December 2017 Volume 10 No 06 ISSN 0974-5904 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EARTH SCIENCES AND ENGINEERING Indexed in: DOI Crossref, USA; Geo-Ref Information Services, USA; List B of Scientific Journals in Poland; Indian Science; Scientific Indexing Services (SIS); Genamics JournalSeek; Worldcat (USA); International Institute of Organized Research (I2OR); Thomson Reuters ResearcherID:B-2966-2017; Directory of Research Journals; Open Academic Journals Index (OAJI); i-Scholar. SJR: 0.17 (2014); H-index: 6 (2015); CSIR-NISCAIR, INDIA Impact Factor 0.042 (2011); I2OR PIF: 4.125 (2016) EARTH SCIENCE FOR EVERYONE Published by CAFET-INNOVA Technical Society Hyderabad, INDIA http://cafetinnova.org/ CAFET-INNOVA Technical Society 1-2-18/103, Mohini Mansion, Gagan Mahal Road, Domalguda Hyderabad – 500 029, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA Website: http://www.cafetinnova.org Mobile: +91-7411311091 Registered by Government of Andhra Pradesh Under the AP Societies Act., 2001 Regd. 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Singh C Natarajan N Ganesan BITS- Pilani, Rajasthan Rajasthan, INDIA NIT- Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu, INDIA NIT- Calicut, Kerala Kerala, INDIA Linhua Sun Pradeep Kumar R Vladimir e Vigdergauz Suzhou University CHINA IIIT- Gachibowli, Hyderabad Andhra Pradesh, INDIA ICEMR RAS, Moscow RUSSIA D P Tripathy E Saibaba Reddy Chowdhury Quamruzzaman National Institute of Technology Rourkela, INDIA JNTU- Kukatpally, Hyderabad Andhra Pradesh, INDIA Dhaka University Dhaka, BANGLADESH Parekh Anant kumar B Datta Shivane Gopal Krishan Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune, INDIA Central Ground Water Board Hyderabad, INDIA National Institute of Hydrology Roorkee, INDIA Karra Ram Chandar Prasoon Kumar Singh A G S Reddy NITK- Surathkal Karnataka, INDIA Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad Jharkhand, INDIA Central Ground Water Board, Pune, Maharashtra, INDIA Rajendra Kumar Dubey Subhasis Sen M V Ramanamurthy Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad Jharkhand, INDIA Retired Scientist CSIR-Nagpur, INDIA Geological Survey of India Bangalore, INDIA A Nallapa Reddy Chief Geologist (Retd.) ONGC Ltd., INDIA C Sivapragasam Bijay Singh S Suresh Babu Ranchi University, Ranchi Jharkhand, INDIA Adhiyamaan college of Engineering Tamil Nadu, INDIA Xiang Lian Zhou Debadatta Swain Kalasalingam University, Tamil Nadu, INDIA ShangHai JiaoTong University ShangHai, CHINA National Remote Sensing Centre Hyderabad, INDIA Kripamoy Sarkar Ranjith Pathegama Gamage B M Ravindra Assam University Silchar, INDIA Monash University, Clayton AUSTRALIA Dept. of Mines & Geology, Govt. of Karnataka, Mangalore, INDIA Nandipati Subba Rao M Suresh Gandhi Autar Krishen Raina Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh, INDIA University of Madras, Tamil Nadu, INDIA CSIR-CIMFR, Maharashtra, INDIA H K Sahoo R N Tiwari Utkal University, Bhubaneswar Odissa, INDIA Govt. P G Science College, Rewa Madhya Pradesh, INDIA M V Ramana N Rajeshwara Rao Nuh Bilgin Istanbul Technical University Maslak, ISTANBUL Manish Kumar CSIR NIO Goa, INDIA University of Madras Tamil Nadu, INDIA Tezpur University Sonitpur, Assam, INDIA Salih Muhammad Awadh Sonali Pati Safdar Ali Shirazi College of Science University of Baghdad, IRAQ Eastern Academy of Science and Technology, Bhubaneswar, INDIA University of the Punjab, Quaid-i-Azam Campus, PAKISTAN Naveed Ahmad Raj Reddy Kallu Glenn T Thong University of Engg. & Technology, Peshawar, PAKISTAN University of Nevada 1665 N Virginia St, RENO Nagaland University Meriema, Kohima, INDIA Raju Sarkar Delhi Technological University Delhi, INDIA C N V Satyanarayana Reddy Jaya Kumar Seelam Samir Kumar Bera National Institute of Oceanography Dona Paula, Goa, INDIA Birbal sahni institute of palaeobotany, Lucknow, INDIA S M Hussain Vladimir Vigdergauz Andhra University Visakhapatnam, INDIA University of Madras Tamil Nadu, INDIA ICEMR, Russian Academy of Sciences Moscow, RUSSIA T J Renuka Prasad Deva Pratap K. Subramanian Bangalore University Karnataka, INDIA National Institute of Technology Warangal, INDIA Coimbatore Institute of Technology Tamil Nadu, INDIA Mohammed Sharif A M Vasumathi Deepak T J Jamia University New Delhi, INDIA K.L.N. College of Inf. Tech. Pottapalayam, Tamil Nadu, INDIA INTI International University Kaula Lumpur, MALAYSIA C J Kumanan B R Manjunatha Sivaraja M Bharathidasan University Tamil Nadu, INDIA Mangalore University Karnataka, INDIA N.S.N College of Engg. & Technology Tamilnadu, INDIA Ch. S. N. Murthy Jitendra Virmani K Elangovan NITK- Surathkal Karnataka, INDIA Jaypee Uni. of Information Tech. Himachal Pradesh, INDIA PSG College of Technology Coimbatore, INDIA Vikram Vishal A K Verma Saeed Khorram Department of Earth Sciences IIT Roorkee, INDIA Indian School of Mines Dhanbad, Jharkhand, INDIA Eastern Mediterranean University Famagusta, CYPRUS Hanumantha Rao B M S Ravikumar School of Infrastructure IIT Bhubaneswar, INDIA Noorul Islam University Kanyakumari, INDIA INDEX Volume 10 December 2017 No.06 RESEARCH PAPERS Urban Agent Based Model of Urban SlumDharavi, Mumbai, India By RAJCHANDAR PADMANABAN, JENITHA JEROME, SMITHA ASOK V, PURNIMA DASGUPTA AND MARCO PAINHO 1110-1117 A Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process Approach for Landfill Site Selection: A Case Study in Allahabad City, India By SHAILENDRA CHAUDHARY, RAWAL N R AND ARSHAD HUSAIN 1118-1122 A New Method for In-situ Measurement of a Soil’s Horizontal Coefficient of Consolidation By R ALZUBAIDI 1123-1127 Experimental Investigation on Styrofoam based Concrete By A S PARANJE AND P S KULKARNI 1128-1135 Microstructure and Properties of Concrete containing Pond Ash By K M BAGWAN AND S S KULKARNI 1136-1142 Bathymetry of The Lake Ngebel an Old Crater on The Wilis Volcanic Complex, East Java Indonesia By OKTIYAS MUZAKY LUTHFI 1143-1146 Athikkadavu – Avanashi Revised Flood Flow Scheme - An Alternative to Government Proposal By A VEERAPPAN AND M LAKSHMIPATHY 1147-1152 Geophysical Imaging of the OSUSTECH Subsurface Structures Using Magnetic and Resistivity Method By HAMMED O S, AWOYEMI M O, FATOBA J O, IGBOAMA W N, SANUADE O A, BAYODE J O, SALAMI A J, AROYEHUN M, FALADE S C, AROGUNDADE A B AND OLURIN O T 1153-1162 Soil Slope Stability Analysis by Circular Failure Chart Method – A Case Study in Bodi- Bodimettu Ghat Section, Theni District, Tamil Nadu, India By KANNAN M, S E SARANAATHAN AND ANBALAGAN R 1163-1167 Field and Petrographic studies on the granites of the Huzurabad area, Karimnagar District, Southern India By K SAI KRISHNA, R MALLIKARJUNA REDDY AND D PURUSHOTHAM 1168-1170 Sustainable Integrated Stormwater Management Using SWMM5.1 By NAGRAJ S PATIL, VISHWANATH AWATI AND NATARAJA M 1171-1177 Geomorphological and Geoelectrical Studies for Targeting Groundwater in Hard Rock Terrain of Rairangpur Block, Odisha, India By SAHU P C 1178-1183 Evaluation of Groundwater Overdraft in Lower Liaohe River Plain, China By BIAN Y, DING F AND JIN C 1184-1194 Experimental Study on Steel- Glass -Polyester Hybrid Fiber Concrete By CHELLA GIFTA C AND S PRABAVATHY 1195-1200 Laboratory Study on the Effects of GBFS and Lime Stabilizers in Subgrade Layer for Expansive Soil By RADHA J GONAWALA, SAGAR CHAUDHARI, RAKESH KUMAR AND KRUPESH A CHAUHAN 1201-1205 Geospatial Analysis for land capability in Pudukkottai district, Tamilnadu, India By S SREEKALA AND R NEELAKANTAN 1206-2011 Performance Investigation of Rock Mass Classification Systems for Coal Mine Support Design in Indian Mining Conditions By AVINASH PAUL, V M S R MURTHY, AMAR PRAKASH AND AJOY KR SINGH 1212-1219 Desalination Approach of Seawater and Brackish Water by Coconut Shell Activated Carbon as a Natural Filter Method By JAYAPRAKASH M C, POORVI SHETTY, RAJU AEDLA AND D VENKAT REDDY 1220-1224 Enhancement of Boiling Heat Transfer on a Vibrating Heating Surface By KOHEI HAMAHATA, HIROYUKI SHIRAIWA AND SHUICHI TORII 1225-1229 Geological Studies On Laterite Of Yellakonda Village, Nawabpet Mandal, Vikarabad District, Telangana, India By Using Image Interpretations And Spectral Analytical Techniques By G PRABHAKAR, P SRINIVAS AND ISHRATH 1230-1236 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0601 www.cafetinnova.org December 2017, P.P.1110-1117 Urban Agent Based Model of Urban SlumDharavi, Mumbai, India RAJCHANDAR P ADMANABAN1, JENITHA JEROME2, SMITHA ASOK V2, P URNIMA DASGUPTA1 1 AND MARCO P AINHO 1 NOVA Information Management School (NOVA IMS), Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 1070-312 Lisbon, PORTUGAL 2 All Saints’ College, Thiruvananthapuram 695007, Kerala, INDIA Email: rajchandar07@gmail.com, purnimadasputa7@gmail.com, painho@novaims.unl.pt, jenithaferdinent@gmail.com, smithaasok@gmail.com Abstract: The Urban expansion is well thought-out to be an optimistic feature and a gate for rising dissimilarity in the level of socio-economic. Intercity unauthorized/unplanned settlements are one of the major causes for the difference of the economic level of the society. Unofficial settlements and encroachments are dwelling due to the global population and prime problems contingent upon to developing nations. The proposed research is substantiation conversant approach to developing a new model of unauthorized built-ups (slums) in urban using simulation. The simulation is performed by the accessibility of the movement network and the utilization of space syntax methodology to regulate geo-statistical understanding of the movement network. By combining geostatistical information and the socio-economical details, an Urban Agent-Based Model (UABM) was developed. Theory of socio-economic circumstances with respect to a spatial relationship is required for developing the UABM and its geo-statistical layout. We employed Space Syntax Theory (SST) which connects the social and economic circumstances with the spatial relationship. SST simulates the principal and develops the performance of internal cities unauthorized (slums) built-ups. From we studied the intercontinental association of an organization from the view of the individuals that move in and through the system. Keywords: Urban growth, Slum, Economic agent model, Movement analysis, Angular analysis, Mumbai, Dharavi 1. Introduction Human behaviors take place in the circumstance of certain types of relations between the social order and the bio-physical world and there is a great implication in understanding the ethical values of different groups around the world [1-3]. These flairs perceive different evidence, imperatives, and problems, and prescribe different solutions, strategies, technologies, roles for economic sectors, culture, governments, and ethics [46]. In 3,287 million km2 areas of India, only 25% of India's residents live in the urban area [2]. Most these urban areas are to be found in places where there is rich cultivation which is in western, southern, and northwestern which is growing in rapid even though there is a sky-scraping amount of obstruction in most cities[2,7]. The commercialization of the farming industry as well as the increase of assorted industries such as manufacturing and services is the reasons for rapid urban growth [7-9]. Changes in the Landuse and Land Cover (LULC) of an area are relevant in the process of urbanization, which can further lead to deeper social, economic and environmental vagaries [10-12]. Rapid urbanization form profitable growth, which magnetize people to get employment and speculation prospect in the urban area. However, as known poor urban infrastructure and inadequate housing, the local governments are unable to control hefty population which gives ascend to slum [13-15]. Some areas were also made for specific groups of people [6]. Figure 1 shows only the planned and un-planned settlements, which is complicated to discern among unofficial settlements, unlawful tenant settlements and slums as their properties often be related respectively [9]. Earlier approaches have studied the fundamental processes accessible in slum areas [2,8,16]. This development is to give the impression of being away from the circumstances offered within these settlement areas and discover the core reasons that build a slum. Figure 1: A planned and un-planned settlement of Dharavi-Study area Received: August 13, 2017; Accepted: December 21, 2017; Published: January 30, 2018 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1110-1117, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0601 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved Urban Agent Based Model of Urban SlumDharavi, Mumbai, India 1111 We aspire to study and examine the spatio-temporal dynamics of informal settlement creation and expansion by simulation. We modeled the dynamics of slums based on Spatial Layout (SL). For employing SL, we need a theory that connects the socioeconomic conditions with the spatial configuration. The space syntax theory not only connects the social and economic conditions with the spatial configuration but also provides various analysis methods for evaluations [17-19]. Space Syntax (SS) gives us the opportunity to examine relationships between socio-economic phenomena and SL and perform analysis on spatial configuration from human-focused lines of access and sight [20]. This means that we can study the global organization of a system from the view of the entities that move in and through the system, i.e. the people. 2. Study Area Dharavi is one of the largest slums in the world situated in the middle of Mumbai (Bombay), state of Maharashtra, India (see figure 2)[3]. Dharavi located on the west coast of the Indian peninsula. Along with being one of the richest city in India with a population of near 18.4 million[9]. Most of them secondgeneration resident, whose parents and relatives moved in several years ago from several parts of India due to unemployment [10]. Dharavi is one of the places to rent a cheap and affordable resident for those who move to Mumbai to earn their living[3]. standard of globalization from the time when the 2008 North Atlantic economic crisis [4]. I A Kear e ’s Global Cities Index, it ranked from 49th to 41st in 2014 [20,21]. In past sixty years Mumbai, has urbanized profoundly, with the development in industrialization in the region of the port area, residents also showed hasty increase majorly due to resettlements and migrations from surrounded places [21,22]. But in survey that scrutinize all rudiments of city and metropolitan city performance, Mumbai is a back runner while compared to the major or megacities in the world [23]. In terms of quality of living, hygiene, housings, health centre and other comfort are far behind with respect to the International cities [24]. Dharavi, which was predominantly a mangrove swamp, is informally occupied by the poor people for cheap living expenses and is located in the midst of the city circumvented by major roads and highways as well as the two main suburban railway lines. As the population grew denser within Dharavi, it projected an unplanned spatial layout and un-maintained urban infrastructure which makes it all the more difficult for many commercial businesses to penetrate into it. An informal economy has developed within the slum. It poses as an attractive and affordable residential choice for migrants and the urban poor because of having jobs and services nearby. Models of low-income housi refere es that su est, “ he o l a the urban poor can pay the high rent prices of accessible central lands is throu h o er ro di ” a ex lai this [25-28]. Patterns of local movement play a major role in commercial activities. Therefore, two types of urban structures have developed an internal or local structure, where local activities and interactions take place and an external or global structure which allows interaction with the rest of the city. Optimum performance of the area can be ensured by striking a balance between the two types of structures [29]. 4. Methodology Description Figure 2: The study area covering Dharavi and 10km urban buffer Our study focused on the different structure consisting Dharavi and its surrounding region radius about 10 km, which comprising with poor household, rich household, high cost living settlements, planned and unplanned settlements. Dharavi, exhibiting the property of inner city slums being surrounded by roads that are heavily accessed by the cit ’s population [10,11]. 3. Problem Definition Mu bai’s erfor a e i assess e t of it competitiveness and concert is rising gradually [2]. The city has been progressively intensifying up Hasty global urbanization offers the prospect to construct new diversity of city living, sustained by the ro a atio of fresh “s art” te h olo ies[30-33]. Nonetheless, the rambling passion of engineers and designers should be set next to the stunning veracity of topical inner-city record[33-36]. From the perambulator confines better level pavement, many novelties in the city setting up plan have been commenced with huge buoyancy over the years, only to create disfigurement in the form of enormous socio-economic expenditure. Results of subjects greatly for the upcoming planning of cities because qualified failure creates public apprehension and this distress political confidence. Figure 3 shows the work-flow of simulation module and internal settlement model. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1110-1117 R AJCHANDAR PADMANABAN , JENITHA JEROME , SMITHA ASOK V , P URNIMA DASGUPTA AND MARCO PAINHO An associated subject in space syntax research is to comprehend configured space itself, particularly its developmental process and its social meaning [37-40]. In brief, space syntax is an effort to constitute a configurationally theory of the structure by generating a logical understanding of how people make and use spatial configurations, in other words, an attempt to identify how spatial configurations express a social or cultural meaning and how spatial configurations generate the social interactions in built environments. Our approach is to perform movement analysis with space syntax techniques[41-43]. 1112 spatial data of the road network of AOI. By using GIS management tools[26], movement analysis was performed over this data with reference to Landsat satellite data. Based on the laboratory experimentation carried out the values of  , c and  are obtained. These parameters are important to determine ultimate and safe bearing capacity of soil. Based on this data, effect of depth of footing, is studied and is discussed in following paragraphs. 4.1 Movement Analysis Space syntax methodology analyzes the pedestrian o e e t et or to qua titati el easure “s atial a essibilit ” b easuri the de ree of s atial integration or separation [43]. The input required for analysis is a vector base map of the study area. The key focus is to describe the ease with which a location can be accessed by all other locations that fall within a certain distance. In this method, all locations are given equal importance and the landuse is not taken under consideration. Analysis is performed purely on the basis of the configuration of movement network (Figure 4). Figure3. Flow chart for simulation module and internal settlement model Space syntax is the theoretical concept of space and a set of analytical, quantitative and descriptive tools for analyzing the spatial formations in different forms: buildings, cities, interior spaces or landscapes [44-46]. The main interest of space syntax is the relation among human beings and their colonized spaces. It is believed that distinctive characteristics of societies exist within spatial systems, and their knowledge is carried through space itself, and through the creation of spaces, the analysis results are used as a theoretical basis to build an Agent-Based Model (ABM). TerraME is an open source toolbox that supports multi-paradigm and multi-scale modeling of collective human-environmental systems[47-50]. Modeling relations between social and natural systems rivets collecting data, building up a conceptual approach, implementing, calibrating, simulating, validating and probably repeating these steps again and again. There are different conceptual approaches proposed in the literature to tackle this problem. TerraME has a GIS interface for managing real-world geospatial data and uses Lua, an expressive scripting language. It enables models that combine agent-based, cellular automata, system dynamics and discrete event simulation paradigms [51]. Development of model and building of codes are done using NETLOGO Environment [45,23]. The simulation results are used to construe movement and residential behavior. The Initial Input data is extracted from Open Street Map [24,25] which contains the Angular segment analysis performed on the vector dataset revealed some interesting observations. Analysis was performed in two scales, local scale and global scale (see figure 5 and 6). In the local scale the boundary radius is 500 meters and in the global scale the entire network is used for calculations. The radius determines how far along the lines are the calculations reaching. It took longer than estimated to interpret the analysis results by carefully studying the background theories and concepts of space syntax methodologies as inadequate knowledge of it may lead to naïve interpretations of the results. The measures that can be translated to accessibility in the city are integration and choice. Integration can be defined as the ease with which natural movement of pedestrians leads them to end up in certain locations. Well-integrated locations are frequented by pedestrians more often than other locations. In our case, integration measures at a global scale show very different results from the integration measured at a local scale. Certain pockets that are not so highly integrated globally are quite well integrated only at a local scale. The above comparison shows the presence of a certain area having a tightly knit local network that is difficult to reach from other locations in the city. Another interesting observation is that there is an area which is circumvented by lines that are well integrated in the overall city although the interior of this area has patches of least integration. This observation resonates with the property; unplanned or informal settlements have edges of settlements that are spatially well integrated but the cavity inside is separated from the outside urban fabric [45]. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1110-1117 1113 Urban Agent Based Model of Urban SlumDharavi, Mumbai, India Another emergent factor to quantify accessibility is choice. High value of choice would mean that people are more likely to pass through these roads or lines as routes in their journeys. Similar to integration, here also there are high levels if local choice within a certain area as compared to global choice. This is an example of spatial discontinuity by forming a distinctly different local and global spatial structure. In this scenario, the relation between the two structures is not balanced. We argue that a contributing factor to formation of urban inner-city informal settlements is the spatial discontinuity between the settlement area and the rest of the urban fabric. 4.2 Angular Analysis Method Alternatively, to recount urban spatial configuration analysis to human movement prophecy, the latest type of analysis method from geometrical aspect is known as angular analysis [32]. Apart from the usual topological analysis, angular analysis deems the totting up of angles of starting direction and changes to ending street [40]. In the course of a similar approach, the topological analysis also recognized as the number of direction changes the number of turns also increases. Thus, the two analysis methods are ro ed as “least-a le” for a ular a al sis a d “fe est-tur ” for to olo i al exa i atio [39]. To validate whether it is a discreet approach to be relevant axial segments for uncovering urban configuration, some studies on axial segments [43]were carried out. It evicted that morphological properties derived from axial segments also showed good connection to the pragmatic human movement pattern. Every standpoint has cohorts as well as antagonists. Whereas various investigators predicted the purpose of axial lines, others have uttered qualms. Street Pattern Street Pattern is Transformed into Axial Map Figure 5.a. Integration at global scale Axial Map is transformed into dual graph Figure 5.b. Integration at local scale. Connectivity Graph With respect to the antagonist's qualms which resulted to “ a ed streets” a d “ atural streets” e er ed [43]. Pragmatic analysis was also carried out to authenticate the purpose of named streets and natural streets [33]. These studies established the power of named streets and natural streets in portraying urban structure and predict human activities. Figure 4. Explaining four basic steps in movement analysis in space syntax International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1110-1117 R AJCHANDAR PADMANABAN , JENITHA JEROME , SMITHA ASOK V , P URNIMA DASGUPTA AND MARCO PAINHO 1114 residential preferences of people. The passing of time is incorporated in-terms of ticks. In view of this model, one tick can be perceived to be proportional to a few years. With each tick, certain households enter the city and look for a place to settle based on their respective requirements. Figure 6.a. Segment choice at global scale Figure 6.b. Segment choice at local scale 4.3 Economic Agent Model Economic agents model is a theoretical and evidenceinformed interactive model that visualizes the settlement behavior of people in a city based on their income [50]. Based on the principle that, the spatial configuration provides a great deal of insight into the socio-economic conditions of cities; we aim to model the spatial preferences of the city's population with respect to their economic status. The purpose of this model is to provide the better understanding of the existing relation between spatial configuration and socio-economic phenomena. It is a heuristic model built for speculative purposes and the essence lies in understanding how simple rules made at a local scale can lead to the emergence of complex structures [34]. Angular segment analysis revealed that unplanned or informal settlements have edges of settlements areas that are spatially well-integrated but the cavity inside is separated from the outside urban fabric[32]. There is a difference in the accessibility measures between the settlement area and the exterior urban grid. Based on this information the economic a e t’s model is built to visualize and understand the housing preferences of people in cities. It helps to interpret the relationship between spatial layout of the city and economic status of people. The main elements of this model are the city, the people and information about planned-ness of the city. It is based on random-walk dynamics [35]. We argue that slums have a nature of replicating themselves given the Land parcels form the city and each parcel holds information about price, land value and accessibility. The price in this case is concerned with cost of living. Land value refers to the quality of land. Accessibility measure is incorporated based on the evidence from network analysis performed through space syntax techniques (see figure 5 and 6) [39]. In this model the accessibility increases with the increase in plannedness of the area, also with increase in land value. The population people in the city are incorporated in terms of households. They are classified into two categories (for modeling), rich households and poor households. Household behavior at a local level can be outlined in the following way. Rich Households look for the land parcel that has a high land value or high quality and high accessibility. They are not worried about the cost of living at that location. Once they find such a land parcel, they settle. And their counterparts look for a land parcel that has a low cost of living and areas accessible sit can get, given the cost of living at that location. Poor households do not bother very much about the quality. Once they find such a land parcel, they settled. Based on the household behavior, a utility function is used. This function makes each household choose a location, which maximizes the utility of that location for them. Based on the analysis of road network data, it is observed that there is a difference in accessibility from one location to the other within the city. The urban areas with lower accessibility and land value are generally unplanned or spontaneously fabricated and the areas with higher land value and accessibility are generally planned or carefully fabricated. For modeling, the areas with low land value are categorizedas"unplanned settlements" and the viceversa is categorized as “ la ed settle e ts". Figure 7.a Initial stage in simulation of the city International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1110-1117 1115 Urban Agent Based Model of Urban SlumDharavi, Mumbai, India Figure 7.b Second stage in simulation of the city (consequently also low land value) and has relatively low spatial accessibility. The "settlements" mentioned in this model is a term used for ease of understanding the model. With time, it is observed that the rich mostly occupy the areas close to these planned settlements and the poor mostly occupy the areas close to unplanned settlements. The cluster of poor households, where there is repeated appearance of unplanned settlements, can be perceived as an informal settlement area as they portray the properties of low accessibility, low cost of living and low quality of land. In the simulation results, it appears that the informal settlement areas are generated in more than one location and they display similar properties everywhere (see figure 7). 5. Discussion Figure 7.c Sequential stage in simulation Figure 7.d Final stage in simulation of the city A planned settlement appears in those areas where the quality of the land is high and has relatively high spatial accessibility. An unplanned settlement appears in those areas where the cost of living is low The small area containing slums consists of more number of nodes (measured by the node count attribute) as compared to the rest of the city. Therefore, there is a mass of short road segments interlinked within this limited area whereas the road segments outside this area are longer and form a more grid-like structure. The slum area displays more spontaneity in a formation of roads and a lack of planning. Correlation of connectivity attribute with integration of segments provides information about intelligibility or planned-ness of the area [32]. If the coefficient of correlation is low, it shows lower levels of intelligibility and vice-versa. The coefficient of correlation (R2) is lower in the case of the slum area as compared to the outside city area. Spatial accessibility is also adversely affected by low intelligibility or planning. There is a stark difference in the quality of land and cost of living between settlement locations of the rich and the poor. Slums tend to replicate themselves influenced by the residential preferences of people. Simulation results reveal the formation of slums in more than one location in the city with similar properties. Mumbai is not presently worried about the conversation concerning whether it will be a globally fluent metropolitan city [14,52]. The international financial task and recital of Mumbai are mainly observed as an inferior problem compared to the requirement to supervise the development, deal with dissimilarity, and enhanced uphold of sustainability. Although fetching an internationally glib metro may not be the top precedence at present, it will be necessary to employ with the international financial stream in the potential. In this paper, space syntax model is applied to identify the informal urban expansion over the inner city. This model also has developed an alternative model for traffic obligation by investigating the convenience measures of settlement roads and the developments of the city. More than the conventional models for the augmentation and redevelopment of the denselypopulated cities of India where the absence of OD trip-data often pretense troubles in correlating and International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1110-1117 R AJCHANDAR PADMANABAN , JENITHA JEROME , SMITHA ASOK V , P URNIMA DASGUPTA AND MARCO PAINHO applying the classical models for movement network modeling. 6. Outlook Slums are a vital part of urban sustenance. They are a city within a city and are a self-sustained system themselves. For the mutual benefit of the wider city and the slum, it is essential to strike a right balance between the spatial structures of slums and the wider city and make them accessible to each other. The right amount of spatial intervention can aid in uplifting the conditions of slum dwellers. This project provided a greater insight into reasons for creation of urban inner city slums and visualized their dynamics. The project provided the opportunity to work with many spatial analysis methods and tools. Presentation and documentation skills were also benefitted and there is room for more improvement. Data management and analysis tools in GIS were extensively required for preparing the base network and querying the results. Space syntax theories, concepts and methodologies were an essential part of analysis. Additionally, this experience with agent based modeling will prove to be very useful for future endeavors. References [1] Rajchandar, P.; Bhowmik, A. K.; Cabral, P.; Zamyatin, A.; Almegdadi, O.; Wang, S. Modelling Urban Sprawl Using Remotely Sensed Data: A Case Study of Chennai City, Tamilnadu. entropy2017, 19, 163. [2] Dhorde, A.; Gadgil, A. Long-term temperature trends at four largest cities of India during the twentieth Century. J Ind Geophys Union2009, 13, 85–97. 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Development of a Methodology to Estimate Biomass from Tree Height Using Airborne Digital Image. Int. J. Adv. Remote Sens. GIS2013, 2, 49–58. [27] Padmanaban, R.; Kumar, R. Mapping and Analysis of Marine Pollution in Tuticorin Coastal Area Using Remote Sensing and GIS. Int. J. Adv. Remote Sens. GIS2012, 1, 34–48. [28] Venkatesan G; Padmanaban, R. Possibility Studies and Parameter Finding for Interlinking of Thamirabarani and Vaigai Rivers in Tamil Nadu, India. Int. J. Adv. Earth Sci. Eng.2012, 1, 16–26. [29] Monishiya, B. G.; Padmanaban, R. Mapping and change detection analysis of marine resources in Tuicorin and Vembar group of Islands using remote sensing. Int. J. Adv. For. Sci. Manag.2012, 1, 1–16. [30] Visalatchi; Padmanaban, R. Land Use and Land Cover Mapping and Shore Line Changes Studies in Tuticorin Coastal Area Using Remote Sensing. Int. J. Remote Sens.2012, 1, 1–12. [31] Padmanaban, R.; Sudalaimuthu, K. 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Profiling land use location with space syntax - angular choice and multi metric radii. Syntax2009. [40] Turner, A. Angular Analysis. In Proceedings of the Third International Space Syntax Symposium; 2001. [41] Begunov, N.; Moskalev, I.; Klebanov, B. City Agent-based Model. In Proceedings of the 2008 Spring Simulation Multiconference; 2008. [42] Karimi, K.; Motamed, N.; Limited, S. S. The tale of two cities: Proceedings, 4th Int. Sp. Syntax Symp.2003. [43] Penn, A. Space Syntax and Spatial Cognition. In 3rd Space Syntax Symposium; 2001. [44] Aguiar, A. P.; Andrade, P.; Soler, L.; Assis, T. TerraME-Lu M : a o e sour e fra e or for spatially explicit land use change modeling. In GLP Workshop, Ilhabela, Nov 2011; 2011. [45] Albiero, F.; Fitzek, F. H. P.; Katz, M. D. Introduction to NetLogo. In Cognitive Wireless Networks: Concepts, Methodologies and Visions Inspiring the Age of Enlightenment of Wireless Communications; 2007. [46] Cities, S. Slum Cities and Cities with Slums. 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[52] Hillier, B. and Hanson, J., The Social logic of space, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1984 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1110-1117 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0602 www.cafetinnova.org December 2017, P.P.1118-1122 A Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process Approach for Landfill Site Selection: A Case Study in Allahabad City, India SHAILENDRA CHAUDHARY, RAWAL N R AND ARSHAD HUSAIN Department of Civil Engineering, MNNIT, Allahabad 211004, U.P. India Email: rce1504@mnnit.ac.in, nrrawal@mnnit.ac.in, rgi1501@mnnit.ac.in Abstract: Municipal solid waste management (MSWM) is going through a critical phase in India due to an exponential growth of population and rapid urbanization. Lacks of financial resources, institutional weaknesses, improper choice of the landfill site and public apathy towards municipal solid waste have made MSWM services away from satisfaction level. To ensure better human health and safety, there is a need for effective solid waste management systems which should have environmentally friendly and economically sustainable. There are many challenges throughout the world for selection of appropriate landfill site in the solid waste management system. The suitable and appropriate landfill site can solve many serious problems like ecological and socio-economical aspects. The appropriate landfill site is a complex problem because it associated with social, environmental, economic and technical aspects. In this study, the available land, soil conditions, climatological conditions, and economic considerations are considered as weights criteria in the fuzzy analytical hierarchy process (F-AHP) by building a hierarchy model for solving the problems. In this study, fuzzy multi-criteria decision-making approach is used for selection of landfill site in Allahabad, India. The three landfill sites are considered for this study viz, Kareli, Chandpur Salori, and Phaphamau for selection of appropriate landfill site in Allahabad. The result obtained by F-AHP shows that Kareli site is the best landfill site on the basis of selected criteria. Keywords: Landfill, AHP, Fuzzy-AHP, MSWM 1. Introduction The increasing development of urban areas and population growth caused a tremendous amount of municipal solid wastes generation, presenting a problem in the urban environment [1, 2]. Presently, the municipal solid waste management (MSWM) is in serious phase due to lack of facilities to treat and dispose of the increasing MSW in cities. The lack of land and inadequate landfill sites for solid waste disposal, rapid population growth increased the amount of MSW is also the major problems for SWM. The appropriate landfill site is an important facility for the safe disposal of the solid waste management system and consists of loading, scattering, and covering of waste material with soil. An inadequate landfill site causes (a) transfer of disease; (b) create pollution (water, air, and soil); (c) disruption of landscape value; (d) unpleasant smell and (e) economic losses. There are two factors are considered in the selection of landfill sites i.e. non-environmental and environmental factors. Current practice, economic concerns or limitations, legislative procedures, etc. are considered as the non-environmental factors for site selection. On the other hand, environmental factors include disposed waste type, geological factors, hydrological factors, and meteorological factors [3]. Landfill method has been used as the most common method for the disposal of solid waste by different communities for many years [4, 5]. Unfortunately, Most of the cities follow uncontrolled waste disposal sites; the restrictions imposed by environmental agencies are disregarded, and the techniques for proper landfill management have ignored [6]. Selection of suitable landfill site is a complex process and need an extensive evaluation that is required by municipal, governmental, and environmental agencies [7, 8]. Landfill site selection is a multi-criterion process which considers different criteria for the selection of suitable site among the different alternatives [9, 10, 11]. The landfill site selection has many effective criteria such as available land area, soil conditions, climatological conditions, distance from residential areas, distance from main roads, investment costs, economic considerations, availability of solid waste, geology, surface water, aquifer, elevation, and land slope etc. may be considered. There are many techniques so far for landfill site selection, including a geographic information system (GIS), mathematical models, heuristic algorithms, multiple criteria decision-making (MCDM) methods like analytical hierarchy process (AHP), fuzzy analytical hierarchy process (F-AHP), and other techniques for order preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) etc. Several researchers have used different methods for the landfill site selection process. For example, Vatalis and Manoliadis [12] overlaid GIS digital maps to find the suitable landfill sites in Western Macedonia, Greece. Siddiqui et al. Received: August 19, 2017; Accepted: December 26, 2017; Published: January 30, 2018 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1118-1122, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0602 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved A Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process Approach for Landfill Site Selection: A Case Study in Allahabad City, India 1119 [13] combined GIS and AHP for suitable landfill sites selection. Kontos et al. [1] evaluated the suitability of the optimal landfill site using a spatial multiple criteria analysis methodology. The parameters involved in landfill site selection cannot be given precisely, whereas the assessment factors of solid waste site suitability for the subjective criteria are commonly presented linguistically. In the fuzzy set theory, linguistic terms such as low suitable, suitable, and high suitable can be represented by membership functions, valued in the actual unit interval [0,1], which translate the imprecision and vagueness of human opinion regarding the main problem [14]. The aim of present study is to the selection of appropriate landfill site for the Allahabad city by using the fuzzy analytical hierarchy process on the basis of criteria like available land area, soil conditions, and topography, climatologic and hydrologic conditions, economic considerations. 2. Study Area: Allahabad City Allahabad is one of the ancient and holy cities of India, situated at the confluence of Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati River. It is located at 25o25'N latitude and 81o58'E longitude at the height of 98.0 meters above the Mean Sea Level. The Allahabad city encompasses an area of 70.05 km2 approximately. The Municipal Corporation of Allahabad (AMC) governs the solid waste management in Allahabad City. The entire city is divided into 97 municipal wards. About 502.83 MT of solid waste is generated every day and solid waste generate at the rate of about 440 gm/day/person. In Allahabad city, three landfill sites are used for disposal of solid waste, Kareli, Chandpur Salori and Phaphamau sites. In order to demonstrate the usefulness of the F-AHP in landfill site selection, data are taken according to the situation in Allahabad city shown in Figure 1 and Table 1. Chandpur Salori Phaphamau 2 16 110 25 18 105 and 19 11, 12, 14, 15, 16 and 18 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16 3. Methodology: F-AHP Fuzzy analytic hierarchy process (F-AHP) is a very useful methodology for multiple criteria decisionmaking in fuzzy environments, which is used in many projects in recent years. The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) was developed by Saaty [15] modified with the fuzzy theory to form F-AHP methodology. The AHP does not include vagueness for personal judgments; it is improved by the fuzzy set approach. The use of F-AHP is scientific approaches for deriving the weights from fuzzy pairwise comparison matrices. In F-AHP, the pairwise comparisons of both criteria and the alternatives are performed through the linguistic variables represented by triangular numbers [16]. he de isio a er’s opinions about importance weights of criteria and sub-criteria are pulled using pair-wise comparisons in this MCDM technique. The F-AHP is applied in order to evaluate and weight criteria in relation to the selection of landfill site. The four available criteria i.e., land area, soil and topography conditions, climatologic and hydrologic conditions; economic considerations are considered for evaluation in the present study for selection of landfill site at Allahabad city. u le ’s [17] methods are implemented to determine the relative importance weights for both the criteria and the alternatives. The steps of the procedure are as follows: Step 1: Decision maker compares the criteria or alternatives with the help of linguistic scale for weight matrix corresponding to its triangular fuzzy number given in Table 2 and rating of linguistic scale is given in Table 3. Table 2: Linguistic scale for weight matrix in Triangular Fuzzy Number (TFN) form Linguistic scale Triangular fuzzy number Just equal (1,1,1) Equally important (1,1,3) Weakly important (1,3,5) Essentially important (3, 5, 7) Very strong important (5, 7, 9) Figure 1: Study Area (Allahabad city) Table 1: Data corresponding to the landfill sites Disposal sites Area (Hectare) Kareli 50 Round trip The average MSW distance disposed of received (km) MSW from ward (ton/day) numbers 12 170 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 Table 3: Linguistic variables for ratings in Triangular Fuzzy Number (TFN) form Linguistic scale Very bad (VB) Bad (B) Good (G) Very good (VG) Triangular fuzzy number (1, 3, 5) (3, 5, 7) (7, 9, 10) (9, 10, 10) International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1118-1122 SHAILENDRA C HAUDHARY, R AWAL N R AND ARSHAD H USAIN Step 2: The pair wise fuzzy judgment matrix Ã= {ãij} of n criteria or alternatives as shown below construct. Ã= Where ãij is a fuzzy triangular number, ãij =(lij, mij, uij), and ãji = 1/ãij. For each TFN, ãij or M = (l, m, u), its membership function uã(x) or uM(x) is a continuous mapping from real number -∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞ to the closed interval [0, 1] and can be defined by Equation (1). he e bershi fu tio μ(x) of the triangular fuzzy number may therefore be described as [18]:  x l   m  l , x  [l, m]    ux   (x)   , x  [m, u] u  m  0, otherwise      1120 paper uses ha ’s [18] method to find the degree of possibility that Sb≥Sa as follows:   1;if m  m  b a   V ( Sb  Sa )  0;if la  ub  (4)   (la  ub )  ;otherwise   (mb  ub )   ma  la   Where d is the ordinate of the highest intersection between µSa and µSb as shown in Figure 1. That is, it can be expressed that V(SbSa) = height (Sb ∩ Sa) = µSa (d) . (1) Figure 1: The intersection between Sa and Sb and their degree of possibility Step 3: After collecting the fuzzy judgment matrices from all decision makers, these matrices are aggregated by using the fuzzy geometric mean method of Buckley [19, 20].The aggregated TFN of n de isio a ers’ jud e t i a ertai ase ij = (lij, mij, uij) is: 1/ n n % % (2) u ij  ( aijk ) i 1 Where ãijk is the relative importance in form of TFN of the kth de isio a er’s ie , a d n is the total number of decision makers. Step 4: Based on the aggregated pair-wise comparison matrix, ={ ij}, the value of fuzzy synthetic extent Si with respect to the ith criterion can be computed by making use of the algebraic operations on TFNs. (3) Where, It is noted that both values of V(SaSb) and V(SbSa) are required. The degree of possibility for a TFN S i to be greater than the number of n TFNs S k can be given by the use of operation min proposed by Dubois and Prade [21]. V(Si S1,S2,S3,..…Sk) =min V(Si  Sk) = ’(Si) (5) Where = 1, 2, …, a d # i, and n is the number of riteria des ribed re iousl . a h ′(S) alue represents the relative preference or weight, a nonfuzzy number, of one criterion over others. However, these weights have to be normalized in order to allow it to be analogous to weights defined from the AHP method. Then, the normalized weight w(Si) will be formed in terms of a weight vector as follows; W = (w(S1), w(S2), w(S3) …. . . . (Sn))T (6) Once the weights of criteria are evaluated, it is required to calculate the scores of alternatives with respect to each criterion and then determine the composite weights of the decision alternatives by aggregating the weights through hierarchy. 4. Results and discussion Step 5: Approximate the Fuzzy Priorities Based on the fuzzy synthetic extent values; the non-fuzzy values that represent the relative preference or weight of one criterion over others are needed. Therefore, this As per the F-AHP steps, the fuzzy pair-wise comparison matrix is constructed for criteria's as shows in Table 4. This matrix is used to determine the normalized weight of criteria. Normalized weight matrix of criteria is obtained by dividing relative weight (computed by Equation (6)) of particular criteria to the sum of the relative weight of all criteria which is given in Table 5. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1118-1122 1121 A Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process Approach for Landfill Site Selection: A Case Study in Allahabad City, India Table 4: Fuzzy pair-wise comparison matrix of different criteria C1 C2 C3 C4 C1 C2 C3 (1,1,1) (1/7,1/5,1/3) (1/5,1/3,1) (3,5,7) (1,1,1) (1,3,5) (3,5,7) (1/5,1/3,1) (1,1,1) (1/5,1/3,1) (1/7,1/5,1/3) (1/7,1/5,1/3) C4 (1,3,5) (3,5,7) (3,5,7) (1,1,1) C1= Available land area, C2= Soil conditions and topography, C3= Climatologic and Hydrologic Conditions, C4= Economic considerations From the weights of criteria, the criterion climatologic and hydrologic condition has the highest weight followed by the criterion available land area. The Table 5 shows that the climatologic and hydrologic condition is most important criteria for selection of landfill site in Allahabad city. Other criteria also affect the selection of landfill site. Table 5: Normalized weight matrix of criteria Criteria C1 C2 C3 C4 Sum Relative Weight (W’(si)) 0.45 0.10 0.80 0.39 2.63 Normalized Weight (W(si)) 0.16 0.038 0.31 0.15 1 Similarly, then, the comparison between alternatives (landfill sites) based on criteria is calculated. Fuzzy pair-wise comparison matrix is constructed for each alternative with respect to criteria illustrated in Table 6. The relative weights and normalized weights of each alternative based on criteria are shown in Table 7. The overall weights of landfill sites are calculated by the sum of multiplication of normalized weight of landfill site to the normalized weight of each particular criterion which is given in Table 8. Table 6: Fuzzy pair-wise comparison matrix of alternatives w.r.t. each criteria Kareli Chandpur Salori Phaphamau Land area Kareli Chandpur Salori (1, 1, 1) (5, 7, 9) (1/9,1/7,1/5) (1, 1, 1) Phaphamau (3, 5, 7) (1/7,1/5,1/3) (1/7,1/5,1/3) (3, 5, 7) (1, 1, 1) Soil conditions and topography Kareli Chandpur Phaphamau Salori Kareli (1, 1, 1) (5, 7, 9) (1/5, 1/3, 1) Chandpur (1/9,1/7,1/5) (1, 1, 1) (1/3 , 1 ,1) Salori Phaphamau (1/7,1/5,1/3) (1, 1, 3) (1, 1, 1 ) Climatologic and hydrologic condition Kareli Chandpur Phaphamau Salori Kareli (1, 1, 1) ( 3, 5, 7) (1/9,1/7,1/5) Chandpur Salori Phaphamau Kareli Chandpur Salori Phaphamau (1/7,1/5,1/3) (1, 1, 1 ) (1, 1, 3) (5, 7, 9) (1/3,1 ,1) Economic considerations Kareli Chandpur Salori (1, 1, 1) (3, 5, 7) (1/7,1/5,1/3) (1, 1, 1) (1, 1, 1) (1/9,1/7,1/5) Phaphamau (5, 7, 9) (3, 5, 7) (1/7,1/5,1/3) (1, 1, 1) Table 7: The normalized weight values of alternatives w.r.t. each criterion Disposal sites Land Area Kareli Chandpur Salori Phaphamau Sum Disposal sites Kareli Chandpur Salori Phaphamau Sum Soil conditions and topography Relative Normalized Relative Normalized Weight Weight Weight Weight 1 0.633 1 0.51 0.05 0.031 0.22 0.12 0.529 0.335 0.72 0.37 1.579 1 1.94 1 Climatologic and Economic hydrologic condition considerations Relative Normalized Relative Normalized Weight Weight Weight Weight 0.47 0.25 1 0.58 0.43 0.22 0.448 0.26 1 1.9 0.53 1 0.283 1.731 0.16 1 Table 8: Final weights of landfill sites Kareli Chandpur Salori Phaphamau C1 (0.16 ) C2 (0.03) C3 (0.31) C4 (0.15) Final weights 0.63 0.51 0.25 0.58 0.4591 0.03 0.12 0.22 0.26 0.1576 0.34 0.37 0.53 0.16 0.3345 From Table 8, the priority of each alternative is done by considering the all criteria. Based on the weights of criterion, the Kareli landfill site has the highest weight and the Phaphamau has second highest weight. The graph in Figure 2 illustrates the percentage of weight sums of each alternative and reveals that the Kareli landfill site is the most appropriate disposal site over the others with weight 0.4591. Figure 2: Weight percentage of each landfill site International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1118-1122 SHAILENDRA C HAUDHARY, R AWAL N R AND ARSHAD H USAIN 5. Conclusions It is evident from the study that F-AHP tool can be a good option for rapid assessment of the overall environmental condition of any project. Further, suitable alternative/option can be selected in a rational manner and are thus useful for decision makers. In this study, F-AHP method proved to be an efficient technique for the feasibility analysis of the selection of landfill site in Allahabad city i.e Kareli, Chandpur Salori, and Phaphamau landfill sites. The results of FAHP reveal that the Kareli landfill site is the most appropriate disposal site over the others with weight 0.4591 while Chandpur Salori, and Phaphamau landfill sites are inappropriate and inadequate for landfill or dumping. References [1] Kontos, T. D., Komilis, D. P., Halvadakis, C. P., “Siti MSW la dfills ith a s atial ulti le riteria a al sis ethodolo ”, Waste Management, 25: 818-832, 2005. [2] Rawal, N., Singh, R. M. and Vaishya, R.,"Optimal management methodology for solid wastes in Urban Areas" Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste, Vol. 16, p. 26-38, 2011. [3] Al-Yaqout AF, Koushki PA, Hamoda MF, “Publi o i io a d siti solid aste la dfills i Ku ait”, Resour Conserv Recycl 35:215–227, 2002. [4] Ko ilis, .P., Ha , R.K., Ste a , R., “ he effect of municipal solid waste pretreatment on la dfill beha ior: a literature re ie ”, Waste Management and Research 17, 10–19, 1999. [5] Mutlutur , M., Kara uzel, R., “ he landfill area quality (LAQ) classification approach and its a li atio i Is arta, ur e ”, iro e tal and Engineering Geoscience 13, 229–240, 2007. [6] Mondelli, G., Giacheti, H.L., Boscov, M.E.G., lis, V.R., Ha ada, J., “Geoe iro e tal site investigation using different techniques in a u i i al solid aste dis osal site i razil”, Environmental Geology 52, 871–887, 2007. [7] aba S. a d Fla a a J., “ e elo i a d implementing GIS assisted constraints criteria for la i la dfill sites i the UK.”, Planning Practice and Research 13: 139–151, 2012. [8] Ö üt S. a d So er S., “ ra sshi e t site selection using the AHP and TOPSIS approaches u der fuzz e iro e t” Waste Management 28: 1552–1559, 2008. [9] Melo, A.L.O., Calijuri, M.L., Duarte, I.C.D., Azevedo, R.F., & Lore tz, J.F., “Strate i de isio a al sis for sele tio of la dfill sites”, J Surv Eng, 132, pp.83-92, 2006. [10] Nazari, A., Salarirad, M.M., & Bazzazi, A.A., “La dfill site sele tio b de isio -making tools based on fuzzy multi-attribute decision-making 1122 ethod”, Environ Earth Sci, 65, pp.1631-1642, 2012. [11] Rawal, N., Singh, R. M., " Optimal Municipal Solid Wastes Management with Uncertainty Characterization Using Fuzzy Theory " Proceedings of Seventh International Conference on Bio-Inspired Computing: Theories and Applications (BIC-TA 2012), Springer India 111125, 20 [12] Vatalis, K., Ma oliadis, O., “A t o-level multicriteria DSS for landfill site selection using GIS: ase stud i Wester Ma edo ia, Gree e”, Journal of Geographic Information and Decision Analysis 6 (1), 49–56, 2002. [13] Siddiqui, M., Everett, J.M., Vieux, B.E., “La dfill siti usi eo ra hi al i for atio s ste s: a de o stratio ”, Jour al of Environmental Engineering 122, 515–523, 1996. [14] Gott ald S., “Mathematical aspects of fuzzy sets a d fuzz lo i : So e refle tio s after 40 ear”. Fuzzy Sets Syst.; 156(3):357–64, 2005. [15] Saat , .L., “ he A al ti Hierar h Pro ess” McGraw Hill, New York, 1980. [16] Kili i, O., & O al, S. A., “Fuzz AHP approach for supplier selection in a washing a hi e o a ”, Expert Systems with Applications, Vol. 38(8), 9656-9664, 2011. [17] u le , J. J., “Fuzz hierar hi al a al sis”, Fuzzy Sets Systems, Vol.17 (1), 233–247, 1985. [18] . ha , “A li atio s of the xte t A al sis Method o Fuzz AHP,” European Journal of Operational Research, vol. 95, no. 3, pp. 649-655, Dec. 1996. [19] J. J. u le , “Ra i Alter ati es usi Fuzz Nu bers,” Fuzzy Sets and Systems, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 21-31, Feb. 1985. [20] J. J. u le , “Fuzz Hierar hi al A al sis,” Fuzzy Sets and Systems, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 233247, Dec. 1985. [21] D. Dubois and H. Prade, Fuzzy Sets and Systems: Theory and Applications, New York: Academic Press, 1980 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1118-1122 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0603 December 2017, P.P.1123-1127 www.cafetinnova.org A New Method for In-situ Measurement of a Soil’s Horizontal Coefficient of Consolidation R ALZUBAIDI Department of Civil Engineering, University of Sharjah, B.O.POX 27272 Sharjah, UAE E-mail: ralzubaidi@sharjah.ac.ae Abstract: Laboratory measurement of the coefficient of consolidation for soil is commonly undertaken with an odometer, row cells, or a triaxial compression cell. The pressuremeter enables measurement of the horizontal coefficient of consolidation in clay soils to be done in situ. By modifying in-situ procedures to include a measurement of pore water pressure dissipation, it is possible to interpret the pressuremeter data to deduce horizontal coefficient of consolidation values in the field. The method involves increasing the membrane pressure at a constant rate of expansions to a predetermined pressure and then letting the diameter remain constant at a predetermined strain. During the expansion of the borehole, the pore water pressure increases. When the diameter of the probe is held constant, the pore water pressure dissipates and the total pressure diminishes with time. This method is called the “diameter holding test.” In this study, a method is developed in which a predetermined pressure at the borehole wall is held constant until complete dissipation of the pore pressure has taken place. The horizontal coefficient of consolidation can then be calculated. This test is called the “pressure holding tests”. The holding tests also been carried out with different rate of strain to investigate the effects on the horizontal coefficient of consolidation. Keywords: holding pressure test, holding tests, horizontal coefficient of consolidation, holding, pressuremeter test 1. Introduction Soil samples to be tested in the laboratory have already been disturbed by a number of actions such as boring to collect the sample, transportation, removal from the sampler, stress relief, trimming, and other operations. There is much to be said for testing soils in situ because in situ testing eliminates many of these disturbances. In situ testing commonly examines larger and hence more representative volumes of soil and is in most cases both fast and inexpensive. In situ tests can be used to measure some properties such as physical module and lateral stresses that cannot be evaluated easily by laboratory tests. A method of in situ investigation receiving increasing recognition is the pressure meter. Laboratory measurement of the coefficient of consolidation is undertaken in the form of oedometer or triaxial compression cell, by observing time rates of sample compression or pore water pressure dissipation during the application of a constant pressure. The coefficient of consolidation is predicted from these observations by fitting the data to a theoretical model. An analytical solution for the time dependence of the excess pore pressure around a driven pile in clays was formulated by Randolph and Wroth [1]. They applied their solution to pressuremeter tests for borehole expansion and showed that the distribution of excess pore pressure after driving a pile changes logarithmically within the radius of the zone of yielding soil. Jang et al. [2] used the strain holding test, part of the self-boring pressuremeter test, to determine the horizontal coefficient of consolidation ch. They compared the values of ch estimated from the strain holding test of the self-boring pressuremeter with values obtained from in situ and laboratory tests performed at sites in Korea. Their results confirmed the improved capability of the proposed T50 values, where T50 is time factor for radial consolidation. Banguelin et al. [3] compared the results of settlement deduced from two pressuremeter formulae and actual measurements, the first formula for embankments and rafts, the second one for footings. They concluded that the results were consistent. Fioravanite et al. [4] used a self-boring pressuremeter to define the permeability of Italian Fucino clay using strain-holding and stressholding tests. They concluded that it is possible to establish whether conditions during a cavity expansion were undrained or whether the loading was monotonic, as well as the relevance of the coefficient of horizontal consolidation on both phenomena. Clark [5] stated that as the excess pore pressures dissipate the total applied pressure within the membrane is reduced. The total pressure can be monitored more accurately than the pore pressure and, hence, holding tests based on total pressure decay would be a preferred field technique. Clark carried out pressure holding rests with self boring pressuremeter tests on soft clay site, the tests were carried out down to a depth of 19.6 m .The tests have been interpreted using total pressure observations. The tests have also been interpreted using a finite element package which Received: August 08, 2017; Accepted: December 21, 2017; Published: January 30, 2018 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1123-1127, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0603 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved R ALZUBAIDI includes the Cam Clay model and coupled consolidation. This interpretation allows a comparison to be made between the use of pore and total pressure decay in the analysis and recommendations for an alternative test procedure are made. Dayakar et al., [6] studied the effect of rate of probe expansion in pressuremeter testing for cohesive soil. The strain path followed by an element of clay adjacent to the expanding probe was simulated using an automated flexible boundary cuboidal shear device (CSD) typically up to a magnitude of strain level of 10%. Two types of soil (kaolin, kaolin-silica mix) were used consistently for all the testing. Consolidation was performed by using a constant vertical stress - zero lateral strain boundary condition using a closed-loop pneumatic system. A numerical model based on cylindrical cavity expansion theory which accounts for higher strain rate and its variation with radial distance from an expanding probe membrane was calibrated using the single-element CSD test data. 5.0 ∆U ax/ 3.0 Cu 2.0 depends on the building up of pore water around a driven pile The pore pressure is at its maximum at the pile wall and diminished to zero at the outer edge of the elastic zone. They stated that the theoretical maximum excess pore pressure at the pile face is predicted to be: Umax = Cu ln (G/Cu) (1) at t = 0. Where, Umax = maximum excess pore pressure. Cu= undrained shear strength. G= shear modulus. T=time The initial excess pore pressure distribution can be determined and substituted into the consolidation solution. Fro Ra dol h a d Worth’s equatio , a ur e for Umax/Cu versus T50 (for 50% consolidation) can be plotted as shown in Fig.1 where T 50 has its conventional meaning as the time for radial consolidation. From the expression for T 50: T50 = (ch t50)/(rm)2 4.0 1124 (2) Where, rm = the radius of the borehole wall t50 = the actual test time for pore pressure to be reduced to half its maximum value 1.0 0.0 -4.0 -2.0 0.0 2.0 ln T50 Figure 1. Variation of the excess pore water pressure with time factor T50. (After Randolph and Wroth, 1979) 2. Diameter Holding Tests The horizontal coefficient of consolidation can be determined in situ by carrying pressuremeter tests “dia eter holdi tests”, ith dire tio of ore ater pressure drainage sensibly radial. The holding tests involves increasing the total pressure ,P at a constant rate of expansion and the holding the diameter constant at a predetermined strain .During the expansion of the borehole ,the pore pressure build up . When the diameter of the probe is held constant the pore water pressure dissipated and the total pressure diminishes a little with time . The first part of the holding test is similar to the conventional pressuremeter tests and the values of the horizontal at rest pressure, undrained shear strength and the shear modulus can be determined and from the dissipation of the pore water pressure the values of the horizontal coefficient of consolidation is evaluated. Randolph and Wroth [1] presented analytical solution for the holding test in order to calculate the horizontal coefficient of consolidation for pressuremeter tests with pore water pressure measurement, their solution ch is the horizontal radial coefficient of consolidation, and rm is the radius of the borehole when the pile reaches the holding stage. Thus, from the first part of the pressuremeter test, values for Po, Cu, G, r m, and Umax can be estimated. Using the ratio Umax/Cu, the T50 factor can be obtained from the theoretical curve. From the observed dissipation curve of pore pressure with time, after maintaining the probe radius, the actual t50 can be obtained and ch determined 3. Results of Diameter Holding Tests Alzubaidi [7] carried out a number of diameter holding tests on glacial till from Glasgow, Scotland, with a constant rate of strain pressuremeter. Two rates of strain arranged to expand the membrane. One group of holding tests was carried out with 0.38%/ min. Time rate measurements from one test are shown in Fig.2 i ter s of strai (ϵo) versus elapsed time, t. The slow tests were run until strain (ϵo) of about 3.5% was reached, at which the cavity diameter was held steady. The elapsed time from the start to beginning of the holding stage was about 9 minutes. During the loadi sta e the ex ess ore ater ressure ∆u at the cavity wall increased to a maximum value may be seen in Fig. 3, after the cavity diameter was held o sta t, the ex ess ore ater ressure, ∆u raduall dissi ated ith ti e. he alue of “t50” can be noted as (24–9) = 15 minutes, being the time needed for the pore water pressure to reach half its maximum value International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1123-1127 A New Method for In-situ Measure e t of a Soil’s Horizo tal oeffi ie t of Consolidation 1125 Another set of holding tests was carried out in other boreholes also at 2m depths, but with a faster rate of strain 0.76% /min, in these tests the diameter was held steady at a radial strain about 3.5% and the time needed to reach this radial strain was about 4.5 minutes. The results of these tests (0.76%/min) are shown in Fig.6. 4.0 3.5 %( radial strain) 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 ϵo 0.0 35 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0 140.0 30 t (time, min) It is also noted that the total pressure P, in the case of the diameter holding tests diminishes in value with time; this can be seen from Fig.4. The four holding tests carried out with 038 %/min, all the tests carried at 2 m depth as shown in Fig.5 gave a mean value of ch of 28 m2/year. 20 15 10 5 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Depth( m ) Figure 6. The values of ch for faster tests It can be seen from the results that there was some spread of the calculated ch values and the mean values was 22m2/year rather lower than the mean value of ch evaluated from the slow tests. The reduction is attributed to the increase in t50 for faster tests consequent upon a faster build up of pore water pressure during loading. 350 300 250 Δ u (KN/m2) Ch (m2/year) 25 Figure 2. Radial strain with time 200 150 100 50 4. Pressure Holding Tests 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 t (time, min) 80 90 100 110 120 Figure 3. Typical curve for a diameter holding test showing the variation of pore water pressure under a constant rate of strain with time 700 U = 2Cu ln (RP/r) 600 500 P (KN/M2) Randolp and Wroth [1] also produced a formula for obtaining the distribution of pore water pressure in the vicinity of a driven pile using an expression for stresses around an expanded cavity derived from Gibson and Anderson [8]. The final expression is as follows: for ro r RP Where, RP = the radius of the plastic zone measured from the center of the pile. When uo=0 for RP r 400 300 200 100 giving, ( RP / ro )= (G/ Cu)1/2 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 In particular, the theoretical maximum excess pore pressure at the pile face is predicted to be: t (time, min) Figure 4. Variation of total pressure with time for diameter holding test at, t=0 The initial excess pore water pressure distribution can thus be determined and substituted into the consolidation solution, so from the Randolph and Wroth [1] solution as shown in Fig.1, T50 (for 50% consolidation) is obtained, where T50 has its usual meaning as time factor in radial consolidation. 35 30 Ch (m2year) U max =Cu ln (G/ Cu) 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Depth(m) A new method was developed by the author (Alzubaidi [7]) for evaluating the horizontal coefficient of consolidation as called pressure holding tests, required instead of holding the diameter constant after the loading stage, the total pressure of Figure 5. The values of ch for four test at slow rate International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1123-1127 R ALZUBAIDI the pressuremeter membranes is held constant after loading until full dissipation of pore water pressure is completed (analogous to conditions in conventional laboratory tests). All the pressuremeter tests also carried out at 2 m for the same glacial till. Three rates of strain were adopted to expand the membrane; these were 0.38%/min., 0.76%/min. and 1.7%/min. Figure 7 shows a curve for the variation of strain with time for one of the pressure holding tests (0.38%/min). The pressure was held steady at a radial strain of 3.5%. After the holding stage, strain in the soil started to increase as time progressed due to creep and local soil consolidation. During the loading stage, the pore water pressure built up to a maximum value but with the total pressure held constant as can be seen in Fig.8 (0.38%/min), the pore water pressure dissipated over time as can be seen in Fig.9 (0.38%/min). The procedure for determining the soil parameters from a pressure holding test is identical to that used in the diameter holding test. 6 The mean values of the coefficient of horizontal consolidation, ch evaluated from pressure holding tests carried out with 0.38%/min rate of strain was about 22m2/year as it can be seen in Fig. 10. Another set of pressure holding tests was carried out at the same depth and soil (2 m), but a rate of strain of 0.78%/min. The pressure was again held steady at 3.5% radial strain. The results can be seen at Fig.11 and the mean value of ch was 23m2/year. Two pressure holding tests were carried out also at 2 m for the same soil with faster rate of strain of 1.7 %min. During the loading stage the pressure was held steady at 3.5 % radial strain. The two tests gave values of ch of 12 m2/year which are rather lower than those evaluated from the other pressure holding tests. The reduction in ch values for the fastest rate of strain is again attributed to the faster builds up of the pore water pressure which in turn yields greater values of t50and low values of ch. The time needed for the loading stage in the 1.7%/min. tests to reach 3.5% radial strain was about 2 minutes. 5 35 4 30 3 25 Ch (m2year) ɛ0 % (raditio al strai ) 1126 2 1 20 15 10 0 0 20 40 60 80 5 t (time, min) 0 Figure 7. Variation of radial strain with time – results from a pressure holding test 700 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Depth (m ) Figure 10. The values of ch for 0.38%min. rate of strain tests (pressure holding tests) 600 40 35 400 30 300 Ch (m2year) P (KN/M2) 500 200 100 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 t (time, min) 25 20 15 10 5 Figure 8. Variation of total pressure with time for pressure holding test 350 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Depth *m ) Figure 11. The values of ch for 0.76%/min rate of strain tests (pressure holding tests) 300 ΔU (KN/M2) 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 t (time, min) Figure 9. Variation of pore water pressure with time for pressure holding test It is worth noting that other researchers have reported values for coefficients of consolidation for Glasgow till using laboratory tests. Anderson (1972) reported a vertical coefficient of consolidation for Glasgow till from odometer tests on 254 mm diameter samples as 2.5 m2/year, and Hossain [9] reported a value for Glasgow till horizontal coefficient of consolidation at 4 m2/year. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1123-1127 1127 A New Method for In-situ Measure e t of a Soil’s Horizo tal oeffi ie t of Consolidation It should be expected that the horizontal coefficient of consolidation should be differ from the vertical one and to be lower due to the sedimentation of layers of the soil [2] 5. Conclusions This paper presents a new method for evaluating the horizontal coefficient of consolidation of the Glasgow till using a pressure meter. Test results allow the following conclusions to be drawn: 1) The pressuremeter returns results for the coefficient of horizontal consolidation, values commonly determined by the diameter holding test. The first part of the new test is identical to the conventional constant rate of strain pressure meter test and parameters like the horizontal at rest pressure, undrained shear strength, elastic modulus, and the limit pressure are evaluated. The second part or holding part, of the test determines values from which the horizontal coefficient of consolidation can be estimated. 2) A number of such holding tests were carried out in situ at a site in the Glasgow till by expanding the membrane of the pressuremeter. The results allow the horizontal coefficient of consolidation to be calculated and the values obtained range from 22 to 33 m2/year with an average value of 28 m2/year. 3) A new method was developed called the holding test. For the new method, the pressure is held constant (analogous to conditions during conventional laboratory tests) at the end of loading stage rather than holding the diameter constant. 4) The ch alues for the soils tested b the “ ressure holdi tests” ra e fro 16 to 33 2/year with average value of 22 m2/year. 5) The values for the horizontal coefficients of consolidation from the diameter holding tests are very similar to the values from the pressure holding tests. 6) The deduced values of horizontal coefficient of o solidatio fro both the “dia eter a d pressure holdi tests “see to be affe ted to so e exte t b increasing or decreasing the rate of strain on the initial loading. 7) The coefficient of consolidation values for Glas o till fro the i situ “dia eter holdi ” tests a d the “ ressure holdi ” tests are fro 3 to 14 ti es larger than the values for those parameters determined in the laboratory. 8) The in situ pressuremeter method tests an appreciably larger and more representative mass of soil than can be tested in the laboratory. In addition, the soil is subjected to much less consolidation and many fewer disturbance effects than laboratory prepared samples. [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] pile”. International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics. Vol. 3, pp 217–229, 1979 Jang, I. S, Chung, C. K, Kim, M. M and Cho, M C. “Numerical assessment on the consolidation characteristics of clays from strain holding, selfboring pressuremeter test”. Computer and Geotechnics, Vol. 30, 2003 Baguelin,F., Lay, L., Ung,S.Y. and Sanfratello, P. “Pressuremeter, consolidation state and settlement in fine grained soils”. Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, The Academia and Practice of Geotechnical Engineering, Alexandria, Egypt, pp 5–9, October 2009 Fioravanite, V., Jamiolkowski, M and Lancellotta, R . “An analysis of pressuremeter holding tests”. Geotechnique, vol. 33 Issue 2, pp. 227-238, 1994 Clark,B. G. “ Consolidation characteristics of clays from self-boring pressuremeter tests” . Geological Society, London, Engineering Geology Special, Vol.6, 33-37, 1990 Dayakar, P., Arumugam, S. and Chameau, J.” Strain-rate effects in pressuremeter testing using a cuboidal shear device: experiments and modeling”, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 35(1), pp27-42, 1998 Alzubaidi, R . “Pressuremeter practice in testing glacial tills”. PhD thesis, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow UK, 1984 Anderson,W.F.” The geotechnical properties of the till of Glasgow region and the development of a constant rate of expansion pressuremeter suitable for measuring the undrained strength and deformation characteristic of this till”. PhD thesis, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK, 1972 Hossain, H. “Compressibility and permeability of fissured till”, PhD thesis, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK, 1976 References [1] Randolph, M. F and Wroth, C P. “An analytical solution for the consolidation around a driven International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1123-1127 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0604 December 2017, P.P.1128-1135 www.cafetinnova.org Experimental Investigation on Styrofoam based Concrete A S P ARANJE AND P S KULKARNI Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Survey No. 3/4, Kondhwa, Pune- 411048, INDIA Email: ashishp30@gmail.com, preeti.kulkarni@viit.ac.in Abstract: Concrete is an extensively used material and is a mix of cement, aggregates, and water. Aggregates being a major part of the concrete volume, it increases the dead load of components which increases the load on the foundation. Use of Lightweight aggregates in concrete is thus gaining momentum which can reduce the dead load of concrete without compromising the quality characteristics of concrete. The current study is an attempt to experimentally investigate the physical, mechanical and microstructure properties of Styrofoam concrete with varying percentage of Styrofoam replacement. The compressive and split tensile strength decreased with increase in the percentage of Styrofoam. However, the samples showed ductile failure as the Styrofoam replacement increased. Modulus of Rupture was seen to increase as the percentage replacement of Styrofoam Increased. F.E.S.E.M analysis showed that the ITZ between Styrofoam beads and cement matrix is weak. Keywords: Styrofoam concrete, Compressive strength, Split Tensile strength, Modulus of Rupture, F.E.S.E.M. 1. Introduction 2. Literature Review Conventional concrete is still one of the most widely used construction material in the world. But this conventional concrete too has its limitations. One such limitation of conventional concrete is its high density. The general range of density for conventional concrete is 2240 - 2400 kg/m3 [1]. Due to its high density the overall dead load of the structure increases, which in turn results in larger footings, larger cross sections of members, a large number of columns, closely spaced columns, reduced usable space, higher loads during construction and leads to uneconomical designs. Chengchen Cui et al. in their study used Epoxy polystyrene (EPS) beads having 3mm diameter were replaced with coarse aggregates to develop EPS concrete. It was observed that the peak strain observed in EPS concrete was 3.5–5.1 % and larger than that of the normal concrete 2% & EPS concrete behaved with better ductility and energy dissipation capacity compared with the normal concrete [4]. In another study by Bashir Alam et al. the concrete was prepared by partial replacement of coarse aggregates by 0.5 inch-square (3.2258cm2) sized Styrofoam was compared with a normal density concrete (NDC). It was observed that when the water cement ratio of concrete with 20% Styrofoam was reduced from 0.5 to 0.45, the 28 days compressive strength of concrete was increased by 68% and thus the Styrofoam based concrete mixes were very sensitive to water cement ratio [5]. A. Setiawan et al. prepared EPS concrete by partial replacement of fine aggregates by epoxy Styrofoam compared different mixes of partial replacement of fine aggregates by 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35% and 40% and M25 grade concrete. The study concluded that use of EPS content more than 10% results in a decrease in compressive strength to the value less than 17.5 MPa and hence could not be classified as structural concrete. Also, it was seen that percentage of EPS present in concrete is inversely proportional to the modulus of elasticity of the concrete [6]. Thomas Tamut et al. compared M30 grade concrete to the EPS concrete having a replacement of coarse aggregate by spherical EPS by 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and 30%. It was found that both at 28 days both compressive and split tensile strength decreased as the percentage of EPS increased. Concrete with 15% EPS has 80% tensile strength and concrete with 30% EPS has 70% tensile strength in comparison with NDC [3]. Another study Lightweight concrete produced using lightweight aggregates can help in reducing the density of concrete. Lightweight aggregates can be either artificial lightweight aggregates or natural lightweight aggregates. Artificial aggregates, which are widely used, are Styrofoam also known as Epoxy Polystyrene (EPS). Styrofoam is popularly used as a good thermal insulation material in building construction. Besides, being widely used as a material for food packaging it is also used as protective packing material for securing goods from vibration and damage while delivering and transporting process. Usually after delivering process is complete, it is normally treated as a waste product and it is hardly ever to be recycled as a new Styrofoam as it is not economical to be reproduced [2]. It is also a cause of concern to environmentalists due to its issue of disposal [3].Hence by using Styrofoam as a lightweight aggregate; we can develop lightweight aggregate concrete and also overcome the issue of waste disposal. In the current paper study on physical, mechanical and microstructure properties of Styrofoam based concrete through experimentation has been done. Received: August 18, 2017; Accepted: December 23, 2017; Published: January 30, 2018 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1128-1135, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0604 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved 1129 Experimental Investigation on Styrofoam based Concrete by Ahmad M.H et al. prepared concrete with partial replacement of coarse aggregate by Styrofoam particles of size 10 mm2 and 10% pulverized fly ash (PFA). It concludes that this mix of concrete yields highest value of long-term (180 days) compressive strength of concrete and untreated Styrofoam does not have a proper bond with other materials in the concrete and thus it may yield lesser value of compressive strength [2]. R. Sri Ravindrarajah et al. determined the 28 days compressive strength of EPS concrete. The compressive strength increased from 5.6 MPa to 11.9 MPa with a decrease in water cement ratio from 0.6 to 0.35. The tensile strength of EPS concrete decreases with increase in water cement ratio. Modulus of elasticity produced is highest (11.9 GPa) when lowest water cement ratio (0.35) is used [7]. Babu K. G et al. used EPS beads as lightweight aggregates to produce concrete and mortar, which also contained silica fume as an additional binder material. This study reported that the EPS concrete specimens exhibited more gradual failure as compared to brittle failure in case of conventional concrete and that the EPS concrete specimens were capable of retaining the load after failure without full disintegration. This clearly shows the high-energy absorption capacity of these concretes [8]. Another study by Babu D. S et al. aimed at studying the properties of EPS concrete containing fly ash. It was observed that the strength decreased with the increase of EPS percentage and with an increase in water cement ratio, similar to the normal concretes. This study also reported that concretes with higher EPS volumes showed that there was no splitting and indicated only a local failure. In case of the higher EPS aggregate concretes the failure was more ductile compared to the lower EPS concretes. It was also observed that the specimen sustained the ultimate load with increasing strain for some time [9]. Chen B et al. used Sand-wrapping technique, which is a pre-mix method, to make EPS concrete. EPS Concrete was made by partially replacing both coarse and fine aggregates by EPS beads. In addition, steel fibers were used which significantly improved the drying shrinkage. This study also commented on various factors affecting the compressive strength such as Effect of age, Effect of density and EPS volume, Effect of silica fume and steel fiber [10]. Sabaa B et al. developed EPS concrete by partially replacing coarse aggregate in the conventional or normal weight concrete mixtures with an equal volume of the chemically coated crushed polystyrene granules. The coarse aggregate replacements levels used were 30, 50 and 70%. It was observed that for the compressive strength reduced from 32.2 MPa to 13.8 Mpa as the percentage replacement increased from 30% to 70% [11]. Yasser et al. attempted to study the flexural strength of external reinforced concrete beams and Styrofoamfilled composite beams was made. Control specimen used was a normal beam with 26.0 MPa concrete with transverse reinforcement. As external reinforced beams are prone to corrosion and fire and also require maintenance Styrofoam concrete was used on the outer portion containing Styrofoam content of 30%, 40%, and 50% which had flexural strengths of 33.8 kN, 31.0 kN, and 29.0 kN respectively. It has been seen that the Styrofoam beams performance is comparable to that of other beams [12]. Hence in most of the studies reviewed above only basic tests such as compressive, split tensile, modulus of elasticity has been performed. Seldom work was found on properties such as Modulus of rupture and microstructure properties of Styrofoam based concrete. Also, very few studies on the behavior of reinforced beams using Styrofoam beams have been found. 3. Objectives  To determine the physical and mechanical properties of Styrofoam based concrete.  To understand the microstructure properties of Styrofoam based concrete.  To experimentally investigate the behaviour pattern and failure pattern of beams made using Styrofoam based concrete.  To visualize the stress contour in beams using an appropriate tool. 4. Methodologies The methodology adopted to understand the strength characteristics of Styrofoam based concrete is described further. The materials used were locally available. Cement used was Birla Super (O.P.C Grade 53), Crush sand, 10mm Aggregates and 20mm Aggregates. Mix design was done as per I.S 10262 (2009). Styrofoam beads were replaced with fine aggregates in varying percentages of 5%, 10% and 15%. The 0% replacement was used as a control sample. Proportions were in the ratio of 1:1.57: 2.05. BASF 850I was used as an admixture. Standard dimension of cubes (150mm side) and Cylinders (150mm x 300mm) were cast. Three samples of cubes and cylinders were cast for the control sample, 5%, 10% and 15% replacement of Styrofoam for 7, 28 and 56 days. Cubes were used to determine compressive strength and cylinders to determine split tensile strength for 7, 28 and 56 Days. Samples of concrete at 7, 28 days of testing were carefully collected to carry out Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (F.E.S.E.M) analysis on these samples. F.E.S.E.M analysis was carried out at Central Instrumentation Facility (C.I.F) situated at Pune University. Plain concrete beams of cross section 150 x 150 mm and of length 700 mm were cast. These plain beams were tested for 28-day flexure under two-point loading. STAAD. Pro was used to model plain beams of control sample and 10% replacement sample to visualize the stress contour in these beams at failure. Reinforced beams of International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1128-1135 A S P ARANJE AND P S KULKARNI dimension 150mm (width) x 250mm (depth) x 700mm were cast for control sample and 10% replacement sample. To ensure the failure of the beams in shear these beams were provided with only bottom reinforcements without stirrups. Another set of reinforced beams of dimension 150mm (width) x 250mm (depth) x 700mm were cast for control sample and 10% replacement sample. To ensure the failure of the beams in flexure only these beams were provided with extra stirrups to increase shear strength. 5. Results and Discussions 5.1 Materials Properties and fresh concrete The procured material was tested to determine the material properties. Table 1 below shows the properties of the material used. Table 1: Properties of Materials Used Material Crush Sand (Zone II) 600-micron passing 41.03% 10 mm Aggregates 20 mm Aggregates Styrofoam Beads Specific Water Fineness Gravity Absorption Modulus 2.72 3.02 2.93 2.89 0.04 1.13 1.54 - 2.639 - The Styrofoam beads used to replace fine aggregates in varying percentages as mentioned earlier were of 2 mm and 4 mm in size. The specific gravity of Styrofoam beads was 0.04. It is because the Styrofoam beads are actually made of polystyrene whose internal structure consists of 98% air. Due to this Styrofoam beads help in increasing the voids in concrete and thus reduce the density of concrete. Also, the water absorption of Styrofoam is negligible as they are non-absorbent in nature and hence a workable mix can be obtained at reduced water/cement ratio which also increases the strength of concrete. It was seen that as the percentage replacement of Styrofoam increased the slump remained same but the workability increased which is due to the smooth surface of Styrofoam foam beads. Similar observations have been made in previous studies [3] [5]. The Slump of the mix for was maintained around 80 – 90 mm as seen in figure 1. 1130 5.2 Compressive Strength Table 2 shows the compressive strength at 7, 28 and 56 days and the graph in figure 2 compare the average compressive strength at 7, 28 and 56 days for varying percentage replacement of Styrofoam. Table 2: Average Compressive Strength Styrofoam Replacement (%) 0 5 10 15 Compressive Strength (Average)(MPa) 7 Days 28 Days 56 Days 33.08 45.9 52.10667 26.467 40.64 42.84333 27.84 29.65 40.82667 23.57 29.04 34.12333 At 7 days it was seen that as the Styrofoam percentage increased the compressive strength of 5%, 10% and 15% samples decreased by 20%, 15.85% and 28.75% respectively as compared to that of the control sample. A similar trend is observed at 28 days with the decrease in strengths by 11.45% for 5% sample, 35.4% for 10% sample and 36.72% for 15% sample as compared to the control sample. Similarly at 56 da s, the stre th’s de reased b 17.78% for 5% sample, 21.648% for 10% sample and 34.51% for 15% sample as compared to the control sample. It was also observed that the 28 day compressive strength for control sample and 5% replacement sample increased by 38.74% and 53.56% respectively as compared to the 7 days compressive strength of these samples. On the other hand for 10% and 15% samples the 28 day compressive strength has increased only by 6.5% and 23.22% respectively as compared to the 7 days compressive strength of these samples. Hence the strength gain is observed to be lower for 10% and 15% samples as compared to that of 0% and 5% samples. However, from Figure 2 it can be seen that the 56 day compressive strength for control sample and 5% replacement sample increased by 13.52% and 5.42% respectively as compared to the 28 days compressive strength of these samples. On the other hand for 10% and 15% samples the 56 day compressive strength has increased significantly by 37.695% and 17.5% respectively as compared to the 28days compressive strength of these samples. Hence it was observed that there is significant strength gain between 7 and 28 days for 0% and 5% replacement samples and the 10% and 15% replacement samples showed better strength gain between 28 and 56 days. It was also observed that the control sample which had no replacement of Styrofoam disintegrated easily as compared those samples with Styrofoam during the compressive strength tests. The relations between 7 28 Days, 7 - 56 Days and 28- 56 Days compressive strengths were determined using trend line analysis. Figure 1: Slump measurement of Styrofoam concrete International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1128-1135 Experimental Investigation on Styrofoam based Concrete 1131 Figure 2: Average Compressive Strength for 7, 28 and 56 days The variable x and y in the equations 1, 2 and 3 below are independent and dependent variables respectively. The relation between 7(x) and 28( ) a s stre th’s is given as hand, the 56 days split tensile strength for 5%, 10 % and 15% samples decreased by 1.87%, 4.83% and 18.35% respectively. The rise in split tensile strength of samples is not significant as far as 7 and 28 days split tensile strength are concerned. However, it can be seen from figure 3 that the split tensile strength for all samples has increased drastically from 28 to 56 days. It was also observed that the control sample which had no replacement of Styrofoam disintegrated easily as compared those samples with Styrofoam during the split tensile tests. The relation between 7 - 28 Days, 7 - 56 Days and 2856 Days split tensile strengths were determined using trend line analysis. The variable x and y in the equations 4, 5 and 6 below are independent and dependent variables respectively. y = 1.584x - 7.635… ( q. 1) The relation between 7(x) and 28( ) is given as Coefficient of Correlation (R) = 0.758. y = 0.143x2 - 0.855x + 6.460… ( q. 4) The relation between 7(x) and 56(y) Days stre is given as th’s y = 50.93ln(x) - 126.4… ( q. 2) a s stre th’s Coefficient of Correlation (R) = 0.959. The relation between 7(x) and 56( ) a s stre is given as th’s Coefficient of Correlation (R) = 0.966. Similarly the relation between 28(x) and 56(y) Days stre th’s is i e as y = -1.030x2 + 12.44x - 27.43… ( q. 5) y = 28.64ln(x) - 59.86… ( q. 3) Similarly the relation between 28(x) and 56(y) Days stre th’s is i e as With coefficient of Correlation (R) = 0.883. y = -3.871x2 + 49.39x - 147.0… ( q. 6) Coefficient of Correlation (R) = 0.955. 5.3 Split Tensile Strength Coefficient of Correlation (R) = 0.9989. Table 3 shows the Split tensile strength at 7, 28 and 56 days and the graph in figure 3 compares the average split tensile strength at 7, 28 and 56 days for varying percentage replacement of Styrofoam. Table 3: Average Split Tensile Strength Styrofoam Replacement (%) 0 5 10 15 Split Tensile Strength (Average)(MPa) 7 Days 28 Days 56 Days 5.89 5.89 5.89 6.43 6.43 6.43 5.385 5.385 5.385 4.695 4.695 4.695 At 7 days it is seen that as the Styrofoam percentage increased the Split tensile strength of 5% sample increased by 9.17% as compared to that of the control sample. The split tensile strength for 10% and 15% samples decreased by 8.57% and 20.29% respectively as compared to that of the control sample. A similar trend is observed at 28 days, the increase in strength is 3.44% for 5% sample and that of 10% and 15% decreased by 11.53% and 14.31% respectively concerning that of the control sample. It is clearly seen from the graph in figure 3 that with respect to the control sample the split tensile strength for 5% sample increased and that of 10% and 15% decreased in case of 7 and 28 days split tensile strength. On the other Figure 3: Average Split Tensile Strength for 7, 28 and 56 days. 5.4 Plain Beams Table 4 shows results for plain concrete beams tested under two-point loading for flexure and figure 4 compares the performance of these beams under flexure. Table 4: Load (Ultimate) at failure under Flexure and Modulus of Rupture Styrofoam Ultimate load at Modulus of Replacement failure under Flexure Rupture (MPa) (%) (KN) (Average) (Average) 0 19.37 3.443 5 20.28 3.6 10 20.94 3.722 15 23.82 4.23 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1128-1135 A S P ARANJE AND P S KULKARNI 1132 It was observed that the performance of the beams with 5% and 10 % Styrofoam replacement was almost same as compared to those beams casted using control sample mix. However the performance of 15% sample was observed to be 22.97% more than that of the control sample. Thus it can be said that the flexural strength of concrete increases with increase in Styrofoam replacement. Figure 5: Stress contour and values for control sample Figure 4: Ultimate load at failure under Flexure with varying percent of Styrofoam 5.5 Visualization of Stresses The plain concrete beams which were tested for modulus of rupture were also modeled in STAAD.Pro for visualizing the stresses developed in them at failure. The beams were modeled as per the standard test conditions and properties such as modulus of elasticity and densities were also considered during modeling. Modeling was done for control sample and 10% replacement samples only. The self-weight of the beams and the average load at failure for both the samples was considered in modeling. Visualization of stresses helps in identifying the tension, compression and zero stress zones. Table 5 compares the modulus of rupture and the values of stresses as per the software for both the samples. Figures 5 and 6 show the stress contours and the values of stresses as per the software for both the samples respectively. It can be seen from table 5 that the values of calculated modulus of rupture and the values of stresses given by the software are very similar. It is to be noted that in figures 7 and 8 the color red indicates tension zone and green indicates compression zone. Table 5: Comparison of Modulus of Rupture and software stress values Styrofoam Modulus of Stress Replacement Rupture (MPa) (Average) (%) (Average) (MPa) 0 3.443 3.4897 15 3.722 3.766 Figure 6: Stress contour and values for 10% replacement sample 5.6 Reinforced Beams (Shear) One beam each of control and 10% replacement sample was cast having dimension 150mm x 250mm x 700mm and were cured for 28 days. To ensure failure in shear only 16mm diameter tor steel bars spaced at 85mm apart were provided at the bottom as reinforcement and no stirrups were provided. The depth of these samples was deliberately increased to 250mm to view the failure pattern of beam. The supported length was 600mm and two point loads at 100mm on either side of the center of the beam were applied. Table 6 below shows the load at failure for control and 10% replacement. Table 6: Failure load for Reinforced Beam (Shear) Styrofoam Replacement (%) Load at Failure (KN) 0 127.85 10 158.04 It can be seen from the values of table 6 that the 10% replacement sample performed better as compared to the control sample. Figure 7 shows failure pattern of 10% replacement beam. Both the sample failed suddenly at respective failure loads and the failure pattern of both beams was similar as shown in figure 7. The shear spans (a) to effective depth (d) ratio for both the beams was less than 1 and are hence classified as deep beams. In beams, without shear reinforcement or stirrups as there is little scope of redistribution, breakdown of any shear transfer International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1128-1135 1133 Experimental Investigation on Styrofoam based Concrete mechanism causes immediate failure. Also restraint against splitting failure is less and also crack propagation is not restrained. In case of beams without shear reinforcement, it is difficult to predict the behavior and strength beyond the stage of diagonal cracking. In deep beams inclined cracked are developed which transfer part of the load to the support and this is known as tied arch action. In tied arch action failure occurs either because of breakdown of longitudinal reinforcement or due to crushing of concrete [13]. In this case it can be said that failure due to breakdown of longitudinal reinforcement has occurred as there is no crushing of concrete visible as seen in figure 7.For failure to occur due to breakdown of longitudinal reinforcement first cracks in concrete must get developed. For this to happen the tensile stress in concrete must exceed the modulus of rupture of concrete and only then further crack propagation will take place [13]. As mentioned earlier, the modulus of rupture of concrete increased with increase in percentage of Styrofoam. It may be said that the reinforced beam casted using 10% replacement sample performed better because of modulus of rupture of 10% replacement sample is greater than that of control sample. Figure 7: Failure pattern of 10% replacement reinforced beam (Shear) 5.7 Reinforced Beams (Flexure) One beam each of control and 10% replacement sample was cast having dimension 150mm x 250mm x 700mm and were cured for 28 days. These beams were provided with reinforcement cage 10mm diameter tor steel bars spaced at 85mm apart at bottom, stirrups were provided at 100 mm center to center with two bars of 8mm at top. The depth of these samples was deliberately increased to 250mm to clearly view the failure patter of beam. The supported length was 600mm and single point load at center of beam was applied. Table 7 below shows the load at failure for control and 10% replacement. It can be seen from the values of table 7 that the 10% replacement sample performed better as compared to the 0% sample. Figures 8 and 9 show the failure patterns of control and 10% replacement sample respectively. In case of both the beam the failure occurred gradually. In reinforced concrete beams under flexure, diagonal tension cracks are expected to occur and appropriate shear reinforcement is necessary to prevent propagation of these cracks. Table 7: Failure load for Reinforced Beam (Flexure) Styrofoam Replacement (%) Load at Failure (KN) 0 139.98 10 156.78 Figure 8: Failure pattern of control sample reinforced beam (Flexure) In such cases the vertical flexural cracks are usually formed first and this flexural crack extends into a diagonal crack due to increase in shear stress at the tip of the crack [13]. A Similar mechanism of failure was observed for both the beams. At first vertical flexural cracks were developed and then later diagonal cracks were developed. However it is visible from the figure 8 and 9 that vertical cracks developed at support in case of control sample before failure and this was not seen in case of sample casted using 10% Styrofoam concrete. For flexural cracks to occur the tensile stress in concrete must exceed the modulus of rupture of concrete [13]. It was noticed that cracks developed early and at lower load in control sample beam as compared to the beam cast using Styrofoam. Because the modulus of rupture decreased with decrease in Styrofoam the control sample failed at comparatively lower load as compared to the beam cast using Styrofoam concrete. Figure 9: Failure pattern of 10% replacement reinforced beam (Flexure) 5.8 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope [F.E.S.E.M] Analysis In the research done earlier, it has been reported by the researchers that the bond between Styrofoam International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1128-1135 A S P ARANJE AND P S KULKARNI beads and cement paste is weak and that the beads were easily plucked out. However, in this case, it was seen that Styrofoam beads were not easy to remove and most of the beads failed under loading as seen in figure 10.The bond between Styrofoam and cement paste is not as strong as compared to that between that of natural aggregates and cement, but Styrofoam samples have more energy absorption as compared to that of control samples. This is because Styrofoam samples did not disintegrate easily as compared to that of control samples. The bond between Styrofoam beads and cement matrix can be seen in the figures 11 and 12. The figures 11 and 12 above are the images of the sample obtained by scanning electron microscope. Figure 11 shows the general view of the sample at 68 times magnification. The Styrofoam bead and the cement matrix along with some deposits can be clearly seen in the same. On the other hand figure 12 shows the view of the sample at 2000x magnification. The surface on the left is that of Styrofoam bead and that on the right is the cement matrix. The surface of the Styrofoam beads does appear to be rough and the deposits on Styrofoam surface are clearly visible. Due to the surface being rough the bond between Styrofoam beads and cement matrix is possible. Figure 10: Failure of Styrofoam Beads 1134 Figure 12: Bond between Styrofoam and cement matrix magnified view 6. Conclusions The current study is an attempt to study the microstructure, physical and mechanical properties of Styrofoam based concrete. Microstructure analysis of Styrofoam based concrete shows weaker intertransational zone. The compressive and split tensile strength of Styrofoam based concrete decreases with the increase in percentage replacement of Styrofoam. It is seen that as the percentage replacement of Styrofoam increases the samples undergo more ductile failure, which shows that Styrofoam based concrete, has better energy absorption as compared to the conventional concrete. The flexural strength of Styrofoam based concrete increased with the increase in Styrofoam and this increase was more significant in case of 15% sample. However since Compressive strength, split tensile strength is in acceptable range of 10%, authors suggest use of Styrofoam in concrete not more than 10%. Results of software analysis matched the values of modulus of rupture obtained through experimentation. It was possible to visualize the stress contour in plain beams at failure. Reinforced beams cast using 10% replacement beams performed better in both shear and flexure as compared to similar beam casted using control concrete and increase in modulus of rupture contributed to this rise in strength. References Figure 11: Bond between Styrofoam and cement matrix [1] American Concrete Institute (2014). Building Code Requirements for structural Concrete (318M – 14) and commentary (318RM – 14). [2] Ahmad, M.H., Loon, L.Y., Noor, N.M., and Ad a t, S.H. “Stre th de elo e t of li ht ei ht St rofoa o rete.” I ter atio al Conference on Civil Engineering, Pahang, 12-14 May, 2008. [3] Tamut, T., Prabhu, R., Venkataramana, K., and ara al, S. ., “Partial replacement of coarse aggregates by expanded polystyrene beads in o rete”, I ter atio al Jour al of Resear h i Engineering and Technology, 03(2), PP. 238-241, 2014, DOI:10.15623/ijret.2014.0302040. [4] Cui, C., Huang, Q., Li, D., Quan, C., and Li, H., “Stress–strain relationship in axial compression for PS o rete”, o stru tio a d uildi International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1128-1135 1135 Experimental Investigation on Styrofoam based Concrete Materials, 105, PP. 377–383, 2016, DOI:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.12.159 [5] Alam, B., Ullah, Z., Ullah Jan, F., Shahzada, K., a d Afzal, S., “I esti atio of Styrofoam as Li ht ei ht A re ate”, I ter atio al Jour al of Advanced Structures and Geotechnical Engineering, 02(02), PP. 50-53, 2013. [6] Setia a , A a d Hida at, I., “ x eri e tal stud on Epoxy Polystyrene as a partial substitution of fine aggregate of o rete ixture”, Asia Journal of Civil Engineering (BHRC), 14 (6), PP. 849 -858, 2013. [7] Ra i drarajah, S., & u , A. J., “Pro erties of Hardened Concrete containing treated Expanded Pol st re e”, e e t a d o rete o osites, (16), PP. 273– 277, 1994, DOI: 10.1016/09589465(94)90039-6 [8] abu, K. G., a d abu, . S., “ eha iour of lightweight expanded polystyrene concrete o tai i sili a fu e”, e e t a d o rete Research, 33 (5), PP. 755–762, 2003, DOI:10.1016/s0008-8846(02)01055-4 [9] Babu, D. S., Babu Babu, K. G., and Wee, T.H., “Pro erties of li ht ei ht ex a ded ol st re e a re ate o retes o tai i fl ash”, e e t and Concrete Research, 35 (6), PP. 1218–1223, 2005, DOI:10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.11.015 [10] Chen, B., and Liu, J., “Pro erties of li ht ei ht expanded polystyrene concrete reinforced with steel fiber”, e e t a d o rete Resear h, 34(7), PP. 1259–1263, 2004, DOI:10.1016/j.cemconres.2003.12.014 [11] Sabaa, ., a d Ra i drarajah, R. S., “ i eeri properties of lightweight concrete containing rushed ex a ded ol st re e aste”, Materials Research Society, 1997. [12] asser., et al., “ he ffe t of Use St rofoa for Flexural Characteristics of Reinforced Concrete ea s”, I ter atio al Jour al of i eeri a d Technology, 7(1), PP. 1-7, 2015, DOI:10.7763/ijet.2015.v7.755 [13] Pillai S.U., Me o , “Rei for ed o rete esi ”, M Gra Hill du atio , h. 6, PP. 227-270, 2015 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1128-1135 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0605 December 2017, P.P.1136-1142 www.cafetinnova.org Microstructure and Properties of Concrete containing Pond Ash K M BAGWAN1 AND S S KULKARNI2 1 KES Rajarambapu Institute of Technology Research Center affiliated to Shivaji University, Kolhapur-416004, Maharashtra, India 2 KES, Rajarambapu Institute of Technology, Islampur-415414, Maharashtra, India Email: kmbagwan@gmail.com, sushma.kulkarni@ritindia.edu Abstract: In coal based thermal power plant coal is used as fuel to generate electricity. When coal is burnt Fly ash and Bottom ash is generated. Bottom ash is mixed with water and disposed off in pond. This paper summarizes the results of an experimental investigation carried out in laboratory to evaluate the microstructure and properties of concrete containing pond ash and same is compared with fly ash concrete. The concrete was prepared by replacing a part of cement by pond ash in different proportions i.e. 15%-55% with an increment of 10%. The compressive strength of concrete is tested at 28, 90, 180 and 365 days. Workability of concrete in terms of slump was maintained in a range of 100-120 mm for all proportions. All test results of pond ash concrete were compared with fly ash concrete and normal concrete. To study microstructure mainly SEM and XRD analysis of fly ash and pond ash concrete were performed. SEM of pond ash concrete shows irregular shaped clusters. The particles are irregular and angular shape and rough surface texture. XRD of pond ash concrete shows hydrated phase with different elements. The other properties such as IST, FST, Split, Flexure strength of concrete were tested. The compressive strength of pond ash concrete in later stage was good as compare to earlier stage. This is mainly due to consumption of Calcium hydroxide which is liberated during hydration process of cement and finally forms C-S-H gel. The result of research results presented herein reveals that pond ash concrete can be safely used for nonstructural elements. i.e. In road sub base as Dry Lean Concrete or Roller Compacted Concrete, Mass concrete in Dam, Embankment fill, Paver blocks, etc. The study performed in present investigation confirms that by addition of pond ash in concrete leads to reduce demand of cement which helps to reduce environmental pollution and contribute to sustainable development of construction industry. Keywords: Pond ash, Compressive strength, Tensile strength, Flexural strength, SEM, XRD 1. Introduction India has a large network of thermal power plants located in different parts of the country and some are planned for the near future. Safe disposal of industrial waste is a great challenge to all of us. In the context of sustainable development of construction industry now a days it is very important to think on effective utilization of industrial waste so as to reduce environmental pollution and disposal problem. When coal is burnt to generate electricity mainly fly ash and bottom ash is generated. The finer ash (fly ash) is collected by Electro Static Precipitators (ESP). The ash which falls at the bottom of the boiler (Bottom ash) is mixed with water and carried through pipe away from the plant. This ash is dumped into pond known as pond ash. Extensive research is being carried out in the literature concerning different properties, tests and uses of fly ash. However, limited information is available on use of pond ash in concrete. Pond ash has occupied several acres of land around thermal power plants throughout the country. Keeping in mind the need for bulk use of pond ash waste, it was thought to test this material and check suitability to use as partial replacement of cement in concrete. The pollution and disposal problems can be minimized by properly utilizing pond ash in different construction operations. According to Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) Notification (New Delhi, 3rdApril, 2007), approximately 65-75 million tonnes of ash remains to be unutilized every year. It was estimated that about 450 million tonnes of ash lying in pond in year 1999-2000 and the same has crossed more than 900 million tonnes in year 20052006 [1].The disposal of such ash requires large agricultural or forest land which is very valuable in toda ’s s e ario. r. ash al Si h (2011) [2] carried out lot of work in India on area of ash and stated in his report that by the year 2015, the land requirement for disposing generated ash is approximately one meter square per person or in short it is 1000 square km. Coal is used as fuel in thermal power plant to generate electricity. For human life electricity has become one of the basic needs. It plays a crucial role in modern civilization and development of nation. Day by day more and more number of power generation plants are installed which increase the demand of coal. The coal used in Indian thermal power plant generates a large amount of ash. It amounts to approximately 40% 45% due to low calorific value (3500-4000 Kcal/kg) of coal. Received: August 11, 2017; Accepted: December 21, 2017; Published: January 30, 2018 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1136-1142, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0605 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved 1137 Microstructure and Properties of Concrete containing Pond Ash Present research is conducted to investigate the effective utilization of Pond ash in concrete. In order to have a better understanding of the microstructure, the techniques such as XRD and SEM studies were carried on Fly ash and Pond ash concrete samples. The results of Pond ash concrete were compared with Normal and Fly ash concrete. 2. Literature Review The study of Bharati et al. (2011) [3] reveals that pond ash can be effectively used in roads and embankment works. Concrete pavement can be made economical by using Pond ash as replacement of cement and sand. In the study of Nader Ghafoori and Yuzheng Cai (1998) [4,5] lignite based Bottom ash was used as a replacement of fine aggregate in structural grade concrete. In order to obtain desired workability, the demand of water increased when Bottom ash was utilized in concrete. The research reported by Hyeong-Ki Kim (2015)[6] shows that the workability of high-strength paste and mortar mix with powder of Bottom ash consistently raised as compare to mix prepared with only cement and Fly ash. Another finding of this study is that Bottom ash used exhibits amorphous crystalline structure which leads to a high degree of hydration of mortar. The compression strength at 3 days and 28 days of mortar prepared with bottom ash and fly ash are equally comparable. An experimental programme carried out by Haldun Kurama et al., (2008) [7] confirms that when cement was replaced by bottom ash up to 10%, the mechanical properties of concrete were enhanced significantly. The experimental work carried out by Bapat et al. (2006) [8] shows that the ash left in lagoon was satisfactorily used to make low strength concrete. The compressive strength of lagoon ash concrete gradually rises as age of concrete increase. The laboratory research work of Glicerio Triches et al. [9] indicates that flexural strength of concrete enhances when Bottom ash was used as replacement of fine aggregate. The addition of Bottom ash in making Roller Compacted Concrete mixtures might lead to lower cement contents. At the same time the demand of fine aggregates also decreases. The study of Chai Jaturapitakkul and Raungrut Cheerarot (2003) [10] concludes that setting time of original or ground bottom ash prolonged by 09-23 minutes when replaced in between 10-30% with Portland cement. This is primarily depends upon the fineness of the ash. replacement of cement by pond ash was 20%; at this particular percentage the results of various strength of concrete are nearly same as compared to control concrete. The work carried out by Yogesh Agarwal, Rafat Siddique (2014) [12] shows that by 30% replacement of natural fine aggregate with Bottom ash and waste foundry sand; the various properties of concrete such as flexural strength, compressive strength and split tensile strength were increased significantly compared to conventional concrete. By critical reviewing all literature it is known that quantity of Pond ash which is waste of coal thermal power plant is increasing day by day. If this ash is not utilized properly it creates a lot of environmental pollutions and health hazard problems. The average particle size of Bottom ash is more than Fly ash and cement. Bottom ash shows more amorphous crystalline phase which leads to a high degree of hydration. At the same time the cost of extracting good quality of natural material required for cement manufacturing is increasing, also manufacturing of cement liberates CO2 in atmosphere which is the major factor causing environmental pollution. The aim of present study is to check effective utilization of Pond ash in concrete construction work. 3. Materials Properties 3.1 Scope For the purpose of this investigation Pond ash was collected from Parali Thermal Power Station (PTPS), Beed in India. Processed Fly ash procured locally. The aim is to develop Pond ash concrete which will be safely used in the construction industry. 3.2 Materials The following materials were used. 3.2.1 Cement The Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC- 53 grade) conforming to IS 12269:1987 (Bureau of Indian Standards-1987) was referred. 3.2.2 Ash The Pond ash used in this study has been collected from different locations of Parali Thermal Power Station, Parali, Beed, Maharashtra, India. Pond ash obtained from power station was used directly without any treatment. Figure 1a and 1b shows dumped Pond ash at Parali Thermal Power Station (PTPS) and processed Fly ash. The physical characteristic and chemical composition of Fly ash and Pond ash are represented in Table 1. The investigations reported by Sandhya B et al., (2013) [11] confirm that the mechanical properties of concrete such as flexural strength, split tensile strength and compressive strength, gradually reduced when bottom ash percentage is increased in plain concrete. It was also seen that optimum percentage of International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1136-1142 K M B AGWAN AND S S K ULKARNI 1138 IS 1727:1967 = Methods of test for pozzolanic materials (Bureau of Indian Standards 1967) 3.2.3 Aggregate Naturally available river sand was used as fine aggregate in concrete. The quarry stone basalt was used as coarse aggregate. This aggregate is available nearby quarry i.e. Yewalewadi in Pune. Table 2 summarizes the grading characteristic of coarse and fi e a re ate. 3.2.4 Super plasticizer Figure 1a: Deposited Pond ash A commercially available High Range Water Reducing (HWRE) super plasticizer–Conplast SP430SRV was used. 4. Concrete mix proportioning, casting and testing of specimens Figure 1b: Processed Fly ash Table 1: Physical characteristic and chemical composition of Fly ash and Pond ash Elements Content FA PA (a) Physical Fineness-passing 45 µm (%) 82 40.0 Specific gravity 2.3 1.8 (b) Chemical Silicon dioxide, SiO2 57.2 61.08 Aluminum oxide, Al2O3 + Ferric oxide, Fe2O3 34.4 32.13 (SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3) 90.0 93.21 Calcium Oxide, CaO 5.0 1.98 Magnesium Oxide, MgO 4.0 0.43 Sulfur Tri Oxide, SO3 2.0 0.54 Sodium oxide, Na2O 1.5 0.25 Loss on ignition 2.5 5.68 a IS Reqt. --Minimum 35.00 Minimum 70.00 Maximum 5.00 Maximum 2.75 Maximum 1.50 Maximum 12.00 FA – Fly ash; PA – Pond ash a IS 3812:1981 = Specification for Fly ash for use as Pozzolana and admixture (Bureau of Indian Standards, Reaffirmed 1999) and The proportioning of concrete mix was carried out as per stipulations laid down in IS 456:2000 and IS 10262:2009 (Bureau of Indian Standards). In the present study partial replacement of cement has done using first by Fly ash and then Pond ash. The replacement level of Fly ash and Pond ash with cement was started from 15%, 25%, 35%, 45% and 55%. Concrete mix design was made for M25 grade of concrete. Batching of materials was carried out by weight. Table 2: Grading characteristic of Coarse and Fine aggregate Coarse Aggregate (Crushed basalt) Fineness Modulus 6.018 Specific gravity 2.88 Bulk density 1765.05 kg/m3 Water absorption 1.67% Fine Aggregate (Natural sand) 2.84 2.66 1984.37 kg/m3 -- Initially the trial mixes were obtained for selection of normal concrete by gradual reduction of water cement ratio and finally concrete mix of 0.49 water cement ratio was finalized. Water absorption and surface moisture of coarse and fine aggregate were considered in mix design. In the entire process workability in terms of slump was remain to be in a range of 100120 mm. Table 3 indicates concrete mix proportions used in present study. Table 3: Mix design of concrete Mix NC M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 * Repl -(15%) (25%) (35%) (45%) (55%) $ w/b 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 Batch quantity in kg/m3 Fly ash/Pond ash Water Cement Percentage Quantity 181 368 --181 313 15 55 181 276 25 92 181 239 35 129 181 202 45 166 181 166 55 202 FA 645 645 645 645 645 645 CA 1271 1271 1271 1271 1271 1271 *Replacement, $ w/b = water/binder ratio, i.e. water/ (cement + fly/pond ash), NC= Normal Concrete, FA = Fine Aggregate, CA = Coarse Aggregate. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1136-1142 Microstructure and Properties of Concrete containing Pond Ash 1139 5. Results and Discussions 5.2 Hardened state properties of concrete 5.1 In fresh state In hardened state, the various properties such as compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength of concrete were tested. The properties of concrete in fresh state such as slump, IST and FST of concrete and density were tested and recorded in Table 5. Slump is maintained in range of 100-120 mm. 5.1.1 Setting time of concrete Initial and Final setting time (IST and FST) test was conducted as per stipulations laid down by IS 8142:1976 (Bureau of Indian Standards 1976). The result of IST and FST in Table 4 indicates continuous rise in the setting time as replacement level of Fly ash or Pond ash increases. Table 4: Setting time of Fly ash and Pond ash concrete % replacement NC 15 25 35 45 55 Fly ash IST FST (hr:min) (hr:min) 4:20 6:20 5:00 7:50 5:20 7:55 6:25 8:30 7:00 9:58 7:50 10:40 5.2.1 Compressive strength of concrete Compressive strength of concrete was found as per stipulations laid down by IS 516:1959, Reaffirmed in 1999 (Bureau of Indian Standards 1999). Table 5a and 5b shows average compressive strengths of Fly ash and Pond ash concrete respectively. The result indicates that compressive strengths of Pond ash concrete at later age is better than the earlier age. This is mainly due to hydration of cement and pozzolanic reaction of Pond ash. By addition of Pond ash performance of concrete is improved. 5.2.2 Tensile strength of concrete: Split tensile test Pond ash IST FST (hr:min) (hr:min) 4:20 6:20 5:20 7:15 5:55 7:40 6:30 9:05 7:40 10:30 7:55 10:45 It is indirect test used for determination of tensile strength of concrete. Cylindrical mold of 150 mm dia. and 300 mm length was used. Guidelines given in IS 5816:1999 (Bureau of Indian Standards 1999) were followed for test. Table 6 shows result of split tensile test of Fly ash and Pond ash concrete. Table 5a: Compressive strength of Fly ash concrete Sl No 1 2 3 4 5 6 Mix Normal M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 % Repl. of FA 15 25 35 45 55 Slump (mm) 120 116 115 113 116 118 Density (kg/m3) 2460 2445 2440 2390 2360 2355 Compressive strength (MPa) at various days 28 90 180 365 34.1 44 46 53.47 31.43 41.1 44.7 44.8 23.5 39.4 41.97 42.03 20.3 37.9 39.8 39.87 17.9 30.4 35.63 36.17 11.9 22.5 33.5 34.3 Repl = Replacement; FA – Fly ash Table 5b: Compressive strength of Pond ash concrete Sl No Mix 1 Normal 2 M1 3 M2 4 M3 5 M4 6 M5 % Repl. of PA 15 25 35 45 55 Slump (mm) 120 110 120 115 110 120# Density (kg/m3) 2460 2325 2313 2306 2281 2276 Repl = Replacement; PA – Pond ash, # 0.5% Super plasticizer used Table 6: Split tensile strength of Fly ash and Pond ash concrete Mix NC 15 25 35 45 55 Compressive strength (MPa) at various days 28 90 180 365 34.1 44 46 53.47 31.23 40.93 41.93 43.23 21.9 30.3 31.3 33.58 19.8 25.6 26.67 29.56 14.3 19.1 20.17 22.68 11.3 15.13 16.83 18.1 Split tensile strength in MPa Fly ash Pond ash 28 days 90 days 28 days 90 days 3.88 4.73 3.88 4.73 3.86 4.62 3.57 4.00 3.83 3.86 2.96 3.8 3.51 3.82 2.82 3.4 3.51 3.69 2.74 3.29 3.09 3.20 2.75 3.1 Note: NC-Normal concrete 5.2.3 Flexural strength of concrete The flexural strength of concrete test was performed as per IS:516-1959 (Bureau of Indian Standards1959). Concrete beam of 150x150x700 mm size were casted and tested at 28 days and 90 days. Two point loading method was used. Flexural strength in terms of Modulus of Rupture was determined. Table 7 summarizes results of flexural strength of concrete. 5.3 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) produces image of a sample by microscope scanning and International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1136-1142 K M B AGWAN AND S S K ULKARNI focused/magnified beam of electrons. The formation of Calcium-Silicate-Hydrate gel (C-S-H gel) is an important phase in hydration of cement. 1140 C-S-H 55 FAC C-S-H Table 7: Flexural strength of Fly ash and Pond ash concrete Flexural strength in MPa Fly ash Pond ash Mix 28 days 90 days 28 days NC 7.09 7.79 7.09 15 6.89 7.88 6.0 25 6.16 7.48 5.29 35 5.98 6.64 4.92 45 5.61 6.33 4.61 55 5.55 5.94 4.34 Note: NC-Normal concrete FA 90 days 7.79 7.1 6.32 5.67 5.34 4.36 Figure 2b: Micrograph of 55% FAC 15 PPAC All samples were tested at 28 days curing age. Figure 2a, micrograph of 15% Fly ash concrete (FAC) shows smaller size of Fly ash particle and good network gel morphology exhibits dense microstructure which enhances strength of Fly ash concrete. In Figure 2b, micrograph of 55% Fly ash concrete (FAC) formation of C-S-H gel has reduced. Paste at this stage gets crumbled. Hence equilibrium falls and leads to lower strength. Micrograph of 15% Parali Pond ash concrete (PPAC) shown in Figure 2c, shows that irregular shaped clusters. The factors affecting mechanical behavior of C-S-H gel includes mainly particle orientation, pore structure, composition and size and shape of particle. Figure 2d illustrates micrograph of 55% Parali Pond ash concrete. It represents unburnt carbon content. At more percentage of replacement the mix becomes crumbed, pond ash particle coming out of mix and flaws remains in concrete due to which different strengths gets affected. The pozzolanic reaction in initial phase is slow due to which the compressive strength of concrete get decreased. PA C-S-H 15C-S-H PPAC PA Figure 2c: Micrograph of 15% PPAC# 55 PPAC PA PA 15 FAC C-S-H C-S-H C-S-H FA C-S-H Figure 2d: Micrograph of 55% PPAC *FAC- Fly Ash Concrete, #PPAC- Parali Pond Ash Concrete 5.4 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis C-S-H Figure 2a: Micrograph of 15% FAC* X-ray diffraction (XRD) is one of the non-destructive techniques for identifying various phases present in the hardened concrete. The broken pieces of concrete obtained after compressive strength test were collected and ground to desired fineness for this test. In XRD test, rays diffract in different ways depending on the crystal structure of material. The intensities of the diffracted rays were measured. Diffraction angle of 2θ as used a d a al zed usi the soft are library. XRD of Fly ash and Pond ash concrete at 15% International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1136-1142 1141 Microstructure and Properties of Concrete containing Pond Ash and 55% replacement of cement are illustrated in Figure 3a, 3b, 3c and 3d respectively. Hydrated phase such as Calcium Aluminium Sulphate Hydroxyte, Calcium Aluminium Sulphate Hydroxyte Hydrate, Calcium Silicate, Calcium Silicate Hydrate, Calcium Carbonate, Iron oxide, and Quartz were seen in XRD analysis of Fly ash and Pond ash concrete. The peak of calcium carbonate is increased as percentage replacement of Fly ash or Pond ash increases which indicates that amount of Ca(OH)2 is not fully utilized for C-S-H gel formation. The diffraction peak intensity of calcium silicate is more predominant in 15% as compare to 55% Fly ash and Pond ash concrete. This phenomenon reduces the strengths of the concrete. Figure 3d: X-ray Diffraction pattern of 55% PPAC [Notations used:*FAC- Fly Ash Concrete, #PPACParali Pond Ash Concrete, 1: CASH- Calcium Aluminium Sulphate Hydroxyte, 2: CASHH- Calcium Aluminium Sulphate Hydroxyte Hydrate, 3: CSCalcium Silicate, 4: CSH- Calcium Silicate Hydrate, 5: CaCO3- Calcium Carbonate, 6: Fe2O3- Iron oxide, 7: Q- Quartz] 6. Conclusions Figure 3a: X-ray Diffraction pattern of 15% FAC* Figure 3b: X-ray Diffraction pattern of 55% FAC Figure 3c: X-ray Diffraction pattern of 15% PPAC# Following conclusions are drawn from the investigations made.  The density of Fly ash and Pond ash concrete gradually decreases as replacement level increase. This is perhaps due to less specific gravity of Fly ash and Pond ash as compared to cement.  Due to coarser nature of Pond ash and more loss on ignition, at 55% replacement level super plasticizer dose was required to maintain desired workability i.e. 100-120 mm.  The rate of increase of strengths of Fly ash and Pond ash concrete in later stage is better than earlier stage. The chemical reaction of pond ash in initial phase is slow but lateron it reacts fast with calcium hydroxide liberated during hydration process. This reaction improves strength of concrete in later stage.  As replacement level of Fly ash or Pond ash increase with cement; setting time (IST and FST) of same also increases. This is mainly due to less content of cement.  Split tensile strength and Flexural strength of Fly ash and Pond ash concrete gradually decreases as replacement level increases.  SEM of Fly ash concrete shows dense microstructure and at higher percentage paste gets crumbled which leads to lower strength. Pond ash concrete shows irregular shaped clusters, and for higher percentage flaws remain in concrete.  In all XRD images it is seen that Calcium Aluminium Sulphate Hydroxyte predominates.  More study is required to check other properties such as durability, permeability and shrinkage. Based on results obtained and literature review it is known that Pond ash has good potential to be used in the construction activity. Now days Government of India has undertaken the project of construction of new highways or widening of existing highways. As per IRC:SP:49-2014 compressive strength of concrete International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1136-1142 K M B AGWAN AND S S K ULKARNI for sub-base layer in rigid pavement is only 7 MPa at 7 days. So if Pond ash concrete is used for such layer it consumes lot of Pond ash. This not only decrease cost of concrete but also helps to reduce pollutions. Acknowledgment Authors would like to thank Director and Management of KES, Rajarambapu Institute of Technology, Sakharale, KJ College of Engineering and Management Research, Pune and Govt. Polytechnic Jalna for their support and encouragement throughout this research activity. References [1] Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) Notification, New Delhi, 3rd April, 2007, published in The Gazette of India: Extraordinary [Part II-Sec.3(ii)]. [2] ash al Si h, “Fl ash utilizatio i I dia” posted by Dr. Yashpal Singh on Jan. 6th 2011, Comments for fly ash utilization in India. [3] Bharathi Ganesh, H. Sharada Bai, R. Nagendra, “ ffe ti e utilizatio of o d ash for sustai able construction – eed of the hour”, I ter atio al Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 4(6), 151-154, 2011. [4] Nader Ghafoori a d uzhe ai, “Laborator made roller compacted concretes containing dry bottom ash: Part I – Me ha i al ro erties”, A I Material Journal, 95(2), 121-130, 1998. [5] Nader Ghafoori a d uzhe ai, “Laborator made roller compacted concretes containing dry bottom ash: Part II – Lo ter durabilit ”, A I Material Journal, 95(3), 244-250, 1998. [6] Hyeong-Ki Ki , “Utilizatio of sie ed a d ground coal bottom ash powders as a coarse binder in high-strength mortar to improve or abilit ”, o stru tio a d uildi Materials, Elsevier, Volume 91, 30 August 2015, Pages 57-64, 2015. [7] Haldu Kura a, Mi e Ka a, “Usa e of oal o bustio botto ash i o rete ixture”, Construction and Building Materials, Elsevier, 22, 1922-1928, 2008. [8] Bapat, J. D.; Sabnis, S. S.; Hazaree, C. V., “ ofrie dl o rete ith Hi h Volu e of La oo Ash”, Jour al of Materials i i il Engineering, ASCE, 15(1), 48-53, 2006. [9] Glicerio Triches, Alexandre Jose da Silva, Roberto de A drade aldas Pi to, “I or orati bottom ash in roller compacted concrete for o osite a e e ts”, U i ersidade Federal de Santa Catarina. [10] Chai Jaturapitakkul and Raungrut Cheerarot, “ e elo e t of botto ash as ozzola i aterial”, Jour al of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, 15(1), 48-53, 2003. [11] Sandhya, B., and Reshma, E. K., “A stud o mechanical properties of cement concrete by partial replacement of fine aggregates with 1142 botto ash”, I ter atio al Jour al of stude ts research in Technology & Management, Vol. 1 (04), August 2013, 416-430, 2013. [12] Yogesh Aggarwal, Rafat Siddique, “Mi rostru ture a d ro erties of o rete usi bottom ash and waste foundry sand as partial re la e e t of fi e a re ates”, o stru tio and Building Materials, Elsevier, 54, 210-223, 2014. [13] Arumugam, K., Ilangovan. R., James Manohar ., “A stud o hara terizatio a d use of o d ash as fi e a re ate i o rete”, I ter atio al Journal of Civil and Structural Engineering, 2(2), 466-474, 2011. [14] Malkit Singh, Rafat Siddique, “Stre th properties and microstructural properties of concrete containing coal bottom ash as partial re la e e t of fi e a re ate”, o stru tio a d Building Materials, Elsevier, 50( 2014), 246-256, 2014. [15] Aggarwal, P., Aggarwal, Y., Gupta, S.M., “ ffe t of bottom ash as replacement of fine aggregate in o rete”, Asia Jour al of i il i eeri (Building and housing), Vol.8, No.1, 49-61, 2007. [16] Gambhir, M. L., Concrete Manual, Dhanpat Rai and Company Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India, 1992. [17] Shetty, M. S., Concrete Technology, S. Chand and Company Ltd., New Delhi, India, 2010. Technical manual [18] Bureau of Indian Standards IS 516, Method of test for strength of concrete, New Delhi, India, 1959. [19] Bureau of Indian Standards IS 1727, Methods of test for pozzolanic materials, New Delhi, India, 1967. [20] Bureau of Indian Standards IS 2386 (Part IV), Methods of test for aggregates for concreteMechanical properties, New Delhi, India, 1963. [21] Bureau of Indian Standards IS 8142, Method of test for determining setting time of concrete by penetration resistance, New Delhi, India, 1976. [22] Bureau of Indian Standards IS 10262, recommended guidelines for concrete mix design, New Delhi, India, 2009. [23] Bureau of Indian Standards IS 12269, Specification for 53 grade ordinary Portland cement, New Delhi, India, 1987. [24] Bureau of Indian Standards IS 456, Code of practice for plain and reinforced concrete (3 rd revision), New Delhi, India, 2000. [25] Bureau of Indian Standards, “S litti e sile Strength of Concrete-Method of est” IS 5816:1999, New Delhi, India, 1999. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1136-1142 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0606 December 2017, P.P.1143-1146 www.cafetinnova.org Bathymetry of the Lake Ngebel an Old Crater on the Wilis Volcanic Complex, East Java Indonesia OKTIYAS MUZAKY LUTHFI Department of Marine Science, Faculty Fisheries, and Marine Science, University of Brawijaya, Jl. Veteran, Malang, 65145, Indonesia Email: omuzakyl@ub.ac.id Abstract: Ngebel Lake is a caldera that composed from andesite-dacite and formed at Pleistocene epoch (1.8 million years ago). This caldera can harvest rainfall and wellhead surrounding caldera up to 52 million ton. The Recent function of this lake became tourism attraction and contributed to the renewable energy that able to generate hydroelectric power for up to 1x2.2 MW. The volume of water in the lake is suspected decreased continuously due to reduced water input source and there is also a threat of rain sedimentation that comes from the upper area. There is no accurate data prior to study how much the volume of water that is owned by Lake Ngebel. These bathymetric mappings already answered these conditions and also make the baseline of the depth of the lake in 2013. Keywords: hydropower plant, sedimentation rate, caldera, stratovolcano, bathymetry 1. Introduction Lake of Ngebel is one of the natural lakes formed as a result of volcanic processes. Geologically Lake Ngebel is a caldera, located in Wilis volcanic complex [1] that administratively located in the northeast Ponorogo regency which lay on 734 meters above sea level. Mount Wilis formed due to lifting the Eurasian plate effect of collides between the Indo-Australian plate which eventually forms volcanoes range along the Sunda Arc [1; 2]. Mount Wilis is a mountain of type B has the shape of a cone so it is also called as well as stratovolcano [3]. Since 1600 up to now there are no signs of activity in Mount Wilis [4]. Rock types that predominate in the caldera lake Ngebel are dacite, breccias, andesitic lava, and interbedded tuff and pumice were formed [5]. Ngebel Lake is one of the lakes that used as hydropower since 1969 with a capacity of 1x2.2 MW. Ngebel Lake was lithosol that derived from complete weathering of rocks. Another type was grumusol (margalith) that was formed from smooth clay [6]. The two types of these soil have great potential of the landslide, it was recorded for the last 6 years that been three times the incidence of floods and landslides around of Ngebel lake; it was in 2010, 2015 and 2016. Material from floods and landslides will accumulate and settle to the bottom of the lake, lead shallowing of the water of the lake. Hence, the sounding for recording bathymetry level in this lake is required to know the update of lake depth. While the mapping of bathymetry of this lake also can be a basic data to monitor the water level of the lake in the future. This information also important for stakeholders to solve problems may arise in the future. The bathymetry method itself was used since the 1930s using the sounding rope and then in 1950s using a fathometer. In early 1990s using echo sounder and linking to the GPS that resulted high accuration, cheap and rapid survey [11]. The aims of this research were to determine the depth, water volume and to estimate the sedimentation rate of Ngebel Lake. 2. Location of Research The study was conducted in November 2013 in Lake of Ngebel Ponorogo, East Java. Figure 1. Map of research location 3. Material of Sounding The material for sounding was GPS, one set of dual beam echosounder 50 kHz and 200 kHz (Garmin GPS Map 585 (USA)), transducer, and rubber boat for sounding track. A sounding path made perpendicular with lakebank, with interval 50 m each sounding track. To make a smooth track we set echo sounder to record the coordinate (X, Y, and Z) each 50 m in DGPS mode. Received: August 06, 2017; Accepted: December 25, 2017; Published: January 30, 2018 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1143-1146, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0606 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved O KTIYAS MUZAKY LUTHFI 4. Preparation of Sounding The output of sounding is got an overview of the lake bottom terrain or mapping the lake bottom. Basically, sounding is determining the depth (Z) and position (X, Y) on the surface of the lake bottom. So, the depth of the lake can be described. Sounding has been done using the GPS map sounder instrument that can measure the depth of the lake and determine its position by GPS, the intensity of recorded data can be adjusted depending on the required accuracy of bathymetry mapping. Stages of the sounding survey are divided into two stages, they were data acquisition and data processing. Data acquisition following 3 steps: pre-sampling, sampling and data downloading. Data processing also take 3 steps: correcting data, mapping, and interpreting. During sounding preparation, should consider this thing: the depth range of lake will be measured, the type of waters will be surveyed, the selection of boats that will be used, and time of sounding. Next step is installing the equipment, such as setting a GPS receiver perpendicular above the transducer, installing transducer not too close to the ship's engine to avoid the influence of a sound wave, also laying it far away from boat propeller to avoid propagation of sound waves that will have an impact on the accuracy of depth measurement. The last step is measuring the transducer draft from the lake bottom. The transducer should be placed on 40-50 cm from above of water level to keep it always submerged during sounding track process even boat lifted away by lake wave (Figure 1). 1144 recording was automatically saved in the track record menu. The track records were pointing set formed a line track, and have to function for track controller during the sounding process. The main problem during the sounding process is a lack of GPS’s si al and will interrupt the dots establishment (Figure 3). Downloading data from the echo sounder process has been done used software Mapsources®. This software can also show the temporary results of sounding. Figure 3. Track record of sounding in Ngebel Lake, Ponorogo 6. Data sortation, correction, and mapping Sorting the data required to remove error data resulted when the recording process faced on shallow water. Corrections provided include: dynamic correction, is the numbers referenced in the chart depth datum (elevation sluice of the dam), that referred the high of lake surface (Figure 2). When the tide in palm reading during the sounding process is Zi, chart datum is Zo and transducer is constant T, and the measured depth is Di, the depth of lake (D) can be calculated as follow: D= Di + T – (Zi-Zo) D= Di – (Zi-Zo-T) Dynamic correction = (Zi-Zo-T) (1) (2) (3) Correction speed of sound, the speed of sound waves associated with the media path, also affected by pressure, temperature and time of media path. Mathematical models of Wilson (assuming linear hydrostatic pressure with the depth of lake water) can be used as the basis for a correction. With the following formula: Figure 2. Illustration of process bathymetry in Ngebel Lake, Ponorogo V = 1449,2 + 4,6 t – 0,055 t2 + 0,00029 t3 + (1,34 – 0,01 t) (S-35) + 0,016 d (4) 5. Sounding Process and Downloading Data Where: t = temperature (oC) P = air pressure (kg/cm3) S = salinities (o/oo) Sounding generally performed if the height of wave <0.5 m and speed of boat always kept for < 10 km/hr. with data recording each 25- 50 m from boat movement. The final recorded depth data will be corrected with the water level of the lake that stated on a palm reading (6.5 m) (Figure 2). Sounding data Because of the depth measured <50 m, the correction is quite small and can be ignored. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1143-1146 1145 Bathymetry of The Lake Ngebel an Old Crater on The Wilis Volcanic Complex, East Java Indonesia 7. Result of Bathymetry Mapping Lake Ngebel so will increase the volume of water in the lake. Ngebel area according to Schmidt-Ferguson classification as C type area, which had a wet season for 7 - 9 months and has an average rainfall about 200 mm per month [8]. Second, the use of lake water for electricity generation. In each month from March to October the water at Ngebel Lake will reduce due hydropower plant usage. Third, the increased sediment that settles in the bottom of Ngebel Lake, resulting shallowing and reducing the volume of the lake water. Linear regression function between water elevation and volume of Ngebel lake showed a strong relationship with R2 = 0.99 (Figure 6). The result from sounding showed the depth of Lake Ngebel vary from 1 to 51 m. Figure 4 has shown the east, south, and north of the lake have sloping substrate than the western region. From west to the middle of the lake (about 250 m forward) has drop slope from 1 m direct to 51 m, and may this location was the center of the caldera of Ngebel lake and became hydrothermal eruption center the past [2]. The result of sounding showed the Ngebel lake was a caldera (Figure 5) and categorized as Andesite–dacite calderas that have a typical dome-shaped and is part of the mountain stratocones explosion [9]. The caldera itself was defined as a structure of a volcano, which generally has a large size, which is the result of the collapse of material from the top of the magma chamber during or after the explosion occurred [10]. The movement of the boat: Moving forward boat will change the boat transducer depth. Squate, the changes caused by the decline in the stern of the boat during moving forward while the ship's bow lifted, so by putting the transducer in the middle of the stern and the bow it will minimize the error data. The settlement, the changes caused by the decline in the boat when moving forward. These errors can be avoided if the wave height less than <0.5 m. Mapping and interpretation: Mapping bathymetry process conducted used a Surfer® ver. 10. There are two sources of hydrothermal that were found, the location approximately 1 km south of Ngebel Lake. Putra [7] stated that early epoch of Pleistocene (1.8 million years ago) occurred beginning deposits of rock breccias, andesite lava, and tuff in the mountain interbed of Ngebel including its caldera. From these data, it could be concluded that the caldera of Ngebel Lake had more than 51 m depth in the early formation or the post-eruption. Figure 5. Two dimension (2D) (a) and 3D of Ngebel Lake Figure 4. Over lay of 2D of Ngebel lake to Google Earth 8. Calculation Water Volume The estimation of lake volume has been used Surfer software; volume factual during the sounding was 42,664.37 m3, where the water elevation was -6.7 m from datum level. While the maximum volume in the lake can reach 52,043.75 m3 (+ 6.7 m). Volume lake Ngebel for each condition based on the water level of the lake can be estimated according to the Figure 5. Lake Ngebel volume depends on several factors: first, the bulk of the rainy season. Rainwater will flow into Figure 6. Regression of Ngebel lake that gives exact picture of high elevation of lake with its volume International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1143-1146 O KTIYAS MUZAKY LUTHFI 9. Conclusions Ngebel Lake has maximum potential volume for 52 million tons of water and a minimum volume reached 22.6 million tons, had been producing about 1x2.2 MW electrical power. The volume of water in Ngebel Lake highly dependent on the input volume of water that comes from rain water and shallowing of the lake may come from the amount of sediment that settles into the caldera. References [1] Setijadji L.D., Kajino S., Imai A., Watanabe K., Cenozoic island arc magmatism in Java Island (Sunda Arc, Indonesia): clues on relationships between geodynamics of volcanic centers and ore mineralization, Resource Geology, 56(3), PP. 267-92, 2006 [2] Hochstein M.P., and Sudarman S., History of geothermal exploration in Indonesia from 1970 to 2000, Geothermics, 37(3), PP. 220-66, 2008 [3] Setijadji L.D., Segmented volcanic arc and its association with geothermal fields in Java island, Indonesia, In Proceedings World Geothermal Congress, PP. 25-29, 2010 [4] Soemintadireja, P., Vulkanologi dan Geotermal. Penerbit ITB Bandung, 2005. [5] Hartono U., The petrology and geochemistry of the Wilis and Lawu volcanoes, East Java, Indonesia, Doctoral dissertation, University of Tasmania, 1994. [6] Setyawati T., Pemanfaatan pohon berkhasiat obat di Cagar Alam Gunung Picis dan Gunung Sigogor, Kabupaten Ponorogo, Jawa Timur, Jurnal Penelitian Hutan dan Konservasi Alam, 7(2), PP. 177-92, 2016 [7] Putra S.D., Rizki R., Akbar A.F., Volcanostratigraphic Study and Its Implication to The Geothermal Resource Estimation of Mount Wilis, East Java. In Proceedings, 3rd International Geothermal Workshop, ITB, Bandung, Indonesia 2014 [8] Sasminto R.A., Sutanhaji A.T., Analisis Spasial Penentuan Iklim Menurut Klasifikasi SchmidtFerguson dan Oldeman di Kabupaten Ponorogo, Jurnal Sumber Daya Alam dan Lingkungan. 1(1), PP. 51- 56, 2014 [9] Cole J.W., Milner D.M., Spinks K.D., Calderas and caldera structures: a review, Earth-Science Reviews, 69(1), PP.1-26, 2005 [10] Walker G.P., Downsag calderas, ring faults, caldera sizes, and incremental caldera growth, Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 89(B), PP 8407-8416, 1984 [11] Dost, R. J. J., & Mannaerts, C. M. M. Generation of Lake Bathymetry using sonar, satellite imagery and GIS. In Proceedings of the 2008 ESRI international user conference: GIS, Geography in action. San Diego, Florida. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1143-1146 1146 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0607 December 2017, P.P.1147-1152 www.cafetinnova.org Athikkadavu – Avanashi Revised Flood Flow Scheme- An Alternative to Government Proposal A VEERAPPAN AND M LAKSHMIPATHY Email: Department of Civil Engineering, SRM University, Kattankulathur, Tamilnadu, India Email: er_a_veerappan@hotmail.com, lakshmipathy_ml@rediffmail.com Abstract: Athikkadavu – Avanashi Groundwater Recharging Scheme is repeatedly demanded by the north Coimbatore, Tiruppur and Erode Districts farmers of Tamilnadu for the past 50 years. However the Government of Tamilnadu has decided to accept the demand during April 2016 for implementation. As per the proposal of Water Resources Organisation, Tamilnadu Public Works Department, 2 TMC of surplus flood waters once in two years from Pillur Dam (across Bhavani River) in Tamilnadu is proposed to be diverted to these areas through a 4 KM tunnel and again a long open canal to feed 71 tanks and 538 ponds at an estimated cost of Rs.3523 Crores. As this proposal has too many deficiencies, such as evaporation and seepage loss and illegal pumping of water en-route besides large extent of land acquisition at a huge cost, a revised alternative proposal envisages, forming a standing reservoir and taking the water for 100 days through large size RCC pipes (NP2 Class) taken along the National Highways, State Highways and Major District Roads at a reduced cost of Rs.950 Crores only and the same was submitted to Government for their consideration. The revised proposal also includes adoption of new construction materials and advanced construction techniques in transporting bulk water supply to reduce the execution time. Keywords: Bulk Water Transport, Open Canals, Evaporation & Seepage, Closed RC Pipes, RE Wall Reservoir, Advanced Distribution Boxes. 1. Introduction 1.1 Avanashi Taluk and Perundurai Taluk of earlier Coimbatore District are dry areas with an annual rainfall of 660mm & 737mm respectively. These areas are neither benefitted from Bhavani River nor by the implementation of Parambikulam Aliyar Project. Hence the farmers and other people of these areas have been requesting for more than 50 years for some relief from the surplus flood water of Pillur dam fed by the Bhavani River. It is then named as Athikadavu - Avanashi flood flow scheme or Ground Water recharge scheme by filling 30 PWD Tanks, 41 Panchayat union tanks besides adjoining 538 smaller ponds. Many conferences, demonstrations and agitations were performed to stress their demand and urge the Government of Tamilnadu to implement the above scheme, but in vain due to various reasons, not acceptable by the people. 1.2 Reports from the earlier history reveal that the concept of utilising surplus water of Bhavani River to benefit these dry areas was initially envisaged as early as 1834 by Sir Arthur cotton. In 1905, Er.Arogyaswami Mudaliyar, former EE, PWD investigated two alternative schemes - one to form a storage reservoir in the upper reaches of Bhavani river (upper Bhavani project) and the other lower down (Lower Bhavani Project) to serve Gobi, Erode, Bhavani and Dharapuram Taluks of then Coimbatore District. However the Lower Bhavani Project was implemented for the purposes of additional irrigation without any benefit to the people of Avanashi & Perundurai Taluk. Then again, during 1960's, it was suggested to utilise the tail race water of Pillur Reservoir for these areas by gravity; but however it was given up, fearing that it will affect the power generation capacity of Pillur Reservoir. 1.3 During 1967 and again 1968, a scheme with restricted benefits to utilise 3.00 TMC of water from the Kundah Tail race water was revived. However, the Government, for its own reasons deferred the above scheme in 1969. Again in 1975, another proposal to supply water to the restricted areas by a gravity canal, taking off from the river below Pillur Dam from a diversion weir was suggested. But due to the reasons unknown it was not proceeded with. Yet again during 1999 - 2000 there was vociferous demand for executing a scheme by diverting water from Bhavani for filling the existing tanks to ensure drinking water to several villages in Avanashi Taluk, but was negatived by the Cauvery Technical Committee under the guise of ongoing Cauvery Waters Dispute by the Tribunal. 1.4 After the final award of Cauvery water dispute tribunal in February 2007, Government of Tamilnadu constituted an Expert Committee to examine the feasibility of the proposed Athikadavu - Avanashi flood flow canal scheme in the Bhavani Basin in G.O.Ms.No.319PW(Q1) dt.16.06.2009 under the chairmanship of Er.A.Mohanakrishnan, Advisor (Water Resources) & Chairman, Cauvery Technical Cell based on the Government of Tamilnadu budget report for the year 2009-2010. Received: August 02, 2017; Accepted: December 22, 2017; Published: January 30, 2018 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1147-1152, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0607 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved A VEERAPPAN AND M LAKSHMIPATHY 2.1 Er.A.Mohanakrishnan's Expert Committee [1], after studying the proposal in detail, during October 2009, recommended to divert 2 TMC of flood waters from Pillur Dam once in 2 years for 20 days in a year through a flood flow open earthern canal of 2000 cusecs taken in the available contour by gravity flow into Avanashi areas to feed the existing 31 PWD Tanks, 40 Panchayat Union tanks besides 538 small ponds attached to the above tanks mainly to recharge the ground water for improving the drinking water supplies in the above said area, considering the surplus flood flow of Pillur Dam from 2000 to 2010 without affecting the existing commitments (Surplus in 8 years out of 11 years). 1148 v) At it has to cross bridges, roads, streams etc., the cross masonry discharge structures are numerous and cost heavily, increasing the cost of the project. 3.1 The advice of engineering experts therefore adopt new technologies and modern construction materials for discharging bulk water quantity through closed large RC concrete pipes, laid along the road sides of state highway, major district roads and other village roads with little loss of water & mostly minimising the land acquisition. Further water passes through smooth closed concrete pipes; flow is uniform, speedy and delivering water to tail end tanks and ponds judiciously. 3.2 The salient features of our modified proposals are 2.2 ased o this x ert o ittee’s listed out below. recommendations, Public works Department - Project Salient Features of the Modified Proposals in the Planning and Designs Division, Erode under the Athikadavu Avanashi GW Recharge Scheme control of the CE, PWD (WRO) Plan Formulation wing prepared a Project Report on Athikadavu - i. Drawal of 2 TMC of water through 4.50m dia Avanashi Flood Flow Canal Scheme at an estimated Tunnel - 4km long for 20 days as specified in cost of Rs.1862.00 crores (2011-2012 financial year) Er.A.Mohanakrishnan Experts Committee Report. and Rs.3523 crores (2015-16 financial year)[2] and ii. Forming a open storage reservoir of 2.00 TMC submitted to the Government of Tamilnadu for capacity with 838 acres of water spread with an granting Governments administrative sanction. average depth of 10m at Kandiyur - Velliangadu Government of Tamilnadu is exploring possibility of belt – 4.50KM long bund with RE Wall with FWL obtaining funds from Government of India and also +420m (U/S RC Panels is made water tight by using other funding agencies for the implementation of the concrete sealant / micro concrete / cement grouting) above project. iii. Off-take line with 1x2000mm dia RC concrete pipes of NP2 class (non-pressure type) as main line from 2.3 The Engineering Experts of Tamilnadu Public Kandiyur Reservoir to Karegoundanpalayam, Works Department having rich experience in 45.31km long and also feeding some 6 tanks & irrigation structures and construction of building 20 ponds in between with a drawal capacity of 200 projects for 40 years opine that the above Tamilnadu cusecs for 120 days by gravity flow. Public Works i) It adopts conventional method of iv. OT line 2 - branching to Avanashi with 1x800mm drawing water through large open canals using dia pipes for 25.90km length and feeding 3 tanks & conventional construction materials and old 94 ponds in between with a drawal capacity of 15 technologies, and thereby making it less efficient. cusecs by gravity flow. ii) Drawing bulk water through open earth canal for a v. OT line 3 - branching to Perundurai with long length (say about 200km) causes considerable 1x1600mm dia concrete pipes with 125 cusecs loss of water due to evaporation, seepage and theft of drawal capacity for a length of 89.00km for feeding water by illegal pumping in between the route by anti62 tanks and 424 ponds for 120 days by gravity farmers, leading to denial of assured quantum of flow. water to rear end (tail end) tanks and ponds. vi. Separate Branching lines of 600 to 300mm dia concrete pipes to feed certain chain of Tanks in the iii) The canal is so wide for carrying 2000 cusecs of Perundurai line by gravity flow. water and hence requires large extent of private and vii. Separate smaller OT lines of 300mm dia RC Government lands to be acquired at high cost which is concrete pipes to feed smaller 538 ponds from major at present resisted by the farmers and common people, tanks or main lines by gravity flow. causing enormous delay in the completion of the viii. All the pipelines are proposed to be taken along side project. of the existing State Highways, Major district roads & also village roads to totally avoid land acquisition iv) Since the project proposal does not adopt modern from farmers and also expedite the execution of the construction materials and advanced technologies project. developed and adopted elsewhere with higher safety and long durability, the cost of the project is not only ix. Closed RC concrete pipes (non-pressure type NP2) are chosen to supply the required water to all the very high but also involves considerable delay, tanks and ponds including the tail ended ones increasing the cost due to cost escalation etc. without evaporation loss, seepage, theft of water by Department project proposal has the following illegal pumping and also preventing the front ones deficiencies / short comings. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1147-1152 1149 Athikkadavu – Avanashi Revised Flood Flow Scheme- An Alternative to Government Proposal to draw more water denying the same to tail ends and also with cost effectiveness. x. Drawal of water to each and every tanks and ponds is regulated by the cross masonry works which are fitted with V notches for letting out exact quantity. Estimate provisions also include some amount to land acquisition of Forest Lands, unforeseen items of work and also 10% increase towards cost escalation. With all these provisions our modified estimate cost works to Rs.950/- crores (at prevailing 2015-2016 rates) just 35% cost of the Government PWD (PF, WRO) proposal. Forming Reservoir with RE Wall - Length 4.65 km FWL +420m FRL +419m Actual water height = +420m - +405m = 15m RE wall = Bottom 8m.... Top 4m..... Height 20m Water spread Area = 3.39 sq.km = 838 acres Average depth of water Stored = 10m Quantity of water to be stored = 3.39 x 10 x 106 = 33.90 x 106 cu.m = 1197 x 106 cft = 1.20 TMC Athikadavu - Avanashi GW Recharge scheme Water Drawal & Discharge Data 1. From Pillur Reservoir through 4.50m dia Tunnel with 2m/sec velocity by gravity Q1= 2m/sec = 36.074m3/sec Q = Total Quantum of water to be drawn in 20 days = 36.074 x 20 x 24 x 60 x 60 = 62335872 cu.m = 62.34 x 106 m3 = 2201.40 x 106 cft. With 90% full Qd drawal = 1.981 TMC Hence 4.50m Dia Tunnel is sufficient to draw 2.00 TMC of Surplus Flood water  Water stored inside the tunnel of 4km at 90% full  Mined quantity of Tunnel = 18.073 x 4000 = 72292 cu.m  Mining cost including provision of supports, transporting muck, grouting etc. Rs.17000/cu.m = 72292 x Rs.17000 = Rs.122,89,64,000  Preliminary approach road, survey, power supply etc = Rs.17,10,36,000 = Rs.140,00,00,00 =Rs.140.00 crores  Cost of the weir in PCC / RR Masonry = Rs. 55.00 crores  Cost of the construction of saddle Dam = Rs. 5.00 crores = Rs.200.00 crores Total cost of the Tunnel and Appurtenant works: Rs.200 Crores Table 1: Athikkadavu – Avanashi Groundwater Recharging Scheme Alternative Proposal through RC Concrete Pipes (NP-2) – Approximate Estimate [4]&[5] S.no Description 1. Boring 4.50m dia D-shaped Tunnel for 4KM length inlet & outlet system etc Formation of Open Reservoir of 1.20TMC storage capacity with the use of RE wall system etc.,at Kandiyur Running 1x2000mm dia concrete pipes to draw 200 cusecs - main channel From Kandiyur to Karegoundam palayam 45.31km long and feeding 6 tanks & 20 ponds. Providing another branch with 1x800mm dia concrete pipes 25.90km long to Avanashi and feeding 3 Tanks & 94 Ponds Providing Second branch line with 1x1600mm dia major link 89km long Perundurai branch upto Ponmudi & feeding 62 Tanks & 424 Ponds Laying Chain of Tanks with RC pipes of 600mm to 300mm dia for various tanks (71nos) + Ponds Additional 300mm dia concrete pipes to feed 538 ponds included in the scheme Provision for cross masonry works throughout the length of pipelines including fixing V notches to draw (allow) specified discharge 2. 3. 4. = 4000 x 18.073m2 (area of cross section) = 72292 cu.m = 2552992 cft = 2.55x106 M cft x 0.80 = 2.297 x 106 cft Water discharge with 1x2000mm dia pipes - 2 m / sec velocity in 20days (/4) x 2.002 x 20 x 24 x 60 x 60 cu.m3 x 2m/sec = 10861714.27m3 = 1.086x106 m3 = 38.352 x 106 cft Estimate for the formation of Tunnel and appurtenant works [4] Dia of the Tunnel = 4.50m D Shaped Area = 18.073m2 Length of Tunnel = 4km = 4000m Balance water to be stored in the open reservoir = 2000 x 106 – 41.655 x 106 cft = 1948.345 x 106 cft = 1.948 TMC Available storage with average depth of 10m = 1.948 TMC only. 5. 6. 7. 8. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1147-1152 (Rs.in crores) Rs.200.00 Rs.99.00 Rs.154.20 Rs.14.00 Rs.109.70 Rs.62.54 Rs.135.00 Rs.110.00 A VEERAPPAN AND M LAKSHMIPATHY 9. Compensation to Forest lands & other lands to be taken for the scheme (850 acres) Rs.50.00 10. Other unforeseen items in the scheme Total estimated cost Figure 2. Cross Section of Pipe Laying Figure 3. General Arrangement for Distribution of Water International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1147-1152 1150 Rs.15.56 Rs.950.00 Crores 1151 Athikkadavu – Avanashi Revised Flood Flow Scheme- An Alternative to Government Proposal Table 2. Athikkadavu - Avanashi Ground Water Recharging Scheme – List of PWD and Panchayat Union Tanks benefitted Figure 2. Schematic Section of Reservoir & RE wall[3] 4. Results  By the modified proposals, it is suggested to use 2000mm dia, 1600mm dia & 1000mm dia large Figure 3. RE Wall Design Section [3] Precast RCC Pipes (NP2 Class) for transporting bulk water of 2 TMC feeding 71 tanks and 538 ponds. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1147-1152 A VEERAPPAN AND M LAKSHMIPATHY  It is also made feasible to lay the large RCC Pipes along the sides of the National Highways, State Highways and Major District Roads for the transport of water.  By this novel method, the necessity of a large extent of land acquisition of private lands at huge cost besides farmers & land owners stiff opposition is avoided.  Further the loss of substantial flow of water through open earthen canal by evaporation and seepage is also eliminated.  Finally speed of implementation of the project including delivering proportionate water to the tail end area is ensured. 5. Conclusions From the modified proposals, it is very much stressed that conventional method of drawing bulk water through open earthen canal is to be changed and there must be a paradigm shift to adopt large RCC pipes for the same in order to avoid land acquisition besides loss of water by evaporation and seepage. For establishing an open storage reservoir, a modern design of RE Wall System [3] is suggested against the conventional Earth dam and thereby improving the speed and reducing cost of the structures. It is therefore requested that all Irrigation Planners and Engineers must come forward to adopt modern construction materials and advanced techniques in the execution of present day Irrigation Projects. 6. Acknowledgements The author expresses his sincere thanks to Dr. M. Lakshimipathy, Professor of Structural Engineering, SRM University, Kattankulathur – 603 203 for his wellmerited guidance and Dr. V. Thamilarasu, Professor of Civil Engineering, SRM University, Kattankulathur - 603 203 for his assistance in the preparation of above special paper. References [1] Government of Tamilnadu Public Works Department - Prof.Er.A.Mohanakrishnan Expert Committee Report - June 2009. [2] Tamilnadu Public Works Department – Water Resources Organization - Detailed Project Report 2016 for Rs. 3523 Crores [3] Indian Road Congress SP 102-2014: Guidelines for Design and Construction of Reinforced Soil Walls [4] Tamilnadu Water Supply And Drainage Board Standard Schedule Rates 2014-2015 [5] Central Public Works Department–Delhi Schedule of Rates 2015-2016. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1147-1152 1152 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0608 December 2017, P.P.1153-1162 www.cafetinnova.org Geophysical Imaging of the OSUSTECH Subsurface Structures Using Magnetic and Resistivity Method HAMMED O S1, AWOYEMI M O2, F ATOBA J O3, IGBOAMA W N1, SANUADE O A3, BAYODE J O4, SALAMI A J4, AROYEHUN M3, F ALADE S C2, AROGUNDADE A B2 AND OLURIN O T5 1 Department of Physics, Federal University, Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria Department of Physics, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria 3 Department of Geophysics, Federal University, Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria 4 Department of Physical Sciences, Ondo State University of Science and Technology, Okitipupa, Nigeria 5 Department of Physics, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria Email: Olaide.hammed@fuoye.edu.ng 2 Abstract: The geophysical imaging of geologic bodies is a suitable technique used for subsurface structural analysis especially in the investigation of foundation beds that accommodate engineering structures. Integration of different geophysical techniques involves determination of the subsurface depth to the top of the geologic sources that produce observed anomalies. The present study presents a geophysical imaging of Ondo State University of Science and Technology, Okitipupa (OSUSTECH) main campus, a sedimentary complex of Southwestern Nigeria. This study has been carried out to investigate the subsurface structures based on the variation in the observed magnetic and electrical resistivity properties of the underlying rocks, or in some cases, cultural sources. Interpretation of ground magnetic and resistivity data revealed that the study area comprised zones underlain with thin as well as thick overburden. This has also helped in understanding the geomagnetic distribution of the study area. With respect to lithology of the area, the engineering structures can only be feasible in the surveyed areas like layer 2 (sandy clay) and layer four (sandy clay layer), and might not be feasible in some surveyed areas like layer 1 (lateritic topsoil) and the layer three (fine to the medium sand) because of the presence of geological materials with low shear strength or probable high volume of compressibility upon load application near the surface. Keywords: Subsurface structures; Geo-electrical resistivity, Vertical electrical sounding, 3D Euler deconvolution, Geologic source, Ground magnetic survey 1. Introduction Imaging of the earth subsurface has been of great concern to geoscientists, who seek to investigate it using diverse means, some for the purpose of having knowledge about the geology of the deeper portions of the earth, some do it for exploration of economic resources such as minerals and hydrocarbons, which lie concealed beneath the earth surface, some for engineering investigation, while some others for archaeological studies. The presence and magnitude of geophysical anomalies in the subsurface can only be ascertained by proper geophysical investigations of the subsurface geologic structures in the study area (Adagunodo, et al.,[2] ). Geophysical methods may be applied to a wide range of investigations from studies of the entire earth to exploration of a localized region of the upper crust for engineering or other purposes (Kearey et al., [7]). Geophysical methods are capable of detecting and delineating local features of potential interest such as discontinuities, faults, joints and other basement structures. The geophysical methods we used in this research are ground magnetic and electrical resistivity surveys. Generally, most of the buildi failures ha e i toda are due to eo le’s ignorance about subsurface features (Adagunodo et al., [2]). Hence, the use of ground magnetic and electrical resistivity surveys to delineate the subsurface structure is important Seyi [12]. These geophysical surveys reveal the geomagnetic and geoelectrical resistivity patterns to have a pre-knowledge of the impending damages associated with engineering structures erected in vulnerable zones. Magnetic survey is carried out to gain the knowledge of structure and composition of subsurface geological formations from magnetic anomalies caused by varied magnetic properties of the underlying rocks that have direct association with the built in engineering structures (Kearey et al., [7] ). Anomalies are revealed by systematic measurement of the variations in magnetic field strength with position. Seyi [12] stated that total magnetic intensity; in an area can aid in understanding clearly the underlying geology associated with hidden iron ore deposits. However, in terms of spatial resolution and cost effectiveness, electrical resistivity survey is the most suitable geophysical techniques (Neil and Ahmed [10]). In conjunction with the magnetic survey, the resistivity survey was also carried out at the study site to gain the knowledge of the subsurface stratigraphic Received: August 09, 2017; Accepted: December 24, 2017; Published: January 30, 2018 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1153-1162, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0608 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved H AMMED O S, AWOYEMI M O, F ATOBA J O, IGBOAMA W N, SANUADE O A, 1154 B AYODE J O, SALAMI A J, AROYEHUN M, F ALADE S C, AROGUNDADE A B AND O LURIN O T relationships or variation of subsurface materials in Benin, and Togo. It is made up of coastal plains, clays Nigerian, as an aid to the construction engineers. and sandstone (Jones and Hockey [9]). This basin In recent years, the resistivity survey has progressed extends from Accra in Ghana through the republic of rapidly from the conventional sounding survey, which Togo to the western flanks of Niger Delta in the east. provides layer depths and resistivity at a single place, The basin is bounded on the west by fault and other to a technique which provides two-dimensional tectonic structures associated with landwards electrical pictures of the subsurface. The purpose of extension of Romanche Fracture Zone (Adegoke and electrical surveys is to determine the subsurface Omatsola [3]). Its eastern limit is similarly marked by resistivity distribution by making measurements on the Benin hinge line. It is a major flat structure the ground surface (Oluwafemi[13]). From the marking the western limit of Niger delta basin [3]. resistivity measurements, the true resistivity of the The Okitipupa basement ridge separates the Dahomey subsurface can be estimated. This development started from the Benue trough until the Late Creataceous with the introduction of practical electrical subsidence and marine transgression united both tomography field systems, like the geoelectrical basins. Schlumberger Array. The imaging technique is particularly powerful and useful in the study areas of complex geology, in groundwater problems and in many other shallow subsurface delineation (Dahlin [5]). 2-D electrical imaging method gives good results when the resistivity contrast is high. Within the weathering profiles, the primary rock minerals are destroyed or altered in response to atmospheric and biospheric conditions. The effect of weathering in areas of crystalline rock is to alter the hard parent material with very low porosity and primary permeability into softer or quite earthy materials with very high porosity. Monday et al., [6] demonstrated that electrical resistivity imaging method can give a better picture of the concealed structures, than the conventional maps of true and/or apparent resistivity contours using the vertical electrical sounding method. From their study, concealed lineaments within the granitic terrain of India were identified Figure 1: Map of Ondo State University of Science which further proved the resistivity imaging technique and Technology (OSUSTECH) Okitipupa Main to be a powerful tool in the study of concealed Campus lineaments as well as groundwater exploration. Weathering and fracturing depend on the lithology and texture of the parent rock and the extent of the weathered overburden and the presence of joints and fractures in the underlying bedrock (Acworth [1]). Deep weathering has proved to be the most important single factor in geological environments (Le Grand [8]; Asseez [4]) especially in the humid tropics by providing an overburden of relatively more porous and more permeable materials from the rocks. The development of thick clay in basement complex terrain leads to failure in constructions. Other prevailing environmental factors such as topography, vegetation and climate favour engineering construction. The study of weathering profile, its vertical variation, spatial distribution, textural characteristics of the constituent materials are essential step towards a better understanding of shallow site investigation in basement complex areas. 2. Description and Geology of the study area Okitipupa lies within the Dahomey Basin that cuts into southwestern Nigeria. The Dahomey Basin is an arcuate coastal basin, the onshore parts of which underlie the coastal plains of southwest Nigeria, Figure 2: Geology map of study area (Adapted from PTF [11]) 3. Data Acquisition and Method 3.1 Magnetic Method In carrying out the survey, five (5) traverses were set up and the results were presented as ground magnetic profiles of varying intensities using Geometries International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1153-1162 1155 Geophysical Imaging of the OSUSTECH Subsurface Structures Using Magnetic and Resistivity Method Proton Precession Magnetometer, model GSM 19T. The instrument produces an absolute and relatively high resolution of the field and displays measurement of Total Magnetic Intensity TMI of the area in digital lighted readout. Three components namely horizontal, vertical and total components were measured. The vertical components and the total components are mostly used to delineate faults, fractures, depth to magnetic basement and other geological structures. To make accurate magnetic maps, temporal changes (diur al ariatio ) i the earth’s field duri the period of survey were monitored by selecting a base station, where the magnetic intensities are being measured at a stationery point. The regional magnetic field was removed from the TMI using a filtering technique called Second Vertical Derivative. The technique emphasizes the expressions of local features and removes the effects of large anomalies or regional influences. When these corrections were done, the data were exported into the Oasis Montaj database for gridding, filtering, and enhancement analysis. The Euler deconvolution was performed to estimate the depth and structural index of the causative bodies as shown in Figure 3. Factors we considered in identifying potential problems include: i. Survey height above sources; ii. Leveling (and other systematic errors); iii. Line spacing or sample interval; iv. Grid interval relative to the line or sample interval. Since the survey result was a line-based data, a grid interval 1/8 of the line spacing (1.25) was chosen because aliasing, leveling, and location errors mostly affect shorter wavelengths. Following data and grid preparation, the next step in the inversion process was to obtain the vertical and two horizontal derivatives of the starting grid. Euler 3D calculates gradient grids from a starting grid. The x and y derivatives were computed in the space domain using a simple nine-point (3x3) convolution filter. The z derivative filter does not have a simple spatial representation, so it was computed in the frequency domain. The significant of Euler 3D Deconvolution processing is to produce one or more maps that display the locations and depths of the sources of potential field anomalies. The source type and structural index are very important. The Standard Euler 3D analysis consisted of selecting a structural index, applying the Euler Deconvolution, evaluating the results and windowing results to extract a suitable set of solutions. This sequence continued until depth determinations were obtained for all of the models (structural indices) considered valid for the area under study. The inversion process was performed using the starting grid, vertical (dZ) derivative grid and horizontal (dX and dY) derivative grids to invert the data. This process created a database containing a list of anomaly source locations, depth and uncertainties. After obtaining a solution database (Standard Euler 3D solutions), the solutions that were considered appropriate were then extracted. The database contained: Figure 3: 3D Euler deconvolution processing sequence The volumetric element (VOXEL) was created to display the pseudo-section of the anomalies. Euler 3D operates on gridded data (*.GRD) files. Euler deconvolution process requires four grids as input data: i. A starting grid, which may be the total ii. Magnetic field or the first vertical derivative of the field. iii. The first vertical derivative. iv. The first horizontal derivative in the X-direction. v. The first horizontal derivative in the Y-direction. Since the quality of the results depends directly on the quality of gridded data, the starting grid was carefully evaluated for any potential problems before starting the deconvolution process. i. Solution depth (Depth column) ii. Depth uncertainty in percent (dZ column) iii. Horizontal uncertainty in percent (dXY column) iv. X offset (x_offset column) v. Y offset (y_offset column) After creating a completely windowed set of solutions, a solution channel was built and the depth values were plotted as symbols. A symbol plot creates a plan map plot of the model solutions for evaluation and interpretation. 3.2 Electrical Resistivity Method 3.2.1 Wenner Array Horizontal Profiling Five profiles were set up at Ondo State University of Science and Technology (OSUSTECH) permanent site in the Faculty of Science, Faculty of Engineering and Faculty of Agriculture. The profile 1 was at the International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1153-1162 H AMMED O S, AWOYEMI M O, F ATOBA J O, IGBOAMA W N, SANUADE O A, 1156 B AYODE J O, SALAMI A J, AROYEHUN M, F ALADE S C, AROGUNDADE A B AND O LURIN O T back of Faculty of Science, the profile 2 was at the which two were competent zones with high resistivity back of the school library, the profile 3 was at back of at 25 m and110 m, and one weak zone with low Faculty of Agriculture, the profile 4 was at the back of resistivity at 70 m. For profile five (5), one point was Faculty of Engineering and the profile 5 was at the sounded. The one point sounded is called intermediate zone with its resistivity at 45m lied between high and back of Main Auditorium (as shown in Figure 1). low resistivity. This array consists of four electrodes (current electrodes C1 & C2 and potential electrodes P1 &P2) To remove unwanted signals and enhance the signal in line, separated by equal intervals, denoted as a. The qualities, the VES data were processed using value of a is equal to 10m, and the geometric factor k interpretation software for inversion of apparent is equal to 2 a. The apparent resistivity (ρa) is equal resistivity data called Ipi2win.The program basically determines a resistivity model that approximates the . Where I is the measured data within the limits of data errors and KR, where R is equal to current, R is the resistance, is final voltage- initial which is in agreement with all priors information. Human errors which normally associated with manual voltage. interpretation were reduced to minimum. In the profile 1, 105 m was covered. Our station location started at 15 m and the separation interval (a) 4. Results and Discussion between all the four electrodes was 10 m. At the point 4.1 Magnetic Interpretation moving, we moved from the North to the South along profile 1. The current was sent to the ground and the 4.1.1 Analytical Signal values of initial voltage, final voltage and the current The analytic signal was calculated to the target area of were recorded on a record sheet. After the first i terest to extra t the lo atio of a eti sour es’ reading, all the four electrodes were moved at the contacts or edges. Analysis of the analytic signal same time and the starting station distance in meters confirm the existence of abnormal limiting/or was increasing by 5m in order to keep the electrodes bounding structures (anomaly peaks). These separation interval constant throughout the profile. lineaments/contacts are in correlation with the For the remaining profiles 2, 3, 4 and 5, the distances magnetic bodies at traverses L2:0N, L4:0N, and covered were 95 m, 95 m, 95 m and 65 m L5:0N (Figure 4). However, the spatial distributions respectively. The starting station distance for all of of these magnetic bodies are not large and extensive. them was 15 m, and the separation interval between all the electrodes (current electrodes C1 & C2 and potential electrodes P1 & P2) was 10 m for the profile 2, 3, 4 and 5. At the point of moving, we moved from East to West along profile 2, North to South trend along profile 3, East to West trend along profile 4 and East to West trend along profile 5. 3.2.2 Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) The electrode separation, AB/2, as shown in figure 9, varied from 1m to 40 m. The potential electrode position, MN, varied from 0.5 m to 5 m. The more the separation distance, the more we probed into the ground. The potential electrodes were kept fixed until decrease in measured voltage was recorded to low values. A total number of thirteen (13) points were sounded along five (5) profiles. For the profile 1, three points were sounded. The three points sounded were one weak zone with low resistivity at 45 m, and the remaining two points sounded were the competent zone with high resistivity at 80 m and 110 m respectively. For the profile 2, three points of which two were competent zones with high resistivity at 30 m and 115 m, and one was weak zone with low resistivity at 60m were sounded . In profile three (3), three points were also sounded. These points comprised two competent zones with high resistivity at 40 m and 155 m, and one weak zone with low resistivity at 115 m. Also, for the profile four (4), three points were sounded, in Figure 4: Analytical signal analysis of the studied area 4.1.2 3D Euler Estimation Deconvolution and Depth The Euler deconvolution provides estimates of geometrical parameters for elementary causative bodies, from the magnetic anomalies and their horizontal and vertical derivatives. In order to detect the depth to the causative magnetic bodies, which were detected from derivative analysis and analytic International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1153-1162 1157 Geophysical Imaging of the OSUSTECH Subsurface Structures Using Magnetic and Resistivity Method signal, 3D Euler deconvolution technique was applied. The partial horizontal derivative of the total field intensity map of the study area was calculated after approximating the field with bicubic splines. The vertical derivative was obtained in the frequency domain, using a standard filter. The procedure overcame the problem with the edge effects by extending the grid 10% in each direction with half a cosine function before the vertical derivative calculation. The survey height was taken as zero. The inclination and declination of the study area are -13.7O and -2.1O respectively. The new deconvolution technique was applied where many dispersed solutions could be observed in the study area. Figures 5 - 7 represent the complete analysis using 3D Euler Deconvolution. Figure 5 shows the depth to magnetic sources. Figure 6 shows the calculated structural indices posted on the total field map. The common accepted structural element in the studied area is fault/or magnetic contact/dyke and that can be seen on Figure 6. Figure 7 shows the full calculated structural indices in 3D. The average depth is at 10.88m, the lowest depth is at 5.61m, while the deepest magnetic source is at 26.45m. The average structural index is 0.00026, indicating a magnetic contact model. Figure 6: The structural indices of the accepted solution posted on the magnetic intensity map 4.1.3 Volumetric Element or Structural framework and Pseudo-Section Slices. The VOXEL (Volumetric element) of the solution channel gives the full cell element of the region. For the engineering application, the regions of high magnetic susceptibility are to be sampled. The range of magnetic susceptibility of importance is from 33360 nT to 33969 nT. From Figure 8, the solution gives a localization of highly magnetic bodies at the southern part of the survey area. The Northern part of the survey area has low magnetic anomalous bodies which pose problems for engineering developments. Engineering structures constructed in this region have been observed to be deliquesced with cracks on their walls and slab. The current Faculty of Engineering Block sited in this area, has been cracked. Figure 7: Calculated structural indices, posted with the high susceptibility VOXELs Figure 8: 3D Volumetric Element (VOXEL) grid of the magnetic anomalous bodies. (Depth in millionth metres) 4.2 Resistivity Interpretation Figure 5: Depth of Magnetic Sources From the data obtained from the horizontal profiling method, lateral distributions of the different profile lines were obtained. In each profile, the peak International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1153-1162 H AMMED O S, AWOYEMI M O, F ATOBA J O, IGBOAMA W N, SANUADE O A, 1158 B AYODE J O, SALAMI A J, AROYEHUN M, F ALADE S C, AROGUNDADE A B AND O LURIN O T amplitude and trough amplitude at a specific distance Profile two were picked for VES sounding. The resistivity In the profile 2, we have three (3) VES points: VES 4, distribution for the soil formations in the study area is 5 and 6 as shown in the figures 11a, 11b and 11c shown in the contour map generated in figure 15. respectively. We have four (4) layers in this profile. Areas in the map with colour code yellow to white The first layer which is the lateritic topsoil has the represents areas with high resistivity which would resisti it alues ra e bet ee 85.6 to 177.6 Ω promote engineering structures. with depth values which range between 0.88 to 1.71 m and the thickness values which range between 0.88 Profile one to 1.71m. The resistivity is low due to conductive In the profile 1, three (3) VES points: VES 1, 2 and 3 materials that are likely present in this layer. This as shown in the figures 10a, 10b and 10c respectively. layer may not be good for engineering purpose We have four (4) layers in this profile. The first layer because of low resistivity values. (lateritic topsoil) resistivity values range between 96.0 The second layer which is the sandy clay/shale has the to 304.2 Ω ith de th alues hi h ra e bet ee 0.89 to 1.15 m and the thickness values which range resisti it alues that ar fro 2 5. to 1476 Ω between 0.89 to 1.15 m. The resistivity is very low with depth values range between 2.99 to 3.59 m and probably due to conductive materials (i.e. it can be the thickness values range between 1.88 to 2.11 m. pore fluid, void or metal objects) present in that area, The resistivity of this second layer is very high due to or due to low shear strength and as a result any low conductivity of the materials that is present in the structure erected on it may undergo differential area. This layer will be suitable for engineering settlement. The layer may not be suitable for structures to be erected but the prospective structures should be medium ones (not more than 5 storey engineering structures. buildings) because the resistivity is not as higher as The second layer (sandy clay/shale) resistivity ranges the other second layer. fro 68.7 to 2587.0 Ω ith de th values which range between 2.59 to 4.55 m and the thickness values The third layer which is the gravel/coarse to medium which range between 1.60 to 3.41 m. The resistivity sand has the resisti it alues bet ee 15 to 75.5 Ω of this layer is very high probably as result of low with the depth values range between 6.85 to 15.68 m conductivity of the materials present in the area. The and the thickness values range between 3.82 to 12.09 mixture of geological materials is a good property m. This layer has low resistivity values and may not particularly when the sand aggregates are coarse be good for engineering structures. enough to absorb and bind the clay materials together The forth layer which is the sandy clay/shale layer has in the presence of water. Depending on the degree of the resistivity values range between 3812 to 59707 compaction of this material, low to medium Ω ith o de th alues a d o thi ess alues engineering structures can be erected along this because the current is terminated in this layer. This profile. layer is good for engineering structures. The resistivity values of the third layer (gravel/coarse Profile three to ediu sa d) ra es fro 52.4 to124 Ω ith depth values range between 9.05 to 16.98m and the In the profile 3, we have three (3) VES points: VES 7, thickness values range between 4.5 to 13.49 m. This 8 and 9 as shown in the figures 12a, 12b and 12c layer has low resistivity values because of the respectively. We have four (4) layers in this profile. conductive materials that may present in this layer. The first layer (lateritic topsoil) resistivity values This layer may not be suitable for engineering ra e bet ee 207.6 to 520. Ω ith de th alues structures. which range between 0.5 to 2.15 m and the thickness The forth layer (sandy clay/shale layer) has the values which range between 0.5 to 2.15 m. The resisti it alues ra e bet ee 273 to 31 20 Ω . resistivity is very low probably due to the washing The depth and thickness of this layer could not be away of the shear strength and its compressibility obtained during data acquisition because the current materials by erosion during the rainy seasons. The terminated in the layer. The resistivity of this layer is layer will not be good for engineering purpose. very high probably due to low conductivity of the The second layer which is the sandy clay/shale has the materials that might have embedded in the subsurface resisti it alues that ar fro 1065 to 117 Ω layer. To build giant structures in this area, it requires with depth values range between 2.09 to 5.06 m and pilling to the sandy layer (i.e. we need to excavate the the thickness values range between 1.59 to 3.00 m. weak soil deeper than 3.41 m) in order to pass the The resistivity of this second layer is very high in this depth of the sandy clay. This is essential in order to area. This layer will be suitable for engineering prevent gradual or sudden collapse of such structures. structures but shallow foundation may not feasible. The excavation of weak soil structures is much difficult and very expensive. Therefore, it is not The third layer which is the coarse to medium sand economical to erect engineering structures on the has the resisti it alues bet ee 11. 8 to 174.8 Ω with the depth values range between 6.85 to 15.68 m surface of this region. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1153-1162 1159 Geophysical Imaging of the OSUSTECH Subsurface Structures Using Magnetic and Resistivity Method and the thickness values range between 6.15 to 25.74 m. This layer has low resistivity values, and may not be good for engineering structures. The forth layer which is the sandy clay/shale layer has the resistivity values range between 2116 to 29175 Ω ith o de th alues a d o thi ess alues because the current is terminated in this layer. This layer is good for engineering structures but we need to excavate bad soil first, and which is very expensive. Profile four In the profile 4, we have three (3) VES points: VES 10, 11 and 12 as shown in the figures 13a, 13b and 13c respectively. We have four (4) layers in this profile. The first layer (lateritic topsoil) resistivity values ra e bet ee 244.7 to 612 Ω ith de th alues which range between 0.5 to 1.26 m and the thickness values which range between 0.5 to 1.26 m. The resistivity is very tiny due to conductive materials (i.e. it can be pore fluid, void or metal objects) present in that areas, or due to the washing away of the shear strength and its compressibility materials by erosion during the summer. The layer will not be good for engineering purpose due to low resistivity. The second layer (sandy clay/shale) resistivity ranges fro 821 to 1865 Ω ith de th alues hi h ra e between 1.32 to 1.94 m and the thickness values which range between 0.68 to 1.29 m. The resistivity of this layer is very high due to low conductivity of the materials present in the area. The mixture of geological materials is a good property particularly when the sand aggregates are coarse enough to absorb and bind the clay materials together in the presence of water. Depending on the degree of compaction of this material, engineering structures can be erected on this area. The resistivity values of the third layer (coarse to ediu sa d) ra es fro 10.3 to 350.8 Ω ith depth values range between 6.39 to 24.3m and the thickness values range between 4.58 to 22.4 m. This layer has low resistivity values because of the conductive materials that may be present in this layer. This layer will not be good for engineering structures. Profile five In the profile 5, we have only one (1) VES point: VES 13 as shown in the figure 14. We have four (4) layers in this profile. The first layer (lateritic top soil) has resistivity value of 138 Ω , de th of 0.504 a d thi ess of 0.5041 m. The resistivity is very low; therefore, it will not accommodate engineering structures. The second layer (sandy clay/shale) has resistivity alue of 1750 Ω , de th of 1.87 a d thi ess of 1.37 m. The resistivity of this layer is very high and will be very good for engineering structures. The resistivity value of the third layer (coarse to ediu sa d) is 144.8 Ω ith de th alue of 7.4m, and the thickness value of 5.534 m. This layer has low resistivity value. This layer will not be good for engineering structures. The forth layer (sandy clay/shale layer) has the resisti it alue of 4318 Ω ith o de th alue a d as well as no thickness value because the current terminated in this layer. The resistivity of this layer is very high. To build a giant structure in this area, it requires pilling to the sandy layer to prevent gradual or sudden collapse of the structures. Figure 9: Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) using Schlumberger Electrode Configuration Figure 10a: VES 1 curve The forth layer (sandy clay/shale layer) has the resisti it alues ra e bet ee 383 to 35368 Ω with no depth values and as well as no thickness values because the current terminated in the layer. The resistivity of this layer is very high due to low conductivity of the materials that presents in the area. To build a giant structure in this area, it requires pilling to the sandy layer (i.e. we need to excavate the week soil deeper than 3.41 m) in order to pass the depth of the sandy clay. The excavation of bad soil is much difficult and very expensive. Figure 10b: VES 2 curve International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1153-1162 H AMMED O S, AWOYEMI M O, F ATOBA J O, IGBOAMA W N, SANUADE O A, B AYODE J O, SALAMI A J, AROYEHUN M, F ALADE S C, AROGUNDADE A B AND O LURIN O T Figure 10c: VES 3 curve Figure 12a: VES 7 curve Figure 11a: VES 4 curve Figure 12b: VES 8 curve Figure 11b: VES 5 curve Figure 12c: VES 9 curve Figure 11c: VES 6 curve Figure 13a: VES 10 curve International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1153-1162 1160 Geophysical Imaging of the OSUSTECH Subsurface Structures Using Magnetic and Resistivity Method 1161 areas for engineering purposes, and low magnetic values, which will serve as areas for construction of low-rise buildings (administrative building and warehouses) or areas for hydrogeologic purposes. A multidimensional approach to the study (such as source parameter imaging and pseudo-sections of voxels) has shown that magnetic technique is nondestructive, and provides the capability to map and analyze subsurface geotechnical materials. Figure 13b: VES 11 curve Figure 13c: VES 12 curve Interpretation of ground magnetic data revealed that the proposed Faculty of Engineering, OSUSTECH comprised zones underlain with thin as well as thick overburden. This has also helped in understanding the geomagnetic distribution of the study area. Interpretation of the electrical resistivity data revealed the lithology of the study area, that the subsurface is made up of lateritic topsoil, sandy clay/shale, gravel/coarse to medium sand and sandy clay layers. From the analysis and results obtained in this research, it is therefore recommended that Engineering structures should be erected on the layer two (sandy clay/shale) because of high resistivity of this layer. 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S. a d O atsola, M. ., “Tectonic Evolution and Cretaceous Stratigraphy of the Dahomey Basin”, Min-Geol., 1, PP. 130 – 137, 1980 [4] Asseez L.O., “Rural water supply in the basement co lex of Wester State, Ni eria”, Hydrogeological Sciences Bulletin, Des Sciences Hydrologiques XVII, 14, PP. 97-110, 1972 [5] ahli ., “2D resistivity surveying for environmental and engineering applications”, First Break, 14, PP. 275-283, 1996 [6] Mondal N.C., Rao V.A., Singh V.S. and Sarwade D.V., “Delineation of concealed lineaments using electrical resistivit i a i i ra iti terrai ”, Current Science, 94(3), PP. 277-283, 2008 [7] Kearey, P., Brooks, M. and Hill, I. “An Introduction to Geophysical Exploration”, Third Edition, Blackwell Pub., Chapter 15, PP. 101108, 2004 [8] Le Grand H.E., “Perspectives on the problems of hydrogeology”, Bull. Geological Society of America., 73, PP.1147-1152, 1962 [9] Jones, H.A. and Hockey, R.D., “The Geology of Part of Southwestern Nigeria”, Geol. Surv. Nigeria, Bulletin, 31, PP. 101, 1964 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1153-1162 H AMMED O S, AWOYEMI M O, F ATOBA J O, IGBOAMA W N, SANUADE O A, B AYODE J O, SALAMI A J, AROYEHUN M, F ALADE S C, AROGUNDADE A B AND O LURIN O T [10] Neil, A. a d Ah ed, I., “A Generalized protocol for selecting appropriate geophysical techniques”, In Workshop on Application of Geophysics. Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Missouri Rolla, Rolla, Missouri, 65401, 2006 [11] The Petroleum (Special) Trust Fund (PTF). Geological map of Ondo State: National Rural Water Supply Project, 2017 [12] Seyi, O.H., “Subsurface study of Geological pattern of Sumaje village, Nigeria”, Global Journal of Geosciences and Geoinformatics, 3(1), PP. 114-120, 2015 [13] Oluwafemi O., “Electrical resistivity imaging survey for shallow site Investigation at university Ibadan campus South ester Ni eria”, ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 7(2), PP. 187 -196, 2012 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1153-1162 1162 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0609 December 2017, P.P.1163-1167 www.cafetinnova.org Soil Slope Stability Analysis by Circular Failure Chart Method – A Case Study in Bodi- Bodimettu Ghat Section, Theni District, Tamil Nadu, India KANNAN M1, S E SARANAATHAN2 AND ANBALAGAN R3 1 Department of Civil Engineering, Parisutham Institute of Technology and Science, Thanjavur, 613006, INDIA 2 School of Civil Engineering, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur, 613401, INDIA 3 Department of Earth Sciences, IIT-Roorkee, 247667, INDIA Email: kuna_win1@rediffmail.com, esaranathan@yahoo.co.in, anbaiitr@gmail.com Abstract: The Bodi-Bodimettu hill slopes are characterized by presence of rocks with soil and debris materials occupying the surface area in a number of locations. The thickness of the loose overburden materials vary from 0.5m to more than 10m. In this research more than 5m soil slope considered as circular failure or rotational failure was considered as a case study. The twelve soil slope sections chosen for slope stability studies along the ghat section based on Hoek and Bray CFC conditions. The stability analysis of the soil slopes has been carried out by using Circular Failure Chart (CFC) method which is also based on limit equilibrium method. The collected parameters from field and experimental studies are plotted on the circular failure chart which can ultimately indicate factor of safety for the selected conditions of water saturation. The factor of safety (FOS) of the value is less than form CFC calculation indicates that the slope is favorably unstable condition. In this research the outcome shows that out of twelve sections, six sections are in unstable conditions and remedial measures are needed for those sections. Keywords: Soil slope stability, CFC, FOS. 1. Introduction: Many researchers has been developed various methodologies for soil slope stability for different field conditions. The soil slope stability studies are generally site specific in nature on detailed scale (1:1000 to 1:2000). The soil slope stability approach, the shear strength is basically described as a function of normal stress on the slip surface, cohesion and internal angle of friction. It is an important property of natural and constructed hill slope. Soil shear strength is not a unique value, but is strongly influenced by loading, unloading and especially by water content. Hoek and Bray [1] introduced the circular failure chart method for soil slope stability. This is mainly based on slope geometry and different groundwater conditions to compute factor of safety. Many other researchers carried out and utilized various approaches for calculation of factor of safety [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]. In rock slope section, it is assumed that the failure is controlled by geological features such as bedding planes and joints which divides the rock body into discontinuous mass. In case of soil, a strongly defined structural pattern no longer exists and the failure surface is free to find the line of least resistance through the slope. Observations of slope failure in soils suggest that this failure surface generally takes from the form of circle and most stability theories are based upon this observation. 1.1 Study area: In the ghat section, the soil stretch between 107/8 and 118/8 is considered for soil slope study. Twelve soil slope sections are chosen according circular failure chart conditions. Three samples were collected from each soil slope at different heights. The geospatial locations of this soil slope locations are shown in figure 1. Figure1: Soil slope location map 2. Methodology: 2.1 Sample collections and field parameters: Two types of samples were collected for laboratory analysis namely surface samples and core samples. Surface samples were collected along every section taken up for stability analysis. A minimum of soil samples per section distributed in different segments Received: August 09, 2017; Accepted: December 21, 2017; Published: January 30, 2018 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1163-1167, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0609 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved. KANNAN M, S E S ARANAATHAN AND ANBALAGAN R like upper, middle and lower were collected for that purpose the top soil to a depth of 30cm is removed and the soil obtained and numbered for proper record. In addition undisturbed core samples were also collected from the sub surface for different section chosen for analysis. The collected samples were subjected to direct shear test. Direct shear test was conducted on these representative samples with five different normal loads to get their corresponding shear strength values. The values were plotted in normal stress (x axis) – shear stress (y axis) to obtain representative shear strength parameters. Of many possible combinations derived from best fit lines of shear test results, cohesion (c) and value of friction angle () are calculated. Unit weight and density of soil materials were collected from core samples and grain size of soil samples were found out. 2.2 Circular Failur Chart (CFC): .Using the above geotechnical parameters stability evaluation of the soil slopes in terms of Factor of Safety was carried out using the CFC [1] [11]. The conditions under which circular failure will occur arise when the individual particles in a soil or weathered rock mass are very small as compared with the size of the slope and when these particles are not interlocked as a result of their shape. i. The general conditions responsible for a circular type of failure [1] are as follows:  Unconsolidated and loose soil and debris or highly weathered and altered rocks of considerable thickness (generally more than 5m)  Presence of excess water decreasing shear strength of slope material  Angle of slope generally more than 30o ii. Circular type of failures generally occurs in the following field conditions:  Steep road cuttings, terraces, mine cut slopes and other such cut slopes  Heavy subsurface water seepages into subsoil.  Unscientifically designed retaining walls  Places where consolidation of top soil layer is lost because of intense deforestation.  In the locations where the river takes acute leading to undercutting.  Presence of tension cracks on steep slopes. iii. The following assumptions are made in desiring the stability chart presented in figures.  The material forming the slope is assumed to be homogeneous.  The shear strength of the materials is characterized by a cohesion c and a friction angle .  Failure is assumed to occur on a circular failure surface which passes through the toe of the slope.    1164 A vertical tension crack is assumed to occur in the upper surface or in the face of the slope. The locations of the tension crack and of the failure surface are such that the factor of safety of the slope is a minimum for the slope geometry and ground water condition considered. A range of groundwater conditions, varying from a dry slope to a fully saturated slope under heavy recharge, are considered in the analysis. iv. Groundwater assumptions for Circular Failure Analysis In order to account for pore water pressure in subsoil and forces due to water present in tension cracks, a series of groundwater flow patterns are assumed. For that purpose, a series of possible field conditions have been chosen, which have been indicated in a combined form as shown in figure 2. v. Production of Circular Failure Charts The circular failure charts were produced by means of a Hewlett-Packard 9100B calculator [1] with graph plotting facilities. This software was programmed to seek out the most critical combination of failure surface and tension crack for each of a range of slope geometries and groundwater conditions. Provision was made for the tension crack to be located either in upper slope or of face of the concerned slope. The circular failure charts were numbered 1 to 5 to correspond with the groundwater conditions. Figure2: Groundwater conditions chart vi. Use of the Circular Failure Charts In order to use the charts to determine the factor of safety of a particular slope, the steps outlined below and shown in figure 3 & 4 should be followed. Step1. Decide upon the groundwater conditions which are believed to exist in the slope and choose the International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1163-1167 1165 Soil Slope Stability Analysis by Circular Failure Chart Method – A Case Study in Bodi- Bodimettu Ghat Section, Theni District, Tamil Nadu, India chart which is closest to these conditions, using the figure presented on figure 2. Step2. Calculate the value of the dimensionless ratio c / H. Tan(1) Find this value on the outer circular scale of the chart. Step3. Follow the radial line from the value found in the step 2 to its intersection with the curve which corresponding to the slope angle under consideration. Step4. Find the corresponding value of Tan/F or c/HF, depending upon which is more convenient, and calculate the factor of safety. Figure3: Calculation of FOS from CFC chart Figure4: Model CFC chart 3. Result and Discussion: The following slope sections were selected as Circular Failure Chart analysis. This is very easiest method to analysis and find out factor of Safety. The Circular Failure Chart method is proposed by Hoek and Bray [1]. This is semi-empirical approach method. For CFC analysis minimum laboratory testing is required. It is mainly depend upon the groundwater condition. The required parameters are density and shear strength of slope debris, height of the slope and steepness of the cut slope. These data after plotting the corresponding circular failure chart, will give the factor of safety of the particular slope. The following gives details about the critical sections. 3.1 Slope sections: There are twelve soil slope sections was selected for this resear h as er Hoe a d ra ’s slo e o ditio s. These twelve sections are located within four zones such as Bodimettu, Puliutthu, Mundal and Kathupparai zone. The details of the soil slope sections are discussed below. 3.1.1 Slope section - S1: The soil slope section is located in Bodimettu zone. The soil is yellowish brown in colour and indicates insitu nature. The wetness of the soil is mainly due to the improper drainage condition. The inclination of the general slope above cut face is about 25 towards N235 direction and cut slope is inclined at 75. The soil cross section details are discussed in table 1. The slope is fulfilling circular failure condition. According to the given observation, factor of safety is calculated in different groundwater conditions i.e. dry (chart 1) to saturated condition (chart 5). The FOS value (Table 1) is greater than one in dry to fully saturated condition indicates that the slope is favorably stable. 3.1.2 Slope section - S2: This soil slope section S2 is also located in Bodimettu zone and near 15th hairpin bend. The height of the slope section is about 8.25m. The inclination of the general slope above cut face is about 30 towards N340 and the cut slope is inclined at 70. The colour of the soil is brown, and it indicates that slope is always damp in condition. The soil cross section details are furnished in table 1. This slope is also fulfills the circular failure analysis condition. As per Hoe a d ra ’s [1] ir ular failure a al sis, factor of safety is calculated in dry to fully saturated conditions. According to this calculation the factor of safety (Table 1) value is greater than one indicates that the slope is favorably stable. 3.1.3 Slope section - S3: The soil slope section S3 is also located in Bodimettu zone. It is already a failed section. The height of the slope is about 8.25m. The inclination of general slope above cut face is about 30 towards N170 direction and cut slope is inclined at 80. The colour of the soil is reddish in colour. The soil cross section details are shown in table 1. This soil slope fulfills circular failure condition. According to given observation, the factor of safety is calculated in different groundwater conditions i.e. dry (chart 1) and fully saturated (chart 5) condition. Factor of safety is 2 in dry condition. In chart 5 indicates that the FOS value is 1.0 (Table 1) indicates that the slope is favorably stable. 3.1.4 Slope section - S4: The soil slope section S4 is also located within Bodimettu zone. The hydrological condition of the slope is wet and soil colour is light reddish brown. The inclination of the general slope above cut face is about 30 towards N185 direction and the cut slope is inclined at 70. The soil cross section details are International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1163-1167 KANNAN M, S E S ARANAATHAN AND ANBALAGAN R 1166 given in table 1. This slope fulfills the circular failure a al sis o ditio . As er Hoe a d ra ’s [1] circular failure analysis, factor of safety is calculated in dry to fully saturated conditions. According to this calculation factor of safety value is greater than one in dry condition indicates that the slope is stable in nature. The FOS (Table 1) value 1.45 indicates that the slope is critical stable. failure analysis. According to the given observation, the factor of safety is calculated in different groundwater conditions i.e. dry (chart 1) to fully saturated (chart 5) condition. In chart 1 to chart 4, the factor of safety value is greater than one indicates critical stable. In fully saturated conditions (Chart 5) the FOS value is 0.95 indicates that the slope is unstable (Table 1). 3.1.5 Slope section - S5: The soil slope section S5 is located in Puliuttu zone. The soil is yellowish brown in colour and indicates insitu nature and always in damp condition. The inclination of general slope above cut face is about 32 in N275direction and the cut slope is inclined at 65. The soil cross section details are presented in table 1. The slope fulfills circular failure condition. According to the given observation, the factor of safety is calculated for dry (chart 1) and fully saturated (chart 5) condition. Hence, the factor of safety has been calculated using circular failure chart method, the FOS value indicates that the slope is critical stable (Table 1). 3.1.9 Slope section - S9: This soil slope section S9 is also located in Kathupparai zone. The height of the slope is about 35m. The inclination of the general slope above cut face is about 34 towards N350 and cut slope is inclined at 64. The soil cross section details are discussed in table 1. This slope is more suitable for Hoe a d ra ’s ir ular failure a al sis. He e, the factor of safety has been calculated (Table 1) using Hoek and Bray circular failure chart method. The FOS value is less than one indicates that the slope is favorably unstable. 3.1.6 Slope section - S6: This soil slope section S6 is also located in Puliuttu zone and is near to 10th hairpin bend. The soil section is wet in condition and colour of the soil is dark brown. The inclination of general slope above cut face is about 26 towards N120 direction and cut slope is inclined at 65. The soil cross section details are shown in table 1. The slope fulfills circular failure condition. Using above said parameters, the factor of safety was calculated in different groundwater conditions i.e. dry (chart 1) to fully saturated (chart 5) condition. It comes under irrigated area and frequent slides are occurred during recent years. In chart 5 conditions the FOS value is 1.0 indicates that the slope is unstable (Table 1). 3.1.7 Slope section - S7: The soil slope section S7 is located in Puliuttu zone. The soil is yellowish brown in colour indicating insitu nature. The inclination of the general slope above cur face is about 33towards N270direction and cut slope is inclined at 65. The soil cross section details are given in table 1. The slope fulfills circular failure condition. According to the given observation, the factor of safety is calculated in different groundwater conditions i.e. dry (chart 1) to fully saturated (chart 5) condition. Hence, the factor of safety has been al ulated b Hoe a d ra ’s [1] F a al sis for this soil slope. The FOS value is around 1.0 indicates that the slope is unstable in nature (Table 1). 3.1.8 Slope section - S8: This soil slope section S8 is located within Kathupparai. The height of the slope is about 16m. The inclination of the general slope above cut face is about 32 towards N298direction and the cut slope is inclined at 60. The soil section details are presented in table 1. This is also fulfills he circular 3.1.10 Slope section - S10: This soil slope section S10 is located within Kathupparai zone. The height of the slope is about 17m. The inclination of the general slope above cut face is about 27 towards N170direction and cut slope is inclined at 78. The soil section details are presented in table 1. This soil slope fulfills the circular failure analysis. The data taken for this analysis are as follows: As per Hoek and Bray [1] circular failure chart method the factor of safety value is less than one indicates that the slope is unstable condition. The factor of safety details are given in table 1. 3.1.11 Slope section - S11: This soil slope section S11 is also located in Kathupparai zone. The height of the slope is about 15.50m. The inclination of the general slope above cut face is about 34 towards N310and the cut slope is inclined at 69. The detailed soil section is presented in table 1. This soil slope fulfills the circular failure condition. For circular failure analysis, the following data are taken. Based on the observation in field and data for circular failure, all conditions are taken i.e. chart 1 to 5. The tensional cracks are present above S23 section. Hence, the factor of safety has been calculated (Table 1) by Hoek and Bray [1] circular failure chart method for this slope. The FOS value indicates that the slope favorably unstable. 3.1.12 Slope section - S12: The soil slope section S12 is also located in Kathupparai zone and near to 5th hairpin bend. The height of the slope is about 12m. The inclination of the general slope above cut face is about 68 towards N340 and the cut slope is inclined at 68. The soil section details are presented in table 1. This soil slope fulfills the circular failure analysis. The data taken for International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1163-1167 Soil Slope Stability Analysis by Circular Failure Chart Method – A Case Study in Bodi- Bodimettu Ghat Section, Theni District, Tamil Nadu, India 1167 this analysis are as follow. Hence, the factor of safety has been calculated using Hoek and Bray [1] circular failure chart method for this slope. The factor of safety details are given in table 1. The factor of safety value is less than one indicates that the slope is favorably unstable condition. The template is designed so that author affiliations are not repeated each time for multiple authors of the same affiliation. Please keep your affiliations as succinct as possible (for example, do not differentiate among departments of the same organization). This template was designed for two affiliations. 4. Conclusion: Based on the outcome of circular failure chart method, the vulnerable soil section map has derived (figure 6). The study shows that the soil sections S7, S8, S9, S10, S11 and S12 coming under the less than one in different groundwater conditions. It is vulnerable to slide in heavy monsoon. Suitable remedial measures are to be adopted for these critical slopes. Figure 6: Vulnerable Soil Section map Table1: Soil slope section details Soil Section Northing Easting S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 10°01’08.731” 10°01'06.845" 10°01’10.570” 10°01’10.570” 10°01’40.022” 10°01’47.802” 10°02’00.657” 10°02'11.144" 10°02'12.666" 10°02'09.114" 10°02'06.577" 10°01'59.981" 77°15’4 .012” 77°15'58.548" 77°16’01.11 ” 77°16’01.11 ” 77°15’58.822” 77°16’00.851” 77°15’56.115” 77°16'20.979" 77°16'24.531" 77°16'38.323" 77°16'22.067" 77°16'42.967" Slope Height of angle slope (m) 75° 70° 80° 70° 65° 65° 65° 68° 64° 78° 69° 68° 4.25 8.25 8.25 7.75 10.5 12.25 28 16 35 17 15.5 12 Unit weight Unit weight Cohesion Angle of Factor of Safey (CFC) of soil of water friction of 3 3 (kN/m ) ((kN/m ) soil (kPa) () Chart 1 Chart 2 Chart 3 Chart 4 Chart 5 15.88 15.86 12.42 13.84 16.67 16.22 16.49 18.17 18.17 18.17 18.17 18.17 9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81 20 30 27.5 25 24.375 23.75 33.75 22.5 32.917 20.417 23.33 10.62 34° 38° 34° 34° 38° 36° 36° 39° 38° 38° 38° 42° 1.770 1.895 1.225 1.680 1.470 1.315 1.040 1.270 0.965 0.785 1.075 0.915 1.740 1.880 1.175 1.675 1.435 1.300 1.015 1.220 0.930 0.775 1.055 0.910 1.705 1.795 1.160 1.580 1.360 1.220 0.970 1.145 0.885 0.735 1.005 0.865 1.615 1.680 1.085 1.525 1.280 1.135 0.880 1.055 0.810 0.685 0.925 0.770 1.545 1.525 1.075 1.445 1.175 1.025 0.770 0.925 0.675 0.505 0.805 0.629 Acknowledgment: The TNSCST (Tamil Nadu State Council for Science and Technology) has financially supported this work. The Highways Department, Theni district has provided the critical locations and cooperates with us. References: [1] Hoe , ra JW, “Ro slo e i eeri ”, Published by E & FN Spon, and imprint of Chapman & Hall, London, UK 1981, p. 357. [2] Lo e J, Karafath R , “Stabilit of arth a u o dra do ”, Proceeding of the First Pan American, Mexico City 1960, pp.537-552. [3] a er R, Garber M, “ is ussio of O sli Surface and Slope Stability Analysis by Chen WF, a d S itbha NS.”, Soils a d Fou datio s , 1977, vol. 17(1), pp.65-68. [4] astilla , Re illa J, “ he alculus of variations a d the stabilit of slo es”, he ro eedi s of Ninth International conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Tokyo 1977; vol.2; pp.225-230. [5] Ma shi o i M, “Li it quilibriu for No linear failure envelope and arbitra sli surfa es”. Third International conference on Numerical Methods in Geomechanic Aachen, 1979. Vo. 99, pp. 769-777. [6] Lu e o A, astella , “ aluatio of ariatio al ethods i slo e a al sis”. Pro eedi s of International Symposium on Landslides New Delhi, 1980, vol.1, pp. 255-258. [7] Azzorz AS, ali h MM, Ladd , “ hree dimensional stability analyses of four e ba e t failures”. Pro eedi s of the th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Stockholm, 1981, vol.3, pp. 343-346. [8] Fa K, “ aluatio of I tersli e side For es for Lateral arth for e a d slo e stabilit roble s”. M.Sc Thesis, University of stockholm, Saskatoon, Canada, 1983. [9] Ra ja G, Rao ASR, “ asi a d a lied Soil Mechanics, New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers, New Delhi, 2002, [10] ha roborth , A bala a R, Kohli A, “A engineering geological appraisal of slope stability condition at D.S.B college site on Ayarpatta hills i Na ital, Uttar ha d”. La dslide Ma a e e tPresent scenario & future directions: CBRI Roorkee, 2008, pp. 157-166. [11] Anbalagan R, Chakroborthy D, Kohli A, “La dslide Hazard Zo atio (LHZ) a i o meso-scale for systematic town planning in ou tai ous terrai ”. Jour al of S ie tifi0063 and Industrial Research, 2008, vol.67, pp. 486497. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1163-1167 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0610 December 2017, P.P.1168-1170 www.cafetinnova.org Field and Petrographic studies on the granites of the Huzurabad area, Karimnagar District, Southern India K. SAI KRISHNA1, R. MALLIKARJUNA REDDY1* AND D. PURUSHOTHAM 2 1 Department of Geology, Kakatiya University, Warangal, Telangana-506009, India 2 National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad-500007, India Email: *mallikragi@gmail.com Abstract: The Huzurabad area of Eastern Dharwar Craton consists of two kinds of granitoids namely grey and pink granites. They are coarse grained and show porphyritic texture. The coarse grained and subhedral shaped microcline occurring in the grey granites of northern side of the area suggest late stage magmatic crystallization. The perthitic K- feldspar (microcline) and myrmekitic texture are common in both the granites. The conspicuous presence of K-feldspar along with discrete plagioclase is observed in these granites indicating subsolvus nature. The textural and mineralogical composition of the granites is discussed in this study. Petrography: Introduction: 2 The granitoids from Huzurabad area (70 Km ) is a part of the Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC). The Huzurabad area is located SW side of Karimnagar granulite belt in Karimnagar district of Telangana state (Rajesham et al., 1993). Major grey granitic bodies are exposed at Yelabotharam (180 12 40 N: 790 22 48 E), Kothapally (180 13 55 N: 790 23 33ꞌꞌ ), Sirsapally (180 14 50 N: 790 24 44 E) and porphyritic pink granites at Metpally (18°16'25"N: 79°23'6"E) Singapuram (18°15'0"N: 79°21'36"E) villages. In general the Dharwar craton of south India consists of two sub-blocks. The older Western Dharwar Craton (WDC: 3.3–2.7 Ga), which mainly comprises of a tonalite – trondhjemite – granodiorite (TTG) gneissic basement superimposed by greenstone belts and the younger Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC: 3.0–2.5 Ga) consist of late archean (2.6–2.5 Ga) granites intruded into subordinate amounts of older (2.9–2.7 Ga) TTG gneisses (Chadwick et al., 2000; Moyen et al., 2003). Field settings: The Huzurabad granites are exposed towards SW of Karimnagar granulite terrain and godavari graben. The study area is located near the fault zone which trends parallel to Godavari–Pranahita rift axis. The area is composed of two rock types namely grey granites and pink granites, both show porphyritic texture with phenocrysts of K-feldspars. The Grey granites and pink granites are quarried for building stone (Fig.3a, b, c, e and f). The grey granites exhibit a sharp contact with porphyritic pink granites towards the northern side and in other areas they are covered by soil. Well fractured mafic dyke of Proterozoic age (Mallikharjuna Rao et al., 2010) is exposed within the grey granite (Fig.3d). The granites of Huzurabad area are comparable to those of Dharmawaram granites in Karimnagar District (Yamuna Singh et al., 2004). Grey granites: The grey granites exposed in and around Huzurabad are leucocratic, coarse grained, inequigranular and porphyritic in nature. They are predominantly composed of quartz (26-35%), microcline (32-41%), altered plagioclase (5-15%), perthite (<5%), hornblende (10%) and biotite (< 5%) with accessories of zircon, apatite and opaque minerals (Table 1). Quartz is commonly clustered between feldspar grains and occasionally angular interstitial quartz occurs within the feldspar (Fig.4a). Phenocrysts are represented by subhedral microcline which shows cross hatched twinning and microperthitic texture. Most of the plagioclase grains are altered to sericite (Fig.4b). The ferromagnesian minerals in the rock are hornblende and biotite that are altered to chlorite at places (Fig.4c). Hornblende is pleochroic and is associated with brown to greenish biotite. Euhedral zircon and anhedral apatite commonly occur within the ground mass of feldspar, opaques are represented by magnetite and ilmenite. Myrmekitic texture is common in all granite samples and Perthite intergrowth texture is also common in these rocks (Fig.4d) Petrographic studies indicate that the granites have been subjected to hydrothermal alteration. Presence of plagioclase and K-feldspars suggest that these rocks are of subsolvus type. Porphyritic Pink Granites: The porphyritic pink granites are leucocratic, coarse grained rock, inequigranular and porphyritic in nature. They are mainly composed of quartz (26-35%), perthitic K-feldspar (48-49%), Plagioclase (3-6%), Microcline (15%), Hornblende (10%) and Biotite (< 5%). Accessories which include apatite, fluorite, zircon and opaques (Table 1). The Microcline forms Phenocrysts which are surrounded by perthitic Kfeldspars, plagioclase and anhedral quartz grains (Fig Received: August 04, 2017; Accepted: December 23, 2017; Published: January 30, 2018 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1168-1170, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0610 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved. 1169 Field and Petrographic studies on the granites of the Huzurabad area, Karimnagar District, Southern India 4e). Light green coloured hornblende is associated with chlorite and opaques (Fig 4f). plagioclase and K-feldspars suggest that these rocks are of subsolvus type. The plagioclase commonly alters to sericite and quartz show sharing effects such as peripheral granulation and zoning (C. Vernon 2004) (Fig 4f). Fluorite, zircon and opaques occur as accessory minerals. Presence of two kinds of feldspars such as In the QAP (Streckeisen 1974) diagram the grey granites fall in syeno-granite field and the pink granites fall in between syeno-granite to alkali-fsdgranite field (Fig.2). Table1: Modal analysis of Huzurabad granites. Minerals Quartz K-Feldspar Plagioclase Hornblende Biotite SRP-1 SRP-2 SRP-3 SRP-4 SRP-5 SRP-6 SRP-7 SRP-8 SRP-9 31 28 26 29 32 29 31 26 29 35 37 33 32 35 36 32 41 36 5 10 15 11 7 8 5 13 13 15 12 14 12 15 12 16 14 12 10 9 8 11 7 8 9 4 6 Others 2 3 3 3 3 98 99 99 98 99 Total SRP1-9; Grey granite. MT-1&S-1; Porphyritic pink granite. 4 97 4 97 1 99 3 99 MT-1 25 49 6 8 6 S-1 28 48 3 9 5 5 99 6 99 Figure1: Geological map of Huzurabad area. Figure3: Field photographs of Huzurabad Granites. (a) Grey granite (b) Grey granite quarry (c) Porphyritic grey granite (d) Mafic dyke (e) Porphyritic Pink granite quarry (f) Porphyritic Pink granite. Figure2: The grey granite and Porphyritic pink granites fall in granite field in the IUGS-QAP (Streckeisen 1974). International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1168-1170 K SAI KRISHNA, R M ALLIKARJUNA REDDY AND D P URUSHOTHAM [2] [3] [4] [5] Figure4: Photomicrographs of Huzurabad granites (a) and (b) Altered Plagioclase. (c). Biotite alters to Chlorite. (d) Myrmekite texture from Grey granite. (e) Microcline surrounded by plagioclase and quartz (f) Hornblende associated with feldspar, quartz and opaques from Porphyritic pink granite. Summary and Conclusions: [6] [7] 1170 convergence”, Precambrian Research, 99(1), 2000, pp.91-111. Mallikharjuna Rao, J. V. S. Poornachandra Rao,G. Widdowson, M., Yellappa, T. and Kelley, S.P., “Tectonic history and occurrence of 2.4 Ga mafic dyke swarms adjacent to Godavari Basin, Karimnagar, India”, Current Science, 98(11), 2010, p.1472. Moyen J.F. Martin H. Jayananda M. Auvray B., “Late Archaean granites: a typology based on the Dharwar Craton (India)”, Precambrian Research 127, 2003, pp. 103–123. Rajesham, T., Rao, Y.B. and Murti, K.S., “The Karimnagar granulite terrane-a new Sapphirine bearing granulite province, South India”, Geo. Soc. India, 41(1), 1993, pp.51-59. Streckeisen Streckeisen, A. L., “Classification and Nomenclature of Plutonic Rocks. Recommendations of the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks. Geologische Rundschau”, Internationale Zeitschrift für Geologie. Stuttgart”, Vol.63, 1974, pp. 773-785. Vernon, R.H., “A Practical Guide to Rock Microstructures”, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1974, pp.594. Yamuna Singh , Singh K. D. P., Prasad, R. N. “Rb-Sr whole-Rock Isochron Age of Early Proterozoic Potassic Granite from Dharmawaram, Karimnagar District, Andhra Pradesh”, Jour. Geol. Soc. India, 2004 The granites (Grey & Pink) shows porphyritic texture and have two kinds of feldspars i.e. plagioclase and K-feldspar and hence they are categorized as subsolvus type. Both the granites have microcline, which exhibit crosshatched twinning in thin section but megascopically it shows grey colour in grey granites and pink colour in pink granites. In the QAP diagram the granites fall in between syeno-granite to alkali-fsd-granite field. The myrmekite texture is common in both the granites, which is observed at the margin of alkali feldspars due to solid state reaction. The hornblende shows dark green colour in grey granite but it is absent in pink granite. During field observations the mafic intrusions were seen in grey granite only. Both the granites are quarried for building stones but the pink granite is of export quality. Acknowledgements: The first author is thankful to DST for the sanction of INSPIRE fellowship (IF140406). The authors are highly indebted to Dept. of Geology, Kakatiya University for extending the necessary facilities. References: [1] Chadwick, B., Vasudev, V.N. and Hegde, G.V., “The Dharwar craton, southern India, interpreted as the result of Late Archaean oblique International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1168-1170 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0611 www.cafetinnova.org December 2017, P.P. 1171-1177 Sustainable Integrated Stormwater Management Using SWMM5.1 NAGRAJ S P ATIL1, VISHWANATH AWATI2 AND NATARAJA M1 1 Department of Water & Land Management, VTU, Belagavi, 590018, India Department of Civil Engineering, JCE, Belagavi, 590014, India Email: nagrajspatil@yahoo.com/nspatil@vtu.ac.in 2 Abstract: In the greater part of urban ranges, Traditional stormwater managements and impervious covers are influencing for expanding problems to environmental, physical infrastructures and social welfare. In study area stormwater flow has created environmental destruction in the form of erosion, sedimentation, flooding of low lain area, prospective contamination of stream and infrastructure damages. Peak rainfall runoff can be considered either as a costly risk to social welfare and environmental safety, or it can be considered as a chance to encourage micro-watershed sustainability enlargement by making use of decentralized solutions for stormwater, like Low Impact Development (LID). This paper demonstrates how LID is a solution for sustainable integrated stormwater management to get better quantity and quality of stormwater earlier than the runoff reaches to receiving water bodies. In order to conduct an assessment Storm Water Management Model (SWMM5.1) is developed for two conditions as Existing Storm Water Management (ESWM) and Sustainable Integrated Storm Water Management (SISWM). SISWM is modeled by applying LID in each sub-catchment through percentage replacement of semi-pervious and impervious land use of ESWM. Detailed analyses of parameters which are represented physically in the SWMM are computed by RS and GIS methods. Through the simulation of storm events, the SISWM model results specify that at study area has the capability to reduce quantity of stormwater peak runoff by 41.97% and increased in rainfall infiltration by 57% of ESWM. These results made change in a likely reduce of potential flooding actions, a decline of possible ingredients of water quality contamination and helping in water preservation for sustainability of urban water. Keywords: SWMM, ESWM model, SISWM model, Peak rainfall runoff, Rainfall infiltration. 1. Introduction: Infrastructure problems and large alterations in the environment is due to urbanization. Any changes in urban water cycle denotes to the increase in runoff, triggering or intensifying the urban disasters produced by the floods. Thus, the assessment of reactions from small urban watersheds is of great importance for the urbanization impact approximation, threat analysis and all projects connecting these environments (Nagraj et al. 2015). Traditional stormwater management with drainage channel and pipes convey rainfall is found more economic and centralized physical infrastructure development practices (David, 2009). In study area, stormwater management is through open channels and pipes, which is impacting for ecological modification of nearest water resource for the reason of the high peak stormwater runoff and combined flow. Which increases contaminant ingredients; total volume runoff erodes stream bank, and contamination of stream bed aquifers. Stormwater peak flow and total runoff presently overreached channel and piping capacity proceeding in inundation and property damage in monsoon season (CSP, 2010). Increasing channel and pipe capacity to reduce these stormwater problems required more investment and it damages downstream area by increase in total stormwater runoff. This require eco-friendly and appropriate management for sustainable integrated approach to the stormwater surface runoff management (Vargas 2009). Approach of sustainable urban water management favours more integrated methodology to water supply, stormwater management, and sewerage, with resulting profits in terms of improved resource efficiency, and water security, naturalization of urban watercourses (Petra et al. 2016, Marlow et al. 2013). LID use in stormwater runoff management, shown ideal solution for sustainable development of stormwater, which controls surface runoff at source through retention basin of stormwater flow (Donald et al. 2011). LID techniques including green water infrastructure, greywater reuse, wastewater recycling, decentralized wastewater treatment, and repair and replacement of leaking water and sewer pipes used as precise procedures that can be used to integrate management between connected elements of the urban water use cycle (Patricia et al. 2015). Study objective is to evaluate where storm water peak runoff, after managed by LID, can suit an effective resource and environmental responsibility. Mainly are stormwater runoff and rainfall infiltration estimation for Exist Stormwater Management (ESWM) and stormwater runoff and rainfall infiltration estimation for Sustainable Integrated Stormwater Management (SISWM). Received: August 14, 2017; Accepted: December 21, 2017; Published: January 30, 2017 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1171-1177, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0611 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved. NAGRAJ S P ATIL, V ISHWANATH AWATI AND N ATARAJA M 1172 2. Study area: 3.1 Selection of Study Area: The study area is located in the foot hill of Western Ghats under Bellary stream urban catchment of Markandey River in Belagavi, Karnataka State. The study area includes Swamy Vivekananda (SV) colony, Mahatma Gandhi (MG) colony, and some part of Martha (M) colony are part of Tilakwadi urban area in Belagavi city (figure 1). Study area is selected based on problem related to stormwater management which is observed by site visit and from collected data. Some of problems are urban flooding in monsoon (fig.2.1) from peak rainfall runoff, pollution of bellary stream (fig.2.2) which is mainly due to discharge of sullege waste from bathroom and kitchen, and no effective stormwater management practice is adapted in the study area. Figure1: Location map of study area The study area is known for pleasant climate round year: is at its coldest in winter November to February i i u of 7˚ a d hottest i su er Mar h to May ax. 3 ˚ . he area ex erie es al ost o ti uous monsoon rains from June to September of 244455mm. The area of small urban area of 20.70 hectare has mainly dominant residential 73%, open area 26.9% open area (reserved for residential and park), 0.06% commercial, and 0.01% park. The exits stormwater management is of fully gravity flow system with help of open channels and pipes finally connect to Bellary stream. Drainage flow is of semicombined (i.e Stormwater mixing with sullage) but there is no treatment plant before discharging runoff to stream. The area has major residential housing growths with surface slopes of 2 to 4%. The study area estimated about 55.6% of the total impervious surfaces mainly connected to the drainage system. 3. Methodology: Methodology is mainly focus on analysis of rainfall runoff and rainfall infiltration has divided into 4 parts are (a) Selection of study area (b) Collection of required data (c) Input data preparation (d)Analysis of SWMM5.1 for ESWM and SISWM. Figure 2 shows the flow chart of methodology adapted in the study. Figure2.1: Flood map (source BUDA) Figure 2.2: Condition of Bellary steam (onsite) 3.2 Collection of required data: Some of required data were collected from site visit, different govt. dept. and other secondary data for analysis. Daily average rainfall data of 15 year from 2001 to 2015 of study area from nearest rain gauge of railway station, Belagavi city. Satellite data collected for study area from bhuvan web portal, image of Resourcesat-1, LISS-III for grid 74E15N to 75E16N, 24m resolution and DEM of Cartosat-1: DEM Version - 3R1 of grid 74E15N to 75E16N, 32m resolution. Town plans were collected from Belagavi Urban Development Authority (BUDA), are 1.Consolidated Master Plan of Belagavi of 1:50000 scale 2.Consolidated land use of exist and proposed up to 2021 of 1:5000 scale 3 city problem map and some other maps. Drainage network data are collected from Karnataka urban water supply and sanitation development board (KUWSDB) district office Belagavi. 3.3 Input data preparation: Figure 2: Flowchart of methodology For SWMM simulation sub-catchment objects of physically distributed are considered more important for runoff estimation and onsite measurement of International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1171-1177 1173 Sustainable Integrated Stormwater Management Using SWMM5.1 objects is difficult (Stephen et al., 2008). Parameters that physically characterize the area in the SWMM5 model are prepared by Comprehensive analyses using remote sensing and geographical information systems methods (Nestor et al. 2014). BUBA maps of study area are made spatial reference. Digitization of map for study area boundary for delineation, roads, nodes, links and buildings for percent of imperviousness. Basemap or backdrop image prepared with help of using Arcmap because master plan is not updated for recent change in land use. In dynamic rainfall-runoff simulation model the impervious area is one of the greatest sensitive parameter (Nestor et al. 2014) computed by using updated Arcmap by percent of area covered by buildings, pavement and roads. Slop map is prepared using surface tool as shown in fig.3. Data of drainage networks are taken from drainage network diagram prepared by KUWSB. Computed data shown in table 1, 2. Table 1: Sub-catchment data Sub. ID S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 S16 S17 S18 S19 S20 Total Pervious Average Av. slop Area in area in % width (m) in % hectare 0.9750 20.15 55 2 0.9984 13.68 39 2.5 0.8362 1.87 79 3 0.6188 10.64 42 3 0.2821 1.85 35 3 0.4376 1.42 66 3 0.2913 14.68 41 2.5 0.3106 16.31 38 3 0.3791 16.75 47 3 0.9865 9.65 44 2.5 0.8287 24.42 82 2.5 1.2045 17.86 66 3 0.9588 19.72 69 2.5 1.1119 24.19 79 2.5 0.3538 4.77 75 3 0.6130 74.02 57 2.5 0.9422 14.38 64 2.5 1.6314 97 72 3 0.6802 75 21 2 4.6344 98 121 2 Figure 3: Slop map Table 2: Junction and conduit data Node Name J1 J2 J3 J4 J5 J6 J7 J8 J9 J10 J11 J12 J13 J14 J15 Out.1 Out.2 Out.3 Out.4 Invert elevation above MSL 749.25 749.18 749.00 748.90 748.81 748.91 749.00 748.72 748.55 748.48 748.56 748.22 749.01 748.50 748.30 748.10 748.15 744.10 740.01 Conduit Name C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 C17 Length in meter 78.20 57.07 94.70 202.08 160.57 81.70 95.18 107.45 84.17 28.40 26.41 55.15 217.87 129.43 77.50 132.14 186.21 Figure 4: Backdrop image 3.4 Analysis of SWMM5.1: Analysis was made for two conditions of ESWM and SISWM to know change in rainfall runoff and infiltration, procedure followed as given in SWMM User's Manual Version 5.1 2016, mainly Project Setup made with initial setup of default ID, Loading of backdrop image with dimension in meter, coordinates are computed in ArcGIS. Objects of 20 subcatchment, 15 Junction node, 4 outfall node and 17 conduits are drown based on exist condition observed in site investigation. For setting main object properties used from computed data in ArcGIS, Excel, some observed and literature data used (Table 1 and 2). Running a simulation is made with rainfall/runoff and flow routing for process model, steady flow for routing model and curve number for infiltration International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1171-1177 NAGRAJ S P ATIL, V ISHWANATH AWATI AND N ATARAJA M model. Single event calibration provides better result and not required observe data for peak rainfall runoff as continues calibration (Nestor A. et. al. 2014). 1 day maximum rainfall event in 9 July 2007 observed in 15 year rainfall from 2001 – 2015 and 1hr to 24hr rainfall event data used with 1hr interval. For SISWM there is only in change in LID and applied in open areas, parking areas, roads, gardens and roofs of current land use in percent. Total LID used in study area is of 9.82 hector of 48.83% shown in table 3. Some of LID used are Rain gardens (RG), Rain barrels (RB), Permeable pavement (PP), Infiltration trenches (IT), Bioretention (BR) and Vegetative swales (VS). Table 3: LID data of Sub-catchment Sub ID RG S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 S16 S17 S18 S19 S20 2.95 3.52 0.67 1.21 1.06 1.25 2.06 1.90 1.44 1.77 0.90 1.24 1.26 1.79 1.41 1.32 4.59 11.0 2.697 % Area LID Covered RB PP IT BR VS 33.4 41.6 34.0 38.5 25.5 48.0 46.4 53.3 55.3 41.1 25.4 31.1 39.6 40.5 42.5 3.28 39.8 4.41 - 9.44 15.1 5.43 19.4 10.6 13.7 20.6 19.0 15.8 14.2 14.5 6.64 10.1 14.4 17.0 0.66 3.67 6.47 0.98 1.24 0.51 1.01 0.08 1.25 1.89 1.78 1.31 0.88 0.90 0.62 0.76 0.89 0.70 2.47 12.7 1.23 0.55 1.34 0.78 0.27 0.68 0.30 0.16 1.61 1.57 3.23 2.63 1.21 10.9 9.19 4.41 5.17 Total LID 49.13 61.46 40.88 60.42 37.24 64.20 71.63 75.98 76.48 59.47 52.60 39.76 51.72 57.58 61.61 5.750 54.48 15.01 24.08 17.31 1174 stormwater management to enhancing stormwater quantity and quality before the overflow enters getting waters. ESWM model replicate current practice of stormwater management and SISWM model replicates sustainable development of stormwater management of study area by LID application. Analysis of factors that physically characterize the area in ESWM and SISWM model are evaluated using RS data and ArcGIS techniques. Techniques are useful tool for data preparation but shown some error in accurate data extraction due to lesser resolution of spatial data. ESWM model shown total peak rainfall runoff of 5.36 CMS (Cubic Meter Second or m3/s), It is mainly from urbanization effect making pervious to imperviousness of surface, which increasing in modification of natural water cycle. To address this, the SISWM model is built using both peak rainfall runoff and rainfall infiltration as water balance criteria. Sustainable stormwater management of study area increased by 9.82 hectare of 48.83% of exist land use by LID, see the table 3. Results of SISWM model do not fully retain the predevelopment hydrologic cycle. It controls peak flow rates with considering effective attention to the quick flow to drainage, decreased in infiltration, evapotranspiration and base flow. Total rainfall runoff reduced is from 5.36 CMS to 3.11 CMS of 41.97% and rainfall infiltration increase from 6891.63 mm to 10736.82 mm of 55.79%. The peak rainfall runoff simulated for the rainfall event using the model SWMM and Rational method of rainfall runoff and given satisfactory result for validation as shown in the figure 5. The table 5 results of ESWM and SISWM model simulation. 4. Validation of model: To validate SWMM results were compared with the rational method (RM) runoff (Nagarj et al. 2016). The peak value of the runoff is given by Q (Q= CAI, Where, C is Dimensionless coefficient representing to a ration of overflow to precipitation; A is Area of the catchment (hectare); I is the normal intensity for a period equivalent to the season of concentration (mm/hr). The validation process is done using a manual trial and error process, for the 1 day maximum rainfall event of 9 July 2007. The comparison between rational methods calculated and SWMM simulated runoff values as shown in table 4. The results computed shows that the simulated runoff value closely matches with calculated values, so it is validated as shown in fig. 5. 5. Result and discussion: The general objective of this study is to demonstrate how LID is a reasonable coordinated answer for Figure 5: Validation peak rainfall runoff Table 4: Simulation results of ESWM and SISWM Sub- Rainfall Runoff in CMS Rainfall infiltration in mm catch % % ment EWSM SISWM ESWM SISWM Reduced Increased ID S1 0.32 0.14 53.33 301.19 640.85 90.78 S2 0.31 0.17 45.16 236.56 496.30 113.74 S3 0.29 0.15 44.44 118.58 448.24 404.33 S4 0.19 0.10 47.36 206.19 396.00 134.86 S5 0.09 0.04 55.55 118.38 398.10 434.74 S6 0.14 0.09 35.71 114.08 393.80 494.36 S7 0.09 0.05 44.44 246.55 546.24 167.83 S8 0.10 0.06 40 262.83 342.75 83.01 S9 0.12 0.05 58.33 267.23 696.79 107.99 S10 0.31 0.16 48.38 196.30 545.95 111.60 S11 0.25 0.14 44 343.85 249.75 58.23 S12 0.38 0.20 47.36 278.32 348.25 88.07 S13 0.30 0.14 53.33 296.90 696.49 137.42 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1171-1177 Sustainable Integrated Stormwater Management Using SWMM5.1 1175 S14 S15 S16 S17 S18 S19 S20 Total 0.34 0.11 0.15 0.29 0.37 0.18 1.03 5.36 0.18 0.07 0.12 0.22 0.24 0.11 0.68 3.11 47.05 36.36 46.66 24.13 35.13 35.29 33.98 41.97 290.80 440.65 66.53 147.55 647.04 112.99 739.45 789.40 32.68 243.55 393.40 51.21 896.79 696.99 33.01 692.54 600.81 57.64 893.99 969.02 47.20 6891.63 10736.82 55.79 5.1 Effect of hourly rainfall event: Simulation of peak rainfall runoff and rainfall infiltration made for each sub-catchment from 1hr to 24hr rainfall event for both ESWM and SISWM. For sub-catchment 1 to 5 peak rainfall runoff for ESWM is occurs from 1hr runoff of greater up to 6hr, after 6hr shown steady flow up to 10hr and after again increases up to 24hr for every as shown in figures 8. Peak rainfall runoff for SISWM is shown decrease in runoff by increase in infiltration; evapotranspiration and base flow to stream as shown in the figures 9. Similar result for other sub-catchments. Figure10: Rainfall infiltration of subcatchment S1 to S5 for ESWM Figure11: Rainfall Infiltration of sub-catchment S1 to S5 for SISWM 6. . Figure8: Peak rainfall runoff of sub-catchment S1 to S5 for ESWM Figure9: Peak rainfall runoff of sub-catchment S1 to S5 for SISWM Rainfall infiltration for ESWM of sub-catchment 1 to 5 is occurs from 1hr of increase in rate up to 6hr and decreases after 6hr decrease gradually up to 24hr as shown in figures 10. Rainfall infiltration for SISWM is shown increase in rainfall infiltration of an average of 35% to 57% of ESWM condition and occurred after 1hr of increase rate of infiltration up to 6hr after decrease in rate up to end of analysis as shown in figure 11. Similar results for other sub-catchments. Conclusions This study presented a sustainable integrated stormwater management model to measure the effect of LID distribution in study area of bellary stream sub-catchment, a 20.7 hectares urbanized area situated in the of Belagavi city. In specific, for analysis SWMM a physically based model for an extensive LID is implemented into hydrological hydraulic model, given good simulate result of the rainfall runoff and infiltration. Over a period of 2001 to 2015 about one day maximum rainfall for assessment of LID response. The LID had a positive effect in terms catchment-scale implementation for peak discharges at study area.  From rainfall data maximum rainfall of one day is occurred in 9-July – 2007 of 120 mm. where other remaining period shown no significant maximum effect.  Investigation of parameters that physically speak to the range in SWMM display are assessed utilizing RS information and ArcGIS method are demonstrated some mistake in information preparation for small sub-catchment because of less resolution of information (e.g., 24m picture and 32m DEM).  From ESWM model, high peak rainfall runoff of 1.03, 0.37, and 0.34 CMS occurred in subcatchment S20, S12, and S14 respectively. Where, low peak rainfall runoff of 0.09, 0.09 and 0.10 occurred in sub-catchment S5, S7, and S10 respectively. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1171-1177 NAGRAJ S P ATIL, V ISHWANATH AWATI AND N ATARAJA M     From ESWM model, very least infiltration of 118.38 mm occurred in sub-catchment S5. Where maximum infiltration of 793.99 mm occurred in sub-catchment S20. Rational method of rainfall runoff used for calibration & validation due non availability of observed data for small sub-catchment, but in order to extra precisely forecast hydrological runoff from the SWMM model, observation data is needed or runoff information should be collected at study drainage area for better calibration. From SISWM model, reduced the total peak rainfall runoff of study area from 5.36 CMS to 3.11 CMS by 41.97% of ESWM model and shows that able to mitigate future flooding by peak rainfall runoff of study area. From SISWM model, increased in rainfall infiltration from 5790.63 mm to 9091.86 mm by 57 % of ESWM model. Increase in rainfall infiltration of study area indicates to reduce in direct rainfall runoff discharge and pollutant to nearest bellary stream. From SISWM model, Increase of sustainable stormwater management of 9.82 hectare of 48.83% by LID as of ESWM for conservation of water and future urban water demand. In this work just engineering prospective of study area for SISWM show advanced utilizing LID, yet a money saving advantage monetary investigation is used in characterize to weigh against stormwater management. References [1] Nestor A. Mancipe-Munoz, Steven G. Buchberger, P.E., Makram T. Suidan, P.E., and i Lu (2014). “ alibratio of Rai fall-Runoff Model in Urban Watersheds for Stormwater Ma a e e t Assess e t.” J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage. 10.1061/ (ASCE) WR.19435452.0000382. [2] Stephen Boon Kean Tan, Lloyd Hock Chye Chua, Eng Ban Shuy Edmond Yat-Man Lo, and Lai Wa Li . “Performances of Rainfall-Runoff Models Calibrated over Single and Continuous Stor Flo e ts.” J. Hydrol. Eng., 10.1061/ (ASCE) 1084-0699 (2008) 13:7 (597). [3] David Vargas (2009). “Rainwater harvesting: a sustainable solution to stormwater a a e e t.” https://etda.libraries.psu.edu/catalog/9171. [4] “ it Sa itatio Pla ( SP) of el au it or oratio ”. (2010) (http://municipaladmn.gov.in/sites/municipaladm n.gov.in/files/CSP_Belgaum.pdf.) visited: 11/02/2016 [5] Stor Water Ma a e e t Model User’s Ma ual Version 5.1, EPA- 600/R-14/413b Revised September 2015 1176 [6] Tao-Chang Yang, Pao-Shan Yu, Chen-Min Kuo and Yu-Chi Wa (2004). “Application of Fuzzy Multiobjective Function on Storm-Event Rainfall-Ru off Model alibratio .” J. Hydrol. Eng., 10.1061/ (ASCE), 1084-0699(2004) 9:5(440). [7] James Knighton, Edward Lennon, Luis Bastidas a d ri White (2016). “Stor ater ete tion System Parameter Sensitivity and Uncertainty A al sis Usi SWMM.”J. H drol. ., 10.1061/ (ASCE) HE. 1943-5584.0001382. [8] Donald D. Carpenter, and Preethi Kaluvakolanu. “ ffe t of Roof Surfa e e o Stor -Water Runoff from Full-Scale Roofs in a Temperate li ate.” J. Irri . rai ., 10.1061 (ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0000185. [9] Mehran Niazi, Chris Nietch, Mahdi Maghrebi, Nicole Jackson, Brittany R. Bennett, Michael r b a d Arash Massoudieh (2017). “Stor Water Management Model: Performance Review and Gap Anal sis.” J. Sustai able Water uilt Environ. DOI: 10.1061/JSWBAY.0000817. [10] Misgana K. Muleta, Jonathan McMillan, Geremew G. Amenu and Steven J. Burian (2013). “ a esia A roa h for U ertai t A al sis of an Urban Storm Water Model and Its Application to a Hea il Urba ized Watershed.” J. H drol. Eng., 10.1061/ (ASCE) HE.1943-5584.0000705. [11] Patricia A. Malinowski, Ashland S. Stillwell, Jy S. Wu, P.E. and Peter M. Schwarz (2015). “ er -Water Nexus: Potential Energy Savings and Implications for Sustainable Integrated Water Management in Urban Areas from Rainwater Harvesting and Gray-Water Reuse.” J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE)WR. 1943-5452. 0000 5 28. [12] Atul K. Mittal, Mehul Jain, Priyanka Jamwal, and J. M. Mou hel (2012). “ reat e t of Urba Runoff Using Constructed Wetlands in New elhi, I dia.” iro e tal a d Water Resources Congress. 10.1061/(ASCE)WR.194340856(200)356. [13] Arthur . M Garit (2013). “Watershed S ste s Analysis for Urban Storm-Water Management to Achieve Water Quality Goals.” J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 10.1061/(ASCE)WR.19435452.0000280. [14] Petra Schmitter, Albert Goedbloed, Stefano Galelli a d Vlada abo i (2016). “ ffe t of Catchment-Scale Green Roof Deployment on Stormwater Generation and Reuse in a Tropical it .” J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage. 10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0000643. [15] Rainfall data of District statical Department, Channamma circle, Belagavi. [16] Department of mines and geology, Sangamesh Nagar, Belagavi. [17] Nagraj S. Patil, Vinaykumar S. Patil and Vijaykumar H. (2016), Calibration and Validation of SWMM model for urban International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1171-1177 1177 Sustainable Integrated Stormwater Management Using SWMM5.1 watershed. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering Volume 09 No. 6. Pp. 2457-2465 [18] Drainage plan of Karnataka urban water supply and drainage board (KUWSDB), Sadashiv Nagar, Belagavi. [19] Map of Google Earth Application and Google map. [20] H.F. Wong, and Christopher J. Chesterfield (2012). “Water se siti e urba desi -A stor ater a a e e t Pers e ti e.” I dustr Report, Report 02/10, September 2012. [21] Shashank Vanakudari, Rajashekhar S. Laddimath (2016). “Sustai able e elo e t of Stor Water Management using SWMM for ha a a ar, ela a i”. IJIRS | Volu e 3 | Issue 02 | July 2016, ISSN: 2349-6010. [22] F. A. Beling, J. I. B. Garcia, E. M. C. D. Paiva, G. A. P. astos, J. . . Pai a (2011). “Analysis of the SWMM model parameters for runoff evaluation in periurban basins from southern razil.”12nd International Conference on Urban Drainage, Porto Alegre/Brazil, 11-16 September 2011. [23] Lei jiang, Yangbo chen & Huanyu wang (2015). “Urba flood si ulation based on the SWMM odel.” Remote Sensing and GIS for Hydrology and Water Resources (IAHS Publ. 368, 2015) doi: 10.5194/piahs-368-186-2015. [24] A tho ho as ietri h (2015). “ sti atio of stormwater runoff mitigation in Lucas County, Ohio using SWMM modeli a d GIS a al sis.” http://utdr.utoledo.edu/theses-dissertations. [25] Y.R. Satyaji Rao, R.Venkata Ramana (2015). “Storm ater flood odeli i urba areas.” IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1171-1177 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0612 December 2017, P.P. 1178-1183 www.cafetinnova.org Geomorphological and Geoelectrical Studies for Targeting Groundwater in Hard Rock Terrain of Rairangpur Block, Odisha, India SAHU P C Department of Geology, MPC Autonomous College, Takhatpur, Baripada, Mayurbhanj-757003, Odisha, India Email: pcsahugeol@gmail.com Abstract: Rairangpur block is underlain by hard crystalline rocks of Pre-Cambrian age. Granite and Epidiorite are the most prevalent litho units in the study area. The present work aims at targeting groundwater using Remote Sensing and Geoelectrical techniques. The geomorphological features of Rairangpur block are Denudational Hill (8%), Habitation (1%), Intermontane Valley (1%), Padiplain (1%), Plateau (10%), Shallow weathered/ shallow buried Pediplain (36%), Structural Hills (Large) (20%), Valley Fill (0.74%), and Water Body (1%). The areas characterized by weathered pediplain, high lineament density, low drainage density are identified as Moderate to High Groundwater Potential Zones. Resistivity Survey indicates 4 or 5 geoelectrical subsurface layers set-up in this area. These layers are top soil, highly weathered zone, semi-weathered zone, fracture zone and the bed rock. In a 4 layered cases, the 2 nd and 3rd layers are interpreted as the potential zones from which ground water can be extracted. The aquifer thickness varying from 12.0m to19.0m. Groundwater potential is poor in this case. In 5 layered cases, the 2nd, 3rd and 4th layer constitute the aquifer zone whose thickness varying from 23.0m to 64.0m and groundwater condition is moderate to good. Groundwater can be taped from 2nd layer through dug wells, from third layer through dug-cum-bore wells and from 4th layer through only deep bore wells. Keywords: Remote Sensing, Lineament, Aquifers, Geomorphology, Geoelectrical. 1. Introduction: Groundwater is the most precious resource in nature. The demand on ground water has increased manifold in recent years. The occurrence and yield potential of ground water in aquifers are basically controlled by lithology, landforms and structural set-up of an area. It is important to target ground water potential zone prior to any planning for ground water development. Geomorphology exercises a significant control over ground water regime. The landform -cum- lineament mapping is very useful in targeting ground water. During last decades, remote sensing data have been increasingly used in ground water targeting exercises. The geophysical investigation forms a relatively quick and inexpensive way to gain subsurface information. The application of this method for selection of site for wells in areas underlain by hard crystalline rocks is very popular. This method helps to demarcate top soil, weathered, fractured and bedrock zones because in hard rock terrain, there is a good contrast in resistivity value among these zones. The weathered and fractured zone constitutes the potential loci for ground water occurrence. The present study aims at getting information on ground water prospects in hard rock terrain of Rairangpur area, Orissa using geoelectrical and remote sensing techniques. 1.1 Literature Review: The literature available on groundwater resources related studies was reviewed in detail. Choudhury et al. 2010 [1], Deepika et al., 2013 [2], Dinesh et al., 2007 [3], Jaiswal et al., 2003 [4], Jesiya et al., 2015 [5], Magesh et al., 2012 [6], Reddy et al., 2003 [7], Saud 2010 [8], Shaban et al., 2006 [9], Sharma & Ray, 2015 [10], Suja Rose & Krishna (2009) [11] and Tweed et al., 2007 [12] have emphasized on utilization of remotely sensed data in conjunction with co-lateral data in GIS platform in delineation of groundwater potential zones. Ballukraya 2001[13], Janardhana Raju et al., (1996) [14], Kumar & Srinivasan 2016 [15], Mahala et al., 2013 [16] and Selvarani et al., 2016 [17] have described in their study, application of geophysics in targeting groundwater in hard rock areas. Sahu 2017 [18] and Sahu 2017 [19], highlighted on the integration of geological, geophysical and remote sensing data for sustainable development and management of groundwater in hard rock terrain. Their research method can be applied for sustainable development and management of groundwater resources in the drought prone, and poverty-stricken Rairangpur block of Odisha. 1.2 Study Area: Rairangpur block lies between 22°11'30" to 22°26'30" north latitude and 86°06'30" to 86°21'15" East longitude (Fig.1). The block falls in the Survey of India topographic sheet no. 73J/3, 73J/4, 73J/7, 73J/08. The block is covering an area of 258 sq.km. Total population is 69374. The average rainfall of this Received: August 11, 2017; Accepted: December 23, 2017; Published: January 30, 2018 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1178-1183, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0612 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved. 1179 Geomorphological and Geoelectrical Studies for Targeting Groundwater in Hard Rock Terrain of Rairangpur Block, Odisha, India area is 445.47 mm. The block is covered by Granite and Epidiorite of pre-cambrian age. The maximum temperature is 45°C and minimum temperature is 30°C. During the summer, the groundwater level in this block goes beyond the economic lift, which constitutes the drinking water source in this region. The area suffers from water scarcity that has a direct impact on the livelihood, health and sanitation of the local people and the sustainability of water supply is threatened. are Denudational Hill (8%), Habitation (1%), Intermontane Valley (1%), Padiplain (1%), Plateau (10%), Shallow weathered/ shallow buried Pediplain (36%), Structural Hills (Large) (20%), Valley Fill/ filled-in valley (0.74%), and Water Body (1%) (Fig.3). The Physical characters of different landforms are present in Table 1. Figure2: Lithology of the Study Area Figure1: Location map of the Study Area 2. Methodology The hydro-geomorphological and lineament maps were prepared by digital image processing using IRSIA (LISS-II) data. The drainage system of the area was digitized in ArcGIS 10.2.2 from SOI toposheets. The drainage density and lineament density maps were prepared using the line density analysis tool in ArcGIS. The electrical resistivity method has been employed in ground water investigation in which electrical resistivity of formations is measured. Vertical Electrical Sounding has been conducted at 12 locations in different land form units to assess the types and thickness of different geo-electrical layers. The field data were plotted on a standard log-log paper and interpreted by matching with those of the standard curves published by the European Association of Exploration Geophysicists. 3. Result and Discussion 3.1 Geology and Hydrogeomorphology The area is dominated by Granite and Epidiorite of Precambrian age. The main rock types are granite and Epidiorite. Percentage of Granite and Epidiorite is 83% and 17% respectively (Fig.2). These rocks lack Primary porosity. Ground water occurrence is confined to weathered and fractured zone and occurs in unconfined and semi-confined aquifer conditions. Hydro-geomorphological study shows that close relationship exists between hydro-eomorphic units and groundwater resources. Geomorphological units are extremely helpful for locating groundwater potential areas and artificial recharge sites. By taking image interpretation characteristics of tone, texture, shape, color and association over the geocoded FCC image, the geomorphologic units are interpreted. The geomorphological features of the Rairangpur block 3.2 Lineament density: Lineaments are structurally controlled linear or curvilinear surface expression of zones of weakness, which are identified from satellite imagery by their relatively linear alignments. High lineament density of an area has a major role for the groundwater potential. In hard rock areas lineaments and fractures act as principal conduits in movement and storage of groundwater. In the Rairangpur block 33% of area has very low density, 45% has low density, 18% has moderate density and 2% has high density lineament (Fig.4). 3.3 Drainage Density Drainage density indicates the closeness of spacing of stream channels. It is a measure of total length of all the orders per unit area. The drainage density is inversely proportional to permeability. The less permeable a rock is indicated by high drainage density. Drainage density is calculated using Arc GIS Spatial analysis tools of line density and the area is divided in to 5 group i.e Very high, High, Moderate, low and very low (Fig.5). Figure3: Hydrogeomorphology Map of the area International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1178-1183 SAHU P C 1180 of such variation vertical electrical sounding have been conducted to assess the type and thickness of different layers. Vertical electrical sounding with Schlumberger electrode configuration using (AB/2) separation up to 100m were carried out at 12 locations. The details are given in table 2. The selection of VES stations was done keeping in view of geological complexity, accessibility and field layout feasibility. 4.1 Interpretation of resistivity data Figure4: Lineament Density Map of the area Figure5: Drainage density map of the study area 3.4 Slope Slope has an influencing role in infiltration and run off characteristics of surface water. The slope map of the study area was prepared based on SRTM data using the 3D analysis tool in ArcGis10.2.2. Based on slope, the study area is divided into four classes. The area under 0 degree to 4 degree is very low, 4 degree to 11 degree is low,11 degree to 21 degree moderate, more than 21 degree considered as high slope and more runoff area (Fig.6). Figure6: Slope map of the study area 4. Electrical Resistivity Survey Geoelectrical technique is very important for groundwater survey because it gives strong response to sub-surface conditions. The electrical resistivity method was employed to delineate weathered and fractured rocks in hard rock terrain. There is a good contrast in resistivity value among the bed rocks, the fractured zone, weathered zone and top soils. Because Resistivity survey indicates 4 or 5 geoelectrical subsurface layers set-up in the area. These are top soil, highly weathered zone, semi-weathered zone, fracture zone and the bed rock sequentially. The soil layer of variable nature has resistivity between 8 to 192, whose thickness is less than 3.2m. The highly weathered layer is identified with resistivity from 36.6 to76.0 having maximum thickness of 12.2m. The semi-weathered zone indicated by the resistivity value 94.2 to192.0 having a maximum thickness of 18.8 m. The fractured nature is indicated by resistivity value 112.0 to 292.0. However, the significant fractured sections are restricted within a depth of 35 to 50 m below the ground surface. The VES conducted at different points revealed 4 layered and 5 layered situations. In a 4 layered system, the 2nd and 3rd layers are interpreted as the potential zones from which ground water can be extracted. The thickness of aquifer varies from 12.0m to19.0m. Groundwater potential is poor in this case. In 5 layered systems, the 2nd, 3rd and 4th layer constitute the aquifer zone whose thickness ranges from 23.0m to 64.0m and groundwater condition is moderate to good. From the resistivity data, it is apparent that 5 layered cases are confined to the areas underlain by granitic rocks with pediplain landforms, high lineament density, and low drainage density and less slope, whereas 4 layered cases are observed in Epidiorite and granite terrain with shallow buried pediment landform. It is also clear that groundwater can be taped from 2nd layer through dug wells, from third layer through dug-cum-bore wells and from 4th layer through only deep bore wells. Thickness of aquifer is found to vary between 12.0m to 64.0m.VES studies reveal that the area has high potentiality for use of ground water through different kinds of abstraction structures. The depth to bedrock ranges from 30 to 70 m in most parts of the geomorphic units like Alluvial Plains, Intermontane valleys and buried Pediplain and 15 to 30 m in pediment. The dug-cum-bore wells along with dug wells is recommended where bedrock lies at 15 to 30m depth and bore wells along with dug wells and dug-cum-bore wells where depth of bedrock is greater than 30 m. 5. Conclusions It is concluded that the geomorphological features of Rairangpur block are Denudational Hill (8%), Habitation (1%), Intermontane Valley (1%), International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1178-1183 1181 Geomorphological and Geoelectrical Studies for Targeting Groundwater in Hard Rock Terrain of Rairangpur Block, Odisha, India Padiplain (1%), Plateau (10%), Shallow weathered/ shallow buried Pediplain (36%), Structural Hills (Large) (20% ),Valley Fill (0.74%), Water Body (1%). The areas characterized by weathered pediplain, high lineament density, low drainage density are identified as Moderate to High Groundwater Potential Zones. Resistivity Survey indicates 4 or 5 geoelectrical subsurface layers set-up in this area. These layers are top soil, highly weathered zone, semi-weathered zone, fracture zone and the bed rock. In a 4 layered cases, the 2nd and 3rd layers are interpreted as the potential zones from which ground water can be extracted. The aquifer thickness varying from 12.0m to19.0m. Groundwater potential is poor in this case. In 5 layered cases, the 2nd, 3rd and 4th layer constitute the aquifer zone whose thickness varying from 23.0m to 64.0m and groundwater condition is moderate to good. Groundwater can be taped from 2 nd layer through dug wells, from third layer through dugcum-bore wells and from 4th layer through only deep bore wells. The important villages where groundwater can be targeted are Raunal, Dhadikidihi, Naupada, Tolak, Sundhal, Rairangpur, Bhalubasa and Naujoda, Rangapalli. Integrated approach of GeologicalHydrological-Geophysical-Drilling-Satellite Image and Aerial Photo-interpretation should be applied for sustainable development and management of water resources. Acknowledgement The author is thankful to Prof. D. Nandi and Asst. Prof. S. Sahu for their encouragement and constant support. The author is grateful to UGC (ERO), Kolkata for sanctioning funds for this work. References [1] Chowdhury, A., Jha, M.K. and Chowdhury, V.M., “ eli eatio of rou d ater re har el zones and identification of artificial sites in West Medinipur district, West Bengal, using RS , GIS a d M M te h iques”, iro e tal arth Science, V. 59, pp. 1209-1222. 2010 [2] Deepika, B., Avinash, K. and Jayappa, K.S. “Integration of Hydrological Factors and Demarcation of Groundwater Prospects Zones: Insights from Remote Sensing and GIS iro ”. 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Table1: Image and physical characteristics of different land form in the study area Geomorphic unit Image elements Landform Characteristics (Ground observation) Linear to actuate hills, dissected, granitic rocks mostly dendritic drainage, jointed ridges, average height 300 m. strong to very steep slopes Dull red tone, coarse texture Weathered granite ,dendritic drainage, moderate to Denudational hills irregular shape steep slopes, sparse vegetation Dark grey tone, coarse texture Erosion surfaces, isolated mounds which have shape and size-irregular and undergone the process of denudation, Steep slopes, Residual hills rounded radial drainage act as runoff zones Gentle to moderate slopes, devoid of vegetation with various depths of weathering material, shallow Light red to red tone, moderate Pediments sediment cover rocky and gravely surfaces, to fine texture dendritic to sub-dendritic drainage, mostly vegetated or cultivated lying at foot hills These units are characterized by the presence of relatively thicker weathered material. The thickness Shallow Weathered Green-bluish mixed tone of the weathered material is (up to 5 m. These pediplains moderate to fine texture hydrogeomorpic units are developed mostly upon Mayurbhanj Granite A linear or curvilinear depression valley within the Intermontane Green-bluish mixed tone hills, filled with colluvial deposits of IOG Valley moderate to fine texture sediments Dark red tone coarse texture Table land shaped hill with flat surface at the top Plateau irregular shape with sloping sides Structural hills Dark red tone coarse texture irregular shape Area in sq. km. 52.4999 19.8984 0.16309 52.1056 93.0976 1.9768 26.8315 Table2: Interpreted Resistivity data of the study area Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 ϱ=Layer Resistivity (Ohm-m) ϱ1 = 1 2.0 ϱ2 = 45.0 Ruanal ϱ3 = 102.0 ϱ4 = 282.0 ϱ 5 > 5 0.0 ϱ1 = 24.5 ϱ2 = 38.0 Dhadikidiha ϱ3 = 6.2 ϱ4 = 1 .0 ϱ 5> 482.0 ϱ1 = 18.0 ϱ2 = 42.0 Naupada ϱ3 = 4.8 ϱ4 = 220.0 ϱ 5= 684.0 ϱ1 = 22.0 ϱ2 = 38.0 Tolak ϱ3 = 112.0 ϱ4 = 218.5 ϱ 5= 550.0 ϱ1 =24.0 Sundhal ϱ2 =46.5 ϱ3 =102.6 Location h= Layer thickness (m) h1 = 2.6 h2 = 6.0 h3 = 5.2 h4 = 12.8 h5 = Thick h1 = 2.5 h2 = 10.5 h3 = 18.8 h4 = 31.5 h5 = Thick h1 = 2.0 h2 = 12.2 h3 = 18.8 h4 = 33.0 h5 = Thick h1 = 3.2 h2 = 5.0 h3 = 6.6 h4 = 20.4 h5 = Thick h1 = 1.9 h2 = 4.2 h3 = 6.8 Probable lithology Top lateritic soil Highly weathered zone Semi-weathered zone Fractured zone Hard rock Sandy loam Highly weathered zone Semi-weathered zone Fractured zone Hard rock Top soil Highly weathered zone Semi-weathered zone Fractured zone Hard rock Top soil Highly weathered zone Semi-weathered zone Fractured zone Hard rock Top soil Highly weathered zone Weathered zone Layers forming aquifers Groundwater and thickness of aquifer Potential (m) h2, h3 and h4 (240) Moderate h2, h3 and h4 (60.8) Very good h2, h3 and h4 (64) Very good h2, h3 and h4 (32) Moderate to good h2, h3 and h4 (23) Moderate International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1178-1183 1183 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Geomorphological and Geoelectrical Studies for Targeting Groundwater in Hard Rock Terrain of Rairangpur Block, Odisha, India ϱ4 =254.0 ϱ 5 =5 8.0 ϱ1 = 11.5 ϱ2 = 76.0 Gandida ϱ3 = 192.0 ϱ4 = 480.5 ϱ1 = 10.4 ϱ2 = 36.6 Badada ϱ3 = 101.5 ϱ4 = 4 6.0 ϱ1 = 1 2.0 ϱ2 =54.0 Rairangpur ϱ3 =112.4 NAC ϱ4 =204.0 ϱ 5=488.0 ϱ1 = 17.0 ϱ2 = 3 .0 Bhalubasa ϱ3 = 6.5 ϱ4 = 180.0 ϱ 5 = 4 0.0 ϱ1 = 8.0 ϱ2 = 48.5 Naujoda ϱ3 = 101.0 ϱ4 = 1 6.5 ϱ 5 = 675.0 ϱ1 = 10.0 ϱ2 = 66.0 Anandpur ϱ3 = 120.5 ϱ4 = 4 6.0 ϱ1 =12.0 ϱ2 =44.8 ϱ3 =248.0 ϱ4 =684.0 h4 = 12.0 h5 = Thick h1 = 2.4 h2 = 8.8 h3 = 10.2 h4 = Thick h1 = 1.6 h2 = 9.5 h3 = 10.5 h4 = Thick h1 = 2.2 h2 = 10.8 h3 = 12.2 h4 = 16.0 h5 = Thick h1 = 2.0 h2 = 9.5 h3 = 13.4 h4 = 20.6 h5 = Thick h1 = 1.8 h2 = 7.0 h3 = 10.5 h4 = 12.7 h5 = Thick h1 = 3.0 h2 = 4.0 h3 = 8.0 h4 = Thick h1 = 3.0 h2 = 5.0 h3 = 9.5 h4 = Thick Fractured zone Hard rock Top soil Weathered zone Fractured zone Hard rock Top soil Weathered zone Fractured zone Hard rock Top lateritic soil Highly weathered zone Semi-weathered zone Fractured zone Hard rock Top soil Highly weathered zone Semi-weathered zone Fractured zone Hard rock Top soil Highly weathered zone Weathered zone Fractured zone Hard rock Top soil Weathered zone Fractured zone Hard rock Top soil Weathered zone Fractured zone Hard rock h2 and h3 (19) Moderate h2 and h3 (20) Moderate h2, h3 and h4 (39) Moderate to good h2, h3 and h4 (45.5) Moderate to good (30.2) Moderate h2 and h3 (12) Poor h2 and h3 (14.5) Poor International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1178-1183 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0613 December 2017, P.P. 1184-1194 www.cafetinnova.org Evaluation of Groundwater Overdraft in Lower Liaohe River Plain, China BIAN Y1, DING F 2 AND JIN C1 1 2 Geological Environmental Monitoring Center of Liaoning Province, Shenyang, 110032, China Key Laboratory of Beijing for Water Quality Science and Water Environment Recovery Engineering, College of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing,100124, China Email: dingfei@bjut.edu.cn, bym0524@126.com Abstract: A ordi to the ‘Guideli es for the assess e t of zo es of rou d ater o erdraft’, to a al ze the evaluation indexes and methods of groundwater overdraft area, and propose the comprehensive evaluation process of groundwater overdraft area. Based on the integrate data of recent groundwater observation and investigation in Lower Liaohe River Plain, to analyze the groundwater overdraft situation and geoenvironmental problems caused by it. Separately taking hydrogeological unit and county-level administrative region as the unit, adopting the exploitation coefficient method, to calculate the groundwater overdraft level; and comprehensively analyze and evaluate the overdraft area with dynamic trend method, water level amplitude method and mutagenic environmental problem method. The result shows that there were some deteriorative environmental problems caused by groundwater overdraft in the research area, but in the period from 2001 to 2011, common overdraft only exists in shallow pore water layer in Shenyang city region. Keywords: Lower Liaohe Plain, groundwater overdraft, evaluation method, exploitation coefficient. 1. Introduction Back in nineteenth Century, human being had already found groundwater overdraft phenomenon and the problems caused by it. And we realize its severity until to the early twentieth century. At the present time, many scholars in the world are still devoting themselves into researching the problems such as resource exhaustion, ground surface collapse, seawater intrusion which caused by groundwater overdraft [1-4]. I hi a, i the earl 1 80’s, the ministry of Geology and mineral resources (Ministry of Land and Resources) organized and implemented the work of investigation and partition of groundwater o erdraft area. Fro the e d of 1 0’s to the beginning of this century, the Ministry of Water Resources also works on classifying and reviewing the groundwater overdraft area [5]. The researches that are about groundwater overdraft and the series of problems caused by it emerge in large numbers throughout the country [6-8]. In the year of 2003, the Ministry of Water Resources published the ‘Guideli es for the assess e t of zo es of rou d ater o erdraft’ (SL286-2003)[9] (hereinafter refers to the ‘Guideli es’)ˈfrom the end of 2012 to first half year of 2013, our country performed a new round of evaluation for groundwater overdraft area, a d also rese ted the ‘Natio al te h i al outli e of e aluatio for rou d ater o erdraft (2012)’. Lower Liaohe Plain is not only the industrial base of Liao i Pro i e, but also the ‘bar ’ of the hole province. The main water supplying resource for lower Liaohe Plain is groundwater, and it has nonreplaceable role in many aspects such as supporting the economic development of society and making sure of supplying water for the city etc. [10]. As the progress of regional industrialization and urbanization is speeding up, demanded quantity of water resource for the region is becoming larger and larger, and the dependence for groundwater is getting stronger and stronger; in certain regions, eventually comes into a sort of predatory exploitation, and then comes into over exploitation, and causes a series problems such as ecological environment, geological environment and geological hazard [11-13]. Therefore, it has very important guiding significance for reasonably exploiting and utilizing groundwater and gradually controlling the over exploitation that evaluate regional groundwater overdraft and objectively identify the range of overdraft area. 2. General situation of Lower Liaohe Plain 2.1 Physical geography situation The Lower Liaohe Plain is located in the center of Liaoning Province; the total area is more than two hundred thirty thousand square kilometers. Climatically, it belongs to temperate semi humid semi-arid monsoon climate zone; it has the feature of hot rainy season. Topographically, it is semi-closed alluvial plain which is embraced on three sides by hills and one side open [16]. Geotectonically, it is located on the north-east part of Sino-Korean paraplatform, which is faulted basin formed slightly from north to south by long-term twist-compression effect. Received: August 01, 2017; Accepted: December 21, 2017; Published: January 30, 2018 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1184-1194, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0613 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved. 1185 Evaluation of Groundwater Overdraft in Lower Liaohe River Plain, China 2.2 Hydrogeological condition In the region, the groundwater resource is plenteous, and it is a relatively complete hydrogeological unit which is composed by recharge area, runoff area and discharge area. The main flow direction of groundwater is as radial inflow from piedmont to the central plain; arrive at the middle of plain, the direction of flow is from east north to west south and flows into Liaodong Bay. The region mainly could be identified as five hydrogeological units: Liurao Plain, inclined plain in front of the eastern piedmont, inclined plain in front of the western piedmont, central alluvial plain and costal saline water area, as shown in figure 1. Figure1: Partition diagram of hydrogeological unit for the Lower Liaohe Plain The water-bearing type could be divided into four major types: Quaternary pore water in loose rock mass, fault pore-fracture water, karst fissure water in carbonate rock, and Bedrock fracture water. Among these four types of groundwater, Quaternary pore water in loose rock mass is distributed all over the region; water-bearing layer is thick and large; it is distributed stably, the water quantity is rich, it is convenient for exploiting; and it is the major groundwater type in the region. Fault pore-fracture water is distributed mainly in the Mesozoic tectonic basin or monoclinal structure on the north east direction; in littoral delta region, it is the main water supplying resource; and it identified as two waterbearing rock groups: town of Minghuazhen and Guantao formation. The supplying condition is not good, runoff of water moves slowly, the cycle period is long. Karst fissure water is mainly existed in Cambrian and Ordovician limestone; the distribution of water-bearing layer is in the part of working area as a strip shape from north east to south west. For bedrock fracture water, it distributes widely in Anshan city and the south of Haicheng city and distributes sporadically in the rest area surrounding plains. 3. Evaluating System of Groundwater Overdraft Area 3.1 Evaluating Indicator Considering the definition and classification of ‘ rou d ater o erdraft area’ i the ‘Guideli es’, the main basis for identifying the groundwater overdraft area is that the exploitation quantity over the available exploitation quantity, durative declination of groundwater level or the environmental problems caused by. Therefore, three aspects are included for its evaluation index, they are exploitation index— exploitation coefficient, status index—decline velocity of groundwater level, environment index— decrease of spring flow quantity, ground collapse, ground fissure, water pollution, seawater intrusion, International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1184-1194 B IAN Y, D ING F AND J IN C salted water intrusion, desert intrusion and ground subsidence degree etc. 3.2 Evaluation Method According to the evaluation index, we define the evaluation method for groundwater overdraft area. It mainly includes three major categories: exploitation coefficient method, water level amplitude method and environmental problems induced method. What is called exploitation coefficient method is mainly based on the ratio between exploitation quantity and available exploitation quantity in a region during the evaluating period, namely exploitation coefficient; to intuitively identify weather the groundwater is overdraft in the region [14]. Water level amplitude method is the direct relation between variable groundwater level and exploitation situation, which is to evaluate the overdraft area by the durative decline of groundwater level caused by over exploitation. And the environmental problems induced method means 1186 that exclude other causes, to evaluate the groundwater overdraft area by the level of many environment geological hazards and ecological environment deterioration which caused by groundwater overdraft [15]. It is noteworthy that, when we use water level amplitude method and environmental problems induced method for evaluating the groundwater overdraft area, we should firstly analysis and determine that weather the formation reason is over exploitation; for this, the method we could use is Dynamic trend method, correlation analysis method and so on. 3.3 Evaluation Process There are more methods for evaluating groundwater overdraft area, and each has advantages and disadvantages. We should organically combine these methods to evaluate the overdraft area comprehendsvely. Detailed process is shown in figure 2. Figure2: Process map of groundwater overdraft evaluation 4. Correlation analysis of major evaluation index and groundwater exploitation Mainly we use the dynamic trend method to analysis the correlation between groundwater exploitation and preliminary selected status indexes and environmental indexes for this region. 4.1 Decline of the water level Through analysis for the dynamic characteristics of regional groundwater level, in the evaluation period, quaternary pore water level in Shenyang city exploration area and Guantao formation deep confined water level in Panjin city exploitation area have continued to decline. From 2001 to 2006, the groundwater exploitation quantity of Shenyang city is augmented. Since 2006, it showed a trend of falling volatility, but in general, the exploitation quantity is increasing. Water level of observation well in exploitation area is comparatively accordance with and production trends are consistent, it shows that the ground water level decline in the area is closely related with exploitation production. See figure 3. Panjin city mainly exploits the groundwater of Minghuazhen and Guantao formation. In recent years, the exploitation quantity of Minghuazhen is decreasing, and in contrast, the exploitation quantity of Guantao formation is increasing. Groundwater level of regional Guantao formation is completely influenced by exploitation quantity, partial area has a durative decreasing trend, see figure 4. 4.2 Water Pollution Altogether, in the year of 2011, we selected one hundred and thirty-seven water quality observation International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1184-1194 1187 Evaluation of Groundwater Overdraft in Lower Liaohe River Plain, China stations for collecting and analyzing water samples. Among them, there are one hundred and twenty-two observation stations for shallow pore water, six observation stations for deep pore water, four observation stations for pore-fracture water of Minghuazhen formation, and five observation stations for pore-fracture water of Guantao formation. Compared and analyzed with collected historical data, it shows that the shallow pore water quality is deteriorating; mainly located in the front of eastern inclined plain piedmont, north part of alluvial fan of Taizi river and a part of Fuxin city and Zhangwu county in Liuhe Plain. For other area, the situation is relatively stable. Deep groundwater and neogenesis groundwater quality are relatively stable. A major component of shallow pore water statistics are shown in table 1, major ion duration curve of typical observation stations in water quality deterioration area is as shown in figure 5 and 6. ˄108m3˅ 40 ˄m˅40 35 35 30 30 25 25 20 20 15 15 10 10 5 5 0 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Exploitation volume of Shenyang city Water level of point A012c 2006 2007 2008 Water level of point A019c Water level of point A018c 2009 2010 2011 (year) Water level of point A058c Figure3: Over years groundwater exploitation quantity and observation well of Shenyang city ˄108m3˅ ˄m˅ 2.00 0 -10 1.50 -20 1.00 -30 0.50 -40 0.00 2001 2002 2003 2004 Exploitation volume of Panjin city 2005 2006 2007 2008 Water level of point 2103 2009 2010 -50 2011 (year) Water level of point 2104 Figure4: Comparison chart of over years groundwater exploitation quantity and observation well of Panjin city Figure5: Duration curve chart of major ionic content in groundwater of observation station #C008 in the front of eastern inclined plain piedmont International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1184-1194 B IAN Y, D ING F AND J IN C 1188 Figure6: Duration curve chart of major ionic content in groundwater of observation station #7017 of Fuxin city in Liuhe plain Table1: Statistic table of major composition of shallow pore water in Lower Liaohe Plain Chemical composition Hardness Total dissolved solids Cl- SO42- NO3- NO2- NH4+ Year of Year of Year of Chemical Year of Year of Year of Content 2001 2006 2011 composition 2001 2006 2011 Average content 226.2 236.45 355.79 Average content 2.29 2.69 2.68 COD Over standard Over standard 4.44 4.76 22.73 12.12 23.8 27.27 rate % rate% Average content 654.87 783.93 740.88 Average content 1.38 5.74 5.05 Iron Over standard Over standard 6.67 19.05 19.7 53.85 77.92 70.45 rate% rate% Average content 100.61 110.93 99.69 Average content 0.0038 0.0022 0.002 Phenol Over standard Over standard 4.44 8.3 7.58 51.52 43.04 25 rate% rate% Average content 113.13 90.37 120.9 Average content 0.0039 0.008 0.0012 Cyanide Over standard Over standard 4.44 2.38 9.09 0 1.27 0 rate% rate% Average content 20.68 76.1 70.15 Average content 0.0025 0.0084 Plumbum Over standard Over standard 4.44 16.67 25.76 0 0 3.03 rate% rate% Average content 0.069 0.137 0.28 Average content 0.003 0.004 0.0023 Cuprum Over standard Over standard 17.78 20.88 19.67 0ˉ0.015 0-0.025 0-0.022 rate% rate% Average content 0.1 0.251 0.36 Average content 0.115 0.071 0.0341 Zinc Over standard Over standard 13.33 13.1 9.84 0 0 0 rate% rate% Content By the table, we can figure out that in the year of 2011, the average content and the standard rate of most ions in macro constituent of shallow pore water constant is increased; especially total hardness, SO42, NO3-, NO2-, NH4+ is the most obvious. Water quality deterioration areas are all not the groundwater exploration area. Analyzing the deterioration reasons, it is mainly caused by agricultural fertilizing, emission of industrial wastewater and sanitary waste that largely recharge to shallow groundwater. Although groundwater exploitation must accelerate the transportation effect, it is not the main factor. 4.3 Seawater Intrusion The south part of Lower Liaohe Plain is closely near to the Liaodong Bay, the seawater intrusion phenomenon has appeared in partial geographic sector, it is distributed mainly in the south part of the line of Niangnianggong- Beiergou- Yihetun-Xiquegou of Linghai city. It encroaches five to fifteen kilometers into interior continental, the intrusion area is about 335 km2. In the period of evaluation, the groundwater exploitation volume shows a decreasing trend, and the water level in observation well of water resource land shows ascending trend, see the figure 7. The seawater intrusion situation is basically steady. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1184-1194 1189 2 Evaluation of Groundwater Overdraft in Lower Liaohe River Plain, China ˄108m3˅ 8.40 ˄m˅ 0 8.00 -2 7.60 -4 -6 7.20 -8 6.80 -10 6.40 -12 APR SEP APR SEP APR SEP APR SEP APR SEP APR SEP APR SEP APR SEP APR SEP APR SEP APR SEP 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Exploitation volume of Jinzhou city 2008 2009 2010 2011 month year Water level of D081T Figure7: Comparison chart of changes of water level in observation well in exploitation area and over year exploitation volume in Jinzhou city 4.4 Salt Water Intrusion The salt water intrusion phenomenon is mainly happened in the plains which are next to the ocean in the south; it includes Quaternary salt water intrusion and salt water intrusion of neogenesis Minghuazhen formation. The quaternary salt water is distributed largely. The total area reaches 3255.25 km2. The bound of salt water and fresh water is located in the interface of alluvial plain in front of the mountain and plains next to the ocean[17]. At the moment, the bound of salt water and fresh water is generally expanded 0.5ˉ2.0km toward fresh water area comparing to the sixty years of last century. During the evaluation period, the exploitation well of Quaternary pore water in all salt water area is shut down in Panjin city, only partly in the west, north and north-east part of Panjin city is still exploiting the Quaternary ground fresh water. The salt water of Minghuazhen formation is mainly distributed in the center of Panjin city, the total area is about 1697.54 km2, and it is distributed from south to north with a tongue-like shape. The salt groundwater of Minghuazhen formation is the blocked result of blocking and safekeeping with deposition which enriched salt water lake formed by the evaporation effect under the environment of continental deposit. The salt water in the region is not yet exploited, but in some geographic sector, the bound of salt water and fresh water shifted once because of the fresh water exploitation of Minghuazhen formation in the area of Pandong, Panshan, Huanxiling and Rehetai etc. During the evaluation period, its groundwater level shows ascending trend, and the trend of salt water intrusion is steady. Generally, in Lower Liaohe Plain, the main evaluation index which is related with groundwater exploitation is exploitation coefficient, durative descending speed ratio of water level, seawater intrusion and salt water intrusion. 5. Evaluation for the overdraft area in Lower Liaohe Plain 5.1 Standards and primary selection index of overdraft area The standard of this evaluation for the overdraft area, classification of overdraft area and grading is all refer to ‘Guideli es’. Designated period of overdraft area evaluation is from the early of 2001 to the end of 2011, totally eleven years. The selected period includes the harvest, common and dry year; the average rainfall of this period and average annuals rainfall is basically accordant, and meet the regulation in the "Guidelines" that should not be less than 10 years for observing period. Comprehensively analysis previous exploration data, monitoring data and research results, ground subsidence, ground collapse, ground fracture and land desertification that caused by groundwater exploitation do not exist in the zone of Lower Liaohe Plain; there have not well known spring which need to be protected. Thus, preliminarily selected evaluation index for the overdraft area is: exploitation coefficient, continuing decline rate of the water level, seawater intrusion, salty water intrusion, water pollution degree. 5.2 Analysis of exploitation coefficient method Using the exploitation coefficient method to evaluate the overdraft exploitation area, the most important thing is the determination of available exploitation volume and actual exploitation. The evaluation unit of groundwater overdraft area should be consistent with the hydrogeological unit as much as possible. But the actual collected exploitation datum is frequently divided by administrative area. For ensuring the reliability of the result, hereby we evaluate the overdraft exploitation area separately by each hydrogeological unit and county administrative region. There are many ways of calculating the groundwater exploitation volume [18-21]. For this time, we adopt the exploitation coefficient method to calculate. For the calculation of actual exploitation volume, combined with statistical information of field research, we calculate separately in accordance with the collected exploitation datum of centralized water supply in water resource land of each city, the historical exploitation ratio of each county, industrial International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1184-1194 B IAN Y, D ING F AND J IN C and agriculture development situation and population structure and so on, 1190 For the evaluation results of overdraft exploitation area of each hydrogeological unit and each county administrative area, see table 2 and 3. Table2: Table of evaluation results in overdraft exploitation area of each hydrogeological unit in Lower Liaohe Plain Salt Central water alluvial area plain Inclined plain in front of eastern mountain Inclined plain in front of western mountain Systematical groundwater partition Liurao Plain The Dongshahe River fan alluvial-pluvial fan of Yangchangzi river and Yazi river Alluvial fan of big/small linghe river Alluvial-proluvial inclined plain in front of western mountain Alluvial fan of Liaohe river Alluvial fan of Hunhe river Alluvial fan of Taizihe river Alluvial-pluvial fan of Haicheng river Drifted proluvial inclined plain Sector of Xinmin city Sector of Liaozhong city Sector of Taian city Sector of Panjin city Sector of Yingkou city Total Available Actual Overdraft Degree of exploitation exploitation exploitation Number Exploitation layer overdraft volume volume coefficient exploitation 8 3 8 3 (10 m /a) (10 m /a) “k” ĉ1 1.32 0.54 Quaternary pore water -0.59 Not overdraft Ċ1 0.32 0.13 Quaternary pore water -0.58 Not overdraft Ċ2 1.16 0.94 Quaternary pore water -0.19 Not overdraft Ċ3 2.04 1.88 Quaternary pore water -0.08 Not overdraft Ċ4 1.40 1.00 Quaternary pore water -0.28 Not overdraft ċ1 4.40 3.39 Quaternary pore water -0.23 Not overdraft ċ2 4.16 4.03 Quaternary pore water -0.03 Not overdraft ċ3 4.07 3.68 Quaternary pore water -0.10 Not overdraft ċ4 0.66 0.61 Quaternary pore water -0.08 Not overdraft ċ5 9.14 7.76 Quaternary pore water -0.15 Not overdraft Č1 Č2 Č3 č1 č2 4.30 5.01 5.73 1.758 0.33 45.80 2.17 3.76 3.90 1.22 0.23 35.24 Quaternary pore water Quaternary pore water Quaternary pore water neogenesis deep water neogenesis deep water -0.50 -0.25 -0.32 -0.31 -0.30 -0.23 Not overdraft Not overdraft Not overdraft Not overdraft Not overdraft Not overdraft Table3: Table of evaluation results in overdraft exploitation area of each county administrative area in Lower Liaohe Plain City Shenyang Anshan Jinzhou County Available exploitation volume (108m3/a) Actual exploitation volume (108m3/a) Exploitation layer Overdraft exploitation coefficient “k” Down town 1.1095 1.2933 Quaternary pore water 0.17 Yuhong 3.68 3.482 Quaternary pore water -0.05 Common overdraft Not overdraft Sujiatun 1.9829 1.9737 Quaternary pore water 0.00 Not overdraft Degree of overdraft exploitation Shenbei 1.4423 1.4324 Quaternary pore water -0.01 Not overdraft Dongling 2.3935 2.333 Quaternary pore water -0.03 Not overdraft Xinmin 6.2983 4.7612 Quaternary pore water -0.24 Not overdraft Liaozhong 5.4655 3.8860 Quaternary pore water -0.29 Not overdraft Down town 0.4767 0.417 Quaternary pore water -0.13 Not overdraft Haicheng 1.9583 1.657 Quaternary pore water -0.15 Not overdraft Taian 5.9342 3.229 Quaternary pore water -0.21 Not overdraft Linghai 6.1472 3.775 Quaternary pore water -0.39 Not overdraft International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1184-1194 1191 Evaluation of Groundwater Overdraft in Lower Liaohe River Plain, China Actual exploitation volume (108m3/a) 1.902 Exploitation layer Overdraft exploitation coefficient “k” Degree of overdraft exploitation Beizhen Available exploitation volume (108m3/a) 2.1646 Quaternary pore water -0.12 Not overdraft Heishan 2.9586 1.507 Quaternary pore water -0.49 Not overdraft Down town 0.0844 0.000 neogenesis deep water -1.00 Not overdraft -0.11 Not overdraft City County Yingkou Dashiqiao 0.48 0.25 0.649 Quaternary pore water neogenesis deep water Fuxin Zhangwu 4.0101 1.264 Quaternary pore water -0.68 Not overdraft 0.881 0.716 Quaternary pore water -0.19 Not overdraft Liaoyang Down town Liaoyang county Dengta 6.0744 5.340 Quaternary pore water -0.12 Not overdraft 2.4205 0.938 Quaternary pore water -0.61 Not overdraft Tieling county 1.92 1.880 Quaternary pore water -0.02 Not overdraft Panshan county 0.74 -0.54 Not overdraft Dawa county 0.5206 -0.13 Not overdraft Tieling Panjin 1.02 0.816 0.451 From the table above, it can be figured out that the e aluatio s are all ‘ ot o erdraft’ a ordi to the each hydrogeological unit. But the exploitation degree is higher in area of Alluvial fan of Hunhe river, alluvial fan of Taizihe river, alluvial-pluvial fan of Haicheng River, and alluvial fan of big and small linghe river. To evaluate by the county administrative unit, overdraft is only existed in downtown of Shenyang city; but the exploitation degree is much higher in the district of Yuhong, Sujiatun, Shenbei, Quaternary pore water neogenesis deep water neogenesis deep water and Dongling. Although the evaluation division is different, the evaluation results are nearly consistent. 5.3 Analysis of water level amplitude method: Choosing the typical observation station, using the water level observation data of groundwater from year 2001 to November of 2011, calculate the durative descending ratio of groundwater level. The calculation results see table 4. Table4: Table of descending ratio for groundwater level in typical observation station of funnel area Region Downtown of Shenyang city (shallow water) Panjin city (Guantao formation) Station number A012C A018C A019C A020C A024C A026C A041C Descending range˄m˅ 5.94 3.23 1.63 5.85 4.85 3.39 0.28 Descending ratio˄m/a˅ 0.54 0.29 0.15 0.53 0.44 0.31 0.03 Station number A058C A064C A065C A126T A128T A129T A161T Descending range˄m˅ 2.07 3.31 0.13 1.25 1.71 0.78 0.05 Descending ratio˄m/a˅ 0.19 0.30 0.01 0.11 0.16 0.07 0.005 Station number M011T 2104 2103 M020C Descending range˄m˅ 8.61 20.2 2.2 0.16 Descending ratio˄m/a˅ 0.78 1.84 0.24 0.015 From the table above, we figured out that the descending ratio of groundwater level in downtown of Shenyang city is from 0.005 to 0.54 m/a, it belongs to common overdraft area, and it is as same as the result of exploitation coefficient method. Moreover, the exploitation of Guantao formation groundwater is consumptive and mainly based on the elastic drainage storage capacity, and all of it is fresh water which is buried beneath the depth of five hundred to six hundred meters. Its exploitation basically would not cause any environmental and hydrogeological problem. To conduct resource evaluation under the o ditio of fift ears’ ex loitatio a d the ele atio of pressure water head is minus hundred meters, the groundwater exploitation volume is 43.5562×108 m3; annual average allowed exploitation volume is 8711.2×104 m3. At the moment, other groundwater has been exploited for nearly forty years, the groundwater level descended approximately from sixty meters to seventy meters, and it does not yet reach the predicted descending depth. Therefore, although the groundwater level of Guantao formation is continuously descending with a bigger descending ratio which reached maximum 1.84m/a, the calculation result combined with the actual exploitation condition and exploitation coefficient is not yet overdraft. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1184-1194 B IAN Y, D ING F AND J IN C 5.4 Analysis of Environmental Problems Induced Method In accordance with the analysis, the major ecological environmental deterioration phenomenon caused by groundwater exploitation in the area is seawater intrusion and saltwater intrusion. Most of them are due to the huge exploitation volume and unreasonable distribution in seventy years till to ninety years. After entering twenty-first century, with the adjustment for the scheme of groundwater exploitation, the groundwater level shows ascending trend in the region; the seawater and saltwater intrusion shows a steady trend. Combining with the evaluation results of exploitation coefficient method and water level amplitude method; there are not environmental problems which are induced by extensive groundwater overdraft in the area from year of 2001 to 2011. 1192 environment deterioration phenomenon and it is not easy to be recovered. Influenced by native environmental conditions in littoral delta, local saltwater area is huge, degree of mineralization and chloride ion concentration is high, saltwater is not drinkable. Therefore, although the seawater and saltwater intrusion area isn't overdraft during the evaluation period, hereby we determine the littoral delta as forbidden groundwater exploiting areas where the content of chloride ion is more than 1000 mg/l in groundwater and the groundwater mineralization is greater than 3000 mg/l. 5.5 Comprehensive Evaluation Results Integrate the above evaluation results of various methods, based on overdraft exploitation criterion and classification standard, the results of the partition for overdraft exploitation area are shown in figure 8 and table 5 Because the seawater and saltwater intrusion caused by groundwater overdraft is serious ecological Figure8: Evaluation map of groundwater overdraft area in Lower Liaohe Plain Table5: Table of basic situation groundwater overdraft area in Lower Liaohe Plain Name of overdraft exploitation area Area (km2) Overdraft exploitation area of shallow pore water in downtown of Shenyang city 187.53 Forbidden exploiting area of shallow pore water of Panjin city 4930.89 Classificati on Basic characteristics This area is located in downtown of Shenyang city, there are many water supplies resources in the area, such as Dingxiang water resource, Shashan water resource, Zhongshan water resource and Yuhong water Middle- resources etc. Exploitation volume is large, the water level is continuously descending for years. From year of 2001 to 2011, the max sized decreasing amplitude of water level reached 5.94m, the descending ratio is 0.54m/a, groundwater funnel appears throughout the year, the buried depth of water in the center of funnel reaches 23m. This region is located in the area of Niangnianggong of Jinzhou city, LargeExpress of Yanjia to Shixin of Jinzhou city, and express of Gaosheng to scale Dashiqiao of Yingkou city, it belongs to salt water area, the content of International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1184-1194 Degree of overdraft exploitation Common Forbidden 1193 Name of overdraft exploitation area Forbidden exploiting area of deep water of Minghuazhen formation in Panjin city 6. Evaluation of Groundwater Overdraft in Lower Liaohe River Plain, China Area (km2) 960.04 Classificati on Basic characteristics CL and mineralization degree are all higher than 1000mg/l. The seawater and saltwater intrusion phenomenon once appeared. After the regulations, the situation becomes steady; but if the exploitation is continued, it risks accelerating the seawater and saltwater intrusion, then creating serious environmental geological hazard. This region is located in Tianzhuangtai, Baqiangzi, Xinglongtai, Qingshui where surrounds all saltwater of Minghuazhen formation shaped as a band.; The fresh water in this area is distributed in the Brackish-water ecotone in a this layer or with a shape of a lens body; lithological characters of fresh water aquifer is medium-coarse sandstone, Middlethe thickness is from 60 to 150 m, thickness of saltwater is from 350 to sized 550m; the fresh water and saltwater is distributed in the same layer. The exploitation of fresh water will break the natural balance between fresh water and saltwater, and mix freshwater and saltwater; finally causes harmful geological problem such as the salinization of freshwater, the fast move of salt water interface, etc. Conclusions and Recommendations a) A ordi to the ‘Guideli es’, e a al ze the evaluation indexes and methods for groundwater overdraft area; bring out a comprehensive evaluation process and evaluate the groundwater overdraft area which is specific to Lower Liaohe Plain. The results indicate that the evaluation methods are reasonable and consistent with results; it could fully reflect the regional overdraft status. b) Although in history the exploitation in Lower Liaohe Plain is serious and has certain effects on the environment, but it has been improved in recent years, only in Shenyang city exist common exploitation overdraft phenomenon. c) In order to achieve the sustainable utilization of groundwater resources, management measures of groundwater resources should be strictly carried out, to conduct overall water-saving, scientifically dammed-up flood resources, rationally allocate water resources and optimize the production layout. d) In Liaoni Pro i e, the ‘Ge eral la i for shutti do rou d ater ex loitatio ’ has bee started, gradually shut down the related water taking engineering in whole province, this must bring the augment of groundwater level. Therefore, we must pay close attention to its environmental and geological effect caused by it; and think over preventive measures as soon as possible in order to avoid irreparable accidents. Acknowledgments This work was sponsored by the scientific research foundation for the returned overseas chinese scholars, State Education Ministry of China. References [1] Camp, M. Van, M. Radfar, and K. Walraevens. “Assess e t of rou d ater stora e de letio b overexploitation using simple indicators in an irri ated losed aquifer basi i Ira ”, Agricultural Water Management, 97(11), PP.1876-1886, 2010, DOI: 10.1016/j.agwat.2010.02.006 Degree of overdraft exploitation Forbidden [2] Huang, Bijuan, L. Shu, and Y. S. Yang. “Grou d ater O erex loitatio ausi La d Subsidence: Hazard Risk Assessment Using Field Obser atio a d S atial Modelli ”, Water Resources Management, 26(14), PP.4225-4239, 2012, DOI: 10.1007/s11269-012-0141-y [3] Kabbour, Brahim Ben, D. L. Zouhri, and J. Ma ia. “O erex loitatio a d o ti uous drou ht effects on groundwater yield and marine intrusion: considerations arising from the odelli of Ma ora oastal aquifer, Moro o”, Hydrological Processes, 19(18), PP.3765-3782, 2005, DOI: 10.1002/hyp.5631 [4] Moli a, José Luis, et al. “Aquifers Overexploitation in SE Spain: A Proposal for the I te rated A al sis of Water Ma a e e t”, Water Resources Management, 23(13), PP.27372760, 2009, DOI: 10.1007/s11269-009-9406-5 [5] Shan Lanbo, Wang Jiangquan. The present state and development of research in groundwater over-exploitation evaluation [J]. Law Carbon World, 2013(21):110-112, (in Chinese) [6] Cui Xinhua, Xu Zhirong. Evaluation of groundwater-overdraft regions in main cities of Henan Province [J]. Water Resources Protation, 2008, 24(6):17-22,(in Chinese) [7] Wang Hong, Deng Anli. Re-check and evaluation of groundwater over-exploitation areas in Shanxi Province [J]. Water Resources Protection, 2012, 28(5):80-82, (in Chinese) [8] Shi Jiansheng, Wang Zhao, Zhang Zhaoji, et al. Assessment of over exploitation of deep groundwater in the North China Plain[J], Earth Science Frontiors, 2010, 17(6):215-220, (in Chinese) [9] Guidelines for the assessment of zones of groundwater overdraft [S]. Ministry of Water Resour es of the Peo le’s Re ubli of hi a, SL 286-2003, (in Chinese) [10] Wang Xiaojun, Zhao Hui, Geng Zhi. Current groundwater exploitation situation and protection counter measure in China [J]. China Water Resources, 2010(13):38-39, (in Chinese) International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1184-1194 B IAN Y, D ING F AND J IN C [11] Chen Chongxi. Countermeasures against disasters of ground subsidence caused by groundwater exploitation [J], Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, 2001(1):45-48, (in Chinese) [12] Wu Y, Yamamoto H. “Numerical analysis on effects of confinement and surcharge pressure on the Behaviour of sand surrounding pile”, International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 6(6), PP.1472-1482 (year) [13] Wu Y, Yamamoto H. “Numerical investigation on the reference crushing stress of granular materials in triaxial compression test”, Periodica Polytechnica. Civil Engineering, 59(4), PP.139147, (year) DOI: 10.3311/PPci.7694 [14] Liu Zhizhong. Discussion on the method of groundwater overexploitation partitoning, [J]. Groundwater, 1998, 20(1):12-13, (in Chinese) [15] Yang Guoqiang, Meng Jingying, Su Xiaosi et al, A Briefly Review of Evaluation Index and Method of Groundwater Overdraft [J]. Watersaving Irrigation, 2012(8):34-38, (in Chinese) [16] Geological Bureau of Liaoning Province. Surrvey report of regional hydrogeology 1:200000(Lower liaohe river Plain of Liaoning Province) [R]. 1979:158-163, (in Chinese) [17] The First Hydrogeological Engineering Battalion of Liaoning Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources Exploration. Investigation and evaluation report of Neozoic groundwater in south of lower liaohe river plain in Liaoning Province[R], 1997:44-163, (in Chinese) [18] Wang Jiabing, Li Ping, Zhang Baiming, et al. Allowable groundwater withdrawal and its determination basis in Tianjin Plain[J], Earth Science Frontiers, 2010, 17(6):221-226, (in Chinese) [19] Wang Jinsheng, Wang Changshen, Teng Yanguo. Review on assessment methods of groundwater sustainable yield [J]. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering,, 2006, 37(5):525-533, (in Chinese) [20] Liu Peigui, Shu Longcang, Shang Manting, et al. Fuzzy-stochastic method for reliability analysis of groundwater allowable withdrawal [J]. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 2008(9)： 1141-1145, (in Chinese) [21] Lu Haiyuan, Xie Xinmin, Guo Kezhen, et al. Study on explotable quantity of groundwater based on water resources optimal allocation [J]. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 2013, 44(10):1182-1188, (in Chinese). International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1184-1194 1194 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0614 December 2017, P.P. 1195-1200 www.cafetinnova.org Experimental Study on Steel- Glass -Polyester Hybrid Fiber Concrete CHELLA GIFTA C1 AND S P RABAVATHY2 1 Department of Civil Engineering, National Engineering College, Kovilpatti, Tamilnadu-628503, INDIA Department of Civil Engineering, Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi, Tamilnadu-626005, INDIA Email: erchellac@gmail.com, spraba@mepcoeng.ac.in 2 Abstract: Fiber reinforced concrete composites with steel, glass and polyester fibers added as a single fiber and in combinations were studied and reported in this article. Totally 135 specimens were made to understand the strength properties of composites under compression, split tension, flexural and impact loading conditions. The load-deflection behaviour of single and hybrid fiber reinforced composites were also evaluated. Results indicated that compressive and split tensile strength were not much excited while adding fibers to the concrete, but the hybrid FRC composites performed well under flexural loading and load deflection behaviour compared to mono glass and mono polyester FRC composites. Self-weight of the structural elements is reduced significantly and the impact strength was two to three folds greater in hybrid composites. Keywords: Fiber reinforced concrete, Hybrid Fiber reinforced Concrete (HYFRC), Steel fiber, Glass fiber Polyester fiber Concrete. 1. Introduction: Concrete is very durable material that requires little or no maintenance and it is primarily employed to resist compression. Concrete as a construction material, has got many benefits like ability to mould, low cost, good durability, fire resistance, energy efficiency, on site fabrication aesthetics etc. In-spite of these characteristics, concrete is considered to be a brittle material, because it is poor in tension and toughness characteristics. Structural performance and long term durability are important aspects in all engineering structures and continuous advancement are being developed to enhance the performance of concrete. The most specific disadvantage of concrete is it is easily susceptible to multiple cracking because of its poor resistance to cracks and strain capacity. This behaviour is modified by the development of fiber reinforced concrete incorporating fibers in the concrete matrix. Fiber reinforced concrete is made with conventional materials like cement and aggregates of various sizes, incorporating discrete and discontinuous fibers [1]. The principal role of fibers in concrete composites is to increase the toughness characteristics of brittle materials. Short discrete fibers are added in fiber reinforced concrete composite mainly to increase its structural integrity. They are uniformly distributed and randomly oriented. Fibers include steel, glass, synthetic, carbon and natural fibers – imparting their properties to the concrete. Besides these characteristics, fiber materials, geometries, distribution, orientation, and density are changing the characteristics of concrete. Some types of fibers produces greater impact, abrasion, and shatter resistance in concrete and the amount of fibers added to a concrete mix is expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the composite (concrete and fibers), termed as volume fraction" (Vf) and it typically ranges from 0.1 to 3%. The aspect ratio (l/d) is calculated by dividing fiber length (l) by its diameter (d). The fiber reinforced composites are developed with the conventional concrete materials namely Portland cement, aggregate and admixtures. Sometimes in order to improve cementing properties the supplementary cementitious materials such as silica fume, fly ash, GGBS are added to the composites. Normal Portland cement is commonly used in FRC and depending on the strength requirement and exposure conditions special cements may be selected. Fine aggregates and coarse aggregates are normal as in plain concrete .Coarse aggregates can be made from natural gravel and crushed stone. Water and water reducing admixture are essential in producing FRC composites because the addition of fibers tends to reduce the workability which is again improved with the addition of water reducing admixtures. Class F Fly ash is added to improve the workability, reduce the heat of hydration, improve economy and it enhances the permeability characteristics. Fibers are grouped as metallic and non- metallic, low modulus and high modulus, organic and in- organic fibers. Fiber cross section may be in circular, square, crescent and irregular shape. The properties of commonly used fibers are listed in Table 1[2]. The FRC that is used today involves only with single type of fiber. Its performance depends on the mechanical properties of fibers, volume fraction and they are effective with some specific function [3]. Modern research in the fiber reinforced concrete is being made to combine two or more than two types of Received: August 05, 2017; Accepted: December 26, 2017; Published: January 30, 2018 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1195-1200, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0614 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved. CHELLA G IFTA C AND S P RABAVATHY fibers in the same composite and this new composite is called Hybrid fiber reinforced concrete (HyFRC). The development of this well designed hybrid fiber reinforced concrete is expected to perform well in static and dynamic loading conditions. Based on the extensive literature study, it is found that HyFRC has superior durability properties to withstand severe and aggressive environments. 1.1 Literature Review Walton and Majumdar developed the HyFRC thirty years ago to achieve good tensile strength and improved toughness character [4]. Banthia et al., explained useful information on positive interaction between the fibers and the resulting hybrid performance exceeds the sum of individual fiber performances. This synergy mechanism is understood in the three ways such as fiber constitutive response, dimension and functions [5]. Sivakumar et al., [6] tested high strength concrete made with metallic and non- metallic fibers upto a volume fraction of 0.5% and the results showed the availability of hybrid fibers in concrete has improved the flexural toughness than mono fiber system. Especially the non-metallic fibers are effective in arresting the smaller cracks and their growth. The fresh concrete properties are examined by Abdulkadir Cuneyt Aydin in high volume hybrid fiber reinforced concrete and it is concluded that addition of 2% volume fraction of steel and carbon fibers yields better workability in addition to high strength of concrete [7]. Steel fibers are easily basset and rust and have the disadvantage of conductivity when used in the electrical and magnetic field. This drawback is overcome by the replacement of polypropylene fibers in two different forms and the results showed that compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural properties are better than single fiber type concrete [8]. Hybrid steel and nylon fiber concrete in five different mix is investigated by Mazin Burhar Adeen et al in 35 MPa concrete composite and the maximum increase in strength is achieved in 50% nylon 50% steel fiber hybridisation [9]. Parviz Soroushian et al., [10] explained the hybrid fiber composite made with high modulus fiber and a fibrillated polyethylene pulp reported the desirable results obtained in flexural strength and toughness and negative results were less pronounced in compressive strength .Bing Chen et al., [11] studied the hybrid fiber properties in high strength light weight concrete and the results are compared with single fiber concrete. It is well proven that the addition of hybrid fibers improve the mechanical properties and brittleness of concrete and restrained the long-term shrinkage. Thorough the exhaustive research results, it is clearly understood that the secondary reinforcement of concrete with randomly distributed micro-fibers improved the toughness and ductility of cementitious matrices by preventing the initiation and propagation of cracks. It has been recently shown by various 1196 researchers that the concept of hybridization with two different fibers incorporated in a cement matrix can offer more attractive engineering properties than the composite with mono fibers system, because the presence of one fiber enables the more efficient utilization of the potential properties of other fiber. Also, the addition of fibers can reduce the deflection and improve the post cracking behaviour significantly. Since hybridisation of fibers approach is found to be a promising concept, an attempt has been made experimentally to investigate the compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, impact strength, flexural strength and load-deflection behaviour of Hybrid Fiber Reinforced Concrete (HYFRC) using Steel- Glass -Polyester fibers in two different volume fractions. The fiber hybridisation is done based on constitutive response, dimensions and its function. For better understanding the experimental results were compared with mono fiber reinforced concrete. 2. Material and Methods 2.1. Materials The following materials are used in the development of the composites in the present investigation. Cement: Ordinary Portland cement 53 grade confirming to IS 12269-1987 is used. The specific gravity of cement is 3.12 and initial and final setting times are found as 37min and 340 min respectively. Fine aggregate: River sand passing through 4.75 mm sieve confirming to Zone II gradation mentioned in the IS 383: 1970 is used. The sand has fineness modulus 2.73, specific gravity 2.64 and water absorption 0.75%. Coarse aggregate: Crushed stone blue granites 20mm and10mm sizes are used. Specific gravity of aggregate is 2.79, water absorption was 0.5%, fineness modulus is 8.97 and bulk modulus is 1639 kg/m3. These properties are incorporated in the mix design and the aggregates were proportioned in the ratio of 1:2. RHEOBUILD 1126(ND), a sulphonated naphthalene polymer based formulation having slump retaining capabilities is used as super plasticizer. This helps in dispersing the cement particles effectively in the concrete mix thus exposing a large surface area to the hydration process. This effect is helpful in attaining increase in strength, to produce high workability concrete and to reduce the cement content of concrete. Potable water with P H value 6.8 is used. Types of Fibers used: Three types of fibers are used in this investigation and the mechanical properties of fibers used in this work are mentioned in Table 2. Three types of fibers steel, glass, and polyester are used for casting both mono fiber and Hybrid fiber composites with fiber content 1% and 1.25 % volume of concrete. Eight series of specimens are prepared for this experimental work. The grade of concrete chosen for the study is M40 and the mixture proportion is International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1195-1200 1197 Experimental Study on Steel- Glass -Polyester Hybrid Fiber Concrete done as per the guidelines given in IS 10262-2002 codal provisions. Control concrete mixture proportion is given Table 3. 2.2 Proportioning, mixing and casting of test specimens Proper mix proportioning and manufacturing procedures are very important to achieve a uniform dispersion of different types of fibers in the FRC matrix. Specimens are prepared in a 50 litre capacity revolving type pan mixer. Coarse aggregate and fine aggregate are mixed continuously for 2 minutes and then it is followed by the addition of cement along with 80% of required water. Secondly the steel, polyester, glass fibers are added individually and in combinations in the wet mix and further allowed to blend continuously until it attains the homogeneity. Since it is very difficult to maintain the workability with low water cement ratio RHEOBUILD 1126(ND), a sulphonated naphthalene polymer based super plasticizer 0.6% by weight of cement is added along with the remaining 20% water. The addition of high range water reducing admixture eliminates the problem associated with reduction in workability such as balling effect in FRC [3].The fresh mixtures are placed inside the moulds and allowed to vibrate externally in vibrating table for compaction. Without changing the concrete constituent materials the fiber type and volume fractions are varied to obtain the monofiber and hybrid fiber composites .Totally eight series of FRC and HyFRC specimens were prepared and the details are given in Table 4. The workability is often checked by conducting conventional slump test in fresh concrete and slump values lies in the range of 70-100mm.For each series of mixture, fifteen specimens including three cube specimens of size 150x150x150-mm for compressive strength, three cylinders of size 150 mm diameter 300 mm for split tensile strength, six prisms of size 500x100x100-mm for flexural strength and three 150 mmx60mm disc specimens for impact strength are prepared. Hence totally one hundred thirty five specimens are prepared to investigate the behaviour hybrid fiber reinforced with the incorporation of different types of fibers. After 24 hours casting the specimens are demoulded and it is kept under immersion curing continuously for 28 days. After 28 days the specimens are taken out from the curing tank and allowed to dry for 2 hours before testing. 2.3 Test on hardened properties of concrete 2.3.1 Compressive strength test In most structural applications, concrete is employed primarily to resist compressive stresses. Compressive strength is a qualitative measure for other properties of hardened concrete and it is determined by testing the cubes and cylinders. This test is carried out at the age of 28 days as per IS 516:1959 specifications using a load controlled compression testing machine of 2000kN capacity at a loading rate of 2.0 kN/sec. The ultimate failure load is noted for Control concrete (CC), Mono fiber concrete series (S1, S2, G1, G2, PP1, PP2) and Hybrid fiber reinforced concrete (HF1, HF2) series. For each batch of concrete the average value of three specimens has been taken for the calculation of strength. Test results are tabulated in Table 5.Test set up is shown in Figure 1. 2.3.2 Split tensile strength test This test is also performed based on IS 5816:1999 specifications using the same compression testing machine of 2000kN capacity. Load is applied at a rate of 2.0kN/sec until the failure and the split tensile strength is calculated based on the elastic theory. Results are shown in Table 5. 2.3.3 Flexural strength test Two points loading test is employed on the concrete specimens of size 500x100x100mm for the determination of flexural strength of concrete. The beams are tested under two point loading at the age of 28 days with simply supported end condition as shown in Figure 2. The specimens are tested in a loading frame of capacity 2 tonnes and the load is applied without shock and it is increased at a uniform rate till the ultimate failure of the specimen. The flexural behaviour of the specimen in terms of mid span deflection, load at first crack, distance of crack and the ultimate loads are observed during the test. Mid span deflection is recorded for each increment of load with the help of the dial gauges having a least count of 0.01mm mounted at the centre of the span. The flexural strength of the specimen shall be expressed as the modulus of rupture fb, hi h, if ‘a’ equals the distance between the line of fracture and the nearer support, measured on the centre line of the tensile side of the specimen. In this study flexural tensile strength is calculated using the expression given in IS 516:1959. fb=pl/bd2, he ‘a’ is reater tha 20.0 for 15.0 specimen, or greater than 13.3cm for a 10.0cm specimen, where fb is flexural strength of concrete. Load deflection behaviour of CC, Mono FRC and Hybrid FRC series are tested and results are shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4. 2.3.4 Impact Strength test The concrete disc of size 150 x 150 x 60 mm is used for impact test. Impact test is carried out by drop weight method. The weight of hammer is 4.54 kg and it allows to free fall of 450 mm. The energy liberated from each blow of the hammer is 20.04 N m. The number of blows required to cause failure is noted and impact strength was calculated for each series. 3. Results and discussion The fresh and hardened concrete properties for 28 days in all the nine series are determined. The addition of fibers does not affect the workability. Due International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1195-1200 CHELLA G IFTA C AND S P RABAVATHY to the incorporation of super plasticizers, slump varies between 45 -75 mm from batch to batch .Table 5 summarizes the hardened concrete test results. 3.1 Compressive and Split tensile strength Table 5 and Figure 3 represent the compressive strength of all nine series under static testing. Fibers have relatively little effect on the compressive strength of concrete [1]. Control concrete without fibers has compressive strength of 53.89MPa. It is evident from Figure 3 that the addition of steel fibers slightly reduced the compressive strength upto 11% with reference to control concrete. Even though the Vf values lie in the normal range of fiber contents, there is a slight difficulty in achieving the full compaction of 60mm long steel fibers. This might have led to increased matrix porosity and slight reduction in strength. On other hand the addition of Glass, Polyester fibers totally reduced the compression capacity of concrete more than 50 percent than the control concrete. But this drawback is completely overcome by the incorporation of three different fibers in same matrix. Reduction in strength is observed between 20-26 % because different types of fibers offer different restraint [11]. Split tensile strength results from Figure 4 revealed that addition of steel fibers increased the split tensile strength upto 13% for volume fraction of 1 % comparable to control concrete. This may be due to high elastic modulus of steel fibers which effectively control the cracks inside the concrete. Split tensile properties of mono glass and polyester fiber series are to be seriously dealt because they reduced the split tensile strength in the range of 33% to 77 %. Addition of these polymeric fibers beyond 0.1% will cause reduction in strength but improve its workability [3] .But in this aspect in hybrid fiber reinforced concrete HF1, HF2 series are better than single fiber type. Micro polyester fibers are effective in arresting the initial crack and macro steel and glass fibers bridging across the cracks increase the split tensile strength of concrete. 3.2 Modulus of rupture and flexural behavior Figure 5 shows the variation of modulus of rupture with the incorporation of Steel, Glass and Polyester fibers individually and in their combinations. Steel is more ductile in nature and it always shows more flexural strength than the other series of concrete. It is observed that the flexural strength of steel fiber reinforced concrete is 50-60 percent higher than the control concrete. Also it is very interesting to note that flexural strength of Hybrid fiber concrete is 35 % stronger than control concrete. Compressive strength is not increased much due to addition of fibers but the flexural strength has been improved with the hybrid fibers [10]. Glass and polyester fibers show a poor flexural strength due to short length of fibers [6]. 1198 Concrete due to brittle behaviour has a little ability to resist tensile stresses and strains. Discontinuous fibers are added to improve flexural toughness and resistance to cracking. Figure 6 shows the load deflection behaviour of five series of specimens. Control concrete given a definite brittle failure with sudden explosion. Steel fibers resulted in high modulus of rupture controls the deflection of steel fiber reinforced concrete under flexural load. Single fiber composite which is made of polyester and glass shows a flatter plateau which produces large amount of deflection even for smaller loads. But in case of hybrid composites with the incorporation of micro fibers and macro fibers, the load deflection behaviour is improved comparing to the single glass fiber and polyester fiber concrete. 3.3 Impact strength Drop weight test results are shown in Table 5 and Figure 7. Average values of three specimens are reported as impact strength. The performances of hybrid fiber series are excellent and the energy absorbed by HF1 and HF2 series are 2.0 to 2.5 folds greater than the control concrete. Effective dispersion of steel, glass and polypropylene fibers leadings to more energy absorption and also controls the crack formation before the ultimate failure. Hybrid (S-G-PP) > Mono Steel > Mono Polyester > Mono Glass. 4. Conclusions Based on the above experimental investigations the following conclusions can be drawn related to the synergy mechanism of hybrid fibers composites. a) It is possible to predict the high impact strength of hybrid fiber reinforced composite and the energy absorption is 2.0 to 2.5 folds greater than control concrete with volume fraction 1% and 1.25% which is equally contributed by Steel, Glass and Polyester fibers. b) Mono glass and polyester fiber reinforced concrete are poor in flexural strength and this property is improved when these fibers are used along with high modulus fibers like steel etc. Even though the hybridisation is not effective in improving the compressive strength and split tensile strength, it is found to be a most promising concept in enhancing impact, flexural strength properties and load deflection behaviour. c) Combining micro and macro fibers are effective in bridging across the cracks and the failure is ductile and controlled as shown in Figure 8. d) The partial replacement of steel with glass and polyester in HyFRC reduced the self-weight of component comparing to the mono steel fiber concrete. Because of these special properties Hybrid FRC can be used for slab on grade, shortcrete, thin precast units like roofing tiles, sheets, cladding a el’s forms etc. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1195-1200 1199 Experimental Study on Steel- Glass -Polyester Hybrid Fiber Concrete These results are based on the two volume fractions for only one grade of concrete and more detailed investigation has to be done to obtain the best possible synergy mechanism with cost effectiveness. Polypropylene Nylon 1.5-3.5 2-4 375 140 900 1150 Table2: Mechanical properties of fibers used Properties References [1] Bentur A, Mindess S. Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composites, Elsevier Applied science, London, 1990 [2] Singh SK, Ajay Chourasia, Dalbehera MM., Bhattacharyya SK, Hybrid Fiber Reinforced Concrete, A Review, NBM&CW,166-182, 2013 [3] Balaguru PN, Shah S P. Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites, McGraw hillInc, New York, 1992 [4] Walton P L, Majumdar A J, Cement, based composites with mixture of different types of fiber Composites, 209-216, 1975 [5] Banthia N, Sappakittipakorn, M. Toughness enhancement in steel fiber reinforced concrete through fiber hybridization , Cement and Concrete research, (37), 1366-1372, 2007 [6] Sivakumar A, Manu Santhanam, Mechanical properties of high strength concrete reinforced with metallic and non-metaalic fibers, Cement & Concrete composites 29,603-608, 2007 [7] Abdulkadir Cuneyt Aydin., Self-compactability of high volume hybrid fiber reinforced concrete, Construction and Building materials, 21, 11491154, 2007 [8] Machine Hsie., Chijen Tu., Song P.S., Mechanical properties of polypropylene hybrid fiber-reinforced concrete, Material Science and Engineering, (A494), 153-157, 2008 [9] Mazin Burhan., Adee Al a’a Abbas., Al-Attar Sa’ad Mah oud Ra’ouf, Determination of Mechanical Properties of Hybrid Steel-Nylon Fiber Reinforced Conrcrete, Modern Applied Science 4(12) 097-108, 2010 [10] Parviz Soroushian., Atel Tilli., Abdulrahman Alhozaimy., Ataullah khan, Development and characterization of Hybrid Polyethylene fiber reinforced composites, ACI Material Journal, 90M20, 1993 [11] Bing Chen, Juanyu Liu, Contribution of hybrid fibers on the properties of the high-strength lightweight concrete having good workability, Cement and Concrete Research (35).913-917, 2005 [12] Banthia N, Gupta R., Hybrid fiber reinforced concrete (HyFRC): fiber synergy in high strength matrices, Materials and Structures, (37), 707-716, 2004 Steel Glass Polyester Hooked Fiber type Fibrillated Chopped end Length (mm) 60 12 Aspect ratio (l/d) 80 600 200 Tensile strength 1700 2000 450 (MPa) Youngs modulus 200 73 5 (GPa) Table3: Control Concrete mixture proportions Super Fine Coarse Slump Cement Plasticizer w/c value 3 aggregate aggregate (kg/m ) dosage ratio (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (mm) 3 (kg/m ) 380 754 1191 2.28 0.38 70 Table4: Details of fiber content in mono FRC and Hybrid FRC mixtures Specimen ID S1 S2 G1 G2 PP1 PP2 HF1 HF2 Fiber volume fraction (%) Steel Glass Polyester 1.00 1.25 1.00 1.25 1.00 1.25 0.333 0.333 0.333 0.420 0.420 0.420 Table5: Test results of hardened concrete specimens Series CC S1 S2 G1 G2 PP1 PP2 HY1 HY2 Bulk 28 days 28 days Split Modulus Energy density of Compressive tensile of rupture absorptio Concrete strength strength Mpa n (Nm) Kg/m3 (MPa) (Mpa) 2513 2536 2612 2452 1951 2023 1946 2443 2425 53.89 48.77 46.07 27.40 24.20 18.13 18.70 38.13 32.12 3.96 4.49 4.26 2.68 1.29 0.88 0.69 3.43 3.11 2.26 5.63 4.52 0.83 0.78 0.59 0.41 3.83 3.23 Table1: Properties of Commonly used Fibers Type Steel Carbon meso pitch based Modulus of Tensile Density Elasticity strength kg/m3 GPa GPa 212 1200 7850 232 2100 1900 Figure1: Compressive strength testing International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1195-1200 460.92 641.28 601.20 320.64 240.48 601.20 440.88 1042.08 961.72 CHELLA G IFTA C AND S P RABAVATHY Figure 2: Flexural behaviour testing 1200 Figure 7: Impact strength results Figure 3: Compressive strength results Figure 8: Failure of Hybrid FRC specimen Figure 4: Split tensile strength results Figure 5: Flexural strength results Figure 6: Load –Deflection behaviour International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1195-1200 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0615 December 2017, P.P. 1201-1205 www.cafetinnova.org Laboratory Study on the Effects of GBFS and Lime Stabilizers in Subgrade Layer for Expansive Soil RADHA J GONAWALA, S AGAR CHAUDHARI, RAKESH KUMAR AND KRUPESH A CHAUHAN Department of Civil Engineering, S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat, Gujarat-395007, INDIA Email: radhagonawala@gmail.com, cskc111@gmail.com, krakesh@ced.svnit.ac.in and kac@ced.svnit.ac.in Abstract: Alternative material is an essential aspect of the construction of pavements. It minimizes the use of natural resources and utilizes of locally. Iron and steel productions are one of the major industries in the country which gives to a significant amount of the by-products and waste material such as air cools slag, granulated slag, and Fly Ash. In this study, an effort has been carried out to stabilize expansive soil for subgrade layer using Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS) by laboratory experimentation. The geotechnical properties of different trial mix soil-GBFS, and soil-GBFS-lime, namely, Atterberg limits, pH test, compaction characteristics, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), and soaked California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test were determined. Results show that the Soil + 25% GBFS + 4 % lime mix was found to be optimum for use in subgrade layers. UCS samples cured at Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) for different curing period of 0, 7 and 28 days. The 28 days UCS strength found 2390.9 kPa whereas natural soil has 184.37 kPa UCS value. The efficient CBR found 12 % for the optimum mix. This work will be useful for the reduction of the crust thickness in expansive soil region for construction of flexible pavement using slag. Keywords: GBFS, Subgrade, Geotechnical properties, flexible pavement. 1. Introduction The expansive soils are challenging soil for construction as it swells and shrinks with water content changes and available in most of the places in India. Expansive soil is usually treated with lime (CaO) to reduce volumetric changes also to water [1]. India is the fourth-largest manufacturer of steel following China, Japan, and the US [2]. Presently in India, the generation of industrial solid waste by integrated iron and steel plants is nearly 270 million tons while utilization is only of 30%. Approximately 10 million tons blast furnace slag presently generated is by iron & steel industry in the country. GBFS that generated from steelmaking and refining operations not fully utilized in practice and the significate amount is dumped [3]. GBFS has cementations and pozzolanic properties hence used as a component of cement. GBFS contain 30 to 35% of calcium oxide (CaO). Different engineering properties of lime stabilized soil have been reported in the literature [1]. However, there is a very few study said about the use of GBFS as a stabilizing material for subgrade layer in expansive soil. The Maximum Dry Density (MDD) of soil increases while plasticity characteristics gradually decrease with increase in slag content and thus the CBR value of soil increase [4] and therefore increase soil strength. Slag content in the natural soil improves its workability by reducing its liquid limit and thus its plasticity. It was recommended for natural soil with 25% slags as an optimum stabilization ratio for soil and can use for subgrade [5]. The principal aim of work is to evaluate the feasibility of using GBFS as a stabilizer for expansive soil for subgrade layer of the flexible pavement. The intensive laboratory study on the effect of GBFS content (5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 % by the total weight of mix) and lime (2 and 4 % by weight) mixes with expansive soil carried out. Series of test namely Aterberg limits, pH test, compaction, UCS and soaked CBR tests were performed in the laboratory to find the optimum mix. 2. Laboratory Investigation 2.1 Materials For the study, GBFS samples were collected from Essar Steel Ltd. Hazira, Surat, Gujarat, India. GBFS production is approximately 45,000 tons/month Essar Steel Ltd. Hazira, Surat, Gujarat, India. As per laboratory analysis, GBFS contain mainly Al2O3 (42.44%), CaO (32.29%), and SiO2 (12.74%) and confirm with the uniformly graded material of Zone III under fine aggregate according to IS: 383-1970 with specific gravity is 2.28. For the study soil collected from Suvali region near to Surat, Gujarat. The physical soil property in South Gujarat region is of intermediate to highly compressible clay. Index and Engineering properties of the soil used in the study are listed in Table 1. Lime is collected from the local market and have CaO content is more than 75%. Received: August 02, 2017; Accepted: December 24, 2017; Published: January 30, 2018 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1201-1205, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0615 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved. R ADHA J GONAWALA, S AGAR CHAUDHARI, R AKESH KUMAR AND KRUPESH A CHAUHAN Table 1: Index and Engineering properties of soil Natural moisture content (%) Gravel (%) Sand (%) Silt & Clay (%) Liquid limit (%) Plastic limit (%) Plasticity index (%) Soil classification (IS) pH Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) (%) Maximum Dry Density (MDD) (gm/cc) Free Swell Index (FSI) (%) Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) (kg/cm2) California Bearing Ratio (CBR) (%) Specification of MORTH V revision 2012 <50 <25 - Result 15.25 0 5 95 79.60 28.75 50.85 CH 8.09 - 18.25 1.75 1.64 <50 54.68 - 1.88 >6 1.94 2.2 Laboratory experiment As per IS 2720 (Part 5) – 1985, Atterberg limit tests were carried out for all combination used in the study. The GBFS found to be non-plastic in nature. This property is beneficial for use in the subgrade. The pH test performs on the all the soil-GBFS and soil-GBFSlime mixes to determine the optimum requirement of stabilizer for soil. Percentage of stabilizer which gives soil-GBFS and soil-GBFS-lime mix pH of 12.4 taken as a right proportion of the stabilizer of the soil as per IRC: 51-1992. For the determination of unconfined compressive strength, GBFS and lime were mixed with soil in different content by weight in dry condition. Cylindrical samples of 50 mm diameter and 100 mm height then prepared by compacting the mix at their corresponding OMC and MDD. The samples were sealed in an airtight polythene bags to control OMC and cured for the period of 0, 7 and 28 days. The UCS of these cured samples then determined using a conventional compression testing machine at a steady strain rate of 1.2 mm/min as per IS: 4332 (Part 5) - 1986. CBR tests were conducted on mixes as per IS 2720 (Part 16) - 1979 on the optimum combination of the subgrade course After compaction the CBR samples were sealed in an airtight polythene bag and cured for three days at OMC. After curing CBR, samples were soaked in water for four days before testing. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Atterberg limits: Table 2 shows the variation of Atterberg limits with GBFS and lime content for various mixes. With an increase in GBFS content with lime, the plasticity index decreases continuously owing to a decline in liquid limit and an increase in the plastic limit. When clay treated with GBFS and lime, sodium and other cations adsorbed on the clay surface exchanged with 1202 calcium ions. This cation exchange cause's clay to coagulate and flocculate making it more friable, thus reducing the plasticity of clay. The liquid limit and plasticity reduced as slag content in natural soil increases that increase soil workability [3]. Table 2: Atterberg limits of soil-GBFS-lime mixes Soil + 5%GBFS Soil + 10%GBFS Soil + 15%GBFS Soil + 20%GBFS Soil + 25%GBFS Soil + 5%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 10%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 15%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 20%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 25%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 5%GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 10%GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 15%GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 20%GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 25%GBFS + Lime 4% LL 76.45 71.50 65.78 62.89 61.78 74.82 67.64 62.20 59.88 56.18 71.15 66.54 60.11 55.43 51.49 PL 35.34 38.97 39.62 40.45 43.29 29.83 31.38 34.04 37.33 39.99 28.92 29.35 31.19 34.47 36.86 PI 41.11 32.53 26.17 22.44 18.49 44.99 36.26 28.16 22.55 16.19 42.23 37.20 28.92 20.96 14.64 3.2 pH test: Change in pH value took place due to cation exchange took place in the method in which the mechanisms of the clay minerals are linked with each other. The variation in pH value is shown in Table 3. For soilGBFS mixes, pH remains almost constant from 15% to 25%; i.e., 9.4. For soil-GBFS-lime (2%) mixes pH remains nearly constant from 15% to 25% i.e. 11.69. For soil-GBFS-lime (4%) pH remains almost constant from 15% to 25% i.e. 12.43. According to the IRC: 51-1992 the minimum content at with mix give pH value 12.4, consider as the optimum mix. Hence from pH value the soil + 25 % GBFS + 4% lime found as optimum mix as per IRC: 51-1992. Table 3: pH value of soil-GBFS-lime mixes pH VALUE Soil + 5% GBFS Soil + 10% GBFS Soil + 15% GBFS Soil + 20% GBFS Soil + 25% GBFS Soil + 5% GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 10% GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 15% GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 20% GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 25% GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 5% GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 10% GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 15% GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 20% GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 25% GBFS + Lime 4% 9.1 9.3 9.4 9.4 9.42 11.5 11.6 11.66 11.69 11.7 11.9 12.13 12.32 12.43 12.44 3.3 Compaction characteristics: The results of density and moisture content for different mixes are listed in Table 4. Fig 1 represents International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1201-1205 1203 Laboratory Study on the Effects of GBFS and Lime Stabilizers in Subgrade Layer for Expansive Soil the relation of MDD (gm/cc) and OMC (%) for various GBFS and lime content. With the increase in GBFS and lime content, MDD increases continuously with OMC decreases. The particles of GBFS is larger, in size and this results in higher MDD with an increase in GBFS percentage. The combination of soil, lime, and GBFS give rise to the denseness of the mix with filling the voids by lime. MDD of soil increases while plasticity characteristics gradually decrease with increase in slag content [3, 4, and 5]. compressive strength [1]. The all the combination expect soil + GBFS 5%, 10%, and 15%, have 28 days strength more than 700 kPa as per the requirement of IRC: 51-1992, shown in Table 5. Figure 2: Variation in UCS value with curing period for different soil-GBFS-lime mixes Table 5: UCS value of soil-GBFS-lime mixes UCS (kPa) Figure 1: Variation in MDD and OMC value for different soil-GBFS-lime mixes Table 4: OMC (%) and MDD (gm/cc) value of soilGBFS-lime mixes Soil + 5%GBFS Soil + 10%GBFS Soil + 15%GBFS Soil + 20%GBFS Soil + 25%GBFS Soil + 5%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 10%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 15%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 20%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 25%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 5%GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 10%GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 15%GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 20%GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 25%GBFS + Lime 4% OMC (%) 17.6 17.05 16.5 15.2 15 17.85 17.27 16.7 15.76 15.33 18.9 17.8 16.9 16.41 16.27 MDD (gm/cc) 1.72 1.75 1.77 1.8 1.83 1.71 1.73 1.75 1.78 1.79 1.69 1.72 1.75 1.75 1.77 3.4 Unconfined Compressive Strength: Fig. 2 shows the change of UCS value for soil mixed with GBFS and lime content with curing time. The UCS value rises continuously with increase in curing period for all combinations. The strength gain in soilGBFS-lime mixes with an increase in curing time attributed to the pozzolanic characteristics of GBFS and lime [1]. With the rise in GBFS and lime content, the generation of the amount of gel intensify a consequence of this, improve in the compressive strength. As the pozzolanic reaction is a slow reaction, with an increase in curing period, again the growth of the quantity of gel increases, thus increasing the Soil + 5%GBFS Soil + 10%GBFS Soil + 15%GBFS Soil + 20%GBFS Soil + 25%GBFS Soil + 5%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 10%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 15%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 20%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 25%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 5%GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 10%GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 15%GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 20%GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 25%GBFS + Lime 4% Curing Days 0 7 28 205.9 316.3 393.2 235.4 429.5 560.9 294.2 514.8 608.0 382.5 708.0 818.9 411.9 763.0 919.9 284.4 591.3 836.5 323.6 659.0 1037.5 411.9 696.3 1147.4 500.1 818.9 1565.1 568.8 903.2 1670.1 402.1 940.5 1782.8 480.5 985.6 1855.4 588.4 1026.6 2020.2 843.4 1260.9 2256.5 872.8 1296.4 2390.9 3.5 California Bearing Ratio (CBR): The soaked CBR values obtained for various soilGBFS-lime mixes given in Table 6. The CBR values increase as GBFS and lime content increase as shown in Fig 3. GBFS and lime in the mix provide calcium ions for pozzolanic reaction giving rise to C-S-H gel which binds the particles efficiently and imparts strength to the mix. As per IRC: 51-1992 recommendation a minimum of 30% CBR required for soil-lime mix after 7-day (3 days curing + 4 days soaking in water) curing. The mixes i.e. soil + 25% GBFS + Lime 2%, soil + 20% GBFS + Lime 4% and soil + 25% GBFS + Lime 4% fulfill the minimum requirement of IRC: 51 – 1992. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1201-1205 R ADHA J GONAWALA, S AGAR CHAUDHARI, R AKESH KUMAR AND KRUPESH A CHAUHAN 1204 Table 7: Performance analysis of pavement Allowable Allowable Horizontal Vertical Vertical Horizontal Tensile Compressive Compressive Tensile Strain Strain in Strain on Strain on in Bituminous Bituminous Subgrade Subgrade Layer Layer Layer Layer CBR 12% Figure3: Variation in CBR for different GBFS and lime content with soil mixes As per IRC: 37 - 2012 select soil forming the subgrade should have a minimum effective CBR of 8 % for roads having the traffic of 450 commercial vehicles per day or higher. The mixes, i.e., soil stabilized with a GBFS (20 % and 25 %) and lime (2 % and 4 %) fulfill the minimum requirement of IRC: 37 - 2012. Results of the CBR test show that the soil mixed with soil + GBFS content + lime content can effectively improve the subgrade soil from poor to incomparable. 2.63×10-04 5.78×10-04 2.08×10-04 2.91×10-04 The stress, strain analysis on flexible pavements under loading condition carried out as per IRC: 37-2012 for stabilized subgrade and tabulated in Table 7. The horizontal tensile strain in the bituminous layer and vertical compressive strain on the subgrade found in limits for pavement composition. The reduction in the pavement thickness above 500 mm subgrade derives for 2 to 150 msa for subgrade having CBR 3 % and 12 % as in Fig 5. The decrease in pavement thickness is 27.65 % to 32.76 % with stabilized subgrade. Table 6: CBR value of soil-GBFS-lime mixes CBR (%) Soil + 5%GBFS Soil + 10%GBFS Soil + 15%GBFS Soil + 20%GBFS Soil + 25%GBFS Soil + 5%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 10%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 15%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 20%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 25%GBFS + Lime 2% Soil + 5%GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 10%GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 15%GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 20%GBFS + Lime 4% Soil + 25%GBFS + Lime 4% 3.6 6.8 9.7 14.3 15.2 7.8 13.8 20.0 28.4 30.6 12.2 18.6 25.1 46.6 48.9 Effective CBR (%) as per IRC:37-2012 3 4 5 6 6 4 5 7 8 8 5 6 7 10 12 A comparison made between two crust thicknesses having stabilized subgrade with CBR value 12% with the subgrade having CBR value of 3 %. Fig.3 shows the typical pavement structure for flexible pavement having subgrade thickness of 500 mm. The pavement crust thickness estimated as per IRC: 37-2012 for typical road section having 20 millions of standard axles (msa) load. Pavement thickness for CBR 12% refer to the optimum mix (soil + 25 % GBFS + 4 % lime). The DBM (Dense Bituminous Macadam) thickness reduces 120 mm to 75 mm by stabilizing subgrade. The stabilized subgrade has a 200 mm GSB (Granular Sub-base) thickness whereas the untreated soil has a 380 mm GSB layer as in Fig 4. Figure 4: Thickness of pavement layer for 20 msa (BC: Bituminous Concrete, SDBC: Semi-Dense Bituminous Concrete) Figure 5: Comparison of total thickness of pavement for different msa Conclusions From the present studies on the geotechnical properties of soil, GBFS and lime mixes, the following conclusions have been drawn: i) GBFS is classified under Zone III sand having white in colour. GBFS has specific gravity 2.28 and CaO content 32.29 %. Also, GBFS found to be non-plastic. ii) The pH value 12.43 and 12.44 (required value 12.4) for soil + 20 % GBFS + 4 % lime and soil + International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1201-1205 1205 iii) iv) v) vi) vii) Laboratory Study on the Effects of GBFS and Lime Stabilizers in Subgrade Layer for Expansive Soil 25 % GBFS + 4 % lime fulfill the criteria of the IRC: 51, 1992 for stabilized soil. For soil + GBFS combination OMC decreases with increase in MDD. Soil mechanically stabilized with GBFS increases the MDD. Soil + GBFS + lime mixing improves the workability of wet soil. As the quantity of GBFS in the additive increase, the effect of GBFS became more dominant than the effect of lime and tended to increase the MDD and decrease the OMC. The compressive strength (UCS) increases with GBFS percentage increase. The UCS value rises successively with an increase in curing period for all mixes. The soaked CBR value of soil increase from 1.94 % (soil) to 48.9 % (soil+25%GBFS+4%lime) with GBFS and lime mixes. This combination gives the effective CBR value of 12 (>8 as per requirement of IRC: 37, 2012). Based on the laboratory findings it may be concluded that the mix soil + 25 % GBFS + 4 % lime fulfill all requirement of the subgrade construction. All index and engineering properties are satisfied by this combination and suitable for use in the subgrade layers for the flexible pavements. The utilization of this mix in pavement construction will solve the problem of waste disposal and minimize the crust thickness of flexible pavement. References [1] Sat ajit, P. a d Ja dish, ., S., “ i eeri Properties of Black Cotton Soil-Dolime mix for its as Subbase material in Pavement,” International Journal of Geomate, 8(1), PP. 11591166, 2015. [2] Surya K., P., and Bala krishnama, V., N., “A Analysis of Indian Steel Industry,” Journal of International Academic Research for Multidisciplinary, 1(3), PP. 110-119, 2013. [3] Manoj, K., T., Samir, B. and Umesh, K., D., “Steel Sla Utilizatio — Overview in Indian Perspective,” International Journal of Advanced Research, 4(8), PP. 2232-2246, 2016. [4] Koteswara, R., Sravani, G. and Bharath, N., “Laborator Stud o the ffe t of Steel Sla for Improving the Properties of Marine Clay for Foundation Beds,” International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 5(7), PP. 253259, 2014. [5] Shi ra, . a d Ali, S. M. J., “Soil stabilizatio using steel slag,” Global Journal for Research Analysis, 5(1), pp 13-14, 2016. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1201-1205 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0616 December 2017, P.P. 1206-2011 www.cafetinnova.org Geospatial Analysis for land capability in Pudukkottai district, Tamilnadu, India S SREEKALA1 AND R NEELAKANTAN2 1 Department of Geography, K.N. Govt Arts College for Women, (Autonomous), Thanjavur, Tamilnadu, India 2 Department of Industries and Earth Sciences, Tamil University, Thanjavur, Tamilnadu, India Email: sreegeo.2007@gmail.com, neels.2004@gmail.com Abstract: Land capability is the capability of the land for different land use practices, it is necessary to have knowledge of the land capability of the area as rehabilitation and reclamation of the land depends on the capability. The study area is economically backward and it is a notified drought prone district and hence possesses multiple problems in various resources due to divergent geology, structure, geomorphology and the related geodynamics. In this context, the study analyzes the capability of the land with various terrain parameters in Pudukkottai district using geospatial data. Then, the parameters are assigned ranks and weightages and scores are calculated depending upon their capability; integrated and land capability zonation has been prepared using GIS version 10.2.2. Study results shows that an area of 486.81 sq.km lies under capability class I, 1421.62 sq.km of land under capability class II, 1939.83 sq.km under capability class III and 814.49 sq.km under capability class IV. The outcome of the study will be useful for planning and developmental activities in the study area. Keywords: Terrain parameters, Land Capability, Weighted Overlay, integrated. 1. Introduction Assessment of land for long term sustained production is based on an interpretation of the physical information in a Land Resources Inventory (lRI), which is compiled from a field assessment of rock types, soils, land form and slopes, erosion types and severities and vegetation cover. Major purpose of land capabi1ity maps is to provide data on the natural features of land to be used in assessing the overall planning and development potential of the region. Physical characteristics examined include those pertaining to relief, slope, landforms & environmental geology. These factors were evaluated, individually and in combination, to determine the suitability of terrain for resources and engineering development. As a result, it was possible to identify the area's suitability for certain development activities and any physical and environmental constraints on development. These overlays provide a summary of the physical characteristics and development potential of the region in terms of focusing on specific areas, or zones, where detailed spatial and alternative development strategies will be required. Land evaluation systems follow a Boolean or rulebased approach adopted to the principle of maximum limiting factors. It is necessary to have knowledge of the land capability of the area as the rehabilitation and reclamation of the land depends on the capability of the land. Arnot and Grant (1981) have applied the PUCE system for terrain analysis, classification, assessment and evaluation based on geomorphic principles and the four hierarchical terrain classes are explicitly defined in their study. a es a d Moore (1 81) ha e des ribed Si ai’s physical and cultural resources and to incorporate anticip ated land use categories into a reconnaissance level assessment of land capability. GIS is widely used to evaluate sustainable land management (FAO 1993), wherein all land units were weighted separately and modeled together to generate required thematic information. When performing land suitability analysis, some factors may weight more heavily in the decision-making process than others (Anon 1995). Rivas et al., (1997) and Pasuto and Soldati (1999) have found out feasible methods to map variability of natural resources and natural hazards, and to assess land capabilities, and stated it as the important tool to properly guide spatial planning especially in developing countries. Castiglioni et al., (1999) have emphasized that geomorphological mapping holds as a valuable research tool, especially when surveys encompass large areas. Bocco et al., (2001) have described the geographic distribution of major landforms and dominant land cover, and provided a synoptic inventory of natural resources. They have described a method to quickly map terrain at reconnaissance (1:250,000) and semidetailed (1:50,000) levels in relatively large territories (thousands of square kilometers). Krisnaiah (2011) has framed land suitability rating model using model building techniques in Arc GIS. From the results of his research, a rice suitability area map was prepared, identifying the various areas as four classes: most suitable, suitable, less suitable and Received: August 06, 2017; Accepted: December 24, 2017; Published: January 30, 2017 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1206-1211, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0616 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved. 1207 Geospatial Analysis for land capability in Pudukkottai district, Tamilnadu, India unsuitable. Appala Raju (2015) has carried out land capability and suitability analysis of Vizianagaram district using image processing technique and GIS. Manojit Mondal and Md Azfar Mondal (2015) have assessed the land capability classification and relationship between agro-economic developments of Purba Medinipur district of West Bengal. They made a measured the land capability classification of the Purba Medinipur district by analyzing the positive factors as rainfall, soil fertility and irrigation facility and negative factors as ruggedness number, soil erosion, water logging, forest density, drought, higher degree of slope and flood. Raghuveer Naidu et al (2015) have examined the land capability classification system of Kalyandurg in the southwestern part of Andhra Pradesh. The land capability classes identified through LISS-IV satellite data, soil maps, SOI topographic maps and other resource maps. 2. About the study area principles of multi criteria evaluation and assigned ranks and weightages for each sub theme and integrated using GIS overlay technique. For assigning weightages and ranks the prior knowledge of the parameters for development and the constraints for development are taken for consideration. 5. Database on Terrain System Parameters 5.1 Geomorphology Geomorphology of the study area has been prepared using IRS P6 satellite data and shown in Fig.2 . In the study area, various geomorphic features are mapped such as sediments, sedimentary high ground, erosional surface, sedimentary plain, badland topography, structural hills, denudational hills, residual hills, sloping land (sedimendary), piedmont zone, alluvial plain, flood plain, coastal plain, delta plain. Hard rock formations located in the north western part of the study area had the high relief features such as denudostructural hills, residual hills/inselbergs and linear ridges. In the south eastern part, deltaic and coastal land forms such as, inter lobal depressions, deltaic lobes / deltaic plains, swales, mud flats, beach ridges, creeks and protruding deltas were found. Figure1: Study area The study area lies between 09050’45” a d 10044'00’’of the North latitude and between 780 26’50" a d 7 0 16’ 00” of the ast lo itude and has an area of 4663 km² with a coastline of 42 km. The district depends a great deal on the monsoon for its water supply and the study area is shown in Fig.1. 3. Objectives of the study The main objectives of the study are:  To analyze the terrain parameters of the study area and to find out their implications on land development.  To classify the study area based on the capability of terrain parameters. 4. Approach The terrain systems namely the physiography, landscape, geomorphic display and the tectonic fabric are the reflections of the endogenic and exogenic processes that have operated not only in the geological past but also being active in the recent years. The study area terrain parameters such as geomorphology, lithology, slope and lineament data has been prepared and analyzed based on the Figure2: Geomorphology 5.2 Lithology The geological data has been collected from the GSI and generated as raster image in GIS and shown in Fig 3. It has been observed that the major rock types of the study area are shaley sand stone, granitic rock and gneiss in greater proportion. The shaley sand stone covers 30.8% of the total area, these are formed of semi consolidated sediments and are spread over Gandarvakottai, Pudukkottai, Karambakkudi, Thiruvarankulam, north of Arimalam and north of Aranthangi blocks. The granitic/ acidic out crops are found in Kunnandarkoil, Annavasal, north Thirumayam and north west of Arimalam blocks. The gneiss made up of metamorphic rocks cover the west region of the district and is found over Viralimalai and western parts of Ponnamaravathi blocks. The alter sequence of sand/ silt and clay is found in parts of Manamelkudi and Avudaiyarkoil blocks. The out crops of sand and silt are found in the south of Aranthangi and Arimalam blocks. The charnockite rock is found embedded over the granitic rocks along International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1206-1211 S SREEKALA AND R NEELAKANTAN the southern boundary of Kunnandarkoil and Annavasal blocks and the northern boundary of Thirumayam block. The sand made of coastal/ alluvial/ Aeolian deposits are present at the eastern boundary of Manamelkudi block. 1208 inferred. From the lineament data, superimposing a grid map having 1 sq.km, counting the total length of the lineaments in each, plotting their length in the respective grid center and contouring them using kriging method and shown in Fig.5. The density maxima were predominantly occurring along the central part of the study area in NNE - SSW direction where major fault zone was also found and such density was graded into 3 classes such as, low (< 800 m/4sq.km), moderate (800 - 1600 m/4sq.km) and high. Figure 3: Lithology 5.3 Slope Slope is one of the major controlling factors in the development and formation of different landforms. The slope of any terrain is one of the factors controlling the infiltration of groundwater into the sub-surface and is also a suitability indicator from the groundwater prospect point of view. The slope map was prepared using topographical data and the same has been generated in GIS environment and shown in Fig.4. Figure 4: Slope It has been observed that the slope of the study area vary from 0% to > 35% in the study area. These slope zones were grouped into three classes, namely, Plain area (<1%), Rolling (1-5%) and Rolling to steep (535%). 5.4 Lineament and its density The lineaments were interpreted from the satellite data, and such lineaments were digitized and oriented in NE–SW direction. In the northern part of the crystalline, the general trend was in north-south to NNE–SSW direction and in the southern part of the western crystalline, the structural trends were almost in a perpendicular direction, i.e., towards NW-SE to E-W direction. From these, in general, N-S to NNESSW trending tight anticlines and synclines were Figure 5: Lineament density 6. Result and discussion The terrain parameters such as geomorphology, lithology, slope and lineament have been taken for the analysis. The contribution of each factor in the development processes have taken into consideration, based on this, land capability has been evaluated. Weightages are assigned to different thematic layers based on their significance in deciding the capability of land with respect to wasteland formation. Each parameter has ranked accordingly and is multiplied by the corresponding weightage, resulting in a score ranging from Capability class I (Possibility of development high) to Capability class IV (Possibility for development is very low) indicating the capability of land. Total weightage to this parameter is given as 100, where individual factors have been assigned a weightage of 25. The weightage score for the terrain parameters are tabulated individually for each sub theme. 6.1 Geomorphology based land capability Analysis The geomorphological features are assigned ranks and weightages and the scores are tabulated in Table 1 and the ranks are assigned logically according to their capability index. The sedimentary plain, alluvial plain, coastal plain and delta plains are given rank 4, as these regions can be agriculturally productive and any kind of development is easily established on the plain regions. The badland topography, flood plains and erosional surfaces are also rich in fertility so that agriculture is possible in this region and is given next to rank 3 for this region. Sedimentary high grounds and piedmont zones are somewhat low in productivity so it is assigned as 2. The hilly areas like piedmont/ International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1206-1211 1209 Geospatial Analysis for land capability in Pudukkottai district, Tamilnadu, India structural/ denudational and residual hills are assigned rank 1, because of the topographical constraints for the development. The weightages are equally distributed and individual feature is given the value 25 and the scores are arrived by multiplying the rank and weights. Table 1: Ranks and weightages of Geomorphological landforms S No 1 2 3 4 Geomorphology Sedimentary plain/ Alluvial plain/ Coastal pain/Delta plain Badland topography/ Flood plain/ Erosional surface Sedimentary high ground/ Piedmont zone Pediment/ Structural hills/ Denudational hills/ Residual hills Capa Area in Rank Weight Score bility sq.km Class 4 25 100 I 100.28 3 25 75 II 255.17 2 25 50 III 2171.4 1 25 25 IV 2135.6 Table 2: Ranks and weightages of lithological landforms S No Lithology Rank Weight Score Gneiss/ Shaly sand stones 2 Charnokite Alter 3 sequence of lay/ Sand/Silt Coastal 4 Alluvium/ Granitic rock 1 Capability Area in Class sq. km 4 25 100 I 2324.8 3 25 75 II 148.73 2 25 50 III 1067.0 1 25 25 IV 1121.9 The rank is multiplied with weight to attain the score and based on the score for lithological features the area is divided into capability class I, II, III and IV and is tabulated in Table2. Based on the ranks the lithology based capability class were prepared using raster GIS image and shown in Fig.7. Figure 6: Geomorphic land form based land capability Based on the ranks and weightages the land capability for geomorphological land forms has been prepared as a GIS raster images and having land capability class I, II, III, and IV shown in Fig.6. About 100.28 sq.km of area come under capability class I, where the possibilities for development are high in these areas. An area of 255.17sq.km falls under capability class II, where the possibilities for development are moderate. The capability class III has an area of 2171.4sq.km and an area of 2135.68 sq.km comes under capability class IV. Here, the possibilities for development are less and while implementing the developmental schemes these regions may need more attention and effort. 6.2 Lithology based Land capability Analysis Considering the properties of rock types for the study area the gneiss/shaley sand stone are given rank 4, they have high productive capacity and it occupies 2324.82sq.km. The charnokite rocks are high grade contact metamorphic rocks with coarse grained to granular, granoblastic to foliated rocks. These have moderate capability for productive purposes so it is assigned rank 3, it occupies 148.73 sq.km. Figure 7: Lithology based land capability mapping 6.3 Slope Based Land Capability Analysis: Based on the inherent capacity of slope characteristics and the possibilities for development of the slope are given the weightage 25. The plain region and the slope with 1 - 3% are given rank 4, the area with 315% slope are 3rd rank and area with 15 - 35% of slope is given 2nd rank. Table 3: Ranks and weightages for Slope classes S No Slope (%) Rank Weight Score 1 2 3 Plain area, 1- 3 3 - 15 15 - 35 Capability Area in Class sq.km 4 25 100 I 4575.61 3 2 25 25 75 50 II III 61.25 25.93 The alternate sequence of sand silt and clay forms 1067.05 sq.km of area, it is a loose aggregate of rock or mineral particles of silt size, commonly with a high percentage of clay minerals. This combination of ro s osses’ i er eabilit of ater to the soil so that the capability is low and is assigned rank 2. The granitic rocks form the barren rocky surface and so developmental processes are slow and the capability is poor in this region. This region is assigned rank 1 and occupies an area of 1121.98 sq.km. Figure 8: Slope based land capability International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1206-1211 S SREEKALA AND R NEELAKANTAN Accordingly, the scores are calculated, here the capability is high for rank 4 areas and the capability is lowered according to decrease in rank from high, medium, poor to very poor. The weightages are tabulated in Table 3, based on the ranks and weightages the slope based land capability GIS raster image has been prepared and shown in Fig.8. 6.4 Lineament density based land capability: The lineament density indicates the holding capacity of water and in those areas developmental practices are well established. Based on the density of lineaments the study area is classified into capability class I, II and III and tabulated in Table 4. The regions with lineament density >1600 m/ 4 sq.km is assigned rank 4 and considered under class I. The areas with lineament density 800 - 1600m/4sq.km are assigned rank 3 and lies in capability class II. The area with lineament density < 800 m/4sq.km is assigned rank 2 and comes under class III. Based on the ranks and weightages, the lineament density based land capability has been prepared as a GIS raster images and shown in Fig.9. 1210 The capability class I, has high possibilities for development and occupies an area of 486.81sq.km. In this class the geomorphology, lithology, slope and lineament characteristics impose favorable conditions for development. The capability class II has moderate possibilities for development comprising an area of 1421.62 sq.km. The capability class III has low possibilities for development and occupies an area of 1939.83 sq.km. Nearly, 814.49 sq.km of area comes under capability class IV, where the possibility is very low. Table 5: Area wise land capability for terrain parameters S No 1 2 3 4 Capability Class I II III IV Cumulative Capability Class Score Area in sq.km > 300 486.81 250 - 300 1421.62 200 - 250 1939.83 < 200 814.49 Table 4: Ranks and weightages for Lineament density Lineament Capability Area in Rank Weight Score (m/4sq.km) Class sq.km 1 > 1600 4 25 100 I 624.56 2 800 - 1600 3 25 75 II 2046.11 3 < 800 2 25 50 III 1992.76 S No Figure 10: Terrain based land capability 8. Conclusions Figure 9: Lineament density based land capability 7. Terrain based land capability Analysis The individual terrain parameters are overlaid using weighted overlay of GIS and capability mapping has been done. From the analysis, the area is having number of polygons and maximum weightages are 300 scores and minimum of 100 scores are observed. Based on the minimum and maximum the study area is classified and regrouped. The areas having more than 300 scores are classified as capability class I and between 250 - 300 areas are classified as capability class II. The areas with 200 - 250 scores are classified into capability class III and below 200 scores are classified as least capability class IV and shown in Fig.10 and also the area of capability classes are shown in Table 5. The various terrain parameters related to land capability have been integrated and final land capability zonation map has been brought out based on terrain characteristics. It has been observed that an area of 486.81 sq.km lies under capability class I, 1421.62 sq.km of land under capability class II, 1939.83 sq.km under capability class III and 814.49 sq.km under capability class IV. This identified capability classification is recommended as a natural relevance approach for development in the study area, by considering all the significance of nature. References [1] Anon, Manual of SPANS Explorer, Vol.7, Issue1, PCI Geomatics, Canada., 1995. [2] N.Appala Raju, Land Capability and Suitability in Vizianagaram district of Andhra Pradesh using Remote sensing and GIS Techniques, IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science, Vol.20, Issue 7, Ver. VII, PP. 56-64., 2015. [3] FAO, FESLM: An International framework for evaluating sustainable land management, World Resource Rep. 73, FAO Rome., 1993. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1206-1211 1211 Geospatial Analysis for land capability in Pudukkottai district, Tamilnadu, India [4] R.H Arnot, K.Grant, The application of a method for terrain analysis to functional land-capability assessment and aesthetic landscape appreciation, Landscape planning, Volume 8, Issue 3, pp. 269300., 1981. [5] G Bocco, M Mendoza, Velázquez A, Remote sensing and GIS-based regional geomorphological mapping - a tool for land use planning in developing countries, Geomorphology, Volume 39, Issues 3–4, pp. 211–219., 2001. [6] G Castiglioni, ABiancotti, MBondesan, G Cortemiglia, C Elmi, V Favero, G Gasperi, G Marchetti, G Orombelli, G Pellegrini, C Tellini., Geomorphological map of the Po Plain, Italy, at a scale of 1:250 000, Earth Surface Processes Landforms, Vol.24, No 2, pp.1115–1120., 1999. [7] Dames and Moore, Land classification and capability in Sinai, Sinai development studyphase I, Performed for the advisory committee for reconstruction of the ministry of development, Working paper No. 29., 1981. [8] K Gupta, Inventory of Degraded Lands of Palamau District, Bihar - A Remote Sensing Approach, Journal of The Indian Society of Remote Sensing, Vol.26, Issue 4, pp 161-168., 1998. [9] Y.V.Krishniah, Land capability of the Papagni River Basin, Andhra Pradesh, Using Remote sensing Technique, Journal of the Institute of Indian Geographers, Vol.33, Issue 1, pp.113122., 2011. [10] A.E. Mohamed, A. Abdel Rahman, Natarajan, Rajendra Hegde, Assessment of land suitability and capability by integrating remote sensing and GIS for agriculture in Chamaraja Nagar district, Karnataka, India, The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Science, Volume 19, Issue 1, pp. 125–141., 2016. [11] Mondal and Md Azfar Mondal, Land capability Classification of Purba Medinipur district, W.B.: A Geographical Case study Manojit, International Research Journal of Earth Sciences Vol. 3, Issue 9, pp13-20., 2015. [12] A Pasuto, M Soldati, The use of landslide units in geomorphological mapping: an example in the Italian Dolomites, Geomorphology, Vol. 30, Issue (1–2), pp. 53–64., 1999. [13] R. Prashant, R. Thawale, Karthik, Surbhi Jore, K. Sanjeev Singh, Asha Juwarkar Land Capability Classification for Agro-economic Evaluation of Mahadayi Dam, Karnataka, India, Journal of Agricultural Engineering and Biotechnology ,Vol. 2 Issue 4, PP. 63-75., 2014. [14] K.Raghuveer Naidu, R.Nagaraja, Y.V Ramanaiah, Land capability classification system in the study area of Kalyandurg, Brahmasamudram and Setturu Mandals of Anantapur District, AP, India: using Remote Sensing And GIS Techniques, International Journal of Remote Sensing & Geoscience, Vol. 4, Issue1., 2015. [15] V Rivas, K Rix, E Francés, A Cendrero,D Brunsden,Geomorphological indicators for environmental impact assessment: consumable and non-consumable geomorphologicresources, Geomorphology, Vol.18, Issue (3–4), pp. 169– 182., 1997. [16] A Shweta, M.S Ardak,S Nagaraju, Jagdish Prasad, Rajeev Srivastava And A.K.Barthwal Characterization and evaluation of land resources in Khapri village of Nagpur district, Maharashtra using high resolution satellite data and GIS, Agropedology, Vol. 20 (J), pp.07-18., 2010. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1206-1211 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0617 December 2017, P.P. 1212-1219 www.cafetinnova.org Performance Investigation of Rock Mass Classification Systems for Coal Mine Support Design in Indian Mining Conditions AVINASH P AUL1*, V M S R MURTHY2, AMAR P RAKASH1, AJOY KR SINGH1 CSIR -Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research, Dhanbad – 826 015, India Department of Mining Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology(ISM), Dhanbad, India * Email: avinashpaul02@yahoo.co.in, avinashpaul@cimfr.nic.in 1 2 Abstract: In underground coal mines, fatalities occur due to the roof fall in the newly developed faces or galleries during development or production of coal. Roof failure in coal mines is strongly related to the frequency of the lamination of bedding planes. System of support design with roof bolting, resin bolting and cable bolting for the aforesaid galleries is presently being decided on the basis of Rock Mass Rating (RMR). Rock mass classification systems have constituted an integral part of empirical mine design for over 100 years. Rock mass classification provides guidelines for stability performance to select appropriate support system as well. The primary objective of all the classification system is to quantify the intrinsic properties of rock mass based on set of chosen parameters and the second objective is to investigate how external loading condition acting on a rock mass influences its behavior. In this paper an attempt has been made to review various available RMR systems with their applications and drawbacks. Further, three major classification systems, namely, ie ia s i’s RMR ( RMR), arto ’s Q- system, CMMR (Coal Mine Roof Rating) and CMRI-ISM RMR (Central Mining Research Institute-Indian School of Mines) Rock Mass Rating are applied to 20 Indian coal mines and compared for prediction of rock loads and safety factors for optimum and rational design of support for underground coal mines. Numerical modeling was done to estimate the rock load and safety factor and the same was compared with the rock load and safety factors obtained by empirical approaches. It was found that among the compared RMR classifications system CMRI–ISM RMR holds good for design of support system in Indian geo-mining conditions. Keywords: RMR, Rock load, Safety factor, CMRR, BRMR, CMRI-ISM RMR. 1. Introduction Thin laminated bedding planes of rocks constitute main factor for the roof failure in coal mines (Brozovic and Villaescuca, 2007). When the stress gets released due to process of excavation in rock or coal, these thin layers gets separated due to the process of redistribution of stresses (Jakubec et al., 2012). If the proper support system is not applied this thin layers fall down causing major causalities in the mines. The Rock Mass Rating (RMR) System is a geo-mechanical classification system applied to rock mass. It combines the most significant geological parameters of influence and represents them with one overall comprehensive index of rock mass quality, which is used for the design and construction of excavations in rock, such as tunnels, mines, slopes and foundations (Bieniawski, 1989). Rock mass classification helps in the appropriate selection of support system for underground mines and tunnels, as it considers the complete composition and characteristics of rock mass. However, it is important to understand the limitations of each rock mass classification (Palmstrom and Brocn, 2006). RMR System provides a method of incorporating some of the complex mechanics of actual rocks into engineering design (Jakubec and Esterhuizen, 2007). Moreover, the system was the first to enable estimation of rock mass properties, such as the modulus of deformation, in addition to providing support guidelines and the stand-up time of underground excavations (Bieniawski, 1978). Recently, after over 45 years of use, renewed attention is being paid to the RMR System because of its applications to the assessment of rock mass excavability (RME) and especially, its direct correlation with the specific energy of excavation (SEE) for Tunnel Boring Machines (TBMs) to detect changes in tunneling conditions effectively, in real time, thus serving as a warning of adverse conditions as construction proceeds (Celada et al., 2012). 2. Rock Mass Classification systems Some of the major classification systems used for mines and tunnels are illustrated below: 2.1 Rock Quality Designation (RQD) System The RQD system is applied in core logging and number of joints per meter (Deere et al., 1968; Priest and Hudson, 1976; Palmstrom, 1982). Expressions used by various researchers are:   core length  10 cm  x100 (1) RQD= total length of core (2) RQD=115  3.3J v RQD=100(0.1  1)e0.1 Received: August 16, 2017; Accepted: December 28, 2017; Published: January 30, 2018 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1212-1219, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0617 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved. (3) 1213 Performance Investigation of Rock Mass Classification Systems for Coal Mine Support Design in Indian Mining Conditions Where, Jv = number of discontinuities per unit olu e, λ = fra ture s a i ( ). he orld ide popular system is easy to estimate and is good to account for fracture spacing. It does not reflect much about joint orientation. Its application is restricted in rock mass filled-in with foreign materials. It does not impart adequate description of rock mass due to twodimensional representation. 2.2 Rock Mass Rating (RMR) Classification System The RMR system, comprising six defined parameters namely uniaxial compressive strength, RQD, joint spacing, joint condition, groundwater condition and joint orientation, is widely used in tunnel, mine and foundation design. The relation for determination of support load developed by Bieniawski (1973) is expressed as: (4) P = γh t B(1-RMR) (5) ht = 100 Where, P = support load (t/m2),  = density of the rock (kg/m3), ht = rock load height (m), B= tunnel width (m), RMR= rock mass rating. The system provides the basis for the development of various classification systems and used for the design of support system. The system is mainly emphasised on joints rather than stresses, weathering and structural discontinuities. It is not suitable for squeezing ground condition (Goel, Jethwa and Paithankar, 1995). It shows 1 class deviation and thus not suitable for Indian conditions. 2.3 Q Classification System Q system, developed by Barton et al. (1974), is used for design of support in underground excavations. The parameters used in this system are RQD, joint set number (Jn), joint roughness (Jr), joint alteration (Jw), ground water condition, stress reduction factor (SRF) and expressed as: RQD J r J w (6) Q= x x Jn J a SRF Rock load can be determined by using Q system, expressed as: 20 1 (7) Rock load Proof = x t/m2 J r Q1/3 Rock load Proof = J 2 1 x n x 1/3 t/m 2 3 Jr Q (8) The system is suitable particularly for highly jointed rock masses as well as hard rock formations. Its application is limited to softer rock formation in multiple openings because this system is based on joint attributes whereas stability of underground openings is not only joint controlled. 2.4 Modified Rock Mass Rating (MRMR) System MRMR system is used for the design of support in underground coal mines (Laubscher and Taylor, 1976; Laubscher, 1993). MRMR system takes the basic value as defined in RMR and adjust the same for the factors like in-situ and induced stress, stress changes and the effects of blasting and weathering. It is expressed as: RMR=IRS + RQD + Spacing + condition (9) MRMR = RMR* Adjustment factors (10) Where, IRS = Intact rock strength (MPa), RQD = Rock Quality Designation, Spacing = Spacing of discontinuities (m), Condition = Condition of discontinuities It is a comprehensive and versatile system that has widespread acceptance by mining personnel and used successfully in the mathematical modelling. Still there is some scope for improvement in empirical table by addition of practical experience. 2.5 Final Modified Basic RMR (FMBR) System According to Cummings et al. (1982) and Kendorski et al. (1983), FMBR is used for development of drifts and final support of intersections and drifts and is expressed as: FMBR= AMBR x DC x PS x S Adjusted MBR (AMBR) =MBR.Ab As Ao (11) (12) Where, DC = The adjustment rating for distance to cave line, PS = The block size adjustment, S = The adjustment for orientation of major structures distance, Ab = adjustment for blasting, As= induced stress adjustment, Ao= adjustment for fracture orientation. Effect due to induced stresses, blasting and fracture orientation has been included which is not covered in the original RMR system. Proper care should be taken when adjustment factors are applied so that the adjusted FMBR value should be accurate and precise to avoid the under supporting of rock mass. As it is modified version of RMR for mining application thus uses many of the parameters same as RMR. 2.6 CMRI-ISM-RMR System The system, developed by Venkateswarlu et al. (1989), is used for design of support in Indian coal mines and drifts from last 32 years, expressed as: CMRI-ISM RMR = Layer thickness + Structural features +UCS + Slake durability + Ground water Rock Load (t/m2) = B x  x (1.7 - 0.037 x RMR + 0.0002 RMR2) (13) Where, B = Roadway span (m) and  = Unit rock weight (t/m3) It is the most efficient classification system derived for Indian coal measure rock. Its application is also easy and simple and can be used up to 6 m gallery width with adjustment factor. Stress adjustment is arbitrary in this system. Recounting in the rating system has been seen in terms of slake durability and ground water condition. It is applicable only for development workings. Blasting adjustment given is arbitrary. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1212-1219 AVINASH P AUL, V M S R M URTHY, AMAR P RAKASH, AJOY KR S INGH 2.7 Critical Convergence & Rock Load System The system was developed by Ghosh and Ghosh (1992) for design of support in coal mines junctions, expressed as:  RMR  Rock Load ( t/m2 )= 5*B0.3 *γ [1-   ]  100  2 (14) Where, B = Roadway span (m) and  = Unit rock weight (t/m3) The application of the system is simple and easy to adopt. It can be applied for openings up to 5 m for underground coal mines. It shows erratic results beyond 5 m openings. Its application is also limited for the condition where concentration of stresses is more due to larger openings. 2.8 Modified Q-System for Coal Mines: Sheorey (1993) developed modified Q-System for design of support in underground coal mines junctions, given as: Horizontal stratified rock: Changes Jn to Jn 2/3 Irregular bed thickness: Changes Q to Q/3 Ball coal in roof: Changes Q to Q/5 Stone/clay pockets: Changes Q to Q/3 Unfavourable joint orientation/ horizontal stress: Changes Q to Q/4 Rock Load (P roof) = K*γ* (5Q) 0.33 (t/m2) (15) Where, K= support load obtained from CMRI –ISM classification, B = Gallery width (m) This classification system is applicable for coal measure roof rocks. More adequate support design can be done for depillaring panels. It is not applicable for hard rock formation as it was modified for coal measure roof rocks. Although modification has been done, still this system upholds all the shortcomings of Q system. As it is modified version of Q-system, hence all the parameters are same as Q. 2.9 Coal Mine Roof Rating (CMRR) System CMRR system was developed by Molinda and Mark (1996) for design of support in underground coal mines. It is expressed as: CMRR= UCS rating + Discontinuity intensity rating + Discontinuity shear strength rating + Multiple discontinuity adjustment + Moisture sensitivity deduction Support density (ARBSG) = (5.7 log10 H) - 0.35CMRR + 6.5 (16) Where, H = depth of cover (m), ARBSG = Analysis of roof bolting system. It is used in broad range of ground control issues and quantifies the roof geology which helps extensively in mine planning. The estimation process of the system is lengthy. The system being relatively new all possible uses and specific guidelines are not yet been determined. System has been implemented in a few 1214 mines and still lagging to develop data base to be accepted worldwide. 2.10 Geological Strength Index (GSI) The basic application of GSI is for design of support in underground mines (Hoek, 1997), expressed as: GSI=RMR-5 for GSI≥18 or RMR≥23, GSI= I Q’+ 44, Q’= (RQ Jn).(Jr/Ja) GSI<18 For RMR>23, RMR is the modified version in which zero rating has been set to groundwater and the remaining parameters are same as Bieniawski RMR. For RMR<23, Q is odified as Q’ hen value of Jw/SRF is dropped and the remaining parameters of Q are same. It is applicable for both weak and hard rock masses and widely used for computer simulation of rock masses. The use of the system requires an ample experienced and expertise. 2.11 Modified CMRI-ISM RMR System The system developed by Murthy et al. (2005) is applicable for design of support in underground mines. It incorporates the influence of blasting and also useful in estimation of actual extent of damaged zone in roof rocks due to blasting. Determination of rock load is expressed as: Rock Load (t/m2) = 0.0013*RMRseis2-0.19*RMRseis+9.25 (17) The system is based on less case studies, hence needs to be varied by addition of more cases of underground mines. Main parameter suggested in this system is P wave velocity in place of UCS and the remaining parameters are same as for CMRI-ISM RMR system. 3. Appraisal of New key RMR systems Rock mass classification forms the backbone of the empirical design approach and is widely employed in rock engineering (Paul et al., 2011a; Paul et al., 2011b). It has been experienced that when used correctly, a rock mass classification approach serves as a practical basis for the design of complex underground structures. The classification system in the last 50 years of its development have taken cognizance of the new advances in rock support technology starting from steel rib support to the latest supporting techniques like rock bolts and steel fiber re-enforced short crete. Key classifications applicable to the coal mine have been reviewed to identify the short comings (Table.1). Table 1: Key observations of a few Rock Mass Classification Systems  This classification has found application in many tunnel excavations and is particularly suitable for highly jointed rock masses. ie ia s i’s RMR  The difference in the classification may be Classification because coal measure formations are softer (Bieniawski,1973) compared to European tunnel formations for which this classification was developed.  This classification system has been applied RMR Systems Key Observations International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1212-1219 Performance Investigation of Rock Mass Classification Systems for Coal Mine Support Design in Indian Mining Conditions 1215 in coal mines in India It can be seen that the system gives realistic results only in a few cases; while in majority of the roofs the deviation from actual conditions is less by one class. Q –System (Barton et al., 1974) CMRR (Molinda and Mark, 1996) CMRI-ISM -RMR (Venkateswarlu et al., 1989) important subsidiaries of Coal India Limited. Major coalfields contributed in the formation of SECL are Central Indian coalfields (Sohagpur, Umaria and Johilla), North Chhattisgarh coalfields (Chirimiri, Kurasia, Bisrampur and Jhilimili) and South Chhattisgarh coalfields (Hasdeo, Korba, and Raigarh). SECL produces about 30% of total coal production in India (Sarkar, 2011). Study was also conducted in KTK–6 Incline mine of SCCL. The SCCL comes under Godavari Valley Coalfield covering an area of over 9000 km2 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Godavari_valley_Coalfield).  Suitable for highly jointed rock masses.  Not applicable for coal measure formations as they are softer compared to tunnel formations rock type.  It only emphasises on joint attributes, whereas stability in coal mines is not just joint-controlled.  The stress reduction factor in it also has no relation with the stress field occurring around multiple openings like coal mine roadways.  The CMRR system is relatively new. All possible uses and specific guidelines for them are yet to be determined.  System has been implemented in few mines and still lagging to develop its data base to be accepted world- wide for application in ground control planning and operations.  The CMRR value gives a wide range in areas of high horizontal stresses and in proximity of major geological feature s.  The method over rates roof condition in an area where orientation of major/minor geological features resulted in roof collapse.  In modified CMRR system, laboratory testing and analysis was suggested which is extensive and time consuming. SECL mines KTK-6 Incline mine, Godavari Valley Coalfield  Mining induced stress, one of the main causes of roof falls in underground mines, is not considered properly.  The reduction factor given in CMRI – ISM RMR system for blasting has no scientific basis.  The vertical stress is considered only after a depth of 250 m. It is often seen that at shallow depth also the values of lateral and vertical stresses are considerably high. The horizontal stress values are also not well defined in CMRI – ISM RMR System.  Some of the factors which cause roof rock deterioration ,namely ,slake durability and ground water condition have been considered twice in CMRI –ISM RMR system which sometimes results in over supporting and increases overall production cost of the mine. Figure1: Location of study sites (Source: Advanced Resources International Inc.) 5. RMR, Rock Load and Safety factor comparison The RMR determined in 20 underground mines by different systems ( ie ia s i’s RMR, Q-system, CMRR and CMRI-ISM RMR) and the corresponding rock load and safety factors are detailed in Table 2. The RMR and rock load were calculated using different equations illustrated in section 2. 4. Field Investigations Rock mass classification study was conducted in 20 underground mines of South Eastern Coalfields Limited (SECL) and Singareni Collieries Company Limited (SCCL), shown in Fig. 1. SECL is one of the Table2: Rock mass rating, rock load and safety factor in different mines S. no Name of mine Churcha mine R.O 2 Jhilimili Mine 3 Jhilimili Mine 4 Katkona 3/4 1 CMRI ISM RMR R/L (t/m2) SF Q R/L (t/m2) SF 56.7 2.82 2.95 9.20 4.48 2.01 79 41.4 42.3 48.6 2.71 3.52 2.35 3.88 2.7 4.05 2.89 8.59 5.08 3.75 4.38 4.51 2.28 2.35 2.29 42 63 49 BR/L RMR (t/m2) SF CMRR R/L (t/m2) SF 2.42 3.73 62.00 1.51 1.19 3.09 2.64 3.21 2.77 3.91 3.21 43.00 19.00 50.00 3.29 4.72 1.3 1.38 1.73 1.31 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1212-1219 AVINASH P AUL, V M S R M URTHY, AMAR P RAKASH, AJOY KR S INGH Incline Katkona 1/2 Incline Churcha west Pandav para Kalyani mine Shiwani Mine Nawapara Mine Gayatri mine Rehar Mine Rehar Mine Kumda 7/8 incline Bartunga Hill Kurasia Mine Kurasia Mine NCPH Old Mine North Chirimiri Rani Atari 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 58.5 2 4.76 9.05 4.46 2.31 67 3.01 3.43 40.00 3.36 1.42 46.17 55.35 53.1 57.6 44.37 52.2 48.8 45.4 4 2.44 2.14 2.1 4.04 2.71 3.11 3.45 2.08 2.59 4.45 4.53 2.52 3.51 3.06 2.75 8.93 8.73 8.05 9.01 3.30 8.95 4.71 4.73 4.44 4.41 4.29 4.45 3.91 4.44 4.40 4.41 2.03 2.34 2.40 2.32 2.46 2.32 2.34 2.34 59 59 59 62 42 63 53 53 3.94 3.79 2.93 3.43 5.19 3.20 3.95 3.75 2.29 2.72 3.52 3.01 1.85 3.22 2.61 2.75 32.00 32.00 41.00 45.00 25.00 35.00 47.00 45.00 5.09 5.14 2.58 2.49 4.36 4.27 2.61 2.54 1.52 1.52 1.40 1.36 1.63 1.48 1.34 1.36 49.5 3.3 2.88 7.20 4.14 2.50 53 4.34 2.38 45.00 2.72 1.36 45.9 50 45 56.7 45.9 46.8 2.84 3.04 3.18 1.86 2.94 3.61 3.55 2.92 2.79 5.37 3.23 2.86 9.05 3.94 8.98 9.26 9.20 8.53 4.46 4.15 4.45 4.49 4.48 4.37 2.31 2.32 2.17 2.41 2.30 2.36 66 47 63 77 71 54 2.28 3.67 2.68 1.75 2.02 4.10 4.52 2.62 3.59 6.20 5.10 2.52 19.00 46.00 19.00 48.00 26.00 32.00 5.07 2.81 4.56 3.48 4.1 3.55 1.73 1.35 1.73 1.33 1.61 1.52 *R/L = Rock load, *SF = Safety factor, B-RMR = Bieniawski’s RMR A comparative plot of rock load against RMR arrived by widely used systems, shown in Fig. 2, displayed higher RMR for Bieniawski system 6 Rock Load (t/m2) 5 R² = 0.84 R² = 0.80 4 R² = 0.83 B-RMR 3 CMRR 2 1 CMRI-ISM RMR 0 0 20 1216 40 60 80 100 RMR permanent roadways are the life line of the underground mines. Safety factor curves for CMRR and Q-system are found to be relatively at the lower side compared to the CMRI-ISM RMR a d ie ia s i’s RMR, he e the strength of reliability of the former systems are low and thus not suitable for Indian geo-mining conditions. On the other hand the safety factor curves for ei ia s i’s RMR a d MRI-ISM RMR are coinciding each other. But in major cases, here also safety factor values of CMRI-ISM RMR dominating the safet fa tor alues of ei ia s i’s RMR s ste . Hence safety factor comparison wise also CMRI-ISM RMR is only the rock mass classification system which stands good for Indian geo-mining conditions. Figure 2: A comparison of RMRs against rock load 7 CMRI-ISM RMR found to lie between B-RMR and CMRR. The index of determination obtained for CMRI-ISM RMR was found to be good in comparison to other rock mass classification systems. CMRI-ISM RMR system observed to be more reliable for Indian mining conditions as compared to the other RMR classification systems and thus it can be more effective and viable RMR classification system for Indian underground coal mines. 6 Determination of safety factor is very important while designing the support system. If proper safety factor is not given during the design of support system, roof failure may take place causing serious fatalities. Safety factor is the strength or resisting force (of the rock mass and the stress or disturbing force). The Factor of Safety of the rock mass is defined as SF = Support resistance (t/m2) / Rock load (t/m2) and failure is assumed to occur when F is less than unity. The safety factor for the permanent roadways should be always more than the temporary working, as the CMRI-ISM RMR R² = 0.91 Safety factor 5 4 B-RMR R² = 0.11 3 R² = 0.90 Q 2 R² = 0.71 1 CMRR 0 0 1 2 3 Rock load (t/m2 ) 4 5 6 Figure 3: A comparison of RMRs against safety factor 6. Study Area The study was conducted at 13LN/B of KTK–6 Incline mine of SCCL in Godavari Valley Coalfield. Rock mass rating determined by different classification systems namely CMRI-ISM, ie ia s i’s Geo-mechanical, Q and CMRR are deciphered in Tables 3a, 3b, 3c and 3d respectively. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1212-1219 1217 Performance Investigation of Rock Mass Classification Systems for Coal Mine Support Design in Indian Mining Conditions Table 3a: RMR by CMRI-ISM RMR system for KTK-6 Incline, SCCL Parameters Sl No Rock type Bed thickness (m) 1 2 3 4 5 Layer thickness, (cm) Structural features Slake Durability Index (%) Rock Strength (c) (kg/cm2) Ground water seepage rate (ml/min) Total RMR First bed Second bed Third bed Fourth bed Course grained Course grained Medium to coarse Medium to coarse sandstone sandstone Greyish grain sandstone grain sandstone, Greyish white white Greyish white Greyish white 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.50 Value Rating Value Rating Value Rating Value Rating 12 15 20 20 15 17 20 20 12 6 12 6 12 6 12 6 97 14 75 6 56 3 55 3 849 12 151 4 83 2 131 3 0 500 to 6000 0 500 to 6000 0 500 to 6000 0 500 to 6000 47 36 The combined RMR can be determined using the following equation: Combined / Weighted (RMRw) =  (RMR of each bed x bed thickness)/ (Thickness of each bed) RMRw = (47x0.6 + 36x0.5 + 28x0.4 + 32x0.5)/ (0.6 + 0.5 + 0.4 + 0.5) = 36.7 After adjusting RMR for blasting- off- solid the adjusted RMR comes to be 36.7 x 0.9 =33. Thus, the adjusted RMR will be 33 (IV B) class with poor roof condition. Table 3b: RMR by Bieniawski’s classification system for KTK-6 Incline, SCCL Parameter Strength of Intact rock (kg/cm2) RQD% Spacing of Joints Condition of Joints Groundwater Bieniawski’s RMR Sandstone roof Value Rating 212.5 02 86.58 60-200 mm Slightly rough surfaces, separation <1 mm Flowing 37 17 08 10 0 Table 3c: RMR by Q-system for KTK-6 Incline, SCCL Parameters RQD (RQD = 115 – 3.3Jv, where Jv =14 to 17) Jn (Joint Set Number) Jr (Joint Roughness Number) Ja (Joint Alteration Number) Jw (Joint Water Reduction Factor) SRF (Stress Reduction Factor) -For Split galleries For Split galleries Q = 5.77 Value 86.58% 9.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 2.5 As no borehole core of immediate roof was available, the RQD needed in Q-system was determined from joint volume (Jv) i.e. number of joints per cubic meter 28 32 of rock mass from the following relation (Barton et al., 1974). RQD = 115 – 3.3 Jv (18) Table 3d: RMR by CMRR classification system for KTK-6 Incline, SCCL Sandstone at roof Value Rating Parameter Strength of Intact rock (kg/cm2) Cohesion and roughness Bedding/Discontinuities Moisture Content (Slake Durability) Groundwater Hard Bed Adjustment CMRR 212.5 Planer and moderate 16 Slightly sensitive (70.75 %) Dripping NA 35 15 25 13 -15 -3 0 7. Numerical Modeling Numerical modeling was done using 3D finite difference software FLAC3D developed by ITASCA Consultant Group of USA. The unadjusted RMR was used since the numerical model itself takes into account the adjustment factors (Table 4.) Table 4: Input parameters used for numerical modeling B C D E b RMR 5.0 0.30 1.94 23.3 Sandstone 2.0 0.25 1.35 22.7 0.5 47.25 24L/15DJ Shale Coal 2.0 0.25 1.24 37.4 Sites A A= Rocks immediate roof of 2 m, B= Modulus of elasticity (GPa), C = Poisson’s ratio, d= density (t/m3), E= Compressive strength, (MPa) A drivage of 3.6 m x 2.8 m was taken to develop coal pillars of 20 m x 20 m size. In this study the boundary condition used for the model to fix X and Y axis are 14.9, 15.1, as the total length given for X and Y axis for the model is 15. Stability of the immediate roof and rock load height was assessed by safety factors of different colour contours at different heights (Fig. 4). The safety factors colour contours from 0.5 to 1 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1212-1219 AVINASH P AUL, V M S R M URTHY, AMAR P RAKASH, AJOY KR S INGH showed the unstable zone height (rock load height) which requires support. 1218 greater factor of safety as safety is being always considered as main aspects in the mining. 9. Conclusions Figure 4: Evaluation of safety factor by numerical modelling For a height up to 2.0 m, safety factor contours obtained for galleries was less than 1.0. Thus, the load is likely to come up to the height of 2.0 m in the immediate roof according to the model and thus need to be reinforced/supported up to 2.0 m height of galleries. As per model, a rock load of 4 t/m2 was obtained for galleries. 8. Discussion The rock load and safety factors determined by different approaches are given in Table 5 and the comparison of the same is shown in Fig. 5. Rock load was found to be on higher side in CMRI-ISM RMR system in comparison to others. Table 5: Summary of rock load and safety factor obtained by different approaches Approach System RMR CMRIISM RMR Empirical B-RMR CMRR Numerical Numerical Modelling Rock mass classification system is an integral part for stability assessment of exposed roof in underground openings. Based on study conducted in several mines of SECL and a case study at SCCL, CMRI-ISM RMR Rock Mass Classification system is found to be most reliable and suitable for Indian geo-mining conditions. Numerical modelling also advocates the encouraging result and the factor of safety was in close approximation with CMRI-ISM RMR, consequently strengthening its reliability for Indian underground coal mines. 10. Acknowledgement The work forms as a part of the Ph.D. work of the first author being carried out at IIT-ISM, Dhanbad, India. Authors would like to thank Director, CSIR-CIMFR, Dhanbad and Director, IIT-ISM, Dhanbad and also the mine management for their kind support during the research work. The authors also thank the management of the mines (SECL and SCCL) for supporting the investigations and extending all possible help during the assigned studies. References [1] Rock Load Safety (t/m2) Factor 33 5.22 1.60 37 35 4.72 2.19 1.41 1.53 37 4.0 2.08 [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Figure 5: Variation in safety factor and rock load with respect to RMR Safety factor arrived by numerical simulation was on higher side in comparison to empirical approaches. CMRI-ISM RMR rock mass classification system showed result in close approximation with numerical approach, hence the former can be considered a good prospective for underground mines of India as it would provide more stability to the roof strata with [7] [8] [9] ie ia s i, Z. ., “ i eeri ro ass classifications: a complete manual for engineers and geologists in mining, civil, and petroleum e i eeri ”. Wile -Interscience, ISBN 0-47160172-1, PP. 40–47.1989. Arild, Palmstro . i ar, ro h., “Use a d isuse of rock mass classification system with particular reference to Q system, Tunnels and Underground S a e e h olo ”, ol. 21, PP. 575-593. 2006. ie ia s i, Z. ., “ eter i i ro ass defor abilit ”, I t. J. Ro Mech. Min. 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Geol, R.K., Jethwa, J.L., Paithankar, A.G., “I dia x erie es ith Q a d RMR S ste s” International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1212-1219 1219 Performance Investigation of Rock Mass Classification Systems for Coal Mine Support Design in Indian Mining Conditions Journal of tunnelling & underground space technology, 10, PP. 97-109. 1995. [10] arto , N., Lie , R., Lu de, J., “ i eeri classification of rock masses for the design of tu el su ort”, Ro Me ha i s; 7, PP.189-236, 1974. [11] Laubs her, . H., a lor, H.W., “ he i orta e of geomechanics classification of jointed rock asses i i i o eratio s.” x l. for ro engg. (ed. Z.T. Bieniawski), Balkema, 1, PP. 119128. 1976. [12] Laubs her, . H., “Pla i ass ining o eratio s”, o rehe si e Ro i eeri (ed. J. A. Hudson), Pergamon, 2, PP. 547-583. 1993. [13] Cummings, R. A., Kendorski, F. S., Bieniawski, Z. ., “ a i ro ass lassifi atio a d su ort esti ates.”, U.S. .M. o tra t re ort I0100103, Chicago: Engineers International Inc. [14] Kendorski, F., Cummings, R., Bieniawski, Z.T., S i er, ., “Ro ass lassifi atio for blo a i i e drift su ort”, 5th o ress, International Society of Rock Mechanics: Melbourne, Rotterdam: Balkema, PP. B51B63.1983. [15] Venkateswarlu, V., Ghose, A. K., Raju, N. M., “Ro ass lassifi atio for desi of roof supports – a statisti al e aluatio of ara eters”, Min Sc Tech; 8, PP. 97-107, 1989. [16] Ghosh, . N., Ghose, A. K., “ sti atio of critical convergence and rock load in coal mine roadways- An approach bases on rock mass rati ”. Geote h i al a d Geolo i al Engineering; 10. PP.185 -202, 1992. [17] Sheore , P. R., “A li atio of Moder Ro Classification in Coal Mines Roadways. o rehe si e Ro i eeri .” PP. 411-431 Pergamon Press Oxford, New York, Seoul, Tokyo. 1993. [18] Mar , , Moli da, GM., “Rati oal i e roof stre th fro ex lorator drill ore”, I : Pe SS, ed. Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Ground Control in Mining. Golden, CO: Colorado School of Mines, pp. 415428. 1996. [19] Hoek, E., Brown, E.T., Practical estimates of rock mass strength, International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences, 34, PP. 11651186. 1997. [20] Murkute, M., Sinha, A. K., Murthy, V. M. S. R., “A re ie of ro ass classification system for support design in Indian coal mine development roadways- A strate for i ro e e t.”, Seminar on First Indian Mineral Congress, PP. 56-65. 2005. [21] Paul, A., Singh, A. K., Kumar, N., Kumar, P., “ iri al A roa h for A li ation of CMRIRMR in Depillaring Panels of Bord and Pillar Mi i i I dia oal Mi es”, I ter atio al Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Feb a; Vol.4, No.01, PP. 65-72, 2011. [22] Paul, A., Singh, A. P., Loui, J. P., Singh, A. K., Kha del al, M., “Validation of RMR-based support design using roof bolts by numerical modeling for underground coal mine of Monnet Ispat, Raigarh, India—a ase stud ”, Arabia Journal of Geosciences, March , b; DOI 10.1007/s12517-011-0313-8. 2012. [23] Sar ar, . ., “A GIS a roa h to morphometric analysis of Damodar river basin and groundwater ote tialit a i i Jharia oalfield”, Sil er Jubilee Publication-II Special Issue on Application of Remote Sensing, GIS & Mathematical Modeling in Ground Water, Vol. 26, No. 1-4, Jan. - Dec. 2011. [24] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godavari_valley_C oalfield. [25] rozo i , A,. Villaes u a, ., “Ro ass characterisation and assessment of block forming geological discontinuities during caving of ri ar o er are at the I e ie te i e” Chile, International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Science; 44,PP.565-583. 2007. 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International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1212-1219 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0618 www.cafetinnova.org December 2017, P.P. 1220-1224 Desalination Approach of Seawater and Brackish Water by Coconut Shell Activated Carbon as a Natural Filter Method JAYAPRAKASH M C1, P OORVI S HETTY1, RAJU AEDLA2 AND D VENKAT REDDY3 1 Department of Civil Engineering, Mangalore Institute of Technology and Engineering, BadagaMijar, Moodabidri-574225, Karnataka, INDIA 2 Graduate School of Science and Technology (GSST), Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, JAPAN 3 Heavy Civil Infrastructure, Larsen & Toubro (L&T) Limited Construction, Chennai, INDIA * Email: jayaprakash@mite.ac.in, drjepi@gmail.com, rajuaedla.nitk@gmail.com, dvr1952@gmail.com Abstract: Engineers are challenged to develop cost effective ways to produce large quantities of water suitable for drinking, crop irrigation and commercial use for regions of the world that suffer from water shortages. Water desalination is expensive, requiring large amounts of energy and specialized equipment to convert saltwater into drinking water. The present study aims to develop a cheaper, cleaner, easy and more energyefficient way of desalinating seawater technique by using natural filters; it can help the common people as it affordable during their immediate requirements. The developed technique seemed to be very effective in reducing the concentration of seawater ions. The desalination system is developed by selecting coconut-shell charcoal as the substrate material. As per the results obtained from prototype of seawater and brackish water, there is 60% reduction in chloride and 75% reduction in sodium; this is mainly due to the usage of activated carbon charcoal as the filter media. It is also observed through experiments that there is 100% reduction in iron,53% reduction in sulphate, 20% reduction in total dissolved solids and 12% reduction in hardness which clearly indicates that the selected filter medias those are activated carbon charcoal, sand, laterite would be used as the filter medias for future experiments on desalination using natural filters. This work is to present an overview of current and future technologies applied to the desalination of brackish as well as seawater to produce freshwater for supplementing drinking water supplies to the common people in smaller quantity. Removal efficiency increases with the increase in contact time respectively, for both seawater and brackish water, which was considered to be maximum purification ~40%. Keywords: Desalination, Seawater/Brackish water, Activated Carbon, Coconut Charcoal, Eco-friendly 1. Introduction Fresh water today is a scarce resource, and it is being felt the world over. More than 2000 million people would live under conditions of high water stress by the year 2050, according to the UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) [27], which warns water could prove to be a limiting factor for development in a number of regions in the world. Around one-third of the world population now lives in countries with moderate to high water stress—where water consumption is more than 10% of the renewable fresh water supply, said the GEO (Global Environment Outlook) 2000, the UN P’s ille iu report [3]. As population increase and source of high quality, fresh drinking water decrease, using desalination processes to provide freshwater when other sources and treatment procedures are uneconomical or not environmentally responsible is becoming more and more common. Desalination is any process that removes excess salts and other minerals from water. In most desalination processes, saltwater (also called “feed water”) is treated a d t o strea s of ater are produced: 1. Treated freshwater that has low concentrations of salts and minerals. 2. Concentrate or brine, which has salt and mineral concentrations higher than that of the feed water [14]. Desalination processes may be used in municipal, industrial, or commercial applications. With improvements in technology, desalination processes are becoming cost-competitive with other methods of producing usable water for our growing needs. The pure water that is obtained after desalination must be re-mineralised to be adequate for human consumption. Desalination has been used for thousands of years - Greek sailors boiled water to evaporate fresh water away from the salt and Romans used la filters to tra salt. oda ’s so histi ated methods still generally use the concepts of distillation or filtration [26]. Fig.1 Main inputs and outputs in a desalination process The feed water for desalination processes can be seawater or brackish water. Brackish water contains Received: August 17, 2017; Accepted: December 22, 2017; Published: January 30, 2018 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1220-1224, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0618 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved. 1221 Desalination Approach of Seawater and Brackish Water by Coconut Shell Activated Carbon as a Natural Filter Method more salt than fresh water but less than saltwater. Brackish water is commonly found in estuaries, which are the lower courses of rivers where they meet the sea. Two technologies are primarily used around the world for desalination: thermal distillation and membranes. Both technologies need energy to operate and produce freshwater. Right now, desalinating seawater is the only viable way to provide water to growing populations, and large desalination plants are now a fact of life in Egypt and other Middle Eastern countries. Most of these plants rely on a multi-step process based on reverse osmosis, which requires expensive infrastructure and large amounts of electricity [18]. These plants release large quantities of highly concentrated salt water and other pollutants back into the seas and oceans as part of the desalination process, creating problems for marine environments. Thus, the present work would make an attempt of using the traditional natural filter media to desalinate the seawater. This approach may help the common people to desalinate sea water on their own in affordable manner. 1.1 Indian Scenario India has long coast line of nearly 7516.6 km along which several million people live and are engaged in various activities. Availability of fresh water has been the main centre of growth of civilization. However, there is lots of inequality existing on earth, which needs to be artificially corrected through incorporation of technologies. With the growth of world population the need of fresh water has also increased substantially which has resulted in growth of desalination installation as well. Logically the desalination activities are concentrated on those parts of the earth where availability of water is scares. This is precisely the reason why more than 80% of desalination plants are located in the water scares Middle East region. Unequal water distribution also exists within our country and fresh water desalination technology is getting concentrated more on water scares areas. Besides producing desalted water for human consumption and Industrial requirement these technologies are also found to be advantageous in the recovery of water from waste streams. There is no reliable statistics available on number of plants, their capacities, technologies adopted and status on these plants in India. However, rough indications are that there are more than 1000 membrane based desalination plants of various capacities ranging from 20m3/day to 10,000m3/day [27]. The "best" desalination system should be more than economically reasonable in the study stage. It should work when it is installed and continue to work and deliver suitable amounts of fresh water at the expected quantity, quality, and cost for the life of a project [9]. Engineers are challenged to develop cost effective ways to produce large quantities of water suitable for drinking and crop irrigation for regions of the world that suffer from water shortages. Water desalination is expensive, requiring large amounts of energy and specialized equipment to convert saltwater into drinking water. 2. Objectives The objective of this work is to present an overview of current and future technologies applied to the desalination of brackish and seawater to produce freshwater for supplementing drinking water supplies to the common people in smaller quantity.  Desalination of seawater using natural filters can help the common people as it affordable during their immediate requirements.  Race is on to find a cheaper, cleaner and more energy-efficient way of desalinating seawater. The other objectives include:  Irrigation (productive use)  Domestic uses  Urban and recreational uses  Aqua culture  Industrial Chiller  Fire extinguish 2.1 Inspiration from available natural resources and processes  Use of coconut shell charcoal for water purification.  Characteristics of coconut shell charcoal • 100% organic • Renewable resource • High Calorific Heat Value • Environmental Friendly • Ready available especially in coastal areas 3. Experimental Setup   Preparation of Coconut Shell Charcoal Burn in open air (not used muffle furnace)  To burn 50-60 whole coconut shells  May get ~1kg of charcoal  Sieve size : 2.36mm – 4.75mm  Through washing; drying under direct sunlight  Procurement of other naturally available materials  Fine aggregate: (Sieve size 2.36mm to 4.75mm)  Coarse Aggregate: ~4mm to 10mm  Laterite Pebbles: ~4mm to 10mm Coconut Charcoal ~5mm 2 mm Sand Laterite ~5mm 4mm Sand Fig.2 Natural Filter Materials International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1220-1224 J AYAPRAKASH M C, P OORVI SHETTY, R AJU AEDLA AND D VENKAT REDDY 3.1 Charcoal Based Desalination Prototype Desalination prototype were made using waste PET (polyethylene terephthalate) bottles as a outer cover to prepare the charcoal based prototype in different layers of filter materials. As an approach of preliminary observation FIVE prototypes are made for each seawater and brackish water separately with varying thickness, such that all five prototypes having different layer thickness of activated carbon coconut charcoal along with other natural filter materials to observe the appreciable result. PET bottles has been used to make the prototype in the present work these bottles were inverted and the bottom portion is cut as the water is to be poured from the top. The top portion is kept open as the atmospheric pressure can act over it and it helps in the filtration process. Sand and gravels are used to filter out larger sediments present in the seawater where place top and bottom portion of the prototype, coconut charcoal placed in between the sand filters. The fine aggregates in the top layer of the sand gradually forming a biological zone to filter out bacteria, viruses and parasites. Then the feed water reaches the surface of coconut shell charcoal. Coconut shell charcoal act as a activated carbon hold the salt ions utilizing as a chemical adsorption. Filtered cloth has been used at the end of the bottle neck to filter out the particulate contaminants and carbon and let the purified water through. 1222 given the platform to continue the research to get better result. Natural filter methods is the best approach in the view of i. Easy to manufacture the filter product ii. Environmental-friendly solution for desalination iii. Safe disposal of brine solution/Charcoal can be reuse iv. Household Utility (esp. coastal/rural areas) a. Cost effective desalination method. b. Energy efficient technique. Table 1: Chemical parameters of feed water after natural filtration Chemical ions Seawater ions (mg/l) Reduction concentration of seawater ions (mg/l) Brackish water ions (mg/l) Reduction concentration of brackish water ions (mg/l) Reduction percentage in seawater (%) Chloride 17179.6 12335.134 7577.65 6849.3 28.19 9.6 Sodium 10100 489.98 8291 465.7 76.44 78.9 Hardness 6320 5860 3,220 2852 8 11.42 Reduction percentage in brackish water (%) Iron 14.5 0 11.1 0 100 100 Sulphate 2830 812 1869 610 35.04 45.53 Total dissolved solids (TSD) 50200 40580 26200 17,480 20 33.28  The pressure applied must overcome the natural osmotic pressure. Eg. 600-1200 psi of pressure must be used for seawater, as it has a natural osmotic pressure of 390 psi.  Note: All the data mentioned in the table1 is as per the natural osmotic pressure.  Sea water’s conductivity is one million times higher than that of deionized water. High quality deionized water has a conductivity of about 5.5 μS/m. 4.1 Reduction percentage of desalinated seawater composition  Reduction in pH: 95.07%  Conductivity of seawater was out of range.  Reduction in chloride ion concentration: 28.19%  Reduction in sodium ion concentration: 95.1%  Reduction in TDS (total dissolved solids): 20%  Reduction in Hardness: 8%  Reduction in Sulphate: 71.30%  Reduction in iron: 100% Fig.3Prototypes prepared for desalination process for preliminary observation 4. Results and Discussion The natural filters especially coconut charcoal is better approach for the desalination process, around 30% of the saltwater ions reduced by the process is 4.1.1 Reduction percentage of desalinated brackish water composition  Reduction in pH: 92.1%  Reduction in conductivity: 1.5%  Reduction in chloride ion concentration: 9.6%  Reduction in sodium ion concentration: 94.98%  Reduction in TDS (total dissolved salts): 33.28%  Reduction in Hardness: 11.42%  Reduction in Sulphate: 67.36%  Reduction in iron: 100% 5. Conclusions The present obtained results will lead to concentrate on the research over desalination process by using locally available natural filters which is a eco- International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1220-1224 1223 Desalination Approach of Seawater and Brackish Water by Coconut Shell Activated Carbon as a Natural Filter Method friendly, cost effective technique and can be easily afforded by common people. As per the results obtained from prototype1 of seawater, there is 60% reduction in chloride and 75% reduction in sodium; this is mainly due to the usage of activated carbon charcoal as the filter media. Better result can be obtained if proper care is taken while conducting the experiments (Coconut shell charcoal might be prepared by heating half splitted coconut shell at a temperature of 900 °C for 4 hours using a muffle furnace for better results).  It is also observed through experiments that there is 100% reduction in iron,53% reduction in sulphate, 20% reduction in total dissolved solids and 12% reduction in hardness which clearly indicates that the selected filter medias those are activated carbon charcoal, sand, laterites can be used as the filter medias for future experiments on desalination using natural filters.  As per the results obtained there is 100% reduction in iron, hence it clearly proved that the coconut shell charcoal acts as a purifying agent to remove the iron content.  The appreciable result of other composition of feed water such as chloride, sodium, total dissolved solids, sulphate and hardness could not be obtained due to following limitations .We can overcome those limitations by taking proper care while conducting the experiment and by considering the following points:  Coconut shell charcoal should have been prepared by heating half splitted coconut shell at a temperature of 900 °C for 4 hours using a muffle furnace for better results.  The prototype should be designed in large scale (as it provides large amount of surface area and minimize the rate of filtration in the prototype). Fig. 4 Bar chart representing the reduction concentration of seawater Fig. 5 Bar chart representing the reduction concentration of brackish water 6. References [1] Addams, L., Boccaletti, G., Kerlin, M. and Stuchtey, M. “Charting our Water Future: Economic Frameworks to Inform DecisionMaking,” (2030 Water Resources Group), 2009. [2] A. Q. Jakhrani, S. R. Samo, Habibur Rahman Sobuz, Md. Alhaz Uddin, M. J. Ahsan and Noor Md. Sadiqul Hasa , “Assess e t of issol ed Salts Concentration of Seawater in the Vicinity of Kara hi”, International Journal of Structural and Civil Engineering, ISSN: 2277-7032, 1(2), 2012. [3] Arjen Y. Hoekstra., “Water scarcity challenges to business”, ritte b WFN’s o-founder and Supervisory Council Member, published in Nature Climate Change series on 'Water risks in the private sector'. [4] uros, O. K., “ he A s of esalti ”, International Desalination Association, 2000 [5] Binnie, C. Kimber, M. and G. Smethhurst, Basic Water Treatment, 3rd Edition. Thomas Telford Ltd., London, 2002. [6] Clayton, R., “A Review of Current Knowledge Desalination for Water Supply. Bucks: Foundation for Water Research”. URL [Accessed: 05.03.2012], 2011. [7] Directorate of Economics and Statistics (Government of Karnataka) (2005). Area, Population, Membership, Revenue, Expenditure & Employment by Municipalities, Karnataka, 2000–2001 (PDF). National Informatics Centre (Karnataka State), Retrieved 26 July 2008. [8] Drioli, E., Alessandra Criscuoli, and Efrem Curcio, “Integrated Membrane Operations for Seawater Desalination”, Desalination, 147:77-81, 2002. [9] Hasson, D. and Bendrihem, O., “Modeling Remineralization of Desalinated Water by Limestone Dissolution. In: Elsevier Desalination”, 190, 189-200. URL [Accessed: 05.03.2012], 2006. [10] Karim, B. and Marhaba, T. F., “Using principal component analysis to monitor spatial and temporal changes in water quality”. Journal of Hazardous Material, Vol. B100, pp.179—195, 2003. [11] Krishna, H. J., “Virgin islands Water Resources Conference”, Proc. Editor, University of the Virgin Islands and U.S. Geological Survey, 1989. [12] Krishna, H. J., “Introduction to Desalination Technologies”, Austin:Texas Water Development Board. URL [Accessed: 05.03.2012], 2014. [13] Mechell, J. K. and Lesikar, B., “Desalination Methods for Producing Drinking Water. Austin: Agrilife Communications”, URL [Accessed: 05.03.2012], 2010. [14] Oklejas, E. et al., “I ro e e ts i the Economics of Reverse Osmosis through Advanced Pumping and Energy Recovery e h olo ”, Pro eedi s of the A eri a Desalting Association, Monterey, CA, 1996. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1220-1224 J AYAPRAKASH M C, P OORVI SHETTY, R AJU AEDLA AND D VENKAT REDDY [15] Rao, T., “Overview of Analytical Methodologies for Sea Water Analysis: Part I-Metals”, Critical Reviews in Analy. Chem., 2005. [16] Rice, W., and D.C. Chau, “Freeze Desalination Using Hydraulic Refrigerant Compressors. Desalination”, 109:157164; and Hahn, W. J. 1986. Measurements and Control in Freezedesalination Plants. Desalination, 321-341., 1997. [17] Strai ht o e, “What ould ha e to ou if ou dra sea ater?” Strai ht o e Science Advisory Board. http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/2131/ what-would-happen-to-you-if-you-drankseawater, 2003. Accessed on May 29, 2010. [18] U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Re la atio , “ esalti Ha dboo for Pla ers”, 3rd Edition, 2003. [19] USGS Water Science for Schools, Updated March 29, 2010. U. S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of the Interior. Accessed May 1, 2010. http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/drinkseawater.html [20] Taniguchi, M., Burnett, W. C. and Ness, G. D.: Integrated research on subsurface environments in Asian urban areas. Sci. of the Total Environ. vol. 404, no. 2-3, pp. 377--392, 2008. [21] Texas A and M AgriLife., Texas Water. Texas A&M University. Water Resources Education. http://texaswater.tamu.edu. Accessed May 1, 2010. [22] Tomaszewska, M., Membrane distillation. Environmental Protection Engineering, 25(12):37-47, 1999. [23] Desalination by Solar Heated Membrane Distillation. The Twelfth International Symposium on Desalination and Water Re-Use 2:81-90, 1999. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1220-1224 1224 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0619 www.cafetinnova.org December 2017, P.P. 1225-1229 Enhancement of Boiling Heat Transfer on a Vibrating Heating Surface KOHEI HAMAHATA, HIROYUKI SHIRAIWA AND S HUICHI TORII 1 Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, 2-39-1 Kurokami, Chuo-Ku, Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Miyakonojo College, 473-1 Yoshiocho, Miyakonojo, Miyazaki 885-8567, Japan. E-mail: 170d8547@st.kumamoto-u.ac.jp, shiraiwa@cc.miyakonojo-nct.ac.jp, torii@mech.kumamoto-u.ac.jp Abstract: Many industrial products such as air-conditioner using boiling phenomenon have been frequently used for transportation equipment etc. with a vibration. However, the research about the influence on boiling of vibration, especially, the research on boiling heat transfer characteristics by vibration of the heating surface, has been hardly carried out. In this study, we consider influence on the boiling heat transfer characteristics of the inertial force and the shear force acting on bubbles. As a result, it was considered that the enhancement of the nucleate boiling heat transfer depended on the inertial force when the inertial force was much larger than the surface tension in the vertical direction. And it depended on the shear force or the resultant force of the shear force and the inertia force when the inertial force was relatively small. Keywords: Boiling bubbles, Vibration, Acceleration, Inertial force, Shear force 1. Introduction 2. Bubble separation Boiling phenomenon is composed of three regions of the nucleate boiling, the transition boiling and the film boiling. The heat transfer coefficient is larger than other heat transfer phenomena. Many industrial products such as air-conditioner using boiling phenomenon have been frequently used for transportation equipment etc. with a vibration. Until now, fundamental studies on the boiling heat transfer and the behavior of boiling bubbles of the boiling phenomena have been reported [1], [2]. In addition, in recent years, boiling heat transfer using nanofluid has been positively studied [3], [4]. However, the research about the influence on boiling of vibration, especially, the research on boiling heat transfer characteristics by vibration of the heating surface, has been hardly carried out. Fig.1 shows the force that the bubbles receive under the vibration of the heating surface. Suppose that either the inertial force or the shear force reaches the maximum value and exceeds the surface tension of vertical direction when the bubble disengages. Here, the applied vibration is a displacement sine wave in the vertical direction (y=asin(2πft), a : amplitude [m], f: frequency [Hz]). The maximum acceleration is α=a(2πf)2, and the maximum velocity is v= a(2πf) in vibration of vertically direction. The inertial force is a force acting in the direction opposite to the acceleration α. Assuming a bubble as a sphere, the maximum inertial force F1 [N] acting on the boiling bubbles is given by Eq.(1). 4 d (1) F1  ρ s π ( 0 ) 3 A(2πf ) 2 3 2 Where, ρs is the density [kg/m3] of the bubble, and d0 is the separation diameter [m] of the bubble. According to the previous our research, we confirmed that the boiling heat transfer was promoted with the increase in the amplitude and frequency of the vibration because boiling bubbles were efficiently removed by the vibration. In this study, to expand the boiling region and promote the boiling heat transfer, the heating surface is changed from the nickel wire to the platinum wire. In addition, the amplitude and the frequency of experimental conditions and expanded more than that of previous research. And we consider influence on the boiling heat transfer characteristics of the acceleration and the resistance force acting on bubbles. In addition, the shear force is the resistance that bubbles receive from the viscosity of saturated water. The maximum shear force F2 [N] acting on a boiling bubble is given by Eq.(2). 2 πd 0 ρv 2 (2) F2  C D 4 2 Where, CD is the resistance coefficient. Also, the surface tension F3 [N] in the vertical direction acting on a bubble is given by Eq.(3). F3  πd 0 σ sin θ  sin θ  πd 0 σ sin 2 θ (3) Where, σ is the surface tension [N/m], and θ is the separation contact angle [°] of the bubble. Received: August 04, 2017; Accepted: December 29, 2017; Published: January 30, 2018 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1225-1229, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0619 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved. KOHEI H AMAHATA, H IROYUKI SHIRAIWA AND SHUICHI T ORII Under the condition of roughly F2<F3<F1, separation of bubbles due to inertial force is dominant. It is considered that the separation of bubbles due to the shearing force becomes dominant at F1<F3< F2. This is considered to be an important factor that the vibration condition affects the boiling heat transfer characteristics. Maximum inertial force Sine wave Asin(2πft) d0 θ Surface tension σ Maximum acceleration α Platinum wire 1226 logger մ (GL800, GRAPHTEC Corporation). At this time, the direction of vibration applied to the platinum wire ճ is the vertical direction. Also, because the resistance of the platinum wire ճ is very small, resistor ղ was added between the DC stabilized power supply ո and the platinum wire ճ. The voltage and the current of the platinum wire ճ and the resistor ղ and the temperature of the saturated water were recorded using the data logger մ. The K type thermocouple շ was used for measuring the temperature inside the beaker ձ is located 20mm above and 20mm below for the platinum wire ճ. Power supply max.15A Maximum shear force d0 A θ Surface tension σ Ammeter Platinum wire Maximum velocity v Data Logger Resistor 1Ω Laser displacement sensor Tachometer Fig.1 Force acting on bubbles Type K thermocouple Vibrator Beaker 3. Experiment In this experiment, since the boiling region is expanded to film boiling, the heating surface burns out or glows red-heat. The red-heat platinum wire a ’t be used again. For that reason, we changed the platinum wire every time and did the experiment. However, for reasons such as difficulty in making the same surface roughness and length, even with the same conditions, it was found that the reproducibility of the experiment was low such that the same result could not be obtained. This research divided into two experiments. Experiment No.1 is examined the effect of inertial force and shearing force on boiling heat transfer characteristics in the nucleate boiling region. Experiment No.2 is confirmed the effect of boiling heat transfer due to vibration in the film boiling region. 3.1 Experimental apparatus Fig.2 shows the configuration of the experimental apparatus. The equipment of this experiment consists of the resistor ղ, the platinum wire ճ, the data logger մ, the vibrator յ, the DC stabilized power supply ո and other measuring instruments. The platinum wire ճ is passed current and heated up with Joule heat. The platinum wire ճ is vibrated by the vibrator. The vibrator յ is an electrodynamic vibration test device (512-A, EMIC Corporation) using electromagnetic force. This device can be set fine the frequency and the amplitude. Tachometer ջ is used to set the frequency. The amplitude is measured using the laser displacement sensor պ (LGK050, KEYENCE Corporation) and the data Platinum wire Auxiliary heater Fig.2 Experimental apparatus 3.2 Experimental methods The series circuit was assembled as shown in Fig.2. Distilled water was boiled and well degassed for 40 minutes using the auxiliary heater ն. In the distilled water maintained at the saturation temperature, the platinum wire ճ was passed current and heated up. The platinum wire ճ was vibrated in the vertical direction using the vibrator յ. The value of the current was continuously increased by 1A in 10s using the DC stabilized power supply ո and the ammeter չ. In experiment No.2, the current value was increased to the burnout point. After that, it was reduced to 0A. In experiment No.1, it was increased to 9A. The voltage and the current of the platinum wire ճ and the resistor ղ and the temperature of the saturated water were recorded using the data logger at 0.5s intervals. The electric resistance of the platinum wire ճ was obtained from the current of the circuit and the voltage of platinum wire ճ, and surface temperature of the platinum wire was calculated from these values. 3.3 Experimental conditions Consider that the bubble receives the inertial force and the shear force of the vibration of the heating surface. From Eq.(1), the inertial force is proportional to the acceleration received by the bubble. From Eq.(2), the shear force is proportional to the square of International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1225-1229 Enhancement of Boiling Heat Transfer on a Vibrating Heating Surface 1227 the velocity of the bubble. Based on these, the experimental conditions were decided taking into consideration the maximum acceleration α and the square of maximum velocity v and the performance of the vibrator յ. The de ree of su erheat ΔT [K] is given by Eq.(8). ΔT  TW  TS (8) Where, TW is the surface temperature [K] of the platinum wire, TS is the saturation temperature [K] of water. Table 1 shows the vibration condition which the maximum acceleration α received by the bubbles is approximately the same. Table 2 shows the vibration condition which the square of maximum velocity v received by the bubbles is approximately the same. The heat transfer coefficient h [W/m2K] is given by Eq.(9). q h (9) ΔT Table 1. Experimental conditions of same the maximum acceleration α Amplitude Frequency Acceleration Square of veloity [mm] [Hz] [mm/s²] [(mm/s)²] 1 2 3 4 40 28 23 20 31583 30951 31326 31582 15791 30951 46989 63165 Table 2. Experimental conditions of same the square of maximum velocity v Amplitude Frequency Acceleration [mm] [Hz] [mm/s²] 1 40 31583 2 20 15791 3 13 10008 Square of veloity [(mm/s)²] 15791 15791 15011 3.4 Calculation methods of evaluation value The heat flux q[W/m2] in boiling heat transfer is given by Eq.(4). V・ I q (4) A Where, V is the voltage [V] of the platinum wire, I is the current [A] of the platinum wire, and A is the surface area [m2] of the platinum wire. The surface temperature TW [°C] of the platinum wire is given by the Eq.(5). V I 1  1)   100 TW  ( (5) R100 α100 Where, α is the temperature coefficient [1/°C] of the platinum wire and R is the reference resistance [Ω]. The temperature coefficient α of the platinum wire and the reference resistance R are given by Eqs.(6) and (7). R100  α100  ρ100・ l S (6) α 20 (7) 1  α 20 (100  20) Where, S is the cross-sectional area [m2] of the platinum wire, and ρ is the electric low resistivity [Ωm]. The subscript 100 is for 100 [°C], and 20 is for 20 [°C]. 4. Experimental results and discussion Figs.3, 4 and 5 show the results of the experiment No.1. Figs.3 and 4 shows the relationship between the de ree of su erheat ΔT and the heat flux q in the nucleate boiling region. According to Fig.3, the graphs a=1mm_f=40Hz, a=2mm_ f=28Hz, a=3mm_f=23Hz and a=4mm_ f=20Hz overlap. From Table 1, the maximum acceleration α received by the bubbles of these four conditions is approximately the same. Therefore, it can be considered that the increase of the heat flux q depends on the maximum acceleration α. And, according to Fig.4, the graphs a=2mm_f=20Hz and a=3mm_ f=23Hz overlap. From Table 2, the square of maximum velocity v received by the bubbles of these two conditions is approximately the same. Therefore, under these conditions, it can be considered that the increase of the heat flux q depends on the square of maximum velocity v. For the condition of a=1mm_f=40Hz, the square of the maximum velocity v is the same as these two conditions. Based on this result and the above result, it can be considered that the increase of the heat flux q depends on the maximum acceleration α when the maximum acceleration α is large, and depends on the square of the maximum velocity v when the maximum acceleration α is small. Fig.5 shows the relationship between the degree of su erheat ΔT and the heat transfer coefficient h in the nucleate boiling region. Because the results in 800 No vibration 700 A=1mm_f=40Hz α=31583[mm/s²],v²=15791[(mm/s)²] A=2mm_f=28Hz α=30951[mm/s²],v²=30951[(mm/s)²] A=3mm_f=23Hz α=31326[mm/s²],v²=46989[(mm/s)²] A=4mm_f=20Hz α=31583[mm/s²],v²=63165[(mm/s)²] 600 Heat flux q[kW/m²] Experiments are conducted under these two conditions, and the effect of inertial force and shear force on boiling heat transfer characteristics is studied. 500 400 300 200 100 0 15 20 25 30 35 Degree of superheat ΔT[K] 40 45 Fig.3 Relationship between the degree of superheat ΔT and the heat flux q in the nucleate boiling region (same acceleration) International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1225-1229 KOHEI H AMAHATA, H IROYUKI SHIRAIWA AND SHUICHI T ORII region, graphs overlap irrespective of the presence or absence of vibration. From this result, it is considered that the platinum wire is always covered with the vapor film in the film boiling region, and release of bubbles is hardly accelerated even when vibration is given. 800 No vibration 700 A=1mm_f=40Hz α=31583[mm/s²],v²=15791[(mm/s)²] A=2mm_f=20Hz α=15791[mm/s²],v²=15791[(mm/s)²] A=3mm_f=13Hz α=10008[mm/s²],v²=15012[(mm/s)²] Heat flux q[kW/m²] 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 15 20 25 30 1228 35 Degree of superheat ΔT[K] 40 45 Fig.4 Relationship between the degree of superheat ΔT and the heat flux q in the nucleate boiling region (same the square of maximum velocity acceleration) Fig.7 shows the relationship between the degree of su erheat ΔT and the heat transfer coefficient h in the nucleate boiling region and the film boiling region. According to Fig.7, in the nucleate boiling region, the same tendency as in Fig.6 is shown, but the heat transfer coefficient h rapidly decreases after reaching the burnout point. The reason for this is that the rates of increase of the degree of superheat ΔT is much larger than the rate of increase of the heat flux q. As in Fig.6, the relationship between the degree of su erheat ΔT and the heat transfer coefficient h in the film boiling region is substantially the same irrespective of the presence or absence of vibration. 20 No vibration 1800 No vibration A=1mm_f=40Hz α=31583[mm/s²],v²=15791[(mm/s)²] A=2mm_f=20Hz α=15791[mm/s²],v²=15791[(mm/s)²] A=2mm_f=28Hz α=30951[mm/s²],v²=30951[(mm/s)²] A=3mm_f=13Hz α=10008[mm/s²],v²=15012[(mm/s)²] A=3mm_f=23Hz α=31326[mm/s²],v²=46989[(mm/s)²] A=4mm_f=20Hz α=31583[mm/s²],v²=63165[(mm/s)²] 16 14 12 10 8 1600 1200 6 4 2 0 15 20 25 A=2mm_f=28Hz α=30951[mm/s²],v²=30951[(mm/s)²] A=4mm_f=10Hz α=7899[mm/s²],v²=15791[(mm/s)²] 1400 Heat flux q[kW/m²] Heat transfer coefficient h[kW/(m²・K)] 18 30 35 Degree of superheatΔT[K] 40 1000 800 600 400 45 200 Fig.5 Relationship between the degree of superheat ΔT and the heat transfer coefficient h in the nucleate boiling region Figs.6 and 7 show the results of experiment No.2. Fig.6 shows the relationship between the degree of su erheat ΔT and the heat flux q in the nucleate boiling region and the film boiling region. According to Fig.6, it can be considered that the heat flux q and the de ree of su erheat ΔT suddenly increase after the heat flux q reaches the burnout point irrespective of the presence or absence of vibration, and film boiling is started. Actually, after the heat flux q reached the burnout point, the platinum wire glowed red-heat and covered with vapor film. In addition, red heat expands rapidly starting from notches etc. of platinum wire. Therefore, it can be considered that the variation of the burnout point and the critical heat flux is affected by the condition of the platinum wire (tension, surface roughness, crease, etc.). Also, in the film boiling 10 100 Degree of superheat ΔT[K] 1000 Fig.6 Relationship between the degree of superheat ΔT and the heat flux q in the nucleate boiling region and the film boiling region 30 Heat transfer coefficient h[kW/(m²・K)] Figs.5 and 3 are similar, it can be considered that the enhancement of the boiling heat transfer depends on the inertial force when the inertial force is much larger than the surface tension in the vertical direction. And it depends on the shear force or the resultant force of the shear force and the inertia force when inertial force is relatively small. 0 No vibration 25 A=2mm_f=28Hz α=30951[mm/s²],v²=30951[(mm/s)²] A=4mm_f=10Hz α=7899[mm/s²],v²=15791[(mm/s)²] 20 15 10 5 0 10 100 1000 Degree of superheat ΔT[K] Fig.7 Relationship between the degree of superheat ΔT and the heat transfer coefficient h in the nucleate boiling region and the film boiling region International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1225-1229 1229 Enhancement of Boiling Heat Transfer on a Vibrating Heating Surface 5. Conclusions In this study, the following conclusions were obtained. (a) On the vibration heating surface, the enhancement of the nucleate boiling heat transfer depended on the inertial force when the inertial force was much larger than the surface tension in the vertical direction, and depended on the shear force or the resultant force of the shear force and the inertia force when inertial force was relatively small. (b) The variation of the burnout point and the critical heat flux were probably affected by the condition of the platinum wire (tension, surface roughness, crease, etc.). (c) In the film boiling region, because the heating surface was always covered with the vapor film, promotion of bubbles separation by vibration of the heating surface was small and boiling heat transfer was not enhanced. References [1] Chou, H, Horng, R and Liu, Yi (2002), The effects of vibration and reciprocating on boiling heat transfer in cylindrical container, Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, pp. 87-95. [2] Nukiyama, S (1934), The Maximum and Minimum Values of the Heat Q Transmitted from Metal to Boiling Water under Atmospheric Pressure, Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, Mechanical Engineering Journal, Vol.37, No.206, pp.367-374. [3] Naphon, P and Thongjing, C (2014), Pool boiling heat transfer characteristics of refrigerantnanoparticle mixtures, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol.52, pp.84-89. [4] Saito, H and Morooka, S (2013), Critical Heat Flux Test Using Wire Coated with Nanofluid, Transactions of the Atomic Energy Society of Japan, Vol.12, No1, pp.43-49. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1225-1229 ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 10, No. 06 DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0620 December 2017, P.P. 1230-1236 www.cafetinnova.org Geological Studies On Laterite Of Yellakonda Village, Nawabpet Mandal, Vikarabad District, Telangana, India By Using Image Interpretations And Spectral Analytical Techniques G PRABHAKAR1, P SRINIVAS1 AND ISHRATH2 1 University College of Science, Saifabad, Osmania University (OU), Hyderabad, India 2 Adama Science & Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia E-mail: drishrath09@gmail.com Abstract: Laterites are soil types rich in iron and aluminium, formed in hot and wet tropical areas. Nearly all laterites are rusty-red because of iron oxides. They develop by intensive and long-lasting weathering of the underlying parent rock. Tropical weathering (laterization) is a prolonged process of chemical weathering which produces a wide variety in the thickness, grade, chemistry and ore mineralogy of the resulting soils. The majority of the land area containing laterites is between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. The Laterite deposit of Yellakonda Village, Nawabpet Mandal , Vikarabad District, Telangana to an extent of 44.0 Acres is being investigated for Geological studies. These studies were carried out for qualitative evaluation of Laterite deposit on the basis of geological investigations using image interpretation and spectral analytical techniques. Keywords: Laterite, Remote sensing, Image interpretation and Telangana 1. Introduction Laterites as defined by [1] are the products of intense sub aerial rock weathering in which Fe and Al content is higher and Si content is lower than in merely kaolinite parent rocks. They consist predominanty of mineral assemblages of goethite, haematite, aluminium hydroxide, kaolinite minerals and quartz. Laterites generally cap the Deccan Basalts and found on flat topped table lands, plateaus and coastal plains. Under the favourable condition of laterisation the parent rock (Basalt) yield a residual product with relative or absolute enrichment of iron and aluminium along with titanium accompanied by complete extraction terisation at relatiavely medium altitude (~ 630 meters) in Deccan Trap regions are occurring in irregular stern part of telangana state in upland areas adjacent to vikarabad district of Telangana. This Laterisation has not been attended and studied in details therefore attempts are made to study part of Laterites. These Laterites of Yellakonda and surrounding area I;e the study area occur as primary Laterites , directly resting on the Deccan Traps. Results field setting, geomorphologyand major geochemical characteristics further related with the probable genesis of these Laterites are present in the paper. Nearly all laterites are rusty-red because of iron oxides. They develop by intensive and long-lasting weathering of the underlying parent rock. Tropical weathering (laterization) is a prolonged process of chemical weathering which produces a wide variety in the thickness, grade, chemistry and ore mineralogy of the resulting soils. The majority of the land area containing laterite in between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. Laterites are a source of aluminum ore; the ore exists largely in clay minerals and the hydroxides, gibbsite, boehmite, and diaspore, which resembles the composition of bauxite. In Northern Ireland they once provided a major source of iron and aluminium ores. Laterite ores also were the early major source of nickel.Francis BuchananHamilton first described and named a laterite formation in southern India in 1807 [10]. The laterite which caps the plateau is 30 m (100 ft) thick [10]. Laterites can be both soft and easily broken into smaller pieces, or firm and physically resistant. Basement rocks are buried under the thick weathered layer and rarely exposed. [9]. Lateritic soils form the uppermost part of the laterite cover. Tropical weathering (laterization) is a prolonged process of chemical weathering which produces a wide variety in the thickness, grade, chemistry and ore mineralogy of the resulting soils [6]. The initial products of weathering are essentially kaolinized rocks called saprolites [7]. A period of active laterization extended from about the mid-Tertiary to the mid-Quaternary periods (35 to 1.5 million years ago) [6]. Laterites are formed from the leaching of parent sedimentary rocks (Sandstones, clays, limestones);metamorphic rocks (Schists, gneisses, migmatites);igneous rocks (granites, basalts, gabbros, peridotites) and mineralized proto-ores [9]. The mineralogical and chemical compositions of laterites are dependent on their parent rocks [9]. Laterites consist mainly of quartz, zircon, and oxides of titanium, iron, tin, aluminum and manganese, which remain during the course of weathering[9]. Quartz is the most abundant relic mineral from the parent rock [9]. Laterites vary significantly according Received: August 09, 2017; Accepted: December 25, 2017; Published: January 30, 2018 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 10(06), 1230-1236, 2017, DOI:10.21276/ijee.2017.10.0620 Copyright ©2017 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved. Geological Studies On Laterite Of Yellakonda Village, Nawabpet Mandal, Vikarabad District, Telangana, India By Using Image Interpretations and Spectral Analytical Techniques to their location, climate and depth. [12]. The Laterite deposit of Yellakonda Village, Nawabpet Mandal , Vikarabad District, Telangana to an extent of 44.0 Acres is being investigated for evaluation of Laterite deposit on the basis of geological investigations. Using image interpretations and spectral analytical techniques. 1231 The study area is located at a distance of 1.5 Km from Yellakonda village to its the North-Western side The difference of maximum and minimum elevation is 25m. The study area is marked by physiographic imprint, like elevated mound. The area is gently sloping towards South–Western side. The study area is covered by Laterite Deposit. This region is characterized by tropical climate. The study area is falling at Latitude 78°01’23.3” and Longitude: 17°27’11.5”. Figure 2: Showing the physiography of study area 2. Regional Geology The Study area is a part of the Deccan Traps region. The Deccan Traps occupy an area of 10,000 sq.km of the north-western and northern parts of the state. Seven Deccan Trap flows with un weathered outcrops and two completely laterised flows (No.8 and 9) have been differentiated in Tandur-Vikarabad-Parigi area of Vikarabad district. The flows and the Intertrappeans have an aggregate thickness upto 150 m. The traps are subaerial pahoehoe lavas, characterized by (1) smooth undulating or rolling surfaces and (2) vesicularoty towards the top and base with spheroidal vesicles, partly elongated and coalescing and filled by secondary minerals. Figure 1: Location map of the area on a Google image preview, with reference to administrative boundaries Table 1: The Stratigraphic succession of the Deccan Traps, Vikarabad District Deccan Trap Flow No. 8 and 9 Upper Cretaceous to Eocene Kurnool ? Cuddapah Archean Intetrappean (1-7m) Deccan Trap Flow No.6 (8-15m) Deccan Trap Flow No.5 (7-15m) Intertrappean (1-2m) Deccan Trap Flow No.4 (0-29m) Intertrappean (2-3m) Deccan Trap Flow No.3 (0-30m) Intertrappean (1-5m) Deccan Trap Flow No.2 (0-12m) Intertrappean (4-12m) Deccan Trap Flow No.1 (12m) Intratrappean (1-7m) Bhima group Dolerite Soil Lithomarge and Laterite (Derived from Deccan Trap Flows No.8 and 9) Lateritised over most of the area. Lateritised over most of the area Lateritised in a part of the area Fossil Percoid fish of Serranidae. Bullinus. …………… …………….. …………….. With beds of Fuller’s earth Amphibolite, granite gneiss, pegmatite and quartz veins International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1230-1236 G P RABHAKAR , P SRINIVAS AND ISHRATH 3. Local Geology he area i a d arou d ella o da is esse tiall o sists of e a asalts of reta eous- o e e a e. he a era e re i itatio is ore tha 1000 ear hile the a era e te erature is 2 C. Alternate dry and humid weather conditions persist during the year. The area is consisting of elevated isolated plateau and flat topped hillocks which are capped with Laterites and are essentially having the elevation of 635 meters. It is important to note that the adjacent lower elevation hillocks are void of Laterite cappings. The average elevation is 638 meters. Moderate to gentle slopes are characteristic of the area. The drainage is dendritic and intersected by shallow gullies and valleys. Laterites are blanket like deposit overlying Basalt in the entire study area which has slightly undulating topography. Laterite is well exposed and has an average thickness of 3.5 meters in the entire area. The Deccan Basalt flows of Cretaceous - Eocene age is horizontal in nature and show fairly uniformity in appearance. They are massive, hard and greenish to dark greyin color. Horizontal and vertical joints/fractures are very common. Spheroid weathering is characteristic feature. Thermal and chemical action together weathers Basalt to release the boulders of various sizes. The altered product is soft and greenish to yellowish brownish in color called as Murom. During the temperature climate iron content in the silicate of the parent rock is liberated and oxidised to form goethite which imparts yellow and buff yellow color to the products of weathering. The oxidation of iron gives red coloration reflecting the presence of hematite. [5]. 1232 is added to the surface to convert it into ferricrust. The lower part of the goethite zone intermix with the lower clayey zone recognized as lithomarge clays or (Saprolite). The lithomarge clays are soft, fragile and display various colors as red, yellow, green, brown etc. pockets of white kaolinitic clay (identified by stain technique) are commonly observed within the zone. At lower levels the relics of parent rocks are very common. Lithomarge zone thickness, in different profiles, varies from few centimeters to meter i.e. thinning and thickening of the zone is observed in some profiles. This zone exhibits a gradational contact with the altered Basalt zone below. The upper part of the altered Basalt is very soft and highly decomposed to term as clayey Basalt. The altered Basalt is further having gradational contact with fresh Basalts. The Laterite has average thickness of 3.5 meters. The Laterite appear more ferruginous in nature rather than aluminous. The Laterite formation is demarcating 620 meters level as the limit of Lateritisation, as below this level Laterite is not seen. The schematic diagram of a typical Laterite profile is represented in figure 3. 4. Materials and Methods The lateritic ferricrust / duricrust which cap the traps are observed above 635 meters. The ferricrust / duricrust are hard and resistant at the top while comparatively softer below. The red iron oxides are dominating the crust. At shallow places the loose lateritic soil which is reddish to brick red, granular in nature covers the duricrust. A Laterite profile comprises all stages from parent rock to the surface ferricrust / duricrust and therefore includes nonlateritic material too. The mature profile of weathering crust is remarkable in its unique monotony in various regions in the study area [1]. Two main zones can be distinguished in this profile. The upper part of the profiles is usually red and lower part of the profile is brownish yellow. The upper part is hard and mainly consisting of hematite material without any relics of original rock structure while the lower part is comparatively soft and mainly consisting of goethite material mixed with hematite material and showing at places relics of parent rock. The red products of weathering are affected by alteration into the climates (from humid to temperate) and become yellowish in color, on account of hematite (Fe2O3) changing to goethite (HFeO2) by iron leaching process. This iron Figure 3. Schematic diagram of a laterite profile 5. Remote Sensing Studies LANDSAT ETM+ Enhanced Thematic Mapper was also used while mapping Litho-units. Landsat collects data in accordance with the World Wide Reference System 2, which has catalogued the world's land mass into 57,784 scenes, each 183 km wide by 170 km long. The Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) instrument is a fixed "whisk-broom", eight-band, multispectral scanning radiometer capable of providing high-resolution imaging information of the Earth's surface. It detects spectrally-filtered radiation in VNIR, SWIR, LWIR and panchromatic bands from the sun-lit Earth in a 183 km wide swath when orbiting at an altitude of 705 km. Image interpretations and spectral analysis techniques: The activities carried out in image interpretation and spectral analyses are:  Visual image interpretation  Band combination  Band rationing International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1230-1236 Geological Studies On Laterite Of Yellakonda Village, Nawabpet Mandal, Vikarabad District, Telangana, India By Using Image Interpretations and Spectral Analytical Techniques  Principal Component Analysis (PCA)  Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM) 1233 5.1 Visual Interpretation: Visual interpretation is an important component of satellite image analysis. Using this technique, features showing topographical contrast can be identified and hence it is useful in structural and geo-morphological mapping. The elements considered in the interpretation of features in the satellite data is listed in Table 4. However, visual interpretation of satellite data on a False Colour Composite (FCC) image has certain limitation in drawing conclusion on alteration or anomalous features related to mineralization or discrimination of lithological units. To overcome these limitations, a host of techniques were used to spectrally discern features useful in the interpretation of geological features and the probable abundance of target minerals. Table 2: Elements of Image Interpretation Elements of Interpretation Shape Size Pattern Tone Texture Shadows Site Association Description The external form, outline, or configuration of the object. Scale dependent on the image. Spatial arrangement of objects into distinctive, recurring forms. Also colour. Relates to the spectral reflectance properties of objects. On B/W tones vary white to black. On colour emulsions, hue (colour), intensity (brightness), and saturation are examined. Roughness or smoothness. Caused by differences in illumination and shadowing. Frequency of tonal change. Provide profile view of objects. Topographic or geographic location. Occurrence of features in relation to others. 5.2 Band Combination: Res o se of earth’s surfa e features i arious channels of the ASTER satellite image produce characteristic signatures that are helpful in identifying the surface lithological and structural features. A combination of three channels can be viewed at an instance by creating an FCC. Various band combinations are analyzed relatively to interpret significance of features by combining the channels in VNIR, SWIR and TIR bands. (1) (2) Figure 4: Band combination (7-4-2) and (4-3-2) of Landsat FCC imagery which shows preview of a part of study area (Insert here) 5.3 Band Rationing: All the land features have peculiar and significant absorption and reflection characteristic in discrete band widths which is diagnostic of its presence. A significant contrast can be achieved through ratio of the bands showing absorption and reflection to generate an output image which perceives the target mineral. This technique is called band rationing. VNIR and SWIR bands of ASTER satellite image are used in various permutations to generate different band ratio images. Band combination of 7-4-2 provides a nature like performance and shows the penetration of atmospheric particles and smoke. From the above band combination healthy vegetation is appears to be bright green and is able to saturated in seasons of heavy growth, grasslands appear to be green, pink color where as barren soil, dry vegetation shows orange and brown color represent sparsely vegetated areas. Water appear to be blue laterite in this area shows multitude of color. Band combination of 4-3-2 shows false color composite where shades of red shows vegetation settlement in the study area shows cyan blue and soils are seems to be as dark to light brown in color. This is popular FCC combination which is useful for vegetation studies, monitoring drainage and soil patterns and various stages in growth of the crop. Generally deep red hues indicate broad leafs or healthier vegetation This TM band combination gives results similar to traditional color infrared photography. The light green color spot inside the city indicates grassy land cover parks, cemeteries and amusement parks. 5.4 Principal Component Analysis (PCA): er feature o the earth’s surfa e is sensed at different magnitude of reflection in different band width in the satellite image. At certain band passes, each of these features show characteristic spectral signature. PCA is an image transformation technique based on the processing of multi-band datasets that can be used to reduce the dimensionality in the data, and compress as much of the information in the original bands into fewer bands. The Principal Components could produce uncorrelated output bands to segregate noise components and reduce the dimensionality of data sets. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1230-1236 G P RABHAKAR , P SRINIVAS AND ISHRATH Principal component bands produce varied colour composite images than spectral colour composite images because the data is uncorrelated. Hence, this technique is efficiently used to identify anomalous signatures which can be correlated to the mineralization signifying the lithological formations and identifying the structural features. reference spectrum for each class. Lower spectral angles represent better matches to the end member spectra. Areas that satisfied the selected radian threshold criteria are carried over as classified areas into the classified image. The details of Landsat data is mentioned in the table below. Table 3: Spectral and Spatial Range Classification Band VNIR SWIR Figure 5: Illustrates PCA Imagery for Geological interpretation 1234 TIR 1 2 3 4 8 5 7 6 Spectral Spatial Radiometric Range (um) Resolution Resolution 0.45-0.52 0.52-0.60 30m 8 bit 0.63-0.69 0.76-0.90 0.52-0.90 15m 1.55-1.75 30m 8 bit 2.08-2.35 10.40-12.50 60m 8 bit 5.5 Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM): The image is then processed through a different technique defined by Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM) which is described as physically-based spectral classification that uses an n-D angle to match pixels to reference spectra. The algorithm determines the spectral similarity between two spectra by calculating the angle between the spectra and treating them as vectors in a space with dimensionality equal to the number of bands. This technique, when used on calibrated reflectance data, is relatively insensitive to illumination and albedo effects. End member spectra used by SAM should be ASCII files or spectral libraries, or you can extract them directly from an image (as ROI average spectra). SAM compares the angle between the end member spectrum vector and each pixel vector in n-D space. Smaller angles represent closer matches to the reference spectrum. Pixels further away than the specified maximum angle threshold in radians are not classified. The output from SAM is a classified image and a set of rule images (one per end member). The pixel values of the rule images represent the spectral angle in radians from the Figure 6: Showing the Exposure Of Laterite in the Study Area 6. Geochemical Studies: The various rocks in the Laterite profile were chemically analyzed for understanding the major element distribution, viz. Al2O3, Fe2O3, SiO2, TiO2 and LOI along with Na2O, K2O, CaO and MgO. The major elements were determined by the chemical methods, for samples collected from pits at a depth of 3.5 meters from surface. Out of these 20 representative analyses are taken to understand the chemical behaviour of the major elements (Table 4). Table 3: Chemical Analysis % of different litho units in laterite profile Sample Litho Units SiO2 No. Al2O3 Fe2O3 TiO2 LOI 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 25.15 24.52 24.12 23.54 23.15 22.23 21.65 20.89 20.70 20.65 19.98 29.75 28.85 45.15 46.15 46.75 47.95 46.95 47.65 47.25 45.98 44.98 45.69 45.55 24.80 25.30 5.10 4.89 4.75 4.60 4.50 4.00 3.90 3.60 3.45 3.60 3.50 3.40 3.30 16.95 15.59 15.58 13.19 14.51 14.43 14.65 16.42 16.98 15.39 16.19 14.13 13.80 7.65 Laterite 8.85 Aluminous 8.80 10.72 10.89 11.69 12.55 Laterite Ferruginous 13.11 13.89 14.67 14.78 Lithomarge 30.92 Clay 29.75 CaO MgO Na2O International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1230-1236 K2O Others Geological Studies On Laterite Of Yellakonda Village, Nawabpet Mandal, Vikarabad District, Telangana, India By Using Image Interpretations and Spectral Analytical Techniques 1235 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Altered Basalt Basalt 28.15 39.25 38.15 42.85 50.55 50.62 50.90 28.65 27.89 27.12 26.58 15.90 15.80 15.79 27.40 22.60 22.35 21.89 14.75 13.10 12.80 3.29 3.30 3.20 3.10 3.00 2.90 2.70 Figure 7. Correlation of Leaching of major oxides in formation of laterites from Basalts 7. Results and Discussion The pixel values of the rule images represent the spectral angle in radians from the reference spectrum for each class. Lower spectral angles represent better matches to the end member spectra. Areas that satisfied the selected radian threshold criteria are carried over as classified areas into the classified image as VNIR, SWIR AND TIR. The chemical analysis of the rocks in the Laterite profile from bottom to top indicates that there is a gradual increase of alumina and decrease of Silica towards the top zone. Fe2O3 is at its maximum in the ferruginous Laterite (goethite) zone and again decreases towards the top zone, while near the surface crust again it shows its slight increases. In general TiO2 shows increase towards the top zone. The various rocks in the lateritic profile have been plotted on the Fe2O3, Al2O3, SiO2 diagram (Figure 7). It is observed that there is a continuous de silication in the system and further probably there is a start of deferrification. The analyses reveal that the Laterites are more ferruginous in nature while slight increase in concentration of alumina than iron is observed in the samples of massive/granular zone below the duri crust. Al2O3 is as high as 25.15 %, Fe2O3 is 47.95 % maximum, silica ranges from 7.65% to 14.78%, LOI records higher values (16.98%) in alumina rich samples. The diagram further reveals that, the area has undergone strong Lateritisation as majority of Laterite samples are having silica % (computed) less than 15.0%. The geochemical variation diagram (Figure 7) reveals that Fe2O3 and Al2O3 are closer in initial stages while they diverge in the middle zone. Convergence of both is again observed near the top zone. This suggests the inverse relationship of Fe2O3 and Al2O3 with one another in the Laterite profile. 11.51 10.76 11.18 5.58 2.20 1.40 1.76 3.50 3.40 1.90 1.80 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 7.20 8.50 8.40 4.20 5.58 5.58 1.80 1.70 1.67 0.10 0.30 0.10 0.30 0.10 0.30 The leaching is best seen in the chemical changes of Basalt to Laterite (Figure 6). The Basaltic Laterites are formed by extensive chemical weathering of Basalts during a geologic period [4]. Percolating waters caused degradation of the parent Basalt and preferential precipitation by acidic water through the lattice left the iron and aluminum composition. Primary plagioclase feldspars and augite with or without olivine were successively broken down and replaced by a mineral assemblage consisting of hematite, gibbsite, goethite, anatase, halloysite and kaolinite. During chemical weathering, processes like leaching, oxidation and hydration are involved, that lead to the depletion of silica, leaching of alkalis, lime and magnesia and further conversion to iron and aluminum sesqui oxides [2][7]. A consideration of the chemical budget of the fresh rock to lateritic conversion reveals that nearly 43.25% silica is lost and 9.36% alumina and 32.35 Fe2O3 and 2.4 TiO2 is concentrated as enrichment. After considering the loss of material from the rock it is found that nearly 54.11% of the parent material is leached out to produce a residuum of Laterite. 8. Conclusions  The area has undergone strong Lateritisation with nearly 54.11% leaching of parent material i.e. Basalt  The Laterites are more ferruginous in nature along with few pockets of aluminous Laterite.  Physiographically the Laterite form an upland topography approaching pen plain and the drainage pattern suggest the presence of a water shade in this region which might have controlled the Lateritisation process. It is evident from the field appearance that Laterites overly the Basalts thereby suggesting the litho logical control and in situ alteration under favourable conditions of Lateritisation process.  Field settings and studies reveal that probably normal rainfall followed by dry period, effective rock porosity (joints and fractures) in Basalts, the favorable geomorphological setting / relief-allowing free movement of water table with minimum erosion and long period of earth history have helped in formation of Laterites in the study area.  PCA is used to correlated to the mineralization signifying the lithological formations of laterites and identified the structural features like  Band combination of 7-4-2 and 4-3-2 has been studied for better understanding of International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 10, No. 06, December, 2017, pp. 1230-1236 G P RABHAKAR , P SRINIVAS AND ISHRATH  FCC image.SAM image is classied as VNIR, SWIR and TIR References [1] Balsubramaniam K S. and Vadagbalkar S.K. 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