Title
Writing Abilities of Grade 1-9 Japanese-English
Bilinguals : Linguistic Interdependency and AGE,
LOR and AOA
Author(s)
Sano, Aiko; Nakajima, Kazuko; Thomson, Haidee;
Fukukawa, Misa; Ikuta, Yuko; Nakano, Tomoko
Citation
母語・継承語・バイリンガル教育(MHB)研究. 10
P.60-P.90
Issue Date 2014-03-31
Text Version publisher
URL
http://hdl.handle.net/11094/57931
DOI
rights
Note
Osaka University Knowledge Archive : OUKA
https://ir.library.osaka-u.ac.jp/
Osaka University
母語・温室長長語・バイリンカ"
J
t
,教育(
MHB
)研究 Volume70 MARCH2074
《研究論文》
WritingA
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
so
fGrade1
・
9J
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
‑
E
n
g
l
i
s
h
B
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
s
:L
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cI
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
yand
AGE,LORandAOA
SANOAiko(HokkaidoBunkyoU
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y
)
a
i
k
o
s
a
n
o
@
d
o
‑
b
u
n
k
y
o
d
a
i
.
a
c
.
j
NAKAJIMAKazuko(
U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
yo
fToronto)
k
.
n
a
k
a
j
i
m
a
@
u
t
o
r
o
n
t
o
.
c
a
IKUTAYuko(ChubuU
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y
)
i
k
u
t
a
@
i
s
c
.
c
h
u
b
u
.
a
c
.
j
THOMSONHaidee(Ho
王
】k
ai‑GakuenU
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y
)
h
a
i
d
e
e
.
t
h
o
m
s
o
n
@
g
m
a
i
l
.
c
o
m
NAKANOTomoko(BrooklynNihongoGakuen)
t
o
m
a
t
o
m
a
t
o
8
1
9
@
g
m
a
i
l
.
c
o
m
FUKUKA
W AMisa(HoshukoBarcelonaEducaci6nJaponesa)
b
l
u
e
̲
s
e
t
a
g
a
y
a
@
h
o
t
m
a
i
l
.
c
o
m
海外在住小中学生の日英作文力
一言語相互依存性と年齢・滞在年数・入国年齢要因−
佐野愛子,中島和子,生田裕子,へイディ・トムソン,中野友子,福川美沙
Keyword:B
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
yd
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t
,w
r
i
t
i
n
g
,l
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
ci
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
y
,AGE,
LOR,AOA
A
b
s
t
r
a
c
t
D
e
v
e
l
o
p
i
n
gl
i
t
e
r
a
c
ys
k
i
l
l
si
nb
o
t
hm
a
j
o
r
i
t
ya
n
dt
h
eh
e
r
i
t
a
g
el
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
si
sc
r
i
t
i
c
a
l
l
y
i
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
tf
o
rc
u
l
t
u
r
a
l
l
ya
n
dl
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
c
a
l
l
yd
i
v
e
r
s
es
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
.A
i
m
i
n
gt
os
u
p
p
o
r
tt
h
e
b
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
yd
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t
,t
h
i
ss
t
u
d
ya
n
a
l
y
s
e
dc
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
sw
r
i
t
t
e
nu
n
d
e
rt
h
esamet
o
p
i
c
c
o
l
l
e
c
t
e
df
r
o
m2
4
0b
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
ls
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
.I
twasr
e
v
e
a
l
e
dt
h
a
tw
h
i
l
es
e
n
t
e
n
c
ew
i
d
t
h
,l
e
x
i
c
a
l
印
W
r
i
t
i
n
gA
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
so
fG
r
a
d
e1
‑
9J
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
‑
E
n
g
l
i
s
h8
1
/
i
n
g
u
a
l
s
:L
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cI
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
ya
n
dA
G
E
,LORa
n
dAOA
SANOA
i
k
o
,NAKAJIMAK
a
z
u
k
o
,IKUTAY
u
k
o
, THOMSONH
a
i
d
e
e
,NAKANOT
o
m
o
k
o
,andFUKUKAWAM
i
s
a
a
n
dg
r
a
m
m
a
t
i
c
a
le
r
r
o
rr
a
t
e
sa
r
el
a
n
g
u
a
g
es
p
e
c
i
f
i
c
,q
u
a
l
i
t
a
t
i
v
ea
s
p
e
c
t
so
fw
r
i
t
i
n
ga
sw
e
l
l
a
sf
l
u
e
n
c
y
,l
e
x
i
c
a
lc
o
m
p
l
e
x
i
t
ya
n
ds
e
n
t
e
n
c
ed
e
p
t
hp
r
e
s
e
n
tm
o
d
e
r
a
t
ec
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
sa
c
r
o
s
s
E
n
g
l
i
s
ha
n
dJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
,a
n
dc
o
n
v
e
n
t
i
o
n
a
le
r
r
o
rr
a
t
e
sal
o
wc
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
.T
h
e
s
ef
i
n
d
i
n
g
s
w
e
r
ef
u
r
t
h
e
ra
n
a
l
y
s
e
di
nr
e
l
a
t
i
o
nt
ot
h
ew
r
i
t
e
r
s
'a
g
e
,a
g
eo
fa
r
r
i
v
a
lt
oa
n
dt
h
el
e
n
g
t
ho
f
r
e
s
i
d
e
n
c
ei
nt
h
es
e
c
o
n
dl
a
n
g
u
a
g
ee
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
.
要旨
文化的また言語的に多様な環境で育つ子どもたちにとって、滞在国の主要言語と継
承語両方での書く力の習得は喫緊の課題である。そうしたパイリテラシーを支える教
4
0
育をめざし、本稿で・は小学 1年から中学 3年までの日英パイリンガル児童・生徒 2
名を対象に二言語同ーのテーマで作文を書いてもらい、二言語の共有面と個別面につ
いて分析した。文の広がりと語葉・文法上の誤用が言語に特有の発達を見せるのに対
し、質的な側面と産出量、語葉の多様性、構文の深さについては中程度の相関が、ま
た表記の誤用については弱し、相関が認められ、相E依存的関係にあることが確認され
た。さらにこうした関係 性について、年齢、第二言語環境での滞在年数と到着時年齢
つの要因それぞれとどのような関係にあるか詳しく分析した。
という 3
Backgroundo
fOurStudy
OECDI
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
lMigrationOutlook(
2
0
1
3
)r
e
p
o
r
t
e
dt
h
a
tmorethan
20%o
ft
h
ee
n
t
i
r
ep
o
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
ni
nCanadaweref
o
r
e
i
g
nborni
n2
0
1
1
,anda
c
c
o
r
d
‑
i
n
gt
ot
h
e2
0
0
6Censuso
fCanadamorethano
n
ei
nt
e
ns
p
o
k
el
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
so
t
h
e
r
thant
h
etwoo
f
f
i
c
i
a
ll
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
so
fCanadaa
thome.Suchi
sn
o
tas
i
t
u
a
t
i
o
np
e
‑
c
u
l
i
a
rt
oCanadab
u
ti
sat
r
e
n
dfounda
c
r
o
s
st
h
eworldtoday(
B
a
k
e
r
,2
0
1
1
)
.
Withs
u
c
hani
n
c
r
e
a
s
ei
nt
h
enumbero
fm
i
g
r
a
n
t
s
,t
h
e
r
ei
sahugef
l
u
xo
fs
t
u
‑
d
e
n
t
sw
i
t
hc
u
l
t
u
r
a
l
l
y and l
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
c
a
l
l
yd
i
v
e
r
s
ebackgrounds whop
r
e
s
e
n
t
n
e
e
d
sf
o
rs
p
e
c
i
a
le
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n
a
ls
u
p
p
o
r
t
.
Manyo
ft
h
e
s
ec
u
l
t
u
r
a
l
l
yandl
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
c
a
l
l
yd
i
v
e
r
s
e(CLD)s
t
u
d
e
n
t
sf
a
c
e
t
h
ehardt
a
s
ko
fa
c
q
u
i
r
i
n
gl
i
t
e
r
a
c
ys
k
i
l
l
si
nt
h
e
i
rs
e
c
o
n
dlanguage(
L
2
)
,which
i
so
f
t
e
nt
h
e
i
rweakerl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
.Theya
r
ea
l
s
ol
i
k
e
l
yt
or
e
c
e
i
v
emuchl
e
s
ss
u
p
‑
p
o
r
tw
i
t
h
i
nt
h
ehomef
o
rd
e
v
e
l
o
p
i
n
gt
h
edominants
o
c
i
e
t
a
llanguagecompared
t
ot
h
e
i
r monolingual p
e
e
r
s
.G
i
v
e
nt
h
ei
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
c
eo
fa
c
q
u
i
r
i
n
gw
r
i
t
i
n
g
6
1
母語・継承諾・パイI
)
.
ンガル教育(
MHB
)研 究 VolumeT
0 MARCH20T
4
a
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
si
nt
h
edominantl
a
n
g
u
a
g
eo
fs
o
c
i
e
t
yt
o
g
e
t
h
e
rw
i
t
hani
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
gd
e
‑
mandf
o
rc
o
m
p
e
t
e
n
tb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
/
b
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
li
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
s
,i
ti
so
fu
r
g
e
n
tn
e
e
dt
oe
s
‑
t
a
b
l
i
s
he
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n
a
lp
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
st
h
a
tw
i
l
ll
e
a
dt
ot
h
ed
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
to
fl
i
t
e
r
a
c
y
s
k
i
l
l
si
nb
o
t
hl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
sf
o
rb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
ls
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
.T
h
i
si
sb
o
t
hd
e
s
i
r
e
dont
h
e
p
a
r
to
ft
h
el
e
a
r
n
e
r
sa
sw
e
l
la
ss
o
c
i
e
t
ywhichwouldb
e
n
e
f
i
tg
r
e
a
t
l
yfromt
h
e
l
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cr
e
s
o
u
r
c
e
st
h
e
s
es
t
u
d
e
n
t
sb
r
i
n
g
.
I
th
a
sb
e
e
np
o
i
n
t
e
do
u
tr
e
p
e
a
t
e
d
l
yhowc
r
u
c
i
a
li
ti
st
oh
a
v
eb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
lp
e
r
‑
s
p
e
c
t
i
v
e
swhens
t
u
d
y
i
n
gl
i
t
e
r
a
c
yd
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
ti
nCLDs
t
u
d
e
n
t
s(
e
.
g
.B
u
t
l
e
r
,
2
0
1
1
;DeB
o
t
,Lowie& V
e
r
s
p
o
o
r
,2
0
0
7
;G
o
r
t
,2
0
0
6
;R
e
y
e
s
,2
0
1
2
)
.I
n
d
e
e
d
,a
s
r
i
g
h
t
l
yp
o
i
n
t
e
do
u
tbyG
r
o
s
j
e
a
n(
1
9
8
9
,p
.
3
)
,t
h
eb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
li
sNOTt
h
esumo
f
twoc
o
m
p
l
e
t
eo
ri
n
c
o
m
p
l
e
t
em
o
n
o
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
s andt
h
esamea
p
p
l
i
e
st
ob
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
t
e
w
r
i
t
e
r
s
;t
h
e
ya
r
en
o
tt
h
esumo
ftwom
o
n
o
l
i
n
g
u
a
lw
r
i
t
e
r
si
no
n
em
i
n
d
.I
t
wouldb
ev
e
r
ym
i
s
l
e
a
d
i
n
gt
oj
u
d
g
et
h
ew
r
i
t
i
n
ga
b
i
l
i
t
yo
fCLDs
t
u
d
e
n
t
sby
l
o
o
k
i
n
go
n
l
ya
tt
h
e
i
rw
r
i
t
i
n
gi
no
n
el
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
.T
h
e
i
rw
r
i
t
i
n
ga
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
sn
e
e
dt
o
b
ee
v
a
l
u
a
t
e
dh
o
l
i
s
t
i
c
a
l
l
ythroughab
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
la
p
p
r
o
a
c
h
,b
u
tr
e
s
e
a
r
c
hfrom
s
u
c
hap
e
r
s
p
e
c
t
i
v
ei
ss
t
i
l
ls
c
a
r
c
e
.
Ourr
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
,p
a
r
to
fwhichi
sr
e
p
o
r
t
e
di
nt
h
i
sp
a
p
e
r
,wasm
o
t
i
v
a
t
e
dt
or
e
‑
s
p
o
n
dt
ot
h
ec
a
l
lf
o
rsoundp
e
d
a
g
o
g
i
c
a
lp
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
st
os
u
p
p
o
r
tb
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
yd
e
v
e
l
o
p
‑
mentande
m
p
i
r
i
c
a
ls
t
u
d
i
e
st
os
u
p
p
o
r
ts
u
c
hp
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
s
.Weaimt
oc
l
a
r
i
f
yt
h
e
a
s
p
e
c
t
so
fw
r
i
t
i
n
gs
k
i
l
l
st
h
a
ts
u
p
p
o
r
tb
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
yd
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
ta
c
r
o
s
sl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
s
i
no
r
d
e
rt
oe
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
l
ys
u
p
p
o
r
tb
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
yd
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
ti
nCLDs
t
u
d
e
n
t
sr
a
t
h
e
r
t
h
a
nd
e
v
e
l
o
p
i
n
gl
i
t
e
r
a
c
ys
k
i
l
l
si
nLlandL2s
e
p
a
r
a
t
e
l
y
.
L
i
t
e
r
a
t
u
r
eReview
I
nt
h
i
ss
e
c
t
i
o
n
,wew
i
l
lf
i
r
s
tr
e
v
i
e
wCummins i
n
f
l
u
e
n
t
i
a
lt
h
e
o
r
i
e
so
ft
h
e
i
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
tn
a
t
u
r
eo
fb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
sl
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
ca
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
s
,w
i
t
hac
l
a
r
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
no
f
t
h
eterm t
r
a
n
s
f
e
ru
s
e
di
np
r
e
v
i
o
u
ss
t
u
d
i
e
s
.Wew
i
l
lt
h
e
nr
e
v
i
e
wt
h
efews
t
u
d
‑
i
e
st
h
a
th
a
v
ei
d
e
n
t
i
f
i
e
dsomeo
ft
h
ea
s
p
e
c
t
si
nw
r
i
t
i
n
gt
h
a
ta
r
ei
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t
a
c
r
o
s
sl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
sfromt
h
o
s
et
h
a
ta
r
el
a
n
g
u
a
g
es
p
e
c
i
f
i
c
.Wea
l
s
oi
d
e
n
t
i
f
yt
h
e
f
a
c
t
o
r
st
h
a
th
a
v
eb
e
e
nshownt
oa
f
f
e
c
tt
h
er
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
h
i
p
sb
e
t
w
e
e
nLlandL2
w
r
i
t
i
n
ga
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
si
nt
h
ep
r
e
v
i
o
u
ss
t
u
d
i
e
s
.
一位一
W
r
i
t
i
n
gA
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
so
fG
r
a
d
eI9J
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
‑
E
n
g
l
i
s
hB
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
s
:L
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cI
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
yandA
G
E
,LORandADA
SANOA
i
k
o
,NAKAJIMAl
く
a
z
u
k
o
,/KUTAY
u
k
o
, THOMSONH
a
i
d
e
e
,NAKANOT
o
m
o
k
o
,andFUKUKAWAM
i
s
a
L
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cI
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
yandC
o
n
c
e
p
to
fT
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
S
i
n
c
eCummins(
1
9
8
1
)p
r
o
p
o
s
e
dt
h
el
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
ci
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
yp
r
i
n
c
i
p
l
e
,a
p
l
e
t
h
o
r
ao
fs
t
u
d
i
e
sh
a
sc
o
n
f
i
r
m
e
dt
h
ei
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
tn
a
t
u
r
eb
e
t
w
e
e
nl
a
n
‑
g
u
a
g
e
so
fCLDs
t
u
d
e
n
t
s(
f
o
rs
y
n
t
h
e
s
i
s
,s
e
eCummins,1
9
9
1
; Cummins,2
0
0
0
)
.
Basedont
h
ee
v
i
d
e
n
c
efromt
h
e
s
ee
m
p
i
r
i
c
a
li
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
i
o
n
s
,Cummins(
2
0
0
0
)a
r
‑
g
u
e
d
:
I
no
r
d
e
rt
oa
c
c
o
u
n
tf
o
rt
h
ee
v
i
d
e
n
c
e
・
・
‑
,wemustp
o
s
i
tacommonu
n
d
e
r
l
y
‑
i
n
gp
r
o
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y(CUP)modeli
nwhicht
h
el
i
t
e
r
a
c
y
‑
r
e
l
a
t
e
da
s
p
e
c
t
so
fab
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
lsp
r
o
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
yi
nLlandL2a
r
es
e
e
na
scommono
ri
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t
no
t
h
e
rw
o
r
d
s
,t
h
ecommonu
n
d
e
r
l
y
i
n
gp
r
o
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
yr
e
‑
a
c
r
o
s
sl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
s
.I
f
e
r
st
ot
h
ec
o
g
n
i
t
i
v
e
/
a
c
a
d
e
m
i
cknowledgeanda
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
st
h
a
tu
n
d
e
r
l
i
ea
c
a
‑
d
e
m
i
cp
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
ei
nb
o
t
hl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
s
.(
2
0
0
1
,p
.1
7
3
)
Cummins CUPmodelh
y
p
o
t
h
e
s
i
s
e
sad
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
i
a
t
e
dd
e
g
r
e
eo
ft
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
a
c
r
o
s
sl
a
n
g
u
a
g
ep
r
o
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
i
e
s
;somed
e
e
pl
e
v
e
la
s
p
e
c
t
sa
r
ee
a
s
i
l
yt
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
r
e
d
a
c
r
o
s
sl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
sw
h
i
l
eo
t
h
e
rs
u
r
f
a
c
el
e
v
e
la
s
p
e
c
t
st
h
a
ta
r
el
a
n
g
u
a
g
es
p
e
c
i
f
i
c
a
r
en
o
te
a
s
i
l
yt
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
r
e
d
.Cummins(
2
0
0
9
,p
.
2
5
)p
r
o
p
o
s
e
df
i
v
et
y
p
e
so
ft
r
a
n
s
‑
f
e
r
, namely t
r
a
n
s
f
e
ro
f
:c
o
n
c
e
p
t
u
a
le
l
e
m
e
n
t
s
,m
e
t
a
c
o
g
n
i
t
i
v
e and m
e
t
a
‑
l
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cs
t
r
a
t
e
g
i
e
s
,p
r
a
g
m
a
t
i
ca
s
p
e
c
t
so
fl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
su
s
e
,s
p
e
c
i
f
i
cl
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
c
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
s
,andp
h
o
n
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
la
w
a
r
e
n
e
s
s
.
r
a
n
s
f
e
ri
sn
e
c
e
s
s
a
r
ya
st
h
i
stermh
a
sb
e
e
nem‑
C
l
a
r
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
no
ft
h
eterm t
p
l
o
y
e
di
nd
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
twaysi
nb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
le
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
nands
e
c
o
n
dl
a
n
g
u
a
g
ea
c
q
u
i
s
i
‑
nt
h
ef
o
r
m
e
r
,i
th
a
sf
o
c
u
s
e
d ont
h
eu
s
eo
fs
h
a
r
e
d
t
i
o
n(
S
L
A
)r
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
.I
r
e
s
o
u
r
c
e
s
,w
h
i
l
ei
nSLAw
r
i
t
i
n
gl
i
t
e
r
a
t
u
r
et
h
ef
o
c
u
sh
a
sb
e
e
nonhowl
e
x
i
c
a
l
andg
r
a
m
m
a
t
i
c
a
lknowledgei
no
n
el
a
n
g
u
a
g
ea
f
f
e
c
t
st
h
a
to
ft
h
eo
t
h
e
r(
F
r
a
n
‑
c
i
s
,2
0
1
2
,p
.
5
0
)
,t
h
u
sf
o
c
u
s
i
n
gonn
e
g
a
t
i
v
et
r
a
n
s
f
e
ri
nmostc
a
s
e
sandp
o
s
i
t
i
v
e
t
r
a
n
s
f
e
ro
n
l
yi
nt
h
ec
a
s
ewheret
h
etwol
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
sa
r
et
y
p
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l
l
yv
e
r
yc
l
o
s
e
t
oo
n
ea
n
o
t
h
e
r(
D
r
e
s
s
l
e
randK
a
m
i
l
,2
0
0
6
)
.
I
nt
h
i
ss
t
u
d
y
,o
u
rf
o
c
u
si
sn
o
tt
odocumentt
h
ei
n
c
i
d
e
n
c
e
swherew
r
i
t
e
r
s
a
p
p
l
yg
r
a
m
m
a
t
i
c
a
lknowledgefromt
h
eLlo
n
t
oL2w
r
i
t
i
n
gwheret
h
e
ys
h
o
u
l
d
6
3
母語・継承語・パイリンガル教育(
MHB
)研究 VolumeTO MARCH2014
n
o
t
,b
u
tr
a
t
h
e
r
,howw
r
i
t
e
r
smakeu
s
eo
fl
a
n
g
u
a
g
er
e
s
o
u
r
c
e
st
h
e
yh
a
v
ei
no
n
e
nt
h
e
l
a
n
g
u
a
g
et
os
u
p
p
o
r
tt
h
eo
t
h
e
r
,andt
h
u
sw
i
l
lu
s
et
h
eterm t
r
a
n
s
f
e
ri
formerm
e
a
n
i
n
g
.
Langu
αg
eI
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
tA
s
p
e
c
t
sα
ndL
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
‑
S
p
e
c
i
f
i
cA
s
p
e
c
t
s
Thes
t
u
d
i
e
st
h
a
ta
r
ed
e
v
o
t
e
dt
od
i
s
t
i
n
g
u
i
s
h
i
n
gl
a
n
g
u
a
g
ei
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t
a
s
p
e
c
t
sfromt
h
el
a
n
g
u
a
g
es
p
e
c
i
f
i
ca
s
p
e
c
t
si
nl
i
t
e
r
a
c
ya
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
sa
r
es
c
a
r
c
ee
s
p
e
‑
c
i
a
l
l
yi
nt
h
ea
r
e
ao
fw
r
i
t
i
n
gd
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t
.Weh
a
v
ei
d
e
n
t
i
f
i
e
ds
e
v
e
ns
u
c
hs
t
u
d
‑
i
e
s
,whichw
i
l
lb
er
e
v
i
e
w
e
di
nt
h
i
ss
e
c
t
i
o
n
.
Oneo
ft
h
ew
r
i
t
i
n
ga
s
p
e
c
t
st
h
a
ta
l
lo
ft
h
es
t
u
d
i
e
sseemt
oa
g
r
e
eona
s
b
e
i
n
gi
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
ta
c
r
o
s
sl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
si
swhatc
a
nb
ec
a
l
l
e
dh
i
g
h
e
ro
r
d
e
r
s
k
i
l
l
si
nw
r
i
t
i
n
g
.Fore
x
a
m
p
l
e
,LanauzeandSnow(
1
9
8
9
)s
t
u
d
y
i
n
gG4andG5
S
p
a
n
i
s
h
‑
E
n
g
l
i
s
hb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
lP
u
e
r
t
o
‑
R
i
c
a
ns
t
u
d
e
n
t
sf
o
u
n
dt
h
a
tt
h
o
s
es
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
whowereb
e
t
t
e
ri
nt
h
e
i
rLlw
r
o
t
es
e
m
a
n
t
i
c
a
l
l
ymorec
o
m
p
l
e
t
ee
s
s
a
y
sn
o
to
n
l
y
i
nt
h
e
i
rLlb
u
ta
l
s
oi
nt
h
e
i
rL
2
.S
i
m
i
l
a
r
l
y
,D
a
v
i
s
,C
a
r
l
i
s
l
e
,andBeeman(
1
9
9
9
)
foundd
i
s
c
o
u
r
s
ee
l
e
m
e
n
t
sc
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
e
da
c
r
o
s
sS
p
a
n
i
s
handE
n
g
l
i
s
h
.Suchl
i
n
g
u
i
s
‑
t
i
ci
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
yi
sn
o
tl
i
m
i
t
e
dt
oc
o
g
n
a
t
el
a
n
g
u
a
g
es
e
t
s
,b
u
ta
l
s
oe
x
t
e
n
d
s
t
on
o
n
‑
c
o
g
n
a
t
el
a
n
g
u
a
g
es
e
t
ss
u
c
ha
sNahuatlandS
p
a
n
i
s
h(
F
r
a
n
c
i
s
,2
0
0
0
)
,
andf
u
r
t
h
e
rt
ol
a
n
g
u
a
g
es
e
t
st
h
a
tcomefromd
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
tw
r
i
t
i
n
gs
y
s
t
e
m
s(
I
k
u
t
a
,
2
0
0
2
)
.Schoonene
ta
l
.(
2
0
0
3
)andS
c
h
o
o
n
e
n
,vanG
e
l
d
e
r
e
n
,S
t
o
e
l
,H
u
l
s
t
i
j
n
,and
d
eG
l
o
p
p
e
r(
2
0
1
1
)i
l
l
u
s
t
r
a
t
e
dhowm
e
t
a
c
o
g
n
i
t
i
v
ew
r
i
t
i
n
gknowledget
o
g
e
t
h
e
r
w
i
t
hf
l
u
e
n
c
ym
e
d
i
a
t
e
st
h
ea
s
s
o
c
i
a
t
i
o
nb
e
t
w
e
e
nLlDutchw
r
i
t
i
n
gandE
n
g
l
i
s
h
a
sf
o
r
e
i
g
nl
a
n
g
u
a
g
ew
r
i
t
i
n
gamongg
r
a
d
e8
‑
1
0s
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
.
Wheni
tcomest
ol
e
x
i
c
a
lknowledgeandhowi
ti
sr
e
l
a
t
e
da
c
r
o
s
st
h
etwo
l
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
so
fb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
s
,t
h
e
s
es
t
u
d
i
e
sp
r
e
s
e
n
tmixedf
i
n
d
i
n
g
s
.W
h
i
l
eF
r
a
n
c
i
s
(
2
0
0
0
)andI
k
u
t
a(
2
0
0
2
)foundt
h
a
tsomea
s
p
e
c
t
so
fl
e
x
i
c
a
lknowledgewerei
n
‑
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
ta
c
r
o
s
sl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
se
v
e
nw
i
t
hn
o
n
‑
c
o
g
n
a
t
el
a
n
g
u
a
g
es
e
t
s
,D
a
v
i
se
t
a
l
.(
1
9
9
9
)f
o
u
n
dnos
u
c
hr
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
h
i
pi
nt
h
eu
s
eo
fl
o
n
gwordsb
e
t
w
e
e
nS
p
a
n
i
s
h
andE
n
g
l
i
s
h
.LanauzeandSnow(
1
9
8
9
)foundi
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
yi
nl
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cv
a
‑
r
i
e
t
yo
n
l
yw
i
t
ht
h
es
t
u
d
e
n
t
swhowerep
o
o
rw
r
i
t
e
r
si
nt
h
eL2b
u
tgoodw
r
i
t
e
r
s
i
nL
l
.Thea
u
t
h
o
r
sa
r
g
u
et
h
a
ts
u
c
hl
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
ct
r
a
n
s
f
e
rd
o
e
sn
o
to
c
c
u
rf
o
rs
t
u
‑
d
e
n
t
swhoseLli
sp
o
o
r
,anda
l
s
of
o
rs
t
u
d
e
n
t
swhoseL2i
sw
e
l
l
‑
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
d
.For
64‑
W
r
i
t
i
n
gA
b
1
!
i
t
1
e
so
fG
r
a
d
e1
‑
9J
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
‑
E
n
g
l
i
s
hB
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
s
:L
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cI
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
ya
n
dA
G
E
,LORandADA
SANOA
i
k
o
,NAKAJIMAK
a
z
u
k
o
,IKUTAY
u
k
o
, THOMSONH
a
i
d
e
e
,NAKANOT
o
m
o
k
o
,andFUKUKAWAM
i
s
a
t
h
el
a
t
t
e
rg
r
o
u
p
,t
h
ea
u
t
h
o
r
ss
p
e
c
u
l
a
t
e
,t
h
etwos
y
s
t
e
m
sh
a
v
ebecomei
n
d
e
‑
p
e
n
d
e
n
to
fo
n
ea
n
o
t
h
e
r
.
Fora
s
p
e
c
t
sl
i
k
eg
r
a
m
m
a
t
i
c
a
lc
o
m
p
l
e
x
i
t
yanda
c
c
u
r
a
c
y
,t
h
es
t
u
d
i
e
st
h
a
t
i
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
ep
o
s
i
t
i
v
et
r
a
n
s
f
e
ro
fgrammaticala
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
si
ng
e
n
e
r
a
la
r
ev
e
r
yl
i
m
‑
i
t
e
da
l
t
h
o
u
g
ht
h
e
r
ea
r
ep
l
e
n
t
yo
fs
t
u
d
i
e
st
h
a
th
a
v
ei
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
e
dt
h
ei
n
f
l
u
e
n
c
e
o
f11on12g
r
a
m
m
a
t
i
c
a
le
r
r
o
r
si
nt
h
ea
r
e
ao
f12d
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t
.T
h
i
smayb
e
d
u
et
ot
h
ef
a
c
tt
h
a
tt
h
ef
o
c
u
so
ft
h
es
t
u
d
i
e
sh
a
v
eb
e
e
ne
x
c
l
u
s
i
v
e
l
yon12d
e
v
e
l
‑
o
p
m
e
n
t
,andi
nt
h
a
ts
e
n
s
et
h
eknowledgeo
f11h
a
sb
e
e
nt
r
e
a
t
e
da
sn
o
i
s
eo
r
e
v
e
na
san
e
g
a
t
i
v
ei
n
f
l
u
e
n
c
ei
n12d
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t
.P
e
o
p
l
eh
a
v
en
o
tp
a
i
dd
u
ea
t
‑
t
e
n
t
i
o
nt
ohowg
r
a
m
m
a
t
i
c
a
lknowledgec
o
u
l
dd
e
v
e
l
o
phandi
nhanda
c
r
o
s
sl
a
n
‑
g
u
a
g
e
s
,I
k
u
t
a(
2
0
0
2
)andH
u
l
s
t
i
j
n(
2
0
1
1
)b
e
i
n
gt
h
er
a
r
ee
x
c
e
p
t
i
o
n
s
,andt
h
e
s
e
twop
r
e
s
e
n
ts
e
e
m
i
n
g
l
yd
i
s
c
r
e
p
a
n
tf
i
n
d
i
n
g
s
.Ont
h
eo
n
eh
a
n
d
,I
k
u
t
af
o
u
n
dno
c
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
ni
ng
r
a
m
m
a
t
i
c
a
lc
o
m
p
l
e
x
i
t
yanda
c
c
u
r
a
c
yi
nJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
eandP
o
r
t
u
‑
g
u
e
s
ew
r
i
t
i
n
g
so
fB
r
a
z
i
l
i
a
ns
t
u
d
e
n
t
ss
t
u
d
y
i
n
gt
h
e
i
r12J
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
.Ont
h
eo
t
h
e
r
h
a
n
d
,H
u
l
s
t
i
j
n
,whos
t
u
d
i
e
dg
r
a
d
e8t
o1
0Dutchs
t
u
d
e
n
t
sl
e
a
r
n
i
n
g12E
n
g
l
i
s
h
,
c
o
n
c
l
u
d
e
dt
h
a
tg
r
a
m
m
a
t
i
c
a
lknowledgea
sw
e
l
la
sl
e
x
i
c
a
lknowledgeandt
h
e
i
r
t
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
a
b
l
en
a
t
u
r
ea
c
c
o
u
n
t
e
df
o
rt
h
ei
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
yi
nl
i
t
e
r
a
c
ys
k
i
l
l
sb
e
‑
tweenDutchandE
n
g
l
i
s
h
.T
h
i
sc
o
n
c
l
u
s
i
o
ni
nr
e
g
a
r
dt
og
r
a
m
m
a
t
i
c
a
lk
n
o
w
l
‑
e
d
g
ei
np
a
r
t
i
c
u
l
a
rs
e
e
m
st
oc
o
n
f
l
i
c
tw
i
t
hI
k
u
t
as (
2
0
0
2
)f
i
n
d
i
n
gt
h
a
t
g
r
a
m
m
a
t
i
c
a
lknowledgei
sn
o
ti
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
ta
c
r
o
s
sl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
s
.Therea
r
e
twop
o
s
s
i
b
l
ee
x
p
l
a
n
a
t
i
o
n
st
h
a
ta
c
c
o
u
n
tf
o
rt
h
i
sd
i
s
c
r
e
p
a
n
c
y
.Onei
st
h
ed
i
s
‑
t
a
n
c
eb
e
t
w
e
e
nt
h
el
a
n
g
u
a
g
es
e
t
st
h
a
tt
h
e
i
rs
t
u
d
e
n
t
swered
e
a
l
i
n
gw
i
t
h
.I
n
t
u
d
y
,t
h
es
t
u
d
e
n
t
sweret
r
y
i
n
gt
oa
c
q
u
i
r
ew
r
i
t
i
n
gs
k
i
l
l
si
nJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
I
k
u
t
ass
whichweret
y
p
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l
l
yando
r
t
h
o
g
r
a
p
h
i
c
a
l
l
yv
e
r
yd
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
tfromt
h
e
i
r11
t
u
d
yweres
t
u
d
y
i
n
gal
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
P
o
r
t
u
g
u
e
s
e
,w
h
i
l
et
h
es
t
u
d
e
n
t
si
nH
u
l
s
t
i
j
nss
t
h
a
twast
y
p
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l
l
ys
i
m
i
l
a
rt
ot
h
e
i
r11andw
r
i
t
t
e
ni
nt
h
esamea
l
p
h
a
b
e
t
i
c
w
r
i
t
i
n
gs
y
s
t
e
m
.Theo
t
h
e
rp
o
s
s
i
b
l
ee
x
p
l
a
n
a
t
i
o
ni
st
h
a
tt
h
ep
a
r
t
i
c
i
p
a
n
t
si
n
I
k
u
t
ass
t
u
d
yweres
t
u
d
y
i
n
gJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
ei
nan12c
o
n
t
e
x
tw
i
t
hn
o
tmuchs
u
p
p
o
r
t
f
o
rt
h
e
i
r11l
i
t
e
r
a
c
yd
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t
,w
h
i
l
et
h
es
t
u
d
e
n
t
si
nH
u
l
s
t
i
j
nss
t
u
d
ywere
s
t
u
d
y
i
n
gE
n
g
l
i
s
ha
saf
o
r
e
i
g
nl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
,w
i
t
hp
l
e
n
t
yo
fs
u
p
p
o
r
tf
o
rt
h
e
i
r11
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
ya
t
t
a
i
n
m
e
n
t
.I
n
d
e
e
d
, when a
n
a
l
y
s
i
n
gt
h
ed
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
to
fl
i
t
e
r
a
c
y
s
k
i
l
l
s
,v
a
r
i
o
u
sf
a
c
t
o
r
scomei
n
t
op
l
a
y
.Wew
i
l
lnowt
u
r
nt
ot
h
ef
a
c
t
o
r
swhich
65‑
u
母語・継承語・パイ ンガル教育 (
MHB
)研究 Volume 1
0 MARCH2014
a
f
f
e
c
tr
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
h
i
p
sbetweenw
r
i
t
i
n
ga
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
si
nt
h
etwol
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
so
fb
i
l
i
n
‑
g
u
a
ls
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
.
F
αc
t
o
r
sA
f
f
e
c
t
i
n
gt
h
eR
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
h
i
p
sb
e
t
w
e
e
nLlαndL2W
r
i
t
i
n
gA
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
s
Thel
e
a
r
n
e
rs12l
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cknowledgeand11l
i
t
e
r
a
c
yknowledgeh
a
v
e
b
e
e
nr
e
p
e
a
t
e
d
l
yp
o
i
n
t
e
do
u
ti
nt
h
el
i
t
e
r
a
t
u
r
ea
sa
c
c
o
u
n
t
i
n
gf
o
ri
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
ld
i
f
‑
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
si
nl
e
a
r
n
e
r
s
'l
i
t
e
r
a
c
ya
t
t
a
i
n
m
e
n
ti
n12(
e
.
g
.B
i
a
l
y
s
t
o
k
,2
0
0
1
;Cummins,
1
9
9
1
)
,thoughnotmanyo
ft
h
e
s
es
t
u
d
i
e
sh
a
v
ei
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
e
dt
h
edomaino
fw
r
i
t
‑
i
n
g
.F
u
r
t
h
e
r
m
o
r
e
,t
h
er
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
h
i
p
sb
e
t
w
e
e
n12o
r
a
lp
r
o
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
yand12l
i
t
e
r
‑
a
c
ya
t
t
a
i
n
m
e
n
t(
G
e
v
a
,2
0
0
6
)
,a
sw
e
l
la
st
h
a
to
f11o
r
a
lp
r
o
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
yand12
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
ya
t
t
a
i
n
m
e
n
th
a
v
eb
e
e
nd
i
s
c
u
s
s
e
d(
s
e
eG
e
n
e
s
e
e
,G
e
v
a
,D
r
e
s
s
l
e
r
, and
K
a
m
i
l
,2
0
0
8f
o
rar
e
v
i
e
w
)
.
Withas
p
e
c
i
f
i
cf
o
c
u
sonw
r
i
t
i
n
gd
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
ti
nb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
lc
h
i
l
d
r
e
n
,I
k
u
t
a
(
2
0
0
6
)o
b
s
e
r
v
e
dt
h
a
t12w
r
i
t
i
n
ga
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
si
ntermso
ff
l
u
e
n
c
y
,a
c
c
u
r
a
c
y
,l
e
x
i
c
a
l
ands
y
n
t
a
c
t
i
c
a
lc
o
m
p
l
e
x
i
t
y
,andc
o
n
t
e
n
tando
r
g
a
n
i
s
a
t
i
o
nmeasuresimproved
a
sw
r
i
t
e
r
s
'l
e
n
g
t
ho
fr
e
s
i
d
e
n
c
e(10R)l
e
n
g
t
h
e
n
e
d
.A
l
s
oi
l
l
u
s
t
r
a
t
e
di
nt
h
esame
s
t
u
d
ywashoww
r
i
t
e
r
s
'ageo
fa
r
r
i
v
a
l(AOA)a
f
f
e
c
t
sp
o
s
i
t
i
v
e
l
yont
h
e
i
r11
w
r
i
t
i
n
g
.I
nt
h
i
ss
t
u
d
y
,t
h
ep
a
r
t
i
c
i
p
a
n
t
swhowereP
o
r
t
u
g
u
e
s
es
p
e
a
k
e
r
sl
e
a
r
n
‑
i
n
gt
ow
r
i
t
ei
nt
h
e
i
r12J
a
p
a
n
e
s
ehadv
e
r
yl
i
m
i
t
e
di
fanys
u
p
p
o
r
ti
n1
1l
i
t
e
r
a
c
y
m
a
i
n
t
e
n
a
n
c
e
.T
h
e
r
e
f
o
r
e
,t
h
o
s
ewhol
e
f
tt
h
e
i
rc
o
u
n
t
r
i
e
so
fo
r
i
g
i
na
ta
g
en
i
n
eo
r
youngerf
a
c
e
dg
r
e
a
t
e
rd
i
f
f
i
c
u
l
t
yi
nd
e
v
e
l
o
p
i
n
gw
r
i
t
i
n
gs
k
i
l
l
si
nt
h
e
i
r1
1
,com‑
p
a
r
e
dt
ot
h
e
i
rp
e
e
r
swhocamet
oJapana
so
l
d
e
rl
e
a
r
n
e
r
s
.B
e
c
a
u
s
ei
tt
a
k
e
sc
o
g
‑
n
i
t
i
v
em
a
t
u
r
i
t
yt
od
e
v
e
l
o
pw
r
i
t
i
n
ga
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
s
,t
h
ea
g
eo
fa
r
r
i
v
a
lt
o an 12
e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t(
o
rr
a
t
h
e
r
,ageo
fl
e
a
v
i
n
gan11e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
)i
sac
r
i
t
i
c
a
lf
a
c
t
o
r
i
t
e
r
a
c
yandi
t
si
n
f
l
u
e
n
c
eonb
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
y
i
ni
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
i
n
gt
h
ed
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
to
f11l
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t
.
Anotheri
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
tv
a
r
i
a
b
l
et
h
a
ts
h
o
u
l
db
et
a
k
e
ni
n
t
oa
c
c
o
u
n
twheni
n
‑
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
i
n
gb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
lw
r
i
t
i
n
gd
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
ti
ss
t
u
d
e
n
ta
g
e
.C
h
i
l
d
r
e
ni
ng
e
n
e
r
a
l
w
r
i
t
emorea
b
s
t
r
a
c
tc
o
n
t
e
n
tu
s
i
n
gmores
o
p
h
i
s
t
i
c
a
t
e
dl
a
n
g
u
a
g
ea
st
h
e
ygrow
o
l
d
e
r
.G
i
v
e
nt
h
a
tt
h
e
r
ea
r
ev
a
r
y
i
n
gd
e
g
r
e
e
so
fi
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
ya
c
r
o
s
sv
a
r
i
o
u
s
a
s
p
e
c
t
so
fw
r
i
t
i
n
gs
k
i
l
l
sa
sr
e
v
i
e
w
e
da
b
o
v
e
,i
ti
sc
o
n
c
e
i
v
a
b
l
et
h
a
tv
e
r
yyoung
c
h
i
l
d
r
e
nmayn
o
tb
e
n
e
f
i
ts
omuchfroml
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
ci
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
ya
st
h
e
i
r
‑66一
W
r
i
t
i
n
gA
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
so
fG
r
a
d
e1
‑
9J
a
p
a
n
e
s
eE
n
g
l
i
s
hB
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
s
:L
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cI
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
yandA
G
E
,LORa
n
dAOA
SANOA
i
k
o
,NAKAJIMAr
く
a
z
u
k
o
,IKUTA Y
u
k
o
, THOMSONH
a
i
d
e
e
,NAKANOT
o
m
o
k
o
,andFUKUKAWAM
i
s
a
o
l
d
e
rp
e
e
r
sa
si
tt
a
k
e
st
i
m
eandc
o
g
n
i
t
i
v
em
a
t
u
r
i
t
yt
od
e
v
e
l
o
ps
u
c
hh
i
g
h
e
r
o
r
d
e
rw
r
i
t
i
n
gs
k
i
l
l
s
.I
n
d
e
e
d
,D
r
e
s
s
l
e
randKamil(
2
0
0
6
)a
t
t
r
i
b
u
t
et
h
er
e
a
s
o
nf
o
r
n
o
tf
i
n
d
i
n
gc
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
nb
e
t
w
e
e
nLlandL2v
o
c
a
b
u
l
a
r
yi
nt
h
eD
a
v
i
se
ta
l
.(
1
9
9
9
)
s
t
u
d
yt
ot
h
ep
a
r
t
i
c
i
p
a
n
t
sb
e
i
n
gyoungandn
o
tc
o
g
n
i
t
i
v
e
l
ymatureenought
o
t
r
a
n
s
f
e
rt
h
e
i
rl
e
x
i
c
a
lknowledgei
nLlt
oL
2
.
T
h
u
s
,t
h
es
t
u
d
i
e
st
h
a
th
a
v
ei
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
e
dw
r
i
t
i
n
ga
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
si
nu
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y
/
‑
c
o
l
l
e
g
es
t
u
d
e
n
t
sanda
d
o
l
e
s
c
e
n
t
smayn
o
tb
ea
p
p
l
i
e
dt
ot
h
ew
r
i
t
i
n
gd
e
v
e
l
o
p
‑
ment o
f young l
e
a
r
n
e
r
sw
i
t
h
o
u
tc
l
o
s
ee
x
a
m
i
n
a
t
i
o
n
.U
n
l
i
k
e most a
d
u
l
t
s
,
youngl
e
a
r
n
e
r
sa
r
ey
e
tt
od
e
v
e
l
o
pt
h
e
i
rw
r
i
t
i
n
ga
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
sp
e
rs
e
,andt
h
ep
r
o
c
e
s
s
c
a
nb
ef
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
l
l
yd
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
tfromt
h
a
to
fa
d
u
l
t
sa
c
q
u
i
r
i
n
gl
i
t
e
r
a
c
ys
k
i
l
l
son
t
o
po
ft
h
e
i
re
s
t
a
b
l
i
s
h
e
dLlw
r
i
t
i
n
ga
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
s
.T
h
i
sd
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
ei
ss
i
m
i
l
a
rt
ot
h
e
d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
sb
e
t
w
e
e
nt
h
ed
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
to
fl
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
ca
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
si
ns
e
q
u
e
n
t
i
a
lb
i
l
i
n
‑
g
u
a
l
sandt
h
a
to
fs
i
m
u
l
t
a
n
e
o
u
sb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
so
rb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
lf
i
r
s
tl
a
n
g
u
a
g
ea
c
q
u
i
s
i
‑
t
i
o
n(
D
eHouwer,2
0
0
9
)
.H
o
w
e
v
e
r
,t
h
i
sd
i
s
t
i
n
c
t
i
o
nb
e
t
w
e
e
ns
e
q
u
e
n
t
i
a
lv
e
r
s
u
s
s
i
m
u
l
t
a
n
e
o
u
sd
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
th
a
sn
o
tb
e
e
ne
x
t
e
n
d
e
dt
ol
i
t
e
r
a
c
yy
e
t(
R
e
y
e
s
,2
0
1
2
,
p
.3
0
8
)
.
Oneo
t
h
e
rf
a
c
t
o
rt
h
a
ta
p
p
e
a
r
st
ob
ec
r
u
c
i
a
li
ni
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
i
n
gb
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
yd
e
‑
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
ti
st
h
el
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cd
i
s
t
a
n
c
eo
ft
h
etwol
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
si
nq
u
e
s
t
i
o
n
.W
h
i
l
e
t
h
ef
a
c
t
o
r
sr
e
v
i
e
w
e
da
b
o
v
ed
i
f
f
e
rbyi
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
s
,t
h
i
sf
a
c
t
o
rd
i
f
f
e
r
sbyl
a
n
‑
guageandi
si
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
twhens
y
n
t
h
e
s
i
s
i
n
gt
h
ef
i
n
d
i
n
g
so
fv
a
r
i
o
u
sb
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
y
s
t
u
d
i
e
s
.
Ont
h
eo
n
eh
a
n
d
,l
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cd
i
s
t
a
n
c
eb
e
t
w
e
e
ntwol
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
ss
e
e
m
st
oh
a
v
e
noi
n
f
l
u
e
n
c
eonh
i
g
h
e
ro
r
d
e
rs
k
i
l
l
si
nw
r
i
t
i
n
g
,i
no
t
h
e
rw
o
r
d
s
,h
i
g
h
e
ro
r
d
e
r
s
k
i
l
l
sa
p
p
e
a
rt
ob
ei
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
te
v
e
nw
i
t
hv
e
r
yd
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
tl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
s
.Ont
h
e
o
t
h
e
rh
a
n
d
,t
h
ei
n
f
l
u
e
n
c
eo
fl
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cd
i
s
t
a
n
c
eonl
e
x
i
c
a
lknowledgev
a
r
i
e
s
,
w
i
t
hsomes
t
u
d
i
e
sshowingi
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
ye
v
e
na
c
r
o
s
st
y
p
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l
l
yd
i
f
f
e
r
‑
e
n
tl
a
n
g
u
a
g
es
e
t
s(
F
r
a
n
c
i
s
,2
0
0
0
;I
k
u
t
a
,2
0
0
2
)w
h
i
l
eo
t
h
e
r
s show no
c
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
se
v
e
nw
i
t
hv
e
r
ys
i
m
i
l
a
rl
a
n
g
u
a
g
es
e
t
s(
D
a
v
i
se
ta
l
.
,1
9
9
9
)
.One
p
o
i
n
tt
ob
emadei
st
h
a
ti
tmayn
o
tb
et
h
el
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cd
i
s
t
a
n
c
eb
e
t
w
e
e
nt
h
etwo
l
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
sp
e
rs
eb
u
tr
a
t
h
e
rhows
i
m
i
l
a
rt
h
ew
r
i
t
e
r
sc
o
n
c
e
i
v
et
h
etwol
a
n
‑
g
u
a
g
e
s
,andi
ft
h
e
ya
r
ec
a
p
a
b
l
eo
ft
a
k
i
n
ga
d
v
a
n
t
a
g
eo
ft
h
ec
o
g
n
a
t
er
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
i
nt
h
ev
o
c
a
b
u
l
a
r
i
e
s
.G
e
n
e
s
e
e
,G
e
v
a
,D
r
e
s
s
l
e
r
,andKamil(
2
0
0
8
.p
.
6
3
)comment
‑67ー
母語・継承語・パイI
)
ンガル教育(
MHB
)研究 Volume10 MARCH2014
ont
h
i
sp
o
i
n
ta
sf
o
l
l
o
w
s
:
[
T
]hee
x
i
s
t
e
n
c
eo
fc
o
g
n
a
t
e
si
ntwol
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
smayn
o
tb
eas
u
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
tc
o
n
‑
d
i
t
i
o
nf
o
rt
r
a
n
s
f
e
ro
fc
o
g
n
a
t
eknowledget
oo
c
c
u
r
;ab
e
l
i
e
font
h
ep
a
r
to
f
t
h
el
e
a
r
n
e
rt
h
a
tt
h
etwol
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
sa
r
es
i
m
i
l
a
rmayb
en
e
c
e
s
s
a
r
y(
b
u
t
p
r
o
b
a
b
l
yn
o
ts
u
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
)a
sw
e
l
l
.
T
h
e
r
e
f
o
r
e
,i
twouldb
ee
n
l
i
g
h
t
e
n
i
n
gt
os
t
u
d
yt
h
ew
r
i
t
i
n
gd
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
to
f
b
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
swheret
h
etwol
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
sa
r
et
y
p
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l
l
yd
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
dandh
a
v
ed
i
f
‑
f
e
r
e
n
tw
r
i
t
i
n
gs
y
s
t
e
m
s
.Thep
r
e
s
e
n
ts
t
u
d
yaimsp
r
e
c
i
s
e
l
ya
tr
e
v
e
a
l
i
n
gt
h
e
s
e
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
h
i
p
s
.
ResearchQ
u
e
s
t
i
o
n
s
Ash
a
sb
e
e
np
r
e
s
e
n
t
e
di
nt
h
ea
b
o
v
el
i
t
e
r
a
t
u
r
er
e
v
i
e
w
,e
x
a
m
i
n
a
t
i
o
n
so
f
v
a
r
i
o
u
sa
s
p
e
c
t
so
fw
r
i
t
i
n
ga
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
st
h
a
ta
r
el
a
n
g
u
a
g
es
p
e
c
i
f
i
candt
h
a
ta
r
ei
n
‑
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
ta
c
r
o
s
sl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
si
nt
h
ec
a
s
eo
fl
a
n
g
u
a
g
es
e
t
st
h
a
tu
s
ed
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
w
r
i
t
i
n
gs
y
s
t
e
m
sa
r
ec
a
l
l
e
df
o
r
.A
l
s
o
,v
a
r
i
o
u
sf
a
c
t
o
r
sa
f
f
e
c
tt
h
ed
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
to
f
w
r
i
t
i
n
ga
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
si
nt
h
etwol
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
so
fb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
s
,andi
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
i
o
no
ft
h
e
r
o
l
e
st
h
e
s
ev
a
r
i
a
b
l
e
sp
l
a
yi
sn
e
c
e
s
s
a
r
y
.T
h
e
r
e
f
o
r
e
,t
h
i
ss
t
u
d
yw
i
l
li
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
e
t
h
ef
o
l
l
o
w
i
n
gr
e
s
e
a
r
c
hq
u
e
s
t
i
o
n
s
:
1
) Whata
s
p
e
c
t
so
fw
r
i
t
i
n
ga
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
sa
r
el
a
n
g
u
a
g
es
p
e
c
i
f
i
candwhata
s
司
p
e
c
t
sd
e
v
e
l
o
pi
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t
l
ya
c
r
o
s
sJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
eandE
n
g
l
i
s
h
?
2
) Whati
m
p
a
c
t
sdoAGE,AOA,andLORh
a
v
eont
h
ec
r
o
s
s
‑
l
i
n
g
u
a
lr
e
・
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
h
i
p
si
nt
h
ew
r
i
t
i
n
g
so
fb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
ls
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
?
Method
P
a
r
t
i
c
i
p
a
n
t
s
Thep
a
r
t
i
c
i
p
a
n
t
sweres
t
u
d
e
n
t
ss
t
u
d
y
i
n
ga
taHosyuko(
J
a
p
a
n
e
s
eS
a
t
u
r
‑
days
c
h
o
o
l
)i
nal
a
r
g
ec
i
t
yi
nt
h
ee
a
s
t
e
r
np
a
r
to
fC
a
n
a
d
a
.Theya
t
t
e
n
d
e
d
ku
o
o
W
r
i
t
i
n
gA
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
so
fG
r
a
d
e1
‑
9J
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
‑
E
n
g
l
i
s
hB
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
s
:L
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cI
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
ya
n
dA
G
E
,LORa
n
dADA
SANOA
i
k
o
,NAKAJIMAK
a
z
u
k
o
,IKUTAY
u
k
o
, THOMSONH
a
i
d
e
e
,NAKANOT
o
m
o
k
o
,a
n
dFUKUKAWAM
i
s
a
Canadians
c
h
o
o
l
si
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
e
de
i
t
h
e
ri
nE
n
g
l
i
s
ho
rFrenchfromMondayt
oF
r
i
‑
dayanda
t
t
e
n
d
e
dt
h
i
ss
c
h
o
o
lonS
a
t
u
r
d
a
y
s
.T
h
i
ss
c
h
o
o
lwasu
n
i
q
u
ei
nt
h
e
s
e
n
s
et
h
a
ti
taimedt
oc
o
v
e
rt
h
ee
n
t
i
r
ec
u
r
r
i
c
u
l
as
e
tbyt
h
eM
i
n
i
s
t
r
yo
fEduca‑
t
i
o
ni
nJapanf
o
re
d
u
c
a
t
i
n
gJapaneses
t
u
d
e
n
t
sl
i
v
i
n
gi
nJ
a
p
a
n
,andt
h
u
si
twas
n
o
ts
o
l
e
l
yf
o
c
u
s
e
dont
e
a
c
h
i
n
gJapanesea
ss
e
c
o
n
do
rh
e
r
i
t
a
g
el
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
,but
r
a
t
h
e
rf
o
c
u
s
e
dont
e
a
c
h
i
n
ga
c
a
d
e
m
i
cs
u
b
j
e
c
t
sthroughJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
.T
h
i
ss
i
t
ewas
c
h
o
s
e
nf
o
rt
h
ep
r
e
s
e
n
ts
t
u
d
yb
e
c
a
u
s
eo
ft
h
i
sf
e
a
t
u
r
ewhichwase
x
p
e
c
t
e
dt
o
h
e
l
ps
t
u
d
e
n
t
sd
e
v
e
l
o
pwhatCummins(
2
0
0
1
,p
p
.6
5
‑
6
6
)h
a
sp
r
o
p
o
s
e
da
sa
c
a
‑
demiclanguagep
r
o
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y(
A
L
P
)
,andt
h
i
swouldp
r
o
v
i
d
ei
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
nabout
a
d
d
i
t
i
v
eb
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
yd
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t
.
Table 1 P
a
r
t
i
c
i
p
a
n
t
sG
r
a
d
e
, LOR, AOA, andP
a
r
e
n
t
s
'MotherTongues
G四 de" N(%)
AOA N(%)
LORN(%)
1
13
1
(
1
2
.
9
)I
Less t
h
a
n2
−−− n
u
︶
︶o
弓/− o
a
i
v
Au
eEt
n・
︑︐
i
t
︐
︐
一2
4
︑
︑
6
9
(
2
8
.
8
)
n
n
l
J ⁝白
︒
+
−
斗
・
s
u守一
−
一
EA
n
u
LH
t
尚一
C
n
a一
︒
寸
・ Ohoo
今Jh
A斗 一 /
一
︑ 一ヴ−
・
1
0n
N 一U
.
2
‑
4 2
‑
4
︶
−︶
ウゐ・︒︒
2
4
(
1
0
.
0
)
1
6
5
(
6
8
.
8
)
1
0
(
4
.
2
) I
One J
ム
今
0
‑
2
I
7
5
(
3
1
.
3
)I
Both J
ny 0︑
︑
︐
︐ s0
2
・ー
.
.
︐
〆
ヲu h
50~20.8)
4 4 1 一O
I
C‑Born
︶−︶−︶一 一
8
8
3
一
一
nuAU00
BA
a
a
s
且
一
唱 s︑
〆
一
〆
︐︑
一
a −r
z
o
r一
OA
一
o
h
00ι1A
一M
ふ
一 or
↑
・
d ζ U −巧/
P
1dAUF3
A守
I
1d−ヲ h q d
A守
︶
−︶
今
ム
白
︑
.
p
一
戸
︑ J J ︑︐
ノ
一
︑
︐
ノ
b 2一3 ウ& ζ u
一aaマ
eQJ Ihro n
︐
一
︵i一
︵一︵−︵ ︵y︵
2
I
ペ
4
ー
一
一 AVJ
OAV
目
l ︑−︑
7
0
(
2
9
.
2
)
j
Parents mothertonguesN(%)
38~ ! 5.8)
31~12.9)
4
3
(
1
7
.
9
)
N
o
t
e
.L
e
s
st
h
a
n2=Lesst
h
a
n2y
e
a
r
s
,2
・
4=longert
h
a
n2y
e
a
r
sa
n
ds
h
o
r
t
e
rt
h
a
n4y
e
a
r
s
,i
n
c
l
u
d
i
n
g2y
e
a
r
s
C‑Bom=Borni
nC
a
n
a
d
a
B
o
t
hJ=Bothp
a
r
e
n
t
sn
a
t
i
v
es
p
e
a
k
e
r
so
fJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
,OneJ=o
n
ep
a
r
e
n
tn
a
t
i
v
es
p
e
a
k
e
ro
fJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
NoJ=
n
e
i
t
h
e
ro
ft
h
ep
a
r
e
n
t
sn
a
t
i
v
es
p
e
a
k
e
r
so
fJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
Oft
h
e2
4
0s
t
u
d
e
n
t
swhop
a
r
t
i
c
i
p
a
t
e
di
nt
h
es
t
u
d
y
,1
0
6weremaleand1
3
4
weref
e
m
a
l
e
,andt
h
e
ywerebetween8
0monthst
o1
8
7monthso
l
d
,witht
h
e
meanb
e
i
n
g1
2
5
.
0
0monthsands
t
a
n
d
a
r
dd
e
v
i
a
t
i
o
n2
9
.
1
3
6
.Twelveo
fthema
t
‑
t
e
n
d
e
dFrenchImmersionS
c
h
o
o
l
,w
h
i
l
et
h
er
e
s
ta
t
t
e
n
d
e
dE
n
g
l
i
s
hmedium
s
c
h
o
o
l
sfromMondayt
oF
r
i
d
a
y
.P
a
r
t
i
c
i
p
a
n
ti
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
ni
ssummarisedi
n
t
a
b
l
e1
.
‑69‑
0 MARCH2014
)研究 Volume 1
MHB
ンガル教膏(
)
母語・継承語・バイI
n
o
i
t
c
e
l
l
o
DataC
r
i
e
h
et
v
a
oh
dt
e
k
s
swerea
t
n
e
r
a
ep
h
,t
l
a
p
i
c
n
i
r
ep
h
ft
lo
a
v
o
r
p
p
ea
h
Witht
e
t
i
r
ow
dt
e
k
s
na
e
h
sweret
t
n
e
d
u
t
.Thes
>
y2
d
u
t
es
h
nt
ei
t
a
p
i
c
i
t
r
a
np
e
r
d
l
i
h
c
:
c
i
p
o
esamet
h
hont
s
i
l
g
n
nE
ri
e
h
t
eo
h
eandt
s
e
n
a
p
a
nJ
ei
n
,o
s
n
o
i
t
i
s
o
p
m
o
twoc
s
a
osomeonewhoh
gCanadat
n
i
c
u
d
o
r
t
n
d Canada i
e
l
t
i
t
n
ye
a
s
s
eane
t
i
r
W
gyour
n
i
d
u
l
c
n
ebyi
l
b
i
s
s
o
sp
la
i
a
t
e
smuchd
ea
d
u
l
c
n
oi
.Tryt
e
r
e
nh
e
e
rb
e
v
e
n
‑
o
h
kwasc
s
a
st
i
h
"T
.
l
o
o
h
c
ts
ta
n
r
a
e
el
v
a
sandwhatyouh
e
c
n
e
i
r
e
p
x
le
a
n
o
s
r
e
p
‑
e
l
e
tr
u
o
b
ea
t
i
r
ow
dsomethingt
n
i
df
l
u
o
sc
e
g
sa
u
o
i
r
a
tv
sa
t
n
e
d
u
t
ts
a
h
ot
ns
e
s
e
h
nt
di
e
t
n
i
r
n was p
o
i
t
c
u
r
t
s
n
. The i
s
e
g
a
t
ls
a
t
n
e
m
p
o
l
e
v
e
rd
i
e
h
ot
tt
n
a
v
n
a
l
op
dt
e
w
o
l
l
ywerea
e
h
tt
e
e
h
,onwhichs
e
t
i
r
ow
dt
e
k
s
ywerea
e
h
et
g
a
u
g
n
a
l
.The
d
u
o
l
na
o
i
t
c
u
r
t
s
n
ei
h
tt
u
do
a
e
or
s
l
sa
r
e
h
c
a
e
.Thet
g
n
i
t
i
r
rw
i
e
h
ot
rt
o
i
r
p
nby
o
i
t
a
r
a
p
e
r
rp
o
0minutesf
e1
s
ou
dt
e
t
c
u
r
t
s
n
swerei
t
n
e
d
u
t
e1and2s
d
a
r
g
rbydrawing
e
h
t
i
ne
o
i
t
a
r
a
p
e
r
rp
o
sf
e
t
u
n
i
shad5m
t
n
e
d
u
t
rs
e
d
l
.Theo
g
n
i
w
a
r
d
s
e
c
n
e
r
e
f
f
i
td
h
g
i
l
.Thereweres
e
c
i
o
h
rc
i
e
h
ft
eo
g
a
u
g
n
a
el
h
nt
si
e
t
o
gn
n
i
t
i
r
rw
o
e
n
i
,l
s
e
z
i
ts
n
o
sf
ha
c
u
ss
e
g
ra
i
e
h
ot
gt
n
i
d
r
o
c
c
sa
t
e
e
h
gs
n
i
t
i
r
fw
so
t
a
m
r
o
ef
h
nt
i
,
r
e
b
m
e
c
e
nonD
o
i
t
i
s
o
p
m
o
ec
s
e
n
a
p
a
eJ
h
.Theywrotet
i
j
αn
fk
eo
s
,andu
g
n
i
c
a
p
s
e
h
nont
e
t
t
i
r
swerew
n
o
i
t
i
s
o
p
m
o
hc
s
i
l
g
n
.E
>
0minutes3
g4
n
i
d
n
e
p
,s
0
1
0
,2
1
1
.
e
m
i
ft
esameamounto
h
ht
t
i
,w
r
e
t
a
eweekl
n
ko
s
a
samet
t
u
o
b
da
e
k
s
>whicha
s4
e
r
i
a
n
n
o
i
t
s
e
u
eq
h
nt
li
l
i
of
dt
e
k
s
swerea
t
n
e
r
a
Thep
gand
n
i
d
a
e
fr
so
e
i
c
n
e
u
q
e
r
eandf
s
eu
g
a
u
g
n
a
,l
d
n
u
o
r
g
k
c
a
cb
i
t
s
i
u
g
n
i
'l
s
t
n
e
d
u
t
s
‑
l
o
ywerec
e
h
,andt
l
a
t
o
nt
si
n
o
i
t
s
e
u
5q
thome.Therewere2
sa
e
i
t
i
v
i
t
c
ga
n
i
t
i
r
w
n
.I
d
e
t
c
e
l
l
o
swerec
e
r
i
a
n
n
o
i
t
s
e
u
eq
h
ft
%o
8
.
7
.8
y
a
d
r
u
t
a
gS
n
i
w
o
l
l
o
ef
h
dt
e
t
c
e
l
.
y
d
u
t
es
h
nt
>i
5
s
t
n
e
m
e
r
i
u
q
e
er
h
ft
lo
l
da
e
t
e
l
p
m
o
sc
t
n
a
p
i
c
i
t
r
a
0p
4
,2
l
a
t
o
t
s
i
s
y
αl
An
,
y
t
i
x
e
l
p
m
o
lc
a
c
i
x
e
,l
y
c
n
e
u
l
rf
o
df
e
s
y
l
a
n
swerea
n
o
i
t
i
s
o
p
m
o
dc
e
t
c
e
l
l
o
Thec
'wasemployed
s
d
r
o
fw
.The numbero
y
c
a
r
u
c
c
,anda
y
t
i
x
e
l
p
m
o
grammaticalc
as
lw
uG
s
t
e
s
n
u
fB
e numbero
h
et
l
i
h
hw
s
i
l
g
n
nE
yi
c
n
e
u
l
ff
emeasureo
h
st
a
e
h
.Fort
)
2
0
0
2
a(
t
u
k
gI
n
i
w
o
l
l
o
,f
e
s
e
n
a
p
a
nJ
yi
c
n
e
u
l
ff
emeasureo
h
st
na
e
s
o
h
c
‑
n
a
hl
t
o
rb
o
df
e
s
esamemeasureswereu
h
,t
g
n
i
t
i
r
fw
so
t
c
e
p
s
ga
n
i
n
i
a
m
e
r
d
e
d
i
v
i
sd
e
p
y
fwordt
enumbero
h
st
da
e
t
a
l
u
c
l
a
ywasc
t
i
x
e
l
p
m
o
lc
a
c
i
x
e
:l
s
e
g
a
u
g
,
o
r
e
t
n
i
u
Q
‑
e
f
l
o
W
>(
7
s
d
r
o
fw
lnumbero
a
t
o
et
h
st
e
m
i
ftwot
to
o
o
er
r
a
u
q
es
h
byt
‑70一
W
r
i
t
i
n
gA
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
so
fG
r
a
d
eI9J
a
問n
e
s
eE
n
g
l
i
s
hB
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
s
:L
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cI
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
yandA
G
E
,LORandADA
SANOA
i
k
o
,NAKAJIMAK
a
z
u
k
o
,IKUTAY
u
k
o
, THOMSONH
a
i
d
e
e
,NAKANOT
o
m
o
k
o
,andFUKUKAWAM
i
s
a
T
a
b
l
e2 D
e
s
c
r
i
p
t
o
r
sforO
r
g
a
n
i
s
a
t
i
o
n
O
r
g
a
n
i
s
a
t
i
o
n
4
.T
h
eo
r
&
a
n
i
s
a
t
i
o
no
ft
h
ep
a
r
a
g
r
a
p
h
sc
a
nb
el
o
g
i
c
a
l
l
yu
n
d
e
r
s
t
o
o
db
yt
h
ee
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
eu
s
eo
f
c
o
町u
n
c
t
1
0
n
se
t
c
.
叩o
s
eo
fe
a
c
hp
a
r
a
g
r
a
p
hi
sc
l
e
a
rb
u
t
3
.E
a
c
hp
a
r
a
g
r
a
p
hh
a
sc
l
e
a
rt
o
p
i
cs
e
n
t
e
n
c
e
so
rt
h
ep
u
t
h
ep
a
r
a
g
r
a
p
h
sa
r
en
o
to
r
g
a
m
s
e
di
nam
a
n
n
e
rt
h
a
tc
a
nb
el
o
g
i
c
a
l
l
yu
n
d
e
r
s
t
o
o
d
,
2
,T
h
ew
r
i
t
e
rh
a
sd
i
v
i
d
e
dh
i
s
/
h
e
re
s
s
a
yi
n
t
op
a
r
a
g
r
a
p
h
sb
u
tt
h
ep
山p
o
s
e
so
fe
a
c
hp
a
r
a
g
r
a
p
h
a
r
en
o
tc
l
e
a
r
.O
r
,e
a
c
hp
a
r
a
g
r
a
p
hi
sn
o
te
l
a
b
o
r
a
t
e
da
n
dc
o
n
s
i
s
t
so
fo
n
eo
rv
e
r
yf
e
ws
e
n
‑
t
e
n
c
e
s
.A
l
s
o
,p
a
r
a
g
r
a
p
h
st
h
a
ta
r
ec
o
n
c
e
p
t
u
a
l
l
yr
e
d
u
n
d
a
n
t(
w
r
i
t
i
n
ga
b
o
u
to
n
ec
o
n
c
e
p
to
v
e
r
s
e
v
e
r
a
is
e
n
t
e
n
c
e
s
)a
n
dp
a
r
a
g
r
a
p
h
sw
i
t
hi
r
r
e
l
e
v
a
n
ts
e
n
t
e
n
c
e
sf
a
l
li
n
t
ot
h
i
sc
a
t
e
g
o
r
y
.
1
.T
h
e
r
ea
r
en
op
a
r
a
g
r
a
p
h
s
.
I
n
a
g
a
k
i
,andKim,1
9
9
8
)
,andgrammaticalc
o
m
p
l
e
x
i
t
ywasc
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
da
st
h
e
number o
fc
o
o
r
d
i
n
a
t
i
o
n
sp
e
rc
l
a
u
s
e(
s
e
n
t
e
n
c
ew
i
d
t
h
) and t
h
e number o
f
s
u
b
o
r
d
i
n
a
t
i
o
n
sp
e
rc
l
a
u
s
e(
s
e
n
t
e
n
c
ed
e
p
t
h
)
. Asf
o
rt
h
ea
c
c
u
r
a
c
yr
a
t
e
s
,t
h
e
numbero
fg
r
a
m
m
a
t
i
c
a
l
,l
e
x
i
c
a
landc
o
n
v
e
n
t
i
o
n
a
le
r
r
o
r
swerecountedbytwo
r
a
t
e
r
sandt
h
enumbero
fe
r
r
o
r
sp
e
rc
l
a
u
s
ewasc
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d
.Whenc
o
u
n
t
i
n
g
grammatical,l
e
x
i
c
a
landc
o
n
v
e
n
t
i
o
n
a
le
r
r
o
r
s
,pragmatice
r
r
o
r
sa
tr
e
g
i
s
t
e
r
l
e
v
e
l
sweren
o
ti
n
c
l
u
d
e
d
.Errorsi
ns
p
e
l
l
i
n
g
,p
u
n
c
t
u
a
t
i
o
n
,andc
a
p
i
t
a
l
i
s
a
t
i
o
ni
n
E
n
g
l
i
s
hweretakena
sc
o
n
v
e
n
t
i
o
n
a
le
r
r
o
r
s
.S
p
e
l
l
i
n
ge
r
r
o
r
si
nJapanesei
n
‑
j
i
8
)c
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
sandu
s
eo
fi
n
c
o
r
r
e
c
tk
αn
j
ic
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
sa
s
e
l
u
d
e
de
r
r
o
n
e
o
u
sk
αn
αgαnαandkαtαhαnα.
w
e
l
la
se
r
r
o
r
si
nHir
Theq
u
a
l
i
t
a
t
i
v
ea
s
p
e
c
t
so
fw
r
i
t
i
n
gwerea
l
s
oa
n
a
l
y
s
e
du
s
i
n
gr
u
b
r
i
c
sd
e
v
e
l
‑
opedf
o
rt
h
ep
r
e
s
e
n
ts
t
u
d
y
.Mores
p
e
c
i
f
i
c
a
l
l
y
,s
e
v
e
na
s
p
e
c
t
so
fw
r
i
t
i
n
ga
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
s
werea
n
a
l
y
s
e
d
:t
h
e
m
e
,o
r
g
a
n
i
s
a
t
i
o
n
,c
o
h
e
s
i
o
n
,a
u
d
i
e
n
c
ea
w
a
r
e
n
e
s
s
,r
h
e
t
o
r
i
c
,
r
i
g
i
n
a
l
i
t
y
,andb
a
l
a
n
c
e
dargument.Theser
u
b
r
i
c
sweremadeup
r
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n& o
o
ff
o
u
rd
e
s
c
r
i
p
t
o
r
se
a
c
handwered
e
s
i
g
n
e
dt
ob
eu
s
e
df
o
rbothlanguages
a
c
r
o
s
st
h
eg
r
a
d
e
s
.Anexampleo
ft
h
ed
e
s
c
r
i
p
t
o
r
sandt
h
ep
o
i
n
t
sa
l
l
o
t
t
e
df
o
r
r
g
a
n
i
s
a
t
i
o
ni
sshowni
nt
a
b
l
e2
.Ther
e
s
to
ft
h
e
themf
o
rt
h
edimensiono
fo
r
u
b
r
i
ci
sshowni
nt
h
ea
p
p
e
n
d
i
x
.
A groupo
f6
,5o
fwhicha
r
et
h
ememberso
ft
h
ep
r
e
s
e
n
tstudyc
o
n
d
u
c
t
e
d
t
h
ee
r
r
o
ra
n
a
l
y
s
i
sands
c
o
r
i
n
g
su
s
i
n
gt
h
eaforementionedr
u
b
r
i
c
s
.Twoo
f
themweren
a
t
i
v
es
p
e
a
k
e
r
so
fE
n
g
l
i
s
h
,t
h
er
e
s
tweren
a
t
i
v
es
p
e
a
k
e
r
so
fJapa‑
n
e
s
eandoneb
e
i
n
gb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
li
nE
n
g
l
i
s
handJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
.T
h
e
i
racademice
x
p
e
r
伺
t
i
s
ec
o
v
e
r
e
d Japanese language e
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n(
a
saf
i
r
s
tl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
,s
e
c
o
n
d
7
1
)研究 Volume10 MARCH2014
MHB
母語・継承語・バイリンガル教育(
,
n
o
i
t
a
c
u
d
sasecondlanguagee
,Englisha
}
e
g
a
u
g
n
a
el
g
a
t
i
r
e
languageandh
‑
a
t
i
l
a
u
eq
h
rt
o
,andf
s
n
o
i
t
i
s
o
p
m
o
dc
e
t
a
sr
r
e
t
a
.Twor
n
o
i
t
a
c
u
d
le
a
u
g
n
i
l
i
andb
e
v
i
t
a
en
h
rbeingt
e
t
a
randanotherr
e
t
a
lr
a
u
g
n
i
l
i
,oneb
g
n
i
t
i
r
fw
so
t
c
e
p
s
ea
v
i
t
‑
n
i
l
i
.Theb
e
g
a
u
g
n
a
neachl
ecompositionsi
h
dt
e
t
a
elanguager
h
ft
speakero
r
a
l
i
m
i
nas
swereconductedi
g
n
i
t
a
er
h
ft
tbotho
a
h
et
r
u
rmades
e
t
a
lr
a
u
g
‑
i
t
n
e
d
ri
o
r
r
re
o
ragreementsf
叫 e
I
‑
r
e
t
n
.Thei
s
e
g
a
u
g
n
a
el
h
ft
nbotho
manneri
f
so
t
c
e
p
s
ea
v
i
t
a
t
i
l
a
u
eq
h
rt
o
.Asf
s
m
e
t
ei
h
ft
lo
l
na
%i
8
swereover7
n
o
i
t
a
c
i
f
e
r
e
h
tt
n
e
t
x
ee
h
ot
dandmadeunambiguoust
e
w
e
i
v
e
swerer
c
i
r
b
u
er
h
,t
g
n
i
t
i
r
w
fwriting
gonesampleo
n
i
t
a
swhenr
r
e
t
a
er
h
werenodisagreementsbetweent
.Asa
y
l
t
n
e
d
n
e
p
e
d
n
di
e
t
a
swerethenr
g
n
i
t
i
r
ew
h
ft
to
s
e
er
h
,t
e
d
a
r
fromeachg
s(Cohens
c
i
t
s
i
t
a
t
rs
e
t
a
r
‑
r
e
t
n
ei
h
,t
s
n
o
i
s
s
u
c
s
i
sandd
n
o
i
s
i
v
e
er
s
e
h
ft
to
l
u
s
e
r
6forEnglish.Al‑
3
9
1to.
8
6
0forJapaneseandfrom.
2
7
8to.
7
4
κ)werefrom.
n
o
i
t
c
e
l
f
e
fR
so
t
c
e
p
s
ea
h
nt
yloweri
l
t
h
g
i
l
ywass
t
i
l
i
b
a
i
l
e
rr
e
t
a
r
‑
r
e
t
n
thoughi
‑
t
p
e
c
c
tamoderatelya
la
l
i
t
twass
,i
s
g
n
i
t
i
r
eJapanesew
h
nt
"i
y
t
i
l
a
n
i
g
i
r
&O
e
t
a
eagreementr
h
omaket
rmeasurewastakent
e
h
t
r
u
landnof
e
v
e
el
l
b
a
r
o
sf
e
r
o
c
es
h
rwasusedast
e
t
a
nbyeachr
e
v
i
sg
t
n
i
o
ep
h
ft
.Thesumo
r
e
h
g
i
h
f
so
t
c
e
p
s
ea
v
i
t
a
t
i
l
a
u
rq
o
nf
e
v
i
sg
e
r
o
c
es
h
,andthust
g
n
i
t
i
r
fw
to
c
e
p
s
ha
c
a
e
.
s
i
s
y
l
a
n
ra
e
h
t
r
u
ef
h
rt
o
o8f
grangefrom2t
n
i
t
i
r
w
Results
g
n
i
t
i
r
eW
s
e
n
a
p
a
eJ
h
rt
o
nf
o
i
t
a
i
v
e
dD
r
a
d
n
a
t
eS
h
dt
n
sa
e
r
o
c
nS
a
e
e3 M
l
b
a
T
N=240)
; g(
加
i
r
sofw
t
c
e
p
s
ea
l
b
,a
,
耳
Quant
g(N=240)
n
i
t
i
r
fw
抱 o
easpec
v
i
t
a
t
i
l
a
u
Q
e
m
e
h
T
)
2
8
.
1
4(
6
.
4
o~~anisation
0-~2.19~
1
.
4
n
o
i
s
e
h
o
C
)
5
3
.
2
1(
0
.
5
s
s
e
n
e
r
a
w
eA
c
n
e
i
d
u
A
c
i
r
o
t
e
h
R
)
7
7
.
5
5
(
4
7
.
1
9
9~~-75)
2
.
6
7~~.71~
9
.
4
lCom~lexi1?'.
a
c
i
x
e
L
I
h
t
d
i
eW
c
n
e
t
n
e
S
I
eDe~th
c
n
e
t
n
e
S
I
2~l.97~
5
.
4
e
t
a
rR
o
r
r
lE
a
c
i
t
a
m
m
a
r
G
I
7~0.11)
o
.
0
e
t
a
rR
o
r
r
lE
a
c
i
x
e
L
I
)
0
6
.
0
3(
0
.
0
)
9
9
.
1
5(
0
.
y 4
t
i
l
a
n
i
g
i
r
n& O
o
i
t
c
e
l
f
e
R
t
n
e
m
u
g
r
dA
e
c
n
a
l
a
B
y
c
n
e
u
l
F
)
2
8
.
1
9(
3
.
3
e
t
a
rR
o
r
r
lE
a
n
o
i
t
n
e
v
n
o
C
,
)
D
S
n(
a
e
.M
e
t
o
N
)
2
6
.
0
5(
3
.
0
4~0.16~
3
.
0
)
7
1
.
0
4(
1
.
0
.
o8
gran~e 合~m 2t
n
i
t
i
r
fw
so
t
c
e
p
s
ea
v
i
t
a
t
i
l
a
u
rq
o
sf
e
r
o
c
S
s
e
p
y
dt
r
o
fw
ro
e
b
m
u
en
h
st
da
e
t
a
l
u
c
l
a
sc
yi
t
i
x
e
l
p
m
o
lc
a
c
1
x
e
L
.
u
s
t
e
s
n
u
fB
ro
e
b
m
u
sn
da
e
r
u
s
a
e
sm
yi
c
n
e
u
l
F
e
h
lt
l
da
n
,a
h
t
p
e
dd
n
ha
t
d
i
ew
c
n
e
t
n
e
.S
s
d
r
o
fw
ro
e
b
m
u
ln
a
t
o
et
h
st
e
m
i
ot
w
ft
to
o
o
er
r
a
u
q
es
h
yt
db
e
d
i
v
i
d
.
s
e
r
i思1
ef
g
a
t
n
e
c
r
e
ep
r
sa
e
t
a
rr
o
・
π
e
‑72一
yandAGE,LORandAOA
c
n
e
d
n
e
p
e
d
r
e
t
n
cI
i
t
s
i
u
g
n
i
:L
s
l
a
u
g
n
i
l
i
hB
s
i
l
g
n
E
‑
e
s
e
n
a
p
a
9J
‑
e1
d
a
r
fG
so
e
i
t
i
l
i
b
gA
n
i
t
i
r
W
a
s
i
,andFUKUKAWAM
o
k
o
m
o
,NAKANOT
e
e
d
i
a
, THOMSONH
o
k
u
,IKUTAY
o
k
u
z
a
,NAKAJIMAK
o
k
i
SANOA
g
n
i
t
i
r
hW
s
i
l
g
n
eE
h
rt
o
nf
o
i
t
a
i
v
e
dD
r
a
d
n
a
t
eS
h
dt
n
sa
e
r
o
c
nS
a
e
e4 M
l
b
a
T
240)
g仰=
n
i
t
i
r
fw
so
t
c
e
p
s
ea
l
b
a
i
f
i
t
n
a
u
Q
g(N=240)
n
i
t
i
r
fw
so
l
e時 四e
v
i
t
a
t
i
l
a
u
Q
y
c
n
e
u
l
F
)
5
4
.
2
3
1
(
2
9
.
1
8
1
J
lCom~lexi1?'.
a
c
i
x
e
L
9~l.61)
4
.
4
9~~.00~
4
.
4
由
eWid
c
n
e
t
n
e
S
I
8 (0.79~
3
.
0
)
9
0
.
2
4(
6
.
4
h
t
p
e
eD
c
n
e
t
n
e
S
I
e
t
a
rR
o
r
r
lE
a
c
i
t
a
m
m
a
r
G
I
)
5
1
.
0
2(
2
.
0
7~0.32~
3
.
0
e
t
a
rR
o
r
r
lE
a
c
i
x
e
L
I
)
3
1
.
0
(
4
1
.
0
e
m
e
h
T
)
5
9
.
l
3(
0
.
4
Or~anisation
1 ~2.15~
5
.
3
n
o
i
s
e
h
o
C
s
s
e
n
e
r
a
w
eA
c
n
e
i
d
u
A
9~! .89~
6
.
3
c
i
r
o
t
e
h
R
)
2
1
.
2
8(
8
.
y 3
t
i
l
a
n
i
g
i
r
n& O
o
i
t
c
e
l
f
e
R
t
n
e
m
u
g
r
dA
e
c
n
a
l
a
B
)
8
8
.
1
8(
8
.
2
e
t
a
rR
o
r
r
lE
a
n
o
i
t
n
e
v
n
o
C
)
8
9
.
0
5(
7
.
0
.
)
D
S
n(
a
e
.M
e
t
o
N
・
.
o8
m2t
n
r
ef
g
n
a
gr
n
i
t
i
r
fw
so
t
c
e
p
s
ea
v
i
t
a
t
i
l
a
u
rq
!
'
sf
e
r
o
c
S
s
e
p
y
dt
r
o
fw
ro
e
b
m
u
en
h
st
da
e
t
a
l
u
c
l
a
ic
ys
t
i
x
e
l
p
m
o
lc
a
c
i
x
e
.L
s
d
r
o
fw
ro
e
b
m
u
sn
da
e
r
u
s
a
e
1m
ys
c
n
e
u
l
F
e
h
lt
l
da
n
,a
h
t
p
e
dd
n
ha
t
d
i
ew
c
n
e
t
n
e
.S
s
d
r
o
fw
ro
e
b
m
u
ln
a
t
o
et
h
st
e
m
i
ot
w
ft
to
o
o
er
r
a
u
q
es
h
yt
db
e
d
i
v
i
d
.
s
e
r
u
g
i
ef
g
a
t
n
e
c
r
e
ep
r
sa
e
t
a
rr
u
η
e
e
v
i
t
a
t
i
t
n
a
u
eandq
v
i
t
a
t
i
l
a
u
nq
sbothi
e
r
o
c
emeans
h
tt
n
e
s
e
r
s3and4p
e
l
b
a
T
‑
a
i
v
e
estandardd
h
rwitht
e
h
t
e
g
o
nJapaneseandEnglisht
si
t
c
e
p
s
ga
n
i
t
i
r
w
‑
n
a
sl
s
o
r
c
ycompareda
l
t
c
e
r
i
tcanbed
a
h
gt
n
i
t
i
r
fw
so
t
c
e
p
s
ea
h
.Fort
s
n
o
i
t
swere
e
u
l
a
ev
h
,t
y
t
i
x
e
l
p
m
o
lc
a
c
i
x
e
sandl
t
c
e
p
s
ea
v
i
t
a
t
i
l
a
u
,namelyq
s
e
g
a
u
g
,thoughnot
s
e
t
a
rr
o
r
r
,grammaticale
o
s
l
.A
s
e
s
a
nmostc
nJapanesei
higheri
s
s
o
r
c
sa
e
c
n
e
r
e
f
f
i
cd
i
t
s
i
u
g
n
i
el
h
ot
eduet
s
n
e
ts
c
i
r
t
nas
ycomparablei
l
t
c
a
x
e
t
a
h
et
t
a
c
i
d
n
si
t
l
u
s
e
er
s
e
h
,t
r
e
h
t
e
g
o
.T
h
s
i
l
g
n
nE
,weremuchhigheri
s
e
g
a
u
g
n
a
l
.
y
d
u
t
ss
i
h
nt
si
t
n
e
d
u
t
es
h
ft
rmosto
o
rlanguagef
e
g
n
o
r
t
es
h
st
Japanesei
s
e
i
t
i
l
i
b
ga
n
i
t
i
r
nw
si
p
i
h
s
n
o
i
t
a
l
e
er
h
ft
eo
r
u
t
c
i
lp
l
a
r
e
v
eo
h
et
e
os
rt
e
d
r
no
I
reach
o
df
e
t
c
u
d
n
o
swerec
e
s
y
l
a
n
la
a
n
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
,c
e
s
e
n
a
p
a
handJ
s
i
l
g
n
sE
s
o
r
c
a
)
nsr
o
s
r
a
e
P
h(
s
i
l
g
n
dE
n
ea
s
e
n
a
p
a
sJ
s
o
r
c
ga
n
i
t
i
r
fW
so
e
r
o
c
eS
h
nt
e
e
w
t
e
sb
n
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
e5 C
l
b
a
T
g(N=240)
n
i
t
i
r
fw
so
t
c
悔 @ 叩e
b
a
i
f
i
t
n
a
u
Q
g(N=24句
n
i
t
i
r
fw
so
t
c
e
p
s
ea
v
i
伯t
i
t
a
u
Q
e
m
e
百1
*
*
9
5
4
.
y
c
n
e
u
l
F
*
*
9
6
5
.
n
o
i
t
a
s
i
n
a
g
r
O
*
*
0
2
5
.
y
t
i
x
e
l
p
m
o
lC
a
c
i
x
e
L
*
*
5
9
4
.
n
o
i
s
e
h
o
C
7*事
6
3
.
也
eWid
c
n
e
t
n
e
S
0
3
0
.
‑
s
s
e
n
e
r
a
w
eA
c
n
e
i
d
u
A
*
*
5
0
4
.
eD~th
c
n
e
t
n
e
IS
*
1*
4
3
.
c
i
r
o
t
e
h
R
6事隼
6
4
.
e
t
a
rR
o
r
r
lE
a
c
i
t
a
m
m
a
r
IG
2
0
1
.
‑
3場権
0
5
y .
t
i
l
a
n
i
g
i
r
n& O
o
i
t
c
e
l
f
e
R
e
t
a
rR
o
r
r
lE
a
c
i
x
e
L
7
5
0
.
t
n
e
m
u
g
r
dA
e
c
n
a
l
a
B
e
t
a
rR
o
r
r
lE
a
n
o
i
t
n
e
v
n
o
C
*
*
9
8
1
.
6常事
7
3
.
1
.0
.権事p<
e
t
o
N
‑73ー
母語・継承語・パイI
)
ンガル教育 (
MHB
)研究 Volume 10 MARCH2014
T
a
b
l
e6 P
a
r
t
i
a
lC
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
sb
e
t
w
e
e
nt
h
eW
r
i
t
i
n
gS
c
o
r
e
sa
c
r
o
s
sL
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
sC
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
g
f
o
rA
G
E
,L
O
R
,a
n
dAOA
Q
u
a
l
i
t
a
t
i
v
ea
s
p
e
c
t
so
fw
r
i
t
i
n
g (N=240)
C
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
gf
o
r
AGE
LOR
Q
u
a
n
t
i
f
i
a
b
l
ea
s
p
e
c
t
so
fw
r
i
t
i
n
g (N=240)
AOA
C
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
gf
o
r
AGE
LOR
AOA
Theme
.
4
1
0
*
*
.
5
0
9
*
*
.
4
8
2
*
* I
F
l
u
e
n
c
y
.
3
9
8ホホ
.
6
1
5
*
* .
6
3
0
*
*
Or~anisation
.
3
4
5
*
*
.
5
5
6料
.
5
2
9
*
* I
L
e
xCom?4
.
3
4
0
*
*
.
5
3
8
*
* .
5
8
2料
C
o
h
e
s
i
o
n
.
2
3
2料
.
3
9
0料
.
3
8
8料
l
S
e
n
tW
i
d
t
h5
‑
.
0
1
0
‑
.
0
1
9
.
4
4
6*キ
.
4
4
2
*
* I
S
e
n
tD
e
p
t
h6
.
2
7
8本*
.
3
4
4
*
* .
3
2
6材
.
3
3
1料
.
5
5
8
*
*
.
5
2
6
*
* I
GramE
r
r
o
r7
‑
.
1
0
0
・
.
0
4
3
・
.
0
4
1
R
e
f& O
r
i
g2 .
3
1
9料
.
5
4
9
*
*
.
5
0
8料
I
LexE
r
r
o
r8
.
0
6
6
.
0
7
4
.
0
8
7
.
3
7
9市*
.
3
4
1本*
I
ConvE
r
r
o
r9
.
1
0
4
.
1
9
7
*
* .
1
4
6ホ
A
u
d
iAware1 .
2
9
7
*
*
R
h
e
t
o
r
i
c
B
a
lArg3
.
3
0
7市*
‑
.
0
1
1
Note.
=
A
u
d
i
e
n
c
eA
w
a
r
e
n
e
s
s
,2
=
R
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
na
n
dO
r
i
g
i
n
a
l
i
t
y
,3
=
B
a
l
a
n
c
e
dA
r
g
u
m
e
n
t
,4
=
L
e
x
i
c
a
lC
o
m
p
l
e
x
i
t
y
,
5
=
S
e
n
t
e
n
c
eW
i
d
t
h
,6
=S
e
n
t
e
n
c
eD
e
p
t
h
,?
=
G
r
a
m
m
a
t
i
c
a
lE
r
r
o
rR
a
t
e
s
,8
=L
e
x
i
c
a
lE
r
r
o
rR
a
t
e
s
,
9
=
C
o
n
v
e
n
t
i
o
n
a
lE
r
r
o
rR
a
t
e
s
.
*
p<
.
0
5,ホ* p<.01
aspecto
fthewritings
k
i
l
l
s
.Moderatec
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
swerefoundbetweenEng‑
)
.
l
i
s
handJapanesei
na
l
lsevenq
u
a
l
i
t
a
t
i
v
ea
s
p
e
c
t
so
fwritinga
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
s(
t
a
b
l
e5
Asf
o
rtheq
u
a
n
t
i
f
i
a
b
l
ea
s
p
e
c
t
so
fw
r
i
t
i
n
g
;fluencyandl
e
x
i
c
a
lcomplexitywere
foundt
omoderatelyc
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
e
,whilenos
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
tc
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
swerefound
betweensentencewidthanderrorr
a
t
e
si
ngrammarandvocabularyacross
EnglishandJapanese. Sentence depthand conventional errorr
a
t
epresent
weakc
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
sacrossthelanguages.Takent
o
g
e
t
h
e
r
,i
tseemsthatgood
writersi
nJapanesetendt
obegoodwritersi
nEnglishwhereq
u
a
l
i
t
a
t
i
v
ea
s
‑
p
e
c
t
so
fwritingareconcerned,andstudentswhowritelongert
e
x
t
s
,orwho
writewithmorev
a
r
i
e
t
yi
nvocabulary,orwithmorecomplexsentencestend
t
odosoi
nbothlanguages, butt
h
i
sinterdependentnaturewasnotfound
wheni
tcametosentencewidthandgrammaticalandl
e
x
i
c
a
lerrorr
a
t
e
s
.
I
nordertoseethecontributionofAGE,LOR,andAOAontherelation‑
s
h
i
p
sbetweenwritinga
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
si
nEnglishandJapanese, a s
e
r
i
e
so
fp
a
r
t
i
a
l
c
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
a
lanalyseswereconductedc
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
gf
o
ronef
a
c
t
o
ratatime(
s
e
e
t
a
b
l
e6
)
.
Fora
l
lo
ftheq
u
a
l
i
t
a
t
i
v
ea
s
p
e
c
t
s
,thec
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
swerethehighestwhen
LORwasc
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
e
d
. Asf
o
rsentencewidth,grammaticalerrorr
a
t
eandl
e
x
i
‑
c
a
lerrorr
a
t
etherewerenos
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
tc
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
swithanyo
fthef
a
c
t
o
r
s
‑74‑
W
r
i
t
i
n
gA
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
so
fG
r
a
d
e1
‑
9J
a
p
a
n
e
s
eE
n
g
l
i
s
h8
1
/
t
n
g
u
a
l
s
:L
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cI
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
yandA
G
E
,LORandADA
く
a
z
u
k
o
,IKUTAY
u
k
o
, THOMSONH
a
i
d
e
e
,NAKANOT
o
m
o
k
o
,andFUKUKAWAM
i
s
a
SANOA
i
k
o
,NAKAJIMAf
T
a
b
l
e7 C
o
m
p
a
r
i
s
o
no
fW
r
i
t
i
n
gC
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
sa
c
r
o
s
sL
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
sb
yAGEG
r
o
u
p
sC
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
g
f
o
rLORa
n
dAOA
Pearson's r
r~。;'fη1
Theme
.
1
4
4
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
・
−
・
・
・
・
ー
ー
−
ー
−
ー
ー
・
・
・
・ e,
ー
ー
ー
・
・
ー
ー
ー
ー
ー
・
・
.
.
.
ー ・..........
Gr~~~~)
.
3
9
1ホ*
・
・
・
・
・
・
・
・
・
・
・
.
.
.
.
ー
F
i
s
h
e
r
'
sz
~'/l~G勾3
.
5
4
0ホ*
r
2‑r
1
r
3‑r
2
r
3‑r
1
1
.
3
1
2
.
5
0*本
‑
0
.
4
1
.
1
5
0
.
5
2
1
.
4
0
1
.
4
7
−
−
ー
.
.
.
・
・
ー
・
,
・
ー
,dー
ー
・
ー
・
・
.
. ‑−−・................................................
O
r
g
a
n
i
s
a
t
i
o
n
.
3
5
0
*
.
2
8
5本*
.
4
3
1*
*
C
o
h
e
s
i
o
n
.
0
9
0
.
1
8
0
.
3
3
3ホ*
I‑
0
.
5
1
.
1
2
AudA
w
a
r
e1
.
3
3
8
*
.
3
0
6
*
*
.
3
3
4
*
* I‑
0
.
2
0
.
2
1
四
0
.
0
2
R
h
e
t
o
r
i
c
I.
2
1
0
.
3
1
1*本
.
5
2
3*本
0
.
5
9
1
.
7
7
2
.
0
0
*
R
e
f& O
r
i
g2
I.
3
3
3ホ
.
3
4
6料
.
3
9
1
*
*
0
.
0
8
0
.
3
6
0
.
3
6
.
0
5
9
.
4
0
1ホ*
.
3
0
0ホ*
I2
.
0
1
*
.
6
0
0*ホ
.
4
9
5
*
*
.
4
0
8
*
* I・0
.
8
3
L
e
xC
o
m
P
.4
I.
4
5
9
*
*
.
2
9
0
*
*
.
3
8
9
*
*
I1
.
0
8
S
e
n
tW
i
d
t
h5
I・.
0
6
4
.
1
9
3
・
.
o
7
5
I1
.
4
2
S
e
n
tDe~th
I.
0
5
5
.
2
7
6
*
*
.
4
0
4
*
* I1
.
2
5
0
.
9
9
2
.
0
4
*
I‑
.
2
0
2
.
0
0
6
.
0
7
4
0
.
4
7
1
.
5
2
‑
1
.
3
3
・1
.
2
6
‑
0
.
4
0
3
.
1
7
*
*
B
a
lAr~
3
F
l
u
e
n
c
y
6
GramE
r
r
o
r7
司
I1
.
1
6
L
e
xE
r
r
o
r8
.
1
5
9
.
1
2
3
・
.
0
7
1
ConvE
r
r
o
r9
・
.
1
3
5
.
4
6
5
*
*
.
4
1
8
*
* I3
.
5
1*
*
ー.
0
2
0
0
.
7
9
1
.
3
7
・
0
.
7
5
‑
1
.
4
2
0
.
7
7
・
0
.
4
7
司
司
1
.
8
5
・
0
.
0
6
N
o
t
e
.G
r
o
u
p:
Ia
g
e
<9
6m
o
n
t
h
s
,Group2
:9
6m
o
n
t
h
s豆a
g
e
<1
3
2m
o
n
t
h
s
,G
r
o
u
p3
:a
g
e孟 1
3
2
m
o
n
t
h
s
;二鎚.~e:~e iia~~~e5J,;,s2e~間:~c!I毘r 簡単品ti~;IBa出;;ct fri~~:Ues~ t~i~!tal E;~r;ip匙:~:
9
=
C
o
n
v
e
n
t
i
o
n
a
lE
r
r
o
rR
a
t
e
s
. *p<
.
0
5
,*
*p<
.
0
1
c
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
e
df
o
r
.Inf
l
u
e
n
c
yandl
e
x
i
c
a
lcomplexity,c
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
swerethehighest
whenAOAwasc
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
e
dwhilef
o
rs
e
n
t
e
n
c
edepthandconventionalerror
r
a
t
e
s
,c
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
swerehighestwhenLORwasc
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
e
d
.
Tofurtheri
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
ethei
n
f
l
u
e
n
c
eo
fAGEonther
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
h
i
pbetween
variousa
s
p
e
c
t
so
fwritings
k
i
l
l
sa
c
r
o
s
sEnglishandJapanese,thestudents
,olderthan8and
wered
i
v
i
d
e
di
n
t
ot
h
r
e
egroupsbasedona
g
e
;youngerthan8
youngerthan1
1
,andolderthan1
1
,andp
a
r
t
i
a
lc
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
so
fthes
c
o
r
e
so
b
‑
t
a
i
n
e
df
o
reacha
s
p
e
c
t
so
fwiringa
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
sa
c
r
o
s
sJapaneseandEnglishwere
c
o
r
e
swerethencomparedby
c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
dc
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
gf
o
rLORandAOA.Thers
meanso
fFishersztransformation.Ther
e
s
u
l
t
sareshowni
nt
a
b
l
e7
.
Thec
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
sbetweenthep
o
i
n
t
sgivenf
o
rtheme,c
o
h
e
s
i
o
n
,r
h
e
t
o
r
i
c
,
r
i
g
i
n
a
l
i
t
y
, and s
e
n
t
e
n
c
edepth werestrongerf
o
rhigherage
r
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n& o
groups, i
n
d
i
c
a
t
i
n
g stronger interdependency a
c
r
o
s
s languages i
nt
h
e
s
e
‑75
母語・継承語・パイI
J
.
ンガJ
v
教 育{
MHB
)研究 Volume10 MARCH2014
T
a
b
l
e8 C
o
m
p
a
r
i
s
o
no
fW
r
i
t
i
n
gC
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
sa
c
r
o
s
sL
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
sb
yLORG
r
o
u
p
sC
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
g
f
o
rAGEa
n
dAOA
F
i
s
h
e
r
'
sz
P
e
a
r
s
o
n
'
sr
Grouo1
(N
=
列O
J
Group2
(N=6
旬
T
h
e
m
e
O
r
g
a
n
i
s
a
t
i
o
n
.
5
3
4
.
5
5
1
.
4
9
9ホ*
.
3
1
5
C
o
h
e
s
i
o
n
AudA
w
a
r
e1
.
3
2
6
*
*
.
3
6
6*ホ
.
5
1
5*事
.
2
8
2事
.
3
9
7*事
.
4
0
9常事
I.
5
2
4
*
*
R
h
e
t
o
r
i
c
命事
事
Group3
(N=101)
'•・ r、
.
4
6
0
*
* I‑
0
.
2
8
・
0
.
3
2
‑
0
.
6
2
.
3
8
2
*
* I・1
.
6
9
.
2
6
8
*
* I‑
0
.
2
8
.
4
1
6
*
* I0
.
2
1
0
.
4
8
‑
1
.
3
7
‑
0
.
l
‑
0
.
4
0
.
1
4
0
.
3
7
‑
1
.
0
8
F
l
u
e
n
c
y
L
e
xCom~ 4
I.
3
1
6
*
.
4
7
5
*
*
.
3
0
7*市
.
5
1
3
*
.
4
7
3事*
.
3
7
8
*
*
.
3
1
2
*
*
.
1
2
6
.
5
6
0事事
I・0
.
7
8
I‑
1
.
5
3
I1
.
3
8
I‑
0
.
0
1
I.
3
9
0
*
*
.
4
3
2*ホ
.
5
4
2
常事
S
e
n
tW
i
d
t
hj
I・.
0
3
4
.
0
8
0
.
0
1
0
S
e
n
tD
e
p
t
hi
t
G
r
a
mE
r
r
o
r7
I.
3
9
2
*
*
I.
0
0
6
.
3
3
1
*
*
・
.
1
0
0
L
e
xE
r
r
o
r8
C
o
n
vE
r
r
o
r9
I‑
.
1
2
0
・
.
1
9
8
* I・0
.
4
.
0
0
9 I・0
.
6
1
.
3
8
8
*
* I0
.
4
9
‑
.
2
4
6
*
.
2
3
3
*
R
e
f& Ori~ 2
B
a
lA
r
gi
:
.
2
2
1
.
0
3
6
ら・円
ら ら
・
0
.
2
3
o
.
o
3
‑
2
.
7
6
帥
・1
.
6
3
・
1
.
2
6
I0
.
2
9
0
.
7
5
o
.
9
1
0
.
7
3
1
.
2
3
I0
.
6
6
・
0
.
4
4
0
.
2
8
0
.
9
0
.
6
9
1
.
3
5
0
.
0
2
・
・
2
.
8
*
*
3
.
3
4
*
*
‑
2
.
7
4
*
*
0
.
0
9
0
.
0
8
LOR<2
4m
o
n
t
h
s
,G
r
o
u
p
2
:2
4mo1_1t~s 壬 LOR<6
0m
o
n
t
h
s
,G
r
o
u
p3
:LOR~ 6
0m
o
n
t
h
s
.
!
=
A
u
d
i
e
n
c
eA
w
a
r
e
n
e
s
s
,2
=
R
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
na
n
dO
r
i
g
i
n
a
l
i
t
y
,3
=
B
a
l
a
n
c
e
da
r
g
u
m
e
n
t
,4
=
L
e
x
i
c
a
lC
o
m
p
l
e
x
i
t
y
,
5
=
S
e
n
t
e
n
c
t
:W
i
d
t
h
,6
=
S
e
n
t
e
n
c
eD
e
p
t
h
,?
=
G
r
a
m
m
a
t
i
c
a
lE
r
r
o
rR
a
t
e
s
,8
=
L
e
x
1
c
a
lE
r
r
o
rR
a
t
e
s
,
9
=
C
o
n
v
e
n
t
l
o
n
a
lE
r
r
o
rR
a
t
e
s
. p<.05,恥* p<.01
N
o
t
e
.Gr~upl:
申
a
s
p
e
c
t
switho
l
d
e
rs
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
.Ont
h
ec
o
n
t
r
a
r
y
,f
l
u
e
n
c
yp
r
e
s
e
n
t
e
dt
h
eo
p
p
o
s
i
t
e
t
r
e
n
d
,withh
i
g
h
e
rc
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
sf
o
ryoungerg
r
o
u
p
s
.Whent
h
erv
a
l
u
e
swere
comparedbymeanso
fF
i
s
h
e
rszt
r
a
n
s
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
,t
h
ed
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
sbetweent
h
e
youngestandt
h
eo
l
d
e
s
tgroupswerea
ts
t
a
t
i
s
t
i
c
a
l
l
ys
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
tl
e
v
e
l
sf
o
r
t
h
e
m
e
,r
h
e
t
o
r
i
c
,s
e
n
t
e
n
c
ed
e
p
t
h
,andc
o
n
v
e
n
t
i
o
n
a
le
r
r
o
rr
a
t
e
s
.Pearsonsrv
a
l
‑
u
e
sf
o
rgroups1and2werefoundt
obes
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t
l
yd
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
ti
nb
a
l
a
n
c
e
da
r
‑
gumentandc
o
n
v
e
n
t
i
o
n
a
le
r
r
o
rr
a
t
e
s
.
T
a
b
l
e8p
r
e
s
e
n
t
scomparisonso
fPearsonsrv
a
l
u
e
sw
i
t
hv
a
r
y
i
n
gLORi
n
anE
n
g
l
i
s
hs
p
e
a
k
i
n
ge
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
;group1b
e
i
n
gt
h
es
h
o
r
t
e
s
tLOR,l
e
s
sthan
2y
e
a
r
s
,group3b
e
i
n
gmorethan5y
e
a
r
sandgroup2i
nb
e
t
w
e
e
n
.Though
Pearsonsrv
a
l
u
e
sp
r
e
s
e
n
tas
u
b
t
l
ed
e
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
gt
r
e
n
dwiths
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
'LORi
nt
h
e
a
r
e
ao
ft
h
e
m
e
,c
o
h
e
s
i
o
n
,r
h
e
t
o
r
i
c
,ands
e
n
t
e
n
c
ed
e
p
t
h
,t
h
ed
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
sbetween
groups1and3weren
o
ts
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t
.Audiencea
w
a
r
e
n
e
s
s
,l
e
x
i
c
a
lc
o
m
p
l
e
x
i
t
y
‑76‑
W
r
i
t
i
n
gA
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
so
fG
r
a
d
e1
‑
9J
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
‑
E
n
g
l
i
s
hB
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
s
:L
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cI
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
yandA
G
E
,LORandAOA
SANOA
i
k
o
,NAKAJIMAK
a
z
u
A
く
o
,IKUTAY
u
k
o
, THOMSONH
a
i
d
e
e
,NAKANOT
o
m
o
k
o
,andFUKUKAWAM
i
s
a
T
a
b
l
e9 C
o
m
p
a
r
i
s
o
no
fW
r
i
t
i
n
gC
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
sa
c
r
o
s
sL
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
sb
yAOAG
r
o
u
p
sC
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
g
f
o
rAGEa
n
dLOR
P
e
a
r
s
o
nsr
Grouo1
(N=75)
.
6
3
9市*
ら
−
r
,
I‑
1
.
2
1
A
1A
U
den来 U
品
nY
−
品寸
*一*
*一*
*
F
也aT
勾
今
︑
︒
︒
刊令J
*一*
**
C
o
h
e
s
i
o
n
nyfo
nyJ 今︐創
Or~anisation
.
3
5I
*
*
7一 a
uマ
一r
8
o
A
ζJ
4
9
9ホ*
Group3
勾
(N=4
︑
丹AU
目
r
o
e
Jrnv
︑
3 一向
Theme
F
i
s
h
e
r
'
sz
Group2
(N=122)
ら
−
r
,
らー円
2
.
1
3
*
1
.
0
6
0
.
8
7
0
.
5
6
3
.
1
2牢ホ
1
.
5
2
・−ー,・・ーー. ,
,
.
,
.
.
2
0
0
*
.
4
6
5
*
* I‑
2
.
8
8
*
*
1
.
6
5
‑
.
0
.
6
5
R
h
e
t
o
r
i
c
.
3
9
6
*
*
.
3
6
1*
*
.
2
7
.
5
2
2
*
* I・0
1
.
1
0
0
.
8
1
3
5
8本*
.
3
6
2
*
*
.
4
5
9
*
* I0
.
0
3
0
.
6
4
0
.
6
2
B
a
lAr_~)
.
2
0
7
.
3
3
0
*
*
.
3
5
6
*
0
.
1
6
0
.
8
2
F
l
u
e
n
c
y
.
6
3
6*ホ
.
3
8
7
*
*
.
3
0
*
.
4
7
7
*
* I・2
0
.
6
1
‑
1
.
1
8
I.
5
3
0
.
3
4
1端本
.
4
1
1
*
* I・1
.
5
7
S
e
n
tW
i
d
t
h5
I.
0
0
5
.
0
5
3
‑
.
1
4
1
S
e
n
tD
e
P
.
t
h6
.
0
7
6
.
3
4
1*
*
.
4
2
8
*
* I1
.
8
7
GramE
r
r
o
r7
.
1
1
4
‑
.
1
7
7
.
2
4
6
L
e
xE
r
r
o
r8
.
5
0
9市 * ー.
0
2
9
C
o
n
vE
r
r
o
r9
.
2
2
3
Ref& O
r
i
g2
J
一也− T
J
1
.
8
3
一戸︑
本
I
.
4
6
.
3
3
0
* I‑
l
u
−
‑
3
.
9
5* * ー0
.
8
3
︒九U
7F
AU ヲ−
.
1
7
8
I‑
1
.
9
6
*
−一
.
0
0
9
司
0
.
3
2
−
凸
U
*本
ー
一
−
−
︐
︑
︐ 一
今
l
4
0
.
8
9
Aω
L
e
xCom~
目
内 d
づf m l
A
υ 一AU一 i h
−−一
.
5
6
0
*
*
店一ぴ一 6 一5
AudA
w
a
r
e1
0
.
6
9
‑
3
.
7
6
*
*
0
.
5
9
N
o
t
eG
r
o
u
pI
:AOA=Om
o
n
t
h
,G
r
o
u
p2
:AOA
く1
2
0m
o
n
t
h
s
,G
r
o
u
p3
:AOAミ1
2
0m
o
n
t
h
s
目
!
=
A
u
d
i
e
n
c
eA
w
a
r
e
n
e
s
s
,2
=R
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
na
n
dO
r
i
g
i
n
a
l
i
t
y3
=
B
a
l
a
n
c
e
dA
r
g
u
m
e
n
t
,4
=
L
e
x
i
c
a
lC
o
m
p
l
e
x
i
t
y
,
5
=
S
e
n
t
e
n
c
eW
i
d
t
h
,6
=
S
e
n
t
e
n
c
eD
e
p
t
h
,?
=
G
r
a
m
m
a
t
i
c
a
lE
r
r
o
rR
a
t
e
s
,8
=L
e
x
i
c
a
lE
r
r
o
rR
a
t
e
s
,
9
=
C
o
n
v
e
n
t
i
o
n
a
lE
r
r
o
rR
a
t
e
s
.F
o
rt
h
eAOA=0g
r
o
u
p
,o
n
l
yt
h
eAGEw
a
sc
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
e
da
sf
o
rt
h
e
s
es
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
AGE=LOR
*pく .
0
5
,*
*p<
.
0
1
andl
e
x
i
c
a
le
r
r
o
rr
a
t
e
sp
r
e
s
e
n
tt
h
eo
p
p
o
s
i
t
et
r
e
n
dwithstrongerc
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
a
c
r
o
s
s languages withlongerLORs, onlyt
h
el
e
x
i
c
a
le
r
r
o
rr
a
t
e
s between
groups2and3
,andgroups1and3provedtobes
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t
.
Therv
a
l
u
ef
o
r BalancedArgument"o
ft
h
es
t
u
d
e
n
t
swhohadbeeni
n
Canadaf
o
rmorethan5y
e
a
r
swass
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t
l
ylowerthant
h
a
to
ft
h
o
s
ewho
hadbeeni
nCanadaf
o
r2t
o5y
e
a
r
s
,butt
h
e
r
ewasnos
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
td
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
eb
e
‑
tweengroups1and3
.Asf
o
rt
h
ec
o
n
v
e
n
t
i
o
n
a
le
r
r
o
r
s
,i
twasfoundt
h
a
tt
h
e
d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
ei
nt
h
ec
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
swass
t
a
t
i
s
t
i
c
a
l
l
ys
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
tbetweengroups1
and2
,withgroup2presentingnegativecorrelation.
Table9p
r
e
s
e
n
t
scomparisonso
fPearsonsrv
a
l
u
e
swithvaryingAOA;
group1beingt
h
o
s
eborni
nCanada,group3beingt
h
o
s
ewhocamet
oCanada
a
tt
h
eageo
f1
0oro
l
d
e
r
,andgroup2i
nb
e
t
w
e
e
n
.Therv
a
l
u
e
swerecompared
‑77‑
)研究 VolumeTO MARCH2014
MHB
母語・継承語・パイリンガル教育 (
‑
e
n
e
eb
l
b
a
st
i
h
nt
sfoundi
n
r
e
t
t
a
.Twop
n
o
i
t
a
m
r
o
f
s
n
a
r
r zt
e
h
s
i
、
fE
bymeanso
o
i
t
a
er
h
rt
ho
t
p
e
ed
c
n
e
t
n
e
fs
no
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
ec
h
et
l
i
h
tw
a
h
st
.Onei
n
o
i
t
n
e
t
t
ta
i
f
,
hgroup1
t
i
dw
e
v
r
e
s
b
to
o
sn
ei
s
e
n
a
p
a
handJ
s
i
l
g
n
sE
s
o
r
c
na
o
i
t
a
n
i
d
r
o
b
u
fs
o
etwo
h
ft
no
o
s
i
r
a
p
m
o
ec
h
,andt
hgroup3
t
i
lw
e
v
e
tamoderatel
ea
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
yc
e
h
t
‑
r
o
ec
h
tt
a
h
st
ri
e
h
t
.Theo
t
n
a
c
i
f
i
n
g
i
es
ob
swasfoundt
c
i
t
s
i
t
a
t
ls
a
n
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
c
nCanadawasmuch
ewhowereborni
s
o
h
ht
t
i
sw
e
t
a
rr
o
r
r
le
a
c
i
x
e
fl
no
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
o
dt
e
v
o
r
sp
e
r
o
c
fwhichzs
rtwogroupso
e
h
t
eo
h
nt
si
t
n
e
d
u
t
es
h
rthant
e
h
g
i
h
.
t
n
a
c
i
f
i
n
g
i
ys
l
l
a
c
i
t
s
i
t
a
t
es
b
n
o
i
s
s
u
c
s
i
D
n
si
t
c
e
p
s
cA
i
f
i
c
e
p
S
‑
e
g
a
u
g
n
a
s andL
t
c
e
p
s
tA
n
e
d
n
e
p
e
d
r
e
t
n
yI
l
l
a
c
i
t
s
i
u
g
n
i
L
g
n
i
t
i
r
lW
a
u
g
n
i
l
i
hB
s
i
l
g
n
E
・
e
s
e
αn
Jap
‑
a
t
i
l
a
u
eq
h
nt
e
e
w
t
e
sb
e
s
y
l
a
n
la
a
n
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
fc
so
t
l
u
s
e
er
h
,t
e
v
o
b
Asshowna
hand
s
i
l
g
n
sE
s
o
r
c
sa
n
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
dmoderatec
e
t
n
e
s
e
r
gp
n
i
t
i
r
fw
so
t
c
e
p
s
ea
v
i
t
‑
n
o
sc
n
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
lc
a
i
t
r
a
np
ni
e
v
re
a
e
p
p
a
s
i
td
o
dn
i
sd
n
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
.Suchc
e
s
e
n
a
p
a
J
‑
p
o
l
e
v
e
ed
g
a
u
g
n
a
sl
l
a
u
g
n
i
l
i
eb
h
tt
c
e
f
f
oa
sknownt
r
o
t
c
a
ef
e
r
h
et
h
rt
o
gf
n
i
l
l
o
r
t
nLl
si
r
e
t
i
r
tgoodw
a
h
tshowst
l
u
s
e
sr
i
h
mentnamelyAGE,LOR,andAOA.T
swho
t
n
e
d
u
t
hs
t
i
sw
t
s
i
x
ye
c
n
e
d
n
e
p
e
d
r
e
t
n
hi
c
u
nL2ands
si
r
e
t
i
r
egoodw
r
a
e
v
a
rwhoh
to
n
e
c
e
yr
l
e
v
i
t
a
l
e
tr
n
e
m
n
o
r
i
v
n
ge
n
i
k
a
e
p
hs
s
i
l
g
n
oanE
ecomet
v
a
h
e
v
i
t
a
t
i
l
a
u
ewhenq
k
i
l
sa
t
n
e
d
u
t
ds
l
hyoungando
t
i
nCanadaandw
nborni
e
e
b
f
so
l
l
i
k
rs
e
d
r
ro
e
h
g
i
eh
h
tt
a
h
gt
n
i
d
n
i
sf
i
h
.T
d
e
n
r
e
c
n
o
ec
r
ga
n
i
t
i
r
fw
so
t
c
e
p
s
a
‑
t
i
sl
u
o
i
v
e
r
hp
t
i
ew
c
n
a
d
r
o
c
c
na
si
si
e
g
a
u
g
n
a
sl
s
o
r
c
da
e
t
a
l
e
r
r
e
t
n
ei
r
ga
n
i
t
i
r
w
t
n
e
r
e
f
f
i
sd
s
o
r
c
na
e
v
re
u
c
c
no
a
rc
e
f
s
n
a
r
ht
c
u
ts
a
h
gt
n
i
m
r
i
f
n
o
ec
l
i
h
,w
e
r
u
t
a
r
e
.
s
m
e
t
s
y
gs
n
i
t
i
r
w
sEng‑
s
o
r
c
ea
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
oc
oshownt
s
l
ywerea
t
i
x
e
l
p
m
o
lc
a
c
i
x
e
yandl
c
n
e
u
l
F
enum‑
h
nt
smeasuredi
ya
c
n
e
u
l
sf
ha
c
u
lknowledges
a
c
i
x
e
.L
e
s
e
n
a
p
a
handJ
s
i
l
t
n
e
s
e
r
p
e
ymayr
t
i
x
e
l
p
m
o
lc
a
c
i
x
e
hl
t
i
rw
e
h
t
e
g
o
,t
u
s
t
e
s
n
u
fwordsandB
ro
e
b
‑
o
ed
n
eo
ob
st
t
c
i
d
e
r
)p
9
0
0
2
,whichCummins(
s
t
p
e
c
n
o
fmentalc
eamounto
h
t
.
r
u
c
c
oo
yt
l
e
k
i
sl
ri
e
f
s
n
a
r
ct
i
t
s
i
u
g
n
i
l
‑
s
s
o
r
nwhichc
yi
t
i
l
i
b
ea
g
a
u
g
n
a
fl
maino
s
t
e
es
g
a
u
g
n
a
el
t
a
n
g
o
snonc
s
o
r
c
na
e
v
re
u
c
c
no
a
rc
e
f
s
n
a
r
ht
c
u
ts
a
h
,t
r
e
v
e
w
o
H
司
s
g
n
i
d
n
i
yf
r
o
t
c
i
d
a
r
t
n
o
hsomewhatc
t
i
ncomparisonw
di
o
o
t
s
r
e
d
n
eu
ob
st
d
e
e
n
‑78一
dAOA
n
.LORa
E
G
dA
n
ya
c
n
e
d
n
e
p
e
d
r
e
t
n
cI
i
t
s
i
u
g
n
i
:L
s
l
a
u
g
n
i
l
i
hB
s
i
l
g
n
E
‑
e
s
e
n
a
p
a
9J
‑
e1
d
a
r
fG
so
e
i
t
i
l
i
b
gA
n
i
t
断i
a
s
i
4WAM
κ
i
U
K
U
dF
n
,a
o
k
o
m
o
,NAKANOT
e
e
d
i
a
,THOMSONH
o
k
u
U日 Y
K
,I
o
k
u
z
a
,NAKAJIMAK
o
k
i
SANOA
‑
c
u
d
o
r
gp
n
i
v
l
o
v
n
yi
t
i
l
a
d
o
gm
n
i
t
i
r
nw
.I
t
n
e
m
p
o
l
e
v
e
gd
n
i
d
a
e
nr
hi
c
r
a
e
s
e
fromr
s
s
o
r
c
na
e
v
re
u
c
c
no
a
,whichc
r
e
f
s
n
a
r
ct
i
t
a
m
m
e
tl
a
h
et
tmayb
,i
s
e
i
t
i
v
i
t
c
ea
v
i
t
d
e
s
o
p
p
so
,a
e
m
o
c
t
u
lo
l
a
r
e
v
eo
h
tont
c
e
f
f
smoree
a
,h
s
m
e
t
s
y
gs
n
i
t
i
r
tw
n
e
r
e
f
f
i
d
t
a
h
st
t
e
es
g
a
u
g
n
a
el
h
ot
dt
e
t
i
m
i
sl
)whichi
9
0
0
,2
s
i
v
r
a
J
r(
e
f
s
n
a
r
ct
i
m
e
x
e
ol
t
.
p
i
h
s
n
o
i
t
a
l
e
er
t
a
n
g
o
ec
r
a
h
s
da
e
t
n
e
s
e
r
sp
e
s
u
a
l
gc
n
i
t
a
n
i
d
r
o
b
u
fs
no
o
i
t
r
o
p
o
r
ep
h
rt
ho
t
p
e
ed
c
n
e
t
n
e
S
t
si
da
e
t
c
e
p
x
e
n
gwassomewhatu
n
i
d
n
i
sf
i
h
.T
n
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
hc
g
i
yh
l
e
t
a
r
e
d
o
m
‑
r
o
nP
ti
n
e
m
p
o
l
e
v
e
yd
c
a
r
e
t
i
l
i
fb
no
o
i
t
a
v
r
e
s
b
)o
2
0
0
2
as(
t
u
k
mI
r
i
f
n
o
tc
o
sn
e
o
d
, which found no s
e
s
e
n
a
p
a
nJ
ei
t
i
r
ow
gt
n
i
n
h
r
c
a
u
e
sl
t
n
e
d
u
t
es
s
e
u
g
u
t
y
l
l
a
c
i
g
o
l
o
p
y
et
r
sa
e
g
a
u
g
n
a
el
h
ht
g
u
o
h
t
l
ta
a
h
dt
e
t
a
l
u
c
e
p
ss
ti
.I
s
n
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
c
e
h
st
n
o
i
t
p
i
r
c
s
e
sandd
n
o
i
t
a
n
a
l
p
x
le
a
c
i
g
o
tl
n
e
s
e
r
op
rt
e
d
r
no
,i
t
n
a
t
s
i
yd
r
e
v
h more embedding and
t
i
sw
e
c
n
e
t
n
e
e complex s
c
u
d
o
r
op
dt
e
d
e
e
sn
r
e
t
i
r
w
‑
r
o
b
u
ns
di
e
d
u
l
c
n
ei
twouldb
a
h
st
e
r
u
t
a
e
etwogrammaticalf
h
,t
n
o
i
t
a
s
i
v
i
t
a
l
e
r
e
g
na
ei
e
r
g
e
rd
e
t
a
e
r
oag
yt
r
a
yv
d
u
t
nours
si
t
n
a
p
i
c
i
t
r
a
ep
h
.Thatt
n
o
i
t
a
n
i
d
‑
i
c
i
t
r
a
ep
g
fa
5o
o1
2t
sfrom1
t
n
e
d
u
t
nwhichs
,i
y
d
u
t
ass
t
u
k
oI
comparedt
yon
t
i
r
u
t
a
em
v
i
t
i
n
g
o
'c
s
r
e
t
i
r
fw
to
c
e
f
f
ee
h
et
t
a
r
t
s
u
l
l
di
e
p
l
e
eh
v
a
,mayh
d
e
t
a
p
.
e
g
a
u
g
n
a
cl
i
m
e
d
a
c
fmorecomplexanda
to
n
e
m
p
o
l
e
v
e
ed
h
t
r
o
r
r
le
a
c
i
x
e
sandl
e
t
a
rr
o
r
r
,grammaticale
h
t
d
i
ew
c
n
e
t
n
e
fs
so
t
c
e
p
s
Thea
t
a
h
st
t
e
es
g
a
u
g
n
a
hl
t
i
tw
s
a
e
tl
,a
t
n
e
d
n
e
p
e
d
n
ei
g
a
u
g
n
a
el
ob
swereshownt
e
t
a
r
e
c
n
a
d
r
o
c
c
na
si
ti
,andi
h
s
i
l
g
n
eandE
s
e
n
a
p
a
sJ
da
e
c
n
a
t
s
i
yd
l
l
a
c
i
g
o
l
o
p
y
st
ea
r
a
.
e
s
e
n
a
p
a
eandJ
s
e
u
g
u
t
r
o
nP
si
l
a
u
g
n
i
l
i
fb
yo
d
u
t
ass
t
u
k
hI
t
i
w
s
e
t
a
rr
o
r
r
le
a
n
o
i
t
n
e
v
n
o
ec
h
tt
a
h
st
yi
d
u
t
ss
i
h
nt
gi
n
i
d
n
i
gf
n
i
k
i
r
t
Ones
ta
,thougha
h
s
i
l
g
n
eandE
s
e
n
a
p
a
sJ
s
o
r
c
na
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
tc
n
a
c
i
f
i
n
g
i
das
e
t
n
e
s
e
r
p
d
e
l
l
o
r
t
n
o
sc
twhenAGEi
n
a
c
i
f
i
n
g
i
ts
o
nbecomesn
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
sc
i
h
.T
e
e
r
g
e
lowd
g
n
i
t
i
r
ew
h
nt
si
e
c
n
e
r
e
f
f
i
td
s
a
ev
h
et
t
i
p
s
e
td
a
h
et
t
a
c
i
d
n
si
n
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
ec
s
e
h
.T
r
o
f
g
n
i
l
l
e
p
stowardss
e
d
u
t
i
t
t
ra
so
e
i
t
i
l
i
b
esomecommona
emayb
r
e
h
,t
s
m
e
t
s
y
s
‑
a
g
i
t
s
e
v
n
ri
e
h
t
r
u
saf
d
e
e
tn
n
i
o
sp
i
h
.T
e
s
e
n
a
p
a
handJ
s
i
l
g
n
sE
s
o
r
c
ya
l
e
t
a
r
u
c
c
a
.
e
r
u
t
a
en
v
i
t
a
t
i
l
a
u
nmoreq
ni
o
i
t
s
e
i
t
i
l
i
b
ga
n
i
t
i
r
ew
h
tt
a
h
et
d
u
l
c
n
o
nc
a
,wec
oRQ1
et
s
n
o
p
s
e
nr
,i
e
r
o
f
e
r
e
h
T
‑
d
n
e
p
e
d
r
e
t
n
ci
i
t
s
i
u
g
n
i
l
‑
s
s
o
r
ec
v
a
oh
rt
a
e
p
p
da
e
e
d
n
ei
s
e
n
a
p
a
handJ
s
i
l
g
n
nE
i
yand
c
n
e
u
l
,f
s
e
i
t
i
l
i
b
ga
n
i
t
i
r
fw
so
t
c
e
p
s
ea
v
i
t
a
t
i
l
a
u
.Theq
e
e
r
g
e
osomed
et
c
n
e
e
c
n
e
t
n
e
ns
ymeasuredi
t
i
x
e
l
p
m
o
sgrammaticalc
la
l
e
sw
ya
t
i
x
e
l
p
m
o
lc
a
c
i
x
e
l
‑79一
母語・継承語・パイリンガル教育(
MHB
)研 究 Volume10 MARCH2014
d
e
p
t
hwereshownt
ob
ei
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
ta
c
r
o
s
sl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
sw
h
i
l
ea
s
p
e
c
t
so
fs
e
n
‑
t
e
n
c
ew
i
d
t
h
,grammaticala
c
c
u
r
a
c
yandl
e
x
i
c
a
la
c
c
u
r
a
c
ya
r
eshownt
ob
el
a
n
‑
guage s
p
e
c
i
f
i
c
,a
tl
e
a
s
tw
i
t
hl
a
n
g
u
a
g
es
e
t
sa
st
y
p
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l
l
yd
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
ta
s
E
n
g
l
i
s
handJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
.
TheImpacto
fAGE,LOR,andAOAonB
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
yD
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t
I
nr
e
s
p
o
n
s
et
oRQ2,t
h
er
e
s
u
l
t
so
fc
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
a
la
n
a
l
y
s
e
sa
c
r
o
s
sd
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
ageg
r
o
u
p
sandgroupso
fd
i
f
f
e
r
i
n
gLORandAOAp
r
e
s
e
n
t
e
dsomei
n
t
e
r
e
s
t
i
n
g
f
i
n
d
i
n
g
s
.
Thei
m
p
a
c
to
fAGE.Asp
r
e
s
e
n
t
e
di
nt
a
b
l
e7
,t
h
ec
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
sb
e
t
w
e
e
nt
h
e
p
o
i
n
t
sg
i
v
e
nf
o
rthemeandr
h
e
t
o
r
i
cwerefoundt
ob
es
t
r
o
n
g
e
ra
th
i
g
h
e
ra
g
e
g
r
o
u
p
s
.I
tc
a
nb
earguedt
h
a
tt
h
e
s
ea
r
et
h
es
k
i
l
l
sl
e
a
r
n
e
r
sa
c
q
u
i
r
ethrough
s
c
h
o
o
l
i
n
gandt
h
u
sc
a
ni
m
p
r
o
v
ea
st
h
e
yg
e
to
l
d
e
r
.Anotheri
n
t
e
r
p
r
e
t
a
t
i
o
ni
s
t
h
a
tt
h
e
s
ea
s
p
e
c
t
so
fw
r
i
t
i
n
ga
r
ed
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
tont
h
ec
o
g
n
i
t
i
v
em
a
t
u
r
i
t
yo
fw
r
i
t
‑
e
r
sandt
h
u
simprovew
i
t
ha
g
e
.Thesamet
r
e
n
dwasfoundi
nt
h
ec
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
b
e
t
w
e
e
ns
e
n
t
e
n
c
ed
e
p
t
h
si
nt
h
etwol
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
s
.T
h
i
st
r
e
n
dseemst
oc
o
n
f
i
r
m
t
h
es
p
e
c
u
l
a
t
i
o
np
r
e
s
e
n
t
e
di
nt
h
ea
b
o
v
es
e
c
t
i
o
nt
h
a
ts
e
n
t
e
n
c
ed
e
p
t
hmayb
er
・
e
l
a
t
e
dw
i
t
ht
h
ed
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
to
fa
c
a
d
e
m
i
cw
r
i
t
i
n
gd
i
s
c
o
u
r
s
e
.W
r
i
t
e
r
sn
e
e
dmore
complexs
e
n
t
e
n
c
e
st
oc
o
n
v
e
ymorecomplexi
d
e
a
s
,ands
u
c
hi
st
r
u
ef
o
rb
o
t
h
E
n
g
l
i
s
handJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
ed
e
s
p
i
t
et
h
ehuged
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
ei
ngrammaticals
y
s
t
e
m
s
,
andgrammaticalc
o
m
p
l
e
x
i
t
yd
e
v
e
l
o
p
sw
i
t
hw
r
i
t
e
r
s
'c
o
g
n
i
t
i
v
em
a
t
u
r
i
t
y
.
C
o
n
v
e
n
t
i
o
n
a
le
r
r
o
rr
a
t
e
sp
r
e
s
e
n
tmoderatec
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
sa
c
r
o
s
sE
n
g
l
i
s
h
andJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
ei
nt
h
ea
g
eg
r
o
u
p
so
l
d
e
rthan8b
u
tn
o
tw
i
t
ht
h
ey
o
u
n
g
e
s
t
.T
h
i
s
gapb
e
t
w
e
e
nt
h
ew
r
i
t
e
r
syoungerthan8andt
h
o
s
eo
l
d
e
rthan8maya
tl
e
a
s
t
p
a
r
t
i
a
l
l
yb
ee
x
p
l
a
i
n
e
dbyt
h
er
e
l
a
t
i
v
e
l
yi
n
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
tu
s
eo
αn
fk
j
ii
nt
h
eyoung‑
e
s
ta
g
eg
r
o
u
p
:t
h
emeank
αn
j
itokenu
s
e
dbygroup1was8
.
8
9
,byGroup2was
4
5
.
7
1
,andgroup3was9
6
.
7
5
.ANOVAandp
o
s
t
‑
h
o
ct
e
s
t
s(TukeysHSD)
showedt
h
e
s
ed
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
st
ob
es
t
a
t
i
s
t
i
c
a
l
l
ys
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t
:F
'
(
2
,
2
3
7
)
=
7
7
.
0
9
,pく .
0
0
1
.
Theimp
αc
to
fLOR.T
a
b
l
e8p
r
e
s
e
n
t
snom
e
a
n
i
n
g
f
u
lt
r
e
n
da
c
r
o
s
st
h
ed
i
f
‑
f
e
r
e
n
tLORg
r
o
u
p
si
nq
u
a
l
i
t
a
t
i
v
ea
s
p
e
c
t
so
fw
r
i
t
i
n
ge
x
c
e
p
ti
nt
h
ec
a
s
eo
fB
a
l
‑
a
n
c
e
dArgument
,w
hichw
i
l
lb
el
o
o
k
e
da
tl
a
t
e
ri
nt
h
i
ss
e
c
t
i
o
n
.O
v
e
r
a
l
l
,wec
a
n
c
o
n
c
l
u
d
et
h
a
tt
h
e
s
eq
u
a
l
i
t
a
t
i
v
ea
s
p
e
c
t
sa
r
en
o
ta
f
f
e
c
t
e
dbyLOR,b
u
tr
a
t
h
e
rby
‑80ー
W
r
i
t
i
n
gA
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
so
fG
r
a
d
e1
‑
9J
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
‑
E
n
g
l
i
s
hB
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
s
:L
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cI
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
ya
n
dA
G
E
,LORa
n
dAOA
SANOA
i
k
o
,NAKAJIMAK
a
z
u
k
o
,I
K
U
T
AY
u
k
o
,THOMSONH
a
i
d
e
e
,NAKANOT
o
m
o
k
o
,a
n
dFUK
υ
KAWAM
i
s
a
someo
t
h
e
rf
a
c
t
o
r
s
.Cumming(
1
9
8
9
)i
l
l
u
s
t
r
a
t
e
dhow w
r
i
t
i
n
ge
x
p
e
r
t
i
s
e
"i
sa
d
i
s
t
i
n
c
tc
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
tfromL2p
r
o
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
yi
nt
h
eL2w
r
i
t
i
n
go
fa
d
u
l
tw
r
i
t
e
r
s
,and
t
h
esames
e
e
m
st
oa
p
p
l
yt
oyoungerw
r
i
t
e
r
s
.
Ano
b
s
e
r
v
a
t
i
o
no
frv
a
l
u
e
so
fB
a
l
a
n
c
e
dArgument"r
e
v
e
a
l
sani
n
t
r
i
g
u
i
n
g
p
a
t
t
e
r
n
,whichc
a
n
n
o
tb
ec
a
p
t
u
r
e
di
nal
i
n
e
a
rm
o
d
e
l
.T
h
i
sn
o
n
‑
l
i
n
e
a
rd
e
v
e
l
o
p
‑
mentc
a
nb
ee
x
p
l
a
i
n
e
di
nt
h
eu
n
i
q
u
ec
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
co
ft
h
i
sr
u
b
r
i
c
.T
h
i
sr
u
b
r
i
c
i
sd
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
tfromo
t
h
e
r
si
nt
h
a
ti
ti
sn
o
td
i
r
e
c
t
l
ya
s
s
o
c
i
a
t
e
dw
i
t
ht
h
ei
n
s
t
r
u
c
‑
t
i
o
ni
t
s
e
l
f
,andt
h
u
ss
c
o
r
i
n
gh
i
g
hi
nt
h
i
sa
s
p
e
c
ti
sn
o
tn
e
c
e
s
s
a
r
yf
o
rw
r
i
t
i
n
g
goodc
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
sundert
h
i
st
o
p
i
c
.I
twasi
n
c
l
u
d
e
di
nt
h
ea
n
a
l
y
s
i
si
nap
o
s
t
e
‑
r
i
o
rmannerw
i
t
ht
h
eaimo
fc
a
p
t
u
r
i
n
gt
h
eu
s
eo
fc
o
n
t
r
a
s
tt
h
a
twasthought
t
ob
ec
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
co
fb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
ls
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
'w
r
i
t
i
n
g
.I
nsomei
n
s
t
a
n
c
e
s
,t
h
es
t
u
‑
d
e
n
t
s c
h
o
s
e n
o
tt
ow
r
i
t
ei
nac
o
n
t
r
a
s
t
i
v
emanner,e
s
p
e
c
i
a
l
l
yi
nE
n
g
l
i
s
h
.
Somes
t
u
d
e
n
t
sw
i
t
he
q
u
a
l
l
yh
i
g
hp
r
o
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
yi
nb
o
t
hE
n
g
l
i
s
handJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
e(
i
n
t
e
r
m
so
fa
l
lt
h
es
e
v
e
nq
u
a
l
i
t
a
t
i
v
ea
s
p
e
c
t
si
nt
h
etwol
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
s
)w
r
o
t
eacom‑
p
a
r
i
s
o
no
ft
h
etwoc
o
u
n
t
r
i
e
si
nJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
,b
u
td
i
dn
o
ti
nE
n
g
l
i
s
h
.I
tc
a
nb
e
s
p
e
c
u
l
a
t
e
dt
h
a
tt
h
e
s
es
t
u
d
e
n
t
sweres
e
n
s
i
t
i
v
eenought
ot
h
ed
i
f
f
e
r
i
n
gn
e
e
d
so
f
t
h
er
e
a
d
e
r
so
ft
h
ec
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
si
ne
a
c
hl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
:t
h
e
i
rJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
ec
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
wereh
i
g
h
l
yl
i
k
e
l
yt
ob
er
e
a
dbyaJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
ep
e
r
s
o
nandt
h
u
si
tmades
e
n
s
et
o
p
r
e
s
e
n
tac
o
m
p
a
r
i
s
o
nb
e
t
w
e
e
nJapanandC
a
n
a
d
a
,b
u
twhenw
r
i
t
i
n
gi
nEng‑
l
i
s
ht
h
i
swasn
o
ts
o
.
Asf
o
rt
h
ec
o
n
v
e
n
t
i
o
n
a
le
r
r
o
r
s
,i
twasf
o
u
n
dt
h
a
tt
h
ed
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
ei
nt
h
e
c
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
swass
t
a
t
i
s
t
i
c
a
l
l
ys
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
tb
e
t
w
e
e
ng
r
o
u
p
s1and2
,w
i
t
hgroup
2p
r
e
s
e
n
t
i
n
gan
e
g
a
t
i
v
ec
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
.Ther
e
a
s
o
nf
o
rt
h
i
sp
a
t
t
e
r
nmayb
ee
x
‑
p
l
a
i
n
e
dbyt
h
ed
i
f
f
i
c
u
l
t
yi
nk
e
e
p
i
n
gupw
i
t
ht
h
ea
c
c
u
r
a
t
es
p
e
l
l
i
n
go
fk
αn
j
i
c
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
se
s
p
e
c
i
a
l
l
yt
h
o
s
ew
i
t
hl
o
n
g
e
rLORs.Thec
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
no
fc
o
n
v
e
n
t
i
o
n
a
l
e
r
r
o
rr
a
t
et
h
e
r
e
f
o
r
ei
sn
e
g
a
t
i
v
ew
i
t
hgroup2s
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
,b
u
tbecomesp
o
s
i
t
i
v
e
a
g
a
i
nw
i
t
hgroup3s
t
u
d
e
n
t
sb
e
c
a
u
s
et
h
i
sgroupi
si
n
v
e
s
t
i
n
gt
i
m
eande
f
f
o
r
ti
n
k
e
e
p
i
n
gupw
i
t
ht
h
el
e
a
r
n
i
n
go
fK
a
n
j
i
,i
ft
h
i
sweren
o
tt
h
ec
a
s
et
h
e
ywould
h
a
v
ed
r
o
p
p
e
do
u
to
ft
h
es
c
h
o
o
lbyt
h
i
ss
t
a
g
e
.T
h
e
s
ea
r
eo
n
l
ys
p
e
c
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
sand
n
e
e
dt
ob
ei
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
e
dq
u
a
l
i
t
a
t
i
v
e
l
y
,whichi
sbeyondt
h
es
c
o
p
eo
ft
h
ep
r
e
s
e
n
t
p
a
p
e
r
.
A morei
n
t
r
i
g
u
i
n
gf
i
n
d
i
n
gwast
h
a
tt
h
e
r
ea
p
p
e
a
r
e
dt
ob
eagapb
e
t
w
e
e
n
‑81一
)研究
MHB
教 育(
v
ンガJ
)
母語・継承語・パイI
Volume10 MARCH2014
e
s
o
h
sandt
r
a
e
rmorethan5y
o
tf
n
e
m
n
o
r
i
v
n
nanL2e
ni
e
e
ewhohadb
s
o
h
t
etwo
h
nt
si
e
t
a
rr
o
r
r
le
a
c
i
x
e
sl
s
o
r
c
na
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
ec
h
ft
so
m
r
e
nt
ti
o
whohadn
s
e
i
d
u
t
ss
u
o
i
v
e
r
ep
h
ewhatt
s
u
a
c
e
nb
o
i
t
n
e
t
t
gdemandsa
n
i
d
n
i
sf
i
h
.T
s
e
g
a
u
g
n
a
l
ト
r
sLORi
nL2a
si
r
o
r
r
re
i
e
h
et
s
a
e
r
c
e
ld
l
i
sw
r
e
t
i
r
ew
h
tt
a
h
st
di
e
l
a
e
v
e
er
v
a
h
,
l
u
r
t
n
o
M
s(
e
s
s
e
c
o
r
np
o
i
t
i
r
t
t
oa
eduet
s
a
e
r
c
n
li
l
i
nLlw
si
r
o
r
r
ee
h
tt
u
,b
s
e
s
a
e
r
c
n
ni
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
rc
e
h
g
i
dah
e
t
n
e
s
e
r
yp
d
u
t
ss
i
h
nt
si
t
n
e
d
u
t
es
h
,t
r
e
v
e
w
o
.H
)
9
0
0
2
e
s
o
h
ot
,s
d
e
n
e
h
t
g
n
e
eLORl
h
st
sa
e
g
a
u
g
n
a
el
h
nt
e
e
w
t
e
sb
e
t
a
rr
o
r
r
le
a
c
i
x
e
l
l
a
c
i
x
e
rl
e
t
t
e
eb
v
a
oh
dt
e
d
n
e
et
s
e
n
a
p
a
nJ
lknowledgei
a
c
i
x
e
rl
e
t
t
e
whohadb
pbecomes
i
h
s
n
o
i
t
a
l
e
hr
c
u
, and s
a
s
r
e
ev
c
i
o and v
o
ht
s
i
l
g
n
nE
knowledgei
‑
n
i
a
nm
li
u
f
s
s
e
c
c
u
es
r
ewhoa
s
o
h
tt
a
h
smeanst
i
h
eLOR.T
h
ht
t
i
rw
e
g
n
o
r
t
s
e
l
i
h
,w
2
rL
i
e
h
gt
n
i
r
i
u
q
c
ta
ra
e
t
t
e
eb
r
rLla
i
e
h
gt
n
i
p
o
l
e
v
e
rd
e
h
t
r
u
f
/
g
n
i
n
i
a
t
epoor
v
a
oh
dt
n
e
ot
s
l
elanguagea
n
no
lknowledgei
a
c
i
x
e
epoorl
v
a
ewhoh
s
o
h
t
‑
c
a
r
e
t
n
oadynamici
tt
n
i
o
sp
n
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
.Suchc
r
e
h
t
eo
h
nt
lknowledgei
a
c
i
x
e
l
e
ob
tt
n
i
o
.Onep
s
e
g
a
u
g
n
a
etwol
h
nt
si
t
n
e
m
p
o
l
e
v
e
yd
c
a
r
e
t
i
el
h
nt
e
e
w
t
e
nb
o
i
t
n
di
e
d
n
e
t
x
se
rLORi
i
e
h
nwhent
e
v
le
o
o
h
c
ss
i
h
nt
gi
n
i
y
a
t
ts
a
h
st
ei
r
e
madeh
r
i
e
h
gt
n
i
n
i
a
t
n
i
a
tm
la
u
f
s
s
e
c
c
u
ns
e
e
eb
v
a
sh
t
n
e
d
u
t
es
s
e
h
tt
a
h
st
e
v
o
r
awayp
‑
b
u
cs
i
m
e
d
a
c
ga
n
i
h
c
a
e
tt
saimeda
li
o
o
h
c
ss
i
h
et
c
n
i
,s
)
L
H
e(
g
a
u
g
n
a
el
g
a
t
i
r
e
h
,
y
l
n
eo
g
a
u
g
n
a
el
s
e
n
a
p
a
eJ
h
gt
n
i
h
c
a
e
rthant
e
h
t
a
,r
e
s
e
n
a
p
a
sthroughJ
t
c
e
j
‑
i
f
o
r
ep
g
a
u
g
n
a
cl
i
m
e
d
a
c
fa
to
n
e
m
p
o
l
e
v
e
'd
s
t
n
e
d
u
t
gs
n
i
d
i
na
li
a
e
d
si
si
u
h
andt
l・
e
v
e
d
/
g
n
i
n
i
a
t
n
i
a
rm
o
tf
r
o
p
p
u
ds
e
u
n
i
t
n
o
.Thec
)
1
0
0
,Cummins,2
P
L
A
y(
c
n
e
i
c
sbecome
t
n
e
d
u
t
ps
l
e
oh
lt
o
o
lt
u
f
r
e
w
o
sap
rHLi
i
e
h
nt
si
l
l
i
k
ys
c
a
r
e
t
i
gl
n
i
p
o
.
e
t
a
r
e
t
i
l
i
b
‑
s
nmanya
si
n
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
ec
h
ft
fAOA.Throughcomparisono
to
αc
Theimp
,afew
s
p
u
o
r
eAOAg
e
r
h
st
s
o
r
c
sa
e
g
a
u
g
n
a
etwol
h
ft
so
l
l
i
k
gs
n
i
t
i
r
fw
so
t
c
e
p
,
s
e
c
n
a
t
s
n
li
l
na
ti
n
a
c
i
f
i
n
g
i
ys
l
l
a
c
i
t
s
i
t
a
t
ts
o
.Thoughn
t
n
e
r
a
p
p
sbecamea
t
n
i
o
p
f
so
t
c
e
p
s
ea
v
i
t
a
t
i
l
a
u
nq
si
n
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
rc
e
w
o
el
v
a
oh
yt
c
n
e
d
n
e
et
v
i
t
a
l
e
sar
ei
r
e
h
t
tyoungerthan
n
e
m
n
o
r
i
v
n
oanL2e
ecomet
v
a
swhoh
t
n
e
d
u
t
es
h
ht
t
i
gw
n
i
t
i
r
w
o
ecomet
v
a
ewhoh
s
o
h
rt
nCanadao
ewhowereborni
s
o
h
ot
,comparedt
0
1
swhocame
t
n
e
d
u
t
es
s
o
h
tt
a
h
et
l
b
a
v
i
e
c
n
o
sc
ti
.I
0
rthan1
e
d
l
eo
g
tana
Canadaa
‑
n
u
o
df
i
l
o
donmores
e
s
a
yb
c
a
r
e
t
i
rL2l
i
e
h
dt
e
p
o
l
e
v
e
sd
e
g
ra
e
d
l
to
oCanadaa
t
f
eo
e
r
g
e
ed
h
yandt
c
a
r
e
t
i
fL2l
to
n
e
m
p
o
l
e
v
e
ed
h
st
u
h
,t
y
c
a
r
e
t
i
nLll
si
n
o
i
t
a
d
,whocame
hgroup3
t
i
sw
n
o
i
t
a
l
e
r
r
o
rc
e
g
n
o
r
t
ss
y
a
l
p
s
i
td
n
e
m
n
i
a
t
t
ya
c
a
r
e
t
i
Lll
‑82一
W
r
i
t
i
n
gA
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
so
fG
r
a
d
e1
‑
9J
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
‑
E
n
g
l
i
s
hB
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
s
:L
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cI
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
yandA
G
E
,LORandAOA
SANOA
i
k
o
,NAKAJIMAK
a
z
u
k
o
,IKUTAY
u
k
o
, THOMSONH
a
1
d
e
e
,NAKANOT
o
m
o
k
o
,andFUKUKAWAM
i
s
a
t
oCanadaa
t1
0y
e
a
r
so
l
do
ro
l
d
e
r
.Thosewhowereborni
nCanadamaya
l
s
o
h
a
v
eb
e
n
e
f
i
t
t
e
dfromh
i
g
ha
t
t
a
i
n
m
e
n
ti
nt
h
e
i
rHLwhichi
ss
u
p
p
o
r
t
e
dbyt
h
e
a
c
a
d
e
m
i
cdemandso
ft
h
i
sHosyuko,o
fwhichprogramseemst
os
u
p
p
o
r
tt
h
e
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
to
fALPi
nHL.Anotherf
i
n
d
i
n
gfromt
h
i
sa
n
a
l
y
s
i
si
st
h
a
tt
h
ec
o
r
‑
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
nbetweens
e
n
t
e
n
c
ed
e
p
t
h
swass
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t
l
ys
t
r
o
n
g
e
rf
o
rt
h
o
s
ewho
camet
oCanadaa
t1
0ando
l
d
e
rcomparedt
ot
h
o
s
eborni
nC
a
n
a
d
a
.T
h
i
smeans
t
h
a
tCanadianborns
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
,whoc
a
np
r
o
d
u
c
ecomplexs
e
n
t
e
n
c
e
sw
i
t
hh
i
g
h
e
r
s
u
b
o
r
d
i
n
a
t
i
o
ni
nE
n
g
l
i
s
h
,don
o
tn
e
c
e
s
s
a
r
i
l
ydos
oi
nJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
,w
h
i
l
et
h
es
t
u
‑
d
e
n
t
swhocamet
oCanadaa
tano
l
d
e
ragec
a
nw
r
i
t
ecomplexs
e
n
t
e
n
c
e
si
n
J
a
p
a
n
e
s
eandc
a
na
l
s
ot
r
a
n
s
f
e
rt
h
a
ta
s
p
e
c
to
fw
r
i
t
i
n
gi
n
t
oE
n
g
l
i
s
h
.However,
t
h
ep
r
o
p
o
r
t
i
o
no
fs
u
b
o
r
d
i
n
a
t
i
o
nmayh
a
v
eb
e
e
nt
o
oc
o
a
r
s
eo
fana
n
a
l
y
t
i
c
a
l
t
o
o
lt
oi
l
l
u
s
t
r
a
t
et
h
eb
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
yd
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
tb
e
c
a
u
s
ei
th
a
sb
e
e
nshownt
oi
n
‑
c
r
e
a
s
ea
sL2E
n
g
l
i
s
hd
e
v
e
l
o
p
s(
W
o
l
f
e
‑
Q
u
i
n
t
e
r
oe
ta
l
.
,1
9
9
8
)e
v
e
nthoughi
tc
e
r
‑
t
a
i
n
l
yi
s an i
n
d
e
xo
fd
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
ti
na
c
a
d
e
m
i
cd
i
s
c
o
u
r
s
e
. With a f
i
n
e
r
a
n
a
l
y
t
i
c
a
lt
o
o
lt
a
r
g
e
t
e
dmores
p
e
c
i
f
i
c
a
l
l
yt
ot
h
ed
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
to
fa
c
a
d
e
m
i
cd
i
s
‑
c
o
u
r
s
e
,wemayh
a
v
ed
i
s
c
o
v
e
r
e
dad
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
tp
i
c
t
u
r
e
.
Ourf
i
n
a
lremarki
sd
i
r
e
c
t
e
dt
ohowc
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
nbetweenl
e
x
i
c
a
le
r
r
o
r
r
a
t
e
si
nt
h
etwol
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
si
so
u
t
s
t
a
n
d
i
n
g
l
yh
i
g
h
e
r
,f
o
rt
h
es
t
u
d
e
n
t
sborni
n
Canadacomparedt
ot
h
eo
t
h
e
r
s
.I
ti
ss
p
e
c
u
l
a
t
e
dt
h
a
tt
h
o
s
ewhoa
r
ec
a
r
e
f
u
l
a
b
o
u
tl
e
x
i
c
a
le
r
r
o
r
si
no
n
el
a
n
g
u
a
g
ec
a
r
r
yt
h
a
ta
t
t
i
t
u
d
ei
n
t
ot
h
eo
t
h
e
rl
a
n
‑
g
u
a
g
e
,ands
u
c
ht
e
n
d
e
n
c
yi
st
h
es
t
r
o
n
g
e
s
tw
i
t
hs
t
u
d
e
n
t
sborni
nC
a
n
a
d
a
.The
p
r
o
p
o
r
t
i
o
no
fb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
lf
a
m
i
l
i
e
sa
l
s
ohappent
ob
eh
i
g
h
e
ri
nt
h
es
t
u
d
e
n
t
swho
wereborni
nCanadacomparedt
oo
t
h
e
rg
r
o
u
p
s(
6
6
.7%o
fCanadaborns
t
u
d
e
n
t
scomefromb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
lf
a
m
i
l
i
e
sw
h
i
l
e2
8
.
8
%o
fo
v
e
r
a
l
ls
t
u
d
e
n
t
sa
r
efromb
i
‑
l
i
n
g
u
a
lf
a
m
i
l
i
e
s
)
,andt
h
i
smayh
a
v
ehadsomee
f
f
e
c
tont
h
er
e
s
u
l
t
.
P
e
d
a
g
o
g
i
c
a
lI
m
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
sandFurtherResearch
Asr
e
p
o
r
t
e
di
nt
h
i
ss
t
u
d
y
,manyo
ft
h
ea
s
p
e
c
t
so
fw
r
i
t
i
n
gs
k
i
l
l
sdop
r
e
s
e
n
t
i
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
ea
c
r
o
s
sE
n
g
l
i
s
handJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
ed
e
s
p
i
t
et
h
ef
a
c
tt
h
a
tt
h
e
ya
r
e
t
y
p
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l
l
yando
r
t
h
o
g
r
a
p
h
i
c
a
l
l
yd
i
s
t
a
n
tl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
s
.Suchi
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
e
i
ss
t
r
o
n
g
e
rw
i
t
hh
i
g
h
e
r
‑
o
r
d
e
rs
k
i
l
l
sandt
h
u
sq
u
i
t
eo
f
t
e
nt
h
e
r
ea
r
ei
n
s
t
a
n
c
e
s
‑83ー
母語・継承語・バイリンカール教書 (
MHB
)研 究
V
o
l
u
m
e10 MARCH2074
wheret
h
eb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
ls
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
'w
r
i
t
i
n
gp
r
e
s
e
n
t
sh
i
g
hl
e
v
e
l
so
fs
o
p
h
i
s
t
i
c
a
t
i
o
ni
n
q
u
a
l
i
t
a
t
i
v
ea
s
p
e
c
t
s
,w
h
i
l
et
h
el
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
‑
s
p
e
c
i
f
i
cl
o
w
e
ro
r
d
e
rs
k
i
l
l
ss
u
c
ha
s
g
r
a
m
m
a
t
i
c
a
l
/
l
e
x
i
c
a
la
c
c
u
r
a
c
ya
r
ey
e
tt
od
e
v
e
l
o
p
.T
h
e
r
e
f
o
r
e
,i
ti
si
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t
f
o
rt
e
a
c
h
e
r
st
of
o
r
e
s
e
et
h
ed
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
ti
nt
h
eweakerl
a
n
g
u
a
g
eb
a
s
e
dont
h
e
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
to
ft
h
es
t
r
o
n
g
e
rl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
.Fort
h
a
tp
u
r
p
o
s
e
,i
twouldb
ei
d
e
a
lf
o
r
t
e
a
c
h
e
r
so
fb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
ls
t
u
d
e
n
t
st
oo
b
s
e
r
v
et
h
e
i
rw
r
i
t
i
n
ga
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
si
nb
o
t
hl
a
n
‑
guagesands
e
ewhatt
r
a
n
s
f
e
r
a
b
l
ew
r
i
t
i
n
ga
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
st
h
ew
r
i
t
e
ra
l
r
e
a
d
yp
o
s
‑
s
e
s
s
e
si
nt
h
eLl o
rHL, andwhatw
r
i
t
i
n
gs
k
i
l
l
sh
e
/
s
h
en
e
e
d
ss
u
p
p
o
r
tt
o
d
e
v
e
l
o
pe
s
p
e
c
i
a
l
l
yi
nh
i
s
/
h
e
rL
2
.
Ash
a
sb
e
e
np
o
i
n
t
e
do
u
ti
nt
h
ed
i
s
c
u
s
s
i
o
n
,afewa
s
p
e
c
t
so
fw
r
i
t
i
n
gd
e
v
e
l
‑
opmentn
e
e
df
u
r
t
h
e
ri
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
i
o
n
.Amongs
u
c
ha
s
p
e
c
t
sa
r
et
h
eknowledgeo
f
k
αn
j
iandi
t
sr
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
st
oE
n
g
l
i
s
hw
r
i
t
i
n
g
,andt
h
ed
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
to
fa
c
a
d
e
m
i
c
r
e
g
i
s
t
e
ri
nw
r
i
t
i
n
g
.A
l
s
o
,f
u
r
t
h
e
ra
n
a
l
y
s
i
si
sn
e
e
d
e
dt
os
e
et
h
ed
e
g
r
e
eo
ff
a
m
i
l
y
ands
c
h
o
o
ls
u
p
p
o
r
tandi
t
se
f
f
e
c
tonb
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
yd
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t
,e
s
p
e
c
i
a
l
l
yw
i
t
ha
c
l
o
s
e
rf
o
c
u
sont
h
es
t
u
d
e
n
t
swhowereborni
nCanadaandy
e
ta
r
es
u
c
c
e
s
s
f
u
l
i
nm
a
i
n
t
a
i
n
i
n
gt
h
e
i
rh
e
r
i
t
a
g
el
a
n
g
u
a
g
ea
tah
i
g
hl
e
v
e
la
sw
e
l
la
sd
e
v
e
l
o
p
i
n
g
t
h
e
i
rL2w
r
i
t
i
n
g
.AsReyes (
2
0
1
2
,p
.3
2
3
)p
o
i
n
t
so
u
t,
[b]
e
c
a
u
s
ec
h
i
l
d
r
e
nsl
a
n
‑
guagee
x
p
e
r
i
e
n
c
e
sa
r
eab
y
‑
p
r
o
d
u
c
to
ft
h
e
i
rl
a
n
g
u
a
g
ec
h
o
i
c
e
s
,p
a
t
t
e
r
n
s
,and
i
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
ld
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
s
,b
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
yd
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
ti
sad
y
n
a
m
i
c
,f
l
u
i
d
,anda
tt
i
m
e
s
s
e
e
m
i
n
g
l
ymessyp
r
o
c
e
s
s
.T
h
e
r
e
f
o
r
eaf
i
n
e
r
,c
l
o
s
e
ri
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
i
o
nw
i
t
hani
n
‑
d
e
p
t
hd
e
s
c
r
i
p
t
i
o
no
fs
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
'p
r
o
f
i
l
e
si
sn
e
c
e
s
s
a
r
y
.
F
u
r
t
h
e
r
m
o
r
e
,t
h
e
r
ei
san
e
e
dt
oi
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
eb
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
yd
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
ti
na
l
o
n
g
i
t
u
d
i
n
a
lmanner;i
twasshowni
nt
h
ep
r
e
s
e
n
ts
t
u
d
yhowb
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
yd
e
v
e
l
‑
opmenti
sa
f
f
e
c
t
e
dw
i
t
ht
h
ew
r
i
t
e
r
s
'c
o
g
n
i
t
i
v
em
a
t
u
r
i
t
y
,a
sw
e
l
la
sLORand
AOA.T
o
g
e
t
h
e
rw
i
t
ht
h
emored
e
t
a
i
l
e
da
n
a
l
y
s
i
smentioneda
b
o
v
e
,l
o
n
g
i
t
u
d
i
‑
n
a
l
l
yi
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
e
ds
t
u
d
i
e
swouldb
e
t
t
e
ri
n
f
o
r
mp
e
d
a
g
o
g
i
c
a
lp
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
sf
o
rour
p
r
o
s
p
e
c
t
i
v
eb
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
ll
e
a
r
n
e
r
s
.
R
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
B
a
k
e
r
,C
.(
2
0
1
1
)
. Foundations o
fb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
le
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n and b
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
i
s
m(
5the
d
.
)
.
C
l
e
v
e
d
o
n
,UK:M
u
l
t
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
lM
a
t
t
e
r
s
.
B
i
a
l
y
s
t
o
k
,E
.(
2
0
0
1
)
.B
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
i
s
mi
nd
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t
:Langu
α
g
e
,l
i
t
e
r
a
c
y
,αndc
o
g
n
i
t
i
o
n
.
‑84一
W
n
t
l
n
gA
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
so
fG
r
a
d
e1
‑
9J
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
‑
E
n
g
l
i
s
hB
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
s
:L
1
n
g
w
s
t
1
cI
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
ya
n
dA
G
E
,L
O
Ra
n
dAOA
SANOA
i
k
o
,N
A
K
A
J
I
M
AK
a
z
u
k
o
,I
K
U
T
AY
u
k
o
,THOMSONH
a
1
d
e
e
,NAKANOT
o
m
o
k
o
,a
n
dFUKUKAWAM
1
s
a
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
:CambridgeU
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
yP
r
e
s
s
.
B
i
a
l
y
s
t
o
k
,E
.
,L
u
k
,G
.
,& Kwan,E
.(
2
0
0
5
)
.B
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
i
s
m
,b
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
y
,andl
e
a
r
n
i
n
gt
o
r
e
a
d
:I
n
t
e
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
samongl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
sandw
r
i
t
i
n
gs
y
s
t
e
m
s
.S
c
i
e
n
t
i
f
i
cS
t
u
d
i
e
so
f
Re
αd
i
n
g
,9
(
1
)
,4
3
‑
6
1
.d
o
i
:1
0
.
1
2
0
7
/
s
1
5
3
2
7
9
9
x
s
s
r
0
9
0
1
̲
4
B
u
t
l
e
r
,Y
.G
.(
2
0
1
1
)
.GakusyuGengat
owαNαn
i
k
a
.[Whati
sa
c
a
d
e
m
i
cl
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
?
:The
l
a
n
g
u
a
g
ea
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
sn
e
e
d
e
df
o
ra
c
a
d
e
m
i
cs
t
u
d
i
e
s
]T
o
k
y
o
:S
a
n
s
e
i
d
o
.
o
c
a
b
p
r
o
f
i
l
e[
a
c
c
e
s
s
e
dO
c
t
o
b
e
r2
0
1
0fromh
t
t
p
:
/
/
w
w
w
.
l
e
x
t
u
t
o
r
.
c
a
/
v
p
/]
,
C
o
b
b
,
T
.WebV
ana
d
a
p
t
a
t
i
o
no
fH
e
a
t
l
e
y
,N
a
t
i
o
n& Coxheads(
2
0
0
2
)R
a
n
g
e
.
Cumming,A
.(
1
9
8
9
)
.W
r
i
t
i
n
ge
x
p
e
r
t
i
s
eands
e
c
o
n
dl
a
n
g
u
a
g
ep
r
o
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
.Lαnguage
L
e
a
r
n
i
n
g
,3
9
(
1
)
.8
1
‑
1
4
1
.
Cummins,J
.(
1
9
8
0
[
2
0
0
1
]
)
.Thee
n
t
r
yande
x
i
tf
a
l
l
a
c
yi
nb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
le
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n
.NABE
J
o
u
r
n
a
l
,4
,2
5
‑
6
0
.R
e
p
r
i
n
t
e
di
nB
a
k
e
r
,C
.& H
o
r
n
b
e
r
g
e
r
,N
.
(
E
d
s
.
)
,(
2
0
0
1
)
.Ani
n
‑
t
r
o
d
u
c
t
o
r
yr
e
a
d
e
rt
ot
h
ew
r
i
t
i
n
g
so
fJimCummins.C
l
e
v
e
d
o
n
,UK:M
u
l
t
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
M
a
t
t
e
r
s
.
Cummins,J
.(
1
9
8
1
)
.Ther
o
l
eo
fprimaryl
a
n
g
u
a
g
ed
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
ti
npromotinge
d
u
c
a
‑
t
i
o
n
a
ls
u
c
c
e
s
sf
o
rl
a
n
g
u
a
g
em
i
n
o
r
i
t
ys
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
.I
nC
a
l
i
f
o
r
n
i
aS
t
a
t
ed
e
p
a
r
t
m
e
n
t
o
fE
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n(
E
d
.
)
,S
c
h
o
o
l
i
n
gandl
a
n
g
uα
gem
i
n
o
r
i
t
ys
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
:A t
h
e
o
r
e
t
i
c
a
l
f
r
αm
ework.(
p
p
.3
‑
4
9
)
.LosA
n
g
e
l
e
s
:E
v
a
l
u
a
t
i
o
n
,D
i
s
s
e
m
i
n
a
t
i
o
nandAssessment
C
e
n
t
e
rC
a
l
i
f
o
r
n
i
aS
t
a
t
eU
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y
.
Cummins,J
.(
1
9
9
1
)
.I
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
eo
ff
i
r
s
t
‑
a
n
ds
e
c
o
n
dl
a
n
g
u
a
g
ep
r
o
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
yi
nb
i
l
i
n
‑
g
u
a
lc
h
i
l
d
r
e
n
.I
nE
.B
i
a
l
y
s
t
o
k(
E
d
.
)
,Langu
α
geP
r
o
c
e
s
s
i
n
gi
nB
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
lC
h
i
l
d
r
e
n
(
p
p
.
7
0
‑
8
9
)
.C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
:CambridgeU
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
yP
r
e
s
s
.
Cummins,J
.(
2
0
0
0
)
.L
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
,p
o
w
e
r
,andp
e
d
a
g
o
g
y
:B
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
lc
h
i
l
d
r
e
ni
nt
h
ec
r
o
s
s
f
i
r
e
.C
l
e
v
e
d
o
n
,UK:M
u
l
t
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
lM
a
t
t
e
r
s
.
Cummins,J
.(
2
0
0
1
)
.N
e
g
o
t
i
a
t
i
n
gi
d
e
n
t
i
t
i
e
s
.
・
Educ
αt
i
o
nf
o
rempowermenti
nαd
i
v
e
r
s
es
o
‑
c
i
e
t
y(2nd E
d
.
)
.LosA
n
g
e
l
e
s
,LA:C
a
l
i
f
o
r
n
i
aA
s
s
o
c
i
a
t
i
o
nf
o
rB
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
lE
d
u
c
a
‑
t
io
n
.
Cummins,J
.(
2
0
0
9
)
.Fundamentalp
s
y
c
h
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
lands
o
c
i
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
lp
r
i
n
c
i
p
l
e
su
n
d
e
r
l
y
i
n
g
e
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n
a
ls
u
c
c
e
s
sf
o
rl
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cm
i
n
o
r
i
t
ys
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
.I
nT
.SkutnabbKangas,
R
.
P
h
i
l
l
i
p
s
o
n
,A
.
K
.Mohanty,&M.Panda(
E
d
s
.
)
,S
o
c
i
αl
j
u
s
t
i
c
et
h
r
o
u
g
hm
u
l
t
i
l
i
n
‑
g
u
a
le
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n(
p
p
.1
9
‑
3
5
)
.B
r
i
s
t
o
l
,UK:M
u
l
t
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
lM
a
t
t
e
r
s
.
e
r
s
p
o
o
r
,M.(
2
0
0
7
)
.ADynamicSystemsTheorya
p
p
r
o
a
c
ht
o
DeB
o
t
,K
.
,L
o
w
i
e
,W
.
,& V
s
e
c
o
n
dl
a
n
g
u
a
g
ea
c
q
u
i
s
i
t
i
o
n
.B
i
l
i
n
g
u
αl
i
s
m
:Langu
α
geandC
o
g
n
i
t
i
o
n
,1
0
,7
‑
2
1
.
d
o
i
:1
0
.
1
0
1
7
/
8
1
3
6
6
7
2
8
9
0
6
0
0
2
7
3
2
i
l
i
n
g
u
αl
f
i
r
s
tl
a
n
g
u
a
g
ea
c
q
u
i
s
i
t
i
o
n
.B
r
i
s
t
o
l
,UK:M
u
l
t
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
DeHouwer,A
.(
2
0
0
9
)
.B
M
a
t
t
e
r
s
.
1
9
9
9
)
.H
i
s
p
a
n
i
cc
h
i
l
d
r
e
nsw
r
i
t
i
n
gi
nEng‑
D
a
v
i
s
,L
.H
.
,C
a
r
l
i
s
l
e
,J
.F
.
,& Beeman,M.(
l
i
s
handS
p
a
n
i
s
hwhenE
n
g
l
i
s
hi
st
h
el
a
n
g
u
a
g
eo
fi
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n
.Y
e
a
r
b
o
o
ko
ft
h
e
Nation
α
JReadingC
o
n
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
,4
8
,2
3
8
‑
2
4
8
.
a
m
i
l
,M.(
2
0
0
6
)
.F
i
r
s
t
‑
a
n
ds
e
c
o
n
d
‑
l
a
n
g
u
a
g
el
i
t
e
r
a
c
y
.I
nAugustand
D
r
e
s
s
e
l
r
,C
.& K
Shanahan(
E
d
s
.
)
,D
e
v
e
l
o
p
i
n
gl
i
t
e
r
αc
yi
ns
e
c
o
n
d
‑
l
a
n
g
u
αg
el
e
a
r
n
e
r
s
:R
e
p
o
r
to
ft
h
e
αn
e
lonLangu
α
g
e
‑
M
i
n
o
r
i
t
yC
h
i
l
d
r
e
nand Youth(
p
p
.
1
9
7
‑
N
a
t
i
o
n
a
lL
i
t
e
r
aり P
2
3
8
)
.NewJ
e
r
s
e
y
:LawrenceE
r
l
b
a
u
m
.
目
‑85ー
)研 究
MHB
母語・継承語・パイリンガル教育 (
e70 MARCH2074
m
u
l
o
V
fESLcom‑
yo
t
i
l
a
u
eq
h
ot
yt
c
n
e
i
c
i
f
o
r
lp
a
c
i
x
e
fl
po
i
h
s
n
o
i
t
a
l
e
.Ther
)
5
9
9
1
.(
.A
,C
r
e
b
g
n
E
.
5
5
1
‑
9
3
1
,
)
2
(
,4
g
n
i
t
i
r
eW
g
:
α
dLangu
n
o
c
e
fS
lo
a
n
r
u
o
.J
s
n
o
i
t
i
s
o
p
l
a
u
g
n
i
l
i
nb
gi
n
i
s
s
e
c
o
r
ep
g
a
u
g
n
a
lsystemandl
a
u
t
p
e
c
n
o
dc
e
r
a
h
.Thes
)
0
0
0
2
.(
,N
s
i
c
n
a
r
F
d
e
i
l
p
p
.A
l
t
a
u
h
a
handN
s
i
n
a
p
nS
ti
n
e
m
s
s
e
s
s
ya
c
a
r
e
t
i
sfroml
g
n
i
d
n
i
:F
n
e
r
d
l
i
h
c
.
4
0
2
‑
0
7
,1
)
2
(
1
,2
s
c
i
t
s
i
u
g
n
i
L
.
t
n
e
m
p
o
l
e
v
e
dd
l
i
h
nc
yi
c
n
e
i
c
i
f
o
r
lp
a
u
g
n
i
l
i
eandb
c
n
e
t
e
p
m
o
lc
α
u
g
n
i
l
i
.B
)
2
1
0
2
.(
,N
s
i
c
n
a
r
F
.
s
s
e
r
:TheMITP
s
t
t
e
s
u
h
c
a
s
s
a
,M
e
g
d
i
r
b
m
a
C
n
.I
y
c
a
r
e
t
i
el
g
a
u
g
n
a
l
‑
d
n
o
c
e
yands
c
n
e
i
c
i
f
o
r
lp
a
r
eo
g
u
a
g
n
a
l
‑
d
n
o
c
e
.S
)
6
0
0
2
.(
,E
a
v
e
G
:
s
r
e
n
r
a
e
αnguagel
l
‑
d
n
o
c
e
ns
yi
,c
α
r
e
t
i
gl
n
i
p
o
l
e
v
e
,D
)
.
s
d
E
AugustandShanahan(
nand
e
r
d
l
i
h
yC
t
i
r
o
n
i
nLanguageM
lo
e
n
a
yP
,c
α
r
e
t
i
IL
α
n
o
i
t
a
eN
h
ft
to
r
o
p
e
R
.
m
u
a
b
l
r
:LawrenceE
y
e
s
r
e
.NewJ
)
9
3
3・1
2
1
.
p
p
Youth(
n
si
p
i
h
s
n
o
i
t
a
l
e
cr
i
t
s
i
u
g
n
i
l
‑
s
s
o
r
.C
)
8
0
0
2
.(
,L
l
i
m
a
,& K
.
,C
r
e
l
s
s
e
r
,D
.
,E
a
v
e
,G
.
,F
e
e
s
e
n
e
G
‑
αd
e
gr
n
i
p
o
l
e
v
e
,D
)
.
s
d
E
.Shanahan(
.August&T
nD
.I
s
r
e
n
r
a
e
el
g
a
u
g
n
a
l
‑
d
n
o
c
e
s
eNa‑
h
ft
to
r
o
p
e
er
h
sfromt
n
o
s
s
e
L
・
.
s
r
e
n
r
a
e
el
g
a
u
g
n
a
l
d‑
n
o
c
e
ns
gi
n
i
t
i
r
gandw
n
i
.
)
3
9
‑
1
6
.
p
p
nαnd Youth(
e
r
d
l
i
h
yC
t
i
r
o
n
i
M
・
e
g
:
α
lonLangu
e
n
a
yP
,c
α
r
e
t
i
lL
a
n
o
i
t
.
e
g
d
e
l
t
u
o
:R
k
r
o
NewY
‑
r
e
m
fe
rphenomenao
e
h
t
,ando
y
c
a
r
e
t
i
l
r
e
t
n
,i
g
n
i
h
c
t
i
w
s
e
d
o
cc
i
g
e
t
a
r
t
.S
)
6
0
0
2
,M.(
t
r
o
G
.
s
m
o
o
r
s
s
a
l
c
e
g
a
u
g
n
a
l
l
a
u
ed
d
a
r
tg
s
r
i
sfromf
n
o
s
s
e
:L
g
n
i
t
i
r
lw
a
u
g
n
i
l
i
tb
n
e
g
:
i
o
.d
4
5
3
‑
3
2
,3
)
3
(
,6
y
c
a
r
e
t
i
dL
o
o
h
d
l
i
h
yC
l
r
a
fE
lo
a
n
r
u
o
J
6
9
7
9
6
0
6
0
4
8
9
7
8
6
4
1
/
7
7
1
1
.
0
1
n
si
l
a
u
g
n
i
l
o
n
o
ttwom
o
sn
li
a
u
g
n
i
l
i
!Theb
e
r
a
w
e
,b
s
t
s
i
u
g
n
i
l
o
r
u
e
.N
)
9
8
9
1
.(
,F
n
a
e
j
s
o
r
G
.
5
1
‑
,3
6
αnguage3
nαndL
i
a
r
.B
n
o
s
r
e
ep
n
o
‑
o
r
.RANGEandFREQUENCYp
)
2
0
0
2
,A. (
d
a
e
h
x
o
.& C
P
.
S
.
,l
n
o
i
t
a
,N
.
,A
y
e
l
t
a
e
H
x.
p
s
a
.
n
o
i
t
a
n
‑
l
u
a
p
/
f
f
a
t
s
/
s
l
a
l
/
z
n
.
c
a
.
a
i
r
o
t
c
i
v
.
w
w
w
/
/
:
p
t
t
th
ea
l
b
a
l
i
a
v
.A
s
m
a
r
g
nM.
.I
s
l
l
i
k
ys
c
a
r
e
t
i
n11and12l
e
e
w
t
e
sb
n
o
i
t
a
i
c
o
s
s
fa
so
n
o
i
t
a
n
a
l
p
x
.E
)
1
1
0
2
n(
j
i
t
s
l
u
H
.
p
p
(
s
o
α
h
c
o
t
e
r
u
t
c
u
r
t
s
m
o
r
F
:
m
s
i
l
a
u
g
n
i
l
i
gb
n
i
l
l
e
d
o
,M
)
.
s
d
E
Schmid&W.1owie(
.
.V
.Amsterdam:JohnBenjaminsB
)
1
1
1
‑
5
8
u
r
e
k
io
ッokun
r
u
o
osakubun n
in
e
s
u
k
a
g
u
h
nc
i
j
u
r
i
j
:
α
iBur
h
c
i
n
i
a
.Z
)
2
0
0
2
.(
,Y
a
t
u
k
I
‑
l
a
u
g
n
i
l
i
yonb
d
u
t
ls
a
c
i
r
i
p
m
ikenkyu[Ane
k
e
t
u
o
y
s
s
i
uj
r
u
s
n
a
ik
un
m
u
z
i
r
a
g
n
i
r
i
a
b
‑
n
U
](
s
t
n
e
d
u
t
ls
o
o
h
c
hs
g
i
rh
o
i
n
u
nj
a
i
l
i
z
a
r
eB
s
e
n
a
p
a
fJ
so
e
i
t
i
l
i
b
ga
n
i
t
i
r
nw
ismi
.
)
n
a
p
a
,J
y
t
i
s
r
e
v
i
n
,NagoyaU
n
o
i
t
a
t
r
e
s
s
i
ld
a
i
r
o
t
c
o
dd
e
h
s
i
l
b
u
p
o
g
n
e
g
i
h
c
i
i
a
:d
u
t
s
a
t
t
a
a noh
r
a
k
i
h
ino kakuc
e
s
u
k
a
g
u
h
nc
i
j
u
r
i
j
a
r
u
.B
)
6
0
0
2
.(
,Y
a
t
u
k
I
g
n
i
t
i
r
w
f
o
t
n
e
m
p
o
l
e
v
e
d
e
h
T
[
a
r
a
k
u
s
t
a
s
n
a
k
o
n
n
u
b
u
k
a
s
u
r
o
y
i
n
o
g
n
e
g
i
n
i
a
d
o
t
u
t
s
f
o
n
o
i
t
a
v
r
e
s
b
o
:Froman
s
t
n
e
d
u
t
ls
o
o
h
c
hs
g
i
rh
o
i
n
u
nj
a
i
l
i
z
a
r
nB
"i
s
e
i
t
i
l
i
b
a
,
8
2
,1
u
k
i
u
o
y
.NihongoK
]
s
e
g
a
u
g
n
a
dl
n
o
c
e
ds
n
a
‑
t
s
r
i
rf
i
e
h
nt
si
n
o
i
t
i
s
o
p
m
o
tsc
n
e
d
.
9
8
‑
0
7
・
.
n
o
c
i
x
e
ll
a
t
n
e
lm
a
u
g
n
i
l
i
,Theb
)
.
d
E
o(
k
n
e
l
v
a
.P
nA
.I
r
e
f
s
n
a
r
lT
a
c
i
x
e
.1
)
9
0
0
2
.(
,S
s
i
v
r
a
J
.
s
r
e
t
t
a
M
l
a
u
g
n
i
l
i
t
l
u
:M
a
d
a
n
a
,C
o
t
n
o
r
o
.T
)
4
2
1
‑
9
9
.
p
p
h(
c
a
o
r
p
p
:
yα
r
a
n
i
l
p
i
c
s
i
d
r
e
t
n
I
‑
t
i
r
ew
g
a
u
g
n
a
l
‑
d
n
o
c
e
ds
n
a
‑
t
s
r
i
nf
e
e
w
t
e
nb
o
i
t
a
l
e
.Ther
)
9
8
9
1
.(
,& Snow,C
.
,M
e
z
u
a
n
a
1
l
a
u
g
n
i
l
i
nb
ni
e
r
d
l
i
h
lc
o
o
h
c
ys
r
a
t
n
e
m
e
l
ne
a
c
i
oR
t
r
e
u
efromP
c
n
e
d
i
v
:E
s
l
l
i
k
gs
n
i
.
9
3
3
‑
3
2
3
,
)
4
(
1
,
n
o
i
t
α
c
u
d
E
d
n
a
s
c
i
t
s
i
u
g
n
i
.L
s
m
a
r
g
o
r
p
n
e
t
t
i
r
n12w
si
s
e
n
h
c
i
lr
a
c
i
x
e
:1
e
s
eandu
z
i
.Vocabularys
)
5
9
9
1
.(
,P
n
o
i
t
a
,&N
.
,B
r
e
f
u
a
1
.
2
2
3
‑
7
0
,3
)
3
(
6
,1
s
c
i
t
s
i
u
g
n
i
dL
e
i
l
p
p
.A
n
o
i
t
c
u
d
o
r
p
‑86一
W
r
i
t
i
n
gA
b
i
l
i
t
i
e
so
fG
r
a
d
eI9J
a
p
a
n
e
s
eE
n
g
l
i
s
hB
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
s
:L
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
cI
n
t
e
r
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
c
ya
n
dA
G
E
,LORa
n
dADA
SANOA
i
k
o
,N
A
K
A
J
I
M
AK
a
z
u
k
o
,I
K
U
T
AY
u
k
o
,THOMSONH
a
i
d
e
e
,NAKANOT
o
m
o
k
o
,a
n
dF
U
K
U
K
AWAM
i
s
a
M
o
n
t
r
u
l
,S
.(
2
0
0
9
)
.I
n
c
o
m
p
l
e
t
eαc
q
u
i
s
i
t
i
o
ni
nb
i
l
i
n
g
u
a
l
i
s
m
:R
e
‑
e
x
αminingt
h
ea
g
eJ
a
e
‑
t
o
r
.Amsterdam:JohnBenjaminsP
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
gCompany.
OECD(
2
0
1
3
)
. OECDI
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
lMign
αt
i
o
nO
u
t
l
o
o
k
.R
e
t
r
i
e
v
e
dfromhttp://www.
o
e
c
d
.
o
r
g
/
e
l
s
/
m
i
g
/
i
m
o
2
0
1
3
.
h
t
m
R
e
y
e
s
,I
.(
2
0
1
2
)
.B
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
yamongc
h
i
l
d
r
e
nandy
o
u
t
h
s
.ReadingR
e
s
e
a
r
c
hQu
αr
t
e
r
l
y
,4
7
(
3
)
,3
0
7
‑
3
2
7
.
S
c
h
o
o
n
e
n
,R
.
,vanG
e
l
d
e
r
e
n
,A
.
,d
eG
l
o
p
p
e
r
,K
.
,H
u
l
s
t
i
j
n
,J
.
,S
i
m
i
s
,A
.
,S
n
e
l
l
i
n
g
s
,P
.&
S
t
e
v
e
n
s
o
n
,M.(
2
0
0
3
)
.F
i
r
s
tl
a
n
g
u
a
g
eands
e
c
o
n
dl
a
n
g
u
a
g
ew
r
i
t
i
n
g
:Ther
o
l
eo
f
l
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
ck
n
o
w
l
e
d
g
e
,s
p
e
e
do
fp
r
o
c
e
s
s
i
n
g
,andm
e
t
a
c
o
g
n
i
t
i
v
ek
n
o
w
l
e
d
g
e
.Lαn
‑
gu
αgeLe
αming5
3
,1
6
5
‑
2
0
2
.
S
c
h
o
o
n
e
n
,R
.
,vanG
e
l
d
r
e
n
,A
.
,S
t
o
e
l
,R
.
,H
u
l
s
t
i
j
n
,J
.& d
eG
l
o
p
p
e
r
,K
.(
2
0
1
1
)
.Modeling
t
h
ed
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
to
fLlandEFLw
r
i
t
i
n
gp
r
o
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
yo
fs
e
c
o
n
d
a
r
y
‑
s
c
h
o
o
ls
t
u
‑
ι6
1
(
1
)
,3
1
‑
7
9
.d
o
i
:1
0
.
1
1
1
1
/
j
.
1
4
6
7
‑
9
9
2
2
.
2
0
1
0
.
0
0
5
9
0
.
x
d
e
n
t
s
.LαnguageLe
αr
n
i
n
S
t
a
t
i
s
t
i
c
sCanada(
2
0
0
6
)
.2
0
0
6C
e
n
s
u
so
fp
o
p
u
l
αt
i
o
n
.R
e
t
r
i
e
v
e
dfromhttp://www12.
s
t
a
t
c
a
n
.g
c
.c
a
/c
e
n
s
u
s
‑r
e
c
e
n
s
e
m
e
n
t
/
2
0
0
6/
i
n
d
e
x‑
e
n
g
.c
f
m
.(
1
9
9
8
)
.S
e
c
o
n
dl
a
n
g
u
a
g
ed
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
ti
n
W
o
l
f
e
‑
Q
u
i
n
t
e
r
o
,K
.
,I
n
a
g
a
k
i
,S
.
,& Kim,H
w
r
i
t
i
n
g
.
・Me
αs
u
r
e
so
ff
l
u
e
n
c
y
,a
c
c
u
r
a
c
y& c
o
m
p
l
e
x
i
t
y
.H
o
n
o
l
u
l
u
:U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
yo
f
Hawaiip
r
e
s
s
.
Acknowledgement
T
h
i
ss
t
u
d
ywasmadep
o
s
s
i
b
l
ew
i
t
ht
h
eG
r
a
n
t
s
‑
i
nAidf
o
rS
c
i
e
n
t
i
f
i
cR
e
s
e
a
r
c
h(
2
0
0
9
) by
JapanS
o
c
i
e
t
yf
o
rt
h
ePromotiono
fS
c
i
e
n
c
e(
R
e
s
e
a
r
c
hN
o
.2
1
3
2
0
0
9
6
:P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
li
n
v
e
s
t
i
‑
g
a
t
o
r
,KazukoN
a
k
a
j
i
m
a
)
.P
a
r
to
ft
h
er
e
s
e
a
r
c
hr
e
p
o
r
t
e
di
nt
h
i
sp
a
p
e
rh
a
sb
e
e
nr
e
‑
p
o
r
t
e
da
tt
h
eI
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
lC
o
n
f
e
r
e
n
c
eonJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
eLanguageE
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n(
2
0
1
2
)andt
h
e
I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
lC
o
n
f
e
r
e
n
c
eonH
e
r
i
t
a
g
eLanguagesandH
e
r
i
t
a
g
eLanguageA
c
q
u
i
s
i
t
i
o
n
a
tV
i
c
t
o
r
i
aC
o
l
l
e
g
e
,U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
yo
fToronto (
2
0
1
2
) amongo
t
h
e
r
s
.A
u
t
h
o
r
s
's
i
n
c
e
r
e
g
r
a
t
i
t
u
d
ei
se
x
p
r
e
s
s
e
dt
ot
h
o
s
ewhop
a
r
t
i
c
i
p
a
t
e
di
nt
h
es
t
u
d
y
,andt
h
eP
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
landa
l
l
t
h
et
e
a
c
h
e
r
sa
tt
h
eJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
es
c
h
o
o
lwheret
h
i
ss
t
u
d
yt
o
o
kp
l
a
c
e
.Authorsa
r
ea
l
s
ov
e
r
y
g
r
a
t
e
f
u
lt
ot
h
eanonymousr
e
v
i
e
w
e
r
sf
o
rt
h
e
i
ri
n
v
a
l
u
a
b
l
ecomments.
Notes
1Gradesa
r
ei
nJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
es
c
h
o
o
ls
y
s
t
e
m
,whichsometimesdon
o
tmatcht
h
eg
r
a
d
e
si
n
Canadians
c
h
o
o
ls
y
s
t
e
m
.
2I
twass
t
a
t
e
dc
l
e
a
r
l
yt
h
a
tt
h
ep
u
r
p
o
s
eo
ft
h
es
t
u
d
ywast
od
e
s
c
r
i
b
et
h
eb
i
l
i
t
e
r
a
c
yd
e
‑
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
to
fs
c
h
o
o
la
g
es
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
,andt
oi
d
e
n
t
i
f
yf
a
c
t
o
r
st
h
a
twouldpromotes
u
c
h
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t
,andt
h
ed
a
t
ao
b
t
a
i
n
e
dwouldn
o
tb
eu
s
e
df
o
rt
h
e
i
ra
c
a
d
e
m
i
cr
e
c
o
r
da
t
t
h
es
c
h
o
o
li
nanyf
o
r
m
.I
twasa
l
s
omadec
l
e
a
rt
h
a
tt
h
e
yc
o
u
l
dc
h
o
o
s
en
o
tt
op
a
r
t
i
c
i
‑
巴i
nt
h
e
p
a
t
eo
rc
o
m
p
l
e
t
et
h
es
t
u
d
y
.Oft
h
e3
3
6s
t
u
d
e
n
t
swhowerew
i
l
l
i
n
gt
op
a
r
t
i
c
i
p
a
t
s
t
u
d
y
,2
4
0w
r
o
t
eb
o
t
hJ
a
p
a
n
e
s
eandE
n
g
l
i
s
hc
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
sands
u
b
m
i
t
t
e
di
nt
h
eq
u
e
s
‑
t
i
o
n
n
a
i
r
eandweret
h
u
si
n
c
l
u
d
e
di
nt
h
i
ss
t
u
d
y
.
3 Thes
t
u
d
e
n
t
swerei
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
e
dt
of
i
n
i
s
ht
h
e
i
rw
r
i
t
i
n
gw
i
t
h
i
nt
h
ec
i
a
s
sp
e
r
i
o
do
f4
0
nsomec
a
s
e
s
,t
h
e
m
i
n
u
t
e
s
.Somef
i
n
i
s
h
e
de
a
r
l
i
e
rthant
h
a
t
,someu
s
e
dupt
h
et
i
m
e
.I
87
母語・継承語・パイ1
)ンガル教育 (
MHB
)研究 V
o
l
u
m
e70 MARCH2074
t
e
a
c
h
e
r
sl
e
tthemf
i
n
i
s
ht
h
es
e
n
t
e
n
c
et
h
e
ywerew
r
i
t
i
n
g
,butnotg
i
v
i
n
gthemt
o
o
muchl
o
n
g
e
rthan4
0m
i
n
u
t
e
s
.
4P
a
r
e
n
t
swereg
i
v
e
noneq
u
e
s
t
i
o
n
n
a
i
r
es
h
e
e
tf
o
rones
t
u
d
e
n
t
,s
oi
nt
h
ec
a
s
eo
fb
r
o
t
h
‑
巴r
sands
i
s
t
e
r
st
h
e
ywereaskedt
oanswert
h
eq
u
e
s
t
i
o
n
n
a
i
r
e
ss
e
p
a
r
a
t
e
l
y
.I
twasa
n
e
c
e
s
s
a
r
yp
r
o
c
e
d
u
r
ea
st
h
elanguageo
fcommunicationmayd
i
f
f
e
rfromac
h
i
l
dt
o
c
h
i
l
de
v
e
nw
i
t
h
i
nt
h
esameh
o
u
s
e
h
o
l
d
.
5 Thereweretwos
t
u
d
e
n
t
swhoc
h
o
s
et
ow
r
i
t
ei
nFrenchr
a
t
h
e
rthani
nE
n
g
l
i
s
hand
t
i
g
a
t
i
o
nf
o
rt
h
i
ss
t
u
d
y
.
t
h
e
i
rd
a
t
aweree
x
c
l
u
d
e
dfromt
h
ei
n
v巴s
e
f
e
r
st
ot
h
es
m
a
l
l
e
s
tmeaningfulu
n
i
to
fac
o
n
t
e
n
twordwithi
t
saccompa‑
6Bunsetsur
nyingf
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
a
le
l
e
m
e
n
t
ssucha
sv
e
r
be
n
d
i
n
g
s
,p
a
r
t
i
c
l
e
so
ra
u
x
i
l
i
a
r
yv
e
r
b
s
.Fore
x
‑
k
imasu. has6morphemesbut3b
u
n
s
e
t
s
u
.
ample,Watashiwagakkouei
7 Thenumberso
ft
o
k
e
n
sandt
y
p
e
swerec
o
u
n
t
e
dusingo
n
l
i
n
et
o
o
l
s
:V
o
c
a
b
p
r
o
f
i
l
e
(
C
o
b
b
,a
v
a
i
l
a
b
l
ea
th
t
t
p
:
/
/
w
w
w
.
l
e
x
t
u
t
o
r
.
c
a
/
v
p
/
e
n
g
/
)f
o
rE
n
g
l
i
s
handCha‑Mame
(
V
e
r
.1
.7
1
.Ogura,a
v
a
i
l
a
b
l
ea
th
t
t
p
:
//
s
o
u
r
c
e
f
o
r
g
e
.
j
p
/
p
r
o
j
e
c
t
s
/
u
n
i
d
i
c
/
r
e
l
e
a
s
e
s
/
)f
o
r
J
a
p
a
n
e
s
e
.I
no
r
d
e
rf
o
rt
h
e
s
et
o
o
l
st
ocountt
h
enumbero
ft
y
p
e
sandt
o
k
e
n
s
,s
p
e
l
l
i
n
g
e
r
r
o
r
swerec
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
dm
a
n
u
a
l
l
y
.Fort
h
eJapanesec
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
s
,t
h
ewordswerec
o
n
‑
v
e
r
t
e
dt
oK
a
n
j
ia
smucha
sp
o
s
s
i
b
l
ei
no
r
d
e
rt
oa
v
o
i
du
n
n
e
c
e
s
s
a
r
ym
i
s
i
n
t
e
r
p
r
e
t
a
t
i
o
n
byCha‑Mame.
8K
a
n
j
ia
r
et
h
el
o
g
o
g
r
a
p
h
i
cc
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
su
s
e
di
nJapanesew
r
i
t
i
n
gt
h
a
tconveymeaning
a
sw
e
l
la
ss
o
u
n
d
s
.Theyo
r
i
g
i
n
a
t
ei
nC
h
i
n
e
s
ec
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
sandhavemanys
t
r
o
k
e
s
,r
e
‑
q
u
i
r
i
n
gg
r
e
a
ta
t
t
e
n
t
i
o
nfromi
n
e
x
p
e
r
i
e
n
c
e
dw
r
i
t
e
r
s
.Therea
r
eani
n
c
r
e
d
i
b
l
enumber
o
fhomophonesi
nJapaneseb
e
c
a
u
s
eo
ft
h
e
s
ec
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
s
.
Appendix
WritingRubric
Theme
4
.Whatt
h
ew
r
i
t
e
ri
sg
o
i
n
gt
ow
r
i
t
ea
b
o
u
ti
sc
l
e
a
r
l
ys
t
a
t
e
da
tt
h
eb
e
g
i
n
n
i
n
g
,o
rt
h
e
r
ei
sa
ne
x
p
l
i
c
i
t
i
n
t
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
nt
ot
h
ee
s
s
a
ys
u
c
ha
sa
no
v
e
r
v
i
e
wo
fC
a
n
a
d
a
.T
h
e
r
ei
ss
o
l
i
db
o
d
yo
ft
h
ew
r
i
t
i
n
gw
i
t
h
p
l
e
n
t
yo
fd
e
t
a
i
l
s
,a
n
dt
h
ec
o
n
c
l
u
s
i
o
nt
h
a
ts
h
o
w
sw
h
a
tC
a
n
a
d
ai
sl
i
k
ei
sc
l
e
a
r
l
ys
t
a
t
e
di
nt
h
ee
n
d
.
3
.Thei
n
t
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
na
n
dt
h
ec
o
n
c
l
u
s
i
o
nmayn
o
tb
ec
l
e
a
r
l
ys
t
a
t
e
d
,b
u
tt
h
ee
s
s
a
ya
saw
h
o
l
ef
u
n
c・
t
i
o
n
sa
sa
ni
n
t
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
no
fC
a
n
a
d
a
.I
ft
h
ew
r
i
t
e
rc
h
o
s
esomep
a
r
t
i
c
u
l
a
ra
s
p
e
c
to
fC
a
n
a
d
aa
n
d
w
r
i
t
e
so
n
l
ya
b
o
u
tt
h
a
t
,t
h
e
r
eh
a
st
ob
ea
ne
x
p
l
a
n
a
t
i
o
nwhyt
h
ew
r
i
t
e
rc
h
o
s
et
od
os
o
.
ti
se
v
i
d
e
n
tt
h
a
tt
h
ew
r
i
t
e
ri
st
r
y
i
n
gt
oi
n
t
r
o
d
u
c
eC
a
n
a
d
at
ot
h
er
e
a
d
e
r
s
,b
u
tt
h
ew
r
i
t
e
rw
r
i
t
e
s
2
.I
a
b
o
u
tsomes
p
e
c
i
f
i
ct
o
p
i
c
sw
i
t
h
o
u
te
x
p
l
a
i
n
i
n
gwhyh
e
/
s
h
ec
h
o
s
et
ow
r
i
t
eo
nt
h
a
tp
a
r
t
i
c
u
l
a
rt
o
p
i
c
.
1
.Thew
r
i
t
e
ro
n
l
yw
r
i
t
e
sa
b
o
u
th
i
s
/
h
e
rp
e
r
s
o
n
a
le
x
p
e
r
i
e
n
c
e
sa
n
da
sar
e
s
u
l
tt
h
ee
s
s
a
yd
o
e
sn
o
t
f
u
n
c
t
i
o
na
sa
ni
n
t
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
no
fC
a
n
a
d
a
.
Cohesion
4
.Thec
o
n
n
e
c
t
i
o
n
sb
e
t
w
e
e
ne
a
c
hs
e
n
t
e
n
c
ea
r
emadec
l
e
a
rt
h
r
o
u
g
ht
h
eu
s
eo
fe
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
ec
o
h
e
s
i
v
e
e
n
t
e
n
c
e
sw
i
t
he
a
s
e
.
t
i
e
ss
u
c
ha
sc
o
nu
n
c
t
i
o
n
sa
n
dp
r
o
n
o
u
n
s
,a
n
dt
h
er
e
a
d
e
r
sc
a
nf
o
l
l
o
w出巴 s
3
.A
l
t
h
o
u
g
hw
i
t
h
o
u
te
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
eu
s
eo
fc
o
h
e
s
i
v
et
i
e
s
,t
h
eways
e
n
t
e
n
c
e
sa
r
ec
o
n
n
e
c
t
e
da
r
el
o
g
i
c
a
l
a
n
dt
h
er
e
a
d
e
r
sc
a
nf
o
l
l
o
wt
h
es
e
n
t
e
n
c
e
sw
i
t
he
a
s
e
.
ti
se
v
i
d
e
n
tt
h
a
tt
h
ew
r
i
t
e
rh
a
s̲
p
a
i
da
抗e
n
t
i
o
nt
omakei
te
a
s
yf
o
r也巴 r
e
a
d
e
rt
of
o
l
l
o
wb
u
ti
ti
s
2
.I
s
o
m
e
t
i
m
e
sn
o
te
a
s
ya
st
h
ec
o
h
e
s
i
v
et
i
e
sa
r
em
i
s
s
i
n
go
rmisleadin~.
1
.I
ti
sn
o
te
a
s
yf
o
rt
h
er
e
a
d
e
rt
of
o
l
l
o
we
a
c
hs
e
n
t
e
n
c
et
ot
h
en
e
x
ta
st
h
ec
o
h
e
s
i
v
et
i
e
sa
r
em
o
s
t
l
y
a
b
s
e
n
ta
n
dt
h
ew
r
i
t
e
rs
k
i
p
so
n
es
e
n
t
e
n
c
et
ot
h
en
e
x
t
.
88
,LORandAOA
E
G
dA
n
ya
c
n
e
d
n
e
p
e
d
r
e
t
n
cI
i
t
s
i
u
g
n
i
:L
s
l
a
u
g
n
i
l
i
hB
s
i
l
g
n
E
‑
e
s
e
n
a
p
a
9J
‑
e1
d
a
r
fG
so
e
i
t
i
Y
!
b
gA
n
i
t
i
r
W
a
s
i
,andFUKUKAWAM
o
k
o
m
o
,NAKANOT
e
e
d
i
a
, THOMSONH
o
k
u
,IKUTAY
o
k
u
z
a
,NAKAJIMAK
o
k
i
SANOA
s
s
e
n
e
r
a
w
eA
c
n
e
i
d
u
A
e
tb
o
smayn
n
o
i
t
n
e
em
h
s
/
e
nh
o
i
t
a
m
r
o
f
n
ei
h
ft
tsomeo
a
h
et
r
a
w
sa
ri
e
t
i
r
ew
h
tt
a
h
rt
a
e
l
sc
ti
.I
3
‑
i
n
i
f
e
rd
o
/
d
n
na
o
i
t
a
m
r
o
f
n
ei
v
i
t
r
o
p
p
u
es
t
a
u
q
e
d
sa
e
d
i
v
o
r
ep
h
s
/
e
sh
d由u
n
,a
s
r
e
d
a
e
er
h
ot
knownt
.
n
o
i
t
a
m
r
o
f
n
fi
hamounto
g
u
o
n
se
t
n
e
s
e
r
ep
l
o
h
saw
na
o
i
t
i
s
o
p
m
o
.Thec
s
d
r
o
ew
h
ft
so
n
o
i
t
s
n
o
i
t
n
e
em
h
s
/
e
nh
o
i
t
a
m
r
o
f
n
ei
h
ft
tsomeo
a
h
et
r
a
w
sa
ri
e
t
i
r
ew
h
tt
a
h
tt
n
e
d
i
v
ssomewhate
ti
.I
2
e
h
ot
tt
o
tn
u
sb
n
o
i
t
a
n
a
l
p
x
se
e
d
i
v
o
r
sp
e
m
i
t
e
m
o
es
h
s
/
e
sh
u
h
dt
n
,a
s
r
e
d
a
e
er
h
ot
eknownt
tb
o
mayn
.
t
n
e
t
x
ye
r
o
t
c
a
f
s
i
t
a
s
‑
x
le
a
n
o
s
r
e
rp
e
h
/
s
i
th
n
e
s
e
r
dp
n
ea
g
d
e
l
w
o
n
sk
r
e
d
a
e
er
h
rt
o
nf
r
e
c
n
o
tshowc
o
sn
e
o
rd
e
t
i
r
.Thew
1
・
.
'
?
紅
s
s
e
c
e
en
r
ta
a
h
̲fewex~.lanations t
y
r
̲
e
rv
oo
hn
t
i
~eriences w
.
g
.
e
oCanada(
nt
e
e
rb
e
v
e
en
v
a
swhoh
r
e
d
a
e
er
h
rt
o
sf
n
r
e
c
n
o
ec
v
i
t
c
e
f
f
rshowsa
e
t
i
r
ew
h
t
f
,i
o
s
l
A
s
u
n
o
sab
ta
n
i
o
ep
n
do
d
)a
y
t
e
i
x
n
ra
i
e
h
et
c
u
d
e
or
gt
n
町i
c
i
r
o
t
e
h
R
‑
o
t
e
h
er
v
i
t
c
e
f
f
yofe
t
e
i
r
a
fav
so
e
s
hu
g
u
o
n也r
o
i
s
s
e
r
p
x
de
n
na
o
i
t
p
i
r
c
s
e
nd
ei
v
i
t
c
e
f
f
se
ri
e
t
i
r
.Thew
4
s
e
s
ou
on
s
l
,anda
s
e
u
g
o
l
a
i
fd
eo
s
,u
n
o
i
t
c
u
d
o
r
t
n
ei
v
i
t
c
e
f
f
,e
h
c
e
e
p
fs
so
e
r
u
g
i
ff
eo
s
su
ha
c
u
,s
c
i
r
‑
r
ce
i
t
a
m
g
a
r
.p
e
.
i
uch"(
甘ym
e
r
d p
i
s gonna k
ha
c
u
gs
n
i
t
i
r
rw
o
sf
e
g
a
u
g
n
a
el
t
a
i
r
p
o
r
p
p
a
n
fi
o
.
d
n
u
o
ef
r
)a
s
r
o
r
.
g
.
e
y(
a
s
s
ee
h
ft
so
t
r
a
nsomep
yi
l
n
to
u
db
e
v
r
e
s
b
eo
r
sa
l
l
i
k
ls
a
c
i
r
o
t
e
h
er
s
ou
st
t
p
m
社e
.Somea
3
e
u
q
i
n
yu
l
l
a
c
i
f
i
c
e
p
ys
n
ea
v
a
th
o
sn
e
o
yd
a
s
s
ee
h
.Ort
)
h
c
e
e
p
fs
so
e
r
u
g
i
ff
so
e
s
cu
i
d
a
r
o
p
es
r
ea
r
e
h
t
tmany
o
tn
u
esomeb
emayb
r
e
h
.T
y
r
o
t
c
a
f
s
i
t
a
ds
n
la
i
a
t
e
nd
ei
r
sa
n
o
i
t
p
i
r
c
s
e
td
u
sb
n
?
i
s
s
e
r
p
x
e
.
s
r
o
r
r
ce
i
t
a
m
g
a
r
p
ta
s
u
nj
a
h
ymoret
l
r
a
e
l
sc
di
n
sa
n
o
i
t
a
n
a
l
p
x
re
o
/
d
n
sa
n
o
i
t
p
i
r
c
s
e
esomed
d
u
l
c
n
si
e
o
yd
a
s
s
.Thee
2
s
n
o
i
t
n
e
rm
e
t
i
r
ew
h
ft
I
.(
n
o
i
t
a
r
o
b
a
l
hmoree
t
i
ew
v
o
r
p
m
nwouldi
o
i
t
p
i
r
c
s
e
ed
h
tt
u
,b
s
t
c
a
ff
to
s
i
l
n
e
v
ye
r
o
g
e
t
a
sc
i
h
ot
t
n
li
l
a
gwouldf
n
i
t
i
r
tw
a
h
,t
c
i
p
o
ht
c
a
eone
t
a
r
o
b
tea
o
sn
e
o
td
u
sb
c
i
p
o
manyt
‑
r
ふTheremaybesomebutnotmanypragmatice
t
a
e
r
sg
ni
o
i
t
a
m
r
o
f
n
li
l
a
r
e
v
fo
e amount o
h
ft
i
.
s
r
o
r
.
n
o
i
t
a
n
a
l
p
x
re
o
d/
n
na
o
i
t
p
i
r
c
s
e
nd
ni
o
i
t
a
r
o
b
a
l
snoe
a
dh
n
ya
l
n
so
t
c
a
ff
to
s
i
sal
t
n
e
s
e
r
rp
e
t
i
r
.Thew
1
.
g
n
i
d
n
a
t
s
r
e
d
n
rsu
e
d
a
e
sr
b
r
u
t
s
i
td
ti
n
e
t
x
ee
h
ot
st
r
o
r
r
ce
i
t
a
m
g
a
r
omanyp
o
et
r
ea
r
e
h
Ort
y
t
i
l
a
n
i
g
i
r
n畠 O
o
i
t
c
自e
e
R
‑
b
sa
ti
n
e
m
e
g
d
u
rsj
e
t
i
r
ew
h
rt
o
gf
n
i
n
o
s
a
e
er
h
rt
do
e
s
s
e
r
p
x
ye
l
e
v
i
s
a
u
s
r
e
sp
iewi
旬rsv
i
r
.Thew
3
.
d
e
s
i
l
a
r
e
n
e
obeg
ht
g
u
o
n
te
c
a
r
t
s
e
h
.Ort
s
k
r
a
m
e
lr
a
n
o
s
r
e
esomep
r
ea
r
e
h
ht
g
u
o
h
t
l
,a
y
l
n
so
g
n
i
h
lt
a
u
t
c
a
sf
e
t
a
t
ys
l
l
a
c
i
s
a
rb
e
t
i
r
.Thew
2
‑
n
rsopi
e
t
i
r
e由ew
t
a
t
ts
a
h
st
e
l
p
m
a
.Thes
s
t
n
e
m
e
g
d
u
rj
e
h
/
s
i
rh
o
gf
n
i
n
o
s
a
e
er
l
p
m
i
ss
t
n
e
s
e
r
rp
e
t
i
r
w
.
y
r
o
g
e
t
a
sc
i
h
ot
t
n
li
l
a
nf
o
i
t
p
i
r
c
s
e
ld
a
u
t
c
a
rf
e
t
f
da
n
ee
h
nt
ni
o
i
.
t
n
e
m
e
g
d
u
rj
so
e
v
i
t
c
e
p
s
r
e
ep
u
q
i
n
eu
t
a
t
ts
o
sn
e
o
dd
n
ya
l
n
so
g
n
i
h
lt
a
u
t
c
a
sf
t
n
e
s
e
r
rp
e
t
i
r
.Thew
1
sa
ta
n
i
o
ep
n
do
d
,a
e
u
q
i
n
su
ti
di
e
s
s
e
r
p
x
ee
h
s
/
e
ewayh
h
rt
wo
e
i
fv
to
n
i
o
rsp
e
t
i
r
ew
h
ft
,i
o
s
l
A
s
u
n
o
b
‑89一
母語・継承諾・バイリンカ J
l
ノ教育 (
MHB
)研究 Volume70 MARCH2074
BalancedArgument
4
.Thec
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c
so
fCanadaa
r
ea
r
g
u
e
di
nc
o
m
p
a
r
i
s
o
nw
i
t
hf
a
m
i
l
i
a
rc
o
u
n
t
r
i
e
st
ot
h
ew
r
i
t
e
r
s
s
u
c
ha
sJ
a
p
a
na
n
dt
h
eU
.
S
.
A
.a
n
dt
h
ew
r
i
t
e
rp
r
e
s
e
n
t
sc
o
n
c
r
e
t
ee
x
a
m
p
l
e
s
,f
a
c
t
sa
n
dh
i
s
/
h
e
rp
e
r
‑
s
o
n
a
le
x
p
e
r
i
e
n
c
e
s
.O
r
,t
h
ea
r
g
u
m
e
n
th
a
sb
o
t
hgooda
n
db
a
da
s
p
e
c
t
so
fCanadaa
n
dt
h
ew
r
i
t
e
rs
o
p
i
n
i
o
nw
h
e
t
h
e
rCanadai
sagoodc
o
u
n
t
r
yo
rn
o
ti
sc
l
e
a
r
l
ys
t
a
t
e
di
nap
e
r
s
u
a
s
i
v
em
a
n
n
e
r
.
3
.Thew
r
i
t
e
rp
o
i
n
t
so
u
tsomea
s
p
e
c
t
so
fCanadai
nc
o
m
p
a
r
i
s
o
nw
i
t
hc
o
u
n
t
r
i
e
st
h
a
th
e
/
s
h
ei
sf
a
m
i
l
‑
i
a
rw
i
t
ha
n
dt
h
e
ya
r
ee
l
a
b
o
r
a
t
e
dt
osomee
x
t
e
n
t
.O
r
,i
ti
se
v
i
d
e
n
tt
h
a
tt
h
ew
r
i
t
e
rt
r
i
e
st
oh
a
v
ea
肝m
enta
b
o
u
tw
h
e
t
h
e
rCanadai
sagoodc
o
u
n
t
r
yo
rn
o
t
,a
n
di
ti
se
l
a
b
o
r
a
t
e
dt
osome
b
a
l
a
n
c
e
da
r
e
x
t
e
n
t
.
2
.Thew
r
i
t
e
rp
o
i
n
t
so
u
tsomea
s
p
e
c
t
so
fCanadai
ncomp
訂i
s
o
nw
i
t
hc
o
u
n
t
r
i
e
st
h
a
th
e
/
s
h
ei
sf
a
m
i
l
‑
i
a
rw
i
t
hb
u
td
o
e
sn
o
te
l
a
b
o
r
a
t
eoni
t
.O
r
,a
l
t
h
o
u
g
hi
ti
se
v
i
d
e
n
tt
h
a
tt
h
ew
r
i
t
e
rt
r
i
e
st
oh
a
v
eab
a
l
‑
a
n
c
e
da
r
g
l
江n
e
n
ta
b
o
u
tw
h
e
t
h
e
rCanadai
sagoodc
o
u
n
t
r
yo
rn
o
t
,i
ti
sn
o
te
l
a
b
o
r
a
t
e
d
.
1
.Thew
r
i
t
e
rp
r
e
s
e
n
t
sn
op
e
r
s
p
e
c
t
i
v
e
sa
b
o
u
tgoodo
rb
a
da
s
p
e
c
t
so
fC
a
n
a
d
a
.
Noc
o
m
p
a
r
i
s
o
nw
i
t
ho
t
h
e
rc
o
u
n
t
r
i
e
ss
u
c
ha
sJ
a
p
a
no
rt
h
eU
.
S
.
A
.i
sp
r
e
s
e
n
t
e
d
.
‑90一