Advanced Soil Mechanics Advanced Soil Mechanics Third edition B r a j a M. D a s First published 1983 by Hemisphere Publishing Corporation and McGraw-Hill Second edition published 1997 by Taylor & Francis This edition published 2008 by Taylor & Francis 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016, USA Simultaneously published in the UK by Taylor & Francis 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2007. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” Taylor & Francis is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2008 Braja M. Das Cover Credit Image: Courtesy of Subsurface Constructors, Inc., St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0-203-93584-5 Master e-book ISBN ISBN10: 0–415–42026–1 (hbk) ISBN10: 0–203–93584–5 (ebk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–42026–6 (hbk) ISBN13: 978–0–203–93584–2 (ebk) To our granddaughter, Elizabeth Madison Contents List of Tables List of Figures Preface 1 SOIL AGGREGATE, PLASTICITY, AND CLASSIFICATION 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Introduction Soil—separate size limits Clay minerals Nature of water in clay Repulsive potential Repulsive pressure Flocculation and dispersion of clay particles Consistency of cohesive soils Liquidity index Activity Grain-size distribution of soil Weight–volume relationships Relative density and relative compaction Effect of roundness and nonplastic fines on emax and emin for granular soils Unified soil classification system xii xiv xxv 1 1 1 3 7 10 15 17 19 25 25 28 30 36 37 40 2 STRESSES AND STRAINS—ELASTIC EQUILIBRIUM 47 Introduction Basic definition and sign conventions for stresses Equations of static equilibrium Concept of strain 47 47 49 55 viii Contents 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 Hooke’s law Plane strain problems Equations of compatibility for three-dimensional problems Stresses on an inclined plane and principal stresses for plane strain problems Strains on an inclined plane and principal strain for plane strain problems Stress components on an inclined plane, principal stress, and octahedral stresses—three-dimensional case Strain components on an inclined plane, principal strain, and octahedral strain—three-dimensional case 3 STRESSES AND DISPLACEMENTS IN A SOIL MASS 3.1 Introduction 57 58 64 65 75 76 85 87 87 TWO-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 Vertical line load on the surface Vertical line load on the surface of a finite layer Vertical line load inside a semi-infinite mass Horizontal line load on the surface Horizontal line load inside a semi-infinite mass Uniform vertical loading on an infinite strip on the surface Uniform strip load inside a semi-infinite mass Uniform horizontal loading on an infinite strip on the surface Triangular normal loading on an infinite strip on the surface Vertical stress in a semi-infinite mass due to embankment loading 87 92 93 95 96 97 103 103 106 108 THREE-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 Stresses due to a vertical point load on the surface Deflection due to a concentrated point load at the surface Horizontal point load on the surface Stresses below a circularly loaded flexible area (uniform vertical load) Vertical displacement due to uniformly loaded circular area at the surface Vertical stress below a rectangular loaded area on the surface Deflection due to a uniformly loaded flexible rectangular area Stresses in a layered medium Vertical stress at the interface of a three-layer flexible system Distribution of contact stress over footings Reliability of stress calculation using the theory of elasticity 112 115 115 116 126 130 135 136 139 142 144 Contents ix 4 PORE WATER PRESSURE DUE TO UNDRAINED LOADING 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Introduction Pore water pressure developed due to isotropic stress application Pore water pressure parameter B Pore water pressure due to uniaxial loading Directional variation of Af Pore water pressure under triaxial test conditions Henkel’s modification of pore water pressure equation Pore water pressure due to one-dimensional strain loading (oedometer test) 5 PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE 5.1 Introduction 150 150 151 153 156 159 161 162 166 170 170 PERMEABILITY 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 Darcy’s law Validity of Darcy’s law Determination of coefficient of permeability in the laboratory Variation of coefficient of permeability for granular soils Variation of coefficient of permeability for cohesive soils Directional variation of permeability in anisotropic medium Effective coefficient of permeability for stratified soils Determination of coefficient of permeability in the field Factors affecting the coefficient of permeability Electroosmosis 170 173 175 179 187 191 195 199 206 206 SEEPAGE 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 Equation of continuity Use of continuity equation for solution of simple flow problem Flow nets Hydraulic uplift force under a structure Flow nets in anisotropic material Construction of flow nets for hydraulic structures on nonhomogeneous subsoils Numerical analysis of seepage Seepage force per unit volume of soil mass Safety of hydraulic structures against piping Filter design Calculation of seepage through an earth dam resting on an impervious base Plotting of phreatic line for seepage through earth dams 210 214 217 221 223 227 230 239 240 248 250 262 x Contents 5.24 5.25 Entrance, discharge, and transfer conditions of line of seepage through earth dams Flow net construction for earth dams 6 CONSOLIDATION 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 Introduction Theory of one-dimensional consolidation Degree of consolidation under time-dependent loading Numerical solution for one-dimensional consolidation Standard one-dimensional consolidation test and interpretation Effect of sample disturbance on the e versus log
′ curve Secondary consolidation General comments on consolidation tests Calculation of one-dimensional consolidation settlement Coefficient of consolidation One-dimensional consolidation with viscoelastic models Constant rate-of-strain consolidation tests Constant-gradient consolidation test Sand drains Numerical solution for radial drainage (sand drain) General comments on sand drain problems 7 SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17 7.18 7.19 Introduction Mohr–Coulomb failure criteria Shearing strength of granular soils Critical void ratio Curvature of the failure envelope General comments on the friction angle of granular soils Shear strength of granular soils under plane strain condition Shear strength of cohesive soils Unconfined compression test Modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio from triaxial tests Friction angles  and cu Effect of rate of strain on the undrained shear strength Effect of temperature on the undrained shear strength Stress path Hvorslev’s parameters Relations between moisture content, effective stress, and strength for clay soils Correlations for effective stress friction angle Anisotropy in undrained shear strength Sensitivity and thixotropic characteristics of clays 263 264 276 276 278 296 300 310 316 317 321 325 327 336 342 348 352 361 364 373 373 373 374 384 385 387 388 392 405 406 408 408 411 413 423 426 431 433 436 Contents xi 7.20 7.21 7.22 7.23 7.24 Vane shear test Relation of undrained shear strength Su  and effective overburden pressure p′  Creep in soils Other theoretical considerations—yield surfaces in three dimensions Experimental results to compare the yield functions 8 SETTLEMENT OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS 8.1 Introduction 441 445 450 457 463 477 477 ELASTIC SETTLEMENT 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 Modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio Settlement based on theory of elasticity Generalized average elastic settlement equation Improved equation for elastic settlement Calculation of elastic settlement in granular soil using simplified strain influence factor 477 484 493 495 501 CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 One-dimensional primary consolidation settlement calculation Skempton–Bjerrum modification for calculation of consolidation settlement Settlement of overconsolidated clays Settlement calculation using stress path Comparison of primary consolidation settlement calculation procedures Secondary consolidation settlement Precompression for improving foundation soils 506 Appendix Index 535 563 511 516 517 523 524 525 Tables 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 Soil—separate size limits Specific surface area and cation exchange capacity of some clay minerals Activities of clay minerals U.S. standard sieves Typical values of void ratios and dry unit weights for granular soils Unified soil classification system Values of
z /q/z
x /q/z, and xz /q/z Variation of I1 v = 0 Variation of I2 v = 0 Values of
z /q/z
x /q/z, and xz /q/z Values of
z /q Values of
x /q Values of xz /q Values of
z /q Values of
x /q Values of xz /q Values of
z /q Values of I4 Function A′ Function B′ Function C Function D Function E Function F Function G Values of I6 Variation of I7 with m and n Variation of I8 with m′1 and n′1 Variation of I9 Variation of I10 2 6 26 29 35 41 90 92 93 96 99 101 101 104 105 106 108 114 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 127 133 134 137 138 List of Tables Soils considered by Black and Lee (1973) for evaluation of B 4.2 Values of Af for normally consolidated clays 4.3 Typical values of A at failure 4.4 C values in reloading for Monterrey no. 0/30 sand 5.1 Typical values of coefficient of permeability for various soils 5.2 Values of T /20 5.3 Empirical relations for coefficient of permeability in clayey soils 5.4 Safe values for the weighted creep ratio 5.5 Filter criteria developed from laboratory testing 6.1 Variation of T with Uav 6.2 Relationships for ui and boundary conditions 6.3 Empirical relations for Cc 6.4 Comparison of C obtained from various methods for the 2 pressure range
′ between 400 and 800 kN/m 6.5 Solution for radial-flow equation (equal vertical strain) 6.6 Steps in calculation of consolidation settlement 7.1 Typical values of  and c for granular soils 7.2 Experimental values of  and c 7.3 Consistency and unconfined compression strength of clays 7.4 Relative values of drained friction angle 7.5 Empirical equations related to Su and p′ 7.6 Values of F for some soils 7.7 Ratio of ab to ae1 7.8 Results of Kirkpatrick’s hollow cylinder test on a sand 8.1 General range of Poisson’s ratio for granular soils 8.2 Values of from various case studies of elastic settlement 8.3 Variation of with plasticity index and overconsolidation ratio 8.4 Variation of K with PI 8.5 Modulus of elasticity for granular soils 8.6 Variation of F1 with m′ and n′ 8.7 Variation of F1 with m′ and n′ 8.8 Variation of F2 with m′ and n′ 8.9 Variation of F2 with m′ and n′ 8.10 Calculation procedure of Iz /E z xiii 4.1 154 158 159 167 172 173 190 243 249 288 291 317 335 358 367 378 388 406 433 449 457 462 467 479 480 482 483 483 486 487 488 489 504 Figures 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 a Silicon–oxygen tetrahedron unit and b Aluminum or magnesium octahedral unit a Silica sheet, b Gibbsite sheet and c Silica–gibbsite sheet Symbolic structure for kaolinite Symbolic structures of a illite and b montmorillonite Diffuse double layer Dipolar nature of water Dipolar water molecules in diffuse double layer Clay water a typical kaolinite particle, 10,000 by 1000 Å and b typical montmorillonite particle, 1000 by 10 Å Derivation of repulsive potential equation Nature of variation of potential with distance from the clay surface Variation of nondimensional potential with nondimensional distance Effect of cation concentration on the repulsive potential Effect of ionic valence on the repulsive potential Variation of between two parallel clay particles Nature of variation of the nondimensional midplane potential for two parallel plates Repulsive pressure midway between two parallel clay plates Repulsive pressure between sodium montmorillonite clay particles Dispersion and flocculation of clay in a suspension a Dispersion and b flocculation of clay a Salt and b nonsalt flocculation of clay particles Consistency of cohesive soils Schematic diagram of a liquid limit device, b grooving tool, c soil pat at the beginning of the test and d soil pat at the end of the test Flow curve for determination of liquid limit for a silty clay 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 9 10 11 13 13 14 14 15 16 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 List of Figures xv 1.24 a Fall cone test and b Plot of moisture content versus cone penetration for determination of liquid limit 1.25 Liquid and plastic limits for Cambridge Gault clay determined by fall cone test 1.26 Relationship between plasticity index and percentage of clay-size fraction by weight 1.27 Relationship between plasticity index and clay-size fraction by weight for kaolinite/bentonite clay mixtures 1.28 Simplified relationship between plasticity index and percentage of clay-size fraction by weight 1.29 Grain-size distribution of a sandy soil 1.30 Weight–volume relationships for soil aggregate 1.31 Weight–volume relationship for Vs = 1 1.32 Weight–volume relation for saturated soil with Vs = 1 1.33 Weight–volume relationship for V = 1 1.34 Weight–volume relationship for saturated soil with V = 1 1.35 Youd’s recommended variation of emax and emin with angularity and Cu 1.36 Variation of emax and emin (for Nevada 50/80 sand) with percentage of nonplastic fines 1.37 Plot of emax − emin versus the mean grain size 1.38 Plasticity chart 2.1 Idealized stress–strain diagram 2.2 Notations for normal and shear stresses in Cartesian coordinate system 2.3 Notations for normal and shear stresses in polar coordinate system 2.4 Notations for normal and shear stresses in cylindrical coordinates 2.5 Derivation of equations of equilibrium 2.6 Derivation of static equilibrium equation for two-dimensional problem in Cartesian coordinates 2.7 Derivation of static equilibrium equation for two-dimensional problem in polar coordinates 2.8 Equilibrium equations in cylindrical coordinates 2.9 Concept of strain 2.10 Strip foundation—plane strain problem 2.11 Stress at a point due to a line load 2.12 Stresses on an inclined plane for plane strain case 2.13 Transformation of stress components from polar to Cartesian coordinate system 2.14 Sign convention for shear stress used for the construction of Mohr’s circle 2.15 Mohr’s circle 24 25 26 27 28 29 31 32 33 34 34 38 39 40 43 48 48 49 50 51 53 54 55 56 58 62 66 68 69 70 xvi List of Figures 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 3.29 3.30 Pole method of finding stresses on an inclined plane Determination of principal stresses at a point Mohr’s circle for stress determination Normal and shear strains on an inclined plane (plane strain case) Stresses on an inclined plane—three-dimensional case Transformation of stresses to a new set of orthogonal axes Octahedral stress Vertical line load on the surface of a semi-infinite mass Stresses due to a vertical line load in rectangular coordinates Two line loads acting on the surface Vertical line load on a finite elastic layer Vertical line load inside a semi-infinite mass Plot of
z /q/d versus x/d for various values of z/d Horizontal line load on the surface of a semi-infinite mass Horizontal line load inside a semi-infinite mass Uniform vertical loading on an infinite strip Strip load inside a semi-infinite mass Plot of
z /q versus z/b Uniform horizontal loading on an infinite strip Linearly increasing vertical loading on an infinite strip Vertical stress due to embankment loading Influence factors for embankment load Stress increase due to embankment loading Calculation of stress increase at A, B, and C Concentrated point load on the surface (rectangular coordinates) Concentrated point load (vertical) on the surface (cylindrical coordinates) Horizontal point load on the surface Stresses below the center of a circularly loaded area due to uniform vertical load Stresses at any point below a circularly loaded area Elastic settlement due to a uniformly loaded circular area Elastic settlement calculation for layer of finite thickness Vertical stress below the corner of a uniformly loaded (normal) rectangular area Variation of I7 with m and n Distributed load on a flexible rectangular area Determination of settlement at the center of a rectangular area of dimensions L × B a Uniformly loaded circular area in a two-layered soil E1 > E2 and b Vertical stress below the centerline of a uniformly loaded circular area Uniformly loaded circular area on a three-layered medium 71 72 74 75 77 79 82 88 89 91 92 94 94 95 97 98 102 102 104 107 109 110 111 111 113 114 115 116 117 126 128 130 132 135 136 139 140 List of Figures 3.31 Plot of
z1 /q against k2 3.32 Plot of
z1 /q against k1 k2 = 4 3.33 Contact stress over a rigid circular foundation resting on an elastic medium 3.34 Contact pressure and settlement profiles for foundations on clay 3.35 Contact pressure and settlement profiles for foundations on sand 4.1 Definition of effective stress 4.2 Normal total stresses in a soil mass 4.3 Soil element under isotropic stress application 4.4 Definition of Cc : volume change due to uniaxial stress application with zero excess pore water pressure 4.5 Theoretical variation of B with degree of saturation for soils described in Table 4.1 4.6 Variation of B with degree of saturation 4.7 Dependence of B values on level of isotropic consolidation stress (varved clay) for a regular triaxial specimens before shearing, b regular triaxial specimens after shearing, c special series of B tests on one single specimen in loading and d special series of B tests on one single specimen in unloading 4.8 Saturated soil element under uniaxial stress increment 4.9 Definition of Ce : coefficient of volume expansion under uniaxial loading 4.10 Variation of
 u, and A for a consolidated drained triaxial test in clay 4.11 Variation of Af with overconsolidation ratio for Weald clay 4.12 Directional variation of major principal stress application 4.13 Variation of Af with  and overconsolidation ratio (OCR) for kaolin clay 4.14 Excess pore water pressure under undrained triaxial test conditions 4.15 Saturated soil element with major, intermediate, and minor principal stresses 4.16 Estimation of excess pore water pressure in saturated soil below the centerline of a flexible strip loading (undrained condition) 4.17 Uniform vertical strip load on ground surface 5.1 Development of Darcy’s law 5.2 Variation of  with i 5.3 Discharge velocity-gradient relationship for four clays 5.4 Constant-head laboratory permeability test 5.5 Falling-head laboratory permeability test 5.6 Flow of water through tortuous channels in soil xvii 141 141 143 143 144 151 151 152 153 154 155 155 156 157 157 159 160 160 161 162 163 164 171 174 175 176 177 180 xviii 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26 5.27 5.28 5.29 5.30 5.31 5.32 5.33 5.34 5.35 5.36 5.37 5.38 5.38 5.38 5.39 5.40 5.41 List of Figures Plot of k against permeability function for Madison sand Coefficient of permeability for sodium illite Ratio of the measured flow rate to that predicted by the Kozeny–Carman equation for several clays Plot of e versus k for various values of PI + CF Directional variation of coefficient of permeability Directional variation of permeability Variation of kv and kh for Masa-do soil compacted in the laboratory Flow in horizontal direction in stratified soil Flow in vertical direction in stratified soil Variations of moisture content and grain size across thick-layer varves of New Liskeard varved clay Determination of coefficient of permeability by pumping from wells—gravity well Pumping from partially penetrating gravity wells Determination of coefficient of permeability by pumping from wells—confined aquifier Auger hole test Principles of electroosmosis Helmholtz–Smoluchowski theory for electroosmosis Schmid theory for electroosmosis Derivation of continuity equation One-directional flow through two layers of soil Flow net around a single row of sheet pile structures Flow net under a dam Flow net under a dam with a toe filter Flow through a flow channel Pressure head under the dam section shown in Figure 5.27 Construction of flow net under a dam Flow net construction in anisotropic soil Transfer condition Flow channel at the boundary between two soils with different coefficients of permeability Flow net under a dam resting on a two-layered soil deposit Hydraulic heads for flow in a region Numerical analysis of seepage Hydraulic head calculation by numerical method: (a) Initial assumption (b) At the end of the first interation (c) At the end of the tenth iteration Seepage force determination Critical exit gradient Calculation of weighted creep distance 184 188 189 190 192 194 196 197 198 199 200 202 203 204 207 208 209 211 215 217 218 219 219 222 224 226 227 229 229 230 232 235 236 237 239 242 243 List of Figures xix 5.42 5.43 5.44 5.45 5.46 5.47 5.48 5.49 5.50 5.51 5.52 5.53 5.54 5.55 5.56 5.57 5.58 5.59 5.60 5.61 5.62 5.63 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 Failure due to piping for a single-row sheet pile structure Safety against piping under a dam Factor of safety calculation by Terzaghi’s method Safety against piping under a dam by using Lane’s method Use of filter at the toe of an earth dam Determination of grain-size distribution of soil filters Dupuit’s solution for flow through an earth dam Schaffernak’s solution for flow through an earth dam Graphical construction for Schaffernak’s solution Modified distance d L. Casagrande’s solution for flow through an earth dam Chart for solution by L. Casagrande’s method based on Gilboy’s solution Pavlovsky’s solution for seepage through an earth dam Seepage through an earth dam Plot of h2 against h1 Determination of phreatic line for seepage through an earth dam Plot of l/l + l against downstream slope angle Entrance, discharge, and transfer conditions Flow net construction for an earth dam Typical flow net for an earth dam with rock toe filter Typical flow net for an earth dam with chimney drain Flow net for seepage through a zoned earth dam Principles of consolidation Clay layer undergoing consolidation Variation of ui with depth Variation of Uz with z/H and T Variation of Uav with T for initial excess pore water pressure diagrams shown in Figure 6.3 Calculation of average degree of consolidation Tv = 03 Excess pore water pressure distribution One-dimensional consolidation due to single ramp load Numerical solution for consolidation Degree of consolidation in two-layered soil Numerical solution for consolidation in layered soil Numerical solution for ramp loading Consolidometer a Typical specimen deformation versus log-of-time plot for a given load increment and b Typical e versus log
′ plot showing procedure for determination of
c′ and Cc Plot of void ratio versus effective pressure showing unloading and reloading branches Effect of sample disturbance on e versus log
′ curve 244 245 246 247 248 249 251 252 253 254 254 256 257 259 261 262 264 265 266 267 267 267 277 279 284 285 291 292 294 297 301 303 305 308 310 312 313 318 xx List of Figures 6.17 Coefficient of secondary consolidation for natural soil deposits 6.18 Coefficient of secondary compression for organic Paulding clay 6.19 Effect of load-increment ratio 6.20 Effect of load duration on e versus log
′ plot 6.21 Effect of secondary consolidation 6.22 Calculation of one-dimensional consolidation settlement 6.23 Calculation of e 6.24 Logarithm-of-time method for determination of C 6.25 Square-root-of-time method for determination of C 6.26 Maximum-slope method for determination of C 6.27 Rectangular hyperbola method for determination of C 6.28 Ht − t/ Ht method for determination of C 6.29 Early stage log-t method 6.30 Rheological model for soil 6.31 Nature of variation of void ratio with effective stress 6.32 Plot of z̄ against ū and  for a two-way drained clay layer 6.33 Plot of degree of consolidation versus Tv for various values of R (n = 5) ′ 6.34 CRS tests on Messena clay—plot of e versus
av 6.35 CRS tests on Messena clay—plot of Cv versus e 6.36 Stages in controlled-gradient test 6.37 (a) Sand drains and (b) layout of sand drains 6.38 Free strain—variation of degree of consolidation Ur with time factor Tr 6.39 Olson’s solution for radial flow under single ramp loading for n = 5 and 10 6.40 Numerical solution for radial drainage 6.41 Excess pore water pressure variation with time for radial drainage 7.1 Mohr–Coulomb failure criteria 7.2 Direct shear test arrangement 7.3 Direct shear test results in loose, medium, and dense sands 7.4 Determination of peak and ultimate friction angles from direct shear tests 7.5 Unequal stress distribution in direct shear equipment 7.6 a Simple shear and b Pure shear 7.7 Triaxial test equipment (after Bishop and Bjerrum, 1960) 7.8 Drained triaxial test in granular soil a Application of confining pressure and b Application of deviator stress 7.9 Drained triaxial test results 7.10 Soil specimen subjected to axial and radial stresses 7.11 Definition of critical void ratio 319 320 322 323 324 325 326 328 329 330 332 334 334 337 337 341 342 347 348 349 353 356 360 362 363 374 375 376 377 378 379 379 381 382 383 384 List of Figures xxi 7.12 Critical void ratio from triaxial test on Fort Peck sand 7.13 Variation of peak friction angle, , with effective normal stress on standard Ottawa sand 7.14 Failure envelope at high confining pressure 7.15 Plane strain condition 7.16 Initial tangent modulus from drained tests on Antioch sand 7.17 Poisson’s ratio from drained tests on Antioch sand 7.18 Consolidated drained triaxial test in clay a Application of confining pressure and b Application of deviator stress 7.19 Failure envelope for (a) normally consolidated and (b) over consolidated clays from consolidated drained triaxial tests 7.20 Modified Mohr’s failure envelope for quartz and clay minerals 7.21 Derivation of Eq. (7.21) 7.22 Failure envelope of a clay with preconsolidation pressure of
c′ 7.23 Residual shear strength of clay 7.24 Consolidated undrained triaxial test a Application of confining pressure and b Application of deviator stress 7.25 Consolidated undrained test results—normally consolidated clay 7.26 Consolidated undrained test—total stress envelope for overconsolidated clay 7.27 Unconsolidated undrained triaxial test 7.28 Effective- and total-stress Mohr’s circles for unconsolidated undrained tests 7.29 Total- and effective-stress Mohr’s circles 7.30 Unconfined compression strength 7.31 Definition of Ei and Et 7.32 Relationship between sin  and plasticity index for normally consolidated clays 7.33 Variation of ult with percentage of clay content 7.34 Effect of rate of strain on undrained shear strength 7.35 Unconfined compression strength of kaolinite—effect of temperature 7.36 Effect of temperature on shear strength of San Francisco Bay mud 7.37 Rendulic plot 7.38 Rendulic diagram 7.39 Determination of pore water pressure in a Rendulic plot 7.40 Definition of stress path 7.41 Stress path for consolidated undrained triaxial test 7.42 Stress path for Lagunilla clay 385 386 387 389 390 390 393 394 395 396 396 397 399 400 400 401 402 404 405 406 408 409 410 411 412 414 414 416 417 418 419 xxii List of Figures 7.43 Determination of major and minor principal stresses for a point on a stress path 7.44 Stress paths for tests 1–6 in Example 7.4 7.45 Plot of q ′ versus p′ diagram 7.46 Determination of ce and e 7.47 Variation of true angle of friction with plasticity index 7.48 Determination of Hvorslev’s parameters 7.49 Water content versus 
1 −
3 failure for Weald clay—extension tests 7.50 Water content versus 
1 −
3 failure for Weald clay—compression tests 7.51 Mohr’s envelope for overconsolidated clay ′ ′ /
3failure against Jm /Jf for Weald 7.52 Plot of
1failure clay—compression tests 7.53 Unique relation between water content and effective stress 7.54 Weald clay—normally consolidated 7.55 Weald clay—overconsolidated; maximum consolidation 2 pressure = 828 kN/m 7.56 Strength anisotropy in clay 7.57 Directional variation of undrained strength of clay 7.58 Directional variation of undrained shear strength of Welland Clay, Ontario, Canada 7.59 Vane shear strength polar diagrams for a soft marine clay in Thailand. a Depth = 1 m; b depth = 2 m; c depth = 3 m; d depth = 4 m (after Richardson et al., 1975) 7.60 Thixotropy of a material 7.61 Acquired sensitivity for Laurentian clay 7.62 Variation of sensitivity with liquidity index for Laurentian clay 7.63 Regained strength of a partially thixotropic material 7.64 Increase of thixotropic strength with time for three compacted clays 7.65 General relation between sensitivity, liquidity index, and effective vertical stress 7.66 Vane shear test 7.67 a Triangular vane and b Elliptical vane 7.68 Variation of C with a/b 7.69 Relation between the undrained strength of clay and the effective overburden pressure 7.70 Variation of Su /p′ with liquidity index 7.71 Undrained shear strength of a clay deposit 7.72 Creep in soils 7.73 Plot of log ∈˙ versus log t during undrained creep of remolded San Francisco Bay mud 419 421 423 424 424 426 427 428 428 429 430 431 432 434 435 436 437 438 438 439 440 440 441 442 443 444 446 448 448 450 451 List of Figures 7.74 Nature of variation of log ∈˙ versus log t for a given deviator stress showing the failure stage at large strains 7.75 Variation of the strain rate ∈˙ with deviator stress at a given time t after the start of the test 7.76 Fundamentals of rate-process theory 7.77 Definition of activation energy 7.78 Derivation of Eq. (7.86) 7.79 Variation of strain rate with deviator stress for undrained creep of remolded illite 7.80 Yield surface—Von Mises criteria 7.81 Yield surface—Tresca criteria 7.82 Mohr–Coulomb failure criteria 7.83 Comparison of Von Mises, Tresca, and Mohr–Coulomb yield functions 7.84 Hollow cylinder test 7.85 Comparison of the yield functions on the octahedral plane along with the results of Kirkpatrick 7.86 Results of hollow cylinder tests plotted on octahedral plane
1′ +
2′ +
3′ = 1 8.1 Definition of soil modulus from triaxial test results 8.2 Relation between E/Su and overconsolidation ratio from consolidated undrained tests on three clays determined from CKo U type direct shear tests 8.3 Elastic settlement of flexible and rigid foundations 8.4 Variation of If with Df /B L/B, and  8.5 Elastic settlement for a rigid shallow foundation 8.6 Improved chart for use in Eq. (8.24) 8.7 Improved equation for calculating elastic settlement—general parameters 8.8 Variation of IG with ′ 8.9 Variation of rigidity correction factor IF with flexibility factor KF 8.10 Variation of embedment correction factor IE with Df /Be 8.11 Strain influence factor 8.12 Calculation of Se from strain influence factor 8.13 Settlement calculation under a pier foundation 8.14 Calculation of consolidation settlement—method A 8.15 Calculation of consolidation settlement—method B 8.16 Consolidation settlement calculation from layers of finite thickness 8.17 Development of excess pore water pressure below the centerline of a circular loaded foundation 8.18 Settlement ratio for strip and circular loading 8.19 Consolidation settlement under a circular tank xxiii 452 452 453 453 454 456 458 459 460 461 464 468 469 478 481 484 490 492 494 496 497 498 499 502 503 505 507 508 509 512 514 515 xxiv 8.20 8.21 8.22 8.23 8.24 8.25 8.26 8.27 8.28 8.29 8.30 8.31 List of Figures Settlement ratio in overconsolidated clay Determination of the slope of Ko line Plot of p′ versus q ′ with Ko and Kf lines Stress path and specimen distortion Volume change between two points of a p′ versus q ′ plot Use of stress path to calculate settlement Comparison of consolidation settlement calculation procedures Concept of precompression technique Choice of degree of consolidation for calculation of precompression Variation of Uf+s with
s /
f and
f /
0′ Plot of Uf+s versus T Soil profile for precompression 516 517 518 519 519 521 523 525 526 528 529 529 Preface The first edition of this book was published jointly by Hemisphere Publishing Corporation and McGraw-Hill Book Company of New York with a 1983 copyright. The second edition had a 1997 copyright and was published by Taylor and Francis. This edition essentially is designed for readers at the same level. Compared to the second edition, following are the major changes. • • • • • • • • Chapter 1 has been renamed as “Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification.” It includes additional discussions on clay minerals, nature of water in clay, repulsive potential and pressure in clay, and weight– volume relationships. Chapter 3 has also been renamed as “Stresses and displacements in a soil mass.” It includes relationships to evaluate displacements in a semi-infinite elastic medium due to various types of loading in addition to those to estimate stress. Chapter 4 on “Pore water pressure due to undrained loading” has additional discussions on the directional variation of pore water pressure parameter A due to anisotropy in cohesive soils. Chapter 5 on “Permeability and seepage” has new material to estimate the coefficient of permeability in granular soil using the Kozeny– Carman equation. The topics of electroosmosis and electroosmotic coefficient of permeability have been discussed. Solutions for one-dimensional consolidation using viscoelastic model has been presented in Chapter 6 on “Consolidation”. Chapter 7 on “Shear strength of soils” has more detailed discussions on the effects of temperature, anisotropy, and rate of strain on the undrained shear strength of clay. A new section on creep in soil using the rate-process theory has been added. Chapter 8 has been renamed as “Settlement of shallow foundations.” More recent theories available in literature on the elastic settlement have been summarized. SI units have been used throughout the text, including the problems. xxvi Preface I am indebted to my wife Janice for her help in preparing the revised manuscript. She prepared all the new and revised artwork for this edition. I would also like to thank Tony Moore, Senior Editor, and Eleanor Rivers, Commissioning Editor of Taylor and Francis, for working with me during the entire publication process of this book. Braja M. Das Chapter 1 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification 1.1 Introduction Soils are aggregates of mineral particles, and together with air and/or water in the void spaces, they form three-phase systems. A large portion of the earth’s surface is covered by soils, and they are widely used as construction and foundation materials. Soil mechanics is the branch of engineering that deals with the engineering properties of soils and their behavior under stress. This book is divided into eight chapters—“Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification,” “Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium,” “Stresses and displacement in a soil mass,” “Pore water pressure due to undrained loading,” “Permeability and seepage,” “Consolidation,” “Shear strength of soils,” and “Settlement of foundations.” This chapter is a brief overview of some soil properties and their classification. It is assumed that the reader has been previously exposed to a basic soil mechanics course. 1.2 Soil—separate size limits A naturally occurring soil sample may have particles of various sizes. Over the years, various agencies have tried to develop the size limits of gravel, sand, silt, and clay. Some of these size limits are shown in Table 1.1. Referring to Table 1.1, it is important to note that some agencies classify clay as particles smaller than 0.005 mm in size, and others classify it as particles smaller than 0.002 mm in size. However, it needs to be realized that particles defined as clay on the basis of their size are not necessarily clay minerals. Clay particles possess, the tendency to develop plasticity when mixed with water; these are clay minerals. Kaolinite, illite, montmorillonite, vermiculite, and chlorite are examples of some clay minerals. 2 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Table 1.1 Soil—separate size limits Agency Classification Size limits (mm) U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Gravel Very coarse sand Coarse sand Medium sand Fine sand Very fine sand Silt Clay >2 2–1 1–0.5 0.5–0.25 0.25–0.1 0.1–0.05 0.05–0.002 < 0
002 International Society of Soil Mechanics (ISSS) Gravel Coarse sand Fine sand Silt Clay >2 2–0.2 0.2–0.02 0.02–0.002 < 0
002 Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) Gravel Sand Silt Clay Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Gravel Coarse sand Medium sand Fine sand Silt Clay >2 2–0.6 0.6–0.2 0.2–0.06 0.06–0.002 < 0
002 American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Gravel Coarse sand Fine sand Silt Clay 76.2–2 2–0.425 0.425–0.075 0.075–0.002 < 0
002 Unified (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, and American Society for Testing and Materials) Gravel Coarse sand Medium sand Fine sand Silt and clay (fines) 76.2–4.75 4.75–2 2–0.425 0.425–0.075 < 0
075 >2 2–0.075 0.075–0.005 < 0
005 Fine particles of quartz, feldspar, or mica may be present in a soil in the size range defined for clay, but these will not develop plasticity when mixed with water. It appears that is it more appropriate for soil particles with sizes < 2 or 5 m as defined under various systems to be called clay-size particles rather than clay. True clay particles are mostly of colloidal size range (< 1 m), and 2 m is probably the upper limit. Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification 3 1.3 Clay minerals Clay minerals are complex silicates of aluminum, magnesium, and iron. Two basic crystalline units form the clay minerals: (1) a silicon–oxygen tetrahedron, and (2) an aluminum or magnesium octahedron. A silicon–oxygen tetrahedron unit, shown in Figure 1.1a, consists of four oxygen atoms surrounding a silicon atom. The tetrahedron units combine to form a silica sheet as shown in Figure 1.2a. Note that the three oxygen atoms located at the base of each tetrahedron are shared by neighboring tetrahedra. Each silicon atom with a positive valence of 4 is linked to four oxygen atoms with a total negative valence of 8. However, each oxygen atom at the base of the tetrahedron is linked to two silicon atoms. This leaves one negative valence charge of the top oxygen atom of each tetrahedron to be counterbalanced. Figure 1.1b shows an octahedral unit consisting of six hydroxyl units surrounding an aluminum (or a magnesium) atom. The combination of the aluminum octahedral units forms a gibbsite sheet (Figure 1.2b). If the main metallic atoms in the octahedral units are magnesium, these sheets are referred to as brucite sheets. When the silica sheets are stacked over the Figure 1.1 a Silicon–oxygen tetrahedron unit and b Aluminum or magnesium octahedral unit. Figure 1.2 a Silica sheet, b Gibbsite sheet and c Silica–gibbsite sheet (after Grim, 1959). Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification 5 octahedral sheets, the oxygen atoms replace the hydroxyls to satisfy their valence bonds. This is shown in Figure 1.2c. Some clay minerals consist of repeating layers of two-layer sheets. A two-layer sheet is a combination of a silica sheet with a gibbsite sheet, or a combination of a silica sheet with a brucite sheet. The sheets are about 7.2 Å thick. The repeating layers are held together by hydrogen bonding and secondary valence forces. Kaolinite is the most important clay mineral belonging to this type (Figure 1.3). Other common clay minerals that fall into this category are serpentine and halloysite. The most common clay minerals with three-layer sheets are illite and montmorillonite (Figure 1.4). A three-layer sheet consists of an octahedral sheet in the middle with one silica sheet at the top and one at the bottom. Repeated layers of these sheets form the clay minerals. Illite layers are bonded together by potassium ions. The negative charge to balance the potassium ions comes from the substitution of aluminum for some silicon in the tetrahedral sheets. Substitution of this type by one element for another without changing the crystalline form is known as isomorphous substitution. Montmorillonite has a similar structure to illite. However, unlike illite there are no potassium ions present, and a large amount of water is attracted into the space between the three-sheet layers. The surface area of clay particles per unit mass is generally referred to as specific surface. The lateral dimensions of kaolinite platelets are about 1000–20,000 Å with thicknesses of 100–1000 Å. Illite particles have lateral dimensions of 1000–5000 Å and thicknesses of 50–500 Å. Similarly, montmorillonite particles have lateral dimensions of 1000–5000 Å with thicknesses Figure 1.3 Symbolic structure for kaolinite. 6 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Figure 1.4 Symbolic structures of a illite and b montmorillonite. of 10–50 Å. If we consider several clay samples all having the same mass, the highest surface area will be in the sample in which the particle sizes are the smallest. So it is easy to realize that the specific surface of kaolinite will be small compared to that of montmorillonite. The specific surfaces of kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite are about 15, 90 and 800 m2 /g, respectively. Table 1.2 lists the specific surfaces of some clay minerals. Clay particles carry a net negative charge. In an ideal crystal, the positive and negative charges would be balanced. However, isomorphous Table 1.2 Specific surface area and cation exchange capacity of some clay minerals Clay mineral Specific surface (m2 /g) Cation exchange capacity (me/100 g) Kaolinite Illite Montmorillonite Chlorite Vermiculite Halloysite 4H2 O Halloysite 2H2 O 10–20 80–100 800 5–50 5–400 40 40 3 25 100 20 150 12 12 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification 7 substitution and broken continuity of structures result in a net negative charge at the faces of the clay particles. (There are also some positive charges at the edges of these particles.) To balance the negative charge, the clay particles attract positively charged ions from salts in their pore water. These are referred to as exchangeable ions. Some are more strongly attracted than others, and the cations can be arranged in a series in terms of their affinity for attraction as follows: Al 3+ + + + + > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > NH+ 4 > K > H > Na > Li 3+ This series indicates that, for example, Al ions can replace Ca2+ ions, and Ca2+ ions can replace Na+ ions. The process is called cation exchange. For example, Naclay + CaCl2 → Caclay + NaCl Cation exchange capacity (CEC) of a clay is defined as the amount of exchangeable ions, expressed in milliequivalents, per 100 g of dry clay. Table 1.2 gives the cation exchange capacity of some clays. 1.4 Nature of water in clay The presence of exchangeable cations on the surface of clay particles was discussed in the preceding section. Some salt precipitates (cations in excess of the exchangeable ions and their associated anions) are also present on the surface of dry clay particles. When water is added to clay, these cations and anions float around the clay particles (Figure 1.5). Figure 1.5 Diffuse double layer. 8 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Figure 1.6 Dipolar nature of water. At this point, it must be pointed out that water molecules are dipolar, since the hydrogen atoms are not symmetrically arranged around the oxygen atoms (Figure 1.6a). This means that a molecule of water is like a rod with positive and negative charges at opposite ends (Figure 1.6b). There are three general mechanisms by which these dipolar water molecules, or dipoles; can be electrically attracted toward the surface of the clay particles (Figure 1.7): Figure 1.7 Dipolar water molecules in diffuse double layer. Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification 9 (a) Attraction between the negatively charged faces of clay particles and the positive ends of dipoles. (b) Attraction between cations in the double layer and the negatively charged ends of dipoles. The cations are in turn attracted by the negatively charged faces of clay particles. (c) Sharing of the hydrogen atoms in the water molecules by hydrogen bonding between the oxygen atoms in the clay particles and the oxygen atoms in the water molecules. The electrically attracted water that surrounds the clay particles is known as double-layer water. The plastic property of clayey soils is due to the existence of double-layer water. Thicknesses of double-layer water for typical kaolinite and montmorillonite crystals are shown in Figure 1.8. Since Figure 1.8 Clay water a typical kaolinite particle, 10,000 by 1000 Å and b typical montmorillonite particle, 1000 by 10 Å (after Lambe, 1960). 10 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification the innermost layer of double-layer water is very strongly held by a clay particle, it is referred to as adsorbed water. 1.5 Repulsive potential The nature of the distribution of ions in the diffuse double layer is shown in Figure 1.5. Several theories have been presented in the past to describe the ion distribution close to a charged surface. Of these, the Gouy–Chapman theory has received the most attention. Let us assume that the ions in the double layers can be treated as point charges, and that the surface of the clay particles is large compared to the thickness of the double layer. According to Boltzmann’s theorem, we can write that (Figure 1.9) −+ e KT −− e n− = n−0 exp KT n+ = n+0 exp (1.1) (1.2) where n+ = local concentration of positive ions at a distance x n− = local concentration of negative ions at a distance x n+0  n−0 = concentration of positive and negative ions away from clay surface in equilibrium liquid = average electric potential at a distance x (Figure 1.10) v+  v− = ionic valences e = unit electrostatic charge, 48 × 10−10 esu K = Boltzmann’s constant, 138 × 10−16 erg/K T = absolute temperature Figure 1.9 Derivation of repulsive potential equation. Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Figure 1.10 11 Nature of variation of potential  with distance from the clay surface. The charge density  at a distance x is given by  = + en+ − − en− (1.3) According to Poisson’s equation, −4 d2 = 2 dx  (1.4) where  is the dielectric constant of the medium. Assuming v+ = v− and n+0 = n−0 = n0 , and combining Eqs. (1.1)–(1.4), we obtain d2 e 8n0 e sinh = dx2  KT (1.5) It is convenient to rewrite Eq. (1.5) in terms of the following nondimensional quantities: e KT e 0 z= KT y= (1.6) (1.7) 12 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification and where (1.8)  = x is the potential at the surface of the clay particle and 0 2 = 8n0 e2 2 KT cm−2  (1.9) Thus, from Eq. (1.5), d2 y = sinh y d 2 (1.10) The boundary conditions for solving Eq. (1.10) are: 1. At  =  y = 0 and dy/d = 0. 2. At  = 0 y = z, i.e., = 0 . The solution yields the relation ey/2 = ez/2 + 1 + ez/2 − 1e− ez/2 + 1 − ez/2 − 1e− (1.11) Equation (1.11) gives an approximately exponential decay of potential. The nature of the variation of the nondimensional potential y with the nondimensional distance is given in Figure 1.11. For a small surface potential (less than 25 mV), we can approximate Eq. (1.5) as d2 = 2 dx2 = 0 e−x (1.12) (1.13) Equation (1.13) describes a purely exponential decay of potential. For this condition, the center of gravity of the diffuse charge is located at a distance of x = 1/. The term 1/ is generally referred to as the double-layer thickness. There are several factors that will affect the variation of the repulsive potential with distance from the surface of the clay layer. The effect of the cation concentration and ionic valence is shown in Figures 1.12 and 1.13, respectively. For a given value of 0 and x, the repulsive potential decreases with the increase of ion concentration n0 and ionic valence v. When clay particles are close and parallel to each other, the nature of variation of the potential will be a shown in Figure 1.14. Note for this case that at x = 0 = 0 , and at x = d (midway between the plates), = d and d /dx = 0. Numerical solutions for the nondimensional potential y = yd (i.e., = d ) for various values of z and  = d (i.e., x = d) are given by Verweg and Overbeek (1948) (see also Figure 1.15). Figure 1.11 Variation of nondimensional potential with nondimensional distance. Figure 1.12 Effect of cation concentration on the repulsive potential. Figure 1.13 Effect of ionic valence on the repulsive potential. Figure 1.14 Variation of  between two parallel clay particles. Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Figure 1.15 15 Nature of variation of the nondimensional midplane potential for two parallel plates. 1.6 Repulsive pressure The repulsive pressure midway between two parallel clay plates (Figure 1.16) can be given by the Langmuir equation 
e d −1 p = 2n0 KT cosh KT (1.14) where p is the repulsive pressure, i.e., the difference between the osmotic pressure midway between the plates in relation to that in the equilibrium solution. Figure 1.17, which is based on the results of Bolt (1956), shows the theoretical and experimental variation of p between two clay particles. Although the Guoy–Chapman theory has been widely used to explain the behavior of clay, there have been several important objections to this theory. A good review of these objections has been given by Bolt (1955). Figure 1.16 Repulsive pressure midway between two parallel clay plates. Figure 1.17 Repulsive pressure between sodium montmorillonite clay particles (after Bolt, 1956). Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification 17 1.7 Flocculation and dispersion of clay particles In addition to the repulsive force between the clay particles there is an attractive force, which is largely attributed to the Van der Waal’s force. This is a secondary bonding force that acts between all adjacent pieces of matter. The force between two flat parallel surfaces varies inversely as 1/x3 to 1/x4 , where x is the distance between the two surfaces. Van der Waal’s force is also dependent on the dielectric constant of the medium separating the surfaces. However, if water is the separating medium, substantial changes in the magnitude of the force will not occur with minor changes in the constitution of water. The behavior of clay particles in a suspension can be qualitatively visualized from our understanding of the attractive and repulsive forces between the particles and with the aid of Figure 1.18. Consider a dilute suspension of clay particles in water. These colloidal clay particles will undergo Brownian movement and, during this random movement, will come close to each other at distances within the range of interparticle forces. The forces of attraction and repulsion between the clay particles vary at different rates with respect Figure 1.18 Dispersion and flocculation of clay in a suspension. 18 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Figure 1.19 a Dispersion and b flocculation of clay. to the distance of separation. The force of repulsion decreases exponentially with distance, whereas the force of attraction decreases as the inverse third or fourth power of distance, as shown in Figure 1.18. Depending on the distance of separation, if the magnitude of the repulsive force is greater than the magnitude of the attractive force, the net result will be repulsion. The clay particles will settle individually and form a dense layer at the bottom; however, they will remain separate from their neighbors (Figure 1.19a). This is referred to as the dispersed state of the soil. On the contrary, if the net force between the particles is attraction, flocs will be formed and these flocs will settle to the bottom. This is called flocculated clay (Figure 1.19b). Salt flocculation and nonsalt flocculation We saw in Figure 1.12 the effect of salt concentration, n0 , on the repulsive potential of clay particles. High salt concentration will depress the double layer of clay particles and hence the force of repulsion. We noted earlier in this section that the Van der Waal’s force largely contributes to the force of attraction between clay particles in suspension. If the clay particles Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Figure 1.20 19 a Salt and b nonsalt flocculation of clay particles. are suspended in water with a high salt concentration, the flocs of the clay particles formed by dominant attractive forces will give them mostly an orientation approaching parallelism (face-to-face type). This is called a salt-type flocculation (Figure 1.20a). Another type of force of attraction between the clay particles, which is not taken into account in colloidal theories, is that arising from the electrostatic attraction of the positive charges at the edge of the particles and the negative charges at the face. In a soil–water suspension with low salt concentration, this electrostatic force of attraction may produce a flocculation with an orientation approaching a perpendicular array. This is shown in Figure 1.20b and is referred to as nonsalt flocculation. 1.8 Consistency of cohesive soils The presence of clay minerals in a fine-grained soil will allow it to be remolded in the presence of some moisture without crumbling. If a clay slurry is 20 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Figure 1.21 Consistency of cohesive soils. dried, the moisture content will gradually decrease, and the slurry will pass from a liquid state to a plastic state. With further drying, it will change to a semisolid state and finally to a solid state, as shown in Figure 1.21. In 1911, A. Atterberg, a Swedish scientist, developed a method for describing the limit consistency of fine-grained soils on the basis of moisture content. These limits are the liquid limit, the plastic limit, and the shrinkage limit. The liquid limit is defined as the moisture content, in percent, at which the soil changes from a liquid state to a plastic state. The moisture contents (in percent) at which the soil changes from a plastic to a semisolid state and from a semisolid to a solid state are defined as the plastic limit and the shrinkage limit, respectively. These limits are generally referred to as the Atterberg limits. The Atterberg limits of cohesive soil depend on several factors, such as amount and type of clay minerals and type of adsorbed cation. Liquid limit Liquid limit of a soil is generally determined by the Standard Casagrande device. A schematic diagram (side view) of a liquid limit device is shown in Figure 1.22a. This device consists of a brass cup and a hard rubber base. The brass cup can be dropped onto the base by a cam operated by a crank. To perform the liquid limit test, one must place a soil paste in the cup. A groove is then cut at the center of the soil pat with the standard grooving tool (Figure 1.22b). By using the crank-operated cam, the cup is lifted and dropped from a height of 10 mm. The moisture content, in percent, required to close a distance of 12.7 mm along the bottom of the groove (see Figures 1.22c and d) after 25 blows is defined as the liquid limit. It is difficult to adjust the moisture content in the soil to meet the required 12.7-mm closure of the groove in the soil pat at 25 blows. Hence, at least three tests for the same soil are conducted at varying moisture contents, with the number of blows, N , required to achieve closure varying between 15 and 35. The moisture content of the soil, in percent, and Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Figure 1.22 21 Schematic diagram of a liquid limit device, b grooving tool, c soil pat at the beginning of the test and d soil pat at the end of the test. the corresponding number of blows are plotted on semilogarithmic graph paper (Figure 1.23). The relationship between moisture content and log N is approximated as a straight line. This line is referred to as the flow curve. The moisture content corresponding to N = 25, determined from the flow curve, gives the liquid limit of the soil. The slope of the flow line is defined as the flow index and may be written as IF = w1 − w2
 N2 log N1 (1.15) 22 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Figure 1.23 Flow curve for determination of liquid limit for a silty clay. where IF = flow index w1 = moisture content of soil, in percent, corresponding to N1 blows w2 = moisture content corresponding to N2 blows Note that w2 and w1 are exchanged to yield a positive value even though the slope of the flow line is negative. Thus, the equation of the flow line can be written in a general form as w = −IF log N + C (1.16) where C = a constant. From the analysis of hundreds of liquid limit tests in 1949, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, at the Waterways Experiment Station in Vicksburg, Mississippi, proposed an empirical equation of the form LL = wN
N 25 tan (1.17) where N = number of blows in the liquid limit device for a 12.7-mm groove closure wN = corresponding moisture content tan = 0121 (but note that tan is not equal to 0.121 for all soils) Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification 23 Equation (1.17) generally yields good results for the number of blows between 20 and 30. For routine laboratory tests, it may be used to determine the liquid limit when only one test is run for a soil. This procedure is generally referred to as the one-point method and was also adopted by ASTM under designation D-4318. The reason that the one-point method yields fairly good results is that a small range of moisture content is involved when N = 20–30. Another method of determining liquid limit that is popular in Europe and Asia is the fall cone method (British Standard—BS 1377). In this test the liquid limit is defined as the moisture content at which a standard cone of apex angle 30 and weight of 0.78 N (80 gf) will penetrate a distance d = 20 mm in 5 s when allowed to drop from a position of point contact with the soil surface (Figure 1.24a). Due to the difficulty in achieving the liquid limit from a single test, four or more tests can be conducted at various moisture contents to determine the fall cone penetration, d, in 5 s. A semilogarithmic graph can then be plotted with moisture content w versus cone penetration d. The plot results in a straight line. The moisture content corresponding to d = 20 mm is the liquid limit (Figure 1.24b). From Figure 12.24b, the flow index can be defined as IFC = w2 % − w1 % log d2 − log d1 (1.18) where w1  w2 = moisture contents at cone penetrations of d1 and d2 , respectively. Plastic limit The plastic limit is defined as the moist content, in percent, at which the soil crumbles when rolled into threads of 3.2 mm diameter. The plastic limit is the lower limit of the plastic stage of soil. The plastic limit test is simple and is performed by repeated rolling of an ellipsoidal size soil mass by hand on a ground glass plate. The procedure for the plastic limit test is given by ASTM Test Designation D-4318. As in the case of liquid limit determination, the fall cone method can be used to obtain the plastic limit. This can be achieved by using a cone of similar geometry but with a mass of 2.35 N (240 gf). Three to four tests at varying moist contents of soil are conducted, and the corresponding cone penetrations d are determined. The moisture content corresponding to a cone penetration of d = 20 mm is the plastic limit. Figure 1.25 shows the liquid and plastic limit determined by fall cone test for Cambridge Gault clay reported by Wroth and Wood (1978). The difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit of a soil is defined as the plasticity index, PI PI = LL − PL (1.19) 24 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Figure 1.24 a Fall cone test and b Plot of moisture content versus cone penetration for determination of liquid limit. where LL is the liquid limit and PL the plastic limit. Sridharan et al. (1999) showed that the plasticity index can be correlated to the flow index as obtained from the liquid limit tests. According to their study, PI% = 412IF % (1.20) PI% = 074IFC % (1.21) and Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Figure 1.25 25 Liquid and plastic limits for Cambridge Gault clay determined by fall cone test. 1.9 Liquidity index The relative consistency of a cohesive soil can be defined by a ratio called the liquidity index LI. It is defined as LI = wN − PL wN − PL = LL − PL PI (1.22) where wN is the natural moisture content. It can be seen from Eq. (1.22) that, if wN = LL, then the liquidity index is equal to 1. Again, if wN = PL, the liquidity index is equal to 0. Thus, for a natural soil deposit which is in a plastic state (i.e., LL ≥ wN ≥ PL), the value of the liquidity index varies between 1 and 0. A natural deposit with wN ≥ LL will have a liquidity index greater than 1. In an undisturbed state, these soils may be stable; however, a sudden shock may transform them into a liquid state. Such soils are called sensitive clays. 1.10 Activity Since the plastic property of soil is due to the adsorbed water that surrounds the clay particles, we can expect that the type of clay minerals and 26 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Figure 1.26 Relationship between plasticity index and percentage of clay-size fraction by weight. their proportional amounts in a soil will affect the liquid and plastic limits. Skempton (1953) observed that the plasticity index of a soil linearly increases with the percent of clay-size fraction (percent finer than 2 by weight) present in it. This relationship is shown in Figure 1.26. The average lines for all the soils pass through the origin. The correlations of PI with the clay-size fractions for different clays plot separate lines. This is due to the type of clay minerals in each soil. On the basis of these results, Skempton defined a quantity called activity that is the slope of the line correlating PI and percent finer than 2. This activity A may be expressed as A= PI (percentage of clay-size fraction, by weight) (1.23) Activity is used as an index for identifying the swelling potential of clay soils. Typical values of activities for various clay minerals are given in Table 1.3. Table 1.3 Activities of clay minerals Mineral Smectites Illite Kaolinite Halloysite 4H2 O Halloysite 2H2 O Attapulgite Allophane Activity (A) 1–7 0.5–1 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.5–1.2 0.5–1.2 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification 27 Seed et al. (1964a) studied the plastic property of several artificially prepared mixtures of sand and clay. They concluded that, although the relationship of the plasticity index to the percent of clay-size fraction is linear (as observed by Skempton), it may not always pass through the origin. This is shown in Figure 1.27. Thus, the activity can be redefined as A= PI percent of clay-size fraction − C ′ (1.24) where C ′ is a constant for a given soil. For the experimental results shown in Figure 1.27, C ′ = 9. Figure 1.27 Relationship between plasticity index and clay-size fraction by weight for kaolinite/bentonite clay mixtures (after Seed et al., 1964a). 28 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Figure 1.28 Simplified relationship between plasticity index and percentage of claysize fraction by weight (after Seed et al., 1964b). Further works of Seed et al. (1964b) have shown that the relationship of the plasticity index to the percentage of clay-size fractions present in a soil can be represented by two straight lines. This is shown qualitatively in Figure 1.28. For clay-size fractions greater than 40%, the straight line passes through the origin when it is projected back. 1.11 Grain-size distribution of soil For a basic understanding of the nature of soil, the distribution of the grain size present in a given soil mass must be known. The grain-size distribution of coarse-grained soils (gravelly and/or sandy) is determined by sieve analysis. Table 1.4 gives the opening size of some U.S. sieves. The cumulative percent by weight of a soil passing a given sieve is referred to as the percent finer. Figure 1.29 shows the results of a sieve analysis for a sandy soil. The grain-size distribution can be used to determine some of the basic soil parameters, such as the effective size, the uniformity coefficient, and the coefficient of gradation. The effective size of a soil is the diameter through which 10% of the total soil mass is passing and is referred to as D10 . The uniformity coefficient Cu is defined as Cu = D60 D10 (1.25) where D60 is the diameter through which 60% of the total soil mass is passing. Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification 29 Table 1.4 U.S. standard sieves Sieve no. Opening size (mm) 3 4 6 8 10 16 20 30 40 50 60 70 100 140 200 270 6.35 4.75 3.36 2.38 2.00 1.19 0.84 0.59 0.425 0.297 0.25 0.21 0.149 0.105 0.075 0.053 Figure 1.29 Grain-size distribution of a sandy soil. The coefficient of gradation Cc is defined as Cc = D30 2 D60 D10  (1.26) where D30 is the diameter through which 30% of the total soil mass is passing. 30 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification A soil is called a well-graded soil if the distribution of the grain sizes extends over a rather large range. In that case, the value of the uniformity coefficient is large. Generally, a soil is referred to as well graded if Cu is larger than about 4–6 and Cc is between 1 and 3. When most of the grains in a soil mass are of approximately the same size—i.e., Cu is close to 1—the soil is called poorly graded. A soil might have a combination of two or more well-graded soil fractions, and this type of soil is referred to as a gap-graded soil. The sieve analysis technique described above is applicable for soil grains larger than No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve size. For fine-grained soils the procedure used for determination of the grain-size distribution is hydrometer analysis. This is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains. 1.12 Weight–volume relationships Figure 1.30a shows a soil mass that has a total volume V and a total weight W . To develop the weight–volume relationships, the three phases of the soil mass, i.e., soil solids, air, and water, have been separated in Figure 1.30b. Note that W = W s + Ww (1.27) and, also, V = Vs + Vw + Va V = Vw + Va (1.28) (1.29) where Ws = weight of soil solids Ww = weight of water Vs = volume of the soil solids Vw = volume of water Va = volume of air The weight of air is assumed to be zero. The volume relations commonly used in soil mechanics are void ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation. Void ratio e is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids: e= V Vs (1.30) Porosity n is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume: Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Figure 1.30 n= 31 Weight–volume relationships for soil aggregate. V V (1.31) Also, V = Vs + Vu and so n= V /Vs e V = = Vs V Vs + V  1+e + Vs Vs (1.32) Degree of saturation Sr is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids and is generally expressed as a percentage: Sr % = Vw × 100 V (1.33) The weight relations used are moisture content and unit weight. Moisture content w is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of soil solids, generally expressed as a percentage: w% = Ww × 100 Ws (1.34) Unit weight  is the ratio of the total weight to the total volume of the soil aggregate: = W V (1.35) 32 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification This is sometimes referred to as moist unit weight since it includes the weight of water and the soil solids. If the entire void space is filled with water (i.e., Va = 0), it is a saturated soil; Eq. (1.35) will then give use the saturated unit weight sat . The dry unit weight d is defined as the ratio of the weight of soil solids to the total volume: d = Ws V (1.36) Useful weight–volume relations can be developed by considering a soil mass in which the volume of soil solids is unity, as shown in Figure 1.31. Since Vs = 1, from the definition of void ratio given in Eq. (1.30) the volume of voids is equal to the void ratio e. The weight of soil solids can be given by Ws = Gs w Vs = Gs w since Vs = 1 where Gs is the specific gravity of soil solids, and w the unit weight of 3 water 981 kN/m . From Eq. (1.34), the weight of water is Ww = wWs = wGs w . So the moist unit weight is = W + Ww G  1 + w W G  + wGs w = s = s w = s w V Vs + V  1+e 1+e Figure 1.31 Weight–volume relationship for Vs = 1. (1.37) Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification 33 The dry unit weight can also be determined from Figure 1.31 as d = G Ws = s w V 1+e (1.38) The degree of saturation can be given by Sr = wGs Vw W / wGs w /w = = w w = V V e e (1.39) For saturated soils, Sr = 1. So, from Eq. (1.39), (1.40) e = WGs By referring to Figure 1.32, the relation for the unit weight of a saturated soil can be obtained as sat = W + Ww G  + ew W = s = s w V V 1+e (1.41) Basic relations for unit weight such as Eqs. (1.37), (1.38), and (1.41) in terms of porosity n can also be derived by considering a soil mass that has a total volume of unity as shown in Figure 1.33. In this case (for V = 1), from Eq. (1.31), V = n. So, Vs = V − V = 1 − n. The weight of soil solids is equal to 1 − nGs w , and the weight of water Ww = wWs = w1 − nGs w . Thus the moist unit weight is W W + Ww 1 − nGs w + w1 − nGs w = s = V V 1 = Gs w 1 − n1 + w = Figure 1.32 Weight–volume relation for saturated soil with Vs = 1. (1.42) 34 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Figure 1.33 Weight–volume relationship for V = 1. The dry unit weight is d = Ws = 1 − nGs w V (1.43) If the soil is saturated (Figure 1.34), sat = Ws + Ww = 1 − nGs w + nw = Gs − nGs − 1w V (1.44) Table 1.5 gives some typical values of void ratios and dry unit weights encountered in granular soils. Figure 1.34 Weight–volume relationship for saturated soil with V = 1. Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification 35 Table 1.5 Typical values of void ratios and dry unit weights for granular soils Soil type Dry unit weight, d Void ratio, e Gravel Coarse sand Fine sand Standard Ottawa sand Gravelly sand Silty sand Silty sand and gravel Maximum Minimum Minimum kN/m3  Maximum kN/m3  0.6 0.75 0.85 0.8 0.7 1 0.85 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.15 16 15 14 14 15 13 14 20 19 19 17 22 19 23 Example 1.1 For a soil in natural state, given e = 08 w = 24%, and Gs = 268. (a) Determine the moist unit weight, dry unit weight, and degree of saturation. (b) If the soil is completely saturated by adding water, what would its moisture content be at that time? Also find the saturated unit weight. solution Part a: From Eq. (1.37), the moist unit weight is = Gs w 1 + w 1+e 3 Since w = 981 kN/m , = 2689811 + 024 3 = 1811 kN/m 1 + 08 From Eq. (1.38), the dry unit weight is d = 268981 G s w = = 1461 kN/m3 1+e 1 + 08 From Eq. (1.39), the degree of saturation is Sr % = 024268 wGs × 100 = × 100 = 804% e 08 Part b: From Eq. (1.40), for saturated soils, e = wGs , or w% = e 08 × 100 = × 100 = 2985% Gs 268 36 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification From Eq. (1.41), the saturated unit weight is 981268 + 08 Gs w + ew = = 1897 kN/m3 1+e 1 + 08 sat = 1.13 Relative density and relative compaction Relative density is a term generally used to describe the degree of compaction of coarse-grained soils. Relative density Dr is defined as Dr = emax − e emax − emin (1.45) where emax = maximum possible void ratio emin = minimum possible void ratio e = void ratio in natural state of soil Equation (1.45) can also be expressed in terms of dry unit weight of the soil: d max = G s w 1 + emin or emin = Gs  w −1 d max (1.46) Similarly, emax = Gs w −1 d min (1.47) and e= Gs w −1 d (1.48) where d max d min, and d are the maximum, minimum, and naturalstate dry unit weights of the soil. Substitution of Eqs. (1.46), (1.47), and (1.48) into Eq. (1.45) yields Dr = d max d − d min d d max − d min (1.49) Relative density is generally expressed as a percentage. It has been used by several investigators to correlate the angle of friction of soil, the soil liquefication potential, etc. Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification 37 Another term occasionally used in regard to the degree of compaction of coarse-grained soils is relative compaction, Rc , which is defined as Rc = d d max (1.50a) Comparing Eqs. (1.49) and (1.50a), Rc = Ro 1 − Dr 1 − Ro  (1.50b) where Ro = d min/d max. Lee and Singh (1971) reviewed 47 different soils and gave the approximate relation between relative compaction and relative density as Rc = 80 + 02Dr (1.50c) where Dr is in percent. 1.14 Effect of roundness and nonplastic fines on emax and emin for granular soils The maximum and minimum void ratios (emax and emin ) described in the preceding section depends on several factors such as the particle size, the roundness of the particles in the soil mass, and the presence of nonplastic fines. Angularity R of a granular soil particle can be defined as R= Average radius of the corner and edges Radius of the maximum inscribed sphere (1.51) Youd (1973) provided relationship between R, the uniformity coefficient Cu , and emax and emin . These relationship are shown in Figure 1.35. Note that, for a given value of R, the magnitudes of emax and emin decrease with the increase in uniformity coefficient. The amount of nonplastic fines present in a given granular soil has a great influence on emax and emin . Figure 1.36 shows a plot of the variation of emax and emin with percentage of nonplastic fines (by volume) for Nevada 50/80 sand (Lade et al., 1998). The ratio of D50 (size through which 50% of soil will pass) for the sand to that of nonplastic fines used for the tests shown in Figure 1.36 (i.e., D50-sand /D50-fine ) was 4.2. From this figure it can be seen that, as the percentage of fines by volume increased from zero to about 30%, the magnitudes of emax and emin decreased. This is the filling-of-void phase where the fines tend to fill the void spaces between the larger sand particles. There is a transition zone where the percentage of fines is between 30 and 40%. However, when the 38 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Figure 1.35 Youd’s recommended variation of emax and emin with angularity and Cu . percentage of fines becomes more than about 40%, the magnitudes of emax and emin start increasing. This is the so-called replacement-of-solids phase where the large size particles are pushed out and are gradually replaced by the fines. Cubrinovski and Ishihara (2002) studied the variation of emax and emin for a very large number of soils. Based on the best-fit linear regression lines, they provided the following relationships: • Clean sand Fc = 0 − 5% emax = 0072 + 153emin (1.52) Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Figure 1.36 • Variation of emax and emin (for Nevada 50/80 sand) with percentage of nonplastic fines based on the study of Lade et al., 1998. Sand with fines 5 < Fc ≤ 15% emax = 025 + 137emin • (1.53) Sand with fines and clay (15 < Fc ≤ 30% Pc = 5 to 20%) emax = 044 + 121emin • 39 (1.54) Silty soils (30 < Fc ≤ 70% Pc = 5 to 20%) emax = 044 + 132emin where Fc = fine fraction for which grain size is smaller than 0.075 mm Pc = clay-size fraction < 0005 mm (1.55) 40 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Figure 1.37 Plot of emax − emin versus the mean grain size. Figure 1.37 shows a plot of emax − emin versus the mean grain size D50  for a number of soils (Cubrinovski and Ishihara, 1999, 2002). From this figure, the average plot for sandy and gravelly soils can be given by the relationship emax − emin = 023 + 006 D50 mm (1.56) 1.15 Unified soil classification system Soil classification is the arrangement of soils into various groups or subgroups to provide a common language to express briefly the general usage characteristics without detailed descriptions. At the present time, two major soil classification systems are available for general engineering use. They Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification 41 are the unified system, which is described below, and the AASHTO system. Both systems use simple index properties such as grain-size distribution, liquid limit, and plasticity index of soil. The unified system of soil classification was originally proposed by A. Casagrande in 1948 and was then revised in 1952 by the Corps of Engineers and the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. In its present form, the system is widely used by various organizations, geotechnical engineers in private consulting business, and building codes. Initially, there are two major divisions in this system. A soil is classified as a coarse-grained soil (gravelly and sandy) if more than 50% is retained on a No. 200 sieve and as a fine-grained soil (silty and clayey) if 50% or more is passing through a No. 200 sieve. The soil is then further classified by a number of subdivisions, as shown in Table 1.6. Table 1.6 Unified soil classification system Major divisions Coarse-grained soils (< 50% passing No. 200 sieve) Gravels (< 50% of coarse fraction passing No. 4 sieve) Gravels with few or no fines Group symbols Typical names Criteria or classification∗ GW Well-graded gravels; gravel–sand mixtures (few or no fines) Poorly graded gravels; gravel–sand mixtures (few or no fines) Silty gravels; gravel–sand–silt mixtures Cu = GP Gravels with fines Sands (≥ 50% of coarse fraction passing No. 4 sieve) Clean sands (few or no fines) GM GC Clayey gravels; gravel–sand–clay mixtures SW Well-graded sands; gravelly sands (few or no fines) D60 > 4 D10 D30 2 D10 D60  Cc = Between 1 and 3 Not meeting the two criteria for GW Atterberg limits below A-line or plasticity index less than 4† (see Figure 1.38) Atterberg limits about A-line with plasticity index greater than 7† (see Figure 1.38) Cu = D60 > 6 D10 D30 2 D10 D60  Cc = Between 1 and 3 Table 1.6 (Continued) Major divisions Sands with fines (appreciable amount of fines) Fine-grained soils (≥ 50% passing No. 200 sieve) Silts and clay (liquid limit less than 50) Group symbols Typical names Criteria or classification∗ SP Poorly graded sands; gravelly sands (few or no fines) Silty sands; sand–silt mixtures Not meeting the two criteria for SW SM SC Clayey sands; sand–clay mixtures ML Inorganic silts; very fine sands; rock flour; silty or clayey fine sands Inorganic clays (low to medium plasticity); gravelly clays; sandy clays; silty clays; lean clays Organic silts; organic silty clays (low plasticity) Inorganic silts; micaceous or diatomaceous fine sandy or silty soils; elastic silt Inorganic clays (high plasticity); fat clays Organic clays (medium to high plasticity); organic silts Peat; mulch; and other highly organic soils CL OL Silts and clay (liquid limit greater than 50) MH CH OH Highly organic silts Pt Atterberg limits below A-line or plasticity index less than 4† (see Figure 1.38) Atterberg limits above A-line with plasticity index greater than 7† (see Figure 1.38) See Figure 1.38 See Figure 1.38 See Figure 1.38 See Figure 1.38 See Figure 1.38 See Figure 1.38 Group symbols are G. gravel: W. well-graded; S. sand; P. poorly graded; C. clay: H. high plasticity; M. silt: L. low plasticity: O. organic silt or clay: Pt. peat and highly organic soil. ∗ Classification based on percentage of fines: < 5% passing No. 200: GW. GP. SW. SP: > 12% passing No. 200: GM. GC. SM. SC: 5–12% passing No. 200: borderline—dual symbols required such as GW-GM. GW-GC. GP-GM. GP-SC. SW-SM. SW-SC. SP-SM. SP-SC. † Atterberg limits above A-line and plasticity index between 4 and 7 are borderline cases. It needs dual symbols (see Figure 1.38). Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification 43 Example 1.2 For a soil specimen, given the following, passing No. 4 sieve = 92% passing No. 10 sieve = 81% liquid limit = 48 passing No. 40 sieve = 78% passing No. 200 sieve = 65% plasticity index = 32 classify the soil by the unified classification system. solution Since more than 50% is passing through a No. 200 sieve, it is a fine-grained soil, i.e., it could be ML, CL, OL, MH, CH, or OH. Now, if we plot LL = 48 and PI = 32 on the plasticity chart given in Figure 1.38, it falls in the zone CL. So the soil is classified as CL. Figure 1.38 Plasticity chart. 44 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification PROBLEMS 1.1 For a given soil, the in situ void ratio is 0.72 and Gs = 261. Calculate the 3 porosity, dry unit weight kN/m , and the saturated unit weight. What would the moist unit weight be when the soil is 60% saturated? 1.2 A saturated clay soil has a moisture content of 40%. Given that Gs = 278, calculate the dry unit weight and saturated unit weight of the soil. Calculate the porosity of the soil. 1.3 For an undisturbed soil, the total volume is 0145 m3 , the moist weight is 2.67 kN, the dry weight is 2.32 kN, and the void ratio is 0.6. Calculate the moisture content, dry unit weight, moist unit weight, degree of saturation, porosity, and Gs . 3 1.4 If a granular soil is compacted to a moist unit weight of 2045 kN/m at a moisture content of 18%, what is the relative density of the compacted soil, given emax = 085 emin = 042, and Gs = 265? 1.5 For Prob. 1.4, what is the relative compaction? 1.6 From the results of a sieve analysis given below, plot a graph for percent finer versus grain size and then determine (a) the effective size, (b) the uniformity coefficient, and (c) the coefficient of gradation. U.S. sieve No. Mass of soil retained on each sieve (g) 4 10 20 40 60 100 200 Pan 12
0 48
4 92
5 156
5 201
2 106
8 162
4 63
2 Would you consider this to be a well-graded soil? 1.7 The grain-size distribution curve for a soil is given in Figure P1.1. Determine the percent of gravel, sand, silt, and clay present in this sample according to the M.I.T. soil–separate size limits Table 1.1. 1.8 For a natural silty clay, the liquid limit is 55, the plastic limit is 28, and the percent finer than 0.002 mm is 29%. Estimate its activity. 1.9 Classify the following soils according to the unified soil classification system. Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification 45 Figure P1.1 Soil LL PL Percent passing U.S. sieve No. 4 No. 10 No. 20 No. 40 No. 60 No. 100 No. 200 A B C D E F 94 98 98 100 80 100 63 80 86 49 60 100 21 65 50 40 48 98 10 55 28 38 31 93 7 40 18 26 25 88 5 35 14 18 18 83 3 30 20 10 8 77 NP 28 18 NP NP NP 63 48 References American Society for Testing and Materials, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, sec. 4, vol. 04.08, West Conshohocken, PA, 2006. Atterberg, A., Uber die Physikalische Bodenuntersuschung und Uber die Plastizitat der Tone, Int. Mitt. Bodenkunde, vol. 1, p. 5, 1911. Bolt, G. H., Analysis of Validity of Gouy-Chapman Theory of the Electric Double Layer, J. Colloid Sci, vol. 10, p. 206, 1955. Bolt, G. H., Physical Chemical Analysis of Compressibility of Pure Clay, Geotechnique, vol. 6, p. 86, 1956. Casagrande, A., Classification and Identification of Soils, Trans. ASCE, vol. 113, 1948. Cubrinovski, M. and K. Ishihara, Empirical Correlation between SPT N-Value and Relative Density for Sandy Soils, Soils and Foundations, vol. 39, no. 5, pp. 61–71, 1999. 46 Soil aggregate, plasticity, and classification Cubrinovski, M. and K. Ishihara, Maximum and Minimum Void Ratio Characteristics of Sands, Soils and Foundations, vol. 42, no. 6, pp. 65–78, 2002. Lade, P. V., C. D. Liggio, and J. A. Yamamuro, Effect of Non-Plastic Fines on Minimum and Maximum Void Ratios of Sand, Geotech. Testing J., ASTM, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 336–347, 1998. Lambe, T. W., Compacted Clay: Structure, Trans. ASCE, vol. 125, pp. 682–717, 1960. Lee, K. L. and A. Singh, Relative Density and Relative Compaction, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. vol. 97, no. SM7, pp. 1049–1052, 1971. Seed, H. B., R. J. Woodward, and R. Lundgren, Clay Minerological Aspects of the Atterberg Limits, J. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. vol. 90, no. SM4, pp. 107–131, 1964a. Seed, H. B., R. J. Woodward, and R. Lundgren, Fundamental Aspects of Atterberg Limits, J. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. vol. 90, no. SM6, pp. 75–105, 1964b. Skempton, A. W., The Colloidal Activity of Clay, Proc. 3d Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., vol. 1, pp. 57–61, 1953. Sridharan, A., H. B. Nagaraj, and K. Prakash, Determination of the Plasticity Index from Flow Index, Geotech. Testing J., ASTM, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 175–181, 1999. Verweg, E. J. W. and J. Th. G. Overbeek, Theory of Stability of Lyophobic Collolids, Elsevier-North Holland, Amsterdam, 1948. Wroth, C. P. and D. M. Wood, The Correlation of Index Properties with Some Basic Engineering Properties of Soils, Can. Geotech. J., vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 137–145, 1978. Youd, T. L., Factors Controlling Maximum and Minimum Densities of Sand, Spec. Tech. Pub. 523, ASTM, pp. 98–122, 1973. Chapter 2 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium 2.1 Introduction An important function in the study of soil mechanics is to predict the stresses and strains imposed at a given point in a soil mass due to certain loading conditions. This is necessary to estimate settlement and to conduct stability analysis of earth and earth-retaining structures, as well as to determine stress conditions on underground and earth-retaining structures. An idealized stress–strain diagram for a material is shown in Figure 2.1. At low stress levels the strain increases linearly with stress (branch ab), which is the elastic range of the material. Beyond a certain stress level the material reaches a plastic state, and the strain increases with no further increase in stress (branch bc). The theories of stresses and strains presented in this chapter are for the elastic range only. In determining stress and strain in a soil medium, one generally resorts to the principles of the theory of elasticity, although soil in nature is not fully homogeneous, elastic, or isotropic. However, the results derived from the elastic theories can be judiciously applied to the problem of soil mechanics. 2.2 Basic definition and sign conventions for stresses An elemental soil mass with sides measuring dx, dy, and dz is shown in Figure 2.2. Parameters
x 
y , and
z are the normal stresses acting on the planes normal to the x, y, and z axes, respectively. The normal stresses are considered positive when they are directed onto the surface. Parameters xy  yx  yz  zy  zx , and xz are shear stresses. The notations for the shear stresses follow. If ij is a shear stress, it means the stress is acting on a plane normal to the i axis, and its direction is parallel to the j axis. A shear stress ij is considered positive if it is directed in the negative j direction while acting on a plane whose outward normal is the positive i direction. For example, Figure 2.1 Idealized stress–strain diagram. Figure 2.2 Notations for normal and shear stresses in Cartesian coordinate system. Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium 49 all shear stresses are positive in Figure 2.2. For equilibrium, xy = yx xz = zz yz = zy (2.1) (2.2) (2.3) Figure 2.3 shows the notations for the normal and shear stresses in the polar coordinate system (two-dimensional case). For this case,
r and
 are the normal stresses, and r and r are the shear stresses. For equilibrium, r = r . Similarly, the notations for stresses in the cylindrical coordinate system are shown in Figure 2.4. Parameters
r 
 , and
z are the normal stresses, and the shear stresses are r =
r 
z =
z , and rz = zr . 2.3 Equations of static equilibrium Figure 2.5 shows the stresses acting on an elemental soil mass with sides measuring dx, dy, and dz. Let  be the unit weight of the soil. For equilibrium, summing the forces in the x direction, Figure 2.3 Notations for normal and shear stresses in polar coordinate system. 50 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium Figure 2.4  Notations for normal and shear stresses in cylindrical coordinates.    


x zx dx dy dz + zx − zx + dz dx dy Fx =
x −
x + x z  
yx + yx − yx + dy dx dz = 0 y or 
x yx zx + + =0 x y z Similarly, along the y direction, 
y xy zy + + =0 y x z Along the z direction, (2.4) Fy = 0, or (2.5) Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium 51 Figure 2.5 Derivation of equations of equilibrium.    

xz 
z dz dx dy + xz − xz + dx dy dz Fz =
z −
z + z x  
yz + yz − yz + dy dx dz + dx dy dz = 0 y The last term of the preceding equation is the self-weight of the soil mass. Thus 
z xz yz + + − = 0 z x y (2.6) Equations (2.4)–(2.6) are the static equilibrium equations in the Cartesian coordinate system. These equations are written in terms of total stresses. 52 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium They may, however, be written in terms of effective stresses as
x =
x′ + u =
x′ + w h (2.7) where
x′ = effective stress u = pore water pressure w = unit weight of water h = pressure head Thus 
x 
′ x h = + w x x x (2.8) Similarly, 
y′ 
y h = + w y y y (2.9) 
′ 
z h = z + w z z z (2.10) and Substitution of the proper terms in Eqs. (2.4)–(2.6) results in 
x′ yx zx h + + + w =0 x y z x 
y′ y + xy zy h + + w =0 x z y 
z′ xz yz h + + + w −  ′ = 0 z x y z (2.11) (2.12) (2.13) where  ′ is the effective unit weight of soil. Note that the shear stresses will not be affected by the pore water pressure. In soil mechanics, a number of problems can be solved by twodimensional stress analysis. Figure 2.6 shows the cross-section of an elemental soil prism of unit length with the stresses acting on its faces. The static equilibrium equations for this condition can be obtained from Eqs. (2.4), (2.5), and (2.6) by substituting xy = yx = 0 yz = zy = 0, and 
y /y = 0. Note that xz = zx . Thus Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium 53 Figure 2.6 Derivation of static equilibrium equation for two-dimensional problem in Cartesian coordinates. 
x xz + =0 x z 
z xz + − = 0 z x (2.14) (2.15) Figure 2.7 shows an elemental soil mass in polar coordinates. Parameters
r and
 are the normal components of stress in the radial and tangential directions, and r and r are the shear stresses. In order to obtain the static equations of equilibrium, the forces in the radial and tangential directions need to be considered. Thus 
   
r Fr =
r r d −
r + dr r + dr d r  
 
+
 dr sin d/2 +
 +  d dr sin d/2    
r d dr cos d/2 + r dr cos d/2 − r +  +  r d dr cos  = 0 Taking sin d/2 ≈ d/2 and cos d/2 ≈ 1, neglecting infinitesimally small quantities of higher order, and noting that 
r r/r = r
r /r +
r and r = r , the above equation yields 54 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium Figure 2.7 Derivation of static equilibrium equation for two-dimensional problem in polar coordinates. 
r 1 r
r −
 + + −  cos  = 0 r r  r (2.16) Similarly, the static equation of equilibrium obtained by adding the components of forces in the tangential direction is 1 
 r 2r + + +  sin  = 0 r  r r (2.17) The stresses in the cylindrical coordinate system on a soil element are shown in Figure 2.8. Summing the forces in the radial, tangential, and vertical directions, the following relations are obtained: 
r 1 r zr
r −
 + + + =0 r r  z r (2.18) r 1 
 z 2r + + + =0 r r  z r (2.19) zr 1 z 
z zr + + + − = 0 r r  z r (2.20) Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium 55 Figure 2.8 Equilibrium equations in cylindrical coordinates. 2.4 Concept of strain Consider an elemental volume of soil as shown in Figure 2.9a. Owing to the application of stresses, point A undergoes a displacement such that its components in the x, y, and z directions are u, , and w, respectively. The adjacent point B undergoes displacements of u + u/x dx  + /x dx, and w + w/x dx in the x, y, and z directions, respectively. So the change in the length AB in the x direction is u + u/x dx − u = u/x dx. Hence the strain in the x direction, x , can be given as ∈x = 1 dx
 u u dx = x x (2.21) 56 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium Figure 2.9 Concept of strain. Similarly, the strains in the y and z directions can be written as ∈y =  y (2.22) ∈z = w z (2.23) where ∈y and ∈z are the strains in the y and z directions, respectively. Owing to stress application, sides AB and AC of the element shown in Figure 2.9a undergo a rotation as shown in Figure 2.9b (see A′ B′′ and A′ C ′′ ). The small change in angle for side AB is 1 , the magnitude of which may be given as /x dx1/dx = /x, and the magnitude of the change in angle 2 for side AC is u/y dy1/dy = u/y. The shear strain xy is equal to the sum of the change in angles 1 and 2 . Therefore xy = u  + y x (2.24) Similarly, the shear strains xz and yz can be derived as xz = u w + z x (2.25) yz =  w + z y (2.26) and Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium 57 Generally, in soil mechanics the compressive normal strains are considered positive. For shear strain, if there is an increase in the right angle BAC (Figure 2.9b), it is considered positive. As shown in Figure 2.9b, the shear strains are all negative. 2.5 Hooke’s law The axial strains for an ideal, elastic, isotropic material in terms of the stress components are given by Hooke’s law as 1 u = 
− 
y +
z  x E x 1  = 
y − 
x +
z  ∈y = y E ∈x = (2.27) (2.28) and ∈z = w 1 = 
z − 
x +
y  z E (2.29) where E is Young’s modulus and  Poisson’s ratio. From the relations given by Eqs. (2.27), (2.28), and (2.29), the stress components can be expressed as   E E ∈ ∈ x + ∈y + ∈z + 1 + 1 − 2 1+ x   E E
y = ∈ + ∈y + ∈z + ∈ 1 + 1 − 2 x 1+ y   E E
z = ∈ ∈ x + ∈y + ∈z + 1 + 1 − 2 1+ z
x = (2.30) (2.31) (2.32) The shear strains in terms of the stress components are xy G xz xz = G xy = (2.33) (2.34) and yz = yz G (2.35) where shear modulus, G= E 21 +  (2.36) 58 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium 2.6 Plane strain problems A state of stress generally encountered in many problems in soil mechanics is the plane strain condition. Long retaining walls and strip foundations are examples where plane strain conditions are encountered. Referring to Figure 2.10, for the strip foundation, the strain in the y direction is zero (i.e., ∈y = 0). The stresses at all sections in the xz plane are the same, and the shear stresses on these sections are zero (i.e., yx = xy = 0 and yz = zy = 0). Thus, from Eq. (2.28), 1 
− 
x +
z  E y
y = 
x +
z  ∈y = 0 = (2.37) Substituting Eq. (2.37) into Eqs. (2.27) and (2.29) ∈x = 1 − 2  

x − E 1− z (2.38) ∈z =  1 − 2 
z −
E 1− x (2.39) and Since xy = 0 and yz = 0, xy = 0 Figure 2.10 yz = 0 Strip foundation—plane strain problem. (2.40) Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium 59 and xz = xz G (2.41) Compatibility equation The three strain components given by Eqs. (2.38), (2.39), and (2.41) are functions of the displacements u and w and are not independent of each other. Hence a relation should exist such that the strain components give single-valued continuous solutions. It can be obtained as follows. From Eq. (2.21), ∈x = u/x. Differentiating twice with respect to z, 2∈x 3 u = 2 z x z2 (2.42) From Eq. (2.23), ∈z = w/z. Differentiating twice with respect to x, 2∈z 3 w = x2 z x2 (2.43) Similarly, differentiating xz [Eq. (2.25)] with respect to x and z, 3 u 2 xz 3 w = + 2 2 x z x z x z (2.44) Combining Eqs. (2.42), (2.43), and (2.44), we obtain 2∈x 2∈z 2 xz + = z2 x2 x z (2.45) Equation (2.45) is the compatibility equation in terms of strain components. Compatibility equations in terms of the stress components can also be derived. Let E ′ = E/1 −  2 and  ′ = /1 − . So, from Eq. (2.38), ∈x = 1/E ′ 
x −  ′
z . Hence 1 2∈x = ′ z2 E
 2
x 2
−  ′ 2z 2 z z  (2.46) Similarly, from Eq. (2.39), ∈z = 1/E ′ 
z −  ′
x . Thus 2∈z 1 = ′ 2 x E
2  2
z ′ 
x −  x2 x2  (2.47) 60 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium Again, from Eq. (2.41), 21 +  21 +  ′  xz = xz = xz G E E′ 21 +  ′  2 xz 2 xz = x z E′ x z xz = (2.48) Substitution of Eqs. (2.46), (2.47), and (2.48) into Eq. (2.45) yields
2  2
x 2
z 
z  2
x 2 xz ′ (2.49) + − v + = 21 + v′  2 2 2 2 z x z x x z or From Eqs. (2.14) and (2.15),

  
x xz  
z xz + + + − = 0 x x z z z x 
2 2 xz  
x  2
z 2 =− + 2 +  2 x z x z z (2.50) Combining Eqs. (2.49) and (2.50),
2   2  + 
x +
z  = 1 +  ′   x2 z2 z For weightless materials, or for a constant unit weight , the above equation becomes
2   2 + (2.51) 
x +
z  = 0 x2 z2 Equation (2.51) is the compatibility equation in terms of stress. Stress function For the plane strain condition, in order to determine the stress at a given point due to a given load, the problem reduces to solving the equations of equilibrium together with the compatibility equation [Eq. (2.51)] and the boundary conditions. For a weight-less medium (i.e.,  = 0) the equations of equilibrium are 
x xz + =0 x z 
z xz + =0 z x (2.14′ ) (2.15′ ) Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium 61 The usual method of solving these problems is to introduce a stress function referred to as Airy’s stress function. The stress function  in terms of x and z should be such that 2  z2 2 
z = 2 x 2  xz = − x z
x = (2.52) (2.53) (2.54) The above equations will satisfy the equilibrium equations. When Eqs. (2.52)–(2.54) are substituted into Eq. (2.51), we get 4  4  4  + 2 + =0 x4 x2 z2 z4 (2.55) So, the problem reduces to finding a function  in terms of x and z such that it will satisfy Eq. (2.55) and the boundary conditions. Compatibility equation in polar coordinates For solving plane strain problems in polar coordinates, assuming the soil to be weightless (i.e.,  = 0), the equations of equilibrium are [from Eqs. (2.16) and (2.17)] 
r 1 r
r −
 + + =0 r r  r 1 
 r 2r + + =0 r  r r The compatibility equation in terms of stresses can be given by
2   1 2 1  + + 
r +
  = 0 r 2 r r r 2 2 (2.56) The Airy stress function  should be such that 1  1 2  + r r r 2 2 2 
 = 2 r
 1  1 2   1  r = 2 − =− r  r r  r r 
r = (2.57) (2.58) (2.59) 62 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium The above equations satisfy the equilibrium equations. The compatibility equation in terms of stress function is
1 2 1  2 + + r 2 r r r 2 2 
2  1  1 2  + + r 2 r r r 2 2  =0 (2.60) Similar to Eq. (2.37), for the plane strain condition,
y = 
r +
  Example 2.1 The stress at any point inside a semi-infinite medium due to a line load of intensity q per unit length (Figure 2.11) can be given by a stress function  = Ax tan−1 z/x where A is a constant. This equation satisfies the compatibility equation [Eq. (2.55)]. a Find
x 
z 
y , and xz . b Applying proper boundary conditions, find A. Figure 2.11 Stress at a point due to a line load. Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium 63 solution Part a:  = Ax tan−1 z/x The relations for
x 
z , and xz are given in Eqs. (2.52), (2.53), and (2.54).
x = 2  z2  1 A 1 = Ax = z 1 + z/x2 x 1 + z/x2
x =
z = 2  2Azx2 =− 2 2 z x + z2 2 2  x2 Az Axz  z z = A tan−1 − = A tan−1 − 2 x x 1 + z/x2 x x x + z2 
z = z A Az 2Ax2 z 2  =− − 2 + 2 2 2 2 2 x 1 + z/x x x +z x + z2 2 =− Az Az 2Ax2 z 2Az3 − + = − x2 + z2 x2 + z2 x2 + z2 2 x2 + z2 2 zx = − 2  x z Axz  z = A tan−1 − 2 x x x + z2  A Ax 2  1 2Axz2 = − 2 + 2 2 2 x z 1 + z/x x x + z x + z2 2 or 2  2Axz2 = 2 x z x + z2 2 2Axz2 2  =− 2 x z x + z2 2   2Az3 2Azx2 −
y = 
x +
z  =  − 2 x + z2 2 x2 + z2 2 xz = − =− 2Az 2Az x2 + z2  = − 2 2 2 2 x + z  x + z2  64 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium Part b: Consider a unit length along the y direction. We can write q= + − 
z 1dx = + − − 2Az3 x2 + z2 2 dx
+ dx x 2Az3 + 2z2 x2 + z2 x2 + z2 −
+ x 1 −1 x = −A/2 + /2 = −A + tan = −Az x2 + z2 z z − q A=−  =− So
x = 2qx2 z x2 + z2 2
z = 2qz3 x2 + z2 2 xz = 2qxz2 x2 + z2 2 We can see that at z = 0 (i.e., at the surface) and for any value of x = 0
x 
z , and xz are equal to zero. 2.7 Equations of compatibility for three-dimensional problems For three-dimensional problems in the Cartesian coordinate system as shown in Figure 2.2, the compatibility equations in terms of stresses are (assuming the body force to be zero or constant)  2
x +  2
y +  2
z +  2 xy +  2 yz +  2 xz + 1 2 =0 1 +  x2 1 2 =0 1 +  y2 1 2 =0 1 +  z2 1 2 =0 1 +  x y 1 2 =0 1 +  y z 1 2 =0 1 +  x z (2.61) (2.62) (2.63) (2.64) (2.65) (2.66) Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium 65 where 2 = 2 2 2 + + x2 y2 z2 and =
x +
y +
z The compatibility equations in terms of stresses for the cylindrical coordinate system (Figure 2.4) are as follows (for constant or zero body force):  2
z + 1 2 =0 1 +  z2 2 1 2 4  − 2 r + 2 
 +
r  = 0 2 1 +  r r  r 
4  1 1 2 2 1 + 2 2 + 2 r − 2 
 +
r  = 0  2
 + 1 +  r r r  r  r  2
r +  2  1 2 − rz2 − 2 z = 0 1 +  r z r r 
 4 1  1 2   2 r + − 2 r − 2 
 −
r  = 0 1 +  r r  r r   2 rz +  2 z + 2 rz z 1 1 2 + − 2 =0 1 +  r  z r  r (2.67) (2.68) (2.69) (2.70) (2.71) (2.72) 2.8 Stresses on an inclined plane and principal stresses for plane strain problems The fundamentals of plane strain problems is explained in Sec. 2.5. For these problems, the strain in the y direction is zero (i.e., yx = xy = 0 yz = zy = 0) and
y is constant for all sections in the plane. If the stresses at a point in a soil mass [i.e.,
x 
y 
z  xz = zx ] are known (as shown in Figure 2.12a), the normal stress
and the shear stress  on an inclined plane BC can be determined by considering a soil prism of unit length in the direction of the y axis. Summing the components of all forces in the n direction (Figure 2.12b) gives  Fn = 0
dA = 
x cos dA cos  + 
z sin dA sin  +xz sin dA cos  + xz cos dA sin  66 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium Figure 2.12 Stresses on an inclined plane for plane strain case. where dA is the area of the inclined face of the prism. Thus
=
x cos2  +
z sin2  + 2xz sin  cos 


x +
z
x −
z = + cos 2 + xz sin 2 2 2 (2.73) Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium 67 Similarly, summing the forces in the s direction gives  Fs = 0  dA = − 
x sin  dA cos  + 
z cos dA sin  + xz cos dA cos  − xz sin dA sin   = −
x sin  cos  +
z sin  cos  + xz cos2  − sin2 
−
z sin 2 = xz cos 2 − x 2 (2.74) Note that
y has no contribution to
or . Transformation of stress components from polar to Cartesian coordinate system In some instances, it is helpful to know the relations for transformation of stress components in the polar coordinate system to the Cartesian coordinate system. This can be done by a principle similar to that demonstrated above for finding the stresses on an inclined plane. Comparing Figures 2.12 and 2.13, it is obvious that we can substitute
r for
z 
 for
x , and r for xz in Eqs. (2.73) and (2.74) to obtain
x and xz as shown in Figure 2.13. So
x =
r sin2  +
 cos2  + 2r sin  cos  xz = −
 sin  cos  +
r sin  cos  + r cos2  − sin2  (2.75) (2.76) Similarly, it can be shown that
z =
r cos2  +
 sin2  − 2r sin  cos  (2.77) Principal stress A plane is defined as a principal plane if the shear stress acting on it is zero. This means that the only stress acting on it is a normal stress. The normal stress on a principal plane is referred to as the principal stress. In a plane strain case,
y is a principal stress, and the xz plane is a principal plane. The orientation of the other two principal planes can be determined by considering Eq. (2.74). On an inclined plane, if the shear stress is zero, it follows that
x −
z sin 2 xz cos 2 = 2 2xz tan 2 = (2.78)
x −
z 68 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium Figure 2.13 Transformation of stress components from polar to Cartesian coordinate system. From Eq. (2.78), it can be seen that there are two values of  at right angles to each other that will satisfy the relation. These are the directions of the two principal planes BC ′ and BC ′′ as shown in Figure 2.12. Note that there are now three principal planes that are at right angles to each other. Besides
y , the expressions for the two other principal stresses can be obtained by substituting Eq. (2.78) into Eq. (2.73), which gives
p1 =
x +
z + 2
x −
z 2 2
p3 =
x +
z + 2
x −
z 2 2 2 + xz (2.79) 2 + xz (2.80) where
p1 and
p3 are the principal stresses. Also
p1 +
p3 =
x +
z (2.81) Comparing the magnitude of the principal stresses,
p1 >
y =
p2 >
p3 . Thus
p1 
p2 , and
p3 are referred to as the major, intermediate, and minor principal stresses. From Eqs. (2.37) and (2.81), it follows that
y = 
p1 +
p3  (2.82) Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium 69 Mohr’s circle for stresses The shear and normal stresses on an inclined plane (Figure 2.12) can also be determined graphically by using Mohr’s circle. The procedure to construct Mohr’s circle is explained below. The sign convention for normal stress is positive for compression and negative for tension. The shear stress on a given plane is positive if it tends to produce a clockwise rotation about a point outside the soil element, and it is negative if it tends to produce a counterclockwise rotation about a point outside the element (Figure 2.14). Referring to plane AB in Figure 2.12a, the normal stress is +
x and the shear stress is +xz . Similarly, on plane AC, the stresses are +
z and −xz . The stresses on plane AB and AC can be plotted on a graph with normal stresses along the abcissa and shear stresses along the ordinate. Points B and C in Figure 2.15 refer to the stress conditions on planes AB and AC, respectively. Now, if points B and C are joined by a straight line, it will intersect the normal stress axis at O′ . With O′ as the center and O′ B as the radius, if a circle BP1 CP3 is drawn, it will be Mohr’s circle. The radius of Mohr’s circle is O′ B =  O′ D2 + BD2 =
x −
z 2 2 2 + xz (2.83) Any radial line in Mohr’s circle represents a given plane, and the coordinates of the points of intersection of the radial line and the circumference Figure 2.14 Sign convention for shear stress used for the construction of Mohr’s circle. 70 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium of Mohr’s circle give the stress condition on that plane. For example, let us find the stresses on plane BC. If we start from plane AB and move an angle  in the clockwise direction in Figure 2.12, we reach plane BC. In Mohr’s circle in Figure 2.15 the radial line O′ B represents the plane AB. We move an angle 2 in the clockwise direction to reach point F . Now the radial line O′ F in Figure 2.15 represents plane BC in Figure 2.12. The coordinates of point F will give us the stresses on the plane BC. Note that the ordinates of points P1 and P3 are zero, which means that O′ P1 and O′ P3 represent the major and minor principal planes, and OP1 =
p1 and OP3 =
p3 :
p1 = OP1 = OO′ + O′ P1 =
x +
z + 2
x −
z 2 2
p3 = OP3 = OO′ − O′ P3 =
x +
z − 2
x −
z 2 2 2 + xz 2 + xz The above two relations are the same as Eqs. (2.79) and (2.80). Also note that the principal plane O′ P1 in Mohr’s circle can be reached by moving clockwise from O′ B through angle BO′ P1 = tan−1 2xz /
x −
z . The other principal plane O′ P3 can be reached by moving through angle 180 + tan−1 2xz /
x −
z  in the clockwise direction from O′ B. So, in Figure 2.12, Figure 2.15 Mohr’s circle. Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium 71 if we move from plane AB through angle (1/2) tan−1 2xz /
x −
z , we will reach plane BC ′ , on which the principal stress
p1 acts. Similarly, moving clockwise from plane AB through angle 1/2!180 + tan−1 2xz /
x −
z " = 90 + 1/2 tan−1 2xz /
x −
z  in Figure 2.12, we reach plane BC ′′ , on which the principal stress
p3 acts. These are the same conclusions as derived from Eq. (2.78). Pole method for finding stresses on an inclined plane A pole is a unique point located on the circumference of Mohr’s circle. If a line is drawn through the pole parallel to a given plane, the point of intersection of this line and Mohr’s circle will give the stresses on the plane. The procedure for finding the pole is shown in Figure 2.16. Figure 2.16a shows the same stress element as Figure 2.12. The corresponding Mohr’s circle is given in Figure 2.16b. Point B on Mohr’s circle represents the stress conditions on plane AB (Figure 2.16a). If a line is drawn through B parallel to AB, it will intersect Mohr’s circle at P . Point P is the pole for Mohr’s circle. We could also have found pole P by drawing a line through C parallel to plane AC. To find the stresses on plane BC, we draw a line through P parallel to BC. It will intersect Mohr’s circle at F , and the coordinates of point F will give the normal and shear stresses on plane AB. Figure 2.16 Pole method of finding stresses on an inclined plane. 72 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium Example 2.2 The stresses at a point in a soil mass are shown in Figure 2.17 (plane strain case). Determine the principal stresses and show their directions. Use v = 035. solution Based on the sign conventions explained in Sec. 2.2, 2
z = +100 kN/m 
x = +50 kN/m2  and xz = −25 kN/m2
x −
z 2 2 + xz 2 
 50 − 100 2 50 + 100 ± + −252 = 75 ± 3536 kN/m2 = 2 2
p =
x +
z ± 2
p1 = 11036 kN/m2
p3 = 3964 kN/m2
p2 = 
p1 +
p3  = 03511036 + 3934 = 525 kN/m2 Figure 2.17 Determination of principal stresses at a point. Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium 73 From Eq. (2.78), tan 2 = 2xz 2−25 = =1
x −
z 50 − 100 2 = tan−1 1 = 45 and 225 so  = 225 and 1125 Parameter
p2 is acting on the xz plane. The directions of
p1 and
p3 are shown in Figure 2.17. Example 2.3 Refer to Example 2.2. a Determine the magnitudes of
p1 and
p3 by using Mohr’s circle. b Determine the magnitudes of the normal and shear stresses on plane AC shown in Figure 2.17. 2 solution Part a: For Mohr’s circle, on plane AB,
x = 50 kN/m and 2 2 2 xz = −25 kN/m . On plane BC
z = +100 kN/m and +25 kN/m . For the stresses, Mohr’s circle is plotted in Figure 2.18. The radius of the circle is   O′ H = O′ I2 + HI2 = 252 + 252 = 3536 kN/m2
p1 = OO′ + O′ P1 = 75 + 3536 = 11036 kN/m2
p3 = OO′ − O′ P1 = 75 − 3536 = 3964 kN/m2 The angle GO′ P3 = 2 = tan−1 JG/O′ J = tan−1 25/25 = 45 . So we move an angle  = 225 clockwise from plane AB to reach the minor principal plane, and an angle  = 225 + 90 = 1125 clockwise from plane AB to reach the major principal plane. The orientation of the major and minor principal stresses is shown in Figure 2.17. Part b: Plane AC makes an angle 35 , measured clockwise, with plane AB. If we move through an angle of 235  = 70 from the radial line O′ G (Figure 2.18), we reach the radial line O′ K. The coordinates of K will give the normal and shear stresses on plane AC. So  = O′ K sin 25 = 3536 sin 25 = 1494 kN/m2
= OO′ − O′ K cos 25 = 75 − 3536 cos 25 = 4295 kN/m2 74 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium Figure 2.18 Mohr’s circle for stress determination. Note: This could also be solved using Eqs. (2.73) and (2.74):  = xz cos 2 −
x −
z sin 2 2 2 2 where xz = −25 kN/m   = 35 
x = +50 kN/m , and
z = +100 kN/m (watch the sign conventions). So  = −25 cos 70 −
 50 − 100 sin 70 = −855 − −2349 2 = 1494 kN/m2 

−
z
x +
z + x cos 2 + xz sin 2
= 2 2

 50 + 100 50 − 100 = + cos 70 + −25 sin 70 2 2 = 75 − 855 − 2349 = 4296 kN/m2 2 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium 75 2.9 Strains on an inclined plane and principal strain for plane strain problems Consider an elemental soil prism ABDC of unit length along the y direction (Figure 2.19). The lengths of the prism along the x and z directions are AB = dx and AC = dz, respectively. When subjected to stresses, the soil prism is deformed and displaced. The length in the y direction still remains unity. A′ B′′ D′′ C ′′ is the deformed shape of the prism in the displaced position. If the normal strain on an inclined plane AD making an angle # with the x axis is equal to ∈, A′ D′′ = AD1+ ∈ = dl1+ ∈ (2.84) where AD = dl. Note that the angle B′′ AC ′′ is equal to /2 − xz . So the angle A′ C ′′ D′′ is equal to /2 + xz . Now A′ D′′ 2 = A′ C ′′ 2 + C ′′ D′′ 2 − 2A′ C ′′ C ′′ D′′  cos/2 + xz  ′ ′′ A C = AC1+ ∈z  = dz1+ ∈z  = dlsin 1+ ∈z  C ′′ D′′ = A′ B′′ = dx1+ ∈x  = dlcos 1+ ∈x  (2.85) (2.86) (2.87) Substitution of Eqs. (2.84), (2.86), and (2.87) into Eq. (2.85) gives 1+ ∈2 dl2 = dlsin 1+ ∈z 2 + dlcos 1+ ∈x 2 + 2dl2 sin cos 1+ ∈x 1+ ∈z  sin xz Figure 2.19 (2.88) Normal and shear strains on an inclined plane (plane strain case). 76 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium Taking sin xz ≈ xz and neglecting the higher order terms of strain such as ∈2  ∈2x  ∈2z  ∈xxz  ∈zxz  ∈x∈z xz , Eq. (2.88) can be simplified to 1 + 2 ∈ = 1 + 2 ∈z  sin2  + 1 + 2 ∈x  cos2  + 2xz sin  cos   ∈ = ∈x cos2 + ∈z sin2  + xz sin 2 2 (2.89) or ∈= ∈x + ∈z ∈x − ∈z  + cos 2 + xz sin 2 2 2 2 (2.90) Similarly, the shear strain on plane AD can be derived as  = xz cos 2 − ∈x − ∈z  sin 2 (2.91) Comparing Eqs. (2.90) and (2.91) with Eqs. (2.73) and (2.74), it appears that they are similar except for a factor of 1/2 in the last terms of the equations. The principal strains can be derivèd by substituting zero for shear strain in Eq. (2.91). Thus tan 2 = xz ∈x − ∈ y (2.92) There are two values of  that will satisfy the above relation. Thus from Eqs. (2.90) and (2.92), we obtain ∈p = ∈x + ∈ z ± 2 ∈x − ∈ z 2 2 + xz 2 2 (2.93) where ∈p = principal strain. Also note that Eq. (2.93) is similar to Eqs. (2.79) and (2.80). 2.10 Stress components on an inclined plane, principal stress, and octahedral stresses—three-dimensional case Stress on an inclined plane Figure 2.20 shows a tetrahedron AOBC. The face AOB is on the xy plane with stresses,
z  zy , and zx acting on it. The face AOC is on the yz plane subjected to stresses
x  xy , and xz . Similarly, the face BOC is on the xz plane with stresses
y  yx , and yz . Let it be required to find the x, y, and z components of the stresses acting on the inclined plane ABC. Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium Figure 2.20 77 Stresses on an inclined plane—three-dimensional case. Let i, j, and k be the unit vectors in the x, y, and z directions, and let s be the unit vector in the direction perpendicular to the inclined plane ABC: s = coss xi + coss yj + coss zk (2.94) If the area of ABC is dA, then the area of AOC can be given as dAs · i = dA coss x. Similarly, the area of BOC = dAs · j = dA coss y, and the area of AOB = dAs · k = dA coss z. For equilibrium, summing the forces in the x direction, Fx = 0: psx dA = 
x coss x + yx coss y + zx coss zdA or psx =
x coss x + yx coss y + zx coss z (2.95) where psx is the stress component on plane ABC in the x direction. Similarly, summing the forces in the y and z directions, psy = xy coss x +
y coss y + zy coss z psz = xz coss x + yz coss y +
z coss z (2.96) (2.97) 78 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium where psy and psz are the stress components on plane ABC in the y and z directions, respectively. Equations (2.95), (2.96), and (2.97) can be expressed in matrix form as      psx  
x yx zx  coss x      psy  =  xy
y zy   coss y  (2.98)      psz   xz yz
z   coss z  The normal stress on plane ABC can now be determined as
= psx coss x + psy coss y + psz coss z =
x cos2 s x +
y cos2 s y +
z cos2 s z + 2xy coss x coss y + 2yz coss y coss z + 2zx coss x coss z The shear stress  on the plane can be given as  2 + p2 + p2  −
2  = psx sz sy (2.99) (2.100) Transformation of axes Let the stresses in a soil mass in the Cartesian coordinate system be given. If the stress components in a new set of orthogonal axes x1  y1  z1  as shown in Figure 2.21 are required, they can be determined in the following manner. The direction cosines of the x1  y1 , and z1 axes with respect to the x, y, and z axes are shown: x y z x1 l1 m1 n1 y1 l2 m2 n2 z1 l3 m3 n3 Following the procedure adopted to obtain Eq. (2.98), we can write      px x  
x yx zx   l1   1     px y  =  xy
y zy  m1  (2.101)    1   px z   xz yz
z   n1  1 where px1 x  px1 y , and px1 z are stresses parallel to the x, y, and z axes and are acting on the plane perpendicular to the x1 axis (i.e., y1 z1 plane). We can now take the components of px1 x  px1 y , and px1 z to determine the normal and shear stresses on the y1 z1 plane, or
x1 = l1 px1 x + m1 px1 y + n1 px1 z Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium Figure 2.21 79 Transformation of stresses to a new set of orthogonal axes. x1 y1 = l2 px1 x + m2 px1 y + n2 px1 z x1 z1 = l3 px1 x + m3 px1 y + n3 px1 z In a matrix form, the above three equations may be expressed as      
x   l 1 m 1 n 1   px x   1   1  x y  =  l2 m2 n2  px y  (2.102)  1   1 1  x z   l3 m3 n3  px z  1 1 1 In a similar manner, the normal and shear stresses on the x1 z1 plane (i.e.,
y1  y1 x1 , and y1 z1 ) and on the x1 y1 plane (i.e.,
z1  z1 x1 , and z1 y1 ) can be determined. Combining these terms, we can express the stresses in the new set of orthogonal axes in a matrix form. Thus       
x y x z x   l1 m1 n1  
x yx zx   l1 l2 l3      1 1 1 1 1  x y
y z y  =  l2 m2 n2  xy
y zy  m1 m2 m3  (2.103) 1 1 1      11 x z y z
z   l3 m2 n2  xz yz
z   n1 n2 n3  1 1 1 1 1 Note: xy = yx  zy = yz , and zx = xz . Solution of Eq. (2.103) gives the following relations:
x1 = l12
x + m21
y + n21
z + 2m1 n1 yz + 2n1 l1 zx + 2l1 m1 xy
y1 = l22
x + m22
y + n22
z + 2m2 n2 yz + 2n2 l2 zx + 2l2 m2 xy (2.104) (2.105) 80 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium
z1 = l32
x + m23
y + n23
z + 2m3 n3 yz + 2n3 l3 zx + 2l3 m3 xy x1 y1 = y1 x1 = l1 l2
x + m1 m2
y + n1 n2
z + m1 n2 + m2 n1 yz + n1 l2 + n2 l1 zx + l1 m2 + l2 m1 xy x1 z1 = z1 x1 = l1 l3
x + m1 m3
y + n1 n3
z + m1 n3 + m3 n1 yz + n1 l3 + n3 l1 zx + l1 m3 + l3 m1 xy y1 z1 = z1 y1 = l2 l3
x + m2 m3
y + n2 n3
z + m2 n3 + m3 n2 yz + n2 l3 + n3 l2 zx + l2 m3 + l3 m2 xy (2.106) (2.107) (2.108) (2.109) Principal stresses The preceding procedure allows the determination of the stresses on any plane from the known stresses based on a set of orthogonal axes. As discussed above, a plane is defined as a principal plane if the shear stresses acting on it are zero, which means that the only stress acting on it is a normal stress. This normal stress on a principal plane is referred to as a principal stress. In order to determine the principal stresses, refer to Figure 2.20, in which x, y, and z are a set of orthogonal axes. Let the stresses on planes OAC, BOC, and AOB be known, and let ABC be a principal plane. The direction cosines of the normal drawn to this plane are l, m, and n with respect to the x, y, and z axes, respectively. Note that l 2 + m2 + n 2 = 1 (2.110) If ABC is a principal plane, then the only stress acting on it will be a normal stress
p . The x, y, and z components of
p are
p l
p m, and
p n. Referring to Eqs. (2.95), (2.96), and (2.97), we can write
p l =
x l + yx m + zx n or 
x −
p l + yx m + zx n = 0 (2.111) Similarly, xy l + 
y −
p m + zy n = 0 xz l + yz m + 
z −
p n = 0 (2.112) (2.113) From Eqs. (2.110)–(2.113), we note that l, m, and n cannot all be equal to zero at the same time. So, Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium or   
x −
p  yx zx    xy 
y −
p  zy  = 0   xz yz 
z −
p 
p3 − I1
p2 + I2
p − I3 = 0 81 (2.114) (2.115) where I1 =
x +
y +
z I2 = 2
x
y +
y
z +
x
z − xy (2.116) 2 2 − yz − xz 2 2 2 −
y xz −
z xy I3 =
x
y
z + 2xy yz xz −
x yz (2.117) (2.118) I1  I2 , and I3 defined in Eqs. (2.116), (2.117), and (2.118) are independent of direction cosines and hence independent of the choice of axes. So they are referred to as stress invariants. Solution of Eq. (2.115) gives three real values of
p . So there are three principal planes and they are mutually perpendicular to each other. The directions of these planes can be determined by substituting each
p in Eqs. (2.111), (2.112), and (2.113) and solving for l, m, and n, and observing the direction cosine condition for l2 + m2 + n2 = 1. Note that these values for l, m, and n are the direction cosines for the normal drawn to the plane on which
p is acting. The maximum, intermediate, and minimum values of
pi are referred to as the major principal stress, intermediate principal stress, and minor principal stress, respectively. Octahedral stresses The octahedral stresses at a point are the normal and shear stresses acting on the planes of an imaginary octahedron surrounding that point. The normals √ to these planes have direction cosines of ±1 3 with respect to the direction of the principal stresses (Figure 2.22). The axes marked 1, 2, and 3 are the directions of the principal stresses
p1 
p2 , and
p3 . The expressions for the octahedral normal stress
oct can be obtained using Eqs. (2.95), (2.96), (2.97), and (2.99). Now compare planes ABC in Figures 2.20 and 2.22. For the octahedral plane ABC in Figure 2.22, ps1 =
p1 l ps2 =
p2 m ps3 =
p3 n (2.119) (2.120) (2.121) 82 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium Figure 2.22 Octahedral stress. where ps1  ps2 , and ps3 are stresses acting on plane ABC parallel to the principal stress axes 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Parameters l, m, and n are the direction cosines of the normal drawn to the octahedral plane and are √ all equal to 1/ 3. Thus from Eq. (2.99),
oct = l12
p1 + m21
p2 + n21
p3 = 1 
+
p2 +
p3  3 p1 The shear stress on the octahedral plane is  2 oct = ps1 2 + ps2 2 + ps3 2  −
oct (2.122) (2.123) where oct is the octahedral shear stress, or oct = 1 
p1 −
p2 2 + 
p2 −
p3 2 + 
p3 −
p1 2 3 (2.124) Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium 83 The octahedral normal and shear stress expressions can also be derived as a function of the stress components for any set of orthogonal axes x, y, z. From Eq. (2.116), I1 = const =
x +
y +
z =
p1 +
p2 +
p3 (2.125) 1 1 
p1 +
p2 +
p3  = 
x +
y +
z  3 3 (2.126) So
oct = Similarly, from Eq. (2.117), 2 2 2 − yz − xz I2 = const = 
x
y +
y
z +
z
x  − xy =
p1
p2 +
p2
p3 +
p3
p1 (2.127) Combining Eqs. (2.124), (2.125), and (2.127) gives oct = 1 2 + 6 2 + 6 2 (2.128) 
x −
y 2 + 
y −
z 2 + 
z −
x 2 + 6xy xz yz 3 Example 2.4 The stresses at a point in a soil mass are as follows:
x = 50 kN/m2
y = 40 kN/m2
z = 80 kN/m2 xy = 30 kN/m2 yz = 25 kN/m2 xz = 25 kN/m2 Determine the normal and shear stresses on a plane with direction cosines l = 2/3 m = 2/3, and n = 1/3. solution From Eq. (2.98),      psx  
x xy xz   l       psy  =  xy
y yz  m      psz   xz yz
z   n  The normal stress on the inclined plane [Eq. (2.99)] is
= psx l + psy m + psz n =
x l2 +
y m2 +
z n2 + 2xy lm + 2yz mn + 2xz ln 84 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium = 502/32 + 402/32 + 801/32 + 2302/32/3 + 2252/31/3 + 2252/31/3 = 9778 kN/m2 psx =
x l + xy m + xz n = 502/3 + 302/3 + 251/3 = 3333 + 20 + 833 = 6166 kN/m2 psy = xy l +
y m + yz n = 302/3 + 402/3 + 251/3 = 20 + 2667 + 833 = 55 kN/m2 psz = xz l + yz m +
z n = 252/3 + 252/3 + 801/3 = 1667 + 1667 + 2667 = 6001 kN/m2 The resultant stress is   2 + p2 + p2 = p = psx 61662 + 552 + 60012 = 1022 kN/m2 sz sy The shear stress on the plane is =  p2 −
2 = √ 10222 − 97782 = 2973 kN/m2 Example 2.5 At a point in a soil mass, the stresses are as follows:
x = 25 kN/m2
y = 40 kN/m2
z = 17 kN/m2 xy = 30 kN/m2 yz = −6 kN/m2 xz = −10 kN/m2 Determine the principal stresses and also the octahedral normal and shear stresses. solution From Eq. (2.114),   
x −
p  yx zx    xy 
y −
p  zy  = 0   xz yz 
z −
p    25 −
p  30 −10    30 40 −
p  −6  =
p3 − 82
p2 + 1069
p − 800 = 0   −10 −6 17 −
p  Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium 85 The three roots of the equation are
p1 = 659 kN/m2
p2 = 157 kN/m2
p3 = 04 kN/m2 1
oct = 
p1 +
p2 +
p3  3 1 = 659 + 157 + 04 = 2733 kN/m2 3 1 oct = 
p1 −
p2 2 + 
p2 −
p3 2 + 
p3 −
p1 2 3 1 659 − 1572 + 157 − 042 + 04 − 6592 = 2797 kN/m2 = 3 2.11 Strain components on an inclined plane, principal strain, and octahedral strain—three-dimensional case We have seen the analogy between the stress and strain equations derived in Secs. 2.7 and 2.8 for plane strain case. Referring to Figure 2.20, let the strain components at a point in a soil mass be represented by ∈x  ∈y  ∈z  xy  yz , and zx . The normal strain on plane ABC (the normal to plane ABC has direction cosines of l, m and n) can be given by ∈ = l2∈x +m2∈y +n2∈z +lmxy + mnyz + lnzx (2.129) This equation is similar in form to Eq. (2.99) derived for normal stress. When we replace ∈x  ∈y  ∈z  xy /2 yz /2, and zx /2, respectively, for
x 
y 
z  xy  yz , and zx in Eq. (2.99), Eq. (2.129) is obtained. If the strain components at a point in the Cartesian coordinate system (Figure 2.21) are known, the components in a new set of orthogonal axes can be given by [similar to Eq. (2.103)]   ∈x1 1  x y 2 1 1  1 2 x1 z1 1  2 x1 y1 ∈y1 1  2 y1 z1 1  2 x1 z1 1  2 y1 z 1 ∈z1      l1 m1 n1   ∈x     =  l2 m2 n2   1 xy    2   l3 m3 n3   1  2 xz 1  2 xy ∈y 1  2 yz  1   l 2 xz   1 1   m 2 yz   1  l2 l3   m2 m3  ∈z   n1 m2 n3  (2.130) The equations for principal strains at a point can also be written in a form similar to that given for stress [Eq. (2.115)] as ∈3p −J1 ∈2p +J2 ∈p −J3 = 0 (2.131) 86 Stresses and strains—elastic equilibrium where ∈p = principal strain J1 = ∈x + ∈y + ∈z (2.132)
2
2 yz xy  2 − − zx (2.133) 2 2 2 

2 xy yz zx xy 2 yz xz 2 − ∈x J3 = ∈x ∈y ∈z + − ∈y − ∈z (2.134) 4 2 2 2 J2 = ∈x ∈y + ∈y ∈z + ∈z ∈x − J1  J2 , and J3 are the strain invariants and are not functions of the direction cosines. The normal and shear strain relations for the octahedral planes are 1 ∈ + ∈p2 + ∈p3  3 p1 2 oct = ∈p1 − ∈p2 2 + ∈p2 − ∈p3 2 + ∈p3 − ∈p1 2 3 ∈oct = (2.135) (2.136) where ∈oct = octahedral normal strain oct = octahedral shear strain ∈p1  ∈p2  ∈p3 = major, intermediate, and minor principal strains, respectively Equations (2.135) and (2.136) are similar to the octahedral normal and shear stress relations given by Eqs. (2.126) and (2.128). Chapter 3 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass 3.1 Introduction Estimation of the increase in stress at various points and associate displacement caused in a soil mass due to external loading using the theory of elasticity is an important component in the safe design of the foundations of structures. The ideal assumption of the theory of elasticity, namely that the medium is homogeneous, elastic, and isotropic, is not quite true for most natural soil profiles. It does, however, provide a close estimation for geotechnical engineers and, using proper safety factors, safe designs can be developed. This chapter deals with problems involving stresses and displacements induced by various types of loading. The expressions for stresses and displacements are obtained on the assumption that soil is a perfectly elastic material. Problems relating to plastic equilibrium are not treated in this chapter. The chapter is divided into two major sections: two-dimensional (plane strain) problems and three-dimensional problems. TWO-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS 3.2 Vertical line load on the surface Figure 3.1 shows the case where a line load of q per unit length is applied at the surface of a homogeneous, elastic, and isotropic soil mass. The stresses at a point P defined by r and  can be determined by using the stress function = q r sin   (3.1) 88 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Figure 3.1 Vertical line load on the surface of a semi-infinite mass. In the polar coordinate system, the expressions for the stresses are as follows: 1  1 2  + r r r 2 2 2 
 = 2 r
  1  r = − r r 
r = and (2.57′ ) (2.58′ ) (2.59′ ) Substituting the values of  in the above equations, we get 1 q q q 1 q  sin  + 2 r cos  + r cos  − r sin  r  r    2q cos  = r
r = (3.2) Similarly,
 = 0 (3.3) r = 0 (3.4) and Stresses and displacements in a soil mass 89 The stress function assumed in Eq. (3.1) will satisfy the compatibility equation
2 
2     1  1 2  1 2 1  =0 (2.60′ ) + + + + r 2 r r r 2 2 r 2 r r r 2 2 Also, it can be seen that the stresses obtained in Eqs. (3.2)–(3.4) satisfy the boundary conditions. For  = 90 and r > 0
r = 0, and at r = 0
r is theoretically equal to infinity, which signifies that plastic flow will occur locally. Note that
r and
 are the major and minor principal stresses at point P . Using the above expressions for
r 
 , and r , we can derive the stresses in the rectangular coordinate system (Figure 3.2):
z =
r cos2  +
 sin2  − 2r sin  cos  = = Similarly, √ 2q  x 2 + z2
z √ x 2 + z2 3 = 2q cos3  r 2qz3 x2 + z2 2
x =
r sin2  +
 cos2  + 2r sin  cos 
x = 2qx2 z x2 + z2 2 (2.77′ ) (3.5) (2.75′ ) (3.6) and   xz = −
 sin  cos  +
r sin  cos  + r cos2  − sin2  Figure 3.2 Stresses due to a vertical line load in rectangular coordinates. (2.76′ ) 90 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Table 3.1 Values of z /q/z x /q/z, and [Eqs. (3.5)–(3.7)] xz /q/z x/z z /q/z x /q/z xz /q/z 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 0.637 0.624 0.589 0.536 0.473 0.407 0.344 0.287 0.237 0.194 0.159 0.060 0.025 0.006 0 0.006 0.024 0.048 0.076 0.102 0.124 0.141 0.151 0.157 0.159 0.136 0.102 0.057 xz = 2qxz2 x2 + z2 2 0 0.062 0.118 0.161 0.189 0.204 0.207 0.201 0.189 0.175 0.159 0.090 0.051 0.019 (3.7) For the plane strain case,
y =  
x +
z  (3.8) The values for
x 
z , and xz in a nondimensional form are given in Table 3.1. Displacement on the surface z = 0 By relating displacements to stresses via strain, the vertical displacement w at the surface (i. e., z = 0) can be obtained as w= 2 1 − 2 q ln x + C  E (3.9) where E = modulus of elasticity v = Poisson’s ratio C = a constant The magnitude of the constant can be determined if the vertical displacement at a point is specified. Stresses and displacements in a soil mass 91 Example 3.1 For the point A in Figure 3.3, calculate the increase of vertical stress
z due to the two line loads. solution The increase of vertical stress at A due to the line load q1 = 20 kN/m is x 2m = =1 z 2m From Table 3.1, for x/z = 1
z /q/z = 0159. So,

 20 q
z1 = 0159 1 = 0159 = 159 kN/m2 z 2 The increase of vertical stress at A due to the line load q2 = 30 kN/m is x 6m = =3 z 2m From Table 3.1, for x/z = 3
z /q/z = 0006. Thus

 q2 30
z2 = 0006 = 0006 = 009 kN/m2 z 2 So, the total increase of vertical stress is
z =
z1 +
z2 = 159 + 009 = 168 kN/m2 Figure 3.3 Two line loads acting on the surface. 92 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass 3.3 Vertical line load on the surface of a finite layer Equations (3.5)–(3.7) were derived with the assumption that the homogeneous soil mass extends to a great depth. However, in many practical cases, a stiff layer such as rock or highly incompressible material may be encountered at a shallow depth (Figure 3.4). At the interface of the top soil layer and the lower incompressible layer, the shear stresses will modify the pattern of stress distribution. Poulos (1966) and Poulos and Davis (1974) expressed the vertical stress
z and vertical displacement at the surface (w at z = 0) in the following form Figure 3.4 Vertical line load on a finite elastic layer. Table 3.2 Variation of I1 v = 0 x/h 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2.0 4.0 8.0 z/h 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 9
891 5
946 2
341 0
918 0
407 0
205 0
110 0
032 0
000 −0
019 −0
013 0
009 0
002 5
157 4
516 3
251 2
099 1
301 0
803 0
497 0
185 0
045 −0
035 −0
025 0
009 0
002 3
641 3
443 2
948 2
335 1
751 1
265 0
889 0
408 0
144 −0
033 −0
035 0
008 0
002 2
980 2
885 2
627 2
261 1
857 1
465 1
117 0
592 0
254 −0
018 −0
041 0
007 0
002 2
634 2
573 2
400 2
144 1
840 1
525 1
223 0
721 0
357 0
010 −0
042 0
006 0
002 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass 93 Table 3.3 Variation of I2 v = 0 x/h I2 0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
8 1
0 1
5 2
0 4
0 8
0 3
756 2
461 1
730 1
244 0
896 0
643 0
453 0
313 0
126 −0
012 −0
017 −0
002 0 q I h 1 q I wz=0 = E 2
z = (3.10) (3.11) where I1 and I2 are influence values. I1 is a function of z/h x/h, and v. Similarly, I2 is a function of x/h and v. The variations of I1 and I2 are given in Tables 3.2 and 3.3, respectively for v = 0. 3.4 Vertical line load inside a semi-infinite mass Equations (3.5)–(3.7) were also developed on the basis of the assumption that the line load is applied on the surface of a semi-infinite mass. However, in some cases, the line load may be embedded. Melan (1932) gave the solution of stresses at a point P due to a vertical line load of q per unit length applied inside a semi-infinite mass (at point A, Figure 3.5). The final equations are given below: 
 1 z − d3 z + dz + d2 + 2dz 8dzd + zx2 q + −
z =  21 −  r14 r24 r26 
1 − 2 z − d 3z + d 4zx2 (3.12) + − + 41 −  r12 r24 r24    q 1 z − dx2 z + dx2 + 2d2  − 2dx2 8dzd + zx2
x = + +  21 −  r14 r24 r26 
1 − 2 d − z z + 3d 4zx2 + + + 4 (3.13) 41 −  r12 r22 r2 Figure 3.5 Vertical line load inside a semi-infinite mass. Figure 3.6 Plot of z /q/d versus x/d for various values of z/d [Eq. (3.12)]. Stresses and displacements in a soil mass xz =   z − d2 z2 − 2dz − d2 8dzd + z2 1 + + + 21 −  r14 r24 r26   1 − 2 1 1 4zd + z + − 2+ 2 41 −  r1 r2 r24 qx  95  (3.14) Figure 3.6 shows a plot of
z /q/d based on Eq. (3.12). 3.5 Horizontal line load on the surface The stresses due to a horizontal line load of q per unit length (Figure 3.7) can be evaluated by a stress function of the form = q r cos   (3.15) Proceeding in a similar manner to that shown in Sec. 3.2 for the case of vertical line load, we obtain 2q sin  r
 = 0
r = r = 0 (3.16) (3.17) (3.18) In the rectangular coordinate system,
z = xz2 2q  x2 + z2 2 Figure 3.7 Horizontal line load on the surface of a semi-infinite mass. (3.19) 96 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Table 3.4 Values of z /q/z x /q/z, and [Eqs. (3.19)–(3.21)] x/z z /q/z x /q/z 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 0 0.062 0.118 0.161 0.189 0.204 0.207 0.201 0.189 0.175 0.159 0.090 0.051 0.019 0 0.0006 0.0049 0.0145 0.0303 0.0509 0.0743 0.0984 0.1212 0.1417 0.1591 0.2034 0.2037 0.1719
x = xz = xz /q/z xz /q/z 0 0.006 0.024 0.048 0.076 0.102 0.124 0.141 0.151 0.157 0.159 0.136 0.102 0.057 x3 2q 2  x + z2 2 x2 z 2q  x2 + z2 2 (3.20) (3.21) For the plane strain case,
y = v
x +
z . Some values of
x 
z , and xz in a nondimensional form are given in Table 3.4. 3.6 Horizontal line load inside a semi-infinite mass If the horizontal line load acts inside a semi-infinite mass as shown in Figure 3.8, Melan’s solutions for stresses may be given as follows:    2 qx d2 − z2 + 6dz 8dz x2 1 z − d − +
z =  21 −  r14 r24 r26   1 4zd + z 1 − 2 1 − − (3.22) − 41 −  r12 r22 r24    2 1 x qx x2 + 8dz + 6d2 8dzd + z2
x = + +  21 −  r14 r24 r26   1 − 2 1 3 4zd + z + + − (3.23) 41 −  r12 r22 r24 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass 97 Figure 3.8 Horizontal line load inside a semi-infinite mass.   1 z − dx2 2dz + x2 d + z 8dzd + zx2 + − 21 −  r14 r24 r26   1 − 2 z − d 3z + d 4zd + z2 + + − (3.24) 41 −  r12 r22 r24 q xz =   3.7 Uniform vertical loading on an infinite strip on the surface Figure 3.9 shows the case where a uniform vertical load of q per unit area is acting on a flexible infinite strip on the surface of a semi-infinite elastic mass. To obtain the stresses at a point Px z, we can consider an elementary strip of width ds located at a distance s from the centerline of the load. The load per unit length of this elementary strip is q · ds, and it can be approximated as a line load. The increase of vertical stress,
z , at P due to the elementary strip loading can be obtained by substituting x − s for x and q · ds for q in Eq. (3.5), or d
z = z3 2q ds  x − s2 + z2 2 (3.25) 98 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Figure 3.9 Uniform vertical loading on an infinite strip. The total increase of vertical stress,
z , at P due to the loaded strip can be determined by integrating Eq. (3.25) with limits of s = b to s = −b; so,
z = 2q  d
z = +b −b z3 ds x − s2 + z2 2   2bzx2 − z2 − b2  q z z −1 −1 − tan − = tan  x−b x + b x2 + z2 − b2 2 + 4b2 z2 (3.26) In a similar manner, referring to Eqs. (3.6) and (3.7),
x = d
x = 2q  +b −b x − s2 z ds x − s2 + z2 2   z z 2bzx2 − z2 − b2  q = − tan−1 + 2 tan−1  x−b x + b x + z2 − b2 2 + 4b2 z2 xz = 2q  +b −b 4bqxz2 x − s z2 ds = x − s2 + z2 2 x2 + z2 − b2 2 + 4b2 z2  (3.27) (3.28) The expressions for
z 
x , and xz given in Eqs. (3.26)–(3.28) can be presented in a simplified form:
z = q  + sin  cos + 2$  (3.29) Table 3.5 Values of z /q [Eq. (3.26)] z/b 0
00 0
10 0
20 0
30 0
40 0
50 0
60 0
70 0
80 0
90 1
00 1
10 1
20 1
30 1
40 1
50 1
60 1
70 1
80 1
90 2
00 2
10 2
20 2
30 2
40 2
50 2
60 2
70 2
80 2
90 3
00 3
10 3
20 3
30 3
40 3
50 3
60 3
70 3
80 3
90 4
00 4
10 4
20 4
30 4
40 4
50 4
60 4
70 4
80 4
90 5
00 x/b 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1
000 1
000 0
997 0
990 0
977 0
959 0
937 0
910 0
881 0
850 0
818 0
787 0
755 0
725 0
696 0
668 0
642 0
617 0
593 0
571 0
550 0
530 0
511 0
494 0
477 0
462 0
447 0
433 0
420 0
408 0
396 0
385 0
374 0
364 0
354 0
345 0
337 0
328 0
320 0
313 0
306 0
299 0
292 0
286 0
280 0
274 0
268 0
263 0
258 0
253 0
248 1
000 1
000 0
997 0
989 0
976 0
958 0
935 0
908 0
878 0
847 0
815 0
783 0
752 0
722 0
693 0
666 0
639 0
615 0
591 0
569 0
548 0
529 0
510 0
493 0
476 0
461 0
446 0
432 0
419 0
407 0
395 0
384 0
373 0
363 0
354 0
345 0
336 0
328 0
320 0
313 0
305 0
299 0
292 0
286 0
280 0
274 0
268 0
263 0
258 0
253 0
248 1
000 0
999 0
996 0
987 0
973 0
953 0
928 0
899 0
869 0
837 0
805 0
774 0
743 0
714 0
685 0
658 0
633 0
608 0
585 0
564 0
543 0
524 0
506 0
489 0
473 0
458 0
443 0
430 0
417 0
405 0
393 0
382 0
372 0
362 0
352 0
343 0
335 0
327 0
319 0
312 0
304 0
298 0
291 0
285 0
279 0
273 0
268 0
262 0
257 0
252 0
247 1
000 0
999 0
995 0
984 0
966 0
943 0
915 0
885 0
853 0
821 0
789 0
758 0
728 0
699 0
672 0
646 0
621 0
598 0
576 0
555 0
535 0
517 0
499 0
483 0
467 0
452 0
439 0
425 0
413 0
401 0
390 0
379 0
369 0
359 0
350 0
341 0
333 0
325 0
317 0
310 0
303 0
296 0
290 0
283 0
278 0
272 0
266 0
261 0
256 0
251 0
246 1
000 0
999 0
992 0
978 0
955 0
927 0
896 0
863 0
829 0
797 0
766 0
735 0
707 0
679 0
653 0
629 0
605 0
583 0
563 0
543 0
524 0
507 0
490 0
474 0
460 0
445 0
432 0
419 0
407 0
396 0
385 0
375 0
365 0
355 0
346 0
338 0
330 0
322 0
315 0
307 0
301 0
294 0
288 0
282 0
276 0
270 0
265 0
260 0
255 0
250 0
245 1
000 0
998 0
988 0
967 0
937 0
902 0
866 0
831 0
797 0
765 0
735 0
706 0
679 0
654 0
630 0
607 0
586 0
565 0
546 0
528 0
510 0
494 0
479 0
464 0
450 0
436 0
424 0
412 0
400 0
389 0
379 0
369 0
360 0
351 0
342 0
334 0
326 0
318 0
311 0
304 0
298 0
291 0
285 0
279 0
274 0
268 0
263 0
258 0
253 0
248 0
244 1
000 0
997 0
979 0
947 0
906 0
864 0
825 0
788 0
755 0
724 0
696 0
670 0
646 0
623 0
602 0
581 0
562 0
544 0
526 0
510 0
494 0
479 0
465 0
451 0
438 0
426 0
414 0
403 0
392 0
382 0
372 0
363 0
354 0
345 0
337 0
329 0
321 0
314 0
307 0
301 0
294 0
288 0
282 0
276 0
271 0
266 0
260 0
255 0
251 0
246 0
242 1
000 0
993 0
959 0
908 0
855 0
808 0
767 0
732 0
701 0
675 0
650 0
628 0
607 0
588 0
569 0
552 0
535 0
519 0
504 0
489 0
475 0
462 0
449 0
437 0
425 0
414 0
403 0
393 0
383 0
373 0
364 0
355 0
347 0
339 0
331 0
323 0
316 0
309 0
303 0
296 0
290 0
284 0
278 0
273 0
268 0
263 0
258 0
253 0
248 0
244 0
239 1
000 0
980 0
909 0
833 0
773 0
727 0
691 0
662 0
638 0
617 0
598 0
580 0
564 0
548 0
534 0
519 0
506 0
492 0
479 0
467 0
455 0
443 0
432 0
421 0
410 0
400 0
390 0
381 0
372 0
363 0
355 0
347 0
339 0
331 0
324 0
317 0
310 0
304 0
297 0
291 0
285 0
280 0
274 0
269 0
264 0
259 0
254 0
250 0
245 0
241 0
237 1
000 0
909 0
775 0
697 0
651 0
620 0
598 0
581 0
566 0
552 0
540 0
529 0
517 0
506 0
495 0
484 0
474 0
463 0
453 0
443 0
433 0
423 0
413 0
404 0
395 0
386 0
377 0
369 0
360 0
352 0
345 0
337 0
330 0
323 0
316 0
310 0
304 0
298 0
292 0
286 0
280 0
275 0
270 0
265 0
260 0
255 0
251 0
246 0
242 0
238 0
234 0
000 0
500 0
500 0
499 0
498 0
497 0
495 0
492 0
489 0
485 0
480 0
474 0
468 0
462 0
455 0
448 0
440 0
433 0
425 0
417 0
409 0
401 0
393 0
385 0
378 0
370 0
363 0
355 0
348 0
341 0
334 0
327 0
321 0
315 0
308 0
302 0
297 0
291 0
285 0
280 0
275 0
270 0
265 0
260 0
256 0
251 0
247 0
243 0
239 0
235 0
231 Table 3.5 (Continued) z/b 0
00 0
10 0
20 0
30 0
40 0
50 0
60 0
70 0
80 0
90 1
00 1
10 1
20 1
30 1
40 1
50 1
60 1
70 1
80 1
90 2
00 2
10 2
20 2
30 2
40 2
50 2
60 2
70 2
80 2
90 3
00 3
10 3
20 3
30 3
40 3
50 3
60 3
70 3
80 3
90 4
00 4
10 4
20 4
30 4
40 4
50 4
60 4
70 4
80 4
90 5
00 x/b 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 0
000 0
091 0
225 0
301 0
346 0
373 0
391 0
403 0
411 0
416 0
419 0
420 0
419 0
417 0
414 0
411 0
407 0
402 0
396 0
391 0
385 0
379 0
373 0
366 0
360 0
354 0
347 0
341 0
335 0
329 0
323 0
317 0
311 0
305 0
300 0
294 0
289 0
284 0
279 0
274 0
269 0
264 0
260 0
255 0
251 0
247 0
243 0
239 0
235 0
231 0
227 0
000 0
020 0
091 0
165 0
224 0
267 0
298 0
321 0
338 0
351 0
360 0
366 0
371 0
373 0
374 0
374 0
373 0
370 0
368 0
364 0
360 0
356 0
352 0
347 0
342 0
337 0
332 0
327 0
321 0
316 0
311 0
306 0
301 0
296 0
291 0
286 0
281 0
276 0
272 0
267 0
263 0
258 0
254 0
250 0
246 0
242 0
238 0
235 0
231 0
227 0
224 0
000 0
007 0
040 0
090 0
141 0
185 0
222 0
250 0
273 0
291 0
305 0
316 0
325 0
331 0
335 0
338 0
339 0
339 0
339 0
338 0
336 0
333 0
330 0
327 0
323 0
320 0
316 0
312 0
307 0
303 0
299 0
294 0
290 0
286 0
281 0
277 0
273 0
268 0
264 0
260 0
256 0
252 0
248 0
244 0
241 0
237 0
234 0
230 0
227 0
223 0
220 0
000 0
003 0
020 0
052 0
090 0
128 0
163 0
193 0
218 0
239 0
256 0
271 0
282 0
291 0
298 0
303 0
307 0
309 0
311 0
312 0
311 0
311 0
309 0
307 0
305 0
302 0
299 0
296 0
293 0
290 0
286 0
283 0
279 0
275 0
271 0
268 0
264 0
260 0
256 0
253 0
249 0
246 0
242 0
239 0
235 0
232 0
229 0
225 0
222 0
219 0
216 0
000 0
002 0
011 0
031 0
059 0
089 0
120 0
148 0
173 0
195 0
214 0
230 0
243 0
254 0
263 0
271 0
276 0
281 0
284 0
286 0
288 0
288 0
288 0
288 0
287 0
285 0
283 0
281 0
279 0
276 0
274 0
271 0
268 0
265 0
261 0
258 0
255 0
252 0
249 0
245 0
242 0
239 0
236 0
233 0
229 0
226 0
223 0
220 0
217 0
215 0
212 0
000 0
001 0
007 0
020 0
040 0
063 0
088 0
113 0
137 0
158 0
177 0
194 0
209 0
221 0
232 0
240 0
248 0
254 0
258 0
262 0
265 0
267 0
268 0
268 0
268 0
268 0
267 0
266 0
265 0
263 0
261 0
259 0
256 0
254 0
251 0
249 0
246 0
243 0
240 0
238 0
235 0
232 0
229 0
226 0
224 0
221 0
218 0
215 0
213 0
210 0
207 0
000 0
001 0
004 0
013 0
027 0
046 0
066 0
087 0
108 0
128 0
147 0
164 0
178 0
191 0
203 0
213 0
221 0
228 0
234 0
239 0
243 0
246 0
248 0
250 0
251 0
251 0
251 0
251 0
250 0
249 0
248 0
247 0
245 0
243 0
241 0
239 0
237 0
235 0
232 0
230 0
227 0
225 0
222 0
220 0
217 0
215 0
212 0
210 0
208 0
205 0
203 0
000 0
000 0
003 0
009 0
020 0
034 0
050 0
068 0
086 0
104 0
122 0
138 0
152 0
166 0
177 0
188 0
197 0
205 0
212 0
217 0
222 0
226 0
229 0
232 0
234 0
235 0
236 0
236 0
236 0
236 0
236 0
235 0
234 0
232 0
231 0
229 0
228 0
226 0
224 0
222 0
220 0
218 0
216 0
213 0
211 0
209 0
207 0
205 0
202 0
200 0
198 0
000 0
000 0
002 0
007 0
014 0
025 0
038 0
053 0
069 0
085 0
101 0
116 0
130 0
143 0
155 0
165 0
175 0
183 0
191 0
197 0
203 0
208 0
212 0
215 0
217 0
220 0
221 0
222 0
223 0
223 0
223 0
223 0
223 0
222 0
221 0
220 0
218 0
217 0
216 0
214 0
212 0
211 0
209 0
207 0
205 0
203 0
201 0
199 0
197 0
195 0
193 0
000 0
000 0
002 0
005 0
011 0
019 0
030 0
042 0
056 0
070 0
084 0
098 0
111 0
123 0
135 0
146 0
155 0
164 0
172 0
179 0
185 0
190 0
195 0
199 0
202 0
205 0
207 0
208 0
210 0
211 0
211 0
212 0
212 0
211 0
211 0
210 0
209 0
208 0
207 0
206 0
205 0
203 0
202 0
200 0
199 0
197 0
195 0
194 0
192 0
190 0
188 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass 101 Table 3.6 Values of x /q [Eq. (3.27)] z/b 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 x/b 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 1
000 0
450 0
182 0
080 0
041 0
230 1
000 0
392 0
186 0
099 0
054 0
033 0 0
347 0
225 0
142 0
091 0
060 0 0
285 0
214 0
181 0
127 0
089 0 0
171 0
202 0
185 0
146 0
126 0 0
110 0
162 0
165 0
145 0
121 Table 3.7 Values of xz /q [Eq. (3.28)] z/b 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 x/b 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 — — — — — — — 0
127 0
159 0
128 0
096 0
072 — 0
300 0
255 0
204 0
159 0
124 — 0
147 0
210 0
202 0
175 0
147 — 0
055 0
131 0
157 0
157 0
144 — 0
025 0
074 0
110 0
126 0
127 q  − sin  cos + 2$  q xz = sin  sin + 2$ 
x = (3.30) (3.31) where  and $ are the angles shown in Figure 3.9. Table 3.5, 3.6, and 3.7 give the values of
z /q
x /q xz /q for various values of x/b and z/b. Vertical displacement at the surface z = 0 The vertical surface displacement relative to the center of the strip load can be expressed as ⎫ ⎧ x − b ln x − b − ⎬ 2q1 − v2  ⎨ (3.32) wz=0 x − wz=0 x = 0 = ⎭ ⎩ E x + b ln x + b + 2b ln b Figure 3.10 Strip load inside a semi-infinite mass. Figure 3.11 Plot of z /q versus z/b [Eq. (3.33)]. Stresses and displacements in a soil mass 103 3.8 Uniform strip load inside a semi-infinite mass Strip loads can be located inside a semi-infinite mass as shown in Figure 3.10. The distribution of vertical stress
z due to this type of loading can be determined by integration of Melan’s solution [Eq. (3.8)]. This has been given by Kezdi and Rethati (1988). The magnitude of
z along the centerline of the load (i.e., x = 0) can be given as
z =  bz + 2d b bz + + tan−1 z + 2d2 + b2 z + 2d z2 + b2   b −1 b −1 b − z + 2d − + tan z 2 z + 2d2 + b2 z2 + b2   + 1 2z + 2d db z + d + for x = 0 2 z2 + b2 2 q  (3.33) Figure 3.11 shows the influence of d/b on the variation of
z /q. 3.9 Uniform horizontal loading on an infinite strip on the surface If a uniform horizontal load is applied on an infinite strip of width 2b as shown in Figure 3.12, the stresses at a point inside the semi-infinite mass can be determined by using a similar procedure of superposition as outlined in Sec. 3.7 for vertical loading. For an elementary strip of width ds, the load per unit length is q · ds. Approximating this as a line load, we can substitute q · ds for q and x − s for x in Eqs. (3.19)–(3.21). Thus,
z = =
x = d
z = 2q  s=+b s=−b 4bqxz2 x − sz2 ds x − s2 + z2 2 x2 + z2 − b2 2 + 4b2 z2  d
x = 2q  s=+b s=−b x − s3 ds x − s2 + z2 2   x + b2 + z2 q 4bxz2 2303 log = −  x − b2 + z2 x2 + z2 − b2 2 + 4b2 z2 xz = dxz = 2q  s=+b s=−b (3.34) (3.35) x − s2 z ds x − s2 + z2 2   q z z 2bzx2 − z2 − b2  −1 −1 = tan − tan +  x−b x + b x2 + z2 − b2 2 + 4b2 z2 (3.36) 104 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Figure 3.12 Uniform horizontal loading on an infinite strip. The expressions for stresses given by Eqs. (3.34)–(3.36) may also be simplified as follows: q sin  sin + 2$    q R2
x = 2303 log 21 − sin  sin + 2$  R2 q xz =  − sin  cos + 2$  (3.37)
z = (3.38) (3.39) where R1  R2  , and $ are as defined in Figure 3.12. The variations of
z 
x , and xz in a nondimensional form are given in Tables 3.8, 3.9, and 3.10. Table 3.8 Values of z /q [Eq. (3.34)] z/b 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 x/b 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 – – – – – – – 0.127 0.159 0.128 0.096 0.072 – 0.300 0.255 0.204 0.159 0.124 – 0.147 0.210 0.202 0.175 0.147 – 0.055 0.131 0.157 0.157 0.144 – 0.025 0.074 0.110 0.126 0.127 Table 3.9 Values of x /q [Eq. (3.35)] x/b 0 0
1 0
25 0
5 0
75 1
0 1
25 1
5 1
75 2
0 2
5 3
0 4
0 5
0 6
0 z/b 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 0 0
1287 0
3253 0
6995 1
2390 – 1
3990 1
0248 0
8273 0
6995 0
5395 0
4414 0
3253 0
2582 0
2142 0 0.1252 0.3181 0.6776 1.1496 1.5908 1.3091 1.0011 0.8170 0.6939 0.5372 0.4402 0.3248 0.2580 0.2141 0 0.1180 0.2982 0.6195 0.9655 1.1541 1.1223 0.9377 0.7876 0.6776 0.5304 0.4366 0.3235 0.2573 0.2137 0 0.1073 0.2693 0.5421 0.7855 0.9037 0.9384 0.8517 0.7437 0.6521 0.5194 0.4303 0.3212 0.2562 0.2131 0 0.0946 0.2357 0.4608 0.6379 0.7312 0.7856 0.7591 0.6904 0.6195 0.5047 0.4229 0.3181 0.2547 0.2123 0 0.0814 0.2014 0.3851 0.5210 0.6024 0.6623 0.6697 0.6328 0.5821 0.4869 0.4132 0.3143 0.2527 0.2112 0 0.0687 0.1692 0.3188 0.4283 0.5020 0.5624 0.5881 0.5749 0.5421 0.4667 0.4017 0.3096 0.2504 0.2098 0 0.0572 0.2404 0.2629 0.3541 0.4217 0.4804 0.5157 0.5190 0.5012 0.4446 0.3889 0.3042 0.2477 0.2083 0 0.0317 0.0780 0.1475 0.2058 0.2577 0.3074 0.3489 0.3750 0.3851 0.3735 0.3447 0.2846 0.2375 0.2023 0 0.0121 0.0301 0.0598 0.0899 0.1215 0.1548 0.1874 0.2162 0.2386 0.2627 0.2658 0.2443 0.2151 0.1888 0 0.0051 0.0129 0.0269 0.0429 0.0615 0.0825 0.1049 0.1271 0.1475 0.1788 0.1962 0.2014 0.1888 0.1712 0 0.0024 0.0062 0.0134 0.0223 0.0333 0.0464 0.0613 0.0770 0.0928 0.1211 0.1421 0.1616 0.1618 0.1538 0 0.0013 0.0033 0.0073 0.0124 0.0191 0.0275 0.0373 0.0483 0.0598 0.0826 0.1024 0.1276 0.1362 0.1352 0 0.0007 0.00019 0.0042 0.0074 0.0116 0.0170 0.0236 0.0313 0.0396 0.0572 0.0741 0.0999 0.1132 0.1173 0 0.0004 0.0012 0.0026 0.0046 0.0074 0.0110 0.0155 0.0209 0.0269 0.0403 0.0541 0.0780 0.0934 0.1008 0 0.0003 0.0007 0.0017 0.0030 0.0049 0.0074 0.0105 0.0144 0.0188 0.0289 0.0400 0.0601 0.0767 0.0861 0 0.0002 0.0005 0.00114 0.00205 0.00335 0.00510 0.00736 0.01013 0.01339 0.02112 0.02993 0.04789 0.06285 0.07320 0 0.00013 0.00034 0.00079 0.00144 0.00236 0.00363 0.00528 0.00732 0.00976 0.01569 0.02269 0.03781 0.05156 0.06207 0 0.0001 0.00025 0.00057 0.00104 0.00171 0.00265 0.00387 0.00541 0.00727 0.01185 0.01742 0.03006 0.04239 0.05259 106 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Table 3.10 Values of xz /q [Eq. (3.36)] z/b x/b 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 1.000 0.450 0.182 0.080 0.041 0.230 1.000 0.392 0.186 0.099 0.054 0.033 0 0.347 0.225 0.142 0.091 0.060 0 0.285 0.214 0.181 0.127 0.089 0 0.171 0.202 0.185 0.146 0.126 0 0.110 0.162 0.165 0.145 0.121 Horizontal displacement at the surface (z = 0) The horizontal displacement u at a point on the surface z = 0 relative to the center of the strip loading is of the form ⎫ ⎧ x − b ln x − b − ⎬ ⎨ 2q1 −   uz=0 x − uz=0 x = 0 = ⎭ ⎩ E x + b ln x + b + 2b ln b 2 (3.40) 3.10 Triangular normal loading on an infinite strip on the surface Figure 3.13 shows a vertical loading on an infinite strip of width 2b. The load increases from zero to q across the width. For an elementary strip of width ds, the load per unit length can be given as q/2bs ·ds. Approximating this as a line load, we can substitute q/2bs · ds for q and x − s for x in Eqs. (3.5)–(3.7) to determine the stresses at a point x z inside the semiinfinite mass. Thus
z = d
z =
1 2b 
2q   s=2b s=0 z3 s ds x − s2 + z2 2 q x  − sin 2$ 2 b

 2b x − s2 zs ds 2q 1
x = d
x = 2b  x − s2 + z2 2 0
 z R2 q x  − 2303 log 21 + sin 2$ = 2 b b R2 = (3.41) (3.42) Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Figure 3.13 xz = 107 Linearly increasing vertical loading on an infinite strip. dxz =
1 2b 
2q   z q = 1 + cos 2$ −  = 2 b 2b 0 x − sz2 ds x − s2 + z2 2 (3.43) In the rectangular coordinate system, Eqs. (3.41)–(3.43) can be expressed as follows:
z =
x = xz = xq  −1 z z tan − tan−1 2b x x − 2b − x − 2b qz  x − 2b2 + z2 (3.44)
     x − 2b2 + z2 z xq zq −1 −1 z − ln tan − tan 2b x 2 + z2 2b x + 2b x   x − 2b qz + (3.45)  x − 2b2 + z2 z z qz  −1 qz2 tan + − tan−1 2 2 x − 2b + z 2b x − 2b x Nondimensional values of
z [Eq. (3.41)] are given in Table 3.11. (3.46) 108 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Table 3.11 Values of z /q [Eq. (3.41)] x/b −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 z/b 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 0 0 0 0 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 0.0003 0.0008 0.0041 0.0748 0.4797 0.4220 0.0152 0.0019 0.0005 0.0018 0.0053 0.0217 0.1273 0.4092 0.3524 0.0622 0.0119 0.0035 0.00054 0.0140 0.0447 0.1528 0.3341 0.2952 0.1010 0.0285 0.0097 0.0107 0.0249 0.0643 0.1592 0.2749 0.2500 0.1206 0.0457 0.0182 0.0170 0.0356 0.0777 0.1553 0.2309 0.2148 0.1268 0.0596 0.0274 0.0235 0.0448 0.0854 0.1469 0.1979 0.1872 0.1258 0.0691 0.0358 0.0347 0.0567 0.0894 0.1273 0.1735 0.1476 0.1154 0.0775 0.0482 0.0422 0.0616 0.0858 0.1098 0.1241 0.1211 0.1026 0.0776 0.0546 Vertical deflection at the surface For this condition, the vertical deflection at the surface z = 0 can be expressed as q wz=0 = b
1 − v2 E     x2  2b − x  2 2b ln 2b − x − ln  − bb + x 2 x  (3.47) 3.11 Vertical stress in a semi-infinite mass due to embankment loading In several practical cases, it is necessary to determine the increase of vertical stress in a soil mass due to embankment loading. This can be done by the method of superposition as shown in Figure 3.14 and described below. The stress at A due to the embankment loading as shown in Figure 3.14a is equal to the stress at A due to the loading shown in Figure 3.14b minus the stress at A due to the loading shown in Figure 3.14c. Referring to Eq. (3.41), the vertical stress at A due to the loading shown in Figure 3.14b is q + b/aq 1 + 2   Similarly, the stress at A due to the loading shown in Figure 3.14c is
 b 1 q  a  2 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Figure 3.14 109 Vertical stress due to embankment loading. Thus the stress at A due to embankment loading (Figure 3.14a) is 
  q a+b b
z = 1 + 2  − 2  a a or (3.48)
z = I3 q where I3 is the influence factor,
 
  a b a+b b 1 1 I3 =  1 + 2  − 2 = f  a a  z z The values of the influence factor for various a/z and b/z are given in Figure 3.15. Example 3.2 A 5-m-high embankment is to be constructed as shown in Figure 3.16. 3 If the unit weight of compacted soil is 185 kN/m , calculate the vertical stress due solely to the embankment at A B, and C. 2 solution Vertical stress at A: q = H = 185 × 5 = 925 kN/m using the method of superposition and referring to Figure 3.17a
zA =
z1 +
z2 110 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Figure 3.15 Influence factors for embankment load (after Osterberg, 1957). For the left-hand section, b/z = 25/5 = 05 and a/z = 5/5 = 1. From Figure 3.15, I3 = 0396. For the right-hand section, b/z = 75/5 = 15 and a/z = 5/5 = 1. From Figure 3.15, I3 = 0477. So
zA = 0396 + 0477925 = 8075 kN/m2 Figure 3.16 Figure 3.17 Stress increase due to embankment loading (Not to scale). Calculation of stress increase at A, B, and C (Not to scale). 112 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Vertical stress at B: Using Figure 3.17b
zB =
z1 +
z2 −
z3 For the left-hand section, b/z = 0/10 = 0 a/z = 25/5 = 05. So, from Figure 3.15, I3 = 014. For the middle section, b/z = 125/5 = 25 a/z = 5/5 = 1. Hence I3 = 0493. For the right-hand section, I3 = 014 (same as the left-hand section). So
zB = 014185 × 25 + 0493185 × 5 − 014185 × 25 = 0493925 = 455 kN/m2 Vertical stress at C: Referring to Figure 3.17c
zC =
z1 −
z2 For the left-hand section, b/z = 20/5 = 4 a/z = 5/5 = 1. So I3 = 0498. For the right-hand section, b/z = 5/5 = 1 a/z = 5/5 = 1. So I3 = 0456. Hence
zC = 0498 − 0456925 = 389 kN/m2 THREE-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS 3.12 Stresses due to a vertical point load on the surface Boussinesq (1883) solved the problem for stresses inside a semi-infinite mass due to a point load acting on the surface. In rectangular coordinates, the stresses may be expressed as follows (Figure 3.18): 3Qz2 2R5    1 2R + zx2 z 3Q x2 z 1 − 2 − + −
x = 2 R5 3 RR + z R3 R + z2 R3    1 2R + zy2 z 3Q y2 z 1 − 2 − + −
y = 2 R5 3 RR + z R3 R + z2 R3   3Q xyz 1 − 2 2R + zxy xy = + 2 R5 3 R3 R + z2
z = xz = 3Q xz2 2 R5 (3.49) (3.50) (3.51) (3.52) (3.53) Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Figure 3.18 yz = 113 Concentrated point load on the surface (rectangular coordinates). 3Q yz2 2 R5 (3.54) where Q= point load r = √x2 + y2 R = z2 + r 2 v = Poisson’s ratio In cylindrical coordinates, the stresses may be expressed as follows (Figure 3.19): 3Qz3 2R5   Q 3zr 2 1 − 2v
r = − 2 R5 RR + z   1 z Q 1 − 2v −
 = 2 RR + z R3
z = rz = 3Qrz2 2R5 (3.55) (3.56) (3.57) (3.58) Equation (3.49) [or (3.55)] can be expressed as
z = I4 Q z2 (3.59) 114 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Figure 3.19 Concentrated point load (vertical) on the surface (cylindrical coordinates). where I4 = nondimensional influence factor 
2 −5/2 3 r = 1+ 2 z Table 3.12 gives the values of I4 for various values of r/z. Table 3.12 Values of I4 [Eq. (3.60)] r/z I4 0 0
2 0
4 0
6 0
8 1
0 1
2 1
4 1
6 1
8 2
0 2
5 0
4775 0
4329 0
3294 0
2214 0
1386 0
0844 0
0513 0
0317 0
0200 0
0129 0
0085 0
0034 (3.60) Stresses and displacements in a soil mass 115 3.13 Deflection due to a concentrated point load at the surface The deflections at a point due to a concentrated point load located at the surface are as follows (Figure 3.18).   Q1 + v xz 1 − 2vx − (3.61) u = %x dx = 2E R3 RR + z   Q1 + v yz 1 − 2vy (3.62) − v = %y dy = 2E R3 RR + z   1 Q1 + v z2 21 − v (3.63) w = %z dz = 
z − v
 +
  = − E 2E R3 R 3.14 Horizontal point load on the surface Figure 3.20 shows a horizontal point load Q acting on the surface of a semi-infinite mass. This is generally referred to as Cerutti’s problem. The stresses at a point Px y z are as follows: 3Qxz2
z = 2R5   2  x2 3R + z Q x 3x 1 − 2vR2 3 −
x = − 1 − 2v + 2 R3 R2 R + z2 R2 R + z  2   Q x 3y 1 − 2vR2 y2 3R + z
y = − 1 − 2v + 3− 2 2 R3 R2 R + z2 R R + z Figure 3.20 Horizontal point load on the surface. (3.64) (3.65) (3.66) 116 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass xy = Q y 2 R3  3Q x2 z 2 R5 3Q xyz yz = 2 R5   3x2 1 − 2vR2 x2 3R + z + 1 − R2 R + z2 R2 R + z xz = Also, the displacements at point P can be given as: 
 x2 1 − 2vR Q 1 + v 1 x2 1− +1+ u= 2 E R R2 R + z RR + z   Q 1 +  xy 1 − 2vR2 = 1− 3 2 E R R + z2   Q 1 + v x z 1 − 2vR + w= 2 E R2 R R + z (3.67) (3.68) (3.69) (3.70) (3.71) (3.72) 3.15 Stresses below a circularly loaded flexible area (uniform vertical load) Integration of the Boussinesq equation given in Sec. 3.12 can be adopted to obtain the stresses below the center of a circularly loaded flexible area. Figure 3.21 shows a circular area of radius b being subjected to a uniform load of q per unit area. Consider an elementary area dA. The load over the area is equal to q · dA, and this can be treated as a point load. To determine the vertical stress √ due to the elementary load at a point P , we can substitute q · dA for Q and r 2 + z2 for R in Eq. (3.49). Thus Figure 3.21 Stresses below the center of a circularly loaded area due to uniform vertical load. Stresses and displacements in a soil mass d
z = 3q dAz3 2r 2 + z2 5/2 117 (3.73) Since dA = rd dr, the vertical stress at P due to the entire loaded area may now be obtained by substituting for dA in Eq. (3.73) and then integrating:   r=b 3q z3 r d dr =2 z3 (3.74)
z = = q 1− 2 2 2 5/2 b + z2 3/2 r=0 2 r + z  =0 Proceeding in a similar manner, we can also determine
r and
 at point P as   q 21 + z z3 1 + 2v − 2 (3.75)
r =
 = + 2 b + z2 1/2 b2 + z2 3/2 A detailed tabulation of stresses below a uniformly loaded flexible circular area was given by Ahlvin and Ulery (1962). Referring to Figure 3.22, the stresses at point P may be given by
z = qA′ + B′  (3.76)
r = q2A + C + 1 − 2 F  (3.77) rz = zr = qG (3.79) ′
 = q2A′ − D + 1 − 2 E  (3.78) where A′  B′  C D E F , and G are functions of s/b and z/b; the values of these are given in Tables 3.13–3.19. Figure 3.22 Stresses at any point below a circularly loaded area. Table 3.13 Function A′ z/b s/b 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 1
0 1
0 1
0 1
0 1
0 0
1
90050
89748
88679
86126
78797 0
2
80388
79824
77884
73483
63014 0
3
71265
70518
68316
62690
52081 0
4
62861
62015
59241
53767
44329 0
5
55279
54403
51622
46448
38390 0
6
48550
47691
45078
40427
33676 0
7
42654
41874
39491
35428
29833 0
8
37531
36832
34729
31243
26581 0
9
33104
32492
30669
27707
23832 1
29289
28763
27005
24697
21468 1
2
23178
22795
21662
19890
17626 1
5
16795
16552
15877
14804
13436 2
10557
10453
10140
09647
09011 2
5
07152
07098
06947
06698
06373 3
05132
05101
05022
04886
04707 4
02986
02976
02907
02802
02832 5
01942
01938 6
01361 7
01005 8
00772 9
00612 10 After Ahlvin and Ulery (1962). 1 1.2 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14
5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
43015
09645
02787
00856
00211
00084
00042
38269
15433
05251
01680
00419
00167
00083
00048
00030
00020
34375
17964
07199
02440
00622
00250
31048
18709
08593
03118
28156
18556
09499
03701
01013
00407
00209
00118
00071
00053
00025
00014
00009
25588
17952
10010
21727
17124
10228
04558
21297
16206
10236
19488
15253
10094
17868
14329
09849
05185
01742
00761
00393
00226
00143
00097
00050
00029
00018
15101
12570
09192
05260
01935
00871
00459
00269
00171
00115
11892
10296
08048
05116
02142
01013
00548
00325
00210
00141
00073
00043
00027
08269
07471
06275
04496
02221
01160
00659
00399
00264
00180
00094
00056
00036
05974
05555
04880
03787
02143
01221
00732
00463
00308
00214
00115
00068
00043
04487
04241
03839
03150
01980
01220
00770
00505
00346
00242
00132
00079
00051
02749
02651
02490
02193
01592
01109
00768
00536
00384
00282
00160
00099
00065
01835
01573
01249
00949
00708
00527
00394
00298
00179
00113
00075
01307
01168
00983
00795
00628
00492
00384
00299
00188
00124
00084
00976
00894
00784
00661
00548
00445
00360
00291
00193
00130
00091
00755
00703
00635
00554
00472
00398
00332
00276
00189
00134
00094
00600
00566
00520
00466
00409
00353
00301
00256
00184
00133
00096
00477
00465
00438
00397
00352
00326
00273
00241 Table 3.14 Function B′ z/b s/b 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1
09852
10140
11138
13424
18796
05388−
07899−
02672−
00845−
00210−
00084−
00042 0
2
18857
19306
20772
23524
25983
08513−
07759−
04448−
01593−
00412−
00166−
00083−
00024−
00015−
00010 0
3
26362
26787
28018
29483
27257
10757−
04316−
04999−
02166−
00599−
00245 0
4
32016
32259
32748
32273
26925
12404−
00766−
04535−
02522 0
5
35777
35752
35323
33106
26236
13591
02165−
03455−
02651−
00991−
00388−
00199−
00116−
00073−
00049−
00025−
00014−
00009 0
6
37831
37531
36308
32822
25411
14440
04457−
02101 0
7
38487
37962
36072
31929
24638
14986
06209−
00702−
02329 0
8
38091
37408
35133
30699
23779
15292
07530
00614 0
9
36962
36275
33734
29299
22891
15404
08507
01795 1
35355
34553
32075
27819
21978
15355
09210
02814−
01005−
01115−
00608−
00344−
00210−
00135−
00092−
00048−
00028−
00018 1
2
31485
30730
28481
24836
20113
14915
10002
04378
00023−
00995−
00632−
00378−
00236−
00156−
00107 1
5
25602
25025
23338
20694
17368
13732
10193
05745
01385−
00669−
00600−
00401−
00265−
00181−
00126−
00068−
00040−
00026 2
17889
18144
16644
15198
13375
11331
09254
06371
02836
00028−
00410−
00371−
00278−
00202−
00148−
00084−
00050−
00033 2
5
12807
12633
12126
11327
10298
09130
07869
06022
03429
00661−
00130−
00271−
00250−
00201−
00156−
00094−
00059−
00039 3
09487
09394
09099
08635
08033
07325
06551
05354
03511
01112
00157−
00134−
00192−
00179−
00151−
00099−
00065−
00046 4
05707
05666
05562
05383
05145
04773
04532
03995
03066
01515
00595
00155−
00029−
00094−
00109−
00094−
00068−
00050 5
03772
03760
03384
02474
01522
00810
00371
00132
00013−
00043−
00070−
00061−
00049
02666
02468
01968
01380
00867
00496
00254
00110
00028−
00037−
00047−
00045 6 7
01980
01868
01577
01204
00842
00547
00332
00185
00093−
00002−
00029−
00037 8
01526
01459
01279
01034
00779
00554
00372
00236
00141
00035−
00008−
00025 9
01212
01170
01054
00888
00705
00533
00386
00265
00178
00066
00012−
00012 10
00924
00879
00764
00631
00501
00382
00281
00199 After Ahlvin and Ulery (1962). Table 3.15 Function C z/b s/b 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 −
04926 −
05142 −
05903 −
07708 −
12108
02247
12007
04475
01536
00403
00164
00082 0
2 −
09429 −
09775 −
10872 −
12977 −
14552
02419
14896
07892
02951
00796
00325
00164
00094
00059
00039 0
3 −
13181 −
13484 −
14415 −
15023 −
12990
01988
13394
09816
04148
01169
00483 0
4 −
16008 −
16188 −
16519 −
15985 −
11168
01292
11014
10422
05067 0
5 −
17889 −
17835 −
17497 −
15625 −
09833
00483
08730
10125
05690
01824
00778
00399
00231
00146
00098
00050
00029
00018 0
6 −
18915 −
18664 −
17336 −
14934 −
08967 −
00304
06731
09313 0
7 −
19244 −
18831 −
17393 −
14147 −
08409 −
01061
05028
08253
06129 0
8 −
19046 −
18481 −
16784 −
13393 −
08066 −
01744
03582
07114 0
9 −
18481 −
17841 −
16024 −
12664 −
07828 −
02337
02359
05993 1 −
17678 −
17050 −
15188 −
11995 −
07634 −
02843
01331
04939
05429
02726
01333
00726
00433
00278
00188
00098
00057
00036 1
2 −
15742 −
15117 −
13467 −
10763 −
07289 −
03575 −
00245
03107
04552
02791
01467
00824
00501
00324
00221 1
5 −
12801 −
12277 −
11101 −
09145 −
06711 −
04124 −
01702
01088
03154
02652
01570
00933
00585
00386
00266
00141
00083
00039 2 −
08944 −
08491 −
07976 −
06925 −
05560 −
04144 −
02687 −
00782
01267
02070
01527
01013
00321
00462
00327
00179
00107
00069 2
5 −
06403 −
06068 −
05839 −
05259 −
04522 −
03605 −
02800 −
01536
00103
01384
01314
00987
00707
00506
00369
00209
00128
00083 3 −
04744 −
04560 −
04339 −
04089 −
03642 −
03130 −
02587 −
01748 −
00528
00792
01030
00888
00689
00520
00392
00232
00145
00096 4 −
02854 −
02737 −
02562 −
02585 −
02421 −
02112 −
01964 −
01586 −
00956
00038
00492
00602
00561
00476
00389
00254
00168
00115 5 −
01886 −
01810 −
01568 −
00939 −
00293 −
00128
00329
00391
00380
00341
00250
00177
00127 6 −
01333 −
01118 −
00819 −
00405 −
00079
00129
00234
00272
00272
00227
00173
00130 7 −
00990 −
00902 −
00678 −
00417 −
00180 −
00004
00113
00174
00200
00193
00161
00128 8 −
00763 −
00699 −
00552 −
00393 −
00225 −
00077
00029
00096
00134
00157
00143
00120 9 −
00607 −
00423 −
00452 −
00353 −
00235 −
00118 −
00027
00037
00082
00124
00122
00110 10 −
00381 −
00373 −
00314 −
00233 −
00137 −
00063
00030
00040 After Ahlvin and Ulery (1962). Table 3.16 Function D z/b s/b 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1
04926
04998
05235
05716
06687
07635
04108
01803
00691
00193
00080
00041 0
2
09429
09552
09900
10546
11431
10932
07139
03444
01359
00384
00159
00081
00047
00029
00020 0
3
13181
13305
14051
14062
14267
12745
09078
04817
01982
00927
00238 0
4
16008
16070
16229
16288
15756
13696
10248
05887
02545 0
5
17889
17917
17826
17481
16403
14074
10894
06670
03039
00921
00390
00200
00116
00073
00049
00025
00015
00009 0
6
18915
18867
18573
17887
16489
14137
11186
07212 0
7
19244
19132
18679
17782
16229
13926
11237
07551
03801 0
8
19046
18927
18348
17306
15714
13548
11115
07728 0
9
18481
18349
17709
16635
15063
13067
10866
07788 1
17678
17503
16886
15824
14344
12513
10540
07753
04456
01611
00725
00382
00224
00142
00096
00050
00029
00018 1
2
15742
15618
15014
14073
12823
11340
09757
07484
04575
01796
00835
00446
00264
00169
00114 1
5
12801
12754
12237
11549
10657
09608
08491
06833
04539
01983
00970
00532
00320
00205
00140
00073
00043
00027 2
08944
09080
08668
08273
07814
07187
06566
05589
04103
02098
01117
00643
00398
00260
00179
00095
00056
00036 2
5
06403
06565
06284
06068
05777
05525
05069
04486
03532
02045
01183
00717
00457
00306
00213
00115
00068
00044 3
04744
04834
04760
04548
04391
04195
03963
03606
02983
01904
01187
00755
00497
00341
00242
00133
00080
00052 4
02854
02928
02996
02798
02724
02661
02568
02408
02110
01552
01087
00757
00533
00382
00280
00160
00100
00065 5
01886
01950
01816
01535
01230
00939
00700
00523
00392
00299
00180
00114
00077 6
01333
01351
01149
00976
00788
00625
00488
00381
00301
00190
00124
00086 7
00990
00966
00899
00787
00662
00542
00445
00360
00292
00192
00130
00092 8
00763
00759
00727
00641
00554
00477
00402
00332
00275
00192
00131
00096 9
00607
00746
00601
00533
00470
00415
00358
00303
00260
00187
00133
00099 10
00542
00506
00450
00398
00364
00319
00278
00239 After Ahlvin and Ulery (1962). Table 3.17 Function E z/b s/b 0 0 0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
8 0
9 1 1
2 1
5 2 2
5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5
45025
40194
35633
31431
27639
24275
21327
18765
16552
14645
11589
08398
05279
03576
02566
01493
00971
00680
00503
00386
00306 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.5 2 3 4
5
449494
400434
35428
31214
27407
24247
21112
18550
16337
14483
11435
08356
05105
03426
02519
01452
00927
5
44698
39591
33809
30541
26732
23411
20535
18049
15921
14610
11201
08159
05146
03489
02470
01495
5
44173
38660
33674
29298
25511
22289
19525
17190
15179
13472
10741
07885
05034
03435
02491
01526
5
43008
36798
31578
27243
23639
20634
18093
15977
14168
12618
10140
07517
04850
03360
02444
01446
5
39198
32802
28003
24200
21119
18520
16356
14523
12954
11611
09431
07088
04675
03211
02389
01418
00929
00632
00493
00377
00227
34722
30445
26598
23311
20526
18168
16155
14421
12928
11634
10510
08657
06611
04442
03150
02330
01395
22222
20399
18633
16967
15428
14028
12759
11620
10602
09686
08865
07476
05871
04078
02953
02216
01356
12500
11806
11121
10450
09801
09180
05556
05362
05170
04979
03125
02000
01389
01020
00781
00500
00347
00255
03045
01959
02965
01919
01342
00991
00762
02886 After Ahlvin and Ulery (1962). 5 6 7 8 10 12 14
04608
02727
01800
01272
00946
00734
00475
00332
00246
08027
06552
05728
04703
03454
02599
02007
01281
00873
00629
00466
00354
00275
00210
00220
03736
03425
03003
02410
01945
01585
01084
00774
00574
00438
00344
00273
00225
02352
02208
02008
01706
01447
01230
00900
00673
00517
00404
00325
00264
00221
01602
01527
01419
01248
01096
00962
00742
00579
00457
00370
00297
00246
00203
01157
01113
01049
00943
00850
00763
00612
00495
00404
00330
00273
00229
00200
00874
00847
00806
00738
00674
00617
00511
00425
00354
00296
00250
00212
00181
00683
00664
00636
00590
00546
00505
00431
00364
00309
00264
00228
00194
00171
00450
00318
00237
00425
00401
00378
00355
00313
00275
00241
00213
00185
00163
00304
00290
00276
00263
00237
00213
00192
00172
00155
00139
00228
00219
00210
00201
00185
00168
00154
00140
00127
00116 Table 3.18 Function F z/b s/b 0 0 0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
8 0
9 1 1
2 1
5 2 2
5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0.2
5
45025
40194
35633
31431
27639
24275
21327
18765
16552
14645
11589
08398
05279
03576
02566
01493
00971
00680
00503
00386
00306 0.4
5
44794
39781
35094
30801
26997
23444
20762
18287
16158
14280
11360
08196
05348
03673
02586
01536
01011 0.6
5
43981
38294
34508
28681
24890
21667
18956
16679
14747
12395
10460
07719
04994
03459
02255
01412 0.8
5
41954
34823
29016
24469
20937
18138
15903
14053
12528
11225
09449
06918
04614
03263
02395
01259 After Ahlvin and Ulery (1962). 1 1.2 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14
5 0 −
34722 −
22222 −
12500 −
05556 −
03125 −
02000 −
01389 −
01020 −
00781 −
00500 −
00347 −
00255
35789
03817 −
20800 −
17612 −
10950 −
05151 −
02961 −
01917
26215
05466 −
11165 −
13381 −
09441 −
04750 −
02798 −
01835 −
01295 −
00961 −
00742
20503
06372 −
05346 −
09768 −
08010 −
04356 −
02636
17086
06848 −
01818 −
06835 −
06684
14752
07037
00388 −
04529 −
05479 −
03595 −
02320 −
01590 −
01154 −
00875 −
00681 −
00450 −
00318 −
00237
13042
07068
01797 −
02749
11740
06963
02704 −
01392 −
03469
10604
06774
03277 −
00365
09664
06533
03619
00408
08850
06256
03819
00984 −
01367 −
01994 −
01591 −
01209 −
00931 −
00731 −
00587 −
00400 −
00289 −
00219
07486
05670
03913
01716 −
00452 −
01491 −
01337 −
01068 −
00844 −
00676 −
00550
05919
04804
03686
02177
00413 −
00879 −
00995 −
00870 −
00723 −
00596 −
00495 −
00353 −
00261 −
00201
04162
03593
03029
02197
01043 −
00189 −
00546 −
00589 −
00544 −
00474 −
00410 −
00307 −
00233 −
00183
03014
02762
02406
01927
01188
00198 −
00226 −
00364 −
00386 −
00366 −
00332 −
00263 −
00208 −
00166
02263
02097
01911 −
01623
01144
00396 −
00010 −
00192 −
00258 −
00271 −
00263 −
00223 −
00183 −
00150
01386
01331
01256
01134
00912
00508
00209
00026 −
00076 −
00127 −
00148 −
00153 −
00137 −
00120
00905
00700
00475
00277
00129
00031 −
00030 −
00066 −
00096 −
00099 −
00093
00675
00538
00409
00278
00170
00088
00030 −
00010 −
00053 −
00066 −
00070
00483
00428
00346
00258
00178
00114
00064
00027 −
00020 −
00041 −
00049
00380
00350
00291
00229
00174
00125
00082
00048
00003 −
00020 −
00033
00374
00291
00247
00203
00163
00124
00089
00062
00020 −
00005 −
00019
00267
00246
00213
00176
00149
00126
00092
00070 Table 3.19 Function G z/b s/b 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 00 0 0 0 0
1 0
00315
00802
01951
06682 0
2 0
01163
02877
06441
16214 0
3 0
02301
05475
11072
21465 0
4 0
03460
07883
14477
23442 0
5 0
04429
09618
16426
23652 0
6 0
04966
10729
17192
22949 0
7 0
05484
11256
17126
21772 0
8 0
05590
11225
16534
20381 0
9 0
05496
10856
15628
18904 1 0
05266
10274
14566
17419 1
2 0
04585
08831
12323
14615 1
5 0
03483
06688
09293
11071 2 0
02102
04069
05721
06948 2
5 0
01293
02534
03611
04484 3 0
00840
01638
02376
02994 4 0
00382
00772
01149
01480 5 0
00214 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 0 10 0 After Ahlvin and Ulery (1962). 1 1.2 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14
31831 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
31405
05555
00865
00159
00023
00007
00003
30474
13592
03060
00614
00091
00026
00010
00005
00003
00002
29228
18216
05747
01302
00201
00059
27779
20195
08233
02138
26216
20731
10185
03033
00528
00158
00063
00030
00016
00009
00004
00002
00001
24574
20496
11541
22924
19840
12373
04718
21295
18953
12855
19712
17945
28881
18198
16884
12745
06434
01646
00555
00233
00113
00062
00036
00015
00007
00004
15408
14755
12038
06967
02077
00743
00320
00159
00087
00051
11904
11830
10477
07075
02599
01021
00460
00233
00130
00078
00033
00016
00009
07738
08067
07804
06275
03062
01409
00692
00369
00212
00129
00055
00027
00015
05119
05509
05668
05117
03099
01650
00886
00499
00296
00185
00082
00041
00023
03485
03843
04124
04039
02886
01745
01022
00610
00376
00241
00110
00057
00032
01764
02004
02271
02475
02215
01639
01118
00745
00499
00340
00167
00090
00052
00992
01343
01551
01601
01364
01105
00782
00560
00404
00216
00122
00073
00602
00845
01014
01148
01082
00917
00733
00567
00432
00243
00150
00092
00396
00687
00830
00842
00770
00656
00539
00432
00272
00171
00110
00270
00481
00612
00656
00631
00568
00492
00413
00278
00185
00124
00177
00347
00459
00513
00515
00485
00438
00381
00274
00192
00133
00199
00258
00351
00407
00420
00411
00382
00346 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass 125 Note that
 is a principal stress, due to symmetry. The remaining two principal stresses can be determined as  
z +
r  ± 
z −
r 2 + 2rz 2
P = (3.80) 2 Example 3.3 2 Refer to Figure 3.22. Given that q = 100 kN/m  B = 5 m, and v = 045, determine the principal stresses at a point defined by s = 375 m and z = 5 m. solution s/b = 375/25 = 15 z/b = 5/25 = 2. From Tables 3.13–3.19, A′ = 006275 E = 004078 F = 002197 B′ = 006371 C = −000782 G = 007804 D = 005589 So,
z = qA′ + B′  = 100006275 + 006371 = 1265 kN/m2
 = q2A′ − D + 1 − 2 E  = 1002045006275 − 005589 + 1 − 2045004078 = 0466 kN/m2
r = q2A′ + C + 1 − 2 F  = 10009006275 − 000782 + 01002197 = 509 kN/m2 rz = qG = 100007804 = 78 kN/m2
 = 0466 kN/m2 =
2 intermediate principal stress  1265 + 509 ± 1265 − 5092 + 2 × 782
P = 2 = 1774 ± 1734 2
P1 = 1754 kN/m2 (major principal stress)
P3 = 02 kN/m2 (minor principal stress) 126 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass 3.16 Vertical displacement due to uniformly loaded circular area at the surface The vertical displacement due to a uniformly loaded circular area (Figure 3.23) can be determined by using the same procedure we used above for a point load, which involves determination of the strain ∈z from the equation ∈z = 1 
− 
r +
  E z (3.81) and determination of the settlement by integration with respect to z. The relations for
z 
r , and
 are given in Eqs. (3.76)–(3.78). Substitution of the relations for
z 
r , and
 in the preceding equation for strain and simplification gives (Ahlvin and Ulery, 1962) ∈z = q 1−v 1 − 2vA′ + B′  E (3.82) where q is the load per unit area. A′ and B′ are nondimensional and are functions of z/b and s/b; their values are given in Tables 3.13 and 3.14. The vertical deflection at a depth z can be obtained by integration of Eq. (3.82) as w=q 1+v z b I5 + 1 − vI6 E b (3.83) where I5 = A′ (Table 3.13) and b is the radius of the circular loaded area. The numerical values of I6 (which is a function of z/b and s/b) are given in Table 3.20. Figure 3.23 Elastic settlement due to a uniformly loaded circular area. Table 3.20 Values of I6 z/b 0 0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
8 0
9 1 1
2 1
5 2 2
5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 s/b 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.5 2 3 4 2
0 1
80998 1
63961 1
48806 1
35407 1
23607 1
13238 1
04131
96125
89072
82843
72410
60555
47214
38518
32457
24620
19805
16554
14217
12448
11079 1
97987 1
79018 1
62068 1
47044 1
33802 1
22176 1
11998 1
03037
95175
88251
85005
71882
60233
47022
38403
32403
24588
19785 1
91751 1
72886 1
56242 1
40979 1
28963 1
17894 1
08350
99794
92386
85856
80465
70370
57246
44512
38098
32184
24820 1
80575 1
61961 1
46001 1
32442 1
20822 1
10830 1
02154
91049
87928
82616
76809
67937
57633
45656
37608
31887
25128 1
62553 1
44711 1
30614 1
19210 1
09555 1
01312
94120
87742
82136
77950
72587
64814
55559
44502
36940
31464
24168 1
27319 1
18107 1
09996 1
02740
96202
90298
84917
80030
75571
71495
67769
61187
53138
43202
36155
30969
23932
19455
16326
14077
12352
10989
93676
92670
90098
86726
83042
79308
75653
72143
68809
65677
62701
57329
50496
41702
35243
30381
23668
71185
70888
70074
68823
67238
65429
63469
61442
59398
57361
55364
51552
46379
39242
33698
29364
23164
51671
51627
51382
50966
50412
49728
33815
33794
33726
33638
25200
20045
16626
14315
12576
09918
08346
07023
25184
20081
25162
20072
16688
14288
12512
25124 After Ahlvin and Ulery (1962). 5 6 7 8 10 12 14
33293
24996
19982
16668
14273
12493
09996
08295
07123
48061
45122
43013
39872
35054
30913
27453
22188
18450
15750
13699
12112
10854
09900
09820
31877
31162
29945
27740
25550
23487
19908
17080
14868
13097
11680
10548
09510
24386
24070
23495
22418
21208
19977
17640
15575
13842
12404
11176
10161
09290
19673
19520
19053
18618
17898
17154
15596
14130
12792
11620
10600
09702
08980
16516
16369
16199
15846
15395
14919
13864
12785
11778
10843
09976
09234
08300
14182
14099
14058
13762
13463
13119
12396
11615
10836
10101
09400
08784
08180
12394
12350
12281
12124
11928
11694
11172
10585
09990
09387
08848
08298
07710
09952
08292
07104
09876
09792
09700
09558
09300
08915
08562
08197
07800
07407
08270
07064
08196
07026
08115
06980
080610
6897
07864
06848
07675
06695
07452
06522
07210
06377
06928
06200
06678
05976 128 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass From Eq. (3.83) it follows that the settlement at the surface (i.e., at z = 0) is wz=0 = qb 1 − v2 I E 6 (3.84) Example 3.4 Consider a uniformly loaded flexible circular area on the surface of a sand layer 9 m thick as shown in Figure 3.24. The circular area has a 2 2 diameter of 3 m. Also given: q = 100 kN/m ; for sand, E = 21,000 kN/m and v = 03. (a) Use Eq. (3.83) and determine the deflection of the center of the circular area z = 0. (b) Divide the sand layer into these layers of equal thickness of 3 m each. Use Eq. (3.82) to determine the deflection at the center of the circular area. Figure 3.24 Elastic settlement calculation for layer of finite thickness. Stresses and displacements in a soil mass solution 129 Part a: From Eq. (3.83) q1 + v  z b I5 + 1 − vI6 E b wnet = wz=0 s=0 − wz=9m s=0 w= For z/b = 0 and s/b = 0, I5 = 1 and I6 = 2; so wz=0 s=0 = 1001 + 03 151 − 032 = 0013 m = 13 mm 21,000 For z/b = 9/15 = 6 and s/b = 0 I5 = 001361 and I6 = 016554; so, wz=9m s=0 = 1001 + 0315 6001361 + 1 − 03016554 21,000 = 000183 m = 183 mm Hence wnet = 13 − 183 = 1117 mm. Part b: From Eq. (3.82), ∈z = q1 +  1 − 2vA′ + B′  E Layer 1: From Tables 3.13 and 3.14, for z/b = 15/15 = 1 and s/b = 0 A′ = 029289 and B′ = 035355: ∈z1 = 1001 + 03 1 − 06029289 + 035355 = 000291 21 000 Layer 2: For z/b = 45/15 = 3 and s/b = 0 A′ = 005132 and B′ = 009487: ∈z2 = 1001 + 03 1 − 06005132 + 009487 = 000071 21 000 Layer 3: For z/b = 75/15 = 5 and s/b = 0 A′ = 001942 and B′ = 003772: ∈z3 = 1001 + 03 1 − 06001942 + 003772 = 000028 21 000 130 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass The final stages in the calculation are tabulated below. Layer i Layer thickness zi m Strain at the center of the layer ∈zi ∈zi zi m 1 2 3 3 3 3 0.00291 0.00071 0.00028 0.00873 0.00213 0.00084 0
0117 m = 11
7 mm 3.17 Vertical stress below a rectangular loaded area on the surface The stress at a point P at a depth z below the corner of a uniformly loaded (vertical) flexible rectangular area (Figure 3.25) can be determined by integration of Boussinesq’s equations given in Sec. 3.12. The vertical load over the elementary area dx · dy may be treated as a point load of magnitude q · dx · dy. The vertical stress at P due to this elementary load can be evaluated with the aid of Eq. (3.49): d
z = 3q dx dy z3 2x2 + y2 + z2 5/2 Figure 3.25 Vertical stress below the corner of a uniformly loaded (normal) rectangular area. Stresses and displacements in a soil mass 131 The total increase of vertical stress at P due to the entire loaded area may be determined by integration of the above equation with horizontal limits of x = 0 to x = L and y = 0 to y = B. Newmark (1935) gave the results of the integration in the following form: (3.85)
z = qI7  1 2mnm2 + n2 + 11/2 m2 + n2 + 2 I7 = 4 m2 + n2 + m2 n2 + 1 m2 + n2 + 1 + tan−1 2mnm2 + n2 + 11/2 m2 + n2 − m2 n2 + 1  (3.86) where m = B/z and n = L/z. The values of I7 for various values of m and n are given in a graphical form in Figure 3.26, and also in Table 3.21. For equations concerning the determination of
x 
y  xz  yz , and xy , the reader is referred to the works of Holl (1940) and Giroud (1970). The use of Figure 3.26 for determination of the vertical stress at any point below a rectangular loaded area is shown in Example 3.5. In most cases, the vertical stress below the center of a rectangular area is of importance. This can be given by the relationship
= q I8 where 2 I8 =   ′2 1 + m′2 1 + 2n1 ′2 1 + n′2 m′2 + n′2  1 + m′2 1 1 1 1 + n1  m′1 + sin−1   ′2 m′2 1 + n′2 1 + n1 1 m′1 =  m′1 n′1 L B z n′1 =
 B 2 The variation of I8 with m1 and n1 is given in Table 3.22. (3.87) (3.88) (3.89) Figure 3.26 Variation of I7 with m and n. Table 3.21 Variation of I7 with m and n n 0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
8 0
9 1
0 1
2 1
4 1
6 1
8 2
0 2
5 3
0 4
0 5
0 6
0 m 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 0
0047 0
0092 0
0132 0
0168 0
0198 0
0222 0
0242 0
0258 0
0270 0
0279 0
0293 0
0301 0
0306 0
0309 0
0311 0
0314 0
0315 0
0316 0
0316 0
0316 0
0092 0
0179 0
0259 0
0328 0
0387 0
0435 0
0474 0
0504 0
0528 0
0547 0
0573 0
0589 0
0599 0
0606 0
0610 0
0616 0
0618 0
0619 0
0620 0
0620 0
0132 0
0259 0
0374 0
0474 0
0559 0
0629 0
0686 0
0731 0
0766 0
0794 0
0832 0
0856 0
0871 0
0880 0
0887 0
0895 0
0898 0
0901 0
0901 0
0902 0
0168 0
0328 0
0474 0
0602 0
0711 0
0801 0
0873 0
0931 0
0977 0
1013 0
1063 0
1094 0
1114 0
1126 0
1134 0
1145 0
1150 0
1153 0
1154 0
1154 0
0198 0
0387 0
0559 0
0711 0
0840 0
0947 0
1034 0
1104 0
1158 0
1202 0
1263 0
1300 0
1324 0
1340 0
1350 0
1363 0
1368 0
1372 0
1374 0
1374 0
0222 0
0435 0
0629 0
0801 0
0947 0
1069 0
1169 0
1247 0
1311 0
1361 0
1431 0
1475 0
1503 0
1521 0
1533 0
1548 0
1555 0
1560 0
1561 0
1562 0
0242 0
0474 0
0686 0
0873 0
1034 0
1168 0
1277 0
1365 0
1436 0
1491 0
1570 0
1620 0
1652 0
1672 0
1686 0
1704 0
1711 0
1717 0
1719 0
1719 0
0258 0
0504 0
0731 0
0931 0
1104 0
1247 0
1365 0
1461 0
1537 0
1598 0
1684 0
1739 0
1774 0
1797 0
1812 0
1832 0
1841 0
1847 0
1849 0
1850 0
0270 0
0528 0
0766 0
0977 0
1158 0
1311 0
1436 0
1537 0
1619 0
1684 0
1777 0
1836 0
1874 0
1899 0
1915 0
1938 0
1947 0
1954 0
1956 0
1957 0
0279 0
0547 0
0794 0
1013 0
1202 0
1361 0
1491 0
1598 0
1684 0
1752 0
1851 0
1914 0
1955 0
1981 0
1999 0
2024 0
2034 0
2042 0
2044 0
2045 0
0293 0
0573 0
0832 0
1063 0
1263 0
1431 0
1570 0
1684 0
1777 0
1851 0
1958 0
2028 0
2073 0
2103 0
2124 0
2151 0
2163 0
2172 0
2175 0
2176 0
0301 0
0589 0
0856 0
1094 0
1300 0
1475 0
1620 0
1739 0
1836 0
1914 0
2028 0
2102 0
2151 0
2183 0
2206 0
2236 0
2250 0
2260 0
2263 0
2264 0
0306 0
0599 0
0871 0
1114 0
1324 0
1503 0
1652 0
1774 0
1874 0
1955 0
2073 0
2151 0
2203 0
2237 0
2261 0
2294 0
2309 0
2320 0
2324 0
2325 0
0309 0
0606 0
0880 0
1126 0
1340 0
1521 0
1672 0
1797 0
1899 0
1981 0
2103 0
2184 0
2237 0
2274 0
2299 0
2333 0
2350 0
2362 0
2366 0
2367 0
0311 0
0610 0
0887 0
1134 0
1350 0
1533 0
1686 0
1812 0
1915 0
1999 0
2124 0
2206 0
2261 0
2299 0
2325 0
2361 0
2378 0
2391 0
2395 0
2397 0
0314 0
0616 0
0895 0
1145 0
1363 0
1548 0
1704 0
1832 0
1938 0
2024 0
2151 0
2236 0
2294 0
2333 0
2361 0
2401 0
2420 0
2434 0
2439 0
2441 0
0315 0
0618 0
0898 0
1150 0
1368 0
1555 0
1711 0
1841 0
1947 0
2034 0
2163 0
2250 0
2309 0
2350 0
2378 0
2420 0
2439 0
2455 0
2460 0
2463 0
0316 0
0619 0
0901 0
1153 0
1372 0
1560 0
1717 0
1847 0
1954 0
2042 0
2172 0
2260 0
2320 0
2362 0
2391 0
2434 0
2455 0
2472 0
2479 0
2482 0
0316 0
0620 0
0901 0
1154 0
1374 0
1561 0
1719 0
1849 0
1956 0
2044 0
2175 0
2263 0
2323 0
2366 0
2395 0
2439 0
2461 0
2479 0
2486 0
2489 0
0316 0
0620 0
0902 0
1154 0
1374 0
1562 0
1719 0
1850 0
1957 0
2045 0
2176 0
2264 0
2325 0
2367 0
2397 0
2441 0
2463 0
2481 0
2489 0
2492 134 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Table 3.22 Variation of I8 with m′1 and n′1 m′1 n′i 0
20 0
40 0
60 0
80 1
00 1
20 1
40 1
60 1
80 2
00 3
00 4
00 5
00 6
00 7
00 8
00 9
00 10
00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0
994 0
960 0
892 0
800 0
701 0
606 0
522 0
449 0
388 0
336 0
179 0
108 0
072 0
051 0
038 0
029 0
023 0
019 0
997 0
976 0
932 0
870 0
800 0
727 0
658 0
593 0
534 0
481 0
293 0
190 0
131 0
095 0
072 0
056 0
045 0
037 0
997 0
977 0
936 0
878 0
814 0
748 0
685 0
627 0
573 0
525 0
348 0
241 0
174 0
130 0
100 0
079 0
064 0
053 0
997 0
977 0
936 0
880 0
817 0
753 0
692 0
636 0
585 0
540 0
373 0
269 0
202 0
155 0
122 0
098 0
081 0
067 0
997 0
977 0
937 0
881 0
818 0
754 0
694 0
639 0
590 0
545 0
384 0
285 0
219 0
172 0
139 0
113 0
094 0
079 0
997 0
977 0
937 0
881 0
818 0
755 0
695 0
640 0
591 0
547 0
389 0
293 0
229 0
184 0
150 0
125 0
105 0
089 0
997 0
977 0
937 0
881 0
818 0
755 0
695 0
641 0
592 0
548 0
392 0
298 0
236 0
192 0
158 0
133 0
113 0
097 0
997 0
977 0
937 0
881 0
818 0
755 0
696 0
641 0
592 0
549 0
393 0
301 0
240 0
197 0
164 0
139 0
119 0
103 0
997 0
977 0
937 0
881 0
818 0
755 0
696 0
641 0
593 0
549 0
394 0
302 0
242 0
200 0
168 0
144 0
124 0
108 0
997 0
977 0
937 0
881 0
818 0
755 0
696 0
642 0
593 0
549 0
395 0
303 0
244 0
202 0
171 0
147 0
128 0
112 Example 3.5 2 A distributed load of 50 kN/m is acting on the flexible rectangular area 6 × 3 m as shown in Figure 3.27. Determine the vertical stress at point A, which is located at a depth of 3 m below the ground surface. solution The total increase of stress at A may be evaluated by summing the stresses contributed by the four rectangular loaded areas shown in Figure 3.26. Thus
z = qI71 + I72 + I73 + I74  n1 = L1 45 = = 15 z 3 m1 = 15 B1 = = 05 z 3 From Figure 3.26, I71 = 0131. Similarly, n2 = 15 L2 = = 05 z 3 n3 = 15 n4 = 05 m3 = 05 m4 = 05 m2 = B2 = 05 z I73 = 0131 I74 = 0085 I72 = 0084 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Figure 3.27 135 Distributed load on a flexible rectangular area. So,
z = 500131 + 0084 + 0131 + 0084 = 215 kN/m2 3.18 Deflection due to a uniformly loaded flexible rectangular area The elastic deformation in the vertical direction at the corner of a uniformly loaded rectangular area of size L × B (Figure 3.25) can be obtained by proper integration of the expression for strain. The deflection at a depth z below the corner of the rectangular area can be expressed in the form (Harr, 1966) 
  1 − 2v qB 1 − v2  I9 − (3.90) I10 w(corner) = 2E 1−v    1 + m21 + n21 + m1 1 ln  where I9 =  1 + m21 + n21 − m1   1 + m21 + n21 + 1 + m1 ln  (3.91) 1 + m21 + n21 − 1 136 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Figure 3.28 Determination of settlement at the center of a rectangular area of dimensions L × B. n I10 = 1 tan−1  L B z n1 = B m1 =  m1  n1 1 + m21 + n21  (3.92) (3.93) (3.94) Values of I9 and I10 are given in Tables 3.23 and 3.24. For surface deflection at the corner of a rectangular area, we can substitute z/B = n1 = 0 in Eq. (3.90) and make the necessary calculations; thus wcorner = qB 1 − v2 I9 2E (3.95) The deflection at the surface for the center of a rectangular area (Figure 3.28) can be found by adding the deflection for the corner of four rectangular areas of dimension L/2 × B/2. Thus, from Eq. (3.90), wcenter = 4   qB/2 qB 1 −  2 I9 1 −  2 I9 = 2E E (3.96) 3.19 Stresses in a layered medium In the preceding sections, we discussed the stresses inside a homogeneous elastic medium due to various loading conditions. In actual cases of soil deposits it is possible to encounter layered soils, each with a different modulus of elasticity. A case of practical importance is that of a stiff soil layer on top of a softer layer, as shown in Figure 3.29a. For a given loading condition, the effect of the stiff layer will be to reduce the stress concentration in the lower layer. Burmister (1943) worked on such problems Table 3.23 Variation of I9 n1 0
00 0
25 0
50 0
75 1
00 1
25 1
50 1
75 2
00 2
25 2
50 2
75 3
00 3
25 3
50 3
75 4
00 4
25 4
50 4
75 5
00 5
25 5
50 5
75 6
00 6
25 6
50 6
75 7
00 7
25 7
50 7
75 8
00 8
25 8
50 8
75 9
00 9
25 9
50 9
75 10
00 Value of m1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1
122 1
095 1
025 0
933 0
838 0
751 0
674 0
608 0
552 0
504 0
463 0
427 0
396 0
369 0
346 0
325 0
306 0
289 0
274 0
260 0
248 0
237 0
227 0
217 0
208 0
200 0
193 0
186 0
179 0
173 0
168 0
162 0
158 0
153 0
148 0
144 0
140 0
137 0
133 0
130 0
126 1
532 1
510 1
452 1
371 1
282 1
192 1
106 1
026 0
954 0
888 0
829 0
776 0
728 0
686 0
647 0
612 0
580 0
551 0
525 0
501 0
479 0
458 0
440 0
422 0
406 0
391 0
377 0
364 0
352 0
341 0
330 0
320 0
310 0
301 0
293 0
285 0
277 0
270 0
263 0
257 0
251 1
783 1
763 1
708 1
632 1
547 1
461 1
378 1
299 1
226 1
158 1
095 1
037 0
984 0
935 0
889 0
848 0
809 0
774 0
741 0
710 0
682 0
655 0
631 0
608 0
586 0
566 0
547 0
529 0
513 0
497 0
482 0
468 0
455 0
442 0
430 0
419 0
408 0
398 0
388 0
379 0
370 1
964 1
944 1
890 1
816 1
734 1
650 1
570 1
493 1
421 1
354 1
291 1
233 1
179 1
128 1
081 1
037 0
995 0
957 0
921 0
887 0
855 0
825 0
797 0
770 0
745 0
722 0
699 0
678 0
658 0
639 0
621 0
604 0
588 0
573 0
558 0
544 0
531 0
518 0
506 0
494 0
483 2
105 2
085 2
032 1
959 1
878 1
796 1
717 1
641 1
571 1
505 1
444 1
386 1
332 1
281 1
234 1
189 1
147 1
107 1
070 1
034 1
001 0
969 0
939 0
911 0
884 0
858 0
834 0
810 0
788 0
767 0
747 0
728 0
710 0
692 0
676 0
660 0
644 0
630 0
616 0
602 0
589 2
220 2
200 2
148 2
076 1
995 1
914 1
836 1
762 1
692 1
627 1
567 1
510 1
457 1
406 1
359 1
315 1
273 1
233 1
195 1
159 1
125 1
093 1
062 1
032 1
004 0
977 0
952 0
927 0
904 0
881 0
860 0
839 0
820 0
801 0
783 0
765 0
748 0
732 0
717 0
702 0
688 2
318 2
298 2
246 2
174 2
094 2
013 1
936 1
862 1
794 1
730 1
670 1
613 1
561 1
511 1
465 1
421 1
379 1
339 1
301 1
265 1
231 1
199 1
167 1
137 1
109 1
082 1
055 1
030 1
006 0
983 0
960 0
939 0
918 0
899 0
879 0
861 0
843 0
826 0
810 0
794 0
778 2
403 2
383 2
331 2
259 2
179 2
099 2
022 1
949 1
881 1
817 1
758 1
702 1
650 1
601 1
555 1
511 1
470 1
431 1
393 1
358 1
323 1
291 1
260 1
230 1
201 1
173 1
147 1
121 1
097 1
073 1
050 1
028 1
007 0
987 0
967 0
948 0
930 0
912 0
895 0
878 0
862 2
477 2
458 2
406 2
334 2
255 2
175 2
098 2
025 1
958 1
894 1
836 1
780 1
729 1
680 1
634 1
591 1
550 1
511 1
474 1
438 1
404 1
372 1
341 1
311 1
282 1
255 1
228 1
203 1
178 1
154 1
131 1
109 1
087 1
066 1
046 1
027 1
008 0
990 0
972 0
955 0
938 2
544 2
525 2
473 2
401 2
322 2
242 2
166 2
093 2
026 1
963 1
904 1
850 1
798 1
750 1
705 1
662 1
621 1
582 1
545 1
510 1
477 1
444 1
413 1
384 1
355 1
328 1
301 1
275 1
251 1
227 1
204 1
181 1
160 1
139 1
118 1
099 1
080 1
061 1
043 1
026 1
009 Table 3.24 Variation of I10 n1 0
25 0
50 0
75 1
00 1
25 1
50 1
75 2
00 2
25 2
50 2
75 3
00 3
25 3
50 3
75 4
00 4
25 4
50 4
75 5
00 5
25 5
50 5
75 6
00 6
25 6
50 6
75 7
00 7
25 7
50 7
75 8
00 8
25 8
50 8
75 9
00 9
25 9
50 9
75 10
00 Value of m1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0
098 0
148 0
166 0
167 0
160 0
149 0
139 0
128 0
119 0
110 0
102 0
096 0
090 0
084 0
079 0
075 0
071 0
067 0
064 0
061 0
059 0
056 0
054 0
052 0
050 0
048 0
046 0
045 0
043 0
042 0
040 0
039 0
038 0
037 0
036 0
035 0
034 0
033 0
032 0
032 0
103 0
167 0
202 0
218 0
222 0
220 0
213 0
205 0
196 0
186 0
177 0
168 0
160 0
152 0
145 0
138 0
132 0
126 0
121 0
116 0
111 0
107 0
103 0
099 0
096 0
093 0
089 0
087 0
084 0
081 0
079 0
077 0
074 0
072 0
070 0
069 0
067 0
065 0
064 0
062 0
104 0
172 0
212 0
234 0
245 0
248 0
247 0
243 0
237 0
230 0
223 0
215 0
208 0
200 0
193 0
186 0
179 0
173 0
167 0
161 0
155 0
150 0
145 0
141 0
136 0
132 0
128 0
124 0
121 0
117 0
114 0
111 0
108 0
105 0
103 0
100 0
098 0
095 0
093 0
091 0
105 0
174 0
216 0
241 0
254 0
261 0
263 0
262 0
259 0
255 0
250 0
244 0
238 0
232 0
226 0
219 0
213 0
207 0
201 0
195 0
190 0
185 0
179 0
174 0
170 0
165 0
161 0
156 0
152 0
149 0
145 0
141 0
138 0
135 0
132 0
129 0
126 0
123 0
120 0
118 0
105 0
175 0
218 0
244 0
259 0
267 0
271 0
273 0
272 0
269 0
266 0
262 0
258 0
253 0
248 0
243 0
237 0
232 0
227 0
221 0
216 0
211 0
206 0
201 0
197 0
192 0
188 0
183 0
179 0
175 0
171 0
168 0
164 0
160 0
157 0
154 0
151 0
147 0
145 0
142 0
105 0
175 0
219 0
246 0
262 0
271 0
277 0
279 0
279 0
278 0
277 0
274 0
271 0
267 0
263 0
259 0
254 0
250 0
245 0
241 0
236 0
232 0
227 0
223 0
218 0
214 0
210 0
205 0
201 0
197 0
193 0
190 0
186 0
182 0
179 0
176 0
172 0
169 0
166 0
163 0
105 0
175 0
220 0
247 0
264 0
274 0
280 0
283 0
284 0
284 0
283 0
282 0
279 0
277 0
273 0
270 0
267 0
263 0
259 0
255 0
251 0
247 0
243 0
239 0
235 0
231 0
227 0
223 0
219 0
216 0
212 0
208 0
205 0
201 0
198 0
194 0
191 0
188 0
185 0
182 0
105 0
176 0
220 0
248 0
265 0
275 0
282 0
286 0
288 0
288 0
288 0
287 0
285 0
283 0
281 0
278 0
276 0
272 0
269 0
266 0
263 0
259 0
255 0
252 0
248 0
245 0
241 0
238 0
234 0
231 0
227 0
224 0
220 0
217 0
214 0
210 0
207 0
204 0
201 0
198 0
105 0
176 0
220 0
248 0
265 0
276 0
283 0
288 0
290 0
291 0
291 0
291 0
290 0
288 0
287 0
285 0
282 0
280 0
277 0
274 0
271 0
268 0
265 0
262 0
259 0
256 0
252 0
249 0
246 0
243 0
240 0
236 0
233 0
230 0
227 0
224 0
221 0
218 0
215 0
212 0
105 0
176 0
220 0
248 0
266 0
277 0
284 0
289 0
292 0
293 0
294 0
294 0
293 0
292 0
291 0
289 0
287 0
285 0
283 0
281 0
278 0
276 0
273 0
270 0
267 0
265 0
262 0
259 0
256 0
253 0
250 0
247 0
244 0
241 0
238 0
235 0
233 0
230 0
227 0
224 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Figure 3.29 139 a Uniformly loaded circular area in a two-layered soil E1 > E2 and b Vertical stress below the centerline of a uniformly loaded circular area. involving two- and three-layer flexible systems. This was later developed by Fox (1948), Burmister (1958), Jones (1962), and Peattie (1962). The effect of the reduction of stress concentration due to the presence of a stiff top layer is demonstrated in Figure 3.29b. Consider a flexible circular area of radius b subjected to a loading of q per unit area at the surface of a two-layered system. E1 and E2 are the moduli of elasticity of the top and the bottom layer, respectively, with E1 > E2 ; and h is the thickness of the top layer. For h = b, the elasticity solution for the vertical stress
z at various depths below the center of the loaded area can be obtained from Figure 3.29b. The curves of
z /q against z/b for E1 /E2 = 1 give the simple Boussinesq case, which is obtained by solving Eq. (3.74). However, for E1 /E2 > 1, the value of
z /q for a given z/b decreases with the increase of E1 /E2 . It must be pointed out that in obtaining these results it is assumed that there is no slippage at the interface. The study of the stresses in a flexible layered system is of importance in highway pavement design. 3.20 Vertical stress at the interface of a three-layer flexible system Jones (1962) gave solutions for the determination of vertical stress
z at the interfaces of three-layered systems below the center of a uniformly 140 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Figure 3.30 Uniformly loaded circular area on a three-layered medium. loaded flexible area (Figure 3.30). These solutions are presented in a nondimensional form in the appendix. In preparing these appendix tables, the following parameters were used: k1 = E1 E2 (3.97) k2 = E2 E3 (3.98) a1 = b h2 (3.99) H= h1 h2 (3.100) Example 3.6 2 Refer to Figure 3.31. Given q = 100 kN/m  b = 061 m h1 = 152 m h2 = 305 m E1 = 1035 MN/m2  E2 = 69 MN/m2  E3 = 1725 MN/m2 , determine
z1 . solution E 1035 69 E = 15 k2 = 2 = =4 k1 = 1 = E2 69 E3 1725 a1 = 061 b = = 02 h2 305 H= h1 152 = = 05 h2 305 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Figure 3.31 Plot of z1 /q against k2 . Figure 3.32 Plot of z1 /q against k1 k2 = 4. 141 Using the above parameters and the tables for
z1 /q, the following table is prepared: k1 0.2 2.0 20.0 z1 /q k2 = 0
2 k2 = 2
0 k2 = 20
0 0.272 0.16 0.051 0.27 0.153 0.042 0.268 0.15 0.036 142 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Based on the results of the above table, a graph of
z1 /q against k2 for various values of k1 is plotted (Figure 3.31). For this problem, k2 = 4. So the values of
z1 /q for k2 = 4 and k1 = 02, 2.0, and 20 are obtained from Figure 3.31 and then plotted as in Figure 3.32. From this graph,
z1 /q = 016 for k1 = 15. Thus
z1 = 100016 = 16kN/w2 3.21 Distribution of contact stress over footings In calculating vertical stress, we generally assume that the foundation of a structure is flexible. In practice, this is not the case; no foundation is perfectly flexible, nor is it infinitely rigid. The actual nature of the distribution of contact stress will depend on the elastic properties of the foundation and the soil on which the foundation is resting. Borowicka (1936, 1938) analyzed the problem of distribution of contact stress over uniformly loaded strip and circular rigid foundations resting on a semi-infinite elastic mass. The shearing stress at the base of the foundation was assumed to be zero. The analysis shows that the distribution of contact stress is dependent on a nondimensional factor Kr of the form 1 Kr = 6
1 − vs2 1 − vf2 
Ef Es 
T b 3 (3.101) where vs = Poisson’s ratio for soil vf = Poisson’s ratio for foundation material Ef   Es = Young’s modulus of foundation material and soil, respectively half-width for strip foundation b= radius for circular foundation T = thickness of foundation Figure 3.33 shows the distribution of contact stress for a circular foundation. Note that Kr = 0 indicates a perfectly flexible foundation, and Kr =  means a perfectly rigid foundation. Foundations of clay When a flexible foundation resting on a saturated clay  = 0 is loaded with a uniformly distributed load (q/unit area), it will deform and take a bowl Stresses and displacements in a soil mass 143 Figure 3.33 Contact stress over a rigid circular foundation resting on an elastic medium. Figure 3.34 Contact pressure and settlement profiles for foundations on clay. shape (Figure 3.34). Maximum deflection will be at the center; however, the contact stress over the footing will be uniform (q per unit area). A rigid foundation resting on the same clay will show a uniform settlement (Figure 3.34). The contact stress distribution will take a form such as that shown in Figure 3.33, with only one exception: the stress at the edges of the footing cannot be infinity. Soil is not an infinitely elastic material; beyond a certain limiting stress qcmax , plastic flow will begin. 144 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Figure 3.35 Contact pressure and settlement profiles for foundations on sand. Foundations on sand For a flexible foundation resting on a cohesionless soil, the distribution of contact pressure will be uniform (Figure 3.35). However, the edges of the foundation will undergo a larger settlement than the center. This occurs because the soil located at the edge of the foundation lacks lateral-confining pressure and hence possesses less strength. The lower strength of the soil at the edge of the foundation will result in larger settlement. A rigid foundation resting on a sand layer will settle uniformly. The contact pressure on the foundation will increase from zero at the edge to a maximum at the center, as shown in Figure 3.35. 3.22 Reliability of stress calculation using the theory of elasticity Only a limited number of attempts have been made so far to compare theoretical results for stress distribution with the stresses observed under field conditions. The latter, of course, requires elaborate field instrumentation. However, from the results available at present, fairly good agreement is shown between theoretical considerations and field conditions, especially in the case of vertical stress. In any case, a variation of about 20–30% between the theory and field conditions may be expected. PROBLEMS 3.1 A line load of q per unit length is applied at the ground surface as shown in Figure 3.1. Given q = 44 kN/m, (a) Plot the variations of
z 
x , and xz against x from x = +6 m to x = −6 m for z = 24 m. (b) Plot the variation of
z with z (from z = 0 m to z = 6 m) for x = 15 m. Stresses and displacements in a soil mass 145 Figure P3.1 3.2 Refer to Figure 3.8. Assume that q = 45 kN/m. (a) If z = 5 m, plot the variation of
z 
x , and xz against x for the range x = ±10 m. (b) Plot the variation of
z with z for the range z = 0–10 m (for x = 0 m). (c) Plot the variation of
z with z for the range z = 0–10 m (for x = 5 m). 3.3 Refer to Figure 3.1. Given that q = 51 kN/m  = 035, and z = 15 m, calculate the major, intermediate, and minor principal stresses at x = 0, 1.5, 3, 4.5 and 6 m. 3.4 Refer to Figure P3.1. Given that 1 = 90  2 = 90  a = 15 m a1 = 3 m a2 = 3 m b = 15 m q1 = 36 kN/m, and q2 = 50 kN/m, determine
z at M and N . 3.5 Refer to Figure P3.1. Given that 1 = 30  2 = 45  a = 2 m a1 = 3 m a2 = 5 m b = 2 m q1 = 40 kN/m, and q2 = 30 kN/m, determine
z at M and N . 2 3.6 For the infinite strip load shown in Figure 3.9, given B = 4 m q = 105 kN/m , and  = 03, draw the variation of
x 
z  xz 
p1 (maximum principal stress),
p2 (intermediate principal stress), and
p3 (minimum principal stress) with x (from x = 0 to +8 m) at z = 3 m. 3.7 An embankment is shown in Figure P3.2. Given that B = 5 m H = 5 m m = 3 15 z = 3 m a = 3 m b = 4 m, and  = 18 kN/m , determine the vertical stresses at A, B, C, D, and E. 2 3.8 Refer to Figure 3.22. Given that  = 035 q = 135 kN/m  b = 15 m, and s = 075 m, determine the principal stress at z = 075 m. 3.9 Figure P3.3 shows the plan of a loaded area on the surface of a clay layer. The uniformly distributed vertical loads on the area are also shown. Determine the vertical stress increase at A and B due to the loaded area. A and B are located at a depth of 3 m below the ground surface. 3.10 The plan of a rectangular loaded area on the surface of a silty clay layer is shown in Figure P3.4. The uniformly distributed vertical load on the rectangular area is 165 kN/m2 . Determine the vertical stresses due to a loaded area at A, B, C, and D. All points are located at a depth of 1.5 m below the ground surface. 146 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass Figure P3.2 Figure P3.3 3.11 An oil storage tank that is circular in plan is to be constructed over a layer of sand, as shown in Figure P3.5. Calculate the following settlements due to the uniformly distributed load q of the storage tank: Figure P3.4 Figure P3.5 Figure P3.6 148 Stresses and displacements in a soil mass (a) The elastic settlement below the center of the tank at z = 0 and 3 m. (b) The elastic settlement at i z = 15 m s = 0 ii z = 15 m s = 3 m. 2 Assume that v = 03 E = 36 MN/m2  B = 6 m, and q = 145 kN/m 3.12 The plan of a loaded flexible area is shown in Figure P3.6. If load is applied on the ground surface of a thick deposit of sand v = 025, calculate the surface elastic settlement at A and B in terms of E. References Ahlvin, R. G. and H. H. Ulery, Tabulated Values for Determining the Complete Pattern of Stresses, Strains and Deflections Beneath a Uniform Load on a Homogeneous Half Space, Bull. 342, Highway Research Record, pp. 1–13, 1962. Borowicka, H., Influence of Rigidity of a Circular Foundation Slab on the Distribution of Pressures over the Contact Surface, Proc. 1st Intl. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., vol. 2, pp. 144–149, 1936. Borowicka, H., The Distribution of Pressure Under a Uniformly Loaded Elastic Strip Resting on Elastic-Isotropic Ground, 2nd Congr. Intl. Assoc. Bridge Struct. Eng., Berlin, Final Report, vol. 8, no. 3, 1938. Boussinesq, J., Application des Potentials a L’Etude de L’Equilibre et due Mouvement des Solides Elastiques, Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1883. Burmister, D. M., The Theory of Stresses and Displacements in Layer Systems and Application to Design of Airport Runways, Proc. Hwy. Res. Bd., vol. 23, p. 126, 1943. Burmister, D. M., Evaluation of Pavement Systems of the WASHO Road Testing Layered System Methods, Bull. 177, Highway Research Board, 1958. Fox, L., Computation of Traffic Stresses in a Simple Road Structure, Proc. 2nd Intl. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., vol. 2, pp. 236–246, 1948. Giroud, J. P., Stresses Under Linearly Loaded Rectangular Area, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 98, no. SM1, pp. 263–268, 1970. Harr, M. E., Foundations of Theoretical Soil Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1966. Holl, D. L., Stress Transmissions on Earth, Proc. Hwy. Res. Bd., vol. 20, pp. 709– 722, 1940. Jones, A., Tables of Stresses in Three-Layer Elastic Systems, Bull. 342, Highway Research Board, pp. 176–214, 1962. Kezdi, A. and L. Rethati, Handbook of Soil Mechanics, vol. 3, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1988. Melan, E., Der Spanningzustand der durch eine Einzelkraft im Innern beanspruchten Halbschiebe, Z. Angew. Math. Mech, vol. 12, 1932. Newmark, N. M., Simplified Computation of Vertical Pressures in Elastic Foundations, Circ. 24, University of Illinois Engineering Experiment Station, 1935. Osterberg, J. O., Influence Values for Vertical Stresses in Semi-infinite Mass Due to Embankment Loading, Proc. 4th Intl. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., vol. 1, p. 393, 1957. Stresses and displacements in a soil mass 149 Peattie, K. R., Stresses and Strain Factors for Three-Layer Systems, Bull. 342, Highway Research Board, pp. 215–253, 1962. Poulos, H. G., Stresses and Displacements in an Elastic Layer Underlain by a Rough Rigid Base, Civ. Eng., Res. Rep. No. R63, University of Sydney, Australia, 1966. Poulos, H. G. and E. H. Davis, Elastic Solutions for Soil and Rock Mechanics, Wiley, 1974. Chapter 4 Pore water pressure due to undrained loading 4.1 Introduction In 1925, Terzaghi suggested the principles of effective stress for a saturated soil, according to which the total vertical stress
at a point O (Figure 4.1) can be given as where
=
′ + u (4.1)
= h1  + h2 sat (4.2) u = pore water pressure = h2 w (4.3)
′ = effective stress w = unit weight of water Combining Eqs. (4.1)–(4.3) gives
′ =
− u = h1  + h2 sat  − h2 w = h1  + h2  ′ (4.4) where  ′ is the effective unit weight of soil = sat − w′ In general, if the normal total stresses at a point in a soil mass are
1 
2 , and
3 (Figure 4.2), the effective stresses can be given as follows: Direction 1:
1′ =
1 − u Direction 2:
2′ =
2 − u Direction 3:
3′ =
3 − u where
1′ 
2′ , and
3′ are the effective stresses and u is the pore water pressure, hw′ . A knowledge of the increase of pore water pressure in soils due to various loading conditions without drainage is important in both theoretical and applied soil mechanics. If a load is applied very slowly on a soil such that sufficient time is allowed for pore water to drain out, there will be practically no increase of pore water pressure. However, when a soil is subjected to rapid loading and if the coefficient of permeability is small (e.g., as in the case of clay), there will be insufficient time for drainage of pore water. This Pore water pressure due to undrained loading 151 Figure 4.1 Definition of effective stress. Figure 4.2 Normal total stresses in a soil mass. will lead to an increase of the excess hydrostatic pressure. In this chapter, mathematical formulations for the excess pore water pressure for various types of undrained loading will be developed. 4.2 Pore water pressure developed due to isotropic stress application Figure 4.3 shows an isotropic saturated soil element subjected to an isotropic stress increase of magnitude
. If drainage from the soil is not allowed, the pore water pressure will increase by u. 152 Pore water pressure due to undrained loading Figure 4.3 Soil element under isotropic stress application. The increase of pore water pressure will cause a change in volume of the pore fluid by an amount Vp . This can be expressed as Vp = nVo Cp u (4.5) where n = porosity Cp = compressibility of pore water Vo = original volume of soil element The effective stress increase in all directions of the element is
′ =
− u. The change in volume of the soil skeleton due to the effective stress increase can be given by V = 3Cc Vo
′ = 3Cc Vo 
− u (4.6) In Eq. (4.6), Cc is the compressibility of the soil skeleton obtained from laboratory compression results under uniaxial loading with zero excess pore water pressure, as shown in Figure 4.4. It should be noted that compression, i.e., a reduction of volume, is taken as positive. Since the change in volume of the pore fluid, Vp , is equal to the change in the volume of the soil skeleton, V , we obtain from Eqs. (4.5) and (4.6) nVo Cp u = 3Cc Vo 
− u and hence Pore water pressure due to undrained loading 153 Figure 4.4 Definition of Cc : volume change due to uniaxial stress application with zero excess pore water pressure. (Note: V is the volume of the soil element at any given value of  ′ .) u 1 =B=
1 + nCp /3Cc  (4.7) where B is the pore pressure parameter (Skempton, 1954). If the pore fluid is water, Cp = Cw = compressibility of water and 3Cc = Csk = 31 − v E where E and v = Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio with respect to changes in effective stress. Hence B= 1
Cw 1+n Csk  (4.8) 4.3 Pore water pressure parameter B Black and Lee (1973) provided the theoretical values of B for various types of soil at complete or near complete saturation. A summary of the soil types and their parameters and the B values at saturation that were considered by Black and Lee is given in Table 4.1. 154 Pore water pressure due to undrained loading Figure 4.5 shows the theoretical variation of B parameters for the soils described in Table 4.1 with the degree of saturation. It is obvious from this figure that, for stiffer soils, the B value rapidly decreases with the degree of saturation. This is consistent with the experimental values for several soils shown in Figure 4.6. Table 4.1 Soils considered by Black and Lee (1973) for evaluation of B Soil type Description Void ratio Csk B at 100% saturation Soft soil Normally consolidated clay Compacted silts and clays and lightly overconsolidated clay Overconsolidated stiff clays, average sand of most densities Dense sands and stiff clays, particularly at high confining pressure ≈2 ≈0
145 × 10−2 m2 /kN 0.9998 ≈0
6 ≈0
145 × 10−3 m2 /kN 0.9988 ≈0
6 ≈0
145 × 10−4 m2 /kN 0.9877 ≈0
4 ≈0
145 × 10−5 m2 /kN 0.9130 Medium soil Stiff soil Very stiff soil Figure 4.5 Theoretical variation of B with degree of saturation for soils described in Table 4.1 (Note: Back pressure = 207 kN/m2   = 138 kN/m2 ). Pore water pressure due to undrained loading 155 Figure 4.6 Variation of B with degree of saturation. As noted in Table 4.1, the B value is also dependent on the effective isotropic consolidation stress 
′  of the soil. An example of such behavior in saturated varved Fort William clay as reported by Eigenbrod and Burak (1990) is shown in Figure 4.7. The decrease in the B value with an increase in
′ is primarily due to the increase in skeletal stiffness (i.e., Csk ). Hence, in general, for soft soils at saturation or near saturation, B ≈ 1. Figure 4.7 Dependence of B values on level of isotropic consolidation stress (varved clay) for a regular triaxial specimens before shearing, b regular triaxial specimens after shearing, c special series of B tests on one single specimen in loading, and d special series of B tests on one single specimen in unloading (after Eigenbrod and Burak, 1990). 156 Pore water pressure due to undrained loading 4.4 Pore water pressure due to uniaxial loading A saturated soil element under a uniaxial stress increment is shown in Figure 4.8. Let the increase of pore water pressure be equal to u. As explained in the previous section, the change in the volume of the pore water is Vp = nVo Cp u The increases of the effective stresses on the soil element in Figure 4.7 are Direction 1: Direction 2: Direction 3:
′ =
− u
′ = 0 − u = − u
′ = 0 − u = − u This will result in a change in the volume of the soil skeleton, which may be written as V = Cc Vo 
− u + Ce Vo − u + Ce Vo − u (4.9) where Ce is the coefficient of the volume expansibility (Figure 4.9). Since Vp = V , nVo Cp u = Cc Vo 
− u − 2Ce Vo u or Cc u =A=
nCp + Cc + 2Ce Figure 4.8 Saturated soil element under uniaxial stress increment. (4.10) Figure 4.9 Definition of Ce : coefficient of volume expansion under uniaxial loading. Figure 4.10 Variation of clay.  u, and A for a consolidated drained triaxial test in 158 Pore water pressure due to undrained loading where A is the pore pressure parameter (Skempton, 1954). If we assume that the soil element is elastic, then Cc = Ce , or A= 1  Cp n +3 Cc (4.11)
Again, as pointed out previously, Cp is much smaller than Cc . So Cp /Cc ≈ 0, which gives A = 1/3. However, in reality, this is not the case, i.e., soil is not a perfectly elastic material, and the actual value of A varies widely. The magnitude of A for a given soil is not a constant and depends on the stress level. If a consolidated drained triaxial test is conducted on a saturated clay soil, the general nature of variation of
 u, and A = u/
with axial strain will be as shown in Figure 4.10. For highly overconsolidated clay soils, the magnitude of A at failure (i.e., Af ) may be negative. Table 4.2 gives the typical values of A at failure = Af  for some normally consolidated clay soils. Figure 4.11 shows the variation of Af with overconsolidation ratio for Weald clay. Table 4.3 gives the typical range of A values at failure for various soils. Table 4.2 Values of Af for normally consolidated clays Clay Type Liquid limit Plasticity Sensitivity Af index Natural soils Toyen Marine Drammen Marine Saco River Boston Bersimis Chew Stoke Kapuskasing Decomposed Talus St. Catherines Marine Marine Estuarine Alluvial Lacustrine Residual Till (?) 47 47 36 36 46 – 39 28 39 50 49 25 25 16 16 17 – 18 10 23 18 28 8 8 4 4 10 – 6 – 4 1 3 1.50 1.48 1.2 2.4 0.95 0.85 0.63 0.59 0.46 0.29 0.26 Marine Marine Till (?) Marine Estuarine Estuarine 78 43 44 48 70 33 52 25 24 24 42 13 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.97 0.95 0.73 0.69 0.65 0.38 Remolded soils London Weald Beauharnois Boston Beauharnois Bersimis After Kenney, 1959. Pore water pressure due to undrained loading 159 Figure 4.11 Variation of Af with overconsolidation ratio for Weald clay. Table 4.3 Typical values of A at failure Type of soil Clay with high sensitivity Normally consolidated clay Overconsolidated clay Compacted sandy clay A 3 1 –1 4 2 1 –1 2 1 − –0 2 1 3 – 2 4 4.5 Directional variation of Af Owing to the nature of deposition of cohesive soils and subsequent consolidation, clay particles tend to become oriented perpendicular to the direction of the major principal stress. Parallel orientation of clay particles could cause the strength of clay and thus Af to vary with direction. Kurukulasuriya et al. (1999) conducted undrained triaxial tests on kaolin clay specimens obtained at various inclinations i as shown in Figure 4.12. Figure 4.13 Figure 4.12 Directional variation of major principal stress application. Figure 4.13 Variation of Af with and overconsolidation ratio (OCR) for kaolin clay based on the triaxial results of Kurukulasuriya et al. (1999). Pore water pressure due to undrained loading 161 shows the directional variation of Af with overconsolidation ratio. It can be seen from this figure that Af is maximum between  = 30 –60 . 4.6 Pore water pressure under triaxial test conditions A typical stress application on a soil element under triaxial test conditions is shown in Figure 4.14a 
1 >
3 . u is the increase in the pore water pressure without drainage. To develop a relation between u
1 , and
3 , we can consider that the stress conditions shown in Figure 4.14a are the sum of the stress conditions shown in Figure 4.14b and 4.14c. For the isotropic stress
3 as applied in Figure 4.14b, (4.12) ub = B
3 [from Eq. (4.7)], and for a uniaxial stress Figure 4.14c,
1 −
3 as applied in (4.13) ua = A
1 −
3  [from Eq. (4.10)]. Now, u = ub + u a = B
3 + A
1 −
3  (4.14) For saturated soil, if B = 1; so u =
3 + A
1 −
3  Figure 4.14 (4.15) Excess pore water pressure under undrained triaxial test conditions. 162 Pore water pressure due to undrained loading 4.7 Henkel’s modification of pore water pressure equation In several practical considerations in soil mechanics, the intermediate and minor principal stresses are not the same. To take the intermediate principal stress into consideration Figure 4.15, Henkel (1960) suggested a modification of Eq. (4.15): u= or
1 +
2 +
3 3  + a 
1 −
2 2 + 
2 −
3 2 + 
3 −
1 2 u =
oct + 3a oct (4.16) (4.17) where a is Henkel’s pore pressure parameter and
oct and oct are the increases in the octahedral normal and shear stresses, respectively. In triaxial compression tests,
2 =
3 . For that condition, √
1 + 2
3 + a 2
1 −
3  3 u= (4.18) For uniaxial tests as in Figure 4.14c, we can substitute
1 −
3 for
1 and zero for
2 and
3 in Eq. (4.16), which will yield √
1 −
3 + a 2
1 −
3  3 u= or u=
√  1 + a 2 
1 −
3  3 Figure 4.15 (4.19) Saturated soil element with major, intermediate, and minor principal stresses. Pore water pressure due to undrained loading 163 A comparison of Eqs. (4.13) and (4.19) gives A=
√  1 +a 2 3 or
 1 1 a = √ A− 3 2 (4.20) The usefulness of this more fundamental definition of pore water pressure is that it enables us to predict the excess pore water pressure associated with loading conditions such as plane strain. This can be illustrated by deriving an expression for the excess pore water pressure developed in a saturated soil (undrained condition) below the centerline of a flexible strip loading of uniform intensity, q (Figure 4.16). The expressions for
x 
y , and
z for such loading are given in Chap. 3. Note that
z >
y >
x , and
y = v
x +
z . Substituting
z 
y , and
x for
1 
2 , and
3 in Eq. (4.16) yields 

z + v
x +
z  +
x 1 1 u= + √ A− 3 3 2  × 
z − v
z +
x 2 + v
z +
x  −
x 2 + 
x −
z 2 Figure 4.16 Estimation of excess pore water pressure in saturated soil below the centerline of a flexible strip loading (undrained condition). 164 Pore water pressure due to undrained loading For v = 05, √
  1 1 3 u =
x + A− + 
z −
x  2 3 2 (4.21) If a representative value of A can be determined from standard triaxial tests, u can be estimated. Example 4.1 2 A uniform vertical load of 145 kN/m is applied instantaneously over a very long strip, as shown in Figure 4.17. Estimate the excess pore water pressure that will be developed due to the loading at A and B. Assume that v = 045 and that the representative value of the pore water pressure parameter A determined from standard triaxial tests for such loading is 0.6. solution The values of
x 
z , and xz at A and B can be determined from Tables 3.5, 3.6, and 3.7. • At A: x/b = 0 z/b = 2/2 = 1, and hence 1.
z /q = 0818, so
z = 0818 × 145 = 1186 kN/m 2 2.
x /q = 0182, so
x = 2639 kN/m 3. xz /q = 0, so xz = 0. 2 Note that in this case
z and
x are the major 
1  and minor 
3  principal stresses, respectively. This is a plane strain case. So the intermediate principal stress is
2 = v 
1 +
3  = 0451186 + 2639 = 6525 kN/m2 Figure 4.17 Uniform vertical strip load on ground surface. Pore water pressure due to undrained loading 165 From Eq. (4.20),  

1 1 1 1 a = √ A− = √ 06 − = 0189 3 3 2 2 So 
1 +
2 +
3 + a 
1 −
2 2 + 
2 −
3 2 + 
3 −
1 2 3 1186 + 6525 + 2639 = 3  + 0189 1186 − 65252 + 6525 − 26392 + 2639 − 11862 u= = 9151 kN/m2 • At B: x/b = 2/2 = 1 z/b = 2/2 = 1, and hence 2 1.
z /q = 0480, so
z = 0480 × 145 = 696 kN/m 2 2.
x /q = 02250, so
x = 02250 × 145 = 3263 kN/m 2 3. xz /q = 0255, so xz = 0255 × 145 = 3698 kN/m Calculation of the major and minor principal stresses is as follows:
z −
x 2 2 + xz 2 
 696 − 3263 2 696 + 3263 ± = + 36982 2 2
1 
3 =
z +
x ± 2 Hence
1 = 9246 kN/m2
3 = 978 kN/m2
2 = 0459246 + 978 = 46 kN/m2 u= 9246 + 978 + 46 3  + 0189 9246 − 462 + 46 − 9782 + 978 − 92462 = 686 kN/m2 166 Pore water pressure due to undrained loading 4.8 Pore water pressure due to one-dimensional strain loading (oedometer test) In Sec. 4.4, the development of pore water pressure due to uniaxial loading (Figure 4.8) is discussed. In that case, the soil specimen was allowed to undergo axial and lateral strains. However, in oedometer tests the soil specimens are confined laterally, thereby allowing only one directional strain, i.e., strain in the direction of load application. For such a case, referring to Figure 4.8, Vp = nVo Cp u and V = Cc Vo 
− u However, Vp = V . So, nVo Cp u = Cc Vo 
− u or 1 u =C=
1 + nCp /Cc  (4.22) If Cp < Cc , the ratio Cp /Cc ≈ 0; hence C ≈ 1. Lambe and Whitman (1969) reported the following C values: Vicksburg buckshot clay slurry 0.99983 Lagunillas soft clay 0.99957 Lagunillas sandy clay 0.99718 More recently, Veyera et al. (1992) reported the C values in reloading for two poorly graded sands (i.e., Monterrey no. 0/30 sand and Enewetak coral sand) at various relative densities of compaction Dr . In conducting the tests, the specimens were first consolidated by application of an initial stress 2 
c′ , and then the stress was reduced by 69 kN/m . Following that, under 2 undrained conditions, the stress was increased by 69 kN/m in increments 2 of 69 kN/m . The results of those tests for Monterey no. 0/30 sand are given in Table 4.4. From Table 4.4, it can be seen that the magnitude of the C value can decrease well below 1.0, depending on the soil stiffness. An increase in the initial relative density of compaction as well as an increase in the effective confining pressure does increase the soil stiffness. Pore water pressure due to undrained loading 167 Table 4.4 C values in reloading for Monterrey no. 0/30 sand [compiled from the results of Veyera et al. (1992)] Relative density Dr (%) Effective confining pressure c′ kN/m2  C 6 6 6 27 27 27 27 46 46 46 46 65 65 65 65 85 85 85 85 86 172 345 86 172 345 690 86 172 345 690 86 172 345 690 86 172 345 690 1.00 0.85 0.70 1.00 0.83 0.69 0.56 1.00 0.81 0.66 0.55 1.00 0.79 0.62 0.53 1.00 0.74 0.61 0.51 PROBLEMS 4.1 A line load of q = 60 kN/m with  = 0 is placed on a ground surface as shown in Figure P4.1. Calculate the increase of pore water pressure at M immediately after application of the load for the cases given below. Figure P4.1 168 Pore water pressure due to undrained loading a z = 10 m x = 0 m v = 05 A = 045. b z = 10 m x = 2 m v = 045 A = 06. 4.2 Redo Prob. 4.1a and 4.1b with q = 60 kN/m and  = 90 . 4.3 Redo Prob. 4.1a and 4.1b with q = 60 kN/m and  = 30 . 4.4 Determine the increase of pore water pressure at M due to the strip loading shown in Figure P4.2 Assume v = 05 and  = 0 for all cases given below. a z = 25 m x = 0 m A = 065. b z = 25 m x = 125 m A = 052. 4.5 Redo Prob. 4.4b for  = 45 . 2 4.6 A surcharge of 195 kN/m was applied over a circular area of diameter 3 m, as shown in Figure P4.3. Estimate the height of water h1 that a piezometer would show immediately after the application of the surcharge. Assume that A ≈ 065 and v = 05. 4.7 Redo Prob. 4.6 for point M; i.e., find h2 . Figure P4.2 Figure P4.3 Pore water pressure due to undrained loading 169 References Black, D. K. and K. L. Lee, Saturating Samples by Back Pressure, J. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 99, no. SMI, pp. 75–93, 1973. Eigenbrod, K. D. and J. P. Burak, Measurement of B Values Less than Unity for Thinly Interbedded Varved Clay, Geotech. Testing J., vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 370– 374, 1990. Henkel, D. J., The Shear Strength of Saturated Remolded Clays, Proc. Res. Conf. Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils, ASCE, pp. 533–554, 1960. Kenney, T. C., Discussion, J. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 85, no. SM3, pp. 67–79, 1959. Kurukulasuriya, L. C., M. Oda, and H. Kazama, Anisotropy of Undrained Shear Strength of an Over-Consolidated Soil by Triaxial and Plane Strain Tests, Soils and Found., vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 21–29, 1999. Lambe, T. W. and R. V. Whitman, Soil Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 1969. Simons, N. E., The Effect of Overconsolidation on the Shear Strength Characteristics of an Undisturbed Oslo Clay, Proc. Res. Conf. Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils, ASCE, pp. 747–763, 1960. Skempton, A. W., The Pore Pressure Coefficients A and B, Geotechnique, vol. 4, pp. 143–147, 1954. Skempton, A. W. and A. W. Bishop, Soils, Building Materials, Their Elasticity and Inelasticity, M. Reiner, ed., North Holland, Amsterdam, 1956. Terzaghi, K., Erdbaumechanik auf Bodenphysikalisher Grundlage, Deuticke, Vienna, 1925. Veyera, G. E., W. A. Charlie, D. O. Doehring, and M. E. Hubert, Measurement of the Pore Pressure Parameter C Less than Unity in Saturated Sands, Geotech. Testing J., vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 223–230, 1992. Chapter 5 Permeability and seepage 5.1 Introduction Any given mass of soil consists of solid particles of various sizes with interconnected void spaces. The continuous void spaces in a soil permit water to flow from a point of high energy to a point of low energy. Permeability is defined as the property of a soil that allows the seepage of fluids through its interconnected void spaces. This chapter is devoted to the study of the basic parameters involved in the flow of water through soils. PERMEABILITY 5.2 Darcy’s law In order to obtain a fundamental relation for the quantity of seepage through a soil mass under a given condition, consider the case shown in Figure 5.1. The cross-sectional area of the soil is equal to A and the rate of seepage is q. According to Bernoulli’s theorem, the total head for flow at any section in the soil can be given by Total head = elevation head + pressure head + velocity head (5.1) The velocity head for flow through soil is very small and can be neglected. The total heads at sections A and B can thus be given by Total head at A = zA + hA Total head at B = zB + hB where zA and zB are the elevation heads and hA and hB are the pressure heads. The loss of head h between sections A and B is h = zA + hA  − zB + hB  (5.2) Permeability and seepage 171 Figure 5.1 Development of Darcy’s law. The hydraulic gradient i can be written as i= h L (5.3) where L is the distance between sections A and B. Darcy (1856) published a simple relation between the discharge velocity and the hydraulic gradient:  = ki (5.4) where  = discharge velocity i = hydraulic gradient k = coefficient of permeability Hence the rate of seepage q can be given by q = kiA (5.5) Note that A is the cross-section of the soil perpendicular to the direction of flow. 172 Permeability and seepage The coefficient of permeability k has the units of velocity, such as cm/s or mm/s, and is a measure of the resistance of the soil to flow of water. When the properties of water affecting the flow are included, we can express k by the relation Kg kcm/s = (5.6)  where K = intrinsic (or absolute) permeability, cm2  = mass density of the fluid, g/cm3 g = acceleration due to gravity, cm/s2  = absolute viscosity of the fluid, poise [that is, g/cm · s] It must be pointed out that the velocity  given by Eq. (5.4) is the discharge velocity calculated on the basis of the gross cross-sectional area. Since water can flow only through the interconnected pore spaces, the actual velocity of seepage through soil, s , can be given by  (5.7) s = n where n is the porosity of the soil. Some typical values of the coefficient of permeability are given in Table 5.1. The coefficient of permeability of soils is generally expressed at a temperature of 20 C. At any other temperature T , the coefficient of permeability can be obtained from Eq. (5.6) as k20    = 20 T kT T 20  where kT  k20 = coefficient of permeability at T  C and 20 C, respectively T  20 = mass density of the fluid at T  C and 20 C, respectively T  20 = coefficient of viscosity at T  C and 20 C, respectively Table 5.1 Typical values of coefficient of permeability for various soils Material Coefficient of permeability (mm/s) Coarse Fine gravel, coarse, and medium sand Fine sand, loose silt Dense silt, clayey silt Silty clay, clay 10–103 10−2 –10 10−4 –10−2 10−5 –10−4 10−8 –10−5 Permeability and seepage 173 Table 5.2 Values of Temperature T( C) 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 T/ 20 T/ 20 1.298 1.263 1.228 1.195 1.165 1.135 1.106 1.078 1.051 1.025 1.000 Temperature T( C) 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 T/ 20 0.975 0.952 0.930 0.908 0.887 0.867 0.847 0.829 0.811 0.793 Since the value of 20 /T is approximately 1, we can write k20 = kT T 20 (5.8) Table 5.2 gives the values of T /20 for a temperature T varying from 10 to 30 C. 5.3 Validity of Darcy’s law Darcy’s law given by Eq. (5.4),  = ki, is true for laminar flow through the void spaces. Several studies have been made to investigate the range over which Darcy’s law is valid, and an excellent summary of these works was given by Muskat (1937). A criterion for investigating the range can be furnished by the Reynolds number. For flow through soils, Reynolds number Rn can be given by the relation Rn = D  (5.9) where  = discharge (superficial) velocity, cm/s D = average diameter of the soil particle, cm  = density of the fluid, g/cm3  = coefficient of viscosity, g/cm · s. For laminar flow conditions in soils, experimental results show that 174 Permeability and seepage Rn = D ≤1  (5.10) with coarse sand, assuming D = 045 mm and k ≈ 100D2 = 10000452 = 0203 cm/s. Assuming i = 1, then  = ki = 0203 cm/s. Also, water ≈ 1 g/cm3 , and 20 C = 10−5 981 g/cm · s. Hence Rn = 020300451 = 0931 < 1 10−5 981 From the above calculations, we can conclude that, for flow of water through all types of soil (sand, silt, and clay), the flow is laminar and Darcy’s law is valid. With coarse sands, gravels, and boulders, turbulent flow of water can be expected, and the hydraulic gradient can be given by the relation i = a + b2 (5.11) where a and b are experimental constants [see Forchheimer (1902), for example]. Darcy’s law as defined by Eq. (5.4) implies that the discharge velocity bears a linear relation with the hydraulic gradient. Hansbo (1960) reported the test results of four undisturbed natural clays. On the basis of his results (Figure 5.2),  = ki − i′  i ≥ i′ (5.12) and  = kin Figure 5.2 i < i′ Variation of  with i [Eqs. (5.12) and (5.13).] (5.13) Permeability and seepage 175 Figure 5.3 Discharge velocity-gradient relationship for four clays (after Tavenas et al., 1983b). The value of n for the four Swedish clays was about 1.6. There are several studies, however, that refute the preceding conclusion. Figure 5.3 shows the laboratory test results between  and i for four clays (Tavenas et al., 1983a,b). These tests were conducted using triaxial test equipment, and the results show that Darcy’s law is valid. 5.4 Determination of coefficient of permeability in the laboratory The three most common laboratory methods for determining the coefficient of permeability of soils are the following: 1. constant-head test 2. falling-head test 3. indirect determination from consolidation test The general principles of these methods are given below. Constant-head test The constant-head test is suitable for more permeable granular materials. The basic laboratory test arrangement is shown in Figure 5.4. The soil specimen is placed inside a cylindrical mold, and the constant-head loss h 176 Permeability and seepage Figure 5.4 Constant-head laboratory permeability test. of water flowing through the soil is maintained by adjusting the supply. The outflow water is collected in a measuring cylinder, and the duration of the collection period is noted. From Darcy’s law, the total quantity of flow Q in time t can be given by Q = qt = kiAt where A is the area of cross-section of the specimen. However, i = h/L, where L is the length of the specimen, and so Q = kh/LAt. Rearranging gives k= QL hAt (5.14) Once all the quantities on the right-hand side of Eq. (5.14) have been determined from the test, the coefficient of permeability of the soil can be calculated. Falling-head test The falling-head permeability test is more suitable for fine-grained soils. Figure 5.5 shows the general laboratory arrangement for the test. The soil specimen is placed inside a tube, and a standpipe is attached to the top of Permeability and seepage 177 Figure 5.5 Falling-head laboratory permeability test. the specimen. Water from the standpipe flows through the specimen. The initial head difference h1 at time t = 0 is recorded, and water is allowed to flow through the soil such that the final head difference at time t = t is h2 . The rate of flow through the soil is h dh q = kiA = k A = −a L dt (5.15) where h = head difference at any time t A = area of specimen a = area of standpipe L = length of specimen From Eq. (5.15), h2 t 0 dt = h1
 dh aL − Ak h or k = 2303 aL h log 1 At h2 (5.16) 178 Permeability and seepage The values of a L A t h1 , and h2 can be determined from the test, and the coefficient of the permeability k for a soil can then be calculated from Eq. (5.16). Permeability from consolidation test The coefficient of permeability of clay soils is often determined by the consolidation test, the procedures of which are explained in Sec. 6.5. From Eq. (6.25), T = C t H2 where T = time factor C = coefficient of consolidation H = length of average drainage path t = time The coefficient of consolidation is [see Eq. (6.15)] C = k  w m where w = unit weight of water m = volume coefficient of compressibility Also, m = e
1 + e where e = change of void ratio for incremental loading
= incremental pressure applied e = initial void ratio Combining these three equations, we have k= T w eH 2 t
1 + e (5.17) Permeability and seepage 179 For 50% consolidation, T = 0197, and the corresponding t50 can be estimated according to the procedure presented in Sec. 6.10. Hence k= 0197w eH 2 t50
1 + e (5.18) 5.5 Variation of coefficient of permeability for granular soils For fairly uniform sand (i.e., small uniformity coefficient), Hazen (1911) proposed an empirical relation for the coefficient of permeability in the form 2 kcm/s = cD10 (5.19) where c is a constant that varies from 1.0 to 1.5 and D10 is the effective size, in millimeters, and is defined in Chap. 1. Equation (5.19) is based primarily on observations made by Hazen on loose, clean filter sands. A small quantity of silts and clays, when present in a sandy soil, may substantially change the coefficient of permeability. Casagrande proposed a simple relation for the coefficient of permeability for fine to medium clean sand in the following form: k = 14e2 k085 (5.20) where k is the coefficient of permeability at a void ratio e and k085 is the corresponding value at a void ratio of 0.85. A theoretical solution for the coefficient of permeability also exists in the literature. This is generally referred to as the Kozeny–Carman equation, which is derived below. It was pointed out earlier in this chapter that the flow through soils finer than coarse gravel is laminar. The interconnected voids in a given soil mass can be visualized as a number of capillary tubes through which water can flow (Figure 5.6). According to the Hagen–Poiseuille equation, the quantity of flow of water in unit time, q, through a capillary tube of radius R can be given by q= w S 2 R a 8 where w = unit weight of water  = absolute coefficient of viscosity (5.21) 180 Permeability and seepage Figure 5.6 Flow of water through tortuous channels in soil. a = area cross-section of tube S = hydraulic gradient The hydraulic radius RH of the capillary tube can be given by RH = R2 R area = = wetted perimeter 2R 2 (5.22) From Eqs. (5.21) and (5.22), q= 1 w S 2 R a 2  H (5.23) For flow through two parallel plates, we can also derive q= 1 w S 2 R a 3  H (5.24) So, for laminar flow conditions the flow through any cross-section can be given by a general equation q= w S 2 R a CS  H (5.25) where CS is the shape factor. Also, the average velocity of flow a is given by a = q  S = w R2H a CS  (5.26) Permeability and seepage 181 For an actual soil, the interconnected void spaces can be assumed to be a number of tortuous channels (Figure 5.6), and for these, the term S in Eq. (5.26) is equal to h/ L1 . Now, arealength volume area = = perimeter perimenterlength surface area RH = 1 surface area/volume of pores = (5.27) If the total volume of soil is V , the volume of voids is V = nV , where n is porosity. Let SV be equal to the surface area per unit volume of soil (bulk). From Eq. (5.27), nV n volume = = surface area SV V SV RH = (5.28) Substituting Eq. (5.28) into Eq. (5.26) and taking a = s (where s is the actual seepage velocity through soil), we get s = w n2 S CS  SV2 (5.29) It must be pointed out that the hydraulic gradient i used for soils is the macroscopic gradient. The factor S in Eq. (5.29) is the microscopic gradient for flow through soils. Referring to Figure 5.6, i = h/ L and S = h/ L1 . So, i= h L1 = ST L1 L (5.30) or S= i T (5.31) where T is tortuosity, L1 / L. Again, the seepage velocity in soils is s =   L1 = T n L n (5.32) where  is the discharge velocity. Substitution of Eqs. (5.32) and (5.31) into Eq. (5.29) yields s =  i n2  T= w n CS  T SV2 182 Permeability and seepage or = w n 3 i CS SV2 T 2 (5.33) In Eq. (5.33), SV is the surface area per unit volume of soil. If we define Ss as the surface area per unit volume of soil solids, then Ss Vs = SV V (5.34) where Vs is the volume of soil solids in a bulk volume V , that is, Vs = 1 − nV So, Ss = S SV V SV V = V = Vs 1 − nV 1−n (5.35) Combining Eqs. (5.33) and (5.35), we obtain = = n3 w i CS Ss2 T 2 1 − n2 w e 3 1 i 2 2 CS Ss T  1 + e (5.36) where e is the void ratio. This relation is the Kozeny–Carman equation (Kozeny, 1927; Carman, 1956). Comparing Eqs. (5.4) and (5.36), we find that the coefficient of permeability is k= 1 w e 3 CS Ss2 T 2  1 + e (5.37) The absolute permeability was defined by Eq. (5.6) as K=k  w Comparing Eqs. (5.6) and (5.37), K= 1 e3 CS Ss2 T 2 1 + e (5.38) The Kozeny–Carman equation works well for describing coarse-grained soils such as sand and some silts. For these cases the coefficient of permeability bears a linear relation to e3 /1 + e. However, serious discrepancies are observed when the Kozeny–Carman equation is applied to clayey soils. Permeability and seepage 183 For granular soils, the shape √ factor CS is approximately 2.5, and the tortuosity factor T is about 2. Thus, from Eq. (5.20), we write that k ∝ e2 (5.39) Similarly, from Eq. (5.37), k∝ e3 1+e (5.40) Amer and Awad (1974) used the preceding relation and their experimental results to provide 232 06 k = C1 D10 Cu e3 1+e (5.41) where D10 is effective size, Cu a uniformity coefficient, and C1 a constant. Another form of relation for coefficient of permeability and void ratio for granular soils has also been used, namely, k∝ e2 1+e (5.42) For comparison of the validity of the relations given in Eqs. (5.39)–(5.42), the experimental results (laboratory constant-head test) for a uniform Madison sand are shown in Figure 5.7. From the plot, it appears that all three relations are equally good. More recently, Chapuis (2004) proposed an empirical relationship for k in conjunction with Eq. (5.42) as  2 k cm/s = 24622 D10 e3 1 + e 07825 (5.43) where D10 = effective size (mm). The preceding equation is valid for natural, uniform sand and gravel to predict k that is in the range of 10−1 –10−3 cm/s. This can be extended to natural, silty sands without plasticity. It is not valid for crushed materials or silty soils with some plasticity. Mention was made in Sec. 5.3 that turbulent flow conditions may exist in very coarse sands and gravels and that Darcy’s law may not be valid for these materials. However, under a low hydraulic gradient, laminar flow conditions usually exist. Kenney et al. (1984) conducted laboratory tests on granular soils in which the particle sizes in various specimens ranged from 0.074 to 25.4 mm. The uniformity coefficients of these specimens, Cu , ranged from 1.04 to 12. All permeability tests were conducted at a 184 Permeability and seepage Figure 5.7 Plot of k against permeability function for Madison sand. relative density of 80% or more. These tests showed that, for laminar flow conditions, the absolute permeability can be approximated as Kmm2  = 005–1D52 (5.44) where D5 = diameter (mm) through which 5% of soil passes. Modification of Kozeny–Carman equation for practical application For practical use, Carrier (2003) modified Eq. (5.37) in the following manner. At 20 C w / for water is about 933 × 104 1/cm · S. Also, CS T 2  is approximately equal to 5. Substituting these values into Eq. (5.37), we obtain. kcm/s = 199 × 104
1 Ss 2 e3 1+e (5.45) Again, Ss = SF Deff
1 cm  (5.46) Permeability and seepage 185 with Deff = where 100%   fi  Davi (5.47) fi = fraction of particles between two sieve seizes, in percent (Note: larger sieve, l; smaller sieve, s) Davi cm = [Dli (cm)]05 × Dsi cm05 (5.48) SF = shape factor Combining Eqs. (5.45), (5.46), (5.47), and (5.48) ⎤2 ⎡ ⎥
1 2
e 3  ⎢ 100% ⎥ 4⎢ kcm/s = 199 × 10 ⎢ ⎥ fi ⎦ SF ⎣ 1+e Dli05 × Dsi05 (5.49) The magnitude of SF may vary from between 6 and 8, depending on the angularity of the soil particles. Carrier (2003) further suggested a slight modification of Eq. (5.49), which can be written as ⎡ ⎤5 ⎢ ⎢ k cm/s = 199 × 104 ⎢ ⎣ ⎥ 100% ⎥ ⎥ fi ⎦ Dli0404 × Dsi0595
1 SF 2
e3 1+e  (5.50) Example 5.1 The results of a sieve analysis on sand are given below. Sieve No. Sieve opening (cm) Percent passing 30 0.06 100 40 0.0425 96 60 0.02 84 100 0.015 50 200 0.0075 0 Fraction of particles between two consecutive sieves (%) 4 12 34 50 186 Permeability and seepage Estimate the hydraulic conductivity using Eq. (5.50). Given: the void ratio of the sand is 0.6. Use SF = 7. solution For fraction between Nos. 30 and 40 sieves: fi 0404 Dli × Dsi0595 = 4 0060404 × 004250595 = 8162 For fraction between Nos. 40 and 60 sieves: fi 0404 Dli × Dsi0595 = 12 004250404 × 0020595 = 44076 Similarly, for fraction between Nos. 60 and 100 sieves: fi 34 = = 20095 0020404 × 00150595 Dli0404 × Dsi0595 And, for between Nos. 100 and 200 sieves: fi 50 = = 50138 00150404 × 000750595 Dli0404 × Dsi0595  100% 100 ≈ 00133 = fi 8162 + 44076 + 20095 + 50138 Dli0404 × Dsi0595 From Eq. (5.50) k = 199 × 104 001332
2
 063 1 = 00097 cm/s 7 1 + 06 Example 5.2 Refer to Figure 5.7. For the soil, (a) calculate the “composite shape factor,” equation, given 20 C = 1009 × 10−3 poise, CS Ss2 T 2 , of the Kozeny–Carman √ (b) If CS = 25 and T = 2, determine Ss . Compare this value with the theoretical value for a sphere of diameter D10 = 02 mm. solution Part a: From Eq. (5.37), k= 1 w e 3 CS Ss2 T 2  1 + e Permeability and seepage 187 CS Ss2 T 2 = w e3 /1 + e  k The value of e3 /1 + e/k is the slope of the straight line for the plot of e3 /1 + e against k (Figure 5.7). So 015 e3 /1 + e = =5 k 003 cm/s CS Ss2 T 2 = 1 g/cm3 981 cm/s2  5 = 486 × 105 cm−2 1009 × 10−3 poise Part b: (Note the units carefully.) Ss =  486 × 105 = CS T 2  486 × 105 = 3118 cm2 /cm3 √ 2 25 ×  2 For D10 = 02 mm, Ss = = surface area of a sphere of radius 0.01 cm volume of sphere of radius 0.01 cm 3 40012 = 300 cm2 /cm3 = 3 4/3 001 001 This value of Ss = 300 cm2 /cm3 agrees closely with the estimated value of Ss = 3118 cm2 /cm3 . 5.6 Variation of coefficient of permeability for cohesive soils The Kozeny–Carman equation does not successfully explain the variation of the coefficient of permeability with void ratio for clayey soils. The discrepancies between the theoretical and experimental values are shown in Figures 5.8 and 5.9. These results are based on consolidation–permeability tests (Olsen, 1961, 1962). The marked degrees of variation between the theoretical and experimental values arise from several factors, including deviations from Darcy’s law, high viscosity of the pore water, and unequal pore sizes. Olsen developed a model to account for the variation of permeability due to unequal pore sizes. 188 Permeability and seepage 10–5 Sodium illite 10–1N NaCl Sodium illite 10–4N NaCl k (mm /s) 10–6 10–7 10–8 10–9 Eq. (5.37) 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Porosity, n Figure 5.8 Coefficient of permeability for sodium illite (after Olsen, 1961). Several other empirical relations were proposed from laboratory and field permeability tests on clayey soil. They are summarized in Table 5.3. Example 5.3 For a normally consolidated clay soil, the following values are given: Void ratio k(cm/s) 1.1 0.9 0
302 × 10−7 0
12 × 10−7 Estimate the hydraulic conductivity of the clay at a void ratio of 0.75. Use the equation proposed by Samarsinghe et al. (1982; see Table 5.3). solution k = C4
en 1+e  Permeability and seepage 189 Curve 1 Curve 2 Curve 3 Curve 4 Curve 5 Curve 6 LEGEND Sodium Illite, 10–1N NaCl Sodium Illite, 10–4N NaCl Natural Kaolinite, Distilled Water H2O Sodium Boston Blue Clay, 10–1N NaCl Sodium Kaolinite and 1% (by weight) Sodium Tetraphosphate Calicum Boston Blue Clay, 10–4N NaCl Ratio of measured to predicted flow 100 1 2 10 3 4 6 1.0 5 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Porosity, n Figure 5.9 Ratio of the measured flow rate to that predicted by the Kozeny–Carman equation for several clays (after Olsen, 1961).  e1n k1 1+e =
n 1 e2 k2 1 + e2
0302 × 10 012 × 10−7 −7 11n = 1 + 11 09n 1 + 09 Table 5.3 Empirical relations for coefficient of permeability in clayey soils Investigator Relation Notation Remarks Mesri and Olson (1971) Taylor (1948) log k = C2 log e + C3 C2  C3 = constants log k = k0 = coefficient of in situ permeability at void ratio e0 k = coefficient of permeability at void ratio e Ck = permeability change index Based on artificial and remolded soils Ck ≈ 0
5e0 (Tavenas et al., 1983a,b) log k0 − e0 − e Ck en Samarsinghe k = C4 1+e et al. (1982) Raju et al. (1995) e = eL 2
23 + 0
204 log k Tavenas et al. (1983a,b) k=f C4 = constant log k1 + e = log C4 + n log e Applicable only to normally consolidated clays k is in cm/s eL = void ratio at liquid limit = wLL Gs wLL = moisture content at liquid limit f = function of void ratio, and PI + CF PI = plasticity index in decimals CF = clay size fraction in decimals Normally consolidated clay Figure 5.10 Plot of e versus k for various values of PI + CF. See Figure 5.10 Permeability and seepage 191 2517 =
19 21 
2782 = 1222n n= 11 09 n log2782 0444 = = 51 log1222 0087 so k = C4
e51 1+e  To find C4 , 0302 × 10−7 = C4 C4 =  
 1626 1151 = C4 1 + 11 21 0302 × 10−7 21 = 039 × 10−7 1626 Hence   k = 039 × 10−7 cm/s 
en 1+e
07551 1 + 075 At a void ratio of 0.75   k = 039 × 10−7 cm/s  = 0514 × 10−8 cm/s 5.7 Directional variation of permeability in anisotropic medium Most natural soils are anisotropic with respect to the coefficient of permeability, and the degree of anisotropy depends on the type of soil and the nature of its deposition. In most cases, the anisotropy is more predominant in clayey soils compared to granular soils. In anisotropic soils, the directions of the maximum and minimum permeabilities are generally at right angles to each other, maximum permeability being in the horizontal direction. Figure 5.11a shows the seepage of water around a sheet pile wall. Consider a point O at which the flow line and the equipotential line are as 192 Permeability and seepage Figure 5.11 Directional variation of coefficient of permeability. shown in the figure. The flow line is a line along which a water particle at O will move from left to right. For the definition of an equipotential line, refer to Sec. 5.12. Note that in anisotropic soil the flow line and equipotential line are not orthogonal. Figure 5.11b shows the flow line and equipotential line at O. The coefficients of permeability in the x and z directions are kh and kv , respectively. In Figure 5.11, m is the direction of the tangent drawn to the flow line at O, and thus that is the direction of the resultant discharge velocity. Direction n is perpendicular to the equipotential line at O, and so it is the direction of the resultant hydraulic gradient. Using Darcy’s law, h x h z = −kv z h m = −k m h n = −k n x = −kh (5.51) (5.52) (5.53) (5.54) Permeability and seepage 193 where kh = maximum coefficient of permeability (in the horizontal x direction) kv = minimum coefficient of permeability (in the vertical z direction) k  k = coefficients of permeability in m, n directions, respectively Now we can write h h h = cos  + sin  m x z (5.55) From Eqs. (5.51)–(5.53), we have h  =− x x kh  h =− z z kv  h =− m m k Also, x = m cos  and z = m sin . Substitution of these into Eq. (5.55) gives −   m = − x cos  + z sin  k kh kv or m   = m cos2  + m sin2  k kh kv so 1 cos2  sin2  = + k kh kv (5.56) The nature of the variation of k with  as determined by Eq. (5.56) is shown in Figure 5.12. Again, we can say that n = x cos + z sin (5.57) Combining Eqs. (5.51), (5.52), and (5.54), k h h h = kh cos + kv sin n x z (5.58) 194 Permeability and seepage z Eq. (5.56) Eq. (5.61) kv kα kβ x kh Figure 5.12 Directional variation of permeability. However, h h = cos x n (5.59) h h = sin z n (5.60) and Substitution of Eqs. (5.59) and (5.60) into Eq. (5.58) yields k = kh cos2 + kv sin2 (5.61) The variation of k with is also shown in Figure 5.12. It can be seen that, for given values of kh and kv , Eqs. (5.56) and (5.61) yield slightly different values of the directional permeability. However, the maximum difference will not be more than 25%. There are several studies available in the literature providing the experimental values of kh /kv . Some are given below: Soil type kh /kv Reference Organic silt with peat Plastic marine clay Soft clay Soft marine clay Boston blue clay 1.2–1.7 1.2 1.5 1.05 0.7–3.3 Tsien (1955) Lumb and Holt (1968) Basett and Brodie (1961) Subbaraju (1973) Haley and Aldrich (1969) Permeability and seepage 195 Figure 5.13 shows the laboratory test results obtained by Fukushima and Ishii (1986) related to kh and kv on compacted Maso-do soil (weathered granite). All tests were conducted after full saturation of the compacted soil specimens. The results show that kh and kv are functions of molding moisture content and confining pressure. For given molding moisture contents and confining pressures, the ratios of kh /kv are in the same general range as shown in the preceding table. 5.8 Effective coefficient of permeability for stratified soils In general, natural soil deposits are stratified. If the stratification is continuous, the effective coefficients of permeability for flow in the horizontal and vertical directions can be readily calculated. Flow in the horizontal direction Figure 5.14 shows several layers of soil with horizontal stratification. Owing to fabric anisotropy, the coefficient of permeability of each soil layer may vary depending on the direction of flow. So, let us assume that kh1  kh2  kh3  & & & , are the coefficients of permeability of layers 1, 2, 3, & & & , respectively, for flow in the horizontal direction. Similarly, let kv1  kv2  kv3  & & & , be the coefficients of permeability for flow in the vertical direction. Considering the unit length of the soil layers as shown in Figure 5.14, the rate of seepage in the horizontal direction can be given by q = q1 + q2 + q3 + · · · + qn (5.62) where q is the flow rate through the stratified soil layers combined and q1  q2  q3  & & & , is the rate of flow through soil layers 1, 2, 3, & & & , respectively. Note that for flow in the horizontal direction (which is the direction of stratification of the soil layers), the hydraulic gradient is the same for all layers. So, q1 = kh1 iH1 q2 = kh2 iH2 (5.63) q3 = kh3 iH3   and q = keh iH (5.64) Figure 5.13 Variation of kv and kh for Masa-do soil compacted in the laboratory. Permeability and seepage 197 Figure 5.14 Flow in horizontal direction in stratified soil. where i = hydraulic gradient keh = effective coefficient of permeability for flow in horizontal direction H1  H2  H3 = thicknesses of layers 1, 2, 3, respectively H = H1 + H2 + H3 + & & & Substitution of Eqs. (5.63) and (5.64) into Eq. (5.62) yields keh H = kh1 H1 + kh2 H2 + kh3 H3 + · · · Hence keh = 1 k H + kh2 H2 + kh3 H3 + · · ·  H h1 1 (5.65) Flow in the vertical direction For flow in the vertical direction for the soil layers shown in Figure 5.15,  = 1 = 2 = 3 = & & & = n (5.66) where 1  2  3  & & & , are the discharge velocities in layers 1, 2, 3, & & & , respectively; or  = kev i = kv1 i1 = kv2 i2 = kv3 i3 = & & & (5.67) 198 Permeability and seepage Figure 5.15 Flow in vertical direction in stratified soil. where kev = effective coefficient of permeability for flow in the vertical direction kv1  kv2  kv3  & & & = coefficients of permeability of layers 1, 2, 3, & & & , respectively, for flow in the vertical direction i1  i2  i3  & & & = hydraulic gradient in soil layers 1, 2, 3, & & & , respectively For flow at right angles to the direction of stratification, Total head loss = (head loss in layer 1) + (head loss in layer 2) + · · · or iH = i1 H1 + i2 H2 + i3 H3 + · · · Combining Eqs. (5.67) and (5.68) gives     H= H1 + H2 + H +··· kev kv1 kv2 kv3 3 (5.68) Permeability and seepage 199 Figure 5.16 Variations of moisture content and grain size across thick-layer varves of New Liskeard varved clay (after Chan and Kenny, 1973). or kev = H H1 /kv1 + H2 /kv2 + H3 /kv3 + · · · (5.69) Varved soils are excellent examples of continuously layered soil. Figure 5.16 shows the nature of the layering of New Liskeard varved clay (Chan and Kenny, 1973) along with the variation of moisture content and grain size distribution of various layers. The ratio of keh /kev for this soil varies from about 1.5 to 3.7. Casagrande and Poulos (1969) provided the ratio of keh /kev for a varved clay that varies from 4 to 40. 5.9 Determination of coefficient of permeability in the field It is sometimes difficult to obtain undisturbed soil specimens from the field. For large construction projects it is advisable to conduct permeability tests 200 Permeability and seepage in situ and compare the results with those obtained in the laboratory. Several techniques are presently available for determination of the coefficient of permeability in the field, such as pumping from wells and borehole tests, and some of these methods will be treated briefly in this section. Pumping from wells Gravity wells Figure 5.17 shows a permeable layer underlain by an impermeable stratum. The coefficient of permeability of the top permeable layer can be determined by pumping from a well at a constant rate and observing the steady-state water table in nearby observation wells. The steady-state is established when the water levels in the test well and the observation wells become constant. At steady state, the rate of discharge due to pumping can be expressed as q = kiA From Figure 5.17, i ≈ dh/dr (this is referred to as Dupuit’s assumption), and A = 2rh. Substituting these into the above equation for rate of discharge gives Figure 5.17 Determination of coefficient of permeability by pumping from wells—gravity well. Permeability and seepage 201 q=k r2 r1 dh 2rh dr 2k dr = r q h2 h dh h1 So, k= 2303qlogr2 /r1  h22 − h21  (5.70) If the values of r1  r2  h1  h2 , and q are known from field measurements, the coefficient of permeability can be calculated from the simple relation given in Eq. (5.70). According to Kozeny (1933), the maximum radius of influence, R (Figure 5.17), for drawdown due to pumping can be given by 12t n R= qk  (5.71) where n = porosity R = radius of influence t = time during which discharge of water from well has been established Also note that if we substitute h1 = hw at r1 = rw and h2 = H at r2 = R, then k= 2303qlog R/rw  H 2 − h2w  (5.72) where H is the depth of the original groundwater table from the impermeable layer. The depth h at any distance r from the well rw ≤ r ≤ R can be determined from Eq. (5.70) by substituting h1 = hw at r1 = rw and h2 = h at r2 = r. Thus k= 2303qlog r/rw  h2 − h2w  or h=  2303q r log + h2w k rw (5.73) 202 Permeability and seepage It must be pointed out that Dupuit’s assumption (i.e., that i = dh/dr) does introduce large errors in regard to the actual phreatic line near the wells during steady state pumping. This is shown in Figure 5.17. For r > H − 15H the phreatic line predicted by Eq. (5.73) will coincide with the actual phreatic line. The relation for the coefficient of permeability given by Eq. (5.70) has been developed on the assumption that the well fully penetrates the permeable layer. If the well partially penetrates the permeable layer as shown in Figure 5.18, the coefficient of permeability can be better represented by the following relation (Mansur and Kaufman, 1962): q= 
  kH − s2 − t2  10rw 18s 1 + 030 + sin 2303 log R/rw  H H (5.74) The notations used on the right-hand side of Eq. (5.74) are shown in Figure 5.18. Artesian wells The coefficient of permeability for a confined aquifier can also be determined from well pumping tests. Figure 5.19 shows an artesian well Figure 5.18 Pumping from partially penetrating gravity wells. Permeability and seepage 203 Figure 5.19 Determination of coefficient of permeability by pumping from wells— confined aquifier. penetrating the full depth of an aquifier from which water is pumped out at a constant rate. Pumping is continued until a steady state is reached. The rate of water pumped out at steady state is given by q = kiA = k dh = 2rT dr (5.75) where T is the thickness of the confined aquifier, or r2 r1 dr = r h2 h1 2kT dh q (5.76) Solution of Eq. (5.76) gives k= q logr2 /r1  2727Th2 − h1  Hence the coefficient of permeability k can be determined by observing the drawdown in two observation wells, as shown in Figure 5.19. 204 Permeability and seepage Figure 5.20 Auger hole test. If we substitute h1 = hw at r1 = rw and h2 = H at r2 = R in the previous equation, we get k= q logR/rw  2727TH − hw  (5.77) Auger hole test Van Bavel and Kirkham (1948) suggested a method to determine k from an auger hole (Figure 5.20a). In this method, an auger hole is made in the ground that should extend to a depth of 10 times the diameter of the hole or to an impermeable layer, whichever is less. Water is pumped out of the hole, after which the rate of the rise of water with time is observed in several increments. The coefficient of permeability is calculated as Permeability and seepage 205 k = 0617 rw dh Sd dt (5.78) where rw = radius of the auger hole d = depth of the hole below the water table S = shape factor for auger hole dh/dt = rate of increase of water table at a depth h measured from the bottom of the hole The variation of S with rw /d and h/d is given in Figure 5.20b (Spangler and Handy, 1973). There are several other methods of determining the field coefficient of permeability. For a more detailed description, the readers are directed to the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (1961) and the U.S. Department of the Navy (1971). Example 5.4 Refer to Figure 5.18. For the steady-state condition, rw = 04 m H = 28 m s = 8 m, and t = 10 m. The coefficient of permeability of the layer is 0.03 mm/s. For the steady state pumping condition, estimate the rate of discharge q in m3 / min. solution From Eq. (5.74) 
  kH − s2 − t2  10rw 18s q= 1 + 030 + sin 2303logR/rw  H H k = 003 mm/s = 00018 m/min So,     0001828 − 82 − 102  1004 188 q= 1 + 030 + sin 2303logR/04 28 28 = 08976 logR/04 206 Permeability and seepage From the equation for q, we can construct the following table: R (m) 25 30 40 50 100 q (m3 ) 0
5 0
48 0
45 0
43 0
37 From the above table, the rate of discharge is approximately 045 m3 / min. 5.10 Factors affecting the coefficient of permeability The coefficient of permeability depends on several factors, most of which are listed below. 1. Shape and size of the soil particles. 2. Void ratio. Permeability increases with increase in void ratio. 3. Degree of saturation. Permeability increases with increase in degree of saturation. 4. Composition of soil particles. For sands and silts this is not important; however, for soils with clay minerals this is one of the most important factors. Permeability depends on the thickness of water held to the soil particles, which is a function of the cation exchange capacity, valence of the cations, and so forth. Other factors remaining the same, the coefficient of permeability decreases with increasing thickness of the diffuse double layer. 5. Soil structure. Fine-grained soils with a flocculated structure have a higher coefficient of permeability than those with a dispersed structure. 6. Viscosity of the permeant. 7. Density and concentration of the permeant. 5.11 Electroosmosis The coefficient of permeability—and hence the rate of seepage—through clay soils is very small compared to that in granular soils, but the drainage can be increased by application of an external electric current. This phenomenon is a result of the exchangeable nature of the adsorbed cations in Permeability and seepage 207 + – Water Ground surface Cation + + + Water Anode Figure 5.21 Cathode Principles of electroosmosis. clay particles and the dipolar nature of the water molecules. The principle can be explained with the help of Figure 5.21. When dc electricity is applied to the soil, the cations start to migrate to the cathode, which consists of a perforated metallic pipe. Since water is adsorbed on the cations, it is also dragged along. When the cations reach the cathode, they release the water, and the subsequent build up of pressure causes the water to drain out. This process is called electroosmosis and was first used by L. Casagrande in 1937 for soil stabilization in Germany. Rate of drainage by electroosmosis Figure 5.22 shows a capillary tube formed by clay particles. The surface of the clay particles have negative charges, and the cations are concentrated in a layer of liquid. According to the Helmholtz–Smoluchowski theory (Helmholtz, 1879; Smoluchowski, 1914; see also Mitchell, 1970, 1976), the flow velocity due to an applied dc voltage E can be given by e = D' E 4( L where e = flow velocity due to applied voltage D = dielectric constant (5.79) 208 Permeability and seepage Potential difference, E + + + + + + + + + + Distribution of velocity + + – + + + Concentration of cations near the wall Figure 5.22 + + L + + + + Wall of capillary tube Helmholtz–Smoluchowski theory for electroosmosis. ' = zeta potential ( = viscosity L = electrode spacing Equation (5.79) is based on the assumptions that the radius of the capillary tube is large compared to the thickness of the diffuse double layer surrounding the clay particles and that all the mobile charge is concentrated near the wall. The rate of flow of water through the capillary tube can be given by (5.80) qc = ae where a is area of the cross-section of the capillary tube. If a soil mass is assumed to have a number of capillary tubes as a result of interconnected voids, the cross-sectional area A of the voids is A = nA where A is the gross cross-sectional area of the soil and n the porosity. The rate of discharge q through a soil mass of gross cross-sectional area A can be expressed by the relation q = A e = nAe = n = ke ie A D' E A 4( L (5.81) (5.82) Permeability and seepage 209 where ke = nD'/4( is the electroosmotic coefficient of permeability and ie the electrical potential gradient. The units of ke can be cm2 /s · V and the units of ie can be V/cm. In contrast to the Helmholtz–Smoluchowski theory [Eq. (5.79)], which is based on flow through large capillary tubes, Schmid (1950, 1951) proposed a theory in which it was assumed that the capillary tubes formed by the pores between clay particles are small in diameter and that the excess cations are uniformly distributed across the pore cross-sectional area (Figure 5.23). According to this theory, e = r 2 Ao F E 8( L (5.83) where r = pore radius Ao = volume charge density in pore F = Faraday constant Based on Eq. (5.83), the rate of discharge q through a soil mass of gross cross-sectional area A can be written as q=n r 2 Ao F E A = ke ie A 8( L (5.84) where n is porosity and ke = nr 2 Ao F/8( is the electroosmotic coefficient of permeability. Potential difference, E + + + + + Distribution of velocity + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + – + + + + + + + + + + + Uniform distribution of cation L Figure 5.23 Schmid theory for electroosmosis. Wall of capillary tube 210 Permeability and seepage Without arguing over the shortcomings of the two theories proposed, our purpose will be adequately served by using the flow-rate relation as q = ke ie A. Some typical values of ke for several soils are as follows (Mitchell, 1976): Material Water content (%) ke [cm2 /(s·V)] London clay Boston blue clay Kaolin Clayey silt Rock flour Na-Montmorillonite Na-Montmorillonite 52
3 50
8 67
7 31
7 27
2 170 2000 5
8 × 10−5 5
1 × 10−5 5
7 × 10−5 5
0 × 10−5 4
5 × 10−5 2
0 × 10−5 12
0 × 10−5 These values are of the same order of magnitude and range from 15 × 10−5 to 12 × 10−5 cm2 /s · V with an average of about 6 × 10−5 cm2 /s · V. Electroosmosis is costly and is not generally used unless drainage by conventional means cannot be achieved. Gray and Mitchell (1967) have studied the factors that affect the amount of water transferred per unit charge passed, such as water content, cation exchange capacity, and free electrolyte content of the soil. SEEPAGE 5.12 Equation of continuity Laplace’s equation In many practical cases, the nature of the flow of water through soil is such that the velocity and gradient vary throughout the medium. For these problems, calculation of flow is generally made by use of graphs referred to as flow nets. The concept of the flow net is based on Laplace’s equation of continuity, which describes the steady flow condition for a given point in the soil mass. To derive the equation of continuity of flow, consider an elementary soil prism at point A (Figure 5.24b) for the hydraulic structure shown in Figure 5.24a. The flows entering the soil prism in the x, y, and z directions can be given from Darcy’s law as qx = kx ix Ax = kx h dy dz x (5.85) Permeability and seepage 211 Figure 5.24 Derivation of continuity equation. qy = ky iy Ay = ky h dx dz y (5.86) qz = kz iz Az = kz h dx dy z (5.87) where qx  qy  qz = flow entering in directions x, y, and z, respectively kx  ky  kz = coefficients of permeability in directions x, y, and z, respectively h = hydraulic head at point A The respective flows leaving the prism in the x, y, and z directions are qx + dqx = kx ix + dix Ax
 h 2 h + 2 dx dy dz = kx x x 
h 2 h qy + dqy = ky + 2 dy dx dz y y (5.88) (5.89) 212 Permeability and seepage qz + dqz = kz
 h 2 h + 2 dz dx dy z z (5.90) For steady flow through an incompressible medium, the flow entering the elementary prism is equal to the flow leaving the elementary prism. So, qx + qy + qz = qx + dqx  + qy + dqy  + qz + dqz  (5.91) Combining Eqs. (5.85–5.91), we obtain kx 2 h 2 h 2 h + k + k =0 y 2 x2 y2 z2 (5.92) For two-dimensional flow in the xz plane, Eq. (5.92) becomes kx 2 h 2 h + kz 2 = 0 2 x z (5.93) If the soil is isotropic with respect to permeability, kx = kz = k, and the continuity equation simplifies to 2 h 2 h + =0 x2 z2 (5.94) This is generally referred to as Laplace’s equation. Potential and stream functions Consider a function x z such that  h = x = −k x x (5.95)  h = z = −k z z (5.96) and If we differentiate Eq. (5.95) with respect to x and Eq. (5.96) with respect to z and substitute in Eq. (5.94), we get 2  2  + 2 =0 x2 z (5.97) Permeability and seepage 213 Therefore x z satisfies the Laplace equation. From Eqs. (5.95) and (5.96), x z = −khx z + fz (5.98) x z = −khx z + gx (5.99) and Since x and z can be varied independently, fz = gx = C, a constant. So, x z = −khx z + C and hx z = 1 C − x z k (5.100) If h(x, z) is a constant equal to h1 , Eq. (5.100) represents a curve in the xz plane. For this curve,  will have a constant value 1 . This is an equipotential line. So, by assigning to  a number of values such as 1  2  3  & & & , we can get a number of equipotential lines along which h = h1  h2  h3  & & & , respectively. The slope along an equipotential line  can now be derived: d =   dx + dz x z If  is a constant along a curve, d = 0. Hence
 dz  /x =− x =− dx  /z z (5.101) (5.102) Again, let )x z be a function such that ) h = x = −k z z (5.103) and − ) h = z = −k x z (5.104) Combining Eqs. (5.95) and (5.103), we obtain  ) = x z 2 2   ) = z2 x z (5.105) 214 Permeability and seepage Again, combining Eqs. (5.96) and (5.104),  ) = z x 2 2 )   − = 2 x z x − (5.106) From Eqs. (5.105) and (5.106), 2  2  2 ) 2 ) + =0 + = − x2 z2 x z x z So )x z also satisfies Laplace’s equation. If we assign to )x z various values )1  )2  )3  & & & , we get a family of curves in the xz plane. Now d) = ) ) dx + dz x z (5.107) For a given curve, if ) is constant, then d) = 0. Thus, from Eq. (5.107),
dz dx  ) = )/x  = z )/z x (5.108) Note that the slope dz/dx) is in the same direction as the resultant velocity. Hence the curves ) = )1  )2  )3  & & & , are the flow lines. From Eqs. (5.102) and (5.108), we can see that at a given point (x, z) the equipotential line and the flow line are orthogonal. The functions x z and )x z are called the potential function and the stream function, respectively. 5.13 Use of continuity equation for solution of simple flow problem To understand the role of the continuity equation [Eq. (5.94)], consider a simple case of flow of water through two layers of soil as shown in Figure 5.25. The flow is in one direction only, i.e., in the direction of the x axis. The lengths of the two soil layers (LA and LB ) and their coefficients of permeability in the direction of the x axis (kA and kB ) are known. The total heads at sections 1 and 3 are known. We are required to plot the total head at any other section for 0 < x < LA + LB . For one-dimensional flow, Eq. (5.94) becomes 2 h =0 x2 (5.109) Permeability and seepage 215 Figure 5.25 One-directional flow through two layers of soil. Integration of Eq. (5.109) twice gives (5.110) h = C2 x + C 1 where C1 and C2 are constants. For flow through soil A the boundary conditions are 1. at x = 0 h = h1 2. at x = LA  h = h2 However, h2 is unknown h1 > h2 . From the first boundary condition and Eq. (5.110), C1 = h1 . So, (5.111) h = C2 x + h 1 From the second boundary condition and Eq. (5.110), h2 = C2 LA + h1 or C2 = h2 − h/LA So, h=− h1 − h 2 x + h1 LA 0 ≤ x ≤ LA (5.112) 216 Permeability and seepage For flow through soil B the boundary conditions for solution of C1 and C2 in Eq. (5.110) are 1. at x = LA  h = h2 2. at x = LA + LB  h = 0 From the first boundary condition and Eq. (5.110), h2 = C2 LA + C1 , or (5.113) C1 = h2 − C2 LA Again, from the secondary boundary condition and Eq. (5.110), 0 = C2 LA + LB  + C1 , or (5.114) C1 = −C2 LA + LB  Equating the right-hand sides of Eqs. (5.113) and (5.114), h2 − C2 LA = −C2 LA + LB  C2 = − h2 LB (5.115) and then substituting Eq. (5.115) into Eq. (5.113) gives C1 = h2 + 
h2 L LA = h 2 1 + A LB LB (5.116) Thus, for flow through soil B, h=− 
h2 L x + h2 1 + A LB LB LA ≤ x ≤ LA + LB (5.117) With Eqs. (5.112) and (5.117), we can solve for h for any value of x from 0 to LA + LB , provided that h2 is known. However, q = rate of flow through soil A = rate of flow through soil B So, q = kA

  h 1 − h2 h2 A = kB A LA LB (5.118) where kA and kB are the coefficients of permeability of soils A and B, respectively, and A is the area of cross-section of soil perpendicular to the direction of flow. Permeability and seepage 217 From Eq. (5.118), h2 = kA h 1 LA kA /LA + kB /LB  (5.119) Substitution of Eq. (5.119) into Eqs. (5.112) and (5.117) yields, after simplification,
 kB x h = h1 1 − (5.120) x = 0 − LA kA LB + kB LA   kA L + LB − x x = LA − LA + LB  (5.121) h = h1 kA LB + kB LA A 5.14 Flow nets Definition A set of flow lines and equipotential lines is called a flow net. As discussed in Sec. 5.12, a flow line is a line along which a water particle will travel. An equipotential line is a line joining the points that show the same piezometric elevation (i.e., hydraulic head = hx z = const). Figure 5.26 shows an Figure 5.26 Flow net around a single row of sheet pile structures. 218 Permeability and seepage example of a flow net for a single row of sheet piles. The permeable layer is isotropic with respect to the coefficient of permeability, i.e., kx = kz = k. Note that the solid lines in Figure 5.26 are the flow lines and the broken lines are the equipotential lines. In drawing a flow net, the boundary conditions must be kept in mind. For example, in Figure 5.26, 1. 2. 3. 4. AB is an equipotential line EF is an equipotential line BCDE (i.e., the sides of the sheet pile) is a flow line GH is a flow line The flow lines and the equipotential lines are drawn by trial and error. It must be remembered that the flow lines intersect the equipotential lines at right angles. The flow and equipotential lines are usually drawn in such a way that the flow elements are approximately squares. Drawing a flow net is time consuming and tedious because of the trial-and-error process involved. Once a satisfactory flow net has been drawn, it can be traced out. Some other examples of flow nets are shown in Figures 5.27 and 5.28 for flow under dams. Calculation of seepage from a flow net under a hydraulic structure A flow channel is the strip located between two adjacent flow lines. To calculate the seepage under a hydraulic structure, consider a flow channel as shown in Figure 5.29. Figure 5.27 Flow net under a dam. Permeability and seepage 219 Figure 5.28 Flow net under a dam with a toe filter. Figure 5.29 Flow through a flow channel. The equipotential lines crossing the flow channel are also shown, along with their corresponding hydraulic heads. Let q be the flow through the flow channel per unit length of the hydraulic structure (i.e., perpendicular to the section shown). According to Darcy’s law,

  h2 − h 3 h 1 − h2 b1 × 1 = k b2 × 1 q = kiA = k l1 l2
 h3 − h4 =k b3 × 1 = & & & (5.122) l3 220 Permeability and seepage If the flow elements are drawn as squares, then l1 = b 1 l2 = b 2 l3 = b 3   So, from Eq. (5.122), we get h1 − h2 = h2 − h3 = h3 − h4 = · · · = h = h Nd (5.123) where h = potential drop = drop in piezometric elevation between two consecutive equipotential lines h = total hydraulic head = difference in elevation of water between the upstream and downstream side Nd = number of potential drops Equation (5.123) demonstrates that the loss of head between any two consecutive equipotential lines is the same. Combining Eqs. (5.122) and (5.123) gives q=k h Nd (5.124) If there are Nf flow channels in a flow net, the rate of seepage per unit length of the hydraulic structure is q = Nf q = kh Nf Nd (5.125) Although flow nets are usually constructed in such a way that all flow elements are approximately squares, that need not always be the case. We could construct flow nets with all the flow elements drawn as rectangles. In that case the width-to-length ratio of the flow nets must be a constant, i.e., b1 b b = 2 = 3 =&&& =n l1 l2 l3 (5.126) For such flow nets the rate of seepage per unit length of hydraulic structure can be given by q = kh Nf n Nd (5.127) Permeability and seepage 221 Example 5.5 For the flow net shown in Figure 5.27: a How high would water rise if a piezometer is placed at (i) A (ii) B (iii) C? b If k = 001 mm/s, determine the seepage loss of the dam in m3 /day · m. solution The maximum hydraulic head h is 10 m. In Figure 5.27, Nd = 12 h = h/Nd = 10/12 = 0833. Part a(i): To reach A, water must go through three potential drops. So head lost is equal to 3 × 0833 = 25 m. Hence the elevation of the water level in the piezometer at A will be 10 − 25 = 75 m above the ground surface. Part a(ii): The water level in the piezometer above the ground level is 10 − 50833 = 584 m. Part a(iii): Points A and C are located on the same equipotential line. So water in a piezometer at C will rise to the same elevation as at A, i.e., 7.5 m above the ground surface. Part b: The seepage loss is given by q = khNf /Nd . From Figure 5.27, Nf = 5 and Nd = 12. Since 
001 60 × 60 × 24 = 0864 m/day k = 001 mm/s = 1000 q = 0864105/12 = 36 m3 /day · m 5.15 Hydraulic uplift force under a structure Flow nets can be used to determine the hydraulic uplifting force under a structure. The procedure can best be explained through a numerical example. Consider the dam section shown in Figure 5.27, the cross-section of which has been replotted in Figure 5.30. To find the pressure head at point D (Figure 5.30), we refer to the flow net shown in Figure 5.27; the pressure head is equal to 10 + 334 m minus the hydraulic head loss. Point D coincides with the third equipotential line beginning with the upstream side, which means that the hydraulic head loss at that point is 2h/Nd  = 210/12 = 167 m. So, Pressure head at D = 1334 − 167 = 1167 m 222 Permeability and seepage Figure 5.30 Pressure head under the dam section shown in Figure 5.27. Similarly, Pressure head at E = 10 + 334 − 310/12 = 1084 m Pressure head at F = 10 + 167 − 3510/12 = 875 m (Note that point F is approximately midway between the fourth and fifth equipotential lines starting from the upstream side.) Pressure head at G = 10 + 167 − 8510/12 = 456 m Pressure head at H = 10 + 334 − 910/12 = 584 m Pressure head at I = 10 + 334 − 1010/12 = 5 m The pressure heads calculated above are plotted in Figure 5.30. Between points F and G, the variation of pressure heads will be approximately linear. The hydraulic uplift force per unit length of the dam, U , can now be calculated as U = w (area of the pressure head diagram)(1) 

 1167 + 1084 1084 + 875 = 981 167 + 167 2 2 

456 + 584 875 + 456 1832 + 167 + 2 2 Permeability and seepage 223 +
  584 + 5 167 2 = 981188 + 1636 + 12192 + 868 + 905 = 17149 kN/m 5.16 Flow nets in anisotropic material In developing the procedure described in Sec. 5.14 for plotting flow nets, we assumed that the permeable layer is isotropic, i.e., khorizontal = kvertical = k. Let us now consider the case of constructing flow nets for seepage through soils that show anisotropy with respect to permeability. For two-dimensional flow problems, we refer to Eq. (5.93): kx 2 h 2 h + k =0 z x2 z2 where kx = khorizontal and kz = kvertical . This equation can be rewritten as 2 h 2 h + =0 kz /kx x2 z2  Let x′ = kz /kx x, then 2 h 2 h = kz /kx x2 x′2 (5.128) (5.129) Substituting Eq. (5.129) into Eq. (5.128), we obtain 2 h 2 h + =0 x′2 z2 (5.130) Equation (5.130) is of the same form as Eq. (5.94), which governs the flow in isotropic soils and should represent two sets of orthogonal lines in the x′ z plane. The steps for construction of a flow net in an anisotropic medium are as follows: 1. To plot the section of the hydraulic structure, adopt a vertical scale.   kz kvertical 2. Determine = kx khorizontal  kz 3. Adopt a horizontal scale such that scalehorizontal = scalevertical  kx 4. With the scales adopted in steps 1 and 3, plot the cross-section of the structure. 224 Permeability and seepage 5. Draw the flow net for the transformed section plotted in step 4 in the same manner as is done for seepage through isotropic soils. 6. Calculate the rate of seepage as q=  kx k z h Nf Nd (5.131) Compare Eqs. (5.124) and (5.131). Both equations are similar except for  the fact that k in Eq. (5.124) is replaced by kx kz in Eq. (5.131). Example 5.6 A dam section is shown in Figure 5.31a. The coefficients of permeability of the permeable layer in the vertical and horizontal directions are 2 × 10−2 mm/s and 4 × 10−2 mm/s, respectively. Draw a flow net and calculate the seepage loss of the dam in m3 /day · m. (a) 10 m Permeable layer × × × × 12.5 m × × × × × × Impermeable layer × × × × × × × × (b) 10 m 1.0 1.0 × × × × × × 0.5 × × × × Horizontal scale = 12.5 × √ 2 = 17.68 m Vertical scale = 12.5 m Figure 5.31 Construction of flow net under a dam. Permeability and seepage 225 solution From the given data, kz = 2 × 10−2 mm/s = 1728 m/day kx = 4 × 10−2 mm/s = 3456 m/day and h = 10 m. For drawing the flow net, 2 × 10−2 (vertical scale) 4 × 10−2 1 = √ (vertical scale) 2 Horizontal scale = On the basis of this, the dam section is replotted, and  the flow net drawn as in Figure 5.31b. The rate of seepage is given by q = kx kz hNf /Nd ). From Figure 5.31b, Nd = 8 and Nf = 25. (the lowermost flow channel has a width-to-length ratio of 0.5). So,  q = 172834561025/8 = 7637 m3 /day · m Example 5.7 A single row of sheet pile structure is shown in Figure 5.32a. Draw a flow net for the transformed section. Replot this flow net in the natural scale also. The relationship between the permeabilities is given as kx = 6kz . solution For the transformed section,  kz vertical scale Horizontal scale = kx 1 = √ (vertical scale) 6 The transformed section and the corresponding flow net are shown in Figure 5.32b. Figure 5.32c shows the flow net constructed to the natural scale. One important fact to be noticed from this is that when the soil is anisotropic with respect to permeability, the flow and equipotential lines are not necessarily orthogonal. Figure 5.32 Flow net construction in anisotropic soil. Permeability and seepage 227 5.17 Construction of flow nets for hydraulic structures on nonhomogeneous subsoils The flow net construction technique described in Sec. 5.14 is for the condition where the subsoil is homogeneous. Rarely in nature do such ideal conditions occur; in most cases, we encounter stratified soil deposits (such as those shown in Figure 5.35). When a flow net is constructed across the boundary of two soils with different permeabilities, the flow net deflects at the boundary. This is called a transfer condition. Figure 5.33 shows a general condition where a flow channel crosses the boundary of two soils. Soil layers 1 and 2 have permeabilities of k1 and k2 , respectively. The dashed lines drawn across the flow channel are the equipotential lines. Let h be the loss of hydraulic head between two consecutive equipotential lines. Considering a unit length perpendicular to the section shown, the rate of seepage through the flow channel is q = k1 h l1 b1 × 1 = k2 h l2 b2 × 1 or k1 b /l = 2 2 k2 b1 /l1 (5.132) where l1 and b1 are the length and width of the flow elements in soil layer 1 and l2 and b2 are the length and width of the flow elements in soil layer 2. Figure 5.33 Transfer condition. 228 Permeability and seepage Referring again to Figure 5.33, l1 = AB sin 1 = AB cos 1 (5.133a) l2 = AB sin 2 = AB cos 2 (5.133b) b2 = AC cos 2 = AC sin 2 (5.133d) b1 = AC cos 1 = AC sin 1 (5.133c) From Eqs. (5.133a) and (5.133c), b1 cos 1 sin 1 = = l1 sin 1 cos 1 or b1 1 = = tan 1 l1 tan 1 (5.134) Also, from Eqs. (5.133b) and (5.133d), b2 cos 2 sin 2 = = l2 sin 2 cos 2 or 1 b2 = = tan 2 l2 tan 2 (5.135) Combining Eqs. (5.132), (5.134), and (5.135), tan 1 tan 2 k1 = = k2 tan 2 tan 1 (5.136) Flow nets in nonhomogeneous subsoils can be constructed using the relations given by Eq. (5.136) and other general principles outlined in Sec. 5.14. It is useful to keep the following points in mind while constructing the flow nets: 1. If k1 > k2 , we may plot square flow elements in layer 1. This means that l1 = b1 in Eq. (5.132). So k1 /k2 = b2 /l2 . Thus the flow elements in layer 2 will be rectangles and their width-to-length ratios will be equal to k1 /k2 . This is shown in Figure 5.34a. 2. If k1 < k2 , we may plot square flow elements in layer 1 (i.e., l1 = b1 ). From Eq. (5.132), k1 /k2 = b2 /l2 . So the flow elements in layer 2 will be rectangles. This is shown in Figure 5.34b. Permeability and seepage 229 Figure 5.34 Figure 5.35 Flow channel at the boundary between two soils with different coefficients of permeability. Flow net under a dam resting on a two-layered soil deposit. An example of the construction of a flow net for a dam section resting on a two-layered soil deposit is given in Figure 5.35. Note that k1 = 5 × 10−2 mm/s and k2 = 25 × 10−2 mm/s. So, k1 tan 2 50 × 10−2 tan 1 =2= = = −2 k2 25 × 10 tan 1 tan 2 230 Permeability and seepage In soil layer 1, the flow elements are plotted as squares, and since k1 /k2 = 2, the length-to-width ratio of the flow elements in soil layer 2 is 1/2. 5.18 Numerical analysis of seepage General seepage problems In this section, we develop some approximate finite difference equations for solving seepage problems. We start from Laplace’s equation, which was derived in Sec. 5.12. For two-dimensional seepage, kx 2 h 2 h + k =0 z x2 z2 (5.137) Figure 5.36 shows, a part of a region in which flow is taking place. For flow in the horizontal direction, using Taylor’s series, we can write
h h1 = h 0 + x x Figure 5.36  x2 + 2! 0 
2 h x2  x3 + 3! 0  Hydraulic heads for flow in a region.
3 h x3  0 +··· (5.138) Permeability and seepage 231 and
h h3 = h 0 − x x   x2 + 2! 0
2 h x2  x3 − 3! 0 
3 h x3  0 +··· (5.139) Adding Eqs. (5.138) and (5.139), we obtain h1 + h3 = 2h0 + 2 x2 2!
2 h x2  0 + 2 x4 4!
4 h x4  0 +··· (5.140) Assuming x to be small, we can neglect the third and subsequent terms on the right-hand side of Eq. (5.140). Thus
2 h x2  0 = h1 + h3 − 2h0  x2 (5.141) Similarly, for flow in the z direction we can obtain
2 h z2  0 = h2 + h4 − 2h0  z2 (5.142) Substitution of Eqs. (5.141) and (5.142) into Eq. (5.137) gives kx h1 + h3 − 2h0 h + h4 − 2h0 + kz 2 =0 2  x  z2 If kx = ky = k and (5.143) x = z, Eq. (5.143) simplifies to h1 + h2 + h3 + h4 − 4h0 = 0 or h0 = 1 h + h2 + h3 + h4  4 1 (5.144) Equation (5.144) can also be derived by considering Darcy’s law, q = kiA. For the rate of flow from point 1 to point 0 through the channel shown in Figure 5.37a, we have q1−0 = k h 1 − h0 z x (5.145) h0 − h3 z x (5.146) Similarly, q0−3 = k 232 Permeability and seepage Figure 5.37 Numerical analysis of seepage. q2−0 = k h2 − h0 x z (5.147) q0−4 = k h0 − h4 x z (5.148) Since the total rate of flow into point 0 is equal to the total rate of flow out of point 0, qin − qout = 0. Hence q1−0 + q2−0  − q0−3 + q0−4  = 0 Taking we get h0 = (5.149) x = z and substituting Eqs. (5.145)–(5.148) into Eq. (5.149), 1 h + h2 + h3 + h4  4 1 If the point 0 is located on the boundary of a pervious and an impervious layer, as shown in Figure 5.37b, Eq. (5.144) must be modified as follows: q1−0 = k h1 − h0 z x 2 (5.150) Permeability and seepage 233 q0−3 = k h 0 − h3 z x 2 (5.151) h 0 − h2 x z (5.152) q0−2 = k For continuity of flow, q1−0 − q0−3 − q0−2 = 0 With (5.153) x = z, combining Eqs. (5.150)–(5.153) gives h 1 − h0 h 0 − h3 − − h0 − h2  = 0 2 2 h1 h3 + + h2 − 2h0 = 0 2 2 or h0 = 1 h + 2h2 + h3  4 1 (5.154) When point 0 is located at the bottom of a piling (Figure 5.37c), the equation for the hydraulic head for flow continuity can be given by q1−0 + q4−0 − q0−3 − q0−2′ − q0−2′′ = 0 (5.155) Note that 2′ and 2′′ are two points at the same elevation on the opposite sides of the sheet pile with hydraulic heads of h2′ and h2′′ , respectively. For this condition we can obtain (for x = z), through a similar procedure to that above, h0 = 1 1 h + h ′ + h2′′  + h3 + h4  4 1 2 2 (5.156) Seepage in layered soils Equation (5.144), which we derived above, is valid for seepage in homogeneous soils. However, for the case of flow across the boundary of one homogeneous soil layer to another, Eq. (5.144) must be modified. Referring to Figure 5.37d, since the flow region is located half in soil 1 with a coefficient of permeability k1 and half in soil 2 with a coefficient of permeability k2 , we can say that kav = 1 k + k2  2 1 (5.157) 234 Permeability and seepage Now, if we replace soil 2 by soil 1, the replaced soil (i.e., soil 1) will have a hydraulic head of h4′ in place of h4 . For the velocity to remain the same, k1 h − h0 h 4′ − h 0 = k2 4 z z (5.158) or h4′ = k2 h − h0  + h0 k1 4 (5.159) Thus, based on Eq. (5.137), we can write k1 + k2 h1 + h3 − 2h0 h + h4′ − 2h0 + k1 2 =0 2 2  x  z2 Taking or x = z and substituting Eq. (5.159) into Eq. (5.160),   1 h1 + h3 − 2h0 k + k2  2 1  x2     k k + 1 2 h2 + 2 h4 − h0  + h0 − 2h0 = 0  x k1 (5.160)
 1 2k1 2k2 h0 = h + h3 + h h1 + 4 k1 + k2 2 k1 + k 2 4 (5.161) (5.162) The application of the equations developed in this section can best be demonstrated by the use of a numerical example. Consider the problem of determining the hydraulic heads at various points below the dam shown in Figure 5.35. Let x = z = 125 m. Since the flow net below the dam will be symmetrical, we will consider only the left half. The steps or determining the values of h at various points in the permeable soil layers are as follows: 1. Roughly sketch out a flow net. 2. Based on the rough flow net (step 1), assign some values for the hydraulic heads at various grid points. These are shown in Figure 5.38a. Note that the values of h assigned here are in percent. 3. Consider the heads for row 1 (i.e., i = 1). The hij for i = 1 and j = 1 2 & & & , 22 are 100 in Figure 5.38a; these are correct values based on the boundary conditions. The hij for i = 1 and j = 23 24 & & & , 28 are estimated values. The flow condition for these grid points is similar to that shown in Figure 5.37b, and according to Eq. (5.154), h1 + 2h2 + h3  − 4h0 = 0, or hij+1 + 2hi+1j + hij−1  − 4hij = 0 (5.163) Figure 5.38 Hydraulic head calculation by numerical method: (a) Initial assumption. Figure 5.38 (b) At the end of the first interation. Figure 5.38 (c) At the end of the tenth iteration. 238 Permeability and seepage Since the hydraulic heads in Figure 5.38 are assumed values, Eq. (5.163) will not be satisfied. For example, for the grid point i = 1 and j = 23 hij−1 = 100 hij = 84 hij+1 = 68, and hi+1j = 78. If these values are substituted into Eq. (5.163), we get 68+278+100− 484 = −12, instead of zero. If we set −12 equal to R (where R stands for residual) and add R/4 to hij , Eq. (5.163) will be satisfied. So the new, corrected value of hij is equal to 84 + −3 = 81, as shown in Figure 5.38b. This is called the relaxation process. Similarly, the corrected head for the grid point i = 1 and j = 24 can be found as follows: 84 + 267 + 61 − 468 = 7 = R So, h124 = 68 + 7/4 = 6975 ≈ 698. The corrected values of h125  h126 , and h127 can be determined in a similar manner. Note that h128 = 50 is correct, based on the boundary condition. These are shown in Figure 5.38b. 4. Consider the rows i = 2, 3, and 4. The hij for i = 2 & & & , 4 and j = 2 3 & & & , 27 should follow Eq. (5.144); h1 + h2 + h3 + h4  − 4h0 = 0; or hij+1 + hi−1j + hij−1 + hi+1j  − 4hij = 0 (5.164) To find the corrected heads hij , we proceed as in step 3. The residual R is calculated by substituting values into Eq. (5.164), and the corrected head is then given by hij + R/4. Owing to symmetry, the corrected values of h128 for i = 2, 3, and 4 are all 50, as originally assumed. The corrected heads are shown in Figure 5.38b. 5. Consider row i = 5 (for j = 2 3 & & & , 27). According to Eq. (5.162), h1 + 2k2 2k1 h 2 + h3 + h − 4h0 = 0 k1 + k2 k1 + k2 4 (5.165) Since k1 = 5 × 10−2 mm/s and k2 = 25 × 10−2 mm/s, 25 × 10−2 2k1 = 133 = k1 + k 2 5 + 25 × 10−2 2k2 225 × 10−2 = 0667 = k1 + k 2 5 + 25 × 10−2 Using the above values, Eq. (5.165) can be rewritten as hij+1 + 1333hi−1j + hij−1 + 0667hi+1j − 4hij = 0 As in step 4, calculate the residual R by using the heads in Figure 5.38a. The corrected values of the heads are given by hij + R/4. These are shown in Figure 5.38b. Note that, owing to symmetry, the head at the grid point i = 5 and j = 28 is 50, as assumed initially. Permeability and seepage 239 6. Consider the rows i = 6 7 & & & , 12. The hij for i = 6 7 & & & , 12 and j = 2, 3, & & & , 27 can be found by using Eq. (5.164). Find the corrected head in a manner similar to that in step 4. The heads at j = 28 are all 50, as assumed. These values are shown in Figure 5.38b. 7. Consider row i = 13. The hij for i = 13 and j = 2 3 & & & , 27 can be found from Eq. (5.154), h1 + 2h2 + h3  − 4h0 = 0, or hij+1 + 2hi−1j + hij−1 − 4hij = 0 With proper values of the head given in Figure 5.38a, find the residual and the corrected heads as in step 3. Note that h1328 = 50 owing to symmetry. These values are given in Figure 5.38b. 8. With the new heads, repeat steps 3–7. This iteration must be carried out several times until the residuals are negligible. Figure 5.38c shows the corrected hydraulic heads after ten iterations. With these values of h, the equipotential lines can now easily be drawn. 5.19 Seepage force per unit volume of soil mass Flow of water through a soil mass results in some force being exerted on the soil itself. To evaluate the seepage force per unit volume of soil, consider a soil mass bounded by two flow lines ab and cd and two equipotential lines ef and gh, as shown in Figure 5.39. The soil mass has unit thickness at right angles to the section shown. The self-weight of the soil mass Figure 5.39 Seepage force determination. 240 Permeability and seepage is (length)(width)(thickness)sat  = LL1sat  = L2 sat . The hydrostatic force on the side ef of the soil mass is (pressure head)L1 = h1 w L. The hydrostatic force on the side gh of the soil mass is h2 Lw . For equilibrium, F = h1 w L + L2 sat sin  − h2 w L (5.166) However, h1 + L sin  = h2 + h, so h2 = h1 + L sin  − h (5.167) Combining Eqs. (5.166) and (5.167), F = h1 w L + L2 sat sin  − h1 + L sin  − hw L or F = L2 sat − w  sin  + hw L = L2  ′ sin  + hw L submerged seepage unit weight force of soil (5.168) where  ′ = sat − w . From Eq. (5.168) we can see that the seepage force on the soil mass considered is equal to hw L. Therefore hw L L2 h = w = w i L Seepage force per unit volume of soil mass = (5.169) where i is the hydraulic gradient. 5.20 Safety of hydraulic structures against piping When upward seepage occurs and the hydraulic gradient i is equal to icr , piping or heaving originates in the soil mass: icr = ′ w  ′ = sat − w = So, icr = Gs w + ew G − 1w − w = s 1+e 1+e ′ G −1 = s w 1+e (5.170) Permeability and seepage 241 For the combinations of Gs and e generally encountered in soils, icr varies within a range of about 0.85–1.1. Harza (1935) investigated the safety of hydraulic structures against piping. According to his work, the factor of safety against piping, F S , can be defined as FS= icr iexit (5.171) where iexit is the maximum exit gradient. The maximum exit gradient can be determined from the flow net. Referring to Figure 5.27, the maximum exit gradient can be given by h/l ( h is the head lost between the last two equipotential lines, and l the length of the flow element). A factor of safety of 3–4 is considered adequate for the safe performance of the structure. Harza also presented charts for the maximum exit gradient of dams constructed over deep homogeneous deposits (see Figure 5.40). Using the notations shown in Figure 5.40, the maximum exit gradient can be given by iexit = C h B (5.172) A theoretical solution for the determination of the maximum exit gradient for a single row of sheet pile structures as shown in Figure 5.26 is available (see Harr, 1962) and is of the form iexit = maximum hydraulic head 1  depth of penetration of sheet pile (5.173) Lane (1935) also investigated the safety of dams against piping and suggested an empirical approach to the problem. He introduced a term called weighted creep distance, which is determined from the shortest flow path: Lw = where  Lh  + Lv 3 (5.174) L = weighted creep distance w Lh = Lh1 + Lh2 + · · · = sum of horizontal distance along shortest flow path (see Figure 5.41)  Lv = Lv1 + Lv2 + · · · = sum of vertical distances along shortest flow path (see Figure 5.41) 242 Permeability and seepage Figure 5.40 Critical exit gradient [Eq. (5.172)]. Once the weighted creep length has been calculated, the weighted creep ratio can be determined as (Figure 5.41) Weighted creep ratio = Lw H1 − H2 (5.175) For a structure to be safe against piping, Lane suggested that the weighted creep ratio should be equal to or greater than the safe values shown in Table 5.4. If the cross-section of a given structure is such that the shortest flow path has a slope steeper than 45 , it should be taken as a vertical path. If the slope of the shortest flow path is less than 45 , it should be considered as a horizontal path. Permeability and seepage 243 Figure 5.41 Calculation of weighted creep distance. Table 5.4 Safe values for the weighted creep ratio Material Safe weighted creep ratio Very fine sand or silt Fine sand Medium sand Coarse sand Fine gravel Coarse gravel Soft to medium clay Hard clay Hard pan 8.5 7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0–3.0 1.8 1.6 Terzaghi (1922) conducted some model tests with a single row of sheet piles as shown in Figure 5.42 and found that the failure due to piping takes place within a distance of D/2 from the sheet piles (D is the depth of penetration of the sheet pile). Therefore, the stability of this type of structure can be determined by considering a soil prism on the downstream side of unit thickness and of section D × D/2. Using the flow net, the hydraulic uplifting pressure can be determined as 244 Permeability and seepage Figure 5.42 U= Failure due to piping for a single-row sheet pile structure. 1  Dh 2 w a (5.176) where ha is the average hydraulic head at the base of the soil prism. The submerged weight of the soil prism acting vertically downward can be given by W′ = 1 ′ 2 D 2 (5.177) Hence the factor of safety against heave is FS = 1 ′ 2 D D ′ W′ = = 12 U h a w  Dha 2 w (5.178) A factor of safety of about 4 is generally considered adequate. For structures other than a single row of sheet piles, such as that shown in Figure 5.43, Terzaghi (1943) recommended that the stability of several soil prisms of size D/2 × D′ × 1 be investigated to find the minimum factor of safety. Note that 0 < D′ ≤ D. However, Harr (1962, p. 125) suggested that a factor of safety of 4– 5 with D′ = D should be sufficient for safe performance of the structure. Permeability and seepage 245 Figure 5.43 Safety against piping under a dam. Example 5.8 A flow net for a single row of sheet piles is given in Figure 5.26. a Determine the factor of safety against piping by Harza’s method. b Determine the factor of safety against piping by Terzaghi’s method 3 [Eq. (5.178)]. Assume  ′ = 102 kN/m . solution Part a: iexit = h L h= 3 − 05 3 − 05 = 0417 m = Nd 6 The length of the last flow element can be scaled out of Figure 5.26 and is approximately 0.82 m. So, iexit = 0417 = 0509 082 [We can check this with the theoretical equation given in Eq. (5.173): iexit = 1/3 − 05/15 = 053 which is close to the value obtained above.] icr = 102 kN/m3 ′ = 104 = w 981 kN/m3 246 Permeability and seepage Figure 5.44 Factor of safety calculation by Terzaghi’s method. So the factor of safety against piping is icr 104 = 204 = iexit 0509 Part b: A soil prism of cross-section D × D/2 where D = 15 m, on the downstream side adjacent to the sheet pile is plotted in Figure 5.44a. The approximate hydraulic heads at the bottom of the prism can be evaluated by using the flow net. Referring to Figure 5.26 (note that Nd = 6), 3 3 − 05 = 125 m 6 2 hB = 3 − 05 = 0833 m 6 hA = 18 3 − 05 = 075 m 6 
0375 125 + 075 ha = + 0833 = 0917 m 075 2 hC = FS = D ′ 15 × 102 = 17 = ha w 0917 × 981 The factor of safety calculated here is rather low. However, it can be increased by placing some filter material on the downstream side above the Permeability and seepage 247 ground surface, as shown in Figure 5.44b. This will increase the weight of the soil prism [W ′ ; see Eq. (5.177)]. Example 5.9 A dam section is shown in Figure 5.45. The subsoil is fine sand. Using Lane’s method, determine whether the structure is safe against piping. solution From Eq. (5.174),  Lh  Lw = + Lv 3  Lh = 6 + 10 = 16 m  Lv = 1 + 8 + 8 + 1 + 2 = 20 m Lw = 16 + 20 = 2533 m 3 From Eq. (5.175), Weighted creep ratio = Lw 2533 = 317 = H1 − H2 10 − 2 From Table 5.4, the safe weighted creep ratio for fine sand is about 7. Since the calculated weighted creep ratio is 3.17, the structure is unsafe. Figure 5.45 Safety against piping under a dam by using Lane’s method. 248 Permeability and seepage 5.21 Filter design When seepage water flows from a soil with relatively fine grains into a coarser material (e.g., Figure 5.44b), there is a danger that the fine soil particles may wash away into the coarse material. Over a period of time, this process may clog the void spaces in the coarser material. Such a situation can be prevented by the use of a filter or protective filter between the two soils. For example, consider the earth dam section shown in Figure 5.46. If rockfills were only used at the toe of the dam, the seepage water would wash the fine soil grains into the toe and undermine the structure. Hence, for the safety of the structure, a filter should be placed between the fine soil and the rock toe (Figure 5.46). For the proper selection of the filter material, two conditions should be kept in mind. 1. The size of the voids in the filter material should be small enough to hold the larger particles of the protected material in place. 2. The filter material should have a high permeability to prevent buildup of large seepage forces and hydrostatic pressures in the filters. Based on the experimental investigation of protective filters, Terzaghi and Peck (1948) provided the following criteria to satisfy the above conditions: D15F D85B D15F D15B ≤ 4–5 to satisfy condition 1 (5.179) ≥ 4–5 to satisfy condition 2 (5.180) where D15F = diameter through which 15% of filter material will pass D15B = diameter through which 15% of soil to be protected will pass D85B = diameter through which 85% of soil to be protected will pass Figure 5.46 Use of filter at the toe of an earth dam. Permeability and seepage 249 Figure 5.47 Determination of grain-size distribution of soil filters using Eqs. (5.179) and (5.180). The proper use of Eqs. (5.179) and (5.180) to determine the grain-size distribution of soils used as filters is shown in Figure 5.47. Consider the soil used for the construction of the earth dam shown in Figure 5.46. Let the grain-size distribution of this soil be given by curve a in Figure 5.47. We can now determine 5D85B and 5D15B and plot them as shown in Figure 5.47. The acceptable grain-size distribution of the filter material will have to lie in the shaded zone. Based on laboratory experimental results, several other filter design criteria have been suggested in the past. These are summarized in Table 5.5. Table 5.5 Filter criteria developed from laboratory testing Investigator Year Bertram 1940 U.S. Corps of Engineers 1948 Sherman 1953 Criteria developed D15F D15F < 6 <9 D85B D85B D50F D15F < 5 < 25; D85B D50B D15F < 20 D15B For Cubase < 1
5: D15F D15F < 6 < 20; D15B D15B D50F < 25 D50B 250 Permeability and seepage Table 5.5 (Continued) Investigator Year Criteria developed For 1
5 < Cubase < 4
0: D15F D15F < 5 < 20; D85B D15B D50F < 20 D50B For Cubase > 4
0: D15F D15F < 5 < 40; D85B D85B D15F < 25 D85B Leatherwood and Peterson 1954 Karpoff 1955 Zweck and Davidenkoff 1957 D15F D50F < 4
1 < 5
3 D85B D50B Uniform filter: D50F < 10 5< D50B Well-graded filter: D50F < 58; 12 < D50B D15F < 40; and 12 < D15B Parallel grain-size curves Base of medium and coarse uniform sand: D50F 5< < 10 D50B Base of fine uniform sand: D50F 5< < 15 D50B Base of well-graded fine sand: D50F 5< < 25 D50B Note: D50F = diameter through which 50% of the filter passes; D50B = diameter through which 50% of the soil to be protected passes; Cu = uniformity coefficient. 5.22 Calculation of seepage through an earth dam resting on an impervious base Several solutions have been proposed for determination of the quantity of seepage through a homogeneous earth dam. In this section, some of these solutions will be considered. Permeability and seepage 251 Figure 5.48 Dupuit’s solution for flow through an earth dam. Dupuit’s solution Figure 5.48 shows the section of an earth dam in which ab is the phreatic surface, i.e., the uppermost line of seepage. The quantity of seepage through a unit length at right angles to the cross-section can be given by Darcy’s law as q = kiA. Dupuit (1863) assumed that the hydraulic gradient i is equal to the slope of the free surface and is constant with depth, i.e., i = dz/dx. So q=k dz dz z1 = k z dx dx d 0 or q dx = qd = q= H1 kz dz H2 k 2 H − H22  2 1 k H 2 − H22  2d 1 (5.181) Equation (5.181) represents a parabolic free surface. However, in the derivation of the equation, no attention has been paid to the entrance or exit conditions. Also note that if H2 = 0, the phreatic line would intersect the impervious surface. Schaffernak’s solution For calculation of seepage through a homogeneous earth dam. Schaffernak (1917) proposed that the phreatic surface will be like line ab in Figure 5.49, 252 Permeability and seepage Schaffernak’s solution for flow through an earth dam. Figure 5.49 i.e., it will intersect the downstream slope at a distance l from the impervious base. The seepage per unit length of the dam can now be determined by considering the triangle bcd in Figure 5.49: A = bd1 = l sin q = kiA From Dupuit’s assumption, the hydraulic gradient is given by i = dz/dx = tan . So, q = kz or dz = kl sin tan  dx d H l sin z dz = l cos (5.182) l sin tan dx 1 2 2 2 H − l sin  = l sin tan d − l cos  2 1 2 2 2 sin2 H − l sin  = l d − l cos  2 cos H 2 cos 2 sin2 − l2 cos 2 l2 cos − 2ld + l= = ld − l2 cos H 2 cos sin2 =0  2d ± 4d2 − 4H 2 cos2 / sin2  2 cos (5.183) Permeability and seepage 253 Figure 5.50 Graphical construction for Schaffernak’s solution. so d l= cos −  d2 cos2 − H2 sin2 (5.184) Once the value of l is known, the rate of seepage can be calculated from the equation q = kl sin tan . Schaffernak suggested a graphical procedure to determine the value of l. This procedure can be explained with the aid of Figure 5.50. 1. Extend the downstream slope line bc upward. 2. Draw a vertical line ae through the point a. This will intersect the projection of line bc (step 1) at point f . 3. With fc as diameter, draw a semicircle fhc. 4. Draw a horizontal line ag. 5. With c as the center and cg as the radius, draw an arc of a circle, gh. 6. With f as the center and fh as the radius, draw an arc of a circle, hb. 7. Measure bc = l. Casagrande (1937) showed experimentally that the parabola ab shown in Figure 5.49 should actually start from the point a′ as shown in Figure 5.51. Note that aa′ = 03 . So, with this modification, the value of d for use in Eq. (5.184) will be the horizontal distance between points a′ and c. 254 Permeability and seepage Figure 5.51 Modified distance d for use in Eq. (5.184). Figure 5.52 L. Casagrande’s solution for flow through an earth dam (Note: length of the curve a′ bc = S). L. Casagrande’s solution Equation (5.187) was obtained on the basis of Dupuit’s assumption that the hydraulic gradient i is equal to dz/dx. Casagrande (1932) suggested that this relation is an approximation to the actual condition. In reality (see Figure 5.52), i= dz ds (5.185) For a downstream slope of > 30 , the deviations from Dupuit’s assumption become more noticeable. Based on this assumption [Eq. (5.185)], the rate of seepage is q = kiA. Considering the triangle bcd in Figure 5.52, i= dz = sin ds A = bd1 = l sin Permeability and seepage 255 So q=k dz z = kl sin2 ds H s (5.186) or l sin z dz l sin2  ds l where s is the length of the curve a′ bc. Hence 1 2 2 2 H − l sin  = l sin2 s − l 2 H 2 − l2 sin2 l2 − 2ls + = 2ls sin2 − 2l2 sin2 H2 sin2 =0 (5.187) The solution to Eq. (5.187) is  l = s − s2 − H2 sin2 (5.188) With about a 4–5% error, we can approximate s as the length of the straight line a′ c. So,  s = d2 + H 2 (5.189) Combining Eqs. (5.188) and (5.189), l=   d2 + H 2 − d2 − H 2 cot2 (5.190) Once l is known, the rate of seepage can be calculated from the equation q = kl sin2 A solution that avoids the approximation introduced in Eq. (5.190) was given by Gilboy (1934) and put into graphical form by Taylor (1948), as shown in Figure 5.53. To use the graph, 1. 2. 3. 4. Determine d/H. For given values of d/H and , determine m. Calculate l = mH/ sin . Calculate q = kl sin2 . 256 Permeability and seepage Figure 5.53 Chart for solution by L. Casagrande’s method based on Gilboy’s solution. Pavlovsky’s solution Pavlovsky (1931; also see Harr, 1962) also gave a solution for calculation of seepage through an earth dam. This can be explained with reference to Figure 5.54. The dam section can be divided into three zones, and the rate of seepage through each zone can be calculated as follows. Zone I (area agOf) In zone I the seepage lines are actually curved, but Pavlovsky assumed that they can be replaced by horizontal lines. The rate of seepage through an elementary strip dz can then be given by dq = kidA dA = dz1 = dz Permeability and seepage 257 Figure 5.54 i= Pavlovsky’s solution for seepage through an earth dam. l1 loss of head l1 = length of flow Hd − z cot 1 So, q= dq = h1 0 kl1 Hd − z cot 1 dz = kl1 Hd ln cot 1 Hd − h1 However, l1 = H − h1 . So, q= Hd kH − h1  ln cot 1 Hd − h 1 (5.191) Zone II (area Ogbd) The flow in zone II can be given by the equation derived by Dupuit [Eq. (5.181)]. Substituting h1 for H1  h2 for H2 , and L for d in Eq. (5.181), we get q= k 2 h − h22  2L 1 (5.192) where L = B + Hd − h2  cot 2 (5.193) 258 Permeability and seepage Zone III (area bcd) As in zone I, the stream lines in zone III are also assumed to be horizontal: q=k h2 0 dz cot 2 = kh2 cot 2 (5.194) Combining Eqs. (5.191)–(5.193), B h2 = cot 2 + Hd − 
B cot 2 + Hd 2 − h21 (5.195) From Eqs. (5.191) and (5.194), H − h1 Hd h2 ln = cot 1 Hd − h 1 cot (5.196) 2 Equations (5.195) and (5.196) contain two unknowns, h1 and h2 , which can be solved graphically (see Ex. 5.10). Once these are known, the rate of seepage per unit length of the dam can be obtained from any one of the equations (5.191), (5.192), and (5.194). Seepage through earth dams with k x
= k z If the soil in a dam section shows anisotropic behavior with respect to permeability, the dam section should first be plotted according to the transformed scale (as explained in Sec. 5.16): x′ =  kz x kx All calculations should be based on this transformed section. Also, for calculating the rateof seepage, the term k in the corresponding equations should be equal to kx kz . Example 5.10 The cross-section of an earth dam is shown in Figure 5.55. Calculate the rate of seepage through the dam [q in m3 /min ·m] by a Dupuit’s method; b Schaffernak’s method; c L. Casagrande’s method; and d Pavlovsky’s method. Permeability and seepage 259 Figure 5.55 Seepage through an earth dam. solution Part a, Dupuit’s method: From Eq. (5.181), q= k H 2 − H22  2d 1 From Figure 5.55, H1 = 25 m and H2 = 0; also, d (the horizontal distance between points a and c) is equal to 60 + 5 + 10 = 75 m. Hence q= 3 × 10−4 252 = 125 × 10−4 m3 /min · m 2 × 75 Part b, Schaffernak’s method: From Eqs. (5.182) and (5.184),  d2 H2 d − − 2 q = kl sin tan  l= 2 cos cos sin Using Casagrande’s correction (Figure 5.51), d (the horizontal distance between a′ and c) is equal to 60 + 5 + 10 + 15 = 90 m. Also, = tan−1 1 = 2657 2 H = 25 m So, 
2
2 90 25 90 l= − − cos 2657 cos 2657 sin 2657  = 10063 − 100632 − 55892 = 1695 m 260 Permeability and seepage q = 3 × 10−4 1695sin 2657 tan 2657  = 1137 × 10−4 m3 /min · m Part c: L. Casagrande’s method: We will use the graph given in Figure 5.53. d = 90 m From Figure 5.53, for l= d 90 = = 36 H 25 H = 25 m = 2657 = 2657 and d/H = 36 m = 034 and mH 034 25 = = 190 m sin sin 2657 q = kl sin2 = 3 × 10−4 190sin 2657 2 = 114 × 10−4 m3 /min · m Part d: Pavlovsky’s method: From Eqs. (5.195) and (5.196), B h2 = cot 2 + Hd − 
B cot H − h1 Hd h2 ln = cot 1 Hd − h 1 cot 2 + Hd 2 − h21 2 From Figure 5.55, B = 5 m cot 2 = cot 2657 = 2 Hd = 30 m, and H = 25 m. Substituting these values in Eq. (5.198), we get 5 h2 = + 30 − 2 
5 + 30 2 2 − h21 or  h2 = 325 − 105625 − h21 (E5.1) Similarly, from Eq. (5.196), 25 − h1 30 h ln = 2 2 30 − h1 2 or h2 = 25 − h1  ln 30 30 − h1 Eqs. (E5.1) and (E5.2) must be solved by trial and error: (E5.2) Permeability and seepage 261 h1 m 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 h2 from Eq. (E5.1) (m) h2 from Eq. (E5.2) (m) 0.062 0.247 0.559 1.0 1.577 2.297 3.170 4.211 5.400 6.882 1.587 3.005 4.240 5.273 6.082 6.641 6.915 6.859 6.414 5.493 Using the values of h1 and h2 calculated in the preceding table, we can plot the graph as shown in Figure 5.56, and from that, h1 = 189 m and h2 = 606 m. From Eq. (5.194), q= kh2 3 × 10−4 606 = 909 × 10−4 m3 /min · m = cot 2 2 Figure 5.56 Plot of h2 against h1 . 262 Permeability and seepage 5.23 Plotting of phreatic line for seepage through earth dams For construction of flow nets for seepage through earth dams, the phreatic line needs to be established first. This is usually done by the method proposed by Casagrande (1937) and is shown in Figure 5.57a. Note that aefb in Figure 5.57a is the actual phreatic line. The curve a′ efb′ c′ is a parabola with its focus at c′ ; the phreatic line coincides with this parabola, but with some deviations at the upstream and the downstream faces. At a point a, the phreatic line starts at an angle of 90 to the upstream face of the dam and aa′ = 03 . The parabola a′ efb′ c′ can be constructed as follows: Figure 5.57 Determination of phreatic line for seepage through an earth dam. Permeability and seepage 263 1. Let the distance cc′ be equal to p. Now, referring to √ Figure 5.57b, Ac = AD (based on the properties of a parabola), Ac = x2 + z2 , and AD = 2p + x. Thus,  x2 + z2 = 2p + x (5.197) At x = d z = H. Substituting these conditions into Eq. (5.197) and rearranging, we obtain p= 1  2 d + H2 − d 2 (5.198) Since d and H are known, the value of p can be calculated. 2. From Eq. (5.197), x2 + z2 = 4p2 + x2 + 4px x= z2 − 4p2 4p (5.199) With p known, the values of x for various values of z can be calculated from Eq. (5.199), and the parabola can be constructed. To complete the phreatic line, the portion ae must be approximated and drawn by hand. When < 30 , the value of l can be calculated from Eq. (5.184) as d l= cos −  d2 cos2 − H2 sin2 Note that l = bc in Figure 5.57a. Once point b has been located, the curve fb can be approximately drawn by hand. If ≥ 30 , Casagrande proposed that the value of l can be determined by using the graph given in Figure 5.58. In Figure 5.57a, b′ b = l, and bc = l. After locating the point b on the downstream face, the curve fb can be approximately drawn by hand. 5.24 Entrance, discharge, and transfer conditions of line of seepage through earth dams A. Casagrande (1937) analyzed the entrance, discharge, and transfer conditions for the line of seepage through earth dams. When we consider the flow from a free-draining material (coefficient of permeability very large; k1 ≈  into a material of permeability k2 , it is called an entrance. Similarly, 264 Permeability and seepage Figure 5.58 Plot of 1937). l/l + l against downstream slope angle (After Casagrande, when the flow is from a material of permeability k1 into a free-draining material k2 ≈ , it is referred to as discharge. Figure 5.59 shows various entrance, discharge, and transfer conditions. The transfer conditions show the nature of deflection of the line of seepage when passing from a material of permeability k1 to a material of permeability k2 . Using the conditions given in Figure 5.59, we can determine the nature of the phreatic lines for various types of earth dam sections. 5.25 Flow net construction for earth dams With a knowledge of the nature of the phreatic line and the entrance, discharge, and transfer conditions, we can now proceed to draw flow nets for earth dam sections. Figure 5.60 shows an earth dam section that is homogeneous with respect to permeability. To draw the flow net, the following steps must be taken: 1. Draw the phreatic line, since this is known. 2. Note that ag is an equipotential line and that gc is a flow line. 3. It is important to realize that the pressure head at any point on the phreatic line is zero; hence the difference of total head between any two equipotential lines should be equal to the difference in elevation between the points where these equipotential lines intersect the phreatic line. Since loss of hydraulic head between any two consecutive equipotential lines is the same, determine the number of equipotential drops, Nd , the flow net needs to have and calculate h = h/Nd . Figure 5.59 Entrance, discharge, and transfer conditions (after Casagrande, 1937). 266 Permeability and seepage Figure 5.60 Flow net construction for an earth dam. 4. Draw the head lines for the cross-section of the dam. The points of intersection of the head lines and the phreatic lines are the points from which the equipotential lines should start. 5. Draw the flow net, keeping in mind that the equipotential lines and flow lines must intersect at right angles. 6. The rate of seepage through the earth dam can be calculated from the relation given in Eq. (5.125), q = khNf /Nd . In Figure 5.60 the number of flow channels, Nf , is equal to 2.3. The top two flow channels have square flow elements, and the bottom flow channel has elements with a width-to-length ratio of 0.3. Also, Nd in Figure 5.60 is equal to 10. If the dam section is anisotropic with respect to permeability, a transformed section should first be prepared in the manner outlined in Sec. 5.15. The flow net can then be drawn on the transformed section, and the rate of seepage obtained from Eq. (5.131). Figures 5.61 and 5.62 show some typical flow nets through earth dam sections. A flow net for seepage through a zoned earth dam section is shown in Figure 5.63. The soil for the upstream half of the dam has a permeability k1 , and the soil for the downstream half of the dam has a permeability k2 = 5k1 . The phreatic line must be plotted by trial and error. As shown in Figure 5.34b, here the seepage is from a soil of low permeability (upstream half) to a soil of high permeability (downstream half). From Eq. (5.132), k1 b /l = 2 2 k2 b1 /l1 Figure 5.61 Typical flow net for an earth dam with rock toe filter. Figure 5.62 Figure 5.63 Typical flow net for an earth dam with chimney drain. Flow net for seepage through a zoned earth dam. 268 Permeability and seepage If b1 = l1 and k2 = 5k1  b2 /l2 = 1/5. For that reason, square flow elements have been plotted in the upstream half of the dam, and the flow elements in the downstream half have a width-to-length ratio of 1/5. The rate of seepage can be calculated by using the following equation: q = k1 h h N = k2 Nf2 Nd f1 Nd (5.200) where Nf1 is the number of full flow channels in the soil having a permeability k1 , and Nf2 is the number of full flow channels in the soil having a permeability k2 . PROBLEMS 5.1 The results of a constant head permeability test on a fine sand are as follows: area of the soil specimen 180 cm2 , length of specimen 320 mm, constant head maintained 460 mm, and flow of water through the specimen 200 mL in 5 min. Determine the coefficient of permeability. 5.2 The fine sand described in Prob. 5.1 was tested in a falling-head permeameter, and the results are as follows: area of the specimen 90 cm2 , length of the specimen 320 mm, area of the standpipe 5 cm2 , and head difference at the beginning of the test 1000 mm. Calculate the head difference after 300 s from the start of the test (use the result of Prob. 5.1). 5.3 The sieve analysis for a sand is given in the following table. Estimate the coefficient of permeability of the sand at a void ratio of 0.5. Use Eq. (5.50) and SF = 65. U.S. sieve no. Percent passing 30 40 60 100 200 100 80 68 28 0 5.4 For a normally consolidated clay, the following are given: Void ratio kcm/s 0.8 1.4 1
2 × 10−6 3
6 × 10−6 Estimate the coefficient of permeability of the clay at a void ratio, e = 062. Use the equation proposed by Samarsinghe et al. (Table 5.3.) 5.5 A single row of sheet pile structure is shown in Figure P5.1. Permeability and seepage 269 Figure P5.1 a Draw the flow net. b Calculate the rate of seepage. c Calculate the factor of safety against piping using Terzaghi’s method [Eq. (5.178)] and then Harza’s method. 5.6 For the single row of sheet piles shown in Figure P5.1, calculate the hydraulic heads in the permeable layer using the numerical method described in Sec. 5.17. From these results, draw the equipotential lines. Use z = x = 2 m. 5.7 A dam section is shown in Figure P5.2 Given kx = 9 × 10−5 mm/s and kz = 1 × 10−5 mm/s, draw a flow net and calculate the rate of seepage. 5.8 A dam section is shown in Figure P5.3 Using Lane’s method, calculate the weighted creep ratio. Is the dam safe against piping? 5.9 Refer to Figure P5.4. Given for the soil are Gs = 265 and e = 05. Draw a flow net and calculate the factor of safety by Harza’s method. 5.10 For the sheet pile structure shown Figure P5.5. d = 25 m H1 = 3 m k1 = 4 × 10−3 mm/s d1 = 5 m H2 = 1 m k2 = 2 × 10−3 mm/s d2 = 5 m a Draw a flow net for seepage in the permeable layer. b Find the exit gradient. 5.11 An earth dam section is shown in Figure P5.6 Determine the rate of seepage through the earth dam using a Dupuit’s method; b Schaffernak’s method; and c L. Casagrande’s method. Assume that k = 10−5 m/min. Figure P5.2 10 m 1m 1m 9m 10 m 15 m Fine sand 9m 15 m Figure P5.3 7m 14 m 5m 12 m × × × Figure P5.4 × × × × × Impermeable layer × × × × Figure P5.5 Figure P5.6 10 m G.W.T IV:2.5H 12 m IV:2.5H 15 m k = 0.055 cm/min × × Figure P5.7 × × × × × Impermeable layer × × × × 272 Permeability and seepage Figure P5.8 Figure P5.9 5.12 Repeat Prob. 5.9 assuming that kx = 4 × 10−5 m/min and kz = 1 × 10−5 m/min. 5.13 For the earth dam section shown in Figure P5.6, determine the rate of seepage through the dam using Pavlovsky’s solution. Assume that k = 4 × 10−5 mm/s. 5.14 An earth dam section is shown in Figure P5.7. Draw the flow net and calculate the rate of seepage given k = 0055 cm/min. 5.15 An earth dam section is shown in Figure P5.8. Draw the flow net and calculate the rate of seepage given k = 2 × 10−4 cm/s. 5.16 An earth dam section is shown in Figure P5.9. Draw the flow net and calculate the rate of seepage given k = 3 × 10−5 m/min. References Amer, A. M., and A. A. Awad, Permeability of Cohesionless Soils, J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 100, no. 12, pp. 1309–1316, 1974. Basett, D. J., and A. F. Brodie, A Study of Matabitchual Varved Clay, Ont. Hydro Res. News, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 1–6, 1961. Bertram, G. E., An Experimental Investigation of Protective Filters, Publ. No. 267, Harvard University Graduate School, 1940. Permeability and seepage 273 Carman, P. E., Flow of Gases Through Porous Media, Academic, New York, 1956. Carrier III, W. D., Goodbye Hazen; Hello Kozeny-Carman, J. Geotech. and Geoenv. Eng., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 129, no. 11, pp. 1054–1056, 2003. Casagrande, A., Seepage Through Dams, in Contribution to Soil Mechanics 1925– 1940, Boston Soc. of Civ. Eng., Boston, p. 295, 1937. Casagrande, L., Naeherungsmethoden zur Bestimmurg von Art und Menge der Sickerung durch geschuettete Daemme, Thesis, Technische Hochschule, Vienna, 1932. Casagrande, L., and S. J. Poulos, On Effectiveness of Sand Drains, Can. Geotech. J., vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 287–326, 1969. Chan, H. T., and T. C. Kenney, Laboratory Investigation of Permeability Ratio of New Liskeard Varved Clay, Can. Geotech. J., vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 453–472, 1973. Chapuis, R. P., Predicting the Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of Sand and Gravel Using Effective Diameter and Void Ratio, Can. Geotech. J., vol. 41, no. 5, pp. 785–595, 2004. Darcy, H., Les Fontaines Publiques de la Ville de Dijon, Dalmont, Paris, 1856. Dupuit, J., Etudes theoriques et Practiques sur le Mouvement des eaux dans les Canaux Decouverts et a travers les Terrains Permeables, Dunot, Paris, 1863. Forchheimer, P., Discussion of “The Bohio Dam” by George S. Morrison, Trans., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 48, p. 302, 1902. Fukushima, S., and T. Ishii, An Experimental Study of the Influence of Confining Pressure on Permeability Coefficients of Filldam Core Materials, Soils and Found., Tokyo, vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 32–46, 1986. Gilboy, G., Mechanics of Hydraulic Fill Dams, in Contribution to Soil Mechanics 1925–1940, Boston Soc. of Civ. Eng., Boston, 1934. Gray, D. H., and J. K. Mitchell, Fundamental Aspects of Electro-osmosis in Soils, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., AM. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 93, no. SM6, pp. 209–236, 1967. Haley, X., and X. Aldrich, Report No. 1—Engineering Properties of Foundation Soils at Long Creek–Fore River Areas and Back Cove, Report to Maine State Hwy. Comm., 1969. Hansbo, S., Consolidation of Clay with Special Reference to Influence of Vertical Sand Drain, Proc. Swedish Geotech. Inst., no. 18, pp. 41–61, 1960. Harr, M. E., Groundwater and Seepage, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962. Harza, L. F., Uplift and Seepage Under Dams in Sand, Trans., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 100, 1935. Hazen, A., Discussion of “Dams on Sand Foundation” by A. C. Koenig, Trans., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 73, p. 199, 1911. Helmholtz, H., Wiedemanns Ann. Phys., vol. 7, p. 137, 1879. Karpoff, K. P., The Use of Laboratory Tests to Develop Design Criteria for Protective Filters, Proc. ASTM, no. 55, pp. 1183–1193, 1955. Kenney, T. C., D. Lau, and G. I. Ofoegbu, Permeability of Compacted Granular Materials, Can. Geotech. J., vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 726–729, 1984. Kozeny, J., Ueber kapillare Leitung des Wassers in Boden, Wien Akad. Wiss., vol. 136, part 2a, p. 271, 1927. Kozeny, J., Theorie und Berechnung der Brunnen, Wasserkr. Wasserwritsch., vol. 28, p. 104, 1933. Lane, E. W., Security from Under-Seepage: Masonry Dams on Earth Foundation, Trans., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 100, p. 1235, 1935. 274 Permeability and seepage Leatherwood, F. N., and D. G. Peterson, Hydraulic Head Loss at the Interface Between Uniform Sands of Different Sizes, Eos Trans. AGU, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 588–594, 1954. Lumb, P., and J. K. Holt, The Undrained Shear Strength of a Soft Marine Clay from Hong Kong, Geotechnique, vol. 18, pp. 25–36, 1968. Mansur, C. I., and R. I. Kaufman, Dewatering, in Foundation Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962. Mesri, G., and R. E. Olson, Mechanism Controlling the Permeability of Clays, Clay Clay Miner., vol. 19, pp. 151–158, 1971. Mitchell, J. K., In-Place Treatment of Foundation Soils, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 96, no. SM1, pp. 73–110, 1970. Mitchell, J. K., “Fundamentals of Soil Behavior,” Wiley, New York, 1976. Muskat, M., The Flow of Homogeneous Fluids Through Porous Media, McGrawHill, New York, 1937. Olsen, H. W., Hydraulic Flow Through Saturated Clay, Sc.D. thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1961. Olsen, H. W., Hydraulic Flow Through Saturated Clays, Proc. Natl. Conf. Clay Clay Miner., 9th, pp. 131–161, 1962. Pavlovsky, N. N., Seepage Through Earth Dams (in Russian), Inst. Gidrotekhniki i Melioratsii, Leningrad, 1931. Raju, P. S. R. N., N. S. Pandian, and T. S. Nagaraj, Analysis and Estimation of Coefficient of Consolidation, Geotech. Test. J., vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 252–258, 1995. Samarsinghe, A. M., Y. H. Huang, and V. P. Drnevich, Permeability and Consolidation of Normally Consolidated Soils, J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 108, no. 6, pp. 835–850, 1982. Schaffernak, F., Über die Standicherheit durchlaessiger geschuetteter Dämme, Allgem. Bauzeitung, 1917. Schmid, G., Zur Elektrochemie Feinporiger Kapillarsystems, Zh. Elektrochem. vol. 54, p. 425, 1950; vol. 55, p. 684, 1951. Sherman, W. C., Filter Equipment and Design Criteria, NTIS/AD 771076, U.S. Army Waterways Experiment Station, Vickburg, Mississippi, 1953. Smoluchowski, M., in L. Graetz (Ed.), “Handbuch der Elektrizital und Magnetismus,” vol. 2, Barth, Leipzig, 1914. Spangler, M. G., and R. L. Handy, Soil Engineering, 3rd ed., Intext Educational, New York, 1973. Subbaraju, B. H., Field Performance of Drain Wells Designed Expressly for Strength Gain in Soft Marine Clays, Proc. 8th Intl. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., vol. 2.2, pp. 217–220, 1973. Tavenas, F., P. Jean, P. Leblong, and S. Leroueil, The Permeability of Natural Soft Clays. Part II: Permeability Characteristics, Can. Geotech. J., vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 645–660, 1983a. Tavenas, F., P. Leblong, P. Jean, and S. Leroueil, The Permeability of Natural Soft Clays. Part I: Methods of Laboratory Measurement, Can. Geotech. J., vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 629–644, 1983b. Taylor, D. W., Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 1948. Terzaghi, K., Der Grundbrunch on Stauwerken und Seine Verhutung, Wasserkraft, vol. 17, pp. 445–449, 1922. [Reprinted in From Theory to Practice in Soil Mechanics, Wiley, New York, pp. 146–148, 1960.] Permeability and seepage 275 Terzaghi, K., Theoretical Soil Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 1943. Terzaghi, K., and R. B. Peck, Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, Wiley, New York, 1948. Tsien, S. I., Stability of Marsh Deposits, Bull. 15, Hwy. Res. Board, pp. 15–43, 1955. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Department of the Interior, Design of Small Dams, U.S. Govt. Print. Office, Washington, D.C., 1961. U.S. Corps of Engineers, Laboratory Investigation of Filters for Enid and Grenada Dams, Tech. Memo. 3–245, U.S. Waterways Exp. Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi, 1948. U.S. Department of the Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Design Manual—Soil Mechanics, Foundations and Earth Structures, NAVFAC DM-7, Washington, D.C., 1971. Van Bavel, C. H. M., and D. Kirkham, Field Measurement of Soil Permeability Using Auger Holes, Soil Sci. Soc. Am., Proc., vol. 13, 1948. Zweck, H., and R. Davidenkoff, Etude Experimentale des Filtres de Granulometrie Uniforme, Proc. 4th Intl. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., London, vol. 2, pp. 410–413, 1957. Chapter 6 Consolidation 6.1 Introduction When a soil layer is subjected to a compressive stress, such as during the construction of a structure, it will exhibit a certain amount of compression. This compression is achieved through a number of ways, including rearrangement of the soil solids or extrusion of the pore air and/or water. According to Terzaghi (1943), “a decrease of water content of a saturated soil without replacement of the water by air is called a process of consolidation.” When saturated clayey soils—which have a low coefficient of permeability—are subjected to a compressive stress due to a foundation loading, the pore water pressure will immediately increase; however, because of the low permeability of the soil, there will be a time lag between the application of load and the extrusion of the pore water and, thus, the settlement. This phenomenon, which is called consolidation, is the subject of this chapter. To understand the basic concepts of consolidation, consider a clay layer of thickness Ht located below the groundwater level and between two highly permeable sand layers as shown in Figure 6.1a. If a surcharge of intensity
is applied at the ground surface over a very large area, the pore water pressure in the clay layer will increase. For a surcharge of infinite extent, the immediate increase of the pore water pressure, u, at all depths of the clay layer will be equal to the increase of the total stress,
. Thus, immediately after the application of the surcharge, u=
Since the total stress is equal to the sum of the effective stress and the pore water pressure, at all depths of the clay layer the increase of effective stress due to the surcharge (immediately after application) will be equal to zero (i.e.,
′ = 0, where
′ is the increase of effective stress). In other words, at time t = 0, the entire stress increase at all depths of the clay is taken by the pore water pressure and none by the soil skeleton. It must be pointed out that, for loads applied over a limited area, it may not be true that the Consolidation 277 Figure 6.1 Principles of consolidation. increase of the pore water pressure is equal to the increase of vertical stress at any depth at time t = 0. After application of the surcharge (i.e., at time t > 0), the water in the void spaces of the clay layer will be squeezed out and will flow toward both the highly permeable sand layers, thereby reducing the excess pore water pressure. This, in turn, will increase the effective stress by an equal amount, since
′ + u =
. Thus at time t > 0,
′ > 0 and u<
278 Consolidation Theoretically, at time t =  the excess pore water pressure at all depths of the clay layer will be dissipated by gradual drainage. Thus at time t = ,
′ =
and u=0 Following is a summary of the variation of
 u, and
′ at various times. Figure 6.1b and c show the general nature of the distribution of u and
′ with depth. Time, t 0 >0  Total stress increase,     Excess pore water pressure, u Effective stress increase,  ′  <  0 0 >0  This gradual process of increase in effective stress in the clay layer due to the surcharge will result in a settlement that is time-dependent, and is referred to as the process of consolidation. 6.2 Theory of one-dimensional consolidation The theory for the time rate of one-dimensional consolidation was first proposed by Terzaghi (1925). The underlying assumptions in the derivation of the mathematical equations are as follows: 1. The clay layer is homogeneous. 2. The clay layer is saturated. 3. The compression of the soil layer is due to the change in volume only, which in turn, is due to the squeezing out of water from the void spaces. 4. Darcy’s law is valid. 5. Deformation of soil occurs only in the direction of the load application. 6. The coefficient of consolidation C [Eq. (6.15)] is constant during the consolidation. With the above assumptions, let us consider a clay layer of thickness Ht as shown in Figure 6.2. The layer is located between two highly permeable sand layers. When the clay is subjected to an increase of vertical pressure, Consolidation 279 Figure 6.2 Clay layer undergoing consolidation.
, the pore water pressure at any point A will increase by u. Consider an elemental soil mass with a volume of dx · dy · dz at A; this is similar to the one shown in Figure 5.24b. In the case of one-dimensional consolidation, the flow of water into and out of the soil element is in one direction only, i.e., in the z direction. This means that qx  qy  dqx , and dqy in Figure 5.24b are equal to zero, and thus the rate of flow into and out of the soil element can be given by Eqs. (5.87) and (5.90), respectively. So, qz + dqz  − qz = rate of change of volume of soil element = V t (6.1) where V = dx dy dz (6.2) Substituting the right-hand sides of Eqs. (5.87) and (5.90) into the left-hand side of Eq. (6.1), we obtain k 2 h V dx dy dz = z2 t (6.3) 280 Consolidation where k is the coefficient of permeability [kz in Eqs. (5.87) and (5.90)]. However, h= u w (6.4) where w is the unit weight of water. Substitution of Eq. (6.4) into Eq. (6.3) and rearranging gives V 1 k 2 u = w z2 dx dy dz t (6.5) During consolidation, the rate of change of volume is equal to the rate of change of the void volume. So, V V =  t t (6.6) where V is the volume of voids in the soil element. However, V = eVs (6.7) where Vs is the volume of soil solids in the element, which is constant, and e is the void ratio. So, V e dx dy dz e V e = = Vs = t t 1 + e t 1 + e t (6.8) Substituting the above relation into Eq. (6.5), we get k 2 u 1 e = 2 w z 1 + e t (6.9) The change in void ratio, e, is due to the increase of effective stress; assuming that these are linearly related, then e = −a 
′  (6.10) where a is the coefficient of compressibility. Again, the increase of effective stress is due to the decrease of excess pore water pressure, u. Hence e = a u (6.11) Combining Eqs. (6.9) and (6.11) gives k 2 u a u u =  = m 2 w z 1 + e t t (6.12) Consolidation 281 where m = coefficient of volume compressibility = or u k 2 u 2 u = = C  t w m z2 z2 a 1+e (6.13) (6.14) where C = coefficient of consolidation = k  w m (6.15) Equation (6.14) is the basic differential equation of Terzaghi’s consolidation theory and can be solved with proper boundary conditions. To solve the equation, we assume u to be the product of two functions, i.e., the product of a function of z and a function of t, or u = F zGt (6.16) u  = F z Gt = F zG′ t t t (6.17) 2 u 2 = 2 F zGt = F ′′ zGt 2 z z (6.18) So, and From Eqs. (6.14), (6.17), and (6.18), F zG′ t = C F ′′ zGt or F ′′ z G′ t = F z C Gt (6.19) The right-hand side of Eq. (6.19) is a function of z only and is independent of t; the left-hand side of the equation is a function of t only and is independent of z. Therefore they must be equal to a constant, say, −B2 . So, F ′′ z = −B2 F z (6.20) A solution to Eq. (6.20) can be given by F z = A1 cos Bz + A2 sin Bz (6.21) 282 Consolidation where A1 and A2 are constants. Again, the right-hand side of Eq. (6.19) may be written as G′ t = −B2 C Gt (6.22) The solution to Eq. (6.22) is given by Gt = A3 exp−B2 C t (6.23) where A3 is a constant. Combining Eqs. (6.16), (6.21), and (6.23), u = A1 cos Bz + A2 sin BzA3 exp−B2 C t = A4 cos Bz + A5 sin Bz exp−B2 C t (6.24) where A4 = A1 A3 and A5 = A2 A3 . The constants in Eq. (6.24) can be evaluated from the boundary conditions, which are as follows: 1. At time t = 0 u = ui (initial excess pore water pressure at any depth). 2. u = 0 at z = 0. 3. u = 0 at z = Ht = 2H. Note that H is the length of the longest drainage path. In this case, which is a twoway drainage condition (top and bottom of the clay layer), H is equal to half the total thickness of the clay layer, Ht . The second boundary condition dictates that A4 = 0, and from the third boundary condition we get A5 sin 2BH = 0 or 2BH = n where n is an integer. From the above, a general solution of Eq. (6.24) can be given in the form
2 2  −n  T nz exp u= An sin 2H 4 n=1 n=  (6.25) where T is the nondimensional time factor and is equal to C t/H 2 . To satisfy the first boundary condition, we must have the coefficients of An such that ui = n=  n=1 An sin nz 2H (6.26) Consolidation 283 Equation (6.26) is a Fourier sine series, and An can be given by An = 1 H 2H 0 ui sin nz dz 2H (6.27) Combining Eqs. (6.25) and (6.27), u=
n=  n=1 1 H 2H 0 ui sin 
2 2  −n  T nz nz dz sin exp 2H 2H 4 (6.28) So far, no assumptions have been made regarding the variation of ui with the depth of the clay layer. Several possible types of variation for ui are shown in Figure 6.3. Each case is considered below. Constant ui with depth If ui is constant with depth—i.e., if ui = u0 (Figure 6.3a)—then, referring to Eq. (6.28), 1 H 2H 0 2u0 nz dz = 1 − cos n ui sin 2H n = u0 So, u= n=  n=1
2 2  nz −n  T 2u0 1 − cos n sin exp n 2H 4 (6.29) Note that the term 1 − cos n in the above equation is zero for cases when n is even; therefore u is also zero. For the nonzero terms it is convenient to substitute n = 2m + 1, where m is an integer. So Eq. (6.29) will now read 2u0 2m + 1z 1 − cos2m + 1 sin 2m + 1 2H m=0   −2m + 12  2 T × exp 4 u= m=  u= m=  or m=0 2u0 Mz sin exp−M 2 T  M H (6.30) Figure 6.3 Variation of ui with depth. Consolidation 285 where M = 2m + 1/2. At a given time the degree of consolidation at any depth z is defined as Uz = = excess pore water pressure dissipated initial excess pore water pressure u
′
′ ui − u = 1− = = ui ui ui u0 (6.31) where
′ is the increase of effective stress at a depth z due to consolidation. From Eqs. (6.30) and (6.31), Uz = 1 − m=  m=0 2 Mz sin exp−M 2 T  M H (6.32) Figure 6.4 shows the variation of Uz with depth for various values of the nondimensional time factor T ; these curves are called isocrones. Example 6.1 demonstrates the procedure for calculation of Uz using Eq. (6.32). Figure 6.4 Variation of Uz with z/H and T . 286 Consolidation Example 6.1 Consider the case of an initial excess hydrostatic pore water that is constant with depth, i.e., ui = u0 (Figure 6.3c). For T = 03, determine the degree of consolidation at a depth H/3 measured from the top of the layer. solution From Eq. (6.32), for constant pore water pressure increase, Uz = 1 − m=  m=0 Mz 2 sin exp−M 2 T  M H Here z = H/3, or z/H = 1/3, and M = 2m + 1/2. We can now make a table to calculate Uz : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. z/H T m M Mz/H 2/M exp−M2 T  sinMz/H 2/Mexp−M2 T  sinMz/H 1/3 0.3 0 /2 /6 1.273 0.4770 0.5 0.3036 1/3 0.3 1 3/2 /2 0.4244 0.00128 1.0 0.0005 1/3 0.3 2 5/2 5/6 0.2546 ≈0 0.5 ≈0  = 0
3041 Using the value of 0.3041 calculated in step 9, the degree of consolidation at depth H/3 is UH/3 = 1 − 03041 = 06959 = 6959% Note that in the above table we need not go beyond m = 2, since the expression in step 9 is negligible for m ≥ 3. In most cases, however, we need to obtain the average degree of consolidation for the entire layer. This is given by 1/Ht  Uav = Ht 0 ui dz − 1/Ht  1/Ht  Ht 0 ui dz Ht 0 u dz (6.33) Consolidation 287 The average degree of consolidation is also the ratio of consolidation settlement at any time to maximum consolidation settlement. Note, in this case, that Ht = 2H and ui = u0 . Combining Eqs. (6.30) and (6.33), Uav = 1 − m=  m=0 2 exp−M 2 T  M2 (6.34) Terzaghi suggested the following equations for Uav to approximate the values obtained from Eq. (6.34): For Uav = 0−53% * For Uav = 53−100% *  T = 4
Uav % 100 2 (6.35) T = 1781 − 0933 log100 − Uav % (6.36) Sivaram and Swamee (1977) gave the following equation for Uav varying from 0 to 100%: Uav % 4T /05 = 100 1 + 4T /28 0179 (6.37) /4Uav %/1002 1 − Uav %/10056 0357 (6.38) or T = Equations (6.37) and (6.38) give an error in T of less than 1% for 0% < Uav < 90% and less than 3% for 90% < Uav < 100%. Table 6.1 gives the variation of T with Uav based on Eq. (6.34). It must be pointed out that, if we have a situation of one-way drainage as shown in Figures 6.3b and 6.3c, Eq. (6.34) would still be valid. Note, however, that the length of the drainage path is equal to the total thickness of the clay layer. Linear variation of ui The linear variation of the initial excess pore water pressure, as shown in Figure 6.3d, may be written as ui = u 0 − u 1 H −z H (6.39) Table 6.1 Variation of T with Uav Uav % 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 Value of T ui = u0 = const 6.3a–c)   (Figures (Figure 6.3d) ui = u0 − ul H−z H 0 0.00008 0.0003 0.00071 0.00126 0.00196 0.00283 0.00385 0.00502 0.00636 0.00785 0.0095 0.0113 0.0133 0.0154 0.0177 0.0201 0.0227 0.0254 0.0283 0.0314 0.0346 0.0380 0.0415 0.0452 0.0491 0.0531 0.0572 0.0615 0.0660 0.0707 0.0754 0.0803 0.0855 0.0907 0.0962 0.102 0.107 0.113 0.119 0.126 0.132 0.138 0.145 0.152 0.159 0.166 z ui = u0 sin 2H (Figure 6.3e) 0 0.0041 0.0082 0.0123 0.0165 0.0208 0.0251 0.0294 0.0338 0.0382 0.0427 0.0472 0.0518 0.0564 0.0611 0.0659 0.0707 0.0755 0.0804 0.0854 0.0904 0.0955 0.101 0.106 0.111 0.117 0.122 0.128 0.133 0.139 0.145 0.150 0.156 0.162 0.168 0.175 0.181 0.187 0.194 0.200 0.207 0.214 0.221 0.228 0.235 0.242 0.250 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 0.173 0.181 0.188 0.196 0.204 0.212 0.221 0.230 0.239 0.248 0.257 0.267 0.276 0.286 0.297 0.307 0.318 0.329 0.304 0.352 0.364 0.377 0.390 0.403 0.417 0.431 0.446 0.461 0.477 0.493 0.511 0.529 0.547 0.567 0.588 0.610 0.633 0.658 0.684 0.712 0.742 0.774 0.809 0.848 0.891 0.938 0.993 1.055 1.129 1.219 1.336 1.500 1.781  0.257 0.265 0.273 0.281 0.289 0.297 0.306 0.315 0.324 0.333 0.342 0.352 0.361 0.371 0.382 0.392 0.403 0.414 0.425 0.437 0.449 0.462 0.475 0.488 0.502 0.516 0.531 0.546 0.562 0.578 0.600 0.614 0.632 0.652 0.673 0.695 0.718 0.743 0.769 0.797 0.827 0.859 0.894 0.933 0.976 1.023 1.078 1.140 1.214 1.304 1.420 1.585 1.866  290 Consolidation Substitution of the above relation for ui into Eq. (6.28) yields u=
  H −z 1 2H nz nz u0 − u 1 sin dz sin H 0 H 2H 2H n=1
2 2  −n  T × exp 4  n=  (6.40) The average degree of consolidation can be obtained by solving Eqs. (6.40) and (6.33): Uav = 1 − 2 exp−M 2 T  M2 m=  m=0 This is identical to Eq. (6.34), which was for the case where the excess pore water pressure is constant with depth, and so the same values as given in Table 6.1 can be used. Sinusoidal variation of ui Sinusoidal variation (Figure 6.3e) can be represented by the equation ui = u0 sin z 2H (6.41) The solution for the average degree of consolidation for this type of excess pore water pressure distribution is of the form Uav = 1 − exp
− 2 T 4  (6.42) The variation of Uav for various values of T is given in Table 6.1. Other types of pore water pressure variation Figure 6.3f g, and i–k show several other types of pore water pressure variation. Table 6.2 gives the relationships for the initial excess pore water pressure variation ui  and the boundary conditions. These could be solved to provide the variation of Uav with T and they are shown in Figure 6.5. Table 6.2 Relationships for ui and boundary conditions Figure ui Boundary conditions 6.3f u0 cos 6.3g For z ≤ H 6.3h 6.3i 6.3j Time t = 0 u = ui z 4H u0 z H For z ≥ H 2u0 − u u0 − 0 z H u0 z H u0 z H 6.3k u0 − u0 z H u0 z H u = 0 at z = 2H u = 0 at z = 0 t = 0 u = ui u = 0 at z = 2H u = 0 at z = 0 t = 0 u = ui u = 0 at z = H u = u0 at z = 0 t = 0 u = ui u = u0 at z = H u = 0 at z = 0 t = 0 u = ui u = u0 at z = H u = 0 at z = 0 t = 0 u = ui u = 0 at z = H u = u0 at z = 0 Figure 6.5 Variation of Uav with T for initial excess pore water pressure diagrams shown in Figure 6.3. 292 Consolidation Example 6.2 Owing to certain loading conditions, the excess pore water pressure in a clay layer (drained at top and bottom) increased in the manner shown in Figure 6.6a. For a time factor T = 03, calculate the average degree of consolidation. solution The excess pore water pressure diagram shown in Figure 6.6a can be expressed as the difference of two diagrams, as shown in Figure 6.6b and c. The excess pore water pressure diagram in Figure 6.6b shows a case where ui varies linearly with depth. Figure 6.6c can be approximated as a sinusoidal variation. The area of the diagram in Figure 6.6b is
 1 A1 = 6 15 + 5 = 60 kN/m 2 The area of the diagram in Figure 6.6c is A2 = z=6  2 sin z=0 z dz = 2H 6 0 2 sin z dz 6 (a) Pervious 15 ui (kN/m2) 3m 6 m = 2H = Ht 8 Clay 5 Pervious 15 10 – 2 5 (b) Figure 6.6 (c) Calculation of average degree of consolidation Tv = 0
3. Consolidation = 2
 z 6 − cos  6 6 0 = 293 24 12 2 = = 764 kN/m   The average degree of consolidation can now be calculated as follows: Uav T&= 03 ⏐ For Figure 6.6a = For Figure 6.6b ⏐ ( For Figure 6.6c ⏐ ( Uav T = 03A1 − Uav T = 03A2 A1 − & A2 ⏐ Net area of Figure 6.6a From Table 6.1 for T = 03 Uav ≈ 61% for area A1  Uav ≈ 523% for area A2 . So Uav = 6160 − 764523 326043 = = 623% 60 − 764 5236 Example 6.3 2 A uniform surcharge of q = 100 kN/m is applied on the ground surface as shown in Figure 6.7a. (a) Determine the initial excess pore water pressure distribution in the clay layer. (b) Plot the distribution of the excess pore water pressure with depth in the clay layer at a time for which T = 05. 2 solution Part a: The initial excess pore water pressure will be 100 kN/m and will be the same throughout the clay layer (Figure 6.7a). Part b: From Eq. (6.31), Uz = 1 − u/ui , or u = ui 1 − Uz . For T = 05 the values of Uz can be obtained from the top half of Figure 6.4 as shown in Figure 6.7b, and then the following table can be prepared: Figure 6.7c shows the variation of excess pore water pressure with depth. z/H z (m) Uz u = ui 1 − Uz  kN/m2  0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 1 2 3 4 5 0.63 0.65 0.71 0.78 0.89 1 37 35 29 22 11 0 Figure 6.7 Excess pore water pressure distribution. Consolidation 295 Example 6.4 Refer to Figure 6.3e. For the sinusoidal initial excess pore water pressure distribution, given ui = 50 sin z 2 kN/m 2H assume Hi = 2H = 5 m. Calculate the excess pore water pressure at the midheight of the clay layer for T = 02, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8. solution From Eq. (6.28), u=
n=  n=1 1 H )
2   −n T nz nz exp dz sin ui sin 2H 2H 4 *+ , term A 2H 0 Let us evaluate the term A: A= 1 H A= 1 H 2H 0 ui sin nz dz 2H 50 sin nz z sin dz 2H 2H or 2H 0 Note that the above integral is zero if n = 1, and so the only nonzero term is obtained when n = 1. Therefore A= 50 H 2H 0 sin2 50 z dz = H = 50 2H H Since only for n = 1 is A not zero,
 − 2 T z exp u = 50 sin 2H 4 At the midheight of the clay layer, z = H, and so

 − 2 T − 2 T  = 50 exp u = 50 sin exp 2 4 4 296 Consolidation The values of the excess pore water pressure are tabulated below:
T − 2 T u = 50exp 4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 30.52 18.64 11.38 6.95  kN/m2  6.3 Degree of consolidation under time-dependent loading Olson (1977) presented a mathematical solution for one-dimensional consolidation due to a single ramp load. Olson’s solution can be explained with the help of Figure 6.8, in which a clay layer is drained at the top and at the bottom (H is the drainage distance). A uniformly distributed load q is applied at the ground surface. Note that q is a function of time, as shown in Figure 6.8b. The expression for the excess pore water pressure for the case where ui = u0 is given in Eq. (6.30) as u= m=  m=0 2u0 Mz sin exp−M 2 T  M H where T = C t/H 2 . As stated above, the applied load is a function of time: q = fta  (6.43) where ta is the time of application of any load. For a differential load dq applied at time ta , the instantaneous pore pressure increase will be dui = dq. At time t the remaining excess pore water pressure du at a depth z can be given by the expression   −M 2 C t − ta  Mz 2dui sin exp M H H2 m=0   m=  2dq Mz −M 2 C t − ta  sin exp = M H H2 m=0 du = m=  (6.44) Figure 6.8 One-dimensional consolidation due to single ramp load (after Olson, 1977). 298 Consolidation The average degree of consolidation can be defined as qc − 1/Ht  uav = qc - Ht 0 u dz = settlement at time t settlement at time t =  (6.45) where qc is the total load per unit area applied at the time of the analysis. The settlement at time t =  is, of course, the ultimate settlement. Note that the term qc in the denominator of Eq. (6.45) is equal to the instantaneous excess pore water pressure ui = qc  that might have been generated throughout the clay layer had the stress qc been applied instantaneously. Proper integration of Eqs. (6.44) and (6.45) gives the following: For T ≤ Tc u= and m=  m=0 2qc Mz 1 − exp−M 2 T  sin 3 M Tc H .   1 T 2 m= Uav = 1− 1 − exp−M 2 T  Tc T m=0 M 4 (6.46) (6.47) For T ≥ Tc u= and m=  m=0 2qc Mz exp−M 2 T  expM 2 Tc  − 1 sin M 3 Tc H Uav = 1 − where Tc = C tc H2  1 2 m= expM 2 Tc  − 1 exp−M 2 Tc  Tc m=0 M 4 (6.48) (6.49) (6.50) Figure 6.8c shows the plot of Uav against T for various values of Tc . Example 6.5 Based on one-dimensional consolidation test results on a clay, the coefficient of consolidation for a given pressure range was obtained as 8 × 10−3 mm2 /s. In the field there is a 2-m-thick layer of the same clay Consolidation 299 with two-way drainage. Based on the assumption that a uniform sur2 charge of 70 kN/m was to be applied instantaneously, the total consolidation settlement was estimated to be 150 mm. However, during the construction, the loading was gradual; the resulting surcharge can be approximated as q kN/m2  = 70 t days 60 for t ≤ 60 days and q = 70 kN/m 2 for t ≥ 60 days. Estimate the settlement at t = 30 and 120 days. solution Tc = C tc H2 (6.50′ ) Now, tc = 60 days = 60 × 24 × 60 × 60 s; also, Ht = 2 m = 2H (two-way drainage), and so H = 1 m = 1000 mm. Hence, Tc = 8 × 10−3 60 × 24 × 60 × 60 = 00414 10002 At t = 30 days, T = C t 8 × 10−3 30 × 24 × 60 × 60 = = 00207 H2 10002 From Figure 6.8c, for T = 00207 and Tc = 00414 Uav ≈ 5%. So, Settlement = 005150 = 75 mm At t = 120 days, T = 8 × 10−3 120 × 24 × 60 × 60 = 0083 10002 From Figure 6.8c for T = 0083 and Tc = 00414 Uav ≈ 27%. So, Settlement = 027150 = 405 mm 300 Consolidation 6.4 Numerical solution for one-dimensional consolidation Finite difference solution The principles of finite difference solutions were introduced in Sec. 5.17. In this section, we will consider the finite difference solution for onedimensional consolidation, starting from the basic differential equation of Terzaghi’s consolidation theory: u 2 u = C 2 t z (6.51) Let uR  tR , and zR be any arbitrary reference excess pore water pressure, time, and distance, respectively. From these, we can define the following nondimensional terms: u Nondimensional excess pore water pressure* ū = (6.52) uR t Nondimensional time * t̄ = (6.53) tR z (6.54) Nondimensional depth * z̄ = zR From Eqs. (6.52), (6.53), and the left-hand side of Eq. (6.51), u uR ū = t tR t̄ (6.55) Similarly, from Eqs. (6.52), (6.53), and the right-hand side of Eq. (6.51), C 2 u uR 2 ū = C  z2 z2R z̄2 (6.56) From Eqs. (6.55) and (6.56), uR ū u 2 ū = C 2R 2 tR t̄ zR z̄ or 1 ū C 2 ū = 2 2 tR t̄ zR z̄ (6.57) If we adopt the reference time in such a way that tR = z2R /C , then Eq. (6.57) will be of the form ū 2 ū = 2 t̄ z̄ (6.58) Consolidation 301 The left-hand side of Eq. (6.58) can be written as 1 ū = ū − ū0t̄  t t̄ 0t̄+ t̄ (6.59) where ū0t̄ and ū0t̄+ t̄ are the nondimensional pore water pressures at point 0 (Figure 6.9a) at nondimensional times t and t + t. Again, similar to Eq. (5.141), 2 ū 1 = ū + ū3t̄ − 2ū0t̄  z̄2  z̄2 1t̄ Equating the right sides of Eqs. (6.59) and (6.60) gives 1 1 ū − ū0t̄  = ū + ū3t̄ − 2ū0t̄  t̄ 0t̄+ t̄  z̄2 1t̄ Figure 6.9 Numerical solution for consolidation. (6.60) 302 Consolidation or ū0t̄+ t̄ = t̄1  z̄2 ū1t̄ + ū3t̄ − 2ū0t̄  + ū0t̄ (6.61) For Eq. (6.61) to converge, t̄ and z̄ must be chosen such that t̄/ z̄2 is less than 0.5. When solving for pore water pressure at the interface of a clay layer and an impervious layer, Eq. (6.61) can be used. However, we need to take point 3 as the mirror image of point 1 (Figure 6.9b); thus ū1t̄ = ū3t̄ . So Eq. (6.61) becomes ū0t̄+ t̄ = t̄ 2ū1t̄ − 2ū0t̄  + ū0t̄  z̄2 (6.62) Consolidation in a layered soil It is not always possible to develop a closed-form solution for consolidation in layered soils. There are several variables involved, such as different coefficients of permeability, the thickness of layers, and different values of coefficient of consolidation. Figure 6.10 shows the nature of the degree of consolidation of a two-layered soil. In view of the above, numerical solutions provide a better approach. If we are involved with the calculation of excess pore water pressure at the interface of two different types (i.e., different values of C ) of clayey soils, Eq. (6.61) will have to be modified to some extent. Referring to Figure 6.9c, this can be achieved as follows (Scott, 1963). From Eq. (6.14), k u =k C& t ⏐ change in volume 2 u 2 z & ⏐ difference between the rate of flow Based on the derivations of Eq. (5.161),   
2 u 1 2k1 k1 k2 2k2 k 2 = + u + u − 2u0t z 2  z2  z2 k1 + k2 1t k1 + k2 3t (6.63) where k1 and k2 are the coefficients of permeability in layers 1 and 2, respectively, and u0t , u1t , and u3t are the excess pore water pressures at time t for points 0, 1, and 3, respectively. Consolidation (a) 303 Pervious Clay layer 1 k1 Cv (1) H/2 Interface Ht = H Clay layer 2 k2 = ¼k1 Cv (2) = ¼Cv(1) H/2 Impervious (b) 1.0 Tv = Cv (1)t H2 Tv = 0.08 z /H 0.16 0.5 0.31 0.62 0.94 1.25 1.88 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Uz Figure 6.10 Degree of consolidation in two-layered soil [Part (b) after Luscher, 1965]. Also, the average volume change for the element at the boundary is   k u 1 k1 1 k2 = u − u0t  (6.64) + C t 2 C1 C2 t 0t+ t where u0t and u0t+ t are the excess pore water pressures at point 0 at times t and t + t, respectively. Equating the right-hand sides of Eqs. (6.63) and (6.64), we get   k2 1 k1 u − u0t  + C1 C2 t 0t+ t
 1 2k1 2k2 = k + k  u + u − 2u 2 0t  z2 1 k1 + k2 1t k1 + k2 3t 304 Consolidation or u0t+ t = or u0t+ t = k1 + k2 t 2  z k1 /C1 + k2 /C2 
2k2 2k1 u + u − 2u0t + u0t × k1 + k2 1t k1 + k2 3t tC1 z2  1 + k2 /k1 1 + k2 /k1 C1 /C2   2k2 2k1 u + u − 2u0t + u0t × k1 + k2 1t k1 + k2 3t
(6.65) Assuming 1/tR = C1 /z2R and combining Eqs. (6.52)–(6.54) and (6.65), we get ū0t̄+ t̄ = t̄ 1 + k2 /k1 1 + k2 /k1 C1 /C2   z̄2 
2k2 2k1 ū1t̄ + ū3t − 2ū0t̄ + u0t̄ × k1 + k2 k1 + k 2 (6.66) Example 6.6 2 A uniform surcharge of q = 150 kN/m is applied at the ground surface of the soil profile shown in Figure 6.11a. Using the numerical method, determine the distribution of excess pore water pressure for the clay layers after 10 days of load application. solution Since this is a uniform surcharge, the excess pore water pressure 2 immediately after the load application will be 150 kN/m throughout the clay layers. However, owing to the drainage conditions, the excess pore water pressures at the top of layer 1 and bottom of layer 2 will immediately 2 become zero. Now, let zR = 8 m and uR = 15 kN/m . So z̄ = 8 m/8 m = 1 2 2 and ū = 150 kN/m /15 kN/m  = 100. Figure 6.10b shows the distribution of ū at time t = 0; note that z̄ = 2/8 = 025. Now, tR = Let z2R C t̄ = t tR z2 t = R t̄ C or t̄ = C t z2R t = 5 days for both layers. So, for layer 1, t̄1 = C1 t z2R = 0265 = 00203 82 t̄1  z̄2 = 00203 = 0325 < 05 0252 Consolidation Figure 6.11 305 Numerical solution for consolidation in layered soil. For layer 2, t̄2 = C2 t z2R For t = 5 days, At z̄ = 0, ū0t̄+ t̄ = 0 = 0385 = 00297 82 t̄2  z̄2 = 00297 = 0475 0252 < 05 306 Consolidation At z̄ = 025, ū0t̄+ t̄ = t̄1  z̄2 ū1t̄ + ū3t̄ − 2ū0t̄  + ū0t̄ = 03250 + 100 − 2100 + 100 = 675 (6.61′ ) At z̄ = 05 [note: this is the boundary of two layers, so we will use Eq. (6.66)], ū0t̄+ t̄ = = t̄1 1 + k2 /k1 1 + k2 /k1 C1 /C2   z̄2 
2k2 2k1 ū1t̄ + ū3t̄ − 2ū0t̄ + ū0t̄ × k1 + k 2 k1 + k2 2 1 + 28 0325 1 + 2 × 026/28 × 038   2 × 28 2×2 × 100 + 100 − 2100 + 100 2 + 28 2 + 28 or ū0t̄+ t̄ = 1152032511667 + 8333 − 200 + 100 = 100 At z̄ = 075, ū0t̄+ t̄ = t̄2  z̄2 ū1t̄ + ū3t̄ − 2ū0t̄  + ū0t̄ = 0475100 + 0 − 2100 + 100 = 525 At z̄ = 10, ū0t̄+ t̄ = 0 For t = 10 days, At z̄ = 0, ū0t̄+ t̄ = 0 At z̄ = 025, ū0t̄+ t̄ = 03250 + 100 − 2675 + 675 = 5613 Consolidation At z̄ = 05, ū0t̄+ 307  2 × 28 2×2 675 + 525 − 2100 + 100 t̄ = 11520325 2 + 28 2 + 28  = 115203257875 + 4375 − 200 + 100 = 7098 At z̄ = 075, ū0t̄+ t̄ = 0475100 + 0 − 2525 + 525 = 5012 At z̄ = 10, ū0t̄+ t̄ = 0 The variation of the nondimensional excess pore water pressure is shown 2 in Figure 6.11b. Knowing u = ūuR  = ū15 kN/m , we can plot the variation of u with depth. Example 6.7 For Example 6.6, assume that the surcharge q is applied gradually. The relation between time and q is shown in Figure 6.12a. Using the numerical method, determine the distribution of excess pore water pressure after 15 days from the start of loading. 2 solution As before, zR = 8 m uR = 15 kN/m . For t̄1  z̄2 = 0325 t̄2  z̄2 t = 5 days, = 0475 2 The continuous loading can be divided into step loads such as 60 kN/m 2 from 0 to 10 days and an added 90 kN/m from the tenth day on. This is shown by dashed lines in Figure 6.12a. At t = 0 days, z̄ = 0 ū = 0 z̄ = 025 ū = 60/15 = 40 z̄ = 075 ū = 40 z̄ = 05 ū = 40 z̄ = 1 ū = 0 308 Consolidation Figure 6.12 Numerical solution for ramp loading. At t = 5 days, At z̄ = 0, ū = 0 At z̄ = 025, from. Eq. (6.61), ū0t̄+ t̄ = 03250 + 40 − 240 + 40 = 27 At z̄ = 05, from Eq. (6.66), Consolidation ū0t̄+ t̄ = 15320325  309  2×2 2 × 28 40 + 40 − 240 + 40 = 40 2 + 28 2 + 28 At z̄ = 075, from Eq. (6.61), ū0t̄+ t̄ = 047540 + 0 − 240 + 40 = 21 At z̄ = 1, ū0t̄+ t̄ = 0 At t = 10 days, At z̄ = 0, ū = 0 At z̄ = 025, from Eq. (6.61), ū0t̄+ t̄ = 03250 + 40 − 227 + 27 = 2245 2 At this point, a new load of 90 kN/m is added, so ū will increase by an amount 90/15 = 60. The new ū0t̄+ t̄ is 60 + 2245 = 8245. At z̄ = 05, from Eq. (6.66), ū0t̄+  2×2 2 × 28 27 + 21 − 240 + 40 = 284 t̄ = 11520325 2 + 28 2 + 28  New ū0t̄+ t̄ = 284 + 60 = 884 At z̄ = 075, from Eq. (6.61), ū0t̄+ t̄ = 047540 + 0 − 221 + 21 = 2005 New ū0t̄+ t̄ = 60 + 2005 = 8005 At z̄ = 1, ū = 0 At t = 15 days, At z̄ = 0, ū = 0 310 Consolidation At z̄ = 025, ū0t̄+ t̄ = 03250 + 884 − 28245 + 8245 = 576 At z̄ = 05, ū0t̄+ t̄ = 11520325   2×2 2 × 28 8245 + 8005 − 2884 + 884 = 832 × 2 + 28 2 + 28 At z̄ = 075, ū0t̄+ t̄ = 0475884 + 0 − 28005 + 8005 = 460 At z̄ = 1, ū = 0 The distribution of excess pore water pressure is shown in Figure 6.12b. 6.5 Standard one-dimensional consolidation test and interpretation The standard one-dimensional consolidation test is usually carried out on saturated specimens about 25.4 mm thick and 63.5 mm in diameter (Figure 6.13). The soil specimen is kept inside a metal ring, with a porous Figure 6.13 Consolidometer. Consolidation 311 stone at the top and another at the bottom. The load P on the specimen is applied through a lever arm, and the compression of the specimen is measured by a micrometer dial gauge. The load is usually doubled every 24 h. The specimen is kept under water throughout the test. For each load increment, the specimen deformation and the corresponding time t are plotted on semilogarithmic graph paper. Figure 6.14a shows a typical deformation versus log t graph. The graph consists of three distinct parts: 1. Upper curved portion (stage I). This is mainly the result of precompression of the specimen. 2. A straight-line portion (stage II). This is referred to as primary consolidation. At the end of the primary consolidation, the excess pore water pressure generated by the incremental loading is dissipated to a large extent. 3. A lower straight-line portion (stage III). This is called secondary consolidation. During this stage, the specimen undergoes small deformation with time. In fact, there must be immeasurably small excess pore water pressure in the specimen during secondary consolidation. Note that at the end of the test, for each incremental loading the stress on the specimen is the effective stress
′ . Once the specific gravity of the soil solids, the initial specimen dimensions, and the specimen deformation at the end of each load have been determined, the corresponding void ratio can be calculated. A typical void ratio versus effective pressure relation plotted on semilogarithmic graph paper is shown in Figure 6.14b. Preconsolidation pressure In the typical e versus log
′ plot shown in Figure 6.14b, it can be seen that the upper part is curved; however, at higher pressures, e and log
′ bear a linear relation. The upper part is curved because when the soil specimen was obtained from the field, it was subjected to a certain maximum effective pressure. During the process of soil exploration, the pressure is released. In the laboratory, when the soil specimen is loaded, it will show relatively small decrease of void ratio with load up to the maximum effective stress to which the soil was subjected in the past. This is represented by the upper curved portion in Figure 6.14b. If the effective stress on the soil specimen is increased further, the decrease of void ratio with stress level will be larger. This is represented by the straight-line portion in the e versus log
′ plot. The effect can also be demonstrated in the laboratory by unloading and reloading a soil specimen, as shown in Figure 6.15. In this figure, cd is the void ratio–effective stress relation as the specimen is unloaded, and dfgh is the reloading branch. At d, the specimen is being subjected to a lower Figure 6.14 a Typical specimen deformation versus log-of-time plot for a given load increment and b Typical e versus log  ′ plot showing procedure for determination of c′ and Cc . Consolidation Figure 6.15 313 Plot of void ratio versus effective pressure showing unloading and reloading branches. effective stress than the maximum stress
1′ to which the soil was ever subjected. So df will show a flatter curved portion. Beyond point f , the void ratio will decrease at a larger rate with effective stress, and gh will have the same slope as bc. Based on the above explanation, we can now define the two conditions of a soil: 1. Normally consolidated. A soil is called normally consolidated if the present effective overburden pressure is the maximum to which the soil ′ ′ has ever been subjected, i.e.,
present ≥
past maximum . 2. Overconsolidated. A soil is called overconsolidated if the present effective overburden pressure is less than the maximum to which the soil ′ ′ was ever subjected in the past, i.e.,
present <
past maximum . In Figure 6.15, the branches ab, cd and df are the overconsolidated state of a soil, and the branches bc and fh are the normally consolidated state of a soil. In the natural condition in the field, a soil may be either normally consolidated or overconsolidated. A soil in the field may become overconsolidated through several mechanisms, some of which are listed below (Brummund et al., 1976). 314 • • • • • • • • • • • • • Consolidation Removal of overburden pressure Past structures Glaciation Deep pumping Desiccation due to drying Desiccation due to plant lift Change in soil structure due to secondary compression Change in pH Change in temperature Salt concentration Weathering Ion exchange Precipitation of cementing agents The preconsolidation pressure from an e versus log
′ plot is generally determined by a graphical procedure suggested by Casagrande (1936), as shown in Figure 6.14b. The steps are as follows: 1. Visually determine the point P (on the upper curved portion of the e versus log
′ plot) that has the maximum curvature. 2. Draw a horizontal line PQ. 3. Draw a tangent PR at P . 4. Draw the line PS bisecting the angle QPR. 5. Produce the straight-line portion of the e versus log
′ plot backward to intersect PS at T . 6. The effective pressure corresponding to point T is the preconsolidation pressure
c′ . In the field, the overconsolidation ratio (OCR) can be defined as OCR =
c′
o′ (6.67) where
o′ = present effective overburden pressure There are some empirical correlations presently available in the literature to estimate the preconsolidation pressure in the field. Following are a few of these relationships. However, they should be used cautiously. Stas and Kulhawy (1984)
c′ = 10111–162LI (for clays with sensitivity between 1 and 10) (6.68) pa Consolidation 315 where 2 pa = atmospheric pressure ≈ 100 kN/m  LI = liquidity index Hansbo (1957) (6.69)
c′ = VST SuVST where SuVST = undrained shear strength based on vane shear test 222 VST = an empirical coefficient = LL% where LL = liquid limit Mayne and Mitchell (1988) gave a correlation for VST as VST = 22PI−048 (6.70) where PI = plasticity index (%) Nagaraj and Murty (1985)  eo − 00463 log
o′ 1322 eL ′ log
c = 0188
where eo = void ratio at the present effective overburden pressure,
o′ eL = void ratio of the soil at liquid limit
c′ and
o′ are in kN/m eL =   LL% Gs 100 2 Gs = specific gravity of soil solids (6.71) 316 Consolidation Compression index The slope of the e versus log
′ plot for normally consolidated soil is referred to as the compression index Cc . From Figure 6.14b, Cc = e1 − e2 e = ′ ′ ′ log
2 − log
1 log
2 /
1′  (6.72) For undisturbed normally consolidated clays, Terzaghi and Peck (1967) gave a correlation for the compression index as Cc = 0009LL − 10 Based on laboratory test results, several empirical relations for Cc have been proposed, some of which are given in Table 6.3. 6.6 Effect of sample disturbance on the e versus log
′ curve Soil samples obtained from the field are somewhat disturbed. When consolidation tests are conducted on these specimens, we obtain e versus log
′ plots that are slightly different from those in the field. This is demonstrated in Figure 6.16. Curve I in Figure 6.16a shows the nature of the e versus log
′ variation that an undisturbed normally consolidated clay (present effective overburden pressure
0′ ; void ratio e0 ) in the field would exhibit. This is called the virgin compression curve. A laboratory consolidation test on a carefully recovered specimen would result in an e versus log
′ plot such as curve II. If the same soil is completely remolded and then tested in a consolidometer, the resulting void ratio–pressure plot will be like curve III. The virgin compression curve (curve I) and the laboratory e versus log
′ curve obtained from a carefully recovered specimen (curve II) intersect at a void ratio of about 04e0 (Terzaghi and Peck, 1967). Curve I in Figure 6.16b shows the nature of the field consolidation curve of an overconsolidated clay. Note that the present effective overburden pressure is
0′ , the corresponding void ratio e0 
c′ the preconsolidation pressure, and bc a part of the virgin compression curve. Curve II is the corresponding laboratory consolidation curve. After careful testing, Schmertmann (1953) concluded that the field recompression branch (ab in Figure 6.15b) has approximately the same slope as the laboratory unloading branch, cf. The slope of the laboratory unloading branch is referred to as Cr . The range of Cr is approximately from one-fifth to one-tenth of Cc . Consolidation 317 Table 6.3 Empirical relations for Cc Reference Relation Comments Terzaghi and Peck (1967) Cc = 0
009LL − 10 Cc = 0
007LL − 10 LL = liquid limit (%) Cc = 0
01 wN wN = natural moisture content (%) Cc = 0
0046LL − 9 LL = liquid limit (%) Cc = 1
21 + 1
005e0 − 1
87 Undisturbed clay Remolded clay Azzouz et al. (1976) Nacci et al. (1975) Rendon-Herrero (1983) Nagaraj and Murty (1985) Park and Koumoto (2004) e0 = in situ void ratio Cc = 0
208e0 + 0
0083 e0 = in situ void ratio Cc = 0
0115wN wN = natural moisture content (%) Cc = 0
02 + 0
014PI PI = plasticity index (%) 
1 + e0 2
38 1
2 Cc = 0
141Gs Gs Gs = specific gravity of soil solids e0 = in situ void ratio 
LL Gs Cc = 0
2343 100 Gs = specific gravity of soil solids LL = liquid limit (%) no Cc = 371
747–4
275no no = in situ porosity of soil Chicago clay Brazilian clay Motley clays from Sao Paulo city Chicago clay Organic soil, peat North Atlantic clay 6.7 Secondary consolidation It has been pointed out previously that clays continue to settle under sustained loading at the end of primary consolidation, and this is due to the continued re-adjustment of clay particles. Several investigations have been carried out for qualitative and quantitative evaluation of secondary consolidation. The magnitude of secondary consolidation is often defined by (Figure 6.14a) C = Ht /Ht log t2 − log t1 where C is the coefficient of secondary consolidation. (6.73) 318 Consolidation Figure 6.16 Effect of sample disturbance on e versus log  ′ curve. Mesri (1973) published an extensive list of the works of various investigators in this area. Figure 6.17 details the general range of the coefficient of secondary consolidation observed in a number of clayey soils. Secondary compression is greater in plastic clays and organic soils. Based on the Figure 6.17 Coefficient of secondary consolidation for natural soil deposits (after Mesri, 1973). 320 Consolidation coefficient of secondary consolidation, Mesri (1973) classified the secondary compressibility, and this is summarized below. C Secondary compressibility < 0
002 0.002–0.004 0.004–0.008 0.008–0.016 0.016–0.032 very low low medium high very high Figure 6.18 Coefficient of secondary compression for organic Paulding clay (after Mesri, 1973). In order to study the effect of remolding and preloading on secondary compression, Mesri (1973) conducted a series of one-dimensional consolidation tests on an organic Paulding clay. Figure 6.18 shows the results in the form of a plot of e/ log t versus consolidation pressure. For these tests, each specimen was loaded to a final pressure with load increment ratios of 1 and with only sufficient time allowed for excess pore water pressure dissipation. Under the final pressure, secondary compression was observed for a period of 6 months. The following conclusions can be drawn from the results of these tests: 1. For sedimented (undisturbed) soils, e/ log t decreases with the increase of the final consolidation pressure. Consolidation 321 2. Remolding of clays creates a more dispersed fabric. This results in a decrease of the coefficient of secondary consolidation at lower consolidation pressures as compared to that for undisturbed samples. However, it increases with consolidation pressure to a maximum value and then decreases, finally merging with the values for normally consolidated undisturbed samples. 3. Precompressed clays show a smaller value of coefficient of secondary consolidation. The degree of reduction appears to be a function of the degree of precompression. Mesri and Godlewski (1977) compiled the values of C /Cc for a number of naturally occurring soils. From this study it appears that, in general, • • • C /Cc ≈ 004 ± 001 (for inorganic clays and silts) C /Cc ≈ 005 ± 001 (for organic clays and silts) C /Cc ≈ 0075 ± 001 (for peats) 6.8 General comments on consolidation tests Standard one-dimensional consolidation tests as described in Sec. 6.5 are conducted with a soil specimen having a thickness of 25.4 mm in which the load on the specimen is doubled every 24 h. This means that
/
′ is kept at 1 (
is the step load increment, and
′ the effective stress on the specimen before the application of the incremental step load). Following are some general observations as to the effect of any deviation from the standard test procedure. Effect of load-increment ratio
/
′ . Striking changes in the shape of the compression-time curves for one-dimensional consolidation tests are generally noticed if the magnitude of
/
′ is reduced to less than about 0.25. Leonards and Altschaeffl (1964) conducted several tests on Mexico City clay in which they varied the value of
/
′ and then measured the excess pore water pressure with time. The general nature of specimen deformation with time is shown in Figure 6.19a. From this figure it may be seen that, for
/
′ < 025, the position of the end of primary consolidation (i.e., zero excess pore water pressure due to incremental load) is somewhat difficult to resolve. Furthermore, the load-increment ratio has a high influence on consolidation of clay. Figure 6.19b shows the nature of the e versus log
′ curve for various values of
/
′ . If
/
′ is small, the ability of individual clay particles to readjust to their positions of equilibrium is small, which results in a smaller compression compared to that for larger values of
/
′ . Effect of load duration. In conventional testing, in which the soil specimen is left under a given load for about a day, a certain amount of secondary consolidation takes place before the next load increment is added. 322 Consolidation Figure 6.19 Effect of load-increment ratio. If the specimen is left under a given load for more than a day, additional secondary consolidation settlement will occur. This additional amount of secondary consolidation will have an effect on the e versus log
′ plot, as shown in Figure 6.20. Curve a is based on the results at the end of primary consolidation. Curve b is based on the standard 24-h load-increment duration. Curve c refers to the condition for which a given load is kept for more than 24 h before the next load increment is applied. The strain Consolidation Figure 6.20 323 Effect of load duration on e versus log  ′ plot. for a given value of
′ is calculated from the total deformation that the specimen has undergone before the next load increment is applied. In this regard, Crawford (1964) provided experimental results on Leda clay. For his study, the preconsolidation pressure obtained from the end of primary e versus log
′ plot was about twice that obtained from the e versus log
′ plot where each load increment was kept for a week. Effect of specimen thickness. Other conditions remaining the same, the proportion of secondary to primary compression increases with the decrease of specimen thickness for similar values of
/
′ . Effect of secondary consolidation. The continued secondary consolidation of a natural clay deposit has some influence on the preconsolidation pressure
c′ . This fact can be further explained by the schematic diagram shown in Figure 6.21. A clay that has recently been deposited and comes to equilibrium by its own weight can be called a “young, normally consolidated clay.” If such a clay, with an effective overburden pressure of
0′ at an equilibrium void ratio of e0 , is now removed from the ground and tested in a consolidometer, it will show an e versus log
′ curve like that marked curve a in Figure 6.21. Note that the preconsolidation pressure for curve a is
0′ . On the contrary, 324 Consolidation Figure 6.21 Effect of secondary consolidation. if the same clay is allowed to remain undisturbed for 10,000 yr, for example, under the same effective overburden pressure
0′ , there will be creep or secondary consolidation. This will reduce the void ratio to e1 . The clay may now be called an “aged, normally consolidated clay.” If this clay, at a void ratio of e1 and effective overburden pressure of
0′ , is removed and tested in a consolidometer, the e versus log
′ curve will be like curve b. The preconsolidation pressure, when determined by standard procedure, will be
1′ . Now,
c′ =
1′ >
0′ . This is sometimes referred to as a quasipreconsolidation effect. The effect of preconsolidation is pronounced in most plastic clays. Thus it may be reasoned that, under similar conditions, the ratio of the quasi-preconsolidation pressure to the effective overburden pressure
c′ /
0′ will increase with the plasticity index of the soil. Bjerrum (1972) gave an estimate of the relation between the plasticity index and the ratio of quasi-preconsolidation pressure to effective overburden pressure 
c′ /
0′  for late glacial and postglacial clays. This relation is shown below: Consolidation Plasticity index ≈ c′ /0′ 20 40 60 80 100 1.4 1.65 1.75 1.85 1.90 325 6.9 Calculation of one-dimensional consolidation settlement The basic principle of one-dimensional consolidation settlement calculation is demonstrated in Figure 6.22. If a clay layer of total thickness Ht is subjected to an increase of average effective overburden pressure from
0′ to
1′ , it will undergo a consolidation settlement of Ht . Hence the strain can be given by ∈= Ht Ht (6.74) where ∈ is strain. Again, if an undisturbed laboratory specimen is subjected to the same effective stress increase, the void ratio will decrease by e. Thus the strain is equal to ∈= e 1 + e0 (6.75) where e0 is the void ratio at an effective stress of
0′ . Figure 6.22 Calculation of one-dimensional consolidation settlement. 326 Consolidation Thus, from Eqs. (6.74) and (6.75), Ht = eHt 1 + e0 (6.76) For a normally consolidated clay in the field (Figure 6.23a), e = Cc log Figure 6.23
′ +

1′ = Cc log 0 ′ ′
0
0 Calculation of e [Eqs. (6.77)–(6.79)]. (6.77) Consolidation 327 For an overconsolidated clay, (1) if
l′ <
c′ (i.e., overconsolidation pressure) (Figure 6.23b), e = Cr log
′ +

1′ = Cr log ′
0
0′ (6.78) and (2) if
0′ <
c′ <
1′ (Figure 6.23c), e = e1 + e2 = Cr log
c′
0′ +
+ C log c
0′
c′ (6.79) The procedure for calculation of one-dimensional consolidation settlement is described in more detail in Chap. 8. 6.10 Coefficient of consolidation For a given load increment, the coefficient of consolidation C can be determined from the laboratory observations of time versus dial reading. There are several procedures presently available to estimate the coefficient of consolidation, some of which are described below. Logarithm-of-time method The logarithm-of-time method was originally proposed by Casagrande and Fadum (1940) and can be explained by referring to Figure 6.24. 1. Plot the dial readings for specimen deformation for a given load increment against time on semilog graph paper as shown in Figure 6.24. 2. Plot two points, P and Q, on the upper portion of the consolidation curve, which correspond to time t1 and t2 , respectively. Note that t2 = 4t1 . 3. The difference of dial readings between P and Q is equal to x. Locate point R, which is at a distance x above point P . 4. Draw the horizontal line RS. The dial reading corresponding to this line is d0 , which corresponds to 0% consolidation. 5. Project the straight-line portions of the primary consolidation and the secondary consolidation to intersect at T . The dial reading corresponding to T is d100 , i.e., 100% primary consolidation. 6. Determine the point V on the consolidation curve that corresponds to a dial reading of d0 + d100 /2 = d50 . The time corresponding to point V is t50 , i.e., time for 50% consolidation. 328 Consolidation Figure 6.24 Logarithm-of-time method for determination of C . 7. Determine C from the equation T = C t/H 2 . The value of T for Uav = 50% is 0.197 (Table 6.1). So, C = 0197H 2 t50 (6.80) Square-root-of-time method The steps for the square-root-of-time method (Taylor, 1942) are √ 1. Plot the dial reading and the corresponding square-root-of-time t as shown in Figure 6.25. 2. Draw the tangent PQ to the early portion of the plot. 3. Draw a line PR such that OR = 115OQ. 4. The abscissa of the point S (i.e., the intersection of PR and the con√ solidation curve) will give t90 (i.e., the square root of time for 90% consolidation). 5. The value of T for Uav = 90% is 0.848. So, C = 0848H 2 t90 (6.81) Consolidation Figure 6.25 329 Square-root-of-time method for determination of C . Su’s maximum-slope method 1. Plot the dial reading against time on semilog graph paper as shown in Figure 6.26. 2. Determine d0 in the same manner as in the case of the logarithm-of-time method (steps 2–4). 3. Draw a tangent PQ to the steepest part of the consolidation curve. 4. Find h, which is the slope of the tangent PQ. 5. Find du as du = d0 + h U 0688 av (6.82) where du is the dial reading corresponding to any given average degree of consolidation, Uav . 6. The time corresponding to the dial reading du can now be determined, and C = T H 2 t (6.83) Su’s method (1958) is more applicable for consolidation curves that do not exhibit the typical S-shape. 330 Consolidation Figure 6.26 Maximum-slope method for determination of C . Computational method The computational method of Sivaram and Swamee (1977) is explained in the following steps. 1. Note two dial readings, d1 and d2 , and their corresponding times, t1 and t2 , from the early phase of consolidation. (“Early phase” means that the degree of consolidation should be less than 53%.) 2. Note a dial reading, d3 , at time t3 after considerable settlement has taken place. 3. Determine d0 as d0 = t1 t2 d1 − d2 1− (6.84) t1 t2 4. Determine d100 as d0 − d3 √ √ 56 .0179 d0 − d3   t2 − t1  1− √ d1 − d2  t3 d100 = d0 −   (6.85) Consolidation 331 5. Determine C as C =  4
d1 − d2 H √ √ d0 − d100 t2 − t1 2 (6.86) where H is the length of the maximum drainage path. Empirical correlation Based on laboratory tests, Raju et al. (1995) proposed the following empirical relation to predict the coefficient of consolidation of normally consolidated uncemented clayey soils: C =  1 + eL 123 − 0276 log
0′  eL  10−3 
0′ 0353  (6.87) where C = coefficient of consolidation cm2 /s 2
0′ = effective overburden pressure kN/m  eL = void ratio at liquid limit Note that   LL% Gs eL = 100 (6.88) where LL is liquid limit and Gs specific gravity of soil solids. Rectangular hyperbola method The rectangular hyperbola method (Sridharan and Prakash, 1985) can be illustrated as follows. Based on Eq. (6.32), it can be shown that the plot of T /Uav versus T will be of the type shown in Figure 6.27a. In the range of 60% ≤ Uav ≤ 90%, the relation is linear and can be expressed as T = 8208 × 10−3 T + 244 × 10−3 Uav (6.89) Using the same analogy, the consolidation test results can be plotted in graphical form as t/ Ht versus t (where t is time and Ht is specimen deformation), which will be of the type shown in Figure 6.27b. Now the following procedure can be used to estimate C . 332 Consolidation Figure 6.27 Rectangular hyperbola method for determination of C . 1. Identify the straight-line portion, bc, and project it back to d. Determine the intercept, D. 2. Determine the slope m of the line bc. 3. Calculate C as C = 03
mH 2 D  Consolidation 333 where H is the length of maximum drainage path. Note that the unit of m is L−1 and the unit of D is TL−1 . Hence the unit of C is L−1 L2  −1 = L2 T TL−1 Ht − t/ Ht method According to the Ht − t/ Ht method (Sridharan and Prakash, 1993), 1. Plot the variation of Ht versus t/ Ht as shown in Figure 6.28. (Note: t is time and Ht compression of specimen at time t.) 2. Draw the tangent PQ to the early portion of the plot. 3. Draw a line PR such that OR = 133OQ 4. Determine the abscissa of point S, which gives t90 / Ht from which t90 can be calculated. 5. Calculate C as C = 0848H 2 t90 (6.90) Early stage log-t method The early stage log-t method (Robinson and Allam, 1996), an extension of the logarithm-of-time method, is based on specimen deformation against log-of-time plot as shown in Figure 6.29. According to this method, follow the logarithm-of-time method to determine d0 . Draw a horizontal line DE through d0 . Then draw a tangent through the point of inflection F . The tangent intersects line DE at point G. Determine the time t corresponding to G, which is the time at Uav = 2214%. So C = 2 00385Hdr t2214 In most cases, for a given soil and pressure range, the magnitude of C determined using the logarithm-of-time method provides lowest value. The highest value is obtained from the early stage log-t method. The primary Figure 6.28 D G Deformation (increasing) d0 Ht − t/ Ht method for determination of Cv . E F t22.14 Time, t (log scale) Figure 6.29 Early stage log-t method. Consolidation 335 Table 6.4 Comparison of C obtained from various methods (Based on the results of Robinson and Allam, 1996) for the pressure range  ′ between 400 and 800 kN/m2 Soil Cesm cm2 /s Cesm Cltm Red earth Brown soil Black cotton soil Illite Bentonite Chicago clay 12
80 × 10−4 1
36 × 10−4 0
79 × 10−4 6
45 × 10−4 0
022 × 10−4 7
41 × 10−4 1
58 1
05 1
41 1
55 1
47 1
22 Cesm Cstm 1
07 0
94 1
23 1
1 1
29 1
15 Note: esm–early stage log-t method; ltm–logarithm-of-time method; stm– square-root-of-time method. reason is because the early stage log-t method uses the earlier part of the consolidation curve, whereas the logarithm-of-time method uses the lower portion of the consolidation curve. When the lower portion of the consolidation curve is taken into account, the effect of secondary consolidation plays a role in the magnitude of C . This fact is demonstrated for several soils in Table 6.4. Several investigators have also reported that the C value obtained from the field is substantially higher than that obtained from laboratory tests conducted using conventional testing methods (i.e., logarithm-of-time and square-root-of-time methods). Hence, the early stage log-t method may provide a more realistic value of fieldwork. Example 6.8 The results of an oedometer test on a normally consolidated clay are given below (two-way drainage):  ′ kN/m2  e 50 100 1.01 0.90 The time for 50% consolidation for the load increment from 50 to 2 100 kN/m was 12 min, and the average thickness of the sample was 24 mm. Determine the coefficient of permeability and the compression index. 336 Consolidation solution T = C t H2 For Uav = 50% T = 0197. Hence 0197 = C = C 12 24/22 C = 00236 cm2 /min = 00236 × 10−4 m2 /min k k = m w  e/
1 + eav w For the given data, e = 101 − 090 = 011
= 100 − 50 = 50 kN/m 2 w = 981 kN/m3  and eav = 101 + 09/2 = 0955 So     011 e w = 00236 × 10−4 k = C 981
1 + eav  501 + 0955 = 02605 × 10−7 m/min Compression index = Cc = 101 − 09 e = 0365 = log
2′ /
1′  log100/50 6.11 One-dimensional consolidation with viscoelastic models The theory of consolidation we have studied thus far is based on the assumption that the effective stress and the volumetric strain can be described by linear elasticity. Since Terzaghi’s founding work on the theory of consolidation, several investigators (Taylor and Merchant, 1940; Taylor, 1942; Tan, 1957; Gibson and Lo, 1961; Schiffman et al., 1964; Barden, 1965, 1968) have used viscoelastic models to study one-dimensional consolidation. This gives an insight into the secondary consolidation phenomenon which Terzaghi’s theory does not explain. In this section, the work of Barden is briefly outlined. The rheological model for soil chosen by Barden consists of a linear spring and nonlinear dashpot as shown in Figure 6.30. The equation of continuity for one-dimensional consolidation is given in Eq. (6.9) as k1 + e 2 u e = w z2 t Consolidation 337 L N Figure 6.30 Rheological model for soil. L: Linear spring; N: Nonlinear dashpot. Figure 6.31 shows the typical nature of the variation of void ratio with effective stress. From this figure we can write that e −e e1 − e2 = 1 +u+ av av (6.91) where Void ratio e1 − e2 =
′ = total effective stress increase the soil will be subjected to at a the end of consolidation e1 e ∆e = av ∆σ av = coefficient of compressibility ∆e e2 ∆σ σ ′1 Figure 6.31 σ ′1 + ∆σ′ =σ ′1 + ∆σ Effective stress Nature of variation of void ratio with effective stress. 338 Consolidation e1 − e = effective stress increase in the soil at some stage of consolidation a (i.e., the stress carried by the soil grain bond, represented by the spring in Figure 6.30) u = excess pore water pressure  = strain carried by film bond (represented by the dashpot in Figure 6.30) The strain  can be given by a power–law relation:
e  =b t 1/n where n > 1, and b is assumed to be a constant over the pressure range
. Substitution of the preceding power–law relation for  in Eq. (6.91) and simplification gives e − e2 = a v 
e u+b t 1/n  (6.92) Now let e − e2 = e′ . So, e e′ = t t z z̄ = H (6.93) (6.94) where H is the length of maximum drainage path, and ū = u
′ (6.95) The degree of consolidation is Uz = e1 − e e1 − e2 (6.96) and  = 1 − Uz = e′ e − e2 = e1 − e2 a
′ (6.97) Consolidation 339 Elimination of u from Eqs. (6.9) and (6.92) yields k1 + e 2 w z2 
′ 1/n  e′ e′ e −b = a t t (6.98) Combining Eqs. (6.94), (6.97), and (6.98), we obtain  1/n .  2  a H 2 w  n ′ 1−n =  − a b 
  z̄2 t k1 + e t = m H 2 w  H 2  = k t C t (6.99) where m is the volume coefficient of compressibility and C the coefficient of consolidation. The right-hand side of Eq. (6.99) can be written in the form  H 2  = T C t (6.100) where T is the nondimensional time factor and is equal to C t/H 2 . Similarly defining Ts = t
′ n−1 a b n (6.101) we can write  1/n
  1/n n ′ 1−n  a b 
 = t Ts (6.102) Ts in Eqs. (6.101) and (6.102) is defined as structural viscosity. It is useful now to define a nondimensional ratio R as R= T bn C a =  2 Ts H 
′ n−1 (6.103) From Eqs. (6.99), (6.100), and (6.102), 
  2   1/n = − z̄2 Ts T (6.104) 340 Consolidation Note that Eq. (6.104) is nonlinear. For that reason, Barden suggested solving the two simultaneous equations obtained from the basic equation (6.9).  2 ū = z̄2 T and − 1   − ūn = R T (6.105) (6.106) Finite-difference approximation is employed for solving the above two equations. Figure 6.32 shows the variation of  and ū with depth for a clay layer of height Ht = 2H and drained both at the top and bottom (for n = 5 R = 10−4 ). Note that for a given value of T (i.e., time t) the nondimensional excess pore water pressure decreases more than  (i.e., void ratio). For a given value of T  R, and n, the average degree of consolidation can be determined as (Figure 6.32) Uav = 1 − 1 0  dz̄ (6.107) Figure 6.33 shows the variation of Uav with T (for n = 5). Similar results can be obtained for other values of n. Note that in this figure the beginning of secondary consolidation is assumed to start after the midplane excess pore water pressure falls below an arbitrary value of u = 001
. Several other observations can be made concerning this plot: 1. Primary and secondary consolidation are continuous processes and depend on the structural viscosity (i.e., R or Ts ). 2. The proportion of the total settlement associated with the secondary consolidation increases with the increase of R. 3. In the conventional consolidation theory of Terzaghi, R = 0. Thus, the average degree of consolidation becomes equal to 100% at the end of primary consolidation. 4. As defined in Eq. (6.103), R= bn C a 2 H 
′ n−1 The term b is a complex quantity and depends on the electrochemical environment and structure of clay. The value of b increases with the increase of effective pressure
′ on the soil. When the ratio
′ /
′ is small it will result in an increase of R, and thus in the proportion of secondary to primary consolidation. Other factors remaining constant, R will also increase with decrease of H, which is the length of the maximum drainage path, and thus so will the ratio of secondary to primary consolidation. Figure 6.32 Plot of z̄ against ū and  for a two-way drained clay layer (after Barden, 1965). 342 Consolidation Figure 6.33 Plot of degree of consolidation versus T for various values of R (n = 5) (after Barden, 1965). 6.12 Constant rate-of-strain consolidation tests The standard one-dimensional consolidation test procedure discussed in Sec. 6.5 is time consuming. At least two other one-dimensional consolidation test procedures have been developed in the past that are much faster yet give reasonably good results. The methods are (1) the constant rate-of-strain consolidation test and (2) the constant-gradient consolidation test. The fundamentals of these test procedures are described in this and the next sections. The constant rate-of-strain method was developed by Smith and Wahls (1969). A soil specimen is taken in a fixed-ring consolidometer and saturated. For conducting the test, drainage is permitted at the top of the specimen but not at the bottom. A continuously increasing load is applied to the top of the specimen so as to produce a constant rate of compressive strain, and the excess pore water pressure ub (generated by the continuously increasing stress
at the top) at the bottom of the specimen is measured. Theory The mathematical derivations developed by Smith and Wahls for obtaining the void ratio—effective pressure relation and the corresponding coefficient of consolidation are given below. Consolidation 343 The basic equation for continuity of flow through a soil element is given in Eq. (6.9) as 1 e k 2 u = 2 w z 1 + e t The coefficient of permeability at a given time is a function of the average void ratio ē in the specimen. The average void ratio is, however, continuously changing owing to the constant rate of strain. Thus k = k ē = f t (6.108) The average void ratio is given by ē = 1 H H 0 e dz where H = Ht  is the sample thickness. (Note: z = 0 is top of the specimen and z = H is the bottom of the specimen.) In the constant rate-of-strain type of test, the rate of change of volume is constant, or dV = −RA dt (6.109) where V = volume of specimen A = area of cross-section of specimen R = constant rate of deformation of upper surface The rate of change of average void ratio ē can be given by dē 1 dV 1 = = − RA = −r dt Vs dt Vs (6.110) where r is a constant. Based on the definition of ē and Eq. (6.108), we can write ezt = gzt + e0 where ezt = void ratio at depth z and time t e0 = initial void ratio at beginning of test (6.111) 344 Consolidation gz = a function of depth only The function gz is difficult to determine. We will asume it to be a linear function of the form 
 b z − 05H −r 1 − r H where b is a constant. Substitution of this into Eq. (6.111) gives
  b z − 05H ezt = e0 − rt 1 − r H (6.112) Let us consider the possible range of variation of b/r as given in Eq. (6.112): 1. If b/r = 0, ezt = e0 − rt (6.113) This indicates that the void is constant with depth and changes with time only. In reality, this is not the case. 2. If b/r = 2, the void ratio at the base of the specimen, i.e., at z = H, becomes eHt = e0 (6.114) This means that the void ratio at the base does not change with time at all, which is not realistic. So the value of b/r is somewhere between 0 and 2 and may be taken as about 1. Assuming b/r = 0 and using the definition of void ratio as given by Eq. (6.112), we can integrate Eq. (6.9) to obtain an equation for the excess pore water pressure. The boundary conditions are as follows: at z = 0 u = 0 (at any time); and at z = H u/z = 0 (at any time). Thus      w r H1 + e0  1 + e0 − bt z2 u= − zH + k rtbt 2rt rtbt   H1 + e H1 + eT  ln1 + e − z ln1 + eB  − ln1 + eT  (6.115) × bt bt where
 1b eB = e0 − rt 1 − 2r (6.116) Consolidation
 1b eT = e0 − rt 1 + 2r 345 (6.117) Equation (6.115) is very complicated. Without loosing a great deal of accuracy, it is possible to obtain a simpler form of expression for u by assuming that the term 1 + e in Eq. (6.9) is approximately equal to 1 + ē (note that this is not a function of z). So, from Eqs. (6.9) and (6.112),  
   2 u  b z − 05H w e − rt 1 − = z2 k1 + ē t 0 r H (6.118) Using the boundary condition u = 0 at z = 0 and u/t = 0 at z = H, Eq. (6.118) can be integrated to yield  w r u= k1 + ē  

 z2 b z2 z3 Hz − − − 2 r 4 6H (6.119) The pore pressure at the base of the specimen can be obtained by substituting z = H in Eq. (6.119):  rH 2 uz = H = w k1 + ē
1 1 b − 2 12 r  (6.120) The average effective stress corresponding to a given value of uz=H can be obtained by writing ′
av =
− uav u uz=H z=H (6.121) where ′
av =average effective stress on specimen at any time
=total stress on specimen uav =corresponding average pore water pressure uav = uz=H 1 H -H u dz 0 uz=H (6.122) Substitution of Eqs. (6.119) and (6.120) into Eq. (6.122) and further simplification gives uav = uz=H 1 3 1 2 1 − 24 b/r 1 − 12 b/r (6.123) 346 Consolidation Note that for b/r = 0 uav /uz=H = 0667; and for b/r = 1 uav /uz=H = 0700. Hence, for 0 ≤ b/r ≤ 1, the values of uav /uz=H do not change significantly. So, from Eqs. (6.121) and (6.123),   1 1 − 24 b/r ′ 3 uz=H (6.124)
av =
− 1 1 − 12 b/r 2 Coefficient of consolidation The coefficient of consolidation was defined previously as C = k1 + e a w We can assume 1 + e ≈ 1 + ē, and from Eq. (6.120), k= w rH 2 1 + ēuz=H
1 1 b − 2 12 r  (6.125) Substitution of these into the expression for C gives rH 2 C = a uz=H
1 1 b − 2 12 r  (6.126) Interpretation of experimental results The following information can be obtained from a constant rate-of-strain consolidation test: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Initial height of specimen, Hi . Value of A. Value of Vs . Strain rate R. A continuous record of uz=H . A corresponding record of
(total stress applied at the top of the specimen). ′ can be obtained in the following manner: The plot of e versus
av 1. Calculate r = RA/Vs . 2. Assume b/r ≈ 1. Consolidation 347 3. For a given value of uz=H , the value of
is known (at time t from the ′ can be calculated from Eq. (6.124). start of the test), and so
av 4. Calculate H = Rt and then the change in void ratio that has taken place during time t, e= H 1 + e0  Hi where Hi is the initial height of the specimen. 5. The corresponding void ratio (at time t) is e = e0 − e. ′ 6. After obtaining a number of points of
av and the corresponding e, plot ′ the graph of e versus log
av . ′ and e, the coefficient of consolidation C can 7. For a given value of
av be calculated by using Eq. (6.126). (Note that H in Eq. (6.126) is equal to Hi − H.) Smith and Wahls (1969) provided the results of constant rate-of-strain consolidation tests on two clays—Massena clay and calcium montmorillonite. The tests were conducted at various rates of strain (0.0024%/min to 0.06%/min) and the e versus log
′ curves obtained were compared with those obtained from the conventional tests. Figures 6.34 and 6.35 show the results obtained from tests conducted with Massena clay. Figure 6.34 CRS tests on Messena clay—plot of 1969). e versus av′ (after Smith and Wahls, 348 Consolidation Figure 6.35 CRS tests on Messena clay—plot of Cv versus e (after Smith and Wahls, 1969). This comparison showed that, for higher rates of strain, the e versus log
′ curves obtained from these types of tests may deviate considerably from those obtained from conventional tests. For that reason, it is recommended that the strain rate for a given test should be chosen such that the value of uz=H /
at the end of the test does not exceed 0.5. However, the value should be high enough that it can be measured with reasonable accuracy. 6.13 Constant-gradient consolidation test The constant-gradient consolidation test was developed by Lowe et al. (1969). In this procedure a saturated soil specimen is taken in a consolidation ring. As in the case of the constant rate-of-strain type of test, drainage is allowed at the top of the specimen and pore water pressure is measured at the bottom. A load P is applied on the specimen, which increases the excess pore water pressure in the specimen by an amount u (Figure 6.36a). After a small lapse of time t1 , the excess pore water pressure at the top of the specimen will be equal to zero (since drainage is permitted). However, at the bottom of the specimen the excess pore water pressure will still be approximately u (Figure 6.36b). From this point on, the load P is increased slowly in such a way that the difference between the pore water Consolidation Figure 6.36 349 Stages in controlled-gradient test. pressures at the top and bottom of the specimen remain constant, i.e., the difference is maintained at a constant u (Figure 6.36c and d). When the desired value of P is reached, say at time t3 , the loading is stopped and the excess pore water pressure is allowed to dissipate. The elapsed time t4 at which the pore water pressure at the bottom of the specimen reaches a value of 01 u is recorded. During the entire test, the compression Ht that the specimen undergoes is recorded. For complete details of the laboratory test arrangement, the reader is referred to the original paper of Lowe et al. (1969). Theory From the basic Eqs. (6.9) and (6.10), we have or k 2 u a 
′ = − w z2 1 + e t (6.127) 
′ k 2 u 2 u =− = −C  t w m z2 z2 (6.128) Since
′ =
− u, 
′ 
u = − t t t (6.129) 350 Consolidation For the controlled-gradient tests (i.e., during the time t1 to t3 in Figure 6.36), u/t = 0. So, 
′ 
= t t (6.130) Combining Eqs. (6.128) and (6.130), 2 u 
= −C 2 t z (6.131) Note that the left-hand side of Eq. (6.131) is independent of the variable z and the right-hand side is independent of the variable t. So both sides should be equal to a constant, say A1 . Thus 
= A1 t 2 u A and 2 = − 1 z C (6.132) (6.133) Integration of Eq. (6.133) yields u A = − 1 z + A2 z C and u = − A1 z2 + A2 z + A 3 C 2 (6.134) (6.135) The boundary conditions are as follows (note that z = 0 is at the bottom of the specimen): 1. At z = 0 u/z = 0. 2. At z = H u = 0 (note that H = Ht ; one-way drainage). 3. At z = 0 u = u. From the first boundary condition and Eq. (6.134), we find that A2 = 0. So, u=− A1 z2 + A3 C 2 (6.136) From the second boundary condition and Eq. (6.136), A3 = A1 H 2 2C or u = − A1 z2 A1 H 2 + C 2 C 2 (6.137) (6.138) Consolidation 351 From the third boundary condition and Eq. (6.138), u= A1 H 2 C 2 or A1 = 2C u H2 Substitution of this value of A1 into Eq. (6.138) yields 
z2 u = u 1− 2 H (6.139) (6.140) Equation (6.140) shows a parabolic pattern of excess pore water pressure distribution, which remains constant during the controlled-gradient test (time t1 –t3 in Figure 6.36). This closely corresponds to Terzaghi isocrone (Figure 6.4) for T = 008. Combining Eqs. (6.132) and (6.139), we obtain 
2C u = A1 = t H2 
H 2 or C = t 2 u (6.141) Interpretation of experimental results The following information will be available from the constant-gradient test: 1. Initial height of the specimen Hi and height Ht at any time during the test 2. Rate of application of the load P and thus the rate of application of stress 
/t on the specimen 3. Differential pore pressure u 4. Time t1 5. Time t3 6. Time t4 ′ The plot of e versus
av can be obtained in the following manner: 1. Calculate the initial void ratio e0 . 2. Calculate the change in void ratio at any other time t during the test as e= H Ht 1 + e0  = 1 + e0  Hi Hi where H = Ht is the total change in height from the beginning of the test. So, the average void ratio at time t is e = e0 − e. 352 Consolidation 3. Calculate the average effective stress at time t using the known total stress
applied on the specimen at that time: ′
av =
− uav where uav is the average excess pore water pressure in the specimen, which can be calculated from Eq. (6.140). Calculation of the coefficient of consolidation is as follows: 1. At time t1 , C = 008H 2 t1 2. At time t1 < t < t3 , C =
H2 t 2 u Note that
/ t H, and 3. Between time t3 and t4 , C = (6.141′ ) u are all known from the tests. 102H 2 11 − 008H 2 = t 3 − t4 t 3 − t4 6.14 Sand drains In order to accelerate the process of consolidation settlement for the construction of some structures, the useful technique of building sand drains can be used. Sand drains are constructed by driving down casings or hollow mandrels into the soil. The holes are then filled with sand, after which the casings are pulled out. When a surcharge is applied at ground surface, the pore water pressure in the clay will increase, and there will be drainage in the vertical and horizontal directions (Figure 6.37a). The horizontal drainage is induced by the sand drains. Hence the process of dissipation of excess pore water pressure created by the loading (and hence the settlement) is accelerated. The basic theory of sand drains was presented by Rendulic (1935) and Barron (1948) and later summarized by Richart (1959). In the study of sand drains, two fundamental cases: 1. Free-strain case. When the surcharge applied at the ground surface is of a flexible nature, there will be equal distribution of surface load. This will result in an uneven settlement at the surface. Figure 6.37 (a) Sand drains and (b) layout of sand drains. 354 Consolidation 2. Equal-strain case. When the surcharge applied at the ground surface is rigid, the surface settlement will be the same all over. However, this will result in an unequal distribution of stress. Another factor that must be taken into consideration is the effect of “smear.” A smear zone in a sand drain is created by the remolding of clay during the drilling operation for building it (see Figure 6.37a). This remolding of the clay results in a decrease of the coefficient of permeability in the horizontal direction. The theories for free-strain and equal-strain consolidation are given below. In the development of these theories, it is assumed that drainage takes place only in the radial direction, i.e., no dissipation of excess pore water pressure in the vertical direction. Free-strain consolidation with no smear Figure 6.37b shows the general pattern of the layout of sand drains. For triangular spacing of the sand drains, the zone of influence of each drain is hexagonal in plan. This hexagon can be approximated as an equivalent circle of diameter de . Other notations used in this section are as follows: 1. re = radius of the equivalent circle = de /2. 2. rw = radius of the sand drain well. 3. rs = radial distance from the centerline of the drain well to the farthest point of the smear zone. Note that, in the no-smear case, rw = rs . The basic differential equation of Terzaghi’s consolidation theory for flow in the vertical direction is given in Eq. (6.14). For radial drainage, this equation can be written as 
2 u  u 1 u = Cr + t r 2 r t (6.142) where u = excess pore water pressure r = radial distance measured from center of drain well Cr = coefficient of consolidation in radial direction For solution of Eq. (6.142), the following boundary conditions are used: 1. At time t = 0 u = ui . 2. At time t > 0 u = 0 at r = rw . 3. At r = re  u/r = 0. Consolidation 355 With the above boundary conditions, Eq. (6.142) yields the solution for excess pore water pressure at any time t and radial distance r: u= =  1 2  & & & −2U1 U0 r/rw  exp−42 n2 Tr  n2 U02 n − U12  (6.143) In Eq. (6.143), n= re rw (6.144) U1  = J1 Y0  − Y1 J0  (6.145) U0 n = J0 nY0  − Y0 nJ0 


 r r r U0 = J0 Y0  − Y0 J  rw rw rw 0 (6.146) (6.147) where J0 = Bessel function of first kind of zero order J1 = Bessel function of first kind of first order Y0 = Bessel function of second kind of zero order Y1 = Bessel function of second kind of first order 1  2  & & & = roots of Bessel function that satisfy J1 nY0  − Y1 nJ0  = 0 Tr = time factor for radial flow = Cr t de2 (6.148) In Eq. (6.148), Cr = kh m  w (6.149) where kh is the coefficient of permeability in the horizontal direction. The average pore water pressure uav throughout the soil mass may now be obtained from Eq. (6.143) as uav = ui =  1 2  & & & 4U12  2 n2 − 1n2 U02 n − U12  × exp−42 n2 Tr  (6.150) The average degree of consolidation Ur can be determined as Ur = 1 − uav ui Figure 6.38 shows the variation of Ur with the time factor Tr . (6.151) 356 Consolidation Figure 6.38 Free strain—variation of degree of consolidation Ur with time factor Tr . Equal-strain consolidation with no smear The problem of equal-strain consolidation with no smear rw = rs  was solved by Barron (1948). The results of the solution are described below (refer to Figure 6.37). The excess pore water pressure at any time t and radial distance r is given by
   r 4uav r 2 − rw2 2 u= 2 r ln − de F n e rw 2 (6.152) where F n = 3n2 − 1 n2 lnn − n2 − 1 4n2 (6.153) uav = average value of pore water pressure throughout clay layer = ui e  (6.154) Consolidation = −8Tr F n 357 (6.155) The average degree of consolidation due to radial drainage is Ur = 1 − exp  −8Tr F n  (6.156) Table 6.5 gives the values of the time factor Tr for various values of Ur . For re /rw > 5 the free-strain and equal-strain solutions give approximately the same results for the average degree of consolidation. Olson (1977) gave a solution for the average degree of consolidation Ur for time-dependent loading (ramp load) similar to that for vertical drainage, as described in Sec. 6.3. Referring to Figure 6.8b, the surcharge increases from zero at time t = 0–q at time t = tc . For t ≥ tc , the surcharge is equal to q. For this case Tr′ = Cvr t = 4Tr re2 (6.157) Trc′ = Cvr tc re2 (6.158) and For Tr′ ≤ Trc′ Ur = Tr′ − A1 1 − expATr′  Trc′ (6.159) For Tr′ ≥ Trc′ Ur = 1 − 1 expATrc′  − 1 exp−ATr′  ATrc′ (6.160) where A= 2 F n (6.161) Figure 6.39 shows the variation of Ur with Tr′ and Trc′ for n = 5 and 10. Table 6.5 Solution for radial-flow equation (equal vertical strain) Degree of consolidation Ur % 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 Time factor Tr for value of n= re /rw  5 10 15 20 25 0 0.0012 0.0024 0.0036 0.0048 0.0060 0.0072 0.0085 0.0098 0.0110 0.0123 0.0136 0.0150 0.0163 0.0177 0.0190 0.0204 0.0218 0.0232 0.0247 0.0261 0.0276 0.0291 0.0306 0.0321 0.0337 0.0353 0.0368 0.0385 0.0401 0.0418 0.0434 0.0452 0.0469 0.0486 0.0504 0.0522 0.0541 0.0560 0.579 0.0598 0.0618 0.0638 0.0658 0.0679 0.0700 0.0721 0 0.0020 0.0040 0.0060 0.0081 0.0101 0.1222 0.0143 0.0165 0.0186 0.0208 0.0230 0.0252 0.0275 0.0298 0.0321 0.0344 0.0368 0.0392 0.0416 0.0440 0.0465 0.0490 0.0516 0.0541 0.0568 0.0594 0.0621 0.0648 0.0676 0.0704 0.0732 0.0761 0.0790 0.0820 0.0850 0.0881 0.0912 0.0943 0.0975 0.1008 0.1041 0.1075 0.1109 0.1144 0.1180 0.1216 0 0.0025 0.0050 0.0075 0.0101 0.0126 0.0153 0.0179 0.0206 0.0232 0.0260 0.0287 0.0315 0.0343 0.0372 0.0401 0.0430 0.0459 0.0489 0.0519 0.0550 0.0581 0.0612 0.0644 0.0676 0.0709 0.0742 0.0776 0.810 0.0844 0.0879 0.0914 0.0950 0.0987 0.1024 0.1062 0.1100 0.1139 0.1178 0.1218 0.1259 0.1300 0.1342 0.1385 0.1429 0.1473 0.1518 0 0.0028 0.0057 0.0086 0.0115 0.0145 0.0174 0.0205 0.0235 0.0266 0.0297 0.0328 0.0360 0.0392 0.0425 0.0458 0.0491 0.0525 0.0559 0.0594 0.0629 0.0664 0.0700 0.0736 0.0773 0.0811 0.0848 0.0887 0.0926 0.0965 0.1005 0.1045 0.1087 0.1128 0.1171 0.1214 0.1257 0.1302 0.1347 0.1393 0.1439 0.1487 0.1535 0.1584 0.1634 0.1684 0.1736 0 0.0031 0.0063 0.0094 0.0126 0.0159 0.0191 0.0225 0.0258 0.0292 0.0326 0.0360 0.0395 0.0431 0.0467 0.0503 0.0539 0.0576 0.0614 0.0652 0.0690 0.0729 0.0769 0.0808 0.0849 0.0890 0.0931 0.0973 0.1016 0.1059 0.1103 0.1148 0.1193 0.1239 0.1285 0.1332 0.1380 0.1429 0.1479 0.1529 0.1580 0.1632 0.1685 0.1739 0.1793 0.1849 0.1906 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 0.0743 0.0766 0.0788 0.0811 0.0835 0.0859 0.0884 0.0909 0.0935 0.0961 0.0988 0.1016 0.1044 0.1073 0.1102 0.1133 0.1164 0.1196 0.1229 0.1263 0.1298 0.1334 0.1371 0.1409 0.1449 0.1490 0.1533 0.1577 0.1623 0.1671 0.1720 0.1773 0.1827 0.1884 0.1944 0.2007 0.2074 0.2146 0.2221 0.2302 0.2388 0.2482 0.2584 0.2696 0.2819 0.2957 0.3113 0.3293 0.3507 0.3768 0.4105 0.4580 0.5391 0.1253 0.1290 0.1329 0.1368 0.1407 0.1448 0.1490 0.1532 0.1575 0.1620 0.1665 0.1712 0.1759 0.1808 0.1858 0.1909 0.1962 0.2016 0.2071 0.2128 0.2187 0.2248 0.2311 0.2375 0.2442 0.2512 0.2583 0.2658 0.2735 0.2816 0.2900 0.2988 0.3079 0.3175 0.3277 0.3383 0.3496 0.3616 0.3743 0.3879 0.4025 0.4183 0.4355 0.4543 0.4751 0.4983 0.5247 0.5551 0.5910 0.6351 0.6918 0.7718 0.9086 0.1564 0.1611 0.1659 0.1708 0.1758 0.1809 0.1860 0.1913 0.1968 0.2023 0.2080 0.2138 0.2197 0.2258 0.2320 0.2384 0.2450 0.2517 0.2587 0.2658 0.2732 0.2808 0.2886 0.2967 0.3050 0.3134 0.3226 0.3319 0.3416 0.3517 0.3621 0.3731 0.3846 0.3966 0.4090 0.4225 0.4366 0.4516 0.4675 0.4845 0.5027 0.5225 0.5439 0.5674 0.5933 0.6224 0.6553 0.6932 0.7382 0.7932 0.8640 0.9640 1.1347 0.1789 0.1842 0.1897 0.1953 0.2020 0.2068 0.2127 0.2188 0.2250 0.2313 0.2378 0.2444 0.2512 0.2582 0.2653 0.2726 0.2801 0.2878 0.2958 0.3039 0.3124 0.3210 0.3300 0.3392 0.3488 0.3586 0.3689 0.3795 0.3906 0.4021 0.4141 0.4266 0.4397 0.4534 0.4679 0.4831 0.4992 0.5163 0.5345 0.5539 0.5748 0.5974 0.6219 0.6487 0.6784 0.7116 0.7492 0.7927 0.8440 0.9069 0.9879 1.1022 1.2974 0.1964 0.2023 0.2083 0.2144 0.2206 0.2270 0.2335 0.2402 0.2470 0.2539 0.2610 0.2683 0.2758 0.2834 0.2912 0.2993 0.3075 0.3160 0.3247 0.3337 0.3429 0.3524 0.3623 0.3724 0.3829 0.3937 0.4050 0.4167 0.4288 0.4414 0.4546 0.4683 0.4827 0.4978 0.5137 0.5304 0.5481 0.5668 0.5868 0.6081 0.6311 0.6558 0.6827 0.7122 0.7448 0.7812 0.8225 0.8702 0.9266 0.9956 1.0846 1.2100 1.4244 Figure 6.39 Olson’s solution for radial flow under single ramp loading for n = 5 and 10 [Eqs. (6.160) and (6.161)]. Consolidation 361 Effect of smear zone on radial consolidation Barron (1948) also extended the analysis of equal-strain consolidation by sand drains to account for the smear zone. The analysis is based on the assumption that the clay in the smear zone will have one boundary with zero excess pore water pressure and the other boundary with an excess pore water pressure that will be time dependent. Based on this assumption.

   r 1 r 2 − rs2 kh n2 − S 2 u = ′ uav ln + − ln S m re 2re2 ks n2 (6.162) where ks = coefficient of permeability of the smeared zone S= rs rw (6.163) S2 3 n n2 k + − ln + h 2 2 2 n −S S 4 4n ks 
−8Tr uav = ui exp m′ m′ =
 n2 − S 2 ln S n2 (6.164) (6.165) The average degree of consolidation is given by the relation 
−8Tr uav = 1 − exp Ur = 1 − ui m′ (6.166) 6.15 Numerical solution for radial drainage (sand drain) As shown above for vertical drainage (Sec. 6.4), we can adopt the finitedifference technique for solving consolidation problems in the case of radial drainage. From Eq. (6.142), 
2 u  u 1 u = Cr + t r 2 r t Let uR  tR , and rR be any reference excess pore water pressure, time, and radial distance, respectively. So, Nondimensional excess pore water pressure = ū = Nondimensional time = t̄ = t tR Nondimensional radial distance = r̄ = u uR (6.167) (6.168) r rR (6.169) 362 Consolidation Figure 6.40 Numerical solution for radial drainage. Substituting Eqs. (6.167)–(6.169) into Eq. (6.142), we get 1 ū Cr = 2 tR t̄ rR
2 ū 1 ū + r̄ 2 r r̄  (6.170) Referring to Figure 6.40, 1 ū = ū − ū0t̄  t̄ t̄ 0t̄+ t̄ (6.171) 2 ū 1 = ū + ū3t̄ − 2ū0t̄  r̄ 2  r̄2 1t̄ (6.172) and 1 ū 1 = r r̄ r
u3t̄ − ū1t̄ 2 r̄  (6.173) If we adopt tR in such a way that 1/tR = Cr /rR2 and then substitute Eqs. (6.171)–(6.173) into Eq. (6.170), then ū0t̄+   ū3t̄ − ū1t̄ t̄ − 2ū0t̄ + ū0t̄ ū + ū3t̄ + t̄ =  r̄2 1t̄ 2r̄/ r̄ (6.174) Equation (6.174) is the basic finite-difference equation for solution of the excess pore water pressure (for radial drainage only). Consolidation 363 Example 6.9 For a sand drain, the following data are given: rw = 038 m re = 152 m rw = rs , and Cvr = 462×10−4 m2 /day. A uniformly distributed load 2 of 50 kN/m is applied at the ground surface. Determine the distribution of excess pore water pressure after 10 days of load application assuming radial drainage only. solution Let rR = 038 m r = 038 m, and 152/038 = 4 r̄/rR = 038/038 = 1 t̄ = t = 5 days. So, r̄e = re /rR = Cr t 462 × 10−4 5 = = 016 0382 rR2 t̄ 016 = = 016 2  r̄ 12 2 Let uR = 05 kN/m . So, immediately after load application, ū = 50/05 = 100. Figure 6.41 shows the initial nondimensional pore water pressure distribution at time t = 0. (Note that at r̄ = 1 ū = 0 owing to the drainage face.) At 5 days: ū = 0 r̄ = 1. From Eq. (6.174), ū0t̄+ t̄ = Figure 6.41   ū3t̄ − ū1t̄ t̄ − 2 ū + ū + ū 0t̄ + ū0t̄ 3t̄  r̄2 1t̄ 2r̄/ r̄ Excess pore water pressure variation with time for radial drainage. 364 Consolidation At r̄ = 2, ū0t̄+   100 − 0 − 2100 + 100 = 88 t̄ = 016 0 + 100 + 22/1 At r̄ = 3,   100 − 100 ū0t̄+ t̄ = 016 100 + 100 + − 2100 + 100 = 100 23/1 Similarly, at r̄ = 4, ū0t̄+ t̄ = 100 (note that, here, ū3t̄ = ū1t̄ ). At 10 days: At r̄ = 1 ū = 0. At r̄ = 2, ū0t̄+   100 − 0 − 288 + 88 t̄ = 016 0 + 100 + 22/1 = 7984  80 At r̄ = 3,   100 − 88 ū0t̄+ t̄ = 016 88 + 100 + − 2100 + 100 = 984 23/1 At r̄ = 4, ū = 100 u = ū × uR = 05ū kN/m 2 The distribution of nondimensional excess pore water pressure is shown in Figure 6.41. 6.16 General comments on sand drain problems Figure 6.37b shows a triangular pattern of the layout of sand drains. In some instances, the sand drains may also be laid out in a square pattern. For all practical purposes, the magnitude of the radius of equivalent circles can be given as follows. Consolidation 365 Triangular pattern re = 0525drain spacing (6.175) Square pattern re = 0565drain spacing (6.176) Wick drains and geodrains have recently been developed as alternatives to the sand drain for inducing vertical drainage in saturated clay deposits. They appear to be better, faster, and cheaper. They essentially consist of paper, plastic, or geotextile strips that are held in a long tube. The tube is pushed into the soft clay deposit, then withdrawn, leaving behind the strips. These strips act as vertical drains and induce rapid consolidation. Wick drains and geodrains, like sand drains, can be placed at desired spacings. The main advantage of these drains over sand drains is that they do not require drilling, and thus installation is much faster. For rectangular flexible drains the radius of the equivalent circles can be given as rw = b + t  (6.177) where b is width of the drain and t thickness of the drain. The relation for average degree of consolidation for vertical drainage only was presented in Sec. 6.2. Also the relations for the degree of consolidation due to radial drainage only were given in Secs 6.14 and 6.15. In reality, the drainage for the dissipation of excess pore water pressure takes place in both directions simultaneously. For such a case, Carrillo (1942) has shown that U = 1 − 1 − U 1 − Ur  (6.178) where U = average degree of consolidation for simultaneous vertical and radial drainage U = average degree of consolidation calculated on the assumption that only vertical drainage exists (note the notation Uav was used before in this chapter) Ur = average degree of consolidation calculated on the assumption that only radial drainage exists Example 6.10 A 6-m-thick clay layer is drained at the top and bottom and has some sand drains. The given data are C (for vertical drainage) = 4951 × 366 Consolidation 10−4 m2 /day kv = kh  dw = 045 m de = 3 m rw = rs (i.e., no smear at the periphery of drain wells). It has been estimated that a given uniform surcharge would cause a total consolidation settlement of 250 mm without the sand drains. Calculate the consolidation settlement of the clay layer with the same surcharge and sand drains at time t = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1 year. solution Vertical drainage: C = 4951 × 10−4 m/day = 1807 m/year. T = C t 1807 × t = = 02008t  02t H2 6/22 (E6.1) Radial drainage: re 15 m = 667 = n = rw 0225 m n2 lnn − 3n2 − 1 4n2 equal strain case   6672 36672 − 1 ln 667 − = 6672 − 1 46672 Fn = n2 − 1 = 194 − 0744 = 1196 Since kv = kh  C = Cr . So, Tr = Cr t 1807 × t = = 02t de2 32 (E6.2) The steps in the calculation of the consolidation settlement are shown in Table 6.6. From Table 6.6, the consolidation settlement at t = 1 year is 217.5 mm. Without the sand drains, the consolidation settlement at the end of 1 year would have been only 126.25 mm. Consolidation 367 Table 6.6 Steps in calculation of consolidation settlement t (year) T [Eq. (E6.1)] U (Table 6.1) 1 − U Tr [Eq. (E6.2)] 1 − exp −8Tr / F n = Ur 1 − Ur U = 1− 1 − U  1 − Ur  Sc = 250 ×U mm 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2 0 0.22 0.32 0.39 0.45 0.505 1 0.78 0.68 0.61 0.55 0.495 0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2 0 0.235 0.414 0.552 0.657 0.738 1 0.765 0.586 0.448 0.343 0.262 0 0.404 0.601 0.727 0.812 0.870 0 101 150.25 181.75 203 217.5 PROBLEMS 6.1 Consider a clay layer drained at the top and bottom as shown in Figure 6.3a. For the case of constant initial excess pore water pressure ui = u0  and T = 04, determine the degree of consolidation Uz at z/Ht = 04. For the solution, start from Eq. (6.32). 6.2 Starting from Eq. (6.34), solve for the average degree of consolidation for linearly varying initial excess pore water pressure distribution for a clay layer with two-way drainage (Figure 6.3d) for T = 06. 6.3 Refer to Figure 6.7a. For the 5-m-thick clay layer, C = 013 cm2 /min and 2 q = 170 kN/m . Plot the variation of excess pore water pressure in the clay layer with depth after 6 months of load application. 6.4 A 25 cm total consolidation settlement of the two clay layers shown in Figure P6.1 is expected owing to the application of the uniform surcharge q. Find the duration after the load application at which 12.5 cm of total settlement would take place. 6.5 Repeat Prob. 6.4, assuming that a layer of rock is located at the bottom of the 1.5-m-thick clay layer. 6.6 Due to a certain loading condition, the initial excess pore water pressure distribution in a 4-m-thick clay layer is shown in Figure P6.2. Given that C = 03 mm2 /s, determine the degree of consolidation after 100 days of load application. 2 6.7 A uniform surcharge of 96 kN/m is applied at the ground surface of a soil profile, as shown in Figure P6.3. Determine the distribution of the excess pore water pressure in the 3-m-thick clay layer after 1 year of load application. Use the numerical method of calculation given in Sec. 6.4. Also calculate the average degree of consolidation at that time using the above results. 6.8 A two-layered soil is shown in Figure P6.4. At a given time t = 0, a uniform load was applied at the ground surface so as to increase the pore water pressure 2 by 60 kN/m at all depths. Divide the soil profile into six equal layers. Using the numerical analysis method, find the excess pore water pressure at depths of −3 −6 −9 −12 −15, and −18 m at t = 25 days. Use t = 5 days. 6.9 Refer to Figure P6.5. A uniform surcharge q is applied at the ground surface. The variation of q with time is shown in Figure P6.5b. Divide the 10-m-thick clay q 0.6 m Sand 1.5 m G.W.T Clay Cv = 0.13 cm2/min 3m 0.6 m Sand Clay Cv = 0.13 cm2/min 1.5 m Sand Figure P6.1 Figure P6.2 Uniform surcharge 96 kN/m2 1.5 m Sand 1.5 m Sand 3m G.W.T. Clay Cv = 9.3 × 103 cm2/yr Sand Figure P6.3 Consolidation 369 q = 60 kN/m2 G.W.T. z=0 6m Clay I k1 = 3 × 10–3mm/hr Cv(1) = 1.1 cm2/day 12 m Clay II k2 = 6 × 10–3mm/hr Cv(2) = 4.4 cm2/day z = –6 m z = –18 m × × × × × × Rock × × × × Figure P6.4 Uniform surcharge, q 3 m Sand G.W.T 10 m Clay Cv = 2 × 10–2 m2/day × × × × Rock × × × (a) q = 235 kN/m2 q (kN/m2) 225 200 205 165 100 0 0 10 20 30 Time (days) (b) 40 Figure P6.5 layer into five layers, each 2 m thick. Determine the excess pore water pressure in the clay layer at t = 60 days by the numerical method. 6.10 Refer to Figure P6.5a. The uniform surcharge is time dependent. Given 2 2 q kN/m  = 2t (days) (for t ≤ 100 days), and q = 200 kN/m (for t ≥ 100 days), 370 Consolidation determine the average degree of consolidation for the clay layer at t = 50 days and t = 1 year. Use Figure 6.8c. 6.11 The average effective overburden pressure on a 10-m-thick clay layer in the 2 field is 136 kN/m , and the average void ratio is 0.98. If a uniform surcharge of 2 200 kN/m is applied on the ground surface, determine the consolidation settlement for the following cases, given Cc = 035 and Cr = 008: (a) Preconsolidation pressure,
c′ = 350 kN/m 2 (b)
c′ = 200 kN/m 2 6.12 Refer to Prob. 6.11b. (a) What is the average void ratio at the end of 100% consolidation? (b) If C = 15 mm2 /min, how long will it take for the first 100 mm of settlement? Assume two-way drainage for the clay layer. 6.13 The results of an oedometer test on a clay layer are as follows:  ′ kN/m2  Void ratio, e 385 770 0.95 0.87 The time for 90% consolidation was 10 min, and the average thickness of the clay was 23 mm (two-way drainage). Calculate the coefficient of permeability of clay in mm/s. 6.14 A 5-m-thick clay layer, drained at the top only, has some sand drains. A uniform surcharge is applied at the top of the clay layer. Calculate the average degree of consolidation for combined vertical and radial drainage after 100 days of load application, given Cr = C = 4 mm2 / min, de = 2 m, and rw = 02 m. Use the equal-strain solution. 6.15 Redo Prob. 6.14. Assume that there is some smear around the sand drains and that rs = 03 m and kk /ks = 4. (This is an equal-strain case.) 6.16 For a sand drain problem, rw = 03 m, rs = 03 m, re = 18 m, and Cr = 2 28 cm2 /day. If a uniform load of 100 kN/m is applied on the ground surface, find the distribution of the excess pore water pressure after 50 days of load application. Consider that there is radial drainage only. Use the numerical method. References Azzouz, A. S., R. J. Krizek, and R. B. Corotis, Regression Analysis of Soil Compressibility, Soils Found. Tokyo, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 19–29, 1976. Barden, L., Consolidation of Clay with Non-Linear Viscosity, Geotechnique, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 345–362, 1965. Consolidation 371 Barden, L., Primary and Secondary Consolidation of Clay and Peat, Geotechnique, vol. 18, pp. 1–14, 1968. Barron, R. A., Consolidation of Fine-Grained Soils by Drain Wells, Trans., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 113, p. 1719, 1948. Bjerrum, L., Embankments on Soft Ground, in Proc., Specialty Conf. Perform. Earth and Earth-Supported Structures, vol. 2, pp. 1–54, Am. Soc. of Civ. Eng., 1972. Brummund, W. F., E. Jonas, and C. C. Ladd, Estimating In Situ Maximum Past (Preconsolidation) Pressure of Saturated Clays from Results of Laboratory Consolidometer Tests, Special Report 163, Trans. Res. Board, pp. 4–12, 1976. Carrillo, N., Simple Two- and Three-Dimensional Cases in Theory of Consolidation of Soils, J. Math. Phys., vol. 21, no. 1, 1942. Casagrande, A., The Determination of the Preconsolidation Load and Its Practical Significance, Proc., 1st Intl. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., p. 60, 1936. Casagrande, A. and R. E. Fadum, Notes on Soil Testing for Engineering Purposes, Publ. 8, Harvard Univ. Graduate School of Eng., 1940. Crawford, C. B., Interpretation of the Consolidation Tests, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 90, no. SM5, pp. 93–108, 1964. Gibson, R. E. and K. Y. Lo, A Theory of Consolidation for Soils Exhibiting Secondary Compression, Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Publication No. 41, 1961. Hansbo, S., A New Approach to the Determination of Shear Strength of Clay by the Fall Cone Test, Report 14, Swedish Geotech. Inst., Stockholm, 1957. Leonards, G. A. and A. G. Altschaeffl, Compressibility of Clay, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 90, no. SM5, pp. 133–156, 1964. Lowe, J., III, E. Jonas, and V. Obrician, Controlled Gradient Consolidation Test, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 95, no. SM1, pp. 77–98, 1969. Luscher, U., Discussion, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 91, no. SM1, pp. 190–195, 1965. Mayne, P. W. and J. K. Mitchell, Profiling of Overconsolidation Ratio in Clays by Field Vane, Can. Geotech. J., vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 150–157, 1988. Mesri, G., Coefficient of Secondary Compression, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 99, no. SMI, pp. 123–137, 1973. Mesri, G. and P. M. Godlewski, Time and Stress–Compressiblity Interrelationship, J. Geotech. Eng., J. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 103, no. 5, pp. 417–430, 1977. Nacci, V. A., M. C. Wang, and K. R. Demars, Engineering Behavior of Calcareous Soils, Proc. Civ. Eng. Oceans III, vol. 1, Am. Soc. of Civ. Eng., pp. 380– 400, 1975. Nagaraj, T. and B. S. R. Murty, Prediction of the Preconsolidation Pressure and Recompression Index of Soils, Geotech. Test. J., vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 199–202, 1985. Olson, R. E., Consolidation Under Time-Dependent Loading, J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 103, no. GT1, pp. 55–60, 1977. Park, J. H. and T. Koumoto, New Compression Index Equation, J. Geotech. and Geoenv. Engr., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 130, no. 2, pp. 223–226, 2004. Raju, P. S. R., N. S. Pandian, and T. S. Nagaraj, Analysis and Estimation of Coefficient of Consolidation, Geotech. Test. J., vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 252–258, 1995. Rendon-Herrero, O., Universal Compression Index, J. Geotech. Eng., vol. 109, no. 10, p. 1349, 1983. Rendulic, L., Der Hydrodynamische Spannungsaugleich in Zentral Entwässerten Tonzylindern, Wasser-wirtsch. Tech., vol. 2, pp. 250–253, 269–273, 1935. 372 Consolidation Richart, F. E., Review of the Theories for Sand Drains, Trans., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 124, pp. 709–736, 1959. Robinson, R. G. and M. M. Allam, Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation from Early Stage of logt Plot, Geotech. Testing J., ASTM, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 316–320, 1996. Schiffman, R. L., C. C. Ladd, and A. T. Chen, The Secondary Consolidation of Clay, I.U.T.A.M. Symposium on Rheological Soil Mechanics, Grenoble, p. 273, 1964. Schmertmann, J. H., Undisturbed Laboratory Behavior of Clay, Trans., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 120, p. 1201, 1953. Scott, R. F., Principles of Soil Mechanics, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1963. Sivaram, B. and P. Swamee, A Computational Method for Consolidation Coefficient, Soils Found. Tokyo, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 48–52, 1977. Smith, R. E. and H. E. Wahls, Consolidation Under Constant Rate of Strain, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 95, no. SM2, pp. 519–538, 1969. Sridharan, A. and K. Prakash, Improved Rectangular Hyperbola Method for the Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation, Geotech. Test. J., vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 37–40, 1985. Sridharan, A. and K. Prakash, $ − t/$ Method for the Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation, Geotech. Test. J., vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 131–134, 1993. Stas, C. V. and F. H. Kulhawy, Critical Evaluation of Design Methods for Foundations under Axial Uplift and Compression Loading, Report EL-3771, EPRI, Palo Alto, California, 1984. Su, H. L., Procedure for Rapid Consolidation Test, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 95, Proc. Pap. 1729, 1958. Tan, T. K., Discussion, Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., vol. 3, p. 278, 1957. Taylor, D. W., Research on Consolidation of Clays, Publ. 82, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1942. Taylor, D. W. and W. Merchant, A Theory of Clay Consolidation Accounting for Secondary Compression, J. Math. Phys., vol. 19, p. 167, 1940. Terzaghi, K., Erdbaumechanik auf Boden-physicalischen Grundlagen, Deuticke, Vienna, 1925. Terzaghi, K., Theoretical Soil Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 1943. Terzaghi, K., and R. B. Peck, Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York, 1967. Chapter 7 Shear strength of soils 7.1 Introduction The shear strength of soils is an important aspect in many foundation engineering problems such as the bearing capacity of shallow foundations and piles, the stability of the slopes of dams and embankments, and lateral earth pressure on retaining walls. In this chapter, we will discuss the shear strength characteristics of granular and cohesive soils and the factors that control them. 7.2 Mohr–Coulomb failure criteria In 1900, Mohr presented a theory for rupture in materials. According to this theory, failure along a plane in a material occurs by a critical combination of normal and shear stresses, and not by normal or shear stress alone. The functional relation between normal and shear stress on the failure plane can be given by s = f
 (7.1) where s is the shear stress at failure and
is the normal stress on the failure plane. The failure envelope defined by Eq. (7.1) is a curved line, as shown in Figure 7.1. In 1776, Coulomb defined the function f
 as s = c +
tan  (7.2) where c is cohesion and  is the angle of friction of the soil. Equation (7.2) is generally referred to as the Mohr–Coulomb failure criteria. The significance of the failure envelope can be explained using Figure 7.1. If the normal and shear stresses on a plane in a soil mass are such that they plot as point A, shear failure will not occur along that plane. Shear failure along a plane will occur if the stresses plot as point B, which 374 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.1 Mohr–Coulomb failure criteria. falls on the failure envelope. A state of stress plotting as point C cannot exist, since this falls above the failure envelope; shear failure would have occurred before this condition was reached. In saturated soils, the stress carried by the soil solids is the effective stress, and so Eq. (7.2) must be modified: s = c + 
− u tan  = c +
′ tan  (7.3) where u is the pore water pressure and + ′ the effective stress on the plane. The term  is also referred to as the drained friction angle. For sand, inorganic silts, and normally consolidated clays, c ≈ 0. The value of c is greater than zero for overconsolidated clays. The shear strength parameters of granular and cohesive soils will be treated separately in this chapter. 7.3 Shearing strength of granular soils According to Eq. (7.3), the shear strength of a soil can be defined as s = c +
′ tan . For granular soils with c = 0, s =
′ tan  (7.4) Shear strength of soils 375 The determination of the friction angle  is commonly accomplished by one of two methods; the direct shear test or the triaxial test. The test procedures are given below. Direct shear test A schematic diagram of the direct shear test equipment is shown in Figure 7.2. Basically, the test equipment consists of a metal shear box into which the soil specimen is placed. The specimen can be square or circular in plan, about 19–25 cm2 in area, and about 25 mm in height. The box is split horizontally into two halves. Normal force on the specimen is applied from the top of the shear box by dead weights. The normal stress on the specimens obtained by the application of dead weights can be 2 as high as 1035 kN/m . Shear force is applied to the side of the top half of the box to cause failure in the soil specimen. (The two porous stones shown in Figure 7.2 are not required for tests on dry soil.) During the test, the shear displacement of the top half of the box and the change in specimen thickness are recorded by the use of horizontal and vertical dial gauges. Figure 7.3 shows the nature of the results of typical direct shear tests in loose, medium, and dense sands. Based on Figure 7.3, the following observations can be made: Figure 7.2 Direct shear test arrangement. 376 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.3 Direct shear test results in loose, medium, and dense sands. 1. In dense and medium sands, shear stress increases with shear displacement to a maximum or peak value m and then decreases to an approximately constant value c at large shear displacements. This constant stress c is the ultimate shear stress. 2. For loose sands the shear stress increases with shear displacement to a maximum value and then remains constant. 3. For dense and medium sands the volume of the specimen initially decreases and then increases with shear displacement. At large values of shear displacement, the volume of the specimen remains approximately constant. 4. For loose sands the volume of the specimen gradually decreases to a certain value and remains approximately constant thereafter. Shear strength of soils 377 If dry sand is used for the test, the pore water pressure u is equal to zero, and so the total normal stress
is equal to the effective stress
′ . The test may be repeated for several normal stresses. The angle of friction  for the sand can be determined by plotting a graph of the maximum or peak shear stresses versus the corresponding normal stresses, as shown in Figure 7.4. The Mohr–Coulomb failure envelope can be determined by drawing a straight line through the origin and the points representing the experimental results. The slope of this line will give the peak friction angle  of the soil. Similarly, the ultimate friction angle c can be determined by plotting the ultimate shear stresses c versus the corresponding normal stresses, as shown in Figure 7.4. The ultimate friction angle c represents a condition of shearing at constant volume of the specimen. For loose sands the peak friction angle is approximately equal to the ultimate friction angle. If the direct shear test is being conducted on a saturated granular soil, time between the application of the normal load and the shearing force should be allowed for drainage from the soil through the porous stones. Also, the shearing force should be applied at a slow rate to allow complete drainage. Since granular soils are highly permeable, this will not pose a problem. If complete drainage is allowed, the excess pore water pressure is zero, and so
=
′ . Some typical values of  and c for granular soils are given in Table 7.1. The strains in the direct shear test take place in two directions, i.e., in the vertical direction and in the direction parallel to the applied horizontal shear force. This is similar to the plane strain condition. There are some Figure 7.4 Determination of peak and ultimate friction angles from direct shear tests. 378 Shear strength of soils Table 7.1 Typical values of  and c for granular soils Type of soil Sand: round grains Loose Medium Dense Sand: angular grains Loose Medium Dense Sandy gravel (deg) c (deg) 28–30 30–35 35–38 26–30 30–35 35–40 40–45 34–48 30–35 33–36 inherent shortcomings of the direct shear test. The soil is forced to shear in a predetermined plane—i.e., the horizontal plane—which is not necessarily the weakest plane. Second, there is an unequal distribution of stress over the shear surface. The stress is greater at the edges than at the center. This type of stress distribution results in progressive failure (Figure 7.5). In the past, several attempts were made to improve the direct shear test. To that end, the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute developed a simple shear test device, which involves enclosing a cylindrical specimen in a rubber membrane reinforced with wire rings. As in the direct shear test, as the end plates move, the specimen distorts, as shown in Figure 7.6a. Although it is an improvement over the direct shear test, the shearing stresses are not uniformly distributed on the specimen. Pure shear as shown in Figure 7.6b only exists at the center of the specimen. Figure 7.5 Unequal stress distribution in direct shear equipment. Shear strength of soils 379 Figure 7.6 a Simple shear and b Pure shear. Triaxial test A schematic diagram of triaxial test equipment is shown in Figure 7.7. In this type of test, a soil specimen about 38 mm in diameter and 76 mm in length is generally used. The specimen is enclosed inside a thin rubber membrane and placed inside a cylindrical plastic chamber. For conducting the test, the chamber is usually filled with water or glycerine. The specimen Figure 7.7 Triaxial test equipment (after Bishop and Bjerrum, 1960). 380 Shear strength of soils is subjected to a confining pressure
3 by application of pressure to the fluid in the chamber. (Air can sometimes be used as a medium for applying the confining pressure.) Connections to measure drainage into or out of the specimen or pressure in the pore water are provided. To cause shear failure in the soil, an axial stress
is applied through a vertical loading ram. This is also referred to as deviator stress. The axial strain is measured during the application of the deviator stress. For determination of , dry or fully saturated soil can be used. If saturated soil is used, the drainage connection is kept open during the application of the confining pressure and the deviator stress. Thus, during the test, the excess pore water pressure in the specimen is equal to zero. The volume of the water drained from the specimen during the test provides a measure of the volume change of the specimen. For drained tests the total stress is equal to the effective stress. Thus the major effective principal stress is
1′ =
1 =
3 +
; the minor effective principal stress is
3′ =
3 ; and the intermediate effective principal stress is
2′ =
3′ . At failure, the major effective principal stress is equal to
3 +
f , where
f is the deviator stress at failure, and the minor effective principal stress is
3 . Figure 7.8 shows the nature of the variation of
with axial strain for loose and dense granular soils. Several tests with similar specimens can be conducted by using different confining pressures
3 . The value of the soil peak friction angle  can be determined by plotting effective-stress Mohr’s circles for various tests and drawing a common tangent to these Mohr’s circles passing through the origin. This is shown in Figure 7.9a. The angle that this envelope makes with the normal stress axis is equal to . It can be seen from Figure 7.9b that ab 
1′ −
3′ /2 = oa 
1′ +
3′ /2 
′
1 −
3′ −
3′ −1  = sin
1′ +
3′ failure sin  = or (7.5) However, it must be pointed out that in Figure 7.9a the failure envelope defined by the equation s =
′ tan  is an approximation to the actual curved failure envelope. The ultimate friction angle c for a given test can also be determined from the equation c = sin −1  ′
1c −
3′ ′ +
3′
1c  (7.6) Shear strength of soils 381 Figure 7.8 Drained triaxial test in granular soil a Application of confining pressure and b Application of deviator stress. ′ =
3′ +
c . For similar soils the friction angle  determined where
1c by triaxial tests is slightly lower 0–3  than that obtained from direct shear tests. The axial compression triaxial test described above is the conventional type. However, the loading process on the specimen in a triaxial chamber 382 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.9 Drained triaxial test results. can be varied in several ways. In general, the tests can be divided into two major groups: axial compression tests and axial extension tests. The following is a brief outline of each type of test (refer to Figure 7.10). Axial compression tests 1. Radial confining stress
r constant and axial stress
a increased. This is the test procedure described above. Shear strength of soils 383 2. Axial stress
a constant and radial confining stress
r decreased. 3. Mean principal stress constant and radial stress decreased. For drained compression tests,
a is equal to the major effective principal stress
1′ , and
r is equal to the minor effective principal stress
3′ , which is equal to the intermediate effective principal stress
2′ . For the test listed under item 3, the mean principal stress, i.e., 
1′ +
2′ +
3′ /3, is kept constant. Or, in other words,
1′ +
2′ +
3′ = J =
a + 2
r is kept constant by increasing
a and decreasing
r . Axial extension tests 1. Radial stress
r kept constant and axial stress
a decreased. 2. Axial stress
a constant and radial stress
r increased. 3. Mean principal stress constant and radial stress increased. For all drained extension tests at failure,
a is equal to the minor effective principal stress
3′ , and
r is equal to the major effective principal stress
1′ , which is equal to the intermediate effective principal stress
2′ . The detailed procedures for conducting these tests are beyond the scope of this text, and readers are referred to Bishop and Henkel (1969). Several investigations have been carried out to compare the peak friction angles determined by the axial compression tests to those obtained by the axial extension tests. A summary of these investigations is given by Roscoe et al. (1963). Some investigators found no difference in the value of  from compression and extension tests; however, others reported values of  Figure 7.10 Soil specimen subjected to axial and radial stresses. 384 Shear strength of soils determined from the extension tests that were several degrees greater than those obtained by the compression tests. 7.4 Critical void ratio We have seen that for shear tests in dense sands there is a tendency of the specimen to dilate as the test progresses. Similarly, in loose sand the volume gradually decreases (Figures 7.3 and 7.8). An increase or decrease of volume means a change in the void ratio of soil. The nature of the change of the void ratio with strain for loose and dense sands in shown in Figure 7.11. The void ratio for which the change of volume remains constant during shearing is called the critical void ratio. Figure 7.12 shows the results of some drained triaxial tests on washed Fort Peck sand. The void ratio after the application of
3 is plotted in the ordinate, and the change of volume, V , at the peak point of the stress–strain plot, is plotted along the abscissa. For a given
3 , the void ratio corresponding to V = 0 is the critical void ratio. Note that the critical void ratio is a function of the confining pressure
3 . It is, however, necessary to recognize that, whether the volume of the soil specimen is increasing or decreasing, the critical void ratio is reached only in the shearing zone, even if it is generally calculated on the basis of the total volume change of the specimen. The concept of critical void ratio was first introduced in 1938 by A. Casagrande to study liquefaction of granular soils. When a natural deposit of saturated sand that has a void ratio greater than the critical void ratio is subjected to a sudden shearing stress (due to an earthquake or to Figure 7.11 Definition of critical void ratio. Shear strength of soils 385 Figure 7.12 Critical void ratio from triaxial test on Fort Peck sand. blasting, for example), the sand will undergo a decrease in volume. This will result in an increase of pore water pressure u. At a given depth, the effective stress is given by the relation
′ =
− u. If
(i.e., the total stress) remains constant and u increases, the result will be a decrease in
′ . This, in turn, will reduce the shear strength of the soil. If the shear strength is reduced to a value which is less than the applied shear stress, the soil will fail. This is called soil liquefaction. An advanced study of soil liquefaction can be obtained from the work of Seed and Lee (1966). 7.5 Curvature of the failure envelope It was shown in Figure 7.1 that Mohr’s failure envelope [Eq. (7.1)] is actually curved, and the shear strength equation s = c +
tan  is only a straight-line approximation for the sake of simplicity. For a drained direct shear test on sand,  = tan−1 max /
′ . Since Mohr’s envelope is actually curved, a higher effective normal stress will yield lower values of . This fact is demonstrated in Figure 7.13, which is a plot of the results of direct shear 386 Shear strength of soils 35 φcv = 26.7° 34 Friction angle, φ (deg) 32 Effective normal stress = 48 kN/m2 30 96 kN/m2 192 kN/m2 28 384 kN/m2 Based on Taylor (1948) 26 0.54 0.58 768 kN/m2 0.62 0.66 0.68 Initial void ratio, e Figure 7.13 Variation of peak friction angle, , with effective normal stress on standard Ottawa sand. tests on standard Ottawa Sand. For loose sand, the value of  decreases from about 30 to less than 27 when the normal stress is increased from 48 2 to 768 kN/m . Similarly, for dense sand (initial void ratio approximately 0.56),  decreases from about 36 to about 305 due to a sixteen-fold increase of
′ . 2 For high values of confining pressure (greater than about 400 kN/m ), Mohr’s failure envelope sharply deviates from the assumption given by Eq. (7.3). This is shown in Figure 7.14. Skempton (1960, 1961) introduced the concept of angle of intrinsic friction for a formal relation between shear strength and effective normal stress. Based on Figure 7.14, the shear strength can be defined as s = k +
′ tan ) (7.7) where ) is the angle of intrinsic friction. For quartz, Skempton (1961) gave 2 the values of k ≈ 950 kN/m and ) ≈ 13 . Shear strength of soils 387 Figure 7.14 Failure envelope at high confining pressure. 7.6 General comments on the friction angle of granular soils The soil friction angle determined by the laboratory tests is influenced by two major factors. The energy applied to a soil by the external load is used both to overcome the frictional resistance between the soil particles and also to expand the soil against the confining pressure. The soil grains are highly irregular in shape and must be lifted over one another for sliding to occur. This behavior is called dilatency. [A detailed study of the stress dilatency theory was presented by Rowe (1962)]. Hence the angle of friction  can be expressed as  =  + (7.8) where  is the angle of sliding friction between the mineral surfaces and is the effect of interlocking. We saw in Table 7.1 that the friction angle of granular soils varied with the nature of the packing of the soil: the denser the packing, the higher the value of . If  for a given soil remains constant, from Eq. (7.8) the value of must increase with the increase of the denseness of soil packing. This is obvious, of course, because in a denser soil more work must be done to overcome the effect of interlocking. Table 7.2 provides a comparison of experimental values of  and c . This table provides a summary of results of several investigators who attempted to measure the angle of sliding friction of various materials. From this table, it can be seen that, even at constant volume, the value of  is less than c . This means that there 388 Shear strength of soils Table 7.2 Experimental values of  and c Reference Material  deg c deg Lee (1966) Steel ball, 2.38 mm diameter Glass bollotini Medium-to-fine quartz sand Feldspar (25–200 sieves) Quartz Feldspar Calcite Medium-to-fine quartz sand 7 17 26 37 24 38 34 26 14 24 32 42 Horne and Deere (1962) Rowe (1962) must be some degree of interlocking even when the overall volume change is zero at very high strains. Effect of angularity of soil particles. Other factors remaining constant, a soil possessing angular soil particles will show a higher friction angle  than one with rounded grains because the angular soil particles will have a greater degree of interlocking and thus cause a higher value of [Eq. (7.8)]. Effect of rate of loading during the test. The value of tan  in triaxial compression tests is not greatly affected by the rate of loading. For sand, Whitman and Healy (1963) compared tests conducted in 5 min and in 5 ms and found that tan  decreases at the most by about 10%. 7.7 Shear strength of granular soils under plane strain condition The results obtained from triaxial tests are widely used for the design of structures. However, under structures such as continuous wall footings, the soils are actually subjected to a plane strain type of loading, i.e., the strain in the direction of the intermediate principal stress is equal to zero. Several investigators have attempted to evaluate the effect of plane strain type of loading (Figure 7.15) on the angle of friction of granular soils. A summary of the results obtained was compiled by Lee (1970). To discriminate the plane strain drained friction angle from the triaxial drained friction angle, the following notations have been used in the discussion in this section. p = drained friction angle obtained from plane strain tests t = drained friction angle obtained from triaxial tests Lee (1970) also conducted some drained shear tests on a uniform sand collected from the Sacramento River near Antioch, California. Drained triaxial tests were conducted with specimens of diameter 35.56 mm and height 86.96 mm. Plane strain tests were carried out with rectangular specimens Shear strength of soils 389 Figure 7.15 Plane strain condition. 60.96 mm high and 2794 × 7112 mm in cross-sectional. The plane strain condition was obtained by the use of two lubricated rigid side plates. Loading of the plane strain specimens was achieved by placing them inside a triaxial chamber. All specimens, triaxial and plane strain, were anisotropically consolidated with a ratio of major to minor principal stress of 2:
′ kc = 1(consolidation)
′ 3(consolidation) =2 (7.9) The results of this study are instructive and are summarized below. 1. For loose sand having a relative density of 38%, at low confining pressure, p and t were determined to be 45 and 38 , respectively. Similarly, for medium-dense sand having a relative density of 78%, p and t were 48 and 40 , respectively. 2. At higher confining pressure, the failure envelopes (plane strain and triaxial) flatten, and the slopes of the two envelopes become the same. 3. Figure 7.16 shows the results of the initial tangent modulus, E, for various confining pressures. For given values of
3′ , the initial tangent modulus for plane strain loading shows a higher value than that for triaxial loading, although in both cases, E increases exponentially with the confining pressure. 4. The variation of Poisson’s ratio  with the confining pressure for plane strain and triaxial loading conditions is shown in Figure 7.17. The values of  were calculated by measuring the change of the volume 390 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.16 Initial tangent modulus from drained tests on Antioch sand (after Lee, 1970). Figure 7.17 Poisson’s ratio from drained tests on Antioch sand (after Lee, 1970). of specimens and the corresponding axial strains during loading. The derivation of the equations used for finding  can be explained with the aid of Figure 7.15. Assuming compressive strain to be positive, for the stresses shown in Figure 7.15, Shear strength of soils 391 (7.10) H = H ∈1 (7.11) B = B ∈2 (7.12) L = L ∈3 where H L B = height, length, and width of specimen H B L = change in height, length, and width of specimen due to application of stresses ∈1  ∈2  ∈3 = strains in direction of major, intermediate, and minor principal stresses The volume of the specimen before load application is equal to V = LBH, and the volume of the specimen after the load application is equal to V − V . Thus V = V − V − V = LBH − L − LB − BH − H = LBH − LBH1− ∈1 1− ∈2 1− ∈3  (7.13) where V is change in volume. Neglecting the higher order terms such as ∈1 ∈2  ∈2 ∈3  ∈3 ∈1 , and ∈1 ∈2 ∈3 , Eq. (7.13) gives = V =∈1 + ∈2 + ∈3 V (7.14) where  is the change in volume per unit volume of the specimen. For triaxial tests, ∈2 = ∈3 , and they are expansions (negative sign). So, ∈2 = ∈3 = − ∈1 . Substituting this into Eq. (7.14), we get  = ∈1 1 − 2, or
 1  v= 1− 2 ∈1 for triaxial test conditions (7.15) With plane strain loading conditions, ∈2 = 0 and ∈3 = − ∈1 . Hence, from Eq. (7.14),  =∈1 1 − , or v = 1−  ∈1 (for plane strain conditions) (7.16) Figure 7.17 shows that for a given value of
3′ the Poisson’s ratio obtained from plane strain loading is higher than that obtained from triaxial loading. Hence, on the basis of the available information at this time, it can be concluded that p exceeds the value of t by 0–8 . The greatest difference is associated with dense sands at low confining pressures. The smaller 392 Shear strength of soils differences are associated with loose sands at all confining pressures, or dense sand at high confining pressures. Although still disputed, several suggestions have been made to use a value of  ≈ p = 11t , for calculation of the bearing capacity of strip foundations. For rectangular foundations the stress conditions on the soil cannot be approximated by either triaxial or plane strain loadings. Meyerhof (1963) suggested for this case that the friction angle to be used for calculation of the ultimate bearing capacity should be approximated as
B  = 11 − 01 f Lf  t (7.17) where Lf is the length of foundation and Bf the width of foundation. After considering several experiment results, Lade and Lee (1976) gave the following approximate relations: p = 15t − 17 p = t t > 34 (7.18) i ≤ 34 (7.19) 7.8 Shear strength of cohesive soils The shear strength of cohesive soils can generally be determined in the laboratory by either direct shear test equipment or triaxial shear test equipment; however, the triaxial test is more commonly used. Only the shear strength of saturated cohesive soils will be treated here. The shear strength based on the effective stress can be given by [Eq. (7.3)] s = c +
′ tan. For normally consolidated clays, c ≈ 0, and for overconsolidated clays, c > 0. The basic features of the triaxial test equipment are shown in Figure 7.7. Three conventional types of tests are conducted with clay soils in the laboratory: 1. Consolidated drained test or drained test (CD test or D test). 2. Consolidated undrained test (CU test). 3. Unconsolidated undrained test (UU test). Each of these tests will be separately considered in the following sections. Consolidated drained test For the consolidated drained test, the saturated soil specimen is first subjected to a confining pressure
3 through the chamber fluid; as a result, the pore water pressure of the specimen will increase by uc . The connection to the drainage is kept open for complete drainage, so that uc becomes equal Shear strength of soils 393 Figure 7.18 Consolidated drained triaxial test in clay a Application of confining pressure and b Application of deviator stress. to zero. Then the deviator stress (piston stress)
is increased at a very slow rate, keeping the drainage valve open to allow complete dissipation of the resulting pore water pressure ud . Figure 7.18 shows the nature of the variation of the deviator stress with axial strain. From Figure 7.18, it must also be pointed out that, during the application of the deviator stress, the volume of the specimen gradually reduces for normally consolidated clays. However, overconsolidated clays go through some reduction of volume 394 Shear strength of soils initially but then expand. In a consolidated drained test the total stress is equal to the effective stress, since the excess pore water pressure is zero. At failure, the maximum effective principal stress is
1′ =
1 =
3 +
f , where
f is the deviator stress at failure. The minimum effective principal stress is
3′ =
3 . From the results of a number of tests conducted using several specimens, Mohr’s circles at failure can be plotted as shown in Figure 7.19. The values of c and  are obtained by drawing a common tangent to Mohr’s circles, which is the Mohr–Coulomb envelope. For normally consolidated clays (Figure 7.19a), we can see that c = 0. Thus the equation of the Mohr– Coulomb envelope can be given by s =
′ tan. The slope of the failure Figure 7.19 Failure envelope for (a) normally consolidated and (b) over consolidated clays from consolidated drained triaxial tests. Shear strength of soils 395 envelope will give us the angle of friction of the soil. As shown by Eq. (7.5), for these soils,
 
′ 
1 −
3′  ′ ′ 2 45 + or
=
tan sin  = 1 3
1′ +
3′ failure 2 Figure 7.20 shows a modified form of Mohr’s failure envelope of pure clay minerals. Note that it is a plot of 
1′ −
3′ failure /2 versus 
1′ +
3′ failure /2. For overconsolidated clays (Figure 7.19b), c = 0. So the shear strength follows the equation s = c +
′ tan. The values of c and  can be determined by measuring the intercept of the failure envelope on the shear stress axis and the slope of the failure envelope, respectively. To obtain a general relation between
1′ 
3′  c, and , we refer to Figure 7.21, from which sin  = ac bO + Oa
1′ 1 − sin  = 
1′ −
3′ /2 c cot + 
1′ +
3′ /2 = 2c cos  +
3′ 1 + sin  (7.20) or 1 + sin  2c cos  + 1 − sin  1 − sin 

  
1′ =
3′ tan2 45 + + 2c tan 45 + 2 2
1′ =
3′ Figure 7.20 (7.21) Modified Mohr’s failure envelope for quartz and clay minerals (after Olson, 1974). 396 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.21 Derivation of Eq. (7.21). Note that the plane of failure makes an angle of 45 + /2 with the major principal plane. If a clay is initially consolidated by an encompassing chamber pressure of
c =
c′ and allowed to swell under a reduced chamber pressure of
3 =
3′ , the specimen will be overconsolidated. The failure envelope obtained from consolidated drained triaxial tests of these types of specimens has two distinct branches, as shown in Figure 7.22. Portion ab of the failure envelope has a flatter slope with a cohesion intercept, and portion bc represents a normally consolidated stage following the equation s =
′ tan bc . Figure 7.22 Failure envelope of a clay with preconsolidation pressure of c′ . Shear strength of soils 397 Figure 7.23 Residual shear strength of clay. It may also be seen from Figure 7.18 that at very large strains the deviator stress reaches a constant value. The shear strength of clays at very large strains is referred to as residual shear strength (i.e., the ultimate shear strength). It has been proved that the residual strength of a given soil is independent of past stress history, and it can be given by the equation (see Figure 7.23). sresidual =
′ tan ult (7.22) (i.e., the c component is 0). For triaxial tests, ult = sin−1

1′ −
3′
′ +
3′  (7.23) residual where
1′ =
3′ +
ult . The residual friction angle in clays is of importance in subjects such as the long-term stability of slopes. The consolidated drained triaxial test procedure described above is the conventional type. However, failure in the soil specimens can be produced by any one of the methods of axial compression or axial extension as described in Sec. 7.3 (with reference to Figure 7.10) allowing full drainage condition. 398 Shear strength of soils Consolidated undrained test In the consolidated undrained test, the soil specimen is first consolidated by a chamber-confining pressure
3 ; full drainage from the specimen is allowed. After complete dissipation of excess pore water pressure, uc , generated by the confining pressure, the deviator stress
is increased to cause failure of the specimen. During this phase of loading, the drainage line from the specimen is closed. Since drainage is not permitted, the pore water pressure (pore water pressure due to deviator stress ud ) in the specimen increases. Simultaneous measurements of
and ud are made during the test. Figure 7.24 shows the nature of the variation of
and ud with axial strain; also shown is the nature of the variation of the pore water pressure parameter AA = ud /
; see Eq. (4.9)] with axial strain. The value of A at failure, Af , is positive for normally consolidated clays and becomes negative for overconsolidated clays (also see Table 4.2). Thus Af is dependent on the overconsolidation ratio. The overconsolidation ratio, OCR, for triaxial test conditions may be defined as OCR =
c′
3 (7.24) where
c′ =
c is the maximum chamber pressure at which the specimen is consolidated and then allowed to rebound under a chamber pressure of
3 . The typical nature of the variation of Af with the overconsolidation ratio for Weald clay is shown in Figure 4.11. At failure, total major principal stress =
1 =
3 +
f total minor principal stress =
3 pore water pressure at failure = udfailure = Af
f effective major principal stress =
1 − Af
f =
1′ effective minor principal stress =
3 − Af
f =
3′ Consolidated undrained tests on a number of specimens can be conducted to determine the shear strength parameters of a soil, as shown for the case of a normally consolidated clay in Figure 7.25. The total-stress Mohr’s circles (circles A and B) for two tests are shown by dashed lines. The effectivestress Mohr’s circles C and D correspond to the total-stress circles A and B, respectively. Since C and D are effective-stress circles at failure, a common tangent drawn to these circles will give the Mohr–Coulomb failure envelope given by the equation s =
′ tan . If we draw a common tangent to the total-stress circles, it will be a straight line passing through the origin. This is the total-stress failure envelope, and it may be given by s =
tan cu (7.25) Figure 7.24 Consolidated undrained triaxial test a Application of confining pressure and b Application of deviator stress. 400 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.25 Consolidated undrained test results—normally consolidated clay. where cu is the consolidated undrained angle of friction. The total-stress failure envelope for an overconsolidated clay will be of the nature shown in Figure 7.26 and can be given by the relation s = ccu +
tan cu (7.26) where ccu is the intercept of the total-stress failure envelope along the shear stress axis. Figure 7.26 Consolidated undrained test—total stress envelope for overconsolidated clay. Shear strength of soils 401 The shear strength parameters for overconsolidated clay based on effective stress, i.e., c and , can be obtained by plotting the effective-stress Mohr’s circle and then drawing a common tangent. As in consolidated drained tests, shear failure in the specimen can be produced by axial compression or extension by changing the loading conditions. Unconsolidated undrained test In unconsolidated undrained triaxial tests, drainage from the specimen is not allowed at any stage. First, the chamber-confining pressure
3 is applied, after which the deviator stress
is increased until failure occurs. For these tests, total major principal stress =
3 +
f =
1 total minor principal stress =
3 Tests of this type can be performed quickly, since drainage is not allowed. For a saturated soil the deviator stress failure,
f , is practically the same, irrespective of the confining pressure
3 (Figure 7.27). So the total-stress failure envelope can be assumed to be a horizontal line, and  = 0. The undrained shear strength can be expressed as s = Su =
f 2 (7.27) This is generally referred to as the shear strength based on the  = 0 concept. The fact that the strength of saturated clays in unconsolidated undrained loading conditions is the same, irrespective of the confining pressure
3 Figure 7.27 Unconsolidated undrained triaxial test. 402 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.28 Effective- and total-stress Mohr’s circles for unconsolidated undrained tests. can be explained with the help of Figure 7.28. If a saturated clay specimen A is consolidated under a chamber-confining pressure of
3 and then sheared to failure under undrained conditions, Mohr’s circle at failure will be represented by circle no. 1. The effective-stress Mohr’s circle corresponding to circle no. 1 is circle no. 2, which touches the effective-stress failure envelope. If a similar soil specimen B, consolidated under a chamberconfining pressure of
3 , is subjected to an additional confining pressure of
3 without allowing drainage, the pore water pressure will increase by uc . We saw in Chap. 4 that uc = B
3 and, for saturated soils, B = 1. So, uc =
3 . Since the effective confining pressure of specimen B is the same as specimen A, it will fail with the same deviator stress,
f . The total-stress Mohr’s circle for this specimen (i.e., B) at failure can be given by circle no. 3. So, at failure, for specimen B, Total minor principal stress =
3 +
3 Total minor principal stress =
3 +
3 +
f The effective stresses for the specimen are as follows: Effective major principal stress = 
3 +
3 +
f  −  uc + Af
f  = 
3 +
f  − Af
f =
1 − Af
f =
1′ Shear strength of soils 403 Effective minor principal stress = 
3 +
3  −  uc + Af
f  =
3 − Af
f =
3′ The above principal stresses are the same as those we had for specimen A. Thus the effective-stress Mohr’s circle at failure for specimen B will be the same as that for specimen A, i.e., circle no. 1. The value of
3 could be of any magnitude in specimen B; in all cases,
f would be the same. Example 7.1 Consolidated drained triaxial tests on two specimens of a soil gave the following results: Test no. Confining pressure 3 kN/m2  Deviator stress at failure f kN/m2  1 2 70 92 440.4 474.7 Determine the values of c and  for the soil. solution From Eq. (7.21),
1 =
3 tan2 45 + /2 + 2c tan 45 + /2. 2 2 For test 1,
3 = 70 kN/m 
1 =
3 +
f = 70 + 4404 = 5104 kN/m . So, 5104 = 70 tan 2

    45 + + 2c tan 45 + 2 2 (E7.1)  2 2 Similarly, for test 2,
3 = 92 kN/m 
1 = 92+4747 = 5667 kN/m . Thus

   5667 = 92 tan2 45 + + 2c tan 45 + 2 2 Subtracting Eq. (E7.1) from Eq. (E7.2) gives
  563 = 22 tan2 45 + 2  
1/2 563 −1  − 45 = 26  = 2 tan 22 (E7.2) 404 Shear strength of soils Substituting  = 26 in Eq. (E7.1) gives c= 5104 − 70 tan2 45 + 26/2 5104 − 70256 = 1035 kN/m2 = 2 tan 45 + 25/2 216 Example 7.2 A normally consolidated clay specimen was subjected to a consolidated 2 2 undrained test. At failure,
3 = 100 kN/m 
1 = 204 kN/m , and ud = 2 50 kN/m . Determine cu and . solution Referring to Figure 7.29, sin cu = ab Oa =
−
3 204 − 100 104 
1 −
3 /2 = = 1 = 204 + 100 304 
1 +
3  /2
1 +
3 Hence cu = 20 Again, sin  =
3′ cd Oc =
1′ −
3′
1′ +
3′ = 100 − 50 = 50 kN/m2
1′ = 204 − 50 = 154 kN/m2 Figure 7.29 Total- and effective-stress Mohr’s circles. Shear strength of soils 405 So, sin  = Hence 154 − 50 104 = 154 + 54 204  = 307 7.9 Unconfined compression test The unconfined compression test is a special case of the unconsolidated undrained triaxial test. In this case no confining pressure to the specimen is applied (i.e.,
3 = 0). For such conditions, for saturated clays, the pore water pressure in the specimen at the beginning of the test is negative (capillary pressure). Axial stress on the specimen is gradually increased until the specimen fails (Figure 7.30). At failure,
3 = 0 and so
1 =
3 +
f =
f = qu (7.28) where qu is the unconfined compression strength. Theoretically, the value of
f of a saturated clay should be the same as that obtained from unconsolidated undrained tests using similar Figure 7.30 Unconfined compression strength. 406 Shear strength of soils Table 7.3 Consistency and unconfined compression strength of clays Consistency qu (kN/m2 ) Very soft Soft Medium Stiff Very stiff Hard 0–24 24–48 48–96 96–192 192–383 >383 specimens. Thus s = Su = qu /2. However, this seldom provides high-quality results. The general relation between consistency and unconfined compression strength of clays is given in Table 7.3. 7.10 Modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio from triaxial tests For calculation of soil settlement and distribution of stress in a soil mass, it may be required to know the magnitudes of the modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio of soil. These values can be determined from a triaxial test. Figure 7.31 shows a plot of
1′ −
3′ versus axial strain ∈ for a triaxial test, Figure 7.31 Definition of Ei and Et . Shear strength of soils 407 where
3 is kept constant. The definitions of the initial tangent modulus Ei and the tangent modulus Et at a certain stress level are also shown in the figure. Janbu (1963) showed that the initial tangent modulus can be estimated as
′ n
3 Ei = Kpa (7.29) pa where
3′ = minor effective principal stress pa = atmospheric pressure (same pressure units as Ei and
3′ ) K = modulus number n = exponent determining the rate of variation of Ei with
3′ For a given soil, the magnitudes of K and n can be determined from the results of a number of triaxial tests and then plotting Ei versus
3′ on log–log scales. The magnitude of K for various soils usually falls in the range of 300–2000. Similarly, the range of n is between 0.3 and 0.6. The tangent modulus Et can be determined as Et =  
1′ −
3′  ∈ (7.30) Duncan and Chang (1970) showed that
′ n  
3 R 1 − sin 
1′ −
3′  2 Et = 1 − f Kp a ′ 2c cos  + 23 sin  pa (7.31) where Rf is the failure ratio. For most soils, the magnitude of Rf falls between 0.75 and 1. The value of Poisson’s ratio  can be determined by the same type of triaxial test (i.e.,
3 constant) as = ∈a − ∈  2 ∈a (7.32) where ∈a = increase in axial strain ∈ = volumetric strain = ∈a + 2 ∈r ∈r = lateral strain So = ∈a −  ∈a + 2 ∈r  ∈ =− r 2 ∈a ∈a (7.33) 408 Shear strength of soils 7.11 Friction angles  and cu Figure 7.32 shows plots of the friction angle  versus plasticity index PI of several clays compiled by Kenney (1959). In general, this figure shows an almost linear relationship between sin  and log (PI). Figure 7.33 shows the variation of the magnitude of ult for several clays with the percentage of clay-size fraction present. ult gradually decreases with the increase of clay-size fraction. At very high clay content, ult approached the value of  (angle of sliding friction) for sheet minerals. For highly plastic sodium montmorillonites, the value of ult can be as low as 3–4 . 7.12 Effect of rate of strain on the undrained shear strength Casagrande and Wilson (1949, 1951) studied the problem of the effect of rate of strain on the undrained shear strength of saturated clays and clay shales. The time of loading ranged from 1 to 104 min. Using a time of loading of 1 min as the reference, the undrained strength of some clays decreased by as much as 20%. The nature of the variation of the undrained shear strength and time to cause failure, t, can be approximated by a straight Figure 7.32 Relationship between sin  and plasticity index for normally consolidated clays (after Kenney, 1959). Shear strength of soils 409 Figure 7.33 Variation of ult with percentage of clay content (after Skempton, 1964). line in a plot of Su versus log t, as shown in Figure 7.34. Based on this, Hvorslev (1960) gave the following relation: 
 t Sut = Sua 1 − a log ta (7.34) where Sut = undrained shear strength with time, t, to cause failure Sua = undrained shear strength with time, ta , to cause failure a = coefficient for decrease of strength with time In view of the time duration, Hvorslev suggested that the reference time be taken as 1000 min. In that case,  
t min Sut = Sum 1 − m log 1000 min (7.35) 410 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.34 Effect of rate of strain on undrained shear strength. where Sum = undrained shear strength at time 1000 min m = coefficient for decrease of strength with reference time of 1000 min The relation between a in Eq. (7.34) and m in Eq. (7.35) can be given by m = a 1 − a log 1000 min / ta min (7.36) For ta = 1 min, Eq. (7.36) gives m = 1 1 − 31 (7.37) Hvorslev’s analysis of the results of Casagrande and Wilson (1951) yielded the following results: general range 1 = 004–009 and m = 005–013; Cucaracha clay-shale 1 = 007–019 and m = 009–046. The study of the strength–time relation of Bjerrum et al. (1958) for a normally consolidated marine clay (consolidated undrained test) yielded a value of m in the range 0.06–0.07. Shear strength of soils 411 7.13 Effect of temperature on the undrained shear strength A number of investigations have been conducted to determine the effect of temperature on the shear strength of saturated clay. Most studies indicate that a decrease of temperature will cause an increase of shear strength. Figure 7.35 shows the variation of the unconfined compression strength qu = 2Su  of kaolinite with temperature. Note that for a given moisture content the value of qu decreases with increase of temperature. A similar trend has been observed for San Francisco Bay mud (Mitchell, 1964), as shown in Figure 7.36. The undrained shear strength Su = 
1 −
3 /2 varies linearly with temperature. The results are for specimens with equal mean effective stress and similar structure. From these tests,   dSu ≈ 059 kN/ m2 · C dT Figure 7.35 (7.38) Unconfined compression strength of kaolinite—effect of temperature (After Sherif and Burrous, 1969). (Note: 1 lb/in
2 = 6
9 kN/m2 .) 412 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.36 Effect of temperature on shear strength of San Francisco Bay mud (after Mitchell, 1964). Kelly (1978) also studied the effect of temperature on the undrained shear strength of some undisturbed marine clay samples and commercial illite and montmorillonite. Undrained shear strengths at 4 and 20 C were determined. Based on the laboratory test results, Kelly proposed the following correlation: Su = 0213 + 000747 Suaverage T where Suaverage = Su4 C + Su20 C /2 in lb/ft in  C. (7.39) 2 and T is the temperature Example 7.3 The following are the results of an unconsolidated undrained test:
3 = 2 2 70 kN/m 
1 = 210 kN/m . The temperature of the test was 12 C. Estimate the undrained shear strength of the soil at a temperature of 20 C. Shear strength of soils 413 solution Su12 C =
1 −
3 210 − 70 = = 70 kN/m2 2 2 2 Since 4788 N/m2 = 1 lb/ft , Suaverage = Su4 C + Su20  C 2 = Su12 C = 701000 2 = 1462 lb/ft 4788 From Eq. (7.39), Now, 0 / Su = T 0213 + 000747Suaverage  T = 20 − 12 = 8 C and Su = 8 0213 + 000747 1462 = 8907 lb/ft2  Hence, 2 Su20 C = 1462 − 8907 = 137293 lb/ft = 6574 kN/m 2 7.14 Stress path Results of triaxial tests can be represented by diagrams called stress paths. A stress path is a line connecting a series of points, each point representing a successive stress state experienced by a soil specimen during the progress of a test. There are several ways in which the stress path can be drawn, two of which are discussed below. Rendulic plot A Rendulic plot is a plot representing the stress path for triaxial tests originally suggested by Rendulic (1937) and later developed by Henkel (1960). It is a plot of the state of stress during triaxial tests on a plane Oabc, as shown in Figure √ 7.37. Along Oa, we plot 2
r′ , and along Oc, we plot
a′ (
r′ is the effective radial stress and
a′ the effective axial stress). Line Od in Figure 7.38 Figure 7.37 Rendulic plot. Figure 7.38 Rendulic diagram. Shear strength of soils 415 represents stress line. The direction cosines of this line are √the isotropic √ √ 1/ √3 1/ 3 1/ 3. Line Od in Figure 7.38 will have a slope of 1 vertical to 2 horizontal. Note that the trace of the octahedral plane 
1′ +
2′ +
3′ = const will be at right angles to the line Od. In triaxial equipment, if a soil specimen is hydrostatically consolidated (i.e.,
a′ =
r′ ), it may be represented by point 1 on the line Od. If this specimen is subjected to a drained axial compression test by increasing
a′ and keeping
r′ constant, the stress path can be represented by the line 1–2. Point 2 represents the state of stress at failure. Similarly, Line 1–3 will represent a drained axial compression test conducted by keeping
a′ constant and reducing
r′ . Line 1–4 will represent a drained axial compression test where the mean principal stress (or J =
1′ +
2′ +
3′ ) is kept constant. Line 1–5 will represent a drained axial extension test conducted by keeping
r′ constant and reducing
a′ . Line 1–6 will represent a drained axial extension test conducted by keeping
a′ constant and increasing
r′ . Line 1–7 will represent a drained axial extension test with J =
1′ +
2′ +
3′ constant (i.e., J =
a′ + 2
r′ constant). Curve 1–8 will represent an undrained compression test. Curve 1–9 will represent an undrained extension test. Curves 1–8 and 1–9 are independent of the total stress combination, since the pore water pressure is adjusted to follow the stress path shown. If we are given the effective stress path from a triaxial test in which failure of the specimen was caused by loading in an undrained condition, the pore water pressure at a given state during the loading can be easily determined. This can be explained with the aid of Figure 7.39. Consider a soil specimen consolidated with an encompassing pressure
r and with failure caused in the undrained condition by increasing the axial stress
a . Let acb be the effective stress path for this test. We are required to find the excess pore water pressures that were generated at points c and b (i.e., at failure). For this type of triaxial test, we know that the total stress path will follow a vertical line such as ae. To find the excess pore water pressure at c, we draw a line cf parallel to the isotropic stress line. Line cf intersects line ae at d. The pore water pressure ud at c is the vertical distance between points c and d. The pore water pressure udfailure at b can similarly be found by drawing bg parallel to the isotropic stress line and measuring the vertical distance between points b and g. Lambe’s stress path Lambe (1964) suggested another type of stress path in which are plotted the successive effective normal and shear stresses on a plane making an 416 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.39 Determination of pore water pressure in a Rendulic plot. angle of 45 to the major principal plane. To understand what a stress path is, consider a normally consolidated clay specimen subjected to a consolidated drained triaxial test (Figure 7.40a). At any time during the test, the stress condition in the specimen can be represented by Mohr’s circle (Figure 7.40b). Note here that, in a drained test, total stress is equal to effective stress. So
3 =
3′ (minor principal stress)
1 =
3 +
=
1′ (major principal stress) At failure, Mohr’s circle will touch a line that is the Mohr–Coulomb failure envelope; this makes an angle  with the normal stress axis ( is the soil friction angle). We now consider the effective normal and shear stresses on a plane making an angle of 45 with the major principal plane. Thus Effective normal stress, p′ = Shear stress, q ′ =
1′ −
3′ 2
1′ +
3′ 2 (7.40) (7.41) Shear strength of soils 417 Figure 7.40 Definition of stress path. The points on Mohr’s circle having coordinates p′ and q ′ are shown in Figure 7.40b. If the points with p′ and q ′ coordinates of all Mohr’s circles are joined, this will result in the line AB. This line is called a stress path. The straight line joining the origin and point B will be defined here as the Kf line. The Kf line makes an angle  with the normal stress axis. Now tan  = ′ ′
1f /2 −
3f BC = ′ ′ OC /2
1f +
3f (7.42) ′ ′ where
1f and
3f are the effective major and minor principal stresses at failure. Similarly, sin  = ′ ′ /2
1f −
3f DC = ′ ′ OC /2
1f +
3f (7.43) 418 Shear strength of soils From Eqs. (7.42) and (7.43), we obtain tan  = sin  (7.44) For a consolidated undrained test, consider a clay specimen consolidated under an isotropic stress
3 =
3′ in a triaxial test. When a deviator stress
is applied on the specimen and drainage is not permitted, there will be an increase in the pore water pressure, u (Figure 7.41a): u=A
(7.45) where A is the pore water pressure parameter. At this time the effective major and minor principal stresses can be given by Minor effective principal stress =
3′ =
3 − u Major effective principal stress =
1′ =
1 − u = 
3 +
 − u Mohr’s circles for the total and effective stress at any time of deviator stress application are shown in Figure 7.41b. (Mohr’s circle no. 1 is for total stress and no. 2 for effective stress.) Point B on the effective-stress Mohr’s circle has the coordinates p′ and q ′ . If the deviator stress is increased until failure occurs, the effective-stress Mohr’s circle at failure will be represented by circle no. 3, as shown in Figure 7.41b, and the effective-stress path will be represented by the curve ABC. Figure 7.41 Stress path for consolidated undrained triaxial test. Shear strength of soils 419 Figure 7.42 Stress path for Lagunilla clay (after Lambe, 1964). The general nature of the effective-stress path will depend on the value of A. Figure 7.42 shows the stress path in a p′ versus q ′ plot for Lagunilla clay (Lambe, 1964). In any particular problem, if a stress path is given in a p′ versus q ′ plot, we should be able to determine the values of the major and minor effective principal stresses for any given point on the stress path. This is demonstrated in Figure 7.43, in which ABC is an effective stress path. Figure 7.43 Determination of major and minor principal stresses for a point on a stress path. 420 Shear strength of soils From Figure 7.42, two important aspects of effective stress path can be summarized as follows: 1. The stress paths for a given normally consolidated soil are geometrically similar. 2. The axial strain in a CU test may be defined as ∈1 = L/L as shown in Figure 7.41a. For a given soil, if the points representing equal strain in a number of stress paths are joined, they will be approximately straight lines passing through the origin. This is also shown in Figure 7.42. Example 7.4 Given below are the loading conditions of a number of consolidated drained triaxial tests on a remolded clay  = 25  c = 0. Test no. Consolidation pressure kN/m2  Type of loading applied to cause failure 1 2 3 4 5 6 400 400 400 400 400 400 a increased; r constant a constant; r increased a decreased; r constant a constant; r decreased a + 2r constant; increased d and decreased r a + 2r constant; decreased d and increased r (a) Draw the isotropic stress line. (b) Draw the failure envelopes for compression and extension tests. (c) Draw the stress paths for tests 1–6. √ solution Part a: The isotropic stress line will make an angle  = cos−1 1/ 3 with the
a′ axis, so  = 548 . This is shown in Figure 7.44 as line Oa. Part b:
′ 
′
1 −
3′
1 1 + sin  sin  = or = ′ ′ ′
1 +
3 failure
3 failure 1 − sin  where
1′ and
3′ are the major and minor principal stresses. For compression tests,
1′ =
a′ and
3′ =
r′ . Thus

a′
r′  failure = 1 + sin 25 = 246 1 − sin 25 or 
a′ failure = 246 
r′ failure Shear strength of soils 421 Figure 7.44 Stress paths for tests 1–6 in Example 7.4. The slope of the failure envelope is
′ 246
′ tan $1 = √ a = √ r = 174 2
r′ 2
r′ Hence, $1 = 601 . The failure envelope for the compression tests is shown in Figure 7.44. For extension tests,
1′ =
r′ and
3′ =
a′ . So,
′
a 1 − sin 25 = 0406 or
a′ = 0406
r′ =
r′ failure 1 + sin 25 The slope of the failure envelope for extension tests is
′ 0406
r′ tan $2 = √ a = √ = 0287 2
r′ 2
r′ Hence $2 = 1601 . The failure envelope is shown in Figure 7.44. Part c: Point a on the isotropic stress line represents the point where
a′ =
r′ (or
1′ =
2′ =
3′ ). The stress paths of the test are plotted in Figure 7.44. 422 Shear strength of soils Test no. Stress path in Figure 7.44 1 2 3 4 5 6 ab ac ad ae af ag Example 7.5 For a saturated clay soil, the following are the results of some consolidated, drained triaxial tests at failure: Test no. p′ = 1 2 3 4 420 630 770 1260 1′ + 3′ kN/m2  2 q′ = 1′ − 3′ kN/m2  2 179.2 255.5 308.0 467.0 Draw a p′ versus q ′ diagram, and from that, determine c and  for the soil. solution The diagram of q ′ versus p′ is shown in Figure 7.45; this is a straight line, and the equation of it may be written in the form q ′ = m + p′ tan  (E7.3) Also,
′ +
3′
1′ −
3′ sin  = c cos  + 1 2 2 (E7.4) Comparing Eqs. (E7.3) and (E7.4), we find m = c cos  or c = m/ cos  and 2 tan  = sin . From Figure 7.45, m = 238 kN/m and  = 20 . So  = sin−1 tan 20  = 2134 and c= m 238 = = 2555 kN/m2 cos  cos 2134 Shear strength of soils 423 Figure 7.45 Plot of q′ versus p′ diagram. 7.15 Hvorslev’s parameters Considering cohesion to be the result of physicochemical bond forces (thus the interparticle spacing and hence void ratio), Hvorslev (1937) expressed the shear strength of a soil in the form s = ce +
′ tan e (7.46) where ce and e are “true cohesion” and “true angle of friction,” respectively, which are dependent on void ratio. The procedure for determination of the above parameters can be explained with the aid of Figure 7.46, which shows the relation of the moisture content (i.e., void ratio) with effective consolidation pressure. Points 2 and 3 represent normally consolidated stages of a soil, and point 1 represents the overconsolidation stage. We now test the soil specimens represented by points 1, 2, and 3 in an undrained condition. The effective-stress Mohr’s circles at failure are given in Figure 7.46b. The soil specimens at points 1 and 2 in Figure 7.46a have the same moisture content and hence the same void ratio. If we draw a common tangent to Mohr’s circles 1 and 2, the slope of the tangent will give e , and the intercept on the shear stress axis will give ce . Gibson (1953) found that e varies slightly with void ratio. The true angle of internal friction decreases with the plasticity index of soil, as shown in Figure 7.47. The variation of the effective cohesion ce with void ratio may be given by the relation (Hvorslev, 1960). ce = c0 exp −Be (7.47) Figure 7.46 Determination of Ce and e . Figure 7.47 Variation of true angle of friction with plasticity index (after Bjerrum and Simons, 1960). Shear strength of soils 425 where c0 = true cohesion at zero void ratio e = void ratio at failure B = slope of plot of ln ce versus void ratio at failure Example 7.6 A clay soil specimen was subjected to confining pressures
3 =
3′ in a triaxial chamber. The moisture content versus
3′ relation is shown in Figure 7.48a. A normally consolidated specimen of the same soil was subjected to a consolidated undrained triaxial test. The results are as follows:
3 = 2 2 440 kN/m 
1 = 840 kN/m ; moisture content at failure, 27%; ud = 2 240 kN/m . An overconsolidated specimen of the same soil was subjected to a consolidated undrained test. The results are as follows: overconsolidation pressure, 2 2 2 2
c′ = 550 kN/m 
3 = 100 kN/m 
1 = 434 kN/m  ud = −18 kN/m ; initial and final moisture content, 27%. Determine e  Ce for a moisture content of 27%; also determine . solution For the normally consolidated specimen,
3′ = 440 − 240 = 200 kN/m2
1′ = 840 − 240 = 600 kN/m2  

′ 600 − 200
1 −
3′ −1 −1 = sin = 30  = sin
1′ +
3′ 600 + 200 The failure envelope is shown in Figure 7.48b. For the overconsolidated specimen,
3′ = 100 − −18 = 118 kN/m2
1′ = 434 − −18 = 452 kN/m2 Mohr’s circle at failure is shown in Figure 7.48b; from this, Ce = 110 kN/m2 e = 15 426 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.48 Determination of Hvorslev’s parameters. 7.16 Relations between moisture content, effective stress, and strength for clay soils Relations between water content and strength The strength of a soil at failure [i.e., 
1 −
3 failure or 
1′ −
3′ failure ] is dependent on the moisture content at failure. Henkel (1960) pointed out that there is a unique relation between the moisture content w at failure and the strength of a clayey soil. This is shown in Figure 7.49 and 7.50 for Weald clay. Shear strength of soils 427 Figure 7.49 Water content versus 1 − 3 failure for Weald clay—extension tests [Note: 1 lb/in2 = 6
9 kN/m2 ; after Henkel (1960)]. For normally consolidated clays the variation of w versus log
1 −
3 failure is approximately linear. For overconsolidated clays this relation is not linear but lies slightly below the relation of normally consolidated specimens. The curves merge when the strength approaches the overconsolidation pressure. Also note that slightly different relations for w versus log
1 −
3 failure are obtained for axial compression and axial extension tests. Unique effective stress failure envelope When Mohr’s envelope is used to obtain the relation for normal and shear stress at failure (from triaxial test results), separate envelopes need to be drawn for separate preconsolidation pressures,
c′ . This is shown ′ in Figure 7.51. For a soil with a preconsolidation pressure of
c1  s= ′ ′ c1 +
tan c1 ; similarly, for a preconsolidation pressure of
c2  s = c2 +
′ tan c2 . Henkel (1960) showed that a single, general failure envelope for normally consolidated and preconsolidated (irrespective of preconsolidation pressure) soils can be obtained by plotting the ratio of the major to minor Figure 7.50 Water content versus 1 − 3 failure for Weald clay—compression tests [Note: 1 lb/in2 = 6
9 kN/m2 ; after Henkel (1960)]. Figure 7.51 Mohr’s envelope for overconsolidated clay. Shear strength of soils 429 Figure 7.52 ′ ′ Plot of 1failure /3failure against Jm /Jf for Weald clay—compression tests (after Henkel, 1960). effective stress at failure against the ratio of the maximum consolidation pressure to the average effective stress at failure. This fact is demonstrated in Figure 7.52, which gives the results of triaxial compression tests for Weald clay. In Figure 7.52, Jm = maximum consolidation pressure =
c′ Jf = average effective stress at failure = ′ ′ ′ +
2failure +
3failure
1failure 3
′ + 2
r′ = a 3 The results shown in Figure 7.52 are obtained from normally consolidated specimens and overconsolidated specimens having a maximum preconsoli2 dation pressure of 828 kN/m . Similarly, a unique failure envelope can be obtained from extension tests. Note, however, that the failure envelopes for compression tests and extension tests are slightly different. Unique relation between water content and effective stress There is a unique relation between the water content of a soil and the effective stresses to which it is being subjected, provided that normally consolidated 430 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.53 Unique relation between water content and effective stress. specimens and specimens with common maximum consolidation pressures are considered separately. This can be explained with the aid of Figure 7.53, In which a Rendulic plot for a normally consolidated clay is shown. Consider several specimens consolidated at various confining pressures in a triaxial chamber; the states of stress of these specimens are represented by the points a, c, e, g, etc., located on the isotropic stress lines. When these specimens are sheared to failure by drained compressions, the corresponding stress paths will be represented by lines such as ab, cd, ef, and gh. During drained tests, the moisture contents of the specimens change. We can determine the moisture contents of the specimens during the tests, such as w1  w2  & & & , as shown in Figure 7.53. If these points of equal moisture contents on the drained stress paths are joined, we obtain contours of stress paths of equal moisture contents (for moisture contents w1  w2  & & & ). Now, if we take a soil specimen and consolidate it in a triaxial chamber under a state of stress as defined by point a and shear it to failure in an undrained condition, it will follow the effective stress path af, since the moisture content of the specimen during shearing is w1 . Similarly, a specimen consolidated in a triaxial chamber under a state of stress represented by point c (moisture content w2 ) will follow a stress path ch (which is the stress contour of moisture content w2 ) when sheared to failure in an Shear strength of soils 431 Figure 7.54 Weald clay—normally consolidated (after Henkel, 1960). undrained state. This means that a unique relation exists between water content and effective stress. Figures 7.54 and 7.55 show the stress paths for equal water contents for normally consolidated and overconsolidated Weald clay. Note the similarity of shape of the stress paths for normally consolidated clay in Figure 7.55. For overconsolidated clay the shape of the stress path gradually changes, depending on the overconsolidation ratio. 7.17 Correlations for effective stress friction angle It is difficult in practice to obtain undisturbed samples of sand and gravelly soils to determine the shear strength parameters. For that reason, several approximate correlations were developed over the years to determine the soil friction angle based on field test results, such as standard penetration number N and cone penetration resistance qc . In granular soils, N and qc are dependent on the effective-stress level. Schmertmann (1975) provided a correlation between the standard penetration resistance, drained triaxial friction angle 432 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.55 Weald clay—overconsolidated; maximum consolidation pressure = 828 kN/m2 (after Henkel, 1960). obtained from axial compression tests  = tc , and the vertical effective stress 
0′ . This correlation can be approximated as (Kulhawy and Mayne, 1990) tc = tan −1  N 122 + 203 
O′ /pa  034 for granular soils (7.48) where pa is atmospheric pressure (in the same units as
o′ ). In a similar manner, the correlation between tc 
o′ , and qc was provided by Robertson and Campanella (1983), which can be approximated as (Kulhawy and Mayne, 1990) 
 qc tc = tan−1 09 + 038 log
0′ (for granular soils) (7.49) Kulhawy and Mayne (1990) also provided the approximate relations between the triaxial drained friction angle tc  obtained from triaxial compression tests with the drained friction angle obtained from other types Shear strength of soils 433 Table 7.4 Relative values of drained friction angle [compiled from Kulhawy and Mayne (1990)] Test type Drained friction angle Triaxial compression Triaxial extension Plane strain compression Plane strain extension Direct shear Cohesionless soil Cohesive soil 1
0 tc 1
12 tc 1
12 tc 1
25 tc tan−1 tan1
12tc  cos c  1
0 tc 1
22 tc 1
10 tc 1
34 tc tan−1 tan1
1tc  cos ult  of tests for cohesionless and cohesive soils. Their findings are summarized in Table 7.4. Following are some other correlations generally found in recent literature. • Wolff (1989) tc = 271 + 03N − 000054 N 2 • • • (for granular soil) Hatanaka and Uchida (1996)  tv = 20N1 + 20 (for granular soil)  98 where N1 = N
o′ 2 (Note:
o′ is vertical stress in kN/m .) Ricceri et al. (2002) ⎛ ⎞ 
 for silt with low plasticity, q c ⎝poorly graded sand, and silty⎠ tc = tan−1 038 + 027 log
o′ sand Ricceri et al. (2002) tc = 31 +
 KD for silt with low plasticty, poorly graded sand, and silty sand 0236 + 0066KD where KD = horizontal stress index in dilatometer test. 7.18 Anisotropy in undrained shear strength Owing to the nature of the deposition of cohesive soils and subsequent consolidation, clay particles tend to become oriented perpendicular to the 434 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.56 Strength anisotropy in clay. direction of the major principal stress. Parallel orientation of clay particles could cause the strength of the clay to vary with direction, or in other words, the clay could be anisotropic with respect to strength. This fact can be demonstrated with the aid of Figure 7.56, in which V and H are vertical and horizontal directions that coincide with lines perpendicular and parallel to the bedding planes of a soil deposit. If a soil specimen with its axis inclined at an angle i with the horizontal is collected and subjected to an undrained test, the undrained shear strength can be given by Sui =
1 −
3 2 (7.50) where Sui is the undrained shear strength when the major principal stress makes an angle i with the horizontal. Let the undrained shear strength of a soil specimen with its axis vertical [i.e., Sui=90  ] be referred to as SuV (Figure 7.56a); similarly, let the undrained shear strength with its axis horizontal [i.e., Sui=0  ] be referred to as SuH (Figure 7.56c). If SuV = Sui = SuH , the soil is isotropic with respect to strength, and the variation of undrained shear strength can be represented by a circle in a polar diagram, as shown by curve a in Figure 7.57. However, if the soil is anisotropic, Sui will change with direction. Casagrande and Carrillo (1944) proposed the following equation for the directional variation of the undrained shear strength: 0 / Sui = SuH + SuV − SuH sin2 i (7.51) Shear strength of soils 435 Figure 7.57 Directional variation of undrained strength of clay. When SuV > SuH , the nature of variation of Sui can be represented by curve b in Figure 7.57. Again, if SuV < SuH , the variation of Sui is given by curve c. The coefficient of anisotropy can be defined as K= SuV (7.52) SuH In the case of natural soil deposits, the value of K can vary from 0.75 to 2.0. K is generally less than 1 in overconsolidated clays. An example of the directional variation of the undrained shear strength Sui for a clay is shown in Figure 7.58. Richardson et al. (1975) made a study regarding the anisotropic strength of a soft deposit of marine clay (Thailand). The undrained strength was determined by field vane shear tests. Both rectangular and triangular vanes were used for this investigation. Based on the experimental results (Figure 7.59), Richardson et al. concluded that Sui can be given by the following relation: Sui =  SuH SuV 2 2 cos2 i sin2 i + SuV SuH (7.53) 436 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.58 Directional variation of undrained shear strength of Welland Clay, Ontario, Canada (after Lo, 1965). 7.19 Sensitivity and thixotropic characteristics of clays Most undisturbed natural clayey soil deposits show a pronounced reduction of strength when they are remolded. This characteristic of saturated cohesive soils is generally expressed quantitatively by a term referred to as sensitivity. Thus Sensitivity = Suundisturbed Suremolded The classification of clays based on sensitivity is as follows: Sensitivity Clay ≈1 1–2 2–4 4–8 8–16 > 16 Insensitive Low sensitivity Medium sensitivity Sensitive Extra sensitive Quick (7.54) Shear strength of soils 437 Figure 7.59 Vane shear strength polar diagrams for a soft marine clay in Thailand. a Depth = 1 m; b depth = 2 m; c depth = 3 m; d depth = 4 m (after Richardson et al., 1975). The sensitivity of most clays generally falls in a range 1–8. However, sensitivity as high as 150 for a clay deposit at St Thurible, Canada, was reported by Peck et al. (1951). The loss of strength of saturated clays may be due to the breakdown of the original structure of natural deposits and thixotropy. Thixotropy is defined as an isothermal, reversible, time-dependent process that occurs under constant composition and volume, whereby a material softens as a result of remolding and then gradually returns to its original strength when 438 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.60 Thixotropy of a material. allowed to rest. This is shown in Figure 7.60. A general review of the thixotropic nature of soils is given by Seed and Chan (1959). Figure 7.61, which is based on the work of Moretto (1948), shows the thixotropic strength regain of a Laurentian clay with a liquidity index of 0.99 (i.e., the natural water content was approximately equal to the liquid limit). In Figure 7.62, the acquired sensitivity is defined as Acquired sensitivity = Figure 7.61 Sut Suremolded (7.54a) Acquired sensitivity for Laurentian clay (after Seed and Chan, 1959). Shear strength of soils 439 Figure 7.62 Variation of sensitivity with liquidity index for Laurentian clay (after Seed and Chan, 1959). where Sut is the undrained shear strength after a time t from remolding. Acquired sensitivity generally decreases with the liquidity index (i.e., the natural water content of soil), and this is demonstrated in Figure 7.62. It can also be seen from this figure that the acquired sensitivity of clays with a liquidity index approaching zero (i.e., natural water content equal to the plastic limit) is approximately one. Thus, thixotropy in the case of overconsolidated clay is very small. There are some clays that show that sensitivity cannot be entirely accounted for by thixotropy (Berger and Gnaedinger, 1949). This means that only a part of the strength loss due to remolding can be recovered by hardening with time. The other part of the strength loss is due to the breakdown of the original structure of the clay. The general nature of the strength regain of a partially thixotropic material is shown in Figure 7.63. Seed and Chan (1959) conducted several tests on three compacted clays with a water content near or below the plastic limit to study their thixotropic strength-regain characteristics. Figure 7.64 shows their thixotropic strength ratio with time. The thixotropic strength ratio is defined as follows: Thixotropic strength ratio = Sut Sucompacted (7.55) at t = 0 where Sut is the undrained strength at time t after compaction. 440 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.63 Regained strength of a partially thixotropic material. Figure 7.64 Increase of thixotropic strength with time for three compacted clays (after Seed and Chan, 1959). These test results demonstrate that thixotropic strength-regain is also possible for soils with a water content at or near the plastic limit. Figure 7.65 shows a general relation between sensitivity, liquidity index, and effective vertical pressure for natural soil deposits. Shear strength of soils 441 Figure 7.65 General relation between sensitivity, liquidity index, and effective vertical stress. 7.20 Vane shear test Method The field vane shear test is another method of obtaining the undrained shear strength of cohesive soils. The common shear vane usually consists of four thin steel plates of equal size welded to a steel torque rod (Figure 7.66a). To perform the test, the vane is pushed into the soil and torque is applied at the top of the torque rod. The torque is gradually increased until the cylindrical soil of height H and diameter D fails (Figure 7.66b). The maximum torque T applied to cause failure is the sum of the resisting moment at the top, MT , and bottom, MB , of the soil cylinder, plus the resisting moment at the sides of the cylinder, MS . Thus (7.56) T = M S + M T + MB However, MS = DH D S 2 u and MT = MB = D2 2 D S 4 32 u 442 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.66 Vane shear test. [assuming uniform undrained shear strength distribution at the ends; see Carlson (1948)]. So, T = Su 
DH 
 D2 2 D D +2 2 4 32 or Su = T  D2 H/2 + D3 /6 (7.57) If only one end of the vane (i.e., the bottom) is engaged in shearing the clay, T = MS + MB . So, Su = T D2 H/2 + D3 /12 (7.58) Standard vanes used in field investigations have H/D = 2. In such cases, Eq. (7.57) simplifies to the form Su = 0273 T D3 (7.59) Shear strength of soils 443 The American Society for Testing and Materials (1992) recommends the following dimensions for field vanes: D(mm) H(mm) Thickness of blades(mm) 38.1 50.8 63.5 92.1 76.2 101.6 127.0 184.2 1.6 1.6 3.2 3.2 If the undrained shear strength is different in the vertical SuV  and horizontal SuH  directions, then Eq. (7.57) translates to T = D 2  H D SuV + SuH 2 6  (7.60) In addition to rectangular vanes, triangular vanes can be used in the field (Richardson et al., 1975) to determine the directional variation of the undrained shear strength. Figure 7.67a shows a triangular vane. For this vane, Sui = T 4 3 L cos2 i 3 Figure 7.67 a Triangular vane and b Elliptical vane. (7.61) 444 Shear strength of soils The term Sui was defined in Eq. (7.50). More recently, Silvestri and Tabib (1992) analyzed elliptical vanes (Figure 7.67b). For uniform shear stress distribution, Su = C T 8a3 (7.62) where C = fa/b. The variation of C with a/b is shown in Figure 7.68. Bjerrum (1972) studied a number of slope failures and concluded that the undrained shear strength obtained by vane shear is too high. He proposed that the vane shear test results obtained from the field should be corrected for the actual design. Thus Sudesign = Sufield Figure 7.68 vane Variation of C with a/b [Eq. (7.62)]. (7.63) Shear strength of soils 445 where  is a correction factor, which may be expressed as  = 17 − 054 log PI (7.64) where PI is the plasticity index (%). More recently, Morris and Williams (1994) gave the following correlations of :  = 118e−008PI + 057 PI > 5 (7.65)  = 701e−008LL + 057 LL > 20 (7.66) and where LL is liquid limit (%). 7.21 Relation of undrained shear strength Su  and effective overburden pressure p′  A relation between Su  p′ , and the drained friction angle can also be derived as follows. Referring to Figure 7.69a, consider a soil specimen at A. The major and minor effective principal stresses at A can be given by p′ and Ko p′ , respectively (where Ko is the coefficient of at-rest earth pressure). Let this soil specimen be subjected to a UU triaxial test. As shown in Figure 7.69b, at failure the total major principal stress is
1 = p′ +
1 ; the total minor principal stress is
3 = Ko p′ +
3 ; and the excess pore water pressure is u. So, the effective major and minor principal stresses can be given by
1′ =
1 − u and
3′ =
3 − u, respectively. The total- and effective-stress Mohr’s circles for this test, at failure, are shown in Figure 7.69c. From this, we can write Su = sin  ccot  + 
1′ +
3′  /2 where  is the drained friction angle, or
1′ +
3′ sin  2
′ 
1 +
3′ ′ = c cos  + −
3 sin  +
3′ sin  2 Su = c cos  + However,
1′ +
3′
′ −
3′ −
3′ = 1 = Su 2 2 446 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.69 So Relation between the undrained strength of clay and the effective overburden pressure. Su = c cos  + Su sin  +
3′ sin  Su 1 − sin  = c cos  +
3′ sin  (7.67)
3′ =
3 − u = Ko p′ +
3 − u (7.68) However (Chap. 4), u = B
3 + A f 
1 −
3  Shear strength of soils 447 For saturated clays, B = 1. Substituting the preceding equation into Eq. (7.68),
3′ = Ko p′ +
3 − 
3 + Af 
1 −
3  (7.69) = Ko p′ − Af 
1 −
3  Again, from Figure 7.69,
1 −
3 p′ +
1  − Ko p′ +
3  = 2 2 or 2Su = 
1 −
3  + p′ − Ko p′  Su = or 
1 −
3  = 2Su − p′ − Ko p′  (7.70) Substituting Eq. (7.70) into Eq. (7.69), we obtain
3′ = Ko p′ − 2Su Af + Af p′ 1 − Ko  (7.71) Substituting of Eq. (7.71) into the right-hand side of Eq. (7.67) and simplification yields Su = c cos  + p′ sin  Ko + Af 1 − Ko  1 + 2Af − 1 sin  (7.72) For normally consolidated clays, c = 0; hence Eq. (7.72) becomes Su sin  Ko + Af 1 − Ko  = ′ p 1 + 2Af − 1 sin  (7.73) There are also several empirical relations between Su and p′ suggested by various investigators. These are given in Table 7.5 (Figure 7.70). Example 7.7 A soil profile is shown in Figure 7.71. From a laboratory consolidation test, the preconsolidation pressure of a soil specimen obtained from a depth of 2 8 m below the ground surface was found to be 140 kN/m . Estimate the undrained shear strength of the clay at that depth. Use Skempton’s and Ladd et al.’s relations from Table 7.5 and Eq. (7.64). solution satclay = 279811 + 03 Gs w + wGs w = 1 + wGs 1 + 0327 = 1902 kN/m3 448 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.70 3m 5m A Figure 7.71 Variation of Su /p′ with liquidity index (see Table 7.5 for Bjerrum and Simons’ relation). Sand γ = 17.3 kN/m3 G.W.T. Clay Gs = 2.7 w = 30% LL = 52 PL = 31 Undrained shear strength of a clay deposit. The effective overburden pressure at A is p′ = 3 173 + 5 1902 − 981 = 519 + 4605 = 9795 kN/m2 Thus the overconsolidation ratio is OCR = 140 = 143 9795 From Table 7.5,
Su p′  OC =
Su p′  NC OCR08 (E7.5) Shear strength of soils 449 Table 7.5 Empirical equations related to Su and p′ Reference Relation Remarks Skempton (1957) SuVST /p′ = 0
11 + 0
0037 PI Chandler (1988) SuVST /p′c = 0
11 + 0
0037 PI Jamiolkowski et al. (1985) Mesri (1989) Bjerrum and Simons (1960) Su /p′c = 0
23 ± 0
04 For normally consolidated clay Can be used in overconsolidated soil; accuracy ±25%; not valid for sensitive and fissured clays. For low overconsolidated clays. Ladd et al. (1977) Su /p′ = 0
22 Su /p′ = fLI Su /p′ overconsolidated = Su /p′ normally consolidated OCR0
8 See Figure 7.70; for normally consolidated clays PI, plasticity index (%); SuVST , undrained shear strength from vane shear test; p′c , preconsolidation pressure; LI, liquidity index; and OCR, overconsolidation ratio. However, from Table 7.5, 
SuVST = 011 + 0037 PI p′ NC (E7.6) From Eq. (7.64), Su =SuVST = 17 − 054 logPI SuVST =17 − 054 log52 − 31SuVST = 0986SuVST SuVST = Su 0986 Combining Eqs. (E7.6) and (E7.7), 
Su = 011 + 00037 PI 0986p′ NC
 Su = 0986011 + 0003752 − 31 = 0185 p′ NC From Eqs. (E7.5) and (E7.6), SuOC = 0185 14308 9795 = 2412 kN/m2 (E7.7) (E7.8) 450 Shear strength of soils 7.22 Creep in soils Like metals and concrete, most soils exhibit creep, i.e., continued deformation under a sustained loading (Figure 7.72). In order to understand Figure 7.72, consider several similar clay specimens subjected to standard undrained loading. For specimen no. 1, if a deviator stress 
1 −
3 1 < 
1 −
3 failure is applied, the strain versus time (∈ versus t) relation will be similar to that shown by curve 1. If specimen no. 2 is subjected to a deviator stress 
1 −
3 2 < 
1 −
3 1 < 
1 −
3 failure , the strain versus time relation may be similar to that shown by curve 2. After the occurrence of a large strain, creep failure will take place in the specimen. In general, the strain versus time plot for a given soil can be divided into three parts: primary, secondary, and tertiary. The primary part is the transient stage; this is followed by a steady state, which is secondary creep. The tertiary part is the stage during which there is a rapid strain which results in failure. These three steps are shown in Figure 7.72. Although the secondary stage is referred to as steady-state creep, in reality a true steady-state creep may not really exist (Singh and Mitchell, 1968). It was observed by Singh and Mitchell (1968) that for most soils (i.e., sand, clay—dry, wet, normally consolidated, and overconsolidated) the logarithm of strain rate has an approximately linear relation with the logarithm of time. This fact is illustrated in Figure 7.73 for remolded San Francisco Bay mud. The strain rate is defined as Figure 7.72 Creep in soils. Shear strength of soils 451 Strain rate, ∈ (% per min) 1 Deviator stress = 24.5 kN/m2 0.1 Deviator stress = 17.7 kN/m2 0.01 Remolded San Francisco Bay mud Water content = 52% 0.001 0.1 1 10 100 Time (min) Figure 7.73 ∈˙ = % t Plot of log ∈˙ versus log t during undrained creep of remolded San Francisco Bay mud (after Singh and Mitchell, 1968). (7.74) where ∈˙ = strain rate % = strain t = time From Figure 7.73, it is apparent that the slope of the log ∈˙ versus log t plot for a given soil is constant irrespective of the level of the deviator stress. When the failure stage due to creep at a given deviator stress level is reached, the log ∈˙ versus log t plot will show a reversal of slope as shown in Figure 7.74. Figure 7.75 shows the nature of the variation of the creep strain rate with deviator stress D =
1 −
3 at a given time t after the start of the creep. For small values of the deviator stress, the curve of log ∈˙ versus D is convex upward. Beyond this portion, log ∈˙ versus D is approximately a straight line. When the value of D approximately reaches the strength of the soil, the curve takes an upward turn, signalling impending failure. For a mathematical interpretation of the variation of strain rate with the deviator stress, several investigators (e.g., Christensen and Wu, 1964; Mitchell et al., 1968) have used the rate-process theory. Christensen and Das (1973) also used the rate-process theory to predict the rate of erosion of cohesive soils. Shear strength of soils log ǫ 452 Deviator stress = D = σ1 – σ3 Failure Log t Log strain rate, ǫ Figure 7.74 Nature of variation of log ∈˙ versus log t for a given deviator stress showing the failure stage at large strains. Failure Deviator stress, D = σ1 – σ3 Figure 7.75 Variation of the strain rate ∈˙ with deviator stress at a given time t after the start of the test. The fundamentals of the rate-process theory can be explained as follows. Consider the soil specimen shown in Figure 7.76. The deviator stress on the specimen is D =
1 −
3 . Let the shear stress along a plane AA in the specimen be equal to . The shear stress is resisted by the bonds at the points of contact of the particles along AA. Due to the shear stress ` the weaker bonds will be overcome, with the result that shear displacement occurs at these localities. As this displacement proceeds, the force carried by the weaker bonds is transmitted partly or fully to stronger bonds. The effect of applied shear stress can thus be considered as making some flow units cross the energy barriers as shown in Figure 7.77, in which F is equal to the activation energy (in cal/mole of flow unit). The frequency of activation of the flow units to overcome the energy barriers can be given by Shear strength of soils 453 D = σ1 – σ3 σ3 A τ σ3 σ3 τ A σ3 D = σ1 – σ3 Potential energy Figure 7.76 Fundamentals of rate-process theory. ∆F = activation energy λ λ λ = distance between the successive equilibrium positions Distance Figure 7.77 k′ = Definition of activation energy.

  F F kT kT exp − exp − = h RT h NkT where k′ = frequency of activation k = Boltzmann’s constant = 138 × 10−16 erg/K = 329 × 10−24 cal/K T = absolute temperature h = Plank’s constant = 6624 × 10−27 erg/s F = free energy of activation, cal/mole R = universal gas constant N = Avogadro’s number = 602 × 1023 (7.75) Shear strength of soils Energy 454 f After application of force f Before application of force f f λ/2 f λ/2 λ Displacement Figure 7.78 Derivation of Eq. (7.86). Now, referring to Figure 7.78, when a force f is applied across a flow unit, the energy-barrier height is reduced by f/2 in the direction of the force and increased by f/2 in the opposite direction. By this, the frequency of activation in the direction of the force is 
F/N − f/2 kT exp − k = → h kT ′ (7.76) and, similarly, the frequency of activation in the opposite direction becomes
 kT F/N + f/2 k = exp − ← h kT ′ (7.77) where  is the distance between successive equilibrium positions. So, the net frequency of activation in the direction of the force is equal to 

 kT F/N − f/2 F/N + f/2 exp − − exp − ← h kT kT 

f F 2kT sinh exp − = h RT 2kT k′ − k′ = → (7.78) The rate of strain in the direction of the applied force can be given by ∈˙ = x k′ − k′ → ← (7.79) Shear strength of soils 455 where x is a constant depending on the successful barrier crossings. So,

 f F kT exp − ∈˙ = 2x sinh (7.80) h RT 2kT In the above equation, f=  S (7.81) where  is the shear stress and S the number of flow units per unit area. For triaxial shear test conditions as shown in Figure 7.76, max = D
1 −
3 = 2 2 (7.82) Combining Eqs. (7.81) and (7.82), f= D 2S Substituting Eq. (7.83) into Eq. (7.80), we get

 D F kT exp − sinh ∈˙ = 2x h RT 4kST (7.83) (7.84) For large stresses to cause significant creep—i.e., D > 025 · Dmax = 025
1 −
3 max (Mitchell et al., 1968)—D/4kST is greater than 1. So, in that case,
 D D 1 ≈ exp (7.85) sinh 4kST 2 4kST Hence, from Eqs. (7.84) and (7.85),

 D F kT ˙∈ = x exp − exp h RT 4kST ∈˙ = A exp BD (7.86) (7.87) where
 F kT A=x exp − h RT (7.88) and B=  4kST (7.89) 456 Shear strength of soils 1 × 10–2 Axial strain rate, ǫ (% per s) 1 × 10–3 Elapsed time of creep = 1 min 1 × 10–4 10 min 1 × 10–5 100 min 1 × 10–6 1000 min Water content = 34.3 ± 0.1% 1 × 10–7 20 60 100 140 180 Deviator stress, D (kN/m2) Figure 7.79 Variation of strain rate with deviator stress for undrained creep of remolded illite (after Mitchell et al., 1969). The quantity A is likely to vary with time because of the variation of x and F with time. B is a constant for a given value of the effective consolidation pressure. Figure 7.79 shows the variation of the undrained creep rate ∈˙ with the deviator stress D for remolded illite at elapsed times t equal to 1, 10, 100, and 1000 min. From this, note that at any given time the following apply: 2 1. For D < 49 kN/m , the log ∈˙ versus D plot is convex upward following the relation given by Eq. (7.84), ∈˙ = 2A sinh BD. For this case, D/4SkT < 1. 2 2 2. For 128 kN/m > D > 49 kN/m , the log ∈˙ versus D plot is approximately a straight line following the relation given by Eq. (7.87), ∈˙ = AeBD . For this case, D/4SkT > 1. 2 3. For D > 128 kN/m , the failure stage is reached when the strain rate rapidly increases; this stage cannot be predicted by Eqs. (7.84) and (7.87). Shear strength of soils 457 Table 7.6 Values of F for some soils Fkcal/mole Soil Saturated, remolded illite; water content 30–43% Dried illite, samples air-dried from saturation then evacuated over dessicant Undisturbed San Francisco Bay mud Dry Sacramento River sand 25–40 37 25–32 ∼ 25 After Mitchell et al., 1969. Table 7.6 gives the values of the experimental activation energy four different soils. F for 7.23 Other theoretical considerations—yield surfaces in three dimensions Comprehensive failure conditions or yield criteria were first developed for metals, rocks, and concrete. In this section, we will examine the application of these theories to soil and determine the yield surfaces in the principal stress space. The notations +1′  +2′ , and +3′ will be used for effective principal stresses without attaching an order of magnitude—i.e., +1′  +2′ , and +3′ are not necessarily major, intermediate, and minor principal stresses, respectively. Von Mises (1913) proposed a simple yield function, which may be stated as 2 2 2 F = 
1′ −
2′  + 
2′ −
3′  + 
3′ −
1′  − 2Y 2 = 0 (7.90) where Y is the yield stress obtained in axial tension. However, the octahedral shear stress can be given by the relation  1 oct = 
1′ −
2′ 2 + 
2′ −
3′ 2 + 
3′ −
1′ 2 3 Thus Eq. (7.90) may be written as 2 3oct = 2Y 2 or oct = 2 Y 3 (7.91) Equation (7.91) means that failure will take place  when the octahedral shear stress reaches a constant value equal to 2/3Y . Let us plot this 458 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.80 Yield surface—Von Mises criteria. on the octahedral plane 
1′ +
2′ +
3′ = const, as shown  in Figure 7.80. The locus will be a circle with a radius equal to oct = 2/3Y and with its center at point a. In Figure 7.80a, Oa is theoctahedral normal stress ′2 2 ′ 
1′ +
2′ +
3′ /3 =
oct + oct ; also, ab = oct , and Ob =
oct . Note that the ′ ′ locus is unaffected by the value of
oct . Thus, various values of
oct will generate a circular cylinder coaxial with the hydrostatic axis, which is a yield surface (Figure 7.80b). Another yield function suggested by Tresca (1868) can be expressed in the form
max −
min = 2k (7.92) Equation (7.92) assumes that failure takes place when the maximum shear stress reaches a constant critical value. The factor k of Eq. (7.92) is defined for the case of simple tension by Mohr’s circle shown in Figure 7.81. Note that for soils this is actually the  = 0 condition. In Figure 7.81 the yield function is plotted on the octahedral plane 
1′ +
2′ +
3′ = const. The locus is a regular hexagon. Point a is the point of intersection of the hydrostatic axis or isotropic stress line with octahedral plane, and so it represents the octahedral normal stress. Point b represents the failure condition in compression for
1′ >
2′ =
3′ , and point e represents the failure condition in extension with
2′ =
3′ >
1′ . Similarly, point d represents the Shear strength of soils 459 Figure 7.81 Yield surface—Tresca criteria. failure condition for
3′ >
1′ =
2′ , point g for
1′ =
2′ >
3′ , point f for
2′ >
3′ =
1′ , and point c for
3′ =
1′ >
2′ . Since the locus is unaffected by ′ , the yield surface will be a hexagonal cylinder. the value of
oct We have seen from Eq. (7.20) that, for the Mohr–Coulomb condition of failure, 
1′ −
3′  = 2c cos  + 
1′ +
3′  sin , or 
1′ −
3′ 2 = 2c cos  + 
1′ +
3′  sin 2 . In its most general form, this can be expressed as 5 62 2 
1′ −
2′  − 2c cos  + 
1′ +
2′  sin  5 62 2 × 
2′ −
3′  − 2c cos  + 
2′ +
3′  sin  2 × !
3′ −
1′  − 2c cos  + 
3′ +
1′  sin " = 0 (7.93) When the yield surface defined by Eq. (7.93) is plotted on the octahedral plane, it will appear as shown in Figure 7.82. This is an irregular hexagon in section with nonparallel sides of equal length. Point a in Figure 7.82 is the point of intersection of the hydrostatic axis with the octahedral plane. Thus the yield surface will be a hexagonal cylinder coaxial with the isotropic stress line. Figure 7.83 shows a comparison of the three yield functions described above. In a Rendulic-type plot, the failure envelopes will appear in a manner 460 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.82 Mohr–Coulomb failure criteria. shown in Figure 7.83b. At point a
1′ =
2′ =
3′ =
′ (say). At point √ ′ b
1′ =
′ + ba =
′ + ab sin , where  = cos−1 1/ 3. Thus
1′ =
′ + 2 ab 3 ab cos  aa′ 1
2′ =
3′ =
′ − √ =
′ − √ =
′ − √ ab 2 2 6 (7.94) (7.95) For the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion,
1′ −
3′ = 2c cos +
1′ +
3′  sin . Substituting Eqs. (7.94) and (7.95) in the preceding equation, we obtain   1 2 ′ ′
+ ab −
+ √ ab = 2c cos  3 6   1 2 ′ ′ +
+ ab +
− √ ab sin  3 6 or ab or      2 2 1 1 +√ −√ − sin  = 2 c cos  +
′ sin  3 3 6 6 
3 1 ab √ 1 − sin  = 2 c cos  +
′ sin  3 6 (7.96) Figure 7.83 Comparison of Von Mises, Tresca, and Mohr–Coulomb yield functions. 462 Shear strength of soils Similarly, for extension (i.e., at point e1 ),
1′ =
′ − e1 a′′ =
′ − ae1 sin  =
′ − 2 ae 3 1 (7.97) aa′′ ae cos  1
2′ =
3′ =
′ + √ =
′ + 1√ =
′ + √ ae1 2 2 6 (7.98) Now
3′ −
1′ = 2c cos  + 
3′ +
1′  sin . Substituting Eqs. (7.97) and (7.98) into the preceding equation, we get      1 1 2 2 ae1 +√ −√ + sin  = 2 c cos  +
′ sin  (7.99) 3 3 6 6 or 
3 1 ae1 √ 1 + sin  = 2 c cos  +
′ sin  3 6 (7.100) Equating Eqs. (7.96) and (7.100), 1 1 + sin  ab 3 = 1 ae1 1 − sin  3 (7.101) Table 7.7 gives the ratios of ab to ae1 for various values of . Note that this ratio is not dependent on the value of cohesion, c. It can be seen from Figure 7.83a that the Mohr–Coulomb and the Tresca yield functions coincide for the case  = 0. Von Mises’ yield function [Eq. (7.90)] can be modified to the form 2  k 2 2 2 
1′ −
2′  + 
2′ −
3′  + 
3′ −
1′  = c + 2 
1′ +
2′ +
3′  3 or 2 2 2 2 ′ 
1′ −
2′  + 
2′ −
3′  + 
3′ −
1′  = c + k2
oct  Table 7.7 Ratio of ab to ae1 [Eq. (7.101)]  ab/ ae1 40 30 20 10 0 0.647 0.715 0.796 0.889 1.0 (7.102) Shear strength of soils 463 where k2 is a function of sin , and c is cohesion. Eq. (7.102) is called the extended Von Mises’ yield criterion. Similarly, Tresca’s yield function [Eq. (7.75)] can be modified to the form  2 ′ 2 
1′ −
2′  − c + k3
oct   ′ 2 × 
2′ −
3′  − c + k3
oct   2 ′ 2 × 
3′ −
1′  − c + k3
oct  =0 (7.103) where k3 is a function of sin  and c is cohesion. Equation (7.103) is generally referred to as the extended Tresca criterion. 7.24 Experimental results to compare the yield functions Kirkpatrick (1957) devised a special shear test procedure for soils, called the hollow cylinder test, which provides the means for obtaining the variation in the three principal stresses. The results from this test can be used to compare the validity of the various yield criteria suggested in the preceding section. A schematic diagram of the laboratory arrangement for the hollow cylinder test is shown in Figure 7.84a. A soil specimen in the shape of a hollow cylinder is placed inside a test chamber. The specimen is encased by both an inside and an outside membrane. As in the case of a triaxial test, radial pressure on the soil specimen can be applied through water. However, in this type of test, the pressures applied to the inside and outside of the specimen can be controlled separately. Axial pressure on the specimen is applied by a piston. In the original work of Kirkpatrick, the axial pressure was obtained from load differences applied to the cap by the fluid on top of the specimen [i.e., piston pressure was not used; see Eq. (7.110)]. The relations for the principal stresses in the soil specimen can be obtained as follows (see Figure 7.84b). Let
o and
i be the outside and inside fluid pressures, respectively. For drained tests the total stresses
o and
i are equal to the effective stresses,
o′ and
i′ . For an axially symmetrical case the equation of continuity for a given point in the soil specimen can be given by
′ −
′ d
r′ + r =0 dr r (7.104) where
r′ and
′ are the radial and tangential stresses, respectively, and r is the radial distance from the center of the specimen to the point. Figure 7.84 Hollow cylinder test. Shear strength of soils 465 We will consider a case where the failure in the specimen is caused by increasing
i′ and keeping
o′ constant. Let (7.105)
′ = 
r′ Substituting Eq. (7.105) in Eq. (7.104), we get or d
r′
r′ 1 −  + =0 dr r dr d
r′ 1 = −1
r′ r
r′ = Ar −1 (7.106) where A is a constant. However,
r′ =
o′ at r = ro , which is the outside radius of the specimen. So, A=
o′ ro−1 Combining Eqs. (7.106) and (7.107),
−1 r
r′ =
o′ ro Again, from Eqs. (7.105) and (7.108),
−1 r
′ = 
o′ ro The effective axial stress
a′ can be given by the equation    
o′ ro2 −
i′ ri2
o′ ro2 −
i′ ri2 ′
a = = ro2 − ri2 ro2 − ri2 (7.107) (7.108) (7.109) (7.110) where ri is the inside radius of the specimen. At failure, the radial and tangential stresses at the inside face of the specimen can be obtained from Eqs. (7.108) and (7.109):
−1 r ′ ′ ′
rinside = 
i failure =
o i (7.111) ro
−1
′ ri
i or = (7.112)
o′ failure ro
−1 ri ′ (7.113)
inside = 
′ failure = 
o′ ro 466 Shear strength of soils To obtain
a′ at failure, we can substitute Eq. (7.111) into Eq. (7.110): 
a′ failure = = 
o′ ro /ro 2 − 
i′ /
o′   ro /ri 2 − 1
o′ ro /ri 2 − ro /ri 1− ro /ri 2 − 1 (7.114) From the above derivations, it is obvious that for this type of test (i.e., increasing
i′ to cause failure and keeping
o′ constant) the major and minor principal stresses are
r′ and
′ . The intermediate principal stress is
a′ . For granular soils the value of the cohesion c is 0, and from the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion,  Minor principal stress 1 − sin  = Major principal stress failure 1 + sin 
′
 1 − sin  or =
r′ failure 1 + sin 
(7.115) Comparing Eqs. (7.105) and (7.115), 
1 − sin   2  = tan 45 − = 1 + sin  2 (7.116) The results of some hollow cylinder tests conducted by Kirkpatrick (1957) on a sand are given in Table 7.8, together with the calculated values of  
a′ failure  
r′ failure , and 
′ failure . A comparison of the yield functions on the octahedral plane and the results of Kirkpatrick is given in Figure 7.85. The results of triaxial compression and extension tests conducted on the same sand by Kirkpatrick are also shown in Figure 7.85. The experimental results indicate that the Mohr–Coulomb criterion gives a better representation for soils than the extended Tresca and Von Mises criteria. However, the hollow cylinder tests produced slightly higher values of  than those from the triaxial tests. Wu et al. (1963) also conducted a type of hollow cylinder shear test with sand and clay specimens. In these tests, failure was produced by increasing the inside, outside, and axial stresses on the specimens in various combinations. The axial stress increase was accomplished by the application of a force P on the cap through the piston as shown in Figure 7.84. Triaxial compression and extension tests were also conducted. Out of a total of six series of tests, there were two in which failure was caused by increasing the outside pressure. For those two series of tests,
′ >
a′ >
r′ . Note that this is Shear strength of soils 467 Table 7.8 Results of Kirkpatrick’s hollow cylinder test on a sand Test no. i′ failure ∗ lb/in2  o′ , † lb/in2   [from Eq. (7.112)]‡ ′ inside at failure § lb/in2  ′ outside at failure ¶ lb/in2  a′ [from Eq. (7.110) lb/in2  1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 21.21 27.18 44.08 55.68 65.75 68.63 72.88 77.16 78.43 14.40 18.70 30.60 38.50 45.80 47.92 50.30 54.02 54.80 0.196 0.208 0.216 0.215 0.192 0.198 0.215 0.219 0.197 4.16 5.65 9.52 11.95 12.61 13.60 15.63 16.90 15.4 2.82 3.89 6.61 8.28 8.80 9.48 10.81 11.83 10.80 10.50 13.30 22.30 27.95 32.30 34.05 35.90 38.90 38.20 ′ i′ failure = rinside at failure. ′ ′ o  = routside at failure. ‡ For these tests, ro = 2 in. (50.8 mm) and ri = 1
25 in. (31.75 mm). ′ § ′ inside = i failure . ¶ ′ ′ outside = o failure . 2 Note: 1 lb/in = 6
9 kN/m2 . ∗ † opposite to Kirkpatrick’s tests, in which
r′ >
a′ >
′ . Based on the Mohr– ′ ′ =
min N + 2cN 1/2 . Coulomb criterion, we can write [see Eq. (7.21)]
max ′ ′ ′ So, for the case where
 >
a >
r ,
′ =
r′ N + 2cN 1/2 (7.117) The value of N in the above equation is tan2 45 + /2, and so the  in Eq. (7.105) is equal to 1/N . From Eq. (7.104),
′ −
r′ d
r′ =  dr r Combining the preceding equation and Eq. (7.117), we get 0 1/ ′ d
r′
r N − 1 + 2cN 1/2 = dr r (7.118) Using the boundary condition that, at r = ri 
r′ =
i′ , Eq. (7.118) gives the following relation:

N −1 2cN 1/2 r 2cN 1/2
r′ =
i′ + − N −1 ri N −1 (7.119) 468 Shear strength of soils Figure 7.85 Comparison of the yield functions on the octahedral plane along with the results of Kirkpatrick. Also, combining Eqs. (7.117) and (7.119),

N −1 r 2cN 3/2 2cN 1/2
′ =
i′ N + − N −1 ri N −1 (7.120) ′ At failure,
routside = 
o′ failure . So, 
o′ failure =

i′ 2cN 1/2 + N −1 
ro ri N −1 − 2cN 1/2 N −1 (7.121) For granular soils and normally consolidated clays, c = 0. So, at failure, Eqs. (7.119) and (7.120) simplify to the form 
r′ outside and at ′ ′ failure = 
o failure =
i 
′ outside at ′ failure =
i N

ro ri  ro N −1 ri N −1 (7.122) (7.123) Shear strength of soils 469 Figure 7.86 Hence
Results of hollow cylinder tests plotted on octahedral plane 1′ + 2′ + 3′ = 1 (after Wu et al., 1963).
r′
′  failure = 1 minor principal effective stress = = major principal effective stress N (7.124) Compare Eqs. (7.105) and (7.124). Wu et al. also derived equations for
r′ and
′ for the case
a′ >
′ >
r′ . Figure 7.86 shows the results of Wu et al. plotted on the octahedral plane
1′ +
2′ +
3′ = 1. The Mohr–Coulomb yield criterion has been plotted by using the triaxial compression and extension test results. The results of other hollow cylinder tests are plotted as points. In general, there is good agreement between the experimental results and the yield surface predicted by the Mohr–Coulomb theory. However, as in Kirkpatrick’s test, hollow cylinder tests indicated somewhat higher values of  than triaxial tests in the case of sand. In the case of clay, the opposite trend is generally observed. PROBLEMS 7.1 The results of two consolidated drained triaxial tests are as follows: Test 3 kN/m2  1 2 66 91 f kN/m2 ) 134.77 169.1 470 Shear strength of soils Determine c and . Also determine the magnitudes of the normal and shear stress on the planes of failure for the two specimens used in the tests. 7.2 A specimen of normally consolidated clay  = 28  was consolidated under a 2 chamber-confining pressure of 280 kN/m . For a drained test, by how much does the axial stress have to be reduced to cause failure by axial extension? 7.3 A normally consolidated clay specimen  = 31  was consolidated under a 2 chamber-confining pressure of 132 kN/m . Failure of the specimen was caused by 2 an added axial stress of 1581 kN/m in an undrained condition. Determine cu  Af , and the pore water pressure in the specimen at failure. 7.4 A normally consolidated clay is consolidated under a triaxial chamber con2 fining pressure of 495 kN/m and  = 29 . In a Rendulic-type diagram, draw the stress path the specimen would follow if sheared to failure in a drained condition in the following ways: a By increasing the axial stress and keeping the radial stress constant. b By reducing the axial stress and keeping the axial stress constant. c By increasing the axial stress and keeping the radial stress such that
a′ + 2
r′ = const. d By reducing the axial stress and keeping the radial stress constant. e By increasing the radial stress and keeping the axial stress constant. f By reducing the axial stress and increasing the radial stress such that
a′ + 2
r′ = const. 2 7.5 The results of a consolidated undrained test, in which
3 = 392 kN/m , on a normally consolidated clay are given next: Axial strain (%) 0 0.5 0.75 1 1.3 2 3 4 4.5 kN/m2  0 156 196 226 235 250 245 240 235 ud kN/m2  0 99 120 132 147 161 170 173 175 Draw the Kf line in a p′ versus q ′ diagram. Also draw the stress path for this test in the diagram. 7.6 For the following consolidated drained triaxial tests on a clay, draw a p′ versus q ′ diagram and determine c and . Shear strength of soils 471 Test p′ kN/m2  q′ kN/m2  1 2 3 4 5 28.75 38.33 73.79 101.6 134.2 35.46 37.38 49.83 64.2 76.7 7.7 The stress path for a normally consolidated clay is shown in Figure P7.1 (Rendulic plot). The stress path is for a consolidated undrained triaxial test where failure was caused by increasing the axial stress while keeping the radial stress constant. Determine a b c d  for the soil, The pore water pressure induced at A, The pore water pressure at failure, and The value of Af . 7.8 The results of some drained triaxial tests on a clay soil are given below. Failure of each specimen was caused by increasing the axial stress while the radial stress was kept constant. Figure P7.1 472 Shear strength of soils a Determine  for the soil. b Determine Hvorslev’s parameters e and ce at moisture contents of 24.2, 22.1, and 18.1%. Test no. Chamber consolidation pressure c′ kN/m2  3′ kN/m2  1 2 3 4 5 6 105 120 162 250 250 250 105 120 162 35 61 140 f kN/m2  154 176 237 109 137 229 Moisture content of specimen at failure (%) 24.2 22.1 18.1 24.2 22.1 18.1 7.9 A specimen of soil was collected from a depth of 12 m in a deposit of clay. The ground water table coincides with the ground surface. For the soil, 3 LL = 68 PL = 29, and sat = 178 kN/m . Estimate the undrained shear strength Su of this clay for the following cases. a If the clay is normally consolidated. 2 b If the preconsolidation pressure is 191 kN/m . Use Skempton’s (1957) and Ladd et al.’s (1977) relations (Table 7.5). 7.10 A specimen of clay was collected from the field from a depth of 16 m (Figure P7.2). A consolidated undrained triaxial test yielded the following results:  = 32  Af = 08. Estimate the undrained shear strength Su of the clay. 7.11 For an anisotropic clay deposit the results from unconfined compression tests 2 2 were Sui=30  = 102 kN/m and Sui=60  = 123 kN/m . Find the anisotropy coefficient K of the soil based on the Casagrande–Carillo equation [Eq. (7.52)]. Dry sand e = 0.6 Gs = 2.65 5m G.W.T. 16 m Normally consolidated clay γsat = 19.1 kN/m3 Figure P7.2 Shear strength of soils 473 7.12 A sand specimen was subjected to a drained shear test using hollow cylinder test equipment. Failure was caused by increasing the inside pressure while 2 keeping the outside pressure constant. At failure,
o = 193 kN/m and
i = 2 264 kN/m . The inside and outside radii of the specimen were 40 and 60 mm, respectively. a Calculate the soil friction angle. b Calculate the axial stress on the specimen at failure. References American Society for Testing and Materials, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, vol. 04.08, Philadelphia, Pa., 1992. Berger, L. and J. Gnaedinger, Strength Regain of Clays, ASTM Bull., Sept. 1949. Bishop, A. W. and L. Bjerrum, The Relevance of the Triaxial Test to the Solution of Stability Problems, in Proc. Res. Conf. Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils, Am. Soc. of Civ. Eng., pp. 437–501, 1960. Bishop, A. W. and D. J. Henkel, The Measurement of Soil Properties in the Triaxial Test, 2nd ed., Edward Arnold, London, 1969. Bjerrum, L., Embankments on Soft Ground, in Proc. Specialty Conf. Earth and Earth-Supported Struct., vol. 2, Am. Soc. of Civ. Eng., pp. 1–54, 1972. Bjerrum, L. and N. E. Simons, Comparison of Shear Strength Characteristics of Normally Consolidated Clay, in Proc. Res. Conf. Shear Strength Cohesive Soils, Am. Soc. of Civ. Eng., pp. 711–726, 1960. Carlson, L., Determination of the In Situ Shear Strength of Undisturbed Clay by Means of a Rotating Auger, in Proc. II Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., vol. 1, pp. 265–270, 1948. Casagrande, A. and N. Carrillo, Shear Failure of Anisotropic Materials, in Contribution to Soil Mechanics 1941–1953, Boston Society of Civil Engineers, Boston, Mass., 1944. Casagrande, A. and S. D. Wilson, Investigation of the Effects of the Long-Time Loading on the Shear Strength of Clays and Shales at Constant Water Content, Report to the U.S. Waterways Experiment Station, Harvard University, 1949. Casagrande, A. and S. D. Wilson, Effect of the Rate of Loading on the Strength of Clays and Shales at Constant Water Content, Geotechnique, vol. 1, pp. 251–263, 1951. Chandler, R. J., The In Situ Measurement of the Undrained Shear Strength of Clays Using the Field Vane, STP1014, Vane Shear Strength Testing in Soils: Field and Laboratory Studies, ASTM, pp. 13–44, 1988. Christensen, R. W. and B. M. Das, Hydraulic Erosion of Remolded Cohesive Soils. Highway Research Board, Special Report 135, pp. 9–19, 1973. Christensen, R. W. and T. H. Wu, Analysis of Clay Deformation as a Rate Process, J. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 90, no. SM6, pp. 125–157, 1964. Coulomb, C. A., Essai Sur une Application des regles des Maximis et Minimis a Quelques Problemes des Statique Relatifs a L’Architecture, Mem. Acad. R. Pres. Divers Savants, Paris, vol. 7, 1776. 474 Shear strength of soils Duncan, J. M. and C. Y. Chang, Nonlinear Analysis of Stress and Strain in Soils, J. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 96, no. 5, pp. 1629– 1653, 1970. Hatanaka, M. and A. Uchida, Empirical Correlation between Penetration Resistance and Internal Friction Angle of Sandy Soils, Soils and Found., vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 1–10, 1996. Gibson, R. E., Experimental Determination of True Cohesion and True Angle of Internal Friction in Clay, in Proc. III Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., vol. 1, p. 126, 1953. Henkel, D. J., The Shearing Strength of Saturated Remolded Clays, Proc. Res. Conf. Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils, ASCE, pp. 533–554, 1960. Horne, H. M. and D. U. Deere, Frictional Characteristics of Minerals, Geotechnique, vol. 12, pp. 319–335, 1962. Hvorslev, J., Physical Component of the Shear Strength of Saturated Clays, in Proc. Res. Conf. Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils, Am. Soc. of Civ. Eng., pp. 169–273, 1960. Hvorslev, M. J., Uber Die Festigheitseigen-schaften Gestorter Bindinger Boden, in Ingeniorvidenskabelige Skrifter, no. 45, Danmarks Naturvidenskabelige Samfund, Kovenhavn, 1937. Jamiolkowski, M., C. C. Ladd, J. T. Germaine, and R. Lancellotta, New Developments in Field and Laboratory Testing of Soils, in Proc. XI Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., vol. 1, pp. 57–153, 1985. Janbu, N., Soil Compressibility as Determined by Oedometer and Triaxial Tests, Proc. Eur. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., vol. 1, pp. 259–263, 1963. Kelly, W. E., Correcting Shear Strength for Temperature, J. Geotech. Eng. Div., ASCE, vol. 104, no. GT5, pp. 664–667, 1978. Kenney, T. C., Discussion, Proc., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 85, no. SM3, pp. 67– 79, 1959. Kirkpatrick, W. M., The Condition of Failure in Sands, Proc. IV Intl. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., vol. 1, pp. 172–178, 1957. Kulhawy, F. H. and P. W. Mayne, Manual on Estimating Soil Properties in Foundation Design, Elect. Power Res. Inst., Palo Alto, Calif., 1990. Ladd, C. C., R. Foote, K. Ishihara, F. Schlosser, and H. G. Poulos, StressDeformation and Strength Characteristics, IX Intl. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., vol. 2, pp. 421–494, 1977. Lade, P. V. and K. L. Lee, Engineering Properties of Soils, Report UCLA-ENG7652, 1976. Lambe, T. W., Methods of Estimating Settlement, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 90, no. 5, p. 43, 1964. Lee, I. K., Stress-Dilatency Performance of Feldspar, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 92, no. SM2, pp. 79–103, 1966. Lee, K. L., Comparison of Plane Strain and Triaxial Tests on Sand, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 96, no. SM3, pp. 901–923, 1970. Lo, K. Y., Stability of Slopes in Anisotropic Soils, J. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 91, no. SM4, pp. 85–106, 1965. Mesri, G., A Re-evaluation of sumob ≈ 022+p Using Laboratory Shear Tests, Can. Geotech. J., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 162–164, 1989. Shear strength of soils 475 Meyerhof, G. G., Some Recent Research on the Bearing Capacity of Foundations, Can. Geotech. J., vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 16–26, 1963. Mitchell, J. K., Shearing Resistance of Soils as a Rate Process, J. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 90, no. SM1, pp. 29–61, 1964. Mitchell, J. K., R. G. Campanella, and A. Singh, Soil Creep as a Rate Process, J. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 94, no. SM1, pp. 231– 253, 1968. Mitchell, J. K., A. Singh, and R. G. Campanella, Bonding, Effective Stresses, and Strength of Soils, J. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 95, no. SM5, pp. 1219–1246, 1969. Mohr, O., Welche Umstände Bedingen die Elastizitätsgrenze und den Bruch eines Materiales?, Zeitschrift des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure, vol. 44, pp. 1524–1530, 1572–1577, 1900. Moretto, O., Effect of Natural Hardening on the Unconfined Strength of Remolded Clays, Proc. 2d Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., vol. 1, pp. 218–222, 1948. Morris, P. M. and D. J. Williams, Effective Stress Vane Shear Strength Correction Factor Correlations, Can. Geotech. J., vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 335–342, 1994. Olson, R. E., Shearing Strength of Kaolinite, Illite, and Montmorillonite, J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 100, no. GT11, pp. 1215–1230, 1974. Peck, R. B., H. O. Ireland, and T. S. Fry, Studies of Soil Characteristics: The Earth Flows of St. Thuribe, Quebec, Soil Mechanics Series No. 1, University of Illinois, Urbana, 1951. Rendulic, L., Ein Grundgesetzder tonmechanik und sein experimentaller beweis, Bauingenieur, vol. 18, pp. 459–467, 1937. Ricceri, G., P. Simonini, and S. Cola, Applicability of Piezocone and Dilatometer to Characterize the Soils of the Venice Lagoon, Geotech. Geol. Engg, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 89–121, 2002. Richardson, A. M., E. W. Brand, and A. Menon, In Situ Determination of Anisotropy of a Soft Clay, Proc. Conf. In Situ Measure. Soil Prop., vol. 1, Am. Soc. of Civ. Eng., pp. 336–349, 1975. Robertson, P. K. and R. G. Campanella, Interpretation of Cone Penetration Tests. Part I: Sand, Can. Geotech. J., vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 718–733, 1983. Roscoe, K. H., A. N. Schofield, and A. Thurairajah, An Evaluation of Test Data for Selecting a Yield Criterion for Soils, STP 361, Proc. Symp. Lab. Shear Test. Soils, Am. Soc. of Civ. Eng., pp. 111–133, 1963. Rowe, P. W., The Stress-Dilatency Relation for Static Equilibrium of an Assembly of Particles in Contact, Proc. Ry. Soc. London, Ser. A, vol. 269, pp. 500–527, 1962. Schmertmann, J. H., Measurement of In Situ Shear Strength, Proc. Spec. Conf. In Situ Measure. Soil Prop., vol. 2, Am. Soc. of Civ. Eng., pp. 57–138, 1975. Seed, H. B. and C. K. Chan, Thixotropic Characteristics of Compacted Clays, Trans., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 124, pp. 894–916, 1959. Seed, H. B. and K. L. Lee, Liquefaction of Saturated Sands During Cyclic Loading, J. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 92, no. SM6, pp. 105–134, 1966. Sherif, M. A. and C. M. Burrous, Temperature Effect on the Unconfined Shear Strength of Saturated Cohesive Soils, Special Report 103, Highway Research Board, pp. 267–272, 1969. 476 Shear strength of soils Silvestri, V. and C. Tabib, Analysis of Elliptic Vanes, Can. Geotech. J., vol. 29, no. 6, pp. 993–997, 1992. Simons, N. E., The Effect of Overconsolidation on the Shear Strength Characteristics of an Undisturbed Oslo Clay, Proc. Res. Conf. Shear Strength Cohesive Soils, Am. Soc. of Civ. Eng., pp. 747–763, 1960. Singh, A. and J. K. Mitchell, General Stress-Strain-Time Functions for Soils, J. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 94, no. SM1, pp. 21–46, 1968. Skempton, A. W., Discussion: The Planning and Design of New Hong Kong Airport, Proc. Inst. Civil. Eng., vol. 7, pp. 305–307, 1957. Skempton, A. W., Correspondence, Geotechnique, vol. 10, no. 4, p. 186, 1960. Skempton, A. W., Effective Stress in Soils, Concrete and Rock, in Pore Pressure and Suction in Soils, Butterworths, London, pp. 4–16, 1961. Skempton, A. W., Long-Term Stability of Clay Slopes, Geotechnique, vol. 14, p. 77, 1964. Tresca, H., Memoire sur L’Ecoulement des Corps Solids, Men, Pre. Par Div. Sav, vol. 18, 1868. Von Mises, R., Mechanik der festen Korper in Plastichdeformablen Zustand, Goettinger-Nachr. Math-Phys. Kl., 1913. Whitman, R. V. and K. A. Healey, Shear Strength of Sand During Rapid Loadings, Trans., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 128, pp. 1553–1594, 1963. Wolff, T. F., Pile Capacity Predicting Using Parameter Functions, in Predicted and Observed Axial Behavior of Piles, Results of a Pile Prediction Symposium, sponsored by the Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Evanston, IL, June 1989, Geotech. Spec. Pub. 23 Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., pp. 96–106, 1989. Wu, T. H., A. K. Loh, and L. E. Malvern, Study of Failure Envelope of Soils, J. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 89, no. SM1, pp. 145– 181, 1963. Chapter 8 Settlement of shallow foundations 8.1 Introduction The increase of stress in soil layers due to the load imposed by various structures at the foundation level will always be accompanied by some strain, which will result in the settlement of the structures. The various aspects of settlement calculation are analyzed in this chapter. In general, the total settlement S of a foundation can be given as (8.1) S = Se + Sc + Ss where Se = elastic settlement Sc = primary consolidation settlement Ss = secondary consolidation settlement In granular soils elastic settlement is the predominant part of the settlement, whereas in saturated inorganic silts and clays the primary consolidation settlement probably predominates. The secondary consolidation settlement forms the major part of the total settlement in highly organic soils and peats. We will consider the analysis of each component of the total settlement separately in some detail. ELASTIC SETTLEMENT 8.2 Modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio For calculation of elastic settlement, relations for the theory of elasticity are used in most cases. These relations contain parameters such as modulus of elasticity E and Poisson’s ratio . In elastic materials, these parameters are 478 Settlement of shallow foundations determined from uniaxial load tests. However, soil is not truly an elastic material. Parameters E and  for soils can be obtained from laboratory triaxial tests. Figure 8.1 shows the nature of variation of the deviator stress with the axial strain ∈a  for laboratory triaxial compression tests. The modulus of elasticity can be defined as 1. Initial tangent modulus Ei 2. Tangent modulus at a given stress level Et 3. Secant modulus at a given stress level Es These are shown in Figure 8.1. In ordinary situations when the modulus of elasticity for a given soil is quoted, it is the secant modulus from zero to about half the maximum deviator stress. Poisson’s ratio  can be calculated by measuring the axial (compressive) strain and the lateral strain during triaxial testing. Another elastic material parameter is the shear modulus G. The shear modulus was defined in Chap. 2 as G= E 21 +  Figure 8.1 Definition of soil modulus from triaxial test results. (8.2) Settlement of shallow foundations 479 So, if the shear modulus and Poisson’s ratio for a soil are known, the modulus of elasticity can also be estimated. Poisson’s ratio For saturated cohesive soils, volume change does not occur during undrained loading, and  may be assumed to be equal to 0.5. For drained conditions, Wroth (1975) provided the experimental values of Poisson’s ratio for several lightly overconsolidated clays. Based on experimental values presented by Worth, it appears that  ≈ 025 + 000225PI (8.3) where PI is the plasticity index. For granular soils, a general range of Poisson’s ratio is shown in Table 8.1. Trautmann and Kulhawy (1987) also provided the following approximation for drained Poisson’s ratio. 
′ t − 25 (8.4)  = 01 + 03 45 − 25 where ′t is the drained friction angle in the triaxial compression test. Modulus of elasticity—clay soil The undrained secant modulus of clay soils can generally be expressed as (8.5) E = Su where Su is undrained shear strength. Some typical values of determined from large-scale field tests are given in Table 8.2. Also, Figure 8.2 shows the variation of the undrained secant modulus for three clays. Based on the information available, the following comments can be made on the magnitudes of and E. Table 8.1 General range of Poisson’s ratio for granular soils Soil type Range of Poisson’s ratio Loose sand Medium dense sand Dense sand Silty sand Sand and gravel 0.2–0.4 0.25–0.4 0.3–0.45 0.2–0.4 0.15–0.35 Table 8.2 Values of  from various case studies of elastic settlement Case study Location of structure Clay properties Plasticity index Sensitivity Over-consolidation ratio Efield ton/m2  1 2 Oslo: Nine-story building Asrum I: Circular load 15 16 2 100 3.5 2.5 7,600 990 3 Asrum II: Circular load test 14 100 1.7 880 4 Mastemyr: Circular load test 14 — 1.5 1,300 5 Portsmouth: Highway embankment 15 10 1.3 3,000 Boston: Highway embankment 24 6  Source of Su∗ 1200 1000 1200 1000 1100 1200 1700 CIU Field vane CIU Field vane CIU Field vane Bearing capacity Field vane 2000 1700 5 1.5 10,000 1.0 13,000 7 Drammen: Circular load test 28 10 1.4 3,200 8 Kawasaki: Circular load test 38 6±3 1.0 2,200 9 10 Venezuela: Oil tanks Maine: Rectangular load test† 37 33 ± 2 8±2 4 1.0 1.5–4.5 500 100–200 1600 1200 2500 1500 1400 1100 400 800 80–160 Bearing capacity Field vane CKo U Field vane CKo U Field vane CKo U Field vane CIU CIU UU and Bearing capacity After D’Appolonia et al. (1971). Average value at a depth equal to the width of foundation. CIU = isotropically consolidated undrained shear test; UU = consolidated undrained shear test; CKo U = consolidated undrained shear test with sample consolidated in Ko condition. † Slightly organic plastic clay. ∗ Settlement of shallow foundations 481 Figure 8.2 Relation between E/Su and overconsolidation ratio from consolidated undrained tests on three clays determined from CKo U type direct shear tests (after D’Appolonia et al., 1971). 1. The value of decreases with the increase in the overconsolidation ratio of the clay. This is shown for three clays in Figure 8.2. 2. The value of generally decreases with the increase in the PI of the soil. 3. The value of decreases with the organic content in the soil. 4. For highly plastic clays, consolidated undrained tests yield E values that are generally indicative of field behavior. 5. The values of E determined from unconfined compression tests and unconsolidated undrained triaxial tests are generally low. 6. For most cases, CIU of CKo U (Table 8.2) types of tests on undisturbed specimens yield values of E that are more representative of field behavior. Duncan and Buchignani (1976) compiled the results of the variation of with PI and overconsolidation ratio (OCR) for a number of soils. Table 8.3 gives a summary of these results. 482 Settlement of shallow foundations Table 8.3 Variation of  with plasticity index and overconsolidation ratio [compiled from Duncan and Buchignani (1976)] OCR PI range Range of  1 PI < 30 30 < PI < 50 PI > 50 PI < 30 30 < PI < 50 PI > 50 PI < 30 30 < PI < 50 PI > 50 PI < 30 30 < PI < 50 PI > 50 1500–600 600–300 300–125 1450–575 575–275 275–115 975–400 400–185 185–70 600–250 250–115 115–60 2 4 6 The modulus of elasticity can also be calculated from shear modulus G via Eq. (8.2). For undrained loading condition,  = 05; hence E ≈ 3G. For shear strain levels of less than 10−5 (Hardin and Drnevich, 1972), G max = ↑ kN/m2 3230297 − e2 OCRK
1/2 o 1+e ↑kN/m2 (8.6) where e =
o =
o′ =  = K = void ratio effective octahedral stress = 
o′ /33 − 2 sin  effective vertical stress drained friction angle f(PI) (8.7) Table 8.4 gives the variation of K with plasticity index. For static loading conditions, G ≈ 01 − 005Gmax (8.8) For normally and lightly overconsolidated clays of high to medium plasticity, Larsson and Mulabdic (1991) gave the following correlation for Gmax : Gmax =   208 + 250 Su PI/100 (8.9) Settlement of shallow foundations 483 Table 8.4 Variation of K with PI PI K 0 20 40 60 80 ≥100 0 0
18 0
3 0
41 0
48 0
5 where PI = plasticity index Geregen and Pramborg (1990) also obtained the following correlation for very stiff dry-crust clay Gmax = 6Su2 + 500Su for Su = 140–300 kN/m2  where Gmax and Su are in kN/m (8.10) 2 Modulus of elasticity—granular soil Table 8.5 gives a general range of the modulus of elasticity for granular soils. The modulus of elasticity has been correlated to the field standard penetration number N and also the cone penetration resistance qc by various investigators. Schmertmann (1970) indicated that EkN/m2  = 766N (8.11) Similarly, Schmertmann et al. (1978) gave the following correlations: E = 25qc E = 35qc (for square and circular foundations) (8.12) (for strip foundations) (8.13) Table 8.5 Modulus of elasticity for granular soils Type of soil E MN/m2  Loose sand Silty sand Medium-dense sand Dense sand Sand and gravel 10.35–24.15 10.35–17.25 17.25–27.60 34.5–55.2 69.0–172.5 484 Settlement of shallow foundations 8.3 Settlement based on theory of elasticity Consider a foundation measuring L × B L = length B = width located at a depth Df below the ground surface (Figure 8.3). A rigid layer is located at a depth H below the bottom of the foundation. Theoretically, if the foundation is perfectly flexible (Bowles, 1987), the settlement may be expressed as Seflexible = qB′  1 − 2 II E s f (8.14) where q = net applied pressure on the foundation  = Poisson’s ratio of soil E = average modulus of elasticity of the soil under the foundation, measured from z = 0 to about z = 4B B′ = B/2 for center of foundation = B for corner of foundation Is = Shape factor (Steinbrenner, 1934) = F1 + F1 = 1 A + A1   0 F2 = n′ tan−1 A2 2 (8.17) q Rigid :foundation settlement Df Flexible foundation settlement H v = Poisson’s ratio E = Modulus of elasticity Soil Rock Figure 8.3 (8.15) (8.16) Foundation B × L z 1 − 2 F 1− 2 Elastic settlement of flexible and rigid foundations. Settlement of shallow foundations 485 √ √ 1 + m′2 + 1 m′2 + n′2 A0 = m′ ln √ m′ 1 + m′2 + n′2 + 1 (8.18) √ √ m′ + m′2 + 1 1 + n′2 A1 = ln √ m′ + m′2 + n′2 + 1 (8.19) A2 = (8.20) √ m′ n′ m′2 + n′2 + 1 If = depth factor (Fox, 1948) = f
Df L   and B B  (8.21)  = a factor that depends on the location on the foundation where settlement is being calculated Note that Eq. (8.14) is in a similar form as Eq. (3.90). To calculate settlement at the center of the foundation, we use =4 m′ = L B and H n′ =
 B 2 To calculate settlement at a corner of the foundation, use =1 m′ = L B and n′ = H B The variations of F1 and F2 with m′ and n′ are given in Tables 8.6 through 8.9, respectively. The variation of If with Df /B and v is shown in Figure 8.4 (for L/B = 1, 2, and 5), which is based on Fox (1948). Table 8.6 Variation of F1 with m′ and n′ n′ 0
25 0
50 0
75 1
00 1
25 1
50 1
75 2
00 2
25 2
50 2
75 3
00 3
25 3
50 3
75 4
00 4
25 4
50 4
75 5
00 5
25 5
50 5
75 6
00 6
25 6
50 6
75 7
00 7
25 7
50 7
75 8
00 8
25 8
50 8
75 9
00 9
25 9
50 9
75 10
00 20
00 50
00 100
00 m′ 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0.014 0.049 0.095 0.142 0.186 0.224 0.257 0.285 0.309 0.330 0.348 0.363 0.376 0.388 0.399 0.408 0.417 0.424 0.431 0.437 0.443 0.448 0.453 0.457 0.461 0.465 0.468 0.471 0.474 0.477 0.480 0.482 0.485 0.487 0.489 0.491 0.493 0.495 0.496 0.498 0.529 0.548 0.555 0.013 0.046 0.090 0.138 0.183 0.224 0.259 0.290 0.317 0.341 0.361 0.379 0.394 0.408 0.420 0.431 0.440 0.450 0.458 0.465 0.472 0.478 0.483 0.489 0.493 0.498 0.502 0.506 0.509 0.513 0.516 0.519 0.522 0.524 0.527 0.529 0.531 0.533 0.536 0.537 0.575 0.598 0.605 0.012 0.044 0.087 0.134 0.179 0.222 0.259 0.292 0.321 0.347 0.369 0.389 0.406 0.422 0.436 0.448 0.458 0.469 0.478 0.487 0.494 0.501 0.508 0.514 0.519 0.524 0.529 0.533 0.538 0.541 0.545 0.549 0.552 0.555 0.558 0.560 0.563 0.565 0.568 0.570 0.614 0.640 0.649 0.011 0.042 0.084 0.130 0.176 0.219 0.258 0.292 0.323 0.350 0.374 0.396 0.415 0.431 0.447 0.460 0.472 0.484 0.494 0.503 0.512 0.520 0.527 0.534 0.540 0.546 0.551 0.556 0.561 0.565 0.569 0.573 0.577 0.580 0.583 0.587 0.589 0.592 0.595 0.597 0.647 0.678 0.688 0.011 0.041 0.082 0.127 0.173 0.216 0.255 0.291 0.323 0.351 0.377 0.400 0.420 0.438 0.454 0.469 0.481 0.495 0.506 0.516 0.526 0.534 0.542 0.550 0.557 0.563 0.569 0.575 0.580 0.585 0.589 0.594 0.598 0.601 0.605 0.609 0.612 0.615 0.618 0.621 0.677 0.711 0.722 0.011 0.040 0.080 0.125 0.170 0.213 0.253 0.289 0.322 0.351 0.378 0.402 0.423 0.442 0.460 0.476 0.484 0.503 0.515 0.526 0.537 0.546 0.555 0.563 0.570 0.577 0.584 0.590 0.596 0.601 0.606 0.611 0.615 0.619 0.623 0.627 0.631 0.634 0.638 0.641 0.702 0.740 0.753 0.010 0.038 0.077 0.121 0.165 0.207 0.247 0.284 0.317 0.348 0.377 0.402 0.426 0.447 0.467 0.484 0.495 0.516 0.530 0.543 0.555 0.566 0.576 0.585 0.594 0.603 0.610 0.618 0.625 0.631 0.637 0.643 0.648 0.653 0.658 0.663 0.667 0.671 0.675 0.679 0.756 0.803 0.819 0.010 0.038 0.076 0.118 0.161 0.203 0.242 0.279 0.313 0.344 0.373 0.400 0.424 0.447 0.458 0.487 0.514 0.521 0.536 0.551 0.564 0.576 0.588 0.598 0.609 0.618 0.627 0.635 0.643 0.650 0.658 0.664 0.670 0.676 0.682 0.687 0.693 0.697 0.702 0.707 0.797 0.853 0.872 0.010 0.037 0.074 0.116 0.158 0.199 0.238 0.275 0.308 0.340 0.369 0.396 0.421 0.444 0.466 0.486 0.515 0.522 0.539 0.554 0.568 0.581 0.594 0.606 0.617 0.627 0.637 0.646 0.655 0.663 0.671 0.678 0.685 0.692 0.698 0.705 0.710 0.716 0.721 0.726 0.830 0.895 0.918 0.010 0.037 0.074 0.115 0.157 0.197 0.235 0.271 0.305 0.336 0.365 0.392 0.418 0.441 0.464 0.484 0.515 0.522 0.539 0.554 0.569 0.584 0.597 0.609 0.621 0.632 0.643 0.653 0.662 0.671 0.680 0.688 0.695 0.703 0.710 0.716 0.723 0.719 0.735 0.740 0.858 0.931 0.956 Table 8.7 Variation of F1 with m′ and n′ n′ 0
25 0
50 0
75 1
00 1
25 1
50 1
75 2
00 2
25 2
50 2
75 3
00 3
25 3
50 3
75 4
00 4
25 4
50 4
75 5
00 5
25 5
50 5
75 6
00 6
25 6
50 6
75 7
00 7
25 7
50 7
75 8
00 8
25 8
50 8
75 9
00 9
25 9
50 9
75 10
00 20
00 50
00 100
00 m′ 4.5 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 25.0 50.0 100.0 0.010 0.036 0.073 0.114 0.155 0.195 0.233 0.269 0.302 0.333 0.362 0.389 0.415 0.438 0.461 0.482 0.516 0.520 0.537 0.554 0.569 0.584 0.597 0.611 0.623 0.635 0.646 0.656 0.666 0.676 0.685 0.694 0.702 0.710 0.717 0.725 0.731 0.738 0.744 0.750 0.878 0.962 0.990 0.010 0.036 0.073 0.113 0.154 0.194 0.232 0.267 0.300 0.331 0.359 0.386 0.412 0.435 0.458 0.479 0.496 0.517 0.535 0.552 0.568 0.583 0.597 0.610 0.623 0.635 0.647 0.658 0.669 0.679 0.688 0.697 0.706 0.714 0.722 0.730 0.737 0.744 0.751 0.758 0.896 0.989 1.020 0.010 0.036 0.072 0.112 0.153 0.192 0.229 0.264 0.296 0.327 0.355 0.382 0.407 0.430 0.453 0.474 0.484 0.513 0.530 0.548 0.564 0.579 0.594 0.608 0.621 0.634 0.646 0.658 0.669 0.680 0.690 0.700 0.710 0.719 0.727 0.736 0.744 0.752 0.759 0.766 0.925 1.034 1.072 0.010 0.036 0.072 0.112 0.152 0.191 0.228 0.262 0.294 0.324 0.352 0.378 0.403 0.427 0.449 0.470 0.473 0.508 0.526 0.543 0.560 0.575 0.590 0.604 0.618 0.631 0.644 0.656 0.668 0.679 0.689 0.700 0.710 0.719 0.728 0.737 0.746 0.754 0.762 0.770 0.945 1.070 1.114 0.010 0.036 0.072 0.112 0.152 0.190 0.227 0.261 0.293 0.322 0.350 0.376 0.401 0.424 0.446 0.466 0.471 0.505 0.523 0.540 0.556 0.571 0.586 0.601 0.615 0.628 0.641 0.653 0.665 0.676 0.687 0.698 0.708 0.718 0.727 0.736 0.745 0.754 0.762 0.770 0.959 1.100 1.150 0.010 0.036 0.072 0.111 0.151 0.190 0.226 0.260 0.291 0.321 0.348 0.374 0.399 0.421 0.443 0.464 0.471 0.502 0.519 0.536 0.553 0.568 0.583 0.598 0.611 0.625 0.637 0.650 0.662 0.673 0.684 0.695 0.705 0.715 0.725 0.735 0.744 0.753 0.761 0.770 0.969 1.125 1.182 0.010 0.036 0.071 0.111 0.151 0.189 0.225 0.259 0.291 0.320 0.347 0.373 0.397 0.420 0.441 0.462 0.470 0.499 0.517 0.534 0.550 0.585 0.580 0.595 0.608 0.622 0.634 0.647 0.659 0.670 0.681 0.692 0.703 0.713 0.723 0.732 0.742 0.751 0.759 0.768 0.977 1.146 1.209 0.010 0.036 0.071 0.110 0.150 0.188 0.223 0.257 0.287 0.316 0.343 0.368 0.391 0.413 0.433 0.453 0.468 0.489 0.506 0.522 0.537 0.551 0.565 0.579 0.592 0.605 0.617 0.628 0.640 0.651 0.661 0.672 0.682 0.692 0.701 0.710 0.719 0.728 0.737 0.745 0.982 1.265 1.408 0.010 0.036 0.071 0.110 0.150 0.188 0.223 0.256 0.287 0.315 0.342 0.367 0.390 0.412 0.432 0.451 0.462 0.487 0.504 0.519 0.534 0.549 0.583 0.576 0.589 0.601 0.613 0.624 0.635 0.646 0.656 0.666 0.676 0.686 0.695 0.704 0.713 0.721 0.729 0.738 0.965 1.279 1.489 0.010 0.036 0.071 0.110 0.150 0.188 0.223 0.256 0.287 0.315 0.342 0.367 0.390 0.411 0.432 0.451 0.460 0.487 0.503 0.519 0.534 0.548 0.562 0.575 0.588 0.600 0.612 0.623 0.634 0.645 0.655 0.665 0.675 0.684 0.693 0.702 0.711 0.719 0.727 0.735 0.957 1.261 1.499 Table 8.8 Variation of F2 with m′ and n′ n′ 0
25 0
50 0
75 1
00 1
25 1
50 1
75 2
00 2
25 2
50 2
75 3
00 3
25 3
50 3
75 4
00 4
25 4
50 4
75 5
00 5
25 5
50 5
75 6
00 6
25 6
50 6
75 7
00 7
25 7
50 7
75 8
00 8
25 8
50 8
75 9
00 9
25 9
50 9
75 10
00 20
00 50
00 100
00 m′ 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0.049 0.074 0.083 0.083 0.080 0.075 0.069 0.064 0.059 0.055 0.051 0.048 0.045 0.042 0.040 0.037 0.036 0.034 0.032 0.031 0.029 0.028 0.027 0.026 0.025 0.024 0.023 0.022 0.022 0.021 0.020 0.020 0.019 0.018 0.018 0.017 0.017 0.017 0.016 0.016 0.008 0.003 0.002 0.050 0.077 0.089 0.091 0.089 0.084 0.079 0.074 0.069 0.064 0.060 0.056 0.053 0.050 0.047 0.044 0.042 0.040 0.038 0.036 0.035 0.033 0.032 0.031 0.030 0.029 0.028 0.027 0.026 0.025 0.024 0.023 0.023 0.022 0.021 0.021 0.020 0.020 0.019 0.019 0.010 0.004 0.002 0.051 0.080 0.093 0.098 0.096 0.093 0.088 0.083 0.077 0.073 0.068 0.064 0.060 0.057 0.054 0.051 0.049 0.046 0.044 0.042 0.040 0.039 0.037 0.036 0.034 0.033 0.032 0.031 0.030 0.029 0.028 0.027 0.026 0.026 0.025 0.024 0.024 0.023 0.023 0.022 0.011 0.004 0.002 0.051 0.081 0.097 0.102 0.102 0.099 0.095 0.090 0.085 0.080 0.076 0.071 0.067 0.064 0.060 0.057 0.055 0.052 0.050 0.048 0.046 0.044 0.042 0.040 0.039 0.038 0.036 0.035 0.034 0.033 0.032 0.031 0.030 0.029 0.028 0.028 0.027 0.026 0.026 0.025 0.013 0.005 0.003 0.051 0.083 0.099 0.106 0.107 0.105 0.101 0.097 0.092 0.087 0.082 0.078 0.074 0.070 0.067 0.063 0.061 0.058 0.055 0.053 0.051 0.049 0.047 0.045 0.044 0.042 0.041 0.039 0.038 0.037 0.036 0.035 0.034 0.033 0.032 0.031 0.030 0.029 0.029 0.028 0.014 0.006 0.003 0.052 0.084 0.101 0.109 0.111 0.110 0.107 0.102 0.098 0.093 0.089 0.084 0.080 0.076 0.073 0.069 0.066 0.063 0.061 0.058 0.056 0.054 0.052 0.050 0.048 0.046 0.045 0.043 0.042 0.041 0.039 0.038 0.037 0.036 0.035 0.034 0.033 0.033 0.032 0.031 0.016 0.006 0.003 0.052 0.086 0.104 0.114 0.118 0.118 0.117 0.114 0.110 0.106 0.102 0.097 0.093 0.089 0.086 0.082 0.079 0.076 0.073 0.070 0.067 0.065 0.063 0.060 0.058 0.056 0.055 0.053 0.051 0.050 0.048 0.047 0.046 0.045 0.043 0.042 0.041 0.040 0.039 0.038 0.020 0.008 0.004 0.052 0.086 0.106 0.117 0.122 0.124 0.123 0.121 0.119 0.115 0.111 0.108 0.104 0.100 0.096 0.093 0.090 0.086 0.083 0.080 0.078 0.075 0.073 0.070 0.068 0.066 0.064 0.062 0.060 0.059 0.057 0.055 0.054 0.053 0.051 0.050 0.049 0.048 0.047 0.046 0.024 0.010 0.005 0.052 0.0878 0.107 0.119 0.125 0.128 0.128 0.127 0.125 0.122 0.119 0.116 0.112 0.109 0.105 0.102 0.099 0.096 0.093 0.090 0.087 0.084 0.082 0.079 0.077 0.075 0.073 0.071 0.069 0.067 0.065 0.063 0.062 0.060 0.059 0.057 0.056 0.055 0.054 0.052 0.027 0.011 0.006 0.052 0.087 0.108 0.120 0.127 0.130 0.131 0.131 0.130 0.127 0.125 0.122 0.119 0.116 0.113 0.110 0.107 0.104 0.101 0.098 0.095 0.092 0.090 0.087 0.085 0.083 0.080 0.078 0.076 0.074 0.072 0.071 0.069 0.067 0.066 0.064 0.063 0.061 0.060 0.059 0.031 0.013 0.006 Table 8.9 Variation of F2 with m′ and n′ n′ 0
25 0
50 0
75 1
00 1
25 1
50 1
75 2
00 2
25 2
50 2
75 3
00 3
25 3
50 3
75 4
00 4
25 4
50 4
75 5
00 5
25 5
50 5
75 6
00 6
25 6
50 6
75 7
00 7
25 7
50 7
75 8
00 8
25 8
50 8
75 9
00 9
25 9
50 9
75 10
00 20
00 50
00 100
00 m′ 4.5 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 25.0 50.0 100.0 0.053 0.087 0.109 0.121 0.128 0.132 0.134 0.134 0.133 0.132 0.130 0.127 0.125 0.122 0.119 0.116 0.113 0.110 0.107 0.105 0.102 0.099 0.097 0.094 0.092 0.090 0.087 0.085 0.083 0.081 0.079 0.077 0.076 0.074 0.072 0.071 0.069 0.068 0.066 0.065 0.035 0.014 0.007 0.053 0.087 0.109 0.122 0.130 0.134 0.136 0.136 0.136 0.135 0.133 0.131 0.129 0.126 0.124 0.121 0.119 0.116 0.113 0.111 0.108 0.106 0.103 0.101 0.098 0.096 0.094 0.092 0.090 0.088 0.086 0.084 0.082 0.080 0.078 0.077 0.075 0.074 0.072 0.071 0.039 0.016 0.008 0.053 0.088 0.109 0.123 0.131 0.136 0.138 0.139 0.140 0.139 0.138 0.137 0.135 0.133 0.131 0.129 0.127 0.125 0.123 0.120 0.118 0.116 0.113 0.111 0.109 0.107 0.105 0.103 0.101 0.099 0.097 0.095 0.093 0.091 0.089 0.088 0.086 0.085 0.083 0.082 0.046 0.019 0.010 0.053 0.088 0.110 0.123 0.132 0.137 0.140 0.141 0.142 0.142 0.142 0.141 0.140 0.138 0.137 0.135 0.133 0.131 0.130 0.128 0.126 0.124 0.122 0.120 0.118 0.116 0.114 0.112 0.110 0.108 0.106 0.104 0.102 0.101 0.099 0.097 0.096 0.094 0.092 0.091 0.053 0.022 0.011 0.053 0.088 0.110 0.124 0.132 0.138 0.141 0.143 0.144 0.144 0.144 0.144 0.143 0.142 0.141 0.139 0.138 0.136 0.135 0.133 0.131 0.130 0.128 0.126 0.124 0.122 0.121 0.119 0.117 0.115 0.114 0.112 0.110 0.108 0.107 0.105 0.104 0.102 0.100 0.099 0.059 0.025 0.013 0.053 0.088 0.110 0.124 0.133 0.138 0.142 0.144 0.145 0.146 0.146 0.145 0.145 0.144 0.143 0.142 0.141 0.140 0.139 0.137 0.136 0.134 0.133 0.131 0.129 0.128 0.126 0.125 0.123 0.121 0.120 0.118 0.117 0.115 0.114 0.112 0.110 0.109 0.107 0.106 0.065 0.028 0.014 0.053 0.088 0.110 0.124 0.133 0.139 0.142 0.145 0.146 0.147 0.147 0.147 0.147 0.146 0.145 0.145 0.144 0.143 0.142 0.140 0.139 0.138 0.136 0.135 0.134 0.132 0.131 0.129 0.128 0.126 0.125 0.124 0.122 0.121 0.119 0.118 0.116 0.115 0.113 0.112 0.071 0.031 0.016 0.053 0.088 0.111 0.125 0.134 0.140 0.144 0.147 0.149 0.151 0.152 0.152 0.153 0.153 0.154 0.154 0.154 0.154 0.154 0.154 0.154 0.154 0.154 0.153 0.153 0.153 0.153 0.152 0.152 0.152 0.151 0.151 0.150 0.150 0.150 0.149 0.149 0.148 0.148 0.147 0.124 0.071 0.039 0.053 0.088 0.111 0.125 0.134 0.140 0.144 0.147 0.150 0.151 0.152 0.153 0.154 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.156 0.156 0.156 0.156 0.156 0.156 0.157 0.157 0.157 0.157 0.157 0.157 0.157 0.156 0.156 0.156 0.156 0.156 0.156 0.156 0.156 0.156 0.156 0.156 0.148 0.113 0.071 0.053 0.088 0.111 0.125 0.134 0.140 0.145 0.148 0.150 0.151 0.153 0.154 0.154 0.155 0.155 0.156 0.156 0.156 0.157 0.157 0.157 0.157 0.157 0.157 0.158 0.158 0.158 0.158 0.158 0.158 0.158 0.158 0.158 0.158 0.158 0.158 0.158 0.158 0.158 0.158 0.156 0.142 0.113 Figure 8.4 Variation of If with Df /B L/B, and . Figure 8.4 (Continued) 492 Settlement of shallow foundations Due to the nonhomogeneous nature of soil deposits, the magnitude of E may vary with depth. For that reason, Bowles (1987) recommended using a weighted average of E in Eq. (8.14), or E=  Ei z (8.22) z̄ where Ei = soil modulus of elasticity within a depth z̄ = H or 5B, whichever is smaller z For a rigid foundation Serigid ≈ 093Seflexible center (8.23) Example 8.1 A rigid shallow foundation 1 × 2 m is shown in Figure 8.5. Calculate the elastic settlement at the center of the foundation. q = 150 kN/m2 1m 1 m × 2 m E (kN/m2) 0 1 v = 0.3 10,000 2 8,000 3 4 12,000 5 Rock Figure 8.5 z (m) Elastic settlement for a rigid shallow foundation. Settlement of shallow foundations 493 solution Given B = 1 m and L = 2 m. Note that z̄ = 5 m = 5B. From Eq. (8.22)  Ei z 100002 + 80001 + 120002 = 10400 kN/m2 = E= 5 z̄ For the center of the foundation =4 m′ = L 2 = =2 B 1 and H 5 n′ =
 =
 = 10 B 1 2 2 From Tables 8.6 and 8.8, F1 = 0641 and F2 = 0031. From Eq. (8.15) Is = F1 + 1 − 2 2 − 03 F2 = 0641 + 0031 = 0716 1− 1 − 03 Again, Df /B = 1/1 = 1 L/B = 2, and  = 03. From Figure 8.4b, If = 0709. Hence 1 − 2 Seflexible = q B′  II E s f

 1 1 − 032 = 150 4 × 0716 0709 = 00133 m = 133 m 2 10 400 Since the foundation is rigid, from Eq. (8.23) we obtain Serigid = 093 133 = 124 mm 8.4 Generalized average elastic settlement equation Janbu et al. (1956) proposed a generalized equation for average elastic settlement for uniformly loaded flexible foundation in the form Se average = 1 0 qB E  = 05 (8.24) Figure 8.6 Improved chart for use in Eq. (8.24) (after Christian and Carrier, 1978). Settlement of shallow foundations 495 where 1 = correction factor for finite thickness of elastic soil layer, H, as shown in Figure 8.6 0 = correction factor for depth of embedment of foundation, Df , as shown in Figure 8.6 B = width of rectangular loaded area or diameter of circular loaded foundation Christian and Carrier (1978) made a critical evaluation of Eq. (8.24), the details of which will not be presented here. However, they suggested that for  = 05, Eq. (8.24) could be retained for elastic settlement calculations with a modification of the values of 1 and 0 . The modified values of 1 are based on the work of Giroud (1972), and those for 0 are based on the work of Burland (1970). These are shown in Figure 8.6. It must be pointed out that the values of 0 and 1 given in Figure 8.6 were actually obtained for flexible circular loaded foundation. Christian and Carrier, after a careful analysis, inferred that these values are generally adequate for circular and rectangular foundations. 8.5 Improved equation for elastic settlement Mayne and Poulos (1999) presented an improved formula for calculating the elastic settlement of foundations. The formula takes into account the rigidity of the foundation, the depth of embedment of the foundation, the increase in the modulus of elasticity of the soil with depth, and the location of rigid layers at a limited depth. To use Mayne and Poulos’s equation, one needs to determine the equivalent diameter Be of a rectangular foundation, or Be = 4BL  (8.25) where B = width of foundation L = length of foundation For circular foundations Be = B where B = diameter of foundation (8.26) 496 Settlement of shallow foundations Figure 8.7 Improved equation for calculating elastic settlement—general parameters. Figure 8.7 shows a foundation with an equivalent diameter Be located at a depth Df below the ground surface. Let the thickness of the foundation be t and the modulus of elasticity of the foundation material be Ef . A rigid layer is located at a depth H below the bottom of the foundation. The modulus of elasticity of the compressible soil layer can be given as (8.27) E = Eo + kz With the preceding parameters defined, the elastic settlement below the center of the foundation is Se =  qBe IG IF IE  1 − 2 Eo where IG = influence factor for the variation of E with depth =f
′ = Eo H  kBe Be  IF = foundation rigidity correction factor IE = foundation embedment correction factor (8.28) Settlement of shallow foundations 497 Figure 8.8 Variation of IG with ′ . Figure 8.8 shows the variation of IG with ′ = Eo /kBe and H/Be . The foundation rigidity correction factor can be expressed as IF =  + 4 1 46 + 10  EF Eo + B2e k 
2t Be (8.29) 3 Similarly, the embedment correction factor is IE = 1 − 1 35 exp 122 − 04
Be + 16 Df  (8.30) 498 Settlement of shallow foundations Figure 8.9 Variation of rigidity correction factor IF with flexibility factor KF [Eq. (8.29)]. Figures 8.9 and 8.10 show the variation of IE and IF with terms expressed in Eqs. (8.29) and (8.30). Example 8.2 For a shallow foundation supported by a silty clay as shown in Figure 8.7, Length = L = 15 m Width = B = 1 m Depth of foundation = Df = 1 m Thickness of foundation = t = 023 m Load per unit area = q = 190 kN/m2 Settlement of shallow foundations 499 Figure 8.10 Variation of embedment correction factor IE with Df /Be [Eq. (8.30)]. Ef = 15 × 106 kN/m2 The silty clay soil has the following properties: H = 2m  = 03 Eo = 9000 kN/m2 k = 500 kN/m2 /m 500 Settlement of shallow foundations Estimate the elastic settlement of the foundation. solution From Eq. (8.25), the equivalent diameter is Be = 4BL =  4151 = 138 m  so = Eo 9000 = 1304 = kBe 500138 and H 2 = 145 = Be 138 From Figure 8.8, for From Eq. (8.29) IF = = ⎛ ⎜ 46 + 10 ⎝ ⎡ ⎢ 46 + 10 ⎢ ⎣ From Eq. (8.30) IE = 1 − = 1− = 1304 and H/Be = 145, the value of IG ≈ 074. 1  + 4  + 4 ′ ⎞
3 Ef ⎟ 2t ⎠ B Be Eo + e k 2 1 ⎤ ⎥ 2023 15 × 106 ⎥ 
⎦ 138 138 9000 + 500 2 3 = 0787 1 35 exp 122 − 04 1
Be + 16 Df 35 exp 122 03 − 04
 qBe IG IF IE  1 − 2 Eo 2  138 + 16 1 From Eq. (8.28) Se =  So, with q = 190 kN/m , it follows that  = 0907 Settlement of shallow foundations 501 Se = 19013807407870907 1 − 032  = 0014 m ≈ 14 mm 9000 8.6 Calculation of elastic settlement in granular soil using simplified strain influence factor The equation for vertical strain ∈z under the center of a flexible circular load was given in Eq. (3.82) as q1 +  1 − 2 A′ + B′  E ∈ E Iz = z = 1 +  1 − 2 A′ + B′  q ∈z = or (8.31) where Iz is the strain influence factor. Based on several experimental results, Schmertmann (1970) and later Schmertmann et al. (1978) suggested empirical strain influence factors for square L/B = 1 and strip foundations L/B ≥ 10 as shown in Figure 8.11. Interpolations can be made for L/B values between 1 and 10. The elastic settlement of the foundation using the strain influence factor can be estimated as Se = C1 C2 q̄ − q ′  where  Iz E z q̄ = stress at the level of the foundation q ′ = Df  = effective unit weight of soil C1 = correction factor for the depth of the foundation
 q′ = 1 − 05 q̄ − q ′ C2 = correction factor to account from creep in soil = 1 + 02 log t/01 (8.32) (8.33) (8.34) where t is time, in years. The procedure for calculating Se using the strain influence factor is shown in Figure 8.12. Figure 8.12a shows the plot of Iz with depth. Similarly, Figure 8.12b shows the plot of qc (cone penetration resistance) with depth. Now the following steps can be taken to calculate Se . Figure 8.11 Strain influence factor. Settlement of shallow foundations 503 Figure 8.12 Calculation of Se from strain influence factor. 1. On the basis of the actual variation of qc , assume a number of layers having a constant value of qc . This is shown by the dashed lines in Figure 8.12b. 2. Divide the soil located between z = 0 and z = z′ into several layers, depending on the discontinuities in the strain influence factor diagram (Figure 8.12a) and the idealized variation of qc (i.e., dashed lines in Figure 8.12b). The layer thicknesses are z1  z2  & & & zn . 3. Prepare a table (e.g., Table 8.10) and calculate Iz /E z. 4. Calculate C1 and C2 from Eqs. (8.33) and (8.34). In Eq. (8.34), assume t to be 5–10 years. 5. Calculate Se from Eq. (8.32). 504 Settlement of shallow foundations Table 8.10 Calculation procedure of Iz /E z Layer z qc E† Average value of Iz at the center of layer Iz /E z 1 2


n z1 z2 qc1 qc2


qcn E1 E2


En Iz1 Iz2


Izn · ·


· †


zn From Eqs. (8.12) or (8.13). Example 8.3 The idealized variation of the cone penetration resistance below a bridge pier foundation is shown in Figure 8.13. The foundation plan is 20 × 2 m. 3 2 Given Df = 2 m, unit weight of soil  = 16 kN/m , and q̄ = 150 kN/m , calculate the elastic settlement using the strain influence factor method. solution Refer to Figure 8.13, which is a strip foundation, since L/B = 20/2 = 10. The soil between the strain influence factor zone has been divided into five layers. The following table can now be prepared. z (m) Layer qc kN/m2  E† kN/m2  Average Iz at midlayer Iz /E z m3 /kN 2,000 4,000 4,000 3,000 6,000 7,000 14,000 14,000 10,500 21,000 0.275 0.425 0.417 0.30 0.133 3
92 × 10−5 3
03 × 10−5 2
95 × 10−5 4
28 × 10−5 2
21 × 10−5 1 2 3 4 5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 3.5 † = 16
41 × 10−5 m3 /kN. Eq. (8.13); E = 3
5qc Calculate    2 × 16 q′ = 1 − 05 = 0864 q̄ − q ′ 150 − 2 × 16 
t C2 = 1 + 02 log 01 C1 = 1 − 05
Use t = 10 years. So, 
10 C2 = 1 + 02 log = 14 01 Figure 8.13 Settlement calculation under a pier foundation. 506 Settlement of shallow foundations  Iz z = 0864 14150 − 321641 × 10−5  E = 00234 m = 234 mm Se = C1 C2 q̄ − q CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT 8.7 One-dimensional primary consolidation settlement calculation Based on Eq. (6.76) in Sec. 6.9, the settlement for one-dimensional consolidation can be given by, Sc = H t = e H 1 + e0 t (6.76′ ) where e = Cc log
0′ +

0′ e = Cr log
0′ +

0′ e = Cr log (for normally consolidated clays) (6.77′ ) (for overconsolidated clays
0′ +
≤
c′ 
0′ +

c′ + C log c
0′
c′ (6.78′ ) for
0′ <
c′ <
0′ +
 (6.79′ ) where
c′ is the preconsolidation pressure. When a load is applied over a limited area, the increase of pressure due to the applied load will decrease with depth, as shown in Figure 8.14. So, for a more realistic settlement prediction, we can use the following methods. Method A 1. Calculate the average effective pressure
0′ on the clay layer before the application of the load under consideration. 2. Calculate the increase of stress due to the applied load at the top, middle, and bottom of the clay layer. This can be done by using theories developed in Chap. 3. The average increase of stress in the clay layer can be estimated by Simpson’s rule,
av = 1 
t + 4
m +
b  6 (8.35) Settlement of shallow foundations 507 Figure 8.14 Calculation of consolidation settlement—method A. where
t 
m , and
b are stress increases at the top, middle, and bottom of the clay layer, respectively. 3. Using the
0′ and
av calculated above, obtain e from Eqs. 677′  678′ , or 679′ , whichever is applicable. 4. Calculate the settlement by using Eq. 676′ . Method B 1. Better results in settlement calculation may be obtained by dividing a given clay layer into n layers as shown in Figure 8.15. ′ at the middle of each layer. 2. Calculate the effective stress
0i 3. Calculate the increase of stress at the middle of each layer
i due to the applied load. 4. Calculate ei for each layer from Eqs. 677′  678′ , or 679′ , whichever is applicable. 5. Total settlement for the entire clay layer can be given by Sc = i=n  i=1 Sc = n  ei Hi 1 + e0 i=1 (8.36) 508 Settlement of shallow foundations q G.W.T. ∆H1 ∆σ(1) Layer 1 ∆H2 ∆σ(2) 2 ∆σ(n) n Clay ∆Hn Figure 8.15 Calculation of consolidation settlement—method B. Example 8.4 A circular foundation 2 m in diameter is shown in Figure 8.16a. A normally consolidated clay layer 5 m thick is located below the foundation. Determine the consolidation settlement of the clay. Use method B (Sec. 8.7). solution We divide the clay layer into five layers, each 1 m thick. Calcu′ lation of
0i : The effective stress at the middle of layer 1 is ′
01 = 1715 + 19 − 98105 + 185 − 98105 = 3444 kN/m The effective stress at the middle of the second layer is ′
02 = 3444 + 185 − 981 1 = 3444 + 869 = 4313 kN/m2 Similarly, ′
03 = 4313 + 869 = 5181 kN/m2 2 Figure 8.16 Consolidation settlement calculation from layers of finite thickness. 510 Settlement of shallow foundations ′
04 = 5182 + 869 = 6051 kN/m2 ′
05 = 6051 + 869 = 692 kN/m2 Calculation of
i : For a circular loaded foundation, the increase of stress below the center is given by Eq. (3.74), and so, ⎧  ⎨ 1
i = q 1 −   2 ⎩ b/z + 1 ⎫  ⎬ 3/2  ⎭ where b is the radius of the circular foundation, 1 m. Hence ⎧  ⎨ 1
1 = 150 1 −   ⎩ 1/152 + 1 ⎧  ⎨ 1
2 = 150 1 −   ⎩ 1/252 + 1 ⎧  ⎨ 1
3 = 150 1 −   ⎩ 1/352 + 1 ⎧  ⎨ 1
4 = 150 1 −   ⎩ 1/452 + 1 ⎧  ⎨ 1
5 = 150 1 −   ⎩ 1/552 + 1 ⎫  ⎬ = 6359 kN/m2 ⎫  ⎬ = 2993 kN/m2 ⎫  ⎬ = 1666 kN/m2 ⎫  ⎬ = 1046 kN/m2 ⎫  ⎬ = 714 kN/m2 3/2  ⎭ 3/2  ⎭ 3/2  ⎭ 3/2  ⎭ 3/2  ⎭ Calculation of consolidation settlement Sc : The steps in the calculation are given in the following table (see also Figures 8.16b and c); Settlement of shallow foundations 511 Hi m Layer 1 2 3 4 5 ∗ 1 1 1 1 1 e = Cc log ′ 0i kN/m2  34.44 43.13 51.82 60.51 69.2 ′ +  0i i ′ 0i i kN/m2  63.59 29.93 16.66 10.46 7.14 e∗ 0.0727 0.0366 0.0194 0.0111 0.00682 e Hi m 1 + e0 0
0393 0
0198 0
0105 0
0060 0
0037 = 0
0793  Cc = 0
16 So, Sc = 00793 m = 793 mm. 8.8 Skempton–Bjerrum modification for calculation of consolidation settlement In one-dimensional consolidation tests, there is no lateral yield of the soil specimen and the ratio of the minor to major principal effective stresses, Ko , remains constant. In that case the increase of pore water pressure due to an increase of vertical stress is equal in magnitude to the latter; or u=
(8.37) where u is the increase of pore water pressure and
is the increase of vertical stress. However, in reality, the final increase of major and minor principal stresses due to a given loading condition at a given point in a clay layer does not maintain a ratio equal to Ko . This causes a lateral yield of soil. The increase of pore water pressure at a point due to a given load is (Figure 8.17) (See Chap. 4). u =
3 + A 
1 −
3  Skempton and Bjerrum (1957) proposed that the vertical compression of a soil element of thickness dz due to an increase of pore water pressure u may be given by dSc = m u dz (8.38) where m is coefficient of volume compressibility (Sec. 6.2), or  
3 dSc = m 
3 + A 
1 −
3  dz = m
1 A + 1 − A dz
1 512 Settlement of shallow foundations Figure 8.17 Development of excess pore water pressure below the centerline of a circular loaded foundation. The preceding equation can be integrated to obtain the total consolidation settlement:   Ht
3 Sc = (8.39) m 
1 A + 1 − A dz
1 0 For conventional one-dimensional consolidation (Ko condition), Scoed = Ht 0 e dz = 1 + e0 Ht 0 e 1
dz =
1 1 + e0 1 Ht 0 m
1 dz (8.40) (Note that Eq. (8.40) is the same as that used for settlement calculation in Sec. 8.7). Thus Settlement ratio, circle = Sc Sc oed - Ht m
1 A + 
3 /
1  1 − A dz = 0 - Ht m
1 dz 0 Settlement of shallow foundations 513 - Ht = A + 1 − A - 0H t 0
3 dz
1 dz = A + 1 − A M1 (8.41) where - Ht M1 = - 0H t 0
3 dz (8.42)
1 dz We can also develop an expression similar to Eq. (8.41) for consolidation under the center of a strip load (Scott, 1963) of width B. From Chap. 4, √
  3 1 1 u =
3 +  = 05 A− + 
1 −
3  2 3 2   Ht Ht
3 dz So Sc = m u dz = m
1 N + 1 − N
1 0 0 (8.43) where √
 1 1 3 A− + N= 2 3 2 Hence, Sc Scoed - Ht m
1 N + 1 − N  
3 /
1 dz = 0 - Ht m
1 dz 0 Settlement ratio strip = = N + 1 − N M2 (8.44) where - Ht M2 = -0H t 0
3 dz
1 dz (8.45) The values of circle and strip for different values of the pore pressure parameter A are given in Figure 8.18. It must be pointed out that the settlement ratio obtained in Eqs. (8.41) and (8.44) can only be used for settlement calculation along the axes of 514 Settlement of shallow foundations Figure 8.18 Settlement ratio for strip and circular loading. symmetry. Away from the axes of symmetry, the principal stresses are no longer in vertical and horizontal directions. Example 8.5 The average representative value of the pore water pressure parameter A (as determined from triaxial tests on undisturbed samples) for the clay layer shown in Figure 8.19 is about 0.6. Estimate the consolidation settlement of the circular tank. solution The average effective overburden pressure for the 6-m-thick clay 2 layer is
0′ = 6/21924 − 981 = 2829 kN/m . We will use Eq. (8.35) to obtain the average pressure increase: 1 
t + 4
m +
b  6
t = 100 kN/m2
av = Settlement of shallow foundations 515 Figure 8.19 Consolidation settlement under a circular tank. From Eq. (3.74), 
m = 100 1 − 
b = 100 1 − 1 15/32 + 1 3/2 1 15/62 + 1 3/2 . = 2845 kN/m2 . = 869 kN/m2   1
av = 100 + 42845 + 869 = 371 kN/m2 6
 2829 + 371
′ +
e = Cc log 0 ′ av = 02 log = 0073
0 2829 e0 = 108 Scoed = eHt 0073 × 6 = 021 m = 210 mm = 1 + e0 1 + 108 516 Settlement of shallow foundations From Figure 8.18 the settlement ratio circular is approximately 0.73 (note that Ht /B = 2), so Sc = circular Scoed = 073 210 = 1533 mm 8.9 Settlement of overconsolidated clays Settlement of structures founded on overconsolidated clay can be calculated by dividing the clay layer into a finite number of layers of smaller thicknesses as outlined in method B in Sec. 8.7. Thus Scoed =  Cr Hi 1 + e0 log ′
0i +
i ′
0i (8.46) To account for the small departure from one-dimensional consolidation as discussed in Sec. 8.8, Leonards (1976) proposed a correction factor, : Sc = Scoed (8.47) The values of the correction factor  are given in Figure 8.20 and are a function of the average value of
c′ /
0′ and B/Ht (B is the width of the foundation and Ht the thickness of the clay layer, as shown in Figure 8.20). According to Leonards, if B > 4Ht   = 1 may be used. Also, if the depth to the top of the clay stratum exceeds twice the width of the loaded area,  = 1 should be used in Eq. (8.47). Figure 8.20 Settlement ratio in overconsolidated clay (after Leonards, 1976). Settlement of shallow foundations 517 8.10 Settlement calculation using stress path Lambe’s (1964) stress path was explained in Sec. 7.15. Based on Figure 7.42, it was also concluded that 1. the stress paths for a given normally consolidated clay are geometrically similar, and 2. when the points representing equal axial strain ∈1  are joined, they will be approximate straight lines passing through the origin. Let us consider a case where a soil specimen is subjected to an oedometer (one-dimensional consolidation) type of loading (Figure 8.21). For this case, we can write (8.48)
3′ = Ko
1′ where Ko is the at-rest earth pressure coefficient and can be given by the expression (Jaky, 1944) Ko = 1 − sin  (8.49) For Mohr’s circle shown in Figure 8.21, the coordinates of point E can be given by
′ 1 − Ko 
1′ −
3′ = 1 2 2 ′ ′ ′
1 + Ko 
+
3 = 1 p′ = 1 2 2 q′ = Figure 8.21 Determination of the slope of Ko line. 518 Settlement of shallow foundations Figure 8.22 Thus = tan−1 Plot of p′ versus q′ with Ko and Kf lines.
q′ p′  = tan−1
1 − Ko 1 + Ko  (8.50) where is the angle that the line OE (Ko line) makes with the normal stress axis. Figure 8.22 shows a q ′ versus p′ plot for a soil specimen in which the Ko line has also been incorporated. Note that the Ko line also corresponds to a certain value of ∈1 . To obtain a general idea of the nature of distortion in soil specimens derived from the application of an axial stress, we consider a soil specimen. If
1′ =
3′ (i.e., hydrostatic compression) and the specimen is subjected to a hydrostatic stress increase of
under drained conditions (i.e.,
=
′ ), then the drained stress path would be EF, as shown in Figure 8.23. There would be uniform strain in all directions. If
3′ = Ko
1′ (at-rest pressure) and the specimen is subjected to an axial stress increase of
under drained conditions (i.e.,
=
′ ), the specimen deformation would depend on the stress path it follows. For stress path AC, which is along the Ko line, there will be axial deformation only and no lateral deformation. For stress path AB there will be lateral expansion, and so the axial strain at B will be greater than that at C. For stress path AD there will be some lateral compression, and the axial strain at D will be more than at F but less than that at C. Note that the axial strain is gradually increasing as we go from F to B. Settlement of shallow foundations 519 Figure 8.23 Stress path and specimen distortion. In all cases, the effective major principal stress is
1 +
′ . However, the lateral strain is compressive at F and zero at C, and we get lateral expansion at B. This is due to the nature of the lateral effective stress to which the specimen is subjected during the loading. In the calculation of settlement from stress paths, it is assumed that, for normally consolidated clays, the volume change between any two points on a p′ versus q ′ plot is independent of the path followed. This is explained in Figure 8.24. For a soil specimen, the volume changes between stress paths AB, GH, CD, and CI, for example, are all the same. However, the axial strains will be different. With this basic assumption, we can now proceed to determine the settlement. Figure 8.24 Volume change between two points of a p′ versus q′ plot. 520 Settlement of shallow foundations For ease in understanding, the procedure for settlement calculation will be explained with the aid of an example. For settlement calculation in a normally consolidated clay, undisturbed specimens from representative depths are obtained. Consolidated undrained triaxial tests on these specimens at several confining pressures,
3 , are conducted, along with a standard onedimensional consolidated test. The stress–strain contours are plotted on the basis of the consolidated undrained triaxial test results. The standard onedimensional consolidation test results will give us the values of compression index Cc . For example, let Figure 8.25 represent the stress–strain contours for a given normally consolidated clay specimen obtained from an average depth of a clay layer. Also let Cc = 025 and e0 = 09. The drained friction angle  (determined from consolidated undrained tests) is 30 . From Eq. (8.50), = tan −1
1 − Ko 1 + Ko  and Ko = 1 − sin  = 1 − sin 30 = 05. So, = tan −1
1 − 05 1 + 05  = 1843 Knowing the value of , we can now plot the Ko line in Figure 8.25. Also note that tan  = sin . Since  = 30  tan  = 05. So  = 2657 . Let us calculate the settlement in the clay layer for the following conditions (Figure 8.25): 2 1. In situ average effective overburden pressure =
1′ = 75 kN/m . 2. Total thickness of clay layer = Ht = 3 m. Owing to the construction of a structure, the increase of the total major and minor principal stresses at an average depth are
1 = 40 kN/m2
3 = 25 kN/m2 (assuming that the load is applied instantaneously). The in situ minor prin2 cipal stress (at-rest pressure) is
3 =
3′ = Ko
1′ = 0575 = 375 kN/m . So, before loading,
1′ +
3′ 75 + 375 = = 5625 kN/m2 2 2 75 − 375
′ −
3′ = = 1875 kN/m2 q′ = 1 2 2 p′ = Settlement of shallow foundations 521 Figure 8.25 Use of stress path to calculate settlement. The stress conditions before loading can now be plotted in Figure 8.25 from the above values of p′ and q ′ . This is point A. Since the stress paths are geometrically similar, we can plot BAC, which is the stress path through A. Also, since the loading is instantaneous (i.e., undrained), the stress conditions in clay, represented by the p′ versus q ′ plot immediately after loading, will fall on the stress path BAC. Immediately after loading,
1 = 75 + 40 = 115 kN/m2 So q′ = and
3 = 375 + 25 = 625 kN/m2
−
3 115 − 625
1′ −
3′ 2 = 1 = = 2625 kN/m 2 2 2 With this value of q ′ , we locate point D. At the end of consolidation,
1′ =
1 = 115 kN/m2
3′ =
3 = 625 kN/m2 115 + 625
1′ +
3′ = = 8875 kN/m2 2 2 So p′ = and q ′ = 2625 kN/m 2 The preceding values of p′ and q ′ are plotted as point E. FEG is a geometrically similar stress path drawn through E. ADE is the effective stress path that a soil element, at average depth of the clay layer, will follow. 522 Settlement of shallow foundations AD represents the elastic settlement, and DE represents the consolidation settlement. For elastic settlement (stress path A to D), Se = ∈1 at D − ∈1 at AHt = 004 − 001 3 = 009 m For consolidation settlement (stress path D to E), based on our previous assumption, the volumetric strain between D and E is the same as the volumetric strain between A and H. Note that H is on the Ko line. For point 2 2 A
1′ = 75 kN/m , and for point H
1′ = 118 kN/m . So the volumetric strain, ∈ , is ∈ = C log118/75 025 log 118/75 e = = 0026 = c 1 + e0 1 + 09 19 The axial strain ∈1 along a horizontal stress path is about one-third the volumetric strain along the Ko line, or ∈1 = 1 1 ∈ = 0026 = 00087 3  3 So, the consolidation settlement is Sc = 00087Ht = 000873 = 00261 m and hence the total settlement is Se + Sc = 009 + 00261 = 0116 m Another type of loading condition is also of some interest. Suppose that the stress increase at the average depth of the clay layer was carried out in two steps: (1) instantaneous load application, resulting in stress increases 2 2 of
1 = 40 kN/m and
3 = 25 kN/m (stress path AD), followed by (2) a gradual load increase, which results in a stress path DI (Figure 8.25). As before, the undrained shear along stress path AD will produce an axial strain of 0.03. The volumetric strains for stress paths DI and AH will be the same; so ∈ = 0026. The axial strain ∈1 for the stress path DI can be given by the relation (based on the theory of elasticity) ∈1 1 + Ko − 2KKo = ∈0 1 − Ko 1 + 2K where K =
3′ /
1′ for the point I. In this case,
3′ = 42 kN/m 2
1′ = 123 kN/m . So, K= 42 = 0341 123 (8.51) 2 and Settlement of shallow foundations 523 ∈1 1 + 05 − 2034105 ∈1 = = 138 = ∈ 0026 1 − 051 + 20341 or ∈1 = 0026138 = 0036 Hence the total settlement due to the loading is equal to S = ∈1 along AD + ∈1 along DIHt = 003 + 0036 Ht = 0066Ht 8.11 Comparison of primary consolidation settlement calculation procedures It is of interest at this point to compare the primary settlement calculation procedures outlined in Secs 8.7 and 8.8 with the stress path technique described in Sec. 8.10 (Figure 8.26). Based on the one-dimensional consolidation procedure outlined in Sec. 8.7, essentially we calculate the settlement along the stress path AE, i.e., along the Ko line. A is the initial at-rest condition of the soil, and E is the final stress condition (at rest) of soil at the end of consolidation. According to the Skempton–Bjerrum modification, the consolidation settlement is calculated for stress path DE. AB is the elastic settlement. However, Lambe’s stress path method gives the consolidation settlement for stress path BC. AB is the elastic settlement. Although the stress path technique provides us with a better insight into the fundamentals of settlement calculation, it is more time consuming because of the elaborate laboratory tests involved. Figure 8.26 Comparison of consolidation settlement calculation procedures. 524 Settlement of shallow foundations A number of works have been published that compare the observed and predicted settlements of various structures. Terzaghi and Peck (1967) pointed out that the field consolidation settlement is approximately onedimensional when a comparatively thin layer of clay is located between two stiff layers of soil. Peck and Uyanik (1955) analyzed the settlement of eight structures in Chicago located over thick deposits of soft clay. The settlements of these structures were predicted by the method outlined in Sec. 8.7. Elastic settlements were not calculated. For this investigation, the ratio of the settlements observed to that calculated had an average value of 0.85. Skempton and Bjerrum (1957) also analyzed the settlements of four structures in the Chicago area (auditorium, Masonic temple, Monadnock block, Isle of Grain oil tank) located on overconsolidated clays. The predicted settlements included the elastic settlements and the consolidation settlements (by the method given in Sec. 8.8). The ratio of the observed to the predicted settlements varied from 0.92 to 1.17. Settlement analysis of Amuya Dam, Venezuela (Lambe, 1963), by the stress path method showed very good agreement with the observed settlement. However, there are several instances where the predicted settlements vary widely from the observed settlements. The discrepancies can be attributed to deviation of the actual field conditions from those assumed in the theory, difficulty in obtaining undisturbed samples for laboratory tests, and so forth. 8.12 Secondary consolidation settlement The coefficient of secondary consolidation C was defined in Sec. 6.7 as C = Ht /Ht log t where t is time and Ht the thickness of the clay layer. It has been reasonably established that C decreases with time in a logarithmic manner and is directly proportional to the total thickness of the clay layer at the beginning of secondary consolidation. Thus secondary consolidation settlement can be given by Ss = C Hts log t tp (8.52) where Hts = thickness of clay layer at beginning of secondary consolidation = Ht − Sc t = time at which secondary compression is required tp = time at end of primary consolidation Settlement of shallow foundations 525 Actual field measurements of secondary settlements are relatively scarce. However, good agreement of measured and estimated settlements has been reported by some observers, e.g., Horn and Lambe (1964), Crawford and Sutherland (1971), and Su and Prysock (1972). 8.13 Precompression for improving foundation soils In instances when it appears that too much consolidation settlement is likely to occur due to the construction of foundations, it may be desirable to apply some surcharge loading before foundation construction in order to eliminate or reduce the postconstruction settlement. This technique has been used with success in many large construction projects (Johnson, 1970). In this section, the fundamental concept of surcharge application for elimination of primary consolidation of compressible clay layers is presented. Let us consider the case where a given construction will require a permanent uniform loading of intensity
f , as shown in Figure 8.27. The total primary consolidation settlement due to loading is estimated to be equal to Figure 8.27 Concept of precompression technique. 526 Settlement of shallow foundations Scf . If we want to eliminate the expected settlement due to primary consolidation, we will have to apply a total uniform load of intensity
=
f +
s . This load will cause a faster rate of settlement of the underlying compressible layer; when a total settlement of Scf has been reached, the surcharge can be removed for actual construction. For a quantitative evaluation of the magnitude of
s and the time it should be kept on, we need to recognize the nature of the variation of the degree of consolidation at any time after loading for the underlying clay layer, as shown in Figure 8.28. The degree of consolidation Uz will vary with depth and will be minimum at midplane, i.e., at z = H. If the average degree of consolidation Uav is used as the criterion for surcharge load removal, then after removal of the surcharge, the clay close to the midplane will continue to settle, and the clay close to the previous layer(s) will tend to swell. This will probably result in a net consolidation settlement. To avoid this problem, we need to take a more conservative approach and use the midplane degree of consolidation Uz=H as the criterion for our calculation. Using the procedure outlined by Johnson (1970),
′  
0 +
f Ht Cc log 1 + e0
0′ Scf =
and Scf+s =

′   Ht
0 +
f +
s Cc log 1 + e0
0′ (8.54) Uz Sand 0 1 0 Uz H Clay 2H=Ht (8.53) z Uz at H Uav Ht Sand Uz Sand 0 Ht = H Clay z 1 0 Uz Uav × × × × × × Rock Figure 8.28 Ht Uz at H Choice of degree of consolidation for calculation of precompression. Settlement of shallow foundations 527 where
0′ is the initial average in situ effective overburden pressure and Scf and Scf+s are the primary consolidation settlements due to load intensities of
f and
f +
s respectively. However, (8.55) Scf = Uf+s Scf+s where Uf+s is the degree of consolidation due to the loading of
f +
s . As explained above, this is conservatively taken as the midplane z = H degree of consolidation. Thus Uf+s = Scf (8.56) Scf+s Combining Eqs. (8.53), (8.54), and (8.56), Uf+s = log1 + 
f /
0′  log !1 + 
f /
0′  1 + 
s /
f " (8.57) The values of Uf+s for several combinations of
f /
0′ and
s /
f are given in Figure 8.29. Once Uf+s is known, we can evaluate the nondimensional time factor T from Figure 6.4. (Note that Uf+s = Uz at z = H of Figure 6.4, based on our assumption.) For convenience, a plot of Uf+s versus T is given in Figure 8.30. So the time for surcharge load removal, t, is t= T H 2 C (8.58) where C is the coefficient of consolidation and H the length of the maximum drainage path. A similar approach may be adopted to estimate the intensity of the surcharge fill and the time for its removal to eliminate or reduce postconstruction settlement due to secondary consolidation. Example 8.6 The soil profile shown in Figure 8.31 is in an area where an airfield is to be constructed. The entire area has to support a permanent surcharge of 2 58 kN/m due to the fills that will be placed. It is desired to eliminate all the primary consolidation in 6 months by precompression before the start of construction. Estimate the total surcharge q = qs + qf  that will be required for achieving the desired goal. solution t= T H 2 C or T = tC H2 528 Settlement of shallow foundations Figure 8.29 Variation of Uf+s with s /f and f /0′ . For two-way drainage, H = Ht /2 = 225 m = 225 cm We are given that t = 6 × 30 × 24 × 60 min So, T = 6 × 30 × 24 × 6097 × 10−2  = 0497 2252 Figure 8.30 Plot of Uf+s versus T . Figure 8.31 Soil profile for precompression. 530 Settlement of shallow foundations From Figure 8.30, for T = 0497 and Uf+s ≈ 062,
0′ = 173 15 + 2251924 − 981 = 4717 kN/m2
f = 58 kN/m2 (given) So, 58
f = 123 =
0′ 4717 From Figure 8.28, for Uf+s = 062 and
f /
0′ = 123,
s /
f = 117 So,
s = 117
f = 11758 = 6786 kN/m2 Thus,
=
f +
s = 58 + 6786 = 12586 kN/m2 PROBLEMS 8.1 Refer to Figure 8.3. For a flexible load area, given: B = 3 m L = 46 m q = 2 2 180 kN/m  Df = 2 m H =  v = 03, and E = 8500 kN/m . Estimate the elastic settlement at the center of the loaded area. Use Eq. (8.14). 8.2 A plan calls for a square foundation measuring 3 × 3 m, supported by a layer 2 of sand (See Figure 8.7). Let Df = 15 m t = 025 m Eo = 16 000 kN/m  k = 2 2 2 6 400 kN/m /m v = 03 H = 20 m Ef = 15 × 10 kN/m , and q = 150 kN/m . Calculate the elastic settlement. Use Eq. (8.28). 8.3 Refer to Figure P8.1. If  = 90 and H = 16 m, estimate the elastic settlement of the loaded area after 5 years of load application. Use the strain influence factor method. 8.4 A rectangular foundation is shown in Figure P8.2, given B = 2 m L = 4 m 2 q = 240 kN/m  H = 6 m, and Df = 2 m. 2 (a) Assuming E = 3800 kN/m , calculate the average elastic settlement. Use Eq. (8.24). (b) If the clay is normally consolidated, calculate the consolidation settlement. 3 Use Eq. (8.35) and sat = 175 kN/m  Cc = 012, and e0 = 11. Figure P8.1 G.W.T. Df = 2 m q = 240 kN/m2 2m×4m z Clay eo = 1.10 H=6m × × × Figure P8.2 × × × × Rock × × × × 532 Settlement of shallow foundations 8.5 Refer to Prob. 8.4. Using the Skempton–Bjerrum modification, estimate the total settlement. Use pore water parameter A = 06. 8.6 Refer to Prob. 8.4. Assume that the clay is overconsolidated and that the 2 overconsolidation pressure is 140 kN/m . Calculate the consolidation settlement given Cr = 005. Use the correction factor  given in Figure 8.19. 2 8.7 A permanent surcharge of 100 kN/m is to be applied on the ground surface of the soil profile shown in Figure P8.3. It is required to eliminate all of the primary consolidation in 3 months. Estimate the total surcharge
=
s +
f needed to achieve the goal. 1.5 m 1.5 m 3m Sand γ = 17.3 kN/m3 Sand γsat = 19.5 kN/m3 Clay γsat = 17.3 kN/m3 Cv = 13 10–2cm2/min Sand Figure P8.3 Figure P8.4 G.W.T. Settlement of shallow foundations 533 8.8 The p′ versus q ′ diagram for a normally consolidated clay is shown in Figure P8.4. The specimen was obtained from an average depth of a clay layer of total thickness of 5 m. Cc = 03 and e0 = 08. (a) Calculate the total settlement (elastic and consolidation) for a loading following stress path ABC. (b) Calculate the total settlement for a loading following stress path ABD. 8.9 Refer to Prob. 8.8. What would be the consolidation settlement according to the Skempton–Bjerrum method for the stress path ABC? References Bowles, J. E., Elastic Foundation Settlement on Sand Deposits, J. Geotech. Eng., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 113, no. 8, pp. 846–860, 1987. Burland, J. B., Discussion, Session A, in Proc. Conf. In Situ Invest. Soil Rocks, British Geotechnical Society, London, pp. 61–62, 1970. Christian, J. T. and W. D. Carrier III, Janbu, Bjerrum and Kjaernsli’s Chart Reinterpreted, Can. Geotech. J., vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 124–128, 1978. Crawford, C. B. and J. G. Sutherland, The Empress Hotel, Victoria, British Columbia, Sixty-five Years of Foundation Settlements, Can. Geotech. J., vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 77–93, 1971. D’Appolonia, D. J., H. G. Poulos, and C. C. Ladd, Initial Settlement of Structures on Clay, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 97, no. SM10, pp. 1359–1378, 1971. Duncan, J. M. and A. L. Buchignani, An Engineering Manual for Settlement Studies, Department of Civil Engineering, University of California at Berkeley, 1976. Fox, E. N., The Mean Elastic Settlement of a Uniformly Loaded Area at a Depth below the Ground Surface, Proc., 2nd Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found Eng., Rotterdam, vol. 1, pp. 129–132, 1948. Geregen, L. and B. Pramborg, Rayleigh Wave Measurement in Frictional Soil and Stiff Clay, Report R102, Swedish Council for Building Research, 1990. Giroud, J. P., Settlement of Rectangular Foundations on Soil Layer, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 98, no. SMI, pp. 149–154, 1972. Hardin, B. O. and V. P. Drnevich, Shear Modulus and Damping in Soils: Design Equations and Curves, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 98, no. SM7, pp. 667–692, 1972. Horn, H. M. and T. W. Lambe, Settlement of Buildings on the MIT Campus, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 90, no. SM5, pp. 181–195, 1964. Jaky, J., The Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest, J. Soc. Hungarian Arch. Eng., pp. 355–358, 1944. Janbu, N., L. Bjerrum, and B. Kjaernsli, Veiledning ved Losning av Fundamenteringsoppgaver, Publ. 16, Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Oslo, pp. 30–32, 1956. Johnson, S. J., Precompression for Improving Foundation Soils, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 96, no. SM1, pp. 111–144, 1970. Lambe, T. W., An Earth Dam for Storage of Fuel Oil, in Proc. II Pan Am. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., vol. 1, p. 257, 1963. 534 Settlement of shallow foundations Lambe, T. W., Methods of Estimating Settlement, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 90, no. SM5, p. 43, 1964. Larsson, R., and M. Mulabdic, Shear Modulus in Scandinavian Clays, Report 40, Swedish Geotechnical Institute, 1991. Leonards, G. A., Estimating Consolidation Settlement of Shallow Foundations on Overconsolidated Clay, Special Report 163, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., pp. 13–16, 1976. Mayne, P. W. and H. G. Poulos, Approximate Displacement Influence Factors for Elastic Shallow Foundations, J. Geot. Geoenv. Eng., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 125, no. 6, pp. 453–460, 1999. Peck, R. B. and M. E. Uyanik, Observed and Computed Settlements of Structures in Chicago, Bulletin 429, University of Illinois Engineering Experiment Station, 1955. Schmertmann, J. H., Static Cone to Compute Static Settlement over Sand, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 96, no. SM3, pp. 1011–1043, 1970. Schmertmann, J. H., J. P. Hartman, and P. R. Brown, Improved Strain Influence Factor Diagrams, J. Geotech. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 104, no. 8, pp. 1131–1135, 1978. Scott, R. F., Principles of Soil Mechanics, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1963. Skempton, A. W. and L. Bjerrum, A Contribution to Settlement Analysis of Foundations in Clay, Geotechnique, vol. 7, p. 168, 1957. Steinbrenner, W., Tafeln zur Setzungsberechnung, Die Strasse, vol. 1, pp. 121–124, 1934. Su, H. H. and R. H. Prysock, Settlement Analysis of Two Highway Embankments, in Proc. Specialty Conf. Perform. Earth and Earth Supported Struct., vol. 1, Am. Soc. of Civ. Eng., pp. 465–488, 1972. Terzaghi, K. and R. B. Peck, Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York, 1967. Trautmann, C. H. and F. H. Kulhawy, CUFAD—A Computer Program for Compression and Uplift Foundation Analysis and Design, Report EL-4540-CCM, vol. 16, Electrical Power and Research Institute, 1987. Wroth, C. P. In Situ Measurement of Initial Stresses and Deformation Characteristics, in Proc. Specialty Conf. In Situ Meas. Soil Prop., vol. 2, Am. Soc. of Civ. Eng., pp. 180–230, 1975. Appendix Calculation of stress at the interface of a three-layered flexible system (after Jones, 1962) a H = 0
125 k1 = 0
2 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  q q z2 q z2 − r2  z2 − r3  q q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
66045 0
90249 0
95295 0
99520 1
00064 0
99970 0
12438 0
13546 0
10428 0
09011 0
08777 0
04129 0
62188 0
67728 0
52141 0
45053 0
43884 0
20643 0
01557 0
06027 0
21282 0
56395 0
86258 0
94143 0
00332 0
01278 0
04430 0
10975 0
13755 0
10147 k2 = 0
2 0.01659 0.06391 0.22150 0.54877 0.68777 0.50736 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
66048 0
90157 0
95120 0
99235 0
99918 1
00032 0
12285 0
12916 0
08115 0
01823 −0
04136 −0
03804 0
61424 0
64582 0
40576 0
09113 −0
20680 −0
19075 0
00892 0
03480 0
12656 0
37307 0
74038 0
97137 0
01693 0
06558 0
23257 0
62863 0
98754 0
82102 k2 = 2
0 0.00846 0.03279 0.11629 0.31432 0.49377 0.41051 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
66235 0
90415 0
95135 0
98778 0
99407 0
99821 0
12032 0
11787 0
03474 −0
14872 −0
50533 −0
80990 0
60161 0
58933 0
17370 −0
74358 −2
52650 −4
05023 0
00256 0
01011 0
03838 0
13049 0
36442 0
76669 0
03667 0
14336 0
52691 1
61727 3
58944 5
15409 k2 = 20
0 0.00183 0.00717 0.02635 0.08086 0.17947 0.25770 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
66266 0
90370 0
94719 0
99105 0
99146 0
99332 0
11720 0
10495 −0
01709 −0
34427 −1
21129 −2
89282 0
58599 0
52477 −0
08543 −1
72134 −6
05643 −14
46408 0
00057 0
00226 0
00881 0
03259 0
11034 0
32659 0
05413 0
21314 0
80400 2
67934 7
35978 16
22830 k2 = 200
0 0.00027 0.00107 0.00402 0.01340 0.03680 0.08114 536 Appendix b H = 0
125 k1 = 2
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  q q z2 q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
43055 0
78688 0
98760 1
01028 1
00647 0
99822 0
71614 1
01561 0
83924 0
63961 0
65723 0
38165 0
35807 0
50780 0
41962 0
31981 0
32862 0
19093 0
01682 0
06511 0
23005 0
60886 0
90959 0
94322 0
00350 0
01348 0
04669 0
11484 0
13726 0
09467 k2 = 0
2 0.01750 0.06741 0.23346 0.57418 0.68630 0.47335 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
42950 0
78424 0
98044 0
99434 0
99364 0
99922 0
70622 0
97956 0
70970 0
22319 −0
19982 −0
28916 0
35303 0
48989 0
35488 0
11164 −0
09995 −0
14461 0
00896 0
03493 0
12667 0
36932 0
72113 0
96148 0
01716 0
06647 0
23531 0
63003 0
97707 0
84030 k2 = 2
0 0.00858 0.03324 0.11766 0.31501 0.48853 0.42015 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
43022 0
78414 0
97493 0
97806 0
96921 0
98591 0
69332 0
92086 0
46583 −0
66535 −2
82859 −5
27906 0
34662 0
46048 0
23297 −0
33270 −1
41430 −2
63954 0
00228 0
00899 0
03392 0
11350 0
31263 0
68433 0
03467 0
13541 0
49523 1
49612 3
28512 5
05952 k2 = 20
0 0.00173 0.00677 0.02476 0.07481 0.16426 0.25298 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
42925 0
78267 0
97369 0
97295 0
95546 0
96377 0
67488 0
85397 0
21165 −1
65954 −6
47707 −16
67376 0
33744 0
42698 0
10582 −0
82977 −3
23855 −8
33691 0
00046 0
00183 0
00711 0
02597 0
08700 0
26292 0
04848 0
19043 0
71221 2
32652 6
26638 14
25621 k2 = 200
0 0.00024 0.00095 0.00356 0.01163 0.03133 0.07128 Appendix 537 c H = 0
125 k1 = 20
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  q q z2 q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
14648 0
39260 0
80302 1
06594 1
02942 0
99817 1
80805 3
75440 5
11847 3
38600 1
81603 1
75101 0
09040 0
18772 0
25592 0
16930 0
09080 0
08756 0
01645 0
06407 0
23135 0
64741 1
00911 0
97317 0
00322 0
01249 0
04421 0
11468 0
13687 0
07578 k2 = 0
2 0.01611 0.06244 0.22105 0.57342 0.68436 0.37890 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
14529 0
38799 0
78651 1
02218 0
99060 0
99893 1
81178 3
76886 5
16717 3
43631 1
15211 −0
06894 0
09059 0
18844 0
25836 0
17182 0
05761 −0
00345 0
00810 0
03170 0
11650 0
34941 0
69014 0
93487 0
01542 0
06003 0
21640 0
60493 0
97146 0
88358 k2 = 2
0 0.00771 0.03002 0.10820 0.30247 0.48573 0.44179 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
14447 0
38469 0
77394 0
98610 0
93712 0
96330 1
80664 3
74573 5
05489 2
92533 −1
27093 −7
35384 0
09033 0
18729 0
25274 0
14627 −0
06355 −0
36761 0
00182 0
00716 0
02710 0
09061 0
24528 0
55490 0
02985 0
11697 0
43263 1
33736 2
99215 5
06489 k2 = 20
0 0.00149 0.00585 0.02163 0.06687 0.14961 0.25324 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
14422 0
38388 0
77131 0
97701 0
91645 0
92662 1
78941 3
68097 4
80711 1
90825 −5
28803 −1
52546 0
08947 0
18405 0
24036 0
09541 −0
26440 −1
07627 0
00033 0
00131 0
00505 0
01830 0
06007 0
18395 0
04010 0
15781 0
59391 1
95709 5
25110 12
45058 k2 = 200
0 0.00020 0.00079 0.00297 0.00979 0.02626 0.06225 538 Appendix d H = 0
125 k1 = 200
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  q q z2 q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
03694 0
12327 0
36329 0
82050 1
12440 0
99506 2
87564 7
44285 15
41021 19
70261 7
02380 2
35459 0
01438 0
03721 0
07705 0
00851 0
03512 0
01177 0
01137 0
04473 0
16785 0
53144 1
03707 1
00400 0
00201 0
00788 0
02913 0
08714 0
13705 0
06594 k2 = 0
2 0.01005 0.03940 0.14566 0.43568 0.68524 0.32971 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
03481 0
11491 0
33218 0
72695 1
00203 1
00828 3
02259 8
02452 17
64175 27
27701 23
38638 11
87014 0
01511 0
04012 0
08821 0
13639 0
11693 0
05935 0
00549 0
02167 0
08229 0
27307 0
63916 0
92560 0
00969 0
03812 0
14286 0
45208 0
90861 0
91469 k2 = 2
0 0.00485 0.01906 0.07143 0.22604 0.45430 0.45735 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
03336 0
10928 0
31094 0
65934 0
87931 0
93309 3
17763 8
66097 20
12259 36
29943 49
40857 57
84369 0
01589 0
04330 0
10061 0
18150 0
24704 0
28923 0
00128 0
00509 0
01972 0
07045 0
20963 0
49938 0
01980 0
07827 0
29887 1
01694 2
64313 4
89895 k2 = 20
0 0.00099 0.00391 0.01494 0.05085 0.13216 0.24495 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
03307 0
10810 0
30639 0
64383 0
84110 0
86807 3
26987 9
02669 21
56482 41
89878 69
63157 120
95981 0
01635 0
04513 0
10782 0
20949 0
34816 0
60481 0
00025 0
00098 0
00386 0
01455 0
05011 0
15719 0
02809 0
11136 0
43035 1
53070 4
56707 11
42045 k2 = 200
0 0.00014 0.00056 0.00215 0.00765 0.02284 0.05710 Appendix 539 e H = 0
25 k1 = 0
2 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  q q z2 q z2 − r2  z2 − r3  q q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
27115 0
66109 0
90404 0
95659 0
99703 0
99927 0
05598 0
12628 0
14219 0
12300 0
10534 0
05063 0
27990 0
63138 0
71096 0
61499 0
52669 0
25317 0
01259 0
04892 0
17538 0
48699 0
81249 0
92951 0
00274 0
01060 0
03744 0
09839 0
13917 0
11114 k2 = 0
2 0.01370 0.05302 0.18722 0.49196 0.69586 0.55569 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
27103 0
66010 0
90120 0
94928 0
99029 1
00000 0
05477 0
12136 0
12390 0
06482 −0
00519 −0
02216 0
27385 0
60681 0
61949 0
32410 −0
02594 −0
11080 0
00739 0
02893 0
10664 0
32617 0
69047 0
95608 0
01409 0
05484 0
19780 0
56039 0
96216 0
87221 k2 = 2
0 0.00704 0.02742 0.09890 0.28019 0.48108 0.43610 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
26945 0
66161 0
90102 0
94012 0
97277 0
99075 0
05192 0
11209 0
08622 −0
07351 −0
40234 −0
71901 0
25960 0
56045 0
43111 −0
36756 −2
01169 −3
59542 0
00222 0
00877 0
03354 0
11658 0
33692 0
73532 0
03116 0
12227 0
45504 1
44285 3
37001 5
10060 k2 = 20
0 0.00156 0.00611 0.02275 0.07214 0.16850 0.25503 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
27072 0
65909 0
89724 0
93596 0
96370 0
97335 0
04956 0
10066 0
04248 −0
24071 −1
00743 −2
54264 0
24778 0
50330 0
21242 −1
20357 −5
03714 −12
71320 0
00051 0
00202 0
00791 0
02961 0
10193 0
30707 0
04704 0
18557 0
70524 2
40585 6
82481 15
45931 k2 = 200
0 0.00024 0.00093 0.00353 0.01203 0.03412 0.07730 540 Appendix f  H = 0
25 k1 = 2
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  q q z2 q z2 − r2  z2 − r3  q q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
15577 0
43310 0
79551 1
00871 1
02425 0
99617 0
28658 0
72176 1
03476 0
88833 0
66438 0
41539 0
14329 0
36088 0
51738 0
44416 0
33219 0
20773 0
01348 0
05259 0
19094 0
54570 0
90563 0
93918 0
00277 0
01075 0
03842 0
10337 0
14102 0
09804 k2 = 0
2 0.01384 0.05377 0.19211 0.51687 0.70510 0.49020 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
15524 0
42809 0
77939 0
96703 0
98156 0
99840 0
28362 0
70225 0
96634 0
66885 0
17331 −0
05691 0
14181 0
35112 0
48317 0
33442 0
08665 −0
02846 0
00710 0
02783 0
10306 0
31771 0
66753 0
93798 0
01353 0
05278 0
19178 0
55211 0
95080 0
89390 k2 = 2
0 0.00677 0.02639 0.09589 0.27605 0.47540 0.44695 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
15436 0
42462 0
76647 0
92757 0
91393 0
95243 0
27580 0
67115 0
84462 0
21951 −1
22411 −3
04320 0
13790 0
33557 0
42231 0
10976 −0
61205 −1
52160 0
00179 0
00706 0
02697 0
09285 0
26454 0
60754 0
02728 0
10710 0
39919 1
26565 2
94860 4
89878 k2 = 20
0 0.00136 0.00536 0.01996 0.06328 0.14743 0.24494 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
15414 0
42365 0
76296 0
91600 0
88406 0
89712 0
26776 0
63873 0
71620 −0
28250 −3
09856 −9
18214 0
13388 0
31937 0
35810 −0
14125 −1
54928 −4
59107 0
00036 0
00143 0
00557 0
02064 0
07014 0
21692 0
03814 0
15040 0
57046 1
92636 5
35936 12
64318 k2 = 200
0 0.00019 0.00075 0.00285 0.00963 0.02680 0.06322 Appendix 541 g H = 0
25 k1 = 20
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  q q z2 q z2 − r2  z2 − r3  q q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
04596 0
15126 0
41030 0
85464 1
12013 0
99676 0
61450 1
76675 3
59650 4
58845 2
31165 1
24415 0
03072 0
08834 0
17983 0
22942 0
11558 0
06221 0
01107 0
04357 0
16337 0
51644 1
01061 0
99168 0
00202 0
00793 0
02931 0
08771 0
14039 0
07587 k2 = 0
2 0.01011 0.03964 0.14653 0.43854 0.70194 0.37934 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
04381 0
14282 0
37882 0
75904 0
98743 1
00064 0
63215 1
83766 3
86779 5
50796 4
24281 1
97494 0
03162 0
09188 0
19339 0
27540 0
21213 0
09876 0
00530 0
02091 0
07933 0
26278 0
61673 0
91258 0
00962 0
03781 0
14159 0
44710 0
90115 0
93254 k2 = 2
0 0.00481 0.01891 0.07079 0.22355 0.45058 0.46627 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
04236 0
13708 0
35716 0
68947 0
85490 0
90325 0
65003 1
90693 4
13976 6
48948 6
95639 6
05854 0
03250 0
09535 0
20699 0
32447 0
34782 0
30293 0
00123 0
00488 0
01888 0
06741 0
20115 0
48647 0
01930 0
07623 0
29072 0
98565 2
55231 4
76234 k2 = 20
0 0.00096 0.00381 0.01454 0.04928 0.12762 0.23812 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
04204 0
13584 0
35237 0
67286 0
81223 0
82390 0
65732 1
93764 4
26004 6
94871 8
55770 10
63614 0
03287 0
09688 0
21300 0
34743 0
42789 0
53181 0
00024 0
00095 0
00372 0
01399 0
04830 0
15278 0
02711 0
10741 0
41459 1
46947 4
36521 10
93570 k2 = 200
0 0.00014 0.00054 0.00207 0.00735 0.02183 0.05468 542 Appendix h H = 0
25 k1 = 200
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  q z1 − r2  z2 q q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
01139 0
04180 0
14196 0
42603 0
94520 1
10738 0
86644 2
71354 6
83021 13
19664 13
79134 2
72901 0
00433 0
01357 0
03415 0
06598 0
06896 0
01365 0
00589 0
02334 0
09024 0
31785 0
83371 1
10259 0
00090 0
00357 0
01365 0
04624 0
10591 0
08608 k2 = 0
2 0.00451 0.01784 0.06824 0.23118 0.52955 0.43037 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00909 0
03269 0
10684 0
30477 0
66786 0
98447 0
96553 3
10763 8
37852 18
95534 31
18909 28
98500 0
00483 0
01554 0
04189 0
09478 0
15595 0
14493 0
00259 0
01027 0
04000 0
14513 0
42940 0
84545 0
00407 0
01611 0
06221 0
21860 0
58553 0
89191 k2 = 2
0 0.00203 0.00806 0.03110 0.10930 0.29277 0.44595 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00776 0
02741 0
08634 0
23137 0
46835 0
71083 1
08738 3
59448 10
30923 26
41442 57
46409 99
29034 0
00544 0
01797 0
05155 0
13207 0
28732 0
49645 0
00065 0
00257 0
01014 0
03844 0
13148 0
37342 0
00861 0
03421 0
13365 0
49135 1
53833 3
60964 k2 = 20
0 0.00043 0.00171 0.00668 0.02457 0.07692 0.18048 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00744 0
02616 0
08141 0
21293 0
40876 0
56613 1
19099 4
00968 11
96405 32
97364 82
77997 189
37439 0
00596 0
02005 0
05982 0
16487 0
41390 0
94687 0
00014 0
00056 0
00224 0
00871 0
03234 0
11049 0
01311 0
05223 0
20551 0
77584 2
63962 7
60287 k2 = 200
0 0.00007 0.00026 0.00103 0.00388 0.01320 0.03801 Appendix 543 i H = 0
5 k1 = 0
2 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  q q z2 q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
07943 0
27189 0
66375 0
91143 0
96334 0
99310 0
01705 0
05724 0
13089 0
15514 0
13250 0
06976 0
08527 0
28621 0
65444 0
77571 0
66248 0
34879 0
00914 0
03577 0
13135 0
38994 0
72106 0
89599 0
00206 0
00804 0
02924 0
08369 0
13729 0
12674 k2 = 0
2 0.01030 0.04020 0.14622 0.41843 0.68647 0.63371 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
07906 0
27046 0
65847 0
89579 0
94217 0
99189 0
01617 0
05375 0
11770 0
11252 0
04897 0
01380 0
08085 0
26377 0
58848 0
56258 0
24486 0
06900 0
00557 0
02190 0
08222 0
26429 0
60357 0
91215 0
01074 0
04206 0
15534 0
47045 0
90072 0
94385 k2 = 2
0 0.00537 0.02103 0.07767 0.23523 0.45036 0.47192 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
07862 0
26873 0
65188 0
87401 0
89568 0
95392 0
01439 0
04669 0
09018 0
01260 −0
24336 −0
53220 0
07196 0
23345 0
45089 0
06347 −1
21680 −2
66100 0
00175 0
00692 0
02676 0
09552 0
28721 0
66445 0
02415 0
09519 0
36008 1
19151 2
95409 4
86789 k2 = 20
0 0.00121 0.00476 0.01800 0.05958 0.14770 0.24339 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
07820 0
26803 0
64904 0
86406 0
86677 0
89703 0
01243 0
03912 0
06006 −0
10447 −0
67154 −1
86126 0
06213 0
19558 0
30029 −0
52234 −3
35768 −9
30628 0
00041 0
00163 0
00643 0
02436 0
08540 0
26467 0
03682 0
14576 0
56051 1
96771 5
77669 13
63423 k2 = 200
0 0.00018 0.00073 0.00280 0.00984 0.02888 0.06817 544 Appendix j H = 0
5 k1 = 2
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  q q z2 q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
04496 0
15978 0
44523 0
83298 1
05462 0
99967 0
08398 0
28904 0
72313 1
03603 0
83475 0
45119 0
04199 0
14452 0
36156 0
51802 0
41737 0
22560 0
00903 0
03551 0
13314 0
42199 0
85529 0
94506 0
00181 0
00711 0
02634 0
07992 0
13973 0
10667 k2 = 0
2 0.00906 0.03554 0.13172 0.39962 0.69863 0.53336 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
04330 0
15325 0
42077 0
75683 0
93447 0
98801 0
08250 0
28318 0
70119 0
96681 0
70726 0
33878 0
04125 0
14159 0
35060 0
48341 0
35363 0
16939 0
00465 0
01836 0
06974 0
23256 0
56298 0
88655 0
00878 0
03454 0
12954 0
41187 0
85930 0
96353 k2 = 2
0 0.00439 0.01727 0.06477 0.20594 0.42965 0.48176 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
04193 0
14808 0
40086 0
69098 0
79338 0
85940 0
08044 0
27574 0
67174 0
86191 0
39588 −0
41078 0
04022 0
13787 0
33587 0
43095 0
19794 −0
20539 0
00117 0
00464 0
01799 0
06476 0
19803 0
49238 0
01778 0
07027 0
26817 0
91168 2
38377 4
47022 k2 = 20
0 0.00089 0.00351 0.01341 0.04558 0.11919 0.22351 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
04160 0
14676 0
39570 0
67257 0
74106 0
75176 0
07864 0
26853 0
64303 0
74947 −0
02761 −1
88545 0
03932 0
13426 0
32152 0
37474 −0
01381 −0
94273 0
00024 0
00095 0
00374 0
01416 0
04972 0
15960 0
02515 0
09968 0
38497 1
36766 4
08937 10
25631 k2 = 200
0 0.00013 0.00050 0.00192 0.00684 0.02045 0.05128 Appendix 545 k H = 0
5 k1 = 20
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  q q z2 q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
01351 0
05079 0
16972 0
47191 0
97452 1
09911 0
16526 0
58918 1
66749 3
23121 3
54853 1
27334 0
00826 0
02946 0
08337 0
16156 0
17743 0
06367 0
00596 0
02361 0
09110 0
31904 0
82609 1
08304 0
00098 0
00386 0
01474 0
04967 0
11279 0
09527 k2 = 0
2 0.00488 0.01929 0.07369 0.24834 0.56395 0.47637 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
01122 0
04172 0
13480 0
35175 0
70221 0
97420 0
17997 0
64779 1
89817 4
09592 6
22002 5
41828 0
00900 0
03239 0
09491 0
20480 0
31100 0
27091 0
00259 0
01028 0
03998 0
14419 0
42106 0
82256 0
00440 0
01744 0
06722 0
23476 0
62046 0
93831 k2 = 2
0 0.00220 0.00872 0.03361 0.11738 0.31023 0.46916 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00990 0
03648 0
11448 0
27934 0
50790 0
70903 0
19872 0
72264 2
19520 5
24726 10
30212 16
38520 0
00994 0
03613 0
10976 0
26236 0
51511 0
81926 0
00063 0
00251 0
00988 0
03731 0
12654 0
35807 0
00911 0
03620 0
14116 0
51585 1
59341 3
69109 k2 = 20
0 0.00046 0.00181 0.00706 0.02579 0.07967 0.18455 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00960 0
03526 0
10970 0
26149 0
45078 0
57074 0
21440 0
78493 2
44430 6
23424 14
11490 29
95815 0
01072 0
03925 0
12221 0
31172 0
70574 1
49791 0
00013 0
00054 0
00214 0
00831 0
03070 0
10470 0
01355 0
05395 0
21195 0
79588 2
67578 7
61457 k2 = 200
0 0.00007 0.00027 0.00106 0.00398 0.01338 0.03807 546 Appendix l H = 0
5 k1 = 200
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  q z1 − r2  z2 q q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00363 0
01414 0
05256 0
18107 0
53465 1
04537 0
22388 0
81903 2
52558 6
11429 10
82705 9
34212 0
00112 0
00410 0
01263 0
03057 0
05414 0
04671 0
00256 0
01021 0
04014 0
15048 0
48201 1
00671 0
00033 0
00130 0
00506 0
01844 0
05399 0
08624 k2 = 0
2 0.00163 0.00648 0.02529 0.09221 0.26993 0.43121 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00215 0
00826 0
02946 0
09508 0
27135 0
62399 0
26620 0
98772 3
19580 8
71973 20
15765 34
25229 0
00133 0
00494 0
01598 0
04360 0
10079 0
17126 0
00094 0
00373 0
01474 0
05622 0
19358 0
52912 0
00128 0
00509 0
01996 0
07434 0
23838 0
54931 k2 = 2
0 0.00064 0.00254 0.00998 0.03717 0.11919 0.27466 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00149 0
00564 0
01911 0
05574 0
13946 0
30247 0
31847 1
19598 4
02732 12
00885 32
77028 77
62943 0
00159 0
00598 0
02014 0
06004 0
16385 0
38815 0
00023 0
00094 0
00372 0
01453 0
05399 0
18091 0
00257 0
01025 0
04047 0
15452 0
53836 1
56409 k2 = 20
0 0.00013 0.00051 0.00202 0.00773 0.02692 0.07820 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00133 0
00498 0
01649 0
04553 0
10209 0
18358 0
37065 1
40493 4
86215 15
33902 45
93954 128
13051 0
00185 0
00702 0
02431 0
07670 0
22970 0
64065 0
00005 0
00022 0
00086 0
00340 0
01315 0
04854 0
00387 0
01544 0
06118 0
23698 0
86345 2
80877 k2 = 200
0 0.00002 0.00008 0.00031 0.00118 0.00432 0.01404 Appendix 547 m H = 1
0 k1 = 0
2 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  q q z2 q z2 − r2  z2 − r3  q q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
02090 0
08023 0
27493 0
67330 0
92595 0
95852 0
00464 0
01773 0
05976 0
13818 0
15978 0
09722 0
02320 0
08865 0
29878 0
69092 0
79888 0
48612 0
00541 0
02138 0
08125 0
36887 0
60229 0
82194 0
00128 0
00503 0
01903 0
06192 0
13002 0
14348 k2 = 0
2 0.00638 0.02515 0.09516 0.30960 0.65010 0.71742 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
02045 0
07845 0
26816 0
65090 0
88171 0
94153 0
00410 0
01561 0
05166 0
11111 0
10364 0
06967 0
02052 0
07805 0
25828 0
55555 0
51819 0
34835 0
00356 0
01410 0
05427 0
18842 0
48957 0
81663 0
00687 0
02713 0
10351 0
34703 0
79986 0
99757 k2 = 2
0 0.00343 0.01357 0.05175 0.17351 0.39993 0.49879 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
01981 0
07587 0
25817 0
61544 0
78884 0
82936 0
00306 0
01145 0
03540 0
05163 −0
07218 −0
25569 0
01529 0
05726 0
17702 0
25817 −0
36091 −1
27847 0
00118 0
00471 0
01846 0
06839 0
21770 0
53612 0
01591 0
06310 0
24396 0
86114 2
36054 4
28169 k2 = 20
0 0.00080 0.00316 0.01220 0.04306 0.11803 0.21408 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
01952 0
07473 0
25368 0
59853 0
73387 0
70248 0
00214 0
00777 0
02076 −0
00538 −0
28050 −0
90965 0
01068 0
03883 0
10382 −0
02690 −1
40250 −4
54826 0
00028 0
00110 0
00436 0
01679 0
06020 0
19189 0
02412 0
09587 0
37417 1
36930 4
23805 10
36507 k2 = 200
0 0.00012 0.00048 0.00187 0.00685 0.02119 0.05183 548 Appendix n H = 1
0 k1 = 2
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  z2 q q q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
01241 0
04816 0
17203 0
48612 0
91312 1
04671 0
02186 0
08396 0
28866 0
71684 0
97206 0
60091 0
01093 0
04198 0
14433 0
35842 0
48603 0
30046 0
00490 0
01943 0
07496 0
26193 0
67611 0
95985 0
00096 0
00378 0
01448 0
04924 0
11558 0
12527 k2 = 0
2 0.00478 0.01890 0.07241 0.24620 0.57790 0.62637 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
01083 0
04176 0
14665 0
39942 0
71032 0
92112 0
02170 0
08337 0
28491 0
71341 1
02680 0
90482 0
01090 0
04169 0
14246 0
35670 0
51340 0
45241 0
00241 0
00958 0
03724 0
13401 0
38690 0
75805 0
00453 0
01797 0
06934 0
24250 0
63631 0
97509 k2 = 2
0 0.00227 0.00899 0.03467 0.12125 0.31815 0.48754 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00963 0
03697 0
12805 0
33263 0
52721 0
65530 0
02249 0
08618 0
29640 0
76292 1
25168 1
70723 0
01124 0
04309 0
14820 0
38146 0
62584 0
85361 0
00061 0
00241 0
00950 0
03578 0
12007 0
33669 0
00920 0
03654 0
14241 0
51815 1
56503 3
51128 k2 = 20
0 0.00046 0.00183 0.00712 0.02591 0.07825 0.17556 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00925 0
03561 0
12348 0
31422 0
46897 0
51161 0
02339 0
09018 0
31470 0
83274 1
53521 2
76420 0
01170 0
04509 0
15735 0
41637 0
76760 1
38210 0
00013 0
00051 0
00202 0
00783 0
02874 0
09751 0
01319 0
05252 0
20609 0
76955 2
53100 6
99283 k2 = 200
0 0.00007 0.00026 0.00103 0.00385 0.01265 0.03496 Appendix 549 o H = 1
0 k1 = 20
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  q z1 − r2  z2 q q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00417 0
01641 0
06210 0
21057 0
58218 1
06296 0
04050 0
15675 0
55548 1
53667 2
77359 2
55195 0
00202 0
00784 0
02777 0
07683 0
13868 0
12760 0
00271 0
01080 0
04241 0
15808 0
49705 1
00217 0
00039 0
00155 0
00606 0
02198 0
06327 0
09906 k2 = 0
2 0.00195 0.00777 0.03028 0.10991 0.31635 0.49525 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00263 0
01029 0
03810 0
12173 0
31575 0
66041 0
04751 0
18481 0
66727 1
97428 4
37407 6
97695 0
00238 0
00924 0
03336 0
09871 0
21870 0
34885 0
00100 0
00397 0
01565 0
05938 0
20098 0
53398 0
00160 0
00637 0
02498 0
09268 0
29253 0
65446 k2 = 2
0 0.00080 0.00319 0.01249 0.04634 0.14626 0.32723 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00193 0
00751 0
02713 0
08027 0
17961 0
34355 0
05737 0
22418 0
82430 2
59672 6
77014 15
23252 0
00287 0
01121 0
04121 0
12984 0
33851 0
76163 0
00024 0
00098 0
00387 0
01507 0
05549 0
18344 0
00322 0
01283 0
05063 0
19267 0
66326 1
88634 k2 = 20
0 0.00016 0.00064 0.00253 0.00963 0.03316 0.09432 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00176 0
00683 0
02443 0
06983 0
14191 0
22655 0
06733 0
26401 0
98346 3
23164 9
28148 24
85236 0
00337 0
01320 0
04917 0
16158 0
46407 1
24262 0
00006 0
00022 0
00088 0
00348 0
01339 0
04911 0
00478 0
01908 0
07557 0
29194 1
05385 3
37605 k2 = 200
0 0.00002 0.00010 0.00038 0.00146 0.00527 0.01688 550 Appendix p H = 1
0 k1 = 200
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  q z1 − r2  z2 q q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00117 0
00464 0
01814 0
06766 0
22994 0
62710 0
05507 0
21467 0
78191 2
38055 5
57945 9
29529 0
00028 0
00107 0
00391 0
01190 0
02790 0
04648 0
00097 0
00388 0
01538 0
05952 0
21214 0
60056 0
00010 0
00041 0
00160 0
00607 0
02028 0
04847 k2 = 0
2 0.00051 0.00203 0.00801 0.03037 0.10140 0.24236 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00049 0
00195 0
00746 0
02647 0
08556 0
25186 0
06883 0
26966 1
00131 3
24971 8
92442 20
83387 0
00034 0
00135 0
00501 0
01625 0
04462 0
10417 0
00029 0
00116 0
00460 0
01797 0
06671 0
22047 0
00035 0
00138 0
00545 0
02092 0
07335 0
21288 k2 = 2
0 0.00017 0.00069 0.00273 0.01046 0.03668 0.10644 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00027 0
00104 0
00384 0
01236 0
03379 0
08859 0
08469 0
33312 1
25495 4
26100 12
91809 36
04291 0
00042 0
00167 0
00627 0
02130 0
06459 0
18021 0
00007 0
00028 0
00110 0
00436 0
01683 0
06167 0
00062 0
00248 0
00985 0
03825 0
13989 0
45544 k2 = 20
0 0.00003 0.00012 0.00049 0.00191 0.00699 0.02277 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00021 0
00082 0
00298 0
00893 0
02065 0
04154 0
10075 0
39741 1
51234 5
28939 17
01872 52
23615 0
00050 0
00199 0
00756 0
02645 0
08509 0
26118 0
00002 0
00006 0
00025 0
00100 0
00392 0
01505 0
00087 0
00347 0
01381 0
05403 0
20250 0
70098 k2 = 200
0 0.00000 0.00002 0.00007 0.00027 0.00101 0.00350 Appendix 551 q H = 2
0 k1 = 0
2 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  q q z2 q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00540 0
02138 0
08209 0
28150 0
68908 0
93103 0
00121 0
00477 0
01821 0
06106 0
13660 0
12899 0
00604 0
02386 0
09106 0
30531 0
68299 0
64493 0
00242 0
00964 0
03770 0
13832 0
40830 0
73496 0
00060 0
00240 0
00939 0
03422 0
09826 0
15705 k2 = 0
2 0.00302 0.01202 0.04695 0.17112 0.49131 0.78523 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00502 0
01986 0
07630 0
26196 0
63535 0
87025 0
00098 0
00389 0
01485 0
04977 0
10924 0
12296 0
00494 0
01953 0
07449 0
24875 0
54641 0
61462 0
00180 0
00716 0
02815 0
10523 0
33075 0
68388 0
00339 0
01350 0
05288 0
19467 0
57811 1
00199 k2 = 2
0 0.00170 0.00675 0.02644 0.09733 0.28905 0.50100 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00444 0
01756 0
06706 0
22561 0
51929 0
65700 0
00056 0
00221 0
00819 0
02431 0
03070 −0
00926 0
00282 0
01105 0
04097 0
12153 0
15352 −0
04632 0
00065 0
00260 0
01030 0
03956 0
13743 0
37409 0
00825 0
03286 0
12933 0
48595 1
55804 3
39883 k2 = 20
0 0.00041 0.00164 0.00647 0.02430 0.07790 0.16994 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00414 0
01635 0
06231 0
20757 0
45550 0
48642 0
00032 0
00124 0
00436 0
00955 −0
02172 −0
15589 0
00160 0
00621 0
02180 0
04774 −0
10861 −0
77944 0
00015 0
00058 0
00231 0
00905 0
03363 0
11105 0
01234 0
04922 0
19450 0
74256 2
52847 6
69835 k2 = 200
0 0.00006 0.00025 0.00097 0.00371 0.01264 0.03349 552 Appendix r H = 2
0 k1 = 2
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  z2 q q q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00356 0
01415 0
05493 0
19661 0
55306 0
96647 0
00545 0
02155 0
08266 0
28226 0
67844 0
79393 0
00272 0
01078 0
04133 0
14113 0
33922 0
39696 0
00216 0
00861 0
03386 0
12702 0
40376 0
83197 0
00041 0
00162 0
00634 0
02349 0
07109 0
12583 k2 = 0
2 0.00203 0.00809 0.03172 0.11744 0.35545 0.62913 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00250 0
00991 0
03832 0
13516 0
36644 0
67384 0
00555 0
02199 0
08465 0
29365 0
75087 1
17294 0
00278 0
01099 0
04231 0
14683 0
37542 0
58647 0
00100 0
00397 0
01569 0
05974 0
20145 0
51156 0
00188 0
00750 0
02950 0
11080 0
35515 0
77434 k2 = 2
0 0.00094 0.00375 0.01475 0.05540 0.17757 0.38717 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00181 0
00716 0
02746 0
09396 0
23065 0
37001 0
00652 0
02586 0
10017 0
35641 1
00785 2
16033 0
00326 0
01293 0
05007 0
17821 0
50392 1
08017 0
00025 0
00099 0
00394 0
01535 0
05599 0
17843 0
00378 0
01507 0
05958 0
22795 0
78347 2
13215 k2 = 20
0 0.00019 0.00075 0.00298 0.01140 0.03917 0.10661 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00164 0
00647 0
02470 0
08326 0
19224 0
25526 0
00778 0
03090 0
12030 0
43693 1
32870 3
40664 0
00389 0
01544 0
06014 0
21847 0
66434 1
70332 0
00005 0
00021 0
00085 0
00335 0
01283 0
04612 0
00542 0
02163 0
08578 0
33214 1
19190 3
67558 k2 = 200
0 0.00003 0.00011 0.00043 0.00166 0.00596 0.01838 Appendix 553 s H = 2
0 k1 = 20
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  q z1 − r2  z2 q q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00134 0
00533 0
02100 0
07950 0
26613 0
67882 0
00968 0
03839 0
14845 0
52414 1
41720 2
38258 0
00048 0
00192 0
00741 0
02621 0
07085 0
11913 0
00108 0
00429 0
01702 0
06576 0
23186 0
63006 0
00014 0
00055 0
00216 0
00820 0
02740 0
06384 k2 = 0
2 0.00068 0.00273 0.01078 0.04101 0.13698 0.31919 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00059 0
00235 0
00922 0
03412 0
10918 0
29183 0
01219 0
04843 0
18857 0
68382 2
04134 4
60426 0
00061 0
00242 0
00943 0
03419 0
10207 0
23021 0
00033 0
00130 0
00518 0
02023 0
07444 0
23852 0
00051 0
00203 0
00803 0
03093 0
10864 0
30709 k2 = 2
0 0.00025 0.00101 0.00401 0.01547 0.05432 0.15354 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00033 0
00130 0
00503 0
01782 0
05012 0
11331 0
01568 0
06236 0
24425 0
90594 2
91994 7
95104 0
00078 0
00312 0
01221 0
04530 0
14600 0
39755 0
00008 0
00031 0
00123 0
00485 0
01862 0
06728 0
00094 0
00374 0
01486 0
05789 0
21190 0
67732 k2 = 20
0 0.00005 0.00019 0.00074 0.00289 0.01060 0.03387 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00027 0
00106 0
00406 0
01397 0
03538 0
06182 0
01927 0
07675 0
30182 1
13555 3
83254 11
55403 0
00096 0
00384 0
01509 0
05678 0
19163 0
57770 0
00002 0
00007 0
00028 0
00110 0
00431 0
01644 0
00131 0
00524 0
02085 0
08180 0
30676 1
04794 k2 = 200
0 0.00001 0.00003 0.00010 0.00041 0.00153 0.00524 554 Appendix t H = 2
0 k1 = 200
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  q z1 − r2  z2 q q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00036 0
00144 0
00572 0
02231 0
08215 0
26576 0
01350 0
05366 0
20911 0
76035 2
29642 5
28589 0
00007 0
00027 0
00105 0
00380 0
01148 0
02643 0
00033 0
00130 0
00518 0
02038 0
07675 0
25484 0
00003 0
00012 0
00046 0
00180 0
00649 0
01912 k2 = 0
2 0.00015 0.00058 0.00232 0.00901 0.03244 0.09562 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00011 0
00045 0
00179 0
00685 0
02441 0
08061 0
01737 0
06913 0
27103 1
00808 3
27590 9
02195 0
00009 0
00035 0
00136 0
00504 0
01638 0
04511 0
00008 0
00033 0
00131 0
00520 0
02003 0
07248 0
00009 0
00036 0
00142 0
00553 0
02043 0
06638 k2 = 2
0 0.00004 0.00018 0.00071 0.00277 0.01021 0.03319 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00005 0
00018 0
00071 0
00261 0
00819 0
02341 0
02160 0
08604 0
33866 1
27835 4
35311 13
26873 0
00011 0
00043 0
00169 0
00639 0
02177 0
06634 0
00002 0
00007 0
00030 0
00119 0
00467 0
01784 0
00014 0
00058 0
00229 0
00901 0
03390 0
11666 k2 = 20
0 0.00001 0.00003 0.00011 0.00045 0.00170 0.00583 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00003 0
00012 0
00047 0
00165 0
00445 0
00929 0
02587 0
10310 0
40676 1
54951 5
43705 17
58810 0
00013 0
00052 0
00203 0
00775 0
02719 0
08794 0
00000 0
00002 0
00007 0
00026 0
00104 0
00409 0
00019 0
00075 0
00300 0
01183 0
04515 0
16107 k2 = 200
0 0.00000 0.00000 0.00002 0.00006 0.00023 0.00081 Appendix 555 u H = 4
0 k1 = 0
2 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  z2 q q q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00139 0
00555 0
02198 0
08435 0
28870 0
70074 0
00028 0
00112 0
00444 0
01686 0
05529 0
11356 0
00141 0
00562 0
03220 0
08428 0
27647 0
56778 0
00086 0
00345 0
01371 0
05323 0
19003 0
51882 0
00023 0
00091 0
00360 0
01394 0
04909 0
12670 k2 = 0
2 0.00114 0.00454 0.01801 0.06968 0.24545 0.63352 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00123 0
00401 0
01942 0
07447 0
25449 0
62074 0
00026 0
00104 0
00412 0
01574 0
05311 0
12524 0
00131 0
00521 0
02059 0
07869 0
26554 0
62622 0
00071 0
00283 0
01126 0
04388 0
15904 0
45455 0
00130 0
00518 0
02057 0
07977 0
28357 0
75651 k2 = 2
0 0.00065 0.00259 0.01028 0.03989 0.14178 0.37825 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00087 0
00346 0
01367 0
05207 0
17367 0
39955 0
00018 0
00072 0
00283 0
01089 0
03790 0
10841 0
00090 0
00358 0
01417 0
05444 0
18949 0
54203 0
00028 0
00111 0
00443 0
01741 0
06525 0
20965 0
00325 0
01298 0
05159 0
20134 0
73322 2
13666 k2 = 20
0 0.00016 0.00065 0.00258 0.01007 0.03666 0.10683 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00069 0
00274 0
01079 0
04074 0
13117 0
26403 0
00019 0
00078 0
00309 0
01199 0
04352 0
14445 0
00097 0
00389 0
01544 0
05995 0
21758 0
72224 0
00006 0
00024 0
00095 0
00378 0
01456 0
05161 0
00487 0
01947 0
07752 0
30432 1
13373 3
59608 k2 = 200
0 0.00002 0.00010 0.00039 0.00152 0.00567 0.01798 556 Appendix v H = 4
0 k1 = 2
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  z2 q q q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00103 0
00411 0
01631 0
06319 0
22413 0
60654 0
00128 0
00511 0
03022 0
07722 0
25955 0
58704 0
00064 0
00256 0
01011 0
03861 0
12977 0
29352 0
00078 0
00312 0
01241 0
04842 0
17617 0
50917 0
00014 0
00057 0
00226 0
00877 0
03133 0
08500 k2 = 0
2 0.00071 0.00284 0.01129 0.04384 0.15666 0.42501 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00057 0
00228 0
00905 0
03500 0
12354 0
34121 0
00147 0
00587 0
02324 0
08957 0
31215 0
81908 0
00074 0
00293 0
01162 0
04479 0
15608 0
40954 0
00034 0
00137 0
00544 0
02135 0
07972 0
25441 0
00065 0
00260 0
01032 0
04031 0
14735 0
43632 k2 = 2
0 0.00032 0.00130 0.00516 0.02015 0.07368 0.21816 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00030 0
00119 0
00469 0
01700 0
06045 0
14979 0
00201 0
00803 0
03191 0
12427 0
45100 1
36427 0
00101 0
00402 0
01596 0
06213 0
22550 0
68214 0
00008 0
00034 0
00134 0
00532 0
02049 0
07294 0
00128 0
00510 0
02032 0
07991 0
29991 0
97701 k2 = 20
0 0.00006 0.00026 0.00102 0.00400 0.01500 0.04885 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00023 0
00091 0
00360 0
01360 0
04409 0
09323 0
00263 0
01050 0
04179 0
16380 0
60898 1
98899 0
00131 0
00525 0
02000 0
08190 0
30449 0
99449 0
00002 0
00007 0
00029 0
00115 0
00451 0
01705 0
00180 0
00720 0
02870 0
11334 0
43251 1
49306 k2 = 200
0 0.00001 0.00004 0.00014 0.00057 0.00216 0.00747 Appendix 557 w H = 4
0 k1 = 20
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  z2 q q q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00042 0
00166 0
00663 0
02603 0
09718 0
31040 0
00233 0
00932 0
03692 0
14242 0
49826 1
31627 0
00012 0
00047 0
00185 0
00712 0
02491 0
06581 0
00037 0
00148 0
00588 0
02319 0
08758 0
28747 0
00004 0
00017 0
00068 0
00266 0
00983 0
02990 k2 = 0
2 0.00021 0.00085 0.00340 0.01331 0.04914 0.14951 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00013 0
00054 0
00214 0
00837 0
03109 0
10140 0
00312 0
01245 0
04944 0
19247 0
69749 2
09049 0
00016 0
00062 0
00247 0
00962 0
03487 0
10452 0
00010 0
00039 0
00154 0
00610 0
02358 0
08444 0
00015 0
00059 0
00235 0
00924 0
03488 0
11553 k2 = 2
0 0.00007 0.00029 0.00117 0.00462 0.01744 0.05776 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00005 0
00021 0
00083 0
00321 0
01130 0
03258 0
00413 0
01651 0
06569 0
25739 0
05622 3
10980 0
00021 0
00083 0
00328 0
01287 0
04781 0
15549 0
00002 0
00009 0
00035 0
00138 0
00542 0
02061 0
00025 0
00099 0
00396 0
01565 0
05993 0
20906 k2 = 20
0 0.00001 0.00005 0.00020 0.00078 0.00300 0.01045 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00003 0
00014 0
00054 0
00206 0
00683 0
01590 0
00515 0
02056 0
08191 0
32231 1
21587 4
14395 0
00026 0
00103 0
00410 0
01612 0
06079 0
20720 0
00000 0
00002 0
00008 0
00030 0
00120 0
00468 0
00033 0
00131 0
00524 0
02077 0
08034 0
28961 k2 = 200
0 0.00000 0.00001 0.00003 0.00010 0.00040 0.00145 558 Appendix x H = 4
0 k1 = 200
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  z2 q q q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00010 0
00042 0
00167 0
00663 0
02562 0
09166 0
00334 0
01333 0
05295 0
20621 0
74824 2
25046 0
00002 0
00007 0
00026 0
00103 0
00374 0
01125 0
00010 0
00039 0
00157 0
00625 0
02427 0
08799 0
00001 0
00003 0
00013 0
00051 0
00195 0
00660 k2 = 0
2 0.00004 0.00016 0.00065 0.00256 0.00975 0.03298 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00003 0
00011 0
00042 0
00168 0
00646 0
02332 0
00437 0
01746 0
06947 0
27221 1
01140 3
28913 0
00002 0
00009 0
00035 0
00136 0
00506 0
01645 0
00002 0
00009 0
00036 0
00142 0
00560 0
02126 0
00002 0
00009 0
00036 0
00144 0
00553 0
01951 k2 = 2
0 0.00001 0.00005 0.00018 0.00072 0.00277 0.00975 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00001 0
00003 0
00013 0
00050 0
00186 0
00612 0
00545 0
02178 0
08673 0
34131 1
28773 4
38974 0
00003 0
00011 0
00043 0
00171 0
00644 0
02195 0
00000 0
00002 0
00008 0
00031 0
00124 0
00483 0
00003 0
00014 0
00054 0
00215 0
00833 0
03010 k2 = 20
0 0.00000 0.00001 0.00003 0.00011 0.00042 0.00150 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00000 0
00002 0
00007 0
00025 0
00086 0
00225 0
00652 0
02606 0
10389 0
40997 1
56284 5
48870 0
00003 0
00013 0
00052 0
00205 0
00781 0
02744 0
00000 0
00000 0
00002 0
00007 0
00027 0
00107 0
00004 0
00017 0
00068 0
00269 0
01049 0
03866 k2 = 200
0 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00001 0.00005 0.00019 Appendix 559 y H = 8
0 k1 = 0
2 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  z2 q q q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00035 0
00142 0
00566 0
02240 0
08589 0
29318 0
00006 0
00023 0
00090 0
00354 0
01335 0
04270 0
00028 0
00113 0
00449 0
01769 0
06673 0
21350 0
00027 0
00108 0
00432 0
01711 0
06610 0
23182 0
00007 0
00028 0
00113 0
00449 0
01725 0
05907 k2 = 0
2 0.00036 0.00142 0.00567 0.02246 0.08624 0.29533 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00030 0
00120 0
00479 0
01894 0
07271 0
24933 0
00008 0
00030 0
00121 0
00480 0
01841 0
06307 0
00038 0
00152 0
00606 0
02399 0
09206 0
31534 0
00023 0
00091 0
00364 0
01446 0
05601 0
19828 0
00041 0
00165 0
00660 0
02616 0
10080 0
35008 k2 = 2
0 0.00021 0.00083 0.00330 0.01308 0.05040 0.17504 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00016 0
00065 0
00260 0
01026 0
03926 0
13335 0
00010 0
00040 0
00158 0
00629 0
02463 0
09123 0
00049 0
00198 0
00790 0
03143 0
12314 0
45615 0
00009 0
00037 0
00149 0
00594 0
02320 0
08510 0
00105 0
00421 0
01679 0
06664 0
25871 0
92478 k2 = 20
0 0.00005 0.00021 0.00084 0.00333 0.01294 0.04624 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00009 0
00036 0
00145 0
00573 0
02160 0
06938 0
00015 0
00059 0
00235 0
00938 0
03710 0
14226 0
00074 0
00294 0
01176 0
04690 0
18549 0
71130 0
00002 0
00008 0
00032 0
00127 0
00503 0
01912 0
00162 0
00648 0
02587 0
10287 0
40238 1
48097 k2 = 200
0 0.00001 0.00003 0.00013 0.00051 0.00201 0.00740 560 Appendix z H = 8
0 k1 = 2
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  z2 q q q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00028 0
00113 0
00451 0
01786 0
06895 0
24127 0
00028 0
00111 0
00444 0
01752 0
06662 0
22014 0
00014 0
00056 0
00222 0
00876 0
03331 0
11007 0
00024 0
00096 0
00384 0
01522 0
05900 0
20949 0
00004 0
00017 0
00069 0
00275 0
01060 0
03603 k2 = 0
2 0.00022 0.00087 0.00347 0.01373 0.05298 0.18466 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00013 0
00053 0
00213 0
00844 0
03269 0
11640 0
00039 0
00157 0
00628 0
02487 0
09597 0
33606 0
00020 0
00079 0
00314 0
01244 0
04798 0
16803 0
00010 0
00041 0
00164 0
00653 0
02556 0
09405 0
00020 0
00078 0
00311 0
01237 0
04802 0
17188 k2 = 2
0 0.00010 0.00039 0.00156 0.00618 0.02401 0.08594 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00005 0
00019 0
00076 0
00300 0
01154 0
04003 0
00061 0
00242 0
00967 0
03845 0
15010 0
54942 0
00030 0
00121 0
00484 0
01922 0
07505 0
27471 0
00002 0
00010 0
00040 0
00159 0
00630 0
02409 0
00037 0
00149 0
00596 0
02369 0
09274 0
34233 k2 = 20
0 0.00002 0.00007 0.00030 0.00118 0.00464 0.01712 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00003 0
00011 0
00042 0
00167 0
00629 0
02020 0
00082 0
00328 0
01310 0
05216 0
20491 0
76769 0
00041 0
00164 0
00655 0
02608 0
10245 0
38384 0
00001 0
00002 0
00008 0
00034 0
00135 0
00527 0
00052 0
00206 0
00825 0
03287 0
12933 0
48719 k2 = 200
0 0.00000 0.00001 0.00004 0.00016 0.00065 0.00244 Appendix 561 z1  H = 8
0 k1 = 20
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  z2 q q q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00012 0
00047 0
00190 0
00754 0
02947 0
10817 0
00056 0
00223 0
00889 0
03522 0
13569 0
47240 0
00003 0
00011 0
00044 0
00176 0
00678 0
02362 0
00011 0
00044 0
00176 0
00701 0
02746 0
10145 0
00001 0
00005 0
00020 0
00079 0
00306 0
01105 k2 = 0
2 0.00006 0.00025 0.00099 0.00393 0.01528 0.05524 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00003 0
00013 0
00050 0
00200 0
00786 0
02944 0
00079 0
00316 0
01260 0
05007 0
19496 0
70709 0
00004 0
00016 0
00063 0
00250 0
00975 0
03535 0
00003 0
00011 0
00043 0
00170 0
00673 0
02579 0
00004 0
00016 0
00064 0
00253 0
00993 0
03678 k2 = 2
0 0.00002 0.00008 0.00032 0.00127 0.00496 0.01839 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00001 0
00004 0
00014 0
00056 0
00217 0
00791 0
00106 0
00425 0
01696 0
06751 0
26466 0
98450 0
00005 0
00021 0
00085 0
00338 0
01323 0
04922 0
00001 0
00002 0
00009 0
00037 0
00147 0
00576 0
00006 0
00025 0
00100 0
00398 0
01565 0
05892 k2 = 20
0 0.00000 0.00001 0.00005 0.00020 0.00078 0.00295 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00000 0
00002 0
00006 0
00025 0
00096 0
00319 0
00133 0
00531 0
02122 0
08453 0
33268 1
25614 0
00007 0
00027 0
00106 0
00423 0
01663 0
06281 0
00000 0
00000 0
00002 0
00008 0
00032 0
00125 0
00008 0
00032 0
00128 0
00509 0
02009 0
07660 k2 = 200
0 0.00000 0.00000 0.00001 0.00003 0.00010 0.00038 562 Appendix z2  H = 8
0 k1 = 200
0 a1 z1 q z1 − r1  z1 − r2  z2 q q q z2 − r2  q z2 − r3  q 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00003 0
00011 0
00046 0
00182 0
00720 0
02751 0
00083 0
00330 0
01320 0
05242 0
20411 0
74013 0
00000 0
00002 0
00007 0
00026 0
00102 0
00370 0
00003 0
00011 0
00044 0
00175 0
00693 0
02656 0
00000 0
00001 0
00004 0
00014 0
00056 0
00212 k2 = 0
2 0.00001 0.00005 0.00018 0.00072 0.00282 0.01058 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00001 0
00003 0
00010 0
00041 0
00162 0
00625 0
00109 0
00438 0
01748 0
06956 0
27262 1
01322 0
00001 0
00002 0
00009 0
00035 0
00136 0
00507 0
00001 0
00002 0
00009 0
00038 0
00149 0
00584 0
00001 0
00002 0
00009 0
00037 0
00145 0
00547 k2 = 2
0 0.00000 0.00001 0.00005 0.00018 0.00072 0.00273 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00000 0
00001 0
00002 0
00010 0
00039 0
00149 0
00136 0
00546 0
02181 0
08687 0
34202 1
29190 0
00001 0
00003 0
00011 0
00043 0
00171 0
00646 0
00000 0
00001 0
00002 0
00008 0
00032 0
00127 0
00001 0
00003 0
00013 0
00052 0
00204 0
00777 k2 = 20
0 0.00000 0.00000 0.00001 0.00003 0.00010 0.00039 0
1 0
2 0
4 0
8 1
6 3
2 0
00000 0
00000 0
00001 0
00003 0
00013 0
00047 0
00163 0
00654 0
02613 0
10417 0
41121 1
56843 0
00001 0
00003 0
00013 0
00052 0
00206 0
00784 0
00000 0
00000 0
00000 0
00002 0
00007 0
00027 0
00001 0
00004 0
00016 0
00063 0
00249 0
00957 k2 = 200
0 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00001 0.00005 Index Activity, 25–28 Airy’s stress function, 61 Angle of friction correlation, cone penetration resistance, 433 correlation, standard penetration number, 433 definition, 373, 374 effect of angularity, 388 experimental, intrinsic, 386 sliding, 387 true, 423 typical values for, sand, 378 Angularity, 37 Anisotropic material, flow net, 223–224 Anisotropy coefficient of, 435 undrained shear strength, 433–436 Artesian well, permeability, 202–204 Atterberg limits, 20 Auger hole test, permeability, 204–205 Average degree of consolidation definition of, 286 empirical relation for, 287 Average increase of stress, 506 B parameter, pore water, 153 Brucite sheet, 3 Cation exchange, 7 Chart, plasticity, 43 Chimney, drain, 267 Circle, Mohr’s, 69–71 Circular load, settlement, 126–128 Circularly loaded area, stress, 116–125 Classification, Unified, 41–43 Clay mineral, 3–7 Clay particle, 2 Coefficient of anisotropy, clay, 435 of consolidation, 281 of gradation, 29 of permeability, 171 of secondary consolidation, 317 of uniformity, 28 of volume compressibility, 281 Coefficient of permeability correlation for temperature, 172 definition of, 171 laboratory test for, 175–179 typical values for, 172 Cohesion definition of, 373 true, 423 Compressibility pore water, 152 soil skeleton, 152, 153 Compression index definition of, 316 empirical relation for, 317 Computation method, coefficient of consolidation, 330–331 Consistency, 19–20 Consolidated undrained test, triaxial, 398–401 Consolidation average degree of, 287 coefficient of, 281 constant pore pressure with depth, 283, 285 definition of, 276–278 degree of, 285 564 Index Consolidation (Continued) effect of sample disturbance, 316, 317 hyperbola method, 331–333 linear variation, pore pressure, 287, 290 load duration, 321, 322, 323 load increment ratio, 321 logarithm of time method, 327–328 numerical solution for, 300–304 secondary, 317–321 settlement calculation, 325–327 sinusoidal variation, pore pressure, 290 specimen thickness, 323 square-root-of-time method, 328 test for, 310–311 theory of, 278–285 viscoelastic model, 336–342 Consolidation test, permeability, 178 Constant gradient, consolidation test, 348–352 Constant head test, permeability, 175–176 Constant rate of strain, consolidation, 342–348 Contact stress clay, 142–143 sand, 144 Creep, 450–457 Critical void ratio, 384–385 Darcy’s law, 171 Deflection circular loaded area, 126–127 flexible rectangular load, 135–136 infinite strip, horizontal load, 106 infinite strip, vertical load, 101 triangular load, 108 vertical line load, 90 Degree of consolidation definition of, 285 under time-dependent loading, 296–298 Degree of saturation, 33 Dipole, 8 Direct shear test, 375–378 Directional variation, permeability, 191–194 Discharge condition, seepage, 264, 265 Discharge velocity, 171 Dispersion, clay, 17 Double layer water, 9 Drain, sand, 352–361 Dry unit weight, 32 Dupuit’s solution, seepage, 251 Effective permeability, layered soil, 195, 197–199 Effective size, 28 Effective stress, 52, 156 Electro-osmosis coefficient of permeability, 208, 209 Helmholtz–Smoluchowski theory, 207–208 Schmid theory, 209 Elliptical vane, 444 Embankment loading, stress, 108–109 Entrance condition, seepage, 263, 265 Equation compatibility, plain strain, 59–60 compatibility, three dimensional, 64–65 static equilibrium, 49–55 Equipotential line, 213 Exit gradient, 241 Extension test, triaxial, 383 Factor of safety, piping, 241 Failure ratio, 407 Falling head test, 176–178 Filter criteria, 248 Filter design, 249–250 Finite difference solution, consolidation, 300–304 Finite layer, stress due to vertical load, 92–93 Flocculation, clay, 17 Flow channel, 218 Flow line, 214, 217 Flow net anisotropic material, 223–224 construction, earth dam, 264–268 definition of, 217–218 seepage force, 239–240 transfer condition, 227–230 Force, seepage, 239–240 Free strain consolidation, 352–356 Friction angle, sand, 378 Gap graded, 30 Gibbsite sheet, 3 Gradation, uniformity, 28 Gradient, consolidation test, 348–352 Gradient, hydraulic, 171 Grain-size distribution, 28–30 Index 565 Hazen’s equation, 179 Heaving, 240 Henkel’s modification, pore water pressure, 162–164 Hollow cylinder test, 463–469 Hooke’s law, 57 Horizontal line load, stress, 95–97 Horizontal point load, stress, 115–116 Hvorslev’s parameters, 423–425 Hydraulic gradient definition of, 171 in turbulent flow, 174 Hydraulic uplift force, 221–223 Illite, 5 Inclined plane stress on, 65–67 three-dimensional stress, 76–78 Index, compression, 316, 317 Infinite vertical strip load, stress, 97–101 Intrinsic permeability, 172 Isomorphous substitution, 5 Isotropic stress, pore water pressure, 151–153 Kaolinite, 5 Kozeny–Carman equation, 179–182 Lambe’s stress path, 415–420 Laplace’s equation, 210–212 Layered soil consolidation, 302–304 permeability, 195, 197–199 stress, 136, 139–140 Line load, stress horizontal, 95–97 vertical, 87–90, 93–95 Linearly increasing load, stress, 106–108 Liquid limit, 20–23 Liquidity index, 20–23 Load duration, consolidation, 321 Load increment ratio, consolidation, 321 Logarithm-of-time method, 327–328 Modulus of elasticity initial, 407 secant, 407 tangent, 407 Modulus, shear, 57, 482–483 Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria curvature of failure envelope, 385–387 definition of, 373 effect of overconsolidation, 396 Mohr’s circle, stress, 69–71 Moist unit weight, 31 Moisture content, 31 Montmorillonite, 5 Net, flow, 217–220 Normally consolidated soil, 313 Numerical analysis consolidation, 300–304 sand drain, 361–362 seepage, 230–239 Octahedral normal stress, 81–82 shear stress, 81–82 strain, 86 stress, 81–83 Oedometer test, pore water pressure, 165–166 Overconsolidation, 313 Partial thixotropy, 439, 440 Particle, clay, 2 Pavlovsky’s solution, seepage, 256–258 Percent finer, 28 Permeability auger hole test, 204–205 coefficient of, 171 directional variation, 191–195 empirical relation for, 179, 183, 190 factors affecting, 206 Hazen’s equation, 179 Kozeny–Carman equation, 182 well pumping test, 200–204 Phreatic surface definition of, 251 plotting of, 262–263 Piping, 240 Plane, principal, 67 Plane strain friction angle, sand, 392 Poisson’s ratio, 389–391 shear strength, 388–392 Plane strain problem, 58–62 Plastic limit, 23–25 Plasticity chart, 43 Plasticity index, 25 Point load, vertical stress, 112–115 566 Index Poisson’s ratio correlations, 479 triaxial test, 391 Pole, 71 Poorly graded, 30 Pore water pressure definition of, 150 directional variation of Af , 159–161 isotropic stress application, 151–153 oedometer test, 166–167 parameter A, 156, 158 parameter B, 153 triaxial test condition, 161 uniaxial loading, 156–159 Porosity, 30, 31 Potential drop, 220 Potential function, 212 Precompression, 525–527 Preconsolidation pressure, 311–313 Preconsolidation, quasi, 324 Principal plane, 67 Principal strain definition of, 75–76 three-dimensional, 85–86 Principal stress definition of, 67, 68 in three dimensions, 80–81 Protective filter, 248–250 Quasi preconsolidation effect, 324 Radial flow time factor, 355 Ramp load, consolidation, 296–298 Rate of strain, consolidation test, 342–348 Rate of strain, undrained shear strength, 408–410 Rate-process theory, 451–457 Rectangular hyperbola method, 331–333 Rectangular load, deflection, 135–136 Rectangular loaded area, stress, 130–134 Relative density, 36 Rendulic plot, 413–415 Repulsive potential, clay, 10–15 Repulsive pressure, clay, 15 Residual shear strength, 397 Reynolds number, 173 Sample disturbance, consolidation, 316, 318 Sand drain definition of, 352 effect of smear, 354 equal strain consolidation, 356–361 free strain consolidation, 354–356 numerical analysis, 361–362 time factor, radial flow, 355 Saturated unit weight, 33 Saturation, degree of, 33 Secondary consolidation coefficient of, 317 typical values for, 320 Seepage flow net, 217–220 force, 239–240 numerical analysis, 230–239 velocity, 172 Seepage through earth dam Casagrande’s solution, 254–256 Dupuit’s solution, 251 Pavlovsky’s solution, 256–258 Schaffernak’s solution, 251–254 Sensitivity correlation, liquidity index, 438, 439 definition of, 436 Settlement by strain influence factor, 501–504 consolidation, 506–507, 511–514 definition of, 477 improved equation, elastic settlement, 495–498 Janbu et al.’s equation, 493–495 overconsolidated clay, 516 precompression, 525–527 profile, clay, 143 profile, sand, 144 rectangular load, 135–136 stress path, 517–523 theory of elasticity, 484–492 Shear modulus, 57, 482–483 Shear strain, 57 Shear strength residual, 397 undrained, 401 Shrinkage limit, 20 Sign convention Mohr’s circle, 69 stress, 47 Simple shear device, 378 Size limits, 2 Index 567 Skempton-Bjerrum modification circular foundation, 511–513 strip foundation, 513–514 Soil-separate size limits, 1–2 Specimen thickness, consolidation, 323 Square-root-of-time method, 328–329 Static equilibrium equation, 49–55 Strain, definition of, 55–57 Stream function, 214 Stress circularly load area, 116–125 contact, 142 effective, 52 embankment loading, 108–109 horizontal line load, inside, 96–97 horizontal line load, surface, 95–96 horizontal point load, 115–116 horizontal strip load, 103–106 inclined plane, 65–67 layered medium, 136, 139–140 linearly increasing vertical load, 106–108 octahedral, 81–83 pole method, 71 principal, 67–68, 80–81 rectangular loaded area, 130–134 sign convention for, 47 strip load, horizontal, 103–106 strip load, vertical, 97–101 total, 51 vertical line load, inside, 103 vertical line load, surface, 87–90 vertical point load, 112–114 Stress dilatency, 387 Stress function, 60–61 Stress path Lambe’s, 415–420 Rendulic plot, 413–415 Taylor’s series, 230 Thixotropy, 437 Three-dimensional stress component, 47–48 Three layer flexible system, 139–140 Total stress, 51 Transfer condition flow net, 227–230 seepage, 263, 264 Transformation of axes, three dimension, 78–80 Tresca yield function, 458 Triangular vane, 443 Triaxial test axial compression test, 382–383 axial extension test, 383 consolidated drained, 392–397 consolidated undrained, 398–401 modulus of elasticity, 406–407 Poisson’s ratio, 407 pore water pressure, 161 unconsolidated undrained, 401–403 Ultimate shear stress, 376 Unconfined compression tests, 405–406 Unconsolidated undrained test, 401–403 Undrained shear strength anisotropy, 433–436 correlation with effective overburden pressure, 445–447 effect of rate of strain, 408–410 effect of temperature, 411–412 Uniaxial loading, pore water pressure, 156–159 Unified classification system, 41–42 Uniformity coefficient, 28 Unit weight, 31 Uplift, hydraulic, 221–223 Vane shear strength correction factor, 444, 445 Vane shear test, 441–445 Varved soil, 199 Vertical line load effect of finite layer, 92–93 inside a semi-infinite mass, 93–95 stress due to, 87–90 Vertical point load, stress, 112–114 Void ratio, 30 Von Mises yield function, 457–458 Weight volume relationship, 30–35 Weighted creep distance, 241 Weighted creep ratio definition of, 242 safe values for, 243 Well graded, 30 Well pumping test, 200–204 Yield function Mohr–Coulomb, 459 Tresca, 458 Von Mises, 457