THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE: i I I CULTURAL INTERRF.LATIO NS IN THE SEC,OND MILLENNIUM B.C. ts JAN BOUZEK A CAD EIVIIA ' ACADEMY OF SCIENCES CZECHOSLOVAK THE OF P{.JBI-ISHING HOUSE PRAHA 1985 ./ r.|. CONTENTS 11 Foreword I. INTRODUCTION 1. Asurveyof earlierviews l. 3. 13 . Themethodicalapproach Chronology . 3.1. Thearchaeologicalchronology 3.2. Thecalibrated 15 17 l7 . Cra dates in the 2nd millennium B.C' 19 J. T9 Raw metals and trade in them ,5. Earlier relations (preceding the beginnings of the Mycenaean culture) . 5.1. The general background 5.2. The spread of metallurgy and religious contacts culture and the coming of the Greeks 5.3. The Balkan relations of Early Helladic 2l 21 22 25 27 II-III \otes rr. JHE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULTIJRE (c" 1700-1400 B,Ci 1 j I 1 I . I The swords and daggers of the East Mediterranean (Mycenaean) series outside the Aegean 1.1. TheWestBalkan group 1.2. The East Balkan series f. I I i.3. t - 1.4. TheTrialetiswords I 1 .5 . i I +. 31. The Flenmyrion swords in Sicily Spears 30 30 35 36 37 39 39 . 1.6. Cypriotdaggers . 1.7. Balkan daggers 1.8. TheApaswordsandtheBorodinodagger' 1.9. Representations of swords and daggers ; pommels 1.10. Boiu swords . t . 31 The Transylvanian rapiers t I I the Galatin sword and the Bulgarian horned swords | " . 41, . ' 4t 41 Double axes and other implements 4t 3.1. Miniature and syrnbolic axes . 3.2. Kilindir type 3.3. Hermonestype . . 3,4. Double axes of the Aegean type in Europe 3.5. Otherimplements Metal vesseis and their ceramic imitations 43 43 44 45 47 48 48 49 4. 4 1 . .2. 4 .3 . "F{ungarian" katharoi with bewelled rirn Clay imitations of LI{ I vessels The Dohnsen cup and the first West European metal vessels 51 r J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 4.4. TheCarpathian group 5. Chariots and horse-bits 5. 1 . Wheels and . JL 52 chariots 5.2. Horse-bits 6. Pendantsuna"u.-.i.rg, 52 . . . . : . 6.1. Heart-shaped pendants 6.2. Simple ear-rings with coiled 6.3. Crescenticear-rings 7. ISIMA 53 53 53 . 53 54 54 55 57 57 57 ends Amber 7. 1 . 7.2. Scientific analysis, the provenance of amber and its distribution in the Mediterranean Amber inbarbarianEurope . 7.3. Theshapes 7.4. Conclusions 8. Faiencebeads 8.1. The Near East and the Mediterranean 8.2. CentalEurope 5B 58 58 59 60 60 8.3.Britain,IrelandandotherWestEuropeancountries 8.4. Conclusions 9. The spiral decoration . 9.1. Boneobjects. 9.2. Goldroundelsandvessels ilif"Ji : i'^ 61, . : 10. Script and similarsigns 1 1. Syrian and Anatolian bronze figurines in Europe . 12. Religioussymbols,sanctuariesandaltars . .4 . . Sanctuaries, altars and libation tables 12 "2. Hearths and horned objects t2.3. Other evidence from Central Europe 1 2. 1 71 75 76 77 12.4. Scandinavia. 12.5. Rock carvings in Italyand in the South-western Alps 13. Settlements and funeral rite . 13.1. Settlements . 13.2. Funerakite . 14" Conclusions . ii,i, 11 11 77 79 80 80 80 t;:*:l;{t#t'l':"" 8l 14.4. TheTrialeti culture and Transcaucasia 14.5. TheCarpathianarea . B2 82 14.6. Otherparts of central and northern Europe 14.7 . Greece and Anatolia . 4 82 B3 Notes 83 III. THE RELATIONS OF THE I.ATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE AND THE BEGINNING ts ! OF THE GREEK DARK AGE (c. 1350-1000 B.C.) 1. Protectivearmour . ot 1.1. Shield (1. Early Cretan 63 66 67 68 69 70 Y_i and Mycenaean shields, p.93,2. Late Mycenaean shields, p. 95, 3. Euro- lil XXIX] CONTENTS pean circular shields and the Herzsprung shield, century shields, p.97) p.95,4. Shield bosses, p.97, 5. Greek 8th 1.2. Helmet. 1.2.A TheAegeanseries 99 99 (1. Aegean composite helmets, p.99,2. One-piece helmets, p.99,3. Cheekpieces,p.101, 4. The Knossos helmet, p. 101 , 5. The Warrior Vase helmets, p. I01 ,6. The Tiryns helmet, p. 1.01,7 1..2. . B Other Greek Dark Age helmets and the "Kegelhelm", p. 103) Europeanhelmets 103 (1. Conical helmets of Type Lfdky (Beitsch-Knossos), p. 103, 2. Bell-shaped helmets (type Hajdribriszerm6ny), p. 1.04,3. Cap helmets, p. 104,4. Comb-crested helmets, p. 104, 5. Horned helrnets, p. 106, 6. Cheek pieces, p. 106) 1.2. C Summary 106 1.3. The 107 corslet (1. Scale corslets, p. 107,2. Aegean chariot-hernesses, p. 108, 3. Late Mycenaean corslets, p. 108,4. The Sea Peoples'corslets, p. 110,5. Europeancorslets,p. 110,6. Conclusion. The earliest Greek corslets, p. 111) 1.4. The greaves (1. TheearliestgreavesintheAegean,p. 11!,2. LH IIICgreavesintheAegean,p.IT3, 3. European greaves of the Urnfield period, p. 113,4. Greek Late Geometric "primitive" 1t1, greaves, p. 115) 1.5. Otherpartsofprotectivearmour 1.6. Beaten sheet bronze and simple repouss6 decoration ) ; / I l D t 5 6 7 I - 11 '9 r0 -1. t0 l1 l3 l2 ti B3 83 9l 93 116 1. Weapons . ll9 2.1. Swords . 119 (1. Southern elements in the north, Br C-D, p. 119, 2. Localtypes of Aegean swords in 12th century Greece and the East Mediterranean, p. 1,22,3. Naue II swords in Greece and in the Eastern Mediterrane an, p. !22,4. European swords, p. L28,5. Conclusi ortl|. *Z) 2.2. Peschieradaggers t3Z 2.3. Thespear-head 135 (1. Type A: Lanceolate spearheads, p. L35,2. Type B, p. 138, 3. Small leaf-shaped spearheads, p, 139,4. Butt-spikes, p. 14"1.,5. European relations: conclusions , p. L47) ,1 0 116 . :. lll"',li1iiJ"::: ::: : ::: :: Weaponsandarmour-conclusions . 3.1. Localschoolsof theAegeanbronzeworkof.Europeaninspiration,c.l300-1100B.C. 3.2. MycenaeanandEuropeanarmourandweapons Tools and implements ili 143 1,43 144 145 4.1. Knives . 145 (1. Flange-hilted knives, p.145,2. Knives with ring ends, p. 747.,3. Kniveswithbird-shaped and anthropomorphic handles, p.147,4. Knives decorated with row of incised semicircles, p. I48, 5. Knives with the blade curved back, p. 148, 6. Type 6b of N. Sandars, p. L48, 7. Small knives or razors with thin handle, p.1.49,8. Other knives, p.149,9. Two-edged razors with handles p. M9) 1.2. Axes, {1. Winged axe mould, p. 151, 2. Trunnion p.152) 1,51 axes, p. 15I,3. Celts, p. 751,4. Shaft-hole axes, .I, E BOUZEK. THE AEGEAN, A}{-ATOI.IA ANi] E{JROPE 1<'.} Dress fasteners IJL 5.i. l)z t57 Vrolin-bowfibulse 5.2. The bow fibula 5.3. OtherearlyfibulaeinGreece 5.4. Pins . (1. I-ate Lzth-lltll century B.C. pins, p. 161.,2" The origin of the Subrnyeenaean 5. 7. lsthtA 16s) Personalornaments, jeweliery 159 160 pires, p. . l6V 6.1" Finger-rings (1" Simple rings of flattened wire, p. 1.67,2. finger-rings with antithetic spiral terminals, p. 167,3. Shield (signet) rings, p. 168) 6.2" Other wire ornaments in cist graves 6.3. Massivebraceletsof bronzerod. 5"4. Ornamentsofsheetbronzeandgold 6.5" Wheelmodels 6.6. Otherpersonalobjects 6.7. The Tiryns wheel and Late Mycenaean Subrnycenaean amber . (1. The Tiryns wheel, p.I72,2. Amber in LH III C Greece,p. t72) 167 Horses, waggons and chariots i73 .1. LateNfycenaean horse-trits 7 .2. Waggons and chariots . 173 7 8. Metal vessels 9. The spread cf iron ; the hcards . 9.1. Thespreadofiron 9.2. Thehoards 10. Symbols and their artistic representations 10.1. Wheels, rosettes and other "sun symbois" ' 10.2. Bird protomae and birds 10.3" Thebirdboat 10.4. Bird askoi 10.5. Vessel waggons 10.6. Hornedbirds 10.7. Otherparallelsandthe"CommonMarket"artistickoine. 1 1. Pottery 1 1 .1 . Peloponnesian "Barbarian" Ware tL.2. Late Bronze Age crude pottery from Epirus 11"3. Cephalenian hand-made pottery . 11.4. MacedonianlatrsitzWareandtheVardar-Morav&area 1 1.5. Primitive wares from Thasos, Samothrace and from Greek Thrace . 11.6. The Bobousti style. Hand-made painted pottery in the area of the West Macedonian 7 '1A 170 1,70 17L L72 172 tt3 175 175 L75 176 176 175 1.78 178 179 181 i81 183 183 187 189 190 193 ll.7 . Troy and the Balkans . t94 11.8. 11.9. Greywheel-madeware 11.10. Vergina Incised Ware and similar decoration in Greece 11.11. Leather Bag Ware, Submycenaean cooking pots and other related vessels 11.12. The Submycenaean "bucchero" 1 1.13. Daniel's Black Slip Incised Ware from Cyprus 195 Amphoras, amphoriskoi and jugs with breast-knobs : 181 793 lakes 'cu l,i 196 796 197 198 198 r/[ r ilmlr 'irr,,u *.rllliil *,,tiflii 1 rLtil . xxxl CONTENTS 1 198 hand-made pyxidae LI.l4. Attic Submycenaean 200 200 200 1.15. Karphi Incised Ware lt.16. I1.17 Naxos Incised Ware . . "Attic" Dark Age Incised Ware . 201 11.18" Otherincisedwares . 11.19. Changes in the painted pottery and the influence of non-ceramic vessels of organic materials . t7.20. The symbolic representations on LH III C painted pottery 201 202 245 205 I 1.21. The hemispherical bowls of clay and bronze t2. Thefuneralrite. 2A5 12.1. Cistgraves 206 'l-2.2. Tumuli and circular enclosures 12.3. Cremation 13. The architecture 1{ The literary sources 15. Conclusions . 15.1. Cyprus 15.2. Sea Peoples in the Levant I I t : l : 3 '5 t-a 161 -6 b '8 -8 r-9 i.qi ts1 1E1 1E3 1S3 187 189 190 193 193 194 195 t96 r96 197 198 198 207 207 207 15.3. TroyandAnatolia 15.4. Bulgaria and the East Balkans . 15.5. The Vardar- Morava area 15.6. Albania and Epirus 15.7. TheNorthwesternBalkans,theEasternAlpsandtheeasternpartofCentralEurope. 15.8. Italy 15.9. Switzerland, France and otherWestEuropeancountries ' 15.10. Scandinavia and Northern Germ anv 15.11. Greece \..tes :\.. GENERAL SURVEY -. l. Conclusions n-ist lndex. 215 215 219 221 a,r', . LL. 222 223 245 bibliography of plates 214 244 {bbreviations I istoffigures 2t3 240 . Alternative conclusions S:lected . 209 209 211 213 . ) 247 253 259 260 FOREWORD This book has been a long time in gestation. I came to these problems through the two fields in which I started my archaeological career in the fifties, the Central European LateBronze Age and the Greek Dark Age, and the first impulse was the preparation of a contribution to the Paris Congress of Classical Archaeology in 1963. Only a fraction of the material was used for my paper on that occasion, the rest was summatized in outline in Listy fitologick| 88 1965, 242-55. In the late sixties, during visits to Greece and Italy and to several Balkan countries, and especially during my stay in Tiibingen in 7967-68I intensively con- tinued the work. Some of the preliminary results appeared in Pamdtky archeologick|1966, the volume prepared on the occasion of the Prehistoric Congress in Prague; other were published later in several articles in Eirene, Graecolatina Pragensia, Opuscula Atheniensia, Alasia I and elsewhere' I also used.the preliminary results for my Hometisches Griechenland and the title has been listed in thc SIMA series since 1968. But the sketchy version presented in 1968 as a part of one of my theses (Habilitationschriften) did not reach the final stage for print, and the second version prepared in1970, the English of which was checked by Anthony Harding, first my student in this field and later my learned colleague, to whom I am indebted for much information and criticism in later years, remained unfinished. A heavy load of teaching, the setting up of the Classical Department in the National Museum of Prague and the Cast Museum in Hostinn6, and many other projects (Macedonian Bronzes, two volumes of Kyme, CVA, Samothrace etc,) caused further delay, and only new revision of the material in Greece, Turkey and Italy in 1978-81 has made it possible to complete the version presented here. I visited most of the museums in most of the countries involved: Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Jordan and Iraq in the Near East, as well as Georgia and the Moscow and Leningrad Caucasian and Pontic collections, and studied these problems many times in Greece, Italy and in all the Balkan countries except Albania, in France, Britain, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Switzerland, Poland and in most of the German collections. I cannot claim to have seen personally all the objects discussed here, but thanks to the kindness of the directors and staff of many different museums and to many excavators I have studied or seen large amounts of materials both published and unpublished in all the countries mentioned. I must stress here that without their help I could never have finished this book. During the period when the book was gestating, many objects hitherto known only as existing in museums, or from notes and sketches, were published, and various monographs and studies appeared enlarging our knowledge in many fields. Some of the new information confirmed myprevi- ous conclusions, and some involved modifying them. In 1981-2I benefited much from discussions with colleagues in England, Scotland, Switzerland, Bulgaria, Germany and other countries, where I lectured on different aspects of this subject. In some ways, this book might have been more useful if it had been published fifteen years earlier, but subsequent publications and studies have made it possible to improve many parts of it. Over the long years, many colleagues have discussed particular problems with me and their help has been indispensable. I would like to mention here at least my editor Paul Astriim, C.-G. Styrenius and G. Hiigg from Sweden, H' Thrane I' T2 and K. Randsborg from Denmark, J. N. Coldstream, Hector Catling, R. A. Crossland, Elisabeth French, David French, N. G. L. Hammond, Anthony Harding, Sinclair Hood, Mervyn Popham, Nancy Sandars, Anthony Snodgrass, Ken Wardle and Peter Warren from GreatBritain, F. Schachermeyr and S. Jalkotzy from Austria, Pierre Amandry and the late Jean Deshayes and Claude Schaef- fer from France, Lucia Vagnetti from ltaly,E.L. Smithson and Jeremy Rutter from the U.S.A., M. Andronikos, S. Alexiou, G. Korres, Ph. Kostomitsopoulos, L. Marangou, N. Platon, A. Sakelariou, E. Touloupa, R. Zaphiropoulou and the late S. Marinatos and N. Verdelis from Greece, V. Karageorghis and P. Flourentzos from Cyprus, L. Vagnetti from Italy, H. G. Bucholz, W. Dehn, K. and I. Kilian, W. Kimmig, A. Jockenhcivel, B. Hdnsel, H. Mtiller-Karpe, I. Pini and the late V. Milojdi6 from Germany, M. Domaradzki, D. Gergova, G. Tondeva and I. Venedikov from Bulgaria, Z. Martt, D. and M. Garalanin from Yugoslavia, M. Rusu from Rumania, T. Kovdcs, A. Mozsolics, M. Szab6 and J. Gy. Szildgyi from Hungary, B. Rutkowski from Poland, V. S. Bodkarev, L. S. Klejn, V. I. Kozenkova, T. Mikeladze and E. M. Gogadze from the USSR, A. Bartondk, M. Buchvaldek, S. Vencl and J. Vlad6r from Czechoslovakia. P. Astriim, A. Bartondk, A. Harding, S. Hood, A. Jockenhrivel, N. Sandars, S. Vencl and Lyladilr read all or parts of the manuscript and made valuable comments. Josef Martinovsky and my son Tom65 Bouzek improved some of the drawings and photographs. The photographs and the permission to reproduce them was kindly given by the various individuals and institutions mentioned in the reI benefited above all from the kindness of the German Archaeological Institute in Athens. Mrs. Iris Lewitovd and Professor Sinclair Hood kindly checked the English of the final version of this book. The help of all those mentioned was invaluable, and I would like to express my particular gratitude to them and to others not mentioned here for the lack of space, but I must stress that I am alone responsible for any mistakes and weaknesses which may appear in this book. If the fate allows me, the remaining part on the Early Iron Age relations will follow soon. I would like to dedicate this book to Rachel and Sinclair f{ood for their support over the long years during which this book could not be finished. spective places, but d. lr b ln d CHAPTER I rn ls INTRODUCTION le in ir 1. A SURVEY OF EARLIER VIEWS al lss Dt st 3S If lv rd rs The first syntheses of European prehistory dur-. ing the last decades of the 19th century were written by scholars who were well aware of the fact that the prehistoric cultures of Europe had all belonged to the same world, one in which the ancient civilisations of the Near East had held the leading position. Their views were naive in many detailed points, they made errors in suggesting too close connections between disparate phenomena, but their general approach was usually sound' Thus they connected the origins of European metallurgy with the Near East, Baltic amber in Mycenae was no great surprise to them, and foreign earrings from Mycenae could be interpreted by Evans as part of the dowry of foreign Princesses.l The enthusiasm of this generation often led to mistakes in connecting the few islands of existing world in which they lived was not yet entirely different from that of the ancient civilisations, at Ieast in the non-industrial parts of Europe, and they were still able to understand the problerns of primitive agriculture and cattle-breeding, including seasonal transhurnance of shepherds and other pastoralists, of different crafts, of primitive trade and migrations. Since that time, archaeology has made great progress in establishing finer chronologies of potiery and metal objects and in the techniques of excavation, but few have dared to link the early civilisations with tlie prehistoric European cultures synthesis. Many specialists have made useful contributions' scholars like Aberg and Ebert have added much to the general pattern of knowledge,2 but the most important personality in a reasonable was Vere Gordon Childe, with his attempts to connect the whole of Neolithic and Early Bronze Age European prehistory into one synthetical picture, first in his Danube in ptehistory (1929) and later in his more general books. His diffusionist model was criticised by the following generation, and his treatment of complicated questions was at times too superficial; but his basic idea of the diffusion of the achievements of civilisationwas not unsound, many of his observations were excellent, knowledge into one mainland without bothering about the gaps between thena' Schliesann and others were soon criticised for this, but even the following generation was somewhat overoptimistic in discerning political events behind pots or metal objects. Similarities between North European and Greek Geometric artistic motifs of symbolic significance led some specialists to connect the Dorians or all Greeks with this area, and in the school of Kossina such theories were indeed abused in the cause of Nazi ideology. Interpretations before and shortly after the First World War were often naive in positing too close links between distantly related phenomena, but the scholars of that period were still able to think in historical and human categories, which were nearer to the ancient world than are many theories of the present time' The and his views were very different from the caricature of them sometimes put forward by his . critics.3 He was aware, among other things, that any society able to adopt new achievements must be almost ready to invent them itself, and he also allowed much room for local developments. But his idea of continuous progress in all societies (in which, of course he was not alone) was oversimplifying, and he knew little about the environment' r 14 J.BouzEK, THEAEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND He saw parallels in many parts of Europe, he had keen eyes for such observations, and he may be considered as the founder of modern contact archaeology. Gero von Merhart (reedited 1969) laid foundations for the proper understanding of the Late Bronze Age cultural koine in metalwork, and he first stressed the importance of the NW Balkans; Sundwall's monumental studies on Italic and Balkan fibulae (1943) contributed much to the picture, as did Milojdi6's two articles on northern bronzes in Greece (1948/ 49, 1953). a The redating of the European Neolithic and Eneolithic cultures on the base of Cu chronology destroyed many of the earlier links, and the resulting shift of opinion was followed by autonomy models for earlier European prehistory, first proclaimed by Colin Renfrew (7968,1969) and later by several others. Another group of scholars, however, among them Stuart Piggott, continued on, and Miiller-Karpe and his school stressed the importance of southern inspiration even for the Late Bronze Age koine, in opposition to the theories formulated by Merhart, Milojdi6 and Kossack (1959).4 A position near to that of Merhart and Milojdi6 was also put forward in my Homeisches Griechenland (1969), while in my Pa4dtky archeologicke 1966 article I roughly followed the lines laid down by Hachman (1957) and some others. Since then much work has been done on the chronology and publication of finds from the Balkans and Italy; books and studies by A. Mozsolics, J. Vladdr, J. Paulik, M. Novotnd, Ks. Vinski-Gasparini, M. Petrescu-Dimbovita, M. Rusu, A. Vulpe, B. Hdnsel, E. N. eernych and others have been followed by detailed studies by local archeologists and many volumes of the PBF series concerned with individual classes of objects: Similar work has made possible a great advance in our understanding of Bronze Age Italy. A more precise chronology (R. Peroni), important new excavations and several volumes of the PBF series have been matched by special studies dealing with relations with the Aegean (Vagnetti, BiettiSestieri, Harding and others), while new excavations in Albania (Prendi and others, interpreted by Hammond and Harding) have increased our knowledge in a reg- EUROPE ISIMA ion, where there had been gaps. The more general studies on Aegean-European relations by myself and by my friend Anthony Harding have both remained in manuscript form, but each of us has produced several articles dealing with specific problems of Bronze Age contact archaeology, showing our progress in this field, and also the differences between our views, mainly as concerns the importance of the Cr+ calibrated dates. The book on the Bronze Age in Europe (1979) by Harding and John Coles reveals many of their contributions to our problems and their synthetic views ; John Coles has alsc contributed much to the study of European armour (1962, lgTg\. J. D. Cowen cleared up many points in regard to the story of European swords (1 959, 1966, ig7 1), and he has been followed by Bianco peroni, p. Schauer, P. Nov6k, J. Alexandrescu and others. A synthesis of European spearheads comparable to Jacob Friesen's Nordische Lanzenspitzen (1967) is still lacking. Harding and myself were probably alone in starting from a background of both Aegean and European archaeology, and, in Aegean and Greek archaeology, these problems were usually of only marginal importance. The earlier synthetic observers, like B. Schweitzer,J.L. Myres and G. Kasch_ nitz v. Weinberg had a good feeling in many respects, but, of course, a less profound knowledge of the detailed patterns. NancySandars and Hector Catling have contributed substantially in the field. of bronzework, while J. Rutter and S. Jalkotzy were among the pioneers in the field of the handmade "barbarian wares" in Greece. Other important contributions will be mentioned later in this book, but two recent attempts to make our knowledge more profound should be cited here. The first of them is computer seriation. Some undoubtedly intelligent specialists perform this most notablyK. Goldman (1979,19g1) and some of the links established by him are a useful check for what can be observed with the eyes, but I am afraid that what comes out of the machine is just what has already been put into it and distant stylistic resemblances need not imply contemporaneity: e.g. Chartres and Transylvanian Gothic are related,, but far from contemporary in date. The New Archaeology models (for them in the wor\ xxwl INTRODUCTION field of contact archaeology cf. esp. the Arhus conference with bibliographies)s can provide useful insights into the economic and social patterns of past societies, but very often they are too artificial and result in modernizing concepts of ancient societies. During recent decades, several schools have developed with different dominant opinions: 1. Dealing with the EBA, accepting the calibrated C1a European dates and refuting much of the evidence for contacts (Renfrew, in part Harding etc); the traditional pattern of contacts with the Shaft Graves and Thera period in the Aeggan (Miiller-Karpe and his school, Vlad6r and most of the Central European archaeolog- 2. Accepting ists). 3. For the LBA, using a similar pattern as in (2) and explaining the koine as an effect of southern influence on Europe (mainly Miiller-Karpe and his pupils). 4. F'or the Aegean, refuting European influence and the participation of European barbarians in late 2nd millennium B.C. events (mainly Snodgrass (1964, 1971) and Sandars 1978). My own position as concerns the earlier part of the second millennium will be nearer to (2) than to (1), and, as concerns the late second millennium, it will be a kind of combination of Merhart's, Milojdi6's and Miiller-Karpe's positions (cf. e'g. in the Festschrift v Brunn, 1981). In the Aegean, it will bg nearer to the path sketched by Desborough, Catling, Hood and Schachermeyr.6 The reasons for this position and more detailed discussions of relevant problems can be found in the following chapters. 15 liefs, for the time of the Early Mycenaean culture, when some trade in raw metals and amber brought distant European regions into a degree of contact with the Mycenaean world, but when most of their material cultures remained largely different, and also for the period discussed in the last part of this book, when the koine mainly applied to weaponry and religious symbols, and to some extent to dress, and when implements, tools and pottery remained different. It must be stressed here that pottery was less important in the eyes of ancient peoples than it is to archaeologists nowadays. Fine pots could indeed be considered attractive, as Hippias agreed with Socrates in Plato's Hippias Maior, but their beauty counted for much less than that of other beautiful objects and creatures. Some chieftains in Italy and its islands may have appreciated fine Mycenaean pottery brought there by ships, but this could not have formed the most substantial part of the trade. Pottery could easily be transported as part of a ship's cargo, but hardly far overland - nor do we take our china with us when travelling with a rucksack. The crude hand-made ceramics of prehistoric Europe were hardly traded at all, and anyone travelling (even transhumant pastoralists) preferred vessels which could not easily be broken, mainly ones of organic materials, which have not survived. A world only consisting of "archaeological features", would be extremely poor: without furniture and the carpentry, without textiles, basketry etc. Our imagination and ethnographic parallels must help us to reconstruct the whole of the physical environment of the men and women of ancient times. 2. THF. METHODICAL APPROACH of the objects discussed is concerned, the traditional classification approach can be retained. If, however, we want to see the degree of relationship between different cultures, we must also consider this negative the differences between them picture is equally important for the beginning of our time-span with different cultures and some common traits in metallurgy and in religious be- In regard to as the similarity or dissimilarity Similarly, the past societies, their development and interrelations, must be considered as functional, complete entities, even if the archaeological evidence is very fragmentary. Therefore we not only turn for explanation to Egyptian and Near Eastern records and to the oral traditions of Greece and Italy, but also to comparative patterns of different kinds of invasions and other changes in human societies recorded in history, with a greater or lesser accuracy and detail. Though no single one of the parallels represents an identical event, they give us many hints as to which kind of archaeologi- 16 J.BOUZEK, THEAEGEAN. ANATOLIA AND EIJR,OFE ISIhIA lli cal evidence they left, and what might be expected as archaeological evidence in the case of similar happenings. Some superstitions, which we usually accept without second thought, must be overcome before proceeding forward in this field. 1. If we are in doubt, negative conclusion is the o'it is more "scientific" answer" The usual sentence not persuasive evidence to prove beyond doubt the existence of", does not mean the non-existence of a phenomenon. We should always consider the pros and cons and leave the final answer open. 2, A "feeling" ' can be right or wrong, but rational arguments are indispensable. 3. Alternative possibilities should tre mentioned. A small shift in the evidence may change large parts of the picture. 4. We must not forget that irnprolrable things did happen, and, if we consider onl.v probabilities, it becomes improbable that ontry probable tfiings happened at all stages. 5. Economic considerations were not as important in the early civilisations as they are nowadays. Eoth the Pyramids and the Farthenon were "uneconomic". 6. Secular and religious were not two opposites as they are to us: both were parts of the sarne world, and technology and production were usually connected with some aspects of religion, with rites, priests and sanctuaries, which were in mutuai contact through pilgrims and other forms of meeting between people. . Free individuaiity nearer to our conception of personality only began in Archaic Greece; earlier people acted rnainly as representatives of blood or community groups and were hardly "free" in our 7 sense. 8. The relation between man and nature was more intiqrate. Droughts and other causes of poor crops could be faced to some extent by the Near Eastern state economies, but not for too long. The seven lean cows (lean years) of .Ioseph in Egypt represent the extreme limit of what could be coped with, and the situation must normally have been critical after 2-3 years of bad crops. The members of the less-well organized "prehistoric" societies had to die or move elsewhere before that, and such situations must have led to unrest even more often than the present drying up of the Sahel iands south of the Sahara. 9. Ancient sources are full of stories of migrations and wars, but, probably because our world is in such a critical situation, we are less wiliing trr accept suffering. wars and other crises as integral aspeets of past history. We tend to close our eyes to such Lili [$ilnilil]11 htr ,: lill ll lillrlilii troubles, but the old stories irom the heroic ages (i.e. from the period covered by this book) reveal the destinies of individuatrs and groups as fuil of drarnatic and critical situations. 10. Many of our mistakes in interpreting the past are caused by a false projection of ourselves, our views and our society back in time; others, again, l liltlIl are caused by a wrong perspective, by our inability to see the past societies as wholes. "Die Wis- senschaft zerstrirt sich auf zweierlei Weise: durch die Ereite, in die sie geht, und durch die Tiefe, in die sie sich versinkt", was already noticed try Goethe, and since bis time we have proceeded mueh further along this path. 11. Individual and concrete historical erzents of significance can sometirnes be recorded by archaeology (for exarnple the destluction of a city), but cur chronology is usually not precise enough, and in practice we can only reveal traces of such events that were recurrent. Only a very small fraction of the objects produced have been buried by chance and have survived, and, again, only a small fraction of these have been revealed by archaeological excavation. We can to some extent therefore reconstruct the general developrnent of societies and their relations, but it is only very seldom that we can detect isolated events, while it is irnpossible to record the whole pettern events by our presenCmethods. of LIL Lillul i such 12. Similarly, the number of actual irnports reaching one distant area from another was extrernely small. What we find in the fieid of metal objects recovered are nearly always pieces that were rnade in the areas where thev have been found, even if they derived their inspiration from a ':' lll lllL,,, ll lllrl1 \[\rl 'l llltl few objects physically transmitted in corpore. The same is true of the great majority of primitive ceramics in Greece. This, of course, does not mean that the actual imports were unimportant: in a sense, 13. If they played a great role despite being rare. we first use our comparative method for -iUIII 11" I llllllillir, "t' xxBl s n fi s h s rl rf it lr I, ly 5- fi m ry d rf [-r ), h, fi ilt :d ily by It of r! ris ch rts ie- tal lat €n establishing the chronological relations between two cultures, it is virtually imposible to discover in which of them a shared phenomenon first began' We should, of course, use cross-links where they exist, and also typological series for this purpose. If (B) is a development of (A) in culture (1) and has no predecessors in culture (2), it can be inferred that (B) started in culture (1). In forming conclusions here we must try to combine: a) The traditional system of induction from archaeological sources, which brings us to a certain point, beyond which it only allows us to form vague "views". b) The written sources; not only together with the oral tradition of the Greeks and other Mediterranean peoples, show us how ancient peoples thought, behaved and interpreted their destinies' c) Deduction from a reasonable sum of knowledge, as gained from a comparative study of more or less analogous patterns of societies and changes wliich took place later in the same or in similar areas and about which we know from historical records. After examining all these forms of evidence, we should try to reconstruct a reasonable overall picture, having in mind that what actually happened was not just grey theory, but a "green'tree of life", and not omitting to ask Klio, the Muse of History, for her help. We should try to come as near to the truth as we can with our modest abilities. Even if the absolute truth may be inaccessible to us' we should try to understand as much as we can, and we shoultl, of course, also take note of alternative interpretations; slight shifts in our evidence may well make them appear more probable in the future than they do now. 3. CHRONOLOGY )m ive those directly concerned with the events discussed in this book, but also in a more general way for background. The Old Testament, the Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Hittite sources' he 3.1. The archaeological chronology an in The traditional chronology for European prehistory uses the dates worked out by comparative E. archae fbr t7 INTRODUCTION o lo gical m e thods. _Jh9 A 9g9"an .da-J-qs-, "tur.9 mainly based on the Fgyptian chronology.t For the second millennium B.C., parallels and direct links by imports seern to give a relatively s6fe chronolog- ical grid, in which no big chdnges are t9 be ex-pected. The traditional European chronology has been established on the basis of links with the Aegean. There are problems, but substantial changes (shifts of more than one century forwards or backwards) are highly improbable. The dates for the Late Bronze Age seem to be the most secure; c' after Mycenaean III B European Br D 1250 B.C. - - 12th Mycenaean III C European Ha A 1 century B.C. A slightly earlier date for the beginnings of European Br D is, however, not impossible. For the 11th century the links are less secure, but, thanks to some Italic connections, very probable: Submycenaean/Early ProEuropean Ha A 2 11th century 8.C..2 togeometric The earlier period of more intensive contacts is that of Late Helladic I. It starts slightly before and ends slightly later, suggesting that the probable correlations are: 17th MM and MH IiI European Br A 2 century B.C. European Br - - A 3 (Lanquaid) - LH I - 16th century B.C. European Br B 1 (Streda nad Bodrogom) II c. 1500 8.C.3 - LH A number of probable traces of LH III A 2 influence in Europ6date from the later part of Br but the middle C (C 2 - Hammer,/lrskevhade)4, C 1) betrays stage of the Tumulus culture (Br B 2 - no sign of direct relations, although some Appenine settlements in Italy may soon yield Mycenaean pottery and fill this gap. Sorne calibrated and most uncalibrated Cr+ dates roughly fit into this picture. Absolute dates for the earlier periods are much less certain, and vague Anatolian and Near Eastern parallels less helpful, but the early tln6tice culture could hardly have preceded 1900 8.C.5 and the first Br A 1 cultures (like the Protonagyr6v and Nitra groups) could best be placed ca. 2000 B.C. Aegean connections at the end of Early Helladig II and in Early Helladic III are Late Fneolithic in European terms (cf.I.5.3). ': l:"r-i .a1 J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE ISIMA (> o a a ' :.1:. la a aa lo' I a aO a 4 a Ia I I o o Q ^? d ,. -o a o o o rt<a '! o^ ! C) a o t d q E a oo l1 aa )r v a O. a 0 a Cc b0 o ,o '+ o 1.O oa o Dfi3 o0 o o o c.t o o o V q. o o C; o. o E] o o !? aa { a o z bo rI. xnxl 1,9 INTRODUCTION 4. RAW METALS AND THE TRADE IN THEM in the second millennium B.C' 3.2. Calibrated Cu dates The Cr+ dates calibrated by the American bristle- cone dendrochronology are too high even during the 1st millennium B.C. Their acceptance make for great difficulties in the late 2nd millennium B'C' and they can very hardly, if at all, be made to fit into the picture based upon the archaeological evidence of contacts, import and influences around the time of the Mycenae Shaft Graves, unless the Egyptian and Near Eastern historical chronologies are tejected as completely wrong. This is very unlikely for the 2nd millennium and improbable for the 3rd millennium B.C., leaving aside the 1st millennium B.C., where no substantial changes are possible and the Cr+ dates are again too high'6 The Cr+ dates for which many different schemes of calibration exist, may be useful for approximate chronologies and for helping to etablish local sequences, but, as, concerns relative chronologies between areas distant from each other, I share the opinion of those who believe the method is not yet sufficiently developed to supply firm evidence for this'7 As it has been showh by the bristlecone chronology, there were variables influencing the results of this time-clock, and it is reasonable to suppose some local differences in the local time-scales as well' Attempts to combine traditional chronology and calibrated Cr+ dates into one acceptable system make a kind of Procrustean bed for one or both, and they lack a satisfying explanatory theory' The extremely high historical chronology for Egypt and the Near East suggested e.g. by Mellaart8 is very improbable for many reasons and it would mean that corresponding European and Aegean elements in the second millennium B.C' would nearly all be dislocated, or im Hamlet's words, out of joint' If, of course, the higher calibrated dates should prove to be valid, the reader is advised to skip the chapter of Conclusions, and to turn his attention to the next, on Alternative Conclusions. A possible way out of the problem may be offered by European dendrochronology, which gives a lower scale of calibration than the American sequence,e and, if the Theran and Aegean MBA samples were altered b.v the Thera eruption, as supposed by scme scholars, a reconciliation may be found in the future'10 Raw metals were indispensable for the East Mediterranean Bronze Age economies. Muhly in his monograph described in detail all reported and possible sources of copper and tin in the second millennium B.C.1 The analyses of Sangmeister and Junghans for objects from many parts of Europe' those of Selimchanov and Cernych for those from the Caucasus and Eastern Europe,2 the works of Prentiss de Jesus for Anatolia,3 of Buchholz,Day' ton and others for other areas4 have contributed much to our knowledge. The picture, however, is clearer for copper objects produced directly from the ores, and, with the general use of alloyed bronze in our period, the difficulty of forming a clear picture increases. In the 3rd millennium B.C., the small local sources of ores seem to have been sufficient for the needs of many parts of the civilised world of the time (with the exception of lower Mesopotamia and Egypt), but, with the second millennium, the situation became more difficult' Cyprus exported its coppers and northern Anatolia had sufficient resources,6 but the copper from the Little and Great Caucasus was certainly of considerable importance for the Hittites, the Hurrites and their neighbours. Copper ores existed in many parts of Europe (Fig. 1), with the exception of the North, where possible^sources on HelgolandT and in Central Sweden would hardly have been sufficient even for local needs. Yet the system of raw metal distribution apparently worked well, since raw bronze was available to all the European prehistoric cultures. Most of the ores were of merely local importance, but some apparently supplied even distant areas. In ltaly, Tuscan copper was of interest to the Mycenaeans, and the same may be true of Sardinia' East Alpine copper was certainly important for the late 2nd millennium koine of bronzework, but was probably only of marginal importance for the Aegean in earlier times, and the same may be true of most of the West Balkan sources; but Carpathian copper was important for the whole of Central and Northern Europe, and we have reason to suppose that even the Mycenaean world was interested in 20 J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE TSIMA rr Fr l:,. :-_,.:{ .l [d | h l: r' -.' ,1I b t}4 tru M \1 ::.\ \r$ xxul Carpathian copper and gold and imported them'8 The copper ingots (Pl. 4:2) and the Bronze Age jr. type anchors from the Bulgarian coast 25 rA maritime route,e and the Fersinari hoard indicates an extension of it up the Danube, which also played its part in the story of the Argonauts. European archaeological evidence shows that the contacts -*'ere more intensive during the period of the last rown of Thera and of the lvfycenaean Shaft Graves.10 After LH II the evidence is less decisive' Tin was a rarer metal. Muhly suggests a possible lource of Aegean tin in the area of the Red Sea ; but rhe evidence is slight, and the Haifa tin ingots have narks in the Cypro-Mycenaean script like the analogous copper ingots, known frorn many parts ..f the Mediterranean, from the Black Sea area and irom Egypt (Fig. 2)'11 Breton and British tin were known and esteemed; British tin may have been brought to the Nlediterranean across southern France, since to sail across the Atlantic to Straits ,-rf Gibraltar would be even more dangerous' The \fycenaean pottery frorn the Lipari islands and from Sardinia may indicate the route, as many of rhe metal objects discusses below.12 (cf' ch' II" 14 _: CN En fN nF -tr -- (t -d *=+ -5 uH 2'= :z Eer '&N D6 <,4 iP and -N 15. 8). ;he situation is less satisfactory. The question of the Erzgebirge tin is more puzzling. Muhly at first rejected it cornpletely,l3 these sources were unknown to the Romans, and even many Central cq ' j III. Tin from the nortwestern part of Spain may aiso 'iave been known, though here our knowledge of :l:i s.9 .c suggest a V6 European archaeologists reject the possibility of an early exploitation of Erzgebirge tin. But there are ! =e Oq geologists who are convinced that sqme types of the v@ => <+ i =6 aa,L: XFE =€i{ li ori ocr -a- q e.9X l!sE l=rq ,L A iNr I JF iiN --.^d : Ii :: l; : 7: n .-*U Y d ts c # -,b_o 21 INTRODUCTION Erzgebirge ores could have been extracted by primitive methods,la the Undtice culture had much :in at its disposal, even using sorne "white metal" q'ith more than 10 per cent tin, and the Leubingen wiih the highly sophisticated (Jnburials, together Stice culture weapons and other objects make likety the existence of some particular source of wealth in this area, comparable to those in the Carpathian area and in the Wessex culture' These deposits were limited, and, since the extractian of ,:ther richer deposits was beyond the reach of rrimitive technologies, these sources fell into oblivion and were later unknown even to the Romans' As to copper' Nordic metallurgy was mainly supplied from Carpathian and Alpine sources' Alpine and British copper were probably more important for France, and some of the Spanish and Portuguese sources of copper and tin probably suppiied the needs of rnore than the Iberian peninsula alone. The Perqinari hoard is an important argurnent for a supply of Carpathian gold to Mycenae and the Aegean, and J. Dayton suggested that the Carpathian mines were the most likely source of the Aegean electrum, which shows an 1s identical metalographical cornposition' The dagger hilt with big conical rivets from the Otomani ritual well at Gdnovce, Slovakia, is unique, and represents one of the earliest attempts in world's metallurgy to produce a complicated object of iron. Its possible relations are most likely Anatolianl6 (Pl. 4: 1). Near Eastern and Egyptian written sources mention expeditions organized by kings into distant areas, mostly of a military character, but often their purpose was to acquire some exotic or necessary raw materials by other means than plunder. Reguas far as we know from written sources lar trade more often by private enterprise.lT Groups -of was traders joined together for some specific business project and traded objects in demand from country to country while obtaining a degree of support from local rulers who would have been afraid of armed groups sent by foreign goverments. The local chieftains in the more developed parts of Early and Middle Bronze Age Europe were strong and interested enough to support and guarantee to some extent trade of this kind' which could have benefited from the sanctity of religious centres and festivals, but must always have been a risky venture. 5. EARLIER RELATIONS (BEFORE T'HE tsEGINNING OF THE MYCENAEAN cULTURE) 5.1. The general background Until the 17th century B'C. Anatolia, the East and the Caueasus regionwere rnore important than Greece in the matter of the radiation of cultural and stylistic achievements into the Balkans and Central I 22 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE Europe,l but the situation was different in the western Mediterranean and, to a lesser extent, in the (in a sense backward) Atlantic zone. The magnificent pre-Neolithic sculptures from Lepenski Vir,2 as well as the Varna cemetery with its rich gold offerings3 and the splendour of the Early Copper Age in the Balkans in general, show the importance of this part of the ancient world, but not necessarily its isolation. Oral transmission of the knowledge of metallurgy could be effected even orally, even if the shapes of the objects follow the traditional local patterns and show no dependence on those of other areas: the spread of iron metallurgy presents a similar picture.a European Neolithic pottery patterns used a symbolic language ultimately derived from Anatolian and Mesopotamian Early Neolithic cultures, the Tartaria tablets and a number of cylinder seals from the Balkans closely resemble the Protoliterate tablets and seals from Mesopotamia.s Though West European megalithic architecture and its more modest relatives (of timber and earth) in Central Europe substantially differ from the ziggurats and pyramids, a similar kind of astrology was taught and considered of primary importance both in the civilised countries of the time and in Barbarian Europe,6 where society was also organizedand not as primitive as was once believed. There is enough evidence to show that the Danubian lands and other parts of Europe were on the fringes of the ancient Old World civilizations and shared many of their achievements (cf. above 1.2). 5.2. The spread of metallurgy and religious contacts Middle and Late Eneolithic..metallurgy in the Balkans and in Central Europe has various parallels in the Caucasus area, in Syria and some in Greece, but the best analogies come from the Trojan metallurgical area of Anatolia, which was geographically close to the Balkans and always had relations with it. Many Balkan Eneolithic cultures show relations with Anatolia; one of the more important links is that of the pre-Trojan Poliochni az:zuto with Sitagroi, Bulgaria and even with the Baden pottery of Central Europe, and there are ISIMA later parallels between the European Late Eneolithic and early Troy,1 though long-distance pottery relations were never very close and defy precise intepretation. A recent study by Jir6i8 on some Late Eneolithic and Br A 1 metal types has shown that the Danubian daggers, axes and some other shapes find parallels in Anatolia (Troy, Poliochni, Thermi), in the Caucasus and in the Pontic region, but only a very few in Greece and Crete (fig. 3). In Cernych's sense of classification there are some relations between the Balkan and Caucasian metallurgical areas, many characteristic links between the Trojan and Balkan regions, and only very few Balkan connections with Branigan's other two metallurgical centres in the Aegean, those of the Cyclades and of Crete.e The geometrized Eneolithic idol sculpture of the Danubian part of Europe has many traits in common with the Anatolian figurines, while there are only vague resemblances between Cycladic and Bulgarian Eneolithic statuettes.l0 The twisted neck-rings (torques), known in Europe since the Baden culture, have parallels as far east as Syria. Schaeffer-Forrer now suggests that the .'porteurs de torques" came to Syria from the Balkans,ll but the Syrian-Anatolian and Caucasian areas were ultimately responsible for the origins of European Early Bronze Age metallurgy and for the beginnings of the faience bead production. Prospectors trying to find new metalliferic areas may have been responsible for most of these innovations. This knowledge was, in its beginnings, closely connected with religious traditions. In the Near East smelting was perfomerd in the vicinity of sanctuaries.12 The relation between copper and the planet Venus and her goddess (Astarte etc.) was, like that between Jupiter and tin, very ancient and was still known to the old alchemysts. It therefore seems likely that metallurgy and astrology were transmitted in similar ways, through frequenting of sanctuaries, attendance at religious festivals and so on. The western Mediterranean presents a picture different from that of Danubian Europe. There had been relations with the eastern part of the Mediterranean since Early Neolithic times (Cardium pottery), and later in the religion connected with megalithic architecture (like the Maltese temples), te ce ty ric urd in ily ir- znhe ]w tro he 23 INTRODUCTION xxtxl in sculpture and pottery styles.13 Such relations seem to become more intensive during the 3rd millennium B.C. Stone idols and vases from Sardinia, Sicily, Malta and elsewhere are reminiscent of Cycladic products,la while some embossed plaques from Sicily find relatives in Greecels and Sardinian cist graves have parallels in circular enclosures in Leukas.16 Many daggers and copper objects from Italy, southern France and Spain are linked to Aegean (mainly Cycladic) typeslT and there are also many East Mediterranean.features in architecture there (the Balearic islands and Los Milliares in Spain). Some of these cultures are often considered to reflect the arrival of new populations from the east,18 and seafaring was certainly developed enough in the Cyclades and in the Levant by the later part of the 3rd millennium for such a migration to be possible. Some Early Cycladic f-\ n I \ I \ a, i\ l\ \_-,, L_-l v2 he nTC nd ed he ta. lrs iut o3 rre an n'rs en [is ed ng he nd ^4 en gW to laT ili- o6 rt1re nd gr- ot- ith SJ. [tT FI\ I\ x7 @ffi+8 Fig. 3. Distribution of the main types of the Trojan metallurgical group in the Aegean. 1 flataxes,2 axes Branigan type III, 3 daggers pins' 8 Branigan types XV-XIX, 4 knives Branigan types VI-VIII, 5 pins types IV-VI, 6 spiral-headed pins typeXl,T "Cypriot" earrings type II. After the lists inBranigan I974. 24 I, BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE ISIMA tr'.\ qw @ 1 4{w Fig' 4' Cotded pottery in Greece. l-3,5_7 Argissa Magoula (after Hanschmann-Milojdi6), 4 Ayia Marina (after Gimbutas), anchor-shaped clay object from Lerna (after Caskey). Below distribution of the Corded pottery in Greece. 1 Kannali Kripii, g 2 Fotolivos,3DikiliTash,4Kritsana,5H.Mamas,6Kozani,TArgissa,8pefkakia,gAyiaMarina, l0Eutresis.After Hanschmann-Milojdi6. xxxl 7 INTRODUCTION 25 pottery has been reported from the island of Hvar and other connections have been recognised bet- other kinds of pottery and objects. Tumulus burials have been discussed by Hammond and others.23 ween the Western Balkans and Northwest Greece during the Eneolithic and Early Bronze Ages.le The most important in Greece are the Middle Helladic tumuli at Marathon, but Hammond has collected the evidence for many others, both in 5 .3. The Balkan relations of Early HeIladic II-fiI and the coming of the Greeks The Balkan connections of the Presesklo and Dimini cultures are too remote from our point of view, but the question of late 3rd millennium contacts has to be dealt with here. Two waves of destructions, the first of them towards the end of EH II and a second towards the end of EH III,20 are now a focus of interest for many scholars, the main reason for their interest being the possibility of setting the arrival of the Greeks in Greece then' Another candidate suggested as responsible for one of these "waves" of destruction are the Lurvians, pre-Greek Indoeuropeans, but, since language of the Linear B tablets has been generally accepted as Greek, there would appear to be little rlace for two different candidates. T'he Early \{ycenaean culture shows some Anatolian and Balkan features, allowing us to suppose a foreign .rrigin for some of the rulers, their brides and :amilies, but not enough to suggest that there was a large-scale migration at that time.2l Greece and Albania, and there are additional East Balkan and Pontic parallels.2a Corded Ware first appeared in Greece in EH II (then mainly bowls with thickened flat-topped rims, and biconical vessels) and is also found there later in EH III (mainly globular vessels reminiscent of Middle Helladic amphoras, with loosely appiied corded decoration)2s (fig. 4). The relations of the Greek Corded Ware are mainly with the EzercMikhalits complex in Bulgaria,26 but also with similar corded wares in Rumania and surrounding areas, and ultimately with the "Kurgan" complex.2T In Greece, Corded Ware fragments are known from several sites in Greek Macedonia and Thrace (cf. fig. 4 below Kozani, Kritsana, H. Mamas, Dikili Tash, Sitagroi, in contexts akin to Troy IV-early VI), from Pefkakia (Early Thessalian III and possibly Early Thessalian I) and Argissa (Early Thessalian I) in Thessaly, from a late EH III context at Eutresis,28 and from an undatable context at Ayia Marina. The Corded Ware fragments from Kannali Kopii in Turkish Thrace2e are probably even earlier. The anchor-shaped objects from a late EH II context atLerna (fig.4:8) have many Balkan parallels.30 A group of vessels from Lerna V and Kirrha Of the two waves of destruction discussed here, (here MH Ib, cf. fig. 5 :l-3,5) are foreign to local :he first, connected with the destruction of Lerna, traditions.3l Gara5anin saw parallels for these in s3ems to be the more important, while EH III now Bubanj Ib pottery, but to me some Catacomb 3ppears as a transitional period, during which vessels offer a better analogy (fig. 5 :4, 6, 8), Protominyan began to develop into the sophisticathough here there are still notable differences.32 red Minyan of the early stage of Middle Hellajic.:2Minyan pottery parallels in Troy are well- Some vessels from Asea in Arcadia are similar to Globular Amphoras and related flasks from eastlnown, and the continuity from Early to Middle ern Poland and the surrounding part of the Ukraine Helladic is more fluent than the transition from (fig. 5 : 7 ,9-10).33 The hammer-headed pins from I ate Mycenaean to Protogeometric, so that alarge . the Peloponnese have Pontic connections.3a There :art of the popuiation, including the potters and are similarly Mariupol parallels for the circular :rher artisans, must have remained the same, while cheek-pieces of horse bits and for Mycenaean r hat foreign elements there are point not only boar-tusk helmets ; while possible analogies for the :rrvards Anatolia, but also towards the Balkans. latter can also be seen in some lids of the Gumelnita Among possible links with the Balkans which culture (cf, IIL l.2A.1 note 43). In the later part of the 3rd millennium B.C., the :ave been much discussed during the last two eastern Balkans underwent a substantial change. :ecades are tumulus burials, Corded Ware and rl.8 a-2 fter $ 26 J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE The tell settlements disappeared and a new kind of burials under tumuli (ochre graves)35 is known from many parts of the Balkan peninsula including Hungary and Serbia. The new culture shows con- nections with the Pontic steppes, and some lstMA zoomophic mace-heads of stone suggest links with the North Caucasian region.36 This large-scale cultural change in the eastern Balkans was probably the result of an immigration from the North Pontic area. The people responsible for it may well have 2 3 4 6 8 9 II-III potterywith northeasternrelations. 1,3,5 Lerna (after Caskey),5 Kirrha (afterDor et Fig. 5. GreekEarly Helladic Asea, Arcadia (after Holmberd.4-6,8 Ukrainian parallels (after Archeotogia Ukrainy). alii),7-9 z7 INTRODUCTION xn^1 their been Indoeuropean' and it is not unlikely that relatives who advanced further south were early Greeks. One reason for this shift of population was probably ecological, and climatic: the more steppeiik" .ha.a.ter of the eastern Balkans led to the abandonment of the traditional system of agricul- up ture connected with tell settlements, and opened cattlebreeding' and pasture gr eater possibilities f or iut the Tater partof the Early Bronze Age was also a period of destruction and disturbance in other parts of the eastern Mediterranean, in Anatolia probably connected with the arrival of the In- doeuropean Hittites and with other migrations further east. The EH II-III destructions in Greece considered in this light rvere part of a general pattern of disturbance comparable with those which took place towards the end of the Znd millennium B.C. (below III.15), and which in all probability were themselves connected with simi- lar ecological factors. Nevertheless there is much cultural continuity between EH II and Middle Helladic, in pottery and in other crafts' The Cyclades were apparently little affected at that time, and Crete hardly at all. NOTES 1. A SURVEY OF PREVIOUS WRITINGS Hoernes, Kultur der lJrzeit lI' Btonzezeit,3rd ed' 1922 ; K. Miiller, AM 34 (1909) 27 8-30I ; A. Evans, Shaft Graves9Tl' 2 N. Aberg, Bronzezeitliche und ft[iheisenzeitliche Chronologie l-Y (1930-35); M' Ebert, Reallexikon der Vorges chichte (B erlin 192 4 -32) 3 Cf. V. G. Childe, Valedictum, BulL Inst' Arch' London (Jniversity 1 (1958) 1-8. r Cf. M. Berlin-Leipzig B. Kemp and M. Mann-Rankin, Antiquity 54 (1980) 2l*28 and 1281. e Cf. J. Fletcher, in Radiocarbon Calibration and Ptehistoty (note 7), pp. 9-27, the volume edited by him Dendrochronology in Europe, BAR 51 (1958) ; for new results of the German dendrochronology P. Becker-B' Schmidt, Arcft. Korrbl. 12 (1982) 101-106 and 10 4) 142-152' Cf. J. L. Thomas, Near Eastern, Mediterranean and European chronology, SIMA XVII, (Lund 1967): F' Schlette (ed.), Wege zur Datierung und Chronologie der lJrgeschich' (197 fe, (Berlin 1975) (esp' Bronzezeit' pp' 134-41 by' J' (1980) Bouzek). For higher chronology A' Harding, AR 32 178-86. 3 Cf. below, the last chapter of the 2nd part' a Below, ch. IIL2.1.1. 5 cf. ch. 1.5.2-3. 6 Cf. esp. the lists in Coles-Harding, Btonze Age (1979)' 7 Cf. Bouzek in Schlette, Wege zur Datierung (note 2) and T' Watkins (ed.), Radiocarbon Calibration and Prehistory (Edinburgh 1975 ;esp. the contributions by R' Burleigh,5-8 and A. M. Snodgrass, pp.39-46); P' Astr<im, Op' Ath' 12 8 1977,88. Mellaart, Egyptian and Near Eastern Chronology: a dilemma, Antiquity53 (lg7g) 6-1,8; cf. the critics byJ' Weinstein' J. in Archiiologische lnformationen 4. RAWMETALS AND TRADE IN THEM (Conn' S upplement to Copper and Tin, Hamden 1976) (Trans. Connecticut Acad. of Arts and Sciences vol' 46) and ib., The Bronze Age setting, in Wartime-Muhly (eds.), Tfie Coming of the Age of Iron (New Haven 1980) 1 J. D. Muhly, the LBA in the Aegean", AJA 80 (1976) 329-348;Y' Hankey-P. Warren' "The absolute chronology of the Ae- Bull ICS. London 2l Schwabedissen, - I 1 Cf. G. Cadogan, Dating of the Aegean Bronze Age without Radiocarbon, Archaeometry 20 (197 8) 209-14 ; Ph' Betancourt and G. A. Weinstein, "Carbon 14 and the beginnings of gean Bronze Age", H. information on this subject. 6 F. Schacherm eyr, Agiiische Fttihzeitlll-Y (Wienl979-82) : Schmidt-H. (Deutsche gesellschaft fiir Ur- und Friihgeschichte) 4 (1978) am indebted to Dr. H. Quitta for much 170_117. a Cf. esp. Jb. Frankfwt(1975) s Arhus conference August 1980 (pre-printed). 3. CHRONOLOGY B. Schwabedissen, o.c. p. 107f. 25-67. 2 S. Junghaus, E. Sangmeister' M. Schriider, Metallanalysen kupferzeitlicher und frijhbronzezeitlicher Bodenfunde aus Europa (Berlin 1960) and Bittel-Junghaus-Sangmeister-schrtider, Kupfer und Bronze in der frijhen Metallzeit Europas (Berlin 1968); I. R. Selimchanov. Entretselte Geheimnisse der alten Bronzen(Berlin 1974) and Germania 44 (1966) 221-233; E. N' Cernych, Istorija drevnei{ej metalurgii vostoinoi Jevropy (Moskva 1966) and Gornoje delo i metalurgiia v dtevnei{ej Butgarii (Sofia 1978); cf' also the Colloque XXIII (Les d6buts de la m6tallurgie) of the IXth congress UISPP Nice 1976. 3 Prentiss de Jesus, Anat. St. 2S (1978) 97-102 and his monograph in the BAR series. o J. Dayton, in the Sheffield colloqium on Troy (1977)' For copper and tin ox-hide ingots cf. H. G. Buchholz' PZ 37 (1959) 1--40 andin Minoica (Festschr. Sundwall) (Berlin lg58) 92_115; J. D. Muhly, The copper ox-hide ingots and the Bronze Age metal trade, Iraq39 (1971) 73-8i; fbr iead general cf . H.-G. Buchholz, JdI 87 (1972) 1-59; for 28 J.BcIJZEK, THE AEcEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE problems also H. Otto-W. Witter, Handbuch der dltesten (1963) 485-94; Ib., Neue Beitriige zur Frage orientalischer vorgeschichtlichen Metallurgie in Mitteleuropa (Leipzig Les2) 5 J. D. Muhly, in Acts Cyprus--4rete (lg7g),87_100. 6 Prentiss de Jesus, Anat. 5t.28 (1978) 97-102. 7 W. Lorenzen, Helgoland und das friiheste Kupfer des Nordens (Otterndorf 1965). E Cf. M. Gimbutas, Bronze Age Culfures in Central and E as te rn E urope, The Hague (19 6 5), 20t. fie. 2 : J. Coles-A. F. Harding, Bronze Age in Europe,S-10. e M. L^zarov, Potnilata flotilija (Y arna 1,97 5j 43-57 . The Makanka hoard with a small ingot was apparently found in Cyprus, not in Dalmatia (L. Vagnetti, in: Sfudi cr'pnoti - e rapporti di scavo, Roma 1971,203-16). ro Cf. below, ch. II.14. I1 J. D. Muhly, Expedition 1 7 : 4 (197 4), 3 1-39 ; L9 : 2 (lg7 7 ), 35-47; Coming of the Age of Iron (note 1), 31f. notes 26-34. t2 Muhly, in Coming of the Age of Iron, p. 40. 13 Supplement to Copper and Tin 1976,256; but cf. now Coming oI the Age of Iron,p. 47. ra L. Bammer, "Tin deposits in the Erzgebir ge", Transactions of the Institute of Mining and Metallurgy 82 (197 0) 9-24 ; J . W. Taylor, Oxford Journal of Arch.2 (1983) 295-8. 15 J. Dayton, in Sheffield coloquium onTroy,1977. 16 L. H6lek-M. Vldek, A ritual well and the find of an Early Bronze Age iron Dagger at Gdnovce, in: Esfudios ... a P. Bosch Gimpera (Mexico 1963) 427-439. t7 Cf. a survey by L. Matou5, in: Acts of the colloquium on the Occassion of the 100th anniversary of B. Hroznli's birthday, Prague University, printing. R. S. Merilees, Trade andTranscendence in the Bronze Age Levant (Goteborg 1,97 4) 5-42. For the stone anchors in general cf. D. E. McCaslin, Sfone -Anchors in Antiquity, Coastal Settlements and Maitime Trade Routes in the Eastern Meditenanean, c. 1600-1,050 B.C. (Griteborg 1980); H. Frost, Stone anchors as clues to Bronze Age trade routes, Thracia Pontica I, Sozopol 1979 (Sofia 1982), 28A-289. 5. EARLIER RELATIONS Einfliisse im Neolithikum Siebenbiirgens, PZ 48 (1974) 181-191 ; S. Hood, The Tartaria tablets, Antiquity 4l (1967) 99-ll3 (cf. E" Neustupnj', Antiquity 42 1968, 32); S. Hood, "An Early Oriental seal impression from Rumania", World Archaeology 5 (1973\ 187-197. Cf. also J. Makkay, "Some stratigraphical and chronological problems of the Tartaria tablets", Mitt. " rch. trnst. Hung. Akad. Wiss.5 (1974-75) 1.3-71; M. Gimbutas, Iournal of IndctEuropean Studiesl (1973) 11 1-1 15 ; J. Makkay, "Altorien- talische Parallelen 1 Cf. J. Bouzek, Listy fi1.88 (1965) 242-44. 2 D. Srejovid, Lepenski Vir (Beograd 1969) and Exh. Cat. Lepenski Vrr (Beograd 1968) 3 Exh. Cat. Treasures of the Vama Chalcolithic Necropolis (Sofia 1978); I. S. Ivanov, IzvestijaVarnall (1965) 1-16 and lzvestija Varna 12; d. also J. Makkay, Acta Arch. Hung. 28 (1976) 251-300; C. Renfrew, Antiquity 52 (1978) 799-203; J. Weisshaar, Arch. KonbL 12 (1982) 321-29. 4 Cf. C. Renfrew, "The autonomy of the East European Copper Age", PPS 35 (1969) 12-47 and J. Bouzek, AR 3 1 (te7e) 261f. 5 N. Vlassa, "Chronology of the Neolithic in Transylvania in the light of the Tartaria settlement stratigraphy", Dacia 7 za den tiltesten Heiligtiimern Siebenbiirgens" , Alba Regia 1l (1971.) 737-144. 6 Bouzek, AR3l (1969) 261t. 7 Bouzek, Pam. arch. 57 (1966) 243 ;E. Neustupnf , Slov. arch. 1 6 (1 968) 1 9--{0 built up a much higher chronology on these observations (cf. here ch. I.3). 8 L Jir6i, "Metalurgie ran6 doby bronzov6 v egejsk6 oblasti a jeji paralely v Evropd a Mal6 Asii", diploma work Prague 1981; AR 34 (1982) 430-434. e Bouzek, AR31 1979,257-40,263t. 10 J. Neustupnf, "studies in the Eneolithic Plastic Arts", Sbornik NM Prague A10 (1956) 68f . ; for the Bulgarian bone and clay idols cf. V. Mikov, IBAIS (1934) 183-214 and H. i 11 Todorova, "Klasifikacija dislovoj kod plastiki neolita, eneolita i rannej bronzovoj epochi Bolgarii" , Studia Praehisforica 3 (Sofia 1980) 43-64. Ex occidente lux, tJgailtica VII (Paris lg78) 475*552. Though the porfeurs de torque in Ras Shamra could have come there from the north, it is difficult to accept the European origin of their culture; the dispersion of the neck-rings during the Baden culture frorn Anatolia and/or the Caucasus region seems to me to be more probable for most of the cornmon types. Cf. notes 8-9 and the Colloque XXIII - Les ddbuts de la m€tallurgie, IX" congrds UISPP Nice 1956;J. L. Huot, "La diffusion des dpingles a tdte e double enroulement" , Syria 46 (1969) 57-98; P. Flourentzos, "The so-called Cypriot pin in the Near East and Europe", AR 30 (1978) 408-419. 12 J. Bouzek, AR3l (1979) 261; S. Hiller, "Ka-ko-na-wi-jo, Notes on interdependencies of temple and bronze in the (PRECEDING THE BEGINNINGS OF THE MYCENAEAN CULTURE) ISIMA 13 1a Aegean Late Bronze Age", Colloquium Mycenaeum Nauchatel (797 9) 1 89-1 93. Cf . e.g. Miiller-Karpe , Hb. d. Arch.lL (1968), 1,07-113 ; H. Trump, Central and Southern Italy betore Rome (London 7966) 30--60. For Malta J. D. Evans, Prehistoric Antiquities of the Maltese lslands (London 1.971) and ib., Malfa (London 1959); for Sardinia exh. cat. Kunsf Sardiniens (ed. J. Thimme) (Karlsruhe 1980) 15-43; for Sicily L. Bernabd Brea, "Considerazioni sull' eneolitico a sulla prima dtd di bronzo della Sicilia a della Magna Grecia", Kokalos 14-15 (1968/69) 28tt.,33 ff.; cf. also ib., Sicily(London 1957) 38-119. rs A new survey lL G. Buchholz, "The problem. of Minoan relations with the West at the beginning of the Late Bronze Age", in: Temple Univ. Aegean Symposium 5 (1980) 45-60; cf. esp. J. D. Evans, Antiquity 30 (1956) 80-93; Bernab6 Brea, S icily (1 9 57 ) pl. 41 a-c ; Lerna Caskev, Ilesp. 23 (1954)22pL 99; Troy Schmidt, SchfiemannSlg. p. 291 no. xnxl ,f 1) I t; m io d. t- n For 7953 ab; Blegen et alii, Troyl,363 fig. 365 : 35-528' Balkans) in the (which also common were the anchor symbols cf. J. D. Evans, PPS22 (1956)99ff. ;D. Berciu, AR 15 (1963) M. Cavalier, Melagunis 44-47 and L. Bernabd Brea Cf. also M' Ceccanti, pl. (1968), 59:13-18. Lipara 3 Contatti culturali fra Puglia, Sicilia ed il Mediterraneo Orientale in epoca pre-micenea, in Best-deVries (e ds'),Interaction and Acculturation in the Mediterranean (1980) 37-47 ' 16 G. Tanda, in Kunst der Kykladen (ed. J. Thimme' 1980)' 171-175; O. Htjckman, in J. Thimme-F' G' Preziosi, Arf and Culture of the Cyclades (London 1977) l6'lf' Cf' also C' Renfrew-R. Whitehouse, "The Copper Age of Peninsular ie f, € I. a, s- z. te - t' 1982, L7-54. Les d6buts de la rn6tallurgie of the IX" Cf . Colloque 23 congrds UISPP Nice 1966, the contributions by J' Briard (France, pp. 28-35), J. Guillaine and J. Vaquer (Italie du Nord et Midi de la France, pp. 46-79) and M' Primas - (Alpine area, pp. 81-117)' K. Branigan, "Halberds, daggers and cultural contact", Origini 5 (1'971) 47-58 (esp' Italic Chalcolithic daggers in EM III Crete). rs G. Tanda, in Kunst der Kykladen (cf . note 16), 174f' re Cf. the surveys by N. G' L. Hammond, BSA 69 (1'974) 129-1.44 and K. Branigan, BSA and l€ CAIIlll-1, (1982),1'-231by and F. Prendi. I E in the e d D, le m Aegean rn (1,967) Ila D ln Le D t; p. D. 1 now - For the Balkans D. Garaianin, V' Dumitrescu 97 3). Cf . also F. Schachermeyr, Agdische of Mvcenae and the Indo-Europeans", BSA 62 Invasions in Greece (Park Ridge 1'976) L07-128; cf. also the survey by Schachermeyr, A'gdische Friihzeitl (197 5)'240-280 and S' Marinatos, in: Acta of the 2nd Internat' Symposium on Aegean Prelistory (Ath ens 1972) 184-190 (Marathon); S' Bronze Age tumulus cemetery in Asine", Archaeology 28 {197 5) 15'/ -1,63. t4 Cf. N. Ja Merpert, "Rannije skotovody vostoinoj Jevropy i sudbi drevnejiich civilizacij", Studia Praehistorica 3 (Sofia 1980) 65-90; M. Gimbutas, "The Kurgan wave 2 (c' 3400-3200P..C.) into Europe and the following transforma- Dietz, "A An Outline (Amsterdam 1973) Bronzezeit (Bonn 1 976) 26 Cf. 231-5. Georgiev-Merpert, IBAI28 (1965) 150 ff' figs'24-25 and Arcft. Austr. 42 (1967) 124. S. S. Morintz-P. Roman, Dacia 13 (1969) 63r., 66,70" 21 Cf.P. Roman, Das Froblem der "schnuilerzierten" Keramik in Siidosteurop a, Jahresschrift Halle 58 (1914) 157-17 4;L. Hdjek, in: Kommission f ' Aneolithikum u. dltete Bronzezeit (Nitra 1958) 67f. figs. 5-7; R. Katindarov, Archeologiia Sofia (1974/l) 12-17; cf. also the conference on Corded Ware cultures in Jahreschnft Halle 58 (197 4) H. Gofdman, Eutresis,p.123. 2e l).French, Anat.St.11 (1961) 103,1.27 fig.6:1. 30 Hesp.25 (1956)pI.47 l-p;Hesp.26 (1957)pI.42 1'.Ct. note 15. and S. Hood, Symposium Badener Kulrur (Bratisla- 28 31 va 1973) I 12 fig. 1 :3-5. J. L. Caskey, Hesp.26 (1957) pl. 40 d, f and CAH II-1, ch. IV (a) p. 73 ;L. Dor,I.Jannoray, K. et M .Effenterre, Kirtha, Etude de pr6histoirephocidienne (Paris 1960) p. 150pl.44; S. dood, Lerna and Bubanj, ZbornikNMBeogtad6(1970) 83-90. 32 Cf. with full documentation S. Hood, in Brcnze Age Migrations (ed" Birchall-Crossland) (London 1973) 65f., and in the preceding note. Bouzek, in: Acta of the 2nd colloquium on Aegean Prehistory (Athens 1972) 139f., cf' Archeologiia tJkrainskoj SSR (Kiiv 197L) 324 fig. 89:1-5, 328 fig. 92:11; Sapulov-Telegin, Archeologija (Kiiv 1971l1) 86f. EBA, (Los Angeles 1979). '17-106; lb., Migrations and Greeks I, The last exhaustive survey V. Milojdi6-8. Hanschmann, Argissa Magoula III, Die frijhe und beginnende mittlere Friihzeit Helladic Culture", in Crossland-Birchall (eds ')' Bronze Age Migrations in the Aegean (London L973) 73-98' tt D. Hammond, "Tumulus Burial in Albania' the Grave Circles )r :) 1'97 1 :1 Cf. E. Verrneule, Greece in the Bronze Age, Chicago 1964, 106-1 10 ; O. T. Dickinso n' The Origins of the Mycenaean Civilisation (Goteborg \977); J. Rutter, Ceramic Change in the Aegean EBA (Los,4ngeles 1979) :: Cf. note 20 and R. Howell, "The origins of the Middle t: ,e 25 (Wien Ig7 5) 240-280" 291f .; J. Rutter, Ceramic Change }I t- 70 (1975) 37-49 (1982),140-142. From another angle J. P. Best,The Arival of the (northerri relations of the Leukas burials). :0 Most informative surveys: J' L. Caskey, CAI{, 3rd ed' vol' l-2 ch. XXVI (a), pp' 982-8 and vol. II-1 ch' IV (a), pp' 732-8 (Carnbridge ,P - Italy and the Aegean", BSA 69 (1974) 343-390' R' Ross Holloway, Italy and the Aegean 3000-700 B'C', Lidge l€ 'r tion of culture", Iournal of Indo-European Studies 8 (1980) 245-272; Ib., The Proto-Indo-European Culture, "The Kurgan Culture dating from the 5th,4th and 3rd millenium", in: Cardcna G. et alii, Indo-European and Indo'Eutopeans (Philadelphia 1970) 155-197; M' GaraSanin, CA.EIIII-1 - h. 29 INTRODUCTION i fig. 1. E. Holmberg, Tte Swedis& Excavations at Asea in Arcadia (Stockholm 1944) 88f. fig. 90 (jugs) and 89a (bottle). Cf. Bouzek, Acts of the 2nd Colloquium on Aegean Prehistory (1972) 140 note 15. 3a Caskey, Hesp. 25 (1956) pl. 47b ;Holmberg, Asea p. 130 fig. l2l no.16; S. Hood, in Bronze AgeMigrations{1973),63; IL Hiiniseh, Arbeiten Inst. Vorg. Halle 14 (1969) 7J5: Milcjdid, Germania 33 (1955) 242. Ct. also L' Press, Archeologia 31 (1980) 1-10. 35 I. Ecsedy, "Die Gmbengrabkurgane und Elemente der Steppenursprung in der ungarischen Friihbronzezeit", Acta Arch. Hung. 27 (1'975) 277-84. Ib., Tfte People of the Pit-Grave Kurgans in Eastern Hungary (Budapest 1979) 36 L. Ghetov, "Sur le problbme des sceptres zoomorphes en pierre", Studia Praehistorica 3 (Sofia 1980) 91-96; N. Hartuche-V. Bobi, "Un nou sceptre de piatra zoomorf descopert in Romdnia ?", Istros 1, (Braila 1980) 117-126. For more general discussion cf. note 24. 33 CHAPTER II THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULTURE (c. L700-1400 B.C.) 1. THE SWORDS AND DAGGERS OF THE EAST MEDITERRANEAN (MYCENAEAN) SERIES OUTSIDE THE AEGEAN These objects mainly belong to the period discussed in this part of the book, but some are slightly later (for those cf. III. 2.1.1). Genuine swords will be discussed first. They may be divided into a West Balkan series, Bulgarian and Rumanian swords (cf. map fig. 9) and the Plenmyrion type from Sicily. Other swords are isolated pieces or only distantly related to the Mycenaean world, but a special section should be devoted to the Trialeti swords and their possible relation to the Transylvanian and Mycenaean rapiers. Large swords of Karo type A apparantly begin to appear in the Aegean area in MM III (Mallia, Arkhalokhri); on the Greek mainland, they were still used in LH II A (Kakovatos, Vapheio) and possibly even later (derivations of short swords from Zapher Papoura and the Chamber Tomb 78 at Mycenae). The Karo B swords are less common; they were in use roughly at the same time as Karo A. The Sandars C swords replaced the swords of Karo A type.1 l.l. The West Balkan grouq The area of distribution of these swords is small; the northernmost finds come from Central Albania and from the neighbourhood of Skopje. The most useful survey is by Prendi.2 A. The first group can be connected with the Karo A swords of the Aegean series: A, grave 12' 1,. Yajze near Vlor6, tumulus 2. L.101 cm. Prendi pl. 7 :1. Pazhok (Elbasan), tum.I, grave 7. Prendi pl. 7:2 3. Midhe (Mati). Kurti, lliria 7 -8, 31'6 pl. 2 : 2. 4. G6rmenj. Andrea, Iltuia 11' (1981/1) 225 pl' 1 :4 (pres. 1.ca.60 cm). No. 1 is a typical Karo A sword, with pronounced midrib decorated with incised lines, no. 2 was found with a LH I cup and must be of that date, but its shoulder and tang are too broad for genuine Mycenaean swords and it is more similar to Transylvanian rapiers than to the Aegean series. Similar- ly, no. 3 with its complicated:midrib is nearer to Transylvanian than to true Mycenaean swords; it also seems to be of an early date (cf. Ptendi, Ilitia 7-8 1,977-',78,33). B.l Sandars C swords and related pieces 1. Tetovo near Skopje. Mikuldi6, Pelagnijapl.IId. L. 98 cm. Here fig. 6:7 and Pl. 3:1. 2. Germenj near Lushje. F. Prendi, lliria 7-8 (1977-78),33 pl. 13:1';Zh' Andrea, Iliria 11 (19811t),225 pl. 1 :5' L. ca. 80 cm. 3-4. Shtog (Mat). Prendi, o.c.pl.13:5-6. 5. Nenshat (Shkoder). Prendi, o.c. pl' 13: ; Korkuti, Sfudia albanica(1'970),51 pl. 3. 6. Komise (Mat). Kvti, Iliria 7-S (7977-78), 316 pl.2:1. The Tetovo sword is a typical Mycenaean C i piece, the sword from Nenshat shows relations both to the piece from Mesoyefira (Hammond' Epirus(1967),p. 318f., tig.19 Apl.21.) and to the Bulgarian group (below 1.2 A), but its horns are turned down. The second sword from Shtog has 3I a very strange hand-guard with horns and is certainly local-made. The swords from G6rmenj and Komise are similar to each other and fit into the Aegean series as their peripheral representatives' u, Jo", the piece from Grevena (Heurtley, Preft' Macedoniafig. 104 e). C. (horned sword). to the Aegean series precedes the slightly only and their LBA date influprobably type Sprockhoff II a swords: this 1_3 d d are well comparable enced the European Ib Class. No 4 is contemporary with the II a swords discussed in the third part of this book (c. lII.2.l) ; it maybelong to Sandars class G'3 IS € 1.2 t- " The Galatin horned swords The East Balkanseries and Bulgarian sword fr it ia d. { t1 r), an ns d, he lre uIS 1. Galatin, distr. Vraca' B' Nikolov, Galatin (7g6g),8ff. fig' 7 ; B. Hiinsel, PZ 45 (1970),28 iig. t e . Blade partly damaged, upper part of the ' tang missing. Pres. 1. 86 cm. Fig' 6 :6' 2. Doino Levski near Pazatdlik (:Karaglari)' Sandars, AJA 67 (1963) 146 pl' 22 : 5 ;Bouzek' Pam. arch.57 (1966),247 tig' 4:2;Hdnsel'PZ 45 (lg7 0) 28 tig. 7 :I. L. 77'5 cm, fig' 6 :2' 3. PeruSiica, distr. Plovdiv. Sandars o'c' (1963) pl' 22:7 ; Bouzek o.c. (1966) fig' 4:4; Hiinsel o'c' (1970), tig. 1 : 3.Fig- 6:4. 4. Doktor Josifovo, distr' Mihailovgrad' Sandars' o.c. (1963), pl.22:9; Bouzek, o'c' (7966)' fig' 4 : 3 ; Hiinsel, o.c. (L97 0), fig. | : 5' L' 56 cm, fig' 5. (LH II B Sandars D and later swords 1. Gdrmenj (Lushje). Prendi, Ilitia 7_-8 (1977-75),34 Pt. 73:2. 2. Bruq (Mat). Prendi' o.c' pl. 13:3' Fig' 8:1' 3. Rrethe Bazje (Mat). Prendi, o'c' pl' 13:4;lslami-Ceka, Studia Albanica | (1964) pl' 12:2' 4.Barg (Korce). Andrea, lliria 3 (L9'75), 41'6 t. to their being derived from Mycenaean C i models ; their producer must have known some of these' Hiinsel also ascribes to this group the Galatin sword, which is in the eyes of Harding and myself a normal C i example.a This group is probably contemporary with the Aegean swords of this class 6:3. Medgidia, Dobrodgea. M' Irmii, Dacia 1'4 (1970), 389-95' Fres.l' 60.6 cm (tip of blade missing). Fig. 6:5. The Galatin piece may be classified as a normal C ii Aegean sword, but the other four pieces are somewhat exotic, though there can be no doubt as - III A). 1'3. The Transylvanian rapiets (Figs. This group has been intensively 7-8) discussed by Horedt, Alexandrescu, Cowen, Mozsolics, Harding and Hiinsel. Several variants may be distinguished. A. Narrow blade of rhomboid section, midrib flattens towards the butt L. Miercurea-Sibiu near Sebe.s. K. Horedt, Nouvelles ltudes d'histoire II (1960)' 34 tig.l:1; Studi qi Comunicdri 4 (Alba Iulia 196l), L2 fig. l:7; Bouzek, Pam. arch' 57 (1966),245 tig' 2:9; Alexandrescu, Dacia 1'0 (1966), 169, 1'39 pl. I:L. L. 119'5 cm, butt damaged. Fig. 7: 1. 2. Alba lulia, distr. Alba, mus. Sibiu' Horedt (1e60). 42 tig. I:t; (196r) 10 fie. 1:1; Bouzek (1966), 245 tig. 2:3 ; Alexandrescu (1966) 139 pl.1:2. Point and part of butt missing, pres. L. 65 cm. Fig.7 :2. 3. Alma, distr. Media;. Horedt (1960), 32 fig. l:2; (L961) 10f. fig. 1:2;Bouzek (1966)'245 fig.2:4;Alexandrescu (1966) 139 pl' 1:3' Point and part of butt missing, at least five rivet holes. Pres. !.74.3 cm,Fig.7 :3. 4. Alunig, distr. Odorhei, Mus. Sfintu Gheorghe' Horedt (1960) 32 fis. 1':3 ; (1961) 11 fig' 1 : 3 ; Bouzek (7966), 245 fig. 2:5 ; Alexandrescu (L966) 169 pl.1:4. Butt and upper blade damaged, L.90.7 cm. Central rib of rhomboid section at the butt broadened by hammering, as on the preceding Piece.Fig. T :4. The butt is usually domaged and the upper end of the rib flattened. The pieces nos. 3-4 are similar to some Aegean swords,s but there are remarkable differences between both grouPs. B. Usually round midrib; its upper part is not J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE ISIMA H Fig. 6. Balkan horned swords of Mycenaean affinities. 1 Mycenae, Chamber Tomb 58, 2 Dolno Levski, 3 Doktor Josifovo, 4 Peru5tica (2-4 Bdgafia), 5 Medgidia, Rumania, 6 Galatin near Vraca (Bulgaria), 7 Tetovo near Skopje (Yugoslavia). After Bouzek 1966, Sandars, Irmii and Mikuldi6. THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULTURE XXIX] flattened (6-7)and it does not reach the end of the JJ (cf. Alexandrescu p. 121). Pres. 1. 46.5 cm. Fig. 8:3. butt 5. Inldceni, distr. Odorhei, mus. Cristuru Secuiesc. Horedt o.c. (1960), 34 fig' 1:6; (i961)' 12 fig. 1 : 6 ; Bouzek (1'966),Iig' 2:8; Alexandrescu (1966) 169 pl. I:5' Complete but badly chipped, two rivet holes preserved. L' 90 cm' Fig.7:5. 6. Dumbrdviora, distr. Tirgu Mureg' Mus' Cluj' (Horedt) (1960), 34 tig. 1 :5 I (1961), 12 fig. l:5; Bouzek (1966), fig.2:7; Alexandrescu (1,966) 169 pl. I:6 ; Hampel, Bronzkor I pl' 20:5. Complete, three rivet holes. L' 99'5 cm' Fig.7:6. 7. Sviity Jur near Bratislava ("Pozsonyszentgytirgy"), NM Budapest' Mozsolics, Bronzefunde (1967),59, 155 pl. 45:2. Butt and upper part of the blade damaged, one rivet hole preserved (the sword had at least two originalIy). L. 7 a cm,Fig.7 :7 . distr, Razgrad. I. Panayotov, Thracia Jonkovo, 8. (1980), 178f. fig. 1:1 ; Panayotov-Ivanov, 5 t2.Tei. Alexandrescu, SCfV 17 (1966),571-5. Fragment reused as a knife, from a Tei culture settlement" 13. Cdtele-Nou, similar blade from a Tei IIIsettlernent, mentioned by Alexandrescu with no. 12. 14.Drajna-de-Jos, distr. Ploesti. Andrienescu, Dacia 2 (1925) 359 pl. 2:7; Alexandrescu (1966) 169 pl. 2:2.BrD hoard, short damaged blade, pres. 1. 2l:6 cm. Fig' 8 :5. 15. Sokol near Silistra, Br D hoard. B' Htinsel' PZ 48 (1974) 200-206; Panayotov, Thtacia 5 (1980) 178t. fig. 2:2. Two fragments of a blade, 47 cmlong.l D. Two other rapiers from Rumania, both unique, have a triangular and richly decorated blade: 16. Roqiorii-de-Vede, distr. Bucureqti, Dumitrescu, Dacia 5-6 (1935-36) 169-173; Alexandrescu (1966) L70 pl.2:3.Pres.1. 68 cm. Central rib decorated with fine rippling' Four Archeologiia Sofia (197 9 ll), 29 tig. I and 2a' midrib low, rivet holes in the butt, at least one in the tang. L.67 .5 cm, two rivets placed rather Fig.8:4andpl.l:2. of round section' l7.,Bpg€9'31i, distr. F-rreqti. Condurachi, Monu9. Tovalidevo near Kustendil (once mus. Kustenmints arch. en Roumanie (1960) pl. 1'l; Le dil, now lost). Cowen , PPS32 (1,966) 310 no' 1' des civilisations grecque et rayonnement cm. 91.5 Rounded butt, L. c' culture pltiph1riques (Paris des les sur romaine Bronzezeit i0. Vldany near Galanta' Foltiny, found with silver battlepl. 1. Gold, 63: 1965) Karpathenbeckens (1955), 55 pl. 31 :5' (cf. Zaharia-Ilescu, gold axes and daggers of The new piece from Jonkovo is very near to Fasti arch.18_^19 (1963) 125 no.1825)' Fraggenuine Karo A swords, and the sword from Soli ment of blade and cast-on hilt. The central rib near MeFsin6 provides a good parallel to the Dumwhich broadens towards the hilt is bordered brdvioara sword. with three narrow ribs on each side. Pres' l. 28.4 cm, weight L4 kg. Fig. 10:5, Pl. 1 : 1.. C. Later derivates and reused swords, massive The sword from Rogiorii-de-Vede, if restored pronounced midrib of round section with a rounded shoulder, would recall the sword tr 1. Copga Mare, distr. MediaE, mus. Sibiu' Horedt (1960) 32 tig. 1':4; (1961') 11 fig. 1 :4 ; Bouzek from Thiaki,8 but an angular shoulder, similar (1966) 245 tig. 2 :6 ; bettet drawing Alexan- to the Persinari piece, now seems to be more probdrescu (1966) 169 pl. 2:1. Blade of a rapier able. The shape of the hilt of the Perginari piece reused with a solid hilt of unusual form in MBA recalls the hilt-plates of Karo A-B Mycenaean -l ter 34 J. BOUZEK, THE AECEAN, ANA'I'OLIA AND EUROPE ISIMA Fig. T.Transylvanian rapiers. 1 Miercurea-Sibiu, 2 Alba lulia,3 Alma,4 Aluni$,5 Inldceni, 6 Dumbravioara, 7 Sviitf Jur near 1-6 Rumania, 7 Slovakia. After Alexandrescu, Mozsolics and Bouzek 1966. Bratislava (?). THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULIURE xxul i swords, but, in general, the piece is 11q"" can be cited.n Two other swords, one found near BucureqtiFundeni, and another from Enns, may have be- i longed to the Transylvanian class'10 !n gengr3] J!re. JqSqsy.lvalian lapiers have more parallels in the Aegean (note similar swords from Albania and the Jankovo sword) than in the Caucasus (see below)' There may have been Anatolian prototypes which are unknown to us, as Mellaart suggested,ll but no such swords have yet been found with the exception of the Soli sword dated between the late third and mid second millennium B.C.t2 The Perqinari sword must be early; a further confirmation of this is a mould for a long triangular dagger with midrib and tang from SpiSs- kf Stvrtok in Slovakia,l3 but two examples were found in Br D hoards (Drajna-de-Jos, Sokol). The B 1 periods in Hungary are daggers of Br A 3 also comparable with the Transylvanian rapiers and the PerEinari sword.la The rapiers seem to represent a development of these daggers or short swords comparable to the development which took place under similar conditions in the Aegean' Hiinsel in his publication of the Sokol sword argued that these rapiers did not substantially precede Br D, the time when their fragments appear in the hoards. On the other hand, the daggers which probably served as their models date from Bt A 2 (late A 3) and B 1, and Br C sword-makers were akeady aware of other types of flange-hilted swords (Sprockhoff Ia, Ib and their relatives).1s The rapiers are exceptional, and seem to be a response to the Mycenaean weaponry (cf . Hdnsel, PZ 48 1974,206); but unlike the Boiu swords which are a result of local development, these pieces remained outside the scheme of' further evolution. This still makes them to my mind fit better into the Hajdusrimson and Kozsiderpadl6s horizons in the Carpathian sense than at the begin- ning of the LBA evolution, though the two Br D hoard contexts of their fragments make the later dating by Hiinsel and Harding understandable.16 I IFAI r*$ 1.4. The Trialeti swords ande;eX from the Caucasian region only distant parallels 35 The Caucasian swords are in their general form similar to Mycenaean Karo A and Transylvanian swords, but they differ from both. They show a variety of forms : Most of them have a midrib and short tang, but some are of biconical section or with a grip plate. A. Examples of the long type with pronounced central rib and long tang (parallels with the first Transylvanian group) C. Schaeffer, Stratigraphie comparde (1948), fig' 226:2 (Hovil), tig. 227: 4-5 (Vari), tig. 222 A (Khodja-Daoud, rhomboid section of blade, no midrib); T. N. Cubin5vili, Mat. po archeologii Gruzii i Kavkaza I (1955), 24 Pl. 2:8 (Samtavro grave 243) ; E. M. Gogadze, Vestnik muzeia Gruzii 32 (1,976),228 pl. 23:3 (Lilo tumulus 1, from a safe Trialeti culture context). The second Hovil sword (Schaeffer 1948, Iig. 226:3) is comparable to the second Transylvanian group. B. Swords with triangular butt Schaeffer, Stratigtaphie comparde (1948)' fig' 226:1, (Mistan), fig. 224 E (Chir-Dir 3, cf' the Rogiorii-de-Vede sword), fig. 29I: 1 (Trialeti 29) ; CubiniSvili, Mat. po arch. GtuziiiKavkazal (1955) 24 pl.2:7 (Samtavro 243); Safronov,in Problemy archeologii I (Leningrad 1968) fig. 4:18 (Andrjukovskaja st., kurgan 8). Kuftin and some other Georgian and Russian archaeologists date these swords to the 18th century B.C., but a date corresponding to the Shaft Graves period (c. 1650-1500) now prevails in most studies ; they were used by the Trialeti culture, as has been confirmed by new finds.17 As in Transylvania, long rapiers are rare and unusual weapons in Transcaucasia, and have no descendants in this dagger-using country. 36 J.BouzEK, THEAEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUIIOPE 1.5. The Plenmyrion swords in Sicily I,\1M,4 BPI|7 (1891), pl. 11 ; 4,8-g,and, Mon. Ant. (1912), 2t 349-408 pt. 77; Sandars, AJA 65 (1961), 26f.; Tine-Vagnetti (eds.), exh. cat. I Micenei in ltalia (Tarent 1967), lg-21pl. 15. The relation of these short swords to the Orsi, These come from Thapsos, Cozzo Pontano, Plenmirio, Matrensa, Dessueri and Caldare. Cf. G. Colini, BPI 30 (1904) 229-3A4, fie. 44-53; P. @ il ii t 2 3 4 li ffi il 5 W 4 Frg. 8' Swords of Mycenaean and possible Mycenaean relations. I Nenshat, ^A,lbania, 2 Adliswill, Switzeriand, 3 Cop$a Marc,4 Rofiorii-de-Vede, 5 Drajna-de-Jos (all Rumania), 6 knife from Satu Mare, Rumania. After Alexandrescu, prendi, Hdnsel and Heierli, I L 5 t. e l'HE XXIXI RE,LAT'IONS OF']-HE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULIURE Mycenaean Karo type is even vaguer than in the case of the Transylvanian rapiers. They have no true midrib; the rhornboid section of the blade recalls Cypriot swords' These swords date from the 14th century B.C', but their beginnings might be placed slightly earlier. Their best Aegean parallel may well be the sword from Zapher Papoura tomb 44 of LM III A 1 date (cf. Sandars, AIA651961', 37 tJrgeschichte der Schweiz, p' 209, fig. 280) also seems to reflect sorne knowledge of Mycenaean weaponry (Fig. 8 :2). t.6" CYPriot daggets A group of daggers confiscated from clandestine excavations in Sardinia and published by Fulvia Lp Other more or less likely irnports (F type from Schiavol8 has once more turned attention to Surbo in Apulia and Pelynt in Cornwall, D i sword a group of Cypriot type tanged daggers reputedly reputedly found in the Sa6ne near Lyons) are in France, Britain and several other Eurofound discussed below (III. 2.1..1'). Another (now lost) " pean Except in a few cases, there are no countries. sword from Adliswill near Zurich (J' Naue, Vorprecise recqrds as to how these were found, but'this rijmische Schwerter 1903, L0 pl. V: 2; Heierli, 26f .\" ' n5 o6-o a1 vL s3 a4 ?5 -- 10 --= v6 .7 19 oa +10 2*3 related rapiers, 4 fragments, 5 pelrflnari and Ro$iorii-de-Vede swords, 6 SpiSskli Stvrtok mould, 7 Aegean type C swords, 8 their Balkan imitations, 9 later Aegean (D-G) swords, 10 long Mycenaean spearheads; Mare,7 Aluni$' 8 Alba 1. Sv. Jur near Bratislava, 2 Vliany near G alznta,3 SpiSskyi Stvrtok,4 Dumbrivioara,5Inldceni,5 Cop$a 16 Medgidia, 17 15 Sokol, 14 Tei, Drajna-de-Jo$, 13 Ro{iorii-de-Vede, Iulia, 9 Miercurea-Sibiu, 10 Alma, 11 Perfinari, 12 Midhd' 26 Shtog' Tavalidevo,25 23Tetovo,24 Nenshat, Peru5tica,22 Levski,2l 20 Dolno 19 Jankovo, Milrailovgrad, 1g Galatin, (not numbered)' 27 Brub, 2g Brethe Baz1E,29 pazhok, 30 Barf, 31 G€rmenj, 32Yajz',33-34 Mesoyefira and Grevena Fig. 9. Distribution of swords with Mycenaean affinities in the Balkans. X Karo A swords, md 38 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE ISIMA l I I ]-HE RELATIONS OF']'HE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULTURE \:XIXI majority of other bronze gers from Mdcin belong to the ceremonial weapon- finds in these countries. S. Gerloff in her thesis and in her volume of Priihistorische Bronzenfundern discussed the main group. The evidence mostly comes from France (20 pieces, cf. esp. the Plougourneau hoard, the broken ry best represented in the Perginari hoard; they are is equally true of the great sword from Tertre-de-l'Eglise, and the Arles piece which reputedly comes from an excavation), and carvings on two gallery graves in Brittany, Mougou-Bian and Prajou-Menhir are similar' Of the same class are two pieces from Csorv6s in Hungary,20 several others have allegedly been found in Austria, Hungary, Switzerland and Britain (Egton Moor). Catling has pronounced them genuine East Mediterranean products, and nearly all of them fall into his class of Cypriote swords with rat-tailed tang of Late Cypriote I.21 Their possible relation to the Italian tanged swords deserves further study. 1.7 . Balkan daggers dagger from Megya sz6 gtave 11 was first compared by Milojdid with a piece from Prosymna cist grave 4.22 The fragmentary sword from Pers'inari and the mould from SpiSskliStvrtokhave been mentioned above (II.1.3), but two other groups of A daggers from the Carpathian area should be mentioned here. A. The Mdcin tYPe 1. Budapest, Nat. Mus., "from Hungary", silver' Mozsolics, Bronzefunde (1967),173 pl' 45:1" Broad, four rivet-holes, pronounced midrib' L' 22.2 cm. Fig. 10:3' 2.-3.Mircin near Siliska, from a tumulus, gold' Severeanu, Bucure;ti 1 (1935) 7-I1; Moz' solics, Bronzefunde (1'967), 50 pl' 1' Fig' t0:1.-2.L.22.2 and 19 cm. 4,-I4.Per;inari. Zaharia-Ilescu, Fasti arch' 18-19 (1968), 125 no. 1825 pl.6' 11 pieces comparable with the Perqinari sword and our second group of Transylvanian rapiers. B. The Tiszafiired type Another group of daggers of Br B 1 date in the Central European sense (Streda nad Bodrogom Tiszafiired phase, i.e. later than Fiizesabony) has been published by Kovrics.26 Two come from the Tiszafiired cemetery and a third piece "from Hungary". Majoroshalom, 100 (1973) Ert' Kovdcs, Arch 1. Tiszafiired below: 2.Ib., grave 1'57 B 167 ' It. tig. L L. grave B 65. Kov6cs (1973) fig.2 above:3. 3. "Hungary". Kov6cs (1,973) fig' 2 below. They can be compared with the Perginari swords, with the rapiers, with some Aegean daggers preceding the Aegean type A swords and with several type B swords. The Perqinari sword and the daggers of the Micin type stand between the Aegean and Carpathian worlds. The daggers from Tiszafiired are more of a local character, they have some parallels from Salacea and elsewhere, but they were ceremonial weapons and only of marginal importance for the further development of European weaponry; the Apa and hajdus6mson swords were much more significant in this respect.2T 1.8. The Apa swords and the Borodino dagget The Apa swords (fig. 11 : 6-7) have often been explained as the resuh of Aegean inspiration, but they are more independent products than those discussed in the previous paragraphs. The leafshaped blade is probably a development of some Carpathian daggers.28 The pommels and hilts of some Anatolian and Aegean swords were similar,2e The first dagger has been c6mpared with pieces from Leukas and Amorgos23 and the Leukas paral- but they were normally made of wood there (in the Shaft Graves, the wood was covered with gold sheet). The hilt and the pommel of the larger Apa sword have some parallels among Mycenaean swords30 and the similarity is confirmed by the sword of Pharaoh Amosis (fig. 11 : 1) found in the with the Carpathian Kelibia lype." The two dag- tomb of his mother Ahhotep in Egypt,31 but the similar to those from Mdcin. lel is quite close. Two daggers from Rumania2a seem to link the silver weapon "from Hungary" ITIC 39 t 40 J,B?IJzEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND details of the pommel on the Apa swords also resemble the mace-heads of similar shape (fig. 11 : 2-3), which enjoyed a long tradition in the pontic area and in the Caucasus. It seems probable that these were the rnodels for the pommel of the Apa sword and for the Satu Mare knives (fig. 8:6).32 The Aegean short sword with long hilt (type B) is known from LH I to III A on the Greek mainland (Dendra) und until LH III B on the islands. This is a less common weapon than the type A sword.33 The Borodino dagger (fig. 11 : 10) is reminiscent of some later varieties of the Karo B swords, but EUR,OPE ISIMA Sandars (AJA 65 1963,I44) prefered to compare it with her later E i and F swords (fig. 11:9). Sofronov (Problemy archeologii I, 196g, IZA) compared the Borodino piece with the Sombor swords. No analogy is entirely convincing, but some Caucasian pieces, Iike Sofronov, o"c. L 968 fig. 8 : 9, are less distant than the others. Other European swords with tang are different (cf. IL 1. 10) and the firsr flange-hilted swords of the Smolenice type,3a even if ultimately inspired by some Aegean prototype (cf.IIL2.IJ.), have nothing in common with the Aegean type B swords. T @1 @ 2 @ 3 o G Fig' 11. Balkan, Aegean and Egyptian swords and other objects. 1 Egypt, the sword of pharaoh Amosis, 2-3 Wietenberg, Transylvania and Borodino, Bessarabia, stone mace-heads, 4-5 types of sword pommels, Mycenae, Shaft Graves, 6 Apa, Transylvania, 7 Boiu, Transylvania (bronze iwords, Br A2-3 and B 1), 8 Mycenae, Shaft Grave,9 Camirus, Rhodes, 10-1i Borodino, Bessarabia (bronze swords, no. 8 decorated with sheet gold, and bronze pin), 12 Mycenae, Shaft Grave IV (bronze sword). After Bossert, Foltiny, Hachmann, Horedt, Karo, Sandars and Bouzek 1966" xxN, THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULTURE 1.9. Repres entations of swords and daggers ; Pommels I r t 'f v t- The stone carvings seen by Atkinson and Piggott at Stonehenge (fig. 10 : 7) were believed by them to be comparable with some short Aegean swords, like Sandars , AJA 65 t961, pl' 19:2 and 18:5,3s but we do not know the hilt shapes of most of the European daggers, and the representation is crude' The representations of weapons on some Vatya culture vessels from Hungary are clearer, but it is extrernely difficult to indentify a particular type of weapon in these relief representations.36 Makkay compares the Dunafjv6ros piece with some Cyp- riot LC I daggers (Acta Atch. Hung.23 t971',23 tig. 22:1-3), but the piece from Mende Letnyv 6r (Koviics, Folia atch. 24 197 3, 7 _-9, fig' shows a different form of representation' We must stress again that we do not know how the grips of organic materials were like, so that any conclusions must be only tentative. More important is the manner in which the daggers were worn: on a strap 1-3) below the left elbow, placed nearly horizontally. The marble pommel of a sword (or sceptre?) from Salacea3T is exceptional and is possibly an import from the Aegean. Some pommels and mountings of bone from the Wessex culture area have striking Aegean parallels.3s 1.10. Boiuswords The spiral decoration of the first Boiu swords may be distantly reminiscent of the spirals on the blades of some Shaft Grave A IV swords (fig. 11 : 7-8), but this resemblance is only superficial'3e i. Cowen made it clear that the Boiu sword is not connected with Mycenaean swords, but he probably went too far in his rejection cf any southern inspiration at all.a0 His Italian dagger with midrib is only one member of a large family of similar Mediterranean daggers,al and daggers of h.g, Apa' r-11 tonze similar character, as we have seen, have also turned up in the Balkans. The Carpathian Middle Bronze Age Tumulus culture has many western elements, but also reflects a local tradition, and the Boiu swords cannot be explained as derivatives of the 41 Sauerbrunn type alone. E.g. the blade of the first grip Apa sword - if removed from the bronze wouid look very similar to the first Boiu swords. The Sombor daggers recall simple Anatolian and Aegean daggers,az but this rare type of blade was probably commoner among the swords with solid cast hilt.a3 The first European swords seem to have been inspired by southern or south-eastern models, but their later development was autonomous, there were few contacts with south-eastern weaponry' and only the Nenzingen (Sprockhoff IIa) sword again united sword production in Europe with that of the East Mediterranean. 2. SPEARS The Bulgarian spears found in association with the horned swords (Dolnolevski, Peru5tica, Kridim and Krasno GradiSte, fig. L2:5-8) are closely comparable with the Mycenaean series.l The first socketed spearheads in the Aegean date from MH or MM III. They are paralleled in Anatolia and in the Caucasus2 and are long, with long sockets' The Carpathian and Central European series starts towards the end of the Early Bronze Age there3 and its origins may have been inspired from the south-east, but these spears are shorter and their blades are differently shaped (fig.12: 3). Both the Borodino spears are reminiscent of Mycenaean spears in the proportion of their long blades and blade is considlong sockets, but the leaf -shaped erably wider.a There are, again, Caucasian paral- iels, but, in general, the blades of most of early European spearheads are broader than on Aegean ones. An exception to this rule is provided bysome long spearheads of the Nordic area (Montelius II), which resemble long Aegean spearheads in their general shape, but are much more decorative.s 3. DOUBLE AXES AND OTHER IMPLEMENTS The most important new surveys of double axes are those by Buchholz and by Harding: (H.-G. Buchholz, Zur Herkunft der kretischen Doppelaxt 42 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE ISIMA -€> @3 Fig. 12.Daggers, spear-heads and other objects (1--4 with spiral decoration). 1-3 dagger. beltfinial and spearhead from Hungary, motif) on a cheek-piece of horse-bit from Vesel6, Slovakia, 5 Kridim,6 Peruitica, T Krasno GradiIte,8 Dolno Levski (Mycenaean spearheads from Bulgaria), 9-10 swords from Georgia (Trialeti culture). After Hampel, Vladr4r, Sandars and Gogadze. 4 decorative scheme (pulley Eine Leitform auswdr(1959): "Die Doppelaxt Kulturkreises?" iigiiischen des tiger Beziehungen "Mycenaean Harding, A. PZ38 (1960), 39-7t; bronze tools of Greece and Europe: The evidence and inrplements", PPS 4l (1975),1'83-202; for the Bulgarian finds cf . also I. Panayotov, "Bronze rapiers, swords and double axes from Bulgaria"' Tiracia 5 (1980), 186-197; for a discussion'on the provenience of British double axes cf' K' Branigan, Wiltshtue Arch. Magazine 65 (1970)' eg-is; C.S. Briggs , Antiquity 46 1973,318-20 and C.F.C. Hawkes, Antiquity 48 197 4,206-12' The earlier survey by Hawkes (The double-axe in ably post-Mycenaean; none of these is dated by context.a A miniature double axe of lead was found in association with Mycenaean pottery in Sardinia (Sarrok, nuraghi Antigori).5 Two types of life-size double axes with collared hole are of North Greek and Balkan distribution (cf. map fig. 16). 3.2. Kilindir 1. 37 1936-37 (1940)' bronze de is still useful, as is Les outils prehistoric Europe, BSA l4I-59) 43 THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULIURE xxtxl (1960) by J. Deshayes (cf. the map fig' 16)'1 tYPe and telated axes Kilindir, Greek Macedonia. Heurtley, Prehistoric Macedonia (1939) tig' 45 ; Casson, An| J ' 6 (1926) 67f. pl. 17 :2 and Macedonia, Thtace and IIIyria (1926, l3t tig. 45- L.11 cm. Fig' 14:1. Dodona. One piece Hammond, -Ept'rus p' 333f.; another piece Ergon (1959) fig' 81' 4. Mokdr e Poshtme (Pogradec, Albania). F' Prendi,IliriaT_.} (1977-78) 36,57 pl. t2:5' 5. Babu5nica near Bela Polanka. Exh' Cat NiS (1971) no.231fig., L. 8.5 cm' 6. Malinica-Kambulevac, near Babulnica. Caf' NrS (1971) no.232 fig.; mould, 17 cm long' 7. Obrudi5de near Stara Zagota. Nikolaev, IBAI 22 (1959) 333 fig. 1; Panayotov, Thtacia 5 (1980) 188 fig. 6:2.L.8.5 cm.Fig.14:2' 2-3. 3.1. Miniatute and symbolic axes (fig' 13:1-6) Double axe was known and reproduced in Europe from the Eneolithic, many stone pieces are known, some of copper and some miniatures; miniature double-axes of symbolic significance are also known from different parts of Europe, both in corpore in bronze' and in representations (cf' III.i5.7). Ingot double axes were known in Central European Early Bronze Age ;2 they were popular in Central Germany in the later part of the local EBA (fig. !3:!-2,5-O) ; the best Aegean parallels come from Platanos in Crete and are of MM I date. Double axes from Crete and Central Ger- many cannot be connected directly, but some south-eastern inspiration for the German axes is probable. The richly decorated miniatures found in a period II grave at Kirke Vaerlsse in North Zealand3 (fig. 13 :3) are very likely of Mycenaean inspiration. Of the Bulgarian votive axes, the seven pieces forming a hoard found at Kalagurevo near Pazafii,ik (fig. 13 :7) could well be contemporary with the Mycenaean culture, but the piece with rounded edges from Semdinovo (tig' 13: 8) is prob- '(y, r,8 Stol (Stolat) near Sevlijevo. Mildev, Serfa Kazarov II, fig. 14; Panayotov, Thracia 5 (1980) 188 fig' 6:3.L. c. 18 cm. Fig. 14:5' g.lzvoreale, distr. Ilfov' A Vulpe' SCIV 22 (re7t) 48s-8e. 8. 10. Begunci, distr. Plovdiv. P. Detev, Archaeologija Sotia (196613\ 54-56 fig.3. 11.kortinite, distr. Velko Gabrovo. Cernych, Thracia 3 (197 4) 395 fig. 63. 12. Near Breznik. distr. Pernik, mould. Cernych, Gornoie delo (L978) t06. 13. Kravenik. distr. Gabrovo. Mildev-Kovadev, Archeotogija Sotia (l97Il2) 51 fig. 6b. I4-l5.Kirkovo, distr. Kardiali and Nat. Mus' 44 J.BAUZEK THE AECEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE Sofia, unknown locality. Panayotov, Thracia 5 (1e80) 18ef. Kozorezovo, Ukraine. Buchholz, PZ 38 (1960), 42 tig. 6e. L. 12.6 cm. Fig. 14:4. 17. Mus. Kannelopoulos, Athens, similar to the Kilindir piece. 18 (related). LiLngkiirra near Ronneby, Sweden. Buchholz, PZ 38 (1960) 39-42 fig. 1. L. ISIMA type. They are cruder and probably earlier, though none of them is dated by context. 16. 23.9 cm. Montelius II date. Fig. 14:7. The axe from Kilindir was found in a ievel dated "about 1200 8.C.", similarly as the Izvoreale piece, but most of the arialogies are without context. A related axe from Lingkiirra in southern Sweden dates from the Montelius II period. It seems therefore that a 14th-12th century date for the whole group would be the most plausible. 3.3. Hermones type (Lower Danubian type) Massive axes with a collar on only one side of the a distribution similar to the Kilindir shaft-hole have 1. Hermones, Korfu. G. Dontas, Arch. Dett.20 (1965) Chr. 380 fig. 438. 2. Dodona. llammond, Epirus (1967), 333 fig. 22 c2. 3.-4. Charadistika, Leukas. BuchholzAhiigiiis und Altkypros -Karageorghis, (1972) 52,266 nos. 575-6 (two). Fig. 14: 9. 5. Naxos (?). Nat. Mus. Copenhague. Buchholz, PZ 38 (1960), 51 fig. 6a. Deshayes, Oufils (1960), no.2074 bis. Fig. t4:1A. IliriaT-8 (1977_78) 36,57 pl.12:4. 7. Shelcan. Harding, PPS 41, (1.975) 193. 8. Toumba, Kravari, Bitola. Cat. Stip (1971) 79 no.181. 9. Stanicenije, Pirot. Caf. NiJ (1971) 72 no.230. L. 17.2 cm. 10. NiS area. Gara5anin, Ber. RGK 39 (195S) 49 fig.9 no.270. 11. Rojak (former Kui Tepe), Bulgaria. Mil6ev, 6. Kukds (Vlore). Prendi, M ffi @ @$ 2 tt t '@ 3 4 9 Fig. 13.1-5' 7-8 miniature double axes. I Altenburg near Bernburg,2 Friedelsheim, Pfalz,3 Kirke Vaerllse, Denmark,4 Calbe an der Saale, 5 Kochem (Mosel), 7 Kalagurevo, 8 Semiinovo (both Butgaria). 6 and 9 double axes from Anatolia. After Buchholz, Bouzek 1966 and Randsborg. 45 THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULTURE xxHl fig' 13; Deshayes, Oufils (1960) no.2076. L. 18.5 cm' Fig. 14:6. 12" "Lower Danube". Buchholz, PZ38(L960)41, 5i fig.6b. Fig. 14:3' 13. Ker6, Crimea. Buchholz, PZ38 (1960) 47,51 Iig. 6c. Fig. 14:8. 14. Gezer. Deshayes, Ourils (1960) no.2075' 15. "Hungary". Archiv f. Anthropologie 25 (1898) 45eft.tig.44. 3.4. Double Serta Kazarov2,369 axes of the Aegean tYPe The double axes with round shaft-holes near in form to the Cretan axes6 are few and do not form any significant series, being too dispersed in time and space; some of thern are very early' A. Samland. Sturms, Die tiltere Bronzezeit im Ostbattikum (1936) 5--7 Pl' I d' 2.T-uhice, Moravia (copper?)' Hawkes, BSA 37 1". (1936-37) 144 fig.2:5. Their distribution area ineludes Yugoslavia, Albania, northern Greece, Bulgaria and single pieces are known from Kerd and' from Gezer in the Levant. The piece from Rojak is without collar' 3. ilanube area ( ?). NHM Vienna' Junghaus et alii' Kupfer und Btonze in der friihen Metallzeit Europas, vol. 2, Berlin (1963) pl' 12:6067' No tin. f-:::-- | [.". r:i'?=\ .., ... 1. , , ..;:: ,' \,z"-=-y # \ , .\ -: I r/ o ffi ff 5 @ r0 5 Stol' 6 Double axes of the types Kilindir and Hermones. 1 Kilindir, 2 Obrpiiste, 3 Lower Danube, 4 Kozorezovo, sources. other and Kus-Tepe, 7 Longkdrd, 8 Keri, 9 Leukas, 10 Naxos. After Buchholz Fig. 14. 46 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 4. As the preceding, Nat. Mus. Beograd. Junghans et alii, o.c. pl. 24:2053, more than 10 per cent tin. 5. Yugoslavia 2033. (?). Deshayes, Outils (1960) no' The double axes with oval shaft-holes (of the Mycenaean type, fig. 15:l_3,5) form a consistent B. group along the Aegean periphery' Nearly all examples are concave-sided (type III after Harding)7 and the SemerdLiievo axe was found with Ha A 1 type' The a local LBA celt of Br D - Ukrainian contexts are similar1. Qafd e Merinzes (Fier), Albania. Ptendi,Iliria 7-8 (1977-78) 36,57 Pl. l2:2. 2. Qeparo (Vlord)' Prendi, o'c' pp. 36,57 pl' 12:3 (strongly outcurving edges, type IV after Harding). 3. SemerdZijevo. Popov, GodiinikNat. Mul Sofia 6 (1932-34) 27 t' fig. 1 05. L. 1'9.I cm' (found with a Br D celt 1.c. fig.106). Fig. 15:2,6' 4. Tskhinvali, Georgia' Deshayes, Outils (1960) no.2086. Fig.15:3. 5.-14. A group of finds from the Pontic area listed by Tallgren, ESA 2 (1926) 161 f., 173 fig' 95: ISIMA Sietkovo (6 examples), Kozorezovo (2 examples, one fig. 15 : 5), Berezail, Jekaterinoslav and "Central Russia". A second group of double axes of Mycenaean type was allegedly found in England, France, Switzerland and perhaps northern ltaly. A list of these has been given by A. Harding'8 The question is, at what time did they reach to England, where there are reputedly more of them than in France and Switzerland. Branigan is in favour of seeing them as genuine finds, while Harding is against this view and the discussion has been continued by other soholars.e This is not the place here to try and reach a definitive conclusion about this issue, but since there are many stone double-axes in Britain, some of them late and similar in shape to the bronze examples,lo iind there are other pieces of evidence of contacts, it is no simpler for me to deny their existence than to accept it. (Cf. Pl.2:3-4). Anyway, the double-axe played a part as a cult symbol in prehistoric Bronze Age Europe, and in some places also Mycenaean-type axes appeared. The Sardinian double-axes (Buchholz, PZ 38 1960, 4I fig. 3-4a) have parallels from Anatolia (fig. 13 ;6,9).11 Fig. 15. Double axes and celts from Europe and Anatolia. 1 Topsham, 2 and 6 SemerdZijevo, 3 TskhinSvili, 4 Whitby' 5 Kozotezovo, 7 iroy yIIb (reconstruction from a mould), 8 Troad. After Hawkes, Harding, Tallgren, Popov, Schmidt and Bittel. .I-HE XXIXI 3.5. Other A. I , f I '" ? ,) s Y d I I, RELATIONS OF- THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULIURE implements (cf. the map fig. 17) Knives of the Satu Mare tYPe 1. Satu Mare, distr. Arad. Milleker, Sfarinar 15 (1940) 1 ff. pl. 8 below. Hdnsel, Chronologie (1969) pl.27 :11. Fig. 8 :6. 2.Bretea Muregului, distr. Hunedoara. Moga, 27 4 tf.' Ann. Inst. de Studi Classice 4 (19 4l -43) pl. 2 below. 3. Periam, distr. Sinnicalul Mare. Moga, l.c- pl' 2 above. The last thourough discussion is by Hiinsel, Chronologie (1969) p.l82list 28. The handles of these end in a similar way to that of the Apa sword once compared to the Egyptian Amosis sword (cf. 47 IL1.8), but this feature can better be explained by the popularity of similar mace-heads, as stated above. B. Razors and tweezers (cf' map fig. 17) Razors first appear in Europe with the beginnings of the Middle Bronze Age, and their use was probably inspired by southwestern models, but the shape itself seems to have been developed indepen- dently (Hiinsel, Chronologie (1969) 50 with list 31 ; Stroh, Germania3} (1952) 274-7). The first appearance of razors coincides with that of tweezers, which are basically of the same shape as their south-eastern models, but in the case of such simple implements it is not possible to reach any precise conclusions as to the exact path of e e ir It n t. 8 a il 1 Mycenaean swords D-G outside the Aegean, 2 Fig. 16. Distribution of swords and double axes of Mycenaean relations in Europe. axes of the Kilirrdir and Hermones types' 4 double Greece, outside types related European swords, 3 double axes of Mycenaean J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 48 derivation (Hiinsel, Chronologie (1969) 54 with list 36). VESSELS AND THEIR CERAMIC IMITATIONS 4. METAL 4.7. Hungarian "kantharoi" with bevelled tims (tig. 18) Dolgoz^tokI'l (1941),82pt' L0 :9 ; ll : 12*1'3 ; t4 :29 ; 16 : 14 ; 18 :2' 2.Bdk6s-Ydrdomb' J. Banner, PPS21(i955) 140 pl.9:14. 3. Pecica. Roska, Dolgozdtok3 (19L2)Iff.,27 tig. 1. Sziireg. I. Foltiny, 45. Fig. 18:1. For the Aegean pottery (Middle Minoan I A-B) cf. P. Astriim , Op. Ath.12 (1978) 89 note 31 (quoting the dissertation by Jeffrey Scott Soles, University of Philadelphia 1973) and 90; G' Walberg, Kamares, Uppsala (L97 6),152. - Silver vase from Gournia, Boyd-Hayes, Gournia pl" C 1 (cf' also pl. C III, MM III, here Fig. 18 :2\ and another ISIMA frorn Christos near Mallia, E.N. Davis, The Vapheio Cups and the Aegean GoId and Silver Ware, N. York (1917\ tig. 67; alabaster vase from Mycenae, Shaft Grave A IV, Karo, Schachtgrdber (1930) pl. 138. Astrdm /'c., considers also the silver vase from Gournia MM I. Anatolia (all clay): Beycesultan: rare in level IV b, common in IV a, remained in use until the LBA. Lloyd-Mellaart, Beycesultan II, (1965) fig. P 28:1 (IV b) and P 35:7 JA (IV a). Fig. 18 :4-5. Kiiltepe, Kurum Level I b. T. Ozgug. Belleten 19 (1955) 67 tig. t2-73; Ib., Ausgrabungen in KilItepe, Ankara (1953), Pl. 31. Ba$basi, Lycia. M.J. Mellink, AIA74 (I970) 246 pl. 55 fig. 6 (Middle Bronze Age). Fig. 18:3. Childe pointed out the similarity between the quatrefoil-mouthed cups from Pecica level XIII (:T6szeg C) and the Aegean and Anatolian quatrefoil kantharoi.l Their models were presumably of metal, but with the exception of the Gournia vase (fig. 1B : 2) they are of clay. Kiiltepe Ib is dated c. 1730-1650 by J. Bcirker-Kliihn; these vessels are, according to Mellaart, of "ultirnate EBA III" Hdnsel 1968' Fig. lT.Distribution of the Satu Mare knives, first razors and tweezers in the Balkans. After descent in Anatolia,2 but even from the beginnings of the MBA (Beycesultan V-IVe) there are no (Fig. 19:14).8 The stirrup or false-necked jar makes its first appearance in the Aegean in LM I, real cups with bevalled rims, only trefoil-mouthed jugs. Kantharoi with funnel-shaped necks compar- but it remains popular there until the Protogeometric period.e able with the European and Aegean examples come from level IIb (according to l'loyd and Mellaart 1650-1550 B.C.), i'e. from MBA III' as stated by Astrtim;3 the necks of later vessels are conical. The Cretan shape may have influenced the Anatolian cups, and the synchronisation of Cretan and Anatolian chronologies might confirnn this link,a but any essentially earlier dates for the Hungarian vessels than the 17th century B.C. remain 9 n problematic. 4.2. CIay imitations of LH I e I vessels The fragment of a bowl with fluted rim from YelkS Lomnica in Slovakia (Fig. 19:7)5 is discussed here with this class. Its find circumstances are unknown and it also bears traces of iron on its surface, but the type itself is known frorn the Vdteiov settlement in Bludina (Fig. 19:8);6 the best paralleis come from Mycenae Shaft Graves V and VI (Fig. l9:2) and from LM I Crete'7 A semiglobular lid with handle resembling the upper part of an Aegean stirrup jar was found in a V6teiov culture settlement in Olomouc, Moravia n lia d Is l" ll J --l I 49 THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CUTJIURE xxr4 cup from Lake Ledro (Trento, Follada culture' tis. 1,9 ' 3-4) is of the Vapheio shape and its handle A copies the Aegean riveted strap handle.lo There are good comparisons from the Mycenae Shaft Gravesll and a handle of a similar cup was found at Barche di Solferino near Verona.r2 The Late Pollada culture was contemporary with Vdtefov; both belong to the final phase of European Early Bronze Age (Br A 2). The cup with the Vapheio handle from Nienhagen in Saxony (Fig. 19 : 11)13 is without context, but it can best be placed into the same period. In Crete the Vapheio cup kept its popularity from MM III to LM II with a culmination in the 16th century B.C. (Fig. 19:9), in which also the famous gold goblets from Vapheio in Laconia were made.la The first handles of the Vapheio type are known from the Tod treasure of Amenemhet II (XIIth dynasty) in Egypt.tt Ceramic bowls and other vessels with plastic spirals of the Otomani (Fiizesabony) culture often recall metal vessels, either Aegean or Anatolian (Fig.27 :7-8;29:8-10), but the most sophisticated piece comes from Suciu-de-Sus in Transylvania. (Fig. 19:5).16 Both the shape and the floral ffi I i I J 1 Fig. 18. Vessels Childe and with bewelled (quatrefoil) opening. 1 Pecica, 2 Gournia, 3 Kiiltepe Ib, Lloyd-Mellaart. 4-5 Beycesultan levels IV a and c. After 50 J.BouzEK, THEAEcEAN, ANATOLIA AND decoration (which is, however, barbarized on the Transylvanian pieces) have parallels in the Shaft Graves of Mycenae (Fig. 1 9 :1,6).17 Afurther piece from the same locality has a relief ornament re- EUROPE lstMA miniscent of Mycenaean gold buttons on its bottom (Fig. 29 :4).18 Despite some reservations and critical notes of some of my colleagues, it is more difficult to reject this evidence than to accept it, and M 6 { I f, J I ''# ,! 4l ,l Fig' 19'Metal vessels and their imitations in Early Bronze Age Europe, with their Aegean parallels. 1 and 6 Mycenae, shaft.Grave A 5, silver cup and ornament of a gold bowl, 3-4Ledro,ltaly, clay,5 Suciu de Sus, Transylvan ia,clay,T yefkll.omnica, Slovakia, bronze, 8 Bludina, Moravia, clay, 9 Vapheio, Greece, gold, 10 and. 12 Frttzdorf near Bonn and Rillaton (wessex), gold cups, 11 Nienhagen, Central Germany, clay, 13 Dohnsen, North Germany, 15 Thera (both bronze), 14 olomouc, Moravia, clay lid. After Bouzek 1966, Piggot,Matthdus and Reichertovii. :( .T : I xxul I t THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULTURE is very likely that the Br A2 (-3) cultures along the eastern Alps and in the Carpathians had some knowledge of Aegean metal vessels and tried to copy them in clay. it d 4.3. The Dohnsen cup and the first West European metal vessels \ / The bronze cup from Dohnsen in Lower Saxony (Fig. 19: 13) is an Aegean product; its best parallel comes from Thera, Akrotiri (LM I A, Fig. 19:15).1e It unfortunately lacks the find circumstances and a reinvestigation on the site failed to find any prehistoric objects there, but the piece belongs chronologically to the time-span with various clay imitations of Aegean metal vessels, and could well be one of the actual Aegean exports. Since a western amber route seems more probable for the Shaft Graves period, the vessel perhaps came to Northern Germany via the West Mediterranean, though a Central European route cannot be excluded. A group of gold vessels from western Europe is of local manufacture, but they seem to show some Aegean (perhaps also Anatolian) inspiration; at ieast some of them are dated into a time-span comparable to Br A 2. 1. Rillaton, Wessex, Arch. Jou'rnal 2a Q867) 189f.; J.F.S. Stone, Wessex, London (1963) pl. II (1936137) 1 ff.; for the dagger cf' also Piggot, PPS 4 (1938) 52f.; S. Gerloff, Daggers (1975) (PBF VI-z), 190 ff. Fig. 52 BMQ fave 19:72. 2.Eschenz, Kanton Thurgau; B. Hardmeyer, Zeitschr. Schw. Arch.32 (1975) 109-120; I. Biirgi-I. Kinnes, Antiquity 49 (197 5\ 732f . pl. IX. 3. Fritzdorf near Bonn. R.v.Uslar, Germania 33 (1955), 319-23. Fig. 19: 10. 4. Ploumilliau, Bretagne (upper part). J. Briard, Les ddpots bretons de |'Age du bronze atlan' fique, Rennes (1965) 75 fig.2l:1, 5. Cuxwold, Lincolnshire (similar to Rillaton, overworked to a bracelet), cf. Gerloff., Daggers Vt-2),190. *ia, 1975 (PBF 111 The ribbed decoratjon of the Rillaton cup, dated lfter 51 by a dagger to a late stage of the Wessex culture, has Shaft Graves parallels, but the shape recalls similar local pottery; the cup has also direct ceramic copies.2o The Fritzdorf and Ploumilliau cups are undecorated and the shape is nearer to some EBA vessels from the Balkans than to the Aegean kantharoi.2l The handles connect many members of this group, they recall the Aegean handles, and the concentric base-rings link the Rillaton and Eschenz cups to several Hungarian gold vessels; other parallels come from Anatolia.22 4.4. The Carpathian group 1.-4. From Komitat Bihar. A. Mozsolics, Der Goldfund aus dem K.8., MAGW 93194 (1,964) 104-ll2;1b., Ber. RGK 46-47 (1,965-66) 56f. pls. 4-I0. Biia (Magyarb6nye), distr. Mureg, hoard. Mozsolics, Ber. RGK 46-47 , 48 pl. 12. 6. $mig (Somogyon), distr. Braqov. Mozsolics, Ber. RGK 46-47, 52f. pl. 13. 5. The bronze cauldron from $mig is of very fine manufacture. It may be compared to some clay vessels from the Pontic area and to the cauldron from Trialeti kurgan XY ;" the raw material of the $mig cauldron is best comparable to that of the Transylvanian rapiers.2a The rim bent outwards recalls an analogous feature on some Aegean cauldrons and large bowls.25 The gold vessels from the Komitat Bihar are roughly biconical, with everted rims. Tne handle of each vessel (the only possible exception being no. 3) is simply a tail of gold sheet bent over from the rim, not attached by any rivets either above or below, even if there are imitations of rivets on the handle of no. 4. The simple "tail" handle is paralleled by some Aegean vessels of different shape.26 The spiral decoration on the bottom of no. 4 is comparable to the ornaments of the Hdjdus6mson horizon of Hungarian bronzes2T and this was the main argument for A. Mozsolics' dating, but similar spirals also occur later and both the shape and the ribbed decoration of cups nos. 1-3 are unusual among the Central European EBA pottery, but well paralleled by some ceramic vessels of 52 J.BOUZEK" THEAECEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE Reinecke Br C; the concentric circles on the bot- tom are still attested on the bronze bowl from Handlov6 of Br D.28 The handles of the gold "kantharos" from Biia are also tails of gold bent over from the rim, only their ends are coiled into double spirals sirnilar to those of the Vattina discs and some bracelets from the Carpathian area;2e another parallel on a kan- tharos irom Sotirianika is more distant'30 The decoration of the Biia vessel consists of concentric circles and dots in repouss6 and is paralleled by several French and German gold cups of Reinecke Br C (-D).3r The vessels frorn Biia and from the Komitat Bihar may date from slightly later than A' Mozsolics suggested, but they are still among the earliest European metal vases. The early date of the Valcitran treasure, however, is highly improbable now for various reasons and a date near to the end of the second millenium B.C. has won almost universal acceptance.32 lstMA 5. CHARIOTS AFID HORSE.BITS 5.1. Wheels and chariots The spread of the two-wheeled chariot with light four-spouked wheels in Greece roughly coincides with the Shaft Grave period. This is attested by stone stelae (Fig. 20; i), by a signetringfrom Shaft A IV (Fig. 20:3) and by the rnodel of a wheel in sheet gold from the Shaft Grave A III (Fig. 20:2).1 The spread of chariots to Crete followed soon, representations of them on frescoes are slightly later.2 In Anatolia clay models of spoked wheels are known frorn Beycesultan II, Troy VI and Aliqar. The first Egyptian evidence for chariots with light-spoked wheels dates frorn the 16th century 8.C., and the evolved version of this type in the Grave Near East, where it apparently originated, probably did not precede the 17th century 8.C.3 Whilst the Near Eastern chariot was used principally as 'eo ED Fig. 20.Chaiots and four-spoked wheels. I relief on a tomb stele, Mycenae, Shaft Grave A V, 2 gold model wheel, Shaft Grave A III, 3 detail of a signet-ring, Shaft Grave AIV, 4 Bludina, Moravia, clay wheel, 5 Wietenberg, Transylvania, decoration of a ceramic bowl. After Bouzek 1966. a mobile platform for ible forerunners of Aegean boar's tusk-helmets were reported, and similar circular cheek-pieces also existed in the Northern Balkans'l3 The prefer- an archer, in Greece it served for carrying a renowned warrior to the battlefield, as shown in the Homeric epics and by later examples from prehistoric Western Europe and Libya ence for horn-shaped cheek-pieces Clay models of four-spoked wheels, known from t , h v e F rt ls sites in South Moravia, South Slovakia and Hungary are symbolic miniatures (Fig. 20 : 4 and 40 : 3) ; but, since horse-bits appear at the same time, they may well reflect the spread of the light-wheeled chariot to Central Europe in Br A2/3. Clay models of four-spoked wheels come from the settiements of the Vdteiov, Madarovce, Otornani (Fiize- sabony) and Wietenberg cultures.o A wooden spoked wheel comes frorn a Pollada eulture context in ltaly's Clay wheel models became more common in the Late Bronze Age, when models of complete waggons also occur (Dupljaja, pl. 13); but four-spoked wheels were also depicted on Wietenberg culture bowls (Fig. 20:5),6 and they became a popular decorative motif in the Middle Bronze Age rnetal industry. A. wheel-headed pin frorn Mycenae Shaft Grave B Ypsilon (Fig.2I: 12) recalls the East Alpine B'r B I Radnadeln.T The first representations of chariots in Central Europe (Velk6 Ralkovce in Slovakia, Fig. 40:6) date from the early phase of the Middle Bronze Age.8 The Br A 2 cheek-pieces of horse-bits from the (Fig' Carpathian area are made of bone and antler decorated Z5 : g, tl-1 4; 27 :2, 6) znd are often with engraved spirals, but there are nearly no Aegean parallels for the shapee and the cheek piece from P6kozdv6r in Hungary has its closest analogy in Beycesultan, level III (Fig. 25:1'2, traditional absolute date 1450-1300 B'C')'10 Anatolia could have been responsible ior the spread of lightwheeled chariots and horse-bits to Europe as well as to the Aegean area, but such chariots are also attested in the Caucasus and Central Asianregions in comparatively early times, and horse-bits similar to the Hungarian ones are known from the Pontic rmic steppes.ll 'ihe circular cheek-pieces from Mycenae , remoter parts of the Balkans and of eastern Central Europe) formed a peripheral region of distribution for war chariots. They were known and used by local rulers at least as a symbol of prestige, and finds of analogous cheek-pieces from Northern Italy and from the western part of Central Europe show that these cultures also shared the knowledge of the war chariot.ls 6. PENDANTS AND EAR.R.INGS 6.1. Heart-shaped pendants V.G. Childe first noticed the similarity between the Mycenaean "sacred ilry" motif and the popular heart-shaped pendants of the Carpathian and East Central European Middle Bronze Age;1 some or- naments from Rumania, which are closer to Mycenaean patterns than the average pendants,2 seem to confirm the possibility of such a relationship. 5"2. Horse-bits iil, in the Carpath- ian area has some parallels in Hittite Anatolia, and this kind of horse-bit was virtually unknown in other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean.lo In our period the Carpathian area (including the (cf. ch. III.7.2). I 53 THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULTURE xxrAl have possUkrainian parallelsl2 in the area from which 6.2. Simple ear-rings with coiled ends (Lockenilnge) Several pairs of simple ear-rings from the Shaft Graves in Mycenae are alien to the Aegean area: Circle A, Grave IIL Karo, Schachtgriiber (1930), 187f . pl. 20, nos. 53-55. Fig.2I:1,2,7 . Circle B, Grave Omicron. Mylonas, Tafikoskyklos B (1973) 20CI,231 pl. 180 a. Fig. 2t:11. A. Evans compared the first finds to the European and Trojan earrings, professing his impression that they were brought in as dowries by foreign princesses.3 Similar adorments made of wire had been known since the 3rd millenium B.C. in Mesopotamia (Ur, Kish), Anatolia (Troy) as well as iri Europe, which they also reached via the 54 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE Caucasus and the Pontic steppes. The heart-shaped 6.3. Crescentic ear-rings ear-rings (type B 2 according to E. Zahariu) are typical for Br A 2(-3) in Central Europe and for Monteoru phases II-I[ in Rumania (Fig. 2l : 5-4).4 The "Lockenringe" of the Tufalau treasure were classified byF,.Zahariu, among others, undertheBLgroup: Tufalau (C6falva), reg. Bra,sov. Hachmann, Friihe Bronzezeit (1957) pl. 66; Mozsolics, Antiquitas Hung. III (196546) (1949) 14-27; Ber. RGK 46-47 54f. pl. 2:7 and3 : 16. Fig. 2t:3-4. Their ends are coiled into rings or semicircles; the original publication reproduced by Mozsolics, Ber. RGK 46-47, pl. 2, shows a rich variety from crescentic to spiral ends, most of which have since been lost.5 The Shaft Grave heart-shaped ear-rings are in general wider, but their best parallels can nevertheless be seen in the Transylvanian Br A 3 ear-rings. Simple heart-shaped,,Noppenringe" were quite common in the Carpathian area. The relation between the ear-rings from Tufalau and those from the Mycenae Shaft Graves A III and B Omicron is significant mainly because it suggests a reversed process of influence between Transylvania and Mycenae, compared to the ma- jority of other confrontations. ISIMA Several crescentic ear-rings, one of them certain_ ly belonging to the late phase of the Wessex culture, and two analogous'pieces without context, all of gold, are isolated pieces both in time and space. Hoare's Normanton, barrow 155. p. Ashbee, The Bronze Age Round Banow in Britain. (1960) pl. 38 a (gold on a bronze core). 2.-3. Folkestone and Dover, Ashmolean Mus. Hawkes, "Gold ear-rings of the Bronze Age,,, FolkloreT2 (1961) 456 pt.1:6-7. 1. Hawkes mentioned some Levantine parallels to these pieces, Branigan added a group from Crete6 and Harding others from Switzerland;7 to quote only the Early Bronze Age pieces. Their distribu_ tion in areas with metal ores and possible contacts with the East Mediterranean is again symptomatic. T g 7. AMBER New surveys by A. Harding and C. W. Beck, together with some earlier writings, make only 0@ W 8 '4 : Fb rfu! Fig' 21' Simple ear-rings of wire (Lockenringe). l-2,7,17 Mycenae, Shaft Graves,3-5 Tufalau, Transylvania,6 Monteoru, Moldovia' 8 caucasus' 9 Moravia' 12 wheel-headed pin from Mycenae, Shaft Grave B y. After B ouzek 1,g66and Mylonas 1g73. miln ,rftr Oe a brief discussion necessary here (cf. esp. A. Hardthe ing and H. Hughes-Brock, "Amber in Mfcenaean world", BSA 69 7974,145-172;D. Strong, Catalogue of Carved Amber, Dept. of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum, London 1966,l8If .; ct. notes 1-4). 7.1 Scientific analysis, the provenance of ambet and its distribution in the Meditefianean , D .6 I E 55 THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULTURE xxHl Amber was less essential for the Mycenaeans than copper, tin and gold, but it was also highly esteemed and was imported' Since the sporadic occurrence of amber in Sicily and southern Italy cannot compete with the rich Baltic sources and since modern spectrographic analysis has proved that almost all Mediterranean amber is of Baltic origin,l we are in a fortunate position. Amber from the Aegean, from the Levant and from Egypt is, as far as it has been analysed, nearly always of Baltic origin, and thus provides one of the arguments for contacts which can hardly be rejected even by the most confirmed sceptic. On the other hand, amber decays more easily than harder materials ; many old finds have virtually disappeared from museums, and much must have disappeared under unfortunate conditions before modern excavations revealed the old tombs. Harding's statistics show that the first amber reached Myceanae towards the end of Middle Helladic (Shaft Grave B Omicron). Other Shaft Graves assigned to various stages of LH I had large quantities of amber, and, outside Mycenae, only lts f.,:i1::rii..,,ii ii,.ii.,li.,.l l/j,t.',i 7,,.1. f /\ ; l /\ '.t t,',,r.' i 1 t'\ i a 3 k, O0 ly 12 5 gW l_-:ll L_l l9 13 ll li tlll ll ?t 24 )fr, '3. tl I 'l .tl I I I n tt t: qru 23 tTF,--"F="S Hi.*.iil Li.ii"ii 25 Fig. 22. Amber beads and space-plates in Europe and in the Aegean. l-4,7-11Mycenae, Shaft Grave B 0' 5-6 Kakovatos, (13 tholos grave A, 12 Knossos, Tomb of the Double Axes, amber disc cased with gold, 19 Tiryns, 13-15 and 17-18 Wessex amber beads of Danish two types 20-21 Islands Trotty, Orkney of Knowes 16 ; Lake) Upton Lowell, 14 Oakley Daw n,15,17-18 afier Becker, 22-26 SofihGermany (22 Rrinshausen, distr. Fulda,23-24,26 Asenkofen, distr. Mallersdorf,25 Essingen, distr. Aalen); 27 Yelkd Dobrd, Bohemia' After Bouzek 1966. 56 J, BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE Peristeria tholos 3 shows that Messenia also acquired some amber. In LH II there are two centres with amber, the Argolid and the Pylos area; outside the Peleponnese, only Thebes received any quantity at all, and the number of known pieces is about one half of what has been found in LH I contexts. The Egyptian XVIIIIh dynasty amber scarabs may date from the tirne of both LH II and LH III A. LH III A amber finds are known from ISIMA various sites in Greece, Sicily and Syria, but the quantities are extremely small when compared with the preceding period, and the LH trII distribution of amber repeats the same picture,2 only at the end of LH III B and in LH III C is there some revival (cf. below III.6.?). Even if this picture may have been partly created by the custom of placing less rich offerings in tornbs, it seems reasonable to suppose that the amber import in the Aegean reached .1 +2 x3 iri' 4 ao a \n a. .'' t o oi al t; 4at* i t,."' \ ""u ( il 0 I s 0 fl I t d Fig. 23. Distribution of amber spacers and discs in Europe. 1 space-plates, 2 amber discs cased with gold, spirals of gold wire and the Tiryns wheel, 4 proposed amber routes. After Bouzek 1966, completed. 3 Lusatian figure-of-eight I rO a peak in LH I-II, i.e. in times when there were the most obvious Mycenaean influences in prehistoric Europe. 7.2. Amber in barbarian Europe Amber is quite common south of the Baltic and in Central Europe north of the Alps ; it is scarcer in Hungary, but is also known in Rumania and in the Ukrainian cultures west of the Don. In Rumania and to the east of it, however, local amber identical with the Baltic substance exists in some quantities, so that the amber there may be of local provenance. Amber is also quite common in Britain and is not rare in northern F"rance, but it is exceptional south of the Alps. Some finds of arnber from Northern Italy and Northern Yugoslavia may be linked to Transalpine ones, and those from southern France, southern Italy and Sicily are possibly to be connected with the Mvcenaean amber trade.3 7.3. The shapes The oval or globular beads of the British Isles are closer to the current Mycenaean amber beads than to the often more angular Central European shapes (ef. Fig. 22:17-18,27).4 Onthe whole, however, most Mycenaean beads differ even from the British ones, and it may be assumed that the Mycenaeans like other peoples - mainly imported the raw -material or semi-worked products whichwere then processed or finished by Mycenaean craftsmen. This was certainly the case with Egyptian 18th dynasty scarabs, with several Mycenaean seals (Pellene, Mycenae Chamber Tomb 518 and perhaps Routsi) and with various specific objects from the Kakovatos tholos.s But at least two other shapes have European parallels and inform us about the relations of Mycenaean ambercarving (for the third type, beads of the Tiryns type, IIL6.7,Fig.22:19). igit 57 THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULIURE xxr4 near Knossos.6 The earlier items date from 16th-15th centuries B.C. Similar spacer plates (for arranging rows of beads in necklaces) are known from Germany, Bohemia, Austria, France (mainly from Alsace) and Britain (Fig. 22:13-18, 22-27)7 There is only one known example from Denmark and two small pieces of a different shape come from Plenmyrion in Sicily.s The spacers with more complex borings are known from Germany, France and Britain, but the system of simple V-borings is the only variety used in Britain and Greece. In Britain, seven examples are known from graves of the Wessex culture; one comes from the Orkney Islands. The type seems to be more frequent in jet than in amber in Britain, but this may simply reflect the fact that jet being the harder material survives better in most soil conditions. As Hachmann was able to demonstrate,e the spacers from most German and French finds (which are mainly later, of Middle Bronze Age date) also differed from the British and Greek plates in the manner in which they were worn: the British spacers were incorporated into collars with numerous rows of beads (like the Greek ones), the Central European examples formed parts of collars with pendants, combined with bronze spirals.lo The amber disc from Knossos was found in the Tomb of the Double Axes (Fig.22: 12) and dates from LH III A 1.11 It has since been lost, but measured c. 2.5 cm in diameter. Two parallels come from Wessex culture'graves (Wilsford Grave 8, Freshute Gla pieces are too similar to each other for the resemblances to be accidental. 7.4. Conclusion cf. Mycenaean spacer-beads have been recovered from Kakovatos T'holos A, Mycenae Shaft Graves A IV-V and B Omicron, Peristeria, Tholos 2 and possibly 3 ; while another spacer was reused in a 7th century B.C. pendant found at Khaniale Tekke Manton) and a third of unknown provenance is in the Antikensarnmlung in Munich.12 The British gold mountings are decorated with regularly spaced dots, while the gold mounting of the Knossos disc was plain, but the The shapes of the Mycenaean spacers and of the - all with British probaLle that the amber supplying Knossos disc make it Mycenae and parallels the Eastern Mediterranean went from Denmark via Britain and, most probably, via Brittany and the ls8 J.BOUZEK, THN ABCNEN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE Garonne valley (Fig. 23). This route is more likely than the sea route through the Gibraltar straits, at least we have no evidence for Mycenaean contacts with Portugal and southern Spain, although there is some Middle Helladic and Mycenaean pottery from the Lipari Islands and from Sicily and Southern ltaly. The spacers from southern France, howur"of the German, not of the Graeco-British "u"r, type ;t' but the supply of British tin and the Cypriot iugg.rt (ch. I.4 and II.3.4) might indicate this .oui". Ttt" absence of spacer-plates in Holland may be due to maritime coastal erosion and sand drifts there. While this western amber route may be reasonably inferred, the Central European amber route seems to have become more important only ca' 1200 B.C. (bellow, III.6.7). We can trace many interrelations between Transylvania and Mycenae, and between the Carpathian area and Scandinavia, but there is no particular evidence for this route being used for the amber trade. Another possible routJ east of the Carpathians (the Sernai and the Stockhult figurines and the Longkirra double axe may have used it in the other direction) is even more hypothetical.la In any case, the Mycenaeans highly appreciated amber and considered it a substance worth importing from such a distance; this also suggests that European imports of gold, copper and tin were possille into Mycenaean Greece' The Levantine and Egyptian finds of amber seem to be connected with Mycenaean trade. The Dorak amber axe is a mystery, but the absence of amber in Anatolia may be iue to the present state of research' as is probably the case with the glass beads' 8. FAIENCE BEADS 8.1. The Near ISIMA East and the Mediterranean The production of glass pastes started in the 5th millennium B.C. in the Near East. In Egypt and in Mesopotamia it became an important industry in the 3rd millennium and the first Caucasian finds may well be as early as this, though the major industry is of the advanced 2nd millennium' Some Catacomb and Usatovo Pontic graves show that faience beads were known rather earlyin the Pontic area, but the shapes differ from those of Central Europe.2 Crete began production, probably under Egyptian influence, in EM II. With the possible except- ion of one bead from Haghios Mammas in Macedonia, no Early Bronze Age glass paste is known from Greece north of Crete, and there are only a few finds of the Middle Bronze Age'3 In general, Cretan and Mycenaean faience is much more sophisticated, and there are no close European parallels for most of its products, though segmented beads and other shapes comparable with those of European beads also appear'o Faience beads from southern Italy, Sicily and Malta are more probably imports than imitations of East Mediterranean products, and the same may be true for the rare finds of faience beads from Spain and southern France.5 8.2. Central EuroPe The first Central European glass beads from Hungary, Slovakia, Moravia and southern Poland date from the beginnings of theBronze Age (Nitra, (JnKo5fany, Nagyr6v, Mierzanowice and Early 6tice groups mainly). Many types are represented, including annular, cylindrical, segmented, starshaped and four-pointed beads. Most of them were apparently made locally in several different workshops, but this conclusion is far from certain in the case of many of them which resemble Near Eastern The exhaustive surveys by Harding (esp' The earliest glass in Europe, AR23 1971,188-200), together with several other contributions, make only a brief discussion necessary. Of earlier writings, the article by Stone and Thomas still retains its importance.l (Fig.2q. and Egyptian beads, and the technology itself must have been introduced from a more advanced mi- lieu. Bohemia, Austria and Switzerland were with Rumania and the Northwest Ukraine - marginal areas of distribution, with only small quantities of finds. Finds of the later (A2-3) etoup are THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULIURE x,Yml considerably less numerous6 in the eastern part of Central Europe. I The Middle Bronze Age glass beads in the l Tumulus culture arez ate widely dispersed but few in number, and, since they seem to be more vitrified (made of translucent blue glass) than the earlier L s I e rt 'rc, d tt- b pieces, they may be southern imports, as Piggott suggested.T The much larger quantities of Urnfield together with their analyses beads suggest local production at least in the East Alpine area (below ch. III.15.7). 8.3. Britain,Ireland and other West European countries is fe In ch Britain was an important centre of distribution. There are many finds of beads and practically the whole of Britain is covered by them, with dense 59 in Wessex (mainly segmented) and SW Scotland (usually star-shaped beads). The segmented beads resemble the Moravian examples, but are usually compared to Egyptian finds. The from with few exceptions Wessex beads come clusters - - female graves.8 Some Early Bronze Age beads are known from Brittany and from southern France, and one from Denmark;e Other Nordic faience beads date from the IInd Period and are similar to those of the Tumulus culture.lo As far as can be seen from the published material, Britain had more finds of glass paste beads than any other West European country, with the possible exception of France alone. The Scottish star beads were considered local products, because there are no exact East Mediteffaneanparallels for them, as there are for the segmented and other types of beads. Even the results of scientific I)gh ble nd lof rbe ain om rnd +0 E0 a-, e, I foL @n @ffi itra, 0nfied, tartere orkt the tern nust lmi- tErar- panp are Fig. 24. Generalized distribution of the Early Bronze Age glass beads in Europe. Upper left: shapes of Hungarian beads; upper right: shapes of beads from Slovakia, Moravia and the Wessex culture. After Harding and Stone-Thomas. 60 J.BouzEK, THE AECEAN' ANATOLIA AND EUROPE ISIMA of their composition were interpreted in both ways. It is therefore reasonable to suppose 9. SPIRAL DECORATION that some of them were imports (the proportion of imports may be higher in Britain than in the eastern part of Central Europe) and some local products. Even the local production must have been inspired from a territory with a more sophisticated industry, and here a connection with the Cornish tin and the western arnber route seems most reasonable" Spiral decoration is ancient. Werner tried to link the spiral decoration of the final phase of the Early Bronze Age in the Carpathian area with the local Neoiithic tradition,l and the motif may perhaps analyses 8.4. Canclusions have been transmitted by wooden objects, textiles, etc. Salkovskf devoted his thesis to the various forms of spiral decoration, mainly on pottery, in the Carpathian area, and his results2 may provide useful complementary reading for the problems discussed here, but the main aspect of interest for us is the problem of the foreign relations of the S. Piggottll connects the distribution of the first faience beads in Europe with the interest on raw metal supply on the part of the then civilised countries: Cornish tin and Carpathian copper ores are situated in areas where the first faience beads cluster. The initiation of their production, at any rate, accompanied by sorne imports, is inconceivable without a degree of influence from a more sophisticated glass-producing centre. Mycenae could not have been responsible for the first Central European beads, which are earlier, and these may well be connected with the activities of prospectors and "traders trying to get access to rnore distant sources of indispensable raw metals. The technique of faience-rnaking may have reached Central Europe from the Caucasus region, across the Pontic steppes, by sea from the Levant, or across Anatolia; but the close relations existing between the Trojan and Central European metal industries show that we have the greatest likelihood of finding a connection there, even if the finds to prove it are still lacking; the technique of produc- tion of glass beads was in all probability closely related to the know-how of copper- and bronzemaking. The Wessex culture and the Br A 2-3 beads in Central Europe may already be connected, however, with Mycenaean trade activities, but their shapes have only a few marginal parallels in Aegean faience, which was much more sophisticated.lz The more vitrified MBA beads are more suspect to be imported from the East Mediterranean, and many Wessex and Breton beads are more likely to have been Egyptian or Levantine products (if imported) than Mycenaean. Carpathian artistic motifs. The spiral is a rhytrnic, fluent, self-repeating pattern, less organized than the meander and more vivid, and it usually represents or symbolises repeating rhythmic features of life phenornena. This especially concerns the running spiral, which is most common in the Carpathian basin. Sections of spiral seem rather to signify closed time units. The popularity of these motifs suggests that their significance was not too elevated and sacred: otherwise they would not have been allowed to appear on so many objects of everYdaY use. Several surveys by Vladdr, two basic studies by Mozsolics,3 the final publications of several import- ant excavationsa and the Frankfurt University Institute L977 Jahresberichf have contributed to our knowledge since the prolegomena to this study appeared.6 Most European archaeologists still accept the reiations between these features and the Early Mycenaean civilisation as valid, but there is much criticism from those who, accepting the bristlecone calibrated Cra chronology, date the European cultures several centuries earlier. (Cf. L1 and 3.) It must be stressed that there are hardly any direct Aegean imports among the material in question, and many ornaments appear in the Carpathian area which are unparalleled in the Aegean, but there are too many resemblances between both regions to consider them as merely accidental; it is much more probable that the parallels indicate some kind of relationship.T The following discussion is divided into sections dealing with different materials: bone, gold, bronze and pottery. il d il I| fr ug m { sion Nifra (1958) 10'6 pl. 8:3' Fig' 25 9.1. Bone obiects (maP fig' 30) The bone objects of Carpathian Br A 2-3 in this part of f irst attest decoration using compasses Europe. As Vladr{r concluded, nearly all of them I date from this particular period" Though the I shapes, esp. of the cheek-pieces of horse-bitsmade t 3 $ II E 1g of horn (antler) were still in use in much later times, the decoration changed, or became less popular, and there are very few connections, if any, to bridge the gap between this group and similar Early Iron ,A,ge decorative objects. The most common shapes are discs, cylinders, cheek pieces of tubular Anatolian shape (with a few exceptional circular items) and knobs. Other shapes are unique' Most of the material is illustrated by Vlad6r.8 re etis is of he xg- Eteat Bby ortrsity dto tudY I acI the re is ristxroI and F any qu€s- lrpat- n,but r both rl; it is dicate bcusEerent 61 THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULIURE xxHl A. Discs 1. Fiizesabony. Tompa, 24.-25' Bet' RGK 2. Nitrianskf Hr6dok. Toiik, 4-5. Studiine Zvesti (1e5e) 106 pl. 8:3. 3. Pecica, Mus. Arad 1969. Moszolics, Ber. 46-47 (1e6s-66) 2s. 4. Tiszafiired-Asoth6lom. Milesz, Arch. (1e05) 168 fig. 3 RGK Ett. 25 1. Vattina/Vatin. Milleker, A vattinal dsztepe (1906) pl. 8:7; Hachmann, Ftfihe Btanzezeit (1957) pl. 70 ; 74-15. Fig. 25 : l-2. 6. Vdteiov. Dezort, Obot prch.1'3 (1946) 58 fig. 5. 1 :4 ; Tihelka, Kommission Nifra (1959) pl. 8:1; Hachmann, Friihe Bronzezeit (1957) pl' 70:4-5. This shape is unknown in Greece, but close parallels have been found for it in Tell Atchana in Syria, whre they have been explained by Woolley as the result of Mycenaean influence'12 (1934-35), Pl. 41 :9. C. Cheek-pieces Nitrianskf Hr6dok. Vlad6r, Slov' arch' 2L They have been discussed in many other places. (1,973) 300 ff. fig. 3. Useful lists have been given by Mozsolics' Ber. 3. Seps6. Mozsolics, Antiquitas llung' iII (1949) RGK 46-47 (1965-66) 25 t. ;Vladdr, Slov. arch. 20 t. tis. 6. lg (1971.) 5-12 and Slov atch. 21 (1973) 4. Surdin, marble. Mozsolics, a.c.20 f ' fig' 6:2,7 ' 2gg-303; Kovdcs, Alba Regta i0 (196)9) 25 Ett' Arch' Milesz, Tiszaftired-Asoth6lom' 5. 159-1.65; Hiittel, Ib' Frankfutt (1'977) 79-82 (1905) 168 fig. l.Fig- 25:3. and in his PBF volurne ){Yl-z. Cf. also T' A. 6.T6szeg, fragmentary' Mdrton, Atch' Ett 44 S apovalov, Eneo lit i br o nzo v o i v ek U kt ainy (Kiiev (1930) 25 f. tig.33ab.Fig.25:7 . 1976) 158 ff. fig. 5. Ct. Fig' 25:8 and 27 :2,6. 7. Vattina. Hachmann, Ftiihe Btonzezeit (1957) Cf. here 11.5.2; the oblong pieces prevail, the pl. 7A:79. circular items are rare. The pulley motif and its 57 (1946) prch. t3 Obzot Dezott, 8. VEteiov. -59 varieties are more common, but other types of fig. 1 :6; Tihelka, in Konrmission Nitra (1958), decoration are aiso known. As mentioned 106 pl. 8:2. elsewhere (II.5.2), the shape has virtually no Ae- '2. These discs are strongly reminiscent of Mycenaean discs from the Shaft Graves and elsewhere. Very close parallels are e'g' from Mycenae Grave A V and from Prosyrnna Tomb gean parallels. D. Knobs and other shaPes 1. Poiana, grave'1,7. SCM (1951) Knob. ArchErt' 44 (1930) 25 ff.tig. 34;e for the Surdin and Sepse discs cf. some pieces from Kakovatos (LH II) and Mycenae;10 the list 2"T6szeg. M6rton, 33 ab. Knob. can easily be enlarged. Some believe these discs were cheek pieces of horse-bits, but many are against this interPretation'11 3. Vattina. Milleker, B. 1. Cylinders Bludina, 2 pieces. Dezart, Obzor pteh' 13 (1946) 57-59 fig. 1:1-2; Tihelka, Kammis' 8 2t5fig'29:7. A :4. Spatula,Fig. 27 vattinai 6sztepe (1906) pl. :I. Their function is not clear; they seem to be too small for the pommels of swords and daggers. A parallel piece comes from Tell Atchana.l3 Bone objects decorated with spirals and pulley J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND ELROPE @ 6 9 fl l4 xxrxl THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULTURE 9.2. GoId roundels and vessels (map Fig' 30) Adoni (Eradony). Arch' Ett. 24 (90$ 434; Mozsolics, Ber. RGK (1965-66) 47 pL.77:4. 2. Graniceri (Otlaca). V. Parvan, Dacia (Cambridge t928) 15 pl. 2; Mozsolics, Ber. RGK (1965-66) 49 pls. 23:2 and24. 3. Ostrovul Mare. G. Severeanu, The GoId Treasure of O. M. (1937) 12f.; Mozsolics, Ber' 33,5 0 Pl. 25 :l-3 ' RGI( ( 1 965 -66) 4. Sacheihid (Sz6kelyhid). Domonkos, Atch. Ert. 43 lg2g, 47 fis.20-21, Arch. Ert.45 (1931) 251 t. fig. 37 . Fig. 28 :3-4, 8. Nearly all the evidence was collected by Mozsolics, Ber. RGK 46-47 (196546), 28-34 ; cf' also Bouzek, Pam. arch' 57 (1966) 253' 1926) 329 pl. 13: l-2; Mozsolics, Ber. RGK (1965-66) 28 ff. pls. 14-16' 6. Tufalau (C6falva), 14 pieces. Mozsolics, Ber. motifs reached a peak of popularity in the last phase of the Early Btonze Ag".to Aegean parallels mainly date from LH I-II, the earliest of them being of MM III date'15 Such objects do not appear any earlier than this in Anatolia and Syria and most of them are of late 2nd millennium B'C' date'16 This evidence makes any earlier dating of the Carpathian finds imProbable. ) 63 2 1. 5. $mig (Somogyon). V. Pdrvan, Getica(Bucharest 3 ffi Fig.26. l-4 Aegean seals with spiral decoration: I,3 Lerna,2 Platanos,4 Phaestus (all EBA, after Sakellariou); .yiind"r, and a disc: 5 Tell Atchana (after Woolley), 6-8 Ali$ar (after von Osten). 5-8 bone (1-5, 9-10) and cheek-pieces (8' 11-15)' 1-2,9Yattita Fig. 25.Bonecarvings with spiral ornaments on discs (6-7), cylinders Bludina--Cezavy (after Tompa and Dezort), 6 Kakovatos (after Miiller), 7 and 14-15T6szeg (aiter Milleker) ,3 Tiszat&ei,4-5 (after Hachmann and Mozsolics), 9-10 Tell Atchana (after Woolley), 11-13 Pfkozdvdr (after Mozsolics)' 64 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE ISIMA mffi u* @@ a=Jt4 rEl ffiffi # =€ to$ st__ m q{mn THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULIURE XXIXl RGK (1965*66) 2S--3A, 54 f', pls' 2-3 and 17:1-2.Fig.28:2. 7. Varsand (Gyulavdrsr{nd). M. Domcnkos, Arcfi. Ert. 28 (1908) 55-7 I tig. 7 . The motifs are often very close to those on Mycenaean gold objects (cf' fig. 28: 1' 5-7)' The simple running spiral rather appears on pottery and metal vessels (like that from the Aegina treasure and the gold cup from Zakro) more often at the l-B gold discs from Mycenae and the Carpathian area. Transylvanian type A. After Bouzek 1966. big. 28. 1, 65 stage of the Thera destruction (LM Ia) and later seems to be exceptional, but other variants fit into the Shaft Graves period in their decorative system (Sacheihid, Ostrovul Mare) or even later (the Graniceri disc with stemmed spirals).17 The majority of items seems to be of Br A 3 B 1 dates"18 Parallels exist also from the Transcaucasian territory.le The technique in which the Transylvanian gold discs were executed (the individual parts are impressed separately, dot after dot) differ frorn the 5-7 Mycenae, 2 Tufalau, 3-4, 8 Szdkelyhid' 9 bronze axe of the (after spatula and cheek-pieces with bone decoration. I Vattrna (after Milleker),2 Sz6szhalombatta-T6glagy6r Koviics), 6 Belcz (after Sulimirski), 3-5 loaf-of bread idols from Bande di Cavriana, Lucone and Ledro in North Italy' 7-8 Otomani culture vessels from Streda nad Bodrogom (all after Ylad6r 1974). Fig.27.1-2,6 J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 66 usual Mycenaean technique (which stamped the whole by a seal on most of the Mycenaean roundels), but there is evidence of this simpler technique even among the Shaft Graves finds themselves. 9.3. Bronzes lstMA kinds of spiral decoration on bronzes are common (Fig. 28:9); they form a consistent and autonomous group, and the shapes differ from those used in the Aegean. A. Mozsolics found better parallels to these spiraliform ornaments in LH II than in the Shaft Graves period, and she might be right; but again the parallels are not very close and may only reflect some distant and vague knowledge of The bone and gold objects are rare, but various a parallel development.20 Complicated additions to 10 Fig. 29. Spiral decoration on pottery in the northern Balkans and its Aegean parallels. 1, 5,7 Wietenberg near Sighisoara, 2 platanos, Early Minoan seal, 3 Mycenae, Shaft Graves, gold button, 4 Suciu-de-Sus, bottom of a clay vessel, 6 Palaikastro, Crete, Late Minoan I B pilgrim bottle, 8-10 T6szeg, Otomani culture. After Bouzek 1966. xxul 67 THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULTURE particular characteristic of the Carpathian style, which was ada'pted by Nordic metallurgy of the IInd Period (cf. fig. 31); the Central European and Scandinavian Late Bronze Age industries still continued the tradition of the Br A 3 period, and the heritage of this style was felt in the Balkans spirals are a until the Early Iron Ag"." Relations to the LH I-II Aegean world are not at all close in the decoration of bronze objects. 9.4. PotterY Spiral decoration on pottery and seals had a continuous development in the Aegean since the Early Bronze Age (Cycladic Syros Group, seals from Crete and Lerna, Fig. 26 I-4, 40:2)22 and in Crete the popularity of such decoration lasted without interruption until the Late'Bronze Age (Fig.29:6).23 The Wietenberg, Suciu de Sus and Otomani cultures display rich varieties of spiraliform decoration comparable to the Aegean spirals (Fig. 27:'7-8, Fig. 29) but other motifs (meander, triangles and further geometric patterns) are also applied.to Some of these patterns resemble the decoration of metal vases (above 1I.4.4), and the spiral also appears on the rim of the Wietenberg hearth (Fig. 33 :2) and on other structures of fired clay (Fig. 33 :6).25 -/o t a2 OOO o \-o o o o oa .3..o o1 Oo f,' o \( ooo ( n9: . cal1s*<i>^N uL ^l(!"o" ". \ o" ,/ o \ \b d oI 1) g'-e-J 0 oos, Dan Frg. 30. Distribution of spiral decoration in the second millennium B.C. discs. After Piggot 1968, completed. I ornaments drawn with compasses on bone objects,2 gold J. BOUZEK, THE AECEAN, ANATOLIA AND EL RC--' Spiral ornament with plastically stressed bosses in the centres of the spirals on Otornani pottery was probably the predecessor of the knobs and bosses of the Middle Bronze Agre pottery. In the eastern part of the Carpathian area, spiral ornarnent was retained on pottery until the and of the Middle Bronze Age there. During the 17th-tr5th centuries perhaps the source ,t: ::.::.-.::- - : potters. In Anato lia. 'A :::- '; : :.', ; ; . lh; Trialeti !.1 e xampies on metal vases. crl,r t s::.:. i,-:..1: ,.i clar vessels and some bone and :', --:r : tt=;:! :--:i .rf ten display spiral morifs.:- Oliec:s :: b,::r- qirh similar spiraiiform decoratir.n aie als.- kncun from ihe Early Iron Ag..tt B.C. spiraliform decoration was extrernely popular in the Aegean, less so in the Carpathian area, and in Transcaucasia only the Triealeti culture forms an island of spiral decoration26 arnong other cultures, in which such artistic motifs were almost unknown ; the Flurrite pottery with spiraliform decoration was i' ."' -i.i:r.swordsand some typesof axesinEurope. , ,: 'it: t .:.11", Hachmann and Bouzek 1966. irr:: i5l,\'14 iO, SCRIPT AND SI\{ILAR SIGNS As against the -1th-3rd millennium B.C, wirh the famous Tartaria tablets, some signs from Turdaq, from Gradeinica in Buigaria and even from 1Apaswords,2TransylvanianaxestypeA,3 typeB 1,4shaft-holeaxes xxtxl THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULTURE Moravia, there are not many later documents of signs resembling scripts, but even these may be of particular importance, since they represent not only isolated symbols, but whole groups of them' The most important early group of cylinder seals and their impressions dating frorn the 4th-3rd millenniums B.C. could be connected with the Protoliterate period in Mesopotamia (cf' I'5'1), while later pieces only show some relationship in a general way to the symbols of earlv Aegean scripts. But the pieces from Vatin seem to be closer to them, and E. Massonl compares the perforated globe Fig. 40:7_,8 with her Cypriot magic globes ; ihe signs on the wheel from the same locality (Fig' 40:5) are of a similar character.2 Barton6k is more sceptical and compares these signs with the Cretan Linear d script.3' 69 The famous loaf-of-bread idols (Brotlaibidole) frorn Northern Italy (Fig. 27 : 3-5, Classical phase of the Polada culture) and from Nitrianskf Hr6dok in Slovakiaa also display signs, but these are simpler in character. In any case the influence of Aegean scripts can be traced in some magic signs both in the western Mediterranean and in some parts of prehistoric Europe.5 11. SYRIAN AND ANATOLIAN BRONZE FIGURINES IN EUROPE The last surveys are in PPS 38 (1972),156-L64 (J. Bouzek) and PPS 39 (1973),467f . (L. Vagnetti); the new finds from Phylakopi should be added to the Aegean series,l (cf. the book by Helga Seeden for their Levantine prototypes).2 Most of tb (3). Fig. 32.Distribution of Syrian and dnatolian Bronze Age figurines in Europe (1), their imitations (2) and of Cypriot daggers After Bouzek Patso, Crete. frbm figurine the Cypriot lower right corner ( Sweden, Stockhult, from ?) an imitation corner Left upper and Gerloff, with additions. 70 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE the European finds come from the Aegean, and these do not interest us here, but some of the West Mediterranean series belong to the Late Bronze Age : one or two from Sardinia, one from Sicily and ,perhaps several others, though most of the pieces listed by A. Jodin3 are post-Bronze age Punic figurines.a One or more examples of the Plumed Helmet Group of the early Znd millenium B.C. were allegedly found in the western Ukraine. All items known to me are casts from an original which would fit well in the Syrian series,s but the genuine prototype may be lost. Both Polish pieces seem to be modern casts, and this is quite certain for the Cracow figurine, which I was able to inspect personally thanks to the kindness of J. Sliwa. Two other pieces reputedly found in Sernai (Schernen) near Klaipeda and in Kouiim in Bohemia are of later types, and may well have belonged to Middle Bronze Age chieftains,like two locally made figurines from Stockhult in southern Sweden, which are free adaptations of a Syrian or Anatolian figurine and were found in a Montelius II hoard. The last pair makes the reputed find places of the other two figurines (nos. 1-2) probable.6 1. Near Koufim. Prague, Nat. Mus. A 1,719, H. 18 cm. Female nude charioteer. J. A. Jira, Casopis spol. piiltel staroiitnosti 4 (1900) 23 and 124; J. Jira, Obzor preh. 2 (1923) 104-7 pt. 4; PPS 38 (1972) 159, 161f. pl. 13. Pl. 2:7-2. 2. Sernai near Klaipeda, Lithuania, Once mus. Kiinigsberg. H. 15 cm. F. Peiser, Sitzungsber. d. Altertumsges, Prussr'a 22 L900-04 09A9), 424 fig. 223; ERV 9, 272 pl. 2I8a; J. Wiesner, Altpreussen 6 (194I) 19-22 tig. 1; PPS 38 (1972) 161 pl. 14. Pt. 3:2. 3.-4. Stockhult, Sweden (SkAne), H. 15 cm. Man with conical hat, arms missing, legs with tenons. O. Montelius, Minnen frdn vdr forntid I, Stockholm (1919), 42 no.981 pl. 65. PPS 38 (1.972) 161pl. 14.PL.3:3. 12. RELIGIOUS SYMBOLS, SANCTUARIES AND ALTARS One of the reasons for contacts between differ- TSIMA ent societies was the need to find sources of raw materials inaccessible in their own teritories, but the contacts between pilgrims, sanctuaries, priests etc. cannot be excluded from our range of interest. The Gilgamesh story and many others tell us of pilgrimages, about delegations sent and welcomed and the archaeological evidence suggests that some kind of contact between different societies also existed on the level of religious beliefs, symbols etc.l The protodynastic seals and seal-imprints from the Balkans dated c.3000B.C. were probably magic objects, and the same was possibly true of the pieces from Vatin recalling the Cypriot clay balls (cf. IL11, tig.40:7-8). Sanctuaries and altars are still rare phenomena in prehistoric Europe, but evidence has accumulated since my prolegomena to this book appeared in Pam. arch. 57 Lg66, 260-68. Some questions are clearer now, \ut other problems have arisen. It is extremely difficu\t to enter into this world which is so different from ours, but without venturing into this field we can never hope to understand ancient societies, in which the sacred and the secular were not yet separated and opposed at a tirne, when the world was much more of a unity than it is for us. Compared to the magnificent temples of the Near East and Egypt the Aegean sanctuaries are rather modest, and still less impressive are the material remains of the majority of their European counterparts, with the sole exception of the megalithic constructions, but even a study of very distant parallels may help to throw some light on prehistoric religion. Most of the parallels discussed here are only backed by a small number of examples. Even in the Aegean, sanctuaries are not yet well known; the last fifteen years have brought many surprizing discoveries suggesting that others may follow, both in the Aegean and in Europe. The most important documents come from the Carpathian area and surrounding parts of the continent, from Scandinavia and Britain with Brittany. The rare evidence from sanctuaries is supplemented by finds of commoner objects documenting the spread of certain symbols. Megalithic architecture connected with observations of celestial phenomena, of the cyclic movements of the sun, the moon and the planets, with fr I T THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CUUIURE xxNl their different positions at different times of the year, was a tradition of the 3rd millennium in Europe, and the basic features of the European r I astrology were similar to those taught in Babylonia and Egypt.2 The Central European parallels of the West European megalithic architecture were made of wood and piled earth in the 3rd millenium B.C',3 but, as opposed to Britain and Brittany, where these constructions were still in use in the 2nd millennium, notably in its earlier and middle parts, we have very little evidence for similarphenomena in Central Europe.a The Maltese temples are earlier constructions, but later rock tombs in Sicily and various megalithic constructions on the West F L lf B E p k 6 *y be [ls Ire Mediterranean islandss were probably used for prayer and initiation like their local predecessors pa and West European relatives, but even for features ,6, like these we have very little evidence from the hrt Carpathian and Central European areas. [t 71 12.1. Sanctuaries, altars and libation tables The most important sanctuary from our area is the Otomani "temple" uncovered at Sdlacea, only 8 km north of Otomani itself (Fig' 38:1).6 The building measured 8.8x5.2 m in plan and was tripartite; the orientation was SE-NW. The entrance formed an open porch. Middle Otomani pot- tery and a "hanging altar" on four wooden legs were found in the middle part of the building, and two fixed altars were placed in the third room' one by each of the side walls. They took the form of clay platforms, and one of them was pyramidal. Two rows of post-holes supported the roof construction. On each of the side altars were found nine pyyimidal objects, interpreted as fire-dogs, th{ee curved stone-knives and a spool-like cylindrical clay vase-support with cut-out sides. In different parts of the site a great variety of cult objects was ult Drn Ean in yet )rld the are the Ean the fery ton only nthe ; the izing both rtant r and l,can- evirds of f cerpalace megaron' 2 ofthe Libation tables and hearths decorated with spirals. I Mycenae, decoration of the hearth in the 6 Dvory nad Zitavou, Hungary, 5't6szeg, Bohernia, phaestus, Zernoseky, Velk6 table,4 libation Crete, Wietenberg hearth, 3 Fig. ibser- !ove, with 33. Slovakia. After Bouzek 1966. 72 J. BouzEK, THE ,AEcEAN, ANATOLIA AND found, including an albaster mace-head, a clay boat model, a miniature rhyton decorated in the Otomani stytre with knobs, two askoi, a vessel with feet, five bone horse-bit cheek-pieces, rattles, figurines, model wheels, eleven miniature carts in clay and a model altar in clay. Outside the temple there was an inhumation burial of a child with disarticulated bones and spool-like cylinders like cylinders found on the altars ; it was explained by the excavator as a kind of an "offering pit". The structure recalls both the Mycenaean and Greek megara and buildings elsewhere with a similar entrance (Giant's tombs in Sardinia, some long barrows in the west). Its dimensions show that access to the sanctuary was limited to a few people, priests and initiates. Figurines, bird askoi, rhytons and other clay objects of similar character were among the parapher- ELIROPE ISIMA nalia in Aegean sanctuaries. the relief decoration on the side walls of the inner sanctum recalls Anatolian and Aegean temples, y,et the spiraliform decoration is similar ro that of the Wietenberg hearth and of the Otomani ponery (cf. II.9.a). Since we know more about Aegean sanctuaries now, the absence of cult statues and traces of ritual rneals are no longer surprising; the Salacea sanctu- ary was probably used for initiations, not for public worship. A woodJined well at G6novce near popratlT contained animal and human bones, often split and burnt, domestic vessels with applied plastic breasts, birch-bark vessels and an iron dagger (pl. 4:1, cf. r.4). Some human victims were not only killed, b{rt also eaten byparticipants in the rites, both her. unid elsewhere, and ritual anthropophagy of this kind Fig. 34. Altars, libation tables and bull rhytons. 1 Uherskf Brod,Moravia,MBAsanctuarl rrearnsul-Ntlinr.:Phaestus,Crete, libation table, 3 Phaestus, sanctuary ( ?) in the front of the main staircade of the palace. 4 and 6 Lte-g B:;11. f :zg1nent of a bull rhyton and of a libation table, 5 Koumasa, Crete, bull rhyton, 7 Phaestus, altar in the central coun of 6e pula,e -{-fter Bouzek 1966. x.Yxl THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULIURE In the Aegean similar objects served as hearths and also as libation tables, and were either sunk into the earth or were movable, made of clay or formed part of ritual in other areas than Central Europe;8 new finds by P. Warren at Knossos include bones of two children with possible traces of anthropophagy,'a startling parallel to the story stone. Most of the parallels are known frorn Crete and date from the period when the great palaces flourished (MM III LM I). Clay libation tables sunk directly into the earth are known from Phais- of the Minotaur. The sanctuary at Uherskf Brod in Moravia (fig. 34:1) dates from the initial stage of the Middle Bronze Age (Br. B 1),10Its stepped form is reminiscent of some Cretan altars at Phaistos (Fig. 3 4 : 3, 7 ) t I il 73 tos (Fig. 34:2),14 but similar bowls of stone, adapted for sinking into the earth arc more common" Sometimes there are a number of bowlshaped cavities in one stone block, either all equally and Knossos.ll Bowls of baked clay sunk straight into the earth find a parallel in the cauldron-shaped decorated hearths which are frequent in the FIungarian basin in the Otomani culture.l2 Even the horned clay objects frorn several Tumulus culture sites (Pl" 5 :5-6), notably from Kutn6 Hora in Bohemia (Fig. 36 : 2), have recently been identified by A. BeneS as parts of large (but taller) cauldronshaped structures, which served as some kind of large, or with a large cavity in the middle and smaller ones around it ("gaming tables" according to Evans).l5 Bowls on incurved pedestals, or little altars with incurved sides (partly reminiscent of the Sdlacea pedestals) also call the lamps with notches cut for wicks on opposite sides of the rim, and usually with higher stems, which were used both in Crete and in Mycenaean centres (Fig. 35).16 Mov- hearths.l3 n f1;. -lj Il:-rl 'i l,ffir \1".:'l i.':','. \,,, -' l. r-ffir --Vt=r=-nqa:_- '::-:-:?-,f r. . .-. r tete, butl 6. 6 \ry .,,:;;;'iy' A Fig. 35. Aegean libation tables (2,5-7)"bearths (1,4) and lamps (3,8). I Gournes,2 and 6 Phaestus,3,7-8 Mallia,5 Dictaean Cave (all stone), 4 Lerna, Argolis, clay hearth. After Bouzek 1966. J.BOUZEK, THEAECEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 74 nalia. Primitive bull rhltom of Middle Minoan able libation tables on three feet are known from many centres of the Aegean world, including Thera, where one has dolphins painted on it.17 At Lerna in the Peloponnese a similar object of baked Crete are not far removed from them in conception Fig. 3a:5).21 The skeletal remains of bulls reflect actual sacrifices; parallels again occur mainly in Anatolia and in Aegean religion.r: Comparable altan, libation tables and sacrificed animals as well as bull askoi were a feature of the Uherskf Brod sanctuary as they were of Anatolian (Beycesultan) and Cretan temples, and it may therefore be assumed that the ideas connected with these sanctuaries were also not unrelated to those underlying Aegean and Anatolian cults. Some kind of vegetation, animsl and fertility cult was practi- clay (Fig. 35:4) found in a monumental Early Helladic II house, was apparently a hearth,l8 and has parallels both in the Aegean and in Central Europe (below lll2.2). Skeletons of bulls and clay bull figurines were also found in the Uherskf Brod sanctuary (Fig. 34:4). Such clay bulls are frequent in Cretan cult places (Fig. 34:5),1e and in fact whole herds of them have also been found in later Greek sanctuaries (e.g. at the Theban Kabeirion).2o They cised here, though i15 6lstailed features are hidden from usually represent symbolic gifts to the gods, substitutes for sacrificed animals, but bull figurines from Uherskf Brod are in fact rhytons, cult parapher- a .te .a ISIMA us. The clay table with spirals from Dvory nad Litavou (Fig. 33:6) has parallels in clay spiral a aa aa aa .a '. t-.--.-----.. t. :i .l U - l 4 E ffi I ! rf 5 i t Fig. 36. Aegean and European house sanctuaries and hearths. 1 Trebatice, Slovakia, front of a houe ?), 2 hearth demration from Kutn6 Hora, 5 reconstruction of a wooden column with clay capital moulding from Pobedim, Slovakia. 3---4 Minoan columns (3 from the Queen's Bathroom and 4 after a miniature fresco, both Knossos), 6 model of a sanotuary from Piscocephalo, Crete (clay). After Paulik (1,5), Bene5 (2) and Bouzek 1966. ( -1 o tt 'i i I fr I "r. xxtx) THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULTURE fragments of the Hungarian and Bohemian Bronze Age (Pl. 5: 1).23 The may have been related to the decorations of hearths (Wietenberg) or served as parts of wall decoration (Sdlacea), but Paulik's reconstruction associating this table with vessels makes it resemble the libation table found at' Phaestos (Fig. 33 :3),2a a number of small libation t jugs attached to an oblong clay plate decorated with spirals. The specialised libation jug shapes are more difficult to find in Central Europe than in the Aegean, but the vessels from Dvory nad Zitavou could have been used for libations, as could some of the vessels from the Uherskf Brod sanctuary. There may be libation vessels in the Baden sets of jugs," and the sets of vessels from the Middle and Late Bronze Age "potery hoards" were probably buried after finishing some libation ceremonies.26 The kernos, i.e. several small vessels united into one, is only known from Central Europe in the Urnfield and Hallstatt periods (but in the Aegean since the Early Bronze Age).27 The cross-shaped object at Cerndin in Moravia28 was inexpertly excavated and the dating of the stone structure to the Middle Brcnze Age is dubious (could it not be the foundations of a windmill ?). Should the interpretation of it be correct, it might be connected with the solar (heavenly) cult, which is better documented in West European and Scandinavian monuments. With the exception of LH III C, the cross is rarely depicted in the Aegean, and its symbolical significance for the earlier Aegean world is questionable, as is the very existence of an Aegean solar cult.2e Circular open-air sanctuaries, known from sev- mm s(3 hv). eral regions, also as elements of grave precincts,3o are reminiscent of the Mycenae Shaft Graves precincts A and B, which were consecrated to funeral cults, but many West European cult constructions, like Stonehenge, were also circular (ct. 1.5.2). A long rhomboidal stone found on the acropolis of SpiSsky Stvrtok not far from two cremations in pottery urns was explained by Vlad6r as an altar;31 in its trapezoidal shape it differs from the rectangular altars of the Aegean. The shape of the Aegean "Little Altar" (Fig. 37 : l-4\32 had a symbolic function as is attested by many Late Bronze Age pendants (Fig. 37 :7-8),33 but some clay objects and some types of pendants 75 are more or less probably earlier, of the Middle Bronze Age (cf. Fig.37 : 5 and Pl. 5 :4).34 The same is true of the double axe, whose ritual function may even have preceded the Bronze Age in prehistoric Europe, and symbolic representations of which are known from the Early, Middle and Late Bronze Ages (ch. II.3.1 and III.15.7). The orientation of the "Little Altar" is vertical, that of the double axe horizontal, but both are usually flat in Central Europe (cf., however, the abovementioned "stands" from Sdlacea). 12.2. Hearths and horned obiects In Crete, where hearths were transportable, horned objects (horns of consecration) are connected with sanctuaries and their models.35 In Anatolia, bucrania stood on altars both at Q.atal Hiiytik and Beycesultan.36 Horned objects connected with hearths, probably as hearth-stands, are known from the 3rd millennium in East Anatolia and in the Caucasus region,37 and may have been forerunners of similar Anatolian and Aegean symbols (sheep bells, horns of consecration).38 The escharas of the Mycenaean palaces3e are notably similar to the Wietenberg hearth (Fig. 33:I-2)a0 and not unsimilar hearths are known also from the Late Bronze Age in Bulgaria.al Fragments of baked clay plaster from Trebatice (Pl. 5 :6-7 , Fig. 36 : 1) were reconstructed by Paulik as the gable of a house, and this would recall Aegean sanctuaries and models of them, as well as the decoration of Early Greek and Etruscan temples. But Benei has shown that similar fragments from Kutn6 Hora were parts of a cauldron-shaped struc- ture (Fig. 36:2), probably a sacred hearth,a2 while the unpublished "altar" from Cernli Vril near Prague, with bird represenfations, dating from the final phase of the Tumulus culture, was part of a more complicated structure, possibly a temple.a3 Horned hearths and altars were widely known (cf. Pl. 5 :4-5).aa A wooden pillar in Pobedim with a collared ring of clay (Pl. 5:1), if provided with a technically necessary abacus (Fig. 36:5),45 in its articulation is similar to Aegean columns (Fig. 36:34); even the chanels or grooves were not unknown in the 76 J. BOUZEK, THE AECEAN, ANATOLI,{ AND EUROPE Aegean and the combination of timber with elay corresponds to the Cretan combination of timber with plaster. In Creto-Mycenaean symbolisrn a pillar designated a sanctuary or a sacred building in general (cf. gems and the Lion Gate relief),a6 and the exceptional character of the find emphasises the significance of the Pobedim building. At the same time, the pillar rnay be considered as a forerunner of the wooden proto-Doric columns. The rarity of similar clay finds probably arises frorn the fact that all architectural (and perhaps also altar) components were only fired accidentally when their wooden parts went up in flames, and, without this accident, theywould nothave survived to our day. The architectonic clay fragments from Siovakia date from Br D, but they have Middle Bronze Age forerunners (cf. Pl. 5). The lVietenberg hearth and other finds of spirais were mentioned above (Ii.12.1), but another group of clay objects remains to be discussed here. Hearths of Br A 2 (-3) date in the Carpathian basin are sometimes decorated with horn-like protrusions resembling Aegean and Anatolian horned symbols (Barca, T6szeg).47 F{orned clay pedestals lsrMA (o'moon idols") may alreaCr. ..-Jri: :: :he Carpathian basin at the be_nnrir_s J: :ni \{iddle Bronze Age," though this rs :--'":biiui and not confirrned by new finds. In Cerrr"l Eururpe and in Italy they begun to appear at :he b,e_etnning of the lst millennium B.C, (Pl. l)." Thev *.ere components of hearths and not mereir of sacred ones. Horns with bird protomae *'ere atrached to the roofs of house-urns, apparenth' models of house sanctuaries with hearths, in earlv Erar.es in Latium ; some relationship has been supposed''0 to exist between these and Cretan Sut minoan house models. It seems that a change f rom houses *'ith heartl.i and sacred horns to hearths with horned stands, i.e. an amalgarnation of both features, appears to be understandable and cannot exclude a connection between the two symbols - Cretan horns of consecration had also passed through a complicatecl evolution. 12.3. Other evidence from Central Eurape Birds, rnarking the epiphany of deities in Aegean Eh & I Fig. 37. Aegean altars with incurving sides and similar Central European symbols. 1 Knossos, 2 Dictaean Care. -1 from a Minoan gem,4 Mycenae, Shaft Graves, 5-6 Northwest Bohemia, 7 Str6nky, 8 Skalice (both Bohemia). 1-l stone. .i goi,1.5-6 clay,7-8 bronze. After Bouzek 1966. A t {A. THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULIURE xxtxl religion, are represented there on altars and sanctuaries; they also played an important part in $ Balkan representations (esp. the Cirna-Ghirlu Zuto Brdo culture), and they became Mare - attendants of the solar deity (Dupljaja waggon, cf' bellow III. 10.2)' Some decorative elements of Aegean ancestry, which have no place on Greek Geometric pottery (for inst. triquetrurn), continue to appear in the repertory of Central European LBA and Hallstatt decoration' Some of them seem to have become naturalised in various parts of Central Europe earlier, but new irnpulses were added by the late second millennium koine discussed in the following part of this book (IIi'10)' I i 12.4. Scandinavia Here we have many representations in rock carvings, and are therefore in a better position'5l of Sun disc and sun chariots are common' and some the thern date from the IInd period' thus preceding imare spear and Axe European-Aegean koine.52 portant attributes of gods, the latter probably connected with some war god, as with the Scythians P B I ( rcan 7-8 and like the Roman lvlars.53 The popularity of snake representations may be compared with the snake's importance in the Aegean,5a the leaping from the ships recalls some tales of Dionysus'55 the those scenes of sacred marriage are reminiscent of on the situlas and in Thracian art'56 Some representations may depict festivals con-nected wiih rites of the earth's fertility, as in the Semitic anireligions.5T Bulls were considered important reare mali, and leaping and fighting bulls cultic pesented;ss the evidence for the animal's importance in Western Europe has been collected by J. Coles.se The horse and the stag were conin nected with the sun, as in the case of Helios spiraliform period Greece,60 and the beautiful IInd ornament was ultimately of Aegean inspiration' transmitted via Hungary (ct' II'9'2)' A carving found in the Enkiiping region in Central Sweden6l 77 represented on one of the Kivik slabs and elsewhere, resembles chariots from Central Europe and the Aegean,62 while the swans drawing the sun during the night (horses performed this function during the daytime) recall the Hyperborean Apollo of the Greeks (below III.10). 12.5. Rock carvings from ltaly and from SlVAIps The south-west Alpine rock carvings, the best of which are known from Valcamonica north of Brescia, show the special importance of solar symbols there, and if the Anati's chronology is correct, many of these representations preceded the Late Bronze Age European symbolic koine (Fig. 38 :3)' Discs with rays and wheels are the most important subjects,63 they are linked with animals (mainly stags), and sometimes with weapons' houses and human beings. Weapons as well as altars with aninnal sacrifices, other objects of worship, and ploughs drawn by animals (bulls), were also among the subjects represented. The ox or the bull is the most popular animal on the Monte Bego carvings in the French Alps, 50 krn north of the Mediterranean (Fig. 38:2-3); besides bucraniums, weapons and other objects are represented here'64 Similar rock-carvings are also known from Switzerland. 13. SETTLEMENTS AND FUNERAL RITE I3'I Setlements Fortified settlernents with regular urbanistic arrangement of the houses into streats (Barca, Fig' 39;l),t with temples (Sdlacea),2 stone walls and ,".."J precincts (Spi5skf $tvrtok, Fig' 39:2)3 show that the Br A 3 civilisation in the northern Carpathian area reached a level comparable with that in the Aegean and in Anatolia, at least in some aspects. These fortified settlements were the first units known so far in this area, and, probably represents the Aegean horns of consecra- townlike with the elements discussed in the previiion, and the representations on the Kivik slabs together mark the first attempt to reach a stage (Fig. 3S:5) are very exotic for Scandinavia and oui chapters, civilisation in this part of the world' Though this have been compared with the Haghia Triadha of it is attempt failed, in a sense, after a few generations, sarcophagus. The two-wheeled chariot, which 78 J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE y +Y(g l. l^n [. \D a \p ffi_B o4-? itr TI TSIMA firJ*' lHl ,tSrt '-li I -l 'l*lFf'tA I r+ ja F++ t+ t+ iH-1- I F( 4+1 r+, ,alttt -{rl/ h^-, ,tt '1+ .tt +^Fr *^^ a4 I # \s GR /,tT 4ia r* \h" \h b\ 1 ,3 i +r tsF^e H Fa tCr<< etl +t 4 t'{. rt+ ^ ;{r.fn +|H Irr+<l.l '{T ^+_f_. _{ <H-{ +r. +lr'1 +l h i ,,,n / ilr <-t -t i A r lur,@t /ffrcjtT/c Iil/il{t( w)x tllll, llt F, r\-<'q'}- Fig. 38.1 plan of the Otomani temple at Siildcea (after Ordentlich),2-4 rcckcarvings: 2-3 bull protomae, palstaves and daggers from Monte Bego, Provence (after Coles-Harding), 4 Valcamonica (after Anati) ; 5 three slabs from the Kivik grave (after Ebert, RL). xxHl THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CUUTURE laid the foundations for later development, which went forward at least on other fields. 13.2. Funeral rite The most important candidates for a southeastern influence in funeral rites are the pithos burials, which are known from many Otomani and Madarovce settlements and cemeteries, from the late (In6tice and Vdteiov cultures and from other cultural groups in the Balkans. Interments of children were placed in vessels, not those of grown-up lgers bert, Fig. 39. I Barca, fortified settlement, 79 persons, and some of the child'burials found in settlements may be burials of sacrificed children' like their East Mediterranean parallels. An exhaustive survey has been given by J. Vlad6r.4 The westernmost pithos burials are known from the Straubing culture in Bavaria, but they were most popular in the northern Balkans and on the territory of the Undtice culture.s The origin of cremations in the Carpathian area can hardly be connected with the south-east; only the small Troy VI cemetery shows the existence of a similar rite in Northwest Anatolia. 2 Spi5skf Stvrtok, plan and sections of the fortification. Both Slovakia, after Kab6t and Vladdr. 80 J.BovzEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND 14. CONCI.USIONS l4.I The western Meditenanean The most recent exhaustive survey of Myin Italy is by Lucia Vagnetti cenaean influence inPeruzzi, Mycenaeans ii Early Latium, but many earlier works by herl and the books byTaylourand Biancofiore2 should also be consulted. Some fragments of matt-painted pottery from the last phase of the Middle Helladic period were found at Porto Perone in Apulia, in Lipari and Filicudi. The 17th cenrury B.C. Cycladic pitchers allegedly found at Marseilles and in Minorca have so far no parallels from new excavations, and their provenance has been questioned bymany,3 but this is just the period when abundant contacts are EUROPE TSIMA The El Argar culture of south-eastern Spain, one of the largest settlements of which was at El Argar itself, occupied an area with access to go!d, silver, copper and tin deposits, and developed a highly sophisticated culture. The settlements have acropoleis with architecture comparable to that of the East Mediterranean. The pithos burials may be compared to those of Levantine towns (like Byblos), and the daggers are of Mediterranean forms. The Argaric culture is less well known than those of Brittany, Wessex and the Carpathian area, but it was also one of the most sophisticated in prehistoric Europe in the earlier second milleniurn 8.C.7 There is little comparable evidence from French Provence and from Aquitaine, but large-scale excavations are lacking there; some amber spacers are known from Provence and there is evidence for the use of ships from the Bay of Biscay.8 It seems probable that the Garonne valley served as the main route between the Mediterranean and the Tin Islands of Britain and Brittany, though other routes may also have existed. attested across Europe, and if these vessels would be excluded from the body of evidence for these,a other evidence is known of possible earlier relations between the Cyclades and the western Mediterranean (above I.5.1). As for LH I pottery, more of it has been found in Lipari than in the whole of the Middle East.s Apart from the Aeolian islands (Lipari, Salina and Filicudi), with the largest amount of LH I-II pottery in the West, there are 14.2. Britain and Brittany also pieces known from Vivara, and some LH II or III A 1 sherds from Ischia, all showing Mycenaean The exceptional importance of these two couninterest in sailing towards Tuscany.6 The scarce tries was based above all on their tin deposits, but, Apulian finds of Early Mycenaean pottery are not besides this, their megalithic buildings show that very characteristic. The Mycenaean imports in they were also important religious centres. Manv Sicily reached a climax in LH III A; they are in connections of the Wessex culture are with the contexts of the Thapsos culture" The newly exca- continent of Europe (the Oder-Elbe daggers),.out many of the decorative objects reflect East vated settlement at Thapsos shows very sophisticated architecture comparable with that of East Mediterranean connections.e The arnber necklaces Mediterranean palaces, and Sicily also has Cypriot with spacer-plates, similar in shape to local lunulae , are paralleled by LH I-II spacers from imports both of pottery and bronze (cf. III.15.S). Mycenaean III A imports in Apulia are mainly Mycenaean Greece, the amber discs laced with known from Scoglio del Tonno, Porto Cesareo, and gold sheet in LM II Knossos (I1.7 .3); and there are Punta Le Terrare, and the earliest sherds from close parallels to some bone mountings and Broglio del Trebisacce in Apulia also date from LH sceptres from the Wessex area and Brittanylo in the III A. The Mycenaean pottery known to us from Mycenae Shaft Grave B I. Moreover the pin decoSardinia dates from LH III B-C, but the Cypriot ration of Breton and Wessex dagger-hilts recalls Mycenaean techniques used in the Shaft Graves daggers confiscated among the finds from Sardinia serve to confirm the alleged finds of similar objects in France and Switzerland (cf. II.1.6). The Ledro cup from North Italy may also fit into this picture (rr.4.2). and in LH IL11 Some of the glass beads, which seem to start only at a later stage of the Wessex culture, appear to be East Mediterranean imports (II.g.3), t! and they were the source of inspiraiion for other tu .ffi &,LI xxr4 1'* I I ll iti rll t' l ll {, THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULIURE locally made beads. Some ear-rings (II.5.2) and, possibly, Mycenaean double-axes (II.3.4) and Cypriot daggers (II.1.6) also link the Wessex area with the East Mediterranean. The rich tin resources made southern England one of the most sophisticated parts of prehistoric Europe. Contacts with the Aegean were most intensive, as far as we can judge, from the end of Middle Helladic until period. the Buslt that of rich burials, like extremely Several magnificent Barrow, reflect, together with the sanctuaries, a highly organized society with power- LH II, with a peak in the Shaft Grave ful kings - priests. 81 14.3. The central Balkans Several Karo A and related swords are known from Albania, as well as some Early Mycenaean pottery, Cycladic daggers and Aegean knives (II.1.1; II.1.6, III.4.1.6 and 8, cf. also for axes ch. II"3). Some Cycladic pottery has been reported from the island of Hvar.12 The Bulgarian horned swords and long-leafed spearheads are closely connected with Mycenaean weaponry (11.1.2,II. 2) and some of the stone anchors from the Bulgarian coast may have preceded the Late Bronze Age there.l3 Bessarabia and the western part of the Ukraine 2 , t l rt *f1 F0 0nr EilFF F Dt n h r€ d rc 0lls +d+o-m $$ 9 €s m let '), BI Fig' 40. 1 Auriol, d6pt" Bouches-du Rh6ne, Cypriot-type dagger; 2 Late Mycen4ean seal, 3 clay wheel from Nitriansky Hrddok, Slovakia; 4 sword from Dollerup, Jutland; 5 "inscription" on a clay wheel from Vattina; 6 team of horses with chariot incised on a clay vessel from Velk6 Raikovce, Slovakia; 7-8 "inscription" on a globe from Vattina, 9 dagger from Velk6 tehota, 10 sword i:om Hammer near Niirnberg. After E. M. Bossert, A. Todik, M. Gimbutas, Bartondk-Vlad6r, Miiller-Karpe and CMS. J.BOUZEK, THEAEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 82 have produced some bone objects with spiraliform decoration similar to Carpathian examples (mainly the cheek-pieces of horse-bits), and the Borodino sword shows both Balkan and Caucasian elements; in a way, it stands between the two.la 14.4. The Trialeti culture nad Transcaucasia The Trialeti culture was, in a sense, a temporary extension of the Near Eastern civilised world. Its spirals may be partly linked to Hurrite pottery, but the gold disc and the long spearheads at least reflect relations with the Early Mycenaean world,15 and the long swords also show similarities with Mycenaean ones. (II.1.4). It was one of the important centres, but, like the Carpathian area, it did not ISIMA resources of copper, gold and electrum ores (I.4) facilitated exports to many parts of prehistoric Europe, and also to the south-west, to Mycenae and Anatolia; the Perpinari hoard2o gives us a glimpse of the splendour of local rulers as it may have been; the were welcomed trading partners even for the rulers of Mycenae and Troy. The ox-hide ingots from the Bulgarian coast may be of a laterdate (cf. III.15.4 and note 13 here), but some of the stone anchors may be earlier, and, as the Perginari hoard and the distribution of other precious objects show, the Danube was most likely the main axis of the route between the Black Sea shores and the Carpathian cultures. The mythical Argonauts also used this route. later develop into a more civilised culture, but regressed to a more barbarian stage. J. Vladdrl6 has drawn attention to other rich burials from Soviet Armenia, which are nearer to the Hurrite and Hittite cultures, but also important for the study of Balkan relations with the Caucasus and Transcaucasian worlds. 14.5. The Carpathian area The most useful recent surveys are by Yladdr,t1 and in Jahresbericht Frankfurt 1977 ;rB some earlier works by Hiinsel, Bouzek, Mozsolics, Tasi6 and Hachmannle may be recommended for complementary reading. Characteristic features are the distribution of spiral decoration drawn with compasses on bone objects; similar decoration on gold sheets, brorv,e objects and pottery, which sometimes imitates metal vessels (ch. II.9 andll.4.2); Aegean influences in weaponry (II.1 .3) light-spoked wheels, horse trappings and chariots (II.5) of Anatolian ancestry; some cult objects and sanctuaries (cf. ILIZ.I-3). The highly sophisticated cultures of the final phase ; of the Early Bronze Age in this area (including Hungary, Slovakia, Moravia, Transylvania and part of Jugoslavia along the Danube) knew fortified settlements resembling East Mediterranean towns (II.13.1), and various objects reflect a highly sophisticated way of life among the chieftains and priests in high positions in these societies. The rich 14.6. Other parts of central and northern Europe The East Alpine area with its rich copper ores, and Bohemia and Saxony with tin ores (I.4), are among the candidates for Aegean interest. There are some rich burials there (Leubingen) and rnany fine objects, but little evidence for contacts with the Aegean world. Some clay imitations of bronze vessels (Nienhagen, Olomouc, II.4.2), the more northernly found Dohnsen cup, gold vessels from Eschenz and Fritzdorf (II.4.3), reflect some participation in the splendour of areas further to the east and west, as does the chisel from Thun-Renzenbiihl with little rivets of copper and gold resembling weapons and implements from the Shaft Graves;21 but on the whole the rarity of such objects only underlines the exceptional importance of the areas with more sophisticated cultures in the Carpathians, and in England and Brittany. Central European ingot and model double axes (II.3.1) show that this kind of axe had a symbolic meaning there, probably related to ia significance in the Aegean. The rock carvings in northern I&ly, in the French Alps and in Scandinavia, suggest some relations with the Aegean world in the sphere of cultic representations (IL12.4-5), but these parallelg are mostly very distant. I 'l t 83 THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULTURE x,Yrxl I4.7. Greece and Anatolia In contrast to earlier and later periods of contact, relations with the rest of Europe were of limited significance in these countries. Metals from the Carpathians, from England and from Tuscany, were of some importance to the first Mycenaeans, at a time when Crete was the master of the more easternly routes, and retained some part of their importance after the subjugation of Crete by a Mycenaean dynasty in LH II. Amber was a highly praised subsidiary element in the European trade. But with the decline of the small European Early Bronze Age "kingdoms" in the European Middle Bronze Age, caused probably by a climatic deterioration, the Mycenaeans lost the partners capable of organizing large-scale supplies, and the amount of the trade sank. No more Carpathian jewellery was brought to Mycenae (with foreign princesses, as Sir Arthur Evans supposed), and less amberwas available. Since the Mycenaeans now had access to other metalliferous countries within the more civilised part of the world, they did not try as hard as earlier to maintain contact with their more difficult barbarian partners in distant areas. Troy was also probably supplied with Carpathian metals, as she was earlier; but the Hittites had their own sources of copper. The story of Bohemian tin is more obscure; it played a part for some time, and may even have reached Anatolia (cf. I.4), but was of lesser importance than British and Spanish tin and Carpathian copper. Anatolia's relations with the Balkans in horse harnessing (II.5) suggests contacts also in the sphere of military expeditions, and Mycenaean military campaigns may have been responsible for the spread of Mycenaean weapons to Albania, Yugoslav Macedonia and Bulgaria, as in the case of a group of objects found in Sicily (I.l.I-2, 5); Greek legends may perhaps be brought into some vague connection with the archaeological evidence. s, NOTES re rc !y he 1. THE SWORDS AND DAGGERS OF THE EAST MEDITERRANEAN (MYCENAEAN) SERIES OUTSIDE THEAEGEAN w rfe I 'm lrhe ill[enft rch nch ions rltic rllelg Iliria 7-8 (1977-78) 5-59 (also for other Albanian bronzes). 3 cr. AIA67 (1963) 123-140,146-152. a N. Sandars, AJA 67 (1963) 125t.; J. Bouzek, Pam- arch.51 (1966) 249t. ;8. Hiinsel, "Bronzene Griffzungeschwerter aus Bulgarien", PZ 45 (1970)26-41; M. Irimia' "Das mykenische Bronzeschwert aus Medgidia", Dacia NS 14 (1970) 389-395; I. Panayotov, "Bronze rapiers, swords and double 1) the "The first Aegean swords and their ancestry", AIA65 (1961) 17-29; Ib., "Later Aegean bronze swords", AJA67 (1963) 117_153. For earliest swords inAnatolia, in Lake Uruk contexts, at Arslantepe (Malatya) cf. A. Palmieri, Anat. 5t.31 (1981) 109 fig..3. the bn'" ing L. axes 5 from Bulgaria", Thracia 5 (1980) I73-L80. Cf. Sandars, AIA65 (196I)27 pl.17,the Platanosdaggerpl. 16:3. 5 Sandars, AJA65 (1961)pI.16:5. - Cf. the short sword from Mycenae,ChT 72,lound with a C ii swords and LH II/III A 1 pottery. Tsuntas, Arch. Et- (1897\ pl. 7:3; cf. Sandars, AJA 65 (1961) 26, and also a dagger from Prosymna, Blegen, Prosymnafig- 667 tomb 25. r N. Sandars, AJA65 t (1961) 27. Cf. E. M. Gogadze, Periodizacija i genesis kruganoi kultury D acia lO (19 66) t21 note I 6. The Enns sword Nischer-Falkenhoff, MAGW 63 (1933) 1. Cf. also a blade CJ. N. Sandars, : F. Prendi, ECe Trialeti (in Georgian) (Tbilisi 1972) pl. 33:74 (Trialeti tumulus 29). r0 Alexandrescu, from Bratislava, M. Nov otn6, Die Bronzehortfunde in akei (Bratislava 197 0) I 4, and another f rom Poiana, der Nestor, Ber. RGK22 (1932) fig.2l:7. tt Anat. Sf. ls (1968) 193-4. 12 Cf. note 6 and a miniature sword from Tarsus, Sandars, AJA 65 (1 96 I ) pl. 1 5 : 2 ; for earlier Near Eastern swords cf . in note S low 1. 13 1a vlad6r, AR 24 (7972) 23, 104 pl. 4 : l. T. Kovics,,A rch. Ert100 (1973) 157-166 tig. J. l-2. 1s The Copqa Mare sword (here no. 11) is a Middle Bronze Age adaptation of an earlier blade, as noticed also by Alexandres16 a4 Dacia IO (1966) l2l. B. Hensel, PZ 48 L974,200-206 and A. Harding, thesis L972, 140-2. That the fragments in Br D hoards are scraps of an earlier period has been suggested by Cowen, PPS 32 (1966) 310: Alexandrescu, DacialO (1966) l2l; Bouzek, Pam. arch.57 (1966) 245t. etc.; similarly also I. Panayotov, Thracia 5 (1980) 1781 The main argument (both for John Cowen and me) is that they are completely alien to Br C-D European swords and closely related in shape and style to shorter pieces (Perqinari, Tiszafiired, SpiSskf Stvrtok). ' l7 For useful information concerning the state of research on the Trialeti culture I am much indebted to E. M. Gogadze. 84 J.BOUZEK. THEAEGEAN. ANATOLIA AND ELROPE Tbilisi ; cf. his book quoted in note 9 and his publication of the Lilo tumulus (above in the list A). i8 F. Lo Schiavo, "Wessex. Sardegna, Cipro: nuovi elementi di discussione",,4tti della XXII R iunione Scientifica, Institutc) die Preistoria e Protoistoria Italiana Firenze 1978 (i980), Karlagat 1e60) 64 3e n0 figs. 58-59. 23 Mozsolics, Bronzefunde (1967) 58 Sandars, AJA 55 ( i 951) ; Alexandrescu, Dacia 10 (1966) 1,24 pl.4:2-3 iC)radea and Br{desti). 25 lv{ozsolics, Branzefunde (1967i 54f,, cf. also the Caucasian daggers from Samtavro and Udobnaja. 26 T. Kovdcs, Arch. F,rt.100 (1973) 157-166. 27 B. I{ensel, tb. Frankfurt (7977} 87, 92-94. 28 Alexandrescu, Dacia l0 (1968) 126. 2e Karo, Schachtgriiber (1930) 203f,, pl. 16, 82, 85, 89-92 (graves 30 A IV-V). Cf. also Mylonas, Tafikos iryklns B (1973) pls.67-58, grave Dclta. 31 lL Bossert, Altkreta2 (193?) fig. 572: H. Kantor, The Aegean and the Orient in the 2nd millenium B. C, (1947) 63tt. 32 Wietenberg, Bc,rodino hoard etc.; for the rnace-ireads with four srnall globes cf . V. A. Safronov, in : Problemy archeologii (l.eningrad I 968) 90-92 and from Bduneasa, Leahu, Culfura Teitig" 11 : for ihe Satu Mare knives cf. here II"3.5 A. 3r Sandars, Al4 05 (1961) 22-25.271' 34 .I. (1e52) n? a:-i-:^ ---- lnl-3i2.Cf. i\1::;i-..: (1966t1--: i:g. , Bronzework (196+) 1:6 f ig. 1-< : -{ PPS,32 Cowen. PPS 32 i1966) l96f .: ^:5-1 ' :,<. 1 ,-: . g C:iling. Cypriof \es:r:. 5;.'g..r;; i t1937)2A?.. Cf. Catiing. C,r'pnor Bronzes..rl r196rt 115 r,l, Ii:-l and 15 : 17. Lrf rhe fuii-grip s*ords will be for resolving this question. cf H.-J. liundt, Jb,. RGZM Mainz 9 (1962) I0--i -. necessary rir ,1. ,il 2. THE SPEARS t i0-1i; N. Sandars, AJA 67 (1963) pl. 22:5.E. Ecuzek, Pam. arch.57 (1966) 250f, fig. 4:3.7-1A. 2 ForAnatolia cf. Beycesultan, Anat. St. 5 (1955) 88fig. J1 :T ; Catling, Cypriot B ronzework ( 1 95,1) 1221. : lor rhe Caucasus cf. Schaeffer, Startigraphie comparde (i918) 511f. fig.191; D. G. Zoriikalvili-E. M. Gogadze, Pamjatniki Trialeti epochi rcnej i srednej bronzy,kataiog II (Tbilisi 1 974) nc. 6?0 pl. 77. From Greece cf. e.g. A. Persson. Ro-val Tombs at Dendra Near Mi<{ea (Lund 1931) pl. 20:6--9, 3 Flensel, Bronzezeit (1968) i4ft., i96f. a Flachmann, Friihe Bronzezeit(1957) 171f V. Safrcnor'-V. I S. Eodkarev, tn: Problemy archeolcgti (Leningrad J968) 75-128 and 129-i55 both eame to Cifferent conclusions about the date of the Borodino hoard. Safronov dates the hoald rather low, Boikarev similarly as Hachrnann and myseif in Pam. arch.57 (1966) 246-8. 5 .}acobr-Friesen, Nordiscie Lanzenspitzei't (195?) 1,3-7-167 pls.27-7 1; types Valsrlmagle, Smdruingore, Kuiterstad, Kirke SAby and Gundslev. For the Mycenaesing shape of some Central European Br C-D spearheads cf , lrere !{. - III.2.1.3. PPS 32 x6L 3. DOUBLE AXES AND OTHER I]I,{PLEMENTS 36 T. Kov6cs, "Representations of weapons on .Bronze Age J. Makkay, "A dagger pottery", Folia arch. 24 (197 3) 7 -31 ; of Mycenaean type represented on a Bronze Age urn from Dunadvdros", Acta Arch. Hung. 23 (197 l) 19-28. 3? L Ordentlich, Safu Mare, Studii 6i Conmunicari (1972) 65ff.; B. Hdnsel, Ib. Frankfurt (1977) 70. 38 F. K. Annable and D. D. A. Simpson , Guide Catalogue of the Neoiithic and Bronze Age Collections in Devizes Museurn (1974) 45,99 na.1.74, five pieces from the Bush Barrow. Cf" e.g. lvlycenae grave lota, Mylonas, Tatikos kyklosB (1972) pl. 99, though some pieces from the acropolis of Mycenae seem to be later (Nat. Mus. Athens i 028, 2670). Cf . also the -(n ,] '3 More X-ra'ls investigations {1966) 298-301. R.. J. A. Atkinson, "Thedate of Stonehenge", PPS18 D. Cowen, 35 Cf. esp. lgriflschwerter Ba_rer;s al Cowen, 37-39 p|.77:4 and 16:3. 2a :. AJA fr ---:. -r-:' .:; .{:;h -{usfr.29 (1961), 16-95: J. \.':.-:. S.::= :.. ::-.rrz de ia Boiu, Sargetia i (i931) i5-<-:1-1 :F. i{ ':-. ts:.:z:ztrtlicheValalso S. Foitiny". le The Wessex Culture of the Bronze Age reviev;ed and Its na {1937) Karo, Schachtgraber tlil :: :1,:::D, Cowen, 'The ,r::5-::, . :.:. :.:;:-:.:.1;c srvords of J" bronzeincontinentai Eu: 341-58. Connections with the Continent, especia!ly with South-West Central Europe, diss. Oxford 1969 (kind information by.A. tr{arding); S. Gerloff, The Eartry Bronze Age Daggers in Great Britain and a Reconsideration of the Wessex Culfure, PBF VI*2 (Miinchen I97 5) 255-57 . 20 V. G. Childe, Danube in Prehistory (1929) 219 fig. 128. 21 H" Catling, Cypritst Bronzework (1954) 127-9; cf. F. Astrdrr, The PeraBronzes (Lund 1977) 18-24,38*43 ; K. Branigan, Viltshire A.rch. Magazine 65 (1970) 100f. and preHarding, thesis tr972, 105f. - T. Watkins, in Essays sented to S. Piggot, London 1975, 138-143 rejects the auth€nticity of their European finding places. 22 v. Miloldi6, Germania3T (19-c9) 77; C. W. Elegen, Frosym- lsilvtA 1 Deshayes, Outrls {1960) 253-261, Cf. C. Mavriyanaki,.RA 2 I (1e83)" 19s-228. H.-G. Buchholz, PZ 38 (t960\ 61-71 figs. 11--12; R. Breddin, Verdff. des Museums f . \'or- u. Friihgeschicltte Potsdarn 5 (1969) fig. 10:5 with bibl. and list. K" Randsborg, Acta Arch. Kabenhaln 38 (i967) 18. fig. 9:C-D. a For the tsuigarian miniatures cf. Bouzek. Pam. arctt. 57 (1966) 251t. fig. 4:5-6 ; L Panalotor'^ Thracia 5 (198A) 186f. - The dating of the Semdinovo miniature is based on the shape, for which there are hardl1 an1' pre-iron Age I I parallels but many in Geometric contexts (Bouzek, GraecoMacedonian Bronzes, Prague 1974, 150f' with fig. 48; I' Kilian-Dirlmeier, Anhlinger mykenischen 5 in Griechenland von der zur spiitgeometrischen Zeit,PBF X.l-2 1979' ra Cf. Evans, P.of Minas[,242fig. 183 b 1 ;P.of Minosll,l7l, Roque,Tr6sorde Tod(Cairo 1950); R. Higgins, Minoan and Mycenaean Art(London 1967) 38 fig. 31 ;E. N. Davis, The Vapheio Cups (1977) (note 3), 328-31, 15 Bisson de la 255-8). Ferrarese Ceruti, Ceramica micenea in Sardegna, Riv" Sc. Preist.34 (1979) 243-253, pl. I right below' 6 Cf. H.-G. Buchholz, Zur Herkunft det kretischen Doppel' axf (Miinchen 1959). M.-L. 1 PPS4t (1975) 256-263. 15 P. Reinecke, WPZ 2l (1962) 103 ;Horedt, Nouvelles dtudes (Bucuresti 196O)37f.; Bouzek, Pam. arch.57 (1966)255 - fig. 9:8. r7 Karo, Schachtgrdber (1930) pls. 110 and 136 (Graves II A IV-V). Also arcades were known in the Aegean toreutics, cf. e.g. S. Hood, BSA 51 (1956) 89f. 190. 8 PPS 41 (1975) 193 with pls. 13-14 and fig. 1. Britain: - Antrirn; perhaps Co' and Allen Bog of Topsham, Whitby, France: one piece of unknown provenance; Switzerland: 2 pieces in the Lorraine Mus. Nancy; Italy: Milan, Castello Sforiesco (unknown Provenance). e Cf. the bibliography in the introduction to this chapter. 'o C. F. C. Hawkes, BSA 37 (1'937-38) l4l*159. 11 85 THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULTURE xxHl H.-G. Buchholz, PZ38 096CD 41 ;Fulvia Lo Schiavo, in Thimme (ed.), Kunst Sardinies, cat. (Karlsruhe 1980) 138f' fig. 107; for the Anatolian parallels cf' H. Erkanal, Axte u' Beile dep Q,. It. in Anatolien, PBF IX-8' p. 2tf ' pl' 6' 18 Cf. esp. T. Bader, SCM3 (1972) 509-35; A. Vulpe, Jb. Frankfurt (i977) 120; Boruek, Pam. arch.57 (1966)255. For the Oldendorf cup cf. Sprockhoff, Germania30 (1952) 164ff. pl. 4; Gerloff, Daggers (1976) 195. 1e E. Sprockhoff, Germania 39 (1961) 11-22; H. Matthiius, Bronzegetilsse (1980) 224 no.344t.; cf. also S. Hood, BSA 51 (1956) 87ff. fig. 5 pl. 13b. Matthdus, Die Kunde2S--29 20 (197748) 51-{e. D. L. Clark, Beaket Pottery in Great Bfitain and heland (1970) 417 no. 108. Cf. S. Piggot, Ancient Europe (1965) 120. 21 7; 4. METAL ns iMITATIONS i. Eti 70 at 1 V. G. Childe, Acta Arch. Hung.l (1956) 2 J. Mellaart, Anat.St.18 (1968) 193. DIIS the relf 57) tul- tue lere vessel 292-95. 3 Lloyd-Meflaart, Beycesultan II (1965)' fig. P' 28: and F 35 : 7,10 ; P. Astrtirn, Op. Ath. 72 (197 8) 89 note 3 1 and p' 90 ; E. N. Davis, The V apheio Cups and the Ae gean G old and Silver Ware, (N. York 1977) 87-93. v. 68) VESSELS AND THEIR CERAMIC 4 I. B<irker-Kliihn, Isf. Mitt.lg-20 (1969-70) 79-83; D' F. Eaton, Anaf. St. 26 (1976) 145-172; P. Astrom, in: Relations Cyprus-Crete (197 9) 61'. 5 M" Novotnd, Sbornik Cs. spo/' arch.3 (1963) 737-139' 6 J. Dezart, Obzor preh. 13 (1946) 62 tig. 4. ? G. Karo, Schachtgriiber (1930) pl. 136 (Grave A V); G' Mylonas, Tafikos kyklos B (1972) pl. 63 (Grave B E)' Cf' Bouzek, Pam. arch' 57 1965,255 fig' 9:l-3. 8 Near St. Venceslaus church. K. Reichertov6, AR 1 (1949) 62 fig. 30 on p. 61. A Harding kindly brought my attention to this vessel. n C{. ".g.J. D. S. Pendlebury, Archaeology of Crete (London 1939) 202t. 10 ,RA l; R. ilhte r fig. L. Barfield, A Bronze Age cup from Lake Ledro (Trento)' Antiquity 40 (1966) 48f. 1 Cf . e.g. Karo, Schachtgrdber (1 930) pl. L07 t., L23 : 63o and A. Flarding was sceptical (Antiquity 46 L972,317), 127 . but, for me, there is hardly any better explanation for this cup' 12 O. Dickinson Antiquity 46 (1'97 2) 3l6l.For other imitations , cf . H.-G. Buchholz, Timpel university AegeanSymposium 5 (1980) 98, and a fragment of Vapheio cup from l-ipari, t - don Taylour, Myc. Pottery in Italy, 20f. H. M<itefind, JahreschriftHalle 10 (1911) 97 and AAI9l2' 99-101. The analogy of the Vapheio cups G' Siiflund, Le :.Age terrcmarc 157 i980) 13 -(i939) 130, is too vague. Cf. Karo, Schachtgrdber (1930) pl. 108:410; for rippled decoration o.c. pl. 104 andfig.72:887 (silver fragment). E. N. Davis, The Vapheio Cups {1977) 140f. 22 Cf. the vases from Komitat Bihar (below IL4.4) and the from Vinding-Folkehoj (Thrane, Acta Arch' Ksbenhavn 33 1962, 109-112 tig. 4, l3O, transition Br C-D). For Anatolia cf. also above II.4.1 ; another survey S. Gerloff, Daggers (7975) 192-94. 23 A. Mozsolics, Ber. RGK 46-47 (1955-56) 14; Schaeffer, Stratigraphie comparle (19aS) fig. 29L:7 ; D. G. Zoriikai' vili-E. M. Gogadze, PamiatnikiTrialetill (Tbilisi 1974) 88 no. 667 pl.77. 2a F. and E. Schubert, tser. RGK46-47 (1955-56) 74-76. 25 Matthfius, Bronzegefdsse (1980) 345. 26 Cf. esp. Matthdus, Bronzegetiisse (1980) 301 nos. 45'l-60 (Sellopoulo, Dendra, Athens and Mycenae) ; Knossos, Ayios Ioannis, S. Hood, BSA 51 (1956) 87-89 fig.5 pl. 13 ab; Marathon, AA (1935) 179 figs. 10-11. 27 Ct. ll.g.3 and the spatula from Vattina, Milleker, Arch. Ert' 19 (1899) pl. II:6. 2t Againstlloredt, Dacia4 (1960) 118fig. 10:7 andl2B2cf' e.g. K. Wilvonseder, Die mittlere Bronzezeit in Osterreich (Wien-Leipzig 1937 ) pl" 21 : l-2, pl. 22 : 7-2 (Maisbirnbaum). For Early Greek phialae cf. P. Jacobsthal,GreekPins (1956) 178 figs. 582-4. The bronze vessel from Handlov6 0949\ 257-44. RGK 4647 (196546)pls.22--24,26' Childe, Acta Arch. Ksbenhavn2l 2e Mozsolics, Ber. Vattina discs cf, II.9.1, sacred ivy-leaf pendants II.6,1. 30 H. Mattheus, Bronzegefiisse (1980) 345; J. Hawkes, The Dawnof the Gods(1968) p1.24; AL442(19393A$. 31 Cf. esp" the finds from Rongdres, Villeneuve-Saint-Vistre and Unterglauheim, G. Schuchhardt, Der Goldfund vom Messingw erk bei Ebersw alde (Berlin 1 91 4) figs. I 4-X 8, f or other gold cups o.c. figs. 23-24 zndpls 3-6. For the dating of the French cups T. G. E. Powell, PPS 19 (1953) 175; 86 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEA}I, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 46-4V (1965-46) 15 note 85. Venedikov-S. Gerasimov, Trakijsko izkusrvo (Sofia 1973) 33-35 tigs. 32-4A; Katalog Gotrdsch\tze der Tlrrafter (Wien 197 5) 40-42 with figures. The same seems to Mozsolics, Ber. RGK 32 I. 15 Cf , note 9 and lliittel, in. : Sudo-ir;. - -.: j :*; j --: -l 1000v.Chr.(1982- ed. B. Hdni: . -:--i-: 6 (G. A. Dzisrajko-L T. Cernajkov, Sov. arch. lg}l/1, Against V. Pingel, in Hiinsel (ed.) Sridosreuropa zwischen 1600-1A00 v Chr. (1982), 173-186. 5 - CHARIOTS AND HORSE-BITS 1 Karo, Schachtgriiber (1 930) pls. 5_7, 24 :24A, 2A : 38. 2 R. W. Hutchinson, Prehisroric Crere (Harmondsworth 1962) 178-22; S. Alexiou, ',Neue Wagendarstellungen aus KreAA (1954) 785-804;7. G. E" poweil, Some implica_ tions of chariotry, rn .Essays in Honour of Sir Cyril Fax t"a", (London 1963) 153-169; M. A. Littauer-J. H. Crouwell, PZ 48 (1973) 207_13" 3 M. A. Littauer-J. H. Crouwell, Wheeled Vehicles and Ridden Animals in the Ancient Near East (Leid,en 1979) 50-98; esp. 68-72. Cf. also their article in Antiquity 51 1977,95-105. a I. B6na, Acta Arch. Hung. 12 (1960) 103-105 with a list (Nitrianskf Hr6dok, Vesel6, Madarovce. Bdnov, Bludina, llodonin, K6mend); K. Tihelka, pam. arch. 45 (1954) 219-24 and AR t3 1961,580-83; A. Todik, Opevnen:4 I I apply to a kantharos found in 1974 atKriLovlin near Odessa 151-162). iSIMA PENDANTS 6 00 und A\D E.{R-i.I\GS t V. G. Childe, The Minoan irulu;:i :. .- :_ :--.. D ::ibran Bronze Age, Essays in Aegean Archae.-i-.;', :_-:i,..::j; :r Sir Ardrur Evans, (Oxford 1927) 1-1 2 Cf. e.g. D. V. Rosetti. Citihsana ri: B::--r::srjj (Bucharest 1936) 11 pI.9:49 and A. Furts angle:. Das Kuppelerab von Menidi, pl.3 : 12. For the typolon and ci-.\'eLapm! nr of similar Aegean beads cf. R. Higgrns. Greel ano Roman Jewellerf (London 1980) 81f,, ty'pes 16.21.:-i-:i. 3 A. Evans, Shaft Grat.es 97f.. fig. 31. a E. Zahariu, Die Lockennnge von Sarata-Monteoru, Dacia NS (19 8. 3 65 (1959) 103-134; Moxotics, Ber. RGK 46-47 -66) 19 -23 : Bouzek, P am, a r ch. 5 7 (19 6 6) 2 5 4t. tig. 5 Cf. also the Lockenringe from Smig (Somogvon), Mozsolics, Ber. RGK46-47 (1965-46) pl. 15 and 16:4. 5 K. Branigan, Wiltshire Arch. Magazine 65 (1970) 9S-g7. 7 A. Harding, thesis 1972, 224f. Note esp. Strahm and primas, Altschweiz3 (197 1) 14 fig. 10: 6 and 56 fig. 1 : Meilen-Obermeilen and Thalheim, both K. Zurich I Sarata-Monreoru grave 82, Zahariu, Dacia 3 (1959) 1,16t. fig. 6 : 10. osada doby bronzovej vo Veselom (Bratislava 1964) 162. s_ Barche di Solferino. O. Corneggia Castliglione-G. Calegari, Le ruote preistoriche italiane a disco ligneo ".., Riv. arch. Como 16O 1978 (1979),5---b6. Cf. also I-. Barfield, Norfhern Italy before Rome (I-ondon L97l) 7 4 and the two-wheeled chariot engravings at Valcamonica, E. Anati, ppS 26 (19d0) 5Off. 6 Cf. Bouzek, Pam. arch. ST (1965)256I'2|2fig. 10:5. 7 G. Mylonas, Tafikos kyktos B (1973) pi. ZbA beta; r_. Vagnerti, SMEA 17 (197 6) 2a3 ;H. Gruber, Arch. Austr 39 E " (te66) t-43. J. Vizdal Stav. arch. 2A GTTZ) 223-231. e Surveys H. G. Hiittel, Jb. Frankfurt (1977) 65_.86 and Ib., Bronzezeitliche Ttsensen in Mittet u. Osteuropa, Grundzfige ihrer Entwicklung (Munich 1981) (pBF XVI-2). Cf. J. Yladtu, Slov. arch.2l (1913) Z9S-303 and T. Kov6cs, Alba Regia 10 (1969) 153-L65; here ch. II.9.1 C. 10 Mozsolics, Acta Arch. IIung.l2 (1960) 125-135 ; Meilaart, Anat. 5t.18 (1968) 194. 11 Cf. J. Potratz, Die Pferdetrensen des alten Orienrs (Rome 1,966) 125-195, 103-116; 11-37. 12 13 la S. Foltiny, Bonner Jb.67 1967, M. A. Littauer-J. H. Crouwell, pZ48(1973)2A7-13;H" Matthdus, Arch. KorrbL7 (1977) 137-141,; M. A. Leskov, Sov. arch. (1964/1) 299-303. A. Oancea, Branches de mors an corDs en forme de disque, in : Thraco-Dacica | (2ndcongress of Thracology, Bucuresti 6), 59-7 5 ; Hiittel, Jb. Frankfurt (197 7) 7 5 fig. 9, 1.0a. exception Hiittel, Jb. RGZM Mainz 27 (1980) 159-165. 197 An *b" 7, AMBER 1 Cf. esp. C. W. Beck, "Analysis and provenance of Minoan and Mycenaean amber", Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies'7 (1966) 191-21 1; 9 (1963) 5-19; II (1970\ 5-22 ; 13 (197 2) 3 59-85 ; BSA 69 (197 4) I7 0_7 2. A cor pus of amber finds in Europe organized by him is being prepared under the UISpp. 2 cr. BSA 6s (tsl 4) t4l_l52" j.6st. 3 Bouzek, Pam. arch. 57 (.1956) 27A; Harding, VIf congrds UtrSPP (Beograd 1970) vol. III, pp. 18-21; Harding_ Brock, BS.4 69 (1974) 167-49; cf. also Brea-M. Cavalier, Metigunis Lipara III (1968) L. Bernabb 16df ., and I_. Barfield, Northern Itaiy bef are Rome (197I) 76, 79. a F{achmann, Bayer. Vorgbl. 22 (1957) 10f.; Bouzek, pam. arch. 57 (1966) 272. 5 Flarding and Hughes-Brock, BSA 69 (197,1) 158f. 6 BSA6s (1974) 15s. 7 R. l{achmann, "Bronzezeitliche Bernsteinschieber,,. Bayer. Vorgbtr. 22 (1957) l-36; Bouzek. pam. areh. 5j (1966) 272-7 4 ; Gerloff, Daggers (19j 5) 260-63 8 E. Lomborg, "An amber spacer-bead from Denmark", Antiquity 4l (1967) 271-73; O. Cornaggia Castliglioni_G. Calegari, Due amber spacer-beads siciliane. Riv. Sc. prersr. 38 (1e78) 26st. e Bayer. Vorgbl. 22 (1957) Ig, 22. t0 Even if there are exceptions from this ruie (some Undtice culture spacers and esp. the find from Kadei in Vorarlberg seerns to show the existence of simple V-bored plates for the . 4, l' 1l '* 1$ xnxl tS.- THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CUUIURE phase, cf. H. Miiller-Karpe, Jb. Lanquaid - Br A 3 Frankfurt 1977, 56f.), most of the evidence is still in favour of the British-Greek connections, cf. Harding, BSA69 (1974) 156f. 1r A. Evans, Tomb of the Double Axes, Arcftaeologia 65, 42-44. S. r t2 F. M. Annable and D. D. A. Simpson, Guide ca talogue of the Neotidtic and Bronze Age Collections in the Devizes Museum (1964) 46; cf. Harding and Hughes-Brock, BSA 69 (1974) 157f.; Bouzek, Pam. arch.57 (1966)272t' 13 Cf. C. W. Beck-T. Liu, Gallia Pr'hist. 19 (1976) 201-7 ; Grotte de Lastours, Aude, R. P. Charles-J. Guilaine, Gallia Prihist. 6 (1963) \49 fI.; Lesconil, Finistdre, P. R. Giot, BrittTny (1960) 97. la Cf. Bouzek, PA 57 (1966) 273-75; Harding and Hughes-Brock, BSA 69 (1974) 158f. ili i 8. FAIENCE BEADS I ,ii ',li t s $ I it! .? fi *- II fr $ t & fl t fi il il t J. F. S. Stone-L. C. Thomas, "The use and distribution of faience in the ancient East and prehistoric Europe", PPS 22 1956, 37-85; cf. R. G. Newton-C. Renfrew, "British faience beads reconsidered", Antiquity 44 1970,199-206 and H. McKerell, On the origin of the British faience beads and some aspects of the Wessex-Mycenae relationship, PPS 38 (1e72) 286-301. 2 Stone-Thomas, PPS 22 (1956) 50f.; Schaeffer, Stratigra- phie comparEe (1948) 408-414; M. A. Besborodov-J. A. Zadneprovsky, "Early stages of glass makingin the USSSR", Slavia antiqua 12 (1965) 127t. 3 Among them a Middle Helladic II find from Sesklo, Evans, P. of Minosl,490 fig. 351. 4 Cf. K. Polinger Foster, Aegeait Faience of the Bronze Age (New Haven and London 1979) 170-72. 5 Stone, PPS 22 (1956) 57 Harding, thesis (1972) 63f., 80. ; 6 A. Harding, AR23 (1971) 188-200. 7 Sbomi& NM Prague A201966,120. Harding, thesis (1972) 82. 8 Cf. note 1 (Newton-Renfrew and McKerell) and Harding, thesis (1972) 61f., 81f. e Fjallerslev, Becker, Acta (1964) 241. '&rch. Ksbenhavn25 10 E. Sprockhott, Germania 39 (1961) 1l ff. fig. 2; H.-G. Peters, in: Archiiologische Untersuchungen im Beteich des Elbe-Seitenkanals (1970); 37-76. Cf. also J. Dayton, "Mycenaean blue glaze from Schneeberg in Saxony", Kadmos 19 (1980) 161f. 1t AncientEurope (Edinburgh 1965) 130ff. 12 Cf. K. Polinger Foster, Aegean Faience 1979 (note 4), 180 and 176. & 9. SPIRAL DECORATION $ & # t 1. J. Werner, 3 J. vladtu, Slov. areh.2l (1973) 299-321; A. Mozsolics, Ber. RGK 46-47 (1965-46) 28--34 ; Bronzetunde (1967) 33-49. 4 A. Toiik, Mal6 Kosihy, osada zo stariej doby bronzovei, Nitra ( 1 98 1 ) ; Nitiansk! HrAdok-Zdmedek, Bronzezeitliche befestigte Siedlung (Nitra 1982) 5 Contributions by H.-G. Hiittel, B. Hiinsel, A. Vulpe and J. Bouzek, pp.63-114. 6 Pam. arch. 57 (1966) 252-54 with figs. 5-7. 7 Harding (thesis 1972), Renfrew and several ethers were more sceptical, the Frankfurt Institute group (and, with some reservations, also myself) adopt a rnore positive attitude. Cf. I.l. 8 J. Vlad6r, SIov. arch. 2l (1973) 300-314; Hachmann, Friihe Bronzezeit (1957) pl. 70 and Tasi6, B alcanica 4 (197 3) t9-39. e Karo, Schachtgrdber (1930) 146 fig.62;Blegen,Prosymna 10 p.63 lig.262:2 (LIJll). Hachmann, Friihe Bronzezeit (1957) Atti UISPP Fircnze (1950),296. 2 P. Salkovskf, Spir6lov6 ornamentika starlej doby bronzovej v Karpatskej kotline a na dolnom Dunaji, Slov. atch.28 (1980) 287--312. pl. 70:10-12; Mylonas, Ancient Mycenae fig. 57. 11 Htittel, Ib. Franffiurt (1977) 77. 12 L. Woolley, Alalakh (Oxford 1955) pl. 77: nos. AT/39/91, AT/39/291. Woolley, Alalakh (1955),290 pls. 77J8 no. AT/8/225. For the opened bracelet from Mal6 Kosihy in Slovakia cf. Vladdr, SIov. arch.2l (1973) 301-3. 14 Cf. vladdr, Slov. arch.2l (1973) 301-3. 13 15 Fr<idin-Person, Asine (1937)2561ie.18:1 ; K. Miiller, AM (1.909) 282-91; Shaft Graves Karo, Schachtgriiber (1930), pls. 59--47 figs. 19:311 and 62:824-5 (ladle); Mylonas, Taf ikos kyklos B ( 1 973) pls. 85-86, 121, 724 (only few and less finely developed). Later Palaiokastro, BSA Suppl I, 128 tig. lO. 16 Survey J. Mellaart, Anat. St. 18 (1968) 194. Tell Atchana, Aligar, Beycesultan, Hama, Boghazk<iy. Cf. esp. H.v.Osten, The AliSar Hiiyilk (1930-32) part II, Chicago 1937, 248 34 figs.274-5. 17 For the Aegina treasure cup cf. e.g. Higgins, Minoan and Art (London 1967) 41tig.33-14; the gold cup from Zakro is in mus. Heraklion. For parallels in pottery cf. Bouzek, Pam. arch.57 (1966) 253f. and here II.9.4. 18 Cf. Hensel, Chronotogie (1969) 83 ff.; Vulpe, Iahrbuch Frankfurt (1977) 106f. 1e B. A. Kuftin, Trialeti (Tbilisi 1941), pl. 5. 20 A. Mozsolics, Bronzefunde (1967) 3349; A. Vulpe, Axte und Beile in Rumiinien, PBF IX-2, (Miinchen L97 0) 6-L3 , 26-43 ; Hiinsel, Germania 47 (1969) 62-86. Mycenaean 21 Cf. Hachmann, Fnifie Bronzezeit (1957); with the seriation method K. 131-181 fr 87 Goldman, Acta Preh. Arch. 1l/12 (1980/81) and his book (1979). 22 N. Aberg, Bronzezeitliche und friiheisenz, ChronologielY, 57 -43 ; Ch. Zerv os, L' art des Cyclades (Paris 1 957) ; B. Otto in J. Thimme (ed.), Katalog Kunst der Kykladen, (Karlsruhe 1976) 133-144. For the seals cf.F.Matz,Znr Friihgeschichder Spirale, Eine dgiiisch-anatolische Siegelstudie, Mllanges Mansel (Ankara 1974), l7l-183 and D. Levi, Parola del Passato 24 (1961) 241--64. Ct. note 27 . te 88 J.BOUzEK, IHEAEGEAN, ANATOLIA.AND EUROPE 23 A. Evans, P. of . Mincts|Y ,24$tf . ; pendlebury, Archaeolagy of Crete (1 939) pottery patterns since EM III. 24 K. Horedt, Dacia 4 (1950) 115-118 figs. 5-9; FloredtWietenbergBonn (1971). For the Suciu de Sus -Seraphirn, pottery cf. T. Bader, PZ 54 19V9,3-31; A. Vulpe, Jb. Frankturt (1977) 109-11 ; H.-G. Hiittel in the same volume pp. 32-46; Bouzek, Pam. arch. 57 t1966)" 254 tig. 3 Bulletin d'archlologie ISIMA j r :9ri i -: - ;f a For the Selinus figurine cf also .{ \{ Brssj. ,,n Atti di Io marocaine ? , congre*sa di Micenologia (Roma 1965 i 11_{5__{E. 5 J. Bouzek, FPS3S (1972) 156f.. i6{,}f.. iF.t 6 For parallels cf . PPS 38 ( 19 72 ) 1,i e. 16 1 7:8-10. 25 Wietenberg hearth G. Wilke, Mannus 10 (191S) 138f.; K. Floredt, Nouvelles €tudes d'histoirell (1961) 39f . Cf . below, III. 12.2. D. G. Zoriika5vili-E. M. 12. RELIGIOUS SYMBOLS, SANCTL'ARIES AND ALTARS ch. 26 Gogadze, pamjatniki Trialeti l'1, (Tbilisi I 974), pl. 19:3 ; 24:65; 26:N04; 34:217; 47:304 and, 364; 68:448: 73:614 79:675 (seal); 87:722 (in paint), 89:737 (gotd epochi rannej cup), 27 i strednej bronzy 108:722-3. Cl. lvfora, La produzione glittica e i contatti fra Anatolia e Creta nel III-II millenio, SMEAZZ (1980) 297-314. Ct. note 22, CMS V/2 nos. 462 and 461; for more specific Anatolian seals N. Sandars, Mdlanges A". Varagnac (pans 197 2t Cf. l), Evans, P. of Minos II, IgTt,; M. Solle, poidtky hell€nsk€ civilisace (Fraha 1947),143-158, 1?3. The pieces Lindos I, pl. 18:505-509 are very similar to those from the Shaft Graves and from dliqar. 2 a E. Cujanovri-Jilkovri, ',prvni objekry typu ,henge, v zfryadniclr Cechr{ch", AR27 (lg7S) 481-87. Cf. note 30. 5 Cf. e.g. the Thapsos and Castelluccio rock tombs, the Nuraghis sanctuaries in Sartjinia and similar in Corsica and the Balearic Isles. Useful survey in J. Thimme (ed.), Kunsf ,9ardinrens (Kartsruhe 19BA) 26f. (E. Atzeni), 47_gB (G. Liliu), 1,62-199 (V. pingel, G. Tanda, M. pallotino, 10. SCRIPT AND SIMILAR SIGNS t sure of the Funnel-Beaker culture at Makotiasy (Centrai Bohemia), d paleoastronomic structure',, AR 32 (19g0) 3-35. 636 fig. 3 and 638. A. 1 Cf. Bouzek, AR 31 (1979) 2i.gt.,264 forrhe Aegeanesp. R. and I. Hiigg {eds), Sanctuaries and Cults (Lund 1981). -2 D. C. Heggie, Megalithic Science (London 1981); R. W. Mackie, "Recent research on Megalithic astronomy in Britain in the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age,', in: IX. congrds UISPP 1976, rdsumds des communicarr'ons, Nice. 3 E. Pleslovd-Stikovri, F. Marek, Z. Horskf, ,,A square enclo- 6 Etude de vingt-six bouies d'argile trouvEes it Enkoni et Hala Sultan Tekke (Gciteborg 197 l), 3Af . fig. 3-4 and pt. 3 prof . Astrcim considers them being identity marks or gaming pieces. J. Vladrir-^A. Barrondk, 391-93; Strov. arch. 25 cf. J. Makkay, Atti a Memmorie di (1g77t I. 374t., cangresso di Micenologia, (Roma 1968) 96f. pls. 2-.4. Ct. also Chitde, Danube in Prehistary (1929) 289, and the original publication by Milleker, A vattinai ijstelep (Ternesvdr 1905). 3 Cf. Vladdr-Bartondk, SIav. arch.25 (1977) 423-427. 4 G. Bdndi, Preistoria Atpina l0 (197 4) 237 _252 ; J. ytad6r, Slov. arch. 21 (1973) 32r.-23 and Slov. arch. 23 ('1977) 374-77; L. Fasani, Memori€ lt[us. Verona 1S (1970) 9l-112. G. Trnka, Arch. Austr.66 (1952) 51-80. 5 Cf. esp. H.-G. tsuchholz, Die dgiiischen Schriftsysteme und ihre Austrahhing in die ostmediterranen Kulturen, in: Frijhe Schrifterzeugnisse der Menschheit(Giittingen 1 969) gg-150 and J. Vladdr-A, Bartondk, Zu denBeziehungen des dgdi_ schen; balkanischen und karpathischen Raumes in der rnittle_ renBrowezeit, SIov. arch.25 (i9'71) 3jI-431. Europe (Lonclon 1979) 36-88. 7 M. Vldek-I-. Hrijek, ,,A ritual well and the find of an Early Bronze Age iron dagger at G6novce,,, Esfudros . . . a F. Bosch Gimpera (lVfexico 1963) 427439. I 8 A survey of the probiem J. Bouzek-D. Koutecky, pam. arch. TI (lgg}) 4B-42g. e P. Warren, in: Sancfuaries and Cults in the Aegean Bronze Age (eds. R. Ffuigg-N. Marinatos) (Stockholm 11 Cf. M. P. Nilsson, The Minoan-Mt.cenaeanRe.i,gion2 (1950) 11Bff ; Bowek, Pam. arch. 57 (1966) 261: Rutkowski, F riih grieehische Kul td a r s t e Il ungen (B 1-4. 12 11. SYRIAN AND ANATOLIAN BRONZE FIGURINES IN EUROPE 13 r C. Renfrew, I--1, (Munich 1980). 1981) 155-166. 10 V. Hruby, "Kultovni objekty lidstva se stiednodunajskou kulturou na MnravE '. Pam. arch.lg (1958) 42-50. 53_56. J. Paulik, "Mazanica e rl i n plastickou rrzdobou 19 g 1 ) 3 5__4 0 pls. bronzovej 16f, I J. Banner, L B6na, L. Mdrton, "Die Ausgrabungen von L. M6rton in T6szeg", Acta Arch. Hung. 10 (1957) 68f , 126 figs. 24_25; F. Tompa, Ber. RGK24-25 (193j).3gf , (a cave senctuary sirnilar to that at Uherskf Brod). s na Slovensku", Stud. Zvesti 10 (Nitra Antiquitt.52 (1978) 12-15 figs. 2-_l pl. 4. 2 H. Seeden, The Standing Armed Figurines in the Levant,pBF J. L. Bernabd Brea). I. Ordentlich, "Contributia sepdturilor arheologice de pe "Dealul Vida" (corn. Sdlacea, jud Bihor) la cunoastera culturii Otomani. Safu Mare Srudii pr comunicdri(1972) 63-84; cf. also J. Coies-A.-Harding, The Bronze Age in Jehasse, v dobe i96l) .A. Benei, "Plasticky zdobeni, a malor.an6 mazanice z Kutn6 Hor1", in praeiisrorjca VItrI (Festschr. Filip) (Prague 1981) 9i-101, mohylov6 kultury 1a L. Pernier, Mon. ant. 14 OgAq $2t. fl.36:,s8 a16 99, 16." * "il igr I Fesfds (Rorna 1935) 230f' figs' 10;108. Another undecorated table from Phaestus is in (St' Louis mus. fleraklion. Cf. also M. Yavin, Greek '4ltars 11 palazzo minoico di 1946\ 14-16. (1950) 125 ff ' ; M. P. Nilsson, Minoan-Mycenaean Religionz (1946) 16-19' Altars Greek M. Yavin, 16 A new survey B. Rutkowski, Frilhgriechische Kultdatstel' (1966\ 262' lungen (1981) 42-44, cl.Bowek, Pam' arch' 57 17 Examples : Knossos : Evans, Prehisfo ric Tombs af Knossos' (L918) 37 39 pl. 89a; Gournes: Chadzidakis, Arch' DeIl 4 Tombs at Vaulted The Iig. 2l:2; Porti: S. Xanthoudides, BSA 35 Wace' Mycenae: p1.37. 1924) i"rr^ru(London 15 $* (1934-3;5\ ifr. f +-f tt e. V, pI. C. 27 - 5 fig. 422; Titws: K' Miitler, Tr'ryns IV' 40f ' Thera, painted: S. Marinatos, Exo at Thera (1958) 130 pl' 32 cd' J. i. Caskey, Exc' atLerna,Hesperia2T 1e Petsofa, Chamezi, Cofinas etc', cf' B' Rutkowski' CultPlaces in the Aegean World (Warszawa' 1972) 170d',2121' 20 B. Schmalz, Metallfiguren aus dem Kabirenheiligtum bei (Berlin 1980)' Theben, Die Statuetten aus Bronze und Blei " C. S. Xanthoudide s, V aulted Tombs in Messara (1924) ".g. and 51 (MM I). pls.30:2,7 22 Rutkowski, Cult Places (1972) 137; lb', Friihgriechische PZ 45 Kultdarstellungen (1981) 49, 124; J' Sakkelarakis ' St' 13 Anat' (lg7}) 157-178. For Anatolia cf' Mellaart, (1953) pl. 86, BeYcesultan. r. p"otit, Stud. Zvesti 10 (Nitra 1962)28-32; cf' tsouzek' Pam. arch. 5'l (1966) 264 with note 99" 2a L. Pernier, Mon. Ant. LZ (L902\ pl' 8:5; Nilsson' Minoanof Mycenaean Religiorf (1950) 153 fig' 60' Fragments jugs libation place' For similar tables were found in the same ' cf. Nilsson, o.c. P., 147ff. 25 Cf. M" Zdpatock!,iil Acta lJniv' Carolinae' PhiI' etllist'3 (1959) (Festschr. Filip)' 53-60'. 26 k. Mare3ov6, "Keramick6 depoiy doby bronzovd v CssR I0 a Rakousku", Sbornik fil' fakulty Brndnsk1 univerzityE (1977) t37-43' AR29 (1965) 717_133; cf' also Z. Smri', 21 'fhey were characteristic for the East Hallstatt area' 28 V. Hrubf, Pam. arch.4g (1958) 40ff' 2e Nilsson, Minoan-Mycenaean Religion'z (1950) 4211t'; Bouzek, Eirene 8 (1970) 98-100' (The cross from the Temple Repositories at Knossos is an exception') culture: Cf. note 4 and the circular enclosures of the Knoviz B. Soudskf in lnvestigations arch6ologiques en 30 Cakovice: Tchlcoslovaquie (1 966) 1 59 pl. 1 8 ; Mutdjovice : J' Hrala-J' Fridrich, AR 24 (1972) 601414, 685-88' Topdlec' cemelcry. unpublished. Vladdr, Slov. arch.21 (1973\293f. 31 J. 32 Nilsson, Minoan-Mycenaean Religion2 (1950) l21t'; Yavin' Greek Altars (Lg47) 79-21; Rutkowski, Friihgriechische Kultd ars tell un ge n (19 8 1') 42f . Kossack, Symbolgut (L954) 23, 41; Z' Fiedler' "K qiznamu z6vdskri s prohnutfmi stEnami", Pam' arch' 55 (1e54) 32e--336. 3a Bouzek, Pam. arch. 57 (1966) 265 tig' 79:2,4; from Saf6rikovo J. Paulik, MLzeum 14 (1969) 143 tig' 4' 35 Miniature frescoes e.g. F. Matz, Kreta, Mykend' Troja 33 G. 89 THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CULIURE xxBl (Stuttgart 1957) pl. 36, the facade of thp Knossos palace o'c' pl. 29. House models e.g. Piskokifalo, Rutkowski, Kultdar 'stellungen(l931) fig. 8:5-6 and 9, gems o'c'fig'3-4' 36 Cf. above, note22. 3? S. Diamant-I' Rutter, "Horned objects in Anatolia and in the Near East and possible connections with the Minoan Horns of Consecrdtion", Anar' Sr' 19 (1969) 147-\77 ; cf' E. R. L. Mallowan, Iraq (1947) part II, 184' I 3s One horned symbol Early Minoan (Seager, Exo at the horns Island of Moch/os fig. 43), sheep bells MM I and sacred Cf. Nilsson, Minoan-Mycenaean Religion2 MM II' since 5-90' 950) 1 86f f . ; Rutkowski, Ku ltdarstellungen( 1 98 1 ) 7 3e A. J.' B. Wace, Mycenae" tig. 97a; C' W' Blegen-M' The Palace of Nestor at Pylos I (Princeton 1966) (1 Rawson, 85-87, pls. 10,22,73. - Hearths or bowls decorated with Tt'ryns spirals were known since Early Hetladic, cf' K' Miiller' IV (1 93S), 4C_/:6 ; J. C. Lavezzi, Hesp' 48 (L97 9\ 3 4347 87-88. wilke, Mannus 10 (1918) 138f'; Horedt, Nouvelles pls. o0 €tudes d.histoiren (1961) 39f. For similar spirals cf' Bouzek' Pam' arch. 57 (1966) 267 tig' 17 : 4-4, 19 : 1' a1 Seuthopolis, Eumolpia, cf. e.g. A' A' Pejkov, Pulpudeva3 (Sofia 1980) 244 fig.5. Paulik, Stud. Zvesti 10 (Nitra 1962) 34-43; cf' Bouzek' Pam. arch.s? (1965) 265 and note 13' a3 J. Neustupn y, N ilboienstvi pravikiho lidstva v Cechdch a na Moravi (Praha 1940) 40. a2 i. aa Cf. notes 45 12-13' J. Paulik, Stud. Zvesti century B.C.). l0 (1962) 32-34 (Ha A I, i'e' 12th a6 Bouzek Pam. arch. 57 (1966\ 266 with notes 1 15-117' Cf' (Matz' esp. the column in the Queen's bathroom in Knossos Kreta, Mykend, Troia 1957, pl' 31), the miniature frescoes and Nilsson, Minoan-Mycenaean Religion2 (1950) 250ff'; R utkowski, Kultdarstellungen (1981 ) 73' a7 Banner-B6na-M6rton, Acta Arch. Hung. 1'0 (1957) fig' 25:10; H6jek, AR 5 (1954) 319 fig. 154; N' Kalicz-P' Raczky, Acta Arch. Ilung. 33 (1981)' 201-220' 4s V. G. Child€, The D anube in P rehistoty (1929) 283 [ig. I 52' ne Cf. esp. Bouzek, Pam. arch. 57 (1966) 268; W' Dehn' Katalog Kreuznach (1941) 481 O' Tschumi' "Vorge- schichtliche Mondbilder und Feuerbticke", Iahresber' d' hist' Mus. Bern 191 1 (1912) ; G. Paribeni, Corni di consecrazione, BPI3rd ser. 30 (1904). 50 H. Miiller-Karpe, Vom Anfang Roms (Heidelberg 1959) 48, 49, 9A ; cf Rutkowski, Kultda rstellungen ( 1 98 1 ) 8 8-90' Gelling-H' E' Davidson, TheChariot and Other Rites and Symbols of the Northern Bronze Age (London 1969) and E' Sprockhoff, Nordische 51 Cf. esp. P. Gelling, in of ffte Sun Bronzezeit und friihes Griechentum, Ib' RGZM Mainz (1954) and Bremer arch. Bldtter 3 (1962) 28-ll0' s2 Davidson, o.c' pP. 53 Davidson, o.c. PP. I 9-26. 29fl' 5a Davidson, o.c. PP. 42-44 55 Davidson, o.c'p.45 s6 Davidson, o.c' p. Po und 68' cf. e.g. KatalogSitulenkunstzwischen Donau (Wien 1962) pl. 58 and Vene- 90 J.BOUZEK, THEAEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE dikov-Gerasimov, Tra,ki.yskoto izkustvo (Sofia 1973) pl. 290. 57 Davidson, o.c. pp. 69-73, cf. the Tammuz and Adonis stories. 58 Davidson, o.c. p.82f. figs. 40b, 41 a. 5e J. Coles, The archaeological evidence for the existence of a bull cult in Late Bronze Age Europe, in: Bitain, a study in pa tter ns, 4 pp. (off -print) and A ntiquity 3 9 (19 6 5) 2 l7 -219. 60 Davidson, o.c. p. 80, cf. below ch. III.10. 6r Davidson, o.c. 101f. pl. 4. 62 Davidson o.c. p.102, cf. here ch. II.5.1. 63 Cf. E. Anati,CamonicaValley(New York 1961)forthesun worship pp. 15 1 ff., 158 ff. ; cf. also his other books published in Italy. 6a H. de Lumley et. al., in: J. Guilaine (ed.), La Prdhistoire Frangaise II, Les civilisations Niolithiques et Protohistoriques de Ia France (Paris 1976) 22-36. 13. SETTLEMENTS AND FUNERAL RITE r Barca J. Kabdt, AR7 1.955,594ff.tig.259.Cf. also Vesel6, Nitrianskf Hr6dok, Vdteiov and orher hill-forts from Bohemia, Moravia, Austria and Germany. A survey J. Vlad6r, Slov. arch. 2l (1973) 273-94, cf. esp. A. Tolik, Opevnen{ osada z doby bronzovej vo Veselom (Bratislava 1964) and N itri anski Hr 6dok- Zdmeiek, b ro nze ze itliche b e f es ti gt e S ie d lung(Nitra 1982) 2 L Ordentlich, Satu Mare Studi si Comunicari (1972) - 63-84. 3 J. Vladrir, Stov. arch.21 (1973) 283-86 tigs.27-33. SIov. arch.2l (1973) 295-97, cf. also J. Neustupnf, pam. arch.39 (1933) 14-20. 5 For the pithos burials in the Aegean cf. F. Schachermeyr, PWRE22. Hbb. (1954) 1438f.,146tr. a 14. CONCLUSTONS 6 Marazzi-Tusa, Parola del Passat<t 17 (1976) 473-u5 (Vivara), for Lipari cf. esp. L. Bernabd Brea-M. Cavalier, ll castello di Lipari e il Museo archeologico Eoliano (Palermo 19772) imported Mycenaean pottery Taylour, Myc. Pottery (1957) 9-53; earlier finds from Ischia and Vivara Taylour o.c. "I micenei in ltalia: La Iahrbuch Frankfurt (1977) 193-99; Coles-Harding, Bronze Age (1979) 236-242,256-263; S. Gerloff, Tle Early Bronze Age Daggers in Great Bitain and a Reconsideration of the Wessex culfure,PBFVI-Z (1975);R. P. Giot, Brittany (London 1966); J. J. Briard, Les civilisations d'dge du bronze en Armorique, in J. Guiliaine, La Prfhistoire franqaisell(Paris 1976) 561-73 ;K. Branigan, "Wessex and the Common Market", SMEA 15 (1987) 147-156. 10 S. Piggot, AncientEurope (1965) 134; P. R. Giot,Brittany (1e60) 64. 11 N. Sandars, AJA 67 (1963) 1,20, I27. 12 G. Novak, Prethistorijski Hvar (1955). 13 Anchors M. Lazarov, Thracia 3 (197 4) 107 _1l3 and Pofnilata flotilija (Varna 1975). Cf . also the ingots from Kaliakra and from near Karnobat (I. Panayotov, Thracia 5 1980, 177r.). la Cf. esp. V. S. Bodkarev and V. A. Safronov, in: Problemy archeologii (Leningrad 1968) 15 in das ristliche Mittelmeergebiet der mykenischen Schachtgriiberzeit", in Rapports, co-rapports et communications tch6coslovaques pour le congris de l'Association IV internat. d'6tudes du sud-esf europden (Pragte 1979) 15-50. For the Ginii cemetery cf. M. G. GedLiev,Iz istorii kultury Dagestana v epochu bronzy (Machadkale 1969);for 1982,54-96. Kircvakan in Armenia and related finds A. A. Mjartirosjan, Armenija v epochu bronzy i ranego ieleza (Erivan 1964) 64,-47. tt SIov. arch. 2l (1.973) 253-347, the article quoted in the preceding note and Vlad6r-Bartondk, Slov. arch.25 {1977) 371-432. 1E t3-28. 169-186. 4 S. Marinatos, BCH 95 (1971) 5-11; cf. G. Scibona-A. Berdar, Sicilia Archeologica ll (1978) 55-58. 5 O. Dickinson Oigins of the Mycenaean Civilisation (1977) , la4. 87-100, A. Vulpe, pp. 101-112; cf . also the H. G. Hiittel. pp. 6,5-86. H. Mijllerpp.39-64 and J. Bouzek, pp. i 12-118. B. Hiinsel, pp. contributions by 3 Cf. E. M. Bossert, in Festschrift Goessler (195a) 33f ; C. Plantalamor, 8u11. Inst. Arch. Londonzl (1983), 5-155. (Tbilisi 1974); M. A. DZaparidze, Archeologiieskije raskopTrialeti, (Tbilisi 1969); E. Gogadze, Peiodizacija i genezis kurganoj kultury Trialeti (in Georgian Tbilisi te72). 16 J. Vlad6r, "Das Karpatenbecken, das Kaukasusgebiet und cheologica", Parola del Passata 14 (1970) 359-380. R. Ross Holloway, Italy and the Aegean 3000-700 8.C., Lid,ge Topp-L. 7 B. A. K]uftln, Trialeti (Tbilisi 19a1);L. Zoriikaivili-E. Gogadze, Pamjatniki Trialeti epochi ranej i srednej bronzy ki v documentazione ar- 2 W. Taylour, Mycenaean Pottery in Itaty and in Adjacent Areas (Cambridge 1957); F. Biancofiore, Civiltir micenea nell'Italia meridionale2 (Roma 1967); M. Tusa, Die mykenische Penetration im westlichen Mittelmear, KIio 6l (1979) 309-352. F. W. v. Hase, Myk. Keramik in Italien, Kleine Schiften des vorg. Seminars Marburg 2 (1982) 7-9. 7 Cf. J. Coles-A. Harding, The Bronze Age in Europe (London 1979) 214-229 with bibliography. 8 Cf. Coles-Harding, Bronze Age (1979) 229-234. e S. Piggot, "The Early Bronze Age in Wessex", PPS 4 (1938) 1 ff. ; J. F. Stone and J. Taylour, "The Wessex culture: A minimal view, Antiquity 45 (1971) 6-14; Ch. Hawkes, L. Vagnetti, "Mycenaean imports in Central ltaly", in: R. Peruzz| Mycenaeans in Early lafium (Roma 1980) 151-166; TSIMA -Karpe, 1e B. Hensel, Beitriige zur Chronotogie der mittleren Bronzezeit im Karpatenbecken (Bonn 1968) (xiti a review by H. Schickler, Fundber. aus Baden-Wtirtemberg L (1974) 714-33); J. Bouzek, Pam. arch. 47 (1966) with earlier bibliography; A. Mozsolics, Ber. RGK 46-17 (1965-66) xnxl Li. *L of the andBronzefunde (1967);N' Tasid' The problem cultures of Mycenaean influences in the Middle Bronze Age From the the Carpathian basin, Balcanica 4 (1973\ 19-37 ' (1957)' Bronzezeit Frrifie Hachmann, esp. of. works earlier 26 The best information concerning the not yet wholy published l-76 91' THE RELATIONS OF THE EARLIER MYCENAEAN CUL|URE find is in Fasti arch. 18-19 (1e6E) lZ5 no. 1625 (Zaharia-Ilescu). 2r P. Reinecke, MAGW 32 (1902) 11; Ch. Strahm, Helvetia Arch.3 (1972) 99-1t2. CHAPTER III THE REI.ATIONS CF THE LATH fu{YCENAEAN C{JLTURH AND TF{E tsEGINNTNGS OF THE GREEK DARK AGE {c. l3sG-1000 B"C.) * 1. PROTECTIVE ARMOT]R. reading the book by Cassola Guida and other Protective armour is one of the fields where relations betwen the f,ate Mycenaean and European worlds are obvious, and many useful studies have been written both from the Aegean and European point of view. The discussion of protective armour in the Aegean is only partly based on objects found in earlier works. On the Europe an side, the classic studies by G.v. Merhartl rernain valid in many points, though the stress he lays on Central European influence in the south has caused a reaction notably on the part of H. &fiiller-Karpe and his pupils. Miiiler-Karpe, however, has only given rough sketches of his vierv (Germania 40 1962,255-87 ; Jb. Frankturt!9V S. 7-23), and P. Schauer, who contributed to the corpo{e ; the representations, the Horneric descriptions, and, more recently, the evidence of Linear B play a much greater role. Miss Lorimer's Homer and the Monunrenfs (1950) remains a classicatr study; it contains rnany ideas worth reading even now. Severai publications of new irnportant finds, especially those of P. Courbin, N. Yalouris (1960), It{. Verdelis (1971) and H. Catling {Bronzework 1964) brought much to our understanding of the Mycenaean and Early Greek defensive weapons in corpore. Two books by A. Snodgrass (EGAW 1964, AAG tr967) achieved a more sophistieated synthesis including both the new finds and tlie Linear B evidence. Faola Cassola Guida (Armi 1973) has given a usefui survey of all lVfycenaean representations and texts including what Lcrimer did not yet know. Archaeologia Homeriea E L {1977) gives thorough informarion, though not all parts of the volume are such excellent surveys *s those of the corsiet and of the greaves by H. Catling. The chapter on helmets by J. Borchhardt is a shorten,ed version of his book Homerische Helme (1972), published itself manl' years after it had been written ; a similar book by H. Hencken (1971,) went deeper especially in understanding the problems which interest us here. The survey of shields by H. Borchhardt should be suppiemented by field, did not yet undertake surveys com_ pareble to those of Merhart. The works by J. Ccles, supplemented by his experiments (1962, Ig77'), are of great importance. J. Pauiik for corsiets, p. Patay for shields {1958, cf. also S. Needham 1g7g}, W. Dehn for greaves (1980), and H. Hencken in his monurnental book on helmets (I971), have enlarged the material and its synthetical elaboration (cf. also Kimmig 1964). Since so much has already been done frorn both sides, and I myself have tried to expiain some problems eisewhere (Fesfscfir.v. Brunn 198tr), the following discussion can be brief. Three points of view seem to me to be basic: 1. Both worlds were in contact, they both contributed to the common traits in armour, and we have to specify in detail who was the giver and who the receiver. 2. Armour of sheet brrsnze was exceptional, and was produced against a background of armour made from organic materials which rvas much commoner. 3. Its function was for war, for parade ancj for offerings; it had its place in the military and social rituals of a heroic age similar to that of Horner" 93 lCL'r 1'1' Shield The earliest known bronze shields in Greece date from the end of the 8th century; earlier shields are known from illustrations and were regularly of leather built onto a wooden frame, sometinnes including some metal components like shield bos- most ses. Therefore our discussion concerns for the part examples known frorn * representations and models. I.1.1. Ear|y Ctetan and Mycenaean shields' Early Aegean shields (17th-13th centuries B'C') (Fig' were of two basic types. The big bilobal shield 41:2) is the more frequent in representations ;2 it also appears in religious scenes.3 The second type, the so-called tower shield, only occurs in battle scenes.a The bilobal shield (shaped like a figure-ofeight) had a long tradition in Crete; the tower shield is assumed to be a mainland type and was exceptional in Crete' Both are large and high,s and usuatly protect the warrior from chin to ankles. There are, however, some exceptions with the tower shield, as on the Siege vessel fragment from the Shaft Graves, where the shield is smaller,6 and a LH III C representation of a smaller bilobal shield from IolkosT resembling that used by the Hittites in the Kadesh battle.s Even the Siege vessel shield rnay have been Anatolian. Both early Aegean shield types were heavy and usually carried by means of a strap over the shoulder (telamon). Fencing with these big shields was apparently difficult: a fact which is confirrned by the scenes in which the warrior kneels and the shield stands on the floor to protect him.e W. Reichel long ago explained the shape of the Cretan bilobal shield as being determined by technological considerations.ro The bull's hide was stretched out on a wooden frame consisting of some upright and two horizontal stakes. In the middle of the upright stake there would be no lateral strain on the leather" so that it would shrink together towards the o u "rt o od gg Og Jo \. -.\15;/ ,l' ll{".- 's I o -t," --- /(.r\ \\ ' I r I r l f (3) ; 2 (1 reconstruction after Catling) and from the Warrior Vase' Mycenae Fig. 4i.lshietds *iif,incuts from Kaloriziki, Cyprus of reconstruction 6 cast bronze shield from Plzei-Jikalka, Bohernia; figure-of-eight shaped shield from a signet-ring, Mycenae; 4 a with "notch"' shield vaulted of the construction of rhe beaten bronze shield frorn Nyirtfri, Hungary; 5 scheme - J,BOUZEK THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 94 ISIMA o0H Eio. LC OH ltj -^ qi.Y $ C 5 >H E:;N 6FN E-lst =!ec .:6< .A."\\ -\i \\ t .J oN .F POJ4 O; a'c N = J?9 \[ N Hi) YF -s r*o (r *N" 5 b€o ari v4) \/- 0v >H G vots '-trot J .\ , f',^?Q6n) 6; o d6v o^E <98 oi dur E€T !1 dr \_J e<a2 'im f/ 1^G g \_> UcA NN qli; ":* 1) 4t l-6 iD aYl ! >.* oJZ Eq oN* ^ GF ;.r= I (.){ a- C 9:'1; -.I =* .9 zi* oEl -{ o e2 G :d^ 0 s .) 415, \.., ettl 1...--, >\ : o.s .9Ei <A o t< D i A) :o:i 6 :tro tr s'fr A vn BA tr d -T> i-*co Qo \l \ \o HOd q.'o \\0 !-l\ r-^-\ ge.l * E>.q orJi a:= > EV qp'5 ! oo N /9 u KB5 * 3- + x\ 5:o e=> A r/ tt \\ \# aO !:o \' H XN On: \i!tE 'iq o -1 0L xxt^1 centre (Fig. a1 :2). Life-size illustrations (like with those at Krurssos) show that the hide was used sometimes shield hairs. Cretan examples of this exceed a man's height and so could hardly have been used for other than ritual and cult purposes'11 The tower shield with straight sides and curved upper edge was apparently of leather stretched out on a solid wooden framework'12 S* in the 13th century B.C.13 The shields illustrated on the LH III C vases are smaller and usually round' the battle of Kadesh, which were often rectangular and of comparable size.la Genuine circular shields are used by the Sea Peoples in the Medinet Habu reliefs and by the Shardana mercenaries of Ramses II.15 There are parallels from Cyprus,16 among the LH III C pottery representationslT and from Europe (see below, III'1.1.3)' Of the Mycenaean III C representations, two pieces showing cut-outs are the most important ; cf' esp.: Warrior Vase. Lorimet, Monuments 1950, pls. 2_3 etc. Here Figs. 52 and 41':3' The Warrior Vase shields shown in front view (side A) have a circular cut-out at the base, 1. Mycenae, a feature paralleled by the V-shaped notch in the Kaloriziki shield as reconstructed by Catling: 2. Kaloriziki, Cyprus. Catling, Bronzework Bodroglteresztfr (Borsod-Abarij-Zemplin m). Hampel , Bronzkorl (1886), pl' 96 :9. Patay' o.c.242 Fig. 1:1. 3. Keszedihidegkrit (Tolna m), Ha Patay, o.c. 242 Fig. 4. A 2 hoard' I :2-3' Otok-Privlaka, Croatia, hoard Ha A. Vinski-Gasparini, Kultuta polia (1973)' 81f' pl. 28:1-4. 8. Most of the other shields discussed exhaustively by Sprockhoff, Hencken and Coles2l are attested by bronze examples only from the Late Urnfield period (9th-8th centuries B'C'), even if the Nyirtura shields and the Jikalka shield (below) show the existence of the metallic shields' Needham's reconstruction of the development22 seems to be reasonable; the Plzen shield is a forerunner both of the Nipperwiese and HerzsPrung tYPes: Plzefi-Jikalka, Bohemia. P. B' Horiik, Sbornik Plzei 2 (1911), 96-99; Sprockhoff , Handelsgeschichte (1930), 8 pl. 4. Fig.41 4. For other Hersprung shields cf. E. Sprockhoff, Zur Handelsgeschichte der germanischen Btonzezeit (1930), 1-8; H. Hencken, AJA 54 (1950)' 303-6; J. M" Coles, Germania45 (7967),151ff.; K" Randsborg, Acta Arch. Ksbenhavn3S (1967), 60f. U-notched shields : Hersprung (North Germany), 2 pieces; Taarup Mose, Falster, Svenstrup Mose' Himmerland, Ladegaard Mose, Fyn; Nackhiille, Halland (the last piece Sweden, the others Denmark); Cloonlara, C. Mayo and Annadale, Co' Leitrim (Ireland); situla d'Este from Bologna. Vase side B shields are strongly vaulted (Fig' 52)' V-notched shields: seven localities in the SW part but no cut-out is marked, a feature resembling the of the Iberian peninsula; Castelnau-le Fez in "notch" of the later Herzsrpung shields (cf ' Figs' 43 France; Churchfield, Co. Mayo, Kimahamogue, and 42). Co. Antrim and Longford in Irland. The Herzsprung shield is the most important 1.1,.3. European citculat shields and the type for our purposes, since it comes from most Herzsprung shield.Round shields of leather, wood parts of Europe including the Aegean area (Fig' and bronze were used during the European Early 43),23 and the Warrior Vase and Kaloriziki shields Urnfield period;le this is further confirmed by the Fie. $: 1,3) are closely related (cf. III.1.1.2 and existence of the Nyirtura type shields of bronze m.1.1.5). Herzsprung shields have no actual cutfrom the eastern part of Central Europe:20 out like the Warrior Vase examples, but the circular ribs of both leather and bronze shields are 1. Nyirtura (Szabolcs-S zatmam.)' fragment from notch. a Ha A t hoard' Patay, Getmania 46 (1968)' interrupted at one point by a V- or U-shaped technological the from explained can be shape The 24ltt'. pl. 3l-32. Fig' 4t : 6. (1964),142-16, here Fig. 41 : 1' Other representations show small circular shields without marking details.l8 The Warrior t 2. 5. Nadap. Petres, Savaria 16 1968 (1983) 60f. fig' 1.1.2. Late Mycenaean shields' Both types of large shield disappear from the Mycenaean world Lorimer connected them with the Hittite shields in t|l- 95 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE 96 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE principle, of which the Warrior Vase shows a more simple, the Hersprung shields a more sophisticated solution. The leather (or oxhide) used as material might be treated in several ways, but one of the simplest methods of producing a convex shield is to make a notch in one part of the periphery; with the less convex shields, the problem can be solved simply by not stretching one segment of the circle of leather or hide or to let the leather shrink during the hardening process (mainly U-notched shields, Fig. 4l:5).2a The original model of construction of the Herzsprung shield, was, as it seems, of an Aegean ancestry; this kind of circular shield is one half of the old figure-of-eight shield, which was constructed according to similar principles (cf.II.1.1.1.). But Sprockhoff and others considered the ISIMA Herzsprung shield as beingof an Central European origin, and, despite some hesitations by John Coles25 and myself, the connection between the shield and the hoard found at Pilsen-Jftalka (Fig. 41:4) is very probable and the unique casting technique of the shield (instead of the usual hammered sheet) suggests an early date as well.26 It is therefore the only bronze shield of its kind affording a sufficient protection against slash and thrust. As shown by J. Coles'experiments, the shields of beaten bronze sheet offered little protection against slash and thrust;27 they could only serve as a decoration on leather shields or for cult and parade purposes. Leather (sometimes on a wooden framework) was the best and commonest material for shields (besides the heavier and less popular wood). Since the bronze shields covered and deco- Fig. 43. Distribution of the Herzsprung shields in Europe: A U-notched, V V-notched shields' After Hencken, completed XXIE Fi rated the leather ones, they had to take over the decorative elements of leather shields, though these were no longer functional in bronze' Of the other Herzsprung shields, the exarnple from Taarup Mose in Denmark is decorated in the Ha B 1 repouss6 style (10th century B'C') and the shield fronn Nackhiille in Sweden dates from Mon- telius IV,28 so the gap between them and the Pilsen shield is not too wide. The Nordic Period V fibulae show representations of two Hersprung shields * connected by a bar.2e Since the double-shield was t i 97 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE also used by Sardinian four-eyes heroes and it played a paft in the European religion at that ti.",' ali this makes a relation between the Herzsprung and Aegean bilobal shields probable' The connecting link between the Herzsprung shield, the earlier bilobal shield and the Warrior Vase shields seems to derive from a cornmon technological process, but, even so, it shows some relation between both worlds. The old tradition might have persisted throughout the Dark Age in Greece (cf. III.1.1.5 and Fig' 42)' Next come the smaller metal particles of shields of perishable materials. 1.L4. Shield bosses. Objects interpreted as shield bosses are first attested in Greece in LH III C (Mouliana, Kaloriziki LC II B)'31 They became rnore common in the Frotogeometric and Geornet- ric periods (cf' Fig. 44:3,8 and the rnapFig'42:3' forlhe Kaloriziki pieces Fig. 41: 1), but they seem to riisappear c. 7 0A 8.C.32 Some scholars took thern for cymbals (Kunze), but they never appear in gruu", in pairs, and later cymbals are different' The ieconstruction of the Kaloriziki shield includes one large and two small bosses, but in the normal way there was only one boss in the centre, as on the shields carried by Sardinian bronze figurines of warriors.33 Related European bosses (usually cal- led phalerae and paralleled also in the Caucasus and in Luristan) were sometimes also used as shield bosses accompanied by other decorative pieces of bronze.3a Neiiher the European, nor the Greek bosses had this one function only' Andronikos explained the Vergina bosses (which are smaller than the usual Greek items) as belt ornaments of female dress,35 while some of the European a4d Caucasian items were real phalerae decorating horse's harness (cf' note 34). Most of the Greek bosses are undecorated, but where there is a decoration, it consists of dotted rosettes in repouss6,36 as with their European and Luristan parallels, which do not have the spikes in the centre like most of the Greek bosses. The decoration of dotted "sun syrnbols" might well have apotropaic significance (cf ' III.1 .6). Complete shields with bosses are best represented on Sardi' nian figurines (note 30); the facing of the shield is. stitchecl together from four quadrants (sometimes of more strips) of leather, whiie the boss protects the most exposed part, the centre where the seams cross. Supposing that the construction of European and Greek shields with bosses was similar to this, the significance of the shield-boss becomes apparent. The strips marked on the Sardinian shields can probably be explained as the telamon, a strap of leather for carrying the shield suspended from the shoulder. Greek 9th century shields. The best information on the 8th century B.C. Greek shields is afforded by vase painting.3T One type, called the !.1.5. Dipylon shield, is similar in to the shape size' in srnaller much but shield, Mycenaean bilobal Stylisation of drawing made its centre appear nar- rower than in reality, but there are no sufficient grounds for supposing that it was not used in the Geometric period.38 The Boeotian shield of simiiar shape might have been its later derivation; there were many archaic elements which remained in use in Boeotia longer than in the more developed parts of Greece. A rectangular shield recalling those used by the Hittites in the battle of Kadesh was also represented on Geometric vases' but it is difficult to say whether there was any connection between it and the old Mycenaean "tower" shield.3e Ancestors of Geometric shields can be traced back as far as in LH III C UIJL.|.Z), but their earlier Aegean ancestry is indirect and doubtful. The round shield is slightly later depicted on Geometric vases than the Dipyltrn shield, but, since shield bosses were most probably used on round shields (cf. note 32),its continuous use throughout the Dark Age is highlY Probable. Herzsprung shields are known in corpore from Cyprus, Delphi and Olympia, models from Crete, J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 9B lstMA Samos and Rhodes; cf. Snodgrass, EGAW 1964, 55f. and H. Borchardt, Arch. Hom.E 1,39-44: seems to date from the 8th century. Their number l.-2. their deriving from Europe as late as Snodgrass Idalion, Cyprus. Snodgrass, EGAW (1964) pl. 24 ; Hencken, AJA 54 1950, fig. 62 p. 284; a second piece SCE Il, pl.175:5 no.324,6th cent. B.C.' 3. Kouklia (Paleopaphos). Karageorghis, BCH 86 (1963), 27 3 tig. ll, 7 th cent. 4.Idaean Cave, Crete. Kunze, Kretische Bronzereliefs (1931), 240 no. 67 pl. 43a (representation on an 8th cent. B.C. shield). 5. Delphi, Fouilles de D. Y, 25 tig. 99, and a second fragment o.c. 1 05 fig. 364-5 ; the first piece also Arch. DeIt.16 (1960), 159 pl. 144 B. 6. Olympia, fragments, O1. Ber. 5, 40f. figs. 20-2l,inv.B 442. 7. Ialyssos, Rhodes, three miniatures. Lorimer, Monuments (1950), 169 note 4. 8. Samos, AM 58 (L933),118f. pls. 36-37 . All pieces are V-notched. Snodgrass dates their origin too late,ao the piece from the Idaean Cave . and wide distribution (Fig. a2:4-5) speak against supposes. Though some elements on them may be a result of a renewed European inspiration, as with the Balkan and Italic greaves at Olympia (III"7.4.4), and the V-notched shield may have been transmitted by the Phoenicians from Spain, the type of the notched shield, known from the Warrior vase (IIL1.1.2) might have persisted fu' Greece throughout the Dark Age. If we accept the technological explanation given above, the Greek Herzsprung shields may be descendants of a local tradition first attested by the Warrior Vase and Kaloriziki shields. But the most probable solution is not an unilinear one ; the production of weapons and armour in Europe and in the Aegean had common traditions and remained to a certain degree an international matter. The V-notched shields remained mainly Mediterranean, while the developed U-notched shields were a Central and North European affair (cf. map Fig.43).a1 EG ffi,ffi,G 44.l reconstruction of the Tiryns helmet, 2 decorative boss from Vergina, 3,8 shield bosses from Kerameikos, graves PG 24 and a corslet from Kallithea, Tomb A, 5 greave from Dobraca near Shkoddr, 6 greave from Olympia. After Verdelis, Andronikos, Yalouris, Prendi and Kasper. Fig. 43,4 and 7 knobs and bronze lacing of I I' THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CUUIURE xxBl *- 1.2. Helmet From the Aegean aspect, the main surveys are J' Borchhard's Homerische Helme (1'972), his shorter sketch in Arch. Homerica E l, 57-74 and Cassola Guida, Atmi (1973), 79-104, but the earlier book by Kukahn (1936) and Miss Lorimer's Homer and the Monuments (1950) are still well worth reading. From the European point of view' ' the basic study by Merhart (Ber' RGK301940' 4-42) retains its importance, and several articles by A. ivlozsolics and others have contributed much to our knowledge,a2 while The Eatliest European Helmets by H. Hencken (1971) is an excellent survey with deep understanding. P' Schauer brings some new evidence in Fu ndber. aus llessen 19-20 (1g7g-80),521_543 and in Neue Ausgtabungen aus Deutschland (1975)' but his picture is often schematic and using parallels distant in time and space. We would keep in mind that bronze sheet was only one of the materials for helmets, besides leather. t.2 A. The Aegeanseries' 7,2.a 1. Aegean composite helmets' The most popular variety of the composite helmet in the Aegean was the boar's tusk helmet; its predeces.or, *"r" probably simple caps with boar's tusks known in finds from the Pontic area,ot which may have been introduced to Greece and become fashionable there as a result of the EH II/III migrations (above I.5.3). The boar's tusk helmet is very rare in it is the most popular type represented on the Mycenaean mainland.aa The tusks were Crete, but sewn onto a leather cap in horizontal rows separated by horizontal ribs' which probably consisted of leather strips. Perforated boar's tusks have often graves, and the helmets can be reconstructed on the basis of the many illustrations of them in wall paintings, gems and ivory been found in figurines.a5 The boar's tusk helmet is regularly conical in shape, some examples being taller, and others more uuuit"d, terminating in a spool-shaped crest-holder with a feather crest. This helmet usually has no metal parts; some round metal plaques from 99 Mycenae were, however, interpreted by Karo as decorative components of leather helmets.a6 Most of the Minoan illustrations depict another type of composite conical helmet covered with plates of rectangular and other shapes. Representations on gems (listed by Kukahn and Cassola Guida)47 might in some cases pass for rough sketches of boar's tusk helmets; but others, like on the Knossos model, on the vases from Katsamba and from the Tomb of the Double Axes at Knossos, depict plaques that are clearly different from boar's tusks. The Katsamba vase, showing alternate rows of boar's tusks and rectangular plaques, provides evidence that the artist distinguished both types.a8 As no similar plaques of bronze have been found, the examples known from illustrations were probably of sorne perishable material. The shape is again more conical, and in other cases more vaulted. Both these types of Aegean helmets had crests. They are very rare in contexts later than LH III A,ae and the same can be said of a third variant called by Kukahn "the vertically constructed helmet" (Helm mit vertikalem Aufbau)'so Generally, the shape of the composite helmets remains basically conical. l.t.A 2. One piece helmets' The Boxer Vase from Haghia Triadha illustrates the best-known type of the one-piece helmet.51 It is there worn by boxers, and the same seems to be the case on a seal from Haghia Triadha,s2 whereas the pendants from Pylos and a gem from Kato Zaktoss3 are without any functional context, so that we cannot exclude the old hypothesis that this helmet was used only for sports, and not for fighting.sa The shape of the Boxer Vase helmet differs completely from all other known types and reminds one of the Greek Corinthian helmet; it was probably of leather. The hat-shaped conical helmet is exceptionalss and the existence of one-piece conical helmets analogous to the much more common composite helmet is doubtful. Of the two examples most often quoted, the picture on a Zakto MM III sealing is too small, and the Siege Mosaic helmets too summarily rendered for safe parallels to be adduced'56 Even if we accept that real one-piece helmets are illustrated here, the Knossos btonze helmet does not find any exact parallel among them' 100 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE lstMA w a 9 12 Fig. 45. First European bronze helmets. 1 Liidky, 2 Beitsch (detail of the crest holder), 3 Oranienburg, 4 Pass Lueg, 5 Skocijan, 6 Podcrkavlje Slavonski Brod, 7-8 Spi5skd Be16 and Z65kov, crest holders, 9 Wrillerdorf, cheek piece, 10 Oggiono, 11 Hungary, 12 Wonsheim (for the sources cf. the lists). - T ff $. xxNl 1.2 THE RELA'TIONS OF TFIE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE A 3. Cheek pieces. The cheek-pieces of Mycenaean helmets were mostly of leather and sornetimes covered with boar's tusks (Mycenae' note 65), but the Dendra corslet grave provided a boar's tusk helmet with cheek-pieces of bronze at sheet, and one piece comes from the old tombs is piece Ialyssos the of edge Ialyssos"sT The frant t. straight," while the Dendra cheek-piece is slightly incuived (to fit the contours of the face), but' despite this feature, it is better comparable witl the Ialyssos than with tlre Knossos pieces (below Ul'.1.2 A 4); the shape of both is derived from the heavy outlines of earlier Mycenaean bronze harnmering in general, and protective arrnour of the Dendra tyPe in Particular' 1.2. A 4. The Knossos helmet' The helmet found in the LM II grave V at Knossos, New Hospital site (Pl' 7 :2)se recalls the Aegean composite heimets in its conical shape, but "nothing precisely comparable to a helrnet of this type appear to have been recorded, either in representa- e l; it ii tions or by finds of actual exarnples" anywhere in the Eastern Mediterranean.6o The best parallels come from Europe and date from Br D - Ha A 1' They are so close that the Knossos helmet can easily be ascribed to the same group of European cornical items (Lridky' resp. Beitsch-Knossos, be- 101 from other parts of the chamber' The pottery dates from LM II and this date is also vases came confirmed by the stone vases and weapons (sword of Sandars type D).6t Nothing compels a later date' The excavatcrs suggested that the helrnet - in its had been laid on the coffin or bier original state the ground after the organic to and later fell rnateriais had rotten away. Other explanations, like the suggestion, that a grave-rurbber was surprised at his work and left his helmet in a moment of blind panic, or that the interment is secondary. with only the helmet new, are hardly plausible. Besides, there are other articles of bronze protective armour frorn the 15th/14th centuries B'C' and the shape of the Knossos helmet resembles the norrnal Aegean composite helmet; it could be explained as the translation into bronze of a piece normally made of organic material. 7.2 A 5. The Warriot Vase helmefs' Both types of helmets depicted on the Warrior Vase from Mycenae (Fig' 52) differ from all the Mycenaean helmets already mentioned' One of them Las a broad spool-shaped crest-holder, a long crest and two horns, the other a comb-like crest' C representations on vases, if clear enough, seem to show the same types,63 Both are stronger and more massive than the low III. 1.2 B 1, Fig. 4 5 : 1_3).It corresponds to the types helmets, to offer better protection against northern Lridky type in all details except that the earlier and heavier slashing sword (cf' Ill'3'2)' crest-holder is attached by seven rivets (in the the new horns projecting from the front (which have Euroean examples, the crest-holder is cast on, and The on the helmet of the Captain of only on a single late example' from Tarquinia', earlier ancestors Knossos),6a were also useful from fresco a rivet is added), the sheet is thinner and the the Blacks the sword stuck between the if the slashing ; execution slightly finer. These details show a re- against attacker remained for a second unprosemblance with the Cretan group of LM III horns, the and rnany other authors since have C weapons (cf. III. 3.1). As helmets of identical tected. Lorimer these types with the helmets of the type aie known from the eastern part of Central compared and some Sea Peoples on mercenaries Europe from c. 1300-1000 B'C', Merhart's at- Shardana Both Warrepresentations.65 tempi to connect the Knossos helmet with other Egyptian and Cypriot The leather' probably of helmets were types of bronze sheet armour in the LH III B/C risr Vase white dotp on the caps may depict buttons or degean is fully understandable'61 bosses, like on the Vilso helmets, (below lll'7'2 as described g.rt th" precise find circurnstances, by S. Hood and Piet de Jong, allow little scope for Merhart's hypothesis. The helmet itself was found lying on one, the cheek-pieces on the other side of ttre ottret burial gifts (clay alabastra, sword and spear-head); two other alabastra and two stone Most other LH III B 5) or simply the structure of the hide with hair, as represented on the Enkomi god helmet'65 Some other LH III C representations seem to depict simple cap helmets,6T later also known from Geometric figurines (cf. III. n.$). \..-_--- 102 J,BOUZF,K, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 1.2 A 6. The Tiryns helmet. The helmet from Tiryns, New Grave 28, is dated by a stirrup vase to the transition from Submycenaean to Protogeometric (Pl. 10, Fig. 45:7). The same grave also contained two iron swords (the better preserved piece belongs to Snodgrass type I), a spearhead, a shield boss and two finger rings, all of bronze; the metal objects confirm the date provided by the pottery. The grave contained two skeletons, but, according to Verdelis, the entire panoply was deposited with only one of them.68 The bronze part of the helmet consists of two side plates and two cheek-pieces with "scalloped" front edge, allowing freedom to both eyes and mouth; this feature was already present in the Dendra pieces and is more pronounced in the Knossos helmet. A bronze band formed the fifth part of the find. The bronze sheet is only one millimetre thick and all the parts indicate that the bronze pieces were decolative appliques of a leather cap rather than a bronze helmet proper. If one puts one bronze strip between the two side pieces, the cap is too small for a normal manzs ISIMA head: that was why Verdelis used two strips in his reconstruction (Fig. 44:I), but the solution is unsatisfactory both from an aesthetic and from a technological point of view. More probably there was a higher "comb-crest" in the middle and the bronze band was situated elsewhere.6e The openwork decoration of the rim resembles the "fore-and-aft" crest of Argive Geometric helmets and the legs of some tripods,To but even closer parallels seem to be shown on Cretan 7th century B.C. bronze reliefs.Tl The dotted repoussd rosettes and the decorative scheme recalls, however, European helmets, notably the piece from Pass Lueg (Fig. a5:1), a cruder item from Northern Germany, and the fragmentary helmets from the Fliegenhiihle near S. Cawian, now Skocijan GIl.\.2B 4). Like the Athenian greaves (111.7.4.2), the Tiryns helmet finds its best parallels in the East Alpine'territory north of the Adriatic. The technique of the Argos helmet recalls the European comb helmets (Kammhelme), which were usually made of two lateral parts (cf. IIL.L2 q+Aftd tr7.: +4 '4. r:\ /rtii\ fi^,f n ll /' ,/\ \ , Fig. 46 Metal helmets in Greece and Cyprus. 1 bronze cheek pieces of Mycenaean composite helmets, 2 the Knossos helmet, 3 the Tiryns helmet,4 Cypriot helmets with high crest-holder,5 GreekGeometric "Kagelhelm". 1 Olympia,2 Argos,3 Tiryns,4 Dendra, 5 Delos, 6 Knossos, 7 Ialyssos, 8 Enkomi. B 4), while the Pass Lueg helmet (Fig' 45: 1) in its unique shapeT2 reminds one of the helmets on the reverse of the Warrior Vase (III.1. A 5); bothhave similar reinforcement of the upper part" 1.2. A 7. Othet Greek Dark Age helmets and the "Kegelhelm" Figurines from Olympia and elsewhere show a rich variety of helmets with different crests, most of which were probably made of leather.T3 The simple hemispherical cap is reminiscent of the shape of contemporary bronze bowls, as are the simple European cap helmets (ilLJ.2. B 3, Fig. 45 :8). The bowls have regularly openings along the rim for suspension and may have been worn as cap helmets on a leather or felt cap (cf. III.11.19). kukahn compared the earliest Creek Geometric bronze helmets (Kegelhelme, Pl. 13:1) with the old Mycenaean conical helmets.Ta The shape of the former is much rnore elegant' but the Knossos helmet (Pl. 7 :2) is as close to the Kegelhelm as the Argos corslet is to those from eaka and Saint-Germain-du-Plain (III.1.3.6). Another possible relation between the Kegelhelm and the Cypriot and Levantine high comical helmet cannot, however, be excluded.Ts L.2. A 8. Levantine and Cyptiot conical helmets. High conical helmets, often with spoolshaped crest-holders' are worn by Levantine figurines of warriors, now published in a monograph by Helga Seeden.76 The Urartu and Assyrian helmets are of a similar shape, but less high gener(the ally,11 as are those with horns from Cyprus ''dieu au lingot" from Enkomi, cf ' note 66), where(or' as the Cypriot helmets of bronze in corpore helmets) leather parts of rather the bronze upper are conical with a very high crest-holder'78 The same type seem to be illustrated on a krater with a naval scene from Enkomi and such helmets were still in use there during the Archaic period'7e 1.2.8. European helmets. Merhart distinguished three main types of early European helLets: bell-shaped, "comb-helmets" (Kammhelme) and cap helmets; the first category is the most important for our purpose.so The classification used here is a development of those suggested by 103 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE ,xxu1 Mozsolics, Hencken, Miiller-Karpe and Novotn6.81 1..2 B 1. Conicalhelmets. Type Lridky (Beitsch-Knossos, Fig. 45:l-3,7, Pl.7 :2, cf. map 47 no. l) 1. Lridky, Liptov, Slovakia. H. 19.5 cm. J. Pet- rikovich, Sbornik Muz. SIov. Spoloinosfi 15 (1910), 29f.; Mozsolics, Acta Arch. Hung.5 (1955), 42 tig.8; Novotn6, Sbotnik fil. fak. Bratislava lJniversity (1964), 19t.; Musaica - l), 32f.. tig. Hencken, Helmets (I97 45:1. 1 3 ab. Fig. 2. Oranienburg, regulation of the Havel. H. 20 cm. Sprockhoff, Handelsgeschichte (L930), 44 pl. l; Hencken, Helmets (1971),37f-. fig. 130. Fig. 45:3. 3. Beitsch near Pfiirten, Kr. Guben. H. 18.5 cm. Hencken, PPS 18 (1952),36-38 pl.II. Fig' 1.; Helmets (197 1),37 pl. 13 cd. Holes for suspension of cheek-pieces. Fig. 45 :2. 4. Keresztdte, Kom. Abauj. Crest holder missing, hoard Ha A 2lB 1; Mozsolics, Acta Arch' Hung.s (1955), 42 fig.7 andp.48; Hencken, Helmets (797I),39 fig. 18. 5. Spi5skd Belil, distr. Poprad, crest holder, hoard Ha A I_2. Novotn6, Musaica (1964) (no. 1), 20f., pl. 8 and 7:l-2. Hencken,' Helqets ' (lg7li,36 rig. 16.Fig. 45:7 . 6.261kov distr. Dolnf Kubin, crestholder, hoard Ha AI(-2). Novotn6, Musaica(1964) (no. 1), 2If.. pl. 9-I0; Hencken, Helmets (7971),37 fig. 17. Fig. 45:8. 7. Szenterszdbet, Kom. Szeben, crest holder, lost. Hampel, Bronkor II, 143-155; Mozsolics, Acta Arch. Hung.5 (1955), 39. '8. Nadap, Kom. Fejer. Hoard Ha A (1) with other pieces of protective armour. E Petres, Amber Roufe Colloqium Szombathely 1982, Savaria t6 1982 (1983) 571. fig. 1 ab. 9. (special variety). Gusterita, mus. Sibiu, hoard Br D-Ha A 1. Miiller-Karpe, Germania40 (1,962) 271 note 43 tig.9:1; Hencken, HeI' mets (7971), 59f . tig. 72 c. 10. Knossos, Ayios Ionnis, cf. above LII.I.2 A 4, note 59. Pl.7:2. Late varieties: 11. Csiinge, Kom. Vas, H. 19 cm. Bell-shaped with Lridky type crest-holder' Mozsolics, Acta Arch. Hung. 5 (1955), 42,49; Hencken, IIeImets (I97 l), l7 4 fig. 142. 't04 J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EI.'ROPE 12.-t3. Tarquinia (Corneto). Merhart, Ber. RGK 1 3-1 5 ; Hencken, Helmets (797 l), fig. 23, 24-25, H. 21 and 19 cm. 30 (1940), For other pieces frorn Tarquinia and one in mus. Karslruhe cf. Hencken, Helmets (1971),157 . The Beitsch helmet was found in a peat-bog allegedly with Br. A 2 objects, but the old L9th century report is unsatisfactory. The Knossos helmet from a 15th century context is much earlier than the European pieces attested in Br D to Ha B I hoards (Gusterita to LriEky, 13th-10th centuries B.C.). They are nevertheless earlier than the proper bell helmets (Hajdr(b6szerm6ny type, below IIL1.2 B 2). The simple conical shape and the spool-shaped crest-holder (ever if we leave the Knossos helmet (pl. 7 :2) out of consideration) confirm both the Aegean inspiration and the early character of the Lridky type. The Cs6nge helmet is a late variant of the Lridky type. Its low cap resembles the bell helmets, while the iron sheet and the repoussd decoration make a close relations with Lridky unlikely: similarly as later corslets and greaves of an Early Urnfield ancestry, the Csimge helmet shows a continuation of an earlier type, similarly as two helmets from Tarquinia, which Merhart separated from his main group.82 They probably date from the 8th century B.C.; clay rnodels show that this type was once common in Etruria. The crest-holder of the Tarquinia helmets is fastened on by rivets, which reminds one of the Knossos helmet (cf. IIL 1.2 A 4), but the shape and decoration are different, the latter resembling the decoration of Italic comb helmets.s3 1.2 B 2. Bell-shaped helmets in the strict sense (type Hajddbciszerm6ny) 1. Hajdfbiiszerm1ny, Kom. Hajdi. H. 25.5 cm, hoard Ha ts 1. Merhart, Ber. RGK 30 (1940\, 11f. fig. 2:4; Mozsolics, Acfa Arch. Hung. 5 (1955), 38 fig. 4 ; Hencken , Helmets (1971), 45 2. fig.2l d-t. Endrdd, from the Kcirtis, Korn. Bek6s, H. 26.5 cm. Mozsolics, Acta Arch. Hung.5 (1955), 38 fig. 5:1; Hencken, Helmets (1971),45 fig. 22. 3. Soars, near Fdgdras, Transylvania. Merhart, ISIMA Ber. RGK36 (1940),11f. fig. 2:7;Hencken, Helnets (1971), 50 fig.27 . 4. Skocijan (S. Canzian), Fliegenhrihle" Szombathy, MPKAW ll-2 (1912), 149 tig. 94-95 ; Hencken, Helmets (1,971), 48f. tig.26. 5. Mezcikovesd, Kom. Bors6d-Abafij-Zempl6n, H.23.5 cm, hoard Ha B 1 ; P. Patay, Acta Arch. 2l (1969), 167 ; Hencken, Helmets (1971),48t. tig.26. -216 Hung. 5. Bonyhad, Nat. Mus. Budapest, hoard Ha A2 B 1 ; Hencken, Ilelmets (1971),43-5. 7. Sehlsdorf near Dobbertin. Sprockhoff, Handelsgeschichte 1930, pl. 9e; Merhart, Ber. RGK30 - (1940), pl. 2:8; Hencken, Helmets (1971), 43 tig.21 g.n. 8. The piece ex the Zschille coll. Leipzig (Berlin) may be one of the Saros-Soars helmets, cf. Hencken, Helmets (1971), 50 tig.29. The crest-holder is conical and usually decorated, with a spherical attachement on the top. The earliest examples of this type date from Ha B 1, and it is a development of the earlier conical helmets. A fragment from Strassengel of an Early Urnfield date is related, but shows differences, and its high conical crest-holder reminds one of those on Cyp- riot helmets-84 The helmet from tsattina (Kisof a Ha B 3 date, forms, Kiiszeg), presumably together with the Nagytet6ny piece, a small transi- tional group between the bell and cap helmets.8s 1.2 B 3. Cap helmets (Fig. a5:8-10). The simple cap helmetfrom Oggiono, Prov. Como (Fig. 45 :8), which resembles the Aegean hemispherical bowls (IILI1.19) was found with objects dated to the Peschiera phase (early Br D), but the date is not quite certain.t6 The cap helmets with stars resembling the decoration of the Dresden-Dobritz cups are known from "Hungary" (Fig. 45:9), Bozs6k and Uioara de Sus.87 Both groups seem to confirm that cap helmets were known in Europe simultaneously with conical and "comb" helmets. Simple cap helmets (of leather) were represented on tH III C pcttery and on heads of Greek Geometric figurines (III.1.2 A 5 and 7). L.2 B 4. Comb-crested helmets. The undecorated helmets with comb-crest and laterai crestor wing-holders (Merhart type C II)88 are mostly t- l- 5 existed in Early Archaic Crete. The helnnets on the reverse side of the Warrior Vase are also related to distributed in the western part of Central Europe and belong to the Late Urnfietd period'8e The richly decorated Italic comb helmets are also relatively late. The simple rounded conical helmets composed of two halves are earlier and recall the 'helmet on the Royal Gate relief at Boghazkiiy;e0 proba similar variant of comb-crested helmet was it and world,el ably not unknown to the Minoan the comb-crested helmets (III.1.2 A 5). The Pass Lueg helmet (Fig. 45 : 1) with its unique shape is dated by association with a winged axe to Br D.e2 Its decoration finds a parallel on a cruder helmet from Finkerwalde near Sczeczyn.e3 The decorated sheet arnnour from the Fliegenhiihle +'l x2 + I f3 .4 o5 a6 + t- 2 0 ,J 44 A 473 o 1 t8 Os t-' 4so l€ , roo ++t iie an t( 39 xte t5 22tiaK li.-r-zgA 2t o7 +". t4a 41 420 ld o 43r 6 n) ,.. 105 THE RELATIONS OF TF{E LATE MYCENAEAN CULTTIRE xxxl +16 x lb \!o 17 ts. :ld 46. gh 29 o p- 30 3l is- tt Il5. siF 1e tig. rcal Ito not rbl- l3A* 34 ups s0k nrm lnecap IilI 1g*- bcorest0stlv Fig. 47. (typ Lridky-Knossos), 2 early cap Distribution of Late Bronze Age bronze sheet armour in Europe. 1 conical heknets group, 5 greaves, 6 shields, ? bronze strips from leather corslets' helmets, 3 early comb helmets, 4 early corslets of the East Alpine 8 Lfdky' 9 spiSskd bannes-Ecluse, 5 saint Germain du Plain, 6 stetten-Teritzbete,T 263kov, 1 oranienburg, 2 Beitsch, - zil"n,4 15Nyirtura, 16Gusterita, lTUioaradeSus'18 Beld, 10Ducov6, llCaka, I1Keresztdte,l3CiernanadTisou, 14Bodrogkeresztrir, Polianci'27 pass Lueg, 19 oggiono, Z1perg1ne,21Skocijan,22 Rinyaszentkir6ly, 23K6r,24Keszdhidegkrit,23 Bonyhddvidek,26 34 Kallithea' 33 32 cephalenia, Tarquinia, 31 Boljanid, Privlaka, 30 podcrkavlje slavonski Brodl2S veliko Nabrde, 29 otok 43 Kuiim' lvani6' 42 Klostar 41 Tatabanya, Varos, 40 Brodski Nadap, 39 Tiryns, 35 Athens, 36 Knossos, 37 Enkomi, 38 Kaloriziki; cornpleted' ,4-1 Beuron, 45 Malpensa, 46 Limone,47 Schiifstal' After Bouzek 1981' - - 106 J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE near San Canzian (Fig. a5 :5)ea confirms the existence of a local school of bronze armour in the SE Alps. This style is also paralleled on the Tiryns helmet and on the Athenian greaves (III. 1' 2 A6, rr.1.4.2). B 5. Horned helmets' The helmets on the preserved side of the Warrior Vase appear to better protruding from the front. The Cypriot have horns bronze figurines and the Shardana mercenaries of Ramses II have similar helmets with horns,es as well as the Sardinian figurines (III.1.2 A 5). 1.2. Both helmets from Vikss in Denmark (of an 8th century B.C. date)e6 have a combed creast and two horns, while the decoration of hemispherical bosses is also reminiscent of the Sardinian figurines and the Warrior Vase helmets. A single horn and a figurine of a warrior wearing this type of helmet are also known from Denmark,eT and the helmets from Bernidres d'Ailly have protrusions for horns or winged crests.e8 Strange as it may seem, the Vikso helmets find close parallels in the helmets of the Sardinian bronze figurines; common to both are not only the hemispherical bosses, and the horns with globular termination, but also the beakshaped hooks.ee These figurines confirm not only the suggested parallels between Sardinia and the Shardarra of the Egyptian reliefs, but also the contacts between northern Europe and the Mediterranean. The present state of knowledge does not allow us to conclude that the movements of the Urnfield and Sea Peoples were the cause of the wide distribution of the horned helmets, but all of them are related, and the l2thcenturyB'C' with a distribution of Sprockhoff II a swords across large parts of Europe was a most likely period for such contacts to haPPen. Higher conical helmets inEurope resemble Near Eastern types,100 though the exact degree of relation or contact is unknown, and some simple shapes of helmets might have been invented independently or transmitted by leather helmets only. 1.2 B 6. Cheek pieces. In recent years, the number of cheek-pieces known from Barbarian Europe has been substantially increased by new identifications and new finds (Fig' 45:6)'101 The simple oblong shape of the Pass Lueg cheek pieces ISIMA recalls the Ialyssos example and the Boghazkiiy representations; the shaping of the front edge to fit the features of the face in other examples, resembles the Knossos, Tiryns and Dendra pieces (III.1 .2 A 3). The Early Greek Kegelhelm with simple rectangular cheek pieces and the Corinthian and Illyrian helmets with incurvings for eyes and mouth existed side by side in the 7th century and support the view that both types of cheek pieces were also known in Greece during the Dark A:".'o' C. Summary. The first European conical helmets (Lridky type) were inspired by Aegean forerunners. Even the composite Aegean helmets had similar shape and a spool-shaped crest-holder, but the bronze helmet found at the New Hospital of Knossos, dating from the 15th century 8.C., is so close as to differ only in some technical details from the European Lridky type. Some of the first European comb-crested helmets (Kammhelme) can well be compared with the relief on the Royal Gate at Boghazkoy, and there may have been similar helmets in use in Minoan Crete. The earliest European comb-crested helmets were therefore of southern inspiration, but their further evolution was autonomous, and later they influenced back the Aegean armour. The Tiryns helmet owes much (especially in its decoration) to East Alpine - Northwest Balkan bronzework. The first European cap helmets are according to the present evidence slightly earlier than (or contemporary with) the East Mediterranean hemispherical bowls with pierced openings along the rim, but this simple shape had certainly more functions 1,.2 and may well have had leather or wooden prototypes in other countries. Other European helmtypes may also have had some East Mediterranean ancestry. The Tiryns pieces of sheet bronze were the decoration of a leather cap, but the sheet of most other helmets is not much thicker and it did not offer good protection against a sword slash without any leather lining. The difference between simple leather helmets and those covered with bronze sheet was negligeable as far as protection went, but a glittering bronze helmet would represent a famous and rich warrior and deter the enemy. The 107 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CUUIURE xxul common use of leather helmets may also explain the frequency of helmet representations on Early Greek figurines and the scarcity of in corpore and bronze examples both from Dark Age Greece from prehistoric Europe. It may also be responsible for the similarity between the Knossos helmet and the Early Greek "Kegelhelm"' here with the East Mediterranean, where several different types were in existence during the later half of the 2nd millenium B.C." Some of themwere the used by the Mycenaeans, others mainly outside Mycenaean world. 1.31. Sca|e cotslets. The scale corslet (com- posed of small plates) was used by the peoples of ihe north-eastern Mediterranean' The I.3 ' The cotslet AAG (1967), 24-26' and Cassola Guida, Armi (1973),57-67, the most After Snodgrass, Hom' exhaustive survey is that by Catling in Arch' E 74-178. From the European point of view' Merhart's survey in Originesneeds the completion provided by J' Paulik (Bet. RGK 1968, -cf' also ^Bouzek, Festscht' v. Btunn t981,25-28)' Another brief survey by Schauer (Ausgtabungen in 6 Deutschland 1975) is noteworthy' and there are in the new corslets of the Filinges type from France Mus6e AN, Saint Germain-en -Laye' We shall start famous centuries Nuzi scales date from the 15th-14th B.C. Besides the finds, there are also tablets which mention the corslets and the scales, several hun- dreds of which were used for each piece'103 Complete scale corslets are known from many illustration., notably from Egypt. The corslets from the tomb of Ramses III belong to the latest Bronze Age examples, the corslet of Tutenkhamon is the finest those preserved to us. Scales were found in Cyprus,td Troy and Mycenae,los but this type of must have been quite exceptional in the "ottt.t Mycenaean world' though some LH III C repre- of ,".rtution. may have been explained as depicting @ v3 .+ pffl F-V l1 -\ 3 F n E Et 't[t le E rrt nhe 4 (ideograms) on the tablets, 3 bronze lining of leather corslets' Fig. 4g. corslets in the Aegean. 1 Dendra type, 2 its representations bellcorslets.-lMetaxata,2olympia,3Kalliihea,4Thebes,5Mycenae,6Argos,TDendra,8Knossos'9Phaestus' 108 I,BAUZEK THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND scale corsletsl6 and Agamemnon may have had one.107 Their production was very complicated, and even in Egypt the corslets were acquired rather as booty than produced. t',". , ,' . 1.3.2. Aegean chariot-harnesses. Earlier possible corslets (on the Siege Rhyton from Mycenae etc.) were discussed by Cassola Guida and Catling;tot the evidence of any corslets used before c. 1450 B.C. is very uncertain. Certain Linear B ideograms from Knossos were long ago explained by Evans as depicting corslets, and there are also similar texts from Pylos,1oe but no in corpore example was known until the discovery of the Dendra cuirass. Tomb (T, L2), complete cuirass. Verdelis, AM 82 (1967) pls. 4-13. P. Astriim-N. Verdelis, The Cuirass Tomb and 1. Dendra, New other tinds from Dendra (1977) pls. t2-20. Cf . also P. Greenhalgh, Antiquity 54 (1980) 201-205.Pt.6:2. 2.Dendra, shoulder guard. Persson, New Tombs from Dendra near Midea (1942) pl. I and fig. tt4. 3. Thebes. Two shoulder guards, two small breast plates and the arm-guards (the proper corslet and the neck-guard missing). Touloupa, Kadnas 3 (1964) 27 ; ILN (5 . 12. 1964) 869f . fig. B. 4. Phaestus, Tombe dei Nobili, two small breast- Ant.14 (1904) 537 nos. fig. 22, p. 539 fig" 23; Hood, BSA 4'1 (1952) 260; Catling, Arch. Hom.E p. 101. 5. Mycenae, ChT 15 and 69, breast plates. Verdelis, AM 82 (1,967) 22 no.5; Catling, Arc&. HomE p.102. 6. Knossos, stone model, H.5.6 cm. Verdelis, AM 82 (1961) 22 no. 6 pl. 23:1 ; Cassola Guida, Armi (1973) pl. 18: 1. plates. Savignoni, Mon. 6-8 The Dendra pieces form a genuine harness, comparable to the Mediaeval items. The harness was found in the southern part of a chamber tomb which had one burial only, deposited in the northern part of the chamber. Its main component is a bronze corslet; consisting of a front and a rezr plate, on which are hung various supplementary pieces of armour: a high "gotget" or neck-guard, two shoulder-guards EUROPE TSIMA ("pauldrons"), each with a small overlapping plate attached to protect part of the upper arm, and another, triangular in form, where the pauldrons cross the chest. Below, three curved overlapping plates ("taces") protect the lower part of the trunk. They hang higher at the front than at the back, an arrangement which facilitates the movement of the legs. This harness was even compared by Snodgrass to the suits of armour made for Louis XI ; so strange and complicated does it appear.1l0 The pauldron from another grave at Dendra (no. 2) was taken for a helmet by the excavator, but recognized for what it was by Akerstrrim before the complete harness was uncovered. Several parts of an identical harness were found at Thebes and single pieces from Phaistos may also come, as well as those from Mycenae, from similar cuirasses.11l Linear B tablets from Knossos confirm the frequency of such protective armour and inform us drat it was equal (in value rather than in weight) to one bronze talent (ingot), but the detailed explanation of the texts is not yet quite clear. Harnesses are mentioned in the tablets in connection with chariot parts and were probably worn by charioteers; another reason for this explanation is that they would be too heavy for infantrymen (cf. note 109). A stone vase frorn Knossos (LM IIts/ IIIAI, list no. 6) probably shows a corslet with pauldrons, a shorter variety of the Dendra cuirass. 1.3.3. Late Mycenaean corslets. bands from leather corslets: 1. Kallithea. Yalouris, AM75 (1960) A. Bronze 46-48. Pls. :3,8:3 and 9:3. 2" Lakkithra, Cephalenia, grave Delta. Marinatos, Arch. Ef. (1932) pl. 16. 3. Tiryns (?). Verdelis, AM78 (1963) (cf. III.1.2 A 6); Catling, Arch. HomE p. 106. 7 B. Most important representations: 1. Warrior Vase. Lorimer, Hamer and the Monuments (1950) pl" 3 : 1 ; Snodgrass, AAG (1967) figs. 10-11 ;Fis.52. 2. Warrior stele. Arcfi. Et. (1896) pl. 1. Lorimer, o.c. pl.2:2. For other representations cf. Cassola Guida, Armi (1973) 62-65; Tiryns VII pl. 2:8 ; Catling, Arch. Hom.E pp.1A4-6. xxul THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE 109 v2 Fig. 49. Early European corslets of the eastern group. and Merhart. 1 Caka, 2 eierna nad Tisou, 3 Ducov6, 4 Saint Germain du Plain. After Paulik 110 I BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE The corslet was not especially important for warriors who fought with the big bilobal shield, but the situation changed with the advent of the European cut-and-thrust swords and of small circular shields. To counter the new tactics employed by the barbarians, rapid movement was essential, and the importance of the corslet increased. According to the corslets known from illustrations, it was similar in shape to the Late Bronze Age European corslets, while those of Goliath and the possible Sea Peoples corslets are not altogether dissimilar either (cf. III. 1.3.4 an III.15.2). The LH III C illustrations (Fig. 52) show a simple corslet without collar (probably also without sleeves), rather like the two main corslet plates of the Dendra harness in isolation. These corslets were usually of leatler, sometimes strengthened by bronze bands and'linets (Pl. 7 :3, 8:3 and 9:3). This explanation suggested by Lorimer (HM1.950, 201) may well be the answer for the riveted sheet bands from Kallithea grave .A (with the greaves) and for similar fragments from Metaxata. The ornamental pattern of ribs and rivets repeats that of the Kallithea greaves (Fig. 50:3) and the bands are too straight to belong to a shield. Imitations of rivets are also known on European bronze corslets, and perhaps also the bronze strips found with the Tiryns helmet served for a similar purpose.t" 1.3.4. The Sea Peoples' cotslets. The description of Goliath's armour113 proves the existence of the bronze sheet corslet in this part of the Mediterranean, but it is very doubtful whether some of the Sea People warriors on the Medinet Habu reliefs wore the European 'omuscle" corslet; some of them probably fought without protection for the chest. Another type of composite corslet is illustrated in the Medinet Habu reliefs and on two Cypriot mirror handles.lla In Medinet Habu, it is worn by Shardana and Peleset. It consists of numerous strips laid at an angle to each other, with the angle sometimes at the bottom like the letter V, and sometimes at the top, like an inverted V, according to tribe. Some strips at the bottom of the corslet may also be horizontal. It is not certain whether the strips are of bronze or of leather, but the latter seems to be more probable' As Catling pointed out,115 the lobster corslet may have been similar to iSIMA the Filinges type according to Merhart's classification (though here it consists of two plates, cf. IIL1.3.5), and the Lakkithra fragments may have belonged originally to this "lobster-corslet". 1.3.5. European corslets. Early Urnfield types (Fig. a5). Surveys J. Paulik, Ber. RGK 49 1968 (1970) 4l-61 and Bouzek, Pestschr. v. Brunn (1981) 25-28. P Schauer, Iahrbuch RGZM 25 (re78) e2-130. Caka. Todik-Paulik, SIov. Arch. 8 (1960) 59-124; Paulik, Slov. Arch. ll (1963) 3I1t. fig.43. Br D. Fig. 49:1. 2. Ducov6 near Trendin. Paulik, Ber. RGK 49 (1970) 46-49 pt.2 tig.5. Fig. !9:3. Ha A. 3.K6r, Hungary, fragment. Hampel, Bronzkorl, pl. 118:27-28; identification J. Paulik, S,lov. arch. ll (1963) 311f. Ha A. 4.Saint-Germain-du-Plain. Merhart, Origines 1. (1954) 33ff. pl. 3 : 4. Ha B. Fig. 49 :4. 5. Nadap, Kom. Fejer, fragments of several plates. Petres, Amber Roufe colloquium, Savaria 16 1982 (1983) 6I-64 fig. 10. 6. cf. also the Klidevac idol wearing a corslet, probably of an Early Urnfield date. Kossack, Syrybolgut (1954) pl.3:4. Pl. 13:3-4. The western group: 1-5 Merhart, Origines L954: Grenoble his pl. I:3, Filinges pl.2:2-3, "Naples" (Louvre) pl. I:1, Hamburg ("from an ftruscan tomb") pl.l:2, New York, Metropolitan Mus. pl. 2:1. 5.-1 1. Marmesse (Haute Marne, France), Musde Ant. Nat. Saint-Gefmain-en Laye. 12. Cierna nad Tisou near Koiice, Slovakia" Paulik, Ber. RGK 49 (1968) 41-3. Fig. 49 :2. Possible fragment of a corslet: Winkelsass, Miiller- Chronologie (1959) pl. 148 :80 (Br D); -Karpe, cf. H. Thrane, Acta Arch. Kobenhavn32 (1'962) 130f. The earliest corslets from the eastern part of Central Europe have been discussed by J. Paulik;116 they have a later (Ha B) complete parallel from Saint-Germain-du-Plain, but all new finds are fragmentary. Their decoration imitates the male breast, and also the seams of a leather corslet. The basic shape of both plates, front and rear, resem- XXIXI THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE bles the two main parts of the Dendra cuirass, the Klidevac idol and the later Greek bell-corslets (III.1.3.6). The earliest Caka corslet dates from Br D (Fig. 49:l), the corslet from Ducov6 (Fig. 49:3) and the fragment from K6r from Ha A l-2.The decoration of first East Alpine corslets has its probable predecessors in the Br C-D pins of the Bohemian-Bavarian Tumulus culture.lrT Apart from the corslets mentioned above, several other pieces of the East Hallstatt group have been uncovered since the Merhart's study appeared,118 and the type Filinges was shown to have some relation to the "lobster-corslets" of the Sea Peoples (III.1.3.4). The rarity of the examples known to us does not exclude the possibility that bronze corslets were much more common, since large pieces of this bronze sheet are only rarely preserved and small fragments are difficult to identify.lre But this does not mean that corslets of bronze offered substantially better protection than those of leather. Even the bronze corslets were apparently sewn on a leather jacketl2o and were mainly intended as a mark of distinction for warrior chieftains. 4-7. Crete: Arkades (Alexiou, Arch. DeIt. 20 1965, 554 pl. 697 alpha); Axos (ASAtene 10-12 1930-31, 69 fig. "25), Gortyn (ASAtene 33-34 1955-56, 261t. fig.74,71) and Praisos (BSA 40 t939-40,57 pl.31; BSA 8190r-02 pl. 10). Despite the aftinities mentioned above, it is improbable that the predecessors of the muscle corslet were taken over into the Aegean weaponry as late as in the 8th cdntury only, if other parts of the same armour were known as early as in the 13th-11th centuries, and l2th century Greek corslet representations are comparable to the European corslets" Besides this, the basic principles of shape and decoration could easily be trpnsmitted by leathcr exarnples. Since Greek bell corslets are much more sophisticated than their East Alpine relatives, they must have undergone some developrnent in Greece in the meantime, though the bron- zesmiths from both areas may have had sorne knowledge on the works of their colleagues further south or north. L.4. The gteaves 1.3.6. Conclusion. The earliest Greek corslets. The earliest European btonze corslet comes from t: I m ,lge :r)): t2) of tullel are tale fh'e Rm- Dendra. Only the basic front and rear plates, however, can be related to later examples; the harness as a whole was cornpletely different from the types used by the Sea Peoples and in Late Bronze Age Europe. The European LBA corslet, ,lecorated in repous6 and by incisions, was closely related to leather corslets, and was developed for the new tactics using light infantrymen armed with cut-and-trust swords. In its form and decorative structure (imitating male breast musculature) the European LBA corslet has much in common with the Early Greek "bell" corslet, first attested in corpore at ca.750 B.C.12r Especially close is the relation to the East Alpine Hallstatt group, as represented by pieces from Slovenia (note 118)' Early Greek corslets: 1. Argos. c.750 B.C. Courbin, BCH 81 (1957) 340-56, pls. 2-3 Pl. 11 : 3. L Olympia, many pieces. Olympia IV,pl.58-60 and OI. Ber.2,96 pl. 39 etc. Arch Ef. (1910) 311 fig. 30. Bassai, -1. 111 Hector Catling wrote several surveys of the LBA greaves (Op. Ath' 2 t955,21-36, Aegean Bronzework 1963, 40-42, Atch. Horn. E 143-62) and there is useful complementary information in the two books on armour by Snodgrass (1964, 1967) and elsewhere (esp' Cassola Guida, Armi 1.97 3, 68-78). As concerns the European greaves, the basic study by Merharf (Ber. RGK 37138 1,956157, gl-147,later reprinted in Flallsfatt und ltalien, Mainz 1969) has been supplemented by several others (H. Miiller-Karpe, Getmania 40 (1962) 279t.; A. Percy, Arch. Austriaca 31 (1962), 37-48; J. Bouzek, Festschr. v. Brunn (1981), 28-30 and esp. W. Dehn, Zeitschrift d. hist. Vereins f. Schwaben 74 (1980) 29-33; now also P. Schauer, JbRGZMMainz2g (1982) 100-155. 1.4.1. The earliest greaves in the Aegea4. No greaves seem to have been used in Minoan Ctete, people in high position used to wear some kind of boots (rhyton with boxers from H. Triadha, with "i.t2 J" BOUZEK. THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE the prince and officer, etc.), which were not solely destined for military use (they also appear on the Vapheio cups and on the fresco with bull- jurnping in Knossos).t22 The so-called "Gamaschenhalter" from the Shaft Graves in Mycenae could hardly be Fig. Sl.First European more than a symbolical imitation of a functional strip destined to hold some kind of leather leggings, but no finds of them in corpore are known, and no illustrations of soldiers wearing them.123 greaves. 1 Pergine,2 Rinyaszentkirdly,3 Athens, Acropolis. After Bouzek 1981. ISIMA The situation only changes at the time of the Kallithea,4 Cannes-Ecluse,5 Stetten-Teritzberg,6 Poljanci' 7 T ii XXIX) THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE (A. Dendra panoply: Astrdm-Verdelis, The Cuirass Tomb (1977 ) af. pl. 2l; Yefielis, AM 82 (1967) 35-40 fig. 8; Cassola Guida (1973) 7A fig. 5; Catling, Arch. Hom. E 1, pl. 14.Pl.6:1. Only one of the two pieces found is a greave, the second probably fore-arm guard (III.1.5). It lacks any decoration (thus conforming with the Myce- Snodgrass kindly confirmed my opinion). The style of the repoussd decoration is later than that of the Cyprus and Kallithea greaves, but earlier than the Tiryns helmet (cf. Bouzek, Eirene 19 (1981) 101f.). The better preserved piece is 32 cm long, two holes for attachement to a leather lining are preserved in the left upper corner. The sheet is nearly as thin as the Tiryns helmet and the Enkomi greaves. The embossed decoration is in some places sharper punched naean strictly functional attitude to the sheet bronze), but the rim shows rnany openings for fixing the sheet to the leather lining (Pl. 6: 1). Nor are there the ears for lacing wire usual on later than elsewhere (and, anyway, much sharper than on the Enkomi greave with "sun" ornament), but it does not reach the level of the Tiryns greaves. On LH III A-B frescoes two different varieties of greaves or leggings are represented, one of them higher and reaching slightly above the knee. Both were bound to the leg above the ankle and below the knee by cords or leather strips. Most of them must have been of leather, though the white colour of some of them was considered by Miss Lorimer a representation of metal greaves.l2a 1..4.2. LH III C greaves in the Aegean. The LH III' C representations are similar to the previous pictures of the shorter variety, although more stylised in most cases (Fig. 52).t" The greaves of the "dieu au lingot" from Enkomi seem to protect the knee,126 but do not show any details. Though the greaves were in use since the Dendra panoply, they apparently became more important later, when small shields replaced the bilobal and tower shields.127 Aegean greaves of the l.2th-Ilth centuries B.C. 43t.,45 pl. 28. Fig. 50:3. Two. 4. Athens, Acropolis, pair. "Geometric" grave. N. Plaron, Arch. DeIt.20 (1965) Chr" 30ff. ; Arch. Delt 21 (1966) Chr. 36 fig. helmet craftsmanship. The technique also differs from the greaves kept in Zagreb and Vienna, so these greaves are likely local products. The LH III C greaves in corpore from Greece and Cyprus are decorated in an embossed technique alien to previous Mycenaean bronzework and also, as far as preserved, they have lacing wires like their European parallels. All are relatively short and roughly elliptical in shape. Their repoussd decoration either imitates the seams of leather greaves (Kallithea, cf. III.1.6) or uses "solar" dotted rosettes and wheels analogous to the European ornaments (Enkomi, Athens). As rnentioned above, the Acropolis greaves are in their style and grave context later than the previously mentioned greaves, but earlier than the Tiryns helmet;128 this pair is also most closely resembled in the north. Metallic greaves were also in use by some of the Sea Peoples at least Goliath wore them (Sam. I, 17,6). 1.-2. Enkomi. OT 15 (two) andNT 18 (onlyone). Catling, Op" Ath. 2 (1955) 2L-36; Cypriot Bronzework (1964) L40-142; Arch. Hom. E 154-6. 3. Kallithea, Tomb A. Yalouris, AM 75 (1960) 1-2 pl. 59 ab. Thanks to the kindness of Dr. f)ontas,I was able to exarnine the objects thouroughly. The bronze implements found with the greaves (one small and one large knife) are rather Late Mycenaean than Geometric and the vessel found with the greaves seems to be very late Mycenaean, too 113 - 1.4.3. European greaves of the Ilrnfield period. 1. Cannes-Ecluse near Paris. G. Gaucher-Y. Robert, Gallia Prdhist. l0 (1.967) 205-10 ; G. Gaucher, Archeologia 34 (197 0) 26-29 . Fig. 50:4. 2. Beuron, Kr. Sigmaringen. Mi.iller-Karpe, Chronologie (1969) L67 pl. 163 : 1. 3. Schiifstall near Donauwclrth, only hoies along the rim, no lacing wires. Dehn, Zeitschr. hist. Vereins f . SchwabenT4 (L980) 2Dff.,29ff. 4. Stetten-Teritzberg, Lower Austria, Percy,. Arch. Austr.3I (1962) 37-48. Fig. 50:5" 5. Veliko Nabrde, Croatia. Vinski-Gasparini, Kultura polja (1973\ 85-88 ptr. 44:1. J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE ISIMA o I 3 H I j u0 o o o 60 f---1 \\ .P ;" t4 + $^ o.#s )C\ a t r) { \, \j6 c c oA a l\ b0 o (r- .!l (n ai e90 \\o o o bo .\4 \'/ 1l o a al n+a Do Q6^ ,rv oi 9'F obc o tr.l Uo?\ $o DO ::! o9 a.a ei; og (p D o = FT\ =9 q< (Jlo .vo EA dH $n o .a <H 9E L4" -J- l- or+ g'a bI)tr Qd -a >' F6 :o r11 .9o E:Y !^E ar lz lJ< u) xxul THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE 115 o.c. pl. 48:19. starte! in the Aegean. According to the present Fig. 50:6. Brodski Varo5. Vinski-Gasparini, o.c. pl. 57:9. 8. Boljani6 near Doboj. B. Jovanovi4 Clanci i grada za istoriju istoine Bosne 2 (1.960) 23-31 pl.3:29 ab. 9. Pergine, Prov. Trento. Merhart, Hallstatt (1969) 173, 182-6 tig. 2. Miiller-Karpe, chronology, the time difference between the earliest examples in Europe and in the Aegean is insignificant, but the greaves with lacing wires belonged to the same "barbarian" armour as its 6. Poljanci I. Vinski-Gasparini, 7. Germania 40 (1962) 27 5t. Fig. 50 : l. 10. Malpensa near Somma Lombardo. R. de Marinis, Studi Etruschi 47 (197 9)5 1 1ff. no. 3 1 pl. 81. 11. Rinyaszentkir6ly, Kom. Somogy. Merhart, H allstatt (19 69) 182-186, fig. 2 : 2. F ig. 50 : 2. 12. Nadap near Sz6kesf eh1rv6r. At least two similar to the Teritzberg piece, one near to the Pergine item. Petres, Amber route colloquium Szombathely, Savaria 16 1982 (1983) 50-52 fig. 3-5. 13. Tatabanya, Hungary. Kind information by A. Mozsolics. (S. Canzian), Fliegenh<ihle, NHM Vienna, cf. Szombathy, Mitt. Priih. Komm. Wien2 (1912) 152t. Kuiim, Moravia, Ha B. Merhart, Hallstatt 15. (re6e) 180 pl. 15. 16. Klo5tar Ivani6, Croatia, Ha B. Vinski-Gasparini, Kultura polja (1973) pl. 96:2-3. 17. Limone near Livorno, BuII. PaL. Ital. lll13 (1887) 117 pt.IV:10. Cf. Dabrica, Stolac, Covi6, Glasnik Sarajevo 29 (1974) 19-32; Urak6, Islami, Iliria 11 198112, 14. Skocijan 46-52. The related European greaves with lacing wiresl2e are all of the same basic type, but their decoration is more developed than on the Aegean examples (with the exception of the Acropolis pair). The earliest of the European pieces, the greave from Cannes-Ecluse, dates as early as Br D (c. 1200 B.C,), while many others are of Ha A 1-2 date (Rinyaszentkirilly, Boljani6, Veliko Nabrde, Poljanci I, Pergine, Stetten-Teritzberg, Skocijan, Nadap, Schiifstall); others again date from the 10th century B.C. (Kufim, Kloltar Ivanid). The Dendra greaves are the earliest, so that the idea of bronze sheet greaves appears to have other parts discussed above. Their decoration, both in its repouss6 technique and in the motifs used, is alien to the Mycenaean tradition, and both factors speak for a European "stage" of the development of this particular type. The greaves from Enkomi and Kallithea, though certainly local products, have more relatives over a wide territory, while the pair from the Athenian Acropolis is of a type specific of the area around the head of the Adriatic, where examples from Stetten-Teritzberg, Fliegenhohle, Veliko Nabrde and Nadap form its best parallels. In 1958, Merhart draw attention to the regular ornamental composition of the European and Aegean gteaves; the basic decoration of strips and bosses seems to be skeumorphicl3o and derived from the construction of leather greaves. The pair from Kallithea (Fig. 50:3) shows this composition clearly: the dotted bands indicate the seams of the leather prototypes. The raised paft at either end of the greave (below the knee and above the ankles) was created by the insertion of a triangular leather wedge on each side and the central vertical seam protected the most exposed shin. The bosses in the centre of each segment were probably inspired by the rivets that joined together the hard upper Ieather sheet with the softer leather underneath. So, much of the connection between European and Aegean greaves could have been transmitted by leather greaves, which protected equallywell, since the thin bronze greaves could only decorate and shine, but not protect sufficiently against any thrust or slash, being regularly less than 2 mm thin. Yet, the primitive repouss6 common in the Balkans, in Italy and Central Europe, but only of rnarginal popularity in Greece, shows that also the bronze greaves must have been known to Aegean bronzesmiths. 1.4.4. Greek Late Geametric ,,primitive,, greaves 1 . Olympia IV, 49 pl. 20 : 329. Kasper, D ie buckel- verzierten Bleche Olympias (1972) pL.36:2 no. 213. 116 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE lstMA 2. Olympia B 6950. Kasper, o.c. pl. 37 no. 2'1,2; periphery) seem to show that the old type of LBA Arch. Hom. E pl. XV d.L.27.7 cm.Fig.44:6. greave did not disappear during the Dark Ag".tt' 3. Kavousi, Crete, pzir. AJA 5 (1901) 145 no. 1; Levi, ASAfene 13-14 (1930-31) 88 fig. 31 (upside dawn). 4. Praisos, Crete, miniatures. Benton, BSA 40 GX94q 57 pl. 31.:1; Snodgrass, EGAW (1e64) 87t. Greaves with lacing wires were still in use both in the eastern and western Hallstatt provinces during the Early Iron Age,131 but they are rare in Greece, where a new, more sophisticated type (federnde Schiene) took their place in the 7th century.132 The complete greave from Olympia is possibly of aTth century date and Adriatic or Italic, the fragmentary piece frorn the same locality also of an Adriatic origin and earlier, but the Cretan examples may well be descendants of a local development. The greaves frorn Kavousi have little holes and also dots in repoussd along the periphery ridges; their context is 8th century B.C. and, as against Snodgrass,133 I.am not convinced that they must be redated to the 7th century because of some points of resemblance with the Dreros sphyrelata. Greaves were an usual part of Homeric armour, and though more common in leather, bronze greaves are exmplicitly mentioned by the poet.13a The Argos warrior was buried with his bronze helmet and corslet, but without bronze greaves. He probably wore leather greaves, which must have been common, but the Kavousi and Praisns exarnples (the latter also have holes along their Fig. 52. Figural frieze on the Warrior Vase from Mycenae, sides 1.5. Other articles of protective armour Yalouris identified one fragmentary bronze sheet from Mycenae, Chamber Tomb 15, as an ankle-guardl36 and the second "greave" from Dendra (Pl. 7:1) has been explained by Verdelis as a forearm guard"137 A poorly preserved bronze sheet from Praisosl38 is also, according to Verdelis, a similar forearm guard. This piece, however, may also be a miniature of a knemis. Special articles of body armour like ankle- and guards were sometimes part of protecforearm tive equipment like the Dendra panoply. They are not paralleled in Europe,138" nor in Dark Age - Greece, and reappear only in the late 7th century with the Peloponnesian heavy infantry (hoplites). 1.6. Beaten sheet bronze and simple repoussd decoration (Figs. 53-54) in Beaten bronze was frequently used the Mycenaean world for complicated objects Iike vessels and the Dendra corslet, but it was always strictly functional, not decorative like faience, gold or ivory, and bore very limited decoration or none A and B. After Borzek 1969. xxul IT7 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE at all. In Middle Bronze Age Europe most bronze objects were cast, and beaten bronze was only used for small objects like armlets, bracelets or dressfasteners. The rapid development of sophisticated beaten bronze techniques, of sheet bronze vessels and other objects during Br D (13th century B.C') must have been so facilitated by the Aegean inspiration, which we have already seen behind all the basic types of European bronze armour (cf' III. 11).t" The earliest examples of bronze armour (the Filsen shield), Nordic vessels and wheel hubs for chariotslao were of cast bronze, but this method was soon abandoned, and we have much evidence for beaten bronze armour and vessels, the armour and the first beaten vessels being usually of very thin sheet (cf. IIL8). New implements used for hammering and for the decoration of beaten bronze first appear at the same tirne. Incised decoration had earlier roots in many parts of prehistoric Europe, notably the central and northern areas, but simple repoussd, the embossed technique previously used only on sheet gold, soon became the leading decorative technique. In contrast to Central Europe, italy and the Balkans, simple repouss6 decoration was only of marginal importance in Greece, and its European relations are evident. Protective armour of sheet branze was nearly always decorated in this way, and therefore this technique and its stylistic evolution are discussed in this chapter; but shieldplates of violin-bow fibulae, shield rings, various diadems, bronze belt, some metal vessels and appliqu6s of sheet bronze were also decorated in embossed technique (repoussd).rar In general, the decorative elements are simple: rows of dots, dotted rosettes, circles and concentric circles, wheel ornaments, semicircles, zigzags and triangles" Representations of bird protomae and floral motives are very rare and even the decorative system is usually simple, only exceptionally taking a more sophisticated form (cf. IIL10). ry* Fr,g. 53. F0 v5 Distribution of the simpie repouss6 decoration in Greece and Cyprus. 1 greaves, 2 helmets, 3 bosses, 4 diaciems' 5 $iel{ finger-rilg!. lDobracanearShkod6r,ZYitsaZagoriou,3Vergina,4Kallithea,5Olympia,6Tiryns,TAthens,8DictaeanCave,9 Vrokastro, 11 Kaloriziki. 12 Enkomi. 'Va;iiuialiO 6Y'\ 6e*. \ *O'"W J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 118 $ ,.:tiiil,:, :l: j,:::::r,. iiio;ji;:iiajj: .'..j":jj:l . j, i!i-1:1' .^n.oaa6ono :n ; ; 6. e^ 1.'a t. ?r ,-; i n "..-l--::!ii:::::i.: '.4 , : .iiiirt;trii,;r -..::i ':i:ri:::ii ,:i:'.::: l:'i j il:: jii:.:. ,. .:ii. ..",',.'l 6;'.li:i,$ 'r.:i:i:.r:?"i.,.iii.alit ,ti'ii;i:\ l'o l:: o 'l .i:i:::.. -)jilr lii.t-1.: rii:i:x:1 : 1 j.1. 't.rIt;o.j.i ^l:i:a O ''':i:;l:.tii.,.:, _ j,i j:;':' 6 6^-^66oOa\ t .i;i ;";;;;';; i!! ; : i i.iX), itl?.t.:. ,::31 ':.att.: r::.i : ,1i.,,.....ii r::;;;...i o'.:::... " ......" _ir|::-ir-r..,,::,.:::.:. ISIMA xxul THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CUL|URE 2. WEAPONS Weapons are much more often found then parts of armour, so that we have a more representative sample to work with. Swords are especially important for the study of the relations in question' In the case of weapons, we are also faced with early southern inspiration in the north, and with later finds of European weapons in the Aegean. 2.1. Swords Several recent studies (Bianco Peroni, Spade in It alia | 9 7 0 ; Schauer, S chw e rter in S iidde uts chland 1971 ; Novdk, Schwerter in der Tschechoslowakei I, 1975) distinguish very minutely between u varieties with only a few representatives in each f- group. These varieties may reflect the characteristic of different workshops, and we use some of their x classifications here, but the more general classifica- 1,1,9 tion introduced by Sprockhoff and Cowen' and used in my previous discussion of Balkan swords (Alasia I, 1969) is retained here to facilitate an overall picture. Finds of Balkan swords related to earlier Mycenaean types (A-C) are discussed above (II.1) 2.1.1. Southern elements in the notth, Br C-D Southern elements in the European Middle to Late Bronze Age are relatively rare and on the whole earlier than the spread of European types in the south. The European development seems to be influenced especially by the Aegean D i and D ii types. One fragmentary sword of Sandars type D was found in the Sa6ne near Lyons,2 and a small group of European swords recalls this type, especially in the execution of the hand-quard.3 1. @rskevhede, Jutland. Randsborg, Ksbenhavn 38 (7967 ), 2. Acta Arch. 1-9. Dollerup, Jutland. K. Lomborg, Acta Arch. Ksbenhavn3O (1959) I37 fig.38' Fig.40:4. !t J :a d 5; il !l n q; -Sr 'D uo nl) U.-6"oQs t a s "/"2 J) )\ OU 4 a a '} s, !i I swords and related pieces in Greece and Cyprus. 1 Catling I swords,2 late varieties,3 fragnents,4 genuine 9 1 near Shkoder, 2 Kakavi, 3 Vodhin€, 4 Yergqna,s Aetos, Ithaca,6 Mycenae, 7 Tiryns, 8 Naxos, Aplomata, swords. European Kos, 10 Karphi, 11 Mouliana, 12 Myrsine, 13 Cyprus, 14 Enkomi, 15 West Macedonia, 16 Sivec-Prisad. Fig. 55. Catling - 120 J"BOUZEK, THEAEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 3.Ntirnberg-Hammer. Mtiller-Karpe, Germania 40 (1962) 260 fig.2 : 1. Schauer, Sclrwerter 1971, na.346" Fig. 40: 10. 4. Szabolcs, hoard of the Op6ly horizon (=Peschiera). K" Kroeger-Michel, J. Ajak, Kom. h ffi ill Fig. 56. Swords from the Weapon hoard at Enkomi. After Alasia I ISIMA Andrds MrtzeumEvk6nyve 11 (1968) 79 fig.75 lI (197 3) 29f . pl. 37 d ; Mozsolics, B ronzefunde A1. Of the two other swords mentioned by MiiilerGermania 40 1962,26A, the sword from -Karpe, Ie" r1 t I iNl xnxl THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE Drnovo is later, while the Nagytet6ny sword is problematic. Its oval blade reselnbles the much iater Donja Dolina group, and the hand-guard recalls the Ajak sword (cf. also N. Sandars, Srudies Hawkes 197 1., l0-I1 ). None of the sar,nples listed above is an Aegean product, but all show some southern inspriation. The Orskevhede sword is still comparable with Aegean type D i, the three others with D ii. The European pieces are dated toBt C2 (c. 1300 or slightly earlier), the Aegean swords to the 15th (D i) and 14th (D ii) centuries 8.C.4 This appears also elsewhere daggers with T-shaped 1,21 in Europe. A group of hilt from Hungary and Slovakia (Fig. a0 : 9) dates from Br D to Ha A ; they were first compared with the Mycenaean daggers by Reinecke, but B6na saw better parallels in the Caucasus.6 European group is also near to Sprockhoff Ib swords of the same date, which were possibly The small fragments from the Drajna-de-Jos and Sokol hoards belonged originally to horned swords similar to the Aegean C ii type or to the Transylvanian rapiers. In either case, it is unlikely that their manufacture was conternporary with that of the ofher objects in these hoards (Br D, cf. IL1.3). Several Mycenaean type F swords of Dr. Sandars' inspired by Sandars D ii protntypes.5 The T-shaped pommel, like on the Hammer and Ajak swords, and Cornwall.T classification are known from Sicily, South Italy Fig. 57. Generalized distribution map of the Sprockhoff IIa swords. After Corven and Bouzek. J.BOUZEK, THEAEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 1.22 2.1.2. Local types of Aegean swords in 12th century Greece and the East Mediterranean. Aegean horned swords (Sandars C Greece during i-ii) disappear in LH III A, while the sword from Gezer in Palestine also dates from the 14th century D ii pieces were found in Karpathos with LH III B pottery and it Rhodes and seems that also type E daggers were in use at that time.e Both could be in use contemporaneously with the first of the Sprockhoff IIa swords, but they disappear soon after the arrival of the latter. The last two types of the Aegean Bronze Age series are Sandars types F and G. The first of them is a development of the dagger type E, but the handguard became more angular.l0 Mouliana tomb A is difficult to date (the first interment probably dates from LH III B and the second, with a bow fibula, seems to be Subminoan),11 but the Lakkithra and Diakata swords are apparently of LH III C date and one from Ancient Elis Submycenaean.12 Several daggers of this type from Sicily, Southern Italy and one from Cornwall have been mentioned above (note 7). B.C.8 Sandars type The daggers (short swords) of Sandars type G are well-known from LH III C Greece (Mycenae, Acropolis hoard, Perati, Delphi) and one piece comes from the Submycenaean graves in Ancient Elis.13 The basic type has not yet been found outside the Aegean area, but the related Siana group (finds from Rhodes and Pergamon ?) was connected by Sandarsla with other daggers distributed in Syria, Palestine and Egypt: 1. Ras Shamra. Schaeffer, Ugafiticalll,277f.. pl' 10 fig. 124:5; Sandars, AJA67 (1963) 153 pl. 27:58. 2.Tell Atchana. L. Woolley, AIaIakh (1955) 276 no. AT13614 pl. 70. 3. from Egypt, Brit. Mus. Sandars, AJA67 (1963) pl. 27:60. Formerly connected with a Sprockhoff IIa sword blade, cf. E. Wallis Budge, Archaeologia 51 (1888) 83 ff. pl. 19:1. 4. Tell es-Saidieh, Palestine. V. Hankey, BSA 62 (1e67) t30. This small group of short swords related to Aegean types spread over the East Mediterranean at the time of the Sea Peoples, who may well have been responsible for their distribution pattern. ISIMA II swords in Greece and in the Eastern Mediterranean. Aegean finds of Naue II flange-hilted swords have been dealt with more than once by Catling;1s his classification is used here with several modifications and additions. I was able to examine personally most of the swords, but not all of them. The discussion by Foltiny in Arch. Hom. E 2, 231-7 4 is in general way but there are several other contributions to this srrbject (cf. notes 15, 23, 30-31). Only the sword found by Schliemann on the acropolis of Mlcenae (no. 1) seems to be an European import; all the others, as far as I was able to examine them, are local Aegean products or, in the case of some late'varieties, were made along the fringes of the Aegean world. 2.L.3. Naue A. Catling I (corr. Sprockhoff IIa, Nenzingen, Reutlingen etc., Figs. 55-56 and 61 : 1) 1. Mycenae, Acropolis. L. 60.2 cm, midrib with "steps", 4+2x 2 rivets. Schliemann, Mykend p" 157 tig.221; Foltiny, AJA 68 (1964) 254, pl. 7 6 :28. Pl. I :2, Fig. 61. : 4. Mouliana Tomb B. L. 46 cm. Extremely slender blade in section, blood channels, 2 + 2 x I (2?) rivets. Xanthoudid es, Arch. Ef . (1904\ 48 fig. 11, second from right. Lorimer, HM 095A) pt. 19:2" 3. Myrsine, Aspropilia, distr. Siteia. Interments LM III BlC. L. 50 cm, blood channels, 2+2x 1 rivets. Catling, Antiquity 35 (1961) 2. 117. 4. Naxos, Grotta, Chamber Tomb 52 with LH III C 1 pottery. L. 65 cm, 4+2x2 rivets. Ch. Kardara, Aplomata Naxou (Athens 1977)pI.7 delta, epsilon. 5. Kos, Langada, tomb 21. L. 59.5 cm, blood channels, 3 + 2 x2 rivets. LH III C, with a B 1 spearhead. Morricone, ASAtene 43144 (1e6s-66) 138t. fig. 123. 6. Enkomi, Swedish Tomb 18. L. 75 cm, blood channels, 2 + 2 x3 rivets. SCE I, 553 no. 70; Schaeffer, Enkomi-Alasia I, 337 f. fig. 104 pls. 67-68; Maxwell-Hyslop, PPS 22 (1956) 139 fig. 6; for the date of the tomb cf. Catling, Op. Ath.2 (1955) 26 ft. 7-1,0. Enkomi, four swords from the new hoard. One of them with midrib, two with blood channels, and the fourth with a double blood channel. All of them have 2x2 rivets in the 123 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE handguard; in the hilt 1-3 rivets. J.-C. Courtois, in Alasial (I971) 407 figs. 16 and 18 (L. 62,60.9, 59.2 and 62.1 cm). Enkomi. Courtois, Praktika L kyprologikou synedriou(1972) vol. A, p.25. 12. Cyprus, unknown locality, end of blade mis. sing. l+2x2 rivets. Catling, PPS22 (1956) 1.024 fig.2 pLIX 13. As preceding (ex coll. Loizou). Pres. L. 47 cm, 11. tapering short blade secondarily shaped (?). 2+2x3 rivets. Catling, Antiquity35 (1961) 115 ff. pl. l6a. 14. Ras Shamra, mentioned by Courtois, Praktika Kypr. synedriou (cf. no. ll), p.32. 15. Allegedly found in Bubastis, Egypt. Berlin, Priihist. Mus.20447. Four blood channels, L. 71.5 cm, 4 +2x2 #Yet{ERV XI pl. 144 b; 16. Kakavi, Albania, tumulus. 5+2x2 L 43.7 cm, midrib, rivets. Prendi, BUSS (195912) 194 tig. 2 p. 110; Hammond, Epirus (1967) 320f . tig.20 K. 17. West Macedonia, mus. Thessaloniki. Harding, thesis 1972, 148. 0 +2+l rivet (Sprockhoff IIa ?). Late varieties: 18. Sivec-Prisad near Prilep, Kat. Urgeschichte Makedoniens (1971.) no. 507. C Delta. L. 72 cm, 2+2xl rivets, double blood channels. Petsas, Arcfi. Delt. 17 (1961162) 242 pl. 1"46; Snodgrass, PPS31 (1965) 328t,; Catling, BSA63 (1968) 101. The pottery is very early and the sword may well be of a 1lth century date; for the double channels cf. Enkomi. 20. Vodhine, Albania, tumulus. L. 33 cm. 19. Vergina, Tomb d ; L 9 t- t- Fig. 58. Types of the Balkan and Italic swords of the Naue II family. IBuzije,2Fucino, 3 Golemo Selo, 4 Donja Brnica, d Lake,6Mativalley,TRa$tani,8Vrana,gfromtheTibernearRome, d E rype 5 Trasimeno l0DonjaDolina, 11Nin, 12Atlagi6-kule. lAranyostype,2 Sprockhoff Ia,3-5 type Sprockhoff IIa, 6 type Ennsdorf (Vyinj Sliad),7-8 type Stiitzling (Catling III),9 Catling IIb, 10-12 type Donja Dolina. After Bouzek 1971. J.BOUZEK, THEAEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 124 channels, decorated with two rows of spirals. Prendi, BUSS (1956) 185 fig. 3: I ; Prendi- Budina, St. Albanica 7 (1970) 61f. pl. 2:2; Hammond, Epirus (1967) 320 tig' 20:l; Catling, BSA 63 (1968) 100' Late, cf' also the Donja Dolina tYPe. This is the commonest European sword' of In the Eastern Mediterranean, there are from the Aegean proper and from finds many Cyprus. One piece has been reported from Ras Shamra (by Courtois), and several pieces are said to be found in Egypt, but their provenance was often doubted. The slightly convex grip often ends in a fish-tail, and neither the hand-guard' nor the nurnber of rivets differ from the arrangements on bronze.16 European swords. There are usually seven rivets (4 in the hand-guard, 3 in the grip), sometimes fewer' The blade, however, usually has parallel edges and Fig. 59. ISIMA "blood channels"o and most of the Mediterianean swords are finer in execution and lighter than the average European swords. The first of them seem to date from LH B. llIB 2. Spurred swords and the Ennsdorf (Vyinf Sliad) type Catling's groups IIa, IIb and III were divided according to the shape of the hilt and the length of the blade. His group II is less consistent than III All and several variants may be distinguished. swords seem to appear in the Aegean a little later than the type I, in LH III C, but the latter were partly contemporary with the former. these IIal. Swords resembling the Ennsdorf (VyInf Sliai) type. Figs. 60: 1 and 61 :5. 1. Kallithea Tomb A (with greaves, LH III C). Pres. 1. 81.4 cm, tip of hilt partly missing.5 t2x Distribution of the Reutlingen type swords (after Schauer' completed) xxul THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE 3 rivets. Yalouris, AM1 5 (1960) 43 pl.27 : Pl. 9;3, Fig. 61 :5. l-2. without rivets. Karo, Fres. 1. 81.3 cm. AM35 (1930) 135 pl. 37. 3. Mati valley, Albania. 2t'!)+ 2x 2 rivets" IslamiCeka, Sf. Albanica 1 (1964) 102 pl. L2 1.. 2. Tiryns, unfinished rough cast Long swords similar to the following variant, but having no spur on the hilt. Usually mare rivets than type L IIa2. Swords with a longer hilt than I and with a spur; I-ong blade with parallel edges (Figs. 60:2-3,61 6-7) 1. Anthea, probably i-F{ III C context. L. 65 cm, blood channels, 4 r- 2x 3 rivets. Kypa:risses, l. Praktiks Arch. Et.1938, 118f., fig. Kallitirea, tomb B, LFi IiI C.L.67 .4 rm,4 + 2x2 rivets, very short spur, rridrib with "steps". Yalouris, AM 75 (1960) 44 pl. 3l:1.-2; Papadopoulos, Achaea (19?9) fig. 356. Pl. 9: 1, Fig.67:6-7. -1 . Palaiokastro, distr. Gortynia, Arcadia" L. 63 cm, blocd channels, 4 * 2x 3 rivets. K. Deinacopoulou, AAAZ t1969) 226-8. This slender sword recails the Catling III type, but the blade is narrower, with parallel edges, so it rnay better be placed here. Catling type IIb is dicussed arnong the post\lycenaean swords. III. Short swords with spurred hilt, like the iastern variety of the Letten swords according to Cowen (Stiitzling according to Schauer). Figs. 60:4 :nd 61 :3. ,. Mouliana Tomb B, I-F{ III C. L. 55 cm, eliptical section of blade with blood channels, 4+2x 2 125 4. Mouliana Tomb A, a second unpublished fragmentary sword. Catiing, PPS 22 (1955) 114 no. T4, 5. Region of Siteia, Oxford. L. 51,"2 crn,3 *2x 2 rivets. Catling, BSA 63 (1968) 90 fig. 2:2 pt.22 c-d. Tfre blade is sometimes slightly oval (more oval than on the average Stiitzling swords, but much less than on the Letten swords)" Similarly as the pes- chiera daggers of Psychro type (iii.2.2), these swords seern to be confined to Crete. C. Post-Mycenaean swords Swords of Catling's type IIb (Graditsa) are prob- ably all pcst-Mycenaean? as well as some late variants of type I sr,vords from Macedonia anel Epirus (above IlI.2.'!..3 A), but the exact date is problematic in most cases. The other types (IV_-VI) are certainly late and contemporary with iron swords. IIb {Graditsa, Fig. 61: L-2 and 63 : L) 1.-2. Graditsa, Thessaly. L. 84.6 and 86.6 cm, 9 and 7 rivets, parallel ridges on both sides of the rnediai line. Catling, Antiquity 35 (1961) I17 pls. 15-17. Fig. 61 :1.-2. 3. Schiste Odos, Phocis. L" 77 cm, 2 + 2 + 1 rivets, no ridges in the picture. Tsuntas, Arah. Et. (1897) 110 fig. 1 ; Montelius,I-a Griee pftclas- srque, pl. 14 fig. 4" The sword belongs more probably here than in the Catling III group. 4. Orchomencs. Pres. 1" 56.5 cm (end of grip missing), 2 ridges and 3 flutes on each side of the rnedial line, frcm a "Geometric" grave. Catling, FPS22 (1956) 113 no.10. (1.944) 226. 5. Priiep, cist grave. Pres. L. 75 cm,1* 2x 1 rivets. Mikuldid, Pelagonija (1956) pl. tr:3a; Truhelka, Glasnik Skopje 5 (1,92q),59-61fig. 3 a, c. The remains of a spun are only visible on the photo- L Mouliana Tomb A, probabiy LM III C. Lower part of blade missing, Ftat rnidrib, 4+1+2 6.Yajze, Albania, tumulus B. Fres. 1" 49.8 cm, 3 *2x X rivets, rnidrib. Very damaged, but the iivets. Catling, PPS 22 (1956) tr13f. no, L3 pi. 9cr Milojdif , Ib. RGZM Mainz 2 (X955) 155f spurred tang better paraileled here than in group rivets. Xanthoudides, Arch" Ef.(1904) 46 fig. 1I right; Lorimer, HM {1950) pl. i9:2; for the date cf. Furur,nark, Op. Arch.I$ Fig. 61 :3. graph. iio 1'l ,.. Messara Plain (ex Giamalakis coll. now mus. c. 53 cm, broad blood channels or Heraklion). L. "steps".3*2x 2 rivets. III, wliere attributed by Catling in BSA 63 (1e68) 1CIO. 7. Fortuna near Bitolj. 2+2x 2 rivets, 1. 68.5 crn. Car. Srrp 197I, BZ no. 2tr6 fig.; Mikuldid, Pelagcnija (1966) 7 pl.2:2 as Ra5tani. 126 8. Visoji, tumulus, J.BOUZEK, THEAEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 65 cm long, Hammond, Macedonial (1972) fig. 10 j. 9. Northern Greece, Kannelopoulos mus. 749. Nos. 6-8 are more slender, thus reminding one of Catling IIL They partly resemble the "long Balkan swords" and partly some examples of the Stetzling type (e.g. from the Tiber).17 TSIMA Both the hand-guard and the end of the hilt are rounded. Spur slender, rather long swords. Many Early Greek iron swords appear similar. Cf. Fig. 102:2. IV b (Fig. 63 :2) 1. Vrokastro . 1 * 2x 1 rivets. Montelius, La Grdce prdclassique pl. 14:8 Catling IV. This East Mediterranean group of Catling's has no exact Europaean parallels, but some details, like two single rivets placed low down in the handguard, recall the Donja Dolina type and similar Balkan pieces.18 Several varieties may be distin- IV c. Short guished. 2. Megiddo, Palestine. 31,7 Catling IV a (type Hama) 1 .-3. Hama, Syria. One with 3 + 2x 1 rivets illustrated by Riis, llama Il-3, 120 fig. 136 B, two others mentioned (pp. lzlf ., 232, 236). 11th-10th centuries B.C. Cf. Catling, PPS22 (1es6) 117. daggers from the East Mediterranean I02:2) L.Enkomi, OT 47. L. 45 cm. Double blood grooves, 2 rivets in the grip. Catling, PPS 22 (Figs. 63 :5 and (1956) 115 no. 17 ; Maxwell-Hyslop in the same volume p. 133 and pl. 11:1. Uncertain context. cm long, 1*2x V (type Bitolj, Fig.63:4). /'o\ \ Fig. 60. Distribution of the second generation of the fiange-hilted swords in the Aegean. 1 type Ennsdorf -Kallithea, 2 Catling IIa, CatlingIII/IIb,4CatlingIII.-lMativalley,2Ra5taninearBiiolj,3Anthea,4Kaltithea,5Palaiokastro,6Tiryns,TMessaraplain, 8 Mouliana, 9 District of Siteia, 10 Kangadhi. 1. rivets. Watzinger, TeL( el-Muteselirnll, 45t. tig. 45 pL.23 a. EIA level. Grip and hand-guard recall types IIb and III. The hilt of the Enkomi piece is less vaulted than that of the Megiddo item. 3 xxBl (Monastir), mus. Istanbul' L. 68cm, 2*2x1rivets. Catling, Antiquity3' (1961) 118 l.Bitolj no. 33. 2. Tseravina, Epirus. d 2 le 1 & be of r27 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE 59 cm, 2l2x 1 rivets' Hammond, Epirus(1967) 319 fig. 19 C,pl.21c' 3. Samos, probably from a Geometric context' Lower part of blade, two ridges on each side' Catling, Antiquity 35 (L961) I17 no' 24. 4. Siteia, Crete, Cambridge, Fitzwillian mus' Pres' 1. 56 cm, hilt incomplete. Only two rivets, both low in the handguard. Two ridges on each side of the medial line. Catling, Antiquity35 (1961) no. L. 19. 5. Patos, M. Korkuti, llitia Y 72. Pres. 1. c. 40 cm. 6.Pazhok, mus. Tirana. ll (1,98111) 45 pl' 3+2x 1 rivets, 8 un- These swords are near to the Donja Dolina type, bout the edges of the blade are straight. Many Greek iron swords are comparable, so the Greek bronze swords of this group may represent some exceptional bronze items of the common iron class.1e One bronze blade from Olympia is unique; it could be called type VI (Fig. 63:3): l. Olympia IV, pl. 26:539. L.60 cm. The leaf-shaped blade started in the 1 1th century in southern Germany, but it only later penetrated Italy and the Balkans (type Donja Dolina). Some iron examples are known from Bulgaria and one from Fortetsa near Knossos.2o Fragments of Aegean "Naue II" swords, the exact attribution of which to definite types is not possible: published. Cf. also the sword from Pavelsko near Drenovo, Hdnsel, PZ 45 (L970) 30 fig.2:I. 1. Mycenae, Acropolis hoard. Hilt missing, pres.i. 60 cm,-no blood channels visible, 6 rivets in the o \\ \\ \t \l 9tra.3 rPlain- Fig. 6 1. Aegean flange-hilted swords. tsouzek 1969. 1-2 Graditsa, Thessaly, 3 Mouliana Tomb B, 4 Mycenae, Acropolis, 5-6 Ka llithea. Afte 1,28 . J, BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE nA0 B.C. NM Athqns 2539. Tsuntas, Arch. Ef.(1897) 110pI. 8 : 3 ; Catling, hand-guard. C. PPS 22 (1956) 109-111. Near to group III" 2.Mycenae, unpublished fragment, 4 or 6 rivets in the handguard. Catling,PPS22 (1956) 111. Similar to the preceding. 3. Tiryns hoard, hiltmissing, pres.l. 55 cm,2x2 (or 2x 3 ?) rivets in the handguard. Karo, AM 3s (1e30) t35 pt.37. 4. Ithaca, Polis Cave ( ?). Fragment of blade with blood channels" Benton, ,tsSA 35 (134-35)72 fi5. ?,4: 15 ab and tig. 27 a. 5. Karphi, fragment of blade from the Subminoan settlement. Pendlebury, BSA 38 (i937-38) pI.29:2 no.500. 6. Kangadhi, Achaea. Pres. l. 52.8 cm, upperpart of hilt missing, 2? +2x 2 rivets, rib with steps. Papadopoulos, Achaea (1979) L66 tig.356 c. Possibly type L 7.-8. Cyprus. One from a hoard in mus. Nicosia, with blood channels, Catling, PPS 22 (1956) 115 no. 19 pl. IX f; a second reputedly from Cyprus, Peake, The Bronze Age and the Celtic Worldpl.12:11; Catling, o"c. p. 118 no. 28. 9" From the Delta in Egypt. Pres. 1. 57.5 cm, blood channels. ERVXI, p!. L44 e. 10. Reputedly from Egypt. Bought in Egypt by J. Evans, formerly connected with the handguard of a Levantine dagger (cf. III. 2.1.2). Oniy the first publication mentions an inscription: Wallis Bndge, Archaeologia 53, 83ff. pl. I: 1; Bur- Aiter V:4; ERV chardt, Zeitschr. f. aegypt. Sprache u. tumskunde 5A XI pl. 144 d. 09n) 6143 pl" D. Near Eastern hilted swords Several Near Eastern hilted swords recall the Naue II type and some scholars have connected the two" 1.-4. Ras Shamra, Maison du Grand-Pr€tre. 4 unfinished casts. Schaeffer, Ugaritica III, 256-59, fig. 3 p. 223; Catling, Bronzework (1e64) 202t. 5. Tell Firaun in the Nile Delta, with the cartouche of Sethos II (c. 1200 B.C.). Pres. 1. 45 cm" Miloj6i6, Germania30 (1958) 95-97 with bibl. Four swords from the treasury of the Great Priest ISIMA at Ras Shamra have a blade with central rib and fiat unflanged hilt. They are unfinished casts and resemble somewhat the later Hama swords (Catling IV a), but in detail they differ greatly from the Sprockhoff IIa type; they also do not have the broadened handguard. The high dating of the hoard by Schaeffer led both Childe and Milojdii2l to the conclusion that certain cut-and-thrust flange-hilted swords (different from the European series) developed independently in the Near East; the famous Sethos sword was then placed into the same Oriental line of development. But, since Catling lowered the date of the hoard to c. 1200 8.C.," the Trdsor du Grand Pr6tre became con- temporary with a large group of Aegean and Cypriot hoards and with the Sea Peoples destructions. The Great Priest and the Sethos swords could have been inspired by European flange-hilted IV ) are well in attested Syria and Palestine; one analogous piece from Ras Shamra has been mentioned as a true Catling I sword. Several Naue II flange-hilted swords (one complete of class I, and several fragments) are said to come from Egypt, but there is some doubt about this. However, some other evidence makes their appearance in Egypt quite possible. The Sethos sword was inspired by this type, a group of swords found in Syria, Palestine and Egypt seems to be inspired by Aegean swords of Sandars type G (above III.2.L.2) and one Naue II blade reputedly found in Egypt was originally connected with a hand- guard of this F.ast Mediterranezn fvpe (cf. the list of fragmentary swords). swords, whose descendants (Catling 2.7.4. European swords. The European swords of the Naue II familly will be discussed in the same order as their Aegean relatives. A. Sprockhoff lla (Nenzingen. Reutlingen, generalised map Fig. 57, only the Reutlingen type after Schauer Fig. 59 ; cf. Catling I in the Aegean). The swor{ Sprockhoff IIa probably originated in the Northwest Balkans or in the Carpathian area, developing from late Boiu swords.23 One of its ancestors may well be the type called Aranyos by Cowen,2a which is known from Hungary and Rumania; the southernmost examples ccrne from xxul THE RELATIONS Ots THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE Northern Bosnia. Both types were partly contemporary. The Sprockhoff Ia sword was, if not its direct ancestor, at leasi one of them; it is also attested in northern Yugoslavia and northern Italy"2s The Ia swords are basically earlier than the IIa swords, but the find circumstances of many Italian swords and the hoard from Tenje in Croatia show that the two certainly overlapped'26 The Aegean type D swords may have influenced the r29 Sprockhoff Ib type (above ILI.2.L.I), but no significant Aegean role can be traced in the (later) rise of the Sprockhoff IIa (Nenzingen) type.z' The Sprockhoff IIa swords started in Br D (13th century) and were still in use in Ha A. They spread over a large part of Europe ; from southern Sweden and southern Norway over the whole of Central Europe (west to the Moselle and Rhdne and east to the Vistula and Prut with several finds even further I I I r 3 F o tr ir t b E [r f, d- d$ x G rpc m)- lir ter h$ rbry rd II'G Fig. 62. Distribution of the spurred flange-hilted swords (full circles type Stetzling, empty circles related swords) and of the type Ennsdorf-Vyinf Sliad (full triangles). After Schauer and other sources. J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 130 lstMA east) through Italy and the Balkans to the Aegean and Cyprus. They occur regularty in Ha A hoards in , Croatia; from Croatia they penetrated the main river valleys south to Bosnia, Serbia, Yugoslav scholars have thought that the swords with spurred hilt (a feature that enabled more solid pommel-fas- 1-5 :3-5) B. Swrrrds with spurrcd hilt (Sprockhoff IIb, 58:7-9 and 62:1).3r Some Stiitzling, cf. Fig. and west- tening) were of southern inspiration, but the Ae- ern Bulgaria, and there are also finds along the gean swords of type D i with a spur similar to that on Sprockhoff IIb swords disappeared at the beginning of the 14th century B.C., while the European spurred swords started in the twelfth, so that only Macedonia (Figs. 69: and 58 Adriatic coast from Slovenia to Albania and Epirus. Most of the Italian swords came from the central part of the country, but some penetrated further south (generalised rnap Fig. 57, only the the general idea (expressed in the south by Thilt) could possibly have been transmitted to the European spurred swords.32 Reutlingen type after Schauer Fig. 59). Some of the shaped Balkan swords have blood channels like the Aegean pieces. The Albanian swords were found in barrows (as well as the Vergina item), while the southern Yugoslav pieces come from flat skeleton graves.2t The related Ennsdorf type (Vy5nf Sliad type) with its variants (Konju5a, cf . Catling II a l\2e rarely occurs in ltaly. Its main distribution area lies in eastern Central Europe, but there are other pieces known from Rumania, Yugoslavia and even Albania (Fig. 58:6, map Fig. 62:2).30. gYD i : The Erbenheim and Letten types, distributed in South Germany, Switzerland and eastern France,33 have an oval blade, whereas their relatives in the north and east (the related type Stetzhng), distributed in the eastern part of Central Europe, Italy and the Balkans, have a straight blade with parallel edges. These swords start in Ha A 1 in Europe and in LH III C in Greece; the latest variants probably date from the 9th century B.C. They are common in ,a 8\ .. e> ^J\\ \: \ b q (/ 4 It \llI Fig. 63. Late flange-hilted bronze swords in the Aegean and in Cyprus. I type Catling Ilb,2type IVb, 3 type VI,4 type V (Donja 1 Bitolj, 2YajzE,3 Tseravina, 4 Graditsa, 5 Schiste Odos,6 Orchomenos, T Olympia,8 Samos,9 Vrokastro, Dolina), 5 type IVc. 10 Siteia, 11 Enkomi, 12 Fortuna, 13 Visoji, 14 Pazhok. - I d I I .*" xxxl THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE Italy and not infrequent in the western Balkans, where they have an even distribution (Fig.62:I). Two varieties ci.'rreisoindini; ", ''.:11i1 gIIa2lb and III types can be distinguisheci, bur ";oth are closely related to each other:34 a) shorter sword with more flowing profile of the Fig 64' 1-6 Balkan swords from southern Yugosiavia. Prilep' Harding. 7-12 Feschiera daggers: 7 Mycenae, 8-10 hilt and 131 handguard and with broader blade (near to Catling III and tetten swords), which is commoner in Italy than in the Balkans (Fig. 58:7-8); b) longer sword with narrower blade and rather angular profile of the hilt and handguard (Catl_ 1 Golemo Selo near NiS, 2-5 Topolnica near Negotin, 6 Sivec-prisad near Psychro, Dictaean Cave,IT-12 peschiera. After Boardman, Bouzek and 1,32 J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE ing lla2 and IIb, eastern parallel of the Erbenheim swords), which is commoner in the western Balkans than in Italy (Fig.58:7). The Prilep sword comes from a cist grave; both the type of the grave and the offerings (wire ornarRents, fibula, little pottery) recall the Vergina and Submycenaean Greek graves. The two swords from Graditsa in Thessaly (Catling IIb) are related to the Balkan "long swords", cf. e.g. from Pavelsko near Drenovo and from Rumania.35 C. The Donja Dolina swords. Another group of Balkan swords may be called the Donja Dolina swords (Fig. 58:10--1.2). The convex hilt without spur has one or two rivets, or none at all, while the conical hand-guard has one rivet in each side low down near the blade, which is of laurel-leaf shape. Several varieties have been distinguished elseBitolj (in Istanbul) and from Tseravina in Epirus differ in that their blade has parallel edges. Other ,A,egean swords of our group V are also likely to belong to the Donja Dolina type; several Albanian finds and one piece from Vergina (late varieties of Catling I) are related, especially in the positioning of the rivets (cf. lll.2.l.3 A and C). The Donja Dolina swords could have started in late Ha A, i.e. before 1000 8.C., but most of them are of a Ha B date: the Samos item comes apperently from a Geometric context and the Nin sword was in a grave with Hallstattfibulae. All of them are contemporary with the iron swords where;36 the swords from of an analogous shape in the Aegean (cf. note 19). 2.1.5. Conclusion. In the 14th century B.C., European sword-making was influenced by southern prototypes, but this influence was on a small scale, and the masterpiece of the European bronzesmiths, the cut-and-thrust Sprockhoff IIa sword, which probably originated in the southeastern part of Central Europe, was practically an indigenous Furopean invention. Soon after its emergence around 1200 B.C. this sword spread over Europe frorn Sweden, Norway and Denmark to the Aegean and Cyprus. About a century l4ter the related Ennsdorf (Vy5nf Sliad) and Stiitzling types (the spurred sword) spread along the Adriatic, to the north of it and over Greece. The number of examples which actually travelled from one region to lstMA another was small, and nearly all European-type swords found in the Aegean and Cyprus were produced by local bronzesmiths, who were partly influenced by another (Mycenaean) tradition of sword-making. Italy transmitted many European swords southwards, but there are also a sufficient number of related examples from the western Balkans. Blood channels appear on many Aegean, Italic and Balkan swords. The solid grip swords, used side by side with flange-hilted swords in Europe, never penetrated the Aegean. The reason for this was probably the fact that metal was in shorter supply there, while grips of organic material served just as well and looked equally good. Later influence of Balkan and Italic bronze swords on Aegean development was only slight, but Protogeometric (mainly iron) Greek swords nevertheless show traits in common with contemporary Balkan swords (Donja Dolina tvpe). 2.2. Peschiera daggers / ,/ Peschiera daggers first appeared at the beginning of European Br D (Peschiera horizon), perhaps under the influence of flange-hilted swords, but some East Mediterranean daggers or two-edged knives are also very similar.3T The classical monograph by Peroni needs many addenda,38 and Milojdi6, Sandars, Harding and Boardman have contributed much to our knowledge of the Peschiera daggers in the Aegean.3e A. The Island group (Fig.64:8-10 and 65 : 1) 1. Knossos, Zapher Papoura Chamber Tomb 86. Single object in a robbed tomb. L. 23 cm. AEvans, Archaeologia 59 (1906) 471t. tig. 90; Milojdid, Jb. RGZM Mainz 2 (1955) 158 fig. 2:1. 2.-5. Psychro, Dictaean Cave, mus. Heraklion. 2 and 3 complete pieces, l. 22"6 and 23.5 cm, 4 lower part of blade missing, 5 variant (possibly adapted piece); lower part of blade with midrib, l. 23.3 cm. remains of bone handle. D. H. F{ogarth, BSA 6 (1899/1900) 110 fig. 43:5; Milojdi6, Jb. RGZM Mainz 2 (1955) I58 fig. 2: 2-5 ; J. Boardman, Cretan Colection in Oxtord .I'HT*] XXIXl RELATIONS OF'THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTUR.E (1961) pp. 15 and 17, tig. 3 A-D' Fig' 64:8-10. 6. Ibid., Oxford. Only hilt of a very small dagger' Boardman, Cretan Collection (1961) 15, 17 no' 56, fig. 2 and Pl. IX. 7. Phylakopi, Melos. BSA 17 (1910-11) pl' 14 : 60; Milojdi6, Jb- RGZM MainzL (1955\ 1'58 fig.2:6. 8. Naxos. L. 2L.7 cm, rernains of bone handle' Archaeologia 58 (1902) 6 tig.7. Cave 1,33 in the Heraklion museum (no. 5); it has a second rivet in the hilt, a shorter hand-guard and the blood channels are confined to the upper part of the blade, the lower part of which has been changed and has a central rib. It might distantly remind one of the Bossisio type with its two rivets, a type which also combines a central rib with blood channels.al This Cretan piece can also be connected with the Mainland group of the Peschiera daggers, whereas the Nemea dagger, despite the location of the find, belongs rather to the Cretan than to the Mainland Arch. Rep. tor 1974-75, 9 fig' 11; grOup. (r915) 6t'1' tig.48. BCHee All Peschiera daggers from Crete and from B. The Mainland group (Fig. 64:7 and 65:2) the Aegean islands belong - with one partial to one single type.ao The narrow, 1. Araxos, Wall of the Dymaeans.L.23.7 cm, LH exception ru C. Ervin, AIA 71 (1'967) 300 pl' 90:19; flanged hilt ends in a fish-tail, the leaf-shaped blade is Papadopoul os, Achaea (197 9) tig. 35 8 ; BCI{80 and becomes narrower under the hand-guard (1966) 834 fig. 12 right. Simple blade with widest in its lower third. All examples have one central rib, nearly parallel edges, ivory pommel rivet only in the hand-guard, and blood channels or preserved. "steps" along the edge of the blade. Mycenap, mus. Nauplion, pres. l. c. 20.7 cm. 2' Dictaean the from The exception is a dagger 9. Nemea. type (Psychro), 2 the mainland type, 3 the cross dagger from the Frg. 65. peschiera daggers and battle-axes in Greece. 1 the Cretan Dictaeancave,4theDodonabattle-axe.-lDodona,2WalloftheDymaeans'3Mycenae,4Phylakopi,5Naxos'6Knossos'7 Psychro, Dictaean Cave, 8 Nemea. 134 J. l(o z"---\--'1 ---r -------,J BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE ISIMA r.:N ',oo o== F (r o" ) bE> o,q+ ?s; { =oo o .i: (, o< o 'EA? OE.Y r= =---\ a5-, .Rz--J \ *v JZ r') ;-HQ n -\ si A: oH i-i* : \o 6_: N $ I\ o - ^q{ Dt\' a r---\ Uo'o \\a \J'^v *{E hOo ;Ml (J \, [JA f o <35 .c<) o;i >6 ^ +'" Y)l= t- .2 rt cq Hrf o 9o N Q.PN >,6 oqtr N">d6= Qo <\,: .!? !: "i x=z >^- 6 ru oo'i Q.td ryD-s n' o d^, oo6; 9N NT oP* s tr Qi DO otiiZ * o) Ig Eo >t* oo'A !E 9 !+o: (jv r o.Er 93i o:F ".5og \ I6 ? ,o.i 6: (F I F 8 .9'o cd6 g_: b 3<>' *- rrtEE H:o ?4" oI /' r I =eo >dtr -LO !o-: 9'^o &, ''y\J! *E;^N !> 9* "ai5r tr : .9!{"rcN 5Xm; o ;vE;; i5"l€; : 6 o0N v E a;'j ,ilS: i I !i t !i I I xxtxl i THE RELATIONS OF THE LA'fE MYCENAEAN C{JLTURE 135 $- i 4 One rivet, end of the grip missing, rib like the come from settlements and votive deposite. Peroni preceding piece. Fig. 64 :7 . mentions in his list only one or two cases where 3. Dodona, mus. Sarajevo. Holste, Skizzenbuch Marburg. f {, $ ll The hand-guard of the mainland group is rather simply curved, as well as the narrower blade. The dagger from the Wall of the Dymaeans has a blade with single central rib, whose lower part does not splay out like the Psychro type, and the Mycenae arrd Dodona daggers also have midribs, not blood channels (cf. also the lower part of the blade of no' A s). The original T-shaped ivory handle is preserved on the dagger from Araxos, and parts of an ivory (bone?) handle remained in one of the Fsychro Cave and in ihe Naxos daggers. The insular daggers are so close to each other that Milojdii thought that all were produced in a single workshop.*2 Almost none of the Aegean daggers is dateable by context, but their European parallels belong to Br D and early Ha A (A 1), i.e. to the 13th-12th centuries B.C.43 They form members of the great family of Peschiera daggers found from Transylvania to France and from Italy and the Balkans north to Denmark. The best parallels to the Island (Psychro) type are a dagger from Scoglio del Tonno and some pieces from Peschiera itself (Fig. 64:11-I2)'aa The Tarentine dagger is not identical with the Psychro items, but it could be a pointer to the rouie by which the Peschiera daggers reached Crete. The rwo other types closely related notably to the mainland group, Bossisio and Garlasco according to Peroni,as are more common in the Northwest Balkans and the south-eastern part of Central Europe, where the origin of many related types of weapons (e.g. Sprockhoff II a swords) is usually placed. a chronological sequence Psychro-Bossisio-Garlasco,u6 but the first type is probably of. a 12th century date, and the two others of Br D, with a few from Ha A 1. I do not think that the Psychro type is less developed Peroni suggested typologically than Bossisio and Garlasco; its shape is sophisticated and can more easily be'derived from the Bossisio type than vice versa. The find circumstances of Peschiera daggers in general differ from those of weapons; they a Peschiera dagger was associated in a grave with a sword,aT and none with a spearhead. They commonly occur in graves with pins, bracelets and arm-rin$s, i.e. with female burials.as It is therefore likely that they were not weapons, but simply two-edged knives. 2.3. The spear-head As with the swords, European spear-heads seem to receive sorne influence from the south in Br C-D. I-aurel-leaf spearheads, similar to Mycenaean examples, appear in Central Europe and in Northern Italy at this time.ae The laurel-leaf spearhead was still in use in the Aegean in LH III C, but the weapon became shorter and the socket slightly different from that of earlier spear-heads of this kind. In general, Aegean spearheads from the period in question become shorter, the socket is now cast, not hammered as before, and the weapon could normally be used both as spear and javeline. Though some lighter items probably used only for if more than one spearhead come from one grave, no clear distinotion in weight and size can usually be made. While the laurel-leaf shaped spearhead represents an adaptation of Mycenaean tradition to new fighting techniques, other spearheads used in LH javelins exist (below 111.2.3.3), III B-C Greece seem to be more or less of European inspiration. The basic classification is of Nancy Sandars', with a refinement of mine.s0 Other surveys are in the Archaeologia Homerica E 2 issue, and by Snodgrass in EGAW.sl 2.3.7. Type A. Lanceolate spearheads. (geflammte) It is the most important group, listed by Desborough and Snodgrass. Three main variants can be distinguished: A 1, Very sharply curved blade, recalling the shape of the "fiddle idols" (Fig. 66:l and 67 :2-3). The shape is strange and has no close European parallels:52 1. Gribiani, Epirus. L. 22.2. Dakaris, Arch. Ef. (1es6) 131 fig.8. 2. near Thebes. Oxford, Ashrnolean Mus. 1930.8. J,BOUZEK THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE _,{@F lf,J\ (,I 4 ) d\ rj ll \[ l,l\'1 ffi ri 7 R I 1 _@> 2 @ /,\ l# ffi i\\ 14 ffi't\\ ffi il I{ I $N$ fti Li 9 ffi ffi \, H V 17 IN xxr4 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULT'URE Desborough , LastMycenaeans (1964) 67 pl.22 d.Fig.67:3. 3. Vodhine, Albania, tumulus, grave 17. L. c. 18 crn. BUSS (195611) 185 fig.3:2;Hamrnond, Epirus t1,967) 338 fig. 24 :3 . 4. Cepund, Prendi-Budina, Studia Albanica 7 G97A) 64 pt.II:4. 5. Pazhok, mus. Tirana. Archdalogie albanaise (1976) pl. 25 below left. 6. Kangadi, LFI iII C context, l.'1.7 .8 cm, facetted socket. Fapadopoulas, Myc Achaea(1979) 164 fig. 353 a. The soeket is of group A 4, but the shape of the blade is unseparable from A 1 8:1, Fig.67:2. 7. Siatista, mus. Thessaloniki, Harding, thesis spearheads. Pl. 1972, pl. 43:4. Grave 17 of the Vodhine tumulus was dated by Hammond to the Middle Branze Age for stratieraphical reasons. but his interpretation of the stratigraphy is not convincing and the shape has no MBA parallels either in the Aegean or in Europe, This strange little group is therefore most probably a local variant of the main group A 2. The Gribiani piece reminds one of a spearhead from Metaxata iA2,l). A 2. Similar to the Most of the lanceolate LH III B/C spearheads to this class (Fig. 66:2, Fig. 67:5, 16); belong there are, nevertheless, some differences between individual pieces. The socket is usually shcrt, and only that on no. 1, with its sharply pronounced ianceolate "geflammte") spearhead blade is longer" Nos. 1 and 3 are very close to the European types. The leaf is sornetimes longer and sometirnes shorter, but both varieties appear at the sarne time. A A small Cretan group seems to be different frorn the others (Fig. 66:4 and Fig. 67 :4) 1. Mouliana, tomb B. Xanthoudides, Arclr. Ef. 3. (1904) a6 fis" 2. It" Mus. Heraklion, Giamalakis coli. 688, i.c. 14.5 cm. 3. Distr. of Siteia, Ashrnolean Mus. Oxford. Catling, BSA63 (1968) 93t.tig.2:8andpl.23 e. Fig.67 :4. 4. Faistos. Pernier, Fesfos I, 366 fig. 218. 5. Vrokastro, mus. Heraklion, miniature. The first piece has ribs on both sides of the rnediai line, as well as no. 3, but other iterns are without ribs. A 4. Elegantly curved blade, facetted sccket. 69:I-2 and 67 :I,20) European "geflarnmte" (Fig. L-2.Metaxata, Cephalenia, tomb A. L.24 and 23.5 crn. Marinatos, Arch. Ef. (i933) 92tig"4I riglrt and left. Fig. 67 :L0,1.6" -i.Poiis, Ithaca. L. I8.7 cm. Benton, BSA 35 (1934-35) 7 2 tis. 2A : t6. -1, Kalbaki, Epirus, cist grave" L. 29"4 cm, with F swcrd. Dakaris, Arch. Ef. (1956) 115 fig. ,5, Epirus (?), mus. Ioanina. Harnrnond, Epirus ( 1967) 337 fig. 23 :L. b. Maliq. Arch1olagie Albanaise pl. 25, top right. -. Agrilia, grave Z, mus. Volcs. llarding, thesis 1.97 2, pl. 44 : I . !. Pazhok, Bodinake, Iliria Epirus, I. e. 10.5 cm. Dakaris, Arch. Delt.2A (1965) Chr. 350 fig.3a,pl.4t5 below right; Wardle, Godi{njak Sarajevo 13 (197A) 193f. fig. 1.4 : L07 tr. Fig. 67 : I. 2. Mazaraki,l. 10.7 crn. Vokotopoulou, Arch. Ef. (1969) 118 fig. 6 gamma, pL.27 beta, gamma; Wardle, Godidnjak Sarajevo 13 (1970) 193, fig.14:t066. 3. Konitsa, L. c. 19 cm. Vokotopoulou, Arch. Ef . (1969) t97 fig.7a. 4. Gardikion, L. 19.5 crn. Arch. Ef . (1969) 197 fig.7 z, 5. CorinthII,2A0 no.1522 pl. 91; l. 17.5 cm. 6. Lindos. Blinkenberg, I-. I, 193 no. 595 pl. 23, pres. I. 12.7 cm. 7 . Olympiaw ,17 4 no. 1035 pl. 64.1-.25 cm. Cf . 1. Parga, .pearheads l. 137 L2 (1982lL) 94. Proptishte near Pogradec. Harding, thesis 1972. Fig. 67:5. ::t, 67. A.egean spearheads of European relations. 1 Paramythia. 2 Kangadhi, 3 near Thebes, 4 Crete (Oxford), 5 Proptishi, 6 ardina. 7 Exalophos, 8 Mycenae, Weapons hoard, 9 Langada, Kos, 10 Metaxata, Cephhlenia, 11 Enkomi, Weapons Hoard, 12 \1)cenae, Epano Phourno Tholos, 13 Enkomi, 14 Kerameikos PG grave A, 15 "Achaea", 16 Metaxata, Cephalenia, 17 spear-butt '. ::.rm Kallithea grave B, 18 Meniko, Cyprus, ,,rurces cf. the list. i9 Kallithea grave B, 20 Kerameikos, PG grave B, 21 Mitopolis, Achaea. For the i38 also J.BOUZEK, THE AECEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE K. Kilian, in Etudes detphiiques (BCH suppl. IV), 437 fig.4a. 8. Olympia. Weber, Ol. Forsch.I,I46f .,p1.56. L. 58 cm. 9. Delphi. Fouilles de D.Y,95 no. 456,fig.327 d. L. 27 cm (unfacetted, but similar). 10. Kerameikos grave PG B; Kraiker in Kerameikos I (1939) 1,73 pl.52.Fig.67:20. 11. Kannelopoulos mus., unknown prov. The piece from Olympia published by Weber is certainly an Italian import, and possibly some others, too. This type was popular in Ha B Italy.53 Most items of our list are post-Mycenaean, but the Parga piece (Fig.67:L) could be relatively early and the Kangadhi socketed spearhead (above A 1 ), found with a sword, is probably of a 12th century B.C. date. The facetted socket is otherwise attested Early Protogeofrom a Late Submycenaean metric grave in the Kerameikos, and was already known on Ha A 2 spearheads in Italy and the Balkans. The spearhead from Delphi (no. 9) is not facetted, but its general shape strongly resembles our group A 4. lslMA leaf-shaped blade without the incurvings (Fig. 63:5,67:8,18) 1. Mycenae, Acropolis hoard 1890. Sandars, AJA 67 (1963) 151 pl. 25:37. L. 2l cm, "before 1200". Fig.67:8. 2. Mycenae, ChT 77 . Sandars, Antiquity3S (1964) 261,. 3.-4.Diakata, Cephalenia. Kyparisses, Arch. Delt.5 (1919) 119 fig. 36:l (1,.17 cm) and 3. LH III C. 5. Paramythia, Epirus. Dakaris, Arch. Delt. 20 (1965) Chr.349f. fig. 3 pl. 415 d. L. c. 14.5 cm. 6. Mouliana grave B. Xanthoudides, Arch. Ef. (1e04) 46 tig.11. LM III C. 7 . Enkomi. Catling, Bronzework (1964) 122 f.3 pl. 14 d (tip and socket missing). 8. Meniko, Cyprus. Catling o.c.l22 g 3, pl. 149.L. 21.2 cm. 3. B 3. Socket usually longer, the blade "bayonette-shaped". These spearheads are shorter than E 4, and they still have European parallels (Fig.66:6 and 67:15). 1. Anthea, Achaea. Kyparisses, Prcktika AE1938, 118f. fig. L. c. 18 cm, with sword Catlingll a2. between the lanceolate and the leaf-shaped forms. 2. Gerokomion. Papadopoulos, Achaea (1979) the The midrib extends to the top. At least four var- ieties can be distinguished: B 1. Shortsocket: blade sharplyoff-setfrom the soeket and elegantly incurved. The lanceolate curvature is still present (Fig. 66 :3,67 :9,11-1.2). Hood, BSA 48 (1953) 78f. fie. 45:7 and 46.L.13 cm. LH II or "later III". Fig. 67 :12. 2. Kos, Langada T. 21. Morricone, ASAtene 43 I 44 (1965166) 138f. fig. 122, t24.1. 77.5 cm, with Catling I sword, LH III BlC.Fig.67:9. 3. TirynsV,70f. fig. 1 (fragmentary). 4. Enkomi, Weapons hoard. Catling, Bronzework (1964). 121 (t), fig.14:8. L. 13 :5 cm, with LH III C pottery. Fig. 67 : ll. 5.Enkomi, ST 18:17. SCE I, 551; Catling, Bronzework (1964) l2l fig.l4:9,L.16.5 cm. End of LC II C. Fig.67:13. Similar spearheads come from Kukesi (mus. Tirana, cf. Harding 1972) and Mitopolis (below). 1. Mycenae, Epano Phourno Tholos. B 2. Short socket like B 1, but a more or less C Fig.67:t. longer blade is a cross 2.3.2. Type B. h 163 fig. 349b, L.8.5 cm, small piece with inturned tip. 3. "Achaea". Vermeule, AJA 67 (1950) 15 pl. 5 tig.36 (second piece, the first apparently no. 1). 4. Korkyra or Ithaca, BM Cat. Bronzes no.2777, l. 14.5 cm. 5.-6. Enkomi, Weapon hoard. Catling, Bronzework (1964) 122 g 1, tig. 14:6 pl. 14 c (1. 22 cm) and g2,pl.14 g,tig.14:7 (1.28 cm). 7. Vardina. Heurtley, Preh. Macedonia (1939) no. 1613 tig. 104 cc. Fig. 67 :6. Near to group C. B 3 has many European parallels and seems to be derived from the north.sa These parallels are less apparent for B 2, while B 1 shows only slight traces of European inspiration; it was a local development and its fine outline recalls, for instance, Sandars type F swords or Psychro type daggers (1II.2.2). The Langada spearhead has steps or ribs along the edge, and another spearhead with clearly pronounced lateral ribs from Mitropolis in Achaea can best be mentioned here (Fig. 67:2I, Papadopoul os, Achae a 797 9, I 63 tig. 3 49 a ; Arch. Frg q{Jiiii xnxl f THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE DeIt.lT 1961-62, 129 pl. 153 d, l. 21 cm). The spearheads with lateral ribs find many parallels in Central Europe, Italy and the western Balkans (Fig. 68).ss All daied examples of the B class come from the late 13th and 12th centuries, so that the lower possible date is also more probable for the Epano Phourno Tholos piece. fil 2.3.3. Small leaf-shaped spearheads (javelineheads) practically corresponding to Snodgrass type C (Fig. 64:3)s6 Prilep, cist grave 2. L. 11.5 cm. Truhelka, Glasnik Skopje 5 (1929) fig. 3d. 2.Yajz|, tumulus C, grave 6. prendi, BUSS (195712) 89 fig. 25b; Hamm ond,, Epirus (1967) 338 tig. 24: L. 3. Northern Albania. Prendi, BUST (Lgsgl2) 1. r39 113 tig.4a; Hammond, Epirus (1967) 338 fig. 24:5. .Mati valley, c. l2cm. long. Prendi, BUST (1958/L) 113. Hammond, Epirus (1967) 340 fig. 24:6. 5.-6. Kerameikos, PG Grave A, l. 9 cm (Ker.I, 101 pl. 31) Fig. 67:74; a second unpublished piece (Snodgrass, EGAW 1964,120 no. C 4). 7.-8.Ithaca, Polis (?). Benton, BSA 35 (1.934-35) 72 tig. 20:5 and 6, L. 8.2 and 10.4 crr. 9. Kition, Cyprus. 29:18. LAAA 3 (1910) fiA, fi6 pl. 10. Corinthxv-l, 119 pI.48:30. L. 10.4 cm. 11. Delphi, Fouilles de D.Y,95t. fig. t26a. 12. Dodona. Dakaris, Arch. DeIt.10 (1965) 350 fig. 3b, pl. 476 e. L. c.10.3 cm. 13. Kalauria, NIVI Athens, L.c. 7 cm. u i'.&ll- . Fig' 68. Distribution of the lanceolate ("geflammte") spearheads with lateral ribs in Europe. After Jacob-Friesen Miiller-Karpe, with additions. and r40 J,BOUZF'K THE AEGEA}{, ANATOLIA AND ETJROPE ISIMA .+ t*- :o N6 >d ciG d!4 o\o Brx 63i =6 >.E *F1 ..+ oS a' ,= 6.q .9o \\ 'Xa {) ON i\ 0. o o*o 90 IN o8 oo 1? c-.t-1 \,rv q U a oo dM \\0 QzzA qc)\ n- (2 nuau .=H dE <t ga -^ q.t IO a \, B6 c "b< D {/ otrsa loc o^ EO. P a d01 .D d^ o: 5d Ir.l -x .lrl e€ Bd a60 :d OE €s :"d {qo bo ,.; dro,-a ! o'j. di: *N od qa I .: ! d |! _b:x .C XA '= ---"--\- -4 _,: q) i; d€ O{H A'Cd ;dl2 bb* ri'jg X xxtxl 1 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE 4. Piskovd near P6rmet, Bodinake, Iliria 258 pl. II 9. (1'9 8 | I 2) Their length varies between 7 and 12 cm' Some other spearheads are related; their are of comparable size, but they have a wide leaf-shaped blade: 1. Hexalophos, Thessaly. Chourmoziadis, Arcft. DeIt.23 (1969) Chr. pl. 299 a.L.c. 13 cm, from a LH III C tumulus. Fig.67:7 2.YajzE, grave C 6. Prendi, BUSS (1957) 89 fig' 25 ; Hammond, Epirus 1'967 ,338 fig' 24:2.Fig' 67 :7. 3. Kannelopoulos muzeum, from Northern Greece ( ?). 4._5.Zapher Papoura tomb 14 and Episkopi -Stamnioi Feidiados, tomb E 1, both l\{us. Heraklion. It is difficult to find an exact border line between the canonical type C spearheads and Snodgrass Type A laurel-leaf shaped class' The small items from Mouliana tomb B, Phaestus and Vardina were listed above under groups ,{3, B2-3 according to their shapes, but their size rather corresponds with class C. Another late variety is Snodgrass type l.s1 The cited examples are post-Mycenaean, with few exceptions, and this class was probably introduced into Greece by the second wave of influence posited by Milojdi6.58 They have rnany European parallels, usuaily later than those of types A and B. 2.3.4. Butt-spikes. The butt-spike from Kallithea, Tomb B (Yalouris, AM751960,44 pl. 31 :3) is similar to European spikes, and presumably of an European inspiration,se but other butt-spikes from the Aegean and Cyprus,60 though of the same function, are different. Butt-spikes, however, were probably a common feature of the 12th century spears in the Aegean, since they seem to be depicted on the Warrior Vase (Fig. 52). a a il 2.3.5. European relations ; conclusions. Spearheads A and B are often associated with Naue II swords, both in graves and in hoards. They were used side by side with the "traditional" Mycenaean laurel-leaf spearhead which frequently appears as part of the same warrior's equipment. European parallels for type A 2 are very commorr. No list of this simple shape has yet been published, and even 141 our list is only informative, not exhaustive.6l The northern boundary of the distribution area seems to be the same as that of the similar stepped "geflammte" spearheads (with lateral ribs on the leaf), listed by Miiller-Karpe and Jacob-Friesen (Fig. 68, cf" note 55), but they are commoner towards the south and well-known from Yugoslavia and Albania. A 4 also has parallels in Italy and the Balkans;62 the sockets of similar Central European spearheads are usually unfaceted. B 1 spearheads have only few and not very close parallels in Europe.63 As stated above, they were probably a local Aegean development, onlyinfluenced by certain feaiures of the European spearheads. B 2 spearheads are better paralleled north and northwest of the Aegean, but, just as with the preceding type, Iargely by later spearheads, so that their relations with the north were never as close as those of type B 3, with its many analogies from Early Urnfield cultures in Europe.6a The rare Aegean spearheads with lateral ribs have many European parallels (cf. note 55 and Fig. 68). Type C spearheads, like the larger laurelJeaf spearheads of iron,65 have their best parallels in the Adriatic area, as first noticed by Milojdi6.66 The centre of distribution of most of the spearheads related to Aegean types A and B are in the NW Balkans. They are very few imports in Greece, but there was a genetic relationship between both areas, and, though Aegean spearheads played some role in the origins of the Central European LBA metallurgy, the area of the formation of the basic LBA types which interest us here, was, again, most probably in the East Alpine territoryand east of it. The socketed spearheads with facets seems to be an "Adriatic" invention. The coppersrniths in all the areas mentioned had some knowledge of the products of their moredistant colleagues, but it must be stressed that the Aegean spearheads were nearly all locally made, and not European imports. Possible exceptions are the Cephallenia and Vardina pieces, and one already mentioned Italic spearhead from Olympia. Even in these cases, the production centre need not have been far away. Homer and Geometric vase-painting inform us that the warrior was usually equipped with two r J,BOUZEK, THEAEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 1,42 spears; one of them, provided with a leather strap, served as a javelin. There are sometimes two spearheads in a single grave, but with a few ex- ceptions (for instance Mouliana B) both pieces are of the same size. There are no sufficient reasons to suppose that the heads of javelin and spear were strictly different in the LH III C period, ISIMA therefore, that the axe from Dodona is a local copy of a Br D Balkan battle-axe and canbe connected with the first wave of European type weapons in the Aegean. even though the spear may have been heavier than the 2.5. Arrowheads C heads, this distinction might appear more commonly, but hardly as a rule, since a similar situation is repeated in Protogeometric graves'67 Arrowheads are mentioned only for the sake of completeness. A general survey of Aegean arrowheads has been published by Buchholz,6e of European examples by Mercer and Avila.7o Harding (rlresis I972, 185\ noticed that Buchholz types VIIb (tanged, Fig. 70 :2) and VIII a-b (socketed, Fig. 70 :3-4) are paralleled in the Terramare bronze arrowheadsTl and the spurred type VII has a good parallel there in horn.72 Since the finds are exeptional, and since not very characteristic parallels can be made among disparate series of both areas in question, it is safer to leave this field on one side. In any case the bow only played a marginal part in warfare during the period in javelin. Only with the appearance of the type 2.4. The battle-axe I know of onlyone example from Greece (cf. Fig. 65 :4): M. Carapanos, Dodone et ses ruins, p' 97 , pl. 53: 4.Large part of the blade missing, pres. l. 11 cm. Quadratic profile of the shaft. Nat. Mus. Athens, cf. Harding, PPS 4l (I975) 188 tig.4:4. Fig. 70: 1. All Nestor's types are different, and even the latest of his series have a spike on the butt; they date from Br C-D. There are, however, several Br D examples from Hungary and Rumania with rounded butt;68 they are far from identical, but not altogether unlike the Dodona piece. It seems, question. This fact has interesting confirmation from the attacks of the Sea Peoples on Egypt: Egyptian archers were among the troops who contributed most to winning battles since the attackers had no similar counter force.73 A til 3 -l h t i f $ 4 Fig. 70. The Dodona battle-axe (1) and Late Mycenaean arrow-heads of Buchholz types VIIb, VIIIa and VIIIb. After Carapanos and Buchholz, tt- m THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE AXtXl 3. WEAPONS AND ARMOUR CONCLUSIONS - pean inspiration with some local Mycenaean tradition, which seems to emphasize the functionalism of the bronzes, the economic use of metal 3.1. Local schools of the Aegean bronzework of European inspiration, c. 1300-1,100 B.C. Since the first results of this investigation have been published elsewhere,l we can confine ourselves here to summing up the results and supplementing with new evidence. As the objects in question are with very few exceptions parts of armour and weapons, this chapter can be placed here. The Schliernann Mycenae sword (Pl. 8 :2)' is probably a European import, and the first "international" group is known all over the Aegean (Fig. 7l:l-4). This group includes the Catling I swords (III.2.1..3 . A), spearheads of our groups B 1-2 and A 2 (cf.. lll.2.2; the latter is, however, mainly known from Northwest Greece). Many violin-bow fibulae may be added.3 The style combines Euro- r43 and a reduction of decorative elements as against the European tradition. The Cypriot subgroup, which is discussed below (III.15.1) is closely related, but the tradition of local bronzework seems to be more strongly emphasized here than in most parts of Greece proper. Both reflect the first "wave" of European influence. In the second "wave", local schools can more easily be distinguished. The bronzes of the Cretan group (Fig. 7 0 : 5-7\ are very fine in execution and rather small thin pieces ; there is something in their shaping that resembles ornaments. The Peschiera daggers of the Island group form the most coherent type (1I1.2.2.A), next the Mouliana (Catling III) swords (1IL2.1,.3 B), the spearheads like Mouliana Tomb B (IIL2.3, group A 3), several one-edged flange-hilted knives (III.4.1 . 1 A) and some fibulae of "Italic" appearance (III.5.3). The Cretan school c1 02 r 5 s3 a6 A 4 L7 Fig. 71.Local schools of European-inspired bronzes in Greece and Cyprus. 1-4 Peloponnesian school (1 swords IIal, 2 swords IIa2, 3 mainland type of Peschiera daggers, 4 spear-heads B 1),5-7 Cretan school (5 swords Catling III, 6 Cretan Peschiera daggets,T spearheads A 3),8-10 North Greek school (8 swords IIb,9 spear-heads A 1, 10 spearheads A 2). 1,44 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE shows close relations with Italy and the Adriatic; these links seem to have been partly independent of those transmitted through the Greek' mainland. With very few exceptions, bronzes of the Cretan school are only known from Crete,and from the Cyclades. The mainland group (Fig. 70:8-10) may represent a development of the "international" group in the Peloponnese and in Central Greece, but it is also related to West Balkan (Albanian, Macedonian) bronzes; relations with Italy are less apparent than in the Cretan group. Swords II a 1 and2 (111.2.1.3 B), the mainland variety of Peschi- era daggers (11I.2.2 B) and several spearheads of types A 2 andB 3 (lII,2.3.l-2) form the leading types of this group together with the sheet bronze arrnour richly decorated in repouss6 (greaves and parts of corslets, Tiryns helmet, cf. in ch. III.I:2 A6,3.3 and 4.6). The Northwest Greek group consists of Sandars 6b knives, A 1 spearheads (ItrL4.1.6 and III.2.3'1), the Graditsa and Donja Dolina swords (111.2.1..3 and 4); cf. also the battle-axe from Dodona (111.2.4) and the Kastanas pin (III. 5.4.3). Some of these objects are post-Mycenaean, but the first of them earlier; they show that Northwest Greece with its northern contacts remained a particular province. Further more detailed investigation of individual objects may well refine this classification. 3.2. Mycenaean and European atmaur and weapons The Mycenaean world had two periods, in which weapons and warfare were particularly important. The first of thern was in LH I-II, during the Shaft Graves period and the next century, when there are rich graves with weapons common not only in the Mycenaean centres, but also in Knossos, whichwas probably ruled by a Mycenaean dynasty.a Towards the end of this period, when Mycenae became a mighty power, this warfare was well established, it had reached a sophisticated stage and, until c. 1250 B.C., underwent only little changes. Chariots with charioteers in heavy harness, and infantry with large shields fought both with long rapiers and with heavy spears. Daggers had an arbitrary function in ISIMA close fight, corslet and greaves only gained more significance towards the end of this period. The helmet, of course, was important all the time. Since slashing swords were not used, composite helmets decorated with boar's tusks were sufficient. These were the weapons and armour of a Bronze Age empire, an analogy to Hittite and Egyptian armies and able to cope with such enemies. Prehistoric European warfare was little affected by the equipment of the Mycenaean army except in some parts of the Balkans (above II.l.1-3, 2). European society, which had known and adapted other weapons over large areas since the Early Bronze Age, probably had some knowledge of this military technique, but it was too cornplicated for the Furopean coppersmiths and littie effective in small guerilla wars. Only during the later part of the European Middle Bronze Age, when the societies in some parts of Europe, especially in the Carpathian area and around the Alps, became more prosperous and more highly developed socially, did they also need more sophisticated military techniknowledge of que. They developed - using some their own long the Aegean weapons and armour flangespearheads, flange-hilted swords, socketed hilted daggers and more sophisticated armour which - iI I ( after developing more know-how in they started to cover with sheet bronze, decorated in embossed repouss6, fotr their chieftains and aristocrats, anxious to show working sheet bronze - their superiority to the common folk. Covering shields, corslets, greaves and helmets with thin sheet bronze had little practical use, since the metal was too thin to resist slashes and thrusts of the then usual effective swords, but their almost golden gleam informed both enemies and friends that a mighty, high-born personality had arrived on the battlefield, a real hero, and caused fear in the heart of the enemy, which led to his defect, and to the hero's victory.5 The leader must, of course, have been a strong person both physically and mentally, he had to fight for his position, which could again be lost by even slight weakness, so that the fear felt by his opponents was quite reasonable. Though the armour of a common warrior was more probably of leather only, his sword and spears were nearly identical with those of his leader. A rather small round shield, short greaves, corslet J i p ,d ( c tu L M il m m g qn gm xxBl and a stronger helmet (sometirnes with horns), were able to resist the most effective weapon of this age, the cut-and-thrust sword of medium length, in its accomplished (Sprockhoff II a) version so successful that it became the standard weapon in most parts of Europe, and its descendants ousted other types of swords from the remaining western parts of the continent, With these weapons, adventurers from Central Europe invaded large parts of the Balkans and of Italy, and they also reached the Mycenaean area, where their methods of warfare and tactics were so successful that everyone had to adopt them within a single generation. Thus they came to be adopted in the Aegean, and with the Sea Peoples they also reached Cyprus, the Levant and Egypt' This I phenomenon was without parallel in earlier times and long remained so. The area involved in these contacts comprised most parts of Central Europe from eastern France to Rumania and Poland, Italy and the western Balkans (cf . maps Figs. 57, 59, 68 and 47). All this probably happened shortly before l20A B.C. : terminology6 was limited to a much smaller area f n b r lr rE L d The second "wave of contacts" in Milojdid's along the Adriatic and the Eastern Alps and in Greece; these contacts started during the 12th century and lasted until the 11th century B.C. Later the development of Adriatic and Greek armour parted ways in many respects, though some contacts and some mutual awareness of innovations did not fade out during the following stages of the Greek Dark Age. !n g[ s 4. TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS lE Late Mycenaean and Dark Age implements in Greece were much less influenced by foreign b rt ltE lyLhc rtry ri6 5$ lcr- drt 145 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE models than weapons, armour and dress fasteners. Local craftsmen kept to the old traditions, and any invaders there were, forming as they did only a small part of the invaded country's population, made use of the skills of local craftsmen and their techniques superior to their own (IV.1). Aegean sickles are unknown outside Greek lands' and the various types of European sickles hardly ever occur south of Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. The few excep- tions come from Kilindir and Assiros (Wardle, Godiinjak Saraievo 15 1977, t96 andHammond, Macedonia I, 1972, fig. 10 f), and at Scoglio del Tonno near Tarent a tanged European sickle was found in association with Mycenaean pottery (cf. Harding, PPS 4t 797 5, IB3). Connections, if any existed, in the sphere of hoes, picks, spades and shovels, were very slight: in Europe nearly all of these were made of wood (cf. Harding, Agriculture 1,97 5). Axes and other carpanter's tools reveal only very few examples of foreign types. The development of old forms continued according to the old traditions. The shapes of double axe, simple knives and hoes were translated into iron, but persisted until the 7th century B.C. in almost identical forms' The most informative surveys of the European relations of Mycenaean tools and irnplements has been published by A. Harding'1 4,1. Knives Knives are exceptional in this respect, since certain one-edged knives were influenced from Europe, as were the two-edged Peschiera "daggers", which were probably two-edged knives, but are classified here according to traditional views under weapons (III.2.2). It must be pointed out that the knife was, more than the other fgrms, a personal implement in which personal taste of the user would be likelY to PlaY a Patt. Milojdidlisted in two articles degean knives that are more or less related to European forms.2 Nancy Sandars refuted his conclusions and considered nearly all Late Mycenaean knives to be products of local development.3 Miiller-Karpe connected some Cretan knives with his type Mthlau of Alpine flange-hilted knives.a Harding again resumed all the evidence and stressed the Italian relations of Greek knives (PPS 41 1975,115-119). 4.1,.1.. Flange-hilted knives. The most important group is formed by knives related to the Alpine, North Italic and Balkan flange-hilted knives. A. Close to the Alpine flange-hilted knives, with "stopridge" (Fig. 73:1) 1. Psychro, Dictaean Cave, mus. Heraklion 441. Milojii6, Ib. RGZM Mainz 2 (1955) fig' 1 :6 ; J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 4 I @ @ T 5 r 6 ffi 9 xxxl 2l (1955) 192 tig.2:3; Boardman, C r e tan C oII. in O xf o r d (1, 9 6l) 22 tig- 6b. L. l2.l cm.Fig.72:1.. 2. Lefkandi, Euboea, early LH III C. Popham-Sackett, Exc. atL.14 fig. 19; BCH90 (1966) 902 tig.12.L.c.2l cm. Fig. 72:73. 3. Corfu (?). Oxford, Ashmolean Mus' Curved back, stopridge, dot-and-circle designs in an Sandars, PPS irregular group near the stopridge. Harding, PPS 4l (1975) 197; thesis 1972,fi5.30:I. 4. Knossos, Peter Warren's excavations and kind information. B. Flanged hilt, curved blade like the Alpine 73:7\ Milojile, Ib. RGZM types, but without stopridge (Fig. 1. Psychro, Dictaean Cave. Mainz 2 (1955) fig. 1 :7 ; Boardman, Cretan Coll. (196I) 22 tig. 6 C.L.18.5 cm. Fish-tail end of the hilt, blade decorated with parallel lines and small semicircles. Fig.72:3. 2. Ib., Oxford. Boardman, o.c. no. 70 p.1'9,tig.4 and pl. I0.L.21.8 cm. 3. Mycenae, ChT 4g,dromos, LH III 82 Arch. Ef. (1888) 173 pl.9:20; Sandars, PPS 21' (1955) 4. 1.85,l9l tig.2:4. From Greece, Firenze, Museo archeologico 1905. C. Flanged hilt with stopridge, but blade triangular (not curved), of common Mycenaean form (Fis.73:6) 1. Phaestus. Milojii6, Jb. RGZM Mainz2 (1955) 156, 163 fig. 1:13. Incised decoration. found with t47 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE a fibula with serpentine loops (Blinkenberg I.13a). The decoration of the last piece was explained by Milojdi6 as European-type bird protome (he mentioned a parallel from Switzerland) and by Sandars as a "debased nautilus".s Both may be right; even the shape of the knive is a mixture of Aegean and European features. Miiller-Karpe in his study on the Alpine flange- hilted knives distinguished a western variant called Mattei, distributed in the Alps and in Northern and Central ltaly, and an eastern group Miihlau, used in eastern Central Europe and in the North Balkans. The Lefkandi knife appears to have the Mattei variant indentation, while for the remaining Greek pieces, Miiller-Karpe and Rihovskf saw better parallels in the eastern group and Harding in Italic knives.6 Anyway, they are local Greek products of ultimately Italic or East Alpine inspiration. 4.1..2. Knives with ring end (Fig.73:2). 1.Ialyssos, NT 15:26. ASAtene6-7 (1923-24) 175 fig.101, L. 26 cm.Fig.72:14. 2. Enkomi. Schaeffer, Archiv f. Orientforschung 24 (197r) 195f. with ill: Both may be compared to several Early Urnfield types of Central European distribution, but the best parallels come from the northern Balkans.T Earlier Mycenaean parallels with ring-ends from Pylos and its vicinity were listed by Harding (PPS 41 197 5 ,199), and they show that the Schliemann's knife from Mycenae (Schliemann, Mykend p.75 tig. L22) ascribed to our category by Milojdi6, is earlier and different. 4.I.3. Knives with bird-shaped and an- thropomorphic handles (Fie. 7 3 : 4). 1. Perati tomb t2. Iakovides, Perati (1970) B 344 fig. 149 no. M 53, pl. 95. Fig.74:1. 2.Dictaean Cave, fragment with human head. Boardman, Cretan Coll. (1961) 18 with ref. Fig. 74:8. Several parallels from Bavaria, Austria, Hungary, Rumania and Italy have been listed by Miiller-Karpe and Harding (Fig. 74:2-7).8 What connects all of them is rather a general idea than the exact execution, and the Perati bird reminds one of earlier East Mediterranean or Egyptian representations of birds, but in my opinion it is Fig. T2.Tools,implements and decorative wheels of Italic and European affinities from Greece. 1 Lefkandi,2-3 Dictaean Cave,4 Yajz; (allknives), 5 Deiras, 6 Tiryns, 7 Mycenae, ivory, 8 bronze pendant (5-8 decorative wheels or pin finials), 9-10 razors from Tylissos and Lakkithra (Cephalenia), 11 Perati, 12 Castel Gandotfo, Italy, 13 Dictaean Cave, 14 Ialyssos, 15 Dodona, 16 reconstruction of the Italic winged axe from the Mycenae mould, 17 Mycenae, Acropolis hoard, 18 Knossos, Gypsadhes' bronze knife with iron nails. For the sources cf. the lists. J.BOUZEK, THEAECEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 148 more probably a cross of European and Mediterra- nean traditions than the prototype of the whole European series, as suggested by Miiller-Karpe and Matthiius (cf" below IIi.10.2 and III.11"i7)' If the Perati knife was made after an Urnfield model, it was only natural that the local craitsman applied the more sophisticated Egyptian duck motif, rnore familiar to him. Knives decorated with rows af incised semicircles prendent from an incised line along the 4.!.4. back (Fig.73:5) 1. Dictaean Cave. MilojEie, (1e55) 156 fis. Jb' RGZM Mainz2 r:7. 2. Ib., in Oxford. Boardman, Cretan Coll. (1'961) 19f . no. 59, fig. 4 pl. X :1,"Fig' 72:2. 3. Elafotopos Zagoriou, Vokotopoulau, Arch. Ef . (1969) 184f. fig.2:1.L.22.'7 cm. The Elafotopos knife is in its shape a normal t lstMA exarnple of Sandars group 6b (below III.4.1.6), the Cretan knives curved back, and each of them of slightly different shape. Milojdi6 first dernonstrated the similarity of this decoration to that of many Central European knives, and Hardinge mentioned another parallel from Grotta Pertosa' 4.1.5. Knives with the blade curved back. A group of knives with blade curved back from the Dictaean Cave was listed by Milojdie (Jb. RGZM Mainz2 tr955,156-8) and also dicussed by Harding and Sandars.r0 They are nearly normal examples of Sandars type Ib (PPS 21' 1955, 79L-_93, cf. also her type Ia), only the curved blade recalls some Central European knives. Since there are also earlier Mycenaean knives with similar feature, their relation to European knives uncertain. 4.L6. is Type 6 b of N. Sanda.rs (Fig.72:15 and t 19 A 118 17 S4\ N"' \> knives with ni.-r Fig. 73 Distribution of ,A,egean knives of European affinities. i Flange-hilted knives with stopridge, 2 flange-hilted semicircles. of incised decoration with 4 knives .nO, I XW Greek type (Sandars type 6b), 4 Ferati knife with bird head, simple L Ya1zt,2 Elafotopos Zagoriou,3 Dodona, 4 Leukas, 5-6 Ithaca, Polis Cave and Aetos, T Elateia i simpler varieties of (1). Lefkandi,9penti,10Mycenae, 11 Phaestus, 12DiclaeanCave, 13lalyssos, 1,1 Enkomi, 15Korfu, 16Maliq'17Mativallel.i: Buzj6, Mati, 19 Kenete, distr' Kerkes. 6-- - 149 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE .YXtXl *'hich interests us here. dornmesser" from Central Europe are similar. Since both the Italic and Central European parallels appear to be iater than the earliest pieces from Mycenae, this fact causes a similar problem as the context of the Italic axe mould in this site'13 tazofi with thin handle (sometimes twisted) and coiled tetminal (Fig' 4.1.8. Other knives. Harding in his article in PPS 41 1975, 198t. mentions two further Greek i2:11-12). groups with some Italic relations. These are knives with upturned tips,like the piece from the Dictaean with short triangular plate and three rivets for fastening the handle is distributed in Northwest Greece, in Albania and Serbia;11 some of them are earlier than the period 1 3 :3) . This simple type 1.I.7. Smatl.knives ar north of the South House. BSA 58 1973,337f1. tig.22 no. 60-0' LH III B 2. 3. Mycenae, 3 examples from earlier excavations, mentioned by iakovides, Perati (1970) B 346' -1. Perati, tomb 74. Iakovides, Petati(L970)8346, fig. 150, no. M 136. LH III C" r. Karphi. Pendlebury, BSA 38 (1937-38)59,97, 116 pI.28:2, nos. 640,645,687. Subminoan. 5. Dictaean Cave. Boardman, Ctetan ColL (1961) 18-2L,nos.72-73, fig. 5 Pl" X:1. 1. Mycenae, Nancy Sandars knows some analogical pieces irom Boghazkoy, but Harding in his discussion of this type12 mentioned several parallels among Protovillanovan razors and small knives; also some l lth-1Oth century B'C. razors and "Griff- f,,Y Cave illustrated by Milojiid (Jb. RGZM Mainz2 1955, fig. 1:4), which has some Sicilian parallels, and tanged knives with blade much wider than the grip where the two join. Greek examples come from Perati, Dodona, Karphi and the Dictaean Cave, Italic parallels from Torre Castellucio, Pantalica, Manaccora and Fucino. Again, the parallels are not close, but some relation probable. 4.1..9. Two-edged razors 72:9-I0) with handle (Fig. 1. Lakkithra A. Marinatos, Arcft. Et. (1932) pl.16 A 5 . Fig. 72 :9. 2. Tylissos, Hazzidakis, Les villas minoennes de T. Ge 6Yt# F-iir.tit 'tfi{ f; [j 4 ls IH lii 8 j.tr'fri?L ('r*rfl \# \''i 9 A @ 13 t .t ls Wackonig, 6 "Hungary", 7 neal Fucino, 8 human head Fig. 74. Knives with bird heads. 1 Perati, 2 Riegsee, 3 Spdlnaca, 4 Pantalica, 5 from Gjerdrup, Denmark. After Miiller-Karpe. ll raznr psychro, Montelius a of finial 9 Cave, ( Dictaean ?), razor :ro-m 150 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE TSIMA s;r o!l UP +6 .i9 ;o'.? <z O\O N. A5 ! I .tr i N: a E< i r+^ .no ,=d trO \-\ .\ oO cio h0.? .eq s\t\o * )9, 4 -N <d6c 8€ tr5-l - ^€ \) 0\\ t fr o Qo t \\0 Hno) o:o H.EV tr cn tr; j .:^ 6 E:9 r oL N.-s ^!i iltro 5 d.: a,-6. gg< Uc?\ lD* /) :, vn 6dX !Jv= :abo E^e r .FBO ^-<./ t:-D\ Deo c3 Qan (/^U \J Yg tlG o0 "o \) (^. 0 po Y b t*! Xr.vtd E .'a {o}E u= > 'r! , .i c, O (o i[< '/" D \fI o 0 o \ O ; C 4t1 '\1 l1 t ) c90 r----.-./-..€) L---=--J c!+ i ro .H11ru d o* rc :: ..T F SooF o rO t_t 42a oOY eo. ': o t'i 3 Ecl4 e;:q 9cO i-o ev tu e'E u,!:.: o H. Oo Fx za! !9C O'l; ilt9 bbh I ti | 'F: ft F li GI I n b I h T h Er ri f,c XT u It G Tb Ai L, i Lt iLr I xxul THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE (1932) 96 pl.276; Milojdi6, Jb. RGZM Mainz2 (1955) 164 fig.3:13. Fig. 72:10. 151 4. Kos, Serraglio. Buchholz-Karageorghis, AItdgdis u Altkypros (1971) fig. 554. 116p, These two Greek pieces have Italic para,,e,s' fliT;f;iil"3JJ1,::*,'1"1',::-3s) listed by Matthiius and Bi4nco Peroni.ra It may be concluded that knives unlike the 6. Lindos. Blinkenberg, L.l (1931),67 pt.3:27. - were standardised weapons and dress fasteners more individual products, and European and Italic influence on them more marginal, usually only affecting some of their aspects. Nevertheless, this influence was stronger than with the axes. 4.2. Axes 4.2.1. Winged axe mould (Fig. 75:1) Oil Merchant House. Wace, BSA 48 (1953) 15 pl. 9b; Stubbings, BSA 49 (1.954) 297f.; Childe, in Civiltit del Feno (Bologna 1960) 575-8. Fig. 72:16. t 1. Mycenae, - l 2 s @ 4 G _@ l- n ;. t2 :3f Childe recognized that the Mycenae mould was for an Italic axe, and an Italian provenance is most probable, though these axes have a wide distribution including the Croatian hoards, Hungary and even Bohemia.15 The class probably starts in Br D, and in Punta del Tonno near Tarent, a similar axe was found together with a Peschiera dagger similar to the Psychro type and with other early bronzes.l6 But Bieti Sestieri attributes the Mycenae piece to her Ortucchio class of the l2th century (Ha A 1), and, if the mould was not a later intrusion into the house fill, it might be one of the reasons to put the European chronology slightly higher.l7 An Italic winged axe of the Poggio Berni class of Bieti Sestieri in the British Museum (PPS 39 1,973,393, -199 pl. 41:2) comes reputedly from Greece. 1.2.2. Trunnion axes (Fig.75:3). The trunnion a-res in Greece belong to two different categories. The first group probably dates from the 12th ,'entury B.C. (The possibility of an EH date of the Teichos Dymaion axe seems to be very unlikely.) -{. list has again been given by Harding.ls 1. ii .: l= L Asine. Friidin-Persson, Asine (1938) 3ll tig. 214:2. Anthedon, hoard. AJA (1890) 106 pl. 15: 11. 7 VIL D<irpfeld, Tro j a u. IIionIl (19 02), 405 tig.406. Clay mould. . T roy 8. Kannelopoulos coll. The trunnion axe reached Greece from the Near East and from Anatolia.le AII Greek examples belong to one type with the exception of the Lindos piece, which may be compared to some Anatolian axes. According to Deshayes, the Italian axes come in direct line of descent from the Greek axes; the type I of the McNamara classification is Early Protovillanovan.20 These axes document Greece's relations both with Anatolia and Italy.21 Later bronze miniatures from Dodona22 are Adriatic Early Iron Age symbolic miniatures. Trunnion axes of iron are exceptional in Greece (Fig.75:2): l.Kerameikos, PG grave 40. Ker. IY pl. 38; Miiller-Karpe, IdI77 (1962) 93 fig. 11:1. 2. Agora, Early Geometric grave 27. Blegen, Hesp.2t (te52) 279 tf .; JdI77 (1962) 110 fig. 28:5. These axes have many Balkan parallels. They belong to the Pontic class traditionally connected with the Cimmerians, who probably arrived in the Balkans c. 900 8.C.23 . 4 -2.3 CeIts (socketed axes, Fig. 75 : 4) 1. Troy, mould. Schmidt, Schliemann-Slg. (1901) 267 no. 67 69 ; Drirpfeld, Troja u. Ilionl, 405 fig. 405. 2. T r o ad. Bittel-Schne ider, AA (19 40) 5 80 fig. 1 0, with a hole for the rivet. 3.-4. " Crete". Deshaye s, Outils (1 960) ll, his sub-type A 1a, nos. 1236-7. 6 4f ., 5. Northern Greece (?), Kannelopoulos mus. 6. Olympia B 2135.later variety, but also with hole for nail. The piece from the Troad belongs to a charac- teristic Br D variant distributed in the eastern l. i. Araxos, Wall of the Dymaeans, Praktika AE Balkans, with parallels from Rumania and Bul1962,1.22f. pl. 138 delta. gaia,2a The mould from Troy and the axe in the J.BOUZEK, THEAEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 152 Kannelopoulos museum belong to the same class, of which the Olympia piece may be a local simplification. The axes allegedly from Crete are more difficult to compare with other areas. 4.2.4. Shatt-hole axes 1. Troy VII b" Schmidt, Schliernann-Slg' 267 no. 6768 ab. Fragmentary two-piece rnould' 2. Kiiltepe. Bittel-schneider, AA(1940) 580 fig. 11. Deshayes first noticed25 that both are of a Balkan type well represented in Bulgaria and Serbia, and probably brought to Anatolia by invaders from the Balkans. Only the shaft of the Anatolian pieces has more prolonged protrusions than the Balkan axes' According to Cernych,26 both are characteristic LBA types in Bulgaria.2T The hammer-axe from Dodona is discussed in rrr.2.3.4. 5. DRESSFASTENERS The Mycenaeans used to fasten their dress by means of conical or biconical buttons of stone.l Pins were not completely unknown, but rare. With the exception of the magnificent hair-pins like those from the Shaft Graves at Mycenae, the rare Mycenaean pins prior to 1200 B.C. were small modest pieces. The shapes used were the shepherd's crook pin,2 bronze and bone pins with disc heads, with conical and biconicatr heads, and pins with swollen and perforated shank.3 The later long pins show very little relation to these and the fibulae even less. 5.1. Violin-bow tibulae Betzler;5 all this together with For Greece, the most useful survey published is some shorter studies, enables to give a more detailed picture. That sinnple fibulae existed in the (Jndtice culture is a theory that has not been borne out by new finds,6 and the bronze sheet ornaments from Alaca Hiiyiik,T though similar to two-piece brooches, are not fibulae in the proper sense. The real history of I l I I the fibula starts in the l4thll3th century B"C., or slightly before. They were used roughly over the same area as Sprockhoff Itra swords, but they split into two rnain groups: two-piece fibulae (with bow and pin made separately) in the north and onepiece fibulae made around the Alps, in ltaly, the r western Balkans and in Greece. The question of the origin of the fibula is more problematic than that of the weapons, which arose from earlier related types, but the fibula represents a technical improvement of the pin and it must have originated in an area where bronze dress pins, bound on by cord, were a common dress accessory" The two-piece fibula starts in the IInd Nordic period, and its origins precede the rise of the one-piece fibula which seems to have been invented somewhere along the southeastern Alps, in Northeast Italy with surrounding parts of Yugoslavia and Austria"s A Greek origin of the fibula is very improbable because the tradition in methods of dress fastening was different here (cf. above III.5.0). The Peschiera fibulae show an interplay of different details in nearly all parts of the world where they were commonly used, though some varieties were confined to some areas only. The common appearance of different varieties in different countries shows, similarly as for the swords, that contacts between the areas in question lasted for some { ( .\ tr time" A. Fibulae with catch loop and spiral disc foot, bow round in section (Sundwall still the book by Blinkenberg, their chronology and relation to other countries were studied by Furumark, Desborough, Harding and others.a The book by Sundwall o4 Italian fibulae retains its significance, but there are useful new surveys of Italian Peschiera fibulae by H. Riemann, of Yugoslav items by Vinski-Gasparini and of those from southern Gerrnany, Switzerland and Austria by P. ISIMA 1 alpha, Fig. 76 : 1) l.-2.Mycenae, Chamber Tomb 61, Nat. Mus. Athens 2808-9. Blinkenberg, Fibules nos. 13a and 14a, one piece decorated with incised zigzag. The pins Pl.12:2-3 come from the same tomb. i -i I Fis.76:1. The two fibulae show a prototype of our series, and this variety was considered as being the.earliest of all by Merhart. Parallels, sometimes with twisted Ji* - 4 fl"ilr m-s imn xxul bow, are known from noi th-eastern Italy, northern Yugoslavia (Fig. 80:6,10), Hungary and Austria (here esp. a variety with square-sectioned bow, Leopoldau or Unter-Radl, Fig.80:tr3), and in Hungary with a larger disc and more complicated bow (cf. Fig.77:1-2).e : i t' r B c rt d lin ( B. Fibulae with smooth bow (decorated or plain) and with triangular catch-plate (Sundwall A II a, mapFig.77:3) 1-4. Mycenae, Blinkenberg, Fibules (1926) nos. Ll a-e. 5.-6. Argive Heraeum, Waldstein, A.H.II,240 pl. 84: 811-12. 7. Orchomenos, Spyropoulos, 263-7 fig. 6, LH III B-C. 8. Artemis Orthia, AAA 3 (1970) Dawkins-Droop, The Sanc- tuary of A.O. (1929) 198f. pl. 83 b. 9.-ll. Psychro, Gortyn and Vrokastro, Sapouna-sakelarakis, Fibeln (197 8) nos. 1-2, 15. For variety with slightly arched bow, cf. sub C. Mycenae Chamber Tomb 8 (Blinkenberg I, 1 a) contained LH rc a Lt ilc fibulae are more often decorated than not. The delicate close decoration, similar to that on Greek fibulae, consists of horizontal and vertical lines and zigzags; only the eastern "Serbian" group used an .'. -rl r>-.+-i\ -----: (fL<=__r::_:_j_ lL----:-:p) 2 G tics n bor r: 1) ldw .13r ng. mbEritxdis$fi ril€d m 3 gne t lF- 1 and from the eastern Alps; some specimens were also published from Albania (cf. Fig. 77:3). These fe- G. B material and Chamber Tomb Italy, northern Yugoslavia (Fig. 80:4,16) [l xrl III (Blinkenberg l, 2a) is probably of the same early date. The Gortyn piece seems to be later, but the fibulae from Sparta and from the Argive Heraeum may well show that the votive deposits there go rather far back. Related fibulae are mainly knownfrom northern Ilg la 153 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE 6 effi> na b\_b 5 ,.A. 6) l0 9 Fig.76.Types of Mycenaean and Submycenaean fibulae. 1 Mycenae, ChT 61, 2 Lakkithra, Cephalenia,3 Kerameikos, SM grave2, r Kos, Langada grave 10, 5 Vardina, 6 Kerameikos SM grave 102,'/ Diakata, Cephalenia, 8 and 10 Kerameikos, SM grave 102, 9 Ib., SM grave 33, 11 Teichos Dymaion, 12 Kos, Langada tomb 20, 13 North Peloponnese (in Mainz). After Bouzek 1969, Harding :nd other sources (cf. the lists). r54 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE ISIMA "open" decoration of transversal grooves (Fig. 80:14, 17, cf . map Fig. 77:3).10 A variety with 11. Mouliana. ASAtene arched bow is known both from Greece and from 12. other areas mentioned (Fig. 80:12) and was RM86I979, perhaps slightly later (cf. Riemann, 35). 19-20 (1957-58) 359 tig. 215. Gortyn. ASAtene L7-18 (1955-56) 230, 238. 13. Dictaean Cave. Sapouna-Sakelarakis, Fibeln (1978) pl. 1:5. C. Similar fibulae with twisted bow: Mycenae, Chamber Tomb 29 (Blinkenberg I, 1.-4. Two from Mycenae, Korakou and Sparta. 2a) dates from LH III B, and this date may also be Blinkenberg, Fibules (1926) nos. 12 a-d. 5. Karphi, Pendlebury, BSA 38 (1937-38) pl. valid for Korakou, where no objects later than LH 29:2 no. 690. 6. Sparta, Artemis Orthia. Snodgrass, Dark Age of Greece (1,971) 245,247 . 7. Archanes, Sapouna-Sakelarakis, Fibeln (1978) no. 5A. With arched bow: 8.-9. Karphi, Pendlebury, BSA 38 (1937-38) 174 p1.29:2 nos. 477, 546. 10. Phaestus. 37. ASAtene3l,-32 (1969-70) 68 fig. III B were found; the slightiy arched fibulae from Karphi are Subminoan. The type is conternporary with the former in Greece, in northern Italy and in the NW Balkans.lr The Hungarian fibulae with spiral disc and even the Nordic pieces ("Urfibel") also usually have their bow twisted. The tendency to imitate cord in wirework was characteristic notably for early fibulae, and the East Central European "Posamenterie" fibula was the most baroque development of this tendency.12 oooO a V ,o. \ - e o 4 \ \"(/ 06 :<EM ^ov Fig. 77 . Dislribution of early violin-bow fibulae. 1 with spiral disc foot, bow round in section, 2 the Leopoldau variant, 3 fibulae with simple catch-plate, bow round and twisted, sometimes slightly arched. After Betzler, Harding, Vinski-Gasparini, Sundwall and others. Straight bow, somewhat swollen in the middle, with knots (Sundwall A II f, map Fig. 78:3) D. l.-2.Tiryns and Thermon (?). Blinkenberg' (I92b) nos. 15 d and 16 a. 3. Aigion, Papadopoulos, Mycenaean Achaea (te7e) tig.323 b. 4. Araxos, Wall of the Dymaeans. BCH 91 (1967) 666lig.6 ; Papadoupoulos, Mycenaean 11..-l2.Mycenae, Blinkenberg, Fibules (1926) 13. I I r ! t ) v b rl st Achaea (197 9) tig. 323 a.Pl- 12: 1, Fig. 7 6 : I1' 5. Derveni. Arch. Ef. (1956) 11f. 6. Marathon , Arch. Rep. for 1961-2,47f . fig.2. 7. Olympia, H. Philipp, Btonzeschmuck aus Olympia (19S1) 261f. no' 984 pl. 59. 8. Karphi, Milojdi6, Jb. RGZM Mainz2 (1955) 162 fig. 3:1.8. ASAtene 27-28 9. Kos. Langada (1965-66) I34 fig. 119 (one knot only). Fig' T. 20, 7 6:12. 10. Crete, Sapouna-sakelarakis, Fibeln (1978) no. 7. slightly arched nos. 15 a-c. Kos, Langada T. 10. (1965-66) I02f . tig. Fibules ; 155 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE xxul ASAtene 27-28 84. Fig. 7 6 : 4. The pieces from Langada tomb 10 and from the Wall of the Dymaeans date from LH III C, the Karphi fibula is Subminoan and the Langada 10 item with one knot only dates from late LH III B. This variety is more common in southern Italy than in the Balkans; there are only two fragmentary pieces known from Croatian hoards (Fig. 80: 2,5).13 Fibulae with extended forearm (asymmetric bow, Sundwall type A II i-j) E. L. Dictaean Cave. Boardman, Ctetan CoII' (1961) 36f. no. I57 tig.16 (twisted bow) 2.-4. Enkomi. Blinkenberg, Fibules (1926) a and Catling o Branzework (1964) 240. ll0 4 nA u\ a It "D $ 0 Fig. 78. Distribution of developed variants of the violin-bow fibulae. 1 Ieaf-shaped bow with knots, 2 bow with figure-of-eight loops, 3 bow of round section, with knots. 4 leaf-shaped bow, without knots. The same sources as for the preceding map. 156 J. 5. Cyprus, type B. BOIJZEK. THE AEGtrAN. ANATOI-IA AND EUROFE Catling, Branzework t1964) 241 5,-7. Vrokastro and Kavousi larakis, Fibeln (1978) nos' Sapouna-Sake- 43-45. Flama. Riis. HarnaII-3,I3zt.fig. 167 F. 26. Megiddo II, pl. 223 :7 8. S.-25. These fibulae date from Ha A 1 (t2th century) in Italy and the Balkans (Fig. 80:7-8); the Cypriot pieces are of LC III B date. The type has a wide distribution in ttre Near East and north of the Caucasus,ta lsiMzl I. Fibula with bow-plate (willow-shaped), without knots, {tig. 76:2,5,10 and 78 :4) 1.-13. Blinkenberg, Fibules (L926) types I, 17 and 18 : Mazarakata, Lakkithra here Fig. 75 ; 2, Vrokastro, Thebes, Delphi, Mycenae, Dictaean Cave and Olympia (cf. also H. Philipp, Branzeschmuck aus {)Iympia,Ol. Iiorsch. XIII (1981) no. 985 pl. 59). 14. fu{etaxata, Cephalenia, Tomb B 2. Marinatos, Arch. Ef . (1933) 92t. tis. 42. 15" Ferati, Tomb 65, Iakovides, P" {1969) A7'1. E 274-6 tig.1.2I pl.24. : 16. Athens, Kerameikos, SM Grave 108. F'" Extended forearm, figure-of-eight loops (Sundwali A ItrI b-c, tig.76:7 and78:2) l. Diakata, Cephalenia. Blinkenberg, Fibules (1926) no. Fig. 76:7. 2. Dictaean Cave. Boardrr,ail, CrctanColX.{196I) 36f. fig. 15 A. -Karpe, 7 6:IA. 1.7. IdI Miiiier- 77 (1,962) 87 fig. 5:7,9. Fig. Derveni, Cnrinthia. Verdelis, Arch. Ef . (1955) B 12" tr8. Prosyrnna Tomb 37. Blegen. F. (1937) fig. 3Al:4. I.24{) 19. Argive Heraeum. Waldstein, 84:815f. Some parallels are known from north-eastern Peraclrora. Fayne, P. Italy, but related fibulae were rnore common in the ?9 L L69f . pL.72:7,1.5" 2l' Kos, I-angada T. 20. Morricone, northwestern Balkans and in eastern Central 27-28 (1e5s-66) 134 tis" r19. Europe (Fig" 80:1, 3).15 More complicated, but deriving from the same prototyoe, is the "Posannenterie" fibula" The Bosnian fibulae with looped bow are apparently late.16 G. Violin-bow shape, but coil spring at each end. 1" Hama, Riis. lfanra II-3, 132f . fig. 168 B. 2. Tarsus, LB IL Goldrnan, Tarsus I1,286 pl' 432 na.245. ASAterre .. Mallia, Maison E. Deshayes--Dessdne, Mallia, LL' Maisons II (1959), L46 pl.51:6 arnd 72:1A. 23' Dictaean Cave. Boardman, Cretan Call, (1961) 35f. nos. 150-161 fig. 15. 24" Karphi. Pendlebury, BSA 38 (1937-38) 114 p|.29:2:200,219,636. 25. Enkomi. Catling, Bronzewark (L954) 241 pl. 42 d. 26. Cyprus, Catling, Bronzework(1964) 24I pL. 42 This variant is known from the East Mediter- "--32.Ialyssos, Praisos, Vrokastro, I-efkandi, Thera and Chios, Emporio. Sapouna-Sakelarakis, Fibeln (1978) type I e, nas. L2--32. Paralimni. Fapadopoulcs, Mycenaean Achaea -1-l. H. Fibula with serpentine troops (1979) fig.323 e. 1. Fheastus. Blinkenberg, Fibules (1926) no. I 13a. grave 2 L . Snodgras s, Dark Age 34' Vitsa Zagoriou, (?). Goldman,Tar2. Tarsus, Early Bronze levels (1971),260. of Greece sus .[I, 286 pl. 432 :244. ranean, from the East Balkans (Fig. 80: 15) and the Pontic area;'1 in the Balkans these fibulae were forerunners of the triangular brooch there.i8 This variety is rare, as against the more cornmon fibulae with coiled loops. One parallel comes from Manaccora,le and there are many among the Caucasian fibulae, but they are heavier and probably later than 1000 B.C.2o 27 35" Vardina. Heurtley, Preh. Macedonia (i e3e) 101 and 231fi4.1.04 aa.Fig.76:5. 35. Brod-Saraj near Bitola, cist tomb. Maiki6Starinar 1"1. (1e60-Simoska-Trbuhovi6, 61) 203f. tig. 21. 3'7 tombs Lefkandi l(7g7g),pls' 94, 106' Skoubris . 10 and 46. (Perati" N{any examples are of LH III C date ri*i"r, Delphes, cf. Furumark , Chtonologyl'940' are Submycenaean or S-ubminoan qf j, *hil* oih".* (ct' OesUorough, Lasf Mycenaeans 196.4' 56f')' ihe VarOlna fibula preceded the Lausitz Ware Lt"t, *a the Saraj fitula comes from an early cist rnainly tornb. Ttre Metaxata Tomb B 2 contained in one I-H fif C pottery, but the fibula was found several LH III B vessels and is usually *rn", with dated that r- earlY.21 The decoration of the bow-plate is sometimes incised (Blinkenberg I, 8a, f), but more-usually .*.rut.d with dots in repouss6 (Thebes' Psychro' were Kerameikos); sometirnes both techniques majority The Karphi)' Cave, employed (6icta"an though of ihe-decorated series is Submycenaean' (for the date C the first pieces are of a LH III 3- 6t rg. pl. 1,57 CULTURE THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN xxul distribution cf. Fig. 78:4)' Some fibulae with ribbon-like bow are later. In Greece, plates without knots and without loops prevail, while the variety with knots and with shorter plate (Fig' 78:1) prevails in Italy and that with loops in the Northwest Balkans and the Carpathian area''2 Fig 79 gives the generalised distribution of the violin-bow fibulae in Europe and the Near East' Most of these fibulae found in Greece were local products, but there are some exceptions (most notably those from Mycenae Chamber Tomb 61 and Blinkenberg I, 19 a)' The poor preservation of many of them does not allow closer study of their technique and execution. 5.2. The bow fibula In this chapter we discuss only the earliest variety of the bow fibula' the arch of which is not swollen 3m Eit0. loll114 1pl" il.41 endi- orit - rIe. *aea tAge 1939 ,-z +-v x-+ ! laiti{,960- Fig.79'Generalizeddistributionoftheviolin-bowfibulae.lPeschieravarieties(includingthefibulaewithvillow-shapedbow),2 fibrrla. After Bouzek loops, 4 the Central European fibula with figure.of-eight loops, 3 with S-shaped ..Posamenterie'' completed. 1978, J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 158 ISIMA I a t ! { @ I f o l i T c I ! d 10 ffi I c fr il t 1'l C t l .il s il G T t "[ c f, I ffi 15 Fig. 80. West Balkan violin-bow fibulae and a button in the shape of the Dipylon shield (9). 1 Toplidica,2 near Karlovac, 3 Pri6ac,4 Glasinac-Taline, 5 Brodski Varo5, 6 Novi Banovci, 7 Malence, S Glasinac, 9 Veliko Nabrde (button), 10 Podumci near Uneiii, 1l Brod near Bitolj, 12 near Split, 13 Langmannersdorf, 14 Glasinac-Strbci, 15 Altmiinster, 16 Grossmugl, 17 Konjuia. After Srard, Betzler and Vinski-Gasparini. if\ ^t TJ I nl r xxHl THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE (the only plastic decoration being knots or twisting) and with a small catch-plate. It is Blinkenberg's group II, with the exception of the more developed pieces II, 13, 2l and 23, which are unknown in early contexts. The derivation of the bow fibula from the violinbow type was natural enough. Its simultaneous spread over Greece, Italy and the western Balkans proves the existence of contacts along the Adriatic ; its appearance in the Caucasus forms a particular problem.23 Since its spread over Greece is connected with the spread of long dress pins which have many more ancestors in northern Italy and in the NW Balkans than in Greece, a "northern" origin of the bow fibula is more probable, but all three areas participated in the evolution of this type. In contrast to the violin-bow fibula which preceded it, the bow fibula is commoner in the eastern Mediterranean. Many bow fibulae are known from the Caucasus; later variants also come from the Urartu territory, Anatolia, Syria and Palestine.2a A selection of Early Greek bow fibulae: Cf. esp. Blinkenberg, Fibules (1926) types II, 1. ; S apo una-S akellarakis, F ib e In (7 97 8) typ e 1 -l IIa, pp. 42-45. Fig. 7 6 :3,6,8-9. Argos, t. 29. Deshayes, Deiras (1,966) 207t. pl. 87:6. Mycenae, Tsuntas House Cist Tomb and Tomb Gamma 31. Desborough, BSA 68 (1973) 95,97 ' Tiiyns t. 13 b. Verdelis, AM78 (1963) 8 fig.4. Perati, tombs L7 and 36,74. Iakovides, Perafi Yugoslav chronologies have been based on the evolution of the fibula, only transitional forms between violin - bow and bow specimens are dated prior to 1100 B.C. Three basic types may be distinguished: with plain bow (a - both decorated and undecorated), twisted bow (b) and bow with knots (c). The last type (c) is most diagnostic. The distribution map (Fig. 81), which includes also early first millenium varieties, shows that it was spread along the Adriatic (with some northern off-shoots), in Greece, Cyprus, Syria and the Caucasus area. More local varieties exist and local schools become more the evolution of the bow independent during fibula.25 The fibula with simple bow (a) is the simplest and commonest, but it has more variants and more derivatives also outside the territory mentioned in connection with the preceding type. Variants with larger catch-plate or with thickened bow (similar to sanguisuga) are all late. Greek and Italian fibulae are mainly fine and small (notably the former), the Caucasian items heavy, massive pieces looking more like the work of a smith than a jeweller. Fibulae with decorated bow are known in nearly all local groups The fibula with twisted bow (b) was quite popular in Submycenaean Greece; it was less common elsewhere, but found in all principal areas of distribution of bow fibula.26 B (197 0), 27 4-6 fig. 1.22. Ancient Elis, Arcfi. DeIt. 17 (1961-62) Chr. pl. 146 e. Corinth, Hespefia39 (1970) 15 pl. 6. Salamis, Wide, AM35 (1910) 29 tig.l0. Kerameikos. Ker. l, 82-85 ; Mtiller-Karpe, JdI 159 5.3. Other early fibulae in Greece A. The snake fibula The early types (Blinkenberg I, 11) are only known from Crete (Kavousi, Vrokastro) and with probability derive from Italy; they confirm that all (te62) 60. 77 Crete was in closer contact with Italy than the (197 106f.,171, 9), pl. 94f .,98f ., 103f., Lefkandil mainland. The parallel types Sundwall Greek I'13,178, r84. D I beta a and beta b respectively are distributed in Andronikos, Vergina I (1969), 230-33. The earliest Greek bow fibulae date from late LH III C contexts (Perati, Argos, Mouliana A), the majority of them is Submycenaean. Similarly, 11th-10th centuries seem to be the date of the first Macedonian bow fibulae. Since the Italian and Sicily and southernmo st ltaly.27 Another early snake fibula from Kydonia (Blinkenberg I 1.2a, Boardman, Cretan CoII. 7961, 121 pl. 45 no. 529) is fragmentary but comparable to Sundwall type D II alpha, which also has some Balkan parallels.28 J,BOUZEK, THEAECEAN, ANATOLIA AND 160 B. The two-piece fibula The fibula with horse head from Aloni near Hierapetra was compared by tslinkenberg with some Sicilian examples (Blinkenberg, Fibules 1926, 57, type I 14, ct. P. 44 figs. 7-8; Sapouna-sakelarakis, Fibeln 1978, no' 50)" Further parallels rnaY be added: One-piece fibula with horse head from Bologna (Montelius, Civ. prim.I, pl. 14 tig.Z}3 and pi' 88 :2 pieces ; Sundwall, FibetnIg43,297 tig' 434, -typetwoJ I epsilon 1). For similar two-piece fibulae without horse's head cf. Sundwall, o.c. p. 158, type D IV alpha a" Similar fibulae with spiral disc (Sundwall type D IV alpha b-c, pp. 158-160) are distributed in Italy, Sicily and the western Balkans' The first distribution map was published by Merlrart, and this was elaborated by Drechsler*Biiid.2e They are contemporary with the bow fibulae' but apparently not with the earliest of these. Other Balkan but one newly published fibula from "South Bulgaria" may be added: Venedikov, Izvestiia Varna L4 (1963) i8-20 fig. 5, with big catch--plate. The only complete two-piece fibula from Greece is the piece mantioned atrove, but two Cretan pins were apparently parts of Adriatic two-piece fibulae. They were identified hy Milojdi6 (Jb. RGZM Mainz 2 1955, 153) and Boardman : 1 " Karphi, BSA 3B 1937-38,115 pl' 28 :l no. 17 I (Subminoan). 2. Dictaean Cave. B oard rnan, Cr e tan Coll' (19 5 1) no. 162 pp"37 and 36, pl. 13 and fig. 6.30 Both the snake and two-piece fibulae are distributed along the shores of the Adriatic. The homeland of the Cretan examples was probably Sicily or southern Italy.31 5.4. Fins The classical study by Jacobsthal {Greek Pins ( ) oO 81. I,SIMA purposes, variants listed by her are mostly unimportant for our Fig. EUROPE Distribution of the bow fibula with knots. After Bouzek 1969, completed. xxxl THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE 1956) knew only few types of early pins; much supplementary material has been published since. Earlier Mycenaean pins are discussed above (rrr.s.0). The common use of long pins fastening a peplostype dress in graves of women starts at the end of LH III C and the beginnings of Submycenaean, but there is one exception: the two pins from the Chamber Tomb 61 at Mycenae (Pl. t2:2-3). They resemble Jacobsthal's canonical SubmycenaeaR pins, but the proportions of the upper and lower parts of the head are reversed. ChT 61 contained a spiral of gold wire and two violin-bow fibulae with spiral disc foot discussed above (III.5.1. A). The composition of the offerings reminds one of the Submycenaean grave goods, but the violin-bow fibulae belong to the earliest variant of their class, and a date not far from 1200 B'C' is the most probable for this group. These pins have many European parallels dating from the 14th-13th centuries 8.C., and those from Beloti6 \J C\ lo 161 in Serbia deserve a special mention (one of them is over 1 m long).32 The rarity of pins as against fibulae c. 1200 B.C. in Greece fits well into the historical picture' Pins were usually worn by women, as against the fibulae used by both sexes, and European women were probably much less involved in the 13th/1Zthcenturies warlike "contacts" between Europe, Italy and the Aegen that men. 5.4.1. Late 12th-11th century B.C. pins' Jacobsthal in his Greek Pins considered only one type of pin to be genuinely Submycenaean, but since then the number of dated pieces has increased by Sandars, Miiller-Karpe, Deshayes, in FIom' Griechenland and elsewhere.33 I. Jacobsthal's classical type, with a globe on the shank and flat or semiglobular terminal' Two variants can be distinguished: .4A L/' c Fig. 82. Early Greek pins in the Aegean and in Cyprus. I type I, pin and globe of different materials,2 type I, full cast of bronze, 3 IV, head and pin of different materials, 4 the same shape, pin and head cast together, 5 type II, 6 the Vergina pins, 7 Karphi pins, I Yajz|,2Yergina,3 Troy, 4 Pherai, 5 Ancient Elis, 6 Corinth, 7 Argos, 8 Salamis, 9 Athens, 10 Perati, 8 lvlycenae ChT 62 pins. 11 Knossos, 12 Karphi, 13 Mouliana, 14 Kaloriziki, 15 lthaca, 16 Diakata, Cephalenia, 17 Olympia, 18 Nichoria. n,pe - 162 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE b) a) shank and globe of different materials (fig. 82:1.) 1. Perati Tomb 108. Iakovides, P. (1.970) B 288f. pl. 116a no. D 142. Glass-paste on iron shaft. LH III C late. 2" Kerameikos, Submyc. grave 113. Smithson, .Flesp. 30 (1961) 175. cast ISIMA in one-piece bronze or iron (Fig.82:2 and 84: 1): 1.-2. Argos, Deiras. Deshayes, Deiras Iron with spherical ivory 87 :6,'j..23.2 III C. and 24 cm. All late phase of LH 3.Ithaca, BSA 33 (1932-33) 61 fig. 44; Ja- head. 3. Ib., Early PG grave hS 92a, AMBI (1966)7 pl. tL:I,3" Two with ivory heads only partly preserved. cobsthal, Greek Pins (1956) 3 fig. 8. 4.-8. Kerameikos, SM graves 20 (,Fig. 81:tr), 46,2,24 and 42. Ker.I,82; Miiller-Karpe, IdI 77 (1962) 60 fig. L:3, 7-8; 2:16; 3:12-13. Mainly two in each grave, the Later Protogeometric pins from the Kerameikos, use to have an iron shank with longest (1. 47 .3 crn) from grave 20. 9. Ib., grave 27 " Globe without hat, or hat broken Agora and Nea Ionia bronze globe (cf. Kraiker, Kerameikos I p.25; Miiller-Karpe, IdM (1,962),53 with a list, fig. 33; from Nea lonia Smithson, -Flesp. 30 (7961'), 173 pl. 27 no.57). This technique was also known elsewhere in Frotogeometric Greece (Desborough, PG Pottery 309f.) and the nail-headed pins from Lefkandi and Karphi (here II c-d) may have had some globe on their shank originally. (1962)fig.3:t. 70.-1.2. Salamis. Wide, AM35 (1910) 29 tig.1.1, and 1.4; Miiller-Karpe, JdI 77 (1962) tig. away (cf. type IV). JdI77 32 : 1,3 . l-. 2A.5 and 40.3 cm. 13.-1,4. Ancient Elis, graves 1..-2.V. Leon, OeJh46 (1961-63) Beibl. 55f. fig. 25b,1.21. and 33 cm; OeIh47 (1964-65) 61 fie. 31 b. ^.3 Fig. 83. Other pins in the Aegean and Cyprus. (1966) 205. Tomb 33 no. D823,p1.24:2and92:4,1. 35 cm ; Tomb 25 nos. DB 17-18, p1.24 :6 and 1 type V, 2 type lll,3 a4 V5 with coiled head.4 with swan-shaped head,5 of simple straight l0Mouliana, 11Enkomi. wire.-lBobousti,2Vergina,3Athens,4Salamis,5Korakou,6Mycenae,TArgos,8Knossos,9Karphi, 12 KuC i ZL 13 Diakata, 14 Olympia, 15 Episkopi. xnxl Heurtley, BSA 28, 177; Jacobsthal, Greek Prns (1956) 2 fig.6. 16.-18. Lefkandi, Skoubris tombs 10,33,38 and Toumba t. 75; L.I (1979) pls' 94, 102f. and 15. Pherai. r76. 19. Olympia. H. Philipp, Btonzeschmuck aus O. (1931) 35f. nos. 3-5 PL.26. 2}.Troy. Schmidt, Schliemann-Sig' p' 258 no. 6486.L.13 cm. Pl. 11 :3. 2l.Kaloriziki, Cyprus, tomb 26. Catling, Btonzework (1,964) 439 pl. 4l i,LC III B (later in Cypro-Geometric graves). II. Similar, I t F d but with swelling instead of globe a) fine elongated swelling, shank usually decorated with horizontal incised lines (Fig. 82:5 and 84 2): 1.-4. Kerameikos, SM graves a1 (Fig. 84:2),52, 70 and 16. Ker.I, 82; Miiller-Karpe, JdI77 (1962) 50 fig. 4:l-2,10-11 and 5:2 (undecorated) 5. Mycenae, tomb Gamma 31, Submycenaean. BSA 68 (1,973) 95f., 98, PL.34 de. 6. Corinth, Hesp.39 (1'970) 15 pl. 6:16. 7. Ancient Elis, SM grave 4. Leon, OeJh 46 (1961-63) Beibl' 49f. Iig.25a. 8. "North Peloponnese". CVA Mainz L, p. figs. 1-2, PG. 9. Nichoria. McDonald, Hesp. 44 (197 5) 12 ll7f. pl. 28a. 10. Diakata, Cephalenia. Atch. DeIt. 5 (1,917) I17 tig.32:3 (LH III C). 11.Olympia. Philipp, Btonzeschmuck aus O. (1981) 34f. no.2 p|.26 (globular hat). 12.-13. Lefkandi, tombs Skoubris 38, 62-63; Lefkandil(I97g),pls. 103 and 111. 14. cf. also the shorter pin from Troy' Schmidt, Schtiemann-Slg. p. 258 no. 6484, pres.l' 10.5 crn b) simpler in shape and cruder in execution: I (1969) 23 4-236 fig(7 tombs). 94 1. Vergina, Andronikos, V. c) with simple conical broadening on top and NLL t-- 163 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE slightly pronounced swelling; no decoration: 1 19 pl. 1. Karphi. Pendlebury, BSA 38 (1937 -38) 28:I and 3 (8 pieces of 11 illustrated). It is not impossible that they originally had a globe of organic material, as Deshayes supposed for his long pin from grave 25 atDeiras (1966,205, possibly end of LH III C). The nail-headed pins f rom Lefkan di (L. I 197 9, pls. 1 1 3 and I 5 4, the first of gilt iron) are both later than the scope of this book, but the latter may have had a globe of some other material as well.3a III. Small globe or bicone in the centre of the head, with slight swellings above and below (Fig. 83:2,84:3). 1.-2. Argos, Deiras, graves 14 and 18, inv. DB 2-3. Deshayes, D. (1966) 206 pI.24:3-4 and 100:1. The first from end of LH III C, the second piece Submycenaean. 3. Knossos, Upper Gypsadhes tomb VII, nos. t3-l 5 . Hood-Huxley-Sandars, BSA 5 3-54 (1958-59) 249 fig.34 pl.60a. Subminoan. Fig. 84:3. 4. Bobousti. BSA28 (1927-28) 1'82ti5.2:175; Heurtley, Preh. Macedonia (1939) fig. I04 z. 5. Mouliana, Tomb A. Arch. Ef. (1904) 37 tig.7 (end of LH III C, cf. Sandars, BSA 53-54 6. L958-59,236). Olympia. Philipp, Bronzeschmuck aus (1981) 34 no. I O. pL.26. 7. Kug i Zi, mus. Tirana. Harding, thesis 1972, fig. 33:7 . The central part of the head of 1-3 is globular, that of 4 biconical. The Protogeometric pins from Vrokastro (Hall, Vrokastro, fig. 85 G-L, tomb III) are still closely related to our type III, but the pin Vrokastro fig. 58 A (no context) shows a proliferation of globes, a feature characteristic of later pins.35 Not all pins with more complicated heads are late, as Jacobsthal supposed for his "uncanonical" pins (Greek Pins 1956,2 and15-20) ; for instance the pins with flat head, globe and neck swelling (Hall, Vrokasfro, fig. 58 B-D; Boardman, Cretan ColI 34, tig. l4a nos. 139-40) need not be any later than the Protogeometric pins from Vrokastro. IV. Egg-shaped head on the end of the shaft (without the hat-like finial) a) shank and globe of different materials (Fig. 82:3): r64 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE ISIMA n rI r! r$ til t,1 Itl L] 34 l\ {^{ f 'L-,-=r (1."A .',',1 i""f,-"-:v I n f '.rf) Vf ,--A 5>r H &G rb 4 8F ffi 17 @.. ffi'o ffi 20 ,€r tW 21 ffi ffi $ 7r" (@) v 23 q6 su ffi n xxul THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE 1.65 Ayios Ionnis. Hood-Coldstream, BSA 63 (1963) 272t. tig.4 B 5. Ivory head, 8.-9. Episkopi and "from Cyprus". Catling, Protogeometric. Fig. 84 : 6. b) a swan-necked pin (Fig. 83 :4) : 1. Knossos, Upper Gypsadhes. BSA 53-54 (1958-59) 237, 249 tig. 34,p1. 60 a. Tomb VII 16,l.l7.5 cm. Fig. 83:4. 1. KnossoE, b) shank and globe of identical material (Fig. 82:4): 2. Ancient Elis, SM grave 2163. Leon, OeIh 47 (1964-65) 61tig. -?1 a. Subrnycenaean, cf. also possibly the pin I b 9. V. Long cylindrical head (similar to European club-headed pins). Incised decoration, herringbone ornament. Fig. 83 : 1 and 84:4. 1. Argos, Deiras tomb24, inv. DB 1. Deshayes, D, (1966) 207 pL.24:5,1.19.3 cm. Submycenaean, Fig. 84 :4. 2. Korakou. Blegen, Korakau p. 109 fig. 133:4. Pres.l. 14 cm. Probably LI{ m C. 3. Kerameikos, SM grave 53. JdI77 (1952) 87 tig. 5 :6. Undecorated, shank of quadratic section. Identical ornament was popular both on violinbow and bow fibulae. Deshayes compares also the decoration of a spatula from Enkomi (Catling, Bronzework 7954,263). VL Pins of simple wire, without globes and swellings. head (Fig. 83 :3): 1. Karphi. BSA 38 (1,937-38) 119 pl' 29:2,nos' 471, 503 ab, 565. Subminoan, short. 2. Kerameikos, SM graves 85 and 7A4. Ker.I,82; IdI 77 (1962) fig. 5 : 1 and 14 (from grave 108, a) pins with coiled pin?). L. 9.6 and 13.5 cm. 3. Salamis. AM 35 (1910) 29 fig. 13. 72.5 cm. L. 15'5 and 4.Mycenae, Chamber Tomb 25. Atch. Ef" (1888) pl.9:25. 5. Diakata, Cephalenia, tig. 32 : l. 6. Kirrha. Dor (earlier ?). T. l. Arch. Delt. (1919) et alii, K. (1950) 142 pl' 60:13 7. Enkomi, 3 pieces, two dated to the 13th century. Catling, Bronzework (1964) 238. Bronzework (1964) 238 fig.22:22 and 24. c) simple straight shank of wire (Fig. 83 :5) : The simplest of the Karphi pins (above, II c) and one pin from Deiras, tomb 25 (Deshayes, D"1966, 205) belong to this variant; they probably possessed globes of some organic material. d) pins with shank simply turned back: in Minoan Crete (Koumasa, Palaiokastro, Gurnia, Isopata, cf. Blinkenberg, Fibules 1926 p.40f.). Evans (Prehistoric Tombs p. 151) called them simplyhairpins, which is They were rather common a likelier explanation than that of Blinkenberg, who considered them direct ancestors offibulae (cf. above IIL5"0). e) the pin whith double-spiral head from Mazarakata (Jacobsthal, Greek Plns 1956, 126-9; Kawadias, CRAI 1911, 6ff.; Desborough, Last Myc. 1964,1,03) can also be mentioned here ; there are contemporary parallels from the Terremare and from Slovenia. VII. The Kastanas pin Hochstetter "Eine Nadel der Noua-Kultur aus Nordgriechenlando', Germania 5'L (1981) A. 239-259. The bone pin with "knobs" is exotic, but cf. the type III (especially the Bobousti pin) and note 48. The Kastanas pin dates from the 1Zth century B.C. 5.4.2. The origin of the Submycenaean pins. I. Deshayes argued for a Mycenaean origin of type I, but the Shaft Grave pins are shorter, Type with bigger globes, and there is a time gap of about 400 years between the two types.36 Most scholars agreed with Jacobsthal in deriving the Greek long pins of types I and II from the north or northwest.37 1-2 Kerameikos, SM graves 20 and 41,3 Knossos, Fig. 84.Pins C1-15) and finger-rings (1.6-21,23). No. 22 is a smaller spiral. Knossos, Ayios Ioannis,7-8 Vergina, Geometricgrave,6 and22Cainth,Early grave 17,5 Deiras Tomb VII, 4 Argos, Gypsadhes 9 Pljeiivica, tumulus V, 10 Gosinja Planina (both Glasinac), 11-12 Timmari near Matera, 13 Mottola near Tarent, 14 Novigrad on the Sava, 15 Debelo Brdo, Bosnia. All other pieces Kerameikos: 16, 19 and 23 SM grave 70,17 and22SM grave 52, 18 SM grave 102, 20 SM grave 24. After Bouzek 1969 and other sources, cf. the lists and notes 33-42. - J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 166 Long pins were most popular in Europe during the 14th-13th centuries (Br C-D), and in the Balkans still in Ha A (Glasinac).38 There is a general similarity between several types in the flat head and the shank with globe or swellings. Pins were more common than fibulae in Central Europe and in the northern Balkans, whereas fibulae prevailed in Italy. Some rather close parallels come from the NW Balkans (Gosinja Planina, Fig. 84:10; Novigrad on the Sava, Fig. 84:1.4; Hrustovada Cave, the Serbian pieces mentioned as parallels to the Myce- nae Chamber Tomb 61 items).3e Similar, but shorter are the Central European vase-headed types and their Italian parallels.aO Most similar to Greek Submycenaean pins are examples from South ltaly, Sicily and Albania.al The South Italian pins (Fig. 84:11-13) date from the Early Protovillanovan culture, which spread there from the north. They form a parallel group to Greek pins; both are in many characteristics independent products. Pins with large globular head are also known from the Early Glasinac culture (Br D, Fig. 84:9).a2 Many NW Balkan pins combine bronze or iron shank with globes of bone, rock crystal, glass and other materials in a way resembling Greek types Ia and IVa. The published pieces are late (Prozot, Santa Lucia), but our knowledge of Early Urnfield pins from northern Yugoslavia is not very deep, and the Hallstatt pins in question are derived from Urnfield pins.a3 Type II. Both the flat head and the elongated swelling find close parallels in the Vergina pins fig. Sa:8), in a pin from Yaize in Albania and in another from Troy.a4 Similar pieces come from other Albanian tumuli,as and related pins with globular head (known from Olympia) are paralleled in the Glasinac tumuli (Glasinac III b, Ha A). [urther parallels come from Croatia, Italy and Central Europe, here mainly among the last Tumulus culture pins.a6 Type IIL Sandars and Deshayes both looked for Oriental models for this type, but their parallels are not very close, either in shape, or in time and place.a1 Some analogical types from the Balkans, Central Europe and Italy are rather more close.a8 The plastic articulation reminds one of wooden and ISIMA bone pins. Early variants with one big central globe are rare in the western Balkans (cf. Fig. 84: 15 and the Kastanas pin mentioned above, III.5.4.1.VII), but later variants with multiplicated central part of head very common (cf . J. Alexander, PP9301964, 15e-l8s). IV has many parallels from the Balkans, from Italy and Central Europe,ae while The simple type type V is similar to the club-headed pin distributed in the western Balkans and in Central Europe. Benac and Covi6 date this type to their Glasinac III a stage (Br D), but it usually appears in Ha A (1) contexts north of Bosnia.50 Similar pins were in use even later.51 The pin with coiled head (VI a) has many parallels. Catling (Bronzework 1964, 238) argued for an eastern origin, but analogous pins were quite common in many parts of Europe (Central Europe, France, northern and southern Italy) and even in other parts of the world.52 Greek examples are similar to the European even as regards length (they ate shorter than other types of Submycenaean pins). Characteristic parallels to the VI b pin are common in Central Europe only in the Hallstatt period, but even Sandars (BSA 53-54 1958-59, 237) does not know any Near Eastern parallels. The pin with two spirals from Mazarakata Italy and elsewhere.53 The bronze wheels from very late Mycenaean contexts (Fig. 72:5,7 , Fig. 85 : 8) should also be mentioned here, since their Italian parallels may have served as finials of hairpins (cf. Montelius, Civilisation primitive II, 1904, pl.22L: 15). Early variants are most common in the Peschiera area and in northern Italy in general, later they became more common even in the central part of this country.sa The explanation of these wheels is not safe for all of them even in Italy, and quite hypothetical for Greek finds. For the general discussion of wheel models and similar pendants cf. below, III.6.5. To sum up: nearly all Submycenaean pins find analogies in the NW Balkans and in NE Ita.ly (Terremare, Peschiera). The fashion of wearing two long, plastically articulated pins for fastening female peplos or chiton on the shoulder was common to Late Tumulus and to the earliest Urnfield cultures in Central and Northern Europe.55 During has parallels in J I I I d d fr I u d jl d s ry xxxl THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE the 13th century B.C., these pins became extremely long and clearly articulated in flat hat and large swellings (globe) below. The firstAegean longpins (Mycenae ChT. 61, Pl.12:2-3,Fig.82:8) belong to this category, but also later pins of types very probably find their genetic predecessors in the NW Balkans and in NE Italy. In general, pins were less popular than fibulae in Italy, whereas the opposite was true for the area east of the Alps and the surrounding part of the Balkans.56 With the spread of the Protovillanovan and Urnfield groups I-VI southwards, similar pins appeared in South Italy' Sicily and Albania. The articulation of these pins retained the main characteristics (hat' globe or swelling, length), but became simiplified and restylized, most notably in Greece. Some Albanian and South Italian pins are the closest parallels to Greek pins, which are more independent local products than fibulae. A general derivation of fhe Greek long pins from the Northwest Balkans, suggested by Merhart, Jacobsthal and others, seems to be probable even now, but the relation appears to have been less direct, and Greek pins more autonomous in character. The relatively rich repertoire of Submycenaean pins known to us my also help to explain relations between the European types and Jacobsthal's "uncanonical" pins.57 The fact that the number of types known to us has considerably increased during the last two decades suggests that missing links for other types may still be found. Wooden pins may also have been responsible for the transmission of shapes : the profiles of many Late Bronze and Early ( d T g g tH rt Iron Age pins recall woodcarving. At Vergina and other Macedonian sites fibulae are common and pins rare (Fig.48 :7-8), whereas the use of pins seems to have been more common in the Illyrian parts of Bosnia, Montenegro and Albania. If the Northwest Greeks and the Dorians were in their first homeland neighbours of the Illyrians, the popularity of long pins in the areas they invaded may have been due to them. Except in Attica, dress pins seem to have been less popular than fibulae with the Ionians, but our knowledge is still insufficient foi definitive conclusions. The pins from Mycenae, Chamber Tomb 61' may well be the earliest examples. Type I precedes types II and III both in the Kerameikos and at 1,67 come from several LH III C contexts, as against few of Types II-III, V-VI, Argos. Pins of Type I which usually date from the end of this period only.s8 The Submycenaean cemeteries show that long pins became a regular part of female dress, and they remained in this function even when cremation replaced inhumation in various parts of Greece. 6. PERSONAL ORNAMENTS, JEWELLERY With the exception of the fibulae and pins, discussed in the previous chapter, only few of the LH III C and Submycenaean personal ornaments are paralleled in the north. Most of them are of wire and sheet bronze. The massive bracelets of cast bronze, which were popular in Europe, are almost unknown in the Aegean; the reason was probably both their "barbarian" character and the higher cost of raw copper and tin in Greece. Mostpopular were finger-rings, small spirals probably used as hair ornaments, and spiral bracelets' Most of them are of bronze, some of the hair spirals of gold and silver. Faience and amber beads were also worn, though only rarely in the Submycenaean period. 6.1. Finger-rings 6.1.1. Simple rings of flattened wire represent the commonest type. They are oblong, semicircular or triangular in section. These rings are known from most Submycenaean cemeteries (Attica, Argolis, Elis) and they remained popular in the Protogeometric period (Fig. 34 :19-20,23).1 They have close parallels in Macedonian cist graves (esp. at Vergina),2 but the shapes are so simple that it would be useless to quote parallels from other parts of Europe. They belong, however, to the jewellery set common both to the Vergina culture and to Submycenaean Greece. 6.1.2. Finger-rings with antithetic spiral terminals (Fig. 84: 18, 85 :3) Ker.l,86 fig. 4 right. Miiller-Karpe, JdI 77 1962, 87 fig. 1. Kerameikos, SM grave 108. 5:16. 2.Penti tomb 74. Iakovides, P. (1'970) B 293t. tig.127 (grave with bow fibula). J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE ISIMA ndo\ 4E; .F '60.9 OO^ @ !> A Ec.rE .rrl C A: @ o 6V* d.Y E HO ri { 9o d9s? HU)ii 6NA <i .-a F-. .io* !^ dH ? .9.E V E E.Z .=* & <---| \e) .Pa 9d\" ,o <a\ \l-n - q U c K? E6 o At ) \ 'r€ D a llo* A Q.FtrN ..c tr )\ .lx o dx o=1, En A b. O \. 40 nto d c o qhr * F tr dF N @ .E ESi "lE;G 0 )a P^odN Eiss "8 q o< -O P a U8 b L :r sq a d '19:l =Glo Qo \\ .= 9(' ! t.- h.: gr^5*! .: o:! > ?': d! : ! ^oF e+'5 o 5 9oo nvo4 \) d D o >r : r!:i !l:n ii;.:N *E 5,t UO 9 d ot^ = vvdo. .94 Abe s € tr.'l tr Oo\.+ o c -d E!EE FY6> Y r d;i: 64rc* 9 i :ii 5>bci F€TE. {qo 8o=r-& ,= :l'= N h.: ijN L': o 4 o c).9=sa- o ',t Ev tr -ecl* :-:'iN 3 9"8 3 fJi:..: i ::* o\. ;3>a !^'a! qjo!3 -o!F ii*E E & THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE XXIXI Late SM/Early PG grave Gamma 3L; Desborough, BSA 68 (1973)95,98pL.34 de; PPS 31 1965,228 pl. 33. 4. Kalbaki, grave Delta. Dakaris, Arch. Ef. (1es6) 1t6 tig.2. 5" Elafotopos Zagofiou, grave 3.2 pieces, one in fragments. Vokotopoulou, Arch. Et. (1969) 188 pl. 24 alpha 1, beta 1 (graves 1-2 are ot LH III C date). 6. Vergina, Andronikos, V.I (1969) 238-240 tig.78-79 (graves E trV alpha, N II gamma, T I beta, AB I iota). 7. Amphikleia, Locris, LH III C. Iakovides, 3. Mycenae, Perati (197 0) B 293 note 5. 8. Athens (?), Brit. Mus. ex Elgin coll. DesDark Ages (1972) 303f. pl. b,orough, Greek 60 e. 9. Salamis. Wide, AM 35 (1910) 29 iig. 17.The description "ein Fingerring mit je zwei Spiralen an Enden" is clear, so I prefer to keep this piece in the list, despite the rejection of this identification by Iakovides, Perati,B 293 note 6. 10. Exalophos. Theocharis, Arcfi. DeIt.23 (1968) Chr.263t. pl. 199 b. II.-13. Amphikleia, Kallithea and Monochendri, cf. note 3. 14. Papadin Dol near Prilep, cist grave with violinbow fibula with leaf bow, spiral bracelets, simple bracelets of triangular and D-sections and with faience beads. Kitanoski, Starinar 11 (1e60-61) 20e-13. There are also parallels from Albania.3 This type was less common than the preceding simple ring, but it was worn both in Greece and lVfacedonia; it was one of characteristic offerings in cist graves.o Similar rings were popular in 8th andTth century Greece (Fig. 85 :4) ; the wire of the later exannple is often flattened.s They were probably descendants of the early rings, but their continual use is not yet attested by dated finds. Childe compared the Kerameikos finger-ring with the type common in the Central European Tumulus culture.6 Since also the long Submycenaean pins have parallels in the Tumulus culture, this comparison should be remembered, r69 slav variety is also attested from South Italy (Manaccora).7 6.1.3. Shield (signet) rings (Fig. 84:16, Fig. 85: 1-2) Miiller-Karpe, Jdl 77 (1962) 85 fig. 3:3 (erybossed decoration: 1. Kerameikos, SM grave 27. svastica with 6 arms). Fig. 85 :8. 2. Ib., SM grave 44, o.c. p. 85 fig" 3 :6 (embossed pearls along the rim). 3.Ib., SM grave 70, o.c. p. 86 fig. 4:9 (6 dotted rosettes). Fig.84:14. 4. Psychro, Dictaean Cave. Boardman, Cretan Coll. (196I) 37f .,47 tig.28. Several pieces, note esp. the ring with embossed decoration no. 190. Fig. 86: 10. Kerameikos, SM graves 52 and fi2; JdI77 (1962) 86-87, fig. 4:3 and 5:15 (undeco- 5.-6. rated). 7. Saraj kod Brod (near Bitolj), grave 11. MadkidStarinar 1l (1 960-6 1) -Simoska-Trbuhovi6, 2A3t. tig.22 left. 8. Lousoi. Reichel-Wilhelm, OeJh 4 (1901) 56 fig. 108 and 109 ( ?) the embossed shields may have been parts of signet rings. The plaque is normally connected to the ring by a single rivet. The shape recalls that of Mycenaean signet rings,s but the simple technique (rivets, repouss6 decoration) and the solar symbols depicted on them are alien to the Mycenaean world and related to the European Urnfield cultures. One fragment from Yugoslav Macedonia (no. 7) comes from the peripheral area of the cist graves jeweliery, but most striking are the parallels from North Italy: Como, Moncucco. Riv. arch. Como 9, p. 1g fig. 2:20 (: Rendall Mclver, Iron Ageinltaly,Oxford 1927, pl. 15 : 1). They are not dated by context, but Como cemet- but similar rings with spiral ends (mainly larger) are ery also produced Protovillanovan finds, so an early date is quite possible. As these rings were quite unlike Late Brorze Age European finger- also known from Late Bronze Age context in Central Europe and in the Balkans, and the Yugo- rings, the Como pieces mywell be southern imports or imitations of southern models.e 6.2. Other wire ornaments in cist graves and Small spiral ornaments, both finger-rings in appeared tirst hair ornaments (Fig' 84:17 ,22), LH III C graves (Cephalenia and Mycenae and Chamber Tomb 61, of gold), but all of them'lo' popular as also some spiral bracelets,ll became of the cist graves offerings both in Sub- farts *y""nu"un Greece and in Early Iron Age Macedonia. The sets of ornaments from Macedo(only nian and Greek cist graves is nearly identical the pins are less common in the former atea)' and common scarcity of weapons in graves is another iist Macedonian the in feature. Vessels touni in also case the was graves are hand- made, but this Peloponnese' iome parts of Central Greece and the similar and the basic shapes used as offerings are with the (cf . the jug with cut-away neck in the north 1S'8-10)' south,III' the in lekythos o"no.fro" "nd the Some small ornaments are of gold and silver ; abovementioned Mycenae Chamber Tomb A few brings the first and simplest representatives' are known from Submycenaean graves: 87 and 1. Kerameikos, SM graves 5 and46,Ket'l' 61 89 pl.76. 2. Salamis. Wide, AM35 (1910) 29-31' 3. Assarlik, K atia' Brit.Mus' Cat' Jewellety(1911) nos.1274-15 Pl. 13. Northern parallels are known from Vergina and Marmarianii and there are many later examples' parts Protogeometric to Geometric, from different short are them of Most of GrJece (Fig' 85 : 5-6)'13 spiials serving as hair ornaments' and simi- tubular lar to analogous ornaments of bronze' Comparable pieces were popular in jewellery sets of 11th-1Oth but centuries B.C.-in different parts of Europe'l4 with areas to limited nor are neither wery specific, southern contacts. The simple type has many analogies in the Balkans and elsewhere.l5. Massive cast bracelets are a barbarian ornament as against finer sheet and wire pieces, but another reason for their absence in Greece was probably the higher cost of the raw material (cf. the absence of full-grip swords in Greece, III.2.1'5). The only later exception' though more sophisticated, are Boeotian bracelets with ends resembling Protogeometric pin-heads'16 6.4. Ornaments 6.3. Massive bracelets of bronze rod Massive cast bracelets are extremely rare in Greece. The only early set was found in the grave of a young girl from "North Peloponnese": CVA Mainz 1, pp 12_15 figs' 10-11 and pl' 3' Protogeometric, dm. 6.2-7.9 cm' i of sheet btonze and gold The decorative pieces of armour and the shield rings have been discussed elsewhere (III'1'6 and III.6.1.3). Gold roundels from Skyros and the set of gold sheet ornaments from LefkandilT may have Lad both Mycenaean and European ancestors'l8 though the former seem to be more probable for the roundels and for the sheets covering the mouth of the deceased in Macedonia'1e Gold diadems in Greece also started with those decorated in simple repouss6, and only later they gold became more sophisticated (cf. III'1'6)' The diadem from Pylos (Fig. 37:12) is in its decoration a mixture of Urnfield and Aegean elements'2o As concerns the new gold sheet ornaments from Lefkandi, one should await the final publication; both Near Eastern and European parallels come in question. Bronze diadems and belts from Olympia2r are mainlylater than the scope of this book (Fig' 54 : 4), though their relation to the Urnfield-Protovillanovan world cannot be denied,22 and the belt ornaments from Vergina have alreadybeen metioned in connection with similar shield bosses (III'1'1'4), but a group of bronze diadems from Northern Greece has to be discussed here (cf' Fig' 53:4, 54:1.-2). Y III' Andronikos, Vergina pl. I (1969) 2514 fig. 88 101' Fig' 54:1' 2. Vitsa Zagoriou, PG tomb 113 (with spectacle fibulae, arm-ring etc.). Vokotopoulou' Arclt' Delt.23 (1968) Chr.289f 'pl'233'Fig' 54:2' A second piece from Vitsa has not yet been published, as far as I know, and there are several iiud.tnt from "Northern Greece" in the National 1. Vergina, grave h lstMA AND EUROPE J,BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA 170 xxul THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE Museum at Athens. The first two pieces have general parallels in Protovillanovan Italy and in Yugoslavia, and the Vergina piece, with much more sophisticated decoration, finds its best analogies in Serbia.23 It connects wheels, solar protomae and anthropomorphic decoration, and must have had an important symbolic significance. The European parallels are earlier, mainly of an i lth century date. 6.5. Wheel models (Fig.72:5-7 and 85:8) of four-spoked wheels first in Greece during the Shaft Graves Small models appeared period, and these also had European parallels (II.5.1), but they never achieved a popularity comparable to the Urnfield and Protovillanovan wheels 171 in Central Europe, Italy and the Balkans. Some of the variants are of very general distribution, while others only of local popularity. A. With branching rays: l.-2.Mycenae, Chamber Tomb 26. NM Athens 1412-13. J. C. Pourgat, Catalogue des ivoires mycdniens au Mus1e Nat. d,Athenes (1977) 79 no. 262 pl. 22. Ivory, Fig. 72 : 7 . 3 .-4. Ib., Schliema nn, Mykend( 1 8 7 g) g3 fig. 120, NM Athens 412-13.Lead. 5. Wall of the Dymaeans (or Mitopolis), bronze, mus. Patras. Harding, thesis (1972) 229; Mat_ thiius, Jdr95 (1980) 120. 6. Argos, Deiras, tomb 22. Deshayes, Deiras (1966) 203 pl. 24:B and 60:5, dm. 3.5 cm. Fig. 72:5 and 86:11. # 1 ej e@ref 6%,N 8$ (o) dl5 12 @ 13 Fig. 86. Sun symbols, wheels and sun with birds. 1-4 Mycenae, LH III B, 5 Ialyssos, decoration of a pyxis, LH III C, 6 Leporano near Tarent, lead, LH III B,7 antithetic spiral ornament (Furumark Mot. 50),8-9 Kerameikos, 10 Dictaean Cave (8-10 shields of finger-rings), 11 bronze wheel from Argos, Deiras, 12-13 bronze pendants from Hungary and from Tolfa in Italy. After Bouzek t970. J. 1,72 BOUZEK" THE AECEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 7. Tiryns, mus. Nauplion 1365. Matthdus, (1e80) 120. 8. Lindos. Blinkenberg, I-. 3.6 cm. \ 1'28 pl" 13 : 321, dm' 9.-10. Irnpressions on pithoi from Tiryns and Mycenae, mus. Nauplion. Matthiius, -IdI 95 (1980) 121 f. note 58. Nos. 1-7, 9-10 may all be Late Mycenaean, no. 6 of LH III C date context' The piece from Lindos might be later; identical system of branching spokes have some stands of Geometric birds' Similar objects are called pin finials in Italy (cf' 111.5.4.2 and below here), but wheels with branching rays are rare. A very near parallel is a tin (lead?) wheel from I-eporano (G.Lo Porto, NSc 1963, 300f. tig.24. There are several other parallels from htaly,24 and even from the Alpine area'2s Similar pendants are known from Italy (the Tolfa hoard, Fontanella)26 and from Croatia (e'g' Frozor, Naturhist. mus. Vienna). B. With simple raYs: 1. Leukas, Choirospilia" Diirpfeld-Goessler' Alt- ithaka (1927),338 Pl' 83 a" 2. Athens, Acropolis. Broneer' Flesp' 8 (1939) 413 fig. B9d. IvorY. 3. Argolis?, Univ. Giittingen. Matthdus, JdI 95 (1980) 726 fig. 14'Fig' 72:6' 4. Ib., fragmentary, mus. Kassel. Matthiius, I'c'fig' 15. Many parallels are known from Italy and also north of it, around the eastern Alps.27 At least one of similar pendants (from Mycenae) was found in a LH IItr C contextzs (Fig' 72:8)' C. The Vergina wheels Andronikos , Verginal (1969) 255 pls' 80 and 83' graves E VI alPha andZbeta' They are of the simplest type with four spokes known from many parts of Europe, and especially and common in Central Europe from Switzerland Wuertemberg to Hungary and Croatia'2e The latest piece from Vergina (Vetgina I, grave AZ-omega' pl. 129) is near to later Macedonian and Greek wheels. There was certainly a continuity in manufacturing clay and metal wheel models throughout the Dar-k Age, and they long retained a symbolic significance'30 6.6. Other IdI95 lstMA personal obiects The Aegean type of tweezers has some parallels in Italy and other parts of Europe, and Harding mentioned sonne possible Italic parallels for the pinched-spring type, but, in general, the shape is too simple and common to use it for any more detailed comparison.3l 6.7 " The Tiryns wheel and the Late Mycenaean"Submycenaean amber Since the first mentioned object connects a gold wire ornament with amber beads, it is useful to deal with both subjects in one chaPter. 6.7.1. The Tiryns wheel. The Tiryns hoard, dated to the 'J.2th century, but including many earlier objects, probably deriving frorn robbed tombs, also contained a wheel of coiled gold wire' The rays of the wheel are of bronze bars, with beads of arnber thread on them. The shape of the beads is specific: it is cylindrical with a central swelling and sometimes a collar at each end. The coiled wheel of gold wire is intertwinned with another gold wire diagonally across these circles. Karo, AM 55 (1930) 119f., pl. 30 A,31. The Tiryns wheel was considered a northern import by Karo. Childe, and later Marinatos32 compared it with gold figures-of-eight of the East Bohemian Lausitz culture. Bracelets of double coiled wire were usual in northern Germany and Denmark, in many Lausitz groups and even elsewhere during the IIIrd period of Montelius.3'There is at least one similarly produced bracelet from Protogeometric Greece,34 but the intertwining with another gold wire finds parallels only in the already mentioned East Bohemian figures-of-eight, which date from 3r D to Ha A,35 thus suggesting a strong possibility of exporting amber via Central Europe c. 1200 B.C. 1 6.7.2. Amber in LH III C Greece. A survey of Mycenaean amber by Harding and Brock (BSA 69 1974, 145-1'72, esp. map 3) mentions 19 sites from the Greek mainland, three from Cephalenia, two from Cos and one from Crete, all dating from .J .!. $ .&{; t.: !,9 x^'t^'l LH iII B-C. THE RELATIONS OF'TI_IE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE The beads of the Tiryns type have and mentioned from following Lreen published 7. }IORSES, WAGGONS,AND CHARIOTS sites. 7 A. Greece and the Levant: 1. Tiryns, hoard (cf. above), Fig" 22:t9. 2. trb. chamber tornb on Mt. Ayios Elias. Karo, 55 (1930) 128,1.39. LFI III. AM Diakata, Cephaienia. Marinatos, Arch. Ef. (1e32) 42. LH rrr C. 4. Metaxata, Cephalenia, T. Garnrna. ivfarinatos, Arch. Ef . (1933) 92f , tig" 43 pt. 2. LH III C. 5. Salamis. Wide, AM35 (1910) 31 fig. 30" Sub3. mycenaean. 6. Ialyssos, tsrit. hfus. Strong, Cat. af Carved Amber 39f . : Harding and Hughes-Brock, tsSA 69 (1974) 169 fig. 6:16__17. 7" Dictaean Cave. Boardman, Cretan Coll. (1961) 73,7 5 fig.32,pls.23-24; Harding and Huglies"-Brock, BSA 69 {1974) 167 tig.6:72. 8. Ras Shamra. Schaeffer, tlgaritica I, 100 fig. 95 and U.IV p. 97. LFi III B ? 173 .1. I-ate Mycenaean horse-bits As against the rare early pieces frorn the Shaft Graves period (above 1I.5.2), horse-bits became more common c. 1200 B.C. 1"-2. Milet, 3. Mycenae, 4. Thebes, paviovianopoulos ploi: FI. Dender, Zawmzeug in XVI-3, 1 990), Griechenland und Zypern(PBF t9-2L 5" Thebes, Kadmou 58 (plot Chronopoulos). BCH 104 (1e80) 631 fig" 103. The two pieces from Miletus differ slightly from the three horse-bits found on the Greek mainland. The cheek pieces are oblong piates with two holes; the bits from the Royal Tombs at Salamis (EIA Cyprus) are similar" The general type has parallels in Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Syria and Egypt, and no specific relations with the European Urnfield bits can be traced. 7.2. Waggans and chariats The differences between European and Mycenaean horse-bits makes unlikety any Burgo Panigale, Emilia; Ponte San Pietro, Lazio; hypothesis that the alleged European warriors in Frattesina, Timmari, Alurniere, Frata Polesine, and a necklace of Tiryns-type beads from tr ipari the Aegean brought their chariots witle them. They (BPf 65 1956, 80)" Harding and Hughes-Brock, were rarely used even in Europe, and the Sea BSA 69 1974, 1.68; Harding, BMQ 37 1.973, Peoples attacking Egyptian army on the Medinet F{abu reliefs are only rarely depicted using chariots, 141.f .36 Frivlaka, Vrsi, Vranjic, Glasinac. S. as against many of them on the Egyptian si<tre.1 Batovi6, Diadora 1 (1959) 44t. fig. 4: I._7 ; J. M. The model wheels from LH trII C Greece, often Todd, M. F{^ Eickler, C. W. tseck, A. Maechiarulo, iaurnal of Field Archaealogy 3 (1976) 314"--27" with branching rays, are discussed in other places !{ati valley. Sfudra Aibanica I (i964) 102 and (IIL6.5, III.5.4.2). Their Itaiic paralleis are mainly considered pin-heads or pin-finiais, but their F{arding, BMQ37 (!913) 142. rneaning was also symbolic. They were connected For other amber finds from i-BA and - EtrA ItalyBSA jugoslavia cf. Harding and F{ughes-Brock, with the Urnfield rvheel symbolism, the symbol of the sun v/aggon on which the sun god is drawn 6e (\e74) r67-r6e. across the sky by birds or horses (pl. 12, Figs. The Adriatic distribution of the Tiryns type 89-90). This symboiic meaning retained its sigbeads and of amber in general support the evidence nificance in Greece until the Geometric art, and ,rf the Tiryns wheel: in Late N{ycenaean B-C both the Hvperborean Apollo and Helios (whose neriods, amber was imported into the Aegean cult with temples rvas only established in Doric B. Italy, Yugoslavia and Albania: across Central Europe. Soon after the disappearance of the Mycenaean civilisation, amber hecame very scarce in Greece.37 Rhodes) still used similar waggons when travelling across the sky (cf . also III. t0.t-2,4). Two-wheeled chariots were used in Dark Age r74 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE TSIMA $ 5 g A 8 2 I t '',ii.ii|.;.i|;:, il I I ! L 11 DI ri t g n h i e f'! b pendants from Este and from Berlin-Spindlersfeld, 3,5 and 8 clay figurines from Olympia, 4 Menidi near Athens, 9 and 12 Pylos, rim clay animal from Strdnky, Bohemia, 6 human figurine from Bavaria, 7 Waz Lily bead from Heraeum, 11 anthropomorphic the Argive from decoration repouss6 with disc gold 10 diadem, and bowl of bronze decoration ornament frorn the Vergina diadem. After Bouzek L974,1982 and other sources. Fig. g7.I-2Anthropomorphic bronze h F 1 xxNl $. THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE but bird protomae in simple repouss6 on the rim of the Pylos bowl (Chamber Tomb K 2, Blegen and alii, Pylos IIl, 230 ff. fig. 291 a-e; Matthdus, Bronzegef d.sse 1 980, 292-4 no. 446) are crossings of Early Urnfield and Mycenaean traditions (cf. ilL10.2); even the twisted handle, unparalleled in Geometric period in Greece.3 Horses were used to analogies.3 the Mycenaean vehicles and likewise used by the nobles for transport to the battlefield and elsewhere. The local tradition of the chariot in the Aegean is in accordance with the local East Mediterranean tradition of the horse-bits (above III.7.l and II.5.2). Bronze parts of waggons and ehariots are first attested in Central Europe and in Italy in Br D, but they seem to have been less common there than in the Aegean and mainly used for festivities, for cult and funeral purposes. In this sphere, however, we have parallels both between the European and Early Greek bier-chariots, mainly four-wheeled (cf. III.12.3) and between the European, Italic and Greek bird- and vessel-waggons (III.10.4). 8. METAL VESSELS The first Furopean vessels of beaten bronze date from the final phase of Br C and the beginnings of Br D; some of the earliest bronze vessels in the Nordic area were cast, but this technique was apparently abandoned at the end of the IInd Nordic period. The shape and the simple handle attachements of the first vessels (like Gosen, V6cs Szent Ldszl6 or Vinding Folkehoj) is not as alien to the Mycenaean vessels as the slightly later Friedrichsruhe cups, which became a standard drinking vessel in the whole of Central Europe and in Scandinavia.l Some Aegean kyathoi may have served as models both for the shape and the first handle attachments; even some early Fried- :[ kri 5 Greece, as far as we can tell from Homer and from the illustrations on Geometric vases, as they were by the British Celts at the time of Caesar's invasion.2 It seems that the entire western part of Hallstatt Europe employed the same system. Riding was not popular prior to the "Cimmerian" raids in the eastern part of Central Europe and the Late draw two-wheeled chariots similar to ;4 1,7 richsruhe cups have their handles attached from the outside, like Mycenaean vessels.2 The shape of the Friedrichsruhe cup resembles the Furumark pottery shape 213 (ct. Childe, PPS 14 1948, 188f.). The Aegean Bronze Age had a sophisticated local tradition in toreutics and was certainly the giver in most aspects of the relations in question, the Aegean, has Central European Br The bird on the rim of the Tiryns cup (Karo, D AM 5 5 1.930, 1 30f . pl. 31. : 4 ; Matthiius, Bronzegefdsse 1980,252 no. 360) is a similar case. The shape has two Argive parallels (Matthiius o.c. nos. 361-2) and it is also extremely difficult to explain it without any European influence; the ancestors of similar birds and bird protomae are practically non-existent in the previous development of Mycenaean and Minoan civilisation. Even Matthdus, who tried hard in this direction,4 was unable to find rnore significant predecessors; with the exception of the Sellopoulo pitcher,s his vague parallels are distant both in shape and time. (Cf.III.l0.2.) The similarity between the Aegean semiglobular bowls and the simple Urnfield cap helmets (Oggiono) has been discussed elsewhere (cf. I11.1.2B.3 and III.11.19), but at least one further possible parallel has to be mentioned here. The two-handled Tiryns cauldron6 and its parallels from Cyprus, the Cape Gelidonya shipwreck and elsewhere7 are connected with the Sea Peoples world both in time and distribution pattern, and they also resemble the Early Urnfield Kurd buckets from the NW Balkans.8 The shape of the latter, however, and also of the Urnfield amphoras, may again go back to the earlier bronze amphoras from Dendra and Messenia.e In the sphere of bronze vessels, no koine comparable to that in weaponry developed, but both areas had some knowledge on each other and reciprocal influences can be traced. The sophistic- ated Aegean apparently contributed more in this field. 9. THE SPREAD OF IRON; THE HOARDS 9.1. The spread of iron A few lines on this subject must be included in this book. Even il it deals with the Bronze Age, the BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLTA AND EUROPE 1.76 beginnings of iron metallurgy and use of metal implements and weapons belong to the close of the 2nd millenium B'C' Finds of iron objects prior to the 12th century B'C' are extremely rare, but the dagger handle from the Br A2 Otomani ritual well at Gdnovce in Slovakia, together with several other finds from Barbarian Europe, show that even some iron objects (in the first case probably of an Anato- lian or Car.lcasian origin) appeared here'l The 72th century B'C. saw the spread of srnall iron implements, mainly knives, in the Aegean and Cyprus ; East Anatolia and some part of the Levant t*y huu" been even more advanced'2 The intense late second millenium B'C' contacts in weaponry across Europe, connected with the Sea Peoples and other Barbarian activities in the south, enabled also the frequent use of small iron irnplements for working and decorating bronze in large areas of Central Europe from c. L000 B'C'' i'e' significantly earlier than is the traditional date for thl beginnings of the Central European Iron Age'3 9.2. The haatds (Fig. 75 :5-6) precious objects were kept in palaces or sometimes in sanctuaries, and In Bronze Age Greece, there ate only few Early Bronze Age exceptions from this rule, true hoards in the European sense'' Sanctuaries served the same purpose in Early Greek times, and the largest group of hoards in Greece and Cyprus dates from the period around 1200 B.C. (cf. Fig. 76:5-4).s This custom can be explained by the unstable political situation of this time, but probably also by an influence from Europe, where hoards of bronze objects were frequent during the Urnfield period'6 The usual composition of the Late Mycenaean hoards is also similar to that of the European depdts: complete and fragmentary implements are the commonest, while bronze scrap and unfinished artefacts also aPPear. (III.11. 18 on pottery, III.B on bronze TSIMA vessels, IIL1.6 in repoussd decoration) but the remaining evidence and the general problems should be deait with here. These elements have been studied ever since the beginnings of modern archaeology, and most scholars have stressed the northern origins of a number of symbolic features which were alien to the previous Aegean Bronze Age civilisation' Sprockhoff, Merhart, Kossack and also Childel can be mentioned as the leading authorities who have discussed these elements from the northern point of view, and they have been followed by others, arguing both from the European and the Aegean side, and in some cases suggesting new points of view.2 Another group of schoolars has studied these problems in order to find an answer to the question of the origins of Geometric motifs and symbolic representations' or to that of the koine of later Geometric stYles.3 several alternative solutions, and explained the knives with bird protomae as descendants of the Perati knife,a but Matthiius alone has tried to change the general opinion and especially the Urnfield birds explain the symbols as descendants of an earlier and bird protomae Mtiller-Karpe noticed Aegean development.s The individual symbolic motifs were interconnected, but let us discuss them separately first. I0.1. WheeI, rasettes and other "sun" symbols Nilsson and others have denied the possibility of a Cretan and Mycenaean sun cult; the sky gods were cosmological, nut cultic,6 and motifs which can be explained as sun symbols are very rare on pottery and elsewhere except in the case of LH III B 2 - C pottery (Fig. 86:l-4)' Though the stylistic ancestry of these motifs may be traced in the earlier development of Mycenaean pottery. their popularity and isolation on vases testify that they were of specific importance (cf. III.11'18).Bronze wheels of Italic and Adriatic ancestry in LH III C Greece (IiL5.5,III.5.4.z,Fig. 86:11), roset- TO. SYMBOLS AND THEIR ARTISTIC REPRESENTATIONS Some symbolic motifs are discussed elsewhere tes, wheels and multiple svastica on protective armour and on Submycenaean shield rings (III.1.5" 111.6.1.3, cf. fig. 86:8-11) confirrn the symbolic significance of these motifs in LH III C and Sub- ffis 'lih! mycenaean Greece. ih Ti wul 177 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE Symbolic wheels and sun discs appear in the Nordic area from the IInd Bronze Age period onwards (cf. the Trundholm waggon and its parallels) and in the Central European Tumulus culture.8 With Br D and the LH IIIB 2-C period in Greece they became popular everywhere (Fig. 89:1, Fig. 90:15-16). They belonged to the European-Aegean koine, but in this case the European ancestry appears more important. WW 10.2. Bird protomae and birds Birds, of course, live in all parts of the world and were represented in many places. Birds marked the epiphany of deities in Minoan and Mycenaean religion, but they were not allowed tei appear on Cretan pottery until LM IILe They became more popular later, especially on LH IIX C vases of several local styles.lo D"K 3 I I I ! [, il J tr lE G t b Fig. 88.1-2LHIII C seals in the British Museum (after CMS VII),3 Thapsos, handle of a clay vessel (after Voza),4 clay boat model from Italy (after Montelius and Hencken), 5 bronze ornament from the broadcast station at Zernun near Beograd (after Trbuhovi6), 6 Tiryns, LH III C pottery fragment (after Slenczka), 7 Fhilistine ship from the Medinet Habu reliefs. t78 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE Bird protomae and water birds similar to the examples known from LH III C representations on Argolid and from Ialyssos (here with "sun"-rosettes, Fig. 86:5, cf. III'11.18) and on a bronze vessel from Pylos (Fig. 87:9) can hardly be just compared with some Egyptian duck vases vases from the and implements. These Egyptian types were indeed imitated in the Near East, but they were almost unknown in the Mycenaean world until LH III B-C, when they appear on several bronze vessels (III.8), on one bronze knife from Perati (III'4.1'3' Fig.7 4: 1) and on various other objects. As against the "European" view expressed by Sprockhoff, Kossack, Merhart and others, Matthiius (note 5) has tried to show the Aegean origins of this motif, but his position is weak. In Central Europe bird protomae of bronze are ISIMA to offer in this field than Europe ; the connection of birds, sun and wheels (and also boats) was alien to Aegean religion. The only part of the then civilised world where the sun god had a comparable importance was ancient Persia, but it was too far away to count. It is also unreasonable to discard the records of Greek myths about the Hyperborean Apollo,la neatly compared by Sprockhoff with the Dupljaja charioteer (Pl. 13), who can best be placed in Br D,15 and ideas about the northern ancestry of the Greek sun god in general. The function of sun god probably passed from Zeus to Apollo and then to Helios, who was a cosmological deity in most parts of Greece and was only worshipped in Rhodes,16 on the periphery of the Dorian part of Greece in historical times.l7 first attested in early Br D (Op6ly horizon in Hungary),11 and their antecendents can be seen in birds of clay from the Dirnubian region,12 while similar protomae (more often of horses than of birds) start in the Ilnd period of the Nordic Bronze Age and appear in some rock carvings in Scandinavia (cf. Fig. 89:7-8, Fig. 90 :l-6,15-16).13 Since stylisation or the kind involved is more intelligible as a development of woodcarving than of bronze casting, simple wooden birds and bird protomae may reasonably be supposed as the prototypes (as a parallel cf' the IInd period wooden bowls in Scandinavia, which influnced the shape of the first bronze vessels there, cf' III'8)' Aegean examples and their Sicilian parallels (Fig. 88 : 3) belonged to the Age of the Sea Peopies, and were basically a new iconographic typqthere' Even if Egyptian or Oriental duck vases and implements may have been models for some of the bird protomae made in the Aegean (as was probably the case with the Perati knife), this influence is fairly slight or non-existent in the case of European and Italic ducks, which later became much more common in Italy and Central Europe than in Greece, where they were of less central importance' If we accept the present "classical" chronology and reject the European Cr+ calibrated dates (which would make their European appearance considerably earlier), these birds are in a way a product of the European-Aegean koine or "Common Market", but the waning Aegean Btonze Age had less 10.3. The bird boat The bird protomae on the prows of ships belonging to the Sea Peoples are represented on the Medinet Habu reliefs (Fig. 8S :7),18 and there are several parallels on LH III C pottery, and one in a clay model from Asine (cf. III.11.18). One fragment of a krater from Tiryns (fig. 88 :6) probably represent a real Vogelbarke (bird boat), but the painter was not quite aware of what he was depicting. The first Central European bird boats of bronze also date from early Br D (Op6ly horizon, Fig' 88:4, Fig. 89:7-8),te and there are some IInd period predecessors in Scandinavia (above note 13). Once again, a symbolicmotif thatwas common and important in Central Europe and Scandinavia only has a few Aegean parallels from the age of the Sea Peoples and their mileu. The Aegean contribution to the bird boat of the "Common Market" was fairly modest (cf. also III.15.2). 1.0.4. Bird askoi Bird askoi (of a shape which included the representation of the bird's head) had an earlier ancestry in the Aegean and Cyprus, but they only reappeared in Greece in LH III B (one example prob- 1l $ xxt4 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE LH III A 2) and became more popular in LH III C.20 Some of the earliest My."nu"un examples have two holes for a cord ably dates from instead of the usual loop handle, like many of their Balkan parallels,2l which again were probably inspired from the south-east. They started in the Early Bronze Age in the Balkans and developed in the Middle Bronze AgJ there (notably in the Cirna (fu a 179 water-bird Zuto Brdo culture) into vessels with -heads and necks, which may be considered forerun- of the Urnfield bird protomae of bronze (above iII.10.2-3). Balkan and Late Mycenaean bird askoi display similarities, which can hardly be accidental, and since there was a gap in the Aegean between Early Bronze Age and Late Mycenaean bird askoi, the type may have been reintroduced to ners 3 Affis, 4 rock carvings: 1 Kelleby, Bohusliin, 2 Quille, Bohuslan. -3 Ekenbcrg. -1 Herrebro (both Ostergtitland);5 and 9 objects from Harsefeld (Kr, Stade) and Denmark: 7-8 bronze ()rnaments from Velem Szent Vid and Szamos on bronze carvings near Szatmar, Hungary, 10 bronze bird from P. Vietgest, Kr. Gtistror. 11-1,3 razors from Kr. Hadersleben, Badestrupt, Amt Holbaek and Ketting, Laaland; 1,4 bronze fibula from O. Fransborg. Snastorp sm, Af ter Sprockhoff. Fig. 89.I-4,6 J.BOUZEK, THE AECEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 180 @ lstMA 1 5 @ 8 re 10 ffi* W 13 11 ( J" ir r $,i Fig. 90. Double birds, horses and bird boats representations on bronze objects. 1 Emden, Kr. Meppen, 2 Vojens Gaard near Hadersleben, 3 Alstrupt, Amt Aalborg, 4 Mehlbeck, Kr. Steinburg, 5 Harsefeld, Kr. Stade, 6 P. Gullev, Amt Aalborg, 7 Aketorp, Aland, 9 near Biirstel, Kr. Merseburg, 9 near Bremen, 10 Mecklenburg, ll_12, 14 decoration of Liptov swords, Slovakia, 13 Emmen, Kr. Meppen, 15 Rossin, Kr. Anklam, 16 Siem, Amt Aalborg, 17 Lislebfjord, distr. Fredrikstadt, 18 0. Billeberga, Schonen. After Sprockhoff . xxul t- THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE Greece from the Balkans. But the shape was more appropriate for non-ceramic vessels, and the true relationship between Balkan and Greek bird askoi of clay was rather an indirect one, since in Greece such askoi formed part of a sophisticated repertory of painted pottery, while in the Central Balkans they were hand-rnade, incised and incrusted. 10.5. Vessel waggons JI The connection of a vessel with birds and a waggon is an ancient one. It appears among the finds from the Sin temple at Ur and possibly even earlier, and it is also attested by literary records from Palestine.2? Some Cypriot symbolic waggons with birds trelong to the milieu of the East Mediterranean Sea Peoples,23 but they differ in their stylisation from the Urnfield representations (Pl. 12:4-5).24 Again, the cauldron waggons in their classical appearance are much more of an Italic and Central European phenomenon, and only rnake a marginal appearance in Greece, though some barrel-shaped animals on wheels of Geometric and 7th century B.C. date probably represent similar cult objects. The Thessalian town of Krannon (as attested by Dionysios Karystios and the town's 4th century B.C. coins) still used the bird waggon for calling down rain, which was its function in the ancient Near East and, in all probability, also in the Late Bronze Age and Hallstatt Europe"25 14.6. Horned birds These creatures have been discussed by Henckein, and their origins by Kov6cs.26 They also seem to have emerged from the Danubian tradition, but they were of marginal importance in Greece, where they are only attested in Late Geometric and Subgeometric times.27 I0.7. r j t Other parallels and the "Common Market" artistic koine A comparison of simple birds and bird protomae from the Urnfield culture and from Italy and the 181 Aegean area (the sanctuary of Arternis Orthia in Sparta has furnished the best series of primitive bird figurines of bronze in Greece)28 shows that a kind of stylistic koine dating from the l3thllzth centuries B.C. formed the basis for a common ancestry of the Early Iron Age Geometric styles, with common prototypes of stylistic development in all three areas. A sirnilar picture can be gained by cornparing the earliest clay figurines of man and animals from Olympia with their Italic and Urnfield (Hallstatt) parallels (Fig. 87:3-B). These representations also had a common ancestry in the 13th-12ttr century B.C. koine, and only later did they separate and deveiop along different stylistic lines.2e In Greece the prototypes developed torvards the sophisticated art of Geometric times, in Villanovan Italy towards ornamental, often multiplicated representations turned into some kinds of arabesques, and in the Hallstatt area towards a sim- ple linear stylisation resembling linear Geometric drawings and engravings.3o The knobs ("breasts") on "female" shapes of pottery (below III.11.8), the triple vessels and other obiects with more limited areas of distribution,31 also belonged to our late second millenium European - Mediterranean koine, whose representatives in its East Mediterranean peripheral region were mainly the Sea Peoples. Symbolic representations of the double axe (Fig. 105, Cf. Iil.15.7), of the Aegean "Little Altar" (Fig. B8 :2, cf .IL 12.2-4) and of the bilobal shield (Fig. 80: 9) are Aegean contributions to the koine. Some of them appear in various parts of Europe in Br C and they were to some extent transmitted to Europe prior to the period which interests us here (above Il.l2). This stylistic and iconographic koine formed one of the backgrounds for the later koine of Early Iron Age Geometric styles.32 It used some models of the previous East Mediterranean Bronze Age world, but it changed them for its own purposes and the whole system of these symbols, as they have come down to us, had stronger Central and North EUrbpean than Mycenaean, Hittite and Levantine Lat_e Bronze Age roots, even if the latter contributed to its iconography. J. ffiT BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE rum-$ /ffi-\ u-( w:! 10 11 @, 1 w o 22 TE $f, d L re s- xxul 11. POTTERY 11,.1. Peloponnesian "Barbatian" Ware This ware was almost unknown a decade ago (cf. Bouzek, Hom. Griechenland 1969, 25f-.) and its existence was denied by many, but since than it has become rather common in finds from several parts Greece. J. Rutter first identified more of it among the pottery from Korakou (AJA 79 1975, l7 _32) and more has been added since, notably by S. Jalkotzy, E. French, K. Kilian, F' Schachermeyr of and H. Catling (cf. below, and AF IV 1980, 68-71). 1. Aigeira. S. Jalkotzy, Fremde Zuwandetet im sptitmykenischen Griechenland (Wien 1977). Fig. 91 : 15-76, 20-23, 26-27. 2. 183 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE Asine (later tradition). Mentioned by Berit Wells, London Congress Class. Archaeology r978. 3. Korakou. J. Rutter, AIA79 (1975)18-32.Fig' 9l:1,7-19,25. 4. Menelaion. (1e81) H. W. and E. A' Catling, BSA76 77-82. 5. Nichoria (later tradition). Mentioned by J. Coulson, London Congress Class. Archaeology 1978. 6. Mycenae. E. French, AA (1969) 136; French- AJA 81 (1977) 111f.; cf. K. A. -Rutter, Wardle, BSA68 (1973)323tig.15:1'fl of LH IIIB 2 context; S. Hood, Festschr. E. Gtumach, (Berlin 1967) I28 ff ; Rutter, AIAT 9 (197 5\ 28. 7. Tiryns. K. Kilian, Atti XX. Riunione Scientifica, lstituto italiano preist. protoist.,Basilicata 1 976 (1.e78); 311.-320; AA (Le7e) 406 fie. 31.:3,5,6; AA (1981.) L66 tig. 19-21.. Fig. 9l: l-t4. This pottery first appears in early LH III C contexts in Menelaion and Korakou, probably at the same time in Mycenae, in Aigeira it precedes a layer which contained early (but not the earliest) LH III C. Its first appearance at Tiryns has been reported from LH IIIB 2layers, i'e. immediately after the great destructions (cf. Schachermeyr, AF rv (1e80) 77f.). As,far as I could see from my study of it (I am especially grateful to H. Catling, J. Coulson, E. French, S. Jalkotzy, K. Kilian, M. Popham and E. L. Smithson among others for showing me actual pottery and photographs of both published and unpublished pieces) this ware is not everywhere identical. The richest variety of shapes seems to be represented at Aigeira, where the eadiest settlement only contained Barbarian Ware. The repertory at Korakou is more limited, but a greater variety of fabrics is attested there (apart from the usual group I) than at Tiryns, Mycenae and the Menelaion, though the pottery from the latter site is heavily worn and also seems to be coarser than that from the Argolid (cf. Catling, B5A76l98l, 7 s). Most of this pottery seems to have disappeared by the later part of LH III C (Rutter phases 4-5, cf . Hesp. 48 197 9,3 9 1 ; Kilian, AA 1981, 1 8 L ), but there seem to have been successors to it both at Asine and at Nichoria, and, contrary to Rutter's opinion (Hesp. 48'J.97 9,39 1 ), I see some link in the fabric between Rutter's group I Barbarian Ware and Submycenaean cooking pots (Pl. 14:3). The cooking pots are found alongside Barbarian Ware at Tiryns from early LH III C onwards (Kilian, AA 1981, 181) and their gritty fabric is often close to that of group I Barbarian jars. The later LH III C cooking pots link in a continuous tradition with Protogeometric and Geometric ones (cf. Rutter, Hesp. 48 1979,391note 39), Some elements of Barbarian Ware may also have been translated into wheelmade painted ware (below, ll.1'7). Characteristic of most of this Barbarian ware is a gritty fabric with stony and organic additions to the clay (the latter causing microscopic openings). Some fragments, of course, are of finer fabric, which may almost resemble impasto (Catling, BSA 76 1981, 75). The surface usually shows ir- regularities. It may be coarse and even roughened, but surfaces of some vases or parts of them are finer, even more or less polished. The firing temp- Fig. 91.The Peloponnesian Barbarian Ware. 1-14 Tiryns (after Kilian), and 25 Korakou, 24 Athens, Agora (after Rutter). 15-16,20-23,26-27 Aigeira (after Jalkotzy) ,17-19 r84 I. BOUZEK, THE AEGE,AN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE erature was low, and the vessels were fired on a hearth, not in a true kiln. All this distinguishes the Barbarian Ware clearlyfrom Mycenaean pottery in which it has no predecessors. Nevertheless, it rnust be stressed that Barbarian Ware was not an object of trade, and exports of it are quite exceptional. Our Barbarian Ware was in the various places in the Peloponnese where it has been found (cf . Catling, BSA 76 1981 , 73f"), and mainly by people who might otherwise have used the services of skilled Mycenaean potters. Cooking pots prevail (Fig. 91 :l-_3,17-18, 25). Drinking cups &re rare (Fig. 91 :8, 19-20), but this is the shape taken over in wheelmade painted ware (III.11.19). Ilearth-stands are also attested, and later cooking pots seem to be connected. All this seems to speak in favour of defining the Barbarian pottery as a kitchen ware made for the preparation of meals of a kind favoured by these who used it, and whose tastes differed from Mycenaean tradition. Rutter's group I (coarse ware par excellence) is the most connmon everywhere: it comprises jars and bowls, mainly with rounded walls. The rims also Tiryns, AA 1981, 167 trg, 1,9:2) are finer in fabric and burnished. The first example resernbles some Early Urnfield cups rather than Subappenine bowls with horned handles, and the second has good parallels in the Central Balkans, as already stressed by Rutter,3 but sonne Italic parallels also exist.a made may sornetimes be everted, and this feature is rnore common at the Menelaion (Catling, BSA 76 1981, figs. 2-4) than elsewhere. Horizontal plastic ribs, often with oblique slashes or finger-prints, and horseshoe and tongue-shaped lugs are the rnost usual decorative features (Fig. 91 : 1-3, I7, 25). The outer surfaces are mainly left unpolished, or are sometimes roughened, and some kind of barbotino rnay also be applied. Horseshoe lugs have not as yet been published from the Menelaion or Aigeira. Rutter saw parallels for this ware in Italy, in the Pienidevo-Babadag area ancl in Troy VIi b 1 (Rutter, AJA79 I975,25f"), E. French rather in Troy (French and Rutter, AJASI t977 ,111f .) and Kilian at first rnainly in Subappenine trtaly (Afri XX. riunione Preist. Pratoist. 197 8, 312-317),1 but later he laid rnore emphasis on the Northwest Greek and Bosnian parallels (AA198L,181 note e6); The carinated borvls from Aigeira (Fig. 91 :8, 19-20; Jaikotzy, Fremde Zuwanderer 1977,23 fig. 11) and Korakou (Fig. 91 : 19; Rutter, AJA79 I97 5,21fig. 7, fcr the fabric p.22 nos.11-12;cf . lstMA J The twisted handles from Aigeira (Fig" 91:22, alkotzy, F remde Zuw andere r 197 7, pl. I : 4, p. 20 fig. 6), Nichoria and Asine find parallels in Cephalenia, in the Wesiern Balkans and in Italy, while the vertical fluting over the whole body of the vessels, as on those from Aigeira (Fig. 91:27; Jalkotzy, o.c. '1977, 14 fig. i5) may point to the same areas. Globuiar jars with horizontal handles (Fig. 91 : 15, 10; Jalkotzy L977, p. 2l tig. 9; AA 798t, 169 tig.20:5) find parallels with vertical handles in Protovillanovan ltaly, in several Balkan groups (Hdnsel, Hallstattzeit 1975, pls.4-5, 10) and in Macedonia, and they also resemble the shoulder-handled amphoriskoi from Vergina (Andronikos, Vergina I,1969,205 tig. 4L). Some crude decorative elements, especially sorne kind of barbotino (Fig. 91:5), seem to have most specific parallels in Epirus.s Incised vessels are known from the Menelaion (Catling, BSA76 1981, fig. 4:35) and Aigeira (Fig.91 :26,Jalkotzy. Fremde Zuwanderer 1977, nos.5 and 2 fig. 8). Several hearth-stands belong to this ware : a ver!' fine piece comes from the Menelaion (Catling. BSA 76 1981, fig. 4:34), and there are parallels from Tiryns (AA 1981,159 fig. 21.:2t; AA1.979. 4A6 fig.3I:I_-Z) and possibly also from Aigeira (Jalkotzy, o.c. no. 7 fig. 10). Similar hearth stands are known from Suappenine sites, but also from the Balkans. Ovoid jars with vertical handles, iike those from Tiryns (Fig. 91 :14, AA 1981, 169 tig.2I:11, 16 and the Athenian Agora (Fig. 91 :24;Rutter, AJA 79 t975,29 tig.16) may have been forerunners of Submycenaean cooking pots, but Balkan parallels r also exist (cf. Hdnsel, Hallstattzeit 1976, ptr 55:21-22) and the piece with band handle from Aigeira (Fig. 91 :23,Jalkotzy, o.c. no. 10 fig. still fully prehistoric jar with band handle. 13 ris Several finds from Euboea. Central Greece anC Crete are related to the Peloponnesian Barbariar ware, if not identical with it: -l xxul THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE 8. Athens, Agora. Rutter, AJA79 tl97S) 29 tig. 16. Fig. 9I:24. 9. Delphi. Rutter, AJA 79 (t975) 29 note 63; Lerat, RA 12 1938,201,205" 10. Kalapodi. Felsch, AA Q98q 46f.; Schachermeyr, AFIV (1980) 70, g6. 11. Lefkandi. Popham-Sackett, Exc. at Lefkandi 1964-66 (1968), 18 fig. 34. The Itatic origin of this vase is more likely since the Balkan parallels are mainly of alater date. Cf. Bouzek, Op. Ath.9 (196e) 43. 12. Perati.Iakovides, P.I (L969), B 157 no. 35 pl. 45 c. 13. L Tzedakis-A. Kanta, Kastelti Chaniou (1968) pl. I:3; Hallager, Atti 2L. convegno Magna Grecia 1981, printing. Chania. 14. Knossoq, LM III C context, kind inforrnation S. Hood. 1B-5 In Attica and Euboea, this ware seems to be exceptional; only single vessels are known from largely excavated sites. Some kind of Barbarian Ware existed in the western part of Central Greece, yet, according to what I was able to see in the museums of that area, this ware seems to differ in some points from the peloponnesian Barbarian ware. The Barbarian ware frorn LH III B_C contexts in Crete seems to show Subappenine resemblances mainly" In general, Peloponnesian Barbarian ware can be compared with pre-Urnfield and pre-protovil_ lanovan ceramic traditions in Italy (the Subappe_ nine facies), in the western Balkans (notably with similar Adriatic wares in Bosnia, Albania and Epirus, cf. the barbotino), with the Mediana group in southern Serbia and the Babadag-p$enidevo complex further east; with the last mentioned also * ^il^i\\t u\1!: I 2 / xl >; //, '0 ooG ':h "v a2 ,s t: l:strrbution of hand-made barbarian potteries in LH ---iianBarbarianware -: III c Greece and cvprus. 1 cephalenian hand-made andre,latedpottery,4CypriotB,l"ts.,tlwareanciitsi.olanpa.ailets,- ware,2.-.3 Trthaca(polisandAetos), ::/!fs13141a,Diakata'Lakkithraandoikopeda),3Deiphi,4A)geira,sruicirorja,6Menelaion,TKorakou,gMycenae, {sine' 1 1 Athens' 72Perati,l3 Lefkandi, 14 chania, 15 Knossos, 16 <urupoai ii xuroriziki and Bamboula, 18 Troy. J. EUROPE BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND ffi \ 7 x.Yul THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CTILTURE the Trojan crude pottery of the VII b 1 level shows close connections. No specific Subappenine hand_ les have been attested, but ,o_" _orc specific Central and East Balkan traits (as tl" lnoU, on handles) are also missing. uty i-pi"sJon irinu, ,t relations wirh the Adriatic ui"u i"rp. Se ttaty; ar"" closer than the others, but I must aO_iiit ut .y arguments are not very strong. Even if most relations of the Barbbrian ware are with the belt south of the primary Urnti-"tO ,orr", which penetrated Italy wiitr tle prorouifi"nou"n yugoslavia and Macedoniu *iit, tt _culture, Mediana and Macedonian LaustJ *"r"rJ ,fr"r"" ,,Urnfiela,,initu"n"" fluted portery and rwisred handles. These :l ln" and the rearures carinated drinking cups were characteristic for the Early Urnfi.fa ,rii*" f"f. Jalkotzy, Fremde Zuyarlderer tgll, Z,ii., qS, seem to be some traces of the 5j-53, 56-58 Zwetl1980, Since so little of this ware has been found in it LH III C onty. Rutter considered end of as ha ving o" n' ioiura, trr" ll,'#o"f tr if" H#if : " ware. He mentioned explicitly the craters with plastic bands decorated with ii"gonuf-in"isions, which first appear in the Granarv ifrur" oi I,rf fn C, but there are also otherporriUf" a"riuu;;;;; crude pottery from Epirus Main bibtiography: Hammon4^ BSA 32 (Ig3t_32) esp.pp. t32_t3s Kout_ soulio, Chan Terovo). S. Dakaris, prakt. Arch. Et. (1951) 173_175 N. c. L. ("d; l3r:t!, (Kastritsa). * Hammond, Epirus (1967) 289_3t4,figs. !: 7_17. _G. I. P. Vokoropoutou, (1969) t7g-_207, !:h Et. I-upririu, esp. pls. 25-26 (Elafotopos, v\ r--e--' OoAonu) _-and 30 A (Mazaraki). Tha P.analopoulou, ,:He epoche chalkou sten Epeirou", Dodona S Zilff:--'^"' ltltAy K. A. Wardle, ,,Cultural groups of the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age in f.[orft*"*-6r1".",,, G.odiinjak Sarajevo ts (rs77) __ and in Scfiacl bibr. J r-"r 161-168). "r^"y"ilsy_)orion Cf. also K. Attica and Euboea, it would be temptingio it with the Dorians, but this "onn"", other probtems: if the Dorian ""pf "nuiion"*Juld raise ;;;;^t, ;; a tater date, it is more reasonable to place p o t tery 1I.2. LBA 187 lil_;; Schacl rermeyr, 188_191. AF Iv The LBA pottery from Epirus is as crude earlier wares there, but differrnr.li^iu, resemblances wares, *,rn (1930) as the ,orn" with the Adriati. iuU"pp"nin" but some elements in shapes uoJin,rt ,i"t, use of barbotino differ from " ottrer aJiiuri. group.. Corded bands and ribs with are rhe main decorative elements both oi f"r!";uru unO on the one-handled cuns.(cr. warate, ,*;r_;; 11); other on"-r,unar"a o-"".'o. lso,ir. *;;;;;";loourion. ptaced opposite to the_handt i fe*n. iilnur, or. 25 beta-gamma, the same can be said of ttre imitations Wardle, o... p. * otlfJng, in 6: ir-'rrl. paint. The carinated cup FS, One of the kantharoi from 240, however, may fi"a"* ,"""riis to be decorated with semicir.uru, well have been derived from the garba.ian luting"T-in. arint_ ,r. 1969., pt. 25 detta, cf. ing cups (cf. the hand made cup Wardte, ,.".?LJ. Lf Zl. nutt"r, Sf_poriu_ Dark Ages 797 7, fig. 2I, heri lll.tt.ti)i' crude potery from aiu"ri" li-iittl puuThe clay spools found in Lefkandi in the same . Though some painted LH level as the hand-made cup mentioned-above III C pottery also appears in Epirus, the crude t una_rua"lott"ry (B,CH.e0 te-66,20r fig. e) are p"r;ii;;;; cr""t prevailed during the late phases of rn" Macedonia,s in the Balkan, iutirinr""n und h il;.r..' period here. Some relations U" .""n'*irr, ,fr" "rn ;:ilf' Fig. 93. Hand-made potterv.,I and 4 MetaxataTomb '-"- 4,''z2 La(*,thraTombA,3trftandi, LakktthraTomb A, 3 trft Devetakicave.After Bouzek1969. s-7,r'_lsvergina(no. 12sword),g 188 m AND EUROPE J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA ISIMA T 0\ o b ilr fi ! TI rd (T xxul tr THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE 189 Peloponnesian Barbarian ware, but the two are far suspension vessel on feet resembling suspension from identical. pyxidae, from Metax ata, Arch. Ef. (1e33) fig. 11.3. Cephalenian hand_made pottery 34:12; two semiglobular incised bowls from Metaxata, Arch. Ef . (1933) 88 fig. 37 ; Fig. 94 : t5. Metaxata: S. Marinatos, Arch. Et. (1933) The ribbed two-handled jars resemble the Illy73-100, esp. p. g7 figs" 34_37. rian ware vessels most closely, though some paral_ Oikopeda. Marinatos, Arch. Ef . (lg 32) 1 _L 7, esp. lels may be found even further north, the bowl with p. 16 fig. 18. rough fluting and some fragments from Oikopeda Lakkithra. Marinatos, Arch. Ef. (1932) 17_46, show relations towards Northwest Greece and sur_ esp. pl. 8:94-99. rounding areas of Jugoslavia and Albania.l0 The Diakata. N. Kyparisses, Arch. Delt. 5 (1917) kyathoi and the askos seem to be imitations of 92-122, esp. p. 11,3 tig.2g. canonical Mycenaean pottery, and the one_han_ Characteristic shapes are 1. two-handled jars, fluted : or ribbed: Metaxata, Arch. Ef . (1933) 88 fig.36; Lakkithra, Arch. Ef. (1,932) pl. 8:97; lower shapes (.,kantharoi,,) nos. 96 and 99;Fig. 93:1._2; 2. one-handled jars (.,cooking pots',): Lakkithra, ltch. Ef. (1932) pl. 8:94,9g ; Metaxat a, Arch. Et. (1933) 87 tig. 34 : 1_2, 6, g_g,variant with more handles fig. 34:10; Diakata, Arch. Delt. (1917) 113 tig.28:4_3,8 (nos. t_2aresimilar Iower cups with more funnel_shaped neck); dled jars (most of them) resemble the cooking pots, which appeared in Greece in LH C and remained in use until the protogeometric and Geometric periods. The triple sus-pension vessel and the three-legged ,,pyxis" have both Balkan and III Greek parallels, the latter seem to be Sub_ mycenaean rather than earlier (cf. III.11.1a). The bowls with incised decorations of baskets (Fig.9a:15) resemble painted vessels from Ithaca (Heurtley, BSA 32 tg32_33,55 fig. 3i:106), Korakou (Rutter, AJA 79 1975, 19 no. 4) and possibly 3. conical cups: one-handled Lakkiihra, from the polis Cave (BSA 39 "j,g38_3g, Arch. Ef. Pl. 3:9). (1932) pl. 8:95, two-handled Metaxata, Arch. A similar group of hand-made pottery comes Et. (1933) 87 tig. 34:5 ; ^ Ithaca: from 4. spouted conical bowls, with handles: Aetos: Heurtley, BSAi3 Metaxata, I|OSZ_SS1 37-65; Et. (1933) 87 tig. 34:3_4; Diakata, lrch. Polis Cave; Benton, BSA 39 (1933_39) Arch. DFII. (1917) 1 13 fig. 28 :6_7 7_17 _ ; pls. 1-9, cf. also BSA 44 (1949) 307_t;. 5. several kyathoi from Lakkithra and Metaxata are probably of the same fabric: Arch. Ef. _ The fragments of jars are similar to Northwest Greek and "Barbarian', shapes (BSA 39, (1932) pl. 8 and Arch. Ef. (1s33) 87 3_5 pl. tig. 34:7. t :2 above), at least one of the kantharoi i, ttut"O Other shapes seem to be unique: (BSA 39, 7 pI. 2:5,13; Fig. 94:1) and twisted bowl from Metaxata A, Arch. Et. (1g33)gg fig. 35 harrdles also represented (BSA 39,l0,pl. 5:g). (fluted, plastic ribs on the rim, witi tinger_prints); For the jars with plastic ribs and fingeiprints and Fig.93:4; ^ the twisred for handles cf. IILl1.1, iutitre inspi_ askos from Diakata, Arch. DeIt. (lgl7) lI3 tig. ration of the last mentioned was probably a non_ 28:3; triple suspension vessel from Metaxat a, Arch. Delt. ( 1 933) 87 tig. 34 :1.1 ; ceramic one. The kantharoi are the most interest_ ing shapes. There are parallels to them from diffe_ rent parts of the Balkans, and also from protovil_ Ftg' 94'Hand-made (1-3' 5-6 ' 8-13'15) and wheel-tur ned (4' 7,14, 16) vases from Greece and their Balkan pararers. polis, Ithaca'2Dobraca'3DonjaDolina(bothvte*i";j,aMv*n"", I lo"in,ov".ina,TLakkithra,cepharenia,SAsine,gandrl t2 and t3 s"'r"" ffiT'8;;.1X,:T;i:i;H:' iit'-*6.""ei, c,*i.,'n ;"-,r", 15 Metaxata, cepharenia, 16 rthaca. Arter ANATOLIA AND EUROPE J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN' 190 including the lanovan Italy, but the Illyrian area for both nearest the Glasinac group seems to be geographical and morphological reasons' 11.4. Macedanian Lausitz Ware and the Vatdar-Morava atea TSIMA Lausitz Ware to one single horizon' At Kastanas' in levels peak a with common later, became rnore latter of which also contained Knobbed of the PSenidevo-Babadag type' Vessels War"-n.rtgurian parallels have also been found at ;j;;; *irt etrito. F,iA751980' 259f ')' There was in Kastanas utro u rapid change in architecture agriculture in changes ri"ttftg witfr tevet t3, and together all una Ui""aing of domestic animals' 1"Wardle, known from group there' The The Macedonian Lausitz Ware is an alrival of a new ethnic ;il*i"g it found leveis 77-16 ."u"r"t sites in the Axius valley' Heurtley first Mycenaean pottery appears in finds new in in Vuraurophtsa, Vardina and Saratse' e/B 1), tire amount of imports increases ii flfl KasAssiros and and local came from the excavations at iJs 1 5-1 4 (LH\LIB z,both imported Prof and ' all LH Hiinsel Prof" nearly to i"""t. f am grateful both futu""Oo"iun), and in levels 73-12 finds' their production' W"tJr" for information concerning iri c "utrv iottery is of Macedonian produced in BSA75 {1980)229-268' Wardle, D. K. ;;i;"t: ii" p"it"iv"in LH III C tradition was 101 vols' BCH only the reports preliminary ;i. tlt" the fufu"raoti" until the 10th century B'C'' drawn with com(1s77)60ef. and r02 (1e78)717!' concentric circles were sometimes --. --, Mainz26 RGZM Ib' alii' and i<"rtunur: B. Hiinsel ;;;.;t since level 12 (cf''!rr ro!z.u.weit'IbRGZM Festschrift coblenz (1981) iuir" 26 !g7g,2A3-22' and his and Hdnsel's $7-27r; i;i^ Anto the IVth internat' symposium 2I5-22A,figs. 6-11' Saand De"ont.iU"tions Vu.Ouropit,ri 1no* Axiochori)' Vardina .i"nt fufu""aonia, 1983; cf' for Vardarophtsa (Cam74t)' ratse: Iieurtlety, Ptehistoric Macedonia ,iorough, Last Mycenaeans (1964) 409-12' nos' cat' 87' fig' Lau;;g" 1939) 98f' Like Protovillanovan in ltaly' Macedonian with the 475-19. sitz Ware shows genetic resemblances follows: includprovince The rnain types of this ware are as Urnfield and East-Central European rim everted with amphora Southwest 1. two-handled t; ;". Austria' South Moravia' Slovenia' twisted handles (F'ig' 95 :5'12); Hungarian Transdanubia' and vertical legs Siiuut iu, Many 2. handleless jar with ionical neck Crouriu, northern Bosnia and Serbia'1t :4) (Fig' 95 ; on shoulder better parallels along the northern shoulder and J"p", have known 3. one-handled jug with angular ii*it ot this territory (which is better (Fig' 95:2); jugs find neck and cylindrical but some bowls u.rto""ofogi"ally); roundedbodyis -"tatoties the rim, of jug with 4. similar along the southern,boundary ii"l, u"t, "u"it"d fluting (Fig' 95 : 3'15) ; sloping some and decorateJwith this province in Serbia and Bosnia"' is decorated with be traced' also can 5. bowl with thickened rim, which Bulgaria elernents from western of NiS' vicinity the sloping flutings (Fig' 95 :9-17',16); . from group known jugs with {luting on the ii" Vr"ai"ta two--handled successors' its and O.ltgT "ta and with twisted handles (Fig' aating probably c' 1200 B'C"'with Central Balkan shlrrta"r, .".Uit" Urnfietd elements 95:!2-t4\; in a way similar to Macedonian Lausiu i;;;t"t 16)' 11' (Fig' 95: handles pls' 39' 7. fowt with arched (cf. also tldnsel' Hallstattzeit 1'97.6' *are handles fluted and twisted ;ffi;; fluting and including the Danubian fluted may have mainiy +,{,'ii, so,IiI*v), finds are onli k;;# from other fragments(Fig' and Knobbed wares' The Mediana e5 :6-7 ' 15\' jugs katharoi and to ;;;;J yet,13 but the material in Nis --ft"ir,t.V and p""tfy p"Ufished as considered the burnt horizons of shapes' and also relation' and shows a greater varreiy date' C III LH of as Ware G6r'a f"V"tt *i,ft Lausitz tn"bunubian fluted "Gdva" whre; the at Kastanas' C also first appeared in level 13 Ware were Lausitz eie.riro. examples of fluted along with phases in the Early Iron Age lfu fll found ;(ufrny."nuean" pottery' and were not confined *iift The detaLs or". ur" apparently not rare in Serbia'1a shift ;: of the picture are not yet clear' but a southwards area O"p"f"ri"" from the Urnfield llfim n,r xxul THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE seems to be the most probable explanation for the destruction in Macedonia (some crude pottery there is earlier than the bulk of the Lausitz Ware) and for the northern pottery affinities.r5 Further southwards, the influence of Macedonian Lausitz Ware can probably be seen in a few fluted jugs, kantharoi (Fig. 93 :5) and bowls (Fig. 93:10) at Vergina.lu Some hand-made Sub- mycenaean pyxidae from Athens decorated with flutes have parallels in the western Balkans (Fig. 94:12-13, cf. III.11,14), so that a link seems 1,97 plausible, but this shape is rare in Macedonian pottery and was more probably reproduced in the form of wooden boxes, which also inspired later bronze pendants. Twisted and fluted handles of Macedonian Early Iron Age vesselslT and on painted pottery in other parts of Greecel8 are attested in more hand-made wares (cf. III.11.1),1e and nonceramic basket handles seem to be an even more plausible source of inspiration for ther.n. The Var- dar-Morava route was also one of the possible transmitters of Northwest Balkan bronzework to Greece. w 9 l0 ( I l I' 14 r b Fig' 95' Macedonian Lausitz w arc. l--2,4-8 vardarophtsa, 3, 9-10 vardina, 1 1-16 Kastanas. After Heurtley and Hdnsel. J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE N \\\\\\\ '2 ?,i- rtz^ s\ 5 '-'?'- V 1f, \'1 'fu:=-"/ N \ ac) =|trltrr vl o (} A2 r3.6 Affi* s\ x 4 .t ,+ 5 0 / *S*uoo*" 2 8 oo e0n cro'.or'Queq.alo i oo D" (/ b "( North BosnianU 6 Sava--( culture, pottery, Babadag 5 painted Bobousti ;;"il, z}i" ira, -"6irnu g.oup, 3 lllyrian "Central" area, 4 and PSer 9 Catalka group' 8 Cepina' (7 Sophia potteries Stamped and (East Bulgarian) group, Z-S So,rth Bulgarian Incised c^olT"l::'v.,1y:,1'",':,i1:iLYi:1Y'::"1T*: prevailing' pottery group fluted with groups), 10 Danubian pruteo po,*ry groups 8-e), 4 Karphi Incised ware and its import at Enkomi' 5 Cultural groups in the Balkans: 1 Serbian and Fis.. g6.Various pottery groups in the Balkans and in Greece. t il,ufi;;;il;;;.;eJ ano 1"t. IncisedWare,6Vergina,T_8AtticDarkAgelncisedWareandrelatedpotteries. I YXmj TllE lLELATIOt"lS LATE ]\4YCL:NAEAN CUL-TUR.F CiF THFI 11"-5. Frlinirive wares froru T'fiasos" Samothrace and Greek Thrace The pottery from the giaves and settlement at Kastri of Thasos, as far as it is publisheel and exhibited in the Kavaia ffiLrsem (F" KoukouliChrysanflraki, Alch. Ei. tL97A) 16-22; A;.ci:" Oelf. Chr. 27 {!972) 528-24 pts. 451--54 ; val.28 {1973) 447 pI.20A; va}.29 (1973-4) 7?s-87 pls. 57 1-73; in Hansel (ed.), Sudesteuropa zsrl"scften tr640 u. 1A00 v. Chr., Eerlin t!982) 119-144; cf also BCH 100 (1976) 69a; IAL {19V7} 622 and . I02 (197 8) 727) is ciearly related to Bulgarian Lare Bronze Age wares (derkovna, Cepina).20 Relations between the Thracian areas north of the Rhodope mountains ancl those of the coastal zone and the islands may have been mcre strongly maintained because of the seasonal transhumance of the Rhodope herdsmen, a custorn only abandoned in rrur century (cf. Fig. 96:2j.21The few crurle prehistoric vases from the Samothrace sanetuary (K. Lehrnann, Guide to Samathrace3 (1956) 12tig. 6) may also find parallels arnong the Bulgarian Finai Bronze Age wares, and in the tate Bronze to Early lron Ages the eastern part of Aegean Thrace shou,s a culture inseparable from similar finds in South- east Bulgaria and Turkish Thrace. This is illustraled especially by the dolmens in f{.e.russa (I). Triantafyllos, Arcft. Dett. Cbr.27 (1972) 547t. pts. 485-7) and by the Knobbed Ware from Asar Tepe (E. T'simbidis, Prakt. AE 1972 (1974), 86-E0).22 11.6. The Bobousti style. Hand-made painted pottery in the area af the West Macedonian lakes ],93 pl. 23 ; BSA 2E t!926^27) i 9-i fig, 30 ; Casson, h(acedania, Thrarc and fllyria fig. 63. Fatos" Korkuti, [/ina 13 {198li 1) 41 p}. 4. Feiagonia: to{ilquldif, Felaganija {1966) 28f, fig. t4; dlat. Fraistarija va MakedonrSa (Skcpje i956i nos" 499-502 {Saraj near Brod}, 51? (Eeii Kamen), 518 (h,{arta n€ar Zavit). Epirus; Hamnrond, Macedonia I (1972) 286, 280f., 290; Wardle, Godr'-{nlak Sarajevo 15 {1e77) i81. F{aliakmon valley: K. Rhomiopoulol}, tsSA 66 (iq?l) 353-363; V. G. Kalipolitis, Arc&. Ef. (1e73) fiA--r42. General surveys: K. Kilian, Arth. Korrbl. 2 {1972) 114-123; A" Hochstdt.ter, PZ 57 {l9SZ} 241-19; J. tsouzek, Pant. arch" 65 274, 3I5; Sehachermeyr, AF Iv (1 980) 27 t--?glr Most of this pottery is too late for us, but its beginnings are considered to be pre-Iron Ag:.tu tsobousti is richer both in shapes and ornaments than Tren and Maliq. Kilian (Arch" Korbl.Z Ig72, 114) pointed out the resemblances from South Italy, and others may be added from the yugosiav coast. Though the latter are of Iron Age date ancl not identieal, ail of them show a general similarity between this ware and the Adriatic painted Geometric styles. The Bobousti ware also resernbles the Phrygian Geornetric style, and this resarnblance is, again, closer than the vague parallels in Greek Protogeometric and Geometric styles.2a Since the Balkan Brirgi remained in the area close fo the West Macedonian lakes, and the Gardens of Midas were probably in the area of Mt. Bermion (Hammond, Ivfacedonia I, I972" 4L0f .), this similarity is hardly accidental. Schachermeyr (AF IV 1,984,27I-279) paints out some ancestors in the Neolithic Stardevo ornaments and in the West Greek Middte Ftreiladic pottery, and, while the first parallel is too distant, the second is certainly important.25 The ornaments and their syntax are simpler in F. prendi, Tren and Maliq than in Bobousti: rneander and Studia Albanica 3 (1966) fasc. 1, 2SS-2g0, pls. more elaborated chevrons are missing in the two 18-20. former sites, ivhile the triangles and fringes are Tren, cave. Z" Andrea, Iliria 4 (1g76) 133-155. knorvn evervu'here. Katharos and one-handled cup Bobcusfi. W. A. Heurtley, BSA 28 (1926-27) are characteristic shapes in most sites, but the jug 158-1940. w'ith cut-au'ay neck comes only frorn Bobousti, Pateli. Heurtley, Frehist. Macedonia (Lg3g) 239 Pateli. Pelagonia and the Haliakmon area. In most Maliq, Levei ri fir l III d of the settlement. - 794 J. BouzEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND localities, the painted vases only form a minority among unpainted vessels. Schachermeyr tried to connect this ware with the Dorians, but relationship with various Adriatic potteries and with the Phrygian Geometric style are closer than any with Greek Late Mycenaean or Protogeometric, and most of this ware dates from a period when Dorians were aiready present in the Peloponnese. Only the West Greek Protogeornetric pottery resemble the Bobousti pottery more closely (cf. also Vitsa Zagoriou). Since the styles of Marrnariani and Lionokladhi ,26 ate closer to the Peloponnesian Protogeometric styles than the Bobousti ware, and the Dorians, being transhuming pastoralists' were apparently more interested in non-ceramic vessels than pottery, the identification of the Bobousti I,r/,r /, i ELIROPE pottery as a Dorian style does not seem to me to be protrable. The textile ornaments and the nonceramic vessels of the Dorians may, however, have been derived from the same or sirnilar source as the vessels of the Bobousti ware. Similar pottery from the Axius arca is less common. and less rich in ornaments. 1l.7 . Tray and the Balkans Balkan relationship for the Trojan Coarse Ware of the ViI b 1 ievel should be considered first. The kantharos Schmidt, Schliemann-S1g. p. lV6, no. 3617 (tig.97 :6) has close parallels from Zimnicea (Fig. 97 :1.-2) and from other sites of the Cerkovna group after Hhnsel.27 7 AA/l Fig.97. Ceramic relations of Troy Vllb l-2.1'2'4 Zimnicea (Rumania), 3, 5-6, I, 12-13 Troy (nos. 5,8. 12-1,3 Knobb: : Ware), 7 Kozloduj, 10 Sava, 11 Varasti (all Bulgaria) , After Hiinsel, Dimitrov, Morintz, Tondeva, Schmidt, Blegen et alii. 3a b.a THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE xxrxl The coarse jars of Troy VII b 1, notably the jars with fingerprints (which may be compared even with the Peloponnesian Barbarian ware) find the best parallels among the materials from the Coslogeni group, which preceded the Babadag group in Dobrodgea. Cf. esp. IY, pl. 286:8,10, 16-17 and Moritz-AnSCM1, (1970) 378 ft. fig. 4:7, 13:4, :1,22:5-7 l7 ; Troy ghelescu, the horseshoe-shaped lugs Troy IV, pl. 266 : 32.16 and Morintz-Anghelescn, o.c.378 fig. 3 :8 ; some handle forms: TroyIY pI.283:27 andHansel, Hallstattzeit (1.976) pl. 9 :5 ; Some Trojan relations of the Balkan Late Bronze Age are with the Troy VII b 2level: globular vessel TroyIY pI.265:32.I9 and Hdnsel, o.c. pl. 33 : 3 (Rosetti) ; globular jug Troy IV, pl. 263:37.897, and Zimnicea, Hdnsel, o.c. pl. 11 : 9 (Fig. 97 :3-4). These parallels show that, analogous to the situation in Greece, Troy was also affected by Balkan groups as early as c. 1200 B.C. More intensive, however, are the traces of contact between the East Balkan groups c. 1000 B.C. and the Trojan VIIb2 Knobbed,Waro..Thanks to new excavations in a, r1, * I Rumania and Bulgaria, these contacts can be traced much better now than they could ten years ago.28 S. Morintz (Dacia 8 1964, 19ff.) and N. Sandars (Srudies Hawkes 1971, 19 ff.) stressed parallels between the Babadag I culture and the Trojan Knobbed Ware, which are rather close, but differences also exist. The types of amphoras are different, the bowls with contracted rims are missing here, and Hiinsel is probably right in stressing other relations, with the Marica area (his Catalka group) and, especially close, with the East Bulgarian group (cf . Hdnsel, H allstattzeit 197 6, 232-3 5 and Tondeva, Chronologie 1,980, 24-60). The Central Balkan Knobbed Ware developed from its G6va forerunners further north (Fie. 97 :5-L3).2e Hiinsel rightly speaks about a Balkanisation of Troy, which started in the Late Bronze Age in Troy VII b 1, roughly, we may add, contemporaneously with the barbarisation of the Mycenaean world (c. 1200 B.C.) and accomplished about one century later by the Knobbed Ware, i.e. roughly at the same time as the Macedonian Lausitz Ware spread in the Axius valley. The Trojan Knobbed Ware can be 195 considered a member of a larger group of East Balkan Early Hallstatt styles. The best parallels are with the Pontic Thrace, but there are also other relations with Dobrodgea, Central Bulgaria and Greek Thrace (cf. IIL 11.5). Hiinsel refutes the possibility of a migration in Troy VII b 1 and finds improbable even a later, 1lth century migration (Hiinsel, Hallstattzeit I976, 235), but, since the earlier cultural tradition of Troy offered no ancestors for either VII a 1 Crude or VII b 2 Knobbed Wares, an influx of population from the South-East Balkans to Troy is very difficult to deny. The first wave might have been weak, but Balkan barbarians may well have participated in the destruction of Troy VII a or in the fighting (according to Homer, this part of the Balkans belonged to Trojan allies), and a second wave accomplished the Balkanisation by developing a pottery style closely related to the Southeast Balkans. The full integration of Trojan pottery into the Southeast Balkan family could hardly have happened without any population migration; the historical tradition knows several of them (Phrygians, Armenians). The Babadag pottery style is harmonic, that of Southeast Bulgaria has partly exaggerated features, and the Trojan style is grotesque. The marked exaggeration of specific features in the Trojan Knobbed Ware as against the Balkan parallels seems to reflect a will to maintain "genuine" tribal tradition in a peripheral, alien milieu.3o 11.8. Amphoras, amphoriskoi and jugs with breast-knobs Hand-made vases with breast warts or knobs appear in Greece in LH III C. The best-known examples from dated contexts were found in Iria in Argolis (early LH III C, H. Drihl, in Tiryns YI, 1973,127 ff ., Schachermeyr, AFIV 1980, 83-86 with pl. 2) and Exalophos in Thessaly (later III C, Theocharis, Arch. D elt. 23 1968, Chr. 263-5, pl. 201). The former find from a cistern also included a grooved Minyan jar of Trojan relations; our vessel has two "breasts". The Exalophos vase with one "breast" may easily be connected with later Vergina amphoriskoi (Andronikos, VerginaI, 191 tig. 28 A 3, pp. 204-207 figs. 44-45). Another, 196 J. BOUZEK, THE AECEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE ls!MA in earlier levels than LH III C. The Cretan grey ware has clear South Italian relations, and some exampies of Submycenaean example is the shoulder-handled amphora from Kerarneikos SM Grave N 1'2011966 (rnentioned here with the kind permission of Prof. Willemsen). The relationship between these vases and the Balkan Knobbed and Gdva wares (above 11.5 and 11.7) is only very distant and the idea of a "female" vase with breasts was already present in the Early Bronze Age Face Urns and in the Phylakopi jugs.3t This idea may have enjoyed sorne modest popularity outside the Mycenaean centres and reappeared under the influence of Balkan and European Late Bronze Age Knobbed Wares. Professor Hood, this ware also comes Painted vases with this plastic decoration also started in LH III C. I have discussed this question elsewhere32 (cf . Fig. 94:7) and it would be supperfluous here to list the new finds, which are many, the first items frorii early III C (Iria) and more common in succeeding phases. Several of the amphoras have little ears for fastening the lid instead Several vessels from Vergina are decorated with linear incisions reminiscent of the Vardar valley style in Early trron Age Yugoslavia (Andronikos, Verginal, 197f. fig. 38:A II, AA 9, cf. Bouzek, Pam. arch. 65 197 4, 317 tig.15 : 7-10), but there is another group which interests us more; it is known mainly from the Petsas sector: Ph. Petsas, Arch. Delt. L7 (1963) Chr. pl. 94 beta, 115 ; Andronikos, Vergin a I, 19! fig. 38 : A 13. Cf. Bouzek, Hanerisches Griechenland {1969),68 fig. 27.Here Fig. 93 :7,I1. The jugs (both one- and two-handled, taller and low) with rows of sloping strokes on the rim and of knobs and their shape may have been inspired by non-ceramic vessels; in addition to the amphoras and amphoriskoi alrea.iy.mentioned, this group includes angular amphoriskoi FS 98-99, hydriai, the trefoil-mouthed oenochoe FS 137-8, which first appears in the Granary stage (Rutter, Dark Ages1977,p.4-stage 4) and some cups (EireneS 1970, lA4-107). Belly-handled and shoulderhandled amphoras, oenochoe, hydria, jug and cups maintained the tradition of breast-knobs until Late Geometric, with a Protogeornetric gap, when plastic decoration was probably substituted by concentric circles. dnother continuity was in the Vergina ware (Bouzek, Eirene 8 197 0, 107-9).'Ihe stress on the female character of some of these vessels is confirmed by their use33 and the hand-made jugs (pl. 1a:3) and hydriai are regular offerings in women's graves. On the other hand, this anthropomorphic meaning of vessels is one of the first signs of the Greek anthropomorphisation of the entire world. 11.9. Grey wheel - made ware The finds of this ware from Chania were discussed by Mrs. Hallager in her contribution to the Convegno della Societd Magna Grecia, Tarent 1981. In Knossos, according to kind information of grey wheel-made ware from Mycenae and Tiryns may also have Italic relations, though the majority of its is Minyan, related to the Trojan Ware, similarly as analogous finds from Cyprus and the Levant.3a 11"10. Vergina Incised Warc and similar decoration in Greece between neck and shoulder tletrong to an early stage of the cemetery, though perhaps not to the earliest, since the Mycenaean- type angular alabastlon and the fluted pottery (above III. tr tr.4, cf. Fig. 93 : 5-6) may have been earlier. Grave C Delta also contained a bronze sword of a late variant of the Sprockhoff IIa type (Fig. 93 : 12) ; the very lirnited number of rivets and the double blood channel recall the Balkan type Donja l)olina (cf.III.2.I.4 D). The most probabie date for this group is the late 1lth-1Oth centuries B.C. The best northern parallel to these vessels come from the Devetaki Cave in North Bulgaria (Fig. 93 :8, Mikov-Djarnbazov, La grotte de Devetaki, Sofia '1,959,121-3 fig. 91) ; other vessels with sirnilar decoration come from Cephalenia and southern Yugoslavia.35 The bands with rows of incised strokes on Mycenaean III C kraters (beginning in the Granary, or Rutter 4 stage) may perhaps have been inspired by the Barbarian Ware already (Rutter, Dark Ages 1977,6; AIA79 19'75,29), but there may have been some influence of this decorative t:I .a irlr{l ,IHE xxlxl RELATIONS OF'THE LAT'E MYCEI{AEAN CULIIJRE style (perhaps transmitted thrcugh ncn-ceramic vessels) on some Subnaycenaean vases frcrm Athens36 and on Cretan Incised pottery (belovr IIL I 1 " 15). Painted vessels with this decoration are rare (I-efkarrdi, Fopham-Sackett, Exc. at Le{kandi, t968, fig. 59; Karphi, Seiradaki, BSA 55 1960, 29-3A) and l-aconian Protogeometric only uses incised lines, not the rows of strokes (Arnykiai, v. Massow, AM 52 1927, 49 ff., pls. 4-12).but some finer hand-rnade pottery of the "euitivateel leather bag ware" (belaw IiI.11.11) aisn uses strokes sirnilar either to Submycenaean Attic hand-made pyxidae (Iil,11.i4) or to the Vergina incised ware (cf, Bouzek, Op.Arfr. I 1969,45-55). A group of fluted kantharr:i and bowis with thickened rim from Vergina (,Andronikos, Vergina I, 185-190, figs. 3S-3f ) may have been related to the h{acedonian I-ausitz Ware ({iL11.4), but there are als{r similar ftruted kantharoi frorn Eosnia and Aibania (rrr.1 i.3). In general, however, the Vergina cernetery differs in many points frcm the Lorver Axius sites, like Vardarophtsa aild Kastanas, and both the cist graves and bronzes from Vergina recall the Subin]/c{:naean cemeteries rn Sr*ece (cf . Bouzek, "F/oni. #rree.frenland 1,969. 93--t]5: Ap. .4r&. S X959, 56). trts civilisaticn seems to me to ire nluch nc; arer to Centrai and Southern Gieeee tir*n gener* r"liy sripposed (cf. Andronik*s, Vc:t'gina {, 28S-E5; Sctracherrneyr" iV 198i1, 293*-99) "tF and theretore the idcntificatipn ,af Vergina wittr Aigai b3: I{ammcnd m*ry weil be sounel {fu{aceri*nia l, 1955, 156-8). The beginning of Vergina in tlae 11th century B"C. {Eouzek. Ffurn. Grjec&en}and X"969, 58; Hammond, fu{acedonta {, 385; Schachermeyr, AF- fV, tr9E0, 298) stillsreirs tc me more probabie than the late date suiggesl.ed by D esbcrc ugh { &a* Ag*s 1 97 7, 217 ) a rrei Sncii grass (flark Agl: 1971, 132, 254 ff ; cf. also Op. ,4th. 9 i 969, \1".11 "48 nc,te . 33). 45-52, Ftromerisctrtes Griechenland L969, Il2-1.15), but the name tr-eather Bag Ware 1969, iledersackware) is Schachermeyr's (zdFIV 1980, passim). These vases forrn a heterogenous family, even their fabric differs. Thanks to the finer chronology of LH InI C, the beinnings of this ware can now best be placed in the Granary phase (Rutter 4, cf. Hesp. 48 1979,391 and Da:* Agesp. 3f.). It is later than the Peloponnesian Barbarian Ware. Tfie Attic and Central Greek vessels are usually cf sandy elay with wash striated vertically by fingertips or spatula. The cclour usually varies from dark brown tcr grey {tire surface is mottled), it is sometin'les pcie grey or pale brown, and in rare cases pale or grey only. T'he most cornmon shapes are little jugs" amphoriskos, hydria, pyxis and semicir- cular hcwi. This ware was commonly used for simple bousehr:ld purposcs. Athens. Rutter, ,Ffesp. 48 (1979) 391; later Keramer&os I, pl. 25 and Ker. IV, pl 28. Fl. 14:3. Delphi. Lerat, SC.}{61 (1937) pl. 8. Fig. 94:5. Ric,n. I. {}e}<oulakou, Arck. gf. (1973) E 1Sff . fig. I, pls" 1fi---11. dl. Vatin, t*fddeane de Fh.*citle,61 ff. fig" 61. Weiriberg. Carinff: Vtrtr*-l, pt. iI:14-15. h.{yr:enae. Desborough, ES'A 68 (1973) 87-101 pls" 32, 34. Frridin.-Persson, As-ine, 427 figs. 275-76, '279-"8*, p.262 fig. 218: 1-2. Cos" Morricone, Bo11.d'arte 35 (1950) 319 fig. 90 {Serraglic}. Lefkandi e"g. BSA 77 {1982) 215 pl. 15:13-15. The iist is not exhaustive; there are some partial1y published or unpublisireei pieces frona Ecreotia in Mus" Thebe-s, from Aehaea in Mus. Fatras, from near P_vlos in Mus" Chcra, frcm Delpihi in Ndus. Delphi and frcm different piaces in Nat. Mus" Aihens, eic. 'fhrs ware deserves a special study. The East Peloponnesian ware is mostly pale and ol finei ciar'. the incised deeoration tr-eatker Eag Ware, Serlm ycenaean co'tking profs and ather related vessels In nly previous pilbiieations, tr have siressed the connection of these vesseis with the fufacecionian Vergina ware, with non-ceramie models and with soryle new shapes ct painted vases (Cpus cuia Ath.9 197 is not rare here, and the h,r,driai, amphoriskoi and jugs cften have n'arr's (cf . Opuscula Ath.9 1969, 45-52). Xn the \i'estern Peloponnese and in the western part of Centrai Greece. the vessels resemble leattaer baes and gourd vessels more closely than in the east. The vessels irom Cos iesemble the Argive ware, but aiso suppcsed non-ceramic inodels. The incised 198 J, BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE hand-made wares from Athens, Crete and Naxos are also related (III.11. 1.5-17, cf. also 11-1,2). The non-ceramic models can best explain its re- lation to the Vergina pottery, and also interrelations of local groups of this ware in different parts of Greece; not all of them seem to have existed solely within the pottery tradition. ll.l2. The Submycenaean "bucchero" One interesting subgroup of the ware discussed in the preceding chapter may be called Submycenaean bucchero. The vessels are of fine grey to black clay with core of similar colour. A pyxis from Kerameikos grave SM 77 and a plate from Agora grave 14 can be mentioned as examples of this ware from Athens; Kerameikos I, 37, 7 4, pl. 25, inv. 491. Pl. L5 :2. Agora P 6835. Hesp.6 (L937) 367 fig.30. Cf. also the amphoriskos Kerameikos I, pl. 20, inv. 469 from grave SM 108 and the trefoil-mouthed oenochoe from Salamis, NM Athens 3666, Wide, AM 35 (1910) 26.6 ; Styrenius, Op. Ath.4 (1962) pl. 1. ISIMA Cypriot vessels are Trojan. As Sinclair Hood pointed out, there is a similarity between the Kaloriziki bowls with incised zigzags and Blegen type A 101 of Trojan Knobbed Ware (Hood, in: The Mycenaeans in the Eastern Mediterranean, Nicosia 1973, 47t.; Blegen et alii, TroylY,1.63t., 209 pL.259,37 : 1011). As against Anatolian (Trojan) relations, those with Greece are less close (tripod bowls from Eleusis, Isis Grave, and Agora pyxis P 14873, below III.ll.l4).37 A general resemblance exists between the Kaloriziki and Leather Bag Ware amphoriskoi (Hood, o.c.p.47 ; Daniel, AJA 41 1937 ,72 pl. VI: T 5 : 10), but only one vessel shows a close resemblance with Attic Submycenaean pyxidae: Idalion, Ayios Gheorgos no. 16. Karageorghis, Nouveaux documents pour I'6tude du Bronze R6- cent d Chypre (Paris 1965) 190, fig. 46 and p. 146f.;Bouzek, ADAIW (1974) 35 tig.14. Best comparable is the pyxis from Kerameikos SM graveTT (here Pl. 15:2,cf. below III.11.14). 11.14. Attic Submycenaean hand-made pyxidae The "bucchero" also appears later in Attica (e.g. in the Isis Grave) and has parallels from Delphi, This group has been thoroughly discussed elseLefkandi and elsewhere. Courbin (La cdramique where (Bouzek, ADAIW I974,4f. fig. 1.). Two g6om6trique d'Argolide, Paris 1966, 72f .) dates all examples come from the Kerameikos cemetery, Argive hand-made dark monochrome vessels to the end of the Geometric period, but the dark class seems to be represented also among the Protogeometric finds from the Argolid. The following group is related. 11.1.3. Daniel's Black Slip Incised Ware from Cyprus one from the Athenian Agora and two comparable lids from Salamis and Rhodes: Kerameikos SM grave 77 , inv. 491. Ker.L,3l,74 pl.25.Pl. 15:2. Kerameikos, SM grave 113, inv. 2168. Smithson, Hesperia 30 (1961) 1.76'pl.31. Agora P L4873, from a well near Klepsydra. Hesperia30 (1961) 174 pl.3A. AM 35 (1910) 29 tig. t9; Op. Ath. (i963) 115 pl.8:3605. Lindos I, no.24 pl. 3. Salamis, The Black Slip Incised Ware from the Kalorziki cemetery and the Bamboula settlement is black with light (dusky to reddish) stains: Daniel, AIA 4l (1937) 72-7 5; AIA 42 (1938) 267 ; J. L. Benson, RDAC (1970) 36f. ; The Necropolis of Kaloriziki, Goteborg 1973 (SIMA36), 118f. pI.39. Daniel argued for a Cypriot origin, which might be true for Cypriot finds, but hardly for Aegean Greece (above IIIJl.l2). Some relations of this 4 The fluting of the second and third pieces resembles the Macedonian Lausitz and similar primitive wares (cf.IILfi.a); some parallels can be found in the Balkans (Fig.9a: 11-13).38 These shapes were never too common in clay, however, and were probably imitations of non-ceramic suspension vessels. Suspension vessels were common for ex. in the Cycladic Early Bronze Age, and may have xxul b.4 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE remained popular in wood along the northern periphery of the Mycenaean sphere, as suggested by a suspension vessel on feet from Metaxata in clay (Arch. Ef . 1933 , 87 fig. 34 : 11) and the early popularity of bronze pyxis pendants in Macedonia and Epirus (Bouzek, Graeco-Macedonian Bronzes 197 4,24-8 and Eirene 18 1982,37 , 41, 47). 199 Kerameikos inv. 491 (lid) and 2168 (the whole vesel) are of dark red clay covered with black wash ; several Athenian Leather Bag Ware vessels are of the same fabric (III.11.11). The grey body of Kerameikos inv. 491 is probably imported; it belongs to the "bucchero" fablic (III.11.12) and also has a parallel from Cyprus (III.11.13). 6af.y ril * \o'gl l,+.*i* W 2 3 l 12 R lL Frg. 98. Attic Protogeometric hand-made idols and their Balkan parallels. 1--4 Kerameikos, pG graves 33 and 4g,5 Dalj,6 Vriac, 7 Dupljaja (figurine standing on a chariot), 8 Kavin, 9, 1 1 Ostrowl Mare, 10 Nea Ionia. Atter Brsvek L97 4. and,1,2 200 J. 1 1 .1 5. BOUZEK, TFIE AEGE,{N, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE Karphi lncised Ware Cretan Incised Ware is mainly known from the settlement of Karphi. One imported vesel of this ware was found during the Dikaios'excavations at Enkomi, Cypnis (Seiradaki, BSA 55 1.96A,14 fig. 9 : 10 ; Dikaios, .Enkomipl.95 :25 (84)). It is a fine ware, more sophisticated than most of the contem- porary unpainted wares in Greece. The incised decoration is also combined with painted ornament on some Subminoan and later Cretan vases. 71.76. Naxos Incised Ware F. Papadopoulos, Arcft. Delt.18 (1963) Chr. p. 279f.; Arch. DelL 20 1965 (1968), Chr. pp. 515-552, pls. 650-653 "Geometric" incised pottery from Naxos seems to be a variant of Late Protogeometric Geo- - metric painted pottery using this primitive technique. The shapes (neck-handled amphora, handle- less "amphora" on three legs, oenochoe, jug, stand) are all paraltreled in painted pottery and some Geometric painted vessels come from the same graves. No exact parallels can be found, but some pithoi from Vergina may perhaps be related; the Naxian periboloi find analogies in the Vergina tumuli. The three-legged pithoi are paralleled in the Incised Ware from Eleusis and the lid with an animal (Arch. Delt.20, Chr. p. 521 tig. 19) seems to be of Attic inspiration. 71.17. "Attic" Dark Age Incised Ware Since this ware has been dealt with monographically in my study The Attic Dark Age Incised Ware (abbr. ADAIW, Sbornik Naf. Mus. Prague A28 (1974) no. 1) and in anadenduminListyfil 102 7979,8-11, a brief summary may be sufficient here. This ware consists of bell-shaped dolls with legs hung on a cord (pls. 15:3-4,L6:1-2, Fig. 98 :l-4, 10), pyxidae with holes for suspension to fasten the lid (Pl. 16 :3-5) and of globular and whorl-shaped beads. The dolls are known from Athens and Lefkandi (for the latter now Lefkandi I, pL.269\, plxidae from Athens and Phaestus (Pl. lstMA 1.4:1.), while a suspension vessel from trdalion in Cyprus and a lid from Lindos in R"hodes show closer links to the Submycenaean forerunners of Attic Incised pyxidae than to the Incised Ware proper. Beads are known frorn Attica, Crete, Lefkandi, Rhodes and Delos. With some possible exceptions, this ware comes from the cremation burials of ladies and girls, and was apparentl_v rnade just for this purpose, to replace the wooden moctrels used by the living. Nevertheless, this ware, and especially the idols, show a strong similarity with the Central Balkan group of incised pottery, calledZuto Brdo etc. (Fig. 98 : 5-9, 11). The last stage of this group, dated by bronzes in Br D - Ha A I, i.e. c. 1200-1 100 8"C., also uses circles instead of spirals, and even meanders, as shown e.g. in Balej near Yidin (Listy fil. 102 t979, 8f., cf. Hdnsel, Hallstattzeit 1.976, pl. 6:17), and there is one fragment published by Hdnsel, Hallstattzeit d1976) 211 pls. 24:19 and 7A:2, fram Ljubenovo in the Marica valiey, and interpreted by him as a fragment of such an idol. Even the stamped and incised Bulgarian pottery of the final Bronze Age (P5enidevo group in Hdnsel's terminology) shows many similarities both with the Protogeometric painted ornaments and with the Attic Incised Ware (cf. Bouzek, Listyfil.IA21979, 8 and Hzinsel, Hall,stattzeit tr97 6, 27Lt. tig. 6 from Ovdarevo). New finds showing some kind of extension of this Bulgarian group southwards come from the vicinity of Drama (several burials uncovered at Potamoi and at Exochi, D. Grammenos, Arch. Ef . (1979),8 26-7A, pls. IA-I@). Though the resemblances between the Balkan and the "Attic" Incised Wares were most probably transmitted by wooden vessels, tlaskets and textiles, and they seem to have been connected with a particular religious funeral tradition, of which cremation formed a part, more likely than with a large-scaie population movement, the existence of the "Attic" Dark Age Incised Ware shows 1 Oth or 1 1th century B.C. contacts with the central Balkans. The link is also important for the explanation of the first, often dotted, meander on Transitional and Early Geometric pottery. Milojdid saw its nnodels in the central Balkans (AA1948-49,37f . fig.4), and there are more dotted meanders frorn the last phase of the Cirna Zuto Brdo culture.3e Incised and - x,Yul t,4 t THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE incrusted rneanders also existed in the Appenine culture (e.g" H. Trump, Central and Southern Italy before Rome, London 1966, pls.48,50-51; S. Puglisi, La civilth appeninica,Firenze 1959, tig. 24 p. 68), but, according to what we know of the Attic Incised pottery links, a Balkan origin for the dotted meander is much more probable. The meandroid ornaments on the Bobousti painted pottery are less specific and of a less certain date (cf. Heurtley, BSA 28 (1926_27) 158 ff., esp. fig. 24), bumheir possible transmitting role must also be taken into consideration. Since concentric and segmented circles are also common in incised wares from western Bulgaria, they too may have been a source of inspiration for Protogeometric potters, who established the first true Greek - while using them - must artistic style. All these motifs have had some religious meaning; they were not just a result of artistic indulgence, and the solar (Apollonic) and cyclic vegetation cults (like that at Eleusis, embracing the cyclic change of life and death) are among the most plausible candidates. But, of course, it is very difficult to reach reliable conclusions in this field" The 2,uto Brdo culture was replaced by fluted and knobbed wares (G6va-derived) in its original territory, and the South Bulgarian pienidevo (Raskopanica) pottery partly follows its traditions.a0 11.18. Other incised wares Another type of hand-made incised ware in Attica is Late Geometric in date and is only mentioned here because it might be confused with earlier wares. It is richly represented at Eleusis and Anavysos, and is also known from Athens.41 Similar vessels come from Boeotia. The decoration uses incised iines and stamped zigzags made by a sirnilar, or perhaps by the same type of implement as the zigzags on the 8th century B.C. bronze sheets.a2 1I.19. Changes in the painted pottery and the influence of non-ceramic yessels of organic materials The Barbarian Ware, which appeared in Greece 201 during the next generation after the destruction of the Mycenaean citadels, had little influence on the painted pottery (cf. III. 1 1 . 1 ), but rhe basic change from Mycenaean to Iron Age shapes took place during LH III C, beginning in its early phase (Iria), making great strides during the Granary phase, and almost completed by Submycenaean times. I have tried to show elsewhere (Opuscula Ath. g 1969, 45-55) that most of the new shapes reveal traces of non-ceramic vessels of leather, gourds, baskets, wooden containers etc. Since r1tost archaeologists nowadays are unable or unwillin! to see beneath the "skin depth" of their evidence, this attempt has not been understood and remained nearly unnoticed, as has an earlier inspiring article concerning the origins of the Geometric style by Homer (AIA 58 1948,288), which only came to my notice after I had published the Opuscula Thompson Atheniensia article. Schachermeyr alone, with his broader historical knowledge, and another historian, Hammond, have well understood this problem, since thefu attitude has not been distorted by archaeological overspecialisation (cf. Fig. 94:4, 8-10, 14-16). The influence of non-ceramic wares, baskets and textiles, is equally clear in the decorative systems, which often imitate the binding of non-ceramic vessels and baskets. This influence starts early in LH III C, with the painted bowls whose decoration imitates baskets from Korakou and lthaca,a3 and with the LH III C powder pyxis FS 12 (cf . Opuscula Ath.9 1969, 54f.), while the Leather Bag Ware shapes with rounded bottoms mark the more common appearance of this impact in the Granary phase. This influence accomplished its role in the Protogeometric style, and was often rnore apparent in the Dorian Peloponnese and in Western Greece than in Athens, where the style became more sophisticated and the primitive elements less easy to decipher. These non-ceramic vessels, together with some leather-bag shapes, were the Northwest Greek and Dorian wares in the true sense, as the problem (cf. already Opuscula Ath. 9 1969, 55); the connection of Dorians with Bobousti and Lianokladhi, as suggested by Schachermeyr (AF IV 1980, 27l_Zgg, 382-41.6), though pointing in the same direction, seems to me to be too much of a short-cut, even if I understand 202 J.BOUZEK, THEAEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE his general historical conclusions are in most re- III.15.l1 and IV.1). The looped double handles of twin vessels known from LH III C and Submycenaean pottery spects excellent (cf. below, are paralleled in hand-made wares from southern Yugoslavia and Albania (cf' e.g' Dobraca, Fig' 94:2), but their inspiration was also probably a non-ceramic one, as was that for the doublelooping handles of vessels like kraters and bellyhandled amphoras, which show a continuity throughout the Dark Age (Oakeshot, JHS 86 ISIMA second "wave" of newcomers, were mainly simple pastoralists using non-ceramic vessels like the modern Vlachs, and these vessels, together with their textiles and baskets, seem to have been the main source of inspiration for Greek potters during the later part of the period which interests us here. 11.20. Symbolic representations on LH III C painted pottery 1966, 114-132} Triple vessels and warts on painted vessels may also be mentioned here (cf. III.11.8, III.10.7 and Eirene I 1970,101-120). Nevertheless, it is beyond any doubt that the old workshops went on producing painted pottery throughout the Dark Age, and a stylistic continuity from one stage to another can be traced over the whole period. The literary tradition of Dorian communities seems to suggest that here also the ceramic workshops were run by descendants of a pre-Dorian population.aa Less civilised tribes invading a more civilized territory have never brought much of their own pottery with them, if they have been able to make use of the skills of the craftsmen of the old population whom they have subjugated' The Germanic tribes in France, Italy and Spain, the Bulgars in Bulgaria, the Celts in Anatolia and many other barbarians have behaved in the same or a similar way after having subjugated a country with a more sophisticated civilisation. It is only natural therefore that primitive ceramic wares were only produced on the periphery of the Greek world or for special purposes connected with the kitchen (Barbarian, Leather Bag Wares) or religion (Attic Incised Ware). The taste of the barbarian newcomers could find expression in a change of artistic style, but their artistic One question still remains. The first barbarians of non-Greek descent, the bearers of the Barbarian Ware and these who introduced European weapons, armour and dress-fasteners into Greece, and who, according to Schachermeyr, established new kingdoms there, probably inspired two or three new shapes of painted pottery (cf. IIL11. 1, III. 11.19 and III. 11. 21). But had they no influence whatever on the pictorial decoration of Mycenaean III C pottery? Some specialists now deny this possibility, among them especially H. Matthdus.as Matthiius is certainly right in stressing the coherence of Mycenaean painting tradition. New ideas and new iconographic elements had to be eipressed through the medium of the stylistic traditions of Mycenaean vase painting. the coherence of the potters'traditions was also probably supported by the new "barbarian" lords, if we explain the state of affairs after the late 13th century B.C. destructions in the way that Schachermeyr (AFIV (1980) 38-163) and several other have: barbarians founding the legitimacy of their rule on claims to continuity with ancient states and dynasties, like e.g. Theodoric in Ravenna, must act in such a manner. where the old tradition was strong: the Noble The second argument of Matthiius, the concept of a local tradition of bird protomae in the Aegean, is very feeble (cf . III. 10.2). Except in Early Bronze Age Anatolia and in the Iranian area, the sun with birds, bird boats and bird protomae, are almost unknown, and long gaps between the few isolated Wares of middle III C are an early example of this, and Athens became the leading artistic centre later' The Dorians and the Northwest Greeks, who were the largest and most influential groups in the was some ancient Indoeuropean tradition behind these representations, they can hardly have much to do with the sudden popularity of these motifs in views were stylized by old workshops and the new pottery itself was always the result of a compromise between the old local tradition and the new lords' Moreover the new style was formulated in places n n0 : examples cannot easily be discounted. Even if there 16 g!" ts x,Yrxl irs THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE LH III C, contemporary with the activities of the Sea Peoples in the Aegean area. The connection between the Perati knife and a comparable European group were not necessarily only one way (above III.10). Mycenaean influences in Europe, which Matthiius has beqn able to trace with great skill in his Mykenische Bronzegetdsse, do not exclude other connections, where the roles of the giver and the receiver were reversed, and there is plenty of evidence to confirm the existence of these, as Merhart, Miljodid, Kimmig and others have already shown. Most of the motifs in question appear on embossed bronze sheet (in simple repouss6 techni- que) and on objects (parts of armour, diadems) with apparent European connections. It is therefore natural to search for the European background of the same or similar motifs on painted pottery, as I have attempted to do elsewhere (Eirene 8 1970, 93-101). Even more can be gleaned in this field, with the help of a study of Central European, Balkan and even Nordic Symbolgut, for the last of which Sprockhoff,s excellent study Nordische Bronzezeit und friihes Gilechenfum is a good starting point (cf. III.10). The bird-boat (Vogelbarke) 1. Tiryns. Slenczka, i I : I 6 c L rrt [B fi xst Bd tfB md s rin in TirynsVII (1974),29f. no. 45 pl. 39:I e; Matthiius, Arch. Korrbl. 10 (1980) 319 ft. fig. 1 and pl. 53 : 1. Fig. 88 :6. Slenczka has already noticed the similarity with European Vogelbarke and, though there are differences in execution, this comparison may well be sound; a similar motif also appears on sheet bronze in primitive repoussd in Greece (III.10). 2. Skyros. E. Vermeule , Greece in the Bronze Age (1e64). tig. 43 t. 3. Enkomi. Vermeule, o.c. pl.22 A. 4. A clay model from Asine in the Nauplion Museum. 203 head prow in the Medinet Habu reliefs cf. below, il1.15.2. Bird protomae and sun symbols: L. Ialyssos, pyxis with rosettes and bird protomae. ASAtene 617, 125 tig. 43 (NT 17:51). Mat_ thdus, Arcft. Korrbt. 10 (1980) pt. 54:1. Fig. 86 :5. Bird protomae isolated : Furtwtingler-Loeschcke, Mykenische Vasen pls. 35-36 from Mycenae and Tiryns (three of them also reproduced by Matthiius , o.c.pl. 53). 2. Morricone, ASAtene 43/44 (1965166) tl9 tig. 1. 101. In these instances the bird protomae are more integrated into the repertory of Mycenaean motifs. As in the case of the simple repouss6 diadem from Pylos (III.6.4), they give new dimensions to Mycenaean decoration. The birds on the octopus jars with "menagerie" representations and with a.nimals attacking each other (cf. Schachermeyr, ApM,980,124-163) may also reflect this new barbarian taste.a6 Furumark's motifs 17 (rosette) , 27 (sea ane_ mone), 41 (circles) and 43 (isolated semicircles) were held by him (Analysis t9 4I, 283, 3 L7 f ., 3 3 6f ., 341-347) to be derivatives of earlier motifs, but, in LH III B 2 and early III C, they appear as the only motifs of decoration on skyphoi (cf. Rutter, Dark Ages 1977, p. 1 tig. q and they must have been considered ones of special significance. The meaning of similar motifs in prehistoric Europe was usually solar, and they must have been regarded as such at least by the barbarian intruders into the Mycenaean world (cf. Bouzek, Eirene e8-100). g 1970, The antithetic spiral (Furumark Mot. 50) is of apparent popularity on LH III C pottery, and many variants of its were evolved (cf. Schachermeyr, AF IV 1980, 88-93 wirh figs. 20-23); it resembles The Lefkandi amphoriskos with griffons and bird's nest (Popham-Sackett, Exc. at Lefkandi (1968), cover, reproduced many times, most a very popular European motif related to the recently by Schachermeyr, AF IV (1980) pl. 30 Vogelbarke (Sprockhoff , Jb. RGZM Mainz I ab) represents a different subject, but it is an iconographic novelty, which mighthave beeninspired by a similar "Vogelbarke". For the boats with bird's L954, 49 ff . with fig. 10), which was quite common on Central European full grip swords (cf. Bouzek, Eirene 8 1970, 101). J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE ISIMA / Lo o.fou, ..,.o"{'}h 't'"--r,;} ,o a iLi,{} e -.l-.(>\a r s L+) 2\-|. \r./,4 ' -(.rll^r,,'1,!f \rJ)n\' iffi JX" !'t ''-. Q-V '.",7rt-i-t;t 'F j1:"'1. -.t'-rl-\l-" )-t .L.'>,- \ ' 'i -1. I J qu B no gN € -+qJn 4 I I I T h ------\:* F----J\ n... 1,\ k@ry, 4 C q &o {i if j xxul ll.2l. THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIUR.E Hemispherical bowls of clay and bronze 20s variety, they appear in Attic Dark Age Incised ADAIW 1974,11-14). Painted hemispherical bowls imitating the former are known from Late Protogeometric and Early Geometric contexts, and there are also little hand-made bowls, with the interior decorated with a coarsely painted star or cross; these have similar Ware (Bouzek, A. Bronze Hemispherical bronze bowls are known from the Tiryns treasury, from the & Submycenaean cemeteries in Salamis and in the Kerameikos, and from Crete (Tiryns trehsure, Karo, AM 55 1930, 134 no. 6226 g. pl. 36 : 2, diam, c. 16 cm ; Salamis, Styrenius, Opuscula Ath. 4 1962, 115 pl. 4 no. NM 3606; KerameiJ<os IV, pl. 38 ; Brock, Fortetsa, 200). They seem to have started in Greece with the examples from the Tiryns hoard.a? Many hemispherical bowls with thickened or sometimes stilted rims are known from Cyprus. A large group of them has been found at Enkomi, and others at various Cypriot sites (Bamboula, Dhali, Episkopi, Kition, Kouklia, Lapithos, Pyla-Steno, cf. H. Catling, Apuscula Ath. 2 1.955, 32, and Bronzework 1964, 147f.; Courtois, in Alasia II, Paris 1981, 27 5, 277, 27 9f ., figs. 165f., 168). Parallels come from the Gelidonya shipwreck, from Tarsus, Megiddo, Hama and Tell tsarsib (Bass, Gelidanya Shipwreck 1,967, lA6 ff. no. B 169 figs. 116-717 ; Tarsusll, pl.433:270; Riis, Hama lI-3, 136f.; Thureau-Daugin and Dussaud, Til Barsib pl. 28:3 ; Megiddo, Beth Peletll, 10). They were common drinking vessels at the time of the destructions and of the Sea Peoples, and may have been used by them. As they are similar in shape to the earliest European cap helmets (like Oggiono), they may have been employed in a similar manner (cf. above III.1.2.A 7,IUJ.2.8 3). B. Clay The ceramic hemispherical cup FS 215 of LH III C may have been inspired by the hemispherical bowl in bronze; it is new in the Mycenaean world (above III.11"1 and Rutter, Dark Ages 1977, note 19). pierced holes, and seem to have been the successors of earlier hand-made bowls (ADAIW 1974,44t.). 12. FUNERAL RITES 12.1. Cist graves (Fig. 99 : 1, distribution Fig. 100) The tirne gap between the Middle Helladic and Submycenaean cist graves in Greece is partly bridged by individual skeleton burials in simple earth graves without a cist (e.g. in Eleusis) and by several genuine cist graves of Late Helladic date. But the early existence of Late Helladic cist graves in Northwestern and Northern Greece, where other Middle Helladic traditions (like the mattpainted pottery) also persisted, makes a modified version of Desborough's theory still plausible: their spread, respectively re-appearance, may have been connected with the Dorian (and Northwest Greek ?) movement southwards.l Cist graves were also in use in Late Bronze Early Iron Age Macedonia, mainly in groups under barrows, but several of them are said to have been without any trace of a tumulus.2 In the northern Balkans and in Central Europe cist graves were common during the Early Bronze Age, but there they disappeared later. The Dorians certainly buried their dead in cist graves in the Peloponnese and on Cos, but, as the Athenian cerneteries show us, cist graves were also used by some Ionians, and Cretan Dorians kept to the traditional rock-cut 7 tombs. The return from chamber tombs to individual burials can be understood as the response to Clay bowls of hand-made ware, with two pierced an impoverished society with much simplified holes below the rim, are known frorn Protogeometric and Early Geometrib graves at Asine, Corinth, Argos and Cosa8 and, in a more ornate social stratification, and the absence of weapons in graves to the fact that they were badly needed in the conditions of warfare which prevailed ; but the cists Fig. 99.Burial.types (1-4) and simple architecture in Submycenaean and Protogeometric Greece. 1 and 3 Submycenaean cist tomb and Protogeometric cremation burial, Kerameikos, 2 and 4 Vergina tumuli with cist graves, 5 Early Geometric house or enclosure, Athenian Agora, 6 Ancient Smyrna, Protogeometric house, 7-9 Cretan Protogeometric house models. After Bouzek 1969. 206 J.BouzEK, THEAEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND are more likely to reflect the pride of free men, not subjected to a bureaucratic system. In any case the cist graves need not have been derived from a country far away to the north of Central Greece. EUROPE TSIMA Age (Tumulus culture) in Central Europe and the northern Balkans are more distant relations.s Numbers of skeleton burials under a single barrow, often in stone cists, in the western part of the central Balkans, are reminiscent of the Vergina and Exalophos tumuli; but many Protogeometric graves in Greece were also originally under barrows (e.g. Asine).6 The circular and rectangular enclosures known from Naxos and from Assarlik in Caria could have been covered by mounds of earth originally, but they rather seem to represent a specific development in Aegean Greece. The recently discovered two rich burials at Lefkandi, with a templeJike heroon and a barrow over the whole structure, provides a new glimpse into the Heroic Age. Tumuli with cremations will be discussed in the next paragraph. 12.2. Tumuli and circular enclosutes (Fig.99:2,4) Some tumuli and circular grave enclosures are known from the Middle Helladic; they may have been predecessors of the Mycenaean tholoi (above, I.5.3).3 The Vergina tumuli (Fig. 99 :2,4) resemble similar barrows from the Illyrian part of the Balkans dating from the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages, i.e. from Albania, Yugoslav Macedonia and southern Bosnia.a Barrows of the Middle Bronze t1 t2 r3 ox/ ,l 0" \ ; t -U ; d "r4\ l"\ \) $ o 9"/ \ -rd' no //= aYo t .aJ G D 4 Ary D c?ot t) t)o ft L * """# f,l r) D lh,, ln ,; 'a t, ( F"". I.el .( rr-! J-J(:.dr 4, Fig. 100. Early cist graves in Greece. only. After Bouzek 1969. 1 LH III B, 2 LH III C, 3 Submycenaean, 4 with hand-made pottery, 5 with hand-made pottery 5€3 5u-*i xxul THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE 12.3. Cremation The origin of cremation rite in Greece is one of the most difficult problems of the Greek Dark Age, and no certain solution has been found as yet. The map Fig. 101 shows that a number of early cremations occurred in different parts of Greece, but theyonlybecame common itAttica and Boeotia, on several Aegean islands and in Crete (Fig. 99:3). Most of these parts of Greece are also linked by the occurence of "Attic" Incised Hand-Made pottery and bell-shaped dolls (above III.1 Cremation became common in Athens only gradually and this rite could therefore not have been brought there suddenly by a large group of immigrants. Since it was practically unknown in Mycenaeen Greece, a derivation from abroad seems to be a more plausible suggestion than possible local invention.? Cremation has virtually no eastern models. The Troy VI cemetery is much earlier, the description of the burial rites of the Hittite kings is both distant in space and different in character,and the Syrian urn-fields only begin after the invasion of the Sea Peoples.8 Cremations are rare in the Iflyrian territory of southern Yugoslavia and Albania,e but they 1 . 17). were the rule in the Central European Urnfield cultures. They spread over Italy from the north with the Protovillanovan culture and with the Urnfield fluted wares to the South Balkan cultures.r0 What is still more important, cremation was also the rule in the Central Danubian group (Zuto Brdo Cirna),ll where the Attic Protogeometric In-cised Ware and its insular relatives likewise find their best analogies (cf.IIL17.I7). The inspiration for Greek cremation burials may well have come therefore from the same region as the Dark Age Incised pottery; both may have been the reflection of a religious movement transmitted across Thrace from the Balkans, Iike the Dionysiac mysteries later. Greek Protogeometric, Homeric and Central European burial customs connected with the cremation in urns under barrows have many other ritual phenomena in common. The prothesis of the dead and the mourning, the four-wheeled waggons carrying the dead to the grave, the distinction between the shapes of urns for male and female burials, and later offerings (libations) on the grave, 20'7 are all traits in common and are too numerous to be merely the result of chance, especially when the best European parallels come from the territory just east of the Alps, where many parallels for l2th-l7th century Aegean weapons, armour and personal ornaments were found.12 13. ARCHITECTURE As has been demonstated during the last two decades, there is a greatvariety of protogeometric and Geometric house-types in Greece, and most of them show a clear local tradition. But the oval plan of some houses (Athens, OId Smyrna, Fig. 99:5-6, Eretria, Melia, Larissa on the Hermos, Antissa, Thermos) and the circular hut models from Crete (Fig. 99:7-9) and Cyprus seem to reflect simple temporary dwellings unknown to the previous more sophisticated Mycenaean world.r The common use of simple wooden constructions for religious purposes (as attested by plans and models of the earliest Greek temples)2 is something new, more European as against the general use of solid masonry in Mycenaean times, and even the idea of applied terracotta decoration on wooden temples (paralleled in Etruria, where it arose from a similar Protovillanovan tradition, and with the Phrygians of Balkan origin) might ultimately derive from the barbarian north, where clay plastering of wooden (pole) constructions was the rule (cf. above tr.tz.t-2). A more primitive parallel to this change is shown in the change from mudbrick to wooden post and wattle-and-daub architecture in Greek Macedonia (Kastanas), connected with the arrival of a new "northern" population there.3 Models of granaries from Geometric gravesa have been compared both with Near Eastern examples and with Central European sanctuaries.s 14, THE LITERARY SOURCES This is a book written by an archaeologist and it would make little sense to duplicate what more competent scholars have analysed in the field of the Linear B tablets, the Ugarit archives, the Egyptian , J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN,.ANATOLIA AND EUROPE TSIMA oai ,i€* oao ^F\ q j 1( ^w c \oJ(\ A U <v) <E rX oo \\ \d h' a7' (-( * 9- 0 \\ q= 6 /1 \,/ '4 9.2 oo IE -:. ; e< I 0 *N PA iso a% ol FI >o {.t \\)\ / ( q) :6 r\, ." F; o .-: 15 \ oc''1 ! o^ 6= 'i'i u g(l Q D, t) \ )Lz n (\ F 11 qcs-A ._vd \) '" X fr \l n- 9B /3 ;)4 {r- \--) UB In cO o9 \ = t {€ Af <-J iJo d 'c aa E; a 4 I -; IItr E-. /(^ (/ e4 -d / lOlu! I >'= lE. 169 loI o= NCD\rlo llron lt!c -9u It l'i= la= lE= l-g l!= tI oc= -0rl ca. ! ? h il T lF 6 H xxxl tl' J THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN C{JLIURE documents and the even more complicated half-mythical traditions mentioned much later by Greek authors. Therefore a brief survey of the main results which rnay contribute to our conclusions may suffice. The study of the Pylos archives has shown that an attack from the sea was expected in the palace just ; = s f 9 ,q d t j d t :a j a 3 @ ,; :a!. tE;<g r) l* > D* 6;! i 1t: -6o =g* h5- g (: rAG -*: ^<: 3*: 6 <*il, ^d .L: 3 t* Tg{ t @* :@- &= =9* # 0+D a eal >t= :Ef o-9. -=o --il I e Xs I * *- IEHI |-e1: t5E& n*&t l1 dr= Jll G *8,"* before the fall of Nestor's kingdom, and the extremely dangerous situation led - in a vain attempt to avert fate to otherwise quite exceptional human sacrifices.r Attacks from the sea as an initial stage in the military campaigns of the Sea peoples are also reported in the Ugarit archives and in Hittite and Egyptian documents, but these were usually followed by land expeditions. The Philistines, the Siculs and the Teucri, seern to have come from the Adriatic area,2 and some of these were probably from still further north originally. There seems to have been a gap od roughly one generation between the seizing of the Aegean area and that of the Levant, where the Sea Peoples were first known as pirates, and only later as destroyers. We have virtually no reports on the final collapse qf the Hittite ernpire, which appears to have been destroyed by a land attack, after the destruction of the Hittite fleet in sea battles. The Egyptian records are the most informative of all, and they stress that the Sea peoples were a loose group of heterogenous barbarian elements of different origin. The strongest group among them were the Philistines ; they were also the only tribe that _ after the defeat in the Delta founded an irnport_ ant kingdom, in southern palestine" The philis_ tines used a Mycenaean-derived pottery and they established a federation of five main towns: Ash_ dod, Askalon, Gaza, Gath and Ekron ; their history is known from the Old Testament, frorn Egyptian records (they recognized some degree of Egyptian sovereignity) and from later traditions.3 Greek tradition was rnainly connected with it knows little about the Sea genealogies, and Peoples. They are probably mentioned as Carians by Diodorus (V 84),4 but only a few of their leaders were taken into the official genealogies, Iike the Teucri in Cyprus.5 The Danaoi have been identified with many later local groups (outsidb Greece with the house of Mopsus in Cilicia and even with the Hebrew tribe of Dan); some Teucri lived in pales- 209 tine as neighbours of the philistines and Hebrews.6 The history of the penetration of the Dorians into the Peloponnese and to Crete and the Dodecanese fits relativelywell into the archaeolog_ ical picture, as does the Northwest Greek penetra_ tion in the West and the Ioanian migration from Attica to the Eastern Aegean. The non_Greek (Illyrian, Thracian, paionian) participants in these events are also only rarely mentioned in these mainly genealogical stories.? 15. CONCLUSIONS 1 5 "I. Cyprus Cyprus is the only country east of Greece where the evidence for European types of weapons, im_ plements and dress fasteners is abundant (Fig. 102).1 Several genuine Nenzingen swords have beeen found there, mainly at Enkomi.2 Two frag_ mentary greaves and rnost of the spearheads re_ lated to European examples come from the same (cf . Catling, Bronzework 1967, 1 17 _lZS). lggafitV With one exception, the Cypriot swords seem to have been related to the first school (or first generation) of them in Greece (cf. IItr.2.1.3), for there is virtually no positive evidence for a direct contact with the two later schools of weapon_ makers, those of Crete and of the Greek mainland (IU.1.3)" The only later exceptron is the short sword from EnkomiOT 47 (Carling, pps22 1956, i 15 no. 17; Maxwell-Hyslop in the same volume p. 133 pl. 11:1). There are iron swords in Cyprus deriving from the Naue II type, but those which I was able to study personally are late, and compar_ able with Protogeometric iron swords in Greece (and with the Donja Dolina bronze swords with parallel edges : Snodgrass, EGAW,1964,93_99 ; B ouzek, in AI as i a I, Ig7 1,, 4 40f., 4 47 ).The Cypriot spearheads related to European types also belong to groups dated in Greece c.12A0 B.C. or slightly later (11L2.3.1-3). The greaves are simple : either undecorated at all or with simple dot-within-a-circle motiis in repous_ s6; they do not have the more,complicated decora_ tive systems found on those from kailithea or the Acropolis of Athens (Iil.l.4.2). Their style recalls J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE o 1 A7 o2 A8 o3 Y9 tr4Vlo O5 A v 12 r6 11 o /c> YI ! '?-----]--a/ --t1 (-/- t V &i/)p'l 't r3 ca"r# d r5 ^%t6 "$ tt\ Fg xd: :iie :nn[s ff" -huii Sqirm . eitr[ ft:Iry S"r xxrxl THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE the strictly functional Mycenaean working of bronze sheet and, in part, the similarly simple Br D bronzes from Europe ; they belong to the earliest style of repoussd decoration in Greece (cf . III.1 .6). The violin-bow fibulae from Cyprus generally have an asymmetrical bow. They represent a more developed stage of evolution than the earliest violin-bow fibulae in the Aegean, but they also differ from the common run of LH III C fibulae in Greece, where the variety with knots prevails.3 Only one example with a bow plate (now damaged) makes an exception (Catling, Bronzework -1,967, 24I.3 pl.42 e;Mus. Nicosia inv. Met. 2098). The simple zigzag and herring-bone decoration is com- parable with LH III C fibulae from Greece (cf. Thebes, Kolonaki), not with the Submycenaean, examples. The Cypriot bow fibulae, however, are related to the latter (ct.II.5.l-2).a The Kaloriziki shield has an incut comparable to the shields on the Warrior Vase (Fig. 41:1). The bosses which formed part of it belong to the earliest group of their class (IIL1.1.4). The European connections of the simple Cypriot knives are doubtful and distant at best (Courtois, praktika 1. 2t1 and Greece could not have been due to the Sea Peoples alone, but, just as the philistines developed their own pottery in palestine on the base of Mycenaean models,T other Sea peoples were also probably using Mycenaean ware. Relations with the first generation of European bronze types in the Aegean (end of the 13th century B.C.) are most apparent in the weapons (swords, spearheads); the greaves seem to have preceded analogous finds from Greece. The violin_ bow fibula of a triangular shape seems to be later than the earliest Greek fibulae, but unrelated to the most popular t2th century types in Greece. This early group made the most important impact on the Cypriot bronzework; it can be connected with the activities of the Sea peoples for reasons both of chronology and context (cf. Schachermeyr, AF v 1982, 82-86, 145-166). Objects comparable with the second generation of the European-type objects in the Aegean seem to be rarer: the Kaloriziki shield, the sword En_ komi OT 47, perhaps the knife with ringed hilt from Enkomi. The so-called Submyc"nu"in typ", of bronze objects have only a few parallels in kyprologikou synedriou 1969, Nicosia 1972, Cyprus (pins, bow fibulae), despite the rich paral_ 27-29), but the knife with ringed end from En- lels_ in painted pottery between Athens and Cyprus, komi has interesting Balkan parallels (cf . III.4.1.2). and Cyprus and Crete.8 :*: su There are only a few pins from Cyprus comparable to Greek Submycenaean types (cf. III.5.4.1).s In regard to pottery, Daniel's Black Slip Incised 15.2. Sea peoples in the Levant Ware can better be compared with Trojan Knobbed Ware than with Greek handmade wares There are many known links between the (m.11.13). The suspension vessel from Idalion, Aegean and the Levant. Mycenaean pottery is Ayios Ioannis, is comparable to a Submycenaean widespread in Syria and palestine in the i3th hand-made pyxis from Athens (IILll.I4),and one century 8.C., but LH III C sherds are also known Cretan incised vessel has been published from from a number of sites there. Mycenaean III C pot_ Enkomi (cf. III.l 1.15.).6 The well-known connect- tery inspired the ceramic ware of the philistines, ions between the painted ceramic wares of Cyprus which can now be traced closer to its origins than ffii ,ri. .*;:. $ :jai ;;. lp i:!1 Fig' 102' Bronzes of European relations in the East Mediterranean, c. 1200-1000 B. c. 1 Sprockhoff IIa swords, 2 late derivatives of the former, 3 possible Peschiera dagger,4 spear-heads of European affinities, 5 the Kaloriziki shield, 6 greaves, T violin_bow fibulae' 8 bow fibulae (Birmingham groups A iii and B), 9 knives wiih ring-ended grip, 1 0 curved knives with ircised decoration, 1 1 pins with possible European.relations, 12 submycenaean Greek pins. t lroy, 2 ,incient smyrna, 3 Kolophon, 4 Iassos, 5 Assarlik, 6 Kos, Langada, 7 Rhodes (Ialyssos and Kameiros), 8 Boghazkciy, 9 Tarsus, 10 catal Hiiyiik, 11 Tell Tainat, 12 Atchana,L3-fell Judaieh' 14Deve Hiiyiik, 15RasShamra, 16Hama, lT.TellAbuHawam, lSMegiddo, 19Tell BeitMirsim, zrrellFiraun,22 Bubastis' The distribution in crete and cyprus is schematized. In cyprus only Enkoii and Episkopi-Kourion yierded early bronzes Sea Peoples; the finds from Lapithos, Amathus, Kouklia. Dhali and Myrtou-pigadhes are later derivarions (mainly ;tff[r?":]: 21.2 J.BOUZEK, THE AECEAN. ANATOLIA AND EUROPE was possible some years ago (above IItr'14.1, note 7). Several types of clay figurines are similar to Aegean ones (e.g. Tell Mor and Ashdod, Schachermeyr, AF V, 1982, frontispice), swords related to Sandars group H are known from the Levant and from Egypt (IIL2.l.2,cf . Fig. 1A2),andhemispherical bronze bowls from the Levant are undistinguishable from those in Greece and Cyprus (cf' fiLl1.21 and Catling, Bronzewotk 1964, 1.47t.). The list can probgbly be enlarged by adding some types of tombs (Tell Fara) and perhaps several features of temple architecture.e All these objects and features indicate links with the Aegean area and Cyprus. Finds of grey Trojan ware in Cyprus and Syria and Cypriot pottery at Troy prove contacts with Troy.lo In regard to anthropology, some of the Philistine skeletons examined to date are said to belong to the Caucasian racial type and, though Herodotus (VII.13) tells us that the Armenians were colonists of the Phrygians who carne to western Anatolia from the Balkans, the possibility of a Caucasian origin for some of the Sea Peoples cannot be excluded from consideration. Some Caucasian bronzes with European relations (esp. the bow fibulae) may have been introduced there by Caucasian adventurers who took part in raids together with their western allies, if they were not brought to the Caucasus via the Pontic steppes directly from Europe (cf. .above IIL5.1-2)' Swords of the Nenzingen type (Sprockhoff IIa) were distributed from northern Europe to Greece and Cyprus (III.2.1.3). Alleged Egyptian finds were suspected of having been brought to Egypt by modern collectors (Milojdi6, Germania 30 1'952, 97),but one blade was joined (in antiquity?) with a hilt related to Sandars group H (III.2.1.2). Some Syrian and Palestinian "Naue II" swords are late derivatives of old European types, and one genuine Sprockhoff IIa sword has been mentioned from Ugarit.l1 The unifinish swords found in the hoard of the Great Priest of Ugarit (Schaeffer, Ugaritica3 1956, 256-259), the date of which has been lowered by Catling (BronzeworkL964,202f .) to c. 7200 8.C., might have been inspired by Naue II swords, like the Sethos' sword from Egypt (cf. rrr.2.1.3 D). Lanceolate spearheads of European inspiration ISIMA - as far as I know - east of Cyprus, and butt-spikes from Cyprus and Syria, though in common use, differ substantially from the European type which was still known in the Aegean. One possible fragment of a Peschiera dagger has been reported from Ugarit (Courtois, Praktika I. kyprolo gikou synedriou A, 197 2, 29), and knives with incised semicircles found on several Near Eastern sites have possible European relations (Courtois, o.c. p. 29). The distribution of fibulae is more important. The violin-bow fibula rarely occurs outside Cyprus (Hama, Tarsus, cf. m.5.1) and the variants known to me are late, but the simple bow fibula is attested from many places in Anatolia, Syria and Palestine (cf. III.15.1 note 3). Some pins from Troy, Boghazkoy and Tarsus may have had European relations, though this is far from certain.l2 The duck heads of the Philistine ships on the have not been found Medinet Habu reliefs (both on prow and stern) rnay have been connected with European bird-boats,13 and the lobster corslet of the Sea Peoples reminds one of the Filinges corslets (cf. IIL1.3.4-5). The description of Goliath's armour indicates that the Philistines used a metallic sheet corslet and greaves (Sam. I 17), which were otherwise unknown outside the Aegean. Furthermore, the chalienge to single cornbat by Goliath to David has been explained as a European, Hellenic idea. The hemispherical bowls of bronze mentioned above are similar to European cap helmets (III.1.2 B 3). The spread of cremation in Syria and Palestine may well have been caused by northern invaders;14 the spread of cremation from Central Europe southwards was a comparable phenomenon. Levantine and Egyptian evidence for European connections is rather poor compared with the Aegean area, but more can hardly be expected; the invaders passed through various civilized countries and were able to use the skill of local craftsmen there. In addition, there were two or more cultural thresholds (instead of one) which European ob- jects had to overcome and a difference of one generation (.f. Schacherrneyr, Ap V 1982, 48-53). As most such objects were also known from the Aegean and/or western Anatolia, we have no certain archaeological proof that they were brought to the Levant by peoples coming ultima- I t \ l T ,;l pr * -{ it an ocr Ae r-n [f-r fixx m,C Ci![ ino rid xxtxl THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE IV{YCENAEAN CULTURE 213 tely frcrm Europe, and not adopted in the Aegean V 19g2, lV4_1.gg).Earlybowfitrulaefromsouth_ like strictly Aegean objects by local west Anatolia (trassos) rnay have been connected Mediterranean peoples. Some finds and-the general with Greek colonisation there.r6 of the Sea A group of figurines from tr H III B_C Greece any excluding of Euro- (trom the phylakopi sanctuary, and similar ones historical pattern t'if the invasions Peoples makes, however, pean adventurers {from the Eastern Alps and North Adriatic areas) from these campaigns irnprobable'ls the verv irom Tiryns, Mycenae and Delos) are Anatolian and North Syrian products (II.11) anci the I_H iII C cerannie boots wittr upturned tips recall Hittite boots.17 15.3. Troy and A,natalia Troy and the Troad served frorn Neolithic times onrvards as a natural bridge between Europe and (L5.i.-2 and IIL11.7). Man,v influences penetrated from East to West, trut ihey also sornetimes passed from Europe to Asia. The straits apparently formed no obstacle to communication, and ancient sources know of many related (mainly Thracian) tribes living on both sides of the Sea of Marmara. The Fhrygians protrably came fo Asia Minor from the Balkans, and Herodotus (V-II. 13) mentiones a simiiar tradition about the Armenians (Hanrrnond, Macedania I, Ig7 2, 302-30S). In the 13th-11th centuries, the normal archaeological pattern of reiaticns between Thrace Asia and Anatoiia is reversed. East Ealkan eerarnic features are attested at Troy since the time of Troy ViI tr 1, and they becorne very apparent tzith the Trojan VIi b 2 Knobbed Ware (IIL 1 1"?). Finds r:f celts and shaft-hole axes cf East Balkan types at Troy, in its vicinity, anC in Central .Anatolia tell a similar storv {trII"4.2 "2-*4}"It is therefc,re highly probable that some population groups frcm tlie Southeast Balkans pe netrated into part of Anatolia, and the historical and arciraeological evidence is in substantial agreement" Anatolian trunnion axes spread over the Aegean and to ltaly, possibly together u'ith sorne technological innovations in rnetahvorking (III.4.2"i). Aegean Turkey and Ciiicia show some connecrions with Greece, not onlv in the distribution <lf Late h{ycenaean and Sutrmycenaean pottery, but also in finds af vioiin-bow and early bow fibuXae (ihe iatrer including Tray, ct.III'S.2). Sorne early fibulae from Cilicia (Tarsus, cf. III.5.1-2)ma,v appeared there in connection with activities of the Sea peoples anrl rvith the Kingdom of Mopsus (schachermevr, AF The two main types of Subrnycenaean pins are both represented among the finds from Troy iSchmidt. Scfiliemenn-S/g. nos. 6486 anct 6484, cf . III.5.2.4.1). Tliey are shorter that the normal pins frorn the Aegean, and this feature seems to be equally characteristic for rnost of the yugoslav pins siruilar to Aegean types _. at least the tendency to clirninish the size of pins sfarted much earlier here than in Greeee. 15"4. tsulgafia and the East Balkans Two ox'hide copper ingots (Fi. 4:Z) andBronze Age type anchors from tfie Bulgarian Black Sea coast show that this country was also involved in the East Meiliterrailean copper trade (tr"4). The Bulga- rian rapiers are derived from earlier Mycenaean C ii sworris, and the spearheads found with them offer an analogous picture. The Rumanian (and Euigarian) rapiers resembling Karo A swords are prabably also earlier than tH III B-C, even if two fragmentary exarnples were identified in Br D hoards from Drajna de Jos and Sokol. These examples are quite alien stylistically to other swords and bronze objects cf the Late Bronze Age, but the date of the Sicilian Plenmyrio swords warns us that even the Transyivanian group need not be as early as their Mycenaean parallels (II.1.3.5). A Noua-t1'pe bone pin from Kastanas (III. i . VII) indicates an influence from R.umania as iar south-rvest as ihe Axius vallev. Several Bulgarian doubie axes. both ones of the norrnal size and small r'otives. shorv that tliis implementhad atleast a svmbolic significance there, and sorne Ukrainian parallels mar have been connected with the Bulganan sroup ( tl ,r. i-J ). The Coubie-looped "Peschiera" triangular frbulae know'n from several Ukrainian sites and 5 ".i. 2I4 J.BouzEK, THEAEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND from the Northern Caucasus are probably derivatives of the Central Balkan (Konjuia) Peschiera variety, from which the Bulgarian triangular fibulae also derived (IIL5.1). More can be said about the pottery. East Bulgaria has yielded the best parallels for Trojan Knobbed Ware, but other parts of the Central and Eastern Balkans were also involved in relations with Troy (Ifi.1,l.7). Pottery from Greek Thrace, Thasos and Samothrace shows more or less close connections with central Bulgaria; these may have been to some extent due to the seasonal transhumance of the Rhodope tribes (III'11.5). The dolmens in the eastern part of Greek Thrace are identical with those in East Bulgaria and Turkish EUROPE ISIMA Kastanas has been connected with profound changes in architecture in level 13, and apparently reflected the arrival of a new population; there are also profound changes in agriculture in level 13. The influence of Macedonian Lausitz Ware was also felt further south (IiI.11.4). The ascription of Lausitz Ware to the Phrygians by Hammond makes it difficult to explain why the Brygi later lived in the area of the West Macedonian lakes, but a common to explain the Hallstatt and Phrygian, between similarities Urnfield tradition may help is a territory from which the inspiration for the Greek Dark Age Incised Ware and bell-shaped Bobousti potteries. Bobousti ware was probably a distant relative of the vessels used by the Northwest Greeks and the Dorians at the time of their penetration into the Peloponnese and other parts of Greece (IIL11.6). Some of the Naue II swords from the VardarMorava area belong to later categories, but others arc early, and in many ways related to Aegean idols came, possibly through an intermediary stage further southeast (III.11.17); and the north-western part of Bulgaria also knew the Urnfield types of weapons and other bronzes, so that the Struma besides the Vardar valley valley may have been Acropolis greaves and the Tiryns helmet find better Thrace. The Central Balkans (along the boundary zone between Rumania, Yugoslavia and Bulgaria) one of the routes bringing the inspiration of -Urnfield bronzework to Northern Greece. L5.5. The Vardar-Morava area The Vardar-Morava valley is one of the few north-south routes across the West Balkan mountains, though many sections of this route are narrow passes which can easily be blocked even by small military units. But the coastal areas of Montenegro and Albania and the area ofthe West Macedonian lakes offer even less possibilities for transport; the Middle Cerna valley from Vardar to PrilepBitolj alone offers a subsidiary route to Northern Greece.18 The Tetovo sword is earlier,butHarding (tlresis 1972,253f..) has noticed two imitations of Mycenaean pottery in the Museums of Titov Veles and Bitolj; a good dea! more Late Mycenaean pottery is known from Greek Central Macedonia' The Urnfield area proper ends in northern Bosnia and northern Serbia; the Mediana group in the vicinity of NiS (Br D) forms a bridge to the Macedonian Lausitz Ware, which first appeared in Kastanas level 13 of LH III C date. Its appearance in swords (IIL2.l.4); this is less true of the spearheads (II1.2.3.4). The North Greek bronze diadems in simple repouss6, notably the Vergina example, have parallels from Serbia, while the analogies near the head of the Adriatic.re Macedo- nian wheel ornaments are related to the Serbian and Croatian examples (which is less clear in the III.6.5), but many of the wire ornaments common in the cist graves (fingerrings with spiral terminals, simple spiral rings and bracelets) find parallels in Yugoslav Macedonia and Serbia (IIL6.1-3), as do various violin-bow and bow fibulae (III.5.1-2) and pins (III.5.4). The spectacle fibulae may also have ponetrated to Greece through the Vardar-Morava valley, as may the model of the Dodona battle-axe from Hungary (Hr.2.4,III.5.3). Some LH III C pottery was produced in the coastal part of Macedonia and used in many sites (M. Parovii-Peiikan, Arch. Iug. 20121 (1980/81) 56-61); the sherds from Debelo Brdo (Sakellarakis-Mari(,, Germania 55 1975, 153-156) may well be Macedonian products (kind information B. Hiinsel). The oval house from Kastanas reminds one of Early Greek oval houses, the megaron from Kastanas of LH III C megara in Greece (cf.III.13 and e.g. Tiryns); and the wooden architecture in Kascase of the Greek ones, cf . l I t * tu d Tfi A pil ficlt t+ elld Ery mil ,rM frmi m1 mci[ men i8r xxtxl THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE tanas is reminiscent both of European prehistoric constructions and of the first Greek temples. The Greek cist graves find parallels in yugoslav Macedonia and in the south_eastern tip of Albania (IIL12.I-2). The territory of the irojan atties according to Homer extended to the Axius, and the names of the Samothracian gods and the Dardanos, story connect the Axius with the origins of the Samothracian mysteries.20 The Axius vailey ptayed l a marginal part in Early Greek l I history. 15.6. Albania and Epirus 1 r s r* nr In E ffi n bc Etr b- [o ts bc Ermd trb rt* rb ,b rry ru ft rhil ffitil &* l5[t NG nsi fr. $d fr. half_lelendary Several studies by K. D. Wardle and N. G. L. Hammond on Epirus,2l and by A. H;;;;g and F. Prendi on Albania,22 summarize the picture. Epirus was a marginal Mycenaean territory during LH III B-C. Cyclopean walls ate known from Nesopotamos and a tholos tomb at parga. Local hand-made pottery is much rnor" ,o.*on there than Mycenaean painted ware (III.11.2). Some particular spearheads (IIL2.3 A) and knives (II1.4.L.6) of Balkan and European affinities are well represented. In Albania LH III B_C pottery has been reported from Barg, from near Gramsh and perhaps from Treporti, swords of the Aegean D i type from Nenshat and from the Mati valley (fI.1.1). Sandars 6b knives from the Mati valley and a bronze double-axe with an oval shaft_hole from Xare. Several other bronze objects, beads from YajzE grave A 13 and a gold leaf from tumulus B at Yajz|, may also be Mycenaean pro_ ducts. Swords and spearheads with Balkan, Italic and Greek affinities have been found there, and Albania mayhave played a role in transmitting long pins and cist burials to Greece (ILI.IZ.1_2). Th; southernmost part of the country (called Northern Epirus in antiquity) has tumuli with swords and other finds similar to those from the other parts of Epirus. The Korge area (near to the lakes, the south-eastern tip of Albania) has produced pottery and other material similar to.the Boboustigroup from c. 1100 or 1200 B.C. (cf. IIL11.6), while central and northern Albania b6longed culturally to the "Central" Illyrian area (Covi6), which also included Montenegro, Herzegovina and southern Bosnia, along with southern Dalmatia. 215 15.7. The Northwestern Balkans, the Eastern AIps and the eastern part of Central Europe As already shown in the chapters on armour weapons (IIL2.1_5) and symbolic objects and ornaments (III:5_6 and tll.i0), the (III.1.1-6), Aegean area was a source of inspiration for many innovations in our territory about the time of the transition from the Tumulus cultures (Middle Bronze) to the Urnfield (Late Bronze Age) cultures there. The earliest European conical hel_ met (Lriiky type) is derived from Mycenaean coni_ cal helmets, and, as the Dendra panoply suggests, all parts of European sheet armou, *"r" probably inspired by Aegean models. Some European Br C swords and perhaps some daggers fiom the Carpathian area seem to show traces of Mycenaean inspiration, and the same may be true of the long-bladed laurel-leaf shaped spearheads of the Central European Br C-D stages. From Br D on_ wards, northern influence prevails; the idea of the swords with a spurred hilt (for fixing the pommel) may have come from the south, but not the shape, because the hilt-spur had long before disappeared in the Aegean. Since Merhart first recognized the importance of the area around the Eastern Alps for the begin_ nings of European Late Bronze Age metalwork and cultural development in general, that import_ ance has been confirmed, though some of the influences from this area towards the Aegean were not as direct as they appeared to be in his time. The earliest one-piece fibulae, Sprockhoff IIa _, flange-hilted swords, peschiera flange_hilted dag_ gers and one-sided flange-hilted knives, lanceolate ("geflammte") spearheads. sheet bronze protec_ tive armour and vessels, all probably oriiinated more or less in the same territory, the marginal parts of which embraced Northern ltaly, Croatia and Transylvania. The protovillanovan culture in Italy and the Urnfield-related Balkan groups south and south-east of Croatia were, in the essential features of their metalwork and pottery, descen_ dants of the primary Urnfield ztne around the Eastern Alps. Even if most of the similar Greek features are more closely related to Italic and Adriatic variants which, in many cases, acted as 2L6 J. BOUZEK, ?HE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPF, 11/.\ / ,o,. rw 1 2 tu#l 5 N--1 6 lsrA4A xxxl THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE I,,{YCENAEAN CULIURE (ri intermediaries, as some Balkan groups did for other features, the basic role of our primary zone remains of vital importance. A few elements common on our territory, and of probable southern inspiration, have not yet been A. Razors ii e 8. Dunabogdriny, Nat. Mus. Budapest. Holste, Skizzenbuch Marburg A 16156, frg. 9. "Hungary". Hampel, Bronzkor I,pl. L7:2. Austria: 10.Grossmugl. Mi.iller-Karpe, Chronologie discussed: ,li il 217 of double-axe form (Fig. 103) A small group close in shape to Aegean miniatures should be mentioned first. They date from Br D Ha A, and it is not certain whether they were used as razors or merely as religious symbols like Mycenaean symbolic axes (Fig. I03:5-7).23 The other two types are certainly razors. Twoedged razors had a long European tradition starting in the Middle Bronze Age, and only the double-axe shape of the blade can therefore be attributed to Aegean influence. Two main types may be distinguished, named by Pivovarovi{ X and O. Type O is rare and has long curving edges reminiscent of the bilobal Aegean shield (Fig. I03:2, cf. on Protovillanovan razors below, and Fig. lA3:1.1.,13-16). Type X has short straight edges and is much commoner (Fig. 103 :'l , 3-4, 8-1A, 12).24 (1ese) pt.124 C 5. 11. Mixnitz, Styria. Miiller-Karpe, o.c. pl, 124 D 19-2I; Pittioni, Uryeschichte \sterreichischen Raumes (Wien 1954) tig. 342 : 13 . Fig. 103:1, 10. Yugoslavia: 12. Jurka Vas. Gabrovac, Nejsf. zgodovina dolen- jslre (Novo Mesto 1956) fig. 1; MiillerChronologie (1959) pt.I30B 2. -Karpe, 13. Otok-Privlaka. Vinski-Gasparini, Kultura polia (1973), pl. 28:37 . 14. Poljanci I. Vinski-Gasparini. o.c. pl. 48:9. Brodski Varo5, Vinski-Gasparini, o.c. pls. 5 5 : 14-16 ; 56 :7 , 15-1.6, 1.9-2A . 16. Podcrkavlje-Slavonski Brod. Vinski-Gasparini, o.c. pl. 66 :74-15 . 15. 17. Toplidica. Ljubid, Pctpis arh.od. (Zagreb 1889) pl.8:14. Czechoslovakia: 1; Vy5nf Kubin. Pivovarovd, S/ov. arch. L4 (1966) 341 tig.3:1. 2. Diviaky nad Nitricou. Pivovarov6, o.c. p. 337 fig. 3 :5. Fig. 103 :2-3. 3. BeSeriov6. Pivovarov6 , o.c.p.337 tig.4 : 5. Fig. 103:4. pl.4:4. muzejall (1962)lZI 19. Mesi6. Holste, Hortfunde (1951) pl. 19:1g. Fig. 103:9. 20. Boledica, similar to the Mesi6 piece, kind information S. Schiek. Fig" LA3:n. 21. "Serbia", Mus. Beograd. Garaianin, Katalog 4. Vy5nd Podhradie, mould. Pivovarovd, o.c.p. 350 fig. 10. 5.Latec, tumulus I. Brihm, Zdklady hailstatskd periody (Prague 1937) Il9 fig.53. 6. Lipenec near Zbraslav. Filip, Fravdk| Ceskosloyensfto (Prague I94S) 36CI pI.24:25. Hungary: 7. Szirazd, 18. Jakovo. Tasie, Rad vojv. Kom. Tolna. Holste, Hartfunde (1e51) pL.21 40. metalap.TT no.l7A3, 22. Yisojr-Beranci, Macedonia. Mikuldii, Pelagonija (1966) pl. 7:8b. Fig. 103:8. Cf. also a pendant in the Slovak Nat. Mus. Bratisla- va, J. Paulik, Zbornik SNM Brafislava, Hist6ria, vol. 63 (1969) 43 fig.23:1. The razor from Visoji in Yugoslav Macedonia is relatively late (10th or 9th century B.C.) and cannot be regarded a link connecting these two types with the Aegean miniatures, but our first Fig' 103.Balkan, Italic and Central European razors in shape of double-axe, or with its representation. 1 , 10 Mixnitz, Drachenhijhle, Diviaky nad Nitricou, 4 Be5eiov6, 5 Bingula-Divo5,6 "Serbia", 7 Uioara de Sus,8 Visoji-Beranci, g Mesii, L2Boletica,ll Italy, unknown locality, 13 Terni, 14 ortucchio, 15 Bovolone, 16 Timmari. After Pivovarov6, Trbuhovii, Bouzek and Jockenhijvel. 2-3 [d J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 2t8 group, know from the North Balkans in Br D Ha (1), prototypes particular A could well be of these razors. Razors were strictly personal implements, and a double axe is also depicted on them in Italy (Fig. 103 :17,I3-16),2s so it is reasonable to posit some degree of symbolic significance objects.even in the barbarian north. B. lstMA for these Faience beads Small beads of faience were certainly manufac- 0 U\ T"j qFJ ootor l j : lt T' :r :rl &r; p, F Fig. 104. Distribution of Mycenaean pottery (1-5), copper ingots (6) and Cypriot bronzes (7) in Italy. 1 earlier and not precisell' datable finds of Mycenaean pottery, 2LHIll A,3 LH III B, 4 LH III A-B' 5 LH III C. After L' Vagnetti. ;f"w' t xxr4 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE }"fYCENAEAN CULIURE tured in Europe, and whether the rapid increase of production and types of faience in Br D was due to a renewed intluence from the south is hard to say ; the beads have no close Mycenaean parallels in shape and colour.26 There is, however, at least one exceptional piece. The large bead from Kolta2T D and cannot be paralleled by the large ltalian beads which are much later. The Kolta bead may even be a southern import (from Syria or Anatolia ?). It is also worth mentioning that the development of funeral rites in this area (and in some other parts of Europe) is analogous to what happened during the Celtic military campaings: the rich "aristocratic" burials were soon replaced by "democratic', cemeteries, where virtually no substantial social dates from Br differences can be traced.26 15.8. Italy The sea was more advantageous than the land for long-distance trade: there were storms and pirates there, but they could by avoided or overcome by good luck, and ships could carry more cargo (including brittle pottery) than men and pack dF 2r9 type find their best parallels in a sword from Zapher Papoura Tomb 44 of LH III A 1 (above ff.1.5); Cypriot Whire Shaved and Base Ring vessels are also known from there, and the Thapsos architectonic complex is reminiscent of smaller Mycenaean residences, like that of Arne-Gla. Thapsos birds and animals on pottery (fig. 88:3) resemble those on LH III C fine wares, and life in Thapsos itself continued until the 1Oth century.3o The Pantalica I culture in Sicity (c. 1250-1000 B.C.) has only a little LH III C pottery, but its gold and silver signet rings resemble Mycenaean exam- ples, the anaktoron at Pantalica (Fig. 105:5) reminds one of the architecture of the last Mycenaean palaces in Greece and Cyprus, and Mycenaeantype mirrors were also used there (pantalica nord, graves 3, 23, 37). One razor and one miniature dagger from Pantalica are probably Aegean imports,31 and there are many close connections between the Pantalica and LH III C Submycenaean fibulae, pins and various personal- objects. Several legends, notably about the expedition of Minos to Sicily and the alleged participation of Siculs in the campaigns of the Sea Peoples connect Sicily with the East Mediterranean world. The Aeolian Islands were probably important trading stations during the whole Mycenaean era, but their importance diminished after the destruction of theMilazzese settlements before the end of LH III B (above If.14.1). animals could. South Italy and Sicily were close to Greece culturally in the Early Iron Age, and natural anchorages and trading posts had existed there for the Mycenaeans from the end of Middle HelThe importance of Sardinia, where several ladic. Metals, mainly copper from Tuscany andcopper ingots have been uncovered, has been stresperhaps also from the Alps, lvas presumably in the sed by new finds of LH III B-C pottery from centre of interest for the Mycenaeans, but amber, and probably also tin and silver, from further west Sarrok (here with a symbolic double axe of iead) and north were traded through southern Italy, and from Sos Muros (Orosei, LH III B). A CypSicily and the Aeolian islands during the zenith of riote tripod from Grotta Pirosa di Su Benatzu di Santadi,32 Levantine bronze figurines (ll.l2), the the Mycenaean civilisation. This earlier picture (cf. II.14.l) changed, however, towards the end of LH similarity of Sardinian double axes to ones from III B, and 12th century B.C. Mycenaean pottery is Anatolia (II.4.2 note 2l), and the Mycenaean now known from a greater number of sites, but only affinities of the nuraghi architecture, demonstrate occurs in small quantities; this rather suggests the other East Mediterranean connections of Sardinia. activities of small groups of adventurers, probably The story of the Shardanash, connected both with the plain of Sardis and with Sardinia, fits well into to be identified with some of the leaders of the ,,Sea Peoples" and heroes of Greek and Italic legends the picture of the time of collapse of the East Mediterranean Bronze Age civilisations.33 (Fi5.704);' The peak of Mycenaean pottery imports in Sicily Apulia seems to be the most important region for dates from LH III A 2, and the Plenmyrion type contacts between Italy and Mycenaean Greece. swords vaguely resembling those of the Krro A The architecture (with the exception of some for- J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 220 ffigg hil \l@-6 {ESt rr L-r 9 gg sW r€1 ;; ,tq. t@F rF@ ,/ -iE+. 1)', xxtxl THE REL,ATIONS OF THE LATE N{YCENAEAN CULTURE tifications and one quadrangular house at Scoglio dei Tonno) is less sophisticated than ihat of Srcilv and Sardinia, but the pottery shows that contacts rvith Greece (notably with the Ionian Islands) ri'ere intensive, and were not interrupted even in Sub- mycenaean and suggested by lv{riller-Karpe,37 and form a good background to the stories of Capys and Aeneas and about the Lydian origins of the Etruseans, who, under the name Tursha, may have been one of the iron were perhaps some of the reasons why such groups came to this Sea Peoples.3s'Ihe copper and Protogeometric times (Fig. 105 : 1). C)ne fragmentary Mycenaean type F srvord part of ltaly. comes from Surbo, and one or two Mycenaean knives from Scogiio del Tonno. As far as objects of Italian ancestry which spread to the Aegean are concerned. hronzes from Scoglio del Tonno offer good analogies for the wiriged axe mouid from Mycenae, for Grcek Peschiera daggers of Psychro type, for some fibu!ae. and for double-spirai pin in the Aegean. Type I Submycenaean pins have paraileis from Mottoia and Tirnmari, and the lead (tin ?) wheel frorn Porto Perone is very simlar to rvheels found in Greece. tsut, lacking any ores of its own and a large-scale metal industry, Apulia was rather a region for the transmission of influences in metalwork than the area rvhere the types originated.3a The Peloponnesian and Cretan Barbarian and Grey Wheel-Made Wares show Apulian relations (iII.11.1 and 9). In Campania Mycenaean LH III A pottery is Only two fulycenaean (t,H In III A--B corne frorn fhe hoards of Piediluco and Contigliano in southern Umtrria, in the latter associated with a Cypriot wheel and an Aegean Dark Age tripod cauldron.36 There are also many ltalic bronzes of Greek affinities from Central Italy; together with the trunnion axes of Anatolian origin (cf .III.4.2.2). \ll of this demonstrates that some contacts must have existed between Central Italy and the Eastern \Iediterranean" 'l'hese objects also increase the :ossibility of relations between Rome and Crete as :ig. Mtiller-Karpe, Voza and Coles-Harding. are heads", razors etc. (above III.2, ImS.I-3 aird 4"2)" Most of the local types of the l-ate Terramare, Peschiera and Protovillanovan cultures, however, have no paraliels in the Aegean at ail. 15.9. Switzerland, France and other West European countries One Mycenaean D i sword was reputedly found in the Sa6ne near Lyons (IIL2.!.I) and another sword from Adliswill in Switzerland (now lost) was probably of Mycenaean inspiration.aO Both Switzerland and eastern France were marginal regions of the area of distribution of the pan-European weapons and armour of hammered bronze, and may have participated in their development. The British islands seem to have rernained outside this large area of mutual contacts for some fime, but the Falmouth tin ingot is of a shape cornmon in the Mediterranean world during the l3th-I2th centuries B.C, (II.4), and a fragmentary dagger reputedly from Pelynt in Cornwall appears to belong to the Aegean tl'pe F swords (III.1.1 note 7). 105.1 pottery and bronzes from Tarent, Scoglio del Tonno, ?antalica. After C) sherds conjunction with it (partly also independently) they developed several rypes of bronze objects which spread across Italy with the Protovillanovan culture, and some of thern to the Aegean: violin-bow fibuiae, sorne of the Feschiera daggers, wheel ,,pin- sherds.35 Tuscany and Latium there are several Mycenaean III B-C sherds from Luni sui Mignone, San Giovenale and Monte Rovello, and fragments of Cypriot 12th centur-v ts,C. tripods ili known as yet from north of the Po (Frattesina Polesine, Fondo Paviani), and one h{ycenaean fragment from T'rezzano on the Tronto river suggests that they may have arrived there via the Adriatic.3e The Terramare and peschiera cultures belonged to the East Alpine cultural sphere, and in known from Vivara and Ischia, LH III C from Paestum and from Grotta di Pola; Broglio di 'Irebisacce near Sybaris in Calabria has produced Mycenaean 221 2-3 porten from Thapsos, 4-5 "paiaces,' at Thapsos and 222 J.BOUZEK, THEAEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 15.10. Scandinavia and northern Germany Baltic amber reached the Mycenaean world' and the end of the IInd Nordic Btonze Age Period saw some Mycenaean inspiration in its swords (Orskevhede, Sprockhoff Ib type in general), and even more in the symlalic double axes, whereas the IInd period spiral ornaments were rather a deve- lopment of Carpathian bronzework than the result of direct Mycenaean contacts' The carvings of the Kivik grave slabs are so exotic among Nordic rock carvings that some East Mediterranean source of inspiration for them may be a reasonable assumption; they have been compared to the Haghia ll.l2.4). Nordic folding stools were probably of East Mediterranean ancestry,al and the Hittite figurine from Sernai and the Swedish IInd Period figurines Triadha sarcophagus (above from Stockhult show a similar source of origin and influence (II. 1 1). Northern Germany and southern Scandinavia developed the Nordic Utfibel, predecessor of the one-piece fibula' and they participated in the development of the flange-hilted European swords (Ia, Ib and especially Sprockhoff iiu\.'Uront. sheet armour and the first European vesseis of hammered bronze. The peplos-type dress in the North, the rich development of symbolic representations engraved on rocks and bronzes (notably the sun, ship, bird and horse protomae and their combinations, cf..Ill.2.1'.4), confirm that the Nordic area participated in the historical events which spread the same types of weaponry' armour and dress fasteners over large areas of Europe and into the Aegean. In many respects the Nordic area was by no means a backward part of Europe. 15.11. Greece The later part of the 13th century B.C. (LH III saw the destruction of Mycenaean strongholds. At first only the towns were destroyed, and one generation later the citadels. A wall was built B 2) across the Isthmus, but never completed, and some places, notably Pylos and Iolkos, were destroyed ISIMA before they could be fortified. The Pylos kingdom was attacked by sea. European-type weapons, armour and dress-fasteners (violin-bow fibulae) with Italic and Northwest Balkan connections appear soon after these destructions together with a certain amount of hand-made pottery of Adriatic and Italic affinities, which was produced side by side with the much more sophisticated Mycenaean wheel-made painted wares. The new arrivals - at first probably mercenaries and later just warlike bands - arrived most probably via Italy and the Adriatic sea, and the homeland of their equipment (and of a substantial part of their number?) was mainly the area around the Eastern Alps, though some may have come from more distant regions of Central Europe and from Italy, and also using the route across the western Balkans.a2 The following generation in the earlier part of the l2th century saw a certain recovery of the past, but the Mycenaean culture was split into smaller stylistic units as regards its pottery, aud into small kingdoms politically. Since European weapons and dress fasteners became comrnon, it is reasonable to suppose that the invaders and their chieftains were established as the leading forces in these small kingdoms, as supposed by Schachermeyr. Most of these adventurers later extended their military campaigns eastwards. But other changes followed. Not only did some Mycenaeans escape to Cyprus and to some parts of Anatolia (Mopsus), and others to Ital)', but new elements, rnainly composed of West Greeks and Dorians, penetrated into Central and Southern Greece in wars, in which very probably some Illyrians participated" They are mentioned in semilegendary stories on the Return of the Heraclids, and some new elements in weaponry are, once again, Adriatic, ultimately deriving from the area around the head of the Adriatic. The Ionian migration to Anatolia and the final establishment of Dorian power in the Peloponnese, Crete and the southern Aegean islands, closed this heroic age of the 11th-10th centuries B.C., and initiated the new development, which led to the rise of the Protogeometric style in Athens c.1025 B.C. and to the emergence of Greek Iron Age civilisation. ff l ( ils I $ '!; r; I L i!! rL Tn *3 r[-l! u Ii en![" xxtxl THE RELATIO}iS OF THE L.{TE \1\CE\AEAN CULTUR,E LZJ \OTES I ' ' ,iffili;;il# PROTECTIVE ARMouR in Hattstatt und ltatien(Mainz 1e6e) Lorimer, HM(1gs0) 153f. fig. 10. cf. H. Borchhardt, Arcrr. cf ', i"&11,',;"rt!i;iril'l)'Ji"1|;fu,;;; :,';;, ',':,,:)"i;,1\'!:""r:"i:;;';r;:;;:i:";i:li;a i:::;';ii,"yff i::lil!::ry.Trj[i'i];itlii!i hardt, Arch. Hom. E l, 6--15. Cf. also Evans *fil;# ,';';y;,:::i;.11"151 i|;::':,::;-^:;' " i;,!,:i::'^?,7l::;:;:"::?i?;::;',{,i;,'};i?;,X'itiu,,IT::#;;.i::::::;#i:::,1i3# 'J:-.ffiTl";,f,!:,"';#!:,:?l:);ir-Z|r;;ii L' stetta (197s) 93-106 and Armi l.;:,::,;,".ryr:ck_h:lf: tws> zi-ii'"i' (1s30) 18ff; Jb. RczM -Handetsgeschichte , Rutkowski, Frilhgriechische Kuttdarsteilung"risaiit'o;t'. Mainz 1 (1954) 73ff.; coles, ppizs Ose4156-190 and Germania45Gset)$r-a,n""J.,i,"ra54(1es0)305. 'o" ^22 PPS 45 (1979) L' ll'oj.Arni(1e73)r+-rs,H.";.ilil;,';;];,;. t' -J111-134. The date of the Jikarka shierd t is r.r 115,22-25;Evans, < i. ^< F Patace of Minos not certain, but it would u. in the 8th century. ,9r;,Oritfl^i(1973) "rro ""oii" ' E e. c. cuiou, a.,'; (1e73) pt.3:1 ; Karo, schachtgriiber " x:!;-i:;l:i;\{r?;2\i:l-05; Bo Griisru nd, Acta (1930) 105f. pl. 1.22. This suggesrs rrr", ,i. i"*., ,hieid was " C.nrir*, o ,j^,!::!: Ksbenhavn 38 (1s67)66f. ; Bouzek, originally smaller and only enlarged its size under the c"r^uniu'46 (-1g6g)315f. onry Griisrund noticed that tf ' Lo-'i'"', ai 6so, rtt). s; !H:T{1'nb?:TiH]13 Edgeton-wttson,ttkedinetHaburr,pl.2a;rr.Bnrch.hardt, Atch'Hom'p"rc_n'Lorimer' atuosi|f ',nir". r,r,."gh _res deveroped) ixpranation was given by irl'llill;f,T,t3,:31,t13i;/"Tinturnmention"o.r.iry."ra, fiiaal. " cor.r,'ppsi 8(1962)r82;Germania45(1967) 151-3. tr' iu.o, " i", ,i"'iir" of the.hoard cf. Schachtgrtiber (1930) 21.2t. and esp. Kytrico v6t,AR L6 1,964, Herod.ll f il,L, f."""rirg f O_!O ."A S ouzek, Germania warriors the signet rings with the 46 (1968)3t 5f "Battle of Glen';'r11y.., " **. iiiiiz,March2,1963 (Arch. section 6448), p. 300f. 13e tig 2; Karo, o,c. pl. zqno.zit-;'e.rcn. tun. s,"a* r." ncken (1e77)51_58. {yi':::t' 28 ""i ,,0 TaarupMose.andNackhiilleColes,ppS io_"lir"n"Waffen,5_7. ZB(1962)pl.2|; e For telamon and carrYing shields in g"n"tui S . ','.i;;::,i::;':r::#i::';*ii3;l:,' Rodenrva'Idr, illli5lit; :!"fiWy::"if:31';i-'.'-::'"# i'; " Lo',, ",, nu aniol its. ,1_.2 and i on p. 23;c. Guida, iiJffl;:3 ;;_itr:' E. Albrectsen, ry',r" Minder I Armi(1e73) 1'6f.:H. Borchhardt, ,qnn.,o,'i,'zs c.rrl"o, io* 11(1,s65_66)3s ff. r;:'lii":i ';y'[i;]j;lii; ?Jj:i;1*'i!,i'i]l|Ji,"^,,u, ::' t:: vinsa,i.n a, ," i^iin"(1e54) cGreececf'herenotesT-8'Kilian'e"'iqui'ylisi,zast. ,ii'i? 15 Edgerton-wilson' Medinet Habu 31 r, prs. 3a, so u'a " t'e'..so-sz, o; Mourianatom_bBXanthoudides,Arci. Kaloriziki L,n.rroa*, AJA5g 1g64, rigs 174-s, Et.(1s04)46tig.2; 140f . p1.25 fig.33 and c^,,,"i,-i,",),work(1e64)143-6;Nichoria, u' Hesperia44 r,i.l;"* r,",.i., rrom Enkomi and Koukria. En_ f,ttil,ji" fi:1r:il1TirilA;itkili segmenrs i{t,"""r:'4"**:;:.fiT"1'.'J*,;;,1ru.1 ','i,"r, ""a ,*v we,, be,ong to u.Altkypros (1971)nos. i.747__774*.ctlum-rt.iai.u"u ,, ;i'J#d :;";::^';::?-:it' !:Tffi:.,i'i ivory.r.- . rwo i6 i1ili;r:f.TZ';!ili'j,i'll! rsos-ro^nlu-ir'u,.,, s""ir.Jrr.io Aw (1964)39ff.;for the new finds from o';;l;; iu=n.., a..a p (1e61.-62)116p..135a; ett.1.7 p,s " !llli'TJ";::;{,:r;^,! l! ,?*,,*e (1e54) ,'fiTl;fy]e50) rigs F:'E"LT';x,[ffi;n\ ' f,?il;x:f:'.TlrJ,:r;::r'.?:f i;T1*Tf iii:4,?-:i',?;"lii ;#;';J:',::i:;:;#,,\::; , kraterLorimer,HM(lss})rig.s;Er.,,t,rj;,r;.';:;;"i j;l*;iij'jliKr;2stsardiniens(Karsrruherel})rigs,72, ,, c ,. ir*',".,],,a.::, (i953) 10f' figs. 1-2: Tirynsfragment Schlieman'n, ftryns p 353 fig' 153' Protogeometric krater ttot'loutiunu z.rvos' L'art en Grice fig' 784t" Arch' Ef' (tsoq 3i-pt' s; bronzene Zierbuckel (phaleren),,, Jb. RGZJT \ta,inz-r (19,i6) 2g-1 16. For their arrangernent on the urnfierd ,t,ii.a, .i. paurik, s1ov. arch. 1a (1962) 62f. J,B,OVZF,K THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 224 35 Andronikos, V er gina I (l 9 69), 2 43-2 47, figs. 84-85, pls. t27-8. 36 Cf. notes 31, 35 and Bouzek, Eirene 19 (1982) 103. 37 Surveys Lorimer, HM (195q 155-671' H. Borchhardt, Arch. Him.E, 17-24,27 ,36-44; G. Ahlberg, Figftfingon Land and Sea in Greek Geometric Arr. (Stockholm 1971) 48f. 38 This was suggested e.g. by Webster, BSA 50 (1955) ALa3 ; Snodgrass, EGAW (1964) 37-SL Cf. note 37 and H. Borchhardt, Arch. Hom. E,17-23,for the Boeotian shield o.c. p.23f . 3e Snodgrass, EGAW (1964) 61 ; cf. Borchhardt, Arch. Hom' E,27. a0 Snodgrass, EGAW (1964) 61 ; H. Borchhardt, Arch. Hom. 8,36-44. al Cf. now esp. Needham, PPS 45 (1979) Ill-134. Their distribution in Spain may have been rather caused by the Phoenician than by the Greek trade (cf. also theirpopularity in Cyprus). They may well have been brought once to the East Mediterranean by the Sea Peoples; their forerunners from Kaloriziki and on the Warrior Vase are in this context. a2 A. Mozsolics, Acta Arch. Hung. 5 (1955) 35-54; M. Musaica Novotnii, Sbornik fil. fak. Univerzity Bratislava - ts (1964\ te ft. 159 pl. 31 : 14; Borchhardt, Helme(1972) 53f .; Arch. Hom, E, 65 mentions possible parallels in the Near East. 5a Lorimer, HM (1950) 220 Miiller, IdI30 (1915) 249. ; 5t cuida, Armi(1973) 80f. pl. I: 1. 56 S. Hood, BSA 47 (1952) 258. Zakro Evans, Palace of Minosl,308 tig. 227 and IV, 867 fig. 855 3 5e (1 97 3) 8 5 -9 3 : t27-r31. a5 Cf. esp. the ivory carvings from Mycenae, Spata and Delos. Guida, Armi ( 1 97 3 ) pls. 27 ; B or chhadt, Helm e (197 2) pls.2-5, Arch. Hom E pl. -29 E 1. Many from Pylos (M. Lang, The Palace of Nesfor II, pls. 22, 29, 32, C and H). a6 Karo, Schachtgrliber (1930) nos. 541-549 p|. 70; cf. Kukahn, HeIm(1936) 5 and Borchhardt, Arch. Hom.E,63f . For the other type of the "built up" helrnet see below. a7 Guida, Armi(1973) 82 ff ;Borchhardt,Helme(1972)I6t, 45f . ; Arch. Ho m E, 6L ; Lorimer, HM (19 50) 221 tig. 20. a8 Alexiou, Antiquity 28 (1954) 211-13, pls" 8-9; Guida, Armi (1973) pl. 29 :1 ; Arch. Hom. E, pl. E III b. ae Cf., however, the helmets from Kallithea (Yalouris, AM75 1960, 44 pl. 3l:4, LH III C) and from Ancient Elis (Leon, OeJh 46 (1961-43) Beibl. 56, Sumbycenaean). 50 Kukahn, Helm (1936) 3; Guida, Armi (1973) B2f . 51 Lorimer, HM (1.95q 225; Kukahn, HeIm (1936) 2; Borchhardt, Helme (1972) 53f .; Arch. Hom.E,65; Guida, Arni (1973) 79f. pl. 23; Marinatos-Hirmer, Kreta u. das mykenische Eellas pls. 1.06-7 etc. 52 Evans, Palace of Minos I, 691 fig. 512 ; Guida, Armi(1973) 53 p|.23:2. cuida, Armi (1973) pls.23-24; Blegen, AJA 67 (1963) ; Siege Mosaic o.c. Armi (197 3) 80f . ; S. Hood-P. de Jong, BSA 47 (1952) 252t., 256---60, Hood, BSA 47 (19 52\ 259r. ; Hencken, PPS 18 (1952) 39t. : Borchhardt, Helme (1972) 55-62. Also the ideograms of helmets in Linear B are similar, cf. Guida, Armi(1973)98f. and Borchhardt, o.c. 4f . 61 A survey Borchhardt, Helme (1972) 57f.; G.v. Merhart, Ber. RGK 37-38 (1956-57) 144-6, for the southern origin after Hood and Hencken Mtller-Karpe, Germania 62 40 (te62) 27 t. AJA 67 (1963) 1.47 , cr. atso pp. 123-5. Lorimer, IIM (1950) 227-9; Borchhardt, Helme (1.972) 37-40; Arch. Hom.E,66-8; Guida, Armi(1.973) 102t., 100 pls. 32-37 " Borchhardt, Helne (1972) 21t. pl. 4. 6s Lorimer, I{M (1950) 227 ff.; Borchhardt, Arch. Hom.E, 66 (1950) 211-19; Borchhardt, IIelme (1972) 18-27, Antichite Cretese (Studi Levi I), 0 fig. 229 b ; Grrida, 60 6a and Arch. Ho m. E, 62 ; Guida, Armi 1 275-77. similar motifs on other vases, like IBAI2| 1957,72 fig. 33), which may have imitated other ancestors of the boars's tusk helmet. Cf. Makkay, Acta Arch. Hung.34 1982,3-22. na Kukahn, Der griechische Heln (1936) 3-5;Lorimer, HM 47 3 Borchhardt, Helme (1972) 60. Ialyssos: Lorimer, HM (1950) 2llt. pl. 13:1; Dendra: Verdelis, AM8 2 (1967) 42-44 pl. 20 : 2-3 ; Astrcim-Verdelis, Cuirass Tomb (1977) 49t. p|.21 4-5. 5t Cf. the representations on the Katsamba and Isopata vases, Guida (1973) pt. 29:1,3-4. 63 A.-52 Sakellariou, in 09 tig. 228 : 1, p. 57 a3 Borchhardt, Helme (1972) 28f . ar.d Arch. Hom. E, 62. A Harding brought to my attention a pottery lid of the Gumelnifa culture (IBAf rc 1,952, t49t. fig. 129:4) and ISIMA 66-8. Catling, Bronzework (1964) 137L pl. 17; Guida, Armi (1973) pls. 37:1,4 d.nd 40:1-2: Schaeffer, in Alasia I (1971) 506-10 pls. 1-7. 67 Guida, Armi (1973) pl. 33:2. 68 Verdelis, AM 78 (1963) 10-24;for the date of the pottery cf. Styrenius, Submycenaean Srudies (Lund 1967) 135. 6n H. Catling, Arch. Hom. E. 106, considers them parts of a corslet lining similar to those frorn Kallithea (below III. 1.3.3). 70 Courbin, BCH81 (1957) 356f ,; similar crested helmets on EGAW (1.963) 8 note 20 andfig. l n. For the tripod legs cf. e.g. F. Willemsen, DrerTusskessel von Olympia (Berlin 1957) 88ff., handles pl. 39:B 1267, pl. 44:Br 13504,1318 and pls. 53-60. 71 Idaean Cave: Kunze, Kretische Bronzereliefs (1931) no. 1 pls. 1-2, no. 3 pls. 4-5 and no. 5 pls. 10-20; Brock, Fortetsa (1957) 134 no. 1568f, pls. 1i5-116, 168-169 Kavousi: AJA 5 (1901) 147t. figs. 10-11. It is, of course. unclear from the illustrations whether these helmets were constructed from two lateral parts like the Tiryns cap. vases Snodgrass, 72 73 Cf . Verdelis , AM 7I 1963, mania 40 (1962) 274. I 1| L8-24 ; Miiller-Karpe, Ger- Cf. e.g. Arch. Hom. E 1, pls. 12_13 B. Schweitzer. Geometrische Kunst Griechen,lands (Kiiln 1959) pls. t17--123, 126, 159-1,65, t69-17 5, 182-187 . 7a Kukahn, Heln (1936) 15ff.; Snodgrass, EGAW (196-t) 13-16; Kunze, alympia Ber. VI (1958), 118-125: Borchhardt, Helme (1972) 63-5. 1 ft. ,lt : - -a 'q fil .YXr4 75 76 filL, RE:LAI'IONS OF'rF{E L,\TE h,{YCENAEAN Cf . Snridgrass, ECA W( l 964) 35 note i ?0 {nhis is, ot couisa, a less plrirable derivation). H. See-ci".n, ?&e decorarion of ttre Filinges corslet {},{erhart, Orlgrnes 1954, Sfandiirg Armec! Figunnes in *le l_evant, ea I--1 (i9'S0) Cf" atso Guida, Armi i1973) I00f. pls. 38-39 and Eouzek. /?S 38 (J972) 156_-_i64 far the PBF figurines found in the Aegean. 77 Cf. Schauer, Fundber. aus ScJrwalren 53ff . and e.g. Fiotrovskij , Karrair BlurI e6 (Jei.evan 1950) figs. Sjiiqvist, j,roblems of tlte Late CypriotBronze Age{ig.2A:3. P. Astrrinr. SCjl lV:I C, -3 14, T_v-pe 55 b. ,Archaic helm"tu, SCE Itr'-2, i4A fig.24, cf. also SCE Ii. 610f, 5"35 nos. 130 Acta 10t R6K 3A G940i ,t*--42. Arc!]. Hung. S (19S5) 35__5a; l{enck_ (Ha A 1); 143 pls. i03 Carling, Arch. Hom E, 104 Mozsoli:s. Acta Arch. Hung.5 (195.5) 35_37;Merhart. (1940) 5 fig.2:2; Hencken, Heimets (7971) l_"j .RCK.30 (LG III_CA i rrs sert, Al t a natolie n figs. ;176---g 0 Schauer, ; Fundberi chte .:; Hessen 19-20 (197g_80) 532_S. -, -tda, Armi ( i,973t nl ). ) 3 K1rle, tlrgeschichte des Kronlandes Salzbury,B0 ff. fie. i: : lVfiitter-Karpe, Germania 4a e962) 277 ::ncken, He,lmefs (i971) 53 fig. 31. "_;;;';, Ber. RGK 30 (194q 37 fig, B:3_,4. Cf. also rhe l5l:5. I) and Idalion Tomb Deiphi, Snodgrass, EGAW (1964) 86 note 42 and Otympia, Funclber.. ausliessen Sfudi in onor.e F. Rittatore fiii.f.Z.a arrd " 'u' Carling, AA (197A) 441_4 tigs. 1_2; Karageorghis:Masson, AA (197 5) 211t., 2j.6,figs. 4 and 11. I_Jterfrcm lft (Como 19BZi 7 01_25. He.reken, Helmets (1571) 146f.; Mozsoiics, Acta Arch. Hung. 5 (1955) 37 fig. 3; Merharr, Ber. RGK 30 (1940) i6-28 : cf . also Bouzek, Festscfir v. Brunn {1981) note 9. Keniencei, Folia arch" 30 1g7g,7g_gg. ij tf 475 ff. pt. 126 A-K. U. Obrink. Hata Suttan ?'ekj<e 5 {SIMA XLV: 5 ), p. a4 tig. 203a; Gastria-,Alaas grave 12, lXth cent.:Karageorghis- 538:236. SCEIT 62-5 pt. 172. ^_ (i959) 1i3. Cf. Schauer, RGZM Ma'nz 13 l966,3l_36;W. Jons, Die Kanr,r,h"tme ron Bietresheim . Fundber. aus Hessen 12 (1g72) li_tS; FIe ncken, Helnets (1971) 56_123 Hencken, Ifelmets (1971) 58_65. High conical helmets .:e. of eourse, eariier in the East Mediterranean l7g:6 (197 8er. ,RGK 30 (1940) 5 fig" 1 :12; Mtiller_Karpe, \{erharr, Ber. RGK 30 (l 940) 16_20; Fesctrieck, Jb Eckhard, 5) 2A9f . ttg. 1 ; Enkomi, AA (.igl 5) 21 I -Masson, AA fig. 3. Later from Cyprus .Anrathus Tomb 2,Si, SCe il, "13:57 pt. 5:150 rvalde, Sczecin -Zdrole and Fermo, prov. Ascoli pjceno. I4erharr, Ber. RGK 30 (1940) 37. Ghislanzoni. Riv. Arch. Como96_9g,7 fig. 11; Merharr, I-2, Apolda g7-96; Snodgrass, EGAW (1964) 8.1-86 ; Lorimer, HM (1950) ig6_199 Ch. Starr, l{uz.i I, : (197i) 1s-5_7. I'or,.wi/ler Kr. Schmieclehausen, .^"Mitteldcutschtands(j9a7) '"'(-f. Snodgrass. EGArV1 tg64) 4.13 157 (type Tarquinia). Another earlier transitionat type ,as produced in the East Alpine region: Reglitz near l.intrr- . 56. Altthilrinsen 6 (1962_.63) 30j,, 303f . pi. :O 1Au a t;. lVerssig and Schmiedehausen also o. Brunn, Itortfunde . 19-2A fr979-80) 522-31; rd e gn a nu r a ghic a (Ca gliari I 95 6) f igs. de Sus : petrescu__l)imtrovita, D epazitale tl, 97 7 ) pl. 2 5 1 : Z s " llood. BS.4 -11 11052 ) 259f " M-'rhart. Ber. RCK 3t) ( iqlO, I2 ; Miiller-Karpe, Cltronol,.ry:ie r l95a) t l.r pl. I2h A 1 ; Hencken, F{elmefs Chronologie d e ll a S a Lueg helmet cf" note 92. Weissig: Kleernann, pZJ2_33 (1941-42) 74, 79 fig. tr3 ; Wriliersdorf,,Ausiria: Miilter_ ---Karpe. Chronatogie (1979) 113 pl. 13d : (Br 1 D) ; Uioara en, Ilelmets (1971) 32_-39 ; Miiller_Karp e, G*mania 40 1 9 62) 27 1 5 ; Novorn6, Sh o r nik f il. I ak. U niv.Bra rjsJa va -9 Musaica XV (1964) 19_43; Bouzek, f:esrsi.li;:. r,. Brunn -(1e81) 21_2s. 82 Me.rharr, Ber. RGK 30 (19I0) 13___15; siraiiarl.y ldenck*n, Helmets 1.971, 157 frgs. 124_125; Bcuzek, FesascAr. r,. Brunn (1\)81) 23f. ' Scu/f ura 63-6'l ,95. Cf. Grdslund, ?-OR (1g65^56i Schauer. Fundber. aus I{esser l9_2a 09i9*_s0) 510f. 1'1 A survey Flencken, .F{elmefs (1 97 tr 17 I_1 S2 ) "For the Fass ( t5 ae. F{. Liliu, and l3e. G.v. rVcrharr, Eer" pl.66:37 Nr:rriing-Chiistensen, ,Acta Aich. KabenhavnlT {1g45) Ir{iilier*tr{arpe, Germartia 4A Gg62\ 273f.: Idencken. I{elmefs (197 1} 169-17 4.. e7 ir*orling-Christensen, c.c. 10gf. figs. 9-10. es fr.{erhart, Eer. RGK 30 (1g4CI) 15 tig. + , a_S and p. 25. en Zervos, La e"ivi/isaficin de Ia Sardiigne, figs" 176, 1Bif.; 7t Catting, Eronzework (11)54) J3it. pt. 17. Enkorni krater: Karageorghis, AJA 62 (1 qsg) pi. 101 : 12 ; A. Mozsolics. Vinski_Gasparini, Kultur-a polia (1t)73) 97 99-i15; 19_20 {1g7g_E{lJ 7q 81 Szointrathy, fotitt. Friih. o(olrrin. lVier Z Oq1r 152f. frgs. podcrkavlje-Slavonski Brod 101-6; JJ. J5. 80 CITLTURE 1 AI.IY pt.60:984. Catling, Arch. EIomE, 96 ancl AA (1570) 448t. ]i" tr Xr i{ff .: Lorimer. HM ttg50) 20g. "'* Guida. Armi (197 3) 5 if. ; Catting, Arch. IIom. E, B4-7. Cf. aiso the breasr plates iro. nay""nuq' frro, Schachtgriiber (1 930) pt. 54f. Snodgrass ; , a"aC liset; ZS. 0e _snodgrass, K ad m o s E. 97f. 1r0 9 6 S) g 6 -1 1 0; Carli ng, Arcfi. .EIom. AAG lS67 ) 24 ; Catling, Arch. Ham E, 97 f . Carling. Arch. Hom. E,98t.. '!06f.; Guida Armj Snodgrass" "' ('f. 4 (1 1 (1973) 52t., sgf. 112 Cf. Catling, Arch. Ham. E, rc3t., rc$. For European similar sheets cf. e.g. the gold band from.Kir, Hu*prt. Bronzkor I, pl. 1 1g:29 and the bronze sheet frorn patos in Aibania. Korkuti. Itiria 19i11/1, 44 pt. 7 1g.uu. V OS;. E. Petres, Amlrer Roufe colloquium Sroibuthrly lOg2, Savaria 76 1982 (1983) 63_.4. tig. 12, suggests thJt similar more ornamental bands from the Carpathian area are also of ccrslers and shields. Cf. aiso p. Schauer Arch" Korr bl. 12 , (1S82) 335-.49 on leather corslets decorated with bosses. 1r'' Sam. 1t-. S-7: cf. esp. K. Galling, ,"Goiiath und seine J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 226 Riistung", Vetus testamentum suppl' XV (1965) 150-169' r1a Cf. Sandars, Sea Peoples (1978) I25; Catling, Arch' Hom' E, 102f., 3l fig. 4 ab; Lorimer, HM (1'950) 200; Catling' Bronzework (1964) Pl. 10. 115 Catling, Arch.Hom.E, 103-4. 116 Panzer der jiingeren Bronzezeit aus der Slowakei, Ber' RGK49 (1963) (1970), 4l-4t; cf. aslo A' Snodgrass, The first European body armour, in Studies Hawkes (1971) 31-50; Bouzek, in Festschr. v. Brunn(1981)25-28:G'v' Merhart, in Oilgines (Como 1954) 33 ft' 53' 60' 117 Paulik, Ber. RGK 49 (1968) 56. l1s Klein-Klein, Sv. Vid, Vrpolje, Stidne, Novo Mesto are the main localities with finds of corslets of the East Alpine Hallstatt group. Cf. Merhart, Origines (1954) pls' 3:1-3 and Sifula I, 5 fig. I : l-2 andpp.21-68, pl. 7 fig' 6' For the t36 131 the greaves fastened with cords, CVA Betlin AM 7 5 (1960) 57-59 pl. 26 and tig. 3. 120 Chronologie 1959, pl. 148:80) part of a corslet' Cf. already A. Hagemann, Griechische Panzerung (1979) 11 ff. Courbin, BCH 8l (1957) 340-56 pls. 2-3; Snodgrass, EGAW (1964)73-76: Catling, Arch. Hom'F, 1'16-L8' 122 Catling, A r ch. Ho m. E, | 46f ' ; G rida' A r mi (197 3) 68f '' 7 4' r23 Karo, Schachtgriiber (1930) 219-21pls. 67-8 ; Lorimer, HM (1950) 253f.; Snodgrass, EGAW (1964) 72 note 4; Catling, Arch. Hom.E, l47f . 12a Lorimer, HM (1950) 251f.; Guida (1'973) 73-76 pls' "19-21 ; Catling, Arch. Hom.E, 150-2. Cf' also M' Lang, 121 1" PyloslI,45 pls' 65, 68-71' 78; M. Bowra, Mnemosyne14 (1961)97 ff. Guida, Armi(1973) 73 f., pls' 21-22 (Warrior Vase and Warrior Stele) and pl. 33:1( the Lefkandi fragment)' 126 C. Schaeffer, in Alasia | (1971), 506-10' fig. 2 pl VI; Guida, Armi (1973) d. aA' 127 Most recent survey Catling, Arch. Hom. E, 152-7' 149, cf ' in the list and B ovzek, F estscht v. Brunn Hom. Griechenland (1'969) 40-43. 128 Bou)ek, Eirene 19 (1982) L01t. (1 98 1 ) 28-30 ; ib', Main suileys: Merhart, Bet. RGK 37-38 (1956-57) t2e ; W. Dehn, Zeitschtifthist' Vereinsf ' SchwabenT4 27 ; P. Schauer, in : Ausgtabungen in D eutsch' 9l-147 (1980) -33 landl-1,Ig75,308-1,1; K. Kilian, Getmania 5l (1973) 528-35; Bouzek, Festschr. v. Brunn (1981) 28-30' Merhart, Ber. RGK37-38 (1956-57)95' Alexiou, Anfiquity23 (1954 212: Yalouris, AM75 (1960) 45;Bouzek, 130 Hom. Griechenland (.1969) 40; Catling, Arch' Hom' E 154' t31 Dehn, Zeitschr. hist. Vereins f. SchwabenT4 (1980) Bouzek, Festschr. v. Brunn (1981) 37 notes3l-34; Kilian' Germania 5L (1973) 528_35. ln the western Balkans 3l; especially Iljak in Bosnia, and Dobrac in Albania, in Italy Canosa, Pontecagnano, Torre Galli near Monteleone and Malpensa near Somma Lombardo, in southern France Aven de Plerimond, AuPs' Draguignan. 132 Snodgrass, EGAW (1964) 87f. Arch- Hom. E 158f' '33 EGAW 1L964) 87, cf. Catling, 130 Hom.E l44f' Arch. cf. Catling, Chalkoknemides, 13s A Protoattic amphora in Berlin, painted c. 680 B'C', shows 1,pls.43-44' AM 82 (1967) 40-42 tig. 9; Astrom-verdelis, Cuirass Tomb (1977) 48f., Fig. 1'4, pt. 2l : 1'-3. 138 AM75 (1960) 43 fig. 33; cf. above III.1.4.4. 138" A possible exception are the "ankle-guards" from Nadap' Petres, Savaria 16 (1982) 64-75 fig. 13. t3e 111.1..1.2 and 3; IIL1.2 C;111.1.3.2; III.1.4.3. 1a0 For the latter cf' e.g. Drslavice, hoard: Kudera, Ptavdk (1904) 48-40,131-136, pls. 1-2, 4-6, 8-10' 141 Cf. J. Bouzek, "The simple repouss6 decoration on Early Greek bronzes", Eirene 19 (1982) 100-109. For the earliest tools for hammering bronze sheet cf. A. Jockenhdvel' 7-ll, Gerinania60 (1982) 459--47 Marmesse corslets see in the list. lle Thrane, Acta Arch. Ksbenhavn 32 (1962) considers also one fragment from the Winklsass hoard (Miiller-Karpe' ISIMA ' 2. WEAPONS 1 Sprockhoff, Griffzungenschwerter (L93l); Cowen, Ber' RGK 36 (1955) 52-155; Congrds UISPP Beograd vol. III (1973),26-29; Bouzek, in Alasial (1971) 433-48' 2 E. Chantre, Etudes pal6oethnologiques dans le Bassin du Rh6ne, Album i (1875) pl. 15 bis 3 ;Sandars' AJA67 (1963) 125; Randsborg, Acta Arch. Kobenhavn33 (1967) 11 note 15 fig. 7 A. 3 Cf. Sandars, AJA 67 (1963) L43f.; Miiller-Karpe, Germania 40 (1962) 262-4; Randsborg, Acta Arch' Ksbenhavn 38 (1967) 9-12. a Randsborg, Acta Arch. Kabenhavn 38 (1967) 9t., 17-20; Sandars, A J A 67 (1' 9 63) 1' 4 6fI. and in S/udies Ha wkes (1'97 L) 10f. 5 Miiller-Karpe, Germania 40 (1962) 264 ; Randsborg, Acra Arch. Ksbenhavn 38 (1967) 9. But cf. also the Smolenice group, Cowen' PPS 32 (1'966) 268-300, for other early swords Schauer, Friihe Griffzungenschwefiet' Ib. RGZM Mainzlg (1972) 39-44 6 J. Vladd., "Die Dolche in der Slowakei", PBF VI-3 (1974)51f .nos. 151-153; J. Paulik, Slov' Arch' 11' (1963) 3 10-323 : E. Patek, Acta Atch. Hung' 22 (197 0) 33, 37 pl' 3:3; I. B6na, Herrmann Otto Mrtzeum Evk\nyve 3 (1963) 26, 3l. Ct. Sandars, AIA 67 (1963) 732 ff . Randsborg, Acra again' is Arch. Ksbenhavn3S (1967) 17 note 40. more sceptical -Harding, 7 AlA67 (1963) 137,152. 8 Sandars, o.c. pp. 120, 1'22 and 144-6. e Sandars, o.c. pp. 1.32f ., 149f. 10 Sandars, o.c. pp.133-40 and 150-53. Types F and G are also, as it seems, the types represented on the ideograms of the Pylos tablets, cf. Ventris-Chadwick' Documenfs in 11 Mycenaean Greek (Cambridge 1959) 360f. Cf. Desborough, Last Mycenaeans (1964) L77 and Catling' PPS 22 (1956) 113f. note 9. The type F sword apparentl]' belongs to the earlier interment. Yalouris, Arch. Delt. 19 (1964) Chr' 181 pl. 199 (grave 1)' 13.Yalouris, Arch.Delt. 19 (1964) Chr. 181 pl.202(gtave4)- 12 11 Group H. Sandars, AJA 67 (1963) 140-42' I53. t5 Bronze cut-and-thrust swords in the Eastern Mediterranean PPS 22 (1956) 102-25; A new bronze sword from Cyprus .t 1fi, l fli . ! !t 5 lJ Br *C ; qiu \ xxNl THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULTURE 227 L'! 36 (196I) 115-122; Bronzework (L964) 113-Il7; "Late Minoan vases and bronzes in Oxford", Antiquity BSA 63 (1968) 89-104. Classifications Antiquity35 (1,96I) 19f ; Bouzek, Sfudies Drkaios (197 9) 49-52. i.16 For the European parallels and their classification, cf. below ., . 1 j.. 1il.2.4.1. SiCowen, VIIF congrds IJISPP Beograd lll (1973), 28; 18 t Bouzek, Bouzek, in AIasiaI (1971) 440. in Alasial (1971) 440t.,447f. re Cf . Snodgras s, EGAW (1964) %-1,00 ; his classification is, however, of a general character. 20 Brock, Fortetsa,130 pl. 170 no.7629 (Protogeometric B or Late Geometric?). For Bulgaria cf. Bouzek, in Alasia I (1971) 441 note 25 and Fanayotov*Ivanov, Archeologija Sotia (1979/1,) 30-32. pps 14 (1948) 184; Mitojdi6, Germania30 (1952) 21 Childe, 97. 22 Tripod Schaeffer, Ilgaritica IIl, 262-5 fig. 225; dating Catling, Bronzework (1964) 202t. 23 Sprockhoff, Griffzungenschwerter (1931) 13-21 with the list pp. 71 ff ; J. D. Cowen, "Die Einfiihrung in die Geschichte der bronzenen Griffzungenschwerter in Siiddeutschland und in den angrenzenden Gebieten", Ber. RqK 36 (1955) 63-71 (type Nenzingen); P. Schauer, Die Schwerter in Stiddeutschland, )sterreich und der Schweiz I, PBF IV-2 {1971) (type Reutlingen) ; V. Bianco Peroni, Die Schwerter in Italien, PBF IV-1 (1970) 59-65 (types Treviso, Cetona, Allerone, cf. also the sword from the Trasimeno Lake); P. Novdk, Die Schwerter in der Tschechoslowakeil, PBF IV-4 (1975),20-22; A. Alexandrescu, "Die Bronze- schwerter aus Rumiinien", Dacia l0 (1966) 134f.; Bouzek, in Alasia I | (1971), 442-4 ; Vinski-Gasparini, Kulfura polja (L97 3) 109f. ; Cowen, Bericht V. Kongress UISPP Hamburg(1,958) 247 4 and Acf es V IIf co n gr d s U ISPP B eo gr ad lII (1 97 3), a ! -1 d 27t. For Bulgaria cf . (l979ll) 29-33 180-84. 2t Cowen, : lr Kongress IJISPP Hamburg 1958 (1961,) congrds UISPP Beograd III (1973) 27; 209-11; VIIP : !n lff TilT rd Ir[ n 4 r V. Panayotov-Ivanov, Archeologija Sofia I. Panayotov, Thracia 5 (1980) and, $|til, rS[ 6n" @, 25 Mozsolics. Bronzefunde (1973) 25. Sprockhoff, Griffzungenschwerter (1930) 1-8; Cowen, Ber. RGK 36 (1955) 56---60. Also in all PBF volumes quored in note 23 ; Mozsolics, Bronzefunde (197 3) 27 -9 ; Bouzek, in Alasia l (197 1), 438, 442. 26 Vinski-Gas parini, Kultura polj a 197 3, p\s. 3 1-34 ; Cf . also Mozsolics, Bronzefunde (197 3), 26-30. 27 Cf. Miiller-Karpe, Germania 40 (196\ 26a. 28 For the lists cf. note 23, for southern yugoslavia adde : Sivec and Krklino, Kat. Urgeschichte Makedoniens (1976) nos. 507, 503, four swords from Topolnica, Caf. Nif (1971) no. 452; VIIP congrds UISPP (197 1) 3 1 fig. 5. For Bulgaria cf. I. Panayotov, Thracia 5 (1980) 1S0 ff. figs. 3-4 (Orjahovo, Bajkal); for Albania F. Prendi, Iliria 7-8 (1980), 34ff. re Cowen, 36. Ber. RGI( (197 5) 24t.; Alexandrescu Bouzek, in Alasia | variety Cowen, VIIP (1955) 76f.; Nov6k, Schwerter , Dacia 1.0 (1966) 135f . (Slimnic) ; (1971), 444f.; for the related Sisak congrds UISPP Beogradvol. III (1 973), 271 ; Ztpotockj', Pam. arch.60 (1969) 288-90 tigs. 8:2-4 and 9:1. 30 For the so-called Slavonian type, which is not listed here, cf. Cowen, VI. congresso UISPPRoma, vol. II (1965), 446tt.; congrds UISPP Beograd, vol. (1973),28; yin- VIIf I[ ski-Gasparini , Kultura polja (1973\ 85 ; J. Dular, Bronasti jezidastoradanji medi iz Slovenije, in: Pojavski muzej BreLice, Varia Archaeologica (1974\ 11-26. 31 Schauer, Schwerterl (1971) 164-66 (type Stiitzling);Bianco Peroni, Schwerter (1970) 66-70 (type Alerone); for the swords in the Swedish collections which are missing in her.list cf , Bouzek, Alasia 7 (197 1) 445t. ; Novrlk, Schwerterl (197 5) 23f ,; Z6potock!, Pam. arch.60 (1969)288,29Afig.9:2-4. Cf. also for the north Sprockhoff, Griffzungenschwerter (1931) 21-23 (type IIb). 32 Miiller-Ka rpe, Germania 40 (1962) 264. 33 Cowen, Ber. RGK36 (1955) 73-7g. 3a Bouzek, in Alasia I (197 1), 43gt.The distinction is mainly to show northern parallels of both Catling's varieties. 35 Alexandrescu, Dacia 10 (1966) 136f.; Cowen, Actes VII? congris IJISPP Beograd vol. III (1973), 28. 36 Bouzek, in Alasia (1971) 440f., 447t.; cf. also panayo- I tov-Ivanov, Archeologija Sofia (19791I) 30f. and Panayotov, Thracia 5 (1980) 182t. tig. 4:2-4. 37 Cf. Woolley, Alalakh (Oxford 1955) pl. 72Kn 4. 38 Zur Gruppierung mitteleuropdischer Griffzungendolche der speten Bronzezeit, Bad. Fundber.20 (1956) 59-92; in the north Randsborg, Acta Arch. Ksbenhavn3g (1968) 3e a0 llt. Miloliio, Jb. RGZM Mainz 2 (1955) 158f.; Boardman, Cretan Coll. in Oxford (1961) thesis 1972, 73-17 ;Harding, 1,97-200; Foltiny, Arch. HomtE 2,271. Peroni, Bad. Fundber. 20 (1956) 70, 72. Peroni, o.c. 84 and 87, pls. 3-4, maps 2-3. Jb. RGZM Mainz2 (1955) 158. Peroni, Bad. Fundber. 20 (1956) 74-81 ; Miiller-Karpe, Chronologie (19 59) 20, 1 03ff ., 1 83, 1 S5. aa Scoglio del Tonno: Peroni, o.c. p. 82, no. 26 pl.6:20; Miiller-Karpe, o.c. pl. 107:1. Harding, rhesis 1972, lgg mentions two other daggers with midrib from peschiera, and mus. Perugia inv. 2454 as the nearest parallels to the Greek daggers. They have midrib, not blood channels, but the outline of the blade is similar. a5 Peroni, Bad. Fundber.20 (1956) 84 and 87; for Hungary cf. Mozsolics in Sfudies Hawkes (197I) 64-66. a6 Bad. Fundber. 20 1956,7lff. Peroni's scheme starts with four "classical" most sophisticated types, and develops to others, which he considers "crosses" of his first types; this scheme does not appear to be quite convincing. tt Hi;fing in Upper Austria (his list no. 10g), possibly Feiting (his list no. 38). a8 Cf . e.g. his nos. 30, Pantalica 23 (with knife and mirror), 54 Morzg, 75 Scamozzine di Albairate, 80 and 110 Velkd Host6rddky, 85 Hagenau-Donauberg, tumulus 5, 107 St. Andra near Etting, 1.27 Canegrate, 186 Unter-sijchering near Riegsee, 187 Hovby. ae Examples: Oggiono: Ghislanzoni, Riv. Arch. Como96-9g, 4 fig. 4 ; Sdflund, Terremare(1939) pl, 50 :2-3; Isetti, Sfudi genuensi 2 (1958/59) 51f. fig. 2; HelJ, WpZ 36 (1939) J.BOUZEK. THEAEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 228 1,54-756: Mozsolics, Bronzefunde (lSi 3) pl. 37 : B 2: Yinski-Gasparini , Kultura poljapl. 6L:24 and 7 4: A 1 ; Petrescu-Dimbovita, Depozitele (X977) pl. 52 ,9 and 29L: 5a For B 2-3 ct. e.g. Petrescu-Dimtrovita, Depozitele (1977) pl. 58 :6 ; 93 : tr1 ; 143 :8 ;202: 5 ; Vinski-Gasparini, Kulfura polja (1.913) pL.32:5,8-1.3 ;37 :19 ;61 :22-23; i\{ozsolics, 14-t5. Bronzefunde(1973) pl. 33 ; l4 ;Miiller-Karpe, Chronologie (1959) Pl. 13:17 (Scoglio del Tonno), 15: 15-16 ;2A C 1 and D 5;57:8. Cf. also for B 2 Holste, Ilorttunde (1951) pl. 2 : 24-25 ; 7 : 30 ; 10 : 13 ; 1 5 : I ; 22 : 22 ; 28 : 19--20 : 32 : 30 ; 38:24;42:27; fnr B 3 o.c. pi. 15 :18;18:27 ;32:5:48:24: N. Sandars, Antiquity 3s (1964) 261f.;Bouzek in Tiryns V (1971)70-72, Studies Dikaios (1979) 49-52. 51 Snodgrass, EGAW (1954) 116-121; O. Hrickmann, -Arc&. Hom.8,275-318; Jb. RGZM Mainz2T 1980,64-76 50 (groups I-K). 52 Desborough, Last Mycenaeans (1963) 66f.; Snodgrass, EGAW (t964) tte. s3 Snodgrass, EOAW (1964) type N p. 128, type E p.12lt. 5a Cf. Sandars, Antiquity38 (1964)26lL 55 Jacob-Friesen, Nordiscfi e Lanze ns pitzen (I9 67 ) 220-22 4 map 13; Miiller-Karpe, Hanauer Land {1948) 46ff.; W.A.v.Brunn, Mitteldeutsche Hortfunde (1968) 34t, 56 Snodgrass, EGAW (1964) 120. 57 Snodgrass, EGAW (1964) type A p. ll6f,Type T p. 131. sB AA(1948-49)2ott" 5e O. H,ijckmam, Jb. RGZM Mainz2T (1980) 123-125. E. Sprockhoff , Ho rtf unde IV. P e r. (1937 ) 3 I ; Y . P e r. (1 9 5 6) 84. 60 Catling, Bronzework (1964) 134t., cf. also Woolley Alalakh , (1955) p. 71 : Sp. 1 and Megiddo, Tombs pl. 94:4. Similar butt spikes seem to be depicted on the Warrior Vase, cf. 49:19and34. Snodgrass, EGAW (1964) 1 16-1 19, type A. 6u Milo;die, AA (1947-48) i6, 31f.; cf. Snodgrass, EGAW 65 (1964) 120. For Itaiy zenspitzen (1967) has no parallel studies for Central Europe. In general, the spearheads are more varied and show less specific types than e.g. the swords. For type A 2 cf. for ex. : Petrescu-Dimbovita, Eepozitele (1971) pl. 16:3; 251 4;291: 2'1 19:9-I0'93:7-B; 143:8;25A: 11 ,2A; (1973)pl. 13 ; Vinski-Gasparini, Kulfu ra polja :?-4-26, 32:7 ; 50:16, 60l" Mozsolics, Bronzefunde (1973) 33t. pl. 44:3 and -57:D 12; Ilolste, Hortfunde Sridosfeuropas ( 1 95 1 ) pl. 2 : 22-23 ; 7 : 29 ; 4 : Il-1 2, 16 ; 15 4; 15:34-35; 19:1,3-14, 33-34:' 21 3A; 22:21; 1" 32:6; 45:38; 48:'l; 50:54; Brunn, Mittcldeutsche Hortfunde (1,968) pl. 3 1 : 9, 11 ; 39 : 9 ; 17 7 : 12 : 1 99 : 5. There are also some parallels from ltaly (e.g. Miiller-Karpe, Chronologie (1959) pl. 4l B 4), Switzerland (from SutzBielersee and from Auvernier in Landesmus, Ziirich) and in the Nordic area (Jacob Friesen, Nordi'sc&e Lanzenspitzen (1e67) pt. rca). 62 A brief survey of spearheads with facetted socket Jacob Friesen, Nordische Lanzenspitzen (1967) 235f. For northern Yugoslavia cf. Vinski-Gasparini, Kulfura polja {1973} pl. 129 :2 (Matijeviii) and Szombathy, Mitt. ptiih. Kcmm. Wien lI--2 (191,2) fig. 34 (Fliegenhdhle near Skocijan), for Italy e.g. Miiller-K arpe, Chronolo eie (1'9 59) pls. 20 : B 5, 36 : 3, 63 40B3andD5,41A2,398L. For B 1 cf. Holste, Hortfunde (1951) pl. 20:5 (Rudnik in Serbia); Foltiny, Zur Chronologie der Bronzezeit im Karpathenbecken{ 1 955) pl. 52 : 1 and 1 3 (K6r and "Hungary") ; Arch. Ert. 22 (1902) 274f.. pl. I: 15 (Takta-Ken6z); Riv. Arch. Como 96-98, 7tl. fig.3 (Oggiono); Petrescu-Dirnbovita, Depozitete (1977) pl. 19:8 (Pdulis), 294:8 (Zlatna and 299 11 (Bhdeni); Miilier-Karpe, Chtonol+gie (1959) pl. 13:17 (Scoglio del Tonno). II) cf . Miiller-Karpe, Chronologie (1959) pl.57:9,83 :23, for the Balkans: Vinski-Gasparini, Ku/fura polja (197 3) pl. 67 : 14, 8 1 : 1 0, 108 : 30, 32 ; 1lA : 16 : 125 :B 6 r D. GaraSanin, Katalog metala Beograd(1954)pI.38:6-7 l7 ; Petrescu-Dimbovita, Depozitele (.1977) pl. 1.30:8, and299:7 ;315:20-21 ;356:17 ;tlolste, Hortfunde (1951) pl. 15:18. For the central and northern Europe cf. and 297 :5 and Jacob-Friesen, Brunn, F{orffunde (X 96 8) pl. 3 L : 7 -l1. .Nordiscfie Lanzenspitzen (1967) pl. 145:10. 57 Snodgrass, EGAW (1964) 136_139 ;Bucholz, Gnomon3g (.1967) 78; G. Ahlberg, Fighting on Land and Sea in Greek Geometric Art,45f . 68 Mozsolics, Bronzefunde (19'1 3) 18 pl. 33 : 1 2 (Gemsze-Egyt- terdrj, 37:5 (Csongrrid), 39:1 (Kispal:id), 42:4 {Haj- Lorimer, HM (1950) 261 note 3. 6l The monumental work by Jacob Friesen, jVordiscle Lan' ISIMA dhhC"h6z)" 77 A 5 (Pdneszlek); Petrescu-Dimbovita, Depozitele (1977) pl.5ti:78 (Tirgu Ldpus) and 91 1-2 (Drajna-de-Jos). 6e H.-G. Buchholz, "Die Pfeilgl,iitter aus dem VI. Schachtgratr von Mykenii and die heliadischen Pfeilspitzen" , JdI77 {1962) 1-58. t0 R. Mercer, "Metal arrowheads in the European Bronze and Early Iron Ages", PFS 36 (1970) L'l1.-2L3" Sefltind, Terrenare (1939) pl. 57:7-9,1'1.. 72 Seflund, Terremare (1939) pl. 63:L-1A. 73 Schaehermeyr, A,gdische Friihzeit V (19S2) 81. - For the arrcrw-lreads cf, now R. .L Avila, Bronzene Lanzen- u. Pfeilspitzen der griechischen Spdtbronzezeit (PEF V-1, Miinchen 1983). 71 3. WEA.PONS AND ARMOUR r - CONCLUSIONS Local schools of the Aegean bronzework of European inspira- tion, in Sfudies presented in memory of Porphyrias Dikaios (Nicosia 1979) 49-52. 2 Bestillustration S. Foltiny, AJA 68 (1964) 254 pl. 76:28. 3 Notably most of the Mycenae pieces, cf . in IlI.5.1,lists a--c. n Cf . Catling, Arch. IIom.E 1, rc4t.; Snodgrass, AAG (1,967) 24-27. 5 Cf. Bouzek, Fes/scir.v.Brunn (1981) 32_34. 6 AA 1948-49, 1.2-35. Cf. Bouzek, Ilorn. Griechenland (1969) 33-43,92t. 'lDl t- F 4. TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS 1 A. Harding, "M-ycenaean Greece and Europe: the evidence '!! tn YXUl & TI-{E RELATiONS OF THE L.{TE \I}'CENAEAN CULIURE of bronze tools and implements", PPS41 (1915) 183-202: Bronze agricultural implements in Bronze Age Europe. in: Froblems of Econamic and Social Archaeologl. ed. G.de Sieveking a.o. (London 1975) 51.3_522; cf. also in his diss. (1e72) 122-13s. ' na ps$-+g) 15,23; Jb. RGZM Mainz2 (1955) 156-8 with fig. 1. 3 N. Sandars, "The antiquity of the one-edged bronze knife in the Aegean", PPS 21 (1955) 174-197, esp. pp. 183-187. a H. Mi.iller-Karpe, pZ "Griinwalder Griiber", 34-35 (1949-50) 320; cf. also Boardman, Cretan Collection t1961) 17t., and for the Italian knives Bianco Peroni Die rllesser rn Ilalien, PBF YII-2 (1976); general relations Deshayes, Outds (1950) U,, 123 tt. 5 tvtitoSiie, h. RGZM lufainz2 (1955) 156f. ; Sandars, ppS 21 S55, 1 85. The Estavayer piece P. Keller, 3. pfahlbaubeilcht 1864, fl" 22. 6 Miiller-Karp pZ e, 34-35 (1949-50) 318-20. ,.The Lef- ' kandi knife recalls the Mattrei variety.', cf. Harding, ppS 41 5) 197f . and Miiller-K arpe, Chronotogie (1,959) pt. 87 B. For the East Alpine parallels cf. also J. R.ihovskf, Die Messer rn Miihren und dem Ostalpengebiet, pBF VII-1 For ihe simpler shape withour {1972} 31-34, pis. 8-9. - "stopridge" cf. Rihovskli, o.c. pls. 6-9; Vinski--Gasparini, Kultura polja (1973) pl.31:2 and46:49 (Feketot, Uioara de Sus); for rnore sophisticated East Alpine knives Hoiste, o.c. pl. 2:3,5-6 (Feravei),5:27 (Atok-privlaka) and 15:11 (Gornja Vrba). 7 Rihovskf, Messer in Mdhren (1972) pts. 8-10 (types Malhostovice, Vcisendorf, Pustimdi, Hradec). Other parallels e.g. Peschiera, I!{iiller-Karpe, Chranologie (1959) pi. 106: 1 ; Privina Glava, Garadanin, Katalog metala d1954) pl. 13:.5. The best parallel comes from suciu de Sus {}Xolste, IIortfunde1.951., pI.46:45 and 47). The lastpiece has alreaciy been mentioned by Sandars (PPS 21 1955, 185) ; it is_the besr parallel to the Ialyssos knife. The ring is also framed, but there are no rivets in it. 8 Miiller-Karpe, Germania 41 tlg63) 9-13; Harding, pFS 41 {1975) 199; cl. aiso Mozsolics, Studres Harvkes (1971) 67--69 figs. 6--7. e Harding, PPS 41 (1915) 198f. tig. 4:2. r0 Sandars, PPS 21 (1955) 177--79;Flarding, pps 41 (1E75) 197; cf. also Boardrnan, Cretan Col?. (1961) fig. f. 11 Sandars, PPS21 {1955) 183f.; F{arding, PPS41 (1975) 196 Wardle, Godiinjak Sarajevo 15 (1977) 195t. '2 13 14 PPs 41 (197 s) 1.98. Matthdus, JdI 95 (1980) 1-?tr-3 enlarged the list of italian parallcls, but the shape of the blade is often different, and 0nly the handles similar. Cf. Mattheus, JdI 95 (i990) 113-117; V. Bianco peroni, I rasoi nell'Italia cantinentale, PBF VIII-.3 {1979} 12-14 pl. 5. 1s From Croatia cf. Ljubid, Poprs Zagreb pl. 1 3 : 85 ; for Hungary Mozsolics, in Studres llawkes (1971) 6At., from Tiebenice in Bohemia Zdpe:tock!," Pam. arch.60 (1969) 350 fig. 35:4. 16 N{iiiler-Karp e, Chronologie (1959) pl. 13 :1,2. Bieti Sestieri, PPS39 (1973)196ff. (1e7s) 187f. ; cf. alsollarding, ppS4l 's pps-il (1975)tB4_.6. re Deshayes, Ouriis (1960) I ch. V;Harding, pps 4l (1975) 184 ; H. Erkanal, Axte u. Beile des 2. It. in Zentralanatolien, PBF IX-8, (1977) 3-11 pls. (194445) 53-55 fig. 2 1__4. Cf. also Bittel, AA p. 45; R. M. Bohner, Die Ktein_ ,. funde von Boghazk|y (1972) 37t. (Biiyiikkale III). 20 Deshayes, Oufils (1960) L, 1,22; Harding, ppS al 0975\ 186; cf. H. Maxwell-lIyslop, ,,Bronze lugged axe- or adze blades from Asia", lraq 15 (1953) 59-97. 21 Doubie-axes similar to the Sardinian items are known from Kiiltepe, Tarsus and Ernirda{: Erkanal, Axte u.Beile des 2. Jt. (1917) 21f., nos. 6d--68, pl. 6; for Sardinia Fulvia Lo Schiavo, in Ka f. Kunst Sardiniens (Karlsruhe 1 9g0) 1 3 gf . fig. 1 (197 229 22 23 n7. C. Carapanos, Dodone ef ses rurnes (paris 197g) 100f. pl. 54:7 . 23 votive axes mentioned. Cf. Foltiny, AJA 65 (1961) 283-85; Snodgrass, AJA66 t1e62) 40t.; Foltiny, AIA68 (1964)ZSsf. ?a From Bulgaria e.g. Semerdiijevo, IBAIT (lg3}-33) 356 fig. 106; Gorsko Kosovo, Mikov, Statrons et trouvailles prdhist. en Bvlgarie, 98 fig. 56; from Rurnania petres_ cu-Dimtrovita , Depozitele (1977) pl. 94: l_9 and 95 : 1_rl (Cinacu), 97 :1-4 (Constanta-Dalas) ; 9g : 7-9 and, 99 : I Bdlcescu), 127:6 (Cztateade Baltd). {Nicclae -, 2s Outils {1960) I, 122; cf.. Borac, Garalanin, Kat. metata 8eograd,53 pi. 37: i. 26 fernych, Thracialll i,197q 39A fig.3. 2? Mozsolics, Bronzelunde (1967) 15. . 5, DRESS F'ASTENERS 1 Furumark, Chrcnology (1941) Bg*91; S. Iakovides, BSA 72 {1977) 113-19 considers thern as weights on rhe fringes of female dress, but this would hardly expiain a1l of them. 2 Blinkentrerg, Fibules (1926) 40 ; L. Vagnetti, Arch. Classica 24 (1972) 364*71; A. papeuthymiou-papanthimou, Skeue .kai synerga tou l<ailopnismau sto kretomykenaiko clroro (Thessaloniki 1 979) 2A6-222. 3 Bone pins Blegen, Prosym na(L937)285f.: Wace,,,Charnber Tombs" {Archaeologia 1932), Zl2; Gcldrnan, Eufresr.s {1931) 218f. tig. 289 Blegen er aiii, pylos III (1973) t57, 160, 163, L68,176,178 erc., pls. 230: XJ-14; orher unpub_ lished pieces both of ivory and bronze in mus. Chora from various tombs near Pylos ; from Kangadhi ,,bone pins and one large bronze pin head" Papadopoulos, Myc. Achaea (1979) _ 133. Ct. also from Maliia: Deshayes-DessBne, Mallia Mansions II (1959),72 pt.2A:4,pl.29:35, p. 145f. pt.21:8 and Higgins, Jewelterf (i980) 74 and gT. a Furumark, Chronotogy Mycenaeans (1.964) (lg4l) g1t.; Desborough, Lasl 54-56: Harding, thesis 1972, 208-220; Bouzek, Hom. Grichentand 1969,31_3; E. Sapouna-Sakellarakis, Fibeln {197 8) nos. 1-g. 5 J. Sundwall. Die iilteren italischenFibeln(1943) g-19; H. Riemann, "Studie zu den Violinbogefibeln", RM g6 (1979) na J. 5-45 ; P. Betzler, BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN. ANATOLIA AND EUROPE Die Fibeln in Sijddeutschland, Osterreich und der Schweiz (Miinchen 1974) (PBF XIV-3); Ks, Vinski-Gasparini, "Fibule u obliku violinskog gudala u Jugoslavii", Vjesnik arch. muzeia u Zagtebu, 3rd series VIII (197 4) L-28, and Kultura polja (1973) pls. 89-92'L36J ' Cf. also F. Stard, Situ.la I (1960) 92:Mhrton' Arch. Ert.3l (19L1) 321'-352 ; W.A.v. Brunn, Hortfunde (1968) 87-93' For France A. Duval, Ch. Elvere, J. P. Mohen, Gallia 32 (1e74\ 4f. 6 J. Bdhm, "Die Fibel in der Aunjetitzer Kultur", First preh. congress IJISPP 1932 (Oxford 1934), 242-245. 7 Akurgal-Hirmer, Die Kunst der.Hethirer(Miinchen 1961) fig. 19 (Prof. F. Fischer kindly brought this piece to my attention). 8 A survey of earlier theories Sundwall; Fibeln (7943) l-7 ; now J. Alexander, "The history of the {ibula", in : D. E' Strong (ed.), Archaeological Theory and Practice (London 1973) 217-230; for the Nordic fibula K. Randsborg, Acta Arch' Kobenhavn 39 (1968) 67ff. For the origins of the cne-piece fibula cf. G.v. Merhart, Bonner Jb. L47 09a2) 5-8; V' Milojlie, Jb. RGZMMainz2 (1955) 62t.;H. Miiller-Karpe' Chronologie (1 959) 90f . I alpha; Riemann, RM 86 (1979\ 8 and 46; Betzler, Fibeln (1'974) 16-21 pl' I; Vinski-Gasparini, Kulfura polja (1973) pl.9l:10' 12,14' e Sundwall, Fibeln (1943) type 10 Sundwall, Fibeln (L943) types II a--d; Riemann' RlVd 86 (1979) 9t.,461.;Betzler, Fibeln (L974) 9-11',1'3-1'5 pl' 1; Vinski-Gasparini, Kultura polia (1973) pl. 90:1-5' 9l:6,8;for the Serbian group cf . pl. 89 and VjesnikZagteb\ (1974) 6-8. Cf. also Benac-Covi6, Glasinac'tr', 56; for Albania (Mati valley) Sfudia AlbanicaI (1964) 1'A2 pl. 14 : l. t1 Cf . Riemann, RM 86 (1979) s-10,46f.; Vinski-Gasparini, Vjesnik Zagreb 8 (1974) 21t. pl. 8:1'8; Merhart, Bonner Jb. 147 (1942) 6, map pl' 4 p. 80; Betzlet' Fibeln (197 12 Cf 4) Il-1.3 pt. 7 : 2-6' . v. Brunn, Horffun de (1968) Ib. 147 (1942) 6 maP 5 on P. 80' 13 -93 ; Merhart, Bonner Sundwali, Fibeln (197 3) 69f ., types A II e-h ; Riemann, RM 86 (lg7 g) 5 0f . ; Vinski-Gasparini, KuI tur a po li a (19 7 3) pl' 90 L3-14 (Brodski Varod and near Karlovac); M' BietiSestieri and F. Lo Schiavo, Iliria 4 (1976) 17l-3 ' la Sundwall, Fibeln (1943) 70-72 RM 86 (lg7 g) pl.91:6-7 13-15. 15 87 A II h-j; Riemann, Kulf ura pol ja (197 3) ; cf . Betzler, Fibeln(l'97 4) types 48f . ; Vinski-Gasparini, ,8-9 and 89 :4,6-7 Sundwall, Fibeln (1943) types A III b-c; Vinski-Gasparini, Kulfura polja (1'973) pl.9I:lL, 13;Betzler, Fibeln . (I97 4) 22-26, cf . also pP . 27 -31 t6 Cf. esp. Jezerine near Pritoka, Radimsky, WMBH3 (1'895) 83 fig. 135, ll8 fig.382,152 Big.450. Other pieces are, of course, earlier, cf. the preceding note and from Madkovac, Ha A t hoard : Holste, Ilorffu nde (1951) pl. 9 :9. 17 J. Birmingham, Palestine Exploration Quarterly 95 (1963) 83f . ; Riis, Hama lI-3, Copenhague 19 48, 1'32 ; O tr oidenko' 1975) 203; Kozenkova, in: Studia Thracical(Sofia lg75) g}tt. fig. 1 A 1 ;Hell, Arch' Austr'2 in: Skifskij mir (Kijev (1.e4e) 64f . 18 ISIMA For the eastern tsalkans cf M. Rusu, Inv. Arch. Rumanie 10, pl. R 69 b (Ghirsu Romdn) with parallels; GergovaDomaradzka, Vdrchu rozvitieta na fibulite v Trakija na staroi.eleznata epocha (11.-6. w. pr.n'e ), (Vekove(1977) no:1 ; Ib., Genesis and development of metal ornaments in the Thracian lands during the EIA (11th-8th cent" B'C'), Studia Praehistorica 3 (Sofia 1980)97-1'12. Cf' J. Riemann, RM S6 (1979) 25f. and Sundwall, Fibeln(1943) type A II j ; for the Unter Radl type Betzler, Fibeln (1'974) 16-21'. le Manaccora, level IIL Baumgartel, BSRS (1953) 21 pl. 11 : 1. variety: Dehn, Trierer Zeitschrift 19 (i950) 19-2L; Betzler, Fibeln (7974) 2l-37 pl. 3-5 (mainly two-piece fibulae), and note 12. 20 The Caucasian snake-fibulae are late and can also (as suggested by Kozenkova) be derived from Caucasian hairrings with snake-shaped central bar. 21 Furumark, Chronotogy (1941) 9lt.; Desborough, Lasf Mycenaeans (1964) 55t.; Bouzek, IIom. Griechenland Cf . also the similar German (te6e) 31-3. Sundwall, Fibeln (1,943) types IB beta a-f (a is rare); Riemann, RM 86 (1979) 55-59; cf. also notes 12 and 19; Vinski-Gaspa rini, Kul tur a poli a (1 9 7 3) pl. 92. 23 Sundwall, Fibeln (1943) types B alpha a-d, pp' 78-85; Bouzek, Hom. Griechenland (1969) 93t'; Betzler, Fibeln 22 (1974) 65-74 pls. 14-15 ; for France A. Duval, Ch" Elvere, J. P. Mohen, Gallia 32 (1974) 9t. 2a J. Birmingham, Palestine Exploration Quarterly 95 (1963) 85-94; B. V. Techov, in: Kavkaz i Vostoinaja Evropa v drevnosti (Moskva 19'73) 1'41-149; J. Bouzek, "First Fibulae: Aegean, Near Eastern, Caucasian", Actes Colloq uium Sft effield (1 980). 2s For the Adriatic distribution of individual groups cf . esp. M. Bieti Sestieri and F. Lo Schiavo, Itiria 4 (1976) 1'82-1;S Batovi6, Diadora 1 (1959) 37-86; Betzler, Fibeln (1974) 69-7t; Batovi6, Arch. Iugoslavica 6 (L965) 55ff . 26 Sundwall, Fibeln (1943) type B 1 alpha a, pp. 78-80: Betzler, Fibeln (1.974) 65-47 pl. 14. 27 Sundwall, Fibeln (1943) 137f., types D I beta a-b; Betzler. Fibeln (197 4) 83 ; from Patos in Albania lliria(198111) 55 pi. 18 :9. 28 Cf. also Sapouna-Sakellarakis, Fibeln (1978) 40f. type Ig 43-46, from Yugoslavia WMBH 1 (1983) 58 fig. 4 (Sretei) and WMBHg (1904) 155 fig. 8 (Donja Dolina) 2e Merhart, Bonner Jb. 747 (1'942) 87t.; Drechsler-BiZicnos. Acta et Diss.ll (Zagreb 1962) 307t. Sapouna-Sakelarakis, Fibeln ( 1 97S' 4l no. 47, is probably an Early Cycladic pin. 31 The spectacle fibulae reached Greece only after 1000 B'C.. cf, J. Alexander, AJA 69 (1965) 7-23; Betzlet, Fibe]t (197 4) 91-143, maps pls. 82-83. 32 M. and D. Garaianin, Zbornik radova Narodnog mveja Beograd(1962) 62 fig. 16 and fig. 1. 30 The piece f rom Naxos, Greek Pins (1956) 1f.; Sandars, BSA 53-54 (1958-59) 235-37; Deshayes, Deiras (1966) 204--8Bouzek, Hom. Griechenland (1969) 93f .; Snodgrass' Dari 33 Jacobsthal, Age of Greece (1971) 226-8. Hammond, Epirus (1967) 346tt. fig.25" 3' Cf. f.om Albania .trr frl I T fr : -* : tl mt xxtxl 35 36 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE \I\'CENAEAN CULTURE Cf. Jacobsthal, Greek Pins (1956) 9-12, his Geometric group II. Deshayes, Deiras (1966) 2A4ff.; Karo, Schachtgrdber 1 930) pl. 3 1 ; Mylonas, T afikos kyklos B (197 2) p|. 20 alpha, 208 gamnra, I 82 alpha. 37 Kraiker, Kerameikos I, 82; Milojdid, AA (1948149) l2i.; Desborough, Last Mycenaeans (1964) 54; Miiller-Karpe, Jdr77 (1962) 60. 38 Cf. e.g. the Weitgendorf type, Jacobsthal, Gree-kPins (1956) tig. 604 and note 48, from Bosnia Gosinja Planina tumulus 26, skeleton 2 (WMBH 5 1897 ,23f . tig. 41 found with bow ( fibula) and Kuiace (WMBH I - 1893, 126-1.36 fig. 132 - small). 3e Vjesnik Zagreb 4 (1.899-1.900) 49 tig.37; Vinski-Gasparini, Kultura polja (1973) pl.2l:12 (Novigrad on the Sava), pl. 1.9:7 (Dalj), pl. 28:7 (Sisak). From the Hrustovada Cave Benac, Glasnift Sarajevo 3 (1948) pl. 9; from Kamnik S. Gabrovec, Kamni{ki zbornik 10 (1 966) 81 ff. pl. 8 : 1 5 ; other pieces F. Stard, Prazgodovina Smarjete (197 6) pl.24 : 16.-1.7 and pl. 52 : 1 1. no G. L. Carancini, Spillone nelt'Italia continentale (1975) nos. a1 2747-2759 pls. 85-86; for the Central European vaseheaded pins cf. e.g. H. Miiller-Karpe, Mtinchener (Jrnenfelder 1,957, pls. 1, 6-7. G.v.Merhart, Bonner Jb. 147 (1942) 40, 41, note 1,45,74, 80, 85; Jacobsthal, Greek Prns (1956) 181 figs. 593-6. a2 Benac-Covit,, Glasinac I, 68. a3 Alexander, PPS 30 (1964) 159-160; cf. F. Stard, ^Ilirske najdbe Zelezne dobe v Ljubljani (I-jubljana 1954) pl. 83 : 10. ua o5 1,17f . 6. PERSONAL ORNAMENTS, JEWELLERY I :!o 249-49. lier ?) rF o-p; "58 -s- Lousoi: OeJh Q901) 54 tig. 90 ; Boeotia: Athens, Nat. Mus. 8245-4,82248,8274,8603 etc. Pherai : Kilian, Fibeln in Thessalien (1,97 5'1 pl. 70:13-21. 6 Childe, PPS 14 (lg41) 185 pl. 19 ; Hol ste, Brcnzezeit in Sijdund Westdeutschland, map 9; Bene5, Sbornift Naf. Mus. PragueA 13 (1959) 16. 7 Cf. O. Kytlicov6, Festschr. v. Brunn (19g1) 225-230; Mozsolics, Bronzefunde (1973) pl. 10:8-10 and 111:5 (Kazincbarcika, Borsodgeszt) . Larger : Vinski-Gasparini, Kultura polja (1973) pl. 28:30 (Otok-privtaka), 76:24 (Toplidica), 85 :3, 1,2 (Binguta-Divo5); petrescu-Dimbovita, Depozitele (1977 ) pl. 165 :25 (Moldova Veche) ; I. Stratan, SCIV 15 (1964) 523-8 fig. 1:1-3; Dumitrescu, t["e Dacia 7-8 (1939-40) 138f. figs. 5-6. For Manaccora cf. note 3. 8 R. Higgins, Greek and Roman Jewellef (London 19g0) 83-5. e The signet rings with spiral decoration from Early pantalica contexts in Sicily are more sophisticated, but probably also 52 W. Coblenz, Die Grabfunde der Mittelbronzezeit Sachsens (Dresden 1952) 89-96. 5r Cf. esp. Carancini, Spillone nell'Italia (1975) nos. 583-643, pls. 18-20 (Garda, Emilia, Toscana) b-d, f-h, Menelaion: Oxford, Ashmolean mus. 1923. 193, of wire; Athens, Dipylon cemetery, band sheet: Oxford, Ashmolean mus. 1 909.845 (two pieces); Benac-Covie, Glasinac I, 68; cf. Kytlicov6-Vokolek(note 48), 151 ; Ripad near Bihad, Radimskf, WMBH 5 43 pl.20 :32,35 ; Donja Doiina, Truhelka, WMBH 9 (190a) pl. 7 1. :28. s1 For ex. Jezerine,gtaves 171 and 195a, Radimski, WMBH3 (1895) 103 tig. 220, t07t. tis. 228. ; Sparta: Dawkins, Arfemis Orthia, 199 pl. 85: Hammond. Epirus (1'967) ttg.25. -Bouzek (1897) Kerameikos t, 87 (JdI 7 7 1.962, B4ft., figs, 2 : 7,1.0 ; 4 : 5, a Cf. Desborough, PPS31 (1965) 224,228. s Olympia lY pl. 23 : 404-5, 407 , ; Dictaean Cave: Boardman, Cretan Coil. (1961) 37 (ear- with globular head and swollen neck of Br D and the egg-shaped pins of Ha B 1, e.g. Kytlicovii-Vokolek-Bouzek (note 48), 149, 148. 50 . Verdelis, AM V8 (1963) 6t. fig.3 pt.4 (Tiryns). 2 Andronikos, Ve rgina 1 (1-967 ) 2 40t. tig.8 1, cf . p. 240 fig. 80. 3 Prendi, BUST(1958/2) no. 30; Baumgartel, BSR 8 (1953) 20 pl. l0:2. Cf. now I. Kilian, Jb. RGZM Mainz2T (1980) ae Cf. various pins I Cf 12-13;5:3); Benac-Covit, B 7 1964,144-154 also other relevant pins). Round-headed pins with swelling on the neck are quite double-shank pins cf. now R. Vasi6, Ein Beitrag zu den Doppelnadeln im Balkanraum, PZ 57 (1982) 220-57. 58 Cf. C.-G. Styrenius, Submycenaean Sfudles (Lund 1967) 159f . ; for the plausible theory on ultimately Turnulus culture origin of Submycenaean pins (and other cist graves ornaments) S. Hood, BSA 53 (1968) 214-218. pl.II: 1-5. the Central European Kolbenkopfnadeln (Kyf licovii-Vokolek-Bouzek, Acta Musei Reginaehradecensis a Carancini, Spillone neII'Italia, nos. 2655_7 46, pls. 82-85. I. Hiigg, Some notes on the origins of the peplos-type dress in Scandinavia, TOR {1967-48) 81-t27 . common in the western Balkans, cf. Benac-Covi{ Glasinac I (1956) pl. 3 ; M. and D. Garaianin, ZbornikNarod.Muzeja Beograd 5 (1967) 16f. 57 Jacobsthal, Greek Pins (1956) pp. 720-1.52,156f. For the Cf. above in the list and, Yajz€, tumulus A grave 20; Hammond, Epirus 1967, Iig. 25 E; Prendi, Iliria 3 (\975) Glasinac I, 70, from Croatia Inv. Arch. Yugoslavia 4 (Stard, Ha B) ; cf . also the Weitgendorf type and related pins from Central Europe (note 48). a7 According to Deshayes, the best parallels are McAlister, Gezer 11,84 and Gezer III, pl. 133:19. a8 Cf. the bone pin from Debelo Brdo, Fiala, WMBH4 (1896) 58 tig. 1,7 . The shape may well have been derived from bone and wooden pins, cf. also the pin from Kastanas, above, and a6 56 231 of Mycenaean inspiration: Montagna del Caltagirone, pantali_ r0 ca, Monte Dessueri, S. Angelo Muxaro. Cf. Tina-Vagnetti, Cat. I Micenei in Italia, 2l pl. 25 : l2t-122. Cf. e.g. Andronikos, Vergina I (1969) 249 tig. B0; , 232 J. BOUZEK, TI{E AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE Kerameikos I, 85f. fig. 4 and pl. 28; Marmariani, F{eurtley-Skeat, BSA 31 (1930-81) 35 fig. L4:6-LA; 44 1,3 and79:19-20 (Veliko Nabrrde and Budinidina); Miiller-Karpe, Chronalogie (1959) pl" 137 I4 (Linz); Theotokou, Wace- Thornpson, Prehistoric Thessaly, 2'J"3t. ; Kalbaki, Dakaris, Arch. Ef . (1956) 116 fie. 2 ; Salamis, Wide, Jatdzewski, -Foland (London 1965) pl. 20 (Drat6w); cf. also AM35 (1910)29-37tig. (mainly rings). For Cephalenia and for European parallels cf. Marinatos, Alti VI. corgresso 11 ISIMA UISPP Roma 1962, val. l, 17 1,. Bracelets Kerumeikos l, 86f .; Tiryns l, 128 ; Corinth XII, 227, 233 nos. 1 802-1 809, pl. 1.02 ; Papadin Dol near Prilep, Kitanoski, Starinar ll (1.960/61) 210f. tig. 5--6; Andronikos, Vergina I (1969) 241f" figs. 82-83. For later development in Northern Greece cf. Bouzek, Graeco' Macedonian Bronzes (Prague 197 4) I22f . fig. 3 8 : 1-4. Andronikos, Vergina I, 259 pls. 76 and Ll1 (A Gamma I beta and d IX beta) ; Marmariani Heurtley-Skeat, BSA 31 (1930-31) 33f. fig. 14:1-5. 13 Kerameikos, PG graves 22,25, Ker.IV,25 pl. 39; Geometric graves 7, 41, Ker. Vll,184 pl. i59; Athenian Agora, Early Geometric grave, I{esp.lS (1949) 288,297 pl.72:25 (electrum ?). Tirynsl,p.728 (grave 2); Amorgos, PG, AA 1937,- 91 ;- I\darmariani, Heurtlel-Skeat, BSA 31' 12 (1930-31) 33t. fig. 14:1.-5; Iewellery pl. lX:947-9 Ephesus, tsrit. Mus. Cat. (Hogarth, Ep&esus pl. 7 :49-50); lY, 5 8 ; Corin fft XII, 2 4 8f ., 2 5 0 nos. 1 99 9-2000 pl, 107 (7th century B.C.); Andronikos, Vergina I, 259 pls. 76 Cf . also similar ornaments of silver : Lindos I, I 19 and 11 1. p\.72 273 (3 pieces) and Hogarth, Epftesus pl. ll:L7-18. 1a Marinatos, Atti VI congresso UISPP (1962 Roma) vol. 1, O Iy m pia - 171; Foltiny, AJA 65 1961, 294f.; Kytiicov6-VokolekActa Musei ReginaehradecensisT (1964) 159; -Bouzek, Kiibler, Kerameikos V/1, 184. Cf. Kytlicovd, Fesfschr. v. Brunn (1981) 238-40. 15 Cf. Kilian, "Trachtzubehdr derEisereitzwischen Agdis und Adria", PZ 50 (1975) 130f., maps pls. 84, 86; Bouzek, Graeco-Macedonian Bronzes Glasinai 16 -Covi6, J. Bouzek, ben", in: l, 30-34. 097a) 1,22-4; Benac- "Die Armringe der Sammlung Bellos aus The- Staatliche Museen zu Berlin Berichte 1.6 197 - Forscftungen und 5, 1.62-7 ; cf " Kilian, PZ 5A 197 5, l3l pl. 86:1. 17 The Skyros roundels J. Papadimitriou, AA ( 1936) 228 ; ct. W. Kasper, Die buckelverzierten Bleche xa. 32 Olympias (Miinchen 1972) 22 Bauzek, Eirenelg (1982) 108. 23 Cf. Bouzek, Eirene 19 (1982) 103f. notes 38-44. Most notably D. Garaianin, Katalog metala NM Beograd (1954) pl. 11:1, 4; Vinski-Gasparini, Kulfura polja (1973) Pl. in Thearia (Festschr. I5l-157. S. Marinatos, Baden 1960) Schuchhardt) (Baden- 33 Cf. Bouzek, Pam. arch.57 (1966) 274f. oates L73-4 and Mozsoiics, Bronzefunde (197 3) 99t. 3' Naxos, Peribolos A (PG or Early Geometric). Dumas, Arcfi. DeIt. Cht.18 (1963) p|.325. I. H6sek, AR 7 (1955) 673t,719. 36 Iliria 4 (1.976) 176 tt. Cf. also Bieti Sestieri - to Schiavo, 184 fig. 10:1, fig. 14:2-3,5, and F. Rittatore Vonwiller, Parola del Passato 24 (1969) 383-387 ; B. TerZ.an, Arch. 35 L. Marangou, BCH 99 (1975) 365-378, f.or the Lefkandi heroon, M. Popham, E. Touloupa, H. Sackett, Antiquity 56 (1982) 1.6e-1V4. 18 A. Pieridou, Iewellery from the Cyprus Museum il971), pls. 4-7 ; cf . Hampel, Bronzkor l (1 886) pl. 1 78 : 29 fuom KEr ; Mozsolics, Bronzefunde (1973) 48f.;P. Patay, Arch. Ert.94 (1967) 53*57. The Delos discs are European, cf. Matthrius, Marb. W. Progr. 1979,3-12. le Bouzek, Graeco -Macedonian B ronzes (197 4) l6lt 20 Blegen et alii, The Palace of Nestor III (Princeton 1973) 15 fig. 108 a--d. Cf. Bouzek, Eirene 19 (1982) 101 fig. 3:3. 21 note 18. Cf. Matthrius, Jd-[ 95 198A, 11.'l-122; Woytowitsch, Die Wagen der Bronze- und fr[ihen Eisenzeit in ltalien, PBF XVIII_I (1566), 116 pls. 50-51 nos. 36-39. Other wheel with trranching rays from Grotta di Polla near Paestum, with LH III C pottery, B. d'-Agostino,Dialaglti di Arch.6 (1'972)8 fig. 3; Borgo Panigale near Bologna with Subappenine pottery P. Scarani, "Preistoria dell'Emilia e Rornagna", Documenti e s,tudi 7 (.1962) 159t. pl. 7 4 :77 . 25 Also more northwards: Rtjtha--Geschwitz, Estavayer etc. Matthdus, Jdf 95 (1980) tr1Bf. note 49 ; Kossack, Symbolgut (15 5 4) 29t., her e 11.5.4.2. 26 Mattheus, Jdf 95 (1980) 118f. fig. 8:l-2: Tolfa esp. R. Peroni, Inv. Arch.ll, pl. 11:5-6. 27 Carancini, GIi spillone nelit [talia continentale (1975) nos. 2655-2'146, pls. 82-85 ; cf . Kossack, Symbolgut (1954) 20 ff., 86 ff. 26 Mylonas, Praktika Arch. Et (1968) 11 pl. 5a Kilian-Dirl; rneier, Anhdnger in Griechenland, PBF XI-2 (1979) 16 no. 54; cf. Matthiius, JdI95 (1980) 128. 2e Kossack, Symbolgut(1954)29 and list A pp. 83 ff. 30 Bouzek, Graeco-Macedonian Bronzes (1974) 137-14A; Kilian-Dirlmeier, Anhdnger in Gilechenland (1979) 1,6-29; for early clay wheels cf. Kiibler, Kerameikos Vl1, 2T,forLefkandi III.6 note 17. 31 Catling, Bronzework (1964) 227-9; Harding, thesis 1962, 24 37 Vestnik35 (1984), 1 10-118. Desborough, PPS 31 1965,224; Bouzek, Pam. arch. 57 (1966) 275; D. Strong, Cat. of Amber, Brit. Mus (1966) 16-21 (Bronze Age) and 21-33 (Early Iron Age). 7. HORSES, WACGONS AND CHARIOTS r Schachermeyr, Agdische FrtilaeitY (1982) 75-80. 2 Cf. Catling, AJAV2 (1968) 4l-49; J. K. Anderson, AIA69 (1965) 349-52; Bouzek, IIom" Griechenland (1969) 40, 178,142,161 ; a different explanation of Geometric chariots Snodgrass, EGAW (1964) 159-63; AAG (1967) 45-7 . 3 For riding cf . Snodgrass, EGAW (1964\ 163-166. 8. ME AL r H. ''/ESSELS Thrane, The earliest bronze vessels in Denmarks Bronze xxBl THE R.ELATIONS OF THE L.A.TE MYCENAEAN CULIURE Age, Aeta Arch. Kabenhavn 33 (1961) 109-163, esp. pp. Mozsolics, Bronzefunde (1973)'77t.; H.-J. Hundt, "Eine gegossene Bronzetasse der dlteren Bronzezeit von Lrlptin, Kr. Pl<in", OFFA16 (1.957 /8)29-40. Cf. also V. G. Childe, "The first bronze vases to be made in Central Europe", Acta Arch. Ksbenhavn2U (1949) 257-270; G.v. Merhart, Festschrift RGZM Mainz 2 1952, 1-71,; V. Furm6nek, Slov. arch. 25 (1977) 297; Gosen Miiller-Karpe, Chronologie (1959) fig. 10. 2 H. Miiller-K arpe, Jb. Frankfurt (197 5) 20f . and Matrhdus, Bronzegef dsse (1980) 287 347 ; cf.. also the kyathos from -9, Episkopi-Stamnioi Feidiados, mus. Heraklion. 3 Miiller-Karpe, !b. Frankfurt (197 5) 20t. fig. 1 : 4 Matthiius, ; Bronzegefdsse (1980) 293f. For the ornament cf. Harding, thesis 1972,44,262; Bouzek, Eirene19 (1982) 101. a Cf. esp. in the Fesfscfinf t v. Brunn (1981) 277-97. Against e.g. Childe, PPS 14 1948, 186; Kossack, Symbolgut (1954) 62f .; Merbart, Festchrift RGZM Mainz 2 (1952) 39 ; Snod- Eastern Mediterranean (Griteborg 1978) SIMA 54, pp. 3. P. Astrrim, Hala Sultan Tekke l, I 17, 123-26 ; U. -7 6brink, Hala Sultan Tekke 5. LgTg.23 fig. 193, 106f. 130-135; A. il t[r Dark Age of Greece (1971) 320. 5 Catling, BSA 69 (197 4) 236 no. 26 fig. 23 : 28, pl. 41 a-4 ; Matthdus, Bronzegefdsse (1980) no. 296. 6 Karo, AM 55 1930, 133 pl.34:2; H. Catling, Bronzework (1964) tis. t8:6. ? Karageorghis RDAC (.1.97 4) 60ff . and BCH98 (1,97 4) 830t. ; , Matthdus, Bronzegefdsse (1980) 93f. 8 Ks. Vinski Gasparini, "Najstarija brondana vedra jugoslavskogo Podunavlja", Yjesnik arch. muzeja u Zagrebu 3. ser. 3 grass, ffi (1968) il l1 1-27; G.v. Merhart, Festschrift RGZM Mainz (tes2) 3-1s. e Mafthiius, Bronzegefdsse (1980) 157-60 nos. 205-8. 9. THE SPREAD OF IRON: THE HOARDS r L. H6jek-M. 2 233 67 3 J. Bouzek, Zu den Anfingen der Eisenzeit in Mitteleuropa, Zeitschritt f. Arch. 12 (1978) 9-1,4; H. Drescher, Zur Technik der Hallstattzeit, in: Kalr Hallstattkultur (Schloss Lemberg 1980) 54-6. a K. Br.anigan, 5 (1e6e) 1-12. Early Aegean hoards of metalwork, BSA 64 H. Catling, Bronzework (1964) 278-29g; Th. G. Spyropoulos, Hysteromykenaikoi helladikoi thesauroi (Athens 197 2) ; lb., AAA 3 097 q Z$ (Orchomenos). -67 6 Cf. esp. W.A.v. Brunn, Hortfunde (1968);petrescu-Dimbovita, Depozitele (1977) ; Vinski-Gaspa1lni, Kultura polja (197 3) ; Mozsolics, Bronzefunde. (197 3). 10. SYMBOLS AND THEIR ARTISTIC REPRESENTATIONS 1 E. Sprockhoff, "Nordische Bronzezeit und friihes Griechentum", Jb. RGZM Mainz I (1954) 37 I and Bremer Arch. -7 Hailstatt Bliitter 3 (1962) 28-110; G.v. Merharr, u. Italien (Mainz i 969) ; G. Kossack, Symbotgut (1954) ; V. G. Childe, "The Final Brohze Age in the Near East and in temperate Europe", PPS 14 (1948) 1,77-195; cf. aiso C.F.C. Hawkes, "From Bronze Age to Iron Age, Middle Europe, Italy and the North and West", PPS 14 (1948) 196-216. 2 Cf. J. Bouzek, "Die Anfdnge des griechisch-geometrischen Symbolguts", Eirene 8 (1970) 97-122 with bibl. and ib., "The simple repouss6 decoration on Early Greek bronzes,', Eirene 19 (1982) 99-109. 3 The bookbyA.. Roes, GreeftGeomerricArt(London 1933) (cf. also her article in IPEK 1.3 1939, -57ff.) was ofren criticised, but it contains many interesting ideas on Oriental and European parallels of Greek Geometric art. Cf. also M. Solle, Poidrky he116nsk6 civilisace (prague L947), and Bcruzek, Homedsches Griechenland (1969) l0S, 133 a Germania 41 1963, 9_13 ; Jb. Frankfurt (197 5) 20f. Vldek, "A ritual well and the find of an EBA iron dagger from Gdnovce, Slovakia", in Estudos a P. Bosch Gimpera (Mexico L963) 427-39. For other finds cf. R. Pleiner, in: Muhly-Warttme, Coming of the Age of lron (New Haven and London 1980) 376-8; W. Kimmig, in: 5 H. Matthiius, Sfudien aus Alteuropa (Festschr. Tackenberg) (Kciln-Graz "KYKNOI AE H>AN TO ApMA, Spat1964) 274-281, and Fundberichte aus Baden- Wiirtemberg mykenische und urnenfelderzeitliche Vogelplastik", 6 (1981) 100-113. Festschrift v. Brunn 1981,277-298; Arch. Korr. Bl. 1.0 2 For all general problems see now esp. T. A. Wartime and J. D. (1980) 319-30; JrlI 95 (1980) 109-139; cf. A. Joc_ Muhly (eds.), The Coming of the Age of lron (1980) esp. the kenhcivel, PBFX)t/l (1974) 8l ft. 6 M. P. Nilsson, contributions by J. D. Muhly (Tfte Bronze Age setting, pp. Minoan-Mycenaean Religion2 Og5A) ii-3, 25-68) and J. C. Waldbaum (The first archaeological ap424. 7 Furumark, pearance of iron and the Iron Age, pp. 69-98), further by Anatysis (194I) 283, 317f ., 336f., 341_347 : (Iron A. M. Snodgrass and early metallurgy in the MediterraBouzek, Eirene 8 (1970) 98-100. 8 Sprockhoff, Bremer nean, pp. 335-374) and R. Pleiner (Early iron metallurgy in Arch. Bld.tter3 (1962) 36-53; Gelling Europe, pp.375-416). Cf. also J. D. Muhly, R. Maddin, V. in Gelling-Davidson, Cftarior of the Sun (1969) 9_26 ct. ;, Krageorghis (eds.), Early Metallurgy in Cyprus (Nicosia 11.12.4. 1982), esp. the contribution by J. Waldbaurn, pp. 325-35A. Pendlebury, Archaeology of Crete (1.939) 247f. tig. 43. .e For Greece cf. also A. M. Snodgrass, Dark Age af Greece 10 Cf. Furumark, Anatysis (1941) 250-25+ tt1s. Zi_3t and (Edinburgh 1971) 213-230 ; J. Bouzek, IIom. Griechenland Schachermeyr, AF IV (1980) 124-163 (his ,,pleonastic" (1969) 43f ., 92-94,115-119; R. Pleiner, Iron Working in styles). AIso popular in the Thapsos culture in Sicily, cf. G. Ancient Greece (Prague 1969) 8-1,7 ; S. Iakovides, AAA 3 Voza, "Thapsos, primi risultati di ricerce, Atti XIV riunione I970,288-96. For East Mediterranean cf. J. C. Waldbaum, scientifica" (Istituto Italiano di preistoria e protoistoria The Transition f rom the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Firenze 1972) 175-205; Ib., ,,Thapsos, Resconto sulle . t J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 234 1'970-71"', Atti XV riunione Firenze (1973) 133-57 ; G. Yoza in Pelegati-Voza, Archeologia bayern", Actes du campagne di scavi del 197 5) 30-52. Mozsolics, Bronzefunde (1973) 52t. pl' 20:4 (Op6ly), pl. 29 : 11 (Satu Mare). 12 T. Kov6cs, "Askoi, bird-shaped vessels, bird-shaped rattles in Hungary", Folia arch. 23 1972 (1973), 1'-28' with bibl. Cf . also V. Dumitrescu, Necropola de incineratie din epoca bronzului de la Cr'rna (Bucuresti 1961); D.Berciu, Materiale arheotogiche I (1955) 596-415 (Ostrovul Mare); M. Kosorid-J. Todorovii, Starinar 13-14 (1962-63) 267-74. In bronze Mozsolics, Bronzefunde (1967) pl' 3l:11-13 - with P. Gelling in Gelling-Davidson, 13 sun disc). (Ktilesd Chariot of the Sun (1969) 9-26,102. The horses drew the sun during the daylight and the swans during the night. 1a Nilsson, G eschichte de r grie chischen R eligion2 I, ( 1 9 5 5 ) 5 2 544. 1s Bremer Arch. Bliitter 3 (1962\ 68-71; cf. esp. Alkaios frg. The chronology of the Cirna- Zuto Brdo 2_.4 (Bock). culture, in which the series of figurines arose, is not always clear, but even if the Br B date for the Dupljaja chariot is too early, it cannot be placed any later than in Br D, and possibly earlier. Cf . Matthiius, Festschr. v. Brunn 1981',297 ; Bouzek, ADAIW (1974) 36-8 and Listy fil. 102 (1979) 8r' 16 Cf. Roscher, Reallex. 1994 ff' (s.v. Helios); Bouzek, Eirene 6 (1967) 133-8 and ib., Les origines des bronzes grecs, Acfes du V colloque sur les bronzes antiques Lyon I' 286. Bouzek, Eirene I (1970) 117t.; cf. also from Ialyssos, mus. Rhodes 12727 (donkey with krater and pilgrim bottles); cf. note 24 and Y. Siimeghi, Atti VU congresso di arch' classica Roma 195 8, vol. 3,'1.23-133. 26 Hencken, Villanovans and Early Efruscans (1968) 519f., 530; Kovrics, Folia arch.23 (1972) 24t. 27 Bouzek, Eirene 6 (1967) 136 note 84; Kilian-Dirlmeier, Anhiinger in Griechenland (1979) pl. 43 :77 5 and 53 : 982. 25 28 Cf . Bouzek, Eirene 6 (1967) 1,17 f . tig. 1 and the bird protome from the PG grave 39 in Kerameikos, Ker. IV, pl. 34:M 28 a 2e Bouzek, Actes du IV colloque sur les bronzes antiques Lyon 1976 (19'17), 1976 17 18 All of them had some meaning (though hardly quite identical) in the koine of Early Iron Age Geometric styles in Greece, Italy, Hallstatt and Northern Europe. Bouzek, Eirene 8 (197 0) 101-110, 1 18f . 32 Q. Kaschnitz v. Weinberg, Mittelmeerische Kunsf III, 252-260 ; Kossack, Symbolgut (1954) 62-69; Amandry, in: Rayonnement des civilisations grecque et romaine sur les cultures pdriphiiques, Actes VIIP congris arch. classique Paris 1963,485-8 ; Bouzek, Eirene 8 (1'970) l2lf . 31 (1977),37-39. Directly with Zeus connects the swan waggon Ch' Pescheck, Actes duVIIP congrds UISPP Beograd (1973)' vol. III' pp. 6l-46. Wachsmann, "The ships of the Sea Peoples", Internat. Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration 10 (1981) L87-220; W. Kimmig, in: Sfudien Cf. now esp. S. aus Alteurapa I (Festchr. Tackenberg),223-5; Schachermeyr, AF V (1 9 82\,'7 8f . ; Sandars, Se a P eoples (1'97 8) 1'30f . ; FI. Hencken, Villanovans and Early Efruscans (1968) 515-517. Another possibly LBA representation on a stela from Razlog in Bulgaria Gerasimov, IBAI25 (1'962) 90 tie' l-2 ; cf. Hiinsel, Germania 47 (1969) 68-70. le Esp. Satu Mare. Mozsolics, Bronzefunde (1973) pl.29:1'l1' Petrescu-Dimbovita, Depozitele (1978) pl. 182:1'7 . Bouzek, Eiene 8 (1970) L10-117; Desborough, Greek Dark Ages (1972) 54,61f .; Papadopoulos, Myc. Achaea (197 9) 1,01-r0a ; AA (1980) 166-7 0. 2t Bouzek, Eirene 8 (1970) l1'Lt'; Kov6cs, Folia arch. 23 20 22 23 (1,972) 1.-28; cf. also note 12. The waggon from the Sin temple at Khafajeh Bosmachi, Treasures of the Bagdad Museum (1976) pl. 43; cf . also the bird askoi from Khafajeh. For the decoration of Salomon's temple and for other distant relations cf. Furtwiingler, Kleine Schriftenll (1913) 298-313; Matthiius, Fesfschr' v. Brunn (1981) 286. A survey H. Catling, Bronzework (1964\ 207-210 pls. 35-36. 2a 35-39. 30 Sprockhoff (Bremer Arch. Bliitter3 1962,79-108) brought together other series of symbolic representations belonging to this world: the twin heroes (Dioskuroi), the fishes, snakes etc. - l, congris UISPP Beograd 1973,vo|. III, 61-66 ; Bouzek, "Sonnenwagen und Kesselwagen", AR 29 (1977) 197-202; Matthdus, Fesfschr. v. Brunn (1981) nella Sicilia sud-orientale (Siracuse 11 VlIf ISIMA Last suileys: Ch. Pescheck, "Urnenfelderzeitliches Brandgrab mit Kesselwagen und Sonnenscheibe aus Nord- 11. POTTERY 1 For the Subappenine facies cf. also R. Peroni, "Per una definizione dell'aspetto culturale Subappeninico comme fase cronologice a se stante", Mem. Acc. LinceiYlll-9 (1959) fasc. 1 ; S. S. Lukesh, "Tufariello (Buccino), Preliminary reconsiderations of Bronze Age sequences in the South Italian context". Riv. Sc. Preisf .33 (1978)331'-358;Peroni, Archaeologia della Puglia preistorica, sine d., 102-121 ; L' Vagnetti, Il bronzo finale di Puglia, Atti di XXI riunione scientifica (Istituto italiano di proistoria e pretoistoria, Firenze 1979) 537-549 (cf. in the same volume also the contributions by F. G. Lo Porto, pp. 531-36 and E. M. de Juliis, pp. 515-30 on Apulia, and by F. Lo Schiavo and R' Peroni on Calabria, pp. 551-570). 2 Besides Coslogeni (Morintz-Anghelescu, SCMI L910, 323 ff. figs. 11.-13, 19-20, 27, 29), the potteries from Varvara in Herzegovina (Marie, Glasnik Sarajevo22 1977, pls. 38 : 1, 39 and 43) and from Mediana in Serbia (below, Ll.4) can be mentioned as III. further parallels. 3 S. Morintz, Dacia 8 (1964) 106 fig. 4:4; Morintz-Anghelescu, SCMI (1970) fig. 26:3 and 32. Cf. Hiinsel, Hallstattzeit (1976) pl" 12:21; homYaruara, Glasnik Sarajevo 32 1.977 , 97 pls. 40 : 9 and 44:2. a Cf. e.g. M. A. Fugazzola Delpino, Testimonianze della cultura appeninica nel Lazio (Firenze 1976) 1.26 tig. 52 (Yal de Vari). For Rutter no. 15 cf. from Barice, Covi6, Glasnik Sarajevo 13 (1958) 97 pls. 1.-2. a '-l 1. xx&1 THE RELATIONS OF THE LATE NIYCENAEAN CULITJRE 5 Cf. Dakaris, Prakt. AE (1951) 177-180 figs. i--3 : \'okotcrpoulou, Arch. Ef . (1969) pI.26 (Elafotopos Zagoriou). 6 For the Urnfield impact in Italy cf. now R. Peroni, in Ridgeway-Ridgeway (eds.), Italy before the Romans (Lon- don-New York-San Francisco 1979) 20-22. Cf. also E. Petres and F. Rittatore Vonwiller, in Atti VI congresso UISPP Romc 1962, vol. Il, 434-38 and 550-53 ; S. Degger-Jalkotzy, Fremde Zuwanderer (1977) 51 f. Colle dei Capucini seems to be one of the important sites with Early "Urnfield" pottery in Aputia (kind information of F. Kciszegi). 7 F'. Schachermeyr, AF IV (19s0) 66, Heurtley-Lorimer, BSA 3 3 (1 9 3Z-3 3) pt. 6 ; Ancient Elis : V. Leon, OeJh 46 (1961-43) Beibl 45f. fig.24. ln Cf. also Kastritsa,2nd class. Evangelides, prakt. AE(1952) 278 ; Wardle, Godiinjak Sarajevo 15 (1977) 181---6. 20 H:insel, Hallstattzeit (197 4) 7 6-Bj, 220-25. 21 For transhumance esp. N.G.L. Hammond, Migiations and Inrasions in Greece and Adjacent,4reas (park Ridge 1976) 136f. and 39f. Cf. Koukouli-Chrysanthaki, in Hiinsel (ed.), S ii dos te u r op a (19 82) 1 1, 4-1, 43, and in Thr a cia p r aehisto ri c a (Sofia 1982) 231,-258. 22 81 fig. 15 below; Popham-Milburn, BSA 66 (1971) 338 fig. 3 :6-7 .They are not yet known from Crete. 3 Bobousti : Heurtley, BSA 28 (1926-27) 17 23 Acfds du Epirus (1967) 311f. Hochstiitter, in Hdnsel, Siidosteuropa (1e82) 9e-118. 13 For Mediana cf. M. Gara5anin, Arch. Iugoslavical0 (1969) (1971). 85-90 and Kat. NiS (1971) nos.377-420; Arh. Pregled14 (1972) 36-38 and 17 (1975) 27f. (M. Jutie). 1a For Vojvodina and for Rumanian Banat S. Foltiny, ,,K pozdnobronzenodopskoj keramici Vojvodine", Rad vojv. muzeja 75-1.7 (1971), 5-15 and "Neue Angaben zur Kenntnis der UFZ Keramik im siidlichen Teile des Karpathenbeckens", Apulum 6 19 67, 49 -7 1 ; A. L6szl6,,, Consideratii asupra ceramicii de tip Gdva din Hallstattul timpuriu", SCIV 24 (1973) 575-310. For the G6va culture spread generally cf. J. Paulik, Zbornik Slov. N6r. M6zea Bratislava 62 (1968) Hist6ria pp. 3-43. 15 This conclusion, similar to that in Hom. Griechenland, is jevo 26 congris d'arch1ologie classique paris 1965, 1.5 (1977) l7l-175. K. Wardle, Godi{njak Heurtley-Skeat, BSA 31 (1930-31) 1-55; AFrv (1980) 309-318. Sara- Schacher- meyr, 27 Cf .,8. Hiinsel, II alts ta ttzeit (1.97 6) 23 I pI. lI : 20 ; A. Atexandrescu, "Autours des f ouilles d e Zimnicea,,, Thr acia 3 (197 4) 47-59. Cf. also R. Katindarov, "Pariodizacija i charakteristika na kulturate orezbronzovata epocha na JuZna Bulgaria,', Archaeologija Sofia 16/1, (197a) I-Za; ib., ,,proudivanija na bronzovata epocha v Bdlgaria Q94a-7 4)',, Archeologija Sofia 1,7 l2 (197 5) 1-17 ; ib. "Etat des r6cherches sur I'Age du bronze en Bulgarie du Sud-Est", IBAI 36 (Igg1) 74-140. 28 Cf . esp. B. Hdnsel, "Die Gliederung der iilteren Hallstattzeit im thrakischen Raum", Thracia 3 (1974) 87-94 and ib., "Altere Hallstattzeit an der unteren Donau',, (Bonn 1976); G. Tondeva, Chronologie du Hallstatt ancien dans Ia Bulgarie du Nord-Esr (Studia Thracica 5) (Sofia 1980); S. Morintz-P. Roman, "Un nou group Hallstattian timpuriu in Sudvestul Romdniei Banului", SAV 2A 0969) - Insula 393-423; M. Cidikova, Thracial1972, j9-100; M. Kin- Thracia3 (1974) 65-76; P. Detev, .,Le tell Raskopanica" , IBAI36 (1981) 141-185 (Iron Age levets) ; M. Brudin, SCML (1981) 529-536; V. Dumitrescu, Archaeotogija Sofia 4/4 (1968) 1-15. For possibly Trojan-related pottery in Myccnae cf. S. Hood, in Europa (Festschr. Grumach, 1e67), r20-13t. Eev, 2e J. Paulik, "K problematike vfchodn6ho Slovenska v mladlej dobe bronzove j", Zbornik Slov. N:ir. Mizea - Hist. 62 (1968) 3-43. Cf. also note 14. 30 The early pottery from Gordion reminds one of the Trojan fabrics mentioned above, but no real knobs are represented. Cf. K. Bittel, in: Schachermeyr Konferenz Zwettl 1980,38f.. 31 Blegen based on the complex method of examination explained in the introduction and in the conclusions of this book. Cf. Hiinsel, Fefsscfir. Coblenzl (1981) 221-23. t6 Andronikos, Verginal (1969) 185-190, figs. 35-37. 17 Heurtley, Prehistoric Macedonia (1939) 104. 18 Amyklai: v. Massow, AM 52 (1927) 4gtt.pts.4-12;lthaca: VIIf pp. 469-7 1., pls. 1 14-1 15. 25 Possible tradition in Thermon For bowls of the Macedonien Lausitz Ware cf. also CVA Yugoslavia 2, pl. Y 87 :1-2 and pt. 90: 1 (Dalj); Gtasnik Sara jevo 17 (1962) 44 fig. l: 2b (Kekida Gla vica) ; WMBH 9 (1904) pls. 1.9 :8; 42:l ; 58 :2 and 8 ; 59:8 and,77 :'L2.For jugs with fluted handles cf. e.g. WMBHS (1904)p1.25:3-9, for vertical fluting and doubleJooped handles cf. Dobraca, Inv. Arch. YugoslaviaY 1l-20 (Br D). Cf. also Hammond, (1980); for the megaliths and finds in them I. Venedikov (Sofia 1976) also D. - Cf. 39-9g; Grammenos, in Hdnsel (ed.), Sridosteuropa (1982) A. Bonev, in Thracia antiqua3 (1978) 108-122. Cf. K. Wardte, Godiinjak Sarajevo IS (1977) 180; for earlier Matt-Painted wares in Northern Greece A. Hochstetter, PZ 57 (198D 2Al-19. 2a Bouzek, Pam. arch. 6 5 (lg7 4) 65 ; Sandars, in A ctds du VIlf congrEs UISPP Prague 1966 (1970),874f.; Akurgal, in: 1-156. 12 For the Knobbed Ware cf. below IIL11.7 and Hdnsel, Hallstattzeit (1976) 1J3-1,17; Tondeva, Chronologie A. Fol, Megalitete v Trakija 4 tig. 31 : 1-2. e Cf . e.g. P. Gierow, The Iron Age Culture in Latiuml, 3 10 fig. L9; later quite common in Etruscan tombs. For the Balkans cf . e.g. WMBII 9 (1904) pls. 16 : 15 ; 20 :14-1,6 and 20 ; 22:9-11 ;24:l-8 (Donja Dolina). 10 Z. Maria, "Probldmes des limites septentrionales du territoire illyrien", Godiinjak Sarajevo I (1964) l9L-213; Z. Covi6, "Traits essentiels de la culture materielle des illyriens centrale", Godiinjak Sarajevo I (1964) 95-134. -Cf. r6gion also N. Tasid, Starinar l7 (1966) 15-26. i1 Bouzek, Opuscula Ath. g (1,969) 4I-43 and, Hom. Griechenland (1969) 66f.; Hiinsel, Festschr. Coblenz I (1981) 221-23. Cf. also Bouzek, in Schachermeyr-Konferenz Zwettl 1980,271-284; Donja Dolina M ari6, Glasnik Sarajevo 19 (1964) 5-128 and Truhelka, WMBH7 (1904) 235 et alii, Troy IV-1 (1958), 144-48, 158f., pls. J.BOUZEK, THEAEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 236 259-267 ; cf . N. 99-100, 103, 32 Atrerg, Chronologie der BronzezeitlY ,figs' r45-J. 107 -9, Bouzek, Eirene 8 (197q 1!.4-L10 and Opuscula Ath' 9 (1969) 48t. fig.4 B. 33 The belly-handled amphora regularly contained female cremations (Desborough, Protogeometric Pottery 19 52, 6ff ') : ISIMA to LM Il, but many later objects were found in LM II chamber tombs there. a8 Bouzek, Opuscula Affi.9 (1969) 54fig.7 B2-4; Fr<idinAsine, 427 fig. 75 ; Weinberg, Corintfi VII-I, pl. -Persson, II:14-15; in mus. Argos; Kos, Serraglio' PG tomb 10. Morricone, 8o11. d'Arte 35 (1950) 31'9 tig.322. the oenochoe is similar in its shape to the bell-shaped dolls (ct' 36-38, 43t.)' Bouzek, ADAIW 197 4, 7 -10, t4 B. P. Hallager,in Actsof theConvegnoMagnaGrecial9Sl, printing; kind informations of S. Hood and S. Jalkotzy' 35 Cf. here III.1 1.3, from Yugoslavia e.g' the Hrustovaia Cave, Benac, Glasn ik Sarajevo 3 (1948) pl. 9; Metaxata, Marinatos, Arch. Ef . (1933) 88 fig. 35. From Bulgaria cf in notes 35 27-28. Cf. III.11.13 and Bouzek, ADAIW (1974) 4t. tig' 1,. A painted angular pyxis from Kerameikos, Submycenaean grave N 120 (1966) is probably related to Cretanfatrrics (cf' rrr.1 1.1 ). 37 S. Hood, in: The Mycenaeans in the Eastern Mediterranean (L97, 47f. pl. 8; V. Karageorghis, Nouveaux documents pour I'Etude du Bronze Rdcent du Chypre (Paris 1'965) 192' 196 fig.46; Bouzek, ADAIW (I974) 35. Bouzek, Opuscula Ath. 9 (1969) 54 tig. 7 C: ADAIW (197 4) 3gt.; Listy fil. 102 (1979) 8f . ; Exh. Cat. Die Daket (Wien 198i) no. 6; C. Kacs6, Dacia 1'9 (197 5) 57 fig' 11':6' 3e Cf . also V. Mikov, Le trEsor de Valcitran, p' 6; M' Kosori6-J. Todorovi6, Starinar NS 13-14 (1962-63) (1955) 598---615 .267-74; M. Berciu, Materiali arh. | (Ostrovul Mare) ; Zagorka Letica, Antopomotfne f igurine bronzanogo doba u lugoslavii (Beograd 1973); tsouzek' ADAIW (1974) 36--39. N. Tasi6 and G' J. Georgiev, in Hiinsel (ed.). Sildosfeuropa (1982), lSi -202' 255-266 ' a0 It may also be mentioned here that lids similar to these of the 3s pyxidae and incised fragments resembling the Attic Early Geometric Incised Ware were found at Gordion (E. Haspels' Phrygialll, pl.27a and Pl. 31). a1 For the Er,npedokles coll. in Nat. Mus. Athens cf' Bouzek, Gnaecolatina Pragensia3 (1966) 66 fig. 1 :3; from Anavysos Kastiotes-A. Filadelfeus, Ptaktika AE (19 1 1 ) 1 i 0-1 3 1 and in rnus. Brauron; Eleusis G. Mylonas, To dytikon P. nekrotafeion fes Eleusinos (Athens 197 5) pl' 225 alpha' a2 Cf. Bouzek, in'. Staatliche Museen Berlin - Forschungen und Berichte 16 (1975) 1'64t. a3 Korakou Rutter, AJA 75 (1'979) 20 tig. 4; Metaxata B' Marinatos, Arch. Ef. (1933) fig. 37 nos. 88,90 (incised); Aetos (Ithaca) Heurtley, BSA 33 (1932-33) 55 tig. 36 : 106' Cf. Bouzek, Opuscula A.th.9 (1969) 52.12 fig' 6 E. aa Cf . Oliva Ran6 ieckd tyranis (Praha 1'953) 17 8, 209 ;lb.' The Bbth of Greek Civilisation (London 1'981) 63-67; Herod' V 68 for Sicyon and Herod. V 92 for Corinth. a5 Mykenische Vogelbarke. antithetische Tierprotomen in der Kunst des iistlichen Mittelmeerraumes. Arc,rt. Korrbl' l0 (1e80) 31s-330. a6 The popularity of birds in the Thapsos pottery was also probably connected with the Sea Peoples world, cf. above, a? m.10. A similar bowl found in Katsamba, tomb II (Crete) was dated 12. THE FUNERAL RITE 1 Desborough, Last Mycenaeans 1964,33f '; Deshayes, Deiras 1966;250f .; Bouzek, Hom. Griechenland1969,64f "9't-9' 104 fig. 39;Snodgrass, DarkA ge of Greecel97l'140-201" 2 Bouzek, Pam. arch.65 (1974) 31lf' ; for Bulgaria cf. Mikov, Godi{njak na f'{arodna Biblioteka Varna 1'940/41' 26; Katiniarov, Thracia 5 1980,167-172 ; for Yugoslavia cf . M' Garaianin, Diadora 2 1'96A/ $, 126t. 3 Surveys N. G. L. Hammond, "Tumulus burial in Albania' the grave circles at Mycenae and the Indo-Europeans", BSA 62 1967,77-106, and in Acta of Prehistory (Athens 197D fh e 2nd colloquium on Aegean ffi4-1'12 (Hammond) and 184-1,90 (Marinatos). a Hammond, Epirus (1967) 346-43 ct. note 2. s Bouzek-Bouzkovil, Listy fil' 86 (1963) 56-59. 6 Cf. R. Hagg, Die Grdber der Argolis in submykenischer' protageonettischer und geomettischer Zeit, vol. 1 : Lage und Form der Grdber (Uppsala 1974); cf. also the review Gno- mon(L979\ 505. 7 Surveys: Andronikos, Arch. IIom.l[W 54-62; Bouzek, ' Hom. Griechenland 1969, 97 , 123-126; Snodgrass, Dark Age of Greece l9'll, 187-190; for Crete C. Davaras, Cremations in Minoan and Subminoan Crete, in Antichitir Cretese (Studi in onore di D. Levi, Cronache di arch. t2 1973)" 158-167. 8 J. P. Riis, Hama II-3, Cimetidres a crimation (1948); cf. below IIL15.2. e Cf. R. Peroni, in Ridgeway-Ridgeway (eds.), Italy before the Romans (1.97 9), 20-22. Cf. B. Hiinsel, Fesfscftr. Coblenzl (1981) 22t. 11 Cf" S. Morintz, Conftibutii arheologice Ia istoria thraciior timpurui I, Epoca bronzului in spatiul carpato-balcanic, (Bucuresti 197 8) 28-45. 12 J. Bouzek-H. Bouzkov6, Listy fil.86 (1963) 56-59;J' Paulik, S1ov. Arch.l0 (1962) 25-39 and ZbornikSlov. Ndr' Hist., 9-51. Mrtzea 63 (1969) ,n 10 - 13. ARCHITECTURE r Bouzek, Opuscula Ath.9 (1969) 57 and Hom. Gtiechenland (1,969) 119f.; H. Miiller-Wiener, Panionion und Melia (Berlin 1968) 118-1'20. 2 H. Drerup, "Griechische Baukunst der geometrischen Zeit". Arch. Hom. ll O, (1969) is still the trest survey, even if nerr discoveries are missing there. (For Lefkandi cf' III' 6 note 17.) 3 B. Hdnsel, in Fesfscfir. Coblenz 1981,2L2-214,223; Jb' RGZM Mainz26 (1979) 19L-93,271. a A survey Bouzek, Listy fil.92 (1969) 266-270. le !c: t'{r i xxNl THE REL,{TIONS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN CULIURE 5 Cf. J. Makkay, Altorientalische Parallelen zu den dltesten Heiligtiimern Siidosteuropas, AIba Regia 11 (1970) 137 S. Hood, in Cancilium Eirene XVI (Prague 1982) -144 ; vol 3, 101. 14. THE LITERARY SOURCES J. Chadwick, The Mycenaean World (Cambridge 1977) 173-180. Schachermeyr, AFv (19s2) 38--40. Schachermeyr, o.c. 73-81, 209-13; Sandars, Sea Peoples (1978) 10s-178. Schachermeyr, o.c. 56f. Schachermeyr, o.c. 113-22, 194. Schachermeyr, o.c. pp. 1.98-213. Cf. Schachermeyr, Af Vt, (19S3) 16-19. 5 6 1 237 1,67-172. For other relations between Crete and Cyprus in the Sea Peoples Age cf. in Cyprus and Crere, M. Popham, pp. 17E-191 ; J.-C. Courtois, pp. 158-172 ;F. Schachermeyr, pp. 204-15; V. Karageorghis, pp. 199-203 and B. Rutkowski, pp. 223-227 . Cf. also here note 14, and Karageorghis- Muhly (eds.), Cyprus at the Close of the Late Bronze Age (Nicosia 1984). 8 Cf . Desborou gh, Greek Dark Ages (1972) 49-57 ; in the volume Re/afions between Cyprus and Crete (1979) notably the contributions by Y. Tsedakis (pp. 192-98\, M. Yon (241-48), K. Nicolau (249-56) and N. Cotdstream (257-63). F. Schacherrneyr, AF V (l9BZ) 269-99. n J. C. Waldbaum, Philistine Tombs at Tell Fara and their Aegean prototypes, AJA'10 (1966) 331-340; S. Yeivin, "Mycenaean ternples and their possible influence on the countries of the eastern littoral of the Mediterranean", in Atfi di congresso di Micenologia (Roma 1967) vol. 3, I 30 8 Schiif er, Eirene co ncilium XVI, P r a gue 1 9 I 2, v ol. -4 ; 3, 104-108 and AA (1983) 551-58. 10 S. Hood, Myeenaeans in the Eastem Mediterranean (Nicosia 1973) 40-50 H. Buchholz, "Greek Trojan Ware in Cyprus and Northern Syria", in Bronze Age Migrations (1973) 179-187; P. Astrrim, Cyprus and Troy, Opuscuta I" 1, 15. CONCLUSIONS I in Cf. J. Bouzek, "The Sea Peoples and the types of objects of in Cyprus", RDAC (L975) 53-57 ; J.-C. Courtois, "Chypre et 1'Europe pr6historique ultimately European origin fin de l'Age du Bronze, donn6es nouvelles sur le monde mycdnien finissant", in: Praktika tau I. diethnou Kyprologikou synedriou 1.969, vol. A (Lefkosia 1972) 22-33. 2 Cf. H. Catling, Bronzework ("1-964) 1,13-117; J.-C" Courtois and J. Bouzek, in:, Alasia I (1971.) 381-432 and 433-448; additions Courtois, Praktika Kyprotogikou synedriau (1972) 25 and 33. 3 Catling, Bronzework (1964) 240-47; Courrois, Praktika Kyprologikou synedriou (1972) 26; J. Birmingham, Palestine Exploration Quarterly 45 (1963) 80-94; D. Stronach, Iraq 21 (1959) 1.89t. o Catling, Bronzework (1964) 243-47 ; Blinkenberg, Fibules (1e27) s8-78. s Catling, Bronzework (1964) 239 pl. 4L j; Benson, The Necropoirs ot Kaloriziki (Gciteborg 1,973) 129; for similar Geometric pins also Gjerstad, SCE lV-2,25, 28 and A. Pieridou, RDAC (1965) 1.02 no. 272 b pl. XV: 21. 6 Daniel, AJA 41. (1937) 72-75; AIA 42 (1938) 267; Benson, RDAC (1970) 36f., and Necropoft's of Kaloriziki (19731 118 f. Bamboula nos. B 706-11 ; S. Hood, in: The Mycenaeans in the Eastern Mediterranean (Nicosia 1973) 471. Cf . also P. Astrrim, "Cyprus and Troy", Opuscula Ath. 13 (1980) 23-28, for the Cretan Incised vessel Dikaios, d la k L ; L.r aL I, ,Cr { b;rl- 6t :rr-- r 1-- | :Jb Enkomipl.95:23 (84). 7 Cf . T. Dothan, in : The Mycenaeans in the Eastern Mediterranean (L973) 1.87 tf., and "Some aspects of the appearance of the Sea Peoples in Canaan", in: Acfs of rhe Schachermeyr conlerence Zvvettl 1980, (1983) 99-116, and her book The Philistines and Their Material Culture (New Haven 1982). V. Hankey, BSA 62 (1967 ) 1.01-147 ; rb., M|langes 2) 9-30 and in Acts of the Symposiurn The Relations between Cyprus and Crete, 2000-500 B.C. (Nicosia 1979) 1,44-157 ; Arch€ologie au Cf . also U niv. Saint Joseph B eirut 47 (197 Levant, Et. e Ia mlmoire de F". Saidah (Lyon 1,982), Ath. t3 (1980)23-28. Courtois, Praktika Kyprologikou Synedriou 1969 (1972), vol. A, p. 32 ; cf . p " 25 for other new swords frorn Enkomi. 12 H. Goldman, Tarsus II (1956) 295 pl. 430:175; Courtois, Praktika Kypr. Synedriou A (1972) 32; pins with poppy heads in Late Hittite contexts R. M. Boehner, D ie Kleinfunde aus Boghazk6y (1973) no. 578. 11 13 Kirnmig, Studien aus Aiteuropa (Festschr. Tackenberg) (1964) 223; Schachermeyr, AF V (1982) 781. fig. 7; S. Wachsmann, "The Ships of the Sea Peoples", Intemat. Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Explorarion 10 (1981) 187-220. Cf. III.10.3 and also A. Str,iibel, D er sp iitbronzezeitliche Viilkersturm (Berlin 1 976) (who, however, does not understand the detailed arguments of the archaeological evidence) and A. Nibbi, The Sea Peoples and Egypt (Park Ridge 1975); R. Hestrin, O. Yulgeh, D. Gal, The Philistines and Other Sea Peoples (Jerusalem 1970); R. de Vaux, "La Ph6nic6e et les Peuples de la Mer", M1langes Univ. Saint-Ioseph Beirut 45 (1969) 469-498. la G. Garbini, in Afti di I" congresso di Micenologia (Roma "A proposite della cremazione archaiche Fenizio-Punica", SMEA 19 (1978) 247-252; 1967) 1125; M. U. Veddard, III.12.3 note 15 16 8. AF v (1982) 38-40 and lJgariticaYl (1969) 451-459, my review of Sandars, Sea Peoples (1978) (where different opinions) in Gnomon (1980) 499-502 and the Sheffield conference on Sea Peoples (197 4). cf. schachermeyr, The discussion of the problems connected with the Trojan War would go beyond the scope of this book, but it seems to me still that the last Trojan War was in connection with the Sea Peoples migrations and activities. Cf . my IIo m. Griechenland (1969) 199 ; Schachermeyr. AF V e982) 93-It2 and the materials of the conference on Troy, Sheffield 1977. 17 Bouzek, Eirene 8 1970, 120 anil Voula, Nat. Mus, Athens 238 J, BOUZEK, THE AECEAN. ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 8557. For Myc. pottery in Northern Anatolia D. FI. French, Thracia Pontica I (Sofia 1982) 19-30. 18 Cf . more in detail Bouzek, Schachermeyr Symposium Zwettl 1980,271,-284. For Kastanas now Hdnsel et a1., Ib. RGZM L. Mainz 26 (197 9) 167 -27 le Cf. Hammond, Macedonia (1972) 300-404; Bouzek, Macedonian Bronzes and History, Graecolatina PngensiaT \ 20 21 (1976) 43-46. Cf. Bouzek, Eirene 19 (1982) I03f; Eirene 18 (1982) 42-46. mykenische Penetration im westlichen Mittelmeerraum, Klio 61 (1979) 309-359; A. M. Bieti Sestieri, "tr processi storici nella Siciiia Orientale fra la tarda eti di bronzo a gli inizi deila etd di ferro . . . " , Atti di 21 riunione scient., Istituto Italiano di presit. Firenze (197 7) 599-629. 31 Cf . the catalogue I Micenei in Italia (1967) pls, 25, 27 and 1 5 (Pienmyrio swords, Mycenaeanbronze vessels, dagger from grave 48). Cf. also Orsi, Mon. ant.9 (1899) 33-116. 32 K. D. Wardle, Cultural groups of the Late Bronze and Early 23 2a ihe Late Bronze Age, Iliria grotta Pirosu 4 Bouzek, Graeco-Macedonian Branzes 1974, L5Lt. tig. 48:9-11 (Bingula Divo5, Uioara - Su Banatzu di Santadi (Cagliari)", in: L. Pericot(Barcelona 1973) 283-307, cf. F. Lo Schiavo, in : Sardegna Centro-Orienfale (Dessi-Sas- de Sus, Serbia). sari 1978) Z. PBFXX-I (1974) 81-88 with pl. 19. Cf . also the "buttons" Vinski-Gasparini, Kultura polja (1.973), pl. zefunden, 4s:zzJa, pl. 53 :36; here II.12.1. H. Nenzinger-R. Pittioni, "Woher Sandars, Sea Peoples (1978) 100f.; Schachermeyr, AP v (1e82) 3ef. 34 L. Vagnetti, "Il trronzo finale di Puglia", Atti di 21 riunione scientifica, Istituto Italiano di preist. e protaist. Firenze (1970) 537-549 (cf . also the contributions by F. G. Lo Porto (pp. 531-36) and E. M. de Juliis (pp. 515-30) in the sarne volume. L. Vagnetti, inPeruzzi, Mycenaeans in Early Latium (1980) 160f. Cypriot pottery from Scoglio del Tonno Biancof iore, Civilt d micene a n ell' I tali a me r idio nale2 (1 I 67 ) pl. 43 ab. 35 Nordische Bronzezeit und friihes Griechentum, Bremer Arch. Bldtter 3 (1962) 37. 2e Main surveys: L. Vagnetti, Mycenaean imports in Central Italy, in: E. Peruzzi, Mycenaeans in Early Lafium (Roma I Micenei in ltalia, Cat. esp. (1967); W. Taylour, Mycenaean Pottery in ltaly and Adjacent Areas (Cambridge 1957); F. Biancofiore, Civiltd micenea nell'Italia meridionale2 (Rorna 1967); A. Bieti Sestieri, "The metal industry of continental Italy, 13th-11th century, and its Aegean connections", PPS 39 1973, 1980) 151-166; Tin6-Vagnetti, and also H-G. Buchholz, AA L. Vagnetti (ed.), Magna Grecia e iI 383-424. Cf. IILl1.1 note I mondo Miceneo, Nuovi documenti (Taranto 1982). 30 G. Voza, "Thapsos : primiresultati delle piu recente ricerce", Atti 14 riunione scient., Istituto Italiano di preistoria e protoistoria,Firet.ze (7972) 27 5-305; Ib., "Thapsos, Resconto sulle campagne di scavo del 1970-71", Atti 15 riunione scient, lst. Firenze (1973) 133-157 : Archaeologia della Sicilia Orientale (Napoli 1.973) 30-53 (ed. P. Pellegati and G. Yoza, Siracuse); M. Marazzi-S. Tusa, "Interrelazione dei centri siciliani e peninsulari durante la penetrazione micenea", Sicilia arch. 9 (1976) 49-90; M. Tusa, Die Vagnetti, inPeruzzi, Mycenaeans... (1980) 159, 161 with bibl. 36 fig.25. 2 Cf. E. Sprockhoff, 81-3. 33 stammen die blauen Glasperlen der Urnenfelderzeit", Arch. Austr.26 (1959) 52-46 ;7. Haevernick, Die G,lasarmringe und Ringegeld der Mittel- und Spdtlatinezeit auf dem europdischen Festland (Bonn 1960) 4. 27 Grave I. J. Paulik, Slov. arch. 14 (1966) 379 fig. 73 :6,383f. (1974) 334-356; L. Vagnetti, "Micenei .Esfudos dedicados a Pivovarovd, "Dvojdepelov6 britvy luiickej kultriry na Slovensku", Slov. arch. L4 (1966) 337-356. Type O Pivovarovri, o.c.34A flig.5,337 fig. 1:5, 346f. fig.8:3 (Trendiansk6 Teplice, Diviaky nad Nitricou, Radzovce). 25 A. Jockenhrivel, "Einreichverziertes Protovillanova-Rasiermesser", in: Beitriige zu italischen und griechischen Bron- 26 e Ferrarese Ceruti, Ceramica micenea in Sardegna, Riv. Sc. Preist.34 (1979) 243-253. The Aegean ingots L. Vagnetti, in : ?eruzzi, Mycenaeans in Early Latium (L98A) 1.62 note 37 ; a lead miniature from Sarrok Ceruti, o.c. pl. I right below. Tripod G. Liliu, "Tripode bronzeo di tradizione cipriota della (1980), 5-59 and CAI{II-I (198D 2A9-3A; A. Harding, thesis 1-972 and Illyrians, Italics and Mycenaeans: Transcontacts dunng Muros di Orosei: F. Lo Schiavo Sos in Sardegna", Acad. dei Lincei, Classe sc. morali, storiche e fi,l. VIII vol.35, fasc. 5-6 (1980),371-384;Sarrok: M. L. Iron Age in NW Greece, Godi{njak Saraievo 15 (1977) 153-199; N. G. L. F{ammond, Epirus (1967) 289-414. 22 F. Prendi, Epoka e bronzit nd Shqiperi, IliriaT-B 1977-78 -Adriatic (1.976),157--162. [s]MA 37 Vagnetti, o.c., 151-155; Ib., Appunti sui bronzi egei e ciprioti del ripostiglio di Contigtiano, MEFR - Antiquitd 86 (197 4) 657 471. Piediluco H. Miiller-Karpe, Vom Anf ang Rom.s (Heidelberg 1959) pl.29:4. Cf ch. 38 . 1II.4.2.2; here note 29 (Bieti Sestieri) and elsewhere in III.5-10. Miiller-Karpe, Vom Anfang Rorns (1959) 48f., 190;E. Perrlzzi, Mycenaeans in Early Lafium (Rome 1980); Schachermeyr, Etruskische Friihgeschichte {1937 220-232,291-93. 3e Vagnetti in P ) 27 F. -57, eruzzi, Mycenaeans in Early Latium(1980) 1.62 and ib., Un frammento di ceramica micenea da Fondo Paviani (Legnano), BolI. Muso Civico di Storia Nat. Verona 6 (1.97 9) 559-610. a0 Heierli, (Jrg. der Schweiz (1901) 269; Randsborg, Aoa Arch. Ksbenhavn 38 (1.967) 21. tig. lI B (now lost). Cf . also E. Bucholz. AA 1974,336-359. al W. Wegewitz, Die Grdber der Stein- und Bronzezeit im Gebiet der Niederelbe (Hannover 1949) 1.72 tf.; K. Randsborg, Acta Arch. Ksbenhavn3S (1967)22. a2 A picture very similar to ours F. Schachermeyr, AFIV and \r. Many of my earlier conclusions must be altered, cf. for some changes my article "LH III C reconsidered", in Actes de la XIf confdrence Eirene, Cluj-Napoca 1972 (197 5) 7 4I-43 and Gnomon (1980) 499-502. Ct. also J. Hooker. Mycenaean Greece (London 1977); P. Astrtim, in : Greee xxul THE RELATIONS OF THE L.{TE \I\'CE\AEAN CULTURE and the East Mediterranean (Festschr. Schachermerr) (1977) 31-39. Different interpretation esp. A. Snodgrass, The Dark _{ge of Greece (1971) and Sandars, Sea peoples (1978). Dr. Sandars, however, has changed her views no*. (Oxford Journal of Archaeology, val. 2 1983, 43-68). For the economic collapse cf. now ph. Betancourt. Antiquity 50 (1976) 40-47, for the supposed climanc change (after Carpenter, Discontinuity of Greek Civitisation and my Hom. Griechenland) J . L. Bintliff, Natural Environment in Prehistoric Greece,{)xtord1977 (BAR Suppl. 2g), p. 51 ; D. L. Donley, "Analysis of the Winter Climatic pattern at lr Bd ! ;,J the Time of the I\,Iycenaean Decline", Ann Arbor :.. it, :ilr "rff'- i-r :!@ 'C1; |mDC iur- ': rmn :{e frrry :e rr ,-E _{!EIODL -{,s I ar*,r .r. lodl !$lea rdrl :----r: rileg diss. { 1 9? 1). 239 For the general development of the climatic situation in different parts of Europe cf. now A. Harding (ed.), Climatic Changes in Later prehisrory(Edinburgh f lIZ) esp. the contributions by Jiiger-LoZek and Bouzek. In the area around the Alps, a very warm climate of the Late Tumulus culture was followed by the peschiera horizon floods, after \a'hich the warm optimum continued. _ A conclusion similar to ours now S. Hood, ,,Northern ,Barbaric, elements in Early Greek Civilisation, c. 1200-500 8.C.,,, Concilium Eirene XVI (Prague 1982), vol. 3, 98-103. In addition to the arguments discussed here, he mentions also new pyramidal loomweights, new shapes of whorls and changes in ihe diet in Nichoria- CHAPTER IV GENERAL SURVEY 1. CONCLUSIONS The third millennium B.C. saw the spread of astrology and of some metallurgical knowledge over vast areas. In the period after c. 2000 B.C' Europe had more contacts with the southeast in the field of metallurgy, since even the shapes of many objects found there resemble those made in Anatolia, the Caucasus and the Near East. The Cretan Early-Middle Bronze Age rnetallurgical school, together with the Cyclades' influenced early metallurgy in the West lvlediterranean, and the Caucasian area influnced the eastern Balkans across the Pontic steppes, but the Trojan and Anatolian school was by far the most important for the beginning of the Danubian Bronze Age. Anatolian jewellery had links with Mesopotamia, and some connections can therefore be traced frorn the Ur jewellery to the Balkans. The production of glass beads was most likely of Levantine inspi- ration. In the second quarter of the second millennium B.C., the Aegean area emerges - together with as the most important Cyprus for some features world. For the prehistoric European partner of the spread of horse-trappings and chariots to the Aegean and to Europe, Anatolia was still responsible, but most other enterprises of that time already derived from the Aegean' Middle Helladic III and Mycenaean I pottery appears as far west as the Aeolian islands; several imports or possible imports of Mycenaean or East Mediterranean objects and their more or less close imitations are known from Northern Italy (Ledro), frorn Brittany and England, and from Germany (Dohnsen), Rumania, Hungary and surrounding territories' Mycenaeans imported Baltic (or Danish) amber, tin very probably from southern England and Brittany, and copper and gold from the Carpathian mountains. 80 per cent of the evidence for Mycenaean contacts with Europe outside the boundary regions in the Balkans and South Italy is concentrated in the Danubian-Carpathian area, and in England and Brittany. European cultures in several parts of Europe (also in northern Italy, and in the area of Bohemia-Saxony-Thuringia) reached one of their peaks towards the end of the local Earll' Bronze Age, and, together with the conemporar!' Trialeti culture in Transcaucasia, they were on the verge of entering the community of the then civilized countries; this achievement was inspired by contacts with the latt€r. Even the other parts of Europe were not wholly savage during the Bronze Age, but were barbarian on a rather high level of development, with influential chieftains, priests and sanctuaries, with a sophisticated system of metal distribution which made bronze artefacts available to all parts of Europe; but the areas mentioned in the previous paragraph progressed further than their neighbours. Most of these high cultures, especially those in the Carpathian area. did not survive for long: the climatic deterioration was more favourable to cattle-breeding and to the more barbarian societies which took their place. but even later there were solne contacts with the -s{ Aegean in weaponry, religion and personal object-s- .lt showing that some distant knowledge of the ricb south-eastern civilised world reached as far nortl as the Scandinavian rock-carvings. The beginning of the next period, c. 1400 B.C.- -L Ji T:- exhibits a picture similar to that discussed in tbe t T l I I tr fr .+, n \ :1, E \[ !t. :lr .an I:r , 's3 !- _ 24r 5" h- tn or be ;b :tSt€ irf d E{.r previous part of this study. Mycenaean interest continued in raw materials necessary for a Bronze Age economy, copper and tin first, and also gold. amber and other materials of lurury and prestige unavaiiable in the l\,fycenaean homeland. Most trading enterprise was, as in the previous period, sea-borne. Albania, South Italy, Sicily and Sardinia received Mycenaean pottery and some bronze objects; the Bulgarian tslack Sea coast has yielded finds of characteristic ingots and stone anchors. Ox-hide ingots have also been found in Sardinia, and the Falmouth tin ingot from England may well belong to this group. Copper from Tuscany and perhaps from the Alps, gold, copper and electrum from the Carpathian mountains, tin from England and Baltic amber were the aims and reasons for Mycenaean enterprise so far away from home. Though the sea was more suitable for long-distance trade and virtually no pottery was carried over the land routes, significant and understandable techniques, weaponry and religious symbols were adopted by many European barbarians frorn the Aegean sphere, and more or less transformed according to local taste. Religion in different parts of Europe also had many aspects reminiscent of Aegean and Near Eastern religious systems, and this was reflected in the use of comparable symbolic motifs spearheads present a similar picture. For a short time around 12008.C., virtually the same types of weapons and armour were in use in the Aegean, in the western Balkans, in Italy and in Central (and Northern) Europe, while only the region last mentioned was excluded from the area of distribution of violin-bow fibulae, which were a fairly common type of dress fastener. Many symbolic representations also belonged to this koine, which formed part of the background of the Early Iron Age community of Geometric styles in Greece, Villanovan Italy and Hallstatt Europe. This situation was unique in the whole of the Bronze and Early Iron Ages, but it rnust be stressed that objects actually exported from one area to another were quite exceptional; more than 95 per cent of the European-type weapons found in the Aegean were locally made, and knowledge of types was only transmitted by a few items in corpore. But this is the general rule in archaeology. Childe once described a historical document in archaeology as an empty sardine tin buried in a forest after a picnic, but, normally, the search for some unique event means attempting the impossible. Ar- sf,Ed A kind of koine or "common market" developed in weaponry. dress fasteners and some other ob- chaeological chronology knows of periods lasting for the most part 2-4 generations, and only exceptionally achieves a finer time-scale. Moreover it cannot clairn to be able to find more than a tiny scatter of the objects once covered by the earth, and such objects, again, were only a modest fraction of what was actually produced and used of objects which may survive under normal conditions, not to mention textiles, wooden and leather objects etc., which decay completely in most soil conditions. In other words, only features which became common, typical and recurrent have any change of entering the archaeological record. tfltN* jects over large parts of Europe, including Central, and also partly Northern Europe with Scandinavia, Fine chronology is often a matter of the chosen interpretation of ambiguous documents, but the Italy, the western Balkans and the Aegean. The production of harnmered bronze sheet objects, especially parts of artrnour, was inspired from the parallels we have discussed in the previous chapters roughly confirrn the usual chronological system, though a slightly earlier date for European Br D is entirely possible, and if the calibrated Cr+ dates are valid, the Early Urnfield culture should tre put even earlier. What was the situation in general ? The collapse of the Mycenaean citadels, of the Hittite empire and of the Levantine city-states shows that no rry frr bes ff'd *ot tffi :Io{ ES rod bs rEl' ril Mfon u& t!rc- t& }ffi, r ri& rffi nf- mfu and religious objects. This, again, fits into the "normal" pattern of a more primitive Barbarian Europe, but one still participating - asofa marginal in the cultural development the Old area World. In the 13th century B.C., however, the situation changes rapidly and this earlier pattern no longer applies. Aegean, but their adaptations were European, and were trdnsmitted back again to the south. Similarly, the European cut-and-thrust sword of Sprockhoff IIa type, distributed from Scandinavia to Syria, had some Aegean ancestry besides its more obvious Central European roots, and many varieties of 242 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE political power from the south could organize this cultural unity. The character of the koine is suggestive; it mainly consisted of arms and weapons, and other features were fibulae (much less so at first pins, which were destined for female dress), and some knives and daggers and symbolic representations. The parallels with ltaly and the Northwest Balkan are the closest, but, again, we must underline that what we compare is the second or third generation of objects derived from those actually transmitted, not the moment of transition itself (with very few exceptions). Though this koine used some stylistic and iconographic eltjments derived from the previous Late Bronze Age Medititerranean civilisations, most of its types were apparently developed in the East Alpine and Northeast Itaiian areas; the area around the head of the Adriatic was impoftant even later for the koine, and I-H III C pottery arrived as far north as the Po basin. Amber was now imported to the Adriatic area via Central Europe, as in later times. Many roots of the European components of this koine (e.g. long pins and finger-rings with spiral ends) derived from the pre-Urnfield Tumulus culture, the descendants of which may have been among those who came to the Balkans and to Italy. Climatic changes which brought a warmer climate probably contributed to the change in the balance of power between north and south, as they also seem to have affected similar changes in the late 3rd millennium B.C., connected with the coming of Greeks to Greece. A short-time warm and dry climate in the late phase of the Tumulus culture was followed by the. Peschiera horizon floods, and a continuing climatic optimum, which later ended with drying-off of some lowlands with a relatively low precipitation rate (cf, III.15.11,nate 42). Perhaps because our world has become so full of drama, we are less willing to accept that dramatic events happened in the past; bu.t Homer, the Old Testament and all the stories round the transition from the Bronze to the Iron Age saw this period as full of drama, connected with a rapid worsening of the world: for Greece and for large parts of the East Mediterranean, it was also the beginning of a Dark Age. The end of the second miilennium (c. 1100 B.C.) withnessed a similar though less broad koine: the area of distribution of nearly identical types of lslMA weaponry and dress fasteners was now limited to the Adriatic and the Aegean areas, including most of Italy, and some territories north and north-east of the Adriatic. As against the bronzework with its long-distance similarities, the evidence of primitive potteries gives a more variegated picture. The Peloponnesian Barbarian Wares were certainly produced where they have been found, and individual sites exhibit local varieties. The Barbarian Ware shows the closest relations with the Subappenine culture in South-eastern Italy and with similar pottery groups in the Balkans (Varvara), just before the appearance of the Protovillanovan and similar pottery groups in the Balkans (including also their most southern off-shoot, the Macedonian Lausitz Ware), but some parallels can also be traced in the eastern Balkans and in the earliest Protovillanovan and Urnfield groups in the Adriatic area. But the *: most significant characteristics of the Subappenine and Plovdiv-Zimnicea wares (like horned or but- kr toned handles) are lacking in the Aegean Barbarian pottery, which degenerated into some kind of kitchen ware with a limited number of shapes. As in the case of the bronzework, these wares are products of the second or third generation of local development, not direct witnesses to the transmission itself. i : L l, h i tl J tt J 3 j ui Jtr qr rf The hand-made pottery groups in the Axius ni valley and Macedonia show close relations with the 14- Morava valley, those of Epirus with Albania, Greek Thrace with Bulgaria; and the Trojan Knobbed ware derives from a similar pottery group in East Bulgaria. The picture may be puzzling, but the pottery reveals more of the detail and the 5et t'u ft.? {un bronzes more of the general situation. Archaeologi- Ro cal interpretation cannot be so naive as to reconstruct the general picture from Childe's sardine tins directly, and it is advisable to look at what happened archaeologically during the course of comparable event in later periods of history. difi $a We can easily observe that the archaeological evidence for many historically attested invasions is the J--, ucl less impressive than in our case, and we should not accept the position of the geographer from Saint Exup6ry's Little Prince, who sits at home instead of trying to gain real knowledge and refuses to take notice of what does not appeal to him. ial ab,l' ;rdl T ]lfet her'i, 'n as i xnxl GE\ER{L SURVEY If we compare the archaeological traces of the Slavonic migration of Greece, of the Germanic. Viking and Norman invasions in France and in the western Mediterranean, the Hun, Avar and Hun: $ d 3 s t tE t- ir nz E rn be DE narrf ;in K!-- cel garian arrivals in Hungary, and the Celtic migration to Anatolia (the list can easily be enlarged), we can distinguish two kinds. If the newcomers overrun the whole country and are much more numerous than the remnants of the previous population, they are forced to develop their own new culture as an extension of their former traditions; but this rarely happens, and in most cases the invaders of more highly developed countries have used the superior skills of local craftsmen belonging to the population they had subjugated. Even the Hebrews in Palestine did not entirely eradicate the existing population there, and yet such a harsh attitude towards other peoples as the ancient Hebrews displayed has few parallels elsewhere. The women who could be taken as wives, mistresses and slaves were not killed, and, at a slightly higher stage of human development, men were also taken as slaves, and often a large part of the previous population was subjugated; for the latter we have many examples of this last phenomenon from Early Greek history. r|s- One of the parallel patterns which answers many questions in regard to the situation discussed here is m offered by the West Mediterranean barbarian world during the decline and after the fall of the West Roman empire. The Germanic tribes at first Sc Bir- 'Ftr }{p bd ftc $El-- m' rq ry fif,- ecd mh sent their men as mercenaries to the Roman army, but later they became difficult allies and * after that the more barbarian relatives of the mercenaries became the new masters, who in subsequent wars and battles destroyed most of the Roman civilisation. Their weapons and personal ornaments were derived from Late Roman provincial civilisation, but were strongly influnced by the different barbarian taste. Though we are still unable to trace the details of the picture, we can assert that some tribes of European origin participated in the military campaigns of the Sea Peoples and the destruction of the East Mediterranean Bronze Age lm civilisations. ra'd Mediterranean cities go back to stories of various tim r& The origins of many Italic, Greek and East heroes of this truly heroic age, whose historical role was to destroy the Bronze Age empires, and thus to 243 prepare the ground for the emergence of the Iron Age civilisation, in which Greek culture and art first took the lead. As we see now, there was an interval of several decades between the destructions in the Aegean and the catastrophes in the Levantine towns, which were aftbrwards followed by the attack on Egypt. Therefore only little of the European features passed through the Aegean cultural "filter", though the original homeland of the Philistines and the Tekker in particular may have been in the North Adriatic or even in East Central Europe. The second koine after c. 1100 B.C. was more limited geographically, and connected with later more limited adventures in Greece with the invasions of the Northwest Greeks and the Dorians into Central Greece and the Peloponnese. Thiswas - followed by the Ionian migration to western Anatolia, by Dorian migrations to Crete and the Dodecanese, and by several smaller movements. Then the ruined world subsided into calm again, and relations between Europe and the Aegean returned to a more normal pattern. Some religious movements (cremation, the Dionysiac mysteries) came to Greece from the north, some trade and piracy were carried on as a response to the much larger-scale Phoenician trade, and some innovations were taken over here and there by barbarian European neighbours of the Aegean, whose way of life was at that time not vere different from that of the Dark Age Greeks. Finally, we may conclude that the results of this book are somewhere between the most optimistic and pessimistic views on the subject. Europe was a barbarian marginal part of the OId Bronze Age World, in which Mesopotamia and Egypt were the leading areas, and the East Mediterranean civilisations beyond the former also played a much more sophisticated role. The barbarian part of Europe shared in some religious movements and in some technological knowledge, it supplied some raw materials, and at times it sent adventurers who then settled in the southeast and contributed to shaping its fate. The most important periods of the timespan covered by our survey are: the late 3rd millennium B.C. with the probable arrival of the Greeks in Greece and the Hittites in Anatolia, the Shaft Grave period with a rather large-scale trade J.BOUZEK, THEAEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 244 in raw rnetals and amber with the Carpathian area and with Britain and, last but most important of all, the Late Bronze Age koine of the last three centuries of the second millennium, most notably c' 1,200 8.C., with a situation resernbling that of the Great Migration Period' 2. ALTERNATIVE CONCLUSIONS If calibrated Cr+ the American bristlecone dates are proved valid, all European elements in our comparisons will become much earlier than their Aegean parallels. They will then have to be regarded as coincidences, the results of earlier local developrnents which came to an end and were later adopted in the south-east. In the late second millennium 8.C., the European part of the koine would be demonstrably earlier, and its Aegean part merely a later imitation" 2. If the amber found in the Mediterranean was not of Baltic origin (if Beck's analyses were not valid) this would also cast doubts on supposed imports of raw metal from Europe. The contacts would be less well documented, and a more sceptical attitude 1. would be necessary. 3. trf the stone anchors of Bronze-age type are in fact of a later date, we lose some part of the evidence for maritime contacts, including ISIMA those along the western Black Sea coast. 4. If nearly all or all the objects which do not originate from safe contexts (from regular excavations) and are included here, could be shown to be modern intruders, we would lose some part of the evidence, but fewer changes would be necessary than in the case of (1) or (2). 5. If the decipherment of the Mycenaean language as Greek were to be rejected one day, European of the second gain in importance millennium B.C. would ; but this relations during the last quarter would not automatically mean that the Greeks came to Greece from the Northwest Balkans: there would still be other candidates for the newcomers, and such a massive shift of the whole Greek-speak- ing population at that time would remain problennatic. Similar changes in Italy and the Balkans were rather caused by related ethnic groups' Many other alternative conclusions conperning individual qustions are discussed in the relevant chapters, but it must be stressed here thatthere are certainly ottrer alternative solutions to the problems discussed here which are unknown to me, but which may win general acceptance in due course' The absolute truth is inaccessible to me, as it is to most of us, in the present state of our knowledge of such a distant past. -{, -!-_. ,4.r -ti A_.1 .4..! -{.r _t _d-p {i -4.1: -4x --Li: .lui -{x -q.fi dd -r5 Bd B*1 BC Bel ts!t Btll Bor tsPt BS. BSI 8d BU BL] c-{] cht CR ER.' E5,r Fast ] { ABB REVIATIONS e o d s s E 5- F AA Archiiologischer Anzeiger. Analekta ex i{.thenon. - Archaiologika,4cta Acta Arch. Hung. Archaealogica Academiae Scientiarwn Hungadcae. Acta ^Arch Ksbenhavn * Archaeologica (Kobenhavn). - AA-{ H$ t ; }m 0 f 'Acta American loarnal of Archaeology. AM Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archdotogischen -fnsdtuts, Athenische Abteilung. A,JA - Anat" St. Anatolian Sfudies. Ant. J. -Antiquaries Journal - Aeta Praehistarica at Archaeologica (Berlin). APA AR Archeolagickd Rozhledy. - Arch. Austr. Archaeologia Austriaca. - Archaiologikon Arch. Delt. Deltion. -Archaiologike Efemeris. .drch. Ef. - Archeologiai Ertiisitii. Arch. €rt. - Archaeologia lfomerica. Arch. Hom. - Archdolagisches Korrespondenzblatt. Arch. Korrbl. -Archaeological Reports (London). Arch. Rep. Arh. Pregled - Arheoloiki Pregled (Beograd). ASAtene Annuario della Scuola ltaliana di Atene. Fundberichte. - Badische Bayerische Vor geschichtsbliitter. Bulletin de Coirespondence Hell€nique. Ber. RGK tsericht der Rdmisch-Germanischer Komnission des Deutschen Archiiologischen Instituts. British Museum Quarterly. BMQ - - Boll. d'Arte Bolletino d'Arte. - Bonner Jahrbiicher. - di Paletnologia Bulletino ltaliana. Bonner Jb. BPI BSA Annual of the British School at Athens. - Papers of the British Schaol in Rome. Bull. ICS Bulletin of the Institute af Classical (I-ondon University). tsSR BUSS CAH Studies Bulletin pEr shkencat shoqErore. Buletin i Universitetit ShtetEror t€ Tiranes, Seria shkencat BUST shoqErore. Cambridge Ancient tr:Iistory" Chamber Tomb. Compfes-Rendus de l'Acadi.mie des Inscriptions ChT CRAI ERV Ebert, Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte ESA Eurasia Septentrionalis -- Fasti Arch. Antiqua, Helsinki - Fasti archeologici. GodiSnjak Glasnik Zemaljskog - Glasnik, Arheoloiko Sarajevo - muzeja u Sarajevu. druistvo (Skopje). Centar za batkanolaiko ispitivanje, (Sarajevo) GodiSnjak. F{esp. - Hesperia, American School of Classical Studies (Athens). IBAI - Izvestija na Bdlgarski Archealogiieski Institut, and Izvestij a na Archeologides}i Insdrut (Sofia). ILN ted London News. - IlusfraInventaria Inv. Arch. Archaeologica. IPEK * Xahrbuch fiir prdhistoische und ethnographische Kunsf. - - - Glasnik Sarajevo Glasnik Skopje Ist. Mitt. Bad. Fundber. Bayer. Vorgbl. BCH Folia arch. archaeolagica. - FoliaGallia Gallia Prdhist" Prlhistoire. - Deufscfies Archtiotogisches Insdfuf, Istanbuler Mitteilungen. Izvestija Varna na Narodnija Muzej Varna. - Izvestija Jahresschrift Flalle Jahresschritt fiir mitteldeutsche Vorge_ schichte (Halte). Jb. Frankfurt - Jahresberichf des Inslrfufs fiir Vor- und Fr iihges chichte (Universitiit Frankf urt). Jb. RGZM Mainz - Jahrbuch des Rrimrbclr-Gennanischen Museums (Mainz). JdI des Deutschen Archdalogisehen Instituts - Iahrbuch Ker. Kerameikos Listy fil. filologic*i (Prague). - Listy MAGW Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft (Wien). MEFR d Rome (Antiquit6) - MElanges d'Ecole Frangaise Mitt. Priih. Komm. Wien Mitteilungen der prlihisbrtschen Komnission der Akademie der Wissenschaffen (Wien). Mon. Ant. Monumenti Antichi. - Zbornik Musaica filozofickej fakulty lJniverzity Komens_ kiho (Bratislav a). M usaica. Nofizie degli Scavi di Antichitit. Obzor preh. Obzor prehistorickj (pnha). NSc - Iahreshefte Insfifufs. OeJh des- Asterteichischen Archdalogischen Op. Ath. Opuscula Atheniensia (Svenska Institut, Athens). Pam. arch. Pamdtky archeologick€ (prague). PBF Priihr'ston's che Bronzefunde. - PPS of the Prehistoric Society. - Proceedrhgs Prakt. AE Praktika tes Archaiologikes Etaireias. - 246 J.BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE Zeitschrift. - Praehistorische - Revue arch4ologique muzeja (Novi Sad)' Rad. vojv. muz. - R'ad voivodanskih Report of the Deparfmqf of Antiquities (Cyprus)' RDAC Rivisla ArcheoldBica (Como). Riv. Arch. Como delle Scienze Preistoriche. Rivista Riv. Sc. Preist. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archdologischen Insfifuts, RM - Romiscfie Abteilung. muzea v Ptaze, Sbornik NM Prague A - Sbornik Ndrodniho A. PZ RA series Swedisfi Cyprus Expedition. - Tlre gi Cercetari di Istorie Veche (Budapest). - Studi Sicilia archeologica. Sicilia arch. Sfudies m Mediterranean Archaeology (Griteborg)' SIMA Slov. arch. - Slovenskd archeol6gia. Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici (Roma). SMEA - SCE SCIV Sov. arch. - St. Albanica LSIMA Sovetskaja archeologija. Studia Albanica. - Stud. Zvesti - Studiln1 Zvesti Archeologick€ho fistavu Slovenskej Akad€mie vied (Nitra). (Jnion Internationale des Etudes Prlhistoriques et UISPP Protohistoriques. Vjesnik za arheologiju i histariju dalmatinsku" Vjesnik dHD - Vjesnik Arheoloikog muzeia u Zagrebu. Wissenschaftliche Mitteilungen aus Bosnien und Herzegowina. Wiener Prdhistorische Zeitschrift. WPZ Vjesnik Zagreb WMBFI - Zb<>rn{k (earliet Sbornik) SlovenZbarnik SNM Bratislava IIist6ria. skdho ndrodndh<> mizea Bratislava Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie. ZIE For other abbreviations see in the bibliography. -\.r I I ,i 2 I ti ts:t !-i -{ Biss. T: B;:: r _f{ -F ag SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Aberg, N., Bronzezetliche und f riiheisenzeitliche Chro notogie, Beck, C. W., "Analysis and provenience of Minoan and Mycenaean amber. I", Greek, Roman and Byzantine StudiesT (1966),191-211 ; II vol. 9 (1968), 5_19 : III vol. (Uppsala 1930-33). of Acts the International Archaeological Sympasium: ,.The Mycenaeans in the Eastern Mediterranean" (Nicosia 1973). 1t (1970) s-22. Beck, H. C.-Stone J. F. S., ,,Faience beads of the British Bronze Age", Archaeotogia 85 (1935), 203_252. Beltz, R., "Die bronze- und hallstattzeitlichen Fibeln,, ZtE 45 , (1913), 6s9-900. B enac, A. and Covi6 8., G lasi nac I, B ro nz e ze it (Sanj ev o I 9 5 6). Acts of the trnternational Archaeological Symposium: ,,The Relations between Cyprus and Crete, c. 2000-500 B.C.', (Nicosia 1979). Alexander, J., "The pins of the Yugoslav Early Iron Age,', ppS 30 (1964),159-18s. Alexandrescu, A., "Die Bronzeschwerter aus R.umdnien',, Dacia 1.0 (1966), I17 . Atin, P., Das Ende der-189 mykenischen Fundstdtten auf dem griechischen Fesfland (Lund 19d2) SIMA 1. Andronikos, M., Vergina I, To nekrotafeion ton Betzler, P., Die Fibeln in Siiddeutschland, Osterreich und der Schweiz I (Miinchen 1974) pBF XIV, 3. Bianco Peroni, Y., Le spade nell'Italia continentale (Miinchen 1970), PBFrv. 1. Biancofiore, F., i,a civilti micenea nell'Italia meridionale I, La ceramica (Roma 1963). Bietti Sestieri, A. M., ,,Ripostigli di bronei di Italia meridionale : scarnbi fra le due sponde dell'Adriatico,, BpI 7g (NS , Z0) tymbon (Athenai 1969). Archaeologia Homerica (ed. by F. Matz and H.-G. Buchhoiz) I C: Bielefeld, E., Scfirnuck, (1968) I E 1 : Buchholz, H. G.:lViesner,J., Kriegswesenl,(1977) (1e6e),2se_276. (H. Borchhardt, "Friihe griechische Schildformen", J. Borchhardt, "Helme", H. W. Catling, ,,panzer", H. Brandeburg, "Nitra, Zoster und Zoma,,, H. W. Catling, ,,Beinschienen", S. Iakovides, "Vormykenische und mykenische Wehrbauten"). i E 2: Buchholz, H.-G., Kriegswesenll(l981) (FoltinyS., "Schwerter, Dolche und Messer", Flcickmann O.,,,Lanze und Speer", Buchholz H.-G., ,,Keule,'). I F: Wiesner, J., Fahren und Reiten (1968). I G: Gray, D.-Marinatos S., Seewesen (1974). II O: Drerup, H., Griechische Baukunst in geometrischer Zeit (1,969). III X : Heubeck , A., " Schritt" (197 9). V: Vermeule, E. T., "G6tterkult" (1974). III III W: Andronikos. M., "Totenkutt,' (1968). Astrrim, P.-Verdelis, N.. Tfte Cuirass Tomb and Ather Finds from Dendra (Giiteborg 1977) SIMA IV. Barfield, L., "A Bronze Age cup from Lake Ledro (Trento)", Antiquity 45 (1966), 48-9. Bass, G., 1967 Cape Gelidonya: A Bronze Age Shipwreck. Trans. Amer. Philos. Society 57, part B (1967). Batovi6, S., "Priihistorische Schwerter im Archiiologischen Museum in Zadar" , Vesnik AHD 55 (1953), 145-16L. "Prapovijesna brondana koplja u arheololku muzeju u Zadra", Diadora 3 (1965) 45-70. Bietti Sestieri, A. M.-Lo Schiavo, F., ,,Alcuni problemi relativi ai rapporti fra l'Italia e la peninsula Balcanica nella tarda di bronzo 163-183. etd - inizi dell'etd del ferra,,, Iliria 4 (1976), Birmingham, J., "The development of fibula in Cyprus and the Levant", Palestine flxploration euarterly 95 (1963), 80-1.12. Blegen, C., Prosymna (Cambridge, Mass. 1937). Blegen, C. W., Boulter C. C., CaskeyJ. L. andSperlingJ., Troy, vol. I-IV (Princeton 1952-59). Blinkenberg, Ch., Frbules grecques et orientales (Copenhague 1,926). Boardman, J., The Cretan Colectian in Oxford: The Dictaean Cave and the Iron Age Crete (Oxford 1961). Bodkarev, V. S., "Problema borodinskogo klada',, in Froblemy archeologii 1 (Leningrad 1,968) 1.29-1 54. Bodkarev, V. S.-Leskov A .M., Jung- und spiitbronzezeitliche Gussformen im n1rdlichen Schwarzmeergebief (Miinchen 1980) PBF Xrx_l. B6na, I, "Clay rnodels of Bronze Age waggons and wheels in the Middle Danube Basin',, Acta Arch. Hung. L2 (1960), 83-111. - "The peoples of southern origin of the Early Bronze Age in Hungary", Atba Regia 4-S (1965\, 17_43. 248 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, .ANATOLIA AND EUROPE ISIMA Die mittlere Bronzezeit Ungarns und ihre si.idristlichen "The Prehistory of the Elalkans", by Vl. Dumitrescu, M' - Beziehungen-{Stdapest 1 GaraSanin and F. Prendi, PP. 975). 1*236. Carpenter, R..' Disconfinuity ad Greek Civihsafion (Cambridge Borchhardt, J., Homerische Helme (Mainz 1972)' 1966)' stiedni na dzemi vlivy Bouzek, J., "Mykdnsk6 a ran6 ieck6 Evropy (Mycenaean and Early Greek influnces in Central Cassola Guida, F., l-e armi defensive dei Micenei nelle figurazioni (Roma 1973). Europe)", Listy fil" 88 (1955), 242-55. FI. W., "Bronze cut-and-thrust swords in the East Catiing, in: Le Europe" , Greek interrelations with Centrai - "Early Mediterranean" , PPS 22 (1956), rc2-126. rayonnement des civilisations grecque et romaine sul les. new bronze swcrd from Cyprus", Antiquity35 (1961)' cultures pdiphdriques (Paris 1965), 101-107' - "A 115-122. the to introduction an Aegean and Central Europe: - "The World (Oxford study of cultural interrelations, 1600-1300 8.c." Pam. - Cypriat Bronzework in the Mycenaean 1956). arch. 57 (1966), 242-27 6. "Late Minoan vases and bronzes in Oxford", ASA 63 Ilomeisches Griechenland (Prague 1969) - "The (1958)' 89-131' beginnings of the PG pottery and the Dorian Ware", - Op. Ath.9 (1969), 41-57. Fottery from the Myc. . Catling, H. W. and E. d., "Barbarian (1981)'71-82" Menelaion"' at BSA76 settlement symbolguts"' griechisch-geometrischen Anfiinge des - "Die Caf. Sfip -- Garaianin, Sanev, Simoska, Kitanoski, Mus6e Nat. Eirene g (1970), 77-IZZ. ,,Die europiiischen Beziehungen der neugefundenen EnStip, "Les civilisations prdhistoriques de la Macddoine", - komi-Sch.werter", in Alasra I, ed. C. Schaeffer (Paris 1971), (Stip -tSZt)' Garaianin et alii, "Les civilisations pr6histcriques de Cat. Nif 433-44g. et de la Seibie orientale", (Ni6 1971). la Morava PPS and Anatolian-Bronze Age figurines in Europe, - Syrian N., Gornoje deloimetalurgiavdrevnej{eiBulgarii, E. Cernych, (tSlZ), 156-164. ZS (Sofia 66rii)' problern migraof the Balkans: and Age Greece - "Bronze (Oxford 1929). tions, in Cmssland-Birchall, eds., Bronze Age Migtations Childe, V. G., The Danube in Prehistory ed" (London Civilisation,6th the Eurapean Dawn of The 169*178. lg73), in the Aegian(London - Fr F; - Attic Dark Age Incised Ware", Sbornlft NM Prague - "The Bronze Age shields", PPS28 (1962), I -.*,JlSZi A 2g no. 1. i C"t.r l. M., "European : i ; diebz.Be-' Mitteleurope, und Mittelmeerraum i'lnPaiaie --]!qf,-11q "- "Ostlicher in Bronze Age Europe", experirnents and display: ziehungen auf Grund der archiiologischen Quellen", in : ed. V. Markoti(' presented HHencken ta in: Sfudies MitteleuropiiischeBronzezeit,eds. Coblenz---:Horst(Ber(1977),51-58' the Mediterranean and Europe Ancient 47-56. lin 1978), Coles, J. M.-Harding A., Bronze Age in Europe (London - Graeco-MacedonianBronzes(PtuSuel974). te7e). .- 'rDie Anfiinge der blechernen Schutzwaffen im dstlichen A Companion to Homer, ed. by A. J. B. Wace and F. Stubbings Mitteleuropa", in: Studien zur Bronzezeit, Festschr. v. (London 1962). ' Brunn (Mainz 1981), 21-38" Courbin, P., "Une tombe d'Argos*,BCH8l (1957)'342-86' sirnple repouss6 decoration on Early Greek bronzes, Cowen, J. D., "Eine Einfiihrung in dic Geschichte der bronze- The Eirene 79 (1982), 99-109. nen Griffzungenschwerter in Siiddeutschland und den an"Climatic changes and Central European prehistory", in A. grenzenden Gebieten", Ber. RGK36 (1955), 52-155. - Harding (ed.), Clirnatic Changes in Later Prehisfory (Edin"The flange-hilted sword of bronze : w.as it first developed in - Central Europe or in the Aegean area?", Bericht V' interburgh 1982), t79-81. nat. Kongress TJISPP Hamburg (1958), 207-214. Branigan, K., "Wessex and Mycenae, some evidenee review"The origins of the flange-hiited sword of bronze in contied", Wil*hire Areh. Magazine 65 (1970)' 89-107 - nental Europe", PPS 32 (1966),262-312. Aegean Metallurgy in the Early and Middle Bronze Ages - (Oxford flange-hilted sword of bronze within the Carpathian 1974). - "The ring", Actes VIII" congds LJISPP Beograd, vol' III (1973). Briard, J., Les dlpots brctons et l'Age du btanze atlantique, " (Rennes 1965). W. A. v. Brvnn, Mitteldeutsche Hortfunde der jiingeren Bron- 1968)" Buchholz, H.-G., "Der Kupferhandel des zweiten zezeit (Berlin vor- "Die Doppelaxt - Eine Leitform auswdrtiger Be- ziehungen", PZ 38 (1960), 39-7 1. - "Agiiische Funde und Kultureinfliisse in den Randgebieten des (1,g7 Mittelrreers", Forschungsbericht ... 196A-1970, AA 4\,325-462. The Cambridge Ancient History,2nd ed' vol. III-1, 1982: Ga Ga Gr u U H:: ; 26-29. Crossland, R. A.-Birchall, A. the Aegean christlichen Jahrtausends im Spiegel der Schriftforschung", in: Minoica,Festschr. J" Sundwall (Beriin 1958)' 92-1'15' ; (eds.'), Bronze AgeMigrations in (London i 973). Dayton, J., Minerals, Glazing and Man (London 1978)' Dehn, W., "Zur Beinschiene von Schdfstall bei Donauwtirth"Zeitschrift des ftisf. Vereins ftjr Schwaben 74 (i9801- 29-33. Desborough, V. R. d'A., The n: Last Mycenaeans and the-': Successors, (Oxford 1964). The Greek Dark Ages (London 1972). -Deshayes, l{a,;: J., Les oufils de branze de I'trndus au Danutre, (Faris 1960). Lr, I-f[" - xxBl SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 249 / -de - Argos, Les f auilles Ia Deiras (Paris 19 66), €t. Pelop. IV. Dezort, J., "Styky Moravy s jihovychodem v dob€ bronzov6", Obzar preh.13 (1946), 57-43. Dtirpfeld, W., Troja und llion (Athen 1902). Drechsler-Biii6, R., "Japodske dvadelne fibule tipa prozor,', Arheolaiki adove i R.azpr ave Za greb 2 (19 62), 29 S _3 12. Dumitrescu, V., "Rapidre en bronze du type mycdnien au S_O de Bucharest", Dacia 5-4 (1935-36), 169-173. Necropola de incineratie din epoca bronzului de la Cirna (Bucuresti 1961). Evans, A. J., "The prehistoric tombs at Knossos", Archaeoiogra - ..., Archaeotogia|s (1914), - 1-94. The Palace of Minos at Knossos, I-IV, (London 192j,, - 1-928, re30, - Excavations 1 A. W., Asine, of the Magyarhonbiln, I-m "Bronzezeitliche Griffzungeschwerter aus tsuigarien", pZ 4s (1e70\,26-41. Beitriige zur regionalen und chranologischen Gliederung der dlteren Hallstattzeit an der unteren Donau (Bonn - (.d.), Stidasteuropa zwischen 1600 und 10Aa v. Chr. (Betlin Harding, A., "The earliest glass in Europe", AR 23 (lg7l), Swedish - Furtwiingler, A., Loeschcke G., Mykenische Vasen (Berlin - - Garaianin, D., rYarodnl mu zej Beograd, Katalog netala(Beograd 1954). Ginrbufas, M., Branze Age Cultures in Central and Eastern Europe, (The llague 1965). J., A Branzkor emlekei Coblenz,207-224. 922-30 (stockholm 1 938). 1 886). Furumark, A., The Mycenaean pottery, Analysis and Classification (Stockhotm 1941). The Chronology of Mycenaean pottery (Stockholm 1941). Galling, F. and Davidson, H. 8., The Chariot of the Sun and Other Rites and Symbols of the Northern Bronz,e Age (London 1969). Garalanin, M., Praistorija na tlu Srbije (Beograd 19?3). (Park Ridge 1976). "Lausitzer Invasion in Nordgriechenland?,', Arbeits- und Forschungsberichte Dresden Beiheft 16 (19g1), Fesrschr. , Hungarian euarterly Resujfs Migrations and Invasions in Greece and Adjacent Areas 1e76). "The ivory horse bits of llomer and the bone horse bits of reality", Bonner Jb. 167 (196j), j.l-37. Frridin, O", Persson A History of Macedonia, vol. I (Oxford 1972). - 59 (i90s), 391-s62. The Tomb of the Double Axes a,, - (Budapest 1886, 1892, i896). Hdnsel, 8., Beitriige zur Ckronolagie der mittleren Branzezeit im Karpathenbecken (Bonn X968). - 3,3-4, (1562), 133_140. "The dating of some burials in tumuli in South Albania", BSA 66 (1971),229_241. Hampel, R t93B). Foltiny, S., "Mycenae and Transylvani - - 1e82). 188-200. The Extent and Effects of Contect between Mycenaean Greece and the Rest of Eurape (diss. Cambridge Ig72). "Mycenaean Grcece and Europe: evidence of tools and implements", PPS 4l (.1975), t$-2A2. "Bronze agricultural implernents in Bronze Age Europe", in: Problems in Eeonamic and Saeial Archaeology, (ed.by. G.de Sieveking and orhers ; London 197 S), Sl3-522. "Illyrians, Italics and Mycenaeans : Trans-Adriatic contacts during the Late Bronze Age',, Iliria 4 (1976), 157-162. Harding, A.-Flughes-Brock H., ,,Amber in the Mycenaean World", ESA 69 (1974),145-172. Hawkes, C. F.C., "The double axe in prehistoric Europe", BSA 37 (1936-37). 141. -ts7. earrings of the Bronze Age, East and West. " Folk/ore - 7"Gold 2 (1961), 43847 4. t.,,,., Goldman, H., Excavations at.Eu/rests in Baeatia (Cambrirlge :i Hencken, H., "Herzsprung shietds and Greek trade", AJA 54 Mass. 1931). ( l 950) 29s-3A5. Goldrnann, K. D., Die Seriation der chronologischen Leitfunde ^ Tarquinia: Villamvans and Early Etruscans (Cambridge, der Bronzezeit Eurapas (Berlin 1979). - Mass. 1968), Amer. Schaol of prehist. Research, Bull. 23. "Die mitteleuropiiische Schwertentwicklung und die - Chrtrnologie der Altbronzezeit The Earliest European IIelmets, Bronze Age and Early lron Europas", ApA 11-12 Age, ib. vol. 28 (Cambridge, Mass. 197tr). L lr D {1e81),131*181. Hachmann, R., Die friihe Bronzezeit irn westlichen Ostseegebiet und ihre mittel- und sridosfeuropiiischen Be- n ziehungen (llamburg 1 957). mr - ftH llh h& 't "{b "Eronzezeitliche Bernsteinschieber,,, Bayer. Vargbl. 22 {tes7),1-36. Heurtley, W. A., Frehisforic Macedonia (Cambridge 1939). Hiicknrann, O., Lanze und Speer im spiitminoischen und mykenischen Griechenland, Jb. RGZM lvIainz2T (L9BA), 13-158. Holste, F., Hortfunde Sildosfeuro,pas (Marburg l95l). H6jek, L., "Zur relativen Chronologie des Aneolithikums und der Bronzezeit in der Ostslowakei,', Kommission f. das Anealithikum und die iiltere Bronzezeit (Bratislava 195g), Hood, M. S. F.. "Mycenaean settlement in Cyprus and the Hall, E. H., Excavations in Eastern Crete, Vrokastro (philadelphia 1914), Pennsylvania Anthrop. publ. IIl, no. 3, Hood, Hammond, N. G" L., Epirus (Oxford 1967). "Tumulus Burials in Albania, the Grave Circles of Mycenae and the Indo-European-s", BSA 62 {1967),77,-106" Hood, M. 59-76. 77-185. - - coming of the Greeks,', Acts l+,[ycenaeans in tfie Eastern Mediterranean, 40-50. The Arts in Prehistoric Greece (F{armondsworth 197g). piet ,,Late &f . S. F. and <te Jong, Minoan Warrior Graves from Ayios Ioannis anil the New ltrospital site af Knossos,,, BSA 47 (1.es2), 1,43_277. S. F., Huxley G. and Sandars N., ,,A Minoan cemetery on Upper 194-262. Gypsadhes,', BSA 53_54 (19-5S*59), 250 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE Hood, M. S. F. and Coldstream N., "A Late Minoan Tomb at Aiyos Ioannis near Knossos", BSA 63 (1968)' 205-218. Hope Simpson, R., A Gazetteer and Atlas of Mycenaean Sites (London 1965). A Gazetteer of Aegean Civilisation in the Bronze Age,vol. - I (Griteborg 1979), SIMA 52. Horedt, K., "Die Wietenbergkultur", Dacia NS 4 (1960) 107-137. Horedt, K.-Seraphim, C., Die priihistorische Ansiedlung auf Scftiissburg (1971). dem Wietenberg bei Sighi1oara - Hiittel, H.-G., "Ein mitteleuropiiischer Fremdling in Tiryns"' Jb. RGZM Mainz2T (L980), 159-165. Iakovides, 5., Perati, To nekrotafeion ton tymbon (Athens 1970'). Irimia, M., "Das mykenische Bronzschwert aus Medgidia"' D acia l 4 (197 0), 389-39 5. Jacob-Friesen, G., Bronzezeitliche Lanzenspitzen Nord- deufschJands und Skandinaviens (Hildesheim 1 96 7). Iacobsthal, P., Greek Pins and Their Connection with Eutope and Asia (Oxford 1956). spdtmykenischen Jalkotzy, S., Fremde Zuwanderer im G riechenland (Wien 1 977). Jockenhcivel, A., "Zu den Ziltesten Tiillenhiimmern aus Bronze", Germania 60 (1982), 459-67 . Kalicz, N., Die Frijhbronzezeil in Nordosfungarn (Budapest 1e68). (Graz .7964), Marinatos, S., "Anaskafai Goekop", Arch. Ef . (1932), l-47 and Arch. Ef . (1933),68-100. "Lausitzer Goldschmuck in Tiryns", in: Theoria, Festschr. - W. Schuchhardt (1960), l5l-157. McKerell, H., "On the origins of British faience beads and some aspects of the Wessex-Mycenaean relationship", PPS 38 (1e72), 286-3ot. Matthiius, H., Die Bronzegefiisse der kretisch-mykenischen Kultur (Miinchen 1980), PBF II-1. Italien und Griechenland in der ausgehenden Bronzezeit, - Jdres (1980), 109-139. Mellaart, J., Anatolian trade with Europe and the Anatolian Geography and Culture provinces of the Late Bronze Age, Anat. St. 18 (1968), 187-202. Mercer, R., "Metal arrowheads in the European Bronze and Early Iron Ages", PPS 36 (1970), l7l-213. Merhart, G.v., Zu den ersten Metallhelmen Europas, Ber. RGK 30 (1941),4-42. "Panzerstudie" , in: Origines (Como 1954), 33-41'. Schienen", Ber. RGK 37-38 (1956-57), - "Geschniirte 9t-147. Hallstatt und ltalien (Mainz 1969). -Mikov, V., Predistoriieski seliila i nachodki v Bdlgaria (Sofia aus Alteuropa I, Festschr. K. Tackenbetg 220-283. Kirk, G. S., The Songs of Homer (Carnbidge 1962). Korkuti, M. et alii, Shkiperia archeologiike, Arch6ologie Albanaise (Tirana 1971). Mikuldid, I., I, Die Nekropolen des 12. bis 10. Jfi. (Berlin 1939). Kukahn, H., Der griechische Helm (Marburg 1936). Kraiker, V.-Kiibler, K., Keraneikos Lagarce, J., "La cachette de fondeur aux 6p6es (Enkomi 1967) et I'atelier voisin", in: Alasia I, ed. C. Schaeffer, (Paris reT Pe schichtlichen Quellen", AA (1948 / 49), 1.2-3 5. Einige mitteleuropiiische Fremdlinge auf Kreta, Ib. RGZM Mainz 2 (1955), 153-169. Montelius, O., Civilisation primitive en Italie (Stockholm - 1895-1904 and 1912, vols. A. M., "Drevnej5ije rogovyje psalija iz Trachtomirova", Sov. arch. (1964/ 1.), 299-303. Littauer, H. A.-CrouwellJ.H., Wheeled Vehicles and Ridden Animals in the Ancient Near East (Leiden 1'979). Ljubi6, S., Popis arheotogiikogo odjela narodnogo zem' muzeia u Zagrebu, vol" I (Zagreb 1889). Lomborg, E., "An amber spacer bead from Denmark", Anfiquity 4t (1967) 221'-23. Lo Porto, F. G., Satyrion (Taranto), NSc 17 (1963) 177-279. (Taranto), La stazione preistorica di Porto - Leporano Perone, NSc 17 (1963), 280-380. Lorimer, H.L., Homer and the Monumefns (London 1950). MacNamara, E., "A group of bronzes from Surbo, Italy: new evidence for Aegean contacts with Apulia during Mycenaean III B and C", PPS 36 (1970),241-260. I-[I). Morintz, 5., Contributii arheologiche Ia istoria tracilor timpurui I - Epoca bronzului in lr \i \,1 Or: spatiul carpato-balcanic (Bucuresti te78). Morricone, L., "Eleona a Langada: sepolcreti della tarda etd di bronzo a Coo", ASAfene2T-28 (1965-66),5-312. Mtitefind, H., "Eine neue Parallele zu den Bechern von Mykenae und Vapheio", AA (1912), 99-103. Oa Par Pal Moucha, V., "Faience and glossy faience beads in the (Jndtice culture in Bohemia", in: Epitymbion R. H:iken (Prague 1958), 44-49. t) 38t-432. Leskov, \: lagonijav svetlosti arheoloikihnalaza od egejske do Augusta (Beograd-Skopje 1966). Milleker, 8., A vattinai ostelep (Temesvdr 1906). Milojdi6, V., "Die dorische Wanderung im Lichte der vorge- Kossack, G., Studien zum Symbolgut der IJtnenfelder- und Hallstattzeit Mittelewopas (Berlin 1954). h. te33). seobe Karo, G., Die Schachtgriiber von Mykenai (Minchen 1930)' "schatz von Tiryns", AM 55 (1930), ll9-140. -Kimmig, W., "seevijlkerbewegungen und die Urnenfelderkul- tur" Sludien lstMA Pau l Mozsolics A., D er Goldfund vonVelem-Szentvid(Basel 1950). Mors en bois de cerf sur le territoire du basin des Carpathes. - - Acta Arch. Hung.3 (1953),69-lll. Die Herkunftsfrage der iiltesten Hirschgeweihtrensen, Acta Arch. Hung. 12 (1960), 125-135. Goldfunde des Depotfundhorizontes von Hajdris6mson. Ber. RGK 46-47 (1965-66), 1*7 6. Bronzefunde des Karpathenbeckens (I), Depotfundharizonte Hajdfisdmson und Kozsiderpadlds (Budapest -l Pata l Pe:o d I te67). - "Some remarks on "Peschiera" bronzes in Hungary". il European Comnunity in Later Prehistory, Studies Hawke$ (London 1971,),57-76. Bronzefunde und Goldfunde des Karpathenbeckens (II1- d Pere rI xxul SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Depotfundhorizonte von Forr6 und Op;il1' (Budapest Piggot, S., "The Early Bronze Age in Wessex", pps 4 (lg3g), 3). Muhly J. D., Supplement to Copper and Trn (Hamden. Conn. 1976), Trans. Connecticut Academy of Arts and Scrences 1e7 52-1,06, vol.46. H., "Griinwalder Griiber", (1949-50), 313-325. Mtiller-Karpe - PZ 34_35 Beitrdge zur Chronologie der Urnenfelderzeit n\rdlich und sildlich der Alpen (Berlin 1959). "Zw spdtbronzezeitlichen Bewaffnung in Griechenland und Mitteleuropa", Germania 40 (1962),225-287 . "Die Metallgegenstiinde der Kerameikos-Griiber", IdI 7 7 (1e62), Praistorija vo Makedonija, exh. cat. Skopje 1976 (by Sanev, Simoska, Kitanoski, Sarieski). Prendi, F., "Trouvailles illyriens de I'Albanie septentrionele", BUST2 (1958) 10e_136. "La civilisation pr6historique de Maliq", St. Albanica 3 - (1e66), 2ss-80. aus den archdologischen Sammlungen des krainischen Museums in Laibach(Laibach 52-66. Aeneolithic periods in Central and South-eastern Europe',, SIov. arch. 16 (1968), 1.9-60. Nilsson, M., The Minoan-Mycenaean Religion,2nd ed. (Lund leso). Novotnr{, M., Die Bronzehortfunde in der Slowakei (Bratislava 1e70). Ordentlich, I., "Die chronologische Gliederung der OtomaniKultur auf dem rumiinischen Gebiet und ihre wichtigsten Merkmale", Dacia L4 (197A),83-97. Orsi, P., "Pantalica", Mon. Ant.9 (1891), 33-116. l., "Bronze rapiers, swords and double axes from Bulgaria", Thracia 5 (1980), 173-193. Papadopoulos, A. J., Myceiiaean Achaeir (Griteborg 1979), Panayotov, SIMA 45. Paulik, J., "K problematike dakanskej kultriry v karpatskej kotline", Slov. arch. - lI (1963),269-338. "K problematike vychodn6ho Slovenska v mladiej dobe bronzovej", Zbornik SNM Bratislava 62 (1968),3-43. Panzer der jiingeren Bronzezeit aus der Slowakei, Ber. RGK 4e (1e68), 4t-61. atay, P., Urnenfelderzeitliche Bronzeschilde im Karpathen_ becken, Germania 46 (1968), 241_.48. Peroni, R., "Zur Gruppierung mitteleuropiiischer Griffzungendolche der spiiten Bronzezeit", Badische Fundberichte20 P (tes6),6e-e2. - "Per - una definizione dell'aspetto culturale subappeninico ) se stante", Memorie Acc, Naz. dei Lincei, classe Sc. Mor., stor. e filol.,ser. g, vol. 9, fasc. 1 Petrescu-Dimbovita, M., Depozitele de bronzuri din RomAnia (Bucuresti 1977). comme fase chronologica "Epoka a bronzit ne shqiperi", Ilrna 5-59. 7-8 (te77-78), Randsborg, K., "Aegean bronzes in a grave in Jutland", Acfa S., "Two recent British shield finds and their conti- Neustupnf, E., "Absolute chronology of the Neolithic and "Mycenae and Barbarian Europe : an outline survey", Sbor- nik NM Prague A 20, fasc. 1-2, Festschrift J. Neustupny, 1e66). se-r2e. [1-- rental parallels", PPS 45 (1979), 1,11-134. Neuninger, H.-Pittioni R., "Woher stammen die blauen Glasperlen der UrnenfelderzeitT", Arch. Austr. 26 (L959), 224-26. H., Excavations at Lefkandi, Euboea, 1964--4 (London 1968). Potau, H., Die Pferdetrensen des alten Orrenfs (Vatican Geschichte des 16. Jh. v.Ch., Jb. Frankfurt(1977). -Millner A., Typische Formen g-- ,1900). - Ancient Europe (Edinburgh 1965). (1e66) 117-12s. Handbuch ft{eedham, - "Bronze double-axes in the British Isles", ppS 19 (1953), Popham, M.-Sackett, der Vorgeschichte, Bd. lY - Bronzezeit (Miinchen 1980). Miiller-Karpe H. (ed.), "Geschichte des 13. u. 12. Jh. v. Chr.", Ib. Frankturt (197 5). - 251 Arch. Ksbenhavn3S (1968), L-27. Renfrew, C., "Wessex without Mycenae,', BSA 63 (1e68), 277-85. Autonomy of the East European Copper Age',, ppS - "The 3s (1e6e), 12-47. The Emergence of Civitisation: Cyclades in the Early - Bronze Age (London 1972). Riis, P. J., Ham a Il-3 : Les cimetiires d cr1mation (Kobenhavn re48). Rusu, M., "Consideratii asupra metalurgiei aurului din Transilvania in Bronz D qi Hallstatt A", Acta Musei Napocensis 9 (1e72),2e-64. Rutkowski, 8., Cult Places in the Aegean World (Warszawa 1972). Friihgriechische Kultdarstellungen (Berlin 1 9g 1). Rutter, J., "Ceramic Evidence for Northern intruders in South_ - ern Greece at the beginning of the Late Helladic III AJA79 (1975) 17-32. "Late Helladic III C Pottery and some historical impli- cations", Symposium Dark Ages 1977,1-20. S2iflund, G.,"Le terremare della provincia di Modena, Reggio C period", Emilia, Parma, Piacenza" (Stockholm 1939). Safronov, V. A., "Datirovka horodinskogo klada',, in: prob_ lemy archeologii I, Leningrad (1968),75-lZB. Sandars, - N., "The antiquity of the one-edged knife in the Aegean", PPS 21 (1955), 174-197. "The first Aegean swords and their ancestry", AJA 65 (1e61),17-2e. "Later Aegean bronze swo rds,', AJA67 (1963),Il7 _I53. The Sea Peoples, Warriors of the Ancient Mediterranean, (London 1978). "North and South at the end of the Mycenaean Age, Aspects of an old problem", Oxford Journal of Archaeology (1e83),43-68. 2 Sapouna-Sakellarakis, E., Die Fibeln der griechischen Inseln, (Miinchen 1978) PBF XIV,4. 252 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOL1A AND EUROPE F ., A giiisch e F riihzeit l-Y | (Wien i 97 6-8 3 ). S. Deggen-Jakotzy Schachermeyr Symposion Zwettl 1980 (ed.), Griechenland, die Agiiis und die Levante wiihrend der Schachermeyr, - Dark Ages (Wien 1983). Schaeffer, C. F. A., Stratigraphie comparde de I'Asie occidentaie (Oxford 1948). "Ex occidente ars", UgariticaT (1978),475-551' Schauer, P., Die Schwerfer in Sriddeufs chland, Asterreich und der Schweiz (Miinchen 1971)" PBF IV, 2. - urnenfelderzeitlichen Helme und ihre Vorbilder", - "Die Fundberichte aus Schwaben 19-20 (1979-80)' 521-43. - Die urnenfelderzeitlichen Bronzepanzer von Filinges, RGZM27 (1 (1e8CI) (Xe82), 1e6-248. Schmidt, S., Kafa.log der Schlienann-Sammlung der trojanischen,4lthertiirner (Berlin 1 902). - "Troja-Mykene-Ungarn, Archiiologische Parallelen", (ea4) 608-656. Severeanu, G., The gold treasure of the O3trovul Mare Uslar R.v., "Der Goldbecher von Fritzdorf be Bonn", Germania 33 (1955), 319-23. Vencl S., Probllmy pozndni vojenstvi v archeologii (Problems relating to the knowledge af warfare in archaeology) (Prague tr984). Verdeiis N., "Neue Funde aus Dendra",.A,M82 (1967),1-53. Neue geometrische Griiber in Tiryns,,AM 78 (1963), I-62. -Vinski-Gasparini Ks., Kultura polja sa i,arami u sjevernoj Hrvatskoj (Zadar 197 7 J. Vladdr J., "Osteuropiiische und rnediterrane Einfliisse im Gebiet der Slowakei wiihrend der Bronzezeit", SIov. arch, 2l (1973),253-347 341-432. The Dark Age af Greece (Edinburgh 1971). Sprockhoff, 8., Zur Eandelsgeschichte der germanischen Bronzezeit (Berlin 1.93A). Die gemnanischen Griffzungeschwerter (Berlin 1931). -"-- "Nordische Branzezeit und friihes Griechenturn", Jb' 1 and B r e m e r A r ch. B ! litte r 3 RG ZM M ainz I (1 9 5 4), 37 -7 (te62) 28--110. "Eine mykenische Bronzetasse aus Dohnsen, Kr. Celle'.', Germania 39 (1961), T., Ll-22. Ysteromykenaiko! hetrladikoi thesauroi (Athenai 1972). Strahm, Ch., "Das Beil von Thun-Renzenbihl", Archaeologia Ilelvetica 3 {19f 2), 99-112. Styrenius C.-G., Submycenaean Studies (Lund 1957). Sundwall J., Die iilteren italischen Fibetn (Berlin-Leipzig 1e43). Syrnposium on the Dark,Ages ht Greece (New York University 1e77). 5z6kely 2., "Contribution i la connaissance du d6veloppement de la civilisation de Wietenberg", Dacia 15 307-77. (1971)' l r I B E 1 I, "Neoi kivotioschemoi tafoi tes YE B-G periodou ex Epeirou", Arch. Ef. (1969), 179-2A7. 8., "Chamber Tombs atMycenae,"Archaelogia82 Wace, A. J. (1e32). Wardle, K., "Cultural groups of the Late Bronze and Earlylron Age in Northwest Greece", Godiinjak Sarajevo 15 (1.977), i 53-199. "Excavations at Assiros 1975-9", tsSA 75 (1980), - I . Vlad6r J.-Bartondk A., "Zu den Beziehungen des dgdischen, balkanischen und karpathischen Raumes in der mittleren Bronzezeit und die kulturelle Ausstrahlung der Sgiiischen Schriften in die Nachbarliinder", SJov. arch. 25 (1977), Arrns and Armaur of the Greek (London 1967). Spyropoulos, t964). Tondeva G., Chronologie du llallstatt ancien dans Ia Bulgarie de nord-est (Sofia 1980), Studia thracica 5. Vokotopoulou 1.964\. - - zf E 36 (1 Bucuresdl 1 -2 937 ), 7 -1 1'. Smirnov, K. F., "Archeologideskije dannyje o drevnich vsadnikach uralskich stepej", Sov. arch. (196114) 46-72. Snodgrass, A., Early Greek Armour andWeapons (Edinburgh --- Techov B. V., "Mogilnik Tli", Sov" arch. (1972/3) 18-37. Todik A., "Parohovii a kostend industria madarovskej kuhfiry na jz. Slovensku", $tud. Zvesti 3 (1950), 25-53. Opevnend osada doby bronzovej vo Veselom (Bratislava Jb. 978) (1982), 92-13CI. "Der Rundschild der Bronze- und friihen Eisenzeit", Jb' RGZM Mainz 25 ISIMA 229-267. Warren, P., Mrnoan Sfone Vases (Cambridge 1969). Skandinavien", Acfes Siebenburgen Werner, J., "Mykenii de la session UISPP (Zurich 1'953)' 293-348. - - Wertirne, T. A.-Muhly, J. D. (eds"), The Comingol the Age of Iron (New Haven and London 1980)" Ir H Z :r Si J. Ft d' \l "( It IIl lel Be AM35 (1910), 1.7-36. Woolley. L", Alalakh, An Account of the Excavations at Tell KC Atchana (London i955). Yalouris, N", "Mykenische Bronzeschutzwaffen", 75 Kc Hz Zahada, E., "Die Lockenringe von Sarata-Monteoru und ihre typologische und chronologische Beziehungen", DaciaNS 3 reii airi Wide, S., "Griiberfunde aus Salarnis", AM Ge6q,42-67. Fit (19s9),103-134. Fie Nll Jos Ga, lari Fis 3A Bra \{o; Fig. 1\ LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 1..Main sources of metais in Europe. 1 copper ores,2 tin ores, 3 gold ores, 4 arnber areas. After Gimbutas and Colest{arding. Frg. 2. Finds of ox-hide ingots. 1 early types (c. 1500 B.C.) 2 types of the middle stage (c" 1400 B.C.), 3 late types (c. D\A B.C.), 4 exact shape unknown, 5 the Gelidonya shipwreck. Hollow marks single pieces, full marks hoards, framed marks representstions. After Buchholl, completed. 1 Sorgono, 2 Tharros, 3 Serra Ilixi, 4 Sant'Antioco, 5 Cannatello, 6 Falmouth, 7 Kyme, 8 Athens, 9 Aegina, 10 Mycenae, 11 Haghia Triadha, l.2 Tylissos, 13 Knossos, X4 Mochlos, 15-16 Zakro, I7 Cape Gelidonya, 18 Anklya, 19 Cenovo nearBurgas, 20 Kaliakra, 2l Baghazkoy,22 Mathiati,23 Enkomi, 24 Ras Shamra, 25 Haifa,26 Tell Beit Mirsim,27 Egyptian representations,28 Zimbabwe? Fr,g. 3" Distribution of the main types of the Trojan rnetallurgicai group in the A,egean. 1 flat axes,2 axes Branigan type III,3 daggers Branigan tlpes XV-XIX, 4 knives Branigan types VI-VUI, 5 pins types IV-VI, 6 spiral-headed pins type XI, 7 "Cypriot" pins, 8 earrings type II. After the lists in Branigan 1,q74. Fig. 4. Corded pottery in Greece. L_3,5-7 Argissa Magoula (after Hanschmann-Milojdif), 4 Ayia Marina (after Gimbutas), 8 anehor-shaped clay object from Lerna (after Caskey). Below distribution of the Corded pottery in Greece. 1 Kannali K<ipii, 2 Fotolivos, 3 Dikili Tash, 4 Kritsana, 5 lL Mamas, 6 Kozani, 7 Argissa, B Fefkakia, 9 Ayia Marina, 10 Eutresis. After Hanschrnann-Milo jii6. Fig. 5" Greek Early Helladic II-III pottery with northeastern relations. 1,3,5 Lerna (after Caskey), 5 Kirrha (after Dor et alii),7-9 Asea, Arcadia (after Holmberg). 4-5, 8 Ukrainian parallels (after Archeologia Ukrainy). Fig. 6. Balkan horned swords of Mycenaean affinities. 1 Mycenae, Chamber Tomb 58, 2 Dolno Levski, 3 Doktor Josifovo, 4 Peruitica {2-4 Bulgaria), 5 Medgidia, Rumania, 6 Galatin near Vraca (Bulgaria), 7 Tetovo near Skop.ie (Yugoslavia). After Bouzek 1956, Sandars,Irmii and Mikulii6. Fig. T.Trcnsylvanian rapiers. 1 Miercurea-Sibiu, 2 Alba Iulia, 3 Aima, 4 AluniE, 5 Inliceni. 6 Dumbravioara, 7 Sv?itf Jur near Bratislava ( ?). 1-6 Rumania, 7 Slovakia. After A,lexandrescu, Mozsolics and Bouzek 1966. Fig. 8. Swords of Mycenaean and possible Mycenaean relations. 1 Ndnshat, Altrania, 2 Adliswill, Switzerland, 3 Copqa Mare,4 Roqiorii-de-Vede, 5 Drajna-de-Jos (all Rumania), 6 knife frorn After Alexandrescu, prendi, Hdnsel and Satu Mare, Rumania. Heierli. Fig. 9. Distribution of swords with Mycenaean affinities in the Balkans. tr Karo .4, swords, 2-3 relatedrapiers,4 fragments, 5 Perqinari and Ro;iorii-de-Vede swords, 6 Spiiskf Stvrtok mould, 7 degean type C swords, 8 their Balkan imitations, 9 later Aegean (D-C) swords, l0long Mycenaean spearheads; 1. Sv. Jr.lr near Bratislaya ,2 Yliany near Galanta, 3 Spilskf Stvrtok, 4 Dumtrr{vioara, 5 Inldceni, 5 Copga Mare,7 Alunig, g .Aiba lulia, 9 &liercarea-Sibiu, 10 Alma, 11 perginari, 12 Rogiorii-de-Vede, tr3 Drajna-de-Jog, 14 Tei, 15 Sokol, 16 Medgidia, 17 Mihailovgrad, 18 Galatin, 19 Jankovo, 20 Dolno Levski, 2 1 Peru5tica, 22 N€nshat, 23 Tetovo, 24 Tavah{eva. 25 Midhe, 2 6 Shto g, 27 Brcq" 28 B r ethe B azjE., 29 Fazhok, 3 0 Barq, 31 6ermenj, 32Ya12E,33-34 Mesoyefira and Grevena (not nurnbered). Fig. 10. daggers and swords. 1-2 Mdcin near Siliska, gold, 3 "Flungary", silver, 4 Troy, copper, 5 perginari, gold, 6 from the Sa6ne near Lyon, bronze, 7 engravingon the Stonehenge. Afier $evereanu, Mozsolics, Chantre, Pipidi and piggot. Fig. J l. Balkan, Aegean and Egyptian swords and other objects. 'J, Egypt, the swcrd of Pharaoh Amosis, 2-3 Wietenberg, Transylvania and Borodino, Bessarabia, stone mace-heads, 4-5 types of sword pomrnels, Mycenae, Shaft Graves, 6 Apa, Transylvania, 7 tsoiu, liansylvania (bronze swords, Br A 2*3 and B 1), I Mycenae, Shaft Grave, 9 Camirus, Rhodes, 10-11 Borodino, Eessarabia (bronze swords, no. 8 decorated with sheet gold, and bronze p!n)" 12 Mycenae, Shaft Grave IV (bronze sword)" After Bossert, Foltiny, F{achmann, Horedt, Karo, Sandars and Bouzek 1966. Fig. 12. Daggers, spear-heads and other objects (1--4 with spiral decoration). 1-3 dagger. belt finial and spearhead from Hungary, 4 decorative scheme (pulley motif) on a cheek-piece of horse-bit from Vesel6, Slovakia, 5 Kridim, 6 perudtica, 7 Krasno Gradiite, 8 Dolno Levski (Mycenaean spearheads from Bulgaria), 9-10 swords from Georgia (Trialeti culture). After Hampel, Vlad6r, Sandars and Gogadze. Fig. 13. l-5, 7-8 rniniature double axes. 1 Altenburg near Bernburg, 2 Friedelsheim, Pfalz, 3 Kirke Vaeriose, Denmark,4 Calbe an der Saale, 5 Kochem (Mosel), 7 Kalagurevo, g Semdinovo (both Bulgaria). 6 and 9 double axes from After Buchholz, Bouzek 1956 and Rancisborg. dnatolia. 254 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE Fig. 1,4. Double axes of the types Kilindir and Hermones. 1 Kilindir, 2 Obrudi5te, 3 Lower Danube,4Kozorezovo, 5 Stol' 6 Ku5-Tepe, 7 Longkriri, 8 Kerd, 9 Leukas, 10 Naxos. After Buchho14 and other sources. 15. Double axes and celts from Europe and Anatolia. 1 Topsham, 2 and 6 Semerdiijevo, 3 Tskhinlvili, 4 Whitby' 5 Kozorezovo, T Troy VII b (reconstruction from a mould), 8 Troad. After Hawkes, Harding, Tallgren, Popov, Schmidt and Fig. Bittel. Fig. 16. Distribution of swords and double axes of Mycenaean relations in Europe. 1 Mycenaean swords D-G outside the Aegean, 2 related European swords, 3 double axes of Mycenaean types outside Greece, 4 double axes of the Kilindir and Hermones types. Fig. 17. Distribution of the Satu Mare knives, first razors and tweezers in the Balkans. After Hiinsel 1968. Fig. 18. Vessels with bewelled (quatrefoil) opening. IPecica,2 Gournia, 3 Kiiltepe Ib, 4-5 Beycesultan levels IV a and c. After Childe and Lloyd-Mellaart. Fig,. 19. Metal vessels and their imitations in Early Bronze Age Europe, with their Aegean parallels. 1 and 6 Mycenae, Shaft Grave A 5, silver cup and ornament of a gold bowl,3-4Ledro, Italy, clay, 5 Suciu de Sus, Transylvania,clay,T Yelkd Lomnica, Slovakia, bronze, 8 Bludina, Moravia, clay, 9 Vapheio, Greece, gold, 10 and 12Fritzdorf nearBonn and Rillaton (Wessex)' gold cups, 1 1 Nienhagen, Central Germany, clay, 13 Dohnsen, North Germany, 15 Thera (both bronze), 14 Olomouc, Moravia, clay lid. After Bouzek 1966,Piggot, Matthiius and ReichertovS. Fig. 20. Chariots and four-spoked wheels. I relief on a tomb stele, Mycenae, Shaft Grave A V, 2 gold model wheel, Shaft ISIMA 4-5 Bludina-Cezavy (after Tompa and Dezort), 6 Kakovatos (after Miiller), 7 and l4-t5 T6szeg (after Hachmann and Mozsolics), 9-10 Tell Atchana (after Woolley) , l1-13 Pikozdvdr (after Mozsolics). Fig. 26.1-4 Aegean seals with spiral decoration: L,3Lerna,2 Platanos, 4 Phaestus (all EBA, after Sakellariou); 5-8 bone cylinders and a disc: 5 Tell Atchana (after Woolley), 6-8 Aligar (after von Osten). F Fig. 27.1-2,6 spatula and cheek-pieces with bone decoration. 1 Vattina (after Milleker), 2 Sziszhalombatta-T 6glagy6r (after ai Vattina (after Milleker), 3 Tiszafiired, of-eight spirals of gold wire and the Tiryns wheel,4 proposed amber routes. After Bouzek 1966, completed. Fig. 24. Generalized distribution of the Early Bronze Age glass beads in Europe. Upper left : shapes of Hungarian beads ; upper right: shapes of beads from Slovakia, Moravia and the Wessex culture. After Harding and Stone-Thomas. Fig. 25. Bone carvings with spiral ornaments on discs cylinders (1-5, 9-10) and cheek-pieces (8, 11-15). (6-7)' 1-2' 8 c Fr Fig.28.l-8 gold discs from Mycenae and the Carpathian area. 5-7 Mycenae, 2 Tufalau,3-4,8 Sz6kelyhid. 9 bronze axe of Fi ID g \l 1, the Transylvanian type A. After Bovek 1966. Fig. 29. Spiral decoration on pottery in the northern Balkans and its Aegean parallels. 1, 5,7 Wietenberg near Sighisoara, 2 Platanos, Early Minoan seal, 3 Mycenae, Shaft Graves, gold button, 4 Suciu-de-Sus, bottom of a clay vessel, 6 Palaikastro, Crete, Late Minoan I B pilgrim bottle, 8-10 T6szeg, Otomani culture. After Bouzek 1966. Fig. 30. Distribution of spiral decoration in the second millennium B.C. 1 ornaments drawn with compasses on bone objects, 2 gold discs. After Piggot 1968, completed. Fig. 31. The Apa swords and some types of axes in Europe. 1 ,ia }L ir- &. \-e \{. _\Ir f_u _\{l Apa swords, 2 Transylvanian axes type A, 3 type B 1, 4 shaft-hole axes type Kitdnov. After Hachmann and Bouzek Ml 1966. daggers (3). After Bouzek 1966. Fig. 23. Distribution of amber spacers and discs in Europe. 1 space-plates, 2 amber discs.cased with gold, 3 Lusatian figure- ^: sf decoration of a ceramic bowl. After Bouzelt 1966. Riinshausen, distr. Fulda, 23-24,26 Asenkofen, distr' Mallersdorf, 25 Essingen, distr. Aalen) ; 27 YelkdDobr{, Bohemia' f n Ylad{r 1974). Fig. 32. Distribution of Syrian and Anatolian Bronze Age figurines in Europe (1), their imitations (2) and of Cypriot Axes, amber disc cased with gold, 19 Tiryns, 13-15 and 17-18 Wessex (13 Upton Lowell, 14 Oakley Dawn, 15, 17-18 Lake) 16 Knowes of Trotty, Orkney Islands; 20-21 two types o{ Danish amber beads after Becker, 22-26 SothGermany (22 I I Kov6cs), 6 Belcz (after Sulimirski), 3-5 loaf-of bread idols from Bande di Cavriana, Lucone and Ledro in North Italy, 7-8 Otomani culture vessels from Streda nad Bodrogom (all after Grave A III, 3 detail of a signet-ring, Shaft Grave A IV, 4 Bludina, Moravia, clay wheel, 5 Wietenberg, Transylvania, Fig. 21. Simple ear-rings of wire (Lockenringe)' 1'-2'7,11 Mycenae, Shaft Graves, 3-5 Tufalau, Transylvania, 6 Monteoru, Moldovia, 8 Caucasus, 9 Moravia. 12 wheel-headed pin from Mycenae, Shaft Grave B Y. After Bouzek 1966 and Mylonas 1973. Fig. 22. Amber beads and space-plates in Europe and in the Aegean. l-4, 7_l't Mycenae, Shaft Grave B 0' 5-6 Kakovatos, tholos grave A, 12 Knossos, Tomb of the Double { FIs fr -'r Frg Left upper corner an imitation ( ?) from Stockhult, Sweden, right lower corner the Cypriot figurine from Patso, Crete. After Bouzek and Gerloff, with additions. Fig. 33. Libation tables and hearths decorated with spirals. 1 Mycenae, decoration of the hearth in the palace megaron, 2 of the Wietenberg hearth, 3 Phaestus, Crete, libation table, 4 Velkd Zernoseky, Bohemia, 5 T6szeg, Hungary, 6 Dvory nad Zitavou, Slovakia. After Bouzek 1966, Fig. 34. Altars, libation tables and bull rhytons. 1 Uherskd Hradi5tE, Moravia, MBA sanctuary (reconstruction), 2 Phaestus, Crete, libation table, 3 Phaestus, sanctuary (?) in the front of the main staircase of the palace, 4 and 6 Uhersk6 Hradi5td. fragment of a bull rhyton and of a libation table, 5 Koumasa. Crete, bull rhyton, 7 Phaestus, altar in the central court of the palace. After Bouzek 1956. r nr{ sforP 5d De& !{lc Ia;\r f,rlc f_rg r_ -- Fls . Sorn ald f,rlk gatl Fig. 35. Aegean libation tables (2,5-7), hearths (1,4) and lamps (3,8). I Gournes, 2 and 6 Phaestus, 3, 7-8 Mallia, 5 Dictaean Cave (all stone), 4 Lerna, Argolis, clay hearth. After i.iera: Bouzek 1966. !f,.\-:, Fig. 36. Aegean and European house sanctuaries and hearths. I Trebatice, Slovakia, front of a house (?),2 hearth decorafion from Kutn6 Hora, 5 reconstruction of a wooden column witl clay capital moulding from Pobedim, Slovakia. 3-4 Minoan columns (3 from the Queen's Bathroom and 4 after a miniature fresco, both Knossos), 6 model of a sanctuary from Pis- P:erl E_c . .-' : ddl Ogp:,:' -:sS ,Fg r. -t, :'teJ€s :*eT xxul LIST OF FIGURES cocephalo, Crete (clay). After Paulik (1,5), Benei (2) and Bouzek 1966. Fig. 37. Aegean altars with incurving sides and similar Central European symbols. 1 Knossos, 2 Dictaean Cave, 3 from a Minoan gem, 4 Mycenae, Shaft Graves, 5-6 Northwest Bohemia, 7 Strdnky, 8 Skalica (both Bohemia). 1-2 stone. 4 gold, clay,7-8 bronze. After Bouzek 1966. 5-6 Fig. 38. 1 plan of the Otomani temple at Sdldcea (after 2-4 rock carvings: 2-3 bull protomae, palstaves and daggers from Monte Bego, Provence (after Coles-Harding), 4 Valcamonica (after Anati); 5 three slabs from the Kivik grave (after Ebert, RL). Ordentlich), Fig. j9.l sections Vlad6r. Barca, fortified settlement,2 SpiSskll Stvrtok, plan and of the fortification. Both Slovakia, after Kab6t and Fig. 40. 1 Auriol, d6pt. Bouches-du Rh6ne, Cypriot-type dagger; 2 Late Mycenaean seal, 3 clay wheel from Nitrianskf Hrddok, Slovakia; 4 sword from Dollerup, Jutland; 5 "inscription" on a clay wheel from Vattina; 6 team of horses with chariot incised on a clay vessel from Velk6 Raikovce, Slovakia; 7-8 "inscription" on a globe from Vattina, 9 dagger from Velkii Lehota, 10 sword from Hammer near Niirnberg. After E. M. Bossert, A. Todik, M. Gimbutas, Bartondk-Vladdr, Miiller-Karpe and CMS. Fig. 41. Shields with incuts from Kaloriziki, Cyprus (1 reconstruction after Catling) and from the Warrior Vase, Mycenae (3) ; 2 figure-of-eight shaped shield from a signet-ring, Mycenae; 4 cast bronze shield from Plzefi-Jftalka, Bohemia; 6 reconstruction of the beaten bronze shield from Nyirtrira, Hungary; 5 scheme of the construction of vaulted shield with a "notch". Fig. 42. Distribution of the Herzsprung shields, related shields and shield bosses in the Aegean and in Cyprus. 1 Warrior Vase shields, 2 Kaloriziki shield, 3 shield bosses, 4 Hersprung shields, 5 their models and representations. 1 Vergina, 2 Skyros, 3 Delphi, 4-5 Athens, Kerameikos and Agora, 6 Isthmia, 7 Mycenae, 8 Argive Heraeum, 9 Tiryns, 10 Olympia, 1 1 Fortetsa, 12 Idaean Cave, 13 Vrokastro, 14 Kavousi, 15 Mouliana, 16 Ialyssos, 17 Samos, Heraeum, 18 Marion, 19 Kouklia, 20 Kaloriziki, 2 1 Amathus, 22 ldalion. Fig. 43. Distribution of the Herzsprung shields in Europe: A U-notched, V V-notched shields. After Hencken, completed. Fig. 44. I reconstruction of the Tiryns helmet,2 decorative boss from Vergina, 3,8 shield bosses from Kerameikos, graves pG 24 and. 43, 4 and 7 knobs and bronze lacing of a corslet from Kallithea, Tomb A, 5 greave from Dobraca near Shkod6r, 6 greave from Olympia. After Verdelis, Andronikos, yalouris, Prendi and Kasper. nL br Il E t". Fig. 45. First European bronze helmets. 1 Lridky, 2 Beitsch (detail of the crest holder), 3 Oranienburg, 4 pass Lueg, 5 Skocijan, 6 Podcrkavlje B roa, i-S Spiiskri Bel6 - Slavonski and Z65kov, crest holden, 9 Wrillerdorf, cheek piece, 10 Oggiono, 11 Hungary, 12 Wonsheim (for the sources cf. the lists). Fig. 46 Metal helmets in Greece and Cyprus. 1 bronze cheek pieces of Mycenaean composite helmets, 2 the Knossos helmet, 3 the Tiryns helmet, 4 Cypriot helmets with high crest-holder,5 255 Greek Geometric "Kagelhelm". 1 Olympia, 2 Argos, 3 Tiryns, 4 Dendra, 5 Delos, 6 Knossos, 7 lalyssos, 8.Enkomi. Fig. 4T.Distribution of Late Bronze Age bronze sheet armour in Europe. 1 conical helmets (typ Lridky-Knossos), 2 early cap helmets, 3 early comb helmets, 4 early corslets of the East Alpine group, 5 greaves, 6 shields, 7 brotue strips from leather corslets. 1 Oranienburg,2 Beitsch,3 Plzei,4 Cannes-Ecluse, - 5 Saint Germain du Plain, 6 Stetten-Teritzberg,7 Z6ikov, g Lridky, 9 SpiSskrl Bel6, 10 Ducov6, 11 Caka, 72Keresztlte,13 Cierna nad Tisou, 14 Bodrogkeresztfr, 15 Nyirtura, 16 Gusterita,77 Uioara de Sus, 18 Pass Lueg, 19 Oggiono, 20Perg7ne,2l Skocijan, 22 Rinyaszentkilly, 23 Kdr, 24 Keszrihidegkrit, 23 Bonyhridvidek, 26 Poljanci, 27 Podcrkavlje Slavonski Brod, privlaka,- 30 Boljanii, 31 Tarquinia, 32 Cephalenia, 33 Kallithea, 34 Tiryns, 35 Athens, 28 Veliko Nabrde, 29 Otok 36 Knossos, 37 Enkomi, 38 Kaloriziki, 39 Nadap, 40 Brodski Varo5, 41 Tatabanya, 42 Kloltar Ivani6,43 Kufim,44 Beuron. 45 Malpensa, 46 Limone., 47 Schiifstal. After Bouzek 1981completed. Fig.48. Corslets in the Aegean. 1 Dendra type,2 its representa- tions (ideograms) on the tablets, 3 bronze lining of leather corslets, 4 bell corslets. 1,Metaxata,2 Olympia,3 Kallithea,4 Thebes,5 Mycenae, 6 Argos, 7 Dendra,8 Knossos, g phaestus. Fig. 49. Early European corslets of the eastern group. 1 Caka, 2 Cierna nad Tisou, 3 Ducov6, 4 Saint Germain du plain. After Paulik and Merhart. Fig. 50. First European greaves. 1 Pergine,2 Rinyaszentkir6ly, 3 Kallithea, 4 Cannes-Ecluse, 5 Stetten-Teritzberg,6 poljanci, 7 Athens, Acropolis. After Bouzek 1981. Fig. 51. Distribution of early greaves in the Aegean and in Cyprus. 1 European-type greaves, 2Dendra greave,3 ankleguard,4 Kavousi greaves, 5 forearm-guard. 1 Dobraca near - Shkod€r, 2 Kallithea, 3 Olympia, 4 - Mycenae, 5 Dendra, 6 Athens, 7 Kavousi, 8 Enkomi. Fig. 52.Fignral frieze on the Warrior Vase from Mycenae, sides A and B. After Bouzek 1969. Fig. 53. Distribution of the simple repouss6 decoration in Greece and Cyprus. 1 greaves, 2 helmets, 3 bosses,4 diadems, 5 shield finger-rings. 1 Dobraca near Shkod€r, 2yitsaZagonou, 3 Vergina, 4 Kallithea, 5 Olympia, 6 Tiryns, 7 Athens, 8 Dictaean Cave, 9 Mouliana, 10 Vrokastro, j.l Kaloriziki, 12 Enkomi. Fig. 54. Diadems and belts in simple repoussd. I yergtrna,2 Vitsa Zagoriou, 3 Kaloriziki, 4 Olympia, 5 Troizen. After Bouzek 1982. Fig. 55. Catling I swords and related pieces in Greece and Cyprus. 1 Catling I swords, 2 late varieties, 3 fragments, 4 genuine European swords. 1 near Shkoder, 2 Kakavi, 3 - Vodhind, 4 Vergina, 5 Aetos, Ithaca, 6 Mycenae, 7 Tiryns, g Naxos, Aplomata, 9 Kos, 10 Karphi, 11 Mouliana, 12 Myrsine, 13 Cyprus, 14 Enkomi, 15 West Macedonia, 16 Sivec-prisad. Fig. 56. Swords from the Weapon hoard at Enkomi. After Alasia L Fig,. 57. Generalized distribution map of the Sprockhoff IIa swords. After Cowen and Bouzek. Fig. 58. Types of the Balkan and Italic swords of the Naue II family. 1 Buzije,2 Fucino, 3 Golemo Selo, 4 Donja Brnica, 5 Trasimeno Lake, 6 Mati valley, 7 Ra3tani, 8 Vrana, 9 from the 256 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE Tiber near Rorne, 10 Donja Dolina, 11 Nin, 12 Atlagid-kule' 1' Aranyos type,2 type Sprockhoff Ia, 3:5 type Sprockhoff IIa' 6 type Ennsdorf (Vy5ny Sliad), 7-8 typeStdaling (Catling III)' 9 Catling IIb, 10_12 type Donja Doiina. After Bouzek 1971' Fig. 59. Distribution of the Reutlingen tlpe swords (after Schauer, comPleted). Fig. 60. Distribution of the second generation of the flangehiited swords in the Aegean' X type Ennsdorf-Kallithea, 2 Catling IIa, 3 Catling llt/llb,4 Catling III' - X Mati valley' 2 Raitani near Bitolj, 3 Anthea, 4 Kallithea, 5 Palaiokastro, 6 Tiryns, 7 Messara Plain, 8 Mouliana, 9 District of Siteia' 10 Kangadhi. 6l.Aegean flange-hilted swords. 1-2 Graditsa, Thessaly, 3 Mouliana Tornb B, 4 Mycenae, Acropolis, 5-6 Kallithea' After Bouzek 1969. Fig. 62. Distribution of the spurred flange-hilted srvords (fuli Fig. circles type Stiitzling, empty circles related swords) and of the type Ennsdorf-Vy5nf Siiad (fuli triangles)' After Schauer and other sources. Fig. 63.Late flange-hilted bronze swords in the Aegean and in Cyprus. 1 type Catling IIb, 2 type IVb, 3 type VI' 4 type 1 Bitolj, 2 Vajz6,3 Tseravina, V (Donja Dolina), 5 type IVc. 4 Graditsa,5 Schiste Odos,6 Orchomenos, T Olympia, S Samos, 9 Vrokastro, 10 Siteia, 1'1 Enkomi, 12 Fortuna, 13 Visoji, 14 - Pazhok" Fig. 64" 1-6 Balkan swords frorn southern Yugoslavia' 1 Golemo Selo near NiS, 2--5 Topolnica near Negotin, 6 Sivec7_12Peschieta daggers:7 Mycenae' Prisad near Prilep. 8-10 Psychro, Dictaean Cave, 11-12 Feschiera' After Boardman, Bouzek and flarding. Fig. 65. Peschiera daggers and battle-axes in Greece' 1 the Cretan tlpe (Psychro), 2 the rnainland type, 3 the cross dagger from the Dictaean Cave, 4 the Dodona battle-axe. - 1 Dodona, 2 Wall of the Dyrnaeans, 3 Mycenae, 4 Phylakopi, 5 Naxos, 6 Knossos, 7 Psychro, Dictaean Cave, 8 Nemea. Fig. 66. Distribution of spear-heads with European relations in Greece and Cyprus. 1 type A 1,2 type A2,3 type B 1' 4 t-vpe 3, -{ type B 2,6 type ts 3' 7 varieties of the B 3 type' - 1 Vardina, 2 Kalbaki, 3 Vodhin6, 4 Pararnythia, 5 Anihochorion, 6 Gribiani, 7 Korkyra or Ithaca, 8 Polis Cave,9 nearThebes' 10 Kos, Langada, 11 Diakata and Metaxata, Cephalenia, 12 Kangadhi, 13 Anthea, 14 Gerokomeion, 15 Mycenae, 16 Tiryns, 17 Fhaestus, 18 Vrokastro, 19 h{outiana, 20 Episkopi' 21 Meniko' 22F,nkami,23 District of Siteia, 24 Maliq, 25 Agilia, 26 Siatiste' A 27 Pazhok. Fig. 67. Aegean spearheads of European relations. 1 Faramythia, 2 Kangadhi, 3 near Thebes, 4 Crete (Oxford)' 5 Proptishi, 6 Vardina, ? Exalophos,8 Mycenae, Weapons hoard, i Langada, Kos, 10 Metaxata, Cephilenia, 11 Enkomi' lVeapons Hoard, 12 Mycenae, Epano Phourno Tholos, 13 Enkomi, 14 Kerameikos PG grave A, L5 " Acbaea" ,L6Metaxata, Cephalenia, 17 spear-butt frorn Kallithea grave B, 18 Meniko, Cyprus, 19 Kallithea grave B, 20 Kerameikos, FG grave 8,21 Mitopolis, Achaea. For the sources cf. ttee list' 9 of the lanceolate ("geflammte") with lateral ribs in Europe. After Jacob-Friesen FiC. 68. Distribution spearheads and Miiller-Karpe, with additions' ISIMA Fig. 69. Distributicn of later Aegean spearheads with European affinities. 1.-2 type A 4, with shorter and longer socket and blade, 3 type C. 1 Mati valley, 2Pnlep,3 Yajzd' 4 Lakhanokastron,5 Mazaraki,6 Gardikion,T Parga, S Exalophos,9 Polis' l ) j Ithaca, 10 Delphi, 11 Athens, Kerameikos, 12 Olympia' 13 Corinth; 14 Lindos, 15 Kition, 15 Kalauria, 17 Konitsa, 18 ( Dodona. I Fie. 70. The Dodona battle-axe (1) and Late Mycenaean arrow-treads of Buchholz types VIIb, VIIIa and VtrIIb. After Carapanos and Buchholz. Fig" 7L. Local schools of European-inspired bronzes in Greece and Cyprus. 1-4 Feloponnesian school (1 swords IIal, 2 swords IIa2, 3 mainland type of Peschiera daggers, 4 spear-heads B 1), 5-7 Cretan school (5 swords Catling III, 6 Cretan Peschiera daggers, 7 speaiheads A 3), S-10 North Greek school (8 swords IIb, 9 spear-heads A 1, 10 spearheads A 2). Fig,. V2. Tools, implements and decorative wheels of ltalic and European affinities from Greece. 1 Lefkandi, 2-3 Dictaean Cave,4Yajz| (all knives), 5 Deiras,6 Tiryns, T Mycenae, ivory, 8 bronze pendant (5-8 decorative wheels or pin finials)' 9-10 razors frorn Tylissos and Lakkithra (Cephalenia), I'l' Petati, 12 Castel Gandolfo, Italy, 13 Dictaean Cave, 14 lalyssos, 15 Dodcna, X6 reconstruction of the trtalic winged axe from the Mycenae mould, 17 Mycenae, Acropolis hoard, 18 Knossos' Gypsadhes, bronze knife with iron nails. For the sources cf' the lists. Fig. 73 Distribution of Aegean knives of European affinities. 1 F'lange-hilted knives with stopridge,2 flange-hilted knives with ring end, 3 NW Greek type (Sandars type 6b), 4 Perati knife with bird head, 4 simple knives with incised decoration of semicircles, 6-7 simpler varieties of (1)" - I Yajze, 2 Elafotopos Zagomau,3 Dodona, 4 Leukas, 5*6 lthaca, Polis Cave and Aetos, 7 Elateia, 8 Lefkandi, 9 Perati, 10 Mycenae, 11 Phaestus, 12Dictaean Cave, 13 Ialyssos, 14 Enkomi, 15 Korfu, 15 Maliq, 17 l\dati valley, 18 Buzje, Mati, 19 Kenete, distr. Kerk€s. Fig. T4.Kniveswith bird heads. 1 Perati,2 Riegsee,3 Spdlnaca, 4 Pantalica, 5 Wackonig, 6 "t{ungary", 7 near Fucino, 8 human head from razor (?), Psychro, Dictaean Cave' 9 finial of a Montelius II razor from Gjerdrup, Denmark. After Miiller- -Karpe. Fig. V5. Distribution of foreign types of axes in the Aegean, 1 Italic winged axe (rnould), 2 trunnion axes of iron, Early Iron Age, 3 trunnion axes of bronze, Late Bronze Age' 4 celts. 5-6 Late lvtycenaean hoards (6 rnarks more hoards from one 1 Katamadi near troannina, 2 Polis Cave, Ithaca, 3 locality). Orchomenos, 4 Anthedon, 5 Athens, 6 Mycenae, 7 Tiryns' 8 - - Enkomi, 9 Mathiati, 10 Crete, 11 Teichos Dymaion, 12 Olympia, 13 Asine, 14 Troy, 15 Kos, Serraglio, 16 Lindos" Fig. V6. Types of Ivlycenaean and Submycenaean fibulae. 1 Mycenae, ChT 61,2 Lakkithra, Cephalenia, 3 Kerameikos, SM grave2,4 Kos, Langada grave I0,5 Vardina,6 Kerameikos Slv{ grave 102, 7 Diakata, Cephalenia, 8 and 10 Kerameikos, SM grave 102,9 Ib., SM grave 33, 11 Teichos Dymaion, 12 Kos' Langada tomb 20, 13 North Peioponnese (in Mainz)' After Bouzek 1969, F{arding and other sources (cf. the lists). Fig. 77. Distribution of early violin-bow fibulae. 1 with spiral disc foot, bow round in section, 2 the Leopoldau variant, 3 I I t I I I s t I IT n x F 1 F pr pr K T: _-t K \i Fr m SE K( -\[, Ep Fi Kn 27 7Gk Ta oth SV 19( Fie Grr nnE linl (pir *'irt 5I Cor Spar 20r Exa xxrLl LIST OF FIGLRES fibulae with simple catch-plate, bow round and tcristed, some_ times slightly arched. After Betzler,Harding, Vinski__Gaspa_ rini, Sundwall and others. Fig. 78. Distribution of developed variants of the violin-bow fibulae. 1 leaf-shaped bow with knots, 2 bow with figure_of_ eight loops, 3 bow of round section, with knots,4 leaf_shaped bow, without knots. The same sources as for the preceding map. Fig. 79. Generalized distribution of the violin_bow fibulae. 1 Peschiera varieties (including the fibulae with villow_shaped bow), 2 fibuia with figure-of-eight loops,3 with S_shaped loops, 4 the Centrai European ,,posamenterie" fibula. After Bouzek 1978, completed. Fig. 80. West Balkan violin-bow fibulae and a button in the shape of the Dipylon shield (9). 1 Toplidica, 2 near Karlovac,3 Pritae, 4 Glasinac-Taline, 5 Brodski Varo5, 6 Novi Banovci, 7 Malence, 8 Glasinac, 9 Veliko Nabrde (button), l0 podumci near UneSid, 11 Brod irear Bitolj, 12near Split, 13 Langman_ nersdorf, 14 Glasinac-Strbci, 15 Altmiinster, 16 Grossmugl, 17 Konju5a. After Stard, Betzler and Vinski_Gasparini. Frg. 81. Distribution of the bow fibula with knots. After Bouzek 1959, cornpleted. Fig. 92.Ear|y Oreek pins in the Aegean and in Cyprus. 1 type I, pin and globe of different rnaterials, 2 type I, full cast of bronze, 3 type IV, head and pin of different materials, 4 the same shape, pin and head cast together, 5 type II, 6 the Vergina pins, 7 Karphi pins, I Mycenae ChT 62 pins. _ 1 yajz6, i Vergina,3 Troy, 4 Pherai, 5 Ancient Elis,6 Corinth, T Argos, g Salamis, 9 Athens, 10 Perati, 11 Knossos, 12 Karphi, 13 Mouliana, 14 Kaloriziki, 15 lthaca, 16 Diakata, Cephaienia, 17 Oiympia, 1g Nichoria. Fig. 8 3. Other pins in the Aegean and Cyprus. I type y, 2 type II.I, 3 with coiled head, 4 with swan_shaped head,'5 of simple straight wire. yeryqna,3 Athens, 4 Salarnis, 5 - I Bobousti, 2 Korakou, 6 Mycenae, 7 Argos, g Knossos, 9 Karphi, 10 Mouliana, 11Enkomi, 12Kue iZi, 13Diakata,l4Olympia, 15 Episkopi. Fig. 84: Pins (1-15) and finger-rings (16_21,23). No" 22 is a smaller spiral. 1-2 Kerameikos, SM graves 2,A ana 4.].,3 Knossos, Gypsadhes grave VII, 4 Argos, Deiras Tomb 17 , S and 22 Corinth, Early Geometric gtave,6 Knossos, Ayios Ioannis, 7-8 Vergina, 9 Pljeiivica, tumulus V, 10 Gosinja planina (both - Glasinac), ll-12 Timmari near Matera, 13 Mottolu near Tarent, 14 Novigrad on the Sava, 15 Debelo Brdo, Bosnia. All other pieces Kerameikos : 16 , 19 and 23 SM gra ve 70, lV and 22 SM grave 52, 18 SM grave 102,20 SM grave 24. After Bouzek 1969 and other sources, cf. the lists and notes 33_42, Fig. 85. Distribution of finger-rings and wheel_ornaments in Greece. 1 early shield rings, 2 late shield rings,3 early finger_ rings with spiral tenninals, 4 sirnilar Late Geometric rings, 5 little spirals of gold, 6 similar items of silver, g wheel models (pin-heads ?), 7 the Tiryns wheel and similar bracelets of coiled wire. 1 Papadin Dol,2 Saraj near Brod,3 Vergina,4 Kalbaki, - 5 Marmariani, 6 Pherai, 7 Athens, g Salamis, 9 perati, l0 Corinth, 11 Mycenae, 12 Olympia, 13 Lousai, 14 Tegea, 75 Sparta, 16 Naxos, 17 Sifnos, 1g Chios, Emporion, 19 Ephesus, 20 Kos,21 Lindos, 22psychro,23 Tiryns,24 Elephotopos,25 Exalophos, 26 Argos,27 Tiryns,2g Teichos Dyrnaion" 257 Frg. 86. Sun symbols, wheels and sun with birds. 1_4 Mycenae, LH III B, 5 lalyssos, decoration of a pyxis, LH III C, 6 Leporano near Tarent, lead, LH III B, 7 antithetic spiral ornament (Furumark Mot. 50), 8-9 Kerarneikos, l0 Dictaean Cave (8-10 shields of finger-rings), 11 bronze wheel from Argos, Deiras, 12-13 bronze pendants from Hungary and from Tolfa in ltaly. After Bouzek 1970. Fig. 87. 1-2 Anthropornorphic bronze pendants from Este and from Berlin-Spindlersfeld, 3,5 and g clay figurines from Olym_ pia, 4 clay animal from Str6nky, Bohemia, 6 human figurine from Bavaria, 7 WazLily beadfrom Menidi near Athens, 9 and 12 Pylos, rim decoration of branze bowl and gold diadem, 10 disc with repoussd decoration from the Argive tleraeum, ll anthropomorphic ornament from the Vergina diadem. After Bouzek 1974,1gBZ and other sources. Fig. 88. VII), l-2 LH III C seals in the British Museurn (after CMS 3 Thapsos, handle nf a clay vessel ( atteryoza),A clayboat model from Italy (after Montelius and Hencken), 5 bronze ornament from the broadcast station at Zemun near Beograd (after Trbuhovid), 6 Tiryns, LH III C poftery fragment (after Slenczka), 7 Phitistine ship from the Medinet Habir retiefs, Fig. 89. l--4, 6 rock carvings: 1 Kelleby, Bohusliin,2 euille, Bohusliin, 3 Ekenberg, 4 Herrebro (both Ostergiitland); 5 and 9 carvings on bronze objeets from }larsefeld (Kr; Stade) and Denmark; 7-8 bronze ornaments from Velern Szent Vid and Szamos near Szatmar, Hungary, 10 bronze bird frorn p. Vie_ tgest, Kr. Giistrov,ll-13 razors from Kr. Hadersleben, Bades_ trupt, Amt }lolbaek and Ketting, Laaland; 14 bronze fibula from O. Frangborg, Snastorp sm. After Sprockhoff. Fig. 90. Double birds, horses and bird boats representations on bronze objects. 1 Emden, Kr. Meppen, 2 Vojens Gaard near Hadersleben, 3 Alstrupt, Amt Aalborg, 4 Mehibeck, Kr. Stein_ Lrurg, 5 l{arsefeld, Kr. Stade, 6 p. Gullev, Ant Aalborg, 7 Aketorp, Aland, 9 near Bcirstel, Kr. Merseburg, 9 near Bremen, 10 Mecklenburg, 1I_12, 14 decoration oi Liptou swords, Slovakia, 13 Emmen, Kr. Meppen, 15 Rossin, Kr. Anktarn, 16 Siem, Amt Aalborg, trT l-islebyfjord, distr. Fredrikstadr, l8 O. Billeberga, Schonen. After Sprockhoff. Fig. 91. The Peloponnesian Barbarian Ware. 1_14 Tiryns (af ter Kilian), I S 6, 20-23, 26_27 Aigeira (af ter Jalkotzy), 17-1.9 and 25 Korakou, 24 Athens, Agora (afier Rutter). Fig. 92.Distribution of hand-made barbarian potteries in LH III C Greece and Cyprus. 1 Cephalenian hand_made ware, Z_3 Peloponnesian Barbarian ware and related pottery, 4 Cypriclt Black Slip Ware and its Trojan parallels. I Ithaca (polis and -t Aetos), _ 2 Cephalenia (Metaxata, Diakata, I_akkiihra and Oikopeda), 3 Delphi, 4 Aigeira, 5 Nichoria, 6 Menelaion, 7 K-orakou, 8 Mycenae. 9 Tiryns, 10 Asine, 1 1 Athens, 12 perati, 13 Lefkandi, 14 Chania, l5 Knossos, 16 Kalapodi, 17 and Bamboula, l8 Troy. Kaloriziki Fig, 93. Hand-rnade pottery. I and 4 Metaxata Tomb 4, 2 Lakkithra Tomb A, 3 Lefkandi, 5-_7,1,1_j,S Vergina (no. 12 sword), 8 Devetaki Cave. After Bouzek 1959. Fig. 94. Hand-made (]-3,5_6,g_13, 15) and wheel_rurned (4, 7, 14,16) vases from Greece and thelr Balkan parallels. I Polis, Ithaca, 2 Dobraca,3 Donja Dolina (both yugoslavia), 4 Mycenae, 5 Delphi, 6 Vergina, 7 Lakkithra, Cefhalenia, Asine, 9 and 11 Kerameikos, i0 Kos. Serraglio, 72 and g 13 258 Battina (Kis-Ktiszeg), Croatia, 14 Delphi, 15 Metaxata, Cephalenia, 16 Ithaca. After Bouzek, Opuscula Ath. 1969. 4-SYardarophtsa, 3, Fig. 95.Macedonian Lausitz Ware. 9-10 Vardina, 11-16 Kastanas. After Heurtley and Hensel. Fig. 96. Various pottery groups in the Balkans and in Greece. Cultural groups in the Balkans: 1 Serbian and North Bosnian l-2, 2 Zuto Brdo Cirna group, 3 Illyrian "Central" area, 4 BObousti painted pottery, 5 Babadag culture, Urnfield culture, 6 Sava-Conevo (East Bulgarian) group, 7-9 South Bulgarian Incised and Stamped potteries (7 Sophia group, 8 Cepina, 9 Catalka and P5enidevo groups), 10 Danubian group with fluted > Commentary: 1 Mediana and the Macedonian Lausitz Ware, 2 Thracian coastal Incised, Stamped and Fluted pottery (cf . groups 8-9), 4 Karphi Incised Ware and its import at Enkomi, 5 Naxos Incised Ware, 6 Vergina, 7-8 Attic Dark Age Incised Ware and related potteries. Fig. 97. Ceramic relations of Troy VII b 1-2. 1,2,4 Zimnicea (Rumania), 3,5-6,8,1.2-1.3Troy (nos. 5,8. 12-13 Knobbed Ware), 7 Kozloduj, 10 Sava, 11 Varasti (all Bulgaria). After Hdnsel, Dimitrov, Morintz, Tondeva, Schmidt, Blegen et alii. Fig. 98. AtticProtogeometrichind-made idols and their Balkan parallels. 1-4 Kerameikos, PG graves 33 and 48,5 Dalj, 6 and 12 Vr5ac,7 Dupljaja (figurine standingon a chariot),8 Kavin,9, 11 Ostrovul Mare, 10 Nea lonia. After Bouzek 1974. Fig. 99. Burial types (1-4) and simple architecture in Submycenaean and Protogeometric Greece. 1 and 3 Submycenaean cist tomb and Protogeometric cremation burial, Kerameikos, 2 and 4 Vergina tumuli with cist graves, 5 Early Geometric house pottery prevailing. or enclosure, Athenian Agora, togeometric house, 7-9 6 Ancient Smyrna, Pro- Cretan Protogeometric house models. After Bouzek 1969. Fig. 100. Early cist graves in Greece. 1 LH III B, zLHllIC,3 Submycenaean, 4 with hand-made pottery, 5 with hand-made pottery only. After Bouzek 1969. Fig. 101. Distribution of early cremations and of the "Attic" Dark Age Incised Ware in Greece. 1-3 cremations with the "Attic" Incised Ware,4 "Attic" Incised Ware from settlements nad uncertain context, 5 cremations without the "Attic" Incised Ware. 1 Athens, 2 Eleusis,3 Salamis,4 Lefkandi, 5 Delos,6 Lindos, 7 Knossos, 8 Amnissos,9 Dictaean Cave, 10 Phaestus - and vicinity, 11 Arkades, 12 Anavlochos, 13 Dreros, 14 Vrokastro. Fig. 102. Bronzes of European relations in the East Mediterranean, c. 1200-1000 B.C. Sprockhoff IIa swords, 2 late derivatives of the former, 3 possible Peschiera dagger,4 spearheads of European affinities, 5 the Kaloriziki shield, 6 greaves, 7 violin-bow fibulae, 8 bow fibulae (Birmingham groups A iii and B), 9 knives with ring-ended grip, 10 curved knives with incised decoration, 11 pins with possible European relations, 12 Submycenaean Greek pins. 1 Troy, 2 Ancient Smyrna, 3 Kolophon, 4 Iassos, 5 Assarlik, 6 Kos, Langada, 7 Rhodes (Ialyssos and Kameiros), 8 Boghazkiiy, 9 Tarsus, 10 Catal Hiiyiik, 11 Tell Tainat, 12 Atchana, 13 Tell Judaieh, 14 Deve Hiiytik, 15 Ras Shamra, 16 Hama, 17 Tell Abu Hawam, 18 Megiddo, 19 Tell Beit Mirsim,2l Tell Firaun, 22 Bubastis. The distribution in Crete and Cyprus is schematized. In Cyprus only Enkomi and Episkopi-Kourion yielded early bronzes related to the Sea Peoples; the finds from Lapithos, Amathus, Kouklia, Dhali and Myrtou-Pigadhes are later derivations (mainly bow I - fibulae). PL fro prc PI- Pra . har Pra Pt.. tiol Fig. 103. Balkan, Italic and Central European razors in shape of Sq'e double-axe, ania Bingula-Divo5, 6 "Serbia", 7 Uioara de Sus, 8 Visoji-Beranci, 9 Mesii, I2Bole[ica,ll Italy, unknown locality, 13 Terni, 14 Ortucchio, 15 Bovolone, 16 Timmari. After Pivovarovd, Haj or with its representation. 1, 10 Mixnitz, Drachenhijhle, 2-3 Diviaky nad Nitricou, 4 Beieiov6, 5 Trbuhovid, Bouzek and Jockenhrivel. Fig. 104. Distribution of Mycenaean pottery (1-5), copper ingots (6) and Cypriot bronzes (7) in Italy. 1 earlier arid not precisely datable finds of Mycenaean pottery, 2L}Jlll A,3LH III B, 4 LH III A-8, 5 LH III C. After L. Vagnetti. Fig. 105.1 pottery and bronzes from Tarent, Scoglio del Tonno, 2-3 pottery from Thapsos, 4-5 "palaces" at Thapsos and Pantalica. After Miiller-Karpe, Yoza and Coles-Harding. Pt.. Pho Pt.: Czer {: .FJ 6_. mu5- PI. 6 SIZ!r'( Pl.:. belm Kallir \s' Britis P|. 6. Scblie a leat DAI. PI. 9. cd .6 s Dr&- !E lrL LIST OF PLATES d Ed {F ; I EI PL. r$e from Ro$iorii de Vede, Jud Bucure{ti. Reproduction courtesy prof. M. Condurachi. 18 Ih 4 iln tu mlr rd ir^ LJ til}' r- i4 ertt FF'' td iI.B m d C PL 1 . gold, sword from Per$inari, Jud Pite{ti ; 2 bronze sword 2.l-2Syrian figurine reputedly found at Kouiim, Bohemia. 3-4 Double axe reputedly found at Topsham, England. Photo courtesy British Museum and Nat. Mus. Prague, Nat. Mus.; Prague. Pl.3.1,Mycenaean sword from Tetovo, Mus. Skoplje (reproduction courtesy the museum); 2 bronze figurine from Stockhult, Sweden, after Montelius; 3 Syrian figurine from Sernai, Lithu- ania, aftet Peisker. Pl. 4. L iron handle of a dagger from G6novce, Slovakia, after H6jek and Vldek; 2 copper ingot from Cenovo near Burgas. Photo courtesy mus. Burgas. P1. 5. Parts of columns, altars and hearths of baked clay from Czechoslovakia. 1 column capital from Pobedim, Slovakia; 2, 4-5 Northwest Bohemia, mus. Teplice; 3 Dvory nad Zitavou, 6-7 Trebatice (all Slovakia). Photo courtesy Dr. J. Paulik and mus. Teplice. Pl. 6. Gteave (1), cuirass and helmet (2) trom Dendra, LH II grave. Photo courtesy DAI Athens. Pl. 7.1 bronze forearm-guard from Dendra (cf . pl. 6) ; 2bronze helmet from Knossos, Ayios Ioannis, 3 bronze knob from the Kallithea leather corslet ; 4 hearth-stand of the Urnfield period, NW Bohemia, mus. Teplice. Photo courtesy DAI (1,3) and British School at Athens (2), no. 4 mus. Teplice. PI. 8. I fiddle-shaped spearhead from Kangadhi, Achaea,2 the Schliemann sword from Mycenae, 3 part of the bronze lacing of a leather corslet from Kallithea (cf. pl. 9:4). Photo courtesy DAI Athens. P|. 9. Bronze objects from the Chamber Tombs at Kallithea. 1 sword from Tomb B, 2-3 spearhead and sword from Tomb A, 4 parts of the bronze lacing of a corslet from Tomb A (cf. pl. 8 ;3). Photo courtesy DAI Athens. Pl. 10. Bronze parts of a leather helmet from Tiryns. photo courtesy Deutsches Archiiologisches Institut, Athens. PI. 11. I Early Greek "Kegelhelm" in Budapest, Museum of Fine Arts, photo courtesy the Museum and Dr. J.-Gy. Szil6gyi ; 2 pin from Troy, Schliemann co11., photo courtesy Staatliche Museen Berlin; 3 bell corslet from Argos, reproduction courtesy E,cole franfaise d'Athdnes. P|. 1.2. I violin-bow fibula from Teichos Dymaion, 2-3 pins from Mycenae, Chamber Tomb 62, 4-5 bird waggon from Sziirosv6rossz6k, Hungary. 1-3 photo courtesy 4-5 after Hampel. PL 13.The Dupljaja waggon. After Sprockhoff. DAI Athens, l-2 PI. 14. Petrokephali near Phaestus, incised vessel and painted Iekythos, photo courtesy Scuola italiana di archeologia, Atene; 3-4 Kerameikos: 3 hand-made jug from Submycenaean grave 59, 4 lekythos from Submycenaean grave 48. photo courtesy Deutsches Archdologisches Institut, Athens. Pl. 15. l-2 painted lekythos and hand-made pyxis from Kerameikos Submycenaean grave 77,3-4 dolls in the Incised Ware from Kerameikos Protogeometricgrave 4g. photo courte_ sy DAI Athens. Pl. 16. 1-3 dolls and pyxis of Incised Ware from Kerameikos Protogeometric grave 33,4 pyxis from the Athenian Agora, inv. P. 14873,5 pyxis from Kerameikos protogeometric grave 37. Photo courtesy Deutsches Archiiologisches Institut Athens (1-3,5) and American School of Classical Studies at Athens (4). INDE,X l Abafj 95,103,104 Amnisos Achaea 128,L38,tig. Adliswill 37 " 221, fig. 8 Arnosis 39 213-5,221, nu242 Aegina (treasure) 65,87,fig' 2 Aeneas 221 2I9, 240 Antigori 152 14" 25, 29-3A, 35, 43, 45-6' 81, 83, 123, 125, 130, 132, t37,139, 141, 144, 149, 166-7, 169, 17 3, 1'87, r89, 't93, 197, 202" 206-7, 215, 230-l Aliqar 52, 87-8,fig. 25 Alierone, type 227 Alma 31, Iig. 7,9 Aloni near llieraPetra 159 Alpine area 51', 53, 57, 59, 77, 82, 142, i 1, 147, 152-3, 161, L7 2, 207, 213, 215, 219, 221-2, 225, 229, 241-2 fig. 13 Altmiinster fig. 80 ,Altenburg Alumiere 173 Alunig 31, fig. 7 , 9 Amathus 223,fig. 4l-2, 1'02 amber 53-58, 83, 167, 172-3, tig' I, armour 92-1 lC, 142-5 arrowhead l42,fig. 7A Arslan Tepe 83 Artemis Orthia see Sparta Asar Tepe 193 Asea 25,29,tig. 5 Asenkofen ftg. 22 Ashdod 2A9,212 I t I I t E E l5l, 178, 183, 203, tig. 7 5, 92, 94 Asine 29, 87, 205-6, 236, Askalon 209 Aspropilia 122 Assarlik 170, 2A6, fig. 102 Assiros 145, 190 Assyria 103 rarneikos) $, IA2, 106, 113, 115, 122. r51, 162, 169, 77 2, 184, 197 -8, 200-1, 207, 209, 2ll, 214, 223, 231.-2, fig. 2, 42, Antrim County 85, 95 Apa 39-41.,47,fig. 31 82*3, 47 , 5l, 53, 85, 87, 91, 99, lA2, 69 , 7 5, pl. 14-16 Attica 167,198 Appenine c. 201 Apollo, Hyperborean 173, l7 I Apulia 37, 57, 80, 219, 221, 234-5 Attic PG Incised Ware 200, 202,207 Aquitaine 80 Arad 47 Aranyos, type 128 Araxos 132,151,155 Arcadia 25,125 architecture 77-9, 207, Austria 39, 57-8, 90, ll3, t52-3, tgo, 2l'l Aups 226 36, 38-9,99 Argissa 25,29,fi9. 4 ArgiveHeraeum 153, 156,tig. 42,87 Argofid 56, 67, 172, 178, 198 Argonauts 21, 87 162*5, l7 l, 205, 224, 235-6, fig. 46, 48, 82, 83, Argos 103, L1.1., 84-86, pt. ll Arkades 1 11 Arkhalokhri 30 Arles 39 116, I59, 1,47, Bi Bi Bi Be B€ Bil Bii Bil Bu bift I Avars 243 Aven de Pl6imond 226 axes 4l*47, 142, I5I-2, tig. 1'3-1'6, 65,70,72,7 B & bil Auriol fig. 40 Auvernier 228 tig. 34, B B B B - kule fig. 58 Athens (Akropolis, Agora, see also Ke- 43 B B Atlagi6 Antissa 207 Alalakh see Tell Atchana Aiba Iulia 3l,fig. 7,9 22-3 63, 68,7 Anthochorion fig. 66 51 1 1-3, 58-60, Annadale 95 Anthea 125, 138, fig. 60, 66 Anthednn '!.51, fig. 7 5 Ajak 120-i 106, 4-7 7,7 9, 83, 85, 88-9, 15t-2, r59, 176, 195, 202, 212, 241-15, 2t9, 222-3, 227-30,238,240-43 Anavlochos fig. 101 5 Andrjukovskaja st. 35 Anklya fig. 2 Aigai 197 Aigeira 183, 184, fig.9l-2 Aigion X55 Allrania Amyklai 197,235 Anatolia 19, 22, 25, 27, 41, 48-9, 82 66 Ahhotep 39 Akrotiri Alaca Hiiyiik amphikleia 169 Anavysos 201,236 Ancient Elis 159, 162-3, 165, 235, tig' Agamemnon 108 Agrilia 137, fig. Armenia 32,Armenians 195,212-13 101 Amorgos 39,232 Adoni (Eradony) 63 Adonis 89 Adriatic, area 115-6, 130, 132' l4l' 143, 151, 159-60, 187, r93,209, Aeolian Islands 80, Aetos see Ithaca fig. 67 l I 5 Bisr Biri 7 Biai Axiochori se Vardarophtsa Blar Axius 213,215,242 Axos 1 11 Biu Bah Ayia Marina 25 21 Bodr Babadag c. 784, 187,190, 195, BabuSnica 43 Babylonia 71 Baden c. 22,29,75 fig' 96 Bo€i Bog Bod fig 261 B6.deni 228 Badestrupt fig. 89 Balbasi 48 Balearic Islands 23, 88 Balej near Vidin 200 Baltic area 13, 54, 222, 240-1, 244 Bamboula 198, 205, 237, tig. 92 Banat 235 -1-1 11 246,214,231 Brennen Beli Kamen 193 161 83, 85, Beravci 229 Berezai 46 r fci 15. --s- ,= r.--;.r $- Bernidres d'Ailly Bruq ll3,tig. 47 Beycesultan 48-9, 52-3, 74-5, 84, 87,89, fig. 18 Bihar, Kornitat 5l-2, 85 tsiia 51-2 bilobal shields 93,9? lr Bingula - Divo5 23t, 23\,fig. 103 birds, bird boat, protomae, askos 76-7, 178-81,203 of 80 Bitolj 44, 125-7, 2l4,tig. 63 Black SIip Vlare 271 Bludina 49, 61" 86, tig. l9-2A, 25 tsabousti 163, 193-4, 201-2, 2p4, 215,235, fig. 83,96 Bodrogkereszttir 95, fig. 47 Boeotia 170, Allen 1,97, 2Al, 207, 231 85 Boghazktiy 87, fig. 2,102 22t, 240 9 44-5,75, 127, 130, 145,151_2,160, 190, 195, 202, 213_4, 227, 236, 105-6, I4g, 212, 229, 2, l 47, 66 -7, eerkovna 193-5 Cerna valley 214 x". Lerncrn /J 75 Cetona, type 227 Chamezi 89 Chan Terovo 187 Chania 185,196,fi9" 92 Charadastika 44 chariots 52-3, 77, 82, 1.73-5, tig. 20, chronology 17-19 CiernanadTisou i10, fig. 47,49 Cimmerians 175 Cinacce 229 Qirna 77,181,20A,n4 105-6, fig. 99-100 clay spools 187 Cloonlara 95 -19 , 27 , 60, 1,7 8, 244 C6talva see Tufalau Cofinas 89 coming of the Greeks 25 Como 104,169 eaka 103, 110-11, tig. 47,49 Cakovice 89 Calabria 221,234 Constantra Calbe on the Saale fig. 13 Carnirus see Kameiros fig. -Dalas 229 Contigliano 221 copper Czldzre 36 Campania 221 Canegrate 228 Cannes -8, pl. I4l, t56, t6S, cist graves Laesar I /5 Cannatello tig.2. circular sanctuaries 75 Bush Barrow 81, 84 t7 53, 40 Chios, Emporio 156, fig. 85 Chir-Dir 35 Christos near Mallia 48 241-2 q4 M, 40-1, 58, 82,84, 97, 121, 156,159,176, fernli Vril 80, 132, 155, 169, 193, Black Sea 21, 82, 213, 241, 244 Bog of 90 butt-spikes 141 Buzije fig. 58, 73 Biscay, Bay Cdtele Nou 33 Caucasus 19, 21-2, 26, 35, Cepina l93,fig. 96 Cepun€ 137 Bubastis l23,tig. 102 Bucuresfi 33,35 Budinbdina 232 Bulgaria 2l-2, 25, 3A, 41, 8t-3, 90 102 li9, 196, 232, tjg. 72,76,82,92,94 Brygl 193,274 Bubanj p" 25 Beuron fig. fig. 72 Hiiyiik 75,fig. 17 O, 17 Broglio del Trebisacce B0,2Zl Bessarabia 81 1s7,215, Castelluccio 88 Catacomb c. 25,58 Cenovo near Burgas 824,221,240 106 128, 144, -83, 240-41,244 Castel Gandolfo fig. Cephalenia 108, 137 Brod-Saraj 156, 169, 193, fig. B0 Brodski Varoi 115, 21,7 , tig. 47 , BA BeSeiovii 217"tig. 103 Billeberga 103 Brittany 21, 39, 57, 59-60, 7A, Berlin- Spindlersfeld fig. 87 Bermion, Mt. 193 36-9,51-3, 60-g, 9 212-3,230 Brescia 77 Brathe Bazj€ fig. 9 Britain 21, 37,39,57,59-60. 70, S0, fig. 27 Belrrtii fig. fig. 7 Celts 175,202,219,234 bracelets 170 Brddesti 84 Braqov 51,53 Bratislava 33 Begunci 43 B6k6s 104, Bik6s Vdrdomb 48 Bela Palanka 43 6-7, - Bossisio 135 Bovolone 7 1, 7 Catalka 195,1ig.96 Bosnia 129-30, 166, lB4, ftA, ]97, 1 22 Cana 206,209 Carpathian arca Qatal Borsod 95,104 Base-Ring Warc 279 Battina 104, fig. 94 battle axe 742,fiig. 65, 70 Bauneasa 84 Belez lt fig. 90 Borsodgeszt 231 Bavaria 147 Beitsch 103, tig. 45,47 :il_i. (Emilia) 173,232 Borodino 39-41,82, 84, fig. Barice 235 Barche di Solferino 49,86 p. Cardium Boledica 2l7,fig. 103 Bologna 95, i60 bone objects 53,61-3, fig. 25,27,30 Bcirstel, near Canosa 226 Capys 221 Boiu 35,41,84,128 Boljanic lll,tig. 47 Borgo Panigale 9 Barca 76-77,90, fig. 39 Bassai 172,229,240 Bonyhad 104, Bonyhadvid,ek tig" 4'l Borac 229 Bande di Cavvianotig. 27 Bdnov 86 Barg 31,215,tig. Bohemia 57, 73, 7 5, BZ-3, 90,95, 151, 19-20,27,82, fig. l-2 Mare 33, 83, fig. 8-9 CordedWarc 25,29,tig.4 Copqa Corfu see Korkyra Corinth 137, 739, 2 -Ecluse 113, 1L5, tig. 47, 50 245, 232, 236, 1,59, 163, 172, Lg7, fis. 62, 82, B4-5 262 J, BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE 135, 138, 147-9, r5l, 153-1, 160, 169, 173,221, fig. 35,37, 53,64-5, Corinthian helmet 99, 106 Corneto Cornwall 37, 60, 104 L2l-2, 72-4,86, rcl 221 dieuaulingot 103,113 Corsica 88 I,fig. 44,47-9,53 ISIMA 101, 106-8, 122-4, r28, L44-5, 173, 178,209,212, 243 Ekenberg fig. 89 Ekron 209 El Argar 80 Cos see Kos DikiliTash 25,tig. Dimini c. 25 Coslogeni 195 Dionysios Karystios 181 lracow Dionysus 77 Elatea Dioscuroi 234 Dipylon shield 97 Diviaky nad Nitricou 217,238,1i9. L03 Dobbertin 104 Elbasan 30 electrum 82 Eleusis 198, 200-1,205,tiq. 101' Doboj Emden corslet 107-1 70 lremation 75,79,207,fig. 99, 101 Crete 22, 27, 43, 48-9, 53, 58, 67, 73, 7 5 r05 Llr, 97 --4, 82 -3, 93, -9, -6, t25, 727, 133, 143, 151-J, 155, 116, 159, 165, 172, 184, 196-7, t99-200, 205, 211, 223, 235-6, 240,243 Cretan Linear A 4 Elafotopos Zagoinon 148, 169,235, fig. 73,85 tig. 73 115 Dobraca 202, 226, 235, fig. 44, 51, 53, B 25,92, r08,207,224 Croatia 151, 155, 766, 172, 190, 229, Dobrodgea 31,195 Dodecanese 209,243 Dodona 43-4, 135, I39, I42, I44, 149, 151-2, t87, 214, 229, fig. 231 cross 75 Cscinge 103-4 Csorvris 39 Cyclades 22-3, 27, 29, 67, Doktor Josifovo 240 Cyprus 19, 2l-2, 27,29, 67, 80-1, 84, 107, 103 4, 107, rl0, 90, 9 5, 97 -8, r13, 123 -4, 128, r30, 132, 138, 143, 145, t56, 159, 165, r7 2, 77 5 17 9, -6, 207, 181, 196, t98-200, 203, 209-72, 219, 221-2, 240 daggers 115 3 1, fig. 19 Dolno Levski 3l,fig. 6,9,12 Dolnf Kubin Don 57 103 Donauwiirth 113 Donja Brnica fig. 58 Donja Dolina l2l, I24, 126-7,I32, 196,209,230-1, 235, fig. 58, 63,94 Dorak l 38-41, 132-5, fig. 10-12, 90 Emilia 231 58 Dorians 13, 167, 187, 194, 201-2 4l-7, Emmen fig. 90 Endrod 104 England 46,82-3,240-l Enkomi 88, 101, 103, ll3, ll5, 122-3, 126, 132, 135, 169, 187, 193, 799, 209, tig. 2,46-7, 51, s3,55-6,63, 211, 66-7 ,73,7 5, 83, 96, 102 Enkciping region 77 6 Dollerup ll9,fig. 40 1,44, Czechoslovakia 217 Dabrica 65, 69,7 0, 72-3 Dohnsen 51, 82, 240, fig. 80-1, 144, 167 fig. EmirdaP 229 94 69, Linear Elis L22, 5, 82, L8L, 217-8, Eradony see Adoni Erbenheim, type 130, 132 Draguignan 226 Eschenz 51,82 Essingen fig. 22 Delta, Egypt I28,2Q9 113, 715-6, 17 5, fig. 46,48,51, pl 6-7 108, 215, 224, Denmark 57, 59, 95, 97, 106, 132, 135, 172,240 Dessueri 36 tig. 102 66, 7 6, 82-3, 92 Dictaean Cave (Psychro) 125, t7 3, fis. l3l-2' Ge Etruria 104, 207;Etruscans 221 Euboia 185 Eumolpia 89 Dobritz, cups 104 152-67 Drslaice 226 Ducovd 110-1, tie. 47,49 Ge Ge 2 Eutresis 25,229,fi9. 4 Exalophos l4l, L69, 195, 206, Iig. 67, 69, 85 Ge Ger 1 Ger Dumbravioira 33, tig. 7, 9 Exochi 200 Mikhalits 25 Ezero Dunabogddny 217 Dunarijv6ros 41, 84 - Ger Gez face urns 196 Ghi Ghi Devetaki Cave L96,fig. 93 Dhali 205, fig. 102 Diakata 89, 122,138, 156, 163, 165, GJ Gz Este 95, fig. 87 Dupljaja, waggon 53,77,234, fig. 98, pl. 13 Dvory nadZitavou 74-5,fig. 33, Pl 5 Derveni 155-6 Deve Hiiytik - G Gz Estavayer 229,232 Drama, near 200 Drat6w 232 Drenovo 121,I27,132 Dreros 116, fig. 101 dress fasteners Dendra 40, 84-5, 1'01-2, 106, 110-1, fig. 8-9 Dresden G Gi Eretria 207 Drajna-de-Jos 33, 35, 1'21, 213, 228, G G G Gr Erzgebirge 21,28 fig. 13-16 tig. 46, 101' Delphi 97-8, 122, 138-9,156, 185' 197-8,225,fis.42,94 169, Gi Dover 53 200, 213, 224, 232, -8, Episkopi, Stamniou Feidiados 233 Dalmatia 215 Danaoi 209 Deloi 1.37 fr F F Episkopi (Cyprus) l4L, 165,205, tig. 66,83,102 double-axe Danube 2l-2, 44-5, 82, 17 8, 240 Dardanos 215 Debelo Brdo 2l4,23l,fig. 84 Deiras see Argos F Ennsdorf, type 124,130,132, fig. 58, 60,62 64-65,71,702, r05 Datj 231,235,fig. 98 7 F F F Enns 35 Ephesus 232,fi9. 85 Epirus 125, 127, 132, 135, 187 , 193, r99, 215, 242 I I ear-rings 53, fig. 2I, Moor 39 Egypt 16, 19,39,49,54, faience beads 58-60, 57-9,70-1, L67 Faistos see Phaistos Falmouth 221, 241, fig. Feiting 227 Eberswalde 85 Egton Figdras 104 Falster 95 8O Ger ,218-9 Gan Gibr 2 Gilg Gjer GIas Fejdr 103,110 gold Feketot 229 Gole xxryl INDEX Fermo (Ascoli Piceno) 225 Goliath's armour 110, 1,13, Zlz fibulae 152-60, fig. 32,87 Fier 46 GotnjaYrba Filinges, corslets 107, 110-1, 21,2,225 104-5 Gosinja Planina SB; 80, 82, Friedelsheim fig. l3 Friedrichsruhe cups 175 Fritzdorf near Bonn 51, B2,Iig. 1,9 Fucino 149, fig. 58,74 funeral rite 79, 205-7 , fig. 99_101 Fiizesabony 39, 49, 53, 61 95 Galanta 33,fig. 9 Galatin 3lfig. 6,9 G6novce 21, 28,72, 176, pl. 4 greaves lll-116, tig. 44,47, 50_53 Grenoble 110 Grevena 3l,fig. Gribiani 135, 137, fig. 66 21,7 , fig. 80 Grotta Gardikion 137,Iig. 69 Garonne valley 58, 80 Gastria Alaas 215 1,22 Guben 103 Giistrow fig. 89 Gullev fig. 90 Gumelnifa 25 Gundslev 84 GSva 190, 195-6, 201, 235 Gaza 209 Gelidonyia Cape l75,2o5,fig. 2 Gemsze 228 -Egytterd6 Geometric 173, 175-6, 751,,200-1, 231-3 Georgia 46,fig. 12 fig. t9-22 Germ€nj 30-l,lig. 9 Gerokomion l38,tig. 66 Gezer 45,122,231 Ghirla Mare c. 76 Ghirsu Romdn 230 Gant's Tombs 72 Gibraltar 21, 58 Gilgamesh 70 Gjerdrup fig. 74 Glasinac 166, 173, 190, fig. 80, 84 gold 5l-2,63-5, 82, 170-1, fig. t0 fig. 58, 64 47 2 Hajdi Hvar 25, 81 72-3,86, tO2 Iassos 213, Iig. 102 Idaean Cave 98, 224, fig. 42 Idalion 98, 198, 200, 2ll, 225, fig. 42 lljak 226 Illyrians 106, 167, 190, 206-:7, 209, 215,222 Idoeuropeans 25--6, 203 implements see tools ingots 27-2, 238, fig. 7, 9 Hajdhddhdz 228 104 Inldceni 33,fig.7,9 Hajdfbiiszerm6ny 104 Ioannina Hajdris:imson 35, 51 Hala Sultan Tekke 88 Haliakmon valley 193 Iolkos 93,222 241 Hama 87, 126, 128, 156, 205, 2L2, fig. t02 l7,l2O-1, fig. 40 Handlovd 52 Harsefeld 75 Iran 202 Hallstatt c. 7 5, 116, 166, 181, 214, 234, Hammer (Niirnberg) fig. Ionians 167 Halland 95 Germany 43, 51, 52, 57, 82, 90. 95, 102, Golemo Selo 1034,fig. Haifa 2l,tig. Hunedoara 47 Huns 243 Hurrites 68, 82 Ialyssos 98, 101, 106, 147, 156, fi'2, 778, 203, 224, 229, 234, tis. 42, 46, lll, 2O9 35 Hrustovada cave 166, 231,236 128, 147, 151, 153, 1,72, l-q,A,214,217, Hadersleben fig. 89-90 Hagenau -Donauberg 227 Haghia Triadha 77, 99, 222, fig. 2 Haghios Mammas 25, 58, fig. 4 Garlasco 135 Hovil 229,240,243 Grotta di Pola near Paestum 221.,232 Grotta Pertosa 148 Grotta Pirosa 219 Gusterila Holland 58 Homer 53, 92, 116, l7 5, 215, 242 horse-bits 53,61,173 Hovby 227 Hungary 26, 35, 39, 41, 45, St, 53, 57-8,7 5,77,82, t04, 110,115,121, 9 Grossmugl Garda 231 127, 130, 222, 230, 240, Germanic tribes 233 Hodonin 86 Hofing 227 Gramsh 215 Frattesina 173,221 d;,r. 84 Grdniceri 63 GreatMigration 244 85, 130, t3s, 145, 202, 221., 230 Frata Polesine 173 Gath 166,231,fig. Graditsa 125, 132, 1 44, tig. 61, 63 4 France 21, 23, 37, 39, 46, 52, b,0- 207, 209, 213, 222, 241, 243 hoards 176, fig. 75 Hoare's Normanton 53 Gournes 89, fig. 35 Gournia 48, 165, fig. 18 Gradeinica 69 Folkcstone -53 Fondo Paviani 221 Fontanella 772 Fortuna 125,1i9. 63 Fortetsa 127, 203, tig. 42 Fyn Gortyn 111, 153-4 Gosen 175,233 228 i-'- 95-8, Iig. 42_3 Himmerland 95 Hittites 27, 82-3,93, 97, 144, lB3, Gortynia 125 Fliegenhdhle near Skocijan 102, t9" 229 Gorsko Kosovo 229 Finkerwalde 105 Firenze mus. 147 fig. Herrebro fig. 89 Herzegowina 215 Herzsprung shields Gordion 226 Filicudi 80 Fotolivos 263 fig. 89-90 Hebrews 209,243 Helgoland 1,9,27 Helios 77, 173,1,78 helmets 99-107, 17 5, tig. 44, 47, 53 Heraklion m. 737 Hermones 44,fig. 14,16 Herodotus 212-3 Iria (Argolid) 195-6 Irland 59,95 lron 21, 175-6 Ischia 80,90,221 Isthmia fig. 42 Italy l4-5, 19,23,29, 534, 57-8, 69, 7 6, 80, 82, tts, tl7, l2t___2, 127, 129---30, 135, 741 145, 147, t5t_2, 159, 166-7, 169, t71_3, l8t, 184, 187, 190, 196, 202, 207, 213, 215, 218-9, 221-2, 228, 232, 234, 240-2,244 Ithaca (Aetos, Polis cave) 128, 137-9, 162, 189, 201, 235-6, fig. 5 5, 66, 69, 73,7 5,82,92,94 lzvoreale 43-4 236, Jakovo 217 Jarak 229 Jekaterinoslav ,*6 lezerine near Pritoka 230-1 Jonkovo 33,35,fig. Jurka Vas 217 9 67 , pl. 7-9 Kaloriziki 95, 97-8, 163, 198, 2ll, 223-4, fis. 4l-2, 47, 53-4, 82, 92' 66J, fig. 4 Kannali Kiipii Kannelopoulos coll. 138, 141, 31 43 Karlagat 84 Karlovac, near 230, fig. 80 Karnobat 90 160' rig. 52, 82-83, 96 Kastanas 144, 165-6, 190, L97,207 ' 95 Kastri (Thascs) 193 47 Kavousi 123, 156, L59, 224, tig. !90, 193-6, 211' 97 72-3, 84' 89' 95, 101-4, 106-8, 112, 127,153, 99, 165, fig. 2,22,36-7 ' 47-8,65, 7 Katamadi 73 Kazinbarcika 231 Kegelhelm l$,rc6-7,fig. 46,P1' 11 Kekida Glavica 235 Kelibia 39 Kelleby fig. 89 Kdmend 86 fig. 73 K6r 110-1, 225, 228, fis. 47 Kerameikos (Athens) 138-9, fig. 89 Ladegaard Mose 95 Lake Ledro 49, 240, Lakhanokastron fig. 19, 27 69 ti1.72,76,92-4 Langada see Kos Lingkirra 14,44,58 fig. 80 Lanquaid 17,87 Lapithos 205,fi9" lO2 Larissa on Hermos 207 Larsitz c. 172 Lednyvdr 4l Komisd 30-1 Konitsa 737,tig' 69 Konju3a 130,211-4, fig. 80 Korakou 154, 165, 183-4' l89,zAL' Leather Bag Ware 85, 237 , 3 197,201-2 Ledro see Lake Ledro Lefkandi 147, 756, 1'59' 162-3,170' 1 197-8, 20A, 2A3, 206, 226, 232, fis. 72-3, 92-3, I0r Leopoldau 153 Yir 22,28 Leporano L72,tig. 86 Lerna 25, 29, 67, 7 4, tig. Leubingen 21,82 Lepenski 43 l5l, fis. 55, Kos (Langada, Serraglio) 122, 138' 155, 197, 203, 205' 236' 66-:l ,75-6,85,94, fig. Lakkithra i08-10, 122, 149' 156, 1,89, Latirm 76,221 Kortinite 47 Laconia 49 Kolta 219 102 l,etten 4-5' 25' 35 I25,130-I KoSice 1X0 Ko5tany 58 Leukas 23, 29, 33, 44, tig. 14, 73 Kouklia 98, 205, 223,tig' 42, 102 183, 196, 209, 21t libation vessels 75 Koufim 70,P1.2 t56-7, 159, 162, 165, 167, Koutsoulio 187 Kozani 25,fig. 4 169-170, 196, 198, 2A5, 232, 234, Kozloduj fig. 97 151, Laaland Kolophon fig. 102 Koumasa l65,fig. 34 Kourion fig. 102 Kenete fig. Langmannersdorf Kcirds 104 42, 51 155, Kydonia 159 Kyme fig" 2 Kliievac Korc€ 31, 215 Korfu, Korkyra 44, 138" 1'47,tig. 66'7 Katsamba 99,224"226 Kavin fig. 98 18 KuiTepe 44,fig. 14 Kutn6 Hora fig. 36 fis. 83,91-2 Kastritsa 187 "235 Kato Zakros 99 83 Kuiace 231 Kustendil 33 Kiilesd 234 Kolonaki 211 l5l, 154-6, 213-4,231,23&, tle. Kuiim 72,82-3,92,101,PI. Knoviz c. 89 Knowes atTrattyfig.22 Kochern fig. 13 151 fig. Kurd buckets 175 Klaipeda 70 Klein 226 Kiein X85, 196, 25, 163, Kulterstad 84 Kurgan komplex 25 Kition 139,205,fi9. 69 Kivik 77, l2Z,tig. 38 Knossos 57, Zi Kukts 44 Kiiltepe 48, 752, 229, fig. - 53 2134,242,rig' B t62-3, Kug i 5 - 110-l KloStar IvaniC lll,fig. 227 KitEnov axes fig. 31 Kiiszeg (Batina) 104 Knobbed Ware Kangadhi 728, 131, 229, fig. 66, 165, 199, K*lino 76 11 Kamnik 231 Karphi 128, 148, Kritsana 25,fig. 4 knives 4?, 145-9, 7L,73,77 ' lA2,fig. r02 Kameiros tig. 102 Kammhelme rc2-3, L06 Karpathas 122 Khafajeh 234 Daud 35 Khodja KispalSd 228 " l4-5 Krasno GradiSte 41,fig. 12 Kravari 44 Kridim 41, fig" 12 Kish 85 Iig. Kercszt€te fi3,Iie. 47 Kernos 75 Keszedihidegkrir 95, fig. 47 Kis Kaliakra, Cape 90, fig. 2 Kardlali Kozsiderpadl6s 35 Kozorezovo 44, 46, Krannon 181 Kirkovo 43 Kirrha 25, 165, fig. Kallithea 108, 110, 713, 715, I24, 209' 5O-1, fi , 6A-1, 224, fis. 44, 47 Karaglari 91' Kirke Vaerlse 43"tig" 13 Kalapodi l95,fig. 92 Kalauria 139,fig. 69 -B 42, 44, 67, 69, 7 6, 84, 96' Kilindir 43-4, L45, fig. 14' Kirke Siby 84 Kadel (Vorarlberg) 86 Kadesh, battle of 93,97 Kakavi fig. 55 Kakovatos 30, 57, fig. 22, 25 Kalagurevo 43,tig. 13 Kalbaki 137, 199, 232, fig. fig. 98-9,p1. L4-X6 Kerd 45, fig. 14 Jutland 40 pi. ISIMA J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLTA AND EUROPE 254 1'45, l7 6, 219, 241, 243 Levant 23, 45, 54, 58, 60, 103, -3, Libya 53 Lilo 35, 84 Limone lli,tig. 147 Lindos 88, 137 , Lsl,172,198,200,232, tig. 65,69,75,10t 1 gok Cond PLATE d i 1 gold sword from Persinari. Jud Piteqti; 2bronze sword from Rosiorii de Vede, Jud Bucuresti. Reproduction courtesy prof. M. Condurachi. 1 : PLATE2 4 Syrian figurine reputedly found at Kouiim, Bohemia' Prague' Nat Mus England. Photo courtesy British Museum and Nat. Mus Prague' 1-2 3--4 Double axe reputedly found at Topsham. 1Mv after PLATE d { I 1 Mycenaean sword from Tetovo, Mus. Skoplje (reproduction courtesy the museum)',2 bronze figurine from Stockhult, Sweden, after Montelius; 3 Sl rian figurine from Sernai, Lithuania, afler Peisker. I 3 PLATE 4 1 iron handle of mus. Burgas. a dagger Photo courtesv from Gdnovce, Slovakia, after Hrijek and Vldek ; 2 copper ingot from Cenovo near Burgas' PLATE d { a 5 7 Parts of columns, altars and hearths crf baked clay from Czechoslovakia. 1 column capital from Pobedim, Slovakia; 2,4-5 Northwest Bohemia, mus. Teplice; 3 Dvory nad Zitavou,6-7 Trebatice (all Slovakia). Photo courtesy Dr. J. Paulik and mus. Teplice. {l 5 PLATE 6 f#, t Greave (1), cuirass and helmet (2) from Dendra, LH II .*r o,qt i* L 1 !1 ..ri i jj,jJ grave. Photo courtesy DAI Athens 1 brr leath Athe PLATE 7 ffi W W ffi 1 brcrnze forearm-guard from Dendra (cf. pl. 6) ;2bronze helmet from Knossos, Ayios Ioannis,3 bronze knob frorn the Kallithea leather corslet; 4 hearth-stand of the Urnfield period, NW Bohemia, mus. Teplice. Photo courtesy DAI (1,3) and British School at Athens (2). no.4 mus. Teplice. PLATE 8 :ai:.ii!:l;al:$1 e 3 part of the bronze lacing of a leather 1 fiddle-shaped spearhead from Kangadhi, Achaea, 2 the Schlicmann sword from Mycenae, corslet from Kallithea (cf . pl. 9:4). Photo courtesy DAI Athens' Brc the PLATE Bronzc objects from the Chamber Tombs at Kallithea . 1 sword from Tomb 8,2-3 spearhead and sword from Tomb the bronze lacing of a corslet from Tomb A (cf. pl. 8: 3). Photo courtesy DAI Athens. A,4 9 parts of PLATE 10 Bronze parts of a leathe r helmet from Tiryns. Phob courtesy Deutsches Archdologisches Institut, Athens 7Ez Tror d'At PLATE 11 a a 1 Early Greek "Kegelhelm" in Budapest, Museum of Fine Arts, photo courtesy the Museum and Dr. J.-Gy Szikigyi; 2 pin from Troy, Schliemann coll., photo courtesy Staatliche Museen Bcrlin; 3 bell corslet from Argos, reproduction courtesy Ecole frangaise I d'Athdnes. 62' 1 violin-bow fibula from Teichos Dymaion, 2-3 pins from Mycenac, Chamber Tomb Hungary. 1-3 photo courtesy DAI Athens, 4-5 after l{ampel 4-5 bird waggon from Szirosvdrosszdk' PLATE al 'a+',,. The Dupljaja waggon. After Sprockhoff 13 PLATE 14 petrokephali near Phaestus, incised vessel and painted lekythos, photo courtesy Scuola italiana di archeologia, Atene; 3-4 Kerameikos: 3 hand-made jug from Submycenaean grave 59, 4 lekythos from Submycenaean grave 48. Photo courtesy Deutsches ArchSologisches Institut, Athens. 1-2 t-2 Kera PLATE 1-2 painted lekythos and hand-made pyxis from Kerameikos Submycenaean grave Kcrameikos Protogeometric gravc .18. Photo courtesy DAI Athens. 77.3-4 15 dolls in the Inciscd Ware from PLATE 16 l Iv l il n t t U U M M M M M M lu{1 Mt M: Mz Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Mar Mar Mar inv. P' 14873 ' 5 6olls and pyxis of Incised Ware from Kerameikos Protogeometric grave 33, 4 pyxis f rom the Athenian Agora, I (1-3,5) and -3 Athens Institut Archdologisches protogeometric Deutsches grave 37. Photo courtesy pyxis from Kerameikos (4). at Athcns American School of Classical Studies xxrxl ir INDEX Linz 232 Mathiati fig. 2,75 Lionokladhi 194,202 Mati valley 30, 725, 139, 173, 215, 230, Lion's gate see Mycenae Lipari 21,58, 80, 85, 173 Lipenec 217 Liptov swords 103, fig. 90 Lislebyfjord fig. 90 literary sources 207-9 fig. 58,60,69,73 Matijeviti 228 Livorno Matrensa 36 Matt-painted Ware 235 Mattrei, type 229 Mayo County 95 47 45, 9 Mediana 214,235, tig. 96 Mediag 31, 33 Medinet Habu 95, tl}, 173, t78,203, megalithic architecture 22, 70-1, 235 me$aron 72 Megiddo 126, 156, 205, 228, fig. 1,0 Megyasz6 39 Mehlbeck fig. 90 Luwians 25 LuLice 45 Meilen Lycia 48 Lydia 221 Macedonia 25, 43, 48,123,125, l3A, 1,67,169-70, t72, 184, 187, t90-'1., 198*9, 205, 207 , 214-5, 217 , 242 Ware 187, 1901-1, 199, 214, 235, 242, fis. 95-96 - Malia 207 Melos 133 Mende 41 Menelaion 183-4,fie. 92 Mesopotamia 19, 22, 53, 58, 69,240, 243 - 747, 149, fig. 66-7,92-4 c. lO4,l2l 18, Nemea 133, fig. 65 Ndnshat 30,215, fig. 8,9 Nenzingen, type 41, 128-9, 209, 212, 227 Nesopotamos 212 Nestor's kingdom 209 Nichoria 163, 183-4, 223, 239,fig. 82, Milet Marion fig. 42 Mars 77 Minorca 80 Minos 219 Minyan pottery 25,196 Minotaur 73 Misten 35 Marseilles 80 Marta near Zoie. 193 Mitopolis fig. 103 Mixnitz 217, tig. 103 North Zealand 43 Mochlos 89,tig. Norway 129,"i.32 Matera fig. 84 40, Nea Ionia 98, L62 Negotin fig. 64 Milazzesse 219 Marmesse 110 tig. Naxos 44, 122, 133, 135, 198, 200,206, 230,232, fig. 55,65,85, 96 Marathon 25 Mariupol 25 Marmariani 170, 194, 232, fig. 85 102 17,58 Malpensa 1,15, 226, fig. 47 Malta 22-3, temples 71 Manaccora 149,156 Mihailovgrad 31, fig. 9 Milan, Castello Sforzesco 85 157, 159, 55-64, 71, 102 199,236, fig. 48, Mezrikriresd 104 - tig. Naue Il-swords 122-32, 19 Midas, gardens of 193 Midha 30, fig. 9 Mircurea Sibiu 31, tig. 7, 9 Mierzanovice group 58 Pigadhes Nagytet6ny Nancy 85 Plain 125, fig. 60 metal ores 19-22 metal vessels 48-52, 175,205, 151-5, Nackhiille 95,97,223 Nadap 103, 110, 13-{, 223, 226, tig. 47 Nagyrdv Metaxata Ll0, 137, 156-7, 173, 189, Mallia 30,48, 156, 229.tig. 35 t43-4, Myrtou fig. 33 Mesii fig. 103 Makotiasy 88 80 ta7-8, Meniko l39,tig. 66-7 lVlessara 57-8, 82-5, 88-9, 93,99,101, 112, t16, 122, 127-8, 80, 82-3,85-6,92,pl. 8,12 Mal6 Kosihy 87 fig. 60-1, Mersin Messenia 56,175 Malence MutEjovice 89 Mycenae 13, 21, 30, 35, 48, 54, Myrsine 122, fig. 55 Magyarb6nye 51 Malhostovice 229 Malinica - Kambulevac 43 Maliq 193, tig. 66,73 60-r,66,82-3 Miihlau, type 145 Mureq 51 Menidi fig. 87 Mesoyefira 30, fig. 10 Majoroshalom 39 Makarska 28 ot 209,213,222 Mottola 22l,tig. 84 Mouliana 122, 125, 137-8, 142-3, 154, 159,163,223, tig. 42, 53, 55, 161,163, 165, 167, 169-7 3, 183, 198, 203, 213, 22r, 223-5, 228, fig. 2, 6, tt, t9-22, 28-9, 33, 37, 41-2, 48, 51--2, 55, 6t, 64-7, 72-3, 7 5-6, Obermeilen 86 Mdcin 39, fig. 10 Malkovac 225 Madarovce 53,61,79,86 Mainz L70 * 82,90,115 Mopsus, kingdom 82 212,tig.88 Lwone fig. 27 Luni sul Mignone 221 Luristan 97 Lushjd 30-1 Macedonian Lausitz fig. Medeion 197 Medgidia 31, 83, tig. 6, Lridky 101, 103-4, 106, 215, fig. rd Monteoru 53,tig. 2l Mazaraki l87,fig. 69 Mecklenburg Mokdr e Poshtime 43 Montagne del CaltagSrone 232 Monte Bego 77 , fig. 38 Monte Dessueri 232 Monte Rovello 221 Montenegro 214-5 Morava valley 214,242 Moravia 45, 49, 53, 58-9,69,73,75, Mazarakata 156, 165-6 115 Ljubenovo 200 Ioaf-of-bread idols 69 Longford 95 Louis XI armour 108 Lousoi 169,231,fig. 85 Los Milliares 23 -1.5 265 92 173 2 Nienhagen 49, 82,fig. 19 Nin 132, fig. 58 Nipperwiese 95 Nis 44,2l4,tig. 64 Nitra group 17,58 Nitrianskf Hri{dok 51" 69, 86,90, tig. 40 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, 266 Noua 213 Pazafiiik 31,43 Novi Banovci fig. 80 Novigrad on the Sava Pazhok 30, l66,23l,tig. 84 Novo Mesto 226 Niirnberg 22 Peloponnesian Barbarian Ware Hammer) Nuzzi 107 Nyirtrira 95, fig. 214,223,243 Oakley Dawn fig. Obrudiide 43,fig. 14 9l-2 fig. Oder-Elbe Daggers 80 Pelynt 37,221 Odorhei 31,33 pendants 53 f. 75, fig. 87 P1neszlek 228 Oggiono 7 5, 104, 205, 228, fig. 45, 47 Oikopeda l89,Iig. 92 Old Snyrna 207 , lig. 99, 102 Parati L22, 185, 203, Oldendorf 85 Olomouc 49, 82, 85, fig. 19 103, lll, 115-6, 127, Olympia 97 -8, 138, t4t, l5l-2, 155-6, 163,170, l8l, 223, 225, 232, fig. 42, 44, 46, 48, 57, 53-4, 63, 69, 7 5, 82-3, 85, 87 Op6ly 120,178,234 - l76,fis.27,29,38 t-3, 156, 16l, 167, l7 8, 85, 92 pl. 1 Peruitica 31, 41, fig. 6, 9, 12 Peschiera (daggers, fibulae) 104, 120, l2l-2 7 -9, Perugia mus. 227 @rskevhede 17, Ll9, Ortucchio 151, fig. 103 Ostrovul Mare 63, 65, 234, 236, fig. 98 Privlaka 95, 217, 229, 231, fig. otok Otomani 21, 49, 53, 67-8, 147 fig. 72-4, 82, 79, ' ox-hide ingots 27,82,1i9. 2 Paionians 209 Pikozdvdr 53,fig. 25 Palaiokastro 87, 125, 165, fig. 29, 6O Paleopaphos 98 Palestine 122, 126, 128, L59, 181, 209, 2tl-2,243 Pantalica 149, 219, 227, 231---2, Iig. 74,145 Papadin Dol near Prilep 169, 232, tig. t25, 132-5, 143, 151---2, Podumci near UneiiC 80 Poggio Berni 151 Pogradec 43 Poiana 61,83 Poland 25,58,70,145 Polesine 221 Poliochni 22 Polis cave (Ithaca) 137 , 139, fig. Poljanci ll5, 217, tig. 47, 5O Pollada c. 49,53,69 1.66, Pontic area ,,Posamenterie" Potamoi 200 pl. 14 Phaestus 73, 7 5, 89, lO8, 137, 147, 754, 200, fis. 25, 33-5, 48, 66, 7 3, Pherai 162, 237, fig. 82, 85 l}l Phocis 125 Phoenicians 98, 224, 243 Philistines 209, 211-2, 243, fig. 88 Phrygians 193, 195, 207, 212-4 - I I c. I 25 Protonagyr6v group 17 Protovillanovan 170-1, l Menhir 39 Preshute Gla-Manton 57 Pri6ac fig. 80 Pilep 123, 125, 132, 21.4, fig. 64, 69 PiinaGlava 229 Privlaka 95, L73 Proptishte near Pogradec l37 , Iig. 67 Prosymna 39, 61, 83, 156, 229 Protogeometric s. 194, 20O-L, 232 242 l I Praisos 111, 116,156 Piedllrtco 221 95-6, 117,223, tig. fibula 154, 156, fig. 79 104-5 Phylakopi 69, 733, 196, 213, tig. 65 Jikalka 40, 46, 51, 53, pottery 25-6, 48-51, 67-8, 1,83-206, tig. 4-5, 18-19, 91-8, Presesklo Petsota 89 Pfcirten 103 22,25-6, Porto Cesareo 80 Porto Perone 80,221 Portugal 21,58 64-5,71,79,102 - 94 Porti 89 Prajou Pilsen 69 , 60,99,156,212,240 porteurs de torque 28 212-5, 221, 227, 229, 242, fis. Petrokephali near Phaestus Brod 217,225, Pontecagnano 226 Ponte San Pietro 173 Pergamon 122 Pergine lli,fig. 47,50 Periam 47 Peristeria 56-7 Persia 178 Perginari 21, 33, 35,39,82-3, fig. 9, 10, Oradea 84 Oranienburg 102, fig. 45, 47 Orchomenos 125, 153, hg. 63, 7 5 Orkney Islands 57 47 183-7, Perachora 156 Old Testarnent 209,242 -slavonski fig. 45,47 41, 47 also 75-6,tig. 36,pI 5 Podcrkavlje 48,61,fig.18 Pecica lsrMA Pobedim l27,l37,Iig. 9,63,66 Pefkakia 25,fig. 4 Pelagonia 193 Peleset 110 Pellene 57 Peloponnese 25, 56, 7 4, 170, 205, 209, Hammer 119 (see - ANATOLIA AND EUROPE c. 149, 151, 166, 185, 190, 207, 215, 217, 221, I I F F R R R R R R Provence 80, fig. 38 Prozor 166 41,47 pins 160-7, 23l,fig. 82-4,102 Prut 129 Sr Piskov6 near P€rmet 141 Piskokefalo 89,fig. 36 Psychro (Dictaean cave) 125, 132f., Sa Paralimni 156 Pitegti 33 Paramythia l38,fig. 66 Parya l37,2l5,tig. 69 pithos burials 79-80, 90 Platanos 43, 83, fig. 25, 29 Plenmyrion 30, 36, 57, 213, 219, 238 22l,fig. 64-5,74,85 Pienidevo c. 184, 190, 200-l,fig. 85 Paris 113 Parthenon 14 Lueg 102, 105-6, 225, fig. 45, 47 Pateli 193 Pass Patos 127,I93,225,230 fig. 32 Paulis 228 Patso Pavelsko 127,132 Pljelivica fig. 84 Ploegti 33 Plougourneau 39 Ploumilliau 51 Plodiv 31 43 Plovdiv - Zimnicea'V'/are 242 Po 221,242 135, 138, r45, 147, r5t, 153, 157, 169, Sa Sa 96 Punic figurines 70 Punta del Tonno (Tarent) 151 Punta Le Terrare 80 PustimEi, type 229 Pyla Steni 205 Sa Sai Sal t Sal Pylos 56, 89, 99, 108, 147,1.70,175, Saf t7 8, 197, 203, 205, 209, 222, 224, 229, Sar tig. 87 Sal Sal pyramids 14 xxIXl I I , i INDEX Qaf€ e Merines 46 Qeparo 46 Angelo Muxaro 232 San Canzian see Skocijan San Giovenale 221 Radiocarbon see Cla Radzovce 238 sanctuaries 7 1-6, tig. 34-35, 38 Sankt Andrii near Etting 228 Ramses Ramses San II 95, 106 III 107 i 1224, Ras Shamra Ra5tani 17 3,207,212, fig. 58, 60 Ravenna 202 Razgrad 33 Razlog 234 Red Sea 21 70-7, 176-81, tig. 33-38 repouss6 decoration 11,6-7, 170_1, fig. 53-4 Reutlingen, type l28,l3O,fig. 59 Rhodes 98, 122, 173, 178, 200, Iig. 11, t02 fig. Rinyaszentkir6ly ll5, fig. 47, 50 8-9,fig. ,106,219,221,229,241 Sava-Conevo fig. 38, 89 di Albairate fig. 227 45, 221, 227 8-9, fig 47 238, fig. 84, 86, 105 40, cf. also Cretan - Zdroje 105,225 Sea Peoples 95, l0l, L06, ll0-1, ll3, 122, 128, 142, t73, t7 90 R<itha-Geschwitz 232 207, 209, 2ll-3, 5-6, l78,205, 219,22t-3,224, 236,243,tig.102 9 Rumania 25, 30, 33, 39, 53-4, 57 r28, 130, 132, r45,147, -8, Lst,195, 213-4,240 Sacheihid 63,65 Safririkovo 89 Sahara 16 Saint-Germain enLaye 107 Saint-Germain du Plain 103, 110, fig. fig. 38 Salamis 159, 165, 169-70, 172-3, 75, 77, r98, 232, fis. 82-3, 85, 101 Salina 80 Salomo's temple 234 Samos 98, L27,l32,fig. 42,63 Samothrace 193,21.4-5 Samtavro 35,84 Sehlsdorf 104 Selinus 88 Sellopoulo 85 Semdinovo 43, 84, fig. 13 SemerdZijevo 46, 229, tig. 15 Semitic religions 77 Sepse 61 Serbia 26, I49, 152, 1.66, 17 1., 187, 190, 214, 21,7, 230, 238,fig. 103 Sernai 58,70,222,plr. Serra Ilixi fig. 3 2 Serraglio see Kos Sesklo 87 II 128,212 settlements 77-9, fig. 39 Seuthopolis 89 Sevlijevo 43 Sethos 29 Sinnicelul Mare 47 Sisak 227,231 Sitagroi 22,25 sitei^ 122, 125, 127, 137, tig. att 77 Sczecin pl. 85 fig. 60, 63, 66 situla Scoglio del Tonno (Tarent) 80, 135, Linear A-B Scythians 77 fig. l-3, 8, 90 -8, script 68-9, tig. 1 7 1,7 fig. Sigmaringen 113 Siliska 39, fig. 10 Silistra 33 Sin 181,234 Scotland 59 Ropiorii-de-Vede 33, 35, fig. 47, 49 Saldcea 39, 41, 5, Rhyton 108, Mosaic 99 Siege Sighisoara 222 1, Rosetti 195 3l,fig. 17 219,221,232,241 Sifnos 96 Saxony 49,51,82,24A Scandinavia 58, 67, 7 0, 7 7, 82, Schonen Rongdres 85 a 88, 97 Sardis 219 Saroq (Soars) 104 Sarrok 43,219,238 Satu Mare 40, 47, 84, 234, tig. 8, l7 odos l25,fig. 63 Schmiedehausen, distr. Apolda 225 Riinshausen fig. 22 Rome 221, fig 58 Ronneby 44 Routsi 57 Rrethe Bazje 2 Schiste 197 Ripa6 near Bihat 231 rock carvings 77,82, l7 Rojak 44 Rossin Siculs 209,219 Sicyon 236 Sceptres 29,80 Sdetkovo 46 Schdfstal ll3, 195, 74 Rilaton 51, fig. 19 Rion Saraj near Brod see Brod-Saraj Saratse 190 Sardinia 19, 21, 23, 37, 43, 46, 72, 80, Scamozzine Rhodope 193,214 Riegsee Lucia 166 Saone 37, 1l9, l2l,fig. l0 84-5, religion 22-3, 97,fig. 42, 44 Shkodir 30,44,fi9. 55 Shtog 30, fig. 9 Siatista 137, fig. 66 Sibiu 31, 103 Sicily 23, 30, 36, 54, 56-8 70-1, 80, 83, 1,21-1, 159-60, 166,178,213, Sant'Antiocco fig. 128, 92-9, Iig. 4l-3,105 shield shield bosses Santa fig. 2,102 I 267 Shaft Graves see Mycenae Shardana 95, 101, 110, 219 Shelcan 44 Sivec (Prisad) 123, 227, tig. 55, 64 Skalica fig. 37 Skocijan 102, L04, 715, fig. 45, 47 Skopje 30, fig. 6 Skydebjerg (Fyn) 223 Skyros 170, 203, 232, fig. 47 Slavonian type 227 Slavonski Brod fig. 45 Slavonic migration 243 Slovakia 35, 49, 53, 58, 69, 7 6, 82, 103, 1,10, 1,21, t90 Slovenia 130,165,190 $mig (Somogyon) 51, 63, 86 Smolenice group 40,226 Smiirningtire 84 Smyrna, Ancient (Old) fig. 102 Snastorp fig. 89 Soarq (Saros) 104 Sokol 33, 35, I2l, l23,fig. 9 Soli 33, d5 Sombor 40-l Somogy 115 Sophia group fig. 96 Sorgono fig. 2 Sos Muros di Orosei 219,238 Sotirianika 52 Spain 21, 23, 58, 80, 83, 98, 202, 224 fig. 74 Sparta (Artemis Orthia) 1Bl, 183, Z3l, Spdlnaca fig. 85 Spata 224 spears 41, 135-42, tig. 12, 66-9, 71, 102 spiral decoration 25-30 60-68, 82, 170, fig. 268 J. BOUZEK, THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE BelS 103, fig. 45, 47 Spi5skj Stvrtok 35, 39,7 5,77, 83,fig. 9, Tarsus 156, 205,fi9. 102 39 Split fig. 80 SreteS 230 stade fig. 89-90 StaraZagon 43 Tatabanya SpiSsk6 Tegea ll3, 9 of the Tekker 213 15, 1 fig. 47, 50 Tell Abu Hawam fig. 102 Tell Atchana (Alalakh) 61, 87 ,127 ,fig. Stolac 215 stone anchors 28 Stonehenge 41,'75, 84, tig. Tell Barsib 205 Tell Beit Mirsim fig. 2,142 TellFara 212 Tell Firaun l29,lig. 102 Tell Judaieh tig. 102 l0 Srrdnky fig. 87 Strassengel 104 Straubing c. 79 Streda nad Bodrogom 17, 38,fig. 27 Struma valley 214 Styria 217 5u Benatzu di Santadi 219 Subappenine c. 184-5, 232,234,242 Suciu de Sus 49, 67,88,229,fig 19,29 TellMor 212 Tell es-Saidieh 122 Tell Tainat flig. 102 Tenczi 209 Tenje t29 Teritzberg I 15 Trendin 110 Treporti 215 Treviso 227 Terni fig. 103 Terramare c. 142, 165-6,221 Trezzano on the Trento 221 Trialeti 30, 35, 51, 68, 82-3,87,240 triquetrum 77 Troad 151, fig. 15 Tertre de l'6glise 39 Tetovo 40, 2l4,fig. 6,9, pl. Tahlheim 86 Surbo 37,221 Surdin 61 3 Thapsos 36, 80, 88, 219, 234, 236, tig. 226 Sviitf Jur near Bratislava 33, fig. 7 , 9 Svenstrup Mose 95 Sweden 9, 44, 77, 95, 97, 132, 229 Switzerland 39, 46, 53, 58, 77, 80, 85, 130, r72, 221, 228 swords 30-41, 11'9-32, fig. 6-11, 31,40,55-64,71, lA2 Sybaris 221 symbolics 176--83, 202-3, fig. 33-38,87-90 Syria 22, 56, $, 7 A, n2, 126, 159, 207, 2tt-3,219,241 Syrian figurines 69-70, pls. 2-3 group 67 Szabolcs 95,120 Szamos near Szatrnar fig 89 Sz6razd 217 Sz6rosvdrosszdkpl. 12 Tdglagydr tig. 27 Szdszhalombatta Syros - Szdkelyhid fig. 28 Szentersz6bet 103 Szrireg 48 Taarup Mose 95, 97 , 223 Ken€z 228 Takta Tammuz 89 Tarent see Scoglio del Tonno Tarquinia 101, 104, 225, fig. 41 88, 105 Tharros fig. "ftoy 22, 25, Thebes 108, 135, L56-7, 173,197, tig. 48, 66-7; Theban Kabei 29, 52-3, 83, 107, 19 -2, Trundholm 177 trunnion axes 5l-2 Tseravina 127, 132, fig. 63 Tskhinvali 46 Tufalau 53, 63" fig. 21, 28 turnuli 25, 206 Thermos 207 Thessaly 25,247,242 Tumulus Thiaki Turdaq c. 17, 41, 59,73, 166, 769, 177, 33 68-9 Tuscany 80, 83, 219, 221, 241 Tutenkhamon 107 - 47-8, tig. Tiber fig. 58 tweezets Timmari Z2l,Iig. 84, 103 Tylissos 149-50, fig. 2,72 l-2 172, 17 ThgtLirpus 227 Udobnaja 84 Tirgu Mureq 33 Ugarit see Ras Shamra Uheskf Brod 73--4, 75, fig. 34 Uioara de Sus 104, 225, 229, 238, fi9. firyns \ \ \ \' v v t. Vr \i vi Co Tarkey 25,213-4 Turska 227 Thuringia 240 fig. \ \ 206,215,231,239,242 Thrace 25, 1,93, 207, 242 Thracians 77, 209, 213-4 Renzenbiihl 82 Thun 21, 27, 81, 83, I L63, 766, 184, 186, 194-5, 198, 207, 212-4, 230, fig. 3, 10, 15, 7 5, 82, 92, Thermi 22 Thermon 155,235 tin 15 97,L02,pl.1l rion 74 Theodoric 202 Theotokou 232 Thera 16, 19,21, 51,65,74, 89,156, fig. Troizen 54 Trojan Knobbed Ware see Knobbed Ware 2 Thasos 193,214 211, Top6lec 89 Toplidica 217 , 231, tig. 80 Topofnica 227,tig. 64 Topsham 85,p1.2 Torre Castellucio 149 Torre Galli near Monteleone 226 Toscana 231 T6szeg 48, 61, 70, tig. 25, 29, 33 Tournba 44 Transcaucasia 35, 65, 68, 82, 240 Transylvania 14, 30, 3 5, 37, 39, 49-50, 65, 82, 104, l2l, 135, 2L3, 215 Trasimeno, lake 227, fig. 57 Trebatice 75, fig. 36. pi. 5 Tiebenice 229 Trendiansk6 Teplice 238 25 3 86 Tolna 95 Teichos Dymaion see Wall Stockhult 58, 70, 222, fig. 32, pl. Stol 43, fig. 14 - Tolfa 172,232,ti9. 85 Dymaeans Steinburg fig. 90 Stetten-Teritzberg Stidne 226 Szeben 103 fig. Tei 33,83, fig. stetzling 125-6, 132, 227 Vid 25 Titov Veles 214 47 Tavalidevo 33, fig. 9 Stardevo 193 Sv. Tiszafiired 39, 83 (Asothdlom 61),fig. Tartaria 22,28,68 fig. ISIMA 89, 101, 106, 108, 110, 113,125, r28, t38, 144, 155, 172-3, t834, 1.75, 196, 203, 2t3-4, 229, 232, fig. 22-3, 42, 44, 46--:l , 53,55,60, 66,72, 75, 85, 88, 91-2, pl. 10 47,103 {Jkraine 25, 44, 46,53, 57-8,70, 81, 213 xxrxl INDEX Umbria 227 Unedi6 fig. 80 Ijn6tice c. 1.7, 1.9, 27, 58, 79, 86, 152 Unterglauheim 85 Unler-Radl 153,230 Unter Scicherin g near Riegsee 227 Upton Lowell fig. 22 Ur 53,181,240 Urakd 115 Urartu 103, Urnfield 82-5 , 87 , 93-4, 96, 99 59, 75, 95, 104,106, 110, 170-1, Vikso 10i,106 159 17 3, 1,7 6, 181, 184, 187, 190, 207, 212-15, 223,235, 241-2 Liszl6 175 Y ajzd, 30, 125, 139, I41, 166, 215, 231, V6cs Szent Velkd HostErddky 227 Ve[k6 Raikovce 53, fig. 40 Velk6 Zernoseky fig. 33 Velko Gabrovo 43 Vergina 97, 123, l3A,132, 159, 163, 1,66-7, 169-70, 172, 191, 195-8, 200, 206, 214, 232, fis. 42, 49, 53-5, Verona 49 Veseld 12,86,90 VEteiov 49, 53, 61, 79, 90 c. 113, 166, tig. 9,63,69,72-3,82 Val de Vari 235 Valcamonica 79, 86, tig. 38 Villanova c. l8l,24l Villeneuve-Saint-Vistre 85 fig. 97 Vardar (.Axius) valley 190-I, 214-5 Vardarophtsa 190, 197, tig. 95 Vardina 138, l4l, 156-7, 190, fig. 66-7,95 whitby fig. Vodhin€ 123,137, fig. 55,66 Vojens gaard near Hadersleben fig. 90 Vojvodina 235 Volos mus. 138 Vtjsendorf type 229 Yraca 3l,fig. 6 Veliko Nabrde 58 fig. 89 ll3, ll5,232,fig" Vy5n3l 47, Kubin YelkdDabrffig. 22 21 7 VySnf Sliad 124, l3A, 132, Wackonig fig. waggons 52-3, 173-5, chariots) fig. 45 XarE 215 Yugoslavia 45-6, 57, 83, 129-30, Zakro 65,87,224,1i9.2 Zapher Papoura (Knossos) 30, 37, 219 Zdskov 103, fig. 45,47 Latec 217 Zemplin 95,104 Zemun fig. 58 80 Velkd Lehota fig. 40 Veikd Lomnica 49,tig. 19 Winkelsass 110,226 Wiillersdorf 225,ti9. 45 fig. 88 Zets 178,234 173 Vriac fig. 98 Vylnd Podhradie 217 Vatya 4l Velem Szent Vid Vrsi fig. 67-8, 72, 75---6, 84, tig.11,20,29,33 230,236 Vrana tis. 25,27,40 15 145, 152-3, 166, 169,171,1.73, 181, 189, 196, 202, 207, 213-5, 217, Vranjic 173 vrokastro 137, 153, 156, 159, 163, fig. 42,53,63,66, l0l Yrpolje 225 Vattina (Vatin) 52,61,69-70, 85, 88, fig. l4t, Yarna 22,28 Varvara 234-5,242 Vas 103 85, Wietenberg 53 9 Vari 35 Vdrsand 65 4.1-7 <t weapons 30-41,116-145 Weissig 225 Weitgendorf type 231 Wessex (c.) 21, 41, 51,53,57,59-60, 80,84, fig. 19,22,24 wheels 52-3,82, 11l-2, 176-7,tig. 20, 40,72, 84-5 Wuertemberg 172 Vldany near Galanta 33. 103, 105-6, 108, 141, 2tt, 226, Iis. Winsheim Ylor€ 30,44,46 19 pl. 12 Warior vase, stele 95-8, 101, Vlachs 202 Valsrimagle 84 Vapheio, cups 30, 49,85, lll,fig. Wall of the Dymaens (Araxos, Teichos, Dyrnaion) 133, l7l, fig. 65,76,85, Vinding-Folkehsj 85, 17 5 Visoji - Beranci 126, 217, fig. 63, 103 Vistula 129 Vitsa Zagoriu 156, 170,194,fig" 53-4 Yivara 80,90,221 Yalcltran 52 Varasti 269 74 181 (see also Zbraslav 217 Zimbabwe fig. 2 Zimnicea 194-5,fig. 97 Zlatna 228 Znnch 37,86 Zuto Brdo 77, fig. I8l, 2A0, 201, 96 Complied by I. Ondiejovrl K,{:d. s? )-.- \) 'N iE- &'I*"t 207,234, DOC. phDR. JAN BOUZEK. CSc. THE AEGEAN, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE: CULTURAL INTERRELATIONS IN THE SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C. Vydala Academia nakladatelstvi Ceskoslovensk6 akademie vdd praha l9g5 Ob6lku navrhla Eva Maddrovd Redaktorka publikace Helena Kupcovd Technickf redaktor petr Cech I.- 272 str.,105 obr., 8 kiid. piitoh Vytiskly ZT, n. p., zrivod Svornosf Vyddni _34VA _ 02/63 _ 2l_035_85 33,55AA Ndklad 900 vftiskri Cena broZ. vytisku Kds g5,_ 6647