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1
COMPARATIVE SYNTAX : THE STRUCTURE OF THE VERB PHRASE IN THE
AFRICAN LANGUAGES OF SOUTH AFRICA (BANTU LANGUAGES)
JA du Plessis
Dept of African Languages
Stellenbosch University
STELLENBOSCH 7600
SOUTH AFRICA
SECTION I: TRANSITIVITY
1.
2.
3.
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
5.
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
The structure of the clause
The external argument
Intransitive verbs
Unaccusative verbs
Intransitive ideophones
Intransitive verbs with a cognate object
Intransitive verbs with a manner NP
Intransitive verbs with an idiomatic object
Transitive verbs
Word order
Focus
Objectival agreement
Agreement and pro
AgrO with a lexical object
Stylistic movement
Coordinated objects
Locative noun phrases
Nominal infinitives
Sentential pronoun as object
Subjet and object in the relative clause
Interrogatives
Passive
Universal quantifier
Transitive ideophones
Transitive verbs with two NPs
Ditansitive verbs
Structure
Ditransitive verbs in Sesotho, Tshivenda, IsiXhosa and Xitsonga
Ditransitive ideophones
Dative alternation
SECTION II: TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS
1.
1.1
1.2
1.3
2.
2.1
2.2
3.
3.1
Possession alternation
Possessor  Subject
Possessor  Object
Possessor  Location
Experiencer verbs
With Intransitive verbs
Transitive verbs
Causative alternation
Verbal suffixes as controllers of transitivity
2
3.2
Causative alternation in Xhosa
3.2.1 Causative ideophone
3.2.1.1 Intransitive/Transitive
3.2.1.2 With a locative
3.2.1.3 With a PP with nga
3.2.2 Causative verb
3.2.3 Causative verb and Ideophone
3.2.4 Causative ideophone and verb with [k/l]
3.2.5 Causative ideophone with [-ululu] and verb with [k/l]
3.2.6 Causative ideophone and verb with [k/z]
3.2.7 Causative ideophone and intransitive verb
3.2.8 Causative ideophone and transitive verb
3.2.9 Intransitive ideophone with transitive and intransitive verb
3.2.10 Ideophone with copulative and PP with nga
3.3
Sesotho
3.3.1 Verbs on –oha and –ola
3.3.2 Verbs on –olla and –oloha
3.4
Xitsonga
3.4.1 [l/k:t]
3.4.2 [k/s]
3.4.3 [k/x]
3.4.4 [k/l]
3.5
Verb classes with causation
3.5.1 Verbs of change of state
3.5.2 Verbs of removing
3.5.3 Verbs of putting
4.
Locatives
4.1
Locative forms
4.2
Verbs with locative arguments
4.2.1 With intransitive verbs
4.2.1.1 Structure
4.2.1.2 Xhosa verbs
4.2.1.3 Sesotho verbs
4.2.1.4 Tsonga verbs
4.2.1.5 Ideophones in Xhosa
4.2.2 With transitive verbs
4.2.2.1 Structure
4.2.2.2 Xhosa ideophones
4.2.2.3 Tsonga verbs
4.3
Locative inversion
4.4
Locative alternation
4.4.1 Locative  Object
4.4.2 Locative  Subject
4.4.3 Locative  Instrument
4.4.4 Locative alternation in Xhosa,Sesotho, Tshivenda, Xitsonga, Setswana
4.4.4.1 With the object
4.4.4.2 With the subject
4.4.4.3 With the instrument
4.5
Verb classes with locative arguments
4.5.1 Verbs of putting
4.5.2 Verbs of putting with causation
4.5.3 Verbs of removing
3
4.4.4
4.4.5
4.4.6
Verbs of removing with causation
Verbs of motion
Verbs of existence
SECTION ONE: VERBAL DERIVATIONS
1.
1.1
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
2.
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
3.
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
4.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
5.
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
Applicative
General overview
Internal argument is an NP
Locatives
Applicative in Tshivenda
Applicative in IsiXhosa
Applicative in Xitsonga
Applicative in Sesotho
Reciprocal verbs
With transitive verbs
With ditransitive verbs
[V-is-el-an-]
[V-el-an-]
[V-an-[CP][na NP]
[V-el-el-an-]
Causative verbs
With Intransitive verbs
With transitive verbs
[V-is-el-]
[V-is-an]
Reflexive verbs
With transitive verbs
With ditransitive verbs
With applicative verbs
With causative verbs
Passive verbs
Intransitive verbs
Transitive verbs
Ditransitive verbs
Applicative verbs
Reciprocal verbs
Causative verbs
Reflexive verbs
[V-eh-el-w NP]
4
1.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE CLAUSE
Pollock (1989) introduced a theory of inflection with various functional categories
such as agreement and tense. Chomsky (1993:7) gave an example of such a
structure with functional categories:
(1)
CP
C1
Spec
Agrs’’
C
Agrs’
Spec
Agrs
TP
Agro'
T
Agro’’
Spec
Agro
VP
See also Du Plessis (1996) for an overview of functional categories in these African
languages.
Larson (1988) developed a structure with two verbal shells and this issue has been
developed within the Minimalist program (see Chomsky 1995). For a discussion on
verbal shells, see also Hale and Keyser (1993), Adger (2003), Hornstein a.o. (2005).
The Minimalist program has been extensively dealt with in i.a. Chomsky (1995, 2006),
Boeckx (2006, 2008), Rizzi (2004), Belletti (2004), Khomitsevich (2008), Musabhien
(2008).
The structure with two verbal shells may be shown as follows:
5
(2)
CP
Spec, CP
C
C
TP
Subject
T
T
vP
Subject
v
v
VP
V
….
Chomsky (1995) assumes that the upper verbal shell (with vP) is projected from a
phonetically null light verb. The light verb and its complement form a complex
predicate. The second verbal shell is assumed to be introduced by the [VP].
The main issues concerning the structure above are the following:
- The division of IP into TP and Agr projections was rejected.
- A single T node has temporal features and Agr features for the subject.
- The role of AgrOP was taken over by the part of the split VP projection termed
[vP]. [vP] is located higher than [VP] and the two verbal projections provide
positions for the external and internal arguments.
- The subject originates in [Spec, v] and can move to [Spec, TP].
- The internal argument occupies the position of complement of [V].
- External arguments are generated in the specifier of the lexical head with which
they enter into a theta-relation. The light verb [v] assigns the external theta-role.
- The head T assigns nominative case and checks AgrS.
- Case is checked outside the domain in which theta-roles are assigned.
See Hornstein a.o. (2005) for a discussion of the issues above.
The LF structure after Merge and Move operations is shown below with an
intransitive verb:
6
CP
C1
(Spec, C)
C
TP
[Nom.case] 
Assign Nom.case 
check AgrS
[Theta-role] 
Assign external
argument
T1
Subj
T
vP
v1
Subj

[Vv]
[vb]
VP
V
Example sentences with these African languages are shown below with intransitive
verbs:
(4)
IsiXhosa:
Imipesika i-qham-ile
(Peach-trees agr-bear.well-perf)
Sesotho:
Batho ba-thab-ile
(People agr-happy-perf)
Xitsonga:
Ntirho wu-olov-ile
(Work agr-be.easy-perf)
Tshivenda: Vhana vho-ril-a
Children agr.past-cry-FV)
The LF structure with the Sesotho sentence above will look as follows:
7
(5)
CP
[Spec, CP]
C
C
TP
batho
T
T
vP
batho
v
[Vv]
thaba
VP
V
thaba
In the African languages of South Africa (i.e. which are Bantu) the agreement
morphemes (AgrS and AgrO) have to appear in sentence structures, i.a. because
they always have a presence in the lexicon. The structures above will then be
modified to include the agreement features:
8
(6)
CP
[Spec, C]
C
C1
AgrSP
[Spec,AgrS]
AgrS1
AgrS
TP
T1
[Spec, T]
T
AgrOP
AgrO1
[Spec, AgrO]
AgrO
vP
v1
[Spec, v
v
V
V
DP
The LF structure with a sentence in Xitsonga such as the following will be showed
below:
(7a)
Xitsonga: Mudyondzi u-lav-a buka
(Student agr-want-FV book)
9
(7b) CP
[Spec, C]
C
C1
AgrSP
AgrS1
mudyondzi
[T,AgrS]
TP
T1
mudyondzi
T
AgrOP
buku
AgrO1
[vb,AgrO]
vP
mudyondzi
v1
[Vv]
[bv]
-lav-
VP
V
DP
-lav-
buku
- The light verb [v] licenses a specifier and it assigns an external theta-role to it.
- The [V] assigns an internal argument to the DP (buku)
- [vb, AgrO] assigns accusative case to [buku]
- [T, AgrS] assigns nominative case to [mudyondzi]
Without Agr the structure above would be as follows:
10
(8)
CP
[Spec, C]
C1
C
TP
T1
mudyondzi
[T, vb]
-lav-
vP
v1
buku
mudyondzi
v1
[Vv]
[vb]
-lav-
VP
V
DP
-lav-
buku
- The light verb [v] licenses two specifiers [buku, mudyondzi], it assigns the external
theta-role to mudyondzi and it checks the accusative case of buku and AgrO
under the Spec-head relation.
- The verb [V] assigns the internal argument to buku.
- The head T assigns nominative case and checks AgrS.
2.
THE EXTERNAL ARGUMENT
For an overview of the external argument in these African languages, see i.a. Du
Plessis a.o. (1992, 1995, 1996). There are various problematic issues with the
external argument which is usually occupied by the subject of the clause. Only one
issue will be highlighted here because others will receive attention in later sections.
The issue which is of interest here is the question of word order. These African
languages all have a word order of [SVO] as evidenced in the examples above.
However, as will be evidenced in the section on Information Structure, the Nguni
languages such as isiXhosa and isiZulu favour two positions for the subject:
- The first position is the normal initial position in the [SVO] word order:
(9)
IsiXhosa:
[Iimvula] zi-nqab-ile
(Rains agrs-be.scarce-perf: Rains are scarce)
11
In this sentence, the external argument is [iimvula] and it occupies the normal
position of a topic in the word order [SVO].
However, in the Nguni languages the subject argument is frequently moved to a
position after the verb:
(10)
IsiXhosa:
[U-hamb-ile [yena umntwana wakwaDiliza]
(Agrs-go-perf he child of-place-of-Diliza: He went away he the
child of Diliza’s place)
In the sentence above, the subject argument appears after the verb to effect focus on
the subject. This is a very common feature of the Nguni languages because of the
influence of the Khoi-languages on Nguni. However, this phenomenon may occur in
any of the other African languages but it is not that frequent. It is possible to dislocate
these subjects because of the presence of the AgrS morpheme in the sentence
above.
For an overview of the issues concerning argument structure see i.a. Reuland a.o.
(eds.) (2007).
3.
INTRANSITIVE VERBS
Intransitive verbs are distinguished as unergative and unaccusative verbs.
Unergative verbs are also regarded as a sub-species of transitive predicates. An
intransitive verb refers to a verb which cannot take a direct object. However, as is
clear from the discussion below, many verbs can have both a transitive and an
intransitive use. Some examples of intransitive verbs in these African languages are
the following:
(11)
IsiXhosa:
Abantwana ba-lamb-ile
(Children agr-hungry-perf: The chidlren are hungry)
Sesotho:
Diaparo di-om-ile
(Clothes agr-dry-perf: The clothes are dry)
Xitsonga:
Movha wu-tshwuk-ile
(Motorcar agr-be.red-perf: The motorcar is red)
Tshivenda:
Vhana vho-t8ungufhala
(Children agr.past-be-sad: The children are sad)
For a discussion on intransitive verbs in these African languages see i.a. Du Plessis
a.o. (1992, 1995, 1996).
3.1
Unaccusative verbs
Unaccusative verbs are generally characterized in terms of three properties (see
Burzio, 1986). These verbs select an internal argument which is patient or theme,
they do not assign an external theta role, and they lack the property of assigning
accusative case to the internal argument. Consequently the internal argument has to
move to the subject position, where it receives nominative case. The sentence in (a)
for example, has the following derivation in (b) and (c):
12
(12)
a.
Tshivenda: Mulilo u-a-dug-a
(Fire agr-LF-burn-FV: The fire burns)
b.
[VP V DP]
c.
TP
nomin.  mulilo
case
T1
assign case  T
check AgrS
vP
v1
mulilo
[Vv]
duga
VP
V
DP
duga
mulilo
The verb –dug- ‘burn’ selects one internal argument, mulilo ‘fire’ but it is unable to
assign accusative Case to this argument. Hence the argument must move to the
subject position where it is assigned nominative Case: [mulilo [VP duga mulilo]]
The second mulilo will be deleted in the phonological component.
The inability of the surface subject argument to be de-externalised in passive verb
constructions serves as a diagnostic for establishing unaccusativity. This
unaccusative diagnostic is demonstrated in the following sentence:
(13)
*Hu a dug-w-a nga mulilo
there-L-Pres-burn-Pass-Pres by-fire
‘There is being burnt by the fire’
If the NP mulilo ‘fire’ were an external argument of the verb it would have been
possible for it to occur as a de-externalised argument in passives.
This diagnostic for unaccusative verbs (the non-allowance of the passive) is clear in
the other languages with examples such as the following:
(14)
Sesotho:
Mollo o-a-tuk-a
(The fire burns: fire agrs-LF-burn-FV)
Tsonga:
Ndzilo wa-pfurh-a
(The fire burns: fire agrs.LF-burn-FV)
13
Xhosa:
Umlilo u-ya-vuth-a
(The fire burns: fire agrs-LF-burn-FV)
Weather verbs are also unaccusative verbs except in Tsonga where the passive is
allowed:
(15)
Mpfula ya-n-a (Rain rains: rain agrs.LF-rain-FV))
Ka-n-iw-a hi mpfula (There is being rained by rain: expl.LF-rain-pass-FV
by rain)
3.2
Intransitive ideophones
For a discussion on ideophones, see i.a. Gxowa (1994), Malima (1993), Molotsi
(1993), Neethling (1972) and Nokele (1996).
Ideophones are onomatopoetic words. They are introduced into the structure of
sentences by means of the verb re or thi. This verb has no meaning but it is related
to the verb of saying. The re which is used with ideophones is the carrier of inflection
including mood, tense, agreement but also derivative affixes. Syntactically the verb
re and the ideophone form a unit as one predicate which may then take arguments
depending on the status of the ideophone. In intransitive constructions this predicate
will be a one-place predicate:
(16)
Sesotho:
Ntate o-itse hebe
(My-father agr-re.perf quiet: My father was quiet)
isiXhosa: Usana lu-the cwaka
(Baby agr-thi.perf quiet: The baby is quiet)
In the Past Tense with the tense morpheme a in Xhosa, thi sometimes disappears
and only a coalesced form with the agreement morpheme remains:
(17)
Wa-thi shwaka ubawo
Wee shwaka ubawo
(He disappeared my father: agrs.past-thi disappear my-father)
In Venda the consecutive morpheme a may give the same result:
(18)
Mbilu ya-ri dzumbuluku
Mbilu ye dzumbuluku
(The dassie disappeared: dassie agrs.cons-ri disappear)
The verb ri may disappear altogether and only inflection may appear in Venda:
(19)
a.
Mutukana u-tou vukuluku
(The boy gets up quickly: boy agrs-indeed get-up)
b.
U-tou dzidzi
(She stands up suddenly: agrs-indeed stand-up)
c.
Mihumbulo ya-thoma u khebu
(The thoughts started to be clear: thoughts agrs.cons-begin to beclear)
14
d.
O-no thafhuluwi
(He already recovered consciousness: agrs.perf-already be-recovered)
The ideophone in Tsonga may be introduced into a sentence by means of the verb ri
(say):
(20)
Mhitlwa yi-ri dlu exidziveni
(The waterbuck plunges into the pool: waterbuck agrs-ri plunge in-pool)
The verb ri may appear with the Infinitive ku or the Infinitive morpheme ku may
appear without ri:
(21)
Mhitlwa yi ku-ri dlu exidziveni
Mhitlwa yi ku dlu exidziveni
(The waterbuck plunges into the pool)
Ideoplones derived from verbs may appear in constructions as the above:
(22)
A ku ngheniyani enyangweni
(He entered at the door)
Alternatively the ideophone may be introduced by the morpheme lo with inflection:
(23)
A-lo nyi hi thyaka
(He was covered with mud)
Yindlu a-yi-lo dla lahaya
(The house was in the open over there)
3.3
Intransitive verbs with a cognate object
Intransitive verbs may frequently appear with a cognate object. Such a cognate
object is a derived noun from the intransitive verbs and such nouns are usually in
class 3 or class 9 as a derived noun. In all of these cases the intransitive verbs are
now transitive verbs because they accept the two diagnostics for an object in these
languages i.e. objectival agreement and passivization:
(24)
Sesotho:
AgrOP:
O-tsamaya [tsamao e ntle]
(He walks a good walk)
[Tsamao e ntle]i o-a-ei-tsamaya
(A good walk he walks it)
Passive
[Tsamao e ntle] e-a-tsamauwa ke yona
(A good walk is walked by him)
Xhosa:
AgrOP
U-qaqa [umqaqo omhle]
(She crawls a good crawl)
U-ya-wui-qaqa [umgaqo omhle]i
(She it crawls a good crawl)
Passive
[Umgaqo omhle] u-ya-gaqwa nguye
(A good crawl is crawled by her)
15
Cognate objects in Sesotho
(25)
O-tswa [motso o tshepahetseng[
(He comes out a loyal coming out)
O-kena [keno e swabisang]
(He enters an annoying entry)
O-ya [moyo o molelele]
(He goes a long going)
O-lla [meokgo]
(She cries tears)
Ba-robetse [boroko bo monate]
(They slept a nice sleep)
O-shwele [lefu le bohloko]
(He died a painful death)
O-tsamaya [tsamao e ntle]
(He walks a good walk)
O-kgutla [mokgutlo o motle]
(He returns a good returning)
O-tloha [motloho o motle]
(He goes away a good going away)
O-matha [momatho o kgotsofatsang]
(He runs a pleasant running)
O-fihla [phihlo e tshabehang]
(He arrives a frightening arrival)
Cognate objects in Xhosa
(26)
U-hamba [umhambo omhle]
(He walks a good walk)
U-buya [umbuyo omhle]
(He returns a good return)
U-phuma [umphumo wesiXhosa]
(He comes out a Xhosa coming out)
U-wa [umwo omhle]
(He falls a nice fall)
U-ngena [umngeno omhle]
(He enters a good entering)
U-fika [umfiko omhle]
(He arrives a good arriving)
16
U-gaqa [umgaqo omhle]
(He crawls a good crawling)
Weather verbs frequently appears with cognate objects and such objects also allow
objectival agreement and passivization:
Xitsonga (see Mdumela (1996):
Weather verbs with cognate objects:
(27)
[Mpfula] yi-na [xihangu]
(Rain rain hail)
[Mpfula] yi-na [mirubi]
(Rain rain continuous-rain)
Mpfula yi-na ndhambi
(Rain rain heavy-rain/heavy)
Mpfula yi-nthona mathonsi
(Rain drops drops)
Moya wu-hunga xirhami
(Wind blows cold)
Mheho yi-hunga hunguva
(Strong-wind blows fog)
Mberha wu-mbuluka nkungwa
(Dew swirl mist)
Tilo ri-hatima rihati
(Sky flashes lightning)
Dyambu ri-tlhava masana
(Sun rises sunlight)
Moya wu-hunga ximbhembhe
(Wind blows storm-wind)
Moya wu-hunga bubutsa
(Wind blows dust-storm)
Moya wu-hunga xihuhuri
(Wind blows swirlwind)
These constructions may appear with object agreement:
(28)
[Mpfula] ya-[yi]-na [ndhambi]
(Rain, does rain it flood)
[Mpfula] ya-[xi]-na [xihangu]
(Rain does rain it, hail)
17
[Moya] wa-[xi]-hunga [xirhami]
(Wind does blow it cold)
The cognate objects above may also appear in passive sentences:
(29) a. (i)
Mpfula yi-na ndhambi
(Rain rain floods/heavy rain)
(ii) [Ndhambi] yi-niwa hi mpfula
(Heavy-rain is rained by rain)
b. (i)
Mpfula yi-na xihangu
(Rain rain hail)
(ii) [Xihangu] xi-niwa hi mpfula
(Hail is rained by rain)
c. (i)
Mpfula yi-nthona mathosi
(Rain drops drops)
(ii) [Mathonsi] ya-nthoniwa hi mpfula
(Drops are dropped by rain)
d. (i)
Moya wu-hunga xirhami
(Wind blows cold)
(ii) [Xirhami] xi-hungiwa hi moya
(Cold is blown by wind)
e. (i)
Mheho yi-hunga hunguva
(Strong-wind blows fog)
(ii) [Hunguva] yi-hungiwa hi mheho
(Fog is blown by strong-wind)
f.
(i)
Mberha wu-mbuluka nkungwa
(Dew swirl mist)
(ii) [Nkungwa] wu-mbulukiwa hi mbherha
(Mist is swirled by dew)
Tshivenda (see Nekhumbe (1995):
The following are cognate objects appearing with weather verbs like –bvuma
(thunder), –penya (flash), -sut8a (drizzle):
(30) a. [Mvula] i-bvuma [mubvumo]
(Rain thunders thunder)
b. [Mvula] i-penya [phenyo]
(Rain flashes lightnings)
c. [Mvula] i-sut8a [vhusut8o]
(Rain drizzles drizzle)
18
Northern Sotho (see Mojapelo (1996):
There are a number of cognate objects that may appear with weather verbs. It will be
necessary to establish what cognate objects may occur with weather verbs, and
secondly, to find the syntactic status of such cognate objects. For this purpose the
two diagnostics for objects in Northern Sotho will be invoked, i.e. objectival
agreement and movement of the NP in passive constructions.
The following cognate objects may appear with weather verbs:
(31) [mono]
Pula e-na [mono]
(Rain rains the raining)
[morotho]
Pula e-rotha [morotho]
(Rain drips the dripping)
[marothi]
Pula e-rotha [marothi]
(Rain drips drops)
[modumo]
Pula e-duma [modumo]
(Rain thunders sound)
[mowo]
Lehlwa le-wele [mowo]
(Snow fell a fall)
[morothotho]
Sefako se-rothotha [morothotho]
(Hail falls heavily a heavy fall)
[phišo]
Letšatši le-fiša [phiso]
(The sun is hot heat)
[mookobalo]
Ledimo le-okobala [mookobalo]
(The storm subsides the subsiding)
[mogadimo]
Legadima le-gadima [mogadimo]
(Lighthing flashes the flashing)
19
[mmetho]
Legadima le-betha [mmetho]
(Lightning strikes the striking)
[mmabolo]
Letšatši le-babola [mmabolo]
(The sun scorches the scorching)
As can clearly be seen from the sentences above, the cognate objects are mostly
deverbatve nouns which are derived from weather verbs, e.g. [mo-n-o] is derived
from [n-a]. Exceptions to these derivations are few in number: see e.g. marothi
(drops).
In the next place the two diagnostics for objects will be invoked for each of these
cognate objects.
Objectival agreement
(32) *Mono [ya-o-na pula]
(The raining it rained it rain)
*Morotho [ya-o-rotha pula]
(The dripping it dripped it rain)
Marothi [ya-a-rotha pula]
(Drops it dripped them rain)
Modumo [ya-o-duma pula]
(Sound it thundered it rain)
*Mowo [la-o-wa lehlwa]
(A fall it fell it snow)
*Morothotho [sa-o-rothotha sefako]
(A heavy fall it fell it heavily hail)
*Phišo [la-e-fiša letšatši]
(Heat it was hot it sun)
*Mookobalo [la-o-okobala ledimo]
(Subsiding it subsided it storm)
*Mogadimo [la-o-gadima legadima]
(The flashing it flashed it lightning)
*Mmetho [la-o-betha legadima]
(The striking it struck it lightning)
*Mmabolo [la-o-babola letšatši]
(Scorching it scorched it sun)
20
From the sentences above, it is only with rotha and duma that the objective
agreement is accepted by the verb. The rest of the sentences are unacceptable, i.e.
the verbs reject the object clitics.
Movement of NP in passive constructions
(33) *[Monoi] o-niwa [ti] ke pula
(The raining is rained by rain)
*[Morothoi] o-rothwa [ti] ke pula
(The dripping is dripped by rain)
[Marothii] a-rothwa [ti] ke pula
(Drops are dripped by rain)
[Modumoi] o-dungwa [ti] ke pula
(Sound is thundered by rain)
*[Morwoi] o-wiwa [ti] ke lehlwa
(A fall is fell by snow)
*[Morothothoi] o-rothothwa [ti] ke sefako
(A heavy fall is fell heavily by hail)
*[Phišoi] e-fišwa [ti] ke letšatši
(Heat is being hot by the sun)
*[Mookobaloi] o-okobalwa [ti] ke ledimo
(Subsiding is subsided by storm)
*[Mogadimoi] o-gadingwa [ti] ke legadima
(Flashing is flashed by lightning)
*[Mmethoi] o-bethwa [ti] ke legadima
(Striking is struck by lightning)
*[Mmaboloi] o-babolwa [ti] ke letsatsi
(Scorching is scorched by the sun)
Again, only rotha and duma accept the passive.
3.4
Intransitive verbs with a manner NP
Xhosa:
As in the case of cognate objects above, manner objects in Xhosa also change an
intransitive verb to a transitive verb i.e. these verbs may appear with AgrOP and the
passive:
(34) U-buya [isikhwenkwe]
(He returns boyishly (like a boy)
AgrOP
U-ya-si-buya isikhwenkwe
(He returns it like a boy)
21
Passive
Isikhwenkwe siyabuywa nguye
(Like a boy is returned by him)
Other examples:
(35) U-phuma [isiXhosa]
(He comes out in a Xhosa way)
U-gaqa [ubudodo]
(She crawls in a clumsy way)
Sesotho:
Sesotho intransitive verbs with manner objects may be divided into three classes
depending whether they may appear with an AgrOP and/or the passive:
(i)
No AgrOP and no Passive
(36) O-tsamaya bothoto bo boholo (big stupidity)
(He walks in a foolish way)
O-kgutla bolotsana (wickedness)
(He returns in a wicked way)
O-tswa bokgabane (uprightness)
(He comes out in a righteous way
(ii)
With AgrOP, but no Passive
Ba-kena bongwana ka tlung (childishness)
(They enter in a childish way in the house)
O-kgasa botswa (laziness)
(He crawls in a lazy way)
(iii) With AgrOP and Passive
O-wa mohlolo (wonder)
(He falls in an extraordinary way)
3.5
Intransitive verbs with an idiomatic object
(37) Sesotho:Ke-tswile kotsi (I had an accident)
Ke-shwele pelo (I am sad)
Xhosa: Ndi-wa/Ndi-fa isiqaqa (I faint)
U-phume izandla (she is mature/beautiful)
U-betha/U-ngena umntu emlonyeni (She interrupts a person)
Sesotho:O-kena motho hanong (She interrupts a person)
Ke-tla-ema Motaung sebaka (I replace Motaung)
Ke-fetse pelo (I am impatient)
Ke-tletse pelo (I am angry)
22
Xhosa: U-phila ubomi bentshontsho (She lives a difficult life)
Sesotho:Pelo e-nee-dutla madi (Her heart drips blood)
Ditaba tsena di-mo-dutse hampe (This news affected him badly)
Re-boile moya (we recovered/took courage)
4
TRANSITIVE VERBS
For a structure of clauses with a transitive verb, see no. (6-8) above.
4.1 Word order
These languages are SVO languages in which the object follows the verb:
(38) Sesotho:[Ngwana] o-batla] [dipompong]
S
V
O
[The child wants sweets]
Zulu:
[Inja] [i-khonkotha] [abantu]
S
V
O
(The dog barks at the people)
This word order may be changed for various reasons of which the following two
cases are frequent in these languages: objectival agreement and Focus on the object.
4.2
Focus on the object
For a discussion on focus, see i.a. Erteschik-Shir (2007), Mali (1995), Madadzhe
1997:508), Mletshe (1995:76-111), Mpeko (1992:83, 92), Tlaka (1997), Malete
(2001:307), Nemudzivhadi (1995:115). The first change in word order to effect focus
uses reduplicated phrases where the predicate is repeated. The object of the
clause is then moved to a position after the repetition of the verb, but with objectival
agreement on the verb.
Sesotho:
When the second verb is in the Situative, only the Perfect Tense of the Situative may
be used to effect focus:
(39) Titjhere o-tla-mmitsa [a-mmitsitse] morutuwa enwa ha a-batla ho-mo-roma
toropong
(The teacher will keep on calling him this student when he wants to send him to
town): teacher he-will-him-call he-him-called student this when he-want to-himsend to-town)
With the Infinitive:
(40) Ke-tla-mmitsa [ho-mmitsa] monna enwa leha ho-thwe ha-a-rate ho-bona batho
ha hae
(I will keep on calling this man although it is said he doesn’t like to see people
at his home: I-will-him-call to-him-call man this although it-is-said not-he-like tosee people at-home-of-him)
23
When the preposition ka appears together with the Infinitive, it doesn’t give the
meaning of emphasis but such repetition has to be interpreted as an action which
may be done in different ways:
(41) Ke-tla-mmitsa [ka ho-mmitsa]
(I will call him in different ways: I-will-him-call with to-him-call)
When the repetition is done by means of the consecutive, a deficient verb ba has to
be used:
(42) a. Ke-ile ka-mmitsa [ka-ba ka-mmitsa]
(I-past I-cons-him-call I-past-ba I-cons-him-call)
b. Ke-mmitsitse [ka-ba ka-mmitsa]
(I kept on calling him: I-him-called I-cons-ba I-cons-him-call)
Xhosa:
As in Sesotho when the second verb is in the Situative, only the Perfect Tense of the
Situative may be used to effect the emphasis on the action:
(42) Ndiya kumbiza [ndimbizile] lo mfundi
(I will keep on calling him this student: I-will to-him-call I-him-called this student)
When the Infinitive is used, it may also be combined with the preposition nga in
effecting the emphasis:
(43) a. Andibaqondi [ngokungabaqondi] aba bantu
(I really don’t know these people: not-I-than-know with-to-not-them-know
these people)
b. Zahlukana ezi ntokazi zingabanga sababulisa [ukubabulisa] aba bantwana
(These ladies parted without greeting these children at all: they-past-part
these ladies they-not-ba still-them-greet to-them-greet these children)
In coordinated sentences with either the Consecutive or Subjunctive:
(45) a. Uyijonge [wayijonga] le ngxilimbela yakwaGcaleka
(She kept on looking at him this honourable Gcaleka-man: she-him-looked
scons-him-look this man of-Gcaleka)
b. Bayitya [bayitye] le nyama abafana
(They keep on eating it the meat the young men: they-it-eat they-it-eat-subjt
this meat young-men)
Tshivenda:
Repetition of the verb can only be done by means of the following verbal forms:
Situative and Consecutive.
When the second verb is in the Situative, the Present Tense of the Situative may be
used to effect the emphasis on the action:
24
(46) Ndi-d8o-mu-vhidza [ndi-tshi-mu vhidzela] uyu mutshudeni
(I will keep on calling him this student: I-will-him-call I-ptc-him-call-appl this
student)
In coordinated sentences:
(47) Vha-i-l8a [vho-i-l8a] nama vhathannga
(They keep on eating it the meat the young men: they-it-eat they-past-it-eat
meat young-men))
Tsonga:
The Dependent mood may be used to effect focus:
(48) Ndzi-ta-n’wi-vita [ndz- n’wi-vita] mudyondzi loyi
(I will keep on calling him this student: I-will-him-call I-him-call student this)
Ndzi-n’wi-vitanile ndzi-n’wi-vitana
(I kept on calling him: I-him-call-perf I-him-call)
U-n’wi-langute [a-n’wi-languta]
(She kept on looking at him: she-him-look-perf she-him-look)
Va-yi-dye [va-yi-dya nyama leyi] vafana
(They keep on eating this meat the young men: they-it-eat they-it-eat meat
this young-men)
N’wana loyi u-ta-yi-dyondza [a-yi-dyondza] buku leyi
(This child will keep on reading this book: child this she-will-it-read she-it-read
book this)
The second change in the word order for the purpose of focus uses intrusion vs.
adjacency.
Xhosa
It is generally accepted that the syntactic object adheres to the rule of adjacency to
the verb, i.e. the object is adjacent to the verb in the closest possible position. When
the object is moved from this position for whatever reason, one always finds Agr on
the verb which is coindexed with this lexical object. However, it may sometimes
happen that some categories which are all functionally adverbial intrude between the
verb and this syntactic object without the object having any Agr on the verb. In all of
these cases there is heavy emphasis on this object, i.e. the object is placed in a
focus position. Various ka-adverbs may intrude in this fashion:
(49) a. Kusasa nditya [kamnandi] amaqanda, ndiyokusebenza
(In the morning I eat pleasantly but eggs and then I go to work)
b. Andithethi [kakuhle] isiXhosa
(I do not speak very well but Xhosa)
In negative sentences, the object may even lose its preprefix as in all negatives of
this type, but without losing its emphasis:
25
(50) Andizange ndifumane [kakuhle] buthongo
(I did not find very well but any sleep)
Various other phrases like prepositional phrases or locative noun phrases may
intrude in this way:
(51) a. Beka [phaya phambi kotata] esi sitya
(Put there before father but this plate)
b. Ndafumana [kwezi ntsuku] inkcazo ezeleyo
(I found in these days but a full explanation)
c. Ndisela [rhoqo] utywala
(I drink regularly but beer)
d. Ndipheka [kusasa] isidudu
(I cook in the morning but porridge)
e. Ndilima [ngeteletele] amasimi
(I plough with a tractor but the fields)
These sentences are normally used in the following two ways, the (a) sentence
without a clitic but adjacent to the verb, and the (b) sentence with a clitic where the
object has been moved:
(52) a. Ndilima amasimi ngeteletele
(I plough the fields with a tractor)
b. Ndiwalima ngeteletele amasimi
(I plough them with a tractor the fields)
Sesotho
See Malete (1996).
The object has to be complex NP, i.e. a NP with one or more modifiers or a
complicated relative clause. Below the adverb hantle has intruded between the verb
and the object:
(53) A-ba a-iposa hore na o-utlwile [hantle] [seo mohlankana yane wa maobane aneng a-se-bua]
(He asked himself whether he has heard rightly that which that young man of
yesterday was talking)
The object above is such a complicated relative clause. If the adverb hantle were to
be used after this relative, it may qualify the verb bua inside the relative.
Below the adverb butle appears before the object which is qualified by an adjective:
(54) O-ne a-ntse a-ithuta [butle] [ntho tse ngata] ho titjhere
(He was learning slowly many things from the teacher)
Various other adverbial expressions may intrude likewise, e.g. PPs with ka:
26
(55) Kaha re-tseba hore e-ne e-le motho ya-badileng, a-nahana [kapele] [pale ya
Chaka kamoo a-neng a-rere ho-iphetola sebata]
(Because we know that he was an educated person, he quickly thought about
the story of Chaka as he planned to change himself into a wild animal)
Locative noun phrases which may intrude in this manner, may themselves be quite
complex:
(56) O-ne a-bona [sefahlehong sa mora wa hae se ka pele ho yena] [tsohle tse ntle
tse-ratehang tseo pelo ya ngwana wa motho e-ka-di-lakatsang]
(He saw in the face of the son of his which is in front of him all that are beautiful,
loveable and which the heart of a child of a person may wish)
4.3
Objectival agreement
4.3.1 Agreemend and pro
Subjectival agreement and objectival agreement occur as prefixes of the verb in
morphology:
(57) Zulu:
Ba-ya-ngi-hlek-a
(They are laughing at me: AgrS2-lf-1ps.AgrO-laugh-fv)
ba is a subjectival morpheme and ngi an objectival morpheme. No overt NP subject
or object occur. In such cases Zulu uses the null subject or object parameter.
Phonologically empty pronominals, indicated as pro, may contain the grammatical
features of pronouns, i.e. person, number and gender and they may appear as
subject or object in the structure of sentences:
(58) [proi] bai-ya-ngij-hleka [proj]
The subject pro is coindexed with AgrS ba and the object pro with AgrO ngi.
4.3.2 AgrO with a lexical object
It is possible for a lexically realized object to co-occur with object agreement without
the presence of comma-intonation after the verb. This kind of co-occurrence of a
lexical object with the object agreement morpheme is correlated with a specific
semantic effect of emphasis which is absent when the lexical object is preceded by
comma-intonation. In the Sotho languages the object clitic does not regularly cooccur with a lexical object NP in postverbal position. An NP associated with the
object clitic regularly occurs in a sentence initial topic position in these languages.
The objectival agreement may co-occur with an object that is lexically realized. This
is exactly parallel to the case where the subject will be lexically realized:
Zulu:
(59) Amadoda a-ya-yi-hlaba imvu
(The men are slaughtering the sheep: men agrs-LF-agro-slaughter sheep))
The agreement morpheme coindexed with amadoda is a and with imvu it is yi.
However, the issue is more complicated than a simple problem of agreement in the
27
case of yi. Such sentences have two distinguishing semantic features of emphasis
which is not present when the AgrO is not used:
(60) a. Amadoda a-hlaba imvu
(The men are slaughtering a sheep)
b. Amadoda a-ya-yi-hlaba imvu
(The men do slaughter a sheep)
In (a) without the AgrO yi this semantic feature is not present. It seems then as if
structures like (b) with AgrO together with a lexical object have to be dealt with within
the broader framework of a theory of focus where imvu in (b) is thus in a focus
position. This semantic feature of emphasis appears with a present tense above. It
may be found in all moods and tenses:
Perfect Tense
(61) U-yi-vumile [into yokukulimela]
(He agreed to it the thing to plough for you)
Future Tense
(62) Nginethemba lokuthi ni-zo-ku-li-gcina [lelo gama]
(I hope that you will keep it that name)
Potential
(63) Nathi si-nga-yi-bona [impumelelo]
(We also can see it success)
Situative
(64) Ngiyohlala ngi-lu-qalekisa [usuku lokushada kwami]
(I will always curse it the day of my wedding)
Subjunctive
(65) Waphoqeleka ukuba a-li-shiye [lelo zwe]
(He was forced to leave it that country)
Infinitive
(66) Ngifunde uku-yi-thanda [leya ndawo]
(I learnt to like it that place)
The noun phrase appearing as object of a verb in the Sotho languages does not
regularly appear with objectival agreement if this noun phrase has some lexical
content.
(67) Ke-a-e-ja nama
(I eat it meat: AgrS-LF-AgrO-eat meat)
Although these sentences are not regarded as ungrammatical, it is usually
interpreted in such a way that the object nama is to be regarded to be in a special
28
focus position. A pause can be found between the verb ja and the object nama i.e. a
comma-intonation:
(68) Ke-a-e-ja, nama
The object nama regularly appears in a topic position in front of the sentence:
(69) Nama ke-a-e-ja
(Meat I eat it)
The topic NP nama is coindexed with the objectival agreement morpheme e which is
in turn coindexed with an empty pro:
(70) [Namai] [ke-a-ei-ja] [proi]
The topic NP must be associated with objectival agreement in the morphology of the
verb and this type of structure is frequently attested in the Sotho languages:
(71) [Taba enai] bahlankana ha-ba-ei-utlwe [proi]
(This matter the young men do not understand it)
4.3.3 Stylistic movement
See also Mletshe (1995), Tlaka (1997) and Nemudzivhadi (1995).
Once the structure has been established with both subjectival and objectival
agreement, the lexical subject and object may appear anywhere in the sentence.
This is a type of movement of noun phrases but this movement does not take place
within the syntax. It is regarded as stylistic movement and is usually dealt with in the
phonological component.
A simple sentence may theoretically have six different alternate forms depending on
where the subject and object have moved:
Venda:
(72) a. Vhana vha –a-zwi-t8od8a zwil8iwa
(Children they want it food: children agrs-LF-AgrO-want food))
b. Vha-a-zwi t8od8a vhana zwil8iwa
c. Vhana zwil8iwa vha-a-zwi-t8od8a
d. Zwil8iwa vha-a-zwi-t8od8a vhana
e. Vha-a-zwi-t8od8a zwil8iwa vhana
f.
Zwil8iwa vhana vha-a-zwi-t8od8a
These different sentences, all with the same meaning but dependent on previous
discourse and/or emphasis, are made possible because of the presence of two
different agreement morphemes : a subjectival agreement morpheme and an
objectival agreement morpheme.
29
It must be noted that the different alternations are only possible because the subject
and object have different class features. If these two belong to the same class, the
alternations would not be possible:
(73) Musadzi u-a-mu-vhona n(wana
(The woman sees her the girl)
The subject and the object belong to class 1 and thus share the same agreement.
4.4
Coordinated objects
For coordination see i.a. Mahlomaholo (1993), Moloto (1992), Ramaliba (1992),
Sineke (1997) and Siwundla (1987).
The syntactic object may be a coordinated noun phrase. Coordinated noun phrases
may use a conjunct in structures like the following:
(74) DP le DP
Coordinated DPs may be generated without any problem.
Sesotho:
(75) a. Ke-batla [bohobe le lehe]
(I want bread and an egg)
b. Ke-bona [motorokara le sethuthuthu]
(I saw a car and a motorcycle)
The structure above presents problems when objectival agreement has to be
addressed. The verb will then have AgrO which will have to agree with the
coordinated noun phrase.
Six different issues must then be solved to establish objectival agreement. In the first
place, if one of the coordinated NP’s is a member with the feature [first person],
either singular or plural, then the coordinated NP will have the features [first person,
plural]:
Sesotho:
(76) Ba-a-re-batla [nna le wena]
(They want us me and you)
Zulu:
Ba-ya-si-funa [mina nawe]
Venda :
Vha-a-ri-t8od8a [nn8e na inwi]
Tsonga
Va-hi-lava [mina na wena]
When one of the coordinated NP’s is in the second person without any first person
being present in the coordination, the coordinated NP will be second person plural:
30
Venda:
(77) Vha-a-ni-sola [inwi na munna]
(They are gossiping about you you and the man)
If both members of the coordination have the feature [human] the agreement will be
class 2, i.e. vha in Venda:
(78) a. Ndi-a-vha-vhona [mut8hannga na munna]
(I see them the young man and the man)
b. Ndo-vha-rwa [vhatukana na zwihole]
(I have beaten them the boys and the cripples)
c. Vho-vha-fara [vhasadzi na dzimbava]
(They have caught them the women and the thieves)
d. Ndo-vha-vhona [muimbi na tshilombe]
(I have seen them a singer and a dancer)
When they are both [+animal] or [-animate] they will accept the agreement of class 8,
i.e. zwi:
[+animal]
(79) a. Vho-zwi-rwa [mmbwa na zwimange]
(They have beaten them the dog and the cats)
b. Ndo-zwi-wana [kholomo na tshibokot8o] mulamboni
(I have found them the cow and the he-goat at the river)
When one of the coordinated NP’s is human and the other non-human, the AgrO will
only accept the agreement of the NP with the feature [human]:
(80) Ndi-a-mu-vhona [munna na bere]
(I see him the man and the horse)
It may frequently happen that one of the coordinated NP’s is not used, but is implied:
(81) a. Tshilimo ndi-nwa veini tshena fhedzi vhuria ndi-nwa [na veini tswuku]
(In summer I drink white wine but in winter I drink also red wine)
b. Tshikoloni ndo-lingedza dzot8he thero u-swikela ndi-tshi-phasa [na
d8ivhambalo]
(In school I tried them all the subjects until I passed even arithmetic)
AgrO may be found on the verb:
(82) a. Ndi kale ndi-tshi-l8i-t8od8a [na hel8o dzina]
(It is long ago that I want it also that name)
b.
No-vha-vhona [na havha vhathu]
(You saw even these people)
The other languages follow the same pattern as above for Venda:
31
Sesotho:
When one of the coordinated NP’s is in the second person without any first person
being present in the coordination, the coordinated NP will be second person plural:
(83) Ba-a-le-tsheha [wena le monna]
(They are laughing at you you and the man)
For the issues of objectival agreement with coordinated NPs see Mahlomaholo
(1993):
If both members of the coordination have the feature [human]:
a.
Both members are in the same noun class: the objectival agreement of the
plural class will appear:
Class 1: AgrO is ba of class 2:
(84) a. Ke-utlwile [monna le mosadi]
(I heard the man and the woman)
b.
Ke-ba-utlwile [monna le mosadi]
(I heard them the man and the woman)
Class 3: AgrO is e of class 4:
(85) a. Ke-bona molata le mothepa
(I see a foreigner and a young lady)
b.
Ke-a-e-bona [molata le mothepa]
(I see them the foreigner and the young lady)
Class 5: AgrO is a of class 6:
(86) a. Ke-bitsa letlaila le lehlanya
(I am calling the simpletion and the lunatic)
b. Ke-a-a-bitsa [letlaila le lehlanya]
(I am calling them the simpleton and the lunatic)
b.
The members of the coordinated NP are in different noun classes: AgrO is ba
of Class 2:
(87) a. Ke-bona [mosadi le lesea]
(I see a woman and a baby)
b. Ke-a-ba-bona [mosadi le lesea]
(I see them a woman and a baby)
Mosadi is in class 1 and lesea in class 5.
The same agreement resolution as above may occur in coordinated NPs with other
features than [human]. Consider the following features:
32
[+animal]:
Class 7: Agr is di of class 8:
(88) a. Ke-rata [setsetse le sephooko]
b. Ke-a-di-rata
(I like the wildcat and the owl)
Class 3: Agr is e of class 4:
(89) a. Ke-bona [mosha le mmutla]
b. Ke-a-e-bona
(I see a meercat and a hare)
Different noun classes: Agr is di of class 10:
(90) a. Monna o-ruile [ntja le mmutla]
b. Monna o-di-ruile
(The man reared a dog and a hare)
[-animate]:
Class 5: Agr of class 6 is a:
(91) a. Ke-bona [letsha le le tamo]
(I see lake and dam)
b. Ke-a-a-bona
Class 9: Agr of class 10 di :
(92) a. Banna ba-phuthela [nkgo le ketele]
b. Banna ba-a-di-phuthela
(The men are wrapping the claypot and kettle)
Different noun classes: Agr is di of class 10:
(93) a. Mosadi o-sebedisa [nkgo le sekwahelo]
b. Mosadi o-a-di-sebedisa
(The woman uses the claypot and the lid)
[+human] and [+animal]:
If the members of a coordinated NP have different features as above the human
feature will dominate so that the AgrO will be ba of class 2, i.e. the human noun
class:
33
(94) a. Ke-bona [motho le nkwe]
b. Ke-a-ba-bona
(I see a person and the tiger)
a. Re-bona [badisana le ditweba]
b. Re-a-ba-bona
(We see the herdboys and the mice)
When these two membes are in the same noun class, the AgrO will accept the plural
Agr of that class, e.g. if both are in class 3, the Agr will be class 4:
(95) a. Re-bona [mothepa le mosha]
b. Re-a-e-bona
(We see the young lady and the meercat)
Tsonga:
When one of the coordinated NP’s is in the second person without any first person
being present in the coordination, the coordinated NP will be second person plural:
(96) Va-mi-hleva [wena na wanuna]
(They are gossiping about you you and the man)
If both members of the coordination have the feature [human] the agreement will be
class 2:
(97) Ndza-va-vona [mufana na wunana]
(I see them the young man and the man)
When they are both [-human] the plural agreement of one of the nouns may be
accepted:
(98) Va-swi-xavile [xinkwa na mihandzu]
(They bought them bread and fruit)
Or the agreement issue may be resolved through emphasis. The clitic will have the
agreement of the emphasized NP, whichever it is:
(99) a. A-ndzi-xi-voni [xihari na murhi]
(I don’t see it the wild animal and the tree)
b. A-ndzi-wu-voni [murhi na xihari]
(I don’t see it the wild animal and the tree)
When one of the coordinated NP’s is human and the other non-human, the clitic will
only accept the agreement of the NP with the feature [human]:
(100) Ndza-n’wi-vona [wanuna na hanci]
(I see him the man and the horse)
It may frequently happen that one of the coordinated NP’s is not used, but is implied:
34
(101)
Hi ximumu ndzi-nwa wayini yo basa kambe hi xixika ndzi-nwa [na wayini yo
tshwuka]
(In summer I drink white wine but in winter I drink also red wine)
Zulu:
When one of the coordinated NP’s is in the second person without any first person
being present in the coordination, the coordinated NP will be second person plural:
(102) Bayanihleba [wena nendoda]
(They are gossiping about you you and the man)
If both members of the coordination have the feature [human] the agreement will be
class 2:
(103) Ngiyababona [umfana nendoda]
(I see them the young man and the man)
But when they are both [-human] and the two NP’s belong to the ame class, they will
accept the plural agreement of that class:
(104) Bazithengile [isinkwa nesithelo]
(They bought them bread and fruit)
If however the two NP’s belong to different classes, both with the feature [-human],
the agreement issue will have to be resolved through emphasis. The clitic will have
the agreement of the emphasized NP, whichever it is:
(105) a. [Angisiboni isilo nomuthi]
(I don’t see it the wild animal and the tree)
b. [Angiwuboni umuthi nesilo]
(I don’t see it the wild animal and the tree)
When one of the coordinated NP’s is human and the other non-human, the clitic will
only accept the agreement of the NP with the feature [human]:
(106) Ngiyayibona [indoda nehashe]
(I see him the man and the horse)
It may frequently happen that one of the coordinated NP’s is not used, but is implied:
(107) Ehlobo ngiphuza iwayini elimhlophe kodwa ebusika ngiphuza [newayini
elibomvu]
(In summer I drink white wine but in winter I drink also red wine)
4.5
Locative noun phrases
Locative noun phrases used to have heads with their own noun class and as such
they appeared in all different positions in a clause. The locative noun has mostly lost
this ability although some remnants of this use can still be detected. Thus, a locative
noun phrase may appear as the object of the verb but under certain conditions.
Firstly, the verb has to be an abstract verb and not a concrete verb:
35
(108) Zulu:
Ngi-ya-kw-azi eKapa
(I know it in Cape Town: 1ps-LF-agro-know in-Cape-Town))
Secondly, the agreement ku must appear with the object and be coindexed with it.
The same conditions apply to Tsonga and Venda:
(109) Tsonga: a.
b.
Venda:
Ndza-ku-tiva [eCape Town]
(I know it in Cape Town)
Ndza-ku-chava [lahaya ehansi ka ntshava]
(I am afraid there at the bottom of the mountain)
Ndi-a-hu-d8ivha Kapa
(I know it in Cape Town)
Locative noun phrases cannot appear as the object of the verb in Sesotho but it tis
allowed in Northern Sotho:
(110) Northern Sotho Ke-a-go-tseba Kapa]
(I know it in Cape Town)
Secondly the clitic ku in Nguni, go in NS and ku in Venda must always be used
together with the object and coindexed with it. In Sotho no clitic is allowed. Such
locative NPs may only appear as adjuncts:
(111) Ke-a-tseba Kapa
(I know in Cape Town)
4.6
Nominal infinitives
See i.a. Sadiki (1992), Tshithukhe (1997), Tunzelana (1993) and Motaung (1991).
Nominal Infinitives are nouns derived from verbs. As such these verbs retain their
argument structure. The subject is to be found in a possessive phrase while the
syntactic object takes the position after this possessive phrase in surface structure.
All Nominal Infinitives are furthermore morphologically marked with a prefix:
Tsonga:
(112) a. [Ku-yimbelela ka vona risimu] ka-tsakisa swinene
(Their singing a song is very nice)
b. [Ku-ba ka mudyondzisi vana] ku-terisa vusiwana/swa-vavisa
(The teacher’s hitting of the children is sad)
The complement risimu retains its status as syntactic object even though it is no
longer adjacent to the verb. It can be seen from the Agro of this object when it is
placed on the verb yimbelela:
(113) [Ku-ri-yimbelela ka vona [risimu]
(Their singing of it the song)
36
Venda:
(114) a. [U-imba havho luimbo] hu-a-d8ifhisa
(Their singing a song is very nice)
b. [U-rwa ha mudededzi vhana] hu-a-t8ungufhadza
(The teacher’s hitting of the chidlren is sad)
With agreement of the object:
(115) U-lu-imba havho luimbo]
(Their singing of it the song)
Sesotho:
(116) a. [Ho-bina ha bona pina] ho monate haholo
(Their singing a song is very nice)
b. [Ho-otla ha titjhere bana] ho-utlwisa bohloko
(The teacher’s hitting of the children is sad)
The phrase in brackets is the nominal Infinitive.
With agreement of the object:
(117) Ho-e-bina ha bona pina
(Their singing of it the song)
4.7
The sentential pronoun as object
Tsonga
There is a sentential pronoun whose reference is some sentence in discourse. This
pronoun may appear together with a demonstrative pronoun. The objectical
agreement of class 8 swi may occur with the demonstrative leswo:
(118) a. Vanhu lava va-dyaka vanhu namuntlha lava nga emahlweni ka hina, vaswi-endlile hikwalaho ka ndala
(These people who are today cannibals who are before us, they did that
because of hunger)
b. Vakulukhumba vamufana loko va-n’wi-vona a-endla leswo, va-hleketile kun’wi-lavela nsati
(The elders of the young man when they saw him doing that, they decided
to look for a wife for him)
c. Nomsa u-feyirile xikambelo. Tatana u-swi-twile
(Nomsa failed the examination. Father heard it)
Venda
As in Tsonga, class 8 agreement may appear with a demonstrative pronoun:
(119) [O-feila mulingo.] Khotsi vho-[zwi]-pfa [hezwo]
(Nomsa failed the examination. Father heard it that)
37
Sesotho
In Sesotho we find a demonstrative pronoun hoo with this function:
(120) a. (i)
Batho bana bao e-leng madimo kajeno ba kapele ho nna le lona,
ba-entse [hoo] hobane ba-ne ba-kgannwa ke lephako
(These people who are today cannibals who are before me and you,
they did that becaue they were driven by hunger)
(ii) Baholo ba mohlankana ha ba-mmona a-etsa [hoo] ba-rera ka ntle ho
yena ho-mo-batlela mosadi
(The elders of the young man when they saw him doing that, they
decided without him to look for a wife for him)
The Absolute Pronoun hona, whose original reference is also to the locative classes,
may appear in the same way as hoo as an indefinite or sentential pronoun:
b.
O-ne a-dumela hore morena ha-a-lokele ho-etsa [hona], hobane
o-tla-nwaa-thabe haholo ho-feta tekanyo
(He believed that a chief must not do that because he will drink and rejoice
immoderately)
The indefinite hoo or hona may be topicalized like any other noun phrase. In such
cases they appear in front of the sentence and are coindexed with a clitic ho on the
verb. This ho also has an original reference to some locative class nouns but its
reference is now indefinite like hoo or hona with which it is coindexed:
c.
[Hona] a-[ho]-bontsha ka ho-kakalla, a-edimola kgafetsa; ere a-qeta
ho-etsa jwalo, a-shebe nako
(That he showed it by lying on his back whilst yawning frequently, when he
finished to do so, he looked at the time)
Xhosa
The agreement morpheme ku appears with a demonstrative such as oku or oko:
(121)
UNomsa u-lu-tshonile uviwo. Ubawo u-ku-vile oko
(Nomsa failed the examination. My father heard that)
The clitic ku refers to the sentence in brackets. This sentence may be missing in
pragmatic context:
(122)
a.
Oku ndikubuzayo kufanelekile
(This which I ask you is fitting)
b.
Abazali bakhe bakuba bekuvile oko, babhala incwadi bebulela
utitshala
(When his parents head that, they wrote a letter thanking the teacher)
In the place of the demonstrative oku or oko one may find a relative clause as object.
This relative sentence must also have the clitic ku:
(123)
Bangakutsho abakuthandayo
(They may say (it) what they like (it)
38
In the last place, a quantifier with onke can be used together with the demonstrative
oku or oko:
(124) a. Konke oku sikucela kuwe
(All this we are requesting it from you)
b. Konke oko wayesele ekuqondile okokuba kwenziwe ngabo
(All that he already understood it that it was done by them)
4.8
Subject and object in the relative clause
See also Makgopa (1996), Mathalauga (1997), Mletshe (1995), Legodi (1995),
Mabaso (1996), Nxumalo (1994) and Tsanwani (1997).
The subject of a relative clause in Nguni may be moved: this subject usually lands at
the end of a relative clause:
(125) a. NguThemba [emkhonkothayo inja]
(It is Themba for whom the dog is barking)
b. Yizembe [agawula ngalo isihlahla lo mfo]
(It is an axe with which this chap is cutting the tree)
The subjects inja and lo mfo have been moved to the position at the end of the
relative clause. Such movement has no syntactic influence on the structure of the
sentence.
Of more interest seems to be the compulsory presence of AgrO on the verb in the
relative clause. It is a necessary condition of all relative clauses that the antecedent
must be present in the relative clause in one way or another. It can be done in
various ways, i.a. through the presence of AgrO:
(126) Uyizwa kahle [le nto [uthisha ayikhulumayo]?
(Do you understand it this thing which the teacher is speaking it?)
The antecedent is le nto and this antecedent is present in the relative clause through
its coindexed clitic yi on the verb khuluma. This clitic coindexed with an empty NP is
also sometimes referred to as a resumptive pronoun in the literature. The
antecedent le nto has no argument status on its own and thus no theta-role. This
antecedent together with the following relative clause is the argument of the verb zwa.
Thus the resumptive pronoun is also referred to as a variable bound by an operator,
the antecedent.
The object of a relative verb may be moved through intrusion of a PP. This type of
intrusion is most notable in prepositional phrases where the object then has to move:
(127) Liphi [izembe [agawula [ngalo isihlahla lo mfo?]
(Where is the axe with which this chap is cutting the tree?)
The PP ngalo has intruded between the verb gawula and the object isihlahla (tree).
These issues of the relative clause esp. with regard to the object are also apparent in
the other languages:
39
Sesotho:
(128) O-utlwisisa [ntho ena [eo titjhere a-e-buang?]
(Do you understand it this thing which the teacher is speaking it?)
The antecedent is ntho ena and this antecedent is present in the relative clause
though its coindexed clitic e on the verb bua.
The object of a relative verb may be moved through intrusion of a PP.
(129) Se kae selepe [seo monna enwa a-remang [ka sona] sefate ?]
(Where is the axe with which this chap is cutting the tree ?)
The PP ka sona has intruded between the verb rema and the object sefate.
Tsonga
(130) U-twisisa mhaka [leyi mudyondzisi a-yi-vulavulaka?]
(Do you understand thing which the teacher is speaking it?)
The antecedent is mhaka and this antecedent is present in the relative clause
through its coindexed clitic yi on the verb vulavula.
The object of a relative verb may be moved through intrusion of a PP.
(131) Xi kwihi xihloka [lexi mufana loyi a-tsemaka [hi xona] muthi]?
(Where is the axe with which this chap is cutting the tree?)
The PP hi xona has intruded between the verb tsema and the object murhi.
Venda
(132) Khaphui [dze ra-dzii-wana]
(Trophies that we got them)
The antecedent is khaphu and this antecedent is present in the relative clause
through its coindexed clitic dzi on the verb wana.
However, it is not compulsory for the clitic to be present in Venda. Relative clauses in
Venda frequently appear without any overt reference to the antecedent with relatives
which have a relative determiner with ne or e:
(133) Zwikolo [zwe [vha-thoma]]
(The schools which they started)
No clitic zwi of the antecedent zwikolo appears on the verb thoma.
The object of a relative verb may be moved through intrusion of a PP.
(134) I ngafhi mbad8o [ine uyu munna a-khou-rema [ngayo] muri?
(Where is the axe with which this chap is cutting the tree?)
The PP ngayo has intruded between the verb rema and the object muri.
4.9
Interrogatives
40
See also Mletshe (1995), Mothapo (1994), Mpola (1996), Tlaka (1997),
Tshikhwalivha (1995), Nemudzivhadi (1995).
When interrogative words are used together with objects in Zulu and Xhosa, the
interrogative word has to appear immediately adjacent to the verb. In such cases the
verb must always have objectival agreement with the object because the object is
never adjacent to verbs in questions:
(135) a. Uyifumene phi uThemba le moto ?
(He got it where Themba this car ?)
b. Ungazithenga ngantoni izityo ezinjengeziya?
(With what can you buy dishes like those?)
c. Uthetha ukumkhapha njani lo mfundi?
(How do you mean to accompany this student?)
d. Lo mzi ndandiwenze ntoni na?
(What did I do to this village?)
e. Siza kuyithini na le nto?
(What will we do with this thing?)
Once this agreement has been established (see yi and le moto) the object may
appear in any position through stylistic movement. Thus le moto appears even after
the stylistically moved subject uThemba and before the subject.
Interrogative words have no real influence on the sentence structure in other
languages. Such interrogative words will take their normal place after the object:
(136) Venda:
Wo-vona [avho vhathu] [ngafhi]?
(You saw those people where?)
Sesotho: O-tla-lema [poone] [neng]?
(You will plant mealies when?)
4.10 Passive
In passive sentences the verb appears with the passive morpheme [-w-] and the
object may be copied on the subject position:
(137) Venda: [Avha vhathu] [vha-a-vhidz-w-a] [avha vhathu]
(These people are called)
[Avha vhathu] has been copied in the subject position and its appearance in the
object position will be deleted in the phonological component.
4.11 The Universal Quantifier
See i.a. Moletsane (1992), and Du Plessis and Visser (1992).
Certain restrictions on the use of the “long forms” of tenses may fall away with the
universal Quantifier in an NP in object position.
Xhosa onke:
41
Present Tense
(138) a. Ndibiza [bonke abantu]
(I am calling all the people)
b. Ndibiza [abantu bonke]
c. Ndi-ba-biza [bonke abantu]
d. Ndi-ba-biza [abantu bonke]
e. Ndi-ya-ba-biza [bonke abantu]
f.
Ndi-ya-ba-biza [abantu bonke]
Perfect Tense
(139) a. Sishiye bonke abantwana eKapa
(We left all the children at Cape Town)
b. Sishiye [abantwana bonke] eKapa
c. Si-ba-shiye bonke abantwana eKapa
d. Si-ba-shiye [abantwana bonke] eKapa
e. Si-ba-shiyile [bonke abantwana] eKapa
f.
Si-ba-shiyile [abantwana bonke] eKapa
With an object used without onke one should expect c) and d) to be unacceptable:
(140) a. *Ndi-ba-biza abantwana
b. *Ndi-ba-bize abantwana
The agreement marker ba is usually used in the “long form” of the tense together
with the object abantwana:
(141) a. Ndi-ya-ba-biza abantwana
b. Ndi-ba-bizile abantwana
It is evident then that onke as part of an object of a sentence does not conform to the
general use of the objects in tenses: it allows a third tense form in (c, d).
The Universal Quantifier forces the same restrictions on the so-called “long forms” of
tenses in the other languages:
42
Tsonga hinkwa-pro:
Present Tense
(142) a. Ndzi-vita [vanhu hinkwavo]
(I call all the children)
b.Ndzi-va-vita [hinkwavo vanhu]
c. Ndza-a-va-vita [hinkwavo vana] eCape Town
Short form
d. *Ndzi-va-vita vana
Long form
(143) a. Ndza-va-vita [vana]
b. Ndzi-va-vitile [vana]
Venda ot8he
(144) a. Ndi-vhidza [vhot8he vhathu]
(I am calling all the people)
b. Ndi-[vha]-vhidza [vhot8he vhathu]
c. Ndi-a-[vha]-vhidza [vhot8he vhathu]
Short form:
d. *Ndi-vha-vhidza vhathu
Long form:
e. Ndi-a-vha-vhidza vhathu
Northern Sotho ohle
(145) a. Ke bitsa [batho bohle]
(I am calling all the people)
b. Ke-ba-bitsa [batho bohle]
c. Ke-a-ba-bitsa [batho bohle]
Short form
d. *Ke-ba-bitsa batho
Long form:
e. Ke-a-ba-bitsa batho
4.12 Transitive ideophones
See Neethling (1972), Molotsi (1993), Malima (1993), Gxowa (1994), Nokele (1996).
Ideophones are introduced into sentence structures by means of the verb re or thi
which serves as bearer of Inflection and derivation. As such one may then also find
43
ideophones in two-place predicates where one of the arguments is the syntactic
object:
Sesotho
(146) a. O-itse tjhwabo [molamu]
‘He snatched the kierie)
A-re kome [dipompong]
He threw the sweets into his mouth)
The ideophone itself and not the verb re assigns two arguments, an external and an
internal argument:
(147) a. [Thabang] [a-re [tshekge] [lamunu]]]
(Thabang throws an orange)
b. [Moya] [wa-re [kgokgorokgoro] [lekoko]
(The wind blows a dry skin)
c. [Mmaditaba] [a-re [qhwaqhwanqhwa]] [ditaba]
(Mmaditaba says a few concise news)
d. [Metsi] [a-re [thekge]] [letamo]
(The water destroys a dam)
e. [Pere] [ya-re [phekge]] [petsana]
(A horse kicks a foal)
The following NPs are the external arguments and the heads of argument structure:
[Thabang], [Moya], [Mmaditaba], [Metsi] and [Pere]. All the above Nps are assigned
the θ-role of Agent. The internal arguments are all assigned a θ-role of Theme, i.e.
[lamunu], [Lekoko], [Ditaba], [Letamo] and [Petsana].
The internal argument can appear before the ideophone
The internal argument in Sesotho can appear before the ideophone. This occurrence
does not change the meaning of the sentence. This is a matter of emphasis on the
concerned NP or ideophone. Secondly this is an instance of stylistic movement.
(148) Moya wa-re [kukuru] lekoko
(A wind knocks against a dry skin)
The emphasis is on the ideophone [kukuru] and not on the NP [lekoko]
(149) Moya wa-re [lekoko] kukuru
(A wind knocks against a dry skin)
The emphasis is on the NP [lekoko] and not on the ideophone [kukuru].
An empty pro with a clitic
Ideophones can appear with an empty pro. In this case no overt NP object occur.
The empty pro is coindexed with the clitic (objectival concord). The empty pro in
subject position is coindexed with agreement in inflection (subjectival concord). The
clitic is associated with the empty object pro which contains the grammatical features
exhibited by the clitic:
44
(150) a. O-mo-re jaa
[proi AGRi [cli-re jaa proi]
(He smacks him)
b. Masole a-re nya ditjhaba
Masole a-di-re nya
Masole AGR –cli-re nya proi]
(Soldiers kill nations)
c. Katse ya-re nyahla tweba
Katse ya-e-re nyahla
Katse AGR [cli-re nyahla proi]
(A cat drops a mouse)
d. Monna o-re molamu twatla
Monna o-o-re twatla
Monna AGR [cli-re twatla proi]
(The man breaks the stick)
Empty pro’s in the above sentences will have the features of the coindexed element,
i.e. the feature of person, number and gender which all pronouns have. The first pro
is coindexed with AGR of class 1 and the second pro with the clitic mo of class 1 in
(150a). The missing surface structure subject and object in the above sentences may
be recovered because of the richness of the morphology.
Venda:
Non-derived ideophones
(151) [Mutukana o-mbo-d8i-ri pferu [mulilo]]
(The youngman suddenly struck a match)
The ideophone assigns one theta-role to the NP in the subject position and it also
assigns one theta-role to the NP in the object position. These theta-roles may be the
agent and theme.
The ideophones may appear after the internal argument. The ideophone with the
verb ri does allow an internal argument between them.
The verb ri may be deleted in both instances.
With ri
(152) a. (i)
O-mbo-d8i-ri tupu [muri ul8a]
(He/she eradicated that tree)
(ii) O-mbo-d8i-ri [miri ul8a] tupu!
(He/she that tree eradicated)
b. (i)
O-mbo-d8i-ri dobo [mbad8o il8a]
(He/she picked up that axe)
(ii) O-mbo-d8i-ri [mbad8o il8a] dobo!
(He/she picked up that axe)
45
c. (i)
Vho-mbo-d8i-ri [nnd8u il8a] phamu!
(They opened that house forcefully)
(ii) Vho-mbo-d8i-ri phamu [nnd8u il8a]
(He that house opened forcefully)
d. (i)
O-mbo-d8i-ri dzhavhu! [thonga il8a]
(He took that stick forcefully)
(ii) O-mbo-d8i-ri [thonga il8a] dzhavhu !
(He that stick take forcefully)
(He took that stick forcefully)
e. (i)
O-mbo-d8i-ri pferu! (ul8a mulilo)
(He struck the match box)
(ii) O-mbo-d8i-ri [ul8a mulilo] pferu!
(He the match box struck)
(He struck the match box)
Without ri
(153) a. (i)
O-mbo-d8i tupu [miri ul8a]
(He/she eradicated that tree)
(ii) O-mbo-d8i [muri ul8a] tupu!
(He/she that tree eradicated)
(He/she eradicated that tree)
b. (i)
O-mbo-d8i dobo [mbad8o il8a]
(He/she picked up that axe)
(ii) O-mbo-d8i [mbad8o il8a] dobo!
(He/she that axe picked up)
(He/she picked up that axe)
c. (i)
Vho-mbo-d8i [nnd8u il8a] phamu!
(They opened that house forcefully)
(ii) Vho-mbo-d8i phamu [nnd8u il8a]
(He that house opened forcefully)
d. (i)
O-mbo-d8i dzhavhu! [thonga il8a]
(He took that stick forcefully)
(ii) O-mbo-d8i [thonga il8a] dzhavhu!
(He that stick take forcefully)
(He took that stick forcefully)
e. (i)
O-mbo-d8i [pferu! [ul8a mulilo]
(He struck the match box)
46
(ii) O-mbo-d8i [ul8a mulilo] pferu!
(He the match box struck)
(He struck the match box)
Derived ideophones from verbs
(154) [Mutukana [o-ri rahi bola]]
(The boy just kicked the ball)
The ideophone is rahi which is derived from the verb raha.
Derived ideophone from nouns
(155) [N(wana [o halifhisa mubebi])
(The child angered the parent)
The verb halifhisa has two theta-roles, experiencer and patient. The same type of
assignment of theta-roles may appear with ideophones:
(156) [N(wana [o-ri halifhisi mubebi])
(The child just angered the parent)
External argument may appear in an empty position
The verb ri serves as the bearer of both subjectival and objectival agreement:
(157) [Ho-tou-ri wee!
(It is clear white)
[Proj [Agri [VP]]]
[Ho [tou-ri-kelengende]]
(It is cloudless)
[Proj [Agri [VP [V ri kelengende]]]]
The internal argument may be empty
The subjectival concords and objectival concords (clitics) occur as prefixes of the
verb in morphology:
(158) [proi] oi-mbo-d8i-uj-ri tupu [proj]
(He eradicated it)
Tsonga
(159) a. A-ku swiwitsi bon’we
(He threw the sweets into his outh)
b. Va-lo-n’wi-katla mufana
(They grabbed this young man)
Objectival agreement may appear in conjunction with an empty NP as pronoun or as
agreement marker with a lexical object:
(160) A-ku-mu-nyemu [pro]
(He gave him a dirty look)
47
Only the infinitive ku may appear above.
Xhosa
(161) a. U-the khwasu wathi hlasi [i-emele]
(He stood up suddenly and quickly took the bucket)
b. Bathe nqaku [lo mfana]
(They grabbed this young man)
c. Ijoji lithe qhiwu [umkhonto walo]
(The soldier held his spear up)
d. Wathi rhuthu [intonga yakhe]
(He took out his kierie)
e. Wathi xhiphu [uZodwa]
(He grabbed Zodwa’
The verb thi which is used together with the Ideophone also serves as the bearer of
the clitic either in conjunction with an empty NP as pronoun, or as agreement marker
with a lexical object:
(162) a. Ngobu busuku akazange abuthi cwe (ubuthongo)
(In this night he never found a little sleep)
b. Bandithi jezu [pro]
(They glanced at me)
c. Wamthi chwethe [uThemba] wawa phantsi
(He just touched Themba and he fell down)
d. Kwangathi kukho ilifu elimnyama elimthi gubungu [pro]
(It was as if there is a black cloud which suddenlty covers him)
Other transitive ideophones in Xhosa
(163) Ba-the nqaku lo mfana
(They grabbed this young man)
Inyosi ya-m-thi mvi engalweni umntwana
(The bee bit the child on the arm)
Indoda i-thi tshi inkwenkwe
(The man binds the boy tightly)
Inkwenkwe ya-lu-thi genqe ucango
(The boy opened the door widely)
Ndi-wu-the ncincilili umsebenzi
(I completed work)
Inyoka i-the bimbilili isele
(The snake swallowed the frog)
48
Ikratshi li-m-the lwale umfazi
(Conceit filled the woman)
Wa-lu-thi qununu ucingo
(He made the fence strong)
Nda-yi-thi rhawu indoda
(I glared at the man)
(164) Transitive ideophone and verb
Verb: khamfula, ideophone khamfu
Ipolisa la-m-thi khamfu laa mntu
Ipolisa la-m-khamfula laa mntu
(The policeman seized that person)
Verb: rhabula, ideophone rhabu
Nda-li-thi rhabu ithamo
Nda-li-rhabula ithamo
I took a sip of liquid
Verb: qongqoloza, ideophone qongqololo
Wa-bu-thi qongqololo utywala
Wa-bu-qongqoloza utywala
He drank all the beer
Verb: qhaqha, ideophone qhaqhe
Nda-yi-thi qhaqhe ilokhwe
Nda-yi-qhaqha ilokhwe
I unpicked the dress
Verb: tsheca, ideophone tshece
Bda-yi-thi tshece intambo ngemela
Nda-yi-tsheca intambo ngemela
I cut the rope with a knife
Verb: nywamla, ideophone nywam
Iinkomo zi-wu-the nywam umbona
IInkomo zi-wu-nywamle umbona
(Cattle ate up all the mealies)
Verb: nqwema, ideophone nqweme
Wa-si-thi nqweme isidungulu senyama
Wa-si-nqwema isidugulu senyama
(He cut a piece of meat)
Verb: nyolula, ideophone nyolulu
Wa-li-thi nyolulu inquma lewulu
Wa-li-nyolula inquma lewulu
(He unwound skein of wool)
Verb: tshiphula, ideophone tshiphu
Nda-m-thi tshiphu umntwana
Nda-m-tshiphula umntwana
(I punished lightly child)
49
Verb: qhewula, ideophone qhewu
Ndi-zi-the qhewu iinkomo
Ndi-zi-qhewule iinkomo
(I headed off cattle)
Verb: phekuza, ideophone pheku
Wa-yi-thi pheku igusha
Wa-yi-phekuza igusha
(He turned back sheep)
Verb: qoba, ideophone qobo
Wa-m-thi qobo ngeliso
Wa-m-qoba ngeliso
(He winked at him)
4.1.3 Transitive verbs with two NPs
Sesotho:
(165) Ba ntsha monna kotsi
(They wound the man)
Ba ntsha titjhere phoso
(They criticise the teacher)
Mmaene e fetotse basadi bahlolohadi, e fetotse bana dikgutsana
(A mine changed women into widows, it changed children into orphans)
Mokganni o ntlhoma potso
(The driver puts a question to me)
O ntse a mo hlomakaka dipotso
(He put a lot of questions to him)
Ke rata ho tseba hoo wena o ho bitsang toro
(I like to know that which you call it a dream)
O leka ho nnoha maikutlo feela?
(Are you trying to guess me the feelings only?)
Ke kgathatsehile haholo le ha wena o e bitsa masawana ntho ena
(I am very worried, even when you call it as nothing/a joke this thing)
Ba ne ba ntse ba mmeile leihlo
(They put an eye on him)
Lena lekgowa le nketsa moshanyana
(This white man is making a boy out of me)
Ke utlwa bohloko bo boholo ka ketso eo ke neng ke e etse monnamoholo eo
(I am sorry for the deed I did to that old man)
Ke utlwa nnete ya seo lona le neng le nketse sona
(I hear the truth of that you did to me)
Metswalle ya hae e ne e dula e mo jele ditsheho
(His friends were sitting and laughed at him)
Tsela ena le bona ba ne ba e bona bobe ba yona
(This road even they saw it its badness)
Batswadi ba ne ba ka o bona mafolomabe
(Parents could see you the vices)
50
Setjhaba sa etsa ditlatse tse thibang motho ditsebe
(People made applause which close a person’s ears)
Letsatsi lena le leholo le tla nne le ba ame dipelo
(This big day will touch their hearts)
Ra ba bata maqeba a mangata
(We struck them many wounds)
A hlakola mosadi dikgapha
(He wiped woman tears)
O nteka tumelo hakaakang
(He tempted me faith how much)
A mo kwala molomo ka setebele
(He closed him mouth with fist)
A hlohla bahlankana dipelo habohloko
(He irritated young men hearts painfully i.e. he made them angry)
O ne a matha ka bolo, a e hata habedi feela e mong a bile a mo amohile yona
(He ran with the ball and kicked it twice but another one took it away from him)
Ba ne ba batla ho amoha Lebasa borena ba hae
(They wanted to take away from Lebasa his chieftainship)
Ditaba tsena di ntubile moya haholo
(This news affected me greatly)
Sekolo se tla o etsa monna wa nnete
(The school will make you a real man)
Ke tla etsa dithupana ngatana e le nngwe
(I will make the small switches into one bundle)
Ke tla ba fepa papa
(I will feed them porridge)
Tafole e adilwe lesela le leswana
(The table is spread a white cloth)
Ke adile tafole lesela le leswana
(I spread the table a white cloth)
Ba akile monna letsoho
(They kissed man hand, i.e.they submitted to the man)
Ba amohile mosadi kobo
(They took away from the woman a blanket)
Re bea mosadi eo molato
(We blamed that woman)
Re bea motho eo maoto
(We pursued that person)
Ba ja mosadi dikobo
(backbite/slander her)
Ba ja ngwana ditsheho
(laugh at her)
51
(166) IsiXhosa
Ntumeka umlilo (set on fire)
Ba-[yii]-ntumeka [umlilo] [imizi yabantui]
(They-them-light, fire villages of people: they burn people’s villages)
khulula (untie, loosen, undress)
Khulula ibhatyi (Take off jacket)
[M]-khulul-e-ni [la makhamandela asezandleni] [lo mbanjwai]
(Him-untie-you these handcuffs which-they-are-on-hands this prisoner: untie
the handcuffs from the hands of this prisoner)
qhusheka (hide)
U-ze u-[yii]-qhushek-e [uswazi] [le nkwenkwei]
(You-should you-him-hide cane this boy: you should hit this boy with a cane)
(U-ze u-[yii]-qhushek-e [le ncwadii]
(You-should you-it-hide this book: you should hide this book)
nxiba (pun on, dress)
nxiba isuti
(Put-on suit)
Nxiba [lo mntwana] [le bhulukhwe]
(Put-on this child these trousers)
ongeza (add)
Kha-wu-li-ongez-e [ubisii]
(Please-you-it-add milk: please add some milk)
Kha-wu-[bi]-ongez-e [ikofu] [abantui]
(Please-you-them-add coffee people: Please give the people more coffee)
ngxala (fill, cram, stuff) (also: thi ngxale)
W-a-[bui]-ngxal-a [uboyai] engxoweni
(He-past-it-stuff wool in-bag: he stuffed the wool in the bag)
U-[mi]-th-e ngxale [ikratshi] [unyanai]
(He-him-say-past fill pride son: he filled his son with pride)
U-[bai]-ngxal-e [abantui] [umoya wokungathobeli]
(He-them-fill-past people spirit of-disobedience: he filled the people with a
spirit of disobedience)
qaba (smear)
Qab-a ibhotolo esonkeni
(Smear butter on-bread)
Nd-a-qab-a [izinxibo] [imbola]
(I-past-smear clothes red-clay: I smeared the clothes with red clay)
landa (follow)
Kha-wu-[mi]-land-e [lo mntui]
(Please-you-him-follow this person: please follow this person)
Kha-wu-[mi]-land-e [imvelaphi] [lo mntui]
(Please-you-him-follow origin this person: please follow the origin of this
person)
hlutha, thsothsa (rob)
Ba-ndi-hluth-ile
(They-me-rob-past: they robbed me)
Ba-ndi-hluth-e [imali yam]
(They-me-rob-past money of-me: they robbed me of my money)
52
enza (make, do)
Nd-enz-a isitulo
(I-make chair)
U-ng-enz-i [lo mntu] [isiduli]
(You-not-make-neg this person antheap: you should not ignore this person)
Ni-ze ni-nga-[yi]-enz-i [ibhaqolo] [le swekilei]
(You-should you-not-it-make-neg boiledgreen-maize this sugar:
you should use this sugar sparingly)
Ngu-bani na o-nga-nd-enz-a [ububi]?
(It-is-who who-he-can-me-make ugliness: who can make me ugly?)
nqumla (cut)
Nqumla-a intonga
(Cut stick)
Ndi-za ku-[mi]-nquml-a [umqala] [laa mfazii]
(I-will to-her-cut throat that woman: I will cut that woman’s throat)
sula (wipe)
Sul-a itafile
(Wipe table)
U-ze u-ndi-sul-e [ukubila]
(You should you-me-wipe perspiration: you should convince me)
Si-ze si-[yii]-sus-e [amadlala] [le ncwadii]
(We-should we-it-wipe faults this book: we should correct the faults in this
book)
vula (open)
Vul-a ncango
(Open door)
Ba-m-vula [iinduma zantathu]
(They-him-open head-wounds three: they influct three headwounds on him)
Le nkcazo yakho i-ndi-vul-e ingqondo
(This explanation of-you it-me-open-past mind: your explanation made things
clear to me)
5.
DITRANSITIVE VERBS
See i.a. Maboya (1992:15, 34, 44), Ramone (1992), Rankhododo (1992), Mushiane
(1999:61), Raphalalani (1997:63), Sepota (1992:35).
53
5.1
Structure
(167a)
CP
C1
[Spec,C]
C
TP
T1
[Spec,T]
T
vP
v1
[spec,v]
[spec,v]
v1
v1
[Spec,v]
v
VP
V1
IO
V
DO
The light verb [v] licences three specifiers : [SU, IO, DO], it assigns the external role and checks accusative and dative case and AgrO.
The verb [V] assigns two internal arguments.
The head T assigns nominative case and checks AgrS.
54
(167a)
CP
C1
[Spec,C]
C
[case]
TP

T1
SU
Assign nominative case
check AgrS
[Acc. case]
[Dat. case]
T
vP
v1
DO
v1
IO
[-role]
v1
ts
assign External arg.
check Acc., Dat.
ase+AgrO
[Vv]
[-role]
VP
V1
tIO
[assign Internal arg]
tv
tDO
[-role]
`
Ditransitive verbs appear in predicates which have two internal arguments:
Zulu:
(168) Indoda iboleka ingane ihhashi
(The man lends a horse to the child)
These predicates thus show three arguments with an external argument. The verb
bolek assigns two theta-roles to its complements of which the first one is usually the
recipient and the second one the theme:
(169) a.
b.
Ugogo unika izingane ukudla
(Grandmother gives food to the chidlren)
Indoda ikhokhela inyanga inkomo
(The man pays a cow to the witch-doctor)
55
c.
Intombazana incisha ingane ukudla
(The girl refuses food to the child)
In these sentences in (169) the subject has the theta-role of agent while the noun
with the feature [animate] has the theta-role of recipient, e.g. izingane, inyanga.
The following noun above is theme, e.g. ukudla, inkomo.
The two internal arguments of ditransitive verbs have the grammatical function of
direct and indirect object:
Venda
Zulu
(170) Khotsi vha-n8ea [vhana [mal8egere]
amaswidi
(Father gives sweets to the chidlren]
Ubaba unika izingane
If we consider the word order of the objects in (170) the indirect object is the noun
phrase immediately adjacent to the verb, i.e. vhana. The direct object then follows
the indirect object in word order, i.e. mal8egere. In surface structures we find that
these two objects may be interchanged in Xhosa, Zulu and Venda without any
difference in meaning:
(171) Zulu:
a. ubaba unika amaswidi
izingane
Venda: a. Khotsi vha-nea mal8egere
vhana
b.
Ubaba unika izingane
amaswidi
b.
Khotsi vha-nea vhana
mal8egere
This type of interchange of objects is usually allowed because the alternation does
not give rise to a difference in meaning: the indirect object has the feature [+animate]
while the direct object is [-animate]. The determining factor is thus the thematic role
of the NP: inanimate NPs are usually not ‘recipients’.
When both objects are [+animate] the word order cannot be changed and must
remain as it is in (170).
(172) Ndi-n8ea khotsi murwa
(I am giving a child to the father)
These predicates with ditransitive verbs may be found with one internal argument
only, i.e. with a direct object only. The other internal argument may thus undergo
argument reduction:
(173) Bannga i-hadzima [tshelede]
(The bank is lending/borrowing money)
Argument reduction in the case of the direct object is not quite as common, but these
verbs may be found with only an indirect object:
(174) Ndi-khou-fha vhana
(I am giving the children (presents))
As in the case of transitive verbs, objectival agreement may also be found with
ditransitive verbs:
(175) Murena o-[vhai]-n8ea [khotsi anui] [tshifhinga tsha u-ni-alusa]
(The Lord gave your father an opportunity to raise you)
Once the clitic has been established on the verb, the object which is coreferenced
with this clitic may appear anywhere in the sentence:
56
(176) O-[vhai]-n8ea [lun(walo [vhanai]
(He gave the letter to the children)
The clitic may also be a pronominal, coreferenced and in a chain with an empty
pronominal:
(177) Imani ndi-[nii]-fhe [proi] mad8i mat8uku]
(Let me give you a little water)
5.2
Ditransitive verbs in Sesotho, Venda, Xhosa and Tsonga
SESOTHO
(178) Tlala e-se-e-sa-mphe sebaka
(Hunger does not give me a chance)
Letswalo ha-le-mphe sebaka
(Fear does not give me a chance)
Ha-o-ba-fe yona keng?
(Why don’t you give them it?)
Moo rakgadiae a-neng a-mo-romme teng
(Where his sister sent him)
A-fa ntate enwa setulo
(He gives this father a chair)
Yare ha a-fihla, ka-mo-fa lengolo
(When he arrived, I gave him a letter)
A-ba-nea ditaelo tse thata
(He gave them difficult orders)
O-nea moetsadibe mahlale a mefutafuta
(He gives the sinner various wisdoms)
Hona ho-ile ha-fa katola ya rona mohatla o motle
(This gave our horse a beautiful tail)
Mmuso o-tshepisitse ho-fa sekolo se seng le se seng seyalemoya mahala
(The government promised to give each school a radio for free)
Ka baka leo ba-mo-rea lebitso la Makhaolaropo
(For that reason they gave him the name of M.)
O-ile a-mmotsa dipotso tse ngata
(He asked him many questions)
Ke thuto ena eo re-le-neileng yona
(It is this education which we have given to you)
Dintho tseo e-neng e-le tsa hao, ke-di-neile ntatao ha ke-o-nyala
(The things which were yours, I gave them to your father when I married you)
Ke-fetotse mehopolo ho seo ke-neng ke-o-kopile sona
(I changed my thoughts in what I requested from you)
Dintho tsena ke tsa Botle. Ke yena ya ka-o-fang tsona
(These things are Botle’s. It is she who can give them to you)
O-ne o-re-kopile keletso, mme re-o-neile yona
(You asked advice from us and we gave it to you)
57
Ka ketso eo o-file batho ba nyefolang thuto matla a ho-nyefola
(With that deed you gave people who revile education power to revile)
Ba-tla-o-ketleula tjhelete e ngata
(They will charge you a high price)
VENDA
(179) Ndi-d8o-mu-vhudza mafhungo ane a-d8o-mu-vula t8hoho
(I will tell him news that will open his head)
Tshetselesani ndi-ni-vhudze zwo-bvelelaho
(Listen let me tell you what happened)
O-vha a-tshi-d8o-tata u-ni-vhea tshanda
(He would be reluctant to lay a hand on you)
Vhea: put, place
Vha-ntshela mad8i [kha t8hoho]
(shela (pour on/in)
(They poured me water on head)
Vhafunzi vho-d8a u-ri-kanzwa mafhungo madifha
(Pastor came to give us good news)
kanzwa: distribute
Vha-mphe tshibakete (fha (give)
(Give me bucket)
Vha-vhu-n8ea Thiathu (n8ea (give)
(He gave it to Thiathu
Ndi-d8o-mu-fha mini?
(What shall I give him?)
No-mphelani? (You gave me what for?)
Vha-d8o-nea [a-no-d8o-gidima a-fhira vhothe] [baisigiri]
(He will give the one who could run and beat them all a bicycle)
Vha-funza vhathu mafhungo a u-shanduka
(He teach people message of repentance)
Ni-d8o-dina mbilu yanga nga u-mmbudza zwa nduvho
(You will trouble my heart by telling me of the tribute)
Ndi-d8o-mu-vhudza mafhungo
(I will tell him the news)
TSONGA
58
(180) Ndzi-ta-byela tiko nawu lowu wa wena
(I will tell the people about this law of yours)
U-lava ku-n’wi-byela ta wena
(He wants to tell him about your things)
A-ndzi-swi-rivala leswi a-nga-ndzi-byela swona
(I have forgotten what he told me)
Ndza-ringeta ku-n’wi-vutisa xivutiso
(I try to ask him a question)
Xifaniso xi-fanele ku-hi-komba swilo swo tano
(The photo ought to show us such things)
Ndzi-mi-tisele xifaniso lexiya mi-nga-xi-kombela
(I brought you the photo which you asked for)
Leswi swilo swo tala a-swi-n’wi-wisi mbilu
(These many things do not rest her heart)
Kumbe mi-nga-hi-pfuna, mi-hi-rhula ngoma
(Perhaps you can help us, you remove for us a drum)
Wonge namuntlha munhu u-rindze moya tiko leri
(It seems as if today a person watched over this country)
ISIXHOSA
(181) boleka (lend, borrow)
Nd-a-bolek-a [indoda] [imali]
(I-past-lend man money: I lent the man money)
Indoda i-bolek-a [imali] [ku-m]
(Man he-borrow money loc-me: the man borrows money from me)
Ba-bolek-is-a nge-mali
(They-lend-caus. with-money: they lend money freely)
cela (ask for, request)
Nd-a-cel-a [umfazi] [iti]
(I-past-ask-for woman tea: I asked the woman for tea)
Ndi-z-e ku-cel-a [uxolo] [apha ku-ye]
(I-come-past to-ask-for peace here loc-him: I came to ask for peace from him)
Nd-a-[mi]-cel-el-a [ikofu] [umfazi]
(I-past-her-ask-appl. coffee woman: I asked for coffee for the woman)
nika (give)
A-ba-m-nik-i [mali yaneleyo yokutya]
(Neg-they-him-give-neg money enough of-food: they are not giving him
enough money for food)
Ku-yi-nto emnandi uku-nik-a [umntu obelekayo into]
(It-it-is-thing which-is-nice to-give person who-borrow thing: it is a nice
thing to give to someone who borrows something)
Kha-wu-ndi-nik-el-e ityuwa
(Please-you-me-give-appl. salt: Please pass the salt to me)
pha (give)
59
Ngu-mama o-ba-ph-a vkutya
(It-is-mother who-she-them-give food: it is mother who gives them food)
W-a-bulel-a uku-ph-iw-a imali engako
(He-put-thank to-give-pass money so-much: he thanked to be given so much
money)
vimba (give a little, stint)
U-ndi-vimb-ile ukutya
(She-me-stint-past food: she gave me very little food)
U-ya-vimb-a
(He-pres-stingy: he is stingy)
buza (ask)
Ndi-buz-a [umntwana] [umbuzo]
(I-ask child question)
[Le ntoi] a-ba-[yii]-buz-anga ku-ye
(This thing neg-they-it-ask-neg.past loc-him : this thing they didn’t ask it from
him)
Yi-y-a ku-buz-a ku-ye
(Impt-go to-ask loc-him: go and ask him)
Ndi-m-buz-e ukuba u-m-beth-el-a ntoni na umntwana
(I-him-ask-past that he-him-beat-appl. what Q child:
I asked him why he beats the child)
thuma (send)
Ndi-thum-e umfazi imali
(I-send-past woman money: I have sent the woman for money)
Ndi-thum-el-e umfazi imali
(I-send-appl-past woman money: I have sent money for the woman)
Ndi-thum-e umfazi ebhankini
(I-send-past woman loc-bank: I have sent the woman to the bank)
Ndi-thum-el-e umfazi ebhankini
(I-send-appl-past woman loc-bank: I have sent the woman to the bank)
5.2
Ditransitive ideophones
Umongikazi u-m-thi ncuntsu inaliti umntwana
(The nurse injects the child the needle)
Ndi-thi jwaxa utata ikhulu leerandi
(I give father R100)
U-thi jize intombi iwonga lobugqirha
(He awards the girl doctoral status
U-the qhushe umntwana imali
(He gave money to the child secretly)
60
5.4
Dative alternation
See i.a. Theledi (1998:83), Twabu (1998:116), Mphigalale (1997:90), Mtimka
(1999:65), Sepota (1999:412).
Ve:
Vho-n8ea [musadzi] [radio]
(They gave woman radio)
Vho-n8ea [radio] [kha musadzi]
(They gave radio to woman)
Xh:
Ba-buza [umfundi] [umbuzo]
(They ask student question)
Ba-buza [umbuzo] [kumfundi]
(They ask question from student)
Tsonga: Ndzi-nyika wansati mbita
Ndzi-nyika mbita eka wansati
(I give pot to woman)
Sesotho: Ke-lefa mosebeletsi moputso
Ke-lefa moputso ho mosebeletsi
(I pay worker a salary)
SECTION II: TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS
1.
POSSESSION ALTERNATION
See i.a. Maudu (1997), Mendu (1997), and Du Plessis a.o. (1992, 1995, 1996).
The possessor in a possessive construction may appear as the subject of a sentence
with an intransitive verb, as the object of a sentence with a transitive verb or as a
locative phrase.
1.1 Possessor  Subject
The possessor in an inalienable possession may become the subject of a sentence
with intransitive verbs. This syntactic phenomenon is also known as the syntax of
body parts. An inalienable body part may appear as an adjunct of an intransitive verb.
The inalienable possession which started off as a possession in the subject of the
intransitive verb, ended up as an adjunct of that verb:
(1)
Venda:
[Milenzhe [ya musadzi] yo-zwimba
(Legs of woman they-are-swelled)
[Musadzi] o-zwimba [milenzhe]
(Woman she-swelled legs)
Tsonga:
[Katla [ra wansati] ri-pfimbile
(Arm of woman it-is-swollen)
[Wansati] u-pfimbile [katla]
(Woman she-is-swollen arm)
Sesotho:
[Leoto [la monna] le-shwele
(Leg of man it-is-dead {paralyzed}
[Monna] o-shwele [leoto]
(Man he-is-dead leg (paralyzed)
61
Xhosa:
[Iinyawo [zomfazi] zi-dumbile
(Feet of woman they-are-swollen)
[Umfazi] u-dumbe [iinyawo]
(Woman she-is-swollen feet)
The adjunct DP which appears after the intransitive verb above, does not have the
features of an object, i.e. it may not appear with an AgrOP or in the passive:
(2)
Tsonga:
Wansati u-pfimbile [katla]
(Woman she-is-swollen arm)
*Wansati u-ri-pfimbile [katla]
(Woman she-is-it-swollen arm)
However, there are ideophones in Xhosa which may appear as either transitive or
intransitive (see also the causative alternation). In such cases the verb thi which
appears with the ideophone as bearer of inflection may accept an AgrOP:
(3)
a. [Amehlo [exhego] a-the ngqunya
(Eyes of-old-man they-are-wide-open-and-staring)
[Ixhego] li-wa-the ngqunya [amehlo]
(Old man he-stared-with-them-wide-open eyes)
b. [[Ulwimi [lwenyoka] lu-the lenye
(Tongue of-snake it-darted out)
[Inyoka[ i-lu-the lenye [ulwimi]
(Snake it-darted-out tongue)
In the (a) sentence above the AgrOP is represented by the morpheme wa and in the
(b) sentence by the morpheme lu.
The possession in an inalienable possession may sometimes appear as a locative
phrase after an intransitive verb and not as an adjunct as above:
(4)
Xhosa: [Lo msebenzi [womfana] u-ya-qhwalela
(This work of-young-man it-is-inadequate)
[Umfana] u-ya-qhwalela [kulo msebenzi]
(Young-man he-is-inadequate in-this work)
[Isihlahla [somntwana] si-krunekile
(Wrist of-child it-is-sprained)
[Umntwana] u-kruneke [esihlahleni]
(Child she-is-sprained in-wrist)
1.2
Possessor  Object
The possession construction within an NP may appear in an inalienable possession
or in a non-inalienable possession. In both cases the possessor will become the
object of the transitive verb. The syntactic position of the possession will differ in
these languages: only Venda will accept the possession as a DP with an AgrOP with
the transitive verb:
62
Venda
Non-inalienable possession
(5)
Ndi-d8ivha [ndavhuko [ya [avha vhatu]
(I-know origin of these people)
Ndi-a-vha-d8ivha [avha vhathu] [ndavhuko yavho]
(I-them-know these people origin of-them)
Ndi-a-i-divha [avha vhathu] [ndavhuko yavho]
(I know it these people origin of them)
The AgrO morpheme vha refers to the possessor while AgrO i refers to the
possession.
Inalienable possession
(6)
Ndo-tumula [munwe [wa [n(wana)
(I-cut finger of child)
Ndo-tumula [n(wana) [munwe]
(I-cut child finger)
Ndo-mu-tumula [munwe] [n(wana)
(I-her-cut finger child)
Ndo-u-tumula [n(wana) [munwe]
(I-it-cut child finger)
As above, AgrOP appears in both cases, i.e. mu with n(wana, and u with munwe.
The other languages do not accept the AgrO of the possession, but only of the
possessor:
(7)
Xhosa:
Ba-ya-yi-ncela imali yomfazi
(They-it-take-away money of-woman)
Ba-ya-m-ncela umfazi imali yakhe
(They-her-take-away woman money of-her)
Ba-ya-m-ncela umfazi ngemali yakhe
(They-her-take-away woman with-money of-her)
*Ba-ya-yi-ncela umfazi imali yakhe
(They-it-take-away woman money of-her)
Tsonga:
Ndzi-tiva [masungulo ya xitandi]
Ndzi-tiva xitandi masungulo ya xona
Ndz-a-xi-tiva [xitandi] masungulo ya xona
*Ndz-a-ma-tiva xitandi [masungulo ya xona]
(I know the origin of the village)
63
Sesotho: Ke-tseba [thomeho ya motse oo]
Ke-tseba [motse oo] [thomeho ya wona]
Ke-a-o-tseba [motse oo] thomeho ya wona]
*Ke-a-e-tseba motse oo [thomeho ya wona]
(I know the origin of that village)
There are three other cases where the possessor may appear as the object of the
sentence. The possession itself may have a different status as above. In the
sentences above the possession appears as an object in Venda, but as an adjunct in
the other languages. The following three cases may be distinguished in Xhosa:
Possessor  Object
Possession  Locative
(8)
Usihlalo wa-yi-shunqula [intetho yomfazi]
Usihlalo wa-m-shunqula umfazi entethweni yakhe
(The chairperson cut short the woman’s speech
Possessor  Object
Object  Instrument
(9) a. Ugqirha u-yi-the qum [inaliti] [entsuleni yakhe]
(The doctor pierced the syringe in his buttock)
b. Ugqirha u-m-the qum [entsuleni] ngenaliti]
(The doctor pierced him in buttock with syringe)
a. U-yi-the thutshu [inaliti] [kwintsula yendoda] (>verb:thutshuza)
(She thrust syringe in buttock of man)
b. U-yi-the thutshu [indoda] [ngenaliti] [kwintsula yayo]
(She pierced the man with a syringe in his buttock)
Possessor  Object
Possession  Instrument
(10) a. Makhe si-wu-ncweye [lo mcimbi [wakhe]
(Let us get information about this matter of him)
b. Makhe si-m-ncweye [ngalo mcimbi]
(Let us get information from him about this matter)
1.3
Possessor  Location
(11) Lo mcimbi uthe thaa [engqondweni [yam]
Lo mcimbi uthe thaa [kum] [engqondwqeni]
(This matter is clear to me in my mind)
Kuthe thaa kum ngalo mcimbi
In the Xhosa sentences above the possessor is the first person possessive pronoun
[-m]. This possessor may end up in a locative phrase which is a PP [ku-m] above.
64
2.
EXPERIENCER VERBS
See Madzivhandila (1999).
There are transitive and intransitive experiencer verbs where the experiencer may be
the subject or object of a clause.
2.1
With Intransitive verbs
The experiencer is the subject of a clause
(12) IsiXhosa:
{Lo mntu] u-ya-vuy-a
(This person agrs-LF-glad-FV: This person is glad)
Sesotho:
[Motho enwa] o-thab-ile
(This person agrs-glad-pf: This person is glad)
Xitsonga:
[Munhu loyi] u-tsak-ile
(Person this agrs-glad-pf: This person is glad)
Tshivenda: [Muthu uyu] u-a-takal-a
(Person this agrs-LF-glad-FV: This person is glad)
The experiencer is in a locative phrase
The experiencer may appear in a locative phrase such as one with a preposition ku
or ho as below:
(13) IsiXhosa:
Ku-ya-vuy-a [ku-m] uku-hlala apha
[Expl-LF-glad-FL to-me to-stay here: There is being glad to me to
stay here]
Sesotho:
Ho-thab-ile [ho nna] ho-dula mona
[Expl-glad-pf to me to-stay here: There is glad to me to stay here]
Xitsonga:
Ku-tsak-ile [eka mina] ku-tshama la
[Expl-glad-pf to me to-stay here: There is glad to me to stay here]
Tshivenda: Hu-a-takal-a [kha n8ne] u-dzula hafha
[Expl-LF-glad-FL to me to stay here: There is glad to me to stay
here]
2.2
Transitive verbs
The experiencer is the subject of a clause
(14) IsiXhosa:
[Lo mntu] u-ya-ndi-thand-a
(This person agrs-LF-agro-like-FV: This person likes me)
Sesotho:
[Motho enwa] o-a-n-that-a
(Person this agrs-LF-me-like-FV: This person likes me)
Xitsonga:
[Munhu loyi] w-a-ndzi-rhandz-a
(Person this agrs-LF-me-like-FV: This person likes me)
65
Tshivenda: [Muthu uyu] u-a-n-tsand-a
(Person this agrs-LF-me-adore-FV: This person adores me)
The experiencer is the object
(15) IsiXhosa:
Ndi-m-khub-ile [lo mntu]
(I-him-annoy-pf this person: I annoyed this person)
Sesotho:
Ke-hlodi-ile [motho enwa[
(I-annoy-pf person this: I annoyed this person)
Xitsonga:
Ndzi-siring-ile [munhu uyu]
(I-annoy-pf person this: I annoyed this person)
Tshivenda: Mushumo u-vhavh-a [vhashumi]
(Work agrs-trouble-FV workers: The work troubles the workers)
3.
CAUSATIVE ALTERNATION
See i.a. the following studies on the causative alternation in these languages:
Xitsonga:
Northern Sotho:
Tshivenda:
IsiXhosa:
Setswana:
Malungani (2004:111)
Ledwaba (1997:127)
Silidi (1998:92), Maudu (1997:80), Maivha (1999:105)
Mavumengwana (1997:102), Mendu (1997:74, 155)
Walaza (1997:88)
Ergative verbs denote a change of state. Sentence pairs below are referred to as
ergative pairs:
Venda: Munna o-dzim-a mulilo
(The man extinguished the fire: man agrs.pf-extinguish-FV fire))
Mulilo wo-dzim-a
(The fire is extinguished: fire agrs.pf-extinguish-FV)
Sesotho: Monna o-tim-ile mollo
(The man extinguished the fire: man agrs-extinguish-pf fire))
Mollo o-tim-ile
(The fire is extinguished: fire agrs-extinguish-pf))
Tsonga: Wanuna u-tim-ile ndzilo
(The man extinguished the fire: man agrs-extinguish-pf fire))
Ndzilo wu-tim-ile
(The fire is extinguished: fire agrs-extinguish-pf))
IsiXhosa: Indoda i-cim-e umlilo
man AgrS-extinguish-Perf fire'
`The man extinguished the fire'
Umlilo u-cim-ile
fire AgrS-extinguish-Perf
`The fire is extinguished'
According to Keyser and Roeper (1984) ergative pairs are generated by a lexical rule
of Move A and therefore have both a transitive and intransitive form in the lexicon.
This distinction between transitive and intransitive is maintained in all ergative pairs:
ergatives thus feature an alternation between transitive and unaccusative intransitive
with one internal argument (Miller 1993).
66
The verb cim (extinguish) is a transitive verb with two arguments: an external
argument indoda (man) and an internal argument umlilo (fire). This direct object
umlilo is assigned accusative case by the verb cim. This object will also pass the
diagnostics for objecthood:
Objectival agreement:
(17)
Indoda i-wui-cim-ile umliloi
Man AgrS-AgrO-extinguish-Perf fire
`The man extinguished it the fire'
Movement to subject in passive constructions:
(18)
Umlilo u-ciny-w-e yindoda
fire AgrS-extinguish-Pass-Perf by-man
`The fire is extinguished by the man'
Thus the sentence (a) represents the transitive half of the ergative pairs in (a,b). In
the case of (b) the external argument indoda (man) of (a) has been eliminated from
the theta-grid of the verb cim. This verb will then have the following d-structure
representation:
(10) [e]
cim [umlilo]
extinguish fire
This structure is thus on a par with that of the unaccusative verb na (rain). No
external argument is assigned by the VP to the NP in the subject position. This
subject position is thus empty, which allows umlilo (fire) to be moved into this empty
position. Umlilo has to move because it will receive no case from the verb cim. The
verb cim thus behaves exactly like an unaccusative verb:
(20)
[Umliloi] u-cim-ile [ti]
fire AgrS-extinguish-Perf
`The fire is extinguished'
After movement of umlilo a trace is left behind because umlilo is an internal
argument of the verb cim as in (a). This internal argument umlilo is assigned a theta
role of patient by the verb cim and this theta role is carried along when umlilo moved
to the subject position. In this position it will be able to receive nominative case
through the features [AgrS] and [Tense] which are present on the verb.
It is clear that umlilo is not the external argument because, as in the case of
unaccusitive verbs, such an argument may not be de-externalized:
(21)
*[pro]
ku-ciny-w-e ngumlilo
there-extinguish-Pass-Perf by-fire
`There is extinguished by the fire'
If the NP umlilo were an external argument of the verb it would have been possible
for it to occur as a de-externalised argument in passive constructions.
Ergative predicates in Xhosa thus indicate a change of state and they may be
ideophones as guqu:
67
(22) a.
Indoda i-th-e guqu ubuso
man AgrS-thi turn face
`The man turned his face aside'
b.
Ubuso bu-th-e guqu
face AgrS-thi-Perf turn
`The face is turned aside'
These sentences are ergative pairs which will receive the same treatment in syntax
as the ergative pairs. In Xhosa ideophones appear as predicates only with the verb
thi which is related to a verb thi (`say'). This verb thi is the carrier of Inflection while
the ideophone itself determines the argument structure.
There is thus a clear pattern between unaccusative and ergative verbs in Xhosa. In
both cases there is clear evidence that these verbs have the stuatus of unaccusative
verbs. This is also evident from the semantics of these verbs: the semantic feature
cause which is present in (a) is absent in (b).
In unaccusative verbs one finds then only an internal argument whereas in ergative
pairs the transitive counterpart has an external and an internal argument while the
intransitive counterpart is an unaccusative verb with only an internal argument as far
as the prediate argument structure of these verbs is concerned.
Ergative verbs exhibit a causative/inchoative alternation. Thus the lexical
representation of the verb -cim- is < y come to be EXTINGUISHED >, for its
intransitive use in the examples of (b), while the examples of (a) exhibit the transitive
use of this verb. In lexical conceptual structure such verbs appear as complement of
the semantic category (CAUSE (see Jackendoff, 1990, and Miller, 1993). The
sentences in (b) thus exhibit the inchoative interpretation while those in (a) have the
causative reading.
3.1
Verbal suffixes as controllers of transitivity
A class of verbs can be distinguished that exemplify the regular alternation as
transitive and intransitive verbs, linked to the occurrence of the verbal derivational
suffixes -l- and -k- respectively. These verbs are similar to ergative verbs, in that their
verbal root assigns two internal thematic roles: an agent, patient or theme. These
verbs with the -l- (transitive) and -k- (intransitive) alternation thus occur in sentences
which have a similar derivation to the ergative pairs above. They are, however
different from ergative verbs in that overt morphemes determine the transitivity of the
verb. In some instances the verbal root of these verbs occur as an ideophone, while
in other instances, the verbal root cannot occur as a verb independently. Consider
the following examples:
(23) a.
Umfazi u-krazu-l-a ilokhwe
woman Agr-tear dress
`The woman tears the dress'
b.
Ilokhwe i-ya-krazu-k-a
dress Agr-is-torn
`The dress is torn'
The transitive suffix -l- bears the semantic feature CAUSATIVE whereas the
intransitive suffix -k- has an ANTICAUSATIVE semantic feature.
The example sentences in (a) containing the transitive counterpart of these verbs,
characterized by the suffix -l- correspond to the ergative verb sentences above,
whereas the example sentences in (b) with the intransitive counterpart of these
verbs, characterised by the suffix -k- correspond to the ergative verb sentences
above. The structure of sentences containing the transitive (-l-) counterpart of these
verbs is as follows:
68
(24)
[NP ] INFL [VP
krazula
`tear'
umfazi
ilokhwe]
`woman' `dress'
Sentences with the transitive counterpart (-l-) of these verbs are derived by
movement of the agent argument to the subject position. Thus these sentences have
the following structure:
(25)
[Umfazi] INFL [VP -krazula ti ilokhwe]
The intransitive suffix -k- has the property of controlling the agent argument. Thus the
suffix -k- suppresses the agent argument and prevents it from occurring, similar to
the suppression of the agent argument by the passive morpheme -w- (see Di Sciullo
and Williams, 1987). Sentence constructions with the intransitive counterpart as in
(23b) have the following structure:
(26)
[NP ] INFL [VP
-krazuka ilokhwe]
`be-torn' `dress'
The patient/theme argument is moved to the subject position, yielding the following
structure:
(27)
[ilokhwei] INFL [VP -krazuka ti]
`dress'
`be torn'
The transitive-instransitive alternation correlated with the suffixes -l- and -k- is
crucially associated with Case-assignment properties: the intransitive suffix -k- lacks
Case-assignment features, thus necessitating movement of the patient/theme object
argument to the subject position where it can be assigned nominative Case by the
agreement element of Infl(ection). By contrast the transitive suffix -l- bears accusative
Case assignment features, thus it assigns Case to the patient/theme NP.
Other verbs exemplifying the transitive-intransitive alternation associated with the
suffixes -l- and -k-, respectively, include the following:
(28)
-gqabula `break off', -gqabuka `burst', -qhawula `break off', -qhawuka
`break off', -aphula `break', -aphuka `break', -guqula `turn', -ququka
`turn', -ahlula `separate, part', -ahluka `be separated, be parted', phekula `turn up', -phekuka `be turned up', -khawula `break off, stop', khawuka `be broken off, stopped', -ndulula `dismiss, send away/off', nduluka `break up, go away'.
The above transitive and intransitive suffixes may also appear with the reversive affix
-ulu-:
(29)
-somb-ulu-l-a: transitive
-somb-ulu-k-a: intransitive
`unfold'
-vumb-ulu-l-a: transitive
-vumb-ulu-k-a: intransitive
`uncover'
-thuk-ulu-l-a: transitive
-thuk-ulu-k-a: intransitive
`untie'
69
3.2
Causative alternation in Xhosa
3.2.1
Causative Ideophone
3.2.1.1 Intransitive / Transitive
(30)
Qhwi (die/do suddenly)
Intr:
Umfazi u-the qhwi
Wife died suddenly
Trans: Lo mntu wa-m-thi qhwi umfazi wakhe
This person killed his wife suddenly
Intliziyo ya-m-thi qhwi laa mntu
The heart killed that person suddenly
Xibilili (slip off)
Intr:
Ingubo ya-thi xibilili
Blanket slipped off
Trans: Lo mntu wa-yi-thi xibilili ingubo
This person slipped off the blanket
Qhwa/qhwasha/qhwakra (break (something hard))
Intr.: Intonga i-the qhwa
The stick broke
Trans.: Ndi-yi-the qhwa intonga
I broke the stick
Beke (cut)
Intr.: Inyama i-the beke
The meat is cut
Trans.: Ndi-yi-the beke inyama
I cut the meat
Tswi (be straight/straighten)
Intr:
[Isibonda] si-the tswi
The pole is straight
Trans.: Ndi-si-the tswi [isibonda]
I straightened the pole
Saa (scatter)
Intr.:
[Umbona] u-the saa
The mealies are scattered
Trans.: Ndi-wu-the saa [umbona]
I scasttered the mealies
Qithi (fall)
Intr.:
[Imela] i-the qithi
The knife has fallen
70
Trans.: Ndi-yi-the qithi [imela]
I let the knife fall
Mba (close)
Intr.:
[Ucango] lu-the mba
The door closed with a bang)
Transl: Nda-lu-thi mba [ucango]
I closed the door with a bang
Twe (tear)
Intr.:
[Ingubo] i-the twe
The blanket tore
Trans.: Ucingo lu-yi-the twe [ingubo]
The wire tore the blanket
Petye (bend)
Intr.:
[Intsimbi] i-the petye
(Iron is bent)
Trans.: Ndi-yi-the petye [intsimbi]
(I-it-bent iron)
Phahlu (burst open)
Intr.:
[Ibhaloni] i-the phahlu
(Balloon burst-open)
Trans.: Ndi-yi-the phahlu [ibhaloni]
(I-it-burst-open balloon)
Nkwathatha (be helpless)
Intr.:
[Lo mntu] wa-thi nkwathatha
(This person was helpless)
Trans.: Nda-m-thi nkwathatha [lo mntu]
(I-him-caused-to-be-helpless this person)
Nwee (spread out)
Intr.:
[Ingubo] i-the nwee
(Blanket was spread out)
Trans.: Ndi-yi-the nwee [ingubo]
(I-it-spread-out blanket)
Tsololo (settle)
Intr.:
[Lo mcimbi] u-the tsololo
(This matter is settled)
Trans.: Si-wu-the tsololo [lo mcimbi]
(We-it-settled this matter)
71
Mbu (fall down with a thud)
Intr.:
[Udonga] lu-the mbu
(Wall fell down with a thud)
Trans.: Iinkomo zi-lu-the mbu [udonga]
(Cattle caused-it-to-fall-down-with-thud wall)
Pholokohlo (collapse)
Intr.:
[Indlu] i-the pholokohlo
(House collapsed)
Trans.: Ba-yi-the pholokohlo (indlu]
(They-it-collapsed house)
Qompi (fall in drops)
Intr.:
[Isingxaza] si-the qompi
(Liquid has fallen in drops)
Trans.: Ndi-si-the qompi [isinxaza]
(I-it-let-fall-in-drops liquid)
khaxa (fall clatteringly)
Intr.:
[Izitshixo] zi-the khaxa
(Keys fell clatteringly)
Trans.: Ndi-zi-the khaxa [izitshixo]
(I-them-threw-down keys)
3.2.1.2 With a locative
(31)
Lakatha (plunge)
Intr.:
[Umntwana] wa-thi lakatha [esizibeni]
(The child plunged into the pool)
Trans.: Ba-m-thi lakatha [umntwana] [esizibenzi]
(They plunged the child into the pool)
Tyuu (hang)
Intr.: [Le bhatyi] i-the tyuu [esitulweni]
(This jacket hung on the chair)
Trans.: Ndi-yi-the tyuu [esitulweni] [le bhatyi]
(I hung this jacket on the chair)
Lokohlo (slip easily)
Intr.: [Imela] i-thi lokohlo [epokothweni]
(The knife slips easily into the pocket)
Trans.: Ndi-thi lokohlo [imela] [epokothweni]
(I slip the knife easily into the pocket)
Lambalala (disappear)
Intr.: [Iinkomo zam] zi-the lambalala [ehlathini]
(My cattle disappeared into the forest)
Trans.: U-zi-the lambalala [ehlathini] [iinkomo zam]
(He caused my cattle to disappear into the forest)
72
Quba (flock)
Intr.:
[Iinkomo] zi-the quba [ebuhlanti]
(The cattle flocked to the kraal)
Trans.: Ndi-the quba [iinkomo] [ebuhlanti]
(I drove the cattle to the kraal)
Vaxalala (pout down carelessly/disorderly)
Intr.: [Iimpahla] zi-the vaxalala phezu lwesitulo
(Clothes were put disorderly on top of chair)
Trans: Lo mfazi u-zi-the vaxalala [iimpahla] phezu kwesitulo
(This woman she-them-put-carelessly clothes on top of chair)
Ngcu (place)
Intr.: [Iemele] i-the ngcu entloko
(Bucket is placed on head)
Trans.: Ndi-yi-the ngcu entloko [i-emele]
(I-it-placed on-head bucket)
Nama (stick, fix)
Intr.: [Amehlo akhe] a-the nama kum
(Eyes of-him are fixed on-me)
Trans.: U-wa-the nama [amehlo akhe] kum
(He-them-fixed eyes of-him on-me)
Lothe (disappear)
Intr.: [Ilitye] la-thi lothe esizibeni
(Stone disappeared in pool)
Trans.: Wa-li-thi lothe esizibeni [ilitye]
(He-it-caused-to-disappear in-pool stone)
Tshe (see once/quickly)
Intr.: U-the tshe edolophini
(He was seen once in town)
Trans: Ndi-m-the tshe edololophini
(I saw him once in town)
khalakatha (fit)
Intr.: [Isitena] si-the khalakatha kwesaa sithuba
(Brick fit into that position)
Trans.: Ndi-si-the khalakhatha kwesaa sithuba [isitena]
(I-it-fit in that position brick)
khatha (slip, fit, put)
Intr.: [Imela] i-the khatha epokothweni
(Knife slipped into pocket)
Trans.: Ndi-yi-the khatha epokothweni [imela]
(I-it-slipped in pocket knife)
Nqam (lie, place across)
Intr.: [Ipali] i-the nqam endleleni
(Pole is placed across in road)
Trans.: Ndi-yi-the nqam endleleni [ipali]
(I-it-placed-across in-road pole)
73
3.2.1.3
With a PP with nga
(32)
Makanxa (grip)
Intr.: [Indoda] ya-thi makanxa [ngomqala]
(The man was gripped by the throat)
Trans.: Nda-yi-thi makanxa [ngomqala] [indoda]
(I gripped the man by the throat)
Qululu (cover completely)
Intr.: [Umntwana] u-the qululu [ngengubo]
(The child is completely covered with a blanket)
Trans.: Ndi-m-the qululu [ngengubo] [umntwana]
(I completely covered the child with a blanket)
3.2.2
Causative verb
(33)
Nyingiza (swing from side to side)
Intr.:
Isinqe si-ya-nyingiza
(Hips swing from side to side)
Trans.: Le ntombi i-ya-si-nyingiza isinqe
(This girl swings hips from side to side)
Goba (bend)
Intr.: Ucingo lu-gobile
The wire is bent
Trans.: Ndi-lu-gobile ucingo
I bent the wire
Rhuqa (drag along on ground)
Intr.: Intambo i-ya-rhuqa
The rope is dragging along on the ground
Trans: Ndi-ya-yi-rhuqa intambo
I am dragging the rope along the ground
Qhwitha (light)
Intr.: Lo mcinga a-wu-nge-qhwithi
This match cannot be lit
Trans: Kha-wu-qhwithe umcinga
Please strike a match
Tyeneneza (be/put in a straight line)
Intr.: Izindlu zi-tyenenezile
The houses are in a straight line
Trans.: Le ndoda i-zi-tyenenezile izindlu
This man put the houses in a straight line
Getyeza (bend up and down)
Intr.:
Imvubu i-getyezile
The whip is bent
74
Trans.: Ndi-yi-getyezile imvubu
I bent the whip up and down
Nqumleza (lie/place across)
Intr:
Isibonda si-nqumleze endleleni
(Pole lie across road)
Trans.: Kha-wu-si-nqumleze isibonda endleleni
(Place pole across road)
3.2.3
Causative ideophone and verb
(34)
Verb: qubuda, ideophone qubudu
Trans.: Ndi-yi-qubudile ifatyi
Ndi-yi-the qubudu ifatyi
I turned the barrel upside down
Intr.:
Ifatyi i-qubudile
Ifatyi i-the qubudu
The barrel stands upside down
Verb: tywabaza, ideophone tywaba
Trans.: Ndi-zi-tywabazile iintsasa
Ndi-zi-the tywaba iintsasa
I broke the sticks with a crackling sound
Ints.:
Iintsasa zi-tywabazile
Iintsasa zi-the tywaba
The sticks broke with a crackling sound
Verb: tyeka, ideophone tyeke
Trans.: Ndi-si-tyekile isandla
Ndi-si-the tyeke isandla
I bent the hand to the side
Intr.:
Isandla si-tyekile
Isandla si-the tyeke
The hand is bent to the side
Verb: sinalala, ideophone sinalala
Trans.: Ndi-m-the sinalala lo mfo
Ndi-m-sinalele lo mfo
I made this chap lie helpless
Intr.:
Lo mfo uthe sinalala
Lo mfo usinalele
This chap lay helplessly
Verb: rhaphuza, ideophone rhaphu
Trans.: Nda-wu-thi rhaphu umsi
Nda-wu-rhaphuza umsi
I emit a puff of smoke
Intr.:
Umsi wathi rhaphu
Umsi wa-rhaphuza
The smoke came out in a puff
75
3.2.4
Causative ideophone and verb with [k/l]
(35)
Verb: xobuka/xobula, ideophone xobu
Trans.: Nda-li-thi xobu ikhiwane
Nda-li-xobula ikhiwane
I peeled the fig easily
Intr.:
Ikhiwane la-thi xobu
Ikhiwane la-xobuka
the fig peeled easily
Verb: qebuka/qebula, ideophone qebu
Trans.: Nda-li-thi qebu icetyana esonkeni
Nda-li-qebula icetyana esonkeni
I broke off a piece from bread
Intr.:
Icetyana la-thi qebu esonkeni
Icetyana la-qebuka esonkeni
The piece is broken from the bread
Verb: zaphuka/zaphula, ideophone zaphu
Intr.: Intambo ya-thi zaphu
Intambo ya-zaphula
The rope snapped
Trans.: Nda-yi-thi zaphu intambo
Nda-yi-zaphula intambo
I snapped the rope
Verb: rhunquka/rhunqula, ideophone rhunqu
Trans.: Nda-lu-thi rhunqu uphondo
Nda-lu-rhunqula uphondo
I broke the horn off
Intr.:
Uphondo lwa-thi rhunqu
Uphondo lwa-rhunquka
The horn broke off
Verb: ncothuka/ncothula, ideophone ncothu
Intr.: Isikhonkwane sa-thi ncothu
Isikhonkwane sa-ncothuka
The nail came out
Trans: Nda-si-thi ncothu isikhonkwane
Nda-si-ncothula isikhonkwane
I pulled the nail out
Verb: khephuka/khephula, ideophone khephu
Trans: Wa-thi khephu iqela lamadoda kuloo ntlanganiselo
Wa-khephula iqela lamadoda kuloo ntlanganiselo
He took a big number of men from that group
Intr.:
Wa-thi khephu kule nyama
Wa-khephuka kule nyama
He took a big piece from this meat
76
Verb: xathuka/xathula, ideophone xathu
Trans.: Intambo i-yi-the xathu ihagu emlenzeni
Intambo i-yi-xathule ihagu emlenzeni
(Rope chafed pig on leg)
Intr.:
Ihagu i-the xathu emlenzeni
Ihagu i-xathukile emlenzeni
(Pig was chafed on leg)
Verb: xuzuka/xuzula, ideophone xuzu
Trans.: Ndi-lu-the xuzu ufele
Ndi-lu-xuzule ufele
(I abraded skin)
Intr.:
Ufele lu-the xuzu
Ufele lu-xuzukile
(Skin is abraded)
Verb: tshentuka/tshentula, ideophone tshentu
Trans.: Ndi-yi-the tshentu ingca
Ndi-yi-tshentule ingca
(I cleared the grass)
Intr.:
Ingca i-the tshentu
Ingca i-tshentukile
(the grass is cleared)
Verb: qethuka/qethula, ideophone qethu
Trans.: Ndi-si-the qethu isibonda
Ndi-si-qethule isibonda
(I bent sideways pole)
Intr.:
Isibonda si-the qethu
Isibonda si-qethukile
(Pole is bent sideways)
Verb: phephuka/phephula, ideophone phephu
Trans.: Ndi-yi-the phephu imoto
Ndi-yi-phephule imoto
(I turned aside car)
Intr.:
Imoto i-the phephu
Imoto i-phephukile
(Car is turned aside)
Verb: phenuka/phenula, ideophone phenu
Trans.: Ndi-yi-the phenu imbiza
Ndi-phenule imbiza
(I overturned pot)
Intr.:
Imbiza i-the phenu
Imbiza i-phenukile
(Pot is overturned)
77
Verb: shumpuka/shumpula, ideophone shumpu
Trans.: Ndi-zi-thi shumpu iziqhamo
Ndi-ya-zi-shumpula iziqhamo
(I pluck off fruit)
Intr.:
Iziqhamo zi-thi shumpu
Iziqhamo zi-ya-shumpuka
(Fruit is being plucked off)
Verb: Ngquzuka/ngquzula, ideophone ngquzu
Trans.: Inkunzi i-ndi-thi ngquzu kweli litye
Inkunzi i-ya-ndi-ngquzula kweli litye
(Bull knocks me against this stone)
Intr.:
Ndi-thi ngquzu kweli litye
Ndi-ya-ngquzuka kweli litye
(I knock against this stone)
Verb: qephuka/qephula, ideophone qephu
Trans.: Ndi-wu-thi qephu umhlambi
Ndi-ya-wu-qephula umhlambi
(I drivide the herd)
Intr.:
Umhlambi u-thi qephu
Umhlambi u-ya-qephuka
(the herd is divided)
Verb: siphuka/siphula, ideophone siphu
Trans.: Ndi-si-the siphu isityalo
Ndi-si-siphule isityalo
(I pulled out plant)
Intr.:
Isityalo si-the siphu
Isityalo si-siphukile
(Plant is pulled out)
Verb: xhuzuka/xhuzula, ideophone xhuzu
Trans.: Ndi-li-the xhuzu isebe
Ndi-li-xhuzule isebe
(I wrenched off branch)
Intr.:
Isebe si-the xhuzu
Isebe si-xhuzukile
(Branch is wrenched off)
Verb: ntlephuka/ntlephula, ideophone ntlephu
Trans.: Ndi-li-thi ntlephu iqhekeza lesonka
Ndi-ya-li-ntlephula iqekeza lesonka
(I break off piece of bread)
Intr.:
Iqhekeza lesonka li-thi ntlephu
Iqhekeza lesonka li-ya-ntlephuka
(Piece of bread breaks off)
78
Verb: rhezuka/rhezula, ideophone rhezu
Trans.: Ndi-yi-the rhezu indawana evilini
Ndi-yi-rhezule indawana evilini
(I broke off small piece from wheel)
Intr.:
Indawana i-the rhezu evilini
Indawana i-rhezukile evilini
(Small piece broke off from wheel)
Verb: qhuzuka/qhuzula, ideophone qhuzu
Trans.: Ndi-li-the qhuzu icetyana elityeni
Ndi-li-qhuzule icetyana elityeni
(I broke off piece from stone)
Intr.:
Icetyana li-the qhuzu elityeni
Icetyana li-qhuzukile elityeni
(Piece broke off from stone)
Verb: qhezuka/qhezula, ideophone qhezu
Trans.: Ndi-li-the qhezu iceba kulaa mthi
Ndi-li-qhezule iceba kulaa mthi
(I broke off piece from that tree)
Intr.:
Iceba i-the qhezu kulaa mthi
Iceba i-qhezukile kulaa mthi
(Piece broke off from that tree)
Verb: qhawuka/qhawula, ideophone qhawu
Trans.: Ndi-yi-thi qhawu intambo
Ndi-ya-yi-qhawula intambo
(I break off rope)
Intr.:
Intambo i-thi qhawu
Intambo i-ya-qhawuka
(Rope breaks off)
Verb: shunqula/shunquka, ideophone shunqe
Trans.: Ndi-yi-the shunqe intambo phakathi
Ndi-yi-shunqule intambo phakathi
(I cut rope in middle)
Intr.:
Intambo i-the shunqe phakathi
Intambo i-shunquke phakathi
(Rope is cut in middle)
3.2.5
Causative ideophone with –ululu and verb with [k/l]
(36)
Verb: nwabuluka/nwabulula, ideophone nwabululu
Trans.: Ndi-yi-thi nwabululu ingubo
Ndi-ya-yi-nwabulula ingubo
(I unfold blanket)
Intr.:
Ingubo i-thi nwabululu
Ingubo i-ya-nwabuluka
(Blanket is unfolded)
79
Verb: swabuluka/swabulula, ideophone swabululu
Trans.: Ndi-yi-thi swabululu intambo
Ndi-ya-yi-swabulula intambo
(I unroll rope)
Intr.:
Intambo i-thi swabululu
Intambo i-ya-swabuluka
(Rope is unrolled)
Verb: bebulula/bebuluka, ideophone bebululu
Trans.: Nda-lu-thi bebululu lonke ufele
Nda-lu-bebulula lonke ufele
(I peeled off whole skin)
Intr.:
Lonke ufele lwa-thi bebululu
(Lonke ufele lu-bebulukile
(Whole skin is peeled off)
Verb: nyobuluka/nyobulula, ideophone nyobululu
Trans.: Ndi-li-thi nyobululu iqhina
Ndi-ya-li-nyobulula iqhina
(I loosen knot)
Intr.:
Iqhina i-thi nyobululu
Iqhina i-ya-nyoboluka
(Knot becomes loose)
Verb: nyubuluka/nyubulula, ideophone nyubululu
Trans.: Ndi-yi-the nyubululu intambo
Ndi-yi-nyubulule intambo
(I uncoiled rope)
Intr.:
Intambo i-the nyubululu
Intambo i-nyubulukile
(Rope is uncoiled)
3.2.6
Causative ideophone and verb with [k/z]
(37)
Verb: wohloka/wohloza, ideophone wohlo
Trans: Nda-si-thi wohlo isakhiwo
Nda-si-wohloza isakhiwo
I destroyed the building
Intr.:
Isakhiwo sa-thi wohlo
Isakhiwo sa-wohloka
The building is destroyed
Verb: tyoboka/tyoboza, ideophone tyobo
Trans.: Nda-yi-thi tyobo imoto
Nda-yi-tyoboza imoto
I smashed the car
Intr.:
Imoto ya-thi tyobo
Imoto ya-tyoboka
The car is smashed
80
Verb: qumka/qumza, ideophone qum
Trans.: Ndi-li-the qum iqanda
Ndi-li-qumzile iqanda
I shattered the egg
Intr.:
Iqanda li-the qum
Iqanda li-qumkile
The egg shattered
Verb: phihlika/phihliza, ideophone phihli
Trans.: Ilitye la-yi-thi phihli iglasi
Ilitye la-yi-phihliza iglasi
The stone smashed the glass
Intr.:
Iglasi ya-thi phihli
Iglasi ya-phihlika
The glass smashed
Verb: lofoka/lofoza, ideophone lofo
Trans.: Ndi-thi lofo umhlakulo egadeni
Ndi-lofoza umhlakulo egadini
I thrust the spade easily into the garden
Intr.:
Umhlakulo u-thi lofo egadeni
Umhlakulo u-ya-lofoka egadeni
The spade sinks easily into the garden
Verb: liqika/liqiza, ideophone liqi
Trans.: Ndi-thi liqi udaka eludongeni
Ndi-liqiza udaka eludongeni
I drop the plaster from the wall
Intr.:
Udaka lu-thi liqi eludongeni
Udaka lu-liqika eludongeni
Plaster falls down from the wall
Verb: phokoka/phokoza, ideophone phoko
Trans.: Nda-lu-thi phoko ubisi kule glasi
Nda-lu-phokoza ubisi kule glasi
(I poured milk into this glass)
Intr.:
Ubisi lwa-thi phoko kule glasi
(Ubisi lwa-phokoka kule glasi
(Milk is poured into this glass)
Verb: nqaphuka/nqaphuza, ideophone nqaphu
Trans.: Ndi-yi-the nqaphu intambo
Ndi-yi-nqaphuzile intambo
(I snapped rope)
Intr.:
Intambo i-the nqaphu
Intambo i-nqaphukile
(Rope snapped)
81
Verb: qhekeza/qhekeka, ideophone qheke
Trans.: Ndi-zi-the qheke iinkuni
Ndi-zi-qhekezile iinkuni
(I split in two wood)
Intr.:
Iinkuni zi-the qheke
Iinkuni zi-qhekekile
(Wood split in two)
Verb: qhufuza/qhufuka, idophone qhufu
Trans.: Nda-li-thi qhufu iqanda
Nda-li-qhufuza iqanda
(I broke egg)
Intr.:
Iqanda la-thi qhufu
Iqanda li-qhufukile
(Egg broke)
Verb: qhumza/qhumka, ideophone qhum
Trans.: Ndi-yi-the qhum ikomityi
Ndi-yi-qhumzile ikomityi
(I broke cup)
Intr.:
Inkomityi i-the qhum
Ikomityi i-qhumkile
(Cup broke)
Verb: qhambuza/qhambuka, ideophone qhamba
Trans.: Nda-li-thi qhamba ithumba
Nda-li-qhambuza ithumba
(I lanced boil)
Intr.:
Ithumba la-thi qhamba
Ithumba la-qhambuka
(Boil burst open)
Verb: tyumza/tyumka, ideophone tyum
Trans.: Nda-li-thi tyum iqanda
Nda-li-tyumza iqanda
(I crushed egg)
Intr.:
Iqanda la-thi tyum
Iqanda la-tyumka
(Egg is crushed)
3.2.7
Causative ideophone and intransitive verb
(38)
Verb: rhoxa, ideophone rhoxe
Trans.: Ndi-yi-the rhoxe imbiza
I lowered the water-level of the pot
Intr.:
Imbiza i-the rhoxe
Imbiza i-rhoxile
The pot has gone down in water-level
82
Verb: tyambalala, ideophone tyambalala
Trans.: Ndi-lu-the tyambalala ukhuko
I laid down flat the sleeping-mat
Intr.:
Ukhuko lu-the tyambalala
Ukhuko lu-tyambalele
The sleeping-mat is laid out flat
3.2.8
Causative ideophone and transitive verb
(39)
Verb: thandela, ideophone thande
Trans.: Ndi-wu-the thande lo mnxeba kwezi nkuni
Ndi-wu-thandela lo mnxeba kwezi nkuni
(I tied this rope around this wood)
Intr.:
Lo mnxeba u-the thande kwezi nkuni
(This rope was tied around this wood)
Verb: qwela, ideophone qwele
Trans.: Ndi-bu-the qwele utywala
Ndi-bu-qwelile utywala
I finished the beer
Intr.:
Utywala bu-the qwele
The beer is finished
Verb: vingca, ideophone vingci
Trans.: Ndi-li-the vingci iselwa
Ndi-li-vingcile iselwa
I closed up the calabash
Intr.:
Iselwa li-the vingci
The calabash is closed up
Verb: vitha, ideophone vithi
Trans.: Ndi-the vithi uswazi
Ndi-vithe uswazi
I broke the switch
Intr.:
Uswazi lu-the vithi
The switch broke
Verb: qhala, ideophone qhale
Trans.: U-zi-the qhale iimpahla etafileni
U-zi-qhalile iimpahla etafileni
He spread out the clothes on the table
Intr.:
Iimpahla zithe qhale etafileni
The clothes are spread out on the table
Verb: yalula, ideophone yalu
Trans.: Ndi-wa-thi yalu amanzi
Ndi-wa-yalule amanzi
(I stirred water)
83
Intr.:
Amanzi a-thi yalu
(Water is stirred)
Verb: qumfuza, ideophone qumfu
Trans.: Nda-zi-qumfu iintwala
Nda-zi-qumfuza iintwala
(I crushed lice)
Intr.:
Iintwala za-thi qumfu
(Lice are crushed)
Verb: shwaqa, ideophone shwaqe
Trans.: Wa-yi-thi shwaqe intonga kubini
Wa-yi-shwaqa intonga kubini
(He broke stick in two)
Intr.:
Intonga ya-thi shwaqe kubini
(Stick broke in two)
Verb: waxaza, ideophone waxa
Trans.: Khawuthi waxa amanzi
Khawu-waxaze amanzi
(Pour some water)
Intr.:
Amanzi a-thi waxa
(Water is poured)
Verb: wulula, ideophone wululu
Trans.: Ndi-lu-the wululu ucingo
Ndi-lu-wulule ucingo
(I unwound wire)
Intr.:
Ucingo lu-the wululu
(Wire is unwounded)
Verb: qoboza, ideophone qobo
Trans.: Ndi-yi-thi qobo iglasi
Ndi-yi-qobozile iglasi
(I broke glass)
Intr.:
Iglasi ya-thi qobo
(Glass broke)
Verb: khucula, ideophone khucu
Trans.: Isepha i-yi-the kHucu intsila kule mpahla
Isepha i-yi-khucule intsila kule mpahla
(Soap washed out dirt from these clothes)
Intr.:
Intsila i-the khucu kule mpahla
(Dirt is washed out from these clothes)
84
3.2.9
(40)
Intransitive ideophone with transitive and intransitive verb
Intrans:Umntwana u-the tyeke
Umntwana u-ya-tyekeza
(The child brings up food)
Si-ya-tyekeza lulwazi
(We overflow with knowledge)
Trans: Iholo ya-tyekeza abantu
(The hall overflows with people)
Ulwandle lutyekeza amabibi
(The sea washes up seaweed)
3.2.10 Intransitive ideophone with copulative NP
Transitive ideophone with nga-NP
(41)
3.3
Intrans.:
Isitya si-the mohlo [ngumgubo]
(Dish it-is-filled with-meal)
Trans.:
U-si-the mohlo [ngomgubo] isitya
(He it-filled with-meal dish)
Intrans.:
Ibhekile i-the mfici [lubisi]
(Can it-is-brim-full with-milk)
Trans.:
U-yi-the mfici ibhekile [ngobisi]
(He-it-filled-brimful can with-milk)
Sesotho
3.3.1 Verbs on –oha and –ola
(42)
re kamo (be broken, break)
kamoha (be broken)
kamola (break)
petsoha (be split open)
petsola (split open)
hlephoha (be broken to pieces)
hlephola (break to pieces)
taboha (be torn)
tabola (tear)
kgamoha (be divided, broken)
kgamola (divide, break)
hahoha (be torn)
hahola (tear)
qhetsoha (be broken off (a piece)
qhetsola (break off (a piece)
`
ngamoha (be broken, cracked)
ngamola (break, crack)
kgephoha (be broken off (a piece)
kgephola (break off (a piece)
phethoha (be turned over)
phethola (turn over)
patsoha/petsoha (be split/burst open)
patsola/petsola (split/burst open)
pjemoha (be loose)
pjemola (loosen)
taboha (be torn)
tabola (tear)
photjhoha (be loose)
photjhola (loosen)
85
hahoha (be torn)
hahola (tear)
re mamo (be torn, tear)
mamoha (be violently torn)
mamola (tear violently)
haroha (be torn to pieces)
harola (tear to pieces)
qhashoha (be burst open)
qhashola (burst open)
petoha (be opened (eye)
petola (open (eye)
fetoha (be changed)
fetola (change)
ina (put in water)
inoha (come out of water)
inola (take out of water)
3.3.2 Verbs on –olla and –oloha
(43)
mena (fold)
menoloha (be unrolled)
menolla (unroll)
qhaqha (demolish)
qhaqholoha (be demolished)
qhaqholla (demolish)
phutha (fold, gather)
phutholoha (be unfolded)
phutholla (unfold)
qheboloha (be demolished)
qhebolla (demolish)
kwahela (cover, close)
kwaholoha (be uncovered, revealed)
kwaholla (uncover, reveal)
maneha (glue)
manoloha (be unglued)
manolla (unglue)
re kguru (cover)
kgurumela (be covered up)
kgurumetsa (cover up)
kgurumoloha (be uncovered)
kgurumolla (uncover)
rara (be entwined)
raroloha (be loose)
rarolla (loosen)
ngoma (clasp, buckle)
ngomoloha (be unbuckled, unclasped)
ngomolla (unbuckle, unclasp)
lokoloha (be free, untied)
lokolla (free, untie)
qhwaela (pin)
qhwaoloha (be loosened)
qhwaolla (loosen)
86
thiba (stop)
thiboloha (be opened)
thibolla (open)
siba (stop a hole)
siboloha (be opened)
sibolla (open)
koba (bend)
koboloha (be unbended)
kobolla (unbend)
inama (bow, stoop, bend)
inamoloha (get up after bow)
inamolla (cause to get up after bow)
rusuloha (be torn to pieces)
rusolla (tear to pieces)
tamoloha (be torn to pieces)
tamolla (tear to pieces)
otloloha (be stretched out)
otlolla (stretch out)
saroloha (be stretched)
sarolla (stretch)
tosoloha (be stretched)
tosolla (stretch)
nwaboloha (be pulled and stretched)
nwabolla (pull and stretch)
3.4
Xitsonga
3.4.1 [l/k:t]
(44)
Tintangu ta-swihal-a (Shoes are dark)
Ndzi-swiha-t-a tintangu (I make shoes darker)
Ndzi-swihal-a timbilu (I am disgusted)
Swakudya swa-ndzi-swiha-t-a (Food disgusts me)
Darata ya-soholo-k-a (Wire is twisted)
Ndzi-soholo-t-a darata (I twist wire)
Mahlo ma-rhunyal-a (Eyes see badly)
Ndzi-rhunyal-a mahlo (I see badly)
Rivoni ri-rhunya-t-a mahlo (LIght spoils eyes)
Ndzi-relel-a xitsunga (I descend hill)
Ndzi-rele-t-a xitsunga (I cause hill to be descended)
Ndza-pfumel-a (I say yes)
Ndzi-pfume-t-a vana (I cause children to say yes)
87
Ndzi-pfumal-a mali (I am in need of money)
Ndzi-pfuma-t-a vanhu mali (I deprive people of money)
Nyama ya-pfhavamel-a (Meat roasts by fire)
Ndzi-pfhavame-t-a nyama (I roast meat by fire)
Ndzi-nyuvel-a ematini (I dive in water)
Mati ma-ndzi-nyuve-t-a (Water immerses me)
Ndzi-nyunyel-a munyu (I sprinkle salt)
Ndzi-nyunye-t-a munyu (I sprinkle salt)
lovola (pay bride-price), lovota (cause to pay bride price)
lala (sleep), lata (put to sleep)
lamala (be crippled), lamata, (cripple)
karhala (be tired), karhata (tire)
hlwela (delay), hlweta (cause to wait)
fihlula (eat breakfast), fihluta (give breakfast)
enela (be sufficient), eneta (suffice)
dyuhala (grow old), dyuhata (cause to grow old)
kufumela (be warm), kufumeta (warm up)
miyela (be silent), miyeta (silence)
navela (long for), naveta (make to desire)
nembelela (hang (intr.), nembeleta (hang (tr.)
halaka (be poured out), halata (pour out)
mineka (be set (trap), mineta (set trap)
khwekela/ka (be hooked by thorns), khweketa (hook)
3.4.2 [V-k, V-s]
(45)
bundluka [be crushed), bundlusa (crush open)
hangalaka (scatter (intr.), hangalasa (scatter (tr.)
kendluka (go open), kendlusa (open)
khindlimuka (wake up), khindlimusa (wake)
ninginika (sway), ninginisa (make to sway)
pfotloka (be broken), pfotlosa (break)
penyuluka (be turned out), Penyulusa (turn out (eyelid)
3.4.3 [V-k, V-x]
(46)
gombonyoka (be twisted), gombonyoxa (twist)
hirimuka (fall down), hirimuxa (cause to fall down)
khumbula (remember), khumbuxa (remind)
khunguluka (roll down (intr.), khunguluxa (roll down (tr.)
longoloka (proceed), longoloxa (cause of proceed)
mbindzimuka (collapse), mbindzimuxa (demolish)
nyawuka (warm oneself), nyawuxa (warm something)
ololoka (straighten up), ololoxa (straighten out)
petluka (be chipped), petluxa (chip)
3.4.4 [V-K, V-l]
(47)
pitsuka (have nausea), pitsula (cause nausea)
phurumuka (be opened), phurumula (open)
phatluka (be broken off), phatlula (break off)
phamuka (be split), phamula (split)
pewuka (be raised), pewula (raise)
pepuka (be exposed), pepula (expose)
88
namuka (be unstuck), namula (unstick)
lumuka (be weaned), lumula (wean)
kwamuka (be open), kwamula (open)
hlundzuka (be vexed), hlundzula (cause worry)
handzuka (be torn), handzula (tear)
guvuka (fall out (hair), guvula (scrape off (hair)
bavuka (be scorched), bavula (scorch)
anyuka (open out (intr.), anyula (open out (tr.)
davuka (split (intr.), davula (split (tr.)
hahluka (be blown off), hahlula (blow off (roof)
ntlurhuka (break in two), ntlurhula (break in two (table)
3.5
VERB CLASSES WITH CAUSATION
3.5.1 Verbs of change of state
(48)
Break
Nd-aphu-l-e ifestile
(I broke window)
Ifestile y-aphu-k-ile
(Window broke)
Break in pieces
Ndi-the krobo iglasi
Ndi-krobo-z-e iglasi
(I broke glass in pieces)
Iglasi i-the krobo
Iglasi i-krobo-k-ile
(Glass broke in pieces)
Break off
Ndi-the qebu isonka
Ndi-qebu-l-e sonka
(I broke off piece of bread)
Isonka si-the qebu
Isonka si-qebu-k-ile
(Piece of bread broke off)
Snap
Ndi-the nqaphu intambo
Ndi-nqaphu-z-e intambo
(I snapped the rope)
Intambo i-the nqaphu
(Intambo i-nqaphu-k-ile
(The rope snapped)
Crush
Ndi-the cum ibhotile
Ndi-cum-z-e ibhotile
(I crushed bottle)
Ibhotile i-the cum
(Ibhotile i-cum-k-ile
(The bottle crushed)
89
Burst
Ndi-the gqabu ibhaloni
Ndi-gqabu-l-e ibhaloni
(I burst balloon)
Ibhaloni i-the gqabu
Ibhaloni i-gqabu-k-ile
(Balloon burst)
Tear
Ndi-krazu-l-e ihempe
(I tore shirt)
Ihempe i-krazu-k-ile
(Shirt tore)
Tear off
Ndi-the krumpu amagqabi emthini
(Ndi-krumpu-le amagqabi emthini
(I tore off leaves from tree)
Amagqabi a-the krumpu emthini
Amagqabi a-krumpu-k-ile emthini
(Leaves tore off from tree)
Bend
Ndi-gob-e ucingo
(I bent wire)
Ucingo lu-gob-ile
(Wire bent)
Ndi-the qethu isibonda
Ndi-qethu-l-e isibonda
(I bent pole)
Isibonda si-the qethu
Isibonda si-qethu-k-ile
(Pole is bent)
Stretch
Nd-olu-l-a umtya
(I stretch string)
Umtya w-olu-k-ile
(Strong is stretched)
Fall
Ndi-tle liqi ukutya
Ndi-liqi-z-e ukutya
(I let fall food)
Ukutya ku-the liqi
Ukutya ku-liqi-k-ile
(The food has fallen)
Fire
Ndi-qhwith-a umcinga
(I strike match)
Umcinga u-ya-chwith-a
(Match is being struck)
90
Scorch
Ndi-rhawu-l-e inyama
(I scorched meat)
Inyama i-rhawu-k-ile
(Meat is scorched)
Kill
Si-dul-a inkomo
(We slaughter a beast)
Inkomo i-ya-dul-a
(A beast is being slaughtered)
Cut
Ndi-nqum-l-a intambo
(I cut rope)
Intambo i-nqum-k-ile
(Rope is cut)
Turn over
Ndi-phendu-l-a inyama embizeni
(I turn over meat in pot)
Inyama i-ya-phendu-k-a embizeni
(The meat turns over in the pot)
3.5.2 Verbs of removing
(49)
Remove sideways
Ndi-khwebul-e imoto endleleni
(I removed the car from the road)
Imoto i-khwebu-k-e endleleni
(The car is removed from the road)
Eject
Ndi-the potyo amathe emlonyeni
(I ejected/spit saliva from mouth)
Amathe a-the potyo emlonyeni
(Saliva came out suddenly from mouth)
Scrape
Ndi-khuthu-l-e ipeyinti eludongeni
(I scraped paint from wall)
Ipeyinti i-khuthu-k-e eludongeni
(Paint is scraped from wall)
Pull lout
Ndi-the ncothu ukhula egadini
Ndi-ncothu-l-e ukhula egadini
(I pulled out weeds from garden)
Ukhula lu-the ncothu egadini
Ukhula lu-ncothu-k-e egadini
(Weeds are pulled from garden)
91
Ke-motsu-l-a ditlama tshimong
(I pull out plants from garden)
Ditlama di-motsu-h-a tshimong
(Plants are pulled from garden)
Peel
Ndi-the xobu ixolo eorenjini
Ndi-xobu-l-e ixolo eorenjini
(I peeled rind from orange)
Ixolo li-the xobu eorenjini
Ixolo li-xobu-k-e eorenjini
(Rind is peeled from orange)
Pour out
Ke-tshol-l-a metsi botlolong
(I pour out water from bottle)
Metsi a-tshol-oh-a botlolong
(Water is poured from bottle)
Spill
Ndi-phala-z-a amanzi e-emeleni
(I spill water from bucket)
Amanzi a-phala-l-a e-emeleni
(Water is spilled from bucket)
Wipe
Ke-hlako-l-a ditshila tafoleng
(I wipe rubbish from table)
Ditshila di-hlako-h-a tafoleng
(Rubbish is wiped from table)
3.5.3 Verbs of putting
(50)
Pour
Ndi-thi quba ubisi etini
(I pour milk in tea)
Ubisi lu-thi quba etini
(Milk is poured in tea)
Ndi-rhoboloz-a amanzi etephini
(I pour out water from tap)
Amanzi a-rhoboloz-a etephini
(Water pour out from tap)
Throw
Ndi-the lwa umbona engwoweni
(I threw mealies into bag)
Umbona u-the lwa engxoweni
(Mealies were thoruwn into bag)
Hide
Ndi-thi nyha incwadi endlwini
(I hide book in house)
92
Incwadi i-thi nyha endlwini
(Book is hidden in house)
Fill
Ndi-thi mfixi ibhekile ngobisi
(I fill can with milk)
Ibhekile i-thi mfixi lubisi
(Can is being filled by milk)
Throw down
Ndi-thi qithi imela etafileni
(I throw down with sound knife on table)
Imela i-thi qithi etafileni
(Knife is being thrown down on table)
Disappear
Nda-thi lolotya laa nto emanzini
(I put that thing in water)
Laa nto ya-thi lolotya emanzini
(That think disappeared in water)
Nda-yi-thi lokohlo imela epokothweni
(I put knife easily in picket)
Imela ya-thi lokohlo epokothweni
(Knife went easily into pocket)
Nda-li-thi lothe emngxunyene ilitye
(I threw stone in hole)
Ithole la-thi lothe emngxunyeni
(Stone disappeared into hole)
4.
LOCATIVES
4.1
Locative forms
See also Du Plessis, Musehane, Visser (1995), Du Plessis, Visser (1992), Dinga
(1997), L8ithole (1999:108), Mdumela (1996:56), Musehane (1991), Sepota (1999),
Nekhumbe (1995:40), Ramovha (1996:55), Du Plessis, Nxumalo, Visser (1995).
93
(51) a. Locative prefix and/or suffix
Sesotho
N.S.
Tsonga
Venda
Xhosa
Zulu
-eng
-eng
e-(ini)
-ni
e-(ini)
e-(ini)
kha
ku
ku
ha
kwa
kwa
b. Locative preposition
ho
go
eka
c. Locative possessive
ha
ga
ka
d. Locative nominal modifiers
Demonstrative
mona
mo fa
laha lomu
afha
apha
lapha
moo
mono fano
laho lomo
fhano
apho
lapho
mane
moo fao
lahaya lomuya
afho
phaya
laphaya
fhal8a
mola fale
Quantifier
hohle
gohle
hinkwako
hot8he
konke
konke
kona
hone
khona
khona
nga
nga
nga
Absolute pronoun
hona
e.
ka
gona
Preposition ka with locative
ka
hi
94
4.2
Verbs with locative arguments
4.2.1
With Intransitive verbs
4.2.1.1 Structure
CP
Spec, CP
C
C
TP
Subject
T
T
vP
Subject
v
VP
v
V
(53)
Xhosa:
Sotho:
Baza kuya edolophini
Ba-tla-ya toropong
(They will go to town)
Xhosa:
Sotho:
Baza kungena endlwini
Ba-tla-kena ntlong
(They will enter the house)
Xhosa:
Sotho:
Ba-vela emzini
Ba-tswa motseng
(They come from the village)
4.2.1.2
(54)
Xhosa verbs
Location
Enter
-ngena
Manner of entering
a.
Enter silently
-thi khalakatha (enter silently)
b.
Spend short time
-thi qu edolophini (go to town and return soon)
c.
Go in and out
-ntshubaza kule ndlu (go in and out of house)
LOC
95
d.
Enter and disappear
-thi qumbu + locative
- thi qolokothe
-thi lambalala
-thi lanti
-thi latha
-thi lombo
-thi lonji
Arrive
fika (arrive)
quleka (arrive suddenly)
Lead
khokela (lead)
Wallow
ntyumpa-ntyumpeka (wallow in mud)
Direction
ya (go)
-onda nga- (go straight to)
-thi ngqo ngale ndlela (go straight ahead)
-ngqala kuye (go straight to him)
singa (go to)
sondela (come near, approach)
nyuka, khwela (climb, ascend)
tsiba (go for a short visit)
za (come)
Source
Vela (come from)
mka (leave)
phuma (come out)
nduluka (depart)
nkonkoza (come out (water)
suka (go away)
buya (return)
hla (descend)
tyibilika (slip from)
phambuka (turn aside)
fuduka (emigrate)
rhoxa (retreat)
nyebeleza, thi nyebelele (go away unnoticed)
Flee
-saba utshaba/elutshabeni (from enemy)
-thi krabinci
-krentula
-thi mngce
baleka
4.2.1.3
(55)
Sesotho verbs
Source
Tswa (come from)
falla (emigrate)
kgutla (return)
re theo, theoha (descend)
nyoloha (ascend)
tloha (leave)
thoba (go away unseen)
boya (return)
oroha (return home)
96
Roll
pitika (roll on ground)
sudubana (roll on ground)
pitikolla/pitikoloha (roll)
bidika (roll (wheel)
theteha (roll down)
phikoloha/phikolosa (roll down)
Turn aside
kgeloha (turn aside)
fapoha (turn away from)
Flee
baleha
tshaba
qhemetseha
phaphatheha
phekga
patlapatla
re phekgo, phekgoha/phekgola
Direction
ya(go)
tla (come)
toba (go straight to)
leba (go to)
ella (move towards)
haba (go to)
phethesela (go to and fro)
atamela (come near, approach)
sasamala (go straight forward)
hlwa, nyoloha (ascend)
jaka (go and live in a foreign place)
Location
Enter
kena, re tjhobe, tjhobela, hohomela
Arrive
fihla (arrive)
honyella (arrive)
raka (arrive before)
re thoso, thosoha (arrive suddenly)
re thoboloko (arrive unexpectedly)
Motion
boya (return)
Dikgomo tsa morena di boile naheng
*Morena o boile dikgomo tsa hae naheng
*Naha e boile dikgomo tsa morena
*Naha e boile morena dikgomo tsa hae
baleha (run away, flee)
Batho ba baleha naheng
*Naha e baleha batho
Re baleha tau naheng
*Naha e baleha tau
*Naha e baleha tau ho rona
Bana ba morena ba baleha naheng
*Morena o baleha bana naheng
Naha e baleha bana ba morena
atamela (come near)
Ke atamela baneng
Bana ba a nkatamela
Ke atamela dikgomo tsa morena sakeng
*Ke atamela morena dikgomo tsa hae sakeng
*Ke atamela lesaka dikgomo tsa morena
*Ke atamela lesaka morena dikgomo tsa hae
97
*Lesaka le atamela dikgomo tsa morena
*Lesaka le atamela morena dikgomo tsa hae
diha (cause to fall)
Ha ke bona sebesa se mo dihang
wella (move towards)
Re tla ella mmileng
kena (enter, come/go in)
Dikgomo tsa morena di kena sakeng
Morena o kena dikgomo sakeng
Lesaka le kena dikgomo tsa morena
*Lesaka le kena morena dikgomo tsa hae
*Morena o kena lesaka dikgomo tsa hae
phethesela (Crawl) go to and fro)
Dinta di phethesela ntlong
Ntlo e phethesela dinta
Ntlo e phethesela ke dinta
*Ntlo e phethesela ka dinta
phekgoha (flee)
O phekgoha sereng
O phekgoha sera
theoha/nyoloha
O theoha thabeng
o theoha thaba
o nyoloha thabeng
o nyoloha thaba
dieha (delay, be late)
Ba dieha haholo ho di tshwara (They are too late to catch them)
4.2.1.4
(56)
Tsonga verbs
Ntlawa lowu a fikaka eka wona
(Class in which he arrives)
Ndzi tise na papila ro huma eka yena
(I brought a letter just coming from her)
U fike la mutini matolo
(She arrived here in the village last night)
Wo hetelela ku huma laha Ghezini
(He just ends up to go away here from Ghezini)
Yin’wana ngata yi xiririkela tindleveni
(Some blood run down in his ears)
Yin’wana ngata a yi huma hi le matlhelweni ya nomu
(Some blood came out of sides of his mouth)
I khale hi ri ndleleni, hi nga fiki kaya
(It is long we are on the road, we are not arriving at home)
A pfala hinkwako
(He closed everywhere)
98
Swin’we swi dzika emisaveni
(Some settle on ground)
Va nghena va huma xikolweni
(They enter coming from school)
Ku vuya na ku nga vuyi swo fana eka yena
(To return or not return is the same to him)
Va-ya ekhixini ku-ya-lava swakudya
(They go to kitchen to go and look for food)
A-va-tlhelela ePfukane ku-ya-aka muti kona
(They returned to Pfukane to go and build a village there)
4.2.1.5 Intransitive ideophone with a locative argument (Xhosa)
(57)
Ndi-sa-thi gxada edolophini
I am still going to town
Inqanawa ya-thi le elwandle
The ship sank into the sea
Ndi-the zava esitulweni
I sat comfortably on the chair
Amanzi a-thi nkce-nkce-nkce etankini
Water is leaking from the tank
Impukane i-the gxwabha ekofini
The fly got into the coffee
Ixhego la-thi khithatha endleleni
The old man fell down on the road
U-the khotsho ekoyini
He hid in the corner
U-the qothe ehlathini
He suddenly went into the forest
U-the shenxe kule ndoda
He moved away from this man
Usana lu-the ncwaba kunina
(Baby sat relaxed with mother)
Wathi ngxe enkosini
(He asked for pardon from chief)
4.2.2
With transitive verbs
4.2.2.1
(58)
Structure
v
VP
v
V1
DP
dibuka
V
LOC
bea
tafoleng
99
(59)
Sotho:
Xhosa:
Ba-bea dibuka tafoleng
Ba-beka iincwadi etafileni
(They put the books on the table)
4.2.2.2 Transitive ideophone with a locative argument (Xhosa)
(60) Ndi-thi nkxu isonka emhluzini
I immerse bread in the gravy
Nda-m-thi mbokro emqolo laa mntu
I hit that person on the back
Ndi-thi thaca imali etafileni
I put the money on the table
U-yi-the qwempe emnweni inkwenkwe
He cut off the boy a small piece from the finger
4.2.2.3 Tsonga verbs
(61)
Leswi ndzi nga ha swi voniki eka yena
(That which I do not as yet see in her)
Swifaniso ndi swi veke le handle
(The photo’s I have put them outside)
Vusiwana a ndzi byi lavi la tikweni ra mina la
(Poverty I don’t want it here in my country)
Muti wa hina wu hundzukile rivoni exikarhi ka vusiku
(Our village changed into a light in the middle of the night)
U yimele nhlamulo le handle
(He waited for an answer outside)
Ndzo twa pongo ra ku holova emuhosi ka yindlu
(I hear noise of anger behind house)
Timhaka ta wena a ndzi ti yisangi nhlokweni
(Your issues I didn’t take them to head)
Ndzi ta rumela nhlamulo endzhaku
(I will send an answer later)
Va kombela tintswalo ta matilo ehenhla ka ndyangu wa vona
(They ask for mercies of heaven on their family)
A ndzi n’wi tlula etidyondzweni
(I surpassed him in education)
U swi kotile ku humesa ku bika kakwe hinkwako la xifanisweni lexi
(You could let her ugliness come out everywhere in this picture)
4.3
Locative inversion
See the following studies on Locative Inversion:
Setswana: Kgoe (2000:106), Walaza (1997:118)
Northern Sotho: Ledwaba 1997:119, Sepota, 1999:441)
Tshivenda: Ravele (1996), Silidi (1998:115), Tshikalange (2000:91), Maudu
(1997:142), Ramovha (1996:63)
IsiXhosa: Mendu (1997:159), Mnqumeni (1996:66)
IsiZulu: Sithole (1998:115)
100
(62)
Tsw: Mosadi o-ntsha nama [mo pitseng]
(Woman takes out meat from pot)
[Mo pitseng] go-ntsha mosadi nama
(From pot takes woman meat)
Xh:
Abantwana ba-vela [esikolweni]
(Children come from school)
[Esikolweni] ku-vela abantwana
(From school come children)
See Ravele, H.I. 1996. Locative inversion in Venda
Copulatives
(63)
[AP] (42-43)
[Tsimuni] ndi hudala (green) [Tsimuni]
[Tsimuni] hu hudala (green) [Tsimuni]
[Tsimuni] ho vha hu (green) [Tsimuni]
[NP] (44-45)
[Doroboni] ndi vhashumi
[Doroboni] hu vhashumi
[Doroboni] ho vha hu vhashumi
[AP] (55-57)
[Tsimuni] hu minzhi nga maanda miri
[NP] (58-60)
[Tshikoloni] hu mudedezi uyu munna
Verbs
Intransitive verbs (71-89)
Mulamboni hu a suvha [Slippery)
Kamarani hu lala musadzi
Transitive verbs (69-83)
Hayani hu l8a n(wana vhuswa
Ditransitive verbs (84-87)
Hayani hu fha n(wana munna bugu (Child gives man b.)
Applicative verbs (97-91)
Tshikoloni hu gidimi-el-a mutshudeni
Mulamboni hu lalela musadzi munna (wait for)
Causative vergs (92Tshikoloni hu vhalisa mudededzi n(wana bugu (cause to read)
4.4
Locative alternation
4.4.1 Locative  Object:
(64)
Intransitive verb:
Ndi-nyuka [entabeni] 
Ndi-nyuka [intaba]
(I climb a mountain)
101
(65)
Transitve verb:
Ke-aneha diaparo [terateng]
(I hang clothes on wire)
a.
Ke-aneha [terata] diaparo
(I hang wire clothes)
b.
Ke-aneha [terata] ka diaparo
(I hang wire with clothes)
c.
Diaparo di-aneha [terata]
(Clothes hang wire)
4.4
Locative  Subject:
(66)
Intransitive verb:
Jwang bo-mela [sakeng]
(Grass grow in kraal)
[Lesaka] le-mela jwang
(Kraal grow grass)
(67)
Transitive verb:
Ke-aneha diaparo [terateng]
(I hang clothes on wire)
[Terata] e-aneha diaparo
(Wrie hangs clothes)
4.4.3. Locative  Instrument:
(68)
Ke-aneha diaparo [terateng]
(I hang clothes on wire)
Ke-aneha diaparo [ka terata]
(I hang clothes with wire)
4.4.4 Locative alternation in IsiXhosa, Sesotho, Tshivenda, Xitsonga,
Setswana
4.4.4.1 With the object
Locative  Object
Intransitive verbs
IsiXhosa:
(69) Wa-yi-khuhlela [intsimi]
Wa-khuhlela [entsimini]
(He-doctored land)
102
Ikati ya-krweca [elucangweni]
Ikati ya-krweca [ucango]
(Cat it-scratched-lightly door)
Wa-thi nambe [kule ntombi]
Wa-yi-thi nambe [le ntombi]
(He-her-stuck-close this girl)
Imbovane yathi mfi emlenzeni [kulo mntu]
Imbovane ya-m-thi mfi emlenzeni [lo mntu]
(Ant it-him-nipped on-leg)
U-ya-nkwalambisa [kuye]
U-ya-m-nkwalambisa
(She deceives him)
U-the mfa [kulaa msebenzi]
U-wu-the mfa [laa msebenzi]
(He merely began that work)
Iinkomo zi-phulukile [kubalusi]
Iinkomo zi-ba-phulukile [abalusi]
(The cattle escaped from the herders)
Ithole li-ya-ncela [kunina]
Ithole li-ncela [unina]
(The calf sucks its mother dry)
Wa-saba [elutshabeni]
Wa-saba [utshaba]
(He fled from the enemy)
Wa-nyuka/hla [entabeni]
Wa-nyuka/hla [intaba]
(He ascend/descend from mountain)
U-the lwale luthando [kule ntombi]
U-yi-the lwale [le ntombi] luthando
(He covered with love this girl (he is in love with this girl)
U-the-lwale ngamazimba [entsimini]
U-yi-the lwale [intsimbi] ngamazimba
(He covered land with sorghum)
Transitive verbs
(70) Umfazi u-nyhala iitapile [engxoweni]
(The woman stuffs potatoes in the bag)
Umfazi u-nyhala [ingxowa] iitapile
103
Abafazi ba-tyabeka isamente [ezindongeni]
(The women plaster cement on the walls)
Abafazi ba-tyabeka [iindonga] isamente
Abavuni ba-layisha umbona [enqwelweni]
(The harvesters load mealies onto the wagon)
Abavuni ba-layisha [inqwelo] umbona
Iindoda i-bhijela intambo [esibondeni]
(The man coils a rope around the pole)
Indoda i-bhijela [isibonda] intambo
Umlimi u-tshiza ityhefu ezinambuzaneni
(Umlimi u-tshiza [izinambuzane] ityhefu
(The farmer sprays poison on the insects)
Umfazi u-xhoma iimpahla [elucingweni]
(The woman hangs clothes on the wire)
Umfazi u-xhoma [ucingo] iimpahla
Ba-ncina iindaba [kubahambi]
Ba-ncina [abahambi] iindaba
(They elicit news from travellers)
Nda-qaqulula amasebe [emthini]
Nda-qaqulula [umthi] amasebe
(I stripped branches from the tree)
Si-khama amanzi [kweli laphu]
Si-khama [eli laphu] amanzi
(We squeeze water from this material)
Umfazi u-beka imbiza [eziko]
Umfazi u-beka [iziko] imbiza
(The woman puts a pot on the fire)
Amadoda a-faka iimpahla [emotweni]
Amadoda a-faka [imoto] iimpahla
(The men put the goods in the car)
Umntwana u-galela amanzi [eglasini]
Umntwana u-galela [iglasi] amanzi
(The child pours water in the glass)
Venda
(71) Musadzi u-vhea bugu [t8afulani]
Musadzi u-vhea [t8afula] bugu
(The woman puts the book on the table)
104
Vhanna vha-l8aisa thundu [goloini]
Vhanna vha-l8aisa [goloi] thundu
(The men load the goods on the car)
Munna u-shela mad8i [ngilasini]
Munna u-shela [ngilasi] mad8i
(The man pours water in the glass)
Musadzi u-anea zwiambaro d8arat8ani
Musadzi u-anea [d8arat8a] zwiambaro
(The woman hangs clothes on the wire)
Vhanna vha-fhoma/shata matope [nd8uni]
Vhana vha-fhoma/shata [nnd8u] matope
(The children smear mud on the house)
Munna u-fafadzela mulimo [zwilumini]
Munna u-fafadzela [zwilumi] mulimo
(The man sprays poison on the insects)
Vhanna vha-pomba thambo [palani]
Vhanna vha-pomba [pala] thambo
(The men coil a rope around the pole)
Tswana
(72) Mosadi o-tshela metsi [mo galaseng]
Mosadi o-tshela [galase] metsi
(The woman pours the water in the glass)
Mosadi o-anega diaparo [mo mogaleng]
Mosadi o-anega [mogala] diaparo
(The woman hangs the clothes on the rope)
Monna o-gasa botlhole [mo ditshenekeging]
Monna o-gasa [ditshenekegi] botlhole
(The man sprays poison on the insects)
Sesotho
(73) Banna ba-laetse furu [seleing]
Banna ba-laetse [selei] furu
(The men loaded hay on the sleigh)
Ke-bakile kgang [ho baeti]
Ke-bakile [baeti] kgang
(I provoked a quarrel among the guests)
Molemi o-hlophetse poone [kgetsing]
Molemi o-hlophetse [kgetsi] poone
(The farmer filled the mealies in the bag)
105
Ke-peteta/tlhotla metsi [leseleng]
Ke-petela/tlhotla [lesela] metsi
(I wring out water from the cloth)
Ke-kutlula bohoho [pitseng]
Ke-kutlula [pitsa] bohoho
(I scrape crust from the pot)
Ke-sola lerole [tafoleng]
Ke-sola [tafole] lerole
(I wipe dust from the table)
Ke-amohile kobo [mosading]
Ke-amohile [mosadi] kobo
(I took away the blanket from the woman)
Tsonga
(74) Ndzi-hala swakudya endyelweni
Ndzi-hala ndyelo swakudya
(I scrape food from plate)
Ndzi-humesa mali exipacini
Ndzi-humesa xipaci mali
(I take out money from purse)
Ndzi-layicha nhundzu egolonyini
Ndzi-layicha golonyi nhundzu
(I load goods on wagon)
Locative  Object, Object  Subject
Venda
(75) Munna u-hulunga [daka] [mbondoni]
[Daka] li-hulunga [mbondo]
(The man plasters mud on the walls)
Vhana vha-fhoma/shata [matope] [nd8uni]
[Matope] a-fhoma/shata [nnd8u]
(The children smear mud on the house)
Munna u-fafadzela [mulimo] [zwilumini]
[Mulimo] u-fafadzela [zwilumi]
(The man sprays poison on the insects)
Vhanna vha-pomba [thambo] [palani]
[Thambo] i-pomba [pala]
(The men coil the rope around the pole)
Tsonga
106
(76) Ndzi-layicha nhundzu egolonyini
Nhundzu yi-layicha golonyi
(I load goods on wagon)
Tswana
(77) Ba-tshopha [bothale] [mo pitseng]
[Bothale] bo-tshopha [pitsa]
(They curl the wire around the pot)
Monna o-gasa [botlhole] [mo ditshenekeging]
(Botlhole] bo-gasa [ditshenekegi]
(The man sprays poison on the insects)
Locative  Object, Subject  Instrument
(78) Ipeyinti ya-thi ncatsha [ebhatyini]
[Ibhatyi] u-yi-the ncatsha [ngepeyinti]
(Paint stuck on jacket)
Locative  Object, Object  Instrument
Xhosa
(79) Umfazi u-nyhala [iitapile] [engxoweni]
Umfazi u-nyhala [ingxowa] [ngeetapile]
(The woman stuffs potatoes into the bag)
Abafazi batyabeka [isamente] [ezindongeni]
(The women plaster cement on the walls)
Abafazi batyabeka [iindonga] [ngesamente]
Abavuni balayisha [umbona] [enqwelweni]
(The reapers load mealies on the wagon)
Abavuni balayisha [inqwelo] [ngombona]
Indoda ibhijela [intambo] [esibondeni]
(The man coils a rope around the pole)
Indoda ibhijela [isibonda] [ngentambo]
Umlimi utshiza [ityhefu] [ezinambuzaneni]
(The farmer sprays poison on the insects)
Umlimi utshiza [izinambuzane] [ngetyhefu]
Umfazi u-xhoma [iimpahla] [elucingweni]
Umfazi u-xhoma [ucingo] [ngeempahla]
(The woman hangs clothes on the wire)
Nda-qaba [ifutha] [emzimbeni]
(I-smeared white clay on body)
107
Nda-qaba [umzimba] [ngefutha]
(I-smeared body with white clay)
Wa-bu-ngxala [uboya] [engxoweni]
(He-it-stuffed wool in bag)
Wa-yi-ngxala [ngoboya] [ingxowa]
(He-it-stuffed with wool bag)
Nda-yi-ngxash-a ingca engxoweni
(I-it-stuffed grass in-bag)
Nda-yi-ngxasha ingxowa ngengca
(I-it-stuffed bag with grass)
U-yi-the mbo [ingubo [emntwaneni]
(She-it-covered blanket on-child)
U-m-the mbo [ngengubo [umntwana]
(She-him-covered with-blanket child)
Nda-wu-mfikila [lo mcimbi [kulo mntu]
(I-it-duscussed this matter with this person)
Nda-m-mfikila [ngalo mcimbi] [lo mntu]
(I-him-discussed with-this matter this person)
U-wu-the thande [lo mnxeba] kwezi nkuni]
(He-it-tied this rope on-this wood)
U-zi-the thande [ngalo mnxeba] [ezi nkuni]
(He-it-tied with-this rope this wood)
Wa-yi-rhintyela intambo ezimpondweni
(He-it-tie/throw rope around horns)
Wa-zi-rhintyela iimpondo ngentambo
(He-them-tie/throw horns with rope)
Wa-yi-thi latya [intambo] [etholeni]
(He-it-threw-to-catch rope on-calf)
Wa-li-thi latya [ngentambo] [ithole]
(He-it-threw-to-catch with-rope calf)
Lo mntu u-m-the si [kum] [umntwana wakhe]
Lo mntu u-ndi-the si [ngomntwana wakhe
(This person left her child with me)
Tswana
(80) Mosadi o kgarametsa matlakala mo kgetseng
(The woman pushes the rubbish in the bag)
Mosadi o kgarametsa kgetse ka matlakala
Mosadi o tlhatlega pitsa mo mollong
(The woman puts a pot on the fire)
Mosadi o tlhatlega mollo ka pitsa
108
Monna o beile buka mo tafoleng
(The man has put the book on the table)
Monna o beile tafole ka buka
Monna o-laisa mabokose mo kariking
Monna o-laisa kariki ka mabokose
(The man loads the boxes on the car)
Ba-tshopha bothale mo pitseng
Ba-tshopha pitsa ka bothale
(They curl the wire around the pot)
Mosadi o-tshela metsi mo galaseng
(Mosadi o-tshela galase ka metsi
(The woman pours water into the glass)
Mosadi o-anega diaparo mo mogaleng
Mosadi o-anega mogala ka diaparo
(The woman hangs the clothes on the rope)
Monna o-gasa botlhole mo ditshenekeging
Monna o-gasa ditshenekegi ka botlhole
(The man sprays poison on the insects)
Venda
(81) Munna u-hulunga daka mbondoni
Munna u-hulunga mbondo nga daka
(The man plasters mud on the walls)
Musadzi u-vhea bugu t8afulani
Musadzi u-vhea t8afula nga bugu
(The woman puts the book on the table)
Vhanna vha-l8aisa thundu goloini
Vhanna vha-l8aisa goloi nga thundu
(The men load the goods on the car)
Munna u-shela mad8i ngilasini
Munna u-shela ngilasi nga mad8i
(The man pours water into the glass)
Musadzi u-anea zwiambaro d8arat8ani
Musadzi u-anea d8arat8a nga zwiambaro
(The woman hangs the clothes on the wire)
Vhana vha-fhoma/shata matope nd8uni
Vhana vha-fhoma/shata nnd8u nga matope
(The children smear mud on the house)
109
Munna u-fafadzela mulimo zwilumini
Munna u-fafadzela zwilumi nga mulimo
(The man sprays poison on the insects)
Vhanna vha-pomba thambo palani
Vhanna vha-pomba pala nga thambo
(The men coil the rope around the pole)
Tsonga
(82) Ndzi-layicha nhundzu egolonyini
Ndzi-layicha golonyi hi nhundzu
(I load goods on wagon)
4.4.4.2
With the subject
Locative  Subject
With Intranstive verbs
Sesotho:
(83) Lehola le-tletse tshimong
Tshimo e-tletse lehola
(Weeds are full in the garden)
Jwang bo-mela sakeng
Lesaka le-mela jwang
(Grass grows in cattle-kraal)
Dikgomo di-kena sakeng
Lesaka le-kena dikgomo
(Cattle enter into kraal)
Dinta di-phethesela ntlong
Ntlo e-phethesela dinta
(Lice crawl in house)
Batho ba bangata ba-ahile naheng
Naha e-ahile batho ba bangata
(Many people live in the veld)
Xhosa
(84) Ingca i-mila ebuhlanti
Ubuhlanti bu-mila ingca
(Grass grows in the cattle kraal)
110
Venda
(85) N8otshi dzi-dzhena thangoni
Thango i-dzhena n8otshi
(Bees enter into hive)
With transitive verbs
Sesotho
(86) Molemi o-hlophetse poone kgetsing
Kgetsi e-hlophetse poone
(The farmer filled mealies into the bag)
Ke-ina diaparo metsing
Metsi a-ina diaparo
(I soak the clothes in water)
Ke-ntsha diaparo khabotheng
Khabothe e-ntsha diaparo
(I take out the clothes from the cupboard)
Tswana
(87) Monna o-laisa mabokose mo kariking
Kariki e-laisa mabokose
(The man loads the boxes on the cart)
Ba-tshopha bothale mo pitseng
Pitsa e-tshopha bothale
(They curl the wire around the pot)
Mosadi o-tshela metsi mo galaseng
Galase e-tshela metsi
(The woman pours water into the glass)
Mosadi o-anega diaparo mo mogaleng
Mogala o-anega diaparo
(The woman hangs the clothes on the rope)
Tsonga
(88) Ndzi-layicha nhundzu golonyini
Golonyi yi-layicha nhundzu
(I load goods on wagon)
Venda
(89) Vhanna vha-l8aisa thundu goloini
Goloi i-l8aisa thundu
(The men load the goods on the car)
111
Munna u-shela mad8i ngilasini
Ngilasi i-shela mad8i
(The man pours water into the glass)
Musadzi u-anea zwiambaro d8arat8ani
D8arat8a i-anea zwiambaro
(The woman hangs the clothes on the wire)
Vhanna vha-pomba thambo palani
Pala i-pomba thambo
(The men coil the rope around the pole)
Xhosa
(90) Umntwana u-galela amanzi eglasini
Iglasi i-galela amanzi
(The child pours water in the glass)
U-lu-the muncu [entsimini] ukhula
(He cleared weeds from land)
[Intsimi] i-lu-the muncu ukhula
(Land is cleared of weeds)
U-ba-khamile [kweli phepha] [abafundi]
(He strangled them in this paper students i.e. he set a difficult paper for the
students)
[Eli phepha [li-ba-khamile [abafundi]
(This paper strangled them the students, i.e. it was difficult for them)
Locative  Subject, Subject  Cop.NP
With intransitive verbs
(91) [Iimbovane] zi-the mome [kweli thambo]
(Ants they-swarmed on-this bone)
[Eli thambo] li-the mome [ziimbovane]
(This bone it-is-covered with-ants)
[Ukhula] lu-the tshitshilili [kulaa ntsimi]
(Weeds it-is-full on-that land)
[Laa ntsimi] i-the tshitshilili [lukhula]
(That land it-is-full of-weeds)
[Le pepile] i-ya-qhwetha [kumlomo wam]
(This pepper it-burns in-mouth of-me)
[Umlomo wam] u-ya-qhwetha [yile pepile]
(Mouth of-me it-burns because-of-this pepper)
[Iintwala] zi-ya-qhelezela [kulo mntu]
(Lice they-crawl on-this person)
[Lo mntu] u-ya-qhelezela [ziintwala]
(This person he-crawls with-lice)
112
[Amafu] a-the rhwalala [esibhakabhakeni]
(Clouds they-are-scattered in-sky)
[Isibhakabhaka] si-the rhwalala [ngamafu]
(Sky it-is-scattered with clouds)
[Le pepile] i-ya-khakhazela [emlonyeni wam]
(This pepper it-burns in-mouth of-me)
[Umlomo wam] u-ya-khakhazela [yile pepile]
(Mouth of-me it-burns because-of-this pepper)
[Amaqhakuva] a-the menqu [emzimbeni wakhe]
(Pimples they-broke-out on-body of-his)
[Umzimba wakhe] u-the menqu [ngamaqhakuva]
(Body of-his it-broke-out with-pimples)
[Amabala angcolileyo] a-the phahlu [edyasini yakhe]
(Spots dirty they-abound on-coat of-his)
[Idyasi yakhe] i-the phahlu [ngamabala angcolileyo]
(Coat of-his it-abound with-spots dirty)
[Iinkobe] zi-the ngwadle [embizeni]
[Mealies they-are-too-much in-pot)
[Imbiza] i-the ngwadle [ziinkobe]
(Pot it-has-too-much of-mealies)
4.4.4.3
With the instrument
Locative  Instrument
(92)
Tswana:
Ke-pega diaparo mogaleng
(I hang clothes on wire)
Ke-pega diaparo ka mogala
(I hang clothes with wire)
Venda:
Ndi-anea zwiambaro d8arat8ani
(I hang clohtes on wire)
Ndi-anea zwiambaro nga d8arat8a
(I hang clohtes with wire)
Xhosa:
Ndixhoma iimpahla elucingweni
(I hang clohtes on wire)
Ndixhoma iimpahla ngocingo
(I hang clothes with wire)
Sesotho:
Ke-ina diaparo metsing
Ke-ina diaparo ka metsi
(I soak clothes in water)
Tsonga:
Ndzi-layicha nhundzu egolonyini
Ndzi-layicha nhundzu hi golonyi
(I load goods on wagon
113
4.5
Verb classes with locative arguments
4.5.1 Verbs od putting
(93)
Put verbs
Setswana:
Sesotho:
IsiXhosa:
Ke-baya kuba mo tafoleng
Ke-bea buka tafoleng
Ndi-beka incwadi etafileni
(I put book on table)
Hang verbs
Setswana: Ke-pega diaparo mo mogaleng
IsiXhosa:
Nd-aneka impahla elucingweni
Sesotho:
Ke-aneha diaparo terateng
(I hang clothes on rope/wire)
Push verbs
IsiXhosa:
Ndi-tyhala amagqabi engxoweni
Setswana: Ke-kgarametsa matlakala mo kgetseng
Sesotho:
Ke-subuhlella madlaku kgetseng
(I push leaves/rubbish into bag)
Smear verbs
Setswana: Ke-kgapha boloko mo bodilong
(I smear cow-dung on floor)
IsiXhosa:
Ndi-qaba ibhotolo esonkeni
(I smear butter on bread)
Hide verbs
IsiXhosa:
Ndi-fihla incwadi eklasini
(I hide book in class)
Pour verbs
Setswana: Ke-tshela metsi mo galaseng
IsiXhosa:
Ndi-galela amanzi eglasini
Sesotho:
Ke-tshela metsi kgalaseng
(I pour water in glas)
Coil verbs
Setswana:
IsiXhosa:
Sesotho:
Ke-tshopha bothale mo pitseng
(I weave wire around pot)
Ndi-bhijela ucingo entongeni
(I twist wire around stick)
Ke-hara mohala palong
(I coil wire around pole)
Spray verbs
Setswana: Ke-gasa botlhole mo ditshenekeging
IsiXhosa:
Ndi-tshiza ityhefu ezinambuzaneni
(I spray poison on insects)
Load verbs
Tswana:
Ke-laisa mabokose mo loring
(I load boxes on lorry)
114
IsiXhosa:
Ndi-layisha imithwalo enqwelweni
(I load goods on wagon)
4.5.2 Verbs of putting with causation
(94)
Put verbs
Nda-yi-thi lokohlo imela epokothweni
Imela ya-thi lokohlo epakothweni
(I put knife easily into pocket)
Nda-thi lolotya laa nto emanzini
Laa nto ya-thi lolotya emanzini
(I put that thing into water)
Pour verbs
Ndi-rhoboloza amanzi etephini
Amanzi a-rhoboloza etephini
(I pour out water from tap)
Ndi-the quba ubisi etini
Ubisi lu-the quba etini
(I poured milk into tea)
Throw verbs
Nda-li-thi lothe emngxunyeni ilitye
Ilitye la-thi lothe emngxunyeni
(I threw stone into hole)
Ndi-the qithi imela etafileni
Imela i-the qithi etafileni
(I threw down knife on table)
Ndi-the lwa umbona engxoweni
Umbona u-the lwa engxoweni
(I threw mealies into bag)
Hide verbs
Ndi-the nyha incwadi eklasini
Incwadi i-the nyha eklasini
(I hid book in class)
4.5.3 Verbs of removing
(95)
Remove
IsiXhosa:
Sesotho:
Ndi-khupha/susa imali esipajini
(I remove/take out money from purse)
Ke-tlosa diphahlo koloing
(I remove goods from car)
Ke-ntsha tjhelete sepatjheng
(I take out money from purse)
Ke-amoha dijo ho mosebetsi
(I take away food from worker)
115
Pull out
Ndi-qhiza amasetyana endukwini
(I remove twigs from stick)
Ndi-qalula amagqabi emthini
(I strip leaves from tree)
Ndi-rhaphula ukhula egadini
(I pull out weeds from garden)
Clear
Sesotho:
IsiXhosa:
Banish
Sesotho:
IsiXhosa:
Steal
Sesotho:
IsiXhosa:
Ke-fala dijo poleiting
(I scrape food from plate)
Ke-tlhotla metsi diaparong
(I wring water from clothes)
Ke-tsokotsa metsi diaparong
(I rinse water from clothes)
Ndi-sula amanzi etafileni
(I wipe water from table)
Ndi-muncula intsila ehempeni
(I wash out dirt from shirt)
Ke-leleka ngwana sekolong
(I banish child from school)
Ke-tebela dinonyane tshimong
(I chase away birds from garden)
Ke-shobedisa mosetsana motseng
(I abduct a girl from the village)
Ndi-gxotha indoda emsebenzini
(I drive away man from work)
Ke-tshwara buka ho titjhere
(I seize book from teacher)
Ke-utswa diaparo ntlong
(I steal clothes from house)
Ke-phamola thipa ho monna
(I snatch knife from man)
Ke-hapa dikgomo motseng
(I capture cows from village)
Ndi-ba imali kubo
(I steal money from them)
Ndi-hlutha imali evenkileni
(I rob money from shop)
4.4.4 Verbs of removing with causation
(96)
Remove
Ndi-khwebula imoto endleleni
Imoto i-khwebuka endleleni
(I remove car from road)
116
Ndi-the potyo amathe emlonyeni
Amathe a-the potyo emlonyeni
(I discharged saliva from mouth)
Scrape
Ndi-khuthu-l-e ipeyinti eludongeni
Ipeyinti i-khuthu-k-e eludongeni
(I scraped paint from wall)
Peel
Ndi-xobu-l-e ixolo eorenjini
Ixolo li-xobu-k-e eorenjini
(I peeled rind from orange)
Wipe
Sesotho:
Ke-hlakola ditshila tafoleng
Ditshila di-hlakoha tafoleng
(I wipe rubbish from table)
Ke-phumo-l-a metsi tafoleng
Metsi a-phumo-h-a tafoleng
(I wipe away water from table)
Spill
Ndi-phala-z-a amanzi e-emeleni
Amanzi a-phala-l-a e-meleni
(I spill water from bcket)
Pull out
Sesotho:
IsiXhosa:
Ke-motsula ditlama tshimong
Ditlama di-motsu-h-a tshimong
(I pull out plants from garden)
Ke-tjhomo-l-a sepekere planking
Sepekere se-tjhomo-h-a planking
(I pull out nail from plank)
Ke-hlomo-l-a moutlwa leotong
Moutlwa o-hlomo-h-a leotong
(I pull out thorn from foot)
Ndi-ncothu-l-a ukhula egadini
Ukhula lu-ncothu-k-a egadini
(I pull out weeds from garden)
4.4.5 Verbs of motion
(97)
Abantwana ba-ngen-a ebaleni
(Children go into play ground)
Indoda i-fika ekhaya
(Man arrives in town)
Iinkomo zi-sing-a edlelweni
(Cattle go to veld)
Inja i-phum-a endlwini
(Dog comes out of house)
117
Abafazi ba-sondel-a esitishini
(Women go near to station)
Intsombi i-hamb-a endleleni
(Girl walks in road)
Usana lu-kgasa egumbini
(Baby crawls in room)
Amakhwenkwe a-balek-a esikolweni
(Boys run at school)
Iigusha zi-buy-a entsimini
(Sheep return from garden)
4.4.6 Verbs of existence
(98)
Ixhego li-hlala ekhaya
(Old man stays at home)
Abantu ba-phila edolophini
(People live in town)
Abafazi ba-sala elalini
(Women stay behind in village)
Abantwana ba-linda emzini
(Children wait in village)
Umthi u-shukuma emoyeni
(Tree sways in wind)
Iintyatyambo zi-dubula egadini
(Flowers bloom in garden)
Ingca i-tsha emlilweni
(Grass burn in fire)
Ukutya ku-bola embizeni
(Food become rotten in pot)
Ingca i-mila ebuhlanti
(Grass grows in kraal)
Ikati i-buthuma egadeni
(Cat crouches in garden)
Ucingo lujinga emthini
(Wire dangles from tree)
Umthi u-dada emanzini
(Tree floats in water)
Amaphepha a-fumba eklasini
(Papers heap up in class)
118
Uhadi lu-khala ecaweni
(Organ sounds in church)
Amazwi a-hlokoma eholweni
(Voices resound in hall)
SECTION III: VERBAL DRRIVATIONS
1.
APPLICATIVE
For various studies on the applicative, see i.a.: Dinga (1997), Dyubeni (1997),
Hlungwani (1997), Letooane (1995), Makhado (1996), Makhubu (1997), Mkhabele
(1999), Motsei (1993).
The applicative suffix [-el-] adds an extra internal argument to the verb with which it is
joined. This extra argument is an accusatively marked internal argument which may
have various interpretations depending on the context of the discourse and the type
of verb.
1.1
General overview
1.1.1 The internal argument is an NP
With Intransitive verbs
[V-el- NP]
Head noun is animate: Benefactive
Sotho:
Monna enwa o-kgutl-el-a [morena]
Tsonga:
Wanuna loyi u-vuy-el-a [hosi]
Venda:
Munna uyu u-vhuy-el-a [khosi]
Xhosa:
Le ndoda i-buy-el-a [inkosi]
(This man he-returns-for chief)
Benefactive:
for benefit of
Malefactive:
to the detriment of / to make trouble for
Substitution:
on behalf of
Head noun is inanimate: Purpose/Cause
Purpose: for
Venda:
Ndi-gidim-el-a [tshelede]
Xhosa:
Ndi-balek-el-a [imali]
Tsonga:
Ndzi-tsutsum-el-a [mali]
Sotho:
Ke-math-el-a [tjhelete]
(I-run-for money)
Cause: because of
Tsonga:
Va-ril-el-a [mali leyi lahlekele]
Sotho:
Ba-ll-el-a [tjhelete e-lahlehileng]
Venda:
Vha-lil-el-a [tshelede yo-xelaho]
Xhosa:
Ba-lil-el-a [imali elahlekileyo]
(They-cry-for lost money)
119
Cause with interrogative:
Sotho:
Ba-ll-el-a-ng?
Tsonga:
Va-ril-el-a yini?
Venda:
Vha-lil-el-a-ni?
Xhosa:
Ba-lil-el-a-ni?
(Why are they crying?)
Some other interpretations not regularly attested:
Theme:
Xhosa:
Direction
Venda:
Tsonga:
Ndi-khalaz-el-a [umqeshi / ukutya]
(I-complain-about employer/food)
Ndi-t8utsh-el-a [uyu munna]
(I-go-away-to this man < t8uwa (go away)
Ndzi-hatl-ela [tatana/xitimela]
(I-hurry-to father/train)
Recipient:
Xhosa:
Ndi-mangal-el-a [inkundla]
(I-complain-to court)
Reflexive prefix + [V-el-]
Features:
[-cause, +independent]
Tsonga:
Ndza- [ti-vuy-el-a]
(I am just returning on my own)
Meetse [a-a-[i-pel-el-a]
(The water is just boiling by itself)
Ndi-a-[d8i-takal-el-a]
(I am just happy)
Ba-ya-[zi-gul-el-a]
(They are just ill)
Sotho:
Venda:
Xhosa:
[V-el-el-]
Intensive meaning of verb:
North Sotho:
[O-[bo-el-el-a] e-sa-le ka pela
(She really returns immediately)
[O-[tšw-el-el-a] e-sa-le ka masa
(She really goes out early in morning)
Benefactive / Purpose + Intensive meaning
North Sotho:
[O-[ll-el-el-a] mmagwe / dijo
(She really cries for her mother/food)
Benefactive + Purpose (animate + Inanimate)
Sotho:
[O-tsoh-el-l-a] ntatae terene
(He gets up for his father for the train)
120
Tsonga:
Venda:
[U-[t-el-el-a] nkwana tintangu
(He comes for young woman for shoes)
Ndi-[gidim-el-el-a] Musiwalo tshiphuga
(I run for Musiwalo for the cup)
Direction + Purpose
Xhosa:
[Ndi-[buy-el-el-a] umfundi imali
(I return to student for money)
Benefactive + Cause
Tsonga:
Venda:
Yesu [u-[f-el-el-a] vanhu swidyoho
(Jesus died for people because of sins)
[Ndi-[takal-el-el-a] mme tshelede
(I am happy for mother because of money)
Cause with interrogative
Xhosa:
Tsonga:
[U-m-lil-el-el-a-ni] unina?
(Why is she crying for her mother?)
[U-vuy-el-el-a] yini mali?
(Why are you returning for the money?)
AgrO and Passive
Sotho AgrO:
[Ke-math-el-l-a] Mohlomi sejana
(I run for Mohlomi for the cup)
Ke-a-mo-math-el-l-a sejana
(I run for him for the cup)
Ke-a-se-math-el-l-a[ Mohlomi
(I run for Mohlomi for it)
Sotho Passive: Mohlomi [o-math-el-l-w-a] sejana
(Mohlomi is being run for cup)
+AgrO:
Mohlomi [o-a-se-math-el-l-w-a]
*Sejana [se-math-el-l-w-a] Mohlomi
(For the cup is being run for Mohlomi)
+AgrO:
*Sejana [se-a-mo-math-el-l-w-a]
[V-is-el-]
V- is NP-el NP:
V- 

Ntate o-a-kgutla (Father returns)
Mme o-kgutlisa ntate (Mother causes father to return)
Mme o-kgutlela tjhelete (Mother returns for money)
Mme (o-kgutl-is-ets-a] ntate tjhelete (Mother causes father to return for money)
V-isN-elN:
V - 
121
Pere-e-a-matha (Horse runs)
Pere e-mathela ntate (Horse runs for father)
Moshanyana o-mathisa pere (Boy causes horse to run)
Moshanyana [o-math-is-ets-a] ntatae pere (The boy causes the horse to run for his
father (races the hourse))
Bana ba-a-thaba (Children are glad)
Titjhere o-thabisa bana )Teacher makes children glad)
Bana ba-thabela mokete (Children are glad for feast)
Titjhere [o-thab-is-ets-a] bana mokete (Teacher makes children glad for feast)
With transitive verbs
[V-el NP NP]
Head noun is animate: Benefactive
Tsonga:
Sotho:
Venda:
Xhosa:
Ndzi-lav-el-a manana rhoko
Ke-batl-el-a mme mose
Ndi-t8od-el-a vhomme rokho
Ndi-fun-el-a umama ilokhwe
(I-want-for mother dress)
Head is animate: Benefactive or Recipient
Venda:
Sotho:
Tsonga:
Xhosa:
Ndi-nwal-el-a vhokhotsi vhurifhi
Ke-ngol-l-a ntate lengolo
Ndzi-tsal-el-a tatana papila
Ndi-bhal-el-a utata ileta
(I –write-to/for father letter)
Head is inanimate: Purpose
Tsonga:
Vanda:
Xhosa:
Sotho:
Ndzi-hlawul-el-a vukati rhoko
Ndi-nang-el-a mbingano rokho
Ndi-kheth-el-a umtshato ilokhwe
Ke-kgeth-el-a lenyalo mose
(I-choose-for wedding dress)
Cause with Interrogative
Xhosa:
Venda:
Tsonga:
Sotho:
U-m-kheth-el-a-ni unyana?
U-mu-nang-el-a mini murwa?
U-hlawul-el-a yini n’wana?
O-kgeth-el-a-ng morwa?
(Why are you choosing the son?)
122
AgrO, Passive
Sotho AgrO:
Ntate o-batl-el-a mora jwala
(Father wants-for son beer)
Ntate o-m-matl-el-a jwala
Ntate o-bo-batl-el-a mora
Ke-batl-el-a letjhato mose
(I-want-for wedding dress)
Ke-le-batl-el-a mose
Ke-o-batl-el-a letjhato
Sotho Passive
Mora o-batl-el-w-a jwala
(For son is wanted beer)
Mora a-a-bo-batl-el-w-a
*Jwala bo-batl-el-w-a mora
(Beer is wanted for son)
*Jwala bo-a-m-matl-el-w-a
*(Letjhato le-batl-el-w-a mose
(For wedding is wanted dress)
*Mose o-batl-el-w-a letjhato
(Dress is wanted for wedding)
Reflexive prefix
Zulu:
Omame ba-zi-thand-el-a imizimba
(a. The mothers like-for-themselves bodies
b. The mothers just like their bodies)
Ba-zi-hlukanis-el-a imali
(a. They divide-for-themselves money
b. They are just dividing the money)
[V-el-el NP NP NP] (Not regular)
Benefactive + Purpose
Tsonga:
Sotho:
Venda:
Xhosa:
Ndzi-av-el-el-a vana mali rifumu
Ke-arol-el-l-a bana tjhelete lefa
Ndi-kovhekany-el-el-a vhana tshelede ifa
Nd-ab-el-el-a abantwana imali ilifa
(I divide for children for money heritage)
123
Benefactive + Cause (with Interrogative)
Xhosa:
Tsonga:
Sotho:
Venda:
U-b-ab-el-el-a-m abantwana ilifa?
U-av-el-el-a yini vana rifumu?
O-arol-el-l-a-ng bana lefa?
U-vha-kovhekany-el-el-a-ni vhana ifa?
(Why do you divide the heritage for the children?)
With ditransitive verbs
Sotho:
Xhosa:
Tsonga:
Venda:
*Ke-kadim-el-a ntate tjhelete banka
*Ndi-bolek-el-a utata imali ibhanki
(?) Ndzi-lomb-el-a tatana mali bangi
(?) Ndi-hadzim-el-a khotsi tshelede bannga
(I borrow for father money from bank)
Cause:
Sotho:
Xhosa:
Tsonga:
Vanda:
O-kadim-el-a-ng ntate tjelete?
U-m-bolek-el-a-ni utata imali?
U-lomb-el-a yini tatana mali?
U-mu-hadzim-el-a-ni khotsi tshelede?
(Why are you borrowing money for father?)
1.1.2
Locatives
Intransitive verbs
[V-el LOC]
Source  Direction
Tsonga:
Ndzi-vuy-el-a edoropeni
Sotho:
Ke-kgutl-el-a toropong
Venda:
Ndi-vhuy-el-a d8oroboni
Xhosa:
Ndi-buy-el-a edolophini
(I returns to town)
Location remains location
Tsonga:
Ndzi-fik-el-a entirhweni
Sotho:
Ke-fihl-el-a mosebetsing
Venda:
Ndi-swik-el-a mushumoni
Xhosa:
Ndi-fik-el-a emsebenzini
(I arrive at work)
Location  Exclusive location / Implicit contrast
Tsonga:
Xhosa:
Venda:
Sotho:
Ndi-ril-el-a ekerekeni
Ndi-lil-el-a ecaweni
Ndi-lil-el-a kerekeni
Ke-ll-el-a kerekeng
(I cry in church / only in the church)
124
[V-el-el-NP LOC]
Purpose + direction
Sotho:
Ke-kgutl-el-l-a tjhelete bankeng
Xhosa:
Ndi-buy-el-el-a imali ebhankini
Tsonga:
Ndzi-vuy-el-el-a mali ebankini
Venda:
Ndi-vhuy-el-el-a tshelede banngani
(I returns for money to bank)
Cause with Interrogative
Xhosa:
U-buy-el-el-a-ni esikolweni?
Sotho:
O-kgutl-el-l-a-ng sekolong?
Tsonga:
U-vuy-el-el-a yini exikolweni?
Venda:
U-vhuy-el-el-a-ni tshikoloni?
(Why are you returning to school?)
Cause + Exclusive location
Xhosa:
U-vuy-el-el-a-ni kumama?
Sotho:
O-thab-el-l-a-ng ho mme?
Tsonga:
U-tsak-el-el-a yini eka manana?
Venda:
U-takal-el-el-a-ni kha mme?
(Why are you happy only with mother?)
Transitive verbs
[V-el NP LOC]
Source  Direction
Tsonga:
Sotho:
Xhosa:
Venda:
Ndzi-vitan-el-a n’wana exikolweni
Ke-bits-ets-a ngwana sekolong
Ndi-biz-el-a umntwana esikolweni
Ndi-vhidz-el-a nwana tshikoloni
(I call child to school)
Location  Direction
Xhosa:
Ndi-qhub-el-a imoto egarajini
Tsonga:
Ndzi-chay-el-a movha egarajini
Sotho:
Ke-kgann-el-a koloi karatjheng
Venda:
Ndi-tshimbidz-el-a mod8oro garatshini
(I drive car to garage)
Location / Exclusive location
Tsonga:
Ndi-tsem-el-a nyama etafuleni
Sotho:
Ke-seh-el-a nama tafoleng
Venda:
Ndi-tshetsh-el-a n8ama t8afulani
Xhosa:
Ndi-sik-el-a inyama etafileni
(I cut meat only on table)
125
[V-el-el NP NP LOC] (not regular)
Benefactive + Direction
Sotho:
Ke-kgann-el-l-a mosadi koloi karatjheng
(I-drive for woman car to garage)
Cause + Direction
Sotho:
O-kgann-el-l-a-ng koloi karatjheng?
(Why do you drive the car to the garage?)
Benefactive + Exclusive location
Tsonga:
Ndzi-tsem-el-el-a wansati nyama etafuleni
Sotho:
Ke-sehe-el-l-a mosadi nama tafoleng
Venda:
Ndi-tshetsh-el-el-a musadzi n8ama t8afulani
(I cut for woman meat only on table)
Diransitive verbs (not regular)
Source/Location/Exlusive location
[V-el]
Xhosa:
Sotho:
Tsonga:
Venda:
Ndi-bolek-el-a utata imali ebhankini
Ke-kadim-el-a ntate tjhelete banking
Ndzi-lomb-el-a tatana mali ebangini
Ndi-hadzim-el-a khotsi tshelede banngani
(I borrow for father money from/at/only at bank)
With cause: [V-el-el-]
Sotho:
O-kadim-el-l-a-ng ntate tjhelete bankeng?
Tsonga:
U-lomb-el-el-a yini tatana mali ebangini?
Xhosa:
U-m-bolek-el-el-a-ni utata imali ebhankini?
Venda:
U-vha-hadzim-el-el-a vhokhotsi tshelede banngani?
(Why are you borrowing for father money from/at/only at bank?)
1.2
The applicative in Tshivenda
See Du Plessis, Musehane, Visser (1995) p. 99-123.
1.3
The applicative in Xhosa
See Du Plessis, Visser (1992) p. 26-35, 51-60.
1.4
The applicative in Xitsonga
See Hlungwani (1997).
The applicative with Intransitive verbs
[-el NP]
The head of NP has a benefactive reading if it is animate:
U-vuyela manana
(He is returning for mother)
126
U-tela wansati
(He is coming for the woman)
U-tsakela wanuna
(He is glad for the man)
Hanyela mina
(Live for me)
Swi-ta-n'wi-nonon'hwela hu-kuma ntirho kun'wana
(It will be difficult for him to find work elsewhere)
Swa mina a-swi-ndzi-sasek-el-angi eku-sunguleni
(My things were not beautiful for me from the beginning)
Swilo swi-ku-famb-er-ile kahle
(Things went well for you)
The head of NP has a purpose reading if it is inanimate:
Ndzi-ta-salela ntlangu
(I will remain for the feast)
U-ta-vuyela rhoko
(She will return for the dress)
Ndzi-tsakela xifanelo
(I am glad for the photo)
Va-fambela makumu laha misaveni
(They walk for the end here on Earth)
U-fele ku-hanyela ra makumu
(He died to live for last day)
U-yimele nhlamulo
(He waited for answer)
Some verbs force specific readings on the head noun which are not regularly
attested:
Direction with animate and inanimate nouns:
Jaha ri-tsutsumela tata wa rona/xitimela
(The son hurries to his father/train)
Benefactive or cause with animate head nouns:
U-hlundzukela n'wana
(He is angry for/because of the child)
U-nga-ndzi-feli
(Do not die on me)
Purpose or cause with inanimate head noun:
127
U-hlundzukela mali
(He is angry for/because of the money)
U-fele mali
(He died for/because of the money)
Benefactive or location with animate nouns:
Mpfula yi-nela tihomu
(Rain falls for/on cattle)
Mufana u-wela n'wana
(Young man falls for/on child)
Purpose or location with inanimate nouns:
Mpfula yi-nela masimu
(Rain falls for/on fields)
U-wela xitulu
(He falls for/on chair)
[-el CP]
Infinitive clause: Purpose
U-fele ku-hanyela ra makumu
(He died to live for the last day)
U-hlundzukela ku-dya
(He is angry to teat)
U-vuyela ku-senga homu
(He returns to milk the cow)
Tilo ri-hatimela ku-nisa mpfula
(The sky flashes to cause rain to fall)
A-va-tsak-el-a ku-vona lori
(They were glad to see the lorry)
A-va-t-el-a ku-ta-vona hosi
(They were coming to come and see the chief)
Leswaku-clause: Purpose
U-humela [leswaku a-hlanganisa nsati wakwe]
(He goes out so that he may meet his wife)
U-vuyela [leswaku a-landza tihomu]
(He returns so that he may look for cattle)
Hi yoloyi nuna wa mina u-vuyile, kutani namuntlha ndzi-tela ku-ta-khongel-er-iw-a
[leswaku ndzi-hambana ni byalwa]
128
(When this husband of mine returned, then today I am coming for to come to be
prayed for so that I may part with the beer)
Hikwalaho ka yini u-nga-vutisi makwenu [leswi [ku-nonoh-el-a-ka exikolweni leswaku
a-ku-pfuna?]
(Why do you not ask your brother that there is difficulty at school so that he may help
you?)
[V-el LOC]
Direction
Va-yim-el-e [le kule le]
(They stood far away)
Ndzi-ta-tlhel-el-a [ekaya]
(I will return to home)
Direction or Location
Ndzi-w-el-a [emovheni]
(I am falling on/towards the car)
Exclusive location
Ndzi-tsak-el-a [ka malume]
(I am glad only at my uncle)
No change in meaning with [el]:
Location
Movha wu-lulamalulam-el-a [enhoveni]
(The car gets fixed up in the veld)
Source
U-suka/suk-el-a [exikolweni]
(He leaves from the school)
Direction
U-ta/t-el-a [eka wansati]
(He is coming to the woman)
Location or Exclusive location
Ndzi-hlundzek-el-a [entirhweni]
(I am angry at/only at work)
[yini]
Cause or purpose:
U-tsak-el-a [yini]?
(Why are you glad?/For what are you glad?)
129
[loko]
Purpose:
Ndzi-ta-ku-tirhela [ku-fik-el-a [loko matimba ya mina ya-hela]
(I will work for you to arrive at when (until) my strength is finished)
[V-el-el]
[V-el-el NP]
Purpose and Intensive meaning on verb
U-vuy-el-el-a movha
(He returns for the car)
Benefactive or location and intensive meaning
U-w-el-el-a n'wana
(She falls for/on child)
[V-el-el LOC]
Location and Intensive meaning
Lamula ri-vupf-el-el-a ensinyeni
(Orange ripens on the tree)
[V-el-el NP NP]
Benefactive and Purpose
U-t-el-el-a nhwana tintangu
(She comes for the young woman for shoes)
Benefactive and Location
Mpfula yi-n-el-el-a wanuna nsimu
(Rain ralls for man on land)
Benefactive and Cause
Yesu u-f-el-el-a vanhu swidyoho
(Jesis dies for people because of sins)
Purpose and location
Mufana u-w-el-el-a mali bolo
(The young man falls for money on the ball)
Purpose and Purpose
N'wana u-tsham-el-el-a bekari xinkwa
(The child stays for the bakery for bread)
Source and Benefactive
U-suk-el-el-a ntlangu nuna wakwe
(She goes away from feast for her husband)
[V-el-el NP LOC]
6.4.1 Purpose and direction
U-vuy-el-el-a buku exikolweni
(She returns for book to school)
130
6.4.2 Benefactive and Location or Exclusive location
U-yim-el-el-a wansati ekhefini
(He Waits for woman at/orly at café)
[V-el-el yini NP]
Cause + Benefactive
U-tsham-el-el-a yini wanuna?
(Why is she staying for the man?)
Benefactive + Purpose
U-tsham-el-el-a wanuna yini?
(Sye stays for man for what?)
The applicative with transitive verbs
[V-el NP NP]
The head of NP is animate:
Benefactive
U-endl-el-a [manana] tiya
(She makes for mother tea)
U-ta-[n'wi]-vang-el-a miringu
(He will cause for him trials)
Ntirho lowu i wa ku-[ndzi]-hlayis-el-a vananga
(This work is to protect for me my children)
Ndzi-ya-[mi]-xav-el-a rikari
(I will buy for you razor)
Xikwembu xi-[ndzi]-tw-er-ile rusiwana
(God felt for me pity)
Benefactive or Recipient
W-av-el-a [vana] swiwitsi
(She divides for/to children sweets)
U-rungul-el-a [vana] ntsheketo
(She narrates for/to children a folktale)
Cause
U-tlhav-el-a [nhwana] thayere
(He stabs because of girl tyre)
Cause or Benefactive
U-kanel-el-a [mukambiri] njiya
(He discusses because of/for examiner a locust)
The head of NP is inanimate
Purpose
U-tlang-el-a [mali] thenisi
(He plays for money tennis)
U-vulavul-el-a [mali] Xitsonga
(He talks for money Tsonga)
131
A-a-swi-kotile hi ku-ambal-el-a [xona xirhami]
(She was able to dress for the cold)
Ni xilo xin'wana ni xin'wana xi ni ntirho wa xona lowu xi-[wu]-endl-er-iwe-ke
(Also everything has its function for which it is made)
Cause
U-vitan-el-a [madzolonga] xivijo
(He calls because of violence meeting)
U-rhandz-el-a [mihandzu] ximumu
(He likes because of fruit summer)
U-tlhav-el-a [mali] thayere
(He stabs because of money tyre)
Purpose or Cause
U-rungul-el-a [timaraka] ntsheketo
(He narrates for/because of marks a folktale)
[yini]
Cause
Kambe a-wu-thol-el-a yini lori yo tani?
(But why did you hire such a lorry?)
U-vitan-el-a yini vhene?
(Why are you calling a van?)
Purpose
U-vitan-el-a vhene yini?
(You call a van for what?)
[V-el Infin]
Purpose
Ndzi-vulavul-el-a [ku-vanga mpfilumpfilu]
(I talk to cause confusion)
*Ndzi-vulavul-el-a Xizulu ku-vanga mpfilumpfilu
Xizulu, ndzi-xi-vulavul-el-a [ku-vanga mpfilumpfilu]
(Zulu, I talk it to cause confusion)
Ndzi-rhamb-el-a [tiko] [ku-ta-aka xikolo]
(I invite village to come and build a school)
[V-el leswaku]
Purpose
Ndzi-vulavul-el-a [leswaku ndzi-vanga mpfilumpfilu]
(I am talking that I cause confusion)
*Ndzi-vulavul-el-a Xizulu leswaku ndzi-vanga mpfilumpfilu
Xizulu, ndzi-xi-vulavul-ela leswaku ndzi-vanga mpfilumpfilu
(Zulu, I talk it that I cause confusion)
Ndzi-rhamb-el-a tiko leswaku ri-ta-aka xikolo
(I invite village that they come and build school)
132
[V-el-el NP NP NP]
Purpose and Benefactive
U-hlawul-el-el-a [ntlangu] [vana] tintangu
(He chooses for feast for children shoes)
U-swek-el-el-a [hakelo] [muvabyi] vuswa
(She cooks for reward for patient porridge)
[V-el-el NP NP LOC]
U-swek-el-el-a muvabyi vuswa endlwini
(She cooks for patient porridge in house)
(Locative is optional, not dependent on [-el-], therefore double [-el-] gives an
intensive meaning to the verb)
With yini:
U-swek-el-el-a yini vuswa endlwini?
(Why do you cook porridge in house?)
(As above)
[V-el NP LOC]
Direction
U-vitan-el-a vana evan'hwini
(He calls the children towards the people)
U-kuv-el-a tihunyi entshaveni
(She collects wood towards the mountain)
Recipient or direction
U-rungul-el-a mahungu evan'hwini
(She narrates the news to/towards the people)
Source
U-humesa/humes-el-a xinkwa exitolo
(She takes out bread from the shop)
Location
U-tlhava/tlhav-el-a mufana ebarheni
(He stabs young man in bar)
Exclusive location
U-nw-el-a byalwa ebarheni
(He drinks beer only in the bar)
Location or Exclusive location
U-dy-el-a xinkwa ekhefini
(He eats bread in/only in café)
Exclusive location or Recipient
U-av-el-a rifuwo evaneni
(He divides the heritage only at /among children)
133
The applicative with ditransitive verbs
[V-el NP NP NP]
Benefactive, Recipient, theme
Manana u-nyik-el-a mubana mbyana swakudya
(Mother gives for/on behalf of young man to dog food)
[V-el yini NP NP]
Cause, Recipient, Theme
U-nyik-el-a yini mufana swakudya?
(Why do you give to the young man food?)
[V-el NP NP LOC]
Recipient, Theme, Location or Exclusive location
U-hakel-el-a vatirhi mali ehofisini
(He pays to workers money in/only in office)
Source and Location
Benefactive and Source
U-kombel-el-a wanuna homu efemeni
(He asks from man a cow in the firm)
(He asks for man a cow from the firm)
Benefactive, Theme, Location or Direction
U-rhum-el-a wanuna mali ebangi
(He sends for the man money at/to the bank)
[V-el Infin.]
Purpose
Ndzi-rhum-el-a n'wana mali [ku-xava xinkwa]
(I send to child money to buy bread)
Mali ndzi-yi-rhum-el-a n'wana ku-xava xinkwa
[V-el leswaku]
Ndzi-rhum-el-a n'wana mali [leswaku a-xava xinkwa]
(I send to child money that she buy bread)
[V-el-el NP NP NP]
Benefactive, Recipient, Theme with Intensive meaning
U-nyik-el-el-a mufana mbyana swakudya
(I give for young man to dog food)
[V-el-el NP NP LOC]
Benefactive or Recipient, Theme, Location or Exclusive location
U-nyik-el-el-a vatswari nhwana ekerekeni
(He gives for/to parents young woman in/only in church)
U-hakel-el-el-a vatirhi mali ehofisini
(He pays for/to workers money in/only in office)
[ti-V-el] (Intransitive verbs]
Va-ti-tsak-er-ile
(They are just glad)
134
Ndza-ti-hlundzuk-el-a
(I am just angry)
Loko swi-ri tano, la nga-rhumiwa, a-a-ti-famb-el-i
(If it is so, the one who was sent does not walk by himself)
[ti-V-el] (Transitive verbs)
Wa-ti-vulavul-el-a
(He speaks for himself/He just speaks)
U-ti-vulavul-el-a Xizulu
(He just talks Zulu)
U-ti-endl-el-a tiya
(She makes tea for herself)
U-ti-dlay-el-a homu
(He kills a cow for himself; He just kills a cow)
Ndzi-ta-ti-von-el-a hi ya mina mahlo
(I will see for myself with my own eyes)
Ndzi-ta-ti-tw-el-a hi ta mina tindleve
(I will hear for myself with my own ears)
U-ti-hlawul-el-a ntirho lowu a-rhandza-ka ku-wu-endla
(He chooses for himself the work which he love to do)
A-va-ti-lungh-is-el-anga ku-endla nchumu hi vutomi bya vona
(They were not prepared for themselves to do anything about their life)
Se-ndzi-ti-yim-is-er-ile ku-teka Rhoda
(I have kept waiting for myself to marry Rhoda)
Yimelo ra yena a-ri-komba swinene ku-ti-yim-is-el-a ka wanuna loyi a-rhandza-ka
nsati wa yena
(His waiting showed the cause of waiting for oneself of husband who loves his wife)
[ti-V-el] (Ditransitive verbs)
U-ti-lomb-el-a xihloka eka murimi
(He borrows an axe for/to himself at/from the farmer)
U-ti-nyik-el-a tintangu endlwini
(He gives for/to himself shoes in house)
1.5
Applicative in Sesotho
With Intransitie verbs
a.
[V-el NP]
Ha-a-thahasel-l-e le ho-thab-el-a baeti ba monna
(He does not rejoice about and be glad for the visitors of the man)
Malapa ana a-na le barwetsana ba-ka-o-lok-el-ang
(These households have girls who may suit you)
Ba-tla-tlatsa hore o-newe ditulo tse o-lok-el-ang, tse lok-el-ang thuto ena ya hao
(They will help you so that you may be given positions which suit you, which suit this
education of yours)
Mosadi o-itse o-tla -kgutl-el-a ngwana
(The woman said she will return for the child)
Ba-thab-ets-e leeto la bona
(They are glad for their journey)
135
O-tla-n-kgutl-el-a pejana
(You will return for me a little in front)
Ba-potlak-ets-e diterene ho ya moo ba yang
(They hurried for the trains to go where they go)
O-makal-l-a matlo a maholo
(He is surprised at the big houses)
b.
[V-el]
Tswekere e-fel-ets-e
(The sugar is completely finished)
c.
[V-el LOC]
Mantswe ana a-ile a-roth-el-a pelong
(These words dripped in her heart)
O-hol-etse kwana
(He grew up there)
O-se a-ll-el-a kahare feela
(She just cries in the inside)
Ntho ena e-qala ho-w-el-a ditsebeng tsa ka
(This thing begins to fall on my ears)
Hoo ke-sa-ho-tsebeng ke hore na ba-fel-etse bukeng efe
(That which I do not know is that they have ended in which standard)
A-bososel-l-a ka marameng
(She smiles towards the cheeks)
Yare hobane batho ba-fel-el-e ka tlung, tshepe ya-boela ya-lla
(Because the people ended in the house, the bell rang again)
d.
[V-el CP]
Re-tla-potlak-el-a ho-le-tsebisa
(We will hurry to let you know)
Re-lokela ho-bo-el-a ho yena
(We are in order to return to him)
Ke mang ya tla-dul-el-a ho-lokisa taba eo?
(Who will wait to put this issue in order?)
Ha-a-kgathal-l-e ho-kena moqoqong
(He is not tired to enter into the conversation)
Ha-a-fereh-el-e ho-nyala
(He doesn't court to marry)
e.
[V-el NP NP]
Mese yane eo mmae a-neng a-mo-tl-el-a yona mosebetsing ha-e-sa-ratwa
(Those dresses which her mother brought for her from work were no longer wanted)
Ho yena moo o-n-tl-el-e dintho tse ding tse itseng
(To him there he should bring for me certain other things)
136
With Transitive verbs
[V-el NP NP]
VP
V1
DP
titjhere V-el
ngolla
DP
lengolo
Ke-tla-ngol-l-a titjhere lengolo
(I will write to teacher a letter)
Ba-tla-bona hore o motho wa bohlokwa, ba-o-tseb-el-e ditulo tsa hao
(They will see that you are a valuable person, and they will know for you your
positions)
Ba-tla-o-j-el-a tjhelete ba-e-qete tu
(They will eat up for you the money and finish it altogether)
O-tla—mo-seny-ets-a boroko ba hae
(You will hinder for him his sleep)
Ke ka baka la ketso e molemo eo a-ileng a-e-etsetsa ntate enwa
(It is because of the good deed which she did for this father)
Ka baka la ho-qenehela mosadi enwa, a-sitwa hore a-ka-mo-qhalla matsoho jwang
(Because of feeling sorry for this woman, he was unable how he can part with her)
Ako re-nke ke-o-tshelle tee
(Let me pour you tea)
Ona ke wona mosebetsi oo ba-neng ba-ilo-iphedisa ka wona, ho-tlatseletsa seo
banna ba-se-kgwaellang malapa
(This is the work from which they lived, to add to that which the men brought to the
families)
Ha o-e-thotse, o-e-patetseng? Ha-ke-a-e-pata
(If you picked it up, why did you hide it? I did not hide it)
A-hlalosetsa mme enwa seo a-neng a-se-nahanne
(She explained to this mother what she has thought)
O-se a-mo-fumanetse bodulo ha Lesole
(She found him a place at Lesole)
Seo Rakgadi a-neng a-mo-nahanela sona ka tjhelete ena se-ne se-fihlile pheletsong
(That which R thought about her about this money arrived at the end)
Ba-tla-ntshenyetsa nako
(They will waste for me time)
Lepolesa le-ne le-mpinela difela tsa Sione
(The policeman sang for me songs of Sion)
137
Ke-ne ke-utlwela nkgono bohloko haholo
(I feel very sorry for the grandmother)
Ba-ile ba-nkutlwela bohloko
(They felt sorry for me)
A-mpuela mantswe a bohloko
(He talked painful words to me)
Ako-ntlhalosetse tsa toro ena
(Please explain to me of this dream)
Ke-tla-o-jalla peo ya pelo ya ka, ke-o-phuthollele maikutlo a pelo a motsheo
(I will sow for you seed of my heart, I unfold for you feelings of my inner heart)
Ha-ke-kgolwe hore tsena ke tsona tseo o-mpitseditseng tsona
(I don’t believe this is what you have called me for)
Jwale o-tonatonela nna mahlo?
(Are you now opening for me eyes?)
Di monate tseo ke-neng ke-o-tshwaretse tsona
(It is nice that which I have brought for you)
Na ke-o-ratelang?
(Why do I love you?)
O-bona eka ba-tla-tloha ba-o-nkela yena o-ntse o-tsilatsila?
(You see it seems as if they later on will take her for you while you hesitated?)
A laela banna ba-tjhekele Blackmore lebitla sebakeng se-itseng
(He ordered the men to dig a grave for Blackmore at a certain place)
O-mo-phetela tsa leqosa lena
(He is telling him things of this messenger)
O-mpatela ntho e kgolo
(He is hiding from me a big thing)
A-otlela mofumahadi wa hae mohala ho-mo-tsebisa masetladibete a-etsahetseng
(He rang for his wife phone to let her know of sad things which happened)
O-batla mosadi ya tla-mo-tswalla bana
(He wants a woman who will bear children for him)
Ha ho ya ka-o-fumanelang molekane
(There is no one who can find a mate for you)
Tsa maeto a ka, ke-tla-o-phetela tsona hamorao
(About my journeys, I will tell you them later on)
Taba ya hae ke Modimo mme tsohle a-di-tshepetse wona
(His issue is God and everything he trusted him for it)
Ke ena ngaka eo ke-le-batletseng yona
(It is this doctor I wanted for you)
Ba-lakal-ets-a (<lakatsa) metswalle tselatshweu
(They wish for their friends a good journey)
Ke-dumela ho-lebal-l-a enwa molato wa hae
(I agree to forgive this one his debt)
138
Ba-tsok-el-a metswalle ya bona disakatuku ho-ba-dumedisa
(They wave for their friends handkerchiefs to greet them)
Ba-mo-si-el-a sebaka
(They leave for him a place)
Ke-a-kgolwa e mong o-bolel-ets-e moruti ditaba tsa ka
(I believe someone told the minister my news)
Mosadi a-sale a-m-maball-el-a dintho tsa lehae la bona
(The woman remained taking care for him of the things of their home)
[V-el NP]
Bul-el-a/Kwal-l-a dikgomo
(Open/close for the cattle)
Dinku di-apar-ets-e maralla
(The sheep covered the hills)
O-ne a-ntse a-sa-bue le bona ho-arab-el-a potso tsa bona
(He didn't speak with them to answer for (them) their questions)
[V-el NP hore]
Tsohle tseo mohlankana a-di-etsang o-di-ets-ets-a hore di-bonwe ke morwetsana eo
a-mo-ratang
(Everything that the young man does, he does them so that they be seen by the girl
whom he loves)
With ditransitive verbs
[V-el NP NP NP]
It is theoretically possible to extend the arguments of a predicate through the
derivative affixes. In the case of ditransitive verbs with two objects it should be
possible to extend them to three objects, i.e. the predicate may have three internal
arguments. This possibility can be looked into with the applicative affix –el- on
ditransitive verbs. In general it seems as if it is very difficult to conceptualize such a
number of arguments and such sentences are usually disallowed:
a.
*Ke-kadimela [ntate [tjhelete] [banka]
(I am borrowing the money for the father from the bank)
b.
*Ke-timetse [motho] [metsi] [lebekere]
(I refuse to give water to a person in a mug)
However, some ditransitive verbs such as fa (give) and neha (hand over) with an
applicative –el- may appear with three internal arguments. Such verbs will assign the
semantic role of [benefactive + recipient + theme]:
a.
Ke-fela [nkgono] [dikgoho] [dijo]
(I give food to the chickens on behalf of the grandmother)
139
b.
Magistrata o-nehela [mosadi] [monna] [bana]
(The magistrate hands over the children to the man on behalf of the woman)
The presence of –el- gives the interpretation of [benefactive] to the first internal
arguments e.g. nkgono (grandmother) and mosadi (woman). These arguments are
dependent on the appearance of –el-.
However, for Setswana see Kgoe (2000:32) where three arguments are allowed:
Ke-f-el-a moapei bana dijo
(I give food on behalf of cook to children)
(Ben-Rec-Th)
Ke-kop-el-a mme ngwana metse
(I ask for water on behalf of mother from child)
(Ben-Source-Th)
Ke-bol-ets-a morutabana baithuti dipotso
(I ask questions to learners on behalf of teacher)
[V-el NP NP]
Neela Tlhoriso dijo tseo tsa ka kapele
(Give to T that food of mine quickly)
Ke-tla-romela bomalome haufinyane ho-ya-nkopela wena
(I will send my uncles just now to go and ask for you for me)
O-itse ke-tlo-mo-kopela mohope wa metsi (a bride)
(He said I must ask for a cup of water for him)
O-bulela dikgomo, o-di-neela manamane a tsona
(He opens for the cattle, he gives them their calves)
Ke-tla-o-romela tjhelete ya sekolo
(I will send you the money of school)
[V-el NP NP with eng]
The interrogative eng may appear with the applied ditransitive verbs as an
interrogative NP. In such a case ditransitive verbs with applicative may appear with
three internal arguments. The following interpretations may be found:
Cause + benefactive/recipient + theme
a.
O-kadimela[ng] [ntate [tjhelete]?
(Why are you borrowing the money for/to the father?)
b.
Mosadi o-nehela[ng] [monna] [bana]?
(Why is the woman handing over the children for/to the man?)
c.
Monna o-romella[ng] [mosadi] [tjhelete]?
(Why is the man sending the money for/to his wife?)
d.
Mme o-fela[ng] [ngwana [dijo]?
(Why is mother giving food for/to the child?)
140
Cause + theme
a.
O-kadimela[ng] [tjhelete]?
(Why are you borrowing the money?)
b.
O-nehela [ng] bana]?
(Why are you handing over the
children?)
c.
O-romella[ng] [tjhelete]?
(Why are you sending the money?)
d.
O-fela[ng] [dijo]?
(Why are you giving the food?)
The interrogative NP is dependent on the appearance of –el- and gives an
interpretation of [Cause]. Ditransitive verbs have undergone argument reduction and
they allow two internal arguments to appear with it. In such a case, the presence of –
el- will be responsible for the interrogative eng and it gives an interpretation of
[Cause] while the other internal argument may be interpreted as [theme]:
Reduplicated applicative
With intransitive verbs
O-sebel-l-ets-a mora koloi
(He is working for his son for a car)
O-kgutl-el-l-a leshodu tjhelete
(He returns to the thief for money)
Ke-kgutl-el-l-a tjhelete bankeng
(I am returning for the money to the bank)
Ke-ne ke-ntse ke-mo-tloh-el-etse-ng?
(Why did I leave her?)
[V-el-el NP]
O-ken-el-l-a marapo a matsohong ka meno
(He enter completely ropes in his hands with teeth)
Dijo di-fel-l-etse bana
(Food is completely finished for children)
O-ne a-makal-l-etse tshenolo ya toro ya hae
(He was completely surprised at the revelation of his dream)
Ha-a-tsot-el-l-e letho
(He is not astonished at anything)
Mmuso o-em-el-ets-e naha ka diterekere ho-thiba kgoholeho ya mobu
(The government supported the land with tractors to stop erosion of the soil)
[V-el-el CP]
Ha-a-tsot-el-l-e ho-araba seo a-se-botsang
(He is not very astonished to answer what he asks)
O-tsoh-el-l-a ho-ya-tjheha ditlhapi
(He wakes up early to go and bait fish)
Ha-a-tsot-el-l-e na ba-ya-hlalana kapa tjhe
(He is not astonished whether they divorce or not)
O-tsoh-el-l-a e-sa-le hosasa
(He wakes up very early in the morning)
141
O-tla-kgutl-el-l-a e-sa-le ka matjeke
(He will really go back early in the morning)
[V-el-el LOC]
Ba-tsoh-el-l-a teng
(They wake up early for there)
O-hlw-el-l-a hodimo
(He climbs hard to higher up)
With Transitive verbs
[V-el-el NP NP]
Na ke nnete eo a-mmolelletseng yona? [m-bolel-l-el]
(It is the truth which she really told him)
O-ne a-kgalem-el-l-a mora wa hae metsamao ya hae e mebe
(He really scolded his son about his bad behaviour)
Fetang lona ba-yo-le-kgella jwala
(Pass along you they will pour for you beer)
O-a-e-bes-el-ets-a mphato
(He is making it for the food)
[V-el-el NP]
Ha-a-bua taba, o-ne a-tseba ho-e-tlats-el-l-ets-a ka mehlala e-tshwaneng Bibeleng
(When he speaks, he knew to always add on it which resembles in the Bible)
O-bu-el-l-a dinyewe tse ngata
(He is speaking for a lot of cases)
A-hopola feela mantswe a-qet-el-l-a-ng dipuo tsa monna
(He remembers only the words which end the speeches of the man)
A-qet-el-l-a thapelo a-dumel-l-a tlase
(He finished the prayer and consented grudgingly)
A-kgona ho-fep-el-l-a Ramailane le ho-mo-apes-el-l-ets-a le bana ba hae
(He can feed Ramailane and cloth his children)
[V-el-el]
O-tla-qal-el-l-a ka mosebetsi wa hae ho-rek-is-ets-a batho
(She will begin early with the work of her to sell for people)
[V-el-el CP]
O-dutse moo, a-leb-el-l-a hore ditlhapi di-lome
(He sat there and waited that the fishes bite)
[V-el-el NP LOC]
Tsohle a-fumana di-fetohile, di-nkile sebopeho sesele ho seo a-di-tseb-el-l-ang ho
sona
(Everything he found have changed, it took on strange form to that which he know it
from)
O-n-tseb-el-l-a kae?
(From where do you know me?)
142
[V-el-el LOC]
Matlo a-ne a-itse qatso hanyenyane ho-e-l-l-a mmileng o moholo
(The houses stood a little aside to go towards the main road)
O-ngang-el-l-a tabeng ya hore o-tla-ba-tshwarela feela moo ba-leng babedi
(He kept on quarrelling in the case of that he will catch for them only where they are
two)
O-tjhetjh-el-l-a pela fenstere
(He moves to front of window)
[V-el-el NP NP eng]
O-arol-el-etse eng bana lefa?
(Why did you divide the heritage for the children?)
O-ngol-l-etse-ng mme lengolo?
(Why did you write a letter to mother?)
O-n-kgan-el-l-a-ng metsi?
(Why do you refuse water for me?)
With ditransitive verbs
[V-el-el NP NP]
O-ne a-arohela lapeng a-ba-romella tjhelete
(He parted towards home and he sent them money)
Ba-tla-tlameha ho-leta nako e-ka-fetang kgwedi hore a-ba-romelle e nngwe
(They will be obliged to wait a time which surpasses a month that he may send them
another one)
Ke-tla-mo-neella lengolo lena
(I will deliver to him this letter)
Ke-tla-ba-fella dijo lapeng
(I will give them food at home)
2.
RECIPROCAL VERBS
See i.a. Maboya (1992:49), Mdumela (1996:97), Qamata (1990), Mchunu (1996:24),
Mnqumeni (1996:122), Mojapelo (1997:96), Mushiane (1999:122), Nekhumbe
(1995:76), Ramathe (1996:104), Raphalalani (1997:114), Ramovha (1996:118),
Sithole (1998:104).
2.1
With transitive verbs
a.
V
V-an
PP
Ke-ratana le morwetsana enwa
(I and this girl love each other)
143
b.
V
V-an
Barutwana bana ba-a-tsebana
(These students know each other)
c.
V
V-an
NP
Basadi ba-bonana botle
(The women see each other’s beauty)
Banana ba-hlatswana matsoho
(The girls wash each other’s hands)
d.
V
V
PP
V-an
NP
O-se-ke wa-itlwaetsa ho-orana mollo le batho bao
(Do not make yourslef accustomed to warm yourself at the fire with those people)
Morwetsana o-bonana botle le mosadi
(The girl and the woman see each other’s beauty)
2.2
With ditransitive verbs
a.
V
V-an
NP
Ba-fana dipompong
(They give each other sweets)
Si-bu-z-an-a impilo
(We ask each other's health)
b.
V
V
V-an
PP
NP
Ke-botsana dipotso le bona
(I and they ask each other questions)
144
c.
V
V-an
Ba-a-botsana
(They are asking each other)
d.
V
V-an
PP
Ke-botsana le bona
(I and they ask each other)
2.3
[V-is-el-an]
V
V-is
NP
V-is-el-an
Ba-tla-tlisetsana tee
(They will bring tea for each other)
Ba-nkgisetsana mahafi
(They cause one another to smell armpits, i.e. they struggle)
2.4 {V-el-an}
Taba tsa thuto ha-di-dumel-l-an-e le tsa metse ya batho
(The matters of education do not agree for each other with the things of the villages
of the people)
Ho molemo ho-ngwath-el-an-a le bana seo o-se-fumaneng
(It is good to give for one another to eat with the children what you have found)
O-ne a-sa-tsama-el-an-e le marumo
(He and spears didn't go for one another)
Setjhaba sa-dumel-l-an-a ho-fallela naheng eo
(The tribe agreed with each other to go to that country)
Ra-dumel-l-an-a hore tefo eo o-ka-e-newa
(We agreed with each other that that payment you can be given it)
Morwetsana eo banna ba motse ba-dumel-l-an-a-ng ho yena, ke yena ya tla-nyalwa
(the girl whom the men of that village agree among each other about her, it is she
who will be married)
Metse e-ah-el-an-e-ng jwaleka mehleng ena e-ne e-le siyo
(Villages for which were built near one another in these times were not there)
145
Ba-otlana ho-suthum-el-ets-an-a (<suthumetsa)
(They knock against one another to push towards one another)
2.5 [V-an-[CP] [na NP]
Uza kw-ahlu-k-an-a engathandanga nale ntombi
(He will part with this girl without having liked it)
2.6 [V-el-el-an]
Ba-fihlellana moreneng
(They arrive one after the other at the chief’s)
Dintho tseo di-lalellana ho yena
(Those things lie on top of one another on him)
Ha-ba-ahellane metseng
(They do not live near one another in the villages)
Batho ba-phakisa ba-bokellana
(The people quickly gathered together)
Ba-hlohl-el-l-an-e jwaleka disaretinse
(They were crammed together like sardines)
3.
CAUSATIVE VERBS
See i.a. Mdumela (1996:91), Mmbulaheni (1997), Rabothata (1997), Tshikalange
(2000), Maudu (1997:72), Mchunu (1996:69), Mnqumeni (1996:112), Mojapelo
(1997:92), Mphigalale (1997:140), Mushiane (1999:105), Nekhumbe (1995:68),
Ramathe (1996:101), Rankhododo (1992:38), Raphalalani (1997:106), Ramovha
(1996:108), Sithole (1998:18).
3.1
With intransitive verbs
V
V-is
NP
Mosadi o-tla-robatsa ngwana
(the woman will put the child to sleep)
Karabo ya hao e-tla-nthabisa
(Your answer will make me happy)
3.2
With transitive verbs
V
DP
V
V-is
DP
Ke yona taba e-o-hlokisang boroko
(It is the very issue which causes you to lack sleep)
146
Ke-tla-palamisa ngwana pere
(I will let the child ride the horse)
[V-is NP NP] (Tsonga)
A-n’wi-twisa ntanghu
(He let him feel shoe (kick him)
Wansati u-rhwexa nhwana tshwinga
(The woman lets the child carry the bundle)
Sesotho
Ndzi-ambexa nhwana jazi
(I make the girl put on a coat)
Ndzi-khandziyisa n’wana hanci
(I let the child ride a horse)
[V-is-el NP NP]
O-tla-ba-sulafal-ets-a bophelo (<sulafatsa <sulafala)
(You will make life painful for them)
Modimo o-ke o-o-et-el-l-e pele, o-o-lok-is-ets-e tsela, o-o-t-el-e hare ka mahlakoreng
ohle
(God is going in front of you, he is making for you a way, he surround you on all
sides)
O-m-pola-is-ets-a-ng boshwata?
(Who do you make me kill a craving for meat?)
Xitsonga
A-va-tisela kofi
(She brings for them coffee)
Ndzi-mi-tisele xifaniso
(I brought for you photo)
Xikotikoti u-ta-lunghiseriwa mapasi
(For X. will be prepared passes)
Ndzi-nghen-is-el-a mudyondzisi rivanti
(I put in for teacher door)
3.3
[V-is-el NP XP]
V
DP
V
V-is-el
Ba-tla-o-lokisetsa ditaba tsa hao hantle
(They will prepare for you your issues nicely)
Nyewe ena ke-tla-e-fetisetsa teng
(This case I will cause to pass it there)
XP
147
Ke-tla-o-tsosetsa ngakeng
(I will make you get up to the doctor)
Ngaka e-tla-ntokisetsa ditaba ka ditlhare
(The doctor will prepare for me the issues with medicine)
3.4
[V-is-an]
Batho ha-ba-phed-is-an-e
(People do not live together in peace (People cause each other to live)
Ntwa e-bakwa ke ho-tsek-is-an-a ha bana
(The fitht is caused by the children causing each other to quarrel)
Ba-bu-is-an-a le Modimo wa bona
(They and their god cause to speak to each other)
Testamente ya kgale o-ne a-tseba ho-e-hok-an-y-a hamonate [le Testamente entjha]
(The old Testament he know to cause it to tie each other well with one of New
Testament)
4.
REFLEXIVE VERBS
See i.a. Jokweni (1991), L8ithole (1999:113), Maboya (1992:48), Mokete (1997:100),
Mchunu (1996:79), Mendu (1997:143), Mnqumeni (1996:117), Mojapelo (1997:98),
Mokete (1997:100), Nekhumbe (1998:81), Ramathe (1996:110), Raphalalani
(1997:119), Ramovha (1996:114), Sadiki (1992:125).
4.1
With transitive verbs
a.
V
i-V
Ke-batla metsi a ho-itsukunya
(I want water to wash myself mouth)
Ba-a-iphotla
(They wash themselves face)
A-hodiswa ka mokgwa wa hore a-itadime e-le morena
(He was raised in a way that he look at himself as a chief)
Ha ba-lla, ba-itshelaka ka melora
(When they cry, they throw themselves with ashes)
Ka ho-itshena ho makatsang
(With a surprising anger)
b.
V
i-V
NP
Ba-ne ba-leka ho-itshwara botoropo
(They tried to carry themselves in a city way)
A itshwara serope
(He seized himself thigh)
148
O-ipata sefahleho
(She hides herself face)
O-batla ho-ikotlolla mmele
(He wants to stretch hiimself body)
A-ikwala ditsebe ka menwana
(He closed himself ears with fingers)
Morena o-iphetotse tutu
(The chief changed himself into a deaf person)
Ke-tla-iphetola morena
(I will change myself into a cief)
Dipapadi di-ne di-ikotla/iteta difuba
(The players struck themselves chests)
Ha letsatsi le-tjhaba, ho-lle thipa nku e-nto e-itoma leleme
(When the sun came up, there cry the knife and the sheep then cut itself tongue
Ke hantle ha ho-ikutlwa wena
(It is good when there hear yourself you)
c.
V
i-V
CP
O-se a ntse a-ipona hore o-a-phatjha
(He saw himself that he walks slowly)
Pere eo e-tla-ipaka hore na monga yona ke mang
(That horse will prove itself who its owner is)
O-se o-bile o-itshupile hore o-fela o-le monna
(You have already shown yourself to be a man)
4.2
With ditransitive verbs
V
i-V
NP
A-ipotsa dipotso
(He asked himself questions)
O-ne a-ipha sebaka sa ho-qoqa
(He gave himself opportunity to talk)
Sefefo se-iphile motsotso wa ho-sebetsa
(The storm gave itself a minute to work)
149
4.3
With applicative verbs
Intransitive verbs
a.
V
i-V-el
Ba-tshabang, emang le-ikorohele
(Those who are afraid, stand up and just go home)
Ke-se ke-itsofaletse
(I am already old)
O-ituletse le metswalle ya hae
(He is just staying with his friends)
O-hana ho-tswa a-itholele
(He refuses to go out and just keep silent)
Ba-iphelela hantle
(They are quite well on their own)
O-itshebeletsa ka matsoho
(He is working on his own with his hands)
Makgomo a lebese a-dula-ng hae a-i-phul-el-a hona haufi le tsela
(The cows which stay at home are grazing by themselves near the road)
b.
V
i-V-el
NP
A-ithoballa boroko bo sa feleng
(He is just sleeping a sleep which does not end by himself)
O-ikgutsetsa leeto
(He keeps silent by himself for the journey)
Transitive verbs
a.
V
i-V-el
O-ne a-itekela
(He was just trying for/by himself)
O-tla-ikarabela
(He will answer for/by himself)
Wena o-tla-itjhebela
(You will look for/by yourself)
b.
[i-V-el LOC]
O-i-tjheb-el-a fatshe
(He looks down by himself)
150
c.
V
i-V-el
XP
O-ikahetse ntlo
(He built a house for/by himself)
Ke-sa-ilo-imamella taba ya lona
(I still came to listen for/by myself your issue)
Ditaba di ngata tseo motho a-lokelang ho-iphumanela tsona ka boyena
(The issues are many which a person is in order to find for himself by himself)
A-itahlela fatshe
(He threw himself down)
Temana tsena di-i-polel-l-a lerato
(These verses speak by themselves of love)
Mohlankana o-i-ther-el-e tsa lenyalo le morwetsana ba nnotshi
(The young man planned by himself about marriage with the girl while they were
alone)
O-i-kgopol-ets-e mokganni
(He thought by himself of the driver)
O-ne a-i-k-apar-el-a kobo ya hae e tshweu ka mmala
(He was putting on for himself his white blanket in colour)
Ba-ne ba-i-qoq-el-a ba-bots-an-a moo ba-tswa-ng
(They were talking by themselves asking each other where they come from)
Lerato ke lona le-ka-i-phuman-el-a-ng mokgwa oo
(Love is that which can find for itself that custom)
O-tla-i-nyal-l-a mosadi
(He will marry for himself a woman)
Ditransitive verbs
V
i-V-el
NP
O-ikadimela tjhelete
(He just borrow money for/hy himself)
O-iphela dijo
(He just gives food for/by himself)
O-itimelang dijo?
(Why do you deprive yourself of food?)
Reduplicated applicative
V
i-V-el-el
XP
151
O-a-inwella, o-inwella jwala
(He is just drinking beer for/by himself)
Ba-ile ba-ineella mapolesa
(They surrendered themselves to the police)
Ke motho ya sa tsebeng ho-ipuella
(He is a person who does not know to speak for himself)
A-ipoella mokgoping
(He returned by himslf to the circle)
O-itshwarella ka lehlaka le le leng
(He holds on by hiimself on a single reed)
Ba-i-polel-l-ets-e feela
(They only talked by themselves)
Ba-i-tshwar-el-l-a ka ba bang
(They hold for themselves on to others)
O-i-tim-el-ets-a nna (<timetsa)
(He pretends to forget me)
O-i-tshwar-el-l-a bohato setulong se hole le yena
(He holds by himself on to a step by a chair which is far from him)
O-mo-siya moo le batho ba hae a-i-po-el-l-a mokgoping
(He left him there with his people while he returns by himself to the circle)
4.4
With causative verbs
Intransitive verbs
a.
V
i-V-is
Ba-a-ikgothatsa
(They make themselves courageous)
O-itlhantsha e-le ka nnete
(He really simulates madness)
Leha a-rutehile hakaalo, ha-a-ikgantshe
(Although he is so well educated, he is not conceited (he does not let himself shine)
b.
V
i-V-is
NP
Ba-nna ba-tswela pele ka meqoqo ya ho-itlosa bodutu
(They carry on with conversations to make themselves go away loneliness)
A-i-thathafal-ets-a ditaba pele
(He made matters at first difficult for himself)
152
Transitive verbs
V
i-V-is
XP
Ba-itsebisa bona
(They make themselves known)
Ba-ipintsha pina
(They make themselves sing a song)
Ba-ipapadisa bolo
(They make themselves play soccer)
Tsonga
[ti-V]
A-tisindziza ku-ka a-nga-nyanyuki
(He forced himself not to get excited)
Vanhu vo tala vo-ta-tinyiketa ku-pfuna ku-rhwala nhundzu
(Many people devote themselves to help to carry the goods)
[ti-V NP) (Trans.)
A-vula hi ku-tiphumunha xikandza hi swandla
(He speaks by brushing himself forehead with hands)
Thabita u-ti-vitana n'wana
(Thabitha calls herself a child)
Mufana u-ti-tlhava voko
(Young man stabs himself hand)
Falaza u-ti-hleketa maxangu
(Falaza thinks about himself troubles)
Mufana u-ti-tsundzuka vumbabva
(Youngman remembers himself idleness)
Mahlori u-ti-rivala vusiwana
(Mahlori forgets herself poverty)
[ti-V-NP] (Ditr.)
Wanuna u-ti-lomba xihloka
(Man lends himself axe)
N’wana u-ti-rhuma xitulu
(Child sends herself chair)
Ndzi-ti-nyika tintangu
(I give myself shoes)
[ti-V-el NP] (Trans.)
Valungu a-va-ti-karhat-el-a ntirho wa vona
(The whites tired themselves out for their work)
Swi-ta-n’wi-tsandza ku-ti-ondl-el-a n’wana loyi
(It will be too difficult for him to look afater this child himself)
153
Wo-tshama a-ri yexe a-ti-hlay-el-a tibuku
(He just sits alone reading for himself books)
Ndzi-ti-endl-el-a tiya
(I make for myself tea)
U-ti-swek-el-a vuswa
(She cooks for herself porridge)
Ndzi-ti-nw-ela byalwa
(I just drink beer (for no reason)
Ndzi-ti-tlang-el-a thenisi
(I just play tennis (for no reason)
5.
PASSIVE VERBS
See i.a.:
(Kgoe 2000:114, Tswana)
(Letooane, SeSotho)
(Mandende 1996, Venda) (p. 42)
(Mdumela 1996: 106, Tsonga)
Raphalalani 1997, Venda)
(Silidi 1998: 104, Venda)
(Tlaka 1997: 89, Northern Sotho)
(Tshithukhe 1997: 37, Venda)
(Walaza 1997: 97, Tswana)
Mchunu 1996:88, Zulu)
(Mnqumeni 1996: 126, Xhosa)
Mojapelo 1997: 104, Northern Sotho)
Nekhumbe 1995:89, Venda)
Nemudzivhadi 1995:87, Venda)
Ramathe 1996: 102, Sesotho)
(Ramovha 1996: 123, Venda)
(Sadiki 1992: 82, Venda)
(Sithole 1998: 119, Zulu)
5.1
Intransitive verbs
Sesotho
Ke kgale ho-robetswe ke batho ba bang
(It is long that there has been slept by othe rpeople
Ha-ketekwa
(There was made a feast)
A-utlwa ho-kokotwa monyako
(He heard there is being knocked at the door)
O-tla-fumana ho-dutswe moo ke batho
(You will find there is being stayed there by people)
Ho-thwe ha-thwe o-etswa mehlolo
(There is being said for him miracles are feasible)
Without Agr ho:
A-tlalwa ke thabo/A-tlalwa ke pelo
(He is being full by joy / he is being full by heart: he is very glad / he is very angry)
154
Tsonga
Ka-lolohiwa hi vanhu
(There is being lazy by people)
Ku-etleriwile hi mbyana
(There was being slept by the dog)
A-ku-si-fambiwa hi vavanuna
(There is no longer being walked by the men)
A-ka-ha-niwi hi mpfula
(There is not as yet being rained by rain)
A-ku-nge-miriwi hi timbewu
(There cannot be grown by seeds)
Without Agr ku:
Vurhongo byi-ta-etleriwa
(Sleep will be slept)
Venda
Hu-a-ed8elwa nga vhana
(There is being slept by children)
A-hu-dzhenwi
(There is not being entered (no admittance)
Nga vhuya ho-ambiwa mafhungo ha-rabelwa
(Later there were spoken words and then there was prayed)
Nnd8a a-hu-salwi sa musadzi
(Outside there is not remained like the woman)
Without Agr hu:
Iyi nnd8u i-a-dzhenwa
(This house is being entered)
Xhosa
Ku-ya-setyenzwa apha
(There is being worked here)
Ku-ya-lilwa ngabantwana
(There is being cried by children)
Without Agr ku:
Eli lizwe li-miwe
(This country is inhabited)
5.2
Transitive verbs
[V-w]
Sesotho
Tse buuwang hase tseo a-ka-di-utlwisisang
(What is spoken are not that which she can understand)
Ha-a-tsebe se tshehuwang
(She does not know that which is laughed about)
155
Dipere tsa-fepuwa hantle
(the horses were fed well)
Molao ona o-a-tsejwa
(This law is known)
Fariki e-qeta ho-hlatsuwa
(The pig is finished to be washed)
Tsonga
A-nga-twi leswi a-swi-vuriwa
(He doesn’t hear what were said)
Malepfu a-ya-khuturiwi
(Beard is not shaved)
U-vitaniwile
(He was called)
Venda
Ro-dzula ri-itwa ri-tshi-soliwa
(When seated we were at times rebuked)
Ho-vha hone u-shavha u-sen(wa
(There was being afraid to be scolded)
T8hoho heyi yo-pombiwa yot8he
(The head was all wrapped up)
Xhosa
Le nyama i-nga-tyiwa
(This meat can be eaten)
Lo mntwana akazange a-bethwe
(This child was never beaten)
[V-w+NP]
Sesotho
O-tla-lefshwa moputso
(He will be paid a salary)
Mosebetsi wa hae o-se o-tsejwa bokgabane ba ona
(His work was known its excellency)
Ka lenyalo ba-entswe motho a-le mong
(With marriage they are made one person)
Marena a mangata a-hlakotswe ditokelo tsa ona
(Many chiefs were deprived of their rights)
O-amohilwe dijo
(From him was taken away food)
Dithupa tsena di-entswe ngatana
(These sticks were made a bundle)
Tafole ena e-adilwe lesela
(This table was lain a cloth)
156
Ke-batla dijo tse fahuwang tswekere
(I want food on which is poured sugar)
Tsonga
A-a-nga-swi-rhandzi loko ndzi-vekiwa hosi
(He didn’t like it when I was installed as chief)
Venda
Demba lo-tshewa mulomo na mato
(The calbash was cut mouth and eyes)
Muvhud8a wo-vund8wa mulenzhe wa murahu
(The hare was broken hind leg)
Xhosa
Lo mntwana akazi ku-jikwa ingqondo afakwe entsha
(This child will not be changed mind and fitted a new one)
Onke amaqela a-valwa umlomo
(All the parties were closed the mouth)
[V-w- + Agent]
Sesotho
O-hlasetswe ke mashodu
(He was attacked by thieves)
A-sa-ntse a-bua jwalo, a-utlwa a-se a-otlwa ke fatuku e metsi
(When he was still talking thus, he felt he was already hit by a wet rag)
Ba-kgannwa ke lephako
(They were driven by hunger)
Ke molatswana o tshajwang ke bona
(It is small stream which is feared by them)
Empa e kang e-ne e-ratwa haholo ke bona, ke tshwene
(But what was liked very much by them, is a baboon)
Tsonga
Muti wa hina wu-hundzukile rivoni exikarhi ka vusiku leri voniwaki hi vanhu va-ha-ta
hi le kule
(Our village was changed into a light in the middle of the night which is seen by
people coming from far)
Ntirho a-wu-tirhiwa hi nuna loyi
(The work was done by this man)
Pasi rakwe a-ri-si-sayiniluriwa hi valungu
(His pass was not yet signed by the white people)
Venda
Vhukonani ho-vha hu-tshi-hofholwa nga vhasadzi
(The friendship was criticized by the wifes)
Vho-pfa zwi-ambiwaho nga vhathu
(She heard what was said by the people)
157
O-khothwa nga vhananyana
(He was curtseyed by the girls)
Hu-pfi vho-tou-lun(wa nga nowa
(There is heard he was bitten by a snake)
Xhosa
Wa-khatshwa ngabafana
(She was accompanied by young men)
Ukulila oko kwaku-bangwa bubuthongo
(That crying was caused by sleep)
Andizange ndi-lunywe yinja
(I was never bitten by a dog)
[V-w] + Instrument
Sesotho
A-ka-thuswa ka eng?
(He can be helped with what?)
Ba-bitswa ka bokgarebe
(They were asked about their girlhood)
Tsonga
A-tlhaviwile hi mukwana
(He was stabbed with knife)
A-ndzi-kaneti leswaku milomu ya vavasati yi-khavisiwanyana hi manyunyu ni kuhlekula
(I don’t deny that the mouths of women are decorated with vanity and showing
contempt)
Venda
A-vho-ngo-kona u-vhulungwa nga tshirudi
(He could not be buried in a Christian way)
Ndi ene o-ed8anwaho nga madzanga shango l8ino
(It is he who is being equal with beautiful things of this earth)
Xhosa
Khawucacise indlela ohlaselwe ngayo
(Please explain the way on which you were attacked)
Babethwa ngamanqindi
(They were beaten with fists)
[V-w] + LOC
Sesotho
A-komakomela ho-thijwa moo a-sa-dutseng
(He grumbled against being prevented from where he still stayed)
Venda
Vha-vha vha-sa-fhirwi kha u-fhufha
(He was not beaten in jumping)
158
Vha-vhidzwa henengei
(They were called over there)
Tsonga
Ndza-swi-tiva leswi nga-tsariwa la
(I know what was written there)
Leswi swa-endliwa lomuya
(These are made there)
Xhosa
Loo bhokisi ibekwe phezu kwetafile
(That box was put on the table)
Le nkwenkwe iza ku-siwa kugqirha
(This boy will be taken to the doctor)
[V-w] + Infinitive
Sesotho
Ngaka ya-bitswa ho-tla-mo-foka
(A doctor was called to sprinkle him)
Venda
Vha-a-vhidzwa u-thusa
(They are called to help)
Xhosa
Uza ku-dikwa kukufundisa kungekudala
(He will get tired of teaching not long ago)
Idiniwe kukuhleka
(She is tired of laughing)
Tsonga
A-hi-pfumetiwi ku-languta laha
(We are not allowed to look here)
[V-w] + COMP
Sesotho
O-ne a-ile a-lauwa hore a-hlokomele setjhaba
(He was ordered to look after the nation)
Tsonga
A-va-pfuniwa leswaku a-rima
(They are helped so that he may plough)
Venda
Vho-thuswa uri vha-lime
(They were helped to plough)
Xhosa
Ba-ncedwe ukuba balime
(They were helped to plough)
159
Agr. Hu/ku
Sesotho
Hoba a-kene ka tlung, a re ho-kwalwe lemati
(After he went into the house, there is closed the door)
Ho-tla-lengwa tshimo ya bona
(There will be ploughed their land)
Ho-a-tshehuwa ke batho
(There is being laughed by the people)
Ho-buuwa ka tsa thuto
(There is being talked about education matters)
Ere ho-eso-jewe, a-etse thapelo
(Before there is eaten, he prays)
Tsonga
Amatlhelo ka yindlu a-ku-byariwile mirhi yo hlayanyana
(On sides of the house there were planted a number of trees)
Se-ku-thoriwile munhu
(There was already hired a person)
Venda
D8uvha l8e vhurifi ha-vhaliwa
(Day letter was read)
Ha-vhidzwa n(anga
(There was called a doctor)
Nga vhuya ho ambiwa mafhungo
(Later there were spoken words)
Xhosa
Kwa-ncokolwa zimbi
(There were talked about other things)
Kwa-hlekwa kakhulu
(There was a lot of laughter)
5.3
Ditransitive verbs
[V-w]
Sesotho
A-kgutla moo a-ronngweng
(He returned from where he was sent)
Venda
Vha u-fhiwa, vha-newa
(Those to be given, were given)
Tsonga
La nga rhumiwa ku tisa papilla, u-yimele nhlamulo
(The one who was sent to bring the letter, waited for an answer)
160
Xhosa
Bafuna iiswiti ba-nikwe
(They want sweets and they were given)
[V-w] + Agent
Sesotho
Ruri motho a-lahla lehlohonolo a-le-filwe ke badimo
(Really a person lost the luck he was given by the gods)
Tsonga
A-nyikiwile mubedwa hi Makhahlela
(He was given a bed by Makhahlela)
Venda
Vha-n8ewa swakudya nga mme
(They were given food by mother)
Xhosa
Baza kunikwa ukutya ngumama
(They will be given food by mother)
[V-w] + NP
Sesotho
O-rutilwe bohlale ba kgale
(He was taught wisdom of old)
O-tla-newa ditokelo tsa hao
(You will be given your rights)
Dipompong di-fuwa bana
*Dipompong di-a-ba-fuwa
(Sweets are given to the children)
Bana ba-fuwa dipompong
Bana ba-a-di-fuwa
(Children are given sweets)
Ruri motho a lahla lehlohonolo a le filwe ke badimo
(Truly a person lost the good luck given to him by the gods)
A bea le seo a se ronngweng tafoleng
(He put even that for which he was sent on the table)
Bana ba tla newa dijo tsa bona
(The children will be given their food)
Matona le ona a buile, qetellong ha newa Chaka sebaka
(The councilors also they talked, at the end there was given Chaka an opportunity)
Ba bile ba mo rekela mpho e ntle a e nehwa mohla sekolo se qhalanang
(They bought him a nice present and he was given it on the day the school
dispersed)
161
Tsonga
Vadyondzi va-nyikiwa tibuku
(Vadyondzi va-ti-nyikiwa
(Students are given books)
Tibuku ti-nyikiwa vadyondzi
*Tibuku ta-va-nyikiwa
(Books are given to the students)
Xhosa
Iilekese zinikwa abantwana
*Iilekese zi-ya-ba-nikwa
(Sweets are given to the children)
Abantwana ba-nikwa iilekese
Abantwana ba-ya-zi-nikwa
(Children are given sweets)
Venda
Munna u-newa Tshelede
Munna u-a-i-newa
(The man is given money)
Tshelede i-newa munna
*Tshelede i-a-mu-newa
(Money is given to the man)
Agr hu/ku
Tsonga
Ku-lombiwile manana mali
(There is loaned to mother money)
Ku-nyikiwile vana swakudya
(There was given to the children sweets)
Sesotho
Qetellong ha-newa Chaka sebaka
(At the end there was given Chaka opportunity)
Ho-newa bana dipompong
(There are given children sweets)
Venda
Ha-run(wa mutukana a-ya u-dzhia baisigiri
(There was sent a boy to go and take bicycle)
Xhosa
Ku-nikwa indoda imali
(There is given to man money)
162
5.4
Applicative verbs
With intransitive verbs
[V-el-w ke NP]
O-rerile ho-mo-nea ntho e llelwang ke bohle
(He planned to give him a thing which is cried for by everyone)
O-tlelwa ke ntho e kang boroko
(For him is being come by a thing like sleep)
Taba ena e ne e-thabetswe ke ba bangata
(For this issue is being glad by many)
O-feletswe ke tshepo
(For him is ended by hope)
Ha-ba-sallwe ke letho
(For them is being left by nothing)
Ke-welwa ke kotsi e bohloko
(For me is being fallen by a painful accident)
Ba-fel-l-wa ke moqoqo
(They are finished with conversation)
Ke-sal-ets-w-e ke Rasello
(I am left with Rasello)
[V-el-w]
A-hlol-l-w-a hampe, a-timel-l-w-a, a-ba a-ipotsa hore na o-utlwile hantle seo a-neng
a-se-bua
(He was badly astonished, he was lost, he was asking himself whether he heard
correctly that which he was saying)
Qetellong yare ha ke-mmona a-tlal-ets-w-e, ka-dula fatshe, ka-mo-ja ditsheho
(In the end when I saw him being angry, I sat down and laughed at him)
O-ne a-rerekela eka motho ya-shw-ets-w-e-ng
(He was weak as if he is a person who suffered loss by death)
With transitive verbs
[V-el-w NP]
O-tla-fumana setulo seo o-se-tswaletsweng
(You will find the position for which you were born)
A-bososela jwaloka motho eo kopo ya hae e-arabetsweng
(He smiles like a person for whom his request has been answered)
163
Babetsh-is-el-w-a okanye ba-bula-w-el-w-e iintsapho zabo
(For them were being burnt or for them were being killed their families)
Bashemane ha ba rerelwa lebollo, ba ne ba lemelwa mabele
(The boys when for them is planned initiation, for them are planted sorghum)
Ba se ba etsetswa diphehiso hore ho tle ho be monate
(For them were made food so that it may be nice)
Jwale o thonkgelwa qeba lena leo a neng a tlilo le oka
(Now for him was hurt this wound which he came to nurse)
A laela hore a qhanehelwe pere eo
(He ordered that for him must be saddled that horse)
A romela hore a bitsetswe ngaka
(He sent so that for him may be called a doctor)
Bohloko boo bo senyetswa thabo
(Because of that pain was spoilt happiness)
Dijo di tla abelwa batho
(Food will be distributed to the people)
With AgrS [ho]:
Mohla ho-ep-el-w-a-ng mofu, ho-nk-w-a hlaku tse pedi tsa mabele
(The day when there is being buried for a corpse there is taken two grains of
sorghum)
O-utlwa hape ho-kgarum-el-w-a ba-e-emetseng terene
(He hears again there is being scolded for them who waited for the train)
[V-el-w ke NP]
Ra-namol-el-w-a ke monna e mong
(We were rescued by a certain man)
A-ka-be a-sa-hlah-el-w-a ke tsona hoja a-m-mamela
(For him should not be happened by it if he listened to me)
O-hlah-ets-w-e ke tse babang, eseng lefu
(For him has been happened by illness, not death)
O-selebal-ets-w-e ke tsohle
(He was embarrassed by everything)
Ba-bua phoofolo tseo ba-di-bola-ets-w-e-ng ke noka
(They skinned the animals which were killed for them by the river)
Ke tsa tlala eo a-e-bolel-l-w-a-ng ke Majoale
(It is things of the famine that he is being told about it by Majwale)
[V-el-w LOC]
A-patwa hona moo a-bola-ets-w-e-ng teng
(He was buried where he was killed)
Pere ya hae e-tswal-ets-w-e kwana meraka
(His horse was born there at the cattle posts)
164
With AgrS [ho]
Ho-ne ho-bin-el-w-a ka tlung e kgolo
(There was being sung in a big house)
[V-el-w Infin]
Pelo e-hlolohel-ets-w-e ho-ya-fihla teng
(The heart is being longed for to go and arrive there)
O-ne a-op-el-w-a ho-feta bohle ba-neng ba-le ntweng eo
(For him was being applauded to surpass all who were in that war)
[V-el-w hore]
Ke-bolel-l-w-a hore ke-tla-kgotsofala ha ke-utlwa nnete ya seo lona le neng le-nketse
sona
(For me is being told that I will find peace when I hear the truth of that which you did
to me)
Ngaka e-dumel-ets-w-e-ng hore pula e-nele ka tshebetso ya yona, ebe e-newa
kgomo
(The doctor who has been approved that the rain fell through his work, was given a
cow)
[V-EL-EL-W]
Le yena a tshelletswe tee [tshel-el-el-w]
(Even for him was poured tea)
Ba bokella mangata a patsi ena eo ba e rwalletsweng ke noka [rwal-el-el-w]
(They gathered bundles this of wood which were carried for them by the river
Setjhaba se-bok-el-l-wa ho-tla i-k-utlw-el-a ka ditsebe tsa sona
(The tribe is being gathered to come and hear for themselves with their ears)
With ditransitive verbs
[V-EL-W]
Dikgomo di ile tsa neelwa manamane a tsona
(The cows were given their calves)
Ho romelwa batho ho ya lata setopo
(There were sent people to go and fetch the body)
Ke noha e rometsweng ho fedisa bophelo ba hao
(It is a snake for which has been sent to finish your life)
[V-EL-EL-W]
Ke tla kopa hore le sa ka sekolo se romellwe seyalemoya
(I will ask that even my school be sent a radio)
Mosadi enwa o ile a neellwa lengolo
(For this woman was delivered a letter)
5.5
Reciprocal verbs
Ha-shebanwa le tsa borena
(There was looked at each other with the issues of the chieftainship)
165
Ka mora puo ena ha-qhal-an-w-a
(After this speech there was being dispersed)
[V-el-an-w]
Ha-dumellanwa ka hore morena a-be le bakgafi ba makgolo a robedi
(There was agreed that a chief should have 900 taxpayers)
E-ne e-re e mong a-na le seo e mong a-se-batlang, ho-bu-is-an-w-e, mme ho-nehan-w-e, ho-ya ka theko ya seo e mong a fanang ka sona
(When someone has something another one wants, there are spoken to one another,
and there are given to one another, according to the price of that another give to
each other)
Kwa-vuny-el-w-an-a ukuba aye kufuna umsebenzi eKapa
(There was agreed among each other that he may go to seek work in Cape Town)
5.6
Causative verbs
[V-is-w]
Sesotho:
Sethunya se-sebed-is-w-a jwang?
(A gun is used how?)
A-i-s-w-a sekolong
(He was brought to school)
Ba-na le tokelo ya ho-fuman-tsh-w-a diyalemoya
(They have a right to be caused to find radios)
Ho-ne ho-tl-is-w-a diteboho ho Modimi
(There were brought thanks to God)
O-rata hore a-tataiswe ke difofu
(He likes to be helped to walk by blind people)
Podi e-kolobisitswe ke pula
(The goat was caused to be wet by the rain)
A-sithabe-dits-w-e hampe ke ditaba tsena
(He was badly overwhelmed by this news)
Ngwana o-tla-palamiswa pere
(The child will be allowed to ride a horse)
[V-is-el-w]
Ba-tl-is-ets-w-a tee
(For them is being brought tea)
Mapolasi ana a-ne a-sir-el-ets-w-a
(The farms were being hidden away)
166
Ba-fetisetswa tlung eo ba-tla-phomola ho yona
(They were passed on to the house in which they will rest)
5.7
Reflexive verb
Transitive verb
Ba bang ho-bile ho-a-i-konk-w-a ke batho
(Others there were again looked at themselves by the people)
[i-V-el-w]
Hoja batho bana e-ne e-le mashodu, ba-ne ba-ka-nna ba-jara tsohle ba-ikela ba-sabonwe, ho-ntse ho-ipapallwa ke batho
(If these people were thieves, they could have taken everything and go away without
being seen, while there were still playing for themselves by the people)
Ke ntho e-ipuelwang feela le ke bana
(It is a thing which is spoken by themselves only by children)
[i-V-el-el-w]
Bahlankana bana ba-ne ba-itjellwa ke bodutu (i-j-el-l-w)
(These young men were eaten by loneliness)
Metseng yohle ho se ho-inwellwa majwala a-ithatholetsweng feela hore hoinwellwe
(In all the villages there was already being drunk beer which has been brewed for so
that there may be drunk)
5.8
[V-eh-el-w NP]
Ba-seny-eh-ets-w-e ke bophelo ka baka la lona
(For them were suffered a loss by life because of you)
[V-is-w]
Sesotho
Sethunya se-sebed-is-w-a jwang?
(A gun is used how?)
A-i-s-w-a sekolong
(He was brought to school)
Ba-na le tokelo ya ho-fuman-tsh-w-a diyalemoya
(They have a right to be caused to find radios)
Ho-ne ho-tl-is-w-a diteboho ho modini
(There were brought thanks to God)
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Abbreviations
Agr
C
DO
DP
FV
IO
IP
LF
lf
nom
perf
pf
Spec
subj
T
t
v
V
vb
Agreement
compelementizer
direct object
determiner phrase
final vowel
indirect object
Inflection phrase
logical form
long form (present tense)
nominative
perfect tense
perfect tense
Specifier
subject
Tense
trace
light verb
verb
verb