies (he radio frequency code ol t h e original garagr
door uperm The mqumy range that HomeUnk Is able to operate
irtHibleshootlng a H e a t e d R o a r - W i n d o w D c t o g y e r
from is 2M » 418 .MHz. The typical vehicle ftfragr door open f,it
t wdng»nonfunctioning defogger unit mv
rear-window
system has three button: that can be used to operate one or mew
voltage to the grid. If no \
i i^ht or a voltmeter to c h e c k for t
of the toltowing devices;
.present at the rear window, check for voltage at ihe . . • h
.„ timer assembly. A poor ground connection on the of 1. Gir.gr dottt equipped »radio transmitter electrk twit?
stud from the power side c a n also c a u s e t h e rear defogger it door opener
.^rate. Because most d e f o g g e r circuits u s e an Indkatoi 2. Gates
, tchand a relay timer, it is possible to h a v e t h e indicator i.^tt 3. Entry 9oer luce
.«!lithe wires are disconnected at t h e r e a r - w i n d o w iyid \ \ 4. Ugh igof t-niai! tf . .. cert
er can be used to test the o p e r a t i o n of t h e reai window i.
The devices include b o t h t u r n ) f r e q u e n c y d e v i c e s , usually
j ve Figure 4 5 8.
older uniis. as wen as r e d i n g t e n c r y p t e d l c o d e device*. S#e
With the negative test t e r m i n a l attached t o a good body
Figure 4 5 10.
t, carefully probe the grid c o n d u c t o r s , T h e r e should be a df
vwni; voltage reading as the p r o b e is m o v e d f r o m t h e p o u r :
side ol the grid t o w a r d t h e g r o u n d side of t h e grid If the e
-' lKl
' H r i J wire, it can be r e p a i r e d u s i n g an electrically , im
• substance available in a repair kit. S e e Figure 45-
Most vehicle manufacturers r e c o m m e n d that grid WHY R
-: -' inches long be repaired; o t h e r w i s e , t h e e n t i r e rear window
1
need lo be replaced.
VOLIMt I t H
PO*stn
FEED
SHOE
HEA1INQ E L E M t N T S
Ol A III AH WINDOW
DEPOGQB H
^'Sw *HKto*<tehM.K 1» • t»t

Figure ifc- Ml
^ÎMJO as rrm mete, jpprocn imk trie utumid u t o ^ V * J*> uMi cm o» coewort »•» * •
51* SETHOKW
a Vetaicte Garage Door Opener When a (DPDT) switches. T h e s e D P D T switches

;
contacts,
v-'-.c- v • - . r.-ogrammed using the transmitter permit battery voltage to be applied t o t h e |
far 2>e p r a # < ; - v--.* •--.>: d e v i c e . T h e s t e p s involved in t h e y also r e v e r s e t h e p o l a r i t y a n d directs

•_ - : uie in t h e vehicle to t h e garage Figures 4 5 - 1 1 a n d 4 5 - 1 2 o n p a g e 5 1 1 a n d 5
Joor opener include T h e p o w e r w i n d o w m o t o r s r o t a t e a m e c h a m s . r railed a wi
r e g u l a t o r . T h e w i n d o w r e g u l a t o r is a t t a c h e : . r^,"
controls o p e n i n g a n d closing of t h e glass. D o o r idjustrnenis ^
TV . .-.• ; - opening controller can only be pro- as glass tilt a n d u p p e r a n d l o w e r s t o p s a r e u s u a t h e same • •
: 1 s a g « trar - to. ar. automatic garage door system does p o w e r a n d m a n u a l w i n d o w s . S e e F i g u r e 4 5 - 1 3 o n page 5 ] 2
a: < -jt-bp -ret HomeLink cannot be programmed.
Troubleshooting Power Windows B e f o r e troubleshooti
p o w e r w i n d o w p r o b l e m , c h e c k f o r p r o p e r o p e r a t i o n of all ,'
w i n d o w s . If o n e of t h e c o n t r o l w i r e s t h a t r u n f r o m the
Step r t -: the E r a s e d o o r o p e n e r during programming to prevent indeper.
d e n t s w i t c h to t h e m a s t e r s w i t c h is c u t ( o p e n ] , t h e power wind
• - : t r b e i n g c v d e d o n a n d off, w h i c h could damage the motor. m a y o p e r a t e in just o n e d i r e c t i o n . T h e w i n d o w m a y go down h
Step «2 Ch-ecs t h a : t h e f r e q u e n c y of t h e h a n d h e l d transmitter is be- n o t u p , or v i c e v e r s a . H o w e v e r , if o n e of t h e d i r e c t i o n wires -
- w e « n 2BB a n d 4 1 8 M H z . r u n f r o m t h e i n d e p e n d e n t s w i t c h t o t h e m o t o r is c u t (open, -
w i n d o w will n o t o p e r a t e in e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n . T h e direction
S t e p # 3 L j i : n e w batteries in t h e transmitter to be assured of a strong
— i o e m g t r a n s m i t t e d to t h e HomeLink module in the vehicle.
a n d t h e m o t o r m u s t b e e l e c t r i c a l l y c o n n e c t e d t o permit operatic-
a n d c h a n g e of d i r e c t i o n of t h e e l e c t r i c lift m o t o r in t h e door.
S t e p # 4 T u r n t h e ignition k e y o n , e n g i n e off (KOEO).
S t e p # 5 W h i l e h o l d i n g t h e transmitter 4 to 6 inches away from the 1. If both rear-door w i n d o w s fail t o o p e r a t e f r o m t h e independent
H o n e L x i t b u n o n . press and hold the HomeLink button while press- switches, c h e c k t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e w i n d o w lockout (if the
ing and releasing t h e h a n d h e l d transmitter every 2 seconds. Con- vehicle is so e q u i p p e d ) a n d t h e m a s t e r c o n t r o l switch.
m u e pressing a n d releasing the transmitter until the indicator light 2 . If one w i n d o w c a n m o v e in o n e d i r e c t i o n only, check for
".ear r . e H o o e L i n k b u t t o n c h a n g e s from slow blink to a rapid flash. continuity in m e c o n t r o l w i r e s ( w i r e s b e t w e e n t h e independent
S t e p f 6 Verify t h a t t h e vehicle garage d o o r system (HomeLink) button control s w i t c h a n d t h e m a s t e r c o n t r o l s w i t c h ) .
.-.as s e e n p r o g r a m m e d . Press a n d hold the garage door button. If 3 . If all w i n d o w s fail t o w o r k o r fail t o w o r k occasionally, check,
tr.e r v i c a t o r light blinks rapidly for 2 seconds and t h e n comes on clean, and t i g h t e n t h e g r o u n d w i r e ( s ) l o c a t e d either behind the
steady, t h e s y s t e m h a s b e e n successfully programmed using a driver's interior d o o r p a n e l o r u n d e r t h e d a s h o n the driver's side
r o l i m g c o d e d e s i g n . If t h e indicator light is on steady, t h e n it has A defective f u s e o r c i r c u i t b r e a k e r c o u l d also c a u s e all the win-

d o w s to fail to o p e r a t e .
beer, s u c c e s s f u l l y p r o g r a m m e d to a fixed frequency device.
4 . If o n e w i n d o w fails t o o p e r a t e in b o t h d i r e c t i o n s , the problem
Diagnosis and Service If a fault occurs with the HomeLink sys- could b e a d e f e c t i v e w i n d o w lift m o t o r . T h e w i n d o w could be
t e m . first v e r i f y t h a t t h e g a r a g e d o o r o p e n e r is functioning correctly. s t u c k in t h e t r a c k of t h e door, w h i c h c o u l d c a u s e t h e circuit
-_•' n e c k t o s e e if t h e g a r a g e d o o r o p e n e r r e m o t e control is capable b r e a k e r built i n t o t h e m o t o r t o o p e n t h e c i r c u i t to protect the
. - i c e r a c n g t h e d o o r Repair t h e g a r a g e d o o r o p e n e r system as n e e d e d . wiring, s w i t c h e s , a n d m o t o r f r o m d a m a g e . To c h e c k for a stud
If " h e problem still e x i s t s , a t t e m p t r e p r o g r a m m i n g of the d o o r glass, a t t e m p t to m o v e ( e v e n slightly) t h e d o o r glass up and
- , ~ e L r . k v e h i c l e s y s t e m , b e i n g s u r e t h a t t h e r e m o t e has a n e w re- d o w n , f o r w a r d a n d b a c k , a n d s i d e t o s i d e . If t h e w i n d o w glass
cently purchased battery. can m o v e slightly in all d i r e c t i o n s , t h e p o w e r w i n d o w motor
should be able to at least m o v e t h e glass.
POWER WINDOWS
- •• i r w i n d o w s u s e e i e c t r i c m o t o r s to raise a n d l o w e r d o o r glass. TECH TIP Programming Auto-Down Power Windows
" -- b e o p e r a t e d b y b o t h a m a s t e r c o n t r o l s w i t c h located
re- . - e c - v e r a n d a d d i t i o n a l i n d e p e n d e n t s w i t c h e s for e a c h Many vehicles are equipped with automatic operation that can cause the win®*
: S o m e p o w e r w i n d o w systems use a lockout to go all the way down (or up) if the switch is depressed beyond a certain point or
iwitch x a t e d o n t h e d r i v e r ' s c o n t r o l s to p r e v e n t o p e r a t i o n of t h e held tor a fraction of a second. Sometimes this feature is lost if the battery in the
-j. '..nc . w s from the i n d e p e n d e n t switches. Power w i n d o w s vehicle has been disconnected. While this programming procedure can vary de-
j - e d e s i g n e d t o o p e r a t e o n l y w i t h t h e ignition s w i t c h in t h e " o n " pending on the make and model, many times the window(s) can be repro
y/.w T h i s s a f e t y f e a t u r e of p o w e r w i n d o w s s h o u l d n e v e r grammed without using a scan tool by simply depressing and holding the do*
l e f e a - e d . S o m e m a n u f a c t u r e r s u s e a t i m e d e l a y for a c c e s s o r y button for 5 to 10 seconds. If the vehicle is equipped with an auto-up feature. -
; — - a f t e r " c i g n i t i o n s w i t c h is t u r n e d off. This f e a t u r e p e r m i t s peat the procedure by holding the button up for 5 to 10 seconds. Always
- - dr - - a r p i i s e n g e r s a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o close all w i n d o w s o r service information for the specified method to use for the vehicle being serv*-
-.'STXr •::.<•-• a c c e s s o r i e s f o r a b o u t 1 0 m i n u t e s o r until a v e h i c l e
'. • s p a r e r af*er ' h e i g n i t i o n h a s b e e n t u r n e d off.
M o s t p o w e r w i n d o w systems use p e r m a n e n t - m a g n e t (PM) POWER SEATS
electric motors. p r / . . . r . l e t o r u n a P M m o t o r in t h e r e v e r s e di- A typical p o w e r - o p e r a t e d s e a t i n c l u d e s a r e v e r s i b l e electric mo ^
r e c t i o n s u n p f y b y r e v e r s i n g t h e p o l a r i t y of t h e t w o w i r e s g o i n g t o a transmission a s s e m b l y t h a t h a s t h r e e s o l e n o i d s a n d six d n x
\ ^
• . ' / / : p o w e * v / n d o w m o t o r s do not require that the that t u r n t h e six s e a t a d j u s t e r s . A 6 - w a y p o w e r s e a t offers sea ^
~ :> r.r. b o d y ( d o o r , of t h e v e h i c l e . T h e g r o u n d ment forward and backward, plus seat c u s h i o n movemen^^
'.ex a p c > • - // r.do f . s m o s t o f t e n c e n t r a l i z e d n e a r t h e dri- d o w n at t h e f r o n t a n d t h e rear. T h e d r i v e c a b l e s a r e ^d
• master ".r.*r. sw ' c t T h e j p - a n d - d o w n m o t i o n of t h e indi- s p e e d o m e t e r c a b l e s b e c a u s e t h e y r o t a t e i n s i d e a cable Jio ^ ^
v .i. / -A'.'. - ; r o n r r o i l H by double-pole, double-throw c o n n e c t t h e p o w e r o u t p u t of t h e s e a t t r a n s m i s s i o n to a gea
MOT W W W
1 J 30
FUSE "A
pAupi CIRCUIT
P A N E L
tf BREAKER
LA 1
POWER BAT
I DOWN
MASTER
CONTROL
SWITCH
THIS IS THE
ONLY GROUND
^CONNECTION
FOR ALL OF
THE POWER
WINDOWS
RIGHT CIRCUIT BREAKERS

FRONT BUILT INTO MOTOR
WINDOW HOUSING
SWITCH
INDEPENDENT
SWITCH)
RIGHT LEFT
FRONT FRONT
WINDOW WINDOW
MOTOR MOTOR
PERMANENT-
MAGNET
REVERSIBLE
MOTORS
f
'9ure 45-11 A typical power window circuit using PM motors. Control of ttie direction of winoow opera?:•- s ac- e<ee ? :rac&-c e ptta" r e :.-?-. " "
' T l i e only ground for the entire system is located at the master control (driver's side! switcti ass- - :
assembly that m o v e s t h e s e a t . S e e F i g u r e 4 5 - 1 4 . A s c r e w j a c k d o w n o r f r o n t to h a c k , o r v i c e v e r s a . T h e c l i c k is t h e s o u r . a f the

assembly is often called a gear nut a n d is u s e d t o m o v e t h e front or relay switching the field c o d c u r r e n t . S o r . e p o w e r seat. as
sack of the seat c u s h i o n u p a n d d o w n . S e e F i g u r e 4 5 - 1 5 o n p a g e 5 1 3 . m a n y as e i g h t s e p a r a t e P M m o t o r s t h a t o p e r a t e all f u n c t i o n s f the
A rubber c o u p l i n g , usually located between the electro seat, i n c l u d i n g h e a d i e s t h e i g h t , s e a t l e n g t h , a n d s i d e b e t t e r , r
Jworand the t r a n s m i s s i o n , c o u l d p e r m i t t h e e l e c t r i c m o t o r t o c o n - a d d i t i o n t o t h e u s u a l 6 - w a y p o w e r s e a t f u n c t i o n s . S o m e :•: a e w
to rotate in t h e e v e n t of a j a m m e d s e a t . T h i s c o u p l i n g is d e - seats 'use a s m a l l a : : p u m p t o i n f l a t e a b a g o r b a g s . : . t h e wer zzr
- to prevent m o t o r d a m a g e . of t h e b a c k :f t h e s e a t , c a l l e d t h e l u m b a r j e c ; _ i c : .v.::
l u m b a r s e c t i o n of t h e s p i n e .
°.st power seats us
e a p e r m a n e n t - m a g n e t motor that can be
. ' ^ a by simply r e v e r s i n g t h e p o l a r i t y of t h e c u r r e n t s e n t t o t h e Troubleshooting Power Seats F rseacire.
by the seat s w i t c h . S e e F i g u r e 4 5 - 1 6 o n p a g e 5 1 3 . from the fuse panel s o t h e y c a n b e o p e r a t e d w i t h e -.2 t ' m
m o t o r s h a v e a buiit
motor b "in circuit
breaker to protect t h e t h e ignition s w i t c h t o " o n * ( r u n . If a p o w e r seat d o e s - r perate
%ate°m over
h e a t i n g . M a n y Ford p o w e r seat motors use three or make any noise, t h e circuit b r e a k e r or fi-ie, i ' . r . i v e h i c l e . so
armatures
"i SoiIi i n s i d e o n e l a r g e p e r m a n e n t - m a g n e t field h o u s - equipped' should be c h e c k e d first.
-Jarate fi u W e r Seats u s e a se
r i e s - w o u n d electric motor w i t h t w o
•Vpe o f ™ coils, o n e field c o i l f o r e a c h d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n . T h i s S t e p t f l Check the circuit brease:. u s . i . . '.. -: r. t r . e
er seat m o t o r
' "n of C u r typically u s e s a relay to control t h e direc- u s i n g a test light. T h e t e s t l i g h t l i g r r. r o a r . .yes r the
seatent fr
°m t h e s e a t swi
tch t0
t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g field coil circuit b r e a k e r e v e n w i t h t h e :gr..non off. :* T -
:ir
t h e circuit b r e a k e r is f u r . c n o n x g , :r.e re.aiy r e r.. a tet
heard U t ° r ' T h ' S of p o w e r s e a t c a n
** i d e n t i f i e c l b y t h e
whenever t h e s e a t s w i t c h is c h a n g e d from u p t o may b e d e f e c t i v e .
I 56
Figure <5-13 An electnc motor and a regulator assembly raises and lowers the gia
power window
Figure 4 5 - 1 4 A typical power seat transmission assembly Even though many ol these
units can be disassembled, they are designed to be replaced as an assembly if any pari
46-12 • ndupwident idrivers doorl power window switch plate looks like a
inside is defective
- ' ^ ' turn it over ibi Notice that this power window contains a large
r-n- •' * Tl other eiectronw components to operate the express up and
r
m m —
HWT: Cower seats are o f t e n difficult to service because of restricted woi'
Ing room. If the enure seat c a n n o t be removed from the vehicle becaui
the track bolts are covered, a t t e m p t to remove the seat f r o m the top of tl>< i
S«eo Ze~.o ve t h e screws or clips that retain the controls to power seat assembly. These bolts are almost always accessible regardless of j
- - - too' panel or seat and check for voltage at the seat seat position.
CXKMTOi
Vtet. *'. around connecclonlsl at the transmission and
- :-.,r.-.-'. Vj.«ncrtd» |if equippedl. The solenoids must be
•>-" ff' :-. t e d to the vehicle body for the power seat circuit TECH TIP What Every Driver Should Know
about Power Seats
to i f K o a c .
1 Power seats use an electric motor or motors to move the position ol the seal
-- y ' - m o t o r runs but does not move the seat, the
These electric motors turn small cables that operate mechanisms thai mow
- .! - . d m or defective rubber clutch sleeve be-
seat Never place rags, newspapers, or any other object under a power *' J
-» w i m rr>otor and the transmission. 0
Even ice scrapers can get caught between moving parts of the seat and
- - ; ' the seat motor does not operate,
often cause serious damage or jamming of the power seat.
. a defective s<-at motor or defective wiring
-_>>- «. -<• - . irA t h e relay. If the power seat uses a motor
.... •:.<• - • • * a 5o . s i * wound field for reversing
• ' - - -o- i •».- - type of - e c r - c motor must be properly IMEMORY
' l t m u n i SEATS
OCHIO
s r . . - > t «•»-»- «o»T • r . n y ; : - ' rr.o-or. do not require grounding Components
C omponents ML w „
Memory seats „ power
are JPHM I B that
seats W Binclude
i aipos'-^
for o p e r a t i o n that ran crnrp two or three
sensor and a m e m o r y m o d u l e
Chapter 45 Accessor Circuit* 513
SHIE positions. This feature allows different drivers to use the same vehi-
cle w i t h o u t n e e d i n g t o reset the position of the s e a t Memory seats
use two or three numbered buttons, usually on the door panel, to
select the position that has been stored in memory for that location.
See Figure 45-17.
The memory seat position can also be set on some General
Motors models by using a numbered key fob remote to unlock the
^MISSION door(s). When the receiver gets a signal from remote n u m b e r one,
for example, the seat and the outside mirrors are moved to the lo-
cation in memory for driver number one.
Programming To program memory seats, most models include

the following steps:
Step #1 Turn the ignition key on, engine off | KOEO).

Step #2 Put the gear selector in Park or Neutral.
Step #3 Move the seat and outside mirrors to the desired positions.
Step #4 Depress the set button and the memory 1 , 2 , or 3 buttons at
FRONT
TRANSMISSION the same time and hold until a beep is heard.
switch off.
Step #5 Turn the ignition
Always check the owner's manual or service information for
the exact setting procedure.
lure 4 5 - 1 5 This power seat motor assembly houses three armatures to provide 6-way Operation Memory seats use a three-wire potentiometer as a
jsunerrt. Many power seats use one motor and a transmission assembly to operate the seat position senson This voltage valve varies with the seat position
as gear nuts needed to move the seat. and usually ranges from 0.5 to 4 . 5 volts. When a memory seat but-
ton is set, the seat position sensor voltage is stored in the memory
seat module. There is also a position sensor for the seat back posi-
tion and the headrest position if that is also powered and included
POSITION FRONT TILT R E A R TILT

MOTOR MOTOR MOTOR
X °Wcai
I m j dy r e v e ^ V V e r saat
Cn:u« diagram Notice (hat each motor rias a OuiH-in electronic (solid-slatel PTC circuit prtrtBcror •••-, elhe ;
9 ,,,e <flrecl 0
'" ' " In which the current flows through the motor.
LH SEAT
CONTROL
MODULE
l«~17 * • S W IM? "fjijuie ihnwng th* I H I - W I patofltoflvfer usadtodetoroww seat posrtwn
i function. T h e power seat and memory module ts

Diagnosis If a m e m o r y seat Is n o t w o r k i n g correctly, perforr I
a* rt • u T « y p o w e r at ail dmes and therefore can work
the following:
* . a Benin turned on. When the driver depresses
v t « f rr^- ts keyed to a seat position or the memory seat 1. Venfy that the power seat itself is functioning correctly. If the sea
s- - ten - i d e p r e s i e d . t h e seat m o w s until it matches the is not able to move forward or rearward, then the memory func
•mrjr a o r M .r t b e r m n o r f seat module. The memory seat mod tion will also not be able to function. If the power seat does not
ai - ~ a a t i s te varvius seat motors to operate in a set se function, follow the testing procedure in t h e service information
- •- r e u - ~ • a r v p c a , memory seat may be commanded to to locate and repair the fault.
t >-* a r t • t a d r w a r t ir> the memory position before the seat 2 . Verify thai the memory seat function is not functioning by trying*
y> rtm mater a activated. After the seat has achieved the memory seat positions. If no seat m o v e m e n t is observed, repro
s/ • .- • m o d u l e s emit a beep. If the power seat can gram the memory seat
e t r e i f paw? "j. a series oi beeps is usually heard. 3. Attempt to reset the memory seat m o d u l e by disconnecting t *
negative battery cable from the battery and wait 2 0 minutes. Kf
connect the battery cable and attempt to program the memo"
f tmr 1*1 M programming seat module.
as M Mow M iMt to mow rear

l a r n d -f to ata» mm k m »* Mftde MM radio
• m m t m t r t t r n * M % uwd to program the •OTt Thu procedure may also delete all of the preset
before return^-
dock settings. Be prepared to restore these settings K °
vehicle to the customer.
t m t u t mm rr*i one dm*' usually
« c w aa oragramnxd lor aaty eat
SM C. aw TTOMA mm W T W and povoon MO
, r - QfOP^r P*"
aa»H')W)l"' (Mr • » **H» pr*u i » W ) nu"ntw 4. F ollowing service information procedures, check
Email —art anewhanw Ivohagel and ground at the m e m o r y seat moduh _ osD c ai*1
e n w a a *«*•»••* w awwi e w e po**or 5. Follow the vehicle manufacturer's recommended
''•vir.g procedures.
HEATED SEATS control module to determine the temperature of the fins in die thermo-
Heated seats use electric device so the controller can maintain the set temperature.
'nd Operation t s i n the
J as well as ii
m in t h e s e a t b a c k in m , h e heat-
'"^ment'is designed to w a r m the seat and/or back of the seat to
•*fSoO°F |37°C) or close to normal body ten , t ; r a t 9 8 . 6 Fi. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION £ £
S e a t e d ' s e a t s also i n c l u d e a h i g h - p o s i t i o n or a vai a l e :em-
i V
He w Oo Heated and Cooled Cup Holders Work?
" 'I s t r i n g and t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e t e a t s can therefore be
Many heated and coded cup holders use a thermo-electric device 'Mitch uses
js 110 F (44°C).
Hie Pettier effect to cool or heat depending on the polarity of the current flowing
' A temperature s e n s o r in t h e s e a t c u s h i o n is u s e d to regulate the
through the unit While some cooled glove boxes and cup holders use the air-
.-erature. The s e n s o r is a v a r i a b l e r e s i s t o r w h i c h c h a n g e s w i t h
conditiorrg system to coo), the thermo-electric device is the most efficient way
. iperarure and is a n i n p u t t o a h e a t e d s e a t m o d u l e . T h e heated
to provide either coofing or heating.
• module uses the seat t e m p e r a t u r e i n p u t , a s well as the input
- t the high low (or variable) t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r o l to turn the cur-
' ^ 0 r off to the h e a t i n g e l e m e n t in t h e s e a t . S o m e vehicles are
• c d 'Aith heated s e a t s in t h e rear, a s w e l l as t h e f r o n t seats. Diagnosis and Service The first step in any diagnosis is to ver-
ify that the heated-cooled seat system is n o t f u n c t i o n i n g C h e c k t h e
.agnosis and Service W h e n d i a g n o s i n g a h e a t e d seat con- owner's manual or service information for the specified procedures.
' i start by verifying t h a t t h e s w i t c h is in t h e o n position and that If the system works partially, c h e c k t h e air filter for each thermo-
. ftnperature of t h e s e a t is b e l o w n o r m a l b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e . electric device. A partially clogged filter can restrict airflow and re-
% service i n f o r m a t i o n , c h e c k f o r p o w e r a n d g r o u n d at the con- duce the heating or cooling affect. If t h e system control indicator
, module and to t h e h e a t i n g e l e m e n t in t h e seat. M o s t vehicle light is not on or the system d o e s not w o r k at all, check for p o w e r
.-Jacturers r e c o m m e n d r e p l a c i n g t h e e n t i r e h e a t i n g e l e m e n t if and ground at the thermo-electric devices. Always follow the vehi-
j aeiective. See Figure 4 5 - 1 8 . cle manufacturer's r e c o m m e n d e d diagnosis a n d service procedures.
•EATEOAND COOLED SEATS

a r t s and O p e r a t i o n M o s t electrically h e a t e d a n d cooled seats
i : t h e r m o - e l e c t r i c d e v i c e ( T E D ) l o c a t e d u n d e r the seat cush-
TECH TIP
0 Check the Seat Filter
Heated and cooled seats usually „se a filter to trap dirt and debris to help keep
c and seat back. T h e t h e r m o - e l e c t r i c d e v i c e consists of positive the air passages clean. If a customer c o m p e l s of a slow heating or cooling of
:i negative connections b e t w e e n t w o c e r a m i c plates. Each ceramic the seat, check the air f''*er and 'epiace or clean as necessary.
ate r.as copper fins to a l l o w t h e t r a n s f e r of h e a t to air passing over
«device and directed i n t o t h e s e a t c u s h i o n . T h e thermo-electric
zvke uses the Peltier e f f e c t , n a m e d a f t e r t h e inventor, Jean- HEATED STEERING WHEEL
irles Anthanase Peltier, a F r e n c h c l o c k m a k e r . W h e n electrical
Parts Involved A heated steering w h e e l usually consists of t h e
-rent Bows through t h e m o d u l e , o n e side is h e a t e d and the other
following components:
ie a cooled. Reversing t h e p o l a r i t y of t h e c u r r e n t c h a n g e s w h i c h
* B heated. M o s t v e h i c l e s e q u i p p e d w i t h h e a t e d a n d cooled seats • A steering wheel with a built-in heater in the rim
w modules per s e a t — o n e for t h e s e a t c u s h i o n a n d o n e for the • A heated steering wheel control switch
i: tack. When the h e a t e d a n d c o o l e d s e a t s are t u r n e d o n , air is • A heated steering wheel control module
reed through a filter a n d t h e n t h r o u g h t h e thermo-electric mod-
The air is then d i r e c t e d t h r o u g h passages in t h e foam of the Operation W h e n the steering w h e e l h e a t e r control switch is
:
cushion and seat b a c k . E a c h t h e r m o - e l e c t r i c device has a turned on, a signal is sent to the control m o d u l e and electrical cur-
mature sensor, a t h e r m i s t o r . T h e s e n s o r s are used by the rent flows through the h e a t i n g e l e m e n t in the rim of the steering
wheel. See Figure 4 5 - 1 9 .
The system remains o n until the ignition switch is turned off or
the driver turns off t h e control s w i t c h . T h e t e m p e r a t u r e of the
steering wheel is usually calibrated to stay at about 90"F (32"C]
and it requires about 3 to 4 m i n u t e s to reach that temperature de-
pending on the outside t e m p e r a t u r e .
Diagnosis and Service Diagnosis of a heated steering w h e e l

starts by verifying that t h e h e a t e d steering wheel is not working as
designed.
NOTE Most heated steering wheels do not work if the temperature r s i e

the vehicle is about W F (32°C| or higher.
If the heated steering w h e e l is not working, follow t h e service

information testing procedures, w h i c h would include c h e c k i n g t h e
following:
> ~ 1. Check the heated steering wheel control switch for proper
T
* " he healing wires of a heated seat are a replaceable part, but it does operation. This Is usually done bv checking for voltagp a* b o t h
Ifc uptoiaery be lemov
516 SEC
ADJUSTABLE
PEDAL MOTOR
CABLC
ADJUSTABLE
PEDAL BRACKET
c
j o t s 4 5 - 1 9 The steenng wheel is controlled by a switch on the steenng whee1
BRAKE ACCELERATOR
•?rrmta!s of t h e switch. If voltage is available at only one of the PEDAL PEDAL
- : - e - r t i n a i s of the switch and the switch has been turned on
zr.i o f f . an ope", 'defective; switch is indicated.
2 . ".--:'-• for v- tage and ground at the terminals leading to the Figure 4 5 - 2 0 A typical adjustable pedal assembly. Both the accelerator and the brate
pedal can be moved forward and rearward by using the adjustable pedal position swiM
S e e i n g e l e m e n t . If voltage is available at the heating element and
t h e g - c t i n d h a s less t h a n 0 . 2 volt drop to a good chassis ground,
t h e h e a t i n g e l e m e n t is defective. The entire steering wheel has to AUTOMATIC DIMMING MIRRORS
t e -enlaced tr the e l e m e n t is defective. Always follow the service Parts and Operation Automatic d i m m i n g mirrors use elec
p r o c e d u r e for t h e vehicle. trochromic technology to dim t h e mirror in proportion t o the
amount of headlight glare from other vehicles at the r e a r . T h e e'ec-
trochromic technology developed b y G e n t e x C o r p o r a t i o n uses a gel
ADJUSTABLE PEDALS that changes with light b e t w e e n t w o pieces of glass. O n e piece of
Adjustable pedals, also called electric adjustable pedals glass acts as a reflector and the o t h e r has a transparent (clear' elec-
E A P ; . : - : e t h e b r a k e p e d a l a n d the a c c e l e r a t o r pedal on movable trically conductive coating. The inside rearview mirror also has a
. j . . . 3 _ e ~ o : o r o p e r a t e d . A typical a d j u s t a b l e pedal system forward-facing light sensor that is used to detect darkness a n d signal
: : : : i e s the following components: the rearward-facing sensor to begin to c h e c k for excessive glare free
headlights behind the vehicle. T h e rearward-facing sensor sends a
• -' r •- : '•? pedal position switch, w h i c h allows t h e driver to voltage to the electrochromic gel in t h e mirror that is i n proportion
DGS tloc the pedals. to the a m o u n t of glare detected. T h e mirror dims in p r o p o r t i o n t o
• . . v: pedal assembly, w h i c h i n c l u d e "he - o t o t threaded the glare and then becomes like a standard rearview m i r r o r when
. - — »- • aatf a pedal position ser so - See Figure 4 5 - 2 0 . the glare is no longer detected. If automatic dimming m i r r o r s a r e
used on the exterior, the sensors in t h e interior mirror and electron-
7'r.e : ' . ' t t - o f tr.e p e d a l s , a s w e l l a s t h e "ion of t h e seat sys- ics are used to control both t h e interior a n d exterior m i r r o r s -
i n c l u d e d a s p a r t of t h e - r e — - - / seat f u n c t i o n and
ca- e t •'-.- t w o or m o r e d r i v e r s .
Diagnosis and Service T h e first step w h e n t h e r e is a cus-

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION ???!
. a i x j u t t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e ac -jstable pedals is to
- - t h e u n i t is n o t w o r k i n g a s d e s i g n e d . C h e c k t h e o w n e r s What Is the Troxler Effect?
- - - - - - - -•-— r.formation for t h e proper operation. visual effect where an « e
The Troxler Effect, also called Troxler fading, is a

. v e h i c l e m a n u f a c t u r e r s r e c o m m e n d e d troubleshoot- has bee" ^
remains on the retina of the eye for a short time after the image
c o c e d f f i ^ . M a r ' / d i a g n o s t i c p r o c e d u r e s include t h e u s e of a fac- moved. The effect was discovered in 1804 by Igney
w - b i d i r e c t i o n a l c o n t r o l capabilities to test this rema"10"
a Swiss physician. Because of the Troxler effect, headlight glare can ^ ^
the retina of the eye and create a blind spot. At night, this fading away ^
bright lights from the vehicle in the rear reflected by the rearview n»'
cause a hazard.
Check the Remote
--», be p-ogn?mmed to a particular key fob remote,

res tltf $
f / v : yystartf adjustable pedals to move to the position set in Diagnosis and Service If a c u s t o m e r concern sTa icl£:
t h e veh
; -.-./s -g- before attempting to repair a prob- mirrors do not dim w h e n exposed t o bright h e a d l i g h t s from
e r r u f -nay a * i e > behind, the cause could be sensors or t h e mirror itself. Be s ^rs
mirror is getting electrical power. M o s t a u t o m o t i v e d i m "
figure 45-21 This auto dimming mirror also includes an outside temperature sensor arc Figure 4 5 - 2 2 6 e d r c a * -* * ~ ' t w t o t e d poMky
'-js5s follow the Instructions in service information if the compass is not u '<-•
because it m a y need to be calibrated
jve a green light w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t it h a s electrical powen If no

tage is found at the mirror, f o l l o w s t a n d a r d troubleshooting proce-
• v: io find the cause. If t h e m i r r o r is g e t t i n g voltage, start the diag-
s ijy p l a c i n g a strip of t a p e o v e r t h e forward-facing light sensor.
\T, t h e i g n i t i o n key o n , e n g i n e off (KOEO), a n d observe the opera
:. of the mirror w h e n a flashlight or t r o u b l e light is directed onto
e TOT. If t h e mirror reacts a n d d i m s , t h e forward-facing sensor is
-ave. Most of the time, t h e e n t i r e m i r r o r assembly has to be re-
aced if any sensor o r mirror faults a r e f o u n d .
One typical fault t h a t c a n o c c u r t o a u t o m a t i c d i m m i n g mirrors
that a crack c a n o c c u r in t h e m i r r o r a s s e m b l y a l l o w i n g t h e gel to
;ape from b e t w e e n t h e t w o layers of glass. T h i s gel can drip o n t o
'dash or center c o n s o l e a n d c a n c a u s e h a r m to t h e s e surfaces,
fee mirror should b e r e p l a c e d a t t h e first sign of a n y gel leakage.
»Figure 4 5 - 2 1 .
Rgure 45-23 n * seam mrw am s ocasc r ne r w t *dt xa v**r -m »
Cadillac Escalade
OUTSIDE FOLDING MIRRORS
"ors that can be electrically f o l d e d i n w a r d a r e a p o p u l a r feature,
pecially on larger sport utility v e h i c l e s . A c o n t r o l inside is usee to a contra! switch or s w i t c h e s . Large h e a r , s o l e n o i d s w e r e tvp
J
d both mirrors i n w a r d w h e n n e e d e d , s u c h as w h e n e n t e r i n g a cally used In older vehicles. T h e s e s o l e n o i d s n o n n a l l y . ^ e d two-
--age or close p a r k i n g s p o t . For d i a g n o s i s a n d servicing of outside wire connections t h a t carried a I n g h - a r . p e r e c u r r e n t through a
• mirrors, c h e c k s e r v i c e i n f o r m a t i o n for details. relay contro .led by a door l o c i s w i t c h . W i t h a so&eaeid-sty e d w
lock, only o n e of t h e t w o w i r e s is used at a n y o n e t i m e . If c u r e s -
flows through o n e w i r e to the solenoid, t h e door locks; the door
unlocks w h e n c u r r e n t flows through the other wire to the st -
\ The C a s e of t h e H a u n t e d Mirrors noid. The s o t a o i d s m u s t b e grounded to the metal of the door
complete the electrical circuit. Because of constant opening and
* °*ner complained that while driving, either one or the other outside m - closing of a typical vehicle door, a s o l e n m d s t y l e power door otic
^ 'old in without any button being depressed Unable to verify the custote frequently vibrates loose from the mounting m a d e the door anC
,'°" cem '"" service technician looked at the owner's manual to find out exacts fails to operate because of the poor ground connection wtth i h e
mirrw
s were supposed to work. In the owner's manual there was a metal door.
* statement that said that if the mirror is electrically folded inward . r r Most electric d o o r locks u s e a p e r m a n e n t magnet PM re
*1 manually pushed out, the mirror will not lock into position. The powet fold- , versble electric m o t o r t h a t o p e r a t e s t h e lock-activating rod. P M r e
' m ' rrors ™st be electrically cycled outward, using the mirror switches t o veisible motors do n o t require p o u n d i n g because, as v power
. After cycling both mirrors inward and outward eiect. ca . windows, the m o t o r control is d e t e r m i n e d bv the aoJar.r- -if t h e
m
was solved See Figures 45-22 and 45-23 current through t h e t w o m o t o r wires. See figure 4 5 - 2 4 .
Some t w o < k w r vehicles d o not use a powe* zm • •< relay »
cause the c u r r e n t flow for only t w o r M ~ " rs m be
EL
through the door lock switches. However, m o s t fcuKta ir
ECTRic
POWER DOOR LOCKS and vans w i t h p o w e r locks o n rear a n d side 3oo--s i s e s retar t o
Ele,'Clri
r control t h e c u r r e n t flow necessary- to o p e r a s h u -;
' ' - Power d o o r l o c k s u s e e i t h e r a s o l e n o i d or a p e r m a n e n t -
door lock motors. T h e door lock r e t r y teuJUUuBec a y :
m o t o r t n i o - ' - ••- • • • • • • -j
r>s s
CONTROL POWER
o=;curr ciRCurr
WC" »- HOT AT
ALL TIMES
K »r
,:
f. i
i.i-.i
SO A
ctficorr - i
MtAKERi J j
f t " |
L£=-
DOO-
Figure 45-25 A typical key fob remote with the cover removed showing the rep:j-^.
battery
which did not roll over to t h e n e w frequency w h e n the transmit^

w a s depressed. If t h e t r a n s m i t t e r d o e s n o t w o r k , try to resynchro
nize t h e transmitter to t h e r e c e i v e r by d e p r e s s i n g and holding both]
the lock and t h e unlock b u t t o n for 1 0 s e c o n d s w h e n within range!
of the receiver.
Keyless Entry Diagnosis A small b a t t e r y p o w e r s the t r j

mitter, t h u s a w e a k battery is a c o m m o n c a u s e of remote powef
locks failing to o p e r a t e . If t h e keyless e n t r y system fails to operate!
after t h e transmitter battery h a s b e e n r e p l a c e d , c h e c k the f o l l o r a J
Items:
• Mechanical binding in the door lock

f + s t f r 7* * v cai secfric power I w lot* circuit diagram Note thai the control circuit
t J-.TBQ-: * l U t m the pr/werorum a protected by a circuit breaker As with the • Low vehicle battery voltage
1> ». vi."«. pr.1wer door ty(K3>y UM reversible PM nongrounded • Blown fuse
. n o b s ar> p w e d me>ar'Ca! , » to f * be- unlock mechanism • Open circuit to the control m o d u l e
• Defective control module
v i i commonly the location of t h e o n e and only ground • Defective transmitter
: r . ' O i t for th« entire door lock circuit.
Programming a New Remote If a new or a d d i t i o n a l remote
K E T I E S S EWTBTY
transmitter is to be u s e d , it m u s t b e p r o g r a m m e d t o t h e vehicle
T h e p r o g r a m m i n g p r o c e d u r e v a r i e s a n d m a y require t h e u s e ol«
t - e r v - ^ joir.e Ford vehicles use a keypad located on t h e out- scan tool. A typical r e p r o g r a m m i n g s e q u e n c e for a Honda/Ac®
s'.''.- i - ' door. mot: keyless entry systems use a wireless transmit-
includes t h e f o l l o w i n g steps:
r •• f o t A k e y f o b is a decorative tab or
a e r o t < key cl - See Figure 4S 2 5 . Step #1 Turn the Ignition switch to O N .
TV e: broadcasts a signal that is received by t h e elec- Step #2 Within 1 to 4 seconds, p u s h t h e transmitter lock or unlocV
- cor - B o d j * , which is generally mounted In the t r u n k or button with t h e transmitter aimed at t h e receiver in the pas«
- r i f the '.-umerit panel. See Figure 4 5 - 2 6 . ger's multiplex control unit.
I - - e - : v v r : c>' troi unit send- a voltage signal to the door Step 0 3 Within1 to 4 seconds, turn t h e ignition switch to OFF.
V ' i - .<••• . K-.a'.ed ir, the doors. Generally, if t h e transmitter
Step #4 Within I to 4 seconds, turn t h e ignition switch to ON.
/ j - f / depressed once, only the drivers door is u n l o c k e d .
Step #5 Repeat steps 2, 3, and 4 t w o m o r e times.
<< I / is depressed twice, then all doors unlock.
Step #6 Confirm you can hear t h e s o u n d of the door lock actua-^
hi. L&ii Reset Procedure Many keyless r e m o t e sys Within 1 to 4 seconds, push the transmitter lock or unlock b u ^
v- u v «' ' ; cod* '^pe bar mi'ter and teceiver. In a conven- again. The keyless receiver is n o w in t h e programming mod?
j.r* . • - „ ':•<• i ' d r mitter en. i a certain fixed frequency, must push the transmitter lock or unlock button of the first » • •
; -r > ; i xi* ver.»cte control module. This single fre mitter again to program that transmitter.
> ep-e^ ar-d ret.'jad-.a-.t to open t h e vehicle. S t e p #7 Within 10 seconds, aim t h e t r a n s m i t t e r s (up to tWj*
A .-. c o d - ',y. ' j s .rr 'ter err,.' a different frequency
w h o s e codes you w a n t to store at t h e receiver, and PUN"h(!;.
"y t - ' r e frar - \ , ; " > : . d e p ' e s i e d and then rolls over
transmitter lock or unlock b u t t o n s . C o n f i r m that you « n ^
fc a c v o f t r |rea>er, f v , tr.<' i' o / . r w ! be ir-'etcepled. Both t h e
the sound of the door lock a c t u a t o r s a f t e r e a c h t r a n s m i t t e r
car. , r "e.r * v-.r- - r r-. j ' r/- Irep- in synchronized order so
'a.• correctly. is stored.
" ' -e r-rr' ' / e
t f r r / - t T i f ,•: • , <; f • i' h out of range from the Step # 8 Turn the ignition switch OFF, a n d pull out the key.
•/e'r..<>e, f r * , >-v.y rr.*/ r / r v '- ' w -zed by die receiver, Step 09 Confirm the proper operation w i t h t h e n e w codesls).
MCT P A S S E N G E R ' S
I C r U N O E R SWITCH
KEY FRONT PASSENGER DOOR L O C K
RECEI JNIT \ ACTUATOR/KNOB SWITCH
IGNITION
KEY S W I T C H FRONT P A S S E N G E R ' S
DRIVER S DOOR DOOR SWITCH
LOCK SWITCH
RIGHT REAR DOOR L O C K
ACTUATOR/KNOB SWITCH
RIGHT R E A R DOOR
SWITCH
DRIVER'S DOOR
KEY CYLINDER SWITCH
DRIVER'S DOOR LOCK

ACTUATOR/KNOB SWITCH
DRIVER'S DOOR
SWITCH
LEFT REAR DOOR LOCK
ACTUATOR/KNOB SWITCH TRUNK K E Y CYLINDER
SWITCH
TRUNK LATCH
LEFT REAR DOOR SWITCH
SWITCH
'gun 4 5 - 2 6 A typical vehicle showing the location of the various components of the remote keyless entry s)ran
iffl-THEFT S Y S T E M S
-"•- ' M devices flash l i g h t s o r s o u n d a n a l a r m if t h e v e h i c l e is bro-
" THQ or v a n d a l i z e d . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a l a r m , s o m e s y s t e m s pre-
the engine f r o m s t a r t i n g b y d i s a b l i n g t h e s t a r t e r , i g n i t i o n , o r
;
system o n c e t h e a n t i - t h e f t d e v i c e is a c t i v a t e d . O t h e r s p e r m i t
"«engine to s t a r t , but then disable it a f t e r s e v e r a l seconds.
A'tches in the d o o r j a m b s , t r u n k , a n d h o o d p r o v i d e a n i n p u t sig-
:
to the control m o d u l e s h o u l d a n u n d e s i r a b l e e n t r y o c c u r o n a
J-ai system. S o m e a n t i - t h e f t s y s t e m s a r e m o r e c o m p l e x a n d also
=';p electronic s e n s o r s t h a t t r i g g e r t h e a l a r m if t h e r e is a c h a n g e in
I p T current d r a w , a v i o l e n t v e h i c l e m o t i o n , o r if g l a s s is b r o k e n ,
sensors also p r o v i d e a n i n p u t s i g n a l t o t h e c o n t r o l m o d u l e ,
may be a s e p a r a t e a n t i - t h e f t u n i t o r i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e
" °r B C M . S e e F i g u r e 4 5 - 2 7 f o r a n e x a m p l e of a s h o c k s e n s o r
an anti-theft a l a r m s y s t e m .
'"Hheft System D i a g n o s i s Most factory-installed anti-

• ^ s y s t e m s are i n t e g r a t e d w i t h s e v e r a l o t h e r c i r c u i t s t o f o r m a Figure 45-27 A T,WAL shoe* sensor used «aiarni SNC anti-theft SVSSK-X - RV
ft*' mu!ti
p l e - c i r c u i t s y s t e m . T h e r e f o r e , it is e s s e n t i a l t o h a v e moved, the magnet w. • ~cve relative to Ihe col mduong a s n a ' tOSgt rcgr
dte d i a the alarm.
.'V5 grams, s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , a n d test p r o c e d u r e s for t h e spe-
. ^'odel being s e r v i c e d . T h e e a s i e s t w a y t o r e d u c e circuit c o m -
1510
use t h e w i r i n g d i a g r a m t o b r e a k t h e e n t i r e s y s t e m i n t o Anti-Theft System Testing and Service Before p e r ' ;
^ c u i t s , t h e n c h e c k o n l y t h o s e r e l a t e d t o t h e p r o b l e m . If a n y a n y d i a g n o s t i c c h e c k s , m a k e s u r e t h a t all of t h e f o l l o w i n g e e c i x a l
cates
5Jr ® t h a t a s u b c i r c u i t is n o t c o m p l e t e , c h e c k t h e p o w e r devices function correctly:
' ground, t h e c o m p o n e n t s , a n d t h e w i r i n g in t h a t s u b c i r c u i t .
,;'Wern anti-theft systems, especially those supplied as • Parking a n d l o w - b e a m h e a d l x - . t s
: > • s h i p m e n t , a r e e l e c t r o n i c a l l y r e g u l a t e d a n d h a v e a seif- • D o m e and c o u r t e s y lights

Program. This self-diagnostic program is generally • Horn
311(1
activated u s i n g a s c a n tool. Diagnostic a n d test proce- • Electric d o o r locks
re
., similar a s f o r a n y of t h e o t h e r e l e c t r o n i c c o n t r o l s y s t e m s
Circuit information f r o m these d e v . e e -rovdes »
° n the vehicle.
p u t s t o t h e c o n t r o l m o d u l e , if a p r c t l e m In a n y * t a m
Stee«5 Wa 10 seconds h r the SKIS ind ;
oasti
Step «6 Turn the igmtioc off. insert the n e » t
fettoa back on.
Step «7 Once the SKIS ght stops flashing ar,
I off.
key ts programmed.
F o r t PATS System Ford uses a responc r > . f w . .

called the P a s s i v e An:; Theft w
(PATS). iy.e*e is a cc - p J t e r chip tns-.de the -1 --
v e t o e s v - 1 not s t a r e r e - though t h e key m. j, ^
cvfcndei
Fart Programming tar al ( M T S I Keys This p ^ ,

will only work if t w o or m o r e p r o g r a m m e j ignition . .
amlabie. If t w o or m o r e p r o g r a m m e d ignition keys are v , *
able, then you will not be able t o p e r f o r m this procec f.
steps include:
Step in tosen the first programmed ignition key into the fciiae
cylinder Turn the ignition switch from the LOCK to RUN p.-. -
igmoor. switch must stay in the run position for 1 second
the jgnnon switch to the LOCK position and remove the i r • -
kev from the igritjon lock cytinder.
Step 92 Within 5 seconds of turning the ignition switch » f e

LOCK pos:-»n. tnsen the second programmed ignition ker-
the ignition lock cytinder. Turn the ignition switch free fe
LOCK to RUN position ignition switch must stay m the l \
position (or 1 second i. Turn the ignition switch to the LOCI pa
t a r jaagagnaiorawgnaithatsoutoirange.the v a c n and remove the second ignition key from the ignition cu
> d s a f i t e t t h e a n n theft s y v e m and may record a & cyfodet
code DTC'. Step «3 Within 5 seconds of turning the ignition switch to ik
* M «f xrtt p e m o u i t * mentioned devices are operational, check LOCK position, insen a n e w unprogrammed ignition k n *
A t m x a c M s » 4 n g to tt* awn (heft control m o d i * . Make sure al. the inr.. Ton lock cylinder. Turn the ignition switch from *
s i r e * tserr n o n n r i or off portions. Doonamc switches com LOCK to RUN position (the ignition switch must o r *
I cfccu:* w h e n a door ts opened. See Figure 4 5 - 2 8 . the RUN position for 1 secondl. Turn the ignition switch t o *
r o r v :r, A r Ootids j p or. the twitch contacts pre LOCK position and remove the ignition key from the
• t a n < * r a t : n g property Conduct voltage drop lock cylinder The new ignition key should now be propa^r*'-
i t • -ato c o m p o n e n t s a n d circuit problems. Repair as To program additional key|s|, repeat the key programme (•»
to c o n t r a that 9 * system is operational. Foflow cedure from step I .
t h e m a n u b c t u r r r to d e a r DTC records, then run
•f 4 a * s x a Q c p r v a a to vwl/y repairs.
Entry System Beginning m 1008, FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

^ as - Sentry Key
(SKIS). .Vher. ar. attempt to s u n a vehicle How Do I Know If My Fortl Is Equipped with a Factory
sends out a rad*> frequency RFi s g
A»tt-TH«n S y s t e m '
: v rhe e l e c t r o n * transponder chip embedded In the
T e n r e t u r n s a iffuque u g M l hack to the veto »twwmwe < a Ford h e i Iwtory-instaiied alarm system. m* * 1 ' '
-he ofcay for the v e f a d e to s u n and continue r w d i lob
a l t a p p e a i .n t a d e r a second, and is completely t r a m
. > the taychwr how « al tfw side of the fob the vshde h a n " * 1 '
• T * f t T a U t d r t v e t For additional security, two prepro- Wall i y t t m
« r n a r e n e e d e d te order to register additional kevs into • « nw keycfiam how e n the center ol me lob tha wlw* tto»
" ** r ot t h e ol ail keys, special programming heavy anh theft system
i m n i n e s to n p t ' r r n e w keys into the system.
Key* This procedure

' ( t e n me; ides: diet*
General Motors Anti-Theft System The type of
>n a l e y ar<2 m m < cot to ft Ow lock cytindet tem used on General Motors vehicles has induded man1 ^
'•r -r./,M # 1 mat. 'ft* a p n e a and rum to ON. systems starting with an anti-theft system that used a re®
i«3 S M O M * a a r f ' e n * e bay to OFF. m the ignition key. If the key fit the lock cylinder and the ^
was the correct value, the engine w o u l d crank and start • _ y
- M R A r " t j r a ! aev # 2 I m o the ignition and : V e h i d e A m i T h e f t S y s t e m or VATS. A
w » required to test this system. See Figure 4 5 - 2 0 on p a ?
ear Hi
| g M f t t t S included Passkey I II, Passkey III syseerri ê a transponder embedded ..-.to t »

v i r e s a t o f p e 3 e t in t h e ignition k . Passlock of the key, wh en k stamped *St3." Most of the syssesa jisatie
Passlock truck systems use •and t ' a r e : and the fuel iriectocs. b e Past-lock I tfisarles f j e after
n the tock cylinder with a c »r kev. See t t e n g i n e <ara; the theft Sght w then flash. Due totne * * »
vij-30- lYstetns, sendee information must be used and fcfiwed to dteg-
n o s e a n d repair a fault in t h e s e s y s t e m
Specific Systems
I. . . - • . _ J . «. • I . K A
fetwfes Equipped with Factory Alarms cies r racen xarw I M W e d B Eeuwed Fader time W-twt
1966 to present 1985 to present jWSt t 9 « to present-WSI

1995topresent *>asaaodo 1985 «o preset f a s a w *
1986 to prese* (Paste* •
1999 to present fasaaotft 9 t-999 to press* essaccA O
1994 to present 1996 ft present iP*TSi t996 to present f W S
'99 "to present 1999topresent ( T O W O W B * 1 9 » to present TSMSWWB?
1996 <0 present 1996 to present TRANSPONOE? ; 998 to preart ^WePWOER
1997 lo present 1998 to present iTH«MSPONOe» '99Btopreser' "TWePtWB*
1986 to present 1996 to present .TTUNSPOWet '998topresert TOMEPOOBI
'996 to present 1996 to present .TOMSPONOE* 1996 to *eserf.-WtSPONDEPi
•IfCTRICAL A C C E S S O R Y S Y M P T O M GUIDE
; a f c w i n g 1st will a s s i s t t e c h n i c i a n s in t r o u b l e s h o o t i n g electncal
c a n d y systems.
Possible Causes and/or Solutions
* a n t c o m s rooera 1. Possible srofcen speedometer cable ftsstue Otowr Vise Puya&e I r t r ^ e v ~

switch Tear the Drake pedal anr "osstue a a ot epgrt moi* to senc ar ?
Posside detective speed conw svatch
• » s e e s contpi speed Is w w r e c t or variable 2. Possote mtsadiusled ailwiifcuii catte or dam. -^bsc* ae*fcto» jr pvehec * • -ose°sssiOie jts
cable iremove and U t f a k i tosstwinaaciusthantflf Sansducar
* •^XJOWS are ôperative. 1. Ptnsibtedefec»veibB»n>fiie>cro«t6raaWri t s s M e M e s n e otoy # -^sstm war yxrc fcr i

switch Possible poor comecttons at swSr.*1»->< or raty s -testde open o u s t jsuaftr near T>
Possible detective lockout switch
* taaar »h)o» u reparative 2. Posstte detective motor tossUedriactooroptacMasartcli Passes* opes at t x s e a m i f to Tie s a a k » « f t r -
" V » POMT wndow can be operated from 3 (tar coinetfcm or open a r a a t n toe oonW tares
WWM
1. Possible detective c « u t breaker Passu* pot» graze at sw*h or n a n titr aseC J tiss£w . w c aarnj Ser«
M s m (operative—no cfc* or noise
me switch and ratty <* usatf> Pussta> iMac»« sa*K. Ptnste dattdM s o e n i ^ gr ^SSM s e e n * a w
2. Check lor - t t a ' m the cabws tram 8» " v a r a to check t r noto oparMor »*e\<s M . s » r o w s to
'Mfeammemve cl«:>'S heard
gear nut or Ihe screw pc*. O w » tor wssttt twang a PosatM MectM aio«r dek s
sound Possible dettebve swenooas o r « \ | to He sekradtst
'* » m aar b e t e s ate operative except one 3 PossWedet«CTv»motor P o o t t t i ) e t t c » w s o t o w d » m m } * s c s o f e n a e
DaarLeck
n t s are ôperative 1. PDSsfcttrMecbvtorarf breaker, toe j a ^ n j to y* swwi or r » « • ^ fesse*
detective swdch 'tesow oeieccw \>xr ot» soe<x>i3 or jixyv: nr J <o»tw w
w m g to the door ax* saWoO or » • mow Pustoto nKharacti otsstudot <J tm a w ix n
* ®er IOCX « roperetrve 2 ftKsWe de<ectrve svmich > t s M a w gramo on the sotervw • s o e - w
motor Pwsible poor etacftat cww«c»or it M a u t o « sotgnori
' l o g g e r s inoperative 1 Oieck lor proper operanon by pertorrv? tmath last amnt nttMtor chao a; M radt ot trv w •
Possible detective ratty ot t-«-«r »wsttt artHUta s a * h owe yxrc ca-*«tor it
gnd See. figure 45-31
7 *•«»» d*gger deens only« portion 2 The most common causa ct partai ooanwen <* a hawtd -aar » . J t » « a »tM«' p v > ;
comacbom at eithar tin p o m SAVw f a p u t M r at l i t a m f r v
SET St
!f a * " * -- w - ' or jmuws Sid e . the dash ir

l^r-w? arv-« - .AM.
Figure 45-31 Corrosion or faults at tne iiinction between the wiring and the rear->mt»
electrical grid are the source of many rear-window defogger problems
FIGAT 45-29 A soeâ tool is needed to magnose a General Motors VA1S secunty system SUMMARY
ire sseco r e ; contain a lessor peiet
1. Most power windows and power door locks use a permanent-op*
motor that has a built-in circuit breaker and is reversible. The ctmml
switches and relays direct the current through the motors.
IGNITION
2. The current flow through a rear-window defogger is oite- s
HOUSING
POWER regulating. As the temperature of the grid increases, its rescues
increases, reducing current flow. Some rear-window defoggers ate lis?
GROUND used as radio antennas.
3. Remote keyless entry systems use a wireless transmitter built into & •
fob to operate the power door lock.
HALF EFFECT
SENSORS 4. Factor,' anti-theft systems must function properly to allow the en
crank and or start.
- MAGNET B+ IGN
J IGNITION
CYLINDER
1. Describe how power door locks on a four-door vehicle can function w-

only one ground wire connection.
CONVENTIONAL
2. Expiaji how a rear w i n d o w defogger can regulate how much run
IGNITION KEY flows through the grids based on temperature.
3. What is the usual procedure to follow to resynchronize a remoio •
45-30 K PSSSOC* senes of Genera Mows security systems use a conventional entry transmitter?
r
. -, * > - xa®fl n trie flntion lock cyftnoe* and triggers the Halt-effect sensors 4. Which anti-theft systemisl uses a resistor pellet in the ignition key!
PHOTO SEQUENCE Door Panel Removal
no « a t e M e ^ e r i that it snaps in place and can be easily removed fastener

S
\Jk Another screw is found under the armrest. P 4 5 - 5 A screw is removed from bezel aro j x t the HS-S eJOC»* control panel s held m &» d * B
interior door handle
:
ij-T Another screw is found after the control panel P 4 5 - 8 The panel beside the outside ~ ~ y •
< reived removed by gently prying
hie sound-deadening material also acts as P45-11 Carefutiv inspect the door pa"^ Seta e M5-12 m c t r e s s the door pane » s « « a «
barher and would need to be removed to reinstalling the door pane o o e n r o s and rwrstal a» at the t a s l w w s a n t
• J a»s to the components Inside the dooi components.
Ch J . A po veaows •. u p e r w Sr. ci t h e • : witches b t t a t

APTERquj2
power w i n d o w operate from the master swiid- Ten - - .ar. 4 s » : t t e
^ owner of a vehicle equipped with cruise control c o - p l a i n s that the window todooot switch r r m he o r . T e a w c k n B savs the s c t w t w i < * »
control often stops working w h e n driving over rough reis be delectfw. Whc.h t e c h e s c i » ts c e r a v ^
Technician A says the brake switch mav be o... ad > •• a. Technician A onlv
; B says a defective servo unit is the most seh a >\: . b. "ec&iscan B or.:-?
"Wfflclan is correct? C B e t i T e c h " . ins A and B
' Technician A only d. V i t N e Tecfirjcian A nor B
b
' Technician B only i. l e c - x l i - -Vsavs'-u; 3 d e f e c a t e g r o u p o c o c s w S R a ' '
Both Technicians A and B swi:c k J « w r t s u a otnld cause the a i m a l a l j w r r w : - tm>-
Neither Technician A n o r B OIL B savs d a : It . - v c o n p v . w » e 3(FIXSIRSTTSA * * r . -A.
^ n i n a n a says that the cruise control n as . !»: ^ " iperate. Which technician is . irrec
J ^ t h r o t t l e control (ETC) system uses a <er\v to mo*e t Technician A o n h
,Jr' B
»ys that the cruise control on a vehicle with E T C *s e APT tk. Technician B onlv
,D
set the speed. Which techn .111 m • c .V:.- r echniCMfls \ jed ?
Technician A only d . Neither T e c h m c a A ' B
• Technician B onlv
5. A r . ? : c i r was • . •.
' wth Technicians A and B 1. s a s t i x s e p f f l f t P M - .-:• •
lb E i t h e r Technician A nor B t>. . scs - -v- • * ?.i r - .<-. "
v
S. fcoaSy tioar lock is i n o p c h i t i w , . .
•a. .. . ; > . a .. '. . . .0..'. a r . -•
a . A poor { g t t n e t e o B B a a k a t at the p o w c . ? ~-
i . . rs. .vjv'J&rc^tagsaSefio^-
b. A&-Vv''.:vtf door t r o t motor i«srsoienc.-...
c. AsickYtfve iopen c r c u i t breaker for
i. -v. , s s i s a g . a*- - . : v . r - aSr-A a: *r.A - v s t e « l
d. i ,. : -vcr..v jspes) for t h e control.-
; > ' - r. T---,- .-: Se s c . . . ' x s a AC « & o. * tejHsi, seasote control stops working. lecrm
i. T ... " ssc x - a i c.os« ® Sitter, - .-cfebte a & f w t e e the remote could be dead. technician B says that • •• :
Sesg ;> - ee w s y n c h s s u ^ H i e h technician is correct? ~' % .1
c. - .-«_: « a s s y S = * « SejoaarsKSc « S e p d a. Technician A only
as* .,.- ;•!« i e s ^ t e s - V g e o S sSi«of b . technician B a a l y
a s K : gss d s s s t c. Both T e e r . R v a « A a n a 8
c. . ---assess ; . > ..:. 3ecsaassr.,a Vvsaje w a « a t i r -
is issasd S K B S ffie A-SET. ar S e iass 10. tedasteans are discussing a t i f r f c e i t s t e n t s . Techn-car • -
some systems require a speoa: :«y. Teciaaciar. ft says'-hat
7. - c. : a racv,-.„ ~ - , v \ j r ; c-sn revgsed
ase a cantputer cia"? ai the key. W h i c h technician c o r r e c t ? ^
i. j < : - c a s e d E to - « s e « ( 8 Se21 ccll a . Techr.icsan AonJy
t. si ; . : tserarest »Ste s o u : b. Tedsnidan'B enhr
c. S o f t Technicians A a n d B
C. - V C ' *.4S£ V-2. C -\
c. . c ^ e ^ v and a ~.vc- - t a i d a t c i d. Neither Technician A n o r B
and Airbags
.. •: 7 - z .
•r—- Irr--- • -i- -
a s j E S T S S S : A f t e r s t u d y i n g C h a p t e r 4 6 , t h e reader will b e a b l e t o : Prepare tor ASE Eiectricai/Electronic S y s t e m s (A6) certification test content ares
-.Acaessones O a § n o s s a r i ^ p a i r i . • L,s: tne safety precautions for working arouna an airbag. • Describe t h e p r o c e d u r e s t o diagnose and
r x i . - r f n o o ; a m a g faults.
£ R i ; i : a m a g • arming sensor • docKspnng • deceleration sensor • dual-stage airbags • event d a t a r e c o r d e r (EOR) • event file
* s e n s o r • a e c a p a n t detection systems • ^ s s e n g e r presence system (PPS) • pretensioners • s q u i b • s u p p l e m e n t a l air restraints (SAfi
• r t n e n t s . n r a a a e r e s t r a i n s iSIR) • supplemental restraint system (SRSi • unoeitefl
SAftVf BEITS A N D RETRACTORS • L-nergency locking r e t r a c t o r s , w h i c h l o c k t h e p o s i t i o n at she

Setety Setts Safe.-/ b e l t s a r e u s e d to k e e p t n e driver a n d pas- belt in t i e e v e n t of a collision o r r o l l o v e r
•.<t.:en x ^ i i t o t h e v e h i c l e in t h e e v e n t of a collision.• MEmergency
ost and w e b speed-sensitive retractors, which
s«s i n c l u d e i i r e e - p o t t a s u p p o r t a n d are c o n s t r u c t e d of dona of m o v e m e n t for t h e d r i v e r a n a p a s s e n g e r b u t Iocs it
-..:. - » 2 Inches w i d e 5 an . T h e t h r e e s u p p o r t vehicle Is accelerating t o o fast o r if t h e v e h i c l e is
:. - . r . : . - i s r-.v.- • p o s s or. e i t h e r side of she seat for t h e Dei: o v e r fast. See Figure 4 o - 2 for a n e x a m p l e of a n inertia-type seat B -
. a ; i ' . i or.e c r o s s i n g o v e r t h e u p p e r torso, w h i c h is a t t a c h e d t o locking m e c h a n i s m .
" 6 " E * p £ a r or s e a t o a d t . E v e y c r a s h h a s t h r e e t y p e s of coiiisions:
T&e v e t u c l e s t r . k e s a n o t h e r v e h i c l e or object. Safety Beit U g h t s a n d C h i m e s All l a t e - m o d e l

equipped v g t h a safety belt w a r n i n g light o n t h e dash an
C44iis»o 2 T n e i n v e r a n d / o r passengers hit objects inside t h e
t h a t s o u n d s if t h e b e l t is n o t f a s t e n e d . S e e F i g u r e 4 0 o . ^ ^ . ...
i w h i d e if u n b e l t e d .
S o m e v e h i c l e s w i l l i n t e r m i t t e n t l y flash t h e i e m m a *
Ca&sioc 2 r-.c t e r n a i o r g a n s of t h e b o d y rut o t h e r o r g a n s o r
sound a c h i m e until t h e driver a n d s o m e t i m e s t h e s o -
b o s e s , w h i d a causes internal injuries.
fasten their safety belts.
:: a- s^t w o r n , tr.c belt s t r e t c h e s , a b s o r b i n g a l o t
-.: £ 2 . r e z ; p c ^ s n t a n g coiusion w i t h o t h e r o b j e c t s in t h e
?efiuCiSg t r ^ e s . See figure46-1. PBETENSIOKERS
Beft Rstract&rs ". s e l s a r e a l s o e q u i p p e d w i t h o n e of t h e A p r e t e n s i o n e r is a n e x p l o s i v e ( p y r o t e c h n i c 1 ' g »
K60W2 ctarsi t h e seat belt as t h e a i r b a g is b e i n g d e p l o y e d . H W i - ^ ^

p r e t e n s l o n i n g d e v i c e is t o f o r c e t h e o c c u p y ^ ^ Die®-
&0- - CCJ./ TSJtCZSs. , < / e assaBy only ijsed o n recoiling against t h e s e a t b a c k a n d t o r e m o v e a n y s l a c k m " - 1 '
Figure 4 o - 4 .
ipfri « RrAwft? S y s W s < w
DRIVER S T O P S
STOPPING DIS IAN( WITH VEHICLE IN
OF DRIVt R DISTANCE OF
ONE FOOT —
S K I P P I N G OlSTANCt
OF VI HICLI SEAT B E I T
rrnrrcM
CRASH SCENARIO WITH VEHICLE STOPPING IN

ONE FOOT DISTANCE FROM A S P E E D O * 30 «W»H
• « - ! la) Safety balls are the primary restraint system. (b| During a col jnttw stretitur*j m ••. i » n W » « » «
«-3 « < w a i M M > « m | l » i
ACTIVE
belts
,JWI
i » w on mortH-typa machartam that locus vm dm » ma
movement
" » s « « belt preteiuviom- avvrniH - •

deployment Always v low the v>.-.. • •
V ^ f prweJurt
^ ( arc explaslw d e v k i M h a t . . IN
%., ^ 'wmtnais tXi not a lumper w i r t . p o w w W t -. fcn
' ssi..* 1 ""* m J
' ,he
• »I belt latch * Vwa*-
U
& auun h r e c o m m e n d e d Mat p n x t d u r a s
526 S- TVS.'
AIRBAGS To c a u s e i n f l a t i o n , t h e c l o s i n g of t h e a m nsor i
let
to p r o v i d e t h e p o w e r - s i d e v o l t a g e t o t h e i n f l ;U|(. • N«jj
A i r b a g p-a . -c — 3 an? d c s i g n e d t o c u s h i o n t h e d r i v e r (or pas-
airbag can inflate, h o w e v e r , t h e s q u i b cii ., mu,j" " re t)i(
s e n g e r if t h e p a s s e n g e r s i d e is s o e q u i p p e d ) d u r i n g a f r o n t a l colli-
g r o u n d . T h e g r o u n d is p r o v i d e d t h r o u g h th< , l o n of a
- ' A r r k n o w n bv m a n y different n a m e s including t h e 1er
following;
forward or the passenger discriminating « [n otj)er Hie
w
t w o s e n s o r s must b e t r i g g e r e d at the same fore ^ °rds,
airt
1. S u p p l e m e n t a l r e s t r a i n t s y s t e m (SRS) will b e d e p l o y e d . S e e F i g u r e 4 6 - 6 . »i,
2 . S u p p l e m e n t a l i n f l a t a b l e r e s t r a i n t s (SIR)
3. S u p p l e m e n t a l a i r r e s t r a i n t s (SAR) Types of Airbag Inflators There are two different tynes
ofi
f l a t o r s u s e d in a i r b a g s , i n c l u d i n g : n-
M o s t a i r b a g s a r e d e s i g n e d t o s u p p l e m e n t t h e s a f e t y b e l t s in t h e
e v e n t of a c o l l i s i o n , a n d f r o n t a i r b a g s a r e m e a n t t o b e d e p l o y e d o n l y 1. S o l i d f u e l . T h i s t y p e u s e s s o d i u m a z i d e p e l l e t s and when i r -
t h e e v e n t of a frontal i m p a c t w i t h i n 3 0 d e g r e e s of c e n t e r . M o s t g e n e r a t e s a large q u a n t i t y of n i t r o g e n g a s t h a t quickly inflates ^
a i r b a g s y s t e m s a r e not d e s i g n e d t o i n f l a t e d u r i n g s i d e o r r e a r im- airbag. T h i s is t h e first t y p e u s e d a n d is still c o m m o n l y used
cacL The force required t o d e p l o y a typical a i r b a g is a p p r o x i m a t e l y driver- a n d p a s s e n g e r - s i d e a i r b a g i n f l a t o r m o d u l e s . See Figure 45.7

T h e s q u i b is t h e h e a t i n g e l e m e n t u s e d t o i g n i t e t h e gas-genera--
e q u a l t o t h e f o r c e of a v e h i c l e h i t t i n g a w a l l a t o v e r 1 0 m i l e s p e r
m a t e r i a l . It r e q u i r e s a b o u t 2 a m p e r e s of c u r r e n t to heat the heat?
hour 16 kilometers per hour).
ing e l e m e n t a n d i g n i t e t h e i n f l a t o r .
The force required t o t r i g g e r t h e s e n s o r s w i t h i n t h e s y s t e m pre-
v e n t s a c c i d e n t a l d e p l o y m e n t if c u r b s a r e h i t o r t h e b r a k e s a r e rap- 2 . C o m p r e s s e d g a s . C o m m o n l y u s e d i n p a s s e n g e r - s i d e airbags and
t • applied. T h e s y s t e m requires a substantial force to deploy the r o o f - m o u n t e d s y s t e m s , t h i s s y s t e m u s e s a c a n i s t e r filled with
airbag t o help p r e v e n t accidental inflation. a r g o n gas, p l u s a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e of h e l i u m a t 3 , 0 0 0 PSI
Operation S e e F i g u r e 4 6 - 5 f o r a n o v e r a l l v i e w of t h e p a r t s in-
d - d e c in a typical airbag system. T h e parts include: IGNITION
POWER (+)
1. S e n s o r s
2 . A i r b a g inflatori m o d u l e
3 . C ' i o c k s p r i n g w i r e coil in t h e steering c o l u m n
\ ARMING SENSOR
4. Control module o A
5. Wiring and connectors
SQUIB (INFLATOR
HEATING ELEMENT)
ANGLE AT WHICH A COLLISION
MUST OCCUR FOR AN AIRBAG
DEPLOYMENT
PASSENGER
N
FORWARD COMPARTMENT
DISCRIMINATING DISCRIMINATING
SENSOR
Y SENSOR
FORWARD
SENSOR
Figure 46-6 A simplified airbag deployment circuit. Note that botti the arming sensor a
at least one of the discriminating sensors must be activated at the same time, the arming
sensor provides the power and either one of trie discriminating sensors can provide the
PASSENGER
ground for the circuit.
COMPARTMENT
| SENSOR
r
PASSENGER
INFLATOR
MODULE
DRIVER
INFLATOR
MOCKJLE
the
Figure 4 6 - 7 Lifting trie squib from trie airbag housing Trie squib is
Figure 4 6 - 5 a typical wr«ag 2yae- showing many of the components to Tilt t«e a
ignites trie pyrotechnic gas generator that rapidly produces nitrogen gas
NONMAGNETIC
SLEEVE PERMANENT MAONf T
AND POLE PIECE
VOLTAGE. SIGNAL
I HOW. bOW
OHO MO
TO SUV.
GOLD PLATED BALL

Goto PLATED
(MASS)
ELECTRICAL CONTACTS
OKJCTKMOFTHKYU IMPACT
This shows a deployed side-curtain airbag on a training vehicle
A —>
|435 kPa). A s m a l l i g n i t e r r u p t u r e s a b u r s t d i s c t o r e l e a s e t h e gas
mi
when energized. T h e c o m p r e s s e d g a s i n f l a t o r s a r e l o n g c y l i n d e r s
/ L
that can be Installed i n s i d e t h e i n s t r u m e n t p a n e l , s e a t b a c k , d o o r
J
panel, or along a n y rail o r p i l l a r of t h e v e h i c l e . S e e F i g u r e 4 6 - 8 .
Once the i n f l a t o r i s i g n i t e d , t h e n y l o n b a g q u i c k l y i n f l a t e s (in

iout 30 milliseconds | i n s ] o r 0 . 0 3 0 s e c o n d s ) w i t h n i t r o g e n g a s g e n
sated by the inflator. D u r i n g a n a c t u a l f r o n t a l c o l l i s i o n a c c i d e n t , t h e
:n«r is being t h r o w n f o r w a r d b y t h e d r i v e r ' s o w n m o m e n t u m to- DURING READINESS DURING DEPLOYMENT
:a;d the steering w h e e l . T h e s t r o n g n y l o n b a g i n f l a t e s a t t h e s a m e (CONTACTS DPEK, (CONTACTS CLOSED;
trie. Personal i n j u r y is r e d u c e d b y t h e s p r e a d i n g of t h e s t o p p i n g
.::? over the e n t i r e u p p e r - b o d y region. The normal collapsible
Figure 46-S AR ARIE; MAMEI:
leering column r e m a i n s i n o p e r a t i o n a n d c o l l a p s e s in a collision
hen equipped w i t h a n a i r b a g s y s t e m . T h e b a g is e q u i p p e d with
'•J large side v e n t s t h a t a l l o w t h e b a g t o d e f l a t e i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r
once t h e b a g h a s c u s h i o n e d t h e o c c u p a n t i n a c o l l i s i o n .
in the evesu o! i
vehicle maajferture-ri it-5. rejiaced ajoSg wli
jensors All t h r e e s e n s o r s a r e b a s i c a l l y s w i t c h e s t h a t c o m p l e t e a n
ridbgg assemiey The for.
j'xtrical circuit w h e n a c t i v a t e d . T h e s e n s o r s a r e s i m i l a r in c o n s t r u c -
sensor, the seen-a- B a y rct
and operation, a n d t h e location of t h e s e n s o r d e t e r m i n e s its
* All airbag s e n s o r s a r e r i g i d l y m o u n t e d t o t h e v e h i c l e a n d must
•mounted w i t h t h e a r r o w p o i n t i n g t o w a r d t h e f r o n t of t h e v e h i c l e
ensure
that t h e s e n s o r c a n d e t e c t r a p i d f o r w a r d d e c e l e r a t i o n . Wiring By w o r l d w i d e a g r e e m e n t , all e l e c t r i c a l w i r i n g for a i r b a g ; Is
There are t h r e e b a s i c s t y l e s ( d e s i g n s ) o f a i r b a g s e n s o r s : yellow. To e n s u r e p r o p e r e l e c t r i c a l c , - r j i e c t i o n t o t h e I r i f i a t v m o d j l ?
in t h e s t e e r i n g w h e e l , a cc*:: a s s e m b l y is u s e d ir. t h e s t e e r i n g c o l u m n
: r e t a i n e d g o l d - p l a t e d b a l l s e n s o r . This sensor This coil is i ribbon of c o p p e r w i r e s t h a t o p e r a t e s m u c h like a w i n -
j s e a p e r m a n e n t m a g n e t t o h o l d a g o l d - p l a t e d s t e e l ball a w a y d o w s h a d e w h e n t h e s t e e r i n g w h e e l is r o t a t e d . T h i s ccrfl, c a ' l e d ar.
torn two gold-plated e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t s . S e e F i g u r e 4 6 - 9 . If t h e SIR coil o r a dodtspring. p r e v e n t s t h e l a c k of c o r . t i r iir> be:*'?/--,
vehicle (ana t h e s e n s o r ) s t o p s r a p i d l y e n o u g h , t h e s t e e l ball is the s e n s o r 2nd the inSator a s s e m b l y that m i g h t result f r o m a h o m -
pleased from t h e m a g n e t a n d m a k e s c o n t a c t w i t h t h e t w o gold- ring type of s k i i n g c o n d u c t o r . S e e F i g u r e 4 6 - 1 2 o n p s g e 5 2 0 .
l îed electrodes. T h e s t e e l b a l l o n l y r e m a i n s i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e M o s t i r b a g s y s t e m s a l s o c o n t a i n a d i a g n o s t i c t m l ! t h a - o f t e n ir,
«iectrodes for a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t t i m e b e c a u s e t h e s t e e l ball is e l u d e s a n a u x i l i a r y p o w e r s u p p l y , w h i c h is u s e d t o p r o v i d e trie C e -
1 ba
2 y ^ <* into c o n t a c t w i t h t h e m a g n e t . rent t o Inflate t h e a i r b a g if t h e b a t t e r y is d i s c o n n e c t e d frorr the
l e d u p s t a i n l e s s - s t e e l r i b b o n - t y p e s e n s o r . This s e n s e : is vehicle during a collision. T h i s auxiliary p o w e r supply usâUy u s «
in
an a i r t i g h t p a c k a g e w i t h n i t r o g e n g a s i n s i d e t o p r e v e n t c a p a c i t o r s t h a t a r e d i s c h a r g e d t h r o u g h t h e s q u i b of t h e inSaaon
VoHl corrosion of \Xl\.
t h e JLIUUI
s e n s o r f-'
pLaUr t LO.
s . S e c FI i g u r e 4 6 - 1 0 . Ifit tvh.ve m o d u l e . See F i g u r e s 4 0 - 1 3 a n d 4 6 14 or. p a ^ e 5 3 0 .
Jr. I ^ d the sensor) s t o p s rapidly, t h e stainless-steel rol "un
tolls* and
« c o n t a c t s tU1V.
h e t w o g( ,oVlI dU - pJ.1UH.U
l a t e d cV.CIIIQVW.
ontacts. OV nucv ev tv-.v
h e force
. v . v v ts Troubleshooting T h e e l e c t r i c a l p o r t i o n of rr. * a 'U.> s y s t e m ;
I. s t a i n l e s s - s t e e l r o l l r o l l s b a c k i n t o its original s h a p e is c o n s t a n t l y c h e c k e d b y t h e c i r c u i t s w i t h i n t h e a i r b a g e n e r g i z i n g
8fal s e n s o r . S o m e v e h i c l e s u s e e l e c t r o n i c d e c e l e r a t i o n p o w e r unit or t h r o u g h t h e vehicle's c o m p u t e r s y s t e m 1 he e t e c w

ors
into the inflator m o d u l e . T h e s e sensors measure cal s y s t e m is m o n i t o r e d t h r o u g h t h e e l e c t r j t t i : s y s t e m t., t h e a;.;.:
U n e T °f d e c e l e r a l i o n
a n d , t h r o u g h t l i c c o m p u t e t logic, d e t e r c a t i o n of a s m a l l - s i g n a l v o l t a g e t h r o u g h t h e v a r k - . v >r, v'.
c o m p o n e n t s . If c o n t i n u i t y e x i s t s , a • n a l v . a g e d r up v. •.,- •
liineii U l e tobags s h o u l d 1 ) 0 d c P l o > ' e d - S c e H 8 u r c 4 C H 1 f o r 4
teaJ n e l h a t I l l u s t r a t e s h o w q u i c k l y a t y p i c a l a i r b a g s y s t e m c a n s u r e d b y t h e t e s t i n g c i r c u i t s . If a - o p e n o r s h o r t c ' t . .1' r / . : . - : , <
SECT****
• Special w i r e repair tools o r c o n n e c t o r s , s u e :
' n P-and-S EA |
weatherproof connectors
CRASH SENSOR
ROLLER
- I Most vehicle manufacturers specify tha'
minal be removed when testing or w o r k i n g a r o u n ,
Be aware C
memory saver device used to keep the c o m p u t e r
can supply enough electrical power to deploy an aire
TECH TIP Pocket t h e I g n i t i o n Key t o B e Safe
When replacing any steering gear such as a rack-and-pinion steering unit

sure that no one accidentally turns the steering wheel. If the steering whee"
turned without being connected to the steering gear, the airbag wire c o i l »
spring) can become off center. This can cause the wiring to break when ••'
steering wheel is rotated after the steering gear has been replaced. To help -
vent this from occurnng. simply remove the ignition key from the ignition
STOP SPRING keep it in your pocket while servicing the steering gear
BAND
CONTROL
MODULE
CIRCUITS
Precautions Take the following precautions when workint
with or a r o u n d airbags.
1. Always follow all p r e c a u t i o n s a n d w a r n i n g s t i c k e r s o n vehicles

equipped w i t h a i r b a g s .
2 . Maintain a safe w o r k i n g d i s t a n c e f r o m all a i r b a g s to help prevent
the possibility of p e r s o n a l i n j u r y in t h e u n l i k e l y e v e n t of an unin
tentional airbag d e p l o y m e n t .
• Side i m p a c t a i r b a g — 5 - i n c h d i s t a n c e ( 1 3 c m )
• Driver f r o n t a i r b a g — 1 0 - i n c h d i s t a n c e ( 2 5 c m )
• Passenger f r o n t a l a i r b a g — 2 0 - i n c h d i s t a n c e ( 5 0 c m )
SPRING ROLLER 3 . In t h e e v e n t of a collision in w h i c h t h e b a g ( s ) w e r e deployed, the
BANO inflator m o d u l e and all s e n s o r s u s u a l l y m u s t b e replaced to ensure
proper f u t u r e o p e r a t i o n of t h e s y s t e m .
Figure 46-10 So-e «er»ctes use a ntbon-type crasn sensor 4 . Avoid using a s e l f - p o w e r e d t e s t l i g h t a r o u n d t h e y e l l o w airbag
wiring. Even t h o u g h it is h i g h l y u n l i k e l y , a s e l f - p o w e r e d test light
could provide t h e n e c e s s a r y c u r r e n t t o a c c i d e n t a l l y set off the into
tor m o d u l e a n d c a u s e a n a i r b a g d e p l o y m e n t .
5 . Use care w h e n h a n d l i n g t h e i n f l a t o r m o d u l e s e c t i o n w h e n it is
TRIM COVER AIRBAG AIRBAG
CLOSE SPOTS INFLATED DEFLATED removed f r o m t h e s t e e r i n g w h e e l . A l w a y s h o l d t h e inflator away
from y o u r body.
6 . If handling a d e p l o y e d i n f l a t o r m o d u l e , a l w a y s w e a r gloves and
100 m» 250 m*
10 1 SECOND) (0.25 SECOND) safety glasses to a v o i d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of s k i n irritation from the soc.
um h y d r o x i d e d u s t , w h i c h is u s e d a s a l u b r i c a n t o n t h e baglsl an
that r e m a i n s a f t e r d e p l o y m e n t .
E M U l U J S E C O N O S 10.001 SECOND)
7 . Never jar or strike a s e n s o r . T h e c o n t a c t s i n s i d e t h e sensor me- -
d a m a g e d , p r e v e n t i n g t h e p r o p e r o p e r a t i o n of t h e airbag svstd
6-11 fcoc* ib- (rtim i 4 second ol a collision, tne sensors have closed, the the e v e n t of a collision.
i >5>.*e v c me aimag Has deflated 8 . W h e n m o u n t i n g a s e n s o r i n a v e h i c l e , m a k e c e r t a i n that the
arrow o n t h e s e n s o r is p o i n t i n g t o w a r d t h e f r o n t of the v. -
Also b e c e r t a i n t h a t t h e s e n s o r is s e c u r e l y m o u n t e d .
"C • :
///•• e x a c t m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s r e c o m m e n d e d proce-
: - v - g a n d - r a c i n g airbag diagnostic trouble c o d e s .
AIR6A6 DIAGNOSIS TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT nn Dual-Stage Airbags
Many vehicles are equipped with d u a l - s t a g e a i r b a g s ( t w o - s t a g e a ^ ^ , .

. v - . • : j e r v . e e A a . r b a g s y s t e m s usually require s o m e o r all
of t h e foBowtng items: actually contain two separate tnflators; one for less severe crashes . ^
bt ig
higher-speed collisions. During some airbag deployment, both ' ^beaCc
• trsr* • 'MM
ployed If one stage is deployed, the other s t a g e is still active and ou^
• A - .. . s a J e d a load tool
dentally deployed A service technician cannot tell by looking j ? if*
• Scan t/y,I
!
whether both stages have deployed. Always handle a deployed ''>vO|0gf
• S r i c r -.3 • j or s t o r m ? connector .
has not been deployed and take all precautions necessary to keep
• A i r b a j s mtrrr. W r
• Vehicle-*pecrfic u s • a r r e s t source from getting close to the inflator module terminals. ^
[RUNA32 ' ] leW ' 0 " 1
JUNCTION
POWER TRAIN
' SLOCK
I I CONTROL
i WM22j
( I MODULE
rfiFusE | :
I PO lHW-30-17)
I S K J U _
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, lflW-12-121 V I
T DATA
I
LINK
. 'o y e a
_ _ J
I
y
OX
20
UVT
CONNECTOR
(«W30-I7)
Y C2
2Y
C103
1
F23 FI4
U D25
18
IG/YL 20
OB/VL 025 t/VT
DRIVER
a
AIRBAG <LVT
DRIVER DRrVER
A.RBWS *:RBAG
UNEt L*E2 ; C3 C1
PC PC
BUS BOOY **
COWTROL
CLOCKSPRING MODULE
NO. 2 9M5-'S PC
C1
p
ASSE1GEc PttSEHG^
AIRBAG »ASSENGEB
J*E2 025
AIRBAG
"J
2
'Y T
R42 RM
1I
AIRBAG BWfl.
CONTROL
MODULE . 1 7 / 2.1
c
FUSED FUSED DRVER DR'VER =*SSE*3£= »SSEv;-E=
IGN. IGN. A'RBAG AiRBAG «*B»G »RS*C
|RUN) (ST-RUN) H'GH I.0W ô*
GROUND
<Y
22
IS
BK/IG
I
XG201
(BW-15-9)
: J,e
' «-12 The alrtjag control module is linked to ttie power train control module (PCMl and the Stay cor- ~ « « . B C V r • ^.e •<cr«~-a«tas
It the dockspring.
A|
RBAGTESTING A N D SERVICE An SRS h a s a d i a g n o s t i c m o d u l e t h a t d e t e c t s system e.ectr. . x
. 1 system c o m p o n e n t s a n d t h e i r l o c a t i o n in t h e v e h i c l e v a r v a c faults, disables t h e s y s t e m , a n d n o t i f i e s t h e driver t h r o . g r . a svs
a fSyStem des
'8n- b u t
toe b a s i c
p r i n c i p l e s of t e s t i n g a r e t h e t e m r e a d i n e s s i n d i c a t o r o r a . r b a g w a n t i n g l a m : in :.-.•» . . - j : r - 7 . r ' .
' or 0[
h e r electrical c i r c u i t s . U s e s e r v i c e i n f o r m a t i o n t o d e d u s t e r . D e p e n d i n g o n c i r c u i t d e s i g n , a s y s t e m fa . . t m a y ca . s e t e e
the circuit is d e s i g n e d a n d t h e c o r r e c t s e q u e n c e cf w a r n i n g i a m p t o faii t o i l l u m i n a t e , r e m a i n lit c r . . r
flash. S o m e s y s t e m s u s e a : : n e g e r . e r a r . r that : r > : . : - . ir i.i.
y airbag systems r e q u i r e t h e u s e of special testers. T h e built ble w a r n i n g w h e n a s y s t e m f a u l t o c c u r s or.:" :.-•» xar. a.~.c s
- • : r ' k C i [ c u i t s of s u c h t e s t e r s p r e v e n t a c c i d e n t a l d e p l o y m e n t o : inoperative.
'fsuch a t e s t e r is n o t
available, follow the recommendec T h e w a r n i n g l a m p should L i u m i n a e w t t h m e igpincr. <ev x ws
e
k ® procedures specified by t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r . Access the e n g i n e off as a b u l b c h e c k , if n o t . t h e i u g r . c s n c r . - . c ^ e a Is-
M. system a n d c h e c k f o r d i a g n o s t i c t r o u b l e c o d e i D T C ! abling t h e system. If t h e airbag w a m i c a u g r ' r „ tr.e \
e fa
w « o r y s c a n t o o l is n e e d e d t o a c c e s s t h e d a t a s t r e a m m a y or m a y n o t b e disabled, d e p e s d e u :r. t h e s x c S c
Sterns. t h e fault d e t e c t e d . S o m e w a r n i n g TC •
• #Wpoi*n*,4Siigtwiww»*iemdee*»Ni
* * * * ' at to; k w . ^ n ^ x f i f * < * e * » I aim
. <V w h w tr. *nJ otlwr t K M n « - t r h
-krtA • it i n r t t u v d
T V orTHf«Ki Jr»r< turn m t u n s \ m ent at t V w fl^ci of
• t>t M M wnn.r lht» <V o n i ^ w M mm* mm *

i < * # ASM Ntf tS»t hat • (wrvwift * n * v M t * . H « l TV
i f - t t t p u * " p n v mr«M,rrd th» p w w u r r i i w r t . o t a c f e O T t t *
i-'««ar » ft* m o d u l e < w i m j U t e f t h e » « t » g A
H it»< m o d wuti « 0> ftMfc* m>
mm *> w u r o W i t * t t w f t m on i t * M t T V m o f e i t t f w s mm the
If
m M a w M t M i l both the h U A l » i « l the mm hwt mmm to
? 1 /t.-trt n i l itahMMNt M * m«v tor u n d t o i w m » «lwtt M
t w f t p i v * i*
• I MTV* Mrtp « * n « m . T ) r t i t V f » r t ' o r r a p t M m m <m
? I I F * RANTUTTM M#T«Lrtrtp«UNDER TFW mm ( \ I M M THR»
»».« Nftmfl n*rt»» a t m l e t e i r v ftt*cL<
. FEE * DW <4 IF* THNI P T U * ^
TM h x M * a * » f w u w » ttw ot ttM K O « « « i w H «• I
•Mtw ' t t a n
• PONE T#«TMF R»..«IOT W T I W N
« « «Man, h r h » n p iftrtt r r v . m i v * h u r t
tmm*
<** • m** T V w i w w o n a n p w uf ttw mm
ifermx-f tV of th» n i « M &MNI 4
p M t*r prwttmr ft IV » M A Srr t*
m u m
* * * *
- E G " .
- 4 6 - > 9 i •• - - . . . j i t ! aetecwn sensor. The weight of the passenger
1
— - •. • * r- " fie seat, thereby signaling to the module the
•egnr tt He aaxsan
Figure 4 6 - 2 1 A typical seat (side) airbag that deploys from the side of ttie
r e c o r d e r ( E D R ) is t o r e c o r d p a r a m e t e r s j u s t b e f o r e a n d slight
after an airbag d e p l o y m e n t . T h e p a r a m e t e r s recorded i n c l u d e :
• Vehicle s p e e d
• Brake o n / o f f
• Seat belt f a s t e n e d
• G-forces as m e a s u r e d b y t h e a c c e l e r o m e t e r
Figure 4 6 - 2 0 A test weight is used to calibrate the occupant detection system on a U n l i k e a n a i r p l a n e e v e n t d a t a r e c o r d e r , a vehicle unit is not s
OrySer »etnae s e p a r a t e u n i t a n d d o e s n o t r e c o r d v o i c e conversations and does r.c:
i n c l u d e all c r a s h p a r a m e t e r s . T h i s m e a n s t h a t additional crash data,
s u c h as skid m a r k s a n d p h y s i c a l e v i d e n c e at the crash site will lie
n e e d e d to fully r e c o n s t r u c t t h e i n c i d e n t .
SEAT AND SIDE-CURTAIN AIRBAGS
Side-curtain airbags u s e a v a r i e t y of s e n s o r s t o d e t e r m i n e if t h e y
n e e d t o b e d e p l o y e d . S i d e a i r b a g s a r e m o u n t e d in o n e of t w o gen- TECH TIP Aggressive Driving a n d OnStar
eral locations:
If a vehicle equipped with the OnStar system is being driven a g g r e s s i v e l y am
• i n tr - . d e b o l s t e r of t h e seat. See Figure 4 6 - 2 1 .
the electronic stability control system has to intercede to keep the vehicle u n ®
• in t n e d o o r p a n e l
control, OnStar may call the vehicle to see if there has been an a c c i d e n t Tin
V v / s i d e a i r b a g s e n s o r s u s e a n e l e c t r o n i c a c c e l e r o m e t e r to de- need for a call from OnStar' usually will be determined if the accelerometer
' t o d e p l o y t h e a i r b a g s , w h i c h a r e usually m o u n t e d to t h e registers slightly over one-g of force, which could be achieved w h i l e driving«
: * • • - of t h e left a n d r i g h t B-piliars ( w h e r e t h e f r o n t d o o r s latch) a race track.
iser - d a t r i m p a n e l o n t h e i n s i d e of t h e v e h i c l e .
T h e EDR is e m b e d d e d i n t o t h e a i r b a g controller and re«i\

Avoid using a lockout tool (for example, a "slim jim'l in vehi
d a t a f r o m m a n y s o u r c e s a n d a t v a r y i n g sample rates. The j -
f. q • pped with side airbags to help prevent damage to the components
vrr.'.j to the system. c o n s t a n t l y b e i n g s t o r e d in a m e m o r y b u f f e r and not recoroe
t h e E P R O M u n l e s s a n a i r b a g d e p l o y m e n t has been comma"
1 1 1
T h e data is k n o w n a s a n e v e n t f i l e . T h e airbag is " f ^
based o n i n p u t m a i n l y f r o m t h e a c c e l e r o m e t e r sensor.
S.ce ,-'..r airbags are usually deployed by the side-curtain the
usually built i n t o t h e a i r b a g c o n t r o l l e r is l o c a t e d inside d 0f tl*
i - t z i rr . : . e b a s e d o n i n p u t f r o m m a n y d i f f e r e n t s e n s o r s , includ-
T h e a c c e l e r o m e t e r c a l c u l a t e s t h e r a t e of c h a n g e of the spee
r.j a ate'a a c c e l e r a t i o n s e n s o r a n d w h e e l speed s e n s o r s . For ex-
vehicle. T h i s d e t e r m i n e s t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n r a t e and is used c ^
- r, o n e s .-.rem u s e d b y F o r d , t h e ABS c o n t r o l l e r c o m m a n d s
if t h a t r a t e is h i g h e n o u g h t o d e p l o y t h e f r o n t a l airbags-
- v z t . 1 ? . o r o n e -,ide of t h e v e h i c l e b e applied, u s i n g d o w n
will b e d e p l o y e d if t h e t h r e s h o l d g - v a l u e is exceeded. 1 he P ^
- ' ' ' r . o n i ' o r i n g t h e w h e e l s p e e d s e n s o r s . If t h e w h e e l s 1
side a i r b a g will also b e d e p l o y e d u n l e s s it is suppressed
. • • -r - . e b r a k e pressure, the controller a s s u m e s that
e i t h e r of t h e f o l l o w i n g :
- -- - . c over, 'hereby deploying the side-curtain
• N o p a s s e n g e r is d e t e c t e d
• T h e passenger-side a i r b a g s w i t c h is off
E V E N T DATA R E C O R D E R S
Data Extraction Data from the e v e n t data r e ^ ^ p ^ 1
Parts ant! Operation - v d a ' a r e o r d e r s a r e p a r t of t h e a i r b a g airbag controller c a n o n l y b e a c h i e v e d u s i n g a

of t t v event data known as t h e Crash Data Retrieval System
Chapter 46 fiestrar«!>, -.'.ems ard Aoags 533
nics Corporation. T h i s is t h e o n l y a- 2. A seat belt pretensioner is .

'event files a n d o n l y certain o r g a r ^ . a. A device that contains an explosive charge
to the data. These g r o u p s o r organixat b. Used to remove slack from tile seat b. ' m t h e e 'a
collision
wjnal equipment manufacturer's repr»".en'a
c Used to force the occupant back into p o i s o n i;a.r • -re r.v
' • -.aonal Highway Traffic Safety A d m i n i ,! i
back in the event of a collision
! Uv» enforcement agencies d. All of the above
, \cddent reconstruction companies 3. Whar C<t& JOS power and ground to the drivers side airban?
dash data retrieval m u s t o n l y b e d o n e b y a p e , who • a. ed /. -• •
b. Qockspring
a, trained as a c r a s h d a t a r e t r i e v a l (CDKi te< r
c Carton contact and bras:, urface plate on the steering column
vC h,requires specialized t r a i n i n g a n d t h e pa: ',< ex
d. Magnetic reed switch
„ An analyst m u s t a t t e n d a d d i t i o n a l t r a i n i n g b e y o n d - a t - • a
4. li.ng dual-stage airtags. Technician A sa,-, '.ha- a
inician to a c h i e v e CDR a n a l y s t c e r t i f i c a t i o n . A st of C D deployed aita? a life to nandle regudless of which stage caused the d e
-ported vehicles can b e v i e w e d a t : h t t p : / / s b c o m m e r c e . v e t r c / . ptovmeat of tne a.tt>ag. Tedirec.an B says that both stages ignite, but at dif-
CDR/CDRvehicleLIST.pdf. ierer- peeds dependini? or. the speed of the vehicle. Which technician J
correct?
a. TecferxaBA,'
SUMMARY b. Tech' an B orJv
c. Bo-.- Techr'. .anr. A and B
1. Airbags u s e a sensor(s) to determine if the rate of deceleration is enouj
d. Neither Technician A n o r B
to cause bodily h a r m . All airbag wiring is yellow When working around
an airbag, d i s c o n n e c t the wiring connectors to help prevent accidental 5. '.'.-ere are • -Ira?:-.- -'
deployment. a. In S'etet s - err
b. A1 the c o n a e c " ' : r airtag*
2. Frontal airbags only operate within 30 degrees from center and do not
c. in tbe a a s t i.ensors
deploy in the event of a rollover, side, or rear collision.
d. In the antajs cotaroaer
3. Two sensors m u s t b e triggered at the same time for an airbag deploymen-
6. >;r.r. clan - a - . ' . a - a a r be repacked, reused,and rein
ts occur.
stalled in the vetjeie. ledar. tan B sa chat a depleted airbag should be
A Aii electrical t e r m i n a l s a r e gold-plated to protect against corrosion. discarded aai replaces v :.- an entre new assembly. Which technician ..
5. Pretensioners a r e explosive (pyrotechnic) devices that remove the slack correct?
from t h e s e a t b e l t a n d help position the occupant. a. Technician A on:
b. Technician 9 cch
6. Occupant detection systems use sensors in the seat to determine whether
c. Both Technicians A ana B
the airbag will be deployed and with full or reduced force.
d. Neither Tectajcan A r - B
7. >Vha: :. L - m i ------
a. Bfeje
REVIEW QUESTIONS
b. Red
I. What a r e t h e safety p r e c a u t i o n s to follow whenever working around an c. Yellow
airbag? d. O r a n ^
I Whatsensorlsl m u s t b e triggered for an airbag deployment? 8. Driver- and/or pasengerside anfcags wiD only depioy if a collision occurs
3. How should deployed inflation modules be handled? how marrr degrees from s t r a i n ahead?
a. icr
What is the purpose of pretensioners?
b. 30"
c. 60°
d. W
CHAPTER Q U I Z
9. How mar.T ser>:is must be triggered at the sane time to cause a- -_-:-::
A
vehicle is being r e p a i r e d after an airbag deployment Technician A savs deployment?
"at the inflator m o d u l e s h o u l d be handled as if it is still live. Technician B a. One
rubber gloves s h o u l d b e worn to prevent skin irritation. Which teciir b. Two
d® is correct? c. Three
a
- Technician A o n l y d. Four
•>• Technician B o n l y 10. The electrics, terminals used : : : airbag systems are unique : « a :r«Y are
Both T e c h n i c i a n s A a n d B
d
- Neither T e c h n i c i a n A n o r B a. Solid copper
b. Tm-piated heavy gauge steel
c. Slverplated
d. Gold-plated
J ex pert 2 2 pj\a http://rutracker.orq

Audio System Operation
and Diagnosis
r "-testconfer
• h n t t i w m me * * i t o w r t s • t i p J w how ID tost speaker polarity • Exptain ^ to ^ ^
ana w e c k o w g f rate r w a e and wtortercnce
M M t o f t l M B • M w t o o f i • earner wave • crossover • dectoeteidft

•ftttr • frequency • frequency modulation (FMl • ground (Kane • h a t
• N M D » • p c M t tenong • pwvertne capaotor • radio choke • radio frequency iff,
m l U l W i j n i w S ) • sidetand operation • speakers • stiffening capacitor • subwoofe
mce r f ' xjr tur • wavetengfr
i to a campto* a v t i r a b o n of measured ir h e r t z . A signal w i t h a frequency of o n e hertz 5 ^

Y * >eaners ak d e s g r a d to radio wavelength p e r s e c o n d . Radio f r e q u e n c i e s are measured
: noroducSkr arfvie the t e t u d e a trave* faiohenz, thousands of w a v e l e n g t h s p e r s e c o n d , and mega-V-
rspert mil : m s of wavelengths per s e c o n d . S e e Figure 4 7 - 2 and &
following examples:
fALS • The tiigr • r the frequency, the shorter t h e wavelength.

tfa? a / f c r • T i t tow flie frequency, the longer t h e wavelength.
r ee r a d i o i w w . A m e - a n t capture ihe A longer w a v e i e n g t h c a n travel a f a r t h e r distance tfar. i

r to the rate or receiver Co Be air shorter w a v e l e n g t h . T h e r e f o r e , l o w e r frequencies provide t « r
reception at farther distances.
i cafed mend. i ifid r e c e i v m • AM rad • frequencies range from 5 3 0 kHz, to 1,710 kilohera
e a a i r » * m ugpak m t i r N * t p c A m whjtr. reproduce • FM radio frequencies range from 8 7 . 9 M H z to 107.9 MHz.
» M p W w a a e tm i — n u q e d by radio w i v w
Modulation M o d u l a t i o n . i t h e t e r m used to describe whe:
e ftps* 4 7 .
formation is added to a c o n s t a n t frequency. The base radio v
* i w u f / ' T v . v w tt»r- jgft t h e air wtv.ie acousti quern v used * ir Rf ca. ed t h e c a r r i e r w a v e . A carrier is a
i a s e q p 9 K « o a r l a d i ^ w i v e s travei at a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e
y jr ' u t M Z O O O r-Jn per second). Radio w a v e s are
p e r r. w , » a v e l e r * c h a n d frequency. A radio w a v e
j v>A w pn • A w a v e l e n g t h , the
t a r * a a n s a ! » . ? • » • . t w o c o M e c u o v e points, either hijth or
.• «••• F r e q u e n c y , a!so
- m , raAe f r e q u e n c y . or RF. it <•* r m b e r of times a par
- tor mmmt r p t a n i awtf n a k j w . a m o u n t of time a n d ts
l e t M a M I
TIME (FREQUENCY)
r«7
< ^ • 4 7 - 2 ti# KotvnMp aruig amelengtti frequency j

Audio Synem Operation and Oagnoas 535
AM WAVES
_, ^ j-^rtufle changes m AM broadcasting

< ir*«
-100K HZ CENTER +100K HZ
Figure 47-5 Usmg upper and lower sidebands allows stereo to Be broadcast Hie -ectrver
separates the signals to prowle left and ngW channels.
FM WAVES
q u e n c y . T h i s c a u s e s a n e c h o e f f e c t in t h e s p e a k e r s . F l u t t e r , or
p i c k e t f e n c i n g as it is s o m e t i m e s called, is caused by t h e blocking
, c - 4 Ti» fm»jency changes in FM broadcasting and the amplitude remains of p a r t of t h e FM signal. T h i s b l o c k i n g c a u s e s a w e a k e n i n g of t h e
signal r e s u l t i n g in o n l y p a r t of t h e signal g e t t i n g to t h e a n t e n n a
c a u s i n g a n on-again off-again r a d i o s o u n d . Flutter also o c c u r s
w h e n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r a n d t h e r e c e i v i n g a n t e n n a a r e far a p a r t
. i a ; is c h a n g e d t o c a r r y i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e t w o t y p e s of m o d u -
• Amplitude M o d u l a t i o n (AM) R A D I O S AND R E C E I V E R S

i : -e-?uency M o d u l a t i o n ( F M ) T h e a n t e n n a receives t h e radio w a v e w h e r e it is converted into
A-aves a r e r a d i o w a v e s t h a t h a v e a m p l i t u d e t h a t c a n b e very w e a k , fluctuating electrical c u r r e n t This c u r r e n t travels along
: - a n s m i r t e d , a n d d e t e c t e d b y a r e c e i v e r . A m p l i t u d e is t h e t h e a n t e n n a lead-in to t h e radio, w h i c h amplifies t h e signal and
E: j' the w a v e a s g r a p h e d o n a n o s c i l l o s c o p e . S e e F i g u r e 4 7 - 3 . s e n d s t h e n e w signal to t h e s p e a k e r s w h e r e it is c o n v e r t e d into
•'•' Aaves a r e r a d i o w a v e s t h a t h a v e a f r e q u e n c y t h a t c a n b e acoustical energy.
: ransmitted, a n d d e t e c t e d b y a r e c e i v e r . T h i s t y p e of m o d u - M o s t late-model General M o t o r s radios a n d receivers use five
~ rnanges t h e n u m b e r o f c y c l e s p e r s e c o n d , o r frequency, to inputs:
~ the information. S e e figure 47-4. 1. Power—usually a constant 12-volt feed to keep the internal
« « Wave T r a n s m i s s i o n M o r e t h a n o n e s i g n a l c a n b e car- clock alive
- 5f a radio w a v e . T h i s p r o c e s s is c a l l e d s i d e b a n d operation. 2 . Ground
- frequencies a r e m e a s u r e d in k i l o h e r t z . T h e a m o u n t of t h e 3 . Serial data —used to turn the unit on and off and provide other
above t h e a s s i g n e d frequency is r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e u p p e r side- functions such as steering wheel control operation
lie a m o u n t of t h e s i g n a l b e l o w t h e a s s i g n e d frequency is 4 . Antenna input
7
the lower s i d e b a n d . T h i s c a p a b i l i t y a l l o w s r a d i o signals to 5. Speaker outputs
" v e t o b r o a d c a s t s . S t e r e o b r o a d c a s t s u s e t h e u p p e r s i d e b a n d to M o s t n e w e r radios are called e l e c t r o n i c a l l y t u n e d r e c e i v e r s
> • ' a n o el of t h e s t e r e o s i g n a l , a n d t h e l o w e r t o c a r r y t h e (ETRs).
' -"funnel W h e n t h e s i g n a l is d e c o d e d b y t h e r a d i o , t h e s e t w o
- become t h e right a n d l e f t c h a n n e l s . S e e figure 47-5. T y p e s of A n t e n n a s The typical radio electromagnetic energy from
the broadcast a n t e n n a i n d u c e s a signal in the antenna that is very
^ Because r a d i o w a v e s a r e a f o r m of e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c energy, small—only about 2 5 micro volts A C ( 0 . 0 0 0 0 2 5 VlACi in strength.
of e n e r g y c a n i m p a c t t h e m . F o r example, a bolt of T h e r e are five types of antennas c u r r e n t l y used o n General
' generates broad radio frequency bandwidths known as M o t o r s vehicles. T h e y i n c l u d e :
~~*nasfTenc interference, or EMI. When EMI is received by an
'he radio amplifies it and plays the sound as static or • Slot a n t e n n a — T h e slot a n t e n n a is concealed l.i the roof of seme
outside e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c i n f e r e n c e occurs within the plastic-body vehicles such as the U van. This antenna is surrounded
^ * ^ u e n c i e s , it is called radio frequency i n t e r f e r e n c e o r RF1. In by metal on a Mylar s h e e t
""ds, RFI is a part of EMI. • R e a r - w i n d o w d e f o g g e r g r i d a n t e n n a — T h i s type of system uses
the heating wires to receive t h e signals and special circuitry to sep-
^KCteristics Because FM w a v e s h a v e a high RF a n d a arate the RF from the D C h e a t e r circuit
' ^ e l e n g t h , t h e y t r a v e l only a short distance. The w a v e s c a n • P o w e r e d m a s t a n t e n n a — P o w e r e d mast antennas are controlled
t—
h e s h a p e oVI f Ult
t h e edTUl
e a r t h UUt
b u t JiJiLtrdU
i n s t e a d tuavci
r a v e l ill
in a juqj&iii
s t r a i g h t IUlt
line by the radio. W h e n t h e radio is turned on, the antenna is raised,
- Emitter t0 r e c e i v e r . FM w a v e s will t r a v e l through the w h e n the radio is s h u t off, the antenna is retracted. The antenna
and into space and do not reflect back to earth like AM system consists of a n a n t e n n a mast and a drive motor.
Fixed-mast a n t e n n a -The fixed-mast antenna offers the best
. ;" ^••i is caused by reflected, refracted, or line of sight overall p e r f o r m a n c e currently available. The mast is siropfv a verti-
•'"^hir,gan antenna at different times. Multi-path results cal rod. Mast antennas are typically located on the fender or rear
— the same fre- quarter panel of the vehicle.
» Q » C B INTEGRATED ANTENNA FIXED MAST
r
m" • C-t to torn I* nrim jma ar Gaml Motor! ifnan naude t» «K
M a t t a r a i M m - a t a n m i M q g f gnd i r w m a powered mast antenna
fanetmed a n t e n n a -This type of antenna is sandwiched in the

r r o t a d t f and ar. applique on the rear window glass. The antenna
- near w i n d o w >s the primary antenna and receives both AM
• n d F t / s p a t s . The secondary antenna is located in the front LESS THAN
• S i a s e l •vptcaiiy on the passenger side of the vehicle. This

a a a m n a receives o n l y FM signals
* fir-"* 47-6.
» w o m a n * a s h i o out s i ion q
IMA
k> p«» t * me atactromagnasc energy Del s broadcast

t* v » <he r a n a m O n g antenna are uaualty one-halt wavelength
<n( t » • * * wavelength s the ground plana This one-halt
— n — n q r ' " • grome pMrw * StoraHy underground
f a r <aa* o c a p t o r f w warning antenna mould atto he the tame as the
O M M ^ tf to a g n a Becauaa DM length * not practical, a design compro-
«ae J « *a * t K Menrta a* one-lourih ot the wavelength. in addi-
IV t o X0f 4 a M « a « f « one fourth of the wavelength The body ot
<».> M « w i « i to ground plane Saa Figure 47-7 Figure «7-8 If all ohmmeter readings are satisfactory, the antenna is good
' j n M c r r to ground ptara circuit wi* cause the ground plane
sr a r 4 K WOery c a t * terminals best w h e n t h e a n t e n n a h e i g h t is e x a c t l y 3 1 i n c h e s (79 centime •

Most fixed-length antennas a r e , t h e r e f o r e , exactly this •-
Even t h e h o r i z o n t a l s e c t i o n of a w i n d s h i e l d a n t e n n a is 31
(79 c e n t i m e t e r s ] l o n g .
ar AC rippn! exceeding A d e f e c t i v e a n t e n n a w i l l b e m o s t n o t i c e a b l e with A •

i r reception.
Antenna Testing if the antenna or lead-in cable is broken W

FM r e c e p t i o n will b e h e a r d b u t m a y b e w e a k , a n d there v.
A M r e c e p t i o n . An o h m m e t e r s h o u l d r e a d infinity b e t v ^
AJITEHNA DIAGNOSIS
c e n t e r a n t e n n a lead a n d t h e a n t e n n a c a s e . For p r o p e r r e c e f
".•".•••••'.•• . . An A M radio oper- lack of n o i s e , t h e c a s e of t h e a n t e n n a m u s t b e properly grc
a -ft" ' * • / 4' rf.ter/a * p/ r, ,t FM r e c e p t i o n is the v e h i c l e body. S e e F i g u r e 4 7 - 8 .
T h e Hole in t h e Fender
- fgfi repair is to replace t h e m a s t ot a power

vity ol causing d a m a g e to the body or paint (
^ ^ and place it over t h e a n t e n n a S e e Ftgut>
V ^ n q the removal or installation p r o c e s s , the Oody ol 3 be
Figure 47-10 A t y p o toner artema assembly. Note the braided ground unused to
mate sue mat the antenna has a good ground plane
W 47-9 Cutting a small hole in a fender cover helps to protect the vehicle when
~ H or servicing an antenna.
Figure 47-11 Between 6 and 7 volts s appliedtoeach speaker termnal and the aud*
amplifier then increases Hie voltage on one terminal and at the same time decreases »«
<ver Antenna Testing a n d Service
j
Most power ante voltage on the other terminal causing the speaker cone to move. The mowng core lien
moves the air causing sound
'as use a c i r c u i t breaker and a relay to p o w e r a reversible,
' - a n e n t - m a g n e t ( P M ) e l e c t r i c m o t o r t h a t m o v e s a n y l o n cord
5
• ed t o the antenna mast. Some vehicles have a dash SPEAKERS
'Hied c o n t r o l t h a t c a n r e g u l a t e a n t e n n a mast height and/or T h e p u r p o s e of an',' s p e a k e r is to reproduce the rxr-
R a t i o n , w h e r e a s m a n y o p e r a t e a u t o m a t i c a l l y w h e n t h e r a d i o is as accurately as possible. Speakers are also called ouispeakei
• o n and off. The power antenna assembly is usually T h e h u m a n ear is c a p a b l e of h e a r i n g sounds from a verv .w
'^ted b e t w e e n t h e o u t e r a n d i n n e r f r o n t f e n d e r o r in t h e rear frequency of 2 0 H z (cycles p e r seconds) to as high as 20,000 Hz
c:
• '<r p a n e l . T h e u n i t c o n t a i n s t h e m o t o r , a s p o o l f o r t h e c o r d , N o o n e speaker is capable of r e p r o d u c i n g sound over i a *
' - jpper- a n d l o w e r - l i m i t s w i t c h e s . T h e p o w e r a n t e n n a m a s t is f r e q u e n c y range. See Figure 4 7 - 1 1 .
' ^ in t h e s a m e w a y a s a f i x e d - m a s t a n t e n n a . ( A n i n f i n i t y r e a d - Good-quality speakers are the key to a proper-sounding - a d » or
< r iould b e n o t e d o n a n o h m m e t e r w h e n t h e a n t e n n a i s t e s t e d s o u n d system. Replacement speakers sbouid be securely mounted
the c e n t e r a n t e n n a t e r m i n a l a n d t h e h o u s i n g or ground.) a n d wired according to the correct pc.trit,. Sec r : 47 ;
in t h e c a s e o f c l e a n i n g o r m a s t r e p l a c e m e n t , m o s t p o w e r and 4 7 - 1 3 .
"'nas are e i t h e r r e p l a c e d as a u n i t or repaired by specialty All speakers used o n t h e s a m e radio or a m p l e r u . : -ave
'P' See F i g u r e 4 7 - 1 0 . t h e s a m e internal coil resistance, called i m p e d a n c e .
Many p o w e r a n t e n n a p r o b l e m s can be prevented by making i m p e d a n c e speakers are used, s o u n d qualir. T.;. be : . . , : and
that t h e d r a i n h o l e s i n t h e m o t o r h o u s i n g a r e n o t p l u g g e d s e r i o u s d a m a g e to t h e radio m a y result. See r.z.:~. ~~
'' " " d e r c o a t i n g , l e a v e s , o r d i r t . A l l p o w e r a n t e n n a s s h o u l d be
Impedance Matching
3 T t t * n bv W i n l n o t h e m a s t w i t h a s o f t c l o t h a n d lightly oiling
s» sent* *
4-11
SPEAKER
8-11 T O T A L
IMPEDANCE
4-11
SPEAKER
witn two tera~vi!s The polarity olthe

»» 3t tie «mng aagram r\ the serwee manual ot by using
(a)
ALLIGATOR CLIPS (2)

P.N. 270-374
ri
FUSE HOLDER WITH
FUSE HOLDER
PN 270-1213
BATnER> HOLDER D" FUSE P.N. 270-1215
TYP€ PN 270-403
OR 270-402 FOR A
-C" TYPE BATTERY HOLDER
4-11 4-1!
•Au. PART NUMBERS ARE FROM RADIO SHACK' SPEAKER SPEAKER
(b)
«7-13 A « a M potanty testa can be tastyranshictBdusing a 11/2-vtft Dattery

» t r n t K connect the postw | -1 lead at the battery to one speaker terminal and the Figure 47-14 lal Two 4-ohm speakers connected in senes result in a total impedance^
• radB r » w*r soeamr wrmnai tw jusl a second and observe the directxr the 8 ohms. (t>i Two 4-ohm speakers connected in parallel result in total impedance ot 2 ours
• M i n e s n»pos«wi-Iteimnal o» the speaker is the terminal that causesthe
• a •««* man the magnet Wien touched with tne positive( *•) Datle'y lead
sound quality. All wiring c o n n e c t i o n s s h o u l d be soldered after mi'

ing certain that all speaker c o n n e c t i o n s h a v e t h e correct polarity.
- rear ar - "r?v a r e connected in parallel, the total impedance is Be careful w h e n installing a d d i t i o n a l audio equipment on i
2 ofirri General Motors vehicle system t h a t u s e s a two-wire speaker ct
nection called a f l o a t i n g g r o u n d s y s t e m . O t h e r systems rur :
^ AO mpedance of each speaker! _->|lhn,.
one power (hot! lead to each s p e a k e r a n d g r o u n d the other speat
2 .number of speakers In parallel)
lead to the body of the vehicle.
" - - - -1 speaker, should also represent a 2-ohm load from the
-ad*! or arr.p^fter See examples:
Regardless of radio speaker connections used, never oc<."-
Two fror.' speakers—each 2 ohms any radio without the speakers connected, or the speaker driver seer,
Two rear speakers—each 8 ohms the radio may be damaged as a result of the open speaker circuit.
v (x-nnect the front speakers in series (connect the

pas, | of - speaker to the negative | - | of the other| for a
•jl . -•>»-.:- • if 4 211 + 212 4lii. Connect the two
rear - p e s . / e n -. pan:,el 'connect the positive | + | of each speaker
a gether •: * -e ! J of each speaker together) for a total
m p e d a n c e of 4 ooass M l - 2 4«.. What Is a "Floating G r o u n d " ?
Afloatingground means that all audio components such as the receive1

Speaker Wiring The w re used for speakers should be as large
amplifier, and speakers share a common ground that is above and m*®
a w„-r a t w an AW(, • ,-nber; as is practical in order to be as
nected to the chassis ground This arrangement helps prevent interfere,*;
iured -i' : . a i ttie speakers. Typical "speaker
static that could occur if these components were connected to a chats'5 •
w i r e " a about 2 2 ga jge , 0 . 3 5 square millimeter), yet tests con-
dei ground If the components are chassis grounded, there may be a tf*
d u c e d t v •-. e r . ^ n e e n have concluded tha' increasing the wire
In the voltage potential (voltage); this condition is called a gmmd loop
gauge to 14 2 0 square r ilttnetersi or Larsser greatly increases
^ E R TYPES
des
FREQUENTLY ASKEO QUESTION
•' t P r T tweeter is a speaker i reproduce
! L n c y sounds, usually b e t w e e n 4. 4 kHz) and
W h a t Is a B a s s B l o c k e r ?
. ^ j j (20 k H z ) . T w e e t e r s a r e v e r y d i n / m •
°V huma n e a r is m o s t l i k e l y t o b e a b l e tc- j •loa on A bat . Mocker s a capacitor and con assembly that effectively Wocte <cm fre-
h -peaker w h i l e l i s t e n i n g t o m u s i c . T h i s ; ear tha' a quencies A bass blocker is normally used to block low frequencies bemg sent to
"Tr should b e m o u n t e d i n t h e v e h i c l e w h e r e t h e so . id c a n t f - tne smaller front speakers. Using a bass blocker allows Ihe smafer from spea-
^ttdline-of-sight to t h e l i s t e n e r . T w e e t e r s a r e usually m o u n t e d ere to more efficiently reproduce the midrange and high-range frequency sound
inside d o o r n e a r t h e t o p , w i n d s h i e l d " A " p lar, o r
vjao®-
Active Crossover Active c r o s s o v e r s use an external power
y,drange A m i d r a n g e s p e a k e r is d e s i g n e d a n d m a n u f a c t u r e d t o s o u r c e a n d p r o d u c e s u p e r i o r p e r f o r m a n c e . A n a c t i v e c r o s s o v e r is a l s o
'., t0 best r e p r o d u c e s o u n d s i n t h e m i d d l e of t h e h u m a n hear- called a n electronic crossover. These units include m a n y powered
•'-•nge from 4 0 0 H z t o 5 , 0 0 0 H z . M o s t p e o p l e a r e s e n s i t i v e t o filters a n d a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e e x p e n s i v e t h a n p a s s i v e c r o s s o v e r s .
, r i i produced by t h e s e m i d r a n g e s p e a k e r s . T h e s e speakers T w o amplifiers a r e n e c e s s a r y t o fully b e n e f i t from a n a c t i v e c r o s s o v e r .
• i v j directional in t h a t t h e l i s t e n e r c a n u s u a l l y l o c a t e t h e s o u r c e O n e amplifier is for t h e h i g h e r frequencies and midrange and the
/the sound. o t h e r amplifier is for t h e s u b w o o f e r s . If y o u a r e o n a b u d g e t a n d p l a n
t o u s e just o n e amplifier, t h e n u s e p a s s i v e c r o s s o v e r If y o u c a n afford
/woofer A subwoofer, sometimes called a woofer; pro-
to use t w o or m o r e amplifiers, t h e n consider using t h e electronic
lowest frequency of s o u n d s , u s u a l l y 1 2 5 H z a n d l o w e r . A
active crossover See figure 4 7 - 1 5 for a n e x a m p l e of c r o s s o v e r s
;iiss speaker m a y a l s o b e u s e d t o r e p r o d u c e t h o s e frequencies
u s e d in G e n e r a l M o t o i s f a c t o r y - i n s t a f t e d s y s t e m s .
v.een 100 H z a n d 5 0 0 H z . L o w - f r e q u e n c y s o u n d s from these
r a e r s are not d i r e c t i o n a l . T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e s o u r c e of t h e
Use a P o w o l i w c C a p a c i t o r If U p g r a d i n g
from these s p e a k e r s u s u a l l y c a n n o t b e d e t e c t e d b y t h e lis- TECH U P
Tne l o w - f r e q u e n c y s o u n d s s e e m t o b e e v e r y w h e r e i n t h e ve- a Sound System
;.-:. so the location of t h e s p e a k e r s is n o t a s c r i t i c a l a s w i t h t h e A powwlme capacitor, afcc aatefl = stiffening capacitor -efere to a a r x
. -frequencyspeakers. capacitor icfler aDtrevaBd CAP * 3.25 farac or » g e r cor-ectod to ar ampli-
The s u b w o o f e r can be placed almost anywhere in the fier power wre ~Te a t / a c s e *rc *a-c5on r 9 » capaoter is a prwete J»e
Most s u b w o o f e r s are mounted in the rear of the electrical reserve energy >?eaeC by the a n p r f e * So p r w d e deep bass iotas
" cie w h e r e t h e r e is m o r e room for t h e larger subwoofer See Rgure 47-16 Baffler xm& s oSer s*j« to respond and wrten the amp -
speakers. fier attempts to draw a large a m o r t r a j r e r t . tne capacitor Mil fry to staWce
the voltage level at t?>e ars> by nscrar^rig s t o ^ c zjrer as neecec
Shaker F r e q u e n c y R e s p o n s e Frequency response is how a A rtfe of thumb s to connect a capaafcr a r t ) a capacty o f " "arad tor
'•?&er responds t o a r a n g e of f r e q u e n c i e s . A t y p i c a l frequency re- each 1.000 watts of w p f e power See i * t o t a r ^ g chart.
: • * for a m i d r a n g e s p e a k e r m a y b e 5 0 0 H z t o 4 , 0 0 0 H z w i t h a
trance of 3 d e c i b e l s ( d B ) . A d e c i b e l is a m e a s u r e of s o u n d
- - and it is t h e f a i n t e s t s o u n d a h u m a n c a n h e a r in t h e m i d -
frequencies. T h e d B s c a l e is n o t l i n e a r ( s t r a i g h t linel but
Watts |
Jgarithmic, m e a n i n g t h a t a s m a l l c h a n g e in t h e d B r e a d i n g
in a large c h a n g e i n v o l u m e of n o i s e . A n i n c r e a s e of 1 0 d B 100« a-Carac l H M » | f !
; "Mid pressure is e q u a l to doubling the perceived volume. SOW
-•TOre, a small d i f f e r e n c e i n d B r a t i n g m e a n s a b i g d i f f e r e n c e in 2SCW : 2 5 - y s C rSCOOCpF
:
* -nd volume of t h e s p e a k e r . D SO « : 50C JOC nR
500 *
7S0W 0.75 tsrsc "50 M O pP
• JOC* • ODarac - m u t e .H
Rovers
l i
crossover is designed to separate the frequency of a
' - send a certain frequency range, such as low
Capacitor Installation A poweriine capac: - rr.ee:
; « u n d s , to a w o o f e r designed to reproduce these low
the p o w e r e a d s b e t w e e n t h e i n a n e ~ase ar.d t h e m r a r . e r See
. sounds. T h e r e a r e two t y p e s of c r o s s o v e r s : passive
Rgure 4 7 - 1 7 .
If t h e c a p a c i t o r w e r e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e c i r c u i t as the
ve capacitor w o u l d d r a w so m u c h c u r r e n t that : w . t h e iiae
„(, ôssover A passive crossover does not use an exter
SOurce R a t h e r u s e s a f u s e . To safely c o n n e c t a l a r g e c a p a c i t c : . : - u s : b e r - v . v ^ a . * .
ct^f - coil a n d a capacitor to block cer
prechaige t h e capacitor follow these steps:
^ -ûencies t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r t y p e of s p e a k e r c a n n o t h a n d l e a n d
fre
fcteTt? ^ u e n c ' e s that c a n b e h a n d l e d to b e applied to the
# exam S t e p #1 Cennect the negsr.ve i - -• : aae ; a ; a . :
-r P l e - a 6 . 6 - m i H i h e n r y coil a n d a 2 0 0 - m i c r o f a r a d
chassis g r o u n d .
effectively pass 1 0 0 - H z f r e q u e n c y s o u n d a rcc
^ fOt °°fer ^ t y p e Of p a s s i v e c r o s s o v e r - a t ed a l o w Step<2 ~sesT an automotive ar. .
b e c a u s e it p a s s e s ( t r a n s f e r s ) o n l v t h e l o w f r e q u e n c y M i k i n g light, b e t w e e n t h e p e s t r i e - t a m i u i oi the
^ - ^ s p e a k e r a n d b l o c k s all o t h e r frequencies. A high- a n d t h e positive t e n n l n a l of d » h a t t e r . The cr • i
IS
used to transfer higher frequency over 100 H : to capacitor is fating c h a r g e a a r : t h e n gc v r v - a x aapaexor -
takers. fully c h a m e d .
ym sero
•OOFTR
FRIQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
ma\ Do ttie Amplifier Specifications M
RMS pwwpf RMS means root-

that indicates how rr
caoaMe of producr afe
RMS powff Jt2 ^ This specification in A •
^•WnnrHBi
power the amplifier det*ei a 2-otmB
load Ttw2-ohmload 15ac --4by w ^ I T
4-ohm speakers in para, - loi by using ^
speakers
Peak power is the maximum wattage an a -
can deliver in a short burst during a rnusca,
Total harmonic distortion (THO) represent. tr»
tno
amount ot change of the signal as it is tier -
amplified The lower the number the bette d
amplifier (for example a 0.01% is better than
0 07% rating)
t «e «BW •• e i * W W * 6 w d ireeenci KM** BI This speciticafion is measured in decibels «8i **
Stgnsl-lo-noisc ratio
, 0 * m e^fneiwc* bums * wgr i m * n n a m
compares the strength of the signal with the
of the background noise (hiss) A higher volume
indicates less background noise (for example
105-dB rating is better than a 100-dB rating.
VOICE R E C O G N I T I O N
Parts a n d O p e r a t i o n V o i c e r e c o g n i t i o n is an expand
technology. It allows t h e driver of a v e h i c l e to perform tasks, an-
as locate an address in a n a v i g a t i o n s y s t e m by using voice com
mands rather than b u t t o n s . In t h e past, users had to say the enct
words to make it w o r k such as t h e f o l l o w i n g examples listed froit
an owner's manual for a vehicle e q u i p p e d with a voice-actuate:
navigation system:
"Co home"
'Repeat guidance"
"Nearest ATM"
The problem w i t h t h e s e s i m p l e v o i c e c o m m a n d s was that'

exact wording had to be s p o k e n . T h e v o i c e recognition sofw"
* ganM (ram)> «a nacMwy currtrt now ID
would compare t h e voice c o m m a n d t o a specific list of wort'
phrases stored in t h e system in o r d e r for a m a t c h to occur.'••'
systems recognize s p e e c h patterns and t a k e action based
FUSC learned patterns. Voice r e c o g n i t i o n c a n b e used for the folio'
• » AMPUFIFR
functions:
1. Navigation system operation. See Figure 4 7 - 1 8 .
H
2. Sound system operation
3. Climate control system operation . ,s
-CAPACITOR
4. Telephone dialing and other related functions. See Figure
visof'
A m i c r o p h o n e is usually p l a c e d in t h e driver's side sun ^
in the overhead console in t h e c e n t e r t o p portion of the
shield area.
Diagnosis and Service Voice r e c o g n i t i o n is usual!',
rated into m a n y f u n c t i o n s of t h e v e h i c l e . If a problem occ-
p ri • • - "(flnect the the system, perform t h e f o l l o w i n g steps:
v ' - ' - f f charged I. Vertfy the customer complaint (concern). Check the
«A n a m i w % t f t n v—*" m m m f to supplement manual or service information for t h e proper voice com
and verify that the system is not functioning correctly
J S41
-asiy aod obey traffic

Z- j a s s e w R ^ w ^ >
WAD to a M T K X B aoddga.
j j i ^ c o a i s o n l y while s t o p p e d .
1(0lCScommanos can De used to controi many functions, inctuaing

• t Mlanhnno an/1 rartirt
if* S climate control, telephone, ana radio
> figure 47-20 Bluetooth earpiece mat contains a irucropnone and spea*er unit mat is
paired to a cellular phone. Tne telephone nas to oe witnm 33 feet ot me earpiece.
• It provides a standard p r o t o c o l tor h o w bits of d a t a are s e n t ar.a

received.
T h e B l u e t o o t h s t a n d a r d is a n a d v a n t a g e b e c a u s e it is w i r e l e s s , l o w
c o s t , a n d a u t o m a t i c . T h e a u t o m o t i v e u s e or' B l u e t o o t h t e c h n o l o g y is
in t h e o p e r a t i o n of a c e l l u l a r t e l e p h o n e b e i n g tied i n t o t h e v e h i c l e .
T h e v e h i c l e a l l o w s t h e u s e of h a n d s - f r e e t e l e p h o n e u s a g e . A v e h i c l e
t h a t is B l u e t o o t h t e l e p h o n e e q u i p p e d h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g c o m p o -
nents:
• A Bluetooth receiver can b e built into t h e navigation or existing

s o u n d system.
• A m i c r o p h o n e allows t h e driver to u s e voice c o m m a n d s as well as
t e l e p h o n e conversations f r o m t h e v e h i c l e to t h e cell via B l u e t o o t h
^re 47-1S The voice command icon on me steering wneei of a Cadillac. wireless c o n n e c t i o n s .
I lieck for any a f t e r m a r k e t a c c e s s o r i e s t h a t m a y i n t e r f e r e o r w e r e M a n y cell p h o n e s a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h B l u e t o o t h , w h i c h may

converted to c o m p o n e n t s u s e d b y t h e v o i c e r e c o g n i t i o n s y s t e m , allow the user to use an ear-mounted m i c r o p h o n e and speaker. See
~cr. as remote start u n i t s , M P 3 p l a y e r s , o r a n y o t h e r electrical Figure 4 7 - 2 0 .
component. If t h e v e h i c l e a n a t h e cell p h o n e a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h B l u e t o o t h ,
3. Check tor stored d i a g n o s t i c t r o u b l e c o d e s ( D T C s ) u s i n g a T E C H 2 the speaker a n a m i c r o p h o n e can be used as a hands-free t e l e p h o n e
scan tool. w h e n t h e p h o n e is in t h e v e h i c l e . T h e cell p h o n e c a n b e a c t i v a t e d
.-0:.uw me r e c o m m e n d e d t r o u b l e s h o o t i n g p r o c e d u r e s as stated in in t h e v e h i c l e b y u s i n g v o i c e c o m m a n d s .
service information.
^•'•stion Bluetooth is a r a d i o f r e q u e n c y s t a n d a r d f o r s h o r t -
' " f ^ f f i a u n i c a t i c o s . T h e r a n g e of a t y p i c a l B l u e t o o t h d e v i c e is Can TWo B l u e t o o t h T e l e p h o n e s Be U s e d in a V e h i c l e ?
3 3 feet) a n d it o p e r a t e s i n t h e I S M ( i n d u s t r i a l , s c i e n t i f i c ,
Usually, in order to use two telephones, the second phone neeos to oe given a
• band b e t w e e n 2 . 4 0 0 0 a n d 2 . 4 8 3 5 M H z .
name. When both telephones enter the vehicle, check whicn one was recog-
nized. Say "pnone status" and the system will ted you to whicn tafcpfxwe tne
G e n t l y a s k e d q u e s t i o n system is responding. If not the one you want, simply say, •next phone" ana it
will move to the other one.
*** Bluetooth Get Its Name?

.. — w a s
"Sed t>y tne early adopters of the standard and they named
SATELLITE RADIO
^ * * tfuetoom, tne king of Denmark in tne late 900s. The King was able to
ana pan of Norway into a single kingdom. Parts and Operation Satellite radio, x s o called S a t e l l i t e D i g i t a l
Audio Radio S e r v i c e s o r S D A R S uses s a t e J t e s t o b r o a d c a s t ,
h i g h - q u a l i t y r a d i o . S D A R S b r o a d c a s t s or. t h e S - b a n d of 2 0 3 2 0 G H ;
, , i s a w i r e l e s s s t a n d a r d t h a t w o r k s o n t w o levels: to 2 . 3 4 5 GHz.
Physical c o m m u n i c a t i o n u s i n g l o w p o w e r , r e q u i r i n g X M Radio X M r a d i o is s t a n d a r d e q u i p m e n t o r o j i o n a . . : .
0 n e
m i l l i w a t t (1 / 1 , 0 0 0 of a w a t t ) of electrical p o w e r G e n e r a l M o t o r s v e h i c l e s . X M r a d i o u s e s t w o s a t e l l i t e s l a t c h e d .:.
mutable f o r u s e w i t h s m a l l h a n d h e l d o r p o r t a b l e d e v i c e s , 2001 c a l l e d R o c k (XM-2) a n d RoL (XM-1 in a g e o s y n c h r o n o u s
or
' ^'-mounted speaker/microphone. o r b i t a b o v e N o r t h A m e r i c a . T w o r e p l a c e m e n t satellites, S r . r j t r .
s r * J repeater station! ID broadcast radio
Figure 47-23 A shark lin-type factory antenna used for both XM and OnStar
Most satellite radios c o n t a i n a b u f f e r o r t e m p o r a r y memoiy «

1 r : K X M 4. w e r e launched in 2 0 0 6 . XM radio offers that the radio will c o n t i n u e t o o p e r a t e e v e n if t h e signal from ^
V l i p i a l audio including: satellite or r e p e a t e r station is t e m p o r a r i l y d i s r u p t e d due to
buildings or o t h e r o b j e c t s .
• i ~ e e m , .c channels
• ;.>/ts. tal-. and entertainment channels Diagnosis and Service T h e first s t e p in a n y diagnosisis
• 2 .Sic *r<l * < « h e r channels verify t h e c u s t o m e r c o m p l a i n t ( c o n c e r n ) . If n o satellite service
• iiset*
being received, first c h e c k w i t h t h e c u s t o m e r to verify th a ' • „
>ai|)Bw ^ . ' n f- ;i< satellites can be affected by tall build- monthly service f e e h a s b e e n paid a n d t h e a c c o u n t is up to aa' •
-,. • . " i r . To help e n s u r e consistent reception, both poor reception is t h e c a u s e , c a r e f u l l y c h e c k t h e a n t e n n a for a ®
•yÂHS i r ' w x J e n d o t h e following; or faults w i t h t h e lead-in w i r e . ^
For all o t h e r satellite r a d i o f a u l t p r o b l e m s , c h e c k sennce f
• • r+li o e H a buffer circuit that can store several mation for the e x a c t tests a n d p r o c e d u r e s . A l w a y s follow ihe ^
v .."•. •^ • •-> provide service when traveling out of a r e c o m m e n d e d p r o c e d u r e s . C h e c k t h e w e b s i t e for addition 3
t e r n r * wea mation: www.xmradio.com and www.sirius.com.
• >•• <{e r«4 repeater stations In m a t t titles. See
h®r*47 2l,
M n n - " a i t ,.te radio, t h e a n t e n n a n e e d s
-. > -.: - - w '-.i f r v 6 « h the satellite, a s well as re What Does "ESN" M e a n ?
- / / • - c - r .-)."* ci-.f I here are various types tSN means electronic serial number. This is necessary information ^
. -..,-•••„ ' ' . m in Figures 4 7 - 2 2 when reviewing satellite radio subscriptions. Each radio has its own tini 1
arid 4 7 23.
Chapter 47; Audio System Operation and Diagnosis 543
|NTE BFERENCE this interference, make sure all ground connections are clean
and tight. P l a c i n g a c a p a c i t o r in t h e g r o u n d c i r c u i t a l s o m a y b e
L r f g r e n c e is c a u s e d b y v a r i a t i o n . a g e in t h e p o w
beneficial.
j*H°inltj ked u p b y t h e a n t e n n a . A " w h i n e " t h a t i n c r e a s e s in
: ; t
f U h i n c r e a s i n g e n g i n e s p e e d is u s u * i l y i r e d to as
^ t o r w h i n e a n d is e l i m i n a t e d b y i n s t a l l i n g a r a d i o c h o k e
• •« Amplifiers sold to boost the range or power of an antenna often
iK e m .| [ e r capacitor in t h e p o w e r feed w i r e to the radio. See
increase the level of interference and radio noise to a level that disturbs
the driver.
^ i t i o n n o i s e is u s u a l l y a r a s p y s o u n d t h a t varies with the
®>fthe e n g i n e . T h i s n o i s e is u s u a l l y e l i m i n a t e d b y t h e installa-
' f a c a p a c i t o r o n t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e of t h e i g n i t i o n c o i l . T h e ca-
.••°,r should b e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e p o w e r f e e d w i r e t o e i t h e r t h e In s u m m a r y , r a d i o n o i s e c a n b e b r o a d c a s t o r c a u s e d b y n o i s e
A o r t h e a m p l i f i e r o r b o t h . T h e c a p a c i t o r has t o b e g r o u n d e d . If ( v o l t a g e v a r i a t i o n s ) in t h e p o w e r c i r c u i t t o t h e r a d i o . A c a p a c i t o r
Standard a u t o m o t i v e c o n d e n s e r is n o t a v a i l a b l e , u s e a 4 7 0 - p F a n d / o r radio c h o k e are t h e m o s t c o m m o n l y used c o m p o n e n t s . T w o
•• "oit e l e c t r o l y t i c c a p a c i t o r , w h i c h is r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e f r o m m o s t o r m o r e c a p a c i t o r s c a n b e c o n n e c t e d i n p a r a l l e l t o i n c r e a s e t h e ca-
•îc supply stores. A s p e c i a l c o a x i a l c a p a c i t o r c a n a l s o b e u s e d in p a c i t y of t h e original c a p a c i t o r . A " s n i f f e r " c a n b e u s e d t o l o c a t e t h e

s o u r c e of t h e r a d i o n o i s e . S e e F i g u r e 4 7 - 2 6 .
•f p o w e r l i n e . S e e F i g u r e 4 7 - 2 5 .
\ radio c h o k e , w h i c h is a c o i l of w i r e , c a n a l s o b e u s e d t o re-
juce or eliminate r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e . A g a i n , t h e r a d i o c h o k e is in-
railed to the p o w e r feed w i r e to t h e radio equipment. Radio
rierference b e i n g p i c k e d u p b y t h e a n t e n n a c a n b e s t b e e l i m i n a t e d T E C H TIP T h e S e p a r a t e B a t t e r y Trick
, stopping the s o u r c e of t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e b y m a k i n g c e r t a i n t h a t all
.ills containing a coil, s u c h a s e l e c t r i c m o t o r s , h a v e a c a p a c i t o r o r Whenever diagnosing sound system interference, try running separate
lode attached to t h e p o w e r - s i d e w i r e . 14-gauge wire(s| from the sound system power lead and ground to a separate
Most radio i n t e r f e r e n c e c o m p l a i n t s c o m e w h e n s o m e o n e to- battery outside of the vehicle if the noise is still heard, the interference is not
talis an amplifier, p o w e r b o o s t e r , e q u a l i z e r , o r o t h e r r a d i o a c c e s - due to a generator diode or other source in the wiring ot the vehicle.
-orv. A major cause of this interference is the variation in
Itage through the ground circuit wires. To prevent or reduce
ADDED
R E A L W O R L D FIX \
The General M o t o r s
RADIO Security Radio Problem
ADDED "CHOKE-
CAPACITOR A customer replaced the battery in a Generai Motors vehicle and now the radio
FUSE display shows "LOC." This means that the radio is locked and there is a cus-
-f=0 IGNITION
tomer code stored in the radio
Other displays and their meaning indude:
NOTES:
RADIO 1. CHOKE COIL IS CONNECTED IN "InOP" This display indicates that too many incorrect codes have been
S E R I E S IN THE P O W E R FEED WIRE entered and the radio must be kept powered tor one hour and
TO THE RADIO. the ignlbon turned on before any more attempts can be made
2. CAPACITOR IS CONNECTED INTO
"SEC" This display means there is a customer's code stored but the
THE SAME TERMINAL A S THE
POWER FEED LINE (THEREFORE radio is unlocked.
C O N N E C T S IN PARALLEL) AND «—» This means there is no customer code stored and the radio is
THE C A S E OF THE CAPACITOR unlocked.
( C O N D E N S E R ) IS GROUNDED.
"REP" This means the customer's code has been entered once and the
radio now is asking that the code be repeated to verify & was
Wre 47-24 & — — — — —
i ,, ' a d l ° c h o k e a n d / o r a capacitor can be installed in the power teed lead to entered correctly the first time.
amplifier, or equalizer.
To unlock the radio, the technician used the following steps (the code
number being used is 4321).
COAXIAL Step 1 Press the "HR" (hour) button—•000" is displayed

CAPACITOR Step 2 Set the first two digits using the hour button— 4300" s
""SlN. / ~ \ _ P POWER
O W E R OUT Step 3
displayed.
Set the last two digits of the code using the "IffiN"
(minutes) button—"4321" is displayed
Step 4 Press the AM-FM button to enter the code. Hie On s
unlocked and the clock displays "i 00."
CASE
Thankfully, the owner had the security code tf the owner had lost tne
GROUND
code, the technician would have to secure a scrambled factory backuo
tlu,orr
from the radio and then call a toll-free number to obtain another code tor me
>obile manufacturers install a coaxial capacitor, like this one. in
0 customer The code will only be given to authorized sealers or
blower motor to eliminate interference caused by the blower
rW/AV*.
figllfij <7-2? The % of an wfeofw. toff bj llgMmno
•J.. AM reîiM^'af, anter^ft yifieceas FM mSy b e he.atf.frvm a radio i j o ®

SfrwttBfik,
4 . Speakers «j?ftjduee t k otigfaaf sound,, ari'' t h e tapsfofce of an '
j f r n ^ f ^ m J * * 5 H XW> , « M « AiS x m ^ - U Wta-irflrhput rf tie. jfiouiif b e ' « p ? | y m a v h e d
% C r s w ^ s M ' i i o e d to Hoc* c e r u r - fcfcjjgocfes to aii. -v «jcj ^
n* * fe-fVMPîeiitSi i J i k ^ i l i M M oi
r
Cf Speaiter W'jerforTi its lot l e t l « A Ic'.-pa;;s filter is u » f i l t f e j l
i p i i ^ ' r i afcaife'*®-' •rtiHi»at^ 1hoiijj> fm. cati-c. '.rxnittogJ -ir.Hm -jHfio tseif.
.. 'liigfi fMiluWiy ikiund:* befog see? to M e woofer and a ''
'. f K v t f t t f M r a fa»-E<i«iffcBcy so'.-iifcfee,".-1ser.- to teer^ri.
HuiiW Hontpof SimpfyjT) Chart
mil A fadic l n r e t $ t e f i « can be caused by i -Fereo; {Siing\ audi » ' f | '
• What to generator ja!rernafcj, a fa-.:' to the igr.itioo ssflfetr w a ISnilt'ijj j1
— , — X — — — W i - — — jSSny »
farwi&t' aVPWtoV •:>. Vita- j u t * dttty-tt linta!1 a uapôi to iTOTO
wffl>«Jpl»'#«!if ;it JSM/JIUK iatiisnato);, •
OlltJUl
•nonntUmf jftttiBiis rtiil v IIM jstlffe Vtirtlwi to,At* ( . E*pi;tir. why tsaW4! farther t h a t F M signals.
wu>ne the wuityitfl|ieii<tiliieni ••.
a,..Eclair, ftejuposeand fanviiyi of d x g r ^ . - r d pfane.
»w(iini('«!ltnt »ithifia Mali a wini ifo> ao«l*fjjio. , '
urn iffiiaEi. ttim ajjjnat iWiis 3S. f j i t s o ^ e h w ' . f c match fefedance o)fjf<ait««.
tdv-^s ' a«KS*RK»!»>»« SraSe talaiia^lfurwriiwlliii 4 . (Jsf rue. fear r r w t f f i A to be added <c the W f t i g of a w K i
fc&jffoW tojrtte # 1 Wffftti smtiicfe COD dir iradirt M S , '
V w x w?j' T.txmy-njmt inttilm. install aiSpscitw m jioiin(f.ar
Wiwfi. motor im iwt« tot toil
WA?I£ftOUI2
trF tatjBmw i i l i r t M m fikll Ht(all.as«WOtM to grou'fti af
R i f l e s wfdt am ftw. • theiflmitie/ttot'tad I , T^chnldacA.ja'vs d-ifl?a ,HdT<?car. r e c e d e AM signal, buf not FN-Vsignat!;?.
wninu the ar r.iniia is i?fec6ve, Techi-Jcia.-' B sa^s that a good antenna jiicuW |fa
W ^ f l w ^ S ' ^ T W ^ ""•w a ^ f l o r M w i i i f t t o a tedlng *sr$i}u't.50p o b n i ^ f c e n . tested ar. ohirmeter B«t«eer,^
* M'^deif lot 'tad «!•; Icn 'tad af !hc « r , v r aiifer,iia.«trs arSigrdund. Wi-dch.techrliriar. fetofria'
mm -;y a. lechnicfar. Abnly fftV ,'',' • -V '
«rr r- ; Sunfcij'iyivuti.ii'icwf •:•'. toatuiiaaijacfcritigraimifat ^ Tecfeofci'ar Bohly , \ l K y •'
*itt> 9ie. mar. eacXtornM lead .': t. Bo.th,%fj-ijQarij!,^»rid.&
Ai'^Wfifestorrj*' Srw^-tie jrnpBfe q t o l s
^sllicaS'itiiiiitfjraundjtiai)
w f e - ' . ^ w i H have t f e j t a.-y ohr.^ cf resisfaw>.
ti»ifa the cebfer'ter-iivij i - „ j g r i u h d ^ i ouwr coi.efeg?
£335^^ a. t e a tRu.fi 5 o t a m
b. S to ohms
c. 3 C O t o 5 % o h n - i i
t.feflr.S5(OC!
•It tecfmiciar. A say, CMC » bfjiided is best to use fcr audio
mer.r to ^ ' M M ^ l i S B S S o t . f e c f j - J d a . - & mp to «
. ^ I r o ^ ; wire to ted>IC< totetfeceacfr. W c h
CC'VCt? . • .'• ' ' . ,•','• I
a. T^cfjpidifn A only'
c .Botfi TtthifJcifirt.A a r d B
'.;:-V r ^ f v f ' t fi'oiii vtfiTct.' a n d i ' b r i c a M fee g ^ l

b, O e a ^ ' . f e ts'aiir » s r ^ ttofj^ flO '
. " : <• SWK^^f OA m . ard pacH (tie WW «« FcoM f
.
life-/ pi'' « « • « « • few; m w ^ ' ^ W ^ - K^tt.
A IBBgoKd tfed.riti.wr-anf-
,tina and Air-Conditioning
J ^ n e n t s and Operation
somatic Air-Conditioning S y s t e m
êating and Air-Conditioning

System D i a g n o s i s
seating and Air-Conditioning

System Service
48
C H A P T E R
Heating and Air-Conditioning

Components and Operation
- ^ s y s t e m removes h e a t f r o m t h e p a s s e n g e r c o m p a r t m e n t . ^ --âe . CFC-T^-i2)
( b l o w
; TERMS: absolute humidity • axial c o m p r e s s o r • barrier h o s e • ^ . * ^ ^ c i u t c h orifice t u b e fCCOT) • electromagnetic ciutcn
conaense
condenser • c o n d e n s a t e line • c o n d e n s a t i o n point • ' . y n e a t e r C o r e • neater noses • neating ventilation, anc a.r-
1
; * evaporator • e v a p o r a t o r p r e s s u r e regulator (EPR) valve • freon • n _ ticenergy . ,ATENT n a a t o ; vaporuaocr. • ;IQL.C
; '5system (HVAC) • H F C - I 3 4 a ( R - l 3 4 a ) • humidity • H-valve - ^ r o m e i e . p s v c t o m e w . .. : . . = • reianve
W operated a b s o l u t e (POA) valve • pintle valve • pos.bve-d^placemen^ v ^ ^ „nxw sjae* . mermoswacn
' section 609 (clean air act) • solid • s u p e r h e a t • s w a s h plate thermos
defrost switch) • vapor
Changes Of State A solid i s a s u b s t a n c e t h a t c a r - . - c : :-: ccrr.

OF HEATING A N D R E F R I G E R A T I O N p r e s s e d a n c h a s s t r o n g r e s i s t a n c e t o S o w . T i e m c . e c _ . e s of a
a t t r a c t e a c h o t h e r strongly, a n d resist c h a n g e s in v o l u m e ar.c s n a p e .
c o m f o r t is t h e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e ot t h e h e a t -
a n d
A s u b s t a n c e is solid a t a n y t e m p e r a t u r e b e . c w its ~C.LT.;
^-conditioning system, often abbreâted
p o i n t . A m e l t i n g p o i n t is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a s u b s a r . e e . ar.c is re-
, - a e ^ e r is also n e e d e d i n c o l d c l i m a t e s t o p r e v e n t f r e e z
l a t e d t o t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a t w h i c h a solid r u m s : : o licrL.c. f . r
m a u e r w a t e r , t h e m e l t i n g p o i n t is 3 2 C F ( O ' C ; , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t .ve car.
^ f o u n d in o n e of t h r e e d i f f e r e n t p h a s e s o r
o b s e r v e c h a n g e s b e t w e e n liquid w a t e r a n c ice u n d e r r.crnia.
^ f e * . or v a p o r (gas). T h e s t a t e d e p e n d s u p o n t h e r ^
DLLU ULL F .. . • weather conditions.
A l i q u i d is a s u b s t a n c e t h a t c a r - . : : c e c : •:.::•-• -.
•W " « « o c c u r s n a t u r a l l y i n all t h r e e s t a n c e in a liquid s t a t e h a s a fixes v o l u m e , c u t r.r o e S r u t e s r a p e .
d
' ® water vapor, d e p e n d i n g u p o n trie
01
the location. S e e Figure 4 8 - 1 -
$48 sea
212 F
Mi
1 GRAM WATER + 540 CALORIES = 1 GRAM VAPOR

Figure 48-1 WDB IS a suDstance that can be found naturally in solid, liquid, and vapor 1 POUND WATER + 970 BTUs = 1 POUND VAPOR
Figure 48-2 The extra heat required to change a standard amount of water al its boiling
point to a vapor is called latent heat of vaporization
a e b o i l i n g p o i n t is t h e t e m p e r a t u r e at w h i c h a solid sub-
s a r . o e t u r n s t o a vapor. For w a t e r at n o r m a l seal level conditions,
t i e b e . : n g p o i n t is 2 1 2 ° F 1 1 0 0 " C |. HEAT
»% >
HEAT „ „
A v a p o r is a s u b s t a n c e t h a t c a n be easily c o m p r e s s e d , has n o
resis*.ance t o flow, a n d n o fixed v o l u m e . Since a v a p o r flows, it is
; considered a fluid just like liquids are. 212 °F
A ; i n s t a n c e c h a n g e s to a v a p o r if t h e t e m p e r a t u r e rises above
its :• lling p o i n t . A v a p o r c o n d e n s e s to liquid if t h e t e m p e r a t u r e falls
b€ 'jv> i t J u s t like m e l t i n g and freezing, t h e boiling point and
c o n d e n s a t i o n p o i n t a r e t h e s a m e t e m p e r a t u r e . Again, the differ-
e n c e is s i m p l y w h e t h e r h e a t is b e i n g a d d e d or t a k e n away. Boiling
c-: r.t a n d c o n d e n s a t i o n p o i n t t e m p e r a t u r e s are n o t fixed; they vary
with pressure.
Heat and Temperature M o l e c u l e s in a s u b s t a n c e tend to vi-

b r a t e r a p i d l y in all d i r e c t i o n s , a n d this disorganized e n e r g y is called
1 G R A M VAPOR + 5 4 0 C A L O R I E S = 1 G R A M WATER
heat f h e i n t e n s i t y of v i b r a t i o n d e p e n d s o n h o w m u c h k i n e t i c 1 P O U N D V A P O R + 9 7 0 B T U s = 1 P O U N D WATER
e n e r g y . :>r e n e r g y of m o t i o n , t h e a t o m or m o l e c u l e contains. W e
r . e a s _*e t h e level of t h i s e n e r g y as t e m p e r a t u r e .
Figure 48-3 The latent heat of vaporization that water vapor stores is given off when me
H e a t a n d t e m p e r a t u r e are n o t t h e s a m e . Heat is m e a s u r e d in vapor condenses to a liquid. The temperature stays the same.
c a l o r i e s ( c ) . T h e c a l o r i e is a m e t r i c u n i t that expresses t h e a m o u n t
of h e a t n e e d e d t o raise t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of o n e gram of w a t e r o n e
d e g e e Celsius. T h e w a t e r in t h e c o n t a i n e r o n t h e s t o v e b o i l s a t a temperature
H e a : is also m e a s u r e d in British T h e r m a l Units iBTUl. O n e BTU of 2 l 2 ° F | 1 0 0 ° C ) a t s e a l e v e l , f o r a s l o n g a s a n y liquid water re-
_ t h e h e a : r e q u i r e d t o raise t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of o n e p o u n d of w a t e r mains. As y o u c o n t i n u e t o a d d h e a t w i t h t h e b u r n e r , it will all be
1 F a : s e a level. O n e BTU e q u a l s 2 5 2 calories. absorbed in c h a n g i n g t h e s t a t e of t h e l i q u i d t o a vapor. This extra,
h i d d e n a m o u n t of e n e r g y n e c e s s a r y t o c h a n g e t h e state of a sub-
s t a n c e is called l a t e n t h e a t . S e e F i g u r e s 4 8 - 2 a n d 4 8 - 3 .
F R E Q U E N T L Y A S K E D QUESTION Latent h e a t is i m p o r t a n t i n a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g s y s t e m operation
b e c a u s e t h e c o o l i n g e f f e c t is d e r i v e d f r o m c h a n g i n g t h e state of Uq
W r y la l i q u i d S p r a y e d f r o m a C a n Cold? uid refrigerant to | ' heat of
„ a. v a p o r . T h eg rMe f r iG g e r a—
n t aMb s o rM
b s latent
H H
vaponzation, c o o l i n g t h e air b l o w n i n t o t h e p a s s e n g e r compartmert-
' o i w a y a car o< * w d continuously the can becomes cold, and the liquid
aesnci sprapd becomes cdd. Ihe can becomes cold because the pressure in the You take a w a y t h e h e a t t o c o o l t h e air.
ear s » r « e sprayrq atowing the Itqutd propeHant mside the can to boil
Tr
Temperature, Volume, and Pressure of a Vapor Unlike a
are awoc "seat * x»c aeno sptayed has also been cooled by the liquid pco-
solid, a v a p o r h a s n o fixed v o l u m e . I n c r e a s i n g t h e temperature of a
seiiars prspes a * va»r is further cooled as it decompresses when it hits the
vapor, w h i l e k e e p i n g t h e v o l u m e c o n f i n e d in t h e s a m e space, in-
a« % p d dBComtraMn results m a rapid temperature drop.
creases t h e p r e s s u r e . T h i s h a p p e n s a s t h e v i b r a t i n g v a p o r molecule
collide m o r e a n d m o r e e n e r g e t i c a l l y w i t h t h e w a l l s of t h e contain^'
Conversely, d e c r e a s i n g t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d e c r e a s e s t h e pressure
Latent Heat Later r.ea- h e " e x t r a " h e a t t h a t is n e e d e d t o This r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t e m p e r a t u r e a n d p r e s s u r e in vapor 6
transform a . j a r . e e frorr. o n e s t a t e to a n o t h e r Imagine t h a t a solid w h y a can of n o n f l a m m a b l e r e f r i g e r a n t c a n e x p l o d e w h e n h e a ^
,:«,.qsad r r , e a t e d o n a stove. W h e n t h e solid r e a c h e s its by a f l a m e — t h e p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p i n s i d e t h e c a n will e v e n t u a l l y -
r.f p o i n t , o r t n e Lq y.i r e a c h e s its boiling point, their tempera-
ceed t h e c a n ' s ability t o c o n t a i n t h e p r e s s u r e .
t-res a-s, Tr.- d bey;;r.. t o m e l t , and t h e liquid begins t o
Increasing t h e p r e s s u r e b y c o m p r e s s i n g a v a p o r increases'
yy... V::.:. o c c u r s irtf,v>u'. a n y c h a n g e in t e m p e r a t u r e , e v e n t h o u g h
t e m p e r a t u r e . D e c r e a s i n g t h e p r e s s u r e b y p e r m i t t i n g t h e vapor
h e a : s I M I b e i n g p o u r e d in f r o m t h e b u r n e r .
expand decreases the t e m p e r a t u r e .
apter 48: Heating and Air-ComMloring Components and Operation 54>
ur8.Temperature Relationships 91 COOL MOIST AIR

^ lt ,he relationship b e t w e e n p r e v i u n MOISTURE BEING REMOVED FROM AIR
f ; i j n t t 0 understanding t h e o p e r a t i n g of • COOL DRY AIR
• n - temperature at which a liquid bolls |ai d v HEAT BEING AOOEO TO AIR
' l a n d f a l l s with the pressure. • WARM DRY AIR
OUTSIDE AIR
r , fSSure in a sealed system that c o n t a i n s both
EVAPORATOR
' . .sand falls with the t e m p e r a t u r e .
BYPASS AIR DOOR
Humidity Water vapor is in t h e air in vary ny - TO A/C RE OfSTERS

Humidity refers to w a t e r v a p o r p r e s e n t in t h e
dirydepends upon the a m o u n t of w a t e r v a p o r present ai ••
, jperature of the air. PANEL-
DEFROST
The amount of w a t e r v a p o r in t h e air t e n d s to be 1 ; : <-r r,e;
DOOR \
. 0r the ocean, because m o r e w a t e r is available to evaporate
^ their surfaces. In d e s e r t a r e a s w i t h little o p e n water; th<
amount of water vapor in t h e air t e n d s to b e low.
Absolute h u m i d i t y is t h e m e a s u r e m e n t of t h e we,••• o*
:-cr vapor In a given v o l u m e of air. R e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y the •• • TO TEMPERATURE
of how much moisture is p r e s e n t in t h e air compared to h o w DEFROSTERS BLEND DOOR
BLOWER j
- cit moisture the air is capable of h o l d i n g at that temperature.
INSIDE AIR
Relative humidity is c o m m o n l y m e a s u r e d w i t h a h y g r o m e t e r
TO FLOOR
psychrometer. A h y g r o m e t e r d e p e n d s on a sensitive elf .er AIR DOOR
:•: expands and contracts, b a s e d o n t h e humidity. Hygrometers

: jaiiy resemble a clock, w i t h t h e scale r e a d i n g from 0% to 1001 Figure 48-5 "oca v. « it a VKJ ar-canMloang
r . e humidity. P e r m a n e n t - r e c o r d i n g h y g r o m e t e r s m a y be con- system wher placed* Pit neat juifer
-r.ed so that an ink pen or electric stylus m a k e s a c o n t i n u o u s
. -rd on a rotating paper disc or paper-covered d r u m .
A psychrometer uses t w o t h e r m o m e t e r s , o n e of w h i c h has t h e The "dry thermometer* r e g w e r s ordinary air temperature. T h e
b covered in a cotton w i c k s o a k e d in distilled w a t e r from a built- higher die relative humid.-v, the d o s e r t h e readings of the t w o ther
te ervoir. See Figure 4 8 - 4 . T h e w i c k k e e p s t h e b u l b of t h e "wet mometers, and the lower t h e h a n d ry, -JK xreater t h e difference.
™ s~eter" wet so that it can b e c o o l e d by evaporation. To take The different temperatures ir, l i s t e d b y m e w e t and drv t h e r a w m e
;alive humidity reading, t h e p s y c h r o m e t e r is placed in t h e air- ters are compared to a chart, w m c h gives t h e relative humidity.
-K for a certain time. As t h e e v a p o r a t o r b l o w s air, t h e w e t bulb's
;
nperature drops, and t h e d r y b u l b r e a d s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e
HEATING SYSTEM
Sling psychrometers a r e s p u n r o u n d in t h e air a certain
All automotive and n^jH-cruck heater r v s t o n s use t h e hot coolant
•~i?r of times. Water e v a p o r a t e s f r o m t h e c o t t o n wick at a rate
from the engine to proctuae h e a r The engine cooiar. aorifreeze and
-wly proportional to t h e relative h u m i d i t y of t h e air; faster :f
water 1 flows through h e a t e r h o s e s i r : . b e a t e r c o r e . The engjt
- .Tumidity is low, and s l o w e r if t h e h u m i d i t y is high.
water p u m p s u l l i e s d i e w o e necessary to circulate the engine
coolant through t h e heaser core. The heater c o r e • a small radiator
with tubes and fins that heip transfer the h e a t from t h e cooiant to
the air flowing throujfc the - r a t e r core. See Ftg.Te 4 8 - 5 . A b l o w e r
DRY THERMOMETER motor a sqi . - 1 c _ ; -ype far js:.a sed t
through the heater core a n d ir.ro t h e passenger . m p a r t r a e n ' . See
Figure 4 8 - o . Before t h e h e a w can f u c c a o n c o m c D y , the coc. ' i
system has m be functioning c o r r e a t y .
FREQUENTLY A S K E D QUESTION h - 7 ?
What Is m Auxiliary Electric Water Pump?

*ATER
F LL P Son* Mtades are equated « e an au**ary axmc *ater
' LUG
and taM of the cunp s to t**p a a n r tne (tenor <0 He
ng coolant »wi 9« engt* through fte heater caw m m \ '
speed M « s p e e d , the «Mer puop does not p u t * a
cwWrt through Bie neator core lo warn the r * t m * i f
AIR-CONDITIONING REFRIGERATION CYCLE

All automotive a i r c o n d i t i a n i n s svsnems are c. « e
refrigerant is circulated through t h e tfsass bv a
, n
* > Peyctifometer is used to me«aur« rewnw hunwMy is powered by t h e e n g r t e through a r a c t e s u r n
550 SEC1
Figure 48-7 The evaporator removes heat from the air that enters a vehicle by
figure 48-6 A typical heater core as installed in an HVAC housing.
transferring it to the vaporizing refrigerant.
CLUTCH
PISTON
CLUTCH PLATE COIL
DISCHARGE CYLINDER
REED VALVE HEAD
Fûre 48-8 e compretsw prcwdes the mechanical force needed to pressurize the refrigerant.
:,-.•>-,. sr.", a r e f r i g e r a n t , C F C - 1 2 , c o m m o n l y r e f e r r e d to b y its heat as it c h a n g e s f r o m a liquid to a g a s . As t h e h e a t is a b s o r j ^

b t r a d e r.arr.e of Freer, or R 12. Starting in t h e early 1 9 9 0 s , by the refrigerant, t h e e v a p o r a t o r b e c o m e s c o l d . See Figure
-•e-.-.'e rr.ar j f a c u r e r s n o w ail u s e H F C - I 3 4 a , a r e f r i g e r a n t t h a t is 2 .. After the
t h e refrigerant h a s e v a p o r a t e d i n t o a low-pressure
few-pressure gas^1 ^
gasw
- . n e a ' m o : . h e r e . T h e basic principle of t h e refriger evaporator, t h e refrigerant f l o w s i n t o t h e e n g i n e - d r i v e n c o m p rr ee
tt oo aa'
n!
a-.or. c " e ' v- a .quid c h a n g e s i n t o a gas, h e a t is a b s o r b e d . The compressor c o m p r e s s e s t h e l o w - p r e s s u r e refrigerant gas gasin
Ui-i , , ., - V, the cvstei
T'r.e -.-.a- aborted b y an automotive air-conditioning high-pressure gas and f o r c e s t h e r e f r i g e r a n t t h r o u g h the syste
. / s r e m s t h e h e a t f r o m i n s i d e t h e v e h i c l e . This is h o w t h e s y s t e m See Figure 4 8 - 8 . nt0[
works: 3 . This high-pressure gas flows i n t o t h e c o n d e n s e r located in no ^
the cooling system radiator. T h e c o n d e n s e r looks like anoui
1 . T : . * , s ,.d . evaporate in a small radiator-type unit diator, and its purpose a n d f u n c t i o n is t h e s a m e as the cooling ^
tailed - evaporator. ' r frigerari' evaporates, It absorbs system radiator, to r e m o v e h e a t f r o m t h e high-pressure gas
'
48: Heating and Alr-Condltlonlng Components and Operation 551
INU
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION jj
H o w D o e s t h e I n s i d e of t h e V e h i c l e Get C o o l e d ?
i underlying principle involved in air-conditioning or refrigeration 15 that

'cold attract', h e a t " Therefore, a cool evaporator attracts the hot air inside the
vehids Heat atwayi travel', toward cold and when the hot air p a s s e s through
the cold evaporator the heat is absorbed by the cold evaporator, which lowers
temperature of the air. The cooled air Is then forced info the passenger
compartment by the slower through the air-conditioning vents.
E X P A N S I O N VALVE S Y S T E M S
A n e x p a n s i o n valve is a t t a c h e d t o t h e i n l e t t o t h e e v a p o r a t o r a n d c o n -
trols t h e a m o u n t of r e f r i g e r a n t flow i n t o t h e e v a p o r a t o r . T h e e x p a n -
sion valve controls the flow of the refrigerant based on the
t e m p e r a t u r e a t t h e o u t l e t of t h e e v a p o r a t o r , w h i c h is m e a s u r e d b y a
t e m p e r a t u r e - s e n s i n g b u l b a n d t u b e . W h e n t h e o u t l e t of t h e e v a p o r a t o r
fljurj M-fl The condenser changes the refrigerant vapor into a liquid by transferring heat is w a r m , t h e o p e n i n g of t h e e x p a n s i o n v a l v e is i n c r e a s e d . T h i s o p e n -
-i- me refrigerant to the air stream that flows between the condenser fins. i n g a l l o w s r e f r i g e r a n t t o flov. i n t o t h e e v a p o r a t o r . A s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e
at t h e o u t l e t of t h e e v a p o r a t o r d e c r e a s e s , t h e s e n s i n g b u l b a n d tube
condenser, the high-pressure gas c h a n g e s (condenses) to form a c a u s e t h e e x p a n . o n v a l v e t o r e s t r i c t t h e S o w of r e f r i g e r a n t i n t o t h e
high-pressure liquid as t h e h e a t f r o m t h e r e f r i g e r a n t is released to e v a p o r a t o r Th -.-oe tterr. c a - thermostatic expansion
the air. See Figure 4 8 - 9 . valve system—usually abbreviated T E V or T X V . See R g u r e 4 8 - 1 0 .
4. The high-pressure liquid t h e n f l o w s t h r o u g h a d e v i c e t h a t m e t e r s
the How into the evaporator. W h e n t h e high p r e s s u r e of t h e liquid
drops, it causes the refrigerant to v a p o r i z e . ORIFICE TUBE S Y S T E M S
5. Air is blown through t h e e v a p o r a t o r b y t h e b l o w e r motor. T h e air M a n y air-conditioning s y s t e m s t o d a y u s e a fixed-orifice t u b e at t h e
is cooled as heat is r e m o v e d f r o m t h e air a n d t r a n s f e r r e d to t h e inlet t o t h e e v a p o r a t o r A s r e f r i g e r a n t flows through this orifice
refrigerant in the evaporator. T h i s c o o l e d air is t h e n d i r e c t e d (small h o l e ) , it e x p a n d s tr_s.de t h e e v a p o r a t o r , w h e r e it a b s o r b s h e a t
inside the passenger c o m p a r t m e n t t h r o u g h v e n t s . and expands into a low-pressure gas. A p r e s s u r e s w i t c h l o c a t e d in
• HIGH TEMPERATURE AND HIGH PRESSURI

• LOW TEMPERATURE AND LOW PRESSURE
LOW PRESSURE HIGH PRESSURE

GAS GAS
DISCHARGE LINE
TEMPERATURE
SENSOR
LOW PRESSURE
LIQUID
THERMOSTATIC
EXPANSION
VALVE (TXV)
HIGH PRESSURE
LIQUID
orator 'CondltloninQ
evap
system that uses an expansion valve. A temperature sensor bulb is attached to the outlet of the evapont. :• :><•••amount of remgeram M M
552 SECTION V!
HIGH TEMPERATURE AND HIGH PRESSURE
LOW TEMPERATURE AND LOW PRESSURE
HIGH PRESSURE
LOW PRESSURE
GAS
GAS
ACCUMULATOR
LOW PRESSURE.
LIQUID
ORIFICE TUBE
HIGH PRESSURE
LIQUID
Figure 48-11 A typical automotive air-conditioning system thai uses a cycling clutch and an onfice lube
0-RING
ORIFICE ( E X P A N S I O N )( T U B E /
A
I TO C O N D E N S E R TO EVAPORATOR I
Figure 48-12 Typical orifice tube.
t h e i o w - p r e s s u r e line a t t h e o u t l e t of t h e e v a p o r a t o r s e n s e s w h e n
t h e p r e s s u r e is t o o low. Too l o w a p r e s s u r e in t h e evaporator c a n
c a u s e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e e v a p o r a t o r to d r o p to b e l o w freezing.
A cold e v a p o r a t o r c a n t h e r e f o r e c a u s e t h e m o i s t u r e in t h e air to
:'-eeze i n t o ice. c r e a t i n g a b l o c k a g e to air flow t h r o u g h t h e evapora-
" • T h e r e f o r e , w h e n e v e r t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p s b e l o w a certain pres-
Figure 48-13 A cutaway of an air-conditioning compressor e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c clutch
sare typically a b o u t 3 to 3 3 PSI [ 2 1 4 to 2 2 8 kPa|), a p r e s s u r e
t c h b r e a k s t h e c i r c u i t to t h e air-conditioning c o m p r e s s o r c l u t c h ,
• - - . ' o p s t h e f l o w of r e f r i g e r a n t t h r o u g h t h e evaporator. T h e n , c o n t r o l m u s t b e u s e d t o p r e v e n t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e e v a p o r a t o
/.T.en t h e t e m p e r a t u r e (and p r e s s u r e ) increases in t h e evaporator, f r o m d r o p p i n g b e l o w 3 2 ° F ( 0 ° C ) . A t t h i s t e m p e r a t u r e , the m ®
- h e p r e s s u r e s w i t c h closes, r e s t o r i n g t h e electrical c u r r e n t f l o w to t u r e in t h e air f r e e z e s . T h e r e s u l t i n g i c e w o u l d clog the a i r »
eva
s e c o m p r e s s o r c l u t c h a n d c a u s i n g t h e c o m p r e s s o r to start f o r c i n g t h r o u g h t h e e v a p o r a t o r . If air c a n n o t f l o w t h r o u g h t h e Pora '
ref-igerar.t t h r o u g h t h e e v a p o r a t o r again. This type of system is the air-conditioning system s t o p s f u n c t i o n i n g a n d would b e ^ ^
I ' d a c y c l i n g c l u t c h o r i f i c e t u b e lor C C O T i system diately n o t i c e d b y t h e d r i v e r a n d a n y p a s s e n g e r s . If the A- ^
S e e rig-ares 4 8 - 11 a n d 4 8 - 1 2 . t u r n e d off, h e a t f r o m t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a i r w i l l m e l t t h e Ice an
a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g s y s t e m will a g a i n f u n c t i o n u n t i l it ices up ^ ^
A c o m m o n l y u s e d m e t h o d t o c o n t r o l e v a p o r a t o r temperai ^
THERMOSTATIC C O N T R O L to use a t h e r m o s t a t t o c o n t r o l t h e c o m p r e s s o r . Air-cow. ^
i - - - p r e s , i r e of t h e refrigerant, t h e lower the t e m p e r a t u r e , c o m p r e s s o r s u s e a n e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c c l u t c h . S e e Figure ^
if t h e p r e s s u r e in t h e e v a p o r a t o r is a b o v e 3 0 PSI ( 2 2 0 k P a | for R-12 W h e n t h e t h e r m o s t a t s e n s e s t h a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e is near rt .
or 2 8 P 1 9 3 kPa for a n R - 1 3 4 a s y s t e m , the t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e 3 2 ° F (0°C), t h e s w i t c h o p e n s t h e e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t t o the c ° ^ n 0 S t a t
1
evaporator >... r e m a i n a b o u t f r e e z i n g , 3 2 ° F (O'C). T e m p e r a t u r e and t h e c o m p r e s s o r s t o p s c i r c u l a t i n g r e f r i g e r a n t This
PUf 48 Heatmg and Air-CondHoning Compgntnti ax) O p w i a t m
h h ai.so called a t h e r m o s w i t c h , x
srfltcli-
^ T ^ v e h i c l r s used a system to comr-

" " . ^ c o n t i n u o u s l y operating cornp •
A POA valve (meaning pilot o p e r a t e d a

pOA valve
-ATJ evaporator p r e s s u r e regulatoi
i f t valve
PSI in the evaporator to prevent evapot
REFRIGERANTS
'conditioning refrigerant is used to transfer h< it fro
•^ vehicle to the condenser located in t h e front of : e \>•• A
j, -ait absorbs heat w h e n it c h a n g e s state from a lie ;id " a r<
grst refrigerants w a s C F C - 1 2 , c o m m o n l y referred to as R 1 2
jv is brand name F r e o n , a registered trade n a m e of the DuPont Cor
vjatjon. CFC-12 consists of o n e c a r b o n a t o m s u r r o u n d e d by two -jo-
,e (CU and two fluorine (F) a t o m s a n d is therefore caned a
-ifiuorocarbon |CFC) c o m p o u n d . Its c h e m i c a l n a m e is d i e woo
Figure 48-14 8-134as s 12s i at larger 30-tt) containers
--.methane. It is the chlorine a t o m s that are believed to contribute
the destroying of the o z o n e layer in o u r u p p e r atmosphere.
Another refrigerant, H F C - 1 3 4 a , also called R - 1 3 4 a ,
ted by vehicle m a n u f a c t u r e r s to replace t h e ozone-harming
i HFC-134a c o m p o u n d c o n t a i n s t w o c a r b o n a t o m s and four f .
r.t atoms plus two h y d r o g e n a t o m s a n d is t h e r e f o r e called a hydro-
carbon. Its chemical n a m e is t e t r a f l u o r o l t h e n e , and Dupont
. it Suva4. See Figure 48- 14. T h e boiling points and therefore the
oration characteristics of C F C - 1 2 a n d H F C - 1 3 4 a are similar
CFC-12and HFC-134a Boiling T e m p e r a t u r e s

at Various P r e s s u r e s
"Wtae 'F CO Pressure (PSI) (kPa) CFC-12 Pressure (PSI) (kPa) HFC-134a
9(62} 6(41)
12(83) 9(62)
15(103) 12(83)
18(124) 15(103)
21 (145) 18(124) Figure 48-15 » deotewr ot the raoaaon tram tne M I
25(172) lo reach Earttr surtax
22(152)
29(200) 26(179)
rubber refrigerant hoses contain a barrier to prevent penetration
33 (228) 31 (214)
through the microscopic holes standard rubber refrigerant holes.
37(255) 35 (241)
42(290) 40(276)
47 (324) 45(310) WTC: Look at the sue o a Hue UPC 134a 30-pouad o o w a a w tompare
52 (359) 51 (352) to a white CfC 2 30-pruid c a a x B a The blue K-l 34a corrtao*- -
47 (324) 57(393) terser because it - e q u m »i>re HFC ! 34» to a c b m c 30 poiiod*.
64(441) 64(441)
70 (483) 71 (490)
77(531) 79(544)
84 (579) HBTt V i vehscle aanufactnress started using Banerrvpe i
87(600)
hoses on tfvi vehctei in the late i080s n antx.paaon ot the :
92(634) 95(655)
few CFC-U to HFC 134a ai future nxxlefc.
100 (690) 104(7171
108(745) 114 (786)
117 (807) 124(855)
REFRIGERANTS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
127(876) 147(1013)
AiKondittonmg refrigerants have been i s c o v e r be harmful K
136(938)
158(1063) •he ozone layer The o z o n e f O ; 1 layer is Jn the upper a m e s c rtere jr<i
btocksout ultraviolet rays from t h e sun. See Figure 4 8 - 1 5 •
I,
4 i4a
is a smaller m o l e c u l e t h a n CFC-12. However. discovered that certain chemicals, such as c h i o r o f i u t a w a r t o u v H ,
Ca
n more easily leak o u t t h r o u g h small holes or openings are rapdlv destroying to sayer ot a: ne, w r . r r . , :o 30 r a t s
e,Tl
- HFC-134a s y s t e m s r e q u i r e t h a t t h e inside layer of t h e above Earths surface. See Figure 4 8 - 1 0 far h o w c a w s t l e s r o w t f .
s e c 13* ...
HOW O Z O N E I S D E S T R O Y E D
9 H W CHL OFSHE
< BREAKS UP ThE CHLOSiNC

MINE IS THEN FREE TO
MOLECULE AND * UOLECV- —
UOXCIIAOT ARE FOBMEG
a amaspnert.
L < * - : 7 -fa >. « toM h m Can Kyonc Wfoae fOW) clowns trwd CO.. a
Figure 48-18 PAG o,, usea m Chrysler venides equipped witn HFC-t34a refrigerant
Meetrsa. Protocol A was r.ela :n Montreal.tel.* ma: cateron; oils ire useo tor oiiterent systems oepenomg primarily on me
. - - ..-J j- v g ? , w s e r e t h e Urated Stales a n a 2 2 other countries manufacturer ot tre compressor Aiso notice tnat ootn PAG oils are in metal cans. PA6o>
j g f e c : v. t * . p r o d u c t i o n or o z o r a - c e p a K u i g refrigerants. T h e araats moisture so readily mat >t can even absort moisture mat is in me air Oinxitfi
'ZitdC. c . v : piaac—mat
a 1 >50 sis pwtiy
e c metal
f e a containers
t s a t t h e are
p r oused.
d u c t i o n o? R-12 retrig-
.. . - • r ;-X>S S e c t i o n 6 0 9 or t h e C l e a n
m u s t o e able t o b e m i x e d w i t h o u t s e p a r a t i n g in t h e refrigerant. T®
lea: r.o service of repair automotive i . K o n a i n o n m g
characteristic of b e i n g a b l e t o b e m i x e d is c a l l e d m i s c i b l e . CFc.-
'C be p r o p e r y t r a i n e d a n d certified.
systems m u s t use m i n e r a l oil. M i n e r a l oil is n o t miscible ir. HR
.".: « • : g ec p < w n t m u s t a e property approved.
134a, a n c s o s u c h s y s t e m s m u s t u s e s y n t h e t i c polyalkyline g.'-
. A «,u.r.-. >t»ve air-cuM.tion.ng service should
usuaiiy referred to a s PAG o i l . T h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s different ; -•
£ r . • u o n f f i e n i a . P r o v c U r . A g e n c y , EPAj that it is
o..s, and e a c h v e n i d e m a n u f a c t u r e r (or a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g c o t n p ' ^
• -se eûiprr.er.: ^r.c thai only properly trained
m a n u f a c t u r e r ) r e c o m m e n d s w h i c h P A G t o u s e . See Figure 48 •••
A n o t h e r type of r e f r i g e r a n t oil is c a l l e d e s t e r o i l . Esrer is»
iificauon of h y d r o c a r b o n s a n d is s p e c i f i e d f o r u s e i n air-cond®
H K f l u a i T i r ASKED QUESTiOh systsans t h a t h a v e b e e n c h a r g e d . r e t r o f i t t e d ) from CFC-1- ^
1 3 4 a . Ester oil wiii m i x w i t h a n y r e m a i n i n g mineral oil
tfee text A e t r ^ e r a n t ? w o r k to l u b r i c a t e t h e s y s t e m e v e n if s o m e C F C - 1 2 is still in >
t e m . See Figure 4 8 - 1 9 . ^
>v ifcwfle CO.. k.-U ... tejag used oo prototype
All r e f n g e r a n t oils h a v e a v i s c o s i t y r a t i n g . Viscosity is ^
r ' j a C*K ->U)£ IfCHlft. ft requres
Sure c ; A e oil's ihic'Kness o r r e s i s t a n c e t o f l o w . Always use
^ I- 2 X 0 as a remQeraw and viscosity of oil s p e c i n e a b y t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r .
j . Failure to use the correct refrigerant oii in ar, , r.

system can cause serious iand expensive] damage to die
u
rr.ponents i compressor. Always use the refrigerant oil specified by the m
pter 46: Hflatmg arid Air-Coodrtiomng Components a r t Operation 556
W h e n t h e r e f r i g e r a n t l e a v e s t h e c o m p r e s s o r it is o v e r 300" F
1 5 0 ° C j a s it e n t e r s t h e c o n d e n s e r . E v e n o n a h o t 1 0 0 ° F ; 3 8 ° C ,
d a y , t h e r e is a d i f f e r e n c e i n t e m p e r a t u r e b e t w e e n t h e o u t s i d e a i r
a r o u n d t h e c o n d e n s e r a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e r e f r i g e r a n t in-
side the condenser. Heat always travels h o t to cold. T h e r e f o r e , t h e
neat in t h e hot refrigerant has a natural t e n d e n c y to radiate into
t h e o u t s i d e air. As t h e h e a t t r a v e l s i n t o t h e air, t h e ' n i g h - p r e s s u r e
Premium synthetic po/yoiester fabricjm gas refrigerant c h a n g e s state a n d b e c o m e s a high-pressure liquid.
Lubrifiant synthetique poyolester T h i s is t h e r e a s o n t h e c o n d e n s e r is c a l l e d b y t h a t n a m e : a s t h e
j lubricants premium de polio/ester sintetico
h e a t leaves t h e refrigerant, it c o n d e n s e s f r o m a gas vapor, to a
] Compatible with R-12 & R-134* refrigerant liquid. See Figure 4 8 - 2 0 .
. Compatible avec les refrigerants R12 et ft!34A
Compatible con refrigerante R-12y R-)3Ja T o h e l p in t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r , m o s t v e h i c l e s a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h
cooling fans driven either electrically o r by t h e e n g i n e t h r o u g h a n
i
ISO Viscosity 100 accessory drive belt. T h e fan d r a w s air t h r o u g h t h e c o n d e n s e r a n d
Viscosite ISO 100 increases the heat transfer rate.
Viscosidad ISO 100
8II. oz. (236ml)
Broken Condenser Line?—

T E C H TIP
Check t h e Engine M o u n t s !
Most air-corKfiEorung systems use aluminum and flexible rubber lines between
ttie compressor and the coccenser. Because the compressor is mounted on and
driven by the engine ano tne condenser is mounted to die body, these lines can
-ooe 48-19 Ester refrigerant oils are often specified for use when retrofitting an R-12
Qfi-l34a by companies who supply refit kits. Ester refrigerant oil is not break if the engine mounts are oefeccve ~ne rubber hoses attached between the
sjiwnled by many vehicle or air-conditioning compressor manufacturers. Always use aluminum fittings of the compressor a.*J condenser are designed to absorb nor-
-: -commended refrigerant oil for the vehicle and system being serviced. mal engine movement worn engine mounts wou;d allow the engine to move too
much. Aluminum fines cannot stand to be fiexea without crushing and breaking
CONDENSER Therefore, the wise technician will carefully inspect and replace any ano
.':.(condenser l o o k s l i k e a c o o l i n g s y s t e m r a d i a t o r . In f a c t , a c o n - all worn engine mounts if a broken aluminum condenser line is discovered to
censer is a radiator b e c a u s e it is d e s i g n e d t o r a d i a t e h e a t f r o m t h e prevent a premature failure of a replacement condenser. See Figure 48-21
vrêiant to the o u t s i d e air.
Q HIGH-PRESSURE VAPOR
| HIGH-PRESSURE LIQUID
j | LOW-PRESSURE VAPOR
l ~ 1 LOW-PRESSURE LIQUID
ACCUMULATOR
condenser serves the same function tor both the orifice-tube and the expansion valve-type air-condition,rig system andttvi: xoi- .r. -
"Herant vapors to condense into a hot liquid
556 s a i n t
The desiccant is classified as XH 5 foi 12 systems M

XH-7 or XH 9 for HFC-134a systems. T h e d e
used on a r_pr
12 system is not compatible w i t h H F C - 1 3 4 Therefor,
w h e n e v e r a system is changed (retrofitted) : CFC-12 to Hfr
134a, the desiccant must be r e p l a c e d .
The desiccant (accumulator or receiver-drii .nouldalsobe re . I
placed on any air-conditioning s y s t e m t h a t h a s b> .-, left open to—-
atmosphere for a n y length of t i m e (over 2 4 h o u r s ) or whenever
system has been left in a discharged c o n d i t i o n . See Figure 4 { k
ACCUMULATOR
An accumulator is used on s y s t e m s t h a t u s e a n orifice tube. It is -
cated between the evaporator a n d t h e compressor. The refrige--
in this section of the refrigerant cycle is a low-pressure gas.
purposes of the a c c u m u l a t o r i n c l u d e :
Rgure 48-Z1 » -essayed condenser refrigerant line
• Preventing liquid refrigerant from reaching the compressor
EVAPORATOR
The evaporator looks like a small radiator that is located in the
NOTE: A liquid cannot be compressed. If liquid refrigerant were to ere-
evaporate: r .. ng on the passenger side of the bulkhead ifire-
the compressor, the compressor would lock up and be damaged.
x a _ The purpose of the evaporator is to transfer heat from the air
: : the refngerant flowing through it. Heat from the air causes the
pressure e j u i d inside the evaporator to evaporate into a low-
pressure gas. As the refrigerant changes state from a liquid to a gas, Holding a reserve of refrigerant
:t ahscrts heat. A biower motor equipped with a squirrel cage-type Holding the desiccant (helping to r e m o v e moisture from the systetr
' i - circulates air through the evaporator and forces the cooler air
r : : "he passenger compartment.
Another benefit of the cooling of the air is a result of w h a t hap-
pen. ' £ any moisture that may be in the air. Moisture in the air is REFRIGERANT LINES A N D H O S E S
called relative humkfity and represents the percentage of water
Aluminum tubing is used to c o n n e c t m a n y stationary items togethe-
•apcr that could be in Che air to the actual amount in the air. High
like the condenser to the receiver-drier a n d t h e receiver-drier to tie
- t e e s uncomfortable. Because the evaporator is cold (usu-
evaporator. Rubber lines are usually u s e d t o a n d from the compre:
ilr. 13: above the freezing point of 32°F |0°C), any moisture in the
sor. Because the compressor is a t t a c h e d to t h e engine and the er
i - condenses on its cool surface. This removes the moisture from
gine is m o u n t e d on flexible r u b b e r m o u n t s , there is movemer
~e and ers the relative humidity. The moisture that con-
between the compressor a n d t h e o t h e r air-conditioning component:
Knses o jt of the air then becomes water that is allowed to flow out
that are attached to the b o d y of t h e v e h i c l e . T h e s e flexible refrige"
;:' e v-; orator housing and onto the ground. See Figure 4 8 - 2 2 .
ant hoses are constructed from m a n y layers of rubber and fabric
See Figure 4 8 - 2 5 . M o s t h o s e s u s e d o n vehicles since the ear:
1990s use a n o n p e r m e a b l e inside layer of m a t e r i a l that prevents fc
' ' ' » ' j t s : or floor of the vehicle is wet on the passenger side, the loss of refrigerant t h r o u g h t h e h o s e itself. T h e s e hoses, called
-!*> < i ;aed evaporator drain hose. The opening, called the b a r r i e r h o s e s , are required for u s e w i t h H F C - 1 3 4 a refrigerant.
axdensace line, is frequently dogged with mud, road debris, or leaves. To
:-fc-. t v 5per_rg, heir. the vehicle and .risen a wire or screwdriver
': e a s t h e Scse opening at the bottom of the evaporator housing. THERMOSTATIC E X P A N S I O N V A L V E S
Thermostatic expansion valve (TXV) systems, as shown
Figure 4 8 - 2 6 , u s e a t e m p e r a t u r e - s e n s i t i v e b u l b located on ttf
RECEIVER-DRIER evaporator outlet tube. T h e s e n s i n g b u l b is insulated with a spefc
- - -- ir.tr • -*>ed on an air-conditioning system that uses tape, so it reacts only to t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e s it senses from the ou
v - jar.s.or . i re. The receiver-drier is located b e t w e e n the let tube. The s e n s i n g b u l b w o r k s in c o m b i n a t i o n with a P r e s s ®
oftbei
• a r . s the evaporator. This section of the air-conditioning sensitive duiayiuagin
aciujiuvc i a p h r a g m inside
uioiuc tmh ce TXV
i / \ v bwoud yj to
LW control the- size .
-- —aire pressure liquid refrigerant. The purpose variable orifice. This regulates t h e r a t e at w h i c h liquid refnge
- - - rece w : - to provide temporary storage for t h e liquid flows into t h e evaporator.
'-•'* ; - - > - - -.-.s ' >.:-/. ssualiy includes a filter to trap debris a n d a T h e key to t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e e x p a n s i o n valve i s the van •- I
— e moisture. Many receiver-driers contain a orifice. In t h e s e systems, t h e o u t l e t f r o m t h e high-pressure I
. x • . ' s" s - a .-lew of the liquid refrigerant in t h e the low-pressure side is a v a r i a b l e - d i a m e t e r hole. A p i n t l e v I
1.' a ball-and-seat valve used to i n c r e a s e or d e c r e a s e the size o
- cs' . - »*,<--. to remove moisture from the system. T h e opening. See Figure 4 8 - 2 7 . T h e e x p a n s i o n valve uses P
d e s i c c a n t . .ally silica alumina or silica gel). A valve to control h o w rapidly r e f r i g e r a n t e n t e r s the evaporate ^
4 - • . - . . -• 'hat absorbs any moisture iwater) that expansion valve controls t h e r e f r i g e r a n t f l o w in r e s p o n s e
; -• or.r,; refrigerant system. Moisture can com- t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e evaporator o u t l e t , m e a s u r e d by the re
:.K.'-r ", V n i r acid. Water can also freeze and m o u n t e d sensing bulb and c a p i l l a r y t u b e . See Figure 48 • .,
form ice a. t i e system. sensing bulb m a y be clamped to t h e o u t l e t pipe or m o u n t e
HIGH-PRFV
HIGH-PRES',1
LOW PRf V . '
ACCUMULATOR
ancrasca
48-22 The evapofator serves the same function for both the o<1ice-M>e arc
;:
®«t) Heat from the passenger compartment
' near the o u t l e t of t h e e v a p o r a t o r . T h e buifc a n d t u b e Has relieves the pressure o n t h e expansion valve
refrigerant T h e rise or fall of t h e e v a p o r a t o r o u t l e t t e r pe r- which d o s e s the pintfe a n d bail, a n d reduces refrigeran*' *
causes the refrigerant in t h e b u l b t o e x p a n d or c o r . t r a c . re- Pressure OT d i e t o p of t h e d i a p h r a g r s applied -
-rti.»
^ in .a rise
• . . .
or fall of p r e s s u r e i n s i d e t h e capiilarv.
capiiiaty tube. The e q u a l i z i n g pressure m the - z i e n l e •
I n s o u t l e t - t e m p e r a t u r e - s e n s i t i v e p r e s s u r e is applied to o n e
r aphragm can be interna, front t h e evaporator x,-.- * —
^s pnrni gn g- l- ol oaaddee dd dd ii aa pp hh rr aa gg m
m inside
inside tt hh ee expansion
e x p a n s k r '. alve.
a See from t h e evaporator outlet;:
48-29. As the capillary t u b e w a r m s , t h e refrigerant insiue
.. forcing the d i a p h r a g m d o w n w a r d . T h e diaphragm :nagr r e s • An ite-c e : . a _ r e d expar - »
PRPFF, 1 XT ' • —
m i t t evaporator inlet pressure to r e a c i fi*
- avva. iTf and uses it to o p e n t h e v a l v e by p u s h i n g t h e pintle a n d
its seat
diaphragm.
-- - This increases t h e s i r e of t h e orifice a n d allows
• Ar e i r e m i r e q u a t e : rac
into t h e evaporator, increasing t h e coolingcapacity,
to the u n d e i s d e of t h e d i a r n r a j r . aoasat. a
r e f a ® e v a p o r a t o r c o o l s in response t o t h e boiling of the
outlet pressure of the evaporator: The
^"igerant, t h e r e f r i g e r a n t i n t h e capiilarv t u b e c o n t r a c t s
ssa stcnoNvw
Figure 48-23 Expansion-valve systems store excess refrigerant In a receiver-drier, which is located in the high-side liquid section of the system, whereas orifice-tube systems store e r a s
refrigerant in an accumulator located in the low-side vapor section of the system.
T h e H-valve h a s t w o r e f r i g e r a n t p a s s a g e s t h a t f o r m the legol

t h e " H n as s h o w n in F i g u r e s 4 8 - 3 0 a n d 4 8 3 1 . T h e lower pas '•
is t h e r e f r i g e r a n t l i n e f r o m t h e c o n d e n s e r t o t h e evaporator, r l
c o n t a i n s t h e ball a n d s p r i n g v a l v e . T h e u p p e r p a s s a g e is the refn-:'
a n t line f r o m t h e e v a p o r a t o r t o t h e c o m p r e s s o r , a n d contains tbe
t e m p e r a t u r e - s e n s i n g e l e m e n t . A p u s h r o d c o n n e c t s t h e diaphragc
of t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s o r l o c a t e d a t t h e t o p of t h e block to d*
valve ball a t t h e b o t t o m .
T h e c y c l i n g - c l u t c h s w i t c h , w h i c h s e n s e s t h e s u c t i o n line.
tects t h e e v a p o r a t o r o u t l e t t e m p e r a t u r e a n d c y c l e s t h e compressor
c l u t c h to c o n t r o l s y s t e m c o o l i n g . T h i s c a p i l l a r y d e v i c e does not A
reedy control t h e m e t e r i n g orifice. S e e F i g u r e 4 8 - 3 2 .
FIXED-ORIFICE T U B E S
Figure 48-24 A typical accumulator used on a cycling clutch orifice-tube (CCOT) system Liquid r e f r i g e r a n t flows f r o m t h e c o n d e n s e r t o t h e orifice tube. *
with e x p a n s i o n v a l v e s , fixed-orifice t u b e s p r o v i d e a restriction iW
separates t h e h i g h - p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e l o w - p r e s s u r e s i d e of the system
See Figure 4 8 - 3 3 . W h e n it r e a c h e s t h e fixed-orifice t u b e , the r e f t
t h e o u t l e t of t h e e v a p o r a t o r or at t h e outlet of the evaporator pres- e r a n t u n d e r g o e s rapid e x p a n s i o n a n d c h a n g e s f r o m a warm. W
s u r e c o n t r o l device. pressure liquid t o a c o l d , l o w - p r e s s u r e l i q u i d a n d v a p o r mixture.
As it p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e r e s t r i c t i o n t o t h e l o w s i d e , the refnf
Ir. ar, e x p a n s i o n v a l v e s y s t e m , t h e refrigerant v a p o r t h a t l e a v e s
a n t c h a n g e s s t a t e f r o m a l i q u i d t o a v a p o r b e c a u s e t h e pressure
•r e e v a p o r a t o r is w a r m e r t h a n t h e liquid refrigerant t h a t e n t e r e d it.
t h e e v a p o r a t o r is s o m u c h l o w e r t h a n i n t h e refrigerant line*
T h e h e a t t h a t w a r m s t h e r e f r i g e r a n t is referred to as s u p e r h e a t
s t r e a m f r o m t h e o r i f i c e t u b e . T h e r e f r i g e r a n t b e g i n s to vapon
Sup*rheat i ;aiiv m e a s u r e d as t h e actual t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e
Quickly a s it a b s o r b s t h e h e a t f r o m t h e e v a p o r a t o r .
b e ' A - e e n 'r.r toilir\f p o i n t of t h e r e f r i g e r a n t at t h e inlet a n d at t h e
T h e o r i f i c e t u b e , l o c a t e d b e t w e e n t h e condenser and the
. .:,<-• of t h e e v a p o r a t o r . Typical v a l u e s for s u p e r h e a t in a n evapora-
tor are b e t w e e n 4 " and 1 A'F (3- and I0X). o r a t o r inlet, m a y b e i n s e r t e d in t h e r e f r i g e r a n t l i n e o r may b f f
t h e Inlet r e f r i g e r a n t l i n e a s s e m b l y .
j p e r h e a t is i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e it e n s u r e s t h a t all (or a l m o s t
a. of t h e r e f n y e r a r . i v a p o r i z e s b e f o r e leaving t h e e v a p o r a t o r .
D.t • •• us- v a l v e called an H - v a l v e . It i n c l u d e s COMPRESSORS "
b o t h t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s i n g a n d p r e s s u r e s e n s i n g f u n c t i o n s of
T h e air-conditioning c o m p r e s s o r is d r i v e n b y t h e engine
t h e expansion valve, but d o e s not have any external tubes.
a c c e s s o r y d r i v e b e l t . A m a g n e t i c c l u t c h is u s u a l l y u s e d »«•
A
KKMC
KXMMMON
R E C E I V E R DHH B w m
RADIATOR
' W 48-25 ftyd lines and flexible hoses are used throughout Ihe w - c o n M o w x i i T*» m r ic me *m t t S !NM
"w oi tt mounts during normal vehicle operation
• Raises t 3 * l e m p e a B i a r of 3>e s b * i a s 3 » s e s * i t f l p p w * * in
semperana* a * -vsae c i e ' air w d Urn t e f r W w
ff. d i e c o n d e n s e r
•
•
TO ad i n t h e
EV
APORATOR
ihtpliiiPtiK
ter c a c t i r p v > . u o r *
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t H t O i k t KiarsPWit vrtS i
SENSING
BULB a * r * r e a , and <
The em
4
stroke. T V u x O o r s c o k e aj
IWcal wpansion valw * a w i art-
• * that c f a twtMOtate g v o M n r <
• '•npenture tensing M b Swt * attached fc n
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11 ! t h e d r i v e p u l l e y to t h e c o n o r e v o r w : .
^ "•ftwting. The compressor pert rr* the \ g i f f s e w p e t j n creases a
.-apor D M t h e c y i o d e t !
«refeeenpK,t*Ki
^ ' h t o l o w K a s K M g m * from t h e e v a p o r a t o r i s t a i s d e a staled c m d e t tafft s o d '
^ Pressure f t f s t h a t te t h e n s e n t t o t h e c o n d e n s e r dosed, b the t W H t r o t e p o m AC
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tends. .( (tops, off i t s s e a t L o w p r e s s u r e r ^ f r g e r w i n j r
into t h e c o r p r e s j o t T h e r e f r i g e r a n t v a p w ff'.s -ht *
VtHrSWO
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ly->. v k ' . . - n ' n t h e c V . n ' f e r a l s o p u l l s t h e iJltthtflx -
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q nUt it.itiif the section stroke.
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•fivhii*(ff tc--oe. i h e fccreatfng c / f f n d e r p r e s s u r e p u s h e s 'he s> '
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c h i r s / t h e co <;<fe of t h e v a l v e p U t e Ss u i j & w i *
f r t t i - * 'n t h e c y £ . ' 4 t ? i n c r e a t e s a s a result o f t h e w i w r i - '
r. The f f c . v . a p » . i h « t h e r e f t f g e n n t i f i r o u g h tfi«-its<hb-s« -
.•.t «.< a n d fr.'ij t h e afrcoivJittoflir.gf/Vtfsh..': '
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:
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5fi SEOO* I *
LIQUID 4 amperes of current are required to e n e r g i z e th> nditionin

EVAPORATOR
LINE pressor clutch. All electrical circuits r e q u i r e t h r e 510 op^0®1
1. A voltage source
2. An electrical load (the air-conditioning c o m p r . . ir c l u t c h ]
ORIFICE
TUBE 3. A ground connection
All t h r e e of these m u s t be in s y n c b e f o r e c u r r e n t ( a m p e r e s
flow causing t h e c o m p r e s s o r c l u t c h t o e n g a g e . Most vehicle r C ?
facturers c o n n e c t several c o m p o n e n t s in s e r i e s with the compre"
clutch so that all have to be functioning b e f o r e t h e c o m p r e s ^
FITTING
clutch can be engaged. T h e m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d switches Include
• L o w - p r e s s u r e s w i t c h : This p r e s s u r e s w i t c h is electrically close]
only if there is at least 2 5 PSI of r e f r i g e r a n t pressure. This amount
of pressure m e a n s that t h e system is sufficiently charged to provide
lubrication for the compressor. This s w i t c h also prevents the air
conditioning compressor f r o m b e i n g e n g a g e d w h e n the tempera-
ture is low (low t e m p e r a t u r e m e a n s l o w refrigerant pressures]. See
Figure 4 8 - 3 8 on page 5 6 4 .
• H i g h - p r e s s u r e s w i t c h : This p r e s s u r e s w i t c h is located in the
INLET
high-pressure side of the air-conditioning system. If the pressure
TUBE
exceeds a certain level (typically 3 7 5 PSI | 2 , 6 0 0 kPa]), the pressure
switch opens, thereby p r e v e n t i n g possible d a m a g e to the
F i g v t 48-33 *>w office tuoe s usually located at the inlet tube to the evaporator air-conditioning system d u e to excessively high pressure.
• P o w e r s t e e r i n g p r e s s u r e s w i t c h : This s w i t c h is used on many
vehicles, especially those w i t h four-cylinder engines. It opens the
COMPRESSOR CONTROLS circuit to the air-conditioning c o m p r e s s o r clutch w h e n the driver
V s" air-conditioning compressors use an electromagnetic clutch. turns the steering w h e e l . This r e d u c e s t h e load on the engine at
A : :•' A-.re inside the clutch creates a strong magnetic field that the same time power is n e e d e d by t h e p o w e r steering pump.
»•"-* activated connects the input shaft of the compressor to the Because the w h e e l is seldom h e l d in a t u r n i n g maneuver for a long
: - . e p _ e v . Most electromagnetic coil assemblies have b e t w e e n 3 period of time, this stoppage of t h e air-conditioning compressor has
ar t - rims of resistance. According to O h m ' s law, about 3 to little, if any, effect on passenger cooling.
DISCHARGE DISCHARGE
VALVE VALVE
CLOSED OPEN
SUCTION
VALVE
CLOSED
PISTON
SUCTION STROKE DISCHARGE S T R O K E
L #
FQW»4FT-'L4 . . . . .' 1/ -• * a(Vopiripressureinsiite
dlSCl*
c*» I f - *», VM« <*. tr > *K vmt tdadnge *t*« the presume caused by Die ascending piston closes the intake valve and forces the retngeraiint out the
and toward the »al»e plate to oose
:.jure 48-35 A reed valve is a one-way check valve that flaps away from the valve plate to open,
6 . The expansion valve ior t w i c e label causes the refrigerant to expand.
ET
When the refrigerant expands, its pressure and temperature both drop,
REAL WORLD FIX What Throttle Switch? thereby cooling the evapcratcc
1
7 . Temperature thermostatic' or pressure controls lEPR. POA, or VIR| pre-
service t e c h n i c i a n was tracing the cause of an inoperative air compressor on
vent the freezing of the evaporator bv keeping t h e temperature of the
Saab The s e r v i c e manual showed a schematic of the air-conditioning corn-
evaporator above freezing 32°F or 0°Ci.
e r that i n d i c a t e d a number of switches that had to be closed for the com-
8 . CFC-12isconnnon)ycalledFrecoandisa<±lorDBuorocarbon iCFCi.
nssor d u t c h t o b e supplied with battery voltage. Besides the low pressure
9 . HFC 134a is less hannfui to the environment because it does not contain
'Ah 'to a s s u r e t h a t t h e system is charged so a s not to damage the compres-
a throttle s w i t c h was shown on the schematic. Obviously, someone else anyCFCs.
' worked on t h e v e h i c l e because the throttle switch was missing entirely— 10. A desiccant is used either in the receiver-drier or accumulator to remove
- ' two wires r e m a i n e d to indicate that anything had been installed. Connect- any moisture that may get into the system. Moisture and refrigerant com-
1tr<
w i r e s t o g e t h e r provided voltage to the air-conditioning compressor bine to form harmful a d d .
• The c u s t o m e r d e c i d e d not to replace the throttle switch after learning 11. The airflow through the evaporator and heater core help condition the a k
Dur,)ose w a s
t o disconnect (open circuit) the air-conditioning compres- by removing humidity and directing the airflow where needed.
when lhe
t h r o t t l e w a s a t wide open positive to allow the maximum power
ing.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Discuss h.ow the air-conditioning system removes moisture f r o r t£e i -
2. D- - re:: n the typical automotive aircondiaor-ngsvstar.
3. Expiate w h a d->,ccant needed in automotive air<or,J:non.rj! a r a a
4. Lis: three meth u s used to prevent the evaporat< - fn m beer -..-.« ro
coid and freezing.
coolant flows through heater hoses and through a heater core to
Provide h,
, ' heat to the
'V inside
1MJIUC of
Ul the vehicle.
LUC VC11IV.IC.
U e , re %raUon CHAPTER QUIZ
J0l, ' cycle uses a compressor to circulate a refrigerant
1. Technician A says that heat is measured in deg-ees. Techr.c^-. B a r c
U
U ^y ' o asclosed
e d system.
that temperature is measured in degrees. Which technician s . .irecC
e P a n d s in
^CpI * the evaporator. W h e n the refrigerant expands,
a n d its tem
a. Techniaan A only
cooled a< i P e r a t u r e drop. The air from inside the vehicle
b. Technidan B only
4 Iasses
'Vom ' through the evaporator. c. Both Technicians A and B
ij, e P i r '"''" r forces the refrigerant through the closed system anc d. Neither Technician A r. - B
t back | I , n p e r ' i t u r e of the refrigerant so that the refrigerant will con 2 . When ihe d e f r o t setting is selected, the a g i i i » M i i i % o a t w t e o » M » .
a U , U l d ln
K , h r the condenser a. True
1 1 1116
• ônH^ M n d e n s e r removes heat from the hot refrigerant, b. False
S e n s e s back lnto_ a liauid
584 S ' v\
Figure 4 8 - 3 8 Typical air-conditioning pressure switches A service ,„ a „ U8l ,

"WPOK SWASH PLATE ORIVE HUG needed to determine the function of each switch. One switch could be thp low
switch and the other a high-pressure switch.
3. Where in the air-conditioning system is the refrigerant a low-press™

a. Condenser outlet
b. Evaporator outlet
c. Evaporator inlet
d. Condenser inlet
4. Where in the air-conditioning system is the refrigerant a high-pre
liquid?
a. Condenser outlet
b. Evaporator outlet
c. Evaporator inlet
d. Condenser inlet
5. " h e . mpressor operates continuously with which type of system
a. Orifice tube
b. POA/EPR
6. Technician A says that all HFC-134a uses the same refrigerant oil. Te
cian B says that refrigerant oil, regardless of type, must be kept in a s
container to keep it from absorbing moisture from the air. Which teclffl
is cornea?
Ftgora 48-36 " * swash piate. attached to the crankshaft at an angle, converts 7. A front wheel-drive vehicle has a broken condenser line. What oil® j
T* > * - . - a n motion to astl ™mon. which dnves me pistons in a reciprocating cle component may also be defective that could have caused the con® :
line to break?
a. Shock absorbers
b. Engine mounts
c. Cooling fan
d. Air-conditioning compressor drive belt
8. Clear water is observed dripping out from beneath the ^
cian A says that is normal. Technician B says that the evapora;
defective and should be replaced. Which technician is correc
d. Neither Technician A nor B , i
9. The material used to absorb moisture from inside the aire 0 "
tern is called:
a. Drier
b. Desiccant
c. Ester
d P A G
" „ id the drt" 1
10. Which position o n the climate control panel shou
avoid having the a,:-conditioning compressor turr
a. Heat
Ftgurt 48-17 » . rvresta internal pressures act on the
b. Defrost
UU> - - i y- *» •• .< •/ the i a / i ana tr«n oupaceront based on the
c. A / C
pusaura * r c m w n d . Both a and b
•i -Conditioning
on
ijjfCTlVES: After studying C h a p t e r 49, the reader will be able to: Prepare lor ASE Certification test content area Heating and Air Conditioning (A7). test
-jrtentarea "0," Operating Systems and Related Controls Diagnosis and Repair • identify the type of HVAC system being used on a vehicle. • Describe
• : w d u a l - c l i m a t e and rear air-conditioning s y s t e m s wor1< • Discuss vacuum and electric - nor control'
O f l B N B : afterblow • ambient air temperature sensor • aspirator tube • automatic temperature control (ATQ system • cabin filter
. discharge air temperature (DAT) sensor • dual-position actuator • hybrid electnc vehrte (HEV) • photodiode • three-position actuator • variable-
josition actuator
AIRFLOW M A N A G E M E N T Air Conditioning

automatic heating, v e n t i l a t i o n , a n d air-conditioning iHVAC. sys- • Temperature set to • r.e des red j e t t i n g
use a combination of t h e f o l l o w i n g c o m p o n e n t s to control air- • Air intake—set : c : .deair r faster co ng, select recirculation
w into the passenger c o m p a r t m e n t : for the first few minutes
i Vents • A:.-/.'.— : - - s also a f l e -nts
i Ducts • Airardit -Jr? et • "i
• doors (also called flap d o o r s or valves) • Fa- '-peed et tc cersec pee:
The use of these c o m p o n e n t s a l l o w s t h e s y s t e m to provide air- Ventilation

:nder the following c o n d i t i o n s : • Temperarure set to iowest t e f f l y a a e e e
I. Fresh outside air or recirculated air • Airintake-se.ee: . air
I Ai conditioning • Ar —set: da. - pane: tz
3. Defrost • Air :.:.: ~z -
4. Heat • Facspeeaset des_-es
See Figure 4 0 - 1 . Defogging or Defrosting 'he Inside of the Windshield

The following are t h e typical s e t t i n g s for a m a n u a l or automatic • Temperance s e t : ; sr. t e r p e r r s e
air-conditioning system.
• Afrintafe - e : : c :•: =.r
!
Hut • Ar " trad i
• Far. tree.: -:" :-;:.-•:: : d
1
•" .peiature set to t h e desired setting
• Air intake—select outside air (for faster heating, select recircula-
-on for the first few minutes)
1
FREQUENTLY ASKED OUESTNM r m
Conditioning set to off
1
airflow to flow
What Is 'Afterblow'"'
' ' ir' speed to desired speed
Afterblow s s s o n «se: s aesc - * n e aperahan cr rre t - . * r • at*
Tie IGO«R TSS see" tuned OF Tie ourpase OI aftorcnM >s >O 3ry
a w to hee Drever- the ror-.itxr ot moid and -vide* - evaporator:
The operation ol tKe fttowcr molar after the ignfiion 6 toned ofl las ere
some afittner a m w a r t s Owe* serwee iiormaaon tc * -jre - a : " v
AIR D I S T R I B U T I O N
t a o r is mmai or not on the vetwde oetng ivesagated For example i a
SECTION
t j General Motors susle- me foaoiwig candmons misJ he - w **
LOOCCUR
1. engine -JS been off for 30 ranks.

2. TV outside ar temperature s rp F 2: C
3. "ie battery nortage « voteo- ^ grt
1
I tne ahove conations exist the after**.-!* s o r r ^ n u e c •: at ar
20 seconds of for "C secorxE. and Sen t n o on v o t o 2 sesxr:
-I
AUTOMATIC AIR CONDITIONING

Automatic air-coo<i;:iomng s y s w a s are a s n f t j rafter. a a f O M a H c
t e m p e r a t u r e control i ATC s v s t e ^ s se ci
«we m«KK portions oi the A/C and hMt sysftm are »*••».
of r . e s a m e c o m p o n e n t s as a -. -o*_- ad tssed ! Bess : tf M t t
^ shaded portions show the paths ol me to* control DOCKS.
566 S£C'iO*V
FLOOR PANEL BLEND DOOR AMBIENT Dual-Position Actuator A dual po maton

DOOR ACTUATOR ACTUATOR TEMPERATURE move either open or closed. An e x a m p h >; v pe of net '''
.BEHIVO S M E L D ) SENSOR the recirculation door, w h i c h c a n b e s f t h e i ,,r ci0Secj
Three-Position Actuator A three pc actuator

is ab[
to p r o v i d e t h r e e air d o o r p o s i t i o n s , s u c h ,r. t h e I level door w (
c o u l d a l l o w d e f r o s t only, f l o o r o n l y , o r a m i x t u r of t h e two
Variable-Position Actuator A v a r i a b l e p o s i t i o n actuator

c a p a b l e of p o s i t i o n i n g a v a l v e in a n y p o s i t i o n . All variable-positiorV
t u a t o r s u s e a f e e d b a c k p o t e n t i o m e t e r , w h i c h is u s e d by the contr, •
to d e t e c t t h e a c t u a l p o s i t i o n of t h e d o o r o r v a l v e . S e e Figure 4Q-;
CABIN F I L T E R S
BLOWER SPEED
CONTROLLER FRESH AIR M o s t late-model a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g s y s t e m s i n c l u d e a cabin filler
DOOR w h i c h is a n air filter in t h e o u t s i d e air i n l e t . T h e p u r p o s e of the cabin
ACTUATOR
filter is to filter dirt a n d d u s t f r o m t h e air b e f o r e it e n t e r s the interioro'
t h e vehicle. C a b i n air filters c a n b e a c c e s s e d e i t h e r in t h e dash, usul
Figure 49-2 The ambient temperature sensor in this system is located in the fresh air b e h i n d t h e glove b o x , o r f r o m u n d e r t h e h o o d . C a b i n air filters sfi mid
-taw duct tor me HVAC system b e replaced regularly, u s u a l l y e v e r y t w o y e a r s d u r i n g normal service
a n d m o r e o f t e n if t h e v e h i c l e is d r i v e n in d u s t y a r e a s . See Figure
a d d i t i o n a l s e n s o r s . T h e s e s e n s o r s and t h e i r p u r p o s e a n d f u n c t i o n
include:
NOTE: Some cabin filters contain activated charcoal which at s
Outside Air Temperature (OAT) Sensor This sensor is usu hydrocarbons and helps to deodorize the air as it enters the Intcnot Fc
ailv located at t h e f r o n t of the vehicle b e h i n d t h e grille b u t in f r o n t best results, use the designated replacement filtei
of t h e radiator. T h e p u r p o s e of this s e n s o r is to d e t e c t t h e t e m p e r a -
t u r e of t h e o u t s i d e air. This s e n s o r is c o m m o n l y called t h e a m b i e n t
a i r t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s o r and is also used to s u p p l y t e m p e r a t u r e
i n f o r m a t i o n for t h e driver o n a display. See Figure 4 9 - 2 . VACUUM CONTROL CIRCUITS
V a c u u m c o n t r o l c i r c u i t s u s e v a c u u m c r e a t e d in t h e intake manifold
Inside Vehicle Temperature Sensor Many older ATC sys- of t h e e n g i n e . B e c a u s e v a c u u m d e c r e a s e s t o c l o s e to zero duiir.;
t e m s used a t e m p e r a t u r e sensor located b e h i n d t h e instrument h e a v y a c c e l e r a t i o n , a v a c u u m a c c u m u l a t o r is u s e d to store vacuu
panel. .Air to t h e sensor w a s forced to f l o w past t h e s e n s o r b y u s i n g
d u r i n g t h e s h o r t p e r i o d s of a c c e l e r a t i o n . S e e F i g u r e 4 9 - 5 .
ar. a s p i r a t o r t u b e , w h i c h w a s c o n n e c t e d to t h e b l o w e r m o t o r c a s e .
Discharge Air Temperature Sensor The discharge air ELECTRIC S E R V O M O T O R CIRCUITS

t e m p e r a t u r e (DAT) s e n s o r is located a t t h e o u t l e t of t h e v e n t s .
M o s t H V A C s y s t e m s u s e e l e c t r i c m o t o r s t o m o v e valves and door-
T h e purpose of this s e n s o r is to i n f o r m t h e c o n t r o l l e r of t h e a c t u a l
S e e F i g u r e 4 9 - 6 o n p a g e 5 6 8 . E a c h s e r v o m o t o r c o n t a i n s a feedba.-
"eriperature at t h e discharge d u c t s .
p o t e n t i o m e t e r , w h i c h is u s e d b y t h e air c o n d i t i o n i n g control unit®
Evaporator Outlet Temperature Sensor This sensor is used i n d i c a t e t h e a c t u a l p o s i t i o n of t h e v a l v e o r d o o r . If t h e command
' :—troi t h e A C compressor t o k e e p t h e e v a p o r a t i v e t e m p e r a t u r e p o s i t i o n a n d t h e a c t u a l p o s i t i o n a r e n o t t h e s a m e , t h e n mostsysi; »
A " i n the specified t e m p e r a t u r e range for m o s t efficient o p e r a t i o n . a r e d e s i g n e d t o s t o r e a d i a g n o s t i c t r o u b l e c o d e indicating
d o o r is o u t of c a l i b r a t i o n . S e e F i g u r e 4 9 - 7 o n p a g e 5 6 8 .
Sunload Sensor Sunload sensors are m o u n t e d o n t h e t o p of
" e d a s h so that they can a d j u s t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a n d t h e f a n s p e e d
- i t c h t h e increased h e a t i n g t h r o u g h t h e w i n d o w s f r o m t h e s u n . BLOWER MOTOR CONTROL
T h e m o s t c o m m o n type of sunload sensor is a p h o t o d i o d e . T h i s B l o w e r m o t o r s a r e u s e d t o m o v e air. T h e air is d i r e c t e d by the
-•DC sensor p r o d u c e s a voltage w h i c h is directly r e l a t e d to t h e of t h e HVAC s y s t e m . M o s t b l o w e r m o t o r s u s e resistors to con
i: • .aht received. T h e voltage varies f r o m 0 . 3 v o l t (dash) t o t h e s p e e d of t h e m o t o r s b y d r o p p i n g t h e a m o u n t of curren ^
3 . 0 voits .light). t h r o u g h t h e m o t o r a t t h e l o w e r s p e e d . T h e r e s i s t o r lowers tn ^
a g e a n d t h e c u r r e n t t o t h e m o t o r . T h e c o n t r o l t h e n allows
t e m v o l t a g e to b e a p p l i e d t o t h e m o t o r d u r i n g high-speed ^ ^
• W E : ' ~ - - etudes a- equipped with a dual-zone sunload sensor that T h e b l o w e r m o t o r r e s i s t o r is a l w a y s l o c a t e d in t h e plenum n ^

• ; ~>o ser ion ncluded. This sensor allows the system to automatically b l o w e r m o t o r s o t h a t a i r f l o w p a s t t h e r e s i s t o r c a n h e l p keep
an & rrve -. - v. ar.d air temperature based on the actual sun intensity See Figures 4 9 - 8 a n d 4 9 - 9 o n p a g e 5 6 8 .
u p - - enced fcy f / . v 'tie driver and the passenger.
L
DUAL-ZONE AIR CLIMATE C O N T R O L S
isenge'1!
D u a l - z o n e c l i m a t e c o n t r o l s a l l o w t h e d r i v e r a n d t h e passjj
ACTUATORS s e l e c t d i f f e r e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s , a s m u c h a s a 3 0 ° F 117 1
^ ,n<
A - a part 'hat m o v e s the vanes or valves. Actuators used In a d u a l - z o n e c l i m a t e c o n t r o l s y s t e m , t h e d u c t s and a •
.- a.r ,T : \ ,r m .. ,:-ms are either electric or vacuum operated split a n d t w o air m i x d o o r s a r e u s e d , w i t h e a c h d o o r
and Include three different types. trolled b y Its o w n a c t u a t o r . S e e F i g u r e 4 9 - 1 0 o n page sr
'
INPUTS
OUTPUTS
/
o AC
A/C 9UNLOAU BLOWtR
SENSOR MOTOR
'EMTfRKTUHf
COHTKOL OOOO
AUTOMATIC
TEMPERATURE
CONTROL SENSOR MXWArTOtflTOB
A/C AMBIENT AIR

TEMPERATURE D o o ttrrr.v
SENSOR
ELECT ROMC
VEHICLE CONTROL
OPERATOR MODULE
HtATCT (WO *<C

i«.f3UC AIRWUTTBOO*
- aoc* Mcuua
UFO"
A/C
i _ _
CYCLMG
SWITCH
MC
VEHICLE PRESSURE
SPEED CUTOFF
SWITCH
ENGINE COOLANT POWERTRAIN
TEMPERATURE
ooancnoa
CONTROL
MODULE
OTHER ENGINE
SENSORS
ATC SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM
F
» e 4 H A block diagram showing the inputs to the electronic control assemt. r : - - : . eattcautpuBtoKl t a a t KM
Figure 4 9 - 5 no WOUT.
door i a w w poston .tot A
* 'W'cal cabin filter being removed (ram behind Sie «tow comoBtment theotfw poster ftoflom.
566 x \,
Figure <9-6 Thrae aednc actuators can be easily seen on this demonstration unit Figure 4 9 - 8 A typical blower motor assembly w i t h a t t a c h e d squirrel cage blown A
a a w s n q ftese actuators in a vehicle can be difficult replacement motor does not include the squirrel cage blower so it needs to be
the replacement motor. ™cno
BLENO O O O n MOTOR
DOOR POSITION COMPARATOR

COMMAND CIRCUIT
CALCULATION CIRCURT
A/D CONVERSION
Figure 4 9 - 9 A "credit card" resistor used in the rear blower a s s e m b l y in a Dodge n*
• Lines and fittings c o n n e c t i n g t h e f r o n t h e a t e r a n d air-conditioning

BLEND DOOR
FEEDBACK c o m p o n e n t s to t h e r e a r s y s t e m .
POTENTIOMETER
• Rear c o n t r o l s for s p e e d a n d t e m p e r a t u r e o n s o m e models
- ÂCcomr, with the blend door position ^ C U U T I O N OPERATION

W h e n r e c i r c u l a t i o n is s e l e c t e d , a b o u t 9 0 % of t h e air is drawn |
out"
t h e p a s s e n g e r c o m p a r t m e n t a n d t h e o t h e r 1 0 % is drawn ^
R E A R AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM side air. T h e p u r p o s e is t o s p e e d u p t h e c o o l i n g of the u w 1
' • - . - . ' • . vans, and sport utility v e h i c l e s | S U V s | a r e vehicle. reared

. , .. . > x a n d air-conditioning u n i t s . M a n y v e h i c l e s H o w e v e r , t h e b o d y c o n t r o l m o d u l e m a y also select re ^
;-•>',: • - C . s t s -.at r o u t e h e a t e d o r c o o l e d air t o rear-seat o p e r a t i o n if t h e h i g h - s i d e a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g s y s t e m p r e s s u i ,
:.-. -- — • 1 ; > - e 4 9 - 1 1 . H o w e v e r , m a n y larger v e h i c l e s re- 3 2 0 PSI 1 2 , 2 0 0 k P a ) t o h e l p l o w e r t h e h i g h - s i d e pressure v r n ^
n c
t,..--- .-.eater c o r e a n d air-conditioner e v a p o r a t o r in t h e inside air t h r o u g h t h e e v a p o r a t o r . T h i s c o n d i t i o n should u s e ii
• :.-. . v * . r,eating a n d cooling. M o s t r e a r HVAC sys- occur, b u t if it d o e s , this c o u l d c a u s e a c u s t o m e r c o n c e r n . -
V " -: i d e "I • f o l l o w i n g c o m p o n e n t s : b l o w e r n o i s e is greatly i n c r e a s e d in t h e r e c i r c u l a t i o n pos' 11 '
• Aiar, tus: aSr-cond* mgcompressor

• A . i'ed a: rear of the vehicle HYBRID E L E C T R I C V E H I C L E H E A T I N G
• A s e c o n d h e a t e r c o t e located at t h e rear of t h e vehicle AND COOLING S Y S T E M S - - ^ t
• a 7. : / *'•• 1 1 o « e r m o t o r control at t h e rear of the Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) s y s t e m s n e e d t o be n ^
vehicle
conventional systems because t h e e n g i n e stops when •
Chapter 4 ? Automatic An ConCiLwMig System Operator K*
HVAC CONTROLLER
DRIVER'S AIR/MIX
VALVE ACTUATOR
PASSENGER 8 AIMWX
VALVE ACTUATOR
FRESH
AIR
O
INLET
DOOR DRIVERS
\ WINDSHIELD OUTLETS
DRIVER S
PANEL OUTLETS
DRU'ERS
FLOOR OUTLETS
PASSENGERS
FLOOR OUTLETS
PASSENGER S
BLOWER _.„„«„« PANEL OUTLETS
MOTOR EVAPORATOR
PASSENGER S
HEATER WINDSHIELD OUTLETS
CORE
49-10 A dual climate control system showing the airflow and how it splits
^'49-11
'->.,. 1
* Weal dualjone climate control panel showing lerttnd right s>v Figure <9-1? Hea'tO or cooM v s aucvfcd to ** mar se;t pa
rjr
l control levers tettfes tvougf< ducts tost n r aider tic tort teats
k
War(
c.p,,' "i- As a r e s u l t , t h e e n g i n e d r i v e n air-conditioning
T o a l l o w
;:
(OR«N? R W L
" ALSO ST0
P- idlc s t o p m o d e a n d still p r o v i d e which is p o w e r e d by t h e high voltage H \ I batteries, b e e
r . ^ "inning, several m e t h o d s a r e u s e d d e p e n d i n g o n t h e e x a c t Rgure 4 0 - 1 3 .
lh
, ^ « e methods include: Toyota uses an airconditiooing compressor that Is entirety d r t a f c
2. )• * mode Is disabled If m a x c o o l i n g Is selected, by the high-voltage batteries and is therefor t c a f a t r : ( i p t o n l i t ^
kit 1 U 5 e s a
hybrid c o m p r e s s o r w h i c h h a s a smaller capacity cooling under all conditions, tr. j J t n g » v . D the e n g c e • a m
or
Hie c o m p r e s s o r b e i n g o p e r a t e d by an electric motor. operating.
57P SKTONffl
CHAPTER QUIZ
t . In heating mode, where Is the airflow dlrecte. 1
a. Dash vents
b. Floor
c. Windshield
d . Both b and c
2. Which sensor is also called the ambient air temperai ire sensor?
a. Outside air temperature (OAT)
b. Inside vehicle temperature
c. Discharge air temperature
d. Evaporator outlet t e m p e r a t u r e
3. What is the most common type of sunload sensor?
a. Potentiometer
b. Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor
c. Photodiode
d. Positive temperature coefficient (PTCi thermistor
4 . An actuator can be capable of h o w m a n y positional?
fijure 49-13 * sSckff or a whde equipped with rear heat and air-conditioning warning a. Two
tftr = aiec® se"Ace pncedue is needed whenreplacingengine coolant. b . Three
c. Variable
d. All of the above
7: .a uses electric h e a t i n g d e v i c e s called positive t e m p e r a - 5. Some cabin filters contain to absorb odors.
t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t P T G t h e r m i s t o r installed in t h e h e a t e r c o r e to pro- a. Perfume
vide h e a t to t h e passenger compartment. These heaters are b. Activated charcoal
p o w e r e d by t h e high-voltage electric s y s t e m . c. Paper filter material
d. Synthetic fibers
6. Which sensor might use an aspirator tube?
SUMMARY
a. Inside vehicle temperature
1. - • - . svstems are designed to be able to deliver airflow to the wind- b. Outside air-temperature (OAT)
for de.'ogging or defrosting as well as to the Door or dash vents, c. Discharge air temperature
i H\- --stents are designed to use outside ait; recirculated ait; or a d. Evaporator outlet t e m p e r a t u r e
- • s t r b a c o n of the two. 7. Technician A says that some cabin filters are accessible behind the gk
compartment. Technician B says that s o m e cabin filters are accessible from
3. Ser -s -used in automotive air-conditioning systems indude outside air
under the hood. Which technician is correct?
!r~.MT2Rze OAT . inside vehicle temperature, discharge air temperature
1 AT . evaporator outlet temperature, and sunload sensors. a. Technician A only
4. - indude dual-position, three-position, and variable-position
acsatOR.
5 V tx ij.ve and airflow doors are electrically driven by motors and a
8 . The blower motor resistors are used to limit to the motor
fee^taci potentiometer.
a. Voltage
6. •• ; - ml t ring systems .se a second heater core and evaporator at b . Current
die rear of the vehicle. c. Airflow
7 . - t - : e e ^ r c verudes use a variety of components and systems to be d . Both a and b
ii - . ie air :or,ditioning under idle-stop conditions. 9. Which is not part of a rear air-conditioning system?
a. Rear evaporator
b . Rear heater core
REVIEW QUESTIONS c. Rear AC compressor
1. t, -.it a e the four airflow locations? d. Rear blower motor n ,
2. - . systems include which sensors? 10. What components in the air-conditioning system may be d 1 ' 1 "
hybrid electric vehicle?
3. .. a fcedtacir potentiometer used on an electric actuator?
a. Evaporator
4. o p o n e o e are needed for rear air conditioning and heat? b. Compressor
c. Condenser
d . Blower motor
tcrrVES: After studying C h a p t e r 50, t h e r e a d e r will b e a b l e to: Prepare tor ASE Meafcng and fm CondMoning (A7) certification test content area
Conditioning System Diagnosis and Repair), content area "8" (Refrigeration System Component D o g m a s a n d R e p a n . content area "C* (Heating
engine Cooling Systems Diagnosis a n d Repair), content area " 0 ' (Operating Systems and M a t e d Controls Otagnoos a n d Repair!. and content area T
-X,geration, Recovery, Recycling, and Handling). • Diagnose lack of beat proMems • Let trie ar-contVtenng system performance check procedures
M^tmethods used to locate the source of an air-conditioning system leak. • Describe how to recover evacuate and recharge an ar-condrttoning
• Discuss what is necessary to retrofit a CFC-12 system to be able to use HFC-Y-M
cTrtRMS: bleeder valves • high-side p r e s s u r e • low coolant leve • o ^ - s t d e pret ire
KMC DIAGNOSTIC P R O C E D U R E COVER ft f?

en diagnosing a h e a t i n g a n d a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g s y s t e m p r o b l e m ,
vehicle manufacturers r e c o m m e n d t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g s t e p s be
j «1 Verify t h e c u s t o m e r c o m p l a i n t ( c o n c e r n ) . Sometirr,' e
;3tomer does not u n d e r s t a n d h o w t h e system is supposed to
v. -k or does not explain t h e fault clearly. Verifying t h e fault also
means that the technician can verify t h a t t h e problem has been
. -reeled after the service p r o c e d u r e h a s b e e n p e r f o r m e d .
. 3 Do a t h o r o u g h visual inspection. Heating and air
HEATER CORE
conditioning problems a r e o f t e n f o u n d by looking carefully at all
•'•iie components, c h e c k i n g for o b v i o u s faults or d a m a g e d u e to
an accident or road debris.
- Check for d i a g n o s t i c t r o u b l e c o d e s . M a n y h e a d n g and

-'conditioning systems u s e s e n s o r s a n d actuators, w h i c h are
computer controlled.
Check for r e l a t e d t e c h n i c a l s e r v i c e b u l l e t i n s (TSBs). If
'-'•'e lias been a bulletin released to solve a k n o w n problem, it
>i« a lot of time to k n o w w h a t to d o r a t h e r t h a n spend a lot of
--De trying to find and correct a p r o b l e m .
5
Determine t h e r o o t c a u s e . Be s u r e to find a n d correct tr.e
fA ;
" ause of the problem. A low refrigerant level m e a n s that
- ^ was a leak in the system. F m d m g a n d correcting t h e leak
- 4 ! caused the low refrigerant level is correcting t h e root cause.
1 Ve
rify the r e p a i r . Drive t h e vehicle u n d e r similar c o r d ; : PLENUM
which caused the c u s t o m e r to c o m p l a i n a n d verify that the c o r ASSEMBLY
;en
> has been corrected.
heat absorbed f r o m t h e e n g i n e by t h e c o o l i n g syste • -

of heat
% u ^ > h o w e v e r , is r e c o v e r e d bv t h e v e ,
d c o o l a n t is
'fe, P a s s e d t h r o u g h t u b e s in t h e small c o r e of
Air is passed a c r o s s t h e h e a t e r fins a n d is t h e n s e r : to
- ^ " g e r c o m p a r t m e n t . In s o m e v e h i c l e s , t h e h e a t e r a n d a:r
n n
' 8 work in series t o m a i n t a i n v e h i c l e c o m p a r t m e n t tor-
'e ^Figure50-1.
is t h e reason for t h e enghev/X. © reach n o r m a l o p e r a t i n g ' e m p e r J
t u r e . M a n y o t h e r c a u s e s b e s i d e s a d e f e c t r / e tne.— ruar a n rewiii
in lack of h e a t f r o m the hearer. TIB d e e n r u n e the - a c : cause tot
'PROBLEM D I A G N O S I S
l o w this p r o c e d u r e :
• ® Chicle's h e a t e r d o e s n o t p r o d u c e t h e desired a m o u n t of
^ / t y owners a n d t e c h n i c i a n s r e p l a c e t h e t h r - n o s u t b e ' , re S t e p t l After the engine has :>.- - cerate: m -
y ott
>er troubleshooting. It is t r u e t h a t a defective t h e r m o s t a t hose. If the engine Is op to proper exxrafir
571 SETTMSS
s s c r r a d a r r N s e should he too h o t for vera- to keep your hand

... . should l i e be pressurized.
• "'-•: v ? - - x " •' e s o u g h . replace t h e thermostat,
ib : b e s e 3 n o t pressurized, test it. Replace the radiator
v . ip : - — . n o : hold t h e specified pressure.
- • -- 55ft s » 2.
Ster < ' "-N: engine - u r m j n & fee: both heater hoses. (The heater
d be set tc t h e ~ a x i i s u m heat position. 1 Both hoses should
6 e t o e h o t to h o i d . 2 b o t h hoses are w a r m (not hot! or cool, check
heater control valve for proper operation. If o n e hose is h o t
a r e tne -erjrr is just w a r m or cool, remove both hoses
— - t n e heater core or engine and flush the h e a t e r core with
frcr. a g a r d e n hose.
Figure 5 0 - 2 A heater control valve, this valve is normally open, allowing engjnTI"""*
flow through the heater core. When the air conditioning is switched to maximum 0 ~
• P - •• -.r -ever 4 k "oKsesaDtf go®" is most Hsdjrthe result of
valve shuts off the flow of coolant to the heater.
cantes :<rC'issSr wtft the ensfce at :•;>. -here is enougi coolant flow
x' heKerat '-'z.-?r e a s e speeds, however the dttulation of coolant
f.-r.e -leads arc Sock prevents sufficient Sow through the heater.
engine coolant is able t o f l o w f r o m t h e e n g i n e to and through the
h e a t e r core a n d r e t u r n t o t h e e n g i n e . S e e F i g u r e 5 0 - 2 .
R e s u l t s : (a) If n e i t h e r h e a t e r h o s e is h o t to t h e touch, i t is
Water o n t h e C a r p e t ? Check t h e E v a p o r a t o r likely t h e r e is a n air p o c k e t in t h e h e a t e r t h a t is preventing the
• W 1 " - • -* ! Water Drain f l o w of c o o l a n t i n t o t h e h e a t e r c o r e , (b) If o n l y o n e heater hose is
h o t to t h e t o u c h , t h e n t h e h e a t e r c o r e is likely to be clogged or
- ,-tf water dnp tube becomes dogged with mud. leaves, or debris,
partially clogged. A c l o g g e d h e a t e r c o r e w o u l d p r e v e n t enough 1:
/ r e s ' "-s Ery^ up reside the evaporator housing and spill out onto the carpet on
coolant f r o m c i r c u l a t i n g t h r o u g h t h e h e a t e r c o r e to provide ace
f w - z z s r v r side Customer often thmk that the windshield or door seals are
quate heat to the passenger c o m p a r t m e n t .
- n V W ewasoratc "ate- drains are not visible unless the vehicle is hoisted
TECH H P
"EATER TROUBLE DIAGNOSIS D e f r o s t All t h e T i m e ? C h e c k t h e Vacuum
- JOr. ." h e a t from t h e h e a t e r o r h a v i n g h e a t c o m i n g o u t of t h e

A common problem involves airflow from the defroster ducts even though Se
•- v e s t s can b e a d a n g e r o u s and u n c o m f o r t a b l e p r o b l e m . T h e
selector lever is in other positions. The defrost setting is the default posibcr -
i r • r e s ir. t h e diagnostic p r o c e s s is to p e r f o r m a t h o r o u g h visual
the event of a failure with the vacuum supply. The defrost position is used be-
-J >::-_ ;-. and p e r f o r m simple tests. This i n c l u d e s t h e f o l l o w i n g :
cause it is the safest position. For safety, the windshield must remain freetr"
• C h e c k t h e c o o l a n t l e v e l . Low coolant level can cause a lack of frost. Heat is also supplied to the passenger compartments not only three:"
• - t h e heater. Low coolant level can also cause occasional defrost ducts but also through the heater vents at floor level.
Soss of heat. If the airflow is mostly directed to the windshield, check under the hood
for a broken, disconnected, or missing vacuum hose. Check the vacuum reserve
container for cracks or rust (if metal) that could prevent the container
holding vacuum. Check all vacuum hose connections at the intake manifold a •
>, - - '»r.ov« -he radiator cap when the engine is hot. Allow
trace each carefully, inspecting for cracks, splits, or softened areas that roar
" • s e r e r a l r.v,»s before removing the pressure cap to check
coofe* level indicate a problem.
This problem of incorrect airflow inside the vehicle often occurs afler^
• C a r e f a B r "ouch t h e u p p e r radiator h o s e w i t h t h e e n g i n e other service procedure has been performed, such as spark plug replace ••
,-waHng. ' -To ' vehicles, the temperature of t h e hose s h o u l d b e The movement of the technician's body and arms can cause a hose to Se p^-
v ' - car.no* keep vour hand o n it f b e t w e e n 190° to loose or 3 vacuum fitting to break without the service technician being
22Tj • v: »ICMrqt that anything wrong has occurred.
< H ••-:* J a w l to tnewure the temperature of

Visual Inspection T h e d i a g n o s i s of a h e a t e r problem ^
r. • •••/ •-<-* or*. u>, j « i the thermostat housing. c e m should start w i t h a visual inspection. T h e f o l l o w *
L H I should be checked or tested:
• Verify t h a t t h e u p p e r r a d i a t o r h o s e is h o t a n d p r e s s u r i z e
8«v/5»: ' a t o r hose s not too hot to hold, t h e n t h e u p p e r radiator h o s e s h o u l d b e t o o h o t t o l e t y o u k e e p y ° ^
, y* if rfje radiator hose is t o o h o t t o tightly a r o u n d t h e h o s e d u e t o t h e h i g h temperature. >
" - ' ' v- ' of • e a t ' h e 1 eater is not d u e t o a lack of hose is n o t t o o h o t to h o l d , t h e t h e r m o s t a t m a y b e defec ^ v
N e x t , grasp t h e t w o h e a t e r h o s e s . B o t h h e a t e r hose.s ^
• Car^'/'ytot" h «->t*r b o t e s n r eater hoses should also h o t to t h e t o u c h . If t h e r e t u r n h o s e is c o l d o r m u c h coc1
•j heater ••/,inlet h o s e , t h e••••ir-
h e a t e-••<.
r c o r-.'•
e m t haey hoses. This test
b e clogged or confirms
res that
" ^ T T i l r bubble could be lodged In the -
specially il thi coolaj
Chiiun "»property " b u r p ' die air Iror
pocket of air to remain trapped In t h
" !fwm nowloR through. Sec- Frequently A
? ilf Burp Air from the Cooling System?"
The Hand Test
leck a ra(jiator or condenser for possible clogged or r I<

* ^ tM outside of the unit with your hand Any coc
'. ^ f or condenser is clogged in that cool area
Figure 50-3 Many engines are eaupped •"tr a twjeder taftt to pem.ii1 team.- un to
bleed any tapped ar tan fit u t f r i j Tic «*ve s waened at coolwl« poind
FREQUENTLY A S K E D Q U E S T I O N «to the syslerr Became ar • yyita tar cooant t x ar tondt to tosttowardtie ftgM
part of tie cooing syne"
How Can You Easily B u r p Air f r o m t h e Cooling S y s t e m ?
--j fust step m being certain there is no air in the cooling system is to try to
., id getting ait into the system in the first place during cooling system service. CLEAR
- engine is equipped with bleeder valves near the high spots of the cool |
tern these valves should be open when refilling the radiator. See Figure 50-3
, -apped air will always travel to the highest portion of the cooling systerr
escape out of these bleeder openings Close the valves as soon as coolant
osetwl coming out of the valve opening
II the cooling system is not equipped with bleeder valves, fill the cooling BUBBLES
,s:em as full as possible and then start the engine. With the radiator cap
•roied, the coolant level will often rise as the trapped air is expanding, then
' JO down as the trapped air escapes out of the radiator neck opening Air can
-main trapped. To help speed up the process, try installing the radiator cap
..1 to the first notch. (In this position the radiator cap is closed, but will not seal
cough to allow pressure to build in the cooling system.) To help force any OIL
STREAKS
««o an Irom the cooling system, simply drive the vehicle normally for several
ules By driving the vehicle under load, the engine will warm up faster and the
f
"no3tat will open allowing the coolant to 1low from the engine and through
!* radetor. Any trapped air is then released into the radiator where it can easily Figure 5 0 - 4 MamsowCPC-'2 sfstem art f-sjpped »*i a vpt g t t n g t t i e r «i v '*m
scape through the unsealed radiator cap. After filling the radiator, securely the recew-dner A tuliy-cJwgBGOTcomoKMy emery svstern a rocand 0? t d e r
glass BubtMs or turn m d m e m a w a r s o n s n o t M y d o r g M An empty i p t o n m y
cap and test-drive the vehicle to verify proper operation
nave oil streaks on the goss Peng m o c d try Vie vapor remaning it the tyvtem
Step #2 Verify by v t s ^ .nspect..m that the A C, compressor c:

TECH TIP i engaged. Check the sight glass if the vehicle is so equipped, a
Hot/Cold/Hot/Cold H e a t e r D i a g n o s i s
shown in Figure 5 0 - 4 .
; T;
"on customer complaint is a lack of heat Irom the heater but only while dnv-
"""though there seems to be plenty of heat when the engine is at idle speed
;
" vehicle is stopped This is a classic symptom of low coolant level Tne
"" normal coolant level in the radiator prevents enough flow to supply the
core When the engine speed is reduced, the water pump turns slower and
'''""•' can more easily flow through the heater core resulting in heat from the
: 1
As the engine speed Increases, the water pump speed also increases Be-
z e l s less than the proper amount of coolant in the system, the watei rump Step #3 Place an air-conditioning t h e r m o m e w in the I tf
'*< be able to supply coolant through the engine ia path of lower resistant* the center of the vehicle. Wait several minutes to i
tem to reach maximum output and observe the t!
• If 35° to 45" F i2° to 7°Cl, the system s funcoodB* o l u *
DECKING Continue a thorough visual inspection tooting to ar.»ft i t o
A/C S Y S T E M P E R F O R M A N C E
that may cause an intermittent procfem.
'•• dm s<t e
. ' P in the d i a g n o s i s of a n y c o o l i n g s y s t e m problem is to • If over 45°F i7°Cl, continue wtth pressse p u p t a o n c
^ ' ^ e complaint ( c o n c e r n ) . Step #4 Identify the refrigerant B e t e ronneai 9* |
* 1 Start the engine a n d t u r n t h e A / C system to maximum w i t h or performing any other service to an a u u r v f l f e e
engine operating b e t w e e n 1 5 0 0 a n d 2 0 0 0 RPM with the system, verify the refrigerant that is preserCv In Te ;
^ o p e n . Operate t h e system for 5 to 10 minutes. a refrigerant identification m a d * * t o t h e s w ^ • - • /..•- / > ,
SM v ti i
^ . ^ O K V i ' ^ « > xurxv.-rt
i l l
w'.Vit a .v» H i » s t o s & t i i M r t e / s s l
e/otvT! » if W o . fflyHut 25 to55FSI.
s - t sf- J-J b« rfwji ISO to ICC PSI C<xrpif»
i< rKCXJk v>l rt»£r$J a the foCc*
MSSr
-•«50-6:.>J50-7.
Art Chart
W m m m
Co>M"-ji fmiM CM4 M
3-8»»
Lrw T g u t 50-4 J l 3c« Ngf. ^ t-.s/i irf4 Vw-fttJivft ,tA.«| U»
j U . ' r t l i N i i i * : -igfi cjn b« a>- k \*ol kJ U ^"VoiUt J »
x'M r< ufp nxt Hal i mttc* tKhrtam 4 « i 'rircJ,>j-«-« t
"i 1 X* 4 4 4 U (Ol
ttxn f* ' t ' i « i v i
tae VityMmtlMiOlM
CONOENSER
f p i m A n j R f AMO P R E S S U R E M E A S U R E M E N T S
OAS
*-•;•• •» r - l ;••••-.:« w i t o t y B a t e d !n AC s y i ^ m s . As
UQUID U N 6 OVERCHAflGE
• 't V - . . t Ixrei.-ej. (h< Ngh v i e pressue must iI«o
r j & t t t 0 v i . t 1 heat (Tu-j'-f it (fit COAfcTMfi IT* t w p f f l f i r t NORMAL UQUIOUNE
r y I V .>f - > (Kin«i.rtVriKmp-entureto»fov»
our WTv.
V r t to U r » r . . . * | y < o o l t f i i ' . v n . Also. hfgfwr t m t t a i t

fztf •>'<£, h N a e i S t * ' ( d u t y m e w t h i g h e r t t u ioad
f V "-ftKjtifaI y^r'}'ir'.ryoffceilhastotere- n j u r t 50-7 Hd rt ia>J(- « n f t caMf t « ** *
>4 <« <t U a t V.<* \ « t t o H J t t -j.il j>3«t K J irt *
P v t r o side p m s u f * s I v i ' J y rr^ttd s u B t t n o w t o f h e a t
fyt c U - -1. wvi ' i t t n r s f a u the o o o k f l s e i
v ^ t p r e s i d e f c » t r t : « ' g point, c< ttmptrilure of
" -;••.-.< ' : .r* < o o gf». :.w.t b o p c . n l l o i t t m -
k
A n o t h e r c a u s e of e x c e s s i v e hi^Ji sitle p r e s s u r e is cocti.- -- 1
fit • ' V « M) Hffl. 11. trade jftssure tat i j Aith a l : f « < n t refr^rant. M i x i n g R - 1 2 i n d R-13 ^ ® ;
* ] / » c * r ' / . t - i t € ?>*,< o f < 'a too « 3 may Kt, of that •Itnsing f f i g u r e of t h e m i x t u r e . The p r e s s u r e s go reliy f v .
* a V ^ • ' ! refr^rriM a t* o » p o « : o t to remove R >2 At 1 5 0 ' F , t h e p r e s s u r e of R 12 Is 2 3 5 1^1 W M •
^' jy^-; & «r ••* olt t*. Ut P 5 0 t . S M t a >s 2 6 3 R l ( 1 , 8 1 3 > P a ) . a n d R - 2 2 Is 3 d l F5I
P j x i p ' «< tf.t < o r / J . v x f j W j 3 | t h e c a u « ol high H-.is Ss m I m p o r t a n t reason t o u s e a refrigeraiU iJ<nti£<f- ( .
1 vxt
l/A 'tT « * * | ' ' T U f r e <a i i « of poof heal c o m p r e s s o r efficiency is reduced, t h e high s:d< } y
0)111
Mr* ; / f ' 1 acrttt 'he ' ' t The . « h k J « a u > l the I c * side r.creases. r h e f u n c t i o n o l t h e
v » C / k «f« <6 w * l ' f l / o i ire testing In a p j f l d c r * n t h e l o w side i n d ptish u p t h e hlgli side.
1 J
^ji > v -dy toil..* fr* 3 0 r c p f i t o j r t the ( f ^ r is filling, it do<3 n o t d o e i t h e r job w e l l . A l w i ^ ^
;
« r v • i'jjI b t h e reaicfl kr ' h e h gh u f l low -ide p t e s s u r e s w h e n diignositvg i f « c C '
PiCirvs SO O t h i i v i ^ 5 Q - I I .
r ; -: u fiMgnoK SB
*rong When t h e A/C C o m p r e s s o r C l u t c h

On and Off R a p i d l y ?
:
-icorxnon occurrence on a whicie equipped with • cycfcog cnjtc • • ce
KOT) swtem mat is tow on refrigerant charge v\«tn a normal ctarge 8 *
-* pressus should Be 15 to 35 PSI and the dutch shook) be on lor 4.- to
and be off for only about 15 to 30 seconds
H i g h - S i d e P r e s s u r e Tip
^ eas» way to determine the cc*Tect hwh-side press. .> >s to. .w 100
temperature m Fahrenheit
For example 8 5 T outside air temperature

• KW
185 PSI typK-al normal H - i s»V .vftss. ? h g u r » 5 0 - t 1 ur*.> . w e ' •" •
conMni
t a M a f « K > s m - - v « E»eo tough some technicians have purposed mstaSee r
M * o f - a arqeroperng * an attempt to increase coofcnq it is always sate to use t*
a o e .'"xx tjoe speeded tor the vehicle being serviced
Leak Detection if t h e A / C s y s t e m is l o w o n a charg

The Fir* Ertmguisher Test refrigerant, t h e s o u r c e s o f t h e l e a k s h o u l d b e f o u n d a n d :
rected. Several d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s o f l e a k d e t e c t i o n are a v a i i !
*e WK « e « w w «•»» Mi me atoo t » AC spttoi to including:
s» s M MI * " w a f t * UBKfl a CO- tire o t i y a t e
MK at raw < * • *nk o t TH» * a w m a s a w w tie n * voe
( • M L M M P « I WCWNT * I * KW-VOT PRESSURE does IW go
* i m w r M M It tofty w 6 i t a M Dt repaced See
TECH T I P The Touch. Feel Test
S M M - *
A QUO - io eas> test to check the state of charge of an onfice tube systr
s to use one hand and touch the evaporator side of the onfice tube n -
you- uthe< hand to the inlet to the accumulator The following con»c
can be deter.'fled by noticing the temperature ol these two locations 5a
The D o g g e d Evaporator Problem figure 50-16
normal operation— ooth temperatures about the same

r«o»i Itxde Undercharged condition— accumulator temperature higher (wanner; thr & |
onlioe tube temperature
•tw * n » 0 W* Wnwer w l o r --run) REVEALED mat P» WOOER
r mm. rnmmMj c Dorrtr™ B » o p e ^ M n the M t * 0* lewic Juetrememoet High pressure means that the temperature ol the W W *
. lit ii" i n a t f t - * — J
- ' i Then m t M C m c i a r ne >MI Use be h^h (hot) Low pressure means that the tempera We
A M ME - M I at M t * * <* a « i » w r — « » evaporator was covered component or kne win also be low (coldi
r
n r n< i w i 4 p q u m i i l me refrigerant and removed the
m Hnn I 1 . * » M W W 4 I V W d * arrad refrigerant lea* mat •(-
«r. me evsporaoi A n , a n * m e a i
» * i * w e e e w w *ri e«te< wiiow Visual i n s p e c t i o n . Look for oily a r e a s t h a t a r e formed when '
vm jrrrn* me t y M " 1 "'>«3 me Mower mate fngerant leaks a n d s o m e r e f r i g e r a n t oil is l o s t It is this oil j
Mr »«•**«>tt-tt. cates a refrigerant leak.
E l e c t r o n i c l e a k d e t e c t o r . Vlanv of t h e s e u n i t s can detect tn
C F C 12 a n d H F C 1 3 4 a . T h e d e t e c t o r will s o u n d a tone if a W
detected. See Figure 5 0 - 1 7 .
D y e in t h e r e f r i g e r a n t . A d y e is a d d e d t o s o m e r e f n g e r a - '
the technician visually spot a l e a k in t h e refrigerant systen
r ^ - h o d w o r k s well e x c e p t for leaks in t h e e v a p o r a t o r wh -
usually n o t vtsible. See Figure 5 0 - 1 8 .
S o a p s o l u t i o n . M i x a f e w d r o p s of liquid s o a p or deterg
into a small giass of w a t e r U s i n g a s m a l l b r u s h or a smal •
bottle, apply t h e soapy s o l u t i o n t o all f i t t i n g s a n d o t h e ' ^
such as t h e c o n d e n s e r a n d c o m p r e s s o r , w h i c h o f t e n are so ^
of leaks. If t h e s y s t e m is e m p t y , p r e s s u r i z e t h e system wit-
nitrogen
t O W PRESSURE ACCUUirtj
HIGH HOE
CYCLING SWITCH / TEST PORT
Figure 50-16 I fie lyflr-n • Wy cfcarjed ouftt fcnperawe of fc* lea.-i r «

evaporator tfiould be atoui h a i e »s toe fcnpeu^ or r e Ine entering tie M f O i t o
«trr lie o p e r s o r «av. Tne to* pr>$SJ! eyeing jW.d> usuSV has to be t t s c t r r « «
and a J u ^ e r «rire jted to eorvwrt K t#j eteeWcat terrtnafe afcxftg toe anprcssor to
n r I tie »yste-i is to» or d a r j e
V s 50-H .a A CO. h e extinguisher equipped »ith the fittings necessary to

1
* « ol in eipans'On valve (bj t h e s u t ol the opening at the end of Ihe
~ *' much CO, Is released to cool the expansion valve temperature
< M m " " f f r
; • Mm
W T W T
w j b w M i >11 / r
•iiimuiiPiin I ' n i 11 r r r r r
• M n r r " " •
Figure 50-17 Typcalelector*: retngerant leal detect/ are of
etwCK-IZorHFC-lMa
dogged evaporate TECH H P Leak-Testing the Evaporator
A qoicK anJ easi test to chert w V t f k " r e evaporate e leaVrv; r r • j e n r t c
^ • The Smell Test lo remote Ihe blower motor resists pact Tne motor i t s s t v part it at-
IJ
most atoays located directly Mownsbeam" t n l near r e 0 * « < r w o t r R a w -
l *TOfa
ing the biowe; motorres<storpart j i « s ac>-ss to r e irea near r ^ r . v . y s v
C totems term mildew Inside the evapcatcr housing due to
hsertmg the probe of a lert detector into r w open area Kv drtKtart
this area I f a ' w e t sme3 6 noticed. Ihe mold and
v
lest Ihe air dose to the evaporator
^ ^ and a bwcide vi ii need to be used to correct the problem
578 SECTO*,
pump is defective. Technician B says that th

•ystem
on coolant. Which technician is correct? couldbe
M
2. Airflow through a typical HVAC system is b e i : . discussed. Techir
says that outside air is always used in all heating and cooling "w? 3 4 '
Technician B says that the temperature is controlled by blend™ i ?
through the evaporator and heater core. Which technician is correct'
3. The first step in the diagnostic procedure when attempting to solve -
HVAC customer problem is
a. Visual inspection
b. Check for diagnostic trouble codes
Figiae 50-18 A Diack light being usedtolook tor refrigerant leaks after a fluorescent dye c. Check for technical service bulletins
'(issued m ttie system. d. Verify customer concern
4. The last step in the diagnostic procedure is
a. Determine the root cause
b. Verify the repair
SUMMARY c. Recharge the system
d. Perform a visual inspection
1. The upper radiator hose and both heater hoses should be hot to the touch
on a warm engine. 5. Technician A says that one heater hose should be hot and the other toe
cool if the heater is functioning okay. Technician B says that both fcesa
2. Failure to property "burp" air from the cooling system after servicing can
should be hot to the touch. Which technician is correct?
cause a lack of heat from the heater.
3. A s ^ h t glass is found on many older-model vehicles equipped with CFC- b. Technician B only
12. If Lie sight glass is cloudy, then the system charge is low. c. Both Technicians A and B
4. N'ormai air-vent temperature for a properly operating air-conditioning sys- d. Neither Technician A nor B
tem is 35° to 45°F (2° oo 7°C). 6. Nothing is seen in the sight glass. Technician A says that the system n s
5. An expansion valve or orifice tube is used to allow the liquid refrigerant to completely empty of refrigerant. Technician B says that the system may lie
expand into a gas inside the evaporator. Heat is absorbed by the refrigerant completely charged. Which technician is correct?
a; it changes state from a liquid to a gas and the evaporator becomes cold. a. Technician A only
Tr.e jutiet of the evaporator should be about the same temperature as the b. Technician B only
evaporator side of the orifice tube if the system is operating properly. c. Both Technicians A and B
6. rvfr.gprant leaks can be detected by visual inspection, an electronic leak d. Neither Technician A nor B
detector, dye, or a soap solution. 7. Technician A says that evaporator leaks can be detected by installing^
7 . .-, panially clogged evaporator can cause a lack of cooling. into the system and looking for yellowish-green dye stains. Technics I
says that a leak at the evaporator can be detected by removing the bio®
8. A C O : are extinguisher can be used to check the operation of an expansion
motor resistor pack and inserting an electronic leak detector probe into &
raive.
air stream. Which technician is correct?
9. The temperatures of the inlet and outlet lines to and from the evaporator a. Technician A only
sr.ouM be about the same if the system is fully charged. b. Technician B only
10. i: - - e compressor clutch is cycling on and off rapidly on a cycling clutch- c. Both Technicians A and B
- p e system, the most common cause is low on refrigerant. d. Neither Technician A nor B
11. ' . z . - j u high side pressure can be estimated by adding 100 to the outside 8. Technician A says that with a properly operating air-conditioning sys-^-
tar-perarure. the inlet to the compressor should be cold and the outlet from the
pressor hot. Technician B says that the condenser should be hot an '
evaporator cold. Which technician is correct?
REVIEW Q U E S T I O N S a. Technician A only
1. D a c ^ c he A to diagnose the lack of heat from the heater b. Technician B only
2. ' . . .-. - r sight glass can be used to determine the state of charge.
3. . z& • >.• rr.ethods that can be used to detect refrigerant leaks.
9. A clogged orifice tube can cause a lack of cooling.
4. •. ecover refrigerant from and evacuate an air-conditioning a. True
systess. b. False
5. - „-- - - - . that may have to be replaced when retrofitting an 10. What must the technician do before checking an air-conditioning ''
- . - s r .-.,r ; • ,v;,-. from CFG 12 to HFC-134a. for refrigerant leaks using a black light?
a. Evacuate the system
b. Install dye in the system
C H A P T E R QUIZ c. Overcharge the system by 10 oz
i - ..." tr.tf .. , - '.'.e hecier works sometimes, but sometimes d. Turn the system off and allow the pressure to equalize
- ,. jriv.;.& Technician A says that the water
C H A P T E R
He ;c .diti'Sbiiug
Sy; V :
. 6
u j t C f f l ® ! After studying Chapter 51, the reader will b e able to: Prepare far t h e A S E A / C f p t e m tervice. diagnows and repair (A7) certification to*
^jent area "A". • Perform heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system service procedures • identify precautions that should be adhered
during system service. • Discuss proper evacuabon and refrigerant recovery procedure* • Lot toe Hep* needed to be performed to retrofit an
®)sr(l4^jystemtoR-134a. • Describe air-conditioning parts replacement and service p r o c e d t m
ttfigMfe air dam • l i n c o m b • noncondensable g a s • O-ringseal • qwck-deecnnect • tchrader vatve • service cap
BLOWER MOTOR S E R V I C E
H e s t e r related services i n c l u d e the following components -.nd
operation:
i Blower motor a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n . If t h e b l o w e r motor no

. ining, the switch, resistors, or b l o w e r m o t o r itself may need to be
replaced. If the resistors are f o u n d to be defective, then double-
,-eck that the current d r a w of t h e b l o w e r m o t o r is within factor/
specifications. O n e of t h e m o s t c o m m o n reasons for a defective
slower motor resistor is a defective b l o w e r m o t o r that has worn
• things and draws m o r e t h a n n o r m a l c u r r e n t ( a m p e r e s .
• Relays and s w i t c h e s . S w i t c h e s a n d relays can be tested by prop
er operation and replaced if n e e d e d . Always follow t h e vehicle
manufacturer's r e c o m m e n d e d r e p l a c e m e n t procedures.
• Mechanical, e l e c t r i c a l , a n d v a c u u m c o m p o n e n t s . E l e c n c a
wiring or terminals can o f t e n be r e p a i r e d . C h e c k service informa-
'ion for the r e c o m m e n d e d p r o c e d u r e s to follow. If a component
te been found to be defective, f o l l o w t h e vehicle manufacturer's
recommended c o m p o n e n t r e p l a c e m e n t p r o c e d u r e s .
COOLING S Y S T E M S E R V I C E
tooling S y s t e m Thermostat Replacement A defer Rgire51-1 Somei 9ffvMMdean®
uckopeni t h e r m o s t a t c a n c a u s e a l a c k of h e a t f r o m t h e h e a t e r . ! : Siem-ar! unaerrieal!- tnewhoe as s
'comes and goes," c h e c k for p r o p e r c o o l a n t level in t h e tad; / :
''" K ^Placing t h e t h e r m o s t a t . W h e n r e p l a c i n g t h e thern star
:
"ays follow the v e h i c l e m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s r e c o m m e n d e d proced
Cooling Fan pe;: t i e - ; fan - ;-
:li faults that can c a u s e a v t a a t i o a or r e d u c e airflow ttoo'-.v. m e
•' use the designated c o o l a n t .
radiatoc C h e c k t h e viscc h a n chitcr. for êakage of silicone ftuid
Hea
ter H o s e R e p l a c e m e n t C h e c k h e a t e r h o s e s for and replace if n e e d e d .
proration and r e p l a c e as n e e d e d . S e e Figure 5 1 - 1 . Fc re
fehide
manufacturer's r e c o m m e n d e d p r o c e d u r e s .
TECH TIP fc/ Check the Air Dam It Overfceatwig Occurs
--C iam uVr trotf of ~ e .«r*Je s d n g r e e • " a w a .
iSSDI^r upwirc an) w a n s * » » - a a a a r r&v S a t tra*a n x w n e a * « « < « m -

9»s at 6 aroken or aarrtagea sue to cortact « C a 3KC« *
Use t h e S a m e L e n g t h H e a t e r Hoses oêct the engne -nay e*eneat
to hoses are designed to supply warm coolant from trie enc ne's
^ 'o the small radiator called the heater core inside the vef e Bee se
... f'6ater h °ses attach to the engine and the engine moves or ts mou • c. REFRIGERANT RECOVERY PROCEDURES
rttratio
". the heater hoses are long enough to allow the engKW t • «e
(i;Ji
Leak Repair Procedures
. ^ c a u s i n g stress to be applied to the heater core. The ex»a e n c f »<.
erant should be recovered and t h e f a u . : c a r -epaae." ..- t - i
* ' " » « « engine vibration from being transmitted to the heater c. e a .
Leaks at joints mav t e e c a r e p a c e m e n t O-nnjt. fer r* -u
. êrior 0 f the vehicle When replacing heater hoses a .vavs use the . :
38
component such as t h e e v a p o r a t o t o :ce-..-:•. • mrageraci
a guide and use the same length hoses. Also, route the replace nert
Leaking a m p o n e n E are i i u i . resxcc re." M--:
Si^, ^ 8 Mme
manner as onginaliy designed, a g a r to help rettoce the
Refrigerant s h o u l d be r e c o v e r e d a n d m ai. >. :
core
charged into t h e a t m o s p h e r e . A reriser:-::' t e c : - r - s r . t.-„
sac
51-2 a ; tvoicai automotive air-conditioning service machine that is caoable of

•ir-'.-'.yfr and HFC-134a systems ttji HFC-134a systems use guick-disconnect
'—<s -V a'Vf *han those usedtorCFC-12 systems.
•-, r e m o v e t h e refrigerant from the vehicle, and it should

Rgure 51-3 (a) Refrigerant oil must be retrieved and m e a s u r e d w h e n the refrigerant>s
: — - >. c o n t a i n ? ' u n t i l it can be recycled. See Figures 5 1 - 2 recovered from the system, (b) A rubber O-ring is used to indicate the level of refrigerant0"
acd 51-3. already in the container. The exact same amount of refrigerant oil must be installed as was
7 . o r r e c o v e r / u n i t s are capable of drawing a slight v a c u u m removed when the system is recharged.
- •.ver a f t o u t 5 in. Hg! t o assure that all refrigerant is
-*-.-. from "he s y s t e m . D u r i n g the recovery process, a n y
o.l - e m o v e d is separated from the refrigerant and al- Refrigerant Line Connections Refrigerant lines have con
"'/>; v . o a c o n t a i n e r w h e r e it can be m e a s u r e d . This is nections at e a c h e n d so t h e y c a n b e r e m o v e d d u r i n g system iep®
- v o w b e c a u s e t h e c o r r e c t total a m o u n t of lubricating refriger- Refrigerant line c o n n e c t i o n s m u s t m e e t t h r e e r e q u i r e m e n t s :
>-• ~ . " K a d d e d to ' h e system w h e n recharged to p r o t e c t
• The connection m u s t be v a p o r tight.
• The connection m u s t be easy t o d i s c o n n e c t a n d reconnect
• The seals must withstand rapid a n d e x t r e m e temperature changes-

lepairs v Replacement of Components After all refrigerant
-> -;-;P v A t e m , repairs can be accomplished. The O - r i n g s e a l , Figure 5 1 - 4 , is p a r t of a fitting that holds th®
*-.- * -, - <"vaporatar car. n o w be removed from the vehicle e n d s of t w o refrigerant lines o r h o s e s t o g e t h e r inside a conned •
> - • - ed if t v 'pas been opened to the atmosphere for T h e O-ring f o r m s t h e seal b e t w e e n t h e l i n e s o r h o s e s and the CO"
. . . . . . . , « . - j. ,_ v & : 2 4 hours), most experts recommend replac n e c t o i T h e O-rings usually a r e m a d e of h i g h l y saturated nra» f
-- - «•> prevent th? possibility of damaging moisture IHSNi or n e o p r e n e r u b b e r a n d r e m a i n f l e x i b l e o v e r a wide rang
., - j vrS /•.•*--. Af*er a! -epairs are completed, the sys- temperatures. T h e O - r i n g m u s t b e l u b r i c a t e d w i t h clean refngf' ?
oil before assembly to e n s u r e a g o o d s e a l . Be c a r e f u l not to c

the O-ring d u r i n g installation. r ff0fjt
Replace t h e O - r i n g seals at all c o n n e c t i o n s w h e n you re ^

• f t V *•'."* ' " .'.-« s • ':.•:/• ' w amount oJoil that a system to R-134a. T h i s e n s u r e s a n y t r a c e s of R-12 or
' t
- •'/• ' b e e n replaced. absorbed in t h e O - r i n g c a n n o t e n t e r t h e n e w system. R e ?'
gaskets as well.
Chapter 51. Heating and Air-Conditionmg System Service 581
0-RIN<
All service valves h a v e plastic c o v e r i n g s called s e r v i c e c a p » .
See Figure 5 1 - 7 . Along w i t h p r e v e n t i n g dirt f r o m e n t e r i n g t h e sys
tern, service valve caps have O-rings w h i c h b e c o m e t h e p r i m a r y
seal if a valve leaks. Always r e a t t a c h t h e c a p s a f t e r a n y s e r v i c e h a s
b e e n p e r f o r m e d , a n d replace t h e m if you c o m e across a system
w i t h missing service caps. A n o t h e r built-in p r e c a u t i o n is t h e refrig
e r a n t cut-off valve, w h i c h k e e p s t h e refrigerant in t h e s e r v i c e h o s e
instead of allowing it ' o v e n t to t h e a t m o s p h e r e . All service e q u i p
men? hoses are required to h a v e a cut-off valve w i t h i n 12 i n c h e s of
TUBE
t h e e n d of t h e hose.
Schrader Valves For years. R-12 s y s t e m s h a v e used the

" " ' " ^ - 4 o-nngs are usually made of neoprene rubber or highly saturated mtriles Schrader valve. A . - - lar t o a rlre valve. l n ? e " . a
vms iand high temperatures and flexing. O-rings should be changed during a pressure holds Schrader valves ciosed. T h e r e is also a small s p r i n g
,.,tli procedure to keep t h e valve seated if t h e internal pressure b e c o m e s insuffi-
c i e n t W h e n t h e service c o n n e c t i o n is m a d e , t h e d e p r e s s o r in t h e
FEMALE MALE end of the service hose or s e r . e e c o u p l i n g , presses on a small pin
FITTING FITTING inside t h e vaive, fore.-.? t h e v a l v e o p e n . See R g u r e 5 1 - 8 . T h e
valve opens only w h e n t h e s e n d e e n e c o n n e c t i o n is nearly com-
plete, preventing c o n t a m i n a t i o n of t h e system or t h e u n n e c e s s a r y
release of refrigerant.
T h e h.gh-side service v a . v e or. R-12 s y s t e m s is smaller a n d
has different t h r e a d s t h a n t h e l o w - s i d e s e r v i c e vaive. This pre-
vents incorrect c o n n e c t i o n s t h a t m a y result in d a m a g e to t h e sys-
O-RINGS CAGE t e m and to y o u r service e q u i p m e n t . : © m e Ford systems use
different sizes of q u i c k - d i s c o n n e c t r . n n g s , s i m i l a r t o a n air-hose
coupling. Adapters a r e a v a i l a L e for . s e with s t a n d a r c manifold
fijiire51-5 A Ford spring-lock coupling.
gauge sets.
FITTOOL SLIDE TOOL BACK REMOVETOOL

AND OPEN COUPLER AND SEPARATE EVACUATION P R O C E D U R E S
TOOL COUPLER
Evacuation mear.s that a v a c u u m wll be applied t o t h e system to
vaporize a n y moisture that m a y be x t h e si : - e m . A l t h o u g h w a t e r
boils at 2 1 2 ° F iOO'C at sea level, it can toil at m u c h l o w e r tern
peratures w h e n t h e pressure is r e d u c e d . In o t h e r w o r d s , if a vac-
u u m is applied to t h e a r c a o d i t i o r m i g r v . e m . the l o w p r e s s u r e will
cause any trapped moisrure r . t h e svstem to vaporize b o i l . T h s
water vapor is t h e n r e m erred f r o m t h e system t h r o u g h t h e vacu -rr.
fyn 51-6 A special tool is needed to remove and install the Ford spring-lock coupling
p u m p and released i n t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e . It is i m p o r t a n t to e v a c u a t e
the system to at least 2 6 in. Hg of v a c u u m for at least 4 5 m i n u t e s to
A variation on t h e O - r i n g seal is Ford's spring-lock coupling. be assured that all of t h e m o i s t u r e h a s b e e n r e m o v e d . For best re
- figure 51-5. It uses t w o O - r i n g s m o u n t e d on t h e small e n d of suits, the v a c u u m should b e higher than 29 in. Hg. Just r e m e m b e r ,
e refrigeration line. T h e e n d of t h e j o i n i n g refrigeration line is t h e higher the v a c u u m a n d t h e longer t h a t it is a - o w e d to evac uate
•red to slide over the t w o O - r i n g s . A circular garter spring holds the b e t t e r
«connection together. You n e e d a special tool to d i s c o n n e c t the
coupling. See Figure 5 1 - 6 .
TECH TIP Use a Micron Vacuum Gauge for Best Results
A typcal wcuur jajge •eaos.r mdtesof Merajry n H g a n t f t h e r a c B m e t t d

R e f r i g e r a n t Can Be H a z a r d o u s
ocu»;m leve needed to re-iove ~>oetufe frorr n e systeir « :oraMHraI «s *
i!wa
>s wear safety glass
27 - Hg or less, ftowever - a - , exper* recc^merc .sng a a.:.jrr
safety glasses and protective gloves when servicing an\ automo-
'"6 air-r.nnrfHi^. ...... •tat measures the amount ot ar r&nannj; n the system * ! « "vpe * geugc
^ air-conditioning system If any refrigerant escapes, it can cause ski •<:
6 e i t or M u s
-neasures MOM) «i m a o n s A rmoon is one -i^-neter it a -ne® are: m a r t
e blindness if liquid refrigerant were to get into the eyes.
are about 760.000 microns of ar at atmospheric pressure A racuw~ -; S
29 ^21 - s about 5,000 mcrorss « a r y experts iworvnend was tn»«
'^'ce Valves— level be 500 or less tar best resurts rtas is parDcutady ~xnari «r "
, Service
W V 1 V IV. t valves
V CU Y C j provide
p i i s v I U V . eCn
1 It U
r y1 to uiv s
i \ s the w w e m w .;r.
^"scessary to add or discharge refrigerant. T h e Schrader va.vc s .•itmg a duai-dtmate control syster where two evaporanrs are and I
M R are long lengths of refrigerant lines See Rjur* 5 1 - 9 or page I
s|j ® I 2 systems. Q u i c k - d i s c o n n e c t valves
\ a s V ste ms. Each type of refrigerant has its o w n unique fitting,
'"ini V e n t S a c c i d e n t a l use of t h e w r o n g service e q u i p m e n t and or
NONCONDENSABLE GASES
V , Auction of the w r o n g refrigerant. Service valves are found al-
irier a n y w here on the system. They m a y b e located on t h e receiver Refrigerant s t e u i d be c h e c k e d f
' E m u l a t o r , compressor, muffler, or in t h e lines themselves. called a n o n c o n d e n s a b l e g a s .
Servo aa
G A U G E SET
n C i t A S y Mrt. Y
AMD
frgurail-4 A n v m j o» trul ioo» *nw*r t not Q o r a c *

VALVE
COME Trwv a t uaually color coded tor KhmiihcaDon AMayt UM me raeomiMMM
ontas lute tor trie vehicle you ore nxvicmfl Some e t a n v m 01 me v t f t u i c o -
o n eno k ' a jv.uUtw include
VALVE C l O S E O
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would AO! engage fhi
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• * M on e n * , ? M i r i M K t r e f e t a in*
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« • C . , ^ ' * C F C - 1 2 SYSTEM
^ - ' • " A SYSTEM • ?AC or i ..„ m u H U u x o oi nuner*. - v A A
CFCl2>ywem.
J^nj®®*^'-*' c o t ; co.'A.'crtH. a w y K K D t t t i x f . r . . c . ^
• A r^vprc ire i h u t a f f s w K c h m w c* I w u l W B u t o p e r ^ toe
0 4 ) C F C I 2 v y i t e a u to h K : 1 3 4 a i y v t e m j .
( o m p n w i r clutciJ ^JCUII .1 ih< c x o e a a ^ ^ l O PS,.
"•ft • l U K C r«»vf u> De p e r t o r m e C .
O t h e r c t o a & k u u t m a y o.- n u y n o t b t w e e a a r y ( a c t a a c
c« u u a i t e d .
^ N M M t o m * v v M c l r i n ' vttJW* tocintm. • Ire., ' I r s ,
mt» 5M lor w<x>*ncr*\
r *e er-conewng WW* 6
2* pars necessary to retrofit a particular vehi

* i ir«. ided in a kit tor easy use. See Rgure 51-12.
• ^charged, the amount of HFC 134a is usually
*> CFC12 amount minus 4 ounces. In other words, if
the normal charge of CFC12, then 23 ounces of HFC
. 1 be 30 ounces x 90% » 27 ounces minus
COMPRESSOR SERVICE
O m w Bett Always check the compressor drive
tr jemclng the air conditioning system and
i. If tome ch .'Ju are missing from the belt ribs or
are embedded In the pulleys, a noise that Is often
coming from a defective compressor can occur.
' Clutch Service ff the compressor clutch has been

. . e*. a ® be Mae, indicating that excessive heat has been gen
\ - r . .prig dutch. Repiace the dutch and adiust the air
as a may «rrtc» ir.formatu^ instructions. See Figure 51-13.
; - . w a r s needed, determine the quantity of oil that
- * r a p e : • me aid unit so that the proper amount can be
«i r v f»rrn after the new condenser has been installed. Figure 5 1 - 1 2 ai When a system is retrofitted trom CFC-12 to HFC-1 Ma me proper
tenncefittingshave to tie used to help assure that cross-contamination does not occur
R e m o v a l l! -esting indicates that the air- H>' An undv-tmod sticker a also installed indicating that me system was retrofitted to
trjr - .v* tai tiled, it should be removed from the HFC-134a and when it was done and by whom
< 'efeprar.t has bees evacuated from the
» specif • i bv service information usually include Step»8 Inspect the hose, lines, fittings, O-rings, seals, muffler, J"-
service valves for proper operation and repair or r e p l a c e as nee
as pan of the compressor service.
lit /"-an* '.v system,
I• ZMcatm. c )KfiiHHr M w belt
»« rutt* turn and cr/r.prpssor crutdt wtttng conrtec TECH TIP An Additional Filter Is Insurance
tHM Kit Ml,
| M K.'ti - S"u, JMS m t w p htnes. It 9* ait-conOittoriing compressor is found to be damaged mechanically ^
rpt
• ^ *e f ' it* « a dtrt from entering *<petf recommend that an additional filter be installed in the "->" „
to trap any debris that may have gotten into the system Thisaddtww v„:
wit help prevent the new compressor trom being harmed by the
w * aw . " f i g t a m e n
circulates through the system
IW TMTT K MMHR •re rrf*r»fS wi tbt com pre
Chapter 51 Heating and Air-Conditioning System Service 585
jn 51—13 A special tool is needed to remove and install the magnetic clutch on the Figure 51-15 Always he sure that the service valves are snug before evacuating the
mKrtnj compressor system They are a common place for small refrigerant leaks
TECH TIP Might a s Well Do It Now
Whenever an evaporator is being replaced, many service technicians also

recommend that the heater core also be replaced This is especially true if the
vehicle had a neglected cooiflg system. Most heater cores are close to or even
have to be removed to replace an evaporator The only additional cost to the
vehicle owner is the cost of the heater core itself
ORIFICEJUBE/EXPANSION VALVE SERVICE

If the orifice tube is found to be clogged or t h e expansion valve has
been determined to be n o t operating correctly, they will require re-
placement. Always follow the vehicle m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s recom-
mended replacement procedures and a d h e r e to all precautions.
SUMMARY
™ 51-14 A (In comb Is used to straighten the fins on the condenser to help increase
«andhest transfer 1. The proper operation of the heater depends on the proper operation f
the engine cooling system as well as the blower motor and temperature
controls.
D E N S E R SERVICE 2. A serviceable compressor drive belt and clutch are needed for the proper
*>«t the condenser for a i r f l o w r e s t r i c t i o n a n d clean as n e e d e d . operation of the air-conditioning system.
a
"fin c o m b " is n e e d e d to s t r a i g h t e n t h e fins of 3. Refrigerant must be checked for contamination before recover.
: "denser, which m a y h a v e b e e n b e n t by road debris. See 4 . Check for leaks in the system by drawing a vacuum on the system and
checking to see that other systems are able to maintain the vacuum.
5. Always use the spec ~ed replacement parts, such as • nfice tube?.: be a
sured of proper operation.
"ORATOR SERVICE
fc flatly— ' """* — — 6. Verify that the heating and airconditioning system is functioning cor
" -'Porator has b e e n tested a n d f o u n d to be clogged or leak- rectly after any repair or service.
' 'las to be replaced. In m o s t vehicles this is a major job in-
' -'assembly of t h e d a s h . REVIEW QUESTIONS
^'VER/drier OR ACCUMULATOR/DRIER SERVICE t. What components should be checked if a blovu r motor resistor is found
erperts
jji r e c o m m e n d t h a t t h e r e c e i v e r / d r i e r or a c c u m u l a - to be defective?
** replaced a n y t i m e t h e r e f r i g e r a n t system is o p e n e d 2. Why could a broken air dam in the front of a vehic e ca..se ar, engine tc
. r r e p a ^ or services a r e b e i n g p e r f o r m e d . Before replac- overheat?
i / ^ e i v e r / d r i e r or a c c u m u l a t o r ' d r i e r , d e t e r m i n e t h e quan-
3. Why should a refrigerant identifier be used before evacuating the refrigerant-
ef
ngerant oil so that t h e p r o p e r a m o u n t can be a d d e d to
4. Why should the receiver/drier or accumulator dner be replaced if the re-
• ^ " h e n it is r e c h a r g e d . See Figure 5 1 - 1 5 . Always follow
frigerant system is opened for a repair?
''XM,.' Manufacturer's r e c o m m e n d e d service and repair
5. What steps and procedures are required to retrofit an older R-12 ifuau*
to a R 134a system?
ft. \\ . • >
CMAPHROWZ
ts
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^soline and A l t e r n a t i v e F u e l s
si
Computer a n d N e t w o r k
>3
Fundamentals
Onboard D i a g n o s i s
M
Computer S e n s o r s
55
Ignition S y s t e m C o m p o n e n t s and
5J
Operation
J1 Ignition S y s t e m D i a g n o s i s a n d
Service
S» Fuel P u m p s , L i n e s , a n d F i l t e r s
» Fuel-Injection Components and

Operation
Fu«Wn|ection S y s t e m D i a g n o s i s a n d
Service
ii Vehicle E m i s s i o n S t a n d a r d s a n d T e s t i n g
$2 Emission C o n t r o l D e v i c e s O p e r a t i o n a n d
Diagnosis
a Scan Tools a n d E n g i n e P e r f o r m a n c e
Diagnosis
52
C H A P T E R
ft
'"Ws. After studying Ctwptw 52. the read* wi« tx- w
, i ** B a t »*i (est content
t
C • Poscrit* h w ttw * IM „\»tA*r« v * s
^ '*m width- iflwts On^ ,-AtMtirs . imw • • . w o w v •• - . . . .
'1: oi v m m <ihwi)<ihve m * *
' : '. r E R *S ; , hi,-i mtm . «* v vv> • Vv
I 1 * ' •nUKnoclk rndeit (AM) • B80 • • • S M R H H h m m I t « n » • oaWAe C * C » « | • M M M * *
" * ' • I" • ' •>•• • • ' . . .
• • • •
^ I g m m t m t o m w • * T T T T J * T " T , 7 n i
• fuw . t f i H V , < * > *
. • , s , v a K * Ml. r . V • w . v sv • ••- >.-o •
* <H\v.i w • mvi<J*v*>» WW'
s» a •
T he qualfcr tf t t any e ^ n ? u s e s is important to its proper oper- O t h e r types of refining processes includ-
r : " is not richt tor the air temperature or if
• Reforming
r * -«p<yct ? S * to ?v3pc*atp is incorrect, severe driveability
• Alkylation
rrtsef-K -?»<? Ar e^cine b u m s about 15 pounds of air for every
• lsomerization
PCWXj cf
• Hydrotreating
• Desulfurization
AUTWiOTTVt FUEL REFINING
See Figure 5 2 - 1 .
~ : v r ; . petroleum meaning "rock oil")
c-::: : : a f r - . i i r e Light colored as apple cider or as thick and Shipping The gasoline is t r a n s p o r t e d to regional storage facilities
: : •:.-. Thin c r u d e oil has a high A m e r i c a n Petro- by tank railway car or by pipeline. In t h e p i p e l i n e method, J
I n s t i t s t e (AFM gravity, and therefore, is called high-gravity from many refineries is o f t e n s e n t t h r o u g h t h e same pipeline a
— j f e . S E tJ-jdk erode oS is called low gravity crude. High-gravity- can b e c o m e mixed. All gasoline is said t o be miscible, meaning that
-r>: c r - J t s . ' s ™° r e natural gasoline and its lower sulfur and it is capable of being mixed b e c a u s e e a c h g r a d e is created to specifi-
n r r c c e r . cocteut makes it easier to refine. cation so there is n o reason to k e e p t h e d i f f e r e n t gasoline brands
separated except for grade. Regular g r a d e , m i d g r a d e , and premium
grades are separated in t h e p i p e l i n e a n d t h e additives are added a;
• C T t - , ' . " . v - v . - ; ^ - o s g p o£ is also k n m t a a s " s w e e t " c r u d e a n d f i t g t f the regional storage facilities a n d t h e n s h i p p e d by truck to individuai
ssShs ~ a aSo tevowri as " s o u r " cnide. gas stations.
GASOLINE
'recesses Refining is a complex combination of interdepen-
: • - . : - c ? s s ng units, and it all starts with the simple physical sepa- G a s o l i n e is a term used to d e s c r i b e a c o m p l e x mixture of va.no-;
- :• _ : - : distillation. hydrocarbons refined f r o m c r u d e p e t r o l e u m oil for use as a fuel :
engines. Most gasoline is " b l e n d e d " t o m e e t t h e needs of the lot;'
0<Stiilation In the late 1800s. crude was separated into differ- climates and altitudes.
T . : crodtxts fcv boiling. Distillation works because crude is com-
: ••: of hydrocarbons with a wide range of molecular weights,
therefore a broad range of boiling points. Each product was as- FREQUENTLY A S K E D QUESTION
: temperature range and the product was obtained by con-
-.£ the vapor that boiled off in this range at atmospheric
What Is a California Gas Can?
pressure [atmospheric distillation!. The earliest crude stills were
vs. T£ s consisting of a container where crude was heated When researching for ways t o reduce hydrocarbon emissions in California.'
a " nien.se- to condense the vapor. Later, distillation became a was discovered that leakage f r o m small gasoline containers used to refill s">3:
c c n t m c - j s process with a pump to provide crude flow, a furnace to lawn mowers and other power e q u i p m e n t w a s a major source of unburnetf
-15' the c - j d e . and a distillation column to separate the different gasoline entering the atmosphere. As a result of this discovery, a new design lor
a gas can (container) was developed that is kept closed by a spring and uses
in. a to'iiiation column, the vapor of t h e lowest-boiling 0-rings to seal the opening. To use this container, t h e nozzle release lever is
- i n & U x x a . propane and butane, rises to t h e top. T h e held against the side of the fuel opening and, w h e n depressed, allows
••• i ; • mm gasoline (also called naphtha), kerosene, a n d diesel enter the container a n d fuel t o f l o w . The f l o w of f u e l stops automatically wtien
i ' t < i r r m off at successively lower positions in t h e the tank is full, eliminating any spillage. See Figure 5 2 - 2 .
Cracking Tne discovery that hydrocarbons with higher boiling

VOLATILITY ,_
'" - o w r c r a c k e d into lower-boiling hydro-
y f r . r z t v M e e t i n g them to very high temperatures offered a Volatility describes h o w easily t h e gasoline evaporates (form -
' •'. correct the mismatch between supply and demand. This vapor). The definition of volatility a s s u m e s that the vapors ^
.. fifed thermal cracking, was used to increase gasoline pro- remain in the fuel t a n k or fuel line a n d will cause a certain pr® '
: - 2 in 1913. It is the nature of thermal cracking to based on the t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e fuel.
- 5 r '}' oiefirs. which have higher octane numbers but may
W i n t e r B l e n d R e i d v a p o r p r e s s u r e (RVP) is the pressure of -
... , . B y today's standards, the quality and perfor-
vapor above the fuel w h e n t h e fuel is at 100°F (38°C).
" . e s l y cracked gasoline was low, but it was sufficient
vapor pressure permits t h e engine to start in cold weather. 0 ^
' ^ t h * e r a s e s of the day.
;
without air will not burn. Gasoline m u s t be vaporized (mixe \
• ; '/-rat was supplemented by a catalyst, transform-
air) to burn In an engine. Cold t e m p e r a t u r e s reduce the n
—; ••'-;. ' t o catalytic c r a c k i n g . A catalyst is a
vaporization of gasoline; therefore, winter-blended gasoline is s p - ^
up or otherwise facilitates a chemical reaction
formulated to vaporize at lower t e m p e r a t u r e s for proper s t a r t r ^ f 0 r
.".'•—,<.•• •}. a p e r m a n e n t chemical change itself. Cat-
driveability at low ambient temperatures. T h e A m e r i c a n S o a ^
. 7iv,'M,f of higher quality than thermal
Testing a n d M a t e r i a l s ( A S T M ) standards for winter-blend £3-
allow volatility of up to 15 pounds per square inch (PSI)
HvJrocrackmg : rm.ar to catalytic cracking in that it uses a
oasoll^
cans ."8, bye tz? a'.?.: • * ; a hydrogen atmosphere. Hydrocrack-
S u m m e r B l e n d At w a r m a m b i e n t temperatures,
r.-t car. b r ^ i t from ydroca-twra that are resistant to catalytic
vaporizes easily. However, t h e fuel system (fuel p u m p . c a ^t
' - - — I - : . i» is -j rA to produce diesel fuel
fuel-injector nozzles, etc.) is designed to operate with liquid gpjj F<
The volatility of summer-grade gasoline should be abou> •
Chapter 52 Gaaotow and Alternative h m
DISTILLATION
COLUMN
' gun 52-1 The crude oil refining process showing most ol the maior steps and processes
a lean condition caused by vapor.res fuei r the Jbei svuem. TMs

vaporized fuel takes space n o r m a - / a c c r u e d by liquid fuel.
Vapor lock is caused by biAtnes t h e farm tn the fuel, prever
proper operation at ihe fuel-ir ecson system.
Bubbles tn the fuel can be caused by neat or cy ir.arp rxsr:
in the fuel system. Heat causes some fuel to evaporate, hereby
causing bubWes. Sfcaip bends cause re fue; to be restricted at Che
bend. When the hie! Sows past the bend, the fuei can expand m
fill the space after the bend. Tn.s expar.A.00 drop* the pre.. _ v
and bubbies form in the fuel n e v When the fuel it M e n a -
bles, the engine is not being supplied wtth enough f a d 1
engine runs lean. A ie*n engine wi.l stunihle du-mg 1
will run rough, and mav stall. Warm weather and 1
fuels both tend to increase vapor x t an
problems.
ff wineerbiend gasoline |or high 8VP fueli is -ord a m 1
1 52-2 A — during warm weather, the tofiowingproWe.'r^ roa> occur
' '"> ^ o „ "" S Ca
"lhat me8ts lh8
C" 11 ' 0 " 1 ™ Resources Board 1CAH81 app. j w i
^ Hied nouie that eliminates gasoline spillage and leaks Into Ihe jtrtMsprwre
1. Rough idle
2. Stii n*
1(15
'"'>|Cfo?"g t 0 A S
™ standards, the maximum RVP sh i be 3. H<- :adon on acceierao r.
blend Rasoline 4. Surgjoi
SinJ '
At higher temperature^ liquid ie The RVT can be tested using toe
Pirize, which can cause v a p o r lock. Vapi: is Figure 5 2 - 1
St SfCTKNJl
Why Do I Get Lower Gas Mileage In Ihe Wlnti
Several factors causa the engine to use more fuel In the wli • Vr thanftthe any*,
including:
• Gasoline that is Wended for use In cold climates Is deigned for ease ot
starting and contains fewer heavy molecules, which contribute to fuel
economy The heat content of winter gasoline Is tower than summet-
blended gasoline.
• In cold temperatures, all lubricants are stiff, causing more resistance,
lubricants Include the engine oil, as well as the transmission and
differential gear lubricants.
• Heat from the engine Is radiated into the outside air more rapidly when r*
temperature is cold, resulting in longer run time until the engine has
P g u r t 5 2 - 3 > j a s o v * testis '«* 'f^lei $ an Inaiated Miere water at reached normal operating temperature.
• s J!*e to V a t a cotfarer s*Sng a s r j » sar{Je ot gasefc* T V reatfng on the
• Road conditions, such as Ice and snow, can cause tire slippage or
P-S^SJ* JA.IJE '4 SERF <3POR FRESSUI IRVFY
additional drag on the vehicle.
DISTILLATION CURVE NORMAL AND ABNORMAL COMBUSTION

S l i d e s "eid vapor pressure, another method of classifying gaso- The o c t a n e r a t i n g of gasoline is t h e m e a s u r e of its antiknock ;:::
Ine . : aclity Is the distillation curve. A curve on a graph is cre- erties. Engine knock (also called d e t o n a t i o n , spark knock,
ated by p l a t i n g the temperature at which the various percentage or pingi is a metallic noise an e n g i n e makes, usually dirrj
A the ".el evaporates. A typical distillation curve is shown in acceleration, resulting from a b n o r m a l o r uncontrolled combu:ic
Fgure 5 2 - 1 . inside the cylinder.
FRONT MIDRANGE TAIL

ENO ENO
*00
UJ
<£ R E S I D U E ( L E S S T H A N 2.7)
3
X 300
u
0.
S
jj
t-
DILUTION O F ENGINE OIL
200
CPANKCASE 0EP0SITS
SPARK P L U G FOULING
C 0 M 8 U S T 1 0 N CHAMBER OEPOSlTS
100
WAPIHjP ANO COOL
WEATHER D«V£A»UTY
S7
MSYCOLO
S'WtTHG SHOUT TRIP ECONOMY
20 40 60 30 100
EVAPORATED %
artf»*rrvHmf-m Wl
OCTANE RATING
The Sniff Test
G F L *
tanaara or basis of c o m p a n i o n w a s t h e * r. • <• jc
scsn occur with stale gasoiirn; from wi tfbon fsooctane, chemically cafied t r i r r f t h y l p e n
, MM ewporated Stale gasoline usually refute if : o k n o w n as 2-2-4 O t o e f f i y l p e n t a n e . If a » • ) ne
e suspected, sniff it if It smells rancid rep.- r ad 1 sac" same antiknock characteristics as .•axw.ar*.
it w a r a s 100-octane gasoline. If the gasoline tested
K storing a vehicle, boat, or lawn m o w wer '.ad o ' , . of ' i t antiknock properties of isooctane. t we.,
JGTWF STABL IZ
IER into the gasoline to reduce the e/spor D J- ra-ed as 8 5 ( / tane. R^-err.oer, octane rating is ar.il a com p a r
^ a i occur during storage Gasoline stabilizer <s freoue • sou t e s t
.^repair shops or marinas ->e âslc m e t h o d s used to rate gasoline for a n ' • • >c>
p r o p e r s , octane ra" - 2 are *r.e research method and the mo'-.v
jji*e>perts recommend that a diesel fuel additi /e be used •. . method. Eacr. .ses a ir.ttk: f rr.e special cooperative f
rq jwrtfi that occurs in fuels when moisture is present ro kill aigae arw stop research . C F t ti«gje<yfoider er gine. T h e research method and
-i-gnalgrowth use from 0.25 to 0.50 fl or of additive in each Z a the motor var> as to 'err. perature of air, spark advance,
C? ywrffi is usually associated with diesel fuel when water coiects at the ar.d other p g ' S " » t e " " * « re-.-ea*'•" " . e ' h o d •vp.rai'v rev.ii".
Mfflm c* Ihe tank, gasoline tanks can still be a source of algae espeaa y in readir.9 "iat are ' r o : r , points rigfcer d a s those of t h e
,*Kfs are stored for long periods of time, usually over 90 days motor method. For e x a x p i e . a fuel with a research octane
number RO' of 9 3 r gfet ' a v a motor octane n u m b e r
formal c o m b u s t i o n occurs smoothly and progresses across the Tne octane r a . r g s » s w c or so tne 'sited States is the
-rustion c h a m b e r from the point of ignition. See Figure 52 5. averaae of twc neti'iotfe a n : ; -eferrec to as ft + M 2,
Normal flame-front combustion travels between 4 5 and meaning that, for fue - s e t - the p r r r v y j s e x a n p i e -v. » t . n g
mph 172 a n d 1 4 5 k m / h ) . T h e speed of the flame front depends posted or, m e p o o p s w o t a r De
• air -fuel ratio, combustion c h a m b e r design (determining an
- r t u l e n c e i , and temperature. RON - MOW >3-85
During periods of spark knock (detonationl, the combustion
eel .-.creases by up to 10 times to n e a r the speed of sound. The
creased c o m b u s t i o n speed also causes increased temperatures The p u n ? ) o c a n e _ a e d t h e antiknock i n d e x A K ) ) .
pressures, w h i c h can d a m a g e pistons, gaskets, and cylinder
See figure 5 2 - 6 .
tee of t h e first additives used in g a s o l i n e w a s t e t r a e t h y l lead GASOLINE GRADES AJID O C T A K E NUMBER
TEL). TEL was added to gasoline in the early 1920s to reduce the The posted : c a a n e m * - gmciax ; 'imps the rating
•:acyto knock. It was often called ethyl or high-test gasoline. achieved b v A e a v e a p c f t h e - e w r c f c a n d 3 k motet methods
COMPRESSION IGNfTlON
--aT-*
! 52
~5 Normal comtjusSor is a smooth cootroied burrwig of ** ar-tur. rraHre
COMPRESSION SPARK tGNITTON COMBUST*** COMBOSÎOM
^
CONTMUEO
k. ^'awilui • 1 secondary y » o n <* T* «»-*•« • t I d

5® SECTION K
REAL WORLD FIX

ET The S t a l l i n g Hi
On a warm day in Match 11 ustomer walked Into u

' e rB " alr shop ana
asked for help. The car was parked on the street just
' the shop. A servte.
technician accompanied the owner to check out tin The ovwin I
plained that the engine would start, then Immediatel i tie engine»
again start ,ind then stall during another attempt
The service technician slid Into the driver's seat ai id turned the ignition h
When the engine started, the technician depressed the accelerator slightly ar*:»•
engine continued to run without any apparent problem The car owner had n-
depressed the accelerator pedal and had never had any previous engine trouble
The technician suspected winter-grade (high-RVP) gasoline was the prob-
lem The owner replied that the present tank of fuel had been purchased during
the last week in February. The technician explained that the uncommonly warm
weather caused the fuel to vaporize In the fuel rail. Enough condensed fuel was
available to start the engine, but the fuel Injectors were designed to handle
figure 52-7 A fuel pump showing tegular (87 octanei. plus (88 5 octane), and premium uid fuel—not vapor—so the engine stalled
9C ocs-e Theseratingscan vary with brand as well as in different parts of the country, The technician was probably lucky because by the third start enough of
esoeca ly m high-alttude areas where the ratings are lower as shown here the remaining vapor had been drawn into the engine that all that remained was
liquid gasoline.
Grades Octane R a t i n g
feguor 87
2 . Alcohols such as ethanol lethyl alcohol), m e t h a n o l ( m e t h y l alco-
IMgrade lafso called Plus) 89
hol), and tertiary butyl alcohol (TBA)
Plenum 91 or higher
3 . Metallic c o m p o u n d s s u c h as m e t h y l c y c l o p e n t a d i e n y l m a n g a n e s e
tricarbonyl (MMT)
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION Q j
NOTE: MMT has been proven to be harmful to catalytic converter ar

What Grade of Gasoline Does the EPA Use When Testing Engines? cause spark plug fouling However, M M T Is currently one of the active '
Due ID the ranous grades and additives used in commercial fuel, the government dients commonly found in octane improvers available to the put! ind
some gasoline sold in Canada. If an octane boost additive has beer,
EPS uses a liquid called indolene Indolene has a research octane number of
contains MMT, the spark plug porcelain will be rust colored around
% 5 art a motor method octane rating of 88, which results in an R + M 2
-atmg of 92.25
Propane and b u t a n e , w h i c h are volatile by-products o f the re
finery p r o c e s s , a r e also o f t e n a d d e d t o g a s o l i n e a s o c t a n e i m p r o v e s
TECH TIP Horsepower and Fuel Flow T h e i n c r e a s e in volatility c a u s e d b y t h e a d d e d p r o p a n e and butar.t
o f t e n leads to h o t - w e a t h e r d r i v e a b i l i t y p r o b l e m s .
proouce 1 hp. the engine must be supplied with 0.50 lb of fuel per hour
bfcr Fuel injectors are rated in pounds per hour. For example, a V-8 engine
equ pged w t f 25 ib/hr fuel injectors could produce 50 hp per cylinder Iper in- FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
ector y 400 np. Even if the cylinder head or block is modified to produce more
-y^spower the limiting factor may be the injector flow rate
Can R e g u l a r - G r a d e G a s o l i n e B e U s e d If P r e m i u m
The following are flow rates and resulting horsepower for a V-8 engine:
Is t h e R e c o m m e n d e d G r a d e ?
3". - *r 60 hp per cylinder or 480 hp
Yes. It is usually possible to use regular-grade or midgrade (plus) gaso®"
35 r. - r 70 hp per cylinder or 560 hp most newer vehicles without danger of damage to the engine. Most veh
6 -- 'X hp oer cylinder or 640 hp built since the 1990s are equipped with at least one knock sensor It a lowei
tane gasoline than specified is used, the engine ignition timing setting wll
Of course iniector flow rate is only one of many variables that affect This spa"
ally cause the engine to spark knock, also called detonation or ping
yimtr outp.it installing larger injectors without other major engine modification
knock is detected by the knock sensor(s), which sends a signal to the comp^
y>. 1te.<f-:<mengine output and drastically increase exhaust emissions
The computer then retards the ignition timing until the spark knock stops
•- ! ire 5 2 - 7 . Except in high-altitude areas, the grades and ot the

MOTE: Some scan tools will show the "estimated octane rating
octane i r r n g s are as follows:
fuel being used, which is based on knock sensor activity
OCTANE IMPROVERS (1 yff®"

As a result of this spark timing retardation, the engine torque is reduce ^
' A r e - "ifl : Tip-/ (••,, u n d e r federal F.PA regulations, r e m o v e d this reduction in power is seldom noticed, it will reduce fuel economy
••••':: • -a 'rr. a -ie, other methods w e r e developed to to 5 miles per gallon. If premium gasoline is then used, the PCM will 9'' - ,
- r - r. •• - y <nocr properties of gasoline. O c t a n e im- permit the engine to operate at the more advanced ignition timing
provers <e -oncer an V grouped into three broad categories: Therefore, it may take several tanks of premium gasoline to restore no1
economy. For best overall performance, use the grade ot gasolim
I . Ar-/ at.c r.yd'ocaraoo hydrocarbon- containing the benzene
mended by the vehicle manufacturer
ring) such as xylene and toluene
• uj B
tNATE D FUELS be more harmful to the materials in the fuei -^stem and w * p r t
when combined with gasoline unless used wtth a co-solwent A 09
(.naled f u e l s "w,!.. i. h i ;;
solvent ts another substance (usually another akchoii rha' »
S a m p l e s o f oxygenated fu< •
bie m both methanol arid gasoline and is used to reduce tt--
' ,J ; V| tertiary butyl ether ( M l h i : ) , tertiary.
'e'.dency of rhe :;quids to separate.
S , ^ e t h y l tertiary b u t y l ether 11. .
Methanol can damage fuel system parts. Methanol a «arrotfw
Q«genated f u e l s are commonly uv d
to lead 'used as a coating ol fuel tanks), aluminum, majsw ur%
c c a r b o n monoxide ICO) emissions
and y;"ie piaMKs and rubber. Methanol can also c • rse r ->nr
• itself Is used to convert harmful CO ir,'o< - v ;.<,/. CO
pr'X! jci '-•'jstooen to well and soften. Methanol oasitair <-r.
iK extra oxygen i n the f u e l help', ensure tha' t?.<
•y '.ad GAV,: eon taxiing 5 * methanol would have an O/Y§RI
-»n to convert all the CO into C 0 2 during th? co
come® • A 2.5% by
', (tH! engine or catalytic converter.
Jethyl Tertiary B u t y l E t h e r ( M T B E ) MTBE

-v m e a n s of the chemical r e a c t i o n of m e t h a n o l and sot. / ene. - u *ndâlei<ioMwvmbBWcaii«E»
•e m e t h a n o l , MTBE d o e s n o t i n c r e a s e t h e volat ty o f " - ? . an* tm 3* g:v tar mc srui ' toi -i teM ant. T1*. fraar
. not as s e n s i t i v e to w a t e r a s a r e o t h e r a l c o h o b . T h e maxim T OSes Pha/e xturmm & bt e n » » iarfasan » pm**-- . ;
jowaWe volume level, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e EPA, is 15% b u t it is cur keeps tetatpanera&ofM***«««***»•«
S K * B a * » > ienspsae.se * a c tarwera I w t t S * t:nr» ard ruit l <aw torn
-;gtly being phased out due to health concerns, as well a MTBt
Beie raodSrww c a w e i t e w « » « o ( P « e * e t » « e f t B a o l i » » #
l a m i n a t i o n of drinking w a t e r if spilled f r o m storage tar.ks.
wr tt crwfcwwi Bt awes* it ar at 8* fuel ur.k fuii r»
lertiary-flmyl Methyl Ether Tertiary amyl methyl ether Sxe. 4* anwurr of ar and SKWJ!* A te snk. See Bpiv 53-9.
T A M E ) is a n oxygenate a d d e d to g a s o l i n e a n d is f l a m m a b l e and
. a form explosive m i x t u r e s w i t h air. It is slightly soluble in water,
-. soluble i n ethers a n d a l c o h o l , a n d s o l u b l e in m o s t organic so. ALCOHOL ADOflWES—
ir.ts including hydrocarbons. TAME is an ether, which contains an ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
. MI a t o m bonded t o t w o c a r b o n a t o m s . The a d v s r . ' ^ E s and d&ADVARR^t?! AT .SITU. ALCOHOL® JN add M / e to
gasoline can be s u m r n a - z e c ai feflms
Ethyl Tertiary B u t y l E t h e r ETBE is derived froir
The m a x i m u m allowable v o l u m e l e v e l is 1 7 . 2 % . T h e u s e of ETBE Advantages
;'r,e cause of much of t h e o d o r f r o m t h e e x h a u s t of vehicles using
• n u l a t e d gasoline. 1. Alcotoi absorbs Eaostne a the fee t a r x .
2 . Ten percent atcoooi s k i e d B f M f l a e s r i R C S K octane rating,
tthanol E t h y l alcohol is d r i n k a b l e alcohol a n d is usually m a d e •JT + M ^ Z b v t t e e s p o K i a .
grain. A d d i n g 10% e t h a n o l (ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol J . Aicohf). cjsans the 6 * : s m b .
leases the (R + M ) 2 o c t a n e r a t i n g by t h r e e points. T h e 4. A t a h c ( - ntatra ryser.
3>hol a d d e d to t h e b a s e gasoline, h o w e v e r , also raises Disadvantages
e volatility of t h e fuel a b o u t 0 . 5 PSI. M o s t automobile
anuEacturers permit u p to 10% e t h a n o l if driveabiiity problems are J. The use at atone CM l e a * tr. rhe cwgpag of fad ftten wvn
' e x p e r i e n c e d . The o x y g e n c o n t e n t of a 10% blend of e t h a r :n dirt and other detns c,-;Bed tro-r the fuel tank, pur- 5. ar>d isr.es
W w . c a l l e d E - 1 0 , i s 3.5% o x y g e n by w e i g h t See Figure 5 2 - 8 . 2. Aicc raise L*K C aax: P" - . v , K
bot-weather dnveatsl?? p" -Qterns.
Methanol M e t h y l a l c o h o l is m a d e f r o m w o o d i w o o d alcohol), 3. AJcaho. ttdjxs rhe heat. serp of me res '.- -
^BBlgas, or coal. M e t h a n o l is p o i s o n o u s if ingested a n d tends to has about ow-half at he e n e s f v : j n t e n t of j o t s O O ^ M f l to
7S.D0 Britisti t h e r m a l u n i t s BTUs
VISKS about I3D.OOO BTUs p e aAor, tor gaKMK.
,ih
««'CASOUN€VB*U ustwnfxFosvMcÔM
jBsoime, espe COMBUSTION CHEMISTRY
water on the Internal c o m b u s t i o n e n g i n e s b u m a n orga fuel to
Bid weather. power. The term o r g a n i c r e f e r s to a pre gasoline -
source that originally w a s alive. B e c a u s e c r u d e 1 originally
from living plants a n d a n i m a l s , all p r o d u c t s of troleum are

sidered organic fuels a n d a r e c o m p o s e d p r i m a r y of hydroee- '
and carbon (C).
T h e c o m b u s t i o n p r o c e s s i n v o l v e s t h e c h e m i c a l combination
oxygen (C> f r o m t h e air (about 2 1 % of t h e atmosphere] wi-
hydrogen and c a r b o n from t h e f u e l . In a gasoline engine, a - .
4 awMB 9 * j f l h r mrmf m t* soecAc gravity includes: starts t h e c o m b u s t i o n process, w h i c h t a k e s a b o u t 3 ms (0.003 =
to be c o m p l e t e d inside t h e c y l i n d e r of a n e n g i n e . The chenfc
1
M r 880 9 m a w n tor tpeohc g » » y i
action that takes place c a n be s u m m a r i z e d as follows: hydros-
Sanaa* C TC 7SC plus carbon iC) plus o x y g e n ( 0 2 ) p l u s nitrogen (N) pl us :,.
equals h e a t plus w a t e r ( H 2 0 ) p l u s c a r b o n m o n o x i d e (CO) i;; -

"•w ^ v s sw» a n M*> 9M toe toe* tar* »rt< to Ihe bottom
complete c o m b u s t i o n ) p l u s c a r b o n d i o x i d e ( C 0 2 ) plus hydroca-
bons iHCl plus o x i d e s of nitrogen (NOx) plus man.-
chemicals.
T E 5 T W E GASOUWE FOR ALCOHOL CONTENT
- • * - n * u e p t w h e n resting gasoline for alcohol content:
A I R - F U E L RATIOS
l. = a r ; > cr a c . c * nto a s i u C clean beaker or glass container.
Fuel b u r n s best w h e n t h e i n t a k e s y s t e m t u r n s it into a I
and m i x e s it w i t h air b e f o r e s e n d i n g it i n t o t h e cylinders. In fuel-in
akr -arnaj the a s (round sources o( wreoor! jected engines, t h e fuel b e c o m e s a s p r a y a n d mixes with the a;r;
the intake manifold. T h e r e is a d i r e c t relationship between engine
airflow and fuel r e q u i r e m e n t s ; this is called t h e a i r - f u e l ratio.
X CTTii-r S i t r * graduated cylinder to the 10-mL mark.
T h e a i r - f u e l ratio is t h e p r o p o r t i o n by w e i g h t of air and gaso-
J . Kte : •e1o( to the graduated cylinder by counting the
line that t h e i n j e c t i o n s y s t e m m i x e s as n e e d e d for engine combus
wars*? f from an evedroppet i Before performing the test,
tion. The m i x t u r e s , w i t h w h i c h a n e n g i n e can operate withou!
- • xxm BUST be caiibraed to determine how many drops
stalling, range from 8 to 1 to 1 8 . 5 to 1. See Figure 5 2 - 1 0 . These
cprilOinLj
ratios are usually stated by w e i g h t , s u c h as:
4. • oer tn the cytader and shake vigorously for I minute.
** r . - • : -jp pressure by occasionally removing the stopper. Al- • 8 parts of air by weight c o m b i n e d w i t h 1 part of gasoline by weig."
- ,v- e W3'-- and wtD drop to the bottom of the cylinder. I 8:1), which is t h e richest m i x t u r e that an engine can tolerate and
5 r ' r.3« or. a flat surface and let it stand for 2 minutes. still fire reliably.
A. 7 * . 4 * a c r ? bottom of the cylinder at the boundary • 18.5 parts of air mixed w i t h 1 part of gasoline (18.5:1), w h i c h is
tttinn two liquids. the leanest practical ratio. Richer or leaner air-fuel ratios cause the
7 > - >1 in g a v i i n e , subtract 2 from the reading engine to misfire badly or not r u n at all.
m x m i t s f t r by 10. For e x a m p l e .
Stoichiometric A i r - F u e l Ratio T h e ideal mixture or r a t i o n
~ - « M S n » * 3 . J mL-3.1 - 2 - 1.1 * 1 0 - ll*alcohol w h i c h all of t h e fuel c o m b i n e s w i t h all of t h e oxygen in the air aN
bum completely is called t h e s t o i c h i o m e t r i c ratio, a cherr
~ > -"xtaf 2 x rr u 2 - 2 * 0 x 10 » 0% alcohol | n o alcohol||
perfect c o m b i n a t i o n . In t h e o r y , t h i s ratio Is a n air-fuel mixture •
- WJ, j m e is 0.2% or less, it may be a s s u m e d 1 4 . 7 to 1. See Figure 5 2 - 1 1 .
u r : j : n s n o alcohol. Alcohol c o n t e n t can also
' - -: "i £ e - e c T jf.ic tester. See t h e p h o t o s e q u e n c e at
STALL -
MIXTURE
T O O LEAN
A S K E D QUESTION
••0% or h w of nthanol (ethyl alco-

because the addition of
¥ «• tm occasional rough idle or
weather The rough idle and
• «ari*d dnvwi. than stopped
* / W * » ft* *MHOI enhanced fuel cauwng
»> tuet prevent ttie proper
»r' «"> " m t * r a i w u n n during accetera
* t » tMbUee have
•»* <u» Ihe fuel lank
Figure 5 2 - 1 0 An engine will not run if the air-fuel mixture is either too n ch
iter 52 Gasoi-ne
CO,
NO* HC
Sz 8 0 THREE-WAY
•i CATALYST
0 • OPERATING
I 60
RANGE
a 40
RICH A-F . . LEAN A-F
MIXTURE MIXTURE
20
13:1 14:1 14.7:1 15:1 16:1

AIR-FUEL (A-F) RATIO
Figure 52-12 Phot ?! gaaotne pur; taxen in a high-altitude area. Note the lower than
normal octane ratings The 'eSanoi' socket reads that an grades contain 10%ethanol from
• 52-11 Willi a three-way catalytic converter, emission control is most efficient with November 1 through February 28 each year to help reduce CO exhaust emissions.
-•jfi ratal between 14 65:1 and 14.75:1
In reality, the exact ratio at w h i c h p e r f e c t m i x t u r e and com-

-..--] occurs d e p e n d s o n t h e m o l e c u l a r s t r u c t u r e of gasoline, m u s t be higher. M o s t c o m p u t e r i z e d e n g i n e control systems can
-iCh can vary. The s t o i c h i o m e t r i c r a t i o is a c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n compensate for changes in a l t i t u d e a n d m o d i f y a i r - f u e l ratio a n d ig-
•limum power and m a x i m u m e c o n o m y . nition timing for best o p e r a t i o n .
Because t h e c o m b u s t i o n b u m r a t e siows at high altitude, t h e
Stoichiometric A i r - F u e l R a t i o f o r V a r i o u s F u e l s If t h e
ignition | spark i timing c a n b e a d v a n c e d t o i m p r o v e power. T h e
-rustion process is c o m p l e t e , all g a s o l i n e or H C s will be com-
a m o u n t of tuning a d v a n c e can b e a b o u t 1 d e g r e e p e r 1 , 0 0 0 ft over
•:e!v combined w i t h all t h e a v a i l a b l e o x y g e n . T h i s total combi-
5 , 0 0 0 ft. Therefore, if driving at 8 , 0 0 0 ft of altitude, t h e ignition
-aon of all c o m p o n e n t s of t h e f u e l is called stoichiometric
timing can be advanced 3 degrees.
••••fuel ratio. The s t o i c h i o m e t r i c quantities for gasoline are
High altitude also allows fuel to e v a p o r a t e m o r e easily. T h e
I " parts air for 1 p a r t g a s o l i n e b y w e i g h t . D i f f e r e n t fuels have
volatility of fuel should be r e d u c e d at h i g h e r altitudes to p r e v e n t
' Serent stoichiometric p r o p o r t i o n s . S e e t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g table
vapor from forming in sections of t h e fuel s y s t e m , w h i c h can c a u s e
'iparing the heat a n d s t o i c h i o m e t r i c r a t i o for alcohol versus
driveability and stalling problems. T h e extra h e a t g e n e r a t e d in
Mline.
climbing to higher altitudes plus t h e l o w e r a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e at
higher altitudes c o m b i n e to c a u s e vapor lock p r o b l e m s as t h e vehi-
cle goes to higher altitudes.
Jf Heal Energy (BTU/gal) Stoichiometric Ratio
About 130,000 14.7:1

REFORMULATED GASOLINE
-eftanoO alcohol About 76,000 9.0:1
^ J f f r a n o l ) alcohol About 60,000 6.4 1 Reformulated gasoline (RFG) is m a n u f a c t u r e d by r e f i n e r s
to help r e d u c e e m i s s i o n s . T h e gasoline refiners reformulate
gasoline by using a d d i t i v e s t h a t c o n t a i n at least 2 \ o x v g e n by
heat p r o d u c e d b y t h e c o m b u s t i o n p r o c e s s is m e a s u r e d w e i g h t and r e d u c i n g t h e a d d i t i v e b e n z e n e to a m a x i m u m of 1 %
0r|
' e BTU is t h e a m o u n t of h e a t r e q u i r e d to raise o n e by v o l u m e . Two o t h e r m a i o r c h a n g e s d o n e at t h e r e f i n e r i e s are a.-,
follows: •J
calorie
teal). O n e c a l o r i e is t h e a m o u n t of h e a t r e q u i r e d
1. R e d u c e light c o m p o u n d s . Refineries t t i i n a ' : :tar e.
!he t e m p e r a t u r e of o n e g r a m (g) of w a t e r o n e Celsius
tane, and propane, w h i c h h a v e a l o w boiling point and evapo
rate easily. These u n b u r n e d h y d r o c a r b o n s are released into the
atmosphere during r e f u e l i n g and t h r o u g h t h e fuel rank rer.i
" ALTITUDE O C T A N E R E Q U I R E M E N T S system, contributing to s m o g formation. Therefore, reducing
the light c o m p o u n d s from gasoline helps reduce evaporative
• ^ t i t u d e '"creases, a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e d r o p s . T h e air is less
emissions.
cause a p o u n d of air t a k e s m o r e v o l u m e . T h e o c t a n e rating
2 . R e d u c e h e a v y c o m p o u n d s . Refine::;
°es not need to b e as high b e c a u s e t h e e n g i n e c a n n o t take
air
p o u n d s w i t h high boiling points such as aroma tics and
• - This p r o c e s s will r e d u c e t h e c o m b u s t i o n (compres-
inside 1116
olefins. T h e p u r p o s e of this r e d u c t i o n is to reduce : n .e am ur.t
Mi ! ! " ? e n g i n e . In m o u n t a i n o u s areas, gasoline
of u n b u r n e d h y d r o c a r b o n s t h a t e n t e r the catalytic c e n v e r e :
-al i'a °Ctane ratin
g s a r e t w o or m o r e n u m b e r s l o w e r t h a n
which makes t h e c o n v e r t e r m o r e efficient, t h e r e c v r e d u c r.g
/;*jt ^ i n g to t h e SAE, a b o u t o n e o c t a n e n u m b e r l o w e r per
emissions.
A seco h m altitude
)- S e e Figure 52-12.
J d a r y reason for t h e l o w e r e d o c t a n e r e q u i r e m e n t of en- Because m a n y of t h e h e a v y c o m p o u n d s are r a e : . a drop
r a t m g 3 1 h i g h e r a l t i t u d e s i s t h e n o r m a l e n r i c h m e n t of t h e in fuel e c o n o m y of a b o u t 1 m p g has beer, repoted s . areas w h e r e
Soi^ a n d l o w e r e n g i n e v a c u u m w i t h t h e decreased air den- reformulated gasoline is b e i n g used. Formaldeh de "orr ed - r-r
i ! u t U ( 1 P r o b l e m s ' t h e r e f o r e . m a y o c c u r w h e n driving o u t of RFG is b u r n e d , a n d t h e vehicle e x h a u s t has a ur.iq i e smetl
e area
fct s into l o w e r - a l t i t u d e a r e a s w h e r e t h e o c t a n e rating reformulated gasoline is used.
- o w o o a n e fuel, except for a decrease in
- • a juelecoaoc.
HTV>>71> In otner words, m e engme w i t h a knock •' will tend to opj."
ate »mock tree or. regular fuel, even if p r e .
'••Sneroca-c-
j. specirlec. Using premium fuel m a y r e - . .v.ore power a e
I
greater fuel economy. The increase in f u e nomy, howeve;
torguuiy. cnduftng
would have to be substantial to justify the .. . ; eased cost of hig.
u r v s o n a n t s *erc aevei-
ocur.e p r e m i e r . isei. Some drivers find a " compromise^
»OuO«taUA Genera. Mows
usmgmicgraae (piusj fuel t o benefit from tn r.e pow e: ^
m s t a n c a r a s devefcpea
fuel economy gams without t h e cost of using premium rue;
r^ esaoasnec fl 2002oyve-
the time.
71* j i k m s coaparaes ma! agreea 10 rrane
4. Avoid using gflso.me w i t h alcohol in w a r m weathet; even the
& <l lop-Utf ijci rociuoe Chevron
many alcohol bienas do not affect engine driveability. If warm-
fore km speotec tnat a? taet, soc n mar.y
engine stumble, stalling, or rough idle occurs, change brands of
u a is use m Fore memoes See
gasoline.
5 . Do / purchase fuel from a retail o u t l e t w h e n a tanker tnia
filling t h e u n d e r g r o u n d tanks. D u n n g t h e refilling procedure,
dirt, rust, and w a t e r m a y b e stirrea u p in the underground
This undesirable material m a y be p u m p e a into your vehicle's
fuel tank.
o . Do not overt... t h e gas tank. After t h e nozzle clicks off, aao.
enough fuel to round up to t h e n e x t d i m e . Adding adaiuona.
gasoiine wiil cause t h e e x c e s s to be d r a w n into the charcoa. i
istet: This can >eaa to e n g i n e floooing and excessive exhaust
emissions.
7. Be careful w h e n r..,.ng gasoline containers. Always fill a gas on
on the ground to help p r e v e n t t h e possibility of static elecmctv
buiiQ-up during the refueling process. See Figure 52-14.
lU-U u * or.. roro axes matBP M « waxwnenoeo
GEfcEWu. G A S O U K E RECOMMENDATIONS
~ •- o i f i t - 4r. . - r ^ n e is a major expense m the operation cost
. -jir . ' r Tr.tf proper operation of the engine depends on
-- p r o p e r o c t a n e racing and vapor pressure for the
~* • ' f ""^C COOd*LOCl».
e a s ^ r e proper e n g n e operation and keep tuel costs to a
R..iar J L tneseguidelines:
: . ' - i biay s u t o c to neip ensure that it is trash

*S£ . < to oe c o n u m m a i e a wtui water or moisture.
a. A*> -rr ie<juaner full, especially during seasons
p e r i . ' f raes and alls by more than 20*F
agpt r - £ \ m m e lows. This helps to reduce
i r £ tne fuel u u . <nc could prevent gas line
Jfct s a z a t eeCufi «-jrt, tftr w a r l Our treiM£.

. - . a * f a e t Ae
W JlLr.' MB Wr* raung than is necessary,

Figure 52-14 Many jasoiiiie service stations nave signs posted - : •
i—'Sg »*frr. . . r dtock tor operating aider
piasoc tuei containers on the ground while tilling. II paced m a t n i » « ( ^
Meet JCUC eC »detonation
OK equipped witn i plastic MM. smtic electncity couio Ouilfl up ounni t w " * ^
tr.vjt 'a*. to retard the igni- auaurgc tiont trw container lo the metal node, creating a spai* ano ^ c*
i ;jrj£gjck. ar. i/perduagdit Some service stations have waning signs not to use cell phones 11
fcfeo^ Mr > trÂc mc pouibiity ol an accidental spark creating a tire (ward

^ J t e r 52: Gasc^ne and Aternafoe fueis 597
ASKED QUESTION 99
swuW I Keep t h e Fuel G a u g e a b o Tank?

m
-Jr.^kuP inside me fuel tank can Help kee;
*- "j systemI uniess
..-i«c« water
water tsis all that is left .
• ^ m t h e a i r inside
- ^ t tthe fuel tank car ;c- ;..
1UI ^
tne Bottom of the fuel tank (water is ties. .
- ^jjonfeewater and about 6 lb per gallon tor gasoi a^cnos-wenoec
:
^s the alcohol can absorb the water anc tne aloonoi-water co
53991 an be
ow Dumed
-- figure 52-16 I tie ethanol molecular structure snowing two caibon atoms, six hydrogen
' -a,, inside the engine. However, when water c o m o i n e s ;
... aa separation atoms, ano one oxygen atom.
separation layer
layer occurs
occurs between
between the
the gasoi,ne
gasoline at
at the
tne top
top or
ot the
the tank
tank
„_, jjjohoHwater
iic0 iiot-water combination
combination at at the
the bottom.
bottom. When
When the
the fuei
fuel level
level is
is low,
low, the
the
»hif .Ânr'anti'-i t-/-iH l^wai -NT .- ^ . ... t , .
- -,p wiii; oraw from this concentrated level of aicohoi and water. Because
". ;fi0i
' water dn
uister do not burn as well as pure qasolme.gasoline, severe dnveahiiitu
driygability prob
nmh.
Ethanol Ethanol. also called e t h y l a l c o h o l or g r a i n a l c o -
ja,., occur such as stalling, rough idle, haro starting, and missing.
h o l , because i; is usual. / m a d e from grain a n d is t h e t y p e of alco-
hol found in alcoholic d r i n k s s u c h a s beer, w i n e , a n d distilled
spirits like whiskey. E t h a n o l is c o m p o s e d of t w o c a r b o n a t o m s
and six h y d r o g e n a t o m s w i t h o n e a d d e d o x y g e n a t o m . See
Do Not Overfill t h e Fuel Tank
Figure 5 2 - 1 6 .
Conventional eaiar.oi a n d c e l l u l o s e e t h a n o l are t h e s a m e
issoiine fuel tanks have an expansion volume area at the top. The volume of
product, b u t cellulose e t h a n o l is p r o d u c e d u s i n g t h e n o n f o o d por-
: 5 expansion area is equal to 10% to 15% of the volume of the tank. This area
tion of the feedstock. C o n v e n t i o n a l e t h a n o l is derived f r o m
s -jrmaiiy not filled with gasoline, but rather is designed to provide a place for
grains, such as corn, w h e a t , or s o y b e a n s . C o r n , for e x a m p l e , is
gasoline to expand into, if the vehicle is parked in the hot sun and the gaso-
converted to ethanol in e i t h e r a d r y or w e t milling process. In dry
- expands. This prevents raw gasoline from escaping from the fuel system. A
milling operations, liquefied c o r n s t a r c h is p r o d u c e d by h e a t i n g
•-a restriction is usually present to control tne amount of air and vapors that
cornmeal with w a t e r a n d e n z y m e s . A s e c o n d e n z y m e c o n v e r t s
a escape the tank and flow to the charcoal canister.
the liquefied starch t o sugars, w h i c h a r e f e r m e n t e d by yeast into
"nis volume area could be filled with gasoline if the fuel is slowly pumped
ethanol and carbon dioxide. W e t milling o p e r a t i o n s s e p a r a t e t h e
«3 'ne tank. Since it can hold an extra 10% (2 gallons in a 20-gallon tank),
fiber, germ I oil), and protein from t h e s t a r c h b e f o r e it is f e r m e n t e d
one people deliberately try to fill the tank completely. When this expansion
into ethanol.
-r e is filled, liquid fuel (rather than vapors) can be drawn into the charcoal
aser.When the purge valve opens, liquid fuel can be drawn into the engine, Cellulose ethanol can be p r o d u c e d from a w i d e variety of cellu-
-» r 5 an excessively rich air-fuel mixture. Not only can this liquid fuel harm lose biomass feedstock, including agricultural plant w a s t e s ( c o m
<-=»r recovery parts. Out overfilling the gas tank could also cause the vehicle to stalks, cereal straws!, plant w a s t e s f r o m industrial processes [saw-
- an exnaust emission test, particularly dunng an enhanced test when the dust, paper pulpi, and energy crops g r o w n specifically for fuel pro-
aula De purged while on the rollers duction. These nongrain products are o f t e n referred to as
c e l l u l o s i c b i o m a s s . Cellulosic biomass is composed of cellulose
and lignin, w i t h smaller a m o u n t s of proteins, lipids , fats, w a x e s ,
and oils], and ash. About two-thirds of cellulosic materials are pres-
"ÊRNATIVEFUELS e n t as cellulose, w i t h lignin making u p t h e bulk of t h e r e m a i n i n g
fflaflve fuels i n c l u d e a n u m b e r of f u e l s b e s i d e s gasoline for use dry mass.
- • ^ . g e r vehicles. See F i g u r e 5 2 - 1 5 . As w i t h grains, processing cellulose biomass strives to extract
fermentable sugars from t h e feedstock. But t h e sugars in cellulose
are locked in complex c a r b o h y d r a t e s called polysaccharides -long
chains of simple sugars j. Separating t h e s e c o m p l e x structures into
fermentable sugars is n e e d e d to achieve t h e efficient and economic
production of cellulose e t h a n o l .
Two processing options are e m p l o y e d to p r o d u c e fermentable
sugars from cellulose biomass:
• Acid hydrolysis is used to break d o w n the complex carhohv&ates

into simple sugars.
• Enzymes are employed to convert the cellulose biomass to l a -
mentable sugars. The final step involves microbial fermentation,
yielding ethanol and carbon dioxide.
NOTE: Grain-based ethanol uses r. sv. fuels prccuce tax dt

conversion process, generating substantial greenhouse gas e r a ^ a t s . G i
lulose ethanol production subsctues biomass for fossil fuels. The greess-
house gases produced by the combustion of biomass are c r v t tv t h e C Q j
absorbed bv the biomass as it grows in tne fwUL
retail stations offer a variety ot fuel choices, such as this station in
E-10. and E-85 are available
m -I T * :«
w- th i-oi, methyl alcohol or wood skin. D a n g e r o u s doses will build u p If a p.

' ' T
; ' 'th * Vm«.a> formula that In to fumes or handles liquid w i t h o u t skin pr< r ' H e^
" v
' .-i- atom*, a n d o n e oxygen been Ing- ted, .i doctor s h o u l d b e cot, ^ ^ o i t,1
rned|
g rr I - •» 52 2H usual fatal dose is 4 fl oz ( 1 0 0 to 1 2 5 m l , ) . a% j *
' " ~ s • it •• >!orl».->, .ir|w, flammable,
M-85 '."[tip flexible fuel v e h i c l e s a r e <! 7, .
' z " •• - a • •" • ' nd«r. I' it used a? an antifreeze, 0 fJ
8 5 X m e t h a n o l .,nd 1 • /. g a s o l i n e . M e t h a n «%
r -~:.- .->-< j >-.-, ;•. p-.i.onous properties It is also r>rr
requires th-i' the f u r l s y s t e m compone' _ osiv6(r'.
••-- i: r.- ..„. hino , b u m s m a j f i forming C O , (car
u 1
stainless steel and other alcohol resistant ,bber 'rucled
~ - 1 •> r 1 w j v . A methanol flame ic almost color-
c o m p o n e n t s . The heat c o n t e n t of M - 8 5 Is .,!„„,. A f J n j Plastj,
w o o d alcohol h e - it wac inc-
gasoline. &f Qj at/t
^ 3 hv product of the destructive distillation of
" w l See figur? 5 2 - 2 2 Propane P r o p a n e is n o r m a l l y a gas but <. at; j| y ,
" " 2 - r of methanol in the United States is coal. Into a liquid and stored in i n e x p e n s i v e containers. When"1*"'
........... h e ' w e e n coaJ and steam, a gas mixture fuel, it i also i n o w n ,i l i q u e f i e d p r l r o l e u m h-is | L P r , | ,'
< v r Eas I c y n t h e c i c gas) lorn ed. The components of this because the p r o p a n e is o f t e n m i x e d w i t h about 10% ofotiy-
- -•• ••• ifh'tp rn-'"ox"ie and hydrogen, which, through an such as butane, propylene, b u t y l e n e s , a n d mercaptan to "
: - >..-- tea/ tjon, are converted to methanol. colorless and odorless p r o p a n e a s m e l l . Propane is nontoxic ' h '
• jn also t ^ u»'d to create methanol and is re-formed inhaled can cause asphyxiation t h r o u g h lack of oxygen, fw',,
• — • r/ntT - is gas, which is later made into methanol. heavier than air and lays n e a r t h e floor if released into tl • T
- v- y be • n v r t H to synthesis gas by a process called sphere. Propane is c o m m o n l y u s e d in forklifts and other equiprr
p v t W oxidation, and liter converted to methanol. Blomass is or used inside w a r e h o u s e s a n d f a c t o r i e s b e c a u s e the exhaust from<»
zr - - , - . • as urban wood wastes, primary mill residues, engine using p r o p a n e is not h a r m f u l . Propane comes from a >
• - • - j .< . jgr: iitural reciduec. and dedicated energy crops product of petroleum refining of n a t u r a l gas. In order to liquefy®.-
a-.- -.r-i c .,jjar b e t s i that can be made into fuel. fuel, it is stored in s t r o n g t a n k s at a b o u t 3 0 0 PSI (2,000 k h
:
•• • • • - - / can be uv-d to convert water into hydrogen, which heating value of propane Is less than that of gasofe
•- - -<-s ; «iti ' ^ b o n dioxide t o produce methanol. therefore, m o r e Is r e q u i r e d , w h i c h r e d u c e s the fuel economy
V V " »".• ;-. ">m and t a n cause blindness and death. It can Figure 5 2 - 2 3 .
- -. - r. \ j oy • j i -tjon, inhalation, or absorption through the
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) Another alternative te
that is often used in fleet vehicle' is c o m p r e s s e d natural gas,
C N G , and v r h i d e s using this fuel a r e o f t e n referred to as natwil
g a s v e h i c l e s ( N G V s ) . Look for t h e b l u e C N G label on veh
signed to operate on c o m p r e s s e d n a t u r a l gas. See figure 52 24
Natural gas has to be compressed to about 3000 R
120,000 kf'al or m o r e , so t h e w e i g h t a n d t h e cost of the stow
container is a ma|or factor w h e n It c o m e s to preparing a vehic e'
run on C N G . The tanks n e e d e d for C N G are typically c o n s t r u c t e d
of 0.5-inch thick ( 3 - m m | a l u m i n u m r e i n f o r c e d with fibergl-i-
o c t a n e rating of C N G is a b o u t 1 3 0 a n d t h e cost per gallon is *
half of t h e cost of gasoline. H o w e v e r , t h e h e a t value of CN'> u ^
- - v» showing Itw one carbon atom, four
ary- ^ i j i f f y f Slop less, and t h e r e f o r e m o r e is r e q u i r e d to p r o d u c e the same power
t h e miles per gallon Is less.
C o m p r e s s e d n a t u r a l gas is m a d e u p of a blend of m ^ 1
p r o p a n e , e t h a n e , N - b u t a n e , c a r b o n d i o x i d e , and nitrogen.
"> » w i M •">•/ motion a ponon and

. .. , • fM ' '•rff'iM as a
FH)iir« W 23 p„^, flfl („fl, t a ( f k in , hB , f u n k of a fort) I"*1
t[A
M. 24 The blue slicker on the rear of this whir -
-milirecseti natural qui
electronic ' k - ••• "he ' :Z?t pr?*--

allows highprsssur* j r » to s w * ' o Heh pr (
h i g h p f v ; ' e - r ? »'or r e t ! * ft. " r
matelv 170 PSI. 1172 kPa arrd s e t : .' to " - low pressure ltn k off
The tow-pressure >ock • " it i " by 4k>o a l ' T n ^ e f , r |
electror : ' ' '*ed I" " » sarr>p • rm -i-^r -'.r
high-pTessure tock-tf? » a c ' n n ' e d . h ow-pr?s<,ure iock-off
the CNG is directed to ©>• nt ire regulatot T? •. a two
stage regulator flat first nirtuces ' e ft* - : r e lo aptrotfirriateiy 4 to
6 PSI in the ftr i s *r-i f e r ' 7 <rf wafer n
the second stage Frwn Te»», 3 * rf.-w pressure zas is delivered to
the gas mass :«nso; m i r ' -e cor-rr ? e This rai /e c o n s o l s the
fijut 52-2D The ruel Injectors used on this Honda Civic GX CNG engine are d e i g n e d to
* ' P * M fuel Instead crt liquid fuel and cannot be Interchanged with any other type of air-fuel mixture. The TNG gas J i s t r t " ' adapter then deliver? ' h e
gas to the intake strearr
CNG vehicles are dr-lened tor Peels thai usually have ttwrr
wwessed, it is at least 9 3 % m e t h a n e . Natural gas is nontoxic, own refueling capaoi "ies. <~*ne tf the d r a w b a c k to ising C N G i»
•"totes, and colorless In its natural state. It is odorized during, the time that it trices to »e I a »ehi: to The idea, method f r f f e ? ^ - i
"'••ing, using ethyl m e r c a p t a n I " s k u n k " ) , to allow for e • - is the stow fill mefliod. H e ffl tg method compreevn the r.a'
"'"''in. Natural gas is lighter than air and will rise w h e n re urai gas as fte tank is beme V i e d . This n*Thod a f i s u m fha' the
"l into the air. Since C N G is already a vapor, it do- . r. • n« : tank will receive a fall charge tf CNG; however, this method car:
to vaporize before It will b u r n , w h i c h improves cold - a r t -if take three to five hours to accomplish. If more than one y r h k t »
' 1 mults in lower emissions d u r i n g cold operation. However, he needs Riling, the facility w?.: need muitipte C N G cotnprev- >r- *»>
:J
- H is already in a gaseous state, it does displace some of thi refuel the vehicles. There « e three commonly used C N G refl tog
' -barge in the intake manifold. This leads to about a H > • red station pressures:
,n
engine fiower as c o m p a r e d to an engir op' > • • . P24—2400 FM
Natural gas also b u r n s s l o w e r than gasoline; therefore, the
PJO—3000 PSI
' l,jon liming must be a d v a n c e d m o r e w h e n t h e vehicle ot • ••,<•
' ''"tifal gas. Natural gas has an o c t a n e rating of about 11 - P 3 6 - - 3 6 0 0 PJ>1
;
ffie stoichiometric ratio, the point at which all the air ;t
Try to find and use a station with the highest pressure to
or burned, Is 16.5:1 c o m p a r e d to 14.7:1 for Hr T
ensure a long driving range Riling at tower pressures wtl ;
n
ât more air is required to b u r n on'- pound "I n<-
lets compressed natural gas being instaOed In 6 w
* required to burn ofie p o u n d of gasoline See ) f " T 52 25 thereby reducing the driving ranae. See ftf?M 52 2(
CNG engine is d e s i g n s ! to include The fast fill method uses C N G that is
However, as the CNG tank is tiled rapMt* I " '
J1 compression ratio
ture of the tank wili rise, w h k h '.ayses » rtae n
( '®I#stons and coanecllng rod'-
Once the temperature drops in the < ' JG •*<- *, I
, . " resistant valves
tank also drops, resulting In an BWBnlp*"t c h a e p in l h r ;
'*! 'njpetf/rs designed for gaseous fuel Instead of liquid fuel
This refueling method m a y f»k» o r ' v at * 9
' Vf, "'i completely filled, th- C N G tank hns 3 6 0 0 PSI of pre* it will result in an tocomj*Hcsr to - ' . • * >•
1 n
' 'hp tank. When fh< Ignition is t u r n e d on, the alternate fuel the driving range.
R3ELS BIODIESEL
• r • PTWKSB L t o w and is a Biodiesel ; a domesticallv p r o d u c e d , r - fuel that
• ' ftiei vehicles or manufactured from vegetable oils, a n i m a l fa; ^cycled restaur^
M S f « 5 \ « e a r » . 15% gaso g r e a s e Biodiesel is safe, b i o d e g r a d a b l e , an . serious air w ,
CWffljt tants such as particulate m a t t e r ( P M ) , c a r r oxide. ar,d h y ^
c a r b o n . Biod;esei is defined as m o n o - a l k y : - of long-chain ^ |
acids derived from vegetable oils or a n i m a l which confer-"
MTHF
ASTM D 6 7 5 1 specifications for u s e in diesei e r nes. Biodiese'
to t h e pure fu~ before b l e n d i n g w i t h diese. f - figure 52-27
Biodiesel blends are d e n o t e d as "BXX" w i t h "XX" represer.r-
•-JK' n ! * ~ r f » f ..ced Srom rrvewable feedstocks. the percentage of biodiesel c o n t a i n e d in t h e blend (i.e., B20 j o S
* RRR. P A M T S O K , ^ c u l t u r a l waste, and wood biodiesel, 80' petroleum diesel). Blends of 2 0 biodiesel wift ^
is- • cap r ' « * The aomvctxr* used in P-type fuel can petroleum diese! |B20) can generally b e u s e d in unmodified dlesev
> ar*: 3 P W j o r ? e r - * r grade. p r e m j a grade, or fuel suitable for gmes; however, users should consult their O E M and r r
c Seal* r
: i r r not prod-jced in large enough amounts warranty statement. Biodiesel can also b e used in its pure fcn
x SL i ( p o d uumrnt at the present ame B100 , but it may require certain e n g i n e modifications to avoid ma-
tenance and performance p r o b l e m s a n d m a y n o t be suitable forw
i of P-Scnes Ftote (by Volume) tertime -use. Users should c o n s u l t t h e i r e n g i n e warranty statement f
more information on fuel b l e n d s of g r e a t e r t h a n 20% biodiesel.
M r S n * h — trade CoM Wearther
In general, B 2 0 costs 3 0 t o 4 0 c e n t s m o r e per gallon than c c -
S H 275* 160% ventional diesel. A l t h o u g h b i o d i e s e l c o s t s m o r e than regular d®
mr* S A 17 S* 260* fw .'ten called p e t r o d i e s e l , fleet m a n a g e r s can make the switr-
mm B«% 55 0 * 470* to alternative fuels w i t h o u t p u r c h a s i n g n e w vehicles, acquiring new
am 110* spare parts inventories, r e b u i l d i n g r e f u e l i n g stations, or hiring new
service technicians. Biodiesel h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g characteristics:
S« "t* :*.jrr beiow tor a comparison that summarizes the 1. Purchasing biodiesel in bulk q u a n t i t i e s decreases the cost of
i 4 die m o s t c o m m o n l y used fuels. fuel.
2. Biridiesel maintains similar horsepower, torque, and fuel econor,
3. Biod eselhas a higher c e t a n e n u m b e r t h a n conventional diesel.
A S K E D QUESTION
which increases the engine's p e r f o r m a n c e .
1
4. Blodiew! has a high flash point and l o w volatility so it does not
r * * m - f M t VMCM
igni'e as easily as petrodiesel, w h i c h increases the margin of safes
» -w are tkmgnad to opera* an cdwnoi » gasohne or any in fuel handling. In fact, it degrades four times faster than
* iw tan k> dm Vjutf Amancar cow*) rtuM is made from petrodiesel and is not particularly soluble in water.
l uwum M I U B I mm it iowar r. pnr.e than gnofcne Com- 5. It is nontoxic, which m a k e s it s a f e t o h a n d l e , transport, and
r» GM>>« d K owng made atanat* to many vehicle manu- store. M a i n t e n a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s for B 2 0 vehicles and
- trat ) %j -> M Motors and Ford ye eqwopmg vehicles to petrodiesel vehicles are t h e s a m e . B 1 0 0 does pose a few con-
.• M M p a c n m «h«r<> vOK-. 'haaa •ie» are ca*ed tn-fuet cerns, however.
6. Biodiesel acts as a lubricant a n d this can add to the life of the
system components.
Alternate Fuel Comparison Chart
CKG Methanol Ethanol Regular Unleaf "
>01 130 too 100 87-93

r m 1 R MO NA 114,000-125.»'
70,000 83,000
•»» 12? CUM I oa«uri It 1.5 1
grgmnne
IMHVM Qm Liquid
liquid liquid
w 55* 70* 100*
Tar» a 3 S twes Tank is 1 8 tunes Tank is 1 5 times
larger
3000-3600 m NA
NA NA
tot Good
Poor Poor
10-20% power Ml Standard
4 % power increase 5 % power increase
Wfnu Tonic
Highly tonic Toxic
MimmaityW™**
Corrosive Corrosive
tu ym/uufa o* Natural gas/ooal Sugar and starch Crude ml
crops/biomass
• additional information or. biod.esel and the feeatfcm
.3 ed, j -o v. it www.biodiesel.org.
E-DIESEL FUEL
E - d i e s e t , also called d i e s o h o l o u t s i d e of t h e U n i t e d States, is stan-
d a r d N o . 2 diesel fuel that c o n t a i n s u p t o 15% e t h a n o l While
E-diese! can h a v e u p to 15% e t h a n o l by v o l u m e , typical b l e n d levels
a r e f r o m 8% to 10%.
Cetane Rating T h e higher t h e c e t a n e n u m b e r , t h e s h o r t e r t h e

delay b e t w e e n injection a n d ignition. N o r m a l diesel fuel h a s a
c e t a n e n u m b e r of a b o u t 5 0 . A d d i n g 15% e t h a n o l l o w e r s t h e c e t a n e
n u m b e r . To increase t h e c e t a n e n u m b e r back to t h a t of c o n v e n -
tional diesel fuel, a c e t a n e - e n h a n c i n g a d d i t i v e is a d d e d t o E-diesel.
T h e additive used to r c r e a s e t h e c e t a n e r a t i n g of E-diesel is ethyl-
hexylnitrate or ditertbutyl p e r o x i d e .
T h e flash p o i n t is t h e m i n i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e at w h i c h t h e f u e l
will ignite i flash E-diesel h a s a h i g h e r flash p o i n t c o m p a r e d to con-
ventional diesel fuel a n d is t h e r e f o r e safer t o h a n d l e .
Biodiesel is available at few locations E-diesel h a s better cold-flow p r o p e r t i e s t h a n conventional
diesel. T h e h e a t c o n t e n t of E-diesel is a b o u t 6 % less t h a n c o n v e n -
tional diesel, b u t t h e particulate m a t t e r (PM) e m i s s i o n s a r e r e d u c e d
by as m u c h as 4 0 . 20% less c a r b o n m o n o x i d e , a n d a 5% r e d u c -
FREQUENTLY A S K E D Q U E S T I O N Q
tion in oxides of nitrogen NOxi.
Currently, E-diesel is c o n s i d e r e d to b e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d c a n b e
I Thought Biodiesel Was Vegetable Oil?
used legally in off-road applications o r in mass-transit b u s e s w i t h
} Diesel is vegetable oil with the glycerin component removed by means of re- EPA approval. For additional i n f o r m a t i o n , go t o www.e dieseLorg.
' 5 ttie vegetable oil with a catalyst. The resulting hydrocarbon esters are 16
: 18 carbon atoms in length, almost identical to the petroleum diesel fuel
arns This allows the use of biodiesel fuel in a diesel engine with no modifica- FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION £
tions needed Biodiesel-powered vehicles do not need a second fuel tank,
"t'eas vegetable-oil-powered vehicles do. How Long Can Oxygenated Fuel Be Stored
There are three main types of fuel used in diesel engines. These are: Before All of the Oxygen Escapes?
< Petroleum diesel, a fossil hydrocarbon with a carbon chain length of about The oxygen in oxygenated fuels, such as E-10. E-85, and E-diesei, is not n a
16 carbon atoms. gaseous state like the CO >n soft drinks. The oxygen is part of the molecule of
• Swdiesel, a hydrocarbon with a carbon chain length of 16 to 18 carbon atoms. ethanol or other oxygenates and does not bubble out of the fuel. Oxygenated
• .sgetatte oil, a triglyceride with a glycerin component joining three fuels, just like any fuel, have a shelf life of about 90 days.
> arocartxxt chains erf 16 to 18 carbon atoms each, called straight
Wfletable oil (SVO). Other terms used when describing vegetable oil include
• Pure plant oil (PPO)—a term most often used in Europe to SYNTHETIC FUELS
tesenbe SVO
S y n t h e t i c f u e l s w e r e first d e v e l o p e d u s i n g t h e Fischer T r o p s c h
• Waste vegetable oil (WVO)—this oil could include animal or fish oils
m e t h o d and h a v e b e e n in u s e s i n c e t h e 1 9 2 0 s to c o n v e r t c o a l , n a t
from cooking
ural gas, a n d o t h e r fossil fuel p r o d u c t s i n t o a f u e l t h a t is h i g h i s
' Usad cooking oil (UCO)—a term used when the oil may or may not be
quality a n d c l e a n - b u r n i n g . T h e p r o c e s s for p r o d u c i n g Fische:
fure vegetable oil
Tropsch fuels w a s p a t e n t e d by t w o G e r m a n s c i e n t i s t s , F r a n z Fis-
ifegetable oil is not liquid enough at common ambient temperatures for c h e r a n d H a n s Tropsch, d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I. T h e F i s c h e r - T r o p s c h
'* 5
i diesel engine fuel delivery system designed for the lower-viscosity pe- m e t h o d uses c a r b o n m o n o x i d e a n d h y d r o g e n ; t h e s a m e s y n t h e s i s
r
d i e s e l fuel Vegetable oil needs to be heated to obtain a similar viscosity gas used to p r o d u c e h y d r o g e n fuel) t o c o n v e r t coal a n d o t h e r r.v
""Mesal and petroleum diesel. This means that a heat source needs to be d r o c a r b o n s to liquid f u e l s in a p r o c e s s similar t o h y d r o g e n a t ; : n . a n -
• '"led before the fuel can be used in a diesel engine This is achieved by other method for h y d r o c a r b o n conversion. The process ustng
0,1
petroleum diesel or biodiesel fuel until the engine heat can be used natural gas, also called g a s - t o - l i q u i d ( G T L ) t e c h n o l o g y , u s e s a cat-
- A 'jently warm a tank containing the vegetable oil. It also requires purging alyst, usually iron or c o b a l t , a n d i n c o r p o r a t e s s t e a m r e f o r m i n g t o
• system of vegetable oil with petroleum diesel or biodiesel fuel prior to give off t h e b y - p r o d u c t s of c a r b o n d i o x i d e , h y d r o g e n , ar.d c a r b o n
"i 'he engine to avoid the vegetable oil thickening and solidifying in the monoxide.
6
«tem away from the heated tank. The use of vegetable oil in its natural W h e r e a s traditional f u e l s e m i t e n v i r o n m e n t a l - . - h a m f u : p a r i ;
"OM, however, eliminate the need to remove the glycerin component. ulates a n d c h e m i c a l s , n a m e l y s u l f u r c o m p o u n d s , Ftscr.er-Tropicr.
r
' " ^ e and diesel engine fuel system suppliers permit the use of fuels c o m b u s t w i t h n o s o o t or o d o r s a n d e m i t o n l y l o w . e v e l - -jf
^ tel that is certified as meeting testing standards. None permit the use toxins. Fischer-Tropsch f u e l s c a n also b e b l e n d e d w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l
"-stableod tn its natural state. t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f u e l s w i t h little e q u i p m e n t m o d i f i c a t i o n , i s t h e y ^
t h e s a m e e n g i n e a n d e q u i p m e n t t e c h r o . o e . as t r a d i t i o n a l f u e l s .
SW S t C Hi
The 3 . ' v vuiftir a n d a r o m a t i c c o n t e n t M e t h a n o l to Gasoline Exxon Mobil

1
r f c ev p r o c n ; * ; - : r-irricuiate e m i s s i o n s . R e s e a r c h e r s for c o n v e r t i n g m e t h a n o l ( m e t h y l a l c o h o l ) j.
carbon and carbon monoxide called m e t h a n o l - t o - g a s o l i n e ( M T G ) . T>
setter fuc'.s J o r.ot differ in fuel perfor- covered by a c c i d e n t w h e n a g a s o l i n e additi
P ^ Q I
1
; from metJu-?
-1-.•. ~ -.•: j - : diesel At p r e s e n t , Fischer-Tropsch w a s b e i n g c r e a t e d . T h e p r o c e s s i n s t e a d c.
"-T s AR? VE-V EXPENSIVE •„•> p r o d u c e o n a large scale, a l t h o u g h paraffins jalkenesl, a n d a r o m a t i c compoun n
l c h in combj^
twcrcS « . n d e r « v * • .nver p r o c e s s i n g c o s t s . Diesel fuel ere- tion a r e k n o w n as gasoline. T h e p r o c e s s u.v
italyst and i s o j
: • • ; - F i s c h e r - T r o p s c h d i e s e l ( F T D ) process is o f t e n rently b e i n g p r o d u c e d in N e w Z e a l a n d .
_ : GTL diesel. ".. : en. c a n also be c o m b i n e d w i t h pe-
-:??£ a GTL b l e n d . Th 5 f u e l p r o d u c t is cur- Future of Synthetic Fuels P r o d u c i n g gasoline and
' • : - E u r o p e a n d plans are in place to i n t r o d u c e it other m e t h o d s besides refining f r o m c r u d e oil h a s u s u a l l y ! ^ 6
- \ a n h Azsenca. expensive. With t h e increasing c o s t of c r u d e oil, alternative m ^
are n o w b e c o m i n g economically feasible. W h e t h e r or not the tf
Coal to L i q u i d (CU) Coal is very a b u n d a n t in the United fuel or gasoline is created from coal, n a t u r a l gas, or methanol
t z i rr-al can b e c o n v e n e d to a liquid fuel t h r o u g h a process ated by refining c r u d e oil, t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d service pumc'sV"
c o a l t o l i q u i d ( C T L ) . The main obstacle to these CTL ready in place. C o m p a r e d to u s i n g c o m p r e s s e d natural gas or
:'ar~ •: r . e ' r i g e cost. T h e need to invest S i . 4 billion per plant be- similar alternative fuels, synthetic fuels r e p r e s e n t t h e lowest cost "
—-: r : car. h e m a d e is t h e reason w h y n o o n e has built a
~_ : ret -. t h e United S t a t e . Investors n e e d to be convinced
SAFETY PROCEDURES W H E N WORKING
•tr d oil is going :o remain high in o r d e r to get t h e m to
WITH A L T E R N A T I V E F U E L V E H I C L E S
cc - n r . : -J-.il e n d of money.
- i r g e p l a n t m i g h t be a b l e to p r o d u c e 120,000 barrels All fuels are f l a m m a b l e a n d m a n y a r e e x p l o s i v e u n d e r certain con-
:f c r . e : a day a n d w o u l d c o n s u m e a b o u t 5 0 , 0 0 0 tons ditions. W h e n e v e r w o r k i n g a r o u n d c o m p r e s s e d gases of any fcr
p e r -iav. H o w e v e r , s u c h a p l a n t w o u l d c r e a t e about ( C N G , LNG, p r o p a n e , o r L P G ) , a l w a y s w e a r personal protective
" :nns C O ; per day. T h e s e C 0 2 e m i s s i o n s a n d t h e c o s t e q u i p m e n t (PPE), i n c l u d i n g a t l e a s t t h e f o l l o w i n g items:
- -i m a k e CTL a n e w t e c h n o l o g y t h a t is n o t likely to
1. Safety glasses a n d / o r face s h i e l d .
sirinc.
2 . Protective gloves.
T-A . : - : • > : : . r e s can t e used to c o n v e r t coal to a liquid fuel:
3 . Long-sleeved shirt and pants to h e l p protect exposed skin from te
1. D i r e c t — I r the direct method, coal is broken d o w n to create liq- freezing effects of gases u n d e r p r e s s u r e in t h e event that the
. . : :-->: .cts. First the coal is reacted with hydrogen (H 2 ) at high pressure is lost.
ar.d pressure with a catalyst. This process creates a 4 . If any fuel gets on the skin, t h e area s h o u l d be washed immediate;
• • :a.'led s y n c r u d e , which is then refined to 5. If fuel spills on clothing, c h a n g e into clean clothing as soon as
z-.cxe gssoiine or diesel fuel. possible.
2. Indirect- Ir the indirect method, coal is first turned into a gas 6 . If fuel spills on a painted surface, flush t h e surface with water and
•ir.: - : - - J-'es ire reassembled to create the desired product. air-dry. If simply wiped off w i t h a d r y cloth, the paint surface couJ)
T c i process Involves turning coal into a gas called syngas. The be permanently damaged.
r.-.22c a then converted into liquid, using the Fischer-Tropsch 7 . As with any fuel-burning v e h i c l e , a l w a y s v e n t the exhaust to Die
FT process. outside. If m e t h a n o l fuel is u s e d , t h e e x h a u s t contains
;
f o r m a l d e h y d e , w h i c h h a s a s h a r p o d o r a n d can cause severe
s has t e e n using CTL b y i n j e c t i n g air i n t o t h e u n d e r -
b u r n i n g of the eyes, nose, a n d t h r o a t .
jeans. Ignition is p r o v i d e d and the resulting
<Ke r a p p e d and c o n v e r t e d to liquid g a s o l i n e a n d diesel
' ' it ' h e Fischer-Tropsch process. This underground
WARNING: Do not smoke or have an open flame in the area when work-
: u n d e r g r o u n d coal gasification ( U C G ) . See
ing around or refueling any vehicle.
52 28.
FISHER-
TROPSCH
SYNTHESIS
j NAPTHA
GASIFIER
A (yg) composition tester is the recommended P52-2 This battery-powered tester uses ng«- P52-3 Thefirststeps to nw*)f the proper operate
- test the alcohol content of gasoline emitting diodes iLEDsi. neter «afl terminals v t v . of n e tester by "waswing the a- 'requency oy
small openings for the fuel samps select^ AC hertz on Sie meter. Tne ar frequency
shouK! >e 9 e * « n 35 Hz and « Hi
a ; . "
H S n j t
>52-4 After verifying that the tester is capable of P52-5 Record the AC frequency as shown on the ^52-6 Adding aodtsonar amoirts of etfy alcohol
Telly reading the air frequency, gasoline is poured meter and subtract 50 from the reading ethsioi -creases 3ie "rajjency •wading.
- the testing cell of the tool. (e.g.. 60.50 - 50.00 = 10.5). This number '151
is the percentage of alcohol in the gasow san?<e
4. What does the fR ^ M> - 2 grrtmp pimp octane rating mdJcate'

SUMMARY
5. What are five octane improws Aat may be used doing die reining
1. 'jisolioe is a complex blend of hydrocarbons. Gasoline is blended for sea- process?
sonai usage to achieve the correct volatility for easy starting and max;
6. What is the sotdiic-emc _-aa
nsian fuel economy under all driving conditions.
2. Wtater-biend fuel used in a vehicle during warm weather can cause
'•> rough idle and stalling because of CHAPTER
its higher QUIZ
Reid vapor pressure
ISVP).
1. Winter-Wend gasoline .
3
-Abnormal combustion (also called detonation or spark knock in- a. Vap rzes - o r e eas^v •Jtsr. .raerblend -
creases both the temperature and the pressure inside the combustion b. Has a higher RVT
chamber. c. Can ca.se engse ir.veabifov prcc.e.-s:: .sec zj-.-.i * . - .
4
- Most regular-grade gasoline today, using the iR + M - 2 rating weather
Method, is 87 octane; midgrade (plus) is 89 and premium grade is 01 d. ^ of the above
,r
higher.
2. Vfcpor lode can occur
s
- Oxygenated fuels contain oxygen to lower CO exhaust emissions. a. .As a resu.:or excessive heat near?ne .nes
6
- Gasoline should always be purchased from a busy station, and the tank b. If a fuel line is restricted
iWuJli c. During both a and b
7 ' not be overfilled.
d. Dunng neither a nor b
' f «»ble fuel vehicles are designed to operate on gasoline or gasoiine-
Kb
3. Technician A savs mat spark knock c re. c r j -j- " - ' '
® 0 ' Wends up to 85% ethanol.
names for abnonnai combustion. Technician B savs that an, iccorr,ii. im
busdon raises the temperature and pressure a e cam&szc. ; i r j e r
and can cause severe engine damage. Which tecvacar „. correct'
^QUESTIONS
' ^ t is the difference between s u m m e r b l e n d and winterblend gasoline? b. Technician B or. v
' ^tlsRpM,,,^ c. Bom Technicians A and B
7. The use of premium hlgh-octano gasoline In
4. A • - -.V -esdStS oeanc number Is higher than the
ular-grade gasoiirr- will Increose engine pow
—.r-.- x a e e 3 . — T e c f c r i c a n B says that the octane rating posted on
a. True
• r> • — .?v~asc of the two ratings. Which technician is correct?
b. False
». Technician A only
b. Technician ? only 8. To avoid problems with the variation of g,T
c. Both Technicians A and S uses as a fuel during testing p n , imnient
d. Neither Technician A nor B a. MTBH imethyl tertiary butyl etheri
b. tadolene
5. *.<.— m - A says that in going to high altitudes, engines produce lower
c. Xylene
: -v. c- Tec*-.-. 3 sots that most engine control systems can compensate
d. TBA (tertiary butyl alcohol)
Sie air-Sid mixture for changes in altitude. Which technician is correct?
a. Technician A only 9. Avoid topping off the fuel tank because
b. Technician B only a. It can saturate the charcoal canister
c_ Beth Technicians A and B b. The extra fuel simply spills onto the ground
d. Neither Technician A nor B c. The extra fuel increases vehicle weight and red- „
d. The extra fuel goes into the expansion area of ' h e f t ' T 0 ^
6. When refueling a CNG vehicle, why is it recommended that the tank be
used by the engine " _ ™ ®d Is j ,
BBed to a high pressure?
a. The range of the vehicle is increased 10. Usingethanol-enhanced or reformulated gaso; ; i» can -c- • • •
b. The cost of the fuel Is lower •economy. " 5UJlmr «Jnc« }i!
c. Less of the fuel is lost to evaporation a. True
d. Both a and c b. False
53
C H A P T E R
Computer and Network

Fundamentals
OBJECTIVES: After studying Chapter 53, the reader will be able to: Prepare for ASE Electrical/Electronic Systems (A6) certification test content m
A" fGeneral Electrical/Electronic Systems Diagnosis). • Explain the purpose and function of onboard computers. • List the various parts of an
automotive computer. • List five input sensors. • List four devices controlled by the computer (output devices).
KEY TERMS: actuator • analog-to-digital (AD) converter • binary • central processing unit (CPU) • clock generator • controller • control'area
retwork (CAN) • digital • duty cycle • EEPROM • E? PROM • electronic control assembly (ECA) • electronic control module (ECM) • electronic
control unit (ECU) • engine mapping • high-side drivers (HSD) • input conditioning • keep-alive memory (KAM) • low-side drivers (LSD)
• multiplexing • network • nonvolatile RAM • output drivers • power train control module (PCM) • programmable read-only memory (PROV
• random-access memory (RAM) • read-only memory (ROM) • serial data • splice pack • terminating resistors • volatile
COMPUTER CONTROL THE FOUR BASIC C O M P U T E R FUNCTIONS

M o d e m a u t o m o t i v e control systems consist of a network of elec-
The operation of e v e r y c o m p u t e r c a n b e divided into -
t r o n i c s e n s o r s , a c t u a t o r s , a n d c o m p u t e r modules designed to regu-
functions. See Figure 5 3 - 1 .
ate t h e p o w e r train a n d vehicle support systems. The power train
control module f P C M ) is t h e h e a r t of this system. It coordinates • Input
e n g i n e ar.d t r a n s m i s s i o n operation, processes data, maintains com- • Processing
lea t o n s , a n d m a k e s t h e control decisions needed to keep t h e
vehicle operating. STORAGE
COMPUTER
Automotive computers u s e voltage to send a n d receive PROGRAMS ANO
o r . V o l t a g e is e l e c t r i c a l p r e s s u r e and d o e s n o t flow MEMORY
......
c i r c u i t s , b u t v o l t a g e c a n be used as a signal. A com-
.... • ; n p u t i n f o r m a t i o n or data i n t o voltage signal INPUT t \
PROCESSING
- t h a t represent n u m b e r combinations. The num- CENTRAL
PROCESSING
be- combinations can represent a variety of information— UNIT (CPUI OR
->. o r e v e n w o r d s a n d letters. A c o m p u t e r MICROPROCESSOR _
p r o c e s s e s t h e i n p u t v o l t a g e signals it receives by c o m p u t i n g
w h a t t h e y reyesen'. a n d t h e n d e l i v e r i n g the data in c o m p u t e d
Figure 53-1 All computer systems perform four basic functions:inc"'''
or procr; form.
storage, and output
MOVABLE
CONTACT
RESISTANCE
anOUND
(0 VOLT)
,, ure 53-2 » potentiometer uses a movable contacttovary r

. v m r t t t g e right to the P C M
i Storage
I Output
These basic functions are not u n i q u e to computers; they car be r Genm Molon comculer NobcetM
and in many noncomputer systems. However, w e need to r j / w
>iow the computer handles these functions.
Input First, the computer receives a voltage signa ;np / fro- AD vemcies e q u a l e d *•": or,>jard diagnosis second generation,
• t a u t device. The device can be as simple as a button or a called OBD 8 . r e « ^ p p e d wrJi E E P R O M s .
i swell on an instrument panel, or a sensor on an automotive en Tempera.- -- - : zaêc r a n d o m access m e m o r y ( R A M )
L See Figure 5 3 - 2 for a typical type of automotive sensor because the r.icrjprocessor can w m e or store new data into it as di
Vehicles use various mechanical, electrical, and magnetic sen rected by the computer p u p a m . as well as read the data already m
sto measure factors such as vehicle speed, engine RP.U, a - pre i t Automotive camp _:ers use two types of R A M memory volatile
f sure, oxygen content of e x h a u s t gas, airflow, and engine coolant and nonvolatile, a tie R A M - err rv rast whenever w gr
emperature. Each sensor transmits its information in the form of twr. is tamed afi. Howevez, a tvpe of volatile R A M called keep-
railage signals. The c o m p u t e r receives these voltage signals, b alive m e m o r y KAM| car y 1 red 1 • : ' • r r • - pr.wer ' • -.
before it can use them, t h e signals m u s t undergo a process caiied prevents i s data fine b e e * erased when the ipudon is turned oB.
input conditioning. This process includes amplifying voltaie ig Both S A M and K A M have die asadvanoge of losing their memory
tals that are too small for t h e c o m p u t e r circuitry to handle. Input when dtsconnecwJ freer their power n i c e . O n e example of RAM
'iitioners generally are located inside the computer, but a few and K A M is the loss of station setting In a programmable radio
' ore have their o w n input-conditioning circuitry. when the batservs iecanotcted. Smce all the settings are stored m
R A M , they have to be reset w h e n the battery is reconnected
Processing Input voltage signals received by a compute- are tem trouble codes are commonly stored in R A M and can be erased
-tocessed through a series of electronic logic circuits maintained in by disconnecting tbe b a n m .
programmed instructions. T h e s e logic circuits change the nput
Nonvolatile RAM memory can retain 'i Intorma
' signals, or data, into o u t p u t voltage signals or commands.
when the battery s ±sconnected. One use tor this type of RAM »
Storage The program instructions for a computer are stored in the storage of odometer information in an electronic
^ctronic memory. Some programs may require that certain nput The memory chip retains die mileage accumulated by the
a,a
be stored for later reference or future processing. In others, When speedometer replacement is necessary, the odometer chip s
'-•utput commands may be delayed or stored before thev are trar removed and installed in the n e w speedometer u n i t KAM s - x d
"iitted to devices elsewhere in t h e system. pnmarily m conjunction with adaptive strategies.
Computers have t w o types of m e m o r y : permanent and tem-
O u t p u t After the computer has processed the input ..
; 'arV Permanent m e m o r y is called r e a d - o n l y m e m o r y (ROM*
iUse
sends voltage signals or commands to other devices in
computer can only read t h e contents; it cannot such as system actuators. An actuator * etect" a.
. t h e data stored in it. This data is retained even w h e n cal device that cooverts electrical energy into heat, b
L e r t 0 the computer is s h u t off. Part of the ROM is built - t o boo. such as ad rusting engine kite speed,
Prom° mPUter a n d t h e r e s t i s l o c a t e d i n 3 1 1 , C
' thip Ci
"ed 4 height, or regulating fuel metering.
' '?ramniable read-only m e m o r y (PROMI Computers also can communicate with,
Hie or S e e F i g u r e 5 3 - 3 . M a n y chips are erasable, meaning that other through their output and input f u n c d n
, Vl pr °gram can be changed. These chips are called erasable pro- the output signal from o n e computer system can be
rea<j
"lost -°nly m e m o r y or EPROM. Since the eartv 1090s for another computer system through a network.
me '"'BWimahle m e m o r y has been electronically erasable, Most outputs work electrically m one of three i
a K " 8 t i , a t the program in t h e chip can be reprogrammed by using
"nuiiand P r o P e r software. This computer reprogramming • Switched
^ _ "V I-ailed reflashing. These chips are electru J 1 eras.; pr • I.. wi: .
>le read-only memory-, abbrr .ared E E P R O M E'PROM. • Distal
608 SECTION R
+12 V
12 V
FUEL PUMP
CONTROL
j H
F U E L PUMP
F i g u r e 5 3 - 4 4 typed output driver. In this case, the PCM applies voltage to the fuel pump
MOTOR
•aoy cw fc a w g n e 8te fuel pump.
RUN
A A r c h e d output is an output that is either on or off. In m a n y SIGNAL
arctics, the PCM uses a relay to switch a device on or off. This is
because the relav is a low-current device that can switch a higher-
c c r e r t t device. Most computer circuits cannot handle a lot of cur- I T
ren: By using a relay circuit as shown in Figure 5 3 - 4 , the P C M
provides the output control to the relay, which in turn provides the
Figure 53-5 A typical low-side driver (LSD) which uses a control module to control Die
output control to the device. The relay coil, which the P C M con-
ground side of the relay coil.
trols. typically draws less than 0.5 amps. The device that the relay
controls may draw 30 amps or more. These switches are actually
FUEL PUMP
• i, often called o u t p u t d r i v e r s . RELAY
Low-Side Drivers Low-side drivers, often abbreviated LSD, are

transsiors that complete the ground path in the circuit Ignition volt-
age Is supplied to the relay as well as battery voltage. The computer
•output is connected to the ground side of the relay coil. The computer
energizes the fuel pump relay by turning the transistor on and com-
:ienng the ground path for the relay coil. A relatively low current
Sows throuî the relay coil and transistor that is inside the computer.
This causes the relay to switch and provides the fuel pump with bat-
t e r ; voltage. The majority of switched outputs have typically been
. . j e drivers. See Figure 5 3 - 5 . Low-side drivers can often perform
a diagnostic circuit check by monitoring the voltage from the relay
TJ crteck that the control circuit for the relay is complete. A low-side
driver, however, cannot detect a short-to-ground.
High-Side Drivers High-side drivers, often abbreviated HSD,

; ' -.tro! the power side of the circuit In these applications w h e n the
r a . * . ; . : % r s w i t c h e d on, voltage is applied to the device. A ground
r
,2s beer, provided to the device so when the high-side driver
. /.T.ches the device will be energized. In some applications, high-side
c ere are used instead of low-side drivers to provide better circuit
p r r e r . sr. General Motors vehicles have used a high-side driver to
- . - . T . the fuel pump relay instead of a low-side driver. In the event Figore 5 3 - 6 A typical module-controlled high-side driver (HSD) where the n ^ •
ar. accident, should the circuit to the fuel pump relay become supplies the electrical power to the device. The logic circuit inside the module can ^
circuit faults including continuity of the circuit and if there is a short-to-ground m
J" a high side driver would cause a short circuit, which would
being controlled.
cat:,- " f j ' ; p u m p relay to de-energize. High-side drivers inside
- (A car detect electrical faults such as a lack of continuity w h e n
the " • - .. not energized. See Figure 5 3 - 6 . control the a m o u n t of v a c u u m t h a t f l o w s t h r o u g h the signal.!
width modulation could be u s e d . A P W M signal is a vary-
Pui&e Width M o d u l a t i o n Pulse width modulation (PWM) is a usually 0 volts and 12 volts, t h a t is cycling a t a
u
err.oc J. c /.troll,ng an output using a digital signal. Instead of just te aa sign®
ing the length of time that t h e signal is o n , provides mb»» j ^ t•oto
• IT d e v x e t or. '>'. off, the computer can control output devices vary the on and off time of an o u t p u t . T h e ratio of on-tim 6
more precisely by using pulse width modulation. For example, a vac- the period of the cycle is referred t o as d u t y c y c l e . See n g ^ ^
, rr. •/, e r i co .w be a pulse width modulated device. If the vac- Depending on t h e f r e q u e n c y of t h e signal, w h i c h is us
' <$0
, 'j,'Mi>:.ec by a switched driver, switching either on this signal would turn the device o n a n d off a fixed n
"m°lts)
or rear rh*: either full vacuum would flow through t h e per second. W h e n , for e x a m p l e , t h e voltage is high 1 1 2 J ^ ^ J
/> •-• or v . rue >•'• i n f . w through the solenoid. However, to the time and low (0 volts) t h e o t h e r 10% of t h e time, the •
h
"ON" TIME
OFF" TIME
i l l '
1 DUTY
ONE
CYCLE
- "OFF" TIME
\ 75%
DUTY
"ON" TIME
TIME
Figure 53-8 Many aeomc xmponantE are useetoconMruct a typical vshde computer
(ijim 53-7 B0"1 , h e '"P a n ( i bottom
Pattern have the same frequency However Die
tatfice tne quantity of renwm and âpaokr^ uteO c ttis General Motors computer
- on|ol an-ttme varies. Duty cycle Is the percentage of the time during a cycle that the
sgnai s turned on.
The digital computer can process thousands of digital signals
per second beca.se it; c i r c a r e able " switch voltage .ignals on
.i :- duty cycle. In other words, if this signal were applied to the
and off in bilSonths of a s e c o a t l See Figure 5 3 - 8 .
v.'jrn solenoid, the solenoid would be on 90% of the time. This
.(ould allow more vacuum to flow through the solenoid. The com- P a r t s of a C o m p u t e r The '•war? « the prograir
:;>T has the ability to vary this on and off time or pulse width rnod- and logic f u n c t u s s t e e d In t n e c o m p t e r ' : , cj-cuitry. The hard-
. ation at any rate between 0 and 100%. ware is the mechir.ca. aod eiectr'. r . : parts of a computer.
A good example of pulse w i d t h modulation is the cooling fan
Central Processus llmt tCTV ~re:r r«e e central
;peed c o n t r o l . The speed of the cooling fan is controlled by varying
processing unit' CPU
"s a m o u n t o f o n - t i m e that t h e battery voltage is applied to the
cooling fan motor. tial mathematical operations and :og>: d e c s oris th.a* make up its
processing function, t h e CPU c a a be c : r . . :ered t h e neart of a corn
50% duty cycle—the fan runs at full speed puter. Some computers use r . c r e tr an r.e ~ cropnxessor, railed a
"5 duty cycle—the fan runs at 3 / 4 speed coprocessor
50 v duty cycle—the fan runs at 1 / 2 speed Computer Memory Other JC :iv.ces r . r e the ccrr.p.:-r operat
25 duty cycle—the fan r u n s at 1 / 4 speed ing program, system sens:.* input tsara, ar.: r . ~ t a n actuator output
data, information t h a t . ; necessar 'pera.or.
The use of PWM, therefore, results in very precise control of
'outputdevice to achieve the a m o u n t of cooling needed and con Computer Programs Bv operarmg a vehicle n a d y n a m o m e
-w electrical energy compared to simply timing the cooling fan ter and manually ac ; usting the variable factors such as speed, oad
a high when needed. P W M m a y be used to control vacuum and spark timin& it is possible to determine the optim .rr. itp jt
™ugh a solenoid, the a m o u n t of purge of the evaporative purge settings for the best drhreabLir r . . - . . and -
ffloid, the speed of a fuel p u m p motor, control of a linear motor, This is call;: engine m a p p i n g . . .-• 5 3 - -
even the intensity of a light bulb. Engine mapping creates a three-dimensional performance
graph that applies to a g v e n vehicle ar. J p o w e r train combir.atc -
Each combination is mapped in this manner to produce a P R O M
^jjOMPUTERS This a-lows an automaker to use one baste computer for al, rr. --e ..
a
digital computer, the voltage signal or processing function is a a unique PROM i n d i v i d u a t e s the computer for a partcuiar mode .
^Ple high/low, yes/no, o n / o f f signal. The digital signal voltage :s Also, if a driveabi .ry probiem can be resolved by a change - 'r.e
."Wed to two voltage levels: high voltage and low voltage. Since program, the manufacturers can release a revised PR V . ' -per
ere
is no stepped range of voltage or current in between, a digital sede the earlier p a r t
TPsignal is a "square w a v e . " Mar . older vehicle computers used a single Pi «M m a t : .v
•ne signal is called "digital" because the on and off signals are into the computer. See Fig-are 5 3 - 1 0 . Some Ford c o m p u t e r a
; j-^sed by the computer as the digits or numbers 0 and 1. The larger "calibration module" that contained the system PRi >.M
bina™ S y S t 6 m c o n t a i n i n 8 only these two digits is called the
System
' ^ number or letter from any number system or
. . J ^ alphabet can be translated into a combination of binary 0s MTE: If the onboard computer needs so be replaced, the
1 s for
the digital computer. bration module must be rwceved front d * t t H c t f e a n a
^ % a l computer changes the analog input signals voltage in the replacement computet Since the T_d-i » > * coovfe v n
j
i&ta|ta' bits (binary digifsl of information through an analog-to- programmed or flashed before being put r.:_
,, , A D ) c o n v e r t e r circuit. T h e binarv digjta number is
, v 'he computer in its calculations or logic networks. Out-
usually are digital signals that turn system actuators Clock Rates and Timing The rr..cr; err* -e es
n
aid off. input voltage signals, processes them b _,r.£ • •-.—
fijmtS>-11 The doc' gwator ptxkices a series ot pu'ses that w ^ I
r. c ( * w > s o r rrf ott«.' continents to stay In step *flh each other a! a n«, I
bits to Indicate stop and start. 1 his means that transmission o ® [

character requires 10 bits. Dividing t h e baud rate by l O t e l l ^ J
maximum numt>cr of words per second that can be transmit^' i
For example, If the computer has a baud rate of 600, approximate?
60 words can be received or sent per minute.
Automotive computers have evolved from a baud rale o! IK
w i In the early 1980s to a baud rate as high as 500,000 for sccv
networks The speed of data transmission is an Important l»:w
both In system operation and in system troubleshooting.
Control M o d u l e L o c a t i o n s The onboard automotivec«

puter many names. It may be called an electronic contrw <
unit (ECU), electronic c o n t r o l m o d u l e (ECM), electron!
control assembly (ECA), or a c o n t r o l l e r , depending or, to
manufacturer and the computer application. The Society of A-">.
^ t( )'•:• * M t o r » * * M « • • » ( O b h i • tysV-' WOV motive Fnglneer> (SA1) bulletin, J 1930, standardizes the MM*
a poy.tr train control modulo (PCM). The computer hardwar; lit'
mounted on one or more circuit boards and installed in a W i •
«&v *t uf.ils, r . d then sen t voltag*' signals to the appropri- case to help shield It from electromagnetic Interference (EMIi.ta
i » r Tb< p::cri»;-f'ês-cott,municatc> by transmitting wiring harnesses that link the computet to sensors and acloiw
* v.- j fj! Ot adi Is to I larguagi called biK8y code. But the conned to niultipln connectors ot edge connectors on the cK*
e: •**;{ >:c\JZ must ha w son* m j of knowing when one signal boards.
KYj&ti -. T U ' is thf jot of a cr,:>ta' oscillator callcd Onboard computers range from single function units fa
/ t * > X P ^ t x r t L v i . V • 1 | g jftr S 3 11. T1K c o m p u t e r ' s crystal os control a single operation to multifunction units that manage i
• > • * r . t i i ) <trwrn of w o bit long voiuge pulses. of the separate (but linked) electronic systems In the vc&>
t x t y M t s t * lerf the twwofif* mooljor the clock They vary in sl?e fiom a small module to a n o t e b o o k - ® N
: • 0 ; a 1 C";.: askating fcuause lbc» know how Most other engine computers arc Installed In the passenger co-
i , t t • . . :«,. y . i k , the, m distinguish between« parlmcnt either under the Instrument panel or In a side U
' T I T ' ' . l o t o r i ; :IT 6A F'XT?.. the Input tod o u t p u t t i r panel where they can be shielded from physical damage
ci |L-. m x t fa (kOk p w c i by temperature extremes, dirl, and vibration, or I n t e r f e r e s >
the high currents and voltages of various underhood systems
I t i v / j s f I p U f o V »' f--Tpj»«.?s opctitt It the same
Figures 53 12 and 5 3 13. ;;
V -:-' Vi: * k< k oC'k rv T ft* s p t i d v . which a computet
r e i . i' »«•• I', 8,« <|t>. f - t v . Of cl«V Speed, required to
' •• • , i Cyck ttw or clock «f<cd Is nwa COMPUTER INPUT S E N S O R S
«L '.l y m u t m * K ' f MF.ll, 8 MHz. 15 MHz, 18 MM/, etc.). The vehicle computer uses ttie signals (voltage levels) from ^
lowing engine sensors:
%n'Jt. T i w ' o ; , ' , i e t u*' •;„'.» fett of a da'.a Jtrtam >rv'<
Y - ."> Th- v . ' - p ' o c e > • i spe«i Is called Ibc • Engine speed (RPM or revolutions p e r minute) sensor
• Y V ,*/j ) a f: J t j I r es'.irna'.ingtti( Sty® comes Ironi the primary signal in the Ignition modulo-
fcftfJ' 0 Hpj to b r t f t i 4 ta-jd ra'.e Is • MAP (manifold absolute p r e s s u r e ) sensor.
• •• ' • . • 4 v • v. / . n • wit! tieiSj to t f t o s engine load. The computer uses this information for fuel) • ^
• ty •' - • ' J i t - (•• r ' / M t c - piitrf Storty of a tod for onboard diagnosis of other sensors and systems su
' '• - • - , k Y- h'f • V'> f «H.'tiofia! two exhauv. recirculation (EGR) system.
<j " j r ' W / t f j .<S oil
8
V S ( v e h i c l e s p e e d ) s e n s o t T v ' s s e n s o r • matures t h e - " tie
speed n g a j e r sor l o c a t e d at t h e o u t p u t of t h e
' r a n - s M o n / t f t r s a x l e o r b y m o t f t r t h g sens', i s a t t h e
speed s e n s o r
• K n o c k s e n s o r . The vol'age s : gnal &om '.he '.nock < r . < r | K S ) s
s e n t t o t h e P C M . T h e P C M r e t a r d s t h e ignition timing u c t 3 t h e
k n o c k i n g stops.
COMPUTER OUTPUTS
A vehicle c o m p u t e r can d o just t w o things.
• Turn a d e v f c e o a .
• Turn a devfce off.
The c o m p u t e r can turn devices s u c h as fuel injectors o n and

off v e r y rapidly o r k e e p t h e m o n f o r a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of t i m e Typi-
cal o u t p u t devices include t h e f o l l o w i n g .
51-12 TNs pc*er tra* control module (PCM) is located under me hood on t h *
• Fuel injectors. The computer a n v a r y t h e a m o u n t of t i m e t h e
injectors a r e held o p e n , t h e r e b y c o n t r o l l i n g t h e a m o u n t of fuel
supplied to t h e e n g n e .
• I g n i t i o n l i m i n g . T"-.e C o m p u t e r c a n t r i g g e r t h e s i g n a l t o t h e
ignition m o d u l e t o fire t h e s p a r k p l u g s b a s e d o n i n f o r m a t i o n
f r o m t h e s e n s o r s . T h e s p a r k ;s a d v a n c e d w h e n t h e e n g i n e is cold
a n d or w h e n t h e e n g i n e is o p e r a t i n g u n d e r l i g h t t o a d
conditions.
• Transmission shifting. The computer presides a ground to the
shift solenoids and '.orrwe c o n v e r t e r c l u t c h s o l e n o i d . T h e operation,
of t h e a u t o m a t i c transmission, t r a n s a x l e is o p t i m i z e d b a s e d o o
vehicle s e n s o r inform a t i o n .
• Idle s p e e d c o n t r o l The c o m p u t e r can pulse the t i e speed con-
trol (ISC) o r idle air c o n t r o l ;IAC] d e v i c e t o m a i n t a i n e n g i n e Idle
speed a n d to p r o v i d e a n i n c r e a s e d ,d!e s p e e d w h e n n e e d e d , s u c h
as w h e n t h e air-conditioning s y s t e m is o p e r a t i n g
• Evaporative emission control solenoids. The cc mputer can
control t h e flow :>f gasoline f u m e s from t h e c h a r c o a l c a n i s t e r to t h e
e n g i n e and seal off t h e s y s t e m t o p e r f o r m a f u e l s y s t e m l e a k
detection test as part of t h e O B D I I o n b o a r d d i a g n o s i s .
MODULE COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS

Since the 1990s, vehicles use modules to control most of the elec
51-13 T-6 PCM oo a Chrysler vehicle can only be seen by hoisting Ihe iehcle trical component operation. A typical vehicle will have 10 or mc re
' * M > i vx.j-evj io ifê radiator, and in the airflow to help keep It cool. modules and they communicate with each other over ia'a lines or
hard wiring, depending on the application.
Serial D a t a Serial data is data that is transmitted by i seres

'•WF (mass airflow) sensor. This sensor measures the mass rapidly changing vc'tage signals ptilsed from low to Mgh r ~
gM and density) of the air entering the engine. The computer high to low. Most modules are connected together n a network be-
*!s formation to determine the amount of fuel needed by cause of the following advantages:
• A decreased number of wires is needed, 'ereby ng

^CT (engine coolant t e m p e r a t u r e ) sensor. This sensor mea- cost, as well as helping with Installation at the factory and de-
the tempera dire of the engine coolant needed by the computer creased complexity, making servicing eas.et
fermine the amount of fuel and spark advance. This is a major » Common sensor data can be shared with 'hose modules ihat r. av
especially when the engine Is cold and when the engine Is need the information, such as vehicle speed, outside air lempera-
- T started.
ture, and engine coolant temperature.
r
'2S (oxygen sensor). This sensor measures the oxygen in the
^ st stream. These sensors are used for fuel control and to M u l t i p l e x i n g M u l t i p l e x i n g is the privets of . -4 ~ : a
.pother signals of information at the same time over a sigpal wire v . i t&ea
sensors and systems. separating the signals at the receiving end. " s
™ (throttle position) sensor. This sensor measures the throttle intercommunication of compt/ers or p a w n e r s s re'i-rxi " s
and is used by the computer to control fuel delivery as i n e t w o r k . See Figure 53-14. 3y connecting l~.e
as ^park advance and the shift points of the automotive together on a communications network, they cir. • » Swc
"Îssion/iransaxle.
f>t SS X
- - . — .•- s t duplexing has a n u m b e r of 2. Star l i n k . In a star link n e t w o r k , a s e n ,ne atta
ae. w a g e s r . : each m o d u l e and then each is c o n n e c t e rentral 1

Point.
This central point is called a s p l i c e p s revla
• d a r ; • ' sors and dedicated wiring for ' ' t e d SP SUcL
as in "SP 3 0 0 . " The
- splice pack uses a t ' s
; ,|ice all
PHce all of
of thp'
Sneaew.vreseBsare.
serial lines together. Some G M vehicles u vo-ffl more
• ;r of • • j e s , connectors, and circuits.
packs to tie t h e m o d u l e s together. W h e n n r - than one spv'^
• -=> . arid >ption content to new vehicles.
pack is used, a serial data line c o n n e c t s one slice pack to
• : XZ.T. .ncreasingfuel economy.
others. In most applications t h e b u s bar us.:d in each splice
• .. -es :c r e c-.ir.ged with software upgrades instead of pack can be removed. W h e n t h e b u s bar is removed a specia
a a r a p m c t replacement tool (J 422361 can be installed in place of t h e removed bus t
±r.-. m o s t c o m m o n tvpes of networks used on General Using this tool, the serial data line for each module can be
rs * -.:: nchide: lated and tested for a possible p r o b l e m . Using the special tool
at the splice pack m a k e s d i a g n o s i n g this type of network ea -
t Rir.g link n e t w o r k s , in a ring type network, all modules are
than many others. See Figure 5 3 - 1 6 for an example of a star
cvr.ec'.et! to each other t y a serial data line in a line until all are
link n e t w o r k system.
c - r e c t e d ir. a ring. See Figure 5 3 - 1 5 . 3. R i n g / S t a r h y b r i d . In a r i n g / s t a r n e t w o r k , the modules are
connected using both types of n e t w o r k configuration. Check
PROGRAMMED TO USE service information (SI) for details o n h o w this network is
VEHICLE SPEED SIGNAL
connected on the vehicle being diagnosed and always follow the
recommended diagnostic steps.
POWER TRAIN
CONTROL
OOtXILE (PCM) SAE COMMUNICATION CLASSIFICATIONS
The Society of A u t o m o t i v e E n g i n e e r s (SAE) standards include
three categories of in-vehicle n e t w o r k c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , including
the following.
Class A Low-speed n e t w o r k s (less t h a n 1 0 , 0 0 0 bits per second

|10 kbs]) are generally used for trip c o m p u t e r s , entertainment, and
other c o n v e n i e n c e features. M o s t l o w - s p e e d Class A communica-
tion functions are p e r f o r m e d u s i n g t h e following:
• UART standard (Universal A s y n c h r o n o u s Receive/Transmitl used

by General Motors (8192 bps).
• CCD (Chrysler Collision Detection) used by Chrysler
(7812.5 bps).
AWTVLOCK BRAKE
CONTROL MODULE PROGRAMMED TO USE K0TE: The "collision" in CCD-type bus communicadon refers to the pro
VEHICLE SPEED SIGNAL gram that avoids conflicts of information exchange within the bus. and
does not refer to airbags or other accident-related circuits of the vehicle.
53-1* t • on aiiows all modules to communicate with other modules.
LH DOOR POWER TRAIN ELECTRONIC

REMOTE FUNCTION REAR INTEGRATION
CONTROL CONTROL BRAKE CONTROL
ACTUATOR (RFA) MODULE (RIM)
MODULE MODULE (PCM) MODULE (EBCM)
VEHICLE INTERFACE
MOLULE (VIM)
MEMORY SEAT
MODULE (MSM)
INSTRUMENT HEATER AND
CLUSTER RADIO
A/C CONTROL
HEAD UP
DISPLAY (HUD)
PIN 1
INSTRUMENT PANEL VEHICLE THEFT DLC COMPACT DISC
••OOOLE ITPM ) DETERRENT MODULE (CD) CHANGER
PIN 16
DASH INTEGRATION SENSING DIAGNOSTIC

MODULE (DIM) MODULE (SDM)
Hp** J W $ « r* <-• v it ,1 taj-r^ to interconnect all ol the modules

Chapter 53: Computer and Net*»fc F u n f e r w r t ^ i »13
CLASS C
SPLicr SPUCE
PACK PACK
[[HDOOR
CONTROL
IMODULEJ
IS- THROTTLE ACTUATOR
CONTROL (TAC) MOOULT
[RH DOOR i LECTROfWC BRAKE'

CONTROL TRACTION GOWTROL
MODULE lEBTCM)
[THIEAT CLASS 2
CONTROL ELECTRON* SUVENSON
[MODULE CONTROL <ESCj MOOUUE
PIN 1
HVAC PROGRAMMER
MODULE
u a r t L
| PifTse
BOOYCOKTROt
OSTIC
SENSING DIAGNOSTIC J MOOULE'BCM)
MODULE (SDM)
E&C
BUSS REMOTE C O t n W L
COMPACT DISC DOOR LOCK MOOULE
(CD) CHANGER
X
IP ELECTRICAL AUDIO SYSTEM INSTRUMENT
CENTER RADIO CLUSTER
fijore 53-16 A star-link-type network where all of the modules are connectedtogetherusing splice oatts
MODULE COMMUNICATION DIAGNOSIS

• Chrysler S C I (Serial C o m m u n i c a t i o n s I n t e r f a c e ) is u s e d to
M o s t vehicle mar. j i a c t u r e r s p e c i f , t h a t a scan tool De u s e d t o d i e ?
c o m m u n i c a t e b e t w e e n t h e e n g i n e c o n t r o l l e r a n d a scan tool
n o s e m o d u l e s a n d m o c _ie c o r a n u r j c a t i o c s . A « v s f o l l o w ' h e rec
I62.5 kbps|.
o m m e n d e d testing p r o c e d u r e s . w h i c h i s u a f l y r e q u i r e t h e use of a
» ACP (Audio Control P r o t o c o l ) is u s e d for r e m o t e control of e n t e r
t a i n t n e n t e q u i p m e n t ( t w i s t e d pairs) o n Ford v e h i c l e s . factory scan m o L
S o m e t e s t s of t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b u s n e t w o r k a n d s o m e of
Class B Medium-speed n e t w o r k s ( 1 0 , 0 0 0 t o 1 2 5 , 0 0 0 bits p e r
t h e service p r o c e d u r e s require t h e ser.-.ce t e c h n i c i a n t o a t t a c h a
'•«ond [ 1 0 t o 1 2 5 kbs]) a r e g e n e r a l l y u s e d f o r i n f o r m a t i o n t r a n s f e r
D M M , set t o D C v o t e , t o m o n i t o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n s . A v a r i a b l e
« n g m o d u l e s , s u c h as i n s t r u m e n t clusters, t e m p e r a t u r e sensor
j
voltage u s u a l l y indicates that messages are being sent and
ata, a n d o t h e r g e n e r a l u s e s .
received.
1
General M o t o r s G M L A N ; b o t h l o w - a n d m e d i u m - s p e e d and M o s t high-speed b u s s v s t e m s u s e r e s i s t o r s at e a c h e n d ca,.ed
, ;iss
2 , w h i c h u s e s 0 - t o 7 - v o l t p u l s e s w i t h an available pulse terminating resistors. • - ar . e: -
( M e e t s S A E 1 8 5 0 v a r i a b l e p u l s e w i d t h (VPW). i n t e r f e r e n c e into o t h e r s v s t e m s in t h e v e h i c l e .
C h r y s l e r P r o g r a m m a b l e C o m m u n i c a t i o n I n t e r f a c e (PCI). M e e t s Usually t w o 1 2 0 - o h m r e s i s t o r s a r e installed at e a c h e n d art
, :fE sta
ndard J - 1 8 5 0 p u l s e w i d t h m o d u l a t e d ( P W M ) . are t h e r e f o r e c o n n e c t e d electrically in parallel. T w o 1 2 0 - o r m r e s :
Standard C o r p o r a t e P r o t o c o l (SCP). M e e t s SAE standard tors c o n n e c t e d i n para..el w o u , d m e a s u r e 6 0 o h m s if b a r . ; t e s t e s
lf
» 0 pulse w i d t h m o d u l a t e d ( P W M ) . using a n o h m m e t e r . S e e F i g u r e 5 3 - 1 8 .
Hi
S S M * M > e e d n e t w o r k s ( 1 2 5 , 0 0 0 t o 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 bits p e r
. o n d 1125,000 v -1 ,-0-0 -0 -, 0- 0 0 kbs)) a r e g e4n e r a l l y u s e d for real
to »»wuu,uv/u
Trjp n ra/o|i uiv g® *
. ; .wwer train a n d v e h i c l e d y n a m i c c o n t r o l . M o s t h i g h s r e . i 0 B D II D A T A L I N K CONNECTOR
1
r. -"lUin
h p u b l i c a t i o n is c o n t r o l l e r a r e a n e t w o r k or C A N . - All O B D II v e h i c l e s u s e a 1 6 - p i n c o n n e c t o r t h a t i n c l u d e s
®Jfe
're 55 33 -- 1 7
Figure 5 3 - 1 9 o n p a g e 0 1 5 .
Pin 4 = c h a s s i s g r o u n d
Pin 5 = signal g r o u n d
Pin 16 = b a t t e r y p o w e r i 4 A m a x
V e h i c l e s m a y u s e o n e of t w o t n a | o r s t a n d a r d s i n c l u d i n g
* HiS
USed , 0 there are • ISO 9 1 4 1 - 2 S t a n d a r d |!SO = International S t a n d a r d
describe a communicahon network Therefore, Organization i
"Nta b b uands bus
uummunitauviio. both of which
nuu uus commumcabons, w
* refer to digital
refer
•n. 9 »ansmittfirt Pins 7 a n d 15 (or w i r e a t p i n 7 a n d n o p i n at 2 c-r i w r e x 7 <nd
msmitted amnnn nUu-trninr modules
among electronic mnduiBs or
oi computers.
computers
ji_2ji*l/iir_LQl ii'
setwNft
CANC
DIAGNOSTIC +
CANC
DIAGNOSTIC -
CAN
B-
SCAN
TOOL
LEFT FRT. DOOR MODULE

AIR BAG MODULE
r |— CANB-
CAN B*
; .,' •• I
REMOTE KEYLESS ENTRY RIGHT FRT. DOOR MODULE
RADIO LEFT REAR DOOR MODULE

r
jCANB-
INSTRUMENT PANEL RIGHT REAR DOOR MODULE
CELL PHONE MODULE
SEAT HEATERS MEMORY SEAT MODULE
TIRE PRESSURE MONITOR ABS CONTROL MODULE

j m m —
F t ? u n K M 7 A tfpta3: bus system showing module CAN ootwriuntealions and twisted pairs ot wire.
• S A E J 1 8 5 0 Standard ( S A E = S o c i e t y of A u t o m o t i v e Chrysler, E u r o p e a n , a n d A s i a n v e h i c l e s use:
Engineers) • I S O 9 ) 4 1 - 2 s t a n d a r d , w h i c h u s e s p i n s 4 , 5 , 7 , 1 5 , and 16
T w o t y p e s . V P W ( v a r i a b l e p u l s e w i d t h ) o r P W M (pulse w i d t h • C h r y s l e r O B D II
modulated)
Pins 2 and 10-CCM
Pins 2 and 1 0 ( n o w i r e al pin 7 )
Pins 3 and 1 4 — O E M E n h a n c e d — 6 0 , 5 0 0 b a u d rate ^
General Motors vehicles use: P i n s 7 a n d 1 5 - G e n e r l c O B D II - I S O 9 1 4 1 - 1 0 , 4 0 0 baud ra
• :>A.S j i e ' , 0 <V?W Class 2 - 1 0 . 4 kb) standard, w h i c h uses p i n s Ford vehicles use: <
2 , 4 , 5 , arid 1 6 arid n o : 10
• SAE J• 1 8 5 0 ( P W M ) ( P W M — 4 1 . 6 k b ) s t a n d a r d , w h i c h uses p«-
• G M D o m e s t i c O B D II
4 , 5 , 1 0 , and 16
Pin 1 a n d 0 - C O M ( C o m p r e h e n s i v e C o m p o n e n t M o n i t o r ) s l o w • F o r d D o m e s t i c O B D II
baud rale 8 1 9 2 UAKT
Pins 2 and 1 0 - C C M con baud*'
Pms 2 and 10 O E M E n h a n c e d - l a s t R a t e - - 4 0 , 5 0 0 baud rate
Pins 6 and 1 4 — O E M E n h a n c e d — C l a s s C — 4 0 , 5 0 0 (f
p . n s 7 a n d 1 5 — G e n e r i c OVA) II - I S O 9 1 4 1 - 1 0 , 4 0 0 b a u d r a t e Pins 7 and 1 5 - C e n e r i c O B D I I — I S O 9 1 4 1 - 1 0 ' 4 0 1

^
Chapter 53 Computer and W w o r f c F u n d a n w e W SfS
OHMMETER 4. ^ ':p'. • • • : • - - r s o r , Delude engine -peed P P M i . M A P . M A R L T.

O K , IP, and VS.
5. A •p • ar my mi a device on or turn a device off, but ' can d o
' j f m t i c m ver/ rapidly.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What pan . vefc.-e amp. > r is considered to be the brain'

2 . What a the diBerence between volalUe and nonvolatile R A M ?
3. '-'.' .• •;/.•--.
4.
BCM
12011
- — W V — PCM CHAPTER QUIZ
TERMINATOR
I SIC a.
'L » W/0 UE1 L w » b . Ohm
TERMINATOR |
c. Ampere
d. Wan
2. The four basic computer h m a i B n i r a d u d e .
a. '>• ; - .:> •;. : i ...
b. : ces.-. -.-at
c . Data s v e - . - r . p r x e s K n g . r n r r . and - c. uaôn
d. S e n s x ^ c a i c . accuacng a n d p r r c m -1
3 . A- BOB e b i i e . - .' ' ax r;
a. BOM
b . PROM
c EPROM
d. EEPROM
4 . The "bram* at me l o n g e r
ign53-18 Checking the terminating resistors using an ohmmeter at the DLC a. PSOM
b . SAM
PIN c. CPU
NO. ASSIGNMENTS d . AD converter
5 . Coopuner processus speed 5 measures; c .
1. MANUFACTURER S DISCRETION
2. BUS + LINE, SAE J1850 a. Baud rate
3. MANUFACTURER'S DISCRETION b. d o c k speed H i
4. CHASSIS GROUND c \totage
5. SIGNAL GROUND d. ?vtts
6. MANUFACTURER'S DISCRETION
6 . Which flem. a c • p u r e r er.v -
7. K L I N E , ISO 9141
a. RPM
8. MANUFACTURER S DISCRETION
9. MANUFACTURER'S DISCRETION b. Throcse p a s o o n arsgj!
10. B U S - L I N E . SAE J1850 c. E r » n e c an: Ksnpera: j e
11. MANUFACTURER'S DISCRETION d . AH of the abcpf
OBD-II DLC 12. MANUFACTURER'S DISCRETION
7. Which S e n - . a c j c p - a r : .nr.' "Ice:
a. Fuel injector
b. Tjansal-'-- cm ?'r£t • .. 1
15. L LINE, ISO 9141
16. VEHICLE BATTERY POSITIVE c. Evaporanw aniss r. C. 'TC. . «er. a
(4A MAX) d. M o T the a t x m
The SAE term b r the whic.f rcr.sucer is
43-19
Sixteen-pin 080II DLC with terminals identified. Scan tools jse the power «. PCM
,. pin (4) for power so that a separate cigarette lighter plug is not necessary a * b. ECM
c. ECA
d. Contrafier
0 . Whit r* tr-cngs can a efcicie romp . - a r .1 . per! — -t
i . Store and process informal:; 0
b . Tom somecning x or sc- v-.r "
c. Calculate and vary s e m p e n : j e
• ^ S o d ,!et>' of Automotive Engineers (SAE) standard ' 1030 spec;- :s that
d . OKUOI fuel and Bnung
^ term
Power train control m o d u l e (PCM) be used for the computer
contr
10. .Analog s i g w a from u r s a s are c n a r a e s so JTA. -
I " °ls the engine and transmission in a vehicle,
die cotnputer t r o u g h whx+i type c f c S e - '
^tpin*tM5iC com
P u t e r functions include input, processing, storage, and a. Digital
3. Sea,, b. Analog
W)? y memor
y fROMl can b e programmable PROM , erasable c . AD c o t r w t e r
' ' 'Mi. or electrically erasable (EEPROM d. PROM
»i i ii I — i i II 1 i »ni n m M M H 8 T
C H A P Tm ,
33®
V: - '-•
ignosis
O S J H m v E S : After studying Chapter 54. the reader will be able to: Prepare for ASE Electrical/Electronic Systems (A6) certifies - test content
4* Fect-csS-Electronic Systems Diagnosis). • Explain the purpose and function of onboard diagnosis. • List the various duties of the d ^ 3
9 c ? r ? a * Y C taskmaster). • List five continuous monitors. • List five noncontinuous monitors. -r5--
KET TERMS: cafifc-iia a r resources board (CARS) • component identification (CID) • comprehensive component monitor (CCM) • diagnostic
r ^ . v r v e • enable criteria • exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA) monitor • federal test procedure (FTP) • freeze-frame • function
• rra"-j-T3on "xficator lamp (MIL) • on-board diagnosis (OBD) • parameter identification (PID) • rationality • Society of Automotive Engineers (Lp
• t2S* 2errJTcaticin <T?0» • task manager
O N - B O A R D DIAGNOSTICS GENERATION-ll (OBD-II) do e n o u g h to l o w e r a u t o m o t i v e e m i s s i o n s . This led the CARB a v

SYSTEMS the EPA to develop O B D G e n e r a t i o n II ( O B D II).
1080s. most manufacturers began equipping their vehi- OBD-II Objectives Generally, t h e CARB defines an OBD-ll-
:1- - -a--.-, f r l - f u n c t i o n control systems capable of alerting t h e driver equipped vehicle by its ability t o d o t h e following:
•" 3 r a i f u n c t i c n and of allowing t h e technician to retrieve codes
1 . Detect component degradation or a faulty e m i s s i o n - r e l a t e d sys-
r r hientifv- circuit faults. These early diagnostic systems w e r e
tem that prevents compliance w i t h federal e m i s s i o n standards.
- r a n / r reduce emissions and speed up vehicle repair.
T - - i u ' c m o t i v e industry calls these systems O n - B o a r d Diag- 2 . Alert the driver of needed emission-related repair or maintenance.
l o s r i c s i O B D s ) . T i r C a l i f o r n i a A i r R e s o u r c e s B o a r d (CARB) 3. Use standardized DTCs and accept a generic scan tool.
oped the Srst regulation requiring manufacturers selling vehi-
- r a t s t a t e to install OBD. OBD Generation I (OBD I) applies T h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s a p p l y t o all 1 9 9 6 a n d later m o d e l light-
to ail vehicles sold fa California beginning with t h e 1 9 8 8 m o d e l d u t y vehicles. T h e Clean Air A c t of 1 9 9 0 directed the EPA to de-
s=n ft c a r l e s the following requirements: velop n e w regulations for O B D . T h e p r i m a r y purpose o f OBD 11 is
emission-related, w h e r e a s t h e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e of OBD I (1988;
1. An Instrument panel warning lamp able to alert the driver of cer- w a s to d e t e c t faults in s e n s o r s or s e n s o r circuits. OBD-II regulations
- —: - s t e m failures, now called a m a l f u n c t i o n i n d i c a - r e q u i r e t h a t n o t only s e n s o r s b e t e s t e d b u t also all exhaust emission
t o r l a m p (MIL). See Figure 5 4 - 1 . control devices, a n d t h a t t h e y b e v e r i f i e d for p r o p e r operation.
2. e r . e . T . "s ability to record and transmit DTCs for emission-
All n e w vehicles m u s t pass t h e F e d e r a l T e s t Procedure
-eiared failures.
( F T P ) for e x h a u s t e m i s s i o n s w h i l e b e i n g t e s t e d for 5 0 5 secondsr
3. :-:c r r e n t monitoring of the H 0 2 S , EGR valve, and evap-
rollers t h a t s i m u l a t e t h e u r b a n d r i v e cycle a r o u n d downtown Los
purge solenoid. Although not U.S. EPA-required, during
Angeles.
n r . ? most manufacturers also equipped vehicles sold outside
rfCaS&mia with OBD 1.
E ling to monitor t h e catalytic converter, t h e evaporative

r e r . ' r leaks, and t h e presence of engine misfire, O B D I did n o t MOTE: IM 240 is simply a shorter 240-second version of the 505-secoa-
federal test procedure.
T h e r e g u l a t i o n s for OBD-II v e h i c l e s s t a t e t h a t the vehicle>c

p u t e r m u s t be c a p a b l e of t e s t i n g for, a n d d e t e r m i n i n g , if tne: e
emissions are w i t h i n 1.5 t i m e s t h e F T P limits. To achieve tni.
the computer m u s t do the following:
1. Test all exhaust emission system c o m p o n e n t s for correct ope » '

2 . Actively operate the system and m e a s u r e t h e results. ^
3 . Continuously monitor all aspects of the engine operation^ -
certain that t h e exhaust emissions d o not exceed 1.5 tun •
the FTP.
4 . Check engine operation for misfire. ^ t if'
5. Turn on the MIL (check engine) if t h e computer senses
circuit or system. -,ftheei#e
6 . Record a f r e e z e - f r a m e , w h i c h is a snapshot of all o
data, at the time the DTC w a s set. . d a J I i a ge
7. Rash the MIL if an engine misfire o c c u r s that could
fi$or«S«-r C t v - amp <yr oterMaSfcWehedc engine'
catalytic converter.
>n.
Chapter M Onboard Oagnosin 817
o S T lC EXECUTIVE AND TASK Idle air control (1AC) solenoid

,,11 system's tin P C M in. Ignition control system
I i * ' 1 ' . o n Ford and G M s y s t e m ' . ! r a n s m l s u o n torque converter clutch solenoid
• ) ^ s t i c executive. O n Chrysler
Transmission shift solenoids
I -itware p r o g r a m i< l<
• M U f l r e monitor. monitor looks at engine misfire. T h e f" M
all OBD II
I ^ s a r v 10 execute t h e diagnostic t. uv-i the I n f o r m a l o received from the crankshaft position sensor
!
CKP to - a - - - the time between the edges of the reluctot as
v•• 1 a- • ; <- rotatoriai speed and acceleration. By comparing the ac-
MOHITORS celeration H each f.r .ng event, the P C M can determine if a cylin
. -'onitor is an organized m e t h o d of testing a spec par : der is not flring correctly.
tera . Monitors are simply t e s t s t h a t t h e c o m p u t e r perl
iuaiecomponents and s y s t e m s . If a c o m p o n e n t or s , tern fa,; - Misfire type A. Upon detection of a misfire type A
detected while a m o n i t o r is r u n n i n g , a D T C will be d ar, (200 revolution', which would cause catalyst damage, the MIL
will blink once per second d u r i n g t h e actual misfire, and a DTC
, MIL illuminated by t h e s e c o n d trip. T h e t w o types of mo-. .tor
will be stored.
' continuous and n o n c o n t i n u o u s .
Misfire type B. Upon detection erf a misfire type B
Continuous Monitors As r e q u i r e d c o n d i t i o n s are met, contii ( 1 0 0 0 revolutwnsi, which will e x c e e d 1.5 Umes t h e EPA federal
,iS monitors begin to r u n . T h e s e c o n t i n u o u s m o n i t o r s will run for test procedure I FTP) standard or c a u s e a vehicle to fall an
ik remainder of the v e h i c l e d r i v e cycle. T h e t h r e e continuous inspection and m a i n t e n a n c e tailpipe e m i s s i o n s test, the MJL will
monitors are as follows: illuminate and a DTC will b e s t o r e d .
I Comprehensive c o m p o n e n t m o n i t o r ( C C M ) . This monitor The D T C associated with ra iihpie c nder misfire for a type A or
watches the sensors and actuators in t h e OBD-11 system. Sensor type B misfire is D T C P0300 Trie DTCs associated with an individual
values are constantly c o m p a r e d w i t h known-good values stored in cylinder mtsfire for a type A or ype B misfire are DTCs P0301, P0302,
ihe PCM's memory. P0303, P0304, P0305, P030C, P 0 3 0 7 . P 0 3 0 8 , P0309, and P0310.
Ihe CCM is an internal program in t h e P C M designed to moni
• Fuel trim m o n i t o r . The P C M e o M t a m t f y monitors short and
lira failure in any electronic c o m p o n e n t or circuit (including
long-term fuel tran. Constantly j p i a t e d adaptive fuel tables are
emission-related and non-emission-related circuits) that provide
stored in long-term memory KAM , and used by the PCM for
input or output signals to t h e P C M . T h e P C M considers that an
compensation due to wear and a g o g of the hie! system compo-
input or output signal is inoperative w h e n a failure exists due to an
nents. The M I L will a i m mate w h e n t h e PCM determines t h e fuel
open circuit, out-of-range value, or if an onboard rationality check
trim values have reached and s a v e d at their limits for too long a
fails. If an emission-related fault is d e t e c t e d , the P C M will set a
period of time.
.ode and activate the MIL (requires t w o consecutive trips).
Many PCM sensors and output devices are tested at key-on or im Noncontinuous Monitors ncorcmuo-.. r — s ru a;
mediately after engine start-up. However, some devices, such as the most) once per vehicle drive cycle. T h e noncontinuous monitors
1AC, are only tested by the C C M after the engine meets certain en- are as follows:
gine conditions. The n u m b e r of times the C C M must detect a fault
-efore it will activate the MIL d e p e n d s u p o n the manufacturer, but 0 2 S monitor
most require two consecutive trips to activate the MIL. The compo- 0 2 S heater monitor
nents tested by the C C M include: Catalyst monitor
our-wheel-drive low s w i t c h EGR monitor
take switch EVAP monitor
Camshaft (CMP) and c r a n k s h a f t (CKP) s e n s o r s Secondary AIR m o n i t o r
'•!utch switch (manual t r a n s m i s s i o n s / t r a n s a x i e s only) Transmission m o n i t o r

mis
e servo switch PCV system m o n i t o r
Er Thermostat monitor
®ne coolant t e m p e r a t u r e (ECT) s e n s o r
Purge sensor or s w i t c h O n c e a noncontinuous m o n i t o r has r u n to c o m p l e t i o n , it

not be run again until t h e conditions a r e met d u n n g the next vehi
'^composition s e n s o r
cle drive cycle. Also after a n o n c o n t i n u o u s monitor has ran. •
,,ll(e
air temperature (1AT) s e n s o r
pletion, the readiness status on your scan tooi wfl. *cw
sensor (KS) "complete" or " d o n e * for t h a t monitor. Monitors that have - « * rust
ânifoid absolute p r e s s u r e ( M A P ) s e n s o r to completion will s h o w u p o n y o u r s c a n n e r as "toct «e "
A i r flow (MAF) s e n s o r
OBO-II M O N I T O R INFORMATION
"" 1I|le 'Position (TP) s e n s o r
Jris
Comprehensive Component Monitor
missiori t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s o r
ponents covered by the comprehensive c s m p o n e r * m o n •• r • > I M
'"''Mission t u r b i n e s p e e d s e n s o r do not include those directly monitored by another n o n a e c
> « sensor Howeven O B D n also retjuires thai tapu: from ra:
speed (VS) s e n s o r components to d i e P C M be tested tor r a n o n a l i t y i

p o w e r tram c o m p o n e n t s from the P Q I be teste: fimafeMUfcrt
j ' '' c a "ister p u r g e a n d EVAP p u r g e v e n t s o l e n o i d
6i8 seonoNtt
Both ; n r j » a r c y . t r j t s arc to be checked electrically. Rationality Noncontinuous Monitors Noncontin monitors

cftc c k s refer to a P C M c o m p a r i s o n of input value to values. most) o n c e per vehicle d r i v e c y c l e . T h e i i t i n u o u s , r ' ' " ' !t
are as follows:
Example:
0 2 S monitor
TPS 3V
0 2 S heater monitor
MAP 18 inVHg
Catalyst m o n i t o r
RPM 700 RPM
EGR m o n i t o r
PRNDl Park
EVAP m o n i t o r
Secondary AIR m o n i t o r
w r r t Comprehensive component monitors are continuous. Therefore Transmission m o n i t o r
er-iblag conditions do not apply.
PCV system m o n i t o r
Thermostat monitor
• Monitor runs continuously O n c e a n o n c o n t i n u o u s m o n i t o r h a s r u n to completion, it w
• Monitor includes sensors, switches, relays, solenoids, and PCM not be r u n again until t h e c o n d i t i o n s a r e m e t d u r i n g the next veh'-
hardware cle drive cycle. Also a f t e r a n o n c o n t i n u o u s m o n i t o r has run to com
• All are checked for opens, shorts-to-ground, and shorts-to-voltage pletion, t h e r e a d i n e s s s t a t u s o n y o u r s c a n tool will sh
• Inputs are checked for rationality " c o m p l e t e " or " d o n e " for t h a t m o n i t o r . M o n i t o r s that have not ran
• O u t p u t s are checked for functionality to completion will s h o w u p o n y o u r s c a n n e r as "incomplete."
• M o s t are one-trip DTCs
• Freeze-frame is priority 3
• Three consecutive good trips are used to extinguish the MIL ENABLING CRITERIA
• Forty warm-up cycles are used to erase DTC and freeze-frame With so m a n y d i f f e r e n t t e s t s ( m o n i t o r s ) t o r u n , the PCM needs an
• Two minutes run time without reoccurrence of the fault consti- internal director to k e e p t r a c k of w h e n e a c h monitor should run.
tutes a "good trip" As m e n t i o n e d , d i f f e r e n t m a n u f a c t u r e r s h a v e different names for
C o n t i n u o u s R u n n i n g Monitors this director, such as t h e d i a g n o s t i c e x e c u t i v e or the task managet
Each monitor has e n a b l i n g c r i t e r i a . T h e s e criteria are a set of condi-
• Monitors run continuously, only stop if they fail tions that m u s t be m e t b e f o r e t h e t a s k m a n a g e r will give the go
• Fuel system: rich/lean ahead for each m o n i t o r to r u n . M o s t e n a b l i n g criteria follow simple
• Misfire: catalyst damaging/FTP (emissions) logic, for e x a m p l e :
• Two-trip faults (except early generation catalyst damaging
misfire) • The task manager will n o t a u t h o r i z e t h e start of the 0 2 S monitor
• MIL, DTC, freeze-frame after two consecutive faults until the engine has reached o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e and the system
• Freeze-frame is priority 2 on first trip has entered closed loop.
• Freeze frame is priority 4 on maturing trip • The task manager will not a u t h o r i z e t h e start of the EGR monitor
• Three consecutive good trips in a similar condition window are when the engine is at idle, b e c a u s e t h e EGR is always closed at
used to extinguish the MIL this time.
• Forty warm-up cycles are used to erase DTC and freeze-frame
Because e a c h m o n i t o r is r e s p o n s i b l e for testing a d i f f e r e n t pan
' 8 0 to erase one-trip failure if similar conditions cannot be met)
of t h e system, t h e e n a b l i n g c r i t e r i a c a n differ greatly from one mon-
O n c e Per Trip M o n i t o r s itor to t h e n e x t . T h e task m a n a g e r m u s t d e c i d e w h e n each monitor
should r u n , and in w h a t o r d e r , t o a v o i d c o n f u s i o n .
• Monitor runs once per trip, pass or fail
There m a y be a conflict if t w o m o n i t o r s w e r e to run at the sa®
• 0 : response, 0 2 heaters, EGR, purge flow EVAP leak, secondary
time. The results of o n e m o n i t o r m i g h t also b e tainted if a secot.-
air. catalyst
monitor w e r e to r u n s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . In s u c h cases, the task manag
• Two-trip DTCs
decides w h i c h m o n i t o r h a s a h i g h e r priority. S o m e monitors also
• MIL, DTC, freeze-frame after two consecutive faults
pend on t h e results of o t h e r m o n i t o r s b e f o r e t h e y can run. ^
• Freeze-frame is priority 1 on first trip
A monitor m a y b e classified a s p e n d i n g if a failed s e n s o r
• Freeze-frame is priority 3 on maturing trip
other system fault is k e e p i n g it f r o m r u n n i n g o n schedule. ^
• Three consecutive good trips are used to extinguish the MIL
The task m a n a g e r m a y s u s p e n d a m o n i t o r if t h e condition^
• Forty warm-up cycles are used to erase DTC and freeze frame
not correct to c o n t i n u e . For e x a m p l e , if t h e catalyst monitor
Exponentially Weighted Moving Average ( E W M A ) Moni- ning d u r i n g a road test a n d t h e P C M d e t e c t s a misfire, the ca
tors exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA) monitor will be s u s p e n d e d for t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e misfire.
m o n i t o r s a m a t h e m a t i c a l m e t h o d used to determine performance. c0
Trip A trip is d e f i n e d as a k e y - o n c o n d i t i o n that ,nt.a'^
• Catalyst monitor necessary c o n d i t i o n s for a p a r t i c u l a r t e s t t o be performed
• EGR monitor by a key-off. T h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a r e c a l l e d t h e e n a b l e crlte •
• PCM rum ix consecutive failed tests; fails in one trip example, for t h e EGR test t o b e p e r f o r m e d , t h e engine m ^
• T" consecutive failed tests on next trip, then fails normal o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e a n d d e c e l e r a t i n g f o M
"
• Freeze frame is priority 3 a m o u n t of t i m e . S o m e t e s t s a r e p e r f o r m e d w h e n th
^ | r i ( , a t»
• Thr< o c . r . v - : . e good trips are used to extinguish the MIL cold, w h e r e a s o t h e r s r e q u i r e t h a t t h e v e h i c l e be crui>
• f-orrv warm up eyeles are used to erase DTC and freeze-frame steady h i g h w a y s p e e d .
ijp cycle Once a M i l . Is dr EXAMPLE: P0302 =. CYLINDER »2 MISFIRE D E T E C T E D
^""iiiaJn In m e m o r y until 40 war i
P 0 3 0 2
re
t ^ e fault r e a p p e a r i n g . A w a r m ;
11
ncnzlne t e m p e r a t u r e I n c r e a s e of at <
a nop*
^temperature r e a c h e s a t l e a s t 160°Ff7l ' c SPECIFIC M O t T
P P O W £ » FFLAIH DFSIGHATtOM
Condition: Off This c o n d i t i o n indi u •T^WORK
d e t e c t e d a n y f a u l t s i n a n e m i s s i o n s relati <1 c -
' n] „ r that the M I L circuit is not working. SPECIFIC VEHICLE
SYSTEM
Condition: O n S t e a d y This condition
^ emissions-related component or system that •
; e emission levels.
MIL Condition: F l a s h i n g T h i s c o n d i t i o n ind Figure 54-2 9KH 7 " - IjW

. ei control system fault t h a t c o u l d d a m a g e t h e cata co -.. - -
1
This position s n o u t t beOODSBKIB far P O r a a n d PI x x x type codes
iiOTt- In a misfire condition w i t h t h e M I L on steady, if tl >
T h e foitowmg r . m b e n and r v s a s r s w e r e established by SAE:
. vehicle speed a n d l o a d c o n d i t i o n w i t h t h e engine m fin.. a- a lev.
•dd cause catalyst d a m a g e , t h e M I L would start flasr n g . i: • P 0 1 0 0 — A i r metering and fuei system fault
K to flash until engine s p e e d and load conditions cat d rr.e -ve
• PQ200—Fuei svstem (fuel saedar oohO Jauit
t't to subside. Then t h e M I L would go back to the o n
• K '/>- " ' ' ne .
i This situation might r e s u l t i n a customer complaint of a MIL w a:
• P0400—faaoMoE OOHBOI v f i m m f M k
• stent f l a s h i n g condition.
• P0500—idle speed controi, vem<c* speed iVSi sensor fault
• P0600—Computer output c w a a t Bttoy, votenoid. etc. > fault
• : ' j_7-
MIL O f f The P C M will t u r n off t h e M I L if a n y of t h e following
Ktions or conditions o c c u r :
W l t Tae r e ar* omb c - j r ^ m a i t , : a r d * par
> The codes are cleared w i t h a scan tool.
• Power to the PCM is r e m o v e d at t h e battery or w i t h the PCM
power fuse for an e x t e n d e d period of time (may be u p to several
T y p e s of DTCs
hours or longer).
tance for e x h a i s ; e m s t s . Each *vpe of D T C has different rr
' A vehicle is driven on three c o n s e c u t i v e trips w i t h a w a r m - u p
q i a r e m e n t s far it tc set. and : b e o o n t r i t e r w . ooly • u n o - "*
cycle and meets all code set c o n d i t i o n s w i t h o u t t h e P C M detecting
MIL for e t m s s w n s - r e l a a d DTCs.
any faults.
Type A M M A r~* M ~ s tr r e d ant '
I h e PCM will set a c o d e if a fault is d e t e c t e d that could cause
the MIL ID be turned or. S K . Dip If i h e c o m p u t e - na» d e w i e r ,
--ape emissions to e x c e e d 1.5 t i m e s t h e FTP s t a n d a r d ; however, i r a p r o t t e m . Engine m a f i r e or a werr n e b or l e a n air 'uel r a f t o f
PCM will not deactivate t h e M I L until t h e vehicle has b e e n driver, e i a m p e , w o u i d cause a :vpe A D T C T h e s e c o d e s a,ett t h e d r v r
-se consecutive trips w i t h vehicle c o n d i t i o n s similar to a c t u a l ; i to ar. emission ppofciea -hat mar. cause 3 a m a g e to t h e casaiytK
• present w h e n t h e fault w a s d e t e c t e d . This is not mere. .- thre> converter
'•tide start-ups and trips. It m e a n s t h r e e trips d u r i n g w t i k r . . i ~ i r
operating conditions a r e m e t so that t h e OBD-II m o n i t o r that Type B M a s \ -.-pel te v se red ar he «I
• r «d the fault can r u n again a n d pass t h e diagnostic test. r u m e c o o d u r i n g t h e second cersecuore trip, alerting the driver '
5 * facr That a diagnostic l e t w a s p e r f o r m e d a n d faiiesJ
5B
N p T C M M B E R I N G DESIGNATION
scan tool is required to r e t r i e v e D T C s from a n O B P I v,-'
OBD-II scan tool will be able to read all generic Society of Auto-
Engineers ( S A E ) D T C s f r o m a n y vehicle. See figur
T definitions and e x p l a n a t i o n s of O B D alphar £ ? -
J e diagnostic t r o u b l e codes iDTCs are grouped
" " W e s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e fault w The svste
Type C 0 MM Tvpe C a r c ces a * aMfe r » c
ivoived.
emission r e i a t e d diagnostic t e s t s ; ttaey wtil : t
^codes power train D T C s ( e n g i n e , transmission related fa s a 'service" am; :? t h e v e t u c l e s so esr-cip
J>x a r e also called tvpe C I c o d s a n d 0 c o d e s a d t d tvpe
* codes—body D T C s ( a c c e s s o r i e s , interiorrelated faults
CO c o d e s .
'** codes—chassis D T C s ( s u s p e n s i o n and steering related fa -
codes—network D T C s ( m o d u l e communication -related fa\. t>
DIAGNOSTIC TROUBLE CODE P R I O W T *
Tc
"umbering E x p l a n a t i o n The n nber the in CARB has also m a n d a t e d 2-JT :
u,,
n indicates the specific v e h i c l e s y s t e m or s u b g r o u p ± a t ; i be s a r e d a c c o r i : . , ; TO to: - » " *".
sac sect*»
r* < • - t : rr - • T h e OBD-II S y s t e m D T C Pri-

NOTE Disc.••meeting the battery may not erase t
ors? S 'sate bete*. Is or 6
data. M » : vehicle manufacturers recommend usirr
• • ;•- s • c o d e s rather than disconnecfing the battery, because the n or the ^
• r*» T i p feub for non-fuel. non- and learned «• o n e op- : -.ting p a r a m e t e r is lost if :i discon-t
cades
• :- •. • •: f w o c i p feud for fuei or misfire
• ' ~ r : . t or m a t t f f e d fauit of n o n fuel, non-misfire FREQUENTLY A S K E D QUESTION

cades
• -t—7 - fa; -- :r m a t u r e d fault for fuel or misfire codes What Are Pending Codes?
Pending codes are set when operating conditions a r e m e t a n d the component

IFfwze-frame To assist t h e s e r v i c e t e c h n i c i a n , O B D 1 1 circuit is not within the normal range, yet the c o n d i t i o n s h a v e not yet been met-
:. tr-: ; m p u t e r to t a k e a " s n a p s h o t " o r f r e e z e - f r a m e of all set a DTC For example, a sensor may require two consecutive faults before a DT;
• r .-tar.: ar. e m i s s i o n - r e l a t e d D T C is set. A s c a n tool is is set. If a scan toot displays a pending code o r a f a i l u r e , a driveability concr
wcared t "etneve this data. couid also be present The pending code can help t h e t e c h n i c i a n to determined
toot cause before the customer complains of a check e n g i n e light indication.
S . - / . r OBD E reqicres that just one freeze-frame of data be

an emasion related DTC is set, vehicle manufacturers ENABLING CONDITIONS OR C R I T E R I A
exoarrded data abour the DTC beyond that required. How
T h e s e a r e t h e e x a c t e n g i n e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s r e q u i r e d for a diag-
- it-..- enhanced data usually require! the use of the vehicle
nostic m o n i t o r t o r u n .
ttsoL
Example:
Specific RPM
Specific ECT, MAP, run time, VSS, etc.
rteeze-frame items include:
• ^ J a t e d toad value Pending U n d e r s o m e s i t u a t i o n s t h e P C M w i l l n o t run a monitor
• L% n e speec RPM I if t h e M I L is i l l u m i n a t e d a n d a f a u l t is s t o r e d f r o m a n o t h e r monitoi.
» • y - r e r m a n d long-term fuel trim percent In t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s , t h e P C M p o s t p o n e s m o n i t o r s p e n d i n g a resolu-
• F t e n p r e . ure Ion s o m e v e h i d e s i tion of t h e o r i g i n a l f a u l t . T h e P C M d o e s n o t r u n t h e test until the
• e speed (mphi p r o b l e m is r e m e d i e d .
• t ' u •« a x ant temperature For e x a m p l e , w h e n t h e M I L is i l l u m i n a t e d f o r a n o x y g e n sen-

• r . t a t e m a n i f o l d pressure sor fault, t h e P C M d o e s n o t r u n t h e c a t a l y s t m o n i t o r u n t i l t h e oxy-
• open-loop status gen s e n s o r f a u l t is r e m e d i e d . S i n c e t h e c a t a l y s t m o n i t o r i s b a s e d on
• -:-• that t n g g e r e d the freeze-frame signals f r o m t h e o x y g e n s e n s o r , r u n n i n g t h e t e s t w o u l d p r o d u c e in
• . • c o d e is set, identify w h i c h cylinder is misfiring accurate results.
1
" s r . r J d n o t b e c l e a r e d f r o m t h e vehicle c o m p u t e r m e m o r y Conflict T h e r e a r e a l s o s i t u a t i o n s w h e n t h e P C M d o e s n o t run a
••'•• h a s b e e n c o r r e c t e d and t h e t e c h n i c i a n is s o di- m o n i t o r if a n o t h e r m o n i t o r is in p r o g r e s s . I n t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s , t b e f j
ov r.(r l i a g n o s t t c p r o c e d u r e . If t h e p r o b l e m that c a u s e d t h e fects of a n o t h e r m o n i t o r r u n n i n g c o u l d r e s u l t in a n e r r o n e o u s fa«
" • V- set -.AS b e e n c o r r e c t e d , t h e c o m p u t e r will a u t o m a t i c a l l y u r e . If this c o n f l i c t is p r e s e n t , t h e m o n i t o r is n o t r u n u n t i l the
- -.- • a f t e r 4 0 c o n s e c u t i v e w a r m - u p cycles w i t h n o f u r t h e r c o n f l i c t i n g c o n d i t i o n p a s s e s . M o s t likely, t h e m o n i t o r w i l l r u n laic
ietecred rr sfire a n d excessively rich or lean c o n d i t i o n c o d e s after t h e c o n f l i c t i n g m o n i t o r h a s p a s s e d .
.. - * ' r r p cycles T h e c o d e s can also b e erased by u s i n g For e x a m p l e , if t h e f u e l s y s t e m m o n i t o r is in progress, the PC
i scar. yacL d o e s n o t r u n t h e E G R m o n i t o r . S i n c e b o t h t e s t s m o n i t o r changes
PCM Determination of Faults Chart
Number of Faults Number of Separate Number of Trips with Number of Trips with Number ofWann-W
DtC
Type (How on Separate trips to Consecutive Trips to No Faults to Erase a No F a u l t t o T u r n t h e Cycles to Erase
N Completes) Set a Pending DtC Light MIL, Store a DTC Maturing DTC M I L Oft after M I L Is Turn.
t 1-Trip 3-Trips 40
Omxvmt*M cycle
3-OBD-ll drive cycle
*****
at 3-Slmilar conditions
3—Similar conditions 80
1 80
3-Slmllar conditions
1-Trtp 40
3-Trips
e»
1—Trip 40
3-Trips
1—Trip 40
3-Trips
1 —Trip 40
3-Trlos
Chapter 5A: Onboard Qiagnc^ 621
ratio and adaptive f u e l c o m p e n s e " Example:

^ each otber. ECT
Sh orted high (input to PCM above capable voltage, i.e.. 5-v: '-serm.r with
cgspend Occasionally, t h e P C M m a y no : 2 •vol: input to PCM would indicate a shor* to voltage or a short high.
....>•0 mature. T h e P C M w i l l s u s p e n d t h e ; \
Edition exists that may induce erroneous V -
Conditions t o
"••-.iiatingthe MIL for t h e w r o n g f a u l t a n d a l l o w s m o r e precise
Monitor Set O T C a n d Extinguish Clear D T C Applicable
-;agnosis. Type Illuminate M I L MIL Criteria DTC
For example, if t h e P C M is s t o r i n g a o n e - t r i p fault for t h e
Comprehensive Continuous tSeenote 3 consecutive warm-up P0123
.jjgen sensor and t h e E G R m o n i t o r , t h e P C M m a y still r j n ' h e
Monitor 1-ir*s monitor befowl pass trios cycles
monitor but will s u s p e n d t h e r e s u l t s u n t i l t h e o x y g e n ser.- input and
sr monitor either p a s s e s o r fails. A t t h a t p o i n t , t h e P C M can de- output âllure—
b a s e if the EGR s y s t e m is a c t u a l l y f a i l i n g or :f an o x y g e - rationally.
-JO-is failing. fiFCSonaffy.
eiec&lrady
Nationality T e s t W h i l e i n p u t signals to t h e P C M are constantly

V'"C monitored for electrical o p e n s a n d s h o r t s , t h e y are also tested
--•jSonality. This m e a n s t h a t t h e i n p u t signal is c o m p a r e d against D I 6 The trasber o' -iaes &e comprehensive componen' monitor must
•y- inputs and i n f o r m a t i o n t o s e e if it m a k e s s e n s e u n d e r the cur- detect a fault depe-i- r - 4 ? ve'scfe s a n - a c t i s s : On some vehicles, the
m; conditions. comprehensive compcnent m - - . : : - w S a c j v r e the MIL as soon as it de-
tects a fault. Or. ether verities, the ccnvnhazfrt component monitor
PCM sensor inputs t h a t a r e c h e c k e d for rationality include:
must Si! two tines in a revr.
i MAP sensor
i 0;sensor
IECT • Freeze-frame c a p r r e d : - Srsi-trip failure.
i Camshaft position sensor (CMP) • Enabling conditions: M a n .- PCM sensors and o u t p u t devices are
• $> sensor tested at xer-on or Lm.meciatelv after engine start-up. However,
• Crankshaft position sensor (CKP) some devices iEC". idle speed control are on.lv tested i f f t h e com-
• 1AT sensor prehensive component monitor after t h e engine meets particular
• TP sensor engine conditions.
» ; mr:ent air temperature sensor • Pending: No pending ccndiCcr
• - oxer steering switch • Conflict: N o c o n S c t conditions
' 0 : sensor heater • Suspend: No suspend conditions
1
Engine controller
> Brake switch
1
P / N switch GENERIC OBD-II
1 T
ransmission controls All OBD-II vehicles m u s t be able to display data on a generic (also
called globe? scar, tool u n d e r n i n e different - o d e s ol o p e r a : : ? - .
These modes i n d u c e :
functionality T e s t A f u n c t i o n a l i t y test refers to P C M inputs
checking the operation of t h e o u t p u t s . Mode One C u r r e n t p o w e r train data ( p a r a m e t e r
Sample: i d e n t i f i c a t i o n displav or PID*
M o d e TVvo Freeze-frame d a t a
PCM commands t h e IAC o p e n ; e x p e c t e d c h a n g e in e n g i n e Diagnostic t r o u b l e c o d e s
Mode Three
KfM is not seen Clear and reset diagnostic trouble codes
M o d e Four
•AC 60 counts DTCsi. freeze-frame data, and readiness
"PM 700 RPM s t a t u s m o n i t o r s for n o n c o n t i n u o u s
outputs that are c h e c k e d for f u n c t i o n a l i t y include: monitors only
J ÂP canister purge solenoid M o d e Five O x v g e n s e n s o r m o n i t o r test results

EVAP purge vent solenoid M o d e Six O n b o a r d m o n i t o r i n g of test results for
• Cooling fan n o n c o n t i n u o u s l v m o n i t o r e d svstems
, a i r control solenoid M o d e Seven O n b o a r d m o n i t o r i n g of test results for
, f -'n control system c o n t i n u o u s l y m o n i t o r e d systems
, ^ t n i s s i o n torque c o n v e r t e r clutch solenoid
M o d e Eight Bidirectional control of onboard svstems
•^stnissioD shift solenoids (A.B.1-2, etc.)
Mode Nine M o d u l e identification
. ^ c a l Test Refers to t h e P C M c h e c k of b o t h input and out- The generic global data is used bv m o s t state emiss -
^ ^ the following: programs. Generic OBD-II displavs often use hexadec mal n .
, °Pen which use I o n u m b e r s instead of 10. The n u m b e r s 1 to - : ? - >
counts as a n u m b e r : m a k e up the &s* ' C a n i t h e - : : r -•• -
• r\-
to F complete t h e 16 n u m b e r s . To h e ' ? identify t h e r . u x b e r as h e r s
S22 S£CT»Sia
2. Whai is the difference between a type A ani. - OBD-II DTr-,

5 ' : — - . . a d o l l i r a g r . S. is used in front of the
: : .it'.e: S?e conversion chart below: 3. What is the difference between a trip and a , ;yC]e?
4. What could cause the MIL to flash?
Hexadecimal Code CHAPTER QUIZ

g so 1. A freeze-frame is generated on an OBD-II vehicle
I a. When a type C or D diagnostic trouble code is set
$1
b. When a type A or B diagnostic trouble code is set
S2
c. Every other trip
S3 d. When the PCM detects a problem with the 02S
4 $4
2. An ignition misfire or fuel mixture problem is an example of what
S $5 r®
of DTC?
6 $6 a. Type A
7 S7 b. TypeB
2 $8 c. Type C
d. Type D
$9
tc $A 3. How many terminals are in an OBD-II DLC?
a. 5
r> SB
b. 9
8 SC
c. 12
rt SO d. 16
14 SE 4. OBD 11 has been on all passenger vehicles in the United states since
ts SF
a. 1986
b. 1991
H e x a d e c i m a l c o d i n g is also used to identify tests i t e s t identifi- c. 1996
c a t i o n T I D ] a n d c o m p o n e n t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n [CID] . d. 2000
5. A generic scan tool can access the same information at the samerateass
enhanced original equipment manufacturer's scan tool.
F R E Q U E N T L Y A S K E D QUESTION a. True
b. False
Can You Tell Generic from Factory? 6. DTC P0302 is a .
f - i . ' ; a scan tool on an 080-ii-equipped vehicle, if the display asks for a. Generic DTC
b. Vehicle manufacturer-specific DTC
t i taoOei ana year, men the factory or enhanced part of the PCM is being
c. idle speed-related DTC
accessed - tne generic or giobai part of the PCM is being scanned, then there
d. Transmission/transaxle-reiated DTC
i x ' e e c tc i<r,ow tne vehicle details.
7. The MIL is turned off if .
a. The codes are cleared with a scan tool
b. Power to the PCM is disconnected
DiAfiKOSlNG P R O B L E M S USING MODE SIX c. The vehicle is driven on three consecutive trips with a w » t
: i o c e . J. i n f o r m a t i o n can be used to diagnose faults by following cycle and meets all code set conditions without the PCM» al
nnree steps: ing any faults
d. Any of the above occur
1. C n e c i -r.e m o n i t o r status before starting repairs. This step will 8. Which DTC could indicate that the gas cap is loose or defective?
h o w t h e system M e d . a. P0221
2. JL> . c tr.e c o m p o n e n t or parameter that triggered the fault. This b. P1301
neip ptn d o w n the root cause of the failure. c. P0442
3 . Uv. • t h e m o n i t o r enable criteria, which will show what it d
" P16°3 ^ f r
-_s/€r. V, or pac; tr.e monitor 9. The computer will automatically clear a DTC if there are no
tected faults after .
a. Forty consecutive warm-up cycles
SUMMARY b. Eighty warm-up cycles
1. : .•:-.•'. re "re ve the D l C and follow the manufacturer's recom- c. Two consecutive trips
- .< o r t y / x C ' S k tr. :'.r.d the root cause of the problem. d. Four key-on/key-off cycles
2 . .. - v . . r .." have 'r.e er.ac;e cnteria achieved before a test is 10. A pending code is set when a fault is detected o n .
pefSorr - - a. A one-trip fault item
b. The first fault of a two-trip failure
3. , ocr. .v. i DLC and common DTCs.
c. The catalytic converter efficiency sj
4. ',-.:, . . - 1a.:: , x. we;, i i vehicle manufacturer-specific d. Thermostat problem (too long to closed-loop st
DTCs a i d iata j.tp**/.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
I. .'• r.<- So ';. -• " c/t.e '!> <-rr.:.. .on-related
O B J E C T I V E S : After s t u d y i n g C h a p t e r 5 5 , t h e r e a d e r will b e a b l e to: Prepare for ASE Engine P e r f o r w c e A8= certification test content a r e a "E"
p i p t e r f z e d Engine Controls D i a g n o s i s a n d Repair). • Explain the purpose a n d function of t h e ECT and IAT t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s o r s . • Describe h o w to
USttWiperature s e n s o r s . • D i s c u s s h o w MAP s e n s o r s work. • List the m e t h o d s t h a t c a n b e u s e d to t e s t MAP s e n s o r s . • List how the operation of t h e
UUPseijsoraffects vehicle o p e r a t i o n . • D i s c u s s MAP s e n s o r rationality tests. • Discuss how MAF s e n s o r s wort. • List the m e t h o d s that can b e u s e d
totestMAPsensors. • List h o w t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e MAF s e n s o r affects vehicle operation. • Discuss I M F s e n s o r rationality t e s t s • Discuss how
o*ygen sensors (0 2 S) work. • D e s c r i b e t h e s y m p t o m s of a failed oxygen ser sor.
KEY TERMS: barometric manifold a b s o l u t e p r e s s u r e (BMAP) • barometnc pressure (BARO) sensor • otas w d a g e • cylinder head temperature (CHT)
• dpsed-loop operation • c r o s s c o u n t s • e n g i n e coolant temperature (ECT; • false air • false lean indication • f a l s e n c h indication • fuel t n m • hot
am sensor • hot wire s e n s o r • intake air t e m p e r a t u r e (IAT) • Karman vortex sensor • lean a r - f u e l t a l o s e n s o r (LAF) • I n e a r air-fuel ratio sensor
.manifold absolute p r e s s u r e ( M A P ) • m a s s airflow s e n s o r (MAF| • negative temperature coefficient fNTQ • open-loop operation • oxygen s e n s o r (OpS)
• piezoresistivity • p r e s s u r e differential • s k e w e d • s p e e d density • tap test • throttle-body temperature fTBT; • Ihrottle posrtxxi (TP) • transmission
tfujdtomperature (TFT) • t r a n s m i s s i o n oil t e m p e r a t u r e (TOT) • vacuum • vane airflow sensor (VAF) • wide-band O j S
ENGINE C O O L A N T T E M P E R A T U R E S E N S O R S E n g i n e c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s o r s a r e : o n ; : ~ J c t e d of a s e m i c o n
Computer-equipped v e h i c l e s u s e a n e n g i n e coolant tempera- ductor material that d e c r e a s e s in r e s i s t a n c e as t h e temperature of

ture (ECT) s e n s o r . W h e n t h e e n g i n e is c o l d , t h e f u e l m i x t u r e the sensor increases. C o o i a s t s e a t s n rave rery sgh resistance
must be richer t o p r e v e n t s t a l l i n g a n d e n g i n e s t u m b l e . W h e n t h e w h e n the coolan: s cold ssjd v.- r e l i a n c e w h e n t h e c o o l a n t is
engine is w a r m , t h e f u e l m i x t u r e c a n b e l e a n e r t o p r o v i d e m a x i - h o t . This is r e f e r r e d : ; " :. : n e g a t i v e t e m p e r a t u r e coeffi-
mum fuel e c o n o m y w i t h t h e l o w e s t p o s s i b l e e x h a u s t e m i s s i o n s . cient (NTCj, .'.-tacr. : : : : :e tc v, th mi st '/.her

Because the c o m p u t e r c o n t r o l s s p a r k t i m i n g a n d f u e l m i x t u r e , it electrical c o m p o n e n t s . S e e Figure 55-2.
"ill need to k n o w t h e e n g i n e t e m p e r a t u r e . A n e n g i n e coolant T h e r e f o r e , if t h e c o o j r . : s e r . s o r h a s a p o o r c o n n e c t i o n n i g h re-
temperature s e n s o r (ECT) screwed into the engine coolant sistance! at t h e w i r i n g c o n n e c t s , t h e c o m p u t e r w . ^ p p j y a richer-
passage will p r o v i d e t h e computer with this information. See t h a n - n o r m a l fuel m i x t u r e oas*-d : n t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e :oolar"
figure 5 5 - 1 . sensor. Poor fuel e c o n o m y a n d a possible-rich c o d e c a n b e c a u s e d

b y a d e f e c t i v e s e n s o r o r h jr. re; s t a n c e n t h e s e n s o r w i r i n g . If t h e
This will b e t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t ( h i g h a u t h o r i t y ) s e n s o r w h i l e
s e n s o r w a s s h o r t e d o r d e f e c t i v e ar.d h a d t o o l o w a r e s i s t a n c e , a
^ engine is c o l d . T h e i g n i t i o n t i m i n g c a n a l s o b e t a i l o r e d t o e n -
leaner-than-norma! L e i m i x t u r e w o u l o b e supplied to t h e engine. A
Sue (coolant) t e m p e r a t u r e . A h o t e n g i n e c a n n o t h a v e t h e s p a r k
too-lean f u e l m i x t u r e c a n c a u s e d r r . - e a t - i r v p r o b l e m s a n d a p o s s . s e
sing as far a d v a n c e d a s c a n a c o l d e n g i n e . T h e E C T s e n s o r is also
lean c o m p u t e r c o d e .
as an i m p o r t a n t i n p u t f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g :
1 TEMPERATURE
Me air control (IAC) p o s i t i o n
J Oxygen sensor c l o s e d - l o o p s t a t u s *F °C
'-Mister purge o n / o f f t i m e s 248' 120' ~
1
Mle speed
212 100
176 80
140 60
104' 40
68 20
32 J 0=
OV 1V 2V 3V 4V
VOLTAGE READING VOLTS
• A typical engine coolant temperature (ECT) sensor. ECT sensors are located
Figure 5 5 - 2 Atypical ECT sensor te-oe-an/- . sv. s*
""rmostat housing on most engines.
6M S .'
STEPPED ECT CIRCUITS TESTING THE ENGINE COOLANT TE I U R f
v:--: . € - c't- r u r . r ' . v a r e r s u s e a step-up resistor t o effectively Testing the Engine Coolant Temper. Vj
Visual Ins,
of t h e E C T sensor. Chrysler and General t i o n T h e correct f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e en>> )|an, , a l ,n Sp ec
r-^-r, .. « « ,1... f - . l i ... "HllPrrtr..
•" se ' e s a m e s e n s o r as a non-stepped ECT circuit, (ECT) sensor d e p e n d s o n t h e following > „ 'th a , t e r n p e i
* -"• arc the sensor voltage through t w o different checked or inspected: "" shouk!
kt
• P r o p e r l y tilled c o o l i n g s y s t e m . Check th; rac |i a!
bottle is full and that the radiator itself is filled to the t0I,' " '
• --. e- is coid, usually below 120°F |50°C|. the I - P<
r
- srsor age s applied through a high-value resistor inside
tJsePCM. WARNING' Be sure that the radiator is c o o l bet,:
• «v V v ~ip i r j r e is w a r m , usually above 120°F (50°C). the cap to avoid being scalded by hot coolant.
ECT sensor voltage is applied through a much lower resistance
* a i u e fcsjde t h e P C M . See Figure 5 5 - 3 .
The ECT sensor must be submerged in coolant to be ab!- •
T h e p urpose of t h i s e x t r a circuit is to give the PCM a more ac- indicate the proper coolant temperature.
: - e a d i n g of t h e e n g i n e coolant t e m p e r a t u r e compared to the
• P r o p e r p r e s s u r e m a i n t a i n e d b y t h e r a d i a t o r cap. ifthera
same sensor w i t h o n i v o n e c i r c u i t See Figure 5 5 - 4 .
tor cap is defective and cannot allow the cooling system to beer-
pressurized, air pockets could develop. These air pockets could
cause the engine to operate at a hotter-than-normal temperature
and prevent proper temperature measurement, especially if the a -
PCM pockets occur around the sensor.
300!!
• P r o p e r a n t i f r e e z e - w a t e r m i x t u r e . Most vehicle manufactures
- 5 V ( A B O V E 120 F ( 5 0 C »
recommend a 5 0 / 5 0 mixture of antifreeze and water as the
- 5 V ( B E L O W 120 F ( 5 0 = C ) ) best compromise between freezing protection and heat transfer
3.5 K i l ability.
• P r o p e r o p e r a t i o n of t h e c o o l i n g f a n . If the cooling fan doe -
— SENSOR INPUT
operate correctly, the engine may overheat.
Testing the ECT Using a Multimeter Both the resistance

ohms) and the voltage d r o p across t h e sensor can be measured JK
compared with specifications. See Figure 5 5 - 5 . See the following
charts s h o w i n g e x a m p l e s of typical e n g i n e coolant tempera®
FigweB-3 A two-steo ECT orajrt showing mat when the coolant temperature is
sensor specifications. S o m e vehicles u s e a P C M to attach anoftc
. m T V - r a n w o e s a 5 w i t reference voltage to the ECT sensor through a higher resistor in the ECT circuit to provide a m o r e accurate measures
,i M i , , , a r v & e O to when the temperature is higher the engine temperature. See Figure 5 5 - 6 .
4 80
4 48
4.16
ECT VOLTAGE
3.84
3.52
3-20
2 8 8
DC
VOLTS 2 56
2_24
1.92
1.60
DEGREES F
jxamP16'
In this
,-»<-. r . f i f act / at a l e - perature that would not interfere with cold engine starts or the cooling tan operation
t • aMrt * • > n«e« K> a m " 6 wife

Chapter 55 Computer S m m t
General Motors ECT S e n s o r w i t h P u B - u p R e s i s t o r
•f X Otmi M t l f t Offlp A c q M
-4C -40 100 ooo

22 • 30 53 000 4.78
-4 -20 29.000 444
14 16,000 3.89
K t 9.400 3.4S
SO 10 5.700 ran
m 26 u n 256
% n 2 200 180
104 49 1500 110
fMKIor
switched by PCM
122 50 170 325
140 80 870 2.88
15» n cm 256
176 80 TOt 224
194 90 240 170
212 10B 177 142
230 11* IS
figure 55-5 Measuring the resistance of the ECT sensor. The resistance measurement
JOT tie compared with specifications.
248 120 urn <7
R j r f ECT S e n s o r
ECT SENSOR
• ECT SIGNAL CIRCUIT 50 19 5E.75C XST
68 20 V M u s
H
I ECT GROUND CIRCUIT 86 X 34J7B 226
104 46 m i a
' { ENGINE 5VVREF
UNDER 122'F 122 56 •L-SR. 172
B L C K
>T ° A/D C O N V E R T E R 140 60 7SK MB
GROUND CONNECTION &37B 1M
158 70
178 80 U « 086
' Wt S5-6 When the voltage drop reaches approximately 1 20 volts, the PCM turns on a 90 2J86
194
* * * * The transistor connects a 1 -kfl resistor in parallel with the 10-kfJ resistor Total
212 100 2»8 O H M M
•"issance now drops to around 909 ohms. This function allows the PCM to have fui
'*) 'Coiitrai at cold temperatures up to approximately 122°F, and a seconO full binary 230 116 1550 6J6
st temperatures greater than 122°F. 248 120 %.M 026
General M o t o r s E C T S e n s o r w i t h o u t P u l l - u p R e s i s t o r C h r y s J e r ECT S e n s o r w i t h o u t P u l l - u p R e s i s t o r
Ohms Voltage Drop Across Sensor f •e
130 54 177
100,000 + 4.95
14,628 468 140 60 ISO
o 9.420 4.52 158 56 140
10 5.670 160 71 U
4.25
20 3.520 176 77 US
389
30 2.238 180 82 2. JO
346
40 1.459 19C 88 2JD
2.97
50 973 93 246
2.47 200
60 99 2 26
667 2.00 210
70 104
467 1.59 220 2»
80
332 230 •m * at
1 25
90
241 240 IIS ill
0.97
100
177 250 121 ' «
0.75
Europoan Bosch ECT Sen
Chrysler E C T Sensor with Pull-up Resistor
•F •c
•CM Volts "08|uj
32 0
- 20 -29 6,500
50 10
to -23 4,000
68 20
0 18 3,000
86 30
to -12 2.000
104 40
20 -7 1,500
122 50
30 -1 900
140 60
40 4 650
158 70
50 10 500
176 80
GO 16 375
194 90
m 21 295
212 100
so 27 230
90 32
100 38
110 43
Honda ECT S e n s o r ( R e s i s t a n c e Chart)
120 49 4.10
130 54 400
•F
140 60 3.60
o 18 15,000
(50 66 3.40
32 0 5,000
160 71 3.20
68 20 3.000
170 77 3.02
104 40 1,000
180 82 2.80
140 60 500
190 88 2 60
176 80 400
200 93 2.40
212 100 250
210 99 2.20
220 104 2.00
230 110 1.80
240 116 1.62
250 121 1.45
Honda ECT S e n s o r (Voltage Chart)
V o l t a g e (VI
•F •c
Nissan ECT Sensor 4.70
0 -18
4.50
-12
o o o o o o o o o
f •C Resistance (11) 4.29

-7
14 10 7.000-11,400 4.10
-1
68 20 2,100-2,900 3.86
122 50 680-1.000 3.61

10
178 80 260-390 3.35
16
212 100 180-200 3.08
21
2.81
27
2.50
32 2.26
Mercedes ECT 100 38 2.00
110 1.74
1 •c Voltage (DCV) 49
120 1,52
K 20 3.5 130 54 1.33

8* 30 3.1 140 60 1.15
104 40 2.7 150 66 1.00
122 50 2.3 160 71 0.88
140 60 1.9 170 77 O.T

Mi 70 1.6 180 82 0.64
178 80 1.2 190 88 0.55
194 90 200
1.0 93
212 too 210
0B 99
resistance values match the appro actual temperature of the engine is an excellent method to test an
rtd titer* Is still a coolant sensor ti blecode, me problem Is engine coolant temperature sensor.
!rt
,. a lly in the w i r i n g b e t w e e n the v •
1. Record the scan tool temperature of the coolant (ECT).
^ consult the manufacturers' reconv
2. Mea re the a ual temperature of the coolant t. rig ••.'M.-.-J
v-klng this wiring. If the resistance v a
L a y need to be replaced.
pyrometer or contact-type temperature probe.
Normal operating temperature varies with vehicle make

•j model. Some vehicles are e q u i p p e d w i t r >
J
! opening t e m p e r a t u r e of I f l O ' l 182 C ] , v K.'ST -'gauge In the dash of the vehkl-' an
J
"(S use a thermostat that is 1 9 5 ° F (90"', or •• • •' rr-wr -jart tool temperature. Although not-Bece:
.^lacing the ECT sensor, be sure that the • 1 • • ••-•> . ry daijiosp a iaulty sensor; especially If the
temper; n iwr sn the scan tool varies greatly from the temperature
jjj temperature specified by the manufacture M
fattened on the dash
recommend checking the ECT sensor after the • -
jan has cycled twice, indicating a fully warmed eng r e. ' ee
figure 55-7.
The maxfer.uro d.ference between the t w o readings should be
10*F (5*C . If the actual temperature varies by more than 10°F
MOTE; Many manufacturers Install another resistor In para
from the temperature nd cated on the scan tool, check the ECT
computer to change the voltage drop across the ECT sen ,"f.
sensor wiring and connector f o r d a m a s k or corrosion. If t h e con-
• .tpand the scale of the ECT sensor and to make m<. •<:• or .
nector and v. are ka,. -seek rne s e n s o r w i t h a D V O M for
•,. Therefore, If measuring mirage at the ECT sensor, check with tf <
ie manual for the proper voltage at each temperature.
resistance and compare to the a r ja! engine temperature chart. If
that checks out ikav, check -he c o m p u t e t
Testing the ECT Sensor U s i n g a S c a n Tool Follow the

:an tool m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s i n s t r u c t i o n s a n d c o n n e c t a scan tool to the WTfc Some n i A c u a i -se two c roian: serjors. one for the dasn
data link c o n n e c t o r ( D L C ) of t h e v e h i c l e . C o m p a r i n g t h e tempera ga^ge and soother o x tor oorapu'er
re of the e n g i n e c o o l a n t a s d i s p l a y e d o n a s c a n tool w i t h t h e
GENERIC LOGGING FORM

FORM SAVED TMK Z1B/04 4 11.S5 PM
REMARKS: ECT Voltage UPLOAD TIME 2f1M>4 4:09:05 PM
2001 Jeep Wrangler Warm-up Cycle
AUTO 202 - Fuel and Emissions Systems METER IC FLUKE 199 V2.02 0065510069
SHOW DATA ALL GRAPH VIEW ALL
Q 3.0 •
0.5 -h.
15:27 15:28 15:29 15 30 15:31 15 32 15:33 15:34 15:35 15 36 15:37 15 38 15:39
TIME
^ chart showing the voltage decrease of the ECT sensor as the teniwratwe ita$t* N M a COM start The Our s at thetioaDBi ot Be mnorm rttnm* »m*r>mi
'Twrnostat opens and is controlling Want temperatuie
control (adding or s u b t r a c t i n g fuel) a n d sp ,in
TECH TV 8'dependi„
Owe* and Easy ECT Test the t e m p e r a t u r e of i n c o m i n g air.
tw anc tne ooôuter are functioning regarding the ECT • If the air temperature is cold, the P C M v. dlfythea
t 19. j 1
d o aro took at the ECT temperature display. fuel delivery and add fuel.
• If the air temperature is hot, t h e P C M w i l l act the!
I *1 ? v corrector from the ECT sensor Ttie temperature ted
amount of fuel.
l o r ?>e scan toot short) read aflout - 4 0
• Spark timing is also changed, d e p e n d i n g o n temperatur.
air entering the engine. The t i m i n g is a d v a n c e d if t h e temp,
40- Casms b atso - 4 0 - Fahrenheit This is the point where both
is cold and retarded from t h e base p r o g r a m m e d t i m i n g if •>- , . ire
scales fieet
perature is hot.
• Cold air is more dense, contains m o r e o x y g e n , a n d therefore •<
# 2 *.tti the connector still removed from the ECT sensor, use a fused
quires a richer mixture to achieve t h e proper air-fuel
r lead ano connect tie two terminals of the connector together The mixture. %
at 32°F (0°C) is 14% d e n s e r t h a n air at 100°F (38°C)
scar sol should display afiout 265 ; F |140°O
• Hot air is less dense, contains less o x y g e n , and therefore require
test procedure win work for the IAT and most other temperature less fuel to achieve the proper a i r - f u e l mixture.
T h e IAT sensor is a l o w - a u t h o r i t y s e n s o r and is used b

c o m p u t e r to m o d i f y t h e a m o u n t of f u e l a n d ignition timing a •
termined by t h e e n g i n e c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e sensor.
INTAKE AIR TEMPERATURE SENSOR T h e IAT sensor is used b y t h e P C M a s a backup in the eve-
i n t a k e air t e m p e r a t u r e (IAT) sensor is a negative tempera- that t h e ECT s e n s o r is d e t e r m i n e d to b e inoperative.
t u r e coefficient iNTC) thermistor that decreases in resistance as t h e
t e m p e r a t u r e of the sensor increases. The IAT sensor can be located
rr. o n e of the following locations:
NOTE: Some engines use a throttle-body t e m p e r a t u r e (TBT)
• !h the air cleaner housing sense the temperature of the air entering the e n g i n e . Instead of an i-.ai
• r. the air duct between the air filter and the throttle body, as air temperature sensor.
shown in Figure 5 5 - 8
• Built Into the mass airflow (MAF) or airflow sensor
• Screwed into the intake manifold where it senses the temperature Engine t e m p e r a t u r e is m o s t a c c u r a t e l y d e t e r m i n e d by looking
of the air entering the cylinders the engine coolant t e m p e r a t u r e (ECT) sensor. In certain cond:..-
t h e IAT has an effect o n p e r f o r m a n c e a n d driveability. One su
condition is a w a r m e n g i n e b e i n g s t o p p e d in very cold weathet
BOTE An IAT installed in the intake manifold is the most likely to suffer this case, w h e n the e n g i n e is r e s t a r t e d , t h e ECT may be near rare.
t a n s e Cue to an engine backfire, which can often destroy the sensor. operating t e m p e r a t u r e s u c h as 2 0 0 ( F ( 9 3 ° C ) y e t the air temperatir
could be - 2 0 ° F ( - 3 0 ° C ) . In t h i s c a s e , t h e engine r e q u i r e s a net-
m i x t u r e d u e to t h e cold air t h a n t h e E C T w o u l d seem to indicate.
The purpose and function of the intake air t e m p e r a t u r e sensor
.. crovide the engine computer (PCM) the t e m p e r a t u r e of the air
entering t h e engine. The IAT sensor information is used for fuel T E C H TIP Poor Fuel E c o n o m y ? Black Exhaust Smoke'
Look a t t h e IAT
If the intake air temperature sensor is defective, it may be signaling ttie
puter that the intake air temperature is extremely cold when in fact it is *-
In such a case the computer will supply a mixture that is much ncher
normal.
If a sensor is physically damaged or electrically open, the compute^
often set a diagnostic trouble code (DTC). This DTC is based on the fact W
sensor temperature did not change for a certain amount of time, usua»
8 minutes. If, however, the wiring or the sensor itself has excessive resistai
DTC will not be set and the result will be lower-than-normal fuel ecoiw™
in serious cases, black exhaust smoke from the tailpipe during acceiera.1
TESTING T H E INTAKE AIR T E M P E R A T U R E SENSQR

If t h e intake air t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s o r circuit is damaged >
diagnostic trouble c o d e (DTC) is s e t a n d t h e m a l f u n c t i o n ^
lamp (MIL) m a y or m a y n o t t u r n o n d e p e n d i n g on ' ,
and t h e type a n d m o d e l of t h e v e h i c l e . To diagnose the
follow these steps:
Step #1 After the vehicle has b e e n allowed to cool for s J

use a scan tool, observe the IAT, a n d c o m p a r e it t o t h ^ v
Figwe 55-8 T
ne AT serwr on t n General Motors 3800 V-6 engine is in the air passage
coolant temperature (ECT). T h e t w o temperatures M'
4od Mtaeer 1 * m dearer tau&AQ and the throttle plate
within 5°F of each other.
Cnaptr 55 Camputer S m m m
a perform a thorough visual I m p General Motors

0 .,„„ |f the I AT Is screwed Into th<
^ s o r and check for damage. tranuito San»or-Tempwrt»» to (tenstanc* to Volta*
- Check the voltage and compare tr,
5#P
50 4 834-4 487
e Air Temperature Sensor T e m p e r a t u r e > 1106-3 973
20 68
and Voltage Drop (Approximate) i 991 -2 483
86
104 1JB7-1J1'
VoHagt Drop AcroM
Ohms the Senior St 122 878-' 067
•F
•0.
60 14* 805-/28
40 100.000 495
-40 1S8 425-507
• 15,000 468
0
32 9.400 4 52
« 304-359
0 90 1«4 221-26*
50 5,700 4.25
to
3,500 100
68 3.89
8
86 2,200 3.46
30
104 1,500 2.97
«
SO 122 1.000 2.47
>1 140 700 2.00

n 158 500 1.59
i 176 300 1.25
90 194 250 097
t T
212 200 0.75
-40 291 490-Ml .7*0
»tso-mm
-2D
46 250-41,430
FREQUENTLY ASKED Q U E S T I O N 29 3SD-3SJH
'7.990-21 J10
Wtiat Exactly Is an NTC Sensor?
20 • I! J W - t J J M
1
isgative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor is a semiconductor whose • 'SD-MJW
25
usance decreases as the temperature increases. In other words, the se-sor * 7378-eno
30
oecomes more electrically conductive as the temperature increases "êr re 1900-4 7 »
40
a voltage is applied, typically 5 volts, the signal voltage is high wtier. the 1J30-M80
50
*®r is cold because the sensor has a high resistance and little current " t o ; is+-2jm
a Ml
to ground. See Figure 55-9.
•51 ! U6-1JW8
However, when the temperature increases, the sensor becomes -ore
a I '.7&-1J46
eiectrica
"y conductive and takes more of the 5 volts to ground, res^-ng in a 30
m MMR
«*er signal voltage as the sensor warms. 98
MB ra M0-7J5
IM as m m
129 m
"Emission fluid temperature sensor
r transmission fluid temperature (TFT),
^ m i s s i o n oil t e m p e r a t u r e ( T O T ) ,
- i s o r f o r the proper o p e r a t i o n of t h e a u t o m a t i c transmission. A
»nsor is a negative t e m p e r a t u r e coefficien- NTC h e - i i s t o r
decreases in resistance as t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of the sensor in
" S e e the following c h a r t s .
f Umm HI
X
PCM 4C» 4 »7f »»«
an-* J»JJ
MPERATURE M M N
L
8*20 S M
^SORHIGH
^STANCE > 2116 46 M B 104
SIGNAL HKJHERVDL'ACSe
«0T£ LOWER WHENSCNSOFL Mi*f98
41 IB 10
rscotc
LOWEN VOLTAGE rt»9B
WHENSENSOFL <«»za ZT* «
91M1M
IS MOT mmm
nifetfG
tya'sc V M k*M«M
. — — — — — — — —
A
"Wal temperature m a r c*cut
{30 SfcTTC* a
The t r e r s r .-s • " - - • - . - D e r a t u r e signal is u s e d b y t h e Diagnostic

ri„ . ..... r-..;-i€ t o perform certain strategies Trouble
M s : ;r. t h e • • : - - e r a r - r e ." t h e automatic transmission fluid. For Code Description Possible Causes
IAT sensor IAT sensor Internally ed-to-ground

P0112
IAT sensor wiring sh to-ground
• .". • • e : th automatic transmission fluid is low (typi- low voltage
IAT sensor damaged by backfire
: i below 32 F | . Q . t h e shift points may be delayed andover- with IAT sensors that we mounted in the intake
: t s a : •:: " r e torque converter clutch also may not be manifold)
a : : -:•: '.: a s ' in t h e heating of the fluid. Possible defective PCM
• — >: r a t _ r e of m e automatic transmission fluid is high P0113 IAT sensor
IAT sensor internally (electrically) open
r-r • above 2 6 0 : F 1 1 3 0 ° Q i , the overdrive is disabled and the high voltage IAT sensor signal, circuit, or ground circuit open
Possible defective PCM
torque i n v e r t e r clutch is applied to help reduce the temperature
of the Said. P0117 ECT sensor • ECT sensor internally shorted to ground
1
low voltage The ECT sensor circuit wiring shorted-to-ground
1
P0118 ECT sensor • ECT sensor internally (electrically) open

Hit r. t service information for the exact shift strategy based high voltage • ECT sensor signal, circuit, or ground circuit op«
' Engine operating in an overheated condition
. - '. sit and low transmission fluid temperatures for the vehicle being 1
scvxed.
Cylinder Head Temperature Sensor S o m e vehicles are THROTTLE POSITION SENSORS

: :_.:: ; w i t h c y l i n d e r h e a d t e m p e r a t u r e ( C H T ) sensors.
Most computer-equipped e n g i n e s u s e a t h r o t t l e position (TP)
V W Golf 1 4 ° F ( 1 0 ° C ) = 1 1 , 6 0 0 a s e n s o r t o signal t o t h e c o m p u t e r t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e throttle. See
Figure 5 5 - 1 0 . T h e T P s e n s o r c o n s i s t s of a p o t e n t i o m e t e r , a t y p e o f
6 8 ° F ( 2 0 ° C ) = 2 , 9 0 0 fi
variable resistor.
176°F (80°C) = 3 9 0 Q
Engine Fuel Temperature (EFT) Sensor Some vehicles, Potentiometers A p o t e n t i o m e t e r is a variable-resistance sensor
s u c h ar m a n y Ford v e h i c l e s t h a t are e q u i p p e d w i t h an electronic re- w i t h t h r e e t e r m i n a l s . O n e e n d of t h e r e s i s t o r receives reference
• u r o l e s s t y p e of f u e l i n j e c t i o n , u s e a n e n g i n e fuel t e m p e r a t u r e (EFT) voltage, w h i l e t h e o t h e r e n d is g r o u n d e d . T h e third terminal is at
s e n s IT t o give t h e P C M i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a n d , t a c h e d t o a m o v a b l e c o n t a c t t h a t s l i d e s a c r o s s t h e resistor to ray
t h e r e f o r e , t h e d e n s i t y of t h e fuel. its r e s i s t a n c e . D e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r t h e c o n t a c t is near the supply
e n d or t h e g r o u n d e n d of t h e r e s i s t o r , r e t u r n v o l t a g e is high or tat
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) Temperature Sensor See Figure 5 5 - 1 1 .
S o m e e n g i n e s , s u c h as Toyota, a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h e x h a u s t gas recir- Throttle position ( T P ) s e n s o r s a r e a m o n g the most com
culation E G R | t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s o r s . EGR is a well-established m o n p o t e n t i o m e t e r - t y p e s e n s o r s . T h e c o m p u t e r uses their input
- s e t h o d for r e d u c t i o n of N O , e m i s s i o n s in internal c o m b u s t i o n en- to d e t e r m i n e t h e a m o u n t of t h r o t t l e o p e n i n g and the rate
g,r.es. T h e e x h a u s t gas c o n t a i n s u n b u m e d h y d r o c a r b o n s , w h i c h are change.
recirc . l a t e d in t h e c o m b u s t i o n process. Recirculation is controlled A typical s e n s o r h a s t h r e e w i r e s :
: aives, w h i c h o p e r a t e as a f u n c t i o n of e x h a u s t gas s p e e d , load,
a n d t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e gas r e a c h e s a t e m p e r a t u r e of a b o u t 8 5 0 ° F • A 5-volt r e f e r e n c e feed w i r e f r o m t h e c o m p u t e r
45'. C for w h i c h a special h e a v y - d u t y glass-encapsulated NTC • A signal r e t u r n ( g r o u n d w i r e b a c k t o t h e c o m p u t e r )
s e n s o r is available. • A voltage signal w i r e b a c k t o t h e c o m p u t e r ; as t h e throttle is
The PCM monitors the temperature in the exhaust o p e n e d , t h e v o l t a g e to t h e c o m p u t e r c h a n g e s
b e t w e e n t h e EGR v a l v e a n d t h e i n t a k e m a n i f o l d . If t h e
'--ser«".re increases w h e n t h e EGR is c o m m a n d e d on, the
. - ' . ' . ' . car. d e t e r m i n e t h a t t h e v a l v e or related c o m p o n e n t s a r e
f u n c t k * mg.
E n g i n e Oil T e m p e r a t u r e S e n s o r Engine oil t e m p e r a t u r e sen

/.'.are on m a n y G e n e r a l M o t o r s ' vehicles and a r e u s e d as an
' ' f e m o n i t o r i n g s y s t e m . T h e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m in-
H u S S x i N f r ^ P i^^^K THROTTLE
. d e •;.«• c a l c u l a t e s e n g i n e oil life based on r u n t i m e , e n g i n e
^ ^ ^ ^ • M B S ^ ^ I h I ^ ^ ^ H POSITION
? /. aridtemperature. % S E N S O R
TEMPERATURE SENSOR DIAGNOSTIC TROUBLE CODES

1
- 'j?,'} . -: v i ; . o - . v tro-jWe code , that relate to t e m p e r a t u r e
;
" " i d e both r a n d l o w voltage codes, as well as Figure 5 5 - 1 0 A typical TP sensor mounted on the throttle plate of this port-miec'"1
m e r m rtent codes. engine.
Chapw 56: Comptdr Sanson SJ
Ford Throttle Position (TP) Sensor Chart
Throttle Angle (Degrees) Voltag»(V)
0 050
10 097
20 1 44
30 1 90
40 2.37
90 284
5-VOLT REFERENCE
60 331
70 378
4.5-VOLT SIGNAL
80 424
GROUND RETURN
PCM USES FOR THE TP SENSOR

Fgure K M ' The signal voltage from a throttle position increases as the throttle t
' r arm is closer to the 5-volt reference. At idle, the resistance ol the T h e TP sensor is used by t h e p o w e r t r a i n c o n t r o l m o d u l e ( P C M i for
; sol winding effectively reduces the signal voltage output to the computer. t h e following reasons:
Normal throttle p o s i t i o n v o l t a g e o n m o s t vehicles is about Clear Flood Mode If t h e t h r o t t l e is d e p r e s s e d t o t h e f l o o r
0.5 volt at idle (closed t h r o t t l e ) a n d 4 . 5 volts a t w i d e - o p e n throttle d u r i n g e n g i n e c r a n k i n g , t h e P C M will e i t h e r g r e a t l y r e d u c e or

entirely e m u l a t e any ' u e - i n j e c t o r p u l s e s t o aid in c l e a n i n g a
(WOT),
flooded e n g i n e . If t h e t l r a r J e is d e p r e s s e d t o t h e f l o o r a n d t h e
e n g i n e is n o t f l o o d e d .in excessive fuel, the engine may
BUT: T h e T P sensor v o l t a g e a t idle is usually about 10% of the TP sensor not s t a r t

a g e when t h e t h r o t t l e is w i d e o p e n , but can vary from as low as
" 3 volt to 1.2 volts, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m a k e and model of vehicle. Torque Converter Clutch E n g a g e m e n t a n d Release
torque converter c. j t c h wifl b e r e l e a s e d if t h e P C M d e t e c t s rapid
acceleration to help t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n d e l i v e r m a x i m u m t o r q u e t o
TP S E N S O R C O M P U T E R I N P U T FUNCTIONS t h e drive wheels. T h e © r o u e c o n v e r t e r c l u t c h is also d i s e n g a g e d
w h e n t h e accelerator pedal is released w i t h t h e v e h i c l e m o v i n g t o
• The c o m p u t e r s e n s e s a n y c h a n g e in t h r o t t l e position and help engine braking.
changes t h e f u e l m i x t u r e a n d ignition timing. T h e actual change
in fuel m i x t u r e and ignition t i m i n g is also partly d e t e r m i n e d by Rationality Testing for M A P a n d M A F S e n s o r s A -t
the o t h e r s e n s o r s , such as t h e m a n i f o l d p r e s s u r e I engine vacu- t h e rationality tests for t h e M A P a n d . or M A F sensor, t h e T P s e n s o r
um), e n g i n e R P M , t h e c o o l a n t t e m p e r a t u r e , and oxygen signal is compared to r e reading from o t h e r s e n s o r s t o d e - - rrr ine if
sensor(s). S o m e throttle position s e n s o r s a r e adjustable and they m a t c h . For e x a m p l e , if t h e t h r o t t l e position s e n s o r is show- - j>
should b e s e t according to t h e e x a c t e n g i n e m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s wide-open throttle WOT . die MAP a n d / o r MAF reading should
specifications. also indicate that this e n g i n e ts u n d e r a h e a v y load. If n o t , a diag
' The t h r o t t l e p o s i t i o n (TP) sensor used on fuel-injected vehicles acts nostic trouble code c o u l d b e s e t for t h e TP, a s w e l l a s t h e M A P
as an " e l e c t r o n i c accelerator p u m p . " This m e a n s that the computer and or M A F sensors.
*ill p u l s e a d d i t i o n a l fuel from t h e injectors w h e n the throttle is de-
Pressed. B e c a u s e t h e air can quickly flow into the engine w h e n the Automatic Transmission Shift Points 1
throttle is o p e n e d , additional fuel m u s t be supplied to prevent the
delayed if t h e throttle is o p e n e d w i d e t o a l l o w t h e e n g i n e s p e e d to
' ^ f u e l m i x t u r e f r o m going lean, causing the engine to hesitate
n 1)16
increase, thereby p r o d u c i n g m o r e p o w e r a n d a i d i n g in r e acceiera
I t h r o t t l e i s depressed. I f t h e TP sensor is unplugged or de-
ec
tion of t h e vehicle. If t h e t h r o t t l e is barely o p e n , t h e s h p o m : oc
tive, t h e e n g i n e m a y s t i l l o p e r a t e satisfactorily, but hesitate upon
curs at the m i n i m u m s p e e d d e s i g n e d for t h e v e h i c l e .
acceleration.
Jhe P C M
s u p p l i e s the TP sensor w i t h a regulated voltage that Target Idle S p e e d ( I d l e C o n t r o l Strategy)
j^ges f r o m 4.8 to 5.1 volts. This reference voltage is usualiv re- sensor voltage is at t h e idle, t h e P C M t h e n controls idle speed . n.
rred t 0 a s a
jr 5-volt reference or "Vref." The TP output signal is ar. the idle air control iLAC. a n d or s p a r k t i m i n g variation t > r.alr.ta.r.
e
t^pk ® P C M , and the TP sensor ground also flows through the c o m m a n d e d idle s p e e d . If t h e TP s e n s o r ..-.:.:ate rat H
throttle has m o v e d off idle, fuel d e l i v e r y a n d s p a r k r r r ; ir ::
grammed for a c c e l e r a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , if t h e t h i " t i e . ' a : :- . r •
o f h o S ' e t h e F°t"d throttle p o s i t i o n (TP) s e n s o r c h a r t for an e x a m p l e or binding, t h e idle s p e e d m a y n o t be c o r r e c t
s
ensor voltage c h a n g e s w i t h t h r o t t l e angle.
Air-Conditioning C o m p r e s s o r Operation
also used as a n i n p u t s e n s o r for t r a d e r , c r . r . r : .: . - - . • • > . K
Ceneralty, any reading h i g h e r t h a n 80% represents wide-open compressor operation. If t h e PCM uetecs rat the rr-r*
10
the computer. is at or close to w i d e o p e r . t h e r.d.r r r z ccmpwaor u
J disengaged.
A W *
» -v d c 1 1 p o o e e 3 2 o r - lc
OeE
w » a a backus » 2CC-*e O k S - N G l E _ TP
" :*» P M : e * c B sm
The K . M «Hr~ alciitases
• erjgjne t w e d 3PM and
• v v - « n * m « r T u ôsmon sensor
JT.Tg "oca:
'» • o w w n e d fe r r be
TM i d 1 c .xaaenor c bide proc-
l b » m « tef rie
i w a <vr*c*.*d B series s e w w c the c u u p - v a r c

A r y v « s m t t f j : DM i r a t e «s E V RUN ON A AT 50%
•i 7 ? N B f i c * TR TWISOWC a « i * d g t t f v o t e * ! e t
•
(55-13 A t i v c i i i M w ^ o U T P s e f m s g n M a s r e c a i l M o M D S O a v
r » r r w . T p m • tack probe the W f . or • total- W MB depressed with ignition switch onrengmeoff
i v am tkcrrxM teem to a * w ? i a g to the TP tensot See • ant «v Me* ol w r gmcftes m tr*s ometonn mdcate i good vena
See R p i r e 5 5 - 1 3 for MI e i a m p t e of h o w a good TP sensor

• M M i M k i i M w ^ w l h M v a e took when tested with a digital storage oscilloscope iDSC
M wmRM h f v —•warYftri
aan v tfcraoostem ' p e d a i n depress the throttle because fts* -

* s«t> fetes - TP ier.sor as the driver does during noma: atisi
t e s t e * t t a n a t r y&Qga i g j u multimeter v.,..—* O r ' > ls sand under the hood may not actuates :.-
rtch on i e n p n e «®.
» t e t w w a d > a p i i w%* and pound mler
4 . With the voltmeter still connected, slowly return the throttle
' v o t a a r « m f « be A e u t vat
d o w n to the idle position. T h e voltage from the TP sensor shoaM
alto decrease evenly o n t h e return to idle.
T h e TP sensor voltage at idle s h o u l d be within the accep x

ranjie as specified by t h e manufacturer. S o m e TP sensors can t e *
justed by k x a e m n g their r e t a i n i n g screws a n d moving the stnw •
r a t i o n t o t h e t h r o a l e o p e n i n g . T h i s m o v e m e n t changes the <KZ-
di the «rwicr rafi o r . , voltage oI t h e sensor.
l i e raair d y o l (roc the
All TP sensors s h o u l d also p r o v i d e a s m o o t h transition K
l o w tor m '•mi von" w opan
reading from idle t o W O T a n d b a c k to idle. Replace the TP s o
B n m r i to (tie wle-apttf pwidBtL
erratic voltage readings a r e o b t a i n e d o r if t h e correct settmg * »
cannot be o b t a i n e d .
TESTING A TP S E N S O R U S I N G T H E MIN/MAX
FUNCTION
M a n y digital multimeters are c a p a b l e o f recording v o l t a p '
ewer time and then displaying t h e m i n i m u m , m a x i m u m . »
age readings To perform a rain/man test o f the TP s e n s * * *
aii, se- ->e meter to read higher t h a n 4 volts.
Stap » 1 C o m e a the red meter lead to t h e signal wire and

meter lead to a good ground on t h e ground return '
TP sensot
Stap W2 With the ignition o n , engine off, slowly depress & *
the accelerator pedal from Inside the vehicle.
rfiP
Step # 3 Check the rr. jr.rnum and m a x i m u m voltage r e * 2 ' '
meter dsptav Any 0- or 5-volt reading would indicate J J-
ihort In the T P sensor.
S6 Oonpotor Sevan C-
C"V5 I S»«t t ! Check tlv K i n toof display br the p r - c T ^ p ' of thfor>

C o n d e m n i n g a B a d S< opening, Tt>: reading should br e r o ir»2 grtfJ*-. Increase fc
percentage at the throttle & depressed
-rsrt a 5-Wt rteerwa and 15 * ' r- »»
sWrfbtfiajf orfcclwr^T. v Sat? r? The i f * a!r control (1AQ count* iboJd actus* as die ttvtt
-1 > :» 0U» e/ rjr.;^ E- ' tie b oper.ei and decrear-e as the throrte b closed. Start t ,
5
engine and observe the tAC counts as the mroffie k depressed
* « - * o e ' • ' " • n e t and j w : R 5 5 T
Slap M Su- the engine and observe the T? sensor re»i*.ng. Use a
,1.. *e on fcngme of* anfl torf one W b«e ef a
wedge or thin object to Increase the tfcron> opening lEgfsSyt The
^ t tme DC « r s • M aenstx grtxro m e » y o r w 1 r e negTr*
r
throrte percentage reading jhoutd Increase. Shut off and nrca-
"n i**^ ^ 0 2 * f <200 r y n c m * * a
T
the engine. V the percentage of t h r o O opeofcf return to OX,
. rtftf $ » 55-14 and » - 1 5
the PGM determines that the Increased throrte opeu-g b
oow the oew minimum and resets the kCe position of the TP ser
jot Remove the wedge ar.d cycle t t * Ipttior. ke* The ihrotfe
post'jor sensor should again read zero percentage.
• P I S - r y e ^ v c o a p u r n r e not a p » t i e ol t e s e S n j a *
pOCtfcf) IKlSCt
TP SENSOR DIAGNOSTIC T R O U B L E C O O E S
The diagnosac trouble codes (DTCs) associated with the throck
position sensor Include the following;
DufoA
hut*
Co* Dnfiftflr * i Cwtn
rem TPlfWrto. •
• TFMnor flmg eviV; t- jtkpC
• raor ar Miiy opf
rem • rt»w M n t f i M K t S r i K b R i
• rvor grxnC oppr
• TP hiracy i r r t j t tob^r
"•"Ml S-*" t V w r * ? w Srcr; >K*rC«JT* TP WS.-T tgrtf • OKK
rem
V*cr ar t n y t a * tori tt agrM • KoiaxMrcMVSancrqM
•eUA* • U V l • r a j 3J <t > JrtcV
MAP/BARO S E N S O R S
Air Pressure—High » n d L o w You can think of an Interna'
combustion engirt as a big air pump. As the pistons move op v A
down In the cylinders, they pump In air and fuel lor cocibusfior,
and pump out exhaust gases. They do this by creating a difference
in air pressure. The air outside an engine has weigh: and exert,
pressure, as does the air Inside an engine.
As a piston moves down on an Intake stroke with the intake
valve open. It creates a larger area Inside the cylinder br the air to
Oil This lowers the air pressure within the engine Because the
pressure Inside the engine Is lower than the pressure ou&tte. air
Rows Into the engine to Oil the low pressure area and eûa&res the
, ÂnthiMigragFMtMrrftPKwrueviiign!
pressure.
, '•** tr -r ArwSnaafmBVtNrOlitfliKIO"*) The low pressure within the engine b a W vacuum. Vac
uum causes the higherpressutv air on the outode to Bow into ihe
low pressure area Inside the cylinder The difference in pressure
between the two area, is ci'ed a pressure differential S,
T
« E TP S E N S O R U S I N G A S C A N TOOL Figure 55-16.
' . r ^ be used to check tor proper operation of the throttle
w f u s i n g the following steps. PRINCIPLES OF P R E S S U R E S E N S O R S
the key on, engine off. the TP sensor volrage display Intake manifold pressure changes with changing throttle position
* * about 0.5 volt, but can vary from as low as 0.3 volt to At wide open throttle, manifold pressure b almost the sarx as
atmospheric pressure. On deceleration or at kf<«, ma-Xsd pressure
J*tT%0* POUHOS
PtK ÔUAAt INCH 10 Pi,
•now*)
0 PSI£ (PSI CAuc-t,

______
UEASUMEO IN
uwrrs o* M:«fcs ENGINE V A C U U M AT
Of UtRCUKV WIDE-OPEN T H R O T T L E 10 IN. K g
(IK. rtfl, (mmrtg, (W.O.T.)
EN&NE VACUUM AT IDLE

20 IN. Hfl
PCWFtCT VACUUM
24.4 p u i 24.91 in. Hg
14 7 ptta 0 p&iq / 0 in Hg ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

MAP . 4.6 V - (Baromolric pronuro)
KOEO Of WOT
0 6 pna 10 in. hg
MAP . 2.44 V -
CruiM/ljgm Lata
4 4 phi.1 20 in. Hg
MAP - 1.10 V •
Optia 24.92 in hq
PERFECT VACUUM
PSIA PSIC
(Absolute preuura) (Gauge p r o c u r e )
(6)
- 4* jr. ••• - . o w j i o d J KMC .nit angir* Oropt. Thsttopm vacuum a actually an increase in absolute pressure in the intake manilow. h W t w >
ffar if J j«i«er *cuu<r. t t rn» rtfttonan* between jtoxute preuure vacuum, anc oaufle pressure.
assapteflc pr&sure, thus creating a vacuum. In cases

dargjig or superch^gmg ii used, under part- or full
-ac . .r.. r a i t t rsaniSoid pressure rises above atmospheric.
Aac, ozyjstt cor-ic- arid tarometnc pressure change with differ-
<~xes .r. aod the computer must be able to compensate
"Jd.'.'tz x. ::.*• flew of fuei entering the engine. The
fjpe -r^r _sei fat M A P sensor to determine me amount of
: s p e e d d e n s i t y /stem. To provide the com
wtT. chat. „•>: a n l o w infcflnation, a fuel-in lection system
• ^ / a p«...Te WAP:yusof
• .MAP. lessor pits barometric absolute Fiflure 55-17 A plastic MAP sensor used tor training purposes s
orcut board and electrical connections
• - - • • / f i / j f i c o m b i n e d jhMAP, a t # e r 1
pressure increases, the M A ? s e n s o r generates

aura*-.*: a c v ^ y i e p r e s s u r e (MAP) >msor may be a ceramic higher frequency return signal t o t h e c o m p u t e r .
s^d j i^w^n, 1 l o w o r a ptfafcresative crystal.
w:. .•• 'irT'-TO- ajput '/a one side; the other side is
writr. ?J r.^ce .-cawtokJ Thu i e n s « housing also CONSTRUCTION OF MANIFOLD ABSOLUTE
. v/tc&s**, S w h*/<• S 5 - 1 7 . PRESSURE (MAP) SENSORS
-.'xt-yrt- •-. ..o- a .vt (fee -Afaor to deflect, The manifold absolute pressure ( M A P I s e n i ° . r
^ p ^
7v; . <?.< ( a .- 50 sfee computer. As the air computer to sense engine l o a d . T h e t y p i c a l M * 1 ^
f miC or silicon w a f e r sealed on orn re Mia are etectrteaiiy connected to a Wheatmne tgfcf? 'ant
t A exposed to I n t a k e manifold vac and then to a differential amplifier, wbsch create* a vote;-* n prs>
V i n e vacuum c h a n g e s , the p r e s s u r portion to the vacu ,m applied,
X , she output voltage o r f r e q u e n c y o f A typical fênerai Motors MAP sensor voltage varies from O.HZ
^ manifold a b s o l u t e pressure (MAI- to 1.62 at engine idle at or near sea ievei.
, • for the P C M to d e t e r m i n e t h e load or
• 17 in, Hg a to about 1.62 vote
i'iwp among b a r o m e t e r p r e s s u r e , e n g i n e w MA
• 21 it Hg is equaltoabout 0.88 volt
f voltage includes:
Therefore. a good reading should be about 1,0 vol? f w r the
, ywltftt pressure Is equal to b a r o m e t r i c prey, ;re rr,
MAP sensor on a sound engine at idle speed.
rranifoid vacuum.
i a decrease In manifold vacuum means an Increase in manifold
pressure. MamfcM Mnoferte KtfSmar
Engine U a t MamfcM ton Prooow* Voft Signal
, • > MAP sensor c o m p a r e s manifold v a c u u m t o a perfe- • ,rn.
i barometric pressure m i n u s M A P sensor reading equals intake -nan Heavy WOT) Low safcw* 0 «. Hg» HW> Ht^l 14.6-42 VI
(almost atmoWwx,
Held vacuum.
'initial engine vacuum Is 17 to 21 In. Hg. hpt Met "7-21 r Hji tor U*t 0.8-t a V)
i , jperchaiged and turbocharged engines require a MAP sensor that toner f a n areaphenei
alibrated for pressures above atmospheric, as well as for vacuum.
Capacitor—Capsule MAP Sensor A capacitor-cap. lie s a
Silicon-Diaphragm Strain Gauge M A P Sensor This is the type of MAP sensor used by Ford which ises two ceramic (alumna,'
• commonly used design for a M A P s e n s o r a n d the output is a plates with an fc ..a: - g washer spacer n the center to create a ca-
: analog [variable) voltage. One side of a silicon wafer is exposed padtot Changes r. engine vac- -m cruse the pia'es to deflect, wh.ca
engine vacuum and t h e other side is exposed to a perfect vacuum. changes the capacitance. The electronic: in the sensor then generate a
There are four resistors attached to t h e silicon wafer, v/hich varying digital frequency output signal, which is proportional to r :e
hanges I n resistance w h e n s t r a i n is applied to t h e wafer. This engine vacuum. See figure 55-i 3. See Rgure 55-19 for a scope
1
>npie in resistance d u e t o strain is called p i e z o r e s i s t i v i t y . The waveform of a digital MAP sensoc
HARNESS
CONNECTOR
JUMPER
WIRES
BP/MAP
SENSOR
t
ADMM Wl lo led A MAP sennor 11| Corned Ihe red meter lead to Ihe V meter terminal and the Wad. meter if AD to ITE CUM UR- ,
„ * '•""'«» Wflittl wire and Iho ground wire 14) Select herU |Hr) If leafing a MAP senior wtioM output o 3 varying frequency o t h e r s U K ' or -. » »
""-uont in S pp| IB(1 to ,h6 MI)sor Compare m e vacuum reading and me frequency lorvoiiig*. reading ID tTi in ••• * ••
636 SECTION iX
6.0
5.4
4.6
4.2
3.6
3.0
2.4
1JS
1.2
0.6
0.0
— MS
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
50
CH A: FREQUENCY (Hz) 109.2
MAP SENSOR (DIGITAL)
R g u r e 5 5 - 1 9 A wavefomi of a typical digital MAP sensor.
Ford MAP Sensor Chart
Engine Operating Intake Manifold

MA? Sensor Output (Hz) Conditions Vacuum (in. Hg)
• 56-159 rc Key on. engine off 0 in. Hg

102-109 HZ Engine at idle (sea level) 17-21 in. Hg
156-15SH2 Engine at wide-open About 0 in. hg
throttle (WOT)
TECH TIP If It's Green, It's a Signal Wire
raz-3Lc?. vehicles usually use a green wire as me signal wire back to tne com-
mute? voir, me sensors. It may not be a solid green, but if there is green some-
*nare an TC wire, men it is the signal wire. The other wires are the power and
Figure 55-20 A ceramic-disc-type MAP sensor showing the substrate and trie
g r w i r e s to me sensor.
circuit.
Ceramic Disc M A P Sensor The ceramic disc MAP sensor is TECH TIP TO Use the MAP Sensor as a Vacuum Gauge
0 7 C r . r y s l e r a r . a it c o n v e r t s m a n i f o l d p r e s s u r e i n t o a c a p a t i -
A MAP sensor measures the pressure inside the intake manifold compares»-
: . > ; r . a r g e . T h e d i s c h a r g e c o n t r o l s t h e a m o u n t of voltage de-
absolute zero (perfect vacuum). For example, an idling engine that
livered t h e s e n s o r t o t h e P C M . T h e o u t p u t is t h e s a m e as t h e
20 inches of mercury (in. Hg) of vacuum has a lower pressure inside the
p r e v i O ' - s r / u s e d s t r a i n g a u g e / W h e a t s t o n e b r i d g e design a n d is in-
manifold man when me engine is under a load and the vacuum is at
t e r c t i r . g e ^ e . See Figure 5 5 - 2 0 .
A decrease in engine vacuum results in an increase in manifold P r e s s i " ^ ^
mal engine should produce between 17 and 21 in. Hg at idle. Compa ^
indicate
vacuum reading with me voltage reading output of the MAP sensa
- 1 rvQ tfi102
l W
Chrysler MAP Sensor Chart that the reading should be between 1.62 and 0.88 volt or 109 ^ ^ o r
lower on Ford MAP sensors. Therefore, a digital multimeter (DMIMl. ^ ^ o f a
vacuum HS) MAP Sensor Signal Voltage (V) scope can be used to measure me MAP sensor voltage and be useu -
4.8 vacuum gauge.
1.0 4.6
iU 4.1
50 3.8
3.5 MAP s e n s o r * * ^
7Jt> NOTE: This chart was developed by testing a u „. •
100 2.9 about 600 feet above sea level. For best results, a chart ° d j n g the
2.1 tude should be made by applying a known vacuum, an ^ ] ^di r

• Ui
12 age of a known-good MAP sensor. Vacuum usually drop.-
2OS
1,000 teet of altitude.
05
2SC
TOputfr S w - r t S37
C M (volts)
4 80
4.52
446
4.26
4.06
3.88 141 143
3.66
3.50
3.30
3.10
20 16 12 8 4 0
2.94 127-130 VACUUM OUCHES OF MERCURY)
2.76 ENGINE LOAO-
2.54 LOWER HIGHER
2.36
2.20 figure 55-21 M l * attack we MAP
2.00 114-117
1.80
1.62 injected, t h e r e t o "educing f.el e c o n o m y and Increasing exhaust
1.42
enasaoos.
108-109
1.20
i Load d e t e c t i o n for r e ' j m l e s s vpe fue n ection •-:'
1.10 delivery systems that d o no* j x t r r : ~ Tie back to 'he fuel tank,
102-104
0.88
the engjne load c a t a l a u o - lo- the ^ -ee-des determined b|T
the signals from the MAP se-..ot
0.66
Altitude and map s e n s o r v a l u e s r ar. er.gtr.e e c . i p j - • with a
speed-densirv-rvpe re. m e r t k r . . fee MAP sensor : the r M m
portant sensor needed t- determine ir : r-e width. < hanges
P C M USES O F T H E M A P SENSOR in altitude change the a-- d a m n as we: as weather conditions.
Barometric pressure and i l : r u d e are lanerse v - e . a a d :
The PCM uses the M A P s e n s o r to d e t e r m i n e t h e following:
• As altitude increases—baraaelric pressure decreases
• The load o n t h e e n g i n e . T h e M A P sensor is used on a speed- • As altitude decreases—barometric p m m e increases
denslty-type fuel-injector system to d e t e r m i n e the load on the en-
As the igmdoB.-, - •;.'• is rode: 'rr f : a the start: - on, the
ane, and therefore the a m o u n t of fuel n e e d e d . O n engines
PCM reads the MAP sensor value to d e m u r e atmospheric and air
equipped with a mass air flow (MAF) sensor, the MAP is used as a
pressure conditions. Trus bar n s m c press reading is . s i r e j
backup to the MAF, for diagnosis of o t h e r sensors, and systems
every nine the engine is s t a r e d anc wtteaerer -Aide open thn ittle is
such as the EGR system.
1
detected. The barometric pressure l e a d c g at that time a, .pdated.
Altitude, f u e l , a n d s p a r k c o n t r o l c a l c u l a t i o n s . At key on. the
See the chart that compares aSSude t o MAP sensor voltage.
MAP sensor determines the altitude (acts as a BARO sensor and
adjusts the fuel delivery and spark timing accordingly.
' If the altitude is high, generally over 5 , 0 0 0 feet 11,500 meters i. Altitude anc MAP Sensor Voltage
the PCM will reduce fuel delivery and advance the ignition
timing. MAP Sensor feltage (Can Vary
Altitude Due to Atmocptienc CumMiunsI
' The altitude is also reset w h e n t h e engine is accelerated to
wide-open throttle and t h e M A P sensor is used to reset the Sea level « j » U a b
( altitude reading. See Figure 5 5 - 2 1 . 2.500 (780 r 4 Ovolts
EG
" s y s t e m o p e r a t i o n . As part of the OBD-I1 standards, il-.e 5,000 '520 ml 17 voes
Mhaust gas recirculation (EGR) system must be checked for proper 1.35 v«s
7.500 (2300 -
operation. One method used by m a n y vehicle manufacturers - •
M
10.000,3050 mi 305 volts
mmand the EGR valve on and t h e n w a t c h the MAP sensor
s al 12.50C 3800 m 280 «*»
® - The opening of t h e EGR pintle should decrease e n . c .
15.000|4&V r 2.45*016
',acuum. If the MAP sensor does not react with the specified c r
® manifold vacuum I increase in manifold pressurv . an EGR flov
, j e Problem diagnostic trouble code is set.
e
tect d e c e l e r a t i o n ( v a c u u m i n c r e a s e s ) . The eng'.i va. BAROMETRIC PRESSURE SENSOR
es w h e
" the accelerator is released, w h i c h changes the MAP \ barometric pressure iBARO) sensor
êrisor voltage. W h e n deceleration is detected by the P M. senses more subde c h a n g e s in bar. m e t n c ahsoiute pre--- ire ! a ~ - •
> M s t 0 P P e d o r greatly reduced to improve exhaust emi lor - spheric air pressure It is vented directly to the atmosphere:,
onitor e n g i n e c o n d i t i o n . As an engine wears, the barometric manifold absolute pressure iBMAP
"acuum usually decreases. The P C M is programmed to detect ally a combination of a BARO and MAF sensor n d i e s a m e
the The BMAP sensor has individual a r c - 3 to measure bar. .
wadual change in v a c u u m and is able to keep the air - rue \
,Ure
in the correct range. If the P C M w e r e not capable of making manifold pressure. This input n o t only a i n w s -r.e r r z r . r o
^ s t m :ie nts for engine wear, the lower vacuum could bo interpne' J for changes in atmospheric press -re d u e t W K V - ' .- > •
aj
' ncr
eased load on the engine, resulting in too much fuel being primaiy sensor used to determine altitude.
M A P Sensor U a i n g * D M M or Scop* y,
omtrn m T {-'•» tc back prefer th» connector, or i 5m,
m*i emvncM torn to the wtrtn* to the p t w a j
U N A R * * WITH
tt» nanpuwr
hackfc)the computet
I. A
Tte p n o t f w »rv » • r « the awttor is is tallows

I M i l i
I c*)
X f <* t e n a n c y I o f t h e « n . v * .jutput
it I »». wra pump ior other rwuUe n c m
l i e the M M K
I tfwuH change voiu«r (or t m * w
if m u » v* a u m || ttx «* d * * *
i M M M H i M »ar» .it rmi0 *cor4in|i W the maautattunm
. 0 * m a r mutt te aapi«e4
GSBk
I irnm*
1
sMt M i
• to N
«>»• KM, , I r t a . » n « | awl a

' * * * * * a n H u m i i a uIH *" » •
a^ ^ |rf|(ur g wvxtiuv cog^^p.. *
7 * p
• S c . f l Too* *
V J J J J * * * » * H« wwffi MAT -
COMTLNfaATlON
hart
OAMKMNCi
ChAWUH
HI rUKN
JifNINC.
AW
OUTUT AIM
INLCT
HOur* A mix airtkiw ,VAM MOM)
twrvf a t p u ^ * w i d t h . O n a w a r m engine, the injcc-

r i m *»aa> wlJI n o n i u U v t » 1.5 t o mx
«C , A v r c C u c t LTsc v a c u u m t o t h e M A P x - m o r and observe
St A A l o w e r V * t b u . : . t o t h e M A P XTUOT indicate* 4
v...- j j oj, c i y p n c a n d t h e m i c c t o r pul>e width should
v * r u . m .» ippwei to t l x MAf wntor with the

B v*.-uu» o c uitco 4 u v catena. Tlx enj/nc
» J i K t p n r M DV th« r C M to ttut
tftudl kbuU Oil Hie IML O u « m <»<IM
OC 3 M FED t o REDUCE URUUM
PRESSURE SENSOR
rigum M-34 *typiol M woo mhui wittiDm .cmk ramovM tlxmowOM»rm........u
• FRPi c r u o r . . ua«d on some vchlcla. >uch as «..Mtwfi(MirtMK• (MtlimIhovan*ofwfta Many«H,van* uu%>-> ».o(mm • ou.inrv*
-pped with electronic return lev. fuel injection. cm* lo wppfy young* to tin Mctrn Ml pump at Um an vana •Uxi. to oy«i M
e» fur; pcesaurt information to me PCM (or fuel •ngmt it twng IIOTM>I arid M»twing drawn into trw
tr. calculation.
AIRFLOW SENSORS
w
^ H O OtACMOSTlC T R O U B L E C O O E S Older port fuel InlecHon i y M c m s that u s e a i r f l o w v o l u m e for
calculation uiu^lly h a v e .1 m o v a b l e v u w m t h e i n u k i i \ o w i r I:.
• 0 1 O i . . . l o c a t e d w i t h t h e MAI 1 a n d
v a n e a i r f l o w (VAP)
fleeted by intake air flow. Sec Figure 5 5 J J .
I h e vane airflow aon»0.r u i c d in tto.\ch I Jcnwnic, l o r d , a n d
m o u Japanese e l e c t r o n i c port f u e l i n j e c t i o n > y u v n u a a m o v a o ; e
v*ne c o n n e c t e d t o a l a t c r c a l i b r a t c d p o t a o o o m a M r The v a n e
m o u n t e d on a pi vol pin a n d Is d e f l e c t e d by i n t a k e airflow p r o p e r
tionate to air v e l o c i t y As t h e v a n e m o v r . , it ,»ho m o v v \ t h e pot.-n
""«"» uul vl tiometer. Thl» c a u i c - a C h a n g e in (he Mgnal voltag. supplied t o t h e
'•v-yu, • UAI'î. îrO rmg0a»Mu*0«n>,v«i(| computer. See Figure 5 5 - 2 - 1
• MV MOM* twit l o r e x a m p l e , if t h e r e f e r e n c e voltage ^ 5 vol a , t h e p o t c t i
• <«w.l u o m e t e r ' i signal to t h e c o m p u t e r will vary fr.im a 0 volta^v al&rui
• MAf MM.* '. v.l ulVvi I "i- fi (no airflowi to aimokt a 5 volt . ^ . a l i m a x i m u m airflow m cfuy
• Wo- k U . J 1 way, t h e p o t e n t i o m e t e r provtj.-:. t h e m t a r n u u o n the computer
• MAe HnM> 0 nnv UarTMgn) IX mMimg
n e e d s to vary t h e in lector pulse w i d t h p r o p o r t i o n s t o Airflow
• MAC m m wgiwl f.«i.wt VKKlMl l» villain
There it n i p r . ial " d a m p e n i n g c h a m b e r * built i n t o t h e VAI to
640 SECTOR (X
ELECTRONIC
MODULE
SAMPLE
T U B E INCOMING
IAT S E N S O R
FLOW TUBE
/
METAL FOIL Figure 5 5 - 2 6 The sensing wire in a typical hot wire mass airflow sensor
SENSING ELEMENT
Figure 5 5 - 2 5 s i w - w i t e mass airflow sensor consists of a metal foil sensing unit, an use as a m e a s u r e m e n t of air flow. M o s t of t h e s e types of sensors are
m n r v e r t u n -lATi sensor, and the electronic module referred to as m a s s a i r f l o w ( M A F ) s e n s o r s because, unlike tt-
air vane sensor, t h e M A F s e n s o r t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t relative humid
ity, altitude, a n d t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e air. T h e denser the ait, the
- o u t vane pulsations which would be created by intake greater the cooling effect o n t h e h o t film s e n s o r and the greater the
~ a n ; : o W a.r-pressure fluctuations caused by the valve opening and a m o u n t of fuel required for p r o p e r c o m b u s t i o n .
; -,-. M a n \ vane airflow sensors include a switch to energize the
-tc:.: t-ei pump. This is a safety feature that prevents the opera H o t W i r e S e n s o r T h e h o t w i r e s e n s o r is similar to the hoifil
t i . r. :f the fuel p u m p if the engine stalls. type, but uses a h o t w i r e to s e n s e t h e m a s s airflow instead of the
hot film. Like t h e h o t film sensor, t h e h o t wire sensor uses a
temperature-sensing resistor ( t h e r m i s t o r ) t o m e a s u r e the tempera'
A N A L O G A N O DIGITAL M A F S E N S O R S ture of t h e air e n t e r i n g t h e sensor. S e e Figure 5 5 - 2 6 . The elet
: — r MAF sensors produce a digital DC voltage signal w h o s e fre- tronic circuitry w i t h i n t h e s e n s o r k e e p s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of the wire
changes with the a m o u n t of airflow t h r o u g h the sensor. at 7 0 ° C above t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e i n c o m i n g air.
7:-. range also varies with the m a k e of sensor and can Both designs o p e r a t e in e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s a m e way. A resistor
fr rr. 0- to 3 0 0 Hz for older General Motors MAF sensors to wire or screen installed in t h e p a t h of i n t a k e airflow is heated to a
. 0 0 7 :o 0,000-Hz for most n e w e r designs. c o n s t a n t t e m p e r a t u r e by e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t p r o v i d e d by the comput
• MAF sensors, such as those used by Ford and others, Air flowing past t h e s c r e e n or w i r e c o o l s it. T h e degree of cooling
pr : . - a changing DC voltage, rather than frequency, and range varies w i t h air velocity, t e m p e r a t u r e , density, and humidity. The
t-orr. 0- to 5-volts DC. factors c o m b i n e to i n d i c a t e t h e m a s s of air e n t e r i n g the engine. As
t h e screen or w i r e cools, m o r e c u r r e n t is r e q u i r e d to maintain t
specified t e m p e r a t u r e . As t h e s c r e e n or w i r e heats up, less current
MASS AIRFLOW SENSOR TYPES
is r e q u i r e d . T h e o p e r a t i n g principle c a n b e s u m m a r i z e d as follow
There are several types of mass airflow sensors.
• More intake air v o l u m e = cooler sensor, m o r e current.
H o t F i i m S e n s o r Tne hot film s e n s o r uses a temperature-sensing • Less intake air v o l u m e = w a r m e r sensor, less current.
v r . e r r l s ' o r to measure the t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e i n c o m i n g
T r ' v . g h the electronics within the sensor, a c o n d u c t i v e film T h e c o m p u t e r c o n s t a n t l y m o n i t o r s t h e c h a n g e in current and
: i . >--arure 7 0 ' C above the t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e incom- translates it i n t o a voltage signal t h a t is u s e d to determine injec
- . - ••• t - . 55-25. pulse w i d t h .
>.- > t r . e an ount and density of the air both t e n d to con Burn-Oft Circuit S o m e M A F s e n s o r s u s e a burn-off circuit to M j
:. effect as t h e air passes through the sensor, this t h e s e n s i n g w i r e clean of d u s t a n d dirt. A high current is
TS v ' ccr ialiy p r o d u c e an output based on the mass of through t h e s e n s i n g w i r e for a s h o r t t i m e , b u t long enough u> ^ ^
'.', •,.: volume times density. For example, cold the wire to g l o w d u e to t h e h e a t . T h e burn-off circuit is
•*.': V . ' ' ar Aarrr air so a small a m o u n t of cold air may h a v e w h e n t h e ignition s w i t c h is s w i t c h e d off a f t e r t h e engine
f .'.-••• ' • ; « larger a m o u n t of w a r m air. T h e r e f o r e , a mass operating l o n g e n o u g h to a c h i e v e n o r m a l o p e r a t i n g t e m p o a
- f v - • 1 - . r . > 1 to m e a s u r e the mass, not the v o l u m e , of
Ihe air entering t h e engine.
' • e v . ' z < > ' . !>;: t ype of sensor is usually a frequency based
KARMAN VORTEX SENSORS - " d
(/. <r.< , r „ r enter r.t t h " sensor. The more air that e n t e r s In 1 9 1 2 , a H u n g a r i a n scientist n a m e d T h e o d o r e Van K a r r ^ - n t e d
'he ser./.*. -tw more r / c film .. cooled The electronics inside served that v o r t e x e s w e r e c r e a t e d w h e n air passed over a > ^
- the .-rent How through t h e hot film surface. This type of sensor s e n d s a s o u n d w a v e through tn ^
- " » 70 <'. •( • j r e diff< rential b e t w e e n the air tem lence created by i n c o m i n g air p a s s i n g t h r o u g h the s e n s o r . . ^ ,fl
-a- v 4 - « • rer,p»nrtur<! of t h e h o t film. This c h a n g e in cur is calculated based on t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d for t h e sound
rer •'. •••. •' 1 " . a fresj jer.cy o u t p u t that t h e c o m p u t e r can cross the t u r b u l e n t air passage.
Ml
rRANSMtTTEfl
VORTEX STAB /I
AIRFLOW HBOULATM.
VORTEX
GENERATING
ULTRASONIC WAVES
TRANSMITTED
ROD v
•A * /®
-
TO THROTTLE BODY
<m
/k
KARMAN' 7 j
I RtCM ANO LEAM ULTRASOWC WAVES
VORTEX /
CORRtSPOHWNG TO NUMBER Of WOWHCBS
IIISill
BYPASS RECEIVER
AIR AMPUFIER
ETTROL H -ruuLri-
j SHAPED INTO RECTANGULAR WA/ES (PULSES,
(•net
figura 55-27 A Karman Vortex airflow sensor uses a triangle-shaped rod to create vorte«es as the m
square wave signal
There are t w o basic d e s i g n s of K a r m a n V o r t e x airflow •

rv The two types include:
• Ultrasonic. This type of sensor uses ultrasonic waves to detect What Is Meant b» a - H i g f t - A a t t o n t y S e n s o r 7 "
the vortexes that are produced, and produce a digital on and off
A tugh-authorev sensor s t *r W 1 -"-JOC* tie
signal where frequency is proportional to the amount of air pa: ,ng
amount (1 toe t w i g aewerae * S * engne F o r e w n p i e at « g « i e *.tart x>
through the sensor. See Figure 55-27.
1 the engn coolant w n w a t i w «CT w w « a * ? r -miaorty seraor m l
Pressure-type. Chrysler uses a pressure-type Karman Vortex sen-
sor that uses a pressure sensor to detect the vortexes. As the air- the orygtr serwr 'CBS) s a » ttmr * "V™
Bow through the sensor Increases, so do the number of pressure reaches operating W o*»m sens* twcomes a - #»"»
sensor and car > party a"ecs tte anouM ct M bang a w * e d * > » *
variations. The electronics in the sensor convert these pressure
See chart
variations to a square wave (digital DC voltagel signal, whose fre
Wncy is in proportion to the airflow through the sensor.
The Dirty MAF Sensor Story
Hie
- "wner of a Buick Park Avenue equipped with a 3800 V-6 engine c -
/"W M the engine would hesitate dunng acceleration showed iadc c
and
seemed to surge or miss at times. A visual inspectxxi (ound even
10
he like new. including a new air filter There were no stored d .10 x s t
codes
(DTCs) A look at the scan data showed airflow » t » * r
^mended 3 to 7 grams per second A check ol the Inquire outwit
"'"WMthe problem
Idle frequency 2 177 kHz <2.177 Hzi PCM USES FOR AIRFLOW SENSORS
at Idle speed should be 2 37 to 2 52 kHz O a r The PCM uses the information from da
Wh
e
^ Sensor restored propei operation The sensor wirt was cm roUowing purposes:
81
'ooked like fine fibers possibly from the recux emant a* filler • Airflow sensors are used tncsCv to deserts
needed and base pube-width nsmben. T!
MAF
sensors operated at a lower frequency of 32 lo 150 Hj incoming ait, the longer im a^taots are |
"HI the average reading at idle and 150 Hztorwide-open throMe
• Airflow sensors back 14) the TP SCOOT (a
signaJ or an inaccurate tisrottk pes \ j a I
642 SfenOH ft
s e n s o r M s , t h e n t b e P C M will calculate the fuel delivery bles or stalls, t h e M A F s e n s o r Is d e f e c t i v e

' e s t is Co
r e e d s ot V * e n t i n e b a s e d on t h r o t t l e position and engine called t h e t a p t e s t . "iitii'Ollly
speed RPM'.
Digital Meter Test of a M A F Senso< a digital
can b e u s e d to m e a s u r e t h e f r e q u e n c y ( H z ) o u t p i l l ,'>frTVJ,tirr'eter
TESTING MASS AIRFLOW SENSORS and c o m p a r e t h e r e a d i n g w i t h s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . e
^nsor
Start t h e t e s t i n g of a M A F s e n s o r by p e r f o r m i n g a t h o r o u g h visual T h e f r e q u e n c y o u t p u t a n d e n g i n e s p e e d in RPJVI f
-tspec Look a t all t h e h o s e s t h a t direct and send air, especially plotted o n a g r a p h t o c h e c k t o s e e if t h e frequency and Rpj?° ^
are
b e t w e t r . t h e M A F s e n s o r a n d t h e throttle body. Also c h e c k the p r o p o r t i o n a l , r e s u l t i n g in a s t r a i g h t l i n e o n t h e g r a p h
electrical c o n n e c t o r f o r :
• Corrosion
• Terns m i s that are b e n t or pushed out of the plastic connector
• Fraved w i r i n g
TECH T I P i The Unplug It Test
If a sensor is defective yet still produces a signal to the computer, the co«
FREQUENTLY ASKEO QUESTION puter will often accept the reading and make the required changes in l
delivery and spark advance. If, however, the sensor Is not reading correc'
What Is False A i r ? the computer will process this wrong information and perform an action r
sensors and mass airflow (MAFi sensors are designed to measure all suming that information being supplied is accurate For example, if a may
r e af entering the engine. If an air inlet hose was loose or had a hole, extra air airflow (MAR sensor is telling the computer that 12 grams ot air per ser.onc •
:ouiti enter the engine without being measured. This extra air is often called going into the engine, the computer will then pulse the injector for 6 4 ms»
U s e air. See Figure 55-28. whatever figure it is programmed to provide However, if the air going mtoe*
Because this extra air is unmeasured, the computer does not provide engine is actually 14 grams per second, the amount of fuel supplied by the
e- x g h fuel delivery and the engine operates too lean, especially at idle. A small lectors will not be enough to provide proper engine operation II the MAF s
10le i i the air mtet hose would represent a fairty large percentage of false air at sor is unplugged, the computer knows that the sensor is not capatw ol
o e but would represent a very small percentage of extra air at highway supplying airflow information, so it defaults to a fixed amount of fuel bise<
speeds the values of other sensors such as the TP and MAP sensors "If in doubt, ta»f
To diagnose tor false air, look at long-term fuel thm numbers at idle and at It out."
3000 RPM If the engine operates better with a sensor unplugged, then suspect that
the sensor is defective. A sensor that is not supplying the correct information s
W f T if the engine runs well in reverse, yet runs terrible in any forward gear, said to be skewed. The computer will not see a diagnostic trouble code lot me
carefully look at the inlet hose for air leaks that would open when the engine condition because the computer can often not detect that the sensor is supoh
WTjue noves the engine slightly on its mounts. wrong information
M A F S e n s o r O u t p u t Test A digital multimeter can also be

u s e d to c h e c k t h e M A F sensor. See t h e c h a r t t h a t s h o w s t h e voltage
Contaminated Sensor D i r t , o i l , s i l i c o n , o r e v e n spider wete
s u r p u t c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e g r a m s per second of airflow t h r o u g h t h e
c a n coat t h e s e n s i n g w i r e . B e c a u s e it t e n d s t o i n s u l a t e the sen; -
sensor. N o r m a l airflow is 3 t o 7 g r a m s per s e c o n d .
w i r e at l o w a i r f l o w r a t e s , a c o n t a m i n a t e d s e n s o r o f t e n ove
m a t e s t h e a m o u n t of air e n t e r i n g t h e e n g i n e a t idle, and ther
causes t h e f u e l s y s t e m t o g o r i c h . A t h i g h e r e n g i n e speeds,
Analog MAF Sensor Grams per Second/Voltage Chart
wide-open throttle ( W O T ) , t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n can c a u s e 1 "
sor to u n d e r e s t i m a t e t h e a m o u n t of a i r e n t e r i n g t h e engin ^ ^
Gram per Second Sensor Voltage
result, t h e fuel s y s t e m will go l e a n , c a u s i n g s p a r k k n o c k a ^
t 0.2 of p o w e r c o n c e r n s . To c h e c k f o r c o n t a m i n a t i o n , c h e c k
7 0.7 trim n u m b e r s . , et is P0*'
4 1 0 (typical idle value) If t h e f u e l t r i m is n e g a t i v e ( r e m o v i n g f u e l ) a t idle, y ^yf
conta
8 1.5 tive (adding fuel) at h i g h e r e n g i n e s p e e d s , a ^ ' , " , A f setis°'
15 2.0 sensor is a likely c a u s e . O t h e r t e s t s f o r a c o n t a m i n a t e d iv
30 2.5 include:
34 3.0 . should e *
80 3.5 • At WOT, t h e g r a m s per s e c o n d , a s r e a d o n a scan tooi,
110 4.0 ceed 100. ,d e % ced
ISO • At WOT, t h e voltage, as read o n a digital voltmeter, sho

4.5
4 volts for a n analog sensor. , s {,ould f l
17S 4.8
• At WOT, t h e frequency, as r e a d o n a m e t e r o r scan too .
ceed 7 kHz for a digital sensor.
l a p Test Witn t i e e n g i n e r u n n i n g at idle speed, gently tap the MAf

M A F '•< rtsor w t t n t h e fingers of a n o p e n h a n d . If t h e e n g i n e s t u m - If t h e r e a d i n g s d o n o t e x c e e d t h e s e v a l u e s , t h e n
sor is c o n t a m i n a t e d . -
CMECXTHI
S N O R K E L TUBE
HEBE FOR
CRACKS
j / « 5 S - a Carefully check the hose between the M A F senaor and the e v e n * pate (or CRAOC. *«m *E -ft • -•»
tfMtr
Wf-RELATED DIAGNOSTIC T R O U B L E C O O E S
"x diagnostic t r o u b l e c o d e s (DTCs) associated w i t h t h e mas
• 'ow and air vane sensors i n c l u d e : EXHAUS"
MAMFOL^
Ml Description Possible Causes
•Ml Mass or volume airflow • Open or short mass a r t o w c n u l

circuit problems • Detective I M F m mr
Wtl Mass airflow circuit • Defective I M F M n e orfcheck
range problems for false air)
1® Mass airflow circuit • Defective M A F senso
k m output • M A F sensor a r c u t <H• n or s t a r M -
to-ground
• Open 1 2 - v « supply intage eveut
m Mass airflow • Defective M A F s e n m
circuit high output • M A F sensor c r a f t 410 M -
- — .
to-voltage
a a H « i
°«GEN SENSORS
-atnotive computer systems use a sensor in the exf ist svsfcn
Measure the oxygen content of the exhaust. These sensors are
ov'sot
s e n s o r s ( 0 2 S ) . The oxygen sensor is insaBed in
AIR
"naust manifold or located downstream from the ~an:fc : OKYGBi
* h a u s t pipe. See Figure 5 5 - 2 0 .
'"ôxygen sensor is directly In the path of the « k J t pas
-'^rnlv ' ' m o n i t o r e ° * y g e n level in b o t h t h e e x h a u s t s t r e a m a n d
'MP f e n t a i c ,n a
zircotiia oxygen sensor, the tip contains a Curable
zirconium d i o x i d e i Z k i. a n electrically c o n c k x S w m a t e r *
Tj Renerating a small voltage tn the prc-ence of oxvjtct
U s I
* w from t h e e n g i n e p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e « n d of t h e s e r e x *
* PS® c °ntact the outer side of the th m « e . Am .
^ through t h e o t h e r e n d of t h e s e n s o r o r t h n gh
om n S ° r and contacts
^ e innc r v ie of the t - m W e . P * fcna
SlJrfa
« s of the thimble are plated wuU ptaHn The
>, . „ ' ; a i c e becomes a n e g a t i v e e l e c t r o d e ; t h e o t t e r s u r f a c e i t a
electrod
•I )(o The atmosphere contains a rHsuvrtv
tygen. Rich e x h a u s t gases contain rttte oxygen
mixture c o n t a i n s m o r e o x y g e n .
sl^
JSo*!^ oxygen ton- an irawr, to the
° n b o
° i
® e m n < r
*****surt>cek ^
mV
OXYGEN SENSOR ELEMENT RICH MIXTURE L I Af
HIFIF
(LACK OF AIR)
TIN MR)
OXYGEN
c1 j? 1000
|3 800
UJ
I§
IN
OXYGEN 600
LESS
VOITAGE
1
c
400
z
HI
(/>
200
PCM REFERENCE SIGNAL
0.80 0.90 1
EXCESS-AIR FACTOR
12.5:1 14.7:1 18:1
55-31 A e>*v "<ct m oxygen content between the atmosoheie and ttie exhaust
a t 02S sensor to generate voltage
Figure 55-32 The oxygen sensor provides a quick response al the stoichiometric i
ratio ot 14.71
B e c a u s e t h e p e r c e n t a g e of o x y g e n p r e s e n t in t h e a t m o s p h e r e
- v _r • m a t in t h e e x h a u s t g a s e s , t h e a t m o s p h e r e side of t h e thim m o r e quickly a n d t o h e l p k e e p t h e s e n s o r at o p e r a t i n g temperature
: • d r a *n n ' r e n e g a t i v e o x y g e n i o n s t h a n t h e e x h a u s t side. The even at idle s p e e d s . T h e t h r e e w i r e s I n c l u d e t h e 0 2 S signal, the
: r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o s i d e s c r e a t e s a n electrical p o t e n t i a l , o r power, and g r o u n d for t h e h e a t e r .
v itage W h e n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of o x y g e n o n t h e e x h a u s t side of Four w i r e o x y g e n s e n s o r . The four-wire sensor a heated 025
•-•.- t h " t i l e - l o w ( r i c h e x h a u s t ) , a high voltage (O.oO to I.O volts I | H 0 2 S l that uses an 0 2 S signal w i r e a n d signal ground. The other
i t i n e r a t e d b e t w e e n t h e e l e c t r o d e s . As t h e o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n t w o wires are t h e p o w e r a n d g r o u n d for t h e heater.
: •-.• e x n a u s t s i d e i n c r e a s e s (lean e x h a u s t ) , t h e voltage g e n e r a t e d
•'?> 1 W 1 0 . 0 0 t o 0 . 3 v o l t ) . S e e Figure 5 5 - 3 1 .
Th... v. 'Itage signal is s e n t t o t h e c o m p u t e r w h e r e it passes through
rr •
• itiie
.
• n d m o n e r for amplification. T h e c o m p u t e r interprets a high-
i l o w - o x y g e n c o n t e n t l as a rich air-fuel ratio, and a low
-.gnal '.high-oxygen c o n t e n t l as a lean air fuel ratio. Based o n
R E A L WORLD FIX
E The C h e v r o l e t P i c k u p Truck Story
The owner of a 1996 Chevrolet pickup ttuck complained that the engine ran t
•-.-. : '2S s-.^nal i a b o v e o r b e l o w 0 . 4 5 volt), the computer c o m p e n s a t e s
ribly It would hesitate and surge, yet there were no diagnostic trouble codes
b - ~ia)c:rv t h e m i x t u r e e i t h e r leaner or richer as required to continu
(DTCs) Alter hours ot troubleshooting, the technician discovered while l a M j »
. .. :!< ise t o a 14.7:1 air fuel ratio to satisfy the needs of the three-
the owner thai the problem started after the transmission had been repam
* 3 • catalytic c o n v e r t e r T h e 0 2 S is t h e key sensor of an electronically
yet the transmission shop said that the problem was an engine problem ancli •'
r a n - d fuel m e t e r i n g system for emission control.
related to the transmission.
Ar ' >2S d'*--> n o t s e n d a v o l t a g e signal until Its tip r e a c h e s a A thorough visual Inspection revealed that Ihe front and rear oxygen se
- - y r r .re of a b o u t 5 7 2 ° F ( 3 0 0 ° C ) . Also, 0 2 sensors provide sor connectors had been switched The computer was trying to compens* 1
• • fa / e s t response to mixture changes at about l,472°F an air-fuel mixture condition that did not exist Reversing Ihe 02S connecto
-.i«• i. h e n t n e e n g i n e starts a n d t h e 0 2 S Is cold, t h e c o m p u t e r restored proper operation of the truck.
t h e .>nst/.e in t h e o p e n loop m o d e , d r a w i n g o n prerecorded
. .. . • --, ' M for fuel c o n t r o l o n a cold e n g i n e , or w h e n 0 2 S
; . ' p u t : ; not w i t h i n c e r t a i n limits.
• . • xha .->• c o n t a i n s very little o x y g e n ( 0 2 S | , t h e c o m p u t e r Zirconia O x y g e n S e n s o r s The most c o m m o n typell! j ' * ^ .
usllJ
-. . - •• 'r.jT ' h e i n t a k e c h a r g e is rich (too m u c h fuel) and r e d u c e s sensor Is m a d e from zirconia ( z i r c o n i u m d i o x i d e ) . It is ^ ^
fcj>- • - r y S e e Figure 5 5 32. structed using p o w d e r t h a t Is p r e s s e d I n t o a thimble - s l i a p '.j,
H A >:'••' t h e o x y g e n level Is high, the c o m p u t e r as coated with p o r o u s p l a t i n u m m a t e r i a l t h a t a c t s a s electrodes. ^
.rr-- t n e i n t a k e c h a r g e is lean (not e n o u g h fuel) and In- conia sensors u s e 18 m m d i a m e t e r t h r e a d s w i t h a wash •
rjelivery T h e r e a r e several different designs of o x y g e n Rgure 5 5 33. .h.toXVH'1
l e m o n , including; Zirconia o x y g e n s e n s o r s ( 0 2 S ) a r e c o n s t r u c t e d so
Ions flow t h r o u g h t h e s e n s o r w h e n t h e r e is a d i f f e r e n t ' ,j(|J
• O n e w i r e o x y g e n sensor. The one wire of the one wire oxygen
the oxygen c o n t e n t Inside a n d o u t s i d e of t h e sensor. An ^ ^
.-.- -.• - >_• wit. T V ,ûiind for the Q2S Is through the
electrically c h a r g e d particle. T h e g r e a t e r t h e d i f f e r e n c e : - , n (||J
irr. - > - • / ' unl through the exhaust manifold.
gen c o n t e n t b e t w e e n t h e Inside a n d o u t s i d e of the Sl
• T w o w i r e o x y g e n tensor. I . t w o wire sensor has a signal wire
higher the voltage created.
a n d > f f ' s z i O w i r e lor tne 0 2 S .
• T h r e e w i r e o x y g e n tensor. Tl t h t u wire sensor design uses an • Rich m i x t u r e . A rich m i x t u r e results In little oxyRe" l n ,
e> • '-star ' 1 • r elp 'he 0 2 S up to temperature exhaust stream. Compared to the outside air. this repr«'M
A t w o s ' o x y g e n sensor.
•r^fiSrence and '.he sensors create a - •

„4ou:I.Ovotep.OOOmV}.
, ^ mixture. A iear. mixture leaves some r . ttnee7.
^ j o tia: did not combine with the fue.'. Th - leftov: - • • •
^ • c c s i e difference between the oxygen content of the ex'-. .-*
-~jsed » t h e oxygen content of the outside As a result • -
jssorjoSage is low or almost 0 volt
102Svota®e above 4 5 0 mV Is produced by the sensor v.--?-
djjeacontent in the exhaust is low. This is interpreter :.-•.- -
^computer (PCM' as being a rich exhaust.
RSJOOfTUr A S K E D Q U E S T I O N ? ? ?
ifSere Is H02S1?
Sjwr s f w s are numbered according to thpr location r w engine. 0- 7

r<?oe. heated oxygen sensor number 1 (H02S*: is locatei ir r e
rgrsiofd on the side of the engine where the number one cyfmder s j
i»«fc&efigureS5-3«.
1
02Svcftage below 4 5 0 mV is produced by the sensor •••"-•;- • -
content Is high. This is Interpreted by the engine compute:
— ' as being a lean exhaust
^knia Oxygen S e n s o r s The Stasia titanium dioxide) oxygen

-Joes not produce a voltage but rather changes in resstzrc?
T
~Se presence of oxygen in the exhaust All Sania oxygen sen
^ s s s a f c u r t e r a i a a l variable resistance unit with a heaSageSe*
^ A iania sensor samples exhaust air or.lv and uses a rr'-rerce
J J ? f r r a the PCM. Titania oxide oxygen sensors use a I - - - -
are no: interchangeable with zirconia oxygen sensors.
Is applied to the sensor and the changing ressancc of the " .rtljB " * *. 11 l i e
sensor changes the voltage of the sensor circuit .As
2 atonla oxygen sensor, the voltage signal Is above - 5 0 - ' . ' sensot or.vv. • r = r uses a bezsd caScde and anode to :
- - f c e exhaust is rich, and low {below 450 mV when S c cxrger Sok S e expanse i s : a t ± s z x Tie d£us>r ;
is lean. and S e oxrjm scsc* elerents are eSeeioTv rmaecsd so tia
O x y g e n S e n s o r s A wide-band oxygen sensor. bianco: co^rr. -r.-cl - -j>r i f u s a t lr.-r '•'•' - t i e s - - -

"I a lean air-fuel (LAF) ratio sensor c : : linear air-fcel rure Is r c r o ^ v t a i i c e d s t ; 4 7 : 1 . Stirsensor ^ u d u e s no o-uu
?f. s ®Bor, allows engines to operate as can as 23:1 and c r t e n t Tffbea S e atr-fiies ttuxtun? s "xh. ise v r x r afccg
^ ' o o p operation. This type of sensor usuaHyuses 5ve wi-cs.
ra3o of afcoc 12:". T f t o t > »'a
I Power wire txsensornwdsctsa pestvecntrr. i a : tos 1 ~ :S~
, -Aire for the electric heater -amperes as t V ntitttre ges i r r c ap a> aboot 22-'.
'^Sensor wires Icsing a vr«e-bani c i y x n sense s ^rr?
• three sensor wires are used to provide the PCM w':> a .<? scan tooL M.-c F O S f i s S s v rid a r ; ' « r r : -' - • -.Vi-1
; • -' more accuratelv reflects the oxygen content - S c exhaust n^tc îcvr S e opesSon oftSe ccrygp? s e » r - r . . n i s
V 'Wa^Kiona! oxygen jensta A wide-band o r r p r rnsce c . - Cto 1.000 i s : a? 1' tne ^ ^ u x » ^ s n ^ - t g g atsnu:
d«sct&ed as having two oxyjers sensors -'.ated ® g e & r scnsoc
^JBteJ Javer between the two c o m p o n e n t . a s ,n a con oxygen sessore. jest l i e c n n t e a a e a l x . T r * r r
' ^ ' f ® wwnimn dioxide oxygen sensor, currtn: " t o i w s ore gen sensors, can l e rooltd i r eâsst leafc i p e x j r ri --—n
' -V other and produces a voisso. 'n a wideband oxysrs as -
«* secrx* a
D i a g n o s ' ? The oxygen sensors are used '

^ o s f e of o t h ^ J
t c m s a n d c o m p o n e n t s . For e x a m p l e , t h e •
Ws recircm afio |
I»
» «««
(EGR) s y s t e m is t e s t e d b y t h e P C M b y c o t
open d u r i n g t h e test. S o m e P C M s detemr-
i e t h
the vaiveI
« enough^
haust gas f l o w s i n t o t h e e n g i n e b y l o o k i n g <•
ox
c y g e n sensor^
sponse (fuel trim n u m b e r s ) . T h e u p s t r e a m a m
« e a m
I 3 4
~ sensors a r e also u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f i c •
0 %
f e y of the catalytic
I " i converter. See Figure 5 5 - 3 6 .
§ 3.C-
I
r —I- -T"
12 13 14 15 IS 18 19
What Happens to the Bias Voltage?
RICH AIR-FUEL RATIO LEAN
Some vehicle manufacturers such as General Motors Corporation have foe

computer apply 450 mV (0.450 V) to the 02S signal wire. This voltage is ca >
siwrt ©-3S cwtpifi of u typical 3"-fuel mature sensor showing that the
as th* ex>9ust becomes leaner, which $ opposite from normal the bias voltage and represents the threshold voltage for the transition from
Th» outr.'' -?< a wide-Sand oxygen sensor usually can not tie read using rich to lean.
* ~ £ "*<wor. hit instead a scan tool is needed. This bias voltage is displayed on a scan tool when the ignition switch is
turned on with the engine off. When the engine is started, the 02S becomes
A a f r - f u e l s e n s o r is used o n s o m e Toyota brand vehicles warm enough to produce a usable voltage and bias voltage "disappears" as
a - : p r o d u c e s a v o l t a g e r e a d i n g of 2 . 2 t o 4 . 2 volts d e p e n d i n g on the 02S responds to a rich and lean mixture. What happened to the bias volt-
r e o x v g n c o n t e n t of t h e e x h a u s t . This type of oxygen sensor is age that the computer applied to the 02S? The voltage from the 02S simply
. --r: - d e t e c t m i x t u r e s as rich as 12:1 and as lean as 18:1. See overcame the very weak voltage signal from the computer. This bias voltage
55 35. is so weak that even a 20-megohm impedance DMM will affect te
strength enough to cause the voltage to drop to 426 mV. Other meters viiih
only 10 megohms of impedance will cause the bias voltage to read less than
CLOSED LOOP AND OPEN LOOP
400 mV.
7N. a m c - r t t of fuel d e l i v e r e d to a n e n g i n e is d e t e r m i n e d by t h e Therefore, even though the 02S voltage is relatively low powered, it is
r z - c o n t r o l m o d u l e i P C M j based on inputs f r o m t h e en- more than strong enough to override the very weak bias voltage the compute
cr " . r . - - e m p e r a t u r e ' E C T ; . throttle position (TP) sensor, and sends to the 02S.
h e o x y g e n s e n s o r is capable of supplying a usable sig-
^W ? r. i ? P C M a i o n e ( w i t h o u t feedback) is d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
. . .h. s,v>-
fit n e e d e d , i'. is called o p e n - l o o p o p e r a t i o n . As soon
i s e n s o r ( 0 2 S ) is c a p a b l e of supplying rich and lean sig-
fcy t h e c o m p u t e r can be m a d e to fine-tune t h e
:»'. m i x t u r e . This c h e c k i n g and adjusting by the com-
REAL WORLD FIX The O x y g e n S e n s o r Is Lying to You
closed-loop o p e r a t i o n .
A technician was trying to solve a driveability problem with a V-6 passenoe' car.
P C H USES OF THE OXYGEN SENSOR The car idled roughly, hesitated, and accelerated poorly. A thorough visual in-
Control The : p s t r e a m o r / g e n s e n s o r s are a m o n g t h e spection did not indicate any possible problems and there were no diagnostic
u s e d for fuel c o n t r o l w h i l e o p e r a t i n g in closed trouble codes stored.
B ^ o r e t h e o x y g e n s e n s o r s a r e h o t e n o u g h to give a c c u r a t e A check was made on the oxygen sensor activity using a DMM. The v *
- . r r , < r i n f o r m a t i o n to t h e c o m p u t e r , fuel control is deter- age stayed above 600 mV most of the time. If a large vacuum hose w®
_ ~ s e n s o r s and t h e anticipated injector pulse w i d t h removed, the oxygen sensor voltage would temporarily drop to below -150111
. . . tjvjse- s e n s o r s . After t h e control system a c h i e v e s and then return to a reading of over 600 mV. Remember:
• - a - i i , ;'-<> o x y g e n s e n s o r provides feedback w i t h ac-
• High 02S readings rich exhaust (low 0? content in the exhaust)
• Low 02S readings lean exhaust (high 0 ? content in the exhaust)
P w l Trim Fuel trim z c o m p u t e r program that is used to com- As part of a thorough visual inspection, the technician removed •••
- ? ' o o lean air-fuel exhaust as detected by inspected the spark plugs. All the spark plugs were white, indicating a lean
fi ',-in is necessary to keep t h e air-fuel mix- a r e , not the rich mixture that the oxygen sensor was Indicating. The high J ^
low t h e c a t a l y i c converter to operate effi reading signaled the computer to reduce the amount of fuel, resulting n
:• >tn lean or too rich for a long time, the excessively lean operation. ^ , ,,„,
/ : d a m a j ^ d . T h e fuel trim n u m b e r s are de- After replacing the oxygen sensor, the engine ran great. But what ki t ^
Ttrmes : t h e oxygen sensor's). If t h e e n g i n e oxygen sensor' The technician finally learned from the owner that W' ^
s fewsi - h r r reor. and long-term fuel time pro- gasket had been replaced over a year ago. The phosphate and silicate ad '•
PC.I '.-!'. ca .-»•• v. increase tn the c o m m a n d e d in the antifreeze coolant had coated the oxyqen sensor. Because the o-
>- r ; r r * :,r m i x t u r e back into t h e sensor was coated, the oxyqen content of the exhaust could not be de"' 11
•x trtm r ,v ' . r j / i ' y i - .'Mjbtractinst fueil or positive the result: a false rich signal from the oxygen sensor.
Chapter 56 CongeWr S e w * M7
ypSTREAM
OXYGEN SENSOR
DOWNS I. /.-.<
OXY Q U I )OR
WGAT1VE
SLOWLY
RAPIDLY / SWITCHING
SWITCHING / SIGNAL OR
SIGNAL F STRAIGHT LINE
OXY&tN SCNSOfl
CATALYTIC CONVERTER SiGNJu. mnt
<tiit55-36 Ttie OBD-II catalytic converter monitor compares the signals ol the Rgure 56-37 teafcng an oxygen tensor using a DMM sat on DC volts. Witti the engine
srmni and downstream oxygon sensor to determine converter efficiency operating m closed loop the oxygen «mge eMA) read over BOO mV and lower man
200 mV ano be constantly fluctuating
• If t h e oxygen s e n s o r reads h i g h all t h e time I a b o v e 5 5 0 mlllivoltsi,

HEAL WORLD FIX
EJ T h e M i s s i n g Ford S t o r y
•
t h e fuel system could b e s u p p r n g t o o rich a fuel m i x t u r e o r t h e
oxygen sensor m a y b e c o n t a m i n a t e d .
If t h e oxygen sensor voltage remains l o w ( b e l o w 3 5 0 mlllivoltsi,
• hit-cylinder Ford was being analyzed for poor engine operation. The engine
•11 perfectly during the following conditions: t h e fuel system could b e s u p p l y i n g t o o l e a n a f u e l m i x t u r e . C h e c k
for a v a c u u m leak or partially d o g g e d f u e l i n j e c t o r f s i . Before replac
1. Willi the engine cold or operating In open loop ing t h e oxygen sensor, c h e c k t h e m a n u & c t u r e r s ' r e c o m m e n d e d
2. With the engine at idle procedures.
3. Wlfi the engine operating at or near wide-open throttle
Alter hours of troubleshooting, the cause was found to be a poor ground

TESTING TNE O X Y G E N S E N S O R USING
owectkm for the oxygen sensor. The engine ran okay during times when the
1
""War ignored the oxygen sensor. Unfortunately, the service technician did
THE MIN/MAX METHOO
J law a delinite plan during the diagnostic process and as a result checked A digital m e t e r s e t o n D C » ts c a n b e e d to record the m i n i m u m
w 'epiaced many unnecessary parts. An oxygen sensor test early in the diag- and m a x i m u m voltage w i t h t h e engine running. A good oxygen
wfc procedure would have Indicated that the oxygen (02S) signal was not s e n s o r s h o u l d b e a b l e t o p r o d . c e a v a l u e of less t h a n 3 0 0 m i l l i v o l t s
' M Ihe poor ground caused the oxygen sensor voltage level to be too high, a n d a m a x i m u m v o l t a g e a b o v e 8 0 0 m i l l i v o l t s . R e p l a c e a n y oxyjên
bating to the computer that the mixture was too rich. The computer then s e n s o r t h a t fails t o g o a b o v e 7 0 0 m i l l i v o l t s o r l o w e r t h a n 3 0 0 m i l'
Macted fuel which caused the engine to miss and run rough as the result ot volts. S e e Figure 5 5 - 3 8 .
air-fuel mixture.
M M / M A X J r y y e n Sensor t e s t Chart
Minimum Voltage Maximum Voftaga Average Voltage lest Results
Below 200 mV Above 800 mV 400 to 500 mV Oxygen sense

^STING AN O X Y G E N S E N S O R U S I N G Any reading 400 to 500 mV Oxygen » w* a i k i i L i M
Above 200 mV
0IG
>TAL V O L T M E T E R Anyt*atttng Below 800 mV 400 to 500 mV Oxygen «aneca a o a M M
" W n s e n s o r c a n b o c h e c k e d f o r p r o p e r o p e r a t i o n u s i n g a dir. Below 200 mV Above 800 mV Below 400 mV System a opt
11
"'^-Impedance v o l t m e t e r . Below 200 mV Below 800 mV Below 400 mV System a apin a n g a a i
,Aon oroear* a v w M M a
lV
'• lth t h e e n g i n e off, c o n n e c t t h e r e d lead of t h e m e t e r to t h e oxy aa lota* *aw<sngan
2 W sensor s i g n a l w i r e . S e e F i g u r e 5 5 37. mnmmem
^ | ' J r l t h e e n g i n e a n d a l l o w it t o r e a c h c l o s e d loop o p e r a t i o n . s m o r a d a * tcav*
' l n closed-loop operation, t h e o x y g e n s e n s o r v o l t a g e s h o u l d be Mow 200 mV Above 800 mV Attn* 500 mV SyMmaom n n i n t t
' " " s t a n t l y c h a n g i n g a s t h e f u e l m i x t u r e Is b e i n g c o n t r o l l e d . Above 200 mV Above 800 mV Aftov* 500 mV Sjsetnaofi n a n g x *
tftowma m
e
^ "> results s h o u l d b e I n t e r p r e t e d a s f o l l o w s : ( M M *
•ora inattha m
'' " ! e °*Vgen s e n s o r falls to r e s p o n d , a n d its v o l t a g e r e m a i n s at
450 millivolts, t h e s e n s o r m a y b e d e f e c t i v e a n d r e q u i r e
, plj
ceOent, Before r e p l a c i n g t h e o x y g e n s e n s o r , c h e c k t h e m a n u • Check tor an exhaust leak upstiaam fi>iei U» .<:S •
"tfers* r e c o m m e n d e d p r o c e d u r e s . latM lean indtcatMn tutor* turner
senon*
3A St X- AS C2 VOLTAGE CHANGES
-IT ^ - - • ----.-HG CC^C-'V^NS. TWE O; VOLTAGE
--- >«>"••».. « . * - USUAL!.* AVSWTGFSAS0VN0«.«SV
- - -W -.vr.-H.- ANprNSEnT TEST U A O W T H E I N " W
: <5- --c T*-TCV TO VOLTS DC

RANGE BY DEPRESSING THE RANGE
T
WJTJOfc X«»e8 ""MES
i iUWiLC* TVf -EST LEADS AS SHOWN
-- - - C EMCME 0 1 SENSOR <S UNHEATED. PAST IDLE
S CEW V^VTES ' " E N PRESS V'N • MAX TO SELECT
Wt> 1AX WECOBEHNG
WAX BI.'TON TOCXSPUX* MAX'MUM<MAX>
— VW.TSGE «»< SS AGA.'N OTSPLA'' V'M'MUV (MIN!
»OC?»G» W E 5 S AGA'N TO 0>W-A» AVERAGE AVG> VOLTAGE:
- - - - - : 4NO HOLD D O W V!N VAX FOR 2 SECONDS TO EXIT
NEGATIVE POSITIVE
BACK PROSE
CONNECTOR
WITH T-PIN
OXYGEN SENSOR
SIGNAL WIRE
% r 5 5 - 5 ••; - . - - « • • / » •.. •.-;! •>- «niOf » W S» »iip-"ax i w l tuncScn of the m ^ y
H U M U H L T A S K E D QUESTION
the Oxygen Sensor Voltage Read

Chrysler VeWcles?
V *C>C-Y a c - v * . » the swjnaf wire ot the oxygen

r .--cage is to aflaw the computer to detect it the
,r
i t' open or yûnded
•*» v r . - - n-'K • « 5 or m t w . the comtwter assumes
• • i f f r . j k o , the eo»«puW assume* thai the
Trv **rr. o r r v C f <x>vr.» daanostic trouWe code (DTO.
^ S V M A S OXYGEN SENSOR USING A SCAN TOOL

--..••, -: be '0 sense t h e oxygen content
. ^ p i d . How fast an oxygen sensor
• • * "•--. , ~ t v o t t s i to low (below 350 mD- Figure 55-39 A Honda scan tool being used to diagnose the oxygen sensors.
• cross c o u n t s . 1 ' • cunts
• r a SO®
.. - -> -„ ver.'X'r changes voltage from Oxygen sensor cross counts can only be determined ustn>> .. .
- ••••;< :.<; counted in 1 second tool or other suitable tester that reads computer data. See Figure^.,,
v . 2 - . " ' v . ; and computer speedi. If the cross counts are low (or zerol. t h e oxygen s e w c r ^
contaminated, or the fuel delivery system is delivering
rich or lean air-fuel mixture. To test an engine using a ^
follow these steps:
r 2
, COBF".- S ' T—: ~ 1. Connect the scan tool to the DLC and start the engine-
i.
emptor 55: Computer bmsors MS
^ e n g i n e at afest Idle ( 2 5 0 0 RPK

2- , o r tne o x y g e n s e n s o r t o w a r m t o o , C h e c k for rapid s w i t c h i n g f r o m rich to lean a n d lean to rich and
c h a n g e b e t w e e n o n c e e v e r y 2 s e c o n d s and five d m e s per second
' ^ r v e the oxygen s e n s o r activity o n t h e
J 0 . 5 to 5 . 0 H z | . See Figures 5 5 4 1 , 5 5 - 4 2 , and 5 5 - 4 3 .
' 1 , 1 loop o p e r a t i o n . S e l e c t " s n a p s h o t " m ,„i,.„ „ , h,
l e d steady a n d s t a r t r e c o r d i n g .
Z back s n a p s h o t a n d p l a c e a m a r k b e s i d e e a c h r a n , , of oyy ,,
'or voltage f o r e a c h f r a m e of t h e s n a p s h o t .
- (ieneral Motors warns not to base the diagnosis o( an oxygen sen
. «.od o x y g e n s e n s o r a n d c o m p u t e r s y s t e m s h o u l d result in sor problem solely on its scope pattern. The varying voltage output of an
. ^ u p s h o t v a l u e s a t b o t h e n d s ( 0 t o 3 0 0 a n d 6 0 0 t o 1 , 0 0 0 rnV oxygen sensor can easily be mistaken for a fault In the sensor Itself, rather
than a fauit In the fuel delivery system.
' o f the r e a d i n g s a r e i n t h e m i d d l e , t h e o x y g e n s e n s o r ,s not
..-ng correctly.
T h e K e y O n , E n g i n e Off O x y g e n S e n s o r Test
T E C H TIP Sensor or Wiring?
. !eS t works on General Motors vehicles and may work on others if the PCM
When troubleshooting a diagnostic trouble code, il is sometimes difficult to de-
l ,i bias voltage to the oxygen sensors. Zirconia oxygen sensois become termine if the sensor itself is defective or Its winng and ground connections are
• electrically conductive as they get hot. To perform this test, be sure that defective For example when diagnosing an 02S code, perform the following to
, vehicle has not run tor several hours. check the wiring.
,-piM Connect a scan tool and get the display ready to show oxygen
1. Connect a scan tool and observe the 02S voltage with the ignition on
sensor data. (engine off)
: « Key the engine on without starting the engine. The heater in the 2. Disconnect the 02S pigtail to open the circuit between the computer and
uxygen sensor will start heating the sensor. the 02S The scan tool should read 450 mV if the wiring is okay and the
v > 3 Observe the voltage ol the oxygen sensor The applied bias voltage scan tool is showing the bias voltage.
nl 450 mV should slowly decrease for all oxygen sensors as they become
NOT 11 Some vehicle manufacturers do not apply a bias voltage to the 02S
more electrically conductive and other bias voltage is flowing to ground
and the reading on the scan tool may indicate zero and be okay
'•'"? " 4 A good oxygen sensor should indicate a voltage of less than 100 mV
after 3 minutes. Any sensor that displays a higher-than usual voltage or seems
3. Ground the 02S wi e from the compute The scan tool should read
in slay higher longer than the others could be defective or skewed high
0 volts if the winng is okay
NESTING A N O X Y G E N S E N S O R USING A SCOPE 0 2 S READINGS

A eope c a n a l s o b e u s e d t o t e s t a n o x y g e n s e n s o r . C o n n e c t t h e An oxygen s e n s o r r e a d i n g that is l o w could b e d u e to other things
w to t h e s i g n a l w i r e a n d g r o u n d f o r t h e s e n s o r (if it Is so besides a lean air- fuel m i x t u r e . An oxygen sensor senses oxygen,
'quipped),
n o t u n b u r n e d gas, e v e n t h o u g h a high reading generally indicates a
w
i t h t h e e n g i n e o p e r a t i n g i n c l o s e d l o o p , t h e v o l t a g e signal of rich e x h a u s t Hack of oxygen i and a l o w reading indicates a lean
^nsor should be constantly changing. See Figure 5 5 40. m i x t u r e (excess oxygen).
936 MV MAXIMUM AUTO

566 MV AVERAQT
126MV MINIMUM
anomv •
OXVOtN UNSOR
GEES
digital storage oscilloscope iDSOl Note that the maximum reading s aDow 800 mv art mt
' a,**"* 0 "iew,iv„i . , l-
and fuel to be exhausted past the 0 2 S 125 «
Lean Indications • jn ox\ . a sensor reads low as aresultof a oxygen |not the unburned gasolinel an i , >'s ,tle
« n -ntoui*. can bf caused tv Stings such as: low. lla
W is
• w-. ' oak Exhaust leak in front of the 0 2 S . An t )eak t
• m : _ ~ip pressure the engine and the oxygen sensor cause-, mtside oxygen i "
• d o g g e d ' el i r j f c n - drawn into the exhaust and past the 0 2 S . This oxygen is»
by the 0 2 S and produces a lower-than-normal voltage Th'6*1'
A^k- sometimes the lean indication can be false. computer interrupts the lower-than-normal voltage signal I
False lean indications i e w 0 2 S readingsl can be attributed the 0 2 S as meaning that the air fuel m i x t u r e is lean. The i "
So the following: puter will cause the fuel system to deliver a richer atr-f-uel ^
I . Ignition misfire. An ignition misfire due to a defective spark mixture.
p « - - t .-'jjied spark plug, and so forth, causes no burned air
A 200mV DC 11 PROBE B 200mV OFF 11 PROBE

200ms / DIV TBIG A I
—r—t—i—|—
MAXIMUM PEAK VOLTAGES
SHOULD REACH AT LEAST
800 mV OR MORE
PEAK-TO-PEAK
VOLTAGES SHOULD
BE AT LEAST 600 mV
OR GREATER WITH
AN AVERAGE OF CURSOR DATA
450 mV FUNCTION MARK ON
t I CURSOR I NONE Z
ONCE YOU'VE ACTIVATED "PEAK-TO-PEAK

"MAX-PEAK." AND "MIN-PEAK." FRAME THE
WAVEFORM WITH CURSORS - LOOK FOR
MINIMUM PEAK VOLTAGES THE MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM VOLTAGES
SHOULD REACH AT LEAST AND THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM IN
200 mV OR LESS THE RIGHT DISPLAY.
figure 55-4 1 A vocal good oxygen sensor waveform as displayed on a digital storage Figure 55-42 Using the cursors on the oscilloscope, the high- and low-oxygen senst*
_ao* far transitions (fiat occurrapidlybetween 0.5 and 5 0 Hz. values can be displayed on the screen.
A 200mVDC 1:1 PROBE B 200mV OFF 1:1 PROBE A 200mV DC 1:1 PROBE B 200mV OFF 1:1 PROBE
200ms TRIG AS 200ms/ TR1G.A T-1 DIV
UN MAX TRIGGER
!DIV O N A AT 50% RUN] -QggDiy ON A AT 50%
UNDER HARD ACCELERATION, THE AIR-FUEL WHILE DECELERATING, MIXTURES BECOME LEAN.
MIXTURE SHOULD BECOME RICH - THE LOOK FOR LOW VOLTAGE LEVELS.
VOLTAGE SHOULD STAY FAIRLY HIGH
6-43 v • -no- >t r# ^ <t eîgei Mt> m Amng a tap*) acceleration, looktara raid response The transitionfromtowtohigh should be less than TOO
Chapter 55. CompuW Swaan
plug m i s f i r e r e p r e s e n t s a tai
a lei mixture is required for the most efficient o p e r a t e >f
3. A spar
sensor. The computer dor the converter. If the converter is working correctly, the oxv» • ri
1[lg past t h e o x y g e n s e n s o r content after the converter should be fairly consrant. See
I mixture. T h e c o m p u t e r c o m m a n d Figure 55-44.
^ f c o u l d cause the spark plugs to foul, rate
ofmisfirings.
OXYGEN SENSOR INSPECTION
indications An oxygen sensor r e a d i n g 'ha Whenever an oxygen sensor is replaced, the old sensor should be
rirh a i r - f u e l m i x t u r e c a u s e d b y t h i n g >u<
carefully inspected to help determine the cause of the failure. This
i £ JO « is an important step because if the cause of the failure is not discov-
( £ i c essive
fuel p r e s s u r e ered. i? could ead to another sensor failure.
, [ aking fuel injector Inspection may reveal the knowing:
i Leaking hiel p r e s s u r e r e g u l a t o r
1. Black sooty depo ; % wt k h ;*ily indicate a rich air-fuel
Wen the 02S reads high as a result of o t h e r factors besides a rich
r , r r e . it is s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d a f a l s e r i c h i n d i c a t i o n . mixture.
2. Wr • ' :-.:. • " -.ar* • -isnc of ,lica
False rich indications (high 0 2 S readings) can be attributed to
contamination. Usual caaaes fort; type of sensor failure
the following: ndude silica deposits the '.«. or a technician having
I. Contaminated 0 2 S d u e to a d d i t i v e s in t h e e n g i n e c o o l a n t o r d u e osed the wrong type of s ,,cor.e seaia' t during the servicing
to silicon poisoning of the engine.
I. Astuck-open EGR valve (especially a t idle) 3. Whites**} or • • • • a-e ^:acter:s* 'fan
3. A spark plug w i r e t o o c l o s e t o t h e o x y g e n s e n s o r signal tifreeze lefcylene givm :o3tazn natk *.. A defective cylinder
wire, which can i n d u c e a h i g h e r - t h a n - n o r m a l v o l t a g e in t h e head or iraaxe mar tod gastet cc J d oe tae cause, or a cracked
; gnal wire, t h e r e b y i n d i c a t i n g t o t h e c o m p u t e r a false rich cinder head or engine block. An -..-eese may also cause the
condition oxygen sensor to become g-eer as a result of tne dye used ,n
4. A loose oxygen sensor g r o u n d c o n n e c t i o n , w h i c h c a n cause a antifreeze. See figure 55-45.
rugherthan-normal voltage a n d a false rich signal 4. Dart brown deposits, which are an sndjcatjon of excessive oil
5. A break or contamination of t h e w i r i n g a n d its c o n n e c t o r s , w h i c h consumption. Possible cause: -nc, jde a defective posit, ve
could prevent reference o x y g e n f r o m r e a c h i n g t h e o x y g e n sensot; crankcase ventiauon PCV stec or a mechanica* engine
resulting in a false rich i n d i c a t i o n (All o x y g e n sensors require an problem such as defectre vaive stem seais or piston rings.
oiygen supply inside t h e s e n s o r itself for r e f e r e n c e to be able to
sense exhaust gas oxygen.)
POST-CATALYTIC C O N V E R T E R O X Y G E N Do not sprev srr me ^ r r - n o r de entpne where the

engine vacuum codc: me S a c - i o Ik e r c a e . T h e caa a b c a
5ENS0RTESTING
silica damage » the trvBer, a a s n >be i . - e r r -.-« • : - n e sealer
- orth D S6nSOr i 0 c a t e d
b e h i n d 1)16 c a t a l
y t i c c o n v e r t e r is u s e d used far gastets s rated ; X K r sensor vie.
vehicles t o m o n i t o r c o n v e r t e r e f f i c i e n c y . A c h a n g i n g
OXYGEN
SENSOR
BEFORE THE
J CONVERTER
VOLT
1.25 OXYGEN
SENSOR
AFTER THE
CONVERTER
0.00
VOLT .5.00 SEC/DIV
GOOD (EFFICIENT) CONVERTER
j
.
OXYGEN
SENSOR
AFTER THE
CONVERTER
o.oo:. - —
VOLT
sMMCEiv.
BAD (INEFFICIENT! CONVERTER
* POst-catalytic converter oxygen sensor should display rthtl ® We catHyic caiwrfcr s etVaert
652 SK
Figure 5 5 - 4 6 The target lambda on this vehicle is slightly lower than 1.0 indicatingJ® I
the PCM is attempting to supply the engine with an air-fuel mixture that is slightly richer I
than stoichiometric
P c u r e 55-45 A contaminated oxygen sensor from an engine that had been operating with
jffecae .noer head gasket that allowed antifreeze to get onto the sensor
5
O X Y G E N S E N S O R - R E L A T E D D I A G N O S T I C TROUBLE CODES
D i a g n o s t i c t r o u b l e c o d e s ( D T C s ) a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e oxygen sensol
include:
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION B Diagnostic

Trouble
What Is Lambda? Codes Description Possible Causes
P0131 Upstream H02S Exhaust leak upstream of H02S

4B : r f o e r sensor is also called a lambda sensor because the voltage changes
grounded (bank 1)
r e air-&ei ratio of 1 4 7 1 which is the stoichiometric rate for gasoline. If
Extremely lean air-fuel mixture
r s s i7 ' " j r e of gasoline and air is burned, all of the gasoline is burned and uses
H02S defective or contaminated
a of the :<ygen m ttie mixture. This exact ratio represents a lambda of 1.0. If
~ - - '*-•= s richer more fuel or less air), the number is less than 1 0 , such as H02S signal wire shorted-to-ground
: 550 <* the mixture is leaner than 14.7:1 (less fuel or more air), the lambda P0132 Upstream H02S Upstream H02S (bank 1) shortec
•. - : - . gner than 1 0. such as 1.130 Often, the target lambda is displayed shorted Defective H02S
t a scat tool See Figure 55-46 Fuel-contaminated H02S
P0133 Upstream H02S Open or short in heater circuit

slow response Defective or fuel-contaminated H02S
EGR or fuel-system fault
PHOTO SEQUENCE Throttle Position Sensor Diagnosis
Mr. D i a g n o s t i c t r o u b l e Codes-
PSJ-1 9 e * d e s a « e a r tool other equipment that can P55-2 Consult the factory service manual for the P 5 5 - 3 A scan tool display showing no
Be j s e l ts cheek a "Crftte posAon (TP) sensor specifications and wire colors used for the TP sensor, trouble codes (DTCs). A fault could still exitf
MCMM h teope or graphing multimeter as well as the recommended testing procedure. though a diagnostic trouble code is not set
depends on the type of fault and when it occ
-,^4 A scan tool can be used to observe the output P55-5 Most throttle positior sensors use a w » t i e red lead from Die digital
yage and the circulated percentage 1%) of throttle
reference voltage from the computer To test that tn - : _ pin and attach the black meter
signal is available at the sensor carefully aack-prooe a n engine ground
vjemng.
the 5-volt reference
P55-7 Select DC volts and turn the ignition key on P55-8 To check the ground erf tne TP sensor P55-9 Attar- me s a o sagoot
engme dfl). The meter reads slightly over 5 volts, carefully back-probe the ground wire at tne TP jenscr engirt ground
' mnging the computer is supplying the connector and connect the red meter lead to r>e
Irenes voltage to the TP sensor. T-pin.
^ 1 0 With the ignition on (engine off) and the P55-11 To measure t h e s e " , voltage sack , J *
• W meter still set to read DC volts, read the the signal wire (dark blue on this General Wcors
drop of the TP sensor ground. This TP sensor vehicle).
tund shows 31.1 mV (0.031 IV).
• i b e s t results, this test should be performed PSS-14 The "Kin eac -g toi tfus sense was 4.06j P55-15 PlBtangtfte W A U M S T U *
( j ^ '-'-m-i-ciradiur pedal This puts the same volts miram,H witaje me vre iscoOeC au- *•; " t
sensor as occurs dunng normal dnving (0.399V1
Diagnosis—continued
23 <V
TP SI D*tB 1 u "
«•> 4 - 5 I
.-Bik"or'OMr*
y v f r n ? muWêtef or P55-17 The Vantage has a bum-in database that can P 5 5 - 1 8 These are normal for a TP sensor A faun
car a f c c b e o s e d t o f c s t a be accessed to show connector position and wire would show as a vertical line or dip in the wavete
MBig 8 * S « * K ) r color information
frOW
andttwcomedor'to P55-5 To actually view the voltage signal from the P 5 5 - 6 A T-pin w a s used to back-probe the P ^
o w w e t o arm the color ot oxygen sensor on the graphing multimeter, select signal wire at the connector near the oxyge"
j'M f Ts: > ? * r i Moto^ vetudei 'quick test" The red test lead from the meter attaches to «*
? -v> slack neter lead is aKached as a pood, PSS-8 The enc<ne was operate P K - 9 A d'cla! multiniete car also be 'Jsed »
until the oxygen sensor produced a cha~c'x voT2oe check the ooeratcr of an oxygen sensor. Select "DC
g d e grounti-
and dosed-kxw engine operator was achieved wts."
'S-iO Connect the red meter lead to the T-pin thai P55-11 Start the engine and select VM'YAX.
s cTac^w; to the signal wire and attach the black
âd to a good engine ground.
"ish the MIN/MAX button to view the P55-14 Push the MIN/MAX buKon again to r e w the
1
'xyoen sensor voltaae readina (59.1 mV). average oxygen sensor voltage reading. "This -eadino
I
"*im 'eading should "be less than 200 mV. (449.8 mV) is average and indicates that ^ e engine>s
operating correctly.
I
P55-17 As the heater inside the oxygen sensors
work, the sensors become more conductive to ground
and the voltage should drop.
SECTION A
SUMMARY 12. What .in three basic designs of oxygen h

ow many wires
be used for each?
1. fti . . - " -t decrease in resistance as the temperature in-
13. What are thri e ways oxygen sensors can b
s " . e i -eaSve temperature coefficient (NTCi.
tf - . can be tested visually, as well as by using a dig-
CHAPTER QUIZ
its ~ or a scan tood.
3 : TP ---sor :s a three wire variable resistor called a 1. Two technicians are discussing a stepped ECT c ult. Technician A »
powneoioete^ that the sensor used for a stepped circuit Is different than one used»
non-stepped circuit. Technician B says that a stepped ECT circuit uses 4
<t. e three ''. .re- on the TP sensor include a 5-volt reference voltage from
ferent internal resistance inside the PCM. Which technician is correct'
the PCM. pius the signal wire to the PCM, and a ground, which also goes
» li»e PCM. a. Technician A only
5. T i e TP sens - signal voltage should be about 0.5 volt at idle and increase
: : sfceut 4.5 folts at wide-open throttle |WOT .
6. - TP sensor can be tested using a digital multimeter, a digital storage
2. When checking the ECT sensor w i t h a scan tool, about what tempera®
asciôscope iDSO . . or a scan tool.
should be displayed if the connector is removed from the sensor with a
7. Pressure oeiow atroosphenc pressure is called vacuum and is measured in key on, engine off?
todies of Mercury. a. 284°F (140°C)
8. A : W absolute pressure sensor uses a perfect vacuum (zero absolute b. 230°F(110°C)
pressure) in the sensor to determine the pressure. c. 120°F (50°C)
d. - 4 0 ° F ( - 4 0 ° C )
0. Three types of M A P sensors include:
• S [con-C'.aptiragni str: i gauge 3. Typical TP sensor voltage at idle is about .
• r
apac.tor-capsule design a. 2.50 to 2.80 volts
• Cerarr.ic disc design b. 0.5 volt or 10% of WOT TP sensor voltage
c. 1.5 to 2.8 volts
10. A M A P sensor is used to detect changes in alUtude, as well as check other
d. 13.5 to 15.0 volts
sensors and engine systems.
4. A TP sensor is what type of sensor?
11. A .MAP sensor can be tested by visual inspection, testing the output using
a. Rheostat
a digital meter or scan tool.
b. Voltage generating
12. A mass airflow sensor actually measures the density and amount c. Potentiometer
of air Bowing into the engine, which results in accurate engine
d. Piezoelectric
control.
5. As the load on an engine increases, the manifold vacuum decreases and'
13. Ar. air vane sensor measures the volume of the air, and the intake air tem-
manifold absolute pressure .
perature sensor is used by the PCM to calculate the mass of the air enter-
a. Increases
ing the engine. b. Decreases
14. A hot wire M A F sensor uses the electronics in the sensor itself to heat a c. Changes with barometric pressure only (altitude or weather
wire 7 0 ' C above the temperature of the air entering the engine. d. Remains constant (absolute)
15. Ar. oxygen sensor produces a voltage output signal based on the oxygen 6. A fuel-injection system that does not use a sensor to measure
content of the exhaust sueam. (or mass! of air entering the engine is usually called a|n) —
16. .: -.he exhaust has little oxygen, the voltage of the oxygen sensor will be type of system.
c ose to 1 volt 11,000 mV| and close to zero if there Is high-oxygen con- a. Air vane-controlled
tent ir. the exhaust. b. Speed density
c. Mass airflow
17. O r . aen sensors can have one, two, three, four, or more wires, depending
on the style and deslgp. d. Hot wire
7. The typical MAF reading on a scan tool with the engine at idle
18. A wide-band oxygen sensor, also called a lean air-fuel (LAFI or linear
normal operating temperature is •
a.r-fueI ratio sensor, can detect air-fuel ratios from as rich as 12:1 to as
lean as 18:1. a. 1 to 3 grams per second
b. 3 to 7 grams per second
c. 8 to 12 grams per second
REVIEW QUESTIONS d. 14 to 24 grams per second
8. The voltage output of a zirconia oxygen sensor when the exhaust
1. H o w does a typical NTC temperature sensor work?
lean lexcess oxygenl is .
2. ' - i• temperature should be displayed on a scan tool if the ECT sensor Is
a. Relatively high (dose to 1 volt)
-spi . i j p l with the key on, engine off? b. About in the middle of the voltage range
3. 1* are the three ways that temperature sensors can be tested? c. Relatively low (close to 0 volt)
4. A T.t •• Tie purpose of each of the three wires on a typical TP sensor? d. Either a or b, depending on atmospheric pressure
5. '. •<• ;. -„ie relationship among atmospheric pressure, vacuum, and boost 9. A high 02S voltage could be due to _ _ _ _ •
pressure in PSI? a. A rich exhaust
b. A lean exhaust
6. ' v u ^ types construction I of MAP sensors?
c. A defective spark plug wire
7. a -are r - - uses of a MAP sensor by the PCM? d. Both a and c
8. fl :» dexn a r w ft'.rr. M A F sensor work? 10. An oxygen sensor is being tested using a M i n - M a x o n a ^
9. H v * a MAF yrisor rested? read the average. A good oxygen sensor should display •'•
a. 450 to 650 mV
10. t •': t • '>f airflow sensors?
b. 450 mV
11. H < / • „ • ', sensor delect oxygen levels in the exhaust? c. 100 to 250 mV
d. 650 to 050 mV
56
C H A P T E R
fljftlWg! After studying C h a p t e r 5 6 , t h e r e a d e r will be able t o : Prepare for ASE Engine Performance (A8) certification test content area "B"
nmon system Diagnosis a n d Repair). • Explain how ignition coils create 40.000 vote • Discuss crankshaft position sensor and pickup coil operation
.Describe t h e operation o f w a s t e - s p a r k and coil-on-plug ignition systerr-,
rtflBtMS: bypass i g n i t i o n • c o i l - o n - p l u g (COP) ignition (also cotl-by-plug. cori-near-plug, ccx-over-piu® • compression-sensing ignition
.fljWiafion* distributor i g n i t i o n (Dl) • distributorless ignition system (DISi • divorced coil • dwet • eooil • electromagnetic interference (EMI)
i electronic control u n i t (ECU) • e l e c t r o n i c ignition (El) • electronic ignition system (EISi • electron* spade timing (EST) • flyback voltage • Hall-
^ s w i t c h • high e n e r g y i g n i t i o n (HEI) • igniter • ignition coil • ignition control 0Ci • ignition control module (ICM) • ignition timing • inductive
HgHnce • initial t i m i n g • i o n - s e n s i n g ignition • iridium spark plugs • knock sensor (KSi • magnetic pulse generator • magnetic sensor
. married coil • m u t u a l i n d u c t i o n • optical sensors • paired cylinders • pickup coil (putee generator! • p n g • platinum spark plugs • polarity
• primary Ignition c i r c u i t • primary winding • saturation • Schmitt trigger • secondary ignrbon circuit • secondary winding • self-induction
• S p o k k n o c k • s p a r k o u t p u t (SPOUT) • switching • tapped transformer • transistor • triggering • true transformer • turn ratio • up-integrated
niton • waste-spark i g n i t i o n
The ignition s y s t e m i n c l u d e s those parts and wiring required to HIGH-TENSION TERMINAL

jenerate and d i s t r i b u t e a h i g h voltage to the spark plugs. A fault , SECONDARY TOWER)
PRIMARY PRIMARY
r .where in t h e p r i m a r y ( l o w - v o l t a g e ) ignition circuit can cause a
(-1TERMINAL - (--(TERMINAL
:-start condition. A f a u l t anywhere in the secondary (high-voltagei
gnition circuit c a n c a u s e engine missing, hesitation, stalling, or
-'•ressive exhaust e m i s s i o n s .
SECONDARY WINDING
IGNITION SYSTEM O P E R A T I O N
(APPROXIMATELY
he ignition s y s t e m i n c l u d e s c o m p o n e n t s a n d w i r i n g necessary to 22.000 TURNS \ 1
rate and d i s t r i b u t e a h i g h v o l t a g e ( u p to 4 0 , 0 0 0 volts or m o r e ' . PRIMARY WINDING
ignition s y s t e m s a p p l y v o l t a g e c l o s e to b a t t e r y voltage to t h e (APPROXIMATELY
•200 TURNS)
native s i d e o f t h e i g n i t i o n coil a n d p u l s e t h e n e g a t i v e side to
n » n i W h e n t h e coil n e g a t i v e l e a d is g r o u n d e d , t h e p r i m a r y tow- X
PRIMARY
age) c i r c u i t o f t h e coil is c o m p l e t e a n d a m a g n e t i c field is cre- MAGNETIC F1ELO
a r o u n d t h e coil w i n d i n g s . W h e n t h e circuit is o p e n e d , t h e LAMINATED
S O R RON CORE
âgnetic field c o l l a p s e s a n d i n d u c e s a h i g h - v o l t a g e spark in t h e sec-
w i n d i n g o f t h e i g n i t i o n coil. Early ignition s y s t e m s used a
--.anically o p e n e d s e t of c o n t a c t p o i n t s t o m a k e a n d break t h e
Figure56-1 DOtec - - Mot " * "iei-" v.
•metrical c o n n e c t i o n t o g r o u n d . E l e c t r o n i c ignition u s e s a sensor.
•nndmg is A n t o n y connretoll lo the secondary waxing n*Dctanty sosrive or negan»»
- • as a p i c k u p coil a n d r e l u c t o r (trigger w h e e l . or trigger to
olacoiiiso«f"-îned!iySied«BCSor -i tftcri tfe col S w a r t .
s a l a n e l e c t r o n i c m o d u l e t h a t m a k e s a n d b r e a k s t h e primary
S e c t i o n o f t h e i g n i t i o n coil.
T h e c e n t e r of a n i g n i t i o n c r i . c o n t a i n s a c o r e of l a m i n a t e d
soft iron ithin strips of s o f t I r e n i . T h i s c o r e ,r.creases t h e m a i
nettc s t r e n g t h of t h e co:i. S u m u n d . n g t h e larr.rvated : o r e are ap
r ^ ^ k M b u t o r ignition (DI) is the term specified by the Society of prox m a t e l y 2 0 , 0 0 0 t u r n s of fine w i r e i a p p r o x i m a t e ! ' . J J gau£C
^-''motive Engineers (SAEI for an ignition system that uses a d;>'.r:t>.:. r. These w :> are cai.ed m e secondary
* a , o n i c ignition (El) is the term specified bv :he SAS- ' c- r . rounding the ".Jan 7 w i n c . r . g s a r e a p p r o x i m a t e . v 501."
m
that does not use a distributor.
h e a v y w i r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 21 g a u g e ) . TTiese w . n d m g s a r e : a . . e :
1
le p r i m a r y c r : r.js. I " sec - . ' ::
1 0 0 t i m e s t h e n u m b e r of t u r n s of t h e p r i m a n w i n d i n g , r e f e r r e d
IGNlT
'0N COILS to as t ; t u r n s r a t i o a p : : .: - .
ites J ® * , o f any ignition s y s t e m is t h e i g n i t i o n c o i l . The c w i n d i n g s a r e s u r r o u n d e d w i t h a thin m e t a l shield a n d .. a t : i

^ - ' o l t a g e s p a r k b y e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n . Mar-, igpj- p a p e r and placed i n t o a m e t a i c o n t a i n e r . The - t c o n t a i n e r arid
IK
contain t w o s e p a r a t e b u t e l e c t r i c a l l y c o n n e c t e d u ndin shield help retain t h e m a g n e t i c held p r o d u c e d .r. t h e ; o i wind
• PPer wire. O t h e r coils a r e t r u e t r a n s f o r m e r s in w h i c h the p ings. T h e p r i m a r v a n d s e c o n d a : wind.r^; d - . < nek: ; -
t, secondary w i n d i n g s a r e n o t electrically c o n n e c t e d . S e e of t h e electrical r e s i s t a n c e in t h e t u r n s ' wire. M a r
tain oii t o h e l p c o o l t h e ignition coll. O t h e r :• . r e s i g n s , s u c h »
SS8 SfOONR
PRIMARY
COIL WINDING
sorr-moN
LAMINATIONS
SECONDARY
TOWER
TERMINAL
MOUNTING
BRACKET
56-Z Typcal air-codefl eoo*y-fitled E coil
Figure 56-3 Cutaway of a General Motors Type II distributorless ignition coil Note ITS'-,
pnmary windings are inside of the secondary windings.
th se sed on GM's high energy ignition (HEI) systems, use

an air-cooled, epoxy-sealed E coil. The E coil is so named be-
flowing (circuit is opened), the collapsing magnetic CUB
cause the laminated, soft-iron core is E-shaped, with the coil wire
across the turns of the secondary winding and creates a
turns ATapped around the center "finger" of the E and the pri-
mary winding wrapped inside the secondary winding. See age in the secondary winding. This generation of an electric cm
Figures 56-2 and 56-3. rent in both coil windings is called mutual induction. T-
collapsing magnetic field also creates a voltage of up to 250 volt -
The primary windings of the coil extend through the case of
the primary winding.
the coil and are labeled as positive and negative. The positive ter-
minal of the coil attaches to the ignition switch, which supplies H o w Ignition Coils C r e a t e 4 0 , 0 0 0 Volts All ignition sys
curren' from the positive battery terminal. The negative terminal terns use electromagnetic induction to produce a high-voltage spart
attached to an ignition control module (ICM or igniter), from the ignition coil. Electromagnetic induction means that a cr
which opens and closes the primary ignition circuit by opening or rent can be created in a conductor (coil winding) by a moving ma;
c : sing the ground return path of the circuit. When the ignition netic field. The magnetic field in an ignition coil is produced:,
switch Is on, voltage should be available at both the positive ter-
current flowing through the primary windings of the coil. The cur-
minal and the negative terminal of the coil if the primary windings
rent for the primary winding is supplied through the ignition swir
o: the coil have continuity. The labeling of positive (+) and nega-
to the positive terminal of the ignition coil. The negative termini,
tive i - of the coil indicates that the positive terminal is more
connected to the ground return through an electronic ignii '
positive closer to the positive terminal of the battery) than the
module (igniter).
negative terminal of the coil. This condition is called the coil
polarity. The polarity of the coil must be correct to ensure that If the primary circuit is completed, current (approxima:=
e ectrons will Dow from the hot center electrode of the spark plug 2 to 6 A) can flow through the primary coil windings. This £"s
•jT; D1 systems. The polarity of an ignition coil is determined by creates a strong magnetic field inside the coil. When the primal
the direction of rotation of the coil windings. The correct polarity coil winding ground return path connection is opened, the W
is then indicated on the primary terminals of the coil. If the coil netic field collapses and induces a voltage of from 25C
p: mary leads are reversed, the voltage required to fire the spark 400 volts in the primary winding of the coil and a high-vofe
pi ;gs s .ncreased by 40%. The coil output voltage is directly pro- (20,000 to 40,000 volts ) low-amperage (20 to 80 mA) currer.
portional to the ratio of primary to secondary turns of wire used in the secondary coil windings. This high-voltage pulse
tne coiL through the coil wire (if the vehicle is so equipped), d l s ^; T ,
cap, rotor, and spark plug wires to the spark plugs. For each sp •
Self-induction When current starts to flow into a coil, an op- that occurs, the coil must be charged with a magnetic "
. . . the cut"
posing current is created in the windings of the coil. This opposing then discharged. The ignition components that regulate
i t e r a t i o n is caused by self-induction and is called rent in the coil primary winding by turning it on ana off^j
inductive reactance. Inductive reactance is similar to resistance known collectively as the p r i m a r y ignition circuit. 1 - ^
becaise it opposes any changes lincrease or decrease) in current nents necessary to create and distribute the high ^
low - a co . Therefore, when an ignition coil is first energized, produced in the secondary windings of the coil are ca
•'-.e-e : a <.nt delay of approximately 0.01 second before the igni- secondary ignition circuit. See Figure 56-4. ln<r*
• : . reaches its maximum magnetic field strength. The point at include the following components.
rr. iximum magnetic field strength is reached is called
Primary Ignition Circuit
saturation.
1. Battery
Mutual Induction In an ignition coil there are two windings, a 2. Ignition switch
pr.rr.ar; and a secondary winding. When a change occurs in the 3. Primary windings of coil
rr n et.c fied A ore < v.nding, a change also occurs in the 4. Pickup coil (crank sensorl
o'ner co w r v i w Therefore, if the current is stopped from 5. Ignition module (igniter)
Chapter 56 i y t t o n System C m u m w t o and Operant
IGMTIi'.H
BPrrcM
" I
•rMTIOM "•"*»*"»<
MOOULE
V ELtCTKOHiC*.
• HKKHO0UU4
PRIMARY
WINDING
200 TURKS
< /
HEAVIER WIRE
(ABOUT 21 GAUGE I ABOUT <2 GAUGE I* JtES
SPARK PLUG
WIRES
„ure 56-4 Typical primary and secondary electronic ignition using a ballast resstor and a dstfbulor To pratect the ig or » - - « r * f *
7>ior>s do not use a ballast resistor but use electronic circuits within the iwxMe
•GNmoHCoa.
Secondary I g n i t i o n C i r c u i t
PRIMARY POSITIVE -
I Secondary windings of coil SECONDARY WINDING
2. Distributor cap and rotor (if t h e vehicle is so equipped i
3. Spark plug wires
4- Spark plugs
PRIMARY W1N0»«G
SECONDARY OUT
FREQUENTLY A S K E D Q U E S T I O N (TO SPARK PUKJI
" t o Is a "Married" and " D i v o r c e d " Coil Design? PWMARY NEGATIVE

tuition coil contains two windings, a primary winding and a ssconoar.
and these windings can be either connected together at one en: or
ftgireS6-5 it
a M M t h
•tonied. A married coil design is also called a tapped transformer
See Figure 56-5. The pnmary winding is electrically connected to C.rc t is called s w i t c h i n g . T N . r . t that joes
• e secondary winding. This method is commonly used in older distributor electronic s w a c f e , s u c h as a power transistoc This p o w e r n n s t f
IK
^ ' t o n system colls, as well as many coil-on-plug designs. The c a n b e l o c a t e d in am- o l t h e M o w i n g locations:
' ,fluctlve tok, also called flyback voltage, created when the a
• : cc . -
, j™apses ls used by the PCM to monitor secondary jgnmcr oertom-.ancf
A
•
divorced coil design is also called a true transformer :
ls
"sed by most waste-spark ignition cods to keep both the pnmary
' secondary winding separated.
M I E On u » i x m - m f t a t
.aeit and a semced as aa
£ SWITCHING A N D TRIGGERING
T h e device that s . a r & s t h e '..r.g a " t v
- , ' y i 8 U t i o n system t o function, t h e primary current uust be
on on i n mast instances. :a..«o tn®er
lo Charge t h e coil a n d off t o a l l o w t h e co;. t o d i s c h a r g e ,
' h i g h - v o l t a g e s p a r k . T h i s t u r n i n g o n a n d off of t h e p n m a r v a p i c k u p coB i n s o m e s y M n " *
ttf
T
••' - - i\' -.'.vi -parkandcoikn-piug'and COIL P|
CKUPc
" • v a r e t h r e e tvpps of d e v * » used
fcr r s K — c a c r t d t e g 3 * r ^ p e t * * n s a r . Hail e f f e c t s w i t c h , a n d • •
i 1
ORCWT OPERATION
•
:.- i r 5 t r . - . . t h e p r i m a r y a u . circuit m u s t be
' - > r d r a f t c u r r e n t is controlled bv a PRIMARY WINDING
msEtto.- ;c n s x f e cfce ignition m o d u l e o r iifjiiter)
t r a c fe u s i i <a£ o r e of sevens' devices. i n d u d i n g : CONTROL MODULE
cot. ;puise j e n e r a t o n * simple and c o m m o n ignition

Figure 56-7 the varying voltage signal from the pickup coil tnggeis the Ignition ma*
: d e w r e s t h e - ^ p i e t i t pulse generator system.
The ignition module grounds and ungrounds ttie primary winding ol the ignition cat ^
( >e tne roottar. of the dtscrfoufor shaft to time 1 nigh-voltage spark
m a p w t K pulse generator lied in
isrtg. The puise generator consists of a trigger
t r t K ' t iCW a p h . i n p a ^ . The pickup coil consists of an
tv. .we vvpee w t t fee wire, m a cofl at one end and attached
1 i a e - r a n r s s * p * ! it the cither end. The center of the coil is
r * :> e c*v. The r.ckup coii sgral triggers the transistor in-
«>: r* - o - j r r : a am used ts die computer for piston position ARROWS INOICATE ARROWS INDICATE
- m m x e . and e r q p e spe«J RPMc See fipires 5 6 - 6 and 5 0 - 7 . NORMAL MAGNETIC HOW MAGNETIC LINES
LINES OF FORCE PATH OF FORCE ARE SHUNTED
-»a»eflaa r w * * A Hall-effect s w i t c h also uses a stationary sen
•->- m c —jijKT * shutter. See figure 56-8. Unlike the
. c^-nr f ' B M o c the Hs.i efiect switch requires a small Input
-. an w . t M or signal voltage. Hall effect is the ability
tai Safe usr-a. r semiconductor material (gallium atsen-
r pasz^g current through it in one direction and applying HALL-EFFECT HALL-EFFECT
UNIT UNIT
* . -Id to s £ a nght angje to its surface. If the input current
2v : »; He magnetic Seid fluctuates, an output voltage is
PERMANENT + PERMANENT
6 4 * c -X « f T prop- - , n to field strength. Most Hall-effect MAGNET
- isssbutcr nave a Haii element or device, a permanent
Ed i rcuCEK rug of metal blades (shuttersi similar to a trig SIGNAL
artttw uses a stationary sensor with a routing
s a c » - Ser efcjOR are deigned to hang down, typcalhr found in Figure 5 6 - 8 Haii-efted switches use metallic shutters to shunt magnetic lines of torn
fcaraK 3 r i * r s n a m others tray be on a separate ring on away from a sfccon chip and related circuits All Hall-effect switches produce a SQUK *
» w r i t e r shaft. rfpaouh; found m GM and Ford Hall-effect output tor every accurate triggering
ROTATING FERROUS
METAL RELUCTOR
/
HARROW GAP WIDE GAP

RESULTS M OFFERS WEAK
STRONG MAGNETIC MAGNETIC —
F€kXlFOnCO«L FIELD FOR
PERMANENT COIL
MAGNET
VOLTAGE REVERSES AS STAR WHEEL

MOVES PAST CLOSEST POINT
+ ^
I
! - m , r r - » » - - * « a » ' « a f a tyiral aoope pattern ol ihe output voltage of a petiupcotf.n* m o d u l e * ^
^rtsflowntorn as peak jifit as the rMuclor teefli start moving away from the p d ^
Chapter 56. ignition System Components and Operation 861
wis. When the shutter blade enters the n t • Magnetic c r a n k s h a f t position s e n s o r - T h i s sensor uses the
" j n d the Hall element, it creates a ro, changing strength of the magnetic field surrounding a coil of wire
f x's the field strength through the Hall elci to signal the module and computet This signal is used by the elec-
idlssent to a Schmitt trigger inside the sensor itself, which con- tronics in the module and computer as to piston position and en-
ihe analog signal into a digital signal. A digital : . voiiaj v gine speed (RPM). See Figures 56-11 and 5 6 - 1 2 .
is created at a varying frequency to the ignin< ,n module or or • Optical sensors—These use light from a LED and a phototransis-
S computer. See Figures 5 6 - 9 and 5 6 - 1 0 . tor to signal the computer. An interrupter disc between the LED
and the phototranslstor has slits that allow the light from the LED
to trigger the phototransistor on the other side of the disc. Most
optical sensors isuaily located inside the distributor) use two
rows of slits to provide individual cylinder recognition (low-
resolution i and precise distributor angle recognition (high-
resolution) signals. See Figure 5 6 - 1 3 .
i
Optical Distributors Do Not Like Light
Optical distributors use the light em tted from LEDs to trigger phototransistors
Most optical distributors tee a shield between the distributor rotor and the opti-
cal interrupter ring. Sparks jump the gap from the rotor tip to the distributor cap
inserts. This shield blocks the !ight from the electrical arc from interfering with
the detection of the light fron- the LEDs.
If this shield is not replaced dtpng service, the light signals are reduced
and the engine may not operate correct- , See figure 5 6 - 1 4 This can be diffi-
cult to detect because nothmg looks wrong dtr.rig a visual inspection Remem-
ber that all optical distributors ~iust be shielded between the rotor and the
figure 56-9 Shutter blade of a rotor as it passes between the sensing silicon chip and the interrupter ring.
--wem magnet
HALL-EFFECT REFERENCE HALL-EFFECT CRANKSHAFT

CAMSHAFT SENSOR POSITION SENSOR
REFERENCE TOROUE CONVERTER
FOR CYL #5 DRIVE PLATE
REFERENCE
FOR CYL #2
REFERENCE FOR CYL #1
PAPER
SPACER
CRANK SENSOR
ELECTRICAL
\ CONNECTOR
CAM SENSOR
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTOR
CAM
ji__jui_jui n niL
TOC-3 TDC-4 TDC-5 TDC-6 TOC-1
I I I I
CRANK
Hall-effect sensors look like magnetic sensors This Ha)l-eflect camshaft reference sensor and crankshaft position sensor nave an eiecsonc a :.it -.: <- a
' 1 5 Shown at Ihe bottom These Hall-eftect sensors have three wines: a power supply $ volts) from tt* computer i c o r t a ^ M i 9 p rama
HAXMUH
' POSITIVE
SWWG
o* •
SWINGS
THBOOGH
/ ZERO VOLTS
Figure 56-12 «typeai magnetic crankshaft position sensor
ROTOR PLATE
CRANK ANGLE
SENSOR
l»-11 »- trmor me, a ger-jnenr *iagntt sjTuideC try a oo< of Mn

or carsrad! tjrat t mar -nagneec Art strangdi anuio
a s m s OOM to tie m a r rr ~ agrwc feu «stronger oecause
V tf m g r c t c «Ma tf lorce M n a
The Tachometer Tncfc
a ic-star v wmrôat rrassng corxMon. check the operator) ROTOR SHAFT

* FT-" * «e does not ntcate engne speed ino- start con- (a)
3ART m n MO «npne missntf eien the pftwef is due to a defect
180 SIGNAL SLIT FOR NO. 1 CYLINDER
*«t t a r t y " V tactometer gets its signal from the pulang of
M H stf t » v w ooi The Wowng components m the primary
1 SIGNAL SLIT
o a r ? e actomew to let work «*en the engee s ciankmg
CH J » » ) KMi
I "'Of • « cfecoee « r . a tachwreser connect a handheld

9lames*-« I K fcrownl ot 9ie a * Remember the Mowing
f « prober-» r the primary ignition circuit 180 „

S I G N A L SLIT
praoem s r the secondary ignition
«tetft / 1 3
ROTOR PLATE

WSTRIWJTOf! l&NmON
Genera: M o t o r s M€l Electronic Ignition As rr*r v,ned. high Figure 56-13 la) Typical optical distributor (b) Cylinder I silt signals the •
er>erj; l p , . v / - -.a i*en v wandard equipment piston position for cylinder I The l-degree slits provide accurate engine
W ' / Oner*. M r / ' - w d r . S«r-,* rwleis use an ignitKm computer
56: Ignition System Components and Operation 0fl
HIGH
ENERGY
COIL
CABLES
AND LOOMS
RADIO
INTERFERENCE
CENTRIFUGAL FILTER
ADVANCE CAPACITOR
WEIGHTS
ELECTRONIC
MODULE
VACUUM
UNIT
TIMER HOUSING
CORE
POLE PIECE ANO

MAGNETIC PICKUP - G E A R
fyre 56-14 (a) An optical distributor on a Nissan 3.0 L V-6 shown with Ihe light shield ASSEMBLY
ill A light shield being installed before Ihe rotor is attached.
Figure 56-15 An H0 distributor.
"inside the d i s t r i b u t o r c a p a n d s o m e u s e a n e x t e r n a l l y m o u n t e d
" ton coil. T h e o p e r a t i o n of b o t h s t y l e s is similar. T h e large-
distributor c a p provides additional space between the
•i'k plug c o n n e c t i o n s t o h e l p p r e v e n t c r o s s f i r e . S e e F i g u r e 5 6 - 1 5 . Operation ot F o r d Distributor Ignition Ford Dt systems
j HE! distributors a l s o u s e 8 - m m d i a m e t e r s p a r k p l u g w i r e s t h a t f u n c t i o n in b a s i c a l l y t h e s a m e w a y regardless of y e a r a n d name.

f e m a l e c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e d i s t r i b u t o r c a p t o w e r s . HEI coils m u s t U n d e r t h e d i s t r i b u t o r c a p a n d r o t o r is a m a g n e t i c p i c k u p a s s e m b l y .
Replaced (if d e f e c t i v e ) w i t h t h e e x a c t r e p l a c e m e n t style. HEI coils This a s s e m b l y p r o d u c e s a s m a l l a l t e r n a t i n g e l e c t r i c a l p u l s e (ap-
.'^rand ca
h b e i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e c o l o r s of t h e p r i m a r y l e a d s . T h e p r o x i m a t e l y 1.5 volts) w h e n t h e d i s t r i b u t o r a r m a t u r e r o t a t e s p a s t
^'3ry coil
leads c a n b e e i t h e r w h i t e a n d r e d o r y e l l o w a n d r e d . t h e p i c k u p a s s e m b l y i s t a t o r ) . T h i s l o w - v o l t a g e p u l s e is s e n t t o t h e
ignition m o d u l e . T h e ignition m o d u l e t h e n s w i t c h e s (through
c o l o r of lead coil m u s t b e u s e d for r e , a c e m e n t r h e co1
*X T p - " t r a n s i s t o r s ) off t h e p r i m a r y i g n i t i o n c o i l c u r r e n t . W h e n t h e igni-
"jfth ,'eads i n d i c a t e t h e
d i r e c t i o n in w h i c h t h e coil is w o u n d , t i o n coil p r i m a r y c u r r e n t is s t o p p e d q u i c k l y , a h i g h - v o l t a g e ' s p i k e "
e ore
polarity. S e e F i g u r e s 5 6 - - 1 6 a n d 5 6 - 1 7 . d i s c h a r g e s f r o m t h e c o i l s e c o n d a r y w i n d i n g . T h e coil c u r r e n t is
c o n t r o l l e d in t h e m o d u l e c i r c u i t s b y d e c r e a s i n g d w e l l (coil c h a r g i n g
5 E
' e c , r o n
' c
Ignition F o r d e l e c t r o n i c i g n i t i o n s y s t e m s all
time), d e p e n d i n g on various factors determined by operating
H similarly, e v e n t h o u g h o v e r t h e y e a r s t h e s y s t e m h a s b e e n
conditions. See Figure 5 6 - 1 9 .
^ v a r i o u s names.
1V
TX ^ t e m u s e s t h e t h i c k - f i l n v i n t e g r a t i o n | ITT) ignition
,lses a Chrysler Distributor Ignition Chrysler was the first :
" •'cr a n r f ^ ^ s m a l l e r c o n t r o l m o d u l e a t t a c h e d t o t h e dis-
mestic manufacturer to p r o d u c e electronic ignition as s t a n d a r d
'ti i n t e Z . U S e S 3n a i r c o o l e d e
P 0 X Y E coil. S e e Figure 5 6 18. Thick-
n equipment. T h e C h r y s l e r s y s t e m c o n s i s t s of a p u l s e generator
•rstuf. ^ e a n s t h a t all e l e c t r o n i c s a r e m a n u f a c t u r e d o n s m a l l
f o r m a film u n i t in t h e d i s t r i b u t o r ( p i c k u p c o i l a n d r e l u c t o r ) . C h r y s l e r ' s n a m e
' Afferent p f ^ - C o n s t r u c t i o n includes using pastes
for their electronic ignition is electronic ignition system
m , l t c r j ' ? c ! r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e s t h a t a r e d e p o s i t e d o n a t h i n , flat ce-
3 p r o c e s s (EIS), and the control unit (module! s ca e d t h e electronic
ir e c o n n s i m i l a r t o silk s c r c e n p r i n t i n g . T h e s e resis-
^ the tGd b y t r a c k s o f
P a l l a d i u m silver p a s t e . T h e n t h e c h i p s
control unit (ECU).
.'":'Iy c,1
pacitors, d i o d e s , a n d integrated circuits are soldered T h e p i c k u p c o i l in t h e d i s t r i b u t o r . p u i s e g e n e r a t o r ) generates
^ U h u : ^ 1
® ^ silver t r a c k s . T h e thick-film m a n u f a c t u r i n g the signal to open and close the primary coil circuit.
ty automated Figure 5 6 - 2 0 .
winding and secondary winding are not cally
E a c h e n d of t h e s e c o n d a r y w i n d i n g is c o n i t0 a n.,
ie f
actly o p p o s i t e t h e o t h e r in t h e firing or hich ;s ' »
p a i r e d c y l i n d e r . See Figure 5 6 - 2 1 . T h i s , that l ^ i a
plugs 'Ire at t h e s a m e t i m e ( w i t h i n n a n o s e c i d s of each ^
W h e n one cvlinder : o r e x a m p l e , 6 ] is o n t h e c o m p r e s s i o n
t h e o t h e r c y l i n d e r ,31 is o n t h e e x h a u s t s t r o k e . T h i s s d J ^
o c c u r s o n t h e e x h a u s t s t r o k e is c a l l e d t h e w a s t e s p a r k , bee ,
d o e s n o u s e f u l w o r k a n d is o n l y u s e d a s a g r o u n d p a t h fo- - - j !
o n d a r v w i n d i n g of t h e i g n i t i o n c o i l . T h e v o l t a g e r e q u i r e d tc"
t h e s p a r k p l u g g a p o n c y l i n d e r 3 ( t h e e x h a u s t s t r o k e l is o J
3 k V a n d p r o v i d e s t h e ground circuit f o r t h e s e c o n d a r y co,"
c u i t . T h e r e m a i n i n g c o i l e n e r g y is u s e d b y t h e cylinder or!
compression stroke. O n e spark p l u g of e a c h pair alwaysc
s t r a i g h t p o l a r i t y a n d t h e o t h e r c y l i n d e r a l w a y s fires reverse c
itv. S p a r k p l u g life is n o t g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d b y t h e r e v e r s e polarity If
t h e r e is o n l y o n e d e f e c t i v e s p a r k p l u g w i r e o r s p a r k plug, >
cylinders m a y be affected.
T h e coil p o l a r i t y is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e d i r e c t i o n the col
w o u n d i l e f t - h a n d r u l e f o r c o n v e n t i o n a l c u r r e n t f l o w ) and cant '
b e c h a n g e d . S e e F i g u r e 5 6 - 2 2 . E a c h s p a r k p l u g for a particular
c y l i n d e r a l w a y s w i l l b e fired e i t h e r w i t h s t r a i g h t o r reversed pol-
ity, d e p e n d i n g o n its l o c a t i o n i n t h e e n g i n e a n d h o w t h e coils a r t
w i r e d . H o w e v e r , t h e c o m p r e s s i o n a n d w a s t e - s p a r k condition Bip-
f l o p s . W h e n o n e c y l i n d e r is o n c o m p r e s s i o n , s u c h as cylinder
GROUND CONNECTIONS n u m b e r 1, t h e n t h e p a i r e d c y l i n d e r ( n u m b e r 4 ) is o n the exhaust
s t r o k e . D u r i n g t h e n e x t r o t a t i o n of t h e c r a n k s h a f t , cylinder lum-
b e r 4 is o n t h e c o m p r e s s i o n s t r o k e a n d c y l i n d e r n u m b e r 1 is or.
M > yoa Moors He a» reawo n tne dembuax cap When the the exhaust stroke.
« . i e - w a u d a w * that the ground dip s transferred from tne oW
HWo/t onper growing cot damage B likely There are two Cylinder 1 A l w a y s fires s t r a i g h t p o l a r i t y , o n e t i m e , requiring
• -e< anc «*~te «r» as sftomr; and the ottier design which nas 1 0 t o 1 2 k V a n d o n e t i m e , r e q u i r i n g 3 t o 4 kV.
~ -jm~t j o ml anc re*»> «*» tor ihe con prmary
Cylinder 4 A l w a y s f i r e s r e v e r s e p o l a r i t y , o n e t i m e , requiring
1 0 t o 1 2 kV a n d o n e t i m e , r e q u i r i n g 3 t o 4 kV.
HOTt With a distributor-type i g n i t i o n system, t h e coil has two air gaps'

fire: one between the rotor Up and the d i s t n b u t o r insert (not under-
pression forces, and the other i n the gap at the f i r i n g tip of the spark
:under compression forces!. A DIS also fires t w o gaps: one under cotr.p
sion (compression stroke plug) and one not under compression |e* JU'
stroke plug).
TECH TIP Odds Fire S t r a i g h t

Most**
Waste-spark ignition systems fire two spark plugs at the same time
cle manufacturers use a waste-spark system that fires the odd- •
cylinders (1,3. and 5) by straight polarity (current flow from the tor o i ^ ^
• • •!.« m i l masW! qraorical plug through the gap and to the ground electrode). The even-numt 1 ^ ^ ^
ders (2.4, and 6) are fired reverse polarity, meaning that the spa fk ^
the side electrode to the center electrode. Some vehicle manufacture ^
H A I T I - S W . K IGHITlOX SYSTEMS their vehicles with plabnum plugs with the expansive platinum alloy o< '
Xfmil i p i l t lyiiti n ' distributorless igni- electrode as follows
•r,n r / t > T . WS e l e c t r o n i c i g n i t i o n ( E l ) . W a s t e s p a r k igni-
• On odd-numbered cylinders (1,3,5), the platinum is on the center e ^ ^
'• ~ : > * / . and uses t h e onboard
On even-numbered cylinders (2,4.6), the platinum is on the grounoc
• - .- ' •^ ' e m s w e r e first u s e d
- < t d V - -- M o t o r s engiJies. A f o u r c y l i n d e r e n - Replacement spark plugs use platinum on both electrode5
V - . »; • • • a . a cy: n d e r e n g i n e u s e s t h r e e platinum) and can. therefore, De placed in any cylinder location
,;-..- • '- • • ' - • • ' . Arhicf:'he pnmary
Chapter 56 ignition System Components and O p e r a t e «»
IGNITION
SWITCH
Squri 56-1J Winng diagram of a typical Ford electronic ignition
signal controls t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e p r i m a r y c u r r e n t flow in t h e coil,

Waste-spark i g n i t i o n s r e q u i r e a s e n s o r (usually a c r a n k s h a f t
fKorl to trigger t h e coils a t t h e c o r r e c t t i m e . S e e Figure 5 6 - 2 3 . w h i c h is referred to as t h e d w e l l .
>.e crankshaft s e n s o r c a n n o t b e m o v e d to a d j u s t ignition timing,
•anion timing is n o t a d j u s t a b l e . T h e slight a d j u s t m e n t of t h e BYPASS IGNITION CONTROL
-tankshaft sensor is d e s i g n e d t o p o s i t i o n t h e s e n s o r exactly in t h e A bypass-type ignition c o n t r o l m e a n s t h a t t h e e n g i n e starts u s i n g
i t o of the rotating m e t a l d i s c for m a x i m u m c l e a r a n c e . S o m e t h e ignition m o d u l e f o r t u n i n g c o n t r o l a n d t h e n s w i t c h e s t o the
do not u s e a c a m s h a f t p o s i t i o n s e n s o r , b u t r a t h e r d o u b l e P C M for t i m i n g c o n t r o . after the er.cir.e starts. A b y p a s s i g n i -
effect crankshaft s e n s o r s a n d a g a i n , i g n i t i o n t i m i n g is n o t t i o n is c o m m o n l y used o n General Motors engtr.es . : . . : : . :
•"instable,
with distributor ignition D I ) , as w e l l as t h o s e e q u . p p e d w : : r
waste-spark ignition. See Figure 5 0 - 2 4 on page 6 0 8 . The bypass
MTION c o n t r o l circuits circuit i n c l u d e s f o u r w i r e s :
jjHtoncontrol (IC) is t h e OBD-I1 t e r m i n o l o g y for t h e o u t p u t sig- • Tach r e f e r e n c e ( p u r p l e w h i t e 1.1 s • -e

- from the P C M to t h e ignition s y s t e m t h a t c o n t r o l s e n g i n e nm- tion control i!C module and is used bv the PCM as engine >w*d
Previously, each m a n u f a c t u r e r u s e d a d i f f e r e n t t e r m to describe information.
" For instance, Ford r e f e r r e d to this signal as s p a r k
Jrput
• G r o u n d ( b l a c k ' w h i t e ) . T" s g r © . - _ 'Aire .>
(SPOUT) a n d G e n e r a l M o t o r s r e f e r r e d to this signal as
both the PCM and the ignition control module share the same
r j ^ t o i c spark t i m i n g ( E S T ) . T h i s signal is n o w referred to as
ground.
«wion control (IC) signal. T h e ignition c o n t r o l signal is usually
• Bypass (tan/ b l a c k ) . Th - w-.re
'."SW output that is s e n t t o t h e ignition s y s t e m as a t i m i n g signal,
signal from the PCM to t h e ignition contro. rnodute to --w :ch t h e
. ; e ] ®ition system is e q u i p p e d w i t h a n ignition m o d u l e , t h e n
timing control from the m o d u l e to the P C M .
; -Wal is used by t h e ignition m o d u l e t o vary t h e timing as en-
^ and load c h a n g e s . If t h e PCM directly controls h e coils,
. ,:.dS "lost coil-on-plug ignition s y s t e m s , t h e n this IC signal di- NOTE: Itis this bypass win? '."tat • • «
.," COf itiols the coil p r i m a r y a n d t h e r e is a separate IC signal for can be set on mar v General Motors t r & x i v r 1 natot*
; 'gnitioB coil. T h e IC signal c o n t r o l s t h e t i m e that t h e coil fires; ignition.
er
advances or r e t a r d s t h e t i m i n g . O n m a n y systems, this
Stv'TKM IX
HAI II 1IV
POWI II
III I AV
DISTRIBUTOR
CAP
4FTO
PCM
SB PIP
16
36 SPOUT
ACTUAL MODULF CONNECTIONS
BATTERY
GROUND
PIP -6
SPOUT -3
START -4
RUN -3
COIL -2
IGN GRO -1
FtQun Sfr IB w rmfTjalif. of a ho/dill N Ignition tyttem fn« SCOUl oofinttctm i« unplugged when Ignition liming Is Doing set
• I ST (Iiirilllon control) (white wire), fills Is the Ignition tlm because all timing function:, are Interpreted In the PCM, rather
• ontrol signal from the Pi.M to t i » ignition control module. than being split between the Ignition control module and the P
'fie Ignition module, If even used, contains the power t r a n s i t 1
D i a g n o s i n g a B y p a s s I g n i t i o n S y s t e m One advantage of a coll switching. Ihe signal as to w h e n the coll fires, Is determw
b y p j . . '/p*- ignition Is that the engine will run wiihoui ihe com and controlled from the PCM.
p.iV' u- » >•* tin- moduli- can do the coll switching and can, Unllki- a bypass Ignllion control circuit, It Is not possible
ih.fi.jjih • .- irontr circuit* Inside the module, provide for some
'teparaie the PCM from the Ignition coll control to help i:
(*tk i s..!' •• i. th<- i-nglnespeed Increase!, ihit Is;> safety n-ature
»fault,
rt a ' m - ( . - ' . ; . i itn c atalytic converter if the Ignition control frojn
•r •• I w i>. in .i I in rrinre, If there i. •>problem, uw a digital meter
COMPRESSION-SENSING IGNITION
— . ^JJjiiiKlH'
i!.l •,<,: Die p r o - n o - of 5 veto ori the tan bypass wire, II
thef» .. r i t v o i t s pri'u-m with the engine running, then th<- PCM Some waste spark ignition systems, sue h us those "'•t < ^
or the wtnng u at fault. use the voltage required to fire the cylinder to d<- - ^ u„y
pOtllJori. Ii requires a higher voltage to II" '''' jj f e d o r
Up-Integrated Ignition Control Most coil on plug and many • ompic .Hon than it d<«-. when the spark plug 1 D ' M , n d,"
/•«••' p i n type igniii'ir, yatein'. um- the 1'i.M lor Ignition liming exhaust stroke I In- el<-i ironies In the eoll .'i" 1 u " | | | n ,.
i ,i.,!>..!. conttol i. tailed up-Integrated which ol tin- iwo cylinders that are fired at the •«
J
St 56-10 A Chrysler electronic ignition SrSntcjior The <tv -. e g m ^ « -
s t ' yinttx mectianom that advances the ignition swung under
3rfl5cm
IGNITION
MODULE
iGN.
FUSE
EXHAUST
STROKE
^Wrt 56-21 A waae-sparti system Ves one cy»ndr * * v * s j p s s r '

^TOWntforeonsaraxcyWdiTC^ rvjoftfcS^
^ { t w r e s only aSout 2 to 3 W » J w Sie cylnder on Cie n e t s : Or,
vo ta c
•>oa - ? - w h i c h i n d i c a t e ; t h e cyliadcr - c-tses
. " ' 5 ° ^ ' ? o r example, a typical fourcyliaSer e e g r * Vcvcf O o e w w t 2 S 9 « r t ' i « ?
.; waste-spark ignttlpn system will:' - ; - :c- l aacc, Wieoaie
^îiidcr nuiaber 4 r e q u i r e s a - v . \ t a g e : c ire - c-sr
by the electronics c o n n e c t e d t j ftecx, " N r Or- " -V. as
** n u m b e r - is the ccearrsscr. jct*®.
^ ^ t q a i p p o a w rj, c o m p r e s s i o n - v e n s i n s i g n i t i o n
'f-Swires, d o not r e q u i r e t h e u s e c; a c a r • haft posicon
' ^^wennine cylinder u t u n b e t
»•;; • . ' -. - v g '•-<• u w «« i i w * wjctancf sensor (VRS1 sendscmnKstwft position and speed inhumation to tt» EWS
•- • •.••*» • • • » . - • • > < * n pi *gnai The pip is used by the compute*tocalculate ignition timing, and ttie computet sends a signal tocfclo
a' maOu * i i * • »*> « • » c-ifl Th» letum sgn« a crted lt» spurt angle wort iSAWi signal
IGNITION
MODULE
lUNDER COILS) COMPUTER
COIL WHITE
ASSEMBLIES EST
TAN/BLACK
BYPASS
JI
c r-jMOt* t
PURPLfWHITE
TACH REF(REFHIGH)
BLACK/RED
GROUND (REF LOW)
WHITE TACK
LIGHT BLUE/WHITE LEAD
c n J O f ' i GRAY/RED
3c n WHITE/BLACK
CTUWW*»- - r-
si PINK/BLACK
IGN B t • •••
n DUAL CRANK
SENSOR CONNECTOR
:, 156-25 A coil-on-plug ignition system Figure 56-77 M n d u t f calls wiffl m x M M shown on me G m m Motors 4 24.
inline 6-cybner Ught-truOi angrv Note th* amnwmm cooMg tins ifwat suikl on top ol
each assembly
COP IGNITION SCHEMATIC

TACHOMETER
V-*t 56-26 A typical coil-on-plug (COPI ignition system on a V-8 with a separate coil lor each cvtuxv
^ ; S E N S IN G J G N I T 1 0 N Ion sensing ignition systems snll function the same as conven

i ^'PO-tenslng ignition system, the spark plug itself becomes tional coil-on-plug designs, but the engine does not need to be
*nsor. The ignition control (1C) module applies a voltage of equipped with a camshaft position sensor for mtsfire detect:.- - a
100 to 400 volts DC across the spark plug gap after the knock sensor because both of these faults are achieved using :.v
event to sense the plasma inside the cylinder. See electronics inside the ignition control circu ts.
'f The coil discharge voltage (10 to 15 k\ 1 is electri
"•• isolated from the ion-sensing circuit. The combustion flame
'^••ed and will conduct some electricity, which can be IGNITION TIMING
•---'atelv measured at the spark plug gap. The purpose of this
Ignition timing elers to when . \
^ includes:
piston position. The time when the spark occurs depends or.
, / * detection (required by OBD II regulations) engine speed, and therefore, must bo advanced spark piuje fire
i ' detection (eliminates the need (or a knock sensor) some) as the engine rotates faster. The igr.mon in :s<? cvhnder
timing control (to achieve the best spark timing for takes a certain amount of dme, ustialh Vt-.ts o 1000 a seconds
i l"num power with lowest exhaust emissions) This burning time is relatively constant throughout the entire
• ^ i l s t » s recirculation (EGR) control engine speed range. For maximum e " . encv trom th< expanding
' ' ^ l ratio control on an individual cylinder basis gases Inside the combustion chamber, the burning : the a t t m
en sect** i
SPARN EVENT - SPARK CURRENT FLOW

O
CHARGED TO
80 VOLTS
ION SIGNAL
SPARK ; -j—
ISIM COMPONENTS ADDED

TO SECONDARY CIRCUIT
MEASUREMENT PERIOD - ION CURRENT FLOW
Figure 56-29 Ignition timing marks are found on the harmonic balancers that are
DISCHARGING equipped with distributor ignition.
80 VOLTS
ION SIGNAL |—|
FLOW
ISIM COMPONENTS ADDED

TO SECONDARY CIRCUIT
f t f 0 * 56-28 A DC mHage is applied across ttie spark plug gap after the plug fires and
~< . - . t e a M r m n e it tie correct air-fuel ratio was present in the cylinder and il knock
tame
ENGINE SPEED (RPM)
~ . r . . r e t r . o J d e n d b y a b o u t 10" after top dead c e n t e r (ATDC).

Figure 56-30 The initial timing is where the spark plug fires at idle speed The computer
: -.-e b>jT r.g of t h e m i x t u r e is still o c c u r r i n g after t h a t p o i n t ,
then advances the timing based on engine speed and other factors.
--: i~ g a s e : d o n o t e x e r t m u c h force o n t h e piston
Va .> ' .'. "r. v. n g a w a y f r o m t h e gases (the gases a r e " c h a s i n g "
the piston . Figure 5 6 - 3 0 . W a s t e - s p a r k a n d c o i l - o n - p l u g i g n i t i o n s cannot re-
T r . e r e f - j ' e . to a c h i e v e t h e goal of h a v i n g t h e a i r - f u e l mix- adjusted.
• ' . r ccn-.p.etety burned by the time the piston reaches
'. r- - dead center, t h e spark must be advanced (occur
... a tr.e e n g i n e s p e e d i n c r e a s e s . This t i m i n g a d v a n c e is KNOCK SENSORS
- - t «r.d c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e P C M o n m o s t v e h i c l e s . S e e Knock sensors are u s e d to d e t e c t a b n o r m a l combustion, ^
Fir ire Sd-29. called ping, s p a r k k n o c k , or d e t o n a t i o n . Whenever abnj-
combustion occurs, a rapid pressure increase occurs ^
cylinder, c r e a t i n g a v i b r a t i o n i n t h e e n g i n e b l o c k . It is tn>- ^
MfTlAL TIMING tion t h a t is d e t e c t e d b y t h e k n o c k s e n s o r . T h e signal ^
i
B O ) 0 s e is e c . . p p < - d w i t h a d i s t r i b u t o r , it m a y b e p o s s i b l e k n o c k s e n s o r is u s e d b y t h e P C M t o r e t a r d t h e &nlti0.nniafjiif
•- • •• i n i t i a l t i m i n g . T h e iniUal t i m i n g is u n t i l t h e k n o c k is e l i m i n a t e d , t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g the
. - ; . u g b e t w e e n zero degrees (top e f f e c t s of t h e a b n o r m a l c o m b u s t i o n o n p i s t o n s a n d o t h c r
dead • / /.-• before T D C (BTDC). Ignition partS
' n t that
• rr •/.:: • v r - < ' r . e ',rn r g '.hair o r gear w e a r s a n d r e a d - I n s i d e t h e k n o c k s e n s o r is a p i e z o e l e c t r i c element ^
t0
(, r high mileage engines. See a t e s a v o l t a g e w h e n p r e s s u r e o r a v i b r a t i o n is a p p l i e d
Chapter 56: Ignition System Component! and Operas
50V AC 1 : 1 P R O B E B 200mV (
500)jS IDIV SINGLE TRIG /
RNGLEI F R E E C A P T U R E M I N M A X T R I G G E R
R E C U R R E N T R U N Q o l 2 0 D I V O N A AT 5 0 %
OT 56-31 t\ typical waveform from a knock sensor during a spark knock event This
-»is senttothe computer which in turn retards the ignition timing. This timing retard is
mplished by an output command from the computer to either a spark advance control Figure 5 6 - 3 2 Parte ofa typcal spark one
it«Jiiectly to the ignition module.
Ttie knock s e n s o r i s t u n e d t o t h e e n g i n e k n o c k f r e q u e n c y , w h i c h
a range f r o m 5 k H z to 10 kHz, depending on the engine
design. T h e v o l t a g e s i g n a l f r o m t h e k n o c k sensor ( K S ) is s e n t
o the PCM. The P C M r e t a r d s t h e ignition timing until the
inocking s t o p s .
Diagnosing the Knock S e n s o r If a k n o c k s e n s o r d i a g n o s -

5c trouble c o d e ( D T C ) i s p r e s e n t , f o l l o w t h e s p e c i f i e d testing
"ocedure in t h e s e r v i c e i n f o r m a t i o n . A s c a n t o o l c a n b e u s e d t o
seek the o p e r a t i o n of t h e knock sensor, using the following FAST SLOW
HEAT HEAT
procedure.
TRANSFER TRANSFER
Step #1 Start t h e e n g i n e a n d c o n n e c t a s c a n t o o l t o m o n i t o r i g n i t i o n
timing a n d / o r k n o c k s e n s o r a c t i v i t y , COLD PLUG HOT PLUG
top #2 Create a s i m u l a t e d e n g i n e k n o c k i n g s o u n d by t a p p i n g o n the
Figure 56-33 The neat range of a spar* D jg is Determined by tfie distance the
engine block or c y l i n d e r h e a d w i t h a soft-faced m a l l e t .
to flow from the tip *> tne cyfnder reaa.
#3 Observe t h e scan t o o l display. T h e v i b r a t i o n f r o m the tapping
should have b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d b y t h e k n o c k sensor as a k n o c k ,
resulting i n a k n o c k sensor signal a n d a r e d u c t i o n i n the spark
SPARK PLUGS
advance.
Spark plugs are m a n u f a c t u r e d from c e r a m i c insulators inside a steel
A knock sensor also c a n b e t e s t e d u s i n g a d i g i t a l storage oscil- shell. The threads of t h e shell are r o l l e d a n d a seat is formed to cre-
oscope. See Figure 5 6 - 3 1 . ate a gastight seal w i t h t h e c y l i n d e r head. See R g u r e 56-32. The
physical difference i n spark p l u g s i n c l u d e s :
• Reach. This is the length of the threaded part of the pi jg.

Some engine computers are programmed to ignore knock sensor • Heat r a n g e . The heat range o f the spark plug refers; : • :
•Ms when the engine is at idle speed to avoid having the noise from a the heat created at the tip is transferred to the cylinder head. A
^ accessory drive belt, or other accessory, interpreted as engine plug w i t h a long ceramic insulator path will run hotter at the tip
Always follow the vehicle manufacturer's recommended testing than a spark plug that has a shorter path because the hear
trocedure.
travel farther. See Rgure 5 6 - 3 3 .
• Type o f seat. Some spark plugs use a gasket and others refp o n a
tapered seat to seal.
a Knock Sensor If r e p l a c i n g a k n o c k sensor, be
R e s i s t o r S p a r k P l u g s M o s t spark plugs include a r e s t a u r
h e t u P ^ h a s e the e x a c t r e p l a c e m e n t needed, because they
'nne d same b u l t h e
' f r e q u e n c y range can vary according to i n the center electrode, w h i c h helps to redt.ee electromagnetic
" "'Vs r J,®1' a s w e " a s w h e r e it is located o n the engine, noise or radiation f r o m the i g n i t i o n system. The closer :r.e resis-
'-"•'en tn h n t h e k n o c k sensor using a torque w r e n c h and tor is to the actual spark or arc, the more effective i t becomes.
-•'oelertri specified t o r q u e t o a v o i d causing damage to the The value o f t h e resistor is usually between 2 , 5 . . r . n s *r. -
m c
element inside t h e sensor. 7,500 ohms.
CI SK*\A.>
3. . s- sp. >
PittWWP Pfcfl M M M s p a r k p l u g s - ; . c . s~u
i— _ - _s—: - v. « t o the end of t h e
a. H.: -effect sensor
;• : : . — v t- : - the ground - de electrode. Rat
b. Magnet. sensor
r does not react w i t h oxvgen and c. Si"-'. ser.>"
>:. •»• - ' : c : ' a> car occur conventional d. B'.ht ?. . r b
> - : ' ~ v • ?.ar.r.u;r. ,s also usedas a catalvst
;
4. h : S arv t xamplcs of
caravs: — * rcre " ar-ie to star; a cher. cal reaction a. Waste-spark systems
- tsi»tf M a g corsurned. b. Cc -en-plus emtton systems
c. " saibut >r igr.ition svstems
Indtuin Sârk Plugs • : .;- s a »•."•>: precious metal and
d. Pickup coil tvpes
- . •.' iridium
5. C . polar.r. is determined by the
soark plugs a sr: ar: oi n d . u w e l d e d c r r o t h e
a. Directit - of rotation of the coil windings
•: • ; rr.i ..—.-:- e l e c t r o d e 0 . 0 0 1 5 to 0 . 0 0 2 inch 0.4 to
b. Tun ratio
• — ^ : . cr. T h e :.arr.eter reduces t h e voltage c. Direction of laminations
- : . : . -•;: • T 3 t h e gap b e r w e t r . the c e r t e r and the side d. Si' irar n direction
. • ; — : : : . t l c r e b " reducing possible misfires. The ground or
6. Because of an ignition coil cannot be fullv charged ^
• e t c r j d e s _?uailv upped w i t h platinum to help reduce magnetic saturation) until after a delay of about 10 ms.
• - _trr uf /reat a. Voltage drop across the ignition switch and related wiring
b. Rt stance in the coil windings
c. Inductive reactance
SUWMARV d. Saturation
t . AJ m w oe srstems s .ppiv batrerv voltage to the positive side of 7. The pulse generator .
V zr.: :E coi. aari pulse the negative side of the coil on and off to a. Fires the spark plug directly
o r e s * : ' create a voltage spark. b. Signals the electronic control unit m o d u l e I
c. Signals the computer that fires the spark plug direct
2. ar - .ver. je» a M o t a r x a :-nflnitor ignition iDl
E UL
d. Is used as 3 Tachometer reference signal t v the computer r : •.
no other function
3. — — • -se < disafeu: '• .: is called an electronic
ipiaoG H srstetr. 8. Two technicians are discussing distributor ignition. Techr. cian A s; i r
the pickup coil or optical sensor in the distributor is used to pulse the ips
4. - - • - - - 1-es two spark p u p a: the sane time. tion module (igniterl. Technician B says that some distributor ignition sjs
5 : us: ; r _ t i o r svs-eni uses ao jgruusn coil tor each spark plug. terns have the ignition coil inside the distributor cap. Which technical, s
correct?
REVIEW Q U E S T I O N S b. Technician B only
c Both Technicians A and B
1. - • cat 12 •• ftcrr a ba~erv be changed to 40.000 volts for d. Neither Technician A nor B
9. A waste-spark-type ignition system .
2. - i - t c • ssapwoc sensor work? a. Fires two spark plugs at the same time
J - m t - j ? c " i l ^ S e c * sensor wort? b. Fires one spark plug w i t h reverse polarity
c. Fires one spark plug w i t h straight polarity
<• - :: • a curt; igruc r. svstem work?
d. All of the above
10. Technician A says that a defective crankshaft position sensor can
CHAPTIflQOlZ no-spark condition. Technician B says that a faulty ignition control rm.
can cause a no-spark condinon. Which technician is correct?
• • ' system n - s t Be working correctly be- a. Technician A only
--- I<"T • ST.- a R . . Which component is norm the primary b. Technician B only
sr rr mcut? c. Both Technicians A and B
a. Sc<nc trrjvg d. Neither Technician A nor B
b. >;-jie guser
c. '• a ; u i * generator
4- rack
2 •- ar . • : • : . u ' . over the firing of the coilisi of an El
- r - - -^pers i control- the module?
a. > t + c
b Canp.Ttr
c. ''.ôisfcaft terser
4. - • <
57
T h a J T I J
19 u i a i j !
an
| After s t u d y i n g C h a p t e r 5 7 , t h e r e a d e r will b e tot. to P r e p a r e tgr ASE Engvw P e r f o r m * * * (Affl c e r t f c a t o r tesJ c o n t e n t s e a "T
JJjJJjjSm Diagnosis and Repair) • Oescnbe the procedure used to check lor . Dacuat « t t f to raped and tot* lor during a rautf
* E 2 5 f i e ignition system. • List the steps necessary to check and/or adjust V * o n tnmg on enpnes equoped wrth a Ostnbuto • DescribeDesc
n test the ignition system using an o s c i l l o s c o p e
g t l M ® automatic shutdown (ASD) relay • base toning • bwnkV • display • t t t f e u b r c a c • <*m* sector • f m g i f a e • Mngonkv
BI ". . millisecond (ms) sweep • raster • remove v * replace(PS«i • • s o » n * * • spvfctester • supenmpoMd
| . 3fked coil • transistor-off point • transistor-on point
ri^KIWGFOR SPARK
- event of a no-start condition, t h e first step should be t o e - •:

- ;condary v o l t a g e o u t of t h e i g n i t i o n c o i l o r t o t h e s p a r k p l u g s . If
r
t-gL-ie is equipped w i t h a s e p a r a t e ignition coil, remove the c .
v the center of t h e distributor cap, install a s p a r k t e s t e r ,
i:d crank the engine. See t h e Tech Tip "Always Use a Spark
"ester." A good coil and ignition system should produce a blue
at the spark tester. See Figures 5 7 - 1 and 5 7 - 2 .
If the ignition system being tested does n o t have a separate tg-
",:3on coil, disconnect any spark p l u g w i r e from a spark plug ar.d,
•. • cranking the engine, test for spark available at t h e spark p'.ug
".re, again using a spark tester.
• f t An intermittent spark should be considered a no-spark c end i
figure 57-1 ftspptss

tnesM T
l«lsas:asa i*«a aaoo «* as nrnki
:
'Pical causes of a no-spark (intermittent spark l condition in-
•'••ide the following:
1- Weak ignition coil

j [fw or voltage to the primary (positive) side of the coil
4 distance or open coil wire, or spark plug wire
• -egative side of the coil not being pulsed by the ignition r..*; • c
defective pickup coil
Defective module
Always Use a Spark Tester
esler l 0 0 k s llk
e a spark plug except it has a recessed cente eiec
n
!ao M , ° S'de e,ectrode Th
e tester commonly has an alltgato d p at
s h e l 1
' so that it can be clamped on a good ground connection or
A 900(1
6*5 ^ ignition system should be able to c a . s e a sparx to . -
t silt a y 9 3 " a t a,m
°spheric pressure Without a spark teste \ toh- c , v
r Ume t h a t t h e
«mai Q 'gnition system is okay, because it can sparv across a
;
^WheY > U n t l e d Spark plu9 T h e vona
9 ® required to • e a standard sparx
S <H the engine and
' ^ An " ' " " " t u l 1 d e r p r e s s - e !S * 6 0 u t 3 c - ' v ; s
lurrtp t ( J l e c t r o n ' c ignition s p a * tester requires a mm n o» : 5 J00 w i t s
8 3 4 in
" 9ap. Therefore, never assume that f i e ic" tion svsteT s
" 'ites a spark plug—always use a spark teste. tement)*-
ipJ,!Zmenl a c r o s s a spa. * tester s f d W n w tec a s a H » « S 7 - S » OO» jc sfWuoK; t* o M i « M i a i i
WWrtiOP r w s s s W i S i n rtothf s f W a r w i t * U l - » tfw « •
a too gac ot X * n
CM st : r o i
ELECTRONIC K M T K M TROUBLESHOOTING PROCEDURE secondary - w i n d i n g inside t h e coil. For ac

"distance
ments, the wiring to t h e coil s h o u l d b e -
»%s* ~ " Sga • e c r ; - c tgn:son system for n o spark. 3 bef0f
e teaiT^
test the primary coil w i n d i n g r e s i s t a n c e .
: . - r c t h e exact cause of t h e problem:
(Figure 5 7 - 3 ) :
f - A sr. - f r u n e o . " and. using either a voltmeter

>" . w
i" '•. • b..;-ery voltage available at the positive ter- Step #1 Set the meter to read l o w o h m s .
' - • !r" the ventage is not available, check for Step #2 Measure the resistance b e t w e e n t h e :ve term -
ac c v - k -jse ignition switch or wiring. Also check the negative terminal of the ignition coil. M< s ^ ^ N*
c o i w r x - of r . e ^ n ; t ; o c fuse iif usedi. between 1 and 3 ohms; however, s o m e c is should indi * 1
than 1 o h m . Check the m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s sp 'nations for t ? i e :
resistance values.
"
C ' - prod. • automatic shutdown
AS>'teii« i power
npitkjn cot. The ASD retay wtB not supply volt-
To test the s e c o n d a r y coil w i n d i n g resistance, follow these s>
uf- • Ttt :r.t er&ae is cranking and the computer senses a
wtjjm jgra., This IttJe known tact hai footed many technicians.
Step #1 Set the meter to read kilohms ( k £ i ) .
Step #2 Measure the resistance b e t w e e n either primary terminal »
S ^ P «2 -.-ect - .-oitmeter or test light to the negative side of the the secondary coil tower. T h e n o r m a l resistance of most
. ' . arc crar.- -he engine. The voltmeter should fluctuate or the ranges between 6 , 0 0 0 and 3 0 , 0 0 0 o h m s . Check the mantv
ter should blink, indicating that the primary coil current is turer's specifications for t h e e x a c t resistance values.
> - . '"-~ed on and off. If there is no pulsing of the negative side
af tr.-? cCL, then the problem is a defective pickup, electronic
coctroi module, or wiring.
WOTl Many ignition coils use a screw that is inside the secondary towei
of the ignition coil. If this screw is loose, an intermittent engine miss could
WMT10II COIL TESTING USING A N OHMMETER occur. The secondary coil would also indicate high resistance if this screw
ir. . z n n o r . coil is suspected of being defective, a simple ohmme- was loose.
A e : * :ar. be performed to test the resistance of the primary and
1. INSERT TEST LEADS IN THE INPUT TERMINALS SHOWN.

2. TURN THE ROTARY SWITCH TO £2.
3 TOUCH THE PROBES AS SHOWN TO MEASURE RESISTANCE
IN PRIMARY WINDINGS
4 OBSERVE DISPLAY RESISTANCE SHOULD BE LESS THAN A
FEW OHMS.
5. TOUCH PROBES AS SHOWN TO MEASURE RESISTANCE IN
SECONDARY WINDINGS.
6. OBSERVE DISPLAY. RESISTANCE SHOULD TYPICALLY BE IN
THE 10 KU RANGE.
» 5 7 - 3 Ckeounev y -•/ .. m t , i t * v, i«ao 0<lnw

gnito! Sysi agnorî and Service 875
p|CKUP COIL T E S T I N G
Mjnuftcturar Pickup Coll RMlitanc* (Otim»)
i o c a t e d u n d e r t h e rii
- idwpwiir
T1,e ijensrai Motors 500tot ,500 (white and green leadii
- tenition engines, c a n c a u s e a n o s |
ni-kup coil m u s t g e n e r a t e a n A r ; the ignition Ford 400to1,000 (orange and purple leads)
f
y e so that t h e m o d u l e c a n p u l s e t h e Ctvyder Brand 150to900 (orange and black leadi)
A pickup coil c o n t a i n s a c o i l o f w i n
;
„, should be w i t h i n t h e r a n g e s p e c i f i e d A ) c h e c k t h a t t h e p i c k u p coll w i n d i n g s a r e i n s u l a t e d from
57-4. S o m e c o m m o n specificatioi ii g r o u n d b y c h e c k i n g for c o n t i n u i t y u s i n g a n o h m m e t e r . W i t h one
o h m m e t e r lead a t t a c h e d to g r o u n d , t o u c h t h e o t h e r l e a d of t h e
- ". n e t e - t o t h e pit k u p coil t e r m i n a l . T h e o h m m e t e r s h o u l d r e a d
O L (over limit) w i t h t h e o h m m e t e r s e t o n t h e h i g h s c a l e . If t h e
p i c k u p coil r e s i s t a n c e is n o t w i t h i n t h e s p e c i f i e d r a n g e , o r if it h a s
c o n t i n u i t y t o g r o u n d , r e p l a c e t h e p i c k u p coil a s s e m b l y .
T h e p i c k u p coil also c a n b e t e s t e d for p r o p e r v o l t a g e o u t p u t
D u r i n g c r a n k i n g , m o s t p i c k u p coils s h o u l d p r o d u c e a m i n i m u m of
0 . 2 5 volt A C . This c a n b e t e s t e d w i t h t h e d i s t r i b u t o r o u t of t h e ve-
hicle b y r o t a t i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t o r d r i v e g e a r b y h a n d .
TESTING M A G N E T I C S E N S O R S
First of all, m a g n e t i c s e n s o r s m u s t b e t e s t e d t o s e e if t h e y will stick
to iron or steel, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e m a g n e t i c s t r e n g t h of t h e s e n s o r s
is okay. If t h e p e r m a n e n t m a g n e t i n s i d e t h e s e n s o r h a s c r a c k e d , t h e
result is t w o w e a k m a g n e t s .
If the sensor is r e m o v e d f r o m t h e e n g i n e , hold a m e t a l (steel) ob-
Figure 57-4 Measuring the resistance ot an HEI pickup coil using a digital multimeter set ject against t h e end of t h e sensor. It s h o u l d e x e r t a s t r o n g m a g n e t i c pull
t Dei ohms position. The reading on the face of the meter is 0.796 k f l or 796 ohms in ttie o n t h e steel o b j e c t If n o t , r e p l a c e t h e sensor. S e c o n d , t h e s e n s o r c a n b e
rmcfdte of the 500- to t,500-ohm specifications. tested using a digital m e t e r s e t t o r e a d A C volts. S e e Figure 5 7 - 5 .
BMtfK?
' -
80.4 v ,
CD S i CD CD
PERMANENT MAGNET AC GENERATORS O C D O C D
DEVELOP THEIR OWN AC VOLTAGE
SIGNAL AS THEY OPERATE. A DIGITAL
METER CAN MEASURE THE AC SIGNAL
FROM THESE SENSORS, TO CONFIRM
THEY'RE WORKING PROPERLY.
<§><§> ( i x ^ - f - N
voltage is produced by a magnetic sensor. Most sensors should produce at leas.O.t volt AC '» ~
'ew teeth you may need to switch the meter to read DC volts and watch trie display tof a jump in voltage as the teeth pass Ihe nagrwfc
SECVUjfcO.
TESTING KALI-EFFECT SENSORS
-As v.-tr. ar. ."...:senso; tne output of ihe Hall-effect sensor should
- 5rs; - vokmeter, check for the presence of
c . rulseu or. a . " oi? or digital DCi when the engine
Is c r a n s e T n e best test is to use an oscilloscope and observe
r . waveaann. See figure 57-o.
TESTING OPTICA!. SENSORS

Gcacal sensors w C not operate if dirty or covered in oil. Perform a
•-.::: -cr. v j . a : Inspection anc look for an oil leak that could cause
i r t v c_ ::• ê: or. tr.e LED or phototransiston Also be sure that the
siieia is securely fastened and that the seal is iightproof.
-J: rectal sensor aiso can be checked using an oscilloscope. See
5 " - 7 . Because of the speed of the engine and the number of
r.e optical sensor ask, a scope is one of the only tools that can
ra; cure useful information. For example, a Nissan has 360 slits and
j 1: j ruruung a; 2000 RPM, a signal is generated 720,000 times
4.72 V PEAK-PEAK AUTO
per m a n s e or 12,000 times per second. 127 HZ FHEOUEHCY
42.0 V DUTY CYCLE
3.06 MS PULSE WIDTH
DQQCXl
TE&W \ / Bad Wire? Replace the Coil!
• p "
Q
Ai-.cn performing engine testing isuch as a compression test), always ground Qq
r e cos wire. Never aiiow the cod to discharge without a path to grouno for the QQQQC
rign-eaergy electronic ignition systems can produce 40,000 volts or
MfDIV
s n s of cectncai pressure, if tne spark cannot spark to ground, tne coii energy
HALL^Prear SENSOR IRANG£I
:
cse (anc usoany does; arc msioe tne coil itself, creating a low-resistance path
:•: p n s a y wnangs or me steei laminations of me coil. See Figure 57-8.
a* pao is caned a track and couia cause an engine miss unaer Figure 57-6 (a) Tne conneaion required to test a haii-ertect sensor (D) A typical wvam
.car eve^ tnausf! at of the remaining component parts of the ignition system are from a hall-effeci sensor.
czyjz zxrecty. Otter, tnese tracks oo not show up on any coil test, indud-
^ .rxs: scapes. Because tne track is a lower-resistance path to ground than
aoRtiat i retires that tne ignition system oe put unaer a load for it to oe ae-
•Remove the distributor cap and carefully check the cap ant!
eoec. i r e net* then, tne protnem (engine missing) may be intermittent.
distributor rotor for faults.
Therefore when disaoimg an ignition system, perform one of the following
• Remove the spark plugs and check for excessive wear or other
jszecuas to preve." possioie ignition coil damage:
visible faults. Replace if needed.
1. Seats,c tne power source wire from tne ignition system to prevent any
cr-Uir. eftmoo.
2. Oo estrcuspwqtapped engines, remove the seconaary coii wire from the
NOTE According to research conducted by General Motors, about o.'.e
z n s u or tne distributor cap and connect a jumper wire Between the fifth (20%) of all faults are detected during a thorough visual inspector
ascaaected CM wire and a good engine ground. This ensures that the
'jusiGsri can energy will De safely grounded ana prevents high-voltage
eHdanaee
TESTING FOR POOR P E R F O R M A N C E
Many diagnostic equipment manufacturers offer methods tor t®
:£*TJCA SYSTEM DIAGNOSIS ing distributorless ignition systems on an oscilloscope. If usflg^
JS1NS VISUAL INSPECTION type of equipment, follow the manufacturer's r e c o m m e n d e d pro-
dures and interpretation of the specific test results.
sf inst steps In the diagnosis process is to perform a thor- A simple method of testing distributorless (waste-spark
v i u i . r^fecixr. of the ignition system, including the follow- terns) ignition with the engine off involves removing the spflftK
zgxm. distribute:
wires ior connectors) from the spark plugs (or coils or
vacuum ^
• '.•-•. .Ires tor proper routing. All plug wires should cap) anc installing short lengths (2 inches) of rubber
: 4 i.. ..v,g separator and be clear of any metallic in series.
asgc: -.ta' c v..'. cauoc da-.age to tr.e insulation and cause a short-
i&fg&jz fat.it
• . are securely attached to the spark
NOTE For best results, use rubber hose that is electrically
p . . , ' . - : ^ p or ignit.on ccii'S). Measure the vacuum hose with an ohmmeter. Suitable
• / •;-j- iyVi fai A,,->.c.:e clean and free from excessive should give a reading of less than 10,000 ohms (10 I s f l i s 1
i r " oi. '..','-:<•: ;;-at a : protective covers normally covering the about 2 inches. See Figures 5 7 - 9 and 5 7 - 1 0 .
• •„' ar,c ' / o s t r o c a p are in place and not damaged.
A 2V DC 1 1 M«J»'
10m»/
R I
A/
ML nnrnnnnnnnn
-INGLEl.
prrrml
A P T UFL E M I N
•RTTFN 1 0 P A O L V
MAX
ON A
T W % € P
K
H i I AT I
(a)
57-7 (a) The low-resolution signal has the same number of puses at fte? «•••<-
^ *Dial usually represent 1 degree of rotation
SECONDARY COIL
\
WINDINGS \
\
TRACKING \
TO STEEL
CORE
COIL EPOXY /
CASE /
F
W 57-8 A track inside an ignition coil is not a short. Out rather it s -
-f » We thai has been burned through from the secondary wmng fcthestee n
Figure 57-10
fcmaiDS ">«
I M r alt
Stap«1 - *<
try t o u c & n i C a d p a t i grx
u u a tee. Even tnougi S k
jad tat i r t r r w r to a a o i p e M a i e tor
are*. * tectauciar. stowed walcfc tor a
the e r . p n t . H a t a
M i p a M k
ptag wire or
O M M |
oar weak crt.riter s

A
W lypo 2 distntnjto crtacter j m g tf» si
ctntaiMcMbr^piuggnt
ar. axtrrtduit cofi far a r t
'III, 0,1111 w , r f 'tonioneigndwet*ax)s&rtng th* engre
^ '25-mmi fetance belvweti me-mnate o» »» i Np cMMgr «J * 3 k profefca axJd be ar.
a spark occurs and does not hid grow)
5 «>i?>.vl(
r ID R>J| -. T > V
« -
r V - • u ••••
wsttw »*»
0NIT1CH S T S T t M S £ R V ( C €
- - i
e/An
-any e ! « t m k I • 4Ti.">: can v
I
T
i areas, ctose .
" " E S T ^ C FQ® A * © - S M T COÔiTXMI
r j * stoMak rtf* < < ^ ^ <* it . f a r t g j p , a n d s f ^ r t pf ; 1$ i K

fe * Jel.^T
FlRlWOROtfl
n » » - - t . r * t: «
> * * ^-vrjrc * V i -o; j*. <re l R n n f order '.-pJer h a t t h e ^ "a fertojjj
* • •, a t 4 Tb i . 's • T i ^ , VMf c^rrct sfart a< t h e r ^ i t t i r r x . T h e Tirinj j d i t c / j c ^ ,
. V t r r ' - ^ - l b f tranV - a f t a n d c a m s h a f t d< gp. The
J.'efr by t h e ' o c i t i o n o I t h e s p a r k p l u g wires in the f i c ^
i f ' v at V -J i .»p o( an ^ s ' r * e q ' / ^ p e d Aith a d i s t r i b u t e The
' •' , « » - t • • m '|r. v . < t ere.-- iA fta cat 1 - t o LV f a k e tr.anL'oW Tor easy reference, as A s * :
j** e • „ ,-yj M - i i H i f t S t d tiT* f ! » F ^ t 57 11. S e n i c e i n f o r m a t k m also s h e w s the
TV > i» * .< ie top-'.'ja o f « r i s •» d f « < t > « o( the d ^ t r i h j t o c rotor r o t a t i o n , as w e B a s t h e V x t
1 of the f a r k f ' j g A v e s o n t h e d i s t r i b u t o r c a p .
' "6 * v * . A -> r * * AC i6.«jd >i< »1 \jr
MrVtA ' I f c j h l i r ) M m i « f Q r | i < | f * ii
'C ^ i^-vae T r l V«i t * S d .*>m* orders
« V tt* v / f • > <f I t » « i a AC it : ' & v . ; 'Jt . H Q or ' • «r-J*rt LfsL-j aconM t l ( f k
-
a J* <h* .c t*'«£re Jod c o J d ci J»- # « V v a
/ y C< - n l S V ' f l V ^ j e iJ!.rent flrirg xri i S t n H h fim
'•J {Aider ! trt*«r> V V « and C* V4
S . r e d r - > j .rier o r c t f r g f f r... t e r fccatkfl ^ a i t coid n s i A^B
" « a or > ccoi.'t-.rt
RriTi! i e r is J <> i m p o r t a n t f<x w a s t e spaxk t>p« f s c i J

yi S o d > H I c V t n Hral -a dEftv- "-e) t y n t . n s y s t e m s . The spark p l u g A-JT cm AsS"
K a l S* of.-> 'cb- ifi'iSed n w r o r g M p a c k that can create a nosurtcto: $
- -A oy% » mi-A F ^ r . v w i p i or « e n f c , , - * Oferati'jn.
C - «"'CVd 10 OA rpiD), {• d t fflf
of iJtt CJV
SECONDARY IGNITION INSPECTION
ect i d . M r i b u t o r c a p for a w<xn o r cracked center •.ntwc i a ^

excessive v i e t r w ^ t .•.en or corrosion, cracks, or cart>» '.-Kb. r<
•xK'H c ^ k - . A e n for b j t n i n g or corrosion by removing
a ' : « '.- ,T -he distnt-itor c a p o n e at a t i m e . R e m e n M i id*-»
, « « * * * «• •<*{ M i fwmm • 1
f t i f o j l o t <ap afJectt >Uriing a n d e n g i n e petformance,
v
ffi8k • -;e condit: ns. If a carb>jn track Is detected »
-••X .'•SO
j*
fev
; " 'J*" *
I •• dt* < > 4 K k oI' tog o»

> i Q o
M i 041 <<t&d m 4
57-11 W q .. CO
^ ' J * i <to- f Jo Sj-rtui
i-^kwi* <
t f K^-. Br-vVJ r . ^ t \ rcf y l

^ 0 f t * * * »de'ect,* sf«V r>\>jr * V I
^ J t r r r r t i r .
V I !,-y« C*' C».5i fcrt v I' V t f cfciiVt iVfljV

t v n\t toss ' c « 0 \ ) • •J?** V WW!
n - t l C » V t»t» h t (frt-joly These »-f * y t * : w « J j f e f l 15 SparK P l u s W i r e P l i e r s

* cr i i / / H-Tfflfm f ^ g f v Tw usus' « u v W • A M a? Are a C o e d I n v e s t m e n t
""« V M t t S tjrff'.;/-,: ts • flff«r..T (Opt'O « v V ptjb •.' ' • - . •- • - •/>>*
'J . v a " ' H

Sfvj-V p ' j j
y/rr fie:. «
r ? on." Ip t f i o « t
In f f c u ^ a - t t . t a > f j *t<e
cJ toMrjjf V* rttt V o i reiWji'S'
a g c ^ - X - J ' t ) sw^v | U
t&V>:vs Ihe ttunti
N f j l t of a h l j f i r e s l s t a n c e or o p e n s p a r k p l u g w i r e . Replace
;
' <ft distributor c a p h c c a u i c of e c a r t o n t r a c k w i t h o u t c h o c k i n g
tltf d e f e c t i v e s p a r k p l u g W l r e f s ) o f t e n will result In t h e
/ J v t o r w p falling In a s h o r t t i m e . It Is r e c o m m e n d e d that t h e
Route the Wires Right'
fy »nd r o t o r t>e I n s p e c t e d e v e r y y e a r a n d replaced If d o
f0!0: s h o u W
* * r e p l a c e d e v e r y t i m e t h e s p a f i p i u f c aro
8,1
H«K v c t o y fe present cwjh SfO'V p»J5 V.-1-0S i s ^ K K^fne te n m t j ;
'£n,,lon c u r r c n
' (IdWS throuf.li t h e rotor G c n o r
ffi
S i n f c r v V \ P t ^ P u t K b 6 H » > v t < fey thj', M i o t ^ r»cv*t 0-
w.or caps s h o u l d o n l y n e e d r e p l a c e m e n t after e v e r y t h r e e
« t h e veffcfe f v « a spa-v tf,t i w w too ctosc^
^ W r > r t r K > r m a 1 s e r v i c e . S e e F i g u r e s 5 7 - 1 2 a n d 57- ! 3 . C h e c V
to the ^ . v wire liw'i a mass ftW se^kv. f«e k A w ! turt'**
. j ^ f f l l s of VpWe spart: a n d coll o n p l u g s y s t e m s for sign*; of car-
IgnRW vitrf coAl ta^lf s M V s ^ / t f to H Ife jft'
^ K w l i n e s ) or corrosion. See Figure 5 7 - 1 4 .
jfc UfUvt Put Vvr WIUUIU
vt i»suua li il )y I111
should k n s p \e cv tivw i u i c u t s or d- e-f e c t i v e In
e d for Itj ^ e . M t Riy ptoNenf j s s i v ^ e d ^ h ^ v A ^ s j v v p J ^
. -J.t. — f j w t cnarV be s . v f t o rwte » t e | as n w i v t e M t f u s ^ U c V j bci.s>j t ^ M i r t
. j W chocked for r e s i s t a n c e w i t h a n o h m m e t e t . G o o d spark
A ^ ^ i O ' j l d m e a s u r e l e s s t h a n 1 0 , 0 0 0 o h m s per fool of l e n g t h . and w n h j S w Figure 5 / - 1 B K Uc t * i v x r K t \ v J >
t M c t ' > V •' v
' 5 a n d 5 7 - 1 6 . F a u l t y s p a r k p l u g w l t e Insulation c a n
ling or n o s t a r t i n g In d a m p w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s . I j W i g r S —1 i-^--
F i g u r e 5 7 - 1 9 When removing spark
icmuviiiy spar* plugs it is wise to a r r a " ——
compared w ^ p„,Blem M „ * „, enWlM a
I an I,
Rpr»57-ta ftBfflf-v a spei* plug me WW a mulbmelcr set to the
>toa wart ikijj wre mj knit iwum ue » « j
Figure 57-20 A spark plug thread chaser Is a low-cost tool that hopeM„ WSi ...
,s
» <° « > ° « • " " the threads before new spark „ Z T
fipnr-17 ^ W i i W i k w ping a laxly additiontoanytoolbox
Figure 57-21 Since 1991. General Motors engines have been equipped v r t sl«l*
(1/8 in or 3 mm) longer spark plugs. This requires that a longer spark plug socketsM
used to prevent the possibility ot cracking a spatk plug dunng Installation Ttie W
is shown next to a normal 5/8-in spark plug socket.
original equipment s p a r k p l u g s h a v e a t y p i c a l service ® '

t o 100,000 miles (100,000 t o 1 6 0 , 0 0 0 kilometetsl
plug? should not be cleaned a n d r e u s e d u n l e s s absowv-
sary. The labor required to remove and replace IR
plugs is the same whether t h e s p a r k p l u g ? a r e r e p l a c e ^
IJ7-M W giug w»es tack into Ihe original
Although cleaning spark p l u ^ o f t e n r e s t o r e s p r o p e i eflfc
mem w " tion, the service life of cleaned s p a r k p l u g ? i s d e f i n i t e ^ ' -
that oi new spark plug?. Platinum-tipped s p a r k plugs >'
regapped! Using a gapping, tool can b r e a k t h e
< KM x m i been used in an engjne.
Be certain that the engne is cool before r e m o ^
' " • ' ^ performance prob-
especially on engines with aluminum cy\indet heads "
' • • > 'q 4 y x i t e d intervali to ensure
dirt from getting into the cylinder ol a n e n g n e w
> M w vpark p i u g i h a v e a s e r
spark plug, use compressed air or a b r u s h t o r e m o v e
' '' ' M ' . f . W K Z Z i n A the Au iUSe . -P
com Tesset
^ ^ 0 1 a
b r u s h t o r e m o v e dti ~ *
s
_ _ * * * P a r k P ^ b e i o r e removal. See Vigures 5 7 - W W
andSwwe 91
rk plug I n s p e c t i o n Spark pi
of the combustion c h a m b e r . A thort
ojaljc plug 5 c a n
'eac*10 r o o t c
'
problem. Two indications on spark
*, causes in engine p e r f o r m a n c e include t l
Carbon f o u l i n g . If J h e s p a r k p l u g i s
-:K usual causes i n c l u d e :
. Excessive idling
. S l o w - s p e e d d r i v i n g u n d e r l i g h t loads that
temperatures t o o l o w t o b u r n off the depc
. Overrich a i r - f u e l m i x t u r e
. Weak ignition s y s t e m o u t p u t
I oil fouling. If t h e s p a r k p l u g h a s wet, oilyde
electrode wear, oil m a y b e g e t t i n g i n t o t h e combustion c h a m b e r
from the following:
. Worn or b r o k e n p i s t o n r i n g s
t Defective or m i s s i n g v a l v e s t e m seals
. |Tfc |f the deposits are heavier o n the side of the plug facing the
- a e valve, the cause is usually d u e to excessive valve stem clearance or Figure57-23 Spar- . . -v.vr. - - - - after a 500-- erace Note the dipped
• faffie intake valve stem seals. side iground) electrooe The electrode oesgr *nc narow (Q 025 r , gap are used to ensue
that a spark occurs extremely r<gr engine speed operation. The color and condition of
the spark plug indole that near-perfect caitwslai -as been occurring.
When removing spark plugs, place t h e m in order so that they

r . be inspected to check for engine problems that might affect one
more qlinders. All spark plugs should be in the same condition,
1 the color of the center insulator should be light tan or gray. If
the spark plugs are black or dark, t h e engine should be checked
: conditions that could cause an overly rich air-fuel mixture or
sible oil burning. If only o n e or a f e w spark plugs are black,
:ck those cylinders for proper firing (possible defective spark
-i wire) or an engine condition affecting only those particular
adets. See Figures 5 7 - 2 2 t h r o u g h 5 7 - 2 5 .
Figure 57-24 'epical worn spark slug Nofice the rounded center electrode The depos "J
indicate a possible oil usage problem.
If all spark plugs are white, check for possible overadvances ig-
nition timing or a vacuum leak causing a lean air-fuel mixture. If
only one or a few spark plugs are white, check for a vacuum eax
affecting the fuel mixture only to those particular cylinders.
NOTE: The engine computer "senses" rich or lean a i r - f U r a o o s b v -seans

of input from the oxygen sensor, if one cylinder is lean, the computer T.av
make all other cylinders richer to compensate
Inspect all spark plugs for wear by first checking the condition
of the center electrode. As a spark plug wears, the center electrode
' ""Wded-reach spark plug that shows normal wear. The color and
e
becomes rounded. If the center electrode is rounded, higher gmticn
k "tot the cylinder is operating correctly
(C
Use Original Equipm

TECH TIP ,,a
Spark Plugs «ure^
Atechnicianat an Independent service canter 1

trtc with new Champion brand spark plugs of tt'
range When the customer tetumed to pay the b-1
name ot the replacement parts used tor the tur
spark plugs were used he stopped signing his na
ing He said that he owned 1.000 shares of Gen
two General Motors vehicles and he expected to ho
111 his General Motors vehicles. The service manac ^mechm
the spark plugs with AC brand spark plugs becau- j brand "WXK
engine when the vehicle was new Even though most virk plug nrin^
produce spark plugs that are correct for use, many customers preter i ! ! ^ 1 ^
eguipment manufacturer (OEM) spark plugs be used 111 their engines *
QUICK A N D E A S Y S E C O N D A R Y I G N I T I O N TESTS
Engine running problems o f t e n a r e caused by defective or ~
adjustment ignition c o m p o n e n t s . M a n y ignition problems involve
57-25 <m pkjq mat wastauiedn» a loo-nch air-fu«l mixture The engine
the high-voltage secondary ignition circuit. Following are $nm
quick and easy secondary ignition tests.
Test 1 If there is a crack in a distributor cap, coil, or spark plug, or if

there is a defective spark plug wire, a spark may be visible at nigh
tajte a required to fire the spark plug. When installing Because the highest voltage is required during partial throttle accelera-
: .vr a w a ^ use the correct tightening torque to ensure tion, the technician's assistant should accelerate the engine slight
t • rev frorr. the spark plug shell to the cylinder head, with the gear selector in drive or second gear (if manual transmission
c e the fc&owing tabie. and the brake firmly applied. If any spark is visible or a "snapping"
sound is heard, the location should be closely inspected and thedefec
tive parts replaced. A blue glow or " c o r o n a " around the shell of te
spark plug is normal and not an indication of a defective spark plug.
ton** with torque Wrench Torque without Torque Wrench
(mil) ft) (In turns) Test 2 For intermittent p r o b l e m s , use a spray bottle to apply 1
Cj« von Aluminum Cast-iron Aluminum water mist to the spark plugs, distributor cap, and spark plug wire
***** Hud Head Head Head See Figure 5 7 - 2 6 . With t h e e n g i n e r u n n i n g , the water may can*
an arc through any w e a k insulating materials and cause the engine
Im*
to miss or stall.
HOI 25-30 18-22 1/4 1/4
t m B-« 28-34 1/4 1/4
Hmmm
<4 MB 7-ti 7-15 1/16 (snug) 1/18 (snug)
%m •s-a 15-20 lT6isnug) 1/16 (snug)
>*•• re irniend the use of antUeize com

. ptuxs being installed In an aluminum cyiin
P-. 14 anil be overtightened. This excessive
- • •. tea* i pi rtrnn of thi piirk plug too far Into
.arbor can accumulate aid result In the
' - c u t ir II antiseUe compound Is used on
fl* : e tMste 7* tutfuenira torque by 40*. Always follow
> - t r * • M t f n iiiwft «r/jmgeri<UBiore.
nam • Tnck
* vsi-o !/>,#>•<•* •• t)i<e wrench Is not avail-

V 1 ' " -V •!*•"• (win the strong**-.! service
anerk plug two finger". Figure 57-26 A walei spray bottle is an excellent dlagnoslK
Intermittent engine miss caused by a break In a secondaiv lgu |U0 "'
ihoaid
.j ib determine if t h e r o u g h e n g i n e o p r . .
1. j r.e engine .. beat normal operating temperature (the upper
% ignition p r o b l e m s , c o n n e c t a 12-volt t, .
radiator nose snooid be hot ar.d pressurized;.
t 0 (someiimes labeled "tach") of the co..
2. . u eng •' - • be a- tr.e correct timing RPM icheck the
.Vo! thotest light to the positive lead of the co. .
(jjug, the test light s h o u l d b e d i m a n d s t e a c :,
3. fhr- v a c . . . : . • b e removed, and the hose from the vac-
is high resistance in the secondary circuit (such a s : s& uum advance unit on
It Elective spark plug wire), the test light will pulse c r „ . . .. should be pi ugged ur_ vise specified,
if the test light v a r i e s n o t i c e a b l y , t h i s ir. licate.-. ;.-.. • •.. 4. If the engine s comp-^teretjuupped, check the timing procedure
'•jgf voltage c a n n o t find g r o u n d easily a n d is feeding back specified bv T.e manufactuiet This may include disconnecting a
"Miijgh the primary w i n d i n g s of t h e coil. T h i s f e e d b a c k c a u s e s t h e "set timing" connector wire, grounding a diagnostic terminal, dis-
jgSt to become brighter. connecting a four-wire connector, or similar procedure.
5N1T10N TIMING
jiiion timing s h o u l d b e c h e c k e d and adjusted according to the NOTE: General Motors specifies ,T an a.ner«r.;ti3UBgprecedures depend-
iviacturer's s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a n d procedures for best fuel economy ing on the engine, type of fuel sjstem, and type oi ignition system. Always
consult the emission deca. under ir.e nood or service ir.lormsftlcm for the
j performance and lowest e x h a u s t emissions. Generally, for test-
exact procedure to RI.JOW.
engines must be at idle w i t h computer engine controls put into
use timing, t h e t i m i n g o f t h e spark before the computer advances
fining. To b e a s s u r e d of t h e proper ignition timing, follow exactly
.. riiiing p r o c e d u r e i n d i c a t e d on the under-hood emission (VECI) TECH TIP "Tarn the Key" Test
ie:aLSee Figure 5 7 - 2 7 f o r a typical ignition timing plate and mark.
lithe ignition timing is t o o far advanced, for example, if it is set If the ignition timing is correct a warm engine sk-jo s a c immietfiffiely when
. 12 degrees b e f o r e t o p dead center (BTDC) instead of 8 degrees the ignition key is turned to tne start position • t i e engine cranks a king tone
BTDC, the following s y m p t o m s m a y occur: before staffing, the ignition tnung r u . oe raterceo • tne engine craracs swwiy,
me ignition timing may De too a r acvancee. - i .".ever..- the engine starts im-
1. Engine ping or spark knock may be heard, especially while
mediately. the ignition i.~ ig, annougn : raay aot se exactly set accoming to
driving up a hill or during acceleration.
specification, is usuaiiy aajjstcc tarty cscse to specficasons. When a starting
2. 'ranking (starting) m a y be slow and jerky, especially when the
problem is expenenceo. check tne ignition cm ng rust oerore checking the fee)
engine is warm.
system or me cranking system for a passa* prootem This proceaure can oe
3- The engine may overheat.
used to help diagnose a posse.? tg-moon taisng prabtem quickly without toots
•? the ignition timing is t o o far retarded, for example, if it is set or equipment
- Jegress B T D C i n s t e a d o f 8 degrees BTDC, the following symp- _ J
"i may occur:
1 T i m i n g Light C o n n e c t i o n s for checking or adjusting ign.::or.
The engine may lack p o w e r and performance.
The engine m a y recpjire a long period of starter cranking before timing, make the timing light connections as follows:
starting. 1. Connea the timing light battery leads to the vehicle battery: the
red to the positive terminal and the black to the negative terminal
2 . Connect the timing light high tension lead to spark plug caste 1.
Determining Cylinder 1 The following will help in determining

cylinder 1.
1. Four- o r s i x - c y l i n d e r e n g i n e s . On. ail inline four and six

cylinder engines, cylinder I is t h e mostjor*ard cylinder.
2. V-o or V-8 engines. Most V r*?e engines use me left treat
[driver's side: cylinder as cylinder 1, except for Ford engines ar.d
some Cadillacs, which use the right front passenger's side,
cylinder.
3. S i d e w a y s ( t r a n s v e r s e ) e n g i n e s . \
vehicles with engines installed sideways use the u. jader io a e
far right (passenger's side) as cylinder 1 iplug wire closes: to the
drive belt(s||.
Follow this rule of thumb: If cylinder 1 is unknown ks a given
type of engine, it is the most fifoarj cylinder us vsewî ::c.n
limi
above (except in Pontiac V-8 engines. See figure -. 7 - 2 S v r '
6* "0 marks. Tne numoere ol the degrees are on the stationary
cylinder 1 locations.
"otch IS
on tho huimonlc balancer.
a r m *
TIMING MARK
CRANKSHAFT =
r-p
UK
AUDI
CHRYSLER V9 i <
OATSUN
RAT
FOROrtJNCOLHV
TRAMS VERSE GMIALLI
HONTM JAGUAP
MAZDA
n F MERCEDES-6EV
f+ SAAB MC
PORSCHE SUBARU PEUGEOT
TOYOTA
VOLVO
VW - AIR COOLED
TIMING MARK
(TYPICAL-EXACT
MARKINGS VARY.
KANSVEBSE FLYWHEEL
28 L 3 I L GM V6
Mm
CHBYSLER/OOOGE/PLYMOUTH Fwo 4C1L
HONDA
PEUGEOT V» PORSCHE 924 t 912E
PORSCHE V« RENAULT
AUOlV«5
KXJOV* SAAB
SUBARU
TRANSVERSE VW - WATER-COOLED
MLMLGMVI VERY LOW RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS
ROTARY ENGINES • M B FLYWHEEL ACCESS HOLE

IN BEEL HOUSING
• ALL
• MAZDA
»ORO
MCRCE0E&-BENZ I• CYLINDER
PORSCHE
O0LL«C «M VIONLT CADILLAC <25 Vt ONLY CONWCT MOUCTIVf PICK up
TO •! W i n PLUQ «nRE
TIMING MARKS ARE TYPICAL

(EXACT MARKINGS VARY)
-JMd "T «t ' ' . m m I f t * exampw. |*gmr •OTt if m» timing mark appears ahead ol the pointer in reUMBi
M b * !<M« ia»l cySftJer fl, but rttf cylinders direction ol ennkshaft relation, the timing It advanced. If the t
> >v v w v l ftNtonfi terwin Therefore. cylinder mart appears behind the pointer in relation to the direction ol croni*
" krtm . J w a h r 0» tpeaftcirkro and rotation, the timmg B retarded.
9* tfSH IMMij
3. To adjust timing, loosen the distributor locking bolt or nut »nJ'

the distributor housing until the t u n i n g m a r k Is In correct a f c ^ '
Turn the distributor housing in the direction of rotor rotation »
. ws. w m 141 q p s t w m t bu&head retard the timing and against rotor rotation to advance the &nu»
j
'<~'i. *>&t a* A t o w * n i » c y t a f c r 4 . After adiusting the t i m i n g t o s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , carefullv t l j h " 8 *
win n. • M e l the A) distributor l o c k i n g bolL Sometimes it is necessary to read
4 9 * " r a n n m a r t in n M n t i m i n g after t h e initial setting because t h e distributor m»v
slightly w h e n t h e h o l d - d o w n bolt Is t i g h t e n e d .
TECH T I P Two M a r k s Are the Key to S u c c e s s

Timing Use the following
' i -T tJ^. When a distributor B retrieved trom an engine, always mar* (1<s
rotor s ocmrtmg to ensure that the distributor is reinstalled m the a ^ >

ed u, 9 k ' tpt< iSed lor ignition
Son Because ol the hrtcal cut on the distnbutor drive gear th' *
the distributor s being removed trom the engine To help [ e i n s U 1 ^
> M t (K*wer. wOwul any problems, simply make another mar* where 9 * ^
mM as the distribute* a kned out ol the engine Then to remsia" ^ ^
% M r «» tt* t M u f a c t o W t
the r«oi to the second mart and lower the distribute* into f *
t e * 9* t r r c n t . Set
'••tojuW then line up with the original mark as a double chec*
KB and Service 685
Figure 57-30 Typical engine analyzer hookup that includes a scope display (1) Coil wire
on top of the distributor cap it integral type of coil. (2) number 1 spark plug connection:
(3) negative side of the ignition coil: (4) ground (negative) connection of the battery
•» ->?-29 Typical SPOUT connector as used on many Ford engines equipped with
nmrgiitwilDl). ib) The connector must be opened (disconnected) to check and/or GM HEI
• •» gmtm.- timing On DIS/EDIS systems, the connector is called SPOUT/SAW (spark SYSTEM
CONNECTION
>»««»angle word)
HONDA HEI
SYSTEM
CONNECTION
0H-TEST1NG THE IGNITION S Y S T E M
M 'motive scope with t h e correct probes or adapters will
* ffl inni'ion system pattern. All ignition systems must charge
| "iacitir^ an ignition coil. With the engine off, most scopes will TOYOTA HEI
a horizontal line. With t h e engine running, this horizontal SYSTEM
CONNECTION
ine is changed to a pattern that will have sections both
' KM below the zero line. Sections of this pattern that are
m
S* zero line indicate that the ignition coil is discharging,
the scope pattern below the zero line indicate charging
* Wiuun coll. The height of the scope pattern indicates volt-
Figure 57-31 Clip-on adapters are used with on Ignition system that uses an integral
' (from left to right) of the scope pattern indicates
ignition c o l l
* figures 57 30 and 5 7 - 3 1 for typical scope hookups.
The leftmost vertical (upward) line is called the

I tine, rhi height of the firing line should be between 5,000 If the firing lines are higher than normal for all cylinders, then
, volts: 5 and 15 kV) with not more than a 3 kV differ- possible causes include one or more of the following:
_ >"-><-r the highest and the lowest cylinder's firing line. See
; \ 7 32 and 5 7 - 3 3 . 1. Worn distributor cap and or rotor (If the vehicle is so equipped*
'•* height >f the firing line indicates the voltage required to 2. Excessive wearing of all spark plugs
" ^rk plug, it requires a high voltage to make the air inside 3. Defective coil wire (the high voltage could still iunip across the
; , r ' a " r electrically conductive (to ionize the air). A higher open section of the wire to fire the spark plugsl
flight (or height higher than that of other cylinders)
3 S p a r k Line The s p a r k line is a short horizontal lint mnied
' •ed by one or m o r e of the following:
ately after the firing line. The height of the spark line represents the
i ^ % gapped t o o w i d e voltage required to maintain the spark across the spark plug after the
: mixture spark has started. The height of the spark line should be o n e fourth
^ . r ^ a v e spark plug wire of the height of the iiring line (between 1 and k\ Iho'.cngr
«KV/V
C
30KV/V IN
»UN[)E'
FIRING
ORDEfl
Figure 57-34 Drawing shows what is occurring electrically at each p

pattern.
1 mS 2mS 3mS <mS SmS

I from left to right) of the line represents t h e l e n g t h of time for
the spark lasts (duration or burn time). T h e s p a r k duration shouldb
f)0tt 57-32 'y^secuxtyigmnoscilkisawpatim between 0 . 8 and 2 . 2 milliseconds (usually b e t w e e n 1 . 0 a n d 2 0
The spark stops at the end (right side) of t h e s p a r k line, as showni-
Figure 5 7 - 3 4 .
Intermediate Oscillations After the spark has stopped, sou

energy remains in the coil. This remaining energy dissipates in t.i
/SECONDARY CONVENTIONAL (SINGLE) / coil windings and the entire secondary circuit. The intermediate
oscillations are also called the "ringing" of the coil as it is puM
FIRING LINE The secondary pattern amplifies any voltage variation occut
(BEGINNING r i n g in the primary circuit because of the turns ratio between the
OF SPARK)
primary and secondary windings of the ignition coil. A correctly ot-l
POINTS CLOSE
OR TRANSISTOR SPARK LINE
erating ignition system should display five or more "bumps" loses
TURNS ON iationsj (three or more for a G M HEI system).
SPARK ENDS
Transistor-On Point After the intermediate oscillations, the coil
COIL is empty (not charged), as indicated by the scope pattern beingont*
OSCILLATIONS zero line for a short period. When the transistor turns on an elec
tronic system, the coil is being charged. Note that the chargingM
coii occurs slowly (coil-charging oscillations) because of the induct?'? j
reactance of the coil.
I DWELL Dwell Section Dwell is the amount of time that the current'^
M- SECTION
charging the coil from the transistor-on point to the transis o
FIRING off point. At the end of the dwell section is the
SECTION next firing line. This point is called "transistor off'
that the primary current of the coil is stopped, resulting1"
SECONDARY CONVENTIONAL (PARADE) voltage spark out of the coil.
Pattern Selection Ignition oscilloscopes use three £

'>G LINES SHOULD BE EQUAL view certain sections of the basic pattern more closely. - •
OPT LtNE INDICATES LOW
7MCE IN THE WIRE. A HIGH positions are as follows:
LOCATES HIGH RESISTANCE
m
1. Superimposed. This superimposed position is use ^
AVAILABLE VOLTAGE
differences in patterns between cylinders in a l U ^ ' ^
SHOULD BE ABOUT firing line. There are no firing lines illustrated in supe
10KV ON A positions. See Figure 5 7 - 3 5 . _cis£#
A Tech ..ician"s Toughie
i 1 fi KV/V x/ty, yel cope patterns were "perfect" Bernem^ng tfsjt

scepe I vacates iln e* a spark has occurred (not necessarily msle the
• r cei,
. the c<a- v o *>ded or <;'.replug wwe at a time usrng a v-'^
hose and a test fcgrt -very time a plug wire was grounded, me engine tan
OKV/V
morse . Hi the >m cyi'txter was checked. When he last spade plug wire was
grounded, the er? ne rar the -same Thetechnicianchecked the spark plug wire
SUPERIMPOSED
w an of -' ftef 1 tested r. •• speculations itess than 10,000 ohms per
root '.-•; ' x a r air.', removed and inspected the spark. plug. The
57 35 Typical secondary ignition pattern. Note the lack of tiring sparv ; i a jogxed nor-a "he spark: lug was reinstalled and the engine tested
agar "he - r ; 'ad "e results as before—the enqme seemed to be run-
jjeW
' ng on seven cy yet - e scope pattern was perfect.
"'* tec'' icati Her replaced the spark pbg tor the affected cylinder The
engine ran correctly Very dote exa~ rat on of trie spark plug showed a thin
crack between the wireterminala d the «hel of the plug Why i-dn't the cracked
40 KV/V plug show or. the scope'' The scoc«e a -pre mutated that a spark had occurred.
20 KV
The scope cannot datingoW oetmeer- a sjart is*Je the engine and a spark
outside the engme. m rus case 9 * •-.-•.age reo^red to travel through the
spark plug crack to 5">jnd was about the sane votQge requiredtojump the spark
15 KV 30 KV/V
plug electrodes inside the engme "ne scsr* rjaJ xcured across the cracked
spark plug, however, may have seen i s : e ar - 5 " .v.r tne engine running
10 KV 20 KV/V
Reading the S p a r k Lines -xa re : "be seen on <

ther superimposed or raster (stacked On t h e rar-ter posi-
5 KV 10 KV/V
tion, each individual sparr: une car. oe s-.ewed.
The spark lines should be leve, and -'ne-fc , r t h as high as the
firing lines 1.5 to 2.5 kV; : u : u s u i l v ess than 2 kV . The .park
OKV — 0 KV/V
line voltage is called the b u r n k V . T h e :.- e spark line is
RASTER (STACKED) the critical f a c t o r r jetetminir.g prc-per peranon of the engine
because it represents the spark duratfcjn or burr. r r e . There is only
S
' OT 57-36 Raster is the best scope position to view the spark lines of all the cylinders a limited amount of energy in ar, gnliion c o L If most of the energy
check for differences. Most scopes display the cylinder 1 at the bottom. The other is used to ionize the air gaps of t h e rotor ar.d t h e spark plug, there
< 'Are are positioned by firing order above cylinder 1. may not be enough energy nar.aaiHjg to create a spark duration
long enough to complete:" b t a u the a i r - f u e l mixture. Many scopes
are equipped with a millisecond ms: sweep. Tr.u " e a r .
the scope will sweep onlv that p e r r o n of the pattern that can be
— —
shown during a 5- or 25-ms setting. Following are guidelines for
5 KV
, 10 KV/V
spark line length;
r • 0.8 ms—too short

• 1.5 ms—average
OKV • 2.2 ms—too long
Xy^6 0 KV/V
DISPLAY (PARADE) If the spark line is too short, possible causes include the
following:
57-37 i
displayed" ' s t h e only P° sition t 0 view fie firing lines of all cylinders. Cylinder 1 1. Spark plug s gap is too wide
on the left (except for its firing line, which is shown on theright).The cylinders 1
Wfrom 2. Rotor t $ n distributor cap uisert distance gap s too • de rr
'eft to right by firing order.
cap or rotor i
3. High -esurance spark plug wire
4. -Mr-fuel mixture too lean I vac uum leak, broker, a .-
t
«radet|DSCope p a t t e r n - Firing lines are visible only on the display spring, etc.)
H be w °? l t i o n - The firing lines should all be 5 to 15 kV in height
If the spark line is too long, possible causes include the folic w n z
'•Si dfj ' ® m 3 kV of each other. If o n e or more cylinders have
' t ? l J SDa i f e S ' ^ could indicate a
defective (open) spark plug 1. Fouled spark plugfs
plu
'Hw0 , 8 gapped too far, or a lean fuel mixture affecting 2. Spark plugii gap is too narrow
. A| e a e n c y l i n d ers. 3. Shorted spark plug or spar.-: plug wire
"e k a i m ' X t u r e f n o t e n o u g h fuel] requires a higher voltage to
Use
there are fewer droplets of fuel in the cylinder for Many scopes do not have a millisecond scale. Scme sc - pes are
•j, ®- ' UUSE
s e aSCs "stepping
«„•
stones"» «for the voltage to jump
„ . < .
across.
,RVM •^RR.EC labeled in degrees and or percentage • of dwell. The r - . j
Iea
n mixture is less conductive than a rich mixture. chart can be used to determine acceptable scars ur.e length.
,—-
Start Una LengOi (at 700 to 1200 RPM)
hejLMOye INi
t_ __ r - - rfDaaiSo* Degreef)
LENGTH O f B O P E H E J f l E S I '
a 1J-2D 3-6 3-5 OF ENERGY STOWED M KSWT*
t 10-Z.Q 2-5
i 8-13 3-6
SAME
LENGTH
Spartt U M Slope DOST . -?: s l o p : ! 3 a k L-es indicate that OF HOPE S A M E L E N G T H OF ROPE l O f f K ,
the ID "SK a naonain the spark dilation is decreasing dur- IF MtGH VOLTAGE K R E Q U ^
IONIZE SPARK P U J G CAP LESS
r j : r e ITE£ of vie spartt plug. This downward slope usually Jidicates E N E R G ' S AVAILABLE FOP ^
DOHATJOt. »LEANCTL»mai
rsr scan e s e r r ' : finding ground through g a i t ptug deposits AN E X A M P L E OF WHERE
t other 15v.cn proWems. See figure 57-38. VOLTAGE IS RE QUIRED TORRE
wtth a shottter-thannoriul
A E UR raid-siop'IG SPAN; bne usuaiiy indicates a mechanical DURATION )
• y profer.. A defective pist - ring or valve would tend to seal
t e a s r t e increasing pressures of combustion. As the spark plug
SPARK
res. efiecrre .-.crease in pressures increases the voltage re UNE
qorec • mason:r. the spark, and the height of the spark line rises
I
: j c g te jmanoc ' the spark. See Figure 57-39. IF LOW VOLTAGE IS REOUWEO13 > *
SAME T H E'-:.
S P A R K PLUG (LOW RRMG J v
LENGTH M O R E O F THE COIL S E>CRG» S
r j s i r e . Typtca: causes i n c u t e uOF H O P E AVAILABLE TO PROVIOE A U K
DURATION SPARK U N E (A FOULS
1. Qogged s w e a r s
jL
S P A R K P L U G IS AN EXAMPLE OF JM
VOLTAGE TO FIRE WITH A U W »
2. ? .ins leak SPARK T H E N ^ l O R M A L OURATK>
UNE
3. S": :<.".; .rtajr.e vahe
See Figure 57-40 for an ezair.pie showing the relationship be-

Figure 57-40 The relationship between the height of the firing l*ie and lervgr of»
r*eer. tie firing line and the spark line. -tie can beflustratedusing a rope Because energy cannot be destroyed the ser&r*:
in an igmon cot must dissipate totally regardless of engine operating condtms I
Reading t h e I n t e r m e d i a t e Section The ..itemed,a:e sec
aoc:-. -i have three or more osc,..ations it-imps for a correctly
a p e r r - - ; ignition system. Because approximately 250 volts are in
the primary ignition circuit w h e n t h e s p a r k stops flowing acres
spark plugs, this voltage is r e d u c e d b y a b o u t 7 5 volts per c a -
tion. Additional resistances in t h e p r i m a r y circuit would decez
the number of oscillations. If t h e r e a r e f e w e r than three cscl
tions, possible problems i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g :
5 KK
1. Shorted ignition coil
2. Loose or high-resistance primary c o n n e c t i o n s on the ignite:
y ~ OKVW
or primary ignition wiring
Electronic Ignition and the Dwell Section Electron; r

! 57-38 * ..v^ grtfxx' tions also use a dwell period t o c h a r g e t h e coil. Dwell is W- -•
gr ar. txxs&î ntf*. 3t-kj0 nurture justable with electronic ignition, b u t it d o e s c h a n g e with increase
RPM with many electronic ignition s y s t e m s . This change in
with RPM should be c o n s i d e r e d n o r m a l .
40KV/V Many EI systems also p r o d u c e a " h u m p " in the dwel!se®
which reflects a c u r r e n t - l i m i t i n g c i r c u i t in t h e control r -
These current-limiting h u m p s m a y h a v e slightly different shapes -
15 KV pending on the exact m o d u l e u s e d . For e x a m p l e , the hump5
30 KV/V
duced by various G M HEI m o d u l e s differ slightly.
D w e l l V a r i a t i o n ( E l e c t r o n i c I g n i t i o n ) A worn d - :
ViKV 20 KV/V gear, worn camshaft gear, or o t h e r d i s t r i b u t o r problen n
engine performance p r o b l e m s , b e c a u s e t h e signal create- •
1
tt tributor will be affected b y t h e i n a c c u r a t e distributor op*
ir» i bm p However, many electronic i g n i t i o n s v a r y t h e dwell electro-^-...
10 KV/V
if /
7
r
the module to maintain a c c e p t a b l e c u r r e n t flow levels t h i w
ignition coil and m o d u l e w i t h o u t t h e u s e of a ballast resis.
I?
0 KV/V
eiec
WTfc Dctrib Jtortess ignition systems also vary dwell time
''•to fc />*» Me Jtu»» nfealet a nwAota eigne
within the engine computer or igniUon module.
Rqur« 57-42 # / r»<ftfiM>*
occurring * <fc
SCOPE-TESTING A C O H - O N P L U G IGNITION S Y S T E M
S7-41 A dual-trace scope pattern showing both the power and the *as!e
, ^ j g t col fcj<Me<J 1 and 6) Note that the Wng line 1$ higher on the cyV<jer thai«
O n a c o f l ' . n - f ' . g CC*) ' . p e f
.• n •• n, each
i>iry<&n : VgM otherwise, both patterns are almost Identical
coil can be sfccwn -/1 a sc-ê mi . 1 the proper cables d
adapters, the waveforr.r a3 •/. e -ji Je • >. .vr4 at r.<
same time. A?waysfol: A sctpe eq. pr.r'.r . v ,:<r's r .
SI Polarity With the scope connected and the engine running,
t.ve scope pattern in the superimposed mode. If the pattern
structJons. Many Ford coS-oc^.* . rs * a triple "<e 1
sc
; le down, the primary wires on the coil may be reversed,
orvJa/y spark event The spark p? ae i '- -. N
: the coil polarity to be reversed.
engine is at ifeed to -p-:v* rile : 7 "o -.-i ,ce ex
haust emissions. Above certain -e -:-. • -
switches to a singJe-Gre event See F?-/e 57-42.
1 Ct«k the scope hookup and controls before deciding that the coil
is reversed.
IGNITION SYSTEM TROUBLESHOOTING GUI0€
The M o w i n g l i s t w j j as .st techr..< a ' s - . • r
system problems.
'-iteration Check With the scope selector set on the display
position, rapidly accelerate the engine (gear selector in
Problem PossMtCj.
A or neutral with the parking brake on). The results should be
"itpreted as follows: •lospats* • -per r r » •/>*»
A3tanglines should rise evenly (not to exceed 75% of maximum • ^Btt 'y*an *oduli
ca*
Mi output) for properly operating spark plug?.
• >ss£* M M o< * â* t r t c *
Je5rtngllr.es on one or more cylinders fail to rise, this indicates
SiCWC JVfcH
fried spark plugs.
• Pt&st*
y Gap Voltage The rotor gap voltage test measures the v It- Ate*spsrt w l o O c a i • ^sitk'a^'MiaalaniVIIM^
} " T i e d to jump the gap (0.030 to 0.050 in. or 0.8 to 1.3 mm) • PossMt pog y m < y i w « n> i u r b d a t » n a j i
' -rt. the rotor and the inserts (segments) of the distributor cap.
'^""Js display (parade) scope pattern and remove a spark plug w re E>j.K -SSI
J
"imper 'wire to provide a good ground connection. Start the • ^ssdtKXiWrtiort^
observe the height of the firing line for the cylinder belr.g
âuse the spark plug wire is connected directly to g p u n d , • Pr.-.st* •"J»
me height on the scope will indicate the voltage required to
•X ' * & gap between the rotor and the distributor cap insert. The M I KDJI
m vo age is 310 7 kV and the vol,age sh0llMI rot ex
ww£ " ' '
rotor g a p vol,;) e
îM g indicated is near or above 8 kV, in-
W ^ e the distributor cap a n d / o r rotor as required. SUMMARY
Î|ST1NGA_WASTE-SPARK IGNITION SYSTEM . 1. A '-Vrtugb vlâi atspettjoo sho-. i be p^-' - - 1 -. _ . - n
CCfflpofSMts wfen •iiagnosJnginer^rep^,-*-.-^- ? a:- - .
d al
S s i t |8" borage oscilloscope can be used to check the 2. rati- .sn ^firtpJugj ••" ' . a r o t i x - ^ - .- . >
'0 AII I n d l v i d u a l cylinder. Some larger scopes can be con-
J. A nocJVf jfi.t n > -. - , ,
, J s P ark plug wires and therefore are able to display both
ir.tcTOwdiare osdtatlons, w d t r a K i - 4 r<- •
^ • J l ^ t e spark waveforms. See Figure 57 41. Because the
''Wpr not require as high a voltage level as the cylinder 4. The pe .f 'he «pa.-* e CM .-:<<:< -H: • -vsoj*
er
stroke, the waste form will be normally lower trgnt problems*
System Diagnosis
âas-xrsâiesrieefadEtestSira P57-2 Tne nrsj step in ine diagnosis of tne ignition P 5 7 - 3 Attach a spark tester to the end of itiesr
system is a cnecK tor adequate voltage from tne plug wire and then clip the spark tester to a g o T
it-;' ~ 3 b a a M n s a ' ^1'JtiOf: system
COil(Si. engine ground. S t a n tne engine and oDserue tne
spark tester.
a ^ u a. i i i j n c o n system tauts P57-5 Start tne engine ana rotate the tnumD wheel P 5 7 - 6 The cylinder indicated a finng voltage o:
2 ? j - e s ^ a e a e s e a ay u s M j a t e s w capable at until the red ligm emitting diooe ( i f Dj just flickers off about 8 kV for t h e inverted spark on another cylinder
— ; p k ^ ftnng voitage sucn 35 obs unit and then read tne tiring voltage on the display. This cylinder is firing in tne opposite polarity of ®e
zsf- S.^CHIR SUSS other cylinder (inverted).
Atxse car. Sc uacd is one ; w n P57-8 Stan tne engine and select "spark kV." This is P 5 7 - 9 Move t h e selector to read "I
. ^ r : - i t r . . . r j s i i ' easiest tne fl»g«jap trie vo.uge required to fire the spark plugs; this reading indicated l .9 kV. This is the v o l t a g e » j
i a and connect tne test proce dispiay indicates 16.4 kV. to keep tne spark firing after it has been stare
snoula be less than 2 kV for most vehicles.
-
3 * it&aor t s - " t g n t ' T-*. ; Ground out a cylinder one at a time and
P 5 7 - 1 2 u s e a grounded test
•nsutu, Cist.fstmat^. '•*£.zt*tedv. ocser/e it the engine ipeec or idle quality is affected,
section of rubber nose with tn
69* « « > >.•*-« : it a » o f n t / a floes not respond then this test can
will travel through t h e test light to
wnp«# fault m a particular cylinder
tha spark plug.
jhould a spark tester be used lo che<
why
spark plug?
j 0 you tesi a pickup coll for resistance ami -
\ i , a i harm can occur If the engine is cranl
1 a.
jdectlveispark plug wire?
w w , ar< the secdons of a secondary ignition • > • -t •
can the slope of the spark line Indicate at d.
7. i < M HE! iJWrttwtor rotor can bum through m I
ring aaderiOor, Technician B say* that a defect!**
CHAPTER QUIZ spark plug wHt CM * ari emprte m.>w during acceleration. Which teck
/technician A says that the firing line shows the voltage that Is required to rocian k earner/
An me spark plug. Technician B says that spark line show-. th<- du a. TtrtwWift
wspirk Inside the cylinder. Which technician Is correct/ b. Tei adan
a. Technician A only c Both Techr
b. Technician B only d. V tr Tei
c. Both Technicians A and B 8. Tf.- ity CUM cac be vested using ,
d. Neither Technician A nor B a. An oh tter
1 Txhnlclan A says that a defective spark plug wire can cause an engine b. Ates^sSt
miss. Technician B says that a defective pickup coil wire can cause an c. A t ammeter
t
jldtne miss. Which technician is correct? d. Both a and b
says that an open pickup coil a»k) be the ca j e . Technician B says that
a detective ignitfcn control z&i-je ICV :oidtf tie the cause. Which tech
mcian is correct:
pulseB signal to an electronic Ignition module.
. sendsAa and a . Techn in A •
3. Thec. Both Technicians
a. Ballast b. Technician B oitfp
d. Neitherresistor
Technician A nor B
b. Pickup coil c. Both iKtisiaaaf A and B
c. Ignition coll d. NeitherTect.rj._aBAn -B
d. Condenser 10. Which sensor produces a square wave agjia/
I Typical primary coil resistance a. Magnet sensor
specifications usually range from
b. Hall-effect*- or
ohms.
a. 100 to 450 c. Wckup cos]
b. 500 to 1,500 d. Both b and c
c. I to 3
d- 6,000 to 30,000
• :, ?' cal secondary coll resistance speclficaUons usually range from
a- 100 to 450
b. 500 to 1,500
58
CHAPTER
After studying Chapter 58, the reader will be aMe to: Prepare for ASE Engme Performance (ABI certification test conient a m T f t *
' h"'3nd Exhaust
S y s t e m s Diagnosis and Repairi • Descnbe how to check an electric fuel pump for proper pressure and w M n e de*vwy
J ^ ™ 1 "ow to check a fuel - p r e s s u r e regulator • Describe how to test fuel miecws. • Explain now to diagnose electron* fuet-**ci»r p r a t t w a
acc
îmn umulator • baffle • check valve • delivery system • filter basket • gerotor • hypokinetic pump • nertBSwfch • ontwrt
J ^ ^ P O r recovery (ORVR) • peripheral pump • residual or rest pressure • roller cell • rotary vane pump • side-channel pump • t u r t m
Vacuum
'ock . vapor lock • volatile organic compound (V0CI
682 SECT** IX
FUEL DELIVERY SYSTEM insulated strips cemented on the top oi

it contacts the underbody. ' ^ e tank
Wher,
i " - maintaining a correct air-fuel mixture requires a 'ever
Fuel inlet location depends on the
IBlpttl) functioning fuel and air delivery system. Fuel delivery ies
i g n and
placement. It is located behind a filler
r : svstems u»c many if not all of the following compo-
11(1
Is often T h i " " *
door in the outer side of either rear fend. tel. a
H a
;•. certain that fuel is available under the right condi-
Generally, a pair of metal retaining
a - j t ± e fuel injection system: holds a fuel ,SBl
place. Underbody brackets or support parii mJIUhold [ne the 1,1
• r . -age tank, filler neck, and gas cap using bolts. The free ends are d r a w n undc th the t ink^^ 0 , 4
:
• anx pressure sensor in place, then bolted to other support bra > 0 r to a Y h o l l t "
aiTle
• F.-: Dump ber on the opposite side of the tank.
• Fuel filter' s
Filler T u b e s Fuel enters t h e tank through a large tube
• ietvery lines and fuel rail
ing from the tank to an opening o n the outside of the vehiclft
• =.t. pressure regulator
Figure 5 8 - 2 .
• - -eturr ..ne
Effective in 1993, federal regulations require manufacturers,
install a device to prevent fuel from being siphoned through theB
FUEL TANKS neck. Federal authorities recognized methanol as a poison
A vetacle fuel tank is made of corrosion-resistant steel or polyethyl- methanol used in gasoline is a definite health hazard. Addition
ene piasuc. Some models, such as sport utility vehicles (SUVs) and gasoline is a suspected carcinogen (cancer-causing agent). To J.'
light trucks. mav have an auxiliary fuel tank. vent siphoning, manufacturers w e l d e d a filler-neck check-ball Ms
Tank design and capacity are a compromise between available in fuel tanks. To drain check-ball-equipped fuel tanks, a technidas
space, filler location, fuel expansion room, and fuel movement. must disconnect the check-ball tube at the tank and attach a siphon
Some later-model tanks deliberately limit tank capacity by extend directly to the tank. See Figure 5 8 - 3 .
a g the filler rube neck into the tank low enough to prevent com Onboard refueling v a p o r r e c o v e r y (ORVR) systems h-
p ?;e filling, or by providing for expansion room. See Figure 58-1 been developed to reduce evaporative emissions during refueling,
- ertical baffle in this same tank limits fuel sloshing as the vehi See Figure 5 8 - 4 . These systems add components to thefillernect
d e moves. and the tank. One ORVR system utilizes a tapered filler neck v : •
Regardless of size and shape, all fuel tanks incorporate most if smaller diameter tube and a check valve. When fuel flows down
not all of the following features: the neck, it opens the normally closed check valve. The vapor
• Iniet or filler tube through which fuel enters the tank

• Filler cap with pressure holding and relief features
• An outlet to the fuel line leading to the fuel pump or fuel injector NECK
• Fuel pump mounted within the tank
• Tank vent system
• Fuel p i c k u p t u b e a n d fuel level sending unit
T a n k L o c a t i o n a n d M o u n t i n g Most vehicles use a horizon

tali', suspended fuel tank, usually mounted below the rear of the
floor pan, just ahead of or behind the rear axle. Fuel tanks are
CLAMPS
ocaced there so that frame rails and body components protect the
tank in the event of a crash. To prevent squeaks, some models have
Figure 58-2 A three-piece tiller tube assembly.

PRESSURE VACUUM
FILLER CAP FLOOR PAN
VENT TUBE TO
CHARCOAL CANISTER
"J" BOLT
FUEL
FUEL LINE
^ STRAP
FRONT
INSULATOR
Rgure 58-3 A view ol a typical tiller lube with the fuel tank re ^ |(lto
strap used to help prevent the buildup of static electricity as tM

frflura 58-1 »».-. * • - • , -?aa *
tank. The check ball looks exactly like a ping-pong ball
ma
,,„f to the charcoal canister Is opened,

t the opened air passage allow fuel and v
t . tank and the canister respectively. Wh»
^determined level, the check v a j v e c t o s e ^
jit increases This forces t h e nozzh to
from being overfilled.
pressure-Vacuum F i l l e r C a p Fue J
detank by the safety filler cap. T h e safety cap
-tvsure or excess v a c u u m . Either condition a
7-mage, fuel spills, and vapor escape. Typically, tf T a n k Venting Requirements
fihepressure is over 1.5 to 2 . 0 PSI f 10 to 14 kPa v a o j u r r lock
Is0.15 to 0.30 PSI (1 to 2 kPa).
fuel Pickup T u b e T h e fuel pickup t u b e is usua !y a p;

•jol sender assembly or the electric fuel p u m p a s s e m t y
sediment eventually gather on t h e bottom of a fuel tan -.
juel pickup tube is fitted with a filter sock or strainer to p ^ v e r
contamination from e n t e r i n g t h e fuel lines. The woven pit as the fue evel srcips. p w v e ^ t r j < vac . ? ' " * ptna.
--ainer also acts as a w a t e r separator by preventing water from An F/AP sraent vems ipso n e r f n n . " * fuel tank directly
King drawn up with the fuel. T h e filter sock usually is d e /jied to a charcoal-'Jed vapor storage asxsuaz and .ses an jnvented Slier
iofilterout particles that are larger than 7 0 to 100 microns, or cap. '.4anjrEtacaps co- t a r Tuves ••:»" •• -<»:«e ptosm* • vac
30 microns if a gerotor-type fuel p u m p is used. O n e micron is uum above specified safe"* ievefc. v « » tra* - «e cmr,pierjHy Jeaied
,100039 in. See Figure 5 8 - 5 . caps have separate p r a t .re an; . •*• = ' .a. - - - *'<rtg.
Because fuel tar a are not vea'.e: dir-ctN' arnoupt r-re.
the tank must a. uw fr • expaot " : * rac* *, overt! m
that can result from changes sn vez&mr* or wrf; fcrj ' >"<- w a i
is to use a doise in toj, erf the a c t Marr general M i x - . - • •
use a design that r e ides a vertical s tsaSe wt. h reserves .p
to 12% erf the too; tank capaar.- for fuel i
Rollover Leakage Protection

devices to prevent fue; ieao r . case of ra
in which fuel may spiL
Variatkms of the basic ar»e check vatve may oe • ita - d
in any number of places berweer the fue; tank a i d the erjgjne. 7 he
figue 58-4 Vehicles equipped with o n b o a r d refueling vapor recovery usually have a
valve may be r.sa_ed the tue! -etert j n e , vapor • ime >r
sM-sze fill tube
fuel tank fiBer cap.
In adJioon to I&e - w e : crcaBcsoe devices, -JO* vehicles
use devices to ensure to che hie. Di--mp sfcuts cflf wrier acc
dent occurs. Some pumps depend apor. ar press m or an e r i£ne
speed signal to cor.aE.K iheae p u m p t u r r j f f w r s e n e er
RETURN
the engine dies. On same asr vane sensors, a n u c r o s w i t d j it ftuih
TUBE
into the senses- to switch an the b e : p u m p as soon as intake airSow
causes the vane to itift Sora its rest postSor. See Figure 5 8 - 6 .
Ford vehicles K an inertia switch. See F.. S*
inertia switch is instaSed ir: the near trf the . e h j d e berweer. -he eJec
trie fuel pump and its power supp \V_tfi a n y sudder - p a . ' . JCS
as a p i t &wn another rehicie - a p a r t i n g lot, die iflBfta w r tcs
opens and shuts off p o w e r tc the f a d p u m p . Tbe swfccn t . ' M ae
reset maaualty bv pushing a Jjutton t o restore c u m e r a so tfse; am?
FUEL LINES
FOAM RUBBER Fuel and vapor 'noes T.ade of steel, nytar. tufcr.g,
SLEEVE (ISOLATES rubber hoses connect die parts of the file. sv>_£su Fad
HIGH- FREQUENCY fuel to the SHOttie body c r fuei rai^ The? aô rea* -
NOISE)
and vapors to t h e tank. Depending o - their " . i c j » - :
RUBBER
ISOLATOR vapor lines may be either rigid or V i t t i e
Fuel Imes must remam as coot i posKbe <:. ar v -jm t t*
toe is ioated near mo much Jjeat. 3 k p
vaporizes a a : v a p o r l o c k xcx
pump supplies only vapc
jquid gasolene, the etvpne s a i l s
'uel pickup tube is part ot the fuel sonder and pump i
VOLTAGE SIGNAL
•
POTENTIOMETER
BYPASS
BACKFIRE VALVE
PUMP
C O N T A C T
TO INTAKE AIR
DISTRIBUTOR
RETURN SPRING
BALANCE FLAP 'BALANCE CHAMBER
F i ^ w 56-6 On some vehicles equipped with an airflow sensor a switch is used to energize the fuel pump In the event of a collision, the switch opens and the
TARGET PLATE
FUEL FEED TUBE
FUEL RETURN TUBE

CONICAL
IICAL
RAMP
SCREW
MAGNET
ELECTRICAL
CONTACTS
FUEL RETURN TUBE
Figure 58-7 Ford uses an inertia switch to turn off the electric fuel pump in an accident.
SCREW
The fuel delivery system supplies 10 to 15 PSI (69 to 103 kPa)
or up to 35 PSI (241 kPa) to many throttle-body injection units and
up to 50 PSI (345 kPa) for multiport fuel-injection systems. Fuel- figure 58-8 Fuel lines are routed along the frame or body and secured with *
injection systems retain residual or rest pressure in the lines for a
half hour or longer when the engine is turned off to prevent hot
Fuel-injection systems require special-composition reinforce |
e n g n e restart problems. Higher-pressure systems such as these
v Z SPeCIl'Cally m a d e f o r ^ higher-pressure systems. SimW;
rec-jire special fuel lines.
vapor vent lines must be m a d e of materials that resist fuel v a g
R i g i d L i n e s AH fuel lines fastened to the body, frame, or engine Rephcement vent hoses are usually marked with the designa®
are made of seamless steel tubing Steel springs may be wound to indicate their intended use.
arc; nd the tubing at certain points to protect against impact damage.
Only steel tubing, or that recommended by the manufacturer,
fhu®'U"® ^Mounting F u e l s u p p l y lines from the ^ J \
throttle body or fuel rail are r o u t e d t o follow the f r f f i
she- ,!d be -sed when replacing rigid fuel lines. Never substitute
the underbody of the vehicle. Vapor and return V*
copper or aluminum tubing for steel tubing. These materials do
omed wtth the fuel supply line. All rigid lines are fast* J j*
not v. " -tard normal vehicle vibration and could combine with
frame rail or underbody with s c r e w s and clamps, or cW
the fuel to cause a chemical reaction.
"gure 58-8.
fuel*
F l e x i b l e L i n e s Most fuel systems use synthetic rubber hose
Fuel-Injection L i n e s a n d C l a m p s Hoses use ^ r j H
sections where flexibility is needed. Short hose sections often con-
systems are made of materials with high resistant ^ ,
nect steel fuel lines to other system components. The fuel delivery
deterioration. Replacement hoses for injection sys ^ •
hose .n&ide diameter (IDl is generally larger (3/16 to 3 / 8 inches or
be equivalent to original equipment manufacture ^ ^ ^
8 to 10 malimeten) than the fuel return hose ID (1/4 inches or
Screw-type clamps are essential on injected
6 m;liiraetersi.
have rolled edges to prevent hose d a m a g e .
lines '.a «!<»- m
ibc chat ihe O r®gji te m • ;<* >' / tone tfte ftwl

Pa not usr spring type riemps on /<
• 'onufc '. t k .-pt-ned. When replacing ore of these f >rtnp, >
v^tthsund the fuel pressures Invoiv!
** Ki . <*-. gr-ea for fuel system s«vtce must be taed
i ' M '* /) mm tpr - ock connector- to join male and fetnafc
' -A -'»*-. • • r. • . re 58-^ ' ie '.oupiing is held togrê-
el-lnjection F i t t i n g s a n d N y l o n U n .
fl)
'>1 » gaflw spnrg ad? a cttobK rage. The flared end of the
"•ratingpressures, fuel-injection systems oftei f kmm t • e t-prtng to lock the coupling maethet
*.'inJS to ensure leakproof connections. Son <j .<"' l/otfjr ?. ser: i ' :t> with quick onnec?
. 1 on GM vehicles with port fuel-Injection -,y fitting* at 4w fue- ur.ir nrf'jti ;rr stnee the early I VQOs. Like Vw
X instead of the traditional flare connection-. OM rnreaded coupto^gp -jbm w r . aeei -ics. nyV» line coupbnjp use
! / s u c h a fitting, inspect the O-ring for damage ioiemai O rny seals, lidodan^ the rr<eul connectors requires a
,assary. Always tighten O-ring fittings to the special quick / T e n o r vepmm ;lastk ectors can be re
alue to prevent damage. leaied wttho,- the to«. See I it-res 5 6 - 1 0 and 5S 11.
ijther manufacturers also u s e O-ring seals on foel ;,ne c c - <-
• & In all cases, the O-rings are made of special mati /.
-jnd contact with gasoline and oxygenated fuel blend:,. W- e
m
WHITE INDICATOR RING
O-RINGS FEMALE FITTING
V . LIP
CAGE MALE FITTING
DISASSEMBLED
GARTER SPRING sue* root
WTO CONNECTOR
WHITE INDICATOR
ASSEMBLED RING (LOOSE)
58-9 some fijrt metal line connections use spring-locks and 0-nngs. Figa* 56-10 Pore «rmc CO
c m r s ) :
METAL COLLAR PLASTIC COLUAP
QUICK-CONNECT FITTING OUtCK-CONMECT F—HUG
INSTALLATION
> 4
X -< •
T
>t*ai W-canmct steps
- jet t i s s u e s have tended to become higher to
v \ - sr. r .xx ^ • r.: . - x n s of the fuel routed to the ftiel-
:• c c t . - a : . j a y of a fuel return line or VERY
T« ASSH^S. T'rs i . C A-S bensr control. wchir. toils, of heat
.: s routed r-rough the engine corapart-
' - • . r . - : : . : anc r._-_por _-.ectoa systems have typically
: _ _-_> cjr.ro: rue pressure ir. the throttle body
.r - i s c aLvv. excess fuel not used by the injectors to re
FUEL LEVEL
-. .•.-.-.e^ the wanner fuel in trie tank may create GAUGE UNIT
„ >_r. is an a a s K nse a rue; vapor pressures in the tank.
raawomy ASKED QUESTION

FILTER (SOCK)
Fuel Is Recirculated?
j r^gvaaaoic 'ja-p-mp /Jwnes released to the fuel rank

tio-pressi-'t "SSuiaor at «Se speed. As an example, a passenger
tne road z. 60 mpr, gets 30 mpg Witr, a typical return-style
aoout 30 gallons per nour from tne tank. it would therefore
2 jatospernois; ancr«iirca&jt!t28gaSonspernourtothetanfc!
vehicles, there has beer, some concern about

i x - .:r. ,-.e2: being sent back to the fuel tank, causing rising in-
- ;..•-_• . - j . ar.c increases .r. rue: vaporization and volatile
c-gar-.c c o m p o u n d (VOC) cvdrocarbon) emissions. To combat
v_ ; . e ~ . manufacturers have placed the pressure regulator
c :arj- instead of under the hood on mechanical return
r - s r e m . . . - . z i s way, returned fuel is not subjected to the heat
i - ' - r i v : i • 'jie engine and the underhood environment To pre- INLET
a : -. - x k in these systems, pressures have been raised in the
-. . a r . : .:. ectors tend to have smaller openings to maintain ROLLER
: :r.cc. the fue: spray under pressure. CELL PUMP
.•.'.: .:... m u s t the fuel be filtered ana supplied under ade-
PUMP DETAIL
: . : • • ; pressure, b e t there must also be a consistent volume of fuel
: i. .mooch engine performance even under the heaviest
Figure 58-12 A roller cell-type electric fuelpump.
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION In the roller cell or vane p u m p , the impeller draws fuel.:
the pump, and then pushes it out through the fuel line to lie•••
How Can aa Bectric Pump Work Inside jection system. All designs of p u m p s use a variable-sized chant--'
to draw in fuel. When the m a x i m u m volume has been reachec,
a Tank and Not Cause a Fire?
the supply port closes and the discharge opens. Fuel is then fins'
ro>, ;.„-, T* entire pomp, no bumatte mixture exists inside out the discharge as this v o l u m e decreases. The chambers j-
" ----v 5*re „ .% a:.- and no danger of commutator brush arcing formed by rollers or gears in a rotor plate. Since this type o i > ; I
Wr'jd uses no valves to move t h e fuel, t h e fuel flows steadily thw-
the pump housing. Since fuel flows steadily through the ^ I
pump, including the electrical portion, the pump stays coo'- I
ally, only when a vehicle runs out of fuel is there a risk o!--
ELECTRIC FUEL PUMPS damage.
" .---:•. p . T . p . . a pusher unit. When the pump is mounted Most electric fuel pumps are equipped with a fuel outlet ^ - I
; -- r - ir.".re iine to the engine can be pressur- valve that closes to maintain fuel pressure when the punPT,.
v n a . >• - j - Ar.en pre-..prized, has a higher boiling point, off. Residual o r r e s t p r e s s u r e prevents vapor lock ar.a
• - v^: .. . . tortr. to interfere with fuel flow. problems on these systems. , vaJe
- . • • use the ;rr.p*iler or turbine pumps. See Figure 5 8 - 1 3 shows the p u m p i n g action of a |
i 2 . A.. » ; C-Jtnps are driven by a small electric p u m p . The pump consists of a central impeller disk, Sc''^Tl0us--: I
• .•:, -.-•• ' j m $ at higher speeds and is quieter or vanes that ride in notches in t h e impeller, and a pufflP' ^ I
that Is offset from the impeller centerline. The impeller b I
on the end of the motor armature and spins whenever l I
Positive Displacement Pump A positive displacement pump
running. The rollers are free to slide in and out within® ^ p
-i , >. . : . ; • e n t e r s the p'.mp to leave the
in the impeller to maintain sealing contact. Unpre^ . ^ I
enters the pump, fills the spaces b e t w e e n the rollers, an
OCT a n d M e n W7
ljlC impeller, t h e h o u s i n g , a n d t w > .

ydrokinetic pump means ,• t h i s d e pi of pi. n i p ri-; kfl
called a g e r o t o r , is a n o l h '
• ' h e f u e l t o c r e a t e p r e s s u r e . T h i s d e . . / ; i of p u m p is a n o r i p o r
; ,f
'' C n p thaI is o f l e n USed ln e n R i n
'' placement p u m p design.
p
| external gear t e e t h
internal a n d A t u r b i n e p u m p is t h e m o " c o m m o n b e c a u s e It t e n d s u> b e < "
T a r e 58 14 for an example of a gerotoi •/. c. 1 turbine, peripheral, nd aide-channel,
' ! impeller as the first stage and it, u s e r

1
f . ufi.if u s e ari i m p e l l e r t h a t a c c e l e r a t e s t h e f u e l p a r t i c l e s b e f o r e
Action w h e r e it is pressurized. a c t u a l l y dl&charging t h e m i n t o a t r a c t w h e r e t h e y g e n e r a t e p r e s s u r e

via p u l s e e x c h a n g e . A c t u a l p u m p v o l u m e Is c o n t r o l l e d b y u s i n g a
Jldr okinetic Flow Pump Design I
d i f f e r e n t n u m b e r of i m p e l l e r b l a d e s , a n d in s o m e c a s e s a higher
' l i q u i d and the term kinetic refers to m n u m b e r of i m p e l l e r s , o r d i f f e r e n t s h a p e s a l o n g t h e s i d e d i s c h a r g e
c h a r ;,(• T h e s e u n i t s a r e fitted m o r e t o w a r d l o w e r o p e r a t i n g p r e s -
s u r e s of less t h a n 6 0 PSI. S e e figure 5 8 - 1 5 f o r a n e x a m p l e of a
two-stage turbine p u m p . T h e turbine impeller has a staggered blade
design to m i n i m i z e p u m p h a r m o n i c n o i s e a n d t o s e p a r a t e vapor
f r o m t h e liquid f u e l . T h e e n d c a p a s s e m b l y c o n t a i n s a p r e s s u r e r e -
lief v a l v e a n d a r a d i o - f r e q u e n c y i n t e r f e r e n c e IRFI) s u p p r e s s i o n m o d -
u l e . T h e c h e c k v a l v e is u s u a l l y l o c a t e d in t h e u p p e r fuel pipe
c o n n e c t o r assembly.
A f t e r it p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e s t r a i n e r ; f u e l is d r a w n i n t o t h e l o w e r
h o u s i n g inlet p o r t b y t h e n p e S e r s . It is p r e s s u r i z e d a n d d e l i v e r e d t o
the convoluted fuel t u b e for t r a n s f e r t h r o ,gfi a c h e c k v a l v e i n t o t h e
f u e l f e e d p i p e . A typical e l e c t r i c f u e l p u m p u s e d o n a f u e l - i n f e c t i o n
system delivers a b o u ' 4 0 t o 5 0 gallons p e r h o ur o r 0 . 6 to 0 . 8 gallons
IMPELLER DISK ROLLER PUMP HOUSING p e r m i n u t e a t a p r e s s . r e of 7 0 t o 9 0 P S I .
Modular Fuel Sender Assembly T h e m o d u l a r fuel s e n d e r

figure 58-13 The pumping action ot an impeller or rotary vane pump c o n s i s t s of a replaceable feel l e v e l s e r v e r , a t u r b i n e p u m p , a n d a jet
SHELL
INLET SEAL
INLET BODY
OUTLET
PLATE
FIELD
HOUSING
ARMATURE
view o! a gerotor electric fuel p u m p

•w tBENMa
FIRST PUMP
STAGE
SECOND PUMP
STAGE
CHECK VALVE
ARMATURE
Figur* 56-15 A cutaway at J typcal two-stage turtjine electnc fuel pump
p u n ; . T h e r e s e r v o i r h o u s i n g ts a t t a c h e d to t h e c o v e r c o n t a i n i n g
rue. a n d t h e electrical c o n n e a o r . Fuel is t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e
: • -he fie pipe t h r o u g h a c o n v o l u t e d I flexible I fuel pipe. T h e
-. i t e d f u e l p i p e e l i m i n a t e s t h e n e e d for r u b b e r h o s e s , nylon
: :>r a n d c i a m p s . T h e reservoir d a m p e n s fuel slosh to m a i n t a i n a
->•2- • fuel evel available to t h e roller v a n e p u m p ; it also r e d u c e s
aase
S&r.e of t n e flow, h o w e v e r ; is r e t u r n e d to t h e jet p u m p for re-
:
or. / re- ' a <•„ r e t u r n e d to t h e r e s e r v o i r t h r o u g h o n e of
r e e r v, *• s . p p o r pipes. T h e h o t fuel q u i c k l y m i x e s w i t h t h e
x..er ' t'-e reservoir; ' h i s m i n i m i z e s t h e possibility of v a p o r
v.' - " ' A ' . y . . t h e r e s e r v o i r is filled b y t h e jet p u m p . S o m e
' " - '.-- ' : . ? p u m p ii s e n t t h r o u g h t h e jet p u m p t o lift fuel
" . e tame : r o t h e reservoir.
FBEOUEHTUr ASKED QUESTION [j
M y A n Many Fne»-f o m p M o d u l e s S p r i n g - L o a d e d ?
> ' * '-ontair o e fce> pickup m k * fuel pump and fuel level sensor
I - - t r x w •i > a m « h e r f « e d to a plastic ijei tar*' The plastic material
Figure 58-16 A typical fuel pump module assembly. which includes Die Cck11'11 |
• v x at*. e/par rfber not to '.avtng the fuel module sprinfl-
and fuel pump at well as the tuel pre&iure sensor and fuel level ser»ng unit
*s«er. w / r j r <>. ^ s o O *»u atwaft be me sane distance from
s w vrm } •>*. at* U* > '<** 5 0 - 1 6
ygnal, k received by the engine control computet ^

Electric P w n p Control Circuits F •;<-. pump '.-rctiiu are con engine is routing, tl> relay remains energized even
.H t • - :
p,- u ' p . tnp relay* we activated mi released to the run position, , <
>. , : - >; Key to or». wr.kh a' vwj the pump to Chryate, Qn Chrysler vehicles, the PCM must f g j * , i
•• . <• A- a saf^y p r e i a t h e relay de • peed (RPM) signal during cranking before it ^ L k . ^
S r - i f r u vjus*% key it moved to the crank driver imide (he power module to activate an a"' &
;/ Or. <r a- r, '•>"'-<- «t A'.Dj relaytopower the fuel pump, Ignition c 0 " ' J '
H O I IN H I A H I O H H U H
be reset m a r - v b v \g -.r.d sepr>-.str* v i e •«-•«•»

:
7 precaution, If the R P M signal to t h e logic module is inter button before c u r r e r - ' -w to t h e p u m p c a n b e r e s t o r e d . See
' M the logic module signals t h e p o w e r m o d u l e to deactivate the figure 5 8 - 1 7 for a s c h e m a t i c of a Typical f u e : system t h a t uses
• jmlngoff the p u m p , coll, a n d injectors. In s o m e vehicles, the an in lector switch tn t h e p o w e r feed circuit to t h e electric f u e l
pressure switch circuit m a y b e used as a safety circuit to activate
pump.
- p'unpin the Ignition switch run position.
Pump Pulsation D a m p e n i n g S c . * -.ar / a c e
^ a i Motors General M o t o r s systems energize the puri.p v . r h
accumulator n the s tern to ' e d j e e pressure pulses and n i e
ton switch to Initially pressurize t h e fuel lines, but then d<
Others use a pulsate* located at 'he o c . e t of the ftiei pump to absorb
the pump If an RPM signal is not received within one or
pressure pulsations that are created by the pump. These puhators
- '*con<k The pump is reactivated as soon as engine cranking is
ire usually used on roUer vane pumps and are a source o t man*/
" T h e oil pressure sending unit serves as a backup to the
internal fuel leaks. See figure 5 8 - 1 8 .
' j1 ;,np relay on some vehicles. I n case of pump relay failure, the
'"•'•jre switch will operate the fuel pump once oil pressure
' - t o u t 4 PSI 128 kPa|.
wtm <«N» "JWRO PUIMW
MrAt ford vehicles w i t h fuel Injection have an inertia J
* di i jaruUrt VKtua ot tori IB* to p m w i i
/ . , ' „ ' " ' f u n k between the fuel pump relay and fuel pump
ki a "Mil *» cauttvmt » V* pulmae
.; l r "' Ignition switch Is turned to the On pot on, the . Motaeuc*.
" ' S M control ( E E C ) power relay energizes, providing cut
, ' fuel pump relay and a d m l n g circuit in the E E ' modi. '
l«y is not turned to t h e Start posiuon wtihin abou
Variable S p e e d P u m p s A wa-. %
• . ' * A > 'he timing circuit opens the ground <. ir- . m o d e *
rurrent draw, and pump wear is to reduce the ipted of tne |
, f , p ' J 'np relay and shut d o w n t h e p u m p . This circuit is desigr
•hen l e a than m a n m u m output is re^. red. P . i p speed and prei
^ t a u n z * ttl '" system. Once the key Is turned to the tar
ure can be regulated by controikng the w i t * * supplied so the i m ?
i f ^ e r to the p u m p is sent t h r o u g h the relay and Ineni; •vttft a resistor switched t n » die d r c m . or w j e n n g the r <svr
ontrol computer pulse width moduure f W V m e * >ffti »
, twitch opens under a specified impact, v i c h a s ;
the pump, through a separate 6*1 pump drtvw tkctr-xx cd
, , " ' ^ n the -witch opens, current to tin- j u m p 5 ts off
With slower pump speed and pressure, less aotte a produced
fuel p u m p relay w i l l not energlze. T h e ^ w i t c h m u v
SECC* y
CLAMPTYP
BRAC
FUEL OUT
FILTER
9
L iA~C«
1'4 GAP
^ B FRONT CLAMP
FUEL
O-RING TYPE
PUMP DIAPHRAGM IDENTIFICATION
LABEL
OUTLET INLET
FUEL FROM
R i L INLET. OUTLET OF PUMP
SÂiMEfVFlLTER
figm 5B-t< jsed TOstn » t h • ^ o n e - t y p e pumpstohelp even

*z t v -•> vtssun ma can cause noee
F U E L FILTERS
v t x . i r e generally taken in refining, storing, a n d d e l i v e r i n g SSG TYPE O-RING FITTING
(BOTH ENDS)
!2£j - >or*v impurities get into t h e a u t o m o t i v e fuel s y s t e m . Fuel
-'. -•••• dir., rust, water, a n d o t h e r c o n t a m i n a t i o n f r o m t h e
s - x: re :t can reach t h e fuel injectors. M o s t fuel filters are Figure 58-19 Inline fuel filters are usually attached t o t h e fuel line with screw clampsor
,fi ter particles t h a t a r e 10 to 2 0 m i c r o n s or larger in s i z e . threaded connections The fuel filter must be installed in the proper direction or a reslncM
. e : . . jfe of all filters is limited, a l t h o u g h Ford specifies fuel flow can result.
_
• ers. A,-.en used w i t h s o m e fuel-injection s y s t e m s , s h o u l d
i ' :e y w e vehicle. If fuel filters are n o t c l e a n e d or r e p l a c e d
FUEL-PUMP TESTING
•;; ' the m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s , t h e y c a n be-
. r r e ; :>gged a n d restrict fuel flow. F u e l - p u m p testing i n c l u d e s m a n y d i f f e r e n t tests a n d procedure-
to using several d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of f u e l filters, a sln- Even t h o u g h a fuel p u m p c a n pass o n e test, it d o e s not mean thai
z.- / • - - . may contain t w o or m o r e filters. T h e inline filter is t h e r e is n o t a f u e l - p u m p p r o b l e m . F o r e x a m p l e , if t h e pumpmen
- . . . r . e o e t w e e r t h e fuel p u m p a n d t h e t h r o t t l e b o d y or is r o t a t i n g s l o w e r t h a n n o r m a l , it m a y b e a b l e t o p r o d u c e thesp-
:
:
.- Se? h g u r e 5 8 - 1 0 . This filter p r o t e c t s t h e s y s t e m f r o m c o n - fied p r e s s u r e , b u t n o t e n o u g h v o l u m e t o m e e t t h e n e e d s of the eng®
• a t r : a . : J o e s r.<jt protect t h e fuel p u m p . T h e i n l i n e filter while operating u n d e r a h e a v y load.
. .<. i - e ' a . >r plasuc c o n t a i n e r w i t h a p l e a t e d p a p e r e l e m e n t

seated snstde.
' .:e~ % a', be m j u n t e d o n a b r a c k e t o n t h e f e n d e r p a n e l ,
TECH TIP The Ear Test
-. .'. ' -: - a n o t h e r c o n v e n i e n t place in t h e e n g i n e c o m p a r t -
" . w a v a '-/:• installed u n d e r t h e v e h i c l e n e a r t h e f u e l No, this is not a test of your hearing, but rather using your ear to check ttu ^
»'» -. i be replaced a c c o r d i n g to t h e v e h i c l e m a n u - electric fuel pump is operating. The electric fuel pump inside the li"'1
=: . . r r . - r d a t i o R S , w h i c h range f r o m every 3 0 , 0 0 0 miles often difficult to hear running, especially in a noisy shop environment ^
* c . •>. 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 miles 1 1 6 0 , 0 0 0 k m ) o r l o n g e r . F u e l filters monly used trick to better hear the pump is to use a funnel in Die
• • - f-rfi p-ump m o d u l e assemblies u s u a l l y d o n o t h a v e neck See Figure 5 8 - 2 1 .
;.* -C' . r ' i . o t interval.
Testing F u e l - P u m p P r e s s u r e F u e l p u m p reguia1
m a m Be Sure That the Fuel Filter sure has b e c o m e m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n e v e r with a m r
° j i c r t >,
t» Installed Correctly f u e l c o n t r o l . A l t h o u g h a n i n c r e a s e i n f u e l p r e s s u r e does ^
'•* m l it II s rata»W Dackwardt, ttie vehicle will most f u e l v o l u m e t o t h e e n g i n e , t h i s is not t h e preferred me ^ ,
mo, , -,t w tm power a! higher wigine speeds and loadsi add additional fuel as s o m e u n i t s will n o t o p e n corre
4\' ^-i'
M (tr » r r ' «fle / / f y or sort »rf M e n with one or mote filter screens increased fuel p r e s s u r e . O n the other side of the u
^ i '
» •- •**>. •. « i ' 0 n w » 0 » or 0.00039 in ) that many n e w e r e n g i n e s will n o t start w h e n f u e l [pressure
tnf -t*- •mm t < v t I t v e « w a e n s . which surround the few P S I low. Correct fuel p r e s s u r e i s v e r y important
*. • < » * » . - . w t » C •'•/••» :',».«»» v * ) are inserted in the lop ot engine operation. Most fuel-injection s y s t e m s o p e r a t e ^
tor i-*t*n %m '><*** S* » a l o w p r e s s u r e of a b o u t 1 0 P S I or a high p r e s s u r e o
35 and 4 5 PSI.
FINAL FILTER
(FILTER BASKET)
UPP
O-Hlf
PORT
FUEL
INJECTOR
LOWER
O-RING
PINTLE CAP Figure 58-21 .ajAtunne, he*B m "earing if ne eUctncfcjeipump -aide me jas tarti 15
(DISCHARGE END CAP) wortiing ;bi If the pump a n o n m n g cflec* ne « m g and current Sow Detore gang
through the process ol dropping tie tuei tanulo remove tie pump.
;
-jure 58-20 The final filter, also called a filter basket, is the last filter in the fuel svstem.
'«m»l Operating Pressure (PSI) Maximum Pump Pressure (PSI)
•msssure TBI units 9-13 18-20

?i»essure TBI units 25-35 50-70
^•w-lniection systems 35-45 70-90
"W port fuel injection (GMl 55-64 90-110
'n both types of s y s t e m s , m a x i m u m f u e l - p u m p p r e s s u r e is a b o u t

[ t
' ihe n o r m a l o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e t o e n s u r e t h a t a c o n t i n u o u s
•• of cool fuel is b e i n g s u p p l i e d t o t h e i n j e c t o r ( s ) to h e l p p r e v e n t
torn f o r m i n g in t h e f u e l s y s t e m . A l t h o u g h v a p o r o r f o a m i n g
J
fuel system c a n g r e a t l y a f f e c t e n g i n e o p e r a t i o n , t h e c o o l i n g a n d
-mating flow of t h e f u e l m u s t b e m a i n t a i n e d t o e n s u r e t h e d u r a
1 Figure 58-22 The Schradei valve on this General Motors 3800 V 6 s «xate< >»: h«
V Of injector n o z z l e s .
fuel- pressure regulator
"measure f u e l - p u m p p r e s s u r e , locate t h e Schrader valve and
" " a fuel-pressure g a u g e . S e e F i g u r e 5 8 - 2 2 .
The R u b b e r M a l l e t TVicfc
Often a no-start condition is due to an inoperative ettcinc lual pt • , i
* ^TOe vehicles, such as t h o s e with General Motors TBI fuel tnch is to tap on the bottom ot the fuel tank * uh a >.;eoe •.-. e t
;«*> systems, require a specific fuel pressure gauge that connects to iar the pump motor enough to v w r t . instead 01 j ^ s r m g 1 <t4c
f system. Always follow t h e manufacturers' recommendations and simply tap on the fuel tank and attempt to start the eng--* s x>
"lures.
but rattier a conllrmaUon thai the tuei ^ nottaas •••.. i e e o t t
REGULATOR
= O T = 55-22 t e • » «ttule ho*) we«Ure rtfte is leak <rw?

Figure 58-24 if the vacuum hose is removed from the fuel-pressure regulator »fw»
engme .5 tunning, the fuel pressure should increase. If it does not increase. Ihenft?W
Best Pressure Test Ir the fuel pre-vJW is acceptable, then check
uymp is no' capable of supplying adeauate pressure or the fue'-pressure regulator *
- - 5 5 r - : frr fegv^cwn. Observe the pressure gauge after five min defective » gasoline is visible in the vacuum hose, the regulator is leaking andjtouM !•
. -- • v-. The pressure should be the same as the mi replaced
a -at-* not. then the pressure regulator. fuel-pump check
.;- V"'- m«cm«5 are leaking.
O f w a w i c p r e s s u r e Test To t e • pressure dynamically, -tart FUEL

': - p r e s s u r e v a c u u m referenced, then the pressure PRESSURE
REGULATOR
- - i - .-s A- j f - t h e t . v o t t l e i- c y c l e d . If it d o e s n o t , t h e n c h e c k
- r . rr ; Srcurt. R e m o v e t h e v a c u u m line f r o m t h e r e g u
s - - - - - -r;- • a n y p r e s e n c e of f u e l . S e e f i g u r e 5 f t - 2 4 . T h e r e
a n y fve" p r e s e n t o n t h e v a c u u m s i d e of t h e r e g u l a -
t > . e n i j r . e -.ueed is i n c r e a s e d , t h e p r e s s u r e FUEL
-; .: w n M n t h e ••pecfficattans. RETURN
. - - y RO; u s e a v a c u u m r e f e r e n c e d r e g u l a t o r . T h e LINE TO
TANK
- ••«-- - . - » remains c o n s t a n t , w h i c h is typical for a m e c h a n i -
:
, ->• «fstetr> O f t t h e s e s y s t e m s , t h e p r e s s u r e is
-t - • •• /sv>,-.. t o h e l p reduce t h e f o r m a t i o n of

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Principles, Diagnosis, and Service

I I ' p f i Sad*lit- lvi\»t, V \ \ ,),.r

Edaortn-Ottef: Vernon Anthony

Pearsor. Prentice Hall ,M i a trademark of Pearson hducatlon, Inc.

- • <•- '. - ; ondor Pearson Education Australia Pty. Limited

1 Automotive Background and Overview 1 1 5 Service --/-- a - x 108

3 Starting a Career in the Automotive Industry 14 17 Prever- ve a r e a e r / c e Procedures 120

SECTION 18 Gasot r * E n g r e Opera; or Hagnoss 139

Safety, Environmental, and Health Concerns 37 19 3 « s e Eng n e j p e r a u o r a - : D a g n o s e 149

6 Shop Safety 37 2 0 >:» ' r s r r / j anc Dfe;~os<s 163

7 Environmental and Health Concerns 43 21 -UbricaDcr rjertrxr arc Degress 178

22 nta*s and Ex~a. r : .-ssr: 136

Tools, Shop Equipment, and Measuring 51 2 4 E a g r e ConarOon D o o m s 201

8 Fasteners and Thread Repair 51 2 5 Engine D t s a s s e - : :.-ea- 7!4

9 Hand Tools 61 26 C> nder --sacs and . a v e s 227

10 Power Tools and Shop Equipment 74 27 C a n s h a ^ s a - : Vave ~~a i s 241

11 Vehicle Lifting and Hoisting 82 2 8 ^ s t o n s . n i g s anc C c r n e c s n g HoGs 252

12 Measuring Systems and Tools 87 29 Engine B o : G a - w s - a f t s arcBean^: 269

30 Eng '-a B u e p r r t m g anc Asser-1 294

Principles, Math, and Calculations 95

1 4 Math, Charts, and Calculations 104 31 Etectnciai ^ j n o a ^ e m a i s 317

3 2 Electncal G r e e t s and O f - s L a * 325

3 4 Dfgfo M e t e ^ and S c o p e Usage 340 5 9 Fuel-Injection Components and Operation 706

3 5 Autpr-ofcvev\ — a ano Aire R e p a r 360 6 0 Fuel-Injection System Diagnosis and Service 71

36 W i g S c h e m a t i c s and Troubleshooting 370 6 1 Vehicle Emission Standards and Testing 733

3 7 C a p a c i t a n c e a n d Magnetism 382 6 2 Emission Control Devices Operation and Diagnosis ' 2

3 9 B a r t e ^ e s a n d Battery Testing 403

4 5 Accessory Circuits 505

4 6 Restraint S y s t e m s and Airbags 524

SECTION IX 7 5 Drum Brake Diagnosis and Service 897

Engine P e r f o r m a n c e 587 7 6 Disc Brake Parts and Operation 909

5 4 On Board Diagnosis 616 7 9 Machining Brake Drums a n d Rotors 950

56 ignr.on S y s t e m C o m p o n e n t s a n d Operation 657 8 1 ABS C o m p o n e n t s and Operation 990

8 5 Suspension System Components and Operation 1051

90 Steering Linkage and Service 1130 102 A l ~ r a r ? . ~ sswnfTransaxte Diagnos . and

j g j f f l Appendix 2 'iAIEFlas* _ r 1353

Engiisf Glossary 1373

Manual Drivetrain and Axles 1205 Index 1413

95 Manual Transmissions/Transaxles 1220

4 •-.'..•••«.;•«: Technician 21 How A re the Tests Scored? 33

Cooiinf S.-ttem '40 Compression Testing 160

Snake ana Exhaust Ptets 2CS Piston Pins 250

Flvf Cyllndfi M , c<

60Degree V-6 11, •<<•<;> 1 an . 2fi>

30 Engine Blueprinting and Assembly 294 31 Efedrtotf

Using Scope Leads 353

L r. J- Multimeters 341 Schematic Symbols 371

Diodes 394 Battery Service Safety Considerations 408

Zener Diodes 395 Battery Maintenance 408

Clamping Diodes 396 Battery Voltage Test 409

HiJden Bateries 415 Electronic Voltage Regulators 442

Testing Sorter Armatures 428 Lighting 459

Statots 436 Daytime Running Lights 467

4 3 Driver Information and Navigation Sy

Parts and Operj - ,— 5!o Speaker Types 539

FM Characteristics 535 Receiver-Drier 556

5 3 Computer and Network Fundamentals 6 f; Enabling Conditions or Criteria 620

5 8 Ft*?. Pumps. L i f t s , «nc fi :»f• • 6 9 1 Closed Loop Mode 716

Photochemical Smog F >rr ,ati >n 740

6 2 Emission Control Devices Operation and Diagnosis

H) ' > WvMid Mofftge Syvitm 8W

cmr t > » araMe^ 81}

htvrio ftmciplM 818

McOtanu al fruit ipte* 8J0

Oofcn? Pra«pS <C>»or: i

Reading trieans he % read <-<3 - r> rna

Figure4-2 yo-.vw«•••>< '»'«"*) •' »•«•-<•;.••. • MHUdXMite inc