Global and Planetary Change 76 (2011) 1–15
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Global and Planetary Change
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / g l o p l a c h a
Variation in deglacial coralgal assemblages and their paleoenvironmental
significance: IODP Expedition 310, “Tahiti Sea Level”
Elizabeth Abbey a,b,⁎, Jody M. Webster a,b, Juan C. Braga c, Kaoru Sugihara d, Carden Wallace e, Yasufumi Iryu f,
Donald Potts g, Terry Done h, Gilbert Camoin i, Claire Seard i
a
School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld 4811, Australia
School of Geosciences, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
Departamento de Estratigrafia y Paleontologia, Universidad de Granada, E-18002 Granada, Spain
d
Center for Global Environmental Research (CGER), National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan
e
Museum of Tropical Queensland, Townsville, Qld 4810, Australia
f
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
g
Department of Earth and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 95604, USA
h
Australian Institute of Marine Science, PMB #3, Townsville MC, Qld 4810, Australia
i
CEREGE, CNRS-Collége de France-IRD, B.P. 80, F-13545 Aix-en-Provence cedex 4, France
b
c
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 21 June 2010
Accepted 19 November 2010
Available online 26 November 2010
Keywords:
IODP Expedition 310 “Tahiti Sea Level”
Tahiti
coralgal assemblages
last deglaciation
paleoenvironmental change
a b s t r a c t
Fossil reefs are valuable recorders of paleoenvironmental changes during the last deglaciation, and detailed
characterizations of coralgal assemblages can improve understanding of the behavior and impacts of sea-level
rise. Drilling in 2005 by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) Expedition 310 explored submerged
offshore reefs from three locations around Tahiti, French Polynesia and provides the first look at island-wide
variability of coralgal assemblages during deglacial sea-level rise. We present the first detailed examination of
coral and coralline algal taxonomy and morphology from two sites on Tahiti (offshore Tiarei and offshore
Maraa). Sixteen cores ranging in depth from 122 m to 45 m below sea-level represent reef growth from 16 ka
to ca. 8 ka (Camoin, G.F., Iryu, Y., McInroy, D.B. and the IODP Expedition 310 Scientists, 2007. IODP Expedition
310 reconstructs sea level, climatic, and environmental changes in the South Pacific during the last deglaciation.
Scientific Drilling, 5: 4–12). Twenty-six coral species, twelve coral genera and twenty-eight coralline algal species
were identified from 565 m of core and over 400 thin sections. Based on these data, and in comparison with
modern and fossil analogs, seven coral and four algal assemblages have been identified in the deglacial sequences
in Tahiti, representing a range of environments from less than 10 m to greater than 20–30 m water depth.
Deglacial reef initiation varied at sites based on the available substrate, and early colonizers suggest water
conditions at all sites were unfavorable to sensitive corals, such as Acropora, prior to ca. 12.5 ka. Mainly shallowwater (b 10–15 m) corals and coralline algal assemblages developed continuously throughout both sites from
16 ka to ca. 8 ka, suggesting that coralgal assemblage variation is more influenced by factors such as turbidity and
water chemistry than sea-level rise alone.
© 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Coral reef systems are valuable recorders of environmental changes,
as they can display specific and predictable zonation patterns related
to depth or light attenuation and hydrodynamic energy regimes (Rosen,
1971; Done, 1982; Faure and Laboute, 1984; Veron, 2000), and are
highly sensitive to variations in water chemistry and physical factors,
such as temperature and turbidity (Buddemeier and Hopley, 1988;
Kleypass, 1996). Fossil coral reef systems can be preserved in the rock
record, thus providing detailed information about the past ambient
⁎ Corresponding author. School of Geosciences, Madsen Building (F09), The University
of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia. Tel.: +61 2 9036 6539; fax: +61 2 9351 3644.
E-mail address: elizabeth.abbey@sydney.edu.au (E. Abbey).
0921-8181/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2010.11.005
conditions of a region. The presence or absence of certain corals and
coralline algae in the fossil record, in particular those with known
environmental sensitivities, is especially valuable for reconstructing
paleoenvironments. Combined with U-series and 14C dating, fossil coral
reefs have been used to reconstruct climate conditions and sea-level rise
during the last deglaciation in the Caribbean (Fairbanks, 1989; Bard
et al., 1990a) and the Indo-Pacific (Chappell and Polach, 1991; Edwards
et al., 1993; Bard et al., 1996).
Distinct drowned reef terraces constructed of monospecific shallowwater coral Acropora palmata have been identified off Barbados and
used to constrain deglacial sea-levels, but the Indo-Pacific lacks a
similarly wide-spread finite coral sea-level indicator (Davies and
Montaggioni, 1985). Instead, pioneering work lead by Pirazzoli and
Montaggioni (1988) used coral assemblages (especially Acropora robusta
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E. Abbey et al. / Global and Planetary Change 76 (2011) 1–15
group) rather than monospecific communities to constrain paleowater
depths to within ±6 m in French Polynesia (Bard et al., 1996;
Montaggioni et al., 1997; Cabioch et al., 1999a; Camoin et al., 2004).
Using these modern comparisons, accurate paleoenvironmental reconstructions can be made, which are important not only for sea-level
studies, but also for understanding how reefs and their component
coralgal assemblages respond to a variety of environmental perturbations.
Several periods of rapid climate and sea-level change have been
recognized during the last deglaciation through the identification of
punctuated reef growth sequences showing periods of drowning and
subsequent regeneration (Blanchon and Shaw, 1995; Montaggioni,
2005). The timing of these reef drowning events is then used to develop
a chronology for sea-level rise behavior. Using this method, at least
two massive meltwater inputs contributing to accelerated sea-level
rise are thought to have occurred during the last deglaciation. A
meltwater pulse around 13.8 to 14.7 ka was identified in the Caribbean
(MWP-1A by Fairbanks, 1989; Fairbanks et al., 2005), the western Pacific
(Hanebuth et al., 2000) and central Pacific (Bard et al., 1996; Webster et
al., 2004) that resulted in a rise in sea-level of 15 m in less than 500 years,
but evidence from prior drilling in Tahiti remains controversial, as the reef
record only extends to 13.8 ka (Bard et al., 1996). A second, smaller
meltwater pulse was also identified between ca. 10 and 11 ka in Barbados
(Fairbanks, 1989; Bard et al., 1990b; MWP-1B of Fairbanks, 1990; Bard et
al., 1996), the Huon Peninsula (Chappell and Polach, 1991) and Mayotte
Reef (Colonna et al., 1996), however, recent investigations into previously
undated cores from Tahiti reveal evidence to the contrary (Bard et al.,
2010). The intervening period between these debated sea-level accelerations, known as the Younger Dryas (12.5 ka, Fairbanks, 1990), saw a brief
return to a near glacial climate state.
While the search for reef growth hiatuses on Tahiti has received
much attention, few detailed studies of coralgal community variability
in space and time during periods of growth and drowning have been
undertaken. As the last deglaciation was a time of significant sealevel and climate fluctuations, it represents a prime period to observe
how coral reefs respond to dramatic environmental perturbations. In
conjunction with the known sensitivities of the studied corals and
algae, spatial and temporal variability may offer insight into the most
influential factors of reef initiation, development and death.
As a far field site, removed from the glacio-isostatic influence of ice
sheet loading and unloading, and also tectonically stable, Tahiti is an
ideal location to study the influence of deglacial sea-level rise on coralgal
communities. A series of drill holes (P6–P10) of the reefs offshore
Papeete Harbor (Fig. 1) has revealed that reef growth was continuous
and coralgal assemblages varied through time during the last 13 ka
(Montaggioni et al., 1997; Cabioch et al., 1999a; Bard et al., 2010), but
the only evidence for reef growth prior to this time comes from dredged
material (15 ka in situ coral, Camoin et al., 2006). For the first time,
drilling by the IODP in Sep–Oct 2005 has recovered cores from thirtyseven boreholes from three widely spaced sites that extend the reef
record to 16 ka (Camoin et al., 2007a).These new records will allow for
an unprecedented investigation of both the stratigraphic and smallscale (meters) to large-scale (island-wide) spatial variations in coralgal
assemblages on Tahiti during deglacial sea-level rise.
The present study concerns sixteen continuous vertical drill holes
at two sites on Tahiti. Here we present a detailed analysis of the
deglacial coralgal assemblages during the development of the Tahiti
reef. The primary aims of our study are: (1) to document the characteristics of the coral and algal assemblages at the two sites, (2) to
reconstruct their paleoenvironmental setting, and (3) to define their
stratigraphic and spatial variations and discuss their implications
for paleoenvironmental variation during deglacial sea-level rise.
1.1. Study sites
The two sites studied lay offshore Tiarei and Maraa, Tahiti, French
Polynesia (Central Pacific Ocean, Fig. 1). Tahiti is a tropical intraplate
volcanic island situated at 17°50 S and 149°20 W in the Society
Archipelago. Subsidence rates deduced from the ages of subaerial lavas
beneath the Pleistocene reef range from 0.15 mm year− 1 (Le Roy, 1994)
to 0.25 mm year− 1 (Bard et al., 1996). Weather patterns are seasonal,
with the austral summer months bringing heavy rain and occasional
cyclones, and the winter months being relatively drier and cooler.
Rainfall on Tahiti is variable by location; the west side of the island is the
driest and receives an average of 1500 mm year− 1, and the southern
and eastern sides may receive up to 4000 mm year− 1 (Crossland,
1928a; Crossland, 1928b; Williams, 1933; Dupont, 1993). Suspended
sediments and nutrient flux in the lagoon are also seasonally variable,
where Secchi disk depth can be reduced by 50% in the wet months
(Gabrie and Salvat, 1985). Dominant winds blow from the northeast
or the southeast and create strong swells on the eastern side of the
island.
Tahiti's modern reef consists of fringing and discontinuous barrier
reefs. The outer reef slope is made up of spurs and groves sloping
seaward at 20°. Along the south and west coasts, the reef flat is wide and
separated from the fringing reef by only a very shallow lagoon, and on
the north and east coast the reef flat is very narrow and separated by
wide lagoons locally reaching depths of 35 m (Williams, 1933; Dupont,
1993).
2. Methods
2.1. IODP drilling operations and recovery
Transects of holes were drilled from three regions around Tahiti using
the mission specific platform, the DP Hunter, offshore Faa'a, Tiarei
and Maraa (Camoin et al., 2007b), IODP Sites TAH-01A, TAH-02A and
TAH-03A respectively (Fig. 1). Water depths at these locations range
from 41.6 to 117.5 m. During drilling, the core barrel was advanced in
1.5 m increments, and core depths were measured with ±0.1 m
accuracy (Inwood et al., 2008). Cores are 65 mm in diameter and were
recovered at depths ranging from 41.6 to 161.8 m. Average recovery
exceeds 90% when primary cavities and macroporosity are considered
(Inwood et al., 2008). Sixteen holes were analyzed for the purpose of this
study. Paired cores are defined as those positioned within 5 to 20 m from
one another, and cores may be separated by distances of up to 350 m at a
site (Fig. 1, e.g., Maraa). Differences in the depths of Pleistocene
substrates of sea floor drilling targets can also vary by 25 to 30 m.
Three pairs (M0021A/B, M0023A/B, and M0024A/25B) and one trio
(M0009B/D/E) of cores have been examined from Tiarei (Fig. 4). One
pair was recovered from the inner ridge (M0023A/B) and the remaining
cores were recovered from the outer ridge. Together they form two
transects; a landward–seaward transect extends from the inner ridge to
the outer ridge, and a NW–SE trending transect spans 200 m parallel to
shore (Fig. 1). Seven holes from Maraa were examined, including
two pairs (M0015A/B and M0016A/B). Coring in Maraa reached the
Pleistocene basement at a variety of depths, between 107 and 123
meters below sea level (mbsl) in the outermost holes (M0015A/B,
M0016A/B, and M0018A) and between 85 and 95 mbsl in the innermost
holes (M0007A and M0017A).
2.2. Core logging and fossil identification
A combination of petrographic thin sections, slabbed core material,
and high-resolution digital line-scan images of the archive half of core
sections was used during logging. Drilling penetrated two major
lithologic units; an upper unit (Unit I) consisting of a deglacial package
which is underlain by a lower unit (Unit II), identifiable by visible
diagenetic properties of the sediments caused by subaerial exposure
and meteoric diagenesis during sea-level lowstand (Camoin et al.,
2007b; Thomas et al., 2009; Fujita et al., 2010). All cores investigated
herein intersected the contact between Unit I and Unit II, but only
detailed logging of Unit I was carried out for this study. Cores were
E. Abbey et al. / Global and Planetary Change 76 (2011) 1–15
3
0
10
18
0
Hole M0025B
100
149°20'
120
Hole M0009D
1
60
149°10' Hole M0021B
Hole M0021A
0
10
149°30'
149°40'
17°30'S
Faaa
Moorea
Site M0019
Site M0020
140
Tiarei
Site M0009
Site M0021
Site M0023
Site M0024
Site M0025
24
0
Hole M0024A
Hole M0009E
Hole M0009B
149°50'W
22
0
Hole M0023B
"
Hole M0023A
0
100
200
"
400
Meters
Tiarei
14 24'15"
17 29'30"
Tahiti
17°40'
N
Mara a
Site M0007
Site M0015
Site M0016
Site M0017
Site M0018
"
17°50'
149°33'0"
0
Hole M0007A
0
5
10
100
200
149°32'45"
Maraa
Meters
20
km
Hole M0017A
140
120
Hole M0015A
Hole M001 8A
180
Hole M0016B
0
17°46'0"
Hole M0015B
Hole M0016A
140
200
280
16
0
16
0
Fig. 1. Study site locale (1) and locations of drilling in Tiarei (1a) and Maraa (1b).
examined to identify corals, coralline algae, and mollusks, as well as to
characterize the distribution, morphology and context of the biota.
Coral growth forms were given quantitative definitions as described in
IODP Proceedings (Camoin et al., 2007b).
In situ corals were distinguished from drilling disturbance or
allochthonous rubble using a suite of criteria established by previous
drilling studies (Lighty et al., 1982; Montaggioni et al., 1997;
Montaggioni and Faure, 1997; Cabioch et al., 1999a,b; Camoin et al.,
2001; Webster and Davies, 2003; Camoin et al., 2004). The reliability of
these criteria can vary with growth form, but include (1) orientation of
well-preserved corallites, (2) orientation of acroporid, pocilloporid, and
poritid branches, (3) coral colonies capped by thick (few cm) coralline
algal crusts, and (4) the presence of macroscopic and microscopic
sediment geopetals in cavities and mollusk chambers and valves.
Coral and coralline algae observations were subdivided into 10 cm
intervals, rounded to the nearest 5 cm at the bottom of each core section.
In order to calculate reef framework volume, each 10 cm length was
given a value corresponding to an estimation of the ratio of coralgal
material to any surrounding microbialite. The thickest coralline algal
crusts within each 10 cm interval were recorded, and the occurrence
of vermetid gastropods within the crusts was noted.
Corals were described to the lowest taxonomic level in consultation with taxonomic guides and by comparisons to modern specimens
(Veron and Pichon, 1976; Veron and Pichon, 1977, 1979, 1982; Veron
and Wallace, 1984; Veron, 1986, 2000; Wallace, 1999). Using a
comparison of the biozonation of the fossil corals' modern counterparts, the paleoenvironmental settings were reconstructed. Detailed
taxonomic observations of the coralline algae were undertaken using
over 400 ultra-thin sections. Since all identified coralline species are
living today in Tahiti and other areas of the Pacific Ocean, their
present-day environmental distribution (depth range) has also been
used to interpret the paleoenvironmental settings of the in situ
coralgal frameworks. In all in situ samples the interpreted paleowater
depth is the shallowest depth range of the coralline species cooccurring in the sample. We have followed the depth distribution of
living corallines indicated by Cabioch et al. (1999b), Payri et al.
(2000), and Littler and Littler (2003).
2.3. Radiocarbon dating and X-ray diffraction
Samples of coral and encrusting coralline algae were inspected
under magnification and mechanically cleaned with a dentil drill and
then ultra sonically cleaned in Milli-RO water. Samples were then
submerged in 10% H2O2 for 24 h to remove organic carbon. 500–
1000 mg of each coral and coralline algae sample was etched with HCl
to a minimum of 40% loss by weight. Sub-samples of 12–20 mg were
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E. Abbey et al. / Global and Planetary Change 76 (2011) 1–15
subsequently hydrolyzed and graphitized. Radiocarbon ages were
measured by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) on the ANTARES
facility installed at ANSTO (Fink et al., 2004). AMS ages were
converted to calendar years BP using CALIB Rev 5.0.1 (Stuiver and
Reimer, 1993) using the marine calibration dataset-marine04.14c
(Hughen et al., 2004) and a reservoir deviation of 82 ± 42 (ΔR).
Splits of each pre-treated coral sample were powdered for X-ray
diffraction (XRD) to quantify contamination and possible carbonate
recrystalization. The measurements were carried out using a PANalytical X'Pert Pro Diffractometer with Cu Kα radiation and XRD data
were collected over a 2θ range of 5° to 80°. Approximately 50 mg of
powdered coral was used for each test and aragonite standards with
0.1, 0.5, 2.0, 10.0 and 20.0% calcite were used for calibration.
3. Results
3.1. Coral taxonomy
Twenty-six species from twelve genera in seven scleractinian
families were identified from Tiarei and Maraa (Table 1), but due to
the nature of the material and the difficulty associated with identifying
corals to species level in cores, it is most meaningful to compare observations only to the family or genus level.
All twelve identified coral genera are present in Tiarei cores, but
Porites and Montipora are very dominant. Taxonomic distribution
varies spatially at Tiarei, most notably for Acropora, which are virtually
absent from the outer ridge (M0009, M0021, M0024, and M0025), but
common on the inner ridge (M0023). Maraa has similar species
richness, only lacking the rare Fungia seen in Tiarei cores, but a more
even occurrence of coral genera. In addition to Porites and Montipora,
Acropora and Pocillopora are also very common genera at Maraa.
Again, Acropora is not distributed evenly across all holes at Maraa; it is
common in all holes with the exception of M0016B and M0018A.
3.2. Coral assemblages and paleoenvironmental interpretation
In situ coralgal framework has been divided into ecological assemblages based on dominant corals and associated secondary corals
(Table 2, Fig. 2). Coral growth form (morphology), taxonomy, associated biota (e.g., coralline algae and vermetid gastropods), and in
situ coralgal material density were also taken into consideration in the
definition and characterization of each coral assemblage. Paleoenvironmental interpretations are based on comparisons with analogous
Table 1
Coral taxa identified from Maraa (m) and Tiarei (t).
Family ACROPORIDAE
Acropora spmt
Acropora aculeus?m
Acropora cytheream?
Acropora gemmiferat
Acropora secale?m
Montipora sp.mt
Montipora aequituberculatamt
Montipora tuberculosamt
Montipora verrucosamt
Montipora cf venosam
Family AGARICIIDAE
Leptoseris sp.mt
Leptoseris explanatam?t
Leptoseris solidamt
Pachyseris sp.mt
Pachyseris speciosamt
Pavona sp.mt
Pavona explanulatat
Pavona maldivensismt
Pavona variansmt
Family FAVIIDAE
Favia spmt
Favia pallida?t
Leptastrea sp.mt
Leptastrea purpureat
Leptastrea transversamt
Montastrea sp.mt
Montastrea curtamt
Family FUNGIIDAE
Fungia sp.t
Fungia danaet
Family POCILLOPORIDAE
Pocillopora sp.mt
Pocillopora damicornist
Pocillopora eydouximt
Pocilopora verrucosat
Family SIDERASTREIDAE
Psammocora sp.mt
Family PORITIDAE
Porites sp.mt
Porites lichen/rusmt
Porites lobatamt
Porites lobata/solidamt
modern and fossil Indo-Pacific reef communities and discussed in the
following paragraphs.
Based on this coral composition and comparison with modern
reef zonation and ecology in the Indo-Pacific, we identified seven
coral assemblages and their paleoenvironments (Table 3).
Assemblage 1 (cA1) is dominated by branching (b2 cm) and robust
branching (N2 cm) Pocillopora (P. eydouxi), massive (N2 cm) and
encrusting (b2 cm) Montipora (e.g., M. aequituberculata and M. tuberculosa), branching and massive Porites, and associated encrusting Porites and
massive Faviids (e.g., Montastrea curta). Coralgal frameworks are dense
and cm-thick coralline algae are present locally (Fig. 2A). In most of the
Indo-Pacific, this community can be found on modern windward
reef crests, from the upper forereef to the outer reef flat (Montaggioni,
2005). Fossil and modern robust branching assemblages can be found in
reef-edge environments in water depths less than 6 m on Tahiti (Pirazzoli
and Montaggioni, 1988; Montaggioni et al., 1997; Sugihara et al., 2006)
and Moorea (Bouchon, 1985).
Assemblage 2 (cA2) is characterized by massive Porites and minor
Montipora. Massive Leptastrea transversa, branching Porites, Acropora
and Pocillopora are occasionally associated with this assemblage
(Fig. 2B). Framework is very dense and algal crusts are often only thin
and localized, but can reach 1 cm maximum thickness. In modern
reefs, Porites are commonly found as colonizers where water
conditions are poor (low salinity, Moberg et al., 1997; high
sedimentation, Veron, 2000). Similar modern Indo-Pacific communities tend to dominate sheltered environments on reef flats, patch
reefs, and backreef zones from 0 to 25 m water depth (Done, 1982;
Bouchon, 1985; Veron, 1986; Montaggioni et al., 1997; Cabioch et al.,
1999a).
Assemblage 3 (cA3) is dominated by branching corals, mainly Porites
(e.g., P. lichen/rus) and Pocillopora (P. eydouxi), some Pavona maldivensis,
and rare encrusting corals (e.g., M. tuberculosa, M. aequituberculata,
L. transversa, and Pavona varians) (Fig. 2C). Coralgal frameworks are
dense and cm thick crusts of algae commonly form over branch tips.
Modern branching communities in the Indo-Pacific are commonly
found on semi-exposed to sheltered environments on the mid-forereef,
inner reef flat, and backreef zones up to 20 m deep (Montaggioni, 2005).
Similar modern branching assemblages on Moorea can be found in less
than 10 m water depth (Bouchon, 1985), but fossil assemblages of
branching Porites nigrescens on Tahiti occupy more variable water
depths to a maximum of 30 m (Cabioch et al., 1999a).
Assemblage 4 (cA4) is dominated by robust branching Acropora,
commonly with 2 cm thick algae on branch tips (Fig. 2D). Robust
Acropora are typically found in high-energy environments on the reef
crest and upper reef slope (Done, 1982; Montaggioni and Faure, 1997;
Cabioch et al., 1999b). Robust branching communities (though
primarily Pocillopora) inhabit the modern reefs of Tahiti and Moorea
in less than 6 m water depth (Bouchon, 1985; Sugihara et al., 2006).
Robust fossil assemblages that dominate the Papeete cores have been
interpreted as indicative of similarly shallow paleoenvironments in
less than 10 m water, and perhaps less than 6 m (Pirazzoli and
Montaggioni, 1988; Montaggioni and Camoin, 1993; Montaggioni
et al., 1997; Cabioch et al., 1999a,b).
Assemblage 5 (cA5) is characterized primarily by abundant tabular
or tabular-branching Acropora (e.g., A. cytherea and A. secale), branching
Porites, and Pocillopora (Fig. 2E). Encrusting corals are also common and
diverse (e.g., M. cf aequituberculata, M. venosa, L. cf transversa, and
P. varians). Corals and algae form relatively dense frameworks with algal
crusts reaching 4 cm thickness locally. Modern tabular-branching
communities commonly occur in semi-exposed or sheltered environments on the upper and mid-forereef, reef flat, and backreef slope no
deeper than 20 m, but are commonly between 2 and 15 m water depth
in Tahiti and the Indo-Pacific (Done, 1982; Montaggioni, 2005; Sugihara
et al., 2006). This fossil assemblage is likely to represent a lowerenergy paleoenvironmental setting in 5–15 m water depth on Tahiti
(Montaggioni et al., 1997; Cabioch et al., 1999a).
E. Abbey et al. / Global and Planetary Change 76 (2011) 1–15
5
Table 2
Coral assemblages and their paleoenvironmental interpretations.
Coral assemblage
Key components
Additional components
Assemblage 1 cA1
Massive and encrusting Montipora (e.g., M. aequituberculata, M. tuberculosa),
robust Pocillopora (e.g., P. eydouxi), branching Porites, and associated
encrusting Porites and Faviids (e.g., Montastrea curta)
Massive Porites, Montipora, associated branching Porites, Acropora, and
Pocillopora
Branching Porites (e.g., P. lichen/rus), Pocillopora, Pavona maldivensis,
associated encrusting Porites, Montipora (e.g., M. tuberculosa, M.
aequituberculata), and Faviids (e.g., L. transversa)
Robust branching Acropora and associated Pocillopora
Tabular and rare branching Acropora (e.g., A. secale), branching and
encrusting Porites, Montipora (e.g., M. cf aequituberculata, M. venosa), Faviids
(e.g., L. cf transversa), Agariciids (e.g., P. varians), and associated Pocillopora
Branching and encrusting Porites (e.g., P. lobata), Montipora (e.g., M.
aequituberculata, M. tuberculosa, M. verrucosa), Agariciids (e.g., Pavona
maldivensis, P. varians, rare Pachyseris speciosa), Faviids (e.g., L. transversa,
M. curta). Occurs with tabular Acropora (e.g., Acropora cytherea) and massive
Porites in Maraa only
Montipora (e.g., M. tuberculosa), Agariciids (e.g., P. varians, Pachyseris sp.,
Leptoseris solida.), Faviids (e.g., M. curta, L. transversa)
Algae up to 3 cm thick, commonly with Tiarei
vermetid gastropods.
Less than 10 m, high
energy
Thin algal crusts. Vermetid gastropods
uncommon.
Algae commonly thick, up to 4 cm.
Vermetid gastropods commonly
associated.
Algae up to 2 cm thick common.
Thick algae is localized, reaching 4 cm.
Vermetid gastropods in the thickest
crusts.
Algae commonly thin with localized
thickening up to 4 cm. Vermetid
gastropods uncommon.
All sites
Less than 25 m,
turbid
Less than 30 m
Maraa
All sites
Less than 10 m
Less than 20 m
All Sites
Less than 30 m
All sites
Generally deeper
than 20 m or turbid
Assemblage 2 cA2
Assemblage 3 cA3
Assemblage 4 cA4
Assemblage 5 cA5
Assemblage 6 cA6
Assemblage 7 cA7
Assemblage 6 (cA6) is comprised of a very diverse suite of corals and
growth forms. Branching and encrusting Porites (e.g., P. lobata) and
Montipora (e.g., M. aequituberculata, M. tuberculosa, and M. verrucosa)
are common, as are Pavona (e.g., P. maldivensis and P. varians) and
Faviids (e.g., L. transversa and M. curta) (Fig. 2F). Pachyseris speciosa is
present, but rare. Less dense frameworks are common, and algae range
from millimeters to centimeters thick. This assemblage is somewhat
variable between sites, where in Maraa minor tabular Acropora and
massive Porites are also present. These taxa have broad environmental
distributions and tolerate a wide range of hydrodynamic energy
regimes. The relatively high number of coral species present in this
assemblage is typical of the high species richness found in water depths
of 10–20 m on the outer reef slope of Moorea (Bouchon, 1985),
however, analogous modern communities have not been identified
from Tahiti. Consequently, the paleoenvironmental setting of this
assemblage can only be constrained to semi-exposed to well-protected
environments in water depths less than 30 m.
Assemblage 7 (cA7) is dominated by encrusting corals. Montipora
tuberculosa, P. varians, M. curta, L. transversa, and well-developed
colonies of P. speciosa are common (Fig. 2G). Leptoseris solida can also be
observed. Associated coralline algae can range from thin and/or
laminated up to 4 cm thick. This assemblage can be found on the
modern outer reef slope in 30 m water depth in Moorea (Bouchon,
1985) and Tahiti (Sugihara et al., 2006). However, in modern IndoPacific reefs, encrusting corals dominate a variety of environments,
ranging from deep outer reef slopes in excess of 20 m water depth
where irradiation is minimal, to high-energy reef crests and slopes in
less than 15 m water depth where water is turbid (Montaggioni, 2005).
3.3. Coralline algal assemblages and paleoenvironmental interpretation
Coralline red algae are common components of deglacial reefs in
the studied cores. Corallines are observed growing on or intergrown
with corals and other encrusting organisms in reef framework
(Fig. 2A–G). Twenty-eight species of coralline algae have been
identified in all the studied cores, but coralline species richness is
not evenly distributed in the different sites and throughout cores.
Plants with very thin laminar thalli are commonly microtized, with no
diagnostic characters preserved and cannot usually be identified.
Therefore, they have not been taken into account in the species
richness comparisons. All algal genera and species identified in the
cored sequences are still living in French Polynesia and other IndoPacific reefs (Cabioch et al., 1999b; Littler and Littler, 2003). These
living coralline algae species show depth-related habitat preferences
Algae are thin or laminated.
Distribution Paleoenvironmental
interpretation
All sites
and some of them have relatively narrow depth ranges in their
modern distribution. The depth ranges of four identified fossil
coralline algae assemblages can be used independently from the
corals to interpret the paleowater depth of the studied reef framework
deposits (Table 3).
Assemblage 1 (aA1) is characterized by centimeter thick plants of
Hydrolithon onkodes (Fig. 3A) and extends to 10 m depth. Thick crusts of
this species are very common on coral colonies both in present-day and
previously cored deglacial reefs off Papeete (Montaggioni et al., 1997;
Cabioch et al., 1999a). Other species, such as Hydrolithon gardineri,
Lithophyllum kotschyanum and Pneophyllum conicum (=Negoniolithon
conicum) are also common in this shallow water assemblage.
Assemblage 2 (aA2) is characterized by species such as H.
gardineri, Hydrolithon munitum, Hydrolithon reinboldii and P. conicum
occurring with thin crusts of H. onkodes, which can extend from 0 to
20 m (Fig. 3B).
Assemblage 3 (aA3) is characterized by Lithophyllum prototypum
(reported as Titanoderma tessellatum by other authors such as Cabioch
et al., 1999b), knobby plants of Mesophyllum erubescens, and Lithothamnion prolifer (Fig. 3C). These species mainly occur between 15 and 30 m,
but the latter can live in deeper waters, down to 40–50 m (Keats et al.,
1996).
Assemblage 4 (aA4) is characteristic of paleoenvironments below
20–25 m, and is defined by the lack of shallower coralline assemblages and the dominance of frameworks of foliose plants of
Mesophyllum funafutiense growing on or intergrown with laminar
corals, and thin encrusting plants of Lithoporella melobesioides, with
occurrences of Hydrolithon breviclavium and Lithothamnion species
(Fig. 3D).
3.4. Radiocarbon dating
Fourteen specimens were selected from Maraa for radiocarbon
dating, including six corals and eight crusts of coralline algae. XRD
analyses of coral specimens confirm very low levels of calcite in all but
the oldest sample (Table 4). The radiocarbon results confirm a
postglacial timing of reef development and are consistent with
previously published radiometric dating results from Tiarei (Fig. 4).
3.5. Spatial, stratigraphic, and chronologic changes in coralgal assemblages
The purpose of surveying on both small scales (meters) and large
scales (island-wide) is to establish baseline variability. With an
understanding of small scale variation, the significance of large scale
6
E. Abbey et al. / Global and Planetary Change 76 (2011) 1–15
Fig. 2. Coral reef limestone showing principle components of (A) Assemblage 1 corals dominated by Montipora (1) and Pocillopora (2); (B) Assemblage 2 corals dominated by
massive Porites (1); (C) Assemblage 3 corals dominated by branching corals (e.g., Porites (1) and Pocillopora) and very minor associated encrusting corals (e.g., Porites (2));
(D) Assemblage 4 dominated by robust branching Acropora (1); (E) Assemblage 5 corals dominated by tabular Acropora (1), branching corals (e.g., Pocillopora) (2), and encrusting
and platy corals (e.g., Porites (3) and Agariciids (4)); (F) Assemblage 6 corals dominated by encrusting (1) and branching (2) Porites, Montipora, Agariciids (3) and Faviids;
(G) Assemblage 7 corals dominated by Pachyseris speciosa, Pavona varians (1) and Montipora (2).
variation, or lack thereof, can be identified. On Tahiti, closely and
widely spaced cores show a range of stratigraphic coralgal assemblage
variability between them. Published U/Th and 14C chronology can be
found in Asami et al. (2009, corals), Heindel et al. (2009, corals and
microbialites), Inoue et al. (2010, corals) and Westphal et al. (2009,
microbialites). More detailed chronology has been undertaken for
E. Abbey et al. / Global and Planetary Change 76 (2011) 1–15
7
Table 3
Algal assemblages and their paleoenvironmental interpretation.
Algal assemblage
Key components
Additional components
Maximum depth
Assemblage 1 aA1
Thick Hydrolithon onkodes
(locally Mastophora species)
10 m
Assemblage 2 aA2
Thin H. onkodes, H. gardineri,
P. conicum
Assemblage 3 aA3
Mesophyllum erubescens
(depth range 15–30 m), L. prototypum
Mesophyllum funafutiense,
Hydrolithon breviclavium, Lithoporella
Hydrolithon gardineri, Hydrolithon murakoshii, Hydrolithon munitum,
Hydrolithon reinboldii, Pneophyllum conicum, Neogoniolithon frutescens,
Spongites sulawensis, Spongites fruticulosus, Spongites sp.,
Lithophyllum cuneatum, Lithophyllum insipidum, Lithophyllum kotschyanum,
Lithophyllum incrassatum, Lithophyllum prototypum, Lithophyllum gr. Pustulatum
H.murakoshii, H. munitum, Hydrolithon rupestre, N. frutescens, Spongites sp.,
L. insipidum, L. kotschyanum, Lithophyllum prototypum, L. incrassatum,
L. gr. pustulatum, Lithothamnion prolifer
Lt. prolifer, H.murakoshii, H. munitum, H. rupestre, L. insipidum, L. incrassatum,
L. gr. pustulatum,
H. reinboldii, L. gr. pustulatum, Lithothamnion sps., Sporolithon sps.
Assemblage 4 aA4
sea-level reconstructions (Deschamps et al., in prep.), reef accretion
history (Camoin et al., in prep.) and microbialite development (Seard
et al., 2010). Details of 14C dating performed for this study can be
found in Table 4.
3.5.1. Tiarei
3.5.1.1. Seaward core transect. Coring on the outer ridge reached the
Pleistocene basement at ca. 119 mbsl (meters below sea-level) in four
holes — M009D, M009B, M0024A, and M0025B,and the basement was
reached at ca. 111 mbsl in three holes — M009E, M0021A, and M0021B
(Fig. 4). The first corals to populate the basement substrate in every
hole on the outer ridge, regardless of timing of initiation, are Montipora
(e.g., M. aequituberculata and M. tuberculosa), Porites and Pocillopora
(e.g., P. eydouxi) (cA1). This assemblage has a stratigraphic thickness
of 1 to 6 m with thick and thin coralline algal crusts of H. onkodes and
H. gardineri (algae Assemblage 1 and 2). All communities forming on
the ca. 119 mbsl substrate transition into extensive massive Porites
communities (cA2) ranging from 2 to 10 m in stratigraphic thickness at
ca. 118 mbsl and 15.3 ka. Thick crusts of H. onkodes associated with
vermetid gastropods also characterize this stratigraphic interval.
No massive Porites communities (cA2) develop on the 111 mbsl
basement substrate following the initial coral assemblage. Instead, a
dense framework of branching Porites (cA3) and thick and thin crusts of
H. onkodes (aA1 and aA2) extend for 5 m or more. At 115–110 mbsl and
ca. 14.8 ka, massive Porites in the deeper holes are replaced by the same
dense framework of branching Porites as is seen in shallower holes. In all
outer ridge holes, with the exception of M0009D where a significant
gap in recovery precludes the assessment of the presence or absence
of Assemblage 5 in this stratigraphic interval, branching Porites (e.g.,
P. lichen/rus) continues and/or alternates with massive Porites (e.g.,
P. lobata/solida). Both communities are succeeded by a diverse coral
assemblage of branching and encrusting Porites, Montipora, Agariciids,
and Faviids (cA6) at depths ranging from 110 to 100 mbsl in association
with thick and thin crusts of H. onkodes (aA1). With the exception of
M0024A, cA6 is then replaced by the ultimate succession of encrusting
and platy corals (e.g., L. transversa, Pachyseris, Pavona) (cA7). Corallines
associated with this assemblage are thin and laminar crusts of
M. funafutiense and Lithoporella (aA4). Deeper holes M0009B/D/E and
M0025B transition into this final assemblage 98 to 108 mbsl and
development of this assemblage is variable, from 1 to 4 m in thickness.
In shallower holes (M0021A/B), the transition into cA7 occurs at ca.
85 mbsl and reef growth terminates at ca. 82 mbsl.
3.5.1.2. Landward hole transect. Holes M0023A and M0023B on the
inner ridge reached the Pleistocene basement between 95 and 98 mbsl
(Fig. 4). The first community to occupy the substrate is a dense
framework of branching Porites and Pocillopora (e.g., P. eydouxi) (cA3)
and up to 2 cm thick crusts of H. onkodes with Mastophora (aA1) and
associated vermetid gastropods. This assemblage is extensive, up to
20 m
30 m
Greater than
20–25 m
15 m thick, and continues until ca. 81 mbsl. Tabular Acropora develops in
M0023B (cA5) and alternates with cA4. Acropora does not become
dominant in M0023A, where instead a diverse suite of branching Porites
and encrusting Montipora and Agariciids (cA6) alternates with massive
Porites (Assemblage 2) ca. 12.6 ka. H. onkodes and Mastophora pacifica
(aA1 and aA2) are common throughout both holes until ca. 73 mbsl.
An encrusting and platy coral community (e.g., L. transversa and P.
varians) (cA7) associated with M. funafutiense (aA4) develops in both
holes at ca. 73 mbsl ca. 11.2 ka and growth continues until the tops of
holes at ca. 67 mbsl.
3.5.2. Maraa
3.5.2.1. M0016 and M0018. Massive P. lobata communities (cA2)
initiated in three outermost holes (M0016A, M0016B, and M0018A)
on the basement substrate at ca. 120 mbsl ca. 15–14 ka (Fig. 5). These
communities are associated with thin crusts of H. onkodes typical of aA2
and persist through several meters of core to 115 to 110 mbsl.
At 115 mbsl massive Porites is succeeded by branching Porites and
P. maldivensis with associated M. cf verrucosa (cA3) in M0016A and
M0018A, and branching and encrusting Porites and Montipora with
associated P. varians (cA6) in M0016B. Thick and thin crusts of
H. onkodes (aA1 and aA2) and vermetid gastropods are common. cA3
and cA6 alternate for 15 m through these outermost holes and algal
assemblages aA1 and aA2 reach thicknesses up to 6 cm.
At ca. 100 mbsl, growth of cA6 and algal assemblage aA2 terminate
in M0016B without the development of an encrusting community
(i.e., cA6) or deep-water corallines (i.e., aA4). Branching colonies of
Porites, A. cytherea and P. maldivensis continue through M0016A and
M0018A for another 10 m. At ca. 90 mbsl, corals in M0016A and
M0018A become dominated by encrusting and platy forms of Montipora
and P. varians (cA6 and cA7) with only minor branching corals. Coralline
algae crusts are thinner and Mesophyllum is dominant in M0016A, but
H. onkodes continues to be associated with the corals in cA7 until ca.
85 mbsl. At ca. 85 mbsl, Pachyseris, L. solida and P. varians are dominant
in both holes with associated M. curta, and thin crusts of M. funafutiense
and Lithoporella are common (aA4). Reef growth terminates in both
holes at 81 mbsl ca. 8.8 ka.
3.5.2.2. M0015. At ca. 110 mbsl and ca. 13.9 ka, reef growth is initiated
in M0015A by branching Porites and robust branching Pocillopora
(cA3) with thick crusts of H. onkodes and Mastophora and in M0015B
by massive Porites (cA2) and thin crusts of H. onkodes (aA2) (Fig. 5).
Massive P. lobata remains dominant in M0015B from 108 to 106 mbsl,
but then reverts to branching Porites and robust branching Pocillopora,
which continues with up to 4 cm thick crusts of H. onkodes in both
M0015A and M0015B to ca. 90 mbsl. A brief interval of tabular Acropora
(cA5) interrupts this branching Porites assemblage at ca. 97 mbsl in both
holes. At ca. 90 mbsl and ca. 12.0 ka, coral growth becomes dominated
by tabular Acropora, branching Porites, robust Pocillopora (cA5) and
8
E. Abbey et al. / Global and Planetary Change 76 (2011) 1–15
Fig. 3. (A) Sample 5B4 showing a thick plant of Hydrolithon onkodes with partly buried thallus of Lithophyllum cuneatum characteristic of very shallow waters (b 10 m, Assemblage 1).
(B) Sample 18A (4) showing knobby plants of Mesophyllum erubescens that typically extend down to 25 m (Assemblage 3). (C) Sample 18A3 (4) showing laminar, terraced plants of
Lithophyllum prototypum (also referred to as Titanoderma tessellatum) that mainly occur in the shallower 25 m (Assemblage 3). (D) Sample 15B1 showing Mesophyllum funafutiense 1
forming frameworks of foliose plants typical of deep water and shade assemblages (Assemblage 4).
crusts of H. onkodes/H. gardineri and N. conicum up to 1 cm thick. Tabular
Acropora extends continuously through M0015A until ca. 80 mbsl, but is
interrupted in short intervals in M0015B at ca. 87 and ca. 83 mbsl where
it is replaced by branching and encrusting Porites and Montipora (cA6)
and massive Porites (cA2). Associated corallines within this interval
include L. prolifer, M. funafutiense and Lithoporella (aA3 and aA4).
Tabular corals (cA5) resume with thick crusts of H. onkodes (aA1) at ca.
81 mbsl in M0015B until ca. 79. At ca. 79 mbsl, corals become dominated
by Leptoseris and P. speciosa with P. varians, Montipora (cA7) and thin
(1–2 mm) crusts of coralline algae dominated by M. funafutiense and
laminar Lithothamnion (aA4). Reef growth is terminated ca. 73 mbsl and
9.2–8.6 ka.
3.5.2.3. M0007 and M0017. Reef growth in the innermost holes,
M0007A and M0017A, initiated on the Pleistocene substrates ca. 85 and
ca. 95 mbsl respectively (Fig. 5). A community of massive M. curta, L. cf
transversa and branching Pocillopora and Porites (cA1) is the first to
colonize the basement in M0017A ca. 13.2 ka. Branching P. lichen/rus
(cA3) alternates with massive Porites (cA2) and a brief interval of
tabular Acropora (cA5) until ca. 85 mbsl. Associated algae reach 2 cm
thickness and consist of H. onkodes, H. gardineri and Mastophora (aA1)
with vermetid gastropods locally. Reef growth in M0007A is initiated
by robust Pocillopora (cA3) and associated with 2 cm thick crusts of
coralline algae and vermetid gastropods. In both innermost holes,
corals transition to a tabular Acropora dominated community with
robust Pocillopora and branching Porites (cA5). A distinct community of
exclusively robust branching Acropora (cA4) develops from 82 to
78 mbsl (ca. 12.2 ka) and 77 to 73 mbsl (ca. 12.9 ka) in M0017A and
M007A respectively, above which reef growth returns to tabular and
branching Acropora (A. secale) with branching Porites, Pocillopora and
minor encrusting corals (M. cf venosa, L. transversa, and P. varians)
(cA5). This community extends until ca. 70 mbsl in hole M0017A,
throughout which thin crusts of H. onkodes (aA2) overgrown by
Mesophyllum, Lithothamnion and Lithoporella develop. Corals transition
into an encrusting assemblage of Montipora and P. varians (cA7) with
thin crusts of M. funafutiense, Lithothamnion and Lithoporella (aA4)
E. Abbey et al. / Global and Planetary Change 76 (2011) 1–15
9
Table 4
Summary of coral and algal radiocarbon dating results and calibration.
IODP code
ANSTO lab
code
14
C
agea
14
C
error
Corrected
error
Median calibrated
agea
2σ calibrated age
rangea
Material
17A4R1_1–3
15B2R1_57–65
18A1R1_16–22
15A2RCC_12–14
15A20R1_61–67
17A18R1_44–58
7A33R1_63–69
17A21R1_16–19
16A31R1_35–43
15B37R1_57–63
15A36R1_37–42
16B17R1_16–23
18A21R1_30–33
16B23R1_65–70
OZM176
OZM182
OZM178
OZM168
OZM169
OZM172
OZM183
OZM177
OZM173
OZM171
OZM170
OZM174
OZM179
OZM175
5565
8200
8350
8640
10,740
10,820
11,480
11,770
12,410
12,470
12,580
12,590
12,730
13,210
± 50
± 60
± 60
± 70
± 70
± 80
± 70
± 70
± 90
± 80
± 80
± 80
± 80
± 90
± 131
± 146
± 146
± 163
± 163
± 181
± 163
± 163
± 199
± 181
± 181
± 181
± 181
± 199
5857
8598
8809
9202
11,994
12,159
12,937
13,171
13,787
13,848
13,948
13,957
14,128
15,007
5681–6011
8406–8846
8589–8995
9001–9402
11,632–12,354
11,832–12,404
12,841–13,081
12,993–13,304
13,549–14,017
13,666–14,042
13,765–14,143
13,770–14,154
13,860–14,605
14,597–15,403
Coral
Coralline
Coral
Coral
Coralline
Coralline
Coralline
Coralline
Coralline
Coral
Coralline
Coralline
Coral
Coral
a
b
algae
algae
algae
algae
algae
algae
algae
algae
Description
Percent
calcite
P. varians
Thin crustsb (2 mm)
P. varians
L. solida
Thick crusts (1 cm)
Very thick crusts (N1 cm)
Very thick crusts (N1 cm)
Thick crusts (1 cm)
Very thick crusts (N1 cm)
P. lobata
Very thick crusts (N1 cm)
Thick crusts (1 cm)
P. rus(?)
P. lobata
b 1%
N/A
b 1%
b 1%
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
b 1%
N/A
N/A
b 1%
2–3%
Years BP.
15B2R1_57–65 Coralline algae species include Mesophyllum funafutiense(?), Lithoporella, laminar Lithothamnion, H. murakoshii(?), H. reinboldii and Peyssonnelia.
they are replaced by 1 m of branching Porites and Pocillopora rubble at
the top of the hole.
which develop until reef growth terminates at ca. 60 mbsl ~5.9 ka.
Tabular Acropora develops in hole M0007A until 64.5 mbsl where corals
transition over 1 m into massive Porites (cA2) with L. prolifer and
M. erubescens (aA3) and thin crusts of Mesophyllum and Lithoporella.
Massive Porites alternates with encrusting and branching Porites,
Pocillopora, and Montipora (cA6) until ca. 53 mbsl. Thin coralline algal
crusts of Mesophyllum and Lithothamnion (aA4) replace aA3, and
encrusting Porites, M. tuberculosa, P. varians and Leptastrea (cA7)
replace cA6. In situ corals and algae develop until ca. 45 mbsl, where
65
4. Discussion
4.1. Integration of coralline and coral interpretations
In most cases, coralline assemblage paleoenvironmental interpretation
is consistent with the associated coral assemblage paleoenvironmental
Coral assemblages
Coralline algal assemblages
cA7, encrusting Pachyseris speciosa,
Leptoseris solida and Montipora. Thin coralline algal crusts.
70
aA4, Mesophyllum funafutiense intergrown with laminar
corals, thin encrusting Lithoporella melobesioides.
aA3, knobby Mesophyllum erubescens, Lithophyllum
prototypum and Lithothamnion prolifer.
aA2, thin crusts of Hydrolithon onkodes with H. gardineri,
H. munitum, H. reinboldii, and Pneophyllum conicum.
cA6, encrusting and branching corals. Thick
and thin coralline algal crusts.
cA5, encrusting, branching, and tabular corals.
Thick and thin coralline algal crusts
cA3, branching Porites and robust
Pocillopora. Thick coralline algal crusts.
75
aA1, thick crusts of Hydrolithon onkodes.
Coralgal framework percent (Grey, 0-100%) and thickness
of encrusting coralline algae (Red, 0-6cm).
cA2, massive Porites. Thin coralline algal crusts.
80
cA1, robust Pocillopora and Montipora. Thick
and thin coralline algal crusts.
V
Associated Vermetid gastropods
Lithology
85
Coral-algal fragments and/or microbialite.
Unit II, older Pleistocene reef
90
mbsl
95
100
105
23A
23B
Inner Ridge
110
115
120
125
21A
21B
9E
9D
9B
Outer Ridge
24A
25B
130
Fig. 4. Cores retrieved from Tiarei: Stratigraphic distribution of coral and algal assemblages, algae thickness, and coralgal framework density. Coral assemblages are defined by
associated species/genera/families, growth form and framework density. Algae and framework observations are averaged in 10 cm intervals; algae thickness is recorded as the
thickest crust in a given interval, and framework values are the average of a 10 cm interval. See Tables 3 and 4 for complete coral and algal assemblage descriptions.
10
E. Abbey et al. / Global and Planetary Change 76 (2011) 1–15
Coral assemblages
Coralline algal assemblages
cA7, encrusting Pachyseris speciosa,
Leptoseris solida and Montipora. Thin coralline algal crusts.
40
45
50
cA6, encrusting and branching corals. Thick
and thin coralline algal crusts.
aA3, knobby Mesophyllum erubescens, Lithophyllum
prototypum and Lithothamnion prolifer.
cA5, encrusting, branching, and tabular corals.
Thick and thin coralline algal crusts.
aA2, thin crusts of Hydrolithon onkodes with H. gardineri,
H. munitum, H. reinboldii, and Pneophyllum conicum.
aA1, thick crusts of Hydrolithon onkodes.
cA4, robust branching Acropora.
cA3, branching Porites and robust
Pocillopora. Thick coralline algal crusts.
55
Coralgal framework percent (Grey, 0-100%) and thickness
of encrusting coralline algae (Red, 0-6cm).
cA2, massive Porites. Thin coralline algal crusts.
60
aA4, Mesophyllum funafutiense intergrown with laminar
corals, thin encrusting Lithoporella melobesioides.
V
5.86
9.8
Associated Vermetid gastropods
cA1, robust Pocillopora and Montipora. Thick
and thin coralline algal crusts.
65
Lithology
Coral-algal fragments and/or microbialite.
70
Unit II, older Pleistocene reef
8.60
9.20
75
80
12.2
mbsl
8.81
12.9
85
12.2
90
12.0
13.2
95
17A
7A
100
Landward
105
13.9
13.9
110
13.4
13.8
14.0
115
14.1
120
15.0
125
15A
15B
130
16A
16B
18A
Seaward
Fig. 5. Cores retrieved from Maraa: Stratigraphic distribution of coral and algal assemblages, algae thickness, and coralgal framework density. Coral assemblages are defined by
associated species/genera/families, growth form and framework density. Algae and framework observations are averaged in 10 cm intervals; algae thickness is recorded as the
thickest crust in a given interval, and framework values are the average of a 10 cm interval. See Tables 2 and 3 for complete coral and algal assemblage descriptions.
interpretation (e.g., thick crusts of shallow-water H. onkodes [aA1] are
associated with shallow-water robust branching Acropora [cA4], and
deep-water L. melobesioides and M. funafutiense [aA4] are associated
with deep-water P. speciosa and Leptoseris [cA7]; Figs. 6 and 7).
However, algal species typical of deeper assemblages may occur
with those characteristic of shallower depths in the same sample. In
these instances, the maximum depth range of the shallowest coralline
present defines coralline assemblages and their paleoenvironmental
significance. In samples from the studied holes, species typical of
the deepest-water assemblage (aA4), such as M. funafutiense and
L. melobesioides, can appear overgrowing species characteristic of aA1–3
or encrusting the same coral branch on a different side, usually immediately predating microbial crusts. As light penetration is one of the
major controlling factors in coralline distribution (Adey, 1979; Adey,
1986), the presence of crevices, caves and cavities influence species
distribution in a similar manner to water depth. Shade habitats are
dominated by the same corallines as those living in open deep
environments. These species can be found at the same depth as those
exclusive to shallow water but in darker habitats. Similarly, shallowwater species can be overgrown by shade species when the framework
substrate in which they grew becomes overshadowed by new coral
growth. Therefore, only the algal assemblage indicative of the
shallowest range for the paleowater depth interpretation is relevant
to the overall coralgal paleoenvironmental interpretation.
4.2. Coralgal assemblage variations in space
Maraa and Tiarei coral assemblages show distinct patterns in spatial
distribution that appear to be controlled by the depth and nature of
the Pleistocene basement and proximity to the island. Massive Porites
are common in outer cores in both Tiarei (e.g., M0024A/25B; Fig. 4)
and Maraa (e.g., M0015A/B and M0016A/B; Fig. 5) where they form
thick sections, yet are rare and/or less developed in inner cores. Porites
species, especially domal forms, tend to be very hardy and resistant
to low temperature, low salinity, high terrigenous input and reduced
water circulation (Marshall and Orr, 1931; Manton, 1935; Wells, 1954;
Scoffin and Stoddart, 1978; Martin et al., 1989; Schlöder and D'Croz,
2004). Porites are often found at the base of cores retrieved from the
Great Barrier Reef, where it is interpreted as indicating a lag in initial
colonization due to locally adverse conditions (Davies and Hopley,
1983; Hopley et al., 2007). Inimical conditions on the outer edge of the
reef may have been caused by the resuspension of sediments during
the early stages of sea-level rise, creating an environment too harsh
for more sensitive genera, such as Acropora (van Woesik and Done,
1997; Loya et al., 2001). Low salinity and poor water quality may have
also been exacerbated at Tiarei where the island's largest river
and drainage basin (Papenoo R.) is responsible for the removal of
24.6× 10− 2 km3 kyr− 1 of debris — more than ten times the erosion rate
of drainage basins near Maraa (Hildenbrand et al., 2008). Fossilized
E. Abbey et al. / Global and Planetary Change 76 (2011) 1–15
11
reef framework dominated by branching Porites (cA3), which
developed in Maraa inner sites before the dominance of Acropora.
Abundance of crustose corallines in the Great Barrier Reef strongly
depends on sediment influx and water clarity (Fabricius and De'ath,
2001). Similarly, in Mediterranean Messinian reefs, species richness
is much higher in reefs facing the open oceans than in reefs in
intermontane basins affected by river discharge of terrigenous sediment
(Braga et al., 2009). The high species richness of corallines in Maraa
observed to be associated with the low-tolerance Acropora assemblage
(cA5) in cores supports the notion that these algae were sensitive to
the poor water quality of Tiarei during deglaciation.
microbialites that encase the corals from the last deglaciation contain
more terrestrial volcanoclastic grains at Tiarei than Maraa, suggesting
this is also the trend historically (Camoin et al., 2007a; Westphal et al.,
2009). The reduced effect of river discharge in Maraa is apparent by
the frequency of tabular and branching Acropora (cA5) in cores (e.g.,
M0007A, M0017A, and M0015A/B; Fig. 5) and may also play an important
role in the differential diversity observed between the northeastern
and southwestern sides of the island.
The total species richness of coralline algae in the deglacial reefs
in Tahiti, twenty-eight species, resembles the highest records of
present-day reefs in the Pacific and Indian oceans. This number only
refers to coralline species with thalli thicker than 20 μm (see Results,
Section 3.3). Adey et al. (1982) reported twenty-seven species in the
Hawaiian Islands (sampling down to 85 m); Verheij (1994) found
twenty species in the upper 65 m in the Spermonde Archipelago in
Indonesia; Iryu et al. (1995) identified nineteen species (sampling down
to 50 m) in the Ryukyu Islands; and South and Skelton (2003) and
N'Yeurt et al. (1996)) reported twenty-one and seventeen species,
respectively, from the Fiji Islands with no indication of sampling depth
limit. The reported species numbers in present-day reef areas are
patently affected by taxonomic procedures and sampling depth (and
probably the surveyed area) and, thus, other accounts record substantially lower species richness.
There is a markedly higher coralline algal diversity in the Acroporadominated paleoenvironments in the deglacial reefs in Tahiti. A total
of twenty-three species can be identified in samples within the
encrusting coral of assemblages cA4 and cA5 in Maraa, while only
sixteen species occur in coeval reef framework in Tiarei (Table 5). In a
similar pattern, only twenty coralline species have been found in the
4.3. Coralgal assemblage variations in time
Coralgal assemblage variations occur as vertical transitions from cA1
to cA7 and aA1 to aA4. Reverse transitions occur, but only between cA2
to cA6 and aA1 and aA2. Based on our understanding of the modern
analogs of the coralgal assemblages, these community transitions
within a core may represent the response of reef growth to changing
paleoenvironmental conditions (e.g., sea-level rise puts communities at
greater depth leading to dominance of depth-tolerant coralgal assemblages), but vertical assemblage transitions may also be produced by
ecological succession and vertical reef accretion, or lateral growth
during sea-level still stands (backstepping and/or progradation, i.e.
Walther's Law, described in Webster and Davies, 2003).
Individual assemblages form extensive vertical intervals within
cores at all sites, suggesting long periods of stable paleoenvironmental
conditions on Tahiti. For example, branching Porites (cA3) develops
through more than 12 m of nearly uninterrupted core recovery in
Coral assemblages
65
Paleowater depth (m)
0 10 20 30+
Coralline algal assemblages
aA4, Mesophyllum funafutiense intergrown with laminar
corals, thin encrusting Lithoporella melobesioides.
aA3, knobby Mesophyllum erubescens, Lithophyllum
prototypum and Lithothamnion prolifer.
cA7, encrusting Pachyseris speciosa,
Leptoseris solida and Montipora. Thin coralline algal crusts.
0 10 20 30+
cA6, encrusting and branching corals. Thick
and thin coralline algal crusts.
cA5, encrusting, branching, and tabular corals.
Thick and thin coralline algal crusts
70
75
aA2, thin crusts of Hydrolithon onkodes with H. gardineri,
H. munitum, H. reinboldii, and Pneophyllum conicum.
cA4, robust branching Acropora.
aA1, thick crusts of Hydrolithon onkodes.
cA3, branching Porites and robust
Pocillopora. Thick coralline algal crusts.
Associated Vermetid gastropods
V
Lithology
cA2, massive Porites. Thin coralline algal crusts.
80
0 10 20 30+
0 10 20 30+
Coral-algal fragments and/or microbialite.
cA1, robust Pocillopora and Montipora. Thick
and thin coralline algal crusts.
Unit II, older Pleistocene reef
85
0 10 20 30+
90
95
mbsl
0 10 20 30+
100
105
0 10 20 30+
0 10 20 30+
23A
23B
Inner Ridge
0 10 20 30+
110
2
115
120
125
21A
21B
9E
9D
9B
24A
25B
Outer Ridge
130
Fig. 6. Interpreted paleowater depth intervals in cores from Tiarei. Water depths are based on published accounts of fossil and modern Indo-Pacific reefs.
12
E. Abbey et al. / Global and Planetary Change 76 (2011) 1–15
Coral assemblages
40
Paleowater depth (m)
0
Coralline algal assemblages
cA7, encrusting Pachyseris speciosa,
Leptoseris solida and Montipora. Thin coralline algal crusts.
cA6, encrusting and branching corals. Thick
and thin coralline algal crusts.
cA5, encrusting, branching, and tabular corals.
Thick and thin coralline algal crusts.
10 20 30+
45
50
cA4, robust branching Acropora.
55
cA3, branching Porites and robust
Pocillopora. Thick coralline algal crusts.
0
10 20 30+
aA1, thick crusts of Hydrolithon onkodes.
Coralgal framework percent (Grey, 0-100%) and thickness
of encrusting coralline algae (Red, 0-6cm).
cA2, massive Porites. Thin coralline algal crusts.
60
aA4, Mesophyllum funafutiense intergrown with laminar
corals, thin encrusting Lithoporella melobesioides.
aA3, knobby Mesophyllum erubescens, Lithophyllum
prototypum and Lithothamnion prolifer.
aA2, thin crusts of Hydrolithon onkodes with H. gardineri,
H. munitum, H. reinboldii, and Pneophyllum conicum.
V
Associated Vermetid gastropods
cA1, robust Pocillopora and Montipora. Thick
and thin coralline algal crusts.
Lithology
65
Coral-algal fragments and/or microbialite.
Unit II, older Pleistocene reef
70
0
10 20 30+
0
10 20 30+
75
0
mbsl
80
10 20 30+
0
10 20 30+
0
10 20 30+
85
90
95
17A
7A
100
Landward
105
110
115
120
125
15A
15B
130
16A
16B
18A
Seaward
Fig. 7. Interpreted paleowater depth intervals in cores from Maraa. Water depths are based on published accounts of fossil and modern Indo-Pacific reefs.
M0023A (Fig. 6). This is consistent with previous observations of
continuously shallow reef assemblages spanning 11 ka to present in
Papeete Harbor (Montaggioni et al., 1997).
The depth range of Assemblage aA3 partly overlaps those of aA2
and aA4, but adds a certain degree of resolution to the paleodepth
interpretation, which cannot be attained with the species characteristic of the other assemblages. Its identification in Maraa probably
reflects a higher development of deeper reef-framework facies before
the drowning of the reef in this area compared to Tiarei.
4.4. Paleoenvironmental variations during the last deglaciation
The ecological characteristics of deglacial reefs on Tahiti are variable
based on the initial depth of the Pleistocene basement, the local
hydrodynamic energy regime and local water quality — these factors are
discussed in the following section in the context of reef initiation,
growth and death.
4.4.1. Deglacial reef initiation
The initial communities to occupy the Pleistocene basement were
variable both between sites and within sites due to a range of optimum
to sub optimum substrates. Shallow water and/or high-energy coralgal
assemblages (cA1 and cA3, aA1 and aA2) formed on most basement
substrates in Tiarei (Fig. 6) and also in the inner, upslope substrates
in Maraa (Fig. 7), yet intermediate depth and lower-energy massive
Porites (cA2, aA2) formed on the outer substrates in Maraa. This
discrepancy in paleowater depth of 5 to 10 m between the pioneer
communities suggests that while deglacial reef initiation took place
rapidly and in shallow paleowater depths in Tiarei and in the inner
Maraa holes, reef initiation occurred with some delay and therefore
in deeper paleowater depths in the outer Maraa holes. We argue that
the nature of the Pleistocene basement substrate may have influenced
this variable composition of the initial colonizing coralgal assemblages
between sites. In cores where branching corals (cA1 and cA3) are the
pioneer communities (all Tiarei sites and Maraa sites M0007A, M0015A/
B, and M0017A), the substrates are mainly composed of coralgal
bindstone, coral framework or large coral debris (Camoin et al., 2007b).
These substrate types appear to be ideal for the development of the
high-energy and shallow coralgal assemblages on Tahiti's windward
margin and shallow communities on Maraa's inner leeward margin,
but unfavorable substrates of loose sand and rudstones may have
retarded reef initiation in the outer Maraa holes.
4.4.2. Deglacial reef growth
Following reef initiation on Tahiti, most coral assemblages between
ca. 120 and ca. 110 mbsl developed in somewhat deeper conditions
as indicated by the prevalence of massive Porites (cA2) and scarcer algae
crusts (aA2). A shallowing-upwards sequence begins at ca. 110 mbsl
with the development of extensive branching communities (cA3).
The alternating pattern of branching (cA3 and cA4), tabular (cA5)
and branching–encrusting corals (cA6) between ca. 110 mbsl and the
bottoms of the drowning sequence suggests that paleoenvironmental
E. Abbey et al. / Global and Planetary Change 76 (2011) 1–15
Tahiti waters from 12.7 to 9.8 ka. Such variations did not affect the
persistent development of Acropora after ~ 12.5 ka.
Table 5
Algal distribution relative to coral assemblage and site.
Acropora interval
(branching + tabular),
Maraa
Branching
Porites interval,
Maraa
Branching encrusting
interval, Tiarei
(coeval to Acropora
in Maraa)
Hydolithon breviclavium
Hydolithon gardineri
Hydolithon murakoshii
Hydolithon munitum
Hydolithon onkodes
Lithoporella sp.
Mastophora sp.
Neogoniolithon fosliei
Neogoniolithon frutescens
Pneophyllum conicum
laminar Spongites sp.
Lithophyllum acrocamptum
(= L. incrassatum)
Lithophyllum cuneatum
Lithophyllum insipidum
Lithophyllum gr.
kotschyanum
Lithophyllum prototypum
Lithophyllum gr.
pustulatum
Lithothamnion prolifer
laminar Lithothamnion sp.
Mesophyllum erubescens
Mesophyllum funafutiense
Sporolithon sp.
Total = 22
H. gardineri
H. murakoshii
H. onkodes
Hydorlithon rupestre
Lithoporella sp.
Mastophora pacifica
Neogoniolithon sp.
P. conicum
Spongites sulawensis
Lithophyllum acrocamptum
L. cuneatum
L. insipidum
H. breviclavium
H. gardineri
H. murakoshii
H. onkodes
H. reinboldii
M. pacifica
Lithoporella sp.
P. conicum
Spongites sp.
L. acrocamptum
L. cuneatum
L. insipidum
L. gr. kotschyanum
L. prototypum
L. gr. pustulatum
L. gr. pustulatum
L. prolifer
laminar
Lithothamnion sp.
Mesophyllum sp.
L. prolifer
laminar Lithothamnion sp.
4.4.3. Deglacial reef death
Deep-water coralgal communities (cA7, aA4) replace shallow
assemblages in Tiarei at the tops of cores ca. 11 ka on the inner ridge,
though the timing on the outer ridge is unknown (Fig. 6). Some algal
transitions suggest the deepening was abrupt, most notably in M0021A
and B where shallow H. onkodes and Mastophora (aA1) occur at ca.
85 mbsl, immediately prior to deep-water coralgal assemblages (cA7
with aA4). In Maraa, deep-water assemblages begin forming at the
tops of cores between 85–80 mbsl in outer cores (cA7 with aA3 and
aA4), and 70–55 mbsl in inner cores (cA7 with aA4). Two Maraa cores
(M0007A and M0016A) show a stratigraphically extended transition
from shallow (b10 m) to intermediate (15–30 m) to deep (N20 m),
suggesting the change in paleowater depth occurred over a somewhat
longer time period than is indicated in Tiarei cores (Fig. 7). This
discrepancy in paleowater depth signals may also be attributed to
variable hydrodynamic and oceanographic conditions between the
southwestern and northeastern sides of the island.
5. Conclusions
M. erubescens
M. funafutiense
Total = 19
13
Total = 16
conditions (turbidity, energy, salinity) may have fluctuated near the
tolerance limits of the different coral assemblages. However, where associated algae have been identified, paleowater depths can be constrained to no deeper than 20 m, and often less than 10 m (Figs. 6 and 7).
These shallow- to intermediate-depth (0–20 m) reefs are variable in
cores, accreting up to 10 m or more in some places to a maximum
height of ca. 80–85 mbsl on Tiarei's outer ridge and Maraa's outer holes.
The consistent appearance of Acropora within assemblages
(especially sites M0007A, M0017A, and M0015A/B) and the increased
coralline species richness from ca. 90 mbsl and ~ 12.5 ka to the tops of
cores could indicate improving water quality through time. Records of
paleoclimate variability, particularly precipitation, are scarce in the
central subtropical Pacific Ocean. However, data from the main
Hawaiian Islands indicate that climate may have varied considerably
during the early deglacial (Last Glacial Maximum to 10 ka), especially
precipitation (Hotchkiss and Juvik, 1999). Deglacial pollen records
from Oahu indicate a dramatic increase in rainfall (~ 200%) beginning
ca. 17 ka that was sustained until ca. 13 ka before returning to present
levels after this time. Similarly high rainfall on Tahiti during this
interval may have reduced salinity and increased turbidity, leading
to the observed reduction in species richness.
The appearance of Acropora at 12.5 ka seems to be consistent with
that seen in the Papeete cores, however, a brief period of Acropora
growth took place at an earlier interval as well, around 13.75 ka (Bard
et al., 1996; Montaggioni et al., 1997; Cabioch et al., 1999a). The
timing of the Acropora appearance is coincident with or subsequent to
local oceanographic and atmospheric changes, but it is unclear if these
changes had a direct relationship with the shift in the coral
communities. Recent palaeoclimate work on Tahiti corals suggests
that from 12.7 to 9.8 ka (Inoue et al., 2010) water temperatures were
likely 2–4 °C cooler than modern and 1–2 °C cooler than 14.2–13 ka
(Cohen and Hart, 2004; Asami et al., 2009; Inoue et al., 2010). This
indicates that cooler water temperatures did not hinder profuse
Acropora growth in Tahiti, which was coincident with minimum
recorded SST values. Data from Inoue et al. (2010) also suggest higher
variability and slightly higher average values of nutrient content of
Based on a detailed examination of the stratigraphic and spatial
coralgal assemblage variation in Tiarei and Maraa, and in comparison
with previously published coralline algae records, we draw the following conclusions:
1. Seven coral assemblages and four algal assemblages are present in
the fossil reefs of Tahiti. In comparison with analogous modern and
fossil assemblages, their paleoenvironmental settings can be identified and represent shallow upper reef slope (b10 m), intermediate
(10–20 or 15–30 m) and deep forereef slope (N20–30 m).
2. Reef initiation was variable across sites and community composition
was dependent upon the available substrate, those composed of
reef framework and large rubble being the most optimum for rapid
colonization.
3. The low abundance of Acropora in Tiarei and in the outer cores of
Maraa suggests that early conditions were unsuitable for sensitive
reef builders on Tahiti, especially in Tiarei due to the influence of
the Papenoo River. However, conditions were sufficiently improved by 13–12 ka for Acropora to thrive and coralline algae to
diversify, which may be explained by reduced runoff related to a
transition into a drier climate on the island.
4. The persistence of shallow-water and intermediate-depth coralgal
assemblages indicates that the fossil barrier reef developed near
sea-level for much of the last deglaciation. This suggests that
variations in coralgal assemblages developing from 15 ka to 12 ka
may be more strongly influenced by environmental factors
associated with sea-level rise (e.g., turbidity and water chemistry),
rather than simply its deepening effects.
5. In all cases in Tahiti's submerged terraces, reef growth was
terminated and cores are capped by distinctly deep-water coralgal
assemblages, characteristic of deep reef growth and imminent
drowning. Whether or not this drowning took place contemporaneously across all sites will be determined as more detailed chronology
is presented.
Acknowledgements
This research used samples and data provided by the Integrated
Ocean Drilling Program (IODP). We wish to acknowledge the
Expedition 310 Scientists, as well as Bremen Core Repository
members for support and collaboration during offshore/onshore
parties. We would like to thank the support of ANSTO, including
Geraldine Jacobsen and technicians for assistance with AMS, and
14
E. Abbey et al. / Global and Planetary Change 76 (2011) 1–15
Gordon Thorogood for support with XRD analyses. Funding was
provided to E.A. by the School of Earth and Environmental Sciences at
James Cook University, the School of Geosciences at the University of
Sydney, the Australian Institute of Marine Science in a partnership
with James Cook University (AIMS@JCU), the Australian Institute
for Nuclear Science and Engineering (AINSE) and the Australian
Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO). J.M.W. was
provided support from James Cook University as part of a New
Staff Development Grant and by the University of Sydney. Financial
support was issued to Y.I. in part by grants-in-aid for scientific research,
Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (18340163). We would also
like to thank Lucien Montaggioni for his helpful review.
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