Rt€@lll

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UtIITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAI'lt"lE 

Na.86-5888 

Rt€@lll 

),, 

t(i 2 

Environment and 

resounces in the Pacific 

UNEP Regional Seas Relnrts and Studies No. 69 

UNEP I 985 

:

Note: This docunent frae been prepared for the United llations Envirorrnent Progrsmop 

(UNEP), under projects \P/5IQ2-85-05 and FP/5IO2-82-I4> by Messre A,L. DahI 

and J. Carew-Reid, 

The deaignatlons employed and the presenlotion of the material in., thie 

document do not imply the expression of any.opinion whatsoever on the,part of 

UNEP concerni-ng the legal status o,f any Stabe, Territory, city or area, or of 

its authorities, or eoncerning the delimitation oF lts frontiers oE 

boundaries. The document contains the views explessed by the individuel 

authore acting in their individual capacit.iee and m€y not necessarily 

reflect the views of UNEP. 

For bibliographic purposes this document mey be 

UNEP: Envirorunent and resources in the pacifi.c. 

Studies No. 69. UNEP 1985. 

t 

cited as: 

UNEP Regional Seas Reports and

a' 

a 

@) 

UNITED NATIONS ENVI RONMENT PROGRAI{ME 

RIG@lll 

Envirunment and 

resoances in the Pacific 

UNEP Regional Seas Retrnrts and Stadies No. 69 

UNEP I 985

-i- 

EDITORS'NOTE 

This volume brings together a nurber of papers presented at the l5th Pacific Science 

C6ngress organized by the Pacific Science Association in Dunedinr New Zealand on 

f-Il February 1981. While the Congress trests scientific questions in the entire 

Pacific Besin, the papers collected in this volumgrfocus on environmental problems 

relevant to the three regional action plan#/ sponsored bV thg United Netions 

Environment Programme (UNEP) es pert of its Regional Seas Prograrm€. The majority 

of the pspers came from sessions on Regional Co-operation on the Protection of the 

Environment intended to review the three Regional Seas Action Plans in the Pacific. 

With the kind permission of the orgenizers of the Congress, e selection of papers 

relevant to environmental problems in the region, originally presented in other 

sessions of the Congress, such as the General Symposium on Pacific Island Potentials 

organized by Ian L. Baumgart, are also included in this volume. 

It is inevitable in a collection of pspers such as this thet there is great 

variability emong the authors in style and epproach, perticularly since some pspera 

were originelly intended for orel presentation rather than publicetion. AlI, 

however, present points of view which are importent to e consideration of the 

environment and Pesources of the Pacific and the directions that development should 

teke in the region. While most papers are as presented at Dunedin, a few have been 

updated to include importent developments in Jhe months folJ.owing the Congress. A 

summary of discussions at the Congress on inter-regional co-operation hes also been 

edded. 

It will be apparent thet there is some imbelance in the treatment of the three 

action plan areas. This reflects the Congress itself where papers were weighted 

more towerds the islands rather than the continentel margins and where participation 

from more distant regions, such as Latin America, wss sligtrt. The pspers flrom 

South-East Asia and South America . are also more technicel in epproach end more 

nerrowly concentreted on marine and coastal pollution problems than those from 

Oceenie. This reflects the different foci of their Action Plans and the greater 

development of their scientific capecity end deta bases. 

We hope that this volume will provide a useful record of environmentel understanding 

in the Pecific and of the increasing extent of regional co-operetion to deal with 

environmental problems. 

L/ CPPS/UNEP: Action Plan 

areas of the South-East 

UNEP, 1981. 

for the protection of 

Pscific. UNEP Regional 

Arthur Lyon Dahl 

Jeremy Cerew-Reid 

the marine environment and coastel 

Seas Reports end Studies No. 2A. 

UNIPI Action Plan for the protection and developnent of the marine and coastal 

aFeas of the Eest Asian region. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 24. 

UNEP, 1981. 

SPC/SPEC/ESCAP/UNIP: Action Plan for managing the neturol resources and 

envitonment of the South Pacific reqion. UNfP Regionel Seas Reports and Studjes 

No. 29. UNEP, 1981. 

Z/ UNfPI Achievements and planned developnent of UNIP's Regional Sees pnogrerrune 

and comparable programmes sponsored by other bodies. UNFP Regionel sees Reports 

and Studies No. l. UNEP, 1982.

L 

-iii- 

CONTENTS 

SOUTH PACIFIC REGION I 

I The South Pacific Regional Environment Programme t 


-' 

' 

Develement theorieg in the Pacific lelend contaxt 7 

Ken W. Piddington 

I'he potential for management of isl€nd acoyrtems Lt 


Agriculture, size and digtance in Prcific lsland futurer 19 

R. Gerard Ward 

People potentials in the Pacific 29 

Mere Pulea 

A perrpective on human health and ita irplicationr for the potsntlsl of the t7 

Pacific Region 

Ian Prior 

Pacific IsliBnds' hydrogeology and watar qudity 57 

W. R. Dale and B. C. Waterhouee 

Pollution probbms in the South Pacific fertilizer:, biocideg weter urpplica 69 

and urban westeg 

R. J. Morrison and .} Brodie 

Fishery potentials in the trqical centrd and wertern Pacific 7, 

Robert Keanney 

The chellenge of conaerving and managing coral reef ecolystcmr 85 


Coral reefs in the Pacific - their potentials and their limitatiom 89 

Edgardo D. Gsnez and Helen T. Yap 

Forestry in the South Paeific - how and for whom? 107 

S. D. Richardson 

lropical forestry in Melenesia and eome Pacific lrlendg tI5 

K. D. Marten 

tineral r,-.:rJjl?jr"f the eouthwest Pacific IsLends L29 

Energy potentials of Pacific Island nationc 14, 

C. R. Lloyd and Suliana Siwatibau 

Radioactivity in the South Pecific Region l5l 

M. P, Bacon, G. Lambert, T. A. Rafter, J. I. Samisoni and D. J' Stevene 

Legal meeaure8 for irplementation of environrnentel policier in the Pacific Rcgion Lt7 

Mere Pulea

-iv- 

EAST ASIAN SEAS REGION 16] 

Overview of the Eest Aaian Sear Action Plan 165 

Kasem Snidvongs 

Oceanographic uercment of the Eelt Asien Seer L7t 

Aprilani Sagiarto 

Coral reef degradatian and pollution in thc East Agian Seac Region 185 

Helen T. Y4 and Edgardo D. Gqnez 

Integrated coagtel development in Malayaia end poosible ragional implicationr 2O9 

Appadurai Maheswaran 

The etate of hydrocerbm poltution in the Eaat Asian Seao bssed on atudies ZL7 

in the South-Eest Asian Sear Region 

Jasper Bilal 

Pbnned regimal co-qeration in Eatt Asian Sees for non-oil pollution 2t5 

researeh - problems and puibb solutionr 

Arnando F. Kapauan 

Merine pollution by heavy metals in the Eart Asian Seer Region 239 

Manuwadi Hungspreugs 

Tin mining and eedimentation effects m ghallow water benthic communities 249 

Hansa Chansang 

SOI ITH-EAST PACIFIC REGION 2" 

Actior, Plan for the Protection of the Merine Environment and Coagtal 2r7 

Arcas of the South-East Pacific 

Luis Arriaga M. 

Merine pollution in the South-Eart Pscific 261 


Oil pollution in the South-East Pecific: regional co-operetion and contingency plans 27t 

Francisco Pizzaro A. 

Ocean eirculation in the Eartern Pacific and El Nino 279 

Pablo Lagos 

INTER -REGION AL CO-OPERATION 

Inter-regional co-operationr summary of dircuesions 


285 

287

-I 

SOTJTH PACIFTC REGIO{

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. !l lli( 

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TI-E SOUTH PACIFIC REGIOT.IAL ENVIROT{MENT PROGRAMME 


B.P. 1146, Noumea, New Caledonia 

ABSTRACT 

Tfre South Paeif ic Regional Environnrent Programme groups 22 island 

countries and territories to deal with their comrnon environrnental problems. It is 

a joint programme of SPEC, SPC, t-tlEP and ESCAP, with a secretariat bmed at 

SPC and financial support from UNEP as part of its Regional Seas Programme. 

The first preparatory phase began in January 1980 with the preparation of 

country reports and expert reviews of important topics. These provided an 

indicaLion of governnnnt priorities and of the state of lhe environnent in the 

region, leading to the adoption of a Declaration and Action Plan a[ the 

Cmference m the Human Environrnent in the South Pacific in Rarotonga in Mareh 

L982. Priority areas of the Action Plan concerning legal rneasures, radioactivity, 

hazardous wasLe dumping, boxic chemicals, a network of pollution control centres, 

research m marine and coastal probbms, trsditional environmental knowledge and 

rnanagement, and environrnental information and training are now being actively 

implernented, and further projects are in preparation. 

Introduction 

Each Regional Seas prognam,ne area has its own distinctive characteristics. The Soth 

Pacific Regional Environment Programrne (SPREP) is unique in its origins and orientation, r 

is appropriate to a region consisting entirely of island states with well established regional 

organizations and traditions of co-operation. The earliest regional intergovernmenLal 

organizalion, the South Pacific Commission (SPC), is nearly es old as the United Nations, 

having been founded in 1947. In addition, the region has long been sensitive to environmental 

issues. The traditional island cultures have developed over generations within the constraints 

of their environment, and where resources were limited lhey generally evolved management 

strategies and controls to ensure that resource use was sustainable. 

The terrr "South Pacific" is not strictly accurate, as the region includes not only all 

the tropical SouLh Pacific Islands of Melanesia and Polynesia from P4ua New Guinea to 

Pitcairn, but also extends northward through the islands of Micronesia, most of which lie 

norlh of the equalor (see map at beginning of section). Tfn region covers about 29 million 

km-, almost seven times that of the Caribbean, which makes it by far the largegL Regional 

Seas programme in area. The land area, m the other hand, is mly 55lrttr0 km', of which 

Papua New Guinea makes up 84%. There are roughly I million inhabitants in Papua New 

Guinea, and 2 million in the other 2l countries of the region, ranging fcpm over 6001000 in 

Fiji to less than a hundred sr Pitcairn. Pqulation densities (persons/km') range from 6 or 7 

in Papua New Guinea and New Caledorria to 148 on Nauru. The GNP per capita of U5$ 1,775 

(in 1978) is considerably below that of the Caribbean (SPC, 1982). 

Orioins 

SPREP evolved out of a ciecade of regional environrnental interest and activity. As far 

back as 1970, the South Pacific Commission proposed recruiting an ecologist on its slaff, Bnd 

lhis was zupported by a resolu[ion frorn the Regional Symposium on Consenvation of Nature - 

Reefs and Lagoons, held in Noumea, New Caledonia in I97l under the joint sponsorship of 

SPC and the lnternational Union for Cmservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), a 

meeting which identified many environmental probbms of regional concern. The governnents

-4 

of the region approved lhe posl and a special project on conservation of nature in J.97J, and 

I was recruited from the Smithsonian Institution to take up the post of Regional Llcologieal 

Adviser in L974. A wide variety of acLivities in environrnent and conservation were included 

in the SPC work prollrarnrne until replaced by SPREP in 1980. 

The SPC initialed discussions with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 

on possible co-operation in the region in mid-1974. Maurice Strong, Executi ve Director of 

UNEP returned the visit to SPC laten that year, and in 1975, 'aL a speech at the Pacific 

Science Congress in Vaneouver, he proposed a "mini-stockholm" conference on the 

environmenL for the Pacific. The LJN Economic and Scial Cornmission fon Asia and the 

Pacific (ESCAP) also zupported this zuggestion. Further proposals from SPC lead to initial 

UNEP encouragement in L976 for what was then called a comprehensi ve environmenlal 

management programme for the region. At the request of governments, the development of 

this programme became a joint activity between SPC and the Soulh Paclfic Bureau for 

Economic Co-operation (SPEC) the same year (SPC and SPEC, L977). After a series of 

preparatory technical meetings of government experts, and the agreement of UNEP to provide 

initial funding, the South Pacific Regional Environnrent Programme was launched in January 

I980. 

South Pacific Reqional Environment Proqramme 

The first phase of the pnogramme was designed to help the countries and territories of 

the region to identify their own environrnental problems and priorities. Each government was 

nequested Lo submit a country r€port to the programme (SPREP, l98la, 1982a), and a numben 

of experts were requested to prepare reviews m topics of regional interest (SPREP, l98lb). 

The process produced a "Stockholm-like" increase in governmental awareness of the 

significance of environmental concerns to their immediate interests. On the basis of this 

information' the SPREP secretariat was able to outline the state of the environment in the 

South Pacific (Dahl and Baumgart, 1982). It was clear that the South Pacific was no longen 

the carefree paradise of the tourist posters, nor was it yet the polluted Mediterranean. There 

was an obvious need for preventive measures befone the environmental decline went too far. 

The country reports showed that 60% of the countries had significant problems of soil 

erosion, more than half were concerned about the environmental impacts of the exLraction of 

construction materials like sand and gravel, and l0% had major mining activity. W at,er 

shorteges and water pollution also affected 60% of the countries. Lcs of forest areas 

concerned 70%, and two thirds had problems of endangered species and nature conservation. 

More than half faced conflicts of land use and land tenure, given the limited land area 

available m many islands. In the coastal zone, reclamation and coastal erosion were each a 

problem in a third of the countries, overfishing and mangrove rnanagement were difficulties in 

over half, and three querters s.rffered from significant pollution in coral reef areas. Waste 

disposal was a nearly universal problem; more than 9096 had difficulties disposing of liquid 

wasteg without creating pollution, and 50% could not find satisfactory npans for getting rid 

of their eolid wastes. Toxic chemicals sueh as pesticides, to which small islands are 

particularly wlnerable, were another worry for a majority of the region. Radioactivity was a 

special case, since the long continuing use of islends in the region for nuclear weapons tests 

and the proposals for ocean drmping of nuclear wastes have made this a major political issue. 

Finallyr npre than 60% of the governments were concerned about their population growth 

relative to the carrying capacity of their islands. 

The preparatory phase of SPREP eoncluded with the Conference on the Human 

Environment in the South Paeific, held in Rarotonga, Cook Islands, in March 1982, at which 

ministers and other high level delegates from nearly all participeting countries adopted a 

South Pacific Declaretion m Natural Resourceg and the Environment, and an Action Plan for 

Managing the Natural Resources and Environrnent of the South Pacific Region (SPREP, 

1982b). 

It is significant that every single country and territory in the region participated 

aetively in the preparatory phase of SPREP, *rowing the widespread support for the eims of 

the progremme. Ssne eountriee even egtebliehed environmental committees or bodies to 

implennnt their environrnental priorities identified for SPREP.

Immediate priorities 

-5 

The Action Plan adopted at lhe Raro[onga Conference identified a wide range of areas 

of environnental need, but certain pniorities were also expressed. Tfre programme therefore 

launched immediate activities in several of the priority areas. A technical group of 

international experts was organized to prepare a review of radioacLivity in the South Pacific, 

so that the technical questions could be distinguished from the political and moral issues on 

this difficult subject (5PC/SPECiESCAP/UNEP, l98l; Bacon et $.r 

this volurne). A similar 

review was commissioned on the disposal of hazardous wastes in Lhe Pacif ic Ocean 

(SPC/SPEC/ESCAP/UNEP, 1984). lt was clear lhat the regional policies m this zubject could 

only be implemented through international and regional legal agreements. SPREP therefore 

encouraged countries to becorne party to the Lmdon Dumping Convention, and organized a 

series of meetings to draft a Convention for the Protection and Development of the Natural 

Resources and Environment of Lhe Pacific Region and associated protocols (SPREP, I98la; 

Pulea, this volume). 

Given the lack of baseline data on pollution by toxic chemicals zuch as pesticides and 

herbicides, and the reported extent of pollution by urban drainage and other liquid wastes, 

SPREP began consultations wiih regional universities and research organizaLions on the 

creation of a network of zub-regional pollution monitoring centres wilh analytical 

laboratories. The discussions also extended !o research and training needs and the possible 

co-ordination of approaches, particularly with respect to the marine and coestal environments 

(SPREP, f98lb). A detailed feasibility study was commissioned of the mapping of coastal 

resources in the region for planning purposes, but resources were not adequate to undertake 

such a projecl immediately. 

A majon effort is being made in the anea of environmental information and public 

ewareness, including the preparation of a direcLory of research centres, a bibliography of 

environmental literature, and environmental radio broadcasts. Enphasis is placed on the 

importance of preserving what remains of traditional environmental knowledge and 

management practices for their possible usefulness in solving current problems. Approaches 

f or training village leaders to better manage their own land and resources are being 

developed, since in the decentralized sLruclure of the Pacific much responsibilily for 

resource In€lnagement will always rest at the local level. The programme also made provision 

for direci assistance to countries with speeific problems. 

Distinct features of SPREP 

As mentioned above, the area of the South Pacific Regional Environment Pmgramme is 

distinctive in consisting of tiny islands in a vast area of sea without nearby continental 

margins. Mmt the the 22 participating countries and territories (American Samoa, Cook 

Ielands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall 

Islands, Nauru, New Caledonia, Niue, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, 

Pitcairn Island, Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tmga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna, and 

Western Samoa) are micro-states struggling with problems of srnall size, isolation and a lack 

of resources. Five developed countries with territories or former territorial interests in the 

region (Australia, France, New Zealand, United Kingdom and United States) also urpport the 

progremme. 

Unlike most of the Regional Seas Action Plians, SPREP originated in regional 

environmental activities outside of UNEP, although tl.lEP esistance and encouragement help 

to bring it to fruition, It is based in strong regional organizations with a long history of 

regional co-qeration in many fields. lt has a unique structure, with a Co-ordineting Group 

representing the four co-operating organizations (SPEC, SPC, ESCAP and UNEP) which 

reports to the two rnajor intergovernnental ncetings in the region, the South Pacific Forum 

and the South Pacific Conference. The SPREP secretariat is loca[ed at the South Pacific 

Cmtmission headquarters in Noumea, New Caledonia, and is currently headed by Dr. Jeremy 

Carew-Reid, SPREP Regional Co-ordinator. SPREP is thus a combined effort of the major 

intergovernrnental organizations with environ.ental interests in t}te region, and is directly 

responsive the wishes of governnrents as laid down in the Action Plan and as reviewed at 

their annual meetings.

-6 

While UNEP has placed responsibility for the a:pport of SPREP with its Reqional Seas 

Programme Activity Centre, SPREP has always been eoneerned with all of the South Pacific 

envi-ronment, terreetrial ae well as marine. On an island it would be artificial and unrealistic 

to aeparate the two. For the island countries, problems st land are at least 8s preasing as 

those in tlre eea, and the prioritiee of SPREP are weighted accordingly. SPREP also triee to 

be senaitive to the speciat geogrephic, economic, eocial and cultural dimensions of the region. 

It is not alwaye possible to take the eame pproaches as elsewhere when lhere is a relative 

lack of scientific and technical capabilitiee, and the possibilities for independent national 

action in $pport of a regional plan ere much rnore limited. AU this emphasizes the 

importance oi'regional co-qeration in resolving pressing environnental problems which is the 

basis of lhe South Pacific Regional Environment Pmgramme. 

REFERENCES 

Bacon, N[ P., G. Lambert, T. A Rafter, J. l. Sarnisoni and D. .l Stevens. 1984. Radioectivity 

in the South Pacific Region. In A. L Dahl and J. Carew-Reid [ed.]r Environrnent and 

resources in the Pacific: a regional approach. UNEPr Geneva. 

Datrl, Arthur Lyon, srd Ian L. Baumgart. 1982. The state of the environment in the South 

Pacific. p. 47-71. ln SPREP. Report of the Conference on the Human Environment in the 

South Pacific, Rar-otonga, Cook Islands, 8-ll March 1982. South Pacific Ccnmissiont 

Nournea, New Celedonia. Reprinted as t-h{EP Regional Seas Reports and Studies' No. lI 

(r981). 

pulea, Mere. 1984. Legal messures for implementation of environmental policies in the 

pacific Region. In A. L Dahl and I Carew-Reid [ed.], Environment and resourees in the 

Pacific: a regional approach. UNEP' Geneva. 

SPC. 1982. South Pacific economies 1980: statistical zunmary. Edition No. 6. South Pacific 

Cqnmission, Nournea, New Caledonia. J6 p. 

SpC and SPEC. 1977. Comprehensive environmental management programme. South Pacific 

Csnmission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 7J p. 

SPC/SPEC/ESCAP/WEP. 1981. Radioactivity in [he South Pacific. Tqic Review No- 14' 

SPREP. South Pacific Commission, Noumea' New Caledonia. 2Il p. 

SpC/SpEC/ESCAp/UNEP. 1984. Hazardous waste storage and disposal in the Sotrth Pacific. 

UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 48. UNEP' Geneva. 25 p. utd appendices 114 

p. 

SPREP. I98la. Counlry reports 1980-1981. Numbers I-I8. South Pacific Csnmission, Noumea, 

New Caledmia. 598 p. 

SpREp. l98tb. Tqic reviews 1981. Numbers I-Il. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, Nerr 

Caledonia. 2O2 p. 

SPREP. I982a. Country report No. 19: Wallis and Futuna lslands. South Pacif ic Commission' 

Nournea, New Caledonia. 14 P. 

5PREP. 1982b. Report of the Conference on the Human Environnent in the South Pacifict 

Rarotonga, Cook Islands, 8-lI March L982. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New 

Caledonia. 7L p. 

SpREp. I98la. Report of the Expert Meeting on a Convention for the Protection and 

Development of the Natural Resources and Environment of the Pacific Reqion (Noumea' 

ttew ialeAonia, 24-28 January l98l). South Pacific Cqnmission, Noumea' New Caledonia. 

42 p. 

SpREp. f98lb. Report of the First Consultative Meeting of Research and Training 

Institutions in the 5ou[h Pacif ic Region, Suva, F iji, I8-20 April 198]. South Pacif ic 

Conmission, Nournea, New Caledonia- 52 p.

DEVELOPMENT THEORIES IN THE PACIFIC ISLAND CO}.ITEXT 

Ken Piddington 

Cornmissioner for the Environment 

Wellington, New Zealand 

ABSTRACT 

The Pacific Islands are diverse in characteristics though sharing a common 

oceanie environment. The traditional galue systems of the people are generally 

sufficiently strong to have imposed some mutation of Western economic concepts. 

In many islands subsistence economies are dominant. 

Their economies are dependent on and vulnerable !o influences fnom outside 

[he region, htt they possess a cer[ain resilience so Lhat stalistical catastrophes do 

not instantly become human caLasLrophes. 

Pacific naLions, while placing hiqh value on their independence' have 

established mechanisms of regional coopenation which are powerful influences on 

guiding appropriate development "in lhe Pacific Way". Inportant feaLures of lhis 

philosophy are Lhe insistence on the relevance of culture, custom, and tradiLiont 

and response to the instinct for nesource conservation. These features provide an 

environrnental ethic.as an essential underlay to economic development. 

In global terms the Pacific lslands approach lo development is therefone 

polentially instructive. 

lntroduction 

It is a pleasure to be m a voyage of rediscovery in this learned company. Exactly t' 

years Bgo, es Deputy Director of the f ledgling South Pacif ic Bureau for Econon 

Co-operation (SPEC), I was finding out about buying furniture and geLting sLationery print' 

in $uva, Fiii. We were temporarily located in the old RNZAF Officers Mess, on the campus 

Lhe University of the South Pacifie. I began to learn abouL pay sceles for office staff in 

developing country and about cockroaches and nrcsquitoes... 

Around us on the campus, and in the capitals of the emerging states of Lhe Sou 

Pacific, the debate abouL developmenL was in full swing. The catch phrase of the debate a, 

indeed the rallying point for the New Pacific was "The Paclfic Way". This was the title of 

irnportan! set of papers produced by the South Pacific Saial Sciences Association in I97J. 

Many definitions were offered for what was meant by the J:hrase, buL I have alwa 

drawn o-r tlrat provided by my Director a! the time, Hrt Mahe Tupouniua: 

"Yes, I believe there is a Pacif ic way; Lhere is a distinctive style of thinking 

which we can call the Pacific way of thinking. Most importantly, the Pacific way 

is capable of being applied to practical situations. 

"The Pacific way is a way of looking at things in relaiion to all the facts and 

circumstances involved in a given situation. It is a way which takes inLo €lccounL 

not merely the legal, the political, the social, and economic aspects; it takes into 

eccount the moral, ethical, and spiritual implications and consequences. By 

definition, therefore, the eoncept of justiee is built in to [lre Paeific way.

-8 

"The Pacific way is coneerned that 'nobody gets left out ' which is another 

way of saying that the Pacific way cares abou! lhe individual. And if nobody ie 

left out, this nreans that everybody is in - which is what democracy is all abouL" 

The definition is not about folklore, it is about the perennial struggle to lend a hurnan 

face to the political process. 

Tfre "Pacific Way" undoubtedly did a great deal to capitalize on these feelings of 

solidarity through the new Pacific. It was a privilege to work closely with those statesment 

euch as Ratu Mara, who had grasped the idea of a rnoment in history and related it to the 

day-to-day management of regional issues. For sheer persistence, me could not go beyond the 

outstanding Pacific leader whose contribution to regional diplomacy wes overshadowed by the 

more sensational aspects of his domestic political career. I refer to the late Sir Albert Henry. 

When the historians work over the record of the 1970s, I would expect some of his speeches 

to be singled out as the encapsulation of Lhe direction in which the Pacific was moving. 

It is good to see Matre Tupouniua taking his experience back to the Bureau a it begins 

its second decade, and I would like to acknowledge help provided by SPEC in the preparation 

of this peper. 

The Pacific Context 

For the sake of geographical precision, New Zealand is included in the "Prcific Island 

Context". Like Papua New Guinea it occupies some of the largest islands, but the fact 

remains that it shares the island situation. Indeed, traditional Weslern concepts of national 

development can be enriched by the mutalions whieh are emerging in various models of 

development adopted around the Pacif ic. New Zealand, which in one sense has been a 

generous contributor to this process, now has the opportunity to see which sspects could lend 

breadth to its own view of development, which slill tends Lo be two-dimensional. 

The political changes of the last decade have resulted in a qreater tendency to look at 

development in the Pacific not just in terms of lhe Forum mernbers, or even South Pacific 

Commission members, but in a wider pan-Pacific perspective. This has meant that the Pacific 

Islands ane seen more and more in nelation to the Pacific Basin, the Pacific Rim, or whaLeven 

Lerm might be current to describe the setting of our hemisphere. Geographical precision is 

not of concern; what is important is the fact that this is the area of lhe world which is 

generally seen as enjoying more favourable economic prospects than elsewhere. 

Moves towards a Pacific Canmunity are expected to increase, and a more formal 

grouping may emenge before the end of the century. Looking at the characteristics of the 

region, and the range of countries which might be included, iL is useful to point out that the 

North/South problem does look soluble in the Pacific region. There are certainly a nr.rmber of 

options available if the coun[ries of the rim decide to join wilh the oceanic states [o find 

joint solutions. This is in stark contrast with the dimension of the North/South issue 

elsewhere, where mounting evidence shows that the range of development options and 

regional solutions is narnow, and that the basis f or political accommodation is of ten 

non-existent. 

The political economy of the Pacific on the other hand does hold out some prospect 

that states with sironger economies will see zufficient joint interes[ in strateqic termsr to 

accept the relatively low "insurance premium" which wi ll maintain the development of weaker 

island economies. The collective purpose would be to exclude mischievous involvement by 

others, and achieve a consolidation of regional solidarity in the Island group (which hss 

already suffened continuing division, particularly in the aftermath of colonialism). Models for 

the "insurance premium" can be seen in some of the posl-colonial bountyr including that 

offered by New Zealand to the Cook Islands, Niue and Tokelau. The guestion that remains is, 

to what degree can these separate premiums be [ranslated into a regional policy. 

One of the prerequisites, if this is to happen, will be the maintenance by the Island 

states of their own commitment to regional co-operation. Progress over the last ten years has 

been steady, but it has lurched at times. Mmt of those involved in the effort io build 

regional cohesion would agree that much rnore dramatic nesult.s could have been achieved if 

on occasions the perception of individual interest (and the whims of some of the Island 

leaders) had given way to the nrore difficult but more enduring regional solution.

-9 

On the other hand, if any collective amangements are to stick politicallyr they will 

have [o take into account the simple fact that if you live m en island you have a different 

view of the world over the horizon from that of a continental cttlture. Islanders tend to be 

insular; a long way from the nearest neighbour; and vulnerabb to economic and political 

upheavals m the other side of the world. Resources are slender and do not mat,ch the 

growing aspirations of the people. Tfe ecological eonsequences of digging up islands for 

immediate wealth are worrying and reinforce all the other symptoms of insecurity. Tlese are 

the feelings whether me is m the beach at Aramoana or Atafu; they are strared by most 

Prcific Islanders. 

The process of building regional solidarity in the Pacific Island context will always be 

complicated by the huge disparities among the islands themselves, As a group, they are 

probably more diverse than any other geographical negion, but this fact is obscured for many 

outsiders by the common oceanic environrnent. When the benefits of cohesion are obvious, a 

in the negotiation of aid projects to improve transport and communications throughout the 

region, this divensity will hardly count. But when it comes to individual commodities' 

individual investments and individual trade interests, the temptation to play one against the 

othen or do special deals will often undermine the search for regional cohesion. 

Economic development 

Pacific lsland economies cannot be lurnped together as "developing countries'r. Any 

development theory for the Pacific has to adopt a rnore refined classification. The analogy 

with rental housing, dividing the economies of the region into four categories, may be 

appropriate: 

Fully-f urnished: 

(t'Developedt) 

Partly furnished: 

Unf urnished; 

("developing') 

Structurally unsound: 

("least developed') 

In a recent article, Professor 

division of the last three categories. 

has, for example, altered both lhe 

nations, and the scope for regional 

mineral investigation. 

High per capita income, relatively even distribution of 

wealth, f ull inf rastructure of communications and social 

serv ices; 

adequate funds for devek:pment, high per capita ("resource 

ric h") income but uneven distribution, incomplete 

infrastructure; 

largely dependent on high capital inf lows, f ainly low per 

capita income, some growth capacity (eroded by inf lation 

and other price/marketing problems); 

totally dependent on capital inf low, very low per capita 

income, no resources for development in the market sector. 

Fisk (1982) uses a much more sophisticated five-folcj 

The establishment of exclusive economic zones (EEZ) 

pattern of individual resource potential among Island 

co-qeration in areas such as fisheries and offshore 

The important point is that there is a whole spectrum of developrnent potential across 

the Pacific and a simplistic division into tthaveg" end "have nots[ is not workable. In some 

cases, as Fisk points out, lhe development equation is not intrinsically insoluble; in other 

cases, the long term prospects are for permanent subsidy in me form or another. 

One can however generalize in some respects. Mct Island economies possess feaLures 

of dependence and vulnerebility which put them "at the end of the line" when it comes to 

global upheavals, such as the first and second oil shoeks or lhe rise in inflation rates 

throughout the developed world. They. do, on the other hand, enjoy a high degree of 

resilience. Statistical catastrophes do not instantly become human catastrophes. Insulation 

and isolation are still powerful influences on the peftern of developnent throughout the 

Pacific. This is why Na,,r Zealand should be included in the "Pacific Island Context'r. 

A feature which all analysts have noted is the fact that traditional value systems are 

in most cases still sufficiently strong to bring about a zubstantial modification of classical 

development concepts. The subsistence economy is (in any case) dominant in many islands, and

-10 

a sizeable informal economy operates throughout the Pacific. This is based on barter and 

non-rnonetary currencies, s.rch as fine mats, home-grown produce or kinship obligations. The 

statement usually made is that there are no old people's homes in the South Pacific. It would 

be interesting to know m a statistical basis how many elderly people are in institutional care 

in New Zealand compared to, say, Oregon. The cultural environnent is in other worde a 

potent factor with far-reaching implications for the workability of developnent theories 

imported from elsewhere. 

The aspirations for higher material standards of living are often in conflict with the 

traditional side of the culture, and this has created a set of unresolved tensiong - economic, 

social and political. Although the option of reverting to self-sufficiency does exist in most 

cases, ii can be ruled out as a realistic solution. It should however be reserved as a 

contingency in development planning, to deal with emergency situations or global 

catastrophes. It can also be a separate qlion for different individuals at different stages of 

life or career. In New Zealand we do not take zufficient accounl of the real economy in use 

of scarce resources (particularly overseas funds), represented by those who opt to work a 

piece of land m a subsistence basis. In Pacific Island terms, their efforts would be seen as a 

contribution to net national welfare. 

However, this should not conceal the fact that development is going to be largely about 

cash incomes and that an ever-increasing proportion of young people in the Pacific Islands 

will be pursuing the material lifestyle they see on films, in tourist resorts and when they 

travel to Auckland. Hmda and Sanyo have done more to chanqe Lhe modern Pacific than any 

economic or political lheories. There is no turning back, and even in the mos! remote atolls 

we now see cash stones operating, with remittances coming in to finance the trade. The 

options for development put forward at election time throughout the self-governing Pacific, 

bring out the simple fact that the voters wanL more cash in hand. There is no choice over 

the inclusion of increased per capita income in any development plan. What does become 

impontant is what else you add in. 

This is where the philosophy of the "Pacific way" ean offer a clue. It seems that the 

development thinkers of the region almost instinctively add in three components which are 

impontant because of Lhe cultural conLext, These are: 

a) the social impact of developmeni; where do people end up living, what does this rnean 

for families, villages, whole islands? 

b) the development of individual skills; in Lraditional lerms, the acquisition of skills was a 

built-in process and most elders see no reason why the young should not carry on this 

tradition in a Western-type economy. 

c) the need t.o conserve resources and derive maximum welfare from a zustainable level of 

nesource use. 

These elements are very familiar to anyone dealing with environrnental assessmenl in 

New Zealand. Indeed, the NZ Commission fon the f nvironment looks at particular projects in 

an objective manner and in the totality of their effects on the New Zealand environnrent. If 

there ane gaps in the planning of a venture, e.g. in the provision of adequate housing, these 

will show up during the assessment process. Development theories for the Pacific Island 

context must retain the habit of looking at all the consequences of a project before it is 

endorsed by governments and other public authorities. The fullest involvement oTfFE local 

communily in the implementation staqes is also essenLial. This is the best possible safeguard 

against harmf ul environmental effects. 

The theoretical framework will also go beyond Lraditional sector-by-sector plans, and 

look aL the interacLion across sectors. Since the days of the National Development 

Conference, New Zealand has itself moved in this direction. Mmt of the development plans 

adopted in the Pacific have been "integrated" in this sense, and some of the work is 

recognized as being very sophis[icated. The effectiveness of the theoreticel plan will 

however come back to the three elements listed above, namely social impact, development of 

human resources, and consenvation of natural resources. These elements will need to be 

integrated not only in theory, but also in pnactice.

-tr 

Working through the list in reverse order, one should note thet progreslt is being made 

at the regional level in articulating what needs lo be done to complement the work already 

accomplished in fields such as: 

- trade, 

- transport and communications, 

- co-ordination of aid flows and regional projects, 

- technical assistance under SPC and other auspices. 

Currently, discussions are well advanced on the South Pacific Regional Environmenl 

Programme (SPREP) and the regional priorities are being defined. It is noiable lhat the 

principles of envinonmenLal management do not have !o be debated in lhe South Pacific to 

the same extent as in New Zealand or, rnore particularly, in highly industrialized counLries. 

Tfe praclice will be as difficult as anywhere else, particularly in respect of delicate reef 

and lagoon systems, but the political commitment is built into the philosophy of the present 

generaLion of Pacific leaders. Environmental policy is inseparable from Lhe view which 

Pacific Islandens take of their stewardship role and their responsibility for the welfare of 

future generations. lf this leads to analytical techniques which enable decision-makers to 

make judgements about inLergenerational allocation of resources, il eould assist in solving one 

of the central problems in the debate m environment ant development. 

The development of skills has, since the war, been part of the regional debate aboul 

education and development. However, it may be time to put it up for consideration in a more 

dramatic way as part of the agenda for the development debate. New Zealand will itself play 

a very significant part in skills development. This is already seen in the achievemenLs of 

some of the Polynesian students who have grown up in New Zealand, and the concept needs 

to be nurtured and extended. The skills needed for Pacific Islands development in the next 

century will be very different from those fostered in the post-war phase. Between now and 

1990 is the time to identify them. 

It is the "social impact" which will creabe Lhe greatest difficulties for planners and 

politicians. Social impact is about warts and carbuncles on the development process and how 

to remove them, or better, prevent them. The techniques for monitoring and analysis are 

well-developed buL are vulnerable to poor science and sensationalism in the media. 

On the other hand, all Pacific lsland communities are going thnough the strains of 

adjusting to new circumstances, such as urban drift and the growth of formal economic 

acLivity. We can all learn from each other about the dictates of good social planning. The 

village and community mechanisms will simply not be operative through much of the Pacific 

in fifty yeans' time. 

This area, whieh is linked to the key political factor of migration, needs therefore to 

be kept on [he agenda. It wi ll incneasingly assume a regional dimension and the very 

significant rnovement of people which is already taking place will have to be reflected in the 

lhinking about econolnic and social development. 

Conclusions 

To zum up, development theories in the Pacific will be zubtle and many-dimensional 

instruments. There will be a pan-Pacific dimension, a regional (island) dimension and a set of 

bila:.eral and sub-regional dimensions. Categories applied to the stages of economic 

development will reflecl the qreat diversity of Lhe Pacific lslands. New Zealand will need to 

rethink iLs own nelationship to these categories and to bhe overall process. 

The Pacific will probably be a crucible for exLensive experimentation with new models 

for developrnent. These will be aimed at filling in sorne of the defects in Western concepts of 

development and will provoke a great deal of international interest. Tfre integration of 

economic, social and ecological thinking into a single view of resource management will be 

the prize for those whose experiments succeed. Tfe strong emphasis on human nesources and 

skills will doubtless find wider application in other societies. Where mistakes are made, and 

they will be, the consequences can be reduced through genuine regional co-operation and 

disinlerested aid or subsidies. It will continue to be part of lhe "Pacific way'r to look after 

the weakest link. From that, the region will derive its ultimate strength.

-L2 

REFERENCE 

Fisk, E.K. (f982). Development and aid in the South Pacific in the 1980s. Australian Outlook 

36rJ2-37. August 1982.

-tl 

THE POTENTIAL Fm, MANAGEMENT ff ISLAI$ ECOSYSTEMS 



ABSTRACT 

The diversity of island environments and the evolutionary proceeses inherent 

in Lhe island condition have produeed a great variety of ecosystems in the 

different ecological regions of the Pacific. These ecosystems provide or maintain 

the natural resources m which most ieland communities depend. They also hold in 

their genetic diversity great potential for the future. 

lsland ecosystems tend to be fragile and easily disrupted or degraded' as 

demonstrated by trends in many parts of the Pacific. It is thus imperative to 

manage these systems if the resouree base for human development and even 

survival is not to be damaged or destroyed. 

Several resource management approaches are now being explored in differenL 

oarts of the Pacific at both the national and regional level. Such ryproaches must 

be adapted to the special nature of island ecosystems if they are [o succeed. 

Sune types of development will have to be restricted to preserve essential island 

resources. The zustainable management of island ecosystems must be integrated 

with the social goals and development approaches of Pacific countries to achieve 

a balance particularly zuited to island limits. 

Man's future in the Pacific Islands depends in large measure on his ability to conserve 

and manage island ecosystems. Subsistence and commercial agriculture, foresLry, fisheries, 

tourism, and even zupplies of materials and traditional medicines, are all closely tied to the 

biological communities lhat differentiate the islands from lunps of barren rock in an empty 

sea. These ecosystems are also reservoics of geneLic diversity of world importance that 

should become increasingly significant in the future. 

Island ecosystems have a diversity and specificity that present unique challenges for 

their preservation and management. The Regional Ecosyslems Survey of the South Pacific 

Area (Dahl, 1980) estimated that there are about 21000 types of ecosystems or biomes in 20 

distinct biogeoqraphic areas of the region (M+ l). 

Sqne of these ecosystem types are widespread. The atoll/beach strand forest is made 

up of a few common and widely distributed species. Tropical lowland rain forests in the 

region are similar in type and strucLure while containing both widespread and more locallzed 

spicies. Coral reef s maintain similar ecosystem structure and f unction alonq extended 

gradients of species distnibutions and diversity. 

Other ecosystems may be common in the region but rare and localized in particular 

csunlries or islands where they may be of special ecologicel significance, such as the limit'ed 

mangrove areas in Samoa. 

Cmditions may restricl other ecosystems to rare isolated localitiesr zuch as lhe crater 

lakes of volcanic islandsr. and a few are even unique, ss for instance a marine lake in Palau 

were a few species flourish in large rumbers.

t! 

9e 

;5 

9 ? F 

Ec= 

-l 

s* 

rl I j 

^HF-c. 

d ? 

E 

o 

C) 

Itt 

o 

o. 

I 

f 

I 

-uJ 

F 

to 

xFr 

tY O) 

-LlJe 

U 

tdg* 

O 

6 

:T 

El 

: 

' 

= 

3 

t 

o 

rll 

-14

-15 

Islands, of course, vary in the number and richness of their ecosystems depending m 

their size, form, orijin *O augr"u of isolation. Low coral abolls present a more- limited set of 

environments tnan -hign volca-nic islands, which are in turn generally less rich that large 

islends of continentai origin. Each island, therefore, has unique features that make it 

difficult lo extrapolate deiailed management plans or approaches from elsewhere' 

Vulnerability 

Island ecosystems are particularly noted for their fragility and their susceptibility to 

degradation. They have evolved in isolation, often from a limited number of accidental 

spJcies introductions or, in the case of continental islands, from primitive_encestral stocks' 

prcdators were few and the need for competitiveness or defenses limited. The equilibrium of 

introducLions and extincLions was determined by island size and isolation, among other 

factors. Island biogeographic theory predicts that any reduction in the area of a community 

or habitat will lead to -simplif ication and the loss of species (MacArthur and Wilson, L967). 

To date, modern manrs "managementrr of island ecosystems has been largely negativet 

destroying nagural systems and convlrting them to other uses or leaving them as abandoned 

wastelands. Forests are cut, cleared or burned; soil is exposed to erosion by wind and rain; 

aggressive species are introduced and run rampani. At times all that is left is worthless land 

U6iety supporting worthless plants. Where mineral resources are present they are mined' 

leaving a'rocky desert behind, and the wastes are often dunped in the nearest tiver. Sane 

islands such as Banaba (ocaan Island) have been so degraded by mining [hat their populations 

have had to be evacuated. In the lagoon and on the reef, people fish with dynamite and 

poison, dredge and fill, spill [oxic chemicals and oil, and let their wastes push ecosystems to 

[n" point of collapse. 'Tite number of natural areas protected from zuch degradation in parks 

and 'reserves is piiif uuy small in relation to the need (Dahl, 1980). 

The recent report m the State of the Environrnent in the South Pacific, prepared by 

the South pacif ic Regional Environment Programme (Dahl and Baumgar[, 1982)r has 

documented how widespread zuch damage has become throughou[ the Pacific Islands. 

It is thus imperative that we learn to manage island ecosystems if the resource base 

for human development and even grrvival m the islands is not to be damaged or destroyed. 

lsland environmental manaqement 

Management of an ecosystem means actively intervening in the - composition or 

functioning -ot tn" system to achieve certain ends. Such management is particularly justif ied 

on islands where human activity has degraded or destabilized an ecosystem to the point that 

it can no longer recover m its own. The goal of management should be .to restore the 

ecosystem to its natural sLate, or at least to maintain its desirable and useful qualities in 

spite of the changed condiLions brought about by human use. For instance, if a forest tree 

d'epends m fruit Lating pigeons for its seed dispersal and lhe pigeons have been hunted to 

exiinction, then artificial seed dispersal or planting of [he tree would be necessary Lo ensure 

its survival. Management might equally involve exterminating introduced pest speciest 

breeding an endangeied or exploited species in captivity and releasing the young in the wild' 

or recreating vegetation where it has been destroyed. 

Ecosystem resource management is inevitably constrained by island limits and by our 

lack of adeguate scientific understanding of many island ecosysLems. Effective management 

must respect and balance both eeological imperatives and economic constraints. lt must be 

part of development, aiming to achleve the goals of development in terms of zustainable 

human betterment. it must also complement the social and cultural dimensions of each island 

society. This will be difficult, and we are far from having all the answers. 

Sorne interesLing approaches now being tried in the Pacific Islands may show possible 

directions for new mJnagement strategies. These include small scale villaqe-level forestry 

projects in Vanuatu, agno--forestry expJrimenls in Papua New Guinea, and rotatinq coral reef 

reserves in New CaleJonia and Hawaii. Training maierials Lo strengthen natural resource 

management at the village level are being developed with the zupport of the South Pacific 

RegiJnal Environment Pr6gramme. Tfre revival of traditional manaqement techniques is also 

being encouraged.

-15 

It is possible to eeLablish some general guidelines for adapting ecosystem management 

to islands. lntegration of development needs and multiple use of resources are essential on an 

island. Land ereas are too limited m all but the largest islands !o permit the allocation of 

aignificant land areas to single uses as is commonly done on continents. For instance, 

agricultural land may need to be managed simultaneously for water catchment and as habitat 

for an endangered bird species, with the development of the land being modified to be 

compatible with its other roles. Many overtapping uses of the same area or resource will be 

the rule. Planning will need to look at the island as a whole, to ensure that all needa of man 

and the natural environment are provided for, and to prevent any one activity from 

threatening other essenlial resources. This may require modification of the land tenure and 

land use systems and legislation imported by colonial governrnents which have tended to 

define ownership in absolute'rall or nothing" terms. What islands need are epproaches closer 

to msny traditional land tenure systems, where, within a general context of family or tribal 

ownership, it was possible to hold certain limited rights, zuch as to farm for the duration of 

the crop, to hunt or io collect building materials. Such systems encouraged multiple 

compatible uses, and allowed greater flexibility and efficiency in land use. For instance, 

rotating gardens and extended fallows allowed traditional agriculture to respect the limited 

fertility of many island soils. 

Development has concentrated many human activities in the coastal zone, creating 

resource use conflicts. Such zones must be managed as an integrated system to ensure that 

terrestrial development is compatible with reef and lagoon managemenl. 

The scattered isolated nature of island communities places more responsibility for 

environrnental management at the local level, and prevents the kind of centralization common 

in the governrnent structures and bureaucracies of continental developed countnies. 

Traditionally most small island communities had their own experts on fishing, farming, the 

forests, liand use, etc., but colonization and modern systems of education have broken down 

these traditional systems and prevented the transmission of lraditional knowledge to 

succeeding generations. It will be necessary to recreate this local expertise, bringing it 

together wilh a modern scientif ic understanding of resource management. 

The inherenL limits of the island situation will make it recessary to restrici some kinds 

of development. Toxic and hazardous chemical use, for instance, must be restricted ot 

prohibited where a single accident could contaminate an entire lagoon or water supply. Single 

crop agriculture may be too vulnerable given the inherent variability in many island 

environments; extensive land clearing and uncovering of soils may damage waler catchments 

and produce irreparable soil loss. Many modern technologies are inappnopriate in an island 

context where they have a short useful life and are beyond the maintenance capabilities of 

small island communities. Tley are only a waste of capital and foreign exchange. Fon 

example, a rnodern automobile designed for driving all day on a superhighway may rust out in 

one to two years after going 101000 km on an atoll with l0 km of road and a speed limit of 

40 km/hr. 

Other types of development may solve long-standing island problems and should be 

encouraged. Modern communications technologies may permit creative solutions redueing the 

isolation of island communities. Microcomputers may similarly be able to comperrsate in some 

ways for the lack of specialization inherent in small island societies. 

Such approaches working towards the sustainable management of island ecosystems and 

towards appropriate development within island limits should help to reverse the lrend towards 

decreasing island self-sufficiency and permit island people to face the future with confidence 

and dignity.

-r7 

REFERENCES 

Dq!!, A.L 1980. Regional ecosystems survey sf the Ssuth paeif.ie arEE. Teehnical paper No, 

f79. South P'ac.ific Commigsion, Nournea, N'u"r Cale-donia. 99 p 

D"l!'} ! Td L L Beurngart, 1982, The state of the €n:yironinerrt in rhe Sor.rth paoifi.c. p. 

47'7I- [n South Pacific Regional Environrrrent Fmgramrnei Report of lhe Conrerenee m lhe 

HurnEn Eivfronmen! in the So-uth Pacific, R:ierotong-e, CoJk Islbnds, g-ll Mareh I9gZ. South 

Paeifie Conmisaion, Nountea, New Galedonia. ngp;irfteO m UNEp n"qibn"t Eeas neporis and 

Studies, Nb. ,t (l9B')". 

MdeArth0nr R. H. srd E. Oi Wilson. 1967. The theqry of island biogeography. Frinoelon 

Universlly Press, Princetgn, New Jersey,. ZOf p.

-19 

AGRICULTURE' slzE AND DIsTAtlcE IN SOUTH PActFIc ISLAND FUTURES 

R. Gerard Werd 

Research School of pacifie Studies 

Australian National University 

Canberra, Australia 

ABSTRACT 

Agriculture is usually considered Eo be the keystone of Pacific Island 

economies- This paper examines the scope for developrnent of various agricultural 

systems within the Pacific Islands. 

The effeets which small size, insularity and distance from markets and sources 

of inputs all have m the agricultural potential of the islands are considered. 

The Pacific Island States include the worldrs smallest independent or semi-independent 

countries in terms of population. They also include some of the smallest in land area; some of 

the largest if their Exclusive Eeonomic Zones are included; some of the most isolated; and 

some of the most fr-agmented and dispersed. These features all bear on the agricuitural 

resources of the Pacific islands; on the assessrnent of them, and on their use potentials. 

ln this paper I will outline the general pattern of resource potentials in the regionl 

describe the agricultural systems through which these resources were used in the i".t; 

indicate some trends in the commercial and non-commercial segnnnts of agriculture todayi 

and zuggest the directions which agricultural resource use is lkLly to take in the next few 

decades. Small size, both of individual islands and states, and great distances, both between 

islands and states' and from markets and sources of importe witl obviously influence these 

directions. 

Resource potentials 

It is important to recognize a basic division between the larger Pacific Islands Statea, 

the Melanesian States of Fiji, New Caledonia, Vanuatu and Solomon Islands m the one handi 

and the smaller, Polynesian or Micronesian states m the other. The former have larger hnj 

areas and rnore varied landforms. Their range of elevation and exposure give climatic variety. 

Their surface water resources are greater and rmre secure. Their fish rlsources are greater 

as a result of their wider areas of shallow seas, and with both denrersal end pelagic $ecies, 

they have greater potential for artisanal and industrial fieheriee. Fmest resources are rxrre 

extensive and there is greater variety in landforms, climete and soils. 

Tfe atolls of Kiribati, Tuvalu, Tokelau, the Northern Coks end the Tuemotus lack 

surface water, have little soil, and lie exposed to the risk of teunami or hurricane. Tfeir 

range of crops is inevitably narrow. Even m the higher volcenic iglends of polynesia, the 

flora and faune ere less varied than in the western pacitic and the variety of environrental 

conditions more restricted. 

It may be argued thet thig eontrast in environnental variety was of timited aignificance 

in 

. 

creating inequality in opportunity in the socio-econornic ayslem. of pre-contact timea. 

With eome obvious qualifications, a relatively narrow range of ctopa was grown throughout 

the region. Almost everywhere communitieg could end did produce virtually elt ttreir aesential 

needs from the local environnent, with a minimum of dependence on -trade or exchenge. 

Alrnost all types of lend could and did a.rpport some population.

?r) 

The si tuation is very different today. Recent decades have seen a drastic revalt.ration 

of land resources as a resull, first, of the inlroduction of new crops (or the elevatiorr to 

posit.ions of prorninence of formerly minor crops); second, of Lhe change frorn production for 

own consurr!f,tion to pnoduction for the market; and following Lhis, third, a change in fhe 

criteria for accessibility. There is now much greater variation in the value of one location 

against another. Assessing this value, size of island, and distance from new corntnercial nodes 

are increasingly importanl. 

Joseph Banks's well-known descriplion of the beneficence of the breadfruit in Tahiti is 

Lypical of the early assessnents by Europeans of the agricultural resoufces of the Sou[h 

Pacific lslands: 

"....These happy people whose bread depends not on an annual but on a 

Perennial plant have but to climb up and gaLher it ready for baking from a iree 

which deep rooted in Lhe Earth seorning equaly the influence of summer heats or 

winter nains never fails to produce plenty..." Q9632 J30) 

It was this image that was remembered, rather than lhe fact that when Banks made a 

circuit of TahiLi, breadfruit was in short zupply and he necorded that he had "not seen ten 

ripe mes hanging on the Trees the whole way" (1951: )07). The misconception that lush 

vegetation indicated fertile soils suitable for permanent cultivalion, lasted a long time. ln 

1875 de Ricci described the "mass of luxuriant tropical foliage" (1875: l) on Kadavu and 

claimed ihat "the soil is very fertile, being capable of producing everything that requires a 

tropieal climate" (1875: 5). The image was sustained by tracts which sought to a[tract 

settlers and, indeed, initial yields of many crops of ten promised more than subsequent 

harvests produced. But this view overlooked the fact that swidden cultivation and fire had 

removed Lhe forest from large areas in the drier panLs of Fiji, New Caledonia and a number 

of lhe Polynesian high islands. The early clearing caused considerable erosion. The fact that 

at the time of contact much of this type of land zupported few people - an indicalor of poor 

soils - was often overlooked by Europeans who believed grass covered hills betokened good 

grazing. 

Experience gradually taught European settlers what Lhe islanders already knew - lhe 

only soils of the larger, high islands which would sJpport nearly continuous cropping were the 

riverside alluvials (where floods and their silt were vital to fertility maintenance, but meant 

a high risk of damage), the colluvial soils at lhe base of slopes, cerLain volcanic soils, or lhe 

man-made soils of irrigated terraces or raised swamp beds. The "luxuriant tropical foliage" 

was a veneer which, if stripped off, laid the soils beneath open to napid degradation. ln 

recent decades soil surveys heve revealed and quantified the limited potential of the lands of 

Melanesia. AlrnosL 40 per cent of Fiji's land is "considered quite unsuilable for agricultural 

development m present knowledgerr (Twyford and Wright, 19652 2L9) - only 19 per cent is 

first class arable land. Only 12 percent of the Solomon Islands has "above-average 

agricultural poten[iall'(Hansell and Wall, L976t I35). In New Caledonia only 2 per cent of the 

area is ttgcod agricultural landr' and I] per cent "good grazing land'r. Fifty per cenI is 

t'nediocre A tres mediocre" or suitable only for conservation in a natural state (Latham, 

f98f). The hiqh volcanic islands of Polynesia do not have significanLly betLer prospects. 

Fifty-me percent of Western Sarnoa is low-to-very-low natural fertility and a further f5 

pereenl is too stony for mechanized agriculture (Wright, 196l: 88-89). Only 22 per cent of 

RaroLonga and 8 per cent of Mangaia have been clessed es "cJitable for annual and tree 

cropsrr with a furlher 9 and 4I per cent r€spectively having potential for tree crops alone 

(Grange and Fox, 195]: I0). 

The atolls, a narrow strip of sand m a coral platform, rarely rise more than two or 

three metres above see level, and generally have no surface water. Plants, and people, 

depend m the fresh water which floats in a fragile lens above the salt water permeating the 

underlying coral. Drought is a constant risk in those-atolls nearer the equator and many sre 

uninhabited because of this. Therefore, Kiribati (now that the Banaba phosphate has been 

completely mined), Tuvalu, the Northern Cooks, the Tokelaus, and the Tuamotus - all atoll 

regions - have a very impoverished land nesource. On the other hand extensive lagoons and 

the reefs are produetive. The atolls often arpport relatively high densities of population 

dependent almost entirely on a few crops, artisanel fishing, and now remittances and overseas 

aid. The Gilbert Group (with 80 percent of Kiribati's population) had a crude population 

denaity of I95 per square kilometre in 1978; Tuvalu 288 in 1980. It ie very doubtful whether 

population denailies of this level can be sustained by the agricultural or marine resources of 

the atolls et the levels of welfare which their people have come to expect.

Past aoricultural systems 

2L 

Let me outline key features of the agricultural systems practised in the region in the 

past, and describe a number of imporLant changes which have occurred. Throughout the 

region variations of swidden agriculture were pnaclised - short periods of cultivation followed 

by bush fallows of varying length. lntercropping was practised, with yams, taro, sweet poteto, 

bananas and, later, crops such as rnaize or cassava, being gnown in the same plot. This 

strategy protected the soil, lengthened the harvesting life of a garden and reduced clearing 

and rnaintenance work. A number of varieties of one species were of ten planted in the one 

plot. This reduced the risk of disease affecting a whole ganden and again spread the harvest 

period. The system was robust in the face of risk - whether from disease, insect attaek or 

natural hazands. It was flexible. It was highly productive in relation to labour inputs and 

planted area. Fruit and nut trees (especially the coconut) provided essential components of 

the diet. In conjunction with foods which were gathered, hunted, or caught, these systems 

provided a vanied and nutritionally sound diet. 

Labour was rnobilized on a basis of recipnocity within the kin or commurrity group. 

Reciprocal obligations incurred in agrlcultural work might be met by participation in a range 

of othen activities related Lo the community's social, polilical or security needs as well as in 

othen agricultural activity. Thus the maintenance of the agricultural system depended on the 

maintenance of Lhe socio-political system, and vice versa. Surpluses produced over and above 

direct zubsistence needs powered much of the social system - food and its producLion had 

many non-dietary functions (Lea, 1959). 

The basic system had many elaborations. Post-harvest elaborations included storage 

techniques and pit fermentation to cover seasonal shortages. Tennacing and irrigation 

(sometimes with complex hydrological works) were practised. ln swamp areas raised beds were 

built to control the water table. Composting was used. On atolls, Cyrtosperma was grown in 

baskets of compost set in pits dug down lo the level of lhe fresh water table. All these types 

of inlensification tended to raise the level of security of food supply but, initially at least at 

the cost of considerably increased laboun inputs. The intensification may have resulted fnom 

population pressure, on other pressures, arising from the needs for security in defence, 

environmental hazard, or social production. The intensification may have been a causal faclor 

itse lf . 

The agricultural systems I have sketched obviously varied from place to place but the 

most marked variant occurred on atolls where soil conditions prevented the growing of the 

full nange of root crops and much gneater reliance was placed on the coconut, pandanus and 

fruit and nut Lrees. 

Robust and satisfactory as it was for subsistence, this form of agriculture was soon 

placed under stress as communities were partially incorporated into the commercial system. 

The early barter of foodstuffs for sLeel tools, cloth or other monufactured goods had limited 

ef f ect as a potential surplus of tubers was usually available in the ground. But once 

harvested these were perishable, difficult to transport and had a limited marke!. Pressure 

from missionaries, chiefs, traders, or governments, or the grower's own desire to accumulate 

trade goods, led to the addition of new crops - cotton, orangea or coffee - or the expansion 

of areas under existing crops - coconuts or sugarcene. Thus there emerged a modified village 

agriculture system which included both a subsistence 8egnEnt and a cash crop segrlEnt. This 

pattern is the most widespread today. The crucial question ia, ean this mixed 

subsistence-commercial village agriculture continue to nreet the rising aspirations of rural 

people and the revenue demands which governrpnts place on the rural sector? Before 

considering factors which bear m lhis question I mr.Ft note eome key points about the olher 

system which emerged in the nineteenlh century. 

P lantetion aoriculture 

The entry of colonial powers followed (or in a few cases preceded) the arrival of 

European settlers, intent m establishing farms, plantations, or businesseg in this erea *'here' 

it was commonly believed, the native population would die out in the face of so-called 

'rcivilisation". Land was acquired (by fair or unfair rnean6) for plantations end these alieneted 

areas were r.nually readily eecessible by *a (or river), and often included some of the best

-22 

land for cultivation. Plantations were concerned solely with production for export, required a 

commercial structure, and (after initially experimenting with e wide range of crops) were 

usually rnonocultural. Contraet, indentured or wage labour was employed - all mobilized on a 

commercial basis and paid in cash or rations. The scale of plantations increased and their 

operations were of ten integrated with those in metropolitan countries where inputs were 

obtained, with shipping services, with processing, and wiLh marketing organiza[ions in the 

overseas countries. The scale and integration of the enterprise allowed zuch plantations to 

withstand many of the fluctuaLions in prices and returns which plague primary producers 

dependent sr world markets. 

In recent years the independence of island states has made the status of foreign-owned 

plantations problematical. Some countries have policies of taking over foreign-owned holdings 

and reallocaLing the land to citizens or traditional land owners. But the export production of 

the plan[ations, and the revenue it provides, has proved important to governmen[s. State or 

provincial-owned plantations, community holdings managed by a corporation, or variants which 

spply an overlay of plantation-type management to small holder producers, are seen aa 

offering alterngtives to foreign owned eslates. The important point is that all are at[empts 

to retain some at least of the economic advantages of larger scale in marketing and related 

operations. This may indicate something of the marketing and management contexts within 

which Pacific Island agriculture may develop in futurti. 

Mixed subsistence-commercial villaqe aoriculture svstems 

Let me return [o the crucial question of the f uture of the mixed 

zubsistence-commercial village agriculture systems. It is imporlant to stress that the changes 

in lhese syslems have not proceeded at the same pace in all areas. However, I would argue 

that the general direcLion has been, essenLially, the same and the differences we now see 

often reflect the slage reached, rather than a different proeess. 

I believe thet the changes in village agricultural systems have three immediate causes: 

the conditions which the commercial market imposes on production systems; lhe fact that 

purchased food (or aid from overseas) has replaced traditional methods of guarding aqainst 

food ehortage resulting from environmental hazards; and the trend away from reciprocal 

labour rmbilization towards wage labour. The market, as it becomes more developed, whether 

for fresh food zupply or food processing, demands regularity of supply, and adherence to some 

set of product specifications. The latter usually require a degree of specialization and larger 

scale producLion of the panticular line on the part of the gnower. Delivery deadlines are 

inimical to a system of labour mobilization based on reciprocity in which obligations are 

incurred, and must be mel, outside the agricultural production system. Inevilably social and 

markeL obligations clash - if the social obliga[ions are given precedence the farmerrs market 

errangements may well collapse; if the market demands Lake precedence and the farmerrs 

eocial obligatione are not met, his genenal welfare - his social seeurity - may suffer. The 

villager trying to maintain this balancing act is in a no-win position and neither set of 

obligations can be sustained satisfact.orily. 

Similar conflicts arise in other farming operations and the marked increase in use of 

wage labour within villages in Fiji, and other rnore commercially oriented areas, is in pant a 

reflection of these conflicts. Of course the withdrawal of agricultural work from the 

reciprocity system affects other elements of the social structure - for example it rnay no 

longer be satisfactory to leave house construction, or the care of the aged, to the traditional 

system. lrrcreasingly specialization of labour is becoming the norm in rural areas. 

The commereial market (wholesalers, retailers and consumers) demands a standardized 

line of bananas, taro or other crop. Uniform size, stage of ripeness, colour and shape are 

preferred. The grower is therefore encouraged to change from mulbicrop gardens to nnnocrop 

fields - from multivariety plots lo fields of the one, commercial variety. The pressure on his 

and his family's time often rneans the disappearance of minor crops, the garnishes in the diet 

and important nutritional items. Yams or taro give way to Lhe less labour demanding csssava. 

Tfc crops grown for times of risk are also dropped. W ith larger monocrop gardens the 

reletive attraction of firs[ class soils on near-flat land increases and the steep land, suitable 

for swidden but not for permanent arable use, declines in relative value. Areas without 

first-class land are disadvantaged.

-2J 

Access to a road (or good sea access) to a market becomes of crucial importance. 

Throughout the Pacific Islands rural to fural migration has been Lakinq place for many 

decadis - towards the coast, towards roads, towards areas with reserves of land better suited 

f or long-term comrnercial f anming, and especially to such areas in the vicinity of urban 

markets. Areas which 50 or even 20 years ago were perfectly able to sustain people in a 

dominantly self -production self -consumption economy are no lonqer attractive to many and 

people drift away to what are seen as better located areas. Isolation, dislance from market' 

or small size (and hence lack of commercial prospects) all reduce the relative attraction. 

The trends which I have described have been evident in countries like Fiji and Western 

Samoa fon l0 or more years. Elsewhere they are not as fully developed. lt is possible that 

they could be reversed in some areas, but I doubt if they will be. I believe lhat the 

incorporatio.n of the Pacific Islands into Lhe wonld's economic system has gone so far in most 

island counlries that the trends wilt not be slowed or reversed - especially because it is not 

in the shorter term interests of many, including the leadership, to do so. Under precontact 

economic systems the short- and the long-Lerm interest.s of individuals and community - the 

private and the public good - generally coincided in the mainlenance of socio-economic 

sys!ems. This is no longer-the casl - short-term interest for individuals and government often 

lies in moving into the dominantly commencial secLor even if Lhis is inimical to the long-term 

inLerest of the community or the environment. 

Can the village mixed sJbsistence-cash crop agriculture system be maintained? As a 

long-term strategy [hir t"urr a desirable goal. It would provide the security derived from 

g.oiuing most of oners own food and also the cash required for necessities and luxuries which 

must bL purchased. Personally I doubt if this mixed system will be favoured in the larger 

island states in the medium term. This is not only because of the conflicts wiLhin it, between 

wages and reciprocity, but also because of lhe alternalives which many islanders have. 

To be successful mixed subsistence-cash cnop agriculture must offer neturns in casht 

security and welfare which are perceived as comparable to those of wage employment itt 

government service, or in the urban privaLe sector. With a few exceptions, the majority of 

iittage farmers do not achieve cash incomes which are seen as comparable. Even if the value 

of goods produced for o,vn consumption is calculated realistically' lhe fact that cash can be 

ur"i fo. I0l purchases, ngt just food, discounts the subsistence production in the minds of 

many. Furthermore, export crop prices fluctuate widely. Pacific Island producers cannot 

influence the world prices - they are inevitably price takers. Small producers of coprat 

eoffee or eocoa are very aware of the insecurity of their markets and cash income. Urbant 

and especially government jobs, are seen as more secure - and certainly involve less ttard 

manual labour in the hot 2n. Labour and wage legislation tends to increase the relative 

securiIy of wage employmenl. Another alternative for Cook lslanders, Samoens, Niueans and' 

to a degree, Tongans, is migration to and employment in New Zealand, the United Slates andt 

for a lew, Australia. The caeh earnings there (or even unemployment benef its)' the 

educational opportunities for children and the other attraciions of metropolitan life mean 

that the qportunity cost of village agniculture is often high. I believe village and smallholder 

agriculture will become steadily rnore commercial, the slructure of society will continue to 

change, and change more rapidly, and inLernal and intefnational migration to lowns increase. 

Small-holder production systems 

None of lhis means that plantations need become the main form of production. There 

are strategies which will permit a smallholder produetion system to provide reasonable cash 

incomes, plus the opportunily for some subsistence production if the farmer chooses to 

engage in this as well. The Fiii zugar industry provides one model. This smallholder system 

frai been remarkably successful for over 50 years even though it is geared to a demanding 

market.. The key to this success lies not in the smallholder pnoducLion system' but rather in 

the manner in which the provision of essential inputs, and the harvesting and merketing of 

the crop, €re menaged. The millers control the cutting, transpor!, and processing of the cane. 

They import fertilizer in bulk and distribute it to farmers at near cost. They undertake 

nesearch to develop new high yielding cane varieties, tolerant of infertile soils' and disease 

resistant. The bulking up and distribution of the new varieties is also a miller's task. The end 

result is lhat many of the advantages of large scale in operations which a plantation can 

internalize, are made available bo the smallholden.

-24 

Other examples of this form of rnanagement can be found in the Pacific. ln its heyday 

the Western Sarnoa banana industry had many of these features, as does the reviving Cook 

Islands industry. Many forms of organization can be used for the superstruc.ture - producer 

cooperatives (c in the New Zealand dairy industry); nucleus estates with associated 

smallholders; commercial firms; or government services. The principle can be applied to many 

crops' destined for local or export markets. But clearly it nequires a degree of 

entrepreneurship and integraLion which has often been lacking in the region. 

It is my belief that, with some inevitable false stants and failures, the next decade or 

two will see the emergence of this type of agricultural organization in many more parts of 

the Pacific Islands. The trend has gone furthest in Fiji where, in addition to the zugar 

industry' the new ciLrus industry is planned on similar lines, the recent attempt to resuscitate 

the cocoa industry shares some of the features and a new farm management scheme in 

dairying is operating. 

Other trends 

A number of other Lrends are likely to continue, or become evident. lndividual hotdings 

will becorne larger wherever rural-urban migration allows. Farming will become more 

technically complex. Traditional land tenure syslems will be modified de_[g:to, if not de jure, 

and land wilt be held by individuals, or nuclear families, for much longerTan under iliE3dn 

systems. Swidden cultivation will become less common as long-term tree crops or continuous 

arabh cropping sr the better land become dominant. Steep land or less accessible land will 

be used less frequently excepl for grazing, forestry or other extensive uses. Inlensive 

commercial agriculture will concentrate more and more in the core area of each country. As 

implied earlier, the more remote and smaller islands (and Lhe smaller states), will tend to be 

less and less involved in mainstream commereial agriculture. 

The extreme archipelagic nature of Lhe South Pacific Islands will accentuate these 

trends. The Cook Islands is probably the mosl widely dispersed country in the world in 

relation to its population - I8r000 people occupying as much of the earth's surface as 

Afghanistan, Pakistan and Thailand Logether. The Pacific Islands are oflen compared with the 

islands of the Caribbean but it is worth remembering that the whole of the area from Cuba 

and Jsnaica to Trinidad and Guadeloupe would fit easily within French Polynesia, or Kiribati 

alone. Furthermore most of the South Pacific states are at least 21000 kilometres from their 

nearest significant markeL, and half the world away from their major copra market. The 

Caribbean states nestle close the world's largesL economy. 

Transportation f actors 

Distance from markets is being accentuated by the rising cost of interisland shipping 

and technical trends in the shipping industry. Rising crew and fuel costs have encouraged 

sttip owners to use larger vessels and containerization. Both developmenls offer little to the 

smaller states. Individual consignments ate often less than container size and thus few 

benefits accrue from reduced handling as, in fact, an extra handling stage is added. Larger 

vessels call less frequently - and the interval between calls is important in the export of 

agricultural produce. The number of ports of entry has been reduced in several island 

countries in recent years, thereby increasing import and export costs to the outer islands 

deprived of direct overseas connections at main port tariffs. Internal costs within lhe Pacific 

are sometimes €xt high as those between Europe and the Pacif ic. Similar trends have 

transforrned the patterns of international air transport in the last decade. The advent of 

wide-bodied jets to the region initially provided an increase in freight capacity to larger 

airporta But these advantages did not extend to npst of the small countries which could not 

provide sufficient traffic for the larger planes. A break of bulk handling stage was added. As 

the practice of overflying the islands m lhe Australasia-North Arnerica routes increased, 

some of the benefits were lost, even in the main air traffic nodes. The withdrawal (now 

partial withdrawat) of wide-bodied aircreft from the Cook Islands - New Zealand service was 

a serious bbw to Cook Island exporters. The use of more narrow-bodied jets m the regional 

air routes in place of propeller aircraft, has increased passenger comfort and convenience but 

these aircraft do not allow the islands to benefit from the lower ton-mile or passenger-mile 

costs of the big jets. And the small size of the market meens that this will continue to be 

t}te case.

'25 

In interisland transport similar trends have ceurred. Interislend vessels ere larger md 

cell lees often. Tlp amount of cargo to be delivered or uplifted is often too srnall to cover 

en route cogts. Higher atandards of safety regulations, desirabb in themaelvea, have led to 

the withdrawal of older, srnaller vessels whoae capital cogts hsd been deprecieted. Tle carrea 

of the interisland ehipping problems are in fact varied, and often pecific to perticubr 

countries. But the upshot is that the smaller and rmre distant islands often have a poorer 

service now than 20 or even 80 yesrs ego. Internal passenger air servicer have often 

improved - but, by capturing much of t}e inter-island pa$enger traffic, they have made the 

viability of sttipping links more problematic. Meenwhile on the larger islsrds road 

construction has given increasing proportions of the rural population eesy rcess to towns 

and ports for marketing and heve lowered the costs of conEuner gooda, jr.st wtren the 

equivalenl coets m outer islands are increesing. Retail pricee of consurEr goods are f5 to 4{l 

per cent Ngher in the Lau lclandg than in Suva. The Lauan copra grower hes to produce a 

lhird nnre than would a counterpart close to Suva in order to mhieve the sarne real incqne. 

Not mly ere the outer islands too srnall to produce srfficient agricultural produce (for export 

or urban consunption) to warrant frequent stripping services. Tlcy are too smell to benefit 

from bulk wholesele purchasing. And the need to carry large stocks to csrpenrate for 

infrequent deliveriea is costly to retailers. lnfrequent servicee also limit the range of 

products which can be grown for sale. Copra, being storabb (though st I cct of weight md 

incorne loss), remains trre of the few qtiona, but is notorious fon ite price fluctuations. 

The need, for political reasons, to maintein some degree of -rvice &spite the lack of 

direct economic justification often encourages direct governnEnt participation through use of 

a governrnnt fleel. Yet this is often helf-hearted. I would mgue thet it is essential if the 

small remote islends are to be sustained as a viabb part of the state, to re-examine the bsig 

on which the costs and benefits of sfripping services are evaluated. Foc exarple a study in 

Papua New Guinea showed that in the setting of charges for uaero, "the recovery rate for 

governrnent road and air lransport costs was considerably bss than 20 per cent wtrile tlre 

rate imposed m maritime transport was almost 70 per cent" (Prpctor, 1980: l7)). The hidden 

subsidies to road users are r.sually much higher than to strip users. In Fiji, current rural road 

cmstruction costs are between fF50r(trO and fF80r000 per kilometre, and mnual nraintenanc-e 

costs about fFl'200 per kilometre. An absolutely minimum route stripping rntwork would 

cover about 2rfi)0 kms. This length of road would cost the governnent about f2r4 million per 

annum to maintainr quite apart from the cost of servicing the capital. In cmrparison the 

current budget allocates some f)20rffi0 to stripping subsi-dies. I recognize of courae that 

shipping services mly generale traffic at the ports .of call, not along their ufiole bngth s 

roads may (but not necessarily) do. Thus the direct comparison between S0.l gtO i2r4 million 

is not valid. Neither are the populations served of equal size. But the anti-stripping bias b 

clear. Until such time as rnme rrnre equitable means are found for eveluating governnnnt 

contributions to shipping vis-a-vis road transport, the small and the renpte ielands wiil 

remain as backwaters as far as Lheir agricultural potential is concerned. Perhape the concept 

of Inotional' or rstradow' roads has something to offer. Perhaps an index based m road 

maintenance cosLs per kilometre might give a measure of reesonable shipping rrbsidy bvele. 

Perhaps sttips should be made available to users free of direct capital charges, s roads tend 

to be. Certainly some new approach is needed. 

Aqricultural directions for the next few decades 

Let me sum up by indicating what I believe will be the general trends in agricuhure 

over the next 20 years or so, and by noting the particular needs of the atolls for a new 

consideration of their agricultural systems. Small size and distance from markets will 

continue to make it difficult, if not impossibb, for Pacific Island stetes to influence world 

prices for their export produets. Special trade arrangements with Australia or New Zealand, 

or lhe EEC through the Lane Agreement will continue to be vital. For many of the outer 

islands in the larger countries, coconut based products will continue to be the rtly 

exportable agricultural produce. Inproved internal air transport is unlikely to c*range this 

situetion significantly. Attention and initiatives for new crops and expansion of existing types 

of commercial agriculture will focus increasingly on the larger islands, sr those with an 

export port' and m those areas with better soils. The village mixed subsistence-cash crop 

system will continue in a state of malaise €rs pressures on the whole society from the 

commercial world increase. Governments and farmersr qroups will put increasing emphasis an 

providing commercially-oriented menagement in production, provision of inputs and rnarketing. 

The type of organization which lhe Asian Development Bank's Sor.lth Pacific Agnicultural 

Survey called the "plantation rmde of managementtt (not, I streas, 'rproductionrr, but

_26 

rrtnenagetnent') will become rxlre common. Lerge-scale production will also find favour mee 

again in some areas, and for some crops, especialty a ttre nural labour shortage which aome 

countries already experience become rmre marked. But systems of smallhotdere working under 

a larger rnenagement sJperstructure will spread. 

The needs of the atolls warrant special consideretion. Tteir environmental conetrainte, 

when combined with their location and.small size, prevent them from following the counse 

which I foresee for the Melanesien and larger Polynesian countriee. Kiribati, Tuvalu end the 

Tokelaus simply do not have slfficient_lani ar"a io slpporl their existing populetions m the 

besis of commercial coc.onut farming. It is. extremely doubtful if they cai lifiport even their 

existing populations without an indeiinite flow of remittences and overeeas aid. With the end 

of phosphate mining of Banaba, Kiribati has recently lost the source- oigj-p"r cent of its 

exports' Where the atoll regions are part of a larger polity I believe the men-fend balance m 

the atolls will be !"p! ut. outmigration, as it has-been in the Cooks and the Tokeleue (with 

rmvement to New Zealand), and in French Polynesia. But unless new international migration 

arrangements are made for Kiribati and Tuvalu they will nol have this option. The 

subsistence component of their agriculture and fishing must be intensified. This cannot be 

done by standard agricultural practices but will requiie the extension of traditionel systemsl 

the search for and introduction of new f-ruit end *t t.""., tolerant of sanoy soits ana periods 

of water stress; the wider adoption of soil-forrning techniques; the ,+;;";ing of coconut 

productivity, perhaps with hybrids developed speciaily for etoll conditions; and the genetic 

improvernent and wider use of those few root crops wtrictr can be grown in this environnent. 

All this calls for a particular form of scientific qplication to exiiting agricultural systems. 

Such applications are normally concerned mly wiih cash crops which give the prospect of 

financial r€turns. Here the returns will not be monetary, bui will be io less important to 

human welf are, and the benef its will hetp the non-atolls as'well. BuL the countries themselves 

are too small to carry the cost, and do not hsve the manpower or facilities to do the work. 

It is a task which those metropolitan countries with interests in the region strould address eg 

a matter of gneat urgency. The results may not solve entirely t}re OepeirO"ncy-of those atolls 

states' but at least they should reduce the lever of nendicity. 

I 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

am rnost grateful to my colteagues in the ADB's South Paeific Agnicultural Survey 

te-em for many of the 

_ideas expressed in tfris paper. I am also indebted to B.J. Allen, W.C. 

Qlarker D.R. Howlet!, D-.A-M. Lea, l4W. ward anb D.E. Yen for comments on en eerlier draft. 

Ttcir help des not imply they agree with my opinions.

-27 

REFERENCES 

Banks' J. L96t. The Endeavour journal 1768-L77]' J.C. Beaglehole (ed.)r Vol. II. Pr.rblic 

Library of New South wsles in sssociation with Angus and Robertsur, sydney. 

de Ricci, J.H. 1875' Fiji: our new province in the South Seaa. Edwerd Stanford, Lmdm. 

Grange' LI. and ,L,P. Fox. 1951. Soils of the lower Cook lfoup. N.Z. Departrnent of Scientifie 

and Industrial Regearch, Soil Bulletin No. 8, Wellington. 

Hansell' J.R.F. and IR.D. Wall. 1976. Land resourcea of the Solomon Islands, Vol. |' Land 

Resources Division, Ministry of Overseas Developnnnt, Surtiton. 

Latham' N4. 1981. Pedologier planche 14. In Atlas de ta Nouvelle Caledonie et Dependances. 

Editions de I'Office de la Recherche SciEi'tifigue et Technique d'Outre Mer, Paria. 

Lea' D.A.M. 1969, Ssne non-nutritive functions of food in New Guinea. In F. Gale and GH. 

Lawton (ed.), Settlernent and Encounter. Oxford University Preee, Melbou-rne. 

Pmctorr A. 1980. Transport and agricultural development, p. 157-180. In R.G. Ward 4d A. 

Proclor (ed.)' South Pacific agriculture: choices and constraints. Asi;; Developrnent Benk 

and Australisn National Universily Prees, Canbema. 

Twyford' LT. and A.C.S. Wright. 1965. TIE soil resources of the Fiji Islende. Government 

Printer, Suva. 

Wright' 4"C.5. 1961. Soilg snd land use of Western Semoa. N.Z. Department of Scientific and 

Industrial Reoeerch, Soil Bulletin No. 22, Wellington.

-29 

PEFLE POTENTIALS IN TFE PACIFIC 

Mere Puba 

Mere Pulea & Associates 

Fiji 

ABSTRACT 

Pqulation patterns in the Pacific show rapid'population growth, tempered in 

some countries by out-migration, family planning programmes and rising age at 

marriage. A reduction in population growth rates is crucial to achieving 

development goals. With children making up 40 to 50 per cent of lhe population, 

education and training need to be planned with care and adapted to the changing 

needs and future of Paeific people. 

Are development lheories arrd strategies derived from foreign ideas and 

values really relevant to Pacific countries? Aid often perpetuates economic and 

political dependency, creating employment for international experts to the 

detriment of Pacific lslander personnel. Pacific wornen are still disadvantaged in 

their participation in development. 

From a colonial or international perspective, Pacif ic customs and social 

system3 have been interpreted as obstacles to development, but the critical issues 

in Pacif ic developnrent are nol technological or economic, but psychological, 

social, anltural md political. Soeial systems md occupational continuities are 

potentials thet could be utilized for the development of Pacific people. Pacific 

Islanders should be allowed to develop I'naturallyil by defining their onn needs and 

wants. Regulations for peopleer participat.ion in developnnnt can improve equality, 

but rnay retard innovation. 

The npst valuabb neEource any country poEsesses is its people. Indeed sorne of the 

Pacific Island countries have little else. Every once in a while we are asked to stop, and 

think about the deep and problematic truths of our lives in the Pacific. I would like to take a 

broad view of sorp of the factors that have a bearing on people potentials in the Pacific and 

the attenpts being rnsde at developing Fesources as I understand them, and raise a few 

questions for your consideration. The framework in which we attempt to examine Pacific 

Ialender potentials covers the developrnent of human reeources, developrnent theories in a 

Pacific lelend context, nethods of assessing resource and human potential, the kinds of 

opporttnitiar which exiot, tnalth factors and so forth. 

Underpinning rmtt of these topica is m inplied if not trr expressed inlerpretation that 

the develqrpnt of turnan nerources ig consonent with rneintaining I healthy population end 

providing edueationel qportunities srd tfaining for the development of ski[s in the various 

industriee and for the potentiel uaers of Paeific Islander skiils. We then nnve not only 

towarde work-forces that are efficieni and productive but towards maintaining a quality of 

lifc Prcific ldanderr pereeive for therngelves" Concsnitant with thege developrrEnts are the 

socio-eultural constraint! md potentiale thet are likely to inhibit or Ealize Pacific lelander 

potcntitlr I will confinc my dircuecions to the framework of these topics. 

Peulntion Trcndr 

ln cdor to dircur p.ople potentiab it ir reccsrary to give e broad overview of 

popuhtlot pattcru in the Pcific o population increeoes have far reaching inrplications in 

the. daveloprnnt and the utilizetion of potentials. It wac mly in the 1960's that the

-11 

relationahip between high population growth and econornic srd social developrnent became a 

significant issue within Pacific Aovernrnents. Only two generatione aarlier rnany of them had 

been at least equally concerned about the popuhtion decline of the 19th century. 

Bearing in mind the geographicel features of the Pecific Islands, low levelg of natural 

resources in some of the countries and limitationa m ueable landa, some eountriee have been 

viewing the population situation of the lest two decades with concern. 

Associeted with the high rate of population growth is unemployment, high levels of 

dependency m the state, poverty, malnutrition, high density living, inadequate houcing and 

problems affecting health and education. 

Annuel growth ratea in rmst Pecific countries are high, but there are a few exceptionc. 

Niue, T*elau and the Cook Islands have expressed a negative growth rate due to 

out-migration. See Table l. 

Country Pqulation 

(000's) 

Arnerican Samoa tr.z 

Cook Islands 17.7 

Fiji 646.2 

French Polynesia 49.8 

Guam 106.4 

Kiribati ,9.9 

Nauru 7.t 

New Caledonia 142.5 

Niue t.2 

Northern Mariana Is. 17.6 

Papua New Guinea tO66.O 

TABLE I - Eotimrtcd Pqulation (I98I-I98f) 

and Arrrual Growth Rata (1975-f980i) 

% 

1.5 

-0.7 

1.8 

2.? 

0.6 

t,6 

0.8 

L.2 

-2.t 

I.9 

Country 

Ppulation 96 

(000's) 

Pitcairn 0.1 

Solomon Islands 2t5.O l.l 

Tokelau 1.6 0 

Tmga 98.4 L.7 

TTPI L2',7 2.' 

Tuvalu 7.6 4.6 

Vanuatu 120.0 4.4 

Wallis & Futune ll.2 t.2 

Weetern Samoa 157.0 0.8 

TOTAL 5004.4 1.9 

TOTAL excluding P lc 1918.4 1.9 

SOURCE: South Pacific Eeonomies 1981; SPC Danographic Unit 

*Approximate five year period; Feirbairn 1982. 

The United Nations predicts that the population in the Pacific region is expected to 

reach nearly eight million by the turn of the eentury with the snnual growth rate of nearly 

2%. See Table 2. 

Although there is a projected decline in the growth rates for each of the mejor 

sub-regions, the growth rate is still high, particularly in Melanesia and Micronesia. 

A completely different picture applies to death rates. Death rates in the Pacific 

declined rapidly immediately afler 1920 and the end of the influenza epidemic in Polynesie, 

excepi in the Solomon Islands where the decline began after the l9l0'g. The expectation of 

life at birth for most Pacific Islanders was under 50 at the beginning of lhe century, but 

impnoved health services and improved socio-economic conditiong have led to an increase to 

about 60 years in most countries. Recent findings indicate that the expectetion of life at 

birth in Fiji is around 6l years; Weslern Sarnoa 63 years; Tmga under 60 yearEi Niue 6l 

years; Cook Islands 51 years; Kiribati and Solomon Islands 54 years. 

It was not until the 1960's that some of the Pacific countrieg developed policies geared 

towarde lowering the population growth rates. Programmeg labelled Fenily Planning were 

seen and are seen as the direct means to imptement governncntal policy to lower the birth 

rates. Moet of the National Development plans recognize the problems of rapid population 

growth and try to incorporate the Family Plenning programme within the broad framework of 

socio-economic development. Horvever, in practice, family planning ie not integrated into the 

various secLors of developrnent, and it is treated separately, r.rsually a8 psrt of the health 

programme, wilh little relationehip to the reet of the socio-econornic developnnnt progremme.

-tL 

TABLE 2 - Proiected inereara in populetion 

h--:^- ta-'.-t-,. Pqulation (000's) % increase Average annual rate of growth 

F(e9ron/L'ounErv L975-7g 2000-01 25 years tgtila 6 1995-98 to 

1980-81 2000-01 

Melanesia 

Melanesia excl. 

Ppua New Guinea 

Micronesia 

Polynesia 

Pacif ic 

Pacific excl. 

Papua New Guinea 

t702 

986 

to7 

455 

4444 

I72S 

6600 

l6l4 

575 

656 

78lt 

2545 

78.t 2.4 

63.7 2.4 

87.t 2.8 

50.8 1.9 

76.2 2.1 

64.6 2.t 

SOURCES: UN 1980; Bedford 1982; Fairbairn 1982. 

Family planning prograrnmes are not alone in affec[ing the decline in the population 

growth raLes; in some countries the rising age at marriage could also have this effect. For 

example, in Fiji in the early l950rs, the average age at marriage for female Indians was 16 

years. Today, female Indians tend to marry in their early twenties. With increasing 

urbanization, better communieation and transport systems, and modern technology, policies 

affecting migra[ion indicate governmental concern because of the impact of out-migration on 

the composition and growlh of an active population. In some countries population policies in 

National Development Plans aim not mly to reduce out-migration but to minimize the skill 

drain nol only from rural areas to towns but to other countries. However, the small countries 

in the Pacific cannot solve their population problems by oul-migralion, as countries to whieh 

Pacif ic Ielandens could migrate have become more neslrictive in their policies towards 

accepting Pacific Islanden migrants. For example, New Zealand is not likely to accept Pacific 

Islanders as mignants except from counlries with which it still has constibutional ties. 

The Kiribati National Development Plan I states that: 

'1ln the past, population pressures have been partially relieved by migration 

and re-settlement in other countries, for example, Solomon Islands. It is not 

expected that further opportunilies of this type will arise." 

The impact of migration m fertility is not fully neasured in any country in the Pacific, 

nor are its magnilude and nature precisely known. As it is more common for Pacific Island 

men to migrate, there is likely to be a shortage of rnen so that it is difficult for women to 

establish unions. Holrever, where unions are established, the untimely emigration of nen 

before the women complete their child bearing period could have an effect m the birth 

rates, although judging from the figures produced in Table l, the effect of out-migration is 

not significant except in Niue, Tokelau and Cook Islands. 

It has only been in the last twenty five years thet population growth has been 

perceived aa a threat to development goals. No single factor can achieve fundamentel 

changes in the population gtructure. The reduction in the population growth ratee is not 

dependant entirely on family planning programrnes, out-migration, improved health, the 

influence of educaLion or the increased participation of women in paid employment, but an 

interaction of all these veriableg could contribute to downward population trends. 

The demographic characteristics of the Paeific Islands, high fertility rete8, low death 

rates' I very young population (40 - 50% under the age of 15 years), high population density 

on some islands, the economic Btructur€ based mainly m agriculture with limited trade 

potentials at present, the size of the labour force relative to lend and other resounces, 

dictate the necessity to coneider the potentials the Pecific Islende have for development in 

order to keep pace with population trends. Ialand populations could arffer all the miserieg 

eesociated with poverty if population continuee to increese at the present rate. 

The problam of providing jobs cen better be appreciated when me consider8 

changes thet are occurring and ere likely to ccur in the compooition of employment 

2.O 

1.4 

2.L 

L.2 

t.9 

1.6 

the 

that

-t2 

accdrpanies the process of urbanizetion and induetrialization and a movement away from 

agriculture where a large proportion of the Pacif ic labour force is ebsorbed. pacific 

countriee cannot provide vst increeees in non-agricultural employment qfortunitles s the 

resources are limited, but there is capacity for the provision of employm"rit oppo"tunities in 

egriculturally-related fields through maiketing, inter-regional -,0' int"rn"tional trade, 

processing, transport and services. It would be iutticient io say that the reduction in the 

population growth nates would be crucial not only in attaining the goals for edequate and 

productive employment, and universal education, but also in prividing-equal opportunities for 

both nen end women in the developnnnt proceos. 

Development of Skille and Traininq 

As referred to earlier, the high fertility rates in some of the countries reflect a large 

proportion of the population in the under 15 ege group. Table I indicates a high proportion of 

the population also in the 15-59 age group and in extremely low proportion-in the 60+ age 

group. 

, 

Country 

b€LAT€SIA 

Fiji 

New Caledmia 

Pqua New Guinea 

Solomon Islands 

Vanuatu 

MICRqTESIA 

Guem 

Kiribeti 

Nauru 

TTPI 

POLYIfSIA 

Anerican Samoe 

Cook Islands 

French Polynesia 

Niue 

T*elau 

Tmga 

Tuvalu 

Wallis & Futuna 

Western Samoa 

PACFIC 

TABLE ) - Pquletion structure: a summary 

Year 

L97 6 

L976 

L97L 

L976 

r979 

I970 

r978 

L977 

I97t 

1974 

L976 

L977 

r97 6 

Lgt6 

L976 

L979 

1976 

I974 

I976+ 

Percent of population age 

0-I4 15-59 60+ 

4t. I 

18.5 

45.2 

47.8 

45.4 

t9.7 

41. t 

44.2 

46.2 

44.5 

49.8 

42.O 

46.r 

46.1 

44.' 

lt.8 

46.6 

48.2 

44.4 

54.7 

55.i 

5r.9 

47.1 

50.2 

57.J 

5t.I 

5].0 

47.6 

50.7 

44.2 

5]. I 

45.4 

4i.4 

50.5 

60. I 

47.5 

47.1 

4.0 

2.9 

2.9 

4.8 

4.4 

1.0 

5.8 

2.9 

5.9 

4.4 

6.0 

4.9 

8.t 

t0.2 

5.t 

8.I 

5.9 

4.5 

52.O t.6 

SOURCES: SPC 1979; Bedford 1982; Fairbairn t982. 

Ac-cording to Fairbairn (mss.), a notable feature of the Pacific regionts population is 

the large rumber of children es a proport.ion of the total population: 

rFor most island countries, children (i.e. 0_14 age group) eomprise well over 

40 per cent of the total ... for Lhe centnal Polyneslan-countries'they comprise 

typically around 50 per cent.il 

Such popuhtion patterns not only pose problems for the natural resources and the 

economic and social development of small Pacific islands, but they also bear on the 

developnrent of people. potentials. The population witl eontinue Lo expand as this young group 

enters the ctrild bearing age. If the rate of population growth continues in this pattern it 

could have serious implications rt employment qportunities, education, training, health and 

other public ervices, and the participation of women in development. ft unitt also affect the 

adequcy of existing .nesources to srpp6rt growing populations not simply by providing bare 

srbsistence but by maintaining adequate levels of sociai and economic weli-being.

-t3 

Ssne of the Pacific countrieg rrch e Tuvalu md Kiribeti have limited lend potential 

to lppolt a growing population. A glance st countriee ruch c Fiji, New Celedonia, Vanuatu 

md Solomon lrlandr reveals large areaa of uncultivated land wtrich might anggcst rbstmtial 

rope for developnnn[ and c.rpport of a growing population, hrt in fect a good perc-entage of 

the lsnd ir infertile, lteep end offers little scope to upport brge rumbem of pcople. Aa 

pqulation becomes rrprs dense the problems of the Lsage of land relourcec, and of 

cnploymant qportunities trr the land or in the comrnercisl or white collar sactors are likely 

to becorne rmre rrious. 

Thig reelization of potential egsociated with the developrnent of hurnn resources is 

dependent tr'r meny f ectors. An area for congideretion ie the developnnnt of skills, 

particularly through education and training of the gnowing population, as related to the 

nturated and diminishing qportunities in the labour rnarkets. To what extent are education 

end training progremmes adryted to the changing reeds and the future of Pcific people ? 

To keep pace with thcse changes the attenpt to develop human resources will require 

forecasting manpower needs, selection, training, and rupervision. Hopefully the workers will 

be setisfied and productive, bading to en effective and efficient work-force. Although the 

development of human rlesources is consonsnt with providing higher levels of education or 

npre extensive and intensive treining usually focugsed on skitls and techniquee, what results, 

in my view, is the concenLration of efforte m the few to sarve the rnany. This is inevitabb 

e! we qumtif y our sr.rccecses in the developnent of our human nesource potential by 

displaying data to reveel how many people with different levels of qualification heve been 

produced. However, if this is ueed as a mejor index for the developnent of human potential, 

then rome aerioug qreetions need to be aeked about its pplicability to Pacific societieg. 

It is fashionable to talk about the developrnent of middle level marpower. All 

development plans ineist. m this. 

"ln short, it. seems that heving developed some human resources we then 

develop the reeourceg of gome other humana .albeit at a lower level to arpport the 

efforts of the firat lot, in the hope that the human fesourcee development will 

take place asl our trained and educated and equipped human nesource developers 

descend sr other humans whoge resources need to be developed." (Maraj, L977). 

The Pacific region requires deliberate planning to focus m training and education if it 

is to utilize fully the potentials of its greatest Bset - its people. 

It is dso faghionable in the Pacific to talk about rural developnent, as between 50% to 

80% of the Pacific people live in rural areas, and could be the major source of skills and 

Feeources for the economy. Following independence in many countries, the rising expectations 

in nation building, education and training in all sectors of the community are seen a me of 

the major instrunents for progress: more jobs, more social rnobility and rnore investment for 

generating economic development. Tfese expect.ations are also encouraged by international 

agencies who make considerable investments m this front. 

Are such developnrent theories and strategies, with particular emphasis on markel 

orientation, gecializations and the complexi[ies involved really relevanl to Pacific countriesi 

More than 80% of lhe Pacific people derive their livelihood from agriculture and to a greal 

extent our economy is dependant on agrarian production. Although agriculture is the 

foundation of the Pacif ic economy, technological changes have a signif icant effect (r 

treining skillg and employment qportunities. To go f urther, some jobs can be lost tt 

technology which will mly be in psrt be absorbed by employment created by the neu 

technologies. 

The pace of economic and technological changes differs from me Pacific country t( 

another, and the question as to whether these changes have been of material benefit to lhr 

majority of Pacific people is yet unknown. Is developrnent so geared and entrenched ir 

foreign ideas and values that little note is taken of the real life situation of Pacifir 

countries? Do we continue in order to be developed along with the outside world?

-t4 

International agencies and nreLropolitan governnents who aid Pecific countries do so in 

cash' equipment, and lhe provision of experLs and consultants. Although we appreciate these 

efforts, my impression is that the regulations for aid imposed upori pacific societies are 

geared towards the perpetuation of economic and political dependency. At finst glance, aid 

procedules and regulations may not have implicaLions for the development of human resources 

in the Pacific, but if one notes the number of aid agencies op"rating in the pacific today, 

there is a notable increase in the last ten years wfricn does have- some implications for 

economic and social developnrent and the realization of potentials in the pecific. Aid 

agencies in fact play a key role in the development and realization of people pot,ential in Lhe 

Pacific' although with the exception of only one or two countries in'the pacific there are 

small indigenous concentrations of capital and resources suff iciently large to qerate 

nationally' regionally, and internationally. The growth of international agencies has also 

provided a market for international labour. There is no zuggestion at thij stage that this 

cadre of personnel will be replaced by loeal expertise as ilencies' demands for minimum 

viability standards . for aid programmes will continue to give international personnel 

employment and tend to hinder the developnenl of potential pacific Islander expertise. 

The system is also perpetuated by a srnall group' of elites at national level who show 

little confidence in the skills and innovetions of [heir own people. If pacific Islander 

expertise is used, it is usually at a lower level. Above them is the layer of international 

personnel which does not give Pacifie countries independenee or equality in the operation of 

their own development. Although aid agencies have a primary economic iunction they do play 

an influential role in the life of Pacific communities. Perhaps a review to the approaches 

towards the utilization of local manpower potential by both aid agencies and pacif ic 

countries would result in a betten partnenship towards realistic and att-ainable programmes. 

Pacif ic countries could then match their political freedom with economie ' anl social 

independence and not be zubjeeted to reslrictive aid provisions which turn ou! to be no aid 

at all. What in fact does happen is that Pacif ic islands become a labour market for 

internati onal personnel. 

Before leaving this issue, the last aspect I would like to deal with is the participation 

of women in developmenL. The participation of women is seen by some as the fundamental 

Proeess for the realization of certain values and goals tied to society's values themselves. 

Their level of participation in the development process can also be seen a{r a useful guide in 

order [o understand the kinds of changes taking place in society. Pacific countries differ in 

their attitude towards women and this in turn affects the extent to which women are given 

opportunities for edueation, [raining and employment. 

For example, a small local study carried out at the University of the South pacific's 

Extension Services reveels interesting sex ratio figures for Extension enrollments for Iggl 

semester II. See Table 4. 

Cook Islands 

Fiji 

Kiribati 

Nauru 

Niue 


Tmga 

Tuvalu 

Vanuetu 

Weatern Samoa 

TOTAL 

TAB|I 4 - Sex ratio of USP extension enrollmentg 

Male 

No. 

58 

510 

72 

6 

22 

tI9 

76 

28 

76 

50 

tol7 

Vo 

56 

68 

62 

40 

40 

84 

54 

6t 

75 

5L 

65 

Female 

No. 

45 

244 

45 

9 

tt 

22 

66 

l8 

25 

48 

555 

SOURCE: Dr. R. Treyvaud, USP, l98l. 

% 

tt4 

,2 

5g 

6u 

60 

t6 

46 

t9 

25 

49 

,5

-t5 

A rumber of features sppear to emerge from theae figureer narnely: 

- Overall there ie e low rete of female enrollment in highar educetion. 

- The lowest retes in female enrollments are 8een in rnore recently independent countries 

such as Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. Is this a ref lection of colonial/cuatomary 

attitudes towards females? 

- Is there a difference in attitudes towards fernele participation in Melaneeia, PolynEsia and 

Mieronesia? Is there an increase in sorne countries of lhe retention retes of females in 

echools and if so, what factors influence thie pattern? 

- Are those females who continue to advance in educetion end training is concentrated into 

stereotyped traditional occupationa such as rursing and horne economice? 

If femalee ere not equally represented in other fielde of etudy, eould it be that they 

are being discriminated against, or that the problem really lies with thoee who guide femalee 

into "femele type" stereotyped traditional occupations? 

Socio-eultural Constraints and Potentiel 

A number of writers have eteted or inplied that the rnajor problems facing the people 

of the Pacific today arise from the processes of sociel, economic and political change. Sqne 

writers go further and sta[e that Pacific people can solve many of their problema if they 

adapt their culture to the needs of rnodern times. Pacific countries are urged to rmdernize or 

ebandon their traditional lend tenure systems, comrnunat obligatione, rituds and customs in 

order to compete with the outside world end progre8s towards e richer commercial econdny. 

According to Lsaqa (f97]) theee statements are not new, mr are they difficult to 

8ay. Whet ie nnre difficult to spell out are their inplications in detail, eepecially es they 

affect groups and inter-personal relatione, social structure and value 8y8tem8, uee of tirne and 

resources, local leadership, and ihe peoples views of themselves and the world around them. 

Cusloms, communal living, and lraditional land tenure systems.are seen as serious threets to 

development. Since Pacif ic Islanders have no developrnent theory related to their own 

environmenl, developrnent ia mly encouraged towards a monetarized economy, but thia does 

not develop the full bases for Lhe people to attain a good and satiafying quality of life. 

Social units such as the aiga and the metai systems of Western Samoa, the mataqali in 

Fiji, the unimane system of Kiribati frave been interpreted as obetacles to development by 

colonial and international perspectives in sueh e way that we feel the need to ryologize for 

these dynamic systems. Preoccupation with western cultural heritage could lead to t}te 

absrdonrnent of Pacific traditions and culture in order to advance technologically, but thia 

would not promote the socio-cultural progress of tlre netion. Surely excellence in culture ie 

just as important as economic progress. 

The crucial issues in Pacif ic development are not technological or economic, but 

psychological, social, cultural and politieal: the areas in which cultural conditioning 

constitutes a pervasive and often vital influenee. When gtch factore ere not taken into 

account it could constrain much rneaningf ul underetanding of development in a Pacif ic 

context. Crocombe (mgs.) stetes that a major issue is not mly motivational petterns of 

people's work behaviour, but also the differences in the use of tirn, where long drawn out 

rituals, ceremonies and nreetings in the Pecific are labelled by 'O' and 'M' [Orgenization and 

Methodsl as 'wasting time'. Ssne studies have shown that npat Pacific aocietiee before 

contact with industrialized societies used mly between twelve and twenty houra a week in 

the whole range of things ealled 'workr to rnaintein a reegonably eomforteble existenee. 

Although this is low by world standards, it was possible because of the richness of the 

environment. Other studiee also show that people who are r.Fed to working relatively short 

hours, put into a new context would also work short hours, but this hes been disproved when 

one sees Pacific Islander migrants living in the United States, Cmada, Auetralia and New 

Zealend. Crocombe, in this article, goes trr to discues the extent of occupational continuity 

in the Pacific, treditions that go back long before contact with Europeane and industrial 

technology. He makee reference to the seafaring traditione of the Tongana and eopecially to 

the Tmgan eafaring captains, where for the past 500 years almost dl have ctltne from a 

very select group of families in Ha'apai. Similarly, wood-carving is the epeciality of the 

people of the tiny islands of Kabara and Fuhga in the Fiji group. Even though these ere very

-t6 

small islands the carvers come mainly from the Jiafau clan within them and although many 

chanqes have mcurred in Fiji the best carvers are still produced to this day from the Jiafau 

glel. Such examples can be found all over the Pacifie. Changes and development in the 

Pacific have not phased out these skills and in some cases they have remained very strong. 

These are the strengths in Pacific communities that we ought to be aware of if we are 

to utilize the potentials and undersband the constraints in a socio-cultural context, es such 

Patterns can have a major bearing on Paeific Islander developmenL. The dynamics of the 

social systems such as the aiqa, the matai, the mataqali and the unimane !o name a few, and 

the occupational continuities in some of the arts and crafts that have continued for the past 

f0 to 500 years are porentials that could be fully utilized for the development of the 

Pacific people. 

Possible Guidelines 

The recognition and ulilization of people potential in the Pacific brings me to discuss 

two main themes. One theme concerns the rnatural' development of Pacific lilander potential 

and the other theme deals with defining bodies of laws and administrative regulations 

especially for the people to open up the opportunities and the responsibilities for pacific 

islanders in all aspects of their own development. 

There is no question about the importance of the role that Pacific Islanders and their 

. 

institutions play in the development of their own countries. The important guestion appeans 

to be rrwhat kind of Pacific Islander are we trying to develop ?" 

The theme of "nalural" development for Pacific Islanders involves in the first instance 

giving the people the opportunity to define their own needs and wants for themselves, their 

families and their environment. The "natural" developrnent concept will allow the people Lo 

satisfy tlreir needs based m cultural patterns and needs that are attainable and satisfying so 

that they are not made to cope with development processes ihat are far beyond theii stills, 

eapabilities and environment. Tle t'ngtural'r devetopment process enables Pacifie Islanders to 

identify their own problems and participale fully in the development of their own programmes 

to npet their needs. 

The other theme of the development process is to define the peoples' role through 

directions, regulations, and legislation, in order to utilize fully thelr poten[ial and the 

potential of their traditional institutions. Specif ieally def ining their role and their 

participation and involvernent in development programmes could briig about greaLer equality 

and betLer aceess to education, training and employment. However, thls in effect would result 

in Pacific Islanders not defining for themselves their own reeds and development in a fluid 

and innovative way where their own development goals and strategies could be adjusted to 

their changing circumsLanceg. Pacific Islander development would be institutionalized in 

bodies of laws and administrative directions and this could perhaps have negative effects on 

the utilization and the development of people poiential in the pacific. 

REFERENCES 

crccombe, R. G. (mss.) culture and development in the south pacific. 

Fairbairn, I. (mss.) Pryulation (unpublished paper, f9g2). 

Kiribati National Development plan l9j9-tgAZ, p. 45. 

Lasaqa, l. 197t. Geography and geographers in the changing Pacific: an islanderrs view. In l,l 

Brookfield [ed.] The Pacific in Transition. Edward nmota. p.3o6-3o7, 

Marajr I 1977. Human resounces development and regional co-cperation. University of the 

South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. p. 3

-t7 

A PERSPECTIVE C.I I-T.JMAN I-EALTH AND IT5 IMPLICATIOi{S 

FOR TI-E POTENTIAL tr TFE PACIFIC REGIOI.I 

Ian Prior 

Director, EpidemiologY Unit 

Wellington HosPital 


ABSTRACT 

The Island populations in the Pacific are made up of people of differing 

ethnic background - Polynesian, Melanesian, Micronesian, who live in physical 

environrnents which vary from small alolls with limited resources to high islands 

where bounteous supplies of soil and food have been available for hundreds of 

years. 

The patterns of health and disease in these populations are now showing 

many changes which can be associated with urtanization, migration and altering 

Iife styles. Health patterns and population growth have been greaily influenced by 

irnprovements in control of the acute infectious diseases, chronie disorders slch as 

tuberculosis and filariasis, and in the areas of maternal and child health. SLudies 

in the Pacific over the past twenty years have demonstrated a wide gradient of 

risk of conditions which in Western Societies are the principal causes of mortality 

such as cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, stroke and coronary hnart disease. 

These conditions are now emerging as important health hazards in some nnre 

developed Pacific socieLieg such as Fijir samoa, Trtga, and the Cook lslands and 

involve some ethnic groups more than olhers. At the same time migration from the 

South Pacific to industrialized urban societies s.tch as New Zealand is providing a 

still greater change in enyironrnent, Iife style and health patterns. 

Multidiiciplinary epidemiological studies such as the Td

-t8 

(b) Prevention of diseesea of affluence essociated with increese in gtandard of living 

snd elteration of lifestyle will involve major emphasis trt individual and community decisioi 

making. 

The perspective will be developed by looking backwards and highlighting certain 

problem conditions that give an understanding of the extent of ill heelth anO its causes and 

insighis into nethods developed for dealing with these. Sorne of the changes thet have 

become important - migration, urbanization, sociel change end health consequLnces will be 

described together with factors relating to the future. Finally the question will be ssked 

whether the World Health Organization goal, 'rHealth for All Uy tfre year 2000r', is likely to 

be achieved. 

The past 

5-M- Lambert, author of 'rA Drctor in Paradiser', commenced working for the 

Rockefeller Foundation on their programme of hookworm eradication in papua NLw Guinea 

from l9I8 to 1921 and then between 1922 nd l9l5 in other parts of the pacific including 

Fiji' the Gilbert and Ellis Islands, Tmga, Western Samoa; the Cook Islands and lhe Solomon 

Ielands (Lambert, f94f). This book contains a wealth of knowledqe concerning the people of 

these eountries and their health status and how ef f ective Jommunity bsed treatment 

programmes were undertaken with Chaulrnoogre oil and a laxative for hookworm infections 

tnnrytogtome duodenale) and also for yaws using intravenous salvarsen. 

Dr Lambert put f orward and tested an important hypothesis thaL related ro the 

devastating effect which visitors from outside had in production of virgin and first encounter 

epidemics and their intensity. This can be well illustrated from two exlracts from this book. 

He was in Papua in 1921, visiting a Catholic Mission Station where Kuri were the 

indigenous people. Father Chabot said: "before the mission carne this district had dwindled to 

less then two thousand. TfE Kuris would have .disappeared if we had not discouraged 

cennibeliemr infanticide and abortion.r' '{ wondered if the good priests were not fooling 

themselves. Abortion end infanticide may reduce a population, but cannibalism and continued 

tribal warfare may be blessings in hideous disguise. They keep the tribes apart. Werfare is a 

sort of rough quarantine. In times of peace strangers wander in and out, and bring infections 

with them. Native races die off not through theii own suicidal customs, but throu-gh diseases 

introduced from the oulside world.'r 

In New Guinea he was in charqe of the Rabaul Hcpital for a period in l92l and [he 

following extract iltustrates how hiJ knowledge of the fear of mutilation which the New 

Guinea natives had was used by him to help control Lhe treatment of influenza epidemic 

patients. 

'11 had returned from field work and found the native hospitat filled with flu cases; 

many were dying in the collapse from pneumonia. The sudden deaths among seemingly mild 

cases puzzled rne, until I probed the cause. Our native attendants hated to loie sleep;-ar roon 

as they were snoring, the sick rnen, hot with fever, would sneak out from a side door and go 

down to lie in the sea and cool off under the stars. They would sneak back Lo bed and die of 

shock. 

I put a stop to all that.. NaLive attendants had told them how I slit open dead men's 

bellies. (l had performed thirty post mortems to determine the average native content of 

whip-worms). My ogreish fame had spnead among a simple folk who *oJto far rather lose a 

life tharr a leg. To them I was master of life and death - and the post-mortern table. 

Therefore I profited by my foul reputation and marched through the ward brandishing a 

'-.large amputation knife, and as I passed along rows of quaking cots I shouted: 'Supposu yor-no 

atop elong bed, you sons of bitches, suppose you no takim medicine good feller, now you die 

finish' me cuttim belly belong altogetherr.ne cuttim heart, nre cutt-im wind, ne cufiim gut 

belong you feller. But suppose you good feller altogether, now you die finish, rE no cutt-im 

you.ttt 

He spoke to them very sternly and his mana was zuch that no more night wandering 

occurred. This clearly illustrates the extraordinary "power" of the doctor in zueh societiei 

and the insights they must have of the people and their customs and beliefs.

-t9 

The efforts commenced throughout the 1920's and 40's to improve hygiene and 

sanitation end to deal with eonditions zuch as tuberculosis form an important part of the slow 

but sleady overall improvement in health that was [aking lace in many of the Pacific 

temitories large and small. 

The present 

F r.gm the viewpoint of health and disease the perspective , on health in the Pacif ic 

Region has been infiueneed by the qreatly .increasqd moFi_litv.-gf -p:opl" in the Pacific - 

pariicularly.sincetheendofWorldWffificlslandersinNewZealand 

'has increased from I,500 in L946 to 55,000 in 1982. This includes rnigration from rural 

villages to urban centres, from islands to towns and ciiies in larger land masses and 

west-ernized societies zuch as Australia, and New Zealand. The process of urbaniza[ion with 

its beneficial and less beneficial consequences are strong and important factors influencing 

societies and lhe people in them. The move from subsislence to cash economies and the 

struggle to meet famiiy, church and community requiremen[s all place a considerable number 

of new strains m individuals and their families. 

The strong sense of communily and ihe interdependence of people and communities that 

is a part of tht culture and social pattern in many Pacific Societies has played a valuable 

part in the community approach developed to a number of health problems. The control that 

is being achieved for malaria and fiiariasis are good examples of conditions where real 

progr""i had been made by environmental and eornmunity measures related to control of 

mosJ uitoes, the important vectors and the carnier slate in the human hosts. 

An example of community control would be filariasis. A changing pat[ern of filariasis is 

being found in Tokelau where community control programmes have been instiLuted as a way 

of rJducing microfilaria carriage in humans and so lessening the rate of new infections. 

The public healLh measures which have led to greatly improved mosquito control have 

been importanL for both malaria and filaria. This includes preventing water accumulation in 

containers in villages in old coconuts, unprotected Lanks and similar sites on uninhabited 

motus. 

One of the explanations for the higher raLe of clinical filarias in men than in women in 

Tokelau has been the men's greater exposure time to mosquitoes m the motus whereas women 

stay mainly on the living motu. The community treatment pnogramrne in Td

-40 

which links nnre than twenty countries in the Pacific, the health authorit.ies discussed the 

problem wilh experts in the N.Z. Health Department. The various immediete needs f or 

diagnosis and lreatrnent including intravenous fluid replecement were decided on end in less 

than twenty four hours a RNZAF plane wiih nredical team and riecessary rupplies left New 

Zealand for Kiribati. In addition an epidemiologist from the Center for Disease Control, U.S. 

Public Health Service was seconded to assist the Ministry of Health. Communication was 

maintained m a daily basis using Peacesat and further steps taken as needed to contain the 

epidemic and to identify the causes of the outbreak and the steps needed to prevent future 

outbreaks. A total of 585 suspected cases were admitted to the two Tarawa Hcpitals in the 

6tr day period )0 August - 2nd November 1977. 45 percent of 155 stool crrltures were 

positive. A total of eight hospital deaths occurred (Roberts et aL, I97g), 

Ru River Diaeese 

Ross River Disease is a virus disorder transmilted by mosquitoes which first occurred in 

Queensland and remained confined there for many years. In Fiji an outbreak of pyrexial 

illness with joint involvement, definite arthritis with effusions into larger joints such as knees 

suddenly occurred. The diagnoses was not clear and large numbers were being affected 

(Miles' L979). The symptoms and signs suggested either Chikungunya or Ross River viruses. 

The epidemic began in the western and northern coasLal areas of Viti Levu later 

spreading to Suva and other areas and involving possibly f0,000 people. Dr J.U. Mataika of 

the Wellcome Virus Laboratory, Suva using suckling mouse brain inoculation rnethods, isolaLed 

two strains of a virus frorn the blood of polyarthritis patients. Tfrese viruses were 

zubsequently shown to be Ross River virus by Professor Miles and his group in Dunedin and 

this was confirmed by the Queensland Institute of Medieal Research in Brisbane, Australia. 

Tfp cotnlnuniLy control response lay in an effective mosquito control prognamme. There 

was again a coordinated approach and offers of help with methods of improved mosquito 

control by a numben of different Pacific countries. It zubsequently spread widely, not only in 

Fiji' where many thousand were affected but also to other pants of the Pacific including 

Tmga. Cases also occurned in New Zealand by tnavellers returning from Fiji. Fortunately the 

condition is essentially self limiting and does not appear to have long term consequences. 

The outbreak of Dengue in the Pacific that took place in 1975 is a funther example 

(Palmer and Ram, 1976) of Pacific cornmunity collaboration whene the Peacesat netwonk was 

used to rnaintain regular contact between public health officers, government officials and 

consultanis in Hawaii and New Zealand. The ability to interact in this way $Jpported by 

offers of government to government help with rnethods of vector conLrol contributed to the 

control of this epidemic throuqhout the Pacific. 

These exarnples ranqing from water borne cholera to mosquito spread virus infections 

illustrate what progress has been made in dealing with acute serious cornrnunity infections. 

The collaboration between dif f erent countries and contributions of both rnaterials and 

consu lLants from t.he developed countries is also part of this phase and must f urther be 

encouraged. The rnore basic reasons behind the cholera epidemic in Kiribati, hiqh rates of 

typhoid in Tonga and olher water and food bonne diseases in the region will require a much 

greater provision of resources to ensure adequate clean water and improved sewage disposal 

lhat cuts down or eliminate chances for waten contamination by faeces, or food transmission. 

The need for greally improved rnosquito control as a means of controlling or elimlnating 

filariasis, malaria and cerlain other virus infections will require a continuing effort. The 

increasing use of foods and other rnaterials in tins and plastic containers provide areas for 

rnosquito breeding along with the very cornmon opened coconut and open water tanks. 

The csntinuing presence of hepatilis A and B in such communities are conditions which 

have been important in lhe past, are important in the present and will undoubtedly conLinue 

Lo be itnportant in the future. Vaccination programmes for hepalitis B are being developed. 

At present [he cost is $70 per person. This is clearly unrealistic in the Pacific Island 

countries where annual per capita amount spent on health may be rnuch less than this. Tonga 

for example in the period 1969-1979 averaged $ll per capita for health. This did not include 

large zums coming through aid for particular capital prollrarnmes. 

Clearly improved hygiene and sanitation developments in island communities with high 

amFriont tomnoratrrnee and fnnd stnrane faeilities that are often inadequate and yet capable

-4r 

of real improvements must be part of future developments which will have widespread 

benefits in the control of a number of food, fly and faecal borne conditions. 

Maternal and child health 

Malernal and child health is me of the ereas which has e mejor affect m population 

growth and overall fitness of individuals and communities. The beneficial changes that have 

occurred within a rnrmber of the Pacific Island countries in the past twenty years must be 

taken into account as we gether data m which to base our perspective m health for the 80s 

and to the year 2000. 

Data now available suggests that improvenents are taking place in a rumber of health 

area8. It is important Lo realize that there has been a considerable inprovement in 

docurnentation of mortality statistics based m death certification using international WHO 

coding classification over the past 20 years and this should improve further. It is important 

to recognize that in a country such es the Philippines up to 60% of deaths in rural areas may 

not be certified by a medically trained graduale. ln the South Pacific this is not the case and 

much greater confidence can now be placed in data from countries such as Tonga, Western 

Samoa, American Sarnoa, Cook lsland, Niue, Fiji, and Tokelau. 

Availability of oral salt mixture for use in the early treatment of acute diarrhoea in 

infants and young children represents sre of [he most imporLant recent advances in public 

health and cutling down morbidity and mortality. The fact that they are cheap, freely 

available, ean be kept in the houses and that parents and grandparents can be taught how to 

use them and to use them early in the illness is an excellent example of how simple ffEesureg 

can be developed if new thinking is applied to problems. 

Maternal and child health and their progress provide a good measure of health 

developments in a community, since they involve the management of complications relating to 

pregnancy, the mother and the child in the neonatal period (birth to I month), and the next 

period from I year to 5 years when adequate vaccination programmes and slpervision of 

childhood chest infections will provide evidence of improved status. 

Effective child health care requires considerable understanding of health and illness 

and its management by parents, particularly the mother, and development of this through 

effective contacts with well trained health professionals. The tradition of breast feeding has 

been one of the important mainstays of infant care in Lhe Pacific Island countries. -fhe 

erosion of this by a desire [o move to arlificial feeding and so to follow what npthers hear 

is so eommon in the developed meccas such as New Zealand and Australia is becoming 

widespread. This increases the risk of gastrointestinal infections and other upsets particularly 

where mothers are inadequately trained in milk preparation and bottle sterilization. Sorne 

reversal of this trend with moves back to a higher percentage of breast feeding may be 

occurring . 

Vaccinations in infancy including BCG in the f irst 2 weeks, polio vaccinations, 

whooping cough, diptheria and measles can be used as measures of the effectiveness of health 

programmes in the area of infant and child heallh. 

Primarv health care 

The development of lhe concept of Primary Health Care may prove to be me of the 

most important factors in bringing about improved health in many parts of the world, 

particularly in developing countries. Up to the present these countries have often placed 

exeess reliance on small numbers of medically trained persons which has led to great 

inequalities in the distribution and quality of medical care. 

The WHO/UNICEF Conference at Alma Ata in 1978 was of major importance and gave a 

lead to the adoption of Prirnary Heallh Care programmes. Certain of the important principles 

in the Declaration of Alma Ata ane set out in Annex I as Lhey constitute a central part of 

the changes taking place in ideas on health care (WHO, 1978). 

It can be seen from the Declaration that real efforts to develop and implemenl primary 

health care by efforts of the world comrnunity to support national and in[ernational

-42 

commitment with increased technical and financial e.rpport could be of enormous value 

particularly to the developing countries. Many of the Pacific countries come into this 

category and this will test the strengths of the Pacific Way as we move towards the year 

2000. 

Chronic non-infectuous diseases - the diseases of affluence 

These conditions ere of partictilar importanee in the Pacific because of the wide 

variation in extent and distribution they demonstrate in diffenent populations. The past and 

present history of the status within the Pacific region of sJch conditions a hypertension, 

diabetes and gout make a fascinating study. This varying pattern in different societies and at 

different times gives an indication of the potential for their prevention and control which 

thereby broadens our perspective concerning them. 

The perspective on health which we are developing places considerable weight on the 

extraordinary range or gradient that can be seen within the Pacif ic region for certain 

conditions which are both imporlant, very common and a major concern as contributors to 

both morbidity (sickness) and to mortality in Western developed societies. Hypertension and 

diabetes will be discussed as examples of conditions of importance. 

H;pertension 

Hypertension is the most important contributor to stroke and one of principal risk 

factors for coronary heart disease (CHD) due to atheroma of coronary arteries. H;pertension 

also causes heart disease in its own right. 

Blood pressure patterns range from those areas where blood pressure shows little or no 

increase with age, such as Pukapuka in the Northern Cooks (Prior et el., 1968), parts of New 

Guinea (Sinnett and Whyte, L976) and the Solomons page et g!.;l974), to places grch es 

Rarotonga (Prior et al., 1968), Western Samoa (Zimmett 4 g!- 1980), and Nauru where blood 

pressure increases w-th age in ways similar to Western s66ie-[ies and diabetes rates are among 

the highest in the world (Zimmett et al., L977). 

The differing extent of hypertension can be seen in Table I where the age adjusted 

rates of definite hypertension (WHO criteria systolic blood pressure 150 nmHg or greater and 

or diasiolic pressure 95 mmHg or greater) are set out for different Pacific populations 

studied by the Wellington Hcpital Epidemiology Unit (Prior, L974). 

Table I : Definit.e hypertension age standardized rates 

per 1000 in different Pacific populations 

N.Z. Maori 

N.Z. Europeans 

Rarotonga 

Pukapuka 

Tokelau (1968) 

MALES FEMALES 

287.6 

265.9 

t4t,4 

' 46.6 

The age specif ic mean systolic and diastolic pressures for those edults seen in 

Pukapuka and in Raroionga are shown in Figure l. The contraet between the two populations 

in the rates of rise of blood pressure with age is well shown. 

79.7 

tt7.6 

224.9 

165.7 

82.' 

15t.2

mmhg 

t70 

rco 

r50 

t20 

I 

roo 

-4t 

Figure I : Mean systolic and diastolic blood pressures by sex 

Rarotonga and Pukapuka 

Systolic andDiastoft Blood Pressures' 

Rarotongo and PukaPuka 

t----l-----+ ------ I --""e 

' J[.t* 

HFrrolong. 

;---{Put.pult 

30 ao so Bo 70020 3(, 40 5(' 60 

Age in Years 

The Rarotongens were considerably heavier than the Pukapukane and this is well seen 

in Figure 2 showing the age specific rneans for males and females. 

Figure 2 ; Mean weights in kg by mx, Rarotonga and Pukapuka 

H Fsdongn 

20 

Agt In Ycarr 

L----+--- 

Females

-44 

A correlation between blood pressure and weight was shown in both populations but this 

could noi account for the extent of the differences observed. 

This focussed attenLion on other possible factors including habitual salt intake and 

stress. Measurements of s[ress are difficult to carry out and to quantify and were not 

pursued at that time. These studies showed significant differences in the habitual salt use 

between Pukapuka and Rarotonga which gave important insights in[o the part sodium and 

potassium intake may play in relation to blood pressure level in communities. The intake was 

t0rrrnoIlZ4 hours in Pukapuka and 120-140 mmoll?4 hours in Rarotonga (Prior et e!., f968). 

Subsequent work by Page and the Harvard group has examined the relationship between 

salt user and blood pressure in Solomon Island groups (Page et !, L97q. They showed that 

while all groups had low pressures, the levels were cert,ainly hfuher in those from the area 

where cooking nrethods and catering customs gave them a notably higher sodium intake. 

These natural experiments from the Pacific have strengthened the hypothesis of a link 

between hsbitual salt use and blood pressure, and has given zupporl to the hypothesis that 

within a community there are some people and familier more sensitive to salt intake than 

others who, above a certain threshold, will respond by developing hypertension. Below this 

threshold of around 40-60 mmols blood pressures remain lower and hypertension does not 

develop. 

The data collected by the Epidemiology Unit in Cook Islands, Tonga and Tokelau 

support this hypothesis in a general way without being able to show a consistent within 

population relationship of blood pressure to salt intake. 

It is now recognized that intake of potassium containing foods may have a protective 

effect tending to lower blood pressure and a high intake of potassium in many of the low 

blood pressure populations zupports this. The correlation of the urinary sodium to potassium 

ratio with systolic and diastolic blood pressure shows a definite contribution in some studies, 

This effect was not apparent in those seen in Tokelau but becomes a definite contributing 

factor to blood ptessure with the increasing time Tokelauans live in New Zealand where they 

move mto a higher sodium and lower potassium intake. 

There is now reasonable evidenee to show that a high potassium intake is in fact 

protective against blood pressure increase and this reinforces the conclusion that any efforts 

to restrict sodium input should be linked with high potassium intake through a diet rich in 

vegetables and potassium rich substances (McGregor, fggJ). 

Other research is seeking to test whether there is a genetic abnormality present in 

zubject who have hypertension and in their children before the condition is apparent in Lhe 

latter (Garay and Meyer, 1919). The red cell is used as a nndel to represent how the muscle 

eell of the wall of the small arterioles or blood vessels rnay be responding to sodium and 

potassium. Evidence is suggesting that the rnembrane of the ned cell and white cells do react 

in an abnormal way indicating some abnormality in sodium pump mechanism whereby sodium 

content in red and white cells is increased in subjects with essential hypertension and also in 

their norrnotensive children. This is considered as a genetie abnormality and could help 

establish the genetic contribution in s.rbjects developing hypertension. It could also identify 

wbjects at higher risk before hypertension had declared itself. 

This rcpnesent an exciting developrnent that is very relevant to the perspective we are 

considoringr particularly as there is the opportunity to examine such biological factors in 

strbjecls undergoing migration and changes in blood pressure. 

This example is set out in some detail to illustrate how epidemiology as a discipline can 

help in the generation of rientific hypotheses and how the Pacific work had nrade its 

contribution to areas that can now be moved forward by detailed basic research at cellulan 

and rnembrane level. The next phase represents development of intervention programmes at 

the conmunity level in order to test further the part aalt restriction and potassium increase 

can play in lowering blood pressures and reducing the attributable community risk of 

hypertension and its complicaLions. We will return to this when considering the future of the 

Pacific Island regions in the period of the I980s to 2000.

-45 

The changes described above can occur in communities lndergoing modernizalion or ag 

a result of urbanization. These processes can take place within a particular geoqraphic 

location and society or when people migrate to a new society. These issues and their 

important consequences will be discussed further in the next section. 

Miqration. urbanization and health chanqes 

The importance and extent of migration in the Pacific has already been referred to in 

the Pacific as people move !o find work and improved living conditions. The majority are 

hoping to provide better opportunities for edueation for their children and s life that can 

include the "good lhings" they associate with a cash economy. Younger people migrate for 

schooling or for trade training or simply to have the chance to see and take part in greater 

opportunities they have heard about. 

The migration may take place from outer island to main island centre' from rural 

villages to lhe urban centre or from Pacific Islands to the western industrial societies zuch 

as New Zealand and Australia. 

The contrast between different groups for conditions zuch as blood pressure has been 

referred !o and is shown in Figure I and Figure 2 for Rarotonga and Pukapuka. S[udies of 

urban and nural groups in Samoa and Tonga have shown that Lhe urban groups have 

significantly higher blood pressures and are heavier compared with those in the rural villages 

(Zimmett et al., 1980; Finau et al.' 1983). 

The factors influencing the changes of blood pressure wi[h age may provide important 

infonmation concerning hypertension and the way in which it develops and so give more 

effective leads lo its prevention. Tln opportunity Lo study subjects moving from a society 

where blood onessure is not comrnon to one where blood pressure increases with age and 

contributes to a range of cardiovascular problems has been presented by the Tokelau Island 

Migrant Study and some of these nesulls will be detailed. The basic hypolheses beinq tested 

concerning social change and disease were first put fonward by the late John Cassel and 

their tesing has been an important part of the Tokelau Island Miqnant Study. The first 

relates the changes in blood pressune to physical factors including changes in diet' higher 

calorie intake, an increase in sodium and a decrease in potassium intake, gain in weight and 

other life style changes; the second involves psychosocial factors such as a stressful life 

changes, status incongruity, weakening or loss of support systems and coping strategies. It 

has also to be necognized that both hypotheses rn€ly play a part. 

The Tokelau Island Mignant study was commenced in 1967 with the support of the 

Medical Research Council of New Zealand and the World Health OrganizaLion, and has been 

developed as a multidisciplinary longitudinal study (Prior' 1974I 

Tokelau is nrade up of three small alolls, (Fakaofo, Nukunonu and Atafu)' lying some 

480 km north east of Samoa. Tokelau became a New Zealand dependency in 1925 and the 

inhabitants were granted N.Z. citizenship in 1948. Tokelauans are of Polynesian origin and 

consLitute a distinct atoll society with many features that are unique compared to other 

groups in the Pacific. 

In 1956 the population was 1980 in Tokelau, around 500 in N.Z.' 600 in Western Samoa 

and I50 in Hawaii. A hurricane in January 1965 caused some devastation with loss of coconut 

trees and darnage to buildinqs. The N.Z. Government set up a resettlement programme aimlng 

to bring aromd 1000 of Lhe population to New Zealand over a five year period. The Tokelau 

Island Migrant Study was established in 1967 and has been maintained since then. There have 

been rnajor rounds of medical examinations in Tokelau in 1968, L97L' 1976 and 1982 and in 

N.Z. in ie7Z-t4, L975-77 and 1980-8I. In 1980-8I there were 2570 tokelauans in N.Z. and in 

1982, 1610 in Tokelau The involvement of social anthropologists from the outset and the 

inclusion of Tokelauans in the study Leam l'ras helped expand and develop the study and also 

to maintain a very high participation rate of around 94-95% in New Zealand and 97-99% in 

Tokelau (Prior, 1974). 

The genealogies collected by the anthropologists have been built up into a major 

pedigree tite that is now altowing rnore critical examination of the part played by genetic 

and Lnvironnental faetors in a number of important nredicel condiiions includinq hypertensiont 

diabetes, coronary heart disease risk factors, athma and joint disorders (Ward et aL, f980).

- trs 

There have been _a numbar of publications releting to the different sspects of the 

Tokelau Island Migrant Study but in this paper the mein. efiphagis wilt be m the difference in 

blood pressure, weight end diabetea between those non migrent in Tokelau and the migrants 

in New Zealend. A bibliography of publicatione relating to the Tokelau project ia included in 

the Proceedings of e Serninar m Migration Adplalion ind Haelth in t}|e pecific (prior, fggfl 

Btood pralarna 

A comparieon of age pecific npen systolic and fourth phase diastolic preerure by age 

and ex for Tokelau in 1976 and New Zealand 1975-77 examinatione ere et out in Figure-) 

for rnalee .and Figure 4 for fernaleg. Tfe significent differences are indicated. It can be seen 

lhat the increases in preesure are_greater in rnale then in fernale migrants end are evenly 

distributed among the age groups. The femalas can be seen to have a-steep", in"r"".e with 

Adjuating for age. and body mass the mean differences in systolic and diagtolic preesures 

!ge. 

9"!y::t. the migrants in N.Z. end thoee in Tokelau were 7.2 mmHg (p

ot 

- E 

E 

60 

-47 

Figure 4 

Age 0 15 25 30 

50 

N(pooled) tOg 120 216 160 ',a22 

Izse 

Miqrant 1975-77 

Hoir tttligrant 19/6 

'P

c E 

] 

-48 

Figure 5 

_ Eclru hffi mix8il Sh.dy 

Body k ffi, llignnt fr tkr ltiTan: Matc! 

Age O 15. 

- 

il(hofed).186 t4i! 2og tsg 124 76 42 

'P

Diabetes 

-49 

Diabetes is a common condition in Western societies and has some important and 

unusual features. Involving 2-4% of adults, it has been shown that the condition accelerates 

arteriosclerosis and its consequences and that diabetic women have a rate of CHD (coronary 

heant disease) that is similar to men. In non-diabetics, the sex ratio of CHD is around 4 males 

to I female. Diabetes is also associated wilh hypertension. The pattern in Pacific countries is 

an important parL of the perspective we are considering. 

Within the Pacif ic there is a remarkable range in the extent of diabetes - from 

population samples where the prevalence and incidence is low (e.g; New Guinea, Pukupuka) to 

ihose where it is common and increasing (Table 2). This is seen particularly where groups are 

undergoing urbenization or migration as in Western Samoa, Tokelau, Fiji and finally Nauru 

which ranks with the Pima lrdians of Arizona as having ihe highest rates in the world 

(Zimmett, 1977; Prior and Brauer, L979; Zimmett, 1982). 

Geo-ethnic Aroup 

Micronesians 

Polynesians 

Melanesians 

Indians 

T 

** 

Table 2 : Diabetes in the Pacific Region L975-I987 

Age-standardized prevalence rates* 

Nauru 

Kiribatit* (rural) 

(urban) 

Tuvalu 

Western Samoa (rural) 

(urban) 

Cook Islands** 

Rarotonga 

Manihiki 

Wallis Islandti* 

Niue# 

Loyalty Islands 

New Caledonia 

Fiji (rural) 

(urban) 

Papua New Guinea (rural) 

(urban) 

Fiji (rural) 

(urban) 

No. studied 

(20 years and over) 

456 

t08) 

1917 

t97 

745 

744 

LT77 

B' 

579 

TL92 

5t5 

t72 

477 

861 

r05 

I84 

452 

848 

Diabetes 

Prcvalence (%) 

n.t 

2.7 

7.5 

t.9 

2.7 

7.O 

6.0 

6.6 

2.7 

7.t 

2.O 

1.5 

1.8 

6.9 

0.8 

L5.4 

Lt.t 

14.8 

Age standardized to Western Samoa Census (I976) 

Recent survey - data not yet age standardized 

Diabetes prevalence according to WHO criteria 

Table provided by P. Zimmett, Epidemiology Unit, Royal Southern Memoriel Hcpital, 

Melbourne, Auslralia (includes some resulls published in Zimmett, 1982) 

The Nauruans stand out as suffering from the most severe epidemic of 20th century 

affluence and this is playing an important role in contributing to the high rate of diebetes. A, 

mean per capita income of around $l9rm0 for each Nauru man, woman and child has given 

them extraordinary qportuniLies for indulgence in rnany aneas including food, alcohol and 

decreased physical activity. 

The genetic predisposition, or genotype, for diabetes is thought to be common in nnst 

communities and obesity is the factor which is the most important risk faetor for the type 

now classified by WHO as Non Irsulin Dependant Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM) (WHO, f980). 

Obesity is not a new phenomenon in the Pacific and many Pacific people have experienced 

traditional affluence even though their material resources are limiLed. Adequate or more lhan

-50 

adequate food supplies, bounteous climaLe and soil, and limited demands for zustained daily 

exercise have allowed obesity to be common in areas such as Hawaii, Kinqdom of Tonga and 

parts of French Polynesia. Those m atolls with more limited tesources and different 

iifestyles sueh as on Pukapuka have not had the resources to allow them to become obese. 

Early explorers described some obese people in different part of the Pacific but no dala is 

available about their health status. 

The emergence of diebetes in Tokelau migrants in New Zealand compared with non 

migrants in Tolielau is providing valuable insights . into the risk factors associated with 

deielopment of diabetes and the part played by diet (Stanhope and Prior, f980). Tte duration 

of time in New Zealand and the emergence of new or incident cases can be compared in the 

two groups and with results from long term studies carried out smong New Zealand Maoris. 

The BMI differences between Tokelau migrants and Tokelau non-migrants are clearly 

shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6 for males and females respectively. The prevalence of 

diabetes ar6ng TokelauanJ in Tokelau, in New Zealand and among New Zealand Maori are 

shown in Table l. 

Table I : 

Age slandardised* prevalence (per hundred) of definite diabetesr by sex' 

in Tokelauans (in Tokelau and in New Zealand) and New Zealand Maoris' 

Male 

Female 

Tokelauans 

in Tokelau 

in New Zealand 

al two points in time 

aged 24 and over. 

New Zealand 

Maoris 

1968l7L 1975 r972174 L975177 re68l5e r974 

1.0 

t.t 

J.7 

8.5 

5.6 

8.0 

5.4 

rt,6 

+ lndirect standardisation using pooled groups as reference population. 

The increasing rate, particularly in Tokelau women in New Zealand can be seen' while 

those in men are not significantly different. The notably higher rates in the Maoris can be 

seen. 

The relationship with bodymass using the BMI can be examined furLher by studying the 

rates of diabetes in zubjects by sex and ethnic group in different tertiles of BMI. These are 

set out in Table 4. 

The rates in the women increase in the second tertile in both Maoris and Tokelauans 

white the increases are most marked in the third tertile in the males. Tl-e overall rates 

amonq Maoris are notably higher in both men and women than in Tokelauans in the same 

tertile. The question whether further increases will take place in the N.Z. Tokelau groups 

will be examined in the prospective surveys. 

The development of incidence cases, that is cases who did not have diabetes when first 

examined, have been estimaled in three groups, the non-migrants, those in Tokelaur the 

migrants, those seen in Tokelau and Lhen in N.Z. and the post-migrants, those first seen in 

N.Z. and lhen followed in N.Z. A rumber of bhe latter had spent time in Samoa en route to 

N.2., or were in N.Z. prior to first examinations by the Epidemiology Unit. 

Among females, post-migrants had the highest incidence, 2I.8 per.l0p0 per yearr and 

non-migrants tne lowest, 5.1, while migrants were intermediate, 14.f (X- = Lt.l{86 p = 

0.00.1.). Arnong males, the ineidences wefe: pos!-migrants II.0' non migrants 4.5 and migrants 

5.2r.but the dlfferences were not significant (X'= 4.L7, p = 0.I24). 

10.7 

II. I 

L2.4 

L6.4

-51 

Table 4 : Age-Standardized Prevalence of Definite Diabeteg in Polynesians 

by Sex and Tertiles of Body Mass Index (W/H') 

(Ages )5-74) 

Mdes 

Maori 

(New Zealand) 

Tokelauans 

(New Zealand) 

Tokelauans 

(lslands) 

Femaler 

Maori 

(New Zeeland) 

Tokelauans 

(New Zealand) 

Tokelauans 

(lslands) 

Body Mass Index 

Lov Medium High 

(2.78) 

t.996 

1.9% 

2.L% 

4.t% 

4.t% 

1.5% 

Body Mss Index 

14.896 

6.wo 

t.6Yo 

Lon Medium High 

Kz,re) (2.60-r.0r) (>1.04) 

l.l% 

2.gYo 

2.596 

lt.l% 

&7% 

4.t% 

12.8% 

Tfese are high rates, particularly in the females, and pose a major health risk. This is 

confirmed by comparisons with incidence rates of 16 per 1000 per year in Maori rnales and 

24.0 per 1000 per year in Maori females and rates of 25 per 1000 per year in Pima Indians. 

The work done by Zimmett and others has shown that diabetes constitutes a problem in 

a number of other populations in the Pacific, and with increasing affluence and development 

will carry with it the increased extent of alheroma and vascular complications that can cause 

serious rnorbidity and mortality (Zimmett et e!., 1977). 

The challenge being faced now is to find out how best preventive meesures can be 

undertaken in a way tha! involves the individual and community. 

Primordial prevention 

The prevention of the development of risk factors associated with particular disorders 

in societies in whom these particular conditions are occurring frequently has been put 

forward by WHO as an important goal and is termed Primordial Prevention. lt is being 

considered for such conditions as coronary heart disease (CHD), hypertension and diabetes. It 

is based on the effect known risk factors have in Western Srcieties and assunes that to 

neduce Lhese or prevent them developing will limit the emergence of the condition (WHO, 

1982). 

ln CHD it is hypertension, smoking and raised cholesterol that must be controlled. ln 

hypertension, avoidance of weight gain, salt restriction, and increesed potassium intake by 

dietary manipulaLion are important. In diabetes, weighL control, exercise and diet to ensure 

high fibre intake are impontant. 

8.5% 

9.1%

-52 

While the concept is excellent, the execution will prove difficult and will require a 

commitment to health that is far greater than has been shown. The pattern of resources and 

the inequities of distribution wiihin the region are of utmost importance. 

ln 1959 the Kingdorn of Tonga spent ).97 dollars per capita of population on healtht 

Il.7 percent of the total budget, In 1979 this had risen to 11.45 dollars, lI.2 percenl of total 

budget, while the same year New Zealand spent 100 dollars per head sr heallh. AusLralia and 

N.Z. have a major responsibility to help the Pacific countries in areas relaiing to health 

where this has been given a priority by the country concerned. The assistance to 

strengthening of health services through WHO, the South Pacific Commission and countries 

such as Australia and N.Z. consti[utes a body of important resources that can be used in 

many ways. 

Conclusion 

Tfn concept of Primary Health Care, of Primordial Prevention of chronic non-infectious 

diseases, and of the Pacific Way bring together a valuable triad which has the opportunity of 

enhancing greatly a number of importent areas of health and living in the Pacific. 

Heatth cannot be separated from other aspects of individual and communiLy growih and 

has to be accepted as one of the areas in which their input is of importance. Increasing 

responsibility for one's own health and for that of the family and community does not arise 

de novo and requires provision of carefully collected information as part of the data base. 

The work already carried out and referred to in this paper illustrates the part that 

epidemiology has to contribute in defining the extent of disorders zuch as hypertension and 

diabetes and the factors which contribute to iheir developnmnt. Programmes in these areas of 

individual and community health education and health promotion are the next important 

developments that must be systematically tackled in ways that are suited Lo the particular 

people, their customs and their environment (Prior and Tasman-Jones, I98l; Prior and 

Stanhopen 1980). 

"Health for all by the year 2000" is a clarion call put out by WHO but is a goal which 

will be difficult, if not impossible, to achieve. Our efforts [o move towards this in the 

Pacific countries will be more effective if we note how much progress has been made and 

make a real investment in our efforts and in the Pacific Way of rrnving towards the goal. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

The author wishes to acknowledge the strpport of the Medical Research Council of New 

Zealand, the Cardiovascular Disease Unit of WHO, the Wellington Hcpital Board and the 

many members of the Unit staff who have contributed to the Unit Research programme, and 

the Pacific people and communities who heve been involved.

-5t 

REFERENCES 

Finau, 9. A. S 4. l?ql. .Tl'n Tmga cardiovascular and metabolic study: design, demographic 

aapects and nedieal findings. cunmuniLy Health studies 7(D267-77. 

Geray' R. P. and P. Meyer. 1979. A new test showing ebnormal net Na+ and K+ fluxes in 

erythrocyteg of essential hyperteneive patients. Lencet l:j49, 

Jceph' J.' l. A- M. Prior, C. S. Salmond, and D. Stanley. 1981. Elevation of blood pressure 

essociated with migration. The Tokelau Island Migrant Study. J. Chron. Dis. 15:507-516. 

Ktberski. T., T. Flood, T. Tera and the New Zealand Cholera Relief Tearn. 1979. Cholera in 

the Gilbert lslands. L Epidemiological features. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.28(4):577-684. 

LqrtOr ll4' J. Mokry, A. Semese and R. Uili. 1982. Field trials of innovative eontrol agents in 

Tuvalu, South Pacific, towards an integr_ated nethodology against Aedes aeoypti. Ab-stracts, 

IIIrd lnternetional Colloquium m Invertebrate Pathologyr-Arig|ttonrffiE*ffA. 

Lenbert' S. lV. 1941. A Doctor in Paradise. J.M. Dent and Sons, Great Britain. 

McGrcgor, G. A. 1981. Nutrition: the changing scene. Dietary sodium and potassium intake 

and blood pressure. Lancet p. 750. 

Miles, J. A. R. 1979. Ross River Fever comes ro Fiji. Fiji Med. J.7t2L6-217. 

Page' L B.r rd Damon, and R. C. Moellering Jr. 1974. Antecedents of cardiovascular disease 

in six Solomon Island societies. Circulation 49zIlJ2, 

Palmer, A. s. and Parshu Ram. 1976. Dengue Fever in Fiji 1975. Fiji Med. J. I4:9. 

Prior, I. A. M. 1974. Cardiovascular epidemiology in New Zealand and the pacific. N. Z. Med. 

J. 8O2245-252. 

Prior, I. A. M. 1981. The Tokelau Island migrant study: bibliography, p.5g-4).ln c. Fleming 

and I. A. M- Prior [eds..J' Migration, adap[ation and treaitrr in the pacitic. peryei 

Educational Books Ltd, Wellington, NZ. 

Prior, I. A" Nt et s!. 1974. The Tokelau Island migrant study. Int. J. Epid. 1:225. 

Prior, l. A. M. -d 9. Brauer. 1979. Epidemiology of diabetes in the pacific, p. 6)-79. In M. 

S. 5. Ahuia [ed.]' Epidemiology in developing countries. Interprint, New Del'ni, India. ..: 

Prior, I. A" M.' J. Grimtey Evans, FL P. B. Havrey, F. Davidson and M. Lindsey. 196g. Sodium 

intake end blood pressure in two Polynesian populations. New Eng. J. of lvleO. Z],915L5-52O. 

Priorr l. A. M. and J. N4. Stanhope. 1980. Ellood pressure patterns, salt use and migration in 

the Pacific, p.24)-26?. In H. Kesteloot and J. V. Jmsen teds.l, Epidemiology of arterial 

blood pressure. Develop6ents in Cardiovascular Medicine, vol. B. Marlinus Nijhof f 

Publishers, The Hague. 

Prior, I. A. M. and C. Tasman-Jmes. 1981. New Zealand Maori and pacific polynesians, p. 

227-267. In Ft C. Trowell and D. P. Burkitt [eds.] The Wm[ern diseases: their- emergence 

and prevetllon. Edwerd Arnold publishers Ltd, Lmdon. 

Roberts, A. B. et al. 1979. Cholera in the Gilbert Islands. II. Chemical and labora[ory 

findings. Am. .} T-rop. Med. Hyq. 28(4):695-69I. 

Sinnett' P. F. and H. M" Whyte. 1976. Epidemiological studies in a total highland population 

Tu Kenta. J. Chron. Dis. 26:205. 

Stanhoper J. M. and I. A. M. Prior. 1980. The Tokelau Island migrant study: prevalence and 

incidence of diabetes mellitus. N. Z. Med. J. 9Zz4I7-42L.

.A 

Ward, R. Fl, A B. Hoopen, md .I W. FfuntsfiEn. 1980. Pedigree std blood praaeurel genctic 

epidemiology in a migrant isolate, T*elau ln l-l Cairnr, .tr L Lym end lttL Ft Skolniek 

[eda] Cgrcer incidence in dafined populatior* Coldrpring Laboratoryr Col@ring Hertort 

USA. p. 151, 

WHO. 1978. TtE Alms Ata Csrferance sr Primary l-fselth Cae. WHO Chconiclo 

t2(lI)E{{17-458. 

tflFlO. 1980. Wald Health Organization Expert Cqnmittee m Diabetes Mellitur' 2nd Rcport. 

Teclnical Rqort Scniea 646. tflFFr Goneva" 

Wl-O. 1982. Prirnordial prevention of'cerdiovscular disease in daveloping cotrttrica. Report 

of WFIO Tck Fccer'Ganeva. 

Zimmett, P. at eL L977. flr high prevalence of diabetes rnllitue m I csntral Pcific laland. 

Diabetologia lJrlll. 

Zimmett, P. et aL 1980. Bbod pressure ctudiee in nrral and urban Weetern Sgnoa. Med. J. 

Aust. 2:202. 

Zimmett, P. 1982. Type 2 (non ineulin-dependent) diab'etee - an epidemiological overview. 

Diabetologi a 22t199 -4L1.

AN]€X I 

-55 

DECLARATION tr ALMA ATA 

I. The conference strongly reaffirms that health, which is a state of complete physical, 

mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or inf irmiiy, is e 

fundamental human righl and that the attainnent of the highest possible level of freailrr is a 

most important worldwide social goal whose realizaiion requires the action of many other 

social and economic sectors in addition to the health sector. 

n. The existing gross inequality in the health status of the people, particularly between 

developed and developing countries as well as within eountries, is politically, soiially and 

economically unacceptable and is, therefore, of common concern to all countries. 

UI. Economic and social development, based m a New International Economic Orden, is 

of basic impontance to the fullest attainrnent of health for all and to the reduction of the 

gap between the health sLatus of the developing and developed countries. The promotion and 

prolection of the health of the people is essential to sustained economic and social 

development and contributes to a better quality of life and to world peace. 

IV. The people have the right and duty to participate individually and collectively in 

the planning and implementation of their health care. 

V. Governnents have a responsibility for the health of their people which can be 

fulfilled mly by the provision of adequale healih and social rreasures. -A main social target 

of governrnents, internalional organizations and the whole world community in the corning 

decades should be the attainnrent by all peoples of the world by the year ZOOO of a level oi 

health that will permit them to lead a socially and economicitty proOuctive life. primary 

health care is the key to atLaining this target as part of development in the girit of social 

j ust i ce. 

VI. Primary health care is essential health care based on practical, scientifically sound 

and socially acceptable methods and technology made universally accessible to individuals and 

families in the community through their full participation and at a cost that the community 

and counlry can afford to maintain at. every stage of their development in the spirit o? 

self-reliance and self-determination. lt forms an integral part both of the country,s health 

system' of which it is the central function and main focus, and of the overall social and 

economic developmenl of the community. It is the first level of contact of individuals, the 

family and community with the national health syslem bringing health care as close ari 

possible to where people live and work, and constitutes the Jir;t element of a continuing 

health care proeess. 

VII. (Sets out details of aspects of Primary Health care under 7 headings) 

Vnl. All governments should formulate national policies, strategies and plans of action 

to launch and sustein primary health care as part of a comprehensivJ nationai health system 

and in coordination with other sectors. To this end, it will be necessary to exercise political 

will, to mobilize the country's resources and to use available external resources rationally. 

IX. All eountrles should cooperate in a spirit of partnership and service ro ensure 

primary health care for all people since the attainrnent of health Uy peopte in any one 

counLry directly concerns and benefits every other country. In this'context the joint 

WHO/UNICEF report on primary health car" constitutes a solid basis f or the further 

development and operation of primary health care throughout the world. 

X. An acceptable level of health for all the people of the world by the year 2000 can 

be attained through a fuller and better use of the world's resources, a coneiderable part of 

which is now spent on armaments and military conflicts. A genuine policy of independence, 

peace, detente and disarmament could and should release additional resources that could weli 

be devoted to peaceful aims and in particular to the aceeleration of social and economic 

development of which primary health care, €x! an essential part *rould be a[otted its proper 

share.

-57 

PACIFIC ISLAIOS' HYDROGEOLOGY AlS WATER OUALITY 

W.R. Dde* and &C. Wetarhouee+* 

Department of scientific and Industrial Reseerch, wellington, New Zealandr 

and 

New Zealand Geological Survey, Otara, New Zealand** 

AESTRACT 

Water is the most critical of all resources qr oceanic tropical islands. ln 

most ceses the ability to carry out deteiled etudies is limited but technical 

experience has been gained from pracLical fieldwork. 

Following some six years regearch on I range of Pacif ic lslands it is 

suggested that for practical purposes the Gybern-Herzberg principle be adhered 

to. Undoubtedly some modification will be made in the future but at present basic 

information needs to be obtained on the size, shape and thickness of the 

fresh-water body - the lens in the case of atolls, and sbterranean flows grr the 

higher islands. 

Mmitoring of both the levels of fresh water in drilled or dlg wells and of 

the salinity are also requirements Lo engure safe levels of abstraction. 

Water quatity from limestone bodies is similar from different parts of the 

Pacif ic but provides problems for some industrial uses. That from volcanic 

reservoirs differs noLiceably from limestone $)urces in chemical constituents. 

A major knowledge gap about potable waters is lhe lack of information, 

especially on a regular basis, about biological contamination. 

Introduction 

It has long been known or suspected that useful fresh ground-water rupplies can be 

obtained from oceanic islands in the Pacific. Until rccently, however, its discovery and 

subsequent abstrection has largely been a matter of trial and error. 

The islandg fall into three categories, conveniently terned High Islands, Raised Coral 

Atollsr and Corel Atolls. Each are briefly described below, together with the findings of a 

few workers engaged cr oceanic-island water-supply studies. 

Hioh ielandg 

The term is informally 

nerrow coral reefs (Figure 

Rarotonga, Western Scnoa, 

Wallis and Futuna. 

Geology 

applied to islands with an emergent volcanic core surrounded by 

f ). The volcanic interior may be rugged or 

Havraii, or domed, 

rrmuntainous' e.g. 

or plateau-like, e.g. Mangaia (Cook Islands), 

The high islands are formed by volcanos rising from the sea floor in a eeries of 

spasmodic eruptive evenls pnead over a period of e few tens of million years. A conplex 

history of elevation, subsidencer and fluctuating sea level is indicated by fringing coral reefs 

which are necorded at various heights m the flanks of the volcanie pile below sea level, and 

up to 70 m above present day sea level (asl).

c 

o 

EN 

Jl' 

(U 

o, 

,o 

-ts 

m 

= o, 

-r, 

ao 

J 

-58 

Co, 

.o 

i:t 

) a]_ 

.. .. .: 

I 

CN 

.E Lo 

tn 

q, 

o 

G 

L 

o 

o, 

] 

ctr 

=E 

o, 

C' 

E 

-- L 

c) 

o, 

c J 

+ 

EN 

.E c 

.E 

I 

VI 

water table 

Figure I : High island (half width) showing emergent volcano with feeder 

flanking coral reef. Rain water is shed by direct runoff, or 

compartments in the volcanics or to the fresh-water lens. 

Hydrology 

' i'.:.'..'. :..j,. ? i;:ir.:.ii.:'j 

ter tabte 

dikes and sills, and 

percolates to water 

Oceanic islands' water resources are derived entirely from rainfall. The volcanics of 

the high islands are relatively impermeable and much of the precipitation is shed as surface 

runoff via streams. That part which penetrates the rock to the water table can be perched on 

confined to ground-water compartments formed by dikes, sills, or flows. Leakage from these 

confining beds allows ground waten to percolate vertically or laterally Lo lower level, and 

ultimetely it replenishes a fresh-water lens (descnibed below), the surface of which might be 

a few centimetres asl. 

The surrounding reef, parl of which may be up to 70 m asl, has a karst topography and 

water falling on its surface, and that shed from the interior volcanics moves rapidly through 

fissures, caves, solution channels and cracks to the fresh-water lens. 

(1) 

Water Resources 

Fresh water is obtained from a number of sources on high islands by: 

Roof Catchment. Individual household tanks, or community tanks filled by 

specially-designed, roof -catchment structures.

-59 

Q) streems. Direct ebstrection via water intake in the stream bed 

villages, or simply by collection in bucketg and tine. 

(l) Gallerieo. Tren,cheg drg below the water tsble in streem valleys, 

pipes and back filled. Ground weter seeps through the poroua pipei 

via reaervoina or directly by pipeline to villages. - 

End reticuleted to 

lined with porous 

and is reticulated 

(4) Maui (okimming) Tmnels. Vertical or inclined shafts or adits dug to about the weter 

tabler end me or more horizontal tunnels congtructed laterally iuat betow the water 

level. Highly successful on Hawaii and also used 6t T$iti. 

(5) Springs. Perched aquifere teaking laterally form ryrings at varioug levels around the 

volcanic alopes. Ssne of these eleveted prings, well inland, end near villages, have 

been tapped and the weter used for drinking, waahing, and bathing. At lower levele 

where they emerge at impermeable dike, gill or flow contacts, aprini water is directed 

into hand-dug rock-lined gtrallow 'troughsr and used for community purposes. Springe 

also bubbb up through the eand around the foreshore, and holes 'scooped in -looie 

material sre used for washing and bathing. 

(6) Dug Wells. Hand-dug welle in weathered volcanic rocks, or in elluvial depoaits near the 

coast provide small a.rpplies for individual familiee. Their yield is generally small 

beceuse of the limite imposed by physically digging below the water tablJ. 

(7) Driltholes. Generally eited on volcanics and drilled to intersect perched or neer 

eea-level aquifers. Their yield is relatively small but following testing, it can be 

regulated to euetain a constant flow for en indefinite period. The iepth of the hole end 

pump inteke must be indicaled bef ore drilling commences, and the collar height 

surveyed accurately relative to aea level. 

In the Southern_ Cook Group, holes drilled in the volcanics from LJ m to 100 m depth 

are being developed.for community supplies. Punp test analyses indicate that about f Vi is 

available from the better holea, although in all csses tragsmissivity (gn indication of the 

ability of the. aquifer to trensmit water) is low at b.Z m./d to ti mzla (Waternouse and 

Petty, in prees). 

Raiged coral atolls 

Raised atolls comPrise a wbnrerged volcanic core slrrounded and capped by generally 

thick coral limestone (Figure 2). The limestone, estimated to be J00 m'ffrict on-Niue, is 

asgunEd to heve formed mainly in response to tectonic elevation and subsidence of the 

volcanic edifice, and. to e lesser degree to eustatic fluctuations of sea level. Tmgatapu, 

Niue, Nauru and Banaba are good examples of raised atolls. 

Gcology 

Sane raised atolls show the original atoll topography, as on Niue, with an old, elevated, 

inland lagoon gJrrounded. by a peripheral reef ri'dg6. ' Odtt"rt are relatively flat, or gently 

tloping, the maximum height generally being betwjen 60 m and B0 m asl., e.g. Tongitapr4 

Banaba 

Raised atolls are considered !o be intermediate in age between the young high islands 

and old coral atolls because the volcanic base m which thl coral became established is now 

nowhere in evidence. but it still represents a signif icant part of the island's mass. progressive 

overell eubsidence, during which time the coraf continued to grow upwards, may have been in 

exce8s of I kilometre over the last l0 million years, as thL oldest corels recognized are 

Oligocene to Miocene in age. 

Hydrology 

The highly-permeable limestone or corel-sand crrface m raised atolls allowe rainfall to 

drein rapidly downwards to the fresh-water lena near sea level. In a f ew instancee 

impermeable clays and small, impernreable depressions pond the rain water locally, but laterel 

runoff into nnre porous beds and high-evapoiation rates contribute t" ."Jii-**"ce drying.

SL 

o 

'or 

=o 

60 

sub s tr uc tur e 

| 'r | | 

rv---]--T-- 

Figure 2 t Raised coral atoll (half width). Subperged volcanic core capped by coral 

limestone many hundreds of melres thick. No strearns are present and lain water 

penetrates rapidly to the fresh-water lens. Overpumping, with corrsequent lowering 

of the lens surface to on below sea level, will yield salt watec. 

No sLreams are present on raised atolls and all water for local use is derived frorn roof 

cat.chments, drillholes, duq wells, or brackish ponds and seeps. Of Lhese the rnost prornising 

for future development are drilled wells for comrnunity/horticultunal purposes, with noof 

catchment and shallow dug wells conLinuing Lo be used where appropriate. 

Investigations of ground water resources by drilling on raised atolls over the past few 

years has confirmed that a thin layer of fresh water is present 'floating'on sea watef. The 

principle, expressed by [he Ghyben-Herzburg formulan is a ratio describing the static relation 

of fresh ground water and sea watet and states that for each uniL rneasurernent of fnesh 

water above sea level, the salt water surf ace will be displaced 40 tirnes that unit 

measurement below sea level. Thus 0.5 m of fresh water asl rs theoretically balanced by 20 m 

of fresh water bsl, but in praclice seldom, lf ever is lhis precise ratio ratio aLtained. 

Never[heless, until funther studies in oceanic island grr:und waten dynarnics are undertakertt 

this simple 4{J:I ratio is accepLable as an elemerltary yardstick. 

Two islands on which solne ground-waten work has been done are Niue and Tongatapu . 

On Niue, Jacobson and Hill (f980) showed the fresh-waler aquifer [o be doughnut 

o, 

o 

E 

r= L 

o

-61 

shaped. [n the cenlre of the island (the old lagoon) lhe top surface of the aquifer is l.g] m 

asl. The thickness of the fresh-waten lens, inferred from resistivity data, ranges from 40-80 

m in the centre to 50-170 m beneath the former atoll rim, and sea level at thL coast. They 

concluded that the inregular shape of the lens is probably due to variations in permeability 

within the limestone. 

. J;cobson and Hill (ibid) calculated that fresh water storage on Niue amounted to about 

4-6 km-, and that punping and other Lests indicated a high permeability in the afluifer 

(specific capacity of LZ.(A l/s/m at one drill site). They zuggehed a safe yietO ot ff mrTOlha 

in their model. 

On Tongatapu some 60 dug or drilled wells from a few rnelres to over 60 m deep 

penetrated coral limestone. Pfeiffer (1971) eslimated that between 5% and I5% of the 

averaqe annual rainfall of 1750 mm penetrated?to the aquifer, and by assuming a rechaqqerof 

about l0% over ther,entire island (260 km') he estimated thal of the 45 x l0rm)/y 

replacement, 25000 m'ld can be extracted from wells. 

Waterhouse (1976) established that the lens zurface stood 0.5 m to 0.75 m asl in lhe 

Tmgatapu Water Reserve, and frorn punp test data calculated a transmissivity at IZOO mtld. 

The pump-test data, and rainfall figures were further analysed by Hunt (1978) who calculated 

:_p^91""+ility of 1.5 cm/s, and estimated that 259t0 to ]0% of the average rainfall, or about 

75000 m-, reached the aquifer. 

From the above it appears that some 25000 ml to 75000 ,l/a rnigt,, be abstracted from 

the aquifer underlying Tmgatapu. 

Coral atolls 

These mcur as a ring-shaped coral reef appearing as a low, roughly-circular, elliptical, 

or horseshoe-shaped conal island, or a ring of closely-spaced coral isEts encircling or 'nearly 

encireling a shallow lagoon. They may vary in diameter from I km to over 100 km and are 

particularly common in the western and central Pacific. The zubnrerged, deeply-buried rock 

on which the coral limestone originally grew is presunnd to be volcani- (Figure )). 

Tfle Gilbett Islands (Kiribati), Tuvalu, Tokelau, Nonthern Cook Group, and French 

Polynesia include good examples of true coral atolls. 

Geology 

Coral atolls are formed by contemporaneous upwards growth of reef coral during 

gradual $bsidence of the volcanic s.rbstructure. Baillard (I9Sf) described the birth anO 

gnowth of an atoll through its different stages of formation from the development of the 

volcanic edifice m which the coral beceme established (probably in the mid Tertiary to the 

present). 

Under favourable conditions of climale, temperat.ure, and depth, coral larvae zuspended 

in the sea water form scatLered colonies sr the volcanic flanks of the erbnnrged or emerging 

island. They eventually form an encircling reef which itself is raised or lowered by the samJ 

tectonie forceg controlling the elevation and srrbsidence of the volcano. The fins-l stages of 

atoll formation are considered to be subsidence srd erosion, and es the volcano sinks to 

greater depths the coral continues to grow upwards and ultimately cornpletely covers the 

volcenie srbstructurc. Gradually the fringing barrier rcef restricts the circulation of water 

between the open (rcean and the lagoon to the passages in the reef and lagoonal sediments 

aceumub[e in the largely shallow, protected basin in which grow a few coral heads. The 

outcr rim at this stage coffpriges cemented beach rock, coral, sand, conglomerate, storm 

debris' and thin coil' end rarely etteins a height of npre than a few firetres *L 

By virtue of thein sinking to great depths and the long time required to accornplish 

thi!' etolls sre thought to be affrcrng the geologically oldeet of oceanie islandg. This 

arsunptionr however, muet be treated wit,h caution beceuse eroeional criteria, me of the 

tools ured in datingr (Kear 1957) are inpossible to apply when the volcano in queetion is 

cotnpletely rubrrerged and capped by thick coral (1400 m m Eniwetok in the Marshall Islande) 

(Menard f964). In addition, a KlAr date m a near etoll, Aitutaki, is younger than that for 

Rrotonga (Dalrymple et el. 1975), a young volcano by any stenderd.

-62 

Figure ) : Coral atoll (hslf width). Original island almost cornpletely strbmerged. The 

peripheral rim rises to a few rEtres above sea level and comprises cemented 

beach rock, conal, Band, conglomerate, and storm debris. Thin soil and sparse 

vegetation are usuallY Present. 

Hydrology 

vl 

., 

C' 

.E 

lJ 

t E8 

!, 'c 

o, 

t6 -o 

=En (p 

3 

Most pacific island etolls are remote and spersely populated. Liquid requirements.of 

the inhabitants have traditionally been furnished by coconuts or rein-water tanks. Brackish 

water, mainly for washing and baUhing, is available in some instances from holes dug in beach 

sand at the fresh-waterl-salr-water interface. While these sources have proven adequate' at 

teasL to sustain life on the atolls, a limiled fresh waler resource might be exploited from the 

water lens (Ghyben-Herzburg lens) underlying each atoll, the principle of which is discussed 

under Raised Atolls (above).-Further investigations inLo developing this reso.urce is necessary 

as tidal fluctuation, rainfall, and the latere-l extent, thickness, and hydraulic characteristics 

of the lens itself will vary from aloll to atoll. 

Mather Og7:' estabtished a model for the development of the ground-water resources 

on atolls in which he assumed that "abstracting ground water from a fresh-water lens is 

equivalent to reducing vertical recharge, and an Jstimate of the sr.rstainable yield of lhe bns 

can be madet'. 

Jacobson (1975) 

Ocean, and calculated 

.t 

applied Mather's hypoLhesis to Cocos.-(Kee-ling) atoll in the Indian 

that an effective rechange to the aquifer of 500 mm/y, and a water 

{, 

srbjlry

-6t 

table glevation ranging from 0.I7 to 0.16 m asl, would produce a sustaineble yield of about 

2oo m'ld. 

The factors governing the shape of fresh-water lens are rainfall periodieity of 

droughts, tides, seepage, and abstraction nates. To minimize drawdown, Jecobson (ibid) 

recommends infiltretion galleries rather than dug wells. Punping should be cemied out 

continuously and at a rate such that. the thickness of the fresh-water lens is maintained at 

more than half the original thickness. It follows that abstraction points should be located in 

places where the lens is thickest. 

Because of the delicate hydraulic balance at the fresh-water/salt-water interface, the 

pumping-water level should be carefully monitored. The punp intake should never be set 

below mean sea level because when the cone of pumping depression intersects sea-level 

datumr all the available fresh waier is exhausted and upwelling sea water will enter the hole. 

Once contaminatedr the hole may take years before a balance is re-established, although in a 

few instances it may be possible to accelerate the process by artificial recharge. 

Clearly' the ground-water lens configuration will vary from island to islend and much 

investigational work remains to be done. However, it is proven that the fresh-water principle 

is valid in coral island situations and its abstraction is possible under given conditione. 

Weter qualitv 

It ig clear thet we cen classify the geological struct,ure of Pacific islands into three 

broad groups. Both the type of waier resource and broad chemical characteristics of water 

quality also conform to this grouping. 

There is little information on the bacteriological quality of water on different islands 

although unconfirrned accounts by technicians working in hospital laboratories in the region 

indicate Lhe presence of coliform bacteria in many samples and a general lack of treatment 

of water supplies. 

Our interest has been in providing drinking waler of an acceptable standard and the 

World Health Organizationrs tecommendations have been used to judge water quality from a 

chemical point of view. Ssne of these crileria are given in Teble I (World Health 

Organization l97I). 

B::?.T" z.o-8.5 

I"1ffilii1" 6.i-s.2 

.Naturally 

Table I : WHO quality for drinkipg water 

(except for pH all as g/m-) 

pH Ca Mg Cl SOr, 

Total 

Hardness 

as Ca CO, Mn Fe Cu Zn 

75 

200 

50 200 

I50 600 

200 

400 

r00 0.05 0.1 

500 0.5 

occuming waten erpplies vary somewhat from these figures. Turtidity (not 

listed) is a useful measure of alteration to the aquifer, so is the -presence of niirogen 

compounds. Heevy metal contamination mey indicate other variation from good quality. 

Generally there ere aesthetic contaminants which make water less attractive to drink or 

toxic naterial which renders it dangerous to drink. Normal rain water has a pH of 5.6. 

Overall we have few chemicel analyses and are unable to pnesent more than examples 

of tests from specific sites. There are no deta from sarnples of the same source taken at 

different times. We can, however, trace the changes which rain water undergoes as it pasees 

into different aquifers. 

1.0 

0.05 

t.5 

5.0 

r5.0

Rain Wetar 

-g 

SrnplescollectedfromroofsinTokelauandRarotongatypify 

the expected anelYses of 

,ein r"i"i (Tsble 2). Ssne contaminetion of wind-blown coral dt'tgt and salt-spreY as well aa 

msterial weshed from wooden ahekea which ere used as roofing et the Rarotongan Hotel 

appear in the Cmk lgland samPle. 

a 

b 

pH 

Ca 

6.0

a 

b 

c 

d 

e 

t 

a 

b 

c 

d 

e 

f 

I 

(a) 

(b) 

(c) 

(d) 

(e) 

(f) 

(s) 

pH 

7.t 

7.4 

7.2 

7.9 

7.8 

7.5 

9.t 

Ca 

ND 

ND 

66 

68 

5l 

45 

64 

-6' 

Table 4 : Samples from margins of high islands 

(Southern Cook group) 

Mg 

r0 

hD 

I2 

L5 

102 

,7 

l0l 

Mauke, makatea drillhole 

Rarotonga airport 

Mauke, Vaitango cave 

Atiu, Te Miro cave 

Atiu, Vaiakururu cave 

Atiu, Piripuroto cave 

Mitiaro, Lake Te Rotonui 

pH Ca M9 

7.' 41 

7.t 47 

7.4 @ 

7.2 t04 

7.2 100 

8.5 105 

(a) 

(b) 

(c) 

(d) 

(e) 

(f) 

22.O 

5.t 

8.0 

5.0 

10.0 

7,0 

Total 

Alkalinity Cl 

68 

,98 

2t8 

2t0 

246 

220 

t5 

29 

?7 

r07 

210 

147 

t50 

1580 

soa 

]J 

L6 

ta 

28 

22 

48 

r84 

Table 5 : Samplgs from raised coral islands 

Total 

Total Hardness 

Alkalinity Cl SOO as Ca CO, Mn 

245 

148 

?19 

550 

t19 

t55 

7L 

124 

25t 

21 4 

98 I8 

44 ND 

209 

B' 

194 

290 

to5 

292 

Niue, Tuku'ofe cave 

Niue, Vaiola factory bore 

Niue, Liku Developrnent Block bore 

Tmgatapu, Tr.pou College well 

Tangatapu, Hu'atolitoli well 

Tcrgatapu, Veiola Hcpital well 

Total 

Hardness Metals 

as Ca CO, Fe+Mn 

0.0I 0.02 

0.01 2.or 

0.01 0.15 

0.01 0.01 

0.01 0.01 

0.01 0.0r 

76 

J2T 

215 

ND 

548 

ND 

576 

Metals 

Fe Cu 

low 

low 

low 

Iow 

low 

low 

low 

Zn 

0.01 0.0r 

0.07 0.45 

0.05 0.7t 

0.01 0.12 

0.01 0.20 

0.01 o.o2 

. Tb samplel strow some similaritieg within the two sets. Calcium level, total alkalinity, 

chloride and total hardness are apparently higher in the Tongatapu bore samptes than thoie 

from Niue. All analyses for retals are low bul of interest arJ the very slightiy elevated zinc 

figures from Niue dr.re probably to galvanized pipes although soils 6l ttjue are all deficient in 

zinc which is pplied s a pesture and crop fertilizer. 

Our final gnoup of samples was laken from galleries m an etoll in Kiribati. Water 

comes from a very thin lens contained within the limestone rock. Highest lend elevation is 

only a few metree agl. Values are given in Table.6 and ere similar to tf,ose given by Jacobson 

(197O for Hsne lsland, Cocos group (lndian Ocean). 

Reoults from atoll weters sppear similar to those of raiged coral islands. Both semples 

were high in total alkalinity. Chloride level will be influenced by the sampling site in relation 

to the thicknees of the freeh-water lens.

pH 

7.5 

7.' 

Ca 

Wall Management 

t07 l0 

72 47 

66 

Table 6 : Samples from an atoll in Kiribati 

Total 

Mn Alkalinity 

447 

t82 

Total 

Hardness Metals 

Cl 5OO as Ca CO, Mn Fe Cu Zn 

t5 

204 

4.9 

46.0 

590 

rs 

all low 

all low 

Data from Western Samoa (A. C. Mclntosh, personal communica[ion l98l) indieate that 

many boreholes have been abandoned m account of unacceptably high satinity. He notes that 

9 boreholes showed significant increases in salinity - some by a factor of J or 4. For example 

the Taga borehole originally tested at 58 ppm had increased lo 228 ppm by l98l (duration not 

known). Sorne borehole analyses now exceed the WHO permissible value of 600 ppm. 

Discussion 

Chemical analyses for a limited number of key elements illustrate how rain water is 

modified by the reservoir which contains it. Clearly water contained in aquifers close to sea 

level may be contaminaled by salt and that from limestone will have high hardness levels. 

Where industrial boilers are used for producing steam, special treaLment will be required to 

overcome scaling problems. 

Although the pattern we have illustrated is a simplification of the situation for any 

particulan aquifer, the evidence from Western Samoa of increasing salinity in some wells at 

lower levels indicates that regular monit,oring is essential to ensute that stipulated rates of 

draw off are adhered to. Unless each island sets up an effective monitoring programme they 

will be unaware of incipient dangers especially to the fragile fresh-waLer lens and even to 

sub-zurface flows if overdrawn. In the case of the lens, a lon! period will probably be 

required to re-establish the hydraulic equilibrium and shape of the former lens. 

Chemical analyses give a good guide to the quality of water urpplies from Pacific 

islands but the limited understanding we have reeds lo be supplencnted by regular 

bacteriological and salinity checks and regular monitoring of depths' to water and punping 

rates. 

Towards this end DSIR has initiated a co-ordination programme to assist developrnenl of 

new water rresources in the Pacific. This involves six steps starting with hydrogeological 

evaluation, the siting of wells, the supervision of drilling and punp tests, chemical analysis of 

selected samples, installation of punps and support for a monitoring programme to ensure 

safe levels of draw off. 

Acknowledoments 

AII chemical analyses of water samples were carried out by staf f of the Water 

Laboratory, Chemistry Division, DSIR, Wellington. We thank Mr Colin Downes, Chemistry 

Division for helpful criticism of this paper.

-67 

REFERENCES 

Baillard, J.P. 1981. Birth and growth of en atoll. Souti Pacific Bulletin, First Ouarter l98l. 

pp 7-L3. 

Delrymple, G.8., R.D. Jarrard, and D.A. Clegue. L975. KlAr ages of gome volcenic rocks from 

the Cook and Austre.l Islands. Geological Society of Anerici Bulletin 86tL467-67. 

Hunt' B.H. 1978. An analysis of the groundwater resourcee of Tongatapu Island. Civil 

Engineering Reeearch Report No 7815. University of Canterbury, ChriJtchurch, NZ. 20 pp. 

Jacobson, G. 1976. The freehwater lens m Hsne Island in the Cocos (Keeling) Ielande. Blvfr, 

J. of Austrelian Geol. and Geophys. L(4)tJj5-J4J. 

Jacobson, G., and P.J. Hill. 1980. Groundweter resources of Niue Island, BMR Record 

te80lt4. 

Kear, D. 1957. Erosional stages of volcenic cones 

38(7)267I-82. 

Mather' J.D. 1975. Development of the groundwater nesources of small lirnestone ialends. e.J. 

Eng. Geol, 8:l4l-150. 

Menard, l.lW. 1954. Marine geology of the pacific. McGraw-Hill. 

as indicators of age. N.Z. J Sci. Tech. 

Pfeiffer, D.I. 197t. outline of the hydrology of the island of rongatapu (Kingdonr of ronga, 

South Pacific). Advisory Services Report, U.N. Economic Csnmiieion for Asla and the Fa 

East. 16 p. 

Waterhouse, B.C. 1976. Nuku'elofa water supply. N.Z. Geologicel Survey Repont, Otara. 8 p. 

It,aterhouse, 8.C., and D.R. Petty. In press. Hydrogeology of the Southern Cook Group, South 

Pacifie. N.Z. Geological Survey Bulletin 98. 

World Heslth Organization. 1971. International standarde for drinking water, lrd Edition. 

Wmld Health Organization, Geneva.

u 

Introduction 

-69 

POLLUTION PROBLEMS IN TI-E SOUTH PACIFIC: 

FERTILIZERS, BIOCIDES, WATER zuppLIES AhD TRBAN WASTES 

R.J. Morrigon and .}E, Brodie 

Institute of Natural Resources 

University of the South pacific 

P. O. Box 1158, Suva, Fiji 

ABSTRACT 

The South Pacific region is fortunale in being relatively free of major 

pollution problems. However, increasing development ind the fragility of some of 

the regional ecosystems tnean that potential dangers exist. Localized problems 

with pesticides and herbicides have occurred, Uut at present fertilizer use is 

limited and thus does not constitute a major hazard. The principal cause for 

concern is Lhe contamination of water zupplies by biocides, human and animal 

wastes. These problems are particularly acute in atoll environments having a 

limited fresh-water supply. 

There is some evidence of dunrping in the South Pacific of aqricultural 

chemicals that have been banned in developed countries. Lack of eiperienced 

personnel in monitoring the introduction of these chemicals plus inadequate 

knowledge of storage methods, disposal problems and safe handling nrethods 

constitutes a major problem for many small island communities 

Future developnrents in the use of agricultural chemicals and in the disposal 

of human and animal wastes need to be carefully monitored if serious pnoblems 

are to be avoided. This can only be achieved with the urgent establishment of an 

appropriate regional environrnental monitoring programme. 

The outsider thinking of the South Pacific visualizes coral sand beaches, palm trees, 

cleer water, etc.l the possibility that the area might be polluted is seldom considered. 

Fortunately for much of Lhe region this is the case aJ it is relatively pollution free, but this 

situation is changing and potential problems do exist. 

Development demands of the various countries rnean increased industrial activity, 

increased u_s9 of agricultural chemicals, and increased amoun[s of waste products requirinq 

disposal. This is particularly important given the fragitity of South pacific ecosystems. 

Concern for ecosystems is mainly in terms of their abilitf to sstain and maintain themselves, 

end thus provide food, shelter and water for thoge life forms present (and we selfish humans 

consider human life particularly in this context). In terms of their ability to sustain human 

life' Pecific eccyatems are fragile by the very neture of the region - a large rumber of 

small island systems separated by considerable expanses of oceari (except foi papua New 

Guinea). In the larger continental countries, if one ecosystem or part of a system is damaged 

by either human of natural activities, then others can be called upon to iitt tf,r g"p uitil 

recovery has ccurred. TNs "fall-back" option is freqirently not available in man! Facific 

countries. It is therefore particularly important thet potential pollution problems be identified 

and the necessary steps taken to minimize them.

Fertilizarg 

-70 

At prerent it qpeare thet fertilizer uoe in the region dme not presant any major 

probbme. Ttn probhmr that can arise ete: 

- accumubtion of exqas! fertilizer rneteriels in freeh water or lagoon 8yltems giving rire lo 

algel blooms end the aventuel death of aquatic faunar and 

- rccumulation of toxic msterials arch a nitrate c inavy r:tsls in ground weter. 

Fartilizer usc in the region is rather limited with countriea like Kiribati gtd Tuvalu 

using lees then 5 tonnee/yr in totsl. Even countries like Papua New Guinear. Solomon lrlende 

anO fili wtrich use l0rs of thoueande of tone of fertilizer do so at relatively low ratss per 

unit land araa. Nitrate levele in ground water erppliee ere generelly low end phosphate.is 

etrongly absorbed by meny regionil soila. Unfortunately, there ic no information st the 

accuriubtion of heavy melala ln soils end ground water but it is unlikely the! levels (from 

fertilizer sources at least) are high enough to cause concorn. 

Biocidea (Peaticides, Herbicides, lnsecticidee, Fr.ngicideer Weedicidea) 

Since Wald War II there has been a marked rise in the rumber of meterials evaileble. 

Prior to 1940 mly a few tons of compounde, uaually derivetives of ersenicr eopper' lead' 

rnercury, erphur or cfilorine, plue a few plant extracte like nicotine urlphate rtd pyrethrumt 

were u'sad. Today well over 1000 products are availabb. Tfe uge of some of these has been 

the agbject of considereble criticism, aometimes unjr.rstified, htt it ie essential to note many 

problems heve arieen due to improper use of the rnaterials (Mos/bray, 1984; Thaman, I984I 

In the Pacific, problems with biocidee uaually eriae only in ereag,of intensive crop 

Broduction where the co8t8 of using these materiele cen be recouped. Demends by 

governnents for increased agricultural production have led and will lead to the extended uge 

5t biocides. Problems ueually arise an a rcsulf of TGNORANCE' CARELESSNESST 

i€GLIGENCE, or a combinstion of these. 

Unfortunately, the knowledge necessary for good biocide use cennot be gained 

overnight. Knowledge m: 

- whether or not to use biocides, 

- what types to aPPlYr 

- what rate to aPPIY' 

: H:",1"*"BX;,*. 

can be gained only by experience. Information on storage, stock control end 

compatibility is also required. 

The following ere aome of the problems that do erise. 

l. Storagc: often biocides are collected from stores or shops in unlabelled containers 

brought in by farmers. This can lead to probhms especially when the materials are 

stored in the home as is often the case. Cmtainers are often labelled in Englishr not in 

the indigenous language; perhaps this should be teken up with the manufacturers or 

dietributors. Accidental poieoning occurs frequently. In several countries consunption of 

paraquat (a herbicide) is a popular nrethod of committing suicide (etenches and emetics 

can be added to liquid biocides to minimize this problem). 

2. Diryorat unwanted biocides, such as those left over when too much or the wrong type 

heg been ordered, are frequently difficult to diapose of sritably. 

t. Applicetim: frequently this must be done in a particular way with the correct 

equipment. Farmers often have not been educated in the correet way to use the 

equipment, the equipnnnt ie poorly maintained, or not enough sets are available. 

Protective ctothing is sometimes required and in Fiji at least one cese of death by 

poisoning due to absorption of Parathion through the skin hes been recorded. Many less 

serious caees of injury or illnees due to inappropriate 4plication 

rnethods occur. Only 

one or two countries have organized training progremmes in ryplication techniques and 

none heve any certification scheme. 

\

4. 

5. 

7I 

Persirtence and Movement in the Environment: here the amount of information 

available is extremely limited. In Guam, paraquat, lindane, and 2rlr-D have been 

detected in the ground water. In Ameriean Samoa there is considerable concern that no 

monitoring of residue levels in the gnound water has been done, in spite of the fact 

thal this is Lhe major source of drinking water. Monitoring of persistence and 

movement is not easy. For example in Hawaii where considerable monitoring does take 

place, the insecticide hept.achlor used in the pineapple industry went undetecled in milk 

for over I year (pineapple trash was used as cattle feed). 

Legialetion: a few countries have good control over biocide use while others do nol; 

many countries have no legislat.ion and no controls. As a consequence biocides that 

have been banned from use in various developed countries are sold to and in pacific 

countries without controls, e.g. dieldrin in New Caledonia. 

Water Supplies 

Waler resources are the part of the Pacific Islands environment most susceptible to 

pollution. Rivers, streams, wells and ground wdter borehole zupplies can all be contaminated 

by chemical, human and animal wastes. 

Contamination by ehemicals, such as arsenic found in Solomon lsland streams from wood 

treatment operations or biocide residues resulting from excessive use, has so far only been 

delected in limited areas' but the extent of monitoring has not been great. More extensive 

use of chemicals is occurring and further problems coulrd be found. 

Contamination in less dramatic ways is more common. To illustraie this consider the 

results of some wate.t quality surveys carried out by the lrstitute of Natural Resources, 

University of the South Pacific (Brodie et a!., lg8J). 

Vaitupu (Tuvelu) - a low atoll 

Mct wells are contaminated to a greater or lesser extent by sea watec and can only 

be used for washing. Wells close to the more inhabiLed area aL the southern end of the island 

also have high levels of coliform contamination (Total coliforms 1000i100 ml in 5 out of g 

wells; >5000/100 ml in 4 out of I wells). 

Niue-araisedatoll 

The water is very hard wi[h high iron levels and often significant nitrate levels. 

Seventeen boreholes and 4 rainwater lanks were examined: results indicated water was 

generally of good quality with little salt, and low coliform counts. 

Tmgatapu (Kingdom of Tonga) - a raised coral platforrn covered wit.h ash. 

Twelve heavily used boreholes were tested. All indicated high calcium hardness as 

would be expected. Four showed significant levels of salt water intruiion and 2 showed signs 

of bacterial eontamination, 

Savo (Solomon Islands) - a small volcanic island 

Savo has slrface streams but they cannot be used for drinking purposes as lhey are 

very acidic and suphurous due to volcanic activity. Wells are rherefoie dug to provide 

drinking water. 

Fifty five wells and three streams were examined. Salt levels in most welts are high 

and noticeably higher than 1972 values probably as result of Cyclone Bernie in early 1962 

(nrore than half the wells tested had chloiide levels )25a mg/!, th; wHo l"inting standard). It 

would be interesting to examine the physiological effects m ifre inhabitants of the continued 

high salt intake. 

All the wells and one stream were conlarninated by coliform organisms (total coliform 

count 20 to )6000/100 ml). The level of contamination in rrarly all caJes is not high but it is 

still a matter for concern. The source of cont.amination is likely to be surface run-off into

-7? 

the wells with pigs (or children) the likely cuprits. The wella often have no Proteetive sides 

and pigs roern unieetrained in the villagar. Raiaed proteetivc rideg to tha wellc and sr effort 

to keep pigs away frsn the well surroundings would prevent further contamination. On Savot 

reinwater eatchment rray be the mly way to alpply drinking water nneting WHO otanderda. 

In general villege water erpplier are fixrre at risk aE vrater ic ueually tntreated. ln the 

rnajor urtan c?ntres s.rch es Htrliara and Nadi, although coliform levels st ltource ere 

frequently high, water srpplies are treated (incltding chlorination) before u.a. 

Urban Wastes 

Increasing development and the associated cfiangee are cauaing major problems end the 

situation may become worse. Tle "concentration effect" of increased developnnnt - bigger 

harbours and larger ships, bigger processing plants, figh canneries, ete. treana greater waste 

disposal problems are occurring near the major urban centres where the expanrion is 

happening. Frequently wastes are discharged into the marine environnent causing 

emsiderabta pollution around urban centres $Jch s Suva and Port Moreeby. This is critical 

because in rnany of these areas subeistence fishing is still a major food source. 

A second aspect of the ilconcentration effectt' is the human concentration caused by 

urbsr drift. Sevrerage schemes deaigned in colonial days are no longer adequate in some 

places to cope with the increasing population and squatter pttlenpnts not connected to any 

rpwage system create further problems. Lack of maintenance of septic tenks can lead to 

considerable pollution of water supplies. 

The Suva urben area has a population of about 150rfl)0 persons and it is estimated that 

by the year 2000 this will reach )00r(F0. Up until early 198) the rnain Suva sewage works at 

Kinoya treated sewage from a contributory population of sbout 12'000 but during l98l the 

scheme was expanded to receive sewage from a population of ))'fl)0. Further developments 

to increase the capacity to cater for sewage from a population of 6l'000 and later to 

IZ0,m0 are now being designed. The effluent from the Kinoya plant and a smaller planl at 

Raiwaqe atl flows into Laucala Bay, which forms part of the esluary of the Rewa River and 

has an offshore barrier reef. To essess the probable effects st Laucala Bay of Lhe increased 

effluent flow, a long term monitoning programme was begun in L979' with major data 

collection to 1982 and smaller scale rnonitoring since then (Caldwell Cmnell Enqineens et e!' 

1982). Results so far interpreted show the qrowth of algae in the bay to be phosphorus 

iimited - a relatively unusual situation, It is believed, however, that the amount of 

phosphorus entering the bay from the sewage scheme will not cause blooms as even by the 

year' 2005 Kinoya discharges will mly provide a 50% increase in phosphorus loading in Lhe 

bay and growth will still be phosphorus limited. At present nilrogen/phosphorus ratioe for the 

Uay average I80 with average nitrogen levels of J.J mg/l and average phosphorus of 0.018 

mg/I. Recent bacteriological studies m waler and shellfish from the bay have indicated the 

possibility of serious pollution problems (Brodie et al., f984)' 

In Lc, Papua New Guinea, the Bumbu River flows through a number of villages and 

ciLy suburbs. Tfe Taraka sewage works effluent also discharges inLo Lhe river. Two self-help 

set.tlements which lie m the Bumbu River have been studied to estimate water quality' water 

usage and the effect on public health (Mallard and Mahoney, I98l). Taraka Self-help 

Setflement has access to Lhe town water supply and city rubbish collection while Bumbu does 

not. Tfe Bumbu River and adjacent sLreams were shown to be highly polluted with faecal 

coliforms and in most areas not even safe for bathing (46% of samples contained >2000 

faecal coliforms/Ififl ml). Statistical analysis showed that the mcurrence of diarrhea' ear and 

eye infections was higher in Bumbu than in Taraka. 72% of people in Bumbu vensus 48% of 

people in Taraka reporled diarrhea, while in Bumbu 29% had ear infections and )6% eye 

infections and in Taraka lhe corresponding figures were .1,6% and 20%. Obvious contamination 

of wells by pit toilets and of small slreams and springs by household rubbish was noticed in 

Bumbu. 

Solid waste disposal is causing les; concern. For example Suva and Port Moresby now 

have well managed landfill operations a it is only in older dunps illegally used that visual 

and possibly disease vecior problems occur.

-13 

In Kiribati, however, me exarnple of a reversal of the normal problems has ccurred. 

Dunping does ccur but in 1982 it was found thet the solid wastes could be put to good use 

in a particular situation. In the Temaiku Bite m Tarawa, land recleimed in the early 1970's 

had been producing very poon coconut palms with chlorosis dle to iron, potassium and trece 

element deficiencies. Honever, in 1982 it was found that the addition of solid urban waste to 

the site produced a marked improvement - I messege for other atoll inhabitants - do not 

waste weste (m in the wordg of Peter Thacher, one man'8 pollutant is anotherre resource). 

One last feature of the rrconcentration effect'r is the impact of subsistence farming on 

the hills surrounding the major urban centres like Suva end Le. Here cultivation m steep 

slopes together with highly erosive rainfall causes severe erosion; the eroded products are 

carried down into the sea nearby and damage Lhe reefs which are again a nnjor subsistence 

food resource. 

Industrial wastes 

Very f ew studies have been made into the composition and ef fects of industrial 

(non-mining) wastewater discharge in Pacific Island states. Examples have included: fish 

processing westes in Pago Pago, Anerican Samoa (Soule and Oguri, l98l); edible oil plant 

waste in Suva, Fiji and sugar mill effluent in Labasa, Fiji (Lee, 1979, l98l). The Samoan 

study investigated the fate of the wastes frorn the two cenneries in Pago Pago and their 

public health implications in early 1982. One of the canneries is now being forced to improve 

waste disposal while the other had already voluntarily installed anti-pollution reasures. 

In Fiji the edible oil plant investigation found that the problem of srnell and high BOD 

values in the Gawa River was a consequence not just of the actual dunping of industrial 

effluent hrt also of the nature of the river at the discharge point (Lee, l98I). The river ie 

slow moving and meandering with a depression in the river bottom close to the discharge 

point. Tfe high density, organically-rich effluents sink into this depression, deoxygenating the 

river at that point and creating a problem for the local inhabitants particularly during the 

'rdry" season when the river flow is particularly sluggish. 

Conclusion 

There are other problems thet could be discussed, wch aa the impact of mining 

operations, hrt it is obvious from the topics covered that in the Pacific Islands the present 

position of limited pollution probbms could change rapidly. 

It is essential that we obtain rnore basic information about our various ecosystems and 

that they be regularly monitored so that any pollution problems that may occur can be 

detected early enough to prevent rnajor irreversible damage occurring. Only in this way can 

we be sure that our presently very hospitable environnent is protected. 

REFERENCES 

Brodie, J. E., G. W. Lee and Regina A. Prasad. 1981. Well-water quality in South Pacific 

lslend stetes. 5. Pr. J. Net. Sci. 4:14-11. 

Brcdie, .}. E., K. Chand and R. I Morrison. 1984. Appraisal of the Li.,lEP nethods for 

determining pollutants in coestal wsters for use in the Pacific Islands. Institute of Netural 

Reeources, Environnpntal Studiee Report No. 17. University of the Sor.rth Pacific,Suva, Fiji. 

Caldwelt Connell Engineers/Cqnmonwealth Department of Transportation and Cmstruction. 

1982. Report m receiving weter study - Kinoya sewage treatment plant. Prepared for 

Pr.blic Works Department of Ministry of Works end Cqnmunications, Suva, Fiji. August 

1982. 

Lee, G. W. 1979. Report m the discharge by Fiji Foods factory into Walu Bay creek. 

Institute of Netural Resources, Environnental Studies Report No. 4. Universily of the Sqth 

Pacific, Suva, Fiji.

-74 

Lee, G. tt. 1981. Report m e preliminery invastigation into tha alleged pollution of the Glawa 

river. lrttitute of Natural Rasourcea, Environrpntal Studies Report 1{o. 8. Univeroity of thc 

South Pcific, Swa, Fiji. 

Mallerd, Am and D. Mehoney. 198r. tYatcr qudity and its effect m publie heelth - a ctudy 

of water gqetity in the Bumbu srd Tareka Self -Help Settlonrentr, Le, Nothern Province. 

D4artment of Chemical Technology, ilG Univereity of Technology, Le' Pqua New 

Guinea. 

Monbray, D, 1984. A review of perticide uge in the Suth Pacific. South Pcific Regional 

Erwironnpnt Programme, Sorth Pacific Cqnmission, Nourea, New Cdedonia. 

Sorle, D. F. and M Oguri. I98r. A report dr oceen dispooal of fish proceeeing wact€s sff 

Pago Pago, Anrricen Sanoa. United States Environrental Protection Agencyr Region D( 

Report. 

Thaman, R. R. 1984. Peoticides in the Pacific Islands: panaces or peril. Irrtitute of Natural 

Resourcea, Environnental Studies Report No. 19. Univereity of the Sqrth Pacificr Suvar Fiii.

-75 

FISIfRY POTENTIALS IN TI.IE TROPTCAL CENTRAL AND IYESTERN PACIFIC 

R.E. Kearney 

South Pacif ie Commigsion 

Nournea, New Celedonia 

ABSTRACT 

In defining the topic it is assunEd that descriptign of a fishery potential 

requires rnore lhan jtnt identification of a resource, while at the same tirne 

acknowledging that there cen be no potentials for development without 

appropriate resouree bases. The major fish regources of the tropical central and 

western Pacific are therefore described end development options for Pacific 

Island states are discussed in the light of the special problems relevani to this 

region. 

The known fishery resources of the tropical central and western Pacific are 

divided into four categoriesr f) freshwater end shallow coastal resources, 

ineluding aquaculture; 2) deepwater nearshore nesources; 1) deepwater offshore 

resources; end 4) offshore pelagic resources. Because of the dominaLion of present 

catches by the hiqhly migratory tuna and billfish species incorporeted in category 

4, discussion is concentrated on the potential' for further development and 

management of these resourcee. 

Recent ssessrEnLg of the skipjack lesources in mly part of the tropical 

Pacific suggest a standing stock in excees of three million tonnes. Yellowfin, 

albacore and bigeye tuna, and the runeroug billfigh species combined represent 

further Nghly migratory neaources of considerable magnitude. 

Recent developrnents in purse-seine technology have seen the landings 

geer type change significantly with a relat.ive decline in the importance 

pole-and-line and longline fishing. Diatenl water fiahing nations continue 

dsninate catches from within the rcgion with catches by the United States 

Anerica mw being seeond mly to those of Jryan. 

Pacific Island atates preeently tnve anly limited ability to participate in the 

extensive fiaheriea for tunag in the tropical Pcific. However, r€cent international 

ecceptance of increased jurisdiction has greatly enhanced the potential for 

increeeed involvement in thege fisheries. 

INTRODUCTIOi.I 

Bounded in the wast by the Philippines, Indonesia 8nd northern Auetralia, and in the 

eart by ryproximately l)0oW, the tropical central and western Pacific Oceen, encompesses an 

arsa of rmre then 41 million square kilometres, a epproximately eight per c€nt of the 

anrfsce of the earth. Lying within lhig area are the 2l developing Island countries and 

territoriee for which the South Pcific Cqnmiasion (SPC) workg. The bagic aimilaritiee 

smongat the runprous gmall developing leland statee within the 29 million square kilometres 

of the SPC area and the contrast between theEe and the larger bordering nations bege 

differentiation between the two when considering fishery potentials. Only the potentials of 

the Island ststes are conaidered here. 

by 

of 

to 

of

_76 

In defining the topic it is assurEd thet description of a fishery potential requires more 

than just identification of a fish resource, while at the sarne time acknowledging that there 

can be no potentials for developnrent without 4propriate resource bases. Only reaources 

presently exploited, or with an identified prospect for exploitation, have been considered as 

known potentials. 

Fish and fisherieg have played a eentrel role in the anlture, sustenance snd recreation 

of ell small island communities. Tle ability of the traditionally exploited fish resources of the 

central and western tropical Pacif ic to continue to provide clbsistence protein for island 

communitiea is enguably the greatest resource potential of the region, and yet it is me which 

is commonly overlooked ih the quest for more ?ectaculiar developrnent qtions. Not that 

alternative small scale fishery potentials do not edst, indeed there are many' particularly as 

improved fish catching techniques increase the potential yield from even traditionally 

exploited resources, and advanced processing technologies increase the utility of lhe harvest. 

Inprovements in small scale fisheries technology and fishing techniques have also enabled the 

exploitation of previously untouched resources, particubrly those in deeper waters or further 

from strore, t}ereby greatly expandrng the horizons of subsistence and artisanal fishermen. 

Developments in offshore waters have been pronounced in recent years. International 

acceptance of the principles of 200-mile zones of extended jurisdiction has highlighted 

potential for Island states to manage the fisheries Fesources in npre than 29 million square 

kilometres of the central and western Pacific. Much of this vast oceanic area had been 

exploited for its extensive tuna resources sinee the late 1950s by distant-water fishing 

nations, but enactment of the principles of extended jurisdiction by Island statee has seen 

dramatic change in their involvement in large scale fisheries and has undoubtedly opened tp 

major new avenues for their fisheries development. 

THE KNOWN RESOURCEJ AND THEIR POTENTIAL FOR DEVELOPMENT 

Although there is some overlap amongs! the various groups, the known fishery nesources 

of the Pacific Island states cen be classified as me of four calegories: 

l. Freshwater and shallow wster coastel resourees (including aquaculture and mariculture) 

Fruhwater relounoa! 

Only the largest of the Pacific lslands (Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, New 

Caledonia, Fiji and Vanuatu) hav. freshwater river or lake systems of zufficient size to 

support extensive freshwater fish resources. Papua New Guinea's tilapia ffit"pi" mosambica) 

resources are by far lhe largest. They offer considerable promise for increased yieldst 

primarily for local consunption, while the barramundi (Lates calcarifer)r which is dependent 

for part of its life cycle on the freshwater reaches of Papuan rivers, should continue [o 

support commercial fisheries (Keerney L976). Freshwater fishery resources in the other 

above-mentioned eountries and the smaller Pacific lsland states are of more limiled value 

being primarily the target of zubsisrence, small scale artisanal or recreational fishermen. One 

exception is the freshwater clam (Eatissa violacea) fishery in Fiji which produces 

approximately 700 tonnes per annur-t. 

Even though the known freshwater resources are limiLed and the size of the available 

freshwater habitat is unlikely to increase significantly, the potential for increasinq yields 

from these waterways by improvcd fish husbandry techniques, including introduction and 

enhancement of selected species, snould not be overlooked. The socio-economic return from 

increased yields in these fisheries, particularly in places sJch as the highlands of Papua New 

Guinea where animal protein is scarce, could well be relatively much greater than the 

benefits from similar increases in yields in coastal fisheries where production is relatively 

higher. 

Shallow water coastal resources 

The small developing states of the lropical central and western Pacific are, in general, 

isolated islands or archipelagos. In most cases there is little, if any, continent.al shelf and the

-77 

transition into depths exceeding 2,000 rnetres is normally precipitous. The smallness of the 

land nrasses greatly restricts the rutrient run-off availeble to enrich [he g.rrrounding ocean. 

Thereforer the watera anrrounding them ere typically clear and blue and, cornpared to 

continentel coaetal areas, of low productivity. As a result of this lack of extensive 

continental shelf or coestal enrichment, small lgland stetes have limited inshore fish resources 

and hence restricted new inshore fishery potentiale. On the other frand, the existing inehore 

fieh regources have provided the bulk of the animal protein consunEd by Pacific lglanders 

since the islandg were firet eettled. In npst csseg modern gear developnnnts should enable 

total cetchee to be increased, thereby realizing a potential. With minimal appropriete 

rBnsqement this invaluable potential should remain in perpetui[y so long ae tolal human 

populations remain within reaeonabb bounds. Management will, however, not be without its 

probhms, some of which have been previously discussed (Kearney l9g0). 

Aquaculturu potentialr 

There have been rurerous attempt.s to establish aquaculture on a commercial basis in 

the islands of the Pacific; these have in general been notable fon their lack of success. 

Closed 8y8tem aquaculture in developing countries has, in the main, only been sccessful in 

the langer countries where incomes are very low, population densiLies are high and natural 

protein resources are restricLed (i.e. in areas such as southeast Asia). In general, continuous 

access !o a relatively high priced luxury market is required for most commercial aquaculture 

projects to be viable and these conditions are rare in the counLries of the tropical central 

and western Pacific. Markets for specific ilems, such as live bait for Luna fishing, heve been 

created in countries in which pole-and-line fisheries for tuna have been established, and yet 

aquaculture has still proven difficult to develop to a commercial level; reasons for this are 

given by Kearney and Rivkin (198I). Economic implications of developing aquaculture in the 

Island states of the region were considered by the SPC's EighLh Regional Technical Meeting 

on F isheries. This meeting concluded that veny few previous aquaculture projects in the 

Cornmission's area were at all successful and recommended "that detaited economic surveys 

should be carried out before any commercial scale aquaculture projects are initiated" and 

pointed out ihat such "srrveys should include the economics of alternative use of both the 

land to be developed and the investment capital" (Anon L975). Equally important is the need 

to consider the implications to existing fisheries resources from the conversion of so called 

"swamp land" for aquaculture purposes. Too often coastal manllrove or inter-tidal zones, 

which are natural breeding, or nursery, areas for coastal fish species, are converted without 

due consideration of the impact on existing fisheries. Therefore, while it would be foolish lo 

disregard the potential of aquaculture for fisheries development in the central and weslern 

tropical Pacific' I feel that in the short-term this potential is restricted and proposed 

aquaculture pnojects should be given careful scrutiny. 

2. Deepwater nearshore resources 

At the periphery of the limited conLinental shelves of Pacific Islands, the reef slopes 

harbour resources of deepwater sriapper$ (predominantly Pristipomoides spp. and Etelis spp.) 

which have mly begun Lo be exploited since the exploratoiy -oik --rhe SPC in--TFF early 

1970s (Crossland and Grandperrin 1980) and which offer exciting new potentials for fisheries 

development. Catch rates, far in excess of those normally taken in shallow waLer handline 

fisheries, have been achieved throughout the central and western tropical Pacific wilh gear 

little more sophisticated Lhan that required in traditional fisheries. In rnany countries 

commercialr exploitation of these resounces has proven viable using inexpensive hand-reels 

and' to a lesser extent, small bottom longlines. While little is known of the magnitude of the 

aveilable resource' or of the biology and behaviour of the species cornmonly exploited, the 

s{rapper resources of the reef slope are thought to represent ate of the best potentials for 

f isheries development in this region and one of the very few resources suitable for 

exploitation by existing artisanal fishermen without enormous capiLal input. These deepwater 

resources have the additional advantages of being predorninantly excellent quality food fish 

and free from ciguatera poisoning. They therefore command high prices on most markets. 

Resources of deep water shrimps (Heterocarpus spp.) and precious corals represent 

other possible polentials' but the economic feasibility of exploiting these resources in most 

Pacific lsland states is still dispuled.

J. Deeowater offshore resources 

-78 

In the tropical central and western Pacific, areas zuitable for large-scale harvesting of 

bottom-fish resources by conventional means are Iimited. Hor,rlever, recently developed 

f isheries f or deep water species in other regions of the Pacif ic Ocean indicate that 

possibilities for development of fisheries for non-conventional species, or using 

non-conventional techniques, do need to be considered as fisheries potentials..In recent years 

fisheries for atfonsi; (aiEli splendens) and pelagic armourhead tpe^taggros .i.!q9:"li).F"-: 

been developed m $reilamoifrffifr-to the northwest of Hawaii. ln this aree catch raLes of 

pelagic ermourhead by experimental Russian trawlers have been as high as J0 tonnes in l0 

minutes and commonty of ifre order of 20-J0 tonnes per l0 to flJ minute tow (Sakiura l97D' 

Other rrurveyB and commencial fishing using bottom longlines and trawling gear- ha-ve 

confirrned the resources of both pelagilc armo-urhead and alfonsin the north central Pacific 

(JAMARC 197), Anon Lg76). The piospects for developing similar fisheries in the more 

equatorial regions warrant investigation, particulalry..a" the pelagic armourhead has already 

been proven io be a wide-ranging species (Sasaki L974)' 

In addition, the recent spectacular catches of orange roughy tHoptostetnu" et-lenticus) 

by large trawlers in waters off New Zealand increases interest in the prospects of finding 

tiawlaUf deepwater resourees in more tropical areas of the Pacif ic, even though it is 

doubtful if commercial concentretions of this particuler species (orange roughy) extend into 

this area. Furthermore, preliminary reports of favourable catches of deepwater speciest 

especially the red sriapper, Etelis carbunculus, in seamount areas in the waters ad.iacent to 

Solomon Islands, and the oc-currence-T nunrerous presently unfished seamounts and oceen 

plateaus in the central and western tropical Pacific, further suggest potentials for future 

iisheries. It does, however, appear likely that deepwater fish resources are less in tropical 

regions than in agsociation with the larger oceanic plateaus in higher latitudes. 

Exploitation of deepwater resources, even if proven- economically viable_ in the tropical 

pacific, would probably require very large vessels, possibly larger than 1,000 tonnes, and 

hence rnassive capital inftow plus input from many qualified and experienced pensonnel. Direct 

involvement of nationals of the region would therefore be anticipated to be minimal, et least 

in the short term. This does not mean that the potentials will, or should, therefore be 

ignored, or that Pacific Island states could not benefit from their exploitation. As later 

d'iscussed, the increased rights of coastal states associated with chenginq attitudes to the 

Law of ihe See has openeO up considerabte potential for coastal states to become more 

involved in the exploitation of offshore resources. 

4. Offshore peleqic resources 

Fish catches from the tropical central and western Pacific in recent years have been 

completely dominated by the highly migratory tunas and--billfish. In 1975, the lesL year for 

which complete statistics a"e a"ail"bll; 25rr8t} tonnes (88 per ce,nt) of 1 total recorded fish 

catch from the region of B9rL96 tonnes wag tuna or billfish (Table I). The comparative 

magnitude of thesl tuna catches, and their significance to any discussion of fishery 

potintials, warrsnts separate consideration of, firstly, the statua of ihe resources andt 

secondly, the potentials for developing fieheries on ihese tEsourees. 

Thc rerourcer 

From the 1950a through to the end of the 1960s, tuna fishinq in the region wes 

dominated by longlining. ln lfre earty I970e pole-and-line catches exceeded those of other 

gear types. 'Whil; the -Jpanese distant-water pole-and-line fleet accounted for almost 8ll of 

if," ""t"f, in this fishery in 1970, locally based joint ventutes increaged quickly and by 1978 

reached a peak in annual production of more than 701000 tonnes. Total tuna catchea by 

locally based pole-and-line ve$els have declined eonsiderably since this timer largely as a 

result of the ceseation of the fishery in Papue New Guinea. 

ln recent years, catchee by the Jpan based pole-and-line fleet and the longline fleets 

of mogt nationalities have declined as a result of gerioug economic difficultiee in the tuna 

industry. However, at the same time a tremendous increase in punoe-seining by predominantly 

Jpanese and Unitid States veesels (Kearney l98la) has rnainteined the retative megnitude of 

tune landinge from the region. Total eatches of tuna by purae-eeinere in the area considered 

here were irobebly of thi order of l80rm0 tonnes in 1982, more than four timee the catch

lrJ 

Ez 

=g 

P3 

qB 

f,tl 

s9 

LU t. 

-80 

by the same fleet in 1978. Further major expansion in the fleet is anticipated, principally by 

the United States, Japan and Korea. The last lhirty years have therefore seen the rapid 

expansion and, at least partial, collapse of three major tuna fisheries in this region (i.e. the 

longline, dislant-water pole-and-line, and locally based pole-and-line fisheries) and the rapid 

increase in a fourth, the purse-seine fishery, which appears likely to produce total yields thal 

exceed even the highest of earlier years. Tfre decline in earlier fisheries does not appear to 

have been related to any short-comings in the tuna resources exploited by the various gear 

types. Failures appear to have been due largely to greater efficiency in production of oLher 

tuna fisheries competing for the same limited inLernational tuna market. In fact, the available 

evidence srggests that npst of the major tuna resources of the cenlral and western tropical 

Pacific have remained underexploited. 

Tune fisheries in the tropical central and western Pacific targe! primarily on skipjack 

(X"t"u*onu" pelamis), yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares), albacore fffr* alalunqa) and 

bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus). Skipjack accounted for well over 50 per cent of the total tuna 

harvest in recent years with annual landings of this me species exceeding 2501000 tonnes on 

several occasions (Kearney I98Ib). Results from tag release and recovery experiments 

conducted by the SPC's recently completed Skip jack Survey and Assessment Programme 

indicate that the standing stock of skipjack in the area of the SPC is of the order of 

Jrm0rmO tonnes. Tlese same results have been used to estimate the turnover rate of this 

resource at 15 per cent per month which suggests that the total annual throughput of 

skipiack through the region approaches 6,000,000 tonnes (Skipjack Programme 1982). The 

catch of this species in recent years of about 2501000 tonnes annually would therefore be 

much less than the nesource could reasonably be expected to srstain. Skipjack Programme 

scientists, however, stressed that yields could mly approach the maximum possible if fishing 

effort is distributed across this vast region in proport,ion to the distribution of the resource. 

They also demonstrated from tagging results that skipjack in this area are capable of 

extensive migrations and that fisheries scattered throughout the region will interact' 

particularly as fisheries of different nationaliLies or different gear types expand and overlap 

in time and space (Skipjack Programme I98I; 1982) 

Yellowfin tuna traditionally have provided the bulk of catches of longline vessels 

qerating in equatorial areas. Two recent estimates of the magnitude of the yellowf in 

resource exploited by the longline fishery have suggested maximum sustainable yields of 

601000 to 70,fi)0 tonnes annually (Far Seas Fisheries Research Laboratory 1978), and 80,000 

to 90rfi)0 tonnes annually (Anon f980). In both cases levels of effort were considered to be 

at, or slightly above, the qtimal level and an increase in effort was unlikely to result in 

incressed catches. Tfe recent expansion in the purse-seine fishery in the western Pacific has 

resulted in significant catches of yellowfin (approximately 50 per cent of catches by United 

States purse-seiners in l98I were yellowfin tuna), not previously significantly exploited by 

glrface fieheries. In a previous report (Kearney 1981b), I have outlined the problems of trying 

to evaluate the potential for increasing the total yield of yellowfin from ihis region by 

increasing the surfece catch and concluded that "it is possible that the yellowfin resources of 

the western Paeific are at present not maximally exploited, but it is by no means certain 

that substantial development in the purse-seine fishery will increase the yellowf in yield 

without detriment to the longline fishery". Urpublished information from the Skipjack 

Pmgramme presented to the SPC's Fourteenth Regional Technical Meeting on Fisheries 

srggested that, based m limited tag release and recapture information, the standing stock of 

yellowfin tuna in the SPC's area was perhaps of the order of 5001000 tonnes, with a turnover 

rate of ryproximately 17 per cent per month. A standing stock of this magnitude should 

indeed sripport tolal catches greater than previous estimates of the maximum sustainable. 

Albeore has been commercially exploited in the tropical cenlral and western Pacific 

only by longlining. Tte species des not normally occur in this area as surface schools. The 

mly availabb index of the stalus of the stocks of albacore in the tropical south Pacific is 

that provided by eatch and effort figures from vessels based in Anerican Samoa. Catches by 

this fleet increased steadily from 1954 to 1967 before fluctuating widely, achieving an all 

time high in L97t. Relative abundance, s indexed by the catch rate Per vessel' fell 

cmsistently from L954 to L975 and total landings were maintained only by zubstantial 

increages in total effort. Although precise figures are not available, there was a recovery in 

relative abundance in L976, 1977 and L978 (Kearney 1981b). The most recent general 

rypraisal of the status of the slocks of albacore exploited by vessels based in the equatorial 

central and western Pacific is that resulting from a workshop on tuna resources in Shimizu' 

J4an in June 1979 - "The conclusion of workshop participants was thal current fishing levels 

do not +pear to be adversely affecting the (5outh Pacific albacore) stock. Further increases

-8I 

in longline fishing effort would result in only a slight increase in yield, if any. The impact of 

the development of major surface fisheries on the stock is unclear and consequently the 

development of such fisheries should be closely monitored" (Anon 1980). 

StatisLics m catches of bigeye tuna are even more limited than those of other tuna 

species exploited in the western Pacif ic. T|re present sLatus of the stocks cannot be 

accuralely assessed, however, the species is generally considered underexploited. 

Otier species of tuna and numerous species of billfish are taken commercially in the 

cenLral and western tropical Pacific, but mostly as incidental catches in fisheries for oLher 

tuna species. In their own right they represent very limited known poLential for fuLure 

developrnent of commercial f isheries. However some species, particularly blue marlin (Y.t "it" 

niqracans) and black manlin (Makaira indica) do constitute nesources which could well support 

signif icant sport fisheries. 

The potentials for tuna firheries developrnent, pertieularly by the coastal states of the 

regian 

In the preceding section it has been slggested that the resources of the major luna 

species exploited in the central and western Pacific are, to varying extents, underexploited. 

Eiearing in mind the significance of tuna to to[al negional fisheries, the major potential for 

increasing the total yield of fish from the region therefore lies in increasing the tuna catch' 

particularly that of skipjack. Increase in total catches in the near future appear most likely 

to result from expansion of the purse-seine fishery, which, with proper management' might 

well achieve total catches at least several times greater than at present. Furthermorer as 

present daily catch rates by purse-seiners in the western Pacific of approximately 20 [onnes 

per day (Tuna and Billfish Assessment Progtamme, unpublished data) are approximately twice 

those in the more matune eastern Pacific fishery, further rapid increases in total fishing 

effort in this region can be anticipated. In the longer term it would also appear more 

economical to process much of this fish in the western Pacific rather than ship it frozen to 

the world's major markets. The futune for the tuna fishery in the tropical eentral and 

western Pacific therefore appe.ars bright, provided reasonable management procedures can be 

agreed upon. 

Even though the potential f or increasing total tuna landings might be great' the 

potential for increased participation by the lsland states of lhe region is not without 

probbms. There is no doubt thet the increased eontrol by coastal states over the resources 

of their 200-mile zones, embodied in the new principles of the Law of the Sea' geatly 

increaseg the potentiel for Islsnd states to become involved, and even to control policy in 

those fisheries. A whole range of possibilities for increased involvernent exists' from the 

development of wholly owned, operated and controlled local fisheries' through the spectrum 

of joint venture alternatives, to the generation of revenue from totally foreign fleets. Of 

cour3e, no me of theee need be pursued exclusively and some balance of local and foreign 

enterpriee could well be the rnost rewarding. 

If coestal stateg do pursue the qtion of developing their ov/n tuna fisheries' the major 

probbms they eneornter will include (rnodified from Kearney I98lc): 

(D Flrretuatlan in ttp abundarrcc of the relounca. Even though the aree of cean under 

the controt of individual eoastal stetes has increased dramatically e a result of 

200-mile zsres of extended jurisdiction, theae areae represent mly a Part of the 

habitat of the highly migratory peciee. The abundance of these -rcgources in my me 

200-mile zone fluctuates markedly with season, particularly in the higher latitudes. It 

mayr theref ore, be impossibb for most small Island states to meintain e fleet 

year-round, panticularly ss most of them have no other zuitable fisheries in which to 

employ veesels and crew during off-peak seasone. Co-qeration with neighbouring 

stetee, preferably trr a broad regional bsis, would help to alleviate this probbm. 

Highly migratory resources often show rnarked yeer to year variations in abundance in 

eddition to easonal variability. Conpanies or countries with limited financial resourees 

find it very difficult to withetand successive poor s€ssons, or even a single very bad 

one.

-82 

(ii) The requirernent for larga cxpenoive verrala An avarage (100 tonne) pole-nd-line a 

longline veeael, used in the disten!-water firherieg of the central and wartern prcific, 

now has a reptacenrent value of ryproximately USf2rfl)0rfl)0; en everage Unitcd Statce 

tuna purse-seiner of I,100 tons costs approximalely USfllr00rfi)0 to build and elmoat 

$l'm0'm0 per ennum to run. Few developing ielani nationi can afford anch axpencee. 

Small states generally do not heve suiteble slipping srd docking facilitiee for larger 

fishing vessels, nor do they carry extensive stocks of sparJ parta and enciltiry 

equirncnt. 

(iii) Cct and availebility of fuel In 1976, it cost ryproximately Ail40,0O0 per ennum for 

fuel for a 150 tonne pole-and-line vessel, Al100rm0 fur a 276 tonne'longliner and 

A$240'm0 for a I,100 ton purse-seiner. The fuei costs for any me of these vessela 

exceed.the entire national fuel bill for 1977 for each of two of the Island etateg of the 

South Pacific (Tuvalu and Niue) and represent a substantial fraction of the fuel 

consunption of several others. Fuel pricee have increased dramatieally eince 1976. Fuel 

is not only becoming more expensive, but is also difficult to obtain in exectly the 

quantities required to zupply a srnall number of veesels, which are rcfuelled m an 

inegular basis, making it difficult for any non-oil producing country to plan the 

development of fisheries which will necessitate cJbstantiel increases in fuel 

consunption. 

Fuel is also far more expensive in rernote area8. This makes it dieadvantageous for 

foreign flag vessels to b,r.rnker there and hence difficult for smell statea to encourege 

these vessels to call and unload their catch. It also ffEans that Island states have an 

extra economic disadvantage lo contend with when catching fish to sell on en 

internationally competitive market. 

(iv) Problemo of smellners and econqnieg of scal,a. There are many probbma of srnallness 

and economies of scale relevant to fisheries developnnnt in the Pacific Islandg. These 

have been covered in previous publicationer e.g, Kearney 1900. 

The inability of at least some small Island states to cope with these and other problems 

might zuggest pessimism for their future in tuna fisheriea. This is gertainly not intended. The 

rnagnitude of the problems does suggest that some Island states will find it imposaibb to 

develop wholly owned, large scale tuna enterprises, h.rt it des not et all detrect from the 

countriesl potential to develop small scale tuna fisheries, or joint venture qerations in whieh 

they have limited equity, or to generate considerable revenue from the activitiea of foreign 

vessels in their fishing zones. 

As the tuna resources are generally underexploited, there is obviouely potential for 

increasing eatches by srbsistence or artisanal fishermen. This potential is being further 

increased throughout the region by adapting nndern technology, zuch es fish aggregation 

devices, to small scale fisheries. The success of joint venture or co-qeralive tun-a fishing 

ventutes' such as those in Solomon Islands and Fiji, endorses the potential such arrangementi 

have for further developnrents. Finally, the magnitude of the velue of catcireg by 

distant-water fishing fleets in the 200-mile zones of coastal stetes, in some cases having 

fresh fish values greater than the gross national product of the country from whose watere 

they are taken (Kearney l98la), coupled with the increased rights of coastal states in the 

new regime of the Law of the Sea, cleanly demonstrabe t}te potential for Island states to 

generate significant tevenue from foreign fishing interests, particularly if realistic access 

fees can be negotiated.

-81 

REFERENCES 

ANONyMOUS. 1975. Report of the Eighth Regional Technical Meeting m Fisheries. South 

Pacific Commission, Nournea, New Caledonia. 

ANONYMOUS. f975. The present status of the atfonain, -4. splendene' fishery in the 

Midway fishing grounde. Lxcerpt from Suisen Sekai, 25(88-29-52, August 1976. Translated 

from tf,u Jpanese by Tamio Oisu, Southwest Fisheries Center Hmolulu Laboratory' 

Nationel Marine Fisheiies Service. Translation No'18. NOAAr Hmolulu, Hawaii' January 

1977. 

ANONYMOUS. 1980. Stete of selected stocks of tuna and billfish in the Pacific and Indien 

(Jceans. Surnrnary Report of Workshop, Shimizu, J4an, 1l-22 June 1979. FAO Fisheries 

Technicel Paper (200). 89 p. 

CROSSLAND, J. and R. GRANDPERRIN. 1979. Fisheries directory of the South Pacific 

Cornmission region. South Pacific Commission, Nounna, New Caledonia. 

CROSSLAND, J. and R. GRANDPERRIN. 1980. The development of deep bottom fishing in the 

tropical Pacific. Occasional Paper No, 17, South Pecific Commission, Nourca, New 

Caledonia. L2 p. 

FAR SEAS FISHERIES RESEARCH LABORATORY. 1978. The recent status of yellowfin and 

bigeye tuna stocks in the Pacif ic Ocean. (Background docunrent). IOFC/IOPC Tuna 

Management Committee Meeting' Manila. 

JAMARC. I97f. Surveys of trawling grounds in the north central Pacific Ocean, I972 season. 

JAMARC Report No.7, March 197t, Translated from the Japanese by Tamio Otsu, 

Southwest Fisheries Center Hmolulu Laboralory, National Merine Fisheries Service. 

Translation No. 19. NOAA, Hmolulu, Hawaii, February 1977. 

KEARNEY, R.E. 1976. The expansion of fisheries in Papua New Guinea: prospeets and 

problems. Paper presented at Waigani Seminar, 1-7 May L976, Ln, Pryua New Guinea. 

KEARNEY, R.E. L977. The law of the sea and regional fisheries policy: the impact -of 

extended jurisdiction on fisheries management in the centrel and western tropical Pacific 

Ocean and the need fon a regional fisheries agency. Occaeional Paper No.Z, South Pacific 

Commission, Noumea, New Celedmia. 

KEARNEY, R.E. 1979a. An overview of recent changes in the fisheries for highly migratory 

species in the western Pacific Ocean and projections for future developments. SFEC(79) 17. 

South Pacif ic Bureau fon Economic Co-qerationr Suvar Fiji. 

KEARNEY, R.E. I979b. Smre problems of developing and managing fisheriea in emall island 

states. Occasional Pper No. 16, South Pacific Commission, Nournea, New Caledonia. 

KEARNEY, R.E. 1980. Sqne probbms of developing and managing fisherieg in grnall Island 

states. In R. T. Shand [ed.], Tlre island stetes of the Pacific and Indien Oceens: anatomy of 

developfiEnt. Developrnent Studies Centre Mmograph No. 2), Australian National University' 

Canbema, Australia. 

KEARNEY, R.E, 1981a. The development of tune fisheriee and the future for their 

management in the tropical, central and weetern Pecific. Pper preeented at the l5th 

Annual Meeting of the Law of the Sea Inrtitute, 5-8 October, Hmolulu, Hawaii (to be 

published in Proceedinge of this meeting). 

KEARNEY, R.E. l98lb. A brief review of the state of lh8 8tock8 of highly migratory ryeciee 

of fish in the eentrel and weatern Pacific. Peper preeanted at Forum Fisheries Agency 

Regional Research and Development Programme Meeting, 4-8 May l98lr Hmiara, Solomon 

Ielands. 

KEARNEY, R.E. l98lc. Ssne economic spects of the development and managernent of 

fieherieg in the centrel and western Pecific. South Pacific Cornmiegion Fisheries Newsletter 

2226-L5.

-84 

KEARNEY' R.E. and M.L. RIVKIN. 1981. An examination of the feasibility of beitfish culture 

for akipjack pole-and-line fishing in the South Pacific Cornmiseion area. Skipjack Survey end 

Assessrnent Programme Technical Report No.4, South Pacific Commission, Noufrca, New 

Caledonia. 

SAKIURA' Ft 1972. TtE pelagic arrnourhead, Pcntaceror richardeoni, fishing grounde off the 

HewaiianIstands,asviewedbytheSoviets.@:28.]l-(Jitne|5,I972). 

[Ttp article wes a translation of an uncited Russian article.l Translated from the Japanese 

by Tamio Otsur Surthwest Fisheriee Center Hmolulu Laboratory, Netional Merine Fisheriee 

Service. Translation No.17, f.lOAA, Hcrolulu, Hawaii, January 1977. 

SASAKI' T. 1974. Tfc pelagic armourhead, Pentaceros richardsoni Smith, in the north Pacific. 

Bulletin of Japanese Society of Fighes anTEceanograpEy ZA:f:6-165. Trenslated from the 

J4anese by Tamio Otsu, Southwest Fisheries Center Hanolulu Laboratory, Netional Marine 

Fisheries service. Translation No.16, NOAA, Hmolulu, Hawaii, January 1977. 

SKIPJACK PROGRAMME. I98f. Skipiack migration, mortality and fishery interactions. llth 

Regional Technical Meeting on Fisheries 198I, Working Paper No. 9. South Paeific 

Crnmission, Nourfea, New Caledonia. 

SKIPJACK PROGRAMME. 1982. An assessnpnt of baitfieh resources in the South Pacific 

Commission area. l4th Regional Technical Meeting m Fisheries 1982, Working Paper No. 

11. South Pacific Csnmission, Noumea, New Caledonia.

-85 

Tl-E cHALLEl.lcE ff coNsERvIlG Ato MANAGIT'|G cm,AL REEF EcosysTEMs 

Arthur Lyon Dehl 


ABSTRACT 

Coral reef ecosystems are noted for their diversity and complexity. While 

they demonstrate a centain resilience under natural conditions, they have proven 

highly vulnerable and easily degraded under msnrs influence. 

The integrated nature of many reef ecosystems and their inter"action with 

terrestrial and oceanic influences limits the possibilities for resource managemenr. 

The inadequate scientific understanding of the ecosystem also hampers the 

development of management strategies. The traditionat resource management 

techniques of Pacific lsland cultures may prove to be the best guide to methods 

of sustainable resource use on coral reefs. 

A start has been made in conserving coral reefs in several South pacific 

countries, using a variety of approaches, Unfortunately, local means have not 

permitted any study of the effectiveness of these efforts, and the proteclion of 

the region's reef resources is still far from adequbte. Regional initiatives such as 

the South Pacific Regional Environnent Programme are h.lping to advance coral 

reef resource management and conservation in the reoion. 

The coral reef ecosystem occurs commonly along the coastlines and around the islands 

of tropical developing countries, where it is an impoitant resource for subsistence, coastal 

protection, and economic development. The increasinq use and misuse of resources throughout 

the world presenls man with the challenge of conserving and managing conal reefs so tha! 

they can continue to provide benefits on inlo the future. 

The conservation and management of conal reef ecosystems is a particularly difficult 

task for a number of r€asons: the inherent characteristics of the ecosystem itself ; its 

vulnerability under rnan's inf luence; and the inadequacy of the present scientif ic 

understanding of the ecosystem and how it functions. 

The coral neef ecosystem is well known for its complexity and diversity, wilh perhaps 

more species within a small area than any othen ecosysLem known. lts long evolutionary 

hislory has allowed it to develop high levels of interaction between its components in both 

space and time, and on small and large scales. The result is an ecosystem noted for its high 

productivity even in a resource-poor environnpnt, and for its efficiency in the utilization aid 

recycling of energy and nutrients. There is increasing evidence of the dynarnism and 

resilience of coral reefs under natural conditions, with J successional development of reef 

structures' a relative stability of reef ecosystems at large scales, and a large capacity for 

regeneration after damaging extremes at smaller scales. 

. It was long assumed that these characteristics in an ecosystem would make it more 

resistant and thus easier [o manage, but the tropical environment of coral reefs has been one 

of the most stable over geological time, and when man pushes environmental factors beyond 

accusLomed limitsr or introduces new ones, the conal reef ecosysLem has proven particuianly 

vu lnerable. 

The direct destruction of coral reefs by dredging, construction or other activities can 

have effeets far beyond the immediate area concerned. For instance, Llre migration noutes of

-85 

fish and olher organisms can be upset; damage to reproduction areas can reduce populations 

far beyond; food chains and the transfer of -detritus can be interfered with; nutrienl cycles 

can be interrupted; and Lhe balance of consLruction and erosion of the reef framework can be 

altered. 

The breaking or removal of corals is a serious problem in some arees' The effect is 

equivalent to cuttinithe trees in a foresl; only a depauperate community is lefl behind' 

Human activities frequently alter. the water quality in coastal waters and affect 

reef -land interactions. As land is developed, terrestria.l runoff chanqes, often with drastic 

effects on the turbidity, saliniLy, temperature, and sedimentation in lhe waters zurrounding 

coral reefs. 

Man also alters the chemical environment of coral reefs' Pesticide spills and-the 

drainage of pesticide residues can have catastrophic or chronic effects' Nutrient inputs from 

fertilizers and urban wastes can upset delieaLe population balances, 8s can inputs of organic 

materials. 

Fishermen find it hard to resist, iljust one more" or to grab at any opportunity that 

presents itself, and improved transport hes reduced the numbei of areas protected by their 

inaccessibility, teaOinf, to increasing problems of overfishing on all conal reef s near 

signif icant population centers. Human ingenuity combined wilh modern technology have 

greatly increased the number of ways of killing fiin, many of which (explosives and poisons in 

iarticitar) are also highly destructive of other coral reef resourees' 

Furthermore, it is difficult or impossible to isolate a coral reef, as one might a park or 

reserve on land. Traditional park anct reserve concepts and conservation approaches do not 

work as well in the sea, where the reef ecosystem is still ubject to, and perhaps dependent 

on, oceanic and terrestrial influences. 

The management of eoral reef .resources- is further handicapped by the present 

inadequate scientific understanding of zuch complex systems. Jotrannes (198r) doubted that 

the scientific rnanagement of coral reef fisheries would be possible in this century. Predictinq 

reef behavior under human stresses, or planning the restoration of a damaged area, are still 

well beyond current knowledge. 

Unfortunately, wiLh the present rapid rate of reef degradation, . actions for the 

conservation and rln"qlr"nt of coral r"ei "co"ystems cannot weit for adequate scientific 

knowledge to eccumulatl. I pragmatic approach based on educated guesses and common sense 

extrapolations from present understanding will have to serve until trK're inf ormation is 

available. trt"nag"r"tii gria"tin". will havJ to be worked out on a trial and error bmis' 

Efforts to conserve significant coral reef areas in the South Pacific have already 

begun. Early marine reeervei in the region include the Ngerukewid (Seventy) Islands reserve 

in palau (195g), the Yves Merlet Mariie Reserve in New Caledonia (1970)' Scilly Lagoon 

(I97r) and Taiaro Atoll (1972) in French Polynesia, and Rme Atoll in American samoa J97t)' 

More recently, five coral reef reserves have been created in Tonga !1979)'. as well as the 

Palolo Deep Marine Reserve in Western Samoa (1979)t Suwagow Atoll Merine Park in the 

cook lslands (1978), "nd Hor.""hoe Reef Park in Papua New Guinea (I98I)' New celedonia 

has also recently created a rotating marine reserve on three major sectione .of barrier reef' 

Unfortunately, tne enforcement of these reserves is often difficult, and the ecientific 

resourees in the ."gion ere too limited to study the effectiveness of these approaches to 

merine conservation. 

Sone regionel efforts at corel reef management have etarted under the Regional Seas 

Action plans. Tfre South pacific Regional Environment Programme -(SPREP) has considered 

approaches to mapping coestel ,"rour6", to permit npre effective siting of developments and 

reserve ereas. tt is itso planning guidelines for the managemenL of. coral reefa, following .,o 

on its earlier coral Reef Mmitoring Handbmk (Dehl' t98I). ln addition, it is arpporting a 

project to strengthen the loeal managernent of coral reefs end other resourcee in rural areas 

by the users themselves. 

ln the ebsence of a strong scientific foundation for reef tnanegemen[, it is possible to 

look for guidelines in the traditional resource msnagement techniques developed over 

generations- Uy various Pecific Island crrltures. Prcper rnanagement of limited resources wag

-87 

e$enlial to these peoples' survival, and they developed many approaches of proven 

effecliveness. The following general guidelines are derived from these practices. 

Access to a particular reef fishery or area should be limited to the number of fishermen able 

to fish the area efficiently on a zustainable basis. 

The widest range of reef fishery resources (fish, shellfish, invertebrates, algae, etc.) strould 

be used, rather than just the most desirable species. A broad but light pressure on 

resources will better preserve the balance of species. 

There should be some perrnanent reserves, and other areas periodically closed to permit the 

regeneration of resources. 

Resource use should be adjusted to protect the breeding cycle or capacity of each species, 

including limits on lhe consumption of rare resources. Such information is often part of 

local traditional knowledge. 

Management of a coral reef can often be undertaken best by local people who have the most 

complete local knowledge of the status of the resource and its evolution over time. 

Cornmercial fisheries development should be limited to areas where sJbsistence use leaves 

sustainable resources untapped. Too often in the past, commercial reef fisheries 

development has been at the expense of subsistence users, who in many cases a.lready 

make full sustainable use of available resources. 

The above approach to coral reef fisheries management, together with the betten 

control of terrestrial influences (particularly those affecting critical habitats) and more 

integrated planninq in the coastal zone, will help to neet the challenge of conserving and 

managing coral reef ecosystems in lhe years immediately ahead. 

REFERENCES 

Dahl' Arthur Lyon. 1981. Coral Reef Monitoring Handbook. South Pacific Commission, 

Noumea, New Caledonia. ?I p. 

Johannes, Robert. 198I. Making better use of existing knowledge in managing pacific Island 

reef and lagoon ecosystems. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme-, Topic Review 

No. 4. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. IB p.

-89 

CM,AL REEFS IN TI-E PACIFIC - TI-EIR POTENTIALS A}O T}IEIR LIMITATIO{S 

E. D. Gomez and l-t T. Yap 

Marine Sciences Center, University of the Philippines 

Dilimen, Guezon City, Philippines 

ABSTRACT 

The hiqh productivily of coral reefs is generally recognized. Available data 

indicate appreciable yields in terms of fish biomass, although significant quantities 

of seaweeds, nnlluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms are also harvested. Coral 

reef s are a principal ecological zone in virtually all islands of the tropical 

Pacific. In characterizing the potenlials and limitations of lhese resources, the 

uniqueness and physical variability of island systems must be recognized. Of 

particular relevance is the fragility of small island systems due to isolation, size, 

and the semi-enclosed character of the reefs. Human popula[ions are a primary 

factor to consider. Up till the early twentieth century, subsistence eeonomies 

were the rule in rrpst Pacific island communities which depended on reef 

resources to varying degrees. In the island economy as a whole, however, the 

latter were mly secondary relative to produce from the land. Even then, rnarine 

resources displayed their vulnerability and their inadequacy to eustain exploitaLion 

on a commerciel scale. At present, new problems arise mainly from the 

transformation of subsislence economies to cash economies. These problems are 

associated with increasing human population, strif ts in the major spheres of 

economic activity, the loss of traditional management and eonservation systems, 

the developrnent of new reef ures s,rch es tourism, improvements in harvesting 

teehnology, and degradation of coral reefs d-re to human activities. The carrying 

capacity of reef resources thus becomes a pivotal issue. A recent promising 

developrnent related to the question of Pacific rcef poLentials lies in the field of 

mariculture. 

INTRODUCTION 

Pacific island populetions have traditionally depended m corel reefs to a great extent 

for their survival and livelihood. Modern developncnts have signif icantly altered the 

relationahips between man and reef in an increasing rumber of localities, srd even extrerely 

remote areas haye not been pared. The fundamental dependence of human populations in the 

Pacific m their reef reaources, however, remains. 

Tlc prerent paper attenpts to explore a rumber of factorg relevant to these issues. 

Discussion focucaes sr the countrieg and territorieg of the South Pacific, specifieally, those 

within the jurisdiction of the South Pmific Commiseion. 

NATI'RAL PRODUCTIVITY OF CORAL REEFS 

Ccal rsefs ere rccognized to be gnong tha moct productive natural cccyrtemr in the 

world (Grigg, ]979; Mamh, 1976; Sdvat, l98l). Rater of prirnery prodrctivity range from J00 

to 5{100 gClm-lyt, rrhich erc af high l in the rrst fartile watoB (Lewir, 1977\ Valuee from 

dlffcrant E6y.tcm! ec drown In Tabb l. Productivity in the vsriou! reaf hebitata is mt 

unlform, bwevcr. Sonc rosf ccolytttmr axhiblt ralativaly low productivitiee, qrc*r r csrtain

-90 

at,olls in bhe tropieal South Pacific (Ricard end Delesalle, l98I). Inportant primary producers 

in coral reefs are the macroalgae, the symbiotic zooxanthellae, and the fine filamentous 

forms inhabiting the substrste (Marsh, f976I 

Table L : Primary production values for pelagic, benthic and terrestrial ecosystems 

Habitat 

Pelagic 

Marine 

North Sea 

English Channel 

Lmg Island Sound 

Sargasso Sea (Oligotrophic) 

Peru Current (Eutrophic) 

F reshwater 

Oligotrophic lekes 

Eutrophic lakes 

Sewage treatment ponds, California 

Benthic, littoral, and Ctallow water 

Marine 

Algal bedsr Nova Scotia 

Algel community, CanarY Isles 

Kelp community Nova Seotia 

Tmpieal marine grass beds 

Coral reef 

Estuarine and brackish water 

Spartina marsh, Georgia 

Terrestrial 

Field grassr Minnesota 

Sugar cane, Java 

Woodland deciduous 

Birch 

Alder 

Woodland coniferous 

Source: Crisp, 1975 in Lewisr 1977. 

Biomass Production 

,, 

(qC/m') (gc/m'lyear) 

t.5 

2 

I 0.87 

I4 

24 

r500 

630 

265 

?260 

L96 

280 

84; 

4t5 

740 

640 

1700 

1760 

1400 

1840 

r00 

Lt5 

470 

r]4 

t650 

7 -25 

75-250 

r800 

Author 

Steele (f956) 

Harvey (1950) 

Riley (1955) 

Menzel & Ryther (f96I) 

Menzel et al.(I97I) 

Lund (1970) 

Lund (1970) 

Goulake et al. (1960) 

92O MacFarlane $952) 

,8J6 Johnston (1969) 

1750 Mann (1972) 

4550 Odum FrT. (1956), 

Burkholder et al. (1959) 

2100 Gasim & Bhattaghiri (197I), 

Moore et al. (1968) 

4200 Odum & Odum (1955) 

29OO Kohn & Helfrich (1957) 

lt?:l Odum, E.P. (f96f) 

52O Smalley (1960) 

1600 After Westlake (1961) 

43O McFadyen (f964) 

500 Golley (1960) 

140 Bray et al. (1959) 

t45O Giltay (1898) 

425 Ovington & Madgewick (1959) 

785 Ovington (1956) 

800 Ovington (1957) 

High productivity values are also evident in. the higher trophic levels, such ss in the 

case of lhe'coral animals themselves (Lewis, 198f). High nates of production for the latter 

are extremely significant because there are grounds for considering them to be the I'key 

industry'r forms i; coral reefs, i.e., the most important channels through which matter and 

energy f low. Lewis discovered certejn eommon reef coralg in lhe Atlantic to have 

proai"tivities of just over 1000 keal/m'/yr, Since this value is representative of only )9% 

coral cover, then productivity rates may be expected to be much higher in reef areas of

-9I 

greater coveralle, such as the numerous well-developed reefs in the Pacific. Productivities of 

iU species exjmined by Lewis appeared to be higher than those of many other benthic 

invertebrates. An important implication of this study is that there exists a considerable 

resource of food energy available for higher trophic levels. 

A good example of how the naturally high productivity of coral reefs is translated in[o 

economically important harvestable biomass is the production of various other inventebrates 

and of fish. Invertebrate groups harvested for subsistence, commercial, or recreational 

purposes are gastropods, bivalves, shrimps, lobsters, squid, octopus, sea urchins, and sea 

cucumbers. A number of studies exist that determine the potential productivity of these 

different groups, zuch as that of Richard (1981) who focused his investigation on mollusc 

species in ?rench Polynesia of potential commercial value. He determined annual potential 

productivities of Tridacne maxima, Cardium fraqum, and Tectarius Tectarius qrandinatus to be 12 

.qranginqtus .to be LZ 

-lo/na. 

Ls/na, 460 kg/ha ko/ha E?-Tf 6d TI klfral-respec- 

kq/Fa,-respectively. Similar studies conducted also in French 

Polynesia are outlined in Ricard et al. (I977). 

Estimates of fish production vary, but all indicate that significant amounts may be 

harvested from coral reefs. Numbers of fish on reefs may be 5 to 15 times the number in 

representative North Atlantic fishing grounds, and twice the average in typical temperate 

laies (Lewis, 1977). After briefly evaluating the different approaches to the study of coral 

reef productivity in terms of fisheries yield, Marshall (1979) arrived at a figure of f-5 tons 

of finfish harvested annually per sguare kilometre. This estimate has now been questioned as 

being low in view of a number of npre recent studies. 

Enploying a variety of methods, dif f erent authors (Alcala, I979i Carpenter, I977; 

Murdy and Ferraris, 1980) have drawn up figures for lhe fisheries potential of Philippine 

coral reefs. Contributions of coral reef fishes were estimated to range from I to over 20% of 

the total fisheries catch of the country. In some localities in the "central Visayan islands, 

catch estimates have been determined to be as high as 14-27 tons/km'/yr (Alcala 1979). As a 

companison, coral reef f isheries in seven trgpical Pacif ic islands were f ound to have 

productivities ranging from 0.09 to I8 tons/kn-lyr (Mbrten and Polovina' 1982). Tfe reef 

iish"ry contributes a significant percentage (10%) to lotal fish landed on the west coast of 

Sabah (Langham and Mathias, 1977). On the east coast of Malaysia, some 35% of all fish 

landed can be regarded as "reef -sssociaLed" (Rashid, 1980). Reef fish in Palau appear to have 

a potential harvest of 2r000-IIr(I)0 tons per year, which is of the same maqnitude as the 

ofishore tuna harvest. This relation appears to hold true for Micronesia as a whole (Johannes, 

1977). Country data for reef and lagoon fish indicate that these constitute 29% of Lhe 

commercialized local fishery in the South Pacific (salvat' 1980), although this estimate does 

not incorporate eontributions to the fishery from zubsistence fishing. Salvat estimates a yield 

of 100rff)0 tons/yr for the South Pacific. The impbrtance of coral reef fisheries on a world 

gcale was evelueted by Smith (f978). After extrapolating data for Caribbean and western 

North Atlantic fisheries to the world's reefs, he estimated the potential yield of reef-related 

figheries to be near 996 of total commercial fish landings. In view of the rnore recent studies' 

this figure probably needs to be adjusted upwards. 

DISTRIBUTION OF REEFS IN THE PACIFIC 

The distribution of coral reefs in the tropical Pacific is limited by the 20oC isotherms 

north end souih of the equator, and extends from East Asia to the Pacific coast of the 

Anrericas. Thls ia a vas! expanse of oeean, covering approximatety ll0 million square 

kilometres (Welle, L969), in which the thinly scattered islands are but ncre specks. That 

these islands are able to support a diversity, and often en abundancer d life is due to a 

fortuitous combination of factors, snong wtrich coral reefs figure prominently. The coral reef 

ia a principal ecologieal zme of both high and low islands (Mason, 1969), and in rnany cases 

constitutes their primary building block. Ttr combined areg of reefe in the South Pacific has 

been egtimated to be arotyrd 77,mO squere kilometres (Smith f978I The North Pacif ic hes a 

gimilar figqe (76rm0 km') while Southeast Asia (including northern Austrelia) accounts for 

182,(tr0 km-. 

Coral thug makeg up a great portion of Pacific ielands, either by active growth of the 

reef iteelf, or by the eccumuletion of reef debrig by nnchanical forcee such as waves and 

currentg.

-92 

Biogeographic provinces in the South Pacific and the reef types that occur in eaeh are 

ghown in Table 2. Sunmary descriptive information on each island in the dif ferent 

biogeographic provinces (excluding New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon 

Islands) is provided in the Draft Cfeck List of Pacific Oceanic Islands by Douglas (1969) 

based ffi the work by E.H. Bryan. 

Table 2 : Occurrenca of reef types in the biogeographic provinces of the South Pacific 

(frcim Dahl, 1980) 

Biogeographic 

hovinces 

Biomes/Habitats 

I l.lew Guinea 

n Bbnerk Archipclago 

Ill Solornon lslen& 

ry l{cw Caledonh - Loyalty 

V l{cw thbridcs - Sontr Cruz 

VI Norfotk - lord Ho*t - Kcrmrdec 

ur Fiji 

YIll Tonp-Nirr 

D( Semr-Wdlb 

X TuYrlu - Tokcleu 

Xl Kirib.ti - I{ruru 

)flI lt'lrrirnr lsbn& 

XIII Cerolinc lCrndr 

XIV l{rrshall lshndr 

XV Plpenix- Line- Northem Coolr 

XVI Cook - Austrd 

XVII Society lslands 

XVIII Tugmotu 

XD( Marqucsar 

XX Pitcdm - Grmbicr - Rapa 

CHARACTERISTICS OF PACIFIC ISLAND ECOSYSTEMS 

Uniqueness of islands 

siiEgggg 

aaaa'|tt|| 

aaataa 

a aata 

rlatt!ataa 

atata 

aa *t a 

ataartaaa 

ttla 

aaaa 

atattaa 

attaaa 

aatata 

aaatl 

tat 

a rlf a 

tf a a a i t 

aa ral 

I 

Pacif ic islands may fall under any of the following sLructural types (descriptions after 

Dahl, 1980; Thomas, 196l in Anon. 1959): 

Continental type - composed of sedimentary, metamorphic, igneous or other nocks of 

continental origin (occurring west of Lhe Andesite Line), and of soils derived therefrom; 

generally islands of large si ze wilh complex landforms. 

a'|l.a 

ta

_9t 

Volcanic type islands built by volcenic activity and therefore with substrateg derived from 

lava (usuelly basalt) and volcanic ash. 

Ebvated reefg - ielande or parts of islandg compoeed of raised coral platforms or limestone. 

Lcnr islande - eomposed of sand and coral rubble accumulated m 

sea-level. This is the typical type m atolls and barrier 

occutr es coastal or beach areas on other island types. 

The islands in turn rnay be flanked by one or a eombination of several reef structures. 

Following Dahl (1980), these may be described as follows. An algal reef is a calcareoug 

structure in which corelline algae are principal eontributors to reef Lonstruction end s:rface 

eover' A coral reef, m the other hand, is a structure actively constructed by the skeletal 

deposition of hermatypic corals and associated organisms. Corai reefe in turn take the form 

of: 

Atoll reefs - annular reefs generally with an internal lagoon unassociated with any major 

landmass. 

Barrier reefs - reefs offshore from a major land mass and 

or navigable channel. 

separaled from it by a deep lagoon 

Fringing reefs - reefs growing directly out fnom the coastline and not separated from it by 

more than a shallow depression. 

Lagoon reefs or patch reefs - reef structures developing in the sheltered waters of a lagoon. 

A rrnon-growing" reef is a calcareous structure now covered with organisms not 

contributing significantly to skeletal accumulation or reef qrowth. Subrnerged reefs are those 

"drowned" by zubsidence to depths below which reef qro;tn has been insufficient to regain 

the zurface. 

. 

Similarly, the marine environment may be characterized by different structural criteria 

(Dahl, 1980). Substrates in different areas may be rocky (calcareous or non-calcareous) or 

uneonsolidated. In addition, reef community structure would depend on whether the island is 

subrnerging, emerging or +parently stationary relative to sea level, and whether the setting 

is exposed or protecLed with respect to lhe physical forces of lhe sea. These factors are all 

part of lhe variability of the physical and chemical environnent of island ecosystems (whicfr 

will be discussed in the following section), and which contribuLe signif icantly to the 

uniqueness of each island. 

, 

a reef platform at or near 

reefs, and also frequently 

Descriptions of reef structune and nnrphology in the tropical Pacific are relatively 

few. ssne studies that may be nrentioned are thosl m lhe cook lslands (Gibbs et al., r97l; 

Stoddart and Pillai, I97J)i Fanning lsland (Maragos, 1974a and b; Roy and Shith,-197I); 

French Polvnesia (chevalier, 1975b; Ricard 4 4.; thl); rhe Lau tslandi in Fiji (phipps and 

Preobrazhensky, 1975); the Marshall Islands-(L-acid, 1975; MacNeil, Lgiz)i the New Hebrides 

(now Vanuatu) in M_elanesia (Guilcher, 1974); New caledonia (chevalier, '197)a); p+ua r.rlw 

Guinea (Weber, I975b; Whitehouse, I97)); Samoa (Mayor, L9Z4); and 'the iotornon Islands 

(Jmes, 1977; Morton, 1974; Weber, L97Ja). 

The physical structure of an island is a major determinant of the types of ecosystems 

present (Dahl' f980)- A elear example may be found in the case of islands wilh exposed end 

protected sides, such as atolls. Coral reefs tend to be npre robust and better developed on 

the exposed sides due to rnore adequate wat.er circulation and greater availabiiity of 

nutrients. In addition, reef forms and lagoon types are determined by the structure and 

history of the island substrate (Dahl, I9S0). In general, Lherefore, a broad distinction can be 

made among continental islands, high volcanic islands, elevated reefs, and low coral islands, 

but it is also necessary to consider the delailed origin and structure of each, and its 

geographic location in terms of the origin and evolution of flora and fauna (E1io[t, Lg;-J). 

Dasmann (1971) attributes lhe uniqueness of island ecosystems to their relative isolation 

which induces peculiar evolutionary patlerns in each separate setting. Differences among 

similarly situated neef habitats are manifested, for example, in t6e differing rates oi 

productiviiy of at.oll lagoons in the South pacific (Ricard and belesalle, lggl).

_94 

Variability in the physical, chemical, and bioloqical environment 

Variability in the environment plays a key role in the development of islands and their 

charaeteristie reef systems. On the whole, islande may be considered as being unstable 

ecosystems. Factors in the physical and chemical environrnent are discussed by McLean 

(f980b). These are divided into factors of the land, the sea, and the atmosphere. In the first 

category falls the immense vaniety of island types already discussed. Also considered here is 

the plate tectonie setting of rnost islands in the tropical Pacific which is responsible for 

long-term instabiliiy in the form of vertical and horizontal movemenls, and present 

perturbations zuch as earthquakes and vulcanism. 

Of the factors associated with the sea, perhaps the most severe effect exerted on 

island ecosysLems has been that of the rise in sea level in recent geologic time. This 

phenomenon has resulted in changes in island distnibution, size, and type. Small oceanic 

islands were particularly vulnerable, being drastically altered or disappearing allogether. 

Reefs either grew proportionately, or wene drowned (McLean, 1980a). Present evidence 

suggests that sea level is continuing to rise (McLean, f980b). A second factor lhat has 

shaped much of coastal morphology and that is responsible for the formation of a number of 

islands are ocean waves. Of partieularly great. impact over Lhe shorl term are tsunamis, storm 

surges, and hurricane waves. Effects of hurricane waves on reef structures in the Pacific 

have been documented by Baines et a! (1974), Baines and McLean Q97O, and Randall and 

Eldredge (1977). Fortunately, reefs afford a measure of protection for island shores againsl 

the destructive effects of the sea. Altogether, it should be emphasized that there exists an 

intimate linkage between reefs, marine processes, and the zubaerial coastal land in the 

building and alteration of coastal features (McLean, 1980a). The latter is known to have 

occurred rapidly throughout prehistoric times. 

Factors of the atmosphere are wind, rainfall, and storms. These are closely linked with 

currents and the oceanographic processes described above, as well as relevent chemical 

parameters such as salinity and rutrient loading. 

Perhaps the most significant biological factor affecting Pacific reefs on a large scale, 

and hence worth mentioning here, is predation by the crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster 

planci (Cheney, 1974; Nishihira and Yamazato, 1974). Repeated population explosEiilFlFiE 

organism have occurred in a number of localities and are believed to be cyclic, though 

probably aggravated by human interference in the environnrent. These have been reported to 

eeuse extrenre damage to reefs, as much as 90% in a single area. Serious concern has thus 

been generated (e.9. Chesher, 1969), including speculations on severe economie loss and the 

possible extinction of scleractinian corals in some erees. Additional studies indicate, however, 

that this corel-eating starfish may be a normal component, of tropical Pacific eoral reef 

communities, and lhat the publicized population explosions in areas such as Guam end Pelau 

may be isolated, local infeetations of an unknown cause (Weber and Woodhead, 1970). At 

present, it does not appear to pose a serious threat in any part of the region (Marsh and 

Tsuda, 1971; Alcala, 1976). 

Fraoilitv of gmall ieland ecosvetems 

As a result of physical and biological instability generated by the fectors discussed 

above, and becauee of lhe significant role of isolation (Desmann, 1971; Grigq, 1979), island 

ecosystems have evolved to be extrennly fragile and vulnerable to disturtance. This 

vulnerability extends even to disruptions of locsl flora and fauna by the introduction of new 

speciea because of the high degrees of specializstion that the forrner have achieved through 

evolutionery time. Other sources of vulnerability are rcstricted land and reef areas, and 

limited carrying capacities for hurnan settlement (Meson, 1979). 

Small islands tend to be more densely populeted than Iarger ones, and hence epproach 

rmre closely the limits of the environrnent to arpport the population (Bayliss-5mith, f978). A 

more extended discugsion of the camying capacities of islends with r€8pect to human 

populations is provided by Bayliee-Smith (1980),

MANIS RELATION TO THE REEF 

-95 

Inadequaey of reefs to sustain larqe-scale exploitation 

. .ln:pite of their high rates of productivity, coral reefs +pear to be unable to sustain 

exploilation on a .significantly large scale such as a commeicial fishery. This may be 

attributed to the physical seLting of reefs in rhe Pacific, as well as to the nature of the 

coral reef ecosystem. 

Many islands are actually the tips of srbmerged mountains, so that the pnoductive 

shallow waters are limiLed to the na*ow band which is the corel reef (Johannes, L97g). 

Offshore waters tend to be hazardous . and even less produclive. In the case of atolls, 

shelLered lagoons which are rpre accessible to local fisherrnen are less productive than the 

more exposed reefs. This is in striking contras! with the continental situation where wide 

continental shelves lend themselves to the harvesting of considerable biomass. 

The nature of lhe coral reef ecosystem is zuch that it is fragile and easily disturbed 

whe_n pushed beyond its limits Oahl and Baumgart, l9S2). In additi'on, it is felt that coral 

reefs have low standing crops of exploitable splcies (Smith and Stimson , IgTg). ffris rnay Ue 

due Lo the cryptic nature of much of the reef fauna, and the lack of extensive beds of filter 

feeders that are amenable !o eurrently employed harvesting techniques. In addition, the 

e.xceptionally high diversities characteristic of coral reefs'preclude the development of 

sing,le, dominant speeies stands which are easily harvested. Ii would therefore appear that 

reef species may suslain local (i.e. zubsistence) consunption, but not consunption greatly 

exceeding this level. Subsistence exploitaLion of reef resources may thus be near the cirryini 

capacity of the ecosystem, having taken millenia to adjust. 

Gri99 (1979) takes a somewhat differenl view of the limitations of neef nesources but 

arrives at much the same conclusion. He maintains that reef processes favor the accumulation 

of biomass which results in an apparent abundance of resources, but certain characteristics 

of the ecosyslem renden the latter vulnerable [o oven-exploitaLion. These characteristics are 

summarized as follows: 

l) Since a majority of the nutrients in the system are present in the form of biomass, a large 

fraction is exposed to removal by exploitation; 

2) Rernoval of nutrients from the system reduces the amount that can otherwise be recycled, 

and thereby reduces potential or future production; 

j) Great longevity exposes many year classes to exploitation; and 

4) Lmg-lived species are characterized by low rates of turn-over. 

In island settings, additional factors contribute to the easy depleLion of reef resources. 

These are the small size of many islands, and the semi-enclosed character of reef ecosystems 

(Grig.g, L979)- Grigg postulates lhat suslained harvests may not be much greater than l0% of 

standing crops. 

Varyino deqrees of dependence on reef resources 

No data are available at present m the fraction of the world population living close to 

and dependent m coral reefs. salvat (l9sla) estirnaLes it to be well'below 100 million. Among 

the Pacific islands at presen!, there exists a spectrum from $bsistence economies to those 

that are hiqhly urbanized and induetrialized. There may be found a contrast, therefore, 

between self -suff icieney or a close relationship with existing terrestriel and marine 

resourcesr and varying degrees of dependence on imports and wor-ld markets (Mason, L;igi 

ExryP.t for the larger islands of Melanesia, however, ieefs and lagoons may oe considered the 

traditional sources - of protein food (Elliott, LgTt). In Guair, marine resources have 

treditionally been of. great eco-nomic significance though the subsistence base in the past hes 

been agriculture rather than fishing (Nolan, LgTg). lf nray be surmised thst npst of these 

marine resources are drawn from the reef and rclated ar""r, in Guam and elsewhere, because 

the knowledge and technology to harvest reef resources is well within the current 

capabilities of Micronesian fisherrnen, which is not the ease for pelagic fieheriea (:*rennes, 

r977),

-96 

Salvat (1980), m the other hand, mainlains that the exploitation of manine resources is 

not central to the island economies in Lhe South Pacific. In the case of certain small islands 

sueh as in Fiji, reef and lagoon resources are of greeLer relative importance than on larger 

islands (Brookfield, I978a). Still, there is no truly heavy dependence for subsistence or cash 

because nesources are limited and patchy. 

An overview of the utilization of reef resources in the Pacific indicates that most 

plant and animal groups are still relatively under-exploited (Salvat, 1980). This is true for 

crustaceans and echinoderms such as sea cucumbers. The latter are of grea[er relat,ive 

inportance than crustaceans or molluscs in the tropical South Pacif ic. Trade in these 

organisms flourished in the l9th and early 20th c€nturies, then declined. Algae are limited 

mainly to domestic uee. Molluscs are used as food. There are indications that present 

populations may not be able to srpport. commercial exploitation on any scale, and that these 

are already heavily taxed on the present subsis[ence basis. Fishes on the outen reef slopes 

are underexploited. Limitations to large-scale exploitation of reef fishes are their diversity, 

relatively small size, occasional toxicity, and existing harvesting technology. Other problems 

arise with respect to preservation, transport and marketing. Aside from food, these organisms 

have gneat potential for use as live bait. Other vertebrates zuch as sea turtles and dugongs, 

m the other hand, are threatened with serious depletion of stbcks. 

Subsistence Populations 

As may be gleaned from the discussion above, sr.rbsistence populations are still a 

perverive and important element in the ;;^pical Pacific. lsland peoples have traditionally 

obtained the bulk of their protein from t sar up to 90% in some cases (Jol"rannes, 1978). 

This may be attributed to terrestrial fooo 'pplies being limited due to the poor soil quality 

on rnost islands, as well as being precnnrous due to the frequent onslaught of natural 

catastrophes g.tch as hurricanes. Reefs may thus be seen as being an important element in 

subgistence economies. This is so in spite of the fact that many islands have to support large 

population densities, from several hundred individuals to over a thousand per square mile. It 

would seem that a close relationship has evolved between subsistence populations and the 

reefs m which they depend, with exploitat.ion being closely attuned to lhe carrying capacity 

of the resource. 

Detailed profiles of some islands within the Fiji group have been generated by projects 

under Unesco'g Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB). Descriptions of physical setting and 

socio-economic structures are available f or islands such as Batiki (Bayliss-Smith, 1978), 

Kabara (Bedford et_ {.r 1978), other islands of the Lau gnoup (Salvat et a]., 1978), and 

Taveuni (Brookfiel-d -f978b). Certain characteristics of these islands mEJe eonsidered 

repreaen[ative of lhe wider Pacif ic region, sl.rch as general demographic, economic, and 

c-trltural trends (to be discussed leten). In contrast to other reports of a great dependence of 

Pacific island economies qr reef nesources, however, some of these islands, such as the Lau 

group, sppear to be characterized by a lesser degree of dependence. There, terrestrial 

I'rEsourcea are accorded a central role in the economy. This may be a result of a paucity of 

rnarine resourees, or simply their underdeveloped state. In some islands the harshness of Ehe 

natural environnent as a whole produces a dependence of populations on the wider Fijian 

society and economy for survival. 

Also noteworthy are the different scales of exploitation of reef resources in different 

ielands. In Lakeba in the Lau group, for example, reef fish are underexploited, but giant 

clams are exploited to the extent that they are now in danger of extinction (Salvat et a!., 

1977). Other groups such as crustaceans, echinoderms, nndusae, and the alga Caulerpa are 

eeten, but are mly secondary to fish and giant clams. In the island of Futuna most of the 

protein consurEd is derived from the sea in the form of shellfish, crabs, crayfish, turtles, and 

echinoderms (Richerd et al., f98L). The majority of these species epear to be exploited to 

the point of exhaustion because of non-selective and harmful fishing practices, and the 

nnrphology of the reef substrate which renders the benlhos particularly vulnerable to present 

harvesting techniques. 

Trangformetion from subsistence to cash economies 

Tle impact of westernization, es this historical phenomenon is commonly referred to, 

resulted in unprecedented disruptions in the economic, social, and cultural fabric of island

-97 

populations which had taken rnillenia Lo develop. Salient features of this developrrnnt include 

the introduction of money economies, Lhe imposition of new laws and practices by colonial 

powers' and the breakdown of traditional authority (Johannes, 1978). All these had important 

implications for the utilizaLion of natural resources. A significant corollary of the changes 

wrought in Pacific island settings particularly at the turn of the century was Lhe phenomenal 

rise in human population, the trend of which continues up to the present day. This in turn has 

ted to new and increasing demands on island resources such as coral neefs. The resultant 

degradation and depletion of these resources has proven inevilable in many cases, and 

currently is a widespread and urgent problem Lo be tackled. 

The advent of caah economiee 

The introduction of money economies by foreigners into Pacific island subsistence 

soeieties implied the qeration of an entirely new set of factors determining the general 

course of livelihood of these peoples. Inportant examples are the development of distant 

markets and the growth of the profit motive (Johennes, f978). The latler factor is especially 

significant because it meant the effective annihilation of the conservation ethic (see 

discussion in Johannes, L977; 1978), so that considerable waste of reef resources became 

widespread. In sddition, conflicts over reeource ase arose belween zubsistence fishermen and 

those promoting rew commercial fisheries (Gawel, l98f). 

In general, the drive for increased cash income meant the decline of zubsistence 

activities (Finney, 1965), with the latter being supplanted by cash-crop produetion on 

full-time wage labor. Among other things, this meant the decrease in availability of products 

traditionally gathered from the reef, and the increasing reliance m imported commodi[ies. 

Losr of traditional menagament and.conservation systems 

Mention was made earlier of the conservation ethic in zubsistence societies. Evidence 

indicates that this has been a guiding principb in ihe utilization of reef nesources by nnst 

island communities. The current breakdown of traditional conservation practices is attributed 

to the advent of European and Oriental contact (Jotrannes, I97B; Owen, L969). This has been 

accompanied in many areas by a decrease or disappearance of unprotected reef stocks 

(Gawel, l98l; Jotrannes, 1978). There are indications that Western approaches to resource 

management are not applicable in the Lropical Pacific (Gawel, lg8l), so that the accumulated 

wisdom of tradition may prove irreplaceable. Examples of tradilional management practices 

are given in Table ]. 

Not mentioned in Table I is the practice of reef and lagoon tenurc (Jotrennes, 1977; 

f978). The latter in effect is a system wherein the right to fish in a particular area is 

allotted to a clan, ctrief or family. Regulation of exploitation to achieve srstainable yields 

was thus pursued as a matter of course because it was perceived to be in the best interest of 

the controlling party. This practice prevents the tragedy of the commons now prevalent in 

nndern societies. 

Traditional management practices were either related to some religious or ruperstitious 

belief ar or were clearly intended to conserve resources. A number were developed to 

minimize waste associated . with periodic and predictable gluts, sJch as during spawning 

seaaons. It ppears that dmost every basic fisheries corrservation rrpasure devised in the 

West wee in use in the tropical Pacific for crnturies (Jotrannes, l97B). 

Problams of incrcatcd human peulation 

A rumber of Pacific islands remain uninhabited, but in those that are inhabited, the 

growth of populationg and their economies is a pervasive phenomenon (Eltiott, l97t). Average 

anlual rates of popu-lation growth for Oceania have been docurrented as follows (UN, lg$l 'in 

Holdgate et glr 1982): 

1960-L965 2.08% 

1970-L975 1.85% 

1975-1980 L.47% 

Percentage change in nate of growth from 1960-65 to I975-8Ot -D.l.eti

-98 

Table I : Intentional rnarine conservation neesunas employed traditionally 

by tropical Pacific islanders (excluding marine tenure eyatems) 

(after Jofrannes' 1978) 

Method Locality 

Closing of fishing or crabbing 

afees 

Closed reasons or banning of 

fishing during gawning periods 

Allowing a portion of the cateh 

to escape or deliberetelY not 

eatching all readily evailable 

fish or turtles 

Holding excess catch in 

enclosures until needed 

Ban m taking srnall individuals 

Fishing in inland lagoons or for 

certain easily accessible 

species restricted to times of 

poor fishing conditions 

Restrictions on taking seabirds 

and/or their eggs 

Restricting the number of 

fish traps in an area 

Ban m Laking turlle eggs 

Ban m taking turtles sr the beach 

Ban st frequent,ing favorite 

spots m turtle nesting beach 

Pukapuka; Marquesasl Truk; Tahiti; Setawal; Y4; 

Niue; Senroa; Tonga; Gilbert Islands; Hawaii; Solomon 

Islandsi Mershall lslande; Cook lslands; Laap 

Hawaii; Tahiti; Pdeu; Tmga; Td

eo 

^54 

!.t 

x42 

e36 

o 

Fso 

jza 

G 

3rs t2 

6 3 

lo20 r!00 

-99 

Figure 1 : Population trends in Guam, l52t-1950 

(based on data from Underwood, 197)) 

poPuLATlot{ TREttDs tlt GuAil (r62t - ls60) 

Table 4 : Pqulation trends and land areas in the South pacific 

(South Pacific Commission, SPCmf. 221WP.8, pege l-1). 

Anerican Samoa 

Cook lglande 

Federated States of Micronesie 

Fiji 

French Polynesia 

Guam 

Kiribati 

Marshall Islands 

Nauru 

Nafl Caledmia 

Niua 

Nothern Marianes 

Pelau 


Pitcairn lalend 

Solomon Islande 

T*elau 

Tmga 

Twalu 

Vanuatu 

Wdtis and Futuna 

lVastern Sgnoe 

TOTAL 

Estimsted Estimeted Land 

Population Annual Area 

(mid-1980) Growth Rate (sq.km) 

t2rItOO 

17,900 

T4rtr99 

614rloo 

t48,100 

1051800 

58,600 

tlrm0 

7r100 

140r500 

tr400 

l6r80o 

12,150 

,rm6rg0o 

60 

225raJ/0 

lr600 

97r400 

Tr'n,0 

ll7,xto 

10,800 

t56r800 

41906,110 

L8 

-0.9 

1.9 

2.2 

z.o 

2.O 

0.6 

0.9 

-t.2 

4.4 

2.2 

-5.0 

,.1 

0.0 

LI 

2.O 

,,7 

4.0 

0.8 

Pryulation 

Density 

(persons/sq.km) 

I97 L64 

240 75 

700 105 

L8,272 54 

tr265 45 

540 196 

590 85 

170 182 

2L 

19,10, 7 

'48 

259 ll 

470 t6 

490 25 

M2r24' 7 

,L5 

28r5rg 

g 

t0 160 

700 Ltg 

26 288 

11,800 l0 

2r5 42 

2r9t5 

"

Irprcvcd hervcrtlng tcctnologicr 

- I00 

TfE increasing demand of gnowing populations on coral reef s for food and other 

amenities has spurred the developnnnt or inportation of new and better technology to 

facilitate the harveet of neef nesources, often exceeding the capecity of thege regources for 

renewal or replenishment. Thus, rnoat native fishing equiprnant, for exanple, has been 

replaced by nntal hooks and lures, nylon lines and throw nets, spear guns, diving gear, plastic 

boats, and gasoline-powered engines. The advent of the Second World War, in addition, has 

introduced Pecific islenders to the use of explosives and chemicals for catching fiah (Mason, 

L979\ 

In e senserthe following issues are also an offshoot of the general problem of increased 

human populations m Pacific islands. 

Devalqmnt of ncw rucf urer 

There hes ccurred over time a decline in the use of food of reef origin. The latter has 

been supplanled by other reef uses, urch as handicraft industries bssed on products from the 

reefs, md pearl c,ulture (Salvat, I98lb! Trade in reef products has grown to be a major 

commereial activity (Salvat, 1980; WeUs, 1981). This has resulted in ihe depletion of stocks 

of many reef organisms such as mother-of-pearl, Trochus, Turbo mermoratus, other decorative 

shells, and verious scleractinian eorals. The coral trade and its implications for management 

have been discussed elsewhere (Ganez, f98l). 

Tourism has grown to be ihe most important industry on many Pacific islands (Mason, 

L979). Because they are small in scale, fragile, and easily degraded, tropical island 

environments are particularly threatened (Dahl, 1982; Salvat, L97t). With careful planning' 

however, much of the impact from tourism may be offset (Ryland' f98l). 

In the face of the new and mostly unforeseen stresses inflicted on conal reefs with the 

onset of modernization, efforts have been made to develop reef resources on a planned and 

controlled basis, but on a larger scale then has hi[herto been carried out, Unfortunatelyt 

there are indications that the fishenies developnnnt efforts currently underway are not 

eppropriate to the natural and human environments of the tropical Pacific (Gawel' f98I). 

Among others, problems in marine resource development involve manpower, infrastrucluret 

marketing, processing, hrsiness management, financing, and fuel eosts. It is anticipaled !hat 

these problems will continue to preoccupy resource managers for a long time t.o come. 

Reaourcc degradation 

Perhaps me of the most serious problems to arise wilh respect to reef resources is 

that of degradation from human activities. A list of current causes of reef degradation is 

presented in Table 5. Salvat (l98la) notes that all of the items listed in this lable have been 

originally absent in subsistence settings, except for lhe use of poisons for fishing. A general 

discussion of destructive human acLivities is provided by Salvat (1978' l98la). Of these' the 

most serious damage appears to be caused by collection of the reef biota, sedimentation, and 

dredging. In an overview of reef degradation in the Pacific, Dahl and Baumgart (f982) repoct 

blasting, the use of poisons in fishing, pollution, and siltation to be major eausative fac[ors. 

Murrell (1982) reports at least three-quarters of Pacific countries as now having manine 

pollution problems, although these are mostly concentrated in the coastal zones. An 

additional source of degradation in the Pacif ic is the use of several Pacific islands as sites 

for the construction of military installations, so that a number of reefs are contaminaLed by 

radioactive pollution (Ymge, 1969). Mining on coral reefs occurs in Fiji, Papua New Guinea, 

the Solomon Islands, the Trust Territories, and Western Samoa (Cruickshank' I98I)' mainly for 

coral sand and other construction malerials. Causes of reef degradation in Micronesia as a 

whole are documented by Owen (1969), Nolan (1979) and Tsuda (I98f). Short. discussions on 

the specific problems of each island or country are available for American Samoa (Swerdloff' 

IgTt), the Cook Islands (Hambuechen, I97t), Fiji (Richmond, l98l), Guam (Jones and Randall' 

l97t), Moorea in French Polynesia (Naim, I98I), New Caledonia (Parrat, I97t), the Trust 

Territory of the Pacific Islands (Division of Lands, I98I; Owen, I97J), and Westenn Samoa 

(Hewson et {.r I9SI). Reef degnadation in Southeast Asia is diseussed elsewhere in this 

volume (Y-ap-and Gomez, 1984). Annng other things, the above factors have resulted in 

serious depletion of reef organisms zuch as fish (Randall, 1979).

A. 

B. 

- l0I 

Table 5 : Causes of reef degradation 

(after Salvat) 

Collecting and fishing in excess or illegally 

l. Collecting of shells and corals by tourists or commercially 

2. Collecting of reef fish for aquariums 

t. Collecting of coral-reef resources for local populaLions 

4. Spean-fishing 

5. Commercial fishing in reef areas 

6. Dynamite used for fishing end for public works 

7. Poison and other toxic ehemicals used for fishing 

8. Other destructive fishing methode (e.9. muro-ami) 

Pollution 

l. Pesticides and detergents 

2. Sediments from soil 

t. Sewage and eutrophication 

4. Oit 

5. Thermal effluents 

6. Industrial wastes 

7. Heavy rnetals 

8. Radioactivity 

Disturbance 

l. Dredging activities 

2. Constructional activities contiquous to'reefs 

l. Recreational impacts (scuba and snorkel activilies, boating, anchor damage) 

4. Introduction of alien or exo[ic species 

5. Acanthaster problems 

6. Mining of coral rock, sand, and shellgrit 

7. Oil and gas drilling, mineral prospecting 

Mariculture potentiale 

Mariculture as a commercial activity to augrnent natural harvest from reefs is not 

widespread in the tropical Pacif ic. A possible neason is that most islanders are simply 

unaware of its potentials. A few inroads have been made, however, such as Lhe cultivation of 

oystens in French Polynesia (Salvat, f980). In Hawaii and Palau, experimental projecls in 

mericulture appear promising, but have not yet been developed to any stage of commercial 

importance (Mason, 1979). Pearl cultivation in istands such as the Tuamotus shows potentials 

of being developed into a major end fairly secure export activit.y (Salvat, 1980). What are 

called for now are baseline studies on the different species of possible com'nercial value, 

anch as those of Munro and Gwyther (1981) m tridacnid clams. To ensure adequate gains 

from any mariculture venture, trowever, appropriate marketing strategies must be developed.

- r02 

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-107- 

FORESTRY IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC: HOW AhD FOR WHOM ? 

Dennis Richardson 

Forestry Council, P.O. Box 5052, Lambton Ouay 


ABSTRACI 

The Asian Development Bank has elassified the forest economies of its South 

Pacific Member Countries as follows: industrialized econornies with significant 

forest resources (Australia and New Zealand); island economies with abundant 

resources at a low level of industrialization (Papua New Guinea)i developing island 

economies with significant forest resources (Fiji, Western Samoa, Solomon lslands); 

and developing island economies with limited forest resources (Kiribati, Tonga, 

Cook Islands). 

Following a review of projected global and regional demand for wood, the 

constraints and opportunities for forestry development in these different 

environnents are discussed. The ecological hazards - and economic myopia - of 

unrestrained logging are emphasized. The goods and services which forestry can 

undoubtedly provide will not be realised by exploitative venlures or by casting 

island economies in the role of raw material zuppliers to the industrialized 

nations. 

Professional arrogance and blinkered vision among land-use pundits (including 

environmentalists) are as damaging to fragile ecosystems as the juggernauts of 

exploitative logging and large scale monocultural reforestation. This paper 

highlights the need for safeguards to mitigate the effects of dangerous 

technologies, at the same [ime enabling a sustainable srpply of goods and services 

from forestry. It calls for a reduction in the export of unprocessed logs, the 

adoption of light capital technologies and appropriale operational sceles, and lhe 

expansion of agriculture-supportive, mulLi-purpose, forestry. 

Sane implications of adopting a rrhuman chauvinist'r approach to ecosystem 

utilization are considered. 

Introduction 

In this paper, I propose to draw your attention to what I perceive to be signifieant 

recent changes in the regional forest economy (inctuding some of the ecologicel hazardg 

associated with those changes) and to suggest possible safeguards to €nsure a s.Jstainable 

srlpply of goods and services from forestry in the Pacific lslands. 

I shall argue the csse against the twin juggerneuts of exploitative logging and 

large-scale industrial plantatione in the smaller islands, and I shall attempl Lo reconcile 

global and regional needs for foregt products with the conservelion of our dirninishing 

resource. My argunents are not new: indeed, the gist of what I have to say I have previously 

discu$ed at a Waigani seminar and in a presentation to a gathering of environrnentalists 

(Richardson, l98l). But I believe the thene has particular relevance because of the'Pacific 

Ieland potential to teach the rest of the world a leseon in the ert and science of biological 

self-arfficiency which ultimately we shall all need to learn.

lndustrial Wood Demand and Supply 

-108- 

The ecological hazards to which I have referred stem prilnarily from a maegive increese 

during the last few years in exploitalive logging in the South Pecific. It has followed the 

resolve of the traditional log-exporting countries in Asia and Afnica to reduce the export of 

unprocessed raw material. 

A (gcade ago, Indonesia exported I{ million cubic rnetrer (t}) of logs, Malaysia 14 

million m', end the Philippines 8 million m-. Six years later these volunes had dropped by 

25% and in I98I by a further l0%. Over the same period, however, log exports from Papua 

New Guinea rose by 100% and from the Solomon lslands by 2009L To contain togging costs' 

producers ere now searching out flat, easy terrain in eparsaly populated areas - where thene 

witl be no inconvenient demands for environrnental inpact stttements and where they may 

imporl cheap labour without arousing too mueh opposition. This is taking them to lhe smaller 

islands (in Papua New Guinea, for example, lo Woodlark and Umboi lelands, to Erromanga in 

Vanuatu, to Kolombangara and South New Georgia in the Solomons) where their impact is 

inf initely greater and the benef its more restricted tian on the bigger' more densely 

populated, land masses, and where we simply do not know whet effects may result from 

ecological change m this scale in a confined environrnent . 

Changes in the regional forest economy must be viewed in the context of burgeoning 

increases in globat demands for the products of the forests and, too, fon the land which 

susLains them. 

Moreover, in place of the dearth of reliable information about forest resources which 

frustrated the early supply and demand forecaets of the FAO' we nowadays suffer almost an 

'rembarrassrnent of riches" of prognoses. Technology changes more rapidly than [rees grow, 

and faster than economisls think - but slower (it seems) than data accumulate! A smorgasbord 

of satellite lechnology and electronic data processing equiprnenl currently enables us to 

moniLor area and volune changes in the worldts forests with a greater precision than ever 

before; for most countries, the reeults of such investigations have been frightening andr for 

a! of us, they are sobering. 

Tfe wortd in 1975 contained 2.8 billion hectares (ha) of closed forest capable of being 

managed for a sustained yield - 40% conifergus (softwood), .50% broadleaved (har{wood). 

These forosts csrry more than 100 billion m- of wood - of which 200 billion m- is of 

hardwood and concentrated in the tropical and srb-tropical aress of Lafin Ancrica' Africa 

and the Asia-Pacific region. From this resource, we remove 2.5 billion m- P.a - but although 

this is less lhan I% of the growing stock, the removals are not balanced over lhe resounce 

base. As to species, the conifers are intensively exploited, the hardwoods afe under-utilized. 

To put these values into perspective, mly 40% of the world's forests are managed 

(even zuperficially) to sustained yield standards (the rest are "mined'), while almost half the 

forest removals are not used industrially at all (especially in Latin Arnerica and the 

Asia-Pacif ic). 

Several questions arise. 

Firatly, ]row havc wc rcechod thir poition? 

Ovgr the lasl 50 years, our world has experienqpd an increase in wood use from I 

billion m'p.a. (bg equivalent neasure) to 2.5 billion m- p.a - of which about 5096 has been 

used indqstrially. If these trends continued, the projecled global demand would reach 4.5 

billion m' by the end of the century. (ln fact, this picture is misleading, because the trends 

on which the projeclions are bsed were establiehed prior to the so-called energy crisis' 

lriggered in l97J). 

Sacmdlyr whcra ir thir indurtrisl wood lradad? 

Tle industrialized nations consurne aome 82% of the total world slpply (North America, 

)4%, the USSR and E. Europe 271f,, W. Europe I2%), and the lees developed countries uge 

l8%. These figures illuetrate the massive dependence of world trede m the demends of lhe 

developed countries. 

Of interegt, too, is the fact thet rnerly 5096 of the worldrs trade in unprocessed loqa is 

to supply Jpan, while 55-5096 of trade in sawn wood and pulp and paper ia handled by

, 

-109- 

Western Europe. And despite the huge demands of Japan, thet nalion has a bigger proportion 

of its land surface under foreets (6796) than any Pacific country other than Papua New 

Guinea. 

Thirdly, can thir trade be maintained? 

Forecasts of future global needs for wood derive from models incorporating 

econometric parameLers such Ls gross domestic product (GDP)' population gnowth rate, and 

Iiteracy, and demand projections are mly as aceurate as the forecasts of changes in these 

p"r"r"i"rr. Inasmuch es they take into consideration previous studies - and the results of 

satellite surveillance - the estimates for rrGlobal 2000" (prepared f or e US presidential 

committee in 1980; Barney, 1980) and those made by the Centre for Agrieultural Strategy in 

198I, are the most convincing. Assuming high incqme growth and high GDP P 

projected annual roundwood consunption is 6 billion m- by the year 2000 and Il billion m' 25 

years later (respectively 2.4 and 4.4 times the 1976 consunption). f fe high grow$ ,T"l::i? 

is, of course, 4rnrealisiic. Assuming no growth at all, demand will be 4 billion m- (in 2000) 

and 6 billion m' (in 2025) - 1.6 and 2.4 times the 1976 figures. 

Fourthly, how do thecc eatimetes cotrparG with futurc ilJpply forecaatr? 

If we consider our existing forest resources and assunre the ttno growth[ renario, we 

shall be cutting I.1% p.a. of thi growing stock by 2000 and nearly 2% p.a. by 2O25- This 

implies a 50 yelr forest rotation - which may be feasible in coniferous forest (even in the 

northern hemisphere) but is hiqhly unlikely in nrost tropical forests' 

Fifthly, will technology enable us to extend arppliea? 

The answer to this question is, of courte, "Yes, in theory". G. K. Elliott (perqonal 

communication, 1982) has estimated a sustainable increase in zupply of I.4 billion m-, of 

which 4995 derives from more extensi ve exploitation and eloser utilization of the worldrs 

coniferous forest and 2J% from closer harvesting of the tropical forests: the remainder is 

nrade up of increases in plantations (7%), improved silviculture (5%), reduced losses from fire 

an.] patnogens (8%), increased use of wood residues (7%), and improved pulping yields (6%I 

Mmt of these achievements wlll be costly and few of [hem offer much help to lhe Pacific 

Islands. And even these increases are predicated upon sweeping changes in the acceptability 

of species. 

Moreover, the maintenance of supply assutnes lhat reductions in natural forest yields 

and areas are balanced by increases from plantations. We are told by the Global 2000 report 

(Barney, 1980), however, that the world's foresls are disappearinq at the rate of 18-20 

million ha p.a. - mostly from the humid tropics - "Growing stocks of commercial size timber 

are projected to decline 5096 per capita (over the next 20 years)... The projections indicate 

that by 2000, some 40% of th; refrffi-hg forest coven in least developed countries will be 

gone".ihere are few signs that plantation production will replace this lost yield. The FAO 

tiSgZi projects an increlse from 5 million ha to 16 million ha in tropicgl plantations by the 

year 2ti00-with industrial wood production reaching some I00 million m- p.a. (This does not 

include a possible contribution f rom China, whose af f orestation proqnamme - largely 

temperate - is enormous but for which information on long-term production possibilities is not 

available). 

Sixthly, how dcr the potential urpply rnetch the likely demand? 

Evidently, not too well. Significant tightening in world zupply is inevitabte by the end 

of the century, with a serious shortfall by 2O25. This situation presages conlinuing increases 

in real prices for wood products and a rapid rise in the value of natural forests a their area 

diminishes. There is no need [o spell out the commencial implications of these changes or to 

identify the likely beneficiaries. More serious are the non-commerciel implications. The 

countries of our region stand in as much reed of the goods and services which forests can 

provide as any; and thene is more to Pacif ic Islends forestry than industrial wood production. 

Tfe role of forests as a climatic buffer has yet to be analysed in detail, but it is 

undoubtedly important; more readily evident in the larger and mountainous islands is their 

crucial protective role in agricultune and water zupplies. The distinctive physiognomy of 

forest ecotypes - in certain critical areas and in certain types of watershed - effectively 

controls the siltation of rivers and reservoirs, prevents flooding and denudation, and enables

-IIO- 

the survivel of agriculiure. Forests also contribute a wide range of goods for which demand 

in the island economies is growing. tncreasing attention is focusing upon forest production of 

fuelwood (both domestic aid indrlstrial), charloal, artifacts, nedicinal products and biocidest 

foods (fruits, nuts, berries, tubers, fungi and honey), wildlife (especially pigs and birds)' 

f odder, ayei, cbtn f ibres, gums (copal, damar, etc.), rattan, oils (sandalwoodr massoy' 

cinnarnonr'candlenut), silk, -crr-tch, orchids and a host of other useful producbs. Several of 

theee non-wood products enter commercial production and some promise to form the bases of 

new, small-scale industries (e.g., silk and shiitake mushroom production). Trees can also play 

a recreational role in the alleiiation of nrental and physical stress and in creaLing the illusion 

of privacy which is necessary to all people, no matter .how gregarious their cultures may 

depict them. Moreover, treeg have a role-- increasing in importance unf ortunately - in hiding 

the scars of open-cast mining. 

Finaly, dcs not the aruwer to our dilenma lie in ma$ive reforestation? 

Already New Zealand and Australia have esp_oused this alternative and there $pears to 

be no shortage of low-interest loan fnoney (from, e.9., the Y*l.d B3nk, the Asian 

DevelopmenI dank, bilateral aid agencies, eLc.), to enable the less-developed Pacific Islands 

to foliow suit. The trans-national corporations, toor (especially the oil companies) are 

becoming involved with reforestation and, in several countries, the availability of financial 

coneessi-ons for forestry is adding a rew dimension to the avoidance of tax' 

A common feature of these various ventures is their large scale and the use of 

monocultures of species (usually exotic) chosen for a high rate of uniform fibre production. 

Because of the concessionary financing element in reforestation , there is an opportunity cost 

to be borne and at this poinl it is per[inent to ask who witl be the beneficiary. If the present 

pattern of forest utilization in our region continues, the answer is Japan. And to suggest that 

lh" l"r" developed countries - after exporting their resources to Japan - should undertake 

large-scale reforestation for the primary beneiit of that .country would be less than tactful. 

yet if concessionary finance is not made available, there is unlikely to be any re-planting. 

Alternative Forestrv 

The ADB (f978) classifies the forest economies of its South Pacific member countries 

as follows: island economies with abundant resources at a low level of industrialization (e.9' 

papua New Guinea)i developing economies with significant resources (Fiji, Western Samoa, 

Soiomon Islands); developing eionomies with very limited resources (Kiribati' Tonga' Cook 

Islands); and industrialized economies with significant forest resources. Tfreir diversity is 

uniform. Equally paradoxically, the kind of forestry rypropriate to their.economies varies 

lreatly (with respect to policies and practices) but derives from an essentially similar ethie - 

giuing priority to the needs. of indigenous people' 

papua New Guinea exemplifies the dangers of exploitative logging. In promoting foreign 

investment successive governnrents have repJatedly cited a total forest area of 40 million ha 

(I5 million operable) cipable of sustaining an annual cut of 19 000 ha for the 1ext,590 y":I:: 

ihroughout tne lgZOs the log-yield was steady at .ret.her less than I million m- and from Lhls 

base the National public Ex-penditure Plan (NPEP) projected a 5-fold increase in Iog exports 

over the decade l97g-r9g8 - thus reducing Lhe resource life to a little more than 100 years. 

It was assuned that over I00 years the natural resource could be replaced by high-yielding 

plantations. 

In fact, log exports in t98l were double the NPEP projection. Applying the IWE_P 

projected growth-rate to this new base, therefore, reduces the life of the resource to 50 

y".., - less than a lifetime even in Papua New Guinee and (since there is virtually no 

i"-pt"nting) offering I very different prospect from th.at.based on the original assunptions' 

Moreoverr- Ppua N?w Cuinea forest 'development policies must be judged in the light of 

documented evidence of malpractices (transf er pricing, under invoicing, etc.), in the 

eipatriate-dorninated log trade which (according to th9 Ciown Law Office) are siphoning off 

aome us$I5 million ,"u"?,u" annually! clearly, then, if the people of Papua New Guinea are 

to benefit realistically from their forest resources, there is an urgent need to control 

exploitative Iogging and to invest in some kind of sustained yield forest rnanagement. 

Constraints m conventional reforestation are the hiqh silvicultural costs (when 

compounded to the end of the rotation) md the fact that the finance agencies (whether 

I

-lu- 

Governnent, international agenciea or private intereste) are unwilling to invest in trae 

planting wiihout unquestionable security of land tenure: in Papua New Guinee - E indeed 

lnroughtut npst of the Pacific - there can be no sueh thing. Elsewhere I have rrggested thet 

" po"iibl" solution may lie in the identification of tree peciea wtrich are natural 'rrurvivor8" 

(*'irictr, no matter how slowly they mey grow, will survive without any tending) and their 

planting in the immediate rlt e oi logging (literally within 2-1 daye end with no buming) 

iRi"t".aron, in press). Tle costa would then be eet against the proceeds from logging and no! 

compounded forward. Such replanting must imply no claim to land tenure or to ownerehip of 

the future crop but has to be regarded as the foreatry equivalent of the now widespread 

requirernent in qen-cast mining thet the top-soil be replaced before handing the land back to 

the owners. 

The second cetegory of country (exemplified by Fijir Western Samoa and Solomon 

Ielands) heve some naiural forests but are already committed to their replacencnt by 

plantations - almost entirely of exotics. Species have been seleeted according to their 

projected growth rates and with a view to utilizetion for energy generation s well es 

conventional purPoses. 

It is probably too late for governrrEnts of these eountries to rchieve anything through 

closer control of natural forest lolginq (except, perhaps, in the case of t}re Solomon lslanda), 

though mueh could be done, I beliJve,lo bring about more realistic l€tums from timber sales 

throJgh the revision of royalties and other *sxes. (lt nas leen estimated that the total tex on 

Solom-on Island logs ranges from US$l0lm' to US$0/m-r- compa4ed with a range in Wett 

Africe for species-with similar end uses of U5$20/m- to uS$Il0/m-). 

plantation establishment is far-sighted and, in the case of Fijir already yielding some 

returns, as well as providing employment in rural areas (where most needed) and using 

otherwise denelicb land. In future, it may be necessery to monitor the nutrient status of soils 

under fast-grown plantation species sub ject to ultre-close spacing and short-rotetion 

harvesting. the biorn"rs road to energy self reliance is an qtion under consideration in many 

pacific iJlands; recent evidence from South Anrrica, however, $Iggests that glrort-rotetion 

intensive cultuie (SRIC) systems may result in rapid depletion of potassium (and perhaps other 

nutrients). In general, the soils of the lowland tropies available f or ref orestation are 

relatively infertiie; it is no coincidence that their most successful tree crops are tioee from 

which only small quantities of nutrients are removed in harvesting (rubberr oil-palmr cocoat 

etc) - a i". c.y from SRIC systems. Recent reports an the Jari river projeet (the mogt 

ambitious plantation scheme ever) underline the need for caution. 

Tfre island groups of Tmga, Kiribati and the Cooks exemplify the thousands of small, 

isolated and necessarily self-contained economies in the Pacific Ocean which are extremely 

vulnerable to externaf economic forces and have no prospect of developing significantly 

beyond subsistence. They have learned to live with advereity and have much to teach the rest 

of us about self -reliance (Richardson and Richardsonr 1984). 

ln these islands, the utilization of coconut is highly developed - the stems for 

construction, furniture, roof Biles, cladding, tools, utensile, charcoal, fuel, etc-1 the fibre end 

leaves for cloth, packaging, matting and ioofing; the sap for soft drinks, sgsr alcohol and 

toddy; the nuts ior foois, oit, "f,*"oal, etc.; and the roots for rope and twine. Logs may be 

preseivative lreated by immersion in salt water. Tfrere are a few other trees available (e.9' 

Lreadfruit, Calophyllum, Terminalis' Corgief Pendsnugr Jnocaryyl 

Canarium, etc') but all are 

grown witiriiG-Iqr-restrFrctemTiFAtffiZ-tor nruttipte purposes. isolation of 

-Tte 

lhe islands, their liny size and fragile ecosystems put a premium on cultivable soil. Fm the 

atolls and islets there is no elternetive foreetry. 

The forest economies of Auetralia and New Zealand serve rather different objectives 

and face different problems New Zealand in particular is committed to a major export role 

and has me of the most advenced forest production economieg in the world. (Our proceesing 

economies, by contrast, are with few exceptions, primitive.) Australia has been described s a 

vast continent, the iringes of which ere littered with eucalypts and Australians. Both 

countries are characterized by small, scatlered domestic markets, high labour and Lransport 

costs, and an increasing proportion of forest production coming from small producere. Our 

challenge, I believe, is- to adapt advanced proceasing technology to the point where scale 

economies become irrelevant and we can maximize grade outturn (irrespective of product) at 

acceptable costs. Comparative advantages we possess vis-a-vis other industrialized countries 

are low wood cosLs, cfieap power and - above all - a reputation for pioneerinq ingenuity and

-LIz- 

adaptability. If that capacity for innovation could be married to the island ethic of 

self-reliance, we would have little to worry about. 

The irnportant difficulties we face are two-fold: firstly' we have not yet come to terms 

with the ultimate need for a low-growth economy (and the aehievement of social sLability 

within s.rch en economy); secondlyr we have yet to learn how to manage our resources 

cnsibly, equitably and in nabional rather than sectional interests. 

Since returning to New Zealand six monthe ago, the biggest cha1.ge I have noticed is in 

attitudes to the forelt environment. I recall my astonishment when I first srrived here in the 

early 1960s at what appeaned to be nothing short of a misanthropic obsession of New Zealand 

foresters - the padlocks on forest eccess gates, the huge notices along the tourist roules 

south of Rotorua proclaiming that I'lb is itlegal to enter ihese forests'r! Tlere were no 

provisions tnder the Forests Act for setting apart State forest parks and recreation areas in 

btrtu fore"ts until 1965 - and we were spending enormous $rns of rnoney annually poisoninq 

wildlif e! 

Inevitably, I then contrasted these atLitudes with Denm'rk - where every forest over 5 

hectares in area, State or private, is legally and freely scCessible lo public recreationists; 

whenedeerinStatffiffitificiallyfedsothatpeoplemaywatchthem;whereurban 

facilities (hotels, pubs, restaurants, racetracks, golf courses - even amusemen[ parks) are 

provided to attract people into forest areas; and where the forester is ss much concerned 

with the management of a resort as a resource! 

What made for difficulties in coping with NZ forestry attitudes in the 1960s was lhe 

patent sincerity of foresters. The idea that there might be general and free access to State 

production forests - let alone those in private ownerghip - was reqarded at that tirne as an 

astonishing concept - €xi was the notion that there might be widespread public consultation 

and debate about forest policies and practices. The subsequent change in attitudes has been 

. revolutionary; present-day foresters €re infinitely more concerned about the needs and 

aspirations of ordinary people (and much more knowledgeable about how those needs may be 

salistieO) than was tnai generation - and is, I believe, every bit as sincere. Few of us, 20 

years ago, could have imagined a Landscape Section in the NZ Forest Service and the 

iublication of Guidelines fJr Creative Forestny; or the wealth of information now freely 

available about our forest and environmental heritage. Who, then, eould have envisaqed a 

Csnmission for the Environment - let alone a Government pnepared to pay $7 million in 

compensation to preserve parL of Pureora? 

Not surprisingly there is a much greater public awareness of forest land values than 

there was in the fieOs - and throughout the region more people than ever before cate more 

than ever before about the environment in which they live and work. For the sake of our 

children - and their children - we should be thankful that this is so. 

Ccnsiderably less comf orting, however, is a disturbing parallel development - the 

increasing, though zubtle, exploitaiion of people's concern. There have always, I zupposet 

Ueen proinets oI doom but they have exploited primarily the selfishness of a few ignorant 

souls; our latter-day pnofiteers of doom exploit the finer feelinqs of Inany more people. 

Moneover, they do soinGi- ne guise of scientif ic omniscience. Again, there have always 

been scientific charlaLans - but they have usually deceived only each olher. A small but 

vociferous minority of mountebanks purporting to represent our environmental movemenLs, 

however, mislead vast. numbers of concerned citizens who are honest enough to acknowledge 

thst they do not know Lhe answer to the Faustian dilemma we face with respect to the use 

of our resources. 

There is a real need, I believe, for environmental leadership which does not 

over-represent particular issues at the expense of real problems. In Australia, for example, 

preoccupation with rain forests diverts attenLion from the Mediterranean ecosystems - which 

have no conservation status. In New Zealand a similar preoccupation with Government-held 

Iand results in an almost total absence of environmentalist pressures upon private owners of 

land to manage it purposefully for multiple use and in lhe naLional interest. And where is the 

environmentalist concern for the lraditional (and appropriate) food resourees and their 

management in the Pacific lslands? 

It is perhaps [imely to expound the splendidly sensible case for human chauvinism 

argued by John Passmore in his masterly account of rrManrs responsibility for NaLure" (J91 4)'

-il1 - 

the view that nature should subserve the interests of mankind. Thus conservation must be 

selective; thene is merit in preserving the crown pigeon - because it is edibte; and the New 

Zealand black robin - because it is beautiful. There is common sense in maintaining a wide 

range of gene pools because we are woefully ignorant of the economic potentials of many 

plant and animal species; but there is none whatever (unless we believe in tnansmigration of 

souls) in preventing Lhe extinction of nrosquitos or sandflies. Moreover, there is little point in 

preserving any natural resource unless people are able to enjoy its fruits. And the challenge 

to management is to develop methods which ensure [hat those fruiLs remain to be enjoyed by 

all who so wish. 

I would not, of course, argue that all foresLers are beyond reproach when it comes to 

concern for humanity: thene are still many who are happier in a Procrustean pine plantation 

than among people (and of course there are eommercial timber interests who rank eompany 

profits before the national interest). BuL, as in all things, there is a golden rrean - a balance 

which we need to find before it is too late. We shall not reach it lhrough distortion, 

half -truths and arrogance. Nor, I am af raid, shall we f ind it through lhe delermined 

objecti vity to which our scientists aspire. Let us remember the legend of Occamrs ass - the 

beast te[hened equidistantly between two equally desirable bundles of hay; because of its 

strict objectivity , it (inevitably) starved to death! 

More important. is a humanist commitment to future generations. In conclusion, may I 

apply the famous Nigerian credo concerning land to our Pacific environment? I! "belongs to a 

vast family of which many are dead, a few are living and countless numbers are still unborn.'r 

It does not belong to foresters, or sawmillers or blinkered environmentalists. Let all of us 

endeavour to manage it with honesLy, awareness and humility. 

REFERENCES 

ADB. 1978. Sector paper trl foresLry and forest industries. Asian Developmenl Bank, Manila, 

Philippines. 78 p. 

FAO. 1982. World forest products, demand and zupply, 1990 and 2000. FAO Forestry P4er 

29. Food and Agricultune Organization, Rrne, ltaly. 

Barney, Genald O. (Study Direclor). 1980. The Global 2000 Report to the President, Entering 

the Twentyf irst Century. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 

Passmore, John. 1974. Manrs responsibility for nature. Duckworth. 

Richardson' S. D. 198I. Forestry and the environnrent in the South Pacific. SPREP Tqic 

Review 8. South Pacifie Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. I1 p. 

Richardson, 5. D. (ln press). Unnatural practices. World Wmd. 

Richardson, S. D. and .I Richardson. f984. Agroforestry and the Pacific Islands. Jotrrnal of 

Pacific Studies (in press).

Il5 

TR@ICAL FORESTRY IN MELANESIA AAD SOME PACIFIC ISLAhDS 

K. D. Merten 

J. G. Groome and Associates, P.O. Box 169 

Taupo, New Zealand 

ABSTRACT 

Most of the material used in lhis paper is based m work in Lhe Solomon 

Islands, but supplementary data are derived from Fiji, Western Samoa and Enga 

Province, Pryua New Guinea. The reduction in vegetative complexity east of the 

Wallace Line is illustrated partly by comparison of the principal timber species in 

the various countries. Some indication is given of the structure of the forest 

biomass, the implications of various forest phases, and species grouping using 

Solomon Istand data, VariaLions in forest structure wiLh increasing distance from 

the coast and increasing altitude on Pacific Islands are discussed, as well as the 

ef f ect of wind, logging and agricultural developnent which are the main 

instrurnents of forest disturbance. 

Both naLural and artificial aspects of forest regeneration are covered, with 

particu lar ref erence to close and line planting techniques. Monocultures and 

veget.ational mixtures are considered as they relate to pests, diseases and soil 

ferti Iit y. 

Introduction 

Finally some ma.ior factors affecting qtimal land use m small Pacific Islands 

in the 21st Century are outlined. 

Sandal wood was exported from the Western Pacific islsnds in the nineteenth c€ntury, 

but large scale and scientific forestry did nol really start until after the Second World War. 

In the first few years poor communications and scarce funds generally rneant that little 

impact was made. Most knowledge and data have been gained during [he past two decades. 

The author spent much of that time in the Solomon lslands with strort term msignncnts 

to Fiji, Western Samoa, Enga Province in Papua New Guinea, and Tmga. In the Solomon 

Islands t}re author was closely involved in rnoet branches of the Foregt Service work. 

At the present time research into various aspects of foreetry is most advanced in 

Papua New Guinea, while in other countries the Forest Services have devoted rnoet of their 

effortr to replanting: predorninantly Pinus caribaea in Fiji, and tropical hendwoodg in the 

Solomon lslende. Venuatu has been developing foreetry extension servicee. TIE 

Frcnch-speaking territories have had the benefite of research conducted by e branch of the 

Centre Technique Forestier Tropical in New Caledonia. Tlc United Statee Forest Service 

operates in Hewaii and in recent years arnall scale forestry haa been started in Micronesia, 

with staff ustrally from the Peace Corps. 

In 1978, a Pacific Regional Meeting m Forest Management and Developnrcnt wae held 

in Suva, Fiji, which indicated both the divereity end the common gound in forestry 

development m the islends of the Pacific and streesad the reed for a greater interchange of 

data between countries, for co-ordinetion of trainingr and for a full time foreetry advieer to 

the Pacific. The New Zealand Governrrent has recently rypointed a Forestry Adviser to the 

Pacific region under ita aid cheme.

- tr6 

TABLE 1 - MAJOR PACII.IC TIMBEI1 SPECIES 

Gcncric nemes P+u8 Ncw Guince Solomon lalande Fiji Vsnustu WGstGrn Semoa 

A SpcEialirt - lumitur? snd veneer 

Anpore A. cucull8ta A. cuculla[a 

Aglaig A. spp, 

Castanopsio C, acumrnatlEsima 

Dracontomehrm O. puberlum 

Dysoxylum D. rpp. D. .pp 

Elmemillia E. papuana 

Nothof8gus N, spp. 

Pterocerpus P. indrcuo 

Scfrizgneria S. serraLa S. serrata 

Tone T. a:reni 

Funderria F. spp, 

Burckella B. obovata B, obovata 

Palaquium P. spp. 

P. +p. 

B. Hcrvy cmrtructidr end dccking 

Heritiera FL littoraliE 

Hsnalium F| foetidum 

Hgee l-I iri8n8 

Intlie L bijuga l. birugs 

Menilkara Nt ksnosiensis 

M8tixiodendron |\t pachycladc 

Nconauclea N. hegenii N. spp. 

Vitrx 

Pdgquium 

V. cofassus V. cofersus 

Eugenie/Syzygium S. buettnerienum E, +p. 

Scrianthes 

Dysoxylum 

G C'cnaral cdrtructim 

Anisoptere A, thurifere 

P. indrcus 

P. fidgrensrs 

Celophyllum C. papuenum C. kajowskii C. vitiensi6 

Eucelyplrrs E. deglupte 

Hees ft papurla 

Mstiltoe lrt psilogyne 

Pbnchonie P. papuana 

Psnetie P. pinnata P, pinnats 

Sloanca S. Epp 

Triltiropsis T. acutengula (T, *utangub) 

Dillenie D, salomonensig 

Endaprrmum 

Bischof ie 

Piliocalyx 

Dysoxylum 

Geruge 

O. Light cortructiqr, intlrn.t utility 

Alstonia A. rcholeris A. scholarir 

Anthocephaluu A chincnais 

Cernpnoperma C. brcvipetiolata C. brrvipetiolet8 

Cenarium C. pp. C. ?p 

Caltir C. nymcnii C. pp. 

cryptocarya c. +p. c. pp. 

Endopermum E. nrdullogum E. rpdulloaum 

Gnclina G. moluccana G. moluccane 

Mngifcra I't minor 

Myli!ticr 

Octomclcs O, lrmetrlna 

Panchonella P. lpp. P. ep. 

E. macrophyllum 

c. +p. 

|'4.?p 

Polyelthis P. oblongifolie 

Pt$ocymbium P. bcccerii 

Ptlrygota P. horrficldii 

Spondi.s S.

Natural forest cover 

- r17 

Even now most Pacific Islands are predominantly tree covered; though an increasing 

proportion of that tree cover has been significantly modified by the requirements of rapidly 

growing populations. 

Within the tropical zone the rain forest of the islands of Borneo, Indonesia and the 

Philippines and Peninsular Malaysia have the richest vegetation associalions, followed by the 

rain'forests of South Anerica; particularly in the Amazon Basin. Though the species-rich rain 

forests of Indonesia lie west of P4ua New Guinea lhere is a significant reduction in the 

number of species in total and per unit area east of the wallace line. 

There is a progressive loss of species as one travels eastwards from lrian Jaya to Fiji' 

Vanuatu end beyond. 

This trend is illustrated in Table I which lists the more common trees in various 

countries that have economic potential. These are srranged in four categories of end use; 

while the listings under the fifth category of conifers illustnates, in part, the much greater 

altitudinal range of the rnountain forest in Papua New Guinea. 

Loggers with experience both in Borneo and the larger Pacific Islands note how minor 

genera in -Borneo like Calophyllum and Pometia become major species in the Pacif ic Islands. 

ifr large number of-ffirnercial species in ttre Dipterocarpaceae in Borneo and the 

Philippines are reduced to three qenera in Papua New Guinea and absent from other islands 

to the east. There are also typical Australian genera Iike Eucalyptus' Toona' and Flindgrsia 

in Papua New Guinea and West Irian that do not occur further east. As lhe proportion of see 

to land increases significantly this must have influenced the spread of species. Dis[ribution 

patterns cannot always easily be explained. In more western islands of the Solomons' 

relatively common species like Campnosperma brevipetiolata and Gonystyl-us macro-ca.rpqsr.are 

absent from Guadalcanal and Further east, Terminelia brassii end Calophyllum 

kaiewskii are absent from the Santa Cruz group, though unaccountably Ca.mplosPerma 

GE-pears, while Pometia pinnata occurs with much poorer form and contrastinqly larger 

fru it. 

-Makira. 

Relatively little study has been carried out in Lhe region on the structure of the forest 

and its biomass. One such sludy was carried out in 197111972 in the Solomons, felling all 

trees on four plots. This is sllmmarized in Table 2. Total stem and branch biomass to a 

minimum I0 centimetrqs small end diameten unden Qark varied beLween 2J5 and 507 cubic 

rnetres per hectare (m'/na). Land with oven 500 m'/n1 .would be approaching the maximum 

carrying capacity of this type of forest, while 250 m'/na fepresents forest closer to the 

arretloJ for thege islands. Total basal area in the forest sampled varied between 20 and 4l 

.'lni which is much less than f or temperate conif er plantations. Ssne indication of 

veriation in tree form is given by dividing total volume by total basal areal this gives factors 

lying between 5.0 and 14. 

Such records alr there are relaLing inventory data with actua{. volurnes extracted 

indieates tha!, though small aress can yield more, yielde of l0 Lo 5U m-lha of logs over 55 

cm mid-diameler cen be anticipated over large blocks. Tfese are much lowen than with yields 

from forest in Bonneo, Philippines and Malaysia- 

Tropieel high forests are s very complex matrix containing individual elemenLs which 

can be isolated ln small uniLs, but seldom on a large seale. It is common practice to 

distinguiah en upper canopy l0 to 45 m above ground; a middle canopy 15 to l0 m above 

grouni level; and a lower canopy 5 to 15 m above ground level. This excludes herbaeeous 

iround vegetation and is usually illustrated by a profile diagram similar to !h9t in Figure l. 

Another uleful device is to distinguish a gap phase of regeneration; a building phase with 

maximum rate of heiqht growth; and a mature phase. Classification of crown exposure and 

crown closure of indlvidual trees further describe the condition of the forest together with 

details of the physical factors of altitude, aspect, topography, soil, drainage and previous 

history.

Export Log Volunn 

Provent Pupwood spp 

Potential Pupwood trNG) 

Potential Pu$wood (SI) 

Other Stems 

TOTAL STEM VOLUME 

PER ITCTARE 

Export Log Trees/Other Loge 

Waste from export Logs 

Stunps 

Smaller Branchwood 

zuB TOTAL 

Othcr Trpar 

Second Logs 

Stunps 

Smaller Brenchwood 

Creepar 

SIJB TOTAL 

STEMS rj.lDER 90CMs 

- tr8 

TABLE 2 : SOLOMON TSLANDS BIOMASS POTENTIAL 

Minimum lOcm ernall end diarneter 

Volunng in a.rbic nretres/ha (under bark) 

KOLOMBANGARA 

Plot I Plot 2 

0.4 he 0.4 ha 

205,6 

28.7 

1,2 

L7.4 

2I.8 

274.7 

114.0 

0.4 

24.4 

r58.8 

i.a 

t.2 

rl.0 

-€Ig 

TOTAL STEM/BRANCH BTOMASS:g:l: 

TOTAL BASAL AREA I{ZINA 

"t?h"o*EA 

'6.5 

EXPoRT Locs 20.5 

Convcrgion Fector for form Mt N2 

All Stems/Brenches 11.8 

Export Logs Only 10.0 

55.0 

32.9 

6.4 

6.5 

18,7 

119.5 

21.8 

1.0 

2.O 

t.t 

14.0 

1.7 

0.4 

18.2 

69.5 

'-215.4 

20.2 

6.t 

VIRU 

Plot I Plot l 

0.4 ha 0.Il he 

t29,4 

24.t 

8.0 

ll.9 

t29.r 

502.7 

65.6 

rt.2 

II. ] 

,.2 

28.2 95.4 

II.7 

8.7 

n.1 

tt.1 

98.1 

w2 

42.8 

?5.0 

lt.8 

5.1 

FIGURE I : FOREST PROFILE DIAGRAM 

6L.t 

25.5 

l.l 

0.0 

l8.l 

I44.2 

2t.t 

4.8 

28.2 

I.0 

t.r 

5.r 

!q6, 

24t.t 

2t.o 

9.r 

t0.6 

6.7

- 119 

Ecologists and silviculturelists have spent much time trying to understand and explain 

the species patterns and associations in tropical rain forests. An assoeiation analysis by 

computer of data where no distinction is made between treea of lhe upper canopyr and those 

smaile" trees of the middle canopy (which are underlined) is given in Tabb l. Tabb I shows 

the contresl between Campnosperma, Calophvllum and Qillefria dominated.. forea.t of New 

-- 

Georgia and KolombanlEEi-with Campnoeperma, Pometig. foresL on a^limited area at 

r 

-L- 

Allad-yce, Sanra Isabel; Jnd witfr pomffiiGloiillitym 1nO Vi=tex forest qt.Gu.adatcenaL Tlp 

first two forest types are more sr-aU-t-for pio- logs-Toi-export while the last type is 

more suitable for sawmilling. 

Lcetion 

Kolombangara 

Ecological 

5urvey 

North East 

New Georgia 

Enumeralion 

TABLE I : FOREST GROUPS IN THE SOLOMON ISLANDS 

TIMBER SIJRVEY DATA AFTER ASSOCIATION ANALYSIS 

Area Forest Speciea speciea speciea Speciae specicr Specicr 

SurveyedGrouPl2t456 

(sr/ha) (st/ha) 13j/ha) (st/ha) (st/ha) 13s/he) 

1l.7ha 

(l0cm 

min 

girth) 

I54.5ha 

(l80cm 

min 

girth) 

Allardyce Santa t.2 ltg 

Isabel Sample (90em 

Enurneration min girth) 

White River 

Guadalcenal 

Enumeration 

Source: 

Notes: 

8.6 he 

(90cm 

min 

girth) 

TEYA DILS CAMB PARS CALK SCHS & 

GMEM 

(88.e) (2e.6) (r0.r) (6.e) (6.e) (2.2 

eAt-< DlLs MARc & 

TERCAL 

08.0) (2r.4) (r=r.J) !8.11 !6:Q= !t+?)= 

5 EUG PARS SCHS 

"' Iloas) (ra.B) (8.I) !6:l]= (1.2 = 9;?, 

VA PARS MARC TERCAL 

'" (rr.r) (rr.r) (tr.r) (s.s) (s.s) !s.g).. 

" 

U CALV POMP 

(rz. r) (g.s) (e.e) (e.s) (z.g) !2.=z), 

PARS ENDM CAMB 

vr (r5.8) (8.8) (6.4) (5.6) (5.r) (4.4) 

. CAMB SCHS EUG DILS GONM PARS 

I o.e) o.z) (z.gl (z.a) @- (Iz) 

I-X EUG GONM & 

GMEM 

G.4 

(5.r) 

CALK 

(2.1) 

CAMB TEYA POMP 

(28.4) ct6t (5.e) 

POMP 

(r.e) t.4 

s 

Q.7) (1.e) (r.2) rc3)- 

GMEM 

(1.2) 

PIMA BURO 

w 

NEOF 

(24.7) (15.5) Gil (4.e) (r.7) 

DILS 

(2.2) 

Whitmore (1974) Tables 2.4 &. t.2 

Species underlined TEH, BURO etc. seldom grow larger than I80 cm 

girth, and so do not influence North New Georgia analysis. 

Examples of botanical names: ALAJ = Alanjium javanicum; BURO = Burekella obovata; 

CALK = Calophyllum kajewskii; CALV = Calophyllum vitiense 

GONM = Gonystylus macroPhYllus

Foregt zonetion 

120 

In broad termg there are two types of islend in the Pacific region. Lo,v lying coral 

atolls hsve vegetetion that has generally been wholly rmdified by local populations, and now 

cqrsistg largely of trees with locel uaes, of which coconut and Pandanus are the most 

obvioug Ttese low lying coral islande have no forertry potentiiTFinhabitants are 

generally short of building timbers and fruit trees, and these can be planted in and around 

villages and food gardens. The larger islands nearly ell heve a rpgged volcanic core fringed 

by coral reefs which may have been uplifted on more then one occaeion. The volcanic core 

may range from relatively low altitudes to the snow cepped mountains of West lrian and 

Papua New Guinea. The larger islands east of Papua New Guinea seldom exceed 2,000 m in 

altitude. On the geologically youngest and active volcanic islands like Tinakula in the Santa 

Cruz group there rnay be no fringing reef. On older islands on the tectonic interface between 

the Australia and Pacific plates, land building is still continuing and zuccessive corel and 

limestone platforrns have been r+lifted to altitudes in excess of ]00 m above sea level. Such 

formetions can be neen on Malaita, Guadalcanal and elsewhere, with the oldest of these 

platforms being now considerably eroded, and dissected. Forest composition is influenced by 

increasing altitude, by increasing distance from the sea, and by the underlying soil. Figure 2 

gives a simplified vegetation zonation common in the Solomon Islands. 

Mountain 

(Mist) 

orest 

Protection 

Water Supply 

FIGURE 2 : DIAGRAMATIC VEGETATION ZOI,IATION 

Typical of the Solomon Islands 

Forested 

F oothills 

Alluvial 

Riverine 

Subsistence Farming 

Production Coconuts 

Forestry Cocoa 

Cattle Cattle 

Mangrove Littoral 

F 

Protection Villages 

F ishing Coeonu ts 

Firewood 

Mangrove swamps are limited to sheltered water, oflen protected by reefs. Despite 

timited risl and fall of the tides, gecies vegetational zonation is precise. Large areas of 

mangroves mly occur in West lrian and Papua New Guinea. Elsewhere they are generally of 

limited extent and are loo valuable as sources of Iocal building material, fruits and seafood 

to be allocated to commercial exploitation. 

In rnost of the coastal zones the natural littoral vegetation on beaches' with its ability 

to provide coast protection, has largely been removed [o make way for coconut plantations 

and villages. Reintroduction of the protective screen of native Iittoral species would retain a 

measure of protection from erosion by the sea. 

The vegetation developed on the low-lying raised platforms is generally lime-tolerant in 

nature, with Pometia pinnata a prominent timber and fruit species. The species mixture found 

on the tow lffigrerraces is generally very similar to that found on successively higher 

terraces with soils of varying depth developed over limestone, which by the standards of 

tropical soils contain modest reserves of nulrient. These sites have often been heavily used in 

the past by strifting cultivetors, and more recently are those to which Agricultural Officers 

direct their extension programmes.

2t 

Betrind the low-lying raised coral platforms, lie alluvial terrace8 and ewanpe' which 

receive runoff water and detritus from inland areas and have richer soils with agricultural 

potential. Fire-maintained grasslands in a rumber of islands almosL certainly result from paet 

over-population where there is a rain shadow effect. Examples can be cited from Papua New 

Guinea, the Solomons and Fiji. In many cases lhese fire-maintained grasslands have gread to 

adjacent ridges which mey be of sedimentary origin. 

A zone of dissected sedimentary foothills is typical of the geologically older islandst 

characteristically with red-coloured, weathered, deep and apparently freely-drained soile. 

Tree rooting patterns indicate that mly the upper ]0 centimetres of soil is tapped either due 

to imperfect drainage, imperfect aeration or a combinetion of both factors. The most 

eeonomic forest usually occurs m these sites and the profusion of vegetation leads many to 

expect an adequate to high level of fertility. Absence of evidence of occupation from 

archaeological sites and recent experience growing food crops by forest workers reveals that 

for all intents and purposes long bush fallows are required between cropping if modest 

fertility is to be retained. Traditional knowledge usually reinforces this view. 

ln Western Samoa very r€cent lava flows occur on the foothills. The young rocks are 

often very fertile provided plants can zurvive long enough lo put roots down into crevices. A 

crowbar is required for planting tree seedlings, and cocoa or timber brees should be raised in 

large containers to ensure survival. 

The volcanic core of the larger islands is usually steep, the soils skeletal and often 

unstable because of tornential rain and frequent earthquakee. This reducee effective rooting 

volume, and the forest that develops is often much disturbed and has limited commercial 

potential above 500 m in most islands other than Papua New Guinea. 

In Papua New Guinea large areas of mounlain forest mcur and cultivation is carried 

out in deep, often glacial, valleys. Cooler ambient temperatures and frosts mean that tropical 

root crops like kunrera and taro are near their limits; and lemperate vegetables can be 

urccessf ully raised and introduced into local diets. The exploitable mountain forests are 

generally confined to the higher ridges but there is growing pressure to cultivate higher up 

the slopes where agricultural rotations lenglhen and yields are reduced. Conifers are locally 

abundent, but species with temperate characteristics like Castanopsis' Elmerrillia and 

Nothofaqus cover much larger areas. ln places Nothofaqus stands are dying off and being 

replaced by abundant natural regeneration. 

Aoathis species are the main conifers in rnountain forest in parts of the islands to the 

east of Papua New Guinea; often with Calophyllum species as a main component of the 

matrix. New Caledonia is atypical in having a large numben of Araucaria species in the 

forest; while Dacrydium and Podocarpus are relativLly co-mon inilien nnuntain forests. 

Mms foregt is found at higher altiludes. 

A noticeable feature is thet the generalized zonaLion is compressed m isoleted smaller 

mounteinous islands. A good example is the contrasL between moss forest rccurring at over 

21000 m above sea level, with a maximum altitude of about 2,500 m, on the large island of 

Guadelcanal; m Vanikolo, wilh rnaximum altitude of about lr(X)0 mt moss forest occurs at 

about 800 m; while m Santa Cruz Island which is larger than Vanikolo' localized patches of 

moss forest occur at about 500 m m the crest of the spinal ridge. 

Forest disturbance 

Two major factors causing disturbance of forest cover south and easL of Ppua New 

Guinea are wind and earth nnvementl but throughout the region conversion to cash cropping' 

sr.rbsistence agricullure end logging are also extremely important, particularly on the srneller 

islands. Urtan development is most noticeeble m some atolls, but relatively insignificant 

elsewhere. 

Between November and April the south easterly trade wind belt moves southr and 

inteme tropical storms develop from time to time mainly in zones. between 5 and I0 degrees 

south. Tfuse tropical storms increase in intensily as they move south, btrt until they pass 

about 15 degrees meridian wind peeds seldom exceed I00 km per hour.

- t22 

Tte low pressure areas associated with the storms tot 24 hours or so befone they strike 

bring torrential rains which saturate the ground. These tropical storms are loeally called 

cycl6nes, and when they strike major canopy damage can be caused almost as much by 

uprooting ct edimentary clay ridges' es by treea snapping. 

Major damage to exploitable forest hss been caused by cyclones Annie (1967)' Ida 

(L972), and Bearnii (f982) in the Solomons, and on the Fiji south coast in 1980. Interpretation 

of current vegetation patterna in the Solomons indicetes that catastrophic wind disturbance 

has ccurred m a wide scale from time to time over the past 150 years or so. 

On Makira, Guadalcanal, end Malaite most of the remaining forest shows evidence of 

wind drnage. This damage can be seen by the existence of climber towersr damaqe seen 

under the canopy, and compre$ion failure in lumber of certain species, notably Pometia. In 

the New Hebrides where cyclones are rnre intense very little primeval forest is left except 

where Aqsthis dorninetes. 

Cmsiderable areas of topsoil may be lost by earth movements following both cyclones 

and earlhquakes. Examples of the former can be seen in southeastern Fiji' end on Santa 

Icebel in tire Solomons, while the earthquake in April 1977 caused almost 40% of the topsoil 

and foreet to slip trt parts of Guadalcanal. 

ln the islands, usually near the coast, considerable areas of forest have been converted 

to eash crops. Tle most common cash crop is coconut. During the last 10 years or 8t) cocoa 

and oil palm eetates have been developed, noticeably in Papua New Guinea and Guedalcanal 

end to a lesaer extent in Western Samoe. 

The land commonly selected for these crops ie either low coral limestone terraces or 

alluviel soils. Conversion of forest to cattle Pasture has been increasing during the last 

decade or so often m the better quality soils, but uzually hes low carrying capacity. 

When indigenous populations were low, shifting cultivation was carried out with bush 

fallows that must have ranged up to 50 or more years. Even in the past there is evidence 

that what are now fire-maintained grasslands were originally converted by excessive pressure 

of shifting cultivetion. Spanish records from L565 for Guadalcanal and Ngella record 

.npadowst visibte from the sea, with village cultivators using irrigated taro terraces. The 

rrnpadows,t are still there and ere now extending ag modern population pressures increase in 

this rein shadow area. The taro ternaces have long since disappeared, as have the high 

populations recorded by the Spanish visitors here and elsewhere in the Solomons. The large 

expanse of gressland on western Viti Levu end parts of Vanua Levu, also in rain shadow 

sress, ere probably of similar origin. 

During the past century or so, cessation of warfare, increased availability of health 

care, and movements of tribes towards lines of communication and economic opportunities by 

sea, land and air have all led to changes of traditional ways and high rates of population 

growth. Mct tribal boundaries, formerly alterable by warfare, are now fixed. Land holding 

ito,rp" unfortunete enough to have large populations and small land areas, have had to reduce 

ititting anltivation cyclJs to as little as 5 to 9 months. Rapid, end in places irreversible soil 

degrad-ation follows. This is compounded by Iocal people clinging to traditional f arming 

tedhniques besed m a much longer bush fallow which formerly ellowed humus and microfauna 

rageneration to follow in a natural cycle. 

Loqqinq damaoe 

In Vanikolo in the Solomons extracbion of kauri started rcarly 60 years ago; elsewhere 

large ecele nechanical logging seldom dates back rnore than about 15 years. 

Timber treea in the natural forest are scetlered both as individuals and groves, and 

therefore damage to the canopy and to Lhe soil is also irregular. Maximum damaqe generally 

occurs 50 m oi so on either'Ciae of access roads. On islands which sre relatively uniform 

volcenoes, there is generally a main metalled logging road close to the coast with metalled 

epur roads running up tfru major ridgesl so soil damage naturally falls in the middle of the 

broadeet ridges. -On steep topography with deep sedimentary soils, road layouts are more 

irregular and-cr:t into hillsides; so soil damage can be extensive. Studies in the Solomons on 

the iatterns and extent of damage following mechanical logqing in five areas showed that a

- rzt 

combination of metalled logging roads, extraction tracks and loading areas with "high lead" 

logging destroyed 7% of top soil in well stoeked forest. A higher figure of 22% was for 

e$raction by small crawler tractors in similar forest. Overall, for forest yielding l0 to 50 

m-lha of logs, l0% to 15% topsoil damage can be anticipated. Tfp damage will generally be 

most noticeable near scces{r roads and also on either side of creek crossings. On steeper 

ground there are generally more scattered extraclion tracks. Measurernents showed that 

crewler tractor tracks mostly were less than 5 m wide, and that compaction and removal of 

topsoil was always severe efter two or more turns of logs were extracted. On flat ground 

little topsoil compaction or removal occurred when only one or two logs were removed, 

provided Lhe tractor did not have to bulldoze a path through trees. Once vegetation, usually 

in bhe form of'climber, covers Lhe compacted ground, there is a slow buildup of vegetable 

detritus and later colonization by trees. After 25 to 40 years the trecks can still be seen, 

but quite large trees can have established m the compacted soil wiLh their roots spreading 

on either side to rnore favourable areas. 

Assessrnents of canopy damage have been carried out in e number of localities in the 

Solomons within the 181000 ha of logged forest that have been line planted. These show that 

even with heavy logging taking out small trees wiJh diameters down to about 45 cm diameter 

above buttress, 25% to l0% of the original canopy is relatively untouched, largely on the 

steeper hillsides and in valleys. About 15c/o of the original canopy is completely destroyed and 

the rest zuffers severe damage in some form or another. 

Natural forest reqeneration 

Relatively few studies of natural regeneration following logging in tropical rain forests 

have been carried out in the Pacific Islands. The patterns of natural forest development on 

Kolombangara in the Solomons were studied in detail between 1964 and 1971, with some areas 

studied for a longer period. ln 1967 Cyclone Annie struck part of the island, so that. 

subsequent assessnents gave an indication of natural regeneration patterns [hat followed the 

cyclone. Provided the forest is in the mature phase, and only a relatively small proportion 

has been destroyed by a c/clone, increment more or less balances losses. Species like 

Endospermum, Campnosperma and Elaeocarpus are capable of 2-5 centimetres diameter 

increment per year when in the upper canopy; while more dense species like Schizomeria, 

Dillenia and Pometig grow more slowly and with greeter variability according t6 tFE; ila;e 

ttre canop@p-bvlfuq however has remarkable uniform increments of about I cm per 

year regardless of size. 

-in 

A numben of studies were carried out in the Solomons starting about 20 years ago ln 

logged forest. Natural regeneration in Kauri forests was studied separately. The first 

hardwood forests logged were predominantly of Pometia and Calophyllum and the most 

prolificearlyregenerationwasfromthesespecieslT-teraseiiilofassessmenBsiteoon 

became obvious that there was an extremely rapid loss of seedlings due to weeds, lack of 

light and competition. After a short while it became appsrent tha! qerat,ions to successfully 

enhance the development of slower growing more valuable species would be very tricky. 

At about this time Iogging operations transferred to forest of markedly different types 

in which Campnosperma and Dillenia were dominant,, excepl in swamps which carried 

Terminalia brassii stands. 

Four quotations from Solomon Islands Forestny Division Research Reports on the silvics 

of species have been adapted to illustrate the likely pattern of natural regeneration: 

"The traditional idea of growing shade lolerant species by rnanipulation of 

the upPer canopy has serious drawbacks. Netural regeneration of Kauri is 

scattered' partieularly in areas nearer to the cosst where the original stocking 

was low. On Vanikolo' areas that had been logged 20 years or so before, were 

trealed by poisoning and weeding designed to release saplings and poles over 2 

metres height from within a matrix of older and taller weed species. After. 

Lreetment mly )0% to 45% of 0.0I hectare sample units were slocked with Kauri 

of all sizes of which only l0% of Lhe sample units conbained Kauri poles over I0 

centimetres diemeLer which were suff ieiently vigorous to stand a chance of 

developing to maturity. In areas Lhat were logged more recently, poisoning was 

more drasLic, especially where the Kauri regeneration was small and there was 

more thorough weeding. It is likely that the original stocking of Kauri

- L24 

negenerstion was higher and ovgr 7096 of &0I hectare plots were..stocked and f5% 

of the sample units contained Kauri poles over I0. centimetreg diameter likely to 

develop to maturity. As the distribution of Kauri in the forest before logging waa 

very patchy, the distribution of Kauri eeedling both before and after logging is 

tit

125 

- The vegetation rnatrix is not easy to burn. 

- Mechanical land clearing is uneconomic. 

- Erowsing animals should be few or absent altoqether. 

- Weed regrowth in cleared areas is generally more vigorous than on average in less 

disturbed areas. 

- Overhead shade from big trees must be removed early. 

In the region Lhe langest areas of line planting are in Fiji, the Solomons and Western 

Samoa. 

All aneas exhibit. a range from failure to $Jccess. Mosl species growing successful in 

line planting do not occun as monoeultures in nature in the tropics. Where monocultures do 

occur in tropical forest the site is often specialized as with Terminalia bras"il swamps, 

Casuarina groves on ullramafic rocks, Aqathis on basalt riaqes, and mFngrove areas. 

Elsewhere monocultures are genenally a limiLed seral stage, Widespread observations indicate 

that retention of a reasonably complex vegetative mix contributes to success. Where there is 

little damage to the relict natural vegetation, especially of former understorey components, 

line planting is often zuccessful. 

In the Solomons, measurements on mature trees over a range of sizes on 20 to 25 years 

rotations indicated that crown diameters of final erop trees were of the order of l0 netres. 

Until recently most line planting has been carried out at about this spacing. When a strip 

about two metres wide is cleared, 80% of the relict vegetation need not be disturbed. Where 

the canopy has been destroyed by logging, weed regrowth, particularly by Merremia and 

Mikania species, has been rampant. 

This causes severe losses to planted trees. Heavily logged areas seldom exceed 20% to 

25% of the total; so that special techniques involvinq closer planting will have to be evolved 

to combat lhe problem of rampant climbing weeds. Final crops of around 100 sLems per ha 

are anticipated for trees with 50 Lo 50 cm average diameter. Anticipated average 

merchantable bole length varies from about 5 m to 12 m for hardwoods on 15 to 25 year 

rotalions. Few line planted areas have yet reache{maturity and conservative estimates would 

put yields of sawlogs in the range of 75 to 2OO m-/he, with a small end diameter limit of l0 

cm. Total wqpd yield based trr an interpolation from Table 2 is likely to be of the range of 

f50 to 500 m'/ha. Additional sawlog volunEs could be harvested if the merchantable small 

end diameter limit were reduced to about 20 cm. ln all cases a considerable proportion of the 

total yield could be used m pulpwood or for energy. 

The wisdom of continuing line planting has been questioned because of two recent 

events. The first was the discovery of Ambrosia beetle at.tack and associated problems with 

the fungi Armellaria and Fomes on 5ffiT6- macrophylla plantations in Fiji in 1971. 

Secondly, inventories of the line planting in the Solomons in 1980 revealed much lower 

stockings of potential final crop trees in all ages than was anticipated. In both cases the 

authorities curteiled their replanting programmes and lnstituted a radicel change of emphaais 

in their replanting work. In Fiji a wider range of speciea were introduced that had not then 

been proven s'l a wide scele in line planting. ln the Solomons the line planting technique was 

changed by reducing the specing between lines to 5 m. In Fiji the ereas ubsequently 

replanted to mixed hardwoode were extremely variable and no large area of fully stocked 

plantations has yet been ruccessfully established. In the Solomons the reduction of spacing 

between lines h8s lead not mly to removal of the relict understorey between lines, but aleo 

to the increased incidence of rempant climbers, early and heavy branching on speciee like 

Campnogoerma, attack by insecta like Ambleypelta m Cempnoeperma, and potential danger of 

atteck by Hypsipylle on Swietenia which had virtuelly been absent in wider spaeed line 

planting. Had there not been arch a radical reection to the probbms, it ought to heve been 

poesible to have maintained the rnomentum of the planting programmes. Field rnanagement and 

financing in Fiji and the Solomons then loat rrpmentum. 

Reaearch hes strowed that the redical corrective techniquee had their own srious 

probbms. Closer control end edrytetion of forrner procedures also had a sribstantial place in 

retaining cost effectivenegs.

- 126 

When the objective is Lo create industrial plantations, the following criteria should be 

ueed when selecLing species: 

- Lcal seeding at a relatively early age, say before 15 years; or seed easily obtainable 

in bulk from a nearby territory. 

- Seed easy to collect and handle in the nuftlery. 

- Height growth of at least 4 m in lhe first three years after planting. 

- Development of a potential log, free of major forks or faults, of a leasl 6 m length 

by the fifth year after planting. 

- A mean crop diameter at breast heiqht of I0 cm over bark; a mean crop height of l0 

m 5 years after planting. 

- A main crop with a stocking of 100 logs of 8 to I0 m length with top-diamelers of J0 

cm under bsrk, or J5 cm over bark, in 25 years for furniture and construction 

species, or in less than 20 years for utility species. 

- For utility species development of logs with small end diameter of at least 15 em and 

log lengths of over 6 m m at least 100 stems per ha by l0 years after planting. 

- Yields of about 140 - 150 rl/n" of sawlogs. 

In ternperate elimates, mixtures are seldom successful and tree form is usually enhanced 

by close pacing. In New Zealand the form of final crop trees is often improved by pruning. A 

number of tropical species, including Campnosperma, Swietenia, Tectona, Pometiet 

Calophvllum, end Cedrela grow unbranched in the first few years provided there is overhead 

nghE-Others like TCrminalia, Eucelyptus, and Gmelina arborea need both overhead and lateral 

illumination, and relative freedorn from competition before full vigour is developed. In the 

former group the intenrow matrix can be manipulafed to give s narrow corridor within which 

full vigour and adequate unbranched gtems lengths are developed. Later a heavy etown should 

develop above the interrow matrix. Where land pressures ate low the interrow matrix in line 

planting can be the former understorey, or regeneration of weed trees Iike Trema and 

Macaranga 

Where competition for land is higher on the smaller islands, silvicultural techniques 

need to be modified. The scele of qerations cen generally be smaller since the plantations 

mainly eupply the local population with sawlogs. Examples of proposed epecies selections in 

parts of the Solomons, P4ua New Guinea, Fiji and Western Ssmoa are given in Table 4. 

Optimum land use 

On most of tJre smatler islande, population growth will increase so rapidly thatr within 

the next generation or two, relatively little forest will remain unmodified. Already there are 

cleer examples that the pressures of indigenous agriculture ere leading not only to 

degradation of vegetation complexity, but also to severe reduction of the productive 

po[entiel of hill soils. Thie can easily be eeen in western and centrel Viti Levu in Fiji' 

Malaite in the Solomon Islends and Upolo, Western Samoa. Within two rnore decades the 

poeition could be critical unless traditional agricultural techniques are rnodified to give more 

intensive production from the better sites by mulching and crop rotations. Already in Tonga 

and Weatern Samoe linee of Securineqa trees are planted between houses and along paths to 

provide buitding materials. Thge trende are likely to increase and be introduced to other 

island tFor.ps. 

Lerge areEs of land have been allocated to cocoa, oil palm and cattle on many small 

ielande, and this ia likely to be questioned in the longer term. On Malaitar large eteas are 

degrading because of the bush fellow cycles being rcdueed in plecee to legs than a year. On 

noittr Cuiaalcanal, where there io a 'rrein shadow", increasing ptessure of use is resultinq in a 

rapid epread of Themeda dorninated grassland with increasing soil eroeion and goil 

degradation. Theoe trendg must be checked and if possibb revereed.

Ppua Ncw Guinca 

(Enga) 

Constrtlction and Fr4gq1!re species 

Euealyptus robusta 

E. grendis 

Utility Species 

Pinus patula 

Wood Enerqy 

Cesuerina obligodon 

Villeoe Uses 

Caouarina obligodon 

Pandanus spp. 

Dodonaea viscoea 

- L27 

TABLE 4 : SPECIES SELECTION FOR REPLANTING 

Solomon klande Fiji Western Sarnoa 

Swietenia 

Tectona 

Swietenia 

Campnosperma Endospermum 

Terminalia brassii Maesopis eminii 

T. calamansanai Anthocephalus 

Grnelina arborea chinensis 

Pinus caribaea Cordia alliodora 

Acacia auricule if ormus 

Acacia mangium 

Leucaena leucocephela 

Securinega sp. 

Eucalyptus tereticornis 

Fruit trees 

Cordia subcordete 

Swietenia 

TecLona 

Toona sureni 

Cedrela odorata 

Anthocephalus 

T. calamansanai 

E. deglupta 

Octomeles sumatrana 

Securinega samoana 

Both logging and shifting cultivation destroy or at the very leas!, greatly upset, the 

dynamic balance of the moisl tropical forest ecosystem. The tropical soils m the sites most. 

likely to be allocated to long term timber production have poor or virtually non-existant 

nutrient reserves and mly maintein vegetative productivity by rapid recycling of litler from 

a wide variety of species. Substitution of any monoculture can heve very severe effects on 

the understorey. At me extreme, Teak plantations will heve bare ground covered with large 

dry teak leaves; while I0 year old line planted lerminalia calamansanai or Csmpnosperma 

may have a very rieh interrow matrix with a major cornponEnt-oT the nnderstoryEfrTE 

original forest. Close planted Campnosperma plantations which develop an understorey of 

GlYehenia ferna mey prove to be less thrifty. Conifer plantalions may develop fern or qrass 

underatoreys and be very $isceptible to fire danger. 

The writer believee that experience to date indicates thet as much complexity of 

vegetation as possible must be maintained to engure that soil productivity is retained. Where 

land preseunes ere not high thie erggests that if possible the nelict natunal interrow of 

vegetation ehould not be modified, except where there has been {ievere damage to the 

original forest and eoil near roeds and loading erees. 

Where land is in short sJpplyr trees for timber end for village use have to be grown 

between crope for food. After food crops ere harvested the vegetation matrix has to be 

planted andr to get verietyr s renge of pecies is needed. The shorter the naturel bush 

fallows become, the rnore they loose their legunre elernent; there is not enough time in which 

to rebuild the nitrogen and micro-feune cyclee. A range of legunes slrould then be planted 

partly to provide nitrogen and partly e8 a filler with limited cenopy height which will 

improve the form of timber species planted to provide poles and sawlogs. 

Sune special consideration is needed in many islands in planning to provide plants for 

defence against coaet erosion m the seaward eide of coconut plantations and villages where 

the natural eoaet vegetetion has been removed. 

Two aspects temain to be covered. Pmtection of water rupplies, for example, is vital 

on Upolu and Sevaii which have porous lava rock through which water will drain if vegetation 

is rernoved end not replaced. Not mly village and town water supplies will be affected, but 

aleo hydroelectric power projects. In addition, foreats have traditionally provided building

- L28 

materials, fruits, hunting, and trsditional npdicines. If the centrel and highest portio,ns of 

i"i";A are bft'witn--6riit primeval vegetation little modified, these vital feetures of island 

life will be to sore extent preserved. 

REFERENCES 

Alston, A S. 1982. Timbers of Fiji: pr@erties and potential uses. Department of Forestryt ' 

Swa, Fiji' 

Eddoures, P. a 1977. Cunmercial timbers of Papua New Guinea, their properties and uses' 

Office of Fcests, D€PartnEnt of Primary lndustry, P+ua New Guinea' 

Gorera, S. 1976. Sane common treeg of the New Hebrides end their vernacular narnes. 

Muten, K. D, srd B. R. Thomson. 1980. Solomon lslend Forqpiry Division^Research Reports I 

- tZiAO, f# s6tv-ics' ot pecies 1980. (Cycloetyled report) Forestry Division, Ministry of 

Lmde, Energy and Natural Resourceg, Hctiara, Solomon lslands' 

Solornon Islands Timber Bmktet No. I: Major speciee, end Timber Booklet No' 2" Minor 

--ipr"ir". 1929. Fcestry Di"irion, Ministry of Lande, Energy and Natural Resources, Honiara' 

Solsnon Islands. 

Solomon Islards Trrpical Rain Foreet Ecology Research Report 512179.. _1979. (Cycloetyled 

report) Faestry Division, Ministry of t-]-0", Energy end Natural Resources, Hmiaret 

Solomon Islands. 

Whitmore, T. C. 1974. Changes with time and the role of cyclones in tropical rain forest on 

Kotomb;ngara, Solomon Is6nds. Commonweelth Forestry Institute Paper No' 48' Oxford 

UniveraitY.

- L29 

MIi.IERAL POTENTIAL tr THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC ISLAN)s 

l-l L. Davier 

Bureau of Mineral Resources 

GPO Box 378, Canberra, A.C.T. 2601, Australia 

ABSTRACT 

The islands of the South Pacific produce minerals worth about one bitlion 

dollars each yean. Chief revenue earners are the large porphyry copper-gold mine 

at Panguna on Bougainville lsland in Papua New Guinea, the nickel mines of New 

Caledonia' and the phosphete exported from Nauru. Metals whieh heve been 

produced in the pastr from these and other islands, include gold and ailver, bae 

metalsr antimony, cobalt, ehromium, manganese and magnesile; other known net,als 

and minerals include mercury, molybdenum, coel, hydrocarbons and probably 

uranium. 

In the immediate future a second large porphyry copper-gold mine will come 

into being in Papua New Guinea, at Ok Tedi neer the lrian Jaya border. Other 

likely developments include the discovery of commercial accumulations of 

hydrocarbons in Papua New Guinea, and possibly in Tonga and Fiji; the discovery 

and/or development of other gold, silver, base nntal, nickel, cobalt, chromium and 

phosphate depositsr in response to more thorough or sophistieated exploration, on 

impnoved metal prices; the betLer definition and possibb commercial developnrnt 

of known deposits of bauxite, coal, mineral sands and netdl-rich ea floor nodulee; 

and the possible discovery of trErcury and tungsten minerals, platinum group 

metalsr rnetals of the carbonatite association, see floor volcanic vent minerals, 

diamonds, uranium and precious coral. 

Introduction 

The great expanse of the waters of the southwest Pacific concealg a sea floor which is 

remarkable for its configuration of ridges, trenches, plalforms, basins and ramounts (Figurr 

f). It is these features which indirecily control the distribution of mineral and petrolLum 

wealth amongst the island groups and it is only from an understanding of the naturc rrd 

origin of these features, coupled with a knowledge of discovered regourees, that a reasoned 

assessrnent of mineral potential may be drawn. 

Tfese geomorphic features heve developed by continued interection between the 

Australian and Pacific lithospheric plates. Preeont-day seismicity (Figure 2) indicates that the 

boundary between the two platee is epproximately on the line 

Kermadec-Tmge-Vanuatu-Solomon lslands-northern New Guinea. In the past the boundary haa 

lein closer to Australie, but hae moved away es sagnnnts of the Australian creton have 

broken away by rifting and qening of, for exarnple, the Coral Sea md Teinen bacins 

Interacticn between the platas has led to the growth of new land msasr by voleenirm 

linked with $bduction, or by collision (Figure 3). Collision (rcura when thick low-deneity 

cruet enters a rubduction system and cannot be drawn down into the lower bvels of the 

earth beceuse of its innate buoyancy. Tle result is mulliple thrusting end the enrergence of e 

complex terrain which includes elements of volcanic, sedirnentary, [rtarnorphic, igneoua md 

lower crustal end mantle rocks.

- lr0 

Figure I : Sinplified geology and eea floor morphology of the southweet Pacific 

E 

w 

tru = gold 

Cr = chromium 

Volctntcs 

Collision 

E % 

Eprcntontc -mo- Sethvmetric conlour lml 

1f4n611 

Nodulcs 

Qn = copper 

Co - cobalt 

A-\ 

sAMoA\ \s 

'K*'l \t'' 

llll \,-"? 

Ni = nickel 

P = phosphate 

Figure 2 t Shallow earthquakes (patterned) indicate the boundary of the 

Indo-Australian and Pacific plates 

l\ 

ALIAN PLATE 

STR/ 

\/ 

nrr 

t\ 

\tse 

-2000- Btthvmetric oontout (mJ 

PACIFIC PLATE

Figure): Diagramsof 

Massive sulphide 

(cul 

-' 

I 

I 

MID. oCEAN RI D GE 

- llt 

subduction and collision, with environrnents of mineralization 

'cotLtsoN' 

Thick crust sntsrs and chokes 

tho Subduction System 

Nodules 

(Cu,CoI 

High-level Au, 

PorphyryS skarnlCu,Au, 

\-- -.\ 

MANTLE luttramafic) -\ 

(Ni.Co, Cr) 

sulphide 

(Cu, P_b, Zn) 

SUBDUCTION SYSTEM 

Certain mineral deposits ere essociated with volcsnic processes, notebly the exhalative 

bese-metal ruphide deposits of the rifte and +reading ridges, and the porphyry end sksrn 

copper and gold and high-level gold and silver of the volcanic islands (Figure )). Tlese ere 

the types of mineralization found in volcanic terrein. 

In collision terrain, which by its natur€ mugt include volcenic terrain, the sarne types 

of minerelization are found, but to thege are added the onee of nelals associated with mantle 

rock8, notebly nickel, cobelt and chromium. 

Examplee of volcanie terrain are the iglends of the Fiji and Western Samoa groups, 

while the claseic exarnple of a collision terrein is New Caledonia (Figure l). In southwestern 

Pryua New Guinea a third type of ternain, epi-cretonic, lrray be recognized where retatively 

thin eediments ovarlie a northerly extension of the Ar.ntralian craton.


- ltz 

Tfe island group with the largest land area and the greatest mineral wealth is Papua 

New Guinea (Table I). The mountainous axis of rnsinland Papua New Guinea is collisional 

terrein which contains a considerable mineral wealth and the potential for more discoveries. 

Notable are the Ok Tedi porphyry copper-gold mine, anrrently being developed' the Frieda 

River copper-gold prospect, gold at Porgera and on Misima Island, copper at Yandera' 

lateritic nickel and chromium at Ramu, and Morobe detrital chromite (Table 2). 

Country Pqulation 

(thousands) 

Australia 



New Caledonia 

Fiji 

Vanuatu 

Western Samoa 

Kiribeti 

Tmga 

Tuvalu 

Neuru 

Table I : Mineral production in Pacific countries (f980) 

r5rm0 

t,m0 

17t 

t2r 

5tr 

89 

l5r 

48 

92 

I 

Area Value of annual 

,, 2, mineral oroduction 

(Km / ($ mittion) 

7 16861849 

46L1690 

28,160 

I9r099 

L8r274 

L4176t 

2,841 

718 

696 

26 

7 1429 

485 

J50 

10 

t00 

0.6 

Value per Value per 

t m2 ($) capita ($) 

966 

1,050 

2? 

L8,t26 

7 2L 

4r762|DOO 141286 

547 

494 

t61 

2,89t 

The northeastern mainland and the adjoining islands are volcanic terrain. Typical is 

Bougeinville Island which is constructed of rmdern volcanoes and uplifted coral reef, on a 

besement of partly-eroded older volcenoes end their feeder intrusive rocks. The Bougainville 

porphyry copper-gold mine is the fourth-largeet mine of this type in the world; ennual 

production is about 1701000 tonnes copper, 20 tonnes gold and 45 tonnes silver (nptal content 

of concentrate). 

Tfc epi-cratonic sediments of Pryua New Guinea and sodimenls of the collision terrain 

are prospective for petroleum, and a number of as yet uncommercial discoveries heve been 

mede (Teble 2) including the l98l discovery of gas and gas condensate in the Juha well. The 

volcanic terrain of Pryua New Guinea includes some thick aedimenlary basins and is elso 

considered pnospective for hydrocarbcre, although no indicetions have been found to date. 

Another enargy reoourc€ of Ppue New Guinea, by virtue of its large land area' 

rmuntainoue terrain, end relatively high rainfall, is the hydro-eleetric potential of ite rivers. 

TNs hes been estimeted at l2rm0 negawatte, of which slightly less then I00 nngawatts has 

been developed. 

l9 

t.5

- Ltt 

Table 2 : Mineral Resources of Papua New Guinea* 

Pangtrna Mine (Bougainville Copper Limited): Initial reserves were 944 million tonnes 

averaging 0.48 pereent copper, 0.% grams/tonne gold and ) grams/tonne silver, 

Production peaked in 1978 at 199,00 tonnes copper, 2).4 tonnes gold and 52.5 tonnes 

silver and haa declined rubsequently due to declining head grades and harder ore. 

Curent reserves are about 650 million tonnes averaging about 0.41 percent copper and 

0.48 grams/tonne gold. 

Ok Tcdi mirrc (mder development; Ok Tedi consortium): Reserves are f5I million tonnes of 

0.7 percent copper, 0.6 grams/tonne gold snd 0.011 percent molybdenum, with some 

$pergene enrichment; overlain by 14 million tonnes of oxidized ore which carries 2.87 

grams/tonne gold; adjacent skarne contain 25 million tonneg of 1.17 percent eopper. 

Gold production will start in 1984, and full copper production in 1989. 

Frieda River coppcr-gold prorpect: Resource is 780 million 

end O.29 grams/tonne gold (ant-off 9.t percent 

enrichment, and nearby massive a:lphide with tnore 

gram/tonne gold. A dissected volcanic complex. 

tonnes of 0.46 percent copper 

copper), with some $rpergene 

than I percent copper and I 

Yandare copper prqect: Resource is l]8 million tonnes of 0.42 percent copper and 0.018 

percent molybdenum as porphyry-type mineralizaLion, localized within major balholith. 

Porgera gold proqect: Resource of 100 million tonnes of 2.3 grams/tonne gold. Gold and 

associated base-metal sulphides are in veins in high-level intrusive complex and 

adjacent Mesozoic sediments. Figures from Mount Isa Mines Ltd. Annual Report I982. 

Ramu prorpect: Residual soil over ultramafic rock includes 78 million tonnes of 0.85 percent 

nickel, 0.09 percent cobalt and l.l percent chromium; 50 million tonnes of 1.14 percent 

nickel, 0.15 percent cobalt and 1.2 percent chromiuml and 25 million lonnes of 1.46 

percent nickel and 0.06 percent eobalt (from Mount Isa Mines Ltd, Annual Report for 

r982). 

Morobe chrornite prolpect: Coastal alluvium includes Fesources of l0 million cubic meLres 

averaging 2 percent chromile, and 5 million cubic rnetres of 2.5 percent chromite, fon 

eslimated tolal recoverable 1.5 million tonnes chromite. 

Miaima gold-eilver proeect: Resource of l0 million tonnes of l.) grarns/tonne gold and 18.5 

grams/tonne silver (from Placer Development Ltd Annual Report 1982). 

Waul Current reeerves at Golden Ridges mine are 9601000 tonnes averaging 2.4 grams/tonne 

gold, with probable reserves of 670,000 tonnes of 2.I grams/tonne gold (Australian 

Financial Review, 2l October, l98l). 

Laloki: Resource of )151000 tonnes of 4.J percent copper, 6.4 grams/tonne silver and 1.5 

grams/tonne gold. 

Arie proepcet: Resource of 165 million tonnes of O.)Z percent copper (Mining Journal, 7 

July, 1978). 

Hydrocarbon dircoveries: Significant volurnes of gas and gas condensates were intersected in 

Juha, Pasca, Uramu and Bwata wells. Attempted development of the Pasca field in 1981 

has resulted in an uncontrolled blowout. Gas was also encountered in Barikewa, Iehi 

and Kuru wells, and gas, gas condensate and oil in Puri well. 

*Based m Doble (1981), up-dated by A. Williamson, personal communication, 1983.

New Caledonia 

- tt4 

Second to Papua New Guinea, in terme of total value of minerals produced mnuelly, 

are the emeller end lees populous islands of the New Caledonia grotry. The main island, whidi 

ia tfie source of moet of the mineral wealth, is clasaic eollieionil temain, with a vut veriety 

of different rock typee of different origins and agee, juxtapoaed by faulting. The dominani 

rock type is ultramafic or olivine-rich rock which has been rafted to thl srrface dlring 

collieion, from the earth's mantle. Weathering processes have releEsed from this rock, ani 

concentrated in the overlying soils, a number of bodiee of nickel ore which together 

constitute 25 percent of known world regerves of nickel (Matthews and Sibley, f9S0). 

The ore is won by srrface mining and shipped as crude ore or srElted as nickel matte 

(75 percent nickel) and ferronickel (25 percent nickel) before export. Production of high 

grade ore started almoal I00 years ago and hes reached a ctmulative total ol 2.4 milli6n 

tonnes of contained nickel. Since 1950, annual production has increased and gnade of ore has 

declined eystematically (Figure 4). More recently production has decreeied because of 

reduced world demand. For exemple, in 1980 4.5 million tonneE of wet ore were produced, 

y]!! "n sverage grade of 2.5) pereent nickel, and a total rnetal content of 85,000 tonnes. I; 

1982r mly I million tonnes of wet ore was produced, with e nickel content oi llrmo tonnes 

(figures provided by Service dee Mines et de lEnergie, Noumda, l9B)). 

o 

I I 

E 

f, 

4 

o 

t? 

c- 

I 

o 

o2 

,9 

= I 

Figure 4 : Increasing annual production and declining head grades 

of New Caledmia nickel ore (peris, lg8ta) 

ls0r l9?0 l9it0 t9A0 t978 

Yerr 

(Reproduced by permission of Lhe Director, Bureau de Recherches Gdologiquee et Minibres, 

Noumde) 

The ultramafic rocks of New Caledonia are also I source of chromite. Production 

increased dramatically in 1982 with the development of underground reserves aL Tiebaghi and 

the commissioning of a Iarge concenrrstor. By year end almost 841000 tonnes of we! ore and 

almost 50'000 tonnes of concentrate had been produced, which compares with a total of 21100 

tonnes of lump ore end concentrete in 1980 (figures from Service des Mines et de ltEnergie, 

Noum6a, 1981, i98l). 

There is a great variety of other mineral occurrences in New Caledonia, some of which 

have been worked intermittently. These occurrences include cobalt and iron ore (assoeiated 

with the nickel ore), copper, lead, zinc, gold and silver, menganese, antimony, mercury, 

phosphate (on the smaller islands) and coal; oil seeps are known (paris, l98lc). 

I 

63 

+ 

u= 

4E o 

ri 

2

Nauru 

- tt5 

The third mejor mineral producer in the region is the island of Nauru which producea 

phoephate to the vdue of about USllOO miltion annually. The phosphate b gutrto wtrich has 

developed by rcaction between limestone and bird excrernent. It occurs within funows r.p to 

12 m deep between pinnaclee of dolomitized limestone (British Suphur Corporation, l9B0). 

Reserves are said to be sufficient for 10-15 years further production. 

IIi! 

The Fijian islands are volcanic temain, in terms of our classification, although there is 

evidence of a major tectonic event in the younger geologic record (tne Tholo orogeny in the 

late Miocene; Richmond, t98l). 

Main mineral production is from the Enperon gold mine which produces silver and gold 

worth about USil0 million annually, from quartz-telluride veins in a former volcanic caldera 

(Forsythe' 197f ). The largest identif ied mineral nesource is the Waisoi porphyry copper 

prospect at Namosir elso in the eroded root of a former volcano; this contains 500 million 

tonnes averaging 0.48 percent copper with minor recoverable gold and nnlybdenum. 

Cqper-zinc massive sulphide deposits are known on Viti Levu, and gold deposits and 

Kuroko-type copper-zinc-leed sulphides with some associated qold and silver sr Vanua Levu 

(Greenbaum, 1981). 

Thick sediments both mshore end offshore ere currently being tested for hydrocarbons. 


Tfe Solomon Islands are a mixture of volcanic and collision temain. A variety of 

mineralization is known, including porphyry copper and lode and alluvial gold m Guadalcanal, 

volcanogenic zuphides in the Florida qroup, lateritic nickel on several islands, baudte on 

Rennell and phosphate m Bellona islands, and some heavy mineral sands, and intrusive rocks 

which might be prospective for diamonds, on Malaita (Arthurs, 1979; Coulson, f98f ). The only 

eunent production is alluvial gold shedding from Gold Ridge on Guadalcanal; total value of 

production in 1980 was US$600,000. 

The largest porphyry copper prospect is Koloua, m Guadalcanal, with 90 million tonnes 

averaging 0.17 pereent copper, .0025 percent molybdenum, 0.06 grams/tonne gold and 0.77 

grams/tonne silver (A. Chivas, personal communica[ion, 1982). 

Thick sediments in New Georgia Sound (The Slot) mey be prospective for hydrocarbons 

(Katz, 1980). 

Vanuatu 

The Vanuatu islands are mostly volcenic with the exception of some collieional terrein 

on Pentecost Island (Macfarlane and Carney, l98I). Manganese was mined m Efate Island 

until 1978 but there is currently no mineral production. Magnetite beach sands with high 

titanium are found on most islands, weak porphyry-type copper minerelization on Santo and 

Malekula, and some copper, nickel and zinc sulphides on Pentecost. 

The Slot basin contains up to J km of sediments and these may be prospective for 

hydrocarbrrs (Carney and Macfarlane, I980b). 

Tonqa 

The Tmgan islands are volcanic terrainl oil seeps are known and exploration for 

hydrocanbms continues (U Maung et a!.r 1981).

Offshore Minerals 

- l)6 

Reconnaissance sampling of the southwest Pacific sea floor for manganese nodules has 

indicated best netal values and high concentretions of nodules in the eastern Central Pacific 

Basin, in the vicinity of the Line and Phoenix islands, between 60 north end 50 south latitude 

and 155-1750 west longitude (Glasby, 1982; Exon, l98r). These are in water depths of 

41500-5r500 metres. 

The heavieet concentrations of nodules are up to ll.6 kilograms per square rretre, and 

the best grades are up to 3.55 percent total nickel, copper and cobalt. These are potentially 

commercial deposits, srbject to confirmation by further sampling, and to anbsequent mining 

and treatment feasibility studies. 

Other offshore minerals may remain to be discovered in submarine volcanic centers and 

active rifts (Cronan, f98l). Hydrobhermal iron oxides in the 'zummiL area of zubmarine 

volcanoes off Epi Island, Vanuatu, might indicate urphide mineralization nearby (Exon and 

Cronan, f98]). 

Undiscovered Mineral Deposits 

Moot current exploration activity is focused m hydrocarbons and gold, followed by base 

rnetals, minerals of ultramafic association, vent minerals, precious coral, rock phosphate, 

uranium and, possibly, diamonds. Other minerals which are known, and which may be proven 

commereial, include bauxiLe, coal, heavy mineral sands and sea floor nodules. Other metals 

which are likely Lo be discovered, by analogy with similar geologic terrain elsewhere in the 

Pacific, are moreury and tungrten, and, possibly, metals of carbonetite associstion. 

The search for hydrocarbong has been spurred by discoveries of gas, gas condensate and 

minor oil m and near the Papua New Guinea mainland (Table 2). Oil seeps on Tonga are proof 

that hydrocarbons can develop and accumulate in volcanic arc environnnnt, and have led Lo 

continuing exploralion programmes in Tonga and Fiji. Any hint of success in these two areas 

will attraet attention to other major volcano-sedimentary basins in Vanuatu, Lhe Solomon 

Islands (Katz, 1980), and off New Ireland (Exon end Tiffin, 1983). 

The search for lode gold and silver continues to be keyed to known alluvial fields, but, 

increasingly, is being directed towards hydrothermally-altered volcanics and high-level 

intrusives. This follows the more general recognition of a link between thermal and fumarolic 

activity and gold-silver mineralization, and of [he fact that gold in this environment is 

commonly too fine to be detected by panning. 

Metele of ultramafic association include nickel and chnomium, which are currently 

mined on New Caledonia, and are known in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. 

Platinum group metals have been recovered from alluvium in Papua New Guinea and may 

remain to be discovered in lode. 

Precious coral is present at water depths exceeding 100 m throughout much of the 

southwest Pacific (Griqg and Eade, l98I) and is a significant potential resource, given that 

the ex-vessel value of precious coral harvested in the north Pacific in 1980 wag 

u5$50,000,000. 

Concealed phorphate deposits, similar to those exposed on Nauru Island, may remain to 

be discovered on other southwest Pacific islands (Lee, 1980; Sheldon & Burnett, 1980; J. 

Barrie, Avian Mining, personal communication, 1985). 

Uranium mineralization is known in volcanic environments in some of the lands 

bordering the Pacific (Goodell & Waters, I98J.; Gableman, 1982), and may remain to be 

discovered in the southwest Pacific islands, specifically in volcanics of highly alkaline and 

silicic character. Indications of uranium and base metals beneath limeslone on Niue Island are 

not yet tested by deep drilling (Barrie, I98f ). 

Carbonatites have not been discovered in the southwest Pacific, but there are 

indications of carbonatite-like rock associations, notably in southeastern Papua New Guinea, 

in the Milne Bay region. Here are alkaline ultramafic rocks and feldspathoidal syenitic 

intrusions, poorly exposed, but typically with strong expression in both the gravity end

- Lr7 

magnetic fields - a chanacteristic of carbonatilee elaewhere. The carbonalite mineral 

eesociation in Africa and the Anprices includes onee of the nptels niobium, thorium, uranium, 

phoaphorus, atrontium, the rare earthe, iron, manganese, titanium and copper. 

Prospective Areee 

If it is accepted thal equal areas of companable geologic terrain should produce 

pproximately equal mineral wealth, then it is clear that the Solomon letands and Vanugtu are 

either enomalously minerel deficient, or have been inadequately explored (Tabb 1). Both may 

be compared with Papua New Guinea which hee a 8imilar mixture of volcanic and collieional 

terrain End which annually produces minerals worth more than tlrfi)O f or each square 

kilometre of lend aree. By analogy with Papua New Guinea, both the Solomons and Vanuatu 

ehould be highly proepective for porphyry copper-gotd, porphyry and high-level gold and 

massive-suphide base-nptal deposits. Pcsibly exploration has been less effective than in 

Pqua New Guinea becsuse of restricted access to land. 

Impact of Mineral Development 

Any projected mineral development will have both positive and negative aspeets in 

terms of national development and quality of life. It is now customary for governments and 

would-be developers to enter into negotiations, prior to developmeni, to ensure that the best 

intereste of ell parties are served; the gamut of issues at slake has been discussed elsewhere 

(e.9. Daviee, l98l). 

In an earlier tirne it was generally accepted that mining could proceed with litlle 

regerd for any damage inflicted m cJrrounding terrain or trsditional life styles. The results 

may be een, for example, in lhe pilea of dredged bouldere whieh mark the former alluvial 

gold fields of the Bulolo Velley in mainland Papua New Guinea, end in the Mother Lode 

country of Calif ornia. A more modern example is the f looding of low-lying lerrain 

dowrstream from the Bougainville mine by rock waste from the mine; this is now the target 

of a major rehabilitation programme. 

Modern mining sgreements eeek to eneure that the impact on environment and 

treditional life styles is minimized. For example, the Ok Tedi Agreement provides for most 

mine wastee to be stored wiLhin the mine area, and for the immediate environrnenL and river 

syslems to be monitored (Jackson et g!.r 1980). 

ln terms of the fiscal impact of mineral development, the Pacif ic nations heve 

eucceasfully negotiated with private sector interests to ensure that both parties receive whal 

is perceived as a fair neturn from the profiteble development of any resource. An example is 

the Ok Tedi agreement, under the terms of which the developer will spend $1,100 million to 

eetabligh the mine; normsl tax provisions will epply until s.rch sLage as the developer has 

recouped the cost of his investment plua a 20 percent discounted-cash-flow return on ihe 

inveatrnent; efter this etage, additionel taxes will apply in years of high profit. The net reeult 

ia that over the life of the mine about 75 percent of all earnings should flow to governnEnt 

(Figure 5I 


Essential information for this paper was kindly provided by G. P. Glasby of New 

Zeeland Oceanographic Institute, K. W. Doble and A. ltilliamson of the Geological Survey of 

Pqua New Guinee; A. Macfarlene of the Depertment of Geology, Mines and Rural Water 

Suppliea, Vila, Venuatu; J. P. Paris end A. Colleau of Bureau des Recherches Gdologiques et 

Minibree, Noumda, New Caledonia; P. Rodde of the DepartrnenL of Mineral Resources, Suva, 

Fiji; end N. F. Exon, C. R. Pratt and D. J Perkin of the Bureau of Mineral Resources, 

Canberra. This peper was originally presented at the l5th Congress of the Pacific Science 

Aasociation, Auckland, February 1981, and hes been improved by discussion et the 

conference, specifically with .l V. Eade of the New Zealand Oceanographic Institu[ion, and 

by eubaequent critical review by Exon, Perkin, Pratt and J H. C. Bain. Publicelion is by 

permiseion of the Director, Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics.

ll8 

Figure 5 I Cash flows to Papua New Guinea Governnent and Ok Tedi Cmsortium 

for different retal pricee (1980 budgeted developnent costs) 

SHARES OF OK TEDI REVENUES AT I696 NPV AND VARYII{G JANUARY 19EO PRICES 

ROYATTIES 

6% 

US€R CHARGES 

6% 

COTPATY TAX 

47% 

Au 3OO/oz 

Gu O.8O/lb 

Au 6OO/oz 

Cu 1.2ollb 

E0utw 

4% 

wrilt{orDtrG TAx 

l0(f 

AoorTtoiAt PfroItTs TAx 

1l% 

All plcgs in US $ 

Ar 45o/oz 

Cu I /lb 

Ar 

Cu 

75Oloz 

|.40/lb 

Reproduced by permission of the Secretary, Department of Minerals and Energy, Port 

Moresby 

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- 119 

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U Maung' Tr.n' K. Anscombe end S. L Tmgilava 1981. Aeegsment of petroleum potential of 

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Reoional 

- 140 

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Lowenstein, P. L 1982. Economic geology of the Morobe goldfield. Geological Survey of 

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- l4l 

Whalen, J.8., R. M. Britten and I. McDougall. 1982. Geochronology and geochemistry of the 

Frieda River prospect area, Papua New Guinea. Economic Geology 771592-616. 

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Taylor, G. R. 1974. Volcanogenic minenalization in the islands of the Florida group, B.S.l.P. 

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Carney, J. N. and A. Macfarlane. 1980a. Mineral resources of the New Hebrides. Report of 

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Briggs, R. N4", l-l W. Kobe and P. M Black. 1977. High Pressure nntamorphism of stratiform 

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Travaux et Dcurents de im,STOM 147:479-564, 

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- L42 

Guillon, I Fl 1971. Lea massifs pdridotiques de.No.uvelle-cal6donie. Modble d'un appareil 

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fli 

Enperor Mines Limited. 198I. Annual report for 1980-8I' Sydney Stock Exchange Research 

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proceedings Australian lrBtitute Mining and Metallurgy 24O;25-1L, 

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Department, Suva, RePort 27. 

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clessification: Fiii case study. Mineral Resources Department, Suva (unpublished 

manuecript). 

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Tonqa 

Pmtoise, 8., G. V. Lathem, J. Daniel, J. Dupont and_fa B. lbrahim. 1980' Seismic ref rection 

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1247-58. 

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- 

part of Tmga pUtform (ebstr.). Bulletin Aneiican Association Petroleum GeologisLs 662986'

- L4t 

ENERGY POTENTIALS tr PACIFIC ISLAhD NATIONS 

C. R. Lloyd* and 5. Siwatibau** 

University of lhe South Pacific, Suva, Fijii 

and 

Ministry of Energy, Suva, Fiji# 

ABSTRACT 

This paper gives an overview of fhe various energy sources that could be 

used by Pacific Island nations in the future. Emphasis is of course on indigenous 

sources that could provide some relief from oil import expenses. Particular 

attention is paid to the need for gathering data on the use of energy in parlicular 

sectors, with a view to developing sources for aclual needs rather than just 

developing energy sources. Smre information is given in this respecL from work 

done in Fiji by the authors. This relates to zurveys of energy use in the rural 

arear particularly firewood for cooking, and in the urban area where a range of 

energy sources are used, e. g. 'firewood, kerosene, gas and electricity. The 

programmes in the energy field developed by aid agencies are also discussed. 

Introduction 

This paper gives an overall view of the energy scene in Pacific lsland nations. No 

detailed ettempt will be made to discuss the benefits or disadvantages of particular energy 

alternatives from a [echnical viewpoinl. 

The importance of energy potentials to Pacif ic Island nations has grown at 

approximately the same rate as the increase in mineral oil prices. After the L973-74 oil 

shocks the vulnerability of the countries to reliance on imported petroleum has led to 

increasing research m the possibility of using alternative sources. This has culrninated in the 

Pacific Energy Programme (P.E.P.). This programme originaLed from discussions in 1979 and is 

an attempt by aid agencies to get logether and present a co-ordinated plan for the 

developrnent of energy strategies in the region. For this discussion the negion will consist of 

those countries covered by the Pacif ic Energy Programme, corresponding to lhe newly 

independent island nations of: 

Western Samoe 

Cok Islands 

Tmga 

Fiji 

Niue 


Solomon Islende 

Tuvelu 

Kiribati 

Vanuatu 

(independent in 1952) 

( " " 1965) 

( .' " 1970) 

( ', ', 1970) 

rf 1974) 

( " 

'f 

il 1975) 

'' 

r 1978) 

rr il lgTg) 

il r 1979) 

il rr rgg0) 

The Cook Islands and Niue are self governing with ties to New Zealand. All except 

Pryue New Guinea are member countriea of the Univemity of the Sorth Pacific. 

Before an analysis could be made of energy strategies a data base had to be 

accumulated to define the present situation. We are fortunate now to heve at least a basic 

picture of the energy scene in each of the programme countries. During early 1982 a teem of 

between me and six persons visited eaeh of the countries to gather data with the object of

- L44 

assessing the best alLernatives for aid dispension. The European Economic Community 

G.i.c.l, as part of lhe Lqne II Convention, has allocated about U5$6 million and the United 

rrr"ti"r"'us$i mitlion to be used to develop enerqy potentials in the countries' The data 

gathering team and the funds are being co-orainated by the- south Pacific Bureau for 

Economic co-qeration (SpEC) which is -based in suva, Fiji. The firs_t author (Llovd) was 

involved in the initiat stages of the data gathering doing a-pre-survey of the solomon Islands 

and Vanuatu. Mrs Siwatib-au, the co-autho-r, visite-d most of the countries as part of the main 

ieam which was led by Ken Newcombe. ln addition, the East-West Center in Hawaii has been 

.rfi""li"g energy data as parl of a separate programme and so has the Asian Development 

Bank and the world Bank. This led to some duplGation of effort in data collection; shortly 

after the first author visited the Solomon Islands, the SPEC team of four persons visited 

aronq witn iwo frorn tfre E.E.C., end at the same time there was a team from lhe Asian 

Ol"u'top."nt Bank, all aften the same information from a country which has no governrrpnt 

;;""g/ specialisL. other agencies interesLed or involved in energy matters are the South 

pacif ic Commission iu"""o in Noumea)' SRREIS (Australia), ESCAP' I'L'o', UNDAT' UNDP' 

and of course USP and the regional governments' 

The impelus for all this activity comes from two main sources. First the region is fossil 

fuel poor and is extrernely reliant upon imported petroleum products' Sec.o1lly the region is 

small in population and reasonably poor bui surrounded by rich countries which have strategic 

and political rnotives for organizing aid' 

As far as energy data goes, the overall situation is fairly well defined for all the ten 

countries. There "r"-ro." ga-ps, however, in particular areas, e'g' the hydroelectric potential 

of the Solomon Islands. sorne of these gaps will be filled in by the monito-ring.sections of the 

Pacific Energy Programme, e.g. solar an-d'wind measutement programmes' Detailed information 

on sectoriat energy ur" p"ttjtns, however, is only avajlable or becoming available for two 

countries, Fiji and Papua New Guinea. This sectorial information (How much and what kind of 

"r"rgy ir n"LdrO in the domestic sector for cooking, refrigerationr.ironing, etc'? What is 

needed for industry and commerce?) is vital before deciding' on development priorities' The 

authors' work in this area will be nrentioned later' 

The problems faced by the countries to secure some relief from reliance on imported 

oil products vary considerably with differences in si ze, population. anl economic condition' 

Table I shows, foi-example, tlpt Tuvalu has an area of only 26 km' whereas Papua New 

Guinea covers some 450r0b0 kml. Population likewise varies from a nere )1400 in Niue to f 

million in Papua New Guinea. similarly Tabte 2 shows that economic status varies' Tuvalu, for 

example, whose major money earner is slamps, has a G.D.P. of about US$l million, while 

P4ua New Guinea has a G.D.P. of over U5$2t000 million' 

Tuvalu 

Cmk lslands 

Niue 

Tmga 

Kiribati 

Western Samoa 

Vanuatu 

Fiji 



Table I : Basic Statistics 

Ar.g 

KM 

26 

2t5 

260 

670 

690 

2r9t4 

L2,2OO 

L8,272 

27,560 

46?r?4O 

Pqulation PoPulation Pqulation 

1000s Growth Rate DensitY 

Plkm' 

7.5 

L7.5 

t.4 

98 

58.6 

r58 

Lzt 

670 

240 

1000 

o.96 

-0.9% 

-i.?% 

2.L% 

2.0% 

0.896 

4.2% 

1.9i6 

,.L% 

?.L% 

288 

74 

ll 

146 

85 

54 

IO 

J7 

I 6.5

t45 

Table 2 : Economics (f979-80) 

Country C.O.P./capita Gmwth Inports Exportr 

US$ US$ milliona 

Tuvalu 500 1996 t.6 1.4* 

Cook lglends IrI00 1896 22.8 4.1 

Niue 900 1196 0.1 t.Z 

Tmga 450 l0% t .7 7.6 

Kiribati 400 7% 19 2.7 

Western Samoe 400 5% 6t L7 

Vanuatu 700 10% 7l ,5 

Solomon Islands 500 1496 67.t 66.6 

Fiji 1,600 24% 552 568 

Pqua New Guinea 75O 12% 1009 1020 

* including stamps 

Enerov consumption 

Ernrgy consunplion is similarly variable, with a range from ebout 100 TJ/yr in Tuvalu 

end Niue to 40rfi)0 TJ/yr in Ppua New Guinea (Table l). Figures for Australia are shown for 

comparison. The per capita consunption for the programme countries is roughly l0 times less 

than Australian per capita consurrption. 

Tabb I : Energy Consunption (198I) 

Counlry Renewable Nm-renewable Total Total Per 

TJ TJ TJ Capita GJ/C 

Australia (f978-79) 2,784,000 125,000 2,909,000 200 

Tuvalu 

Niue 

Cmk Islands 

Kiribati 

Tmga 

Western Samoa 

Vanuatu 

Solomon lslands 

45 

76 

toz 

409 

469 

I,I40 

758 

1,849 

Fiji 

Lr,665 

P4ua New Guinea 22rL4I 

54 

20 

rt5 

425 

I,055 

L,74t 

2,&2 

31655 

Lr1639 

t8,6U0 

97 

96 

4t7 

834 

L1525 

2r881 

t,44O 

5,504 

25,tOO 

49 r74L 

Total for region (%) 48% 52% t00% 

Also for the total region (excluding Australia), renewable enerqy accounts for e little 

over (ne half of the total used. In all cases except Fiji this is due to the high firewood 

consunption for dornestic cooking, in Fiji bagasse is used in large quantities by the sugar 

industry as well as firewood for cooking. 

The non renewable energy which dominates the eommercial and industriel sectors is 

nearly exclusively imported petroleum products. 

There are two broad demand sectors in the internal energy requirements of each island 

nation: the domestic sector and the industrial/commercial sector. There is a Lhird sector, the 

bunkering sector, which caters for international aircraft and shipping refuelling (perhaps even 

parts of the tourist industry could be placed in this seetor). Bunkering can totally distort Lhe 

national enengy picture and so is best exeluded from an internal analysis. 

tl 

28 

25 

L4 

l6 

l8 

28 

2' 

l8 

l4

- 146 

National energy planning tende to concentrate on the industrial/commercial gector as it 

is this sector which is ofien seen by the national governrnents to best serve economic 

development objectives. In the Pacific Island nations these objectives have tended to follow 

those of developed countries, e.g. large hydroelectric schemee or fossil fuelled electrieity 

generation, the high technology end. Many aid agencies on the other hand have tended since 

lfre early 1970's rnore towards appropriate indigenous alternatives, e.g. biogas and soler 

enerqy, the low technology end. A national energy policy should examine both high and low 

technology options. 

Potential energy is mly useful if taken in relation to a countries economicr social and 

technical infrastructure. Thus the large hydroelectric power potentiat in Papua New Guinea is 

only usef ul to the country if social and political decisions are made to secure ite 

consunption. Solar energy is mly useful if people have a need for it. For planning purposes 

then it is essential to examine lhese factors and the present and possibb future conaunption 

patterns before deciding on which potential energy sources should be given priority. This is 

not to exclude the possibility of new enerqy sounces ginerating new consumption patterns. 

Domestic sec[or 

In the dornestic sector, consunption $rrveys have been made in Papua New Guinea both 

in Lae and Port Moresby (Newcombe et e!.r 1982). In Fiji the work of Mrs Siwatibau on rural 

energy use has provided much needed data ryt fuelwood consumption, showing [hat in rural 

villages [he average wood consunption for domestic cooking amounts to approximately 350 kg 

(oven dried) pen capita per year (Siwatibau, 1978). To complement this work Lloyd and others 

have completed an extensive survey of energy use in the Nadi-Lautoka area of Fiji (Lloyd' 

n.d.),and Siwatibau and others are in the process of doing a similar zurvey for the Suva urban 

area (Siwatibau, personal communication). Tl"E Nadi-Lautoka survey compiled results of 

questionnaires from nearly I1000 households of which 4]% were classed as urban, t4% 

peri-urban and 21% as rural. For fuelwood consurnplion bhe Nadi-Lautoka results agreed well 

with the earlier work of Siwalibau finding lhe consunption to be a little over 100 

kglcapitalyr in the rural areas ranging to 120 kg/capita/yr in peri-urban and 50 kg/capita/yr 

in urban areas. In Lae, Papua New Guinea, Lhe average consunption was around 250 

kg/capita/yr (Newcombe, 1982), though there are indications that in wood-rich areas such as 

the Solomon Islands, 500 kg/capita/yr would be used for domestic cooking. The amount used is 

viLal for planning because it determines the life of present fuelwood zupplies and the extent 

of possible fuelwood plantations. 

Also from the Nadi-LauLoka survey, which spanned largely urban and peri-urban areast 

we found that the most used source of energy was petrol on motor spiritr which contributed 

4l% to the total use, followed by wood 22Vo, kerosene I8%, electricity 8%' LPG 6% and 

diesel 5%. In terms of end use, cooking and transport each used 4l% of the total energy' with 

lighting using 7%, refrigeration 5% and all other uses 2%. In the rural non-electrified areaet 

thL amount of firewood used was much higher, around 60% of the [otal, with kerosene for 

cooking and lighting and motor spinit for lighling making up the bulk of the remainder. The 

larqe proportion of energy used for transport naLionally (in Fiji lransporl consumes 5496 ot 

the total commercial energy) makes energy substitution difficult. 

In terms of potential sources for transport, Lhe most reasonable alternatives come from 

biomass (urrless petroleum is discovered locally). The mos! lested alLernative is alcohol 

substitution whece the alcohol can come from sugar cane, cassava or possibly breadfruit. 

Production of such fuel crops is eerlainly a possibility in mosL of the countries of the 

region, but there are considerable economic and some teehnical pnoblems Lo be overcomel in 

Fiji it is aL present more pnofitable to ell the sugar. The other possible source of liquid fuel 

is coconut oil. Most of Lhe island countries have extensi ve coconut plantations which' if the 

economics are right, could be diverted Lo manufacturing coconut oil for use in diesel engines 

rather than producing copna. The use of coconut oil in diesels has been tesled in the 

Philippines, Australia, Samoa and at the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. LiSP has 

also sludied the ester of coconut oil and alcohol. Further nesearch in this area is necessary 

and is being sponsored by the Pacific Energy Programme. The present stabilization of oil 

prices should give some time, perhaps until 1990, to consolidate findings and to choose the 

best liquid fuel alternative. For the next decade, however, the region will continue to rely on 

imponted petroleum both for transport and for electricity genenation.

- I47 

Realizing this, trre of the strongest recommendations of the 1982 Peific Ernrgy 

Programme report (Newcombe, 1982) was that countries should improve their knowledge of 

the oil industry, and in partieular the basis m which oil companiee negotiates atpply and 

pricing amangements. It was found, for instance, that in et least five countries (Fiji' Sarnoat 

Tanga, Cook Islands and Kiribati) oil was being priced on the basis of its delivery from 

Singapore whereas in fact il came from Australia, resulting in a considerable eurcherge on 

freight coste. With other practices, this nEant thet Pacific Islend countries were paying much 

rnore than warranted for petroleum imporls, and that the best short term savings in the 

energy sector could be had be re-negotiating such contrecls. 

ln the dornestic eector the other major user of energy is cooking, wilh the main fuels 

being wood and keroeene. All countries, with the posiible exception of Kiribati, have 

reasonable quantities of firewood for domestic purposes, although replanting with suiteble 

fuelwood species would be advisable to secure future supplies. Cmking in all countries is 

mostly done over an een fire, even in the Nadi-Leutoka region of Fiji, where we found that' 

ol 773 wood ueers, 5l% cooked over en open fire. Such cooking is very inefficient and a 

greet wasle of fuelwood. With this in mind the E.E.C. is sponsoring the design and production 

of fuel efficient slow combustion stoves and charcoal stoves. For lighting the present sources 

are electricity (rrrhere conneeted to e grid or village generator), or kerosene and benzine. 

Ebctricily will be considered separately later. 

Both kerosene and benzine (unleaded rnotor spirit) pressure lemps are used' althouqh the 

preference is for lhe benzine lamp as it is easier to start and requires lees maintenance. 

Kerosene standing lamps are also common, often being lit throughout the nigh!. One potential 

replacement considered by the Pacific Energy Programme is the photovoltaic system. While it 

can be shown that zuch a system can be economically edvantageous if evaluated over a l0 

year period, it suffers from the disadvantage of initial high capital cost and decreased 

flexibility. For instance, with the kerosene or benzine lamp, a family that cannot afford the 

fuel for a short period simply does wiLhout the light, whereas the photovoltaic represents a 

permanent financial commitment. 

For refrigeration, electricity is the main source, although kerosene refrigenators are 

also used. Potential replacements are many as almost any liquid fuel, e.g.r alcoholr coconut 

oil, solid fuel wood or charcoal, could be used in a suitably modified kerosene refrigerator. In 

the Nadi-Lautoka survey we found that, of all appliances owned, lhe refrigerator was by far 

the most popular indicating a (perhaps obvious) need for food cooling. For households 

connected to grid, about 54% of the elecLricity budget was used for refrigeration in the 

survey sample. 

Also from the Nadi-Lautoka grrveyr we found that, except for ironing, other uses of 

energy such as water heating mly became significant in Lhe most affluent households. Since 

Fiji is the most affluent of the programme couniries per capita, this can safely be assuned 

for the rest. 

Commercial-industrial sector 

Surveys m energy use in this sector have been completed, but not yet fully analysed' 

by Lloyd and others at USP again for the Nadi-Lautoka area in Fiji' and by Siwatibau for the 

Suva area. This sector relies most heavily on imported petroleum producls for transportt 

boilers, and electricity generation. Transport has already been discugsed. In Fiji most 

industrial concerns use oil-fired boilers; the major exception is of course the urgar industry, 

which uses bagasse. Newcombe (1982) noted thet this is general in nnst Pacific Island 

countries, even when considerable wood or wood waste products were evailable. The Fiii 

Sugar Company burns off large amounts of bagasse that are zurplus to its requirements. The 

timber milling industries in many of the countries produce wood waste which could profitably 

substrtute foi imported petroleum. Already there is some move to such substitution. In Papua 

New Guinea, 12 hot air qenerators fired by wood or coconut residues had been inatalled by 

early 1982, s well es one in the cocoa drying factory in Samoa. In most of the Programme 

countrieg the potential for further zubstitution is great for small industries zuch as bakeriee' 

laundries and sofl drink faciories and for larger industries such as copra drying.

- r48 

In addition to using petroleum fuels directly, induslry and commerce €re the main users 

of eleetrical energy. ln Fiji, with 16% of the domestic sector households electrified,8096 of 

electrical energy generated is used in the industrial/commercial sector (Table 4). By 

industrialized country standards, the peak demands are very small, with mly Fiji and Papua 

New Guinea needing rnore then l0 MW peak in 1981. Tlc small demand has nEant that until 

recently dmost all electricity generated has been from oil-fired diesel resulting in high 

generation costs. Though the charges for electricity in the region are also quite high, the 

1982 P.E.P. report noted bhat mly two governncnts recovered costs (Newcombe, f982). Such 

a subsidy to electricity consunnrs obviously does not encourege the implementation of energy 

saving rreasures, or allow for economic'substitution of alternative energy sources. As in the 

rest of the world the opportunities for energy savings by efficient use of electrieal energy 

are great. Lloyd (f981) reported that the electrical energy consurnption of the School of 

Natural Resources building at USP could be halved by better use of air conditioning, lighting 

and hot water heating. 

Tuvalu 

Cook Islands 

Niue 

Kiribati 

Tmga 

Vanuatu 

Weetern Samoa 

Solomons 


Fiji 

Table 4 : Electricity (1981) 

96 Households 

Electrif ied 

(estimales) 

N.A. 

75% 

75''f 

l5% 

4096 

l0% 

28% 

10% 

5% 

t6% 

t 

Peak Demand 

M.W. 

0. Il 

1.9 

o.6 

0.9 

2.I 

t.2 

5.9 

t.4 

79.1 

62.O 

Tarif f 

U5$/kwh 

. l0-. t8 

.t8-.]l 

.2r 

.28 

.19-.22 

. 12-.40 

.?4 

.r9-.28 

.r7 -.t9 

.18 

Hydroelectricity is the other main source of electricity production al present (Table 5). 

As can be seen perhaps five of the programme counLries have potential for hydroelectric 

generation, with Papua New Guinea by for the largest. Fiji has jusl completed Lhe first stage 

of ils hydroelectric scheme at Monosavu. 

Tuvalu 

Cook Islands 

Niue 

K iribati 

Tmga 

Vanuatu 

Western Samoa 


Fiji 


Table 5 : Hydnoelectric potential 

Installed Potential 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.8-r.5 MW 

0.07 Mw 

40 MW 

10 MW 

0 

0 

0 

0 

N.A. 

4.5 MW 

N.A. 

N.A. (7t0 MW) 

280 MW 

21,000 MW 

Other potential sources are biomass for small steam plants, wood gasification, coconut. 

oil fueled diesels and to a limited extent wind. More exotic altennatives such as ocean 

thermal enerqy conversion (O.T.E.C.) or wave systems need furthen evaluation in developed 

countries before deployment in the Pacific Islands. 

In summary, to realize the full enefgy poten[ial of the region, it will be necessary to 

deal with both the oil companies and the open fire.

I 

- 149 

REFERENCES 

Lbyd' C. R. 198r. Ehctrioal energy'comurption by SNR building at USP. Internal Repont. 

Lloyd, C. R., (et al.). n.d. Nandi-Lautoke suivcy. Internal Report. 

Neweombe, K. 1982. Pecifiq Energy proglamme. lnternal Report. 

Neweombe, K', (et ,al.). 1982. An snalysis of some energy 'issues ln Pryrrre Neur Guinea lgBZ. 

P*ific Energy Progr€mrne" lflternsl Report. 

S'iwatibeu! Susana. 1978' A surv'ey of domeslie rural energy uee and potential in Fiii. Centre 

for Applled Studies in Devehprne=nt, University of the Sqtth Pacific, Suva, FiJi. Zin p.,

15r 

RADIOACTIVITY IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC REGION 

M. P. Bacon 

Woods Hole Oceanographic Inslitution 

Woods Hole, MA 02541, U. S. A. 

G. Lambert 

Centre des Faibles Radioactivit6s 

CNRS, B. P. l, 91190 Gif -sur-yvette, France 

T. A. Refter 

15 Simla Crescent, Khandallah, Wellington, New Zealand 

J. I. Samieoni 

Fiji School of Medicine 

Suva, Fiji 

D. J. Steveng 

l0 Lyric Grove, Camberwell, Victoria )124, Australia 

ABSTRACT 

This paper summanizes the main conclusions of the Report of the South 

Pacifie Regional Environment Programme Technical Group on Radioactivity in the 

South Pacific Region, of which lhe authors are members. It reviews ionizing 

radiations and their possible harmful effects, and evaluates exposures to ionizin! 

radiation in the South Pacific region. It then discusses prescnt and proposed 

aetivities involving radioaclive materials in the region, particularly ocean dunping 

of radioactive materials and nuclear weapons lests. 

Introduction 

In November 1982 the Technical Group on Radioactivity in the South pacifie Region 

was formed and assigned the task of reviewing radioactivity and its regional impact. ine 

project was nptivated largely by the concern expressed in the region- over existing and 

proposed ectivities that might telease redioactive materials to the environnent. Of particular 

concern ere the nucleer. explosions presently being conducted in Polynesia and proposals to 

use the Pecific Ocean. in strategies for radioactive waste menagernent. Formation of tlre 

technicel gnoup took place following the Conferenee on the Human Environnent in the South 

Pacific (Rarotonga, Cook Islands, 8-ll March 1982), where concern was expressed over these 

iseues. The subject of radioactivity was given high priority in the Action plan for the South 

Pacific Regional Envinonnpnt program (SpREp,-l9g2). The pur?ose of this paper is to 

anmmarize the work of the Technical Group and the rnain conclr.nions of the Tecirnical group 

Report (SPREP, f98l). 

The Technical Gmup held ite first meeting al the headquarters of the South pacific 

Commiseion in Noumea, New Caledmia, L7-2L January 1981. .At that tirne an interim report 

was Prepered in the form of a working outline, *frich was distributed to governrrnnts in 

February for comment. A second end finat neeling was held at Nounca, 4-9 5uly l9g1, with 

the a.rpport of the SPREP secretariat. A draft report wes completed at that time and wes 

distributed for comment to the SPREP Co-ordinating group and to outside reviewem in the 

gcientific community. The finel report (SPREP, l98l) was completed in December.

- L52 

The report of lhe Technical Group on Radioactivity in the Soulh Pacific Region has 

three overall objectives. The first is to provide the general reader with an introduction Lo 

some of the concepts and tenms used in nuclear science, especially the properties and effects 

of ionizing radiations, which are basic to an undersLanding of the scientific issues. The 

second objective of the ReporL is to give an overview of the radiation environment in which 

Pacific people live. Present levels of exposure to natural and artificial sources of ionizing 

radiation must be known if the impact of possible future releases of radionuclides to the 

environment is to be properly assessed. The third objeetive is to provide an evaluation, from 

the scientific point of view, of some of Lhe issues that are presently of greatest concenn in 

the Region. 

Ionizino radiations and their possible harmful effects 

In considering the scope of its work the Technical Group decided lhat for completeness 

and for achieving a proper perspective iL should expand its coverage slightly to include all 

sources of ionizing radiation to which people are commonly exposed. Thus, in addition to 

discussing natural and art,ificial radionuclides, the Report also discusse6 exposures to cosmic 

rays and machines that give off X-rays. 

Two of the most important basic terms defined in the repoct are Lhe abeorbed dose, 

measured in gray (replacing the older unit rad; I gray = I00 rad)r and the dose equivalent, 

rneasured in sievert (replacing the rem; I sieverl = I00 rem). Tfre absorbed dose is the amount 

of energy that is absorbed in a substance (for example, a living tissue) as radiation passes 

lhrough it. The dose equivalent is equal to the absorbed dose mulliplied by a facton thal 

takes into account the different properlies of the different types of ionizing radiation (alpha, 

beta, gamma or X radiations). 

The concept of the dose equivalent is especially important and is used very extensively 

throughout the Report. Use of the dose equivalent provides a basis for comparing exposures 

of people to different soufces of ionizing radiation, for comparing exposures received by 

different groups of people in different geographical areas, and for assessing objectively the 

impact of redionuclide releases lo the environrnent. It is extremely important to recognize 

that it is the dose equivalent that is the important consideration in assessing the effects of 

ionizing radiation, nol the origin of the radiation. The potential harm to living things from 

ionizing radiation depends only on the type of radiation (that is, whether it is alpha, beta, 

gamma, or X radiation) and its energy. It makes no difference whether lhe ionizing radiation 

derives from a natural or artificial source. 

The Report provides a general review of what is known about the harmful effecLs of 

ionizing radiation on living things and explains the role of various international bodies in the 

field of radiation protection, most notably the International Commission on Radiological 

Protection (ICRP). The Technical Group noted the expanding use of X rays for medical 

diagnosis in the Region, and qaw a need for countries in [he Region to consider the 

enactment of radiation conLrol legislation. Similar legislation has been adopted by developed 

countries and some developing countries so as to establish pnoper standards of radiation 

protection for workers and members of the public and acceptable levels of radiation and 

radiation dose for persons and the environment. In the preparation of zuch legislation, 

consideration might be given to setting an upper limit for the contribution which any one 

source of ionizing radiation might be permitted to make to persons as members of the public. 

Dme limits adopted in such legislation would provide a basis against which radiation doses to 

persons in the Region eould be monitored and possible harmful effects of the doses assessed. 

The deLailed requirernents of such legislation could appropriately be based on the 

recommendations of the Internetional Csnmission on Radiologieal Protection, on codes of 

practise of other competent international authorities, such as the World Health Organization 

and the International Atomic Energy Agency, and on the experience gained in this field by 

other countries. 

ln discussing the known harmful effects produced in living things by exposure to 

ionizing radiation, an important distinction is made between what are called stocheltic and 

nm-rtchertic effects. For some effects, it has been shown that their everity depends on 

the size of nadiation dose received and that for these effects a minimum threshold dose is 

required for their (ncurrence. These are called non-stochastic effects. For other effecte, 

perticularly many late effects, the probebility that the effects will occur, rather than their 

severity, depends m the size of the radiation dose. These are called stochastic effects. For

- r53 

these effects it has not been possible [o show whether or not a lhreshold dose exists. 

However, go as not to underestimate the probability that srch effects will occur, current 

radiation protection practise assumes that no threshold dose exists. The Technical Group 

adopted this assunpLion in its Report. 

Expogures to ionizinq radiation in the South Pacific reqion 

Imizinq radiations originate both in sources that occur naturally and in sources created 

by human technology. Natural sources of ionizing radiation have been present in the 

environrnent since the beginning of the earth's history. They include cosmic rays thal come 

from outer pace and natural radionuctides that occur on earth. Barring a nuclear war or 

major reactor accidents, natural sources are likely always to be the main environmenlal 

contributor to human radiation exposure. Artificial sources of ionizing radiation in the 

environment are due almost exclusively to atmospheric nuclear explosions and nuclear electric 

power production, the former being by far the most important. 

The Technical Group spent a considerable amount of its ef f ort reviewing the 

information available on human exposure to sources of ionizing radiation in the environrnent. 

Much of that inf ormation is compiled in the most recent report of the United Nations 

Scientific CornmiLtee m the Effectg of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR, 1982), which derived 

global averages for exposure to natural and artificial ionizing radiaLion. In addition the Group 

reviewed data relating specifically to the exposures of people Iiving in the South Pacific 

Region with the eim of determining how the average exposures to ionizing radiation in the 

Region compsre with the global averages. 

In the case of natural radiation, the world population as a whole receives an averaqe 

annuel effective dose equivalent* of 2OOO microsievert (UNSCEAR, l9B2). This is an average 

figurer end there is a large variation from place to place on earth, depending qr a number of 

environmental factors, and from person to person, depending m living habi[s, The exposune is 

received in a variely of ways: by external exposure to eosmic rays and the radiations emitted 

by radioactive elements (potassium, thorium and uranium) in soils, by the consunption of food 

containing natural radionuclides, and by the inhalation of radon-222 and other radionuclides 

[hat are neturally ptesent in the air. For the South Pacific Region the Technical Group 

concluded bhat, on the average, the annual effective dose equivalent from nstunal sources of 

ionizing radiation is approximately lmO microsievert, mly half the world average. The 

lower-than-average exposures in the Region are the result of several factors: (1) the low 

concentrations of radioactive elements in the coralline soils that occur in mueh of the region, 

Q) the lower concentrations of radon-222 in the air over the ocean compared with 

coneentrations over the continents, and (l) the fact that most people in the region live in 

well-ventileted houses and spend much of their time outdoons, thus avoiding exposure to the 

elevated levels of radon that often (rcur in indoor air. 

Tle Technical Group also concluded that exposure to artificial radionuclides, mainly 

the radionuclides formed during past nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, is on the 

average lower, perhaps two or three times lower, in the South Pacific region than it is for 

the world as a whole. This is because most of the population in the Region lives in the 

Southern Hemisphere, whereas the greater part of [he fallout from atmospheric testing was 

delivered in the Norihern Hemisphere. ln general, the contr!bution to total radiation exposure 

due to artificial radionuclides is small and is much less than the variability that exists in 

exposure to natural sources of radiat.ion. 

Although average doses from both natural and artificial ionizing radiation in the Region 

ere albstantially lower Ehan in nnst other parts of the world, there are certain islands in the 

Region where populations receive unusually high radiation exposures. Niue Island in the South 

Pecifie is a docunented example of en area of unusually high natural nadioactivity (Fieldes et 

g[.r t97O; Marsden, L974), and there are data suggesting that part of Guam might also 5E 

such an area (Nelson, 1979tr Urusually high levels of artificial radioactivity are found at some 

atolls in the Marshall Islands that were contaminated by local fallout from the United States 

weapons tests (Robison et al., 1982). 

rTfE effective dose equivalent expresses non-uniform doses as 

dose which would produce [he same harmful effects. The factons 

effective dose equivalen! were assigned by the ICRP (I977). 

a uniform whole-body 

used in calculating the

- r54 

Exposures to ionizing radiation also arise from the use of radiation in rnedicine and 

other activities. In most developed countries the radiation doses to populations from the 

medical diagnostic uses of ionizing nadiation ane the largest of all the doses from artificial 

sources. It is reasonable to assume lhat there will be an increase, and rnore divensity, in the 

use of sources of ionizing radiation for medical purposes in the South Pacific Region as 

health services develop f urther. In many countries in the Region the special facilities 

necessary for these purposes are beeominq more readily available in the major population 

centers, and it is to be expected that, with time, lhe facilities will be provided in less 

densely populated areas. As these developmenLs occur, it will be imporLant for the countries 

of the region to ensure thal the resulting.radiation doses to thein populations are minimized. 

The Technical Group concluded that there would be value in the development of a regional 

program through which pecial technicel services to oversee standards with respect to the 

medical uses of ionizing radiation would be available. The medical uses of ionizing radiation 

are the area in which countries have the greatest possibility of control over the radiation 

doses received by their populations. 

Present and proposed activities involvinq radioactive materials in the South Pacific reoion 

After a brief review of radioactivity in the Pacific Ocean, and of the behavior of 

radionuclides in the marine environrnent, the Technical Group Report proceeds to a discussion 

of activities presently conducted in the Region, or proposed for the future, that might result 

in the release of radionuclides Eo the environment. The activities that are presently of 

greatest concern and most likely to influence the setting of environmental policy in the near 

future are the underground nuclear explosions presently being conducted in the Tuamotu 

Islands by France, as part of iLs weapons development program, and the proposed use of the 

Pacific Ocean for Lhe disposal of radioactive wasLes. 

Regarding the question of radioactive waste disposal, the Report includes an extended 

discussion of the ocean dumping of packaged low-level waste, because there has alreaciy been 

considerable development of a scientific basis for setting limits on such disposal and because 

there exist well-developed intennation.al mechanisms for control and zurveillance. 

Furthermore, a specific proposal has been issued by Japan to initiabe in the near future a 

program of low-level waste disposal a! a site in the western North Pacific, and this proposal 

has been the focus of considerable debate in the Region over the general issue of ocean 

dumping. 

Discussion of Lhe scientific issues related to ocean dumping begins with the fact that 

ppreciable amounts of radionuclides are continually delivered to the oceans by natural 

processes. The question that is open to scientific debate is a quantitative one and the 

scientific task is to provide a quantitative answer: What additional amounts of redionuclides, 

if any, can be added to the ocean without a risk to the environment or to human health that 

exceeds the standards set by society? Tl-e answer is based on the results of scientific 

research, which is a continuing process, so the answer is always (as it should be) subject to 

revision as improved scientific knowledge watrants. Because of lhis, a conservative but 

flexible approach should be taken. 

The International Atomic Energy Agency (lAEA, 1978arbrc) provided a general 

assessrnent of the problem of ocean dumping. lts task was to set limits on the release rates 

of radionuclides on the seafloon so that a definition of high-level waste (not suitable for 

dumping) could be formulated as required by the Lmdon Dunping Convention. In its 

assessrnent the IAEA used quantitative predictions of the dose equivalent to people as a 

measure of the impact of durnping. The IAEA scientists recognized that present scientific 

knowledge does no! allow exact predictions of seawater concentrations resulting from 

radionuclide releases to be made. Tfrey also recognized the possibility that some radioactivity 

could be transferred from the seafloor to human populations by completely unforeseen 

pathways. Because of these uncertainties, they adopled a conservative approach based on 

pessimistic assumptions about what might happen in extreme circumstances, not on realistic 

assumptions about what would most likely happen under ordinary circumstances. Thus the 

doses predieted by their calculations are, by intention, most probably overestimated. For this 

reason the resulting release-rate limits contain built-in safety factors. The Technical Group 

concluded that a very high level of conservatism was adopted in the IAEA assessment and 

that the release-rate limits set by IAEA are restrictive enough that dunping carried out 

within the IAEA guidelines should pose extremely little risk to human health or environrnental 

safety.

-]55 

The Japanese proposal f or dunping low-level waste in the North Pacif ic is also 

discussed extensi vely in the Report. The proposed full-scale qeration would involve dunping 

at a rate no greater than cne per cent of the release-rate limit set by the IAEA, and, on the 

basis of the IAEA work and the confirmatory calculations made by Japanese scientists, the 

Technical Group concluded that the proposed Japan dunping qeration would pose extremely 

little risk to human or environnent health and well-being. This evaluetion wes made m the 

basis of a draf t Japanese €xlsessment of the proposal (STA/NSB, undated draf t). It is 

understood that a final report ofl the proposal is in preparation. ThaL report will require 

caneful public review to ensure that the proposal complies with all the principles of the 

Lmdon Dumping Convention and with its associated requirements. 

It does noL necessarily follow from the ebove conclusion regarding the safety of the 

particular Japan funping proposal that dunping of radioactive waste in the oceen should be 

advocated generally as a procedure Lo be preferred over land-based options. This cannot be 

clearly decided on the basis of present scientific knowledge alone. Cmtinued evaluation of 

all the alternatives is required. The problem of the management of wastes, both radioactive 

and non-radioactive, will always exist, and scientific understanding of the environrnent will 

always continue to be revised. The Technieal Group felt it is important that policies and 

practises remain flexible enough to respond to changed circumstances and improved scientific 

knowledge. At any moment in time, policy decisions should be based on the best scientific 

information then available, but there will always be need in the end for the exercise of good 

judgement and common sense. 

Regarding the program of underground nuclear weapons testing by France, the 

technical group noted the difficulty of giving an informed evaluation because of the high 

level of secrecy that zurrounds the activity. This is in sharp contrast to civilian activities, 

such as nadioactive waste disposal, which are subject to international surveillance, scientific 

neview, and public scrutiny. 

The present procedure of testing underground avoids the previous polluLion of the 

atmosphere by radioactive debris and is considered safer, with regard to human frealth, than 

was the former procedure of testing above ground. Crude approximations of the amounts of 

radionuclides Lhal might be accumulating underground at the test site indicated that they are 

unlikely to be large enough to be cause for alarm, but neither could they be considered 

altogether negligible. One should be particularly concerned for the possible long-term effects, 

such as leakage of radionuclides into the ocean, especially if the testing prognam and the 

accumulations of radionuclides underground are Lo continue inLo the future. The Technical 

Group concluded that past environmental safety assessments and publications of results have 

been inadequate, and it urged prompt publication of results and distribution to concerned 

governrnents in the Region. 

Overall the Technical Group concluded that. the present nuclear weapons testing and 

the proposed low-level waste disposal involve only a small, quite possibly a non-existent risk 

to human health and the environment in the South Pacific Region. The group found little 

scientific basis for judging these activities to be unacceptable. However, this conclusion does 

not in any way deny that important legal, political, and moral principles might very well be 

involved in, and dominate the evaluation of them. Through its Report lhe Technical Group 

atlempted to provide factual scientific information and interpretation that, it is hoped, will 

contribute to informed debate m these important issues, 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

It is a pleasure to acknowledge the hospitality of the South Pacific Commission. Special 

lhanks to Dr. Jeremy Carew-Reid, SPREP Co-ordinator, for his encouragernent and support 

for this project.

- 156 

REFERENCES 

Fieldes' M.' G. Bealing, G. G. Claridge, N. Wells and N. l-l Taylor. 1960. Mineralogy and 

radioactivity of Niue Island soils. New Zealand J. Sci. 3t658-675. 

International Atomie Energy Agency (IAEA). 1978a. Convention on the prevention of Marine 

Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Mattec: the definilion r.equired by Annex l, 

Paragraph 6 to the Convention, and the recommendations required by Annex II, Seetion D. 

IAIA Information Circular INFCIRC/2O5|Add. I/Rev. l, Vienna. 

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). 1978b. The oceanoqraphic basis of the IAEA 

revised definition and tecommendations concerning high-level radioacti ve waste unsuiLable 

for dumping aL sea. IAEA Technical Document IAEA-2IO, Vienna. 

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). I978c. The radiological basis of the IAEA 

revised definition and recommendation coneerning high-level radioactive waste unsuitable 

for dunping at sea. IAEA Technical Document IAEA-ZII, Vienna. 

Internationel Cqnmission m Radiological Protection (lCRp). 1977. Recommendations of the 

lnternational Csnmission on Radiological ProLection. Annals of the ICRP, ICRp-26, 

Pergamon Press. 

Marsdenr E. 1974. Radioactivity of some rocks, soils, plants, and bones, p. 807-824. In J. A. 

S. Adams and W. M. Lorrder [eds.], The natural radiation environment. Univ. of C-hicago 

Press, Chicaqo. 

Nelson' V. A. 1979. Radiological survey of plants, animals, and soil in Micronesia. Report 

NVO-259-15. Laboratory of Radiation Ecology, University of Washington, Seattle. 

Robison' W. L' M. E. Mountr W. A" Phillips, C. A. Conrado, M. L Stuart and C. E. Stoker. 

1982. The Northern Marshall Islands radiological $trvey: terrestrial food chain and total 

doses. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (USA), Report UCRL-52851 pt. 4. 

Science and Technology Agency/Nuclear Safety Bureau (STA/NSB). Undated draft. 

Environrnental ssfety essessment on sea disposal of low-level radioactive wastes in the 

Northwest Paeific. 

South Pacific Regional Environrnent Programme (SPREP). 1982. Report of the Conference on 

the Hunran Environment in the South Pacific, Rarotonga, Cook Islands, 8-II March 1982. 

South Pacific Cqnmission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 

South Pacific Regional Environrnent Programme (SPREP). 1981. Radioactivity in the South 

Pacific. Tqic Review No. 14. South Pacific Commission, Noumee, New Caledonia. 

United Nations Scientific Cornmittee sr the Effects of Atomic Radiation 0JNSCEAR). lg12. 

lmizing rsdiation: sources and biological effects. Report to the General Assembly, wilh 

Annexes.

Backqround 

L57 

LEGAL MEASURES FOR IMPLEMENTATION ff ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES 

IN TFE PACIFIC REGION 

Mere Pulea 

Mere Pulea & Associates 

Fiji 

ABSTRACT 

In response to a decade of increasing concern for environmental proLection 

and conservation in the Pacific, the governnents of the region adopted regional 

environmental policies at the 1982 Conference on the Human Environment in 

Rarotonga. Steps are now being taken to prepare regional leqal rneasures to 

implement these policies, including a Convention on the Protection and 

Development of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific 

Region, and associated protocols. 

Under the 1947 Canberra Agreement which sets out the legal framework for the South 

Pacific Commission (SPC), the SPC has a bnoad mandate to carry out regional action plans 

for various economic and social policies, "in matters affecting the economic and social 

development of the territories within the scope of the cornmission and the welfare and 

advancement of their peoples" (SPC, 1980). Under this broad umbrella, eoncern for 

environmental protection and conservation of lhe natural resounces of the Pacific has been 

voiced over a period of more lhan a decade. Although Pacific lraditional culture, through 

taboos, sanctions and myths, encourages the conservation of natural resounces and proteclion 

for the natural environrnent, the past decade has seen a growing environmental awareness 

within the region, lrnreases in population, industry and development; the testing of nuclean 

devices; and the proposed use of the Pacifie region as a dumping ground for nuclear wastes 

have shown that a united and concerted effort on a regional scale is necessary to protect not 

only the present but also the future resources and Lhe destiny of the people to whom the 

Pacific is rrhomerr. 

The heightening awareness of a need for environmental protecLion cr a regional level 

was brought about by Franee's testing of nuclear devices on Mururoa Atoll in French 

Polynesia. This was the catalyst that qened the way to bringing a poliLical issue to the 

conference Lable of the South Pacific Cornmission, as issues of a political nature fell outside 

its mandate. France in I97O opposed the discussion of nuclear tes[ing at the South Pacific 

Cmference as the subject came within the realm of politics. Although [he discussion was 

discontinued that year, the issue of French nucleer testing found its way back to the South 

Pacific Conference every year, end at the Guam conferenee in l97l: 

"the question of nuclear tests was again introduced. France raised a tpoint of 

orderr but the chairman ruled allowing the discussion.... Unlike past conferences 

discussion did not stop but instead the matter was discussed fully and resolutions 

passed condemning France for her eetivitieg" (Kite, L974). 

According to Kite (f974) tlre independent anti-nuclear test ectivities by Auetralia and 

New Zealand geve the island bedere the psychological assurence that they would not be 

deserted by their two immediete rnetropolitan neighbours in lheir insistence that the ruclear 

testing rnatter be given a full airing.

- r58 

"The ielands are concerned not mly for health - easons, but also for the 

destruction and pollution of the resourceg from the see' which hithento has 

provided much of the Iivelihood for the island peoples.... Nevert.heless' given that 

lhe Canberra Agreement came into being to better the lot of lhe island peoples it 

is difficult to reconcile such espirations with the clrrrent ect,ivities of the French 

governrnent at the Mururoa Atoll which ie undoubtedly hazardous to the health of 

[fre Pacific Islandg and to the natural resources in their cean environmentrr (Kitet 

r974tr 

Since the inception of the SPC and the first conference held in Suvar Fiji in l95O' 

much has been done to provide economic developnent and eocial welfere in the Sotrth Pacific 

region and the SPC hae undoubtedly been progressive in accommodating the aspirations of the 

is[nds as each territory since 1962 has acquired independence. The work Progremme of the 

SPC has increaeed from a budget of Stg 40rm0 in 1948 to about $l'm0'm0 in 1981. 

Apart from the issue of ruclear testing, other environrnentel concerns were algo raised 

at regional ncetings. In 1971, a Regional Synposium m Conseryation of Nature - Reefs and 

Lagoons was organized by the SPC. In 1974, the SPC initiated a special project on 

Corservation of Nature and ppointed a Regional Eeologicel Adviser. Cmsultatione with the 

United Natione Environnpnt Programme UNEP) in L975 led to lhe development of a 

comprehenaive programme for environmental management and proposals for a Regional 

Cmference an the Human Environnpnt. 1976 gaw the South Pacific Forum's decision for the 

South Pacific Bureau for Economic Cooperation (SPEC) to consult with SPC with a view to 

preparing proposals for a co-ordinated regional approach to the problems of environnrental 

manegement and a comprehensive environnental progremme reflecting the environmental 

interests of all countries and territories in the region. The l4th Session of the Economic and 

Social Cqnmission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) in 1978 endorsed the idea of conveninq a 

South Pacif ie Cmference on the Hurnan Environnent and recommended that sueh a 

conference be held in eo-ordination with SPEC and SPC. Proposals srbmitted to the Forum 

and the South Pacific Conference the same year led to the subsequent adoption of the South 

Pacific Regional Environnent Programme (SPREP), and the organization of the Conference on 

the Human Environnent in the South Pacific which took plece in Rarotonga, Cook Islands in 

1982. 

Reqional Environmental Policiee 

Since the matter of nuclear testing and concern for the health of lhe island people and 

the degradation of the Pacific'g natural resources wes first raised et the l97O SPC 

Cmference, twelve yeers passed before thg Cmference (n the Human Environrnent in 1982 

brought action responding to the concerns of the Pacific Islanders. At the Conference there 

wag: 

I'widespread concern expressed at proposals to drnp large quantities of low-level 

nuclear waste in the Pacific Ocean and to use Pacific Islands for high-level waste 

atorage'r (SPREP, 1982). 

Two of the resolutions passed at the Conference on the Human Environment were as 

follows: 

and: 

"The Japanese, Unit,ed States and other governnents should be requested to 

abendm their studies of specific proposals to store or dispose of nuclear waste in 

the Pacific regional environrnent. Ttey should be strongly urged to research 

alternative methods of disposal outside Lhe region.'l 

"Eech country and territory of the region should be reguested to accede to 

the Lmdon Durnping Cmvention. A regional meeting should be held' preferably 

before the end of 1982 so thet these countries and territories can prepare a 

common regional agreement. This would enable them to invoke the provisions of 

Article VIII of the Convention m the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dunpinq 

of Wastes and Other Matter (also known as the Lsrdofl Dunping Convention 

TLDCD and thus ensure that the regulatory framework of the Convention 

incorporates the prohibition on storage and disposal which has been adqted as a

- 159 

policy of the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP)' (SPREP, 

re82). 

As a result of these resolutions, the Convention on the Protection and Development of 

the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Paeific Region, and two protocols, 

namely, the Protocol for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sotrth Pacific Region by Dumping; 

and the Protocol for the Co-operation in Combating Oil Pollution Emergeneies in the South 

Pacific Region, embodying the resolutions passed at the 1982 Human Environment Conference, 

were drafted to invoke article VIII of the LDC which states: 

'rContracting parties with common interests to protecl in the marine 

environment in a given geographical area, shall endeavor, taking into account 

characterislic regional features, to enter into regional agreements consisLent with 

this Convention for the prevention of pollution, especially by dumping" (LDC, 

I97D. 

The dreft Convention is not limited Lo pollution control. It includes the general 

prineiples of resource development and management in order to reflect the regional policy 

statement of the Rarotonga Conference which inuludes: 

and: 

'rlntegrated environmental, eeonomic, social and resource planning and 

management is essential to ensure sustainable rational use of the land and sea 

resources of the region and the greatest enhancement of human well-being.tt 

"Appropriate end enforceable legal instruments and institutional 

afranqements ere a necessary basis for effective integration of environrnental 

concern with the whole of the development process" (SPREP , I9BZ). 

It was pointed out at the second Pacifie regional meeting to discuss the Convention 

and Protocols (Noumea, November I98)), that resource development and management should 

not be included in an anti-pollution Convention as this goes beyond Lhe obligation to prevenl 

and control pollution. However, the inclusion of these concepLs in the Convention is not only 

in keeping wiih other regional and international Conventions, but is also in keeping with 

regional policy in the Pacific. Although obligations to prevent and control pollution are 

common in other regional Conventions such as the Abidjan, Barcelona and Kuwait 

Conventions, the Abidjan and Caribbean Conventions also include the pninciples of 

environmental management within the scope of the Convention to ref lect the broad 

framework of thein regional Action Plans. According to Dahl and Baumgart (1982): 

rrEnvironmental managemenL is not a new concept for Pacif ic peoples. 

Wherever natural resource management was needed, the traditional cultures of the 

region developed practises which protected their essential interests. These 

included land and reef tenure systems, permanent and temporary taboos on 

specific species or places, refined and selective fishing techniques, agroforestny, 

terracing and imigation, windbreaks, bush fallow, and other agricultural and soil 

management practises, etc. The cultural heritage of the Pacif ic is full of 

examples of sound environmental managemenL equivalent or superior to modern 

methods. One of the great tragedies of the region is that this heritage is rapidly 

being lost just as the need for it is increasingly apparent.'t 

Although management issues ref erred to in the Pacif ic Regional Action Plan are 

addressed in the Convention to take care of mining and coastal erosion, specially protected 

areesr co-qeration in combating pollution in cases of emergency, and environnental 

assessment' these are by no tneans exhaustive of the coneerns of the Pacific Islanders for the 

Region. The provisions of the Convention, however, reflect priorities for activities envisioned 

in the Action Plan and other management problems elaborated through specific Protocols. 

In a similar manner the draft Convention atso reflects the broad scope of the l4'point 

Deelaration agreed to in Rarotonga by the 20 partieipating countries as a statemenl of 

regional policy.

- 160 

Further, in keeping with the concern to prohibit nuclear teeting first raised at e 

regional forum in 1970, the Cmference m the Human Environment endorsed a statement of 

regional policy that: 

and: 

'rTtE storage and release of nuclear wasteg in the Pacif ic regional 

environnent shall be prevented" Oeclaration 9)t 

"The testing of ruclear devices against the wishes of the majority of the 

people in the region will not be permitted" (Declaration l0). 

Leqal Protective Measures 

New regional cqtvention 

The draft Csrvention on thG Protection and Develqrnsnt of the National Rerourcea and 

Envir6rnent of the South Pacific Region broadly makes provisions for preventing' reducing 

and controlling pollution from: ships, land based sources, seabed activities, radioacEive 

wastes, ruelear testing, dunping and atmospheric sources and makes provision io preventt 

reduce and control damage caused by mining and coastal erosion. Because of lhe unique 

nature of the Pacific lslands, lhe Cmvention makes provision for appropriate measures to be 

taken to protect and preserve rare and fragile ecosystems as well as the habitat of depleted 

flora and fauna. Provision is made for co-qerative efforts for combating pollution in cases 

of emergency and imposes a duty to develop and promote contingency plans and a duty to 

notify o[her countries if they are likely to be affected by pollution. This follows the policy 

requirennnts as stated in Elg!!q! "fot the development of nationel and negional 

contingency plans and preveiffi-n prograrrmes". The Convention further creates a general 

duty of gs-qeration amongst the contracting parties and other organizations to share and 

scientific and te;hnological data and other informalion and to develop research 

"*"-h.^g" prog""ri.r". TNs is in keeping with the policy stated in Declaratlon l2_"requiring Lhe further 

dev6lopment of regional co-qeration as an effective nreans of helping the countries and 

territories of the Sor.rth Pacific to maintain and improve their shared environnent". 

In order to assist Pacific Island countries at the scientific, educational and teehnical 

levels, the Convention creates a duty for advanced technological eountries who become 

contracting parLies to the Convention to assist in programmes for the developrnent and 

."nag".",it ' of the environnpnt. There are further provisions for the exchanqe of 

inforriation, for determining liability and compensation for damage caused by pollution and 

provision for the settlement of disputes. 

Apart from the provisions stated above, note has been laken of the policies in 

Declaraiions 9 and 10, and Resolution 1 of the Conference on the Human Environment and to 

this end, provision has been made in the draft Convention Lo prohibit the testing of nuclear 

devices and the durnping of radioactive wastes matter. 

Afier two lengthy regional debstes in January and November 198)r agreement was 

reached m a majoriti oi tne principles of regional policy articulated in [he draft Convention. 

Considerable discussion, however, was generated on the question of the "Convention Area" as 

agreement could not be reached on Gsrer involving the high seas, the two hundred mile 

economic zone and lhe internal waLers of ternitories within the Convention Area. The other 

issues which could not be finalized were the provisions prohibiting the testing of nuclear 

devices and the storing, disposal and dumping of radioactive wastes. Tipse mattens have been 

carried forward to a third regional meeting in 1984. 

Protmola 

The draft protocol for the Prevention of Pollution of the South Pacific Region by 

Dunping and the draf t Protocol Concerning Co-qeration in Combating. Oil Pollution 

ernergeicies in the South pacific Region had a "firsL neading" during the regional mee[ing in 

Noveriber l9gl. The two dnaf t Protocols give detaited treatment fo negional policy 

articulated at the 1982 Human Environment Conference, which declared:

and! 

161 

t'The storage and release of nuclear wastes in the 

environment shall be prevented', (Declaration 9), 

"The rate and nature of discharges of non-nuclear wasles 

the capacity of the environment to absonb them without harm to 

and to the people who live from it" (Declaration 8). 

Pacif ic regional 

shall not exceed 

the environrnent 

The draft Protocol on Oil Pollution Emergencies for the Pacific follows a global 

pattern and is similar to lhose of the Kuwait, Abidjan, Barcelona and Caribbean Protocols on 

Oil Pollution, but the draft Protocol, having had the benefit of the experienees in other 

regions of the world, has been broadened to cover other pollutants. 

Convention on Conrarvation of Nature 

In June 1975r following World Environment Day, a regional neeting in Apia, Western 

Samoa m the Convention ur the Conrervetion of Nature in the South Pacific was sponsored 

by the SPC and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources 

(ltJCN). The regional meeting and the draft Cmvention were largely the result of ILCN 

initiatives following similar work in other parts of the world and the regional Syrnposium on 

Conservation in I97I. The 1975 meeting in Apia was the first attempt in the Pacific to 

co-qerate m environmental matters at a regional level. 

Drawing on the Declaration of Environrnental Principles adopted by the United Nations 

Ctrlference on the Human Environment at Stockholm in June 1972, and conscious of the 

growing dangers that threaten the natural resources and fragile ecosystems of the Pacific, 

collective action at regional level was thought to be lhe best nreans of prot,ecting and 

safeguarding these assets for the benefit of present and future generations. 

Provisions of the Convention on Conservation encourage the creation of prolected 

areas (Art. ll) as well as the protection of indigenous flora and fauna (Art. V). Certain acts 

such as the hunting, killing and capturing of specimens of fauna or collection of specimens of 

the flora in protected areas are prohibited (Art. III). Co-qeration at regional level for the 

exchange of information, research and training is encouraged (Art. V[). 

Although the Convention on Conservation was tabled for information at the South 

Pacific Conference on National Parks and Reservee held in New Zealand early in 1975, 

followed by the Convention rneeting in Apia in June 1976, mly three countries (France, 

Papua New Guinea, and Western Samoa) have signed the Cmvention. Tfe Convention requires 

the ratificetion of four countries to come into force. 

Perhaps the lack of regional support for bhis Cqrvention lies in the fect that 

conservetion of natural resources is regarded by some countries as a national matter rather 

than a regional oner es each countryrs needg are dependent on their own development 

priorities. The objectives as erticulated in the Convention are pursued through national 

legislation in almost all Pacific countries. For exanple, Papua New Guinears Cmstitution 

declares thet the resources and environnrent be conserved end used for their collective 

benefit and replenished for the uae of future generations, as their Fourth National Goal. 

Other examplee are the Cmservetion Areas Act 1978, and the Fauna (Pmtection and Cmtrol) 

Act 1974 (Pryua New Guinea); Tb Cmservation Act 1975 (Cook lelands); The National Parks 

Act 1974 (Solomon lslands); Tb Wildlife Congervetion and Endangered Species Act (Guam); 

lhe Prohibited Areas Ordinance t97l (Kiribati); the Birds end Garne protection Act l92l 

(Fiji); the Fish and Bird Preservation Act (Tmge); the Endangered Species Act (TTpI); to 

name e few. Tlc protective legislation in some countries detee far beck before independence 

and also before the 1976 regional discussions m the Convention on the Cmservation of 

Nature. Added to this is the Australian amangement ntrere each State hae its own lawe, its 

own ayatem of national parks and neserves and ite own adminiStration. Research, training and 

the exchange of information heve been taking place in the region prior to the 1976 

discussiona and together with treditional coneervation nrethods through rituale srd taboos 

thege have been sorne of the factors thet have affected e firm commitncnt at a regional 

level.

Forum Firheriar AgancY 

- L62 

The Cmvention establishing the South Pacific Forum Firheries Agency in L977 

culminabes the common interest in tne Pacific for the conservation and optimum utilization of 

the living marine resources and particularly those of highly migratory species. Co-qeration 

and co-ddinetion of fisheries policies at a regional level has become a necessity as it is only 

at this level that the exchange of informetion about living marine resources and espeeially 

those of highly migratory species can bring about the maximum benefits for the people and 

the region as a whole. 

Conclusion 

The three regional Cmventions and the two Protocols are indicative of the trende 

emphasizing the nrimber of environmental concerns affecting the Pacific Region end its 

people. Sire of the provisions such as those prohibiting ruclear testing end dunping' and the 

geographic area the -Convention seeks to cover, have 'wide political ramifications 8nd have 

iet-to'be agreed upon. The changes soughl and required by the Crtventions and Protocols 

fuave been tfre resuit of wide consultation and regeareh at netional and regional level' The 

conventions are not only a clear acknowledgement of the policy decisions made lo protect 

the pacific environnent but are also in keeping with trends in other parts of lhe world. 

REFERENCES 

Dahl, A. L and L G. Beumgart. 1982. TfE state of lhe environment in the South Paeificr p. 

47'-7L. In Report of thl Csrference m the Hurnan Environment in the South Pacifict 

RarotonlE, Cook Islands, 8-II March L982. South Pacific Cornmission, Nounear New 

Caledonia.' Reprinted as ifqep Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. ll (f981). 

Kiter sione. 1974. Tfre microstates of the South Pacific. Urpublirhed lltA. thesis' University 

of Lmdm. lsynopsis published in L977 in Pacific Perepective 6(l):6-2r). 

Lrc. 1972. Cmvention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dunping of Wstee end 

Other Mat,ter (Lmdon Dunping Convention). 

SPC. 1980. Consolidetion of agreed provisions and prectices relating to the establishment and 

operation of the South Pecific Commission, including the Canberra Agreernent as amended. 

TNrd edition. South Pacific Cornmission, Nournea, New Caledmia. 

SpREP. 1982. Report of the Conference on the Hurnan Environment in the South Pacifict 

Rarotonga, Cooi< Islands, 8-lf March 1982. South Pacifie Commission, Noumee, New 

Caledmia.

- r6t 

EAST ASIAN SEAS REGIOI.I

- L65 

OVERVTEW tr TI-E EAST ASIAN SEAS ACTIOI.I PLAN 

Karem Snidvonga 

Secretary General 

National Environment Board of Thailand 

and COBSEA Coordinator 

ABSTRACT 

This paper presents an overview of the Easf Asian Seas Action plan. lt 

describes its historical background, and discusses its principal components as well 

as the instiLutional and financial anangements for the 'implementation of the 

action plan. Lastly, it identifies administrative delay, financial problems and legal 

difficulties as problems involved in the implementation of the action plan. 

HTSTORTCAL BACKGROUhT) 

As a focal point fon environmental action and co-ordination within the United Nations 

System, the United Nations Environrnent programme (UNEp) realized Lhat environmental aclion 

should encomPass a comprehensi ve approach to environmental problems dealinq not only with 

the consequences but also wilh the causes of environmental degradation. The Governing 

Council of Lhe United Nations fnvironment Programme has designafed',Oceans', as a priorify 

area for environmental action, in which it will focus efforts to fulfil its catalytic role. li 

also recognized that environmental pnoblems of the oceans are global in scope and must be 

dealt with in an inlegrated way. Il thus launched its Regional Seas Programme in 1974, as a 

reqional approach seemed a more realistic way to solve the problems. hction plans were to 

be formulated for each region. The regional approach allowed UNEp to focus on specific 

problems of high prioriLy to the States of each region. The UNEP Governing Council has 

identif ied the following ten areas as components of the Regional Seas programmes the 

Mediterranean, the Kuwait Action Plan Region, The Widen Caritbean, the West and Central 

African Region, the East African Region, the East Asian Seas, the Red Sea and Gulf of 

Aden, the South-West Pacific, the South-East Pacific and the South-West Atlantic. 

The fast Asian Region was recognized by the UNEP Governing Council in 1975 as 

rrconcentration area, for the establishment of a regional seas prograrnme in Asia with a 

scientific prognamme involving research, prevention and control oi marine pollution, and 

monitoring. During the same year an internaLional workshop m marine polluiion was convened 

in Penang by IOC, FAOrs Indo-Pacific Fishery Commission (tpFC) and UNEp. The workshop 

proposed that the region should be divided into six zubregions for the purposes of the Lh,lEp 

Regional Seas Programme. The East Asian Seas (EAS) was one of the pioposed zubregions, 

covering the area of the five member countries of the Association of South East Asian 

Nations (ASEAN)n A few years later (1979), a draft regional aetion plan for the East Asian 

Seas was prepaned by UNEP and was submitted to the Governnents of the Region for 

consideration. Several nreetings were held with the assistance of thlEP to consider arid revise 

the draft action plan as follows: 

+ TfE Association of south East Asian Nations (ASEAN) was established in 1967 for the 

technical collaboration among its five member counbries on the attainment of peace, progress 

and prosperity of the region. The five membens are: Indonesia, Malaysia, pniiippines, 

Singapore and Thailand.

- 166 

(1) Second Meeting of the ASEAN Experts Group on thc lnvironrnentr September I979t 

Malaysia; 

Q) 

G) 

(4) 

Third Meeting of the ASEAN Experts Group on the Environment, May 1980, Philippines; 

First Meebing of Experts Lo Review the Draft 

June 1980, Philippines; 

Second Meeting of Experts to Review the Dreft 

Deeember 1980, Thailand; 

Action Plan for the East Asian Seas, 

Action Plan for the East Asian Seas 

(5) Fourth Meeuing of the ASEAN Experts Group on the Environment, April I98l Singapore; 

The Action Plan was finally adopted et the Intergovennnrental Meeting on the 

Protection and Development of the Marine Environnent and Coastal Area of the East Asian 

Region, April 1981, Manila, Philippines. 

At the Intergovernnrental Meeting on the East Asian Seas Action Plan, December l98lt 

Thailand, agreement was reached concennlng which projects of the action plan programme 

should be implenrented during 1982-1981 and which nationel focal point would be responsible 

for co-ordinating each project. 

The First Meeting of the Co-ordinating Body of the Seas of East Asia (QOBSEA) was 

convened one day after the Fifth Meeting of the ASEAN Experts Group on the Environrnent,' 

April I982, Thailand. The meeting finalized the approved priority projects including the 

financial arrangemenls for implementation during 1982-1981. 

The ASEAN countries then started imptementing the approved projects. 

OBJECTIVES tr TI-E EAS ACTTO{ PLAN 

The principal objective of the EAS Action Ptan is "the development and protection of 

the marine environment and the coastal areas for the promotion of the health and well-being 

of present and future generations." TfE EAS Action Plan is aimed at providing a framework 

for a comprehensive end environrnentally-sound qproach to eoastal area development 

particularly appropriate to the needs of the regions. 

TfE EAS Action Plan is composed of three components: environncntal assessrnentt 

environrnental managemenI and co-ordinating nEesures. The corresponding immediate 

objectives are: 

(f) "assessrnenl of the state of the marine environnent, including assessrnenl of the effects 

of marine, coastal and other land-based activities on environrnental qualily, so as [o 

assist Governments to cope properly with marine environrnental problems;" 

Q) 

"management of those marine and coastel developnnnt ectivities which may have an 

impact m environmental quality or on the protection and use of renewable marine 

resources on a sustainable basis;" 

(]) "development of suitebte co-cdinating measures for the succegsful implementation of 

the action plan.tl 

Note that the above immediate objectives do not include one relating to the legal 

aspects of marine pollution control as has usually been the case in other ection plans. The 

legal component, which is an integral part of the now-standard L|NEP four component rnodel' 

was dropped at the First Intergovernnental Meeling at Menila which adopted the revised EAS 

Action Plan.

Environmental Aesesgment Component 

- t67 

PRIrcIPAL COMPONENTS G TIf EAS ACTIOT{ PLAN 

This component is concerned with assessnnnt and evaluation of the ceuses, magnitudes 

and consequences of marine pollution problem. Priority will be given to the identificition of 

the present quality of the marine environment and the coastal arees, the factors currently 

affecting its quality and the projeclion of future trends. A co-ordinated bsic and appleb 

regional marine seience programme aiming at co-eerative research and assessrnent 6t tne 

present situation of the marine environment hes been developed in four priority areas: 

oceanography' oil pollution, non-oil pollutanLs, and mangrove and coral ecosystems" On going 

end planned national and regional programmes have been duly taken into consideration durin! 

the formulaiion of the qerational details of this programme. 

It was also agreed that, for "the 

possible future expansion" of the above-nentioned 

proqrammer the following components rrnny be consideredt', at a lower level of priorily. 

l. Assessment of the environnental impact of of fshore seabed exploration and 

exploitation, including petroleum, mining and dredging. 

2. Assessment of thermal pollution in coastal waters and its impact on marine biota. 

t. Assessment of the nature and magnilude of pollution reaching the marine environment 

lhrough the atmosphere. 

It is also envisaged that an intensive proqramme of braining and technical s.rpport of 

Iocal scientists and technicians will be developed in order to strengthen the environnrental 

assessment component. 

The pnojects under this component of the EAS Action Plan will be executed primarily 

through existing national institution within Lhe framework of regional co-qeration. For some 

projects a training prognamme has been formulated. 

Environmental Manaoement Component 

Some preparatory activities are necessary to achieve the objectives of the development 

and environnental management component of lhe action plan. Such activities compcise: 

l. Preparation of a directory of institutions in the region active in fields related to 

env ironmental management. 

2. Identification of relevant on-going national, regional and internationally supported 

development projects which demonstlate sound environmental management practices. 

Special importance is attached to the training of managers and policy makers in 

environmentally sound management practices in order to achieve more effective management 

of environmental affairs and pollution control in coastal areas. Three projects are under this 

componentr namely: oil pollution control, pollution conlrol and waste management, and 

information and dala exchange. Environmental impact assessment and nalure conservation are 

excluded from this component, since they are already included in the ASEAN Environment 

Prognamme (ASEP). 

Co-ordinatinq Measures 

Support Measrrneg 

Since agreernent on the legal component as well as on institutional anrangements could 

not be reached during the First Intergovernnrental Meeting, the revised Act-ion plan was 

adopted at Manila in April l98l without these provisions. Only zupport rneasures in the draft 

legal component were retained with slight modifications. No reference was made Lo relevant 

interna[ional and regional agreements on the protection of the marine environrnent. The 

co-ordinating measures relating to legal aspects of marine environnent, protection are 

confined only to:

- 158 

f) maintenance by each SLate of an up-to-date compilation of its national 

lews relevant Lo the prolection of the marine environmentl 

2) technical assistance and co-qeration in the draf ting and updating of national 

legislation relevant to the protection of the marine environment. 

Ho1tever, other suitable co-ordinating measures for the implernentation of the action 

plan are possible. 

financed by: 

Financirg of the Action Plan Programme 

The EAS Action PLan simply stgtes thet the action plan programme may be 

f) initially, the United Nations System; 

?) other sources from within and outside the region. 

The EAS Action Plan and its proiects 

Institûtionel and financial arrangements wene adopted in December l98I at the second 

intergovernnental rneeting, held in Bangkok, although not as part of the EAS Action Plan. 

Aftei the Bangkok meeting a trust fund as established with contributions promised for 1982 

and l98f from the ASEAN member countries and UNEP. UNEP will conLribute at least the 

same amount as the ASEAN nember counLnies. The managernent of the Trust Fund was 

entrusted to UNEP. 

The final version of the EAS Action Plan contains following priority projects: 

1. Assessrnent of oceanographic phenomena Lhrough detailed oceanographic surveys; 

- ObservaLion of maritime meteorological phenomena and their influence on water 

npvementS; 

- Study of oceanographic features with emphasis on hydrography' water masses and 

water circulation, and their effects upon pollulion dispension patternsl 

- Oceanographic reference stations. 

2. Assessnent of oil pollution and its impact m living aquatic resources: 

- Survey of sources and monitoring of oil poltution in the marine and coastal areasi 

- Co-gerative research m oil and oil dispersant toxicity. 

,. Assessnpnt of non-oil pollutants, especially metals, organics, nutrients and their 

environnrntal imPact: 

- Survey of rivers and land-based sources of non-oil pollutants ; 

- Study of concentration levels and trends of non-oil pollutants ; 

- study of the effects of non-oil pollutants on marine environnent. 

4, Asse$rnent of the impact of pollution on, and habitat degradation of, mangrove and 

coral ecosYstems: 

- Survey of the state of mangroves and coral reefs; 

- Effects of pollutants end destructive factors on mangrove and coral communities and 

related fisheries. 

5. Oil pollution control: 

- Training progremme for oil pollution controll 

- Support programme for eontingency planning; 

- Operational pollution from ships; 

- Regional advisory services. 

6. Pollution control and waste rnanagement: 

- Wstes discharges into coestal waters; 

- Marine sites for dunping of hezardous wagles. 

7. lnformation and Deta Exchange.

- L69 

INSTTTUTIO{AL AtO FtNAfiCIAL ARRATGEMENTS Fffi, Tl€ IITP|fMENTATIO{ G 

TIf ACTIO{ PLAN 

Ingtitutional arranqemente 

Policy mattcrr and co-ordination 

_ lt was_agreed in the Intergovernrnental Meeting m the EAS Action p}an, Bangkok, 

December 1981, that the participeting countries will form a policy co-ordinating body k-nown 

as the Co-mdinating Body m the Seas of East Asia (COBSEAj in order to-rnake policy 

decisions concerning all substentive and financial matters. 

COBSEA hes the overall authority to determine the content of the action plan, to 

review its progress end to +prove its programme of implennntation including the iinancial 

implicetions. COBSEA communicates on policy matters through the interim colordinator, who 

rnainteins contact both with UNEP end with the nationll focal points, who in turn 

communicate policy to the national institutions. 

Ovarall tectrricel co-cdination 

ln the Intergovernnental Meeting mentioned above, the ASEAN member countries 

designated LJl'lEP to be responsible for the overatl technical co-ordination and continuous 

superviaion of the implementation of the action plan for the year l9B2 and l9gl. For a 

channel of communication between tt,lEP and COBSEA, it was agreed in the meeting that the 

Interim Co-adinator of the ASEAN Experts Group on Ltre Environnrent should be t5e me urho 

undertakes this function. UNEP then communicates directly on technical matters with the 

national focal points, and through them with the national institutions. 

Natisrel focal pointr 

The Eangkok nreeting designated the following national focal points: 

Indmesia: The First Assistant Minister 

Ministry of State for Development Sr.pervision 

and Environment 

Maleysia: Director General of Environrnent 

Environment Division 

Ministry of Science, Teehnology and the Environnent 

P hi lip p ines: [ft""*i?l"T:;'iln rar p ro rec ri on c ounc i r 

Vinistry of Human Settlements 

sinsapore : t":iliff Tr tf"'?t"Tt*"nmenr 

Theiland: Secret.ary General 

Netionel Environrnent Board 

Ministry of Science, Technology and Energy 

The rolee of the national focal points are: 

(i) To aet es the official channel of communication between the Interim Co-ordinator and 

their respecti ve governrEnts; 

(ii) To co-ordinater 8a appropriate, the participation of national institutions and agencies in 

the agreed programmes; and 

(iii) 

To consull with all relevant organizations within their countries m the activities and 

progre$ achieved in implementing the action plan.

National imtitutirp 

- 170 

Projects under the action plan are carried out by national institutione, anch es reseerch 

centres, laboratoriesr governrrent services, and universities, which are designated by the 

national focal points. In this way, the national institutions will act as the principal executors 

of the specifie work and research under the action plan. 

Srb-regional and regional inrtitutiono 

It is also envisaged thet sub-regional and regional institutions will be used to the 

maximum possible extent for the implennntation or co-ordination of the action plan. 

Networting 

The national institutions, in principle, could become participants in any one ectivity of 

the action plan. They could be linked in a network of co-qerating institutions if they work 

on the same activity. The Bangkok meeting also agreed lhet one member of a network could 

aEisume the role of a regional activity centre and be responsible for co-ordinating the activity 

for which the network as established. 

International organizations 

UNEP was invited to undertake responsibility for co'ondinating technical and managerial 

sr.Jpport for specific projects. Participation of internetional organizations, especially thoee 

belonging to the United Nations System, is also welcome. The national focal points srve es 

the channel for contacts between ihe internetional organizations and concerned netional 

instituti ons. 

Financial arranqements 

EAS Trust Fund 

TIE EAS Trust Fund was established in nesponse to bhe request of the participating 

countriesl the authority for its administration was delegated by the tJrl Secretary General to 

the Executive Director of UNEP. The Trust Fund, therefore, is administered according to the 

finanbial rules of the UN and the terms of reference agreed by the participating co-untries. 

The establishment of the EAS Trust Fund is aimed at providing financial support for the 

action Plan adopted by the Intergovernmental Meetings on the Protection and Development of 

the Marine Environment and Coastal Areas of the East Asian Region, Manila,29 April 1981. 

The Fund comprises mainly the contributions from lhe participating governments end support 

from the UNEP Environment Fund, as well as any other source of funding agreed to the 

participating governments. 

At the beginning of the EAS Programme, the Trust Fund was established for two years 

beginning I January 1982 and ending fl December 1981. 

Funding 

The participating governnents contribute U5$ 86,000 annually in both 1982 and l98l in 

accondance with the table below: 

Indonesia 

Malaysia 

Philippines 

Singapore 

Thailand 

Total 

The UNEP contribution towards technical 

both 1982 and l98f amounts to US$ t00,000. 

us$ 10,m0 

I7,000 

19,000 

1,000 

19,000 

86,m0 

eo-mdination and programme activitiee in

- l7t 

PROBLEMS INVOLVED TN TI-E IMPLEMENTATION tr TFE EAS ACTICIII PLAN 

There are several problems that have oecurred during the implementetion of the EAS 

Action Plan such es administrative delay, financiel problems, legal difficultiea, etc. 

Administrative delay 

. _ Even though lhe Trust Fund has been established since I January 1992, payments into 

the Trust Fund had been very slow. Therefore, the Trust Fund could not be utilized for the 

implementation of the fAS Action Plan until late 1982, because the terms of reference for 

the management of the Trust Fund stipulate that "no expenditure from the Truet Fund shall 

be made in advance of lhe receipt of contributions, and none shall be made befone e minimum 

of'US$ 50'000 has been contributed to the Trust Fund ". Conaequenlly, interim period prior to 

the actual implementation of the plan was prolonged for more then 9 monthe until sufficient 

funds could be raised to permit the release of money frorn lhe Trust Fund. 

Financial problems 

UNEP' considering ilself not as a funding agency and maintaining its catalytic role, hes 

always stressed tiat each regional action plan area should progressiv-ely become finaneially 

self -supporting, predorninantly through regional trust funds. UNEP will withdraw its financial 

support gradually. Here lies the crux of the problems involved in the implementation of the 

action plan: financial difficulties. To achieve the objectives set in the EAS Action plen 

requires a huge amount of rnoney. Many projects need a strong data base, the collection of 

which involves substantive expenditures that the participating countries can not afford in the 

long run, should UNEP withdraw its support after a few yLans. The sibuation in the East 

Asian Seas Region is not like the one in the Mediterranean, where moet of the 1g 

partieipating countries are developed countries which can afford to pay millions of dollars to 

save the Mediterranean. We, the countries in this region, are developing countries, in which 

the large part of population is still living in poverty. Therefore, econo'mic planners do not 

show much concern about the health of the surrounding seas, and litlle money has been 

provided so far for the protection of the marine environment, compared with the budgetany 

allocations to solve poverty in the rural areas. Should tI.lEP withdraw its support too soon, oi 

not be able to contribute substantially to the implementation of the action plan, the aclion 

plan would not be able to achieve its objectives. Moreoverr genuine financial commitmenls on 

the part of the participating countries are needed. Horever, such commitments cannot be 

obtained easlly, since those who approve the budget are different from those environnental 

planners who s.rpport the EAS Action Plan. Promotion of an awareness of the importance of 

protecting the marine environment among such people is therefore necessary. Fior,rrever, to 

show environmental gains from protecting lhe marine environrnent is no! an ejsy task. 

Leoal difficulties 

_ Effective protection of the marine environrnent at the regional level requires some 

form of legal amangements such as the eonclusion of a regional convention on the eontrol of 

pollution from land-based sources es well es from shifs. Such legal arrangements are 

considered by many as .an inLegral part of an action plan; wilhout ich arrangements the 

effectiveness of the action plan in protecting the marine environnent is doubtful. Hourever, 

the ASEAN countries seem to heve a strong aversion to regional legal agreements of any 

kind. The reasons why this is $t are not iully known. It may be ihat tfte economic end 

administrative costs..of having such an agreement are prohibitive, whereas the benefits are 

not yet fully quantified. Another reason may be that existing legisiation rnay be obeolete, and 

the enactment of internal legislation requires years of pieparation. ' Tferefore, most 

participating countries are reluctanL to include in the EAS Action plan any binding stalement 

which would form an integral part of the legal component. It is etill por.iUt" thai the legal 

component will be reconsidered by COBSEA at a later stage. In the meantime, the leial 

component, it was agreed, should be the subject of a consultant's study.

- L72 

COnCLUSlqil 

The action plan represents e start in technical co-qeration in the field marine 

environnent protection emong the participating countries, starting with the ASEAN 

eub-region. If urccesaf ul, the ASEAN surb-region is axpected to ect as a nucleus for 

development of a widar programme for the adjacent regions identified at the Penang 

Wokshop. 

REFERENCES 

tJhEP. 1980. Report of the Meeting of Experts to Review the Dreft Aetion PIan for the East 

Aeian Sess. (UNEP/WG. 4L14,8 Juty 1980). 

Uf\EP. 1981. Report of the lntergovernnrental Meeting m the Pmtection and Development of 

the Merine Environment and Coastal Artas of the East Asian Region. (UNEP/IG. 2616, April 

l98l). 

tJt{EP. 1981. Report of the lntergovernnental Meeting m the East Asian Seas Action Plan. 

(UNEP/IG. tLl6, lL December f981). 

UNEP. 1982. Acfiievenents and planned development of WEPrs Regional Seas Programmes and 

comparabb progremmes ponsored by other bodies. t.[{EP Regional Seas Reporta and Studies 

No. I. 

tl.lEP. 1982. Report of the First Me€ting of the Co-ordinating Body on the Seae of EaBt Asia. 

(UNEP/IC. ,7lLo, I April 1982).

- 17, 

OCEANMRAPHTC ASSESSMENT tr TIf EAST ASIAN 5EA5 

Aprilani SocAiarto 

National Institute of Oceanology 

Jakarta, Indonesia 

ABSTRACT 

This paper reviews oceanographic conditions in South-East Asian waters, in 

particular highlighting the monsoonal influence on oceanographic features. It gives 

a general assessrnent of atmospheric and water circulation and tidal patterns, and 

summarizes the data rt ihe discontinuity layer, temperature, salinity, dissolved 

oxygen' and transpareney of the waters in the region. Finally it describes the 

present knowledge of nutrients and pnimary productivity, and associated 

phenomena such as upwelling. 

Introduction 

The East Asian Seas actually cover I very large area in the western Pacific Ocean, 

bordered by the Bering Ses to the North, the lndian Ocean to the south, the coasts of 

continental Asia to the West and the Pacific Ocean to the East. However, the East Asian 

Seas Action Plan of the United Nations Environment Proqramme (UNEP) is limited to the 

Souih-East Asian Region, and this oceanographic assessment concentrales on that region. This 

assessrnenl is largely based on the work of Wyrtki (f96f) and various existing reviews such as 

Soegiarto and Birowo (1975), Soegiarto (1978) and Soegiarto (1901). 

The South-East Asian Waters 

The waters and islands between Asia and Australia and between the Pacific and the 

Indian oceans form a geognaphical unit because of thein special structure and position. In 

geographical lerms, the whole region is a part of Asia and is referred to as Soulh-East Asia, 

In oceanographic terms, the waters of ihe region are part of the Pacific Ocean, which is 

separated from the Indian Ocean by the islands of Sumatra, Java, and the Nusa Tenggara 

(Lesser Sunda). The seas in lhe region draw lheir water from the Pacific, to which lhey 

provide access. 

The South-East Asian waters comprise the Andaman Sea, the Straits of Mallaca, the 

Straits of Singapore, the South China Sea, the Java Sea, the Flores Sea, the Banda Sea, the 

Arefura Sea, the Timor Sea, the Celebes Sea, the Sulu Sea, and the Philippine Sea (Figure lI 

Tlp whole body of water covers 8.94 million sguare kilometres in area, which represents 

about 2.5 per cenl of the world's ocean surface. 

The South-East Asian seas form me geographic unit distinct from the Pacific and 

Indian means. Tle Andaman Sea is part of the Indian Ocean but should be regarded as 

South-Emt Asian waters. It is perhaps rather zurprising thet the Timor and Arafura Seas and 

Gulf of Carpentaria are often regarded, in oceanographic terms, as part of the pacific 

Ocean. 

Nearly all types of topographical features are found in South-East Asian waters, such 

as shallow continental shelves, deep sea beins, troughs, trenches, continental slopes, and 

volcanic and coral islands. In its distrihrtion of water and land the South-East Asian region is 

one of ihe most complex structures on earth. The nurneroue large and small islands divide the 

waters into different seas connected by many channels, passeges, and straits. The complexity

I 

T 

I 

o 

-( 

a 

I 

F 

- 

|r| 

o 

o 

: 

: (, 

B 

e=F 

)H. 

'=( 

/ 

o 

il 

- 

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! 

I 

- 

l

- 175 

of the region is the feason why it has drawn many major international oceanographic 

expeditions, such as those of the CHALLENGER (1872-75), the GAZELLE (1875), the 

VALDIVIA (1899), the SIBOGA (I899-f900), the PLANET (1905-7), the SI.IELLIUS (I929-tO), 

the ALBATROSS (1948), the SPENCER F. BAIRD (1947-50), and the CALATHEA (f951.). In 

recent years, a few oceanographic cruises have been organized, locally or as part of some 

cooperative regional studies, such as the lntecAovernmental Oceanographic Cornmission (lOC) 

Cooperative Study of Kuroshio which also covers the South China Sea, and the International 

Indian Ocean Expedition (llOE). We are thus fortunate to have a fairly good picture of the 

general oceanographic characteristics of Lhese waters (Wyrtki, 196I; Soegiarto and Birowo, 

L975\ 

Monsoonal influence on oceanoqraphic features 

Located between the Asian and the Australian continents, the South-East Asian region 

is strongly influenced by the monsoons. The South-East Asian waters are lhus ideal for 

studying the effects of the monsoons on both waLer circulaLion and the seasonal distribution 

of physical, chemical, and biological properties. 

The equatorial pressure trough moves according to the position of lhe sun, crossing the 

Equator twice each yean. In the norlhern summer, a low pressure area develops over the 

Asian continent as an extension of the equatorial pressufe trough. In winter, a high pressure 

area is formed over the continent, forming part of Lhe subtropical high pressure system. The 

monsoons develop between the winler hemisphel'e rrhiqhrr and the "low" in the other 

hemisphere. Because the pressure distribution is stationary, the winds are rather constanl, 

especially over the sea. The wind forces ate, however, generally small. Storms and typhoons 

are observed only over the northern parts of the South China Sea and the Philippines, over 

lhe Andaman Sea, and north of Australia. During the intermonsoon period when the equatorial 

lrough passes over the Equator, the winds over the region are generally extremely variable. 

During the full monsoon the trough is deviated over land in the direction of the monsoon, 

owing to thermal influences. 

The north monsoon in South-East Asia lasts from December to February and the south 

monsoon from June to Augusl. The rest of the yean fepresents the tnansition from the north 

io the soulh monsoons (March-May) and from the south to the north rpnsoons 

(September -November). 

The variation of 

corresponding variation of 

the atmospheric circulation described above parallels the 

the water circulalion. Because of the high constancy of the 

monsoons and the regularity of appearances, the ocean currents show the same 

characteristics. Just as the monsoons change direction twice a year and are praclically 

neversed at the time of their strongest development, the oceanic circulation is also reversed 

over large areas. This complete reversal is typical of the circulation in these waters. The 

f ollowing is the description of the surf ace current systems in South-East Asian waters 

(FAO/IPFC Secretariat, 1976). 

When the south rnonsoon prevails, norLherly monsoon currents are dominant in the 

middle portions of the South China Sea and Lhe Java Sea. The inflow of oceanic water is 

strong through the Celebes Sea and the Flores Sea from the Pacific. The waler of the South 

China Sea flows out through the SLrait of Taiwan (Formosa) and the Luzon Sbait. During the 

north monsoon a southerly flow of water causes a eyclonic pattern of surface water 

movement. In this season, the inflow of oceanic water is strong through the Taiwan Strait 

and Luzon Strait. The outflow from the South China Sea is strong through the Flores Sea and 

less strong, but with considerable volune, from the Celebes Sea to join the water mass from 

the South China Sea flowing eastwards. In both monsoons, smaller amounts of water enter the 

South China Sea through the Philippine Islands from Lhe Pacific and flow out to the Indian 

Ocean through the Malacca Strait and the Sunda Strait. 

As mentioned earlier, the water maeg of the South-East Asian region originates from 

the Pacific Ocean. This is also clearly indicated by surface current patterns in.this region 

(Figures 2 and J). The North Equatorial current flows westwards and, upon approaching the 

Philippine Islandsr plits into two main branches: the nonthward branch becomes the Kuroshio, 

and the southward branch the Mindanao current.

- 176 

Figure 2 : Surface current pstterns of South-East Asian waters during the 

North monsoon (December-May) 

ffiitfi,, 

T:)j,, 

,,////,/.J4- 

72't-- r t 

\- l'. 

I .2 

J 

',)fu;;er 

Erl-1YJ, \ 

1,;./ 'i%l\, \

- rl7 

Tl'n Kuroshio begins east of northern Luzon as a swift and narrow segmen! of lhe 

western boundary curfent. IL flows close to Lhe east coast of Taiwan and then into the East 

China Sea and farther north into the Japan Sea. At the height of the north monsoon' a 

substantial mass of water from the Kuroshio is deflected into the China Sea and then pushed 

farther south by the prevailing wind into the South China Sea and the Java Sea. 

The Mindanao current flows souLhwards With a speed of I or 2 knots along the coast of 

Mindanao Island. Its main part becomes the Equatorial Counter-Current. A weaker branch of 

[he Mindanao current enters the Celebes Sea through the straits between Mindanao and 

Sangir and Talaut Islands. Within the Celebes Sea, a major portion of its water is deflected 

!o the soulh and flows along the north coast of Celebes as a coastal current to the east. 

Tidal patterns 

Next to waves and currents, tides are the mosL siriking feature of the movenents of 

sea water, and they affect navigation considerably. The vertical movenents of sea water can 

be transformed into tidal currents of high speed in narrow inlets, river mouthsr small bays' 

and entrances to inland seas. Apart from the direct effect on ships, the dredging and silting 

acLion in the waterways and harbour basins will affect conditions at the por!. 

The tides of South-East Asian waters are affected by both lhe Pacific and the Indian 

oceans. Thus, diurnal tides predcninate in the South China and Java seas, whereas mixed 

tides prevail in the Eastern Archipelago and in Philippine watefs. However, semi-diurnal tides 

of the Indian Ocean are predominant in the Andaman Sea and the shelf areas northwest of 

Australia. Wyrtki (f961) characterized the four tidal types in the South-East Asian weters s 

follows (Figure 4): 

Figure 4 : Geographic distribulion of tidal types in South-East Asia

- t78 

(f) Senri-diurnal type: Dailyr two high and two low waters of almost equal heightr e.9.r 

Bagan Siapi-api (Riau Archipelago) and the Malacca Strait. 

(2) Mixed tide, prevailing semi-diurnel: Daily, two high and two low waters, but different 

both in height and the time of high water; e.9., Sandakan and Sulu Sea. 

(l) Mixed tide, prevailing diurnel: Only one high and me low water daily, but there are 

also regimes with two high and two low waters which differ appreciably in height and 

in the time of occurrence of the high water; e.9., Hm Nie Nieu, Vietnam. 

(4) Diurnal Tide: Only one high and one low water daily; e.g., Gutf of Tmkin. 

Since in the Indian Ocean the semi-diurnal type of tide is pnedominant, the Andaman 

Sea' the Malacca Strait, and Lhe shelf off northwest Australie have semi-diurnal tides. Other 

regions, such as the south coast of Sumatra, Java, and the Nusa Tenggara Islands, have mixed 

tides with prevailing semi-diurnal. In the western Pacific Ocean, the diurnal tide is dominant. 

Hor,rrever, this changes as soon as the tides enter South-Eest Asian waters. Alrnost the entire 

South China Sea, for example, experience a mixed, prevailing diurnal tide. In other waters, 

the diurnal tide is strengthened. Thus, in the Gulf of Thailand, the Gulf of Tonkin, the 

waters between Sumatra and Borneo, and the Java Sea, an almost purely diurnal tide is 

observed. In eontrast, over the eastern parts of the Indonesian Archipelago the mixed, 

prevailing semi-diurnal tide is dorninant. 

General properties of the water 

Diacontinuity layer 

Since the South-East Asian region is located near the Equator, the zurfaee water is 

characterized by high temperat.ures. This property combined with the influence of low salinity 

reduces the density of the surface water rather markedly. The large excess of rainfall over 

evaporation causes an average salinity of less than J4 parts per Lhousand within a region 

enclosed by a line running from Sri Lanka, off the islands of Sumatra, Java, Celebes, and 

Philippines to Taiwan (Wyrtki, f961). The density of this water always nemains below Sigma t 

22.0 (or a specific gravity of about 1.022). This light tropical surface water contrasts 

strongly with Lhe cold water rnasses in deeper layers with Sigma t of 27.7 to 27.8. The 

transition between these two water masses, usuatly called the discontinuity layer, takes place 

between 100 and f00 melres. This stable discontinuity layer pnactically prevents any vertical 

exchange of water. It is only in a few places and in certain seasons lhat this stable 

stratification is disturbed, eithen by extremely strong wind or by upwelling proeesses. 

The properties of the water at the surface normally extend downwards to a certain 

depth before the transition to colder water takes place. This upper homogeneous layer of 

water is mixed by the action of winds and, in some cases, by currents and tides. Below this 

layer' a change of waten properties, especially an increase in the density, begins, at first 

gradually' later rather rapidly until a maximal density gradient is reached at the centre of 

the discontinuity layer. Below this, the density of the water continues to increase, but rather 

slowly, until it reaches the deep cold water. 

The dept.h of the homogenous layer ls of interest in dynamic oceanography and is of 

relevance in marine productivity. Over the Sunda and Sahul shelves the homogeneous layer 

reaches the botlom of the shallow parts. In the deeper parts, high density water is found 

below the homogeneous layer at a depth of about 40 metres. In the Celebes, Sulu, and Flores 

seas, the homogeneous layer is at about. the same depth throughout lhe year. However, in the 

South China Sea and in the Eastenn Archipblago, the seasonal variation is more pronounced. 

In the Banda Sea and the Arafuna Sea, the depth of the homogeneous layer is about 20 to 50 

melres in October and down to about ]00 metres in March. A similar range is reconded for 

the South China Sea where the homogeneous layer is only about l0 to 40 rnetres deep in the 

south monsoon, but increases to 70-90 metres during the strong north monsoon. 

The thickness of the discontinuity layer is affected primanily by dynamic processes. In 

a large eddyr the warm water masses are pressed downwards, causing e thick discontinuity 

layer. In the eastern archipelago, the discontinuity oven the year is of a uniform thickness of 

about 100 metres. Tfre sharpest discont,inuity, at 20 metres depth, is found off the Sumatra 

coast in October, when the Counten-Current turns along a broad fronL to the south.

Ternperetur€ 

- 179 

One of the features of tropical walers is that the zurface layer is warm and the annual 

temperature variation is small. During the north monsoon, generally high surface temperature 

of zB-tOoC prevail in the west coast of Sumatra and the Eastern Archipelago waters. 

However, because of the inflow of water masses from higher latitudes, eolder water (26-27oC) 

is found in the South China Sea. The surface temperatune distribution of other parts of the 

South-East Asian waters ranges between these figures. Very different conditions occur during 

the south monsoon. High surface temperature (29-f0oC) are found in the South China and 

Iower temperatures (25-27oC) prevail in the Arafura Sea and the South coast of Java. In 

other watersn temperetures fange between 27oc and 29oc (Figures 5 and 5). 

The average annual range of sea surface temperatures in the equatorial region is less 

than 2oCr but is slightly higher, JoC to 4oC, in the Banda Sea, the Arafura Sea, and fimor 

Sea as well as in the waters south of Java. In the South China See the annual temperature 

range increase northwards, owing to lhe increasing inflow of cold waLer through the Strait of 

Formosa during the north monsoon. Over Lhe shallow parts of the Sunda and Sahul shelves the 

temperature is uniform throughout the water column. 

Figure 5 : Surface temperature of South-East Asian weters during December to May 

(in oC) 

%Y-r, 

+^FlJff

Figure 6 : Surface temperature 

Salinity 

- 180 

of South-East Asian 

(in oC) 

waters during June to SepLember 

In contrast to the uniform Lemperature in South-Easl Asian waters' the salinity is 

extremely variable. The high rainfall, the runoff of many large rivers, and the geographical 

subdivisions of the seas are responsible for this characterisLic. The high rainf all lowers the 

salinity of Lhe surface layer. The distribution of dischanges fnom land and the presence of 

large bays and channels with lillle water exchange favour the formation of regions wilh very 

low salinity, which conlribute to the general lowering of the salinity. The monsoons cause a 

rainy and a dry season which then affecl the annual variation of salinity. But monsoons also 

govern the seasonal water circulaLion. These interactions between different factors and 

influences, the geographical siructures, runoff from rivers, evaporationr and circulation result 

in a highly complex distnibution and marked variation of the salinily in Lhese waters. 

Figure 7 shows the averaged surface salinity distribution in South-East Asian watens 

during the norlh monsoon (December-May). ln general, low salinity prevails oven the Sunda 

Shelf and the coaslal areas. This low salinity is mostly due to the heavy rainfall and ri ver 

discharge. During the south monsoon (June-November), however, hiqh salinily prevai ls in 

almost all South-East Asian waters (Fiqure 8). Ttu Java Sea is a good example of how the 

monsoons affecl surface cinculation and salinity variation (Doty and Soegiarto, 1970)' During 

the north monsoon, heavy rainfall occurs throughout the west-enn parts of the lndorresian 

Archipelago. The heavy rainfall, combined vrith the large runoff of many ri vers from Sumatra. 

Java, and Borneo, resu lts in a general lowering of the salinity level near the shore. 

Sometimes even the )0 parls per thousand isohaline is pushed far towards the open sea. At 

the same time, the surface current frorn the South Shina brings low salinity water into the 

western Java Sea and pushes the high salinity wa[er easLwards. With Lhe onset of the south 

monsoon, this low salinity water is pushed back westwards and replaced by waLer masses of 

hiqher salinity from the Makassar Strait and the Flores Sea. By September, lhe water masses 

of high salinity reach their maximal westward penetration.

Figure 7 : Average sunface 

loot 

too. 

Figure I : Average 

- l8I 

salinity of South-East Asian waters during December lo May 

(in parts per thousand) 

1lO' t2O' .|3. t.lor 

110r nt rgd 

surface salinity of South-East Asian waters during 

(in parts per lhousand) 

laot 

June to September 

laoo

Di$olved oxygen 

- 182 

In general, the surface distribution of dissolved oxyqen (DO) does not show a slfcno 

seasonal variation. In the waters of the EasLern Archipelago, the surface distribution of Dt, 

varies from 4.0 to 4.5 millilitres per litre (ml/l), whereas on the Sunda Shelf , the value is 

somewhat lower, varying between 1.5 and 4.0 ml/l. However, at 100 metres depth, the DO 

distribution shows some _interesting features. In Eastern Archipelago waters, the DO is 

relatively low, between 2.5 and 1.0 ml/l, with no apparent seasonal variation. Towards the 

Indian and Pacific oceansr the Do increases. In the area of the Mindanao current, DO values 

of 4.5 ml/l are eommon. Off the south coasl of Java, the DO tends to incregse from coastel 

area (?.5-3.0 ml/l) towards the open water (over 4.0 ml/l). In rhe South China Sea, the DO 

concentration varies between 2.5 and 3.0 ml/I, but increases towards the north owing to the 

influence of the Pacific Ocean water masses. 

Water tranaparency 

The transparency of the water generally is neasured by lowering a white Secchi disc. 

The point at which the disc disappears visually is called the depth of th-e transparency. Many 

factors influence the water lransparency, for example, the silL content and the plankton and 

other particulate matter in the waler.. Low waler transparencies (less than l0 netres deep) 

are found in the areas off river mouths and in coastal waters around Sumatra, Borneo, and 

the Gulf of Thailand. ln general, the transparency is high (between l0 and 20 metres) in deep 

water and in the open seas (20 to l0 netres). watei transparency does not show strong 

seasonal variation between the north and the south monsoons (Soeqiario and Birowo, I975). 

Nutrients and primary productivity 

Basic to and understand-ing of geographic, seasonal, and other types of biological 

variation is an understanding of the retateo variations in pnimary productiviiy, the conversion 

rates of inorganic matter to organic forms. Our knowledge of the South-E"rf 'A.i"n walers in 

t'his respect is still very rneagre, and data have only rece-ntly begun Lo accumulate. A number 

of authors have summarized our knowledge of the primary productivity and nutrients in this 

region, particularly for Indonesian waters (Wyrtki, lgOf; Sbgiarto and'Bi.o,rro, lg75). 

The nutrient eontent over lhe deeper portions of the South-East Asian waters shows a 

distribution pattern typical of tropical waters. The surface layer is extremely poor in 

nutrients with phosphate content of less than 0.2 micrograms pur litr" (ps/l). within the 

discontinuity layer, it increase rather markedly and reachls I.5'pg/l at thJ'iower boundary. 

Phosphale conlent of .2.5 to J.0 pg/l is usuai in the deeper layJr. over [he shelves, the 

phosphate content.varies considerably depending the proximity to the river mouths and the 

strength of the mixing proeesses. In the vicinity of river mouths, the water is normally rich 

in nutrients, particularly during the wet monsoon. In addition, over the shallow waters, 

vertical mixing can bring the mineials at the bottom to the upper layer. Consequently, there 

is a continuous supply of nutrients to ihe water eolumn enabling a high production of organic 

matter. 

The replenishment of the nutrients in the zurface layer over deeper water is achieved 

through different mechanisms. It is caused either by upweliing or by the divergent movements 

of water al the zurface, when more fertile water from the diicontinuity tayer'cen aseend and 

enter the euphotic zone. However, these rnechanisms occur mly tocatty and during certain 

seasons. The presence of such upwelling in Indonesian waters has been slmmarized elsewhere 

(Soegiarto and Birowo, L975). In 1961, Wyrtki reported the occurrence of upwelling in the 

Araf ura Sea and in northwestern Australian waters. ln 1962, he gave a derailed account of 

the upwelling in the. water along the south coast of Java up to the entrances of lhe Savu 

1"3. .lt" upwelling in this area reaches. its-. full developnent around September, adding about 

2'4 million cubic metres per s€cond to the flow of the 'South Equatorial cument of the Indian 

Oeean. The upwelling in the Aiafura Sea takes place sornewhat earlier irr AugusL. 16 both 

er98s' however, upwelling occunr during the winter monsoon. A few smaller upwellings in 

other waters, such as of f the south coast of Celebes, have also been reporLea (Wyrtt

- l8] 

content fnom South-Easl Asian waters towards the Pacific Ocean. In Eastern Archipelago 

waters' the avenage phosphate content varies from 0.2 to 0.1 pq/l in the north monsoon and 

increase to 0. 1 - 0.4 pq/l in the south monsoon, parlly owing to upwelling in lhe Banda Sea. 

In both the Java Sea and the South China Sea, the average phosphate contenl is between 0.1 

and 0.2 pg/l in the north monsoon and beLween 0.2 and 0.] ttS/t in the south monsoon. 

Figures 9 and I0 show the avenage surface primary producbivity, or the raLes of 

organic canbon production expressed in micrograms per cubic meter pen hour, in South-East 

Asian wat.ers dunlng the north and the south monsoons, respectively. They are conslructed 

from rather limited and unevenly distributed data, and should be considered as preliminary, to 

be improved when more complete dat.a are available. Genenally, the coastal and shallow 

watens show high rates of organic producLion (over 1.0 microgram per cubic metre per hour) 

of organic production, mainly owing to nutrient enrichment from rivers and from the bottom 

nesulting from mixing. In deep seas, high rates can only be attributed to upwelling, such as 

that occurring during the south monsoon in the Banda Sea and Lhe Arafura Sea, the Indian 

Ocean south of Java. and the Lesser Sunda Islands. 

Conclusion 

Il is obvious that the above assessment is a very general one. Al best it covers only 

the most general oceanographic features of the South-EasL Asian waters. There are still many 

more feat,ures that are not assessed in this paper. For more detailed information readers 

should consult the references below or request data and informalion directly from the 

existing regional or international data centres, zuch as Westenn Pacific Data Center, c/o 

Japan National Data Center in Tokyo, Japan, or the World Data Center in Washington, D.C., 

USA. 

REFERENCES 

Doty' lvlS., and A. Soerl_iarto. 1970. The developnrent of marine resources in Indonesia, p. 

70-89. In H. Beers [ed.] Indonesia: resources and their technological development. University 

Press oJ-Kentuck y, Knoxville. 

FAO/IPFC Secretariat. 1976. Preliminary review on the slale of marine pollution in East 

Asian waters. Paper presented to the IOC/FAO/UNEP International Workshop on Marine 

Pollution in East Asian Waters, Penang, Malaysia, 7-13 April 1976. J7 p. 

Ilahude' A.G. 1970. On the occurrence of upwelling in the southern Macassar strait. Mar. 

Res. in Indonesia l0:l-51. 

Segiartor A. 1978. Introduction to the regional oceanography of the South-East Asian 

Waters. Lecture presented at the 5th FAO/SIDA Workshop m Aquatic Pollution in Relation 

to Protection of Living Resources, Manila, Philippines, 17 January-27 February, 1977. p. 

t-tl. 

Segiarto' A. 1981. The oceanographic features of the South-East Asian waters, p. 20-47. In 

Chia Lin Sien and C. MacAndrews [ed.] South-East Asian seas: frontiers for development 

MacGraw-Hill South-East Asian Series. 

Segiarto, A., and S. Birowo [ed.J. 1975. Atlas Oceanology of the Indonesian and the adjacent 

waterg. Book l. The present state of knowledge of oceanology in Indonesia. National 

Irstitute of Oceanology, Jakarta, lndmesia. 79 p. + 39 maps lin Indonesian] 

Sagiarto' A., and A. Nmtji. L966. A seasonal study on primery merine productivity in 

Indonesian weters. Paper presented at the llth Pacific Science Congress, Tokyo, J4an. 

2o p. 

Wyrtki' K. 1961. Physical oceanography of the South-Eest Asian waters. Naga Report No. 2. 

scripps Institute of oceanography, La Jolla, california. 195 p. + 44 plates. 

Wyrtki' K. 1962. The upwelling in the region between Java end Austrelia during the 

South-East monsoon. Austr. J. Mar. Fresh. Ree. IX)):ZI7-ZZj.

- 184 

Figure 9 : Average zurfece primary productivity of south-East Asian waters 

during December to May 

(in pg7rp176r; 

IOOP tlOo tmo rrro r^p 

Figure l0 : Average surface primary productivity of south-East Asian waters 

during June !o September 

(in PqTt)7^t'

- 185 

CffiAL REEF DEGRADATION AIS POLLUTICH IN TFE EAST ASIAN 5EA5 REGIO{ 

K T. Yry and E D. Gannz 

Marine Sciences Center, University of the Philippines 

Diliman, Quezrt City, Philippines 

ABSTRACT 

Thls paper updates knowledge on the status of coral reef resources and the 

causes of reef demage in South-East Asian waters. It summarizes recent data trl 

the condition of coral reefs in each ASEAN country. NaLural causes of reef 

degradation include water rnovernent, geological dynamics, and biological 

interections sJch es recently reported destruction by Acanthaeter and Drupella" 

Annng human activities causing destruction, siltation and damaging fishing 

techniques are still the rnost important, although extrsction of building materials, 

tourism, collecting of reef invertebrates, and pollution are becoming increasingly 

eignif icant. The eatablishment of marine reserve8 is me concrete response to 

these threats. 

INTRODUCTTOI{ 

Tfn presen[ paper constitutes an update of information presented in a previous one 

(Gomez, 1980) o the state of research m and degradation of coral reefs in the East Asian 

Seae. The atatue of reef nesources in each of the countries comprising the ASEAN group 

(Indmesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand) is first reviewed. While 

knowledge m this aepect is still largely inadequate, u.rrveys have been initiated in most 

countries. The Philippines is most edvanced in this regard where a comprehensive picture of 

reaf conditions sr a nationwide scale has emerged. 

lnportant reef degradation problems in the East Asian Seas region were identified in 

the previous paper. Additionel documentation m each problem in the different countries is 

preeented here, in the hope that future directions for monitoring, management, and 

coneervation msy be indiceted. 

Apects of the marine environnent, corel distribution and diversity, as well as cunent 

reaearch ef f orte, heve likewise already been dealt with (Gomez, 1980), and will not be 

repeated here. A new dimension is added, however, in the diseussion of neasures for the 

eonservetion of critical coral reef areas by the establishment of marine parks and reserves. 

Annng other thinga, current efforts in the different countries are described, as well as bhe 

lategt counts m exieting end proposed eonservetion areas. 

STATUS 

The distribution of coral reefs in the five ASEAN countties is detailed in Gsnez (f980). 

Although all reef types are present, extensive fringing reefs are limited to the eastern 

Indmegian archipelago and the Philippines (Valencia, f98fbl

Indonesia 

- 186 

There exist at present no comprehensive reports m coral reef conditions in Indonesian 

waters. Programmes to evaluate the status of Indonesian reefs have been initieted only within 

the last five years (Wijsman-Best et g!., 1981). Literature reviewed by Sagiarto and Polunin 

(f981) includes broad and detailed cleGcriptions, mainly qualiLative, of a number of localitiest 

with the bulk of information concentrated on the Seribu Islands near Jakarta. Reef growth is 

known to be sparse m the east coast of Sumalra, most of the coastline of Kalimantan, and 

southern lrian Jaya because of intense land drainage and its concomitant stre$ factore 

(Soegiarto and Polunin, l98l). 

Additional pspers that have come bo light contain nostly qualitative or 

semi-quantitative assessrnents of Indonesian reefs. Wok on the coral reefs of the Spermonde 

Archipelago in South Sulawesi by Wijsman-Best et aL (f98I), for example' revolves around 

speculations on origin, descriptions of geomorphology, and some srbjective notes on reef 

conditions. The authors observe thet it is difficult to distinguish between natural and 

anthropogenic causes of destruction. 

McManus and Wenno (1981), working in outer Ambm Bay, provide descriptions of coral 

communities with an approximate scheme for ranking them according to degree of 

development and possible perturbation. Many of these showed aigns of disruption releted to 

human activities. After a s{Jrvey in the Pulau Pari group of islends situated 15 km northwest 

of Jakarta, Gooding (f969) reported the best reef development as occurring in the lagoone of 

Gobe Soa Besar and Goba Btntu, but again with no supporting quantitative data. Apparentlyt 

the islands as a whole exhibited good reef conditions as may be gleaned from the rich flore 

and fauna. Polunin el4. (1981) provide information m the proposed Bali Baral reserve in the 

form of descriptions-of physical reef structure, common reef fiah speciesr nd depth ranges of 

the abundant hard corals. Decreases in the last parameter were found to relate to weter 

clarity. Species richness and productivity appeared to be higheet in the reefg around Pulau 

Menjangan. 

Malaysia 

In spite of a coastline greater than 1000 km, reefs in Peninsulsn Malaysia sre 

concentreLed in a few areas, such ss around the offshore islsnd groups in the northern snd 

southern parts of both east and vrcst coaste 0)e Silva, 1979\ At present theee. sre ataeeptibb 

to exploiiation through both recreationgl and commercial activities. Lulofe (f977) rtports a 

marked increase in thl btter eince 1970, caueing deterioration in the environnental condition 

of npst reefs as well as localized depletions of certain pecies. It ie believed that the rcuth 

coast of Redang (Pulau Redang Archipelago m the southeastern coast of Peningulsr Malayeia) 

is characterized by the most extensive and viabb reefe still exieting in Malaysian waters 

(Lulofs, 1979). 

Observations by De Silva et eL (1980) have yielded a more or lege compreheneive 

picture of reef conditions m fheEst coast of Peninsular Malayaia. These are reproduced in 

Figu."" l-4, and include extent, distribution and percentage live and deel coral cover. Conal 

reefs encountered d.rring the authors' survey were rnostly of the fringing typer postaasing an 

over-all similarity in terms of coral community strueture and composition. Mct rich *tallow 

reefs were found in relatively sheltered conditions nrch c bays. Discrepancies in ryeciee 

diversity appeared to be associated with degree of destruction rather than locality. Reefs 

near uninhabited areas generally exhibited nnre demage. 

A later qlrvey by De Silva and Rahman (1982) covers the Pulau Paya/Segantang grorp 

of islands off the wesL coagt of Peninaular Maleysia. Reef conditione re repreeented in a 

schenp similar to the above, and are shown in Figurea 5-7. ' 

Mention may also be made here of the quentitative eeeessnnnt by Gotr end Sasekurnar 

(f98f) of a fringing reef et C+e Rachado in the Malacce Straitg. Live coral cover wag found 

lo be relatively-low, with an everage of t2.9%, along a belt transect ueed to sanple the rcef. 

This was attributed to ediment load.

Hg+* 

WAIER coRAL 

Teluk 

Tel* Solong 

Tsluk Borrr 

Dolom 

ES#fiEffiffisruor 

% UIOAMAGED FIARD CORALS 

oR DEAD HARD 

ffitglGED 

o/o srr @RALs tru[ 

O/OAFEA I{OT CO/ERED 

sf mAts 

Bofu Chelo 

Genf ing 

Teluk Kodor 

Tonlung Sckiling 

TULAI 

- 187 

Teluk Gcnfing 

oKg. Lolonq 

It

- t88 

? 

-T- 

SflALI-fl 'ETER @RAL R€EFS 

D€EP WATER CAAL FEFS NgT 

OSSEFNA.E FROil MAT 

o/o tianlitcED HanD cmAJ 

% DAmAGED 0R 0€AO tnm C6AIJ 

% sr ccRAJ 

% AR€A l€r CO,€RED BY CORAS 

Figure 2: The extent, distribution end quality of the coral reefs in terms of percentage 

cover by living hard corals, dead hard corals and soft corals around Pulau 

Sembilang end Puleu Seri Buat off the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia (after 

De Silva et al., 1980) 

Figure I : 

?-r 

A 

ltk-€.E 

t(-il 

!ilAuor w[rER @RA- FEEFS 

CEP trTER CoRA- FEFS IT'T 

cgsERr/Aa€ FRCU mff 

7.glglED tllm @RALS 

ra ofl/r(fD of, oEAo |{AFD ccRAls 

% soFTcoRArs 

% !f,EA tgr @VERO Bl @il-S 

Tat* &rlufr Korop 

sFU-AU 

oo 

The extent, distribution end euality of the coral 

cover by living hard corels, dead hard corals 

Tinggi off the Eat Coas! of Peninsular Maleyeia 

lalf Sryro 

rcefs in terms of percentage 

end soft corals around Pulau 

(after De Silva et aL, 1980)

I 

HARIMAU 

PULAJ BABI 

HUJONG 

- t89 

? 

-N- 

Figure 4 : The extent, distribution and quality of the conal reefs in terms 

of percentage cover by living hard corals, dead hard corals 

and soft corals around Pulau Rawa and associated islands off 

the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia 

(after De Silva et eL, 1980) 

AtAl 

SIIALLO'V WATER CORAL REEFS 

EEP WATER MRAL REEFS NOT 

OESER\AH-E FROM BOAT 

O/O UNT}AMAGED HARD CORALS 

70 DAMAGED OR OEAD HARD CORALS 

% SOFT CORALS 

70 AFEA NOT COVERED BY CORAI-S 

BABI BESAR

EXTENT Ntr PtrtrtrC 

ROCKS AND 

ISOLATED CORALS 

SOFT CORALS 

CORAL REEFS 

ROCKY $TORE 

n 

X 

^$- \ }\ 

\f" 

PERCENTAGE COVER 

ffih 

U dn\ 

L1:.:.r.i:::l 

\# 

o 

Figure 5 : 

SOFT CORAL 

LIVE CORAL 

DEAD @RA. 

SA}ID ANO RocK 

- 190 

CORAL GARDEN 

The extent of the reefs at Pulau Paye and the quality of [he 

reefs in terms of percentage cover by live and dead hard 

corals, soft corals, sand and rock 

(after De Silva and Rahman, L982)

BRANCHED CORAL 

- 19I 

TAB.JLATE @RAL 

A TYPICAL PROFILE OF A REEF ON THE NORTHWESTSIDE 

ROCKY SHORE 

MRAL REEFS 

PERCENTAGE COVER 

ffi 

o @ 

o 

SOFT MRAL 

LIVE CORAL 

OEAD @RAL 

SAITID AT\D ROCK . lOOm 

MASSIVE @RAL 

Figure 6 r A typical profile of a reef m the northwest side of Pulau 

Kaca (above). The extent of coral reefs at Puleu Kaca and 

their quality in terms of percentage cover by live and deed 

hard corals, soft corals, sand and rock (below). 

(afLer De Silva and Rahman, 1982) 

? 

-il- 

A

ffi 

ffi 

H 

I 

PERCENTAGE OOVER 

ffi 

o @ 

o 

ROCI€ AhD ISO.ATED 

CORALS 

CORAL REEFS 

SfT CORAL 

LIVE @RAL 

DEAD CORAL 

- I92 

SAND AI{D ROCK 5OOm 

Figure 7: The extent of the coral reefs at Pulau Lembu and their 

quality in terms of percentage cover by live and dead hard 

corals, soft corals, ssnd and rock 

(after De Silva and Rahman, 1982) 

? 

-T- 

A

- Lgt 

Coral reefs along the coest of Sabah are relatively undisturbed as cornpared Lo other 

parts of the country, though records exist of large-scale mining in the f950's (Chua and 

Pathansali, L977). After detailed work in this area, E. Wood (1979) reports a range of reef 

conditions for the different islands. Tfese are presented in Table l. C. Wood (1979) found 

greater numbers and a larger variety of coral-feeding chaetodontids on the east coast of 

Sabah, as opposed to the west coasL. Chaetodontide are believed to be useful as indicators of 

Lhe relative health of reefs. The greatest numbers and diversiLy were found at the offshore 

sites, sgch m Pulau Mengalum and Pulau Sipadan, off the wesL and southeasLern coasts' 

respecti vely. 

Gualita[ive descriptions are available for the Semporna islands, situated east of the 

Semporna peninsula, at lhe Borneo end of the Sulu Archipelago (E. Wmd, f98f). These 

constitute a currently proposed marine park area. Reef development here is believed to be 

more extensive than in other areas around Sabah, with diversity and coral cover registering 

relatively high values. Sane damage, however, was found to occur in the shallower areas. 

Philippines 

Data an [he status of Philippines reefs as of 1982 are presented in Table 2. Out of a 

total of 512 stations surveyed to date, mly 5.5% were found Lo be in excellent condition. 

Good reefs constituted a larger fracLion of 24%, but the nnjority still fell under the fair and 

poor brackets, comprising )8.1% and f2.I% respectively. Thus it may be seen that reef 

resources for the country as a whole do not at all present a bright picturer and may be 

considered as relatively stressed or disturbed. 

Sinqapore 

No other publications are known of, aside from those compiled by Gomez (1980), that 

specifically deal on Lhe assessrrEnl of reefs around Singapore, m either a quantitative or 

qualitative basis. Coral reef arees in Singapore are relatively few, and are mostly located 

around certain offshore islands (De Silva, I98l). A descriptive account of a fringinq reef at 

Tanjong Teritip m the southwest coast is provided by Lee (1956). This reef is located in a 

relativily sheltened portlon of the coast, and at the time of writing was found [o be 

extensive and fairly undisturbed. This reef has apparently been adversely affected by 

developmen[ since that account. 

Theiland 

Studies m the conditions of reefs in Thailand are 

the extent of reefs in certain localities in the Pattaya 

and are here presented as follows: 

lgland 

Ko Lan 

Ko Krok 

Ko Sak 

limited (Sudara, f98f). Estimates of 

zone are provided by Ludwig (1975)' 

Extent of coral (m2) 

260,m0 

r]r000 

71,000 

tn addition, the following islands m the southwest coast in the Andaman Sea have been 

identified as having significant neef developnent (Ludwig, 1976): in Ranong Province - Ko Sin 

Hai, Ko Lam, Ko Pha Yam, Mu Ko Kam Noi and Mu Ko Kam Yai; in Phuket and Phangnga 

Bay - Rawai Beach, Ko Bm, Ko Hi, Ko Lan, Ko Phi Phi, Ko Mai Phair Ko Khair Ko Ba Dat 

Ko Ya Wa and Ko Kao Bulo; in Krabi province - Ko Hai and Ko Po; in Trang - Ko Mukr Ko 

Kradan and Ko Libmg; and in Satun - Ko Tarutao. 

Sudara (1981), working on the east coast of the Gulf of Thailand' provides general 

qualitative assessrnents of coral communities he encountered while doing a sllrvey from north 

to south. Coral growth in different places was described as ranging from 'rnot very healthy" 

to very good depending m degree of exposure, as well as.influence from natural and human 

causes oi destruction. Islands in the Andaman Sea off the coas! of the Burma border were 

found to harbouc reefs in very good condition (Sudara, I98f). Likewise, nnny offshore islands 

south of Phuket appeared to be characterized by very good reefs.

?3 

=$ 

- L94 

Table l: Overall features of certain reefs in Sabah (E. Wood, 1979) 

b c 

=.9 :,- 

E€ g 

sE g 

o 

b 

:r 

o |l) 

II 

o 

= E.9 

l.r. 

= 

oa 

t'0) 

='; 

O+ 

!dt 

!r!, 

r-o 

lr 

?; 

@ 

e9 E 

(o 

8- 

Eh 

=u qo- 

!+l 6 

-ild 

=8 

;b 

oo 

()F o() 

Eo 

oE 

1i 

E 

E.9 .e 

\-o 

9€ E 

(gro o 

E5 - 

o 

98 

to 

at 

A. !,r 

t 

H5 

?fr (E 

$5 frsl I I I 

(J 

++ 

iE 

@|r) 

-|(, 

I Eq 

++ 

EE 

qE 

fia 

!2 

G< 

I 

l()lo 

c) Gl 

o 

= ,E 

.2 

l! 

L: 

9; o'6 

='; 

o 

L 

o, 

t 

gE 

I 

()l(, 

6r $l 

?d rl I rl fiEr I I 

rl k 

o 

=Y T rEl I 

= 3(9 

z 

ld 

= rl 

f 

sd 

9€zY t I I gE. I I rl 

I I I 3s 

frEr I I rl 

eF 

.D 

ll, 

D 

l! Y 

c 

g c, 

C) 

x 

lrJ 

lc 

!t 

8(9 

TE 

Ie 

rF 

lrj 

Y

Lcation 

LUZ0{ 

l. Albay 

2. Bataan 

I. Batangas 

4. Cagayan 

5. Camarines Norle 

6. Csnarinee Sur 

7. Cavite 

8. Isabela 

9. La Union 

10. Marinduque 

Il. Mindoro Occidental 

12. Mindoro Oriental 

lf. Palewan 

14. Pangasinan 

15. Gluezon 

16. Zambales 

Subtotd 

VISAYAS 

I. Antique 

2. Bohol 

f. Cebu 

Hilutangan Island 

Metan Island 

Olango Island 

Sumilon leland 

4. Iloilo 

5. Leyte 

6. Negros Occidental 

Refugio lsland 

7. Negros Oriental 

Apo lsland 

8. Siquijor 

Srbtotal 

MINDANAO 

l. Misamis Occidental 

2. Misamis Oriental 

J. Zamboanga del Norte 

Aliquay leland 

Selinog Island 

Snbtotel 

TOTAL 

- t95 

Teble 2 : Statu8 of Philippine coral reefs - 1982 

Living Cord Cover 

No. of Excellent Gmd Fair Poor 

Stations (75-100%) (fr-74.9%) Q5-49.9%) (0-24.9%) 

No. % No. % No. % No. % 

900 

1000 

2500 

400 

ll 00 

200 

900 

to0 

500 

500 

lr r t.2 

rl I 9.1 

49 6 L2.2 

1700 

400 

L200 

229 8 

'.' 

2 L6.7 

00 

6 9.4 

00 

I 6.7 

u0 

00 

T2 

22 

64 

4 

I5 7 

4 

54 

T2 

l8 4 

98 

5 

lt 

5@ 

9 

I 

l8 I7 

4t 

612 

9 r4.r 

00 

r ,.6 

00 

5 5.1 

00 

00 

24 6.6 

I ll.t 

00 

6 24.O 

2 50.4 

L 7.7 

00 

00 

2 66.7 

t 20.0 

00 

I 25.8 

2 LS.? 

L7 t4.7 

I ?L,6 

2 50.O 

2 L6.7 

52 2L7 

l0 8l.l 

8 

t4 . 21.9 '6.4 

1 25.0 

t ?o.o 

I l4.l 

t 75.0 

18 28.r 

00 

2 tr.l 

I 25.0 

20 29.4 

5 100.0 

9 29.O 

95 27.1 

0000 

0000 

r 5.6 t L6.7 

2 25.O t7.5 

0000 ' 

, 7.0 6 14.0 

t5 t., Lr, 24.0 

5 55.6 

00 

tl 44.0 

2 50.O 

7 5t.8 

2 100.0 

6 66.7 

L tt., 

2 40.0 

4 80.0 

L5 48.4 

4 16.4 

20 40.8 

t4 t7.8 

2 50.0 

, 25.O 

98 42.8 

000 

I 16.4 6 

27 42.2 L7 

00t 

, 20.o I 

4 57.r 2 

001 

27 42.2 l0 

6 50.0 6 

5 27.8 l0 

I 25.0 2 

4t 41.8 ,2 

000 

9 29.O tJ 

Itr t .4 110 

4 tA.4 5 

001 

6 tt.t I 

2 25.O I 

I t4.t 6 

lt ,o.2 2I 

,8.t 

t tt.t 

l0 100.0 

I 12.0 

00 

5 t8.5 

00 

t tt., 

00 

2 40.O 

t 20.0 

7 22.6 

4 16.4 

6 L2.2 

15 40.5 

00 

7 58.5 

7l ,r.0 

0 

27,? 

26.6 

75.O 

5t.t 

28.6 

25.O 

r5.5 

50.0 

55.6 

50.0 

,2.6 

0 

41.9 

](t8 

55.6 

r00.0 

u.4 

12.5 

85.7 

48.8 

Corel reefs along the northwestern eoasl of Phuket lsland were $Irveyed by Chansang 

et al. (198I). These were generally situated in arees eheltered from direct wave action. Coral 

6[er in the different reef areas ranged from f% to 86%, depending m zonation end effect 

of prevailing environnnntal regimes. In general, percentage cover of the substratum was less 

thsn thet oi the other categories in all reefs except at Surin Beach which was relatively 

rmre exposed. The best developed reef was found at Patong Bay. 

tz.l

- 196 

DEGRADATION 

The f ollowing discussion represents additional documentation of pnoblems already 

identified and described by Gunez (1980). Following his treatment, natural and human causes 

of reef degnadation are described separately. As has been emphasized, effects of each 

individual fictor are difficult to identify except in isolaled cases' and frequently overlap. 

Natural causes of destruction 

Reefs growing naturally ane not spared various [ypes of perturbation. However, gradual 

evolution anJ adaptation through geologic time have allowed a dynarnic balance bo develop 

between reef growth and mainbenance and the mulLiLude of destcuctive processes. 

Occurrences of the latter in the East Asian Seas region are discussed unden three major 

headings. 

Water movement 

In this category fall the mechanical forces generated by waves, currents and tides. In 

addition, tidal range is known to be a limiting factor to reef growlh. Anomalously low tides, 

bringing about exposure of corals to lhe destructive effects of insolation or freshwater 

run-ott, have been docunrented in the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia (De 5ilva et a]-' 

1980), and the Laem Pan Gah Peninsula in Phuket, Thailand (Brown and Holley' 1981)- 

Damage to corals by the reduced salinity and sediment load associated with freshwater 

run-off has been reported for the east coast of [he inner Gutf of Thailand (Sudara, 1981)' and 

the Laem Pan Gah Peninsula (Brown and Holley,' I98L). 

Geological dYnamics 

This type of dislurbance involves rnainly tectonic movements, volcanie activity, 

landslides and coastal sedimentation paLtetns. An exampte of the latter is ihe growth of the 

Tjisadane river &lta in Jakarta Bay which bhreatens to bury nearby reefs (Verstappen' l95t). 

t-ne pat

- r97 

the variations in fish abundance and diversity correlated with alLerations in substrate 

structure m determined by Carpenter et al. (f981) for certain Philippine reefs. 

The relationship of increased reef degradation to rising human population levels has 

been noted (Gomez, 1980; McManus and Wenno, 1981; Wijsman-Elest et aL, I98f). Destruction 

of corel reefs is most evident near populated and industriat areas. B-eca-use of pnecisely these 

trends associated with modernization and population growth, many problems thet do not as 

yet exist in severe proportions are an[icipated in the near future, such as the various forms 

of pollution. 

Siltation 

Siltetion constitutes me of lhe most important problems in the East Asian Seas region. 

As indicated in Gomez (1980), major causes of siltation are large-scale deforestation, bad 

agnicu ltural practices, and mangrove denudation. Additional causes which may attain 

significant proportions in localized areas are terrestrial mining, dredging, offshore mining, oil 

drilling, road construction, land clearance for domestic or industrial purposes, construction of 

coastal struetures, and harbour dredging. 

In Indonesia' particularly heavy destruction by siltation is known to occur in the 

northern coast of Java due in part to intensive agrieulture, and off Padang in western 

Sumatra, and Padangbai in eastern Bali from the construction of piers (Soegiarto and Polunin, 

1981). Damage from siltation in Kalimantan and Sumatra is believed lo be a relatively recent 

phenomenon (Soegiarto' I975). Examples of resulting destructive effects are shoreline 

changes, modifications or burial of reefs, and alterations in patterns of sedimenL deposition, 

erosion and distribution (Segiarto and Polunin, l98I). 

Erosion caused by the dredging of reef corals is documented for Sanur and Kuta, and 

Balikpapan (Tsuchiya et el.r 1976 and Samuel, 1979, in Ongkosongo, 1981). Sedimentation in 

Southwest Sulawesi is believed to have been aggravated by mangrove denudation, and appears 

Lo limit coral growth (Wijsman-Best et 4., 1981). In Ambon, deforestation may be associated 

with hiqh nates of siltation (McManus and Wenno, f981). 

At present, active offshore mining for tin, titanium and sand occurs in Indonesia 

(Cruickshank, I98I). Offshore tin mining has been a major industny in Indonesia and Thailand 

for many years, with as many as sixteen major dredges qerating in the coasLal islands. 

Depths worked are generally less than 15 m, with Lotal digging depths of less than J0 m. 

Recent siltation problems in Malaysia are attributed to dredging of channels f or 

navigation near harbours and poris, and sand mining associated with the dredging qerations 

(Chua and Pathansali, 1977). Also noted is indiscriminete deforestation (Rashid, 1980). 

Dredging resociated with offshore mining is active in the case of iron and bauxite 

(Cruickehank, 1981). Offshore tin is a resource to be exploited. 

Siltation from various causes is associated with the complete loss of several reefs in 

the Straits of Malacca, especially around Pulau Pangkor and Pulau Sembilan (Lulofs, 1977 in 

De Silva, 1979). Other damaged areas include reefs of some offshore islands of the east coast 

of Peninsular Malaysia' especially around bays near sites of agricultural developnrent (De 

Silva' 1978 in De Silva' 1979). Destruction from similar causes has also mcuned in Teluk 

Juara m the east coast of Pulau Tioman, and in the southenn coast of Pulau Mensirip, both 

m the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia (De Silva et $., f980). 

Coral reefs in the Straits of Malacea are generally poorly developed beceuse of high 

turbidity and sedimentation due to increasing land clearance (Liew and Hoare, f979). Reef 

development is ryparently also confined [o relat,ively shallow depths because of reduced light 

intensity end srnothering by sediment. In e fringing reef at Cpe Rachado, significantly lower 

values of living coverage and diveraity were attributed to sedimentation effects (Goh and 

Sasekumar, I981). 

In the Philippines' siltation from the different causes enunerated above is a widespread 

and chronic problem (Gomez et {., f98l). ln eddition to being a problem by itself, 

preliminary observations indicete that its presence in relatively large amounts may constitute 

an added burden [o corals already stressed for another factor such as temperature (Y+ and 

Gomez' 1981). This fact may eause the organism to exceed its threshold limits for zurvival.

- r98 

Additional docunentetion'of siltation effects in the Philippines exists for North Bais 

Bay and Pagatban River Eetuary in Negros Oriental (Alcala, L977). Ttre poor to fair condition 

of the reefs, ae compared to the relatively undisturbed reef at Sumilon Island, comeleted 

with the amount of sediment as indicated by Secchi Disc rcadings. Damage ettributabb to 

siltation is also recorded for e reef in Albay (in the vicinity of a river rnouth discharging 

effluents from geothermal activities), for reefs in the vicinity of Padre Burgos, Gluezcn, and 

for areas around Bantayan Island, Cebu (Merine Sciences Center, f982). Dredging associated 

with offshore mining does not exist at preseni, but remains a potential problem in view of 

offshore neserves to be tapped such as gold, iron, chromite, silica sand, precious coral and 

coral sand (Cruickshank, l98l). 

Siltation in Singapore is considered a problem, together with various construction 

activities along the coast (De Silva, 1981). Land reclamation is a priority in this small nation, 

with the result that some fringing reefs have been lost. Offshore mining doee not exist as 

yet, but is a potential activity with respect to sand (Cruiekshank, 1981). 

One of the more important causes of siltation in Thailand is onshore and offshore 

dredging for tin, although potential offshore dredging may be in the offing for rock salt, 

coal, fluorite, and limestone for cement (Cruickshenk, 1981). Small dredges operated in Thai 

weters by tin poachers number as rn€lny as 1000 at a time, Damage from siltation caused by 

lin dredging has been docunented for the northwestern coast of Phuket by Chaneang et 4. 

(f981). Tin mines m land have been operating for about 70 years. Tfese dunp thein tailings 

directly into the sea, or into canals leading into the sea. Tin dredging in the bay has been in 

progress fog about six years. Three dredges operating for four months each year bring up to 

2001000 yd' of material per rmnth. Armng other things, this has been observed to bring about 

a low transparency and discoloration of the water. Heavy damage has already occurred in 

Bang Tao Bay. In this bay, sedimentation has been so heavy in the northern portion that it 

built up a sand bar now connecting the island of Kala to Phuket (Sudara, L977). Other areas 

that are hard hit are Ko Lm, Ko Hi and Ko Bon (Ludwig, 1976). 

Brown and Holley (1981), working in the reef flats of the Leem Pan Gah peninsula in 

Phuket, detected considerably elevated levels of heavy netals in various invertebrate species 

from the reef below the tin smelter. Dead coral cover, however, was not significantly 

different from that of a reef situated several kilometres away. 

Sudara (198f) observed reef damage from siltation in several locelities along the east 

coast of the Gulf of Thailand, 

F irherieg-releted destruction 

Destruetive fishing is believed to be responsible for major reef degradation on a local 

scale in many areas (Gomez, 1980). Foremost among its agents is the use of explosives zuch 

as carbide bornbs and dynamite. The wastefulness of zuch a practiee is well known. Additional 

destructive fishing nrethods are the muro-ami and kayakas fishing techniques. Other harmful 

practices msociated with fishing are enumerated in Gomez (1980). Additional discussions of 

the relevanl mes in each counlry are presented here. 

In Indonesia, the use of explosives in fishing is known to be a problem in the Seribu 

Islands, around Komodo in Nusa Tenggara, near Ambon (Soegiarto and Polunin, l98l), in the 

proposed Bali Barat reserve (Polunin et f., I98r), and in the Spermonde Archipelago 

(Wijsman-Best et 4., 

1981.). In eastern Indonesia, blast fishinq is believed to have caused the 

destruction of l0% and 80% of the islands of Pornbo and Papagaran, respectively 

(Kvalvagnaes and Halim, I979a and b, in Ongkosonqo, l98l). Coneern for the effects of Lhe 

use of explosives has existed in the country since the 1920's (Segiarto and Polunin, 1981). 

The use of cyanide' another harmful fishing praetice, occur€ at least in eastern Java, 

and off Ujung Pandang (Segiarto and Polunin, 1981.). Indonesian reefs, in general, also zuffer 

from the traditional heavy exploitation of food fishes. In Ambon, fishermen inflict damage on 

corals when they break these to shake out srnall fish, use them to disguise fish traps, drag 

the traps or weighted nets across the neef zurface, and use hook-like anchors which break 

corals (McManus and Wenno, 1981). The famous reefs in the Islands of Banda have been 

partly damaged by fishermen dragging their fish traps over the coral heads (Segiarto, 1975).

- r99 

A growing eause f or concern is the aquarium fish trade (Robinson et el., f 98I). 

Although this fishery is still relatively small as compared to the total take of food fishes in 

Indonesia, conflicts anise when it comes to the mainlenance of nalural populations, such as in 

reserve arees. In addition, high mortality, and thus wastage, is known to occur during capture 

and transfer to middle-men. Of particular concern is the use of non-specific toxic chemicals 

which also cause the unnecessary local montality of surrounding reef organisms. Sometimes, 

even the living coral substrate is destroyed in the search for specimens. In the proposed Bali 

reserve, gecies apparently depleted due to aquarium fish collecting are the anemone fish, 

the butterfly fish, and the angel fish (Polunin et e!., 1981). Depletion of certain species has 

also occurred in the Seribu Islands and around eastern Java (Smgiarto and Polunin, f981). 

The main problem plaguing Malaysian reefs where fishing pcactices are concerned is the 

use of explosives. Although illegal, this is still practised widely (Langham and Mathias, 1977). 

In some areas, the practice is usually attributed to foreign fishermen, although sorne locals 

may be involved (De Silva, L979). Heavy damage inflicted ofl reefs by blast fishing is reported 

to occur in many reef areas in Peninsular Malaysia, on the east coast and on the northern 

part of the wes! coast (De Silva, 1979). Investigations m the eas[ coast of Peninsular 

Malaysia revealed Lhe recent widespread use of explosives, particularly in the uninhabited 

localities of Pulau Tioman and Pulau Tulai (De Silva et 4., l9B0). In norLhwest Sabah, areas 

known to be stressed are those around Kota Kinabalu, Kudat and Labuan (Langham and 

Mathias, L977). 

In the Philippines, the use of explosives in fishing is likewise widespread, lhough illegal 

(Gomez et {.r l98l). This practice was a major factor accounting for the condition of dead 

reefs observed in Bataan (Gomez, L977). Effecls of dynamite were also noted in the reef 

around MacLan Island, Cebu, in addition to damage by muro-ami and kayakas fishing, and 

anchoring by fishing boats (Sy et e!.r 1981). Additional evidence of blast fishing has been 

observed in Jonoan, Albay, and in the vicinity of Bantayan Island, Cebu (Marine Sciences 

Center, f982). 

ln a contribution to the general effort to curlail this harmful practice, Ronquillo (1950, 

1961) presents descriptions of the anatomy of fish affected by dynarnile to facilitate ready 

identification and, hopefully, apprehension of possible culprits. A study by Porter et al. 

(L977) in the outer barrier reef at Bohol, Philippines, suggests that dynamite fishing not-only 

destroys resident reef fish populations and the reef zurface, but also reduces demersal 

plankton production. The food $pply available for the regeneration of reef benthos and 

fishes is thus also diminished. Alcala and Gsnez (1979), investigating reef recovery after 

blast fishing in the central Visayas, postulated a recovery time to 5096 areal cover (l'ere 

considered to be indieative of good reef conditions) of approximately )B years. 

F inallyr the aquarium f ish industry, known to cause considerable damage to reef 

populstions if mismanaged, is assuming larger proportions in the Philippines. lt is currently a 

multi-million peso industry, with over 200 species of reef fish exporLed to other countries 

(Albaladejo and Corpuz, 1981). 

Problems in Thailand involve the use of dynamite, electric shocks, and poisons to catch 

fish (Mmkolprasitr f98f). The use of dynamite has caused extepsive damage at Ko Lan Island 

in the Pattaya region - approximately 20% of the 260rm0 m' of reef area (Ludwig, L976). 

Sane damage in Patong Bay on Lhe western side of Phuket is probably due to blasting 

(Sudara' L977). Sudara (I98f) found evidences of illegal dynamite fishing along the east and 

west coasts of the Gutf of Thailand, and on the coast of the Andaman Sea. Destruction from 

bottom trawling was also observed in these localities. As far as exploitation of aquarium 

fishes is concerned, about 45 species are known to be exported from the country (Lubbock 

and Polunin, L975). 

Building materiale 

Ttuoughout the ASEAN nations, corals are being harvested for a variety of construction 

purposes' for the production of lime and, fiKrre recently, the making of decorative tiles 

(Gornez, f980). Additional eccounts ere presented here of lhe probbm as it ccurs in 

Indmesia and Malaysia. 

In Indonesia, the extraction of coral and sand for the construction of roads, buildings, 

jetties and fiehing weirs has caused tcavy reef destruction, in ryite of attenpis to ban it in 

certein areas (Sagiartor 1975; Segiarto and Polunin, l98I). Estimates are available of as

- 200 

much a:i L2-25,OAO mf having been taken annually (Hardenberg , Lgtg in Sagiarto and Polunin, 

f98l). Problems of reef perturbation from coral mining activities are known for Jakarta Bay, 

southern Bali in the Sula islands, eastern Java, around Ujung Pandang in south Sulawesi 

(Segiarto and Polunin, l98l), Ambon (McManus and Wenno, I9Bl), the Spermonde Archipelago 

(Wijsrnan-Best et al., l98l), the Seribu coral island area, the Komodo Islands, and the 

proposed nature reserves at Psnbo and Papagaran Islands in eastern lndonesia (Ongkosongo, 

I98f). Coral mining is believed to have caused a decrease of the coral islands Ubi Besan and 

Nirwana to about me-half their original size (Ongkosongo, l98l). 

Tte mining of reefs for Iimestone is probably the single most important form of human 

interference in the proposed Bali Barat resenve (Polunin et el., f98l). One of the mone 

badly-hit areas in Eali is Sanur Beach, which is now reputed to be dirty and eroded (Anon., 

f980). Large-scale coral extraction is also believed to be significantly lowering rnean reef 

height, resulting in changes in wave energetics and beach form, and a decreased amount of 

sediment available for beach formation (Robinson et eI., I98f). At Nusa Dua and Jembrana, 

bot,h tourist areas, there are I)!, limestone kilns (Anon., 1980). lt is estimated Lhat the 7.5 

kilometres of coast loses 4000 m- of coral reef every nronth to this acti vity. Although mining 

for limestone is zupposedly banned, enforeement is lax because ordinances have been 

delegated to the provincial government for thelr action; local authorities for lhe most part 

are unenthusiastic about eliminating a labour-intensive industry because of possible social and 

economic repercussions (Robinson et e!., 1981). 

Coral collection for construction purposes in Malaysia takes place near most coastal 

towns (Chua and Pathansali, 1981). Harvesting is carnied out either by fishermen at low tide, 

or by large, crane-rigqed barges. The operation frequently involves huge heads being dragged 

across the reef, inflicting considerable damage. In zuch an activity, the economic loss has 

been estimated to exceed all other benefits. Mining of sand is undertaken for reclamation and 

building purposes. 

In Sabah, the construction of a port at Tawau involved the extraction of coral blocks 

from reefs off Pulau Bum Bum (E. Wood, f981). Elsewheren coral mining is carried out for 

road building and land reclamation, especially in the Labuan and Kota Kinab4lu areas 

(Langham and Mathias, 1977). It is eStimated that in recent times, about 20,00O yd' of coral 

have been removed per year. On an area basis, 100 coral heads mined per day is the 

equivalent af 43.7 ha of reef destroyed per year, or approximately 5.8 km of reef front pen 

year, given an average width of 200 ft for the reef slope. 

Tourism 

The development of tourism has definitely resulted in reef perturbation in a numbee of 

localities. For exarnple, siltation and pollution can and have resulted from the construction 

and maintenance of tourism facilities. Tounist activities which directly result in darnage to 

the reef include spearf ishing, diving, eollection of the reef biota, and anchoring of boats on 

corals. A general review of the effects of iourism on lhe coastal environment is given by 

Gornez (l98la). 

Tourism is reported as a threat to coral reef s in the Spermor.rde Archipelago in 

Indorresia (Wijsman-Best et e!.r f98f). In Malaysia, plans to develop tourism are at present 

heavily concentrated on the easL coast, with the Malaysia Tourist Development Corp. 

intending to develop offshore islands as well (Anon., L979). Careful, long-term management is 

certainly called for if reefs in the area are to be pneserved. In a number of popular areas 

lhroughout the country, spearfishing by sportdivers is believed to be responsible for the 

decimation of certain species (Rashid, 1980). 

Heavy tourism pnessure currently threatens reefs at Larn Island in the Gulf of Thailand 

(Srithunya et a!., l98I). At PaLong in the northweslern coast of Phuket, extensive dead coral 

cover in Acnopora-dorninated areas is presumed to be caused by boat anchoring {Chartsanq et 

4., l98I). Collection of neef organisms by tourists likewise poses a lhreat (Ludwig, 1976). 

Collecting of reef invertebrates 

Tl-re illeqal expon! lnade in decorative corals conlinues to be a rnajor problem tn the 

Philippines, generating concern among various sectors. There is no neason to assume that this 

problem would not be felt by the other ASEAN nations, particulanly those harbouring 

extensive coral reefs, in view of the growing worldwide demand for this commodity. Aspects

- 20I 

of the coral lrade in the broader Pacific negion, as well as management possibilities, are 

discussed in another paper (Gomez, l98Jb). 

Aside frorn the collection of the corals themselves, additional problems involve other 

reef invertebrates which are sometimes harvested to lhe point of depletion. Such is the case 

for shells, echinoderrnsr crustaceans and olher groups in neefs of Lhe Spermonde Archipelago 

(Wijsman-Best et 91.' l98I). The collection of shells and corals for comrnercial purposls 

constitutes a major problem in East Malaysia (De Silva, tgBI). Reefs at Larn Island in the 

Gulf of Thailand are dislurbed partly by the collection of the reef bioLa for souvenir 

purposes (Srithunya et e!., I98I). 

Other Pollutants 

The different forms of pollution are associated mainly with the drive of all countries in 

the East Asian Seas region fon econornic development and modernization, and associated 

activities such as Lhe guest for oil. Examples will be presented for each country. 

In lndonesia, pollution is likely to be signif icant in relatively sheltered areas where 

chronic conditions can develop, such as lhe Bay of Jakarta and lhe Bay of Ambon (Segiarto 

and Polunin, l9Bf). Such pollution rnay stem from various causes. tn localit.ies where 

urbanization is taking place, nearby reef s may be sub jected to the inf lux of industrial 

effluents. The intensification of agricultural prograrnmes has resulted in an increase in the 

amount of pesticides since 1958 (Seqiarto, 1975). A fraction of this has certainly leaked out 

into the coastal environment where traditional ariisanal fisheries contribute 98% of marine 

fisheries production. 

Oil poses a major potential threat to Indonesian reefs. At pnesent there are reporLs of 

oil and gas in commercial quantities in reefs throughou! the country, so that a distinct 

possibility exists of drilling on living reefs on a large scale (Seqiarto and Polunin, lg$f). 

Current problem areas are areas off the northwesLern coast oi Java, off the coast of 

Kalimantan, north of Balikpapan, and many coral isrands of seribu (ongkosongo, lggl; 

Soegiarto, l97r). Concurrent with the increase in oil production is the mushrJoming of 

petrochemical industries. A main problem associated with lhese is that of disposal of waste 

materials, so that containers frequently pile up along the coastline (Soegiarto, L975). 

Other pollutants consist of dornestic refuse. Ambon Bay, for example, is liLtered with 

organic wastesr plastic containers, rags, cans, bottles and soap (McManus and Wenno, fg8f). 

The proposed Bali Barat reserve is mamed by domestic and industrial rubbish, particularly 

plastic bags (Polunin et al., l98l). 

Like Indmesia, some reefs in Malaysia are threatened with oil pollution. Petroleum 

exploration is at present concentrated off the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, precisely 

where some of the best reefs are found (Rashid, 1980). ln the Semporna islands, tar balli 

were spotted in several beaches, a presunred source being the soft ter used to coat oyster' 

rafts in a nearby pearl farm (E. Wood, IgSl). Finally, industrial effluents are a growing 

problem Lhroughout the country (Rashid, 1980). 

ln a sLudy believed to be the first of its kind, Hudson et aL (1982) determined the 

effecLs of commercial drilling in an m-siLe invesligation of aJeet situated off northwest 

Palawan, Philippines. Drilling mud was not relaied to any suppression of massive eoral 

growthr allhough this may have been due to its effective dispersal by the strong currents 

characterizing the area. The cuttings, however, were presuned !o have caused a 70-90% 

reduction in the amount of f oliose, branching and plate-like corals, probably by direct 

srnothering. 

In Singapore, much of the inshore coral at Labrador beach is believed to have been 

killed off by increased discharges of oil (Sharma, f96I). 

Evidences of domestic effluent were observed by Sudara (1981) near the tip of 

Sataheep' in the east eoast of the Gulf of Thailand. At Larn Island, various pollutants are a 

cause of growing concern (Srilhunya et e!.r f98I). 

An activity assuming significant dimensions in the South-East Asian region as a whole 

is shipping (Valencia' I981a). Although its impacts are not as yet felt m a laige scale, lhey 

will certainly pose s very real problem in the future, and as sJch deserve carlful attention

and planning. To be 

cargoes such as oil, 

eventually, hydrogen. 

- 202 

looked-out for, for instance, 

liquef ied natural gas (LNG); 

ESTABUSHMENT tr MARIITC RESERVES 

are possible spills of the npre eritical 

urenium ore, ruclear spent fuel andt 

TfE increasing extent and severity of reef degradation throughout the world hae 

stimuhted some concern for their management and preservation. One of the more impor[ant 

concrete steps taken is the move to establish marine reserves in critical reef areas. Such a 

move hes gained a foothold in ihe East Asian Seas region, although more vigorous and 

concerted effort is undoubtedly called for. Some of the steps taken toward this end in each 

country are described in this paper. A review of the major concepts, rccent trendsr and 

important issues pertaining to the marine reserve movernent on the world scene, with 

particular focus on the Philippines, rnay be found in Gomez and Yap (1982). 

In Indonesia, nature conservation began to receive higher priorities in central 

governrnent planning in the 1970s, a manifeetation of which was the gnowing commitment to 

the establishment of marine parks and reserves (Robinson et $r I98f). Other encouraging 

signs were the 1977 accession !o the Convention on International Trade in Endangered 

Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), and the crea[ion of t]re Ministry of Development 

Supervision and Environment. Recent years have also seen the formation of the Nationel 

Commission m Marine Parks System (Segiarto, 1981), with the responsibility to develop a 

master plan for marine parks as an integral part of the country's Nature Conservetion 

Programme. More than 40 polential sites are unden study. Assistance is provided by outside 

sources s:ch as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), the Food and Agricultural Organization of 

the United Nations (FAO), Unesco, and UNDP. Governnent plans include increasing the area 

coverage of nature r:eserves from I to l0 million hectares within the nexl decade or so, 

There are reported at present five existing eorel reef reserves in Indonesia, and two projects 

(Salvat, f982). Proposed areas for declaration as marine reserves include reefs in the Bay of 

Jakarta (Unar, L979), the Spermonde Archipelago (Wijsman-Best et e!., 1981), and the marine 

area around Bali Barat (Polunin et a!.r f98]). 

In Malaysia, there are at present at least lhree existing coral reef reserves, and two 

projeets (Salvat, f982). Proposed corel reef reserve areas include Pulau Redang Archipelago 

on the east coast, and Pulau Redak and the 4-island group off Kuala Kedah on the west 

coast (Lulofs, 1977, 1979; De Silva and Rahman, I982)i and the Pulau Tega group and Pulau 

Balumbangan in Sabah (Langham and Mathias, I977). Extensive baseline surveys also in Sabah 

waters have been conducted by E. Wood (1979, l98I), as a prelude to lhe possible 

establishment of additional marine reserves. These include areas off the norbheast coegt of 

Sabah and around Kudat, and, more recently, islands off the Semporna peninsula snd the 

oceanic island of Pulau Sipadan. 

Trends in the Philippines are detailed in Gcnez and Yap (1982), and are brief ly 

surnmarized here. Moves towards the protection and conservation of the marine ecosystem 

may be considered to have started in L952, with the establishment of the NaLional Park 

System by virtue of Act No.l9l5 (Palaganas and Bina, f98l). To date there are some sixteen 

designated marine conservation areas (White, I98I). The only active marine reserve at 

present, tnwever, is [he one at Sumilon Island in the central Visayas administered by Silliman 

University. Proposed reserve areas include reefs at Ssnbrero Island, and Apo off the coast of 

Mindoro Occidental. A partieularly innovative strategy is the involvement of local 

eommunities in conservation through the eslablishment of what are Lermed 'rmunicipal coral 

reef parksrr(Castaneda and Miclat, I98f). Pilot sites exist at Guindulman, Bohol, and Sagay' 

Negros Occidental. Experience has shown that the implenentation of reef conservation 

programmes is more ef f ective where local communities are made to understand their 

significance (White, I98I), thus emphasizing the need for continuing education programmes 

(Cabanban and White, f98I). In the area of legislation, the reef conservation effort may be 

helped by the recent drafting of an Executive Order establishing a Marine Parks Management 

System, with emphasis m endangered marine species and their respective habitats. 

There sppear to be at present neither existing nor proposed coral reef reserves in 

Singapore (Salvat, f982).

- 20t 

In Thailand, there is one reported existing coral reef reserve (Salvat, 1982). Efforls 

exist to conserve centain areas in the Gulf of Thailand, amonq them reefs around the islands 

off Pataya and Rayong, and the Ang Tonq group of islands (Sudara, IgBl). ln addition, 

recommendations have been made for the classificalion of areas for preservation, tourism, 

and fisheries development, as well as the launching of informal edueation campaigns. 

SUMMARY 

Efforts to quantiLatively assess the conditions of coral reefs m a relatively Iarge scale 

date back only to the last decade on so in most of the ASEAN countries. Tl-rese efforts, 

however, have picked up considerably in recent years, especially with the active 

inconporation by national governments of resource conservation and management goals in 

official policies. A cornprehensive picture of the status of South-East Asian reefs shbuld be 

emenging within the foreseeable fulure with the inception of the coral project of the EasL 

Asian Seas Regional Programme of UNEP. 

Natunal causes of reef destruction eonLinue to figure significanlly in the reqion. These 

include water movement, geological dynarnics and biological interactions. Recent 

documentation exists of damage to corals caused by predation by lhe starfish Acanthaster 

planci and the gastropod Drupella rugosa. other feports of destruction involvG!6iffi 

during low tides' freshwater run-off and burial by river-borne sediments. 

As gleaned from the literature, siltation and destructive fishing still constitute the 

most important man-caused factors of neef degradation in the East Asian Seas. The more 

significant activities bringing about siltation are widespread deforestaLion, bad agricultural 

practices and mangrove denudation. Dredging along the coast for various purposeJ including 

offshore mining is, however, also assuming greater importance. 

Destructive fishing remains associated primarily with the use of various types of 

explosives, in spite of their ban in most places. The aquarium fish industry, for the most part 

overlooked, is a growing cause for concern, especially when rnismanaged. 

The mining of coral reefs for building materials has resulted in severe damage in a 

number of localities. Of a lesser rnagnitude but nevertheless deserving of attention is reef 

perlurbation brought about by tourism and collection of the biota. 

Various forms of pollution are associated with a growing human popu lation and 

accelerated industrialization. Although their effects are concentrated at present in a few 

ateasr these are bound to spread in the near future. Of particular relevance in the region is 

ihe problem of oil pollution, with many living reefs being tapped for oil explora[ion. Stitt 

other problems are associated with Lhe inevitable growth of shipping activities. 

As a manifestation of lhe growing concern over the increasing extent and severity of 

man-caused reef destruction, moves have been made in recent times to establish marine 

reserves in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand. Though small in rumber et 

presentr these reserves will hopefully be incorporated into a larger network within a realistic 

scheme ensuring the viability of not mly the reefs but the marine ecosyetem as a whole. 

Concerned individuals in each country are currently working toward this end.

-m4 

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- 209 

INTEGRATED COASTAL DEVELFMENT IN MALAYSIA 

AIS POs$BLE REGIOT.IAL IMPLICATIOI{S 

A. Maheswaran 

Division of Environment, Minis[ry of Science, Technology and Environment 

Kuala LunPur, MalaYsia 

ABSTRACT 

Development. in Malaysia depends in large part m the exploitation of its rich 

resources including marine resources. An increasing awareness of lhe limits Lo 

these resources has led to a strategy for environmental manaqement implemented 

at dif f erent levels of government through the Environment Division of the 

Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment. The strategy includes Lhe 

reduction of existing pollution through statutory and non-statutory controlsr and 

environrnental planning to avoid emerging problems Lhrough guidelines and zoning. 

An environmenial impact assessment proceedure is in preparation. Inplementation 

requires realistic approaches backed by sustained enforcement. Regional 

eo-qeration is important to control marine pollution, and is being developed 

Lhrough the ASEAN Sub-regional Environment Programme. Education is also 

necessary to ensure the inLegration of environmenLel dimensions with development. 

lntroduction 

The present prosperity and relat.ively high living standard of Malaysians draw heavily 

on Malaysia,s rich renewable and non-renewable resources ranging from forestry, land, fossil 

fuels and minerals to tlre most baSic nesources of atl such as water. 

Annng these resources, Malaysia has a relatively long coaslline of about 41800 km 

endowed wiih valuable marine resources and ecosystem. There are extensive beaches which 

serve as national amenities, not lo nention tourist ettractionsr and mangrove swampg 

amounting to l47rl80 hectares in Peninsular Malaysia, I75r890 hectares in Sarawak and 

170,148 hectares in Sabah. In addition, the Strait of Malacca is the most important fishing 

ground in Peninsular Malaysia, accounting for approximately 400r000 rnetric tons or 70 

percent of the total fish landings, whilst the South China Sea waters bordering the east coast 

produced ryproximately 150,000 tonnes of fish in 1978. This provides employment for over 

50,m0 fishermen working aboard licensed boats. 

For many years the major environmental problems in Malaysia stemmed predominantly 

from the lack of development and inadequate infrastructure, in short the pollution of poverty. 

To break free from this the country for a decade and nnre after Independence adopled plans 

for sccelerated developnent progremmes including mining, forestry, estate developmentt 

agriculture, land eettlement and industriat development. Ttn high rate of sustained economic 

divelopment has rnade substantial inroads into the neservee of minerals, soils, foregts end 

water to the extent that some resources may be exhaueted by the end of the present century. 

Ttn Malaysian experience shows how crucial it is for small developing countries to 

protect the source of their wealth, both currently aveilable and that of the future. Since 

most baaic resources are finite, these countries must be constantly vigilant to ensure 

faraighted and enlightened resource husbandry at all times. ln particular renewable nesoutceg 

require a hnalthy environnent. Thus the right bdance between &velopment and the 

environnent has to be struck.

- 210 

In recenl years' there has been some serious re-thinking among both developed and 

developing countries m the directions and pace of future development efforLs. In nnny ways, 

this hes been prompted by new perceptions of the need to harmonize economic development 

goals and policies with those of environmental proiection and improvement to ensure a better 

quality of life for Lhe people. The prospect of near depletion of resources has accelerated 

this process. 

It has now become clear that the problems of environmental proLection are inseparable 

from the problems of economic development. They are in fact two sides of the same coin, 

two aspects of the same goal, one reinforcing and underpinning the other. It is then just a 

matter of prudent management to approach environmental protection as a dimension of 

economic development. We desire neither an immaculate and pristine environment for ils own 

sake, nor all-out economic development at the other extreme which exlracts a heavy price in 

terms of a degraded environment, 

In the past, there has been a tendency to equaLe development with the more narrowly 

conceived objective of economic growth as measured by the rise in gross national product or 

by physical indicators alone. It is usually recognized today that high rates of economic 

growth' necessary and desirable as they are, do not by themselves guerantee the easing of 

urgent social and human problems. Indeed in many countries hiqh growth rstes ere 

accompanied by increasing unemployment, rising disparities in incomes between groups and 

between regions, and the deterioration of social and cullural quality of life. A new emphasis 

is thus coming to be placed on the atteinment of social and cultural goals as part of the 

development process. The recognition of environmental issues in developing countries is an 

aspect of this widening of Bhe development concept. It is part of a nnre integrated or unified 

approach to development objectives. This is timely in the Malaysian context as we are now 

on the threshold of the Fourth Malaysia Plan, and as we depend partieularly on natural 

resources for the generation of economic activities. 

The economic growth, progress and well-being of a nation depend largely on adequete 

resource availability as well as the systematic developnrent and use of these resources, both 

renewable and non renewable, However, even renewable resources are limited to the capacity 

of the whole ecological system. Thus there are, in a sense, limits to growth. 

Much will depend on the prudent management of these resources and the extent to 

which extrection and distribution impacts on the environment, which in turn af f ects 

productivity. The capacity of the environment to generate essential renewable resources must 

be maintained, restoned or improved. Otherwise, negati ve side-effects m the environrnent will 

reduce the pay-off from the hoped-for developnrent to significantly less than the qtimum. 

While Malaysia, compared to most developing countries, has seemingly abundant 

resourcesr these have experienced rapid growth in the rales of exploilation, producing various 

environnpntal probbms. 

Strateov for environmental manaoement 

In view of the interaction that exists between nesource development and environrnental 

quality, environrnental management is understood to rnean prudent or qtimal use, 

maintenenee and enhancement of both the quality of our natural resources. 

Since the prospects for an abundant supply of natural resources are weak in the long 

run, and technologicel innovations are inadequate, diserete and unpredictable, the developing 

countries have to take a serious look at their resource limitations, especially renewable 

Fesources, snd tailor their development efforts accordingly. TNs does not imply sacrificing 

development itself. What it does imply, though, is thaL Lhe patterns of resource development 

and regource use have to be restructured through resource management policies which are 

integrated, innovative and imaginstive, and focus m employment and efficiently organized 

productive activities while treating environment as an important parameter. Essentially 

resource management should aim at: 

(i) Minimizing westes in the process of resoutce developnnnt, and utilization of wastes 

that are produced. 

(ii) Developing eppropriate technology for the management and control of wasLes.

(iii) Limiting the environrnental problems 

- 21I 

Since the development of natural resources is a continuous Process which involves 

intentional changes to ine environment, it must be accompanied by conscious effort to guide 

these environmental changes towards zustainable economic growth to provide an increasingly 

better standard of living -not only in the material sense but also in the value of life itself. 

This requires ihe pnopei long-term management of the resourcesr maintaining an equilibrium 

begween the resources and rising needs while staying within environmental limits. It simply 

means a farsighted view of our resources so that we can continue to use then or even 

improve theii yield fon a long time to eome. 

Malaysia has a three-tier system of Government - Federal, State and the local 

Authonities - with each level having legislaLive and administrative competence in specific 

fietds, and with potential for affecting the environment throuqh their actions. Resource 

management is currently being carried out in Malaysia both at Federal and State level by the 

various departments responsible for the development of the respective resourees. Therefore 

the task of environmenLal management has to be shared. State Govennments and Local 

Authorities, in view of their legisiative and administrative competence in specific fields' have 

a considerable role to play in solving environmental problems. Through effective co-ordination 

and willing co-operalion tn"y could contribute considerably towards effective environmental 

protection and management ihrough making good use of available resources of nranpower and 

iunds and avoiding duplication. In this context, the Government has pledged to undertake the 

Ieadenship role in the overall msnagement of man's relationship with environrnent. It passed 

the Environmental Guality Act, 1974, and established the Environment Division under the 

Ministry of Science, Teehnology and Environment. 

The policy of the Government in administering the Act rests on two facts. First' 

Malaysia is a developing counlry and essentially mus! pursue a policy of economie growth. 

Second, Malaysia's econlmy today and for a long time to come depends on the renewable 

resource sectors and these, for a small country like ours, are limited, fragiler and in urgent 

need of comprehensive proiection and s:stained production. Malaysia's oversll environmental 

policy therefore takes accounL of the following faclons (Governnpnt of Malaysiar 1975): 

(i) The impacl that population growth and man's aetivities in resource development and 

industrialization have m the environnrentl 

(ii) The critical importance of maintaining the _quality of the environrnent relative to the 

needs of lhe population, particularly in r'egard to the productive capacity of the 

countryrs land resources in agrieulture, forestry, fisheries and waterl 

(iii) The need to maintain a healthy environmenl for human habitation; 

(iv) The need to preserve the countryrs unique and diverse natural heritage, all of which 

contribute to the quality of life; and 

(v) The interdependence of social, cultursl, economic, biological and physical factors in 

determining the ecologY of man. 

In the light of these factors, the responsibilities for environmental manaqement fall 

under four bsic tasks : 

(i) environnental assessrnent which inctudes nnnitoring, Fesearch and review; 

(ii) planning; 

(iii) controlling; and 

(iv) deeision-making in egch areas as nesource allocation, land use, economic and industrial 

developrnent and Planning. 

TfE above elements underpin and reinforce eech other in the streteqy of the 

Governnent in terms of the overall structure, content and thrust of the environrnent 

programme. The firgt and essential tagk is environfiEntel sse88fiEnt which eeeks to examinet 

isrJss and evaluete the environrnental conditione prevailing in various localities through the

- 2r2 

air and water quality monitoring programme, baseline studies and source emission inventory 

surveys which are being currently undertaken by the Environrnent Division of lhe Ministry of 

Science, Technoloqy and Environmenl. These activities are geared to provide not only Lhe 

fundamental inputs for development planning, but also are expected Lo be useful in 

themselves for the formulation of the pollution control proqramme. The data on standards of 

environmental quality which are being generated by these activities will provide feedback 

informat,ion in environmental nranagement to help influence the future course of development. 

Exiating envirdrrnental control 

Environmental problems are not solved by remedial measures alone but also by a 

combination of proper environmental planning and pollution control, integratinq both 

preventive and restorative measures. 

Logicelly iL would be sensible to work out a proper environmenLal plan to be carried 

out within the generalrplanning' framework before any pollution control work is camied out. 

However, in the Malaysian context, due to the necessary gestat,ion period required to evolve 

a sound plan (data collection, resources, trained manpower, ete.) and the urgency of 

anti-pollution measures a simultaneous approach is not only desirable but also inescapable, 

Therefore, pollution conLrol has been the central activity in the Environrnent Division's 

programme for environmental conservation and enhancement of environmental quality. 

Irrporient as these measures are for controlling existing and future environmental problems, 

they must be planned and designed within Lhe framework of the growth targets of lhe 

development plan, and take due account of administrative pnocedures at both the Federal and 

State levels. 

In the final analysis, these control measures must be consistent and workable within the 

framework of lhe Federal Constitution, insofar as it concerns the relat,ionship between the 

Federal Government and the States. With this constitutional framework, the Environment 

Division is adopting a two-pronged approach involving both statutory control and 

non-statutory control. 

The ctoice of these control measures and their application depends significantly on the 

areas !o be controlled. Statutory control is adopted in areas which are expressly within the 

ambit of the Environmental Guality Act, J.974 or more precisely in those matters which are 

specified in the Federal or Concunrent Lists. Non-staLutory conlrol, on the other hand, is 

applied in areas where the existing responsibilities are shared by various government agencies 

end in those areas which are within the competence of the State Governments. Matters zuch 

as land' agriculture, forestry, mining, soil erosion, drainage and irrigation which are 

f undamentally important in envinonmental management are expliciLly under the State and 

Concurrent Lists, and it is in [hese areas that non-statutory control must be directed with 

great csre to avoid undue administrative conflicts. 

The legal controls are being applied through various Regulations which have been 

drawn up on the advice of the Environmental Gluality Council in aceordance with bhe 

Environmental Ouality Act, 1974. They are, among others: 

(i) Environmental Ouality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Regulations, L97-Ii 

(ii) Environmental Guality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) Regulations, L978i 

(iii) Sewage and Industrial Effluents Regulations, 1979; 

(iv) The Clean Air Regulations, 1978. 

These Regulations are directed principally against industrial pollution in the form of 

dischanges and emissions which damage our common property resources, namely land, air and 

water. However, they are by no nreans the compleLe answer in themselves. For example they 

will not be able to deal with those problems arising from the development of land and natural 

resources which are as serious as pollution from industrial sources. Nevertheless, these 

Regulations constitute positive steps towards the conirol of pollution from point eources.

- zrt 

Under these Regulations, control is affected through the establishment of criteria or 

standards for the reduction of pollutants, enforced by both legal and administrative nrethods 

including rresoutce chargesr. With the enforcemenl of these regulations, it is estimated that a 

total of 820 licensed premises (sources) end rnore than 7000 non-licensed premises are rubject 

to these regulatory measurea. The fundarnental reason for this qproach is to induce a 

polluter to inetall anti-pollution devicee and absorb the Eocial costg for the use of regources. 

The imposition of rresource ehargesf in particular provides scope for each polluter to choose 

the mix of 4proeehes wtrich will keep the cost of pollution control as low es poasibb. 

It ie evident from the above that although action could be initiated by the Environment 

Division' it is unrealistic to expect it to be involved with the detailed procedures snd control 

nechanisms for coping with environrent-related matters (r.g. use of pesticides, mining 

discharges). Further, it. is mly logical for the implenrenting ageneies to take heed oi 

environnrental safeguards in the course of the implementation of their various projects. 

Envirqrmental planning 

TtP environmental problems arising from the developrnent of Malaysia's land and 

natural nesources are complex and can mly be overcome lhrough an integrated approach 

entailing advance or forward planning for the long term conaenvation of envirbnrnental assets. 

Thus whilst preparing as best we cen to eope with those situations which it is too late to 

avoid' we should focus on emerging problems, striving to head them off by timely action 

before they assunn serious or crisis proportions. For this purpose, it is important to ensure 

that an environrnental consciousness pervades the decision-makers and planners in both the 

public and private sectors so thet the imperatives of environmental protection are built into 

development projects and the need for coatly and time-consuming remedial measures are 

obviated. 

The machinery and the commitment to planning alreedy exisL. Whet is needed is the 

developnent of an enlarged planning meihodology so that environmental dimension can be 

incorporated in a systematic way into development planning right from the stsrt. The 

integration of the environmental dimension in resource management requires a broader 

elaboration of developnrent goals encompassing qualitative aspects in addition to the mere 

increase in gross national product. Generally speaking the qtimal development process should 

be me which setsr as one of its main objectives, the satisfaction by present and future 

generations of their basic requirements without transgressing the outer limils of the 

biospherers lolerance of manrs activities. There is a delicate balance here and it demands 

very careful consideration. For such rational management to be achievedn methods must be 

developed to deal more adequately with the full social and environment.al - and not just 

economic - costs and benefits of development-nelated activities. It is necessary to find 

techniques for quantifying the impacts, both favourable and unfavourable, of development 

projects m environment, so that the society can choose projects with a fuller knowledge of 

their social costs and benefits in the light of a number of options generated. All too bften 

the social costs of various pnojects are ignored or receive short shrift in the initial appraisal 

especially in the context of a laissez-faire economy. Societyts recognition of many of the 

environmental disruptions resulting from these projects then comes at too late a stsge to 

permit effective and timely renndial acLion. It is important thal the social cosis should be 

ascertained to the maximum extent possible before undertaking development projects, so thal 

society can carefully assess whether they are still worthwhile, whether some of the costs 

could not be minimized through careful design of the projecl, and whether some of the eosts 

could not be avoided or at least deferred through adoption of alterna[ives. 

ln this context, the Environment Division under the Ministry of Science, Technology and 

Environment has undertaken the leadership role in providing the necessary instrunrents of 

control. It has prepered several gr.ridelines to help State Governments and other Agencies to 

ineorporate environmental considerations into their development plans. The most important 

guidelines are: 

(e) guidelines for zoning and siting of industries; 

(b) guidelines for environmental impact assessrrent; 

(c) guidelines for selection of sites for solid wasle disposal and management. of site; and 

(d) guidelines for prevention of erosion and siltat.ion.

- 2L4 

Tle usefulness of zoning is self-evident. Without it environmental problems can grow to 

unmanageable proportions. Tfo main advantages can be snmarized as follows: 

(i) Isolation of reeiduel pollutentr and their impact 

Tfe Malaysi". rpp*l"h to regulatory control of pollution is largely based on the best 

practicable r""n" (B.P.M.) c6ncept with provisions. for gradual integraLion with air 

quality r"n"gu|nunt concepts. The best practicable means are defined by technical 

f easibility and economic viabitity. Theref ore, thq installation of in-plant control 

equpment and the adoption of control rneasures would limit Lhe discharge of pollutants 

to a certain level but not necessarily totally eliminate it, and as much as 5% to l0% of 

the "residual pollutants'r may still be discharged into the envitonment from each 

polluting source. The provision of buffer zones would isolate the people from the 

impact ereas. 

(ii) Reduced cct of control meaaures 

As the degree of control becomes rnore stringent, the cost increases exPonentially' If 

the polluti-ng source could be located well away from populated areas, control measures 

need not be as stringent as would otherwise be necessary' In the ultimate analysis 

pollution control cost -sre borne by the consuners, hence the reduction of control eosts 

wouldreducetheburdenonthepeopleandthecountryasawhole' 

(iii) More effieient end effective infrestructure planning 

The provision of various zones for housing, hrffeis, and compatible industries would 

help to lower the cost of infras[ructure cJch as commuting routes, sanitary services, 

centralized treatment systems for industries, water and electricity sjpplies' wsBer 

recycling Plantsr etc. 

Under the proposed Environmental Impact Assessnent Procedure, which is currently 

being refined by'the Division of Environment for submission to the Cabinet Committee on 

Investment, projects with high potential impact will require an assessment to be sr'rbmitted to 

the Ministry for review. lriitiators of the project will be required to describe the various 

environmental and pollution impacts which can be foreseen and quantified so that steps may 

be taken in advance to plan to control or miLigate their environmental consequences' 

The advantages of the Environmental lnpact Assessrnent ere self -evident. While the 

primary goal of thJ environmental impact assessrrnnt is to determine the impact of a project 

on [he- sulrounding environment, it also sarves the following purposes: 

(i) The findings of an impact essessrnent may be utilized in selecting the site for a project 

r,rfiere ihe resulting advense environmentel impact and the associated cost of 

implementing control rneasures to reduce the impact will be minimized, and the 

hoped-for benef its rnaximi zed. 

(ii) With regard to existing facilities, the assessrnent will help to determine the actual need 

for and extent of control required. 

(iii) The environmental consequencee of an aetivity will be disclosed to government 

agencies, and to the public if and when necessary' 

Tfe Guidelines for selection of sites for solid waste disposal and man€gement of site 

ere intended to help the various Lcal Authorities to avoid haphazard selection and 

rnanagernent of waste disposal sites disregarding environmental factors. 

The problems of soil erosion and eiltation can mty be overcome by employing ruitable 

controls and preventive measures' especially at the planning stege of â project, whether for 

alricutfure, mining, housing, road eonstru"lion or logging' The guidelines for prevention of 

eiosion and siltati-on contaii well-defined and precise specifications for prevenLive measures 

to eontrol siltation, such as silt traps and other ppropriate control structures'

lrplemcntatim of etrategY 

- 2L5 

ln putting the strategy to work, the need for a pragmatic, systematicr qraduated-and 

co-ordineled pproach not just at the level of the environnent prolection agency but of all 

environrnentally-1s1sird agencies including research institutions and universities, cannot be 

over'emphaaized. 

In the context of developing eountries particularly, environnental control regulationst 

however skilfully formulated and drafted in themselves, constitute no maqic cure for the 

environnrental ilis of society. An immense amount of herd work is necessary to ensure that 

the stendards set are realistic in terms of protecting the environnent, that lhe technology 

for treatment ia either available or can be developed readily, and that the treatment involved 

is cost-effective in the ense of being within the rneans of the industry concerned. This has 

to be backed up by aystematic and suitained enforcenent to get across the rnessage that the 

authorities meen business. 

The succegs to date in Malaysia in reducing environrnentel Pollution to manageabb 

proportions is in the main due to the pragmatic, systematic end business-like pproach 

eonsistently adopted by the Environrnent Division, backed r.rp. by an uncomPromisingr firm yet 

fair pproach to enforcing the regul,ations in the public interest. 

Tfn good working relationships built up over an extended period of time with the 

nesearch inititutiona in Malaysia, all five universities, and a whole spectrum of public sector 

egencies at both the Federal and State levels, have stood us in good stead. 

Reqional co-operation 

Marine pollution control is a very complex probbm. It requires control not only of 

activities m tne sea itEelf but also of activities m land. Further the means of the world 

flow together. In thie snse, they are an ecological wfrole and it is right to think of rnarine 

pollution as a single problem. But when thinking in terms of solution, it is more helpful to 

Ittint in terms oi different levels of problems - global problems, regional problems and 

nalional problems. 

The need for co-qeration in the ASEAN (Association of South-East Aeian Nations) 

region is considerable since the member states ehare not only many common problems, but 

also similar charscteristiee of the coastal and marine environrnent. Further, the economies of 

the member states in ASEAN depend on the seas through fishing, of f -shore petroleum 

production, mining and shipping. 

Co-qeration among ASEAN member states can and should take place in the following 

afeaS: 

(a) monitoring the quality of the marine environrnent; 

(b) establishing close rapport among ASEAN countries m rnsritime activities which have a 

direct impact m the merine environnrntl 

(c) developing effluent standards for discharge of polluting effluents directly or indirectly 

into the rngrine environmentl 

(d) conducting leaearch pertaining to rnarine pollution and its effects m the living aquatic 

FeSOUrCeSi 

(e) conducting inter-calibretion exercises involving the determination, in water and in 

biological tissues, of heavy metals through atomic absonption spectrophotometryt 

organoehlorine pesticide and PCB's through gas chromatographyr and dissolved and 

disperaed petroleum hydrocarbms through gectrofluorometry; 

(f) holding workshop/seminars of scientists involved in research in the marine environment 

to promote the dissemination and exchange of information and experiencel 

(g) 

organizing training progremmes for technicel staf f engaged in rnarine pollution 

investigations;

- 216 

(h) formulating laws and regulations relaLed to the enhancement of marine environment; 

(i) developing low cost technology for waste treatment ruitable to local situations. 

Substantial progress has been achieved in regional co-operation through the ASEAN 

Experts Group on 'thJ Environmenl, An outcome of zuch co-operation is the formulation of 

the ASEAN Sr-b-Regional Environment Programme (ASEP) with the marine environrnenl as one 

of the priority areai. It is a joint collaborative programme among the five nembers of ASEAN 

and has been in qeration since 1978. 

An Action Plan for the pro[ection of the marine environment and coastal areas of the 

Est Asian Region was draf ted with support and assistance from the United Nations 

Environment PnJgramme (JNEP). It has been adopted by the ASEAN Member States and is in 

the process of being implemented. 

Conclusion 

Assaults on the environment are many and varied, arising from the wide nange of 

activities in a rapidly developing economy. While the cost of tneasures to improve and protect 

the environment are fairly apparent to people at large and to the affected groups in 

particular, their benef its, -which of Len spread beyond the initial seetor of environmental 

control, are not so clearly seen or appreciated. The result is that benefits fnom 

environmental measures are understated. 

The developing countries find it difficult in practice to make inroads into Lhe 

traditional nrethodology and approach of project evaluation adopted by developrnent planners 

and decision-makers. -tfre tacl of syslematic studies demonstrating clearly in a comprehensive 

and quantitative manner the benefits accruing from environmental measurest and the 

constraints imposed by competing policy priorities and alternative claims on resources' have 

too often led to ifre expediency . of ignoring environmental dimensions in resource 

management. These countries need some assurance or even conclusive proof that 

environmental managemen!, far from being a handicap, can acLually contribute to the s{Jccess 

of resource developirent programmes. It should in fact become evident lhat the environmental 

protection approach is a resource management concept while economic development is 

ienerally 

pursued as a nesource use concept and that the whole objecLive of integrating 

6nvironmental planning with development is to absorb the resource management ideas into the 

proces{i of planning for resource use. 

In Malaysia the Environment Division is making a great effort .to get this rnessage 

across through the promotion of environmental education. The quarterly magazine 'Sekilar' 

published by the the Environment Division is yet another step in our strategy to promole 

environrnental education lo key target groups. 

REFERENCE 

Governrnent of Malaysia. 1975. Third Malaysia Plan Docurnent 1976-1980, Chapter Il' p. 214, 

paragraph 564.

Introduction 

- 217 

TI-E STATE ff HYDROCARBON POLLUTION IN THE EAST ASIAN SEAS 

BASED O{ STI.DIES IN TI.E SOUTH-EAST ASIAN SEAS REGIOi.I 

Jaspar Bilal 

Oil and Gas Technology Developmenl Center "LEMIGAS" 

JakarLa. Indonesia 

ABSTRACT 

The description of the production and transport patterns for oil in 

South-East Asian waters gives an indication of lhe actual and possible inputs of 

oil contamination in the marine environment. The distribution of dispersed oil and 

tarballs depends m the geographic and hydrographic features of the region. While 

oil pollution is widely reeognized as a regional problem, its impact is difficult to 

asses{t because available data are scarce and hard to compare. 

It is universally eccepted that petroleum is derived from organic material. It resulted 

from the combined ection of pressure, temperaLure and physical/chemical proceeses on 

organic material such as plants and animals deposited in the last. 500 million years in layers 

of sedimentary rocks. 

Offshore hydrocarbm Feservoirs are found along the continental margins, particularly 

on the continental shelf and the upper part of the continental slope. The existence of 

commencially exploitable accumulations beyond lhe continental rise is considered unlikely in 

the foreseeable future. 

ln the Asia-Paeific region, oil and gas deposits are most promising in sedimentary 

basins, many of which lie in mean basins limited by volcanic island chains. 

It is now recognized that some of these basins may be loeated under the sea, and ihat 

their nature cannot be predicted from land data. Recent findings from oil and gas exploration 

in the offshore areas of South-East Asia confirm this. 

The description of production end transport patterns for oil gives an indicetion of 

actual and possible inputs of oil contamination in the marine environnent. Oil contamination 

end accumulation in the form of dispersed oil in water, end floating and stranded tarballs are 

global phenomena which depend on the geographic snd hydrographic features of the region. 

Oil pollution of the marine and coastal environnpnt is widely recognized e a probhm 

as noted at various regional reetings over the last few years. Horever, oil pollution and ita 

impact m the environrnent, particularly in South-Eest Asian countries, re difficult to Bsess 

because tlre needed research and anrvey data are so scarce and fragrnentary. 

Hvdrocarbon producinq beaine 

Tle actual and potential hydrocarbm producing bsine in the South-Est Asian Region 

are fotnd in variabb geological settings. 

In lrdmcria, the known besine extend from Sumatra, including t}re northern offshore 

extension into the Streits of Malacea, through Java to Kalimantan, a well as the bains in 

and offshore West lrian.

- 218 

ln Malayeia and Brunei, the Northwest Borneo basin and its offshore extension are of 

recent interest as are the Saigon-Brunei basin in the southern part of Lhe South China Sea 

and the Gulf of Thailand basin. 

The Gulf of Thaitand basin exiends to the North into the land area of Bangkok. Of 

special interest also is the sedimentary area in the Andaman Sea between the Andaman and 

Nicobar Islands extending down to the Malacca Straits' 

In Lhe philippines producing fields have been found in the offshore area of Palawan 

Island in the South China Sea (Siddayao, 1980). 

Some recent discoveries in South-East Asia, particularly in the offshore areas, have 

greatly changed earlier concepts of estimating hydrocarbon potential bmed on the projection 

of land geology. 

Figure I shows the seabed areas in South-East Asia wilh their topographic Aradients 

and Figu-re 2 shows the prospective hydrocarbon basins and oil and 9as producing areas in 

South-East Asia. Table L provides datl m hydrocarbon resources in the $bmarine areas of 

the South-East Asian region. 

= 

Figure I : Seabed areas in South-East Asia *rowing topographic gradionts 

(from Siddayao, 1978) 

oepth to 2oo mctre isoboth 

Cortinentql plotfurm 

deopr thon 200 m€ter's 

Continentol rise (gentle sloPe 

swoy frgm Gontincnt)

c, 

o 

o,o 

g ctl 

F 

.E .E '6 

uBS; 

gDo6 

laY--c- 

Etut)-otr 

EEbbCL 

|fttil= j E 3 3 _d 

699o 

r€€E 

o>\ 

zrI& 

-___--iiwEl 

--t--- - -------- 

.t?t^-.f;t 

- 2L9 

__ __. ;_ _ _. _,a 

ffi 

iI I 

I 

D 

iri..l 

Ni 

I 

,

Oil activities 

- ?20 

Table I : Hydrocarbon resources in the ocean waters of south-East Asia 

(in barrels per daY) 

(after Siddayao, I980; Sigit et eI.r 1980; Bilal and Kuehnhold' 1980) 

Country 

Brunei 

lndsresia 

Malaysia 

Philippines 

Singapore 

Thailand 

Production 1978 

Total Offshore 

2O9,4OO 

rr6J4,79O 

196,500 

40,000 

0 

?oo 

179, l0o 

,45,24O 

196,500 

40,000 

0 

0 

Tranportation, ehipping caeualties and qerations 

ProducLion 1980 

Total Off shore 

Ir57 6,146 

40,000 

0 

200 

5t6,87 6 

100,000 

40,000 

0 

0 

Figure i shows that most of the oil shipped .illousn and in SouLh-East Asian waters is 

in transit to Japan while Lhe rest goes to the USA and to other East Asian countries' 

together accounLing for more than 90% of the oil supplied' 

S ING APORE 

--t) ta) 

F igure 5 z Transport of crude oil in South-East Asia (1975) 

(after ieO, Wle and Finn et al.' 1979) 

( 0.I million barrels per day (7 barrels = 

0. I-0.2 million barrels Per daY 

r 0.2-I.0 million barrels Per daY 

'I ) J million barrels Per daY 

A Offshore Production site 

Ref inery 

- 

"*{7 

I netric ton)

- 221 

According to Finn et $, 0979), f.Zf million barrels (rnainly crude). enter this region 

daily through the Straits of Malacca, and l.8I million barrels per day (crude and refined 

products) leave it en route through the South China Sea. Another 0.6 to 1.2 million barrels 

leave the Macassar Straits for Japan and the Pacific (Bilal and Kuehnhold' 1980). TfE Port of 

Singapore, situated at key intersection of major sea routes, ranks as the world's third busiest 

port. lts strategic location has also contributed to Singaporers emergence as a center for ship 

repairs and service for oil tsnkers. Table 2 shows fnequencies of tanker movement in 

South-East Asia and Table J shows the origin, size and numbers of tankers lhat lransit 

through the Straits of Malacca. However there are many factors that affect or that may 

affecL the pattern of oil shipment in South-East Asia. For example, unpredictable new 

resource discoveries within the region, e.g. offshore Vietnam and China' rnay change patterns 

of zupply. 

Destination 

(Route) 

Table 2 : Frequencies of tanker movements in South-East Asia 

(Valencia, I98I) 

South Korea and Japan 

Jpan (Lsnbok-Makassar-Su lawesi Seaeast 

or west of the Phi lippines) 

Sulawesi Sea 

PorL Dickson, Malysia 

Singapore 

(S ingapore-Straits) 

Hypothetical 

Vessel Size 

200,000 DwT 

VLCCs 

VLCCs + Tankers 

90.m0 DwT 

VLCCs 

Various 

Frequency 

984lyr (1/0.4 days) 

I4Olw (l/2.6 days) 

ZS-iOlyr (I/I).5 days) 

40/yr (I/9 days) 

9llyr (l/4 days) 

L5,356/yr (l/.024 days 

or 1/14 min.) 

Table l: Origin, size spedtrum and number of tankers in transit through Straits of Malacca. 

Numbers in parentheses show percentage of lotal J4anese oil imports and 

percentage of number of tankers importing oil to Japan (Finn et 3!.' 1979) 

Origin 

Persian Gutf 

Irdmesia 

Africa 

Total 

Tanker size (thousand dwt) 

lrnn I00- 150- 200- 25o- 

150 200 250 100 

284 

t98 

261 

l0 

40 Il 

522 to4 

I06 

2 

6 

rI4 

t2r 

5 

t26 

85 

86 

Amount 

of oil No. of 

(thousand tankers 

tons) 

192,BtO 

(7t%) 

17,4L9 

(5%) 

8,I17 

o%) 

2r8,t55 

1,058 

(58.,6) 

zta 

(rl%) 

& 

(4%) 

Irt 2 

(74'Yo) 

In the Straits of Malacca, the lransit of international tankers results in very dense 

traffic, and casualties can always happen causing oil spills. ln I975r 51500 tons spilled in ihe 

Straits of Malacca from the tanker "Diego Silangr'. There wene two major oil spills in the 

South China Sea from collisions: that of a supply ship with the st.orage barge "ESSO Mercial 

which spilled 500 tons of bunker C oil, and the other between M.V. Fortuna and USS 

"Ranger', which gilled 10,m0 tons of cnude oil. Table 4 shows ship casualLies in Malaysian 

waters (Bilal and Kuehnhold' f980).

Neme of vessel 

or incident 

Tolo Sea 

Oil Slick 

Diego Silang 

tr4V. Asian 

Guerdian 

MV. Montessa 

Shell 

Ref inery 

Tesahino Maru 

Toan Chuen 

Chun 

Esso Mercia 

tvtV. Fortuna 

- 222 

Table 4 : Ship casualties in Malaysian waters from 1975 to early 1980 

(from Bilal and Kufnhold, 1980) 

Cause Laation Date Armunt and 

Type of oil 

Grounding due to fire 

Unknown 

Collision with 

Russian Ship Vystok 

Rupture of discharge 

pipe to power station 

Accidental discharge 

due to nechanical 

failure 


due to pipe rupture 

Leakage of 

delivery pipeline 


due to rnechanical 

failure 


supply ship 

Florence Tide 


USS Ranger 

Penang Harbour 

South Channel 

Penang 

Melacca Streits 

Malacca Straits 

Malacca Straits 

Malacca Streits 

(Port Dickson) 

Malacce Straitg 

(Pmt Klang) 

Johore Streits 

South China 

Sea 

South China 

5ea 

20.05.L975 

ot.o5.I979 

24.07.1976 

t6.o5.I977 

to.06.I979 

]0. Il.1979 

20.01.I980 

10.05.1979 

10. t0.1978 

5.U.1979 

6(J tons bunker fuel oil 

Estimated 10-15 tons 

bunker fuel oil 

51500 tons 

Kuwait crude 

60 tons light fuel oil 

Arebian light crude 

(amount unknown) 

Arebian light crude 

(50 tons) 

Bunker fuel oil 

(emount unknown) 

Bunker fuel oil 

(amount unknown) 

X)5 tons bunker 

fuel oil 

101000 tons Kuweit 

light crude 

In the southern part of Singryorc, oil contamination comes mainly from ships that use 

the busy see-lane of the Streits of Singapore and from those that anchor at the varioug 

designated anehorage areas which occupy practically the whole of the southern territorial 

watets of Singapore. Beceuse of the heavy traffic, a number of oil spills have occurred 

through the collision or grounding of tankers. Table 5 gives a list of casuglties and oil spills 

for the period 7975 and 1976. 

Menasveta (f980) reported that there is a probtem of oil contamination dr.re to oil 

activities in Thai waters but it is still relatively small. An accidental oil spill occurred in 

April 1974 when the 5000 ton coastal vessel "Visahakit" collided with another ship about I 

km from the mouth of the Chao Phraya river. The spill was estimated at m00 barrels of oil. 

The biggest oil spill in Indonesien wa[ers was in the Straits of Singpore, where e super 

tanker of 2711698 dwt, "Showa Maru", grounded m treacherous shoals neer the Buffato Rock 

Beacon. It gilled approximately 54rfi)0 bamele of Middle Eet crude (Kanlaetmadja, lggl). 

Oil spills dre to shripping accidents in the waters of the Philippinee heve been listed by 

the National Operation Center for Oil Pollution. The record for 1978 is given in Table 6. 

Aside from oil spills through casualties, discharges of oil ccur also from operational 

shipping activities. Ttese discharges consist of activities such es debellasting, tank cleaning, 

dry docking' bunkering, eargo loading and unloading. TIE incidence of qerational or 

deliberate oily waste discharges in the area of the East Asian Seas has been studied by 

Kurashina (1975) and Nasu et e!.r Q975). The result is es follows: 

5E Japan area 

Taiwan area 

South China Sea 

Annual number of dirty 

ballast and tank cleaning 

74 

87 

,92 

Arnount discharged 

in 1000 tons/year. 

578 

6L6 

4705

Date 

- 225 

Table 5 : Shipping casualties in the Strails of Singapore 

(after Finn et g!, L979i Kantaatmadja' l9&I) 

Name of sfrip Type (Tmnage) Cause Lcation Comments 

06.0I.75 Showa Maru Tanker (27t,698) Grounding 

r5.0r.75 L};"",nil"'"[*" +ilH iLi?;i|? couision 

05.U.75 Mysella 

rs.04.75 IT;#t:,"" 

L4.M.7i f,"ffj |Hjl" 

tO.06.75 Liengku 

17.o7.7s N:';i"' "*" 

24.LO.75 Sea[iger 

n.LO.l, Kriti Sun 

LL. 12.7 5 ["fl "il "o ",, ""u, I lil "J 

L7.O5.76 

26,07.76 

o6,w.76 

Margo 

Georg Hanake 

Forresbank 

Mareva A.5. 

Soyakaze 

Marrita E. 

Citta di Savona 

26.10.76 Philippine Star 

Eso Spain 

Tanker (212,159) Grounding 

Tanker 

\t!?,_79_o_)_. Collision 

Tanker (152,015) 

Freighter 

F reighter 

Freighter 

Tanker (251r%6) 

Freighter 

Tanker (L2rr69J) 

Tanker (Izt,tt84) 

Freighter 

Freighter 

Frcighter 

Freighter 

Freighten 

F reighter 

"fltl?fl, 

Tanken (64,805) 

Tanker 

Tanker (81,827) 

Collision 

Collision 

Collision 

Collision, 

grounding 

Struck by 

lightning 

rr'c o r r is i on 

Collision 

Collision 

Collision 

Collision 

Buffalo Rck, 7r7fi1 tom oil 

off Singapore spitbd 

Outside of Izuzugawa Maru 

Singapore Port had cargo of crude 

limits oil; no spillage 

lol2'04'rN 21000 toru oil 

IOf o50'54"E epillad 

I mile south of Tca Maru broke 

SLJotrnrs Island in two and sank 

Eastern Roads, 

Singapore 

Malacca Straits Ship sank 

10l5r0J"N Neissei Maru had 

104o09'0J"E cargo of crude oil 

4.8 km south of 

SL Johnrs Island 

Singryore Port 

Estern anchorage, 

Singapore 

Eagtern anchorage, 

Singapore 

Eastern anchorage, 

Singapore 

Off St. John's 

Island 

Eastern 

anchorage, 

Singapore 

Savone ard Ster 

had cargc of 

crude oil; Irll00 

torn oil pilled 

Table 6 : Oil spills by shipping aceidents in Philippine waters in 1978 (afler Ganez' 1978) 

Name of Vessel/Cornpany Ceuse Date Lcation 

AGEP Wood Preserving Div. 

William Lines rnoior vessel 

Compania Maritima vessel 

Motorized banca (Samasco) 

MoLorized tank (Las Vivas) 

Barge (Luzon Stevedoring) 

Motorized tank (Las Vivas) 



Buge (Luzon S[evedoning) 

Motorized tank (C. Robles) 

Barge (Sealink lnc.) 

Discharge to Pasig River 

]-4 drums brnker oil 

Waste oil spillage 

Weste oil spill 20 gallons 

Waste oil spill 20-10 gallons 

Discharge of waste oil 

Spillage of 4rfi)0 barrels 

of auto turbo fuel 

Oil spill due to gnounding 

Spill of 7r[I)0 barrels of 

premium gasoline by sinking 

Spill of bunker oil (srd 

20,000 bags fertilizer) 

due to grounding 

Bunker oil spill by grounding 

Oil spill due to sinking 

Spill of lr}00 barrels lubo 

oil due to sinking 

L2.M.78 

19.05.78 

20.05.78 

22,05.78 

06.08.78 

27.8.78 

27.W.78 

27.09.78 

09.10.78 

09.10.78 

r0.10.78 

14.1t.78 

Pasig River 

Iloilo Riven 

North Harbor, Manila 

Bauan, Batangas 

Shell-Betangas Bay 

Bataan Refining Co. 

Lamao, Bataan 



Lamao, Bataan 

Manila Bay 

Manila Bay 


Pasig River

- 224 

Oil released during deballasting qerations is in 

produces tarry residues and tanballs. Figure 4 shows 

to eastbound tanker traffic and surface currents. 

$+ 

t'a{{.--_-.:in 

(after Nasu et al., L975) 

".qii:;*.b.i* i::rrl-. 

the form of tar lunps and weathering 

the distribution of oil lunps in relation 

Figure 4 : Oil lumps, trensport of oil, end surface currents in South and Est Asia 

.o Few oil lunps 

o Many oil lunps 

::i:> Transport of oil (width indicates amount) 

-.j Average zurface currents 

s^ Border between currents 

The Straits of Lonbok, the Straits of Macassar and the Celebes Sea are an alternative 

route for Ultra Large Crude Carriers (ULCC, over )00,000 dwt) sailing to Japan and the West 

coast of America, both because of the physical environment in the Straits of Malacca and 

because of the characteristics of vessels involved in the oil trade between the Western 

Pacific and the Middle East. 

In 1975, three ULCCs, the "Globtik Lmdon" (48t1960 dwt), the "Globtik Tokyo" 

(48tr84 dwt) and the "Nisseki Maru" 0721698 dwt) sailed through these watens in addition to 

the 25 to )0 Very Large Crude Carriers (VLCC,200,000-100,000 dwt) and I00 to 150 tankers 

that transiL these waters each monLh (Hayes' 1979). 

Refineries and production fields 

There are numerous loading ports, pnoduction fields and refinenies located alorrg the 

coast of the Strails of Malacca and adjacent to the Straits of Singapore. Twelve coastal 

nefineries with a total output of over 1,4O0,000 barrels per stream day are located on the 

coast of Streits of Malacca and Singapore. Pont Dumai in east Sumatra is one of the world's 

biggest crude oil exporting terminals. In I97l it exported 2,5 million tons of crude oil (Finn 

et al. 1979). 

Along the coast of the southern part of the South China Sea there are 8 ref ineries 

having a total capaciLy of 445,000 barrels per stream day.

- 225 

ore refinery is located m the east coast of Kalimantan (Straitr of Macersar) with a 

capacity of 75rttr0 barrele per stream day. 

Furthermore a new refinery center is located m the eouthern cosst of the island of 

Javai it has a eapacity of 100,m0 berrels per stream day, which is being extended to 100.000 

barrels per stream day. The oil terminats, production fields and refineriee continuously 

release oily effluent into the adjacent waters. Sanetimee accidental spills have resulled from 

technical failures and humsn errors like leaks, overfilling and mismanagement. Teble 7 sttows 

a list of refineries with their capaciLies and Figure 2 indicates Lhe locations of producing and 

prospective oil fields in South-East Asia. 

Country 

BURMA 

Petrochemical lndustries Corp.r Chauk 

Petrochemical lndustries Corp.r Syriem 

New Refinery, Maluk, 2r(tr0 bVday (1980) 

New Refinery, Mann, 25rm0 bVday (f982) 

Tabb 7 : Coastel refineries and capacities 

(from Petroleum News South East Asia, 1980) 

INDO{ESIA (all owned by state enterprise Pertamins) 

Cilacap, South Java 

(200,m0 bVday extension by f984) 

Balikpapan, Kalimantan 

Dumai, Surna[ra 

Sungai Gerong, Sumatra 

Plaju, Sumatra 

Pangkalan Brandan, Sumelra 

Sungai Pakning, Sumatra 

New Refinery, Batem, 200,m0 bVday (planned) 

MALAYSIA 

Esso, Pot Dickson 

Shell, Port Dickson 

Shell, Lutong, Sarawak 

Petronas, New Refinery, Westcoast, I50rfl)0 bVday 

Petronas, New Refinery, Pakar Trengganu 

(20,m0-10'm0 b/d sr streem by 1984) 

PHILIPPINES 

Batean Refining, Limay 

Celtex, South Luzon 

Philipines Shell, Batangas 

SINGAPORE 

British Petroleum, Pasir Panjang 

Eso, Puhu Ayer Chawan 

Mobil, Jurong 

Shell, Pulau Bukom 

Singapore Refining Co., Pulau Merlimbau 

(l00,m0 bVday by late 1980) 

THAILAI.ID 

Eseo, Sri Racha 

Sunmit, Bengchok 

Sunmit, Fang 

Thailand Oil Refining' Chonburi 

(55rm0 bVday expansion approved) 

Cryacity (bVday) Lcation 

5,f00 

22ro,J,O 

I00,000 

75,000 

I00,000 

79,000 

1I I,000 

4,m0 

50,m0 

f6,000 

90,000 

14,000 

I04,m0 

74,m0 

68,000 

28,m0 

21l,mo 

180,m0 

500,000 

70,m0 

i5,000 

80,m0 

Irm0 

65,000 

Andaman Sea 

Indian Ocean 

Straits of Macassar 

Straits of Malacca 

I 

tl 

ll 

tl 

Strails of Singapore 


ll 





tl 

It 

Straits of Singapore 

I 

il 

tl 

tl 

Gulf Thailand 

of I 

il 

It

- 226 

ln the South China Saa active offghore exploration and exploitation are taking ptace in 

the Gulf of ThsilanJ vrrhere gas and gas condengate have been found. Eastward in Indonesian 

Waters, the area af ound putau Natuna (Natuna lslsnd) produces tO.r7?L. barrels per dly 

(bVday). Further to the Easi, fields off of the islend of ialawan produce 40-'m0 bVday. To 

the South the Malaysian Sabah and Serawak weters yield a total production-of-180r000 bVday 

while the offshore production of the Eagt Coast of Peninsubr Malaysia is I20,(D0 bVday' Tte 

rvaters of Brunei produce l79rl00 bVday (1978. figures). . Off the north coaat of Javar en 

offshore oil field nas a-production of Lt4rllt bVdst. Another offshore field within Indmegian 

weters in the straits of Mecassar produces 2921956 bvday (Sigit et al 1980L 

Oil contaminetion in marine waters 

The data from the Marine pollution petroleum) Monitoring Pilot Project (MAPMOPP) 

of the Integrated Global Ocean Survey System (IGOSS) or hydrocarbms and .floating tarballs 

(oil lunps) (ee Figure 5 and Figure 6) provide the only overview of the state of oil 

contamination in the Easi Asian Seas. The hydrocarbst concentration ranges from 0.01 - 4 

ppb with both extremes occurring in the souihern part of South Chine Sea' The Malacca 

straits, eastern South china sea, celebes sea, and northern Philippine sea heve values of 

0.1)6| and 0.07 ppb. Higher values of 0.2 to 0.7 ppb ere found in waters around J+an' 

Sane countries in South-East Asia make surveys and occasional observations of 

hydrocarbms in coastal waters, but the results and data are scattered, ao it ir impossible to 

integrate this information with the MAPMOPP/lcoss data. Even for an assesstrEnt within the 

region, interpretation is difficult because of the various methods of sampling and analysis 

used. 

Tfc hydocarbrr contamination data given below by country represent an effort to 

compare tha available information regardlesJ of the purposes for which they were produced' 

Acrumulations of oil pollution are slrongly dependant on the hydrographic end gpographic 

features of the region. 

Figure 5 : Regional distribution of Larball concentretion 

and number of samPles bY 50 squaree

, 227 

Figure 6 : Regional distribution of the concentration of hydrocarbms in water (ppb) 

and rumber of sarnples by 50 squares 

Cument eyctem 

Generally the aean currents in this region are inf luenced by the monsoon. The 

monsoon changes the current cireulation patterns twice a' year; currents are practically 

reversed over large areas at the time of the strongest lrrrnsoon influence. 

Figures 7 and 8 show the circulation patterns during the northeast npnsoon and the 

southwest ffxlnsoon. The southwest rnonsoon current is dominant in the middb part of the 

South China Sea and the Java Sea where the westward flow into the Java Sea cornes from 

the Banda Sea and the Celebes Sea through the Straits of Macassar, and goes out of the Java 

Sea predcninantly through the Straits of Karimata and partly through the Straits of Malacca. 

The main currents reverse direction during the northeast npnsoon, with the currents from the 

South China Sea setting through the Karimata Straits eestward into the Java Sea and Bands 

Sea to the Pacific. 

Diperred/dierolved hydrocarbane in water 

Measurernents in various Indmeaian weters strowed concentrations of below I ppm 

adjacent to the oil produetion field north of the Bay of Jakarta (Muchtisar et e!.' 1977; Bilal 

et a!.r 1979). The range of concentralions between Pqt Durnai and Pangkalan Brandan 

eVaGcca Straits) is reported as 0.1 to 7.2 ppm (Wsilun, 1978) and in Riau Archipelago' 

Philipp Channel, is reported a 0.7 to J.2 ppm (Lemigas Lab. Report, 1977). 

Tfp concentration in Malayeian waters, adjacent to Pulau Penang (Glugorr Teluk 

Kumbar and Teluk Bahang) was found to range from 0.01 to 0.12 ppm (Phang et el.r 1980). 

A rurvey along the east coast of the Gutf of Theiland between Ssnut Smgkhrem and 

Chonburi, reported the highest concentration of "oil and gtrease" as f8 ppm (Vahrangeit 

1978). 

In Batangas Bay, Philippineo (South China See) where two refineries are locatedt 

hydrocarbms range from 0.8 to 5.5 ppm (Bilat and Kuehnhold' 1980).

- 228 

o oo 

IF 

th 

(o 

E t,o 

PA 

lo. 

!, 

'6, od 

 

EA 

od 

:€ 

6tr 

?, 

to 

0) 

CJ 

t0 

u f 

tt|

R 

#, liit 

8.3 !"'i 

H :ill#,t 

# 

rr\\ lr I \.j 

\r 'rf I 4-', 

- 229 

o 

:iitlfri 

o 

I 

t 1r 

9 

Itr ! tihi!5J ,: t uFif. 

fl iii +;iftf#1"r"','#,r 

i riiir \frii :J,.t ilY'l*i 

f , . &ld 

1F' 

),' i i r' r l**i ),,R,, /;i i' Gi,,W!,' * 

r+$.*Wrlti,';* 

41, 

cf 

z 

- zto 

The following nrethods were used for hydrocanbm analyses. MAPMOPP/IGOSS 

presumably used 5 litres of sample extracted by n-hexane and analyaed by fluorescence 

epectrometry (IOC/WMO, 1976). Phang et g!. (Malaysia) uaed 2.5 litres of water aample 

extrected in CClr, and enalysed with an infra-red spectrophotometer (Atwood et {., L972). 

Oil and Gee Tecfinology Development Center "Lemigasrr (lrdonesia) used 5 litres of water 

sample, extrected in CCI,, *raken with Florisil to rernove polar hydrocarbms and finally 

analysed by infra-red speclrophotometry (COi,ICAWE, L972). Ttp National Pollution Control 

Cornmission of the Philippines analysed the water sample by extraction wit,h a solvent and 

weighing gravimetrically without any eeparation of the polar and non-polar hydrocarbms. 

These differeneee of nethod meke comparisone difficult. 

Terball occurr€ncr 

Ref erring to Figure 5 from MAPMOPP/IGOSS, "Regional distribution of tarball 

concentration L974 - 1978" and Figure 4 from Nasurs atudy m t'Petroleum pollution in the 

high seas" gives the following sJmmary sf tie tarbgll status in {he Eest Asian Seas. To the 

north of Luzon 0trhilippines), tfpre are 0.5tlglkm'(=O.6J mg/m') and northeas[ of thig area 

tarball values reach 1.5 kglkm' (=I.6 mg/m'). In the direction of Jqan the contamination 

reaches higher values. As steted above, the discharge of tanken's dirty ballast is much rmre 

frequent in the South China Sea then in Taiwenese and Japanese watersl thus the question of 

tarball contamination in the Sqrth China Sea is quite interesting. In the Philippine See the 

plots indicate "ffrly" 0.(b mg/m'. 

Stranded tarballs have been observed by eome countries in South-Est Asia. In Pulau 

Pari, where the lrdonegien Inetitute of Oceanology is located, tarballs have been observed 

regularly for the lest four yeers. Puleu Pari itself is a pseudo-atoll consisting of five small 

islands, and on three of tlrese, stranded terballs have been observed. The result of e 

L98L|I982 survey is given in Figure 9. It shows that the flucfuation of the quantily depgnds 

on the monsoon. The lowest quantity is in August (Lz.t gr/m') and the highest (81 grlm') is 

in November (Toro and Djamali, 1982). In August 1982, Lemigas and the French Centre 

National pour lrExploitation des Oceans (CNEXO) mede e reconnaigsance {urvey in the Riau 

Archipelago (Straits of Singapore) and the southern part of the West Celebes cosst (Streits of 

Mecassar) among other areas. Although this was the month wilh the lowest concentrations, 

tarballs were still found in Pulau Pari, Riau Archipelago and the west coast of Celebes. 

(3rq7nqtrr2 ) 

400 

350 

Figure 9 : Mean quantity of stranded tarballs per month (glm?) 

on Pulau Pari, Pubu Tengah and Pulau Tikus (Tmo and Djamali, 1982) 

- 

t \\t 

\\ 

?. PAnl 

9. ltx6AX 

?. rlrul t 

lrl 

l\ 

rl 

Ir 

rl 

,t 

rl 

I IttIII\

- ztL 

On the coast around the Gulf of Thailand, terbdls were fouryl drring March and April. 

At Smgkhla beach, the highest accumulation was 0.2 to 715 qrlm' Also m t}re beaches of 

Phuket Island, facing the lrdian Ocran and Andanran Sea, qrch s the beaches of $aron, 

Patbmgr Naiyang and Laem Phanwa, the accumulation ranged from 0.1 to 180 gr/m' The 

accumulation increased from August mward (Pyakarnchana et 4., 1978). 

On the eastern coast of Peninsular Malaysia from Kota Baharu to Mersing, including 

the offshore iglsnd of Pulau Tioman, contamination by cil resifues and tarballs h6s also been 

found (Maheswaran, 1978). 

Discussion and conclusion 

The South-East Asian waters including the South China Sea are at present densely 

occupied by oil activities such as oil exploration, production, refining and transportation. As 

a consequence of low level discharge by refining and producLion processes, ryills by stripping 

casualties' as well as spills due to technical failure or hurnan error in handling of oil, the 

waters in this region are continuously contaminated by oil. The aceumulations of 

dispersed/dissolved oil in water, floating oil lunps and stranded tarballs are very dependent 

on such physical factors as the winds, ocean currents and tidal movernent. However, local 

currents and seabed topography in the Malacca Straits, the Gutf of Thailand and the Java 

Sea nny influence predicted sites of accumulation. 

AL present the Straits of Malacca and the South Chine Sea waters are the rnost 

vulnerable aneas for oil pollution because of the increasing size and frequency of tankers 

traversing the area, as well as oil activities and hydrographic and geographic patterns. 

Before tankers enter the slrallow strait they have to reduce their draft by discharging ballast 

water. Whether the deballasting operation occurs in the western or eastern entrence of the 

strait is a signif icant question, because these qerations lead to oil slicks and tarball 

formation. Deballasting in the SouLh China Sea is nnre probable and frequenl, although this 

depends on the transportation schedule and destination of csrgo. Tankers from the Middle 

East to Japan not mly load and unload at the beginning and end of their voyage, but also 

unload and take m cargo at intermediate ports zuch as Singapore or Por! Dickson. 

The Gulf of Thailand'receives wat,er from the current circulation in the South China 

Sea during the yearly monsoon (Wirtky, l96f ), This might possibly explain the tarball 

deposition along the coast of the Gulf and the eastern coast of Peninsular Malaysia. It is 

interesting to note that the accumulations and their locations vary seasonally, in elose 

relation to the curnent circulation and tenker routes a uggested by the studies of Kurashina 

(f975) and Nau et 4. Q976). 

In the region of Pulau Pari, currents conform with the general pattern of the Java Sea. 

Measurernents were made during October and November 1970 at Kepulauan Seribu (Seribu 

Archipelago) north of Pulau Pari. During the transitional period between rxlnsoons, the 

meximum velocity of the general eurrent was mly 0.(F m/sec at low tide. At high tide, rates 

tend to increase to I.0 nr/sec. This current system, particularly tlre relative stagnancy of the 

waters, may explain the deposition of tarballs at the islands. 

Surveys and nnnitoring of oil contaminat,ion in the South-Eat Asian countries are being 

conducted to assess the extent of oil pollution, but it is difficult to define the status of 

pollution in the region because of no cleer definition of the oil analysed. 

To clarify the statue of hydrocarbqr conternination in this rcgion, rnore systematic 

action should be organized within the countries. There is also a need for standardization of 

nnthods to ensure comparabb data for regional interpretation.

- 2t? 

REFERENCES 

Anonymous. 1980. South-East Asia Petroleum Newg mapr Singapore. 

Atwood, l-l R., R. W. Hannah and N4. V. Zeller. 1972. Determination of oil in water by 

infra-red spectroscopy. Perkin-Elrner INFRA-RED Bullelin No. ll. 

BAKOREN, National Energy Co-cdination Body. 1982. General policies m energy. Dept. of 

Mines and Energy, Jakarta, Indonesia [in Indonesian] 

Bilal, I and W.W. Kuehnhold. 1980. Marine oil pollution in South-East Asia. FAO/South 

China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme, Manilar Philippines. 

Bilal, .1, B. Prasetyo, L A. Bachtiar and R. Sani. 1979. Activities report st environmental 

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Pollu[ion Research in Thai Waters, National Research Council, Eangkok' Thailand.

- Ltt 

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waters, Volune 1. National Instilute of Oceanology, Jakarta, lndmeeia [in Indmesian] 

Toro, V. and T. Dpmali. 1982. Fluctuetion of tarball in Pulau Pai Kepulauan Seribu. National 

Institute of Oceanology, Jakarta, Indmesia [in Indmesian] 

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the 1980's. Wmkshop Report, Est-West Environnent and Policy lmtituter East Wegt 

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- 2r4 

Annex I : Map of placee npntioned in the paper

- 255 

PLA}$ED REGIO{AL CO.@ERATIq{ IN EAST ASIAN SEAS Fffi ]{O{.OIL 

POLLUTIO{ RESEARCH . PROBLEMS AhD POSSTBIf SOLUTIO{S 

Amendo F. Kapauan 

Department of Cl=mistry, Ateneo de Manila University 

Loyola Heights, Quezon City, Philippines 

ABSTRACT 

Tle monitoring of pollutants other than oil in the marine environnent as part 

of a Regionel Seas programme requires a rientific infrestructure that does not 

yet exigt in the developing countries of South-East Asia. Crcating this 

infrastructure requires solutione to institutional problems, patial and terrporal 

requirements and constraints, and the difficulties of assembling national research 

infrastructureg. The quality of technical personnel must be improved through 

rypropriate selection and training. Such training could elso help to eolve 

difficulties with equiprnent maintenance and calibration. 

Introduction 

Regional co-qeration in the seas common to the East Asian countrieg of Malaysia, 

Singapore, Thailand, Philippines and Indonesia has begun with zupport from the United Nations 

Environrent Pmgramme. Nunerous papers, pertinent to the East Asian region and to the 

verious other Regional Seas programmes, have been written about such co-qerative research 

projecte. This short paper sttenpts to focus m st)me important problems associeted with 

non-oil pollution regearch in the East Asian seas. The Philippines is emphasized as being 

'typicel' of the developing countriee involved with rcspect to various capabilities required for 

participation in anch e regional co-qeration project. This analysis will focus m the probbms 

sssociated with nnnitoring pollutants other than oil, which is a core conponent of the 

Regional Seas programmes. 

Inetitutional problems 

Unlike many developed eountries with well established research traditions in both the 

basic end pplied fields, rnany of the developing countries in the region have few well 

developed regearch institutions. Tlpse they have are ueually very ryecialized, having been 

established to sr.rpport economically important ectivities in these countries (e.9. rubber in 

Malaysia, c-oconut in the Philippines). Thus in gn erea such s non-oil pollution research in 

the marine environnent, institutions ere either non-existent or not as fully developed as 

would be required for a regional nnnitoring prograrnme. 

However, a carefut look at the totat capabilitiee within any given country shows that 

the ingredients that strould go into nrch a Regional Seae programme alreedy exist in fully 

developed form, or rnarly so, in bits ond pieces among several other institutions. In the 

Philippines, for example, facilities of the Philippine Coast Guard, Tle Bureau of Coast and 

Geodetic Survey, the Nationel Pollution Control Csnmission, the Philippines Atomic Energy 

Cqnmigsion, the Fmd and Nutrition Resesrch Center, the Univeraity of the Philippines and 

me or two other mivergitieg, taken together, yield a fairly eomplete eystem for cJeh en 

undertaking. Similar steternents could be rnade for Malaysia, Thailand, and Indmesia.

- 256 

The biggest problem associaled with such I 'multilit.hic', as qposed to a monolithict 

system is, of course, that of co-ordinating the various components. Each individual institution 

has its own concerns, with which involvernent with a Regional Seas monitoring and research 

programme might concei vably interf ere. Moreover the phenomenon of bureaucratic 

territoriality makes co-ordination very difficult among several different insLitutions. 

There are however, in each country, examples in which multi-institutional projects have 

been undertaken and made to work. Citing again the Philippines, a nationwide project to 

survey the degree of mercury pollution'was undertaken d.rring the 1970's which involved me 

private university, the Fmd and NutriLion Research Institute, the laboretories of the Ministry 

of Science, the Nationel Pollution Control Commission, the Ministry of Natural Resources, 

and the Phltippine Atomic Energy Commission. The system worked beautifully under the 

direction of a committee uhich called itself the Mercury Study Group. 

Two of the nnst important ingredients for such successf ul co-eeration within a 

country are: (I) proper choice of the people to co-ordinate work wibhin their own 

institutions, and (2) funding for the extra people end work needed Lo join the co-operative 

project, The first of these is obvious. Wilhout dedicated and concerned people' no 

co-qerative projects are possibb. The second is more practical. Institutional budgets usually 

cannot accommodate activities other than those that are the major concerns of the 

institution, and for them to engage in other activities, funds for these activities must be 

made available. In the cese of the Philippines' Mercury Study Group, funds were made 

available through a grant from the Ministry of Science. 

Spatial and temporal requirements and eonstnaints 

A Regional Seas moniloring programme, unlike that for open oceans, is by necessily a 

complicated one in terms of spatial and Lemporal needs and constraints. This is particularly 

true of the East Asian Seas, which include such regional bodies of water as the Gulf of 

Thailand, the Java, Banda, Flores, Celebes, Sulu and South China Seas - to name only those 

of concern to the ASEAN countries. It would be more correct to think of the regional 

programme , not as a programme for the region, but rather as a system of interacling 

national programmes which must somehow be co-ordinated to yield meaningful data for the 

region. 

Each participating country in the programme rnust of necessity eoncefn ilself mostly 

with those aspects which have their greatest impacts within ttre country and only secondarily 

with the region. Moreover, rnost of such concerns will be within each counlryrs lerritonial 

limits (inclu-ing *re 200 mile economic limi[ which many countries accept). TfE spatial and 

temporal aspects of the Regional Seas programme must therefore be very carefully worked 

out so that each parlicipating country can gain the maximum benefit from it while at the 

same time nealizing the objectives of the regional prograrnme. Parlicular attention must be 

paid to those regions in which each subdivision of Lhe seas system interacts with another 

subdivision. Thus Malaysia, lndonesia and Singapore would be particularly interested in the 

Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand, the Java Sea, and the southern end of the Sou[h 

China $ea through the Stnails of Malacca; similarly inLeractions beLween the South China 

Sear sulu Sea and Celebes Sea would interest the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia. 

Unlike the qen ceans where time scales can be quite extended, the fluxes in the East 

Asian regional seas could change rnuch more quiekly so that great care should be taken in the 

design of tn" temporal aspects of the co-qerative programme. There is evidence from 

repoits of the Japan Meteorological Agency ihat concentrations of mercury and cadmium, for 

example, ean change by up to a factor of l0 between winter and summer and a factor of 

about J within a three month period. 

In view of the above, a planning commitiee which musi take into consideration both 

national and regional concerns must be constituted as the group that will decide on the 

spatial and temporal aspects of the co-qeraLive projects. The committee members must be 

familiar with their own national concerns and also have a bnoad perspective on the various 

Regional Seas programme activities.

National research infrastructure 

2t7 

One problem area within the region needs careful examination because the solution 

could in some cases involve considerable investment by the national governments. This is the 

creation of a research infrasLnucLure which fulfills the demands of a good Regional Seas 

programme. This inf rastructure includes the vessels, equipment and laboratories that will 

enable each participating country to obtain the necessary samples at the various places and 

times requined by the prognamme, transporting them Lo the laboratories and analysing the 

various components to give valid results. This is an entirely different problem from the 

institutional problems rnentioned earlier. 

In rnost cases, the problem of research inf rastructure eould be mel Lhrough 

co-ordination within the country. However, not all of these problems can be so resolved. For 

example, although the need for vessels to get samples could be met by taking care of by 

taking advantage of the various governrnental and non-governmental sailings within a given 

sea, the acquisition and use of specialized equipment could not. No amount of 'rco-qeration" 

between various instiLutions can cteate a specialized piece of equipment that is not already 

Lhere. The countries in the East Asian region vary greatly in their ability to set up the 

proper research infrastructure. For example, the Malaysian Government seems to be quite 

generous in its zupport for the acquisition of research materials and equipment, while in 

contrast, the Philippine Government has a de facto ban m the importation of research 

equipment which makes their acquisition quite difficult. 

Therefore, the country representatives m a regional co-ordinating committee or council 

must move their respecLive governrnents and institutions to make available the necessary 

faciliLies and equipment requined for the Regional Seas co-qerative projects. 

Personnel and trainino 

In general, there is need to improve the quality of personnel in the vanious institutions 

in the negion who will do the day to day work m the co-operative project. Although a 

significant amount of environrental work is already being done'in many places, the intensity 

and depth of the undertakings fall short of the rigorous requirements of a Regional Seas 

programme. 

Within each country, institutions competent in training for zuch work already exist. Tfe 

problem lies in co-ordinating these for the putposes of the programme so that the quality of 

training would be of a uniformly high level. The alternative would be to bning together the 

personnel involved at me facility especially active in the field and give them a rigorous 

training in the various techniques required. A several month training proqramme, perhaps in 

Australia, has been s.rggested by some, although for psychological reasons (among others), 

training in me of the developing countries, supported as necessary to upgrade facilities to a 

sufficiently high level, would be an alternative that should be explored. 

A problem that could well arise in this area of personnel and training is the proper 

choice of the people to be sent for training. In many countries in the region, bureaucratic 

trfavourites'r tend to be chosen again and again, often to [he detriment of the aims of training 

programmes if these favourites happen not to be lhe people who will do the work. 

Equipment maintenance and calibration 

Equipment and proceedures strould be such that, dat.a obtained from the various parte of 

the region are direcLly comparable within the region and with data obtained from the various 

other Regional Seas programmes. This requires training progf ammes on the proper 

maintenance and calibration of equipment for personnel involved in the co-perative project. 

A recent workshop m instrunent maintenance and calibration in the region sponsored 

by the Federation of Asian Chemieal Smieties showed that the bulk of maintenance and 

calibration of analytical instrunrentation is carried out, not by the analysts who should be 

responsible for the quality of their analytical data, but by technicians from the instrurnent 

zuppliers. ln some cases this does not pose a real problem, especially if the dealers'rrvice 

headquarters happens to be nearby, but in many cases it contributes to unacceptably Iong 

down-tirnes fon certain inslrurnents.

- 2t8 

Since the analysts performing the instrumentation procedures are often not trained to 

rnaintain and calibrate their instrunEnts and have to rely on service technicians for thist 

analytical throughput can be everely impaired. This is understandebb if ingtrurnent troubles 

were generally of such magnitude as to require the eervice of sr:ch technicians (e for 

example when a single element of a multi-elernent chip fails), but very often the problem is 

as simple s a blown fuse. 

The Regional Seas prograrnme needs therefore to initiate a rational programme of 

instrurnentation maintenance, calibration, and, if necesaary, repair to ensure the continuing 

flow of data. Such capabilities have already been perceived &r necessary in many countries in 

the region. Perhaps tiis could be put into effect immediately by training the analysts to do 

routine maintenance and calibration m their own instrunpnts together witH their training in 

instrurnental nethods rnentioned in the previous eection. 

Conelusion 

This sfrort paper has examined some of the problems and bheir possible solutione which 

face a Regional Seas programme for Eest Asia given the capabilities and limitations of the 

institutions in the region. Tfc Philippines heve been taken as a reference point, hrt the same 

general probtems +ply to nnst of the other countries of the rcgion. Hqefully these points 

will be considered in the design and implementation of the Esst Asian Seas regional 

programme of co-qeration.

- 2t9 

MARINE POLLUTION BY FTAVY METALS IN TFE EAST ASIAN SEAS REGIO}.I 

Manuwedi Hungspreugs 

Department of Marine Science, Chulalongkorn University 

Phya Thai Road, Bangkok 5' Thailand 

ABSTRACT 

With increasing pollution in lhe coas[al waters of South-East Asia, greater 

attention is being directed to the concentrations of heavy rnetals in the marine 

environment. The levels of potentially toxic metals have been analysed in 

seawater, sediments and marine organisms, but studies are also needed of river 

and atmospheric inputs and of the historical record of deposits in eoastal 

sedimenls. A brief review of available information on heavy rnetal pollution is 

given for each ASEAN country. 

Increasing industrialization end urbanization in South-East Asian countries result in 

mobilization and discharge into the marine environment of large quantities of actually 

harmful or potentially harmful materials, both organic and inorganic. However, East Asian 

countries rely heavily on rnarine fisheries as principal source of low cost protein. To maintain 

this resource in a healthy and productive state is vital. 

FTAVY METALS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT 

Many toxic or potentially toxic nretals are released into the rceans, especially into the 

coastal zofles. Several netals such as iron, copper, cobalt, chromium, manganese, nnlybdenum, 

nickel, vanadium and zinc are known to be essential to living organisms, but if present in 

excessive amounts, they are toxic. 

The oceans receive heevy rne[als through the at,mosphere, land run-off and rivers. 

Anthropogenic rnetals enter the natural biogeochemical cycles at rates that depend on their 

physico-chemical forms which are often different from naturally-mcurring metals. 

Heavv metale in seawater 

Owing to the dif f icultieg in determining trace metals in seawater (very low 

concentrations sf these heavy rnetals; high concentrations of major ions; contaminetion of the 

sample during sampling, storage, and chemical manipulations; ease of interference by nnjor 

ions present; etc.) relatively few measur€rnents are reliabh. The comparison between values 

given by different authors is complicated by the use of different nethods which often 

neasune different physico-chemical forms and frections of the total amount present. On the 

other hand the distinction between these different forms is very importent beceuse they rct 

.differently in biogeochemical cycles and have different effects on marine organisms" Mct 

heavy netals are rrKtre toxic in ionic tlran in complexed forme. Only since the mid-1970's has 

chemical apeciation in seawater reeeived mueh attention. 

Influences from land obviously affect the concentration of fnavy nretals in near-shore 

regions, so a distinction must be made between the expected bvel of netals in theee rcgions 

and in the trqen seefr or trceanicrr sewater. The concentretione in coestal seawater are 

markedly effected by local influencea such as anthropogenic sources, river inputs and land 

run-off. Analyses of oceanic sawater will indicate the general hvel of lcavy rnetal 

concentratione in the qen ea, almost always at e much lower level.

- 240 

Oftenr a direct comparison is made between the level of metals in coastal waters and 

the average world ocean values, and if the former level is considerably higher, Lhen it is 

judged to be "very polluted". In fact, as any marine scientist knows, the natural background 

levels of the two systems are vastly different, and estuarine areas must. be compared to 

similar coastal environments. 

Heavy metals in sediments 

The study of sediments is of greal import.ance in measuring the distribution of heavy 

retals, since for the majority of the elenrents and substances, sediments are the ultimate 

rrsinkil or ttdeposit". Nat,ural sediments are mixtures of sands, clays and organic substances. 

The relative abundance of these components varies considerably with dif f erent types of 

sediment. The interaction of heavy metals with the sediments depends on their composition. 

Higher concenLrations of metals are usually found in mud and silt, rather than in sand, so the 

grain-size cfiaracteristies of the sediment samples must be assessed in interpreting the metal 

values observed. 

Heavv metals in marine oroanismg 

The concern about heavy melals in food has stimulated the analysis of toxic metals in 

fishery products: edible crustaceans, molluscs, and fish. Different species collected at the 

same site show great differences in their metal concentrations. Consequently body contents 

can rtly be compared between specimens of lhe same species, preferably of the same age or 

size. Details m the use of aquatic organisms as biological indicators are given by Phillips in 

his book rrGuantitative Aquatic Biological Indicators" (1980a). His proposal for monitoring 

studies m the contamination of the Eest Asian Seas by trace metals and organochlorines 

(Phillips, 1980b) is a very useful gnride. 

TtE ability of bivalves to concentrate zubstances far above their levels in the 

environnent makes them useful as sentinel organisms for indicating level of pollutants in 

coastal rnarine waters. This is the basis for the Mussel Watch Programme (Goldberg et {., 

1978), now in qeration in the U.S. and some European countries for some years. Sorne 

countries in the East Asian region have also joined the prognamme. 

Hesvv metals in rivers 

Yeats et al. (1978) have demonstrated that river monitoring gives a faster and more 

reliabb warnlng-of changes dre to anthropogenic activity tfran npnitoring of coastal waters. 

Thus major rivers ehould also be rnonitored for any possible change in pollutant levels. 

Heavv metelg in the atmosphere 

Garrels and Mackenzie (f971.) estimated that rivers account for 90% of the total 

geaward transport of dissolved and suspended solids. However Windom (f981) reported that in 

lome ceses, the atmosph,eric flux to the continental shelf environment is similar to, or 

greater than the riverine flux, as in the latter mly the soluble fractions reach the 

continental ehelf, while npat of the suryended sdiments sre trapped in the estuary. Thus he 

irggests that atmoapheric flux cannot always be ignored. 

Heevv metal record in coastal sediments 

The pdiment aeeumulation ratee for cones from delta stations ean be determined by 

geochronological nnthods with suitable isotopes like Pb-210. lt is then possibb to assign ages 

to the vertieel cdiment strata. EvaluaLion of the vertical distribution of heavy melals in 

these corea givee a historical record of the input of elements to that area. 

lf a depoait ehowe increased concentrations of a s.rqeeted pollutant, s.rch as a rnetal, 

in its r.pperrpst levels relative to the deeper sediment, the differences in concentrat.ion are 

scribed to enthropogenic sources. However, special precautions must be taken before final 

cmclusions are drewn (Bertine, 1978).

- 24L 

BRIEF REVIEW G FTAVY METAL POLLUTION IN ASEAN COLNTRIES. 

Although studies of trace netal pollution have increased in the East Asian Seas reqion 

recently, rmst repor[s are made for local use only, and little information is nnre widely 

availab le. 

Ferguson Wood and Johannes (f975) mention in their book "Tropical Marine Pollution" 

that 'rlibraries in the coastal tropics are often poorly equipped. In addition' the literature m 

tropical marine pollution is widely scattered and often hard to obtain. Research on and 

evaluation of tropical marine pollution has therefore often been based on information 

obtained from a smatlering of inappropriate but relatively accessible information on 

temperate marine pollution." This book cites the few studies m feavy netals in the tropics' 

including those of levels in the sedimenL and marine biota of Pearl Harbour, Hawaii, tests of 

copper toxicity in South Florida marine organisms, and copper and nickel from desalination 

planl corrosion. 

The following brief review of lhe heavy rnetal pollution status in each ASEAN country 

is based on the very few papers available to the author. 

Indonesia 

Indmesia is a vast country consisting of more than l)rttrO islands' of which the most 

populated is Java. Soegiarto (f975) reported that the major sources of pollution are 

sedimentation, accelerated erosion due to inappropriate land management, dredging, and 

mining. Water quality problems arise from soil erosion in the headwaters of rivers, sediment 

deposition in the coastal plains which aggravate drainage problems, and pollution eaused by 

the density of human settlernent and industry in the plains. Sevenal reservoirs are fitling up 

with sedimenLs at an alarming rate (UNESCO/UNEP' 1980). 

Tfe results of pollution monitoring over the last few years indicate an increase in 

heavy rnetal concentrations in various waters such as Jakarta Bay and the Bangka Straits. 

Tferefore, the governnnnt has established a Tck Force for a Heavy Metal Moritoring 

Prrgramme with instructions: 

- to nnnitor other bodies of water, in particular around big cities and industrial centresl 

- to rneasure tcavy rretal concentrations at various toxic Ievels in phytoplanktont 

zooplankton, fish, benthic and sessile fauna, including commencially exploited or 

cultured shellfish; 

- to study the impact of heavy nretal pollution on the health of fishermen and their families 

through interviews and analysis of samples of hair and urine; and 

- to find out the possibb and potential sources of heavy nretal pollution in coastal waters. 

Malaysia 

The Division of Environment, Ministry 

established key stations f or water qualily 

Analyses are performed by the Department 

substances (UNESCo/UNEP, 1980). 

of Science, Technology end Environment has 

monitoring throughout Peninsular Malaysia. 

of Chemistry and include most of [he toxic 

Silvalingam (I980a) found fairly low levels of total mercury in Lropical algae at Penang' 

from below detectable level to 0.15 pq/q dry weight except for Padina sp. at 1.02 pg/g, 

although a study on the Juru River m Lhe mainland opposite Penang indicated high levels of 

mercury. Sivalingam and Sani (f980) found no correlation between biodeposited nercury in 

hair from fishing cornmunities of Penang, and mercury concentration in local fish. Tte level 

of mercury in fish muscle ranges from 0.217 to \.265 ppm, in liver I.48 to 7.500 ppm and in 

heart 0.945 to 16. 145 ppm dry weight. The highesL mercury in hair was found in the human 

age group over 40. 

Sivalingam et g!. (f98f ) studied the trace rretals in sea water, sedimentd and molluscs 

around Penang, and found the following:

For seawater (PPm) 

Cd Co Cr Cu 

0-0.05 0-0.I8 to 0.15 0.00 

For sediments (PPm drY'wt.) 

- 242 

Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn 

0-0.01 0.06-0.41 o-2.o7 0.07-0.26 0-0.04 

Cd Co Cr Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn 

o-L.Zi 4-i6 Z-iA.S I-26.5 1,500-18'750 12-189 I.8-?9.25 6'5-t5'?5 8'76 

one study on bioaccumulation nrechanisms (sivalingam, I98l) was mede on the 

Malaysian oyster, Saccostrea cucullata, under very high concentration stresses of from 5 to 

200 ppm cadmium, "ffiro.i:ur, "Jpper, iron, mercu.ryr rt€lnllanese' nickel, lead and zinc' 

These concentration levels €*e so higti'as'to exceed the solubilities in geawater of rnany 

netals, e.g. lead; g6u"-"-gru"t proporiion of the melal is in zuspensiont not in golution' The 

salls used were cadmium, chloride, cobalt chloride, copper chloride, ferric chloride' trErcuric 

chloride, manganese "nioliJ", nickel chloride, potassium dichromate and lead nitrate' 

The Philippines 

InthePhilippinestherearemanygovernrrEntagenciesdirectlylinkedwithrnnitoring 

of rnarine pollution and pollution in general' 

-Lttut"a 

of 4.5 million people and only L2-L5% in 1978 (Gornez, It81)' Coliform bacterial 

Mct pollution studies were made in the Manila Bay area, " nlqlll pop-ulated urban area 

contamination of the Bay may 8s-10o0/l00ml with a range of 200 to 

"utr"9u-"".tign 

2,m0,m0 per l00mi ,oln"."f,ôr"{-n" Natlongl. Potlution Control Council standard for 

bathing beaches ir iOOO "f*,j fifonies/fOO m. fre Pasig River draining into the Bay had e rr'rcury 

conrenr of 0.r 1o B;.;;il-fx"p.u"n tgil) wnite tfte Hmda Bay area in Palawan' into which 2 

rivers wash over cinnabar, contained o.-obl to o.zlrs ng/g. neicury in seawater and 0'm4->2 

Fe/s in sedimenr ;;;;;-;il-jelty 

(K"p;;; "l 95' til3l. The re78 fisure for mercurv in 

Manila Bay averaged l0 ppb. ffre tevJls of otnff metals in the water were reported to be 

cadmium 0-0.09, ".p;; djo.fS, iron 0.68-I.!4, nnnganese 0'08-0'18, Iead 0't5,-0'29 and zinc 

0.06-0.10 mg/litre.''Th" "our"es of helv/ *"t"1 p6uu-tion are the industrial effluents from 

metal-plating and baftery factorier, -J mine-taiting eff luents'' There are many mines in the 

Phitippines. However, the mercuryr. cadmium and lead contents of the fish' oysters and 

mussels from Manil"-slv are still under the wHo permissible limit of 0.5 ppm' 

other areas of the country are still pollution-free and beaches are beautiful and clean 

(Gomez, I98I). 

, Kapauan et al. (1979) made an extensive report m [he contente of cadmium' copper' 

lead and zinc in . ";ti;iy of ti"r,, .*""i" ana oyslurs from samples collected from diffenent 

regions in the Phild;i;;s'tuom rSir-rgiZ. A nation-wide survey of nercury and other heavv 

metal pollution in Philippine waters,-aqu"ti" rii" and sedimenti was made by the Fmd and 

Nurririon Research Institute and the P;ildpi;"" Atomic Commission (1971-1978)' Lead 

E.n"tsy 

and cadmium were determined by differeniial pulse anodic stripping voltammetry and copper 

and zinc by atomic absorption spectrophotometiy' The nesults oi tnese studies are surnrnarized 

below in Pg/g wet weiqht' 

Cd 

range avenage 

fish 0-0.129 0.009 

mussel 0-0.271 0.054 

oyster 0.054-0.45 0.181 

Cu 

range average 

g.?o5-9.9t O.97 

1.85-5.0 2.95 

10.6-54.0 tL.t 

Tfe ratio of lhese heavy rnetals in oyster/mussel/fish was: 

Cd 

Cu 

Pb 

Zn 

201 

t2l 

2.41 

16l 

6l r 

,I I 

2.81 r 

ur 

Pb 

range average 

0-0.48 0.015 

o.o?4-0,244 0.(B8 

0-0.190 0.084 

Zn 

range average 

2.59t42.' s.rl 

10.4-5t.9 L6.7 

25.6-27.9 Lr.z

Fourteen species of shellfigh 

qranosar Craesostrea cucullata and 

stations in pq/g dry weight: 

Anadara qranoss 

Crassostrea cucullata 

Mytilus viridis 

Sinqapore 

cd 

r-5 

5-8 

0-l 

Co 

- 24t 

were studied 

Mytilus viridis 

Cr 

Cu 

but 

are 

Fe 

here only the resulte of Anadara 

snmarized, with the range for ali 

5.5-9 16-18- 8-t] 560-1020 ll-r9 L6-24 7-r8 72-LO4 

4-L5 15-18 89-528 100-1070 9-22 22-tL 4-r8 650-1400 

l-I8 to-16 to-18 220-860 6-26 22'50 4'7 48-102 

Tte land area of Singapore is emall and none of its rivers are large. In addition severel 

rivers have water supply reservoirs or heve been diverted. Water storage areas have been 

established in several estuaries and so considerable effort is expended to maintain a high 

water quality for storm run-off. The quantity of pollutants discharged to the sea by rivers is 

now small. Sarage is treated to a high standerd and agricultural wasle ie small. 

(UNESCO/UNEP le80). 

The mly study available to the author m tcavy metals in t}le Singapore environment 

was by Rahman, Sien and Ping (1981) who worked on cobalt, nickel, lead and mercury in 

seawaler and sediments around Singapore. 

Thailand 

Tln values found in seawater were (pg/l): 

Co 0-0.15 

Ni 0.55-I.0 

Pb 0-40 

Hq 0 (detection limit 0.f rrq/l) 

In sediment the following levels of heavy metals were treasured (mg/g dry weight): 

Co 

Ni 

Pb 

Hg 

L2.2L 

0-9.8 

20-?8 

14.0-15.0 

Tfraitand is bordered m the south by two seas: the Gulf of Theiland to the east is part 

of South China $ea (the Pacific Ocean), and the Andeman Sea to ihe west is part of the 

Indian Ocean. The problem area is the Upper Gulf of Thailand which receives water from 4 

major rivers draining past populated cities and carrying with them waste weterr nnstly raw 

without any form of treatment. These wastes are hrgely domestic wastes from urban area8. 

Moreover, along the coast there are additional waste inputs from human settlernentsr tapioca 

flour faclories, etc. Since the Upper Gutf hes a limiLed water exchange with the Lorer Gutft 

this creates great stress m ihe Upper Gulf which is an important nursery ground for marine 

animals, including cockle farms, oyster farms, and mussel farms as well as some strrimp farms. 

Systemstic pollution monitoring of the Gutf of Thailand was started in I97, by a 

working group of scientists from several governnent agencies, with the Department of 

Fisheries -of ltre Ministry of Agriculture and Co-qeratives and the Department of Merine 

Science of Chulalongkorn University taking the lead, under the co-ordination and gonsorship 

of the National Reseanch Council. Later on the Andeman Sea coast wa8 included in the 

programme. Tle Office of the National Environrnent Board has played an increasingly greater 

role since its recent establishment. 

The monitoring and research programme m netal pollution in marine waters can be 

broadly divided into lour sectors: seawater, sediments, marine animals, and river water input. 

Ni 

Pb 

Zn

Sea water 

- 244 

The sea water in the upper Gulf of Thailand has been receiving a lol of stnesses from 

multi-purpose uses. Tfre foun'major rivers, especially the.chao Phrya River running through 

the Bangkok urban area, carry a high .oni"nt of municipal wastes, largely untreated' as well 

€$ accumulated industrial wastes from small uncontrollable industries' The oxygen level of the 

Chao Phrya River in the Bangkok area becomes low in the d.y season' However' a far as the 

n""uy meials are concerned, the levels are still normal' 

There is some controversy as to Lhe real baseline levels of trace elements in seawatert 

as is partly shown in Table I below. However, allowing for the nrethods used to obtain each 

set of figures, the discrepancies can be explained .and tire real value should be nearer to the 

first column; as methods are refined furthei, the difference could become even less' 

Table I : canparison of the trsce rnetals in seawater obtained by various workers (in pq/l) 

Ebnent Hungspreug"l(tggt) Idthikasemz(lgSr) PolprasertJ(I979) 

Cd average 

ran9e 

Cr.everage 

range 

Cu average 

ran9e 

Pb average 

range 

Zn average 

ran9e 

Total 

0. ll 

0.0J- 0.25 

2.O 

L.2- 4.4 

1.0 

r.9- 4.4 

r8.4 

t4.7- 19.9 

Sunrmary of nethods used: 

I. Hungspreugs (I981) 

Dissolved 

0.05 

0.0r- 0.16 

o.24 

o.20- a.29 

0.90 

0.50- 2.m 

0.55 

0.06- l.15 

L2.9 

10.8 -21.0 

0.I-- 1.4 

r.o-io.o 

2.0- 18.0 

i.s-ig.o 

77.t 

47.6- 87.5 

252.8 

Ltz.O-165.4 

59.5 

17.8- 70.0 

461.8 

tt4.r-560.2 

74.9 

J7.4-124.2 

Co-precipitationofmetal.APDCchelatefromacidifiedseawaterwith 

cobalt-APDC, centrifuge at 8000 rpm, stir and wash the precipiiate with..qy.Ttt 

double-distilled waterr- *ntrifug" again. Dissolve the precipitate in redistilled 

nitric acid. Measurements are -madJ in an atomic absorption spectrophotometer 

(AAS) with graphite furnace equipped with deuterium background correclion' 

Standard addition rnethod is used.' ii"an-room technique is practised. 

2. Idthikasem et al. (198f) 

Solvent extrsction of metal-APDC complex in sample into MIBK' then 

s.rbjected to air-acetylene flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer' 

). Polprasert et eL (f979) 

After ecidification of 500-1000 ml of seawater with nitric acid, evaporate in 

eglassbeakeruntitl0ml.remain,theninjecteddirectlyintotheatomic 

absorp[ion flame. 

Ssdimantt 

ttisdifficulttocomparethevaluesofheavyrnetalsinsedimentsmadebydifferent 

workers using different methods of digestion. vo"uo"er differences in grain oize of'sediments 

also influence lheir heavy metal contenti-srnalt, silt-si z-ed muds always contain a higher metal 

loed than larger sandy sediments. -A g"nerat "Lr""y of the heavy netals in ediments in the 

Gutf of Thailand is Jbwn below. Tfese were digesied in hot concenSeted nitric acid'

- 245 

Upper Gutf of Thailand, rnainly fine mud, in ppm dry weight (ldthikasem' l98l): 

cd 0.05 - 0.21 

Co 4.0 - I8 

Cu 1.8 - 2t 

Hg 0.I - 0.I) 

Pb L7 -t5 

Zn 5.8 - lI5 

Middle and Lower GuIf of Thailand (Hungspreugs, 1983) 

cd 0.rl - 0.61 

Cr 24.8 - 48.0 

Cu 9.0 - 14.0 

Pb 10.5 - 2r.0 

Zn 22.9 - 42.O 

The Andaman Sea (Hungspreugs and Yuangthong, 1982) 

cd 0.I0 - 0.17 

Cu 5.41 - 8.99 

Pb o.7r - 19.25 

Zn L2.62 - 77.50 

In the study of sediments for pollution, it is not enough to analyse only the surface 

sediment. The history of sedimentation must also be studied to detect any increase over the 

natural level caused by anthropogenic sources. This is done by analysing the metal contents 

of various strsta in the sediment core, coupled with radioactive geochronology of the core. 

Examples of such studies done elsewhere are Goldberq et al. (f979), Bentine (1978)' etc 

Windom et g. (f982) made one such study in the Upper Gulf of Thailand and found the 

sedimentation rate to be between J.J and 8.9 mm/year with the highest rate at the mouth o' 

the Chao Phnya River. 

Marine organiems 

A few euthors have reported on the heavy nretal contamination of marine organisms it 

Thai waters, namely Huschenbeth and Harms (I975), Wattayakorn et eL (L979) anl 

Hungspreugs and Siriruttanaehai (1981). Menasveta and Cheevaparanapiwat (f9Bf) 8D' 

Siwareksa et aL (f98I) worked on mercury in marine animals. Both groups found mercur 

content in-Tish to be mostly below 0.1 ppm in agneement with the nesults of Huschenbeth an 

Harms (1975). However, the local workers' values for cadmium and lead must be regarded a 

rather high, due to the inferior instrunent in use up to 1980. In the case of lead in th 

oyster Crasgotrea commercialis, Hungspreugs (1981), using an AAS with flameless graphit 

furnace-arxl cleuterium background correction, found a much lower value of around 0.)5 ppt 

dry weight for lead and 0.26 ppm for cadmium instead of the former high values of 15.0 an 

8.9 ppm respectively. The most recent values for cadmium and lead in economically importar 

bivalves are (in pS/S dry weight): 

Perna viridis 

PapnA--""0"t"t" 

Anadare qranosa 

Cressostrea commercialis 

Amusium pleuronectes 

Cd pg/g 

0.49 

o.42 

o.77 

o.26 

0.48 

Pb rrg/q 

which are all within the limits set by the Australian Nationel Heatth and Medical Researr 

Council in 1979 (1.0 for Cd and 2.5 for Pb). 

Fo fish, Huschenbeth and Harms (1975) found a range of 0.001 to 0.25 ppm f 

cadmium, 0.20 to 1.25 ppm for copper, 0.01-0.22 ppm for lead and 2.9 to 19.9 ppm for zinc 

marine fish from all major areas. 

Brown and Holley (f98]) made a study of the effect of tin dredging and smelting on t 

marine animals nearby and found no increase in metal levels in those animals. The dissolv 

netal content of the water did not change significantly. They explained that perhaps the 

0.48 

o.26 

o.47 

a.t6 

0.4I

- 246 

organisms reiect the metal particulates, so the increese in particulates had no effect on 

them. Hoff, Thompson and Wong (1982) rcported a temporary increase in nretal levels after 

mixing mine tailings wibh seawater in a laboratory experiment. 

River water study 

Up to now, the marine pollution study group has worked nninly in the sea, but recently' 

it has become clear that the cfiaracterisbics of individuel river basins, srch as their climatet 

vegetaLion, geomorphology and the mineralogical composition of their soils and rocks, 

constitute the background conditions that determine the chemical composition and quantities 

of materials carried by the rivers to the sea. The humen factors zuperimposed m the natunal 

pristine condition largely arise from technology, the culture of the inhabitants, and the 

population density. All these have a dir.ect influence on the coestal seas. To trace the 

probbms of the estuarine areas, one must go up the river to find the possible causes. It is 

thus necessary to etudy the river system. 

Conclusions and reeommendations 

The last few years have seen great progress in the ASEAN countries in the field of 

marine pollution and in marine science in general. However, this review has been limited by 

the lack of aveilable published informetion. Much recent work is not yet widely available and 

even more is in progress. 

After evaluating past studies on heavy nretal pollution and considering the rapid 

increase in recent work, a few points need to be ernphasized. Sone of these ere taken from 

the Report of ASEAN/UNEP Study Tour and Technical Workshop m Water Guality MmiLoring 

and Management, Singapore (198I) on laboratory staff training.. 

l. A training programme is needed to enable (new) staff to acquire the skills necessary for 

analytical procedures. 

2. Staff need to understand bhe meaning of the results obtained and their relationship with 

. other parameters. Thus there is a need to include a short course on concepts related to 

the Iaboratory tests performed, in addition to training in laboratory skills. 

l. Staff need to be interested in and capable of equpmenl maintenance. 

4. The competency of the staff must be regularly checked to minimize discrepancies in 

resu lts. 

5. Advanced laboratory equiprnent should not be purchased rrerely for its sophistication, but 

also for practicality and usefulness, and the ability of the rupplier to provide prompt 

and satisfactory maintenance service. 

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sediments, p. 246-250. In Biogeochemistry of Estuarine Sediments, Proceedings of a 

UNESCO/SCOR W orksh op, 197 6. 

Brown, 8.E., and M.C. Holley. 1981. Metal levels associated with tin dedging and smelting 

and their effect upon interLidal reef flats at Ko Phuket, Thailand. Journal of Coral Reef 

Research [ln press] 

ESCAP. 1980. Review of activities and consideration of issues in bhe field of the 

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Ferguson Wood, E.J. and R.E. Johennes [ed.]. L975. Tropical Marine Pollution. Elsevier, 

Amsterdam. 192p.

- 247 

Garrels, R.M. and F.T. Mackenzie. 1971. Evolution of Sedimentary rocks. 

W.W. Norton, New York, N.Y. 397 p. 

Goldberg, E.D., V.T. Bowen, T.W. Farrington, G. Herveyr .IH. Martin' P.L. Parker, R.W. 

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Goldberg, E.D., J.J. Griffin, V. Hodge, and tvl Koide. 1979. Pollution history of the Savanneh 

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Study of the Kuroshio and thFAdjacent Region, 14-17 February L979, Tokyo. 

Hoff, J.T., IA.J. Tfnmpson, and C.S. Wmg. 1982. Heavy meLal release from mine tailings 

into seawater - a laboratory study. Mar. Pollut. Bull. ll(8): 281-285. 

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in the oysters in lhe Gulf of Thailand, p, 188-195. In Proceedings of the Second Seminar on 

the Water Guality and the Ouality of Living Resources in Thai Waters, 26-28 May 1981. 

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sediments from the Hmda Bay Area in Palawan. Final Report submitted to NSDB and 

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Phitippines. UNESCO/lOC/TTMPRM ICP 18. Manila. 

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and zinc in Philippines aquatic life. Fisheries Research Journal of the Philippines 4 (I), vol 

2' P.I 

Menasveta, P. and V. Cheevaparanapivat. 1981. Total and organic mercury in marine fish of 

the Upper Gulf of Thailand. ln Proceedings of bhe Fourth Symposium on the Co-qerative 

Study of the Kuroshio and the-Adjacent Region, Tokyo, l4-I7 February, 1979. p. M9-459. 

Phillips, D.J.H. 1980a. Ouantitative aquatic biological indicators. Applied Science Publishers. 

488 pp. 

Phillips, D.J.H. I980b. Proposal for monitoring studies rr the contamination of the Eest Asian 

seas by trece rnetsls and onganochlorines. UNEP/WG 4IllNF lJ. 

Polprasert, C., 5. Vmgvisessomjai, B.N. Lohani, 5. Muttamara, A. Arbhabhirama, S. 

Traichaiyaporn, P.A. Khan, and S. Wangsuphachart. 1979. Heavy Metals, DDT and PCB in 

the Upper Gulf of Thailand. Research Report No. 105, Division of Environnental 

Ergineering, Asian Instilute of Technology, Bangkok. 1L6 p,

- 248 

Rahaman, A., C.L. Sien, and D.C.S. Ping. 1981, Pollution of waler by hydrocarbons and heavy 

melals around Singapore. Proceedings of the Second 5ymposium on Our Environment, 

Singapore, November L4-L5, L979. p. ?74-29). 

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Management, Singapore, l4-I9 December 1981. 

Sivalingam, P.M. 1980a. Bibaccumulation rnechanisms of trece netals by the Malaysian rock 

oysterr Saccostrea cucullata, under high concentration stresses, p. )45-355. In Proceedings 

of the Second Symposium m Our Environrnent, Singapore, November 14-16, 1979. 

Sivalingam, P.M. 1980b. Mercury contamination in lropical algal species of the Island of 

Penang, Malaysia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. lI: 106-107. 

Sivalingam' P.M.' and A.B. Sani. 1980. Mercuty content in hair from fishing communities of 

the State of Penang Malaysia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. ll: 188-191. 

Sivalingam, P.M., T. Ymhida, Fl Kojima, and I. Allapit,chay. 1981. Trace rnetals biodeposition 

and its extenl of pollution in coasLal molluscs, sediments and sea water samples from the 

lsland of Penang, Malaysia, p. 5t2-544. In Proceedings of ihe Fourth Symposium on the 

Co-qerative Study of the Kuroshio and the Adjacent Region, Tokyo, 14-17 February, L979. 

Sivaraksar S.r P. Oriboon, L Viriyasiripaisarn, T. Klintrimas, and T. BoonyashotmonakuL 1981. 

Mercury contenl in marine faunas, p.2)8-242. In Proceedings of the Second Seminar on the 

Water Ouality and the Guality of Living Re-sources in Thai Waters, 26-28 May, 1981. 

National Research Council. 

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p. Ill-I1). In Pacific Science Associaiion Special Symposium on Marine Seiences, Hong 

Kmg, 7-16 December 197]. 

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Finel Report, Paris, November 1980. 

Waldichuk, M. 

24r-24?. 

1980. Lead in the marine environrnent (Editorial). tvtar. Pollut. Bull. 1I: 

Wattayakorh, G., N4. Hungspreugs, and O. Chanpongsang. 1979. Accumulation of centain heavy 

metals in marine animals from the Upper Gulf of Thailand. Chulalongkorn University 

Research Journal & 37-49. 

Windom, l-l'L. 198I. Comparison of atmospheric and ri verine transport of trace elements to 

the continental shelf .environrnent, . p. t6O-t7O. In River Irputs to Ocean Systems. 

Proceedings of a SCORiUNESCO/IOC/UNEP Review Workshop, Rorne, March 1979. 

Windorn, H.L., M. Paulsen, and lvl Hungspreugs. 1982. Rates of sedimentation in the upper 

Gutf of Thailand using the lead-210 method. In Proceedings of the Second Seminar on 

Marine Science, Rang Saen, 8-10 September, lggZ [ln press], 

Yeats, P.A., J.M. Bewers, and A. Walton. 1978. Sensitivity of coastal waters to 

anthropogenic trace metal emissions. Mar. Pollut. Bull. *, 264-268.

- 249 

TIN MINI}IG AND SEDIMENTATIOI.I EFFECTS OT{ SI-IALLOW WATER BENTHIC COMMWITIES 

Hansa Chaneang 

Phuket Marine Biological Center 

P.O.Box 60, Phuket, Thailand 

ABSTRACT 

Tin mining is a rna.ior economic activity in parts of South-East Asia. Bucket 

or suction dredges are increasingly being used to mine tin deposits in shallow 

coastal areas. Dredging depreciates coastline aesthetic values and lhus hurts 

tourism. It also destroys irnporLant shallow water benthic communities such as 

coral reefs, sea grass beds and mangroves, both by physical disturbance and 

particularly by siltation. lnformation on lhe extent of damage to these resources 

is sfill limited. Sludies of coastal resources in southern Thailand are being used to 

plan measures to reduce the environrnental effects of mining activity, particularly 

as they affect tourism and fisheries. 

In South-East Asia, tin is me of the major mineral resources that are important Lo the 

national economy. Explorabion for tin ore has been conducted extensively in lndonesiat 

Malaysia and Thailand. tn 1980, Thailand produced 45,986 metric tons of tin, wort.h US$ 577 

million, making it the second major Lin producing counlry of the world (Suwansing, f982). 

Mgst of the tin ore is from the Lhree southern provinces of Ranong, Phang-nga and Phuket 

along the Andaman coast. 

Tin ore is mined as cassiterite (5nO.) which is often associated with granite and 

pegmalitesr generally in alluvial deposils m fand and in coasLal waters. Ore deposits s-r land 

are mainly mined hydraulically by what is locally known as the gravel punping npLhod. 

Dredging is used to recover mineral deposits from shallow waters and swampy areas. 

Tin mininq on land 

Gravel punping mining involves liquefying unconsolidated deposits in an open pit wi[h a 

high pressure water jet, after removing the top soil. The mixture is punrped to a slightly 

sloping sluice box. Tin ore and other heavy materials settle m t}re bottom of the sluice box 

and are prevented fnom flowing down by rows of baffles, while lighter materials are washed 

away as mine tailings. Tailings are fed into hrnded areas and old mine pits where solids 

seLtle out and water is recycled or discharged into natural water-ways. This nrethod of 

mining creates several environnental problems both during qeraLion and after t}re mines are 

abandmed. 

One of the most obvious problems is surface water pollutionr although regulations exist 

regarding the diseharge of water into natural water-ways. Tle limit on the amount of 

*rspended solids in discharged water is high (6 q/l)p and often the regulations are not 

enforced. During the rainy season, runoff from lailings areas and someLimes the failure of the 

embankments of relention ponds result in liquid waste Btreams rich in zuspended materials. 

This lesds to highly turtid waters and sediment deposition in the water-ways and coastal 

waters, particularly in protected bays in areas of intensive mining.

- 250 

In addition, mining degrades the value of the land for agriculture or reforestation. Mct 

mining areas were originalla agricultural land or natural forests. Tq soils are Femoved during 

the mining process. Once the operation oeases, a large pit perhaps 15 m deep is usually left' 

with big fiies of stones and gravel scattered around on an uneven surface covered with fine 

and coarse sand. Very few plants can grow and the area is subiect to severe erosion during 

the rainy season. 

Kitching (f9S2) estimated the area covered by tailings and the annual addition to these 

areas in Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand as follows: 

Coastal dredoino 

Malaysia 

Indonesia 

Thailand 

Tailings area 

(ha) 

208,m0 

82,m0 

5l,mo 

Annual increrrent 

(ha) 

2,000 

400 

100 

In Tfrailand and Indonesia, offshore and coastal mining has inereased in recent years. In 

1980 over 50% of tin production in Thailand came from coastal waters. Production from 

coastal waters is increasing as mshore deposits become depleted. 

Coastel mining csuses two major types of environmental damage. It results in the 

depreciation of eoaitline aesthetic values through turbid water, mud deposition on the 

boltom, and changing the monphology of the shoreline if dredging is done close to shore. It 

also destroys importlnt shallow water benthic habitats sch as coral reefs, sea grass beds, 

mangrove swamps and other benthic communities by direct destnuction or by disturbence from 

sedimentation. Tfese coastal habitats are known to be highly productive and are important 

breeding and mtrsery gnounds for commercially valuable marine orqanisms. 

Mct mininq effects are from physical distuiance, mainly from siltation and direct 

destruction. There are no reports of chemical hazards from tin mining, a potentially toxic 

heavy metals are seldom found. Although lead and arsenic are associated with cessiterite in 

some localities, they generally occur in small amounts in insoluble forms. 

Dredging is the method used to remove ore deposits from swamp areas and shallow 

waters down to about J0 metres. The nethods were adapted from canal or harbour dredging 

and were first applied to tin mining in Phuket Bay, Thailand in 1907. Tte sediment is brought 

up either by bucket ladder or suction. Tin ore is separated by gravity as in land based mines. 

Tailings are discharged directly from the rear of the dnedge. Tlc heavy fractions immediately 

sink to the botLom wnile fine particles form a turbid plume and are distributed in the vicinity 

of the dredge depending upon the current regime before settling out. 

Tfe types of dredge widely accepted as efficient in retrieving tin ore are the ladder 

type chain hrcket dredqe and the suction'dredge. Tte former was lhe first kind of dredqe 

used in shoreline and offshore mining. This type of bucket dredge generates sediment plunes 

from all parts of its operation: dredging sediment from the bottom, transporting it up the 

ladder and discharging taitings. Such a dredge.can generate quite substantiel amounts of 

suspended sediment. If can remove up to IrI40 m-/hr of sediment and operate 24 hours a day. 

In protected areas, it can operate up to 300 days a year. The suction type dredges are of 

srnaller size and involve less capital investment. The suspended sediment plurne is generally 

created by releasing the mine tailings back into the surface waters. A thltd type of dredge 

eommonly found in Thailand is the diver guided zuction dredge. These were. modified from 

fishing boats when near-shore dredging began l0 years ago. These small dredges are 

concentrated in shallow water up to I8 metres deep along the coast of Phang-nga province in 

the concession area of the provincial government. The method employed uses the same 

principle as the larger zuction dredge. With a diver guiding the suction headr they can 

selectively coltect the'rich deposits. Hor,rrever, the small size of their sluice box makes them 

inefficienl in separating ore from tailings. In l98l there were some 5,(I)0 boatg in qeration. 

This large number of Loats can cause rather serious destruction and sedimentation in the 

aree. Hor^rever, no informetion is available m the extent of environnental damage created by 

these srnall boats.

- 251 

Most of the coastal mining in Thailand is along the wes! coast of Phang-nga Province 

facing the Andamarr Sea. Weather conditions limit mining in ihese areas to the calm seas of 

the northeast monsoon (November-April) each year. When in operation, the sediment plunn 

from an aggregation ot small boats or from large dnedges can easily be detected by satellite. 

Effects of minino 

Within the last few years, the effects of mining in coastal waters have created public 

concern in Thailand with respect to both the aesthetic value and the produclivily of coastal 

ecosystems. Public reaction also depends upon the location of the dredging. Mast concern 

arises from conflicts of interest in the utilizetion of coastal resources by various sectors. For 

this reason, some informaLion is available regarding potential environmental damage lo 

resources from mining off the west coast of Phuket Island, although mining on the west coast 

is recent in companison to the 75 years of mining on the east coast and in Phang-nga Bay. 

The main issue concerns the mining of rich deposits along ihe west coast which have become 

popular resorLs because of [heir beautiful sandy beaches and clear waters. Income from 

tourism has become more important locally and nationally at about the sarne time as tin 

deposits m land have become depleted after more than 100 years of mining m Phuket Island. 

Recently, the National EnvironmenLal Board of Thailand has completed a I year study of the 

physical environment and living resources of Lhe coastal waters. The sLudy will be used for 

future planning of nesource utilization to minimize zuch conflicts of inLerest and lo prepare 

measufes to decrease environmental damage from mining qerations. 

In brief, these studies found turbulent water movement up to 40 netres depth along Lhe 

shore (Charoenlaph, 1982). Therefore any s-rspended solids brought up dredging would spread 

along the coast, mly settling out at a speed determined by the current velocity. Unless 

measures can be taken to limit plume distribution effectively, the water quality of several 

beach resorts will be affected. Mininq close to shore could also cause beach instability. 

Corel reefs 

With regard to effecls on benthic communities along the west coast, coral reefs are 

identified as one of the major fesources affected by mining activities. An inven[ory of reef 

resources (Chansang et al., 1982) showed that fringing reefs are found along the west'coas[ 

within bays and along proLected shorelines. Since reefs are highly valued both their unique 

attractiveness and their importance as highly productive resources, the destruction of coral 

reefs has been one of the major issues, together with turbidity, in the public debate about 

mining. The same reporl showed that in Bang Tao Bay on the west coast with ongoing 

dredging act,ivity, the reef areas covered by dead coral arc 67.7Yo on the norlhern side and 

62.wo on the southern side. All dead corals are covered by sediment. At the northern reef, 

sediment may also have come from the land in the pasL, as there is sttbstantial land accreLion 

at the mouth of a canal draining in[o the bay at lhe norlhern end. 

In general, tJre ef f eets of sedimentation upon coral reef s ate guite well known 

(Johannes, 1975; Bak, f978). Drawing on the results of various investigators, Loya (f976) 

summarized the detrimental effec[s of sedimentation on corals as follows: a) causing the 

deaLh of corals when they are heavily coated or buried by sediments, b) reducing coral 

growth potential directly by abrasion and smothering and indirectly by blocking lighl' c) 

inhibiting coral planulae settlement and development and d) modifying the growth of corals 

sometimes toward lhe evolution of forms rnore resistant to sedimentation. 

The damaged reefs at Bang Tao Bay are clear evidence of the effect of uncontrolled 

mining operalions. In trying io accommodate dredging activity while maintaining water quality 

and preserving the environnent in some localities, ari the National Env.ironmental Board 

intends, one of the main challenges will be to establish water quality standards in dredging 

areas on a sound scientific basis to ensure that both immediate and long lerm effects of 

increasing turbidity will not occur. lt is quite likely that the mining indus[ry would object to 

any high water quality standard since the technology for limiLing plume distribution has not 

yeL been tried in tin dredging and since capital investment would be higher. Howeverr a 

compromise in the water quality standard would mean increased long term turbidity which 

would be likely to affect both coral reefs and tourism. Coral reefs along the west coast of 

Phukel are already in more turbid waters than other known reefs which attract tourism; 

increasing turbidity would reduce their value even further. Changes in their community 

structure are also possible.

Marine fauna and flora 

- 252 

Besides the direct effect on corals, which are the building blocks of reefs, the effects 

of turbidity m the associated fauna and flora have not been studied. Poopetch et aL (1982) 

reported on a preliminary investigation of the effect of sediment on larvae of -tre spiny 

lobster Panulirus versicolor. The median lethal concentration was about l)B ppm of s.rspended 

solios offi-F6uE-ti general, the reproductive phases and early stages of aquatic animals 

are partieularly vulnerable to disturbance by suspended solids and sediments (Muncy et e!.' 

I979). 

The effect of mining m rnacroinvertebrate communities of the sandy bottom along the 

west coast of Phuket has been studied by Nateewathana et al. (1982). In the vicinity of a 

dredging site, benthic macrofauna decreases in density, biomass and gecies composition. TfE 

effeet is localized, and recolonization occurs afLer a certain peniod of time. The dredging 

effect is superimposed m natural fluctuations due to sea states associated with the monsoon 

seasons. At present, it is not possible to predict the full recovery of benthic macrofaunal 

populations affected by mining. However, Lhe data show that [his would require more than a 

year. With respect to the effect of dredging on benthic macnofauna which are food for 

demersal fishes, the present mining activity in Bang Tao 8ay would have a minimal effect on 

the demersal fishery of the west coast. However, most of the west coast areas have potential 

value for tin dredging. Therefore, the significance of the effect of dredging m the demersal 

fishery of the west coast wilt depend upon lhe extent of mining acLivity. 

The studies sponsored by Nalional Environrnental Board do not provide information on 

the importance of these areas as breeding and nursery grounds. Trawling has shown tha[ the 

gravid females of certain cornmercially important prawns, Penaeug monodon, l. . j493tus and 

P. merquensis, are found off the west coast of Phuket. Other circumstanLial evidence also 

GOiEates tFat [hese areas may be breeding grounds for squid. Squid are commonly netted in 

coastal waters from November lo February. AL the same time, squid eggs are often brought 

up by bottom lrawls. Hence the possible effect of dredging activity upon populatlons of these 

commercially important species is unknown. 

Mangrover 

Apart from information available from the west coast study' not much is known 

regarding the effects of tin dredging or tailings run off on other shallow watet benthic 

communities. In protected bays in the tropics, strorelines are usually fringed with mangrove 

vegetation and shallow bottorns are covered by sea grasses and macroalgae. These mangrove 

fringe estuaries are known to be highly productive and also to serve as nursery grounds for 

rnarine organisms living offshore. In some of the mangrove bays along the Andaman coaett 

dredging or sediment accumulation from tailings have been going on for a long time. No 

informalion is available regarding the extent of environmental change or the effect of mining 

activity m product.ivity in the bays. Within these J provinces, the whole area of )9'000 ha of 

mangrove forests contains tin ore. The Royal Forestry Department has a large scale project 

for ieplanting mangrove trees in abandmed mining areas. Tfn regeneretion of seedlinqs after 

dredging is quite successful compared to planting areas damaged by other mining methods. 

Althougtr mangrove trees are known Lo thrive in turbid water with high sedimentation' the 

trees can Ue litleA by zuffocation of aerial roots if the sedimentation nate is higher than 

under naLural conditions (Odum -and Jotrannes, 1975). In some areas of Phuket, large stands of 

rnangrove trees were killed by siltation from land based mines nearby. The accretion of 

sediment from mining rnay also chanqe the composition of the soil, making natural 

regeneration of mangrove seedlings rnore difficult or altering the forest community. 

Not rnuch is known about the effects of sedimentation on food webs in estuarine 

ecosystems and on impairment of the area as a nursery ground. This can only be inferred 

from the general effects of turbidity and sedimentation on the estuarine ecosystem 

elsewhere.

Sea grarsea 

- 25t 

Arnong the various tropical shallow water benthic communities, r*a grass communities 

are probably the least studied, althouqh it is generally accepted that Lhey are among the 

highest in productivity. Their importance as nursery sreas and as a source of food zupply to 

coastal ecosystems via the detritus food web is generally recognized. The distribution and 

productivity of the sea grass beds in the Andaman Sea are not yet known. They are generally 

found near reef areas and as patches in estuaries from low tide level down [o a depth of 

about I metres. Besides their importance as a shallow water habitat for marine organisms and 

as primary producers, turtles and dugongs feed directly m sea grasses. Dugongs reared in 

captivity at the Phuket Marine Biological CenLer were fed Halophila ov*' a common see 

grass species in the area. 

Reviewing the ef f ect of pollution m tropical sea grass ecosystem, Zieman (f975) 

stated: "of all forms of man-made or induced disturbanees of the estuarine and near-shore 

environments, dredging and filling presents lhe greatest potential for damage to the sea grass 

beds and has undoubtedly eaused the destruction of more desirable grass bed habitat than any 

other form of pollution.r' 

Besides direct physical destruction, the secondary effecLs can be far more gerious 

depending upon the intensity of dredging. Turbidity reduces light availability to sea grasses in 

nearby areas, Fauna associated with grass beds or m the bottom could be smothered by 

exeess sedimentation, or suffocated by low oxygen levels due to the high oxygen demand of 

the organic matter dredged up from anoxic layers. 

Changing sediment composition would change both the flora and fauna of bottom 

communiLies, not only of grass beds. These organisms are either food for commercially 

important species or young stages of such species. Therefore mining effects m lhe production 

of bottom communities need to be estimated. 

Conclusion 

In conclusion, the effects of tin mining on shallow water ben[hic communities are both 

direct and indirect. The direct effect is the physical destruction at the mining site by 

dredging. The secondary effect is the disturbance of surrounding areas by suspended 

sediment. Tlere is no evidence for other effects from mining besides disLurbance by 

sedimentation. Sediment from mining ha6 caused the death of corals in the vicinity and 

decreased the population of other benthic macroinvertebrates. Recovery of benthic 

macrofaunal populations after mining is possible. At present no information is availabb on 

the extent of damage from mining to other benthic communities sr.rch as see grasses or the 

detrital bse food web of tnengrove fringe estuarine ecosystems

- 254 

REFERENCES 

Bak' R.P. 1978. Lethal and sublethal effects of dredging on reef corels. Marine Pollution 

Bulletin 9(l):14-16. 

Chansang, l{r P. Boonyanate and M. Charuchinda. 1982. Status of eoral reefs along the aouth 

and west coasts of Phuket Island, Thailand lin Tfrai] Technical report strbmitled to the 

National Environrnental Board, Bangkok, Theiland. 

Charoenlaph' J. 1982. Preliminary report of a study of cument patterns along the west coaet 

of Phuket Island, Thailand. Report presented at Joint ThaiJ4anese Symposium on 

Mangroves and Marine science, )-5 september 1982. phuket, Thailand. 

Johannes' R.E. 1975. Pollution and degredation of coral reef communities, p. lI-51. In E.J. 

Ferguson Wood and R.E. Jotrannes [ed.], Tropical marine pollution. Elsevier, Amsterd-am. 

Kitching' FlW. 1982. Environmental msnagement in mineral resources development, p. 19-48. 

In Proceedings of the working group meeting m environmental management in mineral 

resource development. Mineral Resources Development Series No. 49. United Nations, New 

York. 

Loya' Y. 1976. Effect of water turbidity and sedimentation on the community structure of 

Puerto Rican corels. Bull. Mar. Sci. 25(4):450-466. 

Muncy' R.J.' C.J. Atchison, R.V. Bulkley, B.W. Menzal, LC. Perry, and R.C. Summerfelt. 

1979. Effects of suspended solids and sediment on reproduction and early-life of warm 

water fishes: e review. u.5. Environmental protection Agency, EpA 6uolJ-7i-o42. l0r p. 

Nateewathana, A.J. Hylleberg and B. Chatrananthavej. 1982. Effect of sedimentation from 

offshore mining on benthos of wesL coast of phuket Island lin Thai] Technical report 

submitted to the National Environmental Board, Bangkok, Thailand. 

Odum, W.E. and R.E. Johannes. L975. TrF response of mangroves to man-induced 

environmental stress, p.5)-62. In E.J. Ferguson Wood and R.E. Jotrannes [ed.] Tropical 

marine pollution. f lsevier, AmsteTdam. 

P1ol1t:h' 

J.'_99 3!. 1982. Potential effects of offshore tin mining on marine ecology, p. 

70-74. In Proceedings of the working group meeting on environmental managemenr in 

minenal -resource development. Mineral- Resources Sevelopment Series No. 49. United 

Netions, New York. 

Suwansing, P. 1982. The environmental manegement of mineral resource development in 

Tfniland' p. lll-1I8. In Proceedings of lhe working group meeting on environmental 

m€nagement in mineral -resounce devJlopment. Mineraf Resources Dev6lopment Series No. 

49. United Nations, New York. 

Zieman' J.C. 1975. Tropic_al pa grass ecosystems and pollution, p. 63-74. In E.J. Ferguson 

Wood and R.E. Jotrannes [ed.]. Tropical Marine pollution. Elsevier, Amsterda-am.

- 25' 

SOUTH-EAsT PACIFIC REGIOT{

Backqround 

- 257 

ACTIO{ PLAN FOR TI-E PROTECTION tr TI€ MARITf ENVIROiIMENT 

AID COASTAL AREAS tr TIf SOUTH{AsT PACIFTC 

Luie Arriaga N'L 

Cornision Permanente del Pacifico Sur 

Prez 37O y Robles 6oP, Guito, Ecuador. 

ABSTRACT 

The five countries bordering the Pacific eoast of South Anrerica (Colombia, 

Chiler Ecuador, Peru and Panama) met in a conference of Plenipotentiaries in 

November I981 to sign the I'Aetion Plan for the Protection of the Marine 

Environnent and Coastal Areas of the South-Eest Pacific", which includes five 

cornponents: Environrnental Assessment; Environmental Managementl a Legal 

Component; Institutional and Financial Arrangements; and SupporLing Measures. 

The conferenee also approved a 'fCmvention for the Protection of the Marine 

Environnent and Coastal Area of the South-East Pacifict'and an "Agreement on 

Regional Co-ryeration in Combating Pollution of the South-East Pacific by 

Hydrocarbans and other Harmful Substances in Cases of Ernergencyr'. This paper 

describes the activities in progness to implement the Action plan. 

The member stales of the Permanent Commission of the South Pacific (CPPS, originally 

Chile' Ecuador and Peru, with Colombia joininq in 1979), adopted as an activity of "o;n1non 

interest the s[udy of the prob.lems of marine pollution in the South-East paciiic, with the 

goal of developing regional co-qeration for the protection of the marine environment. 

The first regional activity was a sunvey on pollution in the South-East Pacific (Chile, 

Ecuador and Peru) in 1975 wit,h the support of FAO. As a result, a CppS/FAO/1OC/UNEp 

International Workshop m Marine Pollution in the South-East Pacific took place in Santiago 

de Chile (November, 1978)' with the participation of the five states of the region: Colomb'rla, 

Chile' Ecuador, Panama and Peru. This nreeting laid the basis for the Regional Action plan 

which is being executed at Bhe present time. 

In 1979' the Governinq Council of lhe United Nations Environment programme (UNEp) 

ryproved the inclusion of lhe South-East Pacific as one of Lhe areas in ttre tf{Ep Regional 

Seas Programme. This has encouraged the application of the Regional Seas 4proach: to 

establish Bhe causes and consequences of environrnental degrJdation, and Lo combat 

environmental problems through an integrated regional 4proach to the management of the 

coastal and rnarine areas. 

Preparstory phase of the Action Plan (Julv l9B0 - December l98l) 

A UNEP-funded project permitted the analysis of the pollution problems, the existing 

capacity for research and management, and the legal framewonk for environmental protectionl 

as related to the marine environnent and coastal areas of the South-East Pacific. Based on 

this informalion, the Action Plan and its programmes were elaborated. The main results of 

this phase were ari follows:

1. 

2. 

258 

Surveys of sources, levels and effects of marine pollution in Colombia, Chile, Ectrador, 

Panama and Peru during 1980 (CPPS, 1981), including: 

- Pollution by domestic wastes; 

- Pollution by industrial wastes; 

- Pollution by pesticides and herbicides; 

- Pollution by oil; 

- Legislation relaled to the protection of the marine environment end the 

administrative structure for environnental managementl and, 

- Bibliography on marine pollution in the South-Eat Pacific. 

Publication of the "t .,lEP-CPPS Directory of South-East Pacific Marine Science 

Research Centres, 198I" which includes information on specialists, technical facitities 

and programmes. 

t. Oil Spill Cmtrol Training Course (Cpps/UNEp/IMco/covernrnenr of Chile, Vina del 

Mar, Chile, 6 to 15 April, I98f). 

4. Workshop: The Legal Practice for the Protection of the Marine Environrnent against 

Pollution (Bogota, Colombia, 4-8 May, 1981). 

5. Meeting of Experts to Review the Draft Action Plan for the Protection of lhe Marine 

Environment and Coastal Areas of the South-East Pecif ic (Lima, Peru, 2I-25 

September, 1981). 

6. Conference of Plenipotentiaries of Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, Panama and Peru (Lima, 

Peru, 9-I2 Novemberr l98l), which approved: the Action Plan for the South-East 

Pacific; an [Agreernent for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastel Ares 

of the South-East Pacific", an "Agreement sl Regional Co-qeration in Combating 

Pollution of the South-East Pacific by Hydrocarbms and other Harmful Substances in 

Cases of Emergencylrl and, the "lnstitutional and Financial Arrangements for the 

Irnplementation of the Action Plan in the South-East Pacific Region" (UNEP-CppS, 

1982). 

Characteristics of t.he Action Plan 

'rThe geographical area for the application of the Action Plan includes the marine 

environrnent and the coastal areas of the following states: Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, panama 

and Peru". 

The goals of the Aetion Plan are as follows: 

"The evaluation of lhe present conditions of the marine environrnent and coastal 

areas...", with the aims of giving advice to the Governnents for the protection of such 

areas and of establishing negional co-qeration in this field; 

"The adequate management of the activities that can affect the quality of the marine 

environment and coastal areas and the development of measures to obt,ein the criteria 

to determine the economic impact of ecological damage"; 

"The formulation of legal instruments, national and regional, for the protection of the 

manine environtnent and coastal areas'r, advice to the Governments on the application 

of International Agreements such as the International Maritime Organizalion (lMO) 

conventionsr and the tlimplementation of legal measunes to obtain compensation due to 

ecological damage" as a result of oil spills, etc.; and 

rrThe establishment of institutional, financial and supporting rneans'r for the execution 

of the Action Plan, "including the structure and mechanisms of netional and regional 

co-ordinaiion". 

Tfre eomponents of the Action Plan, in accordance with the above-mentioned goals are 

the following:

- 259 

Tte Envirannrantal Areasmcnt component aims to provide a scientific basie for the 

implementation of the other components of the Plen. This includes activities to determine the 

quality of the marine environrnent and coestel areas through the study of the preduninant 

pollutants in the region in all their aspects (sources, coneentration, dispersion, persistence, 

ef f ects, transf ormetions). 

Tl]e Jirst step in this component is to gtandardize nethodologies in the region and to 

promote efficiency in the research institutions, in particular by incorporating activities for 

training personnel in every programme. 

This component also cells for ecological studies in areas of special interest (mangrove 

swampsr coastal lagoons, estuaries, areas for species reproduction, etc.), as a basis for 

evaluating the effects of pollutants. 

The Envirmmcntel Managarncnt component focuses sr the formulation and ryplication 

of programmes to pteventr monitor, reduce and control the pollution of the marine 

environment and coestal areas, whatever the pollutants. 

This component includes the preparation of standards for the discharge of domestic, 

miningr industrial and agricultural wastes as well as of criteria m waler quali[y for different 

u8e8. 

It likewise includes assistance to the governrnents to establish or strengthen their 

institutional capabilities and the co-ordination rnechanisms fon adequate environmental 

management, including personnel training for such activities. 

The Legal Companent seeks to establish the legal framework for the protection of the 

marine environment and coastal areas, as well as to ensure the necessary implementation. 

Several activities in this legal component are foreseen: analysis of the legal institutions 

provided for in the United Nations Convention m the Law of the Sea that are 6oncerned with 

the protection and preservation of Lhe marine environrnent, and their regional application; 

promulgation or modification of national legislation for the applicatiori of the'regionai 

agreements adopted in Lima in 1981, toqether with the Action Plan and others that mly be 

adopted in the future; maintenance of an updated register of national Iegislation related to 

the zubjects of the Action Phn; advice Bo the governnents on the application of other 

international agreenrents for the protection of tht marine environrnent to which they are 

party (e.9.' IMO Cmventions); adoption of complementary protocols such as on pollution of 

the marine environment from land sources; pollution as result of the exploration and 

exploitation of the Continental Shelf; responsibility and compensation for damages dle to the 

pollution of the marine environmentl scientif ic and technical co-qeration; and special 

protected areas. 

The Inrtitutiond end Financid Arrengements component defines the institutional 

structure end the mechanisms for co-ordination of the Action Plan, as well as the means for 

its financing. The institutional structure includes: 

- Tfn General Authority (Autonidad General, AG) of the Action Plan, with representatives of 

the governnents (intergovernmental meetings), responsible for the evaluation of lhe 

progre$ of the Action Plan, the approval of the proqrammes and their financing; 

- The Conerltativa Group (Grupo Cmsultivo, GC), constituted by experts nominated by the 

governncnts to analyee and to give advice on the scientific and technical aspecis of 

the Plan; 

- The Rcaimal Co-ordinetion Unit (Unidad Coordinadora Regionat, UCR), which is the 

General Secretariat of the Permanent Cornmission of tnJ Soulrr pacific, and which 

handbs relations with nationel focal points and international organizations; 

- The Nationd Focel Pointe (Punto Focal Nacional, pFN), one in each country, responsible for 

bhe co-ordinetion of the programmes within the country and for liaison with-the uCR; and 

- The Natimal lrutitutime (Irntituciones Nacionales, lN), which are appointed by the 

governrEnts [o execute specific technical work under the Action Plan.

- 260 

Supportirg trllrrret for the other components provide for the following: the facilities 

that the inslitutions must furnish to execute specific projects; the organization of workshops 

or other pecial nnetings related to the Action Plan; the granLing of fellowships to train 

personnel within or outside the region; the execution of systematic publicity campaigns; and 

the inclusion of environrnental protection concepts in educational pnogrammes. 

Execution of the Action Plan 

With the s.lpport of UNEP, the following activities are being executed under the Aetion 

Plan in 1982-1981: 

Preparatim of ryccific programme! (by consultants) 

- Preparation of an updated review m marine pollution from land baeed sources in the 

South-Eaet Paeific region 0rlovember 1982 - February l98l). 

- Preparation of a draft programme to rnonitor and control marine pollution by oil, as well as 

by domestic, industrial and agricultural sources (November lgBZ - February lggl). 

- Preparation of a draft contingency'plan Lo combat oil pollution in case of emerqency 

(November 1982 - February l98l). 

- Preparation of a draft protocol to control marine pollution from land based sources (June 

1982, already accomplished). 

- Preparalion of a draf t complementary protocol concerning co-operation in combating 

pollution by oil in cases of emergency (December I982). 

- Preparation of a draf t programme to carry out baseline ecologieal studies f or the 

assessnEnt of freavy metals, some organic materials, and the ;ffect of pollution on 

selected marine ecological communities (November 1982 - February l98l). 

Wor*ehqe, Meetirqs, eLc. 

- Workshop of legal and technical experts to review and revise the draft protocol on marine 

pollution from land based sources in the south-East pacific region (Gluito, Ecuador, 

27-J0 Sept., L982, already accomplished). 

- Workshop of the Consultative Group of legal and technical experls to review and revise 

draft programmes and protocols (prepared by consultants) for the South-East pacific 

(Guito, Ecuador, ll-15 April, 198]). 

- Workshop on intercalibration methods for monitoring marine pollution in the South-East 

Pacifie (Lima, Peru, 9 - 14 May I98l). 

- Meeting of the General Authority of the south-East pacific Aetion plan (Guito, Ecuador, 

June l98f). 

Although the Action Plan for the South-East Pacific is only in lhe early phases of 

implemenlation, it demonstrates the usef ulness of an integra[ed regional approach to the 

management of coastal and marine areas. 

REFERE.NCES 

CPPS. I98I. Series Seminars and Studies, 2:L-)88. 

UNEP-CPPS. 1982. Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Action Plan for the proteclion of 

the Marine Environment and Coastal Areas of the South-East Pacific, Final Act, Lima, 

Peru, 9-12 November I98I. UNEp-CppS llc.tLl4.

Introduction 

- 26r 

MARIT.IE POLLUTION IN TI-E SOUTH-EAsT PACIFIC 


Cornision Permanente del pacifico Sur 

Prez JlO y Robles, 5oPiso, euito, Ecuador 

ABSTRACT 

From studies done as part of the Action Plan for the South-EasL pacific 

(UNEP-CPP$), the fotlowing cases of marine pollution stand out: (a) the Gulf of 

Panama, which receives domesLic effluents with an organic load estimated at 

12,100 tons BOD/year (101900 from the city of panama] and wastes from 574 

industries (88.6% from the city of Panama); (b) Buenaventura Bay (Colombia)r 

which receives some 4r[I]0 tons BOD/year in domestic sewage, plus discharges 

from 57 industries and oil and lubricants dumped in the port;-(c) Estuary of lne 

Gulf of Guayaquil (Ecuador), whose domestic effluents contain an organic load 

estimated at 19,900 tons BOD/year and wastes from 856 registered inJustries as 

well as durnped fuel and lubricants; (d) the Lima-Callao area (peru), with domestic 

effluents containing 87'5Og tons BOD/year, wastes from 622 industries and dumped 

fuel and lubricants; and (e) Bay of Concepcion-San Vicente Bay (Chile), which 

receives domestic sewage with 6,X10 tons BOD/year, and wastes from L4 

important industries creating pollution problems from active chlorine and mencury 

and other heavy nre[als. Tfe activities to talte place in the present phase of the 

Action Plan are zummarized. 

The zurveys done as part of the activities of the'rAction Plan for the protection of 

the Marine Environrnent and Coastal Areas of the South-East Pacific, have permitted an 

evaluation of the sources' levels and effects of manine pollution in the region, of the 

institutional structure for research and environmental management, and of lhe existing legal 

fremework for pollution prevention and control, 

The Action Planr which is supported by UNEPTs Regional Seas Programme, covers the 

waterg of the Eastern Pacific along the coasts of Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, peru and 

Chile. The Permanent Commission of the South Pacific (CPPS) is responsible for regional 

co-adination. 

_ This psper presents a summary review of rnarine pollution problems in the South-Est 

Prcific region, emphasizing the nrost relevant facts. 

MARINE POLLUTION IN THE SOUTH.EAST PACIFIC 

Tfp main potlution problems in the South-East Pacific region result from: discharges 

from the major cities of the region of dqnestic and industrial effluents, mainly without 

treetment; industrial effluents, especially from mining and fishing industries located in areas 

outside of the main cities; and the dunping or spilling of oil. There is very limited 

information about pollution by pesticides and other srbgtances. 

In rlecting ereas with major pollution problems (Figures I and 2), the criteria were: 

the simultaneous (Ecurrence of domesLic and industrial effluents; areas wbject to a great 

volurne of waste o tailinge from mining industries; and the risk of oil pollution from major oil 

pipeline terminals, rcfineries, etc.

G.DEOIIRIQUI 

e.oe PANAMA 

lail 

A|-TE] DuEt{avE 

- TUrlACo 

A rgr,.E.neto^s, 

lllt_Ao 

VTA'\rTA 

A LA LIBERTAD 

PFN. Dg STA.E[rrJA 

Itto*^ 

BATOVAT 

lf 

CHIMB{)TE 

OAg'ttff 

cuaveeurl Fca-l 

PYO, BOLTVAI 

rLo 

IQUIQUE 

Q rocorrrr-e 

Q cnrFrnL 

HUASCO 

coqutMBc) 

- 

vrFa oet Mlr 

VALPATAISO 

AE coNcEpcroN 

- 262 

Domestic wastes 

(thousand tons BOD/yr 

A Oif pollution (wells, 

ref ineries, terminals) 

O uining tailings ESI,DE *ucelr ilgSA 

Figure I: Areas of the South-East Pacific with major pollution problems

CANAL DE FArrAMil 

A\ ) PANAMA 

BAHIA OET 

BUENAV€r.tTURA; 

;PftiX 

- 265 

LA LIAERTAD 

PE}.JINSULA DF 

SA'{TA ELENA 

CONCEPCION 

Figure 2 : Areas of major eontamination in the south-East prcific 

2a. Gulf of Panama 

2c. Gutf of Guayaquil 

2b. Buenaventure Bay 

2d. Lirns-Callao 

2e. Bay of Cmcepcion-San Vicente Bay

- ?64 

Theoretical values for the organic load were used as an indicaton of pollution by 

domestic wasles. This organic load, expressed as Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)' was 

estimaLed for the population with seweraqe services using the following factors:25 

kg/person/year (non-treated wastes) and 20 kg/person/year (treated wastes). Direct measures 

of BOD are practically non-existant in the region. 

The following areas include the most relevant eases of pollution in the South-East 

Pe ific. 

Gulf of Panama 

Cmcerning pollution by domestic wartes, Kwiecinsky (1.98I) determined that oven 45 

million tons of sewage are discharged by Panama into the Pacific Ocean, of which more than 

90% does not receive Lreatment. The total organic load neaches about I2r500 lons BOD/year 

(Tabb 1I Of this amount, I2rl00 tons BOD/year (96.8%) enters the Gulf of Panama (Figure 

2a), elmost entirely in the Bay of Panama: 10,900 tons BOD/year coming from the city of 

Panama (570,m0 inhabitants in 1980); and 800 tons BOD/year from the Canal terminal in the 

Pacific Ocean (Belboa). The remaining 300 tons includes indirect discharges through six rivers 

(Zarati, Oria, La Villa, Santa Maria and Guarare) which flow in the Gulf of Panama. 

Tabb I : Estimated organie load from domestic wastes in the South-East Pacific region 

(zurveys from the South-East Pacific Action Plan) 

PANAMA 

Pacific coast 

Gulf of Panama 

COLOMBIA 

Pacific coast 

Buenaventura Bay 

ECUADffi. 

Total coast 

Guayaquil Gulf (Rio Guayas basin) 

PERU 

Total coast 

Lima-Callao 

CHILE 

Total coaet 

Maipo River basin 

Cmcepcion Bay-San Vicente Bay 

Organic load (thousand tons BOD/year) 

Direct Indirect 

Total 

discharqes discharges 

ll.9 

ll.8 

5.6 

4.0 

7.1 

? 

97.9 

87.5 

2L.7 

l.r 

0.5 

0.1 

t,: 

4L.7 

19.9 

J.t 

? 

80.0 

56.4 

t.4 

L2.5 

12. I 

9.? 

4.0 

48.8 

19.9 

I0l. ? 

87.5 

101.7 

56.4 

6.5 

With reference to industrial walte pollution, rnost industries in the country are located 

in and around the city of Panama, but it is not possible to obtain reliable data about the 

volune and characteristics of the effluents. From the 76I industries nrentioned in the zurvey 

dme by Kwiecinsky (1981), 674 (88.6%) discharge into the Gulf of Panama, directly or 

through rivers, nnstly in the Bay of Panama. Table 2 shows the kind and number of industries 

whose residues are discharged directly or indirectly 'into the Gulf of Panama. 

The sources of oil pollutim in the Bay of Panama include: (i) the suPply qerations and 

dunping in the port of Balboa; and (ii) dunping by the fishing fleet (100 ships) in Vacamonte 

port (Vergara and Pizarro, f98L). Date m oil pills in Panama Bay are shown in Table ]. 

Tlcse figures from Vergara and Pizarro (I98I) are significantly lower than Lhose given by 

Kwiecinsky (1981), who indicated .funping of fuels and lubricants in Vacemonte port 

averaging 2,m0 barrels/yeer (lI8 m') and less than I00 bamels/year in Balboa, the Panama 

Canel terminal.

Kind 

- 265 

Tabb 2 : Industries discharging dinectly or indirectly into the Gulf of Panama 

(from Kwiecinsky, 1981) 

Fmd Irdustries Chemical and other industries 

Number Kind Nurnber 

Fisheries 

Sugar 

Milk 

Cured neat, slaughterhouses 

Fruit, vegetables 

Oils, fats 

Breweries, .distilleries, etc. 

Mills (coffee, rice) 

Others 

Total 

tA 

t 

L2 

2 

') 

12 

l8 

5t 

4t 

187 

Frequency of spills 

Average spill size 

Causes: 

ships 

land installations 

others 

Hydrocarbmsl 

marine diesel 

light diesel 

bunker C 

uncleaned ballast and others 

Fertilizers I 

Pharmaceuticalrchemical ST 

Pestieides, herbicides 10 

Metallurgy 72 

Shipyards 1 

Textiles L4J 

Mining 6 

Detergents It 

Cement 2 

Paints, resins 14 

Plastics Jg 

Batteries 7 

Wmd 69 

Others 52 

Total *, 

Table I : Hydrocarbm spills in Panama Bay 

(from Vergara and Pizarro, I98I) 

Balboa Vacarnonte 

4.4mqnth 

0.8 m- 

70.8% 

16.7Vo 

L2.5% 

t.r% 

0.796 

28.5% 

67.5% 

).1/mon\h 

O.fl)l m- 

87.2% 

2.6% 

I0.2% 

19.4% 

doi.sY' 

Tfe available information zuggests that the pollution problem in the Gulf of panama, 

centered in the Bay of Panama, is ,srious' on the basis of the following facts (Kwiecinsky, 

t98t ): 

- biological pollution indicated by the presence near the etrore of lhe bay of faecal coliforms 

reaching I60,m0/100 ml as a result of untreaLed dsnestic discharges; 

- eutrophieation and the presence of hydrogen zulfide (r+ to 1.5 ppm) in the center of lhe 

Bay (between Paitilla and Casco), producing a I'drastic decrease in the diversity of 

marine fauna'r and disagreeable odors, mainly caused by wastes from fishing industries; 

- negative effects in recrea[ional areas (Amador Beach); and 

- the presence of amounts of lubricants and fuels.

Buenaventura Bsv(C olomb ia) 

- 266 

The organic load of dorneatic warter directly or indirectly discharged along the Pacific 

coast of Colombia ernounts to 91200 tons. BOD/year, according to data given by Rodriguaz 

(f98I) (Tabb l). Of this, 4r(I)0 tons BOD/year enters Buenaventura Bay (f igure Z-U). ffe iort 

of Buenaventura has l00rm0 inhabitants and a sewerage system serving 50% of the 

population. The domestic wastes do not receive treetment. 

Industrial activity in this area is very limited and there is little information about the 

drainege of indurtrid waltcr. Rodriguez (1981), offers the following information about the 

number and kind of industries loeated in Buenaventura: 

Fisheries 

Detergents 

Metalworking 

Wmd 

Crtstruction 

Shipyards 

TOTAL 

I I 

J 

t7 4 

4 

-T 

The sources of oil pollution ere the port activities and the oil pipeline of the Pacific 

(Cali€uenaventura) which transports clean products and fuels (gasoline, diesel, kerosene, 

bunker 5 and 6). Tlnre are no trpasurements of the volume of spilled hydrocarbans or of the 

frequeney of qerational accidents. Buenaventura does not have rneans for oil spill control. 

Vergara and Pizarro (198I) mention the case of a coastal vessel which transports fuels 

, 

from Cartagena and Santa Marta (in the Caribbean) to Buenaventura. After unloading, it 

takes m ballast and steers to Turnaeo (the terminal of the Trane-Andean oit pipeline which 

transports crude oil from Orito) to load crude oil. Because of the short distance between 

Buenaventura and Tumaco (240 km)r the ship washes badly or does not wash its tanks, 

dumping dirty ballast in the harbour. 

Tfe mly recorded case of an important accidental spill while transporting oil is the 

sinking of the tanker rtSaint Peier" in 1976 off the border between Ecuador and Colombia 

with ))r(I}0 tone of crude, affecting coastal ereas. 

The general characteristics of pollution in Buenaventura Bay are: 

- Discharge of r.ntreeted dqnestic and industrial wastesl 

- Biological pollutionr shown by the presence of faecal colif orms and pathogenic 

micro-oganismsl 

- Presence of tannins and wastes from the wood industry; and 

- Pollution by hydrocarbms from durnping in the port. 

The Bay of Buenaventura is very narrow, with an averege width of 2 km and a length 

of rmre than 8 km; ils maximum depth of l0 m is maintained by frequent dredging. 

Gulf of Guayaquil (Ecuador) 

The estimate for the whole coast of Ecuador (10 coastal cities and 9 main river basins), 

indicetes an organic load from domertic westes of 48,800 tons BOD/year (Tabte l), which 

corresponds to 20'000 tons BOD/year in the Gulf of Guayaqujl (Figure 2c), mainly in the 

estuary of the Guayas River, wl-rich drains a basin ot 551245 km'. 

The major volume of domestic wastes comes from the city of Guayaquil (1rt00rm0 

inhabitants)r which dains its effluents into the Guayas river and into a bay named Estero 

Salado. Since 58.18% of the populalion of Guayaquil has sewerage service, the organic load 

of its domestic westes would be equivalent to 16,000 tons BOD/year. Of this, about 10,000 

tons drein into tJre Estero Salado, an arca with major pollution problems. In addition, 

Solorzano (f981) states that eight cities (I57,ffiO inhabitants) located along the tributaries of 

the Guayas river have sewerage service; therefore these cities add )1900 tons BOD/year of 

organic load. Note thet discharges of domeslic wastes by several small coastal eities located 

by the Gulf have not been included.

- 267 

Studies dme between 1974 end 1978 in El Estero del Muerto (a branch of Ed,ero 

Salado) sfrowed bacteriological eounts of 5,fl)0 to 49),fi)0 coliforms/I00 ml, and low oxygen 

levels of about 0.6 ml/l (Valencia et g{.r L979). According to Solorzano (198I), de Guzman 

found between 680 and 2,400 faecaiAo-ilforms MPN/100 ml in fgZ:. 

In the survey by Solorzano (1981), deta were obtained for 80 indurtricr which discharge 

wastes into the Gulf of Guayaquil, 62 of them located in Guayaquil. Only 27 industries do 

some type of treatment (Tabb 4). This information is incomplete because the city Potable 

Water Departmenl registered a total of 856 industries (1978) for Guayaquil and its 

surroundings. In general, they discharge their wastes into the two sewerage systems: one for 

rain water and other for sanitary wastes. The lack of information ebout the pollution 

problems caused by industrial wastes is even more noticeable than in the case of pollution by 

dornestic wastes. 

Tabb 4 : Industries discharging into the Gutf of Guayaquil 

(Solorzano, l98l) 

Lmation Industry Number Treatment Effluent disposal 

Guayaquil 

Pt. Bolivar 

Machala 

Anconcito 

Pcorja 

Chanduy 

Fisheries 

Fruits, vegetables 

Oils, fats 

Brewery 

Others (food) 

Milk 

Metalworking 

Textiles 

Tannery 

Cement 

Plesties 

Batteries 

Others 

Fisheriee 

F isheries 

F isheries 

Fiaheries 

25 

I 

2 

t 

10 

I I 

4 

4 

4 

2 

6 

6 

? 

? 

2 Skimmers 

Oxidation pond 

I Septic tank 

2 Skimmers 

I Decantation 

) Septic tanks 

5 Septic tanks 

I Sedimentation 

t? 

I Neutralization and 

sedimentation 

I Stabilizetion pond 

Stabilizer sediment. 

? 

I Septic tank 

2 Deposit 

I Nme 

2 Primary 

T? 

2 Septic tank 

? 

? 

? 

.) 

Direct to river or rpwer 

? 

Storm drain 

Individual collector 

Storm drain 

Sanitary sewer 

7 Storm drain 

J? 

Storm drain 

Storm drain 

Storm drain 

Storm dain 

I Sanitary lnwer 

2? 

Storm drain 

2 

In reference to oil pollutiur, the main sources include the loading and unloading 

qerations in the ssaporl (Estero Salado) in Guayaquil, s well as in Puerto Bolivar (El Oro 

province), Duran (Rio Guayas)r el Salitral (Estero Salado), and places where the fishing fleet 

operates (Anconcito, Chanduy, Pcorja). A probable aource of oil pollution ie the exploratory 

drilling m the Continental Shelf of the Gutf. 

In errnrnary, marine pollution in the Gulf of Guayaquil is concentrated in the estuary of 

the Guayas River, especially in the Estero Salado. This body of water hes a very slow 

turnover that depends on tidal flushing; the retention time for pollutants has been estimated 

at 45 to 90 days. The most important problems are: 

i) discharge of domestic and industrial wastes, practically without treatmenq 

ii) biological pollution, especially in the Estero Salado; 

iii) dunping of oil, lLbricants and fuels from the city of Guayaquil and its port; and 

iv) a possible drainage of agro-chemical zubstances from farming and animal husbandry 

activities in the Guayas River basin. 

? 

? 

?

Lima-Callao erea (Peru) 

- 268 

From deta given by Guillen (1981), the total donrertic dircharger into the littoral of 

Peru (2,854 km of coast) contein an organic load of more than 100,m0 tons BO/year from 

the main coastal cilies and the indirect discharges of 16 river basins (Table l). The major 

input ie from Lima and Callao (together with 5,5)6rttr0 inhabitants in 1980) (Figure 2d), with 

dqnestic wErtes containing an organic loed of 87,500 tons BOD/year (volurrp of the effluents 

I,0]8,800 m' lday). 

A rwerage system erves 6).2% of the populalion of Lima and Callao; it discharges 

directly to the sea through two drainage ditches without treatment of the dornestic waetes. 

Guillen (1981) indicetes one case of the presence of Vibrio parahaemoliticue bacteria on 

"Arena Amattilla" Beach in Callao, and negative effects-ffillm;Emestic wasteg trr 

the fishing resources (anchovy, pejerrey, lisa, etc.). 

68% of the indntrier in Peru me located in the Lima-Callao area (Guillen, 1981). Table 

5 gives information m 622 industries (with a minimum of 5 persons) considered in the survey. 

The Rimac River, v.rhiq| flows through the northern part. of Callao, also r€ceives the treated 

residues (16102018/rl m-lyeac) of 5 mining industries. 

Table 5 : Industries discharging in the Lima-Callao area 

(from Guillen, 198I, Tables 6, 7, and 8) 

Industry Number Pollutants and other data 

Fisheries 

Sugar 

MiIK 

Cured rneat, slaughterhouse 

Fruits, vegetables 

Oils, fats 

Breweries, distilleries 

Mills (rugar, coffee) 

Other food industries 

Paper, paper pulp 

Fert ilizers 

Pharmaceutical, chemicals 

Metallurgy 

Shipyards 

Textiles 

Tanneries 

Detergents 

Cement 

Painbs, varnishes 

Plastics, rubber 

Batteries 

Woodworking 

Petrochemistry 

Other chemical industries 

L7 

2 

15 

7 

5 

4 

I' 

t2 

28 

84 

I 

79 

l7 

ll 

49 

26 

I8 

2 

l9 

59 

T2 

9 

I02 

Organic matter, fat, fish spraps (no treatment) 

Sugar residues, hypochlorite 

Organic matter, Na, Ca, P, fats 

Organic matter, alkaline residues, heat 

Organic matter, peel and seed residues 

Oleaginous seed residues, oils, detergents 

Musts, fermented barley residres, alcohols 

Skin residues, solids 

Organic rnatier, pH 

Fibres, suspended organic matter and solids, 

zulfale liguors, heat (I industry discharges 

17,000 6'lyear) 

Wastes, heat, pH, organiq rnatter (I industry 

discharges 1,809,m0 m' lyear) 

Organic & inorganic substances, hea{ 

(l industry discharges I,729,080 ni''lyear) 

Acids, organic & inonganic residues, heat 

Metallic residues, wood, resins, paints 

Acids, heat, dyes, pH, chemicals, detergents 

Tannins, fibres, dyes, alkaline residues, 

chrome salts 

Organic maLter, fats, detergents, pH, sutfates, 

sodas 

Dissolved and zuspended solids 

Pignrents, chemicals, rqiins, feat (l industry 

discharges ztt rlt0D m' / year) 

Chemicals, heat 

Aeids, lead, ball tars 

Wmd residues 

I8 5 Oils, fats, hexavalent chrome, pheqols, heat 

(1 industry discharges ztt,ltDO 6'f year) 

Lime, dyes 

Chemical residues, heat, pH

- 269 

Guillen end Aquino (f978) and Guillen et q!. (f978) identified anoxic wgters in Callao 

Bay (samplings in May-June, 1977) right in froTtTf the mouth of the Rimac River. They also 

found very low values for dissolved oxygen along the Bay (Muelle de Pescadores and Base 

Naval), due to high concentretions of organic matter, and a high concentralion of hydrogen 

sulf ide, up to 3.n pg-at/I. In areas close to the SIMA shipyard they f ound high 

coneentrations of copper (l7.5 ppb) and iron, a a consequence of paints and residues coming 

from the shipyard. 

In November 1978, low values for dissolved oxygen were again found at the sea surfsce 

(to O.Ur ml/l) and at the bottom (ro O.tS ml/t) in the same areas (Guillen et aL, 1978). The 

highest values of hydrogen slfide (I.26 pq-at/l) were found at the mouth of the Rimec River, 

assoeiated with the lowest quantities of oxygen and a high concentration of rutrients. 

Pollution by nntals was quantified e follows: 

Sea water Sediments 

(sr.rrf ace) (average) 

Fe (total soluble) 7.7 - 27.O ppb I,571.4 ppm 

Cu (total soluble) 2.3 - 27.O ppb 9).8 ppm 

Pb (total soluble) 0.0 - 68.0 ppb 75.5 ppm 

The sources of oil pollutian include loading and unloading in the port of Callao and the 

Refinery of La Lanpilla (Callao). 

Pollution in this area is considered to be rrheavy'r, especially in Callao Bay, because of 

the following: 

- Direct discharges to the sea of organic wastes from the fishing industry; 

- Discharge of untreated industrial wastes, mainly from the SIMA sfripyard; 

- Discharge of the Rimac River, containing dornestic and industrial westes, mainly untreated; 

- Observations of effects on organisms (fish kills); 

- Damage to the recreational beaches; 

- Occasional oil spills and dischanges of wastes in port qerations; 

- Observations of anoxic areas or areas wi[h very low levels of oxygen in Callao Bay, as a 

eonsequence of domestic and industrial discharges; and 

- Metal pollution (Fe, Cu, Pb) in Callao Bay, especially at the mouth of the Rimac River. 

Bay of Concepcion-San Vicenle Bay area (Chile: Region VII). 

This area (Figure 2e) is considered Ers dre of the most affected in Chile, especially 

because of the combination of pollutants from domestic wastes and industries. Tlt organic 

load of domeatic waatea, discharged directly or indirectly, emounts to 6,500 tons BOD/year 

(Table l), according to data given by Castilla (198f ). He also states that mly areas near the 

sources of ef f luents in the Bay of Cmcepcion are affected by biological pollutants, 

indicating counts of E. coli of 1,100/100 ml off the beaches of Lirquen, Penco and Tome. 

With reference to pollution by induatrial residuee, Castilla (f981) gives information for 

44industnies(Table6)'mtin9theeliminationofacrabspecies@in 

the area and damage to the seaweed 9racilaria sp. In San Vicente Bay, Cabrera (1979) 

indicates mencury amounting to I.2 kg/day in the discharges of industries located in the 

Estero Lenga, and coneentrations of 50 to ZrttrO ppm of active chlorine. 

Referring to pedicide pollutian, Cstilla (1981) lists the following concentrations found 

by the Department of Oceanology of the University of Cmcepcion: 

Sea water Aulaeomya ater 

(ppb) 

i) Cmcepcion Bay 

DDT 

DDE 

O.' 

0.15 

14.' 

5.1 

ii) San Vicente Bay 

-hpb)- 

DDT 0.7 9.4 

DDE O.2 2,9

Lcation 

(Discharge point) 

B*ria-Cmcepcion 

(Trn6-Telcahuano) 

Bahia-Cmcepcion 

(San Vicente) 

Chiguayante 

(Bio-Bio River) 

San Pedro 

(Bio-Bio River) 

Tmr6 

Araueo 

San Vicente Bay 

Bio-Bio River 

i) In San Vicente 

rneinly due to: 

- 270 

Table 6 : Pollution by industrial wastes in the VII Region of Chile 

(from Castilla, l98l) 

Industry Trcatment Discharge Pollutents 

vo{ume and other data 

m- lday 

19 Fishenies 

) Shipyerds 

I Mining 

2 Petrochemicel 

I Textile 

) Pup and paper 

I Textile 

2 F isheries 

I Pulp and paper 

2 Mining 

2 Wmd 

I Pharmac.c*remical 

I Metallurgy 

I Cernent 

I Plastics 

I Tannery 

Nme 

1,5u0 

Nane 

Sedimentation 195,610 

neutralization 

Neutralization& r8rl00 

separation of solids 

Nme 700 

Foam reLainer L7I,37L 

sieves 

Nste 

Nme 

Nme 

None 

? 

Decant. neutreliz. 

? 

? 

? 

? 

4,m0 

? 

90,000 

? 

? 

2,5OO 

? 

? 

? 

? 

Organic matter 

Various pollutants 

Imn reaidues, ammonia, 

oils, phenols 

Acidity, poseibly Hg 

Alkalinity, anilines, 

resins 

Dissolved solids, fibres, 

organic rnatter, dyes, 

chlorolignins, sodium 

lignate 

Analines 

Organic rnetter 

Dissolved solids, fibres, 

organic matter 

(lnfiltretion ponds) 

(Direct emitter) 

Sulfides, phenols, oils 

? 



? 

Pasible sources of oil pollutim ere the refinery and the two oil terminels located in 

San Vicente. 

The pollution problems in this area can be grmmarized s follows: 

Bay and the Bio-Bio Estuary, there are 'rsevere'r pollution problems, 

- toxicity from active cfilorine and nplallic rnercuryi 

- pollution by heavy nctals; 

- pub and paper mill westee, an oil refinery and other industriee; 

- leck of treatment of industrial and dqnestic westes; 

- harmful effects observed m organisms (crab and seaweeds); 

- coastel salt rnershes (Egtero Lenga) and migratory birdg affected by levels of active 

chlorine, mercury end cadmium. 

. - ii) In the Bay of Cmcepcion-Lc Reyes lelends area, there are also ,eriou8f, pollution 

problems due to: 

- eutrophication; 

- coastal salt rnarshes polluted with residueg of fiehing industriea; 

- untreeted dsneetic diacherges (Andalien river), eryecially from Concepcion; 

- presence of biological pollutants in leetricted areae reai the effluent dischargee in tfie bay.

Other areas with important pollution problems 

- 271 

Additionat areas of the region with important pollution problems or zones at risk such 

as oil pipelines, terminals and refineries are shown in Figure l. 

On lhe Pacific coast of Panama, Armuelleg Port (Chiriqui Gulf) is a risk area. Here 

crude oil from Alaska is transferred to smaller tankers for transporting through the Panama 

Canal. About 15,m0r000 barrels of oil pass through the Panama Canal per year (Kwiecinsky' 

f98l). Cqper may eventually be mined in Cerro Colorado, Chiriqui province. 

On the Pacific coast of Colombia, the port of Tumaco has hydrocarbon pollution 

resulting from the dumping of air[-ballast (Vergara and Pizarro, I98l) and a risk of pollution 

by crude oil from the Trans-Andean pipeline terminal (Orito-Tumaco). 

On the coast of Ecuedor, the following aress have risks of oil pollution or have 

pollution problems: 

- Ertuary of the EsmGrddaa River, as a result of effluents from the oil refinery; 

- Bglao Arae (Esmeraldas), pipeline terminal for crude oil coming from the Oriental Region; 

- La Libartad Port and nearby areas m the Peninsula of Santa Ebna, oil terminalr refinery 

and oil wells very close to the shore; 

- Mante Bay, port for coastal vessels and much of lhe fishing fleet of Ecuador, dunping by 

fishing industries. 

In Peru, the following areas with significant pollution problems must be considered 

(Guillen, l98t): 

- Tel,era Bay and nearby areas, oil wells m the continental shelf and close to the shore, 

effluents from the oil refineryn terminal for loading and unloading both crude and 

refined produets, d.rnrping of ballas!, natural oil seeps; 

- Bayovar Bay, pipeline terminal for crude oil; 

- Chimbote Bay, discharge of dqnestic and indusLrial wastes, espeeially by fishing industries; 

dunping of oil and by-products; pollution described as "grave"l reports of acasional 

signa of eutrophication; 

- Pctr of Supa, Pirco and llo, mainly due to direct discharges from the fishing industries; 

- Ita Bey, tailings from the copper mines of Toquepala and Cuajone; pollution considered 

Itsriou8ill neports of the absence of fish and other marine organisms and of damage to 

the beaches. 

In Chile, Cstilla (f981) mentions the followinq areas: 

- lq.lique Bay, domestic and fishing industry wastes; 

- Taqilla-Crlct6 Jvlingftilla, copper concentrating plant with pollution by iron, copper, acids, 

and inert rnaterial end the absence of animal and plan! life m parts of the eoast where 

the untreated washings are discharged; 

- Chanaral, concentrating plant for copper and rnolybdenite, tailings from El Salvador copper 

mines producing "svererr pollution and the disappearance of benthic organisms; 

- Husco-Chepaco Bay, iron pelletizing plant and deposits of clay materials; 

- Coquimbo Bey, dornestic wasteg producing biological pollution affecting bivalve nnlluscs and 

beaches; copper concentreting plant; "grave" pollution; 

- Valparairo-Vina dcl Mar, port activity, industrial discharges, and an organie load of 

dqnestic westes estimeted at 10,400 tons BOD/year; 

- Cm Cm Ertuery of tha Acancagua River, oil refinery, discharges from the Aconcagua 

basin, rcports of organic decomposition, toxicity and oxygen depletion; 

- Ccltitucicr, c=llulose factory producing oxygen deficiency, toxicity, organic solids, fibres; 

- Ertractp dc Megatlence, high pollution at localized points, oil exploitation, route of 

nrpertankers; 

- Mdpo Rivcr (Metropolitan Region) with me tributary (M+ocho River) which croslies 

city of Santiago; the eatimated organic loed from domestic wasles rcceived by 

Msipo river is 56r4fJ,O tone B@/year. 

It ie clear from the above listing of eignificantly polluted areas in the South-East 

Prific ttret rruch rcrnains to be done in the framework of the Action Plian for the Pr-otection 

of the Marine Environrnent and Coestal Arees of the Sorth-East Pscific to preyent further 

degradation of the environnpnt and to correct existing probbms. 

the 

the

- ?72 

REFERENCES 

Arriagar L 1975. Contaminaction en el Oceano Pacifico Suroriental (Ecr.rador-Peru-Chile). 

Rev. Corn. Perm. Pacifico Sur 5:f-62. 

Cabrera, l{. 1979. Cmtaminacion marina en Chile. Rev. Com. Perm. Pacifico Sur l0:l1l-145. 

Castilla' IC. 1981. Fuentes, niveles y effectos de la eontaminacion marina en Chile. CPPS, 

Senie Seminarios y Estudios 2:I-50. 

Guillen' O. 1981. Fuentes, niveles y effectos de Ia contaminaeion marina en el Peru. CppS, 

Senie Seminarios y Estudios 2:51-116. 

Guillen' O. and R. Aquino. 1978. Contaminacion en los Puertos de Callao y Chimbote y s1 

efecto en la productividad Inst. Mar Peru, lnf. No. 61. 

Guillenr O.r R. Aquino' B. Valdivia and R. Calienes. 1978. Contaminacion en el Puerto de 

Calleo. Irst. Mar Peru, lnf. No. 52. 

Kwiecinsky, Bogdan. 1981. Cmtaminacion marins del Pacifico de Panama. CPPS, Serie 

Serninerim y Ed,udios 2:ll7-171. 

Rodriguez, Francisco. 1981. Contribucion al conocimien[o de la contaminacion y su 

Problemetica en el Pacifico Colombiano. CPPS, Serie Seminarios y Estudios 2z?4J-287. 

Solorzano, Lucia. 198I. Fuentea, niveles y efectos de la eontaminacion marina en Ecuador. 

C?PS, Senie Seminarios y Estudios 2t173-24L. 

Valenciat lvtr et al. 1979. Contaminacion marine en Ecuador. Rev. Comision Permanente del 

Pacif ico Sur l0z245-?f,2. 

Vergara, I. and F. Pizarro. 1981. Diagnostico sobre la conteminaeion merina por hidrocarburos 

en el Pmifico Sudeste. CPPS, Serie Seminarios y Eatudioe 22289-J68.

- 27t 

OIL POLLUTIOII IN TFE SOUTH{AST PACIFIC: 

REGIOIIAL CO-PERATION AND CO{TItlcEt{CY PLANS 

Franciaco Pizano A. 

Jefe Division Asuntos Internacionales (lMO), Armada de Chile 

Errazuriz 5)7, Valparaiso, Chile 

ABSTRACT 

As in many other regions of the world, the South-East Pacific region has 

been affected by oil pollution due to rnarine Lransportation activities, offshore 

platforms, and tanker and oLher shipping accidents. 

With the support of UNEP and the co-qeration of the other specialized 

agencies of the UN system, lhe countries of the GPPS (colombia, Ecuador, peru 

and Chile) and Panama are implemenling an Action Plan for the Proteetion of the 

Marine Environment and Coastal Areas of the South-East Prcific. 

Special emphasis is being given lo regional co-qeration, considering the 

magnitude an oil spill could have in some extrerne circumstances and the Fesponse 

capabilities of these countries to deal with a rnajor spill. 

A diplomatic cwrference held in Lima, Peru in lg8l approved an Agneement 

on regional co-qeration in case of serious spills of oil or other harmful 

substances, as well as a Protocol on qerational matters. 

Various meetings have been held with the active participation of 

representaLives of all the countries involved. Ttese meetings have covered tegal 

(national and international) and technical aspecls, including modern techniques ind 

equipment for combating oil pollution at sea. 

Ore of the npst important topics 

National Cmtingency Plans, since prior 

a rapid nesponse. 

Introduction 

included in the Plan is the formulation of 

planning and organization are essential to 

Marine pollution is unavoidable, it ie part of the price mankind mr.rst pay for the 

development of an industriel society. Man must learn to live with this probbm and try to 

rnanage it. He must elso learn that marine pollution rnay affect everyone equally, thet it has 

no frontiersr that it can extend to all rcgions of the world, and that it may affect both 

developed and developing countries. He has to learn that it is a global and interdisciplinary 

problem which involvee ecological, technical, political and bgal apects. He has to hain that 

it is a problem concerning the whole world. 

Annng the many types of water pollution, oil and its productg have been the rmst 

wideapread contaminants in the seal according to the rnost qtimistic calculations rnade by 

the Intergovernnental Maritime Organizaiion (lMO) in 1982, rnore than I million tons ri 

discharged into the see every year. Oil gills dle to rccidents ae pectacuhr because of the 

localized darnage they cause. However, the greatest quantity of oil discharged into t}1e gea 

comes from routine ship qerations such aa indiscriminate discharges -ot oily ballast, 

contaminated weter from tank washing end bilge water discharges, s well s the qeration 

of off-ehore terminals, off-shore drilling, refineriee, etc.

- 274 

There is a reasonable underslanding of the effects thal oil may have on ecology, 

tourism, fisheries, recreation, human health, coast.al industries, scientific research, etc. These 

may include the elimination or changes in behaviour of marine species, particularly larvae and 

juvenile fish; the disturbence of food chains; sea bird morLality; beach pollution; a decrease 

in catch of or demand for sea products; the possibility of carcinogenic effects on human 

health; the impossibility of using polluted water for cooling, desalting or washing operations; 

restrict,ions on scientific researchl etc,, all of which finally have economic and social costs 

that affect everyone. 

As in many other regions of the world, the South-East Pacific region has been affected 

by oil pollution due to marine transport activities, offshore platforms, and tanker and other 

shipping accidents. Although this pollution mey not be extremely serious, it has an 

extraordinary importance because of the value of the resources lhreatened. 

Oil pollution problems in the South-East Pacific 

Off-shore oil aetivity 

Along the South-East Pacific Coast, Chile and Peru are the only two countries with 

off-shore oil produclion. In Chile these off-shore oilfields are located in Lhe Magellan Straits, 

and in Peru, in the northern part of the country. Off-shore production in Chile exceeded 2.5 

million cubic netres in 1982. 

There are also exploration and drilling activities in other zones within the region, such 

as those in the Gulf of Panama, southern Colombia, the Santa Elena Basin in Ecuador, the 

eentral-north basin in Peru, and off the Pacific west coasl of panama (chiriqui). Furthermore 

Chile and Ecuador have activities related to off-shore gas production. 

In general, except for one incident on a platform in the north of Peru in Oetober 1982, 

no incidents of great proportions are known in off-shore production within the region, glch ae 

the one that affected the IXTOC I well in Mexico, Tfe minor spillages that have occurred 

have been regarded as a routine part of normal exploraLion and production operations. 

Oil refinerieg 

At present, there are 9 coastal refineries in the region: J in Eeuadorr 2 in Peru, and 4 

in Chile. Tlt total refining capacity exceeds 20 thousand cubic metres per day. 

Many of these nefineries are equipped with API separators for the 'treatment of oily 

water resulting from normal refining qerations and, in general, the oil content of these 

effluents is within internationally accepted Iimits. Recently, the Refineria de Concon, Chile, 

has installed a novel recycling system for eooling the waters employed in the refining 

processr avoiding oil pollution as well as the thermal pollution of the Aconcagua River. 

Loadirg and discharge terminalo 

Along the South-East Pacif ic Coast there are 17 terminals for the loading and 

discharge of crude oil. In addition, rmst commercial ports have terminals for the dischaige of 

oil products involved in coastal trade. 

Mct of these ports have facilities for the reception of oily ballast (except in 

Colombia), although their capacity may be inadequate, since often weather conditions on the 

sttipping routes require tankers to take m more ballast than the terminale are capable of 

receiving. Although Ineasures are taken to drain mly the water that has already separeted, e 

certain degree of pollution is always caused. 

Generally, oil pollution in ierminals during the loading and discharge of crude oil ie 

comparatively small; it is mainly due to human errors in connecting or disconnecting flexible 

hoses or in rermving the pipelines when the discharge is completed. Almost all the terminals 

carry out regular preventive maintenance and periodic surveys, both m submarine pipelines 

and m nnoring buoys, which are also srbject to overhauls and changes of worn out parts or 

fittings. However, some spills have have ccurred dre to failures in submarine pipelines, urch 

as the breakage of the submarine pipeline leading to the multibuoy terminal at Ouintero, in 

February 1977, which caused a ryill of rnore then 800 cubic netreg.

Oil traneport in the region 

- 275 

Alrnost 99% of the foreign trade in Latin America is carried out by sea, and [his is 

particularly true in the South-East Pacific. On a world scale, oil transport represents 55% of 

the total seaborne lrade. In Latin America, the proportion is 45%. Oil lransport in the region 

depends m foreign trade and m the needs of domestic coastal trade. 

The total regional trade can be estimated at slightly over f0 million cubic rnetres per 

yearr with some countries such as Ecuador and Peru being exporters, and [he others 

imporLets, sr:ch as Chile. Panama is a special case since an iirporiant p"rt of the Alaskan 

production carried in VLCC's is discharged at Port Armuelles on the pacific Coast. Until 

October 1982' this oil was carried in rtPanamanian" type tankers through the panama Canal, 

although now it is purnped through an oil pipeline to'the Atlantic. If this volume of oil is 

added to the region's own volume, nearly 60 million cubic metres of oil is capied yearly in 

the region. 

There is no doubt that this movement of oil in the region generates routine pollution 

from Lankers because facilities for the reception of oity balla-st, tank washings, sludge 

drainage, etc. are absent or are of insufficienl capacity. For instance, the only tanker owned 

by Colombia carries crude oil from the pacific Coast (Tumaco) to reiineries in the Aflantic 

(Santa Marta), crossing the Panama Canal. After discharging its cargo, the ship goes to sea 

f9r !an! washing and then returns to port to load producls that are immediately carried to 

the Pacif ic (Buenaventura). 

In addition, the total capacity of the regionrs tanker fleet is insufficient for the 

volurne of oil transported. It thus becomes necessary to eharter tankers that do not always 

neet the standards of the international provisions in force (Cow, IG, SgT, CgT, etc.). Since 

such tankers ate not allowed to trade with countries with very ""u"r" regulations (USA, 

J4an)' they are Qera[ed in this region because they are cheaper, and becaud stendards for 

the prevention of oil pollution are noL fully implemented in ine region and monitoring and 

control systems are not very effective and complete. 

Marine incidentr end caeraltieo in the region 

In general, the South-East Pacific has not been affected by major marine casualties 

except in Chiler where because of weather conditions and irregular ge'ography a number of 

incidents have rccumed causing majgr pollution. In the other countries-, lhe oniy rrious case 

registered is the I'Seint Peter" which sank off the coast between iolombia and Ecuador, 

polluting the coast and a wide zme of mangrove swemps and causing prawn mortality thai 

resulted in economic effects of nearly I million dollars. 

. Given the high volune of traffic in countries such as Panama, Eanador end peru, the 

region has been lucky not to heve rnore incidents. 

The cese of Chile is different. ln l97l the Greek tanker "Npie1* carrying some )0,fl)0 

tons of crude oil from Bolivia strended off Guambtin Island in the southern part of the 

eounlry. The effects of this oil pollution could rever be quantified, since the ship was burned 

from the air. 

- 

ln 1974' the VLCC rrMetularr stranded in the Megellan Sbaits ryilling some 52,500 tona 

of oil' which et that tirne wes considered the seco-nd largest oil spill-after the 

Canyonrr. Tlc 'rTonrcy 

I'Metule" ceused major pollution that gtill eontinuee to affect the gfioree end 

inlets of the area. 

Another serioug cese wa8 the Chilean tanker 'rCabo Tsmar,r that gtranded in the Bay of 

san Vicente in 1978 and apilled about .12,fi)0 tone, ceusing mejor pollution of the neirby 

beaches and bays. No gneat ecological damage wae ceuged, -ho*everr'because of the oil epili 

control and rccovery carried out.

National contingency plans and orqanization 

?. 

t. 

4. 

5. 

5. 

7. 

Contents of a ccttingency plan 

- 276 

A contingency plan defines in advance what measures are to be taken in the event of 

an oil spill, who is responsibh for carrying them out, and what kinds of resources are 

available. 

Armng other things, a contingency plan should include: 

l. A list of the persons and organizations that must be notified immediately in the event 

of an oil spill. 

A list of duties, in order of prioriLy, that mus! be performed whenever a spill @curs. 

The designation of the responsible authority, with the chain of command and the 

assignnnnt of qualified personnel to specific duties in response to an oil spill. 

A communications link to ensure adequate co-ondination and an effective response. 

Reference material, such as maps of sensitive areac and other technical dala, that 

eould be usef ul to people responsible for control measures. 

Statistics identifying possible oil rnovements under different weather conditions. 

An inventory of the type and location of the r,esponse equipnrent available. 

Cmtirqoncy plem in the regim 

Chile and Ecuador have the most comprehensive contingency plans, both aL the national 

and loeal levels. Peru is quite advanced in tie development of its nalional contingency plan. 

Colombia has a contingency plan at the level of the. oil company ECOPEIROL. Panama is 

also developing its national contingency plan, although it has well implemented local plans at 

Balboa, Colon and the Canal Ztrre. 

Orgenizatict 

Tle organization of the countries in lhe region to deal wiLh oil spill emergencies 

differs from me country to another. While Chile with the financial support of UNDP and the 

assistance of IMO has established a well organized framework, ihe other counLries have not 

yet reached so advanced a state of development. Panama has adequate equipnrent and trained 

peraonnel for oil spill control. Colombia has a minimum of equipment to deal with spills and 

few trained personnel. Ecrador has a certain amount of equipment in the maritime terminals 

and some experts that are developing training coufttes. 

Peru is the country that needs a major effort to implement control rrpasures since it 

lacke equiprnent and has very few trained personnel. Honever, with the co-qeration of IMO, 

Peru is developing an ambitious improvernent plan covering both maritime saf ety and 

pollution. 

In Chile, the ebove-rnentioned project has permitted the training of more than 200 

people in: oil control techniques, the managernent of an emergency, qeration of equipment, 

oil tanker salvage, contingency plans, and oll pollution control at off-shore platforms. The 

euthority rcsponsible for pollution control in the country has allowed personnel from lhe oil 

industries and shipping companies to participate in the training activities carried out. This 

has permitted the Enrpresa Nacional del Petroleo and bhe oil distribution companies to become 

involved in the problems of oil pollution, and they have just formed a kind of co-operative 

for the acquisition of equipment. In addition to the equipment the Authority has assigned to 

the control c?nters, Chile will soon hsve equipment amounting to US$ 1.5 million, as well s 

highly trained personnel. Furthermore, wiLh the co-qeration of the Universidad de 

Velparaiso, a laboratory was developed in Chile to carry out dispersant toxicity tests, a 

pre-condition to getting permission to use dispersants within the country.

- 277 

Co-operstion protocols in the event of emerqencies 

Actian Pbn for tho Sdrth{st pacific 

With the support of the United Nations Environnrent pmgramme (UNEp) ans the 

ssistance of other agencies of the United Nations system sjch ss ?RO, IoC and IMO, the 

countries of the region have developed an Action Phn for the protection of the Marine 

Environrnent and Coestal Areas in the South-Eest Pacific, to promote the health and preserve 

the welfare of present and future generations 

Agrcamcnt cr ragicral co.qeraticr 

A Diploqatic Cmference held at Lima, Peru in 1981, approved not only the Action 

Plan' but also 8n "Agreement on regional co-qeration in combating pollution of the 

South-East Pacific by hydrocarbms and other harmful substances in ca-ses of emergency,r, 

which was prepared wiih lhe co-qeration of IMO. 

The Agneement requires all parties to co-aperate in taking the measures needed in the 

event of severe and imminent dangers to the marine environirent, the coest, and related 

interesLs of me or rnore parties, because of ihe presence of gneat iuentities of oil or other 

harmf ul substances that threaten to contaminate or are contaminating the South-East pacific 

up to the 200 mile zones of maritime jurisdiction of the contracting parties, and in the high 

seas to the extent that the contaminants spilled present a pollution ?"ng"r. 

ttRelated intereststr ref ers to resources and activities in coastel waters, port$ and 

estuaries, including fisheries, historic or !ourist amenities, neutical sports and recreation, the 

health of coastal populations, and the preservation of living resources. 

This co-qeration among the parties will include, in particular, the equipment, ships, 

aircraft, trained personnel and manual labour required for the operations in ti"re event of an 

emergency. 

In addition, the Agreement covers aspects of monitoring and eontrol, the exehange of 

information at the level both of national authorit.ies and of s6ip masters and airerafr pilots, 

and the co-ordination needed for the rapid and effective use of ihis info.mation. 

This type of collaboration among countries is the o-rly way to deal successfully with 

these emergencies, whieh otherwise would be almost impossible to cope with eparately, given 

that this would require an economic effort beyond the rneans of developing colntries ,such as 

those in the region. 

Compbmentary protocol 

The above-rnentioned Agreement on co-eeration establishes a general framework for 

mutual assistance between the states of the region in special pollutiJn circumstances. The 

emergency siLuations considered will require the rapio impiementation of co-qerative 

nechanisms according to the rneans available in the respective countries. 

To speed the establishment of concrete mechanisms in the event of spills, and to 

determine the shares to be assurned by the countries of the region, a Complennntary protocol 

has been prepared under the Agreement. This Protoeol, which was in the final draft stage in 

November, 1982' is intended to negulate in some detaii the measures to be adopted by the 

countries so as to rationalize the employmenL of equipment and experts, and to keep 

enforcement from becoming an economic burden. tt esiaLtistres the rn"nn", in which each 

country will ask for or provide assistance, either in equipment or experts; the estimated cosL 

of the assistance; methods of payment; and arrangements'allowing for the'temporary entry of 

equipment and materials into the country requesting the assistance. It also ineludes a 

description of the National Contingency Plans'referiecJ to in the Agreement m Regional 

Co-qeration, specifying sorne of lhe aspects that should be included slch as the assignment 

of institutional and individual responsibilities for the managernent and performance of cleanup 

and control operations, the delermination of sensitive areas, the provision of financial 

resources, etc.

Ragional co-qeration 

- 278 

The Action Plan for the South-East Pacific alpported by UNEP es part of ite Reqional 

Seas Programme includes provision for seminars and lraining courses. 

An 'lnternational CourEe m Oil Spill Cmtrol'r was held at Vina del Mar in April l98lt 

with the attendance of rcpresentatives from all the countries of the region. The couree 

included techniques for the control of spitls and prectice in the use of the equpncnt 

available in Chile for these purposes. 

A rrseminar m Marine Pollution Legislation" in the different countries of the region 

was also held at Bogota, Colombia in May 1981. 

In October 1982, a Seminar m "salvage of Oil Tankers, National Contingency Planst 

and Pollution from Off-shore Oil Platformsrr was held at Vine del Mar, c pert of the tJ'lDP 

project in Chile, and representatives from all t}re cotntries of the region were invited to 

participate. 

The Action Plan includes a number of other activitieg that will implenrent closer 

regional co-ryeration at every level, including scientific, technicel and legal aspects. 

Conclusions 

Off-shore oil activity is becoming impor[ant in the region and will con[inue to gow in 

the near future. ln addition there is growing activity in oil transport in the rcgion. 

The resources threatened by eventual oil spills ere abundant and valuabler justifying 

protective rneasures. Even though the major oil pills to dale hgve occurred in Chiler this 

does not exclude the rest of the countries from the possibility of elffering a serious incident' 

particularly given the greal nnvement of oil in the region. 

The countries have *rown great interest in this problem at a regional level and within 

the Perrnenent Cmrmission for the South Pacific, and with the support of UNEP and the 

technical asistance of IMO, FAO and IOC, lhey are developing a Regional Co-qeration 

Action Plan. The many Conventions, Agreements and Protocols ryproved and in preparation 

demonstrate the resolve of governnents to protect themselves from oil pollution' and will 

certainly lead to the future formuletion of a Regional Cmtingency Plan.

'279a 

GEAN CIRCUI.ATIOII IN TI.E EASTERN PACIFIC AhD EL NTNO 

Pablo Lagc 

Inetituto Geofigico del peru 

Lima, Peru 

ABSTRACT 

Recent atmospherie and oceanographic studies show that sea slrface 

temperature (SST) anomalies in the tropical Pacific plays an imporiant mle in the 

global etmospheric circulation and climate. The SST- anomaliee, in turn, are a 

consequence of anomalous fluetuations of surface winds that drive the circulation 

in the tropicel Pacific. When the SST is anomalously large along the coast of 

Ecuador and Peru as far south as 12 degrees, the name "El -Nino plienomenon,, has 

been given. Tfp causes of El Nino sre not fully understood. However, the paper 

will describe the recent scientific idees rclated to the warming of watere off 

western South America based m observations and nunericel rnodel resulte. 

Normally the climale m the coasL of Peru is cool end foggy, unlike the hot and humid 

climate of the east cosst of South Arnerica at the same latituOe-.--frris is due to the presence 

of cold water derived partly from the Peru current, which flows from south to north parallel 

to the coast bringing water from the Antarctic, and partly from the upweliing of 

low-temperature sr.rbsurface water from a depth of r-00 nretres or more, resulting from- ttre 

action of the winds along the coast. The biological effect of the upwelling is extremely 

important. The constant renewal of the nutrientJ enabbs the phytoplankton a-nO zooplankton 

to develop as part of a food cfiain crrlminating in lhe anchovy. As a result, anchovy catches 

are abundant. In 1970, Peru u.rpplied over me-fifth of the worldrs fish protein. During t5e 

sljlTuner months, the climate alters slightly as a result of Lhe presence of warmer tropical 

waier. 

"El Nino" ig an atmosphere-regulated ceanographic phenomenon which sppears ffy1re or 

less periodically in the form of very warm water oir lne Plruvian coast and torrential rain in 

northern Peru, eausing the deaths of millions of anchovies and guano-producing birds. TIE 

presence of warm water alters the climate along the coast of Peri md ihr;;ghout the world. 

The clear skies typical of summer last an extralew months. In lhe United StJtes and Europe, 

the winter is colder. . In India, the monsoon is less pronounced. In the pecific, rainfall 

increases and abnormal hurricanes develop. During tha last 25 years, this phenomenon has 

occurred in 1957-58, 1965, 1972-71 and 1976, the last period Uut onl navi'nl the greateet 

intensity. 

Theories Reqardino El Nino 

The ceuses of the El Nino phenomenon are still not entirely ctear. The most recent 

theories link the presence of werm water off the coasts of Ecuador and peru to atmospheric 

events lhousands of kilometres to Ehe west, in the lropical central pacific. Dr. Klaus Wyrtki, 

oceanographer et the University of Hawaii, maintains that El Nino is *re result of the action 

of easterly and south-easterly winds in .the cenbral equatorial region of the pacific Ocean 

(wyrtki, .\975; ivyrtki and Meyers, Lg76). wind flucruations generate a disturtance in the 

Tgan which spreads eastwards in the form of a wave. As the i"u" gr""d"; 6" thermocline 

sinks' The thermocline is the layer separeting the warmer and less dense zurface water from 

the colder and denser deep water. when the thermocline lies deep, the votunre of warmer 

water increeses. Dr. Wyrtki has docunented his observations of lne winds, sea tevel and 

thermocline depth throughout the tropical Pacifie for the period 1950-1978. On the basis of

- 280 

these data he expleins that El Nino originates d.ring the transition from one system of 

atmoepheric circuletion to another. In the first circulation system, the easterly and 

sduth-eagterly winds in the equatorial region of the Pecific becomes stronger, as does the 

South Eq.ratorial Cument which flows east-west to the south of the equator (Figure I). The 

reautt of these conditions is an accumulation of warm water, the sinking of the thermoeline 

and a rise in the level of the western Pacific, while the tenperature of the eastern Pacific, 

particularly along the coast of Peru, remaing low. This situetion in the atmosphere and the 

ocean develops slowly and may last for several years (Figure 2 A). In the second circulation 

system, the eaeterly and south-easterly winds are light, the South Equatorial Current is slow, 

the therrnoeline in the eastern Pacific einks and the sea tenperature is high. This situation is 

typical of the El Nino periods (Figure 2 B). 

'{utrf Ao" 

Figure I : The ocean cument system in the Pacific 

(adapted from Rand McNally Atlas of the Oceans) 

brr-i \ 

. o4i) 

gh%, 

( fsot( 

')o 

coriente. Ecu.gtorhl 

o: )- 

lg 

!$ 

(\ 

' l.O qlconfi.o'ienfeEoroffira€ I \ 

Ti+ 

? Pr G\ S 

+""2 

Corr ienle Circumpolor Anf ortico =+ -_.-----> 

ty, 

El Nino originates during a sharp change from the first circulation system to the 

second, i.e., urhen the easterly and south-easterly winds suddenly lighten or die after being 

abnormally strong. This abrupt change, which occurs mainly in the equatorial central Pacific, 

generates a disturbence in the oeean in the form of a wave, known as a Kelvin Equatorial 

Wave, which takes approximaLely three months to reach the eas[ coast. When this wave 

reaches the South Anprican coast, the thermocline is at a greater depth and warm water 

aecumulates off the coast. The presence of this warm water (at least 2oC above normal) off 

the coast of Ecuador and Peru for more than f our months is known as the El Nino 

phenomenon.

Weetern Pacific 

(Coast of Irdonesia) 

- 281 

Figure 2 : Diagram of ocean circulation patterns in the tropical P*ific 

before and d:rring El Nino, ehowing the variation in the thermocline 

(A) BEFffi,E EL NII{O 

Winda from the east 

Further Outlook 

- 282 

Can El Nino occur without a preparatory phase, i.e., an El Nino completely different 

from those which heve occurred over the last )0 years? There is as yet no definitive snswer. 

Recent observations in the equatorial Pacific, from August to Novemberr 1982r euggest that 

El Nino ffray even now be occurring. The Climate Analysis Center of the National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration in Washington, D.C. has just issued a gecial climate 

diagnosis (NOAA, 1982) in which r€ference is made to an abnormal rise in temperature in the 

equatorial region of the eastern Pacif ic (Figure ,. This docurnent notes that dlring 

September and October of tfris year, global climatic variations were somewhat abnormal. East 

and south-east winds in the equatorial Central Pacific heve not only diminishedr but are 

bbwing from west to east, i.e., they have changed direction by l80or a phenomenon never 

before observed. The sea sJrface Lemperature in the equatorial eastern Pacific has already 

reached alarming levels over an area extending nearly to the coasts of Ecuadon end northern 

Peru. In addition, two United States scientific vessels, Conrad and Researcher carried out 

observations in this area, Conrad in the equatorial central and eastern Pacific from west to 

east during Sep[ember and October I98? (Toole, in press), and Researcher in the eastern 

Pacific from north to south in November (Hayes, f982). Both vessels rne! with abnormally 

warm water along their routes, and found the thermocline at previously unrecorded depthe. 

Tlese conditions are without question identical to those which occur during the periods in 

which El Nino occurs. ln this circumstance, the answer to our question above would be in the 

affirmative, in which case it would be possible to fonecast the non-occurrence of El Nino not 

one or two years in advance, but only three to four months in advance, as with forecasts of 

its occurrence. The behavior of the winds in the equatorial Pacific during the southern 

hemisphere winter should be monitored in order to predict the occurrence or otherwise of EI 

Nino. 

A definitive answer, however, will have to await lhe results submitted by two Peruvian 

scientific vessels, Humboldt and Unanue, currently off the southern and norlhern Peruvian 

coast respectively.-tne nforma[i.on provided by scientific and merchant vessels in the 

equatorial Pacific, fixed stations along the coasls of Ecuador and Peru, the fixed stations on 

the Pacific islands and instrument-carrying buoys in the equatorial region of the eastern 

Pacific will also be requ'tred. 

Figure ): Anomalies in the surface temperature of the sea in October 1982 

(courtesy of ltlOAA) 

t20f r00c 

) 40 warmer El t-o' warmer

- 28t 

Obgervation of winds the key to forecastinq El Nino 

El Nino is the oceenrs reaction to the decrease in the eguatorial winds in the 

equatorial central Pacific. This has been observed in the past and ig being observed at 

present. It has also been confirmed by mathematicel rmdels simulating t}te phenomenon. 

Basically, these models do no more than show whether, given the wind system in the tropicel 

Pacific before and during the occurrence of El Nino, it is possible to reproduce the ocesnic 

observations obtained during thb ccurrence of El Nino. Numerical simulation etudiee cerries 

out recently (O'Brien et e!.r 1980) have shown that many of the oceenic cheracteriatics 

observed during El Nino may be reproduced (Figure 4). This urggesLs that it is the winds 

which in fact provide the key to forecasting the occurrence or otherwige of El Nino. 

Cmseguently, it is important to concentrate all possible efforts on obtaining data concerning 

the winds without further delay. These data come from weather satellites, scientifie and 

rnerchant vessels and fixed weether gtations. 

Figure 4 : Diagram of the disturtance of the thermocline 

(besed m results of rumerical simulation by O'Brien et aL, 1980) 

Note the spread of the disturbance eastwards in the form of Kelvin's Wave and ite r€flection 

in the form of Rcsbyrs Wave. 

rSll 

t5x 

PRIMER 

SEGUNDO 

CUARTO MES 

ra ot t60f taow r20r to0f

For the Future 

- 284 

Although the cesnrs r€sponse to the decrease in the equatorial winds is well-knownt 

the reasons for this change in wind petterns is tnknown. This question will have to be 

answered if a forecest of El Nino is to be rnade several rmnlhs in advance. TNs will require 

further obsarvation of the ocean-atmosphere system and the mechanisms which govern it. 

Research progremrnes efe now being set up at the national and international levels for this 

pur?ose. The results of this effort will provide us with a better understanding of the 

npchanism which causes the decrease in the equatorial winds. 


I wish to thank Dr. Alberto Giesecke and Dr. Rmald Woodman, whose valuable 

comments have clarified tie substance of lhis pePer. 

REFERENCES 

Hayes, S.P. 1982. Cruise Report NOAA Ship Researcher (EP4-82-RS). 18 October-I5 

November 1982. 

NOAA. 1982. A ma.ior warm episode in the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean. Diagnostics 

Branch Climate Analysis Center, NMC, NWS, Na[ional Oceanographic and Atmospheric 

Administration, Washington, D. C. November I0' 1982. 

O'Brien, J. J., A. Busalacchi and J. Kindle. 1980. Ocean models of El Nino' p. L59-2I2. In M. 

Fl" Glantz [ed.], Resource Inanagement and environrnental uncertainty. Wiley' New York. 

Toole, I N4. In press. Preliminary Observations of the Equatorial Pacif ic: Fall L982. 

November 4, L982. (srbmitted to Trop. Ocean-Atmos. Newsletter). 

Wyrtki, K. 1975. El Nino - the dynamic of the equatorial Pacific Ocean to atmospheric 

forcing. .t Phys. Oceanogr. 52572-584. 

Wyrtki, K. and G. Meyers. 1976. The trade wind field over the Pacific Ocean. ,1 Appl. 

Meteor. 15:698-704.

- 285 

INTER.REGIOT.IAL CO.FER ATIOT.I

287 

INTER.REGTOT.IAL CO.OPERATIO.ft SUMMARY tr DISCUS$O{S 

Arthur LYm Dahl' RaPPorteur 

B.P. 1146' Nournea, New Caledmia 

ABSTRACT 

As part of the UNEP-gonsored session on Regional Cooperation on the 

Protection of the Environnent at the Pacific Science Congress, the participanls 

in the different Regional Seas Programme action plans in the Pacific held e round 

tebb discussion on inter-regional co-qeration. The discussion highlighted the 

need for inter-regional co-qeration in monitoring and in managing common 

environrnents or ecosystems such a8 mangroves or coral reefs. There is a reed for 

more communication between regions on common problems, techniques and resultst 

and m legislation, as well as between specialisLs with common interests. TfE 

regional seas approach balances inter-regional standards and co-ordination with 

local solutions to local problems. 

After viewing each ac[ion plan area separately in Lhe previous sessions (see the 

sections above), it was natural to ask how the three separate programmes in one ocean should 

co-eerate for their common benefit. A round table discussion was organized under the 

chaiimanship of Dr. Stjepan Keckes, Director of' the UNEP Regional Seas Proqramme 

Activity Centre, with Dr. Luis Arriaga M., co-ordinator of the South-Eat Pacific Action 

PIan, Dr. Kasem Snidvongs, co-ordinator of the East Asian Seas Action Plan, and Dr. Arthur 

Dehl and Dr. Jeremy Carew-Reid, respectively the former and newly-4pointed co-ordinators 

of the South Pacific Regional Environrnent Programme. The following topics were raised in 

the discussion. 

Monitorino 

Tfe United Nations Environment Programme UNEP) has a mandate to monitor pollution 

at the globel level (including the Pacific) through the Global Environmental Mmitorinq 

System (CEUS). TNs requires uniform methodologies and costly facilities such tr the 

beckground reference station now being planned for the Pacific. 

The South Pacific does not have major regional marine pollution problems, but it does 

have local pnoblems needing monitoring. Ignorance of the problems will prove more expensive 

then monitoring; disease from polluted beaches hurLs tourism, and export products must be 

npnitored to verif y that they do not have contamination above importing country 

requirennnts. Deciding what has to be monitored or researched is a regional decision' which 

may well be different from gtobal priorities. Tfere is alreedy much material published by 

developed countries m the Pacific. The South Pacific Regional Environrnent Proqramme 

(SPREP), for instance, is compiling the information m redioactivity in a usef ul fonm. 

Tlp infrastructure for pollution rnonitoring and the interpretation Jt tn" resulte is very 

weak, eapecially in lhe South Pacific. ln the Caribbean, UNEP had to create a regional 

mnitoring centre m St. Lucia. The South-Eest Pacific has been abb to build monitorinq on 

their exiiting oceanographic and meteorological infrastructure. In the South Pacif ic, 

developing a npnitoring capability for such a large area will take time and rnoney. It rnay be 

nece$ary-to look at po$ibb intermediate steps and simpler techniques. A belance is required 

between immediate needs for monitoring, srJch s in ereas of coastal pollution or where there 

are fears of pesticide contamination, and the rned for educetion and public information so 

that the rned for rmnitoring will be more clearly tnderstood. Tfe results of npnitoring can

(2S11 

PUBLICATIONS IN THE UNEP REGIONAL SEAS REPORTS AND STUDIES SERIES 

No. 1 UNEP: Aehievements and planned developmenL of UNEP's Regional Seas 

Programme and cornparable proBralnmes sponsored by other bodies. (f982) 

No. 2 UNIDO/UNEP: Survey of marine polluLants from industrial sources in the 

West and CenLral African region. (1982) 

No. 3 UNESCO/UI|EP: River inputs Lo the West and Central African marine 

environmenL. (f982) 

No. 4 IHCO/UNEP: The sLatus of oiI polluLion and oil pollution control in 

Lhe West and Central African region. (L982) 

No. 5 IAEA/UNEP: Survey of tar, oil, chlorinated hydrocarbons and trace 

metal pollution in coasLal waters of the Sultanate of Oman. (f982) 

No. 6 UN/UNESCO/UNEP: l{arine and coastal area development in the East 

African region. ( f982) 

Uo, 7 UNIDO/UUEP: Industrial sources of marine and coasLal pollution in the 

Hast African re6,ion. (f982) 

No. 8 FAO/UNEP: Harine pollution in the East Afcican region. (f982) 

No. 9 }JHO/UNEP: Public health problems in lhe coasLal zone of Lhe East 

African region. (1982) 

No. 10 IHO/UNEP: oiI polluLion control in the East African region. (1982) 

No. 1l IUCIiI/UNCP:Conservation of coastal and marine ecosysLems and living 

resources of the East African region. (1982) 

No. 12 UNEP: EnvironmenLal problems of the EasL African region. (1982) 

No. 13 UNEP: Pollubion and Lhe marine environmenL in the Indian Ocean. (f982) 

No. 14 UNEP/CEPAL: Development and environmenL in Lhe Wider Caribbean 

region: A Synthesis. (f982) 

No. 15 UNEP: Guidelines and principles for the preparation and inplementaLion 

of comprehensive action plans for Lhe protection and development of 

marine and coastal areas of regional seas. (1982) 

No. 16 cESAltP: The health of the oceans. (1982) 

No. l7 UNF:P: Regional Seas Programme: Legislative authority. (f985) 

No. 18 UNEP: Regional Seas Programrne: t'/orkplan . ( 1982 ) 

No. 19 Rev. 2. UIfEP: Ul,lEP Oceans Programme: Cornpendium of projects. (f985) 

No. 20 CPPS/UNEP: AcLion Plan for [he proLection of thc marine environmenf 

and coastal areas of the South- l.iasL Pac i f ic . ( f 983 )

(252) 

No.2l CPPS/UNEP:Sources, levels and effecLs of marine pollution in the 

South-East Pacific. (1983) (In Spanish only) 

No. 22 Rev. 2, UNEP: Regional Seas Programme in Latin America and Uider 

Caribbean. (1985) 

No. 23 FAO/UNESCO/IOC/WHO/WtlO/IAEA/UNEP: Co-ordinabed llediterranean 

Pollution Uonitoring and Research Programme (HED POL) - Phase I: 

Programme Description. (1983) 

No. 24 UNEP: Action PIan for the protecLion and development of Lhe marine 

and coastal arees of the EasL Asian region. (1983) 

No. 25 UIIEP: l{arine pollution. (1983) 

No. 26 UNEP: Action Plan for the Caribbean environment protramme. (1983) 

No.27 UNEP: Action Plan for Lhe protecLion and development of Lhe marine 

environmenL and coastal areas of the ldest and Central African region. 

( 1983 ) 

No- 28 UNEP: Long-terrn prograrnme for pollution monitoring and research in 

the lledit.erranean (t{ED POL) - Phase II. (1983) 

No. 29 SPC/SPEC/ESCAP/UNEP: AcLion Plan for mana6ing the natural resources 

and environment of the South Pacific region. (1.983) 

No. 30 UNDIESA/UNEP: Ocean enerty potential of the l'lest and Gentral African 

region. (1983) 

No.31 A. L. DAHL and I. L. BAUUGART: The state of the environmenL in the 

South Pacific. (1983) 

No.32 UI|EP/ECE/UIIIDO/FAO/UNESCO/WHO/IAEA: Pollutants from land-based 

sources in the Hediterranean. (1984) 

No.33 UNDIESA/UiIEP: Onshore irnpact of offshore oil and natural Bas 

development in Lhe West and Central African region. (1984) 

No. 34 UIEP: Action PLan for the probecLion of the Hediterranean. (1984) 

No. 35 UNEP: Action PIan for Lhe protecLion of the marine environment and 

the coastal areas of Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, KuwaiL, Oman, Qatar, Saudi 

Arabia and the Unibed Arab Emirates. (f983) 

No. 36 UIIEP/ECLAC: The sLaLe of marine pollution in bhe Wider Caribbean 

region. ( 1984 ) 

No.3l UNDIESA/UNtsP: Environmental manatement problems in resource 

ut.iliza[ion and survey of resources in the WesL and Central African 

region. (1984 ) 

No. 38 FAO/UUEP: Legal aspects of proLecLing and managing thc marine and 

coastal environmenL of Lhe East African region. (1983) 

No. 39 IUCN/UIEP: Harine and coastal conservaLion in the EasL African 

region. ( 1984 )

TZUJJ 

No. 40 SpC/SPEC/ESCAP/UUEP: Radioacbivity in the South Peclflc. (1984) 

No.41 UNEP: Socio-economie activities that may have an inrpacL on the marine 

and coastal environment of the East Afriean region. (1984) 

No. 42 6ESAHP: Principles for developing coastal water quality criteria. 

( 1984 ) 

No. 43 CPPS/UUEP: Contintency plan to combaL oil pollution in the South-East 

Pacific in cases of emergency. (f984) 

No. 44 I;O/ROPIIE/UIIEP: Combating oi1 pollution in the Kuwait Action Plen 


No. 45 GESAIIP: Therrnal discharges in the marine environment. (1984) 

No. 46 UUEP: The marine and coasbal environment of the Uest and Central 

African region and its state of pollution. (1984) 

No. 17 UI|EP: Prospects for global ocean pollution monitoring. (1984) 

No. 48 SPC/SPEC/ESCAP/UIIEP: Hazardous waste storage and disposal in the 

South Pacific. (1984) 

llo. 481 Appendices SPC/SPEC/ESCAP/UIIBP: Hazardous waste storage and 

disposal in the South Pacific. (1984) 

No. 49 FAO/UI|EP: Legal aspects of protectint and managing the marine and 

coastal environment of Lhe East African region: Uational Reports. 

( 1984 ) 

lro. 50 IUCU/Uf,EP: Harine and coastal conservation in the East African 

region: f,ationel Reports. (1984) 

llo. 51 UIIEP: Socio-economic activities that may have an irpact on f-he marine 

and coastal environnent of the East African region: Dlational 

Reports. (1984) 

llo. 52 UIIEP: Arab co-operation for the protection and development of the 

marine environnent end coastal ereaa resources of the llediterrsneen. 

( 1984 ) 

No. 53 UUEP: UUEP Regional Seas Programme: the Eastern African E:rperience. 

( 1e84 ) 

r llo. 54 Uf,IDO/UUEP: Contingency planning for emergencies asaociated with 

lndustrlal lnstallations in the t{est and Central Afrlcen region. 

( 1985 ) 

lo. 55 FAO/UIEP: llarine mamnals: global plan of action. (f985) 

Ito.55l Annex FAO/IUCU/IWC/UIIEP: llarine marnmal.s: global plan of 

action. (1985) 

Xo. 56 GESAI{P: Cadmium, lesd and tin in the urarine environment. (1985) 

Uo. 5, IllO/Uf,EP: Oil spills and shoreline clean-up on the coasbs of the 

Eastern African region. (1985) 

llo. 58 UIIEP: Co-operative pcogrenmea sponeored by UXEP for tbe protection of 

Lhe merine and coastal environment in the yider Indian Ocean region. 

( 1985 )

1294) 

No. 59 UNEP: EnvironmenLal problems of the marine snd coestal ares of India: 

National RePort. (f985) 

lfo. 60 IUCiI/UNEP: HanagemenL and conservaLlon of renesable marine r€sources 

in the Indian Ocesn region: Overvierr. (1985) 

No. 6l UNEp: Action Plan for the protection, manatemenL and development of 

Lhe msrine and coestal environmenL of the Eastern African region. 

( 198s ) 

No. 62 IUCII/UIIEP: HanagemenL and conservation of renewable marine resources , 

in the South Asian Seas region. (1985) 

llo. 63 IUCN/UUEP: ]lanagement and conservation of renewable marine resources 

in the Kuwait Action Plan region. (f985) 

No. 64 IUCI/UNEP: llanagement and conservation of renewable marine resources 

in the Red Sea and GuIf of Aden region- (1985) 

No. 65 fUCU/UUBP: l{anagement and conservation of renesable marine resources 

in the Easb Asian Seas region. (1985) 

No. 66 IUCU/UUBP: l{anagement and conservation of renevable marine resources 

in the EasLern African region. (1985) 

No. 67 UU/UIIEP: Coastal erosion in West and Central Africa. (1985) 

IrIo. 68 GESAHP: ALmospheric transport of contaminants into the t{editerranean 


No. 69 UtrEP: Environment and resources in the Pacific. (1985) 

lto.7O UUESCO/ROPIIE/UPII/UIIEP: Proceedings of the Symposiun/l{orkshop on 

oc€anoBraphic modelling of the Kusait Action PIan (l(AP) retion. (1985) 

No. 7l IUCII/ROPI{E/UIIEP: An ecological sLudy of the rocky shores on the 

southern coast of Oman. (f985) 

No. 72 fUCf,/ROPlfB/UffEP: An ecological study of sites on the coast of 

Bahrain. (1985) 

No. 73 SPC/SPEC/ESCAP/UUEP: Ecological interacbions between bropical coastal 

ecosystems. (1985) 

t

tZÂ\ 

\IIl 

Issued and printed by: 

Programme Actlvity Centre for Oceans and Coastal Areas 

United Nations Environment Progranme 

Additlonal copies of thls and other publications issued by 

the Progranme Activity Centre for Oceans and Coastal Areas 

can be obtained from: 

Prograrnme Activity Centre for Oceans and Coastal Areas 

Unlted Nations Environment Progranrne 

P.0. Box 30552 

Nairobi 

Kenya

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