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Title Writing Abilities of Grade 1-9 Japanese-English Bilinguals : Linguistic Interdependency and AGE, LOR and AOA Author(s) Sano, Aiko; Nakajima, Kazuko; Thomson, Haidee; Fukukawa, Misa; Ikuta, Yuko; Nakano, Tomoko Citation 母語・継承語・バイリンガル教育(MHB)研究. 10 P.60-P.90 Issue Date 2014-03-31 Text Version publisher URL http://hdl.handle.net/11094/57931 DOI rights Note Osaka University Knowledge Archive : OUKA https://ir.library.osaka-u.ac.jp/ Osaka University 母語・温室長長語・バイリンカ" J t ,教育( MHB )研究 Volume70 MARCH2074 《研究論文》 WritingA b i l i t i e so fGrade1 ・ 9J a p a n e s e ‑ E n g l i s h B i l i n g u a l s :L i n g u i s t i cI n t e r d e p e n d e n c yand AGE,LORandAOA SANOAiko(HokkaidoBunkyoU n i v e r s i t y ) a i k o s a n o @ d o ‑ b u n k y o d a i . a c . j NAKAJIMAKazuko( U n i v e r s i t yo fToronto) k . n a k a j i m a @ u t o r o n t o . c a IKUTAYuko(ChubuU n i v e r s i t y ) i k u t a @ i s c . c h u b u . a c . j THOMSONHaidee(Ho 王 】k ai‑GakuenU n i v e r s i t y ) h a i d e e . t h o m s o n @ g m a i l . c o m NAKANOTomoko(BrooklynNihongoGakuen) t o m a t o m a t o 8 1 9 @ g m a i l . c o m FUKUKA W AMisa(HoshukoBarcelonaEducaci6nJaponesa) b l u e ̲ s e t a g a y a @ h o t m a i l . c o m 海外在住小中学生の日英作文力 一言語相互依存性と年齢・滞在年数・入国年齢要因− 佐野愛子,中島和子,生田裕子,へイディ・トムソン,中野友子,福川美沙 Keyword:B i l i t e r a c yd e v e l o p m e n t ,w r i t i n g ,l i n g u i s t i ci n t e r d e p e n d e n c y ,AGE, LOR,AOA A b s t r a c t D e v e l o p i n gl i t e r a c ys k i l l si nb o t hm a j o r i t ya n dt h eh e r i t a g el a n g u a g e si sc r i t i c a l l y i m p o r t a n tf o rc u l t u r a l l ya n dl i n g u i s t i c a l l yd i v e r s es t u d e n t s .A i m i n gt os u p p o r tt h e b i l i t e r a c yd e v e l o p m e n t ,t h i ss t u d ya n a l y s e dc o m p o s i t i o n sw r i t t e nu n d e rt h esamet o p i c c o l l e c t e df r o m2 4 0b i l i n g u a ls t u d e n t s .I twasr e v e a l e dt h a tw h i l es e n t e n c ew i d t h ,l e x i c a l 印 W r i t i n gA b i l i t i e so fG r a d e1 ‑ 9J a p a n e s e ‑ E n g l i s h8 1 / i n g u a l s :L i n g u i s t i cI n t e r d e p e n d e n c ya n dA G E ,LORa n dAOA SANOA i k o ,NAKAJIMAK a z u k o ,IKUTAY u k o , THOMSONH a i d e e ,NAKANOT o m o k o ,andFUKUKAWAM i s a a n dg r a m m a t i c a le r r o rr a t e sa r el a n g u a g es p e c i f i c ,q u a l i t a t i v ea s p e c t so fw r i t i n ga sw e l l a sf l u e n c y ,l e x i c a lc o m p l e x i t ya n ds e n t e n c ed e p t hp r e s e n tm o d e r a t ec o r r e l a t i o n sa c r o s s E n g l i s ha n dJ a p a n e s e ,a n dc o n v e n t i o n a le r r o rr a t e sal o wc o r r e l a t i o n .T h e s ef i n d i n g s w e r ef u r t h e ra n a l y s e di nr e l a t i o nt ot h ew r i t e r s 'a g e ,a g eo fa r r i v a lt oa n dt h el e n g t ho f r e s i d e n c ei nt h es e c o n dl a n g u a g ee n v i r o n m e n t . 要旨 文化的また言語的に多様な環境で育つ子どもたちにとって、滞在国の主要言語と継 承語両方での書く力の習得は喫緊の課題である。そうしたパイリテラシーを支える教 4 0 育をめざし、本稿で・は小学 1年から中学 3年までの日英パイリンガル児童・生徒 2 名を対象に二言語同ーのテーマで作文を書いてもらい、二言語の共有面と個別面につ いて分析した。文の広がりと語葉・文法上の誤用が言語に特有の発達を見せるのに対 し、質的な側面と産出量、語葉の多様性、構文の深さについては中程度の相関が、ま た表記の誤用については弱し、相関が認められ、相E依存的関係にあることが確認され た。さらにこうした関係 性について、年齢、第二言語環境での滞在年数と到着時年齢 つの要因それぞれとどのような関係にあるか詳しく分析した。 という 3 Backgroundo fOurStudy OECDI n t e r n a t i o n a lMigrationOutlook( 2 0 1 3 )r e p o r t e dt h a tmorethan 20%o ft h ee n t i r ep o p u l a t i o ni nCanadaweref o r e i g nborni n2 0 1 1 ,anda c c o r d ‑ i n gt ot h e2 0 0 6Censuso fCanadamorethano n ei nt e ns p o k el a n g u a g e so t h e r thant h etwoo f f i c i a ll a n g u a g e so fCanadaa thome.Suchi sn o tas i t u a t i o np e ‑ c u l i a rt oCanadab u ti sat r e n dfounda c r o s st h eworldtoday( B a k e r ,2 0 1 1 ) . Withs u c hani n c r e a s ei nt h enumbero fm i g r a n t s ,t h e r ei sahugef l u xo fs t u ‑ d e n t sw i t hc u l t u r a l l y and l i n g u i s t i c a l l yd i v e r s ebackgrounds whop r e s e n t n e e d sf o rs p e c i a le d u c a t i o n a ls u p p o r t . Manyo ft h e s ec u l t u r a l l yandl i n g u i s t i c a l l yd i v e r s e(CLD)s t u d e n t sf a c e t h ehardt a s ko fa c q u i r i n gl i t e r a c ys k i l l si nt h e i rs e c o n dlanguage( L 2 ) ,which i so f t e nt h e i rweakerl a n g u a g e .Theya r ea l s ol i k e l yt or e c e i v emuchl e s ss u p ‑ p o r tw i t h i nt h ehomef o rd e v e l o p i n gt h edominants o c i e t a llanguagecompared t ot h e i r monolingual p e e r s .G i v e nt h ei m p o r t a n c eo fa c q u i r i n gw r i t i n g 6 1 母語・継承諾・パイI ) . ンガル教育( MHB )研 究 VolumeT 0 MARCH20T 4 a b i l i t i e si nt h edominantl a n g u a g eo fs o c i e t yt o g e t h e rw i t hani n c r e a s i n gd e ‑ mandf o rc o m p e t e n tb i l i n g u a l / b i l i t e r a li n d i v i d u a l s ,i ti so fu r g e n tn e e dt oe s ‑ t a b l i s he d u c a t i o n a lp r a c t i c e st h a tw i l ll e a dt ot h ed e v e l o p m e n to fl i t e r a c y s k i l l si nb o t hl a n g u a g e sf o rb i l i n g u a ls t u d e n t s .T h i si sb o t hd e s i r e dont h e p a r to ft h el e a r n e r sa sw e l la ss o c i e t ywhichwouldb e n e f i tg r e a t l yfromt h e l i n g u i s t i cr e s o u r c e st h e s es t u d e n t sb r i n g . I th a sb e e np o i n t e do u tr e p e a t e d l yhowc r u c i a li ti st oh a v eb i l i n g u a lp e r ‑ s p e c t i v e swhens t u d y i n gl i t e r a c yd e v e l o p m e n ti nCLDs t u d e n t s( e . g .B u t l e r , 2 0 1 1 ;DeB o t ,Lowie& V e r s p o o r ,2 0 0 7 ;G o r t ,2 0 0 6 ;R e y e s ,2 0 1 2 ) .I n d e e d ,a s r i g h t l yp o i n t e do u tbyG r o s j e a n( 1 9 8 9 ,p . 3 ) ,t h eb i l i n g u a li sNOTt h esumo f twoc o m p l e t eo ri n c o m p l e t em o n o l i n g u a l s andt h esamea p p l i e st ob i l i t e r a t e w r i t e r s ;t h e ya r en o tt h esumo ftwom o n o l i n g u a lw r i t e r si no n em i n d .I t wouldb ev e r ym i s l e a d i n gt oj u d g et h ew r i t i n ga b i l i t yo fCLDs t u d e n t sby l o o k i n go n l ya tt h e i rw r i t i n gi no n el a n g u a g e .T h e i rw r i t i n ga b i l i t i e sn e e dt o b ee v a l u a t e dh o l i s t i c a l l ythroughab i l i n g u a la p p r o a c h ,b u tr e s e a r c hfrom s u c hap e r s p e c t i v ei ss t i l ls c a r c e . Ourr e s e a r c h ,p a r to fwhichi sr e p o r t e di nt h i sp a p e r ,wasm o t i v a t e dt or e ‑ s p o n dt ot h ec a l lf o rsoundp e d a g o g i c a lp r a c t i c e st os u p p o r tb i l i t e r a c yd e v e l o p ‑ mentande m p i r i c a ls t u d i e st os u p p o r ts u c hp r a c t i c e s .Weaimt oc l a r i f yt h e a s p e c t so fw r i t i n gs k i l l st h a ts u p p o r tb i l i t e r a c yd e v e l o p m e n ta c r o s sl a n g u a g e s i no r d e rt oe f f i c i e n t l ys u p p o r tb i l i t e r a c yd e v e l o p m e n ti nCLDs t u d e n t sr a t h e r t h a nd e v e l o p i n gl i t e r a c ys k i l l si nLlandL2s e p a r a t e l y . L i t e r a t u r eReview I nt h i ss e c t i o n ,wew i l lf i r s tr e v i e wCummins i n f l u e n t i a lt h e o r i e so ft h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n tn a t u r eo fb i l i n g u a l sl i n g u i s t i ca b i l i t i e s ,w i t hac l a r i f i c a t i o no f t h eterm t r a n s f e ru s e di np r e v i o u ss t u d i e s .Wew i l lt h e nr e v i e wt h efews t u d ‑ i e st h a th a v ei d e n t i f i e dsomeo ft h ea s p e c t si nw r i t i n gt h a ta r ei n t e r d e p e n d e n t a c r o s sl a n g u a g e sfromt h o s et h a ta r el a n g u a g es p e c i f i c .Wea l s oi d e n t i f yt h e f a c t o r st h a th a v eb e e nshownt oa f f e c tt h er e l a t i o n s h i p sb e t w e e nLlandL2 w r i t i n ga b i l i t i e si nt h ep r e v i o u ss t u d i e s . 一位一 W r i t i n gA b i l i t i e so fG r a d eI9J a p a n e s e ‑ E n g l i s hB i l i n g u a l s :L i n g u i s t i cI n t e r d e p e n d e n c yandA G E ,LORandADA SANOA i k o ,NAKAJIMAl く a z u k o ,/KUTAY u k o , THOMSONH a i d e e ,NAKANOT o m o k o ,andFUKUKAWAM i s a L i n g u i s t i cI n t e r d e p e n d e n c yandC o n c e p to fT r a n s f e r S i n c eCummins( 1 9 8 1 )p r o p o s e dt h el i n g u i s t i ci n t e r d e p e n d e n c yp r i n c i p l e ,a p l e t h o r ao fs t u d i e sh a sc o n f i r m e dt h ei n t e r d e p e n d e n tn a t u r eb e t w e e nl a n ‑ g u a g e so fCLDs t u d e n t s( f o rs y n t h e s i s ,s e eCummins,1 9 9 1 ; Cummins,2 0 0 0 ) . Basedont h ee v i d e n c efromt h e s ee m p i r i c a li n v e s t i g a t i o n s ,Cummins( 2 0 0 0 )a r ‑ g u e d : I no r d e rt oa c c o u n tf o rt h ee v i d e n c e ・ ・ ‑ ,wemustp o s i tacommonu n d e r l y ‑ i n gp r o f i c i e n c y(CUP)modeli nwhicht h el i t e r a c y ‑ r e l a t e da s p e c t so fab i l i n g u a lsp r o f i c i e n c yi nLlandL2a r es e e na scommono ri n t e r d e p e n d e n t no t h e rw o r d s ,t h ecommonu n d e r l y i n gp r o f i c i e n c yr e ‑ a c r o s sl a n g u a g e s .I f e r st ot h ec o g n i t i v e / a c a d e m i cknowledgeanda b i l i t i e st h a tu n d e r l i ea c a ‑ d e m i cp e r f o r m a n c ei nb o t hl a n g u a g e s .( 2 0 0 1 ,p .1 7 3 ) Cummins CUPmodelh y p o t h e s i s e sad i f f e r e n t i a t e dd e g r e eo ft r a n s f e r a c r o s sl a n g u a g ep r o f i c i e n c i e s ;somed e e pl e v e la s p e c t sa r ee a s i l yt r a n s f e r r e d a c r o s sl a n g u a g e sw h i l eo t h e rs u r f a c el e v e la s p e c t st h a ta r el a n g u a g es p e c i f i c a r en o te a s i l yt r a n s f e r r e d .Cummins( 2 0 0 9 ,p . 2 5 )p r o p o s e df i v et y p e so ft r a n s ‑ f e r , namely t r a n s f e ro f :c o n c e p t u a le l e m e n t s ,m e t a c o g n i t i v e and m e t a ‑ l i n g u i s t i cs t r a t e g i e s ,p r a g m a t i ca s p e c t so fl a n g u a g e su s e ,s p e c i f i cl i n g u i s t i c e l e m e n t s ,andp h o n o l o g i c a la w a r e n e s s . r a n s f e ri sn e c e s s a r ya st h i stermh a sb e e nem‑ C l a r i f i c a t i o no ft h eterm t p l o y e di nd i f f e r e n twaysi nb i l i n g u a le d u c a t i o nands e c o n dl a n g u a g ea c q u i s i ‑ nt h ef o r m e r ,i th a sf o c u s e d ont h eu s eo fs h a r e d t i o n( S L A )r e s e a r c h .I r e s o u r c e s ,w h i l ei nSLAw r i t i n gl i t e r a t u r et h ef o c u sh a sb e e nonhowl e x i c a l andg r a m m a t i c a lknowledgei no n el a n g u a g ea f f e c t st h a to ft h eo t h e r( F r a n ‑ c i s ,2 0 1 2 ,p . 5 0 ) ,t h u sf o c u s i n gonn e g a t i v et r a n s f e ri nmostc a s e sandp o s i t i v e t r a n s f e ro n l yi nt h ec a s ewheret h etwol a n g u a g e sa r et y p o l o g i c a l l yv e r yc l o s e t oo n ea n o t h e r( D r e s s l e randK a m i l ,2 0 0 6 ) . I nt h i ss t u d y ,o u rf o c u si sn o tt odocumentt h ei n c i d e n c e swherew r i t e r s a p p l yg r a m m a t i c a lknowledgefromt h eLlo n t oL2w r i t i n gwheret h e ys h o u l d 6 3 母語・継承語・パイリンガル教育( MHB )研究 VolumeTO MARCH2014 n o t ,b u tr a t h e r ,howw r i t e r smakeu s eo fl a n g u a g er e s o u r c e st h e yh a v ei no n e nt h e l a n g u a g et os u p p o r tt h eo t h e r ,andt h u sw i l lu s et h eterm t r a n s f e ri formerm e a n i n g . Langu αg eI n t e r d e p e n d e n tA s p e c t sα ndL a n g u a g e ‑ S p e c i f i cA s p e c t s Thes t u d i e st h a ta r ed e v o t e dt od i s t i n g u i s h i n gl a n g u a g ei n t e r d e p e n d e n t a s p e c t sfromt h el a n g u a g es p e c i f i ca s p e c t si nl i t e r a c ya b i l i t i e sa r es c a r c ee s p e ‑ c i a l l yi nt h ea r e ao fw r i t i n gd e v e l o p m e n t .Weh a v ei d e n t i f i e ds e v e ns u c hs t u d ‑ i e s ,whichw i l lb er e v i e w e di nt h i ss e c t i o n . Oneo ft h ew r i t i n ga s p e c t st h a ta l lo ft h es t u d i e sseemt oa g r e eona s b e i n gi n t e r d e p e n d e n ta c r o s sl a n g u a g e si swhatc a nb ec a l l e dh i g h e ro r d e r s k i l l si nw r i t i n g .Fore x a m p l e ,LanauzeandSnow( 1 9 8 9 )s t u d y i n gG4andG5 S p a n i s h ‑ E n g l i s hb i l i n g u a lP u e r t o ‑ R i c a ns t u d e n t sf o u n dt h a tt h o s es t u d e n t s whowereb e t t e ri nt h e i rLlw r o t es e m a n t i c a l l ymorec o m p l e t ee s s a y sn o to n l y i nt h e i rLlb u ta l s oi nt h e i rL 2 .S i m i l a r l y ,D a v i s ,C a r l i s l e ,andBeeman( 1 9 9 9 ) foundd i s c o u r s ee l e m e n t sc o r r e l a t e da c r o s sS p a n i s handE n g l i s h .Suchl i n g u i s ‑ t i ci n t e r d e p e n d e n c yi sn o tl i m i t e dt oc o g n a t el a n g u a g es e t s ,b u ta l s oe x t e n d s t on o n ‑ c o g n a t el a n g u a g es e t ss u c ha sNahuatlandS p a n i s h( F r a n c i s ,2 0 0 0 ) , andf u r t h e rt ol a n g u a g es e t st h a tcomefromd i f f e r e n tw r i t i n gs y s t e m s( I k u t a , 2 0 0 2 ) .Schoonene ta l .( 2 0 0 3 )andS c h o o n e n ,vanG e l d e r e n ,S t o e l ,H u l s t i j n ,and d eG l o p p e r( 2 0 1 1 )i l l u s t r a t e dhowm e t a c o g n i t i v ew r i t i n gknowledget o g e t h e r w i t hf l u e n c ym e d i a t e st h ea s s o c i a t i o nb e t w e e nLlDutchw r i t i n gandE n g l i s h a sf o r e i g nl a n g u a g ew r i t i n gamongg r a d e8 ‑ 1 0s t u d e n t s . Wheni tcomest ol e x i c a lknowledgeandhowi ti sr e l a t e da c r o s st h etwo l a n g u a g e so fb i l i n g u a l s ,t h e s es t u d i e sp r e s e n tmixedf i n d i n g s .W h i l eF r a n c i s ( 2 0 0 0 )andI k u t a( 2 0 0 2 )foundt h a tsomea s p e c t so fl e x i c a lknowledgewerei n ‑ t e r d e p e n d e n ta c r o s sl a n g u a g e se v e nw i t hn o n ‑ c o g n a t el a n g u a g es e t s ,D a v i se t a l .( 1 9 9 9 )f o u n dnos u c hr e l a t i o n s h i pi nt h eu s eo fl o n gwordsb e t w e e nS p a n i s h andE n g l i s h .LanauzeandSnow( 1 9 8 9 )foundi n t e r d e p e n d e n c yi nl i n g u i s t i cv a ‑ r i e t yo n l yw i t ht h es t u d e n t swhowerep o o rw r i t e r si nt h eL2b u tgoodw r i t e r s i nL l .Thea u t h o r sa r g u et h a ts u c hl i n g u i s t i ct r a n s f e rd o e sn o to c c u rf o rs t u ‑ d e n t swhoseLli sp o o r ,anda l s of o rs t u d e n t swhoseL2i sw e l l ‑ d e v e l o p e d .For 64‑ W r i t i n gA b 1 ! i t 1 e so fG r a d e1 ‑ 9J a p a n e s e ‑ E n g l i s hB i l i n g u a l s :L i n g u i s t i cI n t e r d e p e n d e n c ya n dA G E ,LORandADA SANOA i k o ,NAKAJIMAK a z u k o ,IKUTAY u k o , THOMSONH a i d e e ,NAKANOT o m o k o ,andFUKUKAWAM i s a t h el a t t e rg r o u p ,t h ea u t h o r ss p e c u l a t e ,t h etwos y s t e m sh a v ebecomei n d e ‑ p e n d e n to fo n ea n o t h e r . Fora s p e c t sl i k eg r a m m a t i c a lc o m p l e x i t yanda c c u r a c y ,t h es t u d i e st h a t i n v e s t i g a t ep o s i t i v et r a n s f e ro fgrammaticala b i l i t i e si ng e n e r a la r ev e r yl i m ‑ i t e da l t h o u g ht h e r ea r ep l e n t yo fs t u d i e st h a th a v ei n v e s t i g a t e dt h ei n f l u e n c e o f11on12g r a m m a t i c a le r r o r si nt h ea r e ao f12d e v e l o p m e n t .T h i smayb e d u et ot h ef a c tt h a tt h ef o c u so ft h es t u d i e sh a v eb e e ne x c l u s i v e l yon12d e v e l ‑ o p m e n t ,andi nt h a ts e n s et h eknowledgeo f11h a sb e e nt r e a t e da sn o i s eo r e v e na san e g a t i v ei n f l u e n c ei n12d e v e l o p m e n t .P e o p l eh a v en o tp a i dd u ea t ‑ t e n t i o nt ohowg r a m m a t i c a lknowledgec o u l dd e v e l o phandi nhanda c r o s sl a n ‑ g u a g e s ,I k u t a( 2 0 0 2 )andH u l s t i j n( 2 0 1 1 )b e i n gt h er a r ee x c e p t i o n s ,andt h e s e twop r e s e n ts e e m i n g l yd i s c r e p a n tf i n d i n g s .Ont h eo n eh a n d ,I k u t af o u n dno c o r r e l a t i o ni ng r a m m a t i c a lc o m p l e x i t yanda c c u r a c yi nJ a p a n e s eandP o r t u ‑ g u e s ew r i t i n g so fB r a z i l i a ns t u d e n t ss t u d y i n gt h e i r12J a p a n e s e .Ont h eo t h e r h a n d ,H u l s t i j n ,whos t u d i e dg r a d e8t o1 0Dutchs t u d e n t sl e a r n i n g12E n g l i s h , c o n c l u d e dt h a tg r a m m a t i c a lknowledgea sw e l la sl e x i c a lknowledgeandt h e i r t r a n s f e r a b l en a t u r ea c c o u n t e df o rt h ei n t e r d e p e n d e n c yi nl i t e r a c ys k i l l sb e ‑ tweenDutchandE n g l i s h .T h i sc o n c l u s i o ni nr e g a r dt og r a m m a t i c a lk n o w l ‑ e d g ei np a r t i c u l a rs e e m st oc o n f l i c tw i t hI k u t as ( 2 0 0 2 )f i n d i n gt h a t g r a m m a t i c a lknowledgei sn o ti n t e r d e p e n d e n ta c r o s sl a n g u a g e s .Therea r e twop o s s i b l ee x p l a n a t i o n st h a ta c c o u n tf o rt h i sd i s c r e p a n c y .Onei st h ed i s ‑ t a n c eb e t w e e nt h el a n g u a g es e t st h a tt h e i rs t u d e n t swered e a l i n gw i t h .I n t u d y ,t h es t u d e n t sweret r y i n gt oa c q u i r ew r i t i n gs k i l l si nJ a p a n e s e I k u t ass whichweret y p o l o g i c a l l yando r t h o g r a p h i c a l l yv e r yd i f f e r e n tfromt h e i r11 t u d yweres t u d y i n gal a n g u a g e P o r t u g u e s e ,w h i l et h es t u d e n t si nH u l s t i j nss t h a twast y p o l o g i c a l l ys i m i l a rt ot h e i r11andw r i t t e ni nt h esamea l p h a b e t i c w r i t i n gs y s t e m .Theo t h e rp o s s i b l ee x p l a n a t i o ni st h a tt h ep a r t i c i p a n t si n I k u t ass t u d yweres t u d y i n gJ a p a n e s ei nan12c o n t e x tw i t hn o tmuchs u p p o r t f o rt h e i r11l i t e r a c yd e v e l o p m e n t ,w h i l et h es t u d e n t si nH u l s t i j nss t u d ywere s t u d y i n gE n g l i s ha saf o r e i g nl a n g u a g e ,w i t hp l e n t yo fs u p p o r tf o rt h e i r11 l i t e r a c ya t t a i n m e n t .I n d e e d , when a n a l y s i n gt h ed e v e l o p m e n to fl i t e r a c y s k i l l s ,v a r i o u sf a c t o r scomei n t op l a y .Wew i l lnowt u r nt ot h ef a c t o r swhich 65‑ u 母語・継承語・パイ ンガル教育 ( MHB )研究 Volume 1 0 MARCH2014 a f f e c tr e l a t i o n s h i p sbetweenw r i t i n ga b i l i t i e si nt h etwol a n g u a g e so fb i l i n ‑ g u a ls t u d e n t s . F αc t o r sA f f e c t i n gt h eR e l a t i o n s h i p sb e t w e e nLlαndL2W r i t i n gA b i l i t i e s Thel e a r n e rs12l i n g u i s t i cknowledgeand11l i t e r a c yknowledgeh a v e b e e nr e p e a t e d l yp o i n t e do u ti nt h el i t e r a t u r ea sa c c o u n t i n gf o ri n d i v i d u a ld i f ‑ f e r e n c e si nl e a r n e r s 'l i t e r a c ya t t a i n m e n ti n12( e . g .B i a l y s t o k ,2 0 0 1 ;Cummins, 1 9 9 1 ) ,thoughnotmanyo ft h e s es t u d i e sh a v ei n v e s t i g a t e dt h edomaino fw r i t ‑ i n g .F u r t h e r m o r e ,t h er e l a t i o n s h i p sb e t w e e n12o r a lp r o f i c i e n c yand12l i t e r ‑ a c ya t t a i n m e n t( G e v a ,2 0 0 6 ) ,a sw e l la st h a to f11o r a lp r o f i c i e n c yand12 l i t e r a c ya t t a i n m e n th a v eb e e nd i s c u s s e d( s e eG e n e s e e ,G e v a ,D r e s s l e r , and K a m i l ,2 0 0 8f o rar e v i e w ) . Withas p e c i f i cf o c u sonw r i t i n gd e v e l o p m e n ti nb i l i n g u a lc h i l d r e n ,I k u t a ( 2 0 0 6 )o b s e r v e dt h a t12w r i t i n ga b i l i t i e si ntermso ff l u e n c y ,a c c u r a c y ,l e x i c a l ands y n t a c t i c a lc o m p l e x i t y ,andc o n t e n tando r g a n i s a t i o nmeasuresimproved a sw r i t e r s 'l e n g t ho fr e s i d e n c e(10R)l e n g t h e n e d .A l s oi l l u s t r a t e di nt h esame s t u d ywashoww r i t e r s 'ageo fa r r i v a l(AOA)a f f e c t sp o s i t i v e l yont h e i r11 w r i t i n g .I nt h i ss t u d y ,t h ep a r t i c i p a n t swhowereP o r t u g u e s es p e a k e r sl e a r n ‑ i n gt ow r i t ei nt h e i r12J a p a n e s ehadv e r yl i m i t e di fanys u p p o r ti n1 1l i t e r a c y m a i n t e n a n c e .T h e r e f o r e ,t h o s ewhol e f tt h e i rc o u n t r i e so fo r i g i na ta g en i n eo r youngerf a c e dg r e a t e rd i f f i c u l t yi nd e v e l o p i n gw r i t i n gs k i l l si nt h e i r1 1 ,com‑ p a r e dt ot h e i rp e e r swhocamet oJapana so l d e rl e a r n e r s .B e c a u s ei tt a k e sc o g ‑ n i t i v em a t u r i t yt od e v e l o pw r i t i n ga b i l i t i e s ,t h ea g eo fa r r i v a lt o an 12 e n v i r o n m e n t( o rr a t h e r ,ageo fl e a v i n gan11e n v i r o n m e n t )i sac r i t i c a lf a c t o r i t e r a c yandi t si n f l u e n c eonb i l i t e r a c y i ni n v e s t i g a t i n gt h ed e v e l o p m e n to f11l d e v e l o p m e n t . Anotheri m p o r t a n tv a r i a b l et h a ts h o u l db et a k e ni n t oa c c o u n twheni n ‑ v e s t i g a t i n gb i l i n g u a lw r i t i n gd e v e l o p m e n ti ss t u d e n ta g e .C h i l d r e ni ng e n e r a l w r i t emorea b s t r a c tc o n t e n tu s i n gmores o p h i s t i c a t e dl a n g u a g ea st h e ygrow o l d e r .G i v e nt h a tt h e r ea r ev a r y i n gd e g r e e so fi n t e r d e p e n d e n c ya c r o s sv a r i o u s a s p e c t so fw r i t i n gs k i l l sa sr e v i e w e da b o v e ,i ti sc o n c e i v a b l et h a tv e r yyoung c h i l d r e nmayn o tb e n e f i ts omuchfroml i n g u i s t i ci n t e r d e p e n d e n c ya st h e i r ‑66一 W r i t i n gA b i l i t i e so fG r a d e1 ‑ 9J a p a n e s eE n g l i s hB i l i n g u a l s :L i n g u i s t i cI n t e r d e p e n d e n c yandA G E ,LORa n dAOA SANOA i k o ,NAKAJIMAr く a z u k o ,IKUTA Y u k o , THOMSONH a i d e e ,NAKANOT o m o k o ,andFUKUKAWAM i s a o l d e rp e e r sa si tt a k e st i m eandc o g n i t i v em a t u r i t yt od e v e l o ps u c hh i g h e r o r d e rw r i t i n gs k i l l s .I n d e e d ,D r e s s l e randKamil( 2 0 0 6 )a t t r i b u t et h er e a s o nf o r n o tf i n d i n gc o r r e l a t i o nb e t w e e nLlandL2v o c a b u l a r yi nt h eD a v i se ta l .( 1 9 9 9 ) s t u d yt ot h ep a r t i c i p a n t sb e i n gyoungandn o tc o g n i t i v e l ymatureenought o t r a n s f e rt h e i rl e x i c a lknowledgei nLlt oL 2 . T h u s ,t h es t u d i e st h a th a v ei n v e s t i g a t e dw r i t i n ga b i l i t i e si nu n i v e r s i t y / ‑ c o l l e g es t u d e n t sanda d o l e s c e n t smayn o tb ea p p l i e dt ot h ew r i t i n gd e v e l o p ‑ ment o f young l e a r n e r sw i t h o u tc l o s ee x a m i n a t i o n .U n l i k e most a d u l t s , youngl e a r n e r sa r ey e tt od e v e l o pt h e i rw r i t i n ga b i l i t i e sp e rs e ,andt h ep r o c e s s c a nb ef u n d a m e n t a l l yd i f f e r e n tfromt h a to fa d u l t sa c q u i r i n gl i t e r a c ys k i l l son t o po ft h e i re s t a b l i s h e dLlw r i t i n ga b i l i t i e s .T h i sd i f f e r e n c ei ss i m i l a rt ot h e d i f f e r e n c e sb e t w e e nt h ed e v e l o p m e n to fl i n g u i s t i ca b i l i t i e si ns e q u e n t i a lb i l i n ‑ g u a l sandt h a to fs i m u l t a n e o u sb i l i n g u a l so rb i l i n g u a lf i r s tl a n g u a g ea c q u i s i ‑ t i o n( D eHouwer,2 0 0 9 ) .H o w e v e r ,t h i sd i s t i n c t i o nb e t w e e ns e q u e n t i a lv e r s u s s i m u l t a n e o u sd e v e l o p m e n th a sn o tb e e ne x t e n d e dt ol i t e r a c yy e t( R e y e s ,2 0 1 2 , p .3 0 8 ) . Oneo t h e rf a c t o rt h a ta p p e a r st ob ec r u c i a li ni n v e s t i g a t i n gb i l i t e r a c yd e ‑ v e l o p m e n ti st h el i n g u i s t i cd i s t a n c eo ft h etwol a n g u a g e si nq u e s t i o n .W h i l e t h ef a c t o r sr e v i e w e da b o v ed i f f e rbyi n d i v i d u a l s ,t h i sf a c t o rd i f f e r sbyl a n ‑ guageandi si m p o r t a n twhens y n t h e s i s i n gt h ef i n d i n g so fv a r i o u sb i l i t e r a c y s t u d i e s . Ont h eo n eh a n d ,l i n g u i s t i cd i s t a n c eb e t w e e ntwol a n g u a g e ss e e m st oh a v e noi n f l u e n c eonh i g h e ro r d e rs k i l l si nw r i t i n g ,i no t h e rw o r d s ,h i g h e ro r d e r s k i l l sa p p e a rt ob ei n t e r d e p e n d e n te v e nw i t hv e r yd i f f e r e n tl a n g u a g e s .Ont h e o t h e rh a n d ,t h ei n f l u e n c eo fl i n g u i s t i cd i s t a n c eonl e x i c a lknowledgev a r i e s , w i t hsomes t u d i e sshowingi n t e r d e p e n d e n c ye v e na c r o s st y p o l o g i c a l l yd i f f e r ‑ e n tl a n g u a g es e t s( F r a n c i s ,2 0 0 0 ;I k u t a ,2 0 0 2 )w h i l eo t h e r s show no c o r r e l a t i o n se v e nw i t hv e r ys i m i l a rl a n g u a g es e t s( D a v i se ta l . ,1 9 9 9 ) .One p o i n tt ob emadei st h a ti tmayn o tb et h el i n g u i s t i cd i s t a n c eb e t w e e nt h etwo l a n g u a g e sp e rs eb u tr a t h e rhows i m i l a rt h ew r i t e r sc o n c e i v et h etwol a n ‑ g u a g e s ,andi ft h e ya r ec a p a b l eo ft a k i n ga d v a n t a g eo ft h ec o g n a t er e l a t i o n s i nt h ev o c a b u l a r i e s .G e n e s e e ,G e v a ,D r e s s l e r ,andKamil( 2 0 0 8 .p . 6 3 )comment ‑67ー 母語・継承語・パイI ) ンガル教育( MHB )研究 Volume10 MARCH2014 ont h i sp o i n ta sf o l l o w s : [ T ]hee x i s t e n c eo fc o g n a t e si ntwol a n g u a g e smayn o tb eas u f f i c i e n tc o n ‑ d i t i o nf o rt r a n s f e ro fc o g n a t eknowledget oo c c u r ;ab e l i e font h ep a r to f t h el e a r n e rt h a tt h etwol a n g u a g e sa r es i m i l a rmayb en e c e s s a r y( b u t p r o b a b l yn o ts u f f i c i e n t )a sw e l l . T h e r e f o r e ,i twouldb ee n l i g h t e n i n gt os t u d yt h ew r i t i n gd e v e l o p m e n to f b i l i n g u a l swheret h etwol a n g u a g e sa r et y p o l o g i c a l l yd i s t a n c e dandh a v ed i f ‑ f e r e n tw r i t i n gs y s t e m s .Thep r e s e n ts t u d yaimsp r e c i s e l ya tr e v e a l i n gt h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . ResearchQ u e s t i o n s Ash a sb e e np r e s e n t e di nt h ea b o v el i t e r a t u r er e v i e w ,e x a m i n a t i o n so f v a r i o u sa s p e c t so fw r i t i n ga b i l i t i e st h a ta r el a n g u a g es p e c i f i candt h a ta r ei n ‑ t e r d e p e n d e n ta c r o s sl a n g u a g e si nt h ec a s eo fl a n g u a g es e t st h a tu s ed i f f e r e n t w r i t i n gs y s t e m sa r ec a l l e df o r .A l s o ,v a r i o u sf a c t o r sa f f e c tt h ed e v e l o p m e n to f w r i t i n ga b i l i t i e si nt h etwol a n g u a g e so fb i l i n g u a l s ,andi n v e s t i g a t i o no ft h e r o l e st h e s ev a r i a b l e sp l a yi sn e c e s s a r y .T h e r e f o r e ,t h i ss t u d yw i l li n v e s t i g a t e t h ef o l l o w i n gr e s e a r c hq u e s t i o n s : 1 ) Whata s p e c t so fw r i t i n ga b i l i t i e sa r el a n g u a g es p e c i f i candwhata s 司 p e c t sd e v e l o pi n t e r d e p e n d e n t l ya c r o s sJ a p a n e s eandE n g l i s h ? 2 ) Whati m p a c t sdoAGE,AOA,andLORh a v eont h ec r o s s ‑ l i n g u a lr e ・ l a t i o n s h i p si nt h ew r i t i n g so fb i l i n g u a ls t u d e n t s ? Method P a r t i c i p a n t s Thep a r t i c i p a n t sweres t u d e n t ss t u d y i n ga taHosyuko( J a p a n e s eS a t u r ‑ days c h o o l )i nal a r g ec i t yi nt h ee a s t e r np a r to fC a n a d a .Theya t t e n d e d ku o o W r i t i n gA b i l i t i e so fG r a d e1 ‑ 9J a p a n e s e ‑ E n g l i s hB i l i n g u a l s :L i n g u i s t i cI n t e r d e p e n d e n c ya n dA G E ,LORa n dADA SANOA i k o ,NAKAJIMAK a z u k o ,IKUTAY u k o , THOMSONH a i d e e ,NAKANOT o m o k o ,a n dFUKUKAWAM i s a Canadians c h o o l si n s t r u c t e de i t h e ri nE n g l i s ho rFrenchfromMondayt oF r i ‑ dayanda t t e n d e dt h i ss c h o o lonS a t u r d a y s .T h i ss c h o o lwasu n i q u ei nt h e s e n s et h a ti taimedt oc o v e rt h ee n t i r ec u r r i c u l as e tbyt h eM i n i s t r yo fEduca‑ t i o ni nJapanf o re d u c a t i n gJapaneses t u d e n t sl i v i n gi nJ a p a n ,andt h u si twas n o ts o l e l yf o c u s e dont e a c h i n gJapanesea ss e c o n do rh e r i t a g el a n g u a g e ,but r a t h e rf o c u s e dont e a c h i n ga c a d e m i cs u b j e c t sthroughJ a p a n e s e .T h i ss i t ewas c h o s e nf o rt h ep r e s e n ts t u d yb e c a u s eo ft h i sf e a t u r ewhichwase x p e c t e dt o h e l ps t u d e n t sd e v e l o pwhatCummins( 2 0 0 1 ,p p .6 5 ‑ 6 6 )h a sp r o p o s e da sa c a ‑ demiclanguagep r o f i c i e n c y( A L P ) ,andt h i swouldp r o v i d ei n f o r m a t i o nabout a d d i t i v eb i l i t e r a c yd e v e l o p m e n t . Table 1 P a r t i c i p a n t sG r a d e , LOR, AOA, andP a r e n t s 'MotherTongues G四 de" N(%) AOA N(%) LORN(%) 1 13 1 ( 1 2 . 9 )I Less t h a n2 −−− n u ︶ ︶o 弓/− o a i v Au eEt n・ ︑︐ i t ︐ ︐ 一2 4 ︑ ︑ 6 9 ( 2 8 . 8 ) n n l J ⁝白 ︒ + − 斗 ・ s u守一 − 一 EA n u LH t 尚一 C n a一 ︒ 寸 ・ Ohoo 今Jh A斗 一 / 一 ︑ 一ヴ− ・ 1 0n N 一U . 2 ‑ 4 2 ‑ 4 ︶ −︶ ウゐ・︒︒ 2 4 ( 1 0 . 0 ) 1 6 5 ( 6 8 . 8 ) 1 0 ( 4 . 2 ) I One J ム 今 0 ‑ 2 I 7 5 ( 3 1 . 3 )I Both J ny 0︑ ︑ ︐ ︐ s0 2 ・ー . . ︐ 〆 ヲu h 50~20.8) 4 4 1 一O I C‑Born ︶−︶−︶一 一 8 8 3 一 一 nuAU00 BA a a s 且 一 唱 s︑ 〆 一 〆 ︐︑ 一 a −r z o r一 OA 一 o h 00ι1A 一M ふ 一 or ↑ ・ d ζ U −巧/ P 1dAUF3 A守 I 1d−ヲ h q d A守 ︶ −︶ 今 ム 白 ︑ . p 一 戸 ︑ J J ︑︐ ノ 一 ︑ ︐ ノ b 2一3 ウ& ζ u 一aaマ eQJ Ihro n ︐ 一 ︵i一 ︵一︵−︵ ︵y︵ 2 I ペ 4 ー 一 一 AVJ OAV 目 l ︑−︑ 7 0 ( 2 9 . 2 ) j Parents mothertonguesN(%) 38~ ! 5.8) 31~12.9) 4 3 ( 1 7 . 9 ) N o t e .L e s st h a n2=Lesst h a n2y e a r s ,2 ・ 4=longert h a n2y e a r sa n ds h o r t e rt h a n4y e a r s ,i n c l u d i n g2y e a r s C‑Bom=Borni nC a n a d a B o t hJ=Bothp a r e n t sn a t i v es p e a k e r so fJ a p a n e s e ,OneJ=o n ep a r e n tn a t i v es p e a k e ro fJ a p a n e s e NoJ= n e i t h e ro ft h ep a r e n t sn a t i v es p e a k e r so fJ a p a n e s e Oft h e2 4 0s t u d e n t swhop a r t i c i p a t e di nt h es t u d y ,1 0 6weremaleand1 3 4 weref e m a l e ,andt h e ywerebetween8 0monthst o1 8 7monthso l d ,witht h e meanb e i n g1 2 5 . 0 0monthsands t a n d a r dd e v i a t i o n2 9 . 1 3 6 .Twelveo fthema t ‑ t e n d e dFrenchImmersionS c h o o l ,w h i l et h er e s ta t t e n d e dE n g l i s hmedium s c h o o l sfromMondayt oF r i d a y .P a r t i c i p a n ti n f o r m a t i o ni ssummarisedi n t a b l e1 . ‑69‑ 0 MARCH2014 )研究 Volume 1 MHB ンガル教膏( ) 母語・継承語・バイI n o i t c e l l o DataC r i e h et v a oh dt e k s swerea t n e r a ep h ,t l a p i c n i r ep h ft lo a v o r p p ea h Witht e t i r ow dt e k s na e h sweret t n e d u t .Thes > y2 d u t es h nt ei t a p i c i t r a np e r d l i h c : c i p o esamet h hont s i l g n nE ri e h t eo h eandt s e n a p a nJ ei n ,o s n o i t i s o p m o twoc s a osomeonewhoh gCanadat n i c u d o r t n d Canada i e l t i t n ye a s s eane t i r W gyour n i d u l c n ebyi l b i s s o sp la i a t e smuchd ea d u l c n oi .Tryt e r e nh e e rb e v e n ‑ o h kwasc s a st i h "T . l o o h c ts ta n r a e el v a sandwhatyouh e c n e i r e p x le a n o s r e p ‑ e l e tr u o b ea t i r ow dsomethingt n i df l u o sc e g sa u o i r a tv sa t n e d u t ts a h ot ns e s e h nt di e t n i r n was p o i t c u r t s n . The i s e g a t ls a t n e m p o l e v e rd i e h ot tt n a v n a l op dt e w o l l ywerea e h tt e e h ,onwhichs e t i r ow dt e k s ywerea e h et g a u g n a l .The d u o l na o i t c u r t s n ei h tt u do a e or s l sa r e h c a e .Thet g n i t i r rw i e h ot rt o i r p nby o i t a r a p e r rp o 0minutesf e1 s ou dt e t c u r t s n swerei t n e d u t e1and2s d a r g rbydrawing e h t i ne o i t a r a p e r rp o sf e t u n i shad5m t n e d u t rs e d l .Theo g n i w a r d s e c n e r e f f i td h g i l .Thereweres e c i o h rc i e h ft eo g a u g n a el h nt si e t o gn n i t i r rw o e n i ,l s e z i ts n o sf ha c u ss e g ra i e h ot gt n i d r o c c sa t e e h gs n i t i r fw so t a m r o ef h nt i , r e b m e c e nonD o i t i s o p m o ec s e n a p a eJ h .Theywrotet i j αn fk eo s ,andu g n i c a p s e h nont e t t i r swerew n o i t i s o p m o hc s i l g n .E > 0minutes3 g4 n i d n e p ,s 0 1 0 ,2 1 1 . e m i ft esameamounto h ht t i ,w r e t a eweekl n ko s a samet t u o b da e k s >whicha s4 e r i a n n o i t s e u eq h nt li l i of dt e k s swerea t n e r a Thep gand n i d a e fr so e i c n e u q e r eandf s eu g a u g n a ,l d n u o r g k c a cb i t s i u g n i 'l s t n e d u t s ‑ l o ywerec e h ,andt l a t o nt si n o i t s e u 5q thome.Therewere2 sa e i t i v i t c ga n i t i r w n .I d e t c e l l o swerec e r i a n n o i t s e u eq h ft %o 8 . 7 .8 y a d r u t a gS n i w o l l o ef h dt e t c e l . y d u t es h nt >i 5 s t n e m e r i u q e er h ft lo l da e t e l p m o sc t n a p i c i t r a 0p 4 ,2 l a t o t s i s y αl An , y t i x e l p m o lc a c i x e ,l y c n e u l rf o df e s y l a n swerea n o i t i s o p m o dc e t c e l l o Thec 'wasemployed s d r o fw .The numbero y c a r u c c ,anda y t i x e l p m o grammaticalc as lw uG s t e s n u fB e numbero h et l i h hw s i l g n nE yi c n e u l ff emeasureo h st a e h .Fort ) 2 0 0 2 a( t u k gI n i w o l l o ,f e s e n a p a nJ yi c n e u l ff emeasureo h st na e s o h c ‑ n a hl t o rb o df e s esamemeasureswereu h ,t g n i t i r fw so t c e p s ga n i n i a m e r d e d i v i sd e p y fwordt enumbero h st da e t a l u c l a ywasc t i x e l p m o lc a c i x e :l s e g a u g , o r e t n i u Q ‑ e f l o W >( 7 s d r o fw lnumbero a t o et h st e m i ftwot to o o er r a u q es h byt ‑70一 W r i t i n gA b i l i t i e so fG r a d eI9J a 問n e s eE n g l i s hB i l i n g u a l s :L i n g u i s t i cI n t e r d e p e n d e n c yandA G E ,LORandADA SANOA i k o ,NAKAJIMAK a z u k o ,IKUTAY u k o , THOMSONH a i d e e ,NAKANOT o m o k o ,andFUKUKAWAM i s a T a b l e2 D e s c r i p t o r sforO r g a n i s a t i o n O r g a n i s a t i o n 4 .T h eo r & a n i s a t i o no ft h ep a r a g r a p h sc a nb el o g i c a l l yu n d e r s t o o db yt h ee f f e c t i v eu s eo f c o 町u n c t 1 0 n se t c . 叩o s eo fe a c hp a r a g r a p hi sc l e a rb u t 3 .E a c hp a r a g r a p hh a sc l e a rt o p i cs e n t e n c e so rt h ep u t h ep a r a g r a p h sa r en o to r g a m s e di nam a n n e rt h a tc a nb el o g i c a l l yu n d e r s t o o d , 2 ,T h ew r i t e rh a sd i v i d e dh i s / h e re s s a yi n t op a r a g r a p h sb u tt h ep 山p o s e so fe a c hp a r a g r a p h a r en o tc l e a r .O r ,e a c hp a r a g r a p hi sn o te l a b o r a t e da n dc o n s i s t so fo n eo rv e r yf e ws e n ‑ t e n c e s .A l s o ,p a r a g r a p h st h a ta r ec o n c e p t u a l l yr e d u n d a n t( w r i t i n ga b o u to n ec o n c e p to v e r s e v e r a is e n t e n c e s )a n dp a r a g r a p h sw i t hi r r e l e v a n ts e n t e n c e sf a l li n t ot h i sc a t e g o r y . 1 .T h e r ea r en op a r a g r a p h s . I n a g a k i ,andKim,1 9 9 8 ) ,andgrammaticalc o m p l e x i t ywasc a l c u l a t e da st h e number o fc o o r d i n a t i o n sp e rc l a u s e( s e n t e n c ew i d t h ) and t h e number o f s u b o r d i n a t i o n sp e rc l a u s e( s e n t e n c ed e p t h ) . Asf o rt h ea c c u r a c yr a t e s ,t h e numbero fg r a m m a t i c a l ,l e x i c a landc o n v e n t i o n a le r r o r swerecountedbytwo r a t e r sandt h enumbero fe r r o r sp e rc l a u s ewasc a l c u l a t e d .Whenc o u n t i n g grammatical,l e x i c a landc o n v e n t i o n a le r r o r s ,pragmatice r r o r sa tr e g i s t e r l e v e l sweren o ti n c l u d e d .Errorsi ns p e l l i n g ,p u n c t u a t i o n ,andc a p i t a l i s a t i o ni n E n g l i s hweretakena sc o n v e n t i o n a le r r o r s .S p e l l i n ge r r o r si nJapanesei n ‑ j i 8 )c h a r a c t e r sandu s eo fi n c o r r e c tk αn j ic h a r a c t e r sa s e l u d e de r r o n e o u sk αn αgαnαandkαtαhαnα. w e l la se r r o r si nHir Theq u a l i t a t i v ea s p e c t so fw r i t i n gwerea l s oa n a l y s e du s i n gr u b r i c sd e v e l ‑ opedf o rt h ep r e s e n ts t u d y .Mores p e c i f i c a l l y ,s e v e na s p e c t so fw r i t i n ga b i l i t i e s werea n a l y s e d :t h e m e ,o r g a n i s a t i o n ,c o h e s i o n ,a u d i e n c ea w a r e n e s s ,r h e t o r i c , r i g i n a l i t y ,andb a l a n c e dargument.Theser u b r i c sweremadeup r e f l e c t i o n& o o ff o u rd e s c r i p t o r se a c handwered e s i g n e dt ob eu s e df o rbothlanguages a c r o s st h eg r a d e s .Anexampleo ft h ed e s c r i p t o r sandt h ep o i n t sa l l o t t e df o r r g a n i s a t i o ni sshowni nt a b l e2 .Ther e s to ft h e themf o rt h edimensiono fo r u b r i ci sshowni nt h ea p p e n d i x . A groupo f6 ,5o fwhicha r et h ememberso ft h ep r e s e n tstudyc o n d u c t e d t h ee r r o ra n a l y s i sands c o r i n g su s i n gt h eaforementionedr u b r i c s .Twoo f themweren a t i v es p e a k e r so fE n g l i s h ,t h er e s tweren a t i v es p e a k e r so fJapa‑ n e s eandoneb e i n gb i l i n g u a li nE n g l i s handJ a p a n e s e .T h e i racademice x p e r 伺 t i s ec o v e r e d Japanese language e d u c a t i o n( a saf i r s tl a n g u a g e ,s e c o n d 7 1 )研究 Volume10 MARCH2014 MHB 母語・継承語・バイリンガル教育( , n o i t a c u d sasecondlanguagee ,Englisha } e g a u g n a el g a t i r e languageandh ‑ a t i l a u eq h rt o ,andf s n o i t i s o p m o dc e t a sr r e t a .Twor n o i t a c u d le a u g n i l i andb e v i t a en h rbeingt e t a randanotherr e t a lr a u g n i l i ,oneb g n i t i r fw so t c e p s ea v i t ‑ n i l i .Theb e g a u g n a neachl ecompositionsi h dt e t a elanguager h ft speakero r a l i m i nas swereconductedi g n i t a er h ft tbotho a h et r u rmades e t a lr a u g ‑ i t n e d ri o r r re o ragreementsf 叫 e I ‑ r e t n .Thei s e g a u g n a el h ft nbotho manneri f so t c e p s ea v i t a t i l a u eq h rt o .Asf s m e t ei h ft lo l na %i 8 swereover7 n o i t a c i f e r e h tt n e t x ee h ot dandmadeunambiguoust e w e i v e swerer c i r b u er h ,t g n i t i r w fwriting gonesampleo n i t a swhenr r e t a er h werenodisagreementsbetweent .Asa y l t n e d n e p e d n di e t a swerethenr g n i t i r ew h ft to s e er h ,t e d a r fromeachg s(Cohens c i t s i t a t rs e t a r ‑ r e t n ei h ,t s n o i s s u c s i sandd n o i s i v e er s e h ft to l u s e r 6forEnglish.Al‑ 3 9 1to. 8 6 0forJapaneseandfrom. 2 7 8to. 7 4 κ)werefrom. n o i t c e l f e fR so t c e p s ea h nt yloweri l t h g i l ywass t i l i b a i l e rr e t a r ‑ r e t n thoughi ‑ t p e c c tamoderatelya la l i t twass ,i s g n i t i r eJapanesew h nt "i y t i l a n i g i r &O e t a eagreementr h omaket rmeasurewastakent e h t r u landnof e v e el l b a r o sf e r o c es h rwasusedast e t a nbyeachr e v i sg t n i o ep h ft .Thesumo r e h g i h f so t c e p s ea v i t a t i l a u rq o nf e v i sg e r o c es h ,andthust g n i t i r fw to c e p s ha c a e . s i s y l a n ra e h t r u ef h rt o o8f grangefrom2t n i t i r w Results g n i t i r eW s e n a p a eJ h rt o nf o i t a i v e dD r a d n a t eS h dt n sa e r o c nS a e e3 M l b a T N=240) ; g( 加 i r sofw t c e p s ea l b ,a , 耳 Quant g(N=240) n i t i r fw 抱 o easpec v i t a t i l a u Q e m e h T ) 2 8 . 1 4( 6 . 4 o~~anisation 0-~2.19~ 1 . 4 n o i s e h o C ) 5 3 . 2 1( 0 . 5 s s e n e r a w eA c n e i d u A c i r o t e h R ) 7 7 . 5 5 ( 4 7 . 1 9 9~~-75) 2 . 6 7~~.71~ 9 . 4 lCom~lexi1?'. a c i x e L I h t d i eW c n e t n e S I eDe~th c n e t n e S I 2~l.97~ 5 . 4 e t a rR o r r lE a c i t a m m a r G I 7~0.11) o . 0 e t a rR o r r lE a c i x e L I ) 0 6 . 0 3( 0 . 0 ) 9 9 . 1 5( 0 . y 4 t i l a n i g i r n& O o i t c e l f e R t n e m u g r dA e c n a l a B y c n e u l F ) 2 8 . 1 9( 3 . 3 e t a rR o r r lE a n o i t n e v n o C , ) D S n( a e .M e t o N ) 2 6 . 0 5( 3 . 0 4~0.16~ 3 . 0 ) 7 1 . 0 4( 1 . 0 . o8 gran~e 合~m 2t n i t i r fw so t c e p s ea v i t a t i l a u rq o sf e r o c S s e p y dt r o fw ro e b m u en h st da e t a l u c l a sc yi t i x e l p m o lc a c 1 x e L . u s t e s n u fB ro e b m u sn da e r u s a e sm yi c n e u l F e h lt l da n ,a h t p e dd n ha t d i ew c n e t n e .S s d r o fw ro e b m u ln a t o et h st e m i ot w ft to o o er r a u q es h yt db e d i v i d . s e r i思1 ef g a t n e c r e ep r sa e t a rr o ・ π e ‑72一 yandAGE,LORandAOA c n e d n e p e d r e t n cI i t s i u g n i :L s l a u g n i l i hB s i l g n E ‑ e s e n a p a 9J ‑ e1 d a r fG so e i t i l i b gA n i t i r W a s i ,andFUKUKAWAM o k o m o ,NAKANOT e e d i a , THOMSONH o k u ,IKUTAY o k u z a ,NAKAJIMAK o k i SANOA g n i t i r hW s i l g n eE h rt o nf o i t a i v e dD r a d n a t eS h dt n sa e r o c nS a e e4 M l b a T 240) g仰= n i t i r fw so t c e p s ea l b a i f i t n a u Q g(N=240) n i t i r fw so l e時 四e v i t a t i l a u Q y c n e u l F ) 5 4 . 2 3 1 ( 2 9 . 1 8 1 J lCom~lexi1?'. a c i x e L 9~l.61) 4 . 4 9~~.00~ 4 . 4 由 eWid c n e t n e S I 8 (0.79~ 3 . 0 ) 9 0 . 2 4( 6 . 4 h t p e eD c n e t n e S I e t a rR o r r lE a c i t a m m a r G I ) 5 1 . 0 2( 2 . 0 7~0.32~ 3 . 0 e t a rR o r r lE a c i x e L I ) 3 1 . 0 ( 4 1 . 0 e m e h T ) 5 9 . l 3( 0 . 4 Or~anisation 1 ~2.15~ 5 . 3 n o i s e h o C s s e n e r a w eA c n e i d u A 9~! .89~ 6 . 3 c i r o t e h R ) 2 1 . 2 8( 8 . y 3 t i l a n i g i r n& O o i t c e l f e R t n e m u g r dA e c n a l a B ) 8 8 . 1 8( 8 . 2 e t a rR o r r lE a n o i t n e v n o C ) 8 9 . 0 5( 7 . 0 . ) D S n( a e .M e t o N ・ . o8 m2t n r ef g n a gr n i t i r fw so t c e p s ea v i t a t i l a u rq ! ' sf e r o c S s e p y dt r o fw ro e b m u en h st da e t a l u c l a ic ys t i x e l p m o lc a c i x e .L s d r o fw ro e b m u sn da e r u s a e 1m ys c n e u l F e h lt l da n ,a h t p e dd n ha t d i ew c n e t n e .S s d r o fw ro e b m u ln a t o et h st e m i ot w ft to o o er r a u q es h yt db e d i v i d . s e r u g i ef g a t n e c r e ep r sa e t a rr u η e e v i t a t i t n a u eandq v i t a t i l a u nq sbothi e r o c emeans h tt n e s e r s3and4p e l b a T ‑ a i v e estandardd h rwitht e h t e g o nJapaneseandEnglisht si t c e p s ga n i t i r w ‑ n a sl s o r c ycompareda l t c e r i tcanbed a h gt n i t i r fw so t c e p s ea h .Fort s n o i t swere e u l a ev h ,t y t i x e l p m o lc a c i x e sandl t c e p s ea v i t a t i l a u ,namelyq s e g a u g ,thoughnot s e t a rr o r r ,grammaticale o s l .A s e s a nmostc nJapanesei higheri s s o r c sa e c n e r e f f i cd i t s i u g n i el h ot eduet s n e ts c i r t nas ycomparablei l t c a x e t a h et t a c i d n si t l u s e er s e h ,t r e h t e g o .T h s i l g n nE ,weremuchhigheri s e g a u g n a l . y d u t ss i h nt si t n e d u t es h ft rmosto o rlanguagef e g n o r t es h st Japanesei s e i t i l i b ga n i t i r nw si p i h s n o i t a l e er h ft eo r u t c i lp l a r e v eo h et e os rt e d r no I reach o df e t c u d n o swerec e s y l a n la a n o i t a l e r r o ,c e s e n a p a handJ s i l g n sE s o r c a ) nsr o s r a e P h( s i l g n dE n ea s e n a p a sJ s o r c ga n i t i r fW so e r o c eS h nt e e w t e sb n o i t a l e r r o e5 C l b a T g(N=240) n i t i r fw so t c 悔 @ 叩e b a i f i t n a u Q g(N=24句 n i t i r fw so t c e p s ea v i 伯t i t a u Q e m e 百1 * * 9 5 4 . y c n e u l F * * 9 6 5 . n o i t a s i n a g r O * * 0 2 5 . y t i x e l p m o lC a c i x e L * * 5 9 4 . n o i s e h o C 7*事 6 3 . 也 eWid c n e t n e S 0 3 0 . ‑ s s e n e r a w eA c n e i d u A * * 5 0 4 . eD~th c n e t n e IS * 1* 4 3 . c i r o t e h R 6事隼 6 4 . e t a rR o r r lE a c i t a m m a r IG 2 0 1 . ‑ 3場権 0 5 y . t i l a n i g i r n& O o i t c e l f e R e t a rR o r r lE a c i x e L 7 5 0 . t n e m u g r dA e c n a l a B e t a rR o r r lE a n o i t n e v n o C * * 9 8 1 . 6常事 7 3 . 1 .0 .権事p< e t o N ‑73ー 母語・継承語・パイI ) ンガル教育 ( MHB )研究 Volume 10 MARCH2014 T a b l e6 P a r t i a lC o r r e l a t i o n sb e t w e e nt h eW r i t i n gS c o r e sa c r o s sL a n g u a g e sC o n t r o l l i n g f o rA G E ,L O R ,a n dAOA Q u a l i t a t i v ea s p e c t so fw r i t i n g (N=240) C o n t r o l l i n gf o r AGE LOR Q u a n t i f i a b l ea s p e c t so fw r i t i n g (N=240) AOA C o n t r o l l i n gf o r AGE LOR AOA Theme . 4 1 0 * * . 5 0 9 * * . 4 8 2 * * I F l u e n c y . 3 9 8ホホ . 6 1 5 * * . 6 3 0 * * Or~anisation . 3 4 5 * * . 5 5 6料 . 5 2 9 * * I L e xCom?4 . 3 4 0 * * . 5 3 8 * * . 5 8 2料 C o h e s i o n . 2 3 2料 . 3 9 0料 . 3 8 8料 l S e n tW i d t h5 ‑ . 0 1 0 ‑ . 0 1 9 . 4 4 6*キ . 4 4 2 * * I S e n tD e p t h6 . 2 7 8本* . 3 4 4 * * . 3 2 6材 . 3 3 1料 . 5 5 8 * * . 5 2 6 * * I GramE r r o r7 ‑ . 1 0 0 ・ . 0 4 3 ・ . 0 4 1 R e f& O r i g2 . 3 1 9料 . 5 4 9 * * . 5 0 8料 I LexE r r o r8 . 0 6 6 . 0 7 4 . 0 8 7 . 3 7 9市* . 3 4 1本* I ConvE r r o r9 . 1 0 4 . 1 9 7 * * . 1 4 6ホ A u d iAware1 . 2 9 7 * * R h e t o r i c B a lArg3 . 3 0 7市* ‑ . 0 1 1 Note. = A u d i e n c eA w a r e n e s s ,2 = R e f l e c t i o na n dO r i g i n a l i t y ,3 = B a l a n c e dA r g u m e n t ,4 = L e x i c a lC o m p l e x i t y , 5 = S e n t e n c eW i d t h ,6 =S e n t e n c eD e p t h ,? = G r a m m a t i c a lE r r o rR a t e s ,8 =L e x i c a lE r r o rR a t e s , 9 = C o n v e n t i o n a lE r r o rR a t e s . * p< . 0 5,ホ* p<.01 aspecto fthewritings k i l l s .Moderatec o r r e l a t i o n swerefoundbetweenEng‑ ) . l i s handJapanesei na l lsevenq u a l i t a t i v ea s p e c t so fwritinga b i l i t i e s( t a b l e5 Asf o rtheq u a n t i f i a b l ea s p e c t so fw r i t i n g ;fluencyandl e x i c a lcomplexitywere foundt omoderatelyc o r r e l a t e ,whilenos i g n i f i c a n tc o r r e l a t i o n swerefound betweensentencewidthanderrorr a t e si ngrammarandvocabularyacross EnglishandJapanese. Sentence depthand conventional errorr a t epresent weakc o r r e l a t i o n sacrossthelanguages.Takent o g e t h e r ,i tseemsthatgood writersi nJapanesetendt obegoodwritersi nEnglishwhereq u a l i t a t i v ea s ‑ p e c t so fwritingareconcerned,andstudentswhowritelongert e x t s ,orwho writewithmorev a r i e t yi nvocabulary,orwithmorecomplexsentencestend t odosoi nbothlanguages, butt h i sinterdependentnaturewasnotfound wheni tcametosentencewidthandgrammaticalandl e x i c a lerrorr a t e s . I nordertoseethecontributionofAGE,LOR,andAOAontherelation‑ s h i p sbetweenwritinga b i l i t i e si nEnglishandJapanese, a s e r i e so fp a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n a lanalyseswereconductedc o n t r o l l i n gf o ronef a c t o ratatime( s e e t a b l e6 ) . Fora l lo ftheq u a l i t a t i v ea s p e c t s ,thec o r r e l a t i o n swerethehighestwhen LORwasc o n t r o l l e d . Asf o rsentencewidth,grammaticalerrorr a t eandl e x i ‑ c a lerrorr a t etherewerenos i g n i f i c a n tc o r r e l a t i o n swithanyo fthef a c t o r s ‑74‑ W r i t i n gA b i l i t i e so fG r a d e1 ‑ 9J a p a n e s eE n g l i s h8 1 / t n g u a l s :L i n g u i s t i cI n t e r d e p e n d e n c yandA G E ,LORandADA く a z u k o ,IKUTAY u k o , THOMSONH a i d e e ,NAKANOT o m o k o ,andFUKUKAWAM i s a SANOA i k o ,NAKAJIMAf T a b l e7 C o m p a r i s o no fW r i t i n gC o r r e l a t i o n sa c r o s sL a n g u a g e sb yAGEG r o u p sC o n t r o l l i n g f o rLORa n dAOA Pearson's r r~。;'fη1 Theme . 1 4 4 − − − − − − − ・ − ・ ・ ・ ・ ー ー − ー − ー ー ・ ・ ・ ・ e, ー ー ー ・ ・ ー ー ー ー ー ・ ・ . . . ー ・.......... Gr~~~~) . 3 9 1ホ* ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ . . . . ー F i s h e r ' sz ~'/l~G勾3 . 5 4 0ホ* r 2‑r 1 r 3‑r 2 r 3‑r 1 1 . 3 1 2 . 5 0*本 ‑ 0 . 4 1 . 1 5 0 . 5 2 1 . 4 0 1 . 4 7 − − ー . . . ・ ・ ー ・ , ・ ー ,dー ー ・ ー ・ ・ . . ‑−−・................................................ O r g a n i s a t i o n . 3 5 0 * . 2 8 5本* . 4 3 1* * C o h e s i o n . 0 9 0 . 1 8 0 . 3 3 3ホ* I‑ 0 . 5 1 . 1 2 AudA w a r e1 . 3 3 8 * . 3 0 6 * * . 3 3 4 * * I‑ 0 . 2 0 . 2 1 四 0 . 0 2 R h e t o r i c I. 2 1 0 . 3 1 1*本 . 5 2 3*本 0 . 5 9 1 . 7 7 2 . 0 0 * R e f& O r i g2 I. 3 3 3ホ . 3 4 6料 . 3 9 1 * * 0 . 0 8 0 . 3 6 0 . 3 6 . 0 5 9 . 4 0 1ホ* . 3 0 0ホ* I2 . 0 1 * . 6 0 0*ホ . 4 9 5 * * . 4 0 8 * * I・0 . 8 3 L e xC o m P .4 I. 4 5 9 * * . 2 9 0 * * . 3 8 9 * * I1 . 0 8 S e n tW i d t h5 I・. 0 6 4 . 1 9 3 ・ . o 7 5 I1 . 4 2 S e n tDe~th I. 0 5 5 . 2 7 6 * * . 4 0 4 * * I1 . 2 5 0 . 9 9 2 . 0 4 * I‑ . 2 0 2 . 0 0 6 . 0 7 4 0 . 4 7 1 . 5 2 ‑ 1 . 3 3 ・1 . 2 6 ‑ 0 . 4 0 3 . 1 7 * * B a lAr~ 3 F l u e n c y 6 GramE r r o r7 司 I1 . 1 6 L e xE r r o r8 . 1 5 9 . 1 2 3 ・ . 0 7 1 ConvE r r o r9 ・ . 1 3 5 . 4 6 5 * * . 4 1 8 * * I3 . 5 1* * ー. 0 2 0 0 . 7 9 1 . 3 7 ・ 0 . 7 5 ‑ 1 . 4 2 0 . 7 7 ・ 0 . 4 7 司 司 1 . 8 5 ・ 0 . 0 6 N o t e .G r o u p: Ia g e <9 6m o n t h s ,Group2 :9 6m o n t h s豆a g e <1 3 2m o n t h s ,G r o u p3 :a g e孟 1 3 2 m o n t h s ;二鎚.~e:~e iia~~~e5J,;,s2e~間:~c!I毘r 簡単品ti~;IBa出;;ct fri~~:Ues~ t~i~!tal E;~r;ip匙:~: 9 = C o n v e n t i o n a lE r r o rR a t e s . *p< . 0 5 ,* *p< . 0 1 c o n t r o l l e df o r .Inf l u e n c yandl e x i c a lcomplexity,c o r r e l a t i o n swerethehighest whenAOAwasc o n t r o l l e dwhilef o rs e n t e n c edepthandconventionalerror r a t e s ,c o r r e l a t i o n swerehighestwhenLORwasc o n t r o l l e d . Tofurtheri n v e s t i g a t ethei n f l u e n c eo fAGEonther e l a t i o n s h i pbetween variousa s p e c t so fwritings k i l l sa c r o s sEnglishandJapanese,thestudents ,olderthan8and wered i v i d e di n t ot h r e egroupsbasedona g e ;youngerthan8 youngerthan1 1 ,andolderthan1 1 ,andp a r t i a lc o r r e l a t i o n so fthes c o r e so b ‑ t a i n e df o reacha s p e c t so fwiringa b i l i t i e sa c r o s sJapaneseandEnglishwere c o r e swerethencomparedby c a l c u l a t e dc o n t r o l l i n gf o rLORandAOA.Thers meanso fFishersztransformation.Ther e s u l t sareshowni nt a b l e7 . Thec o r r e l a t i o n sbetweenthep o i n t sgivenf o rtheme,c o h e s i o n ,r h e t o r i c , r i g i n a l i t y , and s e n t e n c edepth werestrongerf o rhigherage r e f l e c t i o n& o groups, i n d i c a t i n g stronger interdependency a c r o s s languages i nt h e s e ‑75 母語・継承語・パイI J . ンガJ v 教 育{ MHB )研究 Volume10 MARCH2014 T a b l e8 C o m p a r i s o no fW r i t i n gC o r r e l a t i o n sa c r o s sL a n g u a g e sb yLORG r o u p sC o n t r o l l i n g f o rAGEa n dAOA F i s h e r ' sz P e a r s o n ' sr Grouo1 (N = 列O J Group2 (N=6 旬 T h e m e O r g a n i s a t i o n . 5 3 4 . 5 5 1 . 4 9 9ホ* . 3 1 5 C o h e s i o n AudA w a r e1 . 3 2 6 * * . 3 6 6*ホ . 5 1 5*事 . 2 8 2事 . 3 9 7*事 . 4 0 9常事 I. 5 2 4 * * R h e t o r i c 命事 事 Group3 (N=101) '•・ r、 . 4 6 0 * * I‑ 0 . 2 8 ・ 0 . 3 2 ‑ 0 . 6 2 . 3 8 2 * * I・1 . 6 9 . 2 6 8 * * I‑ 0 . 2 8 . 4 1 6 * * I0 . 2 1 0 . 4 8 ‑ 1 . 3 7 ‑ 0 . l ‑ 0 . 4 0 . 1 4 0 . 3 7 ‑ 1 . 0 8 F l u e n c y L e xCom~ 4 I. 3 1 6 * . 4 7 5 * * . 3 0 7*市 . 5 1 3 * . 4 7 3事* . 3 7 8 * * . 3 1 2 * * . 1 2 6 . 5 6 0事事 I・0 . 7 8 I‑ 1 . 5 3 I1 . 3 8 I‑ 0 . 0 1 I. 3 9 0 * * . 4 3 2*ホ . 5 4 2 常事 S e n tW i d t hj I・. 0 3 4 . 0 8 0 . 0 1 0 S e n tD e p t hi t G r a mE r r o r7 I. 3 9 2 * * I. 0 0 6 . 3 3 1 * * ・ . 1 0 0 L e xE r r o r8 C o n vE r r o r9 I‑ . 1 2 0 ・ . 1 9 8 * I・0 . 4 . 0 0 9 I・0 . 6 1 . 3 8 8 * * I0 . 4 9 ‑ . 2 4 6 * . 2 3 3 * R e f& Ori~ 2 B a lA r gi : . 2 2 1 . 0 3 6 ら・円 ら ら ・ 0 . 2 3 o . o 3 ‑ 2 . 7 6 帥 ・1 . 6 3 ・ 1 . 2 6 I0 . 2 9 0 . 7 5 o . 9 1 0 . 7 3 1 . 2 3 I0 . 6 6 ・ 0 . 4 4 0 . 2 8 0 . 9 0 . 6 9 1 . 3 5 0 . 0 2 ・ ・ 2 . 8 * * 3 . 3 4 * * ‑ 2 . 7 4 * * 0 . 0 9 0 . 0 8 LOR<2 4m o n t h s ,G r o u p 2 :2 4mo1_1t~s 壬 LOR<6 0m o n t h s ,G r o u p3 :LOR~ 6 0m o n t h s . ! = A u d i e n c eA w a r e n e s s ,2 = R e f l e c t i o na n dO r i g i n a l i t y ,3 = B a l a n c e da r g u m e n t ,4 = L e x i c a lC o m p l e x i t y , 5 = S e n t e n c t :W i d t h ,6 = S e n t e n c eD e p t h ,? = G r a m m a t i c a lE r r o rR a t e s ,8 = L e x 1 c a lE r r o rR a t e s , 9 = C o n v e n t l o n a lE r r o rR a t e s . p<.05,恥* p<.01 N o t e .Gr~upl: 申 a s p e c t switho l d e rs t u d e n t s .Ont h ec o n t r a r y ,f l u e n c yp r e s e n t e dt h eo p p o s i t e t r e n d ,withh i g h e rc o r r e l a t i o n sf o ryoungerg r o u p s .Whent h erv a l u e swere comparedbymeanso fF i s h e rszt r a n s f o r m a t i o n ,t h ed i f f e r e n c e sbetweent h e youngestandt h eo l d e s tgroupswerea ts t a t i s t i c a l l ys i g n i f i c a n tl e v e l sf o r t h e m e ,r h e t o r i c ,s e n t e n c ed e p t h ,andc o n v e n t i o n a le r r o rr a t e s .Pearsonsrv a l ‑ u e sf o rgroups1and2werefoundt obes i g n i f i c a n t l yd i f f e r e n ti nb a l a n c e da r ‑ gumentandc o n v e n t i o n a le r r o rr a t e s . T a b l e8p r e s e n t scomparisonso fPearsonsrv a l u e sw i t hv a r y i n gLORi n anE n g l i s hs p e a k i n ge n v i r o n m e n t ;group1b e i n gt h es h o r t e s tLOR,l e s sthan 2y e a r s ,group3b e i n gmorethan5y e a r sandgroup2i nb e t w e e n .Though Pearsonsrv a l u e sp r e s e n tas u b t l ed e c r e a s i n gt r e n dwiths t u d e n t s 'LORi nt h e a r e ao ft h e m e ,c o h e s i o n ,r h e t o r i c ,ands e n t e n c ed e p t h ,t h ed i f f e r e n c e sbetween groups1and3weren o ts i g n i f i c a n t .Audiencea w a r e n e s s ,l e x i c a lc o m p l e x i t y ‑76‑ W r i t i n gA b i l i t i e so fG r a d e1 ‑ 9J a p a n e s e ‑ E n g l i s hB i l i n g u a l s :L i n g u i s t i cI n t e r d e p e n d e n c yandA G E ,LORandAOA SANOA i k o ,NAKAJIMAK a z u A く o ,IKUTAY u k o , THOMSONH a i d e e ,NAKANOT o m o k o ,andFUKUKAWAM i s a T a b l e9 C o m p a r i s o no fW r i t i n gC o r r e l a t i o n sa c r o s sL a n g u a g e sb yAOAG r o u p sC o n t r o l l i n g f o rAGEa n dLOR P e a r s o nsr Grouo1 (N=75) . 6 3 9市* ら − r , I‑ 1 . 2 1 A 1A U den来 U 品 nY − 品寸 *一* *一* * F 也aT 勾 今 ︑ ︒ ︒ 刊令J *一* ** C o h e s i o n nyfo nyJ 今︐創 Or~anisation . 3 5I * * 7一 a uマ 一r 8 o A ζJ 4 9 9ホ* Group3 勾 (N=4 ︑ 丹AU 目 r o e Jrnv ︑ 3 一向 Theme F i s h e r ' sz Group2 (N=122) ら − r , らー円 2 . 1 3 * 1 . 0 6 0 . 8 7 0 . 5 6 3 . 1 2牢ホ 1 . 5 2 ・−ー,・・ーー. , , . , . . 2 0 0 * . 4 6 5 * * I‑ 2 . 8 8 * * 1 . 6 5 ‑ . 0 . 6 5 R h e t o r i c . 3 9 6 * * . 3 6 1* * . 2 7 . 5 2 2 * * I・0 1 . 1 0 0 . 8 1 3 5 8本* . 3 6 2 * * . 4 5 9 * * I0 . 0 3 0 . 6 4 0 . 6 2 B a lAr_~) . 2 0 7 . 3 3 0 * * . 3 5 6 * 0 . 1 6 0 . 8 2 F l u e n c y . 6 3 6*ホ . 3 8 7 * * . 3 0 * . 4 7 7 * * I・2 0 . 6 1 ‑ 1 . 1 8 I. 5 3 0 . 3 4 1端本 . 4 1 1 * * I・1 . 5 7 S e n tW i d t h5 I. 0 0 5 . 0 5 3 ‑ . 1 4 1 S e n tD e P . t h6 . 0 7 6 . 3 4 1* * . 4 2 8 * * I1 . 8 7 GramE r r o r7 . 1 1 4 ‑ . 1 7 7 . 2 4 6 L e xE r r o r8 . 5 0 9市 * ー. 0 2 9 C o n vE r r o r9 . 2 2 3 Ref& O r i g2 J 一也− T J 1 . 8 3 一戸︑ 本 I . 4 6 . 3 3 0 * I‑ l u − ‑ 3 . 9 5* * ー0 . 8 3 ︒九U 7F AU ヲ− . 1 7 8 I‑ 1 . 9 6 * −一 . 0 0 9 司 0 . 3 2 − 凸 U *本 ー 一 − − ︐ ︑ ︐ 一 今 l 4 0 . 8 9 Aω L e xCom~ 目 内 d づf m l A υ 一AU一 i h −−一 . 5 6 0 * * 店一ぴ一 6 一5 AudA w a r e1 0 . 6 9 ‑ 3 . 7 6 * * 0 . 5 9 N o t eG r o u pI :AOA=Om o n t h ,G r o u p2 :AOA く1 2 0m o n t h s ,G r o u p3 :AOAミ1 2 0m o n t h s 目 ! = A u d i e n c eA w a r e n e s s ,2 =R e f l e c t i o na n dO r i g i n a l i t y3 = B a l a n c e dA r g u m e n t ,4 = L e x i c a lC o m p l e x i t y , 5 = S e n t e n c eW i d t h ,6 = S e n t e n c eD e p t h ,? = G r a m m a t i c a lE r r o rR a t e s ,8 =L e x i c a lE r r o rR a t e s , 9 = C o n v e n t i o n a lE r r o rR a t e s .F o rt h eAOA=0g r o u p ,o n l yt h eAGEw a sc o n t r o l l e da sf o rt h e s es t u d e n t s AGE=LOR *pく . 0 5 ,* *p< . 0 1 andl e x i c a le r r o rr a t e sp r e s e n tt h eo p p o s i t et r e n dwithstrongerc o r r e l a t i o n s a c r o s s languages withlongerLORs, onlyt h el e x i c a le r r o rr a t e s between groups2and3 ,andgroups1and3provedtobes i g n i f i c a n t . Therv a l u ef o r BalancedArgument"o ft h es t u d e n t swhohadbeeni n Canadaf o rmorethan5y e a r swass i g n i f i c a n t l ylowerthant h a to ft h o s ewho hadbeeni nCanadaf o r2t o5y e a r s ,butt h e r ewasnos i g n i f i c a n td i f f e r e n c eb e ‑ tweengroups1and3 .Asf o rt h ec o n v e n t i o n a le r r o r s ,i twasfoundt h a tt h e d i f f e r e n c ei nt h ec o r r e l a t i o n swass t a t i s t i c a l l ys i g n i f i c a n tbetweengroups1 and2 ,withgroup2presentingnegativecorrelation. Table9p r e s e n t scomparisonso fPearsonsrv a l u e swithvaryingAOA; group1beingt h o s eborni nCanada,group3beingt h o s ewhocamet oCanada a tt h eageo f1 0oro l d e r ,andgroup2i nb e t w e e n .Therv a l u e swerecompared ‑77‑ )研究 VolumeTO MARCH2014 MHB 母語・継承語・パイリンガル教育 ( ‑ e n e eb l b a st i h nt sfoundi n r e t t a .Twop n o i t a m r o f s n a r r zt e h s i 、 fE bymeanso o i t a er h rt ho t p e ed c n e t n e fs no o i t a l e r r o ec h et l i h tw a h st .Onei n o i t n e t t ta i f , hgroup1 t i dw e v r e s b to o sn ei s e n a p a handJ s i l g n sE s o r c na o i t a n i d r o b u fs o etwo h ft no o s i r a p m o ec h ,andt hgroup3 t i lw e v e tamoderatel ea t a l e r r o yc e h t ‑ r o ec h tt a h st ri e h t .Theo t n a c i f i n g i es ob swasfoundt c i t s i t a t ls a n o i t a l e r r o c nCanadawasmuch ewhowereborni s o h ht t i sw e t a rr o r r le a c i x e fl no o i t a l e r o dt e v o r sp e r o c fwhichzs rtwogroupso e h t eo h nt si t n e d u t es h rthant e h g i h . t n a c i f i n g i ys l l a c i t s i t a t es b n o i s s u c s i D n si t c e p s cA i f i c e p S ‑ e g a u g n a s andL t c e p s tA n e d n e p e d r e t n yI l l a c i t s i u g n i L g n i t i r lW a u g n i l i hB s i l g n E ・ e s e αn Jap ‑ a t i l a u eq h nt e e w t e sb e s y l a n la a n o i t a l e r r o fc so t l u s e er h ,t e v o b Asshowna hand s i l g n sE s o r c sa n o i t a l e r r o dmoderatec e t n e s e r gp n i t i r fw so t c e p s ea v i t ‑ n o sc n o i t a l e r r o lc a i t r a np ni e v re a e p p a s i td o dn i sd n o i t a l e r r o .Suchc e s e n a p a J ‑ p o l e v e ed g a u g n a sl l a u g n i l i eb h tt c e f f oa sknownt r o t c a ef e r h et h rt o gf n i l l o r t nLl si r e t i r tgoodw a h tshowst l u s e sr i h mentnamelyAGE,LOR,andAOA.T swho t n e d u t hs t i sw t s i x ye c n e d n e p e d r e t n hi c u nL2ands si r e t i r egoodw r a e v a rwhoh to n e c e yr l e v i t a l e tr n e m n o r i v n ge n i k a e p hs s i l g n oanE ecomet v a h e v i t a t i l a u ewhenq k i l sa t n e d u t ds l hyoungando t i nCanadaandw nborni e e b f so l l i k rs e d r ro e h g i eh h tt a h gt n i d n i sf i h .T d e n r e c n o ec r ga n i t i r fw so t c e p s a ‑ t i sl u o i v e r hp t i ew c n a d r o c c na si si e g a u g n a sl s o r c da e t a l e r r e t n ei r ga n i t i r w t n e r e f f i sd s o r c na e v re u c c no a rc e f s n a r ht c u ts a h gt n i m r i f n o ec l i h ,w e r u t a r e . s m e t s y gs n i t i r w sEng‑ s o r c ea t a l e r r o oc oshownt s l ywerea t i x e l p m o lc a c i x e yandl c n e u l F enum‑ h nt smeasuredi ya c n e u l sf ha c u lknowledges a c i x e .L e s e n a p a handJ s i l t n e s e r p e ymayr t i x e l p m o lc a c i x e hl t i rw e h t e g o ,t u s t e s n u fwordsandB ro e b ‑ o ed n eo ob st t c i d e r )p 9 0 0 2 ,whichCummins( s t p e c n o fmentalc eamounto h t . r u c c oo yt l e k i sl ri e f s n a r ct i t s i u g n i l ‑ s s o r nwhichc yi t i l i b ea g a u g n a fl maino s t e es g a u g n a el t a n g o snonc s o r c na e v re u c c no a rc e f s n a r ht c u ts a h ,t r e v e w o H 司 s g n i d n i yf r o t c i d a r t n o hsomewhatc t i ncomparisonw di o o t s r e d n eu ob st d e e n ‑78一 dAOA n .LORa E G dA n ya c n e d n e p e d r e t n cI i t s i u g n i :L s l a u g n i l i hB s i l g n E ‑ e s e n a p a 9J ‑ e1 d a r fG so e i t i l i b gA n i t 断i a s i 4WAM κ i U K U dF n ,a o k o m o ,NAKANOT e e d i a ,THOMSONH o k u U日 Y K ,I o k u z a ,NAKAJIMAK o k i SANOA ‑ c u d o r gp n i v l o v n yi t i l a d o gm n i t i r nw .I t n e m p o l e v e gd n i d a e nr hi c r a e s e fromr s s o r c na e v re u c c no a ,whichc r e f s n a r ct i t a m m e tl a h et tmayb ,i s e i t i v i t c ea v i t d e s o p p so ,a e m o c t u lo l a r e v eo h tont c e f f smoree a ,h s m e t s y gs n i t i r tw n e r e f f i d t a h st t e es g a u g n a el h ot dt e t i m i sl )whichi 9 0 0 ,2 s i v r a J r( e f s n a r ct i m e x e ol t . p i h s n o i t a l e er t a n g o ec r a h s da e t n e s e r sp e s u a l gc n i t a n i d r o b u fs no o i t r o p o r ep h rt ho t p e ed c n e t n e S t si da e t c e p x e n gwassomewhatu n i d n i sf i h .T n o i t a l e r r o hc g i yh l e t a r e d o m ‑ r o nP ti n e m p o l e v e yd c a r e t i l i fb no o i t a v r e s b )o 2 0 0 2 as( t u k mI r i f n o tc o sn e o d , which found no s e s e n a p a nJ ei t i r ow gt n i n h r c a u e sl t n e d u t es s e u g u t y l l a c i g o l o p y et r sa e g a u g n a el h ht g u o h t l ta a h dt e t a l u c e p ss ti .I s n o i t a l e r r o c e h st n o i t p i r c s e sandd n o i t a n a l p x le a c i g o tl n e s e r op rt e d r no ,i t n a t s i yd r e v h more embedding and t i sw e c n e t n e e complex s c u d o r op dt e d e e sn r e t i r w ‑ r o b u ns di e d u l c n ei twouldb a h st e r u t a e etwogrammaticalf h ,t n o i t a s i v i t a l e r e g na ei e r g e rd e t a e r oag yt r a yv d u t nours si t n a p i c i t r a ep h .Thatt n o i t a n i d ‑ i c i t r a ep g fa 5o o1 2t sfrom1 t n e d u t nwhichs ,i y d u t ass t u k oI comparedt yon t i r u t a em v i t i n g o 'c s r e t i r fw to c e f f ee h et t a r t s u l l di e p l e eh v a ,mayh d e t a p . e g a u g n a cl i m e d a c fmorecomplexanda to n e m p o l e v e ed h t r o r r le a c i x e sandl e t a rr o r r ,grammaticale h t d i ew c n e t n e fs so t c e p s Thea t a h st t e es g a u g n a hl t i tw s a e tl ,a t n e d n e p e d n ei g a u g n a el ob swereshownt e t a r e c n a d r o c c na si ti ,andi h s i l g n eandE s e n a p a sJ da e c n a t s i yd l l a c i g o l o p y st ea r a . e s e n a p a eandJ s e u g u t r o nP si l a u g n i l i fb yo d u t ass t u k hI t i w s e t a rr o r r le a n o i t n e v n o ec h tt a h st yi d u t ss i h nt gi n i d n i gf n i k i r t Ones ta ,thougha h s i l g n eandE s e n a p a sJ s o r c na o i t a l e r r o tc n a c i f i n g i das e t n e s e r p d e l l o r t n o sc twhenAGEi n a c i f i n g i ts o nbecomesn o i t a l e r r o sc i h .T e e r g e lowd g n i t i r ew h nt si e c n e r e f f i td s a ev h et t i p s e td a h et t a c i d n si n o i t a l e r r o ec s e h .T r o f g n i l l e p stowardss e d u t i t t ra so e i t i l i b esomecommona emayb r e h ,t s m e t s y s ‑ a g i t s e v n ri e h t r u saf d e e tn n i o sp i h .T e s e n a p a handJ s i l g n sE s o r c ya l e t a r u c c a . e r u t a en v i t a t i l a u nmoreq ni o i t s e i t i l i b ga n i t i r ew h tt a h et d u l c n o nc a ,wec oRQ1 et s n o p s e nr ,i e r o f e r e h T ‑ d n e p e d r e t n ci i t s i u g n i l ‑ s s o r ec v a oh rt a e p p da e e d n ei s e n a p a handJ s i l g n nE i yand c n e u l ,f s e i t i l i b ga n i t i r fw so t c e p s ea v i t a t i l a u .Theq e e r g e osomed et c n e e c n e t n e ns ymeasuredi t i x e l p m o sgrammaticalc la l e sw ya t i x e l p m o lc a c i x e l ‑79一 母語・継承語・パイリンガル教育( MHB )研 究 Volume10 MARCH2014 d e p t hwereshownt ob ei n t e r d e p e n d e n ta c r o s sl a n g u a g e sw h i l ea s p e c t so fs e n ‑ t e n c ew i d t h ,grammaticala c c u r a c yandl e x i c a la c c u r a c ya r eshownt ob el a n ‑ guage s p e c i f i c ,a tl e a s tw i t hl a n g u a g es e t sa st y p o l o g i c a l l yd i f f e r e n ta s E n g l i s handJ a p a n e s e . TheImpacto fAGE,LOR,andAOAonB i l i t e r a c yD e v e l o p m e n t I nr e s p o n s et oRQ2,t h er e s u l t so fc o r r e l a t i o n a la n a l y s e sa c r o s sd i f f e r e n t ageg r o u p sandgroupso fd i f f e r i n gLORandAOAp r e s e n t e dsomei n t e r e s t i n g f i n d i n g s . Thei m p a c to fAGE.Asp r e s e n t e di nt a b l e7 ,t h ec o r r e l a t i o n sb e t w e e nt h e p o i n t sg i v e nf o rthemeandr h e t o r i cwerefoundt ob es t r o n g e ra th i g h e ra g e g r o u p s .I tc a nb earguedt h a tt h e s ea r et h es k i l l sl e a r n e r sa c q u i r ethrough s c h o o l i n gandt h u sc a ni m p r o v ea st h e yg e to l d e r .Anotheri n t e r p r e t a t i o ni s t h a tt h e s ea s p e c t so fw r i t i n ga r ed e p e n d e n tont h ec o g n i t i v em a t u r i t yo fw r i t ‑ e r sandt h u simprovew i t ha g e .Thesamet r e n dwasfoundi nt h ec o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e ns e n t e n c ed e p t h si nt h etwol a n g u a g e s .T h i st r e n dseemst oc o n f i r m t h es p e c u l a t i o np r e s e n t e di nt h ea b o v es e c t i o nt h a ts e n t e n c ed e p t hmayb er ・ e l a t e dw i t ht h ed e v e l o p m e n to fa c a d e m i cw r i t i n gd i s c o u r s e .W r i t e r sn e e dmore complexs e n t e n c e st oc o n v e ymorecomplexi d e a s ,ands u c hi st r u ef o rb o t h E n g l i s handJ a p a n e s ed e s p i t et h ehuged i f f e r e n c ei ngrammaticals y s t e m s , andgrammaticalc o m p l e x i t yd e v e l o p sw i t hw r i t e r s 'c o g n i t i v em a t u r i t y . C o n v e n t i o n a le r r o rr a t e sp r e s e n tmoderatec o r r e l a t i o n sa c r o s sE n g l i s h andJ a p a n e s ei nt h ea g eg r o u p so l d e rthan8b u tn o tw i t ht h ey o u n g e s t .T h i s gapb e t w e e nt h ew r i t e r syoungerthan8andt h o s eo l d e rthan8maya tl e a s t p a r t i a l l yb ee x p l a i n e dbyt h er e l a t i v e l yi n f r e q u e n tu s eo αn fk j ii nt h eyoung‑ e s ta g eg r o u p :t h emeank αn j itokenu s e dbygroup1was8 . 8 9 ,byGroup2was 4 5 . 7 1 ,andgroup3was9 6 . 7 5 .ANOVAandp o s t ‑ h o ct e s t s(TukeysHSD) showedt h e s ed i f f e r e n c e st ob es t a t i s t i c a l l ys i g n i f i c a n t :F ' ( 2 , 2 3 7 ) = 7 7 . 0 9 ,pく . 0 0 1 . Theimp αc to fLOR.T a b l e8p r e s e n t snom e a n i n g f u lt r e n da c r o s st h ed i f ‑ f e r e n tLORg r o u p si nq u a l i t a t i v ea s p e c t so fw r i t i n ge x c e p ti nt h ec a s eo fB a l ‑ a n c e dArgument ,w hichw i l lb el o o k e da tl a t e ri nt h i ss e c t i o n .O v e r a l l ,wec a n c o n c l u d et h a tt h e s eq u a l i t a t i v ea s p e c t sa r en o ta f f e c t e dbyLOR,b u tr a t h e rby ‑80ー W r i t i n gA b i l i t i e so fG r a d e1 ‑ 9J a p a n e s e ‑ E n g l i s hB i l i n g u a l s :L i n g u i s t i cI n t e r d e p e n d e n c ya n dA G E ,LORa n dAOA SANOA i k o ,NAKAJIMAK a z u k o ,I K U T AY u k o ,THOMSONH a i d e e ,NAKANOT o m o k o ,a n dFUK υ KAWAM i s a someo t h e rf a c t o r s .Cumming( 1 9 8 9 )i l l u s t r a t e dhow w r i t i n ge x p e r t i s e "i sa d i s t i n c tc o n s t r u c tfromL2p r o f i c i e n c yi nt h eL2w r i t i n go fa d u l tw r i t e r s ,and t h esames e e m st oa p p l yt oyoungerw r i t e r s . Ano b s e r v a t i o no frv a l u e so fB a l a n c e dArgument"r e v e a l sani n t r i g u i n g p a t t e r n ,whichc a n n o tb ec a p t u r e di nal i n e a rm o d e l .T h i sn o n ‑ l i n e a rd e v e l o p ‑ mentc a nb ee x p l a i n e di nt h eu n i q u ec h a r a c t e r i s t i co ft h i sr u b r i c .T h i sr u b r i c i sd i f f e r e n tfromo t h e r si nt h a ti ti sn o td i r e c t l ya s s o c i a t e dw i t ht h ei n s t r u c ‑ t i o ni t s e l f ,andt h u ss c o r i n gh i g hi nt h i sa s p e c ti sn o tn e c e s s a r yf o rw r i t i n g goodc o m p o s i t i o n sundert h i st o p i c .I twasi n c l u d e di nt h ea n a l y s i si nap o s t e ‑ r i o rmannerw i t ht h eaimo fc a p t u r i n gt h eu s eo fc o n t r a s tt h a twasthought t ob ec h a r a c t e r i s t i co fb i l i n g u a ls t u d e n t s 'w r i t i n g .I nsomei n s t a n c e s ,t h es t u ‑ d e n t s c h o s e n o tt ow r i t ei nac o n t r a s t i v emanner,e s p e c i a l l yi nE n g l i s h . Somes t u d e n t sw i t he q u a l l yh i g hp r o f i c i e n c yi nb o t hE n g l i s handJ a p a n e s e( i n t e r m so fa l lt h es e v e nq u a l i t a t i v ea s p e c t si nt h etwol a n g u a g e s )w r o t eacom‑ p a r i s o no ft h etwoc o u n t r i e si nJ a p a n e s e ,b u td i dn o ti nE n g l i s h .I tc a nb e s p e c u l a t e dt h a tt h e s es t u d e n t sweres e n s i t i v eenought ot h ed i f f e r i n gn e e d so f t h er e a d e r so ft h ec o m p o s i t i o n si ne a c hl a n g u a g e :t h e i rJ a p a n e s ec o m p o s i t i o n wereh i g h l yl i k e l yt ob er e a dbyaJ a p a n e s ep e r s o nandt h u si tmades e n s et o p r e s e n tac o m p a r i s o nb e t w e e nJapanandC a n a d a ,b u twhenw r i t i n gi nEng‑ l i s ht h i swasn o ts o . Asf o rt h ec o n v e n t i o n a le r r o r s ,i twasf o u n dt h a tt h ed i f f e r e n c ei nt h e c o r r e l a t i o n swass t a t i s t i c a l l ys i g n i f i c a n tb e t w e e ng r o u p s1and2 ,w i t hgroup 2p r e s e n t i n gan e g a t i v ec o r r e l a t i o n .Ther e a s o nf o rt h i sp a t t e r nmayb ee x ‑ p l a i n e dbyt h ed i f f i c u l t yi nk e e p i n gupw i t ht h ea c c u r a t es p e l l i n go fk αn j i c h a r a c t e r se s p e c i a l l yt h o s ew i t hl o n g e rLORs.Thec o r r e l a t i o no fc o n v e n t i o n a l e r r o rr a t et h e r e f o r ei sn e g a t i v ew i t hgroup2s t u d e n t s ,b u tbecomesp o s i t i v e a g a i nw i t hgroup3s t u d e n t sb e c a u s et h i sgroupi si n v e s t i n gt i m eande f f o r ti n k e e p i n gupw i t ht h el e a r n i n go fK a n j i ,i ft h i sweren o tt h ec a s et h e ywould h a v ed r o p p e do u to ft h es c h o o lbyt h i ss t a g e .T h e s ea r eo n l ys p e c u l a t i o n sand n e e dt ob ei n v e s t i g a t e dq u a l i t a t i v e l y ,whichi sbeyondt h es c o p eo ft h ep r e s e n t p a p e r . A morei n t r i g u i n gf i n d i n gwast h a tt h e r ea p p e a r e dt ob eagapb e t w e e n ‑81一 )研究 MHB 教 育( v ンガJ ) 母語・継承語・パイI Volume10 MARCH2014 e s o h sandt r a e rmorethan5y o tf n e m n o r i v n nanL2e ni e e ewhohadb s o h t etwo h nt si e t a rr o r r le a c i x e sl s o r c na o i t a l e r r o ec h ft so m r e nt ti o whohadn s e i d u t ss u o i v e r ep h ewhatt s u a c e nb o i t n e t t gdemandsa n i d n i sf i h .T s e g a u g n a l ト r sLORi nL2a si r o r r re i e h et s a e r c e ld l i sw r e t i r ew h tt a h st di e l a e v e er v a h , l u r t n o M s( e s s e c o r np o i t i r t t oa eduet s a e r c n li l i nLlw si r o r r ee h tt u ,b s e s a e r c n ni o i t a l e r r o rc e h g i dah e t n e s e r yp d u t ss i h nt si t n e d u t es h ,t r e v e w o .H ) 9 0 0 2 e s o h ot ,s d e n e h t g n e eLORl h st sa e g a u g n a el h nt e e w t e sb e t a rr o r r le a c i x e l l a c i x e rl e t t e eb v a oh dt e d n e et s e n a p a nJ lknowledgei a c i x e rl e t t e whohadb pbecomes i h s n o i t a l e hr c u , and s a s r e ev c i o and v o ht s i l g n nE knowledgei ‑ n i a nm li u f s s e c c u es r ewhoa s o h tt a h smeanst i h eLOR.T h ht t i rw e g n o r t s e l i h ,w 2 rL i e h gt n i r i u q c ta ra e t t e eb r rLla i e h gt n i p o l e v e rd e h t r u f / g n i n i a t epoor v a oh dt n e ot s l elanguagea n no lknowledgei a c i x e epoorl v a ewhoh s o h t ‑ c a r e t n oadynamici tt n i o sp n o i t a l e r r o .Suchc r e h t eo h nt lknowledgei a c i x e l e ob tt n i o .Onep s e g a u g n a etwol h nt si t n e m p o l e v e yd c a r e t i el h nt e e w t e nb o i t n di e d n e t x se rLORi i e h nwhent e v le o o h c ss i h nt gi n i y a t ts a h st ei r e madeh r i e h gt n i n i a t n i a tm la u f s s e c c u ns e e eb v a sh t n e d u t es s e h tt a h st e v o r awayp ‑ b u cs i m e d a c ga n i h c a e tt saimeda li o o h c ss i h et c n i ,s ) L H e( g a u g n a el g a t i r e h , y l n eo g a u g n a el s e n a p a eJ h gt n i h c a e rthant e h t a ,r e s e n a p a sthroughJ t c e j ‑ i f o r ep g a u g n a cl i m e d a c fa to n e m p o l e v e 'd s t n e d u t gs n i d i na li a e d si si u h andt l・ e v e d / g n i n i a t n i a rm o tf r o p p u ds e u n i t n o .Thec ) 1 0 0 ,Cummins,2 P L A y( c n e i c sbecome t n e d u t ps l e oh lt o o lt u f r e w o sap rHLi i e h nt si l l i k ys c a r e t i gl n i p o . e t a r e t i l i b ‑ s nmanya si n o i t a l e r r o ec h ft fAOA.Throughcomparisono to αc Theimp ,afew s p u o r eAOAg e r h st s o r c sa e g a u g n a etwol h ft so l l i k gs n i t i r fw so t c e p , s e c n a t s n li l na ti n a c i f i n g i ys l l a c i t s i t a t ts o .Thoughn t n e r a p p sbecamea t n i o p f so t c e p s ea v i t a t i l a u nq si n o i t a l e r r o rc e w o el v a oh yt c n e d n e et v i t a l e sar ei r e h t tyoungerthan n e m n o r i v n oanL2e ecomet v a swhoh t n e d u t es h ht t i gw n i t i r w o ecomet v a ewhoh s o h rt nCanadao ewhowereborni s o h ot ,comparedt 0 1 swhocame t n e d u t es s o h tt a h et l b a v i e c n o sc ti .I 0 rthan1 e d l eo g tana Canadaa ‑ n u o df i l o donmores e s a yb c a r e t i rL2l i e h dt e p o l e v e sd e g ra e d l to oCanadaa t f eo e r g e ed h yandt c a r e t i fL2l to n e m p o l e v e ed h st u h ,t y c a r e t i nLll si n o i t a d ,whocame hgroup3 t i sw n o i t a l e r r o rc e g n o r t ss y a l p s i td n e m n i a t t ya c a r e t i Lll ‑82一 W r i t i n gA b i l i t i e so fG r a d e1 ‑ 9J a p a n e s e ‑ E n g l i s hB i l i n g u a l s :L i n g u i s t i cI n t e r d e p e n d e n c yandA G E ,LORandAOA SANOA i k o ,NAKAJIMAK a z u k o ,IKUTAY u k o , THOMSONH a 1 d e e ,NAKANOT o m o k o ,andFUKUKAWAM i s a t oCanadaa t1 0y e a r so l do ro l d e r .Thosewhowereborni nCanadamaya l s o h a v eb e n e f i t t e dfromh i g ha t t a i n m e n ti nt h e i rHLwhichi ss u p p o r t e dbyt h e a c a d e m i cdemandso ft h i sHosyuko,o fwhichprogramseemst os u p p o r tt h e d e v e l o p m e n to fALPi nHL.Anotherf i n d i n gfromt h i sa n a l y s i si st h a tt h ec o r ‑ r e l a t i o nbetweens e n t e n c ed e p t h swass i g n i f i c a n t l ys t r o n g e rf o rt h o s ewho camet oCanadaa t1 0ando l d e rcomparedt ot h o s eborni nC a n a d a .T h i smeans t h a tCanadianborns t u d e n t s ,whoc a np r o d u c ecomplexs e n t e n c e sw i t hh i g h e r s u b o r d i n a t i o ni nE n g l i s h ,don o tn e c e s s a r i l ydos oi nJ a p a n e s e ,w h i l et h es t u ‑ d e n t swhocamet oCanadaa tano l d e ragec a nw r i t ecomplexs e n t e n c e si n J a p a n e s eandc a na l s ot r a n s f e rt h a ta s p e c to fw r i t i n gi n t oE n g l i s h .However, t h ep r o p o r t i o no fs u b o r d i n a t i o nmayh a v eb e e nt o oc o a r s eo fana n a l y t i c a l t o o lt oi l l u s t r a t et h eb i l i t e r a c yd e v e l o p m e n tb e c a u s ei th a sb e e nshownt oi n ‑ c r e a s ea sL2E n g l i s hd e v e l o p s( W o l f e ‑ Q u i n t e r oe ta l . ,1 9 9 8 )e v e nthoughi tc e r ‑ t a i n l yi s an i n d e xo fd e v e l o p m e n ti na c a d e m i cd i s c o u r s e . With a f i n e r a n a l y t i c a lt o o lt a r g e t e dmores p e c i f i c a l l yt ot h ed e v e l o p m e n to fa c a d e m i cd i s ‑ c o u r s e ,wemayh a v ed i s c o v e r e dad i f f e r e n tp i c t u r e . Ourf i n a lremarki sd i r e c t e dt ohowc o r r e l a t i o nbetweenl e x i c a le r r o r r a t e si nt h etwol a n g u a g e si so u t s t a n d i n g l yh i g h e r ,f o rt h es t u d e n t sborni n Canadacomparedt ot h eo t h e r s .I ti ss p e c u l a t e dt h a tt h o s ewhoa r ec a r e f u l a b o u tl e x i c a le r r o r si no n el a n g u a g ec a r r yt h a ta t t i t u d ei n t ot h eo t h e rl a n ‑ g u a g e ,ands u c ht e n d e n c yi st h es t r o n g e s tw i t hs t u d e n t sborni nC a n a d a .The p r o p o r t i o no fb i l i n g u a lf a m i l i e sa l s ohappent ob eh i g h e ri nt h es t u d e n t swho wereborni nCanadacomparedt oo t h e rg r o u p s( 6 6 .7%o fCanadaborns t u d e n t scomefromb i l i n g u a lf a m i l i e sw h i l e2 8 . 8 %o fo v e r a l ls t u d e n t sa r efromb i ‑ l i n g u a lf a m i l i e s ) ,andt h i smayh a v ehadsomee f f e c tont h er e s u l t . P e d a g o g i c a lI m p l i c a t i o n sandFurtherResearch Asr e p o r t e di nt h i ss t u d y ,manyo ft h ea s p e c t so fw r i t i n gs k i l l sdop r e s e n t i n t e r d e p e n d e n c ea c r o s sE n g l i s handJ a p a n e s ed e s p i t et h ef a c tt h a tt h e ya r e t y p o l o g i c a l l yando r t h o g r a p h i c a l l yd i s t a n tl a n g u a g e s .Suchi n t e r d e p e n d e n c e i ss t r o n g e rw i t hh i g h e r ‑ o r d e rs k i l l sandt h u sq u i t eo f t e nt h e r ea r ei n s t a n c e s ‑83ー 母語・継承語・バイリンカール教書 ( MHB )研 究 V o l u m e10 MARCH2074 wheret h eb i l i n g u a ls t u d e n t s 'w r i t i n gp r e s e n t sh i g hl e v e l so fs o p h i s t i c a t i o ni n q u a l i t a t i v ea s p e c t s ,w h i l et h el a n g u a g e ‑ s p e c i f i cl o w e ro r d e rs k i l l ss u c ha s g r a m m a t i c a l / l e x i c a la c c u r a c ya r ey e tt od e v e l o p .T h e r e f o r e ,i ti si m p o r t a n t f o rt e a c h e r st of o r e s e et h ed e v e l o p m e n ti nt h eweakerl a n g u a g eb a s e dont h e d e v e l o p m e n to ft h es t r o n g e rl a n g u a g e .Fort h a tp u r p o s e ,i twouldb ei d e a lf o r t e a c h e r so fb i l i n g u a ls t u d e n t st oo b s e r v et h e i rw r i t i n ga b i l i t i e si nb o t hl a n ‑ guagesands e ewhatt r a n s f e r a b l ew r i t i n ga b i l i t i e st h ew r i t e ra l r e a d yp o s ‑ s e s s e si nt h eLl o rHL, andwhatw r i t i n gs k i l l sh e / s h en e e d ss u p p o r tt o d e v e l o pe s p e c i a l l yi nh i s / h e rL 2 . Ash a sb e e np o i n t e do u ti nt h ed i s c u s s i o n ,afewa s p e c t so fw r i t i n gd e v e l ‑ opmentn e e df u r t h e ri n v e s t i g a t i o n .Amongs u c ha s p e c t sa r et h eknowledgeo f k αn j iandi t sr e l a t i o n st oE n g l i s hw r i t i n g ,andt h ed e v e l o p m e n to fa c a d e m i c r e g i s t e ri nw r i t i n g .A l s o ,f u r t h e ra n a l y s i si sn e e d e dt os e et h ed e g r e eo ff a m i l y ands c h o o ls u p p o r tandi t se f f e c tonb i l i t e r a c yd e v e l o p m e n t ,e s p e c i a l l yw i t ha c l o s e rf o c u sont h es t u d e n t swhowereborni nCanadaandy e ta r es u c c e s s f u l i nm a i n t a i n i n gt h e i rh e r i t a g el a n g u a g ea tah i g hl e v e la sw e l la sd e v e l o p i n g t h e i rL2w r i t i n g .AsReyes ( 2 0 1 2 ,p .3 2 3 )p o i n t so u t, [b] e c a u s ec h i l d r e nsl a n ‑ guagee x p e r i e n c e sa r eab y ‑ p r o d u c to ft h e i rl a n g u a g ec h o i c e s ,p a t t e r n s ,and i n d i v i d u a ld i f f e r e n c e s ,b i l i t e r a c yd e v e l o p m e n ti sad y n a m i c ,f l u i d ,anda tt i m e s s e e m i n g l ymessyp r o c e s s .T h e r e f o r eaf i n e r ,c l o s e ri n v e s t i g a t i o nw i t hani n ‑ d e p t hd e s c r i p t i o no fs t u d e n t s 'p r o f i l e si sn e c e s s a r y . F u r t h e r m o r e ,t h e r ei san e e dt oi n v e s t i g a t eb i l i t e r a c yd e v e l o p m e n ti na l o n g i t u d i n a lmanner;i twasshowni nt h ep r e s e n ts t u d yhowb i l i t e r a c yd e v e l ‑ opmenti sa f f e c t e dw i t ht h ew r i t e r s 'c o g n i t i v em a t u r i t y ,a sw e l la sLORand AOA.T o g e t h e rw i t ht h emored e t a i l e da n a l y s i smentioneda b o v e ,l o n g i t u d i ‑ n a l l yi n v e s t i g a t e ds t u d i e swouldb e t t e ri n f o r mp e d a g o g i c a lp r a c t i c e sf o rour p r o s p e c t i v eb i l i t e r a ll e a r n e r s . R e f e r e n c e B a k e r ,C .( 2 0 1 1 ) . Foundations o fb i l i n g u a le d u c a t i o n and b i l i n g u a l i s m( 5the d . ) . C l e v e d o n ,UK:M u l t i l i n g u a lM a t t e r s . B i a l y s t o k ,E .( 2 0 0 1 ) .B i l i n g u a l i s mi nd e v e l o p m e n t :Langu α g e ,l i t e r a c y ,αndc o g n i t i o n . ‑84一 W n t l n gA b i l i t i e so fG r a d e1 ‑ 9J a p a n e s e ‑ E n g l i s hB i l i n g u a l s :L 1 n g w s t 1 cI n t e r d e p e n d e n c ya n dA G E ,L O Ra n dAOA SANOA i k o ,N A K A J I M AK a z u k o ,I K U T AY u k o ,THOMSONH a 1 d e e ,NAKANOT o m o k o ,a n dFUKUKAWAM 1 s a C a m b r i d g e :CambridgeU n i v e r s i t yP r e s s . B i a l y s t o k ,E . ,L u k ,G . ,& Kwan,E .( 2 0 0 5 ) .B i l i n g u a l i s m ,b i l i t e r a c y ,andl e a r n i n gt o r e a d :I n t e r a c t i o n samongl a n g u a g e sandw r i t i n gs y s t e m s .S c i e n t i f i cS t u d i e so f Re αd i n g ,9 ( 1 ) ,4 3 ‑ 6 1 .d o i :1 0 . 1 2 0 7 / s 1 5 3 2 7 9 9 x s s r 0 9 0 1 ̲ 4 B u t l e r ,Y .G .( 2 0 1 1 ) .GakusyuGengat owαNαn i k a .[Whati sa c a d e m i cl a n g u a g e ? :The l a n g u a g ea b i l i t i e sn e e d e df o ra c a d e m i cs t u d i e s ]T o k y o :S a n s e i d o . o c a b p r o f i l e[ a c c e s s e dO c t o b e r2 0 1 0fromh t t p : / / w w w . l e x t u t o r . c a / v p /] , C o b b , T .WebV ana d a p t a t i o no fH e a t l e y ,N a t i o n& Coxheads( 2 0 0 2 )R a n g e . Cumming,A .( 1 9 8 9 ) .W r i t i n ge x p e r t i s eands e c o n dl a n g u a g ep r o f i c i e n c y .Lαnguage L e a r n i n g ,3 9 ( 1 ) .8 1 ‑ 1 4 1 . Cummins,J .( 1 9 8 0 [ 2 0 0 1 ] ) .Thee n t r yande x i tf a l l a c yi nb i l i n g u a le d u c a t i o n .NABE J o u r n a l ,4 ,2 5 ‑ 6 0 .R e p r i n t e di nB a k e r ,C .& H o r n b e r g e r ,N . ( E d s . ) ,( 2 0 0 1 ) .Ani n ‑ t r o d u c t o r yr e a d e rt ot h ew r i t i n g so fJimCummins.C l e v e d o n ,UK:M u l t i l i n g u a l M a t t e r s . Cummins,J .( 1 9 8 1 ) .Ther o l eo fprimaryl a n g u a g ed e v e l o p m e n ti npromotinge d u c a ‑ t i o n a ls u c c e s sf o rl a n g u a g em i n o r i t ys t u d e n t s .I nC a l i f o r n i aS t a t ed e p a r t m e n t o fE d u c a t i o n( E d . ) ,S c h o o l i n gandl a n g uα gem i n o r i t ys t u d e n t s :A t h e o r e t i c a l f r αm ework.( p p .3 ‑ 4 9 ) .LosA n g e l e s :E v a l u a t i o n ,D i s s e m i n a t i o nandAssessment C e n t e rC a l i f o r n i aS t a t eU n i v e r s i t y . Cummins,J .( 1 9 9 1 ) .I n t e r d e p e n d e n c eo ff i r s t ‑ a n ds e c o n dl a n g u a g ep r o f i c i e n c yi nb i l i n ‑ g u a lc h i l d r e n .I nE .B i a l y s t o k( E d . ) ,Langu α geP r o c e s s i n gi nB i l i n g u a lC h i l d r e n ( p p . 7 0 ‑ 8 9 ) .C a m b r i d g e :CambridgeU n i v e r s i t yP r e s s . Cummins,J .( 2 0 0 0 ) .L a n g u a g e ,p o w e r ,andp e d a g o g y :B i l i n g u a lc h i l d r e ni nt h ec r o s s f i r e .C l e v e d o n ,UK:M u l t i l i n g u a lM a t t e r s . Cummins,J .( 2 0 0 1 ) .N e g o t i a t i n gi d e n t i t i e s . ・ Educ αt i o nf o rempowermenti nαd i v e r s es o ‑ c i e t y(2nd E d . ) .LosA n g e l e s ,LA:C a l i f o r n i aA s s o c i a t i o nf o rB i l i n g u a lE d u c a ‑ t io n . Cummins,J .( 2 0 0 9 ) .Fundamentalp s y c h o l o g i c a lands o c i o l o g i c a lp r i n c i p l e su n d e r l y i n g e d u c a t i o n a ls u c c e s sf o rl i n g u i s t i cm i n o r i t ys t u d e n t s .I nT .SkutnabbKangas, R . P h i l l i p s o n ,A . K .Mohanty,&M.Panda( E d s . ) ,S o c i αl j u s t i c et h r o u g hm u l t i l i n ‑ g u a le d u c a t i o n( p p .1 9 ‑ 3 5 ) .B r i s t o l ,UK:M u l t i l i n g u a lM a t t e r s . e r s p o o r ,M.( 2 0 0 7 ) .ADynamicSystemsTheorya p p r o a c ht o DeB o t ,K . ,L o w i e ,W . ,& V s e c o n dl a n g u a g ea c q u i s i t i o n .B i l i n g u αl i s m :Langu α geandC o g n i t i o n ,1 0 ,7 ‑ 2 1 . d o i :1 0 . 1 0 1 7 / 8 1 3 6 6 7 2 8 9 0 6 0 0 2 7 3 2 i l i n g u αl f i r s tl a n g u a g ea c q u i s i t i o n .B r i s t o l ,UK:M u l t i l i n g u a l DeHouwer,A .( 2 0 0 9 ) .B M a t t e r s . 1 9 9 9 ) .H i s p a n i cc h i l d r e nsw r i t i n gi nEng‑ D a v i s ,L .H . ,C a r l i s l e ,J .F . ,& Beeman,M.( l i s handS p a n i s hwhenE n g l i s hi st h el a n g u a g eo fi n s t r u c t i o n .Y e a r b o o ko ft h e Nation α JReadingC o n f e r e n c e ,4 8 ,2 3 8 ‑ 2 4 8 . a m i l ,M.( 2 0 0 6 ) .F i r s t ‑ a n ds e c o n d ‑ l a n g u a g el i t e r a c y .I nAugustand D r e s s e l r ,C .& K Shanahan( E d s . ) ,D e v e l o p i n gl i t e r αc yi ns e c o n d ‑ l a n g u αg el e a r n e r s :R e p o r to ft h e αn e lonLangu α g e ‑ M i n o r i t yC h i l d r e nand Youth( p p . 1 9 7 ‑ N a t i o n a lL i t e r aり P 2 3 8 ) .NewJ e r s e y :LawrenceE r l b a u m . 目 ‑85ー )研 究 MHB 母語・継承語・パイリンガル教育 ( e70 MARCH2074 m u l o V fESLcom‑ yo t i l a u eq h ot yt c n e i c i f o r lp a c i x e fl po i h s n o i t a l e .Ther ) 5 9 9 1 .( .A ,C r e b g n E . 5 5 1 ‑ 9 3 1 , ) 2 ( ,4 g n i t i r eW g : α dLangu n o c e fS lo a n r u o .J s n o i t i s o p l a u g n i l i nb gi n i s s e c o r ep g a u g n a lsystemandl a u t p e c n o dc e r a h .Thes ) 0 0 0 2 .( ,N s i c n a r F d e i l p p .A l t a u h a handN s i n a p nS ti n e m s s e s s ya c a r e t i sfroml g n i d n i :F n e r d l i h c . 4 0 2 ‑ 0 7 ,1 ) 2 ( 1 ,2 s c i t s i u g n i L . t n e m p o l e v e dd l i h nc yi c n e i c i f o r lp a u g n i l i eandb c n e t e p m o lc α u g n i l i .B ) 2 1 0 2 .( ,N s i c n a r F . s s e r :TheMITP s t t e s u h c a s s a ,M e g d i r b m a C n .I y c a r e t i el g a u g n a l ‑ d n o c e yands c n e i c i f o r lp a r eo g u a g n a l ‑ d n o c e .S ) 6 0 0 2 .( ,E a v e G : s r e n r a e αnguagel l ‑ d n o c e ns yi ,c α r e t i gl n i p o l e v e ,D ) . s d E AugustandShanahan( nand e r d l i h yC t i r o n i nLanguageM lo e n a yP ,c α r e t i IL α n o i t a eN h ft to r o p e R . m u a b l r :LawrenceE y e s r e .NewJ ) 9 3 3・1 2 1 . p p Youth( n si p i h s n o i t a l e cr i t s i u g n i l ‑ s s o r .C ) 8 0 0 2 .( ,L l i m a ,& K . ,C r e l s s e r ,D . ,E a v e ,G . ,F e e s e n e G ‑ αd e gr n i p o l e v e ,D ) . s d E .Shanahan( .August&T nD .I s r e n r a e el g a u g n a l ‑ d n o c e s eNa‑ h ft to r o p e er h sfromt n o s s e L ・ . s r e n r a e el g a u g n a l d‑ n o c e ns gi n i t i r gandw n i . ) 3 9 ‑ 1 6 . p p nαnd Youth( e r d l i h yC t i r o n i M ・ e g : α lonLangu e n a yP ,c α r e t i lL a n o i t . e g d e l t u o :R k r o NewY ‑ r e m fe rphenomenao e h t ,ando y c a r e t i l r e t n ,i g n i h c t i w s e d o cc i g e t a r t .S ) 6 0 0 2 ,M.( t r o G . s m o o r s s a l c e g a u g n a l l a u ed d a r tg s r i sfromf n o s s e :L g n i t i r lw a u g n i l i tb n e g : i o .d 4 5 3 ‑ 3 2 ,3 ) 3 ( ,6 y c a r e t i dL o o h d l i h yC l r a fE lo a n r u o J 6 9 7 9 6 0 6 0 4 8 9 7 8 6 4 1 / 7 7 1 1 . 0 1 n si l a u g n i l o n o ttwom o sn li a u g n i l i !Theb e r a w e ,b s t s i u g n i l o r u e .N ) 9 8 9 1 .( ,F n a e j s o r G . 5 1 ‑ ,3 6 αnguage3 nαndL i a r .B n o s r e ep n o ‑ o r .RANGEandFREQUENCYp ) 2 0 0 2 ,A. ( d a e h x o .& C P . S . ,l n o i t a ,N . ,A y e l t a e H x. p s a . n o i t a n ‑ l u a p / f f a t s / s l a l / z n . c a . a i r o t c i v . w w w / / : p t t th ea l b a l i a v .A s m a r g nM. .I s l l i k ys c a r e t i n11and12l e e w t e sb n o i t a i c o s s fa so n o i t a n a l p x .E ) 1 1 0 2 n( j i t s l u H . p p ( s o α h c o t e r u t c u r t s m o r F : m s i l a u g n i l i gb n i l l e d o ,M ) . s d E Schmid&W.1owie( . .V .Amsterdam:JohnBenjaminsB ) 1 1 1 ‑ 5 8 u r e k io ッokun r u o osakubun n in e s u k a g u h nc i j u r i j : α iBur h c i n i a .Z ) 2 0 0 2 .( ,Y a t u k I ‑ l a u g n i l i yonb d u t ls a c i r i p m ikenkyu[Ane k e t u o y s s i uj r u s n a ik un m u z i r a g n i r i a b ‑ n U ]( s t n e d u t ls o o h c hs g i rh o i n u nj a i l i z a r eB s e n a p a fJ so e i t i l i b ga n i t i r nw ismi . ) n a p a ,J y t i s r e v i n ,NagoyaU n o i t a t r e s s i ld a i r o t c o dd e h s i l b u p o g n e g i h c i i a :d u t s a t t a a noh r a k i h ino kakuc e s u k a g u h nc i j u r i j a r u .B ) 6 0 0 2 .( ,Y a t u k I g n i t i r w f o t n e m p o l e v e d e h T [ a r a k u s t a s n a k o n n u b u k a s u r o y i n o g n e g i n i a d o t u t s f o n o i t a v r e s b o :Froman s t n e d u t ls o o h c hs g i rh o i n u nj a i l i z a r nB "i s e i t i l i b a , 8 2 ,1 u k i u o y .NihongoK ] s e g a u g n a dl n o c e ds n a ‑ t s r i rf i e h nt si n o i t i s o p m o tsc n e d . 9 8 ‑ 0 7 ・ . n o c i x e ll a t n e lm a u g n i l i ,Theb ) . d E o( k n e l v a .P nA .I r e f s n a r lT a c i x e .1 ) 9 0 0 2 .( ,S s i v r a J . s r e t t a M l a u g n i l i t l u :M a d a n a ,C o t n o r o .T ) 4 2 1 ‑ 9 9 . p p h( c a o r p p : yα r a n i l p i c s i d r e t n I ‑ t i r ew g a u g n a l ‑ d n o c e ds n a ‑ t s r i nf e e w t e nb o i t a l e .Ther ) 9 8 9 1 .( ,& Snow,C . ,M e z u a n a 1 l a u g n i l i nb ni e r d l i h lc o o h c ys r a t n e m e l ne a c i oR t r e u efromP c n e d i v :E s l l i k gs n i . 9 3 3 ‑ 3 2 3 , ) 4 ( 1 , n o i t α c u d E d n a s c i t s i u g n i .L s m a r g o r p n e t t i r n12w si s e n h c i lr a c i x e :1 e s eandu z i .Vocabularys ) 5 9 9 1 .( ,P n o i t a ,&N . ,B r e f u a 1 . 2 2 3 ‑ 7 0 ,3 ) 3 ( 6 ,1 s c i t s i u g n i dL e i l p p .A n o i t c u d o r p ‑86一 W r i t i n gA b i l i t i e so fG r a d eI9J a p a n e s eE n g l i s hB i l i n g u a l s :L i n g u i s t i cI n t e r d e p e n d e n c ya n dA G E ,LORa n dADA SANOA i k o ,N A K A J I M AK a z u k o ,I K U T AY u k o ,THOMSONH a i d e e ,NAKANOT o m o k o ,a n dF U K U K AWAM i s a M o n t r u l ,S .( 2 0 0 9 ) .I n c o m p l e t eαc q u i s i t i o ni nb i l i n g u a l i s m :R e ‑ e x αminingt h ea g eJ a e ‑ t o r .Amsterdam:JohnBenjaminsP u b l i s h i n gCompany. OECD( 2 0 1 3 ) . OECDI n t e r n a t i o n a lMign αt i o nO u t l o o k .R e t r i e v e dfromhttp://www. o e c d . o r g / e l s / m i g / i m o 2 0 1 3 . h t m R e y e s ,I .( 2 0 1 2 ) .B i l i t e r a c yamongc h i l d r e nandy o u t h s .ReadingR e s e a r c hQu αr t e r l y ,4 7 ( 3 ) ,3 0 7 ‑ 3 2 7 . S c h o o n e n ,R . ,vanG e l d e r e n ,A . ,d eG l o p p e r ,K . ,H u l s t i j n ,J . ,S i m i s ,A . ,S n e l l i n g s ,P .& S t e v e n s o n ,M.( 2 0 0 3 ) .F i r s tl a n g u a g eands e c o n dl a n g u a g ew r i t i n g :Ther o l eo f l i n g u i s t i ck n o w l e d g e ,s p e e do fp r o c e s s i n g ,andm e t a c o g n i t i v ek n o w l e d g e .Lαn ‑ gu αgeLe αming5 3 ,1 6 5 ‑ 2 0 2 . S c h o o n e n ,R . ,vanG e l d r e n ,A . ,S t o e l ,R . ,H u l s t i j n ,J .& d eG l o p p e r ,K .( 2 0 1 1 ) .Modeling t h ed e v e l o p m e n to fLlandEFLw r i t i n gp r o f i c i e n c yo fs e c o n d a r y ‑ s c h o o ls t u ‑ ι6 1 ( 1 ) ,3 1 ‑ 7 9 .d o i :1 0 . 1 1 1 1 / j . 1 4 6 7 ‑ 9 9 2 2 . 2 0 1 0 . 0 0 5 9 0 . x d e n t s .LαnguageLe αr n i n S t a t i s t i c sCanada( 2 0 0 6 ) .2 0 0 6C e n s u so fp o p u l αt i o n .R e t r i e v e dfromhttp://www12. s t a t c a n .g c .c a /c e n s u s ‑r e c e n s e m e n t / 2 0 0 6/ i n d e x‑ e n g .c f m .( 1 9 9 8 ) .S e c o n dl a n g u a g ed e v e l o p m e n ti n W o l f e ‑ Q u i n t e r o ,K . ,I n a g a k i ,S . ,& Kim,H w r i t i n g . ・Me αs u r e so ff l u e n c y ,a c c u r a c y& c o m p l e x i t y .H o n o l u l u :U n i v e r s i t yo f Hawaiip r e s s . Acknowledgement T h i ss t u d ywasmadep o s s i b l ew i t ht h eG r a n t s ‑ i nAidf o rS c i e n t i f i cR e s e a r c h( 2 0 0 9 ) by JapanS o c i e t yf o rt h ePromotiono fS c i e n c e( R e s e a r c hN o .2 1 3 2 0 0 9 6 :P r i n c i p a li n v e s t i ‑ g a t o r ,KazukoN a k a j i m a ) .P a r to ft h er e s e a r c hr e p o r t e di nt h i sp a p e rh a sb e e nr e ‑ p o r t e da tt h eI n t e r n a t i o n a lC o n f e r e n c eonJ a p a n e s eLanguageE d u c a t i o n( 2 0 1 2 )andt h e I n t e r n a t i o n a lC o n f e r e n c eonH e r i t a g eLanguagesandH e r i t a g eLanguageA c q u i s i t i o n a tV i c t o r i aC o l l e g e ,U n i v e r s i t yo fToronto ( 2 0 1 2 ) amongo t h e r s .A u t h o r s 's i n c e r e g r a t i t u d ei se x p r e s s e dt ot h o s ewhop a r t i c i p a t e di nt h es t u d y ,andt h eP r i n c i p a landa l l t h et e a c h e r sa tt h eJ a p a n e s es c h o o lwheret h i ss t u d yt o o kp l a c e .Authorsa r ea l s ov e r y g r a t e f u lt ot h eanonymousr e v i e w e r sf o rt h e i ri n v a l u a b l ecomments. Notes 1Gradesa r ei nJ a p a n e s es c h o o ls y s t e m ,whichsometimesdon o tmatcht h eg r a d e si n Canadians c h o o ls y s t e m . 2I twass t a t e dc l e a r l yt h a tt h ep u r p o s eo ft h es t u d ywast od e s c r i b et h eb i l i t e r a c yd e ‑ v e l o p m e n to fs c h o o la g es t u d e n t s ,andt oi d e n t i f yf a c t o r st h a twouldpromotes u c h d e v e l o p m e n t ,andt h ed a t ao b t a i n e dwouldn o tb eu s e df o rt h e i ra c a d e m i cr e c o r da t t h es c h o o li nanyf o r m .I twasa l s omadec l e a rt h a tt h e yc o u l dc h o o s en o tt op a r t i c i ‑ 巴i nt h e p a t eo rc o m p l e t et h es t u d y .Oft h e3 3 6s t u d e n t swhowerew i l l i n gt op a r t i c i p a t s t u d y ,2 4 0w r o t eb o t hJ a p a n e s eandE n g l i s hc o m p o s i t i o n sands u b m i t t e di nt h eq u e s ‑ t i o n n a i r eandweret h u si n c l u d e di nt h i ss t u d y . 3 Thes t u d e n t swerei n s t r u c t e dt of i n i s ht h e i rw r i t i n gw i t h i nt h ec i a s sp e r i o do f4 0 nsomec a s e s ,t h e m i n u t e s .Somef i n i s h e de a r l i e rthant h a t ,someu s e dupt h et i m e .I 87 母語・継承語・パイ1 )ンガル教育 ( MHB )研究 V o l u m e70 MARCH2074 t e a c h e r sl e tthemf i n i s ht h es e n t e n c et h e ywerew r i t i n g ,butnotg i v i n gthemt o o muchl o n g e rthan4 0m i n u t e s . 4P a r e n t swereg i v e noneq u e s t i o n n a i r es h e e tf o rones t u d e n t ,s oi nt h ec a s eo fb r o t h ‑ 巴r sands i s t e r st h e ywereaskedt oanswert h eq u e s t i o n n a i r e ss e p a r a t e l y .I twasa n e c e s s a r yp r o c e d u r ea st h elanguageo fcommunicationmayd i f f e rfromac h i l dt o c h i l de v e nw i t h i nt h esameh o u s e h o l d . 5 Thereweretwos t u d e n t swhoc h o s et ow r i t ei nFrenchr a t h e rthani nE n g l i s hand t i g a t i o nf o rt h i ss t u d y . t h e i rd a t aweree x c l u d e dfromt h ei n v巴s e f e r st ot h es m a l l e s tmeaningfulu n i to fac o n t e n twordwithi t saccompa‑ 6Bunsetsur nyingf u n c t i o n a le l e m e n t ssucha sv e r be n d i n g s ,p a r t i c l e so ra u x i l i a r yv e r b s .Fore x ‑ k imasu. has6morphemesbut3b u n s e t s u . ample,Watashiwagakkouei 7 Thenumberso ft o k e n sandt y p e swerec o u n t e dusingo n l i n et o o l s :V o c a b p r o f i l e ( C o b b ,a v a i l a b l ea th t t p : / / w w w . l e x t u t o r . c a / v p / e n g / )f o rE n g l i s handCha‑Mame ( V e r .1 .7 1 .Ogura,a v a i l a b l ea th t t p : // s o u r c e f o r g e . j p / p r o j e c t s / u n i d i c / r e l e a s e s / )f o r J a p a n e s e .I no r d e rf o rt h e s et o o l st ocountt h enumbero ft y p e sandt o k e n s ,s p e l l i n g e r r o r swerec o r r e c t e dm a n u a l l y .Fort h eJapanesec o m p o s i t i o n s ,t h ewordswerec o n ‑ v e r t e dt oK a n j ia smucha sp o s s i b l ei no r d e rt oa v o i du n n e c e s s a r ym i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n byCha‑Mame. 8K a n j ia r et h el o g o g r a p h i cc h a r a c t e r su s e di nJapanesew r i t i n gt h a tconveymeaning a sw e l la ss o u n d s .Theyo r i g i n a t ei nC h i n e s ec h a r a c t e r sandhavemanys t r o k e s ,r e ‑ q u i r i n gg r e a ta t t e n t i o nfromi n e x p e r i e n c e dw r i t e r s .Therea r eani n c r e d i b l enumber o fhomophonesi nJapaneseb e c a u s eo ft h e s ec h a r a c t e r s . Appendix WritingRubric Theme 4 .Whatt h ew r i t e ri sg o i n gt ow r i t ea b o u ti sc l e a r l ys t a t e da tt h eb e g i n n i n g ,o rt h e r ei sa ne x p l i c i t i n t r o d u c t i o nt ot h ee s s a ys u c ha sa no v e r v i e wo fC a n a d a .T h e r ei ss o l i db o d yo ft h ew r i t i n gw i t h p l e n t yo fd e t a i l s ,a n dt h ec o n c l u s i o nt h a ts h o w sw h a tC a n a d ai sl i k ei sc l e a r l ys t a t e di nt h ee n d . 3 .Thei n t r o d u c t i o na n dt h ec o n c l u s i o nmayn o tb ec l e a r l ys t a t e d ,b u tt h ee s s a ya saw h o l ef u n c・ t i o n sa sa ni n t r o d u c t i o no fC a n a d a .I ft h ew r i t e rc h o s esomep a r t i c u l a ra s p e c to fC a n a d aa n d w r i t e so n l ya b o u tt h a t ,t h e r eh a st ob ea ne x p l a n a t i o nwhyt h ew r i t e rc h o s et od os o . ti se v i d e n tt h a tt h ew r i t e ri st r y i n gt oi n t r o d u c eC a n a d at ot h er e a d e r s ,b u tt h ew r i t e rw r i t e s 2 .I a b o u tsomes p e c i f i ct o p i c sw i t h o u te x p l a i n i n gwhyh e / s h ec h o s et ow r i t eo nt h a tp a r t i c u l a rt o p i c . 1 .Thew r i t e ro n l yw r i t e sa b o u th i s / h e rp e r s o n a le x p e r i e n c e sa n da sar e s u l tt h ee s s a yd o e sn o t f u n c t i o na sa ni n t r o d u c t i o no fC a n a d a . Cohesion 4 .Thec o n n e c t i o n sb e t w e e ne a c hs e n t e n c ea r emadec l e a rt h r o u g ht h eu s eo fe f f e c t i v ec o h e s i v e e n t e n c e sw i t he a s e . t i e ss u c ha sc o nu n c t i o n sa n dp r o n o u n s ,a n dt h er e a d e r sc a nf o l l o w出巴 s 3 .A l t h o u g hw i t h o u te f f e c t i v eu s eo fc o h e s i v et i e s ,t h eways e n t e n c e sa r ec o n n e c t e da r el o g i c a l a n dt h er e a d e r sc a nf o l l o wt h es e n t e n c e sw i t he a s e . ti se v i d e n tt h a tt h ew r i t e rh a s̲ p a i da 抗e n t i o nt omakei te a s yf o r也巴 r e a d e rt of o l l o wb u ti ti s 2 .I s o m e t i m e sn o te a s ya st h ec o h e s i v et i e sa r em i s s i n go rmisleadin~. 1 .I ti sn o te a s yf o rt h er e a d e rt of o l l o we a c hs e n t e n c et ot h en e x ta st h ec o h e s i v et i e sa r em o s t l y a b s e n ta n dt h ew r i t e rs k i p so n es e n t e n c et ot h en e x t . 88 ,LORandAOA E G dA n ya c n e d n e p e d r e t n cI i t s i u g n i :L s l a u g n i l i hB s i l g n E ‑ e s e n a p a 9J ‑ e1 d a r fG so e i t i Y ! b gA n i t i r W a s i ,andFUKUKAWAM o k o m o ,NAKANOT e e d i a , THOMSONH o k u ,IKUTAY o k u z a ,NAKAJIMAK o k i SANOA s s e n e r a w eA c n e i d u A e tb o smayn n o i t n e em h s / e nh o i t a m r o f n ei h ft tsomeo a h et r a w sa ri e t i r ew h tt a h rt a e l sc ti .I 3 ‑ i n i f e rd o / d n na o i t a m r o f n ei v i t r o p p u es t a u q e d sa e d i v o r ep h s / e sh d由u n ,a s r e d a e er h ot knownt . n o i t a m r o f n fi hamounto g u o n se t n e s e r ep l o h saw na o i t i s o p m o .Thec s d r o ew h ft so n o i t s n o i t n e em h s / e nh o i t a m r o f n ei h ft tsomeo a h et r a w sa ri e t i r ew h tt a h tt n e d i v ssomewhate ti .I 2 e h ot tt o tn u sb n o i t a n a l p x se e d i v o r sp e m i t e m o es h s / e sh u h dt n ,a s r e d a e er h ot eknownt tb o mayn . t n e t x ye r o t c a f s i t a s ‑ x le a n o s r e rp e h / s i th n e s e r dp n ea g d e l w o n sk r e d a e er h rt o nf r e c n o tshowc o sn e o rd e t i r .Thew 1 ・ . ' ? 紅 s s e c e en r ta a h ̲fewex~.lanations t y r ̲ e rv oo hn t i ~eriences w . g . e oCanada( nt e e rb e v e en v a swhoh r e d a e er h rt o sf n r e c n o ec v i t c e f f rshowsa e t i r ew h t f ,i o s l A s u n o sab ta n i o ep n do d )a y t e i x n ra i e h et c u d e or gt n 町i c i r o t e h R ‑ o t e h er v i t c e f f yofe t e i r a fav so e s hu g u o n也r o i s s e r p x de n na o i t p i r c s e nd ei v i t c e f f se ri e t i r .Thew 4 s e s ou on s l ,anda s e u g o l a i fd eo s ,u n o i t c u d o r t n ei v i t c e f f ,e h c e e p fs so e r u g i ff eo s su ha c u ,s c i r ‑ r ce i t a m g a r .p e . i uch"( 甘ym e r d p i s gonna k ha c u gs n i t i r rw o sf e g a u g n a el t a i r p o r p p a n fi o . d n u o ef r )a s r o r . g . e y( a s s ee h ft so t r a nsomep yi l n to u db e v r e s b eo r sa l l i k ls a c i r o t e h er s ou st t p m 社e .Somea 3 e u q i n yu l l a c i f i c e p ys n ea v a th o sn e o yd a s s ee h .Ort ) h c e e p fs so e r u g i ff so e s cu i d a r o p es r ea r e h t tmany o tn u esomeb emayb r e h .T y r o t c a f s i t a ds n la i a t e nd ei r sa n o i t p i r c s e td u sb n ? i s s e r p x e . s r o r r ce i t a m g a r p ta s u nj a h ymoret l r a e l sc di n sa n o i t a n a l p x re o / d n sa n o i t p i r c s e esomed d u l c n si e o yd a s s .Thee 2 s n o i t n e rm e t i r ew h ft I .( n o i t a r o b a l hmoree t i ew v o r p m nwouldi o i t p i r c s e ed h tt u ,b s t c a ff to s i l n e v ye r o g e t a sc i h ot t n li l a gwouldf n i t i r tw a h ,t c i p o ht c a eone t a r o b tea o sn e o td u sb c i p o manyt ‑ r ふTheremaybesomebutnotmanypragmatice t a e r sg ni o i t a m r o f n li l a r e v fo e amount o h ft i . s r o r . n o i t a n a l p x re o d/ n na o i t p i r c s e nd ni o i t a r o b a l snoe a dh n ya l n so t c a ff to s i sal t n e s e r rp e t i r .Thew 1 . g n i d n a t s r e d n rsu e d a e sr b r u t s i td ti n e t x ee h ot st r o r r ce i t a m g a r omanyp o et r ea r e h Ort y t i l a n i g i r n畠 O o i t c 自e e R ‑ b sa ti n e m e g d u rsj e t i r ew h rt o gf n i n o s a e er h rt do e s s e r p x ye l e v i s a u s r e sp iewi 旬rsv i r .Thew 3 . d e s i l a r e n e obeg ht g u o n te c a r t s e h .Ort s k r a m e lr a n o s r e esomep r ea r e h ht g u o h t l ,a y l n so g n i h lt a u t c a sf e t a t ys l l a c i s a rb e t i r .Thew 2 ‑ n rsopi e t i r e由ew t a t ts a h st e l p m a .Thes s t n e m e g d u rj e h / s i rh o gf n i n o s a e er l p m i ss t n e s e r rp e t i r w . y r o g e t a sc i h ot t n li l a nf o i t p i r c s e ld a u t c a rf e t f da n ee h nt ni o i . t n e m e g d u rj so e v i t c e p s r e ep u q i n eu t a t ts o sn e o dd n ya l n so g n i h lt a u t c a sf t n e s e r rp e t i r .Thew 1 sa ta n i o ep n do d ,a e u q i n su ti di e s s e r p x ee h s / e ewayh h rt wo e i fv to n i o rsp e t i r ew h ft ,i o s l A s u n o b ‑89一 母語・継承諾・バイリンカ J l ノ教育 ( MHB )研究 Volume70 MARCH2074 BalancedArgument 4 .Thec h a r a c t e r i s t i c so fCanadaa r ea r g u e di nc o m p a r i s o nw i t hf a m i l i a rc o u n t r i e st ot h ew r i t e r s s u c ha sJ a p a na n dt h eU . S . A .a n dt h ew r i t e rp r e s e n t sc o n c r e t ee x a m p l e s ,f a c t sa n dh i s / h e rp e r ‑ s o n a le x p e r i e n c e s .O r ,t h ea r g u m e n th a sb o t hgooda n db a da s p e c t so fCanadaa n dt h ew r i t e rs o p i n i o nw h e t h e rCanadai sagoodc o u n t r yo rn o ti sc l e a r l ys t a t e di nap e r s u a s i v em a n n e r . 3 .Thew r i t e rp o i n t so u tsomea s p e c t so fCanadai nc o m p a r i s o nw i t hc o u n t r i e st h a th e / s h ei sf a m i l ‑ i a rw i t ha n dt h e ya r ee l a b o r a t e dt osomee x t e n t .O r ,i ti se v i d e n tt h a tt h ew r i t e rt r i e st oh a v ea 肝m enta b o u tw h e t h e rCanadai sagoodc o u n t r yo rn o t ,a n di ti se l a b o r a t e dt osome b a l a n c e da r e x t e n t . 2 .Thew r i t e rp o i n t so u tsomea s p e c t so fCanadai ncomp 訂i s o nw i t hc o u n t r i e st h a th e / s h ei sf a m i l ‑ i a rw i t hb u td o e sn o te l a b o r a t eoni t .O r ,a l t h o u g hi ti se v i d e n tt h a tt h ew r i t e rt r i e st oh a v eab a l ‑ a n c e da r g l 江n e n ta b o u tw h e t h e rCanadai sagoodc o u n t r yo rn o t ,i ti sn o te l a b o r a t e d . 1 .Thew r i t e rp r e s e n t sn op e r s p e c t i v e sa b o u tgoodo rb a da s p e c t so fC a n a d a . Noc o m p a r i s o nw i t ho t h e rc o u n t r i e ss u c ha sJ a p a no rt h eU . S . A .i sp r e s e n t e d . ‑90一