Human Ecology
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-023-00438-5
Local Knowledge, Perceptions, and Uses of the Potentially ConflictGenerating Plant Species, Moringa oleifera Lam.: A case Study in
Limpopo Province, South Africa
Chuene Victor Mashamaite1
Ethel Emmarantia Phiri1
· Anouk Jasmine Albien2 · Palesa Natasha Mothapo3
· Petrus Jacobus Pieterse1
·
Accepted: 21 July 2023
© The Author(s) 2023
Abstract
Moringa oleifera Lam. is listed In South Africa as Species Under Surveillance for Possible Eradication or Containment
Targets (SUSPECT) under the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act 10 of 2004 (NEM:BA), although it
is widely used in some communities. We conducted this study to investigate local ecological knowledge (LEK) and perceptions about moringa in the rural communities of Limpopo Province (South Africa). We used a structured questionnaire
and open-ended interviews with 106 informants to gather ethnobotanical data associated with utilisation and perceptions of
moringa. We found that moringa is generally perceived positively and is used primarily for medicinal purposes, its nutrition value, as livestock feed, and for skin care. Most participants (76%) were unaware that moringa is an alien species and
disagreed with NEM:BA regulations to restrict its spread or to eradicate it entirely due to the benefits they associate with
it. We argue that listing moringa as SUSPECT could fuel conflict between rural communities that use it and management
authorities. Rather, we would urge policymakers to adopt a holistic approach to sustainable conservation strategies that
incorporates LEK in future planning.
Keywords Local Ecological Knowledge · Rural Communities · Moringa · Medicinal Uses · Nutrition · Commercial
Potential · SUSPECT · Limpopo Province · South Africa
Introduction
Ethel Emmarantia Phiri
ephiri@sun.ac.za
Chuene Victor Mashamaite
vickymashamaite@gmail.com
Anouk Jasmine Albien
anouka@sun.ac.za
Palesa Natasha Mothapo
mothapo@sun.ac.za
Petrus Jacobus Pieterse
pjp@sun.ac.za
1
Department of Agronomy, Stellenbosch University, Private
Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa
2
Department of Curriculum Studies, Stellenbosch University,
Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa
3
Division for Research Development, Stellenbosch University,
Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa
Due to its numerous uses including nutritional and medicinal benefits, Moringa oleifera Lam. (hereafter moringa) has
been described a super food species (Ekesa, 2017). Moringa
is native to sub-Himalayan parts of northern India and is
widely distributed across tropical and sub-tropical regions
of the world (Arun & Sarita, 2011). Nutritionally, almost
all its parts (above- and below-ground biomass) are considered rich sources of vitamins, proteins, and minerals (Fahey,
2005; Brilhante et al., 2017). It is well-recognized that
moringa is used as traditional medicine for more than 100
health-related conditions (Anwar et al., 2007; Bancessi et
al., 2020; Ma et al., 2020). Moringa seeds are used to purify
water, and their oil is used in the production of biodiesel fuel
and cosmetics (Saini et al., 2016). Currently, there is growing interest from governments and organisations in developing countries in the use of moringa to alleviate poverty and
malnutrition in marginalized communities (Ma et al., 2020).
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Human Ecology
Following the introduction of moringa as a cultivated crop
to rural communities of Limpopo Province (South Africa)
in 2006 several NGOs as well as farmers and government
departments undertook projects with the primary objective
of promoting the use, production, and commercialisation of
moringa through collaborations, research, community training, farming, industrial product development, and marketing (https://www.mdasa.org/) (Lekgau, 2011; Mabapa et
al., 2017). The Moringa Development Association of South
Africa (MDASA) was established in 2013 to address socioeconomic development issues such as nutrition, medicine,
job creation, and enterprise. By 2017 the presence of moringa farmers was reported in all five district municipalities
of Limpopo Province (i.e., Capricorn, Mopani, Sekhukhune, Vhembe, and Waterberg) and most had intentions of
commercialising the plant (Mabapa et al., 2017).
The pharmacological properties of moringa led to its listing on the profile of South African medicinal plants (DAFF,
2016). The South African Department of Science and Technology (DST) (now known as DSI: Department of Science
and Innovation) gave moringa flagship status in 2010 to
encourage the interface of science and Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS). Indigenous Knowledge Systems funding of the DSI and National Research Foundation (NRF)
is promoting and supporting research that focuses on IKS,
community development and involvement (NRF, 2018).
In 2016, DSI successfully launched a moringa farm along
with agro-processing facilities and continues to fund other
moringa-related projects (DST, 2016).
Nonetheless, moringa is listed on South Africa’s Species
Under Surveillance for Possible Eradication or Containment
Targets (SUSPECT) under the National Environmental
Management: Biodiversity Act (NEM:BA), which permits
assessment of its invasive potential posing threats to indigenous flora (van Wilgen and Wilson, 2018). It is possible
that considerations of its invasive potential may prove contentious in light of its numerous potential societal benefits
and could hamper the attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 1–3) of No Poverty, Zero Hunger,
as well as Good Health and Well-being (United Nations,
2020). Such plants are known as conflict-generating species because they can simultaneously have high positive
and negative impacts on ecosystem services (van Wilgen
and Richardson, 2014; Novoa et al., 2016; Ngorima and
Shackleton, 2019), and communities tend to be disinclined
to accept control measures for species with perceived sociocultural, economic, and ecological importance.
Even though moringa is fast becoming a cultivated crop
in South Africa (Mabapa et al., 2017; Tshabalala et al., 2020;
Mashamaite et al., 2021), perceptions about, and uses of,
this plant are relatively undocumented. Discussion of conflicts surrounding alien invasive species and societal benefits
13
is largely lacking in environmental management studies in
South Africa (Shackleton et al., 2016). Conflict-generating
species need a neutral evaluation of their costs and benefits.
Furthermore, policymakers should incorporate indigenous
knowledge and perceptions into in planning management
strategies (Zengeya et al., 2017). Indeed, IKS could be
used to resolve such conflicts since local communities are
directly involved with the daily necessities of utilisation and
management of local environments (Ngorima & Shackleton, 2019). Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess
the local knowledge and perceptions about moringa among
individuals living in areas of its established populations.
Materials and Methods
Description of the Study Site
We conducted this study between February and March
2019 in all five district municipalities of Limpopo Province: namely, Capricorn, Mopani, Sekhukhune, Vhembe,
and Waterberg. We randomly selected four villages (at least
20 km from each other) for each district and recruited at
least five individual participants in each village (Fig. 1).
Limpopo (23.4013°S, 29.4179°E), one of South Africa’s
nine provinces, is bordered by Botswana, Mozambique,
and Zimbabwe. The population of Limpopo Province was
estimated at 5.9 million, making it the fifth-largest province
in the country by population size (Stats SA, 2020). Poverty
in Limpopo Province has increased from approximately
10.0% in 2011 to about 11.5% in 2016 (Stats SA, 2019).
Increases in the poverty headcount were observed in all district municipalities between these years, except in Vhembe
where there was a slight decrease from 13.0% to 2011 to
12.8% in 2016 (Stats SA, 2019).
Participants and Data Collection
We used a mixed-methods approach with a questionnaire to
explore individual familiarity with moringa duration, uses,
utilisation, and government legislation concerning alien
species, followed by interviews to explore in-depth uses
and perceptions about moringa (Creswell, 2014). We used
purposive sampling based on the selection of samples that
contained the most relevant characteristics or typical attributes of the population under investigation (Flick, 2008).
Our inclusion criteria for participation were that individuals
had to have moringa trees on their farms, or in their gardens
or backyards.
We administered surveys and conducted follow-up interviews with 106 participants aged 18 or older. Participants
included 24 individuals (22.6%) from Capricorn, 22 (20.8%)
Human Ecology
Fig. 1 Map of Limpopo Province showing districts and locations of
sampled villages. The villages are represented by red dots and numbers; 1 = Ga-Seleka, 2 = Ga-Maeteletsa, 3 = Ga-Molekwa, 4 = GaMapela, 5 = Letshwatla, 6 = Ga-Mabitsela, 7 = Ga-Maja, 8 = Tooseng,
from Mopani, and 20 (18.9%) each from Sekhukhune,
Vhembe, and Waterberg. The questionnaire comprised three
key sections soliciting information on (1) participant demographics; (2) familiarity, uses, and perceptions of moringa;
and (3) knowledge on government biodiversity legislation
(see supplementary material A). Some of the responses in
the questionnaire were based on a Likert scale (i.e., 1 = very
satisfied to 5 = very dissatisfied). To explore IKS and subjective meanings attached to the uses of moringa, as well as
participants’ lived experiences of cultivating moringa, we
conducted semi-structured interviews (see supplementary
material B). Qualitative questions included: (i) what do you
use moringa for? (ii) what are the perceived benefits of using
moringa? and (iii) how do you process, store, and prepare
your moringa? Translators were employed when required
because the Limpopo Province is multicultural and multilingual with differing proficiencies in the main languages,
which include Sepedi, Tshivenda, Xitsonga, and English.
9 = Ga-Masemola, 10 = Ga-Phaahla, 11 = Phokwane, 12 = Manganeng,
13 = Ga-Maake, 14 = Litsitele, 15 = Ga-Modjadji, 16 = Koope,
17 = Hlanganani, 18 = Tshitavha, 19 = Tshikuwi, 20 = Tshikundu
Ethical Considerations
We complied with Stellenbosch University’s policy on
research ethics and permission was received from the University’s Research Ethics Committee (REC: 2018–7868)
prior to data collection to ensure that the research was ethically conducted. Stellenbosch University policies, appropriate legal framework and ethical considerations were
adhered to during and beyond completion of this study. We
ensured that the dignity, rights, safety, and well-being of all
participants were protected. Each participant was assured of
anonymity and confidentiality. We emphasized the voluntary nature of their participation and their ability to withdraw from the study without consequences. We assigned
each participant an identity code using the first letter of the
district name and numbers assigned to participants (e.g.,
C.01 = Capricorn district participant 1; M.19 = Mopani district participant 19; W.07 = Waterberg district participant 7).
Each participant was asked to sign a consent form in a language they were proficient in (see supplementary material
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Human Ecology
C). Participants’ responses were translated into English during the transcription process and were checked by a translator as well as study supervisors to verify the accuracy of
the translation. Transcribed interviews were stored on an
encrypted and password-protected, encoded external hard
drive. The transcribed interviews were accessible only to
the author and supervisors. Non-identifying data were also
stored at Stellenbosch University’s repository in line with
internal data management plan (https://library.sun.ac.za/
en-za/Research/rdm/Pages/rdm-su.aspx), compliant with
Protection of Personal Information (POPI) Act No. 4 of
2013 (Information Regulator South Africa, 2013).
Data Analysis
We analysed quantitative data using the Statistical Package
for Social Science (IBM SPSS Statistics v. 26) and used
descriptive statistics to generate frequencies and percentages of the responses. Pearson’s Chi-square test of association (X2) was conducted to predict the likelihood of
participants’ moringa use by giving proportion at the probability of 5%. For the qualitative strand, we used a general
inductive approach that involved detailed readings of raw
interview data to derive specific themes (Thomas, 2006)
to facilitate Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-step thematic
analysis. Transcribed interviews were read several times
to identify themes and sub-themes that captured core messages reported by participants following Miles and Huberman (1993). Transcripts were also read horizontally, which
involved grouping segments of text by theme. Towards the
end of the transcripts, no new themes emerged, which suggested that major themes had been identified and data saturation had been reached (Thomas, 2006). The themes and
sub-themes were supported by verbatim examples taken
from the transcribed text. Inter-reliability was guaranteed
with the supervisors involved in the thematic analysis. Independent coding was compared to assess whether the resulting themes corresponded with those found by the primary
researcher as a quality check.
Results and Discussion
Demographic Profiles Data
The age range of participants was grouped into six categories (i.e., 18–20; 21–30; 31–40; 41–50; 51–60; and above
60). Most of the participants were above 60 years of age
(26%), with only 5% aged below 20 years. There were more
female (63%) than male (37%) participants. Many of the
respondents had completed secondary education, while only
13
Table 1 Socio-demographic profile of participants (Total sample
N = 106, and N = 106 presented by category)
Variable
Response
Frequency
Proportion
of participants (%)
Age
18–20
5
5
21–30
18
17
31–40
19
18
41–50
14
13
51–60
22
21
Above 60
28
26
Gender
Male
39
37
Female
67
63
Education level
None
18
17
Primary
23
22
Secondary
48
45
Tertiary
17
16
Table 2 Awareness and familiarity of moringa by rural communities
of Limpopo Province (Total sample N = 106, and N = 106 presented
by category)
Variable
Response
Frequency Proportion
of respondents (%)
Hearing of moringa Extension officer 12
11
Internet
4
4
Family/commu64
60
nity member
TV/Radio
21
20
Other
5
5
Duration of knowing less than 1 year
5
5
about moringa
1–3 years
33
31
4–6 years
30
28
7–9 years
21
20
10 years and
17
16
above
a few had either no education (17%) or attained tertiary education (16%) (Table 1).
Local Communities’ Awareness of Moringa
Most participants heard about moringa from their family/community members (60%), while only a few (4%)
indicated that they read about moringa from the internet
(Table 2). These results reflect those of Neergheen-Bhujun
et al. (2020), who reported that family members were the
primary source of information about moringa in Mauritius (see also Farinola et al., 2014). However, Ikwuakam
et al. (2013) reported that rural dwellers in Katsima State,
Nigeria, identified the media (mainly radio) as the common
sources of information about moringa (see also Seifu and
Teketay, 2020 for Botswana).
We divided the length of time respondents reported they
had known about moringa into five categories (Table 2).
Human Ecology
Nearly a third had known about moringa for between 1 and
3 years and a further 28% for 4–6 years. Our results indicate
an increase in awareness of moringa in Limpopo Province
over the last 10 years, accompanied by a similar increase in
the importance attached to its uses and values (cf. Torimiro
et al., 2009).
Local Communities’ Uses of Moringa
All participants (106) confirmed that they used moringa in
various aspects of their livelihood activities: 34% for medicinal purposes, 25% for nutrition, 31% for both medicine
and nutrition, and the remaining 10% for shade (see Fuglie,
2001) (Table 3). The prevalent use of moringa for medicinal
properties or mixed in food is in accordance with findings
by other studies (e.g., Kola-Oladiji et al., 2014; Popoola and
Obembe, 2013; Oyewole et al., 2014).
Most participants reported using moringa on a daily and
weekly basis (37% each, a total of 74%). Others used it less
frequently and/or monthly (13% each, a total of 26%). These
results reflect the findings of Oyewole et al. (2014), who
documented that most rural and urban dwellers in Nigeria
use moringa on a daily and weekly basis, while few used
it monthly and seldom. Our results indicate that moringa
leaves are the most utilised part of the plant (61%), while
roots are used the least (6%) (see Popoola and Obembe,
2013 for Nigeria). However, participants indicated that all
parts of the plant are (i.e., leaves, bark, flowers, pods, seeds,
and roots) used as reported by e.g., Farooq et al. (2012) and
Gupta et al. (2018).
Close to 75% of participants reported that they mix moringa leaves with their daily foods (Table 3) (Seifu & Teketay, 2020). Zungu et al. (2020) report that the inclusion of
moringa in daily diets can improve nutrition among vulnerable communities in developing countries. In terms of moringa availability, most respondents (85%) confirmed that
leaves and seeds are available throughout the year, although
a few (15%) argued that they had encountered shortages
during winter possibly due to freezing and very low temperatures (Batool et al., 2020). The fact that the majority
Table 3 Local knowledge and perception of moringa by rural communities of Limpopo Province (Total sample N = 106, and N = 106
presented by category)
Variable
Response
Frequency Proportion
of respondents (%)
Purpose of use
Medicine
36
34
Nutrition
26
25
medicine and 33
31
nutrition
Shade
11
10
Moringa use interval
Daily
39
37
Weekly
39
37
Monthly
14
13
Occasionally 14
13
Utilised moringa part
Leaves
65
61
Seeds
13
12
Roots
6
6
All parts
22
21
Mixing with foods
Yes
78
74
No
28
26
Moringa availability
available in all 90
85
seasons
Shortage in
16
15
winter
Moringa
Yes
89
84
recommendations
No
17
16
of our participants confirmed the availability of the leaves
and seeds all year round may be due to the warm weather of
the region (Daron, 2014). Both Pahla et al. (2013) and Kou
et al. (2018) have reported the availability of all moringa
plant parts throughout the year, and that the trees are able
to survive in all seasons in tropical and subtropical regions
due to their drought tolerance and fast growth habits as well
as their long tuberous tap roots that grow very deep into
the soil absorbing water and mineral salts from sub-soils
(Mohammed, 2015).
Our results did not indicate any differences in use or
usage of moringa according to age (p > 0.05) or gender,
with the strength of association being weak (Table 4). The
majority of moringa uses were associated with women, even
Table 4 Familiarity, local knowledge, and perceptions of moringa by age and gender (Total N = 106)
Variables
DF
X2
Age
Moringa use
8.403
20
Purpose of using moringa
11.504
15
Moringa use interval
15.745
15
Utilised moringa part
13.639
15
Mixing moringa with food
10.388
5
Gender
Moringa use
1.108
1
Purpose of using moringa
4.626
3
Moringa use interval
4.162
3
Utilised moringa part
6.081
3
Mixing moringa with food
0.019
1
P
0.080
0.716
0.399
0.553
0.065
0.293
0.201
0.108
0.108
0.890
Phi/ Cramer’s V
Phi = 0.28; V = 0.28
Phi = 0.32; V = 0.19
Phi = 0.39; V = 0.22
Phi = 0.36; V = 0.21
Phi = 0.31; V = 0.31
Phi = 0.10; V = 0.10
Phi = 0.21; V = 0.21
Phi = 0.20; V = 0.20
Phi = 0.24; V = 0.24
Phi = 0.01; V = 0.01
13
Human Ecology
though this was not statistically significant (cf. NeergheenBhujun et al., 2020).
Many participants above 60 years used moringa mainly
for medicinal and nutritional purposes (Fig. 2a). Moringa
was used more on daily basis by those aged between 51 and
60 years, whereas those who used it weekly and monthly
were above 60 years (Fig. 2b). The highest percentage of
participants using leaves only, seeds only, and all parts of
moringa were above 60 years (Fig. 2c). Compared to other
age ranges, most participants above the age of 60 years
mixed moringa in foods (Fig. 2d) (cf. Popoola and Obembe
2013). In addition, older participants viewed moringa as
a valuable tree with multiple benefits such as medicine,
Fig. 2 a-h Local knowledge on
uses of moringa based on age and
gender among rural communities of
Limpopo Province
13
food, and fodder as well as a coagulant for purifying water.
Vitalini et al. (2013) concluded that knowledge on the uses
of plant species is primarily reserved by elders who had
learned it from their forefathers. With respect to gender, we
found that females used moringa for a wider variety of purposes and more frequently (daily and weekly) than males
(monthly) (Fig. 2e and f). The uses of all moringa parts,
as well as mixing it in foods, were more common among
females than males (Fig. 2g-h). These results may merely
reflect the greater number of females participating in our
study.
Human Ecology
Qualitative Results and Discussion on Moringa
Usage
Our respondents provided qualitative data that allowed a
deeper understanding of moringa usage and perceptions
(Table 5).
Medicinal Uses of Moringa
Participants reported using moringa as a cure and for treatment and prevention of about 56 diseases, disorders, and ailments (Table 6). In this theme we identified five subthemes:
treatment and prevention for chronic diseases; cure, treatment, and prevention for acute diseases and disorders; cure,
treatment, and prevention of other common ailments; sexuality and fertility; and incorporation in traditional medicinal practices. The therapeutic potential of this tree affords
a relatively cheap and reliable medicine to people in rural
communities with insufficient funds and resources.
Treatment and Prevention of Chronic Diseases
Moringa is used to treat and prevent chronic diseases such
as high blood pressure, diabetes, heart conditions, cancer
(lung, leg, womb, and skin), anaemia, arthritis, asthma,
migraines, and ulcers. One participant () noted: “It is a
medicine; moringa has the ability to treat high blood pressure, sugar diabetes and cancer” (C.13). Another participant
said: “I had asthma, but after drinking moringa I am now
healed…”(W.02.). Others mentioned that moringa purifies
blood, reduces the occurrence of heart failure, stroke, and
kidney failure. Moringa trees are recognized as possessing anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, abortifacient, antioxidants, and antimicrobial (fungal and bacterial)
properties and their traditional medicinal uses are widely
reported in other studies (see, e.g., Ramachandran et al.,
1980; Anwar et al., 2007; Kasolo et al., 2010; Mehta et al.,
2011; Kwaambwa et al., 2012; Kola-Oladiji et al., 2014;
Stevens et al., 2015; Brilhante et al., 2017; Padayachee and
Baijnath, 2020; Seifu and Teketay, 2020).
Moringa leaves contain high levels of calcium and potassium, which are beneficial to individuals suffering from
arthritis (Moyo et al., 2011). Accordingly, Tate and Mowa
(2020) suggest that moringa could be an alternative therapy
to treat arthritis due to its ability to mitigate the expression
of proteins involved in the pathogenesis and development
of arthritis (i.e., inflammation, oxidative stress, and proliferation). Simultaneously, moringa increases the expression of proteins with potentially defensive properties such
as anti-inflammation and apoptosis (Kou et al., 2018; Tate
& Mowa, 2020). Our participants also regard moringa as a
high source of energy and nutrients and it is often given to
HIV/AIDS patients for a balanced diet. Our findings were
corroborated by those of Dieye et al. (2008), who suggested
regular intake of moringa by HIV/AIDS patients among
ethnic groups in Nigeria and advocated for the broad usage
of the plant. However, it is imperative to note that most of
these claims have not been scientifically proven on human
subjects; and thus require further investigation to explore its
efficacy in the treatment, management, and prevention of
chronic and non-communicable diseases.
Prevention, Treatment, and Cure of Acute Diseases and
Disorders
Our respondents use moringa to treat diseases and disorders
such as common cold, influenza, fever, chickenpox, eye and
ear infections, blood clotting, nose bleeds, stomach pain/
cramps, urinary tract infections, shortness of breath, lower
respiratory tract infections, heartburn, chest complaints,
rash, sores, allergies, constipation, acute insomnia, itching
eyes, insect bites, pain (body, kidney, waist, and joints), and
painful and swollen legs. One participant said: “…Moringa healed me from painful sores which were in my intestines… Moringa has many uses such as medicine for rash,
fever, joint pains…” (C.16). These findings reflect those of
Seifu and Teketay (2020) and Kwaambwa et al. (2012) in
Table 5 Themes and sub-themes extrapolated using participants’ responses about moringa uses in Limpopo province, South Africa (Total sample
N = 106)
Themes
Sub-themes
Medicine
Treatment and prevention for chronic diseases
Prevention, treatment, and cure for acute diseases and disorders
Prevention, treatment, and cure for other common ailments
Sexuality and fertility
Incorporation in traditional medicinal practices
Nutrition
Fresh and dried moringa
Processed moringa
Livestock feed
Nutritional supplement
Improving livestock fertility
Beauty and cosmetic use
Anti-ageing
Removal of sores and scars
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Human Ecology
Table 6 Medicinal uses of moringa by rural communities of Limpopo Province, South Africa
Category of medical conditions
Diseases, ailments and disorders
Purpose of moringa use
Chronic diseases
High blood pressure
Treatment, prevention
Diabetes
Treatment, prevention
Womb cancer
Treatment, prevention
Skin cancer
Treatment, prevention
Lung cancer
Treatment, prevention
Asthma
Cure, prevention
Arthritis
Cure, prevention
Migraine headache
Cure, prevention
Heart failure
Treatment, prevention
Stroke
Prevention
Anaemia
Treatment, prevention
Kidney failure
Treatment, prevention
Ulcer
Treatment, prevention
Acute diseases and disorders
Common cold
Cure, prevention
Flu
Cure, prevention
Fever
Cure, prevention
Chicken pox
Treatment
Rash
Treatment
Sores
Treatment
Insect bite
Treatment
Swollen legs
Treatment
Short breath
Cure, prevention
Lower respiratory tract
Cure, prevention
Ear infections
Treatment
Eye infections
Cure
Itching eyes
Cure, prevention
Body pains
Cure, prevention
Stomach pains
Cure, relieve
Waist pains
Cure, prevention
Joint pains
Cure, prevention
Painful legs
Cure, prevention
Chest complaints
Cure, relieve
Allergies
Treatment
Constipation
Treatment, cure
Heartburn
Cure, prevention
Nosebleed
Cure
Blood clotting disorder
Cure
Urinary tract infections
Cure, prevention
Other common ailments
Fatigue
Reduces fatigue
Hyperhidrosis
Treatment
Trimethylaminuria
Treatment
Weight loss
Helps with weight loss
Short-sightedness
Cure
Bedwetting
Cure
Insomnia
Promotes sound sleep
Digestive disorders
Treatment
Sexuality and fertility
Infertility
Cure
Low libido
Treatment
Erectile dysfunction
Cure
Weak erection
Cure, prevention
Early ejaculation
Treatment, prevention
Low sperm count
Cure, prevention
Dysmenorrhea
Treatment, prevention
Irregular menstrual cycles
Cure, prevention
Vaginal infections
Cure, prevention
Problematic vaginal discharge
Treatment, prevention
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Moringa part/s used
Leaves, seeds
Leaves, seeds
Leaves
Leaves, seeds
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves, seeds
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves, roots
Leaves, roots
Leaves, seeds
Leaves, seeds
Leaves, seeds
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves, seeds
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves, seeds
Leaves
Leaves, roots
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves, seeds
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves, seeds
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Human Ecology
Botswana and Swaziland, and those of Stevens et al. (2013)
and Bancessi et al. (2020) in Nigeria and Guinea-Bissau.
According to D’souza and Kulkarni (1993), moringa can be
used to treat scorpion, insect, and snake bites and to reduce
inflammation due to its detoxification and anti-inflammatory properties (see also Kou et al., 2018).
Prevention, Treatment, and Cure of Other Common
Ailments
Our participants stated that moringa reduces abnormal
sweating habits (hyperhidrosis), diminishes bad body odour
(Trimethylaminuria), loosens stiff muscles, reduces fatigue,
treats short-sightedness, promotes sound sleep, cures bedwetting, cleanses and detoxifies the body, strengthens the
immune system, aids weight loss, is a laxative, and treats
digestive disorders. One participant said: “I now have better sleeping habits since I started using moringa….”(M.17)
(see also Shimizu et al., 2019 (Japan) and Seifu and Teketay, 2020 (Botswana). Moringa medicinal products (i.e.,
pills, capsules) are available at local markets, pharmacies,
and street vendors in South s and health benefits of moringa are widely recognised by communities in the Limpopo
Province.
sound scientific examination on human subjects to validate
their effectiveness.
Incorporation in Traditional Medicinal Practices
Several traditional healers responded to our surveys and
indicated that moringa was incorporated in their traditional
medical practices. One stated: “As a traditional healer, I
give people moringa to get healed as I would have consulted
and received an approval from my ancestors …” (V.14) (cf.
Semenya et al., 2012). Rural people are frequently reliant on traditional healers not only by preference but also
because of limited access to modern medical facilities, high
costs of modern medicines, and intolerable queues at clinics and hospitals (Hossan et al., 2010). Furthermore, most
traditional healers live in the same villages as their patients,
who are consequently more comfortable in obtaining treatment from them (Morris, 2002; Moeng, 2010). According
to D’souza and Kulkarni (1993), almost all moringa parts
are used in traditional medicine practices. However, there
is a paucity of clinical trials conducted on the efficacy of
moringa for all the medical uses that community members
described.
Moringa as a Food Source
Sexuality and Fertility
Our participants reported that moringa is used to improve
fertility among both men and women and served as an
energy booster during sexual intercourse. For men, moringa was used to stimulate sexual desires, performance, and
arousal. It was perceived as a remedy for early ejaculation in
men. Some participants mentioned that moringa was used to
cure erectile dysfunction, weak erections, low sperm count,
and impotence. Other participants stated that many families
had been restored because of moringa use. Consequently,
moringa had been given the local name of Motsošo (Sepedi
word that means the one that raises or restores). One participant stated: “Moringa serves as an energy booster during sexual intercourse. It prevents early ejaculation, erectile
dysfunction and corrects the issue o weak erection as well as
other diseases and disorders that affect sexual intercourse…
”(C.18) (cf. Kola-Oladiji et al., 2014). Respondents also
mentioned that moringa improves chances of conception in
women experiencing fertility issues and can treat abdominal
cramps associated with menstruation (dysmenorrhea), as
well as the restoration of ceased and/or irregular menstrual
cycles. Additionally, moringa was used to treat vaginal
infections and problematic discharge (see also Kasolo et al.,
2010 (Uganda) and Stevens et al., 2015 as well as Popoola
and Obembe, 2013 (Nigeria). These uses of moringa need
to be analysed thoroughly and comprehensively through a
Our respondents indicated that they consume moringa in
three different forms we divided into two subthemes: (i)
fresh and dried moringa; (ii) as processed moringa.
Fresh and Dried Moringa
Participants indicated that they commonly use dried-leaf
powder and crushed moringa seeds as a spice in daily foods
such as relish, meat, indigenous vegetables, spinach, cabbage, soft porridge, and potatoes. One participant noted:
“We grind the dry leaves into powder which we use in foods
as spice… I add a teaspoon of moringa powder in my food”
(W.06) (cf. Popoola and Obembe, 2013; Stevens et al., 2013;
Palada, 2017; Neergheen-Bhujun et al., 2020). Our participants also described eating moringa seeds as a raw snack
like peanuts (cf. Duke, 1983 (Malaya) and Neergheen-Bhujun et al., 2020 (Mauritius). Moyo et al. (2011) suggested
that the high nutritional properties of dried moringa leaves
are an indication of their importance as a food source to
mitigate malnutrition, but also a rationale to establish moringa as a cultivated food (Ma et al., 2020) that could also
generate household income and create jobs for marginal
communities throughout South Africa at large thus contributing to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals of
Good Health and Well-being, Zero Hunger, and No Poverty.
13
Human Ecology
Processed Moringa
Livestock Fertility
Participants consumed moringa in the form of various
products such as moringa juice, instant porridge, moringa
chocolate bar, various flavoured shakes, iced tea, tea bags,
moringa leaf powder supplements, yoghurts, seed oil (ben
oil), non-alcoholic beverages and energy drinks. A participant (M.03) gave the following response: “People make
powder; there is moringa yoghurt, chocolate, moringa
instant porridge and moringa milkshakes”. The variety of
moringa food products sold at local supermarkets and by
street vendors in Limpopo province was reported in a previous study by Lekgau (2011) and this wide food usage suggests the recognition of this plant as Makgonatšohle (Sepedi
word for healing everything or ability to do all things) by
rural communities and commercially. However, moringa
food products are still underutilised and yet to be fully
exploited nationally. There is therefore a need to promote
awareness on the nutritional importance of moringa among
marginal communities. In addition, guidance and training
on the processing and incorporation of moringa in foods is
necessary to ensure responsible and safe use.
In relation to improving livestock fertility, one participant
reported: “I had two pigs which were old and infertile. I
decided to give them moringa and now they made lots of
piglets…” (M.03). We are not aware of any studies of the
cultural use of moringa to treat livestock infertility, but
strongly argue that such studies should be undertaken for the
benefit of marginal communities that have limited resources
and means to deal with livestock infertility.
Moringa as Livestock Feed
Our participants stated that they used moringa leaves as
livestock feed for goats, cattle, pigs, and poultry (cf. Price,
2007; Popoola and Obembe, 2013; Babiker et al., 2016;
Mabusela et al., 2018; Bancessi et al., 2020). Sarwatt et al.
(2002) concluded that moringa has the potential to replace
conventional livestock feeds such as sunflower seedcake
and alfalfa. We identified two sub-themes: nutritional supplement and improved livestock fertility.
Livestock Nutritional Supplement
Participants reported numerous benefits of moringa fodder
for livestock such as weight gain, improved milk production, reduced incidence of diseases, and improved fertility,
as well as an important source of animal nutrition during
drought periods. This is confirmed by Banjo (2012) who
recorded improved weight gain of broiler chicks fed with
moringa leaves as a dietary supplement. Price (2007) had
similar findings for daily weight gain of beef cattle and milk
yields of dairy cows, which increased by 30% with moringa
leaves as 40–50% of their fodder. Sanchez et al. (2006) also
reported that supplementing guinea grass fodder with moringa increased weight gains of sheep.
13
Beauty and Cosmetic Use
Our respondents reported several beauty products incorporating moringa including moringa petroleum jelly, hair
food, bath soaps, tissue oils, moringa body butter, lip balm,
and body lotions. These products are used to treat various
skin conditions such as the removal of scars and blemishes,
reducing wrinkles and the appearance of ageing, as well as
maintaining healthy skin. We identified two subthemes: (i)
anti-ageing, and (ii) removal of sores and scars. Some participants said that they looked younger after using moringa
products, and “appeared more attractive.” One participant
described how moringa oil and leaf powder “… are both
used on the face to reduce wrinkles, sores and make one to
look younger…” (M.04) (cf. Marcu, 2005; Kola-Oladiji et
al., 2014). The incorporation of moringa seed oil into skin
care products is one of the most recent developments in the
cosmetics and skin care industry in South Africa (Rahaman
et al., 2017; Ali et al., 2018). Moringa seed oil is very light
and is absorbed quickly by the skin and provides it with
essential nutrients (Kleiman et al., 2008) due to high oleic
acid levels in moringa (Guon & Chung, 2017).
Knowledge About Invasive Alien Species and
Government Regulations
Only about a quarter of participants (24%) knew about
NEM:BA and alien invasive species, whereas the majority (76%) were unaware of them prior to participating in
the study (Table 7). However, those who were able to list
invasive species could only provide vernacular names of
snakes, fish, birds, and plants. When asked about impacts of
alien or invasive species on the ecosystem, about 70% were
unaware of any. This suggests that there is huge knowledge
gap and lack of government engagement to make the rural
study communities aware of alien species and their impacts
on ecosystem services.
Many participants (78%) said they would be very dissatisfied should the government decide to restrict or eradicate
moringa. These results reflect those of Irlich et al. (2017)
who emphasised that the awareness of alien invasive species
Human Ecology
Table 7 Knowledge of respondents on government legislations concerning alien invasive species (Total sample N = 106, and N = 106 presented
by category)
Variables
Response
Frequency
%
Knowledge of NEM:BA
Yes
26
24
No
80
76
Knowledge of alien invasive plants
Yes
26
24
No
80
76
Impact of invasive species
Positive impact
13
12
Negative impact
6
6
No impact
13
12
I don’t know
74
70
Feeling about moringa restriction/eradication
Satisfied
2
2
Neither
5
5
Dissatisfied
16
15
Very dissatisfied
83
78
Table 8 Knowledge of alien species and government legislatures by age and gender (Total N = 106)
Variables
DF
X2
Age
Knowledge of NEM:BA
7.106
5
Knowledge of invasive species
3.068
5
Knowledge impact of invasive species
13.731
15
Feelings on moringa eradication/ restriction
8.811
15
Gender
Knowledge of NEM:BA
4.308
1
Knowledge of invasive species
2.584
1
Knowledge impact of invasive species
3.283
3
Feelings on moringa eradication/ restriction
3.405
3
impact is mostly poor, and the knowledge of the requirements set out by NEM:BA regulations is scanty throughout South Africa. Knowledge about government legislation
(NEM:BA), invasive species and their impacts, as well as
attitudes towards moringa eradication or restriction were
not associated with age and gender, with the strength of
association being weak for all variables (Table 8).
Participants above the age of 60 years had no knowledge about NEM:BA, invasive species, and/or their impact
(Fig. 3a-d), even though our results were not statistically
significant. This age group was also the most dissatisfied
when asked about their attitudes on eradicating or containing moringa in South Africa. In terms of gender, more
females than males had not heard about NEM:BA, invasive
species, and their impacts, and exhibited strong disapproval
of moringa eradication or restriction by the government
(Fig. 3e-h). These results illustrate that there is a knowledge
gap on biological invasions among both males and females
of all age groups in rural communities of Limpopo Province. The management interventions of alien species such
as moringa that these communities use for various purposes
could become a cause for conflicts should they be enforced
in the face of local opposition (Kaplan et al., 2017; Zengeya
et al., 2017). Rather, such interventions should be informed
by local perceptions and uses of the plants.
P
0.213
0.689
0.546
0.887
0.308
0.108
0.350
0.333
Phi/ Cramer’s V
Phi = 0.26; V = 0.26
Phi = 0.17; V = 0.17
Phi = 0.36; V = 0.21
Phi = 0.29; V = 0.17
Phi = 0.20; V = 0.20
Phi = 0.16; V = 0.16
Phi = 0.18; V = 0.18
Phi = 0.18; V = 0.18
Qualitative Results and Discussion on Knowledge of
Alien Species and Government Regulations
Our participants pointed out that assigning moringa to an
impact category could have negative effects on socio-economic aspects and their livelihoods. The inclusion of this
qualitative data could allow further explanations as to how
rural communities of Limpopo Province might be affected
should moringa be allocated an impact category (Table 9).
Our participants indicated that they would be deeply dissatisfied should moringa be eradicated or restricted. They
reasoned that moringa was makgonatšohle (having the
ability to do everything) in their lives, with some farmers
reporting that their business would be greatly impacted, and
their employees would lose their source of income. One participant observed: “I will be very displeased because this
will affect the income of farmers and sellers negatively and
our nutrition since moringa has some nutrients which we
are not able to get from our normal daily intake of food”
(M.16). Another mentioned that: “…the government should
consult with us in their decision, and they must provide us
with a better alternative of moringa” (V.15). These responses
reveal a significant lack of communication between government bodies and communities regarding listing species such
as moringa under NEM:BA.
13
Human Ecology
Fig. 3 a-h Local Knowledge of
alien species and government
regulations based on age and gender
by rural communities of Limpopo
Province
Table 9 Themes and sub-themes on perceptions of respondents on the
legal status of moringa in the Limpopo Province, South Africa (Total
sample N = 106)
Themes
Sub-themes
Socio-economic impact
Loss of income by moringa farmers and sellers
Loss of jobs by moringa farm
employees
Health impact
Loss of accessible high-nutrition
source
Concerns about their health status
13
Although South Africa has legislation that monitors the
management of biological invasions, interventions are difficult to implement because of the potential conflicts of
interest and perceptions of value amongst different communities (Kaplan et al., 2017). Therefore, assessing social
perceptions provides a broad understanding of the adverse
effects of invasions as well as communities’ attitudes,
desires and requirements that are directly or indirectly
affected by management interventions (Shackleton et al.,
2017). Assessments of this nature are important for justifying management interventions of targeted species that
have potential benefits to sectors of society (van Wilgen and
Richardson, 2014; Mashamaite et al., 2020). This is because
Human Ecology
species such as moringa are beneficial particularly to marginal rural communities that rely on the plant for health and
socio-economic benefits.
Nevertheless, when asked about the invasive potential
of moringa, all the participants argued that they have not
seen moringa trees growing in areas where the surrounding ecosystems have been negatively affected. According
to Estevez et al. (2014), not all alien species are invasive;
rather, some provide basic resources for local communities and industries. This implies that moringa should not be
treated like other alien species such as pine, eucalyptus, and
acacia trees in South Africa, which have adversely affected
biodiversity (van Wilgen, 2012). Additionally, moringa’s
invasive potential has not yet been recorded in South Africa
or elsewhere across the globe.
Overall, the listing of species such as moringa under
NEM:BA for eradication or control has the potential to
cause conflicts between lawmakers and local communities who use moringa for various purposes. The inclusion
of local communities with distinct indigenous knowledge
and perceptions as well as socio-cultural perspectives could
aid in promoting efficiency and trust among all affected
stakeholders (Shackleton et al., 2019), help with conflict
resolution, and ensure there is evidence to support local and
broader scale decision-making processes in invasive species
management interventions.
Conclusion
Our study showed that moringa is widely recognized, highly
valued, and used for a range of purposes among rural communities in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Although
moringa is considered an introduced species, it is widely
recognized and is mainly associated with positive perceptions. Our findings indicate that moringa is used chiefly for
treatment and prevention for numerous medical conditions;
as a nutritional food source; as livestock fodder and shade;
as well as for beauty and cosmetic products. Considering
potential uses of moringa elsewhere in South Africa, we
argue that there is an urgent need to encourage its utilisation countrywide. However, its efficacy for all these uses
needs to be explored widely through sound scientific investigations to establish their effectiveness on human and animal subjects. Knowledge about alien invasive species and
NEM:BA regulation was poor among our participants, who
indicated that eradicating or restricting access to moringa
could negatively affect their livelihoods and well-being, and
could thus potentially cause conflicts of value and interest
between rural communities and government authorities.
Additionally, achieving the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) of Zero hunger, Poverty Alleviation, and Good
Health and Well-being by these communities using moringa could be hindered by government restrictions. Local
ecological knowledge should be recognised as an important
element in understanding attitudes and perceptions as well
as developing effective management strategies concerning
ecosystem services and human well-being. In future, policymakers should adopt a holistic approach that acknowledges
indigenous knowledge and perceptions for justifying their
decision-making in listing species that are important to marginal communities.
Supplementary Information The
online
version
contains
supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745023-00438-5.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Southern African Systems Analysis Centre (SASAC), National Research Foundation (South Africa), South African Department of Science and Innovation under grant number 102196 and the Canon Collins Educational
and Legal Assistance Trust (United Kingdom). We are grateful to Mr
Amukelani Winners Baloyi, Mr Phillip Maake and Mr Mmaphuti
Ezekiel Mashamaite for providing us with technical assistance during surveys. Our warmest thanks go to Dr Current Masunungure for
proofreading this paper and Dr Nompumelelo Thelma Mobe for her
assistance with designing the map of Limpopo Province. We extend
our gratitude to all households in Limpopo Province who took part in
this study and provided the required information.
Authors’ Contributions CVM, EEP, and PNM conceived and designed
the experiment. EEP acquired funding for the study. EEP, PJP, PNM,
and AJA were co-supervisors of the PhD graduate CVM. With the assistance of AJA, CVM designed the methodology and conducted the
study. PNM and CVM analysed the quantitative data and interpreted
the results. AJA supervised CVM with the qualitative data analysis.
CVM drafted the manuscript, and all authors discussed the results,
read, and approved the final manuscript.
Funding Open access funding provided by Stellenbosch University.
Data Availability The dataset generated during the current study is
not publicly available as it contains proprietary information that the
authors acquired through permission from Stellenbosch University’s
Research Ethics Committee. Data were stored at Stellenbosch University’s repository in line with the internal data management plan
(https://library.sun.ac.za/en-za/Research/rdm/Pages/rdm-su.aspx),
compliant with Protection of Personal Information (POPI) Act No. 4
of 2013 (Information Regulator South Africa, 2013). However, diary
notes and information on how to obtain and reproduce the analysis
are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Declarations
Competing Interests The authors declare that they have no known
competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Ethical Approval and Consent to Participate The study complied with
the Stellenbosch University’s policy on research ethics and permission was received from the University’s Research Ethics Committee
(REC: 2018–7868) prior to data collection to ensure that the research
was ethically conducted. Stellenbosch University policies, appropriate
13
Human Ecology
legal framework and ethical considerations were adhered to during and
beyond completion of this study.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing,
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format,
as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the
source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate
if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this
article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless
indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not
included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended
use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted
use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright
holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/4.0/.
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