Rt€@lll
Rt€@lll
Rt€@lll
You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles
YUMPU automatically turns print PDFs into web optimized ePapers that Google loves.
@)<br />
UtIITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAI'lt"lE<br />
Na.86-5888<br />
<strong>Rt€@lll</strong><br />
),,<br />
t(i 2<br />
Environment and<br />
resounces in the Pacific<br />
UNEP Regional Seas Relnrts and Studies No. 69<br />
UNEP I 985<br />
:
Note: This docunent frae been prepared for the United llations Envirorrnent Progrsmop<br />
(UNEP), under projects \P/5IQ2-85-05 and FP/5IO2-82-I4> by Messre A,L. DahI<br />
and J. Carew-Reid,<br />
The deaignatlons employed and the presenlotion of the material in., thie<br />
document do not imply the expression of any.opinion whatsoever on the,part of<br />
UNEP concerni-ng the legal status o,f any Stabe, Territory, city or area, or of<br />
its authorities, or eoncerning the delimitation oF lts frontiers oE<br />
boundaries. The document contains the views explessed by the individuel<br />
authore acting in their individual capacit.iee and m€y not necessarily<br />
reflect the views of UNEP.<br />
For bibliographic purposes this document mey be<br />
UNEP: Envirorunent and resources in the pacifi.c.<br />
Studies No. 69. UNEP 1985.<br />
t<br />
cited as:<br />
UNEP Regional Seas Reports and
a'<br />
a<br />
@)<br />
UNITED NATIONS ENVI RONMENT PROGRAI{ME<br />
RIG@lll<br />
Envirunment and<br />
resoances in the Pacific<br />
UNEP Regional Seas Retrnrts and Stadies No. 69<br />
UNEP I 985
-i-<br />
EDITORS'NOTE<br />
This volume brings together a nurber of papers presented at the l5th Pacific Science<br />
C6ngress organized by the Pacific Science Association in Dunedinr New Zealand on<br />
f-Il February 1981. While the Congress trests scientific questions in the entire<br />
Pacific Besin, the papers collected in this volumgrfocus on environmental problems<br />
relevant to the three regional action plan#/ sponsored bV thg United Netions<br />
Environment Programme (UNEP) es pert of its Regional Seas Prograrm€. The majority<br />
of the pspers came from sessions on Regional Co-operation on the Protection of the<br />
Environment intended to review the three Regional Seas Action Plans in the Pacific.<br />
With the kind permission of the orgenizers of the Congress, e selection of papers<br />
relevant to environmental problems in the region, originally presented in other<br />
sessions of the Congress, such as the General Symposium on Pacific Island Potentials<br />
organized by Ian L. Baumgart, are also included in this volume.<br />
It is inevitable in a collection of pspers such as this thet there is great<br />
variability emong the authors in style and epproach, perticularly since some pspera<br />
were originelly intended for orel presentation rather than publicetion. AlI,<br />
however, present points of view which are importent to e consideration of the<br />
environment and Pesources of the Pacific and the directions that development should<br />
teke in the region. While most papers are as presented at Dunedin, a few have been<br />
updated to include importent developments in Jhe months folJ.owing the Congress. A<br />
summary of discussions at the Congress on inter-regional co-operation hes also been<br />
edded.<br />
It will be apparent thet there is some imbelance in the treatment of the three<br />
action plan areas. This reflects the Congress itself where papers were weighted<br />
more towerds the islands rather than the continentel margins and where participation<br />
from more distant regions, such as Latin America, wss sligtrt. The pspers flrom<br />
South-East Asia and South America . are also more technicel in epproach end more<br />
nerrowly concentreted on marine and coastal pollution problems than those from<br />
Oceenie. This reflects the different foci of their Action Plans and the greater<br />
development of their scientific capecity end deta bases.<br />
We hope that this volume will provide a useful record of environmentel understanding<br />
in the Pecific and of the increasing extent of regional co-operetion to deal with<br />
environmental problems.<br />
L/ CPPS/UNEP: Action Plan<br />
areas of the South-East<br />
UNEP, 1981.<br />
for the protection of<br />
Pscific. UNEP Regional<br />
Arthur Lyon Dahl<br />
Jeremy Cerew-Reid<br />
the marine environment and coastel<br />
Seas Reports end Studies No. 2A.<br />
UNIPI Action Plan for the protection and developnent of the marine and coastal<br />
aFeas of the Eest Asian region. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 24.<br />
UNEP, 1981.<br />
SPC/SPEC/ESCAP/UNIP: Action Plan for managing the neturol resources and<br />
envitonment of the South Pacific reqion. UNfP Regionel Seas Reports and Studjes<br />
No. 29. UNEP, 1981.<br />
Z/ UNfPI Achievements and planned developnent of UNIP's Regional Sees pnogrerrune<br />
and comparable programmes sponsored by other bodies. UNFP Regionel sees Reports<br />
and Studies No. l. UNEP, 1982.
L<br />
-iii-<br />
CONTENTS<br />
SOUTH PACIFIC REGION I<br />
I The South Pacific Regional Environment Programme t<br />
Arthur Lyon Dahl<br />
-'<br />
'<br />
Develement theorieg in the Pacific lelend contaxt 7<br />
Ken W. Piddington<br />
I'he potential for management of isl€nd acoyrtems Lt<br />
Arthur Lyon Dahl<br />
Agriculture, size and digtance in Prcific lsland futurer 19<br />
R. Gerard Ward<br />
People potentials in the Pacific 29<br />
Mere Pulea<br />
A perrpective on human health and ita irplicationr for the potsntlsl of the t7<br />
Pacific Region<br />
Ian Prior<br />
Pacific IsliBnds' hydrogeology and watar qudity 57<br />
W. R. Dale and B. C. Waterhouee<br />
Pollution probbms in the South Pacific fertilizer:, biocideg weter urpplica 69<br />
and urban westeg<br />
R. J. Morrison and .} Brodie<br />
Fishery potentials in the trqical centrd and wertern Pacific 7,<br />
Robert Keanney<br />
The chellenge of conaerving and managing coral reef ecolystcmr 85<br />
Arthur Lyon Dahl<br />
Coral reefs in the Pacific - their potentials and their limitatiom 89<br />
Edgardo D. Gsnez and Helen T. Yap<br />
Forestry in the South Paeific - how and for whom? 107<br />
S. D. Richardson<br />
lropical forestry in Melenesia and eome Pacific lrlendg tI5<br />
K. D. Marten<br />
tineral r,-.:rJjl?jr"f the eouthwest Pacific IsLends L29<br />
Energy potentials of Pacific Island nationc 14,<br />
C. R. Lloyd and Suliana Siwatibau<br />
Radioactivity in the South Pecific Region l5l<br />
M. P, Bacon, G. Lambert, T. A. Rafter, J. I. Samisoni and D. J' Stevene<br />
Legal meeaure8 for irplementation of environrnentel policier in the Pacific Rcgion Lt7<br />
Mere Pulea
-iv-<br />
EAST ASIAN SEAS REGION 16]<br />
Overview of the Eest Aaian Sear Action Plan 165<br />
Kasem Snidvongs<br />
Oceanographic uercment of the Eelt Asien Seer L7t<br />
Aprilani Sagiarto<br />
Coral reef degradatian and pollution in thc East Agian Seac Region 185<br />
Helen T. Y4 and Edgardo D. Gqnez<br />
Integrated coagtel development in Malayaia end poosible ragional implicationr 2O9<br />
Appadurai Maheswaran<br />
The etate of hydrocerbm poltution in the Eaat Asian Seao bssed on atudies ZL7<br />
in the South-Eest Asian Sear Region<br />
Jasper Bilal<br />
Pbnned regimal co-qeration in Eatt Asian Sees for non-oil pollution 2t5<br />
researeh - problems and puibb solutionr<br />
Arnando F. Kapauan<br />
Merine pollution by heavy metals in the Eart Asian Seer Region 239<br />
Manuwadi Hungspreugs<br />
Tin mining and eedimentation effects m ghallow water benthic communities 249<br />
Hansa Chansang<br />
SOI ITH-EAST PACIFIC REGION 2"<br />
Actior, Plan for the Protection of the Merine Environment and Coagtal 2r7<br />
Arcas of the South-East Pacific<br />
Luis Arriaga M.<br />
Merine pollution in the South-Eart Pscific 261<br />
Luis Arriaga M.<br />
Oil pollution in the South-East Pecific: regional co-operetion and contingency plans 27t<br />
Francisco Pizzaro A.<br />
Ocean eirculation in the Eartern Pacific and El Nino 279<br />
Pablo Lagos<br />
INTER -REGION AL CO-OPERATION<br />
Inter-regional co-operationr summary of dircuesions<br />
Arthur Lyon Dahl<br />
285<br />
287
-I<br />
SOTJTH PACIFTC REGIO{
li:l'i<br />
. !l lli(<br />
f - - -'--<br />
! I lr<br />
5l-t.t<br />
ris I<br />
gEl,<br />
i llri!l Ir,lil<br />
tt:^3' *ilar<br />
i1ni ll<br />
5 !lil !E<br />
ort<br />
UJ<br />
U<<br />
i: x.<br />
U8<br />
rE<br />
TI-E SOUTH PACIFIC REGIOT.IAL ENVIROT{MENT PROGRAMME<br />
Arthur Lyon Dahl<br />
B.P. 1146, Noumea, New Caledonia<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Tfre South Paeif ic Regional Environnrent Programme groups 22 island<br />
countries and territories to deal with their comrnon environrnental problems. It is<br />
a joint programme of SPEC, SPC, t-tlEP and ESCAP, with a secretariat bmed at<br />
SPC and financial support from UNEP as part of its Regional Seas Programme.<br />
The first preparatory phase began in January 1980 with the preparation of<br />
country reports and expert reviews of important topics. These provided an<br />
indicaLion of governnnnt priorities and of the state of lhe environnent in the<br />
region, leading to the adoption of a Declaration and Action Plan a[ the<br />
Cmference m the Human Environrnent in the South Pacific in Rarotonga in Mareh<br />
L982. Priority areas of the Action Plan concerning legal rneasures, radioactivity,<br />
hazardous wasLe dumping, boxic chemicals, a network of pollution control centres,<br />
research m marine and coastal probbms, trsditional environmental knowledge and<br />
rnanagement, and environrnental information and training are now being actively<br />
implernented, and further projects are in preparation.<br />
Introduction<br />
Each Regional Seas prognam,ne area has its own distinctive characteristics. The Soth<br />
Pacific Regional Environment Programrne (SPREP) is unique in its origins and orientation, r<br />
is appropriate to a region consisting entirely of island states with well established regional<br />
organizations and traditions of co-operation. The earliest regional intergovernmenLal<br />
organizalion, the South Pacific Commission (SPC), is nearly es old as the United Nations,<br />
having been founded in 1947. In addition, the region has long been sensitive to environmental<br />
issues. The traditional island cultures have developed over generations within the constraints<br />
of their environment, and where resources were limited lhey generally evolved management<br />
strategies and controls to ensure that resource use was sustainable.<br />
The terrr "South Pacific" is not strictly accurate, as the region includes not only all<br />
the tropical SouLh Pacific Islands of Melanesia and Polynesia from P4ua New Guinea to<br />
Pitcairn, but also extends northward through the islands of Micronesia, most of which lie<br />
norlh of the equalor (see map at beginning of section). Tfn region covers about 29 million<br />
km-, almost seven times that of the Caribbean, which makes it by far the largegL Regional<br />
Seas programme in area. The land area, m the other hand, is mly 55lrttr0 km', of which<br />
Papua New Guinea makes up 84%. There are roughly I million inhabitants in Papua New<br />
Guinea, and 2 million in the other 2l countries of the region, ranging fcpm over 6001000 in<br />
Fiji to less than a hundred sr Pitcairn. Pqulation densities (persons/km') range from 6 or 7<br />
in Papua New Guinea and New Caledorria to 148 on Nauru. The GNP per capita of U5$ 1,775<br />
(in 1978) is considerably below that of the Caribbean (SPC, 1982).<br />
Orioins<br />
SPREP evolved out of a ciecade of regional environrnental interest and activity. As far<br />
back as 1970, the South Pacific Commission proposed recruiting an ecologist on its slaff, Bnd<br />
lhis was zupported by a resolu[ion frorn the Regional Symposium on Consenvation of Nature -<br />
Reefs and Lagoons, held in Noumea, New Caledonia in I97l under the joint sponsorship of<br />
SPC and the lnternational Union for Cmservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), a<br />
meeting which identified many environmental probbms of regional concern. The governnents
-4<br />
of the region approved lhe posl and a special project on conservation of nature in J.97J, and<br />
I was recruited from the Smithsonian Institution to take up the post of Regional Llcologieal<br />
Adviser in L974. A wide variety of acLivities in environrnent and conservation were included<br />
in the SPC work prollrarnrne until replaced by SPREP in 1980.<br />
The SPC initialed discussions with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)<br />
on possible co-operation in the region in mid-1974. Maurice Strong, Executi ve Director of<br />
UNEP returned the visit to SPC laten that year, and in 1975, 'aL a speech at the Pacific<br />
Science Congress in Vaneouver, he proposed a "mini-stockholm" conference on the<br />
environmenL for the Pacific. The LJN Economic and Scial Cornmission fon Asia and the<br />
Pacific (ESCAP) also zupported this zuggestion. Further proposals from SPC lead to initial<br />
UNEP encouragement in L976 for what was then called a comprehensi ve environmenlal<br />
management programme for the region. At the request of governments, the development of<br />
this programme became a joint activity between SPC and the Soulh Paclfic Bureau for<br />
Economic Co-operation (SPEC) the same year (SPC and SPEC, L977). After a series of<br />
preparatory technical meetings of government experts, and the agreement of UNEP to provide<br />
initial funding, the South Pacific Regional Environnrent Programme was launched in January<br />
I980.<br />
South Pacific Reqional Environment Proqramme<br />
The first phase of the pnogramme was designed to help the countries and territories of<br />
the region to identify their own environrnental problems and priorities. Each government was<br />
nequested Lo submit a country r€port to the programme (SPREP, l98la, 1982a), and a numben<br />
of experts were requested to prepare reviews m topics of regional interest (SPREP, l98lb).<br />
The process produced a "Stockholm-like" increase in governmental awareness of the<br />
significance of environmental concerns to their immediate interests. On the basis of this<br />
information' the SPREP secretariat was able to outline the state of the environment in the<br />
South Pacific (Dahl and Baumgart, 1982). It was clear that the South Pacific was no longen<br />
the carefree paradise of the tourist posters, nor was it yet the polluted Mediterranean. There<br />
was an obvious need for preventive measures befone the environmental decline went too far.<br />
The country reports showed that 60% of the countries had significant problems of soil<br />
erosion, more than half were concerned about the environmental impacts of the exLraction of<br />
construction materials like sand and gravel, and l0% had major mining activity. W at,er<br />
shorteges and water pollution also affected 60% of the countries. Lcs of forest areas<br />
concerned 70%, and two thirds had problems of endangered species and nature conservation.<br />
More than half faced conflicts of land use and land tenure, given the limited land area<br />
available m many islands. In the coastal zone, reclamation and coastal erosion were each a<br />
problem in a third of the countries, overfishing and mangrove rnanagement were difficulties in<br />
over half, and three querters s.rffered from significant pollution in coral reef areas. Waste<br />
disposal was a nearly universal problem; more than 9096 had difficulties disposing of liquid<br />
wasteg without creating pollution, and 50% could not find satisfactory npans for getting rid<br />
of their eolid wastes. Toxic chemicals sueh as pesticides, to which small islands are<br />
particularly wlnerable, were another worry for a majority of the region. Radioactivity was a<br />
special case, since the long continuing use of islends in the region for nuclear weapons tests<br />
and the proposals for ocean drmping of nuclear wastes have made this a major political issue.<br />
Finallyr npre than 60% of the governments were concerned about their population growth<br />
relative to the carrying capacity of their islands.<br />
The preparatory phase of SPREP eoncluded with the Conference on the Human<br />
Environment in the South Paeific, held in Rarotonga, Cook Islands, in March 1982, at which<br />
ministers and other high level delegates from nearly all participeting countries adopted a<br />
South Pacific Declaretion m Natural Resourceg and the Environment, and an Action Plan for<br />
Managing the Natural Resources and Environrnent of the South Pacific Region (SPREP,<br />
1982b).<br />
It is significant that every single country and territory in the region participated<br />
aetively in the preparatory phase of SPREP, *rowing the widespread support for the eims of<br />
the progremme. Ssne eountriee even egtebliehed environmental committees or bodies to<br />
implennnt their environrnental priorities identified for SPREP.
Immediate priorities<br />
-5<br />
The Action Plan adopted at lhe Raro[onga Conference identified a wide range of areas<br />
of environnental need, but certain pniorities were also expressed. Tfre programme therefore<br />
launched immediate activities in several of the priority areas. A technical group of<br />
international experts was organized to prepare a review of radioacLivity in the South Pacific,<br />
so that the technical questions could be distinguished from the political and moral issues on<br />
this difficult subject (5PC/SPECiESCAP/UNEP, l98l; Bacon et $.r<br />
this volurne). A similar<br />
review was commissioned on the disposal of hazardous wastes in Lhe Pacif ic Ocean<br />
(SPC/SPEC/ESCAP/UNEP, 1984). lt was clear lhat the regional policies m this zubject could<br />
only be implemented through international and regional legal agreements. SPREP therefore<br />
encouraged countries to becorne party to the Lmdon Dumping Convention, and organized a<br />
series of meetings to draft a Convention for the Protection and Development of the Natural<br />
Resources and Environment of Lhe Pacific Region and associated protocols (SPREP, I98la;<br />
Pulea, this volume).<br />
Given the lack of baseline data on pollution by toxic chemicals zuch as pesticides and<br />
herbicides, and the reported extent of pollution by urban drainage and other liquid wastes,<br />
SPREP began consultations wiih regional universities and research organizaLions on the<br />
creation of a network of zub-regional pollution monitoring centres wilh analytical<br />
laboratories. The discussions also extended !o research and training needs and the possible<br />
co-ordination of approaches, particularly with respect to the marine and coestal environments<br />
(SPREP, f98lb). A detailed feasibility study was commissioned of the mapping of coastal<br />
resources in the region for planning purposes, but resources were not adequate to undertake<br />
such a projecl immediately.<br />
A majon effort is being made in the anea of environmental information and public<br />
ewareness, including the preparation of a direcLory of research centres, a bibliography of<br />
environmental literature, and environmental radio broadcasts. Enphasis is placed on the<br />
importance of preserving what remains of traditional environmental knowledge and<br />
management practices for their possible usefulness in solving current problems. Approaches<br />
f or training village leaders to better manage their own land and resources are being<br />
developed, since in the decentralized sLruclure of the Pacific much responsibilily for<br />
resource In€lnagement will always rest at the local level. The programme also made provision<br />
for direci assistance to countries with speeific problems.<br />
Distinct features of SPREP<br />
As mentioned above, the area of the South Pacific Regional Environment Pmgramme is<br />
distinctive in consisting of tiny islands in a vast area of sea without nearby continental<br />
margins. Mmt the the 22 participating countries and territories (American Samoa, Cook<br />
Ielands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall<br />
Islands, Nauru, New Caledonia, Niue, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea,<br />
Pitcairn Island, Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tmga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna, and<br />
Western Samoa) are micro-states struggling with problems of srnall size, isolation and a lack<br />
of resources. Five developed countries with territories or former territorial interests in the<br />
region (Australia, France, New Zealand, United Kingdom and United States) also urpport the<br />
progremme.<br />
Unlike most of the Regional Seas Action Plians, SPREP originated in regional<br />
environmental activities outside of UNEP, although tl.lEP esistance and encouragement help<br />
to bring it to fruition, It is based in strong regional organizations with a long history of<br />
regional co-qeration in many fields. lt has a unique structure, with a Co-ordineting Group<br />
representing the four co-operating organizations (SPEC, SPC, ESCAP and UNEP) which<br />
reports to the two rnajor intergovernnental ncetings in the region, the South Pacific Forum<br />
and the South Pacific Conference. The SPREP secretariat is loca[ed at the South Pacific<br />
Cmtmission headquarters in Noumea, New Caledonia, and is currently headed by Dr. Jeremy<br />
Carew-Reid, SPREP Regional Co-ordinator. SPREP is thus a combined effort of the major<br />
intergovernrnental organizations with environ.ental interests in t}te region, and is directly<br />
responsive the wishes of governnrents as laid down in the Action Plan and as reviewed at<br />
their annual meetings.
-6<br />
While UNEP has placed responsibility for the a:pport of SPREP with its Reqional Seas<br />
Programme Activity Centre, SPREP has always been eoneerned with all of the South Pacific<br />
envi-ronment, terreetrial ae well as marine. On an island it would be artificial and unrealistic<br />
to aeparate the two. For the island countries, problems st land are at least 8s preasing as<br />
those in tlre eea, and the prioritiee of SPREP are weighted accordingly. SPREP also triee to<br />
be senaitive to the speciat geogrephic, economic, eocial and cultural dimensions of the region.<br />
It is not alwaye possible to take the eame pproaches as elsewhere when lhere is a relative<br />
lack of scientific and technical capabilitiee, and the possibilities for independent national<br />
action in $pport of a regional plan ere much rnore limited. AU this emphasizes the<br />
importance oi'regional co-qeration in resolving pressing environnental problems which is the<br />
basis of lhe South Pacific Regional Environment Pmgramme.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Bacon, N[ P., G. Lambert, T. A Rafter, J. l. Sarnisoni and D. .l Stevens. 1984. Radioectivity<br />
in the South Pacific Region. In A. L Dahl and J. Carew-Reid [ed.]r Environrnent and<br />
resources in the Pacific: a regional approach. UNEPr Geneva.<br />
Datrl, Arthur Lyon, srd Ian L. Baumgart. 1982. The state of the environment in the South<br />
Pacific. p. 47-71. ln SPREP. Report of the Conference on the Human Environment in the<br />
South Pacific, Rar-otonga, Cook Islands, 8-ll March 1982. South Pacific Ccnmissiont<br />
Nournea, New Celedonia. Reprinted as t-h{EP Regional Seas Reports and Studies' No. lI<br />
(r981).<br />
pulea, Mere. 1984. Legal messures for implementation of environmental policies in the<br />
pacific Region. In A. L Dahl and I Carew-Reid [ed.], Environment and resourees in the<br />
Pacific: a regional approach. UNEP' Geneva.<br />
SPC. 1982. South Pacific economies 1980: statistical zunmary. Edition No. 6. South Pacific<br />
Cqnmission, Nournea, New Caledonia. J6 p.<br />
SpC and SPEC. 1977. Comprehensive environmental management programme. South Pacific<br />
Csnmission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 7J p.<br />
SPC/SPEC/ESCAP/WEP. 1981. Radioactivity in [he South Pacific. Tqic Review No- 14'<br />
SPREP. South Pacific Commission, Noumea' New Caledonia. 2Il p.<br />
SpC/SpEC/ESCAp/UNEP. 1984. Hazardous waste storage and disposal in the Sotrth Pacific.<br />
UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 48. UNEP' Geneva. 25 p. utd appendices 114<br />
p.<br />
SPREP. I98la. Counlry reports 1980-1981. Numbers I-I8. South Pacific Csnmission, Noumea,<br />
New Caledmia. 598 p.<br />
SpREp. l98tb. Tqic reviews 1981. Numbers I-Il. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, Nerr<br />
Caledonia. 2O2 p.<br />
SPREP. I982a. Country report No. 19: Wallis and Futuna lslands. South Pacif ic Commission'<br />
Nournea, New Caledonia. 14 P.<br />
5PREP. 1982b. Report of the Conference on the Human Environnent in the South Pacifict<br />
Rarotonga, Cook Islands, 8-lI March L982. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New<br />
Caledonia. 7L p.<br />
SpREp. I98la. Report of the Expert Meeting on a Convention for the Protection and<br />
Development of the Natural Resources and Environment of the Pacific Reqion (Noumea'<br />
ttew ialeAonia, 24-28 January l98l). South Pacific Cqnmission, Noumea' New Caledonia.<br />
42 p.<br />
SpREp. f98lb. Report of the First Consultative Meeting of Research and Training<br />
Institutions in the 5ou[h Pacif ic Region, Suva, F iji, I8-20 April 198]. South Pacif ic<br />
Conmission, Nournea, New Caledonia- 52 p.
DEVELOPMENT THEORIES IN THE PACIFIC ISLAND CO}.ITEXT<br />
Ken Piddington<br />
Cornmissioner for the Environment<br />
Wellington, New Zealand<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
The Pacific Islands are diverse in characteristics though sharing a common<br />
oceanie environment. The traditional galue systems of the people are generally<br />
sufficiently strong to have imposed some mutation of Western economic concepts.<br />
In many islands subsistence economies are dominant.<br />
Their economies are dependent on and vulnerable !o influences fnom outside<br />
[he region, htt they possess a cer[ain resilience so Lhat stalistical catastrophes do<br />
not instantly become human caLasLrophes.<br />
Pacific naLions, while placing hiqh value on their independence' have<br />
established mechanisms of regional coopenation which are powerful influences on<br />
guiding appropriate development "in lhe Pacific Way". Inportant feaLures of lhis<br />
philosophy are Lhe insistence on the relevance of culture, custom, and tradiLiont<br />
and response to the instinct for nesource conservation. These features provide an<br />
environrnental ethic.as an essential underlay to economic development.<br />
In global terms the Pacific lslands approach lo development is therefone<br />
polentially instructive.<br />
lntroduction<br />
It is a pleasure to be m a voyage of rediscovery in this learned company. Exactly t'<br />
years Bgo, es Deputy Director of the f ledgling South Pacif ic Bureau for Econon<br />
Co-operation (SPEC), I was finding out about buying furniture and geLting sLationery print'<br />
in $uva, Fiii. We were temporarily located in the old RNZAF Officers Mess, on the campus<br />
Lhe University of the South Pacifie. I began to learn abouL pay sceles for office staff in<br />
developing country and about cockroaches and nrcsquitoes...<br />
Around us on the campus, and in the capitals of the emerging states of Lhe Sou<br />
Pacific, the debate abouL developmenL was in full swing. The catch phrase of the debate a,<br />
indeed the rallying point for the New Pacific was "The Paclfic Way". This was the title of<br />
irnportan! set of papers produced by the South Pacific Saial Sciences Association in I97J.<br />
Many definitions were offered for what was meant by the J:hrase, buL I have alwa<br />
drawn o-r tlrat provided by my Director a! the time, Hrt Mahe Tupouniua:<br />
"Yes, I believe there is a Pacif ic way; Lhere is a distinctive style of thinking<br />
which we can call the Pacific way of thinking. Most importantly, the Pacific way<br />
is capable of being applied to practical situations.<br />
"The Pacific way is a way of looking at things in relaiion to all the facts and<br />
circumstances involved in a given situation. It is a way which takes inLo €lccounL<br />
not merely the legal, the political, the social, and economic aspects; it takes into<br />
eccount the moral, ethical, and spiritual implications and consequences. By<br />
definition, therefore, the eoncept of justiee is built in to [lre Paeific way.
-8<br />
"The Pacific way is coneerned that 'nobody gets left out ' which is another<br />
way of saying that the Pacific way cares abou! lhe individual. And if nobody ie<br />
left out, this nreans that everybody is in - which is what democracy is all abouL"<br />
The definition is not about folklore, it is about the perennial struggle to lend a hurnan<br />
face to the political process.<br />
Tfre "Pacific Way" undoubtedly did a great deal to capitalize on these feelings of<br />
solidarity through the new Pacific. It was a privilege to work closely with those statesment<br />
euch as Ratu Mara, who had grasped the idea of a rnoment in history and related it to the<br />
day-to-day management of regional issues. For sheer persistence, me could not go beyond the<br />
outstanding Pacific leader whose contribution to regional diplomacy wes overshadowed by the<br />
more sensational aspects of his domestic political career. I refer to the late Sir Albert Henry.<br />
When the historians work over the record of the 1970s, I would expect some of his speeches<br />
to be singled out as the encapsulation of Lhe direction in which the Pacific was moving.<br />
It is good to see Matre Tupouniua taking his experience back to the Bureau a it begins<br />
its second decade, and I would like to acknowledge help provided by SPEC in the preparation<br />
of this peper.<br />
The Pacific Context<br />
For the sake of geographical precision, New Zealand is included in the "Prcific Island<br />
Context". Like Papua New Guinea it occupies some of the largest islands, but the fact<br />
remains that it shares the island situation. Indeed, traditional Weslern concepts of national<br />
development can be enriched by the mutalions whieh are emerging in various models of<br />
development adopted around the Pacif ic. New Zealand, which in one sense has been a<br />
generous contributor to this process, now has the opportunity to see which sspects could lend<br />
breadth to its own view of development, which slill tends Lo be two-dimensional.<br />
The political changes of the last decade have resulted in a qreater tendency to look at<br />
development in the Pacific not just in terms of lhe Forum mernbers, or even South Pacific<br />
Commission members, but in a wider pan-Pacific perspective. This has meant that the Pacific<br />
Islands ane seen more and more in nelation to the Pacific Basin, the Pacific Rim, or whaLeven<br />
Lerm might be current to describe the setting of our hemisphere. Geographical precision is<br />
not of concern; what is important is the fact that this is the area of lhe world which is<br />
generally seen as enjoying more favourable economic prospects than elsewhere.<br />
Moves towards a Pacific Canmunity are expected to increase, and a more formal<br />
grouping may emenge before the end of the century. Looking at the characteristics of the<br />
region, and the range of countries which might be included, iL is useful to point out that the<br />
North/South problem does look soluble in the Pacific region. There are certainly a nr.rmber of<br />
options available if the coun[ries of the rim decide to join wilh the oceanic states [o find<br />
joint solutions. This is in stark contrast with the dimension of the North/South issue<br />
elsewhere, where mounting evidence shows that the range of development options and<br />
regional solutions is narnow, and that the basis f or political accommodation is of ten<br />
non-existent.<br />
The political economy of the Pacific on the other hand does hold out some prospect<br />
that states with sironger economies will see zufficient joint interes[ in strateqic termsr to<br />
accept the relatively low "insurance premium" which wi ll maintain the development of weaker<br />
island economies. The collective purpose would be to exclude mischievous involvement by<br />
others, and achieve a consolidation of regional solidarity in the Island group (which hss<br />
already suffened continuing division, particularly in the aftermath of colonialism). Models for<br />
the "insurance premium" can be seen in some of the posl-colonial bountyr including that<br />
offered by New Zealand to the Cook Islands, Niue and Tokelau. The guestion that remains is,<br />
to what degree can these separate premiums be [ranslated into a regional policy.<br />
One of the prerequisites, if this is to happen, will be the maintenance by the Island<br />
states of their own commitment to regional co-operation. Progress over the last ten years has<br />
been steady, but it has lurched at times. Mmt of those involved in the effort io build<br />
regional cohesion would agree that much rnore dramatic nesult.s could have been achieved if<br />
on occasions the perception of individual interest (and the whims of some of the Island<br />
leaders) had given way to the nrore difficult but more enduring regional solution.
-9<br />
On the other hand, if any collective amangements are to stick politicallyr they will<br />
have [o take into account the simple fact that if you live m en island you have a different<br />
view of the world over the horizon from that of a continental cttlture. Islanders tend to be<br />
insular; a long way from the nearest neighbour; and vulnerabb to economic and political<br />
upheavals m the other side of the world. Resources are slender and do not mat,ch the<br />
growing aspirations of the people. Tfe ecological eonsequences of digging up islands for<br />
immediate wealth are worrying and reinforce all the other symptoms of insecurity. Tlese are<br />
the feelings whether me is m the beach at Aramoana or Atafu; they are strared by most<br />
Prcific Islanders.<br />
The process of building regional solidarity in the Pacific Island context will always be<br />
complicated by the huge disparities among the islands themselves, As a group, they are<br />
probably more diverse than any other geographical negion, but this fact is obscured for many<br />
outsiders by the common oceanic environrnent. When the benefits of cohesion are obvious, a<br />
in the negotiation of aid projects to improve transport and communications throughout the<br />
region, this divensity will hardly count. But when it comes to individual commodities'<br />
individual investments and individual trade interests, the temptation to play one against the<br />
othen or do special deals will often undermine the search for regional cohesion.<br />
Economic development<br />
Pacific lsland economies cannot be lurnped together as "developing countries'r. Any<br />
development theory for the Pacific has to adopt a rnore refined classification. The analogy<br />
with rental housing, dividing the economies of the region into four categories, may be<br />
appropriate:<br />
Fully-f urnished:<br />
(t'Developedt)<br />
Partly furnished:<br />
Unf urnished;<br />
("developing')<br />
Structurally unsound:<br />
("least developed')<br />
In a recent article, Professor<br />
division of the last three categories.<br />
has, for example, altered both lhe<br />
nations, and the scope for regional<br />
mineral investigation.<br />
High per capita income, relatively even distribution of<br />
wealth, f ull inf rastructure of communications and social<br />
serv ices;<br />
adequate funds for devek:pment, high per capita ("resource<br />
ric h") income but uneven distribution, incomplete<br />
infrastructure;<br />
largely dependent on high capital inf lows, f ainly low per<br />
capita income, some growth capacity (eroded by inf lation<br />
and other price/marketing problems);<br />
totally dependent on capital inf low, very low per capita<br />
income, no resources for development in the market sector.<br />
Fisk (1982) uses a much more sophisticated five-folcj<br />
The establishment of exclusive economic zones (EEZ)<br />
pattern of individual resource potential among Island<br />
co-qeration in areas such as fisheries and offshore<br />
The important point is that there is a whole spectrum of developrnent potential across<br />
the Pacific and a simplistic division into tthaveg" end "have nots[ is not workable. In some<br />
cases, as Fisk points out, lhe development equation is not intrinsically insoluble; in other<br />
cases, the long term prospects are for permanent subsidy in me form or another.<br />
One can however generalize in some respects. Mct Island economies possess feaLures<br />
of dependence and vulnerebility which put them "at the end of the line" when it comes to<br />
global upheavals, such as the first and second oil shoeks or lhe rise in inflation rates<br />
throughout the developed world. They. do, on the other hand, enjoy a high degree of<br />
resilience. Statistical catastrophes do not instantly become human catastrophes. Insulation<br />
and isolation are still powerful influences on the peftern of developnent throughout the<br />
Pacific. This is why Na,,r Zealand should be included in the "Pacific Island Context'r.<br />
A feature which all analysts have noted is the fact that traditional value systems are<br />
in most cases still sufficiently strong to bring about a zubstantial modification of classical<br />
development concepts. The subsistence economy is (in any case) dominant in many islands, and
-10<br />
a sizeable informal economy operates throughout the Pacific. This is based on barter and<br />
non-rnonetary currencies, s.rch as fine mats, home-grown produce or kinship obligations. The<br />
statement usually made is that there are no old people's homes in the South Pacific. It would<br />
be interesting to know m a statistical basis how many elderly people are in institutional care<br />
in New Zealand compared to, say, Oregon. The cultural environnent is in other worde a<br />
potent factor with far-reaching implications for the workability of developnent theories<br />
imported from elsewhere.<br />
The aspirations for higher material standards of living are often in conflict with the<br />
traditional side of the culture, and this has created a set of unresolved tensiong - economic,<br />
social and political. Although the option of reverting to self-sufficiency does exist in most<br />
cases, ii can be ruled out as a realistic solution. It should however be reserved as a<br />
contingency in development planning, to deal with emergency situations or global<br />
catastrophes. It can also be a separate qlion for different individuals at different stages of<br />
life or career. In New Zealand we do not take zufficient accounl of the real economy in use<br />
of scarce resources (particularly overseas funds), represented by those who opt to work a<br />
piece of land m a subsistence basis. In Pacific Island terms, their efforts would be seen as a<br />
contribution to net national welfare.<br />
However, this should not conceal the fact that development is going to be largely about<br />
cash incomes and that an ever-increasing proportion of young people in the Pacific Islands<br />
will be pursuing the material lifestyle they see on films, in tourist resorts and when they<br />
travel to Auckland. Hmda and Sanyo have done more to chanqe Lhe modern Pacific than any<br />
economic or political lheories. There is no turning back, and even in the mos! remote atolls<br />
we now see cash stones operating, with remittances coming in to finance the trade. The<br />
options for development put forward at election time throughout the self-governing Pacific,<br />
bring out the simple fact that the voters wanL more cash in hand. There is no choice over<br />
the inclusion of increased per capita income in any development plan. What does become<br />
impontant is what else you add in.<br />
This is where the philosophy of the "Pacific way" ean offer a clue. It seems that the<br />
development thinkers of the region almost instinctively add in three components which are<br />
impontant because of Lhe cultural conLext, These are:<br />
a) the social impact of developmeni; where do people end up living, what does this rnean<br />
for families, villages, whole islands?<br />
b) the development of individual skills; in Lraditional lerms, the acquisition of skills was a<br />
built-in process and most elders see no reason why the young should not carry on this<br />
tradition in a Western-type economy.<br />
c) the need t.o conserve resources and derive maximum welfare from a zustainable level of<br />
nesource use.<br />
These elements are very familiar to anyone dealing with environrnental assessmenl in<br />
New Zealand. Indeed, the NZ Commission fon the f nvironment looks at particular projects in<br />
an objective manner and in the totality of their effects on the New Zealand environnrent. If<br />
there ane gaps in the planning of a venture, e.g. in the provision of adequate housing, these<br />
will show up during the assessment process. Development theories for the Pacific Island<br />
context must retain the habit of looking at all the consequences of a project before it is<br />
endorsed by governments and other public authorities. The fullest involvement oTfFE local<br />
communily in the implementation staqes is also essenLial. This is the best possible safeguard<br />
against harmf ul environmental effects.<br />
The theoretical framework will also go beyond Lraditional sector-by-sector plans, and<br />
look aL the interacLion across sectors. Since the days of the National Development<br />
Conference, New Zealand has itself moved in this direction. Mmt of the development plans<br />
adopted in the Pacific have been "integrated" in this sense, and some of the work is<br />
recognized as being very sophis[icated. The effectiveness of the theoreticel plan will<br />
however come back to the three elements listed above, namely social impact, development of<br />
human resources, and consenvation of natural resources. These elements will need to be<br />
integrated not only in theory, but also in pnactice.
-tr<br />
Working through the list in reverse order, one should note thet progreslt is being made<br />
at the regional level in articulating what needs lo be done to complement the work already<br />
accomplished in fields such as:<br />
- trade,<br />
- transport and communications,<br />
- co-ordination of aid flows and regional projects,<br />
- technical assistance under SPC and other auspices.<br />
Currently, discussions are well advanced on the South Pacific Regional Environmenl<br />
Programme (SPREP) and the regional priorities are being defined. It is noiable lhat the<br />
principles of envinonmenLal management do not have !o be debated in lhe South Pacific to<br />
the same extent as in New Zealand or, rnore particularly, in highly industrialized counLries.<br />
Tfe praclice will be as difficult as anywhere else, particularly in respect of delicate reef<br />
and lagoon systems, but the political commitment is built into the philosophy of the present<br />
generaLion of Pacific leaders. Environmental policy is inseparable from Lhe view which<br />
Pacific Islandens take of their stewardship role and their responsibility for the welfare of<br />
future generations. lf this leads to analytical techniques which enable decision-makers to<br />
make judgements about inLergenerational allocation of resources, il eould assist in solving one<br />
of the central problems in the debate m environment ant development.<br />
The development of skills has, since the war, been part of the regional debate aboul<br />
education and development. However, it may be time to put it up for consideration in a more<br />
dramatic way as part of the agenda for the development debate. New Zealand will itself play<br />
a very significant part in skills development. This is already seen in the achievemenLs of<br />
some of the Polynesian students who have grown up in New Zealand, and the concept needs<br />
to be nurtured and extended. The skills needed for Pacific Islands development in the next<br />
century will be very different from those fostered in the post-war phase. Between now and<br />
1990 is the time to identify them.<br />
It is the "social impact" which will creabe Lhe greatest difficulties for planners and<br />
politicians. Social impact is about warts and carbuncles on the development process and how<br />
to remove them, or better, prevent them. The techniques for monitoring and analysis are<br />
well-developed buL are vulnerable to poor science and sensationalism in the media.<br />
On the other hand, all Pacific lsland communities are going thnough the strains of<br />
adjusting to new circumstances, such as urban drift and the growth of formal economic<br />
acLivity. We can all learn from each other about the dictates of good social planning. The<br />
village and community mechanisms will simply not be operative through much of the Pacific<br />
in fifty yeans' time.<br />
This area, whieh is linked to the key political factor of migration, needs therefore to<br />
be kept on [he agenda. It wi ll incneasingly assume a regional dimension and the very<br />
significant rnovement of people which is already taking place will have to be reflected in the<br />
lhinking about econolnic and social development.<br />
Conclusions<br />
To zum up, development theories in the Pacific will be zubtle and many-dimensional<br />
instruments. There will be a pan-Pacific dimension, a regional (island) dimension and a set of<br />
bila:.eral and sub-regional dimensions. Categories applied to the stages of economic<br />
development will reflecl the qreat diversity of Lhe Pacific lslands. New Zealand will need to<br />
rethink iLs own nelationship to these categories and to bhe overall process.<br />
The Pacific will probably be a crucible for exLensive experimentation with new models<br />
for developrnent. These will be aimed at filling in sorne of the defects in Western concepts of<br />
development and will provoke a great deal of international interest. Tfre integration of<br />
economic, social and ecological thinking into a single view of resource management will be<br />
the prize for those whose experiments succeed. Tfe strong emphasis on human nesources and<br />
skills will doubtless find wider application in other societies. Where mistakes are made, and<br />
they will be, the consequences can be reduced through genuine regional co-operation and<br />
disinlerested aid or subsidies. It will continue to be part of lhe "Pacific way'r to look after<br />
the weakest link. From that, the region will derive its ultimate strength.
-L2<br />
REFERENCE<br />
Fisk, E.K. (f982). Development and aid in the South Pacific in the 1980s. Australian Outlook<br />
36rJ2-37. August 1982.
-tl<br />
THE POTENTIAL Fm, MANAGEMENT ff ISLAI$ ECOSYSTEMS<br />
Arthur Lyon Dahl<br />
B.P. 1146, Noumea, New Caledonia<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
The diversity of island environments and the evolutionary proceeses inherent<br />
in Lhe island condition have produeed a great variety of ecosystems in the<br />
different ecological regions of the Pacific. These ecosystems provide or maintain<br />
the natural resources m which most ieland communities depend. They also hold in<br />
their genetic diversity great potential for the future.<br />
lsland ecosystems tend to be fragile and easily disrupted or degraded' as<br />
demonstrated by trends in many parts of the Pacific. It is thus imperative to<br />
manage these systems if the resouree base for human development and even<br />
survival is not to be damaged or destroyed.<br />
Several resource management approaches are now being explored in differenL<br />
oarts of the Pacific at both the national and regional level. Such ryproaches must<br />
be adapted to the special nature of island ecosystems if they are [o succeed.<br />
Sune types of development will have to be restricted to preserve essential island<br />
resources. The zustainable management of island ecosystems must be integrated<br />
with the social goals and development approaches of Pacific countries to achieve<br />
a balance particularly zuited to island limits.<br />
Man's future in the Pacific Islands depends in large measure on his ability to conserve<br />
and manage island ecosystems. Subsistence and commercial agriculture, foresLry, fisheries,<br />
tourism, and even zupplies of materials and traditional medicines, are all closely tied to the<br />
biological communities lhat differentiate the islands from lunps of barren rock in an empty<br />
sea. These ecosystems are also reservoics of geneLic diversity of world importance that<br />
should become increasingly significant in the future.<br />
Island ecosystems have a diversity and specificity that present unique challenges for<br />
their preservation and management. The Regional Ecosyslems Survey of the South Pacific<br />
Area (Dahl, 1980) estimated that there are about 21000 types of ecosystems or biomes in 20<br />
distinct biogeoqraphic areas of the region (M+ l).<br />
Sqne of these ecosystem types are widespread. The atoll/beach strand forest is made<br />
up of a few common and widely distributed species. Tropical lowland rain forests in the<br />
region are similar in type and strucLure while containing both widespread and more locallzed<br />
spicies. Coral reef s maintain similar ecosystem structure and f unction alonq extended<br />
gradients of species distnibutions and diversity.<br />
Other ecosystems may be common in the region but rare and localized in particular<br />
csunlries or islands where they may be of special ecologicel significance, such as the limit'ed<br />
mangrove areas in Samoa.<br />
Cmditions may restricl other ecosystems to rare isolated localitiesr zuch as lhe crater<br />
lakes of volcanic islandsr. and a few are even unique, ss for instance a marine lake in Palau<br />
were a few species flourish in large rumbers.
t!<br />
9e<br />
;5<br />
9 ? F<br />
Ec=<br />
-l<br />
s*<br />
rl I j<br />
^HF-c.<br />
d ?<br />
E<br />
o<br />
C)<br />
Itt<br />
o<br />
o.<br />
I<br />
f<br />
I<br />
-uJ<br />
F<br />
to<br />
xFr<br />
tY O)<br />
-LlJe<br />
U<br />
tdg*<br />
O<br />
6<br />
:T<br />
El<br />
:<br />
'<br />
=<br />
3<br />
t<br />
o<br />
rll<br />
-14
-15<br />
Islands, of course, vary in the number and richness of their ecosystems depending m<br />
their size, form, orijin *O augr"u of isolation. Low coral abolls present a more- limited set of<br />
environments tnan -hign volca-nic islands, which are in turn generally less rich that large<br />
islends of continentai origin. Each island, therefore, has unique features that make it<br />
difficult lo extrapolate deiailed management plans or approaches from elsewhere'<br />
Vulnerability<br />
Island ecosystems are particularly noted for their fragility and their susceptibility to<br />
degradation. They have evolved in isolation, often from a limited number of accidental<br />
spJcies introductions or, in the case of continental islands, from primitive_encestral stocks'<br />
prcdators were few and the need for competitiveness or defenses limited. The equilibrium of<br />
introducLions and extincLions was determined by island size and isolation, among other<br />
factors. Island biogeographic theory predicts that any reduction in the area of a community<br />
or habitat will lead to -simplif ication and the loss of species (MacArthur and Wilson, L967).<br />
To date, modern manrs "managementrr of island ecosystems has been largely negativet<br />
destroying nagural systems and convlrting them to other uses or leaving them as abandoned<br />
wastelands. Forests are cut, cleared or burned; soil is exposed to erosion by wind and rain;<br />
aggressive species are introduced and run rampani. At times all that is left is worthless land<br />
U6iety supporting worthless plants. Where mineral resources are present they are mined'<br />
leaving a'rocky desert behind, and the wastes are often dunped in the nearest tiver. Sane<br />
islands such as Banaba (ocaan Island) have been so degraded by mining [hat their populations<br />
have had to be evacuated. In the lagoon and on the reef, people fish with dynamite and<br />
poison, dredge and fill, spill [oxic chemicals and oil, and let their wastes push ecosystems to<br />
[n" point of collapse. 'Tite number of natural areas protected from zuch degradation in parks<br />
and 'reserves is piiif uuy small in relation to the need (Dahl, 1980).<br />
The recent report m the State of the Environrnent in the South Pacific, prepared by<br />
the South pacif ic Regional Environment Programme (Dahl and Baumgar[, 1982)r has<br />
documented how widespread zuch damage has become throughou[ the Pacific Islands.<br />
It is thus imperative that we learn to manage island ecosystems if the resource base<br />
for human development and even grrvival m the islands is not to be damaged or destroyed.<br />
lsland environmental manaqement<br />
Management of an ecosystem means actively intervening in the - composition or<br />
functioning -ot tn" system to achieve certain ends. Such management is particularly justif ied<br />
on islands where human activity has degraded or destabilized an ecosystem to the point that<br />
it can no longer recover m its own. The goal of management should be .to restore the<br />
ecosystem to its natural sLate, or at least to maintain its desirable and useful qualities in<br />
spite of the changed condiLions brought about by human use. For instance, if a forest tree<br />
d'epends m fruit Lating pigeons for its seed dispersal and lhe pigeons have been hunted to<br />
exiinction, then artificial seed dispersal or planting of [he tree would be necessary Lo ensure<br />
its survival. Management might equally involve exterminating introduced pest speciest<br />
breeding an endangeied or exploited species in captivity and releasing the young in the wild'<br />
or recreating vegetation where it has been destroyed.<br />
Ecosystem resource management is inevitably constrained by island limits and by our<br />
lack of adeguate scientific understanding of many island ecosysLems. Effective management<br />
must respect and balance both eeological imperatives and economic constraints. lt must be<br />
part of development, aiming to achleve the goals of development in terms of zustainable<br />
human betterment. it must also complement the social and cultural dimensions of each island<br />
society. This will be difficult, and we are far from having all the answers.<br />
Sorne interesLing approaches now being tried in the Pacific Islands may show possible<br />
directions for new mJnagement strategies. These include small scale villaqe-level forestry<br />
projects in Vanuatu, agno--forestry expJrimenls in Papua New Guinea, and rotatinq coral reef<br />
reserves in New CaleJonia and Hawaii. Training maierials Lo strengthen natural resource<br />
management at the village level are being developed with the zupport of the South Pacific<br />
RegiJnal Environment Pr6gramme. Tfre revival of traditional manaqement techniques is also<br />
being encouraged.
-15<br />
It is possible to eeLablish some general guidelines for adapting ecosystem management<br />
to islands. lntegration of development needs and multiple use of resources are essential on an<br />
island. Land ereas are too limited m all but the largest islands !o permit the allocation of<br />
aignificant land areas to single uses as is commonly done on continents. For instance,<br />
agricultural land may need to be managed simultaneously for water catchment and as habitat<br />
for an endangered bird species, with the development of the land being modified to be<br />
compatible with its other roles. Many overtapping uses of the same area or resource will be<br />
the rule. Planning will need to look at the island as a whole, to ensure that all needa of man<br />
and the natural environment are provided for, and to prevent any one activity from<br />
threatening other essenlial resources. This may require modification of the land tenure and<br />
land use systems and legislation imported by colonial governrnents which have tended to<br />
define ownership in absolute'rall or nothing" terms. What islands need are epproaches closer<br />
to msny traditional land tenure systems, where, within a general context of family or tribal<br />
ownership, it was possible to hold certain limited rights, zuch as to farm for the duration of<br />
the crop, to hunt or io collect building materials. Such systems encouraged multiple<br />
compatible uses, and allowed greater flexibility and efficiency in land use. For instance,<br />
rotating gardens and extended fallows allowed traditional agriculture to respect the limited<br />
fertility of many island soils.<br />
Development has concentrated many human activities in the coastal zone, creating<br />
resource use conflicts. Such zones must be managed as an integrated system to ensure that<br />
terrestrial development is compatible with reef and lagoon managemenl.<br />
The scattered isolated nature of island communities places more responsibility for<br />
environrnental management at the local level, and prevents the kind of centralization common<br />
in the governrnent structures and bureaucracies of continental developed countnies.<br />
Traditionally most small island communities had their own experts on fishing, farming, the<br />
forests, liand use, etc., but colonization and modern systems of education have broken down<br />
these traditional systems and prevented the transmission of lraditional knowledge to<br />
succeeding generations. It will be necessary to recreate this local expertise, bringing it<br />
together wilh a modern scientif ic understanding of resource management.<br />
The inherenL limits of the island situation will make it recessary to restrici some kinds<br />
of development. Toxic and hazardous chemical use, for instance, must be restricted ot<br />
prohibited where a single accident could contaminate an entire lagoon or water supply. Single<br />
crop agriculture may be too vulnerable given the inherent variability in many island<br />
environments; extensive land clearing and uncovering of soils may damage waler catchments<br />
and produce irreparable soil loss. Many modern technologies are inappnopriate in an island<br />
context where they have a short useful life and are beyond the maintenance capabilities of<br />
small island communities. Tley are only a waste of capital and foreign exchange. Fon<br />
example, a rnodern automobile designed for driving all day on a superhighway may rust out in<br />
one to two years after going 101000 km on an atoll with l0 km of road and a speed limit of<br />
40 km/hr.<br />
Other types of development may solve long-standing island problems and should be<br />
encouraged. Modern communications technologies may permit creative solutions redueing the<br />
isolation of island communities. Microcomputers may similarly be able to comperrsate in some<br />
ways for the lack of specialization inherent in small island societies.<br />
Such approaches working towards the sustainable management of island ecosystems and<br />
towards appropriate development within island limits should help to reverse the lrend towards<br />
decreasing island self-sufficiency and permit island people to face the future with confidence<br />
and dignity.
-r7<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Dq!!, A.L 1980. Regional ecosystems survey sf the Ssuth paeif.ie arEE. Teehnical paper No,<br />
f79. South P'ac.ific Commigsion, Nournea, N'u"r Cale-donia. 99 p<br />
D"l!'} ! Td L L Beurngart, 1982, The state of the €n:yironinerrt in rhe Sor.rth paoifi.c. p.<br />
47'7I- [n South Pacific Regional Environrrrent Fmgramrnei Report of lhe Conrerenee m lhe<br />
HurnEn Eivfronmen! in the So-uth Pacific, R:ierotong-e, CoJk Islbnds, g-ll Mareh I9gZ. South<br />
Paeifie Conmisaion, Nountea, New Galedonia. ngp;irfteO m UNEp n"qibn"t Eeas neporis and<br />
Studies, Nb. ,t (l9B')".<br />
MdeArth0nr R. H. srd E. Oi Wilson. 1967. The theqry of island biogeography. Frinoelon<br />
Universlly Press, Princetgn, New Jersey,. ZOf p.
-19<br />
AGRICULTURE' slzE AND DIsTAtlcE IN SOUTH PActFIc ISLAND FUTURES<br />
R. Gerard Werd<br />
Research School of pacifie Studies<br />
Australian National University<br />
Canberra, Australia<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Agriculture is usually considered Eo be the keystone of Pacific Island<br />
economies- This paper examines the scope for developrnent of various agricultural<br />
systems within the Pacific Islands.<br />
The effeets which small size, insularity and distance from markets and sources<br />
of inputs all have m the agricultural potential of the islands are considered.<br />
The Pacific Island States include the worldrs smallest independent or semi-independent<br />
countries in terms of population. They also include some of the smallest in land area; some of<br />
the largest if their Exclusive Eeonomic Zones are included; some of the most isolated; and<br />
some of the most fr-agmented and dispersed. These features all bear on the agricuitural<br />
resources of the Pacific islands; on the assessrnent of them, and on their use potentials.<br />
ln this paper I will outline the general pattern of resource potentials in the regionl<br />
describe the agricultural systems through which these resources were used in the i".t;<br />
indicate some trends in the commercial and non-commercial segnnnts of agriculture todayi<br />
and zuggest the directions which agricultural resource use is lkLly to take in the next few<br />
decades. Small size, both of individual islands and states, and great distances, both between<br />
islands and states' and from markets and sources of importe witl obviously influence these<br />
directions.<br />
Resource potentials<br />
It is important to recognize a basic division between the larger Pacific Islands Statea,<br />
the Melanesian States of Fiji, New Caledonia, Vanuatu and Solomon Islands m the one handi<br />
and the smaller, Polynesian or Micronesian states m the other. The former have larger hnj<br />
areas and rnore varied landforms. Their range of elevation and exposure give climatic variety.<br />
Their surface water resources are greater and rmre secure. Their fish rlsources are greater<br />
as a result of their wider areas of shallow seas, and with both denrersal end pelagic $ecies,<br />
they have greater potential for artisanal and industrial fieheriee. Fmest resources are rxrre<br />
extensive and there is greater variety in landforms, climete and soils.<br />
Tfe atolls of Kiribati, Tuvalu, Tokelau, the Northern Coks end the Tuemotus lack<br />
surface water, have little soil, and lie exposed to the risk of teunami or hurricane. Tfeir<br />
range of crops is inevitably narrow. Even m the higher volcenic iglends of polynesia, the<br />
flora and faune ere less varied than in the western pacitic and the variety of environrental<br />
conditions more restricted.<br />
It may be argued thet thig eontrast in environnental variety was of timited aignificance<br />
in<br />
.<br />
creating inequality in opportunity in the socio-econornic ayslem. of pre-contact timea.<br />
With eome obvious qualifications, a relatively narrow range of ctopa was grown throughout<br />
the region. Almost everywhere communitieg could end did produce virtually elt ttreir aesential<br />
needs from the local environnent, with a minimum of dependence on -trade or exchenge.<br />
Alrnost all types of lend could and did a.rpport some population.
?r)<br />
The si tuation is very different today. Recent decades have seen a drastic revalt.ration<br />
of land resources as a resull, first, of the inlroduction of new crops (or the elevatiorr to<br />
posit.ions of prorninence of formerly minor crops); second, of Lhe change frorn production for<br />
own consurr!f,tion to pnoduction for the market; and following Lhis, third, a change in fhe<br />
criteria for accessibility. There is now much greater variation in the value of one location<br />
against another. Assessing this value, size of island, and distance from new corntnercial nodes<br />
are increasingly importanl.<br />
Joseph Banks's well-known descriplion of the beneficence of the breadfruit in Tahiti is<br />
Lypical of the early assessnents by Europeans of the agricultural resoufces of the Sou[h<br />
Pacific lslands:<br />
"....These happy people whose bread depends not on an annual but on a<br />
Perennial plant have but to climb up and gaLher it ready for baking from a iree<br />
which deep rooted in Lhe Earth seorning equaly the influence of summer heats or<br />
winter nains never fails to produce plenty..." Q9632 J30)<br />
It was this image that was remembered, rather than lhe fact that when Banks made a<br />
circuit of TahiLi, breadfruit was in short zupply and he necorded that he had "not seen ten<br />
ripe mes hanging on the Trees the whole way" (1951: )07). The misconception that lush<br />
vegetation indicated fertile soils suitable for permanent cultivalion, lasted a long time. ln<br />
1875 de Ricci described the "mass of luxuriant tropical foliage" (1875: l) on Kadavu and<br />
claimed ihat "the soil is very fertile, being capable of producing everything that requires a<br />
tropieal climate" (1875: 5). The image was sustained by tracts which sought to a[tract<br />
settlers and, indeed, initial yields of many crops of ten promised more than subsequent<br />
harvests produced. But this view overlooked the fact that swidden cultivation and fire had<br />
removed Lhe forest from large areas in the drier panLs of Fiji, New Caledonia and a number<br />
of lhe Polynesian high islands. The early clearing caused considerable erosion. The fact that<br />
at the time of contact much of this type of land zupported few people - an indicalor of poor<br />
soils - was often overlooked by Europeans who believed grass covered hills betokened good<br />
grazing.<br />
Experience gradually taught European settlers what Lhe islanders already knew - lhe<br />
only soils of the larger, high islands which would sJpport nearly continuous cropping were the<br />
riverside alluvials (where floods and their silt were vital to fertility maintenance, but meant<br />
a high risk of damage), the colluvial soils at lhe base of slopes, cerLain volcanic soils, or lhe<br />
man-made soils of irrigated terraces or raised swamp beds. The "luxuriant tropical foliage"<br />
was a veneer which, if stripped off, laid the soils beneath open to napid degradation. ln<br />
recent decades soil surveys heve revealed and quantified the limited potential of the lands of<br />
Melanesia. AlrnosL 40 per cent of Fiji's land is "considered quite unsuilable for agricultural<br />
development m present knowledgerr (Twyford and Wright, 19652 2L9) - only 19 per cent is<br />
first class arable land. Only 12 percent of the Solomon Islands has "above-average<br />
agricultural poten[iall'(Hansell and Wall, L976t I35). In New Caledonia only 2 per cent of the<br />
area is ttgcod agricultural landr' and I] per cent "good grazing land'r. Fifty per cenI is<br />
t'nediocre A tres mediocre" or suitable only for conservation in a natural state (Latham,<br />
f98f). The hiqh volcanic islands of Polynesia do not have significanLly betLer prospects.<br />
Fifty-me percent of Western Sarnoa is low-to-very-low natural fertility and a further f5<br />
pereenl is too stony for mechanized agriculture (Wright, 196l: 88-89). Only 22 per cent of<br />
RaroLonga and 8 per cent of Mangaia have been clessed es "cJitable for annual and tree<br />
cropsrr with a furlher 9 and 4I per cent r€spectively having potential for tree crops alone<br />
(Grange and Fox, 195]: I0).<br />
The atolls, a narrow strip of sand m a coral platform, rarely rise more than two or<br />
three metres above see level, and generally have no surface water. Plants, and people,<br />
depend m the fresh water which floats in a fragile lens above the salt water permeating the<br />
underlying coral. Drought is a constant risk in those-atolls nearer the equator and many sre<br />
uninhabited because of this. Therefore, Kiribati (now that the Banaba phosphate has been<br />
completely mined), Tuvalu, the Northern Cooks, the Tokelaus, and the Tuamotus - all atoll<br />
regions - have a very impoverished land nesource. On the other hand extensive lagoons and<br />
the reefs are produetive. The atolls often arpport relatively high densities of population<br />
dependent almost entirely on a few crops, artisanel fishing, and now remittances and overseas<br />
aid. The Gilbert Group (with 80 percent of Kiribati's population) had a crude population<br />
denaity of I95 per square kilometre in 1978; Tuvalu 288 in 1980. It ie very doubtful whether<br />
population denailies of this level can be sustained by the agricultural or marine resources of<br />
the atolls et the levels of welfare which their people have come to expect.
Past aoricultural systems<br />
2L<br />
Let me outline key features of the agricultural systems practised in the region in the<br />
past, and describe a number of imporLant changes which have occurred. Throughout the<br />
region variations of swidden agriculture were pnaclised - short periods of cultivation followed<br />
by bush fallows of varying length. lntercropping was practised, with yams, taro, sweet poteto,<br />
bananas and, later, crops such as rnaize or cassava, being gnown in the same plot. This<br />
strategy protected the soil, lengthened the harvesting life of a garden and reduced clearing<br />
and rnaintenance work. A number of varieties of one species were of ten planted in the one<br />
plot. This reduced the risk of disease affecting a whole ganden and again spread the harvest<br />
period. The system was robust in the face of risk - whether from disease, insect attaek or<br />
natural hazands. It was flexible. It was highly productive in relation to labour inputs and<br />
planted area. Fruit and nut trees (especially the coconut) provided essential components of<br />
the diet. In conjunction with foods which were gathered, hunted, or caught, these systems<br />
provided a vanied and nutritionally sound diet.<br />
Labour was rnobilized on a basis of recipnocity within the kin or commurrity group.<br />
Reciprocal obligations incurred in agrlcultural work might be met by participation in a range<br />
of othen activities related Lo the community's social, polilical or security needs as well as in<br />
othen agricultural activity. Thus the maintenance of the agricultural system depended on the<br />
maintenance of Lhe socio-political system, and vice versa. Surpluses produced over and above<br />
direct zubsistence needs powered much of the social system - food and its producLion had<br />
many non-dietary functions (Lea, 1959).<br />
The basic system had many elaborations. Post-harvest elaborations included storage<br />
techniques and pit fermentation to cover seasonal shortages. Tennacing and irrigation<br />
(sometimes with complex hydrological works) were practised. ln swamp areas raised beds were<br />
built to control the water table. Composting was used. On atolls, Cyrtosperma was grown in<br />
baskets of compost set in pits dug down lo the level of lhe fresh water table. All these types<br />
of inlensification tended to raise the level of security of food supply but, initially at least at<br />
the cost of considerably increased laboun inputs. The intensification may have resulted fnom<br />
population pressure, on other pressures, arising from the needs for security in defence,<br />
environmental hazard, or social production. The intensification may have been a causal faclor<br />
itse lf .<br />
The agricultural systems I have sketched obviously varied from place to place but the<br />
most marked variant occurred on atolls where soil conditions prevented the growing of the<br />
full nange of root crops and much gneater reliance was placed on the coconut, pandanus and<br />
fruit and nut Lrees.<br />
Robust and satisfactory as it was for subsistence, this form of agriculture was soon<br />
placed under stress as communities were partially incorporated into the commercial system.<br />
The early barter of foodstuffs for sLeel tools, cloth or other monufactured goods had limited<br />
ef f ect as a potential surplus of tubers was usually available in the ground. But once<br />
harvested these were perishable, difficult to transport and had a limited marke!. Pressure<br />
from missionaries, chiefs, traders, or governments, or the grower's own desire to accumulate<br />
trade goods, led to the addition of new crops - cotton, orangea or coffee - or the expansion<br />
of areas under existing crops - coconuts or sugarcene. Thus there emerged a modified village<br />
agriculture system which included both a subsistence 8egnEnt and a cash crop segrlEnt. This<br />
pattern is the most widespread today. The crucial question ia, ean this mixed<br />
subsistence-commercial village agriculture continue to nreet the rising aspirations of rural<br />
people and the revenue demands which governrpnts place on the rural sector? Before<br />
considering factors which bear m lhis question I mr.Ft note eome key points about the olher<br />
system which emerged in the nineteenlh century.<br />
P lantetion aoriculture<br />
The entry of colonial powers followed (or in a few cases preceded) the arrival of<br />
European settlers, intent m establishing farms, plantations, or businesseg in this erea *'here'<br />
it was commonly believed, the native population would die out in the face of so-called<br />
'rcivilisation". Land was acquired (by fair or unfair rnean6) for plantations end these alieneted<br />
areas were r.nually readily eecessible by *a (or river), and often included some of the best
-22<br />
land for cultivation. Plantations were concerned solely with production for export, required a<br />
commercial structure, and (after initially experimenting with e wide range of crops) were<br />
usually rnonocultural. Contraet, indentured or wage labour was employed - all mobilized on a<br />
commercial basis and paid in cash or rations. The scale of plantations increased and their<br />
operations were of ten integrated with those in metropolitan countries where inputs were<br />
obtained, with shipping services, with processing, and wiLh marketing organiza[ions in the<br />
overseas countries. The scale and integration of the enterprise allowed zuch plantations to<br />
withstand many of the fluctuaLions in prices and returns which plague primary producers<br />
dependent sr world markets.<br />
In recent years the independence of island states has made the status of foreign-owned<br />
plantations problematical. Some countries have policies of taking over foreign-owned holdings<br />
and reallocaLing the land to citizens or traditional land owners. But the export production of<br />
the plan[ations, and the revenue it provides, has proved important to governmen[s. State or<br />
provincial-owned plantations, community holdings managed by a corporation, or variants which<br />
spply an overlay of plantation-type management to small holder producers, are seen aa<br />
offering alterngtives to foreign owned eslates. The important point is that all are at[empts<br />
to retain some at least of the economic advantages of larger scale in marketing and related<br />
operations. This may indicate something of the marketing and management contexts within<br />
which Pacific Island agriculture may develop in futurti.<br />
Mixed subsistence-commercial villaqe aoriculture svstems<br />
Let me return [o the crucial question of the f uture of the mixed<br />
zubsistence-commercial village agriculture systems. It is imporlant to stress that the changes<br />
in lhese syslems have not proceeded at the same pace in all areas. However, I would argue<br />
that the general direcLion has been, essenLially, the same and the differences we now see<br />
often reflect the slage reached, rather than a different proeess.<br />
I believe thet the changes in village agricultural systems have three immediate causes:<br />
the conditions which the commercial market imposes on production systems; lhe fact that<br />
purchased food (or aid from overseas) has replaced traditional methods of guarding aqainst<br />
food ehortage resulting from environmental hazards; and the trend away from reciprocal<br />
labour rmbilization towards wage labour. The market, as it becomes more developed, whether<br />
for fresh food zupply or food processing, demands regularity of supply, and adherence to some<br />
set of product specifications. The latter usually require a degree of specialization and larger<br />
scale producLion of the panticular line on the part of the gnower. Delivery deadlines are<br />
inimical to a system of labour mobilization based on reciprocity in which obligations are<br />
incurred, and must be mel, outside the agricultural production system. Inevilably social and<br />
markeL obligations clash - if the social obliga[ions are given precedence the farmerrs market<br />
errangements may well collapse; if the market demands Lake precedence and the farmerrs<br />
eocial obligatione are not met, his genenal welfare - his social seeurity - may suffer. The<br />
villager trying to maintain this balancing act is in a no-win position and neither set of<br />
obligations can be sustained satisfact.orily.<br />
Similar conflicts arise in other farming operations and the marked increase in use of<br />
wage labour within villages in Fiji, and other rnore commercially oriented areas, is in pant a<br />
reflection of these conflicts. Of course the withdrawal of agricultural work from the<br />
reciprocity system affects other elements of the social structure - for example it rnay no<br />
longer be satisfactory to leave house construction, or the care of the aged, to the traditional<br />
system. lrrcreasingly specialization of labour is becoming the norm in rural areas.<br />
The commereial market (wholesalers, retailers and consumers) demands a standardized<br />
line of bananas, taro or other crop. Uniform size, stage of ripeness, colour and shape are<br />
preferred. The grower is therefore encouraged to change from mulbicrop gardens to nnnocrop<br />
fields - from multivariety plots lo fields of the one, commercial variety. The pressure on his<br />
and his family's time often rneans the disappearance of minor crops, the garnishes in the diet<br />
and important nutritional items. Yams or taro give way to Lhe less labour demanding csssava.<br />
Tfc crops grown for times of risk are also dropped. W ith larger monocrop gardens the<br />
reletive attraction of firs[ class soils on near-flat land increases and the steep land, suitable<br />
for swidden but not for permanent arable use, declines in relative value. Areas without<br />
first-class land are disadvantaged.
-2J<br />
Access to a road (or good sea access) to a market becomes of crucial importance.<br />
Throughout the Pacific Islands rural to fural migration has been Lakinq place for many<br />
decadis - towards the coast, towards roads, towards areas with reserves of land better suited<br />
f or long-term comrnercial f anming, and especially to such areas in the vicinity of urban<br />
markets. Areas which 50 or even 20 years ago were perfectly able to sustain people in a<br />
dominantly self -production self -consumption economy are no lonqer attractive to many and<br />
people drift away to what are seen as better located areas. Isolation, dislance from market'<br />
or small size (and hence lack of commercial prospects) all reduce the relative attraction.<br />
The trends which I have described have been evident in countries like Fiji and Western<br />
Samoa fon l0 or more years. Elsewhere they are not as fully developed. lt is possible that<br />
they could be reversed in some areas, but I doubt if they will be. I believe lhat the<br />
incorporatio.n of the Pacific Islands into Lhe wonld's economic system has gone so far in most<br />
island counlries that the trends wilt not be slowed or reversed - especially because it is not<br />
in the shorter term interests of many, including the leadership, to do so. Under precontact<br />
economic systems the short- and the long-Lerm interest.s of individuals and community - the<br />
private and the public good - generally coincided in the mainlenance of socio-economic<br />
sys!ems. This is no longer-the casl - short-term interest for individuals and government often<br />
lies in moving into the dominantly commencial secLor even if Lhis is inimical to the long-term<br />
inLerest of the community or the environment.<br />
Can the village mixed sJbsistence-cash crop agriculture system be maintained? As a<br />
long-term strategy [hir t"urr a desirable goal. It would provide the security derived from<br />
g.oiuing most of oners own food and also the cash required for necessities and luxuries which<br />
must bL purchased. Personally I doubt if this mixed system will be favoured in the larger<br />
island states in the medium term. This is not only because of the conflicts wiLhin it, between<br />
wages and reciprocity, but also because of lhe alternalives which many islanders have.<br />
To be successful mixed subsistence-cash cnop agriculture must offer neturns in casht<br />
security and welfare which are perceived as comparable to those of wage employment itt<br />
government service, or in the urban privaLe sector. With a few exceptions, the majority of<br />
iittage farmers do not achieve cash incomes which are seen as comparable. Even if the value<br />
of goods produced for o,vn consumption is calculated realistically' lhe fact that cash can be<br />
ur"i fo. I0l purchases, ngt just food, discounts the subsistence production in the minds of<br />
many. Furthermore, export crop prices fluctuate widely. Pacific Island producers cannot<br />
influence the world prices - they are inevitably price takers. Small producers of coprat<br />
eoffee or eocoa are very aware of the insecurity of their markets and cash income. Urbant<br />
and especially government jobs, are seen as more secure - and certainly involve less ttard<br />
manual labour in the hot 2n. Labour and wage legislation tends to increase the relative<br />
securiIy of wage employmenl. Another alternative for Cook lslanders, Samoens, Niueans and'<br />
to a degree, Tongans, is migration to and employment in New Zealand, the United Slates andt<br />
for a lew, Australia. The caeh earnings there (or even unemployment benef its)' the<br />
educational opportunities for children and the other attraciions of metropolitan life mean<br />
that the qportunity cost of village agniculture is often high. I believe village and smallholder<br />
agriculture will become steadily rnore commercial, the slructure of society will continue to<br />
change, and change more rapidly, and inLernal and intefnational migration to lowns increase.<br />
Small-holder production systems<br />
None of lhis means that plantations need become the main form of production. There<br />
are strategies which will permit a smallholder produetion system to provide reasonable cash<br />
incomes, plus the opportunily for some subsistence production if the farmer chooses to<br />
engage in this as well. The Fiii zugar industry provides one model. This smallholder system<br />
frai been remarkably successful for over 50 years even though it is geared to a demanding<br />
market.. The key to this success lies not in the smallholder pnoducLion system' but rather in<br />
the manner in which the provision of essential inputs, and the harvesting and merketing of<br />
the crop, €re menaged. The millers control the cutting, transpor!, and processing of the cane.<br />
They import fertilizer in bulk and distribute it to farmers at near cost. They undertake<br />
nesearch to develop new high yielding cane varieties, tolerant of infertile soils' and disease<br />
resistant. The bulking up and distribution of the new varieties is also a miller's task. The end<br />
result is lhat many of the advantages of large scale in operations which a plantation can<br />
internalize, are made available bo the smallholden.
-24<br />
Other examples of this form of rnanagement can be found in the Pacific. ln its heyday<br />
the Western Sarnoa banana industry had many of these features, as does the reviving Cook<br />
Islands industry. Many forms of organization can be used for the superstruc.ture - producer<br />
cooperatives (c in the New Zealand dairy industry); nucleus estates with associated<br />
smallholders; commercial firms; or government services. The principle can be applied to many<br />
crops' destined for local or export markets. But clearly it nequires a degree of<br />
entrepreneurship and integraLion which has often been lacking in the region.<br />
It is my belief that, with some inevitable false stants and failures, the next decade or<br />
two will see the emergence of this type of agricultural organization in many more parts of<br />
the Pacific Islands. The trend has gone furthest in Fiji where, in addition to the zugar<br />
industry' the new ciLrus industry is planned on similar lines, the recent attempt to resuscitate<br />
the cocoa industry shares some of the features and a new farm management scheme in<br />
dairying is operating.<br />
Other trends<br />
A number of other Lrends are likely to continue, or become evident. lndividual hotdings<br />
will becorne larger wherever rural-urban migration allows. Farming will become more<br />
technically complex. Traditional land tenure syslems will be modified de_[g:to, if not de jure,<br />
and land wilt be held by individuals, or nuclear families, for much longerTan under iliE3dn<br />
systems. Swidden cultivation will become less common as long-term tree crops or continuous<br />
arabh cropping sr the better land become dominant. Steep land or less accessible land will<br />
be used less frequently excepl for grazing, forestry or other extensive uses. Inlensive<br />
commercial agriculture will concentrate more and more in the core area of each country. As<br />
implied earlier, the more remote and smaller islands (and Lhe smaller states), will tend to be<br />
less and less involved in mainstream commereial agriculture.<br />
The extreme archipelagic nature of Lhe South Pacific Islands will accentuate these<br />
trends. The Cook Islands is probably the mosl widely dispersed country in the world in<br />
relation to its population - I8r000 people occupying as much of the earth's surface as<br />
Afghanistan, Pakistan and Thailand Logether. The Pacific Islands are oflen compared with the<br />
islands of the Caribbean but it is worth remembering that the whole of the area from Cuba<br />
and Jsnaica to Trinidad and Guadeloupe would fit easily within French Polynesia, or Kiribati<br />
alone. Furthermore most of the South Pacific states are at least 21000 kilometres from their<br />
nearest significant markeL, and half the world away from their major copra market. The<br />
Caribbean states nestle close the world's largesL economy.<br />
Transportation f actors<br />
Distance from markets is being accentuated by the rising cost of interisland shipping<br />
and technical trends in the shipping industry. Rising crew and fuel costs have encouraged<br />
sttip owners to use larger vessels and containerization. Both developmenls offer little to the<br />
smaller states. Individual consignments ate often less than container size and thus few<br />
benefits accrue from reduced handling as, in fact, an extra handling stage is added. Larger<br />
vessels call less frequently - and the interval between calls is important in the export of<br />
agricultural produce. The number of ports of entry has been reduced in several island<br />
countries in recent years, thereby increasing import and export costs to the outer islands<br />
deprived of direct overseas connections at main port tariffs. Internal costs within lhe Pacific<br />
are sometimes €xt high as those between Europe and the Pacif ic. Similar trends have<br />
transforrned the patterns of international air transport in the last decade. The advent of<br />
wide-bodied jets to the region initially provided an increase in freight capacity to larger<br />
airporta But these advantages did not extend to npst of the small countries which could not<br />
provide sufficient traffic for the larger planes. A break of bulk handling stage was added. As<br />
the practice of overflying the islands m lhe Australasia-North Arnerica routes increased,<br />
some of the benefits were lost, even in the main air traffic nodes. The withdrawal (now<br />
partial withdrawat) of wide-bodied aircreft from the Cook Islands - New Zealand service was<br />
a serious bbw to Cook Island exporters. The use of more narrow-bodied jets m the regional<br />
air routes in place of propeller aircraft, has increased passenger comfort and convenience but<br />
these aircraft do not allow the islands to benefit from the lower ton-mile or passenger-mile<br />
costs of the big jets. And the small size of the market meens that this will continue to be<br />
t}te case.
'25<br />
In interisland transport similar trends have ceurred. Interislend vessels ere larger md<br />
cell lees often. Tlp amount of cargo to be delivered or uplifted is often too srnall to cover<br />
en route cogts. Higher atandards of safety regulations, desirabb in themaelvea, have led to<br />
the withdrawal of older, srnaller vessels whoae capital cogts hsd been deprecieted. Tle carrea<br />
of the interisland ehipping problems are in fact varied, and often pecific to perticubr<br />
countries. But the upshot is that the smaller and rmre distant islands often have a poorer<br />
service now than 20 or even 80 yesrs ego. Internal passenger air servicer have often<br />
improved - but, by capturing much of t}e inter-island pa$enger traffic, they have made the<br />
viability of sttipping links more problematic. Meenwhile on the larger islsrds road<br />
construction has given increasing proportions of the rural population eesy rcess to towns<br />
and ports for marketing and heve lowered the costs of conEuner gooda, jr.st wtren the<br />
equivalenl coets m outer islands are increesing. Retail pricee of consurEr goods are f5 to 4{l<br />
per cent Ngher in the Lau lclandg than in Suva. The Lauan copra grower hes to produce a<br />
lhird nnre than would a counterpart close to Suva in order to mhieve the sarne real incqne.<br />
Not mly ere the outer islands too srnall to produce srfficient agricultural produce (for export<br />
or urban consunption) to warrant frequent stripping services. Tlcy are too smell to benefit<br />
from bulk wholesele purchasing. And the need to carry large stocks to csrpenrate for<br />
infrequent deliveriea is costly to retailers. lnfrequent servicee also limit the range of<br />
products which can be grown for sale. Copra, being storabb (though st I cct of weight md<br />
incorne loss), remains trre of the few qtiona, but is notorious fon ite price fluctuations.<br />
The need, for political reasons, to maintein some degree of -rvice &spite the lack of<br />
direct economic justification often encourages direct governnEnt participation through use of<br />
a governrnnt fleel. Yet this is often helf-hearted. I would mgue thet it is essential if the<br />
small remote islends are to be sustained as a viabb part of the state, to re-examine the bsig<br />
on which the costs and benefits of sfripping services are evaluated. Foc exarple a study in<br />
Papua New Guinea showed that in the setting of charges for uaero, "the recovery rate for<br />
governrnent road and air lransport costs was considerably bss than 20 per cent wtrile tlre<br />
rate imposed m maritime transport was almost 70 per cent" (Prpctor, 1980: l7)). The hidden<br />
subsidies to road users are r.sually much higher than to strip users. In Fiji, current rural road<br />
cmstruction costs are between fF50r(trO and fF80r000 per kilometre, and mnual nraintenanc-e<br />
costs about fFl'200 per kilometre. An absolutely minimum route stripping rntwork would<br />
cover about 2rfi)0 kms. This length of road would cost the governnent about f2r4 million per<br />
annum to maintainr quite apart from the cost of servicing the capital. In cmrparison the<br />
current budget allocates some f)20rffi0 to stripping subsi-dies. I recognize of courae that<br />
shipping services mly generale traffic at the ports .of call, not along their ufiole bngth s<br />
roads may (but not necessarily) do. Thus the direct comparison between S0.l gtO i2r4 million<br />
is not valid. Neither are the populations served of equal size. But the anti-stripping bias b<br />
clear. Until such time as rnme rrnre equitable means are found for eveluating governnnnt<br />
contributions to shipping vis-a-vis road transport, the small and the renpte ielands wiil<br />
remain as backwaters as far as Lheir agricultural potential is concerned. Perhape the concept<br />
of Inotional' or rstradow' roads has something to offer. Perhaps an index based m road<br />
maintenance cosLs per kilometre might give a measure of reesonable shipping rrbsidy bvele.<br />
Perhaps sttips should be made available to users free of direct capital charges, s roads tend<br />
to be. Certainly some new approach is needed.<br />
Aqricultural directions for the next few decades<br />
Let me sum up by indicating what I believe will be the general trends in agricuhure<br />
over the next 20 years or so, and by noting the particular needs of the atolls for a new<br />
consideration of their agricultural systems. Small size and distance from markets will<br />
continue to make it difficult, if not impossibb, for Pacific Island stetes to influence world<br />
prices for their export produets. Special trade arrangements with Australia or New Zealand,<br />
or lhe EEC through the Lane Agreement will continue to be vital. For many of the outer<br />
islands in the larger countries, coconut based products will continue to be the rtly<br />
exportable agricultural produce. Inproved internal air transport is unlikely to c*range this<br />
situetion significantly. Attention and initiatives for new crops and expansion of existing types<br />
of commercial agriculture will focus increasingly on the larger islands, sr those with an<br />
export port' and m those areas with better soils. The village mixed subsistence-cash crop<br />
system will continue in a state of malaise €rs pressures on the whole society from the<br />
commercial world increase. Governments and farmersr qroups will put increasing emphasis an<br />
providing commercially-oriented menagement in production, provision of inputs and rnarketing.<br />
The type of organization which lhe Asian Development Bank's Sor.lth Pacific Agnicultural<br />
Survey called the "plantation rmde of managementtt (not, I streas, 'rproductionrr, but
_26<br />
rrtnenagetnent') will become rxlre common. Lerge-scale production will also find favour mee<br />
again in some areas, and for some crops, especialty a ttre nural labour shortage which aome<br />
countries already experience become rmre marked. But systems of smallhotdere working under<br />
a larger rnenagement sJperstructure will spread.<br />
The needs of the atolls warrant special consideretion. Tteir environmental conetrainte,<br />
when combined with their location and.small size, prevent them from following the counse<br />
which I foresee for the Melanesien and larger Polynesian countriee. Kiribati, Tuvalu end the<br />
Tokelaus simply do not have slfficient_lani ar"a io slpporl their existing populetions m the<br />
besis of commercial coc.onut farming. It is. extremely doubtful if they cai lifiport even their<br />
existing populations without an indeiinite flow of remittences and overeeas aid. With the end<br />
of phosphate mining of Banaba, Kiribati has recently lost the source- oigj-p"r cent of its<br />
exports' Where the atoll regions are part of a larger polity I believe the men-fend balance m<br />
the atolls will be !"p! ut. outmigration, as it has-been in the Cooks and the Tokeleue (with<br />
rmvement to New Zealand), and in French Polynesia. But unless new international migration<br />
arrangements are made for Kiribati and Tuvalu they will nol have this option. The<br />
subsistence component of their agriculture and fishing must be intensified. This cannot be<br />
done by standard agricultural practices but will requiie the extension of traditionel systemsl<br />
the search for and introduction of new f-ruit end *t t.""., tolerant of sanoy soits ana periods<br />
of water stress; the wider adoption of soil-forrning techniques; the ,+;;";ing of coconut<br />
productivity, perhaps with hybrids developed speciaily for etoll conditions; and the genetic<br />
improvernent and wider use of those few root crops wtrictr can be grown in this environnent.<br />
All this calls for a particular form of scientific qplication to exiiting agricultural systems.<br />
Such applications are normally concerned mly wiih cash crops which give the prospect of<br />
financial r€turns. Here the returns will not be monetary, bui will be io less important to<br />
human welf are, and the benef its will hetp the non-atolls as'well. BuL the countries themselves<br />
are too small to carry the cost, and do not hsve the manpower or facilities to do the work.<br />
It is a task which those metropolitan countries with interests in the region strould address eg<br />
a matter of gneat urgency. The results may not solve entirely t}re OepeirO"ncy-of those atolls<br />
states' but at least they should reduce the lever of nendicity.<br />
I<br />
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />
am rnost grateful to my colteagues in the ADB's South Paeific Agnicultural Survey<br />
te-em for many of the<br />
_ideas expressed in tfris paper. I am also indebted to B.J. Allen, W.C.<br />
Qlarker D.R. Howlet!, D-.A-M. Lea, l4W. ward anb D.E. Yen for comments on en eerlier draft.<br />
Ttcir help des not imply they agree with my opinions.
-27<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Banks' J. L96t. The Endeavour journal 1768-L77]' J.C. Beaglehole (ed.)r Vol. II. Pr.rblic<br />
Library of New South wsles in sssociation with Angus and Robertsur, sydney.<br />
de Ricci, J.H. 1875' Fiji: our new province in the South Seaa. Edwerd Stanford, Lmdm.<br />
Grange' LI. and ,L,P. Fox. 1951. Soils of the lower Cook lfoup. N.Z. Departrnent of Scientifie<br />
and Industrial Regearch, Soil Bulletin No. 8, Wellington.<br />
Hansell' J.R.F. and IR.D. Wall. 1976. Land resourcea of the Solomon Islands, Vol. |' Land<br />
Resources Division, Ministry of Overseas Developnnnt, Surtiton.<br />
Latham' N4. 1981. Pedologier planche 14. In Atlas de ta Nouvelle Caledonie et Dependances.<br />
Editions de I'Office de la Recherche SciEi'tifigue et Technique d'Outre Mer, Paria.<br />
Lea' D.A.M. 1969, Ssne non-nutritive functions of food in New Guinea. In F. Gale and GH.<br />
Lawton (ed.), Settlernent and Encounter. Oxford University Preee, Melbou-rne.<br />
Pmctorr A. 1980. Transport and agricultural development, p. 157-180. In R.G. Ward 4d A.<br />
Proclor (ed.)' South Pacific agriculture: choices and constraints. Asi;; Developrnent Benk<br />
and Australisn National Universily Prees, Canbema.<br />
Twyford' LT. and A.C.S. Wright. 1965. TIE soil resources of the Fiji Islende. Government<br />
Printer, Suva.<br />
Wright' 4"C.5. 1961. Soilg snd land use of Western Semoa. N.Z. Department of Scientific and<br />
Industrial Reoeerch, Soil Bulletin No. 22, Wellington.
-29<br />
PEFLE POTENTIALS IN TFE PACIFIC<br />
Mere Puba<br />
Mere Pulea & Associates<br />
Fiji<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Pqulation patterns in the Pacific show rapid'population growth, tempered in<br />
some countries by out-migration, family planning programmes and rising age at<br />
marriage. A reduction in population growth rates is crucial to achieving<br />
development goals. With children making up 40 to 50 per cent of lhe population,<br />
education and training need to be planned with care and adapted to the changing<br />
needs and future of Paeific people.<br />
Are development lheories arrd strategies derived from foreign ideas and<br />
values really relevant to Pacific countries? Aid often perpetuates economic and<br />
political dependency, creating employment for international experts to the<br />
detriment of Pacific lslander personnel. Pacific wornen are still disadvantaged in<br />
their participation in development.<br />
From a colonial or international perspective, Pacif ic customs and social<br />
system3 have been interpreted as obstacles to development, but the critical issues<br />
in Pacif ic developnrent are nol technological or economic, but psychological,<br />
social, anltural md political. Soeial systems md occupational continuities are<br />
potentials thet could be utilized for the development of Pacific people. Pacific<br />
Islanders should be allowed to develop I'naturallyil by defining their onn needs and<br />
wants. Regulations for peopleer participat.ion in developnnnt can improve equality,<br />
but rnay retard innovation.<br />
The npst valuabb neEource any country poEsesses is its people. Indeed sorne of the<br />
Pacific Island countries have little else. Every once in a while we are asked to stop, and<br />
think about the deep and problematic truths of our lives in the Pacific. I would like to take a<br />
broad view of sorp of the factors that have a bearing on people potentials in the Pacific and<br />
the attenpts being rnsde at developing Fesources as I understand them, and raise a few<br />
questions for your consideration. The framework in which we attempt to examine Pacific<br />
Ialender potentials covers the developrnent of human reeources, developrnent theories in a<br />
Pacific lelend context, nethods of assessing resource and human potential, the kinds of<br />
opporttnitiar which exiot, tnalth factors and so forth.<br />
Underpinning rmtt of these topica is m inplied if not trr expressed inlerpretation that<br />
the develqrpnt of turnan nerources ig consonent with rneintaining I healthy population end<br />
providing edueationel qportunities srd tfaining for the development of ski[s in the various<br />
industriee and for the potentiel uaers of Paeific Islander skiils. We then nnve not only<br />
towarde work-forces that are efficieni and productive but towards maintaining a quality of<br />
lifc Prcific ldanderr pereeive for therngelves" Concsnitant with thege developrrEnts are the<br />
socio-eultural constraint! md potentiale thet are likely to inhibit or Ealize Pacific lelander<br />
potcntitlr I will confinc my dircuecions to the framework of these topics.<br />
Peulntion Trcndr<br />
ln cdor to dircur p.ople potentiab it ir reccsrary to give e broad overview of<br />
popuhtlot pattcru in the Pcific o population increeoes have far reaching inrplications in<br />
the. daveloprnnt and the utilizetion of potentials. It wac mly in the 1960's that the
-11<br />
relationahip between high population growth and econornic srd social developrnent became a<br />
significant issue within Pacific Aovernrnents. Only two generatione aarlier rnany of them had<br />
been at least equally concerned about the popuhtion decline of the 19th century.<br />
Bearing in mind the geographicel features of the Pecific Islands, low levelg of natural<br />
resources in some of the countries and limitationa m ueable landa, some eountriee have been<br />
viewing the population situation of the lest two decades with concern.<br />
Associeted with the high rate of population growth is unemployment, high levels of<br />
dependency m the state, poverty, malnutrition, high density living, inadequate houcing and<br />
problems affecting health and education.<br />
Annuel growth ratea in rmst Pecific countries are high, but there are a few exceptionc.<br />
Niue, T*elau and the Cook Islands have expressed a negative growth rate due to<br />
out-migration. See Table l.<br />
Country Pqulation<br />
(000's)<br />
Arnerican Samoa tr.z<br />
Cook Islands 17.7<br />
Fiji 646.2<br />
French Polynesia 49.8<br />
Guam 106.4<br />
Kiribati ,9.9<br />
Nauru 7.t<br />
New Caledonia 142.5<br />
Niue t.2<br />
Northern Mariana Is. 17.6<br />
Papua New Guinea tO66.O<br />
TABLE I - Eotimrtcd Pqulation (I98I-I98f)<br />
and Arrrual Growth Rata (1975-f980i)<br />
%<br />
1.5<br />
-0.7<br />
1.8<br />
2.?<br />
0.6<br />
t,6<br />
0.8<br />
L.2<br />
-2.t<br />
I.9<br />
Country<br />
Ppulation 96<br />
(000's)<br />
Pitcairn 0.1<br />
Solomon Islands 2t5.O l.l<br />
Tokelau 1.6 0<br />
Tmga 98.4 L.7<br />
TTPI L2',7 2.'<br />
Tuvalu 7.6 4.6<br />
Vanuatu 120.0 4.4<br />
Wallis & Futune ll.2 t.2<br />
Weetern Samoa 157.0 0.8<br />
TOTAL 5004.4 1.9<br />
TOTAL excluding P lc 1918.4 1.9<br />
SOURCE: South Pacific Eeonomies 1981; SPC Danographic Unit<br />
*Approximate five year period; Feirbairn 1982.<br />
The United Nations predicts that the population in the Pacific region is expected to<br />
reach nearly eight million by the turn of the eentury with the snnual growth rate of nearly<br />
2%. See Table 2.<br />
Although there is a projected decline in the growth rates for each of the mejor<br />
sub-regions, the growth rate is still high, particularly in Melanesia and Micronesia.<br />
A completely different picture applies to death rates. Death rates in the Pacific<br />
declined rapidly immediately afler 1920 and the end of the influenza epidemic in Polynesie,<br />
excepi in the Solomon Islands where the decline began after the l9l0'g. The expectation of<br />
life at birth for most Pacific Islanders was under 50 at the beginning of lhe century, but<br />
impnoved health services and improved socio-economic conditiong have led to an increase to<br />
about 60 years in most countries. Recent findings indicate that the expectetion of life at<br />
birth in Fiji is around 6l years; Weslern Sarnoa 63 years; Tmga under 60 yearEi Niue 6l<br />
years; Cook Islands 51 years; Kiribati and Solomon Islands 54 years.<br />
It was not until the 1960's that some of the Pacific countrieg developed policies geared<br />
towarde lowering the population growth rates. Programmeg labelled Fenily Planning were<br />
seen and are seen as the direct means to imptement governncntal policy to lower the birth<br />
rates. Moet of the National Development plans recognize the problems of rapid population<br />
growth and try to incorporate the Family Plenning programme within the broad framework of<br />
socio-economic development. Horvever, in practice, family planning ie not integrated into the<br />
various secLors of developrnent, and it is treated separately, r.rsually a8 psrt of the health<br />
programme, wilh little relationehip to the reet of the socio-econornic developnnnt progremme.
-tL<br />
TABLE 2 - Proiected inereara in populetion<br />
h--:^- ta-'.-t-,. Pqulation (000's) % increase Average annual rate of growth<br />
F(e9ron/L'ounErv L975-7g 2000-01 25 years tgtila 6 1995-98 to<br />
1980-81 2000-01<br />
Melanesia<br />
Melanesia excl.<br />
Ppua New Guinea<br />
Micronesia<br />
Polynesia<br />
Pacif ic<br />
Pacific excl.<br />
Papua New Guinea<br />
t702<br />
986<br />
to7<br />
455<br />
4444<br />
I72S<br />
6600<br />
l6l4<br />
575<br />
656<br />
78lt<br />
2545<br />
78.t 2.4<br />
63.7 2.4<br />
87.t 2.8<br />
50.8 1.9<br />
76.2 2.1<br />
64.6 2.t<br />
SOURCES: UN 1980; Bedford 1982; Fairbairn 1982.<br />
Family planning prograrnmes are not alone in affec[ing the decline in the population<br />
growth raLes; in some countries the rising age at marriage could also have this effect. For<br />
example, in Fiji in the early l950rs, the average age at marriage for female Indians was 16<br />
years. Today, female Indians tend to marry in their early twenties. With increasing<br />
urbanization, better communieation and transport systems, and modern technology, policies<br />
affecting migra[ion indicate governmental concern because of the impact of out-migration on<br />
the composition and growlh of an active population. In some countries population policies in<br />
National Development Plans aim not mly to reduce out-migration but to minimize the skill<br />
drain nol only from rural areas to towns but to other countries. However, the small countries<br />
in the Pacific cannot solve their population problems by oul-migralion, as countries to whieh<br />
Pacif ic Ielandens could migrate have become more neslrictive in their policies towards<br />
accepting Pacific Islanden migrants. For example, New Zealand is not likely to accept Pacific<br />
Islanders as mignants except from counlries with which it still has constibutional ties.<br />
The Kiribati National Development Plan I states that:<br />
'1ln the past, population pressures have been partially relieved by migration<br />
and re-settlement in other countries, for example, Solomon Islands. It is not<br />
expected that further opportunilies of this type will arise."<br />
The impact of migration m fertility is not fully neasured in any country in the Pacific,<br />
nor are its magnilude and nature precisely known. As it is more common for Pacific Island<br />
men to migrate, there is likely to be a shortage of rnen so that it is difficult for women to<br />
establish unions. Holrever, where unions are established, the untimely emigration of nen<br />
before the women complete their child bearing period could have an effect m the birth<br />
rates, although judging from the figures produced in Table l, the effect of out-migration is<br />
not significant except in Niue, Tokelau and Cook Islands.<br />
It has only been in the last twenty five years thet population growth has been<br />
perceived aa a threat to development goals. No single factor can achieve fundamentel<br />
changes in the population gtructure. The reduction in the population growth ratee is not<br />
dependant entirely on family planning programrnes, out-migration, improved health, the<br />
influence of educaLion or the increased participation of women in paid employment, but an<br />
interaction of all these veriableg could contribute to downward population trends.<br />
The demographic characteristics of the Paeific Islands, high fertility rete8, low death<br />
rates' I very young population (40 - 50% under the age of 15 years), high population density<br />
on some islands, the economic Btructur€ based mainly m agriculture with limited trade<br />
potentials at present, the size of the labour force relative to lend and other resounces,<br />
dictate the necessity to coneider the potentials the Pecific Islende have for development in<br />
order to keep pace with population trends. Ialand populations could arffer all the miserieg<br />
eesociated with poverty if population continuee to increese at the present rate.<br />
The problam of providing jobs cen better be appreciated when me consider8<br />
changes thet are occurring and ere likely to ccur in the compooition of employment<br />
2.O<br />
1.4<br />
2.L<br />
L.2<br />
t.9<br />
1.6<br />
the<br />
that
-t2<br />
accdrpanies the process of urbanizetion and induetrialization and a movement away from<br />
agriculture where a large proportion of the Pacif ic labour force is ebsorbed. pacific<br />
countriee cannot provide vst increeees in non-agricultural employment qfortunitles s the<br />
resources are limited, but there is capacity for the provision of employm"rit oppo"tunities in<br />
egriculturally-related fields through maiketing, inter-regional -,0' int"rn"tional trade,<br />
processing, transport and services. It would be iutticient io say that the reduction in the<br />
population growth nates would be crucial not only in attaining the goals for edequate and<br />
productive employment, and universal education, but also in prividing-equal opportunities for<br />
both nen end women in the developnnnt proceos.<br />
Development of Skille and Traininq<br />
As referred to earlier, the high fertility rates in some of the countries reflect a large<br />
proportion of the population in the under 15 ege group. Table I indicates a high proportion of<br />
the population also in the 15-59 age group and in extremely low proportion-in the 60+ age<br />
group.<br />
,<br />
Country<br />
b€LAT€SIA<br />
Fiji<br />
New Caledmia<br />
Pqua New Guinea<br />
Solomon Islands<br />
Vanuatu<br />
MICRqTESIA<br />
Guem<br />
Kiribeti<br />
Nauru<br />
TTPI<br />
POLYIfSIA<br />
Anerican Samoe<br />
Cook Islands<br />
French Polynesia<br />
Niue<br />
T*elau<br />
Tmga<br />
Tuvalu<br />
Wallis & Futuna<br />
Western Samoa<br />
PACFIC<br />
TABLE ) - Pquletion structure: a summary<br />
Year<br />
L97 6<br />
L976<br />
L97L<br />
L976<br />
r979<br />
I970<br />
r978<br />
L977<br />
I97t<br />
1974<br />
L976<br />
L977<br />
r97 6<br />
Lgt6<br />
L976<br />
L979<br />
1976<br />
I974<br />
I976+<br />
Percent of population age<br />
0-I4 15-59 60+<br />
4t. I<br />
18.5<br />
45.2<br />
47.8<br />
45.4<br />
t9.7<br />
41. t<br />
44.2<br />
46.2<br />
44.5<br />
49.8<br />
42.O<br />
46.r<br />
46.1<br />
44.'<br />
lt.8<br />
46.6<br />
48.2<br />
44.4<br />
54.7<br />
55.i<br />
5r.9<br />
47.1<br />
50.2<br />
57.J<br />
5t.I<br />
5].0<br />
47.6<br />
50.7<br />
44.2<br />
5]. I<br />
45.4<br />
4i.4<br />
50.5<br />
60. I<br />
47.5<br />
47.1<br />
4.0<br />
2.9<br />
2.9<br />
4.8<br />
4.4<br />
1.0<br />
5.8<br />
2.9<br />
5.9<br />
4.4<br />
6.0<br />
4.9<br />
8.t<br />
t0.2<br />
5.t<br />
8.I<br />
5.9<br />
4.5<br />
52.O t.6<br />
SOURCES: SPC 1979; Bedford 1982; Fairbairn t982.<br />
Ac-cording to Fairbairn (mss.), a notable feature of the Pacific regionts population is<br />
the large rumber of children es a proport.ion of the total population:<br />
rFor most island countries, children (i.e. 0_14 age group) eomprise well over<br />
40 per cent of the total ... for Lhe centnal Polyneslan-countries'they comprise<br />
typically around 50 per cent.il<br />
Such popuhtion patterns not only pose problems for the natural resources and the<br />
economic and social development of small Pacific islands, but they also bear on the<br />
developnrent of people. potentials. The population witl eontinue Lo expand as this young group<br />
enters the ctrild bearing age. If the rate of population growth continues in this pattern it<br />
could have serious implications rt employment qportunities, education, training, health and<br />
other public ervices, and the participation of women in development. ft unitt also affect the<br />
adequcy of existing .nesources to srpp6rt growing populations not simply by providing bare<br />
srbsistence but by maintaining adequate levels of sociai and economic weli-being.
-t3<br />
Ssne of the Pacific countrieg rrch e Tuvalu md Kiribeti have limited lend potential<br />
to lppolt a growing population. A glance st countriee ruch c Fiji, New Celedonia, Vanuatu<br />
md Solomon lrlandr reveals large areaa of uncultivated land wtrich might anggcst rbstmtial<br />
rope for developnnn[ and c.rpport of a growing population, hrt in fect a good perc-entage of<br />
the lsnd ir infertile, lteep end offers little scope to upport brge rumbem of pcople. Aa<br />
pqulation becomes rrprs dense the problems of the Lsage of land relourcec, and of<br />
cnploymant qportunities trr the land or in the comrnercisl or white collar sactors are likely<br />
to becorne rmre rrious.<br />
Thig reelization of potential egsociated with the developrnent of hurnn resources is<br />
dependent tr'r meny f ectors. An area for congideretion ie the developnnnt of skills,<br />
particularly through education and training of the gnowing population, as related to the<br />
nturated and diminishing qportunities in the labour rnarkets. To what extent are education<br />
end training progremmes adryted to the changing reeds and the future of Pcific people ?<br />
To keep pace with thcse changes the attenpt to develop human resources will require<br />
forecasting manpower needs, selection, training, and rupervision. Hopefully the workers will<br />
be setisfied and productive, bading to en effective and efficient work-force. Although the<br />
development of human rlesources is consonsnt with providing higher levels of education or<br />
npre extensive and intensive treining usually focugsed on skitls and techniquee, what results,<br />
in my view, is the concenLration of efforte m the few to sarve the rnany. This is inevitabb<br />
e! we qumtif y our sr.rccecses in the developnent of our human nesource potential by<br />
displaying data to reveel how many people with different levels of qualification heve been<br />
produced. However, if this is ueed as a mejor index for the developnent of human potential,<br />
then rome aerioug qreetions need to be aeked about its pplicability to Pacific societieg.<br />
It is fashionable to talk about the developrnent of middle level marpower. All<br />
development plans ineist. m this.<br />
"ln short, it. seems that heving developed some human resources we then<br />
develop the reeourceg of gome other humana .albeit at a lower level to arpport the<br />
efforts of the firat lot, in the hope that the human fesourcee development will<br />
take place asl our trained and educated and equipped human nesource developers<br />
descend sr other humans whoge resources need to be developed." (Maraj, L977).<br />
The Pacific region requires deliberate planning to focus m training and education if it<br />
is to utilize fully the potentials of its greatest Bset - its people.<br />
It is dso faghionable in the Pacific to talk about rural developnent, as between 50% to<br />
80% of the Pacific people live in rural areas, and could be the major source of skills and<br />
Feeources for the economy. Following independence in many countries, the rising expectations<br />
in nation building, education and training in all sectors of the community are seen a me of<br />
the major instrunents for progress: more jobs, more social rnobility and rnore investment for<br />
generating economic development. Tfese expect.ations are also encouraged by international<br />
agencies who make considerable investments m this front.<br />
Are such developnrent theories and strategies, with particular emphasis on markel<br />
orientation, gecializations and the complexi[ies involved really relevanl to Pacific countriesi<br />
More than 80% of lhe Pacific people derive their livelihood from agriculture and to a greal<br />
extent our economy is dependant on agrarian production. Although agriculture is the<br />
foundation of the Pacif ic economy, technological changes have a signif icant effect (r<br />
treining skillg and employment qportunities. To go f urther, some jobs can be lost tt<br />
technology which will mly be in psrt be absorbed by employment created by the neu<br />
technologies.<br />
The pace of economic and technological changes differs from me Pacific country t(<br />
another, and the question as to whether these changes have been of material benefit to lhr<br />
majority of Pacific people is yet unknown. Is developrnent so geared and entrenched ir<br />
foreign ideas and values that little note is taken of the real life situation of Pacifir<br />
countries? Do we continue in order to be developed along with the outside world?
-t4<br />
International agencies and nreLropolitan governnents who aid Pecific countries do so in<br />
cash' equipment, and lhe provision of experLs and consultants. Although we appreciate these<br />
efforts, my impression is that the regulations for aid imposed upori pacific societies are<br />
geared towards the perpetuation of economic and political dependency. At finst glance, aid<br />
procedules and regulations may not have implicaLions for the development of human resources<br />
in the Pacific, but if one notes the number of aid agencies op"rating in the pacific today,<br />
there is a notable increase in the last ten years wfricn does have- some implications for<br />
economic and social developnrent and the realization of potentials in the pecific. Aid<br />
agencies in fact play a key role in the development and realization of people pot,ential in Lhe<br />
Pacific' although with the exception of only one or two countries in'the pacific there are<br />
small indigenous concentrations of capital and resources suff iciently large to qerate<br />
nationally' regionally, and internationally. The growth of international agencies has also<br />
provided a market for international labour. There is no zuggestion at thij stage that this<br />
cadre of personnel will be replaced by loeal expertise as ilencies' demands for minimum<br />
viability standards . for aid programmes will continue to give international personnel<br />
employment and tend to hinder the developnenl of potential pacific Islander expertise.<br />
The system is also perpetuated by a srnall group' of elites at national level who show<br />
little confidence in the skills and innovetions of [heir own people. If pacific Islander<br />
expertise is used, it is usually at a lower level. Above them is the layer of international<br />
personnel which does not give Pacifie countries independenee or equality in the operation of<br />
their own development. Although aid agencies have a primary economic iunction they do play<br />
an influential role in the life of Pacific communities. Perhaps a review to the approaches<br />
towards the utilization of local manpower potential by both aid agencies and pacif ic<br />
countries would result in a betten partnenship towards realistic and att-ainable programmes.<br />
Pacif ic countries could then match their political freedom with economie ' anl social<br />
independence and not be zubjeeted to reslrictive aid provisions which turn ou! to be no aid<br />
at all. What in fact does happen is that Pacif ic islands become a labour market for<br />
internati onal personnel.<br />
Before leaving this issue, the last aspect I would like to deal with is the participation<br />
of women in developmenL. The participation of women is seen by some as the fundamental<br />
Proeess for the realization of certain values and goals tied to society's values themselves.<br />
Their level of participation in the development process can also be seen a{r a useful guide in<br />
order [o understand the kinds of changes taking place in society. Pacific countries differ in<br />
their attitude towards women and this in turn affects the extent to which women are given<br />
opportunities for edueation, [raining and employment.<br />
For example, a small local study carried out at the University of the South pacific's<br />
Extension Services reveels interesting sex ratio figures for Extension enrollments for Iggl<br />
semester II. See Table 4.<br />
Cook Islands<br />
Fiji<br />
Kiribati<br />
Nauru<br />
Niue<br />
Solomon Islands<br />
Tmga<br />
Tuvalu<br />
Vanuetu<br />
Weatern Samoa<br />
TOTAL<br />
TAB|I 4 - Sex ratio of USP extension enrollmentg<br />
Male<br />
No.<br />
58<br />
510<br />
72<br />
6<br />
22<br />
tI9<br />
76<br />
28<br />
76<br />
50<br />
tol7<br />
Vo<br />
56<br />
68<br />
62<br />
40<br />
40<br />
84<br />
54<br />
6t<br />
75<br />
5L<br />
65<br />
Female<br />
No.<br />
45<br />
244<br />
45<br />
9<br />
tt<br />
22<br />
66<br />
l8<br />
25<br />
48<br />
555<br />
SOURCE: Dr. R. Treyvaud, USP, l98l.<br />
%<br />
tt4<br />
,2<br />
5g<br />
6u<br />
60<br />
t6<br />
46<br />
t9<br />
25<br />
49<br />
,5
-t5<br />
A rumber of features sppear to emerge from theae figureer narnely:<br />
- Overall there ie e low rete of female enrollment in highar educetion.<br />
- The lowest retes in female enrollments are 8een in rnore recently independent countries<br />
such as Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. Is this a ref lection of colonial/cuatomary<br />
attitudes towards females?<br />
- Is there a difference in attitudes towards fernele participation in Melaneeia, PolynEsia and<br />
Mieronesia? Is there an increase in sorne countries of lhe retention retes of females in<br />
echools and if so, what factors influence thie pattern?<br />
- Are those females who continue to advance in educetion end training is concentrated into<br />
stereotyped traditional occupationa such as rursing and horne economice?<br />
If femalee ere not equally represented in other fielde of etudy, eould it be that they<br />
are being discriminated against, or that the problem really lies with thoee who guide femalee<br />
into "femele type" stereotyped traditional occupations?<br />
Socio-eultural Constraints and Potentiel<br />
A number of writers have eteted or inplied that the rnajor problems facing the people<br />
of the Pacific today arise from the processes of sociel, economic and political change. Sqne<br />
writers go further and sta[e that Pacific people can solve many of their problema if they<br />
adapt their culture to the needs of rnodern times. Pacific countries are urged to rmdernize or<br />
ebandon their traditional lend tenure systems, comrnunat obligatione, rituds and customs in<br />
order to compete with the outside world end progre8s towards e richer commercial econdny.<br />
According to Lsaqa (f97]) theee statements are not new, mr are they difficult to<br />
8ay. Whet ie nnre difficult to spell out are their inplications in detail, eepecially es they<br />
affect groups and inter-personal relatione, social structure and value 8y8tem8, uee of tirne and<br />
resources, local leadership, and ihe peoples views of themselves and the world around them.<br />
Cusloms, communal living, and lraditional land tenure systems.are seen as serious threets to<br />
development. Since Pacif ic Islanders have no developrnent theory related to their own<br />
environmenl, developrnent ia mly encouraged towards a monetarized economy, but thia does<br />
not develop the full bases for Lhe people to attain a good and satiafying quality of life.<br />
Social units such as the aiga and the metai systems of Western Samoa, the mataqali in<br />
Fiji, the unimane system of Kiribati frave been interpreted as obetacles to development by<br />
colonial and international perspectives in sueh e way that we feel the need to ryologize for<br />
these dynamic systems. Preoccupation with western cultural heritage could lead to t}te<br />
absrdonrnent of Pacific traditions and culture in order to advance technologically, but thia<br />
would not promote the socio-cultural progress of tlre netion. Surely excellence in culture ie<br />
just as important as economic progress.<br />
The crucial issues in Pacif ic development are not technological or economic, but<br />
psychological, social, cultural and politieal: the areas in which cultural conditioning<br />
constitutes a pervasive and often vital influenee. When gtch factore ere not taken into<br />
account it could constrain much rneaningf ul underetanding of development in a Pacif ic<br />
context. Crocombe (mgs.) stetes that a major issue is not mly motivational petterns of<br />
people's work behaviour, but also the differences in the use of tirn, where long drawn out<br />
rituals, ceremonies and nreetings in the Pecific are labelled by 'O' and 'M' [Orgenization and<br />
Methodsl as 'wasting time'. Ssne studies have shown that npat Pacific aocietiee before<br />
contact with industrialized societies used mly between twelve and twenty houra a week in<br />
the whole range of things ealled 'workr to rnaintein a reegonably eomforteble existenee.<br />
Although this is low by world standards, it was possible because of the richness of the<br />
environment. Other studiee also show that people who are r.Fed to working relatively short<br />
hours, put into a new context would also work short hours, but this hes been disproved when<br />
one sees Pacific Islander migrants living in the United States, Cmada, Auetralia and New<br />
Zealend. Crocombe, in this article, goes trr to discues the extent of occupational continuity<br />
in the Pacific, treditions that go back long before contact with Europeane and industrial<br />
technology. He makee reference to the seafaring traditione of the Tongana and eopecially to<br />
the Tmgan eafaring captains, where for the past 500 years almost dl have ctltne from a<br />
very select group of families in Ha'apai. Similarly, wood-carving is the epeciality of the<br />
people of the tiny islands of Kabara and Fuhga in the Fiji group. Even though these ere very
-t6<br />
small islands the carvers come mainly from the Jiafau clan within them and although many<br />
chanqes have mcurred in Fiji the best carvers are still produced to this day from the Jiafau<br />
glel. Such examples can be found all over the Pacifie. Changes and development in the<br />
Pacific have not phased out these skills and in some cases they have remained very strong.<br />
These are the strengths in Pacific communities that we ought to be aware of if we are<br />
to utilize the potentials and undersband the constraints in a socio-cultural context, es such<br />
Patterns can have a major bearing on Paeific Islander developmenL. The dynamics of the<br />
social systems such as the aiqa, the matai, the mataqali and the unimane !o name a few, and<br />
the occupational continuities in some of the arts and crafts that have continued for the past<br />
f0 to 500 years are porentials that could be fully utilized for the development of the<br />
Pacific people.<br />
Possible Guidelines<br />
The recognition and ulilization of people potential in the Pacific brings me to discuss<br />
two main themes. One theme concerns the rnatural' development of Pacific lilander potential<br />
and the other theme deals with defining bodies of laws and administrative regulations<br />
especially for the people to open up the opportunities and the responsibilities for pacific<br />
islanders in all aspects of their own development.<br />
There is no question about the importance of the role that Pacific Islanders and their<br />
.<br />
institutions play in the development of their own countries. The important guestion appeans<br />
to be rrwhat kind of Pacific Islander are we trying to develop ?"<br />
The theme of "nalural" development for Pacific Islanders involves in the first instance<br />
giving the people the opportunity to define their own needs and wants for themselves, their<br />
families and their environment. The "natural" developrnent concept will allow the people Lo<br />
satisfy tlreir needs based m cultural patterns and needs that are attainable and satisfying so<br />
that they are not made to cope with development processes ihat are far beyond theii stills,<br />
eapabilities and environment. Tle t'ngtural'r devetopment process enables Pacifie Islanders to<br />
identify their own problems and participale fully in the development of their own programmes<br />
to npet their needs.<br />
The other theme of the development process is to define the peoples' role through<br />
directions, regulations, and legislation, in order to utilize fully thelr poten[ial and the<br />
potential of their traditional institutions. Specif ieally def ining their role and their<br />
participation and involvernent in development programmes could briig about greaLer equality<br />
and betLer aceess to education, training and employment. However, thls in effect would result<br />
in Pacific Islanders not defining for themselves their own reeds and development in a fluid<br />
and innovative way where their own development goals and strategies could be adjusted to<br />
their changing circumsLanceg. Pacific Islander development would be institutionalized in<br />
bodies of laws and administrative directions and this could perhaps have negative effects on<br />
the utilization and the development of people poiential in the pacific.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
crccombe, R. G. (mss.) culture and development in the south pacific.<br />
Fairbairn, I. (mss.) Pryulation (unpublished paper, f9g2).<br />
Kiribati National Development plan l9j9-tgAZ, p. 45.<br />
Lasaqa, l. 197t. Geography and geographers in the changing Pacific: an islanderrs view. In l,l<br />
Brookfield [ed.] The Pacific in Transition. Edward nmota. p.3o6-3o7,<br />
Marajr I 1977. Human resounces development and regional co-cperation. University of the<br />
South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. p. 3
-t7<br />
A PERSPECTIVE C.I I-T.JMAN I-EALTH AND IT5 IMPLICATIOi{S<br />
FOR TI-E POTENTIAL tr TFE PACIFIC REGIOI.I<br />
Ian Prior<br />
Director, EpidemiologY Unit<br />
Wellington HosPital<br />
Wellington, New Zealand<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
The Island populations in the Pacific are made up of people of differing<br />
ethnic background - Polynesian, Melanesian, Micronesian, who live in physical<br />
environrnents which vary from small alolls with limited resources to high islands<br />
where bounteous supplies of soil and food have been available for hundreds of<br />
years.<br />
The patterns of health and disease in these populations are now showing<br />
many changes which can be associated with urtanization, migration and altering<br />
Iife styles. Health patterns and population growth have been greaily influenced by<br />
irnprovements in control of the acute infectious diseases, chronie disorders slch as<br />
tuberculosis and filariasis, and in the areas of maternal and child health. SLudies<br />
in the Pacific over the past twenty years have demonstrated a wide gradient of<br />
risk of conditions which in Western Societies are the principal causes of mortality<br />
such as cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, stroke and coronary hnart disease.<br />
These conditions are now emerging as important health hazards in some nnre<br />
developed Pacific socieLieg such as Fijir samoa, Trtga, and the Cook lslands and<br />
involve some ethnic groups more than olhers. At the same time migration from the<br />
South Pacific to industrialized urban societies s.tch as New Zealand is providing a<br />
still greater change in enyironrnent, Iife style and health patterns.<br />
Multidiiciplinary epidemiological studies such as the Td
-t8<br />
(b) Prevention of diseesea of affluence essociated with increese in gtandard of living<br />
snd elteration of lifestyle will involve major emphasis trt individual and community decisioi<br />
making.<br />
The perspective will be developed by looking backwards and highlighting certain<br />
problem conditions that give an understanding of the extent of ill heelth anO its causes and<br />
insighis into nethods developed for dealing with these. Sorne of the changes thet have<br />
become important - migration, urbanization, sociel change end health consequLnces will be<br />
described together with factors relating to the future. Finally the question will be ssked<br />
whether the World Health Organization goal, 'rHealth for All Uy tfre year 2000r', is likely to<br />
be achieved.<br />
The past<br />
5-M- Lambert, author of 'rA Drctor in Paradiser', commenced working for the<br />
Rockefeller Foundation on their programme of hookworm eradication in papua NLw Guinea<br />
from l9I8 to 1921 and then between 1922 nd l9l5 in other parts of the pacific including<br />
Fiji' the Gilbert and Ellis Islands, Tmga, Western Samoa; the Cook Islands and lhe Solomon<br />
Ielands (Lambert, f94f). This book contains a wealth of knowledqe concerning the people of<br />
these eountries and their health status and how ef f ective Jommunity bsed treatment<br />
programmes were undertaken with Chaulrnoogre oil and a laxative for hookworm infections<br />
tnnrytogtome duodenale) and also for yaws using intravenous salvarsen.<br />
Dr Lambert put f orward and tested an important hypothesis thaL related ro the<br />
devastating effect which visitors from outside had in production of virgin and first encounter<br />
epidemics and their intensity. This can be well illustrated from two exlracts from this book.<br />
He was in Papua in 1921, visiting a Catholic Mission Station where Kuri were the<br />
indigenous people. Father Chabot said: "before the mission carne this district had dwindled to<br />
less then two thousand. TfE Kuris would have .disappeared if we had not discouraged<br />
cennibeliemr infanticide and abortion.r' '{ wondered if the good priests were not fooling<br />
themselves. Abortion end infanticide may reduce a population, but cannibalism and continued<br />
tribal warfare may be blessings in hideous disguise. They keep the tribes apart. Werfare is a<br />
sort of rough quarantine. In times of peace strangers wander in and out, and bring infections<br />
with them. Native races die off not through theii own suicidal customs, but throu-gh diseases<br />
introduced from the oulside world.'r<br />
In New Guinea he was in charqe of the Rabaul Hcpital for a period in l92l and [he<br />
following extract iltustrates how hiJ knowledge of the fear of mutilation which the New<br />
Guinea natives had was used by him to help control Lhe treatment of influenza epidemic<br />
patients.<br />
'11 had returned from field work and found the native hospitat filled with flu cases;<br />
many were dying in the collapse from pneumonia. The sudden deaths among seemingly mild<br />
cases puzzled rne, until I probed the cause. Our native attendants hated to loie sleep;-ar roon<br />
as they were snoring, the sick rnen, hot with fever, would sneak out from a side door and go<br />
down to lie in the sea and cool off under the stars. They would sneak back Lo bed and die of<br />
shock.<br />
I put a stop to all that.. NaLive attendants had told them how I slit open dead men's<br />
bellies. (l had performed thirty post mortems to determine the average native content of<br />
whip-worms). My ogreish fame had spnead among a simple folk who *oJto far rather lose a<br />
life tharr a leg. To them I was master of life and death - and the post-mortern table.<br />
Therefore I profited by my foul reputation and marched through the ward brandishing a<br />
'-.large amputation knife, and as I passed along rows of quaking cots I shouted: 'Supposu yor-no<br />
atop elong bed, you sons of bitches, suppose you no takim medicine good feller, now you die<br />
finish' me cuttim belly belong altogetherr.ne cuttim heart, nre cutt-im wind, ne cufiim gut<br />
belong you feller. But suppose you good feller altogether, now you die finish, rE no cutt-im<br />
you.ttt<br />
He spoke to them very sternly and his mana was zuch that no more night wandering<br />
occurred. This clearly illustrates the extraordinary "power" of the doctor in zueh societiei<br />
and the insights they must have of the people and their customs and beliefs.
-t9<br />
The efforts commenced throughout the 1920's and 40's to improve hygiene and<br />
sanitation end to deal with eonditions zuch as tuberculosis form an important part of the slow<br />
but sleady overall improvement in health that was [aking lace in many of the Pacific<br />
temitories large and small.<br />
The present<br />
F r.gm the viewpoint of health and disease the perspective , on health in the Pacif ic<br />
Region has been infiueneed by the qreatly .increasqd moFi_litv.-gf -p:opl" in the Pacific -<br />
pariicularly.sincetheendofWorldWffificlslandersinNewZealand<br />
'has increased from I,500 in L946 to 55,000 in 1982. This includes rnigration from rural<br />
villages to urban centres, from islands to towns and ciiies in larger land masses and<br />
west-ernized societies zuch as Australia, and New Zealand. The process of urbaniza[ion with<br />
its beneficial and less beneficial consequences are strong and important factors influencing<br />
societies and lhe people in them. The move from subsislence to cash economies and the<br />
struggle to meet famiiy, church and community requiremen[s all place a considerable number<br />
of new strains m individuals and their families.<br />
The strong sense of communily and ihe interdependence of people and communities that<br />
is a part of tht culture and social pattern in many Pacific Societies has played a valuable<br />
part in the community approach developed to a number of health problems. The control that<br />
is being achieved for malaria and fiiariasis are good examples of conditions where real<br />
progr""i had been made by environmental and eornmunity measures related to control of<br />
mosJ uitoes, the important vectors and the carnier slate in the human hosts.<br />
An example of community control would be filariasis. A changing pat[ern of filariasis is<br />
being found in Tokelau where community control programmes have been instiLuted as a way<br />
of rJducing microfilaria carriage in humans and so lessening the rate of new infections.<br />
The public healLh measures which have led to greatly improved mosquito control have<br />
been importanL for both malaria and filaria. This includes preventing water accumulation in<br />
containers in villages in old coconuts, unprotected Lanks and similar sites on uninhabited<br />
motus.<br />
One of the explanations for the higher raLe of clinical filarias in men than in women in<br />
Tokelau has been the men's greater exposure time to mosquitoes m the motus whereas women<br />
stay mainly on the living motu. The community treatment pnogramrne in Td
-40<br />
which links nnre than twenty countries in the Pacific, the health authorit.ies discussed the<br />
problem wilh experts in the N.Z. Health Department. The various immediete needs f or<br />
diagnosis and lreatrnent including intravenous fluid replecement were decided on end in less<br />
than twenty four hours a RNZAF plane wiih nredical team and riecessary rupplies left New<br />
Zealand for Kiribati. In addition an epidemiologist from the Center for Disease Control, U.S.<br />
Public Health Service was seconded to assist the Ministry of Health. Communication was<br />
maintained m a daily basis using Peacesat and further steps taken as needed to contain the<br />
epidemic and to identify the causes of the outbreak and the steps needed to prevent future<br />
outbreaks. A total of 585 suspected cases were admitted to the two Tarawa Hcpitals in the<br />
6tr day period )0 August - 2nd November 1977. 45 percent of 155 stool crrltures were<br />
positive. A total of eight hospital deaths occurred (Roberts et aL, I97g),<br />
Ru River Diaeese<br />
Ross River Disease is a virus disorder transmilted by mosquitoes which first occurred in<br />
Queensland and remained confined there for many years. In Fiji an outbreak of pyrexial<br />
illness with joint involvement, definite arthritis with effusions into larger joints such as knees<br />
suddenly occurred. The diagnoses was not clear and large numbers were being affected<br />
(Miles' L979). The symptoms and signs suggested either Chikungunya or Ross River viruses.<br />
The epidemic began in the western and northern coasLal areas of Viti Levu later<br />
spreading to Suva and other areas and involving possibly f0,000 people. Dr J.U. Mataika of<br />
the Wellcome Virus Laboratory, Suva using suckling mouse brain inoculation rnethods, isolaLed<br />
two strains of a virus frorn the blood of polyarthritis patients. Tfrese viruses were<br />
zubsequently shown to be Ross River virus by Professor Miles and his group in Dunedin and<br />
this was confirmed by the Queensland Institute of Medieal Research in Brisbane, Australia.<br />
Tfp cotnlnuniLy control response lay in an effective mosquito control prognamme. There<br />
was again a coordinated approach and offers of help with methods of improved mosquito<br />
control by a numben of different Pacific countries. It zubsequently spread widely, not only in<br />
Fiji' where many thousand were affected but also to other pants of the Pacific including<br />
Tmga. Cases also occurned in New Zealand by tnavellers returning from Fiji. Fortunately the<br />
condition is essentially self limiting and does not appear to have long term consequences.<br />
The outbreak of Dengue in the Pacific that took place in 1975 is a funther example<br />
(Palmer and Ram, 1976) of Pacific cornmunity collaboration whene the Peacesat netwonk was<br />
used to rnaintain regular contact between public health officers, government officials and<br />
consultanis in Hawaii and New Zealand. The ability to interact in this way $Jpported by<br />
offers of government to government help with rnethods of vector conLrol contributed to the<br />
control of this epidemic throuqhout the Pacific.<br />
These exarnples ranqing from water borne cholera to mosquito spread virus infections<br />
illustrate what progress has been made in dealing with acute serious cornrnunity infections.<br />
The collaboration between dif f erent countries and contributions of both rnaterials and<br />
consu lLants from t.he developed countries is also part of this phase and must f urther be<br />
encouraged. The rnore basic reasons behind the cholera epidemic in Kiribati, hiqh rates of<br />
typhoid in Tonga and olher water and food bonne diseases in the region will require a much<br />
greater provision of resources to ensure adequate clean water and improved sewage disposal<br />
lhat cuts down or eliminate chances for waten contamination by faeces, or food transmission.<br />
The need for greally improved rnosquito control as a means of controlling or elimlnating<br />
filariasis, malaria and cerlain other virus infections will require a continuing effort. The<br />
increasing use of foods and other rnaterials in tins and plastic containers provide areas for<br />
rnosquito breeding along with the very cornmon opened coconut and open water tanks.<br />
The csntinuing presence of hepatilis A and B in such communities are conditions which<br />
have been important in lhe past, are important in the present and will undoubtedly conLinue<br />
Lo be itnportant in the future. Vaccination programmes for hepalitis B are being developed.<br />
At present [he cost is $70 per person. This is clearly unrealistic in the Pacific Island<br />
countries where annual per capita amount spent on health may be rnuch less than this. Tonga<br />
for example in the period 1969-1979 averaged $ll per capita for health. This did not include<br />
large zums coming through aid for particular capital prollrarnmes.<br />
Clearly improved hygiene and sanitation developments in island communities with high<br />
amFriont tomnoratrrnee and fnnd stnrane faeilities that are often inadequate and yet capable
-4r<br />
of real improvements must be part of future developments which will have widespread<br />
benefits in the control of a number of food, fly and faecal borne conditions.<br />
Maternal and child health<br />
Malernal and child health is me of the ereas which has e mejor affect m population<br />
growth and overall fitness of individuals and communities. The beneficial changes that have<br />
occurred within a rnrmber of the Pacific Island countries in the past twenty years must be<br />
taken into account as we gether data m which to base our perspective m health for the 80s<br />
and to the year 2000.<br />
Data now available suggests that improvenents are taking place in a rumber of health<br />
area8. It is important Lo realize that there has been a considerable inprovement in<br />
docurnentation of mortality statistics based m death certification using international WHO<br />
coding classification over the past 20 years and this should improve further. It is important<br />
to recognize that in a country such es the Philippines up to 60% of deaths in rural areas may<br />
not be certified by a medically trained graduale. ln the South Pacific this is not the case and<br />
much greater confidence can now be placed in data from countries such as Tonga, Western<br />
Samoa, American Sarnoa, Cook lsland, Niue, Fiji, and Tokelau.<br />
Availability of oral salt mixture for use in the early treatment of acute diarrhoea in<br />
infants and young children represents sre of [he most imporLant recent advances in public<br />
health and cutling down morbidity and mortality. The fact that they are cheap, freely<br />
available, ean be kept in the houses and that parents and grandparents can be taught how to<br />
use them and to use them early in the illness is an excellent example of how simple ffEesureg<br />
can be developed if new thinking is applied to problems.<br />
Maternal and child health and their progress provide a good measure of health<br />
developments in a community, since they involve the management of complications relating to<br />
pregnancy, the mother and the child in the neonatal period (birth to I month), and the next<br />
period from I year to 5 years when adequate vaccination programmes and slpervision of<br />
childhood chest infections will provide evidence of improved status.<br />
Effective child health care requires considerable understanding of health and illness<br />
and its management by parents, particularly the mother, and development of this through<br />
effective contacts with well trained health professionals. The tradition of breast feeding has<br />
been one of the important mainstays of infant care in Lhe Pacific Island countries. -fhe<br />
erosion of this by a desire [o move to arlificial feeding and so to follow what npthers hear<br />
is so eommon in the developed meccas such as New Zealand and Australia is becoming<br />
widespread. This increases the risk of gastrointestinal infections and other upsets particularly<br />
where mothers are inadequately trained in milk preparation and bottle sterilization. Sorne<br />
reversal of this trend with moves back to a higher percentage of breast feeding may be<br />
occurring .<br />
Vaccinations in infancy including BCG in the f irst 2 weeks, polio vaccinations,<br />
whooping cough, diptheria and measles can be used as measures of the effectiveness of health<br />
programmes in the area of infant and child heallh.<br />
Primarv health care<br />
The development of lhe concept of Primary Health Care may prove to be me of the<br />
most important factors in bringing about improved health in many parts of the world,<br />
particularly in developing countries. Up to the present these countries have often placed<br />
exeess reliance on small numbers of medically trained persons which has led to great<br />
inequalities in the distribution and quality of medical care.<br />
The WHO/UNICEF Conference at Alma Ata in 1978 was of major importance and gave a<br />
lead to the adoption of Prirnary Heallh Care programmes. Certain of the important principles<br />
in the Declaration of Alma Ata ane set out in Annex I as Lhey constitute a central part of<br />
the changes taking place in ideas on health care (WHO, 1978).<br />
It can be seen from the Declaration that real efforts to develop and implemenl primary<br />
health care by efforts of the world comrnunity to support national and in[ernational
-42<br />
commitment with increased technical and financial e.rpport could be of enormous value<br />
particularly to the developing countries. Many of the Pacific countries come into this<br />
category and this will test the strengths of the Pacific Way as we move towards the year<br />
2000.<br />
Chronic non-infectuous diseases - the diseases of affluence<br />
These conditions ere of partictilar importanee in the Pacific because of the wide<br />
variation in extent and distribution they demonstrate in diffenent populations. The past and<br />
present history of the status within the Pacific region of sJch conditions a hypertension,<br />
diabetes and gout make a fascinating study. This varying pattern in different societies and at<br />
different times gives an indication of the potential for their prevention and control which<br />
thereby broadens our perspective concerning them.<br />
The perspective on health which we are developing places considerable weight on the<br />
extraordinary range or gradient that can be seen within the Pacif ic region for certain<br />
conditions which are both imporlant, very common and a major concern as contributors to<br />
both morbidity (sickness) and to mortality in Western developed societies. Hypertension and<br />
diabetes will be discussed as examples of conditions of importance.<br />
H;pertension<br />
Hypertension is the most important contributor to stroke and one of principal risk<br />
factors for coronary heart disease (CHD) due to atheroma of coronary arteries. H;pertension<br />
also causes heart disease in its own right.<br />
Blood pressure patterns range from those areas where blood pressure shows little or no<br />
increase with age, such as Pukapuka in the Northern Cooks (Prior et el., 1968), parts of New<br />
Guinea (Sinnett and Whyte, L976) and the Solomons page et g!.;l974), to places grch es<br />
Rarotonga (Prior et al., 1968), Western Samoa (Zimmett 4 g!- 1980), and Nauru where blood<br />
pressure increases w-th age in ways similar to Western s66ie-[ies and diabetes rates are among<br />
the highest in the world (Zimmett et al., L977).<br />
The differing extent of hypertension can be seen in Table I where the age adjusted<br />
rates of definite hypertension (WHO criteria systolic blood pressure 150 nmHg or greater and<br />
or diasiolic pressure 95 mmHg or greater) are set out for different Pacific populations<br />
studied by the Wellington Hcpital Epidemiology Unit (Prior, L974).<br />
Table I : Definit.e hypertension age standardized rates<br />
per 1000 in different Pacific populations<br />
N.Z. Maori<br />
N.Z. Europeans<br />
Rarotonga<br />
Pukapuka<br />
Tokelau (1968)<br />
MALES FEMALES<br />
287.6<br />
265.9<br />
t4t,4<br />
' 46.6<br />
The age specif ic mean systolic and diastolic pressures for those edults seen in<br />
Pukapuka and in Raroionga are shown in Figure l. The contraet between the two populations<br />
in the rates of rise of blood pressure with age is well shown.<br />
79.7<br />
tt7.6<br />
224.9<br />
165.7<br />
82.'<br />
15t.2
mmhg<br />
t70<br />
rco<br />
r50<br />
t20<br />
I<br />
roo<br />
-4t<br />
Figure I : Mean systolic and diastolic blood pressures by sex<br />
Rarotonga and Pukapuka<br />
Systolic andDiastoft Blood Pressures'<br />
Rarotongo and PukaPuka<br />
t----l-----+ ------ I --""e<br />
' J[.t*<br />
HFrrolong.<br />
;---{Put.pult<br />
30 ao so Bo 70020 3(, 40 5(' 60<br />
Age in Years<br />
The Rarotongens were considerably heavier than the Pukapukane and this is well seen<br />
in Figure 2 showing the age specific rneans for males and females.<br />
Figure 2 ; Mean weights in kg by mx, Rarotonga and Pukapuka<br />
H Fsdongn<br />
20<br />
Agt In Ycarr<br />
L----+---<br />
Females
-44<br />
A correlation between blood pressure and weight was shown in both populations but this<br />
could noi account for the extent of the differences observed.<br />
This focussed attenLion on other possible factors including habitual salt intake and<br />
stress. Measurements of s[ress are difficult to carry out and to quantify and were not<br />
pursued at that time. These studies showed significant differences in the habitual salt use<br />
between Pukapuka and Rarotonga which gave important insights in[o the part sodium and<br />
potassium intake may play in relation to blood pressure level in communities. The intake was<br />
t0rrrnoIlZ4 hours in Pukapuka and 120-140 mmoll?4 hours in Rarotonga (Prior et e!., f968).<br />
Subsequent work by Page and the Harvard group has examined the relationship between<br />
salt user and blood pressure in Solomon Island groups (Page et !, L97q. They showed that<br />
while all groups had low pressures, the levels were cert,ainly hfuher in those from the area<br />
where cooking nrethods and catering customs gave them a notably higher sodium intake.<br />
These natural experiments from the Pacific have strengthened the hypothesis of a link<br />
between hsbitual salt use and blood pressure, and has given zupporl to the hypothesis that<br />
within a community there are some people and familier more sensitive to salt intake than<br />
others who, above a certain threshold, will respond by developing hypertension. Below this<br />
threshold of around 40-60 mmols blood pressures remain lower and hypertension does not<br />
develop.<br />
The data collected by the Epidemiology Unit in Cook Islands, Tonga and Tokelau<br />
support this hypothesis in a general way without being able to show a consistent within<br />
population relationship of blood pressure to salt intake.<br />
It is now recognized that intake of potassium containing foods may have a protective<br />
effect tending to lower blood pressure and a high intake of potassium in many of the low<br />
blood pressure populations zupports this. The correlation of the urinary sodium to potassium<br />
ratio with systolic and diastolic blood pressure shows a definite contribution in some studies,<br />
This effect was not apparent in those seen in Tokelau but becomes a definite contributing<br />
factor to blood ptessure with the increasing time Tokelauans live in New Zealand where they<br />
move mto a higher sodium and lower potassium intake.<br />
There is now reasonable evidenee to show that a high potassium intake is in fact<br />
protective against blood pressure increase and this reinforces the conclusion that any efforts<br />
to restrict sodium input should be linked with high potassium intake through a diet rich in<br />
vegetables and potassium rich substances (McGregor, fggJ).<br />
Other research is seeking to test whether there is a genetic abnormality present in<br />
zubject who have hypertension and in their children before the condition is apparent in Lhe<br />
latter (Garay and Meyer, 1919). The red cell is used as a nndel to represent how the muscle<br />
eell of the wall of the small arterioles or blood vessels rnay be responding to sodium and<br />
potassium. Evidence is suggesting that the rnembrane of the ned cell and white cells do react<br />
in an abnormal way indicating some abnormality in sodium pump mechanism whereby sodium<br />
content in red and white cells is increased in subjects with essential hypertension and also in<br />
their norrnotensive children. This is considered as a genetie abnormality and could help<br />
establish the genetic contribution in s.rbjects developing hypertension. It could also identify<br />
wbjects at higher risk before hypertension had declared itself.<br />
This rcpnesent an exciting developrnent that is very relevant to the perspective we are<br />
considoringr particularly as there is the opportunity to examine such biological factors in<br />
strbjecls undergoing migration and changes in blood pressure.<br />
This example is set out in some detail to illustrate how epidemiology as a discipline can<br />
help in the generation of rientific hypotheses and how the Pacific work had nrade its<br />
contribution to areas that can now be moved forward by detailed basic research at cellulan<br />
and rnembrane level. The next phase represents development of intervention programmes at<br />
the conmunity level in order to test further the part aalt restriction and potassium increase<br />
can play in lowering blood pressures and reducing the attributable community risk of<br />
hypertension and its complicaLions. We will return to this when considering the future of the<br />
Pacific Island regions in the period of the I980s to 2000.
-45<br />
The changes described above can occur in communities lndergoing modernizalion or ag<br />
a result of urbanization. These processes can take place within a particular geoqraphic<br />
location and society or when people migrate to a new society. These issues and their<br />
important consequences will be discussed further in the next section.<br />
Miqration. urbanization and health chanqes<br />
The importance and extent of migration in the Pacific has already been referred to in<br />
the Pacific as people move !o find work and improved living conditions. The majority are<br />
hoping to provide better opportunities for edueation for their children and s life that can<br />
include the "good lhings" they associate with a cash economy. Younger people migrate for<br />
schooling or for trade training or simply to have the chance to see and take part in greater<br />
opportunities they have heard about.<br />
The migration may take place from outer island to main island centre' from rural<br />
villages to lhe urban centre or from Pacific Islands to the western industrial societies zuch<br />
as New Zealand and Australia.<br />
The contrast between different groups for conditions zuch as blood pressure has been<br />
referred !o and is shown in Figure I and Figure 2 for Rarotonga and Pukapuka. S[udies of<br />
urban and nural groups in Samoa and Tonga have shown that Lhe urban groups have<br />
significantly higher blood pressures and are heavier compared with those in the rural villages<br />
(Zimmett et al., 1980; Finau et al.' 1983).<br />
The factors influencing the changes of blood pressure wi[h age may provide important<br />
infonmation concerning hypertension and the way in which it develops and so give more<br />
effective leads lo its prevention. Tln opportunity Lo study subjects moving from a society<br />
where blood onessure is not comrnon to one where blood pressure increases with age and<br />
contributes to a range of cardiovascular problems has been presented by the Tokelau Island<br />
Migrant Study and some of these nesulls will be detailed. The basic hypolheses beinq tested<br />
concerning social change and disease were first put fonward by the late John Cassel and<br />
their tesing has been an important part of the Tokelau Island Miqnant Study. The first<br />
relates the changes in blood pressune to physical factors including changes in diet' higher<br />
calorie intake, an increase in sodium and a decrease in potassium intake, gain in weight and<br />
other life style changes; the second involves psychosocial factors such as a stressful life<br />
changes, status incongruity, weakening or loss of support systems and coping strategies. It<br />
has also to be necognized that both hypotheses rn€ly play a part.<br />
The Tokelau Island Mignant study was commenced in 1967 with the support of the<br />
Medical Research Council of New Zealand and the World Health OrganizaLion, and has been<br />
developed as a multidisciplinary longitudinal study (Prior' 1974I<br />
Tokelau is nrade up of three small alolls, (Fakaofo, Nukunonu and Atafu)' lying some<br />
480 km north east of Samoa. Tokelau became a New Zealand dependency in 1925 and the<br />
inhabitants were granted N.Z. citizenship in 1948. Tokelauans are of Polynesian origin and<br />
consLitute a distinct atoll society with many features that are unique compared to other<br />
groups in the Pacific.<br />
In 1956 the population was 1980 in Tokelau, around 500 in N.Z.' 600 in Western Samoa<br />
and I50 in Hawaii. A hurricane in January 1965 caused some devastation with loss of coconut<br />
trees and darnage to buildinqs. The N.Z. Government set up a resettlement programme aimlng<br />
to bring aromd 1000 of Lhe population to New Zealand over a five year period. The Tokelau<br />
Island Migrant Study was established in 1967 and has been maintained since then. There have<br />
been rnajor rounds of medical examinations in Tokelau in 1968, L97L' 1976 and 1982 and in<br />
N.Z. in ie7Z-t4, L975-77 and 1980-8I. In 1980-8I there were 2570 tokelauans in N.Z. and in<br />
1982, 1610 in Tokelau The involvement of social anthropologists from the outset and the<br />
inclusion of Tokelauans in the study Leam l'ras helped expand and develop the study and also<br />
to maintain a very high participation rate of around 94-95% in New Zealand and 97-99% in<br />
Tokelau (Prior, 1974).<br />
The genealogies collected by the anthropologists have been built up into a major<br />
pedigree tite that is now altowing rnore critical examination of the part played by genetic<br />
and Lnvironnental faetors in a number of important nredicel condiiions includinq hypertensiont<br />
diabetes, coronary heart disease risk factors, athma and joint disorders (Ward et aL, f980).
- trs<br />
There have been _a numbar of publications releting to the different sspects of the<br />
Tokelau Island Migrant Study but in this paper the mein. efiphagis wilt be m the difference in<br />
blood pressure, weight end diabetea between those non migrent in Tokelau and the migrants<br />
in New Zealend. A bibliography of publicatione relating to the Tokelau project ia included in<br />
the Proceedings of e Serninar m Migration Adplalion ind Haelth in t}|e pecific (prior, fggfl<br />
Btood pralarna<br />
A comparieon of age pecific npen systolic and fourth phase diastolic preerure by age<br />
and ex for Tokelau in 1976 and New Zealand 1975-77 examinatione ere et out in Figure-)<br />
for rnalee .and Figure 4 for fernaleg. Tfe significent differences are indicated. It can be seen<br />
lhat the increases in preesure are_greater in rnale then in fernale migrants end are evenly<br />
distributed among the age groups. The femalas can be seen to have a-steep", in"r"".e with<br />
Adjuating for age. and body mass the mean differences in systolic and diagtolic preesures<br />
!ge.<br />
9"!y::t. the migrants in N.Z. end thoee in Tokelau were 7.2 mmHg (p
ot<br />
- E<br />
E<br />
60<br />
-47<br />
Figure 4<br />
Age 0 15 25 30<br />
50<br />
N(pooled) tOg 120 216 160 ',a22<br />
Izse<br />
Miqrant 1975-77<br />
Hoir tttligrant 19/6<br />
'P
c E<br />
]<br />
-48<br />
Figure 5<br />
_ Eclru hffi mix8il Sh.dy<br />
Body k ffi, llignnt fr tkr ltiTan: Matc!<br />
Age O 15.<br />
-<br />
il(hofed).186 t4i! 2og tsg 124 76 42<br />
'P
Diabetes<br />
-49<br />
Diabetes is a common condition in Western societies and has some important and<br />
unusual features. Involving 2-4% of adults, it has been shown that the condition accelerates<br />
arteriosclerosis and its consequences and that diabetic women have a rate of CHD (coronary<br />
heant disease) that is similar to men. In non-diabetics, the sex ratio of CHD is around 4 males<br />
to I female. Diabetes is also associated wilh hypertension. The pattern in Pacific countries is<br />
an important parL of the perspective we are considering.<br />
Within the Pacif ic there is a remarkable range in the extent of diabetes - from<br />
population samples where the prevalence and incidence is low (e.g; New Guinea, Pukupuka) to<br />
ihose where it is common and increasing (Table 2). This is seen particularly where groups are<br />
undergoing urbenization or migration as in Western Samoa, Tokelau, Fiji and finally Nauru<br />
which ranks with the Pima lrdians of Arizona as having ihe highest rates in the world<br />
(Zimmett, 1977; Prior and Brauer, L979; Zimmett, 1982).<br />
Geo-ethnic Aroup<br />
Micronesians<br />
Polynesians<br />
Melanesians<br />
Indians<br />
T<br />
**<br />
Table 2 : Diabetes in the Pacific Region L975-I987<br />
Age-standardized prevalence rates*<br />
Nauru<br />
Kiribatit* (rural)<br />
(urban)<br />
Tuvalu<br />
Western Samoa (rural)<br />
(urban)<br />
Cook Islands**<br />
Rarotonga<br />
Manihiki<br />
Wallis Islandti*<br />
Niue#<br />
Loyalty Islands<br />
New Caledonia<br />
Fiji (rural)<br />
(urban)<br />
Papua New Guinea (rural)<br />
(urban)<br />
Fiji (rural)<br />
(urban)<br />
No. studied<br />
(20 years and over)<br />
456<br />
t08)<br />
1917<br />
t97<br />
745<br />
744<br />
LT77<br />
B'<br />
579<br />
TL92<br />
5t5<br />
t72<br />
477<br />
861<br />
r05<br />
I84<br />
452<br />
848<br />
Diabetes<br />
Prcvalence (%)<br />
n.t<br />
2.7<br />
7.5<br />
t.9<br />
2.7<br />
7.O<br />
6.0<br />
6.6<br />
2.7<br />
7.t<br />
2.O<br />
1.5<br />
1.8<br />
6.9<br />
0.8<br />
L5.4<br />
Lt.t<br />
14.8<br />
Age standardized to Western Samoa Census (I976)<br />
Recent survey - data not yet age standardized<br />
Diabetes prevalence according to WHO criteria<br />
Table provided by P. Zimmett, Epidemiology Unit, Royal Southern Memoriel Hcpital,<br />
Melbourne, Auslralia (includes some resulls published in Zimmett, 1982)<br />
The Nauruans stand out as suffering from the most severe epidemic of 20th century<br />
affluence and this is playing an important role in contributing to the high rate of diebetes. A,<br />
mean per capita income of around $l9rm0 for each Nauru man, woman and child has given<br />
them extraordinary qportuniLies for indulgence in rnany aneas including food, alcohol and<br />
decreased physical activity.<br />
The genetic predisposition, or genotype, for diabetes is thought to be common in nnst<br />
communities and obesity is the factor which is the most important risk faetor for the type<br />
now classified by WHO as Non Irsulin Dependant Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM) (WHO, f980).<br />
Obesity is not a new phenomenon in the Pacific and many Pacific people have experienced<br />
traditional affluence even though their material resources are limiLed. Adequate or more lhan
-50<br />
adequate food supplies, bounteous climaLe and soil, and limited demands for zustained daily<br />
exercise have allowed obesity to be common in areas such as Hawaii, Kinqdom of Tonga and<br />
parts of French Polynesia. Those m atolls with more limited tesources and different<br />
iifestyles sueh as on Pukapuka have not had the resources to allow them to become obese.<br />
Early explorers described some obese people in different part of the Pacific but no dala is<br />
available about their health status.<br />
The emergence of diebetes in Tokelau migrants in New Zealand compared with non<br />
migrants in Tolielau is providing valuable insights . into the risk factors associated with<br />
deielopment of diabetes and the part played by diet (Stanhope and Prior, f980). Tte duration<br />
of time in New Zealand and the emergence of new or incident cases can be compared in the<br />
two groups and with results from long term studies carried out smong New Zealand Maoris.<br />
The BMI differences between Tokelau migrants and Tokelau non-migrants are clearly<br />
shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6 for males and females respectively. The prevalence of<br />
diabetes ar6ng TokelauanJ in Tokelau, in New Zealand and among New Zealand Maori are<br />
shown in Table l.<br />
Table I :<br />
Age slandardised* prevalence (per hundred) of definite diabetesr by sex'<br />
in Tokelauans (in Tokelau and in New Zealand) and New Zealand Maoris'<br />
Male<br />
Female<br />
Tokelauans<br />
in Tokelau<br />
in New Zealand<br />
al two points in time<br />
aged 24 and over.<br />
New Zealand<br />
Maoris<br />
1968l7L 1975 r972174 L975177 re68l5e r974<br />
1.0<br />
t.t<br />
J.7<br />
8.5<br />
5.6<br />
8.0<br />
5.4<br />
rt,6<br />
+ lndirect standardisation using pooled groups as reference population.<br />
The increasing rate, particularly in Tokelau women in New Zealand can be seen' while<br />
those in men are not significantly different. The notably higher rates in the Maoris can be<br />
seen.<br />
The relationship with bodymass using the BMI can be examined furLher by studying the<br />
rates of diabetes in zubjects by sex and ethnic group in different tertiles of BMI. These are<br />
set out in Table 4.<br />
The rates in the women increase in the second tertile in both Maoris and Tokelauans<br />
white the increases are most marked in the third tertile in the males. Tl-e overall rates<br />
amonq Maoris are notably higher in both men and women than in Tokelauans in the same<br />
tertile. The question whether further increases will take place in the N.Z. Tokelau groups<br />
will be examined in the prospective surveys.<br />
The development of incidence cases, that is cases who did not have diabetes when first<br />
examined, have been estimaled in three groups, the non-migrants, those in Tokelaur the<br />
migrants, those seen in Tokelau and Lhen in N.Z. and the post-migrants, those first seen in<br />
N.Z. and lhen followed in N.Z. A rumber of bhe latter had spent time in Samoa en route to<br />
N.2., or were in N.Z. prior to first examinations by the Epidemiology Unit.<br />
Among females, post-migrants had the highest incidence, 2I.8 per.l0p0 per yearr and<br />
non-migrants tne lowest, 5.1, while migrants were intermediate, 14.f (X- = Lt.l{86 p =<br />
0.00.1.). Arnong males, the ineidences wefe: pos!-migrants II.0' non migrants 4.5 and migrants<br />
5.2r.but the dlfferences were not significant (X'= 4.L7, p = 0.I24).<br />
10.7<br />
II. I<br />
L2.4<br />
L6.4
-51<br />
Table 4 : Age-Standardized Prevalence of Definite Diabeteg in Polynesians<br />
by Sex and Tertiles of Body Mass Index (W/H')<br />
(Ages )5-74)<br />
Mdes<br />
Maori<br />
(New Zealand)<br />
Tokelauans<br />
(New Zealand)<br />
Tokelauans<br />
(lslands)<br />
Femaler<br />
Maori<br />
(New Zeeland)<br />
Tokelauans<br />
(New Zealand)<br />
Tokelauans<br />
(lslands)<br />
Body Mass Index<br />
Lov Medium High<br />
(2.78)<br />
t.996<br />
1.9%<br />
2.L%<br />
4.t%<br />
4.t%<br />
1.5%<br />
Body Mss Index<br />
14.896<br />
6.wo<br />
t.6Yo<br />
Lon Medium High<br />
Kz,re) (2.60-r.0r) (>1.04)<br />
l.l%<br />
2.gYo<br />
2.596<br />
lt.l%<br />
&7%<br />
4.t%<br />
12.8%<br />
Tfese are high rates, particularly in the females, and pose a major health risk. This is<br />
confirmed by comparisons with incidence rates of 16 per 1000 per year in Maori rnales and<br />
24.0 per 1000 per year in Maori females and rates of 25 per 1000 per year in Pima Indians.<br />
The work done by Zimmett and others has shown that diabetes constitutes a problem in<br />
a number of other populations in the Pacific, and with increasing affluence and development<br />
will carry with it the increased extent of alheroma and vascular complications that can cause<br />
serious rnorbidity and mortality (Zimmett et e!., 1977).<br />
The challenge being faced now is to find out how best preventive meesures can be<br />
undertaken in a way tha! involves the individual and community.<br />
Primordial prevention<br />
The prevention of the development of risk factors associated with particular disorders<br />
in societies in whom these particular conditions are occurring frequently has been put<br />
forward by WHO as an important goal and is termed Primordial Prevention. lt is being<br />
considered for such conditions as coronary heart disease (CHD), hypertension and diabetes. It<br />
is based on the effect known risk factors have in Western Srcieties and assunes that to<br />
neduce Lhese or prevent them developing will limit the emergence of the condition (WHO,<br />
1982).<br />
ln CHD it is hypertension, smoking and raised cholesterol that must be controlled. ln<br />
hypertension, avoidance of weight gain, salt restriction, and increesed potassium intake by<br />
dietary manipulaLion are important. In diabetes, weighL control, exercise and diet to ensure<br />
high fibre intake are impontant.<br />
8.5%<br />
9.1%
-52<br />
While the concept is excellent, the execution will prove difficult and will require a<br />
commitment to health that is far greater than has been shown. The pattern of resources and<br />
the inequities of distribution wiihin the region are of utmost importance.<br />
ln 1959 the Kingdorn of Tonga spent ).97 dollars per capita of population on healtht<br />
Il.7 percent of the total budget, In 1979 this had risen to 11.45 dollars, lI.2 percenl of total<br />
budget, while the same year New Zealand spent 100 dollars per head sr heallh. AusLralia and<br />
N.Z. have a major responsibility to help the Pacific countries in areas relaiing to health<br />
where this has been given a priority by the country concerned. The assistance to<br />
strengthening of health services through WHO, the South Pacific Commission and countries<br />
such as Australia and N.Z. consti[utes a body of important resources that can be used in<br />
many ways.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Tfn concept of Primary Health Care, of Primordial Prevention of chronic non-infectious<br />
diseases, and of the Pacific Way bring together a valuable triad which has the opportunity of<br />
enhancing greatly a number of importent areas of health and living in the Pacific.<br />
Heatth cannot be separated from other aspects of individual and communiLy growih and<br />
has to be accepted as one of the areas in which their input is of importance. Increasing<br />
responsibility for one's own health and for that of the family and community does not arise<br />
de novo and requires provision of carefully collected information as part of the data base.<br />
The work already carried out and referred to in this paper illustrates the part that<br />
epidemiology has to contribute in defining the extent of disorders zuch as hypertension and<br />
diabetes and the factors which contribute to iheir developnmnt. Programmes in these areas of<br />
individual and community health education and health promotion are the next important<br />
developments that must be systematically tackled in ways that are suited Lo the particular<br />
people, their customs and their environment (Prior and Tasman-Jones, I98l; Prior and<br />
Stanhopen 1980).<br />
"Health for all by the year 2000" is a clarion call put out by WHO but is a goal which<br />
will be difficult, if not impossible, to achieve. Our efforts [o move towards this in the<br />
Pacific countries will be more effective if we note how much progress has been made and<br />
make a real investment in our efforts and in the Pacific Way of rrnving towards the goal.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENT<br />
The author wishes to acknowledge the strpport of the Medical Research Council of New<br />
Zealand, the Cardiovascular Disease Unit of WHO, the Wellington Hcpital Board and the<br />
many members of the Unit staff who have contributed to the Unit Research programme, and<br />
the Pacific people and communities who heve been involved.
-5t<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Finau, 9. A. S 4. l?ql. .Tl'n Tmga cardiovascular and metabolic study: design, demographic<br />
aapects and nedieal findings. cunmuniLy Health studies 7(D267-77.<br />
Geray' R. P. and P. Meyer. 1979. A new test showing ebnormal net Na+ and K+ fluxes in<br />
erythrocyteg of essential hyperteneive patients. Lencet l:j49,<br />
Jceph' J.' l. A- M. Prior, C. S. Salmond, and D. Stanley. 1981. Elevation of blood pressure<br />
essociated with migration. The Tokelau Island Migrant Study. J. Chron. Dis. 15:507-516.<br />
Ktberski. T., T. Flood, T. Tera and the New Zealand Cholera Relief Tearn. 1979. Cholera in<br />
the Gilbert lslands. L Epidemiological features. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.28(4):577-684.<br />
LqrtOr ll4' J. Mokry, A. Semese and R. Uili. 1982. Field trials of innovative eontrol agents in<br />
Tuvalu, South Pacific, towards an integr_ated nethodology against Aedes aeoypti. Ab-stracts,<br />
IIIrd lnternetional Colloquium m Invertebrate Pathologyr-Arig|ttonrffiE*ffA.<br />
Lenbert' S. lV. 1941. A Doctor in Paradise. J.M. Dent and Sons, Great Britain.<br />
McGrcgor, G. A. 1981. Nutrition: the changing scene. Dietary sodium and potassium intake<br />
and blood pressure. Lancet p. 750.<br />
Miles, J. A. R. 1979. Ross River Fever comes ro Fiji. Fiji Med. J.7t2L6-217.<br />
Page' L B.r rd Damon, and R. C. Moellering Jr. 1974. Antecedents of cardiovascular disease<br />
in six Solomon Island societies. Circulation 49zIlJ2,<br />
Palmer, A. s. and Parshu Ram. 1976. Dengue Fever in Fiji 1975. Fiji Med. J. I4:9.<br />
Prior, I. A. M. 1974. Cardiovascular epidemiology in New Zealand and the pacific. N. Z. Med.<br />
J. 8O2245-252.<br />
Prior, I. A. M. 1981. The Tokelau Island migrant study: bibliography, p.5g-4).ln c. Fleming<br />
and I. A. M- Prior [eds..J' Migration, adap[ation and treaitrr in the pacitic. peryei<br />
Educational Books Ltd, Wellington, NZ.<br />
Prior, I. A" Nt et s!. 1974. The Tokelau Island migrant study. Int. J. Epid. 1:225.<br />
Prior, l. A. M. -d 9. Brauer. 1979. Epidemiology of diabetes in the pacific, p. 6)-79. In M.<br />
S. 5. Ahuia [ed.]' Epidemiology in developing countries. Interprint, New Del'ni, India. ..:<br />
Prior, I. A" M.' J. Grimtey Evans, FL P. B. Havrey, F. Davidson and M. Lindsey. 196g. Sodium<br />
intake end blood pressure in two Polynesian populations. New Eng. J. of lvleO. Z],915L5-52O.<br />
Priorr l. A. M. and J. N4. Stanhope. 1980. Ellood pressure patterns, salt use and migration in<br />
the Pacific, p.24)-26?. In H. Kesteloot and J. V. Jmsen teds.l, Epidemiology of arterial<br />
blood pressure. Develop6ents in Cardiovascular Medicine, vol. B. Marlinus Nijhof f<br />
Publishers, The Hague.<br />
Prior, I. A. M. and C. Tasman-Jmes. 1981. New Zealand Maori and pacific polynesians, p.<br />
227-267. In Ft C. Trowell and D. P. Burkitt [eds.] The Wm[ern diseases: their- emergence<br />
and prevetllon. Edwerd Arnold publishers Ltd, Lmdon.<br />
Roberts, A. B. et al. 1979. Cholera in the Gilbert Islands. II. Chemical and labora[ory<br />
findings. Am. .} T-rop. Med. Hyq. 28(4):695-69I.<br />
Sinnett' P. F. and H. M" Whyte. 1976. Epidemiological studies in a total highland population<br />
Tu Kenta. J. Chron. Dis. 26:205.<br />
Stanhoper J. M. and I. A. M. Prior. 1980. The Tokelau Island migrant study: prevalence and<br />
incidence of diabetes mellitus. N. Z. Med. J. 9Zz4I7-42L.
.A<br />
Ward, R. Fl, A B. Hoopen, md .I W. FfuntsfiEn. 1980. Pedigree std blood praaeurel genctic<br />
epidemiology in a migrant isolate, T*elau ln l-l Cairnr, .tr L Lym end lttL Ft Skolniek<br />
[eda] Cgrcer incidence in dafined populatior* Coldrpring Laboratoryr Col@ring Hertort<br />
USA. p. 151,<br />
WHO. 1978. TtE Alms Ata Csrferance sr Primary l-fselth Cae. WHO Chconiclo<br />
t2(lI)E{{17-458.<br />
tflFlO. 1980. Wald Health Organization Expert Cqnmittee m Diabetes Mellitur' 2nd Rcport.<br />
Teclnical Rqort Scniea 646. tflFFr Goneva"<br />
Wl-O. 1982. Prirnordial prevention of'cerdiovscular disease in daveloping cotrttrica. Report<br />
of WFIO Tck Fccer'Ganeva.<br />
Zimmett, P. at eL L977. flr high prevalence of diabetes rnllitue m I csntral Pcific laland.<br />
Diabetologia lJrlll.<br />
Zimmett, P. et aL 1980. Bbod pressure ctudiee in nrral and urban Weetern Sgnoa. Med. J.<br />
Aust. 2:202.<br />
Zimmett, P. 1982. Type 2 (non ineulin-dependent) diab'etee - an epidemiological overview.<br />
Diabetologi a 22t199 -4L1.
AN]€X I<br />
-55<br />
DECLARATION tr ALMA ATA<br />
I. The conference strongly reaffirms that health, which is a state of complete physical,<br />
mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or inf irmiiy, is e<br />
fundamental human righl and that the attainnent of the highest possible level of freailrr is a<br />
most important worldwide social goal whose realizaiion requires the action of many other<br />
social and economic sectors in addition to the health sector.<br />
n. The existing gross inequality in the health status of the people, particularly between<br />
developed and developing countries as well as within eountries, is politically, soiially and<br />
economically unacceptable and is, therefore, of common concern to all countries.<br />
UI. Economic and social development, based m a New International Economic Orden, is<br />
of basic impontance to the fullest attainrnent of health for all and to the reduction of the<br />
gap between the health sLatus of the developing and developed countries. The promotion and<br />
prolection of the health of the people is essential to sustained economic and social<br />
development and contributes to a better quality of life and to world peace.<br />
IV. The people have the right and duty to participate individually and collectively in<br />
the planning and implementation of their health care.<br />
V. Governnents have a responsibility for the health of their people which can be<br />
fulfilled mly by the provision of adequale healih and social rreasures. -A main social target<br />
of governrnents, internalional organizations and the whole world community in the corning<br />
decades should be the attainnrent by all peoples of the world by the year ZOOO of a level oi<br />
health that will permit them to lead a socially and economicitty proOuctive life. primary<br />
health care is the key to atLaining this target as part of development in the girit of social<br />
j ust i ce.<br />
VI. Primary health care is essential health care based on practical, scientifically sound<br />
and socially acceptable methods and technology made universally accessible to individuals and<br />
families in the community through their full participation and at a cost that the community<br />
and counlry can afford to maintain at. every stage of their development in the spirit o?<br />
self-reliance and self-determination. lt forms an integral part both of the country,s health<br />
system' of which it is the central function and main focus, and of the overall social and<br />
economic developmenl of the community. It is the first level of contact of individuals, the<br />
family and community with the national health syslem bringing health care as close ari<br />
possible to where people live and work, and constitutes the Jir;t element of a continuing<br />
health care proeess.<br />
VII. (Sets out details of aspects of Primary Health care under 7 headings)<br />
Vnl. All governments should formulate national policies, strategies and plans of action<br />
to launch and sustein primary health care as part of a comprehensivJ nationai health system<br />
and in coordination with other sectors. To this end, it will be necessary to exercise political<br />
will, to mobilize the country's resources and to use available external resources rationally.<br />
IX. All eountrles should cooperate in a spirit of partnership and service ro ensure<br />
primary health care for all people since the attainrnent of health Uy peopte in any one<br />
counLry directly concerns and benefits every other country. In this'context the joint<br />
WHO/UNICEF report on primary health car" constitutes a solid basis f or the further<br />
development and operation of primary health care throughout the world.<br />
X. An acceptable level of health for all the people of the world by the year 2000 can<br />
be attained through a fuller and better use of the world's resources, a coneiderable part of<br />
which is now spent on armaments and military conflicts. A genuine policy of independence,<br />
peace, detente and disarmament could and should release additional resources that could weli<br />
be devoted to peaceful aims and in particular to the aceeleration of social and economic<br />
development of which primary health care, €x! an essential part *rould be a[otted its proper<br />
share.
-57<br />
PACIFIC ISLAIOS' HYDROGEOLOGY AlS WATER OUALITY<br />
W.R. Dde* and &C. Wetarhouee+*<br />
Department of scientific and Industrial Reseerch, wellington, New Zealandr<br />
and<br />
New Zealand Geological Survey, Otara, New Zealand**<br />
AESTRACT<br />
Water is the most critical of all resources qr oceanic tropical islands. ln<br />
most ceses the ability to carry out deteiled etudies is limited but technical<br />
experience has been gained from pracLical fieldwork.<br />
Following some six years regearch on I range of Pacif ic lslands it is<br />
suggested that for practical purposes the Gybern-Herzberg principle be adhered<br />
to. Undoubtedly some modification will be made in the future but at present basic<br />
information needs to be obtained on the size, shape and thickness of the<br />
fresh-water body - the lens in the case of atolls, and sbterranean flows grr the<br />
higher islands.<br />
Mmitoring of both the levels of fresh water in drilled or dlg wells and of<br />
the salinity are also requirements Lo engure safe levels of abstraction.<br />
Water quatity from limestone bodies is similar from different parts of the<br />
Pacif ic but provides problems for some industrial uses. That from volcanic<br />
reservoirs differs noLiceably from limestone $)urces in chemical constituents.<br />
A major knowledge gap about potable waters is lhe lack of information,<br />
especially on a regular basis, about biological contamination.<br />
Introduction<br />
It has long been known or suspected that useful fresh ground-water rupplies can be<br />
obtained from oceanic islands in the Pacific. Until rccently, however, its discovery and<br />
subsequent abstrection has largely been a matter of trial and error.<br />
The islandg fall into three categories, conveniently terned High Islands, Raised Coral<br />
Atollsr and Corel Atolls. Each are briefly described below, together with the findings of a<br />
few workers engaged cr oceanic-island water-supply studies.<br />
Hioh ielandg<br />
The term is informally<br />
nerrow coral reefs (Figure<br />
Rarotonga, Western Scnoa,<br />
Wallis and Futuna.<br />
Geology<br />
applied to islands with an emergent volcanic core surrounded by<br />
f ). The volcanic interior may be rugged or<br />
Havraii, or domed,<br />
rrmuntainous' e.g.<br />
or plateau-like, e.g. Mangaia (Cook Islands),<br />
The high islands are formed by volcanos rising from the sea floor in a eeries of<br />
spasmodic eruptive evenls pnead over a period of e few tens of million years. A conplex<br />
history of elevation, subsidencer and fluctuating sea level is indicated by fringing coral reefs<br />
which are necorded at various heights m the flanks of the volcanie pile below sea level, and<br />
up to 70 m above present day sea level (asl).
c<br />
o<br />
EN<br />
Jl'<br />
(U<br />
o,<br />
,o<br />
-ts<br />
m<br />
= o,<br />
-r,<br />
ao<br />
J<br />
-58<br />
Co,<br />
.o<br />
i:t<br />
) a]_<br />
.. .. .:<br />
I<br />
CN<br />
.E Lo<br />
tn<br />
q,<br />
o<br />
G<br />
L<br />
o<br />
o,<br />
]<br />
ctr<br />
=E<br />
o,<br />
C'<br />
E<br />
-- L<br />
c)<br />
o,<br />
c J<br />
+<br />
EN<br />
.E c<br />
.E<br />
I<br />
VI<br />
water table<br />
Figure I : High island (half width) showing emergent volcano with feeder<br />
flanking coral reef. Rain water is shed by direct runoff, or<br />
compartments in the volcanics or to the fresh-water lens.<br />
Hydrology<br />
' i'.:.'..'. :..j,. ? i;:ir.:.ii.:'j<br />
ter tabte<br />
dikes and sills, and<br />
percolates to water<br />
Oceanic islands' water resources are derived entirely from rainfall. The volcanics of<br />
the high islands are relatively impermeable and much of the precipitation is shed as surface<br />
runoff via streams. That part which penetrates the rock to the water table can be perched on<br />
confined to ground-water compartments formed by dikes, sills, or flows. Leakage from these<br />
confining beds allows ground waten to percolate vertically or laterally Lo lower level, and<br />
ultimetely it replenishes a fresh-water lens (descnibed below), the surface of which might be<br />
a few centimetres asl.<br />
The surrounding reef, parl of which may be up to 70 m asl, has a karst topography and<br />
water falling on its surface, and that shed from the interior volcanics moves rapidly through<br />
fissures, caves, solution channels and cracks to the fresh-water lens.<br />
(1)<br />
Water Resources<br />
Fresh water is obtained from a number of sources on high islands by:<br />
Roof Catchment. Individual household tanks, or community tanks filled by<br />
specially-designed, roof -catchment structures.
-59<br />
Q) streems. Direct ebstrection via water intake in the stream bed<br />
villages, or simply by collection in bucketg and tine.<br />
(l) Gallerieo. Tren,cheg drg below the water tsble in streem valleys,<br />
pipes and back filled. Ground weter seeps through the poroua pipei<br />
via reaervoina or directly by pipeline to villages. -<br />
End reticuleted to<br />
lined with porous<br />
and is reticulated<br />
(4) Maui (okimming) Tmnels. Vertical or inclined shafts or adits dug to about the weter<br />
tabler end me or more horizontal tunnels congtructed laterally iuat betow the water<br />
level. Highly successful on Hawaii and also used 6t T$iti.<br />
(5) Springs. Perched aquifere teaking laterally form ryrings at varioug levels around the<br />
volcanic alopes. Ssne of these eleveted prings, well inland, end near villages, have<br />
been tapped and the weter used for drinking, waahing, and bathing. At lower levele<br />
where they emerge at impermeable dike, gill or flow contacts, aprini water is directed<br />
into hand-dug rock-lined gtrallow 'troughsr and used for community purposes. Springe<br />
also bubbb up through the eand around the foreshore, and holes 'scooped in -looie<br />
material sre used for washing and bathing.<br />
(6) Dug Wells. Hand-dug welle in weathered volcanic rocks, or in elluvial depoaits near the<br />
coast provide small a.rpplies for individual familiee. Their yield is generally small<br />
beceuse of the limite imposed by physically digging below the water tablJ.<br />
(7) Driltholes. Generally eited on volcanics and drilled to intersect perched or neer<br />
eea-level aquifers. Their yield is relatively small but following testing, it can be<br />
regulated to euetain a constant flow for en indefinite period. The iepth of the hole end<br />
pump inteke must be indicaled bef ore drilling commences, and the collar height<br />
surveyed accurately relative to aea level.<br />
In the Southern_ Cook Group, holes drilled in the volcanics from LJ m to 100 m depth<br />
are being developed.for community supplies. Punp test analyses indicate that about f Vi is<br />
available from the better holea, although in all csses tragsmissivity (gn indication of the<br />
ability of the. aquifer to trensmit water) is low at b.Z m./d to ti mzla (Waternouse and<br />
Petty, in prees).<br />
Raiged coral atolls<br />
Raised atolls comPrise a wbnrerged volcanic core slrrounded and capped by generally<br />
thick coral limestone (Figure 2). The limestone, estimated to be J00 m'ffrict on-Niue, is<br />
asgunEd to heve formed mainly in response to tectonic elevation and subsidence of the<br />
volcanic edifice, and. to e lesser degree to eustatic fluctuations of sea level. Tmgatapu,<br />
Niue, Nauru and Banaba are good examples of raised atolls.<br />
Gcology<br />
Sane raised atolls show the original atoll topography, as on Niue, with an old, elevated,<br />
inland lagoon gJrrounded. by a peripheral reef ri'dg6. ' Odtt"rt are relatively flat, or gently<br />
tloping, the maximum height generally being betwjen 60 m and B0 m asl., e.g. Tongitapr4<br />
Banaba<br />
Raised atolls are considered !o be intermediate in age between the young high islands<br />
and old coral atolls because the volcanic base m which thl coral became established is now<br />
nowhere in evidence. but it still represents a signif icant part of the island's mass. progressive<br />
overell eubsidence, during which time the coraf continued to grow upwards, may have been in<br />
exce8s of I kilometre over the last l0 million years, as thL oldest corels recognized are<br />
Oligocene to Miocene in age.<br />
Hydrology<br />
The highly-permeable limestone or corel-sand crrface m raised atolls allowe rainfall to<br />
drein rapidly downwards to the fresh-water lena near sea level. In a f ew instancee<br />
impermeable clays and small, impernreable depressions pond the rain water locally, but laterel<br />
runoff into nnre porous beds and high-evapoiation rates contribute t" ."Jii-**"ce drying.
SL<br />
o<br />
'or<br />
=o<br />
60<br />
sub s tr uc tur e<br />
| 'r | |<br />
rv---]--T--<br />
Figure 2 t Raised coral atoll (half width). Subperged volcanic core capped by coral<br />
limestone many hundreds of melres thick. No strearns are present and lain water<br />
penetrates rapidly to the fresh-water lens. Overpumping, with corrsequent lowering<br />
of the lens surface to on below sea level, will yield salt watec.<br />
No sLreams are present on raised atolls and all water for local use is derived frorn roof<br />
cat.chments, drillholes, duq wells, or brackish ponds and seeps. Of Lhese the rnost prornising<br />
for future development are drilled wells for comrnunity/horticultunal purposes, with noof<br />
catchment and shallow dug wells conLinuing Lo be used where appropriate.<br />
Investigations of ground water resources by drilling on raised atolls over the past few<br />
years has confirmed that a thin layer of fresh water is present 'floating'on sea watef. The<br />
principle, expressed by [he Ghyben-Herzburg formulan is a ratio describing the static relation<br />
of fresh ground water and sea watet and states that for each uniL rneasurernent of fnesh<br />
water above sea level, the salt water surf ace will be displaced 40 tirnes that unit<br />
measurement below sea level. Thus 0.5 m of fresh water asl rs theoretically balanced by 20 m<br />
of fresh water bsl, but in praclice seldom, lf ever is lhis precise ratio ratio aLtained.<br />
Never[heless, until funther studies in oceanic island grr:und waten dynarnics are undertakertt<br />
this simple 4{J:I ratio is accepLable as an elemerltary yardstick.<br />
Two islands on which solne ground-waten work has been done are Niue and Tongatapu .<br />
On Niue, Jacobson and Hill (f980) showed the fresh-waler aquifer [o be doughnut<br />
o,<br />
o<br />
E<br />
r= L<br />
o
-61<br />
shaped. [n the cenlre of the island (the old lagoon) lhe top surface of the aquifer is l.g] m<br />
asl. The thickness of the fresh-waten lens, inferred from resistivity data, ranges from 40-80<br />
m in the centre to 50-170 m beneath the former atoll rim, and sea level at thL coast. They<br />
concluded that the inregular shape of the lens is probably due to variations in permeability<br />
within the limestone.<br />
. J;cobson and Hill (ibid) calculated that fresh water storage on Niue amounted to about<br />
4-6 km-, and that punping and other Lests indicated a high permeability in the afluifer<br />
(specific capacity of LZ.(A l/s/m at one drill site). They zuggehed a safe yietO ot ff mrTOlha<br />
in their model.<br />
On Tongatapu some 60 dug or drilled wells from a few rnelres to over 60 m deep<br />
penetrated coral limestone. Pfeiffer (1971) eslimated that between 5% and I5% of the<br />
averaqe annual rainfall of 1750 mm penetrated?to the aquifer, and by assuming a rechaqqerof<br />
about l0% over ther,entire island (260 km') he estimated thal of the 45 x l0rm)/y<br />
replacement, 25000 m'ld can be extracted from wells.<br />
Waterhouse (1976) established that the lens zurface stood 0.5 m to 0.75 m asl in lhe<br />
Tmgatapu Water Reserve, and frorn punp test data calculated a transmissivity at IZOO mtld.<br />
The pump-test data, and rainfall figures were further analysed by Hunt (1978) who calculated<br />
:_p^91""+ility of 1.5 cm/s, and estimated that 259t0 to ]0% of the average rainfall, or about<br />
75000 m-, reached the aquifer.<br />
From the above it appears that some 25000 ml to 75000 ,l/a rnigt,, be abstracted from<br />
the aquifer underlying Tmgatapu.<br />
Coral atolls<br />
These mcur as a ring-shaped coral reef appearing as a low, roughly-circular, elliptical,<br />
or horseshoe-shaped conal island, or a ring of closely-spaced coral isEts encircling or 'nearly<br />
encireling a shallow lagoon. They may vary in diameter from I km to over 100 km and are<br />
particularly common in the western and central Pacific. The zubnrerged, deeply-buried rock<br />
on which the coral limestone originally grew is presunnd to be volcani- (Figure )).<br />
Tfle Gilbett Islands (Kiribati), Tuvalu, Tokelau, Nonthern Cook Group, and French<br />
Polynesia include good examples of true coral atolls.<br />
Geology<br />
Coral atolls are formed by contemporaneous upwards growth of reef coral during<br />
gradual $bsidence of the volcanic s.rbstructure. Baillard (I9Sf) described the birth anO<br />
gnowth of an atoll through its different stages of formation from the development of the<br />
volcanic edifice m which the coral beceme established (probably in the mid Tertiary to the<br />
present).<br />
Under favourable conditions of climale, temperat.ure, and depth, coral larvae zuspended<br />
in the sea water form scatLered colonies sr the volcanic flanks of the erbnnrged or emerging<br />
island. They eventually form an encircling reef which itself is raised or lowered by the samJ<br />
tectonie forceg controlling the elevation and srrbsidence of the volcano. The fins-l stages of<br />
atoll formation are considered to be subsidence srd erosion, and es the volcano sinks to<br />
greater depths the coral continues to grow upwards and ultimately cornpletely covers the<br />
volcenie srbstructurc. Gradually the fringing barrier rcef restricts the circulation of water<br />
between the open (rcean and the lagoon to the passages in the reef and lagoonal sediments<br />
aceumub[e in the largely shallow, protected basin in which grow a few coral heads. The<br />
outcr rim at this stage coffpriges cemented beach rock, coral, sand, conglomerate, storm<br />
debris' and thin coil' end rarely etteins a height of npre than a few firetres *L<br />
By virtue of thein sinking to great depths and the long time required to accornplish<br />
thi!' etolls sre thought to be affrcrng the geologically oldeet of oceanie islandg. This<br />
arsunptionr however, muet be treated wit,h caution beceuse eroeional criteria, me of the<br />
tools ured in datingr (Kear 1957) are inpossible to apply when the volcano in queetion is<br />
cotnpletely rubrrerged and capped by thick coral (1400 m m Eniwetok in the Marshall Islande)<br />
(Menard f964). In addition, a KlAr date m a near etoll, Aitutaki, is younger than that for<br />
Rrotonga (Dalrymple et el. 1975), a young volcano by any stenderd.
-62<br />
Figure ) : Coral atoll (hslf width). Original island almost cornpletely strbmerged. The<br />
peripheral rim rises to a few rEtres above sea level and comprises cemented<br />
beach rock, conal, Band, conglomerate, and storm debris. Thin soil and sparse<br />
vegetation are usuallY Present.<br />
Hydrology<br />
vl<br />
.,<br />
C'<br />
.E<br />
lJ<br />
t E8<br />
!, 'c<br />
o,<br />
t6 -o<br />
=En (p<br />
3<br />
Most pacific island etolls are remote and spersely populated. Liquid requirements.of<br />
the inhabitants have traditionally been furnished by coconuts or rein-water tanks. Brackish<br />
water, mainly for washing and baUhing, is available in some instances from holes dug in beach<br />
sand at the fresh-waterl-salr-water interface. While these sources have proven adequate' at<br />
teasL to sustain life on the atolls, a limiled fresh waler resource might be exploited from the<br />
water lens (Ghyben-Herzburg lens) underlying each atoll, the principle of which is discussed<br />
under Raised Atolls (above).-Further investigations inLo developing this reso.urce is necessary<br />
as tidal fluctuation, rainfall, and the latere-l extent, thickness, and hydraulic characteristics<br />
of the lens itself will vary from aloll to atoll.<br />
Mather Og7:' estabtished a model for the development of the ground-water resources<br />
on atolls in which he assumed that "abstracting ground water from a fresh-water lens is<br />
equivalent to reducing vertical recharge, and an Jstimate of the sr.rstainable yield of lhe bns<br />
can be madet'.<br />
Jacobson (1975)<br />
Ocean, and calculated<br />
.t<br />
applied Mather's hypoLhesis to Cocos.-(Kee-ling) atoll in the Indian<br />
that an effective rechange to the aquifer of 500 mm/y, and a water<br />
{,<br />
srbjlry
-6t<br />
table glevation ranging from 0.I7 to 0.16 m asl, would produce a sustaineble yield of about<br />
2oo m'ld.<br />
The factors governing the shape of fresh-water lens are rainfall periodieity of<br />
droughts, tides, seepage, and abstraction nates. To minimize drawdown, Jecobson (ibid)<br />
recommends infiltretion galleries rather than dug wells. Punping should be cemied out<br />
continuously and at a rate such that. the thickness of the fresh-water lens is maintained at<br />
more than half the original thickness. It follows that abstraction points should be located in<br />
places where the lens is thickest.<br />
Because of the delicate hydraulic balance at the fresh-water/salt-water interface, the<br />
pumping-water level should be carefully monitored. The punp intake should never be set<br />
below mean sea level because when the cone of pumping depression intersects sea-level<br />
datumr all the available fresh waier is exhausted and upwelling sea water will enter the hole.<br />
Once contaminatedr the hole may take years before a balance is re-established, although in a<br />
few instances it may be possible to accelerate the process by artificial recharge.<br />
Clearly' the ground-water lens configuration will vary from island to islend and much<br />
investigational work remains to be done. However, it is proven that the fresh-water principle<br />
is valid in coral island situations and its abstraction is possible under given conditione.<br />
Weter qualitv<br />
It ig clear thet we cen classify the geological struct,ure of Pacific islands into three<br />
broad groups. Both the type of waier resource and broad chemical characteristics of water<br />
quality also conform to this grouping.<br />
There is little information on the bacteriological quality of water on different islands<br />
although unconfirrned accounts by technicians working in hospital laboratories in the region<br />
indicate Lhe presence of coliform bacteria in many samples and a general lack of treatment<br />
of water supplies.<br />
Our interest has been in providing drinking waler of an acceptable standard and the<br />
World Health Organizationrs tecommendations have been used to judge water quality from a<br />
chemical point of view. Ssne of these crileria are given in Teble I (World Health<br />
Organization l97I).<br />
B::?.T" z.o-8.5<br />
I"1ffilii1" 6.i-s.2<br />
.Naturally<br />
Table I : WHO quality for drinkipg water<br />
(except for pH all as g/m-)<br />
pH Ca Mg Cl SOr,<br />
Total<br />
Hardness<br />
as Ca CO, Mn Fe Cu Zn<br />
75<br />
200<br />
50 200<br />
I50 600<br />
200<br />
400<br />
r00 0.05 0.1<br />
500 0.5<br />
occuming waten erpplies vary somewhat from these figures. Turtidity (not<br />
listed) is a useful measure of alteration to the aquifer, so is the -presence of niirogen<br />
compounds. Heevy metal contamination mey indicate other variation from good quality.<br />
Generally there ere aesthetic contaminants which make water less attractive to drink or<br />
toxic naterial which renders it dangerous to drink. Normal rain water has a pH of 5.6.<br />
Overall we have few chemicel analyses and are unable to pnesent more than examples<br />
of tests from specific sites. There are no deta from sarnples of the same source taken at<br />
different times. We can, however, trace the changes which rain water undergoes as it pasees<br />
into different aquifers.<br />
1.0<br />
0.05<br />
t.5<br />
5.0<br />
r5.0
Rain Wetar<br />
-g<br />
SrnplescollectedfromroofsinTokelauandRarotongatypify<br />
the expected anelYses of<br />
,ein r"i"i (Tsble 2). Ssne contaminetion of wind-blown coral dt'tgt and salt-spreY as well aa<br />
msterial weshed from wooden ahekea which ere used as roofing et the Rarotongan Hotel<br />
appear in the Cmk lgland samPle.<br />
a<br />
b<br />
pH<br />
Ca<br />
6.0
a<br />
b<br />
c<br />
d<br />
e<br />
t<br />
a<br />
b<br />
c<br />
d<br />
e<br />
f<br />
I<br />
(a)<br />
(b)<br />
(c)<br />
(d)<br />
(e)<br />
(f)<br />
(s)<br />
pH<br />
7.t<br />
7.4<br />
7.2<br />
7.9<br />
7.8<br />
7.5<br />
9.t<br />
Ca<br />
ND<br />
ND<br />
66<br />
68<br />
5l<br />
45<br />
64<br />
-6'<br />
Table 4 : Samples from margins of high islands<br />
(Southern Cook group)<br />
Mg<br />
r0<br />
hD<br />
I2<br />
L5<br />
102<br />
,7<br />
l0l<br />
Mauke, makatea drillhole<br />
Rarotonga airport<br />
Mauke, Vaitango cave<br />
Atiu, Te Miro cave<br />
Atiu, Vaiakururu cave<br />
Atiu, Piripuroto cave<br />
Mitiaro, Lake Te Rotonui<br />
pH Ca M9<br />
7.' 41<br />
7.t 47<br />
7.4 @<br />
7.2 t04<br />
7.2 100<br />
8.5 105<br />
(a)<br />
(b)<br />
(c)<br />
(d)<br />
(e)<br />
(f)<br />
22.O<br />
5.t<br />
8.0<br />
5.0<br />
10.0<br />
7,0<br />
Total<br />
Alkalinity Cl<br />
68<br />
,98<br />
2t8<br />
2t0<br />
246<br />
220<br />
t5<br />
29<br />
?7<br />
r07<br />
210<br />
147<br />
t50<br />
1580<br />
soa<br />
]J<br />
L6<br />
ta<br />
28<br />
22<br />
48<br />
r84<br />
Table 5 : Samplgs from raised coral islands<br />
Total<br />
Total Hardness<br />
Alkalinity Cl SOO as Ca CO, Mn<br />
245<br />
148<br />
?19<br />
550<br />
t19<br />
t55<br />
7L<br />
124<br />
25t<br />
21 4<br />
98 I8<br />
44 ND<br />
209<br />
B'<br />
194<br />
290<br />
to5<br />
292<br />
Niue, Tuku'ofe cave<br />
Niue, Vaiola factory bore<br />
Niue, Liku Developrnent Block bore<br />
Tmgatapu, Tr.pou College well<br />
Tangatapu, Hu'atolitoli well<br />
Tcrgatapu, Veiola Hcpital well<br />
Total<br />
Hardness Metals<br />
as Ca CO, Fe+Mn<br />
0.0I 0.02<br />
0.01 2.or<br />
0.01 0.15<br />
0.01 0.01<br />
0.01 0.01<br />
0.01 0.0r<br />
76<br />
J2T<br />
215<br />
ND<br />
548<br />
ND<br />
576<br />
Metals<br />
Fe Cu<br />
low<br />
low<br />
low<br />
Iow<br />
low<br />
low<br />
low<br />
Zn<br />
0.01 0.0r<br />
0.07 0.45<br />
0.05 0.7t<br />
0.01 0.12<br />
0.01 0.20<br />
0.01 o.o2<br />
. Tb samplel strow some similaritieg within the two sets. Calcium level, total alkalinity,<br />
chloride and total hardness are apparently higher in the Tongatapu bore samptes than thoie<br />
from Niue. All analyses for retals are low bul of interest arJ the very slightiy elevated zinc<br />
figures from Niue dr.re probably to galvanized pipes although soils 6l ttjue are all deficient in<br />
zinc which is pplied s a pesture and crop fertilizer.<br />
Our final gnoup of samples was laken from galleries m an etoll in Kiribati. Water<br />
comes from a very thin lens contained within the limestone rock. Highest lend elevation is<br />
only a few metree agl. Values are given in Table.6 and ere similar to tf,ose given by Jacobson<br />
(197O for Hsne lsland, Cocos group (lndian Ocean).<br />
Reoults from atoll weters sppear similar to those of raiged coral islands. Both semples<br />
were high in total alkalinity. Chloride level will be influenced by the sampling site in relation<br />
to the thicknees of the freeh-water lens.
pH<br />
7.5<br />
7.'<br />
Ca<br />
Wall Management<br />
t07 l0<br />
72 47<br />
66<br />
Table 6 : Samples from an atoll in Kiribati<br />
Total<br />
Mn Alkalinity<br />
447<br />
t82<br />
Total<br />
Hardness Metals<br />
Cl 5OO as Ca CO, Mn Fe Cu Zn<br />
t5<br />
204<br />
4.9<br />
46.0<br />
590<br />
rs<br />
all low<br />
all low<br />
Data from Western Samoa (A. C. Mclntosh, personal communica[ion l98l) indieate that<br />
many boreholes have been abandoned m account of unacceptably high satinity. He notes that<br />
9 boreholes showed significant increases in salinity - some by a factor of J or 4. For example<br />
the Taga borehole originally tested at 58 ppm had increased lo 228 ppm by l98l (duration not<br />
known). Sorne borehole analyses now exceed the WHO permissible value of 600 ppm.<br />
Discussion<br />
Chemical analyses for a limited number of key elements illustrate how rain water is<br />
modified by the reservoir which contains it. Clearly water contained in aquifers close to sea<br />
level may be contaminaled by salt and that from limestone will have high hardness levels.<br />
Where industrial boilers are used for producing steam, special treaLment will be required to<br />
overcome scaling problems.<br />
Although the pattern we have illustrated is a simplification of the situation for any<br />
particulan aquifer, the evidence from Western Samoa of increasing salinity in some wells at<br />
lower levels indicates that regular monit,oring is essential to ensute that stipulated rates of<br />
draw off are adhered to. Unless each island sets up an effective monitoring programme they<br />
will be unaware of incipient dangers especially to the fragile fresh-waLer lens and even to<br />
sub-zurface flows if overdrawn. In the case of the lens, a lon! period will probably be<br />
required to re-establish the hydraulic equilibrium and shape of the former lens.<br />
Chemical analyses give a good guide to the quality of water urpplies from Pacific<br />
islands but the limited understanding we have reeds lo be supplencnted by regular<br />
bacteriological and salinity checks and regular monitoring of depths' to water and punping<br />
rates.<br />
Towards this end DSIR has initiated a co-ordination programme to assist developrnenl of<br />
new water rresources in the Pacific. This involves six steps starting with hydrogeological<br />
evaluation, the siting of wells, the supervision of drilling and punp tests, chemical analysis of<br />
selected samples, installation of punps and support for a monitoring programme to ensure<br />
safe levels of draw off.<br />
Acknowledoments<br />
AII chemical analyses of water samples were carried out by staf f of the Water<br />
Laboratory, Chemistry Division, DSIR, Wellington. We thank Mr Colin Downes, Chemistry<br />
Division for helpful criticism of this paper.
-67<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Baillard, J.P. 1981. Birth and growth of en atoll. Souti Pacific Bulletin, First Ouarter l98l.<br />
pp 7-L3.<br />
Delrymple, G.8., R.D. Jarrard, and D.A. Clegue. L975. KlAr ages of gome volcenic rocks from<br />
the Cook and Austre.l Islands. Geological Society of Anerici Bulletin 86tL467-67.<br />
Hunt' B.H. 1978. An analysis of the groundwater resourcee of Tongatapu Island. Civil<br />
Engineering Reeearch Report No 7815. University of Canterbury, ChriJtchurch, NZ. 20 pp.<br />
Jacobson, G. 1976. The freehwater lens m Hsne Island in the Cocos (Keeling) Ielande. Blvfr,<br />
J. of Austrelian Geol. and Geophys. L(4)tJj5-J4J.<br />
Jacobson, G., and P.J. Hill. 1980. Groundweter resources of Niue Island, BMR Record<br />
te80lt4.<br />
Kear, D. 1957. Erosional stages of volcenic cones<br />
38(7)267I-82.<br />
Mather' J.D. 1975. Development of the groundwater nesources of small lirnestone ialends. e.J.<br />
Eng. Geol, 8:l4l-150.<br />
Menard, l.lW. 1954. Marine geology of the pacific. McGraw-Hill.<br />
as indicators of age. N.Z. J Sci. Tech.<br />
Pfeiffer, D.I. 197t. outline of the hydrology of the island of rongatapu (Kingdonr of ronga,<br />
South Pacific). Advisory Services Report, U.N. Economic Csnmiieion for Asla and the Fa<br />
East. 16 p.<br />
Waterhouse, B.C. 1976. Nuku'elofa water supply. N.Z. Geologicel Survey Repont, Otara. 8 p.<br />
It,aterhouse, 8.C., and D.R. Petty. In press. Hydrogeology of the Southern Cook Group, South<br />
Pacifie. N.Z. Geological Survey Bulletin 98.<br />
World Heslth Organization. 1971. International standarde for drinking water, lrd Edition.<br />
Wmld Health Organization, Geneva.
u<br />
Introduction<br />
-69<br />
POLLUTION PROBLEMS IN TI-E SOUTH PACIFIC:<br />
FERTILIZERS, BIOCIDES, WATER zuppLIES AhD TRBAN WASTES<br />
R.J. Morrigon and .}E, Brodie<br />
Institute of Natural Resources<br />
University of the South pacific<br />
P. O. Box 1158, Suva, Fiji<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
The South Pacific region is fortunale in being relatively free of major<br />
pollution problems. However, increasing development ind the fragility of some of<br />
the regional ecosystems tnean that potential dangers exist. Localized problems<br />
with pesticides and herbicides have occurred, Uut at present fertilizer use is<br />
limited and thus does not constitute a major hazard. The principal cause for<br />
concern is Lhe contamination of water zupplies by biocides, human and animal<br />
wastes. These problems are particularly acute in atoll environments having a<br />
limited fresh-water supply.<br />
There is some evidence of dunrping in the South Pacific of aqricultural<br />
chemicals that have been banned in developed countries. Lack of eiperienced<br />
personnel in monitoring the introduction of these chemicals plus inadequate<br />
knowledge of storage methods, disposal problems and safe handling nrethods<br />
constitutes a major problem for many small island communities<br />
Future developnrents in the use of agricultural chemicals and in the disposal<br />
of human and animal wastes need to be carefully monitored if serious pnoblems<br />
are to be avoided. This can only be achieved with the urgent establishment of an<br />
appropriate regional environrnental monitoring programme.<br />
The outsider thinking of the South Pacific visualizes coral sand beaches, palm trees,<br />
cleer water, etc.l the possibility that the area might be polluted is seldom considered.<br />
Fortunately for much of Lhe region this is the case aJ it is relatively pollution free, but this<br />
situation is changing and potential problems do exist.<br />
Development demands of the various countries rnean increased industrial activity,<br />
increased u_s9 of agricultural chemicals, and increased amoun[s of waste products requirinq<br />
disposal. This is particularly important given the fragitity of South pacific ecosystems.<br />
Concern for ecosystems is mainly in terms of their abilitf to sstain and maintain themselves,<br />
end thus provide food, shelter and water for thoge life forms present (and we selfish humans<br />
consider human life particularly in this context). In terms of their ability to sustain human<br />
life' Pecific eccyatems are fragile by the very neture of the region - a large rumber of<br />
small island systems separated by considerable expanses of oceari (except foi papua New<br />
Guinea). In the larger continental countries, if one ecosystem or part of a system is damaged<br />
by either human of natural activities, then others can be called upon to iitt tf,r g"p uitil<br />
recovery has ccurred. TNs "fall-back" option is freqirently not available in man! Facific<br />
countries. It is therefore particularly important thet potential pollution problems be identified<br />
and the necessary steps taken to minimize them.
Fertilizarg<br />
-70<br />
At prerent it qpeare thet fertilizer uoe in the region dme not presant any major<br />
probbme. Ttn probhmr that can arise ete:<br />
- accumubtion of exqas! fertilizer rneteriels in freeh water or lagoon 8yltems giving rire lo<br />
algel blooms end the aventuel death of aquatic faunar and<br />
- rccumulation of toxic msterials arch a nitrate c inavy r:tsls in ground weter.<br />
Fartilizer usc in the region is rather limited with countriea like Kiribati gtd Tuvalu<br />
using lees then 5 tonnee/yr in totsl. Even countries like Papua New Guinear. Solomon lrlende<br />
anO fili wtrich use l0rs of thoueande of tone of fertilizer do so at relatively low ratss per<br />
unit land araa. Nitrate levele in ground water erppliee ere generelly low end phosphate.is<br />
etrongly absorbed by meny regionil soila. Unfortunately, there ic no information st the<br />
accuriubtion of heavy melala ln soils end ground water but it is unlikely the! levels (from<br />
fertilizer sources at least) are high enough to cause concorn.<br />
Biocidea (Peaticides, Herbicides, lnsecticidee, Fr.ngicideer Weedicidea)<br />
Since Wald War II there has been a marked rise in the rumber of meterials evaileble.<br />
Prior to 1940 mly a few tons of compounde, uaually derivetives of ersenicr eopper' lead'<br />
rnercury, erphur or cfilorine, plue a few plant extracte like nicotine urlphate rtd pyrethrumt<br />
were u'sad. Today well over 1000 products are availabb. Tfe uge of some of these has been<br />
the agbject of considereble criticism, aometimes unjr.rstified, htt it ie essential to note many<br />
problems heve arieen due to improper use of the rnaterials (Mos/bray, 1984; Thaman, I984I<br />
In the Pacific, problems with biocidee uaually eriae only in ereag,of intensive crop<br />
Broduction where the co8t8 of using these materiele cen be recouped. Demends by<br />
governnents for increased agricultural production have led and will lead to the extended uge<br />
5t biocides. Problems ueually arise an a rcsulf of TGNORANCE' CARELESSNESST<br />
i€GLIGENCE, or a combinstion of these.<br />
Unfortunately, the knowledge necessary for good biocide use cennot be gained<br />
overnight. Knowledge m:<br />
- whether or not to use biocides,<br />
- what types to aPPlYr<br />
- what rate to aPPIY'<br />
: H:",1"*"BX;,*.<br />
can be gained only by experience. Information on storage, stock control end<br />
compatibility is also required.<br />
The following ere aome of the problems that do erise.<br />
l. Storagc: often biocides are collected from stores or shops in unlabelled containers<br />
brought in by farmers. This can lead to probhms especially when the materials are<br />
stored in the home as is often the case. Cmtainers are often labelled in Englishr not in<br />
the indigenous language; perhaps this should be teken up with the manufacturers or<br />
dietributors. Accidental poieoning occurs frequently. In several countries consunption of<br />
paraquat (a herbicide) is a popular nrethod of committing suicide (etenches and emetics<br />
can be added to liquid biocides to minimize this problem).<br />
2. Diryorat unwanted biocides, such as those left over when too much or the wrong type<br />
heg been ordered, are frequently difficult to diapose of sritably.<br />
t. Applicetim: frequently this must be done in a particular way with the correct<br />
equipment. Farmers often have not been educated in the correet way to use the<br />
equipment, the equipnnnt ie poorly maintained, or not enough sets are available.<br />
Protective ctothing is sometimes required and in Fiji at least one cese of death by<br />
poisoning due to absorption of Parathion through the skin hes been recorded. Many less<br />
serious caees of injury or illnees due to inappropriate 4plication<br />
rnethods occur. Only<br />
one or two countries have organized training progremmes in ryplication techniques and<br />
none heve any certification scheme.<br />
\
4.<br />
5.<br />
7I<br />
Persirtence and Movement in the Environment: here the amount of information<br />
available is extremely limited. In Guam, paraquat, lindane, and 2rlr-D have been<br />
detected in the ground water. In Ameriean Samoa there is considerable concern that no<br />
monitoring of residue levels in the gnound water has been done, in spite of the fact<br />
thal this is Lhe major source of drinking water. Monitoring of persistence and<br />
movement is not easy. For example in Hawaii where considerable monitoring does take<br />
place, the insecticide hept.achlor used in the pineapple industry went undetecled in milk<br />
for over I year (pineapple trash was used as cattle feed).<br />
Legialetion: a few countries have good control over biocide use while others do nol;<br />
many countries have no legislat.ion and no controls. As a consequence biocides that<br />
have been banned from use in various developed countries are sold to and in pacific<br />
countries without controls, e.g. dieldrin in New Caledonia.<br />
Water Supplies<br />
Waler resources are the part of the Pacific Islands environment most susceptible to<br />
pollution. Rivers, streams, wells and ground wdter borehole zupplies can all be contaminated<br />
by chemical, human and animal wastes.<br />
Contamination by ehemicals, such as arsenic found in Solomon lsland streams from wood<br />
treatment operations or biocide residues resulting from excessive use, has so far only been<br />
delected in limited areas' but the extent of monitoring has not been great. More extensive<br />
use of chemicals is occurring and further problems coulrd be found.<br />
Contamination in less dramatic ways is more common. To illustraie this consider the<br />
results of some wate.t quality surveys carried out by the lrstitute of Natural Resources,<br />
University of the South Pacific (Brodie et a!., lg8J).<br />
Vaitupu (Tuvelu) - a low atoll<br />
Mct wells are contaminated to a greater or lesser extent by sea watec and can only<br />
be used for washing. Wells close to the more inhabiLed area aL the southern end of the island<br />
also have high levels of coliform contamination (Total coliforms 1000i100 ml in 5 out of g<br />
wells; >5000/100 ml in 4 out of I wells).<br />
Niue-araisedatoll<br />
The water is very hard wi[h high iron levels and often significant nitrate levels.<br />
Seventeen boreholes and 4 rainwater lanks were examined: results indicated water was<br />
generally of good quality with little salt, and low coliform counts.<br />
Tmgatapu (Kingdom of Tonga) - a raised coral platforrn covered wit.h ash.<br />
Twelve heavily used boreholes were tested. All indicated high calcium hardness as<br />
would be expected. Four showed significant levels of salt water intruiion and 2 showed signs<br />
of bacterial eontamination,<br />
Savo (Solomon Islands) - a small volcanic island<br />
Savo has slrface streams but they cannot be used for drinking purposes as lhey are<br />
very acidic and suphurous due to volcanic activity. Wells are rherefoie dug to provide<br />
drinking water.<br />
Fifty five wells and three streams were examined. Salt levels in most welts are high<br />
and noticeably higher than 1972 values probably as result of Cyclone Bernie in early 1962<br />
(nrore than half the wells tested had chloiide levels )25a mg/!, th; wHo l"inting standard). It<br />
would be interesting to examine the physiological effects m ifre inhabitants of the continued<br />
high salt intake.<br />
All the wells and one stream were conlarninated by coliform organisms (total coliform<br />
count 20 to )6000/100 ml). The level of contamination in rrarly all caJes is not high but it is<br />
still a matter for concern. The source of cont.amination is likely to be surface run-off into
-7?<br />
the wells with pigs (or children) the likely cuprits. The wella often have no Proteetive sides<br />
and pigs roern unieetrained in the villagar. Raiaed proteetivc rideg to tha wellc and sr effort<br />
to keep pigs away frsn the well surroundings would prevent further contamination. On Savot<br />
reinwater eatchment rray be the mly way to alpply drinking water nneting WHO otanderda.<br />
In general villege water erpplier are fixrre at risk aE vrater ic ueually tntreated. ln the<br />
rnajor urtan c?ntres s.rch es Htrliara and Nadi, although coliform levels st ltource ere<br />
frequently high, water srpplies are treated (incltding chlorination) before u.a.<br />
Urban Wastes<br />
Increasing development and the associated cfiangee are cauaing major problems end the<br />
situation may become worse. Tle "concentration effect" of increased developnnnt - bigger<br />
harbours and larger ships, bigger processing plants, figh canneries, ete. treana greater waste<br />
disposal problems are occurring near the major urban centres where the expanrion is<br />
happening. Frequently wastes are discharged into the marine environnent causing<br />
emsiderabta pollution around urban centres $Jch s Suva and Port Moreeby. This is critical<br />
because in rnany of these areas subeistence fishing is still a major food source.<br />
A second aspect of the ilconcentration effectt' is the human concentration caused by<br />
urbsr drift. Sevrerage schemes deaigned in colonial days are no longer adequate in some<br />
places to cope with the increasing population and squatter pttlenpnts not connected to any<br />
rpwage system create further problems. Lack of maintenance of septic tenks can lead to<br />
considerable pollution of water supplies.<br />
The Suva urben area has a population of about 150rfl)0 persons and it is estimated that<br />
by the year 2000 this will reach )00r(F0. Up until early 198) the rnain Suva sewage works at<br />
Kinoya treated sewage from a contributory population of sbout 12'000 but during l98l the<br />
scheme was expanded to receive sewage from a population of ))'fl)0. Further developments<br />
to increase the capacity to cater for sewage from a population of 6l'000 and later to<br />
IZ0,m0 are now being designed. The effluent from the Kinoya plant and a smaller planl at<br />
Raiwaqe atl flows into Laucala Bay, which forms part of the esluary of the Rewa River and<br />
has an offshore barrier reef. To essess the probable effects st Laucala Bay of Lhe increased<br />
effluent flow, a long term monitoning programme was begun in L979' with major data<br />
collection to 1982 and smaller scale rnonitoring since then (Caldwell Cmnell Enqineens et e!'<br />
1982). Results so far interpreted show the qrowth of algae in the bay to be phosphorus<br />
iimited - a relatively unusual situation, It is believed, however, that the amount of<br />
phosphorus entering the bay from the sewage scheme will not cause blooms as even by the<br />
year' 2005 Kinoya discharges will mly provide a 50% increase in phosphorus loading in Lhe<br />
bay and growth will still be phosphorus limited. At present nilrogen/phosphorus ratioe for the<br />
Uay average I80 with average nitrogen levels of J.J mg/l and average phosphorus of 0.018<br />
mg/I. Recent bacteriological studies m waler and shellfish from the bay have indicated the<br />
possibility of serious pollution problems (Brodie et al., f984)'<br />
In Lc, Papua New Guinea, the Bumbu River flows through a number of villages and<br />
ciLy suburbs. Tfe Taraka sewage works effluent also discharges inLo Lhe river. Two self-help<br />
set.tlements which lie m the Bumbu River have been studied to estimate water quality' water<br />
usage and the effect on public health (Mallard and Mahoney, I98l). Taraka Self-help<br />
Setflement has access to Lhe town water supply and city rubbish collection while Bumbu does<br />
not. Tfe Bumbu River and adjacent sLreams were shown to be highly polluted with faecal<br />
coliforms and in most areas not even safe for bathing (46% of samples contained >2000<br />
faecal coliforms/Ififl ml). Statistical analysis showed that the mcurrence of diarrhea' ear and<br />
eye infections was higher in Bumbu than in Taraka. 72% of people in Bumbu vensus 48% of<br />
people in Taraka reporled diarrhea, while in Bumbu 29% had ear infections and )6% eye<br />
infections and in Taraka lhe corresponding figures were .1,6% and 20%. Obvious contamination<br />
of wells by pit toilets and of small slreams and springs by household rubbish was noticed in<br />
Bumbu.<br />
Solid waste disposal is causing les; concern. For example Suva and Port Moresby now<br />
have well managed landfill operations a it is only in older dunps illegally used that visual<br />
and possibly disease vecior problems occur.
-13<br />
In Kiribati, however, me exarnple of a reversal of the normal problems has ccurred.<br />
Dunping does ccur but in 1982 it was found thet the solid wastes could be put to good use<br />
in a particular situation. In the Temaiku Bite m Tarawa, land recleimed in the early 1970's<br />
had been producing very poon coconut palms with chlorosis dle to iron, potassium and trece<br />
element deficiencies. Honever, in 1982 it was found that the addition of solid urban waste to<br />
the site produced a marked improvement - I messege for other atoll inhabitants - do not<br />
waste weste (m in the wordg of Peter Thacher, one man'8 pollutant is anotherre resource).<br />
One last feature of the rrconcentration effect'r is the impact of subsistence farming on<br />
the hills surrounding the major urban centres like Suva end Le. Here cultivation m steep<br />
slopes together with highly erosive rainfall causes severe erosion; the eroded products are<br />
carried down into the sea nearby and damage Lhe reefs which are again a nnjor subsistence<br />
food resource.<br />
Industrial wastes<br />
Very f ew studies have been made into the composition and ef fects of industrial<br />
(non-mining) wastewater discharge in Pacific Island states. Examples have included: fish<br />
processing westes in Pago Pago, Anerican Samoa (Soule and Oguri, l98l); edible oil plant<br />
waste in Suva, Fiji and sugar mill effluent in Labasa, Fiji (Lee, 1979, l98l). The Samoan<br />
study investigated the fate of the wastes frorn the two cenneries in Pago Pago and their<br />
public health implications in early 1982. One of the canneries is now being forced to improve<br />
waste disposal while the other had already voluntarily installed anti-pollution reasures.<br />
In Fiji the edible oil plant investigation found that the problem of srnell and high BOD<br />
values in the Gawa River was a consequence not just of the actual dunping of industrial<br />
effluent hrt also of the nature of the river at the discharge point (Lee, l98I). The river ie<br />
slow moving and meandering with a depression in the river bottom close to the discharge<br />
point. Tfe high density, organically-rich effluents sink into this depression, deoxygenating the<br />
river at that point and creating a problem for the local inhabitants particularly during the<br />
'rdry" season when the river flow is particularly sluggish.<br />
Conclusion<br />
There are other problems thet could be discussed, wch aa the impact of mining<br />
operations, hrt it is obvious from the topics covered that in the Pacific Islands the present<br />
position of limited pollution probbms could change rapidly.<br />
It is essential that we obtain rnore basic information about our various ecosystems and<br />
that they be regularly monitored so that any pollution problems that may occur can be<br />
detected early enough to prevent rnajor irreversible damage occurring. Only in this way can<br />
we be sure that our presently very hospitable environnent is protected.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Brodie, J. E., G. W. Lee and Regina A. Prasad. 1981. Well-water quality in South Pacific<br />
lslend stetes. 5. Pr. J. Net. Sci. 4:14-11.<br />
Brcdie, .}. E., K. Chand and R. I Morrison. 1984. Appraisal of the Li.,lEP nethods for<br />
determining pollutants in coestal wsters for use in the Pacific Islands. Institute of Netural<br />
Reeources, Environnpntal Studiee Report No. 17. University of the Sor.rth Pacific,Suva, Fiji.<br />
Caldwelt Connell Engineers/Cqnmonwealth Department of Transportation and Cmstruction.<br />
1982. Report m receiving weter study - Kinoya sewage treatment plant. Prepared for<br />
Pr.blic Works Department of Ministry of Works end Cqnmunications, Suva, Fiji. August<br />
1982.<br />
Lee, G. W. 1979. Report m the discharge by Fiji Foods factory into Walu Bay creek.<br />
Institute of Netural Resources, Environnental Studies Report No. 4. Universily of the Sqth<br />
Pacific, Suva, Fiji.
-74<br />
Lee, G. tt. 1981. Report m e preliminery invastigation into tha alleged pollution of the Glawa<br />
river. lrttitute of Natural Rasourcea, Environrpntal Studies Report 1{o. 8. Univeroity of thc<br />
South Pcific, Swa, Fiji.<br />
Mallerd, Am and D. Mehoney. 198r. tYatcr qudity and its effect m publie heelth - a ctudy<br />
of water gqetity in the Bumbu srd Tareka Self -Help Settlonrentr, Le, Nothern Province.<br />
D4artment of Chemical Technology, ilG Univereity of Technology, Le' Pqua New<br />
Guinea.<br />
Monbray, D, 1984. A review of perticide uge in the Suth Pacific. South Pcific Regional<br />
Erwironnpnt Programme, Sorth Pacific Cqnmission, Nourea, New Cdedonia.<br />
Sorle, D. F. and M Oguri. I98r. A report dr oceen dispooal of fish proceeeing wact€s sff<br />
Pago Pago, Anrricen Sanoa. United States Environrental Protection Agencyr Region D(<br />
Report.<br />
Thaman, R. R. 1984. Peoticides in the Pacific Islands: panaces or peril. Irrtitute of Natural<br />
Resourcea, Environnental Studies Report No. 19. Univereity of the Sqrth Pacificr Suvar Fiii.
-75<br />
FISIfRY POTENTIALS IN TI.IE TROPTCAL CENTRAL AND IYESTERN PACIFIC<br />
R.E. Kearney<br />
South Pacif ie Commigsion<br />
Nournea, New Celedonia<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
In defining the topic it is assunEd that descriptign of a fishery potential<br />
requires rnore lhan jtnt identification of a resource, while at the same tirne<br />
acknowledging that there cen be no potentials for development without<br />
appropriate resouree bases. The major fish regources of the tropical central and<br />
western Pacific are therefore described end development options for Pacific<br />
Island states are discussed in the light of the special problems relevani to this<br />
region.<br />
The known fishery resources of the tropical central and western Pacific are<br />
divided into four categoriesr f) freshwater end shallow coastal resources,<br />
ineluding aquaculture; 2) deepwater nearshore nesources; 1) deepwater offshore<br />
resources; end 4) offshore pelagic resources. Because of the dominaLion of present<br />
catches by the hiqhly migratory tuna and billfish species incorporeted in category<br />
4, discussion is concentrated on the potential' for further development and<br />
management of these resourcee.<br />
Recent ssessrEnLg of the skipjack lesources in mly part of the tropical<br />
Pacific suggest a standing stock in excees of three million tonnes. Yellowfin,<br />
albacore and bigeye tuna, and the runeroug billfigh species combined represent<br />
further Nghly migratory neaources of considerable magnitude.<br />
Recent developrnents in purse-seine technology have seen the landings<br />
geer type change significantly with a relat.ive decline in the importance<br />
pole-and-line and longline fishing. Diatenl water fiahing nations continue<br />
dsninate catches from within the rcgion with catches by the United States<br />
Anerica mw being seeond mly to those of Jryan.<br />
Pacific Island atates preeently tnve anly limited ability to participate in the<br />
extensive fiaheriea for tunag in the tropical Pcific. However, r€cent international<br />
ecceptance of increased jurisdiction has greatly enhanced the potential for<br />
increeeed involvement in thege fisheries.<br />
INTRODUCTIOi.I<br />
Bounded in the wast by the Philippines, Indonesia 8nd northern Auetralia, and in the<br />
eart by ryproximately l)0oW, the tropical central and western Pacific Oceen, encompesses an<br />
arsa of rmre then 41 million square kilometres, a epproximately eight per c€nt of the<br />
anrfsce of the earth. Lying within lhig area are the 2l developing Island countries and<br />
territoriee for which the South Pcific Cqnmiasion (SPC) workg. The bagic aimilaritiee<br />
smongat the runprous gmall developing leland statee within the 29 million square kilometres<br />
of the SPC area and the contrast between theEe and the larger bordering nations bege<br />
differentiation between the two when considering fishery potentials. Only the potentials of<br />
the Island ststes are conaidered here.<br />
by<br />
of<br />
to<br />
of
_76<br />
In defining the topic it is assurEd thet description of a fishery potential requires more<br />
than just identification of a fish resource, while at the sarne time acknowledging that there<br />
can be no potentials for developnrent without 4propriate resource bases. Only reaources<br />
presently exploited, or with an identified prospect for exploitation, have been considered as<br />
known potentials.<br />
Fish and fisherieg have played a eentrel role in the anlture, sustenance snd recreation<br />
of ell small island communities. Tle ability of the traditionally exploited fish resources of the<br />
central and western tropical Pacif ic to continue to provide clbsistence protein for island<br />
communitiea is enguably the greatest resource potential of the region, and yet it is me which<br />
is commonly overlooked ih the quest for more ?ectaculiar developrnent qtions. Not that<br />
alternative small scale fishery potentials do not edst, indeed there are many' particularly as<br />
improved fish catching techniques increase the potential yield from even traditionally<br />
exploited resources, and advanced processing technologies increase the utility of lhe harvest.<br />
Inprovements in small scale fisheries technology and fishing techniques have also enabled the<br />
exploitation of previously untouched resources, particubrly those in deeper waters or further<br />
from strore, t}ereby greatly expandrng the horizons of subsistence and artisanal fishermen.<br />
Developments in offshore waters have been pronounced in recent years. International<br />
acceptance of the principles of 200-mile zones of extended jurisdiction has highlighted<br />
potential for Island states to manage the fisheries Fesources in npre than 29 million square<br />
kilometres of the central and western Pacific. Much of this vast oceanic area had been<br />
exploited for its extensive tuna resources sinee the late 1950s by distant-water fishing<br />
nations, but enactment of the principles of extended jurisdiction by Island statee has seen<br />
dramatic change in their involvement in large scale fisheries and has undoubtedly opened tp<br />
major new avenues for their fisheries development.<br />
THE KNOWN RESOURCEJ AND THEIR POTENTIAL FOR DEVELOPMENT<br />
Although there is some overlap amongs! the various groups, the known fishery nesources<br />
of the Pacific Island states cen be classified as me of four calegories:<br />
l. Freshwater and shallow wster coastel resourees (including aquaculture and mariculture)<br />
Fruhwater relounoa!<br />
Only the largest of the Pacific lslands (Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, New<br />
Caledonia, Fiji and Vanuatu) hav. freshwater river or lake systems of zufficient size to<br />
support extensive freshwater fish resources. Papua New Guinea's tilapia ffit"pi" mosambica)<br />
resources are by far lhe largest. They offer considerable promise for increased yieldst<br />
primarily for local consunption, while the barramundi (Lates calcarifer)r which is dependent<br />
for part of its life cycle on the freshwater reaches of Papuan rivers, should continue [o<br />
support commercial fisheries (Keerney L976). Freshwater fishery resources in the other<br />
above-mentioned eountries and the smaller Pacific lsland states are of more limiled value<br />
being primarily the target of zubsisrence, small scale artisanal or recreational fishermen. One<br />
exception is the freshwater clam (Eatissa violacea) fishery in Fiji which produces<br />
approximately 700 tonnes per annur-t.<br />
Even though the known freshwater resources are limiLed and the size of the available<br />
freshwater habitat is unlikely to increase significantly, the potential for increasinq yields<br />
from these waterways by improvcd fish husbandry techniques, including introduction and<br />
enhancement of selected species, snould not be overlooked. The socio-economic return from<br />
increased yields in these fisheries, particularly in places sJch as the highlands of Papua New<br />
Guinea where animal protein is scarce, could well be relatively much greater than the<br />
benefits from similar increases in yields in coastal fisheries where production is relatively<br />
higher.<br />
Shallow water coastal resources<br />
The small developing states of the lropical central and western Pacific are, in general,<br />
isolated islands or archipelagos. In most cases there is little, if any, continent.al shelf and the
-77<br />
transition into depths exceeding 2,000 rnetres is normally precipitous. The smallness of the<br />
land nrasses greatly restricts the rutrient run-off availeble to enrich [he g.rrrounding ocean.<br />
Thereforer the watera anrrounding them ere typically clear and blue and, cornpared to<br />
continentel coaetal areas, of low productivity. As a result of this lack of extensive<br />
continental shelf or coestal enrichment, small lgland stetes have limited inshore fish resources<br />
and hence restricted new inshore fishery potentiale. On the other frand, the existing inehore<br />
fieh regources have provided the bulk of the animal protein consunEd by Pacific lglanders<br />
since the islandg were firet eettled. In npst csseg modern gear developnnnts should enable<br />
total cetchee to be increased, thereby realizing a potential. With minimal appropriete<br />
rBnsqement this invaluable potential should remain in perpetui[y so long ae tolal human<br />
populations remain within reaeonabb bounds. Management will, however, not be without its<br />
probhms, some of which have been previously discussed (Kearney l9g0).<br />
Aquaculturu potentialr<br />
There have been rurerous attempt.s to establish aquaculture on a commercial basis in<br />
the islands of the Pacific; these have in general been notable fon their lack of success.<br />
Closed 8y8tem aquaculture in developing countries has, in the main, only been sccessful in<br />
the langer countries where incomes are very low, population densiLies are high and natural<br />
protein resources are restricLed (i.e. in areas such as southeast Asia). In general, continuous<br />
access !o a relatively high priced luxury market is required for most commercial aquaculture<br />
projects to be viable and these conditions are rare in the counLries of the tropical central<br />
and western Pacific. Markets for specific ilems, such as live bait for Luna fishing, heve been<br />
created in countries in which pole-and-line fisheries for tuna have been established, and yet<br />
aquaculture has still proven difficult to develop to a commercial level; reasons for this are<br />
given by Kearney and Rivkin (198I). Economic implications of developing aquaculture in the<br />
Island states of the region were considered by the SPC's EighLh Regional Technical Meeting<br />
on F isheries. This meeting concluded that veny few previous aquaculture projects in the<br />
Cornmission's area were at all successful and recommended "that detaited economic surveys<br />
should be carried out before any commercial scale aquaculture projects are initiated" and<br />
pointed out ihat such "srrveys should include the economics of alternative use of both the<br />
land to be developed and the investment capital" (Anon L975). Equally important is the need<br />
to consider the implications to existing fisheries resources from the conversion of so called<br />
"swamp land" for aquaculture purposes. Too often coastal manllrove or inter-tidal zones,<br />
which are natural breeding, or nursery, areas for coastal fish species, are converted without<br />
due consideration of the impact on existing fisheries. Therefore, while it would be foolish lo<br />
disregard the potential of aquaculture for fisheries development in the central and weslern<br />
tropical Pacific' I feel that in the short-term this potential is restricted and proposed<br />
aquaculture pnojects should be given careful scrutiny.<br />
2. Deepwater nearshore resources<br />
At the periphery of the limited conLinental shelves of Pacific Islands, the reef slopes<br />
harbour resources of deepwater sriapper$ (predominantly Pristipomoides spp. and Etelis spp.)<br />
which have mly begun Lo be exploited since the exploratoiy -oik --rhe SPC in--TFF early<br />
1970s (Crossland and Grandperrin 1980) and which offer exciting new potentials for fisheries<br />
development. Catch rates, far in excess of those normally taken in shallow waLer handline<br />
fisheries, have been achieved throughout the central and western tropical Pacific wilh gear<br />
little more sophisticated Lhan that required in traditional fisheries. In rnany countries<br />
commercialr exploitation of these resounces has proven viable using inexpensive hand-reels<br />
and' to a lesser extent, small bottom longlines. While little is known of the magnitude of the<br />
aveilable resource' or of the biology and behaviour of the species cornmonly exploited, the<br />
s{rapper resources of the reef slope are thought to represent ate of the best potentials for<br />
f isheries development in this region and one of the very few resources suitable for<br />
exploitation by existing artisanal fishermen without enormous capiLal input. These deepwater<br />
resources have the additional advantages of being predorninantly excellent quality food fish<br />
and free from ciguatera poisoning. They therefore command high prices on most markets.<br />
Resources of deep water shrimps (Heterocarpus spp.) and precious corals represent<br />
other possible polentials' but the economic feasibility of exploiting these resources in most<br />
Pacific lsland states is still dispuled.
J. Deeowater offshore resources<br />
-78<br />
In the tropical central and western Pacific, areas zuitable for large-scale harvesting of<br />
bottom-fish resources by conventional means are Iimited. Hor,rlever, recently developed<br />
f isheries f or deep water species in other regions of the Pacif ic Ocean indicate that<br />
possibilities for development of fisheries for non-conventional species, or using<br />
non-conventional techniques, do need to be considered as fisheries potentials..In recent years<br />
fisheries for atfonsi; (aiEli splendens) and pelagic armourhead tpe^taggros .i.!q9:"li).F"-:<br />
been developed m $reilamoifrffifr-to the northwest of Hawaii. ln this aree catch raLes of<br />
pelagic ermourhead by experimental Russian trawlers have been as high as J0 tonnes in l0<br />
minutes and commonty of ifre order of 20-J0 tonnes per l0 to flJ minute tow (Sakiura l97D'<br />
Other rrurveyB and commencial fishing using bottom longlines and trawling gear- ha-ve<br />
confirrned the resources of both pelagilc armo-urhead and alfonsin the north central Pacific<br />
(JAMARC 197), Anon Lg76). The piospects for developing similar fisheries in the more<br />
equatorial regions warrant investigation, particulalry..a" the pelagic armourhead has already<br />
been proven io be a wide-ranging species (Sasaki L974)'<br />
In addition, the recent spectacular catches of orange roughy tHoptostetnu" et-lenticus)<br />
by large trawlers in waters off New Zealand increases interest in the prospects of finding<br />
tiawlaUf deepwater resourees in more tropical areas of the Pacif ic, even though it is<br />
doubtful if commercial concentretions of this particuler species (orange roughy) extend into<br />
this area. Furthermore, preliminary reports of favourable catches of deepwater speciest<br />
especially the red sriapper, Etelis carbunculus, in seamount areas in the waters ad.iacent to<br />
Solomon Islands, and the oc-currence-T nunrerous presently unfished seamounts and oceen<br />
plateaus in the central and western tropical Pacific, further suggest potentials for future<br />
iisheries. It does, however, appear likely that deepwater fish resources are less in tropical<br />
regions than in agsociation with the larger oceanic plateaus in higher latitudes.<br />
Exploitation of deepwater resources, even if proven- economically viable_ in the tropical<br />
pacific, would probably require very large vessels, possibly larger than 1,000 tonnes, and<br />
hence rnassive capital inftow plus input from many qualified and experienced pensonnel. Direct<br />
involvement of nationals of the region would therefore be anticipated to be minimal, et least<br />
in the short term. This does not mean that the potentials will, or should, therefore be<br />
ignored, or that Pacific Island states could not benefit from their exploitation. As later<br />
d'iscussed, the increased rights of coastal states associated with chenginq attitudes to the<br />
Law of ihe See has openeO up considerabte potential for coastal states to become more<br />
involved in the exploitation of offshore resources.<br />
4. Offshore peleqic resources<br />
Fish catches from the tropical central and western Pacific in recent years have been<br />
completely dominated by the highly migratory tunas and--billfish. In 1975, the lesL year for<br />
which complete statistics a"e a"ail"bll; 25rr8t} tonnes (88 per ce,nt) of 1 total recorded fish<br />
catch from the region of B9rL96 tonnes wag tuna or billfish (Table I). The comparative<br />
magnitude of thesl tuna catches, and their significance to any discussion of fishery<br />
potintials, warrsnts separate consideration of, firstly, the statua of ihe resources andt<br />
secondly, the potentials for developing fieheries on ihese tEsourees.<br />
Thc rerourcer<br />
From the 1950a through to the end of the 1960s, tuna fishinq in the region wes<br />
dominated by longlining. ln lfre earty I970e pole-and-line catches exceeded those of other<br />
gear types. 'Whil; the -Jpanese distant-water pole-and-line fleet accounted for almost 8ll of<br />
if," ""t"f, in this fishery in 1970, locally based joint ventutes increaged quickly and by 1978<br />
reached a peak in annual production of more than 701000 tonnes. Total tuna catchea by<br />
locally based pole-and-line ve$els have declined eonsiderably since this timer largely as a<br />
result of the ceseation of the fishery in Papue New Guinea.<br />
ln recent years, catchee by the Jpan based pole-and-line fleet and the longline fleets<br />
of mogt nationalities have declined as a result of gerioug economic difficultiee in the tuna<br />
industry. However, at the same time a tremendous increase in punoe-seining by predominantly<br />
Jpanese and Unitid States veesels (Kearney l98la) has rnainteined the retative megnitude of<br />
tune landinge from the region. Total eatches of tuna by purae-eeinere in the area considered<br />
here were irobebly of thi order of l80rm0 tonnes in 1982, more than four timee the catch
lrJ<br />
Ez<br />
=g<br />
P3<br />
qB<br />
f,tl<br />
s9<br />
LU t.<br />
-80<br />
by the same fleet in 1978. Further major expansion in the fleet is anticipated, principally by<br />
the United States, Japan and Korea. The last lhirty years have therefore seen the rapid<br />
expansion and, at least partial, collapse of three major tuna fisheries in this region (i.e. the<br />
longline, dislant-water pole-and-line, and locally based pole-and-line fisheries) and the rapid<br />
increase in a fourth, the purse-seine fishery, which appears likely to produce total yields thal<br />
exceed even the highest of earlier years. Tfre decline in earlier fisheries does not appear to<br />
have been related to any short-comings in the tuna resources exploited by the various gear<br />
types. Failures appear to have been due largely to greater efficiency in production of oLher<br />
tuna fisheries competing for the same limited inLernational tuna market. In fact, the available<br />
evidence srggests that npst of the major tuna resources of the cenlral and western tropical<br />
Pacific have remained underexploited.<br />
Tune fisheries in the tropical central and western Pacific targe! primarily on skipjack<br />
(X"t"u*onu" pelamis), yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares), albacore fffr* alalunqa) and<br />
bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus). Skipjack accounted for well over 50 per cent of the total tuna<br />
harvest in recent years with annual landings of this me species exceeding 2501000 tonnes on<br />
several occasions (Kearney I98Ib). Results from tag release and recovery experiments<br />
conducted by the SPC's recently completed Skip jack Survey and Assessment Programme<br />
indicate that the standing stock of skipjack in the area of the SPC is of the order of<br />
Jrm0rmO tonnes. Tlese same results have been used to estimate the turnover rate of this<br />
resource at 15 per cent per month which suggests that the total annual throughput of<br />
skipiack through the region approaches 6,000,000 tonnes (Skipjack Programme 1982). The<br />
catch of this species in recent years of about 2501000 tonnes annually would therefore be<br />
much less than the nesource could reasonably be expected to srstain. Skipjack Programme<br />
scientists, however, stressed that yields could mly approach the maximum possible if fishing<br />
effort is distributed across this vast region in proport,ion to the distribution of the resource.<br />
They also demonstrated from tagging results that skipjack in this area are capable of<br />
extensive migrations and that fisheries scattered throughout the region will interact'<br />
particularly as fisheries of different nationaliLies or different gear types expand and overlap<br />
in time and space (Skipjack Programme I98I; 1982)<br />
Yellowfin tuna traditionally have provided the bulk of catches of longline vessels<br />
qerating in equatorial areas. Two recent estimates of the magnitude of the yellowf in<br />
resource exploited by the longline fishery have suggested maximum sustainable yields of<br />
601000 to 70,fi)0 tonnes annually (Far Seas Fisheries Research Laboratory 1978), and 80,000<br />
to 90rfi)0 tonnes annually (Anon f980). In both cases levels of effort were considered to be<br />
at, or slightly above, the qtimal level and an increase in effort was unlikely to result in<br />
incressed catches. Tfe recent expansion in the purse-seine fishery in the western Pacific has<br />
resulted in significant catches of yellowfin (approximately 50 per cent of catches by United<br />
States purse-seiners in l98I were yellowfin tuna), not previously significantly exploited by<br />
glrface fieheries. In a previous report (Kearney 1981b), I have outlined the problems of trying<br />
to evaluate the potential for increasing the total yield of yellowfin from ihis region by<br />
increasing the surfece catch and concluded that "it is possible that the yellowfin resources of<br />
the western Paeific are at present not maximally exploited, but it is by no means certain<br />
that substantial development in the purse-seine fishery will increase the yellowf in yield<br />
without detriment to the longline fishery". Urpublished information from the Skipjack<br />
Pmgramme presented to the SPC's Fourteenth Regional Technical Meeting on Fisheries<br />
srggested that, based m limited tag release and recapture information, the standing stock of<br />
yellowfin tuna in the SPC's area was perhaps of the order of 5001000 tonnes, with a turnover<br />
rate of ryproximately 17 per cent per month. A standing stock of this magnitude should<br />
indeed sripport tolal catches greater than previous estimates of the maximum sustainable.<br />
Albeore has been commercially exploited in the tropical cenlral and western Pacific<br />
only by longlining. Tte species des not normally occur in this area as surface schools. The<br />
mly availabb index of the stalus of the stocks of albacore in the tropical south Pacific is<br />
that provided by eatch and effort figures from vessels based in Anerican Samoa. Catches by<br />
this fleet increased steadily from 1954 to 1967 before fluctuating widely, achieving an all<br />
time high in L97t. Relative abundance, s indexed by the catch rate Per vessel' fell<br />
cmsistently from L954 to L975 and total landings were maintained only by zubstantial<br />
increages in total effort. Although precise figures are not available, there was a recovery in<br />
relative abundance in L976, 1977 and L978 (Kearney 1981b). The most recent general<br />
rypraisal of the status of the slocks of albacore exploited by vessels based in the equatorial<br />
central and western Pacific is that resulting from a workshop on tuna resources in Shimizu'<br />
J4an in June 1979 - "The conclusion of workshop participants was thal current fishing levels<br />
do not +pear to be adversely affecting the (5outh Pacific albacore) stock. Further increases
-8I<br />
in longline fishing effort would result in only a slight increase in yield, if any. The impact of<br />
the development of major surface fisheries on the stock is unclear and consequently the<br />
development of such fisheries should be closely monitored" (Anon 1980).<br />
StatisLics m catches of bigeye tuna are even more limited than those of other tuna<br />
species exploited in the western Pacif ic. T|re present sLatus of the stocks cannot be<br />
accuralely assessed, however, the species is generally considered underexploited.<br />
Otier species of tuna and numerous species of billfish are taken commercially in the<br />
cenLral and western tropical Pacific, but mostly as incidental catches in fisheries for oLher<br />
tuna species. In their own right they represent very limited known poLential for fuLure<br />
developrnent of commercial f isheries. However some species, particularly blue marlin (Y.t "it"<br />
niqracans) and black manlin (Makaira indica) do constitute nesources which could well support<br />
signif icant sport fisheries.<br />
The potentials for tuna firheries developrnent, pertieularly by the coastal states of the<br />
regian<br />
In the preceding section it has been slggested that the resources of the major luna<br />
species exploited in the central and western Pacific are, to varying extents, underexploited.<br />
Eiearing in mind the significance of tuna to to[al negional fisheries, the major potential for<br />
increasing the total yield of fish from the region therefore lies in increasing the tuna catch'<br />
particularly that of skipjack. Increase in total catches in the near future appear most likely<br />
to result from expansion of the purse-seine fishery, which, with proper management' might<br />
well achieve total catches at least several times greater than at present. Furthermorer as<br />
present daily catch rates by purse-seiners in the western Pacific of approximately 20 [onnes<br />
per day (Tuna and Billfish Assessment Progtamme, unpublished data) are approximately twice<br />
those in the more matune eastern Pacific fishery, further rapid increases in total fishing<br />
effort in this region can be anticipated. In the longer term it would also appear more<br />
economical to process much of this fish in the western Pacific rather than ship it frozen to<br />
the world's major markets. The futune for the tuna fishery in the tropical eentral and<br />
western Pacific therefore appe.ars bright, provided reasonable management procedures can be<br />
agreed upon.<br />
Even though the potential f or increasing total tuna landings might be great' the<br />
potential for increased participation by the lsland states of lhe region is not without<br />
probbms. There is no doubt thet the increased eontrol by coastal states over the resources<br />
of their 200-mile zones, embodied in the new principles of the Law of the Sea' geatly<br />
increaseg the potentiel for Islsnd states to become involved, and even to control policy in<br />
those fisheries. A whole range of possibilities for increased involvernent exists' from the<br />
development of wholly owned, operated and controlled local fisheries' through the spectrum<br />
of joint venture alternatives, to the generation of revenue from totally foreign fleets. Of<br />
cour3e, no me of theee need be pursued exclusively and some balance of local and foreign<br />
enterpriee could well be the rnost rewarding.<br />
If coestal stateg do pursue the qtion of developing their ov/n tuna fisheries' the major<br />
probbms they eneornter will include (rnodified from Kearney I98lc):<br />
(D Flrretuatlan in ttp abundarrcc of the relounca. Even though the aree of cean under<br />
the controt of individual eoastal stetes has increased dramatically e a result of<br />
200-mile zsres of extended jurisdiction, theae areae represent mly a Part of the<br />
habitat of the highly migratory peciee. The abundance of these -rcgources in my me<br />
200-mile zone fluctuates markedly with season, particularly in the higher latitudes. It<br />
mayr theref ore, be impossibb for most small Island states to meintain e fleet<br />
year-round, panticularly ss most of them have no other zuitable fisheries in which to<br />
employ veesels and crew during off-peak seasone. Co-qeration with neighbouring<br />
stetee, preferably trr a broad regional bsis, would help to alleviate this probbm.<br />
Highly migratory resources often show rnarked yeer to year variations in abundance in<br />
eddition to easonal variability. Conpanies or countries with limited financial resourees<br />
find it very difficult to withetand successive poor s€ssons, or even a single very bad<br />
one.
-82<br />
(ii) The requirernent for larga cxpenoive verrala An avarage (100 tonne) pole-nd-line a<br />
longline veeael, used in the disten!-water firherieg of the central and wartern prcific,<br />
now has a reptacenrent value of ryproximately USf2rfl)0rfl)0; en everage Unitcd Statce<br />
tuna purse-seiner of I,100 tons costs approximalely USfllr00rfi)0 to build and elmoat<br />
$l'm0'm0 per ennum to run. Few developing ielani nationi can afford anch axpencee.<br />
Small states generally do not heve suiteble slipping srd docking facilitiee for larger<br />
fishing vessels, nor do they carry extensive stocks of sparJ parta and enciltiry<br />
equirncnt.<br />
(iii) Cct and availebility of fuel In 1976, it cost ryproximately Ail40,0O0 per ennum for<br />
fuel for a 150 tonne pole-and-line vessel, Al100rm0 fur a 276 tonne'longliner and<br />
A$240'm0 for a I,100 ton purse-seiner. The fuei costs for any me of these vessela<br />
exceed.the entire national fuel bill for 1977 for each of two of the Island etateg of the<br />
South Pacific (Tuvalu and Niue) and represent a substantial fraction of the fuel<br />
consunption of several others. Fuel pricee have increased dramatieally eince 1976. Fuel<br />
is not only becoming more expensive, but is also difficult to obtain in exectly the<br />
quantities required to zupply a srnall number of veesels, which are rcfuelled m an<br />
inegular basis, making it difficult for any non-oil producing country to plan the<br />
development of fisheries which will necessitate cJbstantiel increases in fuel<br />
consunption.<br />
Fuel is also far more expensive in rernote area8. This makes it dieadvantageous for<br />
foreign flag vessels to b,r.rnker there and hence difficult for smell statea to encourege<br />
these vessels to call and unload their catch. It also ffEans that Island states have an<br />
extra economic disadvantage lo contend with when catching fish to sell on en<br />
internationally competitive market.<br />
(iv) Problemo of smellners and econqnieg of scal,a. There are many probbma of srnallness<br />
and economies of scale relevant to fisheries developnnnt in the Pacific Islandg. These<br />
have been covered in previous publicationer e.g, Kearney 1900.<br />
The inability of at least some small Island states to cope with these and other problems<br />
might zuggest pessimism for their future in tuna fisheriea. This is gertainly not intended. The<br />
rnagnitude of the problems does suggest that some Island states will find it imposaibb to<br />
develop wholly owned, large scale tuna enterprises, h.rt it des not et all detrect from the<br />
countriesl potential to develop small scale tuna fisheries, or joint venture qerations in whieh<br />
they have limited equity, or to generate considerable revenue from the activitiea of foreign<br />
vessels in their fishing zones.<br />
As the tuna resources are generally underexploited, there is obviouely potential for<br />
increasing eatches by srbsistence or artisanal fishermen. This potential is being further<br />
increased throughout the region by adapting nndern technology, zuch es fish aggregation<br />
devices, to small scale fisheries. The success of joint venture or co-qeralive tun-a fishing<br />
ventutes' such as those in Solomon Islands and Fiji, endorses the potential such arrangementi<br />
have for further developnrents. Finally, the magnitude of the velue of catcireg by<br />
distant-water fishing fleets in the 200-mile zones of coastal stetes, in some cases having<br />
fresh fish values greater than the gross national product of the country from whose watere<br />
they are taken (Kearney l98la), coupled with the increased rights of coastal states in the<br />
new regime of the Law of the Sea, cleanly demonstrabe t}te potential for Island states to<br />
generate significant tevenue from foreign fishing interests, particularly if realistic access<br />
fees can be negotiated.
-81<br />
REFERENCES<br />
ANONyMOUS. 1975. Report of the Eighth Regional Technical Meeting m Fisheries. South<br />
Pacific Commission, Nournea, New Caledonia.<br />
ANONYMOUS. f975. The present status of the atfonain, -4. splendene' fishery in the<br />
Midway fishing grounde. Lxcerpt from Suisen Sekai, 25(88-29-52, August 1976. Translated<br />
from tf,u Jpanese by Tamio Oisu, Southwest Fisheries Center Hmolulu Laboratory'<br />
Nationel Marine Fisheiies Service. Translation No'18. NOAAr Hmolulu, Hawaii' January<br />
1977.<br />
ANONYMOUS. 1980. Stete of selected stocks of tuna and billfish in the Pacific and Indien<br />
(Jceans. Surnrnary Report of Workshop, Shimizu, J4an, 1l-22 June 1979. FAO Fisheries<br />
Technicel Paper (200). 89 p.<br />
CROSSLAND, J. and R. GRANDPERRIN. 1979. Fisheries directory of the South Pacific<br />
Cornmission region. South Pacific Commission, Nounna, New Caledonia.<br />
CROSSLAND, J. and R. GRANDPERRIN. 1980. The development of deep bottom fishing in the<br />
tropical Pacific. Occasional Paper No, 17, South Pecific Commission, Nourca, New<br />
Caledonia. L2 p.<br />
FAR SEAS FISHERIES RESEARCH LABORATORY. 1978. The recent status of yellowfin and<br />
bigeye tuna stocks in the Pacif ic Ocean. (Background docunrent). IOFC/IOPC Tuna<br />
Management Committee Meeting' Manila.<br />
JAMARC. I97f. Surveys of trawling grounds in the north central Pacific Ocean, I972 season.<br />
JAMARC Report No.7, March 197t, Translated from the Japanese by Tamio Otsu,<br />
Southwest Fisheries Center Hmolulu Laboralory, National Merine Fisheries Service.<br />
Translation No. 19. NOAA, Hmolulu, Hawaii, February 1977.<br />
KEARNEY, R.E. 1976. The expansion of fisheries in Papua New Guinea: prospeets and<br />
problems. Paper presented at Waigani Seminar, 1-7 May L976, Ln, Pryua New Guinea.<br />
KEARNEY, R.E. L977. The law of the sea and regional fisheries policy: the impact -of<br />
extended jurisdiction on fisheries management in the centrel and western tropical Pacific<br />
Ocean and the need fon a regional fisheries agency. Occaeional Paper No.Z, South Pacific<br />
Commission, Noumea, New Celedmia.<br />
KEARNEY, R.E. 1979a. An overview of recent changes in the fisheries for highly migratory<br />
species in the western Pacific Ocean and projections for future developments. SFEC(79) 17.<br />
South Pacif ic Bureau fon Economic Co-qerationr Suvar Fiji.<br />
KEARNEY, R.E. I979b. Smre problems of developing and managing fisheriea in emall island<br />
states. Occasional Pper No. 16, South Pacific Commission, Nournea, New Caledonia.<br />
KEARNEY, R.E. 1980. Sqne probbms of developing and managing fisherieg in grnall Island<br />
states. In R. T. Shand [ed.], Tlre island stetes of the Pacific and Indien Oceens: anatomy of<br />
developfiEnt. Developrnent Studies Centre Mmograph No. 2), Australian National University'<br />
Canbema, Australia.<br />
KEARNEY, R.E, 1981a. The development of tune fisheriee and the future for their<br />
management in the tropical, central and weetern Pecific. Pper preeented at the l5th<br />
Annual Meeting of the Law of the Sea Inrtitute, 5-8 October, Hmolulu, Hawaii (to be<br />
published in Proceedinge of this meeting).<br />
KEARNEY, R.E. l98lb. A brief review of the state of lh8 8tock8 of highly migratory ryeciee<br />
of fish in the eentrel and weatern Pacific. Peper preeanted at Forum Fisheries Agency<br />
Regional Research and Development Programme Meeting, 4-8 May l98lr Hmiara, Solomon<br />
Ielands.<br />
KEARNEY, R.E. l98lc. Ssne economic spects of the development and managernent of<br />
fieherieg in the centrel and western Pecific. South Pacific Cornmiegion Fisheries Newsletter<br />
2226-L5.
-84<br />
KEARNEY' R.E. and M.L. RIVKIN. 1981. An examination of the feasibility of beitfish culture<br />
for akipjack pole-and-line fishing in the South Pacific Cornmiseion area. Skipjack Survey end<br />
Assessrnent Programme Technical Report No.4, South Pacific Commission, Noufrca, New<br />
Caledonia.<br />
SAKIURA' Ft 1972. TtE pelagic arrnourhead, Pcntaceror richardeoni, fishing grounde off the<br />
HewaiianIstands,asviewedbytheSoviets.@:28.]l-(Jitne|5,I972).<br />
[Ttp article wes a translation of an uncited Russian article.l Translated from the Japanese<br />
by Tamio Otsur Surthwest Fisheriee Center Hmolulu Laboratory, Netional Merine Fisheriee<br />
Service. Translation No.17, f.lOAA, Hcrolulu, Hawaii, January 1977.<br />
SASAKI' T. 1974. Tfc pelagic armourhead, Pentaceros richardsoni Smith, in the north Pacific.<br />
Bulletin of Japanese Society of Fighes anTEceanograpEy ZA:f:6-165. Trenslated from the<br />
J4anese by Tamio Otsu, Southwest Fisheries Center Hanolulu Laboratory, Netional Marine<br />
Fisheries service. Translation No.16, NOAA, Hmolulu, Hawaii, January 1977.<br />
SKIPJACK PROGRAMME. I98f. Skipiack migration, mortality and fishery interactions. llth<br />
Regional Technical Meeting on Fisheries 198I, Working Paper No. 9. South Paeific<br />
Crnmission, Nourfea, New Caledonia.<br />
SKIPJACK PROGRAMME. 1982. An assessnpnt of baitfieh resources in the South Pacific<br />
Commission area. l4th Regional Technical Meeting m Fisheries 1982, Working Paper No.<br />
11. South Pacific Csnmission, Noumea, New Caledonia.
-85<br />
Tl-E cHALLEl.lcE ff coNsERvIlG Ato MANAGIT'|G cm,AL REEF EcosysTEMs<br />
Arthur Lyon Dehl<br />
B.P. 1146, Noumea, New Caledonia<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Coral reef ecosystems are noted for their diversity and complexity. While<br />
they demonstrate a centain resilience under natural conditions, they have proven<br />
highly vulnerable and easily degraded under msnrs influence.<br />
The integrated nature of many reef ecosystems and their inter"action with<br />
terrestrial and oceanic influences limits the possibilities for resource managemenr.<br />
The inadequate scientific understanding of the ecosystem also hampers the<br />
development of management strategies. The traditionat resource management<br />
techniques of Pacific lsland cultures may prove to be the best guide to methods<br />
of sustainable resource use on coral reefs.<br />
A start has been made in conserving coral reefs in several South pacific<br />
countries, using a variety of approaches, Unfortunately, local means have not<br />
permitted any study of the effectiveness of these efforts, and the proteclion of<br />
the region's reef resources is still far from adequbte. Regional initiatives such as<br />
the South Pacific Regional Environnent Programme are h.lping to advance coral<br />
reef resource management and conservation in the reoion.<br />
The coral reef ecosystem occurs commonly along the coastlines and around the islands<br />
of tropical developing countries, where it is an impoitant resource for subsistence, coastal<br />
protection, and economic development. The increasinq use and misuse of resources throughout<br />
the world presenls man with the challenge of conserving and managing conal reefs so tha!<br />
they can continue to provide benefits on inlo the future.<br />
The conservation and management of conal reef ecosystems is a particularly difficult<br />
task for a number of r€asons: the inherent characteristics of the ecosystem itself ; its<br />
vulnerability under rnan's inf luence; and the inadequacy of the present scientif ic<br />
understanding of the ecosystem and how it functions.<br />
The coral neef ecosystem is well known for its complexity and diversity, wilh perhaps<br />
more species within a small area than any othen ecosysLem known. lts long evolutionary<br />
hislory has allowed it to develop high levels of interaction between its components in both<br />
space and time, and on small and large scales. The result is an ecosystem noted for its high<br />
productivity even in a resource-poor environnpnt, and for its efficiency in the utilization aid<br />
recycling of energy and nutrients. There is increasing evidence of the dynarnism and<br />
resilience of coral reefs under natural conditions, with J successional development of reef<br />
structures' a relative stability of reef ecosystems at large scales, and a large capacity for<br />
regeneration after damaging extremes at smaller scales.<br />
. It was long assumed that these characteristics in an ecosystem would make it more<br />
resistant and thus easier [o manage, but the tropical environment of coral reefs has been one<br />
of the most stable over geological time, and when man pushes environmental factors beyond<br />
accusLomed limitsr or introduces new ones, the conal reef ecosysLem has proven particuianly<br />
vu lnerable.<br />
The direct destruction of coral reefs by dredging, construction or other activities can<br />
have effeets far beyond the immediate area concerned. For instance, Llre migration noutes of
-85<br />
fish and olher organisms can be upset; damage to reproduction areas can reduce populations<br />
far beyond; food chains and the transfer of -detritus can be interfered with; nutrienl cycles<br />
can be interrupted; and Lhe balance of consLruction and erosion of the reef framework can be<br />
altered.<br />
The breaking or removal of corals is a serious problem in some arees' The effect is<br />
equivalent to cuttinithe trees in a foresl; only a depauperate community is lefl behind'<br />
Human activities frequently alter. the water quality in coastal waters and affect<br />
reef -land interactions. As land is developed, terrestria.l runoff chanqes, often with drastic<br />
effects on the turbidity, saliniLy, temperature, and sedimentation in lhe waters zurrounding<br />
coral reefs.<br />
Man also alters the chemical environment of coral reefs' Pesticide spills and-the<br />
drainage of pesticide residues can have catastrophic or chronic effects' Nutrient inputs from<br />
fertilizers and urban wastes can upset delieaLe population balances, 8s can inputs of organic<br />
materials.<br />
Fishermen find it hard to resist, iljust one more" or to grab at any opportunity that<br />
presents itself, and improved transport hes reduced the numbei of areas protected by their<br />
inaccessibility, teaOinf, to increasing problems of overfishing on all conal reef s near<br />
signif icant population centers. Human ingenuity combined wilh modern technology have<br />
greatly increased the number of ways of killing fiin, many of which (explosives and poisons in<br />
iarticitar) are also highly destructive of other coral reef resourees'<br />
Furthermore, it is difficult or impossible to isolate a coral reef, as one might a park or<br />
reserve on land. Traditional park anct reserve concepts and conservation approaches do not<br />
work as well in the sea, where the reef ecosystem is still ubject to, and perhaps dependent<br />
on, oceanic and terrestrial influences.<br />
The management of eoral reef .resources- is further handicapped by the present<br />
inadequate scientific understanding of zuch complex systems. Jotrannes (198r) doubted that<br />
the scientific rnanagement of coral reef fisheries would be possible in this century. Predictinq<br />
reef behavior under human stresses, or planning the restoration of a damaged area, are still<br />
well beyond current knowledge.<br />
Unfortunately, wiLh the present rapid rate of reef degradation, . actions for the<br />
conservation and rln"qlr"nt of coral r"ei "co"ystems cannot weit for adequate scientific<br />
knowledge to eccumulatl. I pragmatic approach based on educated guesses and common sense<br />
extrapolations from present understanding will have to serve until trK're inf ormation is<br />
available. trt"nag"r"tii gria"tin". will havJ to be worked out on a trial and error bmis'<br />
Efforts to conserve significant coral reef areas in the South Pacific have already<br />
begun. Early marine reeervei in the region include the Ngerukewid (Seventy) Islands reserve<br />
in palau (195g), the Yves Merlet Mariie Reserve in New Caledonia (1970)' Scilly Lagoon<br />
(I97r) and Taiaro Atoll (1972) in French Polynesia, and Rme Atoll in American samoa J97t)'<br />
More recently, five coral reef reserves have been created in Tonga !1979)'. as well as the<br />
Palolo Deep Marine Reserve in Western Samoa (1979)t Suwagow Atoll Merine Park in the<br />
cook lslands (1978), "nd Hor.""hoe Reef Park in Papua New Guinea (I98I)' New celedonia<br />
has also recently created a rotating marine reserve on three major sectione .of barrier reef'<br />
Unfortunately, tne enforcement of these reserves is often difficult, and the ecientific<br />
resourees in the ."gion ere too limited to study the effectiveness of these approaches to<br />
merine conservation.<br />
Sone regionel efforts at corel reef management have etarted under the Regional Seas<br />
Action plans. Tfre South pacific Regional Environment Programme -(SPREP) has considered<br />
approaches to mapping coestel ,"rour6", to permit npre effective siting of developments and<br />
reserve ereas. tt is itso planning guidelines for the managemenL of. coral reefa, following .,o<br />
on its earlier coral Reef Mmitoring Handbmk (Dehl' t98I). ln addition, it is arpporting a<br />
project to strengthen the loeal managernent of coral reefs end other resourcee in rural areas<br />
by the users themselves.<br />
ln the ebsence of a strong scientific foundation for reef tnanegemen[, it is possible to<br />
look for guidelines in the traditional resource msnagement techniques developed over<br />
generations- Uy various Pecific Island crrltures. Prcper rnanagement of limited resources wag
-87<br />
e$enlial to these peoples' survival, and they developed many approaches of proven<br />
effecliveness. The following general guidelines are derived from these practices.<br />
Access to a particular reef fishery or area should be limited to the number of fishermen able<br />
to fish the area efficiently on a zustainable basis.<br />
The widest range of reef fishery resources (fish, shellfish, invertebrates, algae, etc.) strould<br />
be used, rather than just the most desirable species. A broad but light pressure on<br />
resources will better preserve the balance of species.<br />
There should be some perrnanent reserves, and other areas periodically closed to permit the<br />
regeneration of resources.<br />
Resource use should be adjusted to protect the breeding cycle or capacity of each species,<br />
including limits on lhe consumption of rare resources. Such information is often part of<br />
local traditional knowledge.<br />
Management of a coral reef can often be undertaken best by local people who have the most<br />
complete local knowledge of the status of the resource and its evolution over time.<br />
Cornmercial fisheries development should be limited to areas where sJbsistence use leaves<br />
sustainable resources untapped. Too often in the past, commercial reef fisheries<br />
development has been at the expense of subsistence users, who in many cases a.lready<br />
make full sustainable use of available resources.<br />
The above approach to coral reef fisheries management, together with the betten<br />
control of terrestrial influences (particularly those affecting critical habitats) and more<br />
integrated planninq in the coastal zone, will help to neet the challenge of conserving and<br />
managing coral reef ecosystems in lhe years immediately ahead.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Dahl' Arthur Lyon. 1981. Coral Reef Monitoring Handbook. South Pacific Commission,<br />
Noumea, New Caledonia. ?I p.<br />
Johannes, Robert. 198I. Making better use of existing knowledge in managing pacific Island<br />
reef and lagoon ecosystems. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme-, Topic Review<br />
No. 4. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. IB p.
-89<br />
CM,AL REEFS IN TI-E PACIFIC - TI-EIR POTENTIALS A}O T}IEIR LIMITATIO{S<br />
E. D. Gomez and l-t T. Yap<br />
Marine Sciences Center, University of the Philippines<br />
Dilimen, Guezon City, Philippines<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
The hiqh productivily of coral reefs is generally recognized. Available data<br />
indicate appreciable yields in terms of fish biomass, although significant quantities<br />
of seaweeds, nnlluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms are also harvested. Coral<br />
reef s are a principal ecological zone in virtually all islands of the tropical<br />
Pacific. In characterizing the potenlials and limitations of lhese resources, the<br />
uniqueness and physical variability of island systems must be recognized. Of<br />
particular relevance is the fragility of small island systems due to isolation, size,<br />
and the semi-enclosed character of the reefs. Human popula[ions are a primary<br />
factor to consider. Up till the early twentieth century, subsistence eeonomies<br />
were the rule in rrpst Pacific island communities which depended on reef<br />
resources to varying degrees. In the island economy as a whole, however, the<br />
latter were mly secondary relative to produce from the land. Even then, rnarine<br />
resources displayed their vulnerability and their inadequacy to eustain exploitaLion<br />
on a commerciel scale. At present, new problems arise mainly from the<br />
transformation of subsislence economies to cash economies. These problems are<br />
associated with increasing human population, strif ts in the major spheres of<br />
economic activity, the loss of traditional management and eonservation systems,<br />
the developrnent of new reef ures s,rch es tourism, improvements in harvesting<br />
teehnology, and degradation of coral reefs d-re to human activities. The carrying<br />
capacity of reef resources thus becomes a pivotal issue. A recent promising<br />
developrnent related to the question of Pacific rcef poLentials lies in the field of<br />
mariculture.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Pacific island populetions have traditionally depended m corel reefs to a great extent<br />
for their survival and livelihood. Modern developncnts have signif icantly altered the<br />
relationahips between man and reef in an increasing rumber of localities, srd even extrerely<br />
remote areas haye not been pared. The fundamental dependence of human populations in the<br />
Pacific m their reef reaources, however, remains.<br />
Tlc prerent paper attenpts to explore a rumber of factorg relevant to these issues.<br />
Discussion focucaes sr the countrieg and territorieg of the South Pacific, specifieally, those<br />
within the jurisdiction of the South Pmific Commiseion.<br />
NATI'RAL PRODUCTIVITY OF CORAL REEFS<br />
Ccal rsefs ere rccognized to be gnong tha moct productive natural cccyrtemr in the<br />
world (Grigg, ]979; Mamh, 1976; Sdvat, l98l). Rater of prirnery prodrctivity range from J00<br />
to 5{100 gClm-lyt, rrhich erc af high l in the rrst fartile watoB (Lewir, 1977\ Valuee from<br />
dlffcrant E6y.tcm! ec drown In Tabb l. Productivity in the vsriou! reaf hebitata is mt<br />
unlform, bwevcr. Sonc rosf ccolytttmr axhiblt ralativaly low productivitiee, qrc*r r csrtain
-90<br />
at,olls in bhe tropieal South Pacific (Ricard end Delesalle, l98I). Inportant primary producers<br />
in coral reefs are the macroalgae, the symbiotic zooxanthellae, and the fine filamentous<br />
forms inhabiting the substrste (Marsh, f976I<br />
Table L : Primary production values for pelagic, benthic and terrestrial ecosystems<br />
Habitat<br />
Pelagic<br />
Marine<br />
North Sea<br />
English Channel<br />
Lmg Island Sound<br />
Sargasso Sea (Oligotrophic)<br />
Peru Current (Eutrophic)<br />
F reshwater<br />
Oligotrophic lekes<br />
Eutrophic lakes<br />
Sewage treatment ponds, California<br />
Benthic, littoral, and Ctallow water<br />
Marine<br />
Algal bedsr Nova Scotia<br />
Algel community, CanarY Isles<br />
Kelp community Nova Seotia<br />
Tmpieal marine grass beds<br />
Coral reef<br />
Estuarine and brackish water<br />
Spartina marsh, Georgia<br />
Terrestrial<br />
Field grassr Minnesota<br />
Sugar cane, Java<br />
Woodland deciduous<br />
Birch<br />
Alder<br />
Woodland coniferous<br />
Source: Crisp, 1975 in Lewisr 1977.<br />
Biomass Production<br />
,,<br />
(qC/m') (gc/m'lyear)<br />
t.5<br />
2<br />
I 0.87<br />
I4<br />
24<br />
r500<br />
630<br />
265<br />
?260<br />
L96<br />
280<br />
84;<br />
4t5<br />
740<br />
640<br />
1700<br />
1760<br />
1400<br />
1840<br />
r00<br />
Lt5<br />
470<br />
r]4<br />
t650<br />
7 -25<br />
75-250<br />
r800<br />
Author<br />
Steele (f956)<br />
Harvey (1950)<br />
Riley (1955)<br />
Menzel & Ryther (f96I)<br />
Menzel et al.(I97I)<br />
Lund (1970)<br />
Lund (1970)<br />
Goulake et al. (1960)<br />
92O MacFarlane $952)<br />
,8J6 Johnston (1969)<br />
1750 Mann (1972)<br />
4550 Odum FrT. (1956),<br />
Burkholder et al. (1959)<br />
2100 Gasim & Bhattaghiri (197I),<br />
Moore et al. (1968)<br />
4200 Odum & Odum (1955)<br />
29OO Kohn & Helfrich (1957)<br />
lt?:l Odum, E.P. (f96f)<br />
52O Smalley (1960)<br />
1600 After Westlake (1961)<br />
43O McFadyen (f964)<br />
500 Golley (1960)<br />
140 Bray et al. (1959)<br />
t45O Giltay (1898)<br />
425 Ovington & Madgewick (1959)<br />
785 Ovington (1956)<br />
800 Ovington (1957)<br />
High productivity values are also evident in. the higher trophic levels, such ss in the<br />
case of lhe'coral animals themselves (Lewis, 198f). High nates of production for the latter<br />
are extremely significant because there are grounds for considering them to be the I'key<br />
industry'r forms i; coral reefs, i.e., the most important channels through which matter and<br />
energy f low. Lewis discovered certejn eommon reef coralg in lhe Atlantic to have<br />
proai"tivities of just over 1000 keal/m'/yr, Since this value is representative of only )9%<br />
coral cover, then productivity rates may be expected to be much higher in reef areas of
-9I<br />
greater coveralle, such as the numerous well-developed reefs in the Pacific. Productivities of<br />
iU species exjmined by Lewis appeared to be higher than those of many other benthic<br />
invertebrates. An important implication of this study is that there exists a considerable<br />
resource of food energy available for higher trophic levels.<br />
A good example of how the naturally high productivity of coral reefs is translated in[o<br />
economically important harvestable biomass is the production of various other inventebrates<br />
and of fish. Invertebrate groups harvested for subsistence, commercial, or recreational<br />
purposes are gastropods, bivalves, shrimps, lobsters, squid, octopus, sea urchins, and sea<br />
cucumbers. A number of studies exist that determine the potential productivity of these<br />
different groups, zuch as that of Richard (1981) who focused his investigation on mollusc<br />
species in ?rench Polynesia of potential commercial value. He determined annual potential<br />
productivities of Tridacne maxima, Cardium fraqum, and Tectarius Tectarius qrandinatus to be 12<br />
.qranginqtus .to be LZ<br />
-lo/na.<br />
Ls/na, 460 kg/ha ko/ha E?-Tf 6d TI klfral-respec-<br />
kq/Fa,-respectively. Similar studies conducted also in French<br />
Polynesia are outlined in Ricard et al. (I977).<br />
Estimates of fish production vary, but all indicate that significant amounts may be<br />
harvested from coral reefs. Numbers of fish on reefs may be 5 to 15 times the number in<br />
representative North Atlantic fishing grounds, and twice the average in typical temperate<br />
laies (Lewis, 1977). After briefly evaluating the different approaches to the study of coral<br />
reef productivity in terms of fisheries yield, Marshall (1979) arrived at a figure of f-5 tons<br />
of finfish harvested annually per sguare kilometre. This estimate has now been questioned as<br />
being low in view of a number of npre recent studies.<br />
Enploying a variety of methods, dif f erent authors (Alcala, I979i Carpenter, I977;<br />
Murdy and Ferraris, 1980) have drawn up figures for lhe fisheries potential of Philippine<br />
coral reefs. Contributions of coral reef fishes were estimated to range from I to over 20% of<br />
the total fisheries catch of the country. In some localities in the "central Visayan islands,<br />
catch estimates have been determined to be as high as 14-27 tons/km'/yr (Alcala 1979). As a<br />
companison, coral reef f isheries in seven trgpical Pacif ic islands were f ound to have<br />
productivities ranging from 0.09 to I8 tons/kn-lyr (Mbrten and Polovina' 1982). Tfe reef<br />
iish"ry contributes a significant percentage (10%) to lotal fish landed on the west coast of<br />
Sabah (Langham and Mathias, 1977). On the east coast of Malaysia, some 35% of all fish<br />
landed can be regarded as "reef -sssociaLed" (Rashid, 1980). Reef fish in Palau appear to have<br />
a potential harvest of 2r000-IIr(I)0 tons per year, which is of the same maqnitude as the<br />
ofishore tuna harvest. This relation appears to hold true for Micronesia as a whole (Johannes,<br />
1977). Country data for reef and lagoon fish indicate that these constitute 29% of Lhe<br />
commercialized local fishery in the South Pacific (salvat' 1980), although this estimate does<br />
not incorporate eontributions to the fishery from zubsistence fishing. Salvat estimates a yield<br />
of 100rff)0 tons/yr for the South Pacific. The impbrtance of coral reef fisheries on a world<br />
gcale was evelueted by Smith (f978). After extrapolating data for Caribbean and western<br />
North Atlantic fisheries to the world's reefs, he estimated the potential yield of reef-related<br />
figheries to be near 996 of total commercial fish landings. In view of the rnore recent studies'<br />
this figure probably needs to be adjusted upwards.<br />
DISTRIBUTION OF REEFS IN THE PACIFIC<br />
The distribution of coral reefs in the tropical Pacific is limited by the 20oC isotherms<br />
north end souih of the equator, and extends from East Asia to the Pacific coast of the<br />
Anrericas. Thls ia a vas! expanse of oeean, covering approximatety ll0 million square<br />
kilometres (Welle, L969), in which the thinly scattered islands are but ncre specks. That<br />
these islands are able to support a diversity, and often en abundancer d life is due to a<br />
fortuitous combination of factors, snong wtrich coral reefs figure prominently. The coral reef<br />
ia a principal ecologieal zme of both high and low islands (Mason, 1969), and in rnany cases<br />
constitutes their primary building block. Ttr combined areg of reefe in the South Pacific has<br />
been egtimated to be arotyrd 77,mO squere kilometres (Smith f978I The North Pacif ic hes a<br />
gimilar figqe (76rm0 km') while Southeast Asia (including northern Austrelia) accounts for<br />
182,(tr0 km-.<br />
Coral thug makeg up a great portion of Pacific ielands, either by active growth of the<br />
reef iteelf, or by the eccumuletion of reef debrig by nnchanical forcee such as waves and<br />
currentg.
-92<br />
Biogeographic provinces in the South Pacific and the reef types that occur in eaeh are<br />
ghown in Table 2. Sunmary descriptive information on each island in the dif ferent<br />
biogeographic provinces (excluding New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon<br />
Islands) is provided in the Draft Cfeck List of Pacific Oceanic Islands by Douglas (1969)<br />
based ffi the work by E.H. Bryan.<br />
Table 2 : Occurrenca of reef types in the biogeographic provinces of the South Pacific<br />
(frcim Dahl, 1980)<br />
Biogeographic<br />
hovinces<br />
Biomes/Habitats<br />
I l.lew Guinea<br />
n Bbnerk Archipclago<br />
Ill Solornon lslen&<br />
ry l{cw Caledonh - Loyalty<br />
V l{cw thbridcs - Sontr Cruz<br />
VI Norfotk - lord Ho*t - Kcrmrdec<br />
ur Fiji<br />
YIll Tonp-Nirr<br />
D( Semr-Wdlb<br />
X TuYrlu - Tokcleu<br />
Xl Kirib.ti - I{ruru<br />
)flI lt'lrrirnr lsbn&<br />
XIII Cerolinc lCrndr<br />
XIV l{rrshall lshndr<br />
XV Plpenix- Line- Northem Coolr<br />
XVI Cook - Austrd<br />
XVII Society lslands<br />
XVIII Tugmotu<br />
XD( Marqucsar<br />
XX Pitcdm - Grmbicr - Rapa<br />
CHARACTERISTICS OF PACIFIC ISLAND ECOSYSTEMS<br />
Uniqueness of islands<br />
siiEgggg<br />
aaaa'|tt||<br />
aaataa<br />
a aata<br />
rlatt!ataa<br />
atata<br />
aa *t a<br />
ataartaaa<br />
ttla<br />
aaaa<br />
atattaa<br />
attaaa<br />
aatata<br />
aaatl<br />
tat<br />
a rlf a<br />
tf a a a i t<br />
aa ral<br />
I<br />
Pacif ic islands may fall under any of the following sLructural types (descriptions after<br />
Dahl, 1980; Thomas, 196l in Anon. 1959):<br />
Continental type - composed of sedimentary, metamorphic, igneous or other nocks of<br />
continental origin (occurring west of Lhe Andesite Line), and of soils derived therefrom;<br />
generally islands of large si ze wilh complex landforms.<br />
a'|l.a<br />
ta
_9t<br />
Volcanic type islands built by volcenic activity and therefore with substrateg derived from<br />
lava (usuelly basalt) and volcanic ash.<br />
Ebvated reefg - ielande or parts of islandg compoeed of raised coral platforms or limestone.<br />
Lcnr islande - eomposed of sand and coral rubble accumulated m<br />
sea-level. This is the typical type m atolls and barrier<br />
occutr es coastal or beach areas on other island types.<br />
The islands in turn rnay be flanked by one or a eombination of several reef structures.<br />
Following Dahl (1980), these may be described as follows. An algal reef is a calcareoug<br />
structure in which corelline algae are principal eontributors to reef Lonstruction end s:rface<br />
eover' A coral reef, m the other hand, is a structure actively constructed by the skeletal<br />
deposition of hermatypic corals and associated organisms. Corai reefe in turn take the form<br />
of:<br />
Atoll reefs - annular reefs generally with an internal lagoon unassociated with any major<br />
landmass.<br />
Barrier reefs - reefs offshore from a major land mass and<br />
or navigable channel.<br />
separaled from it by a deep lagoon<br />
Fringing reefs - reefs growing directly out fnom the coastline and not separated from it by<br />
more than a shallow depression.<br />
Lagoon reefs or patch reefs - reef structures developing in the sheltered waters of a lagoon.<br />
A rrnon-growing" reef is a calcareous structure now covered with organisms not<br />
contributing significantly to skeletal accumulation or reef qrowth. Subrnerged reefs are those<br />
"drowned" by zubsidence to depths below which reef qro;tn has been insufficient to regain<br />
the zurface.<br />
.<br />
Similarly, the marine environment may be characterized by different structural criteria<br />
(Dahl, 1980). Substrates in different areas may be rocky (calcareous or non-calcareous) or<br />
uneonsolidated. In addition, reef community structure would depend on whether the island is<br />
subrnerging, emerging or +parently stationary relative to sea level, and whether the setting<br />
is exposed or protecLed with respect to lhe physical forces of lhe sea. These factors are all<br />
part of lhe variability of the physical and chemical environnent of island ecosystems (whicfr<br />
will be discussed in the following section), and which contribuLe signif icantly to the<br />
uniqueness of each island.<br />
,<br />
a reef platform at or near<br />
reefs, and also frequently<br />
Descriptions of reef structune and nnrphology in the tropical Pacific are relatively<br />
few. ssne studies that may be nrentioned are thosl m lhe cook lslands (Gibbs et al., r97l;<br />
Stoddart and Pillai, I97J)i Fanning lsland (Maragos, 1974a and b; Roy and Shith,-197I);<br />
French Polvnesia (chevalier, 1975b; Ricard 4 4.; thl); rhe Lau tslandi in Fiji (phipps and<br />
Preobrazhensky, 1975); the Marshall Islands-(L-acid, 1975; MacNeil, Lgiz)i the New Hebrides<br />
(now Vanuatu) in M_elanesia (Guilcher, 1974); New caledonia (chevalier, '197)a); p+ua r.rlw<br />
Guinea (Weber, I975b; Whitehouse, I97)); Samoa (Mayor, L9Z4); and 'the iotornon Islands<br />
(Jmes, 1977; Morton, 1974; Weber, L97Ja).<br />
The physical structure of an island is a major determinant of the types of ecosystems<br />
present (Dahl' f980)- A elear example may be found in the case of islands wilh exposed end<br />
protected sides, such as atolls. Coral reefs tend to be npre robust and better developed on<br />
the exposed sides due to rnore adequate wat.er circulation and greater availabiiity of<br />
nutrients. In addition, reef forms and lagoon types are determined by the structure and<br />
history of the island substrate (Dahl, I9S0). In general, Lherefore, a broad distinction can be<br />
made among continental islands, high volcanic islands, elevated reefs, and low coral islands,<br />
but it is also necessary to consider the delailed origin and structure of each, and its<br />
geographic location in terms of the origin and evolution of flora and fauna (E1io[t, Lg;-J).<br />
Dasmann (1971) attributes lhe uniqueness of island ecosystems to their relative isolation<br />
which induces peculiar evolutionary patlerns in each separate setting. Differences among<br />
similarly situated neef habitats are manifested, for example, in t6e differing rates oi<br />
productiviiy of at.oll lagoons in the South pacific (Ricard and belesalle, lggl).
_94<br />
Variability in the physical, chemical, and bioloqical environment<br />
Variability in the environment plays a key role in the development of islands and their<br />
charaeteristie reef systems. On the whole, islande may be considered as being unstable<br />
ecosystems. Factors in the physical and chemical environrnent are discussed by McLean<br />
(f980b). These are divided into factors of the land, the sea, and the atmosphere. In the first<br />
category falls the immense vaniety of island types already discussed. Also considered here is<br />
the plate tectonie setting of rnost islands in the tropical Pacific which is responsible for<br />
long-term instabiliiy in the form of vertical and horizontal movemenls, and present<br />
perturbations zuch as earthquakes and vulcanism.<br />
Of the factors associated with the sea, perhaps the most severe effect exerted on<br />
island ecosysLems has been that of the rise in sea level in recent geologic time. This<br />
phenomenon has resulted in changes in island distnibution, size, and type. Small oceanic<br />
islands were particularly vulnerable, being drastically altered or disappearing allogether.<br />
Reefs either grew proportionately, or wene drowned (McLean, 1980a). Present evidence<br />
suggests that sea level is continuing to rise (McLean, f980b). A second factor lhat has<br />
shaped much of coastal morphology and that is responsible for the formation of a number of<br />
islands are ocean waves. Of partieularly great. impact over Lhe shorl term are tsunamis, storm<br />
surges, and hurricane waves. Effects of hurricane waves on reef structures in the Pacific<br />
have been documented by Baines et a! (1974), Baines and McLean Q97O, and Randall and<br />
Eldredge (1977). Fortunately, reefs afford a measure of protection for island shores againsl<br />
the destructive effects of the sea. Altogether, it should be emphasized that there exists an<br />
intimate linkage between reefs, marine processes, and the zubaerial coastal land in the<br />
building and alteration of coastal features (McLean, 1980a). The latter is known to have<br />
occurred rapidly throughout prehistoric times.<br />
Factors of the atmosphere are wind, rainfall, and storms. These are closely linked with<br />
currents and the oceanographic processes described above, as well as relevent chemical<br />
parameters such as salinity and rutrient loading.<br />
Perhaps the most significant biological factor affecting Pacific reefs on a large scale,<br />
and hence worth mentioning here, is predation by the crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster<br />
planci (Cheney, 1974; Nishihira and Yamazato, 1974). Repeated population explosEiilFlFiE<br />
organism have occurred in a number of localities and are believed to be cyclic, though<br />
probably aggravated by human interference in the environnrent. These have been reported to<br />
eeuse extrenre damage to reefs, as much as 90% in a single area. Serious concern has thus<br />
been generated (e.9. Chesher, 1969), including speculations on severe economie loss and the<br />
possible extinction of scleractinian corals in some erees. Additional studies indicate, however,<br />
that this corel-eating starfish may be a normal component, of tropical Pacific eoral reef<br />
communities, and lhat the publicized population explosions in areas such as Guam end Pelau<br />
may be isolated, local infeetations of an unknown cause (Weber and Woodhead, 1970). At<br />
present, it does not appear to pose a serious threat in any part of the region (Marsh and<br />
Tsuda, 1971; Alcala, 1976).<br />
Fraoilitv of gmall ieland ecosvetems<br />
As a result of physical and biological instability generated by the fectors discussed<br />
above, and becauee of lhe significant role of isolation (Desmann, 1971; Grigq, 1979), island<br />
ecosystems have evolved to be extrennly fragile and vulnerable to disturtance. This<br />
vulnerability extends even to disruptions of locsl flora and fauna by the introduction of new<br />
speciea because of the high degrees of specializstion that the forrner have achieved through<br />
evolutionery time. Other sources of vulnerability are rcstricted land and reef areas, and<br />
limited carrying capacities for hurnan settlement (Meson, 1979).<br />
Small islands tend to be more densely populeted than Iarger ones, and hence epproach<br />
rmre closely the limits of the environrnent to arpport the population (Bayliss-5mith, f978). A<br />
more extended discugsion of the camying capacities of islends with r€8pect to human<br />
populations is provided by Bayliee-Smith (1980),
MANIS RELATION TO THE REEF<br />
-95<br />
Inadequaey of reefs to sustain larqe-scale exploitation<br />
. .ln:pite of their high rates of productivity, coral reefs +pear to be unable to sustain<br />
exploilation on a .significantly large scale such as a commeicial fishery. This may be<br />
attributed to the physical seLting of reefs in rhe Pacific, as well as to the nature of the<br />
coral reef ecosystem.<br />
Many islands are actually the tips of srbmerged mountains, so that the pnoductive<br />
shallow waters are limiLed to the na*ow band which is the corel reef (Johannes, L97g).<br />
Offshore waters tend to be hazardous . and even less produclive. In the case of atolls,<br />
shelLered lagoons which are rpre accessible to local fisherrnen are less productive than the<br />
more exposed reefs. This is in striking contras! with the continental situation where wide<br />
continental shelves lend themselves to the harvesting of considerable biomass.<br />
The nature of lhe coral reef ecosystem is zuch that it is fragile and easily disturbed<br />
whe_n pushed beyond its limits Oahl and Baumgart, l9S2). In additi'on, it is felt that coral<br />
reefs have low standing crops of exploitable splcies (Smith and Stimson , IgTg). ffris rnay Ue<br />
due Lo the cryptic nature of much of the reef fauna, and the lack of extensive beds of filter<br />
feeders that are amenable !o eurrently employed harvesting techniques. In addition, the<br />
e.xceptionally high diversities characteristic of coral reefs'preclude the development of<br />
sing,le, dominant speeies stands which are easily harvested. Ii would therefore appear that<br />
reef species may suslain local (i.e. zubsistence) consunption, but not consunption greatly<br />
exceeding this level. Subsistence exploitaLion of reef resources may thus be near the cirryini<br />
capacity of the ecosystem, having taken millenia to adjust.<br />
Gri99 (1979) takes a somewhat differenl view of the limitations of neef nesources but<br />
arrives at much the same conclusion. He maintains that reef processes favor the accumulation<br />
of biomass which results in an apparent abundance of resources, but certain characteristics<br />
of the ecosyslem renden the latter vulnerable [o oven-exploitaLion. These characteristics are<br />
summarized as follows:<br />
l) Since a majority of the nutrients in the system are present in the form of biomass, a large<br />
fraction is exposed to removal by exploitation;<br />
2) Rernoval of nutrients from the system reduces the amount that can otherwise be recycled,<br />
and thereby reduces potential or future production;<br />
j) Great longevity exposes many year classes to exploitation; and<br />
4) Lmg-lived species are characterized by low rates of turn-over.<br />
In island settings, additional factors contribute to the easy depleLion of reef resources.<br />
These are the small size of many islands, and the semi-enclosed character of reef ecosystems<br />
(Grig.g, L979)- Grigg postulates lhat suslained harvests may not be much greater than l0% of<br />
standing crops.<br />
Varyino deqrees of dependence on reef resources<br />
No data are available at present m the fraction of the world population living close to<br />
and dependent m coral reefs. salvat (l9sla) estirnaLes it to be well'below 100 million. Among<br />
the Pacific islands at presen!, there exists a spectrum from $bsistence economies to those<br />
that are hiqhly urbanized and induetrialized. There may be found a contrast, therefore,<br />
between self -suff icieney or a close relationship with existing terrestriel and marine<br />
resourcesr and varying degrees of dependence on imports and wor-ld markets (Mason, L;igi<br />
ExryP.t for the larger islands of Melanesia, however, ieefs and lagoons may oe considered the<br />
traditional sources - of protein food (Elliott, LgTt). In Guair, marine resources have<br />
treditionally been of. great eco-nomic significance though the subsistence base in the past hes<br />
been agriculture rather than fishing (Nolan, LgTg). lf nray be surmised thst npst of these<br />
marine resources are drawn from the reef and rclated ar""r, in Guam and elsewhere, because<br />
the knowledge and technology to harvest reef resources is well within the current<br />
capabilities of Micronesian fisherrnen, which is not the ease for pelagic fieheriea (:*rennes,<br />
r977),
-96<br />
Salvat (1980), m the other hand, mainlains that the exploitation of manine resources is<br />
not central to the island economies in Lhe South Pacific. In the case of certain small islands<br />
sueh as in Fiji, reef and lagoon resources are of greeLer relative importance than on larger<br />
islands (Brookfield, I978a). Still, there is no truly heavy dependence for subsistence or cash<br />
because nesources are limited and patchy.<br />
An overview of the utilization of reef resources in the Pacific indicates that most<br />
plant and animal groups are still relatively under-exploited (Salvat, 1980). This is true for<br />
crustaceans and echinoderms such as sea cucumbers. The latter are of grea[er relat,ive<br />
inportance than crustaceans or molluscs in the tropical South Pacif ic. Trade in these<br />
organisms flourished in the l9th and early 20th c€nturies, then declined. Algae are limited<br />
mainly to domestic uee. Molluscs are used as food. There are indications that present<br />
populations may not be able to srpport. commercial exploitation on any scale, and that these<br />
are already heavily taxed on the present subsis[ence basis. Fishes on the outen reef slopes<br />
are underexploited. Limitations to large-scale exploitation of reef fishes are their diversity,<br />
relatively small size, occasional toxicity, and existing harvesting technology. Other problems<br />
arise with respect to preservation, transport and marketing. Aside from food, these organisms<br />
have gneat potential for use as live bait. Other vertebrates zuch as sea turtles and dugongs,<br />
m the other hand, are threatened with serious depletion of stbcks.<br />
Subsistence Populations<br />
As may be gleaned from the discussion above, sr.rbsistence populations are still a<br />
perverive and important element in the ;;^pical Pacific. lsland peoples have traditionally<br />
obtained the bulk of their protein from t sar up to 90% in some cases (Jol"rannes, 1978).<br />
This may be attributed to terrestrial fooo 'pplies being limited due to the poor soil quality<br />
on rnost islands, as well as being precnnrous due to the frequent onslaught of natural<br />
catastrophes g.tch as hurricanes. Reefs may thus be seen as being an important element in<br />
subgistence economies. This is so in spite of the fact that many islands have to support large<br />
population densities, from several hundred individuals to over a thousand per square mile. It<br />
would seem that a close relationship has evolved between subsistence populations and the<br />
reefs m which they depend, with exploitat.ion being closely attuned to lhe carrying capacity<br />
of the resource.<br />
Detailed profiles of some islands within the Fiji group have been generated by projects<br />
under Unesco'g Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB). Descriptions of physical setting and<br />
socio-economic structures are available f or islands such as Batiki (Bayliss-Smith, 1978),<br />
Kabara (Bedford et_ {.r 1978), other islands of the Lau gnoup (Salvat et a]., 1978), and<br />
Taveuni (Brookfiel-d -f978b). Certain characteristics of these islands mEJe eonsidered<br />
repreaen[ative of lhe wider Pacif ic region, sl.rch as general demographic, economic, and<br />
c-trltural trends (to be discussed leten). In contrast to other reports of a great dependence of<br />
Pacific island economies qr reef nesources, however, some of these islands, such as the Lau<br />
group, sppear to be characterized by a lesser degree of dependence. There, terrestrial<br />
I'rEsourcea are accorded a central role in the economy. This may be a result of a paucity of<br />
rnarine resourees, or simply their underdeveloped state. In some islands the harshness of Ehe<br />
natural environnent as a whole produces a dependence of populations on the wider Fijian<br />
society and economy for survival.<br />
Also noteworthy are the different scales of exploitation of reef resources in different<br />
ielands. In Lakeba in the Lau group, for example, reef fish are underexploited, but giant<br />
clams are exploited to the extent that they are now in danger of extinction (Salvat et a!.,<br />
1977). Other groups such as crustaceans, echinoderms, nndusae, and the alga Caulerpa are<br />
eeten, but are mly secondary to fish and giant clams. In the island of Futuna most of the<br />
protein consurEd is derived from the sea in the form of shellfish, crabs, crayfish, turtles, and<br />
echinoderms (Richerd et al., f98L). The majority of these species epear to be exploited to<br />
the point of exhaustion because of non-selective and harmful fishing practices, and the<br />
nnrphology of the reef substrate which renders the benlhos particularly vulnerable to present<br />
harvesting techniques.<br />
Trangformetion from subsistence to cash economies<br />
Tle impact of westernization, es this historical phenomenon is commonly referred to,<br />
resulted in unprecedented disruptions in the economic, social, and cultural fabric of island
-97<br />
populations which had taken rnillenia Lo develop. Salient features of this developrrnnt include<br />
the introduction of money economies, Lhe imposition of new laws and practices by colonial<br />
powers' and the breakdown of traditional authority (Johannes, 1978). All these had important<br />
implications for the utilizaLion of natural resources. A significant corollary of the changes<br />
wrought in Pacific island settings particularly at the turn of the century was Lhe phenomenal<br />
rise in human population, the trend of which continues up to the present day. This in turn has<br />
ted to new and increasing demands on island resources such as coral neefs. The resultant<br />
degradation and depletion of these resources has proven inevilable in many cases, and<br />
currently is a widespread and urgent problem Lo be tackled.<br />
The advent of caah economiee<br />
The introduction of money economies by foreigners into Pacific island subsistence<br />
soeieties implied the qeration of an entirely new set of factors determining the general<br />
course of livelihood of these peoples. Inportant examples are the development of distant<br />
markets and the growth of the profit motive (Johennes, f978). The latler factor is especially<br />
significant because it meant the effective annihilation of the conservation ethic (see<br />
discussion in Johannes, L977; 1978), so that considerable waste of reef resources became<br />
widespread. In sddition, conflicts over reeource ase arose belween zubsistence fishermen and<br />
those promoting rew commercial fisheries (Gawel, l98f).<br />
In general, the drive for increased cash income meant the decline of zubsistence<br />
activities (Finney, 1965), with the latter being supplanted by cash-crop produetion on<br />
full-time wage labor. Among other things, this meant the decrease in availability of products<br />
traditionally gathered from the reef, and the increasing reliance m imported commodi[ies.<br />
Losr of traditional menagament and.conservation systems<br />
Mention was made earlier of the conservation ethic in zubsistence societies. Evidence<br />
indicates that this has been a guiding principb in ihe utilization of reef nesources by nnst<br />
island communities. The current breakdown of traditional conservation practices is attributed<br />
to the advent of European and Oriental contact (Jotrannes, I97B; Owen, L969). This has been<br />
accompanied in many areas by a decrease or disappearance of unprotected reef stocks<br />
(Gawel, l98l; Jotrannes, 1978). There are indications that Western approaches to resource<br />
management are not applicable in the Lropical Pacific (Gawel, lg8l), so that the accumulated<br />
wisdom of tradition may prove irreplaceable. Examples of tradilional management practices<br />
are given in Table ].<br />
Not mentioned in Table I is the practice of reef and lagoon tenurc (Jotrennes, 1977;<br />
f978). The latter in effect is a system wherein the right to fish in a particular area is<br />
allotted to a clan, ctrief or family. Regulation of exploitation to achieve srstainable yields<br />
was thus pursued as a matter of course because it was perceived to be in the best interest of<br />
the controlling party. This practice prevents the tragedy of the commons now prevalent in<br />
nndern societies.<br />
Traditional management practices were either related to some religious or ruperstitious<br />
belief ar or were clearly intended to conserve resources. A number were developed to<br />
minimize waste associated . with periodic and predictable gluts, sJch as during spawning<br />
seaaons. It ppears that dmost every basic fisheries corrservation rrpasure devised in the<br />
West wee in use in the tropical Pacific for crnturies (Jotrannes, l97B).<br />
Problams of incrcatcd human peulation<br />
A rumber of Pacific islands remain uninhabited, but in those that are inhabited, the<br />
growth of populationg and their economies is a pervasive phenomenon (Eltiott, l97t). Average<br />
anlual rates of popu-lation growth for Oceania have been docurrented as follows (UN, lg$l 'in<br />
Holdgate et glr 1982):<br />
1960-L965 2.08%<br />
1970-L975 1.85%<br />
1975-1980 L.47%<br />
Percentage change in nate of growth from 1960-65 to I975-8Ot -D.l.eti
-98<br />
Table I : Intentional rnarine conservation neesunas employed traditionally<br />
by tropical Pacific islanders (excluding marine tenure eyatems)<br />
(after Jofrannes' 1978)<br />
Method Locality<br />
Closing of fishing or crabbing<br />
afees<br />
Closed reasons or banning of<br />
fishing during gawning periods<br />
Allowing a portion of the cateh<br />
to escape or deliberetelY not<br />
eatching all readily evailable<br />
fish or turtles<br />
Holding excess catch in<br />
enclosures until needed<br />
Ban m taking srnall individuals<br />
Fishing in inland lagoons or for<br />
certain easily accessible<br />
species restricted to times of<br />
poor fishing conditions<br />
Restrictions on taking seabirds<br />
and/or their eggs<br />
Restricting the number of<br />
fish traps in an area<br />
Ban m Laking turlle eggs<br />
Ban m taking turtles sr the beach<br />
Ban st frequent,ing favorite<br />
spots m turtle nesting beach<br />
Pukapuka; Marquesasl Truk; Tahiti; Setawal; Y4;<br />
Niue; Senroa; Tonga; Gilbert Islands; Hawaii; Solomon<br />
Islandsi Mershall lslande; Cook lslands; Laap<br />
Hawaii; Tahiti; Pdeu; Tmga; Td
eo<br />
^54<br />
!.t<br />
x42<br />
e36<br />
o<br />
Fso<br />
jza<br />
G<br />
3rs t2<br />
6 3<br />
lo20 r!00<br />
-99<br />
Figure 1 : Population trends in Guam, l52t-1950<br />
(based on data from Underwood, 197))<br />
poPuLATlot{ TREttDs tlt GuAil (r62t - ls60)<br />
Table 4 : Pqulation trends and land areas in the South pacific<br />
(South Pacific Commission, SPCmf. 221WP.8, pege l-1).<br />
Anerican Samoa<br />
Cook lglande<br />
Federated States of Micronesie<br />
Fiji<br />
French Polynesia<br />
Guam<br />
Kiribati<br />
Marshall Islands<br />
Nauru<br />
Nafl Caledmia<br />
Niua<br />
Nothern Marianes<br />
Pelau<br />
Papua New Guinea<br />
Pitcairn lalend<br />
Solomon Islande<br />
T*elau<br />
Tmga<br />
Twalu<br />
Vanuatu<br />
Wdtis and Futuna<br />
lVastern Sgnoe<br />
TOTAL<br />
Estimsted Estimeted Land<br />
Population Annual Area<br />
(mid-1980) Growth Rate (sq.km)<br />
t2rItOO<br />
17,900<br />
T4rtr99<br />
614rloo<br />
t48,100<br />
1051800<br />
58,600<br />
tlrm0<br />
7r100<br />
140r500<br />
tr400<br />
l6r80o<br />
12,150<br />
,rm6rg0o<br />
60<br />
225raJ/0<br />
lr600<br />
97r400<br />
Tr'n,0<br />
ll7,xto<br />
10,800<br />
t56r800<br />
41906,110<br />
L8<br />
-0.9<br />
1.9<br />
2.2<br />
z.o<br />
2.O<br />
0.6<br />
0.9<br />
-t.2<br />
4.4<br />
2.2<br />
-5.0<br />
,.1<br />
0.0<br />
LI<br />
2.O<br />
,,7<br />
4.0<br />
0.8<br />
Pryulation<br />
Density<br />
(persons/sq.km)<br />
I97 L64<br />
240 75<br />
700 105<br />
L8,272 54<br />
tr265 45<br />
540 196<br />
590 85<br />
170 182<br />
2L<br />
19,10, 7<br />
'48<br />
259 ll<br />
470 t6<br />
490 25<br />
M2r24' 7<br />
,L5<br />
28r5rg<br />
g<br />
t0 160<br />
700 Ltg<br />
26 288<br />
11,800 l0<br />
2r5 42<br />
2r9t5<br />
"
Irprcvcd hervcrtlng tcctnologicr<br />
- I00<br />
TfE increasing demand of gnowing populations on coral reef s for food and other<br />
amenities has spurred the developnnnt or inportation of new and better technology to<br />
facilitate the harveet of neef nesources, often exceeding the capecity of thege regources for<br />
renewal or replenishment. Thus, rnoat native fishing equiprnant, for exanple, has been<br />
replaced by nntal hooks and lures, nylon lines and throw nets, spear guns, diving gear, plastic<br />
boats, and gasoline-powered engines. The advent of the Second World War, in addition, has<br />
introduced Pecific islenders to the use of explosives and chemicals for catching fiah (Mason,<br />
L979\<br />
In e senserthe following issues are also an offshoot of the general problem of increased<br />
human populations m Pacific islands.<br />
Devalqmnt of ncw rucf urer<br />
There hes ccurred over time a decline in the use of food of reef origin. The latter has<br />
been supplanled by other reef uses, urch as handicraft industries bssed on products from the<br />
reefs, md pearl c,ulture (Salvat, I98lb! Trade in reef products has grown to be a major<br />
commereial activity (Salvat, 1980; WeUs, 1981). This has resulted in ihe depletion of stocks<br />
of many reef organisms such as mother-of-pearl, Trochus, Turbo mermoratus, other decorative<br />
shells, and verious scleractinian eorals. The coral trade and its implications for management<br />
have been discussed elsewhere (Ganez, f98l).<br />
Tourism has grown to be ihe most important industry on many Pacific islands (Mason,<br />
L979). Because they are small in scale, fragile, and easily degraded, tropical island<br />
environments are particularly threatened (Dahl, 1982; Salvat, L97t). With careful planning'<br />
however, much of the impact from tourism may be offset (Ryland' f98l).<br />
In the face of the new and mostly unforeseen stresses inflicted on conal reefs with the<br />
onset of modernization, efforts have been made to develop reef resources on a planned and<br />
controlled basis, but on a larger scale then has hi[herto been carried out, Unfortunatelyt<br />
there are indications that the fishenies developnnnt efforts currently underway are not<br />
eppropriate to the natural and human environments of the tropical Pacific (Gawel' f98I).<br />
Among others, problems in marine resource development involve manpower, infrastrucluret<br />
marketing, processing, hrsiness management, financing, and fuel eosts. It is anticipaled !hat<br />
these problems will continue to preoccupy resource managers for a long time t.o come.<br />
Reaourcc degradation<br />
Perhaps me of the most serious problems to arise wilh respect to reef resources is<br />
that of degradation from human activities. A list of current causes of reef degradation is<br />
presented in Table 5. Salvat (l98la) notes that all of the items listed in this lable have been<br />
originally absent in subsistence settings, except for lhe use of poisons for fishing. A general<br />
discussion of destructive human acLivities is provided by Salvat (1978' l98la). Of these' the<br />
most serious damage appears to be caused by collection of the reef biota, sedimentation, and<br />
dredging. In an overview of reef degradation in the Pacific, Dahl and Baumgart (f982) repoct<br />
blasting, the use of poisons in fishing, pollution, and siltation to be major eausative fac[ors.<br />
Murrell (1982) reports at least three-quarters of Pacific countries as now having manine<br />
pollution problems, although these are mostly concentrated in the coastal zones. An<br />
additional source of degradation in the Pacif ic is the use of several Pacific islands as sites<br />
for the construction of military installations, so that a number of reefs are contaminaLed by<br />
radioactive pollution (Ymge, 1969). Mining on coral reefs occurs in Fiji, Papua New Guinea,<br />
the Solomon Islands, the Trust Territories, and Western Samoa (Cruickshank' I98I)' mainly for<br />
coral sand and other construction malerials. Causes of reef degradation in Micronesia as a<br />
whole are documented by Owen (1969), Nolan (1979) and Tsuda (I98f). Short. discussions on<br />
the specific problems of each island or country are available for American Samoa (Swerdloff'<br />
IgTt), the Cook Islands (Hambuechen, I97t), Fiji (Richmond, l98l), Guam (Jones and Randall'<br />
l97t), Moorea in French Polynesia (Naim, I98I), New Caledonia (Parrat, I97t), the Trust<br />
Territory of the Pacific Islands (Division of Lands, I98I; Owen, I97J), and Westenn Samoa<br />
(Hewson et {.r I9SI). Reef degnadation in Southeast Asia is diseussed elsewhere in this<br />
volume (Y-ap-and Gomez, 1984). Annng other things, the above factors have resulted in<br />
serious depletion of reef organisms zuch as fish (Randall, 1979).
A.<br />
B.<br />
- l0I<br />
Table 5 : Causes of reef degradation<br />
(after Salvat)<br />
Collecting and fishing in excess or illegally<br />
l. Collecting of shells and corals by tourists or commercially<br />
2. Collecting of reef fish for aquariums<br />
t. Collecting of coral-reef resources for local populaLions<br />
4. Spean-fishing<br />
5. Commercial fishing in reef areas<br />
6. Dynamite used for fishing end for public works<br />
7. Poison and other toxic ehemicals used for fishing<br />
8. Other destructive fishing methode (e.9. muro-ami)<br />
Pollution<br />
l. Pesticides and detergents<br />
2. Sediments from soil<br />
t. Sewage and eutrophication<br />
4. Oit<br />
5. Thermal effluents<br />
6. Industrial wastes<br />
7. Heavy rnetals<br />
8. Radioactivity<br />
Disturbance<br />
l. Dredging activities<br />
2. Constructional activities contiquous to'reefs<br />
l. Recreational impacts (scuba and snorkel activilies, boating, anchor damage)<br />
4. Introduction of alien or exo[ic species<br />
5. Acanthaster problems<br />
6. Mining of coral rock, sand, and shellgrit<br />
7. Oil and gas drilling, mineral prospecting<br />
Mariculture potentiale<br />
Mariculture as a commercial activity to augrnent natural harvest from reefs is not<br />
widespread in the tropical Pacif ic. A possible neason is that most islanders are simply<br />
unaware of its potentials. A few inroads have been made, however, such as Lhe cultivation of<br />
oystens in French Polynesia (Salvat, f980). In Hawaii and Palau, experimental projecls in<br />
mericulture appear promising, but have not yet been developed to any stage of commercial<br />
importance (Mason, 1979). Pearl cultivation in istands such as the Tuamotus shows potentials<br />
of being developed into a major end fairly secure export activit.y (Salvat, 1980). What are<br />
called for now are baseline studies on the different species of possible com'nercial value,<br />
anch as those of Munro and Gwyther (1981) m tridacnid clams. To ensure adequate gains<br />
from any mariculture venture, trowever, appropriate marketing strategies must be developed.
- r02<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Alcala, A.C. 1976. Pqulation densities of the crown-of-thorns starfish in two Philippines<br />
reefs. Silliman I 2J@)2279-285.<br />
Alcala, A. C. 1979. Fish yield of Sumilon Island reserve: implications for coral reef resources<br />
management in the Phi lippines. Paper presenled al the 14th Pacific Science Congress'<br />
Khabarovsk, U.5.5.R.' 20 August - 5 September 1979.<br />
Anonymous. 1969. Repoit of the International Biological Programme Technical Meeting on<br />
Conservation of Pacific lslands, Koror, Palau and Guam, November 1968. Micronesia<br />
5(2);223-269.<br />
Baines, G.B.K., P.J. Beveridge and J.E. Maragos. 1974. Storms and island building at Funafuti<br />
Atoll, Ellice Islands. Proc. 2nd Int. Coral Reef Symp. ?2485-496.<br />
Baines, G.B.K. and R.F. Mclean. 1975. Re-surveys of L972 hurricane ramparl of Funafuti<br />
Atoll, Ellice Islands. Search 1(LlD:J6-J7.<br />
Eayliss-Smith, T.P. 1978. Batiki in the I970s: satellite of Suva. In H.C. Brookfield (ed.). The<br />
Smatl lslands and the Reefs. Unesco/Ul,,lFPA Fiji Island Reports No.4 (Canbenra, ANU for<br />
Unesco), p. 67 -L28.<br />
Bayliss-Smith, T. P. 1980. Pqulation pressure, resources and welfare: towards a more<br />
realistic measure of carrying capacity. In H,C. Brookfield [ed.] Population - Environment<br />
Relations in Tropical lslands: The case of Eastern F iji. Unesco, MAB Technical Notes<br />
13z6I-93.<br />
Bedford, R.D., R.F. Mclean and J.Macpherson. 1978. Kabara in the 1970s: home in spite of<br />
hazards. In H.C. Bmokfield [ed.]. The Small Islands and the Reefs. Unesco/UNFPA Fiji<br />
Island Reports No. 4 (Canberra, ANU for Unesco), p.9-55.<br />
Brookfield, l-{C. 1978a. Small is beautiful? In H.C. Brookfield [ed.]. The Small Islands and the<br />
Reefs. Unesco/Ut'IFPA Fiji Island ReporLs f.to. + (Canberra, ANU for Unesco), p. I-8.<br />
Brookfield, FtC. [ed.]. 1978b. Taveuni: Iand, population and production. Unesco/UNFPA Fiji<br />
lsland Reports No. l. (Canberra: ANU for Unesco) 309 p.<br />
Carpenter, K.E. 1977. Philippine coral reef fisheries resources. Philipp. J. Fish. I5(l):95-I14.<br />
Cheney, D.P. 1974. Spawning and aggregation of<br />
Int. Coral Reef Symp. lz59I-594.<br />
Chesher, R.H. 1969. Destruction of Pacific corals by the<br />
165t28O-28J.<br />
Acanthaster planci in Micronesia. Proc. 2nd<br />
sea star Acanthaster pta"ci. Science<br />
Chevalier, J.P. I97Ja. Coral reefs of New Caledonia. In O.A. Jones and R. Endean [eds.]<br />
Biology and Geology of Coral Reefs. Vol. I, p. Ia3-I67. Aeademic Press, New York.<br />
Chevalier, J. P. I97tb. Geomorphology and geology of coral reefs in French Polynesia. In<br />
O.A. Jmes and R. Endean [eds.] Biology and Geology of Coral Reefs. Vol. I, p. Il]-141.<br />
Academic Press, New York.<br />
Cruickshank, M.J. 1981. Offshore and onshore mining overview. ln M.J. Valencia (ed.).<br />
Proceedings of the Workshop on Coastal Area Development and lvl-anagement in Asia and<br />
the Pacific, Manila, Philippines, f-12 December 1979, p. 27-3I. University Press of Hawaii'<br />
Hmolulu.<br />
Dahl, A.L. 1980. Regional ecosystems $Jrvey of the South Pacific area. Technical Paper No.<br />
L79. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 99 p.<br />
Dahl, A. L. 1982. Conservation planning and environmental monitoring for lourism<br />
development. 5. Pacif. Comm. Environ. Newsl. 4222-26.
- tol<br />
Dahl, A.L. and l.L. Baumgart. 1982. The state of the environrnent in the South Pacific.<br />
Report of lhe Conference m the Human Environment in the South Pacific, Rarotonga, Cook<br />
Islands,8-11 March 1982, p. 47-7I. South Pacific Cornmission, Noumea, New Caledonia.<br />
Dasrnann, R.F. 1971. lsland values and island use. In FlF.l. Elliott [ed.] Papers presented to<br />
the Regional Symposium on Conservation of Nffre - Reefs and Lagoons, Nbumea, New<br />
Caledonia, 5-14 August I97I, p. l-5. South Pacific Commission, Noumea.<br />
Division of Lands. 1981. Coastal resources and environrnent: Trust Territory of the Pacific<br />
Islands. In M.J. Valencia [ed.] Proceedings of the Workshop m CoasLal Area Development<br />
and ManElement in Asia and the Pacific, Manila, Philippines, ]-12 December 1979, p.<br />
77-SL University Press of Hawaii, Hmolulu.<br />
Douqlas, G. 1969. Draft check list of Pacific oceanic islands. Micronesica 5(2)2J27-46J,<br />
Elliott, FtF.l, [ed.]. 197f. Proceedings of the Regional Symposium on Conservalion of Nature -<br />
Reefs and Lagoons, Noumea, New Caledonia, 5-14 August 1971. South Pacific Commission,<br />
Noumea. 156 p.<br />
Finney, B.R. 1965. Economic change and dietary eonsequences among the Tahitians.<br />
Micronesica 2(I):l-14.<br />
Gawel, Michael. 1981. Marine resources development planning for tropical Pacific islands.<br />
Proc. 4th Int. Coral Reef Symp. L2247-25I.<br />
Gibbs, P.E.r D.R. Stoddart and M.G. Vevers. 1971. Coral reefs and associated cornmunities in<br />
the Cook Islands. Roy. Soe. N.Z. Bull. 8:91-105, lpls.<br />
Ganez, E.D. I981. Perspectives on coral reef research and management in the Pacific.<br />
Opening addness at the Coral Reef Section, l5th Pacific Science Congress, Dunedin, New<br />
Zealand, I-ll February I98). Ocean Mgt. 8:28I-295.<br />
Grigg, R.W. 1979. Conal reef ecosystems of the Pacific islands: issues and problems for<br />
futuce Inanagement and planning. In J.E. Byrne [ed.] Literature Review and Synthesis of<br />
Information on Pacific Island Ecosystems. FW5/OBS-791t5. p. 6-l to 6-17. U.5. Fish and<br />
Wildlife Service, Office of Biological Services, Washington, D. C.<br />
Guilcher, A. 1974. Coral reefs of Lhe New Hebrides, Melanesia, with particuliar reference to<br />
open-see, not fringing, reefs. Proc. 2nd Int. Coral Reef Symp. 22523-5J5.<br />
Hambuechen, W.H. 1971. Cook Islands. ln H.F.l. Elliott [ed.] p*u.s presented to the Regional<br />
Symposium on Conservation of NatuiJ - Reefs and Lagoons, Nournea, New Caledonia, l-tC<br />
August 1971, p. 29-31.South Pacific Commission, Noumea.<br />
Hewson, C.A.Y., F. Malele and P.D. Muller. 1981. Coastal area management in Western<br />
Samoa. In M.J. Valencia [ed.] Proceedings of the Workshop on Coastal Area Development<br />
and MaiE-gement in Asia and the Pacific, Manila, Philippines, t-LZ December L979.<br />
University Press of Hawaii, Hmolulu.<br />
Holdgate, Nt.W., M. Kansas and G.F. White. Lg82. World environmental trends between 1972<br />
and 1982. Environ. Conserv. 9(l):ll-29.<br />
Johannes, R.E. 1977. Traditional law of the sea in Micronesia. Micronesica ll(2):I2L-127.<br />
Johannes, R. E. 1978. Tradilional marine conservation nethods in Oceania and their demise.<br />
Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. *,t49-t64.<br />
Jmes, O.A. i977. Sorne notes on the coral reefs of the Solsmon Islands together with a<br />
reference to New Guinea. In O.A. Jmes and R. Endean [eds.] Biology and Geology of Corat<br />
Reefs. Vol. IV, p. 20f-201. Academic Press, New York.<br />
Jcres, R.S. and R.H. Randall. 1971. A study of biologieal irnpect caused by natural and<br />
man-induced cfianges m a tropical reef. Univ. Guam Marine Lab. Tech. Rep. No. 7. 184 p.
- 104<br />
Ladd, FlS. 1971. Bikini and EniweLok Atolls, Marshall Islands. In O.A. Jones and R. Endean<br />
[eds.] Biology and Geology of Coral Reefs. Vol. I, p. gl-Iiz-Academic Press, New York.<br />
Langham' N.P.E. and J.A. Mathias. L977, The problems of eonservation of coral reefs in<br />
northwest Sabah. Mar. Res. lndorr. No. l7:51-58.<br />
Lewis, J.B. 1977. Processes of orqanic pnoduction on coral reefs. Biol. Rev.52tJO5-347.<br />
Lewis, J. B. 1981. Estirnates of secondary production of reef corals. Proc. 4th lnt.. Coral<br />
Reef Symp. 22569-374.<br />
Mac Neil' F.S. 1972. Physical and biological aspects of atolls in the northenn Varshalls. Proc.<br />
Symp. Corals and Coral Reefs. p.5O7-567, Mar. Biol. Ass. India, Cochin, lndia.<br />
Maragos, J.E. L974a. Coral communities on a seaward reef slope, Fanning Island. Pac. Sci.<br />
28(J)|257 -278.<br />
Maragos, J. E. 1974b. Reef corals of Fanning Island. Pac.Sci.28(1):247-255.<br />
Marsh, J.A., Jr. 1976. Energetic role of algae in reef ecosystems. Micronesica 12(l):ll-21.<br />
Marsh, J.A., Jr. and R.T. Tzuda. 197). Pqulation levels of Acanthaster planci in the Mariana<br />
and Caroline Islands, 1969-I972. Micronesica 9(DtI65 (Abstract).<br />
Marshall, N. 1979. F ishery yields of coral reefs and adjacent shallow water environrnerrts. In<br />
5.B. Sai la and P.M. Roedel [eds.]. Stock Assessmerrt for Tropical Small Scale FisherieT<br />
Proc. of an lnternational Workshop, 19-2I September 1979, Univ. Rhode Is., Kingston, R.l.<br />
International Center for Manine Resource Developrnent, University of Rhode Island.<br />
Marten, G.G. and J.J. Polovina. I982. A comparative study of fish yields frorn various<br />
tropical ecosystems, p. ?55-289. ln D. Pauly and G.l. Murphy [eds.] Theory and managerner'rt<br />
of Lropical fisheries. ICLARM Cotrference Proceedings 9, ]50 p. lnternatiorral Cerrter for<br />
Living Aquatic Resources ManaqernenL, Manila, Phi lippines and Division of Frsheries<br />
Research, CSIRO, Cronullar Aus[ralia.<br />
Mason, L. 1979. 5ocioeconomic developmerrt alrd ecosystem inteqrity in American-controlled<br />
Pacific island locations. In J.E. [:]yrne [ed.]. Literature Review arrd Synthesrs of lrrforrnatron<br />
on Pacif ic Island Ecosystems. FwS/OBS-791t5, p. I0-l to LO-79. U.5. l-- islr arrd Wildlif e<br />
Service, Off ice of Biological Services, Washington, D. C.<br />
Mayor, A.G. 1924. SLructure and ecology of Samoan reefs. Carnegie lnst. Wash. Publ.<br />
l9(140):1-25.<br />
McLean, R.F. 1980a. Tl-e land-sea interf ace of srnall lropical islands: rnorphodynarnics and<br />
man. In H.C. Brookfield [ed.] Populalion-Environment Relatiorrs in Tropical Islands: f he<br />
Case dfEastern Fiji. Unesco, MAB Techrrical Notes 1l:I25-110.<br />
McLean, R. F. 1980b. Spatial and te'nporal variabilrty of external controls on small island<br />
ecosystems. In H.C. blrookfield [ed.J. Pqlulation-Environrnent Relations in Tropical lslands:<br />
The Case of Eastern Fiji. Unesco, MAB Technical NoLes lJzIA9-I75.<br />
Morton, J. L91 4. The coral reefs of tlre Britrsh Solomorr Islands: a comparaLive study of lheir<br />
composition and ecology. Proc. Znd Int. Coral Reef Symp. 2:3I-5t.<br />
Munro, J.L. and J. Gwyther. I981. Growth rates and maricultural poterrtial of tridacnid<br />
clams. Proc. 4th Int. Coral Reef Symp. 2r6JJ-616.<br />
Murdy, E.O. and C.J. Ferraris, Jr. 1980. The contribution of coral reef fisheries to Phi lippine<br />
fisheries production. ICLARM Newsl. J:?I-22.<br />
Murrell, S. 1982. Marine pollution in the Soulh Pacific. S. Pacif. Comm. Invirorr. Newsl.4:10.<br />
Naim, O. I98I. Effect of coral sand extractions on the small mobile fauna associated wi th the<br />
algae of a fringing reef (Moorea-French Polynesia). Proc. 4th Int. Coral Reef 5ymp.<br />
LzL?i-127.
- 105<br />
Nishihirar lvt and K. YamazaLo. 1974. Human inlerference with the coral reef community and<br />
Acanthaster infestetion of Okinawa. Proe. Znd Int. Coral Reef Symp. 7:577-59O.<br />
Nolan' .}J. 1979. Guam: changing patterns of coastal and marine exploitation. University of<br />
Guam Marine Laboratory Tech. Rep. No. 5!, 62 p.<br />
Owen' R.P. 1969. The slatus of conservation in the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.<br />
Micronesica 5(D2fi3 -3O6.<br />
Owen' R. P. L97t, A conservation program for the Trust Territory. ln l-l F. l. Eltiott [ed.].<br />
Papers presented to the Regional Symposium on Conservation of Nature - Reefs and<br />
Lagoons, Noumea, New Caledonia, 5-14 August 1971, p. 69-83. South Pacific Commission,<br />
Noumea.<br />
Parrat, J L97). La protection de la nature en<br />
Pryers presented to the Regional Symposium<br />
Lagoons, Noumea, New Caledonia, 5-14 August<br />
Noumea.<br />
Nouvelle-Caledonie. In FLF.l. Elliott (ed.).<br />
on Conservation of-Nature - Reef s and<br />
1971, p. 41-48. South Pacific Commission,<br />
Phipps' C.V.G. and B.V. Preobrazhensky. 1976. Morphology, development and general coral<br />
distribution of some reefs of the Lau Islands, Fiji, Proc. Znd Int. Symp on Fcsil Corals and<br />
Coral Reefs, Paris, 1976. p. MO-455.<br />
Randall, J.E. 1979. Reef and shore fishes of the Hawaiian Archipelago, Guam, American<br />
Samoa and the U.S. Trust Territory. ln J.E. Byrne [ed.] Literature Review and Synthesis of<br />
Information on Pacific Island Ecosystems. FSW/OEIS-79155, p. 8-I to g-12. U.S. Fish and<br />
Wildlife Service, Office of Biological Services, Washington, D. C.<br />
Randall' R.H. and L.G. Eldredge. 1977. Eftects of Typhoon Pamela on the coral reefs of<br />
Guam. Proc. lrd Int. Coral Reef Symp. 2:525-5JI<br />
Rachid' R. 1980. Coral reefs - the case for conservation. Sekitar 2(2lJ)t4O-46.<br />
Ricard' M. and B. Delesalle. 1981. Phytoplankton and primary production of the Scilly Lagoon<br />
waters. Proc. 4th Int. Coral Reef Symp. I;425-429.<br />
Ricard' M., G. Richard' B. Salvat and J.L. Toffart. 1977. Coral reef and lagoon research in<br />
French Polynesia: 12) publications with absLracts. Rev. Algol. Fmc. Hors. Ser. No. I. 44 p.<br />
Richard' G. 1981. A first evaluation of the findings on the growth and production of lagoon<br />
and reef molluscs in French Polynesia. Proc.4th Int. Coral Reef Symp. ?2631 -64I.<br />
Richard' G.' R. Galzin, B. Salvat, R. Bagnis, J. Bennett, lvl Denizot and M. Ricard. I9Bl.<br />
Geomorphology, ecology and socio-economy of the Futuna marine ecosystem (Horn<br />
Archipelago - Polynesia). Proc. 4th Int. Coral Reef Symp. LzZ69-21'4.<br />
Richmond, R.N. I98I. Fiii. In M.J. Valencia [ed.] proceedings of the Workshop on Coastal<br />
Area Development and Managenrent in Asia and the Pacific, Manila, Philippines, t-Iz<br />
December L979, p. 59-50. University Press of Hawaii, Hr,olulu.<br />
Roy, K.J. and S.V. Smith. 1971. Sedimentation and coral reef development in turbid water:<br />
Fanning Lagoon. Pac. Sci. 25t254-248.<br />
Rylandr JS. 1981. Reefs of southwest Viti Levu and their tourism potenbial. Pmc.4th Int.<br />
Coral Reef Symp. I:29I-298.<br />
SalvaL' B. I975. Ttn preservation of Polynesian atolls. In FLF.l. Elliott ted.l Ppers presented<br />
to the Regional Symposium on Conservation of NatuE - Reefs and Lagoons, Nounca, New<br />
caledmia, 5-14 Augusl 1971, p. 19-21. south Pacific commission, Nounca.<br />
Salvatr B. 1978. Trouble in paradise. Pert. I: Assault m coral reefs and lagoons. parks<br />
l(2):I-4.
- 106<br />
Salvat, B. 1980. The living rnarine nesources of the South Pacific - past, present and future.<br />
In KC. Bmokfield [ed.] Pqulation - Environnent Relations in Tropical lslands: The Case<br />
iT Ectern Fiji. Unesco, MAB Technical Notes 1l:1ll-148.<br />
Salvat, B. 198Ia. Preservation of coral reefs: scientific whim or economic necessity? Past' t<br />
present and future. Proc. 4th Int. Coral Reef Symp. It225'229.<br />
Salvat, B. I981b. Utilizetion and trade of coral reef nplluscs in French Polynesia, past and<br />
preeent. Pmc. 4th Int. Coral Reef Symp. l:ll1 (Abstract). t<br />
Salvat, 8., N4. Ricard, G. Richard, R. Galzin and J. Toffart. 1978. A c.immary review of the<br />
ecology-and reef-lagoon economy of Lau. Iq H.C. Brookfield [ed.] The Small Islands and the<br />
Reefi' Unegco/UtlFFn f iji leland Reports-No. 4 (Canbema,ANU for Unesco)' p. 129-145.<br />
Salvat, 8., G. Richard, JL. Toffart, tlt Ricard and R. Galzin. 1977. Reef lagoon complex of<br />
Lakeba lsland (Lau Group, Fiji) - geomorphology, biotic sssociations and socio-ecology.<br />
Proc. Jrd Int. Coral Reef Symp. 2:297-frJ.<br />
Smith, S.V. 1978. Coral reef area and the contributions of reefs to processes and resources of<br />
the world's (reans. Nature 27J2225-226.<br />
Smith, T. and J. Stimson. 1979. Stetue of harvested marine resources in the Hawaiien Islands<br />
end the Pacific Trust Territory. ln J.E. Byrne .[ed.] Literature Review and Synthesis of<br />
Information m pacific lsland Ecffsiems. FWS/OB5-7915', p. 9-l to 9-15. U.5. Fish and<br />
Wltdlife Service, Office of Biological Servicea, Wshington' D. C'<br />
South Pacific Cornmission. 1982. South Pecific economies 1979: statistical sJrnmary. South<br />
Pacific Cornmission, Noumea. J6 P.<br />
Stoddart, D.R. and C.S.G. Pillai. 197f. Coral reefs and tpef corals in the Cook Islands, South<br />
Pacific. In R. Fraser [ed.] Oceanography of the South Pacific, L972, p. 475-481. New<br />
Zealand tGlional Cmrmission for Unesco, Wellington.<br />
Swerdloffr S.N. 1971. TfE status of marine'.conservstion in Anerican Samoa - 197I. In FLF.l.<br />
- gUiott tea.l. Papers presented to the Rbgional Symposium m Conservation of liEture -<br />
Reefs and Lagoons, Noumea, New Caledoniar 5-I4 August 197I, p. 2t-27. South Pacific<br />
Canmisgionr Nounna.<br />
Tatda, R.T. 1981. Coral reefs in Micronesia. luCN Corel Reef Newsletter No. l:25-27.<br />
Underwood, JH. 197). Pqulation history of Guam: context of micro-evolution. Micronesica<br />
9(l):Il-44.<br />
Weber, 3. N. l97la. Generic diversity of scleractinian reef corels in the central Solomon<br />
Iglande. Pac. Sci. ?7(4\.r9L-198.<br />
lWeber, .tr N. l97lb. Reef corals and coral reefs in the vicinity of Port Moresby, Pryua New<br />
Guinea. Pac. Sci. 27(4)2J77-590.<br />
Weber, J.N. and P.M,J. Wmdhead. 1970. Ecological studies of the coral predator Acanthsster<br />
glenci in the South Pacific. Mar. Biol. 6zL2-I7.<br />
Wella, J.W. 1959. Apects of Pacific coral reefs. Micronesica 5Q)IJI1'J22.<br />
Wells, S.M. 1981. lnternstional trade in ornamental eorals and shells. Proc. Ath Int. Corel<br />
Reef Symp. Lt32l-1JO.<br />
Whitehouae, F.W. 1971. Coral reefs of the New Guinea re9!911! O.A' .Jmes and R' Endean<br />
[eds.] Biology and Geology of Coral Reefs. Vol.t, p. 169-186. Academic Press, New York.<br />
yp, l-lT. and E.D. Gomez. 1984. Coral reef degradation and pollution in the Eaet Asian Seae<br />
,"iion. In A. L Dahl and I Carew-Reid [eds] Environrnent and reaources in the Pacific: a<br />
regionat approach. UNEP Regional Seas, Geneva.<br />
ymge, c.M. 1969. Cmservation of corel reefs. Micronesice 5(2):107-110.
-107-<br />
FORESTRY IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC: HOW AhD FOR WHOM ?<br />
Dennis Richardson<br />
Forestry Council, P.O. Box 5052, Lambton Ouay<br />
Wellington, New Zealand<br />
ABSTRACI<br />
The Asian Development Bank has elassified the forest economies of its South<br />
Pacific Member Countries as follows: industrialized econornies with significant<br />
forest resources (Australia and New Zealand); island economies with abundant<br />
resources at a low level of industrialization (Papua New Guinea)i developing island<br />
economies with significant forest resources (Fiji, Western Samoa, Solomon lslands);<br />
and developing island economies with limited forest resources (Kiribati, Tonga,<br />
Cook Islands).<br />
Following a review of projected global and regional demand for wood, the<br />
constraints and opportunities for forestry development in these different<br />
environnents are discussed. The ecological hazards - and economic myopia - of<br />
unrestrained logging are emphasized. The goods and services which forestry can<br />
undoubtedly provide will not be realised by exploitative venlures or by casting<br />
island economies in the role of raw material zuppliers to the industrialized<br />
nations.<br />
Professional arrogance and blinkered vision among land-use pundits (including<br />
environmentalists) are as damaging to fragile ecosystems as the juggernauts of<br />
exploitative logging and large scale monocultural reforestation. This paper<br />
highlights the need for safeguards to mitigate the effects of dangerous<br />
technologies, at the same [ime enabling a sustainable srpply of goods and services<br />
from forestry. It calls for a reduction in the export of unprocessed logs, the<br />
adoption of light capital technologies and appropriale operational sceles, and lhe<br />
expansion of agriculture-supportive, mulLi-purpose, forestry.<br />
Sane implications of adopting a rrhuman chauvinist'r approach to ecosystem<br />
utilization are considered.<br />
Introduction<br />
In this paper, I propose to draw your attention to what I perceive to be signifieant<br />
recent changes in the regional forest economy (inctuding some of the ecologicel hazardg<br />
associated with those changes) and to suggest possible safeguards to €nsure a s.Jstainable<br />
srlpply of goods and services from forestry in the Pacific lslands.<br />
I shall argue the csse against the twin juggerneuts of exploitative logging and<br />
large-scale industrial plantatione in the smaller islands, and I shall attempl Lo reconcile<br />
global and regional needs for foregt products with the conservelion of our dirninishing<br />
resource. My argunents are not new: indeed, the gist of what I have to say I have previously<br />
discu$ed at a Waigani seminar and in a presentation to a gathering of environrnentalists<br />
(Richardson, l98l). But I believe the thene has particular relevance because of the'Pacific<br />
Ieland potential to teach the rest of the world a leseon in the ert and science of biological<br />
self-arfficiency which ultimately we shall all need to learn.
lndustrial Wood Demand and Supply<br />
-108-<br />
The ecological hazards to which I have referred stem prilnarily from a maegive increese<br />
during the last few years in exploitalive logging in the South Pecific. It has followed the<br />
resolve of the traditional log-exporting countries in Asia and Afnica to reduce the export of<br />
unprocessed raw material.<br />
A (gcade ago, Indonesia exported I{ million cubic rnetrer (t}) of logs, Malaysia 14<br />
million m', end the Philippines 8 million m-. Six years later these volunes had dropped by<br />
25% and in I98I by a further l0%. Over the same period, however, log exports from Papua<br />
New Guinea rose by 100% and from the Solomon lslands by 2009L To contain togging costs'<br />
producers ere now searching out flat, easy terrain in eparsaly populated areas - where thene<br />
witl be no inconvenient demands for environrnental inpact stttements and where they may<br />
imporl cheap labour without arousing too mueh opposition. This is taking them to lhe smaller<br />
islands (in Papua New Guinea, for example, lo Woodlark and Umboi lelands, to Erromanga in<br />
Vanuatu, to Kolombangara and South New Georgia in the Solomons) where their impact is<br />
inf initely greater and the benef its more restricted tian on the bigger' more densely<br />
populated, land masses, and where we simply do not know whet effects may result from<br />
ecological change m this scale in a confined environrnent .<br />
Changes in the regional forest economy must be viewed in the context of burgeoning<br />
increases in globat demands for the products of the forests and, too, fon the land which<br />
susLains them.<br />
Moreover, in place of the dearth of reliable information about forest resources which<br />
frustrated the early supply and demand forecaets of the FAO' we nowadays suffer almost an<br />
'rembarrassrnent of riches" of prognoses. Technology changes more rapidly than [rees grow,<br />
and faster than economisls think - but slower (it seems) than data accumulate! A smorgasbord<br />
of satellite lechnology and electronic data processing equiprnenl currently enables us to<br />
moniLor area and volune changes in the worldts forests with a greater precision than ever<br />
before; for most countries, the reeults of such investigations have been frightening andr for<br />
a! of us, they are sobering.<br />
Tfe wortd in 1975 contained 2.8 billion hectares (ha) of closed forest capable of being<br />
managed for a sustained yield - 40% conifergus (softwood), .50% broadleaved (har{wood).<br />
These forosts csrry more than 100 billion m- of wood - of which 200 billion m- is of<br />
hardwood and concentrated in the tropical and srb-tropical aress of Lafin Ancrica' Africa<br />
and the Asia-Pacific region. From this resource, we remove 2.5 billion m- P.a - but although<br />
this is less lhan I% of the growing stock, the removals are not balanced over lhe resounce<br />
base. As to species, the conifers are intensively exploited, the hardwoods afe under-utilized.<br />
To put these values into perspective, mly 40% of the world's forests are managed<br />
(even zuperficially) to sustained yield standards (the rest are "mined'), while almost half the<br />
forest removals are not used industrially at all (especially in Latin Arnerica and the<br />
Asia-Pacif ic).<br />
Several questions arise.<br />
Firatly, ]row havc wc rcechod thir poition?<br />
Ovgr the lasl 50 years, our world has experienqpd an increase in wood use from I<br />
billion m'p.a. (bg equivalent neasure) to 2.5 billion m- p.a - of which about 5096 has been<br />
used indqstrially. If these trends continued, the projecled global demand would reach 4.5<br />
billion m' by the end of the century. (ln fact, this picture is misleading, because the trends<br />
on which the projeclions are bsed were establiehed prior to the so-called energy crisis'<br />
lriggered in l97J).<br />
Sacmdlyr whcra ir thir indurtrisl wood lradad?<br />
Tle industrialized nations consurne aome 82% of the total world slpply (North America,<br />
)4%, the USSR and E. Europe 271f,, W. Europe I2%), and the lees developed countries uge<br />
l8%. These figures illuetrate the massive dependence of world trede m the demends of lhe<br />
developed countries.<br />
Of interegt, too, is the fact thet rnerly 5096 of the worldrs trade in unprocessed loqa is<br />
to supply Jpan, while 55-5096 of trade in sawn wood and pulp and paper ia handled by
,<br />
-109-<br />
Western Europe. And despite the huge demands of Japan, thet nalion has a bigger proportion<br />
of its land surface under foreets (6796) than any Pacific country other than Papua New<br />
Guinea.<br />
Thirdly, can thir trade be maintained?<br />
Forecasts of future global needs for wood derive from models incorporating<br />
econometric parameLers such Ls gross domestic product (GDP)' population gnowth rate, and<br />
Iiteracy, and demand projections are mly as aceurate as the forecasts of changes in these<br />
p"r"r"i"rr. Inasmuch es they take into consideration previous studies - and the results of<br />
satellite surveillance - the estimates for rrGlobal 2000" (prepared f or e US presidential<br />
committee in 1980; Barney, 1980) and those made by the Centre for Agrieultural Strategy in<br />
198I, are the most convincing. Assuming high incqme growth and high GDP P<br />
projected annual roundwood consunption is 6 billion m- by the year 2000 and Il billion m' 25<br />
years later (respectively 2.4 and 4.4 times the 1976 consunption). f fe high grow$ ,T"l::i?<br />
is, of course, 4rnrealisiic. Assuming no growth at all, demand will be 4 billion m- (in 2000)<br />
and 6 billion m' (in 2025) - 1.6 and 2.4 times the 1976 figures.<br />
Fourthly, how do thecc eatimetes cotrparG with futurc ilJpply forecaatr?<br />
If we consider our existing forest resources and assunre the ttno growth[ renario, we<br />
shall be cutting I.1% p.a. of thi growing stock by 2000 and nearly 2% p.a. by 2O25- This<br />
implies a 50 yelr forest rotation - which may be feasible in coniferous forest (even in the<br />
northern hemisphere) but is hiqhly unlikely in nrost tropical forests'<br />
Fifthly, will technology enable us to extend arppliea?<br />
The answer to this question is, of courte, "Yes, in theory". G. K. Elliott (perqonal<br />
communication, 1982) has estimated a sustainable increase in zupply of I.4 billion m-, of<br />
which 4995 derives from more extensi ve exploitation and eloser utilization of the worldrs<br />
coniferous forest and 2J% from closer harvesting of the tropical forests: the remainder is<br />
nrade up of increases in plantations (7%), improved silviculture (5%), reduced losses from fire<br />
an.] patnogens (8%), increased use of wood residues (7%), and improved pulping yields (6%I<br />
Mmt of these achievements wlll be costly and few of [hem offer much help to lhe Pacific<br />
Islands. And even these increases are predicated upon sweeping changes in the acceptability<br />
of species.<br />
Moreover, the maintenance of supply assutnes lhat reductions in natural forest yields<br />
and areas are balanced by increases from plantations. We are told by the Global 2000 report<br />
(Barney, 1980), however, that the world's foresls are disappearinq at the rate of 18-20<br />
million ha p.a. - mostly from the humid tropics - "Growing stocks of commercial size timber<br />
are projected to decline 5096 per capita (over the next 20 years)... The projections indicate<br />
that by 2000, some 40% of th; refrffi-hg forest coven in least developed countries will be<br />
gone".ihere are few signs that plantation production will replace this lost yield. The FAO<br />
tiSgZi projects an increlse from 5 million ha to 16 million ha in tropicgl plantations by the<br />
year 2ti00-with industrial wood production reaching some I00 million m- p.a. (This does not<br />
include a possible contribution f rom China, whose af f orestation proqnamme - largely<br />
temperate - is enormous but for which information on long-term production possibilities is not<br />
available).<br />
Sixthly, how dcr the potential urpply rnetch the likely demand?<br />
Evidently, not too well. Significant tightening in world zupply is inevitabte by the end<br />
of the century, with a serious shortfall by 2O25. This situation presages conlinuing increases<br />
in real prices for wood products and a rapid rise in the value of natural forests a their area<br />
diminishes. There is no need [o spell out the commencial implications of these changes or to<br />
identify the likely beneficiaries. More serious are the non-commerciel implications. The<br />
countries of our region stand in as much reed of the goods and services which forests can<br />
provide as any; and thene is more to Pacif ic Islends forestry than industrial wood production.<br />
Tfe role of forests as a climatic buffer has yet to be analysed in detail, but it is<br />
undoubtedly important; more readily evident in the larger and mountainous islands is their<br />
crucial protective role in agricultune and water zupplies. The distinctive physiognomy of<br />
forest ecotypes - in certain critical areas and in certain types of watershed - effectively<br />
controls the siltation of rivers and reservoirs, prevents flooding and denudation, and enables
-IIO-<br />
the survivel of agriculiure. Forests also contribute a wide range of goods for which demand<br />
in the island economies is growing. tncreasing attention is focusing upon forest production of<br />
fuelwood (both domestic aid indrlstrial), charloal, artifacts, nedicinal products and biocidest<br />
foods (fruits, nuts, berries, tubers, fungi and honey), wildlife (especially pigs and birds)'<br />
f odder, ayei, cbtn f ibres, gums (copal, damar, etc.), rattan, oils (sandalwoodr massoy'<br />
cinnarnonr'candlenut), silk, -crr-tch, orchids and a host of other useful producbs. Several of<br />
theee non-wood products enter commercial production and some promise to form the bases of<br />
new, small-scale industries (e.g., silk and shiitake mushroom production). Trees can also play<br />
a recreational role in the alleiiation of nrental and physical stress and in creaLing the illusion<br />
of privacy which is necessary to all people, no matter .how gregarious their cultures may<br />
depict them. Moreover, treeg have a role-- increasing in importance unf ortunately - in hiding<br />
the scars of open-cast mining.<br />
Finaly, dcs not the aruwer to our dilenma lie in ma$ive reforestation?<br />
Already New Zealand and Australia have esp_oused this alternative and there $pears to<br />
be no shortage of low-interest loan fnoney (from, e.9., the Y*l.d B3nk, the Asian<br />
DevelopmenI dank, bilateral aid agencies, eLc.), to enable the less-developed Pacific Islands<br />
to foliow suit. The trans-national corporations, toor (especially the oil companies) are<br />
becoming involved with reforestation and, in several countries, the availability of financial<br />
coneessi-ons for forestry is adding a rew dimension to the avoidance of tax'<br />
A common feature of these various ventures is their large scale and the use of<br />
monocultures of species (usually exotic) chosen for a high rate of uniform fibre production.<br />
Because of the concessionary financing element in reforestation , there is an opportunity cost<br />
to be borne and at this poinl it is per[inent to ask who witl be the beneficiary. If the present<br />
pattern of forest utilization in our region continues, the answer is Japan. And to suggest that<br />
lh" l"r" developed countries - after exporting their resources to Japan - should undertake<br />
large-scale reforestation for the primary beneiit of that .country would be less than tactful.<br />
yet if concessionary finance is not made available, there is unlikely to be any re-planting.<br />
Alternative Forestrv<br />
The ADB (f978) classifies the forest economies of its South Pacific member countries<br />
as follows: island economies with abundant resources at a low level of industrialization (e.9'<br />
papua New Guinea)i developing economies with significant resources (Fiji, Western Samoa,<br />
Soiomon Islands); developing eionomies with very limited resources (Kiribati' Tonga' Cook<br />
Islands); and industrialized economies with significant forest resources. Tfreir diversity is<br />
uniform. Equally paradoxically, the kind of forestry rypropriate to their.economies varies<br />
lreatly (with respect to policies and practices) but derives from an essentially similar ethie -<br />
giuing priority to the needs. of indigenous people'<br />
papua New Guinea exemplifies the dangers of exploitative logging. In promoting foreign<br />
investment successive governnrents have repJatedly cited a total forest area of 40 million ha<br />
(I5 million operable) cipable of sustaining an annual cut of 19 000 ha for the 1ext,590 y":I::<br />
ihroughout tne lgZOs the log-yield was steady at .ret.her less than I million m- and from Lhls<br />
base the National public Ex-penditure Plan (NPEP) projected a 5-fold increase in Iog exports<br />
over the decade l97g-r9g8 - thus reducing Lhe resource life to a little more than 100 years.<br />
It was assuned that over I00 years the natural resource could be replaced by high-yielding<br />
plantations.<br />
In fact, log exports in t98l were double the NPEP projection. Applying the IWE_P<br />
projected growth-rate to this new base, therefore, reduces the life of the resource to 50<br />
y".., - less than a lifetime even in Papua New Guinee and (since there is virtually no<br />
i"-pt"nting) offering I very different prospect from th.at.based on the original assunptions'<br />
Moreoverr- Ppua N?w Cuinea forest 'development policies must be judged in the light of<br />
documented evidence of malpractices (transf er pricing, under invoicing, etc.), in the<br />
eipatriate-dorninated log trade which (according to th9 Ciown Law Office) are siphoning off<br />
aome us$I5 million ,"u"?,u" annually! clearly, then, if the people of Papua New Guinea are<br />
to benefit realistically from their forest resources, there is an urgent need to control<br />
exploitative Iogging and to invest in some kind of sustained yield forest rnanagement.<br />
Constraints m conventional reforestation are the hiqh silvicultural costs (when<br />
compounded to the end of the rotation) md the fact that the finance agencies (whether<br />
I
-lu-<br />
Governnent, international agenciea or private intereste) are unwilling to invest in trae<br />
planting wiihout unquestionable security of land tenure: in Papua New Guinee - E indeed<br />
lnroughtut npst of the Pacific - there can be no sueh thing. Elsewhere I have rrggested thet<br />
" po"iibl" solution may lie in the identification of tree peciea wtrich are natural 'rrurvivor8"<br />
(*'irictr, no matter how slowly they mey grow, will survive without any tending) and their<br />
planting in the immediate rlt e oi logging (literally within 2-1 daye end with no buming)<br />
iRi"t".aron, in press). Tle costa would then be eet against the proceeds from logging and no!<br />
compounded forward. Such replanting must imply no claim to land tenure or to ownerehip of<br />
the future crop but has to be regarded as the foreatry equivalent of the now widespread<br />
requirernent in qen-cast mining thet the top-soil be replaced before handing the land back to<br />
the owners.<br />
The second cetegory of country (exemplified by Fijir Western Samoa and Solomon<br />
Ielands) heve some naiural forests but are already committed to their replacencnt by<br />
plantations - almost entirely of exotics. Species have been seleeted according to their<br />
projected growth rates and with a view to utilizetion for energy generation s well es<br />
conventional purPoses.<br />
It is probably too late for governrrEnts of these eountries to rchieve anything through<br />
closer control of natural forest lolginq (except, perhaps, in the case of t}re Solomon lslanda),<br />
though mueh could be done, I beliJve,lo bring about more realistic l€tums from timber sales<br />
throJgh the revision of royalties and other *sxes. (lt nas leen estimated that the total tex on<br />
Solom-on Island logs ranges from US$l0lm' to US$0/m-r- compa4ed with a range in Wett<br />
Africe for species-with similar end uses of U5$20/m- to uS$Il0/m-).<br />
plantation establishment is far-sighted and, in the case of Fijir already yielding some<br />
returns, as well as providing employment in rural areas (where most needed) and using<br />
otherwise denelicb land. In future, it may be necessery to monitor the nutrient status of soils<br />
under fast-grown plantation species sub ject to ultre-close spacing and short-rotetion<br />
harvesting. the biorn"rs road to energy self reliance is an qtion under consideration in many<br />
pacific iJlands; recent evidence from South Anrrica, however, $Iggests that glrort-rotetion<br />
intensive cultuie (SRIC) systems may result in rapid depletion of potassium (and perhaps other<br />
nutrients). In general, the soils of the lowland tropies available f or ref orestation are<br />
relatively infertiie; it is no coincidence that their most successful tree crops are tioee from<br />
which only small quantities of nutrients are removed in harvesting (rubberr oil-palmr cocoat<br />
etc) - a i". c.y from SRIC systems. Recent reports an the Jari river projeet (the mogt<br />
ambitious plantation scheme ever) underline the need for caution.<br />
Tfre island groups of Tmga, Kiribati and the Cooks exemplify the thousands of small,<br />
isolated and necessarily self-contained economies in the Pacific Ocean which are extremely<br />
vulnerable to externaf economic forces and have no prospect of developing significantly<br />
beyond subsistence. They have learned to live with advereity and have much to teach the rest<br />
of us about self -reliance (Richardson and Richardsonr 1984).<br />
ln these islands, the utilization of coconut is highly developed - the stems for<br />
construction, furniture, roof Biles, cladding, tools, utensile, charcoal, fuel, etc-1 the fibre end<br />
leaves for cloth, packaging, matting and ioofing; the sap for soft drinks, sgsr alcohol and<br />
toddy; the nuts ior foois, oit, "f,*"oal, etc.; and the roots for rope and twine. Logs may be<br />
preseivative lreated by immersion in salt water. Tfrere are a few other trees available (e.9'<br />
Lreadfruit, Calophyllum, Terminalis' Corgief Pendsnugr Jnocaryyl<br />
Canarium, etc') but all are<br />
grown witiriiG-Iqr-restrFrctemTiFAtffiZ-tor nruttipte purposes. isolation of<br />
-Tte<br />
lhe islands, their liny size and fragile ecosystems put a premium on cultivable soil. Fm the<br />
atolls and islets there is no elternetive foreetry.<br />
The forest economies of Auetralia and New Zealand serve rather different objectives<br />
and face different problems New Zealand in particular is committed to a major export role<br />
and has me of the most advenced forest production economieg in the world. (Our proceesing<br />
economies, by contrast, are with few exceptions, primitive.) Australia has been described s a<br />
vast continent, the iringes of which ere littered with eucalypts and Australians. Both<br />
countries are characterized by small, scatlered domestic markets, high labour and Lransport<br />
costs, and an increasing proportion of forest production coming from small producere. Our<br />
challenge, I believe, is- to adapt advanced proceasing technology to the point where scale<br />
economies become irrelevant and we can maximize grade outturn (irrespective of product) at<br />
acceptable costs. Comparative advantages we possess vis-a-vis other industrialized countries<br />
are low wood cosLs, cfieap power and - above all - a reputation for pioneerinq ingenuity and
-LIz-<br />
adaptability. If that capacity for innovation could be married to the island ethic of<br />
self-reliance, we would have little to worry about.<br />
The irnportant difficulties we face are two-fold: firstly' we have not yet come to terms<br />
with the ultimate need for a low-growth economy (and the aehievement of social sLability<br />
within s.rch en economy); secondlyr we have yet to learn how to manage our resources<br />
cnsibly, equitably and in nabional rather than sectional interests.<br />
Since returning to New Zealand six monthe ago, the biggest cha1.ge I have noticed is in<br />
attitudes to the forelt environment. I recall my astonishment when I first srrived here in the<br />
early 1960s at what appeaned to be nothing short of a misanthropic obsession of New Zealand<br />
foresters - the padlocks on forest eccess gates, the huge notices along the tourist roules<br />
south of Rotorua proclaiming that I'lb is itlegal to enter ihese forests'r! Tlere were no<br />
provisions tnder the Forests Act for setting apart State forest parks and recreation areas in<br />
btrtu fore"ts until 1965 - and we were spending enormous $rns of rnoney annually poisoninq<br />
wildlif e!<br />
Inevitably, I then contrasted these atLitudes with Denm'rk - where every forest over 5<br />
hectares in area, State or private, is legally and freely scCessible lo public recreationists;<br />
whenedeerinStatffiffitificiallyfedsothatpeoplemaywatchthem;whereurban<br />
facilities (hotels, pubs, restaurants, racetracks, golf courses - even amusemen[ parks) are<br />
provided to attract people into forest areas; and where the forester is ss much concerned<br />
with the management of a resort as a resource!<br />
What made for difficulties in coping with NZ forestry attitudes in the 1960s was lhe<br />
patent sincerity of foresters. The idea that there might be general and free access to State<br />
production forests - let alone those in private ownerghip - was reqarded at that tirne as an<br />
astonishing concept - €xi was the notion that there might be widespread public consultation<br />
and debate about forest policies and practices. The subsequent change in attitudes has been<br />
. revolutionary; present-day foresters €re infinitely more concerned about the needs and<br />
aspirations of ordinary people (and much more knowledgeable about how those needs may be<br />
salistieO) than was tnai generation - and is, I believe, every bit as sincere. Few of us, 20<br />
years ago, could have imagined a Landscape Section in the NZ Forest Service and the<br />
iublication of Guidelines fJr Creative Forestny; or the wealth of information now freely<br />
available about our forest and environmental heritage. Who, then, eould have envisaqed a<br />
Csnmission for the Environment - let alone a Government pnepared to pay $7 million in<br />
compensation to preserve parL of Pureora?<br />
Not surprisingly there is a much greater public awareness of forest land values than<br />
there was in the fieOs - and throughout the region more people than ever before cate more<br />
than ever before about the environment in which they live and work. For the sake of our<br />
children - and their children - we should be thankful that this is so.<br />
Ccnsiderably less comf orting, however, is a disturbing parallel development - the<br />
increasing, though zubtle, exploitaiion of people's concern. There have always, I zupposet<br />
Ueen proinets oI doom but they have exploited primarily the selfishness of a few ignorant<br />
souls; our latter-day pnofiteers of doom exploit the finer feelinqs of Inany more people.<br />
Moneover, they do soinGi- ne guise of scientif ic omniscience. Again, there have always<br />
been scientific charlaLans - but they have usually deceived only each olher. A small but<br />
vociferous minority of mountebanks purporting to represent our environmental movemenLs,<br />
however, mislead vast. numbers of concerned citizens who are honest enough to acknowledge<br />
thst they do not know Lhe answer to the Faustian dilemma we face with respect to the use<br />
of our resources.<br />
There is a real need, I believe, for environmental leadership which does not<br />
over-represent particular issues at the expense of real problems. In Australia, for example,<br />
preoccupation with rain forests diverts attenLion from the Mediterranean ecosystems - which<br />
have no conservation status. In New Zealand a similar preoccupation with Government-held<br />
Iand results in an almost total absence of environmentalist pressures upon private owners of<br />
land to manage it purposefully for multiple use and in lhe naLional interest. And where is the<br />
environmentalist concern for the lraditional (and appropriate) food resourees and their<br />
management in the Pacific lslands?<br />
It is perhaps [imely to expound the splendidly sensible case for human chauvinism<br />
argued by John Passmore in his masterly account of rrManrs responsibility for NaLure" (J91 4)'
-il1 -<br />
the view that nature should subserve the interests of mankind. Thus conservation must be<br />
selective; thene is merit in preserving the crown pigeon - because it is edibte; and the New<br />
Zealand black robin - because it is beautiful. There is common sense in maintaining a wide<br />
range of gene pools because we are woefully ignorant of the economic potentials of many<br />
plant and animal species; but there is none whatever (unless we believe in tnansmigration of<br />
souls) in preventing Lhe extinction of nrosquitos or sandflies. Moreover, there is little point in<br />
preserving any natural resource unless people are able to enjoy its fruits. And the challenge<br />
to management is to develop methods which ensure [hat those fruiLs remain to be enjoyed by<br />
all who so wish.<br />
I would not, of course, argue that all foresLers are beyond reproach when it comes to<br />
concern for humanity: thene are still many who are happier in a Procrustean pine plantation<br />
than among people (and of course there are eommercial timber interests who rank eompany<br />
profits before the national interest). BuL, as in all things, there is a golden rrean - a balance<br />
which we need to find before it is too late. We shall not reach it lhrough distortion,<br />
half -truths and arrogance. Nor, I am af raid, shall we f ind it through lhe delermined<br />
objecti vity to which our scientists aspire. Let us remember the legend of Occamrs ass - the<br />
beast te[hened equidistantly between two equally desirable bundles of hay; because of its<br />
strict objectivity , it (inevitably) starved to death!<br />
More important. is a humanist commitment to future generations. In conclusion, may I<br />
apply the famous Nigerian credo concerning land to our Pacific environment? I! "belongs to a<br />
vast family of which many are dead, a few are living and countless numbers are still unborn.'r<br />
It does not belong to foresters, or sawmillers or blinkered environmentalists. Let all of us<br />
endeavour to manage it with honesLy, awareness and humility.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
ADB. 1978. Sector paper trl foresLry and forest industries. Asian Developmenl Bank, Manila,<br />
Philippines. 78 p.<br />
FAO. 1982. World forest products, demand and zupply, 1990 and 2000. FAO Forestry P4er<br />
29. Food and Agricultune Organization, Rrne, ltaly.<br />
Barney, Genald O. (Study Direclor). 1980. The Global 2000 Report to the President, Entering<br />
the Twentyf irst Century. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.<br />
Passmore, John. 1974. Manrs responsibility for nature. Duckworth.<br />
Richardson' S. D. 198I. Forestry and the environnrent in the South Pacific. SPREP Tqic<br />
Review 8. South Pacifie Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. I1 p.<br />
Richardson, 5. D. (ln press). Unnatural practices. World Wmd.<br />
Richardson, S. D. and .I Richardson. f984. Agroforestry and the Pacific Islands. Jotrrnal of<br />
Pacific Studies (in press).
Il5<br />
TR@ICAL FORESTRY IN MELANESIA AAD SOME PACIFIC ISLAhDS<br />
K. D. Merten<br />
J. G. Groome and Associates, P.O. Box 169<br />
Taupo, New Zealand<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Most of the material used in lhis paper is based m work in Lhe Solomon<br />
Islands, but supplementary data are derived from Fiji, Western Samoa and Enga<br />
Province, Pryua New Guinea. The reduction in vegetative complexity east of the<br />
Wallace Line is illustrated partly by comparison of the principal timber species in<br />
the various countries. Some indication is given of the structure of the forest<br />
biomass, the implications of various forest phases, and species grouping using<br />
Solomon Istand data, VariaLions in forest structure wiLh increasing distance from<br />
the coast and increasing altitude on Pacific Islands are discussed, as well as the<br />
ef f ect of wind, logging and agricultural developnent which are the main<br />
instrurnents of forest disturbance.<br />
Both naLural and artificial aspects of forest regeneration are covered, with<br />
particu lar ref erence to close and line planting techniques. Monocultures and<br />
veget.ational mixtures are considered as they relate to pests, diseases and soil<br />
ferti Iit y.<br />
Introduction<br />
Finally some ma.ior factors affecting qtimal land use m small Pacific Islands<br />
in the 21st Century are outlined.<br />
Sandal wood was exported from the Western Pacific islsnds in the nineteenth c€ntury,<br />
but large scale and scientific forestry did nol really start until after the Second World War.<br />
In the first few years poor communications and scarce funds generally rneant that little<br />
impact was made. Most knowledge and data have been gained during [he past two decades.<br />
The author spent much of that time in the Solomon lslands with strort term msignncnts<br />
to Fiji, Western Samoa, Enga Province in Papua New Guinea, and Tmga. In the Solomon<br />
Islands t}re author was closely involved in rnoet branches of the Foregt Service work.<br />
At the present time research into various aspects of foreetry is most advanced in<br />
Papua New Guinea, while in other countries the Forest Services have devoted rnoet of their<br />
effortr to replanting: predorninantly Pinus caribaea in Fiji, and tropical hendwoodg in the<br />
Solomon lslende. Venuatu has been developing foreetry extension servicee. TIE<br />
Frcnch-speaking territories have had the benefite of research conducted by e branch of the<br />
Centre Technique Forestier Tropical in New Caledonia. Tlc United Statee Forest Service<br />
operates in Hewaii and in recent years arnall scale forestry haa been started in Micronesia,<br />
with staff ustrally from the Peace Corps.<br />
In 1978, a Pacific Regional Meeting m Forest Management and Developnrcnt wae held<br />
in Suva, Fiji, which indicated both the divereity end the common gound in forestry<br />
development m the islends of the Pacific and streesad the reed for a greater interchange of<br />
data between countries, for co-ordinetion of trainingr and for a full time foreetry advieer to<br />
the Pacific. The New Zealand Governrrent has recently rypointed a Forestry Adviser to the<br />
Pacific region under ita aid cheme.
- tr6<br />
TABLE 1 - MAJOR PACII.IC TIMBEI1 SPECIES<br />
Gcncric nemes P+u8 Ncw Guince Solomon lalande Fiji Vsnustu WGstGrn Semoa<br />
A SpcEialirt - lumitur? snd veneer<br />
Anpore A. cucull8ta A. cuculla[a<br />
Aglaig A. spp,<br />
Castanopsio C, acumrnatlEsima<br />
Dracontomehrm O. puberlum<br />
Dysoxylum D. rpp. D. .pp<br />
Elmemillia E. papuana<br />
Nothof8gus N, spp.<br />
Pterocerpus P. indrcuo<br />
Scfrizgneria S. serraLa S. serrata<br />
Tone T. a:reni<br />
Funderria F. spp,<br />
Burckella B. obovata B, obovata<br />
Palaquium P. spp.<br />
P. +p.<br />
B. Hcrvy cmrtructidr end dccking<br />
Heritiera FL littoraliE<br />
Hsnalium F| foetidum<br />
Hgee l-I iri8n8<br />
Intlie L bijuga l. birugs<br />
Menilkara Nt ksnosiensis<br />
M8tixiodendron |\t pachycladc<br />
Nconauclea N. hegenii N. spp.<br />
Vitrx<br />
Pdgquium<br />
V. cofassus V. cofersus<br />
Eugenie/Syzygium S. buettnerienum E, +p.<br />
Scrianthes<br />
Dysoxylum<br />
G C'cnaral cdrtructim<br />
Anisoptere A, thurifere<br />
P. indrcus<br />
P. fidgrensrs<br />
Celophyllum C. papuenum C. kajowskii C. vitiensi6<br />
Eucelyplrrs E. deglupte<br />
Hees ft papurla<br />
Mstiltoe lrt psilogyne<br />
Pbnchonie P. papuana<br />
Psnetie P. pinnata P, pinnats<br />
Sloanca S. Epp<br />
Triltiropsis T. acutengula (T, *utangub)<br />
Dillenie D, salomonensig<br />
Endaprrmum<br />
Bischof ie<br />
Piliocalyx<br />
Dysoxylum<br />
Geruge<br />
O. Light cortructiqr, intlrn.t utility<br />
Alstonia A. rcholeris A. scholarir<br />
Anthocephaluu A chincnais<br />
Cernpnoperma C. brcvipetiolata C. brrvipetiolet8<br />
Cenarium C. pp. C. ?p<br />
Caltir C. nymcnii C. pp.<br />
cryptocarya c. +p. c. pp.<br />
Endopermum E. nrdullogum E. rpdulloaum<br />
Gnclina G. moluccana G. moluccane<br />
Mngifcra I't minor<br />
Myli!ticr<br />
Octomclcs O, lrmetrlna<br />
Panchonella P. lpp. P. ep.<br />
E. macrophyllum<br />
c. +p.<br />
|'4.?p<br />
Polyelthis P. oblongifolie<br />
Pt$ocymbium P. bcccerii<br />
Ptlrygota P. horrficldii<br />
Spondi.s S.
Natural forest cover<br />
- r17<br />
Even now most Pacific Islands are predominantly tree covered; though an increasing<br />
proportion of that tree cover has been significantly modified by the requirements of rapidly<br />
growing populations.<br />
Within the tropical zone the rain forest of the islands of Borneo, Indonesia and the<br />
Philippines and Peninsular Malaysia have the richest vegetation associalions, followed by the<br />
rain'forests of South Anerica; particularly in the Amazon Basin. Though the species-rich rain<br />
forests of Indonesia lie west of P4ua New Guinea lhere is a significant reduction in the<br />
number of species in total and per unit area east of the wallace line.<br />
There is a progressive loss of species as one travels eastwards from lrian Jaya to Fiji'<br />
Vanuatu end beyond.<br />
This trend is illustrated in Table I which lists the more common trees in various<br />
countries that have economic potential. These are srranged in four categories of end use;<br />
while the listings under the fifth category of conifers illustnates, in part, the much greater<br />
altitudinal range of the rnountain forest in Papua New Guinea.<br />
Loggers with experience both in Borneo and the larger Pacific Islands note how minor<br />
genera in -Borneo like Calophyllum and Pometia become major species in the Pacif ic Islands.<br />
ifr large number of-ffirnercial species in ttre Dipterocarpaceae in Borneo and the<br />
Philippines are reduced to three qenera in Papua New Guinea and absent from other islands<br />
to the east. There are also typical Australian genera Iike Eucalyptus' Toona' and Flindgrsia<br />
in Papua New Guinea and West Irian that do not occur further east. As lhe proportion of see<br />
to land increases significantly this must have influenced the spread of species. Dis[ribution<br />
patterns cannot always easily be explained. In more western islands of the Solomons'<br />
relatively common species like Campnosperma brevipetiolata and Gonystyl-us macro-ca.rpqsr.are<br />
absent from Guadalcanal and Further east, Terminelia brassii end Calophyllum<br />
kaiewskii are absent from the Santa Cruz group, though unaccountably Ca.mplosPerma<br />
GE-pears, while Pometia pinnata occurs with much poorer form and contrastinqly larger<br />
fru it.<br />
-Makira.<br />
Relatively little study has been carried out in Lhe region on the structure of the forest<br />
and its biomass. One such sludy was carried out in 197111972 in the Solomons, felling all<br />
trees on four plots. This is sllmmarized in Table 2. Total stem and branch biomass to a<br />
minimum I0 centimetrqs small end diameten unden Qark varied beLween 2J5 and 507 cubic<br />
rnetres per hectare (m'/na). Land with oven 500 m'/n1 .would be approaching the maximum<br />
carrying capacity of this type of forest, while 250 m'/na fepresents forest closer to the<br />
arretloJ for thege islands. Total basal area in the forest sampled varied between 20 and 4l<br />
.'lni which is much less than f or temperate conif er plantations. Ssne indication of<br />
veriation in tree form is given by dividing total volume by total basal areal this gives factors<br />
lying between 5.0 and 14.<br />
Such records alr there are relaLing inventory data with actua{. volurnes extracted<br />
indieates tha!, though small aress can yield more, yielde of l0 Lo 5U m-lha of logs over 55<br />
cm mid-diameler cen be anticipated over large blocks. Tfese are much lowen than with yields<br />
from forest in Bonneo, Philippines and Malaysia-<br />
Tropieel high forests are s very complex matrix containing individual elemenLs which<br />
can be isolated ln small uniLs, but seldom on a large seale. It is common practice to<br />
distinguiah en upper canopy l0 to 45 m above ground; a middle canopy 15 to l0 m above<br />
grouni level; and a lower canopy 5 to 15 m above ground level. This excludes herbaeeous<br />
iround vegetation and is usually illustrated by a profile diagram similar to !h9t in Figure l.<br />
Another uleful device is to distinguish a gap phase of regeneration; a building phase with<br />
maximum rate of heiqht growth; and a mature phase. Classification of crown exposure and<br />
crown closure of indlvidual trees further describe the condition of the forest together with<br />
details of the physical factors of altitude, aspect, topography, soil, drainage and previous<br />
history.
Export Log Volunn<br />
Provent Pupwood spp<br />
Potential Pupwood trNG)<br />
Potential Pu$wood (SI)<br />
Other Stems<br />
TOTAL STEM VOLUME<br />
PER ITCTARE<br />
Export Log Trees/Other Loge<br />
Waste from export Logs<br />
Stunps<br />
Smaller Branchwood<br />
zuB TOTAL<br />
Othcr Trpar<br />
Second Logs<br />
Stunps<br />
Smaller Brenchwood<br />
Creepar<br />
SIJB TOTAL<br />
STEMS rj.lDER 90CMs<br />
- tr8<br />
TABLE 2 : SOLOMON TSLANDS BIOMASS POTENTIAL<br />
Minimum lOcm ernall end diarneter<br />
Volunng in a.rbic nretres/ha (under bark)<br />
KOLOMBANGARA<br />
Plot I Plot 2<br />
0.4 he 0.4 ha<br />
205,6<br />
28.7<br />
1,2<br />
L7.4<br />
2I.8<br />
274.7<br />
114.0<br />
0.4<br />
24.4<br />
r58.8<br />
i.a<br />
t.2<br />
rl.0<br />
-€Ig<br />
TOTAL STEM/BRANCH BTOMASS:g:l:<br />
TOTAL BASAL AREA I{ZINA<br />
"t?h"o*EA<br />
'6.5<br />
EXPoRT Locs 20.5<br />
Convcrgion Fector for form Mt N2<br />
All Stems/Brenches 11.8<br />
Export Logs Only 10.0<br />
55.0<br />
32.9<br />
6.4<br />
6.5<br />
18,7<br />
119.5<br />
21.8<br />
1.0<br />
2.O<br />
t.t<br />
14.0<br />
1.7<br />
0.4<br />
18.2<br />
69.5<br />
'-215.4<br />
20.2<br />
6.t<br />
VIRU<br />
Plot I Plot l<br />
0.4 ha 0.Il he<br />
t29,4<br />
24.t<br />
8.0<br />
ll.9<br />
t29.r<br />
502.7<br />
65.6<br />
rt.2<br />
II. ]<br />
,.2<br />
28.2 95.4<br />
II.7<br />
8.7<br />
n.1<br />
tt.1<br />
98.1<br />
w2<br />
42.8<br />
?5.0<br />
lt.8<br />
5.1<br />
FIGURE I : FOREST PROFILE DIAGRAM<br />
6L.t<br />
25.5<br />
l.l<br />
0.0<br />
l8.l<br />
I44.2<br />
2t.t<br />
4.8<br />
28.2<br />
I.0<br />
t.r<br />
5.r<br />
!q6,<br />
24t.t<br />
2t.o<br />
9.r<br />
t0.6<br />
6.7
- 119<br />
Ecologists and silviculturelists have spent much time trying to understand and explain<br />
the species patterns and associations in tropical rain forests. An assoeiation analysis by<br />
computer of data where no distinction is made between treea of lhe upper canopyr and those<br />
smaile" trees of the middle canopy (which are underlined) is given in Tabb l. Tabb I shows<br />
the contresl between Campnosperma, Calophvllum and Qillefria dominated.. forea.t of New<br />
--<br />
Georgia and KolombanlEEi-with Campnoeperma, Pometig. foresL on a^limited area at<br />
r<br />
-L-<br />
Allad-yce, Sanra Isabel; Jnd witfr pomffiiGloiillitym 1nO Vi=tex forest qt.Gu.adatcenaL Tlp<br />
first two forest types are more sr-aU-t-for pio- logs-Toi-export while the last type is<br />
more suitable for sawmilling.<br />
Lcetion<br />
Kolombangara<br />
Ecological<br />
5urvey<br />
North East<br />
New Georgia<br />
Enumeralion<br />
TABLE I : FOREST GROUPS IN THE SOLOMON ISLANDS<br />
TIMBER SIJRVEY DATA AFTER ASSOCIATION ANALYSIS<br />
Area Forest Speciea speciea speciea Speciae specicr Specicr<br />
SurveyedGrouPl2t456<br />
(sr/ha) (st/ha) 13j/ha) (st/ha) (st/ha) 13s/he)<br />
1l.7ha<br />
(l0cm<br />
min<br />
girth)<br />
I54.5ha<br />
(l80cm<br />
min<br />
girth)<br />
Allardyce Santa t.2 ltg<br />
Isabel Sample (90em<br />
Enurneration min girth)<br />
White River<br />
Guadalcenal<br />
Enumeration<br />
Source:<br />
Notes:<br />
8.6 he<br />
(90cm<br />
min<br />
girth)<br />
TEYA DILS CAMB PARS CALK SCHS &<br />
GMEM<br />
(88.e) (2e.6) (r0.r) (6.e) (6.e) (2.2<br />
eAt-< DlLs MARc &<br />
TERCAL<br />
08.0) (2r.4) (r=r.J) !8.11 !6:Q= !t+?)=<br />
5 EUG PARS SCHS<br />
"' Iloas) (ra.B) (8.I) !6:l]= (1.2 = 9;?,<br />
VA PARS MARC TERCAL<br />
'" (rr.r) (rr.r) (tr.r) (s.s) (s.s) !s.g)..<br />
"<br />
U CALV POMP<br />
(rz. r) (g.s) (e.e) (e.s) (z.g) !2.=z),<br />
PARS ENDM CAMB<br />
vr (r5.8) (8.8) (6.4) (5.6) (5.r) (4.4)<br />
. CAMB SCHS EUG DILS GONM PARS<br />
I o.e) o.z) (z.gl (z.a) @- (Iz)<br />
I-X EUG GONM &<br />
GMEM<br />
G.4<br />
(5.r)<br />
CALK<br />
(2.1)<br />
CAMB TEYA POMP<br />
(28.4) ct6t (5.e)<br />
POMP<br />
(r.e) t.4<br />
s<br />
Q.7) (1.e) (r.2) rc3)-<br />
GMEM<br />
(1.2)<br />
PIMA BURO<br />
w<br />
NEOF<br />
(24.7) (15.5) Gil (4.e) (r.7)<br />
DILS<br />
(2.2)<br />
Whitmore (1974) Tables 2.4 &. t.2<br />
Species underlined TEH, BURO etc. seldom grow larger than I80 cm<br />
girth, and so do not influence North New Georgia analysis.<br />
Examples of botanical names: ALAJ = Alanjium javanicum; BURO = Burekella obovata;<br />
CALK = Calophyllum kajewskii; CALV = Calophyllum vitiense<br />
GONM = Gonystylus macroPhYllus
Foregt zonetion<br />
120<br />
In broad termg there are two types of islend in the Pacific region. Lo,v lying coral<br />
atolls hsve vegetetion that has generally been wholly rmdified by local populations, and now<br />
cqrsistg largely of trees with locel uaes, of which coconut and Pandanus are the most<br />
obvioug Ttese low lying coral islande have no forertry potentiiTFinhabitants are<br />
generally short of building timbers and fruit trees, and these can be planted in and around<br />
villages and food gardens. The larger islands nearly ell heve a rpgged volcanic core fringed<br />
by coral reefs which may have been uplifted on more then one occaeion. The volcanic core<br />
may range from relatively low altitudes to the snow cepped mountains of West lrian and<br />
Papua New Guinea. The larger islands east of Papua New Guinea seldom exceed 2,000 m in<br />
altitude. On the geologically youngest and active volcanic islands like Tinakula in the Santa<br />
Cruz group there rnay be no fringing reef. On older islands on the tectonic interface between<br />
the Australia and Pacific plates, land building is still continuing and zuccessive corel and<br />
limestone platforrns have been r+lifted to altitudes in excess of ]00 m above sea level. Such<br />
formetions can be neen on Malaita, Guadalcanal and elsewhere, with the oldest of these<br />
platforms being now considerably eroded, and dissected. Forest composition is influenced by<br />
increasing altitude, by increasing distance from the sea, and by the underlying soil. Figure 2<br />
gives a simplified vegetation zonation common in the Solomon Islands.<br />
Mountain<br />
(Mist)<br />
orest<br />
Protection<br />
Water Supply<br />
FIGURE 2 : DIAGRAMATIC VEGETATION ZOI,IATION<br />
Typical of the Solomon Islands<br />
Forested<br />
F oothills<br />
Alluvial<br />
Riverine<br />
Subsistence Farming<br />
Production Coconuts<br />
Forestry Cocoa<br />
Cattle Cattle<br />
Mangrove Littoral<br />
F<br />
Protection Villages<br />
F ishing Coeonu ts<br />
Firewood<br />
Mangrove swamps are limited to sheltered water, oflen protected by reefs. Despite<br />
timited risl and fall of the tides, gecies vegetational zonation is precise. Large areas of<br />
mangroves mly occur in West lrian and Papua New Guinea. Elsewhere they are generally of<br />
limited extent and are loo valuable as sources of Iocal building material, fruits and seafood<br />
to be allocated to commercial exploitation.<br />
In rnost of the coastal zones the natural littoral vegetation on beaches' with its ability<br />
to provide coast protection, has largely been removed [o make way for coconut plantations<br />
and villages. Reintroduction of the protective screen of native Iittoral species would retain a<br />
measure of protection from erosion by the sea.<br />
The vegetation developed on the low-lying raised platforms is generally lime-tolerant in<br />
nature, with Pometia pinnata a prominent timber and fruit species. The species mixture found<br />
on the tow lffigrerraces is generally very similar to that found on successively higher<br />
terraces with soils of varying depth developed over limestone, which by the standards of<br />
tropical soils contain modest reserves of nulrient. These sites have often been heavily used in<br />
the past by strifting cultivetors, and more recently are those to which Agricultural Officers<br />
direct their extension programmes.
2t<br />
Betrind the low-lying raised coral platforms, lie alluvial terrace8 and ewanpe' which<br />
receive runoff water and detritus from inland areas and have richer soils with agricultural<br />
potential. Fire-maintained grasslands in a rumber of islands almosL certainly result from paet<br />
over-population where there is a rain shadow effect. Examples can be cited from Papua New<br />
Guinea, the Solomons and Fiji. In many cases lhese fire-maintained grasslands have gread to<br />
adjacent ridges which mey be of sedimentary origin.<br />
A zone of dissected sedimentary foothills is typical of the geologically older islandst<br />
characteristically with red-coloured, weathered, deep and apparently freely-drained soile.<br />
Tree rooting patterns indicate that mly the upper ]0 centimetres of soil is tapped either due<br />
to imperfect drainage, imperfect aeration or a combinetion of both factors. The most<br />
eeonomic forest usually occurs m these sites and the profusion of vegetation leads many to<br />
expect an adequate to high level of fertility. Absence of evidence of occupation from<br />
archaeological sites and recent experience growing food crops by forest workers reveals that<br />
for all intents and purposes long bush fallows are required between cropping if modest<br />
fertility is to be retained. Traditional knowledge usually reinforces this view.<br />
ln Western Samoa very r€cent lava flows occur on the foothills. The young rocks are<br />
often very fertile provided plants can zurvive long enough lo put roots down into crevices. A<br />
crowbar is required for planting tree seedlings, and cocoa or timber brees should be raised in<br />
large containers to ensure survival.<br />
The volcanic core of the larger islands is usually steep, the soils skeletal and often<br />
unstable because of tornential rain and frequent earthquakee. This reducee effective rooting<br />
volume, and the forest that develops is often much disturbed and has limited commercial<br />
potential above 500 m in most islands other than Papua New Guinea.<br />
In Papua New Guinea large areas of mounlain forest mcur and cultivation is carried<br />
out in deep, often glacial, valleys. Cooler ambient temperatures and frosts mean that tropical<br />
root crops like kunrera and taro are near their limits; and lemperate vegetables can be<br />
urccessf ully raised and introduced into local diets. The exploitable mountain forests are<br />
generally confined to the higher ridges but there is growing pressure to cultivate higher up<br />
the slopes where agricultural rotations lenglhen and yields are reduced. Conifers are locally<br />
abundent, but species with temperate characteristics like Castanopsis' Elmerrillia and<br />
Nothofaqus cover much larger areas. ln places Nothofaqus stands are dying off and being<br />
replaced by abundant natural regeneration.<br />
Aoathis species are the main conifers in rnountain forest in parts of the islands to the<br />
east of Papua New Guinea; often with Calophyllum species as a main component of the<br />
matrix. New Caledonia is atypical in having a large numben of Araucaria species in the<br />
forest; while Dacrydium and Podocarpus are relativLly co-mon inilien nnuntain forests.<br />
Mms foregt is found at higher altiludes.<br />
A noticeable feature is thet the generalized zonaLion is compressed m isoleted smaller<br />
mounteinous islands. A good example is the contrasL between moss forest rccurring at over<br />
21000 m above sea level, with a maximum altitude of about 2,500 m, on the large island of<br />
Guadelcanal; m Vanikolo, wilh rnaximum altitude of about lr(X)0 mt moss forest occurs at<br />
about 800 m; while m Santa Cruz Island which is larger than Vanikolo' localized patches of<br />
moss forest occur at about 500 m m the crest of the spinal ridge.<br />
Forest disturbance<br />
Two major factors causing disturbance of forest cover south and easL of Ppua New<br />
Guinea are wind and earth nnvementl but throughout the region conversion to cash cropping'<br />
sr.rbsistence agricullure end logging are also extremely important, particularly on the srneller<br />
islands. Urtan development is most noticeeble m some atolls, but relatively insignificant<br />
elsewhere.<br />
Between November and April the south easterly trade wind belt moves southr and<br />
inteme tropical storms develop from time to time mainly in zones. between 5 and I0 degrees<br />
south. Tfuse tropical storms increase in intensily as they move south, btrt until they pass<br />
about 15 degrees meridian wind peeds seldom exceed I00 km per hour.
- t22<br />
Tte low pressure areas associated with the storms tot 24 hours or so befone they strike<br />
bring torrential rains which saturate the ground. These tropical storms are loeally called<br />
cycl6nes, and when they strike major canopy damage can be caused almost as much by<br />
uprooting ct edimentary clay ridges' es by treea snapping.<br />
Major damage to exploitable forest hss been caused by cyclones Annie (1967)' Ida<br />
(L972), and Bearnii (f982) in the Solomons, and on the Fiji south coast in 1980. Interpretation<br />
of current vegetation patterna in the Solomons indicetes that catastrophic wind disturbance<br />
has ccurred m a wide scale from time to time over the past 150 years or so.<br />
On Makira, Guadalcanal, end Malaite most of the remaining forest shows evidence of<br />
wind drnage. This damage can be seen by the existence of climber towersr damaqe seen<br />
under the canopy, and compre$ion failure in lumber of certain species, notably Pometia. In<br />
the New Hebrides where cyclones are rnre intense very little primeval forest is left except<br />
where Aqsthis dorninetes.<br />
Cmsiderable areas of topsoil may be lost by earth movements following both cyclones<br />
and earlhquakes. Examples of the former can be seen in southeastern Fiji' end on Santa<br />
Icebel in tire Solomons, while the earthquake in April 1977 caused almost 40% of the topsoil<br />
and foreet to slip trt parts of Guadalcanal.<br />
ln the islands, usually near the coast, considerable areas of forest have been converted<br />
to eash crops. Tle most common cash crop is coconut. During the last 10 years or 8t) cocoa<br />
and oil palm eetates have been developed, noticeably in Papua New Guinea and Guedalcanal<br />
end to a lesaer extent in Western Samoe.<br />
The land commonly selected for these crops ie either low coral limestone terraces or<br />
alluviel soils. Conversion of forest to cattle Pasture has been increasing during the last<br />
decade or so often m the better quality soils, but uzually hes low carrying capacity.<br />
When indigenous populations were low, shifting cultivation was carried out with bush<br />
fallows that must have ranged up to 50 or more years. Even in the past there is evidence<br />
that what are now fire-maintained grasslands were originally converted by excessive pressure<br />
of shifting cultivetion. Spanish records from L565 for Guadalcanal and Ngella record<br />
.npadowst visibte from the sea, with village cultivators using irrigated taro terraces. The<br />
rrnpadows,t are still there and ere now extending ag modern population pressures increase in<br />
this rein shadow area. The taro ternaces have long since disappeared, as have the high<br />
populations recorded by the Spanish visitors here and elsewhere in the Solomons. The large<br />
expanse of gressland on western Viti Levu end parts of Vanua Levu, also in rain shadow<br />
sress, ere probably of similar origin.<br />
During the past century or so, cessation of warfare, increased availability of health<br />
care, and movements of tribes towards lines of communication and economic opportunities by<br />
sea, land and air have all led to changes of traditional ways and high rates of population<br />
growth. Mct tribal boundaries, formerly alterable by warfare, are now fixed. Land holding<br />
ito,rp" unfortunete enough to have large populations and small land areas, have had to reduce<br />
ititting anltivation cyclJs to as little as 5 to 9 months. Rapid, end in places irreversible soil<br />
degrad-ation follows. This is compounded by Iocal people clinging to traditional f arming<br />
tedhniques besed m a much longer bush fallow which formerly ellowed humus and microfauna<br />
rageneration to follow in a natural cycle.<br />
Loqqinq damaoe<br />
In Vanikolo in the Solomons extracbion of kauri started rcarly 60 years ago; elsewhere<br />
large ecele nechanical logging seldom dates back rnore than about 15 years.<br />
Timber treea in the natural forest are scetlered both as individuals and groves, and<br />
therefore damage to the canopy and to Lhe soil is also irregular. Maximum damaqe generally<br />
occurs 50 m oi so on either'Ciae of access roads. On islands which sre relatively uniform<br />
volcenoes, there is generally a main metalled logging road close to the coast with metalled<br />
epur roads running up tfru major ridgesl so soil damage naturally falls in the middle of the<br />
broadeet ridges. -On steep topography with deep sedimentary soils, road layouts are more<br />
irregular and-cr:t into hillsides; so soil damage can be extensive. Studies in the Solomons on<br />
the iatterns and extent of damage following mechanical logqing in five areas showed that a
- rzt<br />
combination of metalled logging roads, extraction tracks and loading areas with "high lead"<br />
logging destroyed 7% of top soil in well stoeked forest. A higher figure of 22% was for<br />
e$raction by small crawler tractors in similar forest. Overall, for forest yielding l0 to 50<br />
m-lha of logs, l0% to 15% topsoil damage can be anticipated. Tfp damage will generally be<br />
most noticeable near scces{r roads and also on either side of creek crossings. On steeper<br />
ground there are generally more scattered extraclion tracks. Measurernents showed that<br />
crewler tractor tracks mostly were less than 5 m wide, and that compaction and removal of<br />
topsoil was always severe efter two or more turns of logs were extracted. On flat ground<br />
little topsoil compaction or removal occurred when only one or two logs were removed,<br />
provided Lhe tractor did not have to bulldoze a path through trees. Once vegetation, usually<br />
in bhe form of'climber, covers Lhe compacted ground, there is a slow buildup of vegetable<br />
detritus and later colonization by trees. After 25 to 40 years the trecks can still be seen,<br />
but quite large trees can have established m the compacted soil wiLh their roots spreading<br />
on either side to rnore favourable areas.<br />
Assessrnents of canopy damage have been carried out in e number of localities in the<br />
Solomons within the 181000 ha of logged forest that have been line planted. These show that<br />
even with heavy logging taking out small trees wiJh diameters down to about 45 cm diameter<br />
above buttress, 25% to l0% of the original canopy is relatively untouched, largely on the<br />
steeper hillsides and in valleys. About 15c/o of the original canopy is completely destroyed and<br />
the rest zuffers severe damage in some form or another.<br />
Natural forest reqeneration<br />
Relatively few studies of natural regeneration following logging in tropical rain forests<br />
have been carried out in the Pacific Islands. The patterns of natural forest development on<br />
Kolombangara in the Solomons were studied in detail between 1964 and 1971, with some areas<br />
studied for a longer period. ln 1967 Cyclone Annie struck part of the island, so that.<br />
subsequent assessnents gave an indication of natural regeneration patterns [hat followed the<br />
cyclone. Provided the forest is in the mature phase, and only a relatively small proportion<br />
has been destroyed by a c/clone, increment more or less balances losses. Species like<br />
Endospermum, Campnosperma and Elaeocarpus are capable of 2-5 centimetres diameter<br />
increment per year when in the upper canopy; while more dense species like Schizomeria,<br />
Dillenia and Pometig grow more slowly and with greeter variability according t6 tFE; ila;e<br />
ttre canop@p-bvlfuq however has remarkable uniform increments of about I cm per<br />
year regardless of size.<br />
-in<br />
A numben of studies were carried out in the Solomons starting about 20 years ago ln<br />
logged forest. Natural regeneration in Kauri forests was studied separately. The first<br />
hardwood forests logged were predominantly of Pometia and Calophyllum and the most<br />
prolificearlyregenerationwasfromthesespecieslT-teraseiiilofassessmenBsiteoon<br />
became obvious that there was an extremely rapid loss of seedlings due to weeds, lack of<br />
light and competition. After a short while it became appsrent tha! qerat,ions to successfully<br />
enhance the development of slower growing more valuable species would be very tricky.<br />
At about this time Iogging operations transferred to forest of markedly different types<br />
in which Campnosperma and Dillenia were dominant,, excepl in swamps which carried<br />
Terminalia brassii stands.<br />
Four quotations from Solomon Islands Forestny Division Research Reports on the silvics<br />
of species have been adapted to illustrate the likely pattern of natural regeneration:<br />
"The traditional idea of growing shade lolerant species by rnanipulation of<br />
the upPer canopy has serious drawbacks. Netural regeneration of Kauri is<br />
scattered' partieularly in areas nearer to the cosst where the original stocking<br />
was low. On Vanikolo' areas that had been logged 20 years or so before, were<br />
trealed by poisoning and weeding designed to release saplings and poles over 2<br />
metres height from within a matrix of older and taller weed species. After.<br />
Lreetment mly )0% to 45% of 0.0I hectare sample units were slocked with Kauri<br />
of all sizes of which only l0% of Lhe sample units conbained Kauri poles over I0<br />
centimetres diemeLer which were suff ieiently vigorous to stand a chance of<br />
developing to maturity. In areas Lhat were logged more recently, poisoning was<br />
more drasLic, especially where the Kauri regeneration was small and there was<br />
more thorough weeding. It is likely that the original stocking of Kauri
- L24<br />
negenerstion was higher and ovgr 7096 of &0I hectare plots were..stocked and f5%<br />
of the sample units contained Kauri poles over I0. centimetreg diameter likely to<br />
develop to maturity. As the distribution of Kauri in the forest before logging waa<br />
very patchy, the distribution of Kauri eeedling both before and after logging is<br />
tit
125<br />
- The vegetation rnatrix is not easy to burn.<br />
- Mechanical land clearing is uneconomic.<br />
- Erowsing animals should be few or absent altoqether.<br />
- Weed regrowth in cleared areas is generally more vigorous than on average in less<br />
disturbed areas.<br />
- Overhead shade from big trees must be removed early.<br />
In the region Lhe langest areas of line planting are in Fiji, the Solomons and Western<br />
Samoa.<br />
All aneas exhibit. a range from failure to $Jccess. Mosl species growing successful in<br />
line planting do not occun as monoeultures in nature in the tropics. Where monocultures do<br />
occur in tropical forest the site is often specialized as with Terminalia bras"il swamps,<br />
Casuarina groves on ullramafic rocks, Aqathis on basalt riaqes, and mFngrove areas.<br />
Elsewhere monocultures are genenally a limiLed seral stage, Widespread observations indicate<br />
that retention of a reasonably complex vegetative mix contributes to success. Where there is<br />
little damage to the relict natural vegetation, especially of former understorey components,<br />
line planting is often zuccessful.<br />
In the Solomons, measurements on mature trees over a range of sizes on 20 to 25 years<br />
rotations indicated that crown diameters of final erop trees were of the order of l0 netres.<br />
Until recently most line planting has been carried out at about this spacing. When a strip<br />
about two metres wide is cleared, 80% of the relict vegetation need not be disturbed. Where<br />
the canopy has been destroyed by logging, weed regrowth, particularly by Merremia and<br />
Mikania species, has been rampant.<br />
This causes severe losses to planted trees. Heavily logged areas seldom exceed 20% to<br />
25% of the total; so that special techniques involvinq closer planting will have to be evolved<br />
to combat lhe problem of rampant climbing weeds. Final crops of around 100 sLems per ha<br />
are anticipated for trees with 50 Lo 50 cm average diameter. Anticipated average<br />
merchantable bole length varies from about 5 m to 12 m for hardwoods on 15 to 25 year<br />
rotalions. Few line planted areas have yet reache{maturity and conservative estimates would<br />
put yields of sawlogs in the range of 75 to 2OO m-/he, with a small end diameter limit of l0<br />
cm. Total wqpd yield based trr an interpolation from Table 2 is likely to be of the range of<br />
f50 to 500 m'/ha. Additional sawlog volunEs could be harvested if the merchantable small<br />
end diameter limit were reduced to about 20 cm. ln all cases a considerable proportion of the<br />
total yield could be used m pulpwood or for energy.<br />
The wisdom of continuing line planting has been questioned because of two recent<br />
events. The first was the discovery of Ambrosia beetle at.tack and associated problems with<br />
the fungi Armellaria and Fomes on 5ffiT6- macrophylla plantations in Fiji in 1971.<br />
Secondly, inventories of the line planting in the Solomons in 1980 revealed much lower<br />
stockings of potential final crop trees in all ages than was anticipated. In both cases the<br />
authorities curteiled their replanting programmes and lnstituted a radicel change of emphaais<br />
in their replanting work. In Fiji a wider range of speciea were introduced that had not then<br />
been proven s'l a wide scele in line planting. ln the Solomons the line planting technique was<br />
changed by reducing the specing between lines to 5 m. In Fiji the ereas ubsequently<br />
replanted to mixed hardwoode were extremely variable and no large area of fully stocked<br />
plantations has yet been ruccessfully established. In the Solomons the reduction of spacing<br />
between lines h8s lead not mly to removal of the relict understorey between lines, but aleo<br />
to the increased incidence of rempant climbers, early and heavy branching on speciee like<br />
Campnogoerma, attack by insecta like Ambleypelta m Cempnoeperma, and potential danger of<br />
atteck by Hypsipylle on Swietenia which had virtuelly been absent in wider spaeed line<br />
planting. Had there not been arch a radical reection to the probbms, it ought to heve been<br />
poesible to have maintained the rnomentum of the planting programmes. Field rnanagement and<br />
financing in Fiji and the Solomons then loat rrpmentum.<br />
Reaearch hes strowed that the redical corrective techniquee had their own srious<br />
probbms. Closer control end edrytetion of forrner procedures also had a sribstantial place in<br />
retaining cost effectivenegs.
- 126<br />
When the objective is Lo create industrial plantations, the following criteria should be<br />
ueed when selecLing species:<br />
- Lcal seeding at a relatively early age, say before 15 years; or seed easily obtainable<br />
in bulk from a nearby territory.<br />
- Seed easy to collect and handle in the nuftlery.<br />
- Height growth of at least 4 m in lhe first three years after planting.<br />
- Development of a potential log, free of major forks or faults, of a leasl 6 m length<br />
by the fifth year after planting.<br />
- A mean crop diameter at breast heiqht of I0 cm over bark; a mean crop height of l0<br />
m 5 years after planting.<br />
- A main crop with a stocking of 100 logs of 8 to I0 m length with top-diamelers of J0<br />
cm under bsrk, or J5 cm over bark, in 25 years for furniture and construction<br />
species, or in less than 20 years for utility species.<br />
- For utility species development of logs with small end diameter of at least 15 em and<br />
log lengths of over 6 m m at least 100 stems per ha by l0 years after planting.<br />
- Yields of about 140 - 150 rl/n" of sawlogs.<br />
In ternperate elimates, mixtures are seldom successful and tree form is usually enhanced<br />
by close pacing. In New Zealand the form of final crop trees is often improved by pruning. A<br />
number of tropical species, including Campnosperma, Swietenia, Tectona, Pometiet<br />
Calophvllum, end Cedrela grow unbranched in the first few years provided there is overhead<br />
nghE-Others like TCrminalia, Eucelyptus, and Gmelina arborea need both overhead and lateral<br />
illumination, and relative freedorn from competition before full vigour is developed. In the<br />
former group the intenrow matrix can be manipulafed to give s narrow corridor within which<br />
full vigour and adequate unbranched gtems lengths are developed. Later a heavy etown should<br />
develop above the interrow matrix. Where land pressures ate low the interrow matrix in line<br />
planting can be the former understorey, or regeneration of weed trees Iike Trema and<br />
Macaranga<br />
Where competition for land is higher on the smaller islands, silvicultural techniques<br />
need to be modified. The scele of qerations cen generally be smaller since the plantations<br />
mainly eupply the local population with sawlogs. Examples of proposed epecies selections in<br />
parts of the Solomons, P4ua New Guinea, Fiji and Western Ssmoa are given in Table 4.<br />
Optimum land use<br />
On most of tJre smatler islande, population growth will increase so rapidly thatr within<br />
the next generation or two, relatively little forest will remain unmodified. Already there are<br />
cleer examples that the pressures of indigenous agriculture ere leading not only to<br />
degradation of vegetation complexity, but also to severe reduction of the productive<br />
po[entiel of hill soils. Thie can easily be eeen in western and centrel Viti Levu in Fiji'<br />
Malaite in the Solomon Islends and Upolo, Western Samoa. Within two rnore decades the<br />
poeition could be critical unless traditional agricultural techniques are rnodified to give more<br />
intensive production from the better sites by mulching and crop rotations. Already in Tonga<br />
and Weatern Samoe linee of Securineqa trees are planted between houses and along paths to<br />
provide buitding materials. Thge trende are likely to increase and be introduced to other<br />
island tFor.ps.<br />
Lerge areEs of land have been allocated to cocoa, oil palm and cattle on many small<br />
ielande, and this ia likely to be questioned in the longer term. On Malaitar large eteas are<br />
degrading because of the bush fellow cycles being rcdueed in plecee to legs than a year. On<br />
noittr Cuiaalcanal, where there io a 'rrein shadow", increasing ptessure of use is resultinq in a<br />
rapid epread of Themeda dorninated grassland with increasing soil eroeion and goil<br />
degradation. Theoe trendg must be checked and if possibb revereed.
Ppua Ncw Guinca<br />
(Enga)<br />
Constrtlction and Fr4gq1!re species<br />
Euealyptus robusta<br />
E. grendis<br />
Utility Species<br />
Pinus patula<br />
Wood Enerqy<br />
Cesuerina obligodon<br />
Villeoe Uses<br />
Caouarina obligodon<br />
Pandanus spp.<br />
Dodonaea viscoea<br />
- L27<br />
TABLE 4 : SPECIES SELECTION FOR REPLANTING<br />
Solomon klande Fiji Western Sarnoa<br />
Swietenia<br />
Tectona<br />
Swietenia<br />
Campnosperma Endospermum<br />
Terminalia brassii Maesopis eminii<br />
T. calamansanai Anthocephalus<br />
Grnelina arborea chinensis<br />
Pinus caribaea Cordia alliodora<br />
Acacia auricule if ormus<br />
Acacia mangium<br />
Leucaena leucocephela<br />
Securinega sp.<br />
Eucalyptus tereticornis<br />
Fruit trees<br />
Cordia subcordete<br />
Swietenia<br />
TecLona<br />
Toona sureni<br />
Cedrela odorata<br />
Anthocephalus<br />
T. calamansanai<br />
E. deglupta<br />
Octomeles sumatrana<br />
Securinega samoana<br />
Both logging and shifting cultivation destroy or at the very leas!, greatly upset, the<br />
dynamic balance of the moisl tropical forest ecosystem. The tropical soils m the sites most.<br />
likely to be allocated to long term timber production have poor or virtually non-existant<br />
nutrient reserves and mly maintein vegetative productivity by rapid recycling of litler from<br />
a wide variety of species. Substitution of any monoculture can heve very severe effects on<br />
the understorey. At me extreme, Teak plantations will heve bare ground covered with large<br />
dry teak leaves; while I0 year old line planted lerminalia calamansanai or Csmpnosperma<br />
may have a very rieh interrow matrix with a major cornponEnt-oT the nnderstoryEfrTE<br />
original forest. Close planted Campnosperma plantations which develop an understorey of<br />
GlYehenia ferna mey prove to be less thrifty. Conifer plantalions may develop fern or qrass<br />
underatoreys and be very $isceptible to fire danger.<br />
The writer believee that experience to date indicates thet as much complexity of<br />
vegetation as possible must be maintained to engure that soil productivity is retained. Where<br />
land preseunes ere not high thie erggests that if possible the nelict natunal interrow of<br />
vegetation ehould not be modified, except where there has been {ievere damage to the<br />
original forest and eoil near roeds and loading erees.<br />
Where land is in short sJpplyr trees for timber end for village use have to be grown<br />
between crope for food. After food crops ere harvested the vegetation matrix has to be<br />
planted andr to get verietyr s renge of pecies is needed. The shorter the naturel bush<br />
fallows become, the rnore they loose their legunre elernent; there is not enough time in which<br />
to rebuild the nitrogen and micro-feune cyclee. A range of legunes slrould then be planted<br />
partly to provide nitrogen and partly e8 a filler with limited cenopy height which will<br />
improve the form of timber species planted to provide poles and sawlogs.<br />
Sune special consideration is needed in many islands in planning to provide plants for<br />
defence against coaet erosion m the seaward eide of coconut plantations and villages where<br />
the natural eoaet vegetetion has been removed.<br />
Two aspects temain to be covered. Pmtection of water rupplies, for example, is vital<br />
on Upolu and Sevaii which have porous lava rock through which water will drain if vegetation<br />
is rernoved end not replaced. Not mly village and town water supplies will be affected, but<br />
aleo hydroelectric power projects. In addition, foreats have traditionally provided building
- L28<br />
materials, fruits, hunting, and trsditional npdicines. If the centrel and highest portio,ns of<br />
i"i";A are bft'witn--6riit primeval vegetation little modified, these vital feetures of island<br />
life will be to sore extent preserved.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Alston, A S. 1982. Timbers of Fiji: pr@erties and potential uses. Department of Forestryt '<br />
Swa, Fiji'<br />
Eddoures, P. a 1977. Cunmercial timbers of Papua New Guinea, their properties and uses'<br />
Office of Fcests, D€PartnEnt of Primary lndustry, P+ua New Guinea'<br />
Gorera, S. 1976. Sane common treeg of the New Hebrides end their vernacular narnes.<br />
Muten, K. D, srd B. R. Thomson. 1980. Solomon lslend Forqpiry Division^Research Reports I<br />
- tZiAO, f# s6tv-ics' ot pecies 1980. (Cycloetyled report) Forestry Division, Ministry of<br />
Lmde, Energy and Natural Resourceg, Hctiara, Solomon lslands'<br />
Solornon Islands Timber Bmktet No. I: Major speciee, end Timber Booklet No' 2" Minor<br />
--ipr"ir". 1929. Fcestry Di"irion, Ministry of Lande, Energy and Natural Resources, Honiara'<br />
Solsnon Islands.<br />
Solomon Islards Trrpical Rain Foreet Ecology Research Report 512179.. _1979. (Cycloetyled<br />
report) Faestry Division, Ministry of t-]-0", Energy end Natural Resources, Hmiaret<br />
Solomon Islands.<br />
Whitmore, T. C. 1974. Changes with time and the role of cyclones in tropical rain forest on<br />
Kotomb;ngara, Solomon Is6nds. Commonweelth Forestry Institute Paper No' 48' Oxford<br />
UniveraitY.
- L29<br />
MIi.IERAL POTENTIAL tr THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC ISLAN)s<br />
l-l L. Davier<br />
Bureau of Mineral Resources<br />
GPO Box 378, Canberra, A.C.T. 2601, Australia<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
The islands of the South Pacific produce minerals worth about one bitlion<br />
dollars each yean. Chief revenue earners are the large porphyry copper-gold mine<br />
at Panguna on Bougainville lsland in Papua New Guinea, the nickel mines of New<br />
Caledonia' and the phosphete exported from Nauru. Metals whieh heve been<br />
produced in the pastr from these and other islands, include gold and ailver, bae<br />
metalsr antimony, cobalt, ehromium, manganese and magnesile; other known net,als<br />
and minerals include mercury, molybdenum, coel, hydrocarbons and probably<br />
uranium.<br />
In the immediate future a second large porphyry copper-gold mine will come<br />
into being in Papua New Guinea, at Ok Tedi neer the lrian Jaya border. Other<br />
likely developments include the discovery of commercial accumulations of<br />
hydrocarbons in Papua New Guinea, and possibly in Tonga and Fiji; the discovery<br />
and/or development of other gold, silver, base nntal, nickel, cobalt, chromium and<br />
phosphate depositsr in response to more thorough or sophistieated exploration, on<br />
impnoved metal prices; the betLer definition and possibb commercial developnrnt<br />
of known deposits of bauxite, coal, mineral sands and netdl-rich ea floor nodulee;<br />
and the possible discovery of trErcury and tungsten minerals, platinum group<br />
metalsr rnetals of the carbonatite association, see floor volcanic vent minerals,<br />
diamonds, uranium and precious coral.<br />
Introduction<br />
The great expanse of the waters of the southwest Pacific concealg a sea floor which is<br />
remarkable for its configuration of ridges, trenches, plalforms, basins and ramounts (Figurr<br />
f). It is these features which indirecily control the distribution of mineral and petrolLum<br />
wealth amongst the island groups and it is only from an understanding of the naturc rrd<br />
origin of these features, coupled with a knowledge of discovered regourees, that a reasoned<br />
assessrnent of mineral potential may be drawn.<br />
Tfese geomorphic features heve developed by continued interection between the<br />
Australian and Pacific lithospheric plates. Preeont-day seismicity (Figure 2) indicates that the<br />
boundary between the two platee is epproximately on the line<br />
Kermadec-Tmge-Vanuatu-Solomon lslands-northern New Guinea. In the past the boundary haa<br />
lein closer to Australie, but hae moved away es sagnnnts of the Australian creton have<br />
broken away by rifting and qening of, for exarnple, the Coral Sea md Teinen bacins<br />
Interacticn between the platas has led to the growth of new land msasr by voleenirm<br />
linked with $bduction, or by collision (Figure 3). Collision (rcura when thick low-deneity<br />
cruet enters a rubduction system and cannot be drawn down into the lower bvels of the<br />
earth beceuse of its innate buoyancy. Tle result is mulliple thrusting end the enrergence of e<br />
complex terrain which includes elements of volcanic, sedirnentary, [rtarnorphic, igneoua md<br />
lower crustal end mantle rocks.
- lr0<br />
Figure I : Sinplified geology and eea floor morphology of the southweet Pacific<br />
E<br />
w<br />
tru = gold<br />
Cr = chromium<br />
Volctntcs<br />
Collision<br />
E %<br />
Eprcntontc -mo- Sethvmetric conlour lml<br />
1f4n611<br />
Nodulcs<br />
Qn = copper<br />
Co - cobalt<br />
A-\<br />
sAMoA\ \s<br />
'K*'l \t''<br />
llll \,-"?<br />
Ni = nickel<br />
P = phosphate<br />
Figure 2 t Shallow earthquakes (patterned) indicate the boundary of the<br />
Indo-Australian and Pacific plates<br />
l\<br />
ALIAN PLATE<br />
STR/<br />
\/<br />
nrr<br />
t\<br />
\tse<br />
-2000- Btthvmetric oontout (mJ<br />
PACIFIC PLATE
Figure): Diagramsof<br />
Massive sulphide<br />
(cul<br />
-'<br />
I<br />
I<br />
MID. oCEAN RI D GE<br />
- llt<br />
subduction and collision, with environrnents of mineralization<br />
'cotLtsoN'<br />
Thick crust sntsrs and chokes<br />
tho Subduction System<br />
Nodules<br />
(Cu,CoI<br />
High-level Au,<br />
PorphyryS skarnlCu,Au,<br />
\-- -.\<br />
MANTLE luttramafic) -\<br />
(Ni.Co, Cr)<br />
sulphide<br />
(Cu, P_b, Zn)<br />
SUBDUCTION SYSTEM<br />
Certain mineral deposits ere essociated with volcsnic processes, notebly the exhalative<br />
bese-metal ruphide deposits of the rifte and +reading ridges, and the porphyry end sksrn<br />
copper and gold and high-level gold and silver of the volcanic islands (Figure )). Tlese ere<br />
the types of mineralization found in volcanic terrein.<br />
In collision terrain, which by its natur€ mugt include volcenic terrain, the sarne types<br />
of minerelization are found, but to thege are added the onee of nelals associated with mantle<br />
rock8, notebly nickel, cobelt and chromium.<br />
Examplee of volcanie terrain are the iglends of the Fiji and Western Samoa groups,<br />
while the claseic exarnple of a collision terrein is New Caledonia (Figure l). In southwestern<br />
Pryua New Guinea a third type of ternain, epi-cretonic, lrray be recognized where retatively<br />
thin eediments ovarlie a northerly extension of the Ar.ntralian craton.
Papua New Guinea<br />
- ltz<br />
Tfe island group with the largest land area and the greatest mineral wealth is Papua<br />
New Guinea (Table I). The mountainous axis of rnsinland Papua New Guinea is collisional<br />
terrein which contains a considerable mineral wealth and the potential for more discoveries.<br />
Notable are the Ok Tedi porphyry copper-gold mine, anrrently being developed' the Frieda<br />
River copper-gold prospect, gold at Porgera and on Misima Island, copper at Yandera'<br />
lateritic nickel and chromium at Ramu, and Morobe detrital chromite (Table 2).<br />
Country Pqulation<br />
(thousands)<br />
Australia<br />
Ppua New Guinea<br />
Solomon Islands<br />
New Caledonia<br />
Fiji<br />
Vanuatu<br />
Western Samoa<br />
Kiribeti<br />
Tmga<br />
Tuvalu<br />
Neuru<br />
Table I : Mineral production in Pacific countries (f980)<br />
r5rm0<br />
t,m0<br />
17t<br />
t2r<br />
5tr<br />
89<br />
l5r<br />
48<br />
92<br />
I<br />
Area Value of annual<br />
,, 2, mineral oroduction<br />
(Km / ($ mittion)<br />
7 16861849<br />
46L1690<br />
28,160<br />
I9r099<br />
L8r274<br />
L4176t<br />
2,841<br />
718<br />
696<br />
26<br />
7 1429<br />
485<br />
J50<br />
10<br />
t00<br />
0.6<br />
Value per Value per<br />
t m2 ($) capita ($)<br />
966<br />
1,050<br />
2?<br />
L8,t26<br />
7 2L<br />
4r762|DOO 141286<br />
547<br />
494<br />
t61<br />
2,89t<br />
The northeastern mainland and the adjoining islands are volcanic terrain. Typical is<br />
Bougeinville Island which is constructed of rmdern volcanoes and uplifted coral reef, on a<br />
besement of partly-eroded older volcenoes end their feeder intrusive rocks. The Bougainville<br />
porphyry copper-gold mine is the fourth-largeet mine of this type in the world; ennual<br />
production is about 1701000 tonnes copper, 20 tonnes gold and 45 tonnes silver (nptal content<br />
of concentrate).<br />
Tfc epi-cratonic sediments of Pryua New Guinea and sodimenls of the collision terrain<br />
are prospective for petroleum, and a number of as yet uncommercial discoveries heve been<br />
mede (Teble 2) including the l98l discovery of gas and gas condensate in the Juha well. The<br />
volcanic terrain of Pryua New Guinea includes some thick aedimenlary basins and is elso<br />
considered pnospective for hydrocarbcre, although no indicetions have been found to date.<br />
Another enargy reoourc€ of Ppue New Guinea, by virtue of its large land area'<br />
rmuntainoue terrain, end relatively high rainfall, is the hydro-eleetric potential of ite rivers.<br />
TNs hes been estimeted at l2rm0 negawatte, of which slightly less then I00 nngawatts has<br />
been developed.<br />
l9<br />
t.5
- Ltt<br />
Table 2 : Mineral Resources of Papua New Guinea*<br />
Pangtrna Mine (Bougainville Copper Limited): Initial reserves were 944 million tonnes<br />
averaging 0.48 pereent copper, 0.% grams/tonne gold and ) grams/tonne silver,<br />
Production peaked in 1978 at 199,00 tonnes copper, 2).4 tonnes gold and 52.5 tonnes<br />
silver and haa declined rubsequently due to declining head grades and harder ore.<br />
Curent reserves are about 650 million tonnes averaging about 0.41 percent copper and<br />
0.48 grams/tonne gold.<br />
Ok Tcdi mirrc (mder development; Ok Tedi consortium): Reserves are f5I million tonnes of<br />
0.7 percent copper, 0.6 grams/tonne gold snd 0.011 percent molybdenum, with some<br />
$pergene enrichment; overlain by 14 million tonnes of oxidized ore which carries 2.87<br />
grams/tonne gold; adjacent skarne contain 25 million tonneg of 1.17 percent eopper.<br />
Gold production will start in 1984, and full copper production in 1989.<br />
Frieda River coppcr-gold prorpect: Resource is 780 million<br />
end O.29 grams/tonne gold (ant-off 9.t percent<br />
enrichment, and nearby massive a:lphide with tnore<br />
gram/tonne gold. A dissected volcanic complex.<br />
tonnes of 0.46 percent copper<br />
copper), with some $rpergene<br />
than I percent copper and I<br />
Yandare copper prqect: Resource is l]8 million tonnes of 0.42 percent copper and 0.018<br />
percent molybdenum as porphyry-type mineralizaLion, localized within major balholith.<br />
Porgera gold proqect: Resource of 100 million tonnes of 2.3 grams/tonne gold. Gold and<br />
associated base-metal sulphides are in veins in high-level intrusive complex and<br />
adjacent Mesozoic sediments. Figures from Mount Isa Mines Ltd. Annual Report I982.<br />
Ramu prorpect: Residual soil over ultramafic rock includes 78 million tonnes of 0.85 percent<br />
nickel, 0.09 percent cobalt and l.l percent chromium; 50 million tonnes of 1.14 percent<br />
nickel, 0.15 percent cobalt and 1.2 percent chromiuml and 25 million lonnes of 1.46<br />
percent nickel and 0.06 percent eobalt (from Mount Isa Mines Ltd, Annual Report for<br />
r982).<br />
Morobe chrornite prolpect: Coastal alluvium includes Fesources of l0 million cubic meLres<br />
averaging 2 percent chromile, and 5 million cubic rnetres of 2.5 percent chromite, fon<br />
eslimated tolal recoverable 1.5 million tonnes chromite.<br />
Miaima gold-eilver proeect: Resource of l0 million tonnes of l.) grarns/tonne gold and 18.5<br />
grams/tonne silver (from Placer Development Ltd Annual Report 1982).<br />
Waul Current reeerves at Golden Ridges mine are 9601000 tonnes averaging 2.4 grams/tonne<br />
gold, with probable reserves of 670,000 tonnes of 2.I grams/tonne gold (Australian<br />
Financial Review, 2l October, l98l).<br />
Laloki: Resource of )151000 tonnes of 4.J percent copper, 6.4 grams/tonne silver and 1.5<br />
grams/tonne gold.<br />
Arie proepcet: Resource of 165 million tonnes of O.)Z percent copper (Mining Journal, 7<br />
July, 1978).<br />
Hydrocarbon dircoveries: Significant volurnes of gas and gas condensates were intersected in<br />
Juha, Pasca, Uramu and Bwata wells. Attempted development of the Pasca field in 1981<br />
has resulted in an uncontrolled blowout. Gas was also encountered in Barikewa, Iehi<br />
and Kuru wells, and gas, gas condensate and oil in Puri well.<br />
*Based m Doble (1981), up-dated by A. Williamson, personal communication, 1983.
New Caledonia<br />
- tt4<br />
Second to Papua New Guinea, in terme of total value of minerals produced mnuelly,<br />
are the emeller end lees populous islands of the New Caledonia grotry. The main island, whidi<br />
ia tfie source of moet of the mineral wealth, is clasaic eollieionil temain, with a vut veriety<br />
of different rock typee of different origins and agee, juxtapoaed by faulting. The dominani<br />
rock type is ultramafic or olivine-rich rock which has been rafted to thl srrface dlring<br />
collieion, from the earth's mantle. Weathering processes have releEsed from this rock, ani<br />
concentrated in the overlying soils, a number of bodiee of nickel ore which together<br />
constitute 25 percent of known world regerves of nickel (Matthews and Sibley, f9S0).<br />
The ore is won by srrface mining and shipped as crude ore or srElted as nickel matte<br />
(75 percent nickel) and ferronickel (25 percent nickel) before export. Production of high<br />
grade ore started almoal I00 years ago and hes reached a ctmulative total ol 2.4 milli6n<br />
tonnes of contained nickel. Since 1950, annual production has increased and gnade of ore has<br />
declined eystematically (Figure 4). More recently production has decreeied because of<br />
reduced world demand. For exemple, in 1980 4.5 million tonneE of wet ore were produced,<br />
y]!! "n sverage grade of 2.5) pereent nickel, and a total rnetal content of 85,000 tonnes. I;<br />
1982r mly I million tonnes of wet ore was produced, with e nickel content oi llrmo tonnes<br />
(figures provided by Service dee Mines et de lEnergie, Noumda, l9B)).<br />
o<br />
I I<br />
E<br />
f,<br />
4<br />
o<br />
t?<br />
c-<br />
I<br />
o<br />
o2<br />
,9<br />
= I<br />
Figure 4 : Increasing annual production and declining head grades<br />
of New Caledmia nickel ore (peris, lg8ta)<br />
ls0r l9?0 l9it0 t9A0 t978<br />
Yerr<br />
(Reproduced by permission of Lhe Director, Bureau de Recherches Gdologiquee et Minibres,<br />
Noumde)<br />
The ultramafic rocks of New Caledonia are also I source of chromite. Production<br />
increased dramatically in 1982 with the development of underground reserves aL Tiebaghi and<br />
the commissioning of a Iarge concenrrstor. By year end almost 841000 tonnes of we! ore and<br />
almost 50'000 tonnes of concentrate had been produced, which compares with a total of 21100<br />
tonnes of lump ore end concentrete in 1980 (figures from Service des Mines et de ltEnergie,<br />
Noum6a, 1981, i98l).<br />
There is a great variety of other mineral occurrences in New Caledonia, some of which<br />
have been worked intermittently. These occurrences include cobalt and iron ore (assoeiated<br />
with the nickel ore), copper, lead, zinc, gold and silver, menganese, antimony, mercury,<br />
phosphate (on the smaller islands) and coal; oil seeps are known (paris, l98lc).<br />
I<br />
63<br />
+<br />
u=<br />
4E o<br />
ri<br />
2
Nauru<br />
- tt5<br />
The third mejor mineral producer in the region is the island of Nauru which producea<br />
phoephate to the vdue of about USllOO miltion annually. The phosphate b gutrto wtrich has<br />
developed by rcaction between limestone and bird excrernent. It occurs within funows r.p to<br />
12 m deep between pinnaclee of dolomitized limestone (British Suphur Corporation, l9B0).<br />
Reserves are said to be sufficient for 10-15 years further production.<br />
IIi!<br />
The Fijian islands are volcanic temain, in terms of our classification, although there is<br />
evidence of a major tectonic event in the younger geologic record (tne Tholo orogeny in the<br />
late Miocene; Richmond, t98l).<br />
Main mineral production is from the Enperon gold mine which produces silver and gold<br />
worth about USil0 million annually, from quartz-telluride veins in a former volcanic caldera<br />
(Forsythe' 197f ). The largest identif ied mineral nesource is the Waisoi porphyry copper<br />
prospect at Namosir elso in the eroded root of a former volcano; this contains 500 million<br />
tonnes averaging 0.48 percent copper with minor recoverable gold and nnlybdenum.<br />
Cqper-zinc massive sulphide deposits are known on Viti Levu, and gold deposits and<br />
Kuroko-type copper-zinc-leed sulphides with some associated qold and silver sr Vanua Levu<br />
(Greenbaum, 1981).<br />
Thick sediments both mshore end offshore ere currently being tested for hydrocarbons.<br />
Solomon Islands<br />
Tfe Solomon Islands are a mixture of volcanic and collision temain. A variety of<br />
mineralization is known, including porphyry copper and lode and alluvial gold m Guadalcanal,<br />
volcanogenic zuphides in the Florida qroup, lateritic nickel on several islands, baudte on<br />
Rennell and phosphate m Bellona islands, and some heavy mineral sands, and intrusive rocks<br />
which might be prospective for diamonds, on Malaita (Arthurs, 1979; Coulson, f98f ). The only<br />
eunent production is alluvial gold shedding from Gold Ridge on Guadalcanal; total value of<br />
production in 1980 was US$600,000.<br />
The largest porphyry copper prospect is Koloua, m Guadalcanal, with 90 million tonnes<br />
averaging 0.17 pereent copper, .0025 percent molybdenum, 0.06 grams/tonne gold and 0.77<br />
grams/tonne silver (A. Chivas, personal communica[ion, 1982).<br />
Thick sediments in New Georgia Sound (The Slot) mey be prospective for hydrocarbons<br />
(Katz, 1980).<br />
Vanuatu<br />
The Vanuatu islands are mostly volcenic with the exception of some collieional terrein<br />
on Pentecost Island (Macfarlane and Carney, l98I). Manganese was mined m Efate Island<br />
until 1978 but there is currently no mineral production. Magnetite beach sands with high<br />
titanium are found on most islands, weak porphyry-type copper minerelization on Santo and<br />
Malekula, and some copper, nickel and zinc sulphides on Pentecost.<br />
The Slot basin contains up to J km of sediments and these may be prospective for<br />
hydrocarbrrs (Carney and Macfarlane, I980b).<br />
Tonqa<br />
The Tmgan islands are volcanic terrainl oil seeps are known and exploration for<br />
hydrocanbms continues (U Maung et a!.r 1981).
Offshore Minerals<br />
- l)6<br />
Reconnaissance sampling of the southwest Pacific sea floor for manganese nodules has<br />
indicated best netal values and high concentretions of nodules in the eastern Central Pacific<br />
Basin, in the vicinity of the Line and Phoenix islands, between 60 north end 50 south latitude<br />
and 155-1750 west longitude (Glasby, 1982; Exon, l98r). These are in water depths of<br />
41500-5r500 metres.<br />
The heavieet concentrations of nodules are up to ll.6 kilograms per square rretre, and<br />
the best grades are up to 3.55 percent total nickel, copper and cobalt. These are potentially<br />
commercial deposits, srbject to confirmation by further sampling, and to anbsequent mining<br />
and treatment feasibility studies.<br />
Other offshore minerals may remain to be discovered in submarine volcanic centers and<br />
active rifts (Cronan, f98l). Hydrobhermal iron oxides in the 'zummiL area of zubmarine<br />
volcanoes off Epi Island, Vanuatu, might indicate urphide mineralization nearby (Exon and<br />
Cronan, f98]).<br />
Undiscovered Mineral Deposits<br />
Moot current exploration activity is focused m hydrocarbons and gold, followed by base<br />
rnetals, minerals of ultramafic association, vent minerals, precious coral, rock phosphate,<br />
uranium and, possibly, diamonds. Other minerals which are known, and which may be proven<br />
commereial, include bauxiLe, coal, heavy mineral sands and sea floor nodules. Other metals<br />
which are likely Lo be discovered, by analogy with similar geologic terrain elsewhere in the<br />
Pacific, are moreury and tungrten, and, possibly, metals of carbonetite associstion.<br />
The search for hydrocarbong has been spurred by discoveries of gas, gas condensate and<br />
minor oil m and near the Papua New Guinea mainland (Table 2). Oil seeps on Tonga are proof<br />
that hydrocarbons can develop and accumulate in volcanic arc environnnnt, and have led Lo<br />
continuing exploralion programmes in Tonga and Fiji. Any hint of success in these two areas<br />
will attraet attention to other major volcano-sedimentary basins in Vanuatu, Lhe Solomon<br />
Islands (Katz, 1980), and off New Ireland (Exon end Tiffin, 1983).<br />
The search for lode gold and silver continues to be keyed to known alluvial fields, but,<br />
increasingly, is being directed towards hydrothermally-altered volcanics and high-level<br />
intrusives. This follows the more general recognition of a link between thermal and fumarolic<br />
activity and gold-silver mineralization, and of [he fact that gold in this environment is<br />
commonly too fine to be detected by panning.<br />
Metele of ultramafic association include nickel and chnomium, which are currently<br />
mined on New Caledonia, and are known in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.<br />
Platinum group metals have been recovered from alluvium in Papua New Guinea and may<br />
remain to be discovered in lode.<br />
Precious coral is present at water depths exceeding 100 m throughout much of the<br />
southwest Pacific (Griqg and Eade, l98I) and is a significant potential resource, given that<br />
the ex-vessel value of precious coral harvested in the north Pacific in 1980 wag<br />
u5$50,000,000.<br />
Concealed phorphate deposits, similar to those exposed on Nauru Island, may remain to<br />
be discovered on other southwest Pacific islands (Lee, 1980; Sheldon & Burnett, 1980; J.<br />
Barrie, Avian Mining, personal communication, 1985).<br />
Uranium mineralization is known in volcanic environments in some of the lands<br />
bordering the Pacific (Goodell & Waters, I98J.; Gableman, 1982), and may remain to be<br />
discovered in the southwest Pacific islands, specifically in volcanics of highly alkaline and<br />
silicic character. Indications of uranium and base metals beneath limeslone on Niue Island are<br />
not yet tested by deep drilling (Barrie, I98f ).<br />
Carbonatites have not been discovered in the southwest Pacific, but there are<br />
indications of carbonatite-like rock associations, notably in southeastern Papua New Guinea,<br />
in the Milne Bay region. Here are alkaline ultramafic rocks and feldspathoidal syenitic<br />
intrusions, poorly exposed, but typically with strong expression in both the gravity end
- Lr7<br />
magnetic fields - a chanacteristic of carbonatilee elaewhere. The carbonalite mineral<br />
eesociation in Africa and the Anprices includes onee of the nptels niobium, thorium, uranium,<br />
phoaphorus, atrontium, the rare earthe, iron, manganese, titanium and copper.<br />
Prospective Areee<br />
If it is accepted thal equal areas of companable geologic terrain should produce<br />
pproximately equal mineral wealth, then it is clear that the Solomon letands and Vanugtu are<br />
either enomalously minerel deficient, or have been inadequately explored (Tabb 1). Both may<br />
be compared with Papua New Guinea which hee a 8imilar mixture of volcanic and collieional<br />
terrain End which annually produces minerals worth more than tlrfi)O f or each square<br />
kilometre of lend aree. By analogy with Papua New Guinea, both the Solomons and Vanuatu<br />
ehould be highly proepective for porphyry copper-gotd, porphyry and high-level gold and<br />
massive-suphide base-nptal deposits. Pcsibly exploration has been less effective than in<br />
Pqua New Guinea becsuse of restricted access to land.<br />
Impact of Mineral Development<br />
Any projected mineral development will have both positive and negative aspeets in<br />
terms of national development and quality of life. It is now customary for governments and<br />
would-be developers to enter into negotiations, prior to developmeni, to ensure that the best<br />
intereste of ell parties are served; the gamut of issues at slake has been discussed elsewhere<br />
(e.9. Daviee, l98l).<br />
In an earlier tirne it was generally accepted that mining could proceed with litlle<br />
regerd for any damage inflicted m cJrrounding terrain or trsditional life styles. The results<br />
may be een, for example, in lhe pilea of dredged bouldere whieh mark the former alluvial<br />
gold fields of the Bulolo Velley in mainland Papua New Guinea, end in the Mother Lode<br />
country of Calif ornia. A more modern example is the f looding of low-lying lerrain<br />
dowrstream from the Bougainville mine by rock waste from the mine; this is now the target<br />
of a major rehabilitation programme.<br />
Modern mining sgreements eeek to eneure that the impact on environment and<br />
treditional life styles is minimized. For example, the Ok Tedi Agreement provides for most<br />
mine wastee to be stored wiLhin the mine area, and for the immediate environrnenL and river<br />
syslems to be monitored (Jackson et g!.r 1980).<br />
ln terms of the fiscal impact of mineral development, the Pacif ic nations heve<br />
eucceasfully negotiated with private sector interests to ensure that both parties receive whal<br />
is perceived as a fair neturn from the profiteble development of any resource. An example is<br />
the Ok Tedi agreement, under the terms of which the developer will spend $1,100 million to<br />
eetabligh the mine; normsl tax provisions will epply until s.rch sLage as the developer has<br />
recouped the cost of his investment plua a 20 percent discounted-cash-flow return on ihe<br />
inveatrnent; efter this etage, additionel taxes will apply in years of high profit. The net reeult<br />
ia that over the life of the mine about 75 percent of all earnings should flow to governnEnt<br />
(Figure 5I<br />
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />
Essential information for this paper was kindly provided by G. P. Glasby of New<br />
Zeeland Oceanographic Institute, K. W. Doble and A. ltilliamson of the Geological Survey of<br />
Pqua New Guinee; A. Macfarlene of the Depertment of Geology, Mines and Rural Water<br />
Suppliea, Vila, Venuatu; J. P. Paris end A. Colleau of Bureau des Recherches Gdologiques et<br />
Minibree, Noumda, New Caledonia; P. Rodde of the DepartrnenL of Mineral Resources, Suva,<br />
Fiji; end N. F. Exon, C. R. Pratt and D. J Perkin of the Bureau of Mineral Resources,<br />
Canberra. This peper was originally presented at the l5th Congress of the Pacific Science<br />
Aasociation, Auckland, February 1981, and hes been improved by discussion et the<br />
conference, specifically with .l V. Eade of the New Zealand Oceanographic Institu[ion, and<br />
by eubaequent critical review by Exon, Perkin, Pratt and J H. C. Bain. Publicelion is by<br />
permiseion of the Director, Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics.
ll8<br />
Figure 5 I Cash flows to Papua New Guinea Governnent and Ok Tedi Cmsortium<br />
for different retal pricee (1980 budgeted developnent costs)<br />
SHARES OF OK TEDI REVENUES AT I696 NPV AND VARYII{G JANUARY 19EO PRICES<br />
ROYATTIES<br />
6%<br />
US€R CHARGES<br />
6%<br />
COTPATY TAX<br />
47%<br />
Au 3OO/oz<br />
Gu O.8O/lb<br />
Au 6OO/oz<br />
Cu 1.2ollb<br />
E0utw<br />
4%<br />
wrilt{orDtrG TAx<br />
l0(f<br />
AoorTtoiAt PfroItTs TAx<br />
1l%<br />
All plcgs in US $<br />
Ar 45o/oz<br />
Cu I /lb<br />
Ar<br />
Cu<br />
75Oloz<br />
|.40/lb<br />
Reproduced by permission of the Secretary, Department of Minerals and Energy, Port<br />
Moresby<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Arthurs, J. W. 1979. Mineral occurrences in the Solomon Islands. Solomon lslands Geological<br />
Survey Bulletin ll.<br />
Barrie, J. 1981. The mineral potential of Niue Island. Avian Mining Pty Ltd, Canberra<br />
(unpublished report).<br />
British Sulphur Corporation. 1980. World survey of phosphate deposits,4th edition. British<br />
Suphur Corporation Limited, Lmdon.<br />
Carney, J. N. and A. Macfarlane. 1980b. A sedimentary basin in the central New Hebrides<br />
arc. UN ESCAP CCOP/SOPAC Technical Bulletin l:109-120.<br />
Coulson, F. l. 1981. The economic Aeology of the Solomon Islands. Solomon Islands Geological<br />
Survey, Hmiara (mpublished).<br />
Cronan, D. S. f98J. Metalliferous sediments in the CCOP/SOPAC region of the South Pacific,<br />
with particular reference to geochemical exploration, for the deposits. UN ESCAP<br />
CCOP/SOPAC Technical Bulletin 4. 55p.
- 119<br />
Davies' l'l L 1981. Eveluation of a mining project in a national davelopment programme. !<br />
AGID Guide to Mineral Regourcea Developrnent. Aseociation of Geogciehtiate for<br />
Internalional Development, Aaian Inatitute of Technology, Bangkok, Report 10:15-46.<br />
Dobte' K. W. I98J.. Regional geological rnapping and minerel exploration activity in Papua<br />
New Guinea. Geological Survey of Pepua New Guinea, Port Moreeby (mpubliehed<br />
manuscript).<br />
Exon' N. F. 1.981. Menganeee nodule depoeits in the csntral Pcific Ocean, and their variation<br />
with letitude. Merine Mining 4279-LO7.<br />
Exon' N. F. and D. S. Cronan. 1981. Hydrothermal iron depoeite end esgociated sediments from<br />
submarine volcanoee off Vanuatu, southwest Pacific. Marine Geology 52tM45-M52,<br />
Exon' N. F. End D. L Tiffin. I98r. Geology of offehore New lrEland beein in northern Papua<br />
Na',r Guinear and ite petrolaum prospects. Anerican Aesociation Petroleum Geologiste<br />
Studies in Geology (in prees).<br />
Forsythe' D. L. I97I. Vertical zoning of gold-silver tellurides in the Erperor Gold Mine, Fiji.<br />
Prcceedings Australien Inetitute of Mining end Metallurgy 240225-ll.<br />
Gabelman' J. W. 1982. Uranium on oceanic eida of circum-Pacific npbile belt. (Abstr.)<br />
Bulletin Anerican Associetion Petroleum Geologisto 662968.<br />
Glaeby' G. P. 1982. Manganaee nodules from the oouth Pacific: an eveluation. Merine Mining<br />
12211-27CI.<br />
Goodell' P. C. end A. C. Waters [eds.] 1981. Uranium in volcanic end volcaniclaetic rockg.<br />
American Asocietion of Petroleum Geotogiste Studies in Geology l).<br />
Greenbaum, D. 1981. Statue of mineral exploration and mining in Fiji 1980. Mineral Reoourcea<br />
Departmen[, Suve, Report 27.<br />
Grigg, R. and I V. Eade. 198I. Precious corals. In Inehore and Nearshore Reaourcee Training<br />
Workshop Report. UN ESCAP CCOPiSOPAC, p:ir-I8.<br />
Jackeon, R. T.' C. A. Emerson end R. Welsch. 1980. The impact of the Ok Tedi project.<br />
Department of Minerals and Energy, Port Moresby,<br />
Katz' Fl R. 1980. Besin developnnnt in the Solomon Islands end their petroleum potential. t-f,.,|<br />
ESCAP CCOP/sOPAC Technical Bullerin 3259-75.<br />
Lee, A. I. N. [ed.] 1980. Fertilizer mineral occutrencee in lhe AeiaPacific region. East-West<br />
Resource Systeme lrntitute, Hmolulu.<br />
Macfarlener A. end .tr N. Cerney. 1981. Economic minerals in Vanuatu, known and potential<br />
ra8ource8. Geological Survey of Vanuatu (wpublished rnanuecript).<br />
Mattewar N. A. and S. F. Sibley. 1980. Nickel. In Mineral facta and problams, 1980 edition.<br />
United Statea Bureeu of Minea Bulletin 67l:6lil<br />
Perie' I P. l98la. G6ologie de la Nouvelle Cel6donie. Mdnpire dJ Bureau de Recherchea<br />
G6ologiquea et MiniAree lll.<br />
Sheldon, R. P. and W. C. Burnett [eds.] 1980. Fertilizer mineral potential in Aaia and the<br />
Pacific. East-West Reaource Systems lrutitute, Hsrolulu<br />
U Maung' Tr.n' K. Anscombe end S. L Tmgilava 1981. Aeegsment of petroleum potential of<br />
the southern and northern psrts of the Tmga Platform. lJhl ESCAP CC@/SOPAC Technical<br />
Paper 18. 57 p. (unpubliahed).
Reoional<br />
- 140<br />
SELECTED BIBUOGRAPHY<br />
Cox, N4. E. 1980. Geothermal occurrences in the southwest Pacific. UN ESCAP CCOP/SOPAC<br />
Technicel Bulletin 32197 -2L9.<br />
Cronan, D. 5. I98f. Metalliferous sediments in the CCOP/SOPAC region of the southwest<br />
Pacific, with particular reference to geochemical exploration for the deposits, UN ESCAP<br />
CCOP/SOPAC Technical Bulletin 4. 55p.<br />
Exon, N. F. L98t. Manganese nodule deposita in the central Pacific Ocean, and their variation<br />
with latitude. Marine Mining h79-IO7.<br />
Gabelman, J. W. 1982. Uranium on oeeanic side of circum-Pacific Mobile Belt. (Abetr.)<br />
Bulletin Anerican Association Petroleum Geologists 66;968.<br />
Glasby, G. P. 1982. Manganese nodules from the south Pacific: an eveluation. Marine Mining<br />
Jr23L-27O.<br />
Grigg, R. end J. V. Eade. 1981. Precious corals. In Inshore and Nearshore Resources Training<br />
Wortsnop Report. UN ESCAP CCOP/SOPAC. pJl-I8.<br />
Johnson, C. J. I98L. Economics of South Pacific minerals developrnent. East-West Resource<br />
Systems Inotitute, Honolulu (unpublished).<br />
Mining Annual Review. 1981. The Mining Journal Limited, Lmdon.<br />
Richmond, R. R. 1981. Geology, tectonics and mineral potential of the southwest Pacific.<br />
Est-West Resource Systems Institule' Hmolulu (unpublished manuscript).<br />
Wyche, C. 1981. The mineral industry of other South Pacific islands. United Slates Bureau of<br />
Mines Minerals Yearbook 1981, l. Area Reports-lnternational, p. 1t99-l4Lt.<br />
Papua New Guinea<br />
Arnold, G. O. and T. J. Griffin. 1978. Intrusions and porphyny copper prospects of the Star<br />
Mountains, Papua New Guinea. Economic Geology 732785-795.<br />
Davies, l-l L 1978. Geology and mineral resources of Papua New Guinea. In Third Regional<br />
Cmference m Geology - and Mineral Resources of Southeast Asia, A-sian Institute of<br />
Technology, Bangkok, Proceedings' p. 685-699.<br />
Davies, Fl L, W. J. S. Howell, R. S. l-t Fardon, R. J. Carter, and E. D. Bums[ead. 1978.<br />
History of the Ok Tedi porphyry copper prospect, Papua New Guinea. Economic Geology<br />
752796-8O9.<br />
Doble, K. W. 1981. Reqional geological mapping and mineral exploration activity in Papua<br />
New Guinea. Geological Survey of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby (unpublished<br />
manuscript).<br />
Exon, N. F. and D. L Tiffin. 1981. Geology of offshore New Ireland basin in northern Papua<br />
New Guinea, and its petroleum prospects. Arnerican Association Petroleum Geologists<br />
Studies in Geology (in press).<br />
Grainger, D. .J. and R. L Grainger. 1974. Explanatory notes qr the J.:2,500,000 mineral<br />
deposits map of Papua New Guinea. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Australia, Bulletin 148.<br />
Jaekson, R. T., C. A. Emerson and R. Welsch. 1980. The impact of the Ok Tedi Project.<br />
Departmen! of Minerals and Energy, Port Moresby.<br />
Lowenstein, P. L 1982. Economic geology of the Morobe goldfield. Geological Survey of<br />
Papua New Guinea Memoir 9.
- l4l<br />
Whalen, J.8., R. M. Britten and I. McDougall. 1982. Geochronology and geochemistry of the<br />
Frieda River prospect area, Papua New Guinea. Economic Geology 771592-616.<br />
GSPNG. I981. Catalogue of data f iles. Geological Survey of Papua New Guinea, Port<br />
Moresby.<br />
Solomon Islands<br />
Arthurs, J. W. 1979. Mineral occurrences in the Solomon Islands. Solomon Islands Geological<br />
Survey Bulletin Il.<br />
Coulson, F. I. 198I. The economic geology of lhe Solomon Islands. Solomon Islands Geological<br />
Survey (mpublished manuscript).<br />
Hackman, B. D. 1980. The geology of Guadalcanal, Solomon lslands. Irntitute of Geological<br />
Sciences, Lordon, Overseas Memoir 5.<br />
Katz, FL R. 1980. Basin development in the Solomon lslsnds and their petroleum potential. UN<br />
ESCAP CCOP/SOPAC Technical Bulletin Jt59-75.<br />
Landmesser, C. W. 1977. Evaluation of potential hydrocarbon occurrence in the Solomon<br />
Islands. South Pacific Marine Geological Notes, UN ESCAP CCOP/SOPAC, Suva. Lz47-54.<br />
Taylor, G. R. 1974. Volcanogenic minenalization in the islands of the Florida group, B.S.l.P.<br />
Transactions lrsiitution Mining Metallurgy, Section B Applied Earth Sciences 8l(B):120-110.<br />
Vanuatu<br />
Carney, J. N. and A. Macfarlane. 1980a. Mineral resources of the New Hebrides. Report of<br />
the Regional Workshop on Mineral Assessrnentr'Evaluation and Calculation, Commonwealth<br />
Geological Liaison Off ice, Proceedings l:I0l-112.<br />
Carney, .I N. and A. Macfarlane. 1980b. A sedimentary basin in the central New Hebrides<br />
arc. UN ESCAP CCOP/SOPAC Bulletin l:109-120.<br />
Exon, N. F. and D.5. Cronan. 1981. Hydrothermel iron deposits and associated sediments from<br />
submarine volcanoes off Vanuatu, southwest Pacific. Marine Geology, 522M43-M52.<br />
Macfarlane, A. and J. N. Carney. 1981.. Economic minerals in Vanuatu, known and potenLial<br />
resourcee. Geological Survey of Vanuatu (unpublished rnanuscript).<br />
Melliek, D. I. J. and G. Neef. 1974. Geology of Pentecost. Geological Survey of New Hebrides<br />
Condominium Regional Report.<br />
Pmtoise, 8., G. V. Latham, J. Daniel, .I Dupont and A. B. lbrahim. 1980. Seismic refraction<br />
studies in the New Hebrides and Tonga area. UN ESCAP CCOP/SOPAC Technical Bulletin<br />
Jz47 -58.<br />
New Caledonia<br />
Briggs, R. N4", l-l W. Kobe and P. M Black. 1977. High Pressure nntamorphism of stratiform<br />
strlphide deposits from the Diahot ragion, New Caledmia. Mineralium Deposita L2z26J-279.<br />
Equipe de GCologie-GCophysique dr Centre ffiSTOM de Noum6a" 1982. Les p6ridotites de<br />
Nouvelle-Calddmie dans teur contexte r{gional: mige en place de le eCrie qhiolitique et<br />
, 6volution des gtructures, ln Cmtribution A I6tude gdodynamique fu Sud-Ouest Pacifique.<br />
Travaux et Dcurents de im,STOM 147:479-564,<br />
Guerange, 8., .tr Lozes and A. Autran. 1976. Megozoic nntamorphism in the New Caledonia<br />
centrel ctain and ite geodynamic inplications in reletion to the evolution of the Crutaceoug<br />
Rangitata orogeny. In Cmtribution A l6tude g6odynamique dr Sud-Ouest Pacifique. Travaux<br />
et Docurents de l'ffiSToM 147;265-277.
- L42<br />
Guillon, I Fl 1971. Lea massifs pdridotiques de.No.uvelle-cal6donie. Modble d'un appareil<br />
ultrabasique stretiforme de chaine rdcente (thbse). universitd de Paris VI'<br />
Leblanc, 1t4., D. Cassard, c. Dupuy, 1 Moutte, A" Nicholas, A. Prinzhoffer and M'<br />
Rabinovitch. 1980. Essai sur la genbse des corps podif ormes de chromitite dans les<br />
pe*ootit"s ophiolitiques: 6tude des chromiLes de Nouvelle-cal6donie et comparison avec<br />
celles de M6diterr"ni" orientale. International Ophiolite Symposium, Nicosia' Cyprus' 1979'<br />
Conmunications, P. 691-70I.<br />
Paris, J. P. l98la. G{ologie de la Nouvelle-Cal6donie' M6moire du Bureau du Recherches<br />
G6ologiques et Minibree Ill.<br />
paris, J. P. l98lb. G6ologie, planche_9.-!q^ Atlas de la Nouvelle cal6donie' office de Ia<br />
Recherche Scieniifique el Technique Outre-Mert Paris'<br />
Parie, J. P. I98Ic. Gltes mindraux et substances utiles, planche-40' Ir-r-Atlas de la Nouvelle<br />
Cal6donie. Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique Outre-Mer, Paris'<br />
Trcscasee, J J. 1975. Lrdvolution supergene des-roehes ultrabasiques en zone tropicale'<br />
Formation des gisements nickelifbres de i,louvelle-Cal6donie. M6moire ffi'SToM 78'<br />
fli<br />
Enperor Mines Limited. 198I. Annual report for 1980-8I' Sydney Stock Exchange Research<br />
end Statistical Bureeu.<br />
Forsythe, D. L 197I. Vertical zoning of gold-silver..tellurides in the Enperor Gold Mine' Fiji'<br />
proceedings Australian lrBtitute Mining and Metallurgy 24O;25-1L,<br />
Greenbaum, D. l98l.Status of minerel exploration and mining in Fiji 1980' Mineral Resources<br />
Department, Suva, RePort 27.<br />
Greenbaum, D. and H. G. Plummer. 198I. Minerals development policy and resouree<br />
clessification: Fiii case study. Mineral Resources Department, Suva (unpublished<br />
manuecript).<br />
Leggo, tt4. D. 1977. Contresting geochemical expressions of copper mineralization at Namosi'<br />
fiji.' .:outnal of Geochemical Exploration 8z4JL-456'<br />
Plunmer, l-f G. and R. Holmee. 1981. Fiji: stimmary . of srrveys, progrebs and results in<br />
offshore activitile - October 1980 to October 198I. Mineral Resources Department, Suva,<br />
Report 10.<br />
siwatibau, s. 1977. Report of the commiLtee rypointe'd to examine the economics of the gold<br />
mining industry at vatakoula. Governrnent Printer, suva.<br />
Tonqa<br />
Pmtoise, 8., G. V. Lathem, J. Daniel, J. Dupont and_fa B. lbrahim. 1980' Seismic ref rection<br />
etudies in the New Hebrideg and Tonga area. UN ESCAP CCOP/sOPAC Technical Bulletin<br />
1247-58.<br />
U Maung, Tun, Karen Anscombe and 5. L. Tongilava. 1981' Ageeeament of petroleum poten[ial<br />
of the southern and northern p"ri, of th; Tmga Platform. UN ESCAP CCOP/5OPAC<br />
Technicsl Paper 18, 57 p. (rrpublished)'<br />
u Muang, Tun, Karen Anscombe and s. L Tmgilava 1982. Petroleum potential of southern<br />
-<br />
part of Tmga pUtform (ebstr.). Bulletin Aneiican Association Petroleum GeologisLs 662986'
- L4t<br />
ENERGY POTENTIALS tr PACIFIC ISLAhD NATIONS<br />
C. R. Lloyd* and 5. Siwatibau**<br />
University of lhe South Pacific, Suva, Fijii<br />
and<br />
Ministry of Energy, Suva, Fiji#<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
This paper gives an overview of fhe various energy sources that could be<br />
used by Pacific Island nations in the future. Emphasis is of course on indigenous<br />
sources that could provide some relief from oil import expenses. Particular<br />
attention is paid to the need for gathering data on the use of energy in parlicular<br />
sectors, with a view to developing sources for aclual needs rather than just<br />
developing energy sources. Smre information is given in this respecL from work<br />
done in Fiji by the authors. This relates to zurveys of energy use in the rural<br />
arear particularly firewood for cooking, and in the urban area where a range of<br />
energy sources are used, e. g. 'firewood, kerosene, gas and electricity. The<br />
programmes in the energy field developed by aid agencies are also discussed.<br />
Introduction<br />
This paper gives an overall view of the energy scene in Pacific lsland nations. No<br />
detailed ettempt will be made to discuss the benefits or disadvantages of particular energy<br />
alternatives from a [echnical viewpoinl.<br />
The importance of energy potentials to Pacif ic Island nations has grown at<br />
approximately the same rate as the increase in mineral oil prices. After the L973-74 oil<br />
shocks the vulnerability of the countries to reliance on imported petroleum has led to<br />
increasing research m the possibility of using alternative sources. This has culrninated in the<br />
Pacific Energy Programme (P.E.P.). This programme originaLed from discussions in 1979 and is<br />
an attempt by aid agencies to get logether and present a co-ordinated plan for the<br />
developrnent of energy strategies in the region. For this discussion the negion will consist of<br />
those countries covered by the Pacif ic Energy Programme, corresponding to lhe newly<br />
independent island nations of:<br />
Western Samoe<br />
Cok Islands<br />
Tmga<br />
Fiji<br />
Niue<br />
Ppua New Guinea<br />
Solomon Islende<br />
Tuvelu<br />
Kiribati<br />
Vanuatu<br />
(independent in 1952)<br />
( " " 1965)<br />
( .' " 1970)<br />
( ', ', 1970)<br />
rf 1974)<br />
( "<br />
'f<br />
il 1975)<br />
''<br />
r 1978)<br />
rr il lgTg)<br />
il r 1979)<br />
il rr rgg0)<br />
The Cook Islands and Niue are self governing with ties to New Zealand. All except<br />
Pryue New Guinea are member countriea of the Univemity of the Sorth Pacific.<br />
Before an analysis could be made of energy strategies a data base had to be<br />
accumulated to define the present situation. We are fortunate now to heve at least a basic<br />
picture of the energy scene in each of the programme countries. During early 1982 a teem of<br />
between me and six persons visited eaeh of the countries to gather data with the object of
- L44<br />
assessing the best alLernatives for aid dispension. The European Economic Community<br />
G.i.c.l, as part of lhe Lqne II Convention, has allocated about U5$6 million and the United<br />
rrr"ti"r"'us$i mitlion to be used to develop enerqy potentials in the countries' The data<br />
gathering team and the funds are being co-orainated by the- south Pacific Bureau for<br />
Economic co-qeration (SpEC) which is -based in suva, Fiji. The firs_t author (Llovd) was<br />
involved in the initiat stages of the data gathering doing a-pre-survey of the solomon Islands<br />
and Vanuatu. Mrs Siwatib-au, the co-autho-r, visite-d most of the countries as part of the main<br />
ieam which was led by Ken Newcombe. ln addition, the East-West Center in Hawaii has been<br />
.rfi""li"g energy data as parl of a separate programme and so has the Asian Development<br />
Bank and the world Bank. This led to some duplGation of effort in data collection; shortly<br />
after the first author visited the Solomon Islands, the SPEC team of four persons visited<br />
aronq witn iwo frorn tfre E.E.C., end at the same time there was a team from lhe Asian<br />
Ol"u'top."nt Bank, all aften the same information from a country which has no governrrpnt<br />
;;""g/ specialisL. other agencies interesLed or involved in energy matters are the South<br />
pacif ic Commission iu"""o in Noumea)' SRREIS (Australia), ESCAP' I'L'o', UNDAT' UNDP'<br />
and of course USP and the regional governments'<br />
The impelus for all this activity comes from two main sources. First the region is fossil<br />
fuel poor and is extrernely reliant upon imported petroleum products' Sec.o1lly the region is<br />
small in population and reasonably poor bui surrounded by rich countries which have strategic<br />
and political rnotives for organizing aid'<br />
As far as energy data goes, the overall situation is fairly well defined for all the ten<br />
countries. There "r"-ro." ga-ps, however, in particular areas, e'g' the hydroelectric potential<br />
of the Solomon Islands. sorne of these gaps will be filled in by the monito-ring.sections of the<br />
Pacific Energy Programme, e.g. solar an-d'wind measutement programmes' Detailed information<br />
on sectoriat energy ur" p"ttjtns, however, is only avajlable or becoming available for two<br />
countries, Fiji and Papua New Guinea. This sectorial information (How much and what kind of<br />
"r"rgy ir n"LdrO in the domestic sector for cooking, refrigerationr.ironing, etc'? What is<br />
needed for industry and commerce?) is vital before deciding' on development priorities' The<br />
authors' work in this area will be nrentioned later'<br />
The problems faced by the countries to secure some relief from reliance on imported<br />
oil products vary considerably with differences in si ze, population. anl economic condition'<br />
Table I shows, foi-example, tlpt Tuvalu has an area of only 26 km' whereas Papua New<br />
Guinea covers some 450r0b0 kml. Population likewise varies from a nere )1400 in Niue to f<br />
million in Papua New Guinea. similarly Tabte 2 shows that economic status varies' Tuvalu, for<br />
example, whose major money earner is slamps, has a G.D.P. of about US$l million, while<br />
P4ua New Guinea has a G.D.P. of over U5$2t000 million'<br />
Tuvalu<br />
Cmk lslands<br />
Niue<br />
Tmga<br />
Kiribati<br />
Western Samoa<br />
Vanuatu<br />
Fiji<br />
Solomon Islands<br />
Papua New Guinea<br />
Table I : Basic Statistics<br />
Ar.g<br />
KM<br />
26<br />
2t5<br />
260<br />
670<br />
690<br />
2r9t4<br />
L2,2OO<br />
L8,272<br />
27,560<br />
46?r?4O<br />
Pqulation PoPulation Pqulation<br />
1000s Growth Rate DensitY<br />
Plkm'<br />
7.5<br />
L7.5<br />
t.4<br />
98<br />
58.6<br />
r58<br />
Lzt<br />
670<br />
240<br />
1000<br />
o.96<br />
-0.9%<br />
-i.?%<br />
2.L%<br />
2.0%<br />
0.896<br />
4.2%<br />
1.9i6<br />
,.L%<br />
?.L%<br />
288<br />
74<br />
ll<br />
146<br />
85<br />
54<br />
IO<br />
J7<br />
I 6.5
t45<br />
Table 2 : Economics (f979-80)<br />
Country C.O.P./capita Gmwth Inports Exportr<br />
US$ US$ milliona<br />
Tuvalu 500 1996 t.6 1.4*<br />
Cook lglends IrI00 1896 22.8 4.1<br />
Niue 900 1196 0.1 t.Z<br />
Tmga 450 l0% t .7 7.6<br />
Kiribati 400 7% 19 2.7<br />
Western Samoe 400 5% 6t L7<br />
Vanuatu 700 10% 7l ,5<br />
Solomon Islands 500 1496 67.t 66.6<br />
Fiji 1,600 24% 552 568<br />
Pqua New Guinea 75O 12% 1009 1020<br />
* including stamps<br />
Enerov consumption<br />
Ernrgy consunplion is similarly variable, with a range from ebout 100 TJ/yr in Tuvalu<br />
end Niue to 40rfi)0 TJ/yr in Ppua New Guinea (Table l). Figures for Australia are shown for<br />
comparison. The per capita consunption for the programme countries is roughly l0 times less<br />
than Australian per capita consurrption.<br />
Tabb I : Energy Consunption (198I)<br />
Counlry Renewable Nm-renewable Total Total Per<br />
TJ TJ TJ Capita GJ/C<br />
Australia (f978-79) 2,784,000 125,000 2,909,000 200<br />
Tuvalu<br />
Niue<br />
Cmk Islands<br />
Kiribati<br />
Tmga<br />
Western Samoa<br />
Vanuatu<br />
Solomon lslands<br />
45<br />
76<br />
toz<br />
409<br />
469<br />
I,I40<br />
758<br />
1,849<br />
Fiji<br />
Lr,665<br />
P4ua New Guinea 22rL4I<br />
54<br />
20<br />
rt5<br />
425<br />
I,055<br />
L,74t<br />
2,&2<br />
31655<br />
Lr1639<br />
t8,6U0<br />
97<br />
96<br />
4t7<br />
834<br />
L1525<br />
2r881<br />
t,44O<br />
5,504<br />
25,tOO<br />
49 r74L<br />
Total for region (%) 48% 52% t00%<br />
Also for the total region (excluding Australia), renewable enerqy accounts for e little<br />
over (ne half of the total used. In all cases except Fiji this is due to the high firewood<br />
consunption for dornestic cooking, in Fiji bagasse is used in large quantities by the sugar<br />
industry as well as firewood for cooking.<br />
The non renewable energy which dominates the eommercial and industriel sectors is<br />
nearly exclusively imported petroleum products.<br />
There are two broad demand sectors in the internal energy requirements of each island<br />
nation: the domestic sector and the industrial/commercial sector. There is a Lhird sector, the<br />
bunkering sector, which caters for international aircraft and shipping refuelling (perhaps even<br />
parts of the tourist industry could be placed in this seetor). Bunkering can totally distort Lhe<br />
national enengy picture and so is best exeluded from an internal analysis.<br />
tl<br />
28<br />
25<br />
L4<br />
l6<br />
l8<br />
28<br />
2'<br />
l8<br />
l4
- 146<br />
National energy planning tende to concentrate on the industrial/commercial gector as it<br />
is this sector which is ofien seen by the national governrnents to best serve economic<br />
development objectives. In the Pacific Island nations these objectives have tended to follow<br />
those of developed countries, e.g. large hydroelectric schemee or fossil fuelled electrieity<br />
generation, the high technology end. Many aid agencies on the other hand have tended since<br />
lfre early 1970's rnore towards appropriate indigenous alternatives, e.g. biogas and soler<br />
enerqy, the low technology end. A national energy policy should examine both high and low<br />
technology options.<br />
Potential energy is mly useful if taken in relation to a countries economicr social and<br />
technical infrastructure. Thus the large hydroelectric power potentiat in Papua New Guinea is<br />
only usef ul to the country if social and political decisions are made to secure ite<br />
consunption. Solar energy is mly useful if people have a need for it. For planning purposes<br />
then it is essential to examine lhese factors and the present and possibb future conaunption<br />
patterns before deciding on which potential energy sources should be given priority. This is<br />
not to exclude the possibility of new enerqy sounces ginerating new consumption patterns.<br />
Domestic sec[or<br />
In the dornestic sector, consunption $rrveys have been made in Papua New Guinea both<br />
in Lae and Port Moresby (Newcombe et e!.r 1982). In Fiji the work of Mrs Siwatibau on rural<br />
energy use has provided much needed data ryt fuelwood consumption, showing [hat in rural<br />
villages [he average wood consunption for domestic cooking amounts to approximately 350 kg<br />
(oven dried) pen capita per year (Siwatibau, 1978). To complement this work Lloyd and others<br />
have completed an extensive survey of energy use in the Nadi-Lautoka area of Fiji (Lloyd'<br />
n.d.),and Siwatibau and others are in the process of doing a similar zurvey for the Suva urban<br />
area (Siwatibau, personal communication). Tl"E Nadi-Lautoka survey compiled results of<br />
questionnaires from nearly I1000 households of which 4]% were classed as urban, t4%<br />
peri-urban and 21% as rural. For fuelwood consurnplion bhe Nadi-Lautoka results agreed well<br />
with the earlier work of Siwalibau finding lhe consunption to be a little over 100<br />
kglcapitalyr in the rural areas ranging to 120 kg/capita/yr in peri-urban and 50 kg/capita/yr<br />
in urban areas. In Lae, Papua New Guinea, Lhe average consunption was around 250<br />
kg/capita/yr (Newcombe, 1982), though there are indications that in wood-rich areas such as<br />
the Solomon Islands, 500 kg/capita/yr would be used for domestic cooking. The amount used is<br />
viLal for planning because it determines the life of present fuelwood zupplies and the extent<br />
of possible fuelwood plantations.<br />
Also from the Nadi-LauLoka survey, which spanned largely urban and peri-urban areast<br />
we found that the most used source of energy was petrol on motor spiritr which contributed<br />
4l% to the total use, followed by wood 22Vo, kerosene I8%, electricity 8%' LPG 6% and<br />
diesel 5%. In terms of end use, cooking and transport each used 4l% of the total energy' with<br />
lighting using 7%, refrigeration 5% and all other uses 2%. In the rural non-electrified areaet<br />
thL amount of firewood used was much higher, around 60% of the [otal, with kerosene for<br />
cooking and lighting and motor spinit for lighling making up the bulk of the remainder. The<br />
larqe proportion of energy used for transport naLionally (in Fiji lransporl consumes 5496 ot<br />
the total commercial energy) makes energy substitution difficult.<br />
In terms of potential sources for transport, Lhe most reasonable alternatives come from<br />
biomass (urrless petroleum is discovered locally). The mos! lested alLernative is alcohol<br />
substitution whece the alcohol can come from sugar cane, cassava or possibly breadfruit.<br />
Production of such fuel crops is eerlainly a possibility in mosL of the countries of the<br />
region, but there are considerable economic and some teehnical pnoblems Lo be overcomel in<br />
Fiji it is aL present more pnofitable to ell the sugar. The other possible source of liquid fuel<br />
is coconut oil. Most of Lhe island countries have extensi ve coconut plantations which' if the<br />
economics are right, could be diverted Lo manufacturing coconut oil for use in diesel engines<br />
rather than producing copna. The use of coconut oil in diesels has been tesled in the<br />
Philippines, Australia, Samoa and at the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. LiSP has<br />
also sludied the ester of coconut oil and alcohol. Further nesearch in this area is necessary<br />
and is being sponsored by the Pacific Energy Programme. The present stabilization of oil<br />
prices should give some time, perhaps until 1990, to consolidate findings and to choose the<br />
best liquid fuel alternative. For the next decade, however, the region will continue to rely on<br />
imponted petroleum both for transport and for electricity genenation.
- I47<br />
Realizing this, trre of the strongest recommendations of the 1982 Peific Ernrgy<br />
Programme report (Newcombe, 1982) was that countries should improve their knowledge of<br />
the oil industry, and in partieular the basis m which oil companiee negotiates atpply and<br />
pricing amangements. It was found, for instance, that in et least five countries (Fiji' Sarnoat<br />
Tanga, Cook Islands and Kiribati) oil was being priced on the basis of its delivery from<br />
Singapore whereas in fact il came from Australia, resulting in a considerable eurcherge on<br />
freight coste. With other practices, this nEant thet Pacific Islend countries were paying much<br />
rnore than warranted for petroleum imporls, and that the best short term savings in the<br />
energy sector could be had be re-negotiating such contrecls.<br />
ln the dornestic eector the other major user of energy is cooking, wilh the main fuels<br />
being wood and keroeene. All countries, with the posiible exception of Kiribati, have<br />
reasonable quantities of firewood for domestic purposes, although replanting with suiteble<br />
fuelwood species would be advisable to secure future supplies. Cmking in all countries is<br />
mostly done over an een fire, even in the Nadi-Leutoka region of Fiji, where we found that'<br />
ol 773 wood ueers, 5l% cooked over en open fire. Such cooking is very inefficient and a<br />
greet wasle of fuelwood. With this in mind the E.E.C. is sponsoring the design and production<br />
of fuel efficient slow combustion stoves and charcoal stoves. For lighting the present sources<br />
are electricity (rrrhere conneeted to e grid or village generator), or kerosene and benzine.<br />
Ebctricily will be considered separately later.<br />
Both kerosene and benzine (unleaded rnotor spirit) pressure lemps are used' althouqh the<br />
preference is for lhe benzine lamp as it is easier to start and requires lees maintenance.<br />
Kerosene standing lamps are also common, often being lit throughout the nigh!. One potential<br />
replacement considered by the Pacific Energy Programme is the photovoltaic system. While it<br />
can be shown that zuch a system can be economically edvantageous if evaluated over a l0<br />
year period, it suffers from the disadvantage of initial high capital cost and decreased<br />
flexibility. For instance, with the kerosene or benzine lamp, a family that cannot afford the<br />
fuel for a short period simply does wiLhout the light, whereas the photovoltaic represents a<br />
permanent financial commitment.<br />
For refrigeration, electricity is the main source, although kerosene refrigenators are<br />
also used. Potential replacements are many as almost any liquid fuel, e.g.r alcoholr coconut<br />
oil, solid fuel wood or charcoal, could be used in a suitably modified kerosene refrigerator. In<br />
the Nadi-Lautoka survey we found that, of all appliances owned, lhe refrigerator was by far<br />
the most popular indicating a (perhaps obvious) need for food cooling. For households<br />
connected to grid, about 54% of the elecLricity budget was used for refrigeration in the<br />
survey sample.<br />
Also from the Nadi-Lautoka grrveyr we found that, except for ironing, other uses of<br />
energy such as water heating mly became significant in Lhe most affluent households. Since<br />
Fiji is the most affluent of the programme couniries per capita, this can safely be assuned<br />
for the rest.<br />
Commercial-industrial sector<br />
Surveys m energy use in this sector have been completed, but not yet fully analysed'<br />
by Lloyd and others at USP again for the Nadi-Lautoka area in Fiji' and by Siwatibau for the<br />
Suva area. This sector relies most heavily on imported petroleum producls for transportt<br />
boilers, and electricity generation. Transport has already been discugsed. In Fiji most<br />
industrial concerns use oil-fired boilers; the major exception is of course the urgar industry,<br />
which uses bagasse. Newcombe (1982) noted thet this is general in nnst Pacific Island<br />
countries, even when considerable wood or wood waste products were evailable. The Fiii<br />
Sugar Company burns off large amounts of bagasse that are zurplus to its requirements. The<br />
timber milling industries in many of the countries produce wood waste which could profitably<br />
substrtute foi imported petroleum. Already there is some move to such substitution. In Papua<br />
New Guinea, 12 hot air qenerators fired by wood or coconut residues had been inatalled by<br />
early 1982, s well es one in the cocoa drying factory in Samoa. In most of the Programme<br />
countrieg the potential for further zubstitution is great for small industries zuch as bakeriee'<br />
laundries and sofl drink faciories and for larger industries such as copra drying.
- r48<br />
In addition to using petroleum fuels directly, induslry and commerce €re the main users<br />
of eleetrical energy. ln Fiji, with 16% of the domestic sector households electrified,8096 of<br />
electrical energy generated is used in the industrial/commercial sector (Table 4). By<br />
industrialized country standards, the peak demands are very small, with mly Fiji and Papua<br />
New Guinea needing rnore then l0 MW peak in 1981. Tlc small demand has nEant that until<br />
recently dmost all electricity generated has been from oil-fired diesel resulting in high<br />
generation costs. Though the charges for electricity in the region are also quite high, the<br />
1982 P.E.P. report noted bhat mly two governncnts recovered costs (Newcombe, f982). Such<br />
a subsidy to electricity consunnrs obviously does not encourege the implementation of energy<br />
saving rreasures, or allow for economic'substitution of alternative energy sources. As in the<br />
rest of the world the opportunities for energy savings by efficient use of electrieal energy<br />
are great. Lloyd (f981) reported that the electrical energy consurnption of the School of<br />
Natural Resources building at USP could be halved by better use of air conditioning, lighting<br />
and hot water heating.<br />
Tuvalu<br />
Cook Islands<br />
Niue<br />
Kiribati<br />
Tmga<br />
Vanuatu<br />
Weetern Samoa<br />
Solomons<br />
Papua New Guinea<br />
Fiji<br />
Table 4 : Electricity (1981)<br />
96 Households<br />
Electrif ied<br />
(estimales)<br />
N.A.<br />
75%<br />
75''f<br />
l5%<br />
4096<br />
l0%<br />
28%<br />
10%<br />
5%<br />
t6%<br />
t<br />
Peak Demand<br />
M.W.<br />
0. Il<br />
1.9<br />
o.6<br />
0.9<br />
2.I<br />
t.2<br />
5.9<br />
t.4<br />
79.1<br />
62.O<br />
Tarif f<br />
U5$/kwh<br />
. l0-. t8<br />
.t8-.]l<br />
.2r<br />
.28<br />
.19-.22<br />
. 12-.40<br />
.?4<br />
.r9-.28<br />
.r7 -.t9<br />
.18<br />
Hydroelectricity is the other main source of electricity production al present (Table 5).<br />
As can be seen perhaps five of the programme counLries have potential for hydroelectric<br />
generation, with Papua New Guinea by for the largest. Fiji has jusl completed Lhe first stage<br />
of ils hydroelectric scheme at Monosavu.<br />
Tuvalu<br />
Cook Islands<br />
Niue<br />
K iribati<br />
Tmga<br />
Vanuatu<br />
Western Samoa<br />
Solomon Islands<br />
Fiji<br />
Papua New Guinea<br />
Table 5 : Hydnoelectric potential<br />
Installed Potential<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0.8-r.5 MW<br />
0.07 Mw<br />
40 MW<br />
10 MW<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0<br />
N.A.<br />
4.5 MW<br />
N.A.<br />
N.A. (7t0 MW)<br />
280 MW<br />
21,000 MW<br />
Other potential sources are biomass for small steam plants, wood gasification, coconut.<br />
oil fueled diesels and to a limited extent wind. More exotic altennatives such as ocean<br />
thermal enerqy conversion (O.T.E.C.) or wave systems need furthen evaluation in developed<br />
countries before deployment in the Pacific Islands.<br />
In summary, to realize the full enefgy poten[ial of the region, it will be necessary to<br />
deal with both the oil companies and the open fire.
I<br />
- 149<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Lbyd' C. R. 198r. Ehctrioal energy'comurption by SNR building at USP. Internal Repont.<br />
Lloyd, C. R., (et al.). n.d. Nandi-Lautoke suivcy. Internal Report.<br />
Neweombe, K. 1982. Pecifiq Energy proglamme. lnternal Report.<br />
Neweombe, K', (et ,al.). 1982. An snalysis of some energy 'issues ln Pryrrre Neur Guinea lgBZ.<br />
P*ific Energy Progr€mrne" lflternsl Report.<br />
S'iwatibeu! Susana. 1978' A surv'ey of domeslie rural energy uee and potential in Fiii. Centre<br />
for Applled Studies in Devehprne=nt, University of the Sqtth Pacific, Suva, FiJi. Zin p.,
15r<br />
RADIOACTIVITY IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC REGION<br />
M. P. Bacon<br />
Woods Hole Oceanographic Inslitution<br />
Woods Hole, MA 02541, U. S. A.<br />
G. Lambert<br />
Centre des Faibles Radioactivit6s<br />
CNRS, B. P. l, 91190 Gif -sur-yvette, France<br />
T. A. Refter<br />
15 Simla Crescent, Khandallah, Wellington, New Zealand<br />
J. I. Samieoni<br />
Fiji School of Medicine<br />
Suva, Fiji<br />
D. J. Steveng<br />
l0 Lyric Grove, Camberwell, Victoria )124, Australia<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
This paper summanizes the main conclusions of the Report of the South<br />
Pacifie Regional Environment Programme Technical Group on Radioactivity in the<br />
South Pacific Region, of which lhe authors are members. It reviews ionizing<br />
radiations and their possible harmful effects, and evaluates exposures to ionizin!<br />
radiation in the South Pacific region. It then discusses prescnt and proposed<br />
aetivities involving radioaclive materials in the region, particularly ocean dunping<br />
of radioactive materials and nuclear weapons lests.<br />
Introduction<br />
In November 1982 the Technical Group on Radioactivity in the South pacifie Region<br />
was formed and assigned the task of reviewing radioactivity and its regional impact. ine<br />
project was nptivated largely by the concern expressed in the region- over existing and<br />
proposed ectivities that might telease redioactive materials to the environnent. Of particular<br />
concern ere the nucleer. explosions presently being conducted in Polynesia and proposals to<br />
use the Pecific Ocean. in strategies for radioactive waste menagernent. Formation of tlre<br />
technicel gnoup took place following the Conferenee on the Human Environnent in the South<br />
Pacific (Rarotonga, Cook Islands, 8-ll March 1982), where concern was expressed over these<br />
iseues. The subject of radioactivity was given high priority in the Action plan for the South<br />
Pacific Regional Envinonnpnt program (SpREp,-l9g2). The pur?ose of this paper is to<br />
anmmarize the work of the Technical Group and the rnain conclr.nions of the Tecirnical group<br />
Report (SPREP, f98l).<br />
The Technical Gmup held ite first meeting al the headquarters of the South pacific<br />
Commiseion in Noumea, New Caledmia, L7-2L January 1981. .At that tirne an interim report<br />
was Prepered in the form of a working outline, *frich was distributed to governrrnnts in<br />
February for comment. A second end finat neeling was held at Nounca, 4-9 5uly l9g1, with<br />
the a.rpport of the SPREP secretariat. A draft report wes completed at that time and wes<br />
distributed for comment to the SPREP Co-ordinating group and to outside reviewem in the<br />
gcientific community. The finel report (SPREP, l98l) was completed in December.
- L52<br />
The report of lhe Technical Group on Radioactivity in the Soulh Pacific Region has<br />
three overall objectives. The first is to provide the general reader with an introduction Lo<br />
some of the concepts and tenms used in nuclear science, especially the properties and effects<br />
of ionizing radiations, which are basic to an undersLanding of the scientific issues. The<br />
second objective of the ReporL is to give an overview of the radiation environment in which<br />
Pacific people live. Present levels of exposure to natural and artificial sources of ionizing<br />
radiation must be known if the impact of possible future releases of radionuclides to the<br />
environment is to be properly assessed. The third objeetive is to provide an evaluation, from<br />
the scientific point of view, of some of Lhe issues that are presently of greatest concenn in<br />
the Region.<br />
Ionizino radiations and their possible harmful effects<br />
In considering the scope of its work the Technical Group decided lhat for completeness<br />
and for achieving a proper perspective iL should expand its coverage slightly to include all<br />
sources of ionizing radiation to which people are commonly exposed. Thus, in addition to<br />
discussing natural and art,ificial radionuclides, the Report also discusse6 exposures to cosmic<br />
rays and machines that give off X-rays.<br />
Two of the most important basic terms defined in the repoct are Lhe abeorbed dose,<br />
measured in gray (replacing the older unit rad; I gray = I00 rad)r and the dose equivalent,<br />
rneasured in sievert (replacing the rem; I sieverl = I00 rem). Tfre absorbed dose is the amount<br />
of energy that is absorbed in a substance (for example, a living tissue) as radiation passes<br />
lhrough it. The dose equivalent is equal to the absorbed dose mulliplied by a facton thal<br />
takes into account the different properlies of the different types of ionizing radiation (alpha,<br />
beta, gamma or X radiations).<br />
The concept of the dose equivalent is especially important and is used very extensively<br />
throughout the Report. Use of the dose equivalent provides a basis for comparing exposures<br />
of people to different soufces of ionizing radiation, for comparing exposures received by<br />
different groups of people in different geographical areas, and for assessing objectively the<br />
impact of redionuclide releases lo the environrnent. It is extremely important to recognize<br />
that it is the dose equivalent that is the important consideration in assessing the effects of<br />
ionizing radiation, nol the origin of the radiation. The potential harm to living things from<br />
ionizing radiation depends only on the type of radiation (that is, whether it is alpha, beta,<br />
gamma, or X radiation) and its energy. It makes no difference whether lhe ionizing radiation<br />
derives from a natural or artificial source.<br />
The Report provides a general review of what is known about the harmful effecLs of<br />
ionizing radiation on living things and explains the role of various international bodies in the<br />
field of radiation protection, most notably the International Commission on Radiological<br />
Protection (ICRP). The Technical Group noted the expanding use of X rays for medical<br />
diagnosis in the Region, and qaw a need for countries in [he Region to consider the<br />
enactment of radiation conLrol legislation. Similar legislation has been adopted by developed<br />
countries and some developing countries so as to establish pnoper standards of radiation<br />
protection for workers and members of the public and acceptable levels of radiation and<br />
radiation dose for persons and the environment. In the preparation of zuch legislation,<br />
consideration might be given to setting an upper limit for the contribution which any one<br />
source of ionizing radiation might be permitted to make to persons as members of the public.<br />
Dme limits adopted in such legislation would provide a basis against which radiation doses to<br />
persons in the Region eould be monitored and possible harmful effects of the doses assessed.<br />
The deLailed requirernents of such legislation could appropriately be based on the<br />
recommendations of the Internetional Csnmission on Radiologieal Protection, on codes of<br />
practise of other competent international authorities, such as the World Health Organization<br />
and the International Atomic Energy Agency, and on the experience gained in this field by<br />
other countries.<br />
ln discussing the known harmful effects produced in living things by exposure to<br />
ionizing radiation, an important distinction is made between what are called stocheltic and<br />
nm-rtchertic effects. For some effects, it has been shown that their everity depends on<br />
the size of nadiation dose received and that for these effects a minimum threshold dose is<br />
required for their (ncurrence. These are called non-stochastic effects. For other effecte,<br />
perticularly many late effects, the probebility that the effects will occur, rather than their<br />
severity, depends m the size of the radiation dose. These are called stochastic effects. For
- r53<br />
these effects it has not been possible [o show whether or not a lhreshold dose exists.<br />
However, go as not to underestimate the probability that srch effects will occur, current<br />
radiation protection practise assumes that no threshold dose exists. The Technical Group<br />
adopted this assunpLion in its Report.<br />
Expogures to ionizinq radiation in the South Pacific reqion<br />
Imizinq radiations originate both in sources that occur naturally and in sources created<br />
by human technology. Natural sources of ionizing radiation have been present in the<br />
environrnent since the beginning of the earth's history. They include cosmic rays thal come<br />
from outer pace and natural radionuctides that occur on earth. Barring a nuclear war or<br />
major reactor accidents, natural sources are likely always to be the main environmenlal<br />
contributor to human radiation exposure. Artificial sources of ionizing radiation in the<br />
environment are due almost exclusively to atmospheric nuclear explosions and nuclear electric<br />
power production, the former being by far the most important.<br />
The Technical Group spent a considerable amount of its ef f ort reviewing the<br />
information available on human exposure to sources of ionizing radiation in the environrnent.<br />
Much of that inf ormation is compiled in the most recent report of the United Nations<br />
Scientific CornmiLtee m the Effectg of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR, 1982), which derived<br />
global averages for exposure to natural and artificial ionizing radiaLion. In addition the Group<br />
reviewed data relating specifically to the exposures of people Iiving in the South Pacific<br />
Region with the eim of determining how the average exposures to ionizing radiation in the<br />
Region compsre with the global averages.<br />
In the case of natural radiation, the world population as a whole receives an averaqe<br />
annuel effective dose equivalent* of 2OOO microsievert (UNSCEAR, l9B2). This is an average<br />
figurer end there is a large variation from place to place on earth, depending qr a number of<br />
environmental factors, and from person to person, depending m living habi[s, The exposune is<br />
received in a variely of ways: by external exposure to eosmic rays and the radiations emitted<br />
by radioactive elements (potassium, thorium and uranium) in soils, by the consunption of food<br />
containing natural radionuclides, and by the inhalation of radon-222 and other radionuclides<br />
[hat are neturally ptesent in the air. For the South Pacific Region the Technical Group<br />
concluded bhat, on the average, the annual effective dose equivalent from nstunal sources of<br />
ionizing radiation is approximately lmO microsievert, mly half the world average. The<br />
lower-than-average exposures in the Region are the result of several factors: (1) the low<br />
concentrations of radioactive elements in the coralline soils that occur in mueh of the region,<br />
Q) the lower concentrations of radon-222 in the air over the ocean compared with<br />
coneentrations over the continents, and (l) the fact that most people in the region live in<br />
well-ventileted houses and spend much of their time outdoons, thus avoiding exposure to the<br />
elevated levels of radon that often (rcur in indoor air.<br />
Tle Technical Group also concluded that exposure to artificial radionuclides, mainly<br />
the radionuclides formed during past nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, is on the<br />
average lower, perhaps two or three times lower, in the South Pacific region than it is for<br />
the world as a whole. This is because most of the population in the Region lives in the<br />
Southern Hemisphere, whereas the greater part of [he fallout from atmospheric testing was<br />
delivered in the Norihern Hemisphere. ln general, the contr!bution to total radiation exposure<br />
due to artificial radionuclides is small and is much less than the variability that exists in<br />
exposure to natural sources of radiat.ion.<br />
Although average doses from both natural and artificial ionizing radiation in the Region<br />
ere albstantially lower Ehan in nnst other parts of the world, there are certain islands in the<br />
Region where populations receive unusually high radiation exposures. Niue Island in the South<br />
Pecifie is a docunented example of en area of unusually high natural nadioactivity (Fieldes et<br />
g[.r t97O; Marsden, L974), and there are data suggesting that part of Guam might also 5E<br />
such an area (Nelson, 1979tr Urusually high levels of artificial radioactivity are found at some<br />
atolls in the Marshall Islands that were contaminated by local fallout from the United States<br />
weapons tests (Robison et al., 1982).<br />
rTfE effective dose equivalent expresses non-uniform doses as<br />
dose which would produce [he same harmful effects. The factons<br />
effective dose equivalen! were assigned by the ICRP (I977).<br />
a uniform whole-body<br />
used in calculating the
- r54<br />
Exposures to ionizing radiation also arise from the use of radiation in rnedicine and<br />
other activities. In most developed countries the radiation doses to populations from the<br />
medical diagnostic uses of ionizing nadiation ane the largest of all the doses from artificial<br />
sources. It is reasonable to assume lhat there will be an increase, and rnore divensity, in the<br />
use of sources of ionizing radiation for medical purposes in the South Pacific Region as<br />
health services develop f urther. In many countries in the Region the special facilities<br />
necessary for these purposes are beeominq more readily available in the major population<br />
centers, and it is to be expected that, with time, lhe facilities will be provided in less<br />
densely populated areas. As these developmenLs occur, it will be imporLant for the countries<br />
of the region to ensure thal the resulting.radiation doses to thein populations are minimized.<br />
The Technical Group concluded that there would be value in the development of a regional<br />
program through which pecial technicel services to oversee standards with respect to the<br />
medical uses of ionizing radiation would be available. The medical uses of ionizing radiation<br />
are the area in which countries have the greatest possibility of control over the radiation<br />
doses received by their populations.<br />
Present and proposed activities involvinq radioactive materials in the South Pacific reoion<br />
After a brief review of radioactivity in the Pacific Ocean, and of the behavior of<br />
radionuclides in the marine environrnent, the Technical Group Report proceeds to a discussion<br />
of activities presently conducted in the Region, or proposed for the future, that might result<br />
in the release of radionuclides Eo the environment. The activities that are presently of<br />
greatest concern and most likely to influence the setting of environmental policy in the near<br />
future are the underground nuclear explosions presently being conducted in the Tuamotu<br />
Islands by France, as part of iLs weapons development program, and the proposed use of the<br />
Pacific Ocean for Lhe disposal of radioactive wasLes.<br />
Regarding the question of radioactive waste disposal, the Report includes an extended<br />
discussion of the ocean dumping of packaged low-level waste, because there has alreaciy been<br />
considerable development of a scientific basis for setting limits on such disposal and because<br />
there exist well-developed intennation.al mechanisms for control and zurveillance.<br />
Furthermore, a specific proposal has been issued by Japan to initiabe in the near future a<br />
program of low-level waste disposal a! a site in the western North Pacific, and this proposal<br />
has been the focus of considerable debate in the Region over the general issue of ocean<br />
dumping.<br />
Discussion of Lhe scientific issues related to ocean dumping begins with the fact that<br />
ppreciable amounts of radionuclides are continually delivered to the oceans by natural<br />
processes. The question that is open to scientific debate is a quantitative one and the<br />
scientific task is to provide a quantitative answer: What additional amounts of redionuclides,<br />
if any, can be added to the ocean without a risk to the environment or to human health that<br />
exceeds the standards set by society? Tl-e answer is based on the results of scientific<br />
research, which is a continuing process, so the answer is always (as it should be) subject to<br />
revision as improved scientific knowledge watrants. Because of lhis, a conservative but<br />
flexible approach should be taken.<br />
The International Atomic Energy Agency (lAEA, 1978arbrc) provided a general<br />
assessrnent of the problem of ocean dumping. lts task was to set limits on the release rates<br />
of radionuclides on the seafloon so that a definition of high-level waste (not suitable for<br />
dumping) could be formulated as required by the Lmdon Dunping Convention. In its<br />
assessrnent the IAEA used quantitative predictions of the dose equivalent to people as a<br />
measure of the impact of durnping. The IAEA scientists recognized that present scientific<br />
knowledge does no! allow exact predictions of seawater concentrations resulting from<br />
radionuclide releases to be made. Tfrey also recognized the possibility that some radioactivity<br />
could be transferred from the seafloor to human populations by completely unforeseen<br />
pathways. Because of these uncertainties, they adopled a conservative approach based on<br />
pessimistic assumptions about what might happen in extreme circumstances, not on realistic<br />
assumptions about what would most likely happen under ordinary circumstances. Thus the<br />
doses predieted by their calculations are, by intention, most probably overestimated. For this<br />
reason the resulting release-rate limits contain built-in safety factors. The Technical Group<br />
concluded that a very high level of conservatism was adopted in the IAEA assessment and<br />
that the release-rate limits set by IAEA are restrictive enough that dunping carried out<br />
within the IAEA guidelines should pose extremely little risk to human health or environrnental<br />
safety.
-]55<br />
The Japanese proposal f or dunping low-level waste in the North Pacif ic is also<br />
discussed extensi vely in the Report. The proposed full-scale qeration would involve dunping<br />
at a rate no greater than cne per cent of the release-rate limit set by the IAEA, and, on the<br />
basis of the IAEA work and the confirmatory calculations made by Japanese scientists, the<br />
Technical Group concluded that the proposed Japan dunping qeration would pose extremely<br />
little risk to human or environnent health and well-being. This evaluetion wes made m the<br />
basis of a draf t Japanese €xlsessment of the proposal (STA/NSB, undated draf t). It is<br />
understood that a final report ofl the proposal is in preparation. ThaL report will require<br />
caneful public review to ensure that the proposal complies with all the principles of the<br />
Lmdon Dumping Convention and with its associated requirements.<br />
It does noL necessarily follow from the ebove conclusion regarding the safety of the<br />
particular Japan funping proposal that dunping of radioactive waste in the oceen should be<br />
advocated generally as a procedure Lo be preferred over land-based options. This cannot be<br />
clearly decided on the basis of present scientific knowledge alone. Cmtinued evaluation of<br />
all the alternatives is required. The problem of the management of wastes, both radioactive<br />
and non-radioactive, will always exist, and scientific understanding of the environrnent will<br />
always continue to be revised. The Technieal Group felt it is important that policies and<br />
practises remain flexible enough to respond to changed circumstances and improved scientific<br />
knowledge. At any moment in time, policy decisions should be based on the best scientific<br />
information then available, but there will always be need in the end for the exercise of good<br />
judgement and common sense.<br />
Regarding the program of underground nuclear weapons testing by France, the<br />
technical group noted the difficulty of giving an informed evaluation because of the high<br />
level of secrecy that zurrounds the activity. This is in sharp contrast to civilian activities,<br />
such as nadioactive waste disposal, which are subject to international surveillance, scientific<br />
neview, and public scrutiny.<br />
The present procedure of testing underground avoids the previous polluLion of the<br />
atmosphere by radioactive debris and is considered safer, with regard to human frealth, than<br />
was the former procedure of testing above ground. Crude approximations of the amounts of<br />
radionuclides Lhal might be accumulating underground at the test site indicated that they are<br />
unlikely to be large enough to be cause for alarm, but neither could they be considered<br />
altogether negligible. One should be particularly concerned for the possible long-term effects,<br />
such as leakage of radionuclides into the ocean, especially if the testing prognam and the<br />
accumulations of radionuclides underground are Lo continue inLo the future. The Technical<br />
Group concluded that past environmental safety assessments and publications of results have<br />
been inadequate, and it urged prompt publication of results and distribution to concerned<br />
governrnents in the Region.<br />
Overall the Technical Group concluded that. the present nuclear weapons testing and<br />
the proposed low-level waste disposal involve only a small, quite possibly a non-existent risk<br />
to human health and the environment in the South Pacific Region. The group found little<br />
scientific basis for judging these activities to be unacceptable. However, this conclusion does<br />
not in any way deny that important legal, political, and moral principles might very well be<br />
involved in, and dominate the evaluation of them. Through its Report lhe Technical Group<br />
atlempted to provide factual scientific information and interpretation that, it is hoped, will<br />
contribute to informed debate m these important issues,<br />
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT<br />
It is a pleasure to acknowledge the hospitality of the South Pacific Commission. Special<br />
lhanks to Dr. Jeremy Carew-Reid, SPREP Co-ordinator, for his encouragernent and support<br />
for this project.
- 156<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Fieldes' M.' G. Bealing, G. G. Claridge, N. Wells and N. l-l Taylor. 1960. Mineralogy and<br />
radioactivity of Niue Island soils. New Zealand J. Sci. 3t658-675.<br />
International Atomie Energy Agency (IAEA). 1978a. Convention on the prevention of Marine<br />
Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Mattec: the definilion r.equired by Annex l,<br />
Paragraph 6 to the Convention, and the recommendations required by Annex II, Seetion D.<br />
IAIA Information Circular INFCIRC/2O5|Add. I/Rev. l, Vienna.<br />
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). 1978b. The oceanoqraphic basis of the IAEA<br />
revised definition and tecommendations concerning high-level radioacti ve waste unsuiLable<br />
for dumping aL sea. IAEA Technical Document IAEA-2IO, Vienna.<br />
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). I978c. The radiological basis of the IAEA<br />
revised definition and recommendation coneerning high-level radioactive waste unsuitable<br />
for dunping at sea. IAEA Technical Document IAEA-ZII, Vienna.<br />
Internationel Cqnmission m Radiological Protection (lCRp). 1977. Recommendations of the<br />
lnternational Csnmission on Radiological ProLection. Annals of the ICRP, ICRp-26,<br />
Pergamon Press.<br />
Marsdenr E. 1974. Radioactivity of some rocks, soils, plants, and bones, p. 807-824. In J. A.<br />
S. Adams and W. M. Lorrder [eds.], The natural radiation environment. Univ. of C-hicago<br />
Press, Chicaqo.<br />
Nelson' V. A. 1979. Radiological survey of plants, animals, and soil in Micronesia. Report<br />
NVO-259-15. Laboratory of Radiation Ecology, University of Washington, Seattle.<br />
Robison' W. L' M. E. Mountr W. A" Phillips, C. A. Conrado, M. L Stuart and C. E. Stoker.<br />
1982. The Northern Marshall Islands radiological $trvey: terrestrial food chain and total<br />
doses. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (USA), Report UCRL-52851 pt. 4.<br />
Science and Technology Agency/Nuclear Safety Bureau (STA/NSB). Undated draft.<br />
Environrnental ssfety essessment on sea disposal of low-level radioactive wastes in the<br />
Northwest Paeific.<br />
South Pacific Regional Environrnent Programme (SPREP). 1982. Report of the Conference on<br />
the Hunran Environment in the South Pacific, Rarotonga, Cook Islands, 8-II March 1982.<br />
South Pacific Cqnmission, Noumea, New Caledonia.<br />
South Pacific Regional Environrnent Programme (SPREP). 1981. Radioactivity in the South<br />
Pacific. Tqic Review No. 14. South Pacific Commission, Noumee, New Caledonia.<br />
United Nations Scientific Cornmittee sr the Effects of Atomic Radiation 0JNSCEAR). lg12.<br />
lmizing rsdiation: sources and biological effects. Report to the General Assembly, wilh<br />
Annexes.
Backqround<br />
L57<br />
LEGAL MEASURES FOR IMPLEMENTATION ff ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES<br />
IN TFE PACIFIC REGION<br />
Mere Pulea<br />
Mere Pulea & Associates<br />
Fiji<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
In response to a decade of increasing concern for environmental proLection<br />
and conservation in the Pacific, the governnents of the region adopted regional<br />
environmental policies at the 1982 Conference on the Human Environment in<br />
Rarotonga. Steps are now being taken to prepare regional leqal rneasures to<br />
implement these policies, including a Convention on the Protection and<br />
Development of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific<br />
Region, and associated protocols.<br />
Under the 1947 Canberra Agreement which sets out the legal framework for the South<br />
Pacific Commission (SPC), the SPC has a bnoad mandate to carry out regional action plans<br />
for various economic and social policies, "in matters affecting the economic and social<br />
development of the territories within the scope of the cornmission and the welfare and<br />
advancement of their peoples" (SPC, 1980). Under this broad umbrella, eoncern for<br />
environmental protection and conservation of lhe natural resounces of the Pacific has been<br />
voiced over a period of more lhan a decade. Although Pacific lraditional culture, through<br />
taboos, sanctions and myths, encourages the conservation of natural resounces and proteclion<br />
for the natural environrnent, the past decade has seen a growing environmental awareness<br />
within the region, lrnreases in population, industry and development; the testing of nuclean<br />
devices; and the proposed use of the Pacifie region as a dumping ground for nuclear wastes<br />
have shown that a united and concerted effort on a regional scale is necessary to protect not<br />
only the present but also the future resources and Lhe destiny of the people to whom the<br />
Pacific is rrhomerr.<br />
The heightening awareness of a need for environmental protecLion cr a regional level<br />
was brought about by Franee's testing of nuclear devices on Mururoa Atoll in French<br />
Polynesia. This was the catalyst that qened the way to bringing a poliLical issue to the<br />
conference Lable of the South Pacific Cornmission, as issues of a political nature fell outside<br />
its mandate. France in I97O opposed the discussion of nuclear tes[ing at the South Pacific<br />
Cmference as the subject came within the realm of politics. Although [he discussion was<br />
discontinued that year, the issue of French nucleer testing found its way back to the South<br />
Pacific Conference every year, end at the Guam conferenee in l97l:<br />
"the question of nuclear tests was again introduced. France raised a tpoint of<br />
orderr but the chairman ruled allowing the discussion.... Unlike past conferences<br />
discussion did not stop but instead the matter was discussed fully and resolutions<br />
passed condemning France for her eetivitieg" (Kite, L974).<br />
According to Kite (f974) tlre independent anti-nuclear test ectivities by Auetralia and<br />
New Zealand geve the island bedere the psychological assurence that they would not be<br />
deserted by their two immediete rnetropolitan neighbours in lheir insistence that the ruclear<br />
testing rnatter be given a full airing.
- r58<br />
"The ielands are concerned not mly for health - easons, but also for the<br />
destruction and pollution of the resourceg from the see' which hithento has<br />
provided much of the Iivelihood for the island peoples.... Nevert.heless' given that<br />
lhe Canberra Agreement came into being to better the lot of lhe island peoples it<br />
is difficult to reconcile such espirations with the clrrrent ect,ivities of the French<br />
governrnent at the Mururoa Atoll which ie undoubtedly hazardous to the health of<br />
[fre Pacific Islandg and to the natural resources in their cean environmentrr (Kitet<br />
r974tr<br />
Since the inception of the SPC and the first conference held in Suvar Fiji in l95O'<br />
much has been done to provide economic developnent and eocial welfere in the Sotrth Pacific<br />
region and the SPC hae undoubtedly been progressive in accommodating the aspirations of the<br />
is[nds as each territory since 1962 has acquired independence. The work Progremme of the<br />
SPC has increaeed from a budget of Stg 40rm0 in 1948 to about $l'm0'm0 in 1981.<br />
Apart from the issue of ruclear testing, other environrnentel concerns were algo raised<br />
at regional ncetings. In 1971, a Regional Synposium m Conseryation of Nature - Reefs and<br />
Lagoons was organized by the SPC. In 1974, the SPC initiated a special project on<br />
Corservation of Nature and ppointed a Regional Eeologicel Adviser. Cmsultatione with the<br />
United Natione Environnpnt Programme UNEP) in L975 led to lhe development of a<br />
comprehenaive programme for environmental management and proposals for a Regional<br />
Cmference an the Human Environnpnt. 1976 gaw the South Pacific Forum's decision for the<br />
South Pacific Bureau for Economic Cooperation (SPEC) to consult with SPC with a view to<br />
preparing proposals for a co-ordinated regional approach to the problems of environnrental<br />
manegement and a comprehensive environnental progremme reflecting the environmental<br />
interests of all countries and territories in the region. The l4th Session of the Economic and<br />
Social Cqnmission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) in 1978 endorsed the idea of conveninq a<br />
South Pacif ie Cmference on the Hurnan Environnent and recommended that sueh a<br />
conference be held in eo-ordination with SPEC and SPC. Proposals srbmitted to the Forum<br />
and the South Pacific Conference the same year led to the subsequent adoption of the South<br />
Pacific Regional Environnent Programme (SPREP), and the organization of the Conference on<br />
the Human Environnent in the South Pacific which took plece in Rarotonga, Cook Islands in<br />
1982.<br />
Reqional Environmental Policiee<br />
Since the matter of nuclear testing and concern for the health of lhe island people and<br />
the degradation of the Pacific'g natural resources wes first raised et the l97O SPC<br />
Cmference, twelve yeers passed before thg Cmference (n the Human Environrnent in 1982<br />
brought action responding to the concerns of the Pacific Islanders. At the Conference there<br />
wag:<br />
I'widespread concern expressed at proposals to drnp large quantities of low-level<br />
nuclear waste in the Pacific Ocean and to use Pacific Islands for high-level waste<br />
atorage'r (SPREP, 1982).<br />
Two of the resolutions passed at the Conference on the Human Environment were as<br />
follows:<br />
and:<br />
"The Japanese, Unit,ed States and other governnents should be requested to<br />
abendm their studies of specific proposals to store or dispose of nuclear waste in<br />
the Pacific regional environrnent. Ttey should be strongly urged to research<br />
alternative methods of disposal outside Lhe region.'l<br />
"Eech country and territory of the region should be reguested to accede to<br />
the Lmdon Durnping Cmvention. A regional meeting should be held' preferably<br />
before the end of 1982 so thet these countries and territories can prepare a<br />
common regional agreement. This would enable them to invoke the provisions of<br />
Article VIII of the Convention m the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dunpinq<br />
of Wastes and Other Matter (also known as the Lsrdofl Dunping Convention<br />
TLDCD and thus ensure that the regulatory framework of the Convention<br />
incorporates the prohibition on storage and disposal which has been adqted as a
- 159<br />
policy of the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP)' (SPREP,<br />
re82).<br />
As a result of these resolutions, the Convention on the Protection and Development of<br />
the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Paeific Region, and two protocols,<br />
namely, the Protocol for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sotrth Pacific Region by Dumping;<br />
and the Protocol for the Co-operation in Combating Oil Pollution Emergeneies in the South<br />
Pacific Region, embodying the resolutions passed at the 1982 Human Environment Conference,<br />
were drafted to invoke article VIII of the LDC which states:<br />
'rContracting parties with common interests to protecl in the marine<br />
environment in a given geographical area, shall endeavor, taking into account<br />
characterislic regional features, to enter into regional agreements consisLent with<br />
this Convention for the prevention of pollution, especially by dumping" (LDC,<br />
I97D.<br />
The dreft Convention is not limited Lo pollution control. It includes the general<br />
prineiples of resource development and management in order to reflect the regional policy<br />
statement of the Rarotonga Conference which inuludes:<br />
and:<br />
'rlntegrated environmental, eeonomic, social and resource planning and<br />
management is essential to ensure sustainable rational use of the land and sea<br />
resources of the region and the greatest enhancement of human well-being.tt<br />
"Appropriate end enforceable legal instruments and institutional<br />
afranqements ere a necessary basis for effective integration of environrnental<br />
concern with the whole of the development process" (SPREP , I9BZ).<br />
It was pointed out at the second Pacifie regional meeting to discuss the Convention<br />
and Protocols (Noumea, November I98)), that resource development and management should<br />
not be included in an anti-pollution Convention as this goes beyond Lhe obligation to prevenl<br />
and control pollution. However, the inclusion of these concepLs in the Convention is not only<br />
in keeping wiih other regional and international Conventions, but is also in keeping with<br />
regional policy in the Pacific. Although obligations to prevent and control pollution are<br />
common in other regional Conventions such as the Abidjan, Barcelona and Kuwait<br />
Conventions, the Abidjan and Caribbean Conventions also include the pninciples of<br />
environmental management within the scope of the Convention to ref lect the broad<br />
framework of thein regional Action Plans. According to Dahl and Baumgart (1982):<br />
rrEnvironmental managemenL is not a new concept for Pacif ic peoples.<br />
Wherever natural resource management was needed, the traditional cultures of the<br />
region developed practises which protected their essential interests. These<br />
included land and reef tenure systems, permanent and temporary taboos on<br />
specific species or places, refined and selective fishing techniques, agroforestny,<br />
terracing and imigation, windbreaks, bush fallow, and other agricultural and soil<br />
management practises, etc. The cultural heritage of the Pacif ic is full of<br />
examples of sound environmental managemenL equivalent or superior to modern<br />
methods. One of the great tragedies of the region is that this heritage is rapidly<br />
being lost just as the need for it is increasingly apparent.'t<br />
Although management issues ref erred to in the Pacif ic Regional Action Plan are<br />
addressed in the Convention to take care of mining and coastal erosion, specially protected<br />
areesr co-qeration in combating pollution in cases of emergency, and environnental<br />
assessment' these are by no tneans exhaustive of the coneerns of the Pacific Islanders for the<br />
Region. The provisions of the Convention, however, reflect priorities for activities envisioned<br />
in the Action Plan and other management problems elaborated through specific Protocols.<br />
In a similar manner the draft Convention atso reflects the broad scope of the l4'point<br />
Deelaration agreed to in Rarotonga by the 20 partieipating countries as a statemenl of<br />
regional policy.
- 160<br />
Further, in keeping with the concern to prohibit nuclear teeting first raised at e<br />
regional forum in 1970, the Cmference m the Human Environment endorsed a statement of<br />
regional policy that:<br />
and:<br />
'rTtE storage and release of nuclear wasteg in the Pacif ic regional<br />
environnent shall be prevented" Oeclaration 9)t<br />
"The testing of ruclear devices against the wishes of the majority of the<br />
people in the region will not be permitted" (Declaration l0).<br />
Leqal Protective Measures<br />
New regional cqtvention<br />
The draft Csrvention on thG Protection and Develqrnsnt of the National Rerourcea and<br />
Envir6rnent of the South Pacific Region broadly makes provisions for preventing' reducing<br />
and controlling pollution from: ships, land based sources, seabed activities, radioacEive<br />
wastes, ruelear testing, dunping and atmospheric sources and makes provision io preventt<br />
reduce and control damage caused by mining and coastal erosion. Because of lhe unique<br />
nature of the Pacific lslands, lhe Cmvention makes provision for appropriate measures to be<br />
taken to protect and preserve rare and fragile ecosystems as well as the habitat of depleted<br />
flora and fauna. Provision is made for co-qerative efforts for combating pollution in cases<br />
of emergency and imposes a duty to develop and promote contingency plans and a duty to<br />
notify o[her countries if they are likely to be affected by pollution. This follows the policy<br />
requirennnts as stated in Elg!!q! "fot the development of nationel and negional<br />
contingency plans and preveiffi-n prograrrmes". The Convention further creates a general<br />
duty of gs-qeration amongst the contracting parties and other organizations to share and<br />
scientific and te;hnological data and other informalion and to develop research<br />
"*"-h.^g" prog""ri.r". TNs is in keeping with the policy stated in Declaratlon l2_"requiring Lhe further<br />
dev6lopment of regional co-qeration as an effective nreans of helping the countries and<br />
territories of the Sor.rth Pacific to maintain and improve their shared environnent".<br />
In order to assist Pacific Island countries at the scientific, educational and teehnical<br />
levels, the Convention creates a duty for advanced technological eountries who become<br />
contracting parLies to the Convention to assist in programmes for the developrnent and<br />
."nag".",it ' of the environnpnt. There are further provisions for the exchanqe of<br />
inforriation, for determining liability and compensation for damage caused by pollution and<br />
provision for the settlement of disputes.<br />
Apart from the provisions stated above, note has been laken of the policies in<br />
Declaraiions 9 and 10, and Resolution 1 of the Conference on the Human Environment and to<br />
this end, provision has been made in the draft Convention Lo prohibit the testing of nuclear<br />
devices and the durnping of radioactive wastes matter.<br />
Afier two lengthy regional debstes in January and November 198)r agreement was<br />
reached m a majoriti oi tne principles of regional policy articulated in [he draft Convention.<br />
Considerable discussion, however, was generated on the question of the "Convention Area" as<br />
agreement could not be reached on Gsrer involving the high seas, the two hundred mile<br />
economic zone and lhe internal waLers of ternitories within the Convention Area. The other<br />
issues which could not be finalized were the provisions prohibiting the testing of nuclear<br />
devices and the storing, disposal and dumping of radioactive wastes. Tipse mattens have been<br />
carried forward to a third regional meeting in 1984.<br />
Protmola<br />
The draft protocol for the Prevention of Pollution of the South Pacific Region by<br />
Dunping and the draf t Protocol Concerning Co-qeration in Combating. Oil Pollution<br />
ernergeicies in the South pacific Region had a "firsL neading" during the regional mee[ing in<br />
Noveriber l9gl. The two dnaf t Protocols give detaited treatment fo negional policy<br />
articulated at the 1982 Human Environment Conference, which declared:
and!<br />
161<br />
t'The storage and release of nuclear wastes in the<br />
environment shall be prevented', (Declaration 9),<br />
"The rate and nature of discharges of non-nuclear wasles<br />
the capacity of the environment to absonb them without harm to<br />
and to the people who live from it" (Declaration 8).<br />
Pacif ic regional<br />
shall not exceed<br />
the environrnent<br />
The draft Protocol on Oil Pollution Emergencies for the Pacific follows a global<br />
pattern and is similar to lhose of the Kuwait, Abidjan, Barcelona and Caribbean Protocols on<br />
Oil Pollution, but the draft Protocol, having had the benefit of the experienees in other<br />
regions of the world, has been broadened to cover other pollutants.<br />
Convention on Conrarvation of Nature<br />
In June 1975r following World Environment Day, a regional neeting in Apia, Western<br />
Samoa m the Convention ur the Conrervetion of Nature in the South Pacific was sponsored<br />
by the SPC and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources<br />
(ltJCN). The regional meeting and the draft Cmvention were largely the result of ILCN<br />
initiatives following similar work in other parts of the world and the regional Syrnposium on<br />
Conservation in I97I. The 1975 meeting in Apia was the first attempt in the Pacific to<br />
co-qerate m environmental matters at a regional level.<br />
Drawing on the Declaration of Environrnental Principles adopted by the United Nations<br />
Ctrlference on the Human Environment at Stockholm in June 1972, and conscious of the<br />
growing dangers that threaten the natural resources and fragile ecosystems of the Pacific,<br />
collective action at regional level was thought to be lhe best nreans of prot,ecting and<br />
safeguarding these assets for the benefit of present and future generations.<br />
Provisions of the Convention on Conservation encourage the creation of prolected<br />
areas (Art. ll) as well as the protection of indigenous flora and fauna (Art. V). Certain acts<br />
such as the hunting, killing and capturing of specimens of fauna or collection of specimens of<br />
the flora in protected areas are prohibited (Art. III). Co-qeration at regional level for the<br />
exchange of information, research and training is encouraged (Art. V[).<br />
Although the Convention on Conservation was tabled for information at the South<br />
Pacific Conference on National Parks and Reservee held in New Zealand early in 1975,<br />
followed by the Convention rneeting in Apia in June 1976, mly three countries (France,<br />
Papua New Guinea, and Western Samoa) have signed the Cmvention. Tfe Convention requires<br />
the ratificetion of four countries to come into force.<br />
Perhaps the lack of regional support for bhis Cqrvention lies in the fect that<br />
conservetion of natural resources is regarded by some countries as a national matter rather<br />
than a regional oner es each countryrs needg are dependent on their own development<br />
priorities. The objectives as erticulated in the Convention are pursued through national<br />
legislation in almost all Pacific countries. For exanple, Papua New Guinears Cmstitution<br />
declares thet the resources and environnrent be conserved end used for their collective<br />
benefit and replenished for the uae of future generations, as their Fourth National Goal.<br />
Other examplee are the Cmservetion Areas Act 1978, and the Fauna (Pmtection and Cmtrol)<br />
Act 1974 (Pryua New Guinea); Tb Cmservation Act 1975 (Cook lelands); The National Parks<br />
Act 1974 (Solomon lslands); Tb Wildlife Congervetion and Endangered Species Act (Guam);<br />
lhe Prohibited Areas Ordinance t97l (Kiribati); the Birds end Garne protection Act l92l<br />
(Fiji); the Fish and Bird Preservation Act (Tmge); the Endangered Species Act (TTpI); to<br />
name e few. Tlc protective legislation in some countries detee far beck before independence<br />
and also before the 1976 regional discussions m the Convention on the Cmservation of<br />
Nature. Added to this is the Australian amangement ntrere each State hae its own lawe, its<br />
own ayatem of national parks and neserves and ite own adminiStration. Research, training and<br />
the exchange of information heve been taking place in the region prior to the 1976<br />
discussiona and together with treditional coneervation nrethods through rituale srd taboos<br />
thege have been sorne of the factors thet have affected e firm commitncnt at a regional<br />
level.
Forum Firheriar AgancY<br />
- L62<br />
The Cmvention establishing the South Pacific Forum Firheries Agency in L977<br />
culminabes the common interest in tne Pacific for the conservation and optimum utilization of<br />
the living marine resources and particularly those of highly migratory species. Co-qeration<br />
and co-ddinetion of fisheries policies at a regional level has become a necessity as it is only<br />
at this level that the exchange of informetion about living marine resources and espeeially<br />
those of highly migratory species can bring about the maximum benefits for the people and<br />
the region as a whole.<br />
Conclusion<br />
The three regional Cmventions and the two Protocols are indicative of the trende<br />
emphasizing the nrimber of environmental concerns affecting the Pacific Region end its<br />
people. Sire of the provisions such as those prohibiting ruclear testing end dunping' and the<br />
geographic area the -Convention seeks to cover, have 'wide political ramifications 8nd have<br />
iet-to'be agreed upon. The changes soughl and required by the Crtventions and Protocols<br />
fuave been tfre resuit of wide consultation and regeareh at netional and regional level' The<br />
conventions are not only a clear acknowledgement of the policy decisions made lo protect<br />
the pacific environnent but are also in keeping with trends in other parts of lhe world.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Dahl, A. L and L G. Beumgart. 1982. TfE state of lhe environment in the South Paeificr p.<br />
47'-7L. In Report of thl Csrference m the Hurnan Environment in the South Pacifict<br />
RarotonlE, Cook Islands, 8-II March L982. South Pacific Cornmission, Nounear New<br />
Caledonia.' Reprinted as ifqep Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. ll (f981).<br />
Kiter sione. 1974. Tfre microstates of the South Pacific. Urpublirhed lltA. thesis' University<br />
of Lmdm. lsynopsis published in L977 in Pacific Perepective 6(l):6-2r).<br />
Lrc. 1972. Cmvention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dunping of Wstee end<br />
Other Mat,ter (Lmdon Dunping Convention).<br />
SPC. 1980. Consolidetion of agreed provisions and prectices relating to the establishment and<br />
operation of the South Pecific Commission, including the Canberra Agreernent as amended.<br />
TNrd edition. South Pacific Cornmission, Nournea, New Caledmia.<br />
SpREP. 1982. Report of the Conference on the Hurnan Environment in the South Pacifict<br />
Rarotonga, Cooi< Islands, 8-lf March 1982. South Pacifie Commission, Noumee, New<br />
Caledmia.
- r6t<br />
EAST ASIAN SEAS REGIOI.I
- L65<br />
OVERVTEW tr TI-E EAST ASIAN SEAS ACTIOI.I PLAN<br />
Karem Snidvonga<br />
Secretary General<br />
National Environment Board of Thailand<br />
and COBSEA Coordinator<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
This paper presents an overview of the Easf Asian Seas Action plan. lt<br />
describes its historical background, and discusses its principal components as well<br />
as the instiLutional and financial anangements for the 'implementation of the<br />
action plan. Lastly, it identifies administrative delay, financial problems and legal<br />
difficulties as problems involved in the implementation of the action plan.<br />
HTSTORTCAL BACKGROUhT)<br />
As a focal point fon environmental action and co-ordination within the United Nations<br />
System, the United Nations Environrnent programme (UNEp) realized Lhat environmental aclion<br />
should encomPass a comprehensi ve approach to environmental problems dealinq not only with<br />
the consequences but also wilh the causes of environmental degradation. The Governing<br />
Council of Lhe United Nations fnvironment Programme has designafed',Oceans', as a priorify<br />
area for environmental action, in which it will focus efforts to fulfil its catalytic role. li<br />
also recognized that environmental pnoblems of the oceans are global in scope and must be<br />
dealt with in an inlegrated way. Il thus launched its Regional Seas Programme in 1974, as a<br />
reqional approach seemed a more realistic way to solve the problems. hction plans were to<br />
be formulated for each region. The regional approach allowed UNEp to focus on specific<br />
problems of high prioriLy to the States of each region. The UNEP Governing Council has<br />
identif ied the following ten areas as components of the Regional Seas programmes the<br />
Mediterranean, the Kuwait Action Plan Region, The Widen Caritbean, the West and Central<br />
African Region, the East African Region, the East Asian Seas, the Red Sea and Gulf of<br />
Aden, the South-West Pacific, the South-East Pacific and the South-West Atlantic.<br />
The fast Asian Region was recognized by the UNEP Governing Council in 1975 as<br />
rrconcentration area, for the establishment of a regional seas prograrnme in Asia with a<br />
scientific prognamme involving research, prevention and control oi marine pollution, and<br />
monitoring. During the same year an internaLional workshop m marine polluiion was convened<br />
in Penang by IOC, FAOrs Indo-Pacific Fishery Commission (tpFC) and UNEp. The workshop<br />
proposed that the region should be divided into six zubregions for the purposes of the Lh,lEp<br />
Regional Seas Programme. The East Asian Seas (EAS) was one of the pioposed zubregions,<br />
covering the area of the five member countries of the Association of South East Asian<br />
Nations (ASEAN)n A few years later (1979), a draft regional aetion plan for the East Asian<br />
Seas was prepaned by UNEP and was submitted to the Governnents of the Region for<br />
consideration. Several nreetings were held with the assistance of thlEP to consider arid revise<br />
the draft action plan as follows:<br />
+ TfE Association of south East Asian Nations (ASEAN) was established in 1967 for the<br />
technical collaboration among its five member counbries on the attainment of peace, progress<br />
and prosperity of the region. The five membens are: Indonesia, Malaysia, pniiippines,<br />
Singapore and Thailand.
- 166<br />
(1) Second Meeting of the ASEAN Experts Group on thc lnvironrnentr September I979t<br />
Malaysia;<br />
Q)<br />
G)<br />
(4)<br />
Third Meeting of the ASEAN Experts Group on the Environment, May 1980, Philippines;<br />
First Meebing of Experts Lo Review the Draft<br />
June 1980, Philippines;<br />
Second Meeting of Experts to Review the Dreft<br />
Deeember 1980, Thailand;<br />
Action Plan for the East Asian Seas,<br />
Action Plan for the East Asian Seas<br />
(5) Fourth Meeuing of the ASEAN Experts Group on the Environment, April I98l Singapore;<br />
The Action Plan was finally adopted et the Intergovennnrental Meeting on the<br />
Protection and Development of the Marine Environnent and Coastal Area of the East Asian<br />
Region, April 1981, Manila, Philippines.<br />
At the Intergovernnrental Meeting on the East Asian Seas Action Plan, December l98lt<br />
Thailand, agreement was reached concennlng which projects of the action plan programme<br />
should be implenrented during 1982-1981 and which nationel focal point would be responsible<br />
for co-ordinating each project.<br />
The First Meeting of the Co-ordinating Body of the Seas of East Asia (QOBSEA) was<br />
convened one day after the Fifth Meeting of the ASEAN Experts Group on the Environrnent,'<br />
April I982, Thailand. The meeting finalized the approved priority projects including the<br />
financial arrangemenls for implementation during 1982-1981.<br />
The ASEAN countries then started imptementing the approved projects.<br />
OBJECTIVES tr TI-E EAS ACTTO{ PLAN<br />
The principal objective of the EAS Action Ptan is "the development and protection of<br />
the marine environment and the coastal areas for the promotion of the health and well-being<br />
of present and future generations." TfE EAS Action Plan is aimed at providing a framework<br />
for a comprehensive end environrnentally-sound qproach to eoastal area development<br />
particularly appropriate to the needs of the regions.<br />
TfE EAS Action Plan is composed of three components: environncntal assessrnentt<br />
environrnental managemenI and co-ordinating nEesures. The corresponding immediate<br />
objectives are:<br />
(f) "assessrnenl of the state of the marine environnent, including assessrnenl of the effects<br />
of marine, coastal and other land-based activities on environrnental qualily, so as [o<br />
assist Governments to cope properly with marine environrnental problems;"<br />
Q)<br />
"management of those marine and coastel developnnnt ectivities which may have an<br />
impact m environmental quality or on the protection and use of renewable marine<br />
resources on a sustainable basis;"<br />
(]) "development of suitebte co-cdinating measures for the succegsful implementation of<br />
the action plan.tl<br />
Note that the above immediate objectives do not include one relating to the legal<br />
aspects of marine pollution control as has usually been the case in other ection plans. The<br />
legal component, which is an integral part of the now-standard L|NEP four component rnodel'<br />
was dropped at the First Intergovernnental Meeling at Menila which adopted the revised EAS<br />
Action Plan.
Environmental Aesesgment Component<br />
- t67<br />
PRIrcIPAL COMPONENTS G TIf EAS ACTIOT{ PLAN<br />
This component is concerned with assessnnnt and evaluation of the ceuses, magnitudes<br />
and consequences of marine pollution problem. Priority will be given to the identificition of<br />
the present quality of the marine environment and the coastal arees, the factors currently<br />
affecting its quality and the projeclion of future trends. A co-ordinated bsic and appleb<br />
regional marine seience programme aiming at co-eerative research and assessrnent 6t tne<br />
present situation of the marine environment hes been developed in four priority areas:<br />
oceanography' oil pollution, non-oil pollutanLs, and mangrove and coral ecosystems" On going<br />
end planned national and regional programmes have been duly taken into consideration durin!<br />
the formulaiion of the qerational details of this programme.<br />
It was also agreed that, for "the<br />
possible future expansion" of the above-nentioned<br />
proqrammer the following components rrnny be consideredt', at a lower level of priorily.<br />
l. Assessment of the environnental impact of of fshore seabed exploration and<br />
exploitation, including petroleum, mining and dredging.<br />
2. Assessment of thermal pollution in coastal waters and its impact on marine biota.<br />
t. Assessment of the nature and magnilude of pollution reaching the marine environment<br />
lhrough the atmosphere.<br />
It is also envisaged that an intensive proqramme of braining and technical s.rpport of<br />
Iocal scientists and technicians will be developed in order to strengthen the environnrental<br />
assessment component.<br />
The pnojects under this component of the EAS Action Plan will be executed primarily<br />
through existing national institution within Lhe framework of regional co-qeration. For some<br />
projects a training prognamme has been formulated.<br />
Environmental Manaoement Component<br />
Some preparatory activities are necessary to achieve the objectives of the development<br />
and environnental management component of lhe action plan. Such activities compcise:<br />
l. Preparation of a directory of institutions in the region active in fields related to<br />
env ironmental management.<br />
2. Identification of relevant on-going national, regional and internationally supported<br />
development projects which demonstlate sound environmental management practices.<br />
Special importance is attached to the training of managers and policy makers in<br />
environmentally sound management practices in order to achieve more effective management<br />
of environmental affairs and pollution control in coastal areas. Three projects are under this<br />
componentr namely: oil pollution control, pollution conlrol and waste management, and<br />
information and dala exchange. Environmental impact assessment and nalure conservation are<br />
excluded from this component, since they are already included in the ASEAN Environment<br />
Prognamme (ASEP).<br />
Co-ordinatinq Measures<br />
Support Measrrneg<br />
Since agreernent on the legal component as well as on institutional anrangements could<br />
not be reached during the First Intergovernnrental Meeting, the revised Act-ion plan was<br />
adopted at Manila in April l98l without these provisions. Only zupport rneasures in the draft<br />
legal component were retained with slight modifications. No reference was made Lo relevant<br />
interna[ional and regional agreements on the protection of the marine environrnent. The<br />
co-ordinating measures relating to legal aspects of marine environnent, protection are<br />
confined only to:
- 158<br />
f) maintenance by each SLate of an up-to-date compilation of its national<br />
lews relevant Lo the prolection of the marine environmentl<br />
2) technical assistance and co-qeration in the draf ting and updating of national<br />
legislation relevant to the protection of the marine environment.<br />
Ho1tever, other suitable co-ordinating measures for the implernentation of the action<br />
plan are possible.<br />
financed by:<br />
Financirg of the Action Plan Programme<br />
The EAS Action PLan simply stgtes thet the action plan programme may be<br />
f) initially, the United Nations System;<br />
?) other sources from within and outside the region.<br />
The EAS Action Plan and its proiects<br />
Instit^utionel and financial arrangements wene adopted in December l98I at the second<br />
intergovernnental rneeting, held in Bangkok, although not as part of the EAS Action Plan.<br />
Aftei the Bangkok meeting a trust fund as established with contributions promised for 1982<br />
and l98f from the ASEAN member countries and UNEP. UNEP will conLribute at least the<br />
same amount as the ASEAN nember counLnies. The managernent of the Trust Fund was<br />
entrusted to UNEP.<br />
The final version of the EAS Action Plan contains following priority projects:<br />
1. Assessrnent of oceanographic phenomena Lhrough detailed oceanographic surveys;<br />
- ObservaLion of maritime meteorological phenomena and their influence on water<br />
npvementS;<br />
- Study of oceanographic features with emphasis on hydrography' water masses and<br />
water circulation, and their effects upon pollulion dispension patternsl<br />
- Oceanographic reference stations.<br />
2. Assessnent of oil pollution and its impact m living aquatic resources:<br />
- Survey of sources and monitoring of oil poltution in the marine and coastal areasi<br />
- Co-gerative research m oil and oil dispersant toxicity.<br />
,. Assessnpnt of non-oil pollutants, especially metals, organics, nutrients and their<br />
environnrntal imPact:<br />
- Survey of rivers and land-based sources of non-oil pollutants ;<br />
- Study of concentration levels and trends of non-oil pollutants ;<br />
- study of the effects of non-oil pollutants on marine environnent.<br />
4, Asse$rnent of the impact of pollution on, and habitat degradation of, mangrove and<br />
coral ecosYstems:<br />
- Survey of the state of mangroves and coral reefs;<br />
- Effects of pollutants end destructive factors on mangrove and coral communities and<br />
related fisheries.<br />
5. Oil pollution control:<br />
- Training progremme for oil pollution controll<br />
- Support programme for eontingency planning;<br />
- Operational pollution from ships;<br />
- Regional advisory services.<br />
6. Pollution control and waste rnanagement:<br />
- Wstes discharges into coestal waters;<br />
- Marine sites for dunping of hezardous wagles.<br />
7. lnformation and Deta Exchange.
- L69<br />
INSTTTUTIO{AL AtO FtNAfiCIAL ARRATGEMENTS Fffi, Tl€ IITP|fMENTATIO{ G<br />
TIf ACTIO{ PLAN<br />
Ingtitutional arranqemente<br />
Policy mattcrr and co-ordination<br />
_ lt was_agreed in the Intergovernrnental Meeting m the EAS Action p}an, Bangkok,<br />
December 1981, that the participeting countries will form a policy co-ordinating body k-nown<br />
as the Co-mdinating Body m the Seas of East Asia (COBSEAj in order to-rnake policy<br />
decisions concerning all substentive and financial matters.<br />
COBSEA hes the overall authority to determine the content of the action plan, to<br />
review its progress end to +prove its programme of implennntation including the iinancial<br />
implicetions. COBSEA communicates on policy matters through the interim colordinator, who<br />
rnainteins contact both with UNEP end with the nationll focal points, who in turn<br />
communicate policy to the national institutions.<br />
Ovarall tectrricel co-cdination<br />
ln the Intergovernnental Meeting mentioned above, the ASEAN member countries<br />
designated LJl'lEP to be responsible for the overatl technical co-ordination and continuous<br />
superviaion of the implementation of the action plan for the year l9B2 and l9gl. For a<br />
channel of communication between tt,lEP and COBSEA, it was agreed in the meeting that the<br />
Interim Co-adinator of the ASEAN Experts Group on Ltre Environnrent should be t5e me urho<br />
undertakes this function. UNEP then communicates directly on technical matters with the<br />
national focal points, and through them with the national institutions.<br />
Natisrel focal pointr<br />
The Eangkok nreeting designated the following national focal points:<br />
Indmesia: The First Assistant Minister<br />
Ministry of State for Development Sr.pervision<br />
and Environment<br />
Maleysia: Director General of Environrnent<br />
Environment Division<br />
Ministry of Science, Teehnology and the Environnent<br />
P hi lip p ines: [ft""*i?l"T:;'iln rar p ro rec ri on c ounc i r<br />
Vinistry of Human Settlements<br />
sinsapore : t":iliff Tr tf"'?t"Tt*"nmenr<br />
Theiland: Secret.ary General<br />
Netionel Environrnent Board<br />
Ministry of Science, Technology and Energy<br />
The rolee of the national focal points are:<br />
(i) To aet es the official channel of communication between the Interim Co-ordinator and<br />
their respecti ve governrEnts;<br />
(ii) To co-ordinater 8a appropriate, the participation of national institutions and agencies in<br />
the agreed programmes; and<br />
(iii)<br />
To consull with all relevant organizations within their countries m the activities and<br />
progre$ achieved in implementing the action plan.
National imtitutirp<br />
- 170<br />
Projects under the action plan are carried out by national institutione, anch es reseerch<br />
centres, laboratoriesr governrrent services, and universities, which are designated by the<br />
national focal points. In this way, the national institutions will act as the principal executors<br />
of the specifie work and research under the action plan.<br />
Srb-regional and regional inrtitutiono<br />
It is also envisaged thet sub-regional and regional institutions will be used to the<br />
maximum possible extent for the implennntation or co-ordination of the action plan.<br />
Networting<br />
The national institutions, in principle, could become participants in any one ectivity of<br />
the action plan. They could be linked in a network of co-qerating institutions if they work<br />
on the same activity. The Bangkok meeting also agreed lhet one member of a network could<br />
aEisume the role of a regional activity centre and be responsible for co-ordinating the activity<br />
for which the network as established.<br />
International organizations<br />
UNEP was invited to undertake responsibility for co'ondinating technical and managerial<br />
sr.Jpport for specific projects. Participation of internetional organizations, especially thoee<br />
belonging to the United Nations System, is also welcome. The national focal points srve es<br />
the channel for contacts between ihe internetional organizations and concerned netional<br />
instituti ons.<br />
Financial arranqements<br />
EAS Trust Fund<br />
TIE EAS Trust Fund was established in nesponse to bhe request of the participating<br />
countriesl the authority for its administration was delegated by the tJrl Secretary General to<br />
the Executive Director of UNEP. The Trust Fund, therefore, is administered according to the<br />
finanbial rules of the UN and the terms of reference agreed by the participating co-untries.<br />
The establishment of the EAS Trust Fund is aimed at providing financial support for the<br />
action Plan adopted by the Intergovernmental Meetings on the Protection and Development of<br />
the Marine Environment and Coastal Areas of the East Asian Region, Manila,29 April 1981.<br />
The Fund comprises mainly the contributions from lhe participating governments end support<br />
from the UNEP Environment Fund, as well as any other source of funding agreed to the<br />
participating governments.<br />
At the beginning of the EAS Programme, the Trust Fund was established for two years<br />
beginning I January 1982 and ending fl December 1981.<br />
Funding<br />
The participating governnents contribute U5$ 86,000 annually in both 1982 and l98l in<br />
accondance with the table below:<br />
Indonesia<br />
Malaysia<br />
Philippines<br />
Singapore<br />
Thailand<br />
Total<br />
The UNEP contribution towards technical<br />
both 1982 and l98f amounts to US$ t00,000.<br />
us$ 10,m0<br />
I7,000<br />
19,000<br />
1,000<br />
19,000<br />
86,m0<br />
eo-mdination and programme activitiee in
- l7t<br />
PROBLEMS INVOLVED TN TI-E IMPLEMENTATION tr TFE EAS ACTICIII PLAN<br />
There are several problems that have oecurred during the implementetion of the EAS<br />
Action Plan such es administrative delay, financiel problems, legal difficultiea, etc.<br />
Administrative delay<br />
. _ Even though lhe Trust Fund has been established since I January 1992, payments into<br />
the Trust Fund had been very slow. Therefore, the Trust Fund could not be utilized for the<br />
implementation of the fAS Action Plan until late 1982, because the terms of reference for<br />
the management of the Trust Fund stipulate that "no expenditure from the Truet Fund shall<br />
be made in advance of lhe receipt of contributions, and none shall be made befone e minimum<br />
of'US$ 50'000 has been contributed to the Trust Fund ". Conaequenlly, interim period prior to<br />
the actual implementation of the plan was prolonged for more then 9 monthe until sufficient<br />
funds could be raised to permit the release of money frorn lhe Trust Fund.<br />
Financial problems<br />
UNEP' considering ilself not as a funding agency and maintaining its catalytic role, hes<br />
always stressed tiat each regional action plan area should progressiv-ely become finaneially<br />
self -supporting, predorninantly through regional trust funds. UNEP will withdraw its financial<br />
support gradually. Here lies the crux of the problems involved in the implementation of the<br />
action plan: financial difficulties. To achieve the objectives set in the EAS Action plen<br />
requires a huge amount of rnoney. Many projects need a strong data base, the collection of<br />
which involves substantive expenditures that the participating countries can not afford in the<br />
long run, should UNEP withdraw its support after a few yLans. The sibuation in the East<br />
Asian Seas Region is not like the one in the Mediterranean, where moet of the 1g<br />
partieipating countries are developed countries which can afford to pay millions of dollars to<br />
save the Mediterranean. We, the countries in this region, are developing countries, in which<br />
the large part of population is still living in poverty. Therefore, econo'mic planners do not<br />
show much concern about the health of the surrounding seas, and litlle money has been<br />
provided so far for the protection of the marine environment, compared with the budgetany<br />
allocations to solve poverty in the rural areas. Should tI.lEP withdraw its support too soon, oi<br />
not be able to contribute substantially to the implementation of the action plan, the aclion<br />
plan would not be able to achieve its objectives. Moreoverr genuine financial commitmenls on<br />
the part of the participating countries are needed. Horever, such commitments cannot be<br />
obtained easlly, since those who approve the budget are different from those environnental<br />
planners who s.rpport the EAS Action Plan. Promotion of an awareness of the importance of<br />
protecting the marine environment among such people is therefore necessary. Fior,rrever, to<br />
show environmental gains from protecting lhe marine environrnent is no! an ejsy task.<br />
Leoal difficulties<br />
_ Effective protection of the marine environrnent at the regional level requires some<br />
form of legal amangements such as the eonclusion of a regional convention on the eontrol of<br />
pollution from land-based sources es well es from shifs. Such legal arrangements are<br />
considered by many as .an inLegral part of an action plan; wilhout ich arrangements the<br />
effectiveness of the action plan in protecting the marine environnent is doubtful. Hourever,<br />
the ASEAN countries seem to heve a strong aversion to regional legal agreements of any<br />
kind. The reasons why this is $t are not iully known. It may be ihat tfte economic end<br />
administrative costs..of having such an agreement are prohibitive, whereas the benefits are<br />
not yet fully quantified. Another reason may be that existing legisiation rnay be obeolete, and<br />
the enactment of internal legislation requires years of pieparation. ' Tferefore, most<br />
participating countries are reluctanL to include in the EAS Action plan any binding stalement<br />
which would form an integral part of the legal component. It is etill por.iUt" thai the legal<br />
component will be reconsidered by COBSEA at a later stage. In the meantime, the leial<br />
component, it was agreed, should be the subject of a consultant's study.
- L72<br />
COnCLUSlqil<br />
The action plan represents e start in technical co-qeration in the field marine<br />
environnent protection emong the participating countries, starting with the ASEAN<br />
eub-region. If urccesaf ul, the ASEAN surb-region is axpected to ect as a nucleus for<br />
development of a widar programme for the adjacent regions identified at the Penang<br />
Wokshop.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
tJhEP. 1980. Report of the Meeting of Experts to Review the Dreft Aetion PIan for the East<br />
Aeian Sess. (UNEP/WG. 4L14,8 Juty 1980).<br />
Uf\EP. 1981. Report of the lntergovernnrental Meeting m the Pmtection and Development of<br />
the Merine Environment and Coastal Artas of the East Asian Region. (UNEP/IG. 2616, April<br />
l98l).<br />
tJt{EP. 1981. Report of the lntergovernnental Meeting m the East Asian Seas Action Plan.<br />
(UNEP/IG. tLl6, lL December f981).<br />
UNEP. 1982. Acfiievenents and planned development of WEPrs Regional Seas Programmes and<br />
comparabb progremmes ponsored by other bodies. t.[{EP Regional Seas Reporta and Studies<br />
No. I.<br />
tl.lEP. 1982. Report of the First Me€ting of the Co-ordinating Body on the Seae of EaBt Asia.<br />
(UNEP/IC. ,7lLo, I April 1982).
- 17,<br />
OCEANMRAPHTC ASSESSMENT tr TIf EAST ASIAN 5EA5<br />
Aprilani SocAiarto<br />
National Institute of Oceanology<br />
Jakarta, Indonesia<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
This paper reviews oceanographic conditions in South-East Asian waters, in<br />
particular highlighting the monsoonal influence on oceanographic features. It gives<br />
a general assessrnent of atmospheric and water circulation and tidal patterns, and<br />
summarizes the data rt ihe discontinuity layer, temperature, salinity, dissolved<br />
oxygen' and transpareney of the waters in the region. Finally it describes the<br />
present knowledge of nutrients and pnimary productivity, and associated<br />
phenomena such as upwelling.<br />
Introduction<br />
The East Asian Seas actually cover I very large area in the western Pacific Ocean,<br />
bordered by the Bering Ses to the North, the lndian Ocean to the south, the coasts of<br />
continental Asia to the West and the Pacific Ocean to the East. However, the East Asian<br />
Seas Action Plan of the United Nations Environment Proqramme (UNEP) is limited to the<br />
Souih-East Asian Region, and this oceanographic assessment concentrales on that region. This<br />
assessrnenl is largely based on the work of Wyrtki (f96f) and various existing reviews such as<br />
Soegiarto and Birowo (1975), Soegiarto (1978) and Soegiarto (1901).<br />
The South-East Asian Waters<br />
The waters and islands between Asia and Australia and between the Pacific and the<br />
Indian oceans form a geognaphical unit because of thein special structure and position. In<br />
geographical lerms, the whole region is a part of Asia and is referred to as Soulh-East Asia,<br />
In oceanographic terms, the waters of ihe region are part of the Pacific Ocean, which is<br />
separated from the Indian Ocean by the islands of Sumatra, Java, and the Nusa Tenggara<br />
(Lesser Sunda). The seas in lhe region draw lheir water from the Pacific, to which lhey<br />
provide access.<br />
The South-East Asian waters comprise the Andaman Sea, the Straits of Mallaca, the<br />
Straits of Singapore, the South China Sea, the Java Sea, the Flores Sea, the Banda Sea, the<br />
Arefura Sea, the Timor Sea, the Celebes Sea, the Sulu Sea, and the Philippine Sea (Figure lI<br />
Tlp whole body of water covers 8.94 million sguare kilometres in area, which represents<br />
about 2.5 per cenl of the world's ocean surface.<br />
The South-East Asian seas form me geographic unit distinct from the Pacific and<br />
Indian means. Tle Andaman Sea is part of the Indian Ocean but should be regarded as<br />
South-Emt Asian waters. It is perhaps rather zurprising thet the Timor and Arafura Seas and<br />
Gulf of Carpentaria are often regarded, in oceanographic terms, as part of the pacific<br />
Ocean.<br />
Nearly all types of topographical features are found in South-East Asian waters, such<br />
as shallow continental shelves, deep sea beins, troughs, trenches, continental slopes, and<br />
volcanic and coral islands. In its distrihrtion of water and land the South-East Asian region is<br />
one of ihe most complex structures on earth. The nurneroue large and small islands divide the<br />
waters into different seas connected by many channels, passeges, and straits. The complexity
I<br />
T<br />
I<br />
o<br />
-(<br />
a<br />
I<br />
F<br />
-<br />
|r|<br />
o<br />
o<br />
:<br />
: (,<br />
B<br />
e=F<br />
)H.<br />
'=(<br />
/<br />
o<br />
il<br />
-<br />
a<br />
!<br />
I<br />
-<br />
l
- 175<br />
of the region is the feason why it has drawn many major international oceanographic<br />
expeditions, such as those of the CHALLENGER (1872-75), the GAZELLE (1875), the<br />
VALDIVIA (1899), the SIBOGA (I899-f900), the PLANET (1905-7), the SI.IELLIUS (I929-tO),<br />
the ALBATROSS (1948), the SPENCER F. BAIRD (1947-50), and the CALATHEA (f951.). In<br />
recent years, a few oceanographic cruises have been organized, locally or as part of some<br />
cooperative regional studies, such as the lntecAovernmental Oceanographic Cornmission (lOC)<br />
Cooperative Study of Kuroshio which also covers the South China Sea, and the International<br />
Indian Ocean Expedition (llOE). We are thus fortunate to have a fairly good picture of the<br />
general oceanographic characteristics of Lhese waters (Wyrtki, 196I; Soegiarto and Birowo,<br />
L975\<br />
Monsoonal influence on oceanoqraphic features<br />
Located between the Asian and the Australian continents, the South-East Asian region<br />
is strongly influenced by the monsoons. The South-East Asian waters are lhus ideal for<br />
studying the effects of the monsoons on both waLer circulaLion and the seasonal distribution<br />
of physical, chemical, and biological properties.<br />
The equatorial pressure trough moves according to the position of lhe sun, crossing the<br />
Equator twice each yean. In the norlhern summer, a low pressure area develops over the<br />
Asian continent as an extension of the equatorial pressufe trough. In winter, a high pressure<br />
area is formed over the continent, forming part of Lhe subtropical high pressure system. The<br />
monsoons develop between the winler hemisphel'e rrhiqhrr and the "low" in the other<br />
hemisphere. Because the pressure distribution is stationary, the winds are rather constanl,<br />
especially over the sea. The wind forces ate, however, generally small. Storms and typhoons<br />
are observed only over the northern parts of the South China Sea and the Philippines, over<br />
lhe Andaman Sea, and north of Australia. During the intermonsoon period when the equatorial<br />
lrough passes over the Equator, the winds over the region are generally extremely variable.<br />
During the full monsoon the trough is deviated over land in the direction of the monsoon,<br />
owing to thermal influences.<br />
The north monsoon in South-East Asia lasts from December to February and the south<br />
monsoon from June to Augusl. The rest of the yean fepresents the tnansition from the north<br />
io the soulh monsoons (March-May) and from the south to the north rpnsoons<br />
(September -November).<br />
The variation of<br />
corresponding variation of<br />
the atmospheric circulation described above parallels the<br />
the water circulalion. Because of the high constancy of the<br />
monsoons and the regularity of appearances, the ocean currents show the same<br />
characteristics. Just as the monsoons change direction twice a year and are praclically<br />
neversed at the time of their strongest development, the oceanic circulation is also reversed<br />
over large areas. This complete reversal is typical of the circulation in these waters. The<br />
f ollowing is the description of the surf ace current systems in South-East Asian waters<br />
(FAO/IPFC Secretariat, 1976).<br />
When the south rnonsoon prevails, norLherly monsoon currents are dominant in the<br />
middle portions of the South China Sea and Lhe Java Sea. The inflow of oceanic water is<br />
strong through the Celebes Sea and the Flores Sea from the Pacific. The waler of the South<br />
China Sea flows out through the SLrait of Taiwan (Formosa) and the Luzon Sbait. During the<br />
north monsoon a southerly flow of water causes a eyclonic pattern of surface water<br />
movement. In this season, the inflow of oceanic water is strong through the Taiwan Strait<br />
and Luzon Strait. The outflow from the South China Sea is strong through the Flores Sea and<br />
less strong, but with considerable volune, from the Celebes Sea to join the water mass from<br />
the South China Sea flowing eastwards. In both monsoons, smaller amounts of water enter the<br />
South China Sea through the Philippine Islands from Lhe Pacific and flow out to the Indian<br />
Ocean through the Malacca Strait and the Sunda Strait.<br />
As mentioned earlier, the water maeg of the South-East Asian region originates from<br />
the Pacific Ocean. This is also clearly indicated by surface current patterns in.this region<br />
(Figures 2 and J). The North Equatorial current flows westwards and, upon approaching the<br />
Philippine Islandsr plits into two main branches: the nonthward branch becomes the Kuroshio,<br />
and the southward branch the Mindanao current.
- 176<br />
Figure 2 : Surface current pstterns of South-East Asian waters during the<br />
North monsoon (December-May)<br />
ffiitfi,,<br />
T:)j,,<br />
,,////,/.J4-<br />
72't-- r t<br />
\- l'.<br />
I .2<br />
J<br />
',)fu;;er<br />
Erl-1YJ, \<br />
1,;./ 'i%l\, \
- rl7<br />
Tl'n Kuroshio begins east of northern Luzon as a swift and narrow segmen! of lhe<br />
western boundary curfent. IL flows close to Lhe east coast of Taiwan and then into the East<br />
China Sea and farther north into the Japan Sea. At the height of the north monsoon' a<br />
substantial mass of water from the Kuroshio is deflected into the China Sea and then pushed<br />
farther south by the prevailing wind into the South China Sea and the Java Sea.<br />
The Mindanao current flows souLhwards With a speed of I or 2 knots along the coast of<br />
Mindanao Island. Its main part becomes the Equatorial Counter-Current. A weaker branch of<br />
[he Mindanao current enters the Celebes Sea through the straits between Mindanao and<br />
Sangir and Talaut Islands. Within the Celebes Sea, a major portion of its water is deflected<br />
!o the soulh and flows along the north coast of Celebes as a coastal current to the east.<br />
Tidal patterns<br />
Next to waves and currents, tides are the mosL siriking feature of the movenents of<br />
sea water, and they affect navigation considerably. The vertical movenents of sea water can<br />
be transformed into tidal currents of high speed in narrow inlets, river mouthsr small bays'<br />
and entrances to inland seas. Apart from the direct effect on ships, the dredging and silting<br />
acLion in the waterways and harbour basins will affect conditions at the por!.<br />
The tides of South-East Asian waters are affected by both lhe Pacific and the Indian<br />
oceans. Thus, diurnal tides predcninate in the South China and Java seas, whereas mixed<br />
tides prevail in the Eastern Archipelago and in Philippine watefs. However, semi-diurnal tides<br />
of the Indian Ocean are predominant in the Andaman Sea and the shelf areas northwest of<br />
Australia. Wyrtki (f961) characterized the four tidal types in the South-East Asian weters s<br />
follows (Figure 4):<br />
Figure 4 : Geographic distribulion of tidal types in South-East Asia
- t78<br />
(f) Senri-diurnal type: Dailyr two high and two low waters of almost equal heightr e.9.r<br />
Bagan Siapi-api (Riau Archipelago) and the Malacca Strait.<br />
(2) Mixed tide, prevailing semi-diurnel: Daily, two high and two low waters, but different<br />
both in height and the time of high water; e.9., Sandakan and Sulu Sea.<br />
(l) Mixed tide, prevailing diurnel: Only one high and me low water daily, but there are<br />
also regimes with two high and two low waters which differ appreciably in height and<br />
in the time of occurrence of the high water; e.9., Hm Nie Nieu, Vietnam.<br />
(4) Diurnal Tide: Only one high and one low water daily; e.g., Gutf of Tmkin.<br />
Since in the Indian Ocean the semi-diurnal type of tide is pnedominant, the Andaman<br />
Sea' the Malacca Strait, and Lhe shelf off northwest Australie have semi-diurnal tides. Other<br />
regions, such as the south coast of Sumatra, Java, and the Nusa Tenggara Islands, have mixed<br />
tides with prevailing semi-diurnal. In the western Pacific Ocean, the diurnal tide is dominant.<br />
Hor,rrever, this changes as soon as the tides enter South-Eest Asian waters. Alrnost the entire<br />
South China Sea, for example, experience a mixed, prevailing diurnal tide. In other waters,<br />
the diurnal tide is strengthened. Thus, in the Gulf of Thailand, the Gulf of Tonkin, the<br />
waters between Sumatra and Borneo, and the Java Sea, an almost purely diurnal tide is<br />
observed. In eontrast, over the eastern parts of the Indonesian Archipelago the mixed,<br />
prevailing semi-diurnal tide is dorninant.<br />
General properties of the water<br />
Diacontinuity layer<br />
Since the South-East Asian region is located near the Equator, the zurfaee water is<br />
characterized by high temperat.ures. This property combined with the influence of low salinity<br />
reduces the density of the surface water rather markedly. The large excess of rainfall over<br />
evaporation causes an average salinity of less than J4 parts per Lhousand within a region<br />
enclosed by a line running from Sri Lanka, off the islands of Sumatra, Java, Celebes, and<br />
Philippines to Taiwan (Wyrtki, f961). The density of this water always nemains below Sigma t<br />
22.0 (or a specific gravity of about 1.022). This light tropical surface water contrasts<br />
strongly with Lhe cold water rnasses in deeper layers with Sigma t of 27.7 to 27.8. The<br />
transition between these two water masses, usuatly called the discontinuity layer, takes place<br />
between 100 and f00 melres. This stable discontinuity layer pnactically prevents any vertical<br />
exchange of water. It is only in a few places and in certain seasons lhat this stable<br />
stratification is disturbed, eithen by extremely strong wind or by upwelling proeesses.<br />
The properties of the water at the surface normally extend downwards to a certain<br />
depth before the transition to colder water takes place. This upper homogeneous layer of<br />
water is mixed by the action of winds and, in some cases, by currents and tides. Below this<br />
layer' a change of waten properties, especially an increase in the density, begins, at first<br />
gradually' later rather rapidly until a maximal density gradient is reached at the centre of<br />
the discontinuity layer. Below this, the density of the water continues to increase, but rather<br />
slowly, until it reaches the deep cold water.<br />
The dept.h of the homogenous layer ls of interest in dynamic oceanography and is of<br />
relevance in marine productivity. Over the Sunda and Sahul shelves the homogeneous layer<br />
reaches the botlom of the shallow parts. In the deeper parts, high density water is found<br />
below the homogeneous layer at a depth of about 40 metres. In the Celebes, Sulu, and Flores<br />
seas, the homogeneous layer is at about. the same depth throughout lhe year. However, in the<br />
South China Sea and in the Eastenn Archipblago, the seasonal variation is more pronounced.<br />
In the Banda Sea and the Arafuna Sea, the depth of the homogeneous layer is about 20 to 50<br />
melres in October and down to about ]00 metres in March. A similar range is reconded for<br />
the South China Sea where the homogeneous layer is only about l0 to 40 rnetres deep in the<br />
south monsoon, but increases to 70-90 metres during the strong north monsoon.<br />
The thickness of the discontinuity layer is affected primanily by dynamic processes. In<br />
a large eddyr the warm water masses are pressed downwards, causing e thick discontinuity<br />
layer. In the eastern archipelago, the discontinuity oven the year is of a uniform thickness of<br />
about 100 metres. Tfre sharpest discont,inuity, at 20 metres depth, is found off the Sumatra<br />
coast in October, when the Counten-Current turns along a broad fronL to the south.
Ternperetur€<br />
- 179<br />
One of the features of tropical walers is that the zurface layer is warm and the annual<br />
temperature variation is small. During the north monsoon, generally high surface temperature<br />
of zB-tOoC prevail in the west coast of Sumatra and the Eastern Archipelago waters.<br />
However, because of the inflow of water masses from higher latitudes, eolder water (26-27oC)<br />
is found in the South China Sea. The surface temperatune distribution of other parts of the<br />
South-East Asian waters ranges between these figures. Very different conditions occur during<br />
the south monsoon. High surface temperature (29-f0oC) are found in the South China and<br />
Iower temperatures (25-27oC) prevail in the Arafura Sea and the South coast of Java. In<br />
other watersn temperetures fange between 27oc and 29oc (Figures 5 and 5).<br />
The average annual range of sea surface temperatures in the equatorial region is less<br />
than 2oCr but is slightly higher, JoC to 4oC, in the Banda Sea, the Arafura Sea, and fimor<br />
Sea as well as in the waters south of Java. In the South China See the annual temperature<br />
range increase northwards, owing to lhe increasing inflow of cold waLer through the Strait of<br />
Formosa during the north monsoon. Over Lhe shallow parts of the Sunda and Sahul shelves the<br />
temperature is uniform throughout the water column.<br />
Figure 5 : Surface temperature of South-East Asian weters during December to May<br />
(in oC)<br />
%Y-r,<br />
+^FlJff
Figure 6 : Surface temperature<br />
Salinity<br />
- 180<br />
of South-East Asian<br />
(in oC)<br />
waters during June to SepLember<br />
In contrast to the uniform Lemperature in South-Easl Asian waters' the salinity is<br />
extremely variable. The high rainfall, the runoff of many large rivers, and the geographical<br />
subdivisions of the seas are responsible for this characterisLic. The high rainf all lowers the<br />
salinity of Lhe surface layer. The distribution of dischanges fnom land and the presence of<br />
large bays and channels with lillle water exchange favour the formation of regions wilh very<br />
low salinity, which conlribute to the general lowering of the salinity. The monsoons cause a<br />
rainy and a dry season which then affecl the annual variation of salinity. But monsoons also<br />
govern the seasonal water circulaLion. These interactions between different factors and<br />
influences, the geographical siructures, runoff from rivers, evaporationr and circulation result<br />
in a highly complex distnibution and marked variation of the salinily in Lhese waters.<br />
Figure 7 shows the averaged surface salinity distribution in South-East Asian watens<br />
during the norlh monsoon (December-May). ln general, low salinity prevails oven the Sunda<br />
Shelf and the coaslal areas. This low salinity is mostly due to the heavy rainfall and ri ver<br />
discharge. During the south monsoon (June-November), however, hiqh salinily prevai ls in<br />
almost all South-East Asian waters (Fiqure 8). Ttu Java Sea is a good example of how the<br />
monsoons affecl surface cinculation and salinity variation (Doty and Soegiarto, 1970)' During<br />
the north monsoon, heavy rainfall occurs throughout the west-enn parts of the lndorresian<br />
Archipelago. The heavy rainfall, combined vrith the large runoff of many ri vers from Sumatra.<br />
Java, and Borneo, resu lts in a general lowering of the salinity level near the shore.<br />
Sometimes even the )0 parls per thousand isohaline is pushed far towards the open sea. At<br />
the same time, the surface current frorn the South Shina brings low salinity water into the<br />
western Java Sea and pushes the high salinity wa[er easLwards. With Lhe onset of the south<br />
monsoon, this low salinity water is pushed back westwards and replaced by waLer masses of<br />
hiqher salinity from the Makassar Strait and the Flores Sea. By September, lhe water masses<br />
of high salinity reach their maximal westward penetration.
Figure 7 : Average sunface<br />
loot<br />
too.<br />
Figure I : Average<br />
- l8I<br />
salinity of South-East Asian waters during December lo May<br />
(in parts per thousand)<br />
1lO' t2O' .|3. t.lor<br />
110r nt rgd<br />
surface salinity of South-East Asian waters during<br />
(in parts per lhousand)<br />
laot<br />
June to September<br />
laoo
Di$olved oxygen<br />
- 182<br />
In general, the surface distribution of dissolved oxyqen (DO) does not show a slfcno<br />
seasonal variation. In the waters of the EasLern Archipelago, the surface distribution of Dt,<br />
varies from 4.0 to 4.5 millilitres per litre (ml/l), whereas on the Sunda Shelf , the value is<br />
somewhat lower, varying between 1.5 and 4.0 ml/l. However, at 100 metres depth, the DO<br />
distribution shows some _interesting features. In Eastern Archipelago waters, the DO is<br />
relatively low, between 2.5 and 1.0 ml/l, with no apparent seasonal variation. Towards the<br />
Indian and Pacific oceansr the Do increases. In the area of the Mindanao current, DO values<br />
of 4.5 ml/l are eommon. Off the south coasl of Java, the DO tends to incregse from coastel<br />
area (?.5-3.0 ml/l) towards the open water (over 4.0 ml/l). In rhe South China Sea, the DO<br />
concentration varies between 2.5 and 3.0 ml/I, but increases towards the north owing to the<br />
influence of the Pacific Ocean water masses.<br />
Water tranaparency<br />
The transparency of the water generally is neasured by lowering a white Secchi disc.<br />
The point at which the disc disappears visually is called the depth of th-e transparency. Many<br />
factors influence the water lransparency, for example, the silL content and the plankton and<br />
other particulate matter in the waler.. Low waler transparencies (less than l0 netres deep)<br />
are found in the areas off river mouths and in coastal waters around Sumatra, Borneo, and<br />
the Gulf of Thailand. ln general, the transparency is high (between l0 and 20 metres) in deep<br />
water and in the open seas (20 to l0 netres). watei transparency does not show strong<br />
seasonal variation between the north and the south monsoons (Soeqiario and Birowo, I975).<br />
Nutrients and primary productivity<br />
Basic to and understand-ing of geographic, seasonal, and other types of biological<br />
variation is an understanding of the retateo variations in pnimary productiviiy, the conversion<br />
rates of inorganic matter to organic forms. Our knowledge of the South-E"rf 'A.i"n walers in<br />
t'his respect is still very rneagre, and data have only rece-ntly begun Lo accumulate. A number<br />
of authors have summarized our knowledge of the primary productivity and nutrients in this<br />
region, particularly for Indonesian waters (Wyrtki, lgOf; Sbgiarto and'Bi.o,rro, lg75).<br />
The nutrient eontent over lhe deeper portions of the South-East Asian waters shows a<br />
distribution pattern typical of tropical waters. The surface layer is extremely poor in<br />
nutrients with phosphate content of less than 0.2 micrograms pur litr" (ps/l). within the<br />
discontinuity layer, it increase rather markedly and reachls I.5'pg/l at thJ'iower boundary.<br />
Phosphale conlent of .2.5 to J.0 pg/l is usuai in the deeper layJr. over [he shelves, the<br />
phosphate content.varies considerably depending the proximity to the river mouths and the<br />
strength of the mixing proeesses. In the vicinity of river mouths, the water is normally rich<br />
in nutrients, particularly during the wet monsoon. In addition, over the shallow waters,<br />
vertical mixing can bring the mineials at the bottom to the upper layer. Consequently, there<br />
is a continuous supply of nutrients to ihe water eolumn enabling a high production of organic<br />
matter.<br />
The replenishment of the nutrients in the zurface layer over deeper water is achieved<br />
through different mechanisms. It is caused either by upweliing or by the divergent movements<br />
of water al the zurface, when more fertile water from the diicontinuity tayer'cen aseend and<br />
enter the euphotic zone. However, these rnechanisms occur mly tocatty and during certain<br />
seasons. The presence of such upwelling in Indonesian waters has been slmmarized elsewhere<br />
(Soegiarto and Birowo, L975). In 1961, Wyrtki reported the occurrence of upwelling in the<br />
Araf ura Sea and in northwestern Australian waters. ln 1962, he gave a derailed account of<br />
the upwelling in the. water along the south coast of Java up to the entrances of lhe Savu<br />
1"3. .lt" upwelling in this area reaches. its-. full developnent around September, adding about<br />
2'4 million cubic metres per s€cond to the flow of the 'South Equatorial cument of the Indian<br />
Oeean. The upwelling in the Aiafura Sea takes place sornewhat earlier irr AugusL. 16 both<br />
er98s' however, upwelling occunr during the winter monsoon. A few smaller upwellings in<br />
other waters, such as of f the south coast of Celebes, have also been reporLea (Wyrtt
- l8]<br />
content fnom South-Easl Asian waters towards the Pacific Ocean. In Eastern Archipelago<br />
waters' the avenage phosphate content varies from 0.2 to 0.1 pq/l in the north monsoon and<br />
increase to 0. 1 - 0.4 pq/l in the south monsoon, parlly owing to upwelling in lhe Banda Sea.<br />
In both the Java Sea and the South China Sea, the average phosphate contenl is between 0.1<br />
and 0.2 pg/l in the north monsoon and beLween 0.2 and 0.] ttS/t in the south monsoon.<br />
Figures 9 and I0 show the avenage surface primary producbivity, or the raLes of<br />
organic canbon production expressed in micrograms per cubic meter pen hour, in South-East<br />
Asian wat.ers dunlng the north and the south monsoons, respectively. They are conslructed<br />
from rather limited and unevenly distributed data, and should be considered as preliminary, to<br />
be improved when more complete dat.a are available. Genenally, the coastal and shallow<br />
watens show high rates of organic producLion (over 1.0 microgram per cubic metre per hour)<br />
of organic production, mainly owing to nutrient enrichment from rivers and from the bottom<br />
nesulting from mixing. In deep seas, high rates can only be attributed to upwelling, such as<br />
that occurring during the south monsoon in the Banda Sea and Lhe Arafura Sea, the Indian<br />
Ocean south of Java. and the Lesser Sunda Islands.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Il is obvious that the above assessment is a very general one. Al best it covers only<br />
the most general oceanographic features of the South-EasL Asian waters. There are still many<br />
more feat,ures that are not assessed in this paper. For more detailed information readers<br />
should consult the references below or request data and informalion directly from the<br />
existing regional or international data centres, zuch as Westenn Pacific Data Center, c/o<br />
Japan National Data Center in Tokyo, Japan, or the World Data Center in Washington, D.C.,<br />
USA.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Doty' lvlS., and A. Soerl_iarto. 1970. The developnrent of marine resources in Indonesia, p.<br />
70-89. In H. Beers [ed.] Indonesia: resources and their technological development. University<br />
Press oJ-Kentuck y, Knoxville.<br />
FAO/IPFC Secretariat. 1976. Preliminary review on the slale of marine pollution in East<br />
Asian waters. Paper presented to the IOC/FAO/UNEP International Workshop on Marine<br />
Pollution in East Asian Waters, Penang, Malaysia, 7-13 April 1976. J7 p.<br />
Ilahude' A.G. 1970. On the occurrence of upwelling in the southern Macassar strait. Mar.<br />
Res. in Indonesia l0:l-51.<br />
Segiartor A. 1978. Introduction to the regional oceanography of the South-East Asian<br />
Waters. Lecture presented at the 5th FAO/SIDA Workshop m Aquatic Pollution in Relation<br />
to Protection of Living Resources, Manila, Philippines, 17 January-27 February, 1977. p.<br />
t-tl.<br />
Segiarto' A. 1981. The oceanographic features of the South-East Asian waters, p. 20-47. In<br />
Chia Lin Sien and C. MacAndrews [ed.] South-East Asian seas: frontiers for development<br />
MacGraw-Hill South-East Asian Series.<br />
Segiarto, A., and S. Birowo [ed.J. 1975. Atlas Oceanology of the Indonesian and the adjacent<br />
waterg. Book l. The present state of knowledge of oceanology in Indonesia. National<br />
Irstitute of Oceanology, Jakarta, lndmesia. 79 p. + 39 maps lin Indonesian]<br />
Sagiarto' A., and A. Nmtji. L966. A seasonal study on primery merine productivity in<br />
Indonesian weters. Paper presented at the llth Pacific Science Congress, Tokyo, J4an.<br />
2o p.<br />
Wyrtki' K. 1961. Physical oceanography of the South-Eest Asian waters. Naga Report No. 2.<br />
scripps Institute of oceanography, La Jolla, california. 195 p. + 44 plates.<br />
Wyrtki' K. 1962. The upwelling in the region between Java end Austrelia during the<br />
South-East monsoon. Austr. J. Mar. Fresh. Ree. IX)):ZI7-ZZj.
- 184<br />
Figure 9 : Average zurfece primary productivity of south-East Asian waters<br />
during December to May<br />
(in pg7rp176r;<br />
IOOP tlOo tmo rrro r^p<br />
Figure l0 : Average surface primary productivity of south-East Asian waters<br />
during June !o September<br />
(in PqTt)7^t'
- 185<br />
CffiAL REEF DEGRADATION AIS POLLUTICH IN TFE EAST ASIAN 5EA5 REGIO{<br />
K T. Yry and E D. Gannz<br />
Marine Sciences Center, University of the Philippines<br />
Diliman, Quezrt City, Philippines<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Thls paper updates knowledge on the status of coral reef resources and the<br />
causes of reef demage in South-East Asian waters. It summarizes recent data trl<br />
the condition of coral reefs in each ASEAN country. NaLural causes of reef<br />
degradation include water rnovernent, geological dynamics, and biological<br />
interections sJch es recently reported destruction by Acanthaeter and Drupella"<br />
Annng human activities causing destruction, siltation and damaging fishing<br />
techniques are still the rnost important, although extrsction of building materials,<br />
tourism, collecting of reef invertebrates, and pollution are becoming increasingly<br />
eignif icant. The eatablishment of marine reserve8 is me concrete response to<br />
these threats.<br />
INTRODUCTTOI{<br />
Tfn presen[ paper constitutes an update of information presented in a previous one<br />
(Gomez, 1980) o the state of research m and degradation of coral reefs in the East Asian<br />
Seae. The atatue of reef nesources in each of the countries comprising the ASEAN group<br />
(Indmesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand) is first reviewed. While<br />
knowledge m this aepect is still largely inadequate, u.rrveys have been initiated in most<br />
countries. The Philippines is most edvanced in this regard where a comprehensive picture of<br />
reaf conditions sr a nationwide scale has emerged.<br />
lnportant reef degradation problems in the East Asian Seas region were identified in<br />
the previous paper. Additionel documentation m each problem in the different countries is<br />
preeented here, in the hope that future directions for monitoring, management, and<br />
coneervation msy be indiceted.<br />
Apects of the marine environnent, corel distribution and diversity, as well as cunent<br />
reaearch ef f orte, heve likewise already been dealt with (Gomez, 1980), and will not be<br />
repeated here. A new dimension is added, however, in the diseussion of neasures for the<br />
eonservetion of critical coral reef areas by the establishment of marine parks and reserves.<br />
Annng other thinga, current efforts in the different countries are described, as well as bhe<br />
lategt counts m exieting end proposed eonservetion areas.<br />
STATUS<br />
The distribution of coral reefs in the five ASEAN countties is detailed in Gsnez (f980).<br />
Although all reef types are present, extensive fringing reefs are limited to the eastern<br />
Indmegian archipelago and the Philippines (Valencia, f98fbl
Indonesia<br />
- 186<br />
There exist at present no comprehensive reports m coral reef conditions in Indonesian<br />
waters. Programmes to evaluate the status of Indonesian reefs have been initieted only within<br />
the last five years (Wijsman-Best et g!., 1981). Literature reviewed by Sagiarto and Polunin<br />
(f981) includes broad and detailed cleGcriptions, mainly qualiLative, of a number of localitiest<br />
with the bulk of information concentrated on the Seribu Islands near Jakarta. Reef growth is<br />
known to be sparse m the east coast of Sumalra, most of the coastline of Kalimantan, and<br />
southern lrian Jaya because of intense land drainage and its concomitant stre$ factore<br />
(Soegiarto and Polunin, l98l).<br />
Additional pspers that have come bo light contain nostly qualitative or<br />
semi-quantitative assessrnents of Indonesian reefs. Wok on the coral reefs of the Spermonde<br />
Archipelago in South Sulawesi by Wijsman-Best et aL (f98I), for example' revolves around<br />
speculations on origin, descriptions of geomorphology, and some srbjective notes on reef<br />
conditions. The authors observe thet it is difficult to distinguish between natural and<br />
anthropogenic causes of destruction.<br />
McManus and Wenno (1981), working in outer Ambm Bay, provide descriptions of coral<br />
communities with an approximate scheme for ranking them according to degree of<br />
development and possible perturbation. Many of these showed aigns of disruption releted to<br />
human activities. After a s{Jrvey in the Pulau Pari group of islends situated 15 km northwest<br />
of Jakarta, Gooding (f969) reported the best reef development as occurring in the lagoone of<br />
Gobe Soa Besar and Goba Btntu, but again with no supporting quantitative data. Apparentlyt<br />
the islands as a whole exhibited good reef conditions as may be gleaned from the rich flore<br />
and fauna. Polunin el4. (1981) provide information m the proposed Bali Baral reserve in the<br />
form of descriptions-of physical reef structure, common reef fiah speciesr nd depth ranges of<br />
the abundant hard corals. Decreases in the last parameter were found to relate to weter<br />
clarity. Species richness and productivity appeared to be higheet in the reefg around Pulau<br />
Menjangan.<br />
Malaysia<br />
In spite of a coastline greater than 1000 km, reefs in Peninsulsn Malaysia sre<br />
concentreLed in a few areas, such ss around the offshore islsnd groups in the northern snd<br />
southern parts of both east and vrcst coaste 0)e Silva, 1979\ At present theee. sre ataeeptibb<br />
to exploiiation through both recreationgl and commercial activities. Lulofe (f977) rtports a<br />
marked increase in thl btter eince 1970, caueing deterioration in the environnental condition<br />
of npst reefs as well as localized depletions of certain pecies. It ie believed that the rcuth<br />
coast of Redang (Pulau Redang Archipelago m the southeastern coast of Peningulsr Malayeia)<br />
is characterized by the most extensive and viabb reefe still exieting in Malaysian waters<br />
(Lulofs, 1979).<br />
Observations by De Silva et eL (1980) have yielded a more or lege compreheneive<br />
picture of reef conditions m fheEst coast of Peninsular Malayaia. These are reproduced in<br />
Figu."" l-4, and include extent, distribution and percentage live and deel coral cover. Conal<br />
reefs encountered d.rring the authors' survey were rnostly of the fringing typer postaasing an<br />
over-all similarity in terms of coral community strueture and composition. Mct rich *tallow<br />
reefs were found in relatively sheltered conditions nrch c bays. Discrepancies in ryeciee<br />
diversity appeared to be associated with degree of destruction rather than locality. Reefs<br />
near uninhabited areas generally exhibited nnre demage.<br />
A later qlrvey by De Silva and Rahman (1982) covers the Pulau Paya/Segantang grorp<br />
of islands off the wesL coagt of Peninaular Maleysia. Reef conditione re repreeented in a<br />
schenp similar to the above, and are shown in Figurea 5-7. '<br />
Mention may also be made here of the quentitative eeeessnnnt by Gotr end Sasekurnar<br />
(f98f) of a fringing reef et C+e Rachado in the Malacce Straitg. Live coral cover wag found<br />
lo be relatively-low, with an everage of t2.9%, along a belt transect ueed to sanple the rcef.<br />
This was attributed to ediment load.
Hg+*<br />
WAIER coRAL<br />
Teluk<br />
Tel* Solong<br />
Tsluk Borrr<br />
Dolom<br />
ES#fiEffiffisruor<br />
% UIOAMAGED FIARD CORALS<br />
oR DEAD HARD<br />
ffitglGED<br />
o/o srr @RALs tru[<br />
O/OAFEA I{OT CO/ERED<br />
sf mAts<br />
Bofu Chelo<br />
Genf ing<br />
Teluk Kodor<br />
Tonlung Sckiling<br />
TULAI<br />
- 187<br />
Teluk Gcnfing<br />
oKg. Lolonq<br />
It
- t88<br />
?<br />
-T-<br />
SflALI-fl 'ETER @RAL R€EFS<br />
D€EP WATER CAAL FEFS NgT<br />
OSSEFNA.E FROil MAT<br />
o/o tianlitcED HanD cmAJ<br />
% DAmAGED 0R 0€AO tnm C6AIJ<br />
% sr ccRAJ<br />
% AR€A l€r CO,€RED BY CORAS<br />
Figure 2: The extent, distribution end quality of the coral reefs in terms of percentage<br />
cover by living hard corals, dead hard corals and soft corals around Pulau<br />
Sembilang end Puleu Seri Buat off the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia (after<br />
De Silva et al., 1980)<br />
Figure I :<br />
?-r<br />
A<br />
ltk-€.E<br />
t(-il<br />
!ilAuor w[rER @RA- FEEFS<br />
CEP trTER CoRA- FEFS IT'T<br />
cgsERr/Aa€ FRCU mff<br />
7.glglED tllm @RALS<br />
ra ofl/r(fD of, oEAo |{AFD ccRAls<br />
% soFTcoRArs<br />
% !f,EA tgr @VERO Bl @il-S<br />
Tat* &rlufr Korop<br />
sFU-AU<br />
oo<br />
The extent, distribution end euality of the coral<br />
cover by living hard corels, dead hard corals<br />
Tinggi off the Eat Coas! of Peninsular Maleyeia<br />
lalf Sryro<br />
rcefs in terms of percentage<br />
end soft corals around Pulau<br />
(after De Silva et aL, 1980)
I<br />
HARIMAU<br />
PULAJ BABI<br />
HUJONG<br />
- t89<br />
?<br />
-N-<br />
Figure 4 : The extent, distribution and quality of the conal reefs in terms<br />
of percentage cover by living hard corals, dead hard corals<br />
and soft corals around Pulau Rawa and associated islands off<br />
the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia<br />
(after De Silva et eL, 1980)<br />
AtAl<br />
SIIALLO'V WATER CORAL REEFS<br />
EEP WATER MRAL REEFS NOT<br />
OESER\AH-E FROM BOAT<br />
O/O UNT}AMAGED HARD CORALS<br />
70 DAMAGED OR OEAD HARD CORALS<br />
% SOFT CORALS<br />
70 AFEA NOT COVERED BY CORAI-S<br />
BABI BESAR
EXTENT Ntr PtrtrtrC<br />
ROCKS AND<br />
ISOLATED CORALS<br />
SOFT CORALS<br />
CORAL REEFS<br />
ROCKY $TORE<br />
n<br />
X<br />
^$- \ }\<br />
\f"<br />
PERCENTAGE COVER<br />
ffih<br />
U dn\<br />
L1:.:.r.i:::l<br />
\#<br />
o<br />
Figure 5 :<br />
SOFT CORAL<br />
LIVE CORAL<br />
DEAD @RA.<br />
SA}ID ANO RocK<br />
- 190<br />
CORAL GARDEN<br />
The extent of the reefs at Pulau Paye and the quality of [he<br />
reefs in terms of percentage cover by live and dead hard<br />
corals, soft corals, sand and rock<br />
(after De Silva and Rahman, L982)
BRANCHED CORAL<br />
- 19I<br />
TAB.JLATE @RAL<br />
A TYPICAL PROFILE OF A REEF ON THE NORTHWESTSIDE<br />
ROCKY SHORE<br />
MRAL REEFS<br />
PERCENTAGE COVER<br />
ffi<br />
o @<br />
o<br />
SOFT MRAL<br />
LIVE CORAL<br />
OEAD @RAL<br />
SAITID AT\D ROCK . lOOm<br />
MASSIVE @RAL<br />
Figure 6 r A typical profile of a reef m the northwest side of Pulau<br />
Kaca (above). The extent of coral reefs at Puleu Kaca and<br />
their quality in terms of percentage cover by live and deed<br />
hard corals, soft corals, sand and rock (below).<br />
(afLer De Silva and Rahman, 1982)<br />
?<br />
-il-<br />
A
ffi<br />
ffi<br />
H<br />
I<br />
PERCENTAGE OOVER<br />
ffi<br />
o @<br />
o<br />
ROCI€ AhD ISO.ATED<br />
CORALS<br />
CORAL REEFS<br />
SfT CORAL<br />
LIVE @RAL<br />
DEAD CORAL<br />
- I92<br />
SAND AI{D ROCK 5OOm<br />
Figure 7: The extent of the coral reefs at Pulau Lembu and their<br />
quality in terms of percentage cover by live and dead hard<br />
corals, soft corals, ssnd and rock<br />
(after De Silva and Rahman, 1982)<br />
?<br />
-T-<br />
A
- Lgt<br />
Coral reefs along the coest of Sabah are relatively undisturbed as cornpared Lo other<br />
parts of the country, though records exist of large-scale mining in the f950's (Chua and<br />
Pathansali, L977). After detailed work in this area, E. Wood (1979) reports a range of reef<br />
conditions for the different islands. Tfese are presented in Table l. C. Wood (1979) found<br />
greater numbers and a larger variety of coral-feeding chaetodontids on the east coast of<br />
Sabah, as opposed to the west coasL. Chaetodontide are believed to be useful as indicators of<br />
Lhe relative health of reefs. The greatest numbers and diversiLy were found at the offshore<br />
sites, sgch m Pulau Mengalum and Pulau Sipadan, off the wesL and southeasLern coasts'<br />
respecti vely.<br />
Gualita[ive descriptions are available for the Semporna islands, situated east of the<br />
Semporna peninsula, at lhe Borneo end of the Sulu Archipelago (E. Wmd, f98f). These<br />
constitute a currently proposed marine park area. Reef development here is believed to be<br />
more extensive than in other areas around Sabah, with diversity and coral cover registering<br />
relatively high values. Sane damage, however, was found to occur in the shallower areas.<br />
Philippines<br />
Data an [he status of Philippines reefs as of 1982 are presented in Table 2. Out of a<br />
total of 512 stations surveyed to date, mly 5.5% were found Lo be in excellent condition.<br />
Good reefs constituted a larger fracLion of 24%, but the nnjority still fell under the fair and<br />
poor brackets, comprising )8.1% and f2.I% respectively. Thus it may be seen that reef<br />
resources for the country as a whole do not at all present a bright picturer and may be<br />
considered as relatively stressed or disturbed.<br />
Sinqapore<br />
No other publications are known of, aside from those compiled by Gomez (1980), that<br />
specifically deal on Lhe assessrrEnl of reefs around Singapore, m either a quantitative or<br />
qualitative basis. Coral reef arees in Singapore are relatively few, and are mostly located<br />
around certain offshore islands (De Silva, I98l). A descriptive account of a fringinq reef at<br />
Tanjong Teritip m the southwest coast is provided by Lee (1956). This reef is located in a<br />
relativily sheltened portlon of the coast, and at the time of writing was found [o be<br />
extensive and fairly undisturbed. This reef has apparently been adversely affected by<br />
developmen[ since that account.<br />
Theiland<br />
Studies m the conditions of reefs in Thailand are<br />
the extent of reefs in certain localities in the Pattaya<br />
and are here presented as follows:<br />
lgland<br />
Ko Lan<br />
Ko Krok<br />
Ko Sak<br />
limited (Sudara, f98f). Estimates of<br />
zone are provided by Ludwig (1975)'<br />
Extent of coral (m2)<br />
260,m0<br />
r]r000<br />
71,000<br />
tn addition, the following islands m the southwest coast in the Andaman Sea have been<br />
identified as having significant neef developnent (Ludwig, 1976): in Ranong Province - Ko Sin<br />
Hai, Ko Lam, Ko Pha Yam, Mu Ko Kam Noi and Mu Ko Kam Yai; in Phuket and Phangnga<br />
Bay - Rawai Beach, Ko Bm, Ko Hi, Ko Lan, Ko Phi Phi, Ko Mai Phair Ko Khair Ko Ba Dat<br />
Ko Ya Wa and Ko Kao Bulo; in Krabi province - Ko Hai and Ko Po; in Trang - Ko Mukr Ko<br />
Kradan and Ko Libmg; and in Satun - Ko Tarutao.<br />
Sudara (1981), working on the east coast of the Gulf of Thailand' provides general<br />
qualitative assessrnents of coral communities he encountered while doing a sllrvey from north<br />
to south. Coral growth in different places was described as ranging from 'rnot very healthy"<br />
to very good depending m degree of exposure, as well as.influence from natural and human<br />
causes oi destruction. Islands in the Andaman Sea off the coas! of the Burma border were<br />
found to harbouc reefs in very good condition (Sudara, I98f). Likewise, nnny offshore islands<br />
south of Phuket appeared to be characterized by very good reefs.
?3<br />
=$<br />
- L94<br />
Table l: Overall features of certain reefs in Sabah (E. Wood, 1979)<br />
b c<br />
=.9 :,-<br />
E€ g<br />
sE g<br />
o<br />
b<br />
:r<br />
o |l)<br />
II<br />
o<br />
= E.9<br />
l.r.<br />
=<br />
oa<br />
t'0)<br />
=';<br />
O+<br />
!dt<br />
!r!,<br />
r-o<br />
lr<br />
?;<br />
@<br />
e9 E<br />
(o<br />
8-<br />
Eh<br />
=u qo-<br />
!+l 6<br />
-ild<br />
=8<br />
;b<br />
oo<br />
()F o()<br />
Eo<br />
oE<br />
1i<br />
E<br />
E.9 .e<br />
\-o<br />
9€ E<br />
(gro o<br />
E5 -<br />
o<br />
98<br />
to<br />
at<br />
A. !,r<br />
t<br />
H5<br />
?fr (E<br />
$5 frsl I I I<br />
(J<br />
++<br />
iE<br />
@|r)<br />
-|(,<br />
I Eq<br />
++<br />
EE<br />
qE<br />
fia<br />
!2<br />
G<<br />
I<br />
l()lo<br />
c) Gl<br />
o<br />
= ,E<br />
.2<br />
l!<br />
L:<br />
9; o'6<br />
=';<br />
o<br />
L<br />
o,<br />
t<br />
gE<br />
I<br />
()l(,<br />
6r $l<br />
?d rl I rl fiEr I I<br />
rl k<br />
o<br />
=Y T rEl I<br />
= 3(9<br />
z<br />
ld<br />
= rl<br />
f<br />
sd<br />
9€zY t I I gE. I I rl<br />
I I I 3s<br />
frEr I I rl<br />
eF<br />
.D<br />
ll,<br />
D<br />
l! Y<br />
c<br />
g c,<br />
C)<br />
x<br />
lrJ<br />
lc<br />
!t<br />
8(9<br />
TE<br />
Ie<br />
rF<br />
lrj<br />
Y
Lcation<br />
LUZ0{<br />
l. Albay<br />
2. Bataan<br />
I. Batangas<br />
4. Cagayan<br />
5. Camarines Norle<br />
6. Csnarinee Sur<br />
7. Cavite<br />
8. Isabela<br />
9. La Union<br />
10. Marinduque<br />
Il. Mindoro Occidental<br />
12. Mindoro Oriental<br />
lf. Palewan<br />
14. Pangasinan<br />
15. Gluezon<br />
16. Zambales<br />
Subtotd<br />
VISAYAS<br />
I. Antique<br />
2. Bohol<br />
f. Cebu<br />
Hilutangan Island<br />
Metan Island<br />
Olango Island<br />
Sumilon leland<br />
4. Iloilo<br />
5. Leyte<br />
6. Negros Occidental<br />
Refugio lsland<br />
7. Negros Oriental<br />
Apo lsland<br />
8. Siquijor<br />
Srbtotal<br />
MINDANAO<br />
l. Misamis Occidental<br />
2. Misamis Oriental<br />
J. Zamboanga del Norte<br />
Aliquay leland<br />
Selinog Island<br />
Snbtotel<br />
TOTAL<br />
- t95<br />
Teble 2 : Statu8 of Philippine coral reefs - 1982<br />
Living Cord Cover<br />
No. of Excellent Gmd Fair Poor<br />
Stations (75-100%) (fr-74.9%) Q5-49.9%) (0-24.9%)<br />
No. % No. % No. % No. %<br />
900<br />
1000<br />
2500<br />
400<br />
ll 00<br />
200<br />
900<br />
to0<br />
500<br />
500<br />
lr r t.2<br />
rl I 9.1<br />
49 6 L2.2<br />
1700<br />
400<br />
L200<br />
229 8<br />
'.'<br />
2 L6.7<br />
00<br />
6 9.4<br />
00<br />
I 6.7<br />
u0<br />
00<br />
T2<br />
22<br />
64<br />
4<br />
I5 7<br />
4<br />
54<br />
T2<br />
l8 4<br />
98<br />
5<br />
lt<br />
5@<br />
9<br />
I<br />
l8 I7<br />
4t<br />
612<br />
9 r4.r<br />
00<br />
r ,.6<br />
00<br />
5 5.1<br />
00<br />
00<br />
24 6.6<br />
I ll.t<br />
00<br />
6 24.O<br />
2 50.4<br />
L 7.7<br />
00<br />
00<br />
2 66.7<br />
t 20.0<br />
00<br />
I 25.8<br />
2 LS.?<br />
L7 t4.7<br />
I ?L,6<br />
2 50.O<br />
2 L6.7<br />
52 2L7<br />
l0 8l.l<br />
8<br />
t4 . 21.9 '6.4<br />
1 25.0<br />
t ?o.o<br />
I l4.l<br />
t 75.0<br />
18 28.r<br />
00<br />
2 tr.l<br />
I 25.0<br />
20 29.4<br />
5 100.0<br />
9 29.O<br />
95 27.1<br />
0000<br />
0000<br />
r 5.6 t L6.7<br />
2 25.O t7.5<br />
0000 '<br />
, 7.0 6 14.0<br />
t5 t., Lr, 24.0<br />
5 55.6<br />
00<br />
tl 44.0<br />
2 50.O<br />
7 5t.8<br />
2 100.0<br />
6 66.7<br />
L tt.,<br />
2 40.0<br />
4 80.0<br />
L5 48.4<br />
4 16.4<br />
20 40.8<br />
t4 t7.8<br />
2 50.0<br />
, 25.O<br />
98 42.8<br />
000<br />
I 16.4 6<br />
27 42.2 L7<br />
00t<br />
, 20.o I<br />
4 57.r 2<br />
001<br />
27 42.2 l0<br />
6 50.0 6<br />
5 27.8 l0<br />
I 25.0 2<br />
4t 41.8 ,2<br />
000<br />
9 29.O tJ<br />
Itr t .4 110<br />
4 tA.4 5<br />
001<br />
6 tt.t I<br />
2 25.O I<br />
I t4.t 6<br />
lt ,o.2 2I<br />
,8.t<br />
t tt.t<br />
l0 100.0<br />
I 12.0<br />
00<br />
5 t8.5<br />
00<br />
t tt.,<br />
00<br />
2 40.O<br />
t 20.0<br />
7 22.6<br />
4 16.4<br />
6 L2.2<br />
15 40.5<br />
00<br />
7 58.5<br />
7l ,r.0<br />
0<br />
27,?<br />
26.6<br />
75.O<br />
5t.t<br />
28.6<br />
25.O<br />
r5.5<br />
50.0<br />
55.6<br />
50.0<br />
,2.6<br />
0<br />
41.9<br />
](t8<br />
55.6<br />
r00.0<br />
u.4<br />
12.5<br />
85.7<br />
48.8<br />
Corel reefs along the northwestern eoasl of Phuket lsland were $Irveyed by Chansang<br />
et al. (198I). These were generally situated in arees eheltered from direct wave action. Coral<br />
6[er in the different reef areas ranged from f% to 86%, depending m zonation end effect<br />
of prevailing environnnntal regimes. In general, percentage cover of the substratum was less<br />
thsn thet oi the other categories in all reefs except at Surin Beach which was relatively<br />
rmre exposed. The best developed reef was found at Patong Bay.<br />
tz.l
- 196<br />
DEGRADATION<br />
The f ollowing discussion represents additional documentation of pnoblems already<br />
identified and described by Gunez (1980). Following his treatment, natural and human causes<br />
of reef degnadation are described separately. As has been emphasized, effects of each<br />
individual fictor are difficult to identify except in isolaled cases' and frequently overlap.<br />
Natural causes of destruction<br />
Reefs growing naturally ane not spared various [ypes of perturbation. However, gradual<br />
evolution anJ adaptation through geologic time have allowed a dynarnic balance bo develop<br />
between reef growth and mainbenance and the mulLiLude of destcuctive processes.<br />
Occurrences of the latter in the East Asian Seas region are discussed unden three major<br />
headings.<br />
Water movement<br />
In this category fall the mechanical forces generated by waves, currents and tides. In<br />
addition, tidal range is known to be a limiting factor to reef growlh. Anomalously low tides,<br />
bringing about exposure of corals to lhe destructive effects of insolation or freshwater<br />
run-ott, have been docunrented in the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia (De 5ilva et a]-'<br />
1980), and the Laem Pan Gah Peninsula in Phuket, Thailand (Brown and Holley' 1981)-<br />
Damage to corals by the reduced salinity and sediment load associated with freshwater<br />
run-off has been reported for the east coast of [he inner Gutf of Thailand (Sudara, 1981)' and<br />
the Laem Pan Gah Peninsula (Brown and Holley,' I98L).<br />
Geological dYnamics<br />
This type of dislurbance involves rnainly tectonic movements, volcanie activity,<br />
landslides and coastal sedimentation paLtetns. An exampte of the latter is ihe growth of the<br />
Tjisadane river <a in Jakarta Bay which bhreatens to bury nearby reefs (Verstappen' l95t).<br />
t-ne pat
- r97<br />
the variations in fish abundance and diversity correlated with alLerations in substrate<br />
structure m determined by Carpenter et al. (f981) for certain Philippine reefs.<br />
The relationship of increased reef degradation to rising human population levels has<br />
been noted (Gomez, 1980; McManus and Wenno, 1981; Wijsman-Elest et aL, I98f). Destruction<br />
of corel reefs is most evident near populated and industriat areas. B-eca-use of pnecisely these<br />
trends associated with modernization and population growth, many problems thet do not as<br />
yet exist in severe proportions are an[icipated in the near future, such as the various forms<br />
of pollution.<br />
Siltation<br />
Siltetion constitutes me of lhe most important problems in the East Asian Seas region.<br />
As indicated in Gomez (1980), major causes of siltation are large-scale deforestation, bad<br />
agnicu ltural practices, and mangrove denudation. Additional causes which may attain<br />
significant proportions in localized areas are terrestrial mining, dredging, offshore mining, oil<br />
drilling, road construction, land clearance for domestic or industrial purposes, construction of<br />
coastal struetures, and harbour dredging.<br />
In Indonesia' particularly heavy destruction by siltation is known to occur in the<br />
northern coast of Java due in part to intensive agrieulture, and off Padang in western<br />
Sumatra, and Padangbai in eastern Bali from the construction of piers (Soegiarto and Polunin,<br />
1981). Damage from siltation in Kalimantan and Sumatra is believed lo be a relatively recent<br />
phenomenon (Soegiarto' I975). Examples of resulting destructive effects are shoreline<br />
changes, modifications or burial of reefs, and alterations in patterns of sedimenL deposition,<br />
erosion and distribution (Segiarto and Polunin, l98I).<br />
Erosion caused by the dredging of reef corals is documented for Sanur and Kuta, and<br />
Balikpapan (Tsuchiya et el.r 1976 and Samuel, 1979, in Ongkosongo, 1981). Sedimentation in<br />
Southwest Sulawesi is believed to have been aggravated by mangrove denudation, and appears<br />
Lo limit coral growth (Wijsman-Best et 4., 1981). In Ambon, deforestation may be associated<br />
with hiqh nates of siltation (McManus and Wenno, f981).<br />
At present, active offshore mining for tin, titanium and sand occurs in Indonesia<br />
(Cruickshank, I98I). Offshore tin mining has been a major industny in Indonesia and Thailand<br />
for many years, with as many as sixteen major dredges qerating in the coasLal islands.<br />
Depths worked are generally less than 15 m, with Lotal digging depths of less than J0 m.<br />
Recent siltation problems in Malaysia are attributed to dredging of channels f or<br />
navigation near harbours and poris, and sand mining associated with the dredging qerations<br />
(Chua and Pathansali, 1977). Also noted is indiscriminete deforestation (Rashid, 1980).<br />
Dredging resociated with offshore mining is active in the case of iron and bauxite<br />
(Cruickehank, 1981). Offshore tin is a resource to be exploited.<br />
Siltation from various causes is associated with the complete loss of several reefs in<br />
the Straits of Malacca, especially around Pulau Pangkor and Pulau Sembilan (Lulofs, 1977 in<br />
De Silva, 1979). Other damaged areas include reefs of some offshore islands of the east coast<br />
of Peninsular Malaysia' especially around bays near sites of agricultural developnrent (De<br />
Silva' 1978 in De Silva' 1979). Destruction from similar causes has also mcuned in Teluk<br />
Juara m the east coast of Pulau Tioman, and in the southenn coast of Pulau Mensirip, both<br />
m the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia (De Silva et $., f980).<br />
Coral reefs in the Straits of Malacea are generally poorly developed beceuse of high<br />
turbidity and sedimentation due to increasing land clearance (Liew and Hoare, f979). Reef<br />
development is ryparently also confined [o relat,ively shallow depths because of reduced light<br />
intensity end srnothering by sediment. In e fringing reef at Cpe Rachado, significantly lower<br />
values of living coverage and diveraity were attributed to sedimentation effects (Goh and<br />
Sasekumar, I981).<br />
In the Philippines' siltation from the different causes enunerated above is a widespread<br />
and chronic problem (Gomez et {., f98l). ln eddition to being a problem by itself,<br />
preliminary observations indicete that its presence in relatively large amounts may constitute<br />
an added burden [o corals already stressed for another factor such as temperature (Y+ and<br />
Gomez' 1981). This fact may eause the organism to exceed its threshold limits for zurvival.
- r98<br />
Additional docunentetion'of siltation effects in the Philippines exists for North Bais<br />
Bay and Pagatban River Eetuary in Negros Oriental (Alcala, L977). Ttre poor to fair condition<br />
of the reefs, ae compared to the relatively undisturbed reef at Sumilon Island, comeleted<br />
with the amount of sediment as indicated by Secchi Disc rcadings. Damage ettributabb to<br />
siltation is also recorded for e reef in Albay (in the vicinity of a river rnouth discharging<br />
effluents from geothermal activities), for reefs in the vicinity of Padre Burgos, Gluezcn, and<br />
for areas around Bantayan Island, Cebu (Merine Sciences Center, f982). Dredging associated<br />
with offshore mining does not exist at preseni, but remains a potential problem in view of<br />
offshore neserves to be tapped such as gold, iron, chromite, silica sand, precious coral and<br />
coral sand (Cruickshank, l98l).<br />
Siltation in Singapore is considered a problem, together with various construction<br />
activities along the coast (De Silva, 1981). Land reclamation is a priority in this small nation,<br />
with the result that some fringing reefs have been lost. Offshore mining doee not exist as<br />
yet, but is a potential activity with respect to sand (Cruiekshank, 1981).<br />
One of the more important causes of siltation in Thailand is onshore and offshore<br />
dredging for tin, although potential offshore dredging may be in the offing for rock salt,<br />
coal, fluorite, and limestone for cement (Cruickshenk, 1981). Small dredges operated in Thai<br />
weters by tin poachers number as rn€lny as 1000 at a time, Damage from siltation caused by<br />
lin dredging has been docunented for the northwestern coast of Phuket by Chaneang et 4.<br />
(f981). Tin mines m land have been operating for about 70 years. Tfese dunp thein tailings<br />
directly into the sea, or into canals leading into the sea. Tin dredging in the bay has been in<br />
progress fog about six years. Three dredges operating for four months each year bring up to<br />
2001000 yd' of material per rmnth. Armng other things, this has been observed to bring about<br />
a low transparency and discoloration of the water. Heavy damage has already occurred in<br />
Bang Tao Bay. In this bay, sedimentation has been so heavy in the northern portion that it<br />
built up a sand bar now connecting the island of Kala to Phuket (Sudara, L977). Other areas<br />
that are hard hit are Ko Lm, Ko Hi and Ko Bon (Ludwig, 1976).<br />
Brown and Holley (1981), working in the reef flats of the Leem Pan Gah peninsula in<br />
Phuket, detected considerably elevated levels of heavy netals in various invertebrate species<br />
from the reef below the tin smelter. Dead coral cover, however, was not significantly<br />
different from that of a reef situated several kilometres away.<br />
Sudara (198f) observed reef damage from siltation in several locelities along the east<br />
coast of the Gulf of Thailand,<br />
F irherieg-releted destruction<br />
Destruetive fishing is believed to be responsible for major reef degradation on a local<br />
scale in many areas (Gomez, 1980). Foremost among its agents is the use of explosives zuch<br />
as carbide bornbs and dynamite. The wastefulness of zuch a practiee is well known. Additional<br />
destructive fishing nrethods are the muro-ami and kayakas fishing techniques. Other harmful<br />
practices msociated with fishing are enumerated in Gomez (1980). Additional discussions of<br />
the relevanl mes in each counlry are presented here.<br />
In Indonesia, the use of explosives in fishing is known to be a problem in the Seribu<br />
Islands, around Komodo in Nusa Tenggara, near Ambon (Soegiarto and Polunin, l98l), in the<br />
proposed Bali Barat reserve (Polunin et f., I98r), and in the Spermonde Archipelago<br />
(Wijsman-Best et 4.,<br />
1981.). In eastern Indonesia, blast fishinq is believed to have caused the<br />
destruction of l0% and 80% of the islands of Pornbo and Papagaran, respectively<br />
(Kvalvagnaes and Halim, I979a and b, in Ongkosonqo, l98l). Coneern for the effects of Lhe<br />
use of explosives has existed in the country since the 1920's (Segiarto and Polunin, 1981).<br />
The use of cyanide' another harmful fishing praetice, occur€ at least in eastern Java,<br />
and off Ujung Pandang (Segiarto and Polunin, 1981.). Indonesian reefs, in general, also zuffer<br />
from the traditional heavy exploitation of food fishes. In Ambon, fishermen inflict damage on<br />
corals when they break these to shake out srnall fish, use them to disguise fish traps, drag<br />
the traps or weighted nets across the neef zurface, and use hook-like anchors which break<br />
corals (McManus and Wenno, 1981). The famous reefs in the Islands of Banda have been<br />
partly damaged by fishermen dragging their fish traps over the coral heads (Segiarto, 1975).
- r99<br />
A growing eause f or concern is the aquarium fish trade (Robinson et el., f 98I).<br />
Although this fishery is still relatively small as compared to the total take of food fishes in<br />
Indonesia, conflicts anise when it comes to the mainlenance of nalural populations, such as in<br />
reserve arees. In addition, high mortality, and thus wastage, is known to occur during capture<br />
and transfer to middle-men. Of particular concern is the use of non-specific toxic chemicals<br />
which also cause the unnecessary local montality of surrounding reef organisms. Sometimes,<br />
even the living coral substrate is destroyed in the search for specimens. In the proposed Bali<br />
reserve, gecies apparently depleted due to aquarium fish collecting are the anemone fish,<br />
the butterfly fish, and the angel fish (Polunin et e!., 1981). Depletion of certain species has<br />
also occurred in the Seribu Islands and around eastern Java (Smgiarto and Polunin, f981).<br />
The main problem plaguing Malaysian reefs where fishing pcactices are concerned is the<br />
use of explosives. Although illegal, this is still practised widely (Langham and Mathias, 1977).<br />
In some areas, the practice is usually attributed to foreign fishermen, although sorne locals<br />
may be involved (De Silva, L979). Heavy damage inflicted ofl reefs by blast fishing is reported<br />
to occur in many reef areas in Peninsular Malaysia, on the east coast and on the northern<br />
part of the wes! coast (De Silva, 1979). Investigations m the eas[ coast of Peninsular<br />
Malaysia revealed Lhe recent widespread use of explosives, particularly in the uninhabited<br />
localities of Pulau Tioman and Pulau Tulai (De Silva et 4., l9B0). In norLhwest Sabah, areas<br />
known to be stressed are those around Kota Kinabalu, Kudat and Labuan (Langham and<br />
Mathias, L977).<br />
In the Philippines, the use of explosives in fishing is likewise widespread, lhough illegal<br />
(Gomez et {.r l98l). This practice was a major factor accounting for the condition of dead<br />
reefs observed in Bataan (Gomez, L977). Effecls of dynamite were also noted in the reef<br />
around MacLan Island, Cebu, in addition to damage by muro-ami and kayakas fishing, and<br />
anchoring by fishing boats (Sy et e!.r 1981). Additional evidence of blast fishing has been<br />
observed in Jonoan, Albay, and in the vicinity of Bantayan Island, Cebu (Marine Sciences<br />
Center, f982).<br />
ln a contribution to the general effort to curlail this harmful practice, Ronquillo (1950,<br />
1961) presents descriptions of the anatomy of fish affected by dynarnile to facilitate ready<br />
identification and, hopefully, apprehension of possible culprits. A study by Porter et al.<br />
(L977) in the outer barrier reef at Bohol, Philippines, suggests that dynamite fishing not-only<br />
destroys resident reef fish populations and the reef zurface, but also reduces demersal<br />
plankton production. The food $pply available for the regeneration of reef benthos and<br />
fishes is thus also diminished. Alcala and Gsnez (1979), investigating reef recovery after<br />
blast fishing in the central Visayas, postulated a recovery time to 5096 areal cover (l'ere<br />
considered to be indieative of good reef conditions) of approximately )B years.<br />
F inallyr the aquarium f ish industry, known to cause considerable damage to reef<br />
populstions if mismanaged, is assuming larger proportions in the Philippines. lt is currently a<br />
multi-million peso industry, with over 200 species of reef fish exporLed to other countries<br />
(Albaladejo and Corpuz, 1981).<br />
Problems in Thailand involve the use of dynamite, electric shocks, and poisons to catch<br />
fish (Mmkolprasitr f98f). The use of dynamite has caused extepsive damage at Ko Lan Island<br />
in the Pattaya region - approximately 20% of the 260rm0 m' of reef area (Ludwig, L976).<br />
Sane damage in Patong Bay on Lhe western side of Phuket is probably due to blasting<br />
(Sudara' L977). Sudara (I98f) found evidences of illegal dynamite fishing along the east and<br />
west coasts of the Gutf of Thailand, and on the coast of the Andaman Sea. Destruction from<br />
bottom trawling was also observed in these localities. As far as exploitation of aquarium<br />
fishes is concerned, about 45 species are known to be exported from the country (Lubbock<br />
and Polunin, L975).<br />
Building materiale<br />
Ttuoughout the ASEAN nations, corals are being harvested for a variety of construction<br />
purposes' for the production of lime and, fiKrre recently, the making of decorative tiles<br />
(Gornez, f980). Additional eccounts ere presented here of lhe probbm as it ccurs in<br />
Indmesia and Malaysia.<br />
In Indonesia, the extraction of coral and sand for the construction of roads, buildings,<br />
jetties and fiehing weirs has caused tcavy reef destruction, in ryite of attenpis to ban it in<br />
certein areas (Sagiartor 1975; Segiarto and Polunin, l98I). Estimates are available of as
- 200<br />
much a:i L2-25,OAO mf having been taken annually (Hardenberg , Lgtg in Sagiarto and Polunin,<br />
f98l). Problems of reef perturbation from coral mining activities are known for Jakarta Bay,<br />
southern Bali in the Sula islands, eastern Java, around Ujung Pandang in south Sulawesi<br />
(Segiarto and Polunin, l98l), Ambon (McManus and Wenno, I9Bl), the Spermonde Archipelago<br />
(Wijsrnan-Best et al., l98l), the Seribu coral island area, the Komodo Islands, and the<br />
proposed nature reserves at Psnbo and Papagaran Islands in eastern lndonesia (Ongkosongo,<br />
I98f). Coral mining is believed to have caused a decrease of the coral islands Ubi Besan and<br />
Nirwana to about me-half their original size (Ongkosongo, l98l).<br />
Tte mining of reefs for Iimestone is probably the single most important form of human<br />
interference in the proposed Bali Barat resenve (Polunin et el., f98l). One of the mone<br />
badly-hit areas in Eali is Sanur Beach, which is now reputed to be dirty and eroded (Anon.,<br />
f980). Large-scale coral extraction is also believed to be significantly lowering rnean reef<br />
height, resulting in changes in wave energetics and beach form, and a decreased amount of<br />
sediment available for beach formation (Robinson et eI., I98f). At Nusa Dua and Jembrana,<br />
bot,h tourist areas, there are I)!, limestone kilns (Anon., 1980). lt is estimated Lhat the 7.5<br />
kilometres of coast loses 4000 m- of coral reef every nronth to this acti vity. Although mining<br />
for limestone is zupposedly banned, enforeement is lax because ordinances have been<br />
delegated to the provincial government for thelr action; local authorities for lhe most part<br />
are unenthusiastic about eliminating a labour-intensive industry because of possible social and<br />
economic repercussions (Robinson et e!., 1981).<br />
Coral collection for construction purposes in Malaysia takes place near most coastal<br />
towns (Chua and Pathansali, 1981). Harvesting is carnied out either by fishermen at low tide,<br />
or by large, crane-rigqed barges. The operation frequently involves huge heads being dragged<br />
across the reef, inflicting considerable damage. In zuch an activity, the economic loss has<br />
been estimated to exceed all other benefits. Mining of sand is undertaken for reclamation and<br />
building purposes.<br />
In Sabah, the construction of a port at Tawau involved the extraction of coral blocks<br />
from reefs off Pulau Bum Bum (E. Wood, f981). Elsewheren coral mining is carried out for<br />
road building and land reclamation, especially in the Labuan and Kota Kinab4lu areas<br />
(Langham and Mathias, 1977). It is eStimated that in recent times, about 20,00O yd' of coral<br />
have been removed per year. On an area basis, 100 coral heads mined per day is the<br />
equivalent af 43.7 ha of reef destroyed per year, or approximately 5.8 km of reef front pen<br />
year, given an average width of 200 ft for the reef slope.<br />
Tourism<br />
The development of tourism has definitely resulted in reef perturbation in a numbee of<br />
localities. For exarnple, siltation and pollution can and have resulted from the construction<br />
and maintenance of tourism facilities. Tounist activities which directly result in darnage to<br />
the reef include spearf ishing, diving, eollection of the reef biota, and anchoring of boats on<br />
corals. A general review of the effects of iourism on lhe coastal environment is given by<br />
Gornez (l98la).<br />
Tourism is reported as a threat to coral reef s in the Spermor.rde Archipelago in<br />
Indorresia (Wijsman-Best et e!.r f98f). In Malaysia, plans to develop tourism are at present<br />
heavily concentrated on the easL coast, with the Malaysia Tourist Development Corp.<br />
intending to develop offshore islands as well (Anon., L979). Careful, long-term management is<br />
certainly called for if reefs in the area are to be pneserved. In a number of popular areas<br />
lhroughout the country, spearfishing by sportdivers is believed to be responsible for the<br />
decimation of certain species (Rashid, 1980).<br />
Heavy tourism pnessure currently threatens reefs at Larn Island in the Gulf of Thailand<br />
(Srithunya et a!., l98I). At PaLong in the northweslern coast of Phuket, extensive dead coral<br />
cover in Acnopora-dorninated areas is presumed to be caused by boat anchoring {Chartsanq et<br />
4., l98I). Collection of neef organisms by tourists likewise poses a lhreat (Ludwig, 1976).<br />
Collecting of reef invertebrates<br />
Tl-re illeqal expon! lnade in decorative corals conlinues to be a rnajor problem tn the<br />
Philippines, generating concern among various sectors. There is no neason to assume that this<br />
problem would not be felt by the other ASEAN nations, particulanly those harbouring<br />
extensive coral reefs, in view of the growing worldwide demand for this commodity. Aspects
- 20I<br />
of the coral lrade in the broader Pacific negion, as well as management possibilities, are<br />
discussed in another paper (Gomez, l98Jb).<br />
Aside frorn the collection of the corals themselves, additional problems involve other<br />
reef invertebrates which are sometimes harvested to lhe point of depletion. Such is the case<br />
for shells, echinoderrnsr crustaceans and olher groups in neefs of Lhe Spermonde Archipelago<br />
(Wijsman-Best et 91.' l98I). The collection of shells and corals for comrnercial purposls<br />
constitutes a major problem in East Malaysia (De Silva, tgBI). Reefs at Larn Island in the<br />
Gulf of Thailand are dislurbed partly by the collection of the reef bioLa for souvenir<br />
purposes (Srithunya et e!., I98I).<br />
Other Pollutants<br />
The different forms of pollution are associated mainly with the drive of all countries in<br />
the East Asian Seas region fon econornic development and modernization, and associated<br />
activities such as Lhe guest for oil. Examples will be presented for each country.<br />
In lndonesia, pollution is likely to be signif icant in relatively sheltered areas where<br />
chronic conditions can develop, such as lhe Bay of Jakarta and lhe Bay of Ambon (Segiarto<br />
and Polunin, l9Bf). Such pollution rnay stem from various causes. tn localit.ies where<br />
urbanization is taking place, nearby reef s may be sub jected to the inf lux of industrial<br />
effluents. The intensification of agricultural prograrnmes has resulted in an increase in the<br />
amount of pesticides since 1958 (Seqiarto, 1975). A fraction of this has certainly leaked out<br />
into the coastal environment where traditional ariisanal fisheries contribute 98% of marine<br />
fisheries production.<br />
Oil poses a major potential threat to Indonesian reefs. At pnesent there are reporLs of<br />
oil and gas in commercial quantities in reefs throughou! the country, so that a distinct<br />
possibility exists of drilling on living reefs on a large scale (Seqiarto and Polunin, lg$f).<br />
Current problem areas are areas off the northwesLern coast oi Java, off the coast of<br />
Kalimantan, north of Balikpapan, and many coral isrands of seribu (ongkosongo, lggl;<br />
Soegiarto, l97r). Concurrent with the increase in oil production is the mushrJoming of<br />
petrochemical industries. A main problem associated with lhese is that of disposal of waste<br />
materials, so that containers frequently pile up along the coastline (Soegiarto, L975).<br />
Other pollutants consist of dornestic refuse. Ambon Bay, for example, is liLtered with<br />
organic wastesr plastic containers, rags, cans, bottles and soap (McManus and Wenno, fg8f).<br />
The proposed Bali Barat reserve is mamed by domestic and industrial rubbish, particularly<br />
plastic bags (Polunin et al., l98l).<br />
Like Indmesia, some reefs in Malaysia are threatened with oil pollution. Petroleum<br />
exploration is at present concentrated off the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, precisely<br />
where some of the best reefs are found (Rashid, 1980). ln the Semporna islands, tar balli<br />
were spotted in several beaches, a presunred source being the soft ter used to coat oyster'<br />
rafts in a nearby pearl farm (E. Wood, IgSl). Finally, industrial effluents are a growing<br />
problem Lhroughout the country (Rashid, 1980).<br />
ln a sLudy believed to be the first of its kind, Hudson et aL (1982) determined the<br />
effecLs of commercial drilling in an m-siLe invesligation of aJeet situated off northwest<br />
Palawan, Philippines. Drilling mud was not relaied to any suppression of massive eoral<br />
growthr allhough this may have been due to its effective dispersal by the strong currents<br />
characterizing the area. The cuttings, however, were presuned !o have caused a 70-90%<br />
reduction in the amount of f oliose, branching and plate-like corals, probably by direct<br />
srnothering.<br />
In Singapore, much of the inshore coral at Labrador beach is believed to have been<br />
killed off by increased discharges of oil (Sharma, f96I).<br />
Evidences of domestic effluent were observed by Sudara (1981) near the tip of<br />
Sataheep' in the east eoast of the Gulf of Thailand. At Larn Island, various pollutants are a<br />
cause of growing concern (Srilhunya et e!.r f98I).<br />
An activity assuming significant dimensions in the South-East Asian region as a whole<br />
is shipping (Valencia' I981a). Although its impacts are not as yet felt m a laige scale, lhey<br />
will certainly pose s very real problem in the future, and as sJch deserve carlful attention
and planning. To be<br />
cargoes such as oil,<br />
eventually, hydrogen.<br />
- 202<br />
looked-out for, for instance,<br />
liquef ied natural gas (LNG);<br />
ESTABUSHMENT tr MARIITC RESERVES<br />
are possible spills of the npre eritical<br />
urenium ore, ruclear spent fuel andt<br />
TfE increasing extent and severity of reef degradation throughout the world hae<br />
stimuhted some concern for their management and preservation. One of the more impor[ant<br />
concrete steps taken is the move to establish marine reserves in critical reef areas. Such a<br />
move hes gained a foothold in ihe East Asian Seas region, although more vigorous and<br />
concerted effort is undoubtedly called for. Some of the steps taken toward this end in each<br />
country are described in this paper. A review of the major concepts, rccent trendsr and<br />
important issues pertaining to the marine reserve movernent on the world scene, with<br />
particular focus on the Philippines, rnay be found in Gomez and Yap (1982).<br />
In Indonesia, nature conservation began to receive higher priorities in central<br />
governrnent planning in the 1970s, a manifeetation of which was the gnowing commitment to<br />
the establishment of marine parks and reserves (Robinson et $r I98f). Other encouraging<br />
signs were the 1977 accession !o the Convention on International Trade in Endangered<br />
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), and the crea[ion of t]re Ministry of Development<br />
Supervision and Environment. Recent years have also seen the formation of the Nationel<br />
Commission m Marine Parks System (Segiarto, 1981), with the responsibility to develop a<br />
master plan for marine parks as an integral part of the country's Nature Conservetion<br />
Programme. More than 40 polential sites are unden study. Assistance is provided by outside<br />
sources s:ch as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), the Food and Agricultural Organization of<br />
the United Nations (FAO), Unesco, and UNDP. Governnent plans include increasing the area<br />
coverage of nature r:eserves from I to l0 million hectares within the nexl decade or so,<br />
There are reported at present five existing eorel reef reserves in Indonesia, and two projects<br />
(Salvat, f982). Proposed areas for declaration as marine reserves include reefs in the Bay of<br />
Jakarta (Unar, L979), the Spermonde Archipelago (Wijsman-Best et e!., 1981), and the marine<br />
area around Bali Barat (Polunin et a!.r f98]).<br />
In Malaysia, there are at present at least lhree existing coral reef reserves, and two<br />
projeets (Salvat, f982). Proposed corel reef reserve areas include Pulau Redang Archipelago<br />
on the east coast, and Pulau Redak and the 4-island group off Kuala Kedah on the west<br />
coast (Lulofs, 1977, 1979; De Silva and Rahman, I982)i and the Pulau Tega group and Pulau<br />
Balumbangan in Sabah (Langham and Mathias, I977). Extensive baseline surveys also in Sabah<br />
waters have been conducted by E. Wood (1979, l98I), as a prelude to lhe possible<br />
establishment of additional marine reserves. These include areas off the norbheast coegt of<br />
Sabah and around Kudat, and, more recently, islands off the Semporna peninsula snd the<br />
oceanic island of Pulau Sipadan.<br />
Trends in the Philippines are detailed in Gcnez and Yap (1982), and are brief ly<br />
surnmarized here. Moves towards the protection and conservation of the marine ecosystem<br />
may be considered to have started in L952, with the establishment of the NaLional Park<br />
System by virtue of Act No.l9l5 (Palaganas and Bina, f98l). To date there are some sixteen<br />
designated marine conservation areas (White, I98I). The only active marine reserve at<br />
present, tnwever, is [he one at Sumilon Island in the central Visayas administered by Silliman<br />
University. Proposed reserve areas include reefs at Ssnbrero Island, and Apo off the coast of<br />
Mindoro Occidental. A partieularly innovative strategy is the involvement of local<br />
eommunities in conservation through the eslablishment of what are Lermed 'rmunicipal coral<br />
reef parksrr(Castaneda and Miclat, I98f). Pilot sites exist at Guindulman, Bohol, and Sagay'<br />
Negros Occidental. Experience has shown that the implenentation of reef conservation<br />
programmes is more ef f ective where local communities are made to understand their<br />
significance (White, I98I), thus emphasizing the need for continuing education programmes<br />
(Cabanban and White, f98I). In the area of legislation, the reef conservation effort may be<br />
helped by the recent drafting of an Executive Order establishing a Marine Parks Management<br />
System, with emphasis m endangered marine species and their respective habitats.<br />
There sppear to be at present neither existing nor proposed coral reef reserves in<br />
Singapore (Salvat, f982).
- 20t<br />
In Thailand, there is one reported existing coral reef reserve (Salvat, 1982). Efforls<br />
exist to conserve centain areas in the Gulf of Thailand, amonq them reefs around the islands<br />
off Pataya and Rayong, and the Ang Tonq group of islands (Sudara, IgBl). ln addition,<br />
recommendations have been made for the classificalion of areas for preservation, tourism,<br />
and fisheries development, as well as the launching of informal edueation campaigns.<br />
SUMMARY<br />
Efforts to quantiLatively assess the conditions of coral reefs m a relatively Iarge scale<br />
date back only to the last decade on so in most of the ASEAN countries. Tl-rese efforts,<br />
however, have picked up considerably in recent years, especially with the active<br />
inconporation by national governments of resource conservation and management goals in<br />
official policies. A cornprehensive picture of the status of South-East Asian reefs shbuld be<br />
emenging within the foreseeable fulure with the inception of the coral project of the EasL<br />
Asian Seas Regional Programme of UNEP.<br />
Natunal causes of reef destruction eonLinue to figure significanlly in the reqion. These<br />
include water movement, geological dynarnics and biological interactions. Recent<br />
documentation exists of damage to corals caused by predation by lhe starfish Acanthaster<br />
planci and the gastropod Drupella rugosa. other feports of destruction involvG!6iffi<br />
during low tides' freshwater run-off and burial by river-borne sediments.<br />
As gleaned from the literature, siltation and destructive fishing still constitute the<br />
most important man-caused factors of neef degradation in the East Asian Seas. The more<br />
significant activities bringing about siltation are widespread deforestaLion, bad agricultural<br />
practices and mangrove denudation. Dredging along the coast for various purposeJ including<br />
offshore mining is, however, also assuming greater importance.<br />
Destructive fishing remains associated primarily with the use of various types of<br />
explosives, in spite of their ban in most places. The aquarium fish industry, for the most part<br />
overlooked, is a growing cause for concern, especially when rnismanaged.<br />
The mining of coral reefs for building materials has resulted in severe damage in a<br />
number of localities. Of a lesser rnagnitude but nevertheless deserving of attention is reef<br />
perlurbation brought about by tourism and collection of the biota.<br />
Various forms of pollution are associated with a growing human popu lation and<br />
accelerated industrialization. Although their effects are concentrated at present in a few<br />
ateasr these are bound to spread in the near future. Of particular relevance in the region is<br />
ihe problem of oil pollution, with many living reefs being tapped for oil explora[ion. Stitt<br />
other problems are associated with Lhe inevitable growth of shipping activities.<br />
As a manifestation of lhe growing concern over the increasing extent and severity of<br />
man-caused reef destruction, moves have been made in recent times to establish marine<br />
reserves in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand. Though small in rumber et<br />
presentr these reserves will hopefully be incorporated into a larger network within a realistic<br />
scheme ensuring the viability of not mly the reefs but the marine ecosyetem as a whole.<br />
Concerned individuals in each country are currently working toward this end.
-m4<br />
R,EFERENCES<br />
Albaladejo, V.D. end V.T. Corpuz. f981. A rngrket study of the aquarium fish industry of the<br />
Philippines: en aasesanpnt of the gnowth and the rnechanics of the trade. Pmc. Ath Int.<br />
Corel Reef Symp. l: 75-8I.<br />
Alcala, A.C. 1977. Effects of siltation on corel reefs of Negros Island, Philippines. Pryer<br />
presented at the Asian Water Pollution Conferenee, Silliman University, Dumaguete City,<br />
PNlippines, II-I5 April 1977.<br />
Alcala, A.C. and E.D. Gqnez. 1979. Recotonization and growth of hermatypic corals in<br />
dynamite-bbsted coral reefs in the central Vbayas, Philippines. Proc. Int. Symp. Mar.<br />
Biogeogr. Evol. 5. Hem, 2: &5-661,<br />
Alino, P.M., l"t Rcs, V. Rcaroso, end C. Orosco. 1981. A report m the subtidal marine<br />
environnent around the Philippine Mining Services Corporation pier at Alcoy, Cebu.<br />
Philipp. Scient. l8: I29-I]8.<br />
Anonymous" 1979. Malaysia adding 1000 east coast hotel rooms. Pac. Trav. News 2l: 52.<br />
Anonymous. 1980. The coast of Bali in danger. Conserv. lndon. 4(5)E 8.<br />
Bmwn, B.E. and M.C. Holley. 1981. The influence of tin smelting and tin dredging m the<br />
intertidal reef flats of Phuket, Thailand. Proc. 4th Int. Coral Reef Symp. l: 214 [Abstract]<br />
Cabanban, A.S. and A.T. White. 1981. Marine conservation program using non-formal<br />
education at Apo Island, Negros Oriental, Phitippines. Proc. 4th Int. Coral Reef Symp. 1:<br />
tL7-tzr.<br />
Carpenter, K.E., R.I. Miclat, V.D. Albaladejo and .V.T. Corpuz. 1981. The influence of<br />
substrate structure m the local abundance and diversily of Philippine reef fishes. Proc. 4th<br />
Int. Coral Reef Symp. 2z 497 -5O2.<br />
Castaneda, P.G. and R.I. Miclat. 1981. The municipal coral reef park in the Philippines. Proc.<br />
4th lnt. Coral Reef Symp. l: 28t-285.<br />
Chansang, Fl, P. Boonyanate, and N4. Charuchinda. 1981. Effecl of sedimentation from coastal<br />
mining on coral reefs m the northwestern coast of Phuket Island, Thailand. Proc. 4th Int.<br />
Coraf Reef Symp. I: L29-7t6.<br />
Chua, T.E. and D. Pathansali. 1977. Marine science development in Malaysia. In Proc. Is!<br />
Ann. Sem. Role of Mar. Sciences in Nat. Dev., Mal. Sci. Soc., p. l8-)4.<br />
Cruickshank, M.J. 1981. Offshore and onshore mining overview, p.27-5I. In Proc. Workshop<br />
on Coestal Area Development and Management in Asia and the Pacific, Manila, Philippines,<br />
J-12 December 1979. East-West Center, Ho-rolulu.<br />
De Silva, tvtW.R.N. 1979. The threatened coral reefs of Peninsular Malaysia, p.222-229.<br />
Proc. Znd Symp. on Our Envirsnnent, Instit.ute of Natural Sciences, College of Graduate<br />
Studies, Nanyang University, Singapore.<br />
De Silva, M.W.R.N. 1981. Status of coral reefs of Sri Lanka, Singapore and Malaysia. Coral<br />
Reef Newsletter (ltJCN) No. l: t4-r7.<br />
De Silva, i!4.W.R.N., C. Betterton, and R.A. Smith. 1980. Coral reef resources of the east<br />
coast of Peninsular Malaysia, p.95-158. In Chua Thia Eng and J.K. Charles (eds.). Coastal<br />
resources of east coast Peninsular MalaysE Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang.<br />
De Silva, 1'v1W.R.N. and R.A. Rahman. 1982. Coral reef zurvey of Pulau Paya/Segantang group<br />
of islands, Kedah, Malaysia. WWF Project No. MAL 41. World Wildlife Fund Malaysia,<br />
Kuale Lunpur, 84 p. lUrpublished]<br />
Goh, A.H. and A. Sasekumar. 1981. The communily structure of the fringing coral reef, Cpe<br />
Rachado, Malaya. Atoll Res. Bull. 244: l-1I, 8 Figs.
- 205<br />
Gomez, E.D. 1977. Species diversity of the epibenthos of a highly disturbed coral reef in the<br />
Philippines. Mar. Res. Indsresia 20: I-17.<br />
Gomez, E.D. 1980. Status report m research and degradation problems of the coral reefs of<br />
the East Asian Seas. Pper presented at the Meeling of Experts to Review the Draft<br />
Action Plan for the East Asian Seas, Baguio, Philippines, 17-21 June 1980. UNEP/WG.<br />
4I/|NF. 15. South China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme, Manila.<br />
68 p.<br />
Gmrez, E.D. l98la. Direct and indirect impacts of tourism m the coastal environnrntr p.<br />
?O9-2I9. In Marine and Coastel Processes in the Pacific: Eeological Aspects of Coastal<br />
Zme Man6-gement. Unesco/ROSTSEA, Jakarta.<br />
Ganez, E.D. t98lb. Perspectives on coral reef research and manageffEnt in the Pacific.<br />
Ocean Managemenl 8228L-295.<br />
Gornez, E.D., A.C. Alcala and A.C. San Diego. 1981. Status of Philippine coral reefs - 198I.<br />
Proc. 4th Int. Coral Reef. Symp. Lz 275-28?.<br />
Gornez, E.D. and H.T. Y4. 1982. Recent trends and fulure directions of marine park/reserve<br />
development in the Philippines. Papen presenied at the First National Conference on Marine<br />
Parks, Batulao Resort, Nasugbu, Batangas, Philippines, 4-6 October 1982' 28 p.<br />
Gooding, R.U. 1969. Report trt a preliminary survey of the Pulau Pari group of islands, Java<br />
Sea. SEAMEC Biotrop Coral Reef Project, 17 p.<br />
Hudson, J.H., E.A. Shinn, and D.M. Robbin. 1982. Effects of offshore oil drilling on Philippine<br />
reef corals. Bull. Mar. Sci. l2(4)t890-908.<br />
Langham, N.P.E. and J.A. Mathias. 1977. Tf€ problems of conservation of coral reefs in<br />
Northwest Sabah. Mar. Res. Indonesia 17z 5J-58.<br />
Lee Siew Kein. 1965. Ttp natural history of the shore flora and fauna off Tanjonq Teritipt<br />
Singapore. Malay Nat. J. I9l 259-274.<br />
Liew, l-lC. and R. Hoare. 1979. The effects of sediment accumulation and water turtidity<br />
upon the distribution of scleractinian corals at Cape Rachado, Malacce Straits. P4er<br />
piesented at I'Conference fft Trends in Applied Biology in South-East Asia", Universiti Sains<br />
Malaysia, Penang, Malaysiarll-I4 October 1979' 14 p.<br />
L.ubbock, l-lR. and N.V.C. Polunin. 1975. Conservation and the tropicat marine aquarium<br />
trade. Environ. Cons. 2: 229-2t?.<br />
Ludwig, l-[F. 1976. Baekground information relating to environmental guidelines for zones in<br />
Gutf of Thailand. Report prepared for the Environnental Impact Evaluation Division'<br />
National Environnent Board, Bangkok, 66 p.' LI Figs.' 5 Tables.<br />
Lulofs, R.B. 1977. Marine national parks. Malay. Natur. t@\ 4'L2.<br />
Lulofs, R.B. 1979. Corsl reefs, marine parks and Feserves. Paper presented at the National<br />
Seminar m the Protection of the Marine Environrnent and Related Ecosystemsr Kuala<br />
Lunpur, 2l-21 June L979, L1 P.<br />
Marine Sciences Center. 1982. Investigation of the coral nesources of the Philippines. Phase<br />
11l (Terminal Phese) Finel Report with Project Publications. Report srbmitted to the<br />
Ministry of Natural Regources. University of the Philippines, Ouezm City [Urpublished]<br />
McManus, J.W. and J.J. Wenno. 1981. Coral communities of outer Ambon Bay: a general<br />
assessnpnt zurvey. Bull. Mar. Sci. ll(l): 574-580.<br />
Mmkolprasit, S. 1981. Investigetion of coral reef fishes in Thai waters. Proc. 4th Int. Coral<br />
Reef Symp. 2z 491-496.<br />
Moyer, 31T., W.K. Ennrson, and M. Ross. 1982. Massive destruction of scleractinian corals by<br />
lhe muricid gastropod, Drupella, in Japan and the Philippines. rtl'e Nautilus 96(2):69-82.
- 206<br />
Ongkosongo, O.S.R. l9gt. Human activities and their environnentel inrpacte m the coasts of<br />
lndmesia, p.67-74. In Proc. Workshop m C-oastal Aree Development and Management in<br />
Aeia and the pacif-ic.Tt;il", enitippinLs, ]-I2 December 1979. Eest-Wect Center, Hmolulu<br />
palagenas, V.P. and R.T. Bina. 1981. Merine park/reserve developncnt program in the<br />
p6lippines. Pper presented a! qe_ National imference an the Cmservation of NEtural<br />
Resources, Manila, Philippines, 9-12 December l98lt I5 p'<br />
polunin, N.V.C., M.K. Hatim and K. kvalvagnaes.-- 1981. Bali Berat: an Indonegian marlne<br />
protected area and its resources. Biol. Conserv' [In press]<br />
porter, IW., K.G. Porber end Z.B. Catalan. 1977. Quantitative sarnpling of Indo-Pacific<br />
denersal reef plankton. Proc. ]rd Int' Coral Reef Symp' l: 105-Il2'<br />
Rashid, R. 1980. Coral reefs - the case for conservation. SEKITAR ZQLJ)I tl$-46'<br />
Robinson, A., N. Polunin, K. Kvalvagnaes and fvl Halim. 1981. Progress in creating a marine<br />
.L".tu" tyti"t in Indonesia. Bull. Mar' Sci' 3L(\z 774-785'<br />
Ronquillo, LA. 1950. Anatomical evidence in cases of fish killed by explosives' Bull' Fish'<br />
Soc. PhilipP. Lt 52-56.<br />
Rmquilto, I.A. 1961. Effecte of exploeives on fish end how to detect them' souvenir<br />
Handbook (Iatn Anniversary) of the Philippine Bureau of Fisheries, p' 17')9'<br />
Salvat, B. (ed.). Ig82. Census of existing coral reef parks and reserves' coral Reef<br />
NewsletLer (IUCN) No. 4: Lt-17.<br />
Sharma, R.E. I95I. Malayan coral reefs. Malay. Nat. .1 (SPecial lssue): 224-229'<br />
Scaiarto, A. 1975. The impact of human aclivities upon the coastal environnent in lndonesia'<br />
p. lfI-II}. In Special Symposium on Marine Sciences, Pacific Science Assoc" Hmgkong'<br />
Soegiarto, A. 1981. The development of a marine park system in tndonesia' Proc' 4th Int'<br />
Coral Reef SYmP. Iz 287-29L.<br />
Soegiarto, A. and N. Polunin. 1981. The marine environnenL of Indonesia' Report prepared for<br />
the governrnent ;f the Republic of lndonesia under the sponsorship of t]re lnternational<br />
Union for Conservation of Nature (I|CN) and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF)' Department of<br />
Zoo\ogy, University of Cambridge for IUCN and WWF, 257 p'<br />
srithunya, s., 5. Muchacheep, s. srirattanachai, and V. Harden. I98l' Pattern of distribution<br />
and correlat"o p"r".rtlrs' of corals in coral reefs at Koa Larn, Chonburi, Thailand (a<br />
preliminary report). Proc. 4th Int. Coral Reef Symp' 2z JO9-JL1'<br />
Sudara, 5. 1977. Preliminary survey on the possible effect of pollution -from offshore mining<br />
on coral reef at phuket, p. zgg-ios. In Annual symposium on Mining, Banqkokr 1977'<br />
sudara, s. 1981. cmditions of the coral reef in Thailand and the potential usaqe in the<br />
future. Proc. 4th Int. Coral Reef Symp' l: 209-211'<br />
Sy, J.C., F.S. Herrera and ]W. McManus. 1981. Coral community structure- of a frinqing reef<br />
at Mactan Island, cebu, Philippines. Proc. 4th lnt. coral Reef symp' ?z 263'269'<br />
unar, M. 1979. Coral reefs as marine parks and the consideration for their fishery resources'<br />
Bio Indonesia No. 6z 55-6L.<br />
Valencia, M.J. I98la. Shipping, energy' and environnent: south-East Asian perspeetives f.or<br />
the l9g0s" Wonkshop report UmeO J'p"p"rr presented and discussions at a Workshop at the<br />
East-West cent";,imolulu, Hawaii, r'o-iz December 1980' East-West Center' Hmolulu' 25<br />
p.
- 207<br />
Valencia, lrt J. I98Ib. South-East Asia: an werview, p. lI-21. In Pmc. Workehop m Coastal<br />
Area beveloprmnt and Managernent in Asia anA fne Pmif-ic, Manila, Philippines, t-Lz<br />
December 1979. East-West Center, Hmolulu"<br />
Verstappen, f,T. 195). Djakarta Bay: a geomorphological study m shoreline developncnt.<br />
Drukkerij Trio, re-Gravenhager l0l p.<br />
White, d 1981. Manegenrent of Philippine marine parks. TCLARM Newsl 4(l): 17-18.<br />
Wijsman-Best, M, l-l Motl, and LG. de Klerk. 1981.. Present ststus of the eoral rcefg in the<br />
Spermonde Archipelago (South Sulawesi, Indonegia). Pmc. 4th Int. Coral Reef Symp. l:<br />
26t-267.<br />
Wood, C.R. 1979. The occurrences 8nd distribution of butterflyfishes (Piecesr Cheetodontide)<br />
in Sabatr. Malay. Nat. I i5(2)r 87-LO1,<br />
Wood, E.M. 1979. Ecological study of corel reefs in Sabah. Wmld Wildlife Fund, Pmject<br />
Malaysia: 15, L6t p. lUrpubliahed]<br />
Wmd, E.M., (ed.). 198I. Semponna Merine Park $rvey: expedition report end<br />
recommendations. WWF Project No. MAL/14. Wmld Wildlife Fund Malaysia, Kuela Lunpur,<br />
90 p. [Urpublished]<br />
Yap, F[T. and E.D. Gornez. I98I. Gmwth of Aeropora pulchra (Brook) in Bolinao, Pangasinant<br />
Philippines. Pmc. 4th Int. Coral Reef Symp. 2z 2O7-2L1.
- 209<br />
INTEGRATED COASTAL DEVELFMENT IN MALAYSIA<br />
AIS POs$BLE REGIOT.IAL IMPLICATIOI{S<br />
A. Maheswaran<br />
Division of Environment, Minis[ry of Science, Technology and Environment<br />
Kuala LunPur, MalaYsia<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Development. in Malaysia depends in large part m the exploitation of its rich<br />
resources including marine resources. An increasing awareness of lhe limits Lo<br />
these resources has led to a strategy for environmental manaqement implemented<br />
at dif f erent levels of government through the Environment Division of the<br />
Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment. The strategy includes Lhe<br />
reduction of existing pollution through statutory and non-statutory controlsr and<br />
environrnental planning to avoid emerging problems Lhrough guidelines and zoning.<br />
An environmenial impact assessment proceedure is in preparation. Inplementation<br />
requires realistic approaches backed by sustained enforcement. Regional<br />
eo-qeration is important to control marine pollution, and is being developed<br />
Lhrough the ASEAN Sub-regional Environment Programme. Education is also<br />
necessary to ensure the inLegration of environmenLel dimensions with development.<br />
lntroduction<br />
The present prosperity and relat.ively high living standard of Malaysians draw heavily<br />
on Malaysia,s rich renewable and non-renewable resources ranging from forestry, land, fossil<br />
fuels and minerals to tlre most baSic nesources of atl such as water.<br />
Annng these resources, Malaysia has a relatively long coaslline of about 41800 km<br />
endowed wiih valuable marine resources and ecosystem. There are extensive beaches which<br />
serve as national amenities, not lo nention tourist ettractionsr and mangrove swampg<br />
amounting to l47rl80 hectares in Peninsular Malaysia, I75r890 hectares in Sarawak and<br />
170,148 hectares in Sabah. In addition, the Strait of Malacca is the most important fishing<br />
ground in Peninsular Malaysia, accounting for approximately 400r000 rnetric tons or 70<br />
percent of the total fish landings, whilst the South China Sea waters bordering the east coast<br />
produced ryproximately 150,000 tonnes of fish in 1978. This provides employment for over<br />
50,m0 fishermen working aboard licensed boats.<br />
For many years the major environmental problems in Malaysia stemmed predominantly<br />
from the lack of development and inadequate infrastructure, in short the pollution of poverty.<br />
To break free from this the country for a decade and nnre after Independence adopled plans<br />
for sccelerated developnent progremmes including mining, forestry, estate developmentt<br />
agriculture, land eettlement and industriat development. Ttn high rate of sustained economic<br />
divelopment has rnade substantial inroads into the neservee of minerals, soils, foregts end<br />
water to the extent that some resources may be exhaueted by the end of the present century.<br />
Ttn Malaysian experience shows how crucial it is for small developing countries to<br />
protect the source of their wealth, both currently aveilable and that of the future. Since<br />
most baaic resources are finite, these countries must be constantly vigilant to ensure<br />
faraighted and enlightened resource husbandry at all times. ln particular renewable nesoutceg<br />
require a hnalthy environnent. Thus the right bdance between &velopment and the<br />
environnent has to be struck.
- 210<br />
In recenl years' there has been some serious re-thinking among both developed and<br />
developing countries m the directions and pace of future development efforLs. In nnny ways,<br />
this hes been prompted by new perceptions of the need to harmonize economic development<br />
goals and policies with those of environmental proiection and improvement to ensure a better<br />
quality of life for Lhe people. The prospect of near depletion of resources has accelerated<br />
this process.<br />
It has now become clear that the problems of environmental proLection are inseparable<br />
from the problems of economic development. They are in fact two sides of the same coin,<br />
two aspects of the same goal, one reinforcing and underpinning the other. It is then just a<br />
matter of prudent management to approach environmental protection as a dimension of<br />
economic development. We desire neither an immaculate and pristine environment for ils own<br />
sake, nor all-out economic development at the other extreme which exlracts a heavy price in<br />
terms of a degraded environment,<br />
In the past, there has been a tendency to equaLe development with the more narrowly<br />
conceived objective of economic growth as measured by the rise in gross national product or<br />
by physical indicators alone. It is usually recognized today that high rates of economic<br />
growth' necessary and desirable as they are, do not by themselves guerantee the easing of<br />
urgent social and human problems. Indeed in many countries hiqh growth rstes ere<br />
accompanied by increasing unemployment, rising disparities in incomes between groups and<br />
between regions, and the deterioration of social and cullural quality of life. A new emphasis<br />
is thus coming to be placed on the atteinment of social and cultural goals as part of the<br />
development process. The recognition of environmental issues in developing countries is an<br />
aspect of this widening of Bhe development concept. It is part of a nnre integrated or unified<br />
approach to development objectives. This is timely in the Malaysian context as we are now<br />
on the threshold of the Fourth Malaysia Plan, and as we depend partieularly on natural<br />
resources for the generation of economic activities.<br />
The economic growth, progress and well-being of a nation depend largely on adequete<br />
resource availability as well as the systematic developnrent and use of these resources, both<br />
renewable and non renewable, However, even renewable resources are limited to the capacity<br />
of the whole ecological system. Thus there are, in a sense, limits to growth.<br />
Much will depend on the prudent management of these resources and the extent to<br />
which extrection and distribution impacts on the environment, which in turn af f ects<br />
productivity. The capacity of the environment to generate essential renewable resources must<br />
be maintained, restoned or improved. Otherwise, negati ve side-effects m the environrnent will<br />
reduce the pay-off from the hoped-for developnrent to significantly less than the qtimum.<br />
While Malaysia, compared to most developing countries, has seemingly abundant<br />
resourcesr these have experienced rapid growth in the rales of exploilation, producing various<br />
environnpntal probbms.<br />
Strateov for environmental manaoement<br />
In view of the interaction that exists between nesource development and environrnental<br />
quality, environrnental management is understood to rnean prudent or qtimal use,<br />
maintenenee and enhancement of both the quality of our natural resources.<br />
Since the prospects for an abundant supply of natural resources are weak in the long<br />
run, and technologicel innovations are inadequate, diserete and unpredictable, the developing<br />
countries have to take a serious look at their resource limitations, especially renewable<br />
Fesources, snd tailor their development efforts accordingly. TNs does not imply sacrificing<br />
development itself. What it does imply, though, is thaL Lhe patterns of resource development<br />
and regource use have to be restructured through resource management policies which are<br />
integrated, innovative and imaginstive, and focus m employment and efficiently organized<br />
productive activities while treating environment as an important parameter. Essentially<br />
resource management should aim at:<br />
(i) Minimizing westes in the process of resoutce developnnnt, and utilization of wastes<br />
that are produced.<br />
(ii) Developing eppropriate technology for the management and control of wasLes.
(iii) Limiting the environrnental problems<br />
- 21I<br />
Since the development of natural resources is a continuous Process which involves<br />
intentional changes to ine environment, it must be accompanied by conscious effort to guide<br />
these environmental changes towards zustainable economic growth to provide an increasingly<br />
better standard of living -not only in the material sense but also in the value of life itself.<br />
This requires ihe pnopei long-term management of the resourcesr maintaining an equilibrium<br />
begween the resources and rising needs while staying within environmental limits. It simply<br />
means a farsighted view of our resources so that we can continue to use then or even<br />
improve theii yield fon a long time to eome.<br />
Malaysia has a three-tier system of Government - Federal, State and the local<br />
Authonities - with each level having legislaLive and administrative competence in specific<br />
fietds, and with potential for affecting the environment throuqh their actions. Resource<br />
management is currently being carried out in Malaysia both at Federal and State level by the<br />
various departments responsible for the development of the respective resourees. Therefore<br />
the task of environmenLal management has to be shared. State Govennments and Local<br />
Authorities, in view of their legisiative and administrative competence in specific fields' have<br />
a considerable role to play in solving environmental problems. Through effective co-ordination<br />
and willing co-operalion tn"y could contribute considerably towards effective environmental<br />
protection and management ihrough making good use of available resources of nranpower and<br />
iunds and avoiding duplication. In this context, the Government has pledged to undertake the<br />
Ieadenship role in the overall msnagement of man's relationship with environrnent. It passed<br />
the Environmental Guality Act, 1974, and established the Environment Division under the<br />
Ministry of Science, Teehnology and Environment.<br />
The policy of the Government in administering the Act rests on two facts. First'<br />
Malaysia is a developing counlry and essentially mus! pursue a policy of economie growth.<br />
Second, Malaysia's econlmy today and for a long time to come depends on the renewable<br />
resource sectors and these, for a small country like ours, are limited, fragiler and in urgent<br />
need of comprehensive proiection and s:stained production. Malaysia's oversll environmental<br />
policy therefore takes accounL of the following faclons (Governnpnt of Malaysiar 1975):<br />
(i) The impacl that population growth and man's aetivities in resource development and<br />
industrialization have m the environnrentl<br />
(ii) The critical importance of maintaining the _quality of the environrnent relative to the<br />
needs of lhe population, particularly in r'egard to the productive capacity of the<br />
countryrs land resources in agrieulture, forestry, fisheries and waterl<br />
(iii) The need to maintain a healthy environmenl for human habitation;<br />
(iv) The need to preserve the countryrs unique and diverse natural heritage, all of which<br />
contribute to the quality of life; and<br />
(v) The interdependence of social, cultursl, economic, biological and physical factors in<br />
determining the ecologY of man.<br />
In the light of these factors, the responsibilities for environmental manaqement fall<br />
under four bsic tasks :<br />
(i) environnental assessrnent which inctudes nnnitoring, Fesearch and review;<br />
(ii) planning;<br />
(iii) controlling; and<br />
(iv) deeision-making in egch areas as nesource allocation, land use, economic and industrial<br />
developrnent and Planning.<br />
TfE above elements underpin and reinforce eech other in the streteqy of the<br />
Governnent in terms of the overall structure, content and thrust of the environrnent<br />
programme. The firgt and essential tagk is environfiEntel sse88fiEnt which eeeks to examinet<br />
isrJss and evaluete the environrnental conditione prevailing in various localities through the
- 2r2<br />
air and water quality monitoring programme, baseline studies and source emission inventory<br />
surveys which are being currently undertaken by the Environrnent Division of lhe Ministry of<br />
Science, Technoloqy and Environmenl. These activities are geared to provide not only Lhe<br />
fundamental inputs for development planning, but also are expected Lo be useful in<br />
themselves for the formulation of the pollution control proqramme. The data on standards of<br />
environmental quality which are being generated by these activities will provide feedback<br />
informat,ion in environmental nranagement to help influence the future course of development.<br />
Exiating envirdrrnental control<br />
Environmental problems are not solved by remedial measures alone but also by a<br />
combination of proper environmental planning and pollution control, integratinq both<br />
preventive and restorative measures.<br />
Logicelly iL would be sensible to work out a proper environmenLal plan to be carried<br />
out within the generalrplanning' framework before any pollution control work is camied out.<br />
However, in the Malaysian context, due to the necessary gestat,ion period required to evolve<br />
a sound plan (data collection, resources, trained manpower, ete.) and the urgency of<br />
anti-pollution measures a simultaneous approach is not only desirable but also inescapable,<br />
Therefore, pollution conLrol has been the central activity in the Environrnent Division's<br />
programme for environmental conservation and enhancement of environmental quality.<br />
Irrporient as these measures are for controlling existing and future environmental problems,<br />
they must be planned and designed within Lhe framework of the growth targets of lhe<br />
development plan, and take due account of administrative pnocedures at both the Federal and<br />
State levels.<br />
In the final analysis, these control measures must be consistent and workable within the<br />
framework of lhe Federal Constitution, insofar as it concerns the relat,ionship between the<br />
Federal Government and the States. With this constitutional framework, the Environment<br />
Division is adopting a two-pronged approach involving both statutory control and<br />
non-statutory control.<br />
The ctoice of these control measures and their application depends significantly on the<br />
areas !o be controlled. Statutory control is adopted in areas which are expressly within the<br />
ambit of the Environmental Guality Act, J.974 or more precisely in those matters which are<br />
specified in the Federal or Concunrent Lists. Non-staLutory conlrol, on the other hand, is<br />
applied in areas where the existing responsibilities are shared by various government agencies<br />
end in those areas which are within the competence of the State Governments. Matters zuch<br />
as land' agriculture, forestry, mining, soil erosion, drainage and irrigation which are<br />
f undamentally important in envinonmental management are expliciLly under the State and<br />
Concurrent Lists, and it is in [hese areas that non-statutory control must be directed with<br />
great csre to avoid undue administrative conflicts.<br />
The legal controls are being applied through various Regulations which have been<br />
drawn up on the advice of the Environmental Gluality Council in aceordance with bhe<br />
Environmental Ouality Act, 1974. They are, among others:<br />
(i) Environmental Ouality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Regulations, L97-Ii<br />
(ii) Environmental Guality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) Regulations, L978i<br />
(iii) Sewage and Industrial Effluents Regulations, 1979;<br />
(iv) The Clean Air Regulations, 1978.<br />
These Regulations are directed principally against industrial pollution in the form of<br />
dischanges and emissions which damage our common property resources, namely land, air and<br />
water. However, they are by no nreans the compleLe answer in themselves. For example they<br />
will not be able to deal with those problems arising from the development of land and natural<br />
resources which are as serious as pollution from industrial sources. Nevertheless, these<br />
Regulations constitute positive steps towards the conirol of pollution from point eources.
- zrt<br />
Under these Regulations, control is affected through the establishment of criteria or<br />
standards for the reduction of pollutants, enforced by both legal and administrative nrethods<br />
including rresoutce chargesr. With the enforcemenl of these regulations, it is estimated that a<br />
total of 820 licensed premises (sources) end rnore than 7000 non-licensed premises are rubject<br />
to these regulatory measurea. The fundarnental reason for this qproach is to induce a<br />
polluter to inetall anti-pollution devicee and absorb the Eocial costg for the use of regources.<br />
The imposition of rresource ehargesf in particular provides scope for each polluter to choose<br />
the mix of 4proeehes wtrich will keep the cost of pollution control as low es poasibb.<br />
It ie evident from the above that although action could be initiated by the Environment<br />
Division' it is unrealistic to expect it to be involved with the detailed procedures snd control<br />
nechanisms for coping with environrent-related matters (r.g. use of pesticides, mining<br />
discharges). Further, it. is mly logical for the implenrenting ageneies to take heed oi<br />
environnrental safeguards in the course of the implementation of their various projects.<br />
Envirqrmental planning<br />
TtP environmental problems arising from the developrnent of Malaysia's land and<br />
natural nesources are complex and can mly be overcome lhrough an integrated approach<br />
entailing advance or forward planning for the long term conaenvation of envirbnrnental assets.<br />
Thus whilst preparing as best we cen to eope with those situations which it is too late to<br />
avoid' we should focus on emerging problems, striving to head them off by timely action<br />
before they assunn serious or crisis proportions. For this purpose, it is important to ensure<br />
that an environrnental consciousness pervades the decision-makers and planners in both the<br />
public and private sectors so thet the imperatives of environmental protection are built into<br />
development projects and the need for coatly and time-consuming remedial measures are<br />
obviated.<br />
The machinery and the commitment to planning alreedy exisL. Whet is needed is the<br />
developnent of an enlarged planning meihodology so that environmental dimension can be<br />
incorporated in a systematic way into development planning right from the stsrt. The<br />
integration of the environmental dimension in resource management requires a broader<br />
elaboration of developnrent goals encompassing qualitative aspects in addition to the mere<br />
increase in gross national product. Generally speaking the qtimal development process should<br />
be me which setsr as one of its main objectives, the satisfaction by present and future<br />
generations of their basic requirements without transgressing the outer limils of the<br />
biospherers lolerance of manrs activities. There is a delicate balance here and it demands<br />
very careful consideration. For such rational management to be achievedn methods must be<br />
developed to deal more adequately with the full social and environment.al - and not just<br />
economic - costs and benefits of development-nelated activities. It is necessary to find<br />
techniques for quantifying the impacts, both favourable and unfavourable, of development<br />
projects m environment, so that the society can choose projects with a fuller knowledge of<br />
their social costs and benefits in the light of a number of options generated. All too bften<br />
the social costs of various pnojects are ignored or receive short shrift in the initial appraisal<br />
especially in the context of a laissez-faire economy. Societyts recognition of many of the<br />
environmental disruptions resulting from these projects then comes at too late a stsge to<br />
permit effective and timely renndial acLion. It is important thal the social cosis should be<br />
ascertained to the maximum extent possible before undertaking development projects, so thal<br />
society can carefully assess whether they are still worthwhile, whether some of the costs<br />
could not be minimized through careful design of the projecl, and whether some of the eosts<br />
could not be avoided or at least deferred through adoption of alterna[ives.<br />
ln this context, the Environment Division under the Ministry of Science, Technology and<br />
Environment has undertaken the leadership role in providing the necessary instrunrents of<br />
control. It has prepered several gr.ridelines to help State Governments and other Agencies to<br />
ineorporate environmental considerations into their development plans. The most important<br />
guidelines are:<br />
(e) guidelines for zoning and siting of industries;<br />
(b) guidelines for environmental impact assessrrent;<br />
(c) guidelines for selection of sites for solid wasle disposal and management. of site; and<br />
(d) guidelines for prevention of erosion and siltat.ion.
- 2L4<br />
Tle usefulness of zoning is self-evident. Without it environmental problems can grow to<br />
unmanageable proportions. Tfo main advantages can be snmarized as follows:<br />
(i) Isolation of reeiduel pollutentr and their impact<br />
Tfe Malaysi". rpp*l"h to regulatory control of pollution is largely based on the best<br />
practicable r""n" (B.P.M.) c6ncept with provisions. for gradual integraLion with air<br />
quality r"n"gu|nunt concepts. The best practicable means are defined by technical<br />
f easibility and economic viabitity. Theref ore, thq installation of in-plant control<br />
equpment and the adoption of control rneasures would limit Lhe discharge of pollutants<br />
to a certain level but not necessarily totally eliminate it, and as much as 5% to l0% of<br />
the "residual pollutants'r may still be discharged into the envitonment from each<br />
polluting source. The provision of buffer zones would isolate the people from the<br />
impact ereas.<br />
(ii) Reduced cct of control meaaures<br />
As the degree of control becomes rnore stringent, the cost increases exPonentially' If<br />
the polluti-ng source could be located well away from populated areas, control measures<br />
need not be as stringent as would otherwise be necessary' In the ultimate analysis<br />
pollution control cost -sre borne by the consuners, hence the reduction of control eosts<br />
wouldreducetheburdenonthepeopleandthecountryasawhole'<br />
(iii) More effieient end effective infrestructure planning<br />
The provision of various zones for housing, hrffeis, and compatible industries would<br />
help to lower the cost of infras[ructure cJch as commuting routes, sanitary services,<br />
centralized treatment systems for industries, water and electricity sjpplies' wsBer<br />
recycling Plantsr etc.<br />
Under the proposed Environmental Impact Assessnent Procedure, which is currently<br />
being refined by'the Division of Environment for submission to the Cabinet Committee on<br />
Investment, projects with high potential impact will require an assessment to be sr'rbmitted to<br />
the Ministry for review. lriitiators of the project will be required to describe the various<br />
environmental and pollution impacts which can be foreseen and quantified so that steps may<br />
be taken in advance to plan to control or miLigate their environmental consequences'<br />
The advantages of the Environmental lnpact Assessrnent ere self -evident. While the<br />
primary goal of thJ environmental impact assessrrnnt is to determine the impact of a project<br />
on [he- sulrounding environment, it also sarves the following purposes:<br />
(i) The findings of an impact essessrnent may be utilized in selecting the site for a project<br />
r,rfiere ihe resulting advense environmentel impact and the associated cost of<br />
implementing control rneasures to reduce the impact will be minimized, and the<br />
hoped-for benef its rnaximi zed.<br />
(ii) With regard to existing facilities, the assessrnent will help to determine the actual need<br />
for and extent of control required.<br />
(iii) The environmental consequencee of an aetivity will be disclosed to government<br />
agencies, and to the public if and when necessary'<br />
Tfe Guidelines for selection of sites for solid waste disposal and man€gement of site<br />
ere intended to help the various Lcal Authorities to avoid haphazard selection and<br />
rnanagernent of waste disposal sites disregarding environmental factors.<br />
The problems of soil erosion and eiltation can mty be overcome by employing ruitable<br />
controls and preventive measures' especially at the planning stege of ^a project, whether for<br />
alricutfure, mining, housing, road eonstru"lion or logging' The guidelines for prevention of<br />
eiosion and siltati-on contaii well-defined and precise specifications for prevenLive measures<br />
to eontrol siltation, such as silt traps and other ppropriate control structures'
lrplemcntatim of etrategY<br />
- 2L5<br />
ln putting the strategy to work, the need for a pragmatic, systematicr qraduated-and<br />
co-ordineled pproach not just at the level of the environnent prolection agency but of all<br />
environrnentally-1s1sird agencies including research institutions and universities, cannot be<br />
over'emphaaized.<br />
In the context of developing eountries particularly, environnental control regulationst<br />
however skilfully formulated and drafted in themselves, constitute no maqic cure for the<br />
environnrental ilis of society. An immense amount of herd work is necessary to ensure that<br />
the stendards set are realistic in terms of protecting the environnent, that lhe technology<br />
for treatment ia either available or can be developed readily, and that the treatment involved<br />
is cost-effective in the ense of being within the rneans of the industry concerned. This has<br />
to be backed up by aystematic and suitained enforcenent to get across the rnessage that the<br />
authorities meen business.<br />
The succegs to date in Malaysia in reducing environrnentel Pollution to manageabb<br />
proportions is in the main due to the pragmatic, systematic end business-like pproach<br />
eonsistently adopted by the Environrnent Division, backed r.rp. by an uncomPromisingr firm yet<br />
fair pproach to enforcing the regul,ations in the public interest.<br />
Tfn good working relationships built up over an extended period of time with the<br />
nesearch inititutiona in Malaysia, all five universities, and a whole spectrum of public sector<br />
egencies at both the Federal and State levels, have stood us in good stead.<br />
Reqional co-operation<br />
Marine pollution control is a very complex probbm. It requires control not only of<br />
activities m tne sea itEelf but also of activities m land. Further the means of the world<br />
flow together. In thie snse, they are an ecological wfrole and it is right to think of rnarine<br />
pollution as a single problem. But when thinking in terms of solution, it is more helpful to<br />
Ittint in terms oi different levels of problems - global problems, regional problems and<br />
nalional problems.<br />
The need for co-qeration in the ASEAN (Association of South-East Aeian Nations)<br />
region is considerable since the member states ehare not only many common problems, but<br />
also similar charscteristiee of the coastal and marine environrnent. Further, the economies of<br />
the member states in ASEAN depend on the seas through fishing, of f -shore petroleum<br />
production, mining and shipping.<br />
Co-qeration among ASEAN member states can and should take place in the following<br />
afeaS:<br />
(a) monitoring the quality of the marine environrnent;<br />
(b) establishing close rapport among ASEAN countries m rnsritime activities which have a<br />
direct impact m the merine environnrntl<br />
(c) developing effluent standards for discharge of polluting effluents directly or indirectly<br />
into the rngrine environmentl<br />
(d) conducting leaearch pertaining to rnarine pollution and its effects m the living aquatic<br />
FeSOUrCeSi<br />
(e) conducting inter-calibretion exercises involving the determination, in water and in<br />
biological tissues, of heavy metals through atomic absonption spectrophotometryt<br />
organoehlorine pesticide and PCB's through gas chromatographyr and dissolved and<br />
disperaed petroleum hydrocarbms through gectrofluorometry;<br />
(f) holding workshop/seminars of scientists involved in research in the marine environment<br />
to promote the dissemination and exchange of information and experiencel<br />
(g)<br />
organizing training progremmes for technicel staf f engaged in rnarine pollution<br />
investigations;
- 216<br />
(h) formulating laws and regulations relaLed to the enhancement of marine environment;<br />
(i) developing low cost technology for waste treatment ruitable to local situations.<br />
Substantial progress has been achieved in regional co-operation through the ASEAN<br />
Experts Group on 'thJ Environmenl, An outcome of zuch co-operation is the formulation of<br />
the ASEAN Sr-b-Regional Environment Programme (ASEP) with the marine environrnenl as one<br />
of the priority areai. It is a joint collaborative programme among the five nembers of ASEAN<br />
and has been in qeration since 1978.<br />
An Action Plan for the pro[ection of the marine environment and coastal areas of the<br />
Est Asian Region was draf ted with support and assistance from the United Nations<br />
Environment PnJgramme (JNEP). It has been adopted by the ASEAN Member States and is in<br />
the process of being implemented.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Assaults on the environment are many and varied, arising from the wide nange of<br />
activities in a rapidly developing economy. While the cost of tneasures to improve and protect<br />
the environment are fairly apparent to people at large and to the affected groups in<br />
particular, their benef its, -which of Len spread beyond the initial seetor of environmental<br />
control, are not so clearly seen or appreciated. The result is that benefits fnom<br />
environmental measures are understated.<br />
The developing countries find it difficult in practice to make inroads into Lhe<br />
traditional nrethodology and approach of project evaluation adopted by developrnent planners<br />
and decision-makers. -tfre tacl of syslematic studies demonstrating clearly in a comprehensive<br />
and quantitative manner the benefits accruing from environmental measurest and the<br />
constraints imposed by competing policy priorities and alternative claims on resources' have<br />
too often led to ifre expediency . of ignoring environmental dimensions in resource<br />
management. These countries need some assurance or even conclusive proof that<br />
environmental managemen!, far from being a handicap, can acLually contribute to the s{Jccess<br />
of resource developirent programmes. It should in fact become evident lhat the environmental<br />
protection approach is a resource management concept while economic development is<br />
ienerally<br />
pursued as a nesource use concept and that the whole objecLive of integrating<br />
6nvironmental planning with development is to absorb the resource management ideas into the<br />
proces{i of planning for resource use.<br />
In Malaysia the Environment Division is making a great effort .to get this rnessage<br />
across through the promotion of environmental education. The quarterly magazine 'Sekilar'<br />
published by the the Environment Division is yet another step in our strategy to promole<br />
environrnental education lo key target groups.<br />
REFERENCE<br />
Governrnent of Malaysia. 1975. Third Malaysia Plan Docurnent 1976-1980, Chapter Il' p. 214,<br />
paragraph 564.
Introduction<br />
- 217<br />
TI-E STATE ff HYDROCARBON POLLUTION IN THE EAST ASIAN SEAS<br />
BASED O{ STI.DIES IN TI.E SOUTH-EAST ASIAN SEAS REGIOi.I<br />
Jaspar Bilal<br />
Oil and Gas Technology Developmenl Center "LEMIGAS"<br />
JakarLa. Indonesia<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
The description of the production and transport patterns for oil in<br />
South-East Asian waters gives an indication of lhe actual and possible inputs of<br />
oil contamination in the marine environment. The distribution of dispersed oil and<br />
tarballs depends m the geographic and hydrographic features of the region. While<br />
oil pollution is widely reeognized as a regional problem, its impact is difficult to<br />
asses{t because available data are scarce and hard to compare.<br />
It is universally eccepted that petroleum is derived from organic material. It resulted<br />
from the combined ection of pressure, temperaLure and physical/chemical proceeses on<br />
organic material such as plants and animals deposited in the last. 500 million years in layers<br />
of sedimentary rocks.<br />
Offshore hydrocarbm Feservoirs are found along the continental margins, particularly<br />
on the continental shelf and the upper part of the continental slope. The existence of<br />
commencially exploitable accumulations beyond lhe continental rise is considered unlikely in<br />
the foreseeable future.<br />
ln the Asia-Paeific region, oil and gas deposits are most promising in sedimentary<br />
basins, many of which lie in mean basins limited by volcanic island chains.<br />
It is now recognized that some of these basins may be loeated under the sea, and ihat<br />
their nature cannot be predicted from land data. Recent findings from oil and gas exploration<br />
in the offshore areas of South-East Asia confirm this.<br />
The description of production end transport patterns for oil gives an indicetion of<br />
actual and possible inputs of oil contamination in the marine environnent. Oil contamination<br />
end accumulation in the form of dispersed oil in water, end floating and stranded tarballs are<br />
global phenomena which depend on the geographic snd hydrographic features of the region.<br />
Oil pollution of the marine and coastal environnpnt is widely recognized e a probhm<br />
as noted at various regional reetings over the last few years. Horever, oil pollution and ita<br />
impact m the environrnent, particularly in South-Eest Asian countries, re difficult to Bsess<br />
because tlre needed research and anrvey data are so scarce and fragrnentary.<br />
Hvdrocarbon producinq beaine<br />
Tle actual and potential hydrocarbm producing bsine in the South-Est Asian Region<br />
are fotnd in variabb geological settings.<br />
In lrdmcria, the known besine extend from Sumatra, including t}re northern offshore<br />
extension into the Streits of Malacea, through Java to Kalimantan, a well as the bains in<br />
and offshore West lrian.
- 218<br />
ln Malayeia and Brunei, the Northwest Borneo basin and its offshore extension are of<br />
recent interest as are the Saigon-Brunei basin in the southern part of Lhe South China Sea<br />
and the Gulf of Thailand basin.<br />
The Gulf of Thaitand basin exiends to the North into the land area of Bangkok. Of<br />
special interest also is the sedimentary area in the Andaman Sea between the Andaman and<br />
Nicobar Islands extending down to the Malacca Straits'<br />
In Lhe philippines producing fields have been found in the offshore area of Palawan<br />
Island in the South China Sea (Siddayao, 1980).<br />
Some recent discoveries in South-East Asia, particularly in the offshore areas, have<br />
greatly changed earlier concepts of estimating hydrocarbon potential bmed on the projection<br />
of land geology.<br />
Figure I shows the seabed areas in South-East Asia wilh their topographic Aradients<br />
and Figu-re 2 shows the prospective hydrocarbon basins and oil and 9as producing areas in<br />
South-East Asia. Table L provides datl m hydrocarbon resources in the $bmarine areas of<br />
the South-East Asian region.<br />
=<br />
Figure I : Seabed areas in South-East Asia *rowing topographic gradionts<br />
(from Siddayao, 1978)<br />
oepth to 2oo mctre isoboth<br />
Cortinentql plotfurm<br />
deopr thon 200 m€ter's<br />
Continentol rise (gentle sloPe<br />
swoy frgm Gontincnt)
c,<br />
o<br />
o,o<br />
g ctl<br />
F<br />
.E .E '6<br />
uBS;<br />
gDo6<br />
laY--c-<br />
Etut)-otr<br />
EEbbCL<br />
|fttil= j E 3 3 _d<br />
699o<br />
r€€E<br />
o>\<br />
zrI&<br />
-___--iiwEl<br />
--t--- - --------<br />
.t?t^-.f;t<br />
- 2L9<br />
__ __. ;_ _ _. _,a<br />
ffi<br />
iI I<br />
I<br />
D<br />
iri..l<br />
Ni<br />
I<br />
,
Oil activities<br />
- ?20<br />
Table I : Hydrocarbon resources in the ocean waters of south-East Asia<br />
(in barrels per daY)<br />
(after Siddayao, I980; Sigit et eI.r 1980; Bilal and Kuehnhold' 1980)<br />
Country<br />
Brunei<br />
lndsresia<br />
Malaysia<br />
Philippines<br />
Singapore<br />
Thailand<br />
Production 1978<br />
Total Offshore<br />
2O9,4OO<br />
rr6J4,79O<br />
196,500<br />
40,000<br />
0<br />
?oo<br />
179, l0o<br />
,45,24O<br />
196,500<br />
40,000<br />
0<br />
0<br />
Tranportation, ehipping caeualties and qerations<br />
ProducLion 1980<br />
Total Off shore<br />
Ir57 6,146<br />
40,000<br />
0<br />
200<br />
5t6,87 6<br />
100,000<br />
40,000<br />
0<br />
0<br />
Figure i shows that most of the oil shipped .illousn and in SouLh-East Asian waters is<br />
in transit to Japan while Lhe rest goes to the USA and to other East Asian countries'<br />
together accounLing for more than 90% of the oil supplied'<br />
S ING APORE<br />
--t) ta)<br />
F igure 5 z Transport of crude oil in South-East Asia (1975)<br />
(after ieO, Wle and Finn et al.' 1979)<br />
( 0.I million barrels per day (7 barrels =<br />
0. I-0.2 million barrels Per daY<br />
r 0.2-I.0 million barrels Per daY<br />
'I ) J million barrels Per daY<br />
A Offshore Production site<br />
Ref inery<br />
-<br />
"*{7<br />
I netric ton)
- 221<br />
According to Finn et $, 0979), f.Zf million barrels (rnainly crude). enter this region<br />
daily through the Straits of Malacca, and l.8I million barrels per day (crude and refined<br />
products) leave it en route through the South China Sea. Another 0.6 to 1.2 million barrels<br />
leave the Macassar Straits for Japan and the Pacific (Bilal and Kuehnhold' 1980). TfE Port of<br />
Singapore, situated at key intersection of major sea routes, ranks as the world's third busiest<br />
port. lts strategic location has also contributed to Singaporers emergence as a center for ship<br />
repairs and service for oil tsnkers. Table 2 shows fnequencies of tanker movement in<br />
South-East Asia and Table J shows the origin, size and numbers of tankers lhat lransit<br />
through the Straits of Malacca. However there are many factors that affect or that may<br />
affecL the pattern of oil shipment in South-East Asia. For example, unpredictable new<br />
resource discoveries within the region, e.g. offshore Vietnam and China' rnay change patterns<br />
of zupply.<br />
Destination<br />
(Route)<br />
Table 2 : Frequencies of tanker movements in South-East Asia<br />
(Valencia, I98I)<br />
South Korea and Japan<br />
Jpan (Lsnbok-Makassar-Su lawesi Seaeast<br />
or west of the Phi lippines)<br />
Sulawesi Sea<br />
PorL Dickson, Malysia<br />
Singapore<br />
(S ingapore-Straits)<br />
Hypothetical<br />
Vessel Size<br />
200,000 DwT<br />
VLCCs<br />
VLCCs + Tankers<br />
90.m0 DwT<br />
VLCCs<br />
Various<br />
Frequency<br />
984lyr (1/0.4 days)<br />
I4Olw (l/2.6 days)<br />
ZS-iOlyr (I/I).5 days)<br />
40/yr (I/9 days)<br />
9llyr (l/4 days)<br />
L5,356/yr (l/.024 days<br />
or 1/14 min.)<br />
Table l: Origin, size spedtrum and number of tankers in transit through Straits of Malacca.<br />
Numbers in parentheses show percentage of lotal J4anese oil imports and<br />
percentage of number of tankers importing oil to Japan (Finn et 3!.' 1979)<br />
Origin<br />
Persian Gutf<br />
Irdmesia<br />
Africa<br />
Total<br />
Tanker size (thousand dwt)<br />
lrnn I00- 150- 200- 25o-<br />
150 200 250 100<br />
284<br />
t98<br />
261<br />
l0<br />
40 Il<br />
522 to4<br />
I06<br />
2<br />
6<br />
rI4<br />
t2r<br />
5<br />
t26<br />
85<br />
86<br />
Amount<br />
of oil No. of<br />
(thousand tankers<br />
tons)<br />
192,BtO<br />
(7t%)<br />
17,4L9<br />
(5%)<br />
8,I17<br />
o%)<br />
2r8,t55<br />
1,058<br />
(58.,6)<br />
zta<br />
(rl%)<br />
&<br />
(4%)<br />
Irt 2<br />
(74'Yo)<br />
In the Straits of Malacca, the lransit of international tankers results in very dense<br />
traffic, and casualties can always happen causing oil spills. ln I975r 51500 tons spilled in ihe<br />
Straits of Malacca from the tanker "Diego Silangr'. There wene two major oil spills in the<br />
South China Sea from collisions: that of a supply ship with the st.orage barge "ESSO Mercial<br />
which spilled 500 tons of bunker C oil, and the other between M.V. Fortuna and USS<br />
"Ranger', which gilled 10,m0 tons of cnude oil. Table 4 shows ship casualLies in Malaysian<br />
waters (Bilal and Kuehnhold' f980).
Neme of vessel<br />
or incident<br />
Tolo Sea<br />
Oil Slick<br />
Diego Silang<br />
tr4V. Asian<br />
Guerdian<br />
MV. Montessa<br />
Shell<br />
Ref inery<br />
Tesahino Maru<br />
Toan Chuen<br />
Chun<br />
Esso Mercia<br />
tvtV. Fortuna<br />
- 222<br />
Table 4 : Ship casualties in Malaysian waters from 1975 to early 1980<br />
(from Bilal and Kufnhold, 1980)<br />
Cause Laation Date Armunt and<br />
Type of oil<br />
Grounding due to fire<br />
Unknown<br />
Collision with<br />
Russian Ship Vystok<br />
Rupture of discharge<br />
pipe to power station<br />
Accidental discharge<br />
due to nechanical<br />
failure<br />
Accidental discharge<br />
due to pipe rupture<br />
Leakage of<br />
delivery pipeline<br />
Accidental discharge<br />
due to rnechanical<br />
failure<br />
Collision with<br />
supply ship<br />
Florence Tide<br />
Collision with<br />
USS Ranger<br />
Penang Harbour<br />
South Channel<br />
Penang<br />
Melacca Streits<br />
Malacca Straits<br />
Malacca Straits<br />
Malacca Streits<br />
(Port Dickson)<br />
Malacce Straitg<br />
(Pmt Klang)<br />
Johore Streits<br />
South China<br />
Sea<br />
South China<br />
5ea<br />
20.05.L975<br />
ot.o5.I979<br />
24.07.1976<br />
t6.o5.I977<br />
to.06.I979<br />
]0. Il.1979<br />
20.01.I980<br />
10.05.1979<br />
10. t0.1978<br />
5.U.1979<br />
6(J tons bunker fuel oil<br />
Estimated 10-15 tons<br />
bunker fuel oil<br />
51500 tons<br />
Kuwait crude<br />
60 tons light fuel oil<br />
Arebian light crude<br />
(amount unknown)<br />
Arebian light crude<br />
(50 tons)<br />
Bunker fuel oil<br />
(emount unknown)<br />
Bunker fuel oil<br />
(amount unknown)<br />
X)5 tons bunker<br />
fuel oil<br />
101000 tons Kuweit<br />
light crude<br />
In the southern part of Singryorc, oil contamination comes mainly from ships that use<br />
the busy see-lane of the Streits of Singapore and from those that anchor at the varioug<br />
designated anehorage areas which occupy practically the whole of the southern territorial<br />
watets of Singapore. Beceuse of the heavy traffic, a number of oil spills have occurred<br />
through the collision or grounding of tankers. Table 5 gives a list of casuglties and oil spills<br />
for the period 7975 and 1976.<br />
Menasveta (f980) reported that there is a probtem of oil contamination dr.re to oil<br />
activities in Thai waters but it is still relatively small. An accidental oil spill occurred in<br />
April 1974 when the 5000 ton coastal vessel "Visahakit" collided with another ship about I<br />
km from the mouth of the Chao Phraya river. The spill was estimated at m00 barrels of oil.<br />
The biggest oil spill in Indonesien wa[ers was in the Straits of Singpore, where e super<br />
tanker of 2711698 dwt, "Showa Maru", grounded m treacherous shoals neer the Buffato Rock<br />
Beacon. It gilled approximately 54rfi)0 bamele of Middle Eet crude (Kanlaetmadja, lggl).<br />
Oil spills dre to shripping accidents in the waters of the Philippinee heve been listed by<br />
the National Operation Center for Oil Pollution. The record for 1978 is given in Table 6.<br />
Aside from oil spills through casualties, discharges of oil ccur also from operational<br />
shipping activities. Ttese discharges consist of activities such es debellasting, tank cleaning,<br />
dry docking' bunkering, eargo loading and unloading. TIE incidence of qerational or<br />
deliberate oily waste discharges in the area of the East Asian Seas has been studied by<br />
Kurashina (1975) and Nasu et e!.r Q975). The result is es follows:<br />
5E Japan area<br />
Taiwan area<br />
South China Sea<br />
Annual number of dirty<br />
ballast and tank cleaning<br />
74<br />
87<br />
,92<br />
Arnount discharged<br />
in 1000 tons/year.<br />
578<br />
6L6<br />
4705
Date<br />
- 225<br />
Table 5 : Shipping casualties in the Strails of Singapore<br />
(after Finn et g!, L979i Kantaatmadja' l9&I)<br />
Name of sfrip Type (Tmnage) Cause Lcation Comments<br />
06.0I.75 Showa Maru Tanker (27t,698) Grounding<br />
r5.0r.75 L};"",nil"'"[*" +ilH iLi?;i|? couision<br />
05.U.75 Mysella<br />
rs.04.75 IT;#t:,""<br />
L4.M.7i f,"ffj |Hjl"<br />
tO.06.75 Liengku<br />
17.o7.7s N:';i"' "*"<br />
24.LO.75 Sea[iger<br />
n.LO.l, Kriti Sun<br />
LL. 12.7 5 ["fl "il "o ",, ""u, I lil "J<br />
L7.O5.76<br />
26,07.76<br />
o6,w.76<br />
Margo<br />
Georg Hanake<br />
Forresbank<br />
Mareva A.5.<br />
Soyakaze<br />
Marrita E.<br />
Citta di Savona<br />
26.10.76 Philippine Star<br />
Eso Spain<br />
Tanker (212,159) Grounding<br />
Tanker<br />
\t!?,_79_o_)_. Collision<br />
Tanker (152,015)<br />
Freighter<br />
F reighter<br />
Freighter<br />
Tanker (251r%6)<br />
Freighter<br />
Tanker (L2rr69J)<br />
Tanker (Izt,tt84)<br />
Freighter<br />
Freighter<br />
Frcighter<br />
Freighter<br />
Freighten<br />
F reighter<br />
"fltl?fl,<br />
Tanken (64,805)<br />
Tanker<br />
Tanker (81,827)<br />
Collision<br />
Collision<br />
Collision<br />
Collision,<br />
grounding<br />
Struck by<br />
lightning<br />
rr'c o r r is i on<br />
Collision<br />
Collision<br />
Collision<br />
Collision<br />
Buffalo Rck, 7r7fi1 tom oil<br />
off Singapore spitbd<br />
Outside of Izuzugawa Maru<br />
Singapore Port had cargo of crude<br />
limits oil; no spillage<br />
lol2'04'rN 21000 toru oil<br />
IOf o50'54"E epillad<br />
I mile south of Tca Maru broke<br />
SLJotrnrs Island in two and sank<br />
Eastern Roads,<br />
Singapore<br />
Malacca Straits Ship sank<br />
10l5r0J"N Neissei Maru had<br />
104o09'0J"E cargo of crude oil<br />
4.8 km south of<br />
SL Johnrs Island<br />
Singryore Port<br />
Estern anchorage,<br />
Singapore<br />
Eagtern anchorage,<br />
Singapore<br />
Eastern anchorage,<br />
Singapore<br />
Off St. John's<br />
Island<br />
Eastern<br />
anchorage,<br />
Singapore<br />
Savone ard Ster<br />
had cargc of<br />
crude oil; Irll00<br />
torn oil pilled<br />
Table 6 : Oil spills by shipping aceidents in Philippine waters in 1978 (afler Ganez' 1978)<br />
Name of Vessel/Cornpany Ceuse Date Lcation<br />
AGEP Wood Preserving Div.<br />
William Lines rnoior vessel<br />
Compania Maritima vessel<br />
Motorized banca (Samasco)<br />
MoLorized tank (Las Vivas)<br />
Barge (Luzon Stevedoring)<br />
Motorized tank (Las Vivas)<br />
Barge (Luzon Stevedoring)<br />
Barge (Luzon Stevedoring)<br />
Buge (Luzon S[evedoning)<br />
Motorized tank (C. Robles)<br />
Barge (Sealink lnc.)<br />
Discharge to Pasig River<br />
]-4 drums brnker oil<br />
Waste oil spillage<br />
Weste oil spill 20 gallons<br />
Waste oil spill 20-10 gallons<br />
Discharge of waste oil<br />
Spillage of 4rfi)0 barrels<br />
of auto turbo fuel<br />
Oil spill due to gnounding<br />
Spill of 7r[I)0 barrels of<br />
premium gasoline by sinking<br />
Spill of bunker oil (srd<br />
20,000 bags fertilizer)<br />
due to grounding<br />
Bunker oil spill by grounding<br />
Oil spill due to sinking<br />
Spill of lr}00 barrels lubo<br />
oil due to sinking<br />
L2.M.78<br />
19.05.78<br />
20.05.78<br />
22,05.78<br />
06.08.78<br />
27.8.78<br />
27.W.78<br />
27.09.78<br />
09.10.78<br />
09.10.78<br />
r0.10.78<br />
14.1t.78<br />
Pasig River<br />
Iloilo Riven<br />
North Harbor, Manila<br />
Bauan, Batangas<br />
Shell-Betangas Bay<br />
Bataan Refining Co.<br />
Lamao, Bataan<br />
Bataan Refining Co.<br />
Bataan Refining Co.<br />
Lamao, Bataan<br />
Manila Bay<br />
Manila Bay<br />
Bataan Refining Co.<br />
Pasig River
- 224<br />
Oil released during deballasting qerations is in<br />
produces tarry residues and tanballs. Figure 4 shows<br />
to eastbound tanker traffic and surface currents.<br />
$+<br />
t'a{{.--_-.:in<br />
(after Nasu et al., L975)<br />
".qii:;*.b.i* i::rrl-.<br />
the form of tar lunps and weathering<br />
the distribution of oil lunps in relation<br />
Figure 4 : Oil lumps, trensport of oil, end surface currents in South and Est Asia<br />
.o Few oil lunps<br />
o Many oil lunps<br />
::i:> Transport of oil (width indicates amount)<br />
-.j Average zurface currents<br />
s^ Border between currents<br />
The Straits of Lonbok, the Straits of Macassar and the Celebes Sea are an alternative<br />
route for Ultra Large Crude Carriers (ULCC, over )00,000 dwt) sailing to Japan and the West<br />
coast of America, both because of the physical environment in the Straits of Malacca and<br />
because of the characteristics of vessels involved in the oil trade between the Western<br />
Pacific and the Middle East.<br />
In 1975, three ULCCs, the "Globtik Lmdon" (48t1960 dwt), the "Globtik Tokyo"<br />
(48tr84 dwt) and the "Nisseki Maru" 0721698 dwt) sailed through these watens in addition to<br />
the 25 to )0 Very Large Crude Carriers (VLCC,200,000-100,000 dwt) and I00 to 150 tankers<br />
that transiL these waters each monLh (Hayes' 1979).<br />
Refineries and production fields<br />
There are numerous loading ports, pnoduction fields and refinenies located alorrg the<br />
coast of the Strails of Malacca and adjacent to the Straits of Singapore. Twelve coastal<br />
nefineries with a total output of over 1,4O0,000 barrels per stream day are located on the<br />
coast of Streits of Malacca and Singapore. Pont Dumai in east Sumatra is one of the world's<br />
biggest crude oil exporting terminals. In I97l it exported 2,5 million tons of crude oil (Finn<br />
et al. 1979).<br />
Along the coast of the southern part of the South China Sea there are 8 ref ineries<br />
having a total capaciLy of 445,000 barrels per stream day.
- 225<br />
ore refinery is located m the east coast of Kalimantan (Straitr of Macersar) with a<br />
capacity of 75rttr0 barrele per stream day.<br />
Furthermore a new refinery center is located m the eouthern cosst of the island of<br />
Javai it has a eapacity of 100,m0 berrels per stream day, which is being extended to 100.000<br />
barrels per stream day. The oil terminats, production fields and refineriee continuously<br />
release oily effluent into the adjacent waters. Sanetimee accidental spills have resulled from<br />
technical failures and humsn errors like leaks, overfilling and mismanagement. Teble 7 sttows<br />
a list of refineries with their capaciLies and Figure 2 indicates Lhe locations of producing and<br />
prospective oil fields in South-East Asia.<br />
Country<br />
BURMA<br />
Petrochemical lndustries Corp.r Chauk<br />
Petrochemical lndustries Corp.r Syriem<br />
New Refinery, Maluk, 2r(tr0 bVday (1980)<br />
New Refinery, Mann, 25rm0 bVday (f982)<br />
Tabb 7 : Coastel refineries and capacities<br />
(from Petroleum News South East Asia, 1980)<br />
INDO{ESIA (all owned by state enterprise Pertamins)<br />
Cilacap, South Java<br />
(200,m0 bVday extension by f984)<br />
Balikpapan, Kalimantan<br />
Dumai, Surna[ra<br />
Sungai Gerong, Sumatra<br />
Plaju, Sumatra<br />
Pangkalan Brandan, Sumelra<br />
Sungai Pakning, Sumatra<br />
New Refinery, Batem, 200,m0 bVday (planned)<br />
MALAYSIA<br />
Esso, Pot Dickson<br />
Shell, Port Dickson<br />
Shell, Lutong, Sarawak<br />
Petronas, New Refinery, Westcoast, I50rfl)0 bVday<br />
Petronas, New Refinery, Pakar Trengganu<br />
(20,m0-10'm0 b/d sr streem by 1984)<br />
PHILIPPINES<br />
Batean Refining, Limay<br />
Celtex, South Luzon<br />
Philipines Shell, Batangas<br />
SINGAPORE<br />
British Petroleum, Pasir Panjang<br />
Eso, Puhu Ayer Chawan<br />
Mobil, Jurong<br />
Shell, Pulau Bukom<br />
Singapore Refining Co., Pulau Merlimbau<br />
(l00,m0 bVday by late 1980)<br />
THAILAI.ID<br />
Eseo, Sri Racha<br />
Sunmit, Bengchok<br />
Sunmit, Fang<br />
Thailand Oil Refining' Chonburi<br />
(55rm0 bVday expansion approved)<br />
Cryacity (bVday) Lcation<br />
5,f00<br />
22ro,J,O<br />
I00,000<br />
75,000<br />
I00,000<br />
79,000<br />
1I I,000<br />
4,m0<br />
50,m0<br />
f6,000<br />
90,000<br />
14,000<br />
I04,m0<br />
74,m0<br />
68,000<br />
28,m0<br />
21l,mo<br />
180,m0<br />
500,000<br />
70,m0<br />
i5,000<br />
80,m0<br />
Irm0<br />
65,000<br />
Andaman Sea<br />
Indian Ocean<br />
Straits of Macassar<br />
Straits of Malacca<br />
I<br />
tl<br />
ll<br />
tl<br />
Strails of Singapore<br />
Straits of Malacca<br />
ll<br />
South China Sea<br />
Straits of Malacca<br />
South China Sea<br />
South China Sea<br />
tl<br />
It<br />
Straits of Singapore<br />
I<br />
il<br />
tl<br />
tl<br />
Gulf Thailand<br />
of I<br />
il<br />
It
- 226<br />
ln the South China Saa active offghore exploration and exploitation are taking ptace in<br />
the Gulf of ThsilanJ vrrhere gas and gas condengate have been found. Eastward in Indonesian<br />
Waters, the area af ound putau Natuna (Natuna lslsnd) produces tO.r7?L. barrels per dly<br />
(bVday). Further to the Easi, fields off of the islend of ialawan produce 40-'m0 bVday. To<br />
the South the Malaysian Sabah and Serawak weters yield a total production-of-180r000 bVday<br />
while the offshore production of the Eagt Coast of Peninsubr Malaysia is I20,(D0 bVday' Tte<br />
rvaters of Brunei produce l79rl00 bVday (1978. figures). . Off the north coaat of Javar en<br />
offshore oil field nas a-production of Lt4rllt bVdst. Another offshore field within Indmegian<br />
weters in the straits of Mecassar produces 2921956 bvday (Sigit et al 1980L<br />
Oil contaminetion in marine waters<br />
The data from the Marine pollution petroleum) Monitoring Pilot Project (MAPMOPP)<br />
of the Integrated Global Ocean Survey System (IGOSS) or hydrocarbms and .floating tarballs<br />
(oil lunps) (ee Figure 5 and Figure 6) provide the only overview of the state of oil<br />
contamination in the Easi Asian Seas. The hydrocarbst concentration ranges from 0.01 - 4<br />
ppb with both extremes occurring in the souihern part of South Chine Sea' The Malacca<br />
straits, eastern South china sea, celebes sea, and northern Philippine sea heve values of<br />
0.1)6| and 0.07 ppb. Higher values of 0.2 to 0.7 ppb ere found in waters around J+an'<br />
Sane countries in South-East Asia make surveys and occasional observations of<br />
hydrocarbms in coastal waters, but the results and data are scattered, ao it ir impossible to<br />
integrate this information with the MAPMOPP/lcoss data. Even for an assesstrEnt within the<br />
region, interpretation is difficult because of the various methods of sampling and analysis<br />
used.<br />
Tfc hydocarbrr contamination data given below by country represent an effort to<br />
compare tha available information regardlesJ of the purposes for which they were produced'<br />
Acrumulations of oil pollution are slrongly dependant on the hydrographic end gpographic<br />
features of the region.<br />
Figure 5 : Regional distribution of Larball concentretion<br />
and number of samPles bY 50 squaree
, 227<br />
Figure 6 : Regional distribution of the concentration of hydrocarbms in water (ppb)<br />
and rumber of sarnples by 50 squares<br />
Cument eyctem<br />
Generally the aean currents in this region are inf luenced by the monsoon. The<br />
monsoon changes the current cireulation patterns twice a' year; currents are practically<br />
reversed over large areas at the time of the strongest lrrrnsoon influence.<br />
Figures 7 and 8 show the circulation patterns during the northeast npnsoon and the<br />
southwest ffxlnsoon. The southwest rnonsoon current is dominant in the middb part of the<br />
South China Sea and the Java Sea where the westward flow into the Java Sea cornes from<br />
the Banda Sea and the Celebes Sea through the Straits of Macassar, and goes out of the Java<br />
Sea predcninantly through the Straits of Karimata and partly through the Straits of Malacca.<br />
The main currents reverse direction during the northeast npnsoon, with the currents from the<br />
South China Sea setting through the Karimata Straits eestward into the Java Sea and Bands<br />
Sea to the Pacific.<br />
Diperred/dierolved hydrocarbane in water<br />
Measurernents in various Indmeaian weters strowed concentrations of below I ppm<br />
adjacent to the oil produetion field north of the Bay of Jakarta (Muchtisar et e!.' 1977; Bilal<br />
et a!.r 1979). The range of concentralions between Pqt Durnai and Pangkalan Brandan<br />
eVaGcca Straits) is reported as 0.1 to 7.2 ppm (Wsilun, 1978) and in Riau Archipelago'<br />
Philipp Channel, is reported a 0.7 to J.2 ppm (Lemigas Lab. Report, 1977).<br />
Tfp concentration in Malayeian waters, adjacent to Pulau Penang (Glugorr Teluk<br />
Kumbar and Teluk Bahang) was found to range from 0.01 to 0.12 ppm (Phang et el.r 1980).<br />
A rurvey along the east coast of the Gutf of Theiland between Ssnut Smgkhrem and<br />
Chonburi, reported the highest concentration of "oil and gtrease" as f8 ppm (Vahrangeit<br />
1978).<br />
In Batangas Bay, Philippineo (South China See) where two refineries are locatedt<br />
hydrocarbms range from 0.8 to 5.5 ppm (Bilat and Kuehnhold' 1980).
- 228<br />
o oo<br />
IF<br />
th<br />
(o<br />
E t,o<br />
PA<br />
lo.<br />
!,<br />
'6, od<br />
<br />
EA<br />
od<br />
:€<br />
6tr<br />
?,<br />
to<br />
0)<br />
CJ<br />
t0<br />
u f<br />
tt|
R<br />
#, liit<br />
8.3 !"'i<br />
H :ill#,t<br />
#<br />
rr\\ lr I \.j<br />
\r 'rf I 4-',<br />
- 229<br />
o<br />
:iitlfri<br />
o<br />
I<br />
t 1r<br />
9<br />
Itr ! tihi!5J ,: t uFif.<br />
fl iii +;iftf#1"r"','#,r<br />
i riiir \frii :J,.t ilY'l*i<br />
f , . &ld<br />
1F'<br />
),' i i r' r l**i ),,R,, /;i i' Gi,,W!,' *<br />
r+$.*Wrlti,';*<br />
41,<br />
cf<br />
z<br />
- zto<br />
The following nrethods were used for hydrocanbm analyses. MAPMOPP/IGOSS<br />
presumably used 5 litres of sample extracted by n-hexane and analyaed by fluorescence<br />
epectrometry (IOC/WMO, 1976). Phang et g!. (Malaysia) uaed 2.5 litres of water aample<br />
extrected in CClr, and enalysed with an infra-red spectrophotometer (Atwood et {., L972).<br />
Oil and Gee Tecfinology Development Center "Lemigasrr (lrdonesia) used 5 litres of water<br />
sample, extrected in CCI,, *raken with Florisil to rernove polar hydrocarbms and finally<br />
analysed by infra-red speclrophotometry (COi,ICAWE, L972). Ttp National Pollution Control<br />
Cornmission of the Philippines analysed the water sample by extraction wit,h a solvent and<br />
weighing gravimetrically without any eeparation of the polar and non-polar hydrocarbms.<br />
These differeneee of nethod meke comparisone difficult.<br />
Terball occurr€ncr<br />
Ref erring to Figure 5 from MAPMOPP/IGOSS, "Regional distribution of tarball<br />
concentration L974 - 1978" and Figure 4 from Nasurs atudy m t'Petroleum pollution in the<br />
high seas" gives the following sJmmary sf tie tarbgll status in {he Eest Asian Seas. To the<br />
north of Luzon 0trhilippines), tfpre are 0.5tlglkm'(=O.6J mg/m') and northeas[ of thig area<br />
tarball values reach 1.5 kglkm' (=I.6 mg/m'). In the direction of Jqan the contamination<br />
reaches higher values. As steted above, the discharge of tanken's dirty ballast is much rmre<br />
frequent in the South China Sea then in Taiwenese and Japanese watersl thus the question of<br />
tarball contamination in the Sqrth China Sea is quite interesting. In the Philippine See the<br />
plots indicate "ffrly" 0.(b mg/m'.<br />
Stranded tarballs have been observed by eome countries in South-Est Asia. In Pulau<br />
Pari, where the lrdonegien Inetitute of Oceanology is located, tarballs have been observed<br />
regularly for the lest four yeers. Puleu Pari itself is a pseudo-atoll consisting of five small<br />
islands, and on three of tlrese, stranded terballs have been observed. The result of e<br />
L98L|I982 survey is given in Figure 9. It shows that the flucfuation of the quantily depgnds<br />
on the monsoon. The lowest quantity is in August (Lz.t gr/m') and the highest (81 grlm') is<br />
in November (Toro and Djamali, 1982). In August 1982, Lemigas and the French Centre<br />
National pour lrExploitation des Oceans (CNEXO) mede e reconnaigsance {urvey in the Riau<br />
Archipelago (Straits of Singapore) and the southern part of the West Celebes cosst (Streits of<br />
Mecassar) among other areas. Although this was the month wilh the lowest concentrations,<br />
tarballs were still found in Pulau Pari, Riau Archipelago and the west coast of Celebes.<br />
(3rq7nqtrr2 )<br />
400<br />
350<br />
Figure 9 : Mean quantity of stranded tarballs per month (glm?)<br />
on Pulau Pari, Pubu Tengah and Pulau Tikus (Tmo and Djamali, 1982)<br />
-<br />
t \\t<br />
\\<br />
?. PAnl<br />
9. ltx6AX<br />
?. rlrul t<br />
lrl<br />
l\<br />
rl<br />
Ir<br />
rl<br />
,t<br />
rl<br />
I IttIII\
- ztL<br />
On the coast around the Gulf of Thailand, terbdls were fouryl drring March and April.<br />
At Smgkhla beach, the highest accumulation was 0.2 to 715 qrlm' Also m t}re beaches of<br />
Phuket Island, facing the lrdian Ocran and Andanran Sea, qrch s the beaches of $aron,<br />
Patbmgr Naiyang and Laem Phanwa, the accumulation ranged from 0.1 to 180 gr/m' The<br />
accumulation increased from August mward (Pyakarnchana et 4., 1978).<br />
On the eastern coast of Peninsular Malaysia from Kota Baharu to Mersing, including<br />
the offshore iglsnd of Pulau Tioman, contamination by cil resifues and tarballs h6s also been<br />
found (Maheswaran, 1978).<br />
Discussion and conclusion<br />
The South-East Asian waters including the South China Sea are at present densely<br />
occupied by oil activities such as oil exploration, production, refining and transportation. As<br />
a consequence of low level discharge by refining and producLion processes, ryills by stripping<br />
casualties' as well as spills due to technical failure or hurnan error in handling of oil, the<br />
waters in this region are continuously contaminated by oil. The aceumulations of<br />
dispersed/dissolved oil in water, floating oil lunps and stranded tarballs are very dependent<br />
on such physical factors as the winds, ocean currents and tidal movernent. However, local<br />
currents and seabed topography in the Malacca Straits, the Gutf of Thailand and the Java<br />
Sea nny influence predicted sites of accumulation.<br />
AL present the Straits of Malacca and the South Chine Sea waters are the rnost<br />
vulnerable aneas for oil pollution because of the increasing size and frequency of tankers<br />
traversing the area, as well as oil activities and hydrographic and geographic patterns.<br />
Before tankers enter the slrallow strait they have to reduce their draft by discharging ballast<br />
water. Whether the deballasting operation occurs in the western or eastern entrence of the<br />
strait is a signif icant question, because these qerations lead to oil slicks and tarball<br />
formation. Deballasting in the SouLh China Sea is nnre probable and frequenl, although this<br />
depends on the transportation schedule and destination of csrgo. Tankers from the Middle<br />
East to Japan not mly load and unload at the beginning and end of their voyage, but also<br />
unload and take m cargo at intermediate ports zuch as Singapore or Por! Dickson.<br />
The Gulf of Thailand'receives wat,er from the current circulation in the South China<br />
Sea during the yearly monsoon (Wirtky, l96f ), This might possibly explain the tarball<br />
deposition along the coast of the Gulf and the eastern coast of Peninsular Malaysia. It is<br />
interesting to note that the accumulations and their locations vary seasonally, in elose<br />
relation to the curnent circulation and tenker routes a uggested by the studies of Kurashina<br />
(f975) and Nau et 4. Q976).<br />
In the region of Pulau Pari, currents conform with the general pattern of the Java Sea.<br />
Measurernents were made during October and November 1970 at Kepulauan Seribu (Seribu<br />
Archipelago) north of Pulau Pari. During the transitional period between rxlnsoons, the<br />
meximum velocity of the general eurrent was mly 0.(F m/sec at low tide. At high tide, rates<br />
tend to increase to I.0 nr/sec. This current system, particularly tlre relative stagnancy of the<br />
waters, may explain the deposition of tarballs at the islands.<br />
Surveys and nnnitoring of oil contaminat,ion in the South-Eat Asian countries are being<br />
conducted to assess the extent of oil pollution, but it is difficult to define the status of<br />
pollution in the region because of no cleer definition of the oil analysed.<br />
To clarify the statue of hydrocarbqr conternination in this rcgion, rnore systematic<br />
action should be organized within the countries. There is also a need for standardization of<br />
nnthods to ensure comparabb data for regional interpretation.
- 2t?<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Anonymous. 1980. South-East Asia Petroleum Newg mapr Singapore.<br />
Atwood, l-l R., R. W. Hannah and N4. V. Zeller. 1972. Determination of oil in water by<br />
infra-red spectroscopy. Perkin-Elrner INFRA-RED Bullelin No. ll.<br />
BAKOREN, National Energy Co-cdination Body. 1982. General policies m energy. Dept. of<br />
Mines and Energy, Jakarta, Indonesia [in Indonesian]<br />
Bilal, I and W.W. Kuehnhold. 1980. Marine oil pollution in South-East Asia. FAO/South<br />
China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme, Manilar Philippines.<br />
Bilal, .1, B. Prasetyo, L A. Bachtiar and R. Sani. 1979. Activities report st environmental<br />
study in the 2nd Five Year Plan 1974-1979. Department of Mines and Energy/Lemigas,<br />
Jakarta, Indmesia [in Indmesian]<br />
COi.ICAWE. 1972. Methods for the analysis of oil in water and soil, 1112. CONCAWE'<br />
Stiehting, Ttn Hague.<br />
Finn, Daniel P., Yuzuru Harayama, MJ. Meimandi-Nejab, Twesukdi Piyakarnchana and James<br />
N. Reeves. 1979. Oil pollution from tankers in the Straits of Malacca: a policy and legal<br />
analysis. East-West Center, Hmolulu, Hawaii, USA. Open Grants P4ers No. 6.<br />
Gornez, E.D. 1978. Status report m r'esearch and monitoring of the impacb of pollution on the<br />
fftangrove ecosystem and its productivity in the Philippines. Marine Science Center'<br />
University of the Philippines.<br />
Hayes, T. llt 1979. Mission reporls, Lanbok/Makassar Strait/Celebes Sea stripping route -<br />
Subregional arrangernents for combating marine oil pollution. IMCO Report No.<br />
A6lA-UNDP /lnt/Mar /P ol l.<br />
IOC/WMO. 1976. Guide to operational proceedures for the IGOSS pilot project on marine<br />
pollution (petroteum) rnonitoring. Manual and Guide No. 7r tj.lESCO' Paris.<br />
Ksrtaatmadja, K. 198I. Marine oil pollution international claim. Alumni, Bandung, Indonesia<br />
[in Indmesian]<br />
Kurashina. f975. TfE present situation of tarballs. Hydrographic Research Bulletin No 95,<br />
J4an.<br />
Lemigas. 1977. Laboratory Report no. 588-592lTR|RPK{77, Lemigas, Oil and Gae Technology<br />
Developrnent Centre, Jakarta, Indonesia, (unpublished).<br />
Maheswaran, A. 1978. Marine potlution and its con[rol. Paper presented at First Marine<br />
Science Cstference, Kuata Lunpur, Malaysia.<br />
Menasveta, D. 1980. Paper presented in FAO/UNEP/UNESCO/IUCN Expert Consultation<br />
Meeting m Assessrnent of Oil Pollution and its lnpact m Living Aquatic Resources in<br />
South-East Asia, Manila, Philippines, (unpublished).<br />
Muchtisar, D. P. and C. Muluk. 1977. Oil industry effluent: a case study on the aspec[s of<br />
technology and environrnent. Lernigas, Jakarta, Indonesia [in Indonesian]<br />
Nasu, Kamiyanagi and Kitani. 1975. Petnoleum pollution in the high seas. Oceanographic<br />
Survey Notes No. 2, Japan.<br />
Phang,5., T. K. Hwang and T. T. Ang. 1980. A sludy of the hydrocarbon content in [he<br />
coastal water along the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. ln Coastal Resources of East<br />
Coast Peninsurlar Milaysia, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang,-tValaysia.<br />
Pyakarnchana, T., J Temiyavanich, T. Sakarin, Sukmirnit and P. Wootistiraphinyoe. I977.<br />
Survey of tarballs on the beaches in Thailand 1977-1918. In Proc. of Lhe Symp. on Marine<br />
Pollu[ion Research in Thai Waters, National Research Council, Eangkok' Thailand.
- Ltt<br />
Siddayao, Corazm Moraleg. 1978. TfE offEhore petroleum nasources of Sqrth Ect Asia.<br />
Oxford University Press, Kuala Lunpur, Malaysia.<br />
Siddayao, Corazm Morales, 1980. Subrnarine hydrocarbrts in South-Eat Asia: Resources,<br />
environnent and policy. GeoJournal 4r5: t9t-186. August 1980.<br />
Sigit, S., Rekgosoemitro, 5. Sediono and B. Segito. 1980. Irdmeeian mining yearbmk 1980.<br />
Department of Mines end Energy, Jakarta, Indonesia.<br />
Segiarto, Aprilani, and A.T. Birowo. 1975. Oceanologic atles of lhe Indmesian std adiacent<br />
waters, Volune 1. National Instilute of Oceanology, Jakarta, lndmeeia [in Indmesian]<br />
Toro, V. and T. Dpmali. 1982. Fluctuetion of tarball in Pulau Pai Kepulauan Seribu. National<br />
Institute of Oceanology, Jakarta, Indmesia [in Indmesian]<br />
Valencia, Mark .tr 1981. Shipping, energy and environnpnt: South-Eaet Asian perepective for<br />
the 1980's. Wmkshop Report, Est-West Environnent and Policy lmtituter East Wegt<br />
Center, Hmolulu, Hawaii, USA.<br />
Vashrangsi, C. Pmc. of the Syrnposium on Marine Pollution Research in Thai Waters<br />
L977 -1978, National Research Council, Bangkok' Thailand.<br />
Wsilun, K. 1978. Mmitoring of pollution along the eastern coast of Surnatra in November<br />
L976 and July-August 1978. In Marine Fisheries Report No. LlL978, Muine Fisheries<br />
Regearch lrutitute, Jakarta, lndmesia [in Indmesian]<br />
Wirtky, K. 1961. Ptrysical ceanography of the South-Est Asian waters. Naga Reportr Vol. 2t<br />
Scientific Result of Marine Investigation in the Sqrth China See and the Gulf of Thailandt<br />
1959-1961. University of California, La Jolla' Cal. USA.
- 2r4<br />
Annex I : Map of placee npntioned in the paper
- 255<br />
PLA}$ED REGIO{AL CO.@ERATIq{ IN EAST ASIAN SEAS Fffi ]{O{.OIL<br />
POLLUTIO{ RESEARCH . PROBLEMS AhD POSSTBIf SOLUTIO{S<br />
Amendo F. Kapauan<br />
Department of Cl=mistry, Ateneo de Manila University<br />
Loyola Heights, Quezon City, Philippines<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Tle monitoring of pollutants other than oil in the marine environnent as part<br />
of a Regionel Seas programme requires a rientific infrestructure that does not<br />
yet exigt in the developing countries of South-East Asia. Crcating this<br />
infrastructure requires solutione to institutional problems, patial and terrporal<br />
requirements and constraints, and the difficulties of assembling national research<br />
infrastructureg. The quality of technical personnel must be improved through<br />
rypropriate selection and training. Such training could elso help to eolve<br />
difficulties with equiprnent maintenance and calibration.<br />
Introduction<br />
Regional co-qeration in the seas common to the East Asian countrieg of Malaysia,<br />
Singapore, Thailand, Philippines and Indonesia has begun with zupport from the United Nations<br />
Environrent Pmgramme. Nunerous papers, pertinent to the East Asian region and to the<br />
verious other Regional Seas programmes, have been written about such co-qerative research<br />
projecte. This short paper sttenpts to focus m st)me important problems associeted with<br />
non-oil pollution regearch in the East Asian seas. The Philippines is emphasized as being<br />
'typicel' of the developing countriee involved with rcspect to various capabilities required for<br />
participation in anch e regional co-qeration project. This analysis will focus m the probbms<br />
sssociated with nnnitoring pollutants other than oil, which is a core conponent of the<br />
Regional Seas programmes.<br />
Inetitutional problems<br />
Unlike many developed eountries with well established research traditions in both the<br />
basic end pplied fields, rnany of the developing countries in the region have few well<br />
developed regearch institutions. Tlpse they have are ueually very ryecialized, having been<br />
established to sr.rpport economically important ectivities in these countries (e.9. rubber in<br />
Malaysia, c-oconut in the Philippines). Thus in gn erea such s non-oil pollution research in<br />
the marine environnent, institutions ere either non-existent or not as fully developed as<br />
would be required for a regional nnnitoring prograrnme.<br />
However, a carefut look at the totat capabilitiee within any given country shows that<br />
the ingredients that strould go into nrch a Regional Seae programme alreedy exist in fully<br />
developed form, or rnarly so, in bits ond pieces among several other institutions. In the<br />
Philippines, for example, facilities of the Philippine Coast Guard, Tle Bureau of Coast and<br />
Geodetic Survey, the Nationel Pollution Control Csnmission, the Philippines Atomic Energy<br />
Cqnmigsion, the Fmd and Nutrition Resesrch Center, the Univeraity of the Philippines and<br />
me or two other mivergitieg, taken together, yield a fairly eomplete eystem for cJeh en<br />
undertaking. Similar steternents could be rnade for Malaysia, Thailand, and Indmesia.
- 256<br />
The biggest problem associaled with such I 'multilit.hic', as qposed to a monolithict<br />
system is, of course, that of co-ordinating the various components. Each individual institution<br />
has its own concerns, with which involvernent with a Regional Seas monitoring and research<br />
programme might concei vably interf ere. Moreover the phenomenon of bureaucratic<br />
territoriality makes co-ordination very difficult among several different insLitutions.<br />
There are however, in each country, examples in which multi-institutional projects have<br />
been undertaken and made to work. Citing again the Philippines, a nationwide project to<br />
survey the degree of mercury pollution'was undertaken d.rring the 1970's which involved me<br />
private university, the Fmd and NutriLion Research Institute, the laboretories of the Ministry<br />
of Science, the Nationel Pollution Control Commission, the Ministry of Natural Resources,<br />
and the Phltippine Atomic Energy Commission. The system worked beautifully under the<br />
direction of a committee uhich called itself the Mercury Study Group.<br />
Two of the nnst important ingredients for such successf ul co-eeration within a<br />
country are: (I) proper choice of the people to co-ordinate work wibhin their own<br />
institutions, and (2) funding for the extra people end work needed Lo join the co-operative<br />
project, The first of these is obvious. Wilhout dedicated and concerned people' no<br />
co-qerative projects are possibb. The second is more practical. Institutional budgets usually<br />
cannot accommodate activities other than those that are the major concerns of the<br />
institution, and for them to engage in other activities, funds for these activities must be<br />
made available. In the cese of the Philippines' Mercury Study Group, funds were made<br />
available through a grant from the Ministry of Science.<br />
Spatial and temporal requirements and eonstnaints<br />
A Regional Seas moniloring programme, unlike that for open oceans, is by necessily a<br />
complicated one in terms of spatial and Lemporal needs and constraints. This is particularly<br />
true of the East Asian Seas, which include such regional bodies of water as the Gulf of<br />
Thailand, the Java, Banda, Flores, Celebes, Sulu and South China Seas - to name only those<br />
of concern to the ASEAN countries. It would be more correct to think of the regional<br />
programme , not as a programme for the region, but rather as a system of interacling<br />
national programmes which must somehow be co-ordinated to yield meaningful data for the<br />
region.<br />
Each participating country in the programme rnust of necessity eoncefn ilself mostly<br />
with those aspects which have their greatest impacts within ttre country and only secondarily<br />
with the region. Moreover, rnost of such concerns will be within each counlryrs lerritonial<br />
limits (inclu-ing *re 200 mile economic limi[ which many countries accept). TfE spatial and<br />
temporal aspects of the Regional Seas programme must therefore be very carefully worked<br />
out so that each parlicipating country can gain the maximum benefit from it while at the<br />
same time nealizing the objectives of the regional prograrnme. Parlicular attention must be<br />
paid to those regions in which each subdivision of Lhe seas system interacts with another<br />
subdivision. Thus Malaysia, lndonesia and Singapore would be particularly interested in the<br />
Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand, the Java Sea, and the southern end of the Sou[h<br />
China $ea through the Stnails of Malacca; similarly inLeractions beLween the South China<br />
Sear sulu Sea and Celebes Sea would interest the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia.<br />
Unlike the qen ceans where time scales can be quite extended, the fluxes in the East<br />
Asian regional seas could change rnuch more quiekly so that great care should be taken in the<br />
design of tn" temporal aspects of the co-qerative programme. There is evidence from<br />
repoits of the Japan Meteorological Agency ihat concentrations of mercury and cadmium, for<br />
example, ean change by up to a factor of l0 between winter and summer and a factor of<br />
about J within a three month period.<br />
In view of the above, a planning commitiee which musi take into consideration both<br />
national and regional concerns must be constituted as the group that will decide on the<br />
spatial and temporal aspects of the co-qeraLive projects. The committee members must be<br />
familiar with their own national concerns and also have a bnoad perspective on the various<br />
Regional Seas programme activities.
National research infrastructure<br />
2t7<br />
One problem area within the region needs careful examination because the solution<br />
could in some cases involve considerable investment by the national governments. This is the<br />
creation of a research infrasLnucLure which fulfills the demands of a good Regional Seas<br />
programme. This inf rastructure includes the vessels, equipment and laboratories that will<br />
enable each participating country to obtain the necessary samples at the various places and<br />
times requined by the prognamme, transporting them Lo the laboratories and analysing the<br />
various components to give valid results. This is an entirely different problem from the<br />
institutional problems rnentioned earlier.<br />
In rnost cases, the problem of research inf rastructure eould be mel Lhrough<br />
co-ordination within the country. However, not all of these problems can be so resolved. For<br />
example, although the need for vessels to get samples could be met by taking care of by<br />
taking advantage of the various governrnental and non-governmental sailings within a given<br />
sea, the acquisition and use of specialized equipment could not. No amount of 'rco-qeration"<br />
between various instiLutions can cteate a specialized piece of equipment that is not already<br />
Lhere. The countries in the East Asian region vary greatly in their ability to set up the<br />
proper research infrastructure. For example, the Malaysian Government seems to be quite<br />
generous in its zupport for the acquisition of research materials and equipment, while in<br />
contrast, the Philippine Government has a de facto ban m the importation of research<br />
equipment which makes their acquisition quite difficult.<br />
Therefore, the country representatives m a regional co-ordinating committee or council<br />
must move their respecLive governrnents and institutions to make available the necessary<br />
faciliLies and equipment requined for the Regional Seas co-qerative projects.<br />
Personnel and trainino<br />
In general, there is need to improve the quality of personnel in the vanious institutions<br />
in the negion who will do the day to day work m the co-operative project. Although a<br />
significant amount of environrental work is already being done'in many places, the intensity<br />
and depth of the undertakings fall short of the rigorous requirements of a Regional Seas<br />
programme.<br />
Within each country, institutions competent in training for zuch work already exist. Tfe<br />
problem lies in co-ordinating these for the putposes of the programme so that the quality of<br />
training would be of a uniformly high level. The alternative would be to bning together the<br />
personnel involved at me facility especially active in the field and give them a rigorous<br />
training in the various techniques required. A several month training proqramme, perhaps in<br />
Australia, has been s.rggested by some, although for psychological reasons (among others),<br />
training in me of the developing countries, supported as necessary to upgrade facilities to a<br />
sufficiently high level, would be an alternative that should be explored.<br />
A problem that could well arise in this area of personnel and training is the proper<br />
choice of the people to be sent for training. In many countries in the region, bureaucratic<br />
trfavourites'r tend to be chosen again and again, often to [he detriment of the aims of training<br />
programmes if these favourites happen not to be lhe people who will do the work.<br />
Equipment maintenance and calibration<br />
Equipment and proceedures strould be such that, dat.a obtained from the various parte of<br />
the region are direcLly comparable within the region and with data obtained from the various<br />
other Regional Seas programmes. This requires training progf ammes on the proper<br />
maintenance and calibration of equipment for personnel involved in the co-perative project.<br />
A recent workshop m instrunent maintenance and calibration in the region sponsored<br />
by the Federation of Asian Chemieal Smieties showed that the bulk of maintenance and<br />
calibration of analytical instrunrentation is carried out, not by the analysts who should be<br />
responsible for the quality of their analytical data, but by technicians from the instrurnent<br />
zuppliers. ln some cases this does not pose a real problem, especially if the dealers'rrvice<br />
headquarters happens to be nearby, but in many cases it contributes to unacceptably Iong<br />
down-tirnes fon certain inslrurnents.
- 2t8<br />
Since the analysts performing the instrumentation procedures are often not trained to<br />
rnaintain and calibrate their instrunEnts and have to rely on service technicians for thist<br />
analytical throughput can be everely impaired. This is understandebb if ingtrurnent troubles<br />
were generally of such magnitude as to require the eervice of sr:ch technicians (e for<br />
example when a single element of a multi-elernent chip fails), but very often the problem is<br />
as simple s a blown fuse.<br />
The Regional Seas prograrnme needs therefore to initiate a rational programme of<br />
instrurnentation maintenance, calibration, and, if necesaary, repair to ensure the continuing<br />
flow of data. Such capabilities have already been perceived &r necessary in many countries in<br />
the region. Perhaps tiis could be put into effect immediately by training the analysts to do<br />
routine maintenance and calibration m their own instrunpnts together witH their training in<br />
instrurnental nethods rnentioned in the previous eection.<br />
Conelusion<br />
This sfrort paper has examined some of the problems and bheir possible solutione which<br />
face a Regional Seas programme for Eest Asia given the capabilities and limitations of the<br />
institutions in the region. Tfc Philippines heve been taken as a reference point, hrt the same<br />
general probtems +ply to nnst of the other countries of the rcgion. Hqefully these points<br />
will be considered in the design and implementation of the Esst Asian Seas regional<br />
programme of co-qeration.
- 2t9<br />
MARINE POLLUTION BY FTAVY METALS IN TFE EAST ASIAN SEAS REGIO}.I<br />
Manuwedi Hungspreugs<br />
Department of Marine Science, Chulalongkorn University<br />
Phya Thai Road, Bangkok 5' Thailand<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
With increasing pollution in lhe coas[al waters of South-East Asia, greater<br />
attention is being directed to the concentrations of heavy rnetals in the marine<br />
environment. The levels of potentially toxic metals have been analysed in<br />
seawater, sediments and marine organisms, but studies are also needed of river<br />
and atmospheric inputs and of the historical record of deposits in eoastal<br />
sedimenls. A brief review of available information on heavy rnetal pollution is<br />
given for each ASEAN country.<br />
Increasing industrialization end urbanization in South-East Asian countries result in<br />
mobilization and discharge into the marine environment of large quantities of actually<br />
harmful or potentially harmful materials, both organic and inorganic. However, East Asian<br />
countries rely heavily on rnarine fisheries as principal source of low cost protein. To maintain<br />
this resource in a healthy and productive state is vital.<br />
FTAVY METALS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT<br />
Many toxic or potentially toxic nretals are released into the rceans, especially into the<br />
coastal zofles. Several netals such as iron, copper, cobalt, chromium, manganese, nnlybdenum,<br />
nickel, vanadium and zinc are known to be essential to living organisms, but if present in<br />
excessive amounts, they are toxic.<br />
The oceans receive heevy rne[als through the at,mosphere, land run-off and rivers.<br />
Anthropogenic rnetals enter the natural biogeochemical cycles at rates that depend on their<br />
physico-chemical forms which are often different from naturally-mcurring metals.<br />
Heavv metale in seawater<br />
Owing to the dif f icultieg in determining trace metals in seawater (very low<br />
concentrations sf these heavy rnetals; high concentrations of major ions; contaminetion of the<br />
sample during sampling, storage, and chemical manipulations; ease of interference by nnjor<br />
ions present; etc.) relatively few measur€rnents are reliabh. The comparison between values<br />
given by different authors is complicated by the use of different nethods which often<br />
neasune different physico-chemical forms and frections of the total amount present. On the<br />
other hand the distinction between these different forms is very importent beceuse they rct<br />
.differently in biogeochemical cycles and have different effects on marine organisms" Mct<br />
heavy netals are rrKtre toxic in ionic tlran in complexed forme. Only since the mid-1970's has<br />
chemical apeciation in seawater reeeived mueh attention.<br />
Influences from land obviously affect the concentration of fnavy nretals in near-shore<br />
regions, so a distinction must be made between the expected bvel of netals in theee rcgions<br />
and in the trqen seefr or trceanicrr sewater. The concentretione in coestal seawater are<br />
markedly effected by local influencea such as anthropogenic sources, river inputs and land<br />
run-off. Analyses of oceanic sawater will indicate the general hvel of lcavy rnetal<br />
concentratione in the qen ea, almost always at e much lower level.
- 240<br />
Oftenr a direct comparison is made between the level of metals in coastal waters and<br />
the average world ocean values, and if the former level is considerably higher, Lhen it is<br />
judged to be "very polluted". In fact, as any marine scientist knows, the natural background<br />
levels of the two systems are vastly different, and estuarine areas must. be compared to<br />
similar coastal environments.<br />
Heavy metals in sediments<br />
The study of sediments is of greal import.ance in measuring the distribution of heavy<br />
retals, since for the majority of the elenrents and substances, sediments are the ultimate<br />
rrsinkil or ttdeposit". Nat,ural sediments are mixtures of sands, clays and organic substances.<br />
The relative abundance of these components varies considerably with dif f erent types of<br />
sediment. The interaction of heavy metals with the sediments depends on their composition.<br />
Higher concenLrations of metals are usually found in mud and silt, rather than in sand, so the<br />
grain-size cfiaracteristies of the sediment samples must be assessed in interpreting the metal<br />
values observed.<br />
Heavv metals in marine oroanismg<br />
The concern about heavy melals in food has stimulated the analysis of toxic metals in<br />
fishery products: edible crustaceans, molluscs, and fish. Different species collected at the<br />
same site show great differences in their metal concentrations. Consequently body contents<br />
can rtly be compared between specimens of lhe same species, preferably of the same age or<br />
size. Details m the use of aquatic organisms as biological indicators are given by Phillips in<br />
his book rrGuantitative Aquatic Biological Indicators" (1980a). His proposal for monitoring<br />
studies m the contamination of the Eest Asian Seas by trace metals and organochlorines<br />
(Phillips, 1980b) is a very useful gnride.<br />
TtE ability of bivalves to concentrate zubstances far above their levels in the<br />
environnent makes them useful as sentinel organisms for indicating level of pollutants in<br />
coastal rnarine waters. This is the basis for the Mussel Watch Programme (Goldberg et {.,<br />
1978), now in qeration in the U.S. and some European countries for some years. Sorne<br />
countries in the East Asian region have also joined the prognamme.<br />
Hesvv metals in rivers<br />
Yeats et al. (1978) have demonstrated that river monitoring gives a faster and more<br />
reliabb warnlng-of changes dre to anthropogenic activity tfran npnitoring of coastal waters.<br />
Thus major rivers ehould also be rnonitored for any possible change in pollutant levels.<br />
Heavv metelg in the atmosphere<br />
Garrels and Mackenzie (f971.) estimated that rivers account for 90% of the total<br />
geaward transport of dissolved and suspended solids. However Windom (f981) reported that in<br />
lome ceses, the atmosph,eric flux to the continental shelf environment is similar to, or<br />
greater than the riverine flux, as in the latter mly the soluble fractions reach the<br />
continental ehelf, while npat of the suryended sdiments sre trapped in the estuary. Thus he<br />
irggests that atmoapheric flux cannot always be ignored.<br />
Heevv metal record in coastal sediments<br />
The pdiment aeeumulation ratee for cones from delta stations ean be determined by<br />
geochronological nnthods with suitable isotopes like Pb-210. lt is then possibb to assign ages<br />
to the vertieel cdiment strata. EvaluaLion of the vertical distribution of heavy melals in<br />
these corea givee a historical record of the input of elements to that area.<br />
lf a depoait ehowe increased concentrations of a s.rqeeted pollutant, s.rch as a rnetal,<br />
in its r.pperrpst levels relative to the deeper sediment, the differences in concentrat.ion are<br />
scribed to enthropogenic sources. However, special precautions must be taken before final<br />
cmclusions are drewn (Bertine, 1978).
- 24L<br />
BRIEF REVIEW G FTAVY METAL POLLUTION IN ASEAN COLNTRIES.<br />
Although studies of trace netal pollution have increased in the East Asian Seas reqion<br />
recently, rmst repor[s are made for local use only, and little information is nnre widely<br />
availab le.<br />
Ferguson Wood and Johannes (f975) mention in their book "Tropical Marine Pollution"<br />
that 'rlibraries in the coastal tropics are often poorly equipped. In addition' the literature m<br />
tropical marine pollution is widely scattered and often hard to obtain. Research on and<br />
evaluation of tropical marine pollution has therefore often been based on information<br />
obtained from a smatlering of inappropriate but relatively accessible information on<br />
temperate marine pollution." This book cites the few studies m feavy netals in the tropics'<br />
including those of levels in the sedimenL and marine biota of Pearl Harbour, Hawaii, tests of<br />
copper toxicity in South Florida marine organisms, and copper and nickel from desalination<br />
planl corrosion.<br />
The following brief review of lhe heavy rnetal pollution status in each ASEAN country<br />
is based on the very few papers available to the author.<br />
Indonesia<br />
Indmesia is a vast country consisting of more than l)rttrO islands' of which the most<br />
populated is Java. Soegiarto (f975) reported that the major sources of pollution are<br />
sedimentation, accelerated erosion due to inappropriate land management, dredging, and<br />
mining. Water quality problems arise from soil erosion in the headwaters of rivers, sediment<br />
deposition in the coastal plains which aggravate drainage problems, and pollution eaused by<br />
the density of human settlernent and industry in the plains. Sevenal reservoirs are fitling up<br />
with sedimenLs at an alarming rate (UNESCO/UNEP' 1980).<br />
Tfe results of pollution monitoring over the last few years indicate an increase in<br />
heavy rnetal concentrations in various waters such as Jakarta Bay and the Bangka Straits.<br />
Tferefore, the governnnnt has established a Tck Force for a Heavy Metal Moritoring<br />
Prrgramme with instructions:<br />
- to nnnitor other bodies of water, in particular around big cities and industrial centresl<br />
- to rneasure tcavy rretal concentrations at various toxic Ievels in phytoplanktont<br />
zooplankton, fish, benthic and sessile fauna, including commencially exploited or<br />
cultured shellfish;<br />
- to study the impact of heavy nretal pollution on the health of fishermen and their families<br />
through interviews and analysis of samples of hair and urine; and<br />
- to find out the possibb and potential sources of heavy nretal pollution in coastal waters.<br />
Malaysia<br />
The Division of Environment, Ministry<br />
established key stations f or water qualily<br />
Analyses are performed by the Department<br />
substances (UNESCo/UNEP, 1980).<br />
of Science, Technology end Environment has<br />
monitoring throughout Peninsular Malaysia.<br />
of Chemistry and include most of [he toxic<br />
Silvalingam (I980a) found fairly low levels of total mercury in Lropical algae at Penang'<br />
from below detectable level to 0.15 pq/q dry weight except for Padina sp. at 1.02 pg/g,<br />
although a study on the Juru River m Lhe mainland opposite Penang indicated high levels of<br />
mercury. Sivalingam and Sani (f980) found no correlation between biodeposited nercury in<br />
hair from fishing cornmunities of Penang, and mercury concentration in local fish. Tte level<br />
of mercury in fish muscle ranges from 0.217 to \.265 ppm, in liver I.48 to 7.500 ppm and in<br />
heart 0.945 to 16. 145 ppm dry weight. The highesL mercury in hair was found in the human<br />
age group over 40.<br />
Sivalingam et g!. (f98f ) studied the trace rretals in sea water, sedimentd and molluscs<br />
around Penang, and found the following:
For seawater (PPm)<br />
Cd Co Cr Cu<br />
0-0.05 0-0.I8 to 0.15 0.00<br />
For sediments (PPm drY'wt.)<br />
- 242<br />
Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn<br />
0-0.01 0.06-0.41 o-2.o7 0.07-0.26 0-0.04<br />
Cd Co Cr Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn<br />
o-L.Zi 4-i6 Z-iA.S I-26.5 1,500-18'750 12-189 I.8-?9.25 6'5-t5'?5 8'76<br />
one study on bioaccumulation nrechanisms (sivalingam, I98l) was mede on the<br />
Malaysian oyster, Saccostrea cucullata, under very high concentration stresses of from 5 to<br />
200 ppm cadmium, "ffiro.i:ur, "Jpper, iron, mercu.ryr rt€lnllanese' nickel, lead and zinc'<br />
These concentration levels €*e so higti'as'to exceed the solubilities in geawater of rnany<br />
netals, e.g. lead; g6u"-"-gru"t proporiion of the melal is in zuspensiont not in golution' The<br />
salls used were cadmium, chloride, cobalt chloride, copper chloride, ferric chloride' trErcuric<br />
chloride, manganese "nioliJ", nickel chloride, potassium dichromate and lead nitrate'<br />
The Philippines<br />
InthePhilippinestherearemanygovernrrEntagenciesdirectlylinkedwithrnnitoring<br />
of rnarine pollution and pollution in general'<br />
-Lttut"a<br />
of 4.5 million people and only L2-L5% in 1978 (Gornez, It81)' Coliform bacterial<br />
Mct pollution studies were made in the Manila Bay area, " nlqlll pop-ulated urban area<br />
contamination of the Bay may 8s-10o0/l00ml with a range of 200 to<br />
"utr"9u-"".tign<br />
2,m0,m0 per l00mi ,oln"."f,^or"{-n" Natlongl. Potlution Control Council standard for<br />
bathing beaches ir iOOO "f*,j fifonies/fOO m. fre Pasig River draining into the Bay had e rr'rcury<br />
conrenr of 0.r 1o B;.;;il-fx"p.u"n tgil) wnite tfte Hmda Bay area in Palawan' into which 2<br />
rivers wash over cinnabar, contained o.-obl to o.zlrs ng/g. neicury in seawater and 0'm4->2<br />
Fe/s in sedimenr ;;;;;-;il-jelty<br />
(K"p;;; "l 95' til3l. The re78 fisure for mercurv in<br />
Manila Bay averaged l0 ppb. ffre tevJls of otnff metals in the water were reported to be<br />
cadmium 0-0.09, ".p;; djo.fS, iron 0.68-I.!4, nnnganese 0'08-0'18, Iead 0't5,-0'29 and zinc<br />
0.06-0.10 mg/litre.''Th" "our"es of helv/ *"t"1 p6uu-tion are the industrial effluents from<br />
metal-plating and baftery factorier, -J mine-taiting eff luents'' There are many mines in the<br />
Phitippines. However, the mercuryr. cadmium and lead contents of the fish' oysters and<br />
mussels from Manil"-slv are still under the wHo permissible limit of 0.5 ppm'<br />
other areas of the country are still pollution-free and beaches are beautiful and clean<br />
(Gomez, I98I).<br />
, Kapauan et al. (1979) made an extensive report m [he contente of cadmium' copper'<br />
lead and zinc in . ";ti;iy of ti"r,, .*""i" ana oyslurs from samples collected from diffenent<br />
regions in the Phild;i;;s'tuom rSir-rgiZ. A nation-wide survey of nercury and other heavv<br />
metal pollution in Philippine waters,-aqu"ti" rii" and sedimenti was made by the Fmd and<br />
Nurririon Research Institute and the P;ildpi;"" Atomic Commission (1971-1978)' Lead<br />
E.n"tsy<br />
and cadmium were determined by differeniial pulse anodic stripping voltammetry and copper<br />
and zinc by atomic absorption spectrophotometiy' The nesults oi tnese studies are surnrnarized<br />
below in Pg/g wet weiqht'<br />
Cd<br />
range avenage<br />
fish 0-0.129 0.009<br />
mussel 0-0.271 0.054<br />
oyster 0.054-0.45 0.181<br />
Cu<br />
range average<br />
g.?o5-9.9t O.97<br />
1.85-5.0 2.95<br />
10.6-54.0 tL.t<br />
Tfe ratio of lhese heavy rnetals in oyster/mussel/fish was:<br />
Cd<br />
Cu<br />
Pb<br />
Zn<br />
201<br />
t2l<br />
2.41<br />
16l<br />
6l r<br />
,I I<br />
2.81 r<br />
ur<br />
Pb<br />
range average<br />
0-0.48 0.015<br />
o.o?4-0,244 0.(B8<br />
0-0.190 0.084<br />
Zn<br />
range average<br />
2.59t42.' s.rl<br />
10.4-5t.9 L6.7<br />
25.6-27.9 Lr.z
Fourteen species of shellfigh<br />
qranosar Craesostrea cucullata and<br />
stations in pq/g dry weight:<br />
Anadara qranoss<br />
Crassostrea cucullata<br />
Mytilus viridis<br />
Sinqapore<br />
cd<br />
r-5<br />
5-8<br />
0-l<br />
Co<br />
- 24t<br />
were studied<br />
Mytilus viridis<br />
Cr<br />
Cu<br />
but<br />
are<br />
Fe<br />
here only the resulte of Anadara<br />
snmarized, with the range for ali<br />
5.5-9 16-18- 8-t] 560-1020 ll-r9 L6-24 7-r8 72-LO4<br />
4-L5 15-18 89-528 100-1070 9-22 22-tL 4-r8 650-1400<br />
l-I8 to-16 to-18 220-860 6-26 22'50 4'7 48-102<br />
Tte land area of Singapore is emall and none of its rivers are large. In addition severel<br />
rivers have water supply reservoirs or heve been diverted. Water storage areas have been<br />
established in several estuaries and so considerable effort is expended to maintain a high<br />
water quality for storm run-off. The quantity of pollutants discharged to the sea by rivers is<br />
now small. Sarage is treated to a high standerd and agricultural wasle ie small.<br />
(UNESCO/UNEP le80).<br />
The mly study available to the author m tcavy metals in t}le Singapore environment<br />
was by Rahman, Sien and Ping (1981) who worked on cobalt, nickel, lead and mercury in<br />
seawaler and sediments around Singapore.<br />
Thailand<br />
Tln values found in seawater were (pg/l):<br />
Co 0-0.15<br />
Ni 0.55-I.0<br />
Pb 0-40<br />
Hq 0 (detection limit 0.f rrq/l)<br />
In sediment the following levels of heavy metals were treasured (mg/g dry weight):<br />
Co<br />
Ni<br />
Pb<br />
Hg<br />
L2.2L<br />
0-9.8<br />
20-?8<br />
14.0-15.0<br />
Tfraitand is bordered m the south by two seas: the Gulf of Theiland to the east is part<br />
of South China $ea (the Pacific Ocean), and the Andeman Sea to ihe west is part of the<br />
Indian Ocean. The problem area is the Upper Gulf of Thailand which receives water from 4<br />
major rivers draining past populated cities and carrying with them waste weterr nnstly raw<br />
without any form of treatment. These wastes are hrgely domestic wastes from urban area8.<br />
Moreover, along the coast there are additional waste inputs from human settlernentsr tapioca<br />
flour faclories, etc. Since the Upper Gutf hes a limiLed water exchange with the Lorer Gutft<br />
this creates great stress m ihe Upper Gulf which is an important nursery ground for marine<br />
animals, including cockle farms, oyster farms, and mussel farms as well as some strrimp farms.<br />
Systemstic pollution monitoring of the Gutf of Thailand was started in I97, by a<br />
working group of scientists from several governnent agencies, with the Department of<br />
Fisheries -of ltre Ministry of Agriculture and Co-qeratives and the Department of Merine<br />
Science of Chulalongkorn University taking the lead, under the co-ordination and gonsorship<br />
of the National Reseanch Council. Later on the Andeman Sea coast wa8 included in the<br />
programme. Tle Office of the National Environrnent Board has played an increasingly greater<br />
role since its recent establishment.<br />
The monitoring and research programme m netal pollution in marine waters can be<br />
broadly divided into lour sectors: seawater, sediments, marine animals, and river water input.<br />
Ni<br />
Pb<br />
Zn
Sea water<br />
- 244<br />
The sea water in the upper Gulf of Thailand has been receiving a lol of stnesses from<br />
multi-purpose uses. Tfre foun'major rivers, especially the.chao Phrya River running through<br />
the Bangkok urban area, carry a high .oni"nt of municipal wastes, largely untreated' as well<br />
€$ accumulated industrial wastes from small uncontrollable industries' The oxygen level of the<br />
Chao Phrya River in the Bangkok area becomes low in the d.y season' However' a far as the<br />
n""uy meials are concerned, the levels are still normal'<br />
There is some controversy as to Lhe real baseline levels of trace elements in seawatert<br />
as is partly shown in Table I below. However, allowing for the nrethods used to obtain each<br />
set of figures, the discrepancies can be explained .and tire real value should be nearer to the<br />
first column; as methods are refined furthei, the difference could become even less'<br />
Table I : canparison of the trsce rnetals in seawater obtained by various workers (in pq/l)<br />
Ebnent Hungspreug"l(tggt) Idthikasemz(lgSr) PolprasertJ(I979)<br />
Cd average<br />
ran9e<br />
Cr.everage<br />
range<br />
Cu average<br />
ran9e<br />
Pb average<br />
range<br />
Zn average<br />
ran9e<br />
Total<br />
0. ll<br />
0.0J- 0.25<br />
2.O<br />
L.2- 4.4<br />
1.0<br />
r.9- 4.4<br />
r8.4<br />
t4.7- 19.9<br />
Sunrmary of nethods used:<br />
I. Hungspreugs (I981)<br />
Dissolved<br />
0.05<br />
0.0r- 0.16<br />
o.24<br />
o.20- a.29<br />
0.90<br />
0.50- 2.m<br />
0.55<br />
0.06- l.15<br />
L2.9<br />
10.8 -21.0<br />
0.I-- 1.4<br />
r.o-io.o<br />
2.0- 18.0<br />
i.s-ig.o<br />
77.t<br />
47.6- 87.5<br />
252.8<br />
Ltz.O-165.4<br />
59.5<br />
17.8- 70.0<br />
461.8<br />
tt4.r-560.2<br />
74.9<br />
J7.4-124.2<br />
Co-precipitationofmetal.APDCchelatefromacidifiedseawaterwith<br />
cobalt-APDC, centrifuge at 8000 rpm, stir and wash the precipiiate with..qy.Ttt<br />
double-distilled waterr- *ntrifug" again. Dissolve the precipitate in redistilled<br />
nitric acid. Measurements are -madJ in an atomic absorption spectrophotometer<br />
(AAS) with graphite furnace equipped with deuterium background correclion'<br />
Standard addition rnethod is used.' ii"an-room technique is practised.<br />
2. Idthikasem et al. (198f)<br />
Solvent extrsction of metal-APDC complex in sample into MIBK' then<br />
s.rbjected to air-acetylene flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer'<br />
). Polprasert et eL (f979)<br />
After ecidification of 500-1000 ml of seawater with nitric acid, evaporate in<br />
eglassbeakeruntitl0ml.remain,theninjecteddirectlyintotheatomic<br />
absorp[ion flame.<br />
Ssdimantt<br />
ttisdifficulttocomparethevaluesofheavyrnetalsinsedimentsmadebydifferent<br />
workers using different methods of digestion. vo"uo"er differences in grain oize of'sediments<br />
also influence lheir heavy metal contenti-srnalt, silt-si z-ed muds always contain a higher metal<br />
loed than larger sandy sediments. -A g"nerat "Lr""y of the heavy netals in ediments in the<br />
Gutf of Thailand is Jbwn below. Tfese were digesied in hot concenSeted nitric acid'
- 245<br />
Upper Gutf of Thailand, rnainly fine mud, in ppm dry weight (ldthikasem' l98l):<br />
cd 0.05 - 0.21<br />
Co 4.0 - I8<br />
Cu 1.8 - 2t<br />
Hg 0.I - 0.I)<br />
Pb L7 -t5<br />
Zn 5.8 - lI5<br />
Middle and Lower GuIf of Thailand (Hungspreugs, 1983)<br />
cd 0.rl - 0.61<br />
Cr 24.8 - 48.0<br />
Cu 9.0 - 14.0<br />
Pb 10.5 - 2r.0<br />
Zn 22.9 - 42.O<br />
The Andaman Sea (Hungspreugs and Yuangthong, 1982)<br />
cd 0.I0 - 0.17<br />
Cu 5.41 - 8.99<br />
Pb o.7r - 19.25<br />
Zn L2.62 - 77.50<br />
In the study of sediments for pollution, it is not enough to analyse only the surface<br />
sediment. The history of sedimentation must also be studied to detect any increase over the<br />
natural level caused by anthropogenic sources. This is done by analysing the metal contents<br />
of various strsta in the sediment core, coupled with radioactive geochronology of the core.<br />
Examples of such studies done elsewhere are Goldberq et al. (f979), Bentine (1978)' etc<br />
Windom et g. (f982) made one such study in the Upper Gulf of Thailand and found the<br />
sedimentation rate to be between J.J and 8.9 mm/year with the highest rate at the mouth o'<br />
the Chao Phnya River.<br />
Marine organiems<br />
A few euthors have reported on the heavy nretal contamination of marine organisms it<br />
Thai waters, namely Huschenbeth and Harms (I975), Wattayakorn et eL (L979) anl<br />
Hungspreugs and Siriruttanaehai (1981). Menasveta and Cheevaparanapiwat (f9Bf) 8D'<br />
Siwareksa et aL (f98I) worked on mercury in marine animals. Both groups found mercur<br />
content in-Tish to be mostly below 0.1 ppm in agneement with the nesults of Huschenbeth an<br />
Harms (1975). However, the local workers' values for cadmium and lead must be regarded a<br />
rather high, due to the inferior instrunent in use up to 1980. In the case of lead in th<br />
oyster Crasgotrea commercialis, Hungspreugs (1981), using an AAS with flameless graphit<br />
furnace-arxl cleuterium background correction, found a much lower value of around 0.)5 ppt<br />
dry weight for lead and 0.26 ppm for cadmium instead of the former high values of 15.0 an<br />
8.9 ppm respectively. The most recent values for cadmium and lead in economically importar<br />
bivalves are (in pS/S dry weight):<br />
Perna viridis<br />
PapnA--""0"t"t"<br />
Anadare qranosa<br />
Cressostrea commercialis<br />
Amusium pleuronectes<br />
Cd pg/g<br />
0.49<br />
o.42<br />
o.77<br />
o.26<br />
0.48<br />
Pb rrg/q<br />
which are all within the limits set by the Australian Nationel Heatth and Medical Researr<br />
Council in 1979 (1.0 for Cd and 2.5 for Pb).<br />
Fo fish, Huschenbeth and Harms (1975) found a range of 0.001 to 0.25 ppm f<br />
cadmium, 0.20 to 1.25 ppm for copper, 0.01-0.22 ppm for lead and 2.9 to 19.9 ppm for zinc<br />
marine fish from all major areas.<br />
Brown and Holley (f98]) made a study of the effect of tin dredging and smelting on t<br />
marine animals nearby and found no increase in metal levels in those animals. The dissolv<br />
netal content of the water did not change significantly. They explained that perhaps the<br />
0.48<br />
o.26<br />
o.47<br />
a.t6<br />
0.4I
- 246<br />
organisms reiect the metal particulates, so the increese in particulates had no effect on<br />
them. Hoff, Thompson and Wong (1982) rcported a temporary increase in nretal levels after<br />
mixing mine tailings wibh seawater in a laboratory experiment.<br />
River water study<br />
Up to now, the marine pollution study group has worked nninly in the sea, but recently'<br />
it has become clear that the cfiaracterisbics of individuel river basins, srch as their climatet<br />
vegetaLion, geomorphology and the mineralogical composition of their soils and rocks,<br />
constitute the background conditions that determine the chemical composition and quantities<br />
of materials carried by the rivers to the sea. The humen factors zuperimposed m the natunal<br />
pristine condition largely arise from technology, the culture of the inhabitants, and the<br />
population density. All these have a dir.ect influence on the coestal seas. To trace the<br />
probbms of the estuarine areas, one must go up the river to find the possible causes. It is<br />
thus necessary to etudy the river system.<br />
Conclusions and reeommendations<br />
The last few years have seen great progress in the ASEAN countries in the field of<br />
marine pollution and in marine science in general. However, this review has been limited by<br />
the lack of aveilable published informetion. Much recent work is not yet widely available and<br />
even more is in progress.<br />
After evaluating past studies on heavy nretal pollution and considering the rapid<br />
increase in recent work, a few points need to be ernphasized. Sone of these ere taken from<br />
the Report of ASEAN/UNEP Study Tour and Technical Workshop m Water Guality MmiLoring<br />
and Management, Singapore (198I) on laboratory staff training..<br />
l. A training programme is needed to enable (new) staff to acquire the skills necessary for<br />
analytical procedures.<br />
2. Staff need to understand bhe meaning of the results obtained and their relationship with<br />
. other parameters. Thus there is a need to include a short course on concepts related to<br />
the Iaboratory tests performed, in addition to training in laboratory skills.<br />
l. Staff need to be interested in and capable of equpmenl maintenance.<br />
4. The competency of the staff must be regularly checked to minimize discrepancies in<br />
resu lts.<br />
5. Advanced laboratory equiprnent should not be purchased rrerely for its sophistication, but<br />
also for practicality and usefulness, and the ability of the rupplier to provide prompt<br />
and satisfactory maintenance service.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Bertine, K. 1978. Means of determining natural versus anthropogenic fluxes to estuarine<br />
sediments, p. 246-250. In Biogeochemistry of Estuarine Sediments, Proceedings of a<br />
UNESCO/SCOR W orksh op, 197 6.<br />
Brown, 8.E., and M.C. Holley. 1981. Metal levels associated with tin dedging and smelting<br />
and their effect upon interLidal reef flats at Ko Phuket, Thailand. Journal of Coral Reef<br />
Research [ln press]<br />
ESCAP. 1980. Review of activities and consideration of issues in bhe field of the<br />
Environment. Report of the Regional Meeting m the Protection of the Marine Environment<br />
and related Ecosystems in Asia and the Pacific, Fourth Session, September 1980, Bangkok.<br />
E/ESCAP/IHT 412T.<br />
Ferguson Wood, E.J. and R.E. Johennes [ed.]. L975. Tropical Marine Pollution. Elsevier,<br />
Amsterdam. 192p.
- 247<br />
Garrels, R.M. and F.T. Mackenzie. 1971. Evolution of Sedimentary rocks.<br />
W.W. Norton, New York, N.Y. 397 p.<br />
Goldberg, E.D., V.T. Bowen, T.W. Farrington, G. Herveyr .IH. Martin' P.L. Parker, R.W.<br />
Riseborough, W. Robertson, E. Sc$neider, and E. Gamble. L978. The Mussel Watch.<br />
EnvironrnentalConservation5(2): Surnrner1978.<br />
Goldberg, E.D., J.J. Griffin, V. Hodge, and tvl Koide. 1979. Pollution history of the Savanneh<br />
River Estuary. Environ. Sci. and Tech. ll: fr8-594.<br />
Gomez, E.D. 1979. The Philippines rnarine environment 1978. Marine pollution and degradation<br />
of ecosysteffisr p. !{J6-53I. ln Proceedings of the Fourth Symposium on the Co-qerative<br />
Study of the Kuroshio and thFAdjacent Region, 14-17 February L979, Tokyo.<br />
Hoff, J.T., IA.J. Tfnmpson, and C.S. Wmg. 1982. Heavy meLal release from mine tailings<br />
into seawater - a laboratory study. Mar. Pollut. Bull. ll(8): 281-285.<br />
Hungspreugs, M. 1981a. A likely baseline level of cadmium, copper, lead and zinc in seawater<br />
from the Upper Gulf of Thailand. J. of Scientific Research, Faculty of Science (ISSN<br />
O625-6tt5) 6z J5-47.<br />
Hungspreugs, M. 1981b. The natural levels of cadmium and lead in the economically important<br />
molluscs of Thailand. J. of Scientifie Research, Faculty of Science 6t 2OJ-2O9.<br />
Hunqspreugs, M. and S. Siriruttanachai. 1981. Accumulation of cadmium, copper, lead and zinc<br />
in the oysters in lhe Gulf of Thailand, p, 188-195. In Proceedings of the Second Seminar on<br />
the Water Guality and the Ouality of Living Resources in Thai Waters, 26-28 May 1981.<br />
National Research Council.<br />
Hungspreugs, M. and C. Yuangthong. 1982. Cadmium, copper, lead, zinc and oxidizable<br />
organic malter in the sediment strata from the Andaman Sea. In Proceedings of the Second<br />
Seminar m Marine Science, Bang Sren, 8-10 September 1982 [ln press]<br />
ldthikasem, A., R. Bamrungrajhiran, W. Kaewpakdee, and K. Chingchit. 1981, Analyses of<br />
some trace metals in sea water and marine sediments, p, 165-179. In Proceedings of the<br />
Second Seminar on the Water Gualit.y and the Guality of Living Res6u-rces in Thai Waters,<br />
26-28 May I98I. National Research Council.<br />
Jothy, A.A. 1975. Report on marine pollution problems in Malaysia. International Workshop on<br />
Marine Pollution in East Asian Waters, Penang, April 1975. IOCiIWMPEAW/U.<br />
Kapauan, A.F., P.A. Kapauan, E.O. Tan, and F.P. Verceluz. 1979, Total rercury in water and<br />
sediments from the Hmda Bay Area in Palawan. Final Report submitted to NSDB and<br />
PAEC, Technical Report No. PAEC (C) IE 8005 (NSDB).<br />
Kapauan, P.A. and I.A. Ronquillo. 1981. Marine pollution research and rnonitoring in the<br />
Phitippines. UNESCO/lOC/TTMPRM ICP 18. Manila.<br />
Kapauan, P.A., L.A. Salamat, F.P. Verceluz, and P.G. Beltran. 1979. Cadmium, lead, copper<br />
and zinc in Philippines aquatic life. Fisheries Research Journal of the Philippines 4 (I), vol<br />
2' P.I<br />
Menasveta, P. and V. Cheevaparanapivat. 1981. Total and organic mercury in marine fish of<br />
the Upper Gulf of Thailand. ln Proceedings of bhe Fourth Symposium on the Co-qerative<br />
Study of the Kuroshio and the-Adjacent Region, Tokyo, l4-I7 February, 1979. p. M9-459.<br />
Phillips, D.J.H. 1980a. Ouantitative aquatic biological indicators. Applied Science Publishers.<br />
488 pp.<br />
Phillips, D.J.H. I980b. Proposal for monitoring studies rr the contamination of the Eest Asian<br />
seas by trece rnetsls and onganochlorines. UNEP/WG 4IllNF lJ.<br />
Polprasert, C., 5. Vmgvisessomjai, B.N. Lohani, 5. Muttamara, A. Arbhabhirama, S.<br />
Traichaiyaporn, P.A. Khan, and S. Wangsuphachart. 1979. Heavy Metals, DDT and PCB in<br />
the Upper Gulf of Thailand. Research Report No. 105, Division of Environnental<br />
Ergineering, Asian Instilute of Technology, Bangkok. 1L6 p,
- 248<br />
Rahaman, A., C.L. Sien, and D.C.S. Ping. 1981, Pollution of waler by hydrocarbons and heavy<br />
melals around Singapore. Proceedings of the Second 5ymposium on Our Environment,<br />
Singapore, November L4-L5, L979. p. ?74-29).<br />
Report of ASEAN/UNEP Study Tour and Technical Workshop on Water Guality Monitoring and<br />
Management, Singapore, l4-I9 December 1981.<br />
Sivalingam, P.M. 1980a. Bibaccumulation rnechanisms of trece netals by the Malaysian rock<br />
oysterr Saccostrea cucullata, under high concentration stresses, p. )45-355. In Proceedings<br />
of the Second Symposium m Our Environrnent, Singapore, November 14-16, 1979.<br />
Sivalingam, P.M. 1980b. Mercury contamination in lropical algal species of the Island of<br />
Penang, Malaysia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. lI: 106-107.<br />
Sivalingam' P.M.' and A.B. Sani. 1980. Mercuty content in hair from fishing communities of<br />
the State of Penang Malaysia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. ll: 188-191.<br />
Sivalingam, P.M., T. Ymhida, Fl Kojima, and I. Allapit,chay. 1981. Trace rnetals biodeposition<br />
and its extenl of pollution in coasLal molluscs, sediments and sea water samples from the<br />
lsland of Penang, Malaysia, p. 5t2-544. In Proceedings of ihe Fourth Symposium on the<br />
Co-qerative Study of the Kuroshio and the Adjacent Region, Tokyo, 14-17 February, L979.<br />
Sivaraksar S.r P. Oriboon, L Viriyasiripaisarn, T. Klintrimas, and T. BoonyashotmonakuL 1981.<br />
Mercury contenl in marine faunas, p.2)8-242. In Proceedings of the Second Seminar on the<br />
Water Ouality and the Guality of Living Re-sources in Thai Waters, 26-28 May, 1981.<br />
National Research Council.<br />
Segiarto, A. 1975. The impact of human activities upon the eoastal environment in Indonesia,<br />
p. Ill-I1). In Pacific Science Associaiion Special Symposium on Marine Seiences, Hong<br />
Kmg, 7-16 December 197].<br />
UNESCO/UNEP. 1980. River lrput to South-East Asian Seas. Project No. FPIOSOJ-79-08 (2099)<br />
Finel Report, Paris, November 1980.<br />
Waldichuk, M.<br />
24r-24?.<br />
1980. Lead in the marine environrnent (Editorial). tvtar. Pollut. Bull. 1I:<br />
Wattayakorh, G., N4. Hungspreugs, and O. Chanpongsang. 1979. Accumulation of centain heavy<br />
metals in marine animals from the Upper Gulf of Thailand. Chulalongkorn University<br />
Research Journal & 37-49.<br />
Windom, l-l'L. 198I. Comparison of atmospheric and ri verine transport of trace elements to<br />
the continental shelf .environrnent, . p. t6O-t7O. In River Irputs to Ocean Systems.<br />
Proceedings of a SCORiUNESCO/IOC/UNEP Review Workshop, Rorne, March 1979.<br />
Windorn, H.L., M. Paulsen, and lvl Hungspreugs. 1982. Rates of sedimentation in the upper<br />
Gutf of Thailand using the lead-210 method. In Proceedings of the Second Seminar on<br />
Marine Science, Rang Saen, 8-10 September, lggZ [ln press],<br />
Yeats, P.A., J.M. Bewers, and A. Walton. 1978. Sensitivity of coastal waters to<br />
anthropogenic trace metal emissions. Mar. Pollut. Bull. *, 264-268.
- 249<br />
TIN MINI}IG AND SEDIMENTATIOI.I EFFECTS OT{ SI-IALLOW WATER BENTHIC COMMWITIES<br />
Hansa Chaneang<br />
Phuket Marine Biological Center<br />
P.O.Box 60, Phuket, Thailand<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Tin mining is a rna.ior economic activity in parts of South-East Asia. Bucket<br />
or suction dredges are increasingly being used to mine tin deposits in shallow<br />
coastal areas. Dredging depreciates coastline aesthetic values and lhus hurts<br />
tourism. It also destroys irnporLant shallow water benthic communities such as<br />
coral reefs, sea grass beds and mangroves, both by physical disturbance and<br />
particularly by siltation. lnformation on lhe extent of damage to these resources<br />
is sfill limited. Sludies of coastal resources in southern Thailand are being used to<br />
plan measures to reduce the environrnental effects of mining activity, particularly<br />
as they affect tourism and fisheries.<br />
In South-East Asia, tin is me of the major mineral resources that are important Lo the<br />
national economy. Explorabion for tin ore has been conducted extensively in lndonesiat<br />
Malaysia and Thailand. tn 1980, Thailand produced 45,986 metric tons of tin, wort.h US$ 577<br />
million, making it the second major Lin producing counlry of the world (Suwansing, f982).<br />
Mgst of the tin ore is from the Lhree southern provinces of Ranong, Phang-nga and Phuket<br />
along the Andaman coast.<br />
Tin ore is mined as cassiterite (5nO.) which is often associated with granite and<br />
pegmalitesr generally in alluvial deposils m fand and in coasLal waters. Ore deposits s-r land<br />
are mainly mined hydraulically by what is locally known as the gravel punping npLhod.<br />
Dredging is used to recover mineral deposits from shallow waters and swampy areas.<br />
Tin mininq on land<br />
Gravel punping mining involves liquefying unconsolidated deposits in an open pit wi[h a<br />
high pressure water jet, after removing the top soil. The mixture is punrped to a slightly<br />
sloping sluice box. Tin ore and other heavy materials settle m t}re bottom of the sluice box<br />
and are prevented fnom flowing down by rows of baffles, while lighter materials are washed<br />
away as mine tailings. Tailings are fed into hrnded areas and old mine pits where solids<br />
seLtle out and water is recycled or discharged into natural water-ways. This nrethod of<br />
mining creates several environnental problems both during qeraLion and after t}re mines are<br />
abandmed.<br />
One of the most obvious problems is surface water pollutionr although regulations exist<br />
regarding the diseharge of water into natural water-ways. Tle limit on the amount of<br />
*rspended solids in discharged water is high (6 q/l)p and often the regulations are not<br />
enforced. During the rainy season, runoff from lailings areas and someLimes the failure of the<br />
embankments of relention ponds result in liquid waste Btreams rich in zuspended materials.<br />
This lesds to highly turtid waters and sediment deposition in the water-ways and coastal<br />
waters, particularly in protected bays in areas of intensive mining.
- 250<br />
In addition, mining degrades the value of the land for agriculture or reforestation. Mct<br />
mining areas were originalla agricultural land or natural forests. Tq soils are Femoved during<br />
the mining process. Once the operation oeases, a large pit perhaps 15 m deep is usually left'<br />
with big fiies of stones and gravel scattered around on an uneven surface covered with fine<br />
and coarse sand. Very few plants can grow and the area is subiect to severe erosion during<br />
the rainy season.<br />
Kitching (f9S2) estimated the area covered by tailings and the annual addition to these<br />
areas in Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand as follows:<br />
Coastal dredoino<br />
Malaysia<br />
Indonesia<br />
Thailand<br />
Tailings area<br />
(ha)<br />
208,m0<br />
82,m0<br />
5l,mo<br />
Annual increrrent<br />
(ha)<br />
2,000<br />
400<br />
100<br />
In Tfrailand and Indonesia, offshore and coastal mining has inereased in recent years. In<br />
1980 over 50% of tin production in Thailand came from coastal waters. Production from<br />
coastal waters is increasing as mshore deposits become depleted.<br />
Coastel mining csuses two major types of environmental damage. It results in the<br />
depreciation of eoaitline aesthetic values through turbid water, mud deposition on the<br />
boltom, and changing the monphology of the shoreline if dredging is done close to shore. It<br />
also destroys importlnt shallow water benthic habitats sch as coral reefs, sea grass beds,<br />
mangrove swamps and other benthic communities by direct destnuction or by disturbence from<br />
sedimentation. Tfese coastal habitats are known to be highly productive and are important<br />
breeding and mtrsery gnounds for commercially valuable marine orqanisms.<br />
Mct mininq effects are from physical distuiance, mainly from siltation and direct<br />
destruction. There are no reports of chemical hazards from tin mining, a potentially toxic<br />
heavy metals are seldom found. Although lead and arsenic are associated with cessiterite in<br />
some localities, they generally occur in small amounts in insoluble forms.<br />
Dredging is the method used to remove ore deposits from swamp areas and shallow<br />
waters down to about J0 metres. The nethods were adapted from canal or harbour dredging<br />
and were first applied to tin mining in Phuket Bay, Thailand in 1907. Tte sediment is brought<br />
up either by bucket ladder or suction. Tin ore is separated by gravity as in land based mines.<br />
Tailings are discharged directly from the rear of the dnedge. Tlc heavy fractions immediately<br />
sink to the botLom wnile fine particles form a turbid plume and are distributed in the vicinity<br />
of the dredge depending upon the current regime before settling out.<br />
Tfe types of dredge widely accepted as efficient in retrieving tin ore are the ladder<br />
type chain hrcket dredqe and the suction'dredge. Tte former was lhe first kind of dredqe<br />
used in shoreline and offshore mining. This type of bucket dredge generates sediment plunes<br />
from all parts of its operation: dredging sediment from the bottom, transporting it up the<br />
ladder and discharging taitings. Such a dredge.can generate quite substantiel amounts of<br />
suspended sediment. If can remove up to IrI40 m-/hr of sediment and operate 24 hours a day.<br />
In protected areas, it can operate up to 300 days a year. The suction type dredges are of<br />
srnaller size and involve less capital investment. The suspended sediment plurne is generally<br />
created by releasing the mine tailings back into the surface waters. A thltd type of dredge<br />
eommonly found in Thailand is the diver guided zuction dredge. These were. modified from<br />
fishing boats when near-shore dredging began l0 years ago. These small dredges are<br />
concentrated in shallow water up to I8 metres deep along the coast of Phang-nga province in<br />
the concession area of the provincial government. The method employed uses the same<br />
principle as the larger zuction dredge. With a diver guiding the suction headr they can<br />
selectively coltect the'rich deposits. Hor,rrever, the small size of their sluice box makes them<br />
inefficienl in separating ore from tailings. In l98l there were some 5,(I)0 boatg in qeration.<br />
This large number of Loats can cause rather serious destruction and sedimentation in the<br />
aree. Hor^rever, no informetion is available m the extent of environnental damage created by<br />
these srnall boats.
- 251<br />
Most of the coastal mining in Thailand is along the wes! coast of Phang-nga Province<br />
facing the Andamarr Sea. Weather conditions limit mining in ihese areas to the calm seas of<br />
the northeast monsoon (November-April) each year. When in operation, the sediment plunn<br />
from an aggregation ot small boats or from large dnedges can easily be detected by satellite.<br />
Effects of minino<br />
Within the last few years, the effects of mining in coastal waters have created public<br />
concern in Thailand with respect to both the aesthetic value and the produclivily of coastal<br />
ecosystems. Public reaction also depends upon the location of the dredging. Mast concern<br />
arises from conflicts of interest in the utilizetion of coastal resources by various sectors. For<br />
this reason, some informaLion is available regarding potential environmental damage lo<br />
resources from mining off the west coast of Phuket Island, although mining on the west coast<br />
is recent in companison to the 75 years of mining on the east coast and in Phang-nga Bay.<br />
The main issue concerns the mining of rich deposits along ihe west coast which have become<br />
popular resorLs because of [heir beautiful sandy beaches and clear waters. Income from<br />
tourism has become more important locally and nationally at about the sarne time as tin<br />
deposits m land have become depleted after more than 100 years of mining m Phuket Island.<br />
Recently, the National EnvironmenLal Board of Thailand has completed a I year study of the<br />
physical environment and living resources of Lhe coastal waters. The sLudy will be used for<br />
future planning of nesource utilization to minimize zuch conflicts of inLerest and lo prepare<br />
measufes to decrease environmental damage from mining qerations.<br />
In brief, these studies found turbulent water movement up to 40 netres depth along Lhe<br />
shore (Charoenlaph, 1982). Therefore any s-rspended solids brought up dredging would spread<br />
along the coast, mly settling out at a speed determined by the current velocity. Unless<br />
measures can be taken to limit plume distribution effectively, the water quality of several<br />
beach resorts will be affected. Mininq close to shore could also cause beach instability.<br />
Corel reefs<br />
With regard to effecls on benthic communities along the west coast, coral reefs are<br />
identified as one of the major fesources affected by mining activities. An inven[ory of reef<br />
resources (Chansang et al., 1982) showed that fringing reefs are found along the west'coas[<br />
within bays and along proLected shorelines. Since reefs are highly valued both their unique<br />
attractiveness and their importance as highly productive resources, the destruction of coral<br />
reefs has been one of the major issues, together with turbidity, in the public debate about<br />
mining. The same reporl showed that in Bang Tao Bay on the west coast with ongoing<br />
dredging act,ivity, the reef areas covered by dead coral arc 67.7Yo on the norlhern side and<br />
62.wo on the southern side. All dead corals are covered by sediment. At the northern reef,<br />
sediment may also have come from the land in the pasL, as there is sttbstantial land accreLion<br />
at the mouth of a canal draining in[o the bay at lhe norlhern end.<br />
In general, tJre ef f eets of sedimentation upon coral reef s ate guite well known<br />
(Johannes, 1975; Bak, f978). Drawing on the results of various investigators, Loya (f976)<br />
summarized the detrimental effec[s of sedimentation on corals as follows: a) causing the<br />
deaLh of corals when they are heavily coated or buried by sediments, b) reducing coral<br />
growth potential directly by abrasion and smothering and indirectly by blocking lighl' c)<br />
inhibiting coral planulae settlement and development and d) modifying the growth of corals<br />
sometimes toward lhe evolution of forms rnore resistant to sedimentation.<br />
The damaged reefs at Bang Tao Bay are clear evidence of the effect of uncontrolled<br />
mining operalions. In trying io accommodate dredging activity while maintaining water quality<br />
and preserving the environnent in some localities, ari the National Env.ironmental Board<br />
intends, one of the main challenges will be to establish water quality standards in dredging<br />
areas on a sound scientific basis to ensure that both immediate and long lerm effects of<br />
increasing turbidity will not occur. lt is quite likely that the mining indus[ry would object to<br />
any high water quality standard since the technology for limiLing plume distribution has not<br />
yeL been tried in tin dredging and since capital investment would be higher. Howeverr a<br />
compromise in the water quality standard would mean increased long term turbidity which<br />
would be likely to affect both coral reefs and tourism. Coral reefs along the west coast of<br />
Phukel are already in more turbid waters than other known reefs which attract tourism;<br />
increasing turbidity would reduce their value even further. Changes in their community<br />
structure are also possible.
Marine fauna and flora<br />
- 252<br />
Besides the direct effect on corals, which are the building blocks of reefs, the effects<br />
of turbidity m the associated fauna and flora have not been studied. Poopetch et aL (1982)<br />
reported on a preliminary investigation of the effect of sediment on larvae of -tre spiny<br />
lobster Panulirus versicolor. The median lethal concentration was about l)B ppm of s.rspended<br />
solios offi-F6uE-ti general, the reproductive phases and early stages of aquatic animals<br />
are partieularly vulnerable to disturbance by suspended solids and sediments (Muncy et e!.'<br />
I979).<br />
The effect of mining m rnacroinvertebrate communities of the sandy bottom along the<br />
west coast of Phuket has been studied by Nateewathana et al. (1982). In the vicinity of a<br />
dredging site, benthic macrofauna decreases in density, biomass and gecies composition. TfE<br />
effeet is localized, and recolonization occurs afLer a certain peniod of time. The dredging<br />
effect is superimposed m natural fluctuations due to sea states associated with the monsoon<br />
seasons. At present, it is not possible to predict the full recovery of benthic macrofaunal<br />
populations affected by mining. However, Lhe data show that [his would require more than a<br />
year. With respect to the effect of dredging on benthic macnofauna which are food for<br />
demersal fishes, the present mining activity in Bang Tao 8ay would have a minimal effect on<br />
the demersal fishery of the west coast. However, most of the west coast areas have potential<br />
value for tin dredging. Therefore, the significance of the effect of dredging m the demersal<br />
fishery of the west coast wilt depend upon lhe extent of mining acLivity.<br />
The studies sponsored by Nalional Environrnental Board do not provide information on<br />
the importance of these areas as breeding and nursery grounds. Trawling has shown tha[ the<br />
gravid females of certain cornmercially important prawns, Penaeug monodon, l. . j493tus and<br />
P. merquensis, are found off the west coast of Phuket. Other circumstanLial evidence also<br />
GOiEates tFat [hese areas may be breeding grounds for squid. Squid are commonly netted in<br />
coastal waters from November lo February. AL the same time, squid eggs are often brought<br />
up by bottom lrawls. Hence the possible effect of dredging activity upon populatlons of these<br />
commercially important species is unknown.<br />
Mangrover<br />
Apart from information available from the west coast study' not much is known<br />
regarding the effects of tin dredging or tailings run off on other shallow watet benthic<br />
communities. In protected bays in the tropics, strorelines are usually fringed with mangrove<br />
vegetation and shallow bottorns are covered by sea grasses and macroalgae. These mangrove<br />
fringe estuaries are known to be highly productive and also to serve as nursery grounds for<br />
rnarine organisms living offshore. In some of the mangrove bays along the Andaman coaett<br />
dredging or sediment accumulation from tailings have been going on for a long time. No<br />
informalion is available regarding the extent of environmental change or the effect of mining<br />
activity m product.ivity in the bays. Within these J provinces, the whole area of )9'000 ha of<br />
mangrove forests contains tin ore. The Royal Forestry Department has a large scale project<br />
for ieplanting mangrove trees in abandmed mining areas. Tfn regeneretion of seedlinqs after<br />
dredging is quite successful compared to planting areas damaged by other mining methods.<br />
Althougtr mangrove trees are known Lo thrive in turbid water with high sedimentation' the<br />
trees can Ue litleA by zuffocation of aerial roots if the sedimentation nate is higher than<br />
under naLural conditions (Odum -and Jotrannes, 1975). In some areas of Phuket, large stands of<br />
rnangrove trees were killed by siltation from land based mines nearby. The accretion of<br />
sediment from mining rnay also chanqe the composition of the soil, making natural<br />
regeneration of mangrove seedlings rnore difficult or altering the forest community.<br />
Not rnuch is known about the effects of sedimentation on food webs in estuarine<br />
ecosystems and on impairment of the area as a nursery ground. This can only be inferred<br />
from the general effects of turbidity and sedimentation on the estuarine ecosystem<br />
elsewhere.
Sea grarsea<br />
- 25t<br />
Arnong the various tropical shallow water benthic communities, r*a grass communities<br />
are probably the least studied, althouqh it is generally accepted that Lhey are among the<br />
highest in productivity. Their importance as nursery sreas and as a source of food zupply to<br />
coastal ecosystems via the detritus food web is generally recognized. The distribution and<br />
productivity of the sea grass beds in the Andaman Sea are not yet known. They are generally<br />
found near reef areas and as patches in estuaries from low tide level down [o a depth of<br />
about I metres. Besides their importance as a shallow water habitat for marine organisms and<br />
as primary producers, turtles and dugongs feed directly m sea grasses. Dugongs reared in<br />
captivity at the Phuket Marine Biological CenLer were fed Halophila ov*' a common see<br />
grass species in the area.<br />
Reviewing the ef f ect of pollution m tropical sea grass ecosystem, Zieman (f975)<br />
stated: "of all forms of man-made or induced disturbanees of the estuarine and near-shore<br />
environments, dredging and filling presents lhe greatest potential for damage to the sea grass<br />
beds and has undoubtedly eaused the destruction of more desirable grass bed habitat than any<br />
other form of pollution.r'<br />
Besides direct physical destruction, the secondary effecLs can be far more gerious<br />
depending upon the intensity of dredging. Turbidity reduces light availability to sea grasses in<br />
nearby areas, Fauna associated with grass beds or m the bottom could be smothered by<br />
exeess sedimentation, or suffocated by low oxygen levels due to the high oxygen demand of<br />
the organic matter dredged up from anoxic layers.<br />
Changing sediment composition would change both the flora and fauna of bottom<br />
communiLies, not only of grass beds. These organisms are either food for commercially<br />
important species or young stages of such species. Therefore mining effects m lhe production<br />
of bottom communities need to be estimated.<br />
Conclusion<br />
In conclusion, the effects of tin mining on shallow water ben[hic communities are both<br />
direct and indirect. The direct effect is the physical destruction at the mining site by<br />
dredging. The secondary effect is the disturbance of surrounding areas by suspended<br />
sediment. Tlere is no evidence for other effects from mining besides disLurbance by<br />
sedimentation. Sediment from mining ha6 caused the death of corals in the vicinity and<br />
decreased the population of other benthic macroinvertebrates. Recovery of benthic<br />
macrofaunal populations after mining is possible. At present no information is availabb on<br />
the extent of damage from mining to other benthic communities sr.rch as see grasses or the<br />
detrital bse food web of tnengrove fringe estuarine ecosystems
- 254<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Bak' R.P. 1978. Lethal and sublethal effects of dredging on reef corels. Marine Pollution<br />
Bulletin 9(l):14-16.<br />
Chansang, l{r P. Boonyanate and M. Charuchinda. 1982. Status of eoral reefs along the aouth<br />
and west coasts of Phuket Island, Thailand lin Tfrai] Technical report strbmitled to the<br />
National Environrnental Board, Bangkok, Theiland.<br />
Charoenlaph' J. 1982. Preliminary report of a study of cument patterns along the west coaet<br />
of Phuket Island, Thailand. Report presented at Joint ThaiJ4anese Symposium on<br />
Mangroves and Marine science, )-5 september 1982. phuket, Thailand.<br />
Johannes' R.E. 1975. Pollution and degredation of coral reef communities, p. lI-51. In E.J.<br />
Ferguson Wood and R.E. Jotrannes [ed.], Tropical marine pollution. Elsevier, Amsterd-am.<br />
Kitching' FlW. 1982. Environmental msnagement in mineral resources development, p. 19-48.<br />
In Proceedings of the working group meeting m environmental management in mineral<br />
resource development. Mineral Resources Development Series No. 49. United Nations, New<br />
York.<br />
Loya' Y. 1976. Effect of water turbidity and sedimentation on the community structure of<br />
Puerto Rican corels. Bull. Mar. Sci. 25(4):450-466.<br />
Muncy' R.J.' C.J. Atchison, R.V. Bulkley, B.W. Menzal, LC. Perry, and R.C. Summerfelt.<br />
1979. Effects of suspended solids and sediment on reproduction and early-life of warm<br />
water fishes: e review. u.5. Environmental protection Agency, EpA 6uolJ-7i-o42. l0r p.<br />
Nateewathana, A.J. Hylleberg and B. Chatrananthavej. 1982. Effect of sedimentation from<br />
offshore mining on benthos of wesL coast of phuket Island lin Thai] Technical report<br />
submitted to the National Environmental Board, Bangkok, Thailand.<br />
Odum, W.E. and R.E. Johannes. L975. TrF response of mangroves to man-induced<br />
environmental stress, p.5)-62. In E.J. Ferguson Wood and R.E. Jotrannes [ed.] Tropical<br />
marine pollution. f lsevier, AmsteTdam.<br />
P1ol1t:h'<br />
J.'_99 3!. 1982. Potential effects of offshore tin mining on marine ecology, p.<br />
70-74. In Proceedings of the working group meeting on environmental managemenr in<br />
minenal -resource development. Mineral- Resources Sevelopment Series No. 49. United<br />
Netions, New York.<br />
Suwansing, P. 1982. The environmental manegement of mineral resource development in<br />
Tfniland' p. lll-1I8. In Proceedings of lhe working group meeting on environmental<br />
m€nagement in mineral -resounce devJlopment. Mineraf Resources Dev6lopment Series No.<br />
49. United Nations, New York.<br />
Zieman' J.C. 1975. Tropic_al pa grass ecosystems and pollution, p. 63-74. In E.J. Ferguson<br />
Wood and R.E. Jotrannes [ed.]. Tropical Marine pollution. Elsevier, Amsterda-am.
- 25'<br />
SOUTH-EAsT PACIFIC REGIOT{
Backqround<br />
- 257<br />
ACTIO{ PLAN FOR TI-E PROTECTION tr TI€ MARITf ENVIROiIMENT<br />
AID COASTAL AREAS tr TIf SOUTH{AsT PACIFTC<br />
Luie Arriaga N'L<br />
Cornision Permanente del Pacifico Sur<br />
Prez 37O y Robles 6oP, Guito, Ecuador.<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
The five countries bordering the Pacific eoast of South Anrerica (Colombia,<br />
Chiler Ecuador, Peru and Panama) met in a conference of Plenipotentiaries in<br />
November I981 to sign the I'Aetion Plan for the Protection of the Marine<br />
Environnent and Coastal Areas of the South-Eest Pacific", which includes five<br />
cornponents: Environrnental Assessment; Environmental Managementl a Legal<br />
Component; Institutional and Financial Arrangements; and SupporLing Measures.<br />
The conferenee also approved a 'fCmvention for the Protection of the Marine<br />
Environnent and Coastal Area of the South-East Pacifict'and an "Agreement on<br />
Regional Co-ryeration in Combating Pollution of the South-East Pacific by<br />
Hydrocarbans and other Harmful Substances in Cases of Ernergencyr'. This paper<br />
describes the activities in progness to implement the Action plan.<br />
The member stales of the Permanent Commission of the South Pacific (CPPS, originally<br />
Chile' Ecuador and Peru, with Colombia joininq in 1979), adopted as an activity of "o;n1non<br />
interest the s[udy of the prob.lems of marine pollution in the South-East paciiic, with the<br />
goal of developing regional co-qeration for the protection of the marine environment.<br />
The first regional activity was a sunvey on pollution in the South-East Pacific (Chile,<br />
Ecuador and Peru) in 1975 wit,h the support of FAO. As a result, a CppS/FAO/1OC/UNEp<br />
International Workshop m Marine Pollution in the South-East Pacific took place in Santiago<br />
de Chile (November, 1978)' with the participation of the five states of the region: Colomb'rla,<br />
Chile' Ecuador, Panama and Peru. This nreeting laid the basis for the Regional Action plan<br />
which is being executed at Bhe present time.<br />
In 1979' the Governinq Council of lhe United Nations Environment programme (UNEp)<br />
ryproved the inclusion of lhe South-East Pacific as one of Lhe areas in ttre tf{Ep Regional<br />
Seas Programme. This has encouraged the application of the Regional Seas 4proach: to<br />
establish Bhe causes and consequences of environrnental degrJdation, and Lo combat<br />
environmental problems through an integrated regional 4proach to the management of the<br />
coastal and rnarine areas.<br />
Preparstory phase of the Action Plan (Julv l9B0 - December l98l)<br />
A UNEP-funded project permitted the analysis of the pollution problems, the existing<br />
capacity for research and management, and the legal framewonk for environmental protectionl<br />
as related to the marine environnent and coastal areas of the South-East Pacific. Based on<br />
this informalion, the Action Plan and its programmes were elaborated. The main results of<br />
this phase were ari follows:
1.<br />
2.<br />
258<br />
Surveys of sources, levels and effects of marine pollution in Colombia, Chile, Ectrador,<br />
Panama and Peru during 1980 (CPPS, 1981), including:<br />
- Pollution by domestic wastes;<br />
- Pollution by industrial wastes;<br />
- Pollution by pesticides and herbicides;<br />
- Pollution by oil;<br />
- Legislation relaled to the protection of the marine environment end the<br />
administrative structure for environnental managementl and,<br />
- Bibliography on marine pollution in the South-Eat Pacific.<br />
Publication of the "t .,lEP-CPPS Directory of South-East Pacific Marine Science<br />
Research Centres, 198I" which includes information on specialists, technical facitities<br />
and programmes.<br />
t. Oil Spill Cmtrol Training Course (Cpps/UNEp/IMco/covernrnenr of Chile, Vina del<br />
Mar, Chile, 6 to 15 April, I98f).<br />
4. Workshop: The Legal Practice for the Protection of the Marine Environrnent against<br />
Pollution (Bogota, Colombia, 4-8 May, 1981).<br />
5. Meeting of Experts to Review the Draft Action Plan for the Protection of lhe Marine<br />
Environment and Coastal Areas of the South-East Pecif ic (Lima, Peru, 2I-25<br />
September, 1981).<br />
6. Conference of Plenipotentiaries of Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, Panama and Peru (Lima,<br />
Peru, 9-I2 Novemberr l98l), which approved: the Action Plan for the South-East<br />
Pacific; an [Agreernent for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastel Ares<br />
of the South-East Pacific", an "Agreement sl Regional Co-qeration in Combating<br />
Pollution of the South-East Pacific by Hydrocarbms and other Harmful Substances in<br />
Cases of Emergencylrl and, the "lnstitutional and Financial Arrangements for the<br />
Irnplementation of the Action Plan in the South-East Pacific Region" (UNEP-CppS,<br />
1982).<br />
Characteristics of t.he Action Plan<br />
'rThe geographical area for the application of the Action Plan includes the marine<br />
environrnent and the coastal areas of the following states: Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, panama<br />
and Peru".<br />
The goals of the Aetion Plan are as follows:<br />
"The evaluation of lhe present conditions of the marine environrnent and coastal<br />
areas...", with the aims of giving advice to the Governnents for the protection of such<br />
areas and of establishing negional co-qeration in this field;<br />
"The adequate management of the activities that can affect the quality of the marine<br />
environment and coastal areas and the development of measures to obt,ein the criteria<br />
to determine the economic impact of ecological damage";<br />
"The formulation of legal instruments, national and regional, for the protection of the<br />
manine environtnent and coastal areas'r, advice to the Governments on the application<br />
of International Agreements such as the International Maritime Organizalion (lMO)<br />
conventionsr and the tlimplementation of legal measunes to obtain compensation due to<br />
ecological damage" as a result of oil spills, etc.; and<br />
rrThe establishment of institutional, financial and supporting rneans'r for the execution<br />
of the Action Plan, "including the structure and mechanisms of netional and regional<br />
co-ordinaiion".<br />
Tfre eomponents of the Action Plan, in accordance with the above-mentioned goals are<br />
the following:
- 259<br />
Tte Envirannrantal Areasmcnt component aims to provide a scientific basie for the<br />
implementation of the other components of the Plen. This includes activities to determine the<br />
quality of the marine environrnent and coestel areas through the study of the preduninant<br />
pollutants in the region in all their aspects (sources, coneentration, dispersion, persistence,<br />
ef f ects, transf ormetions).<br />
Tl]e Jirst step in this component is to gtandardize nethodologies in the region and to<br />
promote efficiency in the research institutions, in particular by incorporating activities for<br />
training personnel in every programme.<br />
This component also cells for ecological studies in areas of special interest (mangrove<br />
swampsr coastal lagoons, estuaries, areas for species reproduction, etc.), as a basis for<br />
evaluating the effects of pollutants.<br />
The Envirmmcntel Managarncnt component focuses sr the formulation and ryplication<br />
of programmes to pteventr monitor, reduce and control the pollution of the marine<br />
environment and coestal areas, whatever the pollutants.<br />
This component includes the preparation of standards for the discharge of domestic,<br />
miningr industrial and agricultural wastes as well as of criteria m waler quali[y for different<br />
u8e8.<br />
It likewise includes assistance to the governrnents to establish or strengthen their<br />
institutional capabilities and the co-ordination rnechanisms fon adequate environmental<br />
management, including personnel training for such activities.<br />
The Legal Companent seeks to establish the legal framework for the protection of the<br />
marine environment and coastal areas, as well as to ensure the necessary implementation.<br />
Several activities in this legal component are foreseen: analysis of the legal institutions<br />
provided for in the United Nations Convention m the Law of the Sea that are 6oncerned with<br />
the protection and preservation of Lhe marine environrnent, and their regional application;<br />
promulgation or modification of national legislation for the applicatiori of the'regionai<br />
agreements adopted in Lima in 1981, toqether with the Action Plan and others that mly be<br />
adopted in the future; maintenance of an updated register of national Iegislation related to<br />
the zubjects of the Action Phn; advice Bo the governnents on the application of other<br />
international agreenrents for the protection of tht marine environrnent to which they are<br />
party (e.9.' IMO Cmventions); adoption of complementary protocols such as on pollution of<br />
the marine environment from land sources; pollution as result of the exploration and<br />
exploitation of the Continental Shelf; responsibility and compensation for damages dle to the<br />
pollution of the marine environmentl scientif ic and technical co-qeration; and special<br />
protected areas.<br />
The Inrtitutiond end Financid Arrengements component defines the institutional<br />
structure end the mechanisms for co-ordination of the Action Plan, as well as the means for<br />
its financing. The institutional structure includes:<br />
- Tfn General Authority (Autonidad General, AG) of the Action Plan, with representatives of<br />
the governnents (intergovernmental meetings), responsible for the evaluation of lhe<br />
progre$ of the Action Plan, the approval of the proqrammes and their financing;<br />
- The Conerltativa Group (Grupo Cmsultivo, GC), constituted by experts nominated by the<br />
governncnts to analyee and to give advice on the scientific and technical aspecis of<br />
the Plan;<br />
- The Rcaimal Co-ordinetion Unit (Unidad Coordinadora Regionat, UCR), which is the<br />
General Secretariat of the Permanent Cornmission of tnJ Soulrr pacific, and which<br />
handbs relations with nationel focal points and international organizations;<br />
- The Nationd Focel Pointe (Punto Focal Nacional, pFN), one in each country, responsible for<br />
bhe co-ordinetion of the programmes within the country and for liaison with-the uCR; and<br />
- The Natimal lrutitutime (Irntituciones Nacionales, lN), which are appointed by the<br />
governrEnts [o execute specific technical work under the Action Plan.
- 260<br />
Supportirg trllrrret for the other components provide for the following: the facilities<br />
that the inslitutions must furnish to execute specific projects; the organization of workshops<br />
or other pecial nnetings related to the Action Plan; the granLing of fellowships to train<br />
personnel within or outside the region; the execution of systematic publicity campaigns; and<br />
the inclusion of environrnental protection concepts in educational pnogrammes.<br />
Execution of the Action Plan<br />
With the s.lpport of UNEP, the following activities are being executed under the Aetion<br />
Plan in 1982-1981:<br />
Preparatim of ryccific programme! (by consultants)<br />
- Preparation of an updated review m marine pollution from land baeed sources in the<br />
South-Eaet Paeific region 0rlovember 1982 - February l98l).<br />
- Preparation of a draft programme to rnonitor and control marine pollution by oil, as well as<br />
by domestic, industrial and agricultural sources (November lgBZ - February lggl).<br />
- Preparation of a draft contingency'plan Lo combat oil pollution in case of emerqency<br />
(November 1982 - February l98l).<br />
- Preparation of a draft protocol to control marine pollution from land based sources (June<br />
1982, already accomplished).<br />
- Preparalion of a draf t complementary protocol concerning co-operation in combating<br />
pollution by oil in cases of emergency (December I982).<br />
- Preparation of a draf t programme to carry out baseline ecologieal studies f or the<br />
assessnEnt of freavy metals, some organic materials, and the ;ffect of pollution on<br />
selected marine ecological communities (November 1982 - February l98l).<br />
Wor*ehqe, Meetirqs, eLc.<br />
- Workshop of legal and technical experts to review and revise the draft protocol on marine<br />
pollution from land based sources in the south-East pacific region (Gluito, Ecuador,<br />
27-J0 Sept., L982, already accomplished).<br />
- Workshop of the Consultative Group of legal and technical experls to review and revise<br />
draft programmes and protocols (prepared by consultants) for the South-East pacific<br />
(Guito, Ecuador, ll-15 April, 198]).<br />
- Workshop on intercalibration methods for monitoring marine pollution in the South-East<br />
Pacifie (Lima, Peru, 9 - 14 May I98l).<br />
- Meeting of the General Authority of the south-East pacific Aetion plan (Guito, Ecuador,<br />
June l98f).<br />
Although the Action Plan for the South-East Pacific is only in lhe early phases of<br />
implemenlation, it demonstrates the usef ulness of an integra[ed regional approach to the<br />
management of coastal and marine areas.<br />
REFERE.NCES<br />
CPPS. I98I. Series Seminars and Studies, 2:L-)88.<br />
UNEP-CPPS. 1982. Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Action Plan for the proteclion of<br />
the Marine Environment and Coastal Areas of the South-East Pacific, Final Act, Lima,<br />
Peru, 9-12 November I98I. UNEp-CppS llc.tLl4.
Introduction<br />
- 26r<br />
MARIT.IE POLLUTION IN TI-E SOUTH-EAsT PACIFIC<br />
Luis Arriaga M.<br />
Cornision Permanente del pacifico Sur<br />
Prez JlO y Robles, 5oPiso, euito, Ecuador<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
From studies done as part of the Action Plan for the South-EasL pacific<br />
(UNEP-CPP$), the fotlowing cases of marine pollution stand out: (a) the Gulf of<br />
Panama, which receives domesLic effluents with an organic load estimated at<br />
12,100 tons BOD/year (101900 from the city of panama] and wastes from 574<br />
industries (88.6% from the city of Panama); (b) Buenaventura Bay (Colombia)r<br />
which receives some 4r[I]0 tons BOD/year in domestic sewage, plus discharges<br />
from 57 industries and oil and lubricants dumped in the port;-(c) Estuary of lne<br />
Gulf of Guayaquil (Ecuador), whose domestic effluents contain an organic load<br />
estimated at 19,900 tons BOD/year and wastes from 856 registered inJustries as<br />
well as durnped fuel and lubricants; (d) the Lima-Callao area (peru), with domestic<br />
effluents containing 87'5Og tons BOD/year, wastes from 622 industries and dumped<br />
fuel and lubricants; and (e) Bay of Concepcion-San Vicente Bay (Chile), which<br />
receives domestic sewage with 6,X10 tons BOD/year, and wastes from L4<br />
important industries creating pollution problems from active chlorine and mencury<br />
and other heavy nre[als. Tfe activities to talte place in the present phase of the<br />
Action Plan are zummarized.<br />
The zurveys done as part of the activities of the'rAction Plan for the protection of<br />
the Marine Environrnent and Coastal Areas of the South-East Pacific, have permitted an<br />
evaluation of the sources' levels and effects of manine pollution in the region, of the<br />
institutional structure for research and environmental management, and of lhe existing legal<br />
fremework for pollution prevention and control,<br />
The Action Planr which is supported by UNEPTs Regional Seas Programme, covers the<br />
waterg of the Eastern Pacific along the coasts of Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, peru and<br />
Chile. The Permanent Commission of the South Pacific (CPPS) is responsible for regional<br />
co-adination.<br />
_ This psper presents a summary review of rnarine pollution problems in the South-Est<br />
Prcific region, emphasizing the nrost relevant facts.<br />
MARINE POLLUTION IN THE SOUTH.EAST PACIFIC<br />
Tfp main potlution problems in the South-East Pacific region result from: discharges<br />
from the major cities of the region of dqnestic and industrial effluents, mainly without<br />
treetment; industrial effluents, especially from mining and fishing industries located in areas<br />
outside of the main cities; and the dunping or spilling of oil. There is very limited<br />
information about pollution by pesticides and other srbgtances.<br />
In rlecting ereas with major pollution problems (Figures I and 2), the criteria were:<br />
the simultaneous (Ecurrence of domesLic and industrial effluents; areas wbject to a great<br />
volurne of waste o tailinge from mining industries; and the risk of oil pollution from major oil<br />
pipeline terminals, rcfineries, etc.
G.DEOIIRIQUI<br />
e.oe PANAMA<br />
lail<br />
A|-TE] DuEt{avE<br />
- TUrlACo<br />
A rgr,.E.neto^s,<br />
lllt_Ao<br />
VTA'\rTA<br />
A LA LIBERTAD<br />
PFN. Dg STA.E[rrJA<br />
Itto*^<br />
BATOVAT<br />
lf<br />
CHIMB{)TE<br />
OAg'ttff<br />
cuaveeurl Fca-l<br />
PYO, BOLTVAI<br />
rLo<br />
IQUIQUE<br />
Q rocorrrr-e<br />
Q cnrFrnL<br />
HUASCO<br />
coqutMBc)<br />
-<br />
vrFa oet Mlr<br />
VALPATAISO<br />
AE coNcEpcroN<br />
- 262<br />
Domestic wastes<br />
(thousand tons BOD/yr<br />
A Oif pollution (wells,<br />
ref ineries, terminals)<br />
O uining tailings ESI,DE *ucelr ilgSA<br />
Figure I: Areas of the South-East Pacific with major pollution problems
CANAL DE FArrAMil<br />
A\ ) PANAMA<br />
BAHIA OET<br />
BUENAV€r.tTURA;<br />
;PftiX<br />
- 265<br />
LA LIAERTAD<br />
PE}.JINSULA DF<br />
SA'{TA ELENA<br />
CONCEPCION<br />
Figure 2 : Areas of major eontamination in the south-East prcific<br />
2a. Gulf of Panama<br />
2c. Gutf of Guayaquil<br />
2b. Buenaventure Bay<br />
2d. Lirns-Callao<br />
2e. Bay of Cmcepcion-San Vicente Bay
- ?64<br />
Theoretical values for the organic load were used as an indicaton of pollution by<br />
domestic wasles. This organic load, expressed as Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)' was<br />
estimaLed for the population with seweraqe services using the following factors:25<br />
kg/person/year (non-treated wastes) and 20 kg/person/year (treated wastes). Direct measures<br />
of BOD are practically non-existant in the region.<br />
The following areas include the most relevant eases of pollution in the South-East<br />
Pe ific.<br />
Gulf of Panama<br />
Cmcerning pollution by domestic wartes, Kwiecinsky (1.98I) determined that oven 45<br />
million tons of sewage are discharged by Panama into the Pacific Ocean, of which more than<br />
90% does not receive Lreatment. The total organic load neaches about I2r500 lons BOD/year<br />
(Tabb 1I Of this amount, I2rl00 tons BOD/year (96.8%) enters the Gulf of Panama (Figure<br />
2a), elmost entirely in the Bay of Panama: 10,900 tons BOD/year coming from the city of<br />
Panama (570,m0 inhabitants in 1980); and 800 tons BOD/year from the Canal terminal in the<br />
Pacific Ocean (Belboa). The remaining 300 tons includes indirect discharges through six rivers<br />
(Zarati, Oria, La Villa, Santa Maria and Guarare) which flow in the Gulf of Panama.<br />
Tabb I : Estimated organie load from domestic wastes in the South-East Pacific region<br />
(zurveys from the South-East Pacific Action Plan)<br />
PANAMA<br />
Pacific coast<br />
Gulf of Panama<br />
COLOMBIA<br />
Pacific coast<br />
Buenaventura Bay<br />
ECUADffi.<br />
Total coast<br />
Guayaquil Gulf (Rio Guayas basin)<br />
PERU<br />
Total coast<br />
Lima-Callao<br />
CHILE<br />
Total coaet<br />
Maipo River basin<br />
Cmcepcion Bay-San Vicente Bay<br />
Organic load (thousand tons BOD/year)<br />
Direct Indirect<br />
Total<br />
discharqes discharges<br />
ll.9<br />
ll.8<br />
5.6<br />
4.0<br />
7.1<br />
?<br />
97.9<br />
87.5<br />
2L.7<br />
l.r<br />
0.5<br />
0.1<br />
t,:<br />
4L.7<br />
19.9<br />
J.t<br />
?<br />
80.0<br />
56.4<br />
t.4<br />
L2.5<br />
12. I<br />
9.?<br />
4.0<br />
48.8<br />
19.9<br />
I0l. ?<br />
87.5<br />
101.7<br />
56.4<br />
6.5<br />
With reference to industrial walte pollution, rnost industries in the country are located<br />
in and around the city of Panama, but it is not possible to obtain reliable data about the<br />
volune and characteristics of the effluents. From the 76I industries nrentioned in the zurvey<br />
dme by Kwiecinsky (1981), 674 (88.6%) discharge into the Gulf of Panama, directly or<br />
through rivers, nnstly in the Bay of Panama. Table 2 shows the kind and number of industries<br />
whose residues are discharged directly or indirectly 'into the Gulf of Panama.<br />
The sources of oil pollutim in the Bay of Panama include: (i) the suPply qerations and<br />
dunping in the port of Balboa; and (ii) dunping by the fishing fleet (100 ships) in Vacamonte<br />
port (Vergara and Pizarro, f98L). Date m oil pills in Panama Bay are shown in Table ].<br />
Tlcse figures from Vergara and Pizarro (I98I) are significantly lower than Lhose given by<br />
Kwiecinsky (1981), who indicated .funping of fuels and lubricants in Vacemonte port<br />
averaging 2,m0 barrels/yeer (lI8 m') and less than I00 bamels/year in Balboa, the Panama<br />
Canel terminal.
Kind<br />
- 265<br />
Tabb 2 : Industries discharging dinectly or indirectly into the Gulf of Panama<br />
(from Kwiecinsky, 1981)<br />
Fmd Irdustries Chemical and other industries<br />
Number Kind Nurnber<br />
Fisheries<br />
Sugar<br />
Milk<br />
Cured neat, slaughterhouses<br />
Fruit, vegetables<br />
Oils, fats<br />
Breweries, .distilleries, etc.<br />
Mills (coffee, rice)<br />
Others<br />
Total<br />
tA<br />
t<br />
L2<br />
2<br />
')<br />
12<br />
l8<br />
5t<br />
4t<br />
187<br />
Frequency of spills<br />
Average spill size<br />
Causes:<br />
ships<br />
land installations<br />
others<br />
Hydrocarbmsl<br />
marine diesel<br />
light diesel<br />
bunker C<br />
uncleaned ballast and others<br />
Fertilizers I<br />
Pharmaceuticalrchemical ST<br />
Pestieides, herbicides 10<br />
Metallurgy 72<br />
Shipyards 1<br />
Textiles L4J<br />
Mining 6<br />
Detergents It<br />
Cement 2<br />
Paints, resins 14<br />
Plastics Jg<br />
Batteries 7<br />
Wmd 69<br />
Others 52<br />
Total *,<br />
Table I : Hydrocarbm spills in Panama Bay<br />
(from Vergara and Pizarro, I98I)<br />
Balboa Vacarnonte<br />
4.4mqnth<br />
0.8 m-<br />
70.8%<br />
16.7Vo<br />
L2.5%<br />
t.r%<br />
0.796<br />
28.5%<br />
67.5%<br />
).1/mon\h<br />
O.fl)l m-<br />
87.2%<br />
2.6%<br />
I0.2%<br />
19.4%<br />
doi.sY'<br />
Tfe available information zuggests that the pollution problem in the Gulf of panama,<br />
centered in the Bay of Panama, is ,srious' on the basis of the following facts (Kwiecinsky,<br />
t98t ):<br />
- biological pollution indicated by the presence near the etrore of lhe bay of faecal coliforms<br />
reaching I60,m0/100 ml as a result of untreaLed dsnestic discharges;<br />
- eutrophieation and the presence of hydrogen zulfide (r+ to 1.5 ppm) in the center of lhe<br />
Bay (between Paitilla and Casco), producing a I'drastic decrease in the diversity of<br />
marine fauna'r and disagreeable odors, mainly caused by wastes from fishing industries;<br />
- negative effects in recrea[ional areas (Amador Beach); and<br />
- the presence of amounts of lubricants and fuels.
Buenaventura Bsv(C olomb ia)<br />
- 266<br />
The organic load of dorneatic warter directly or indirectly discharged along the Pacific<br />
coast of Colombia ernounts to 91200 tons. BOD/year, according to data given by Rodriguaz<br />
(f98I) (Tabb l). Of this, 4r(I)0 tons BOD/year enters Buenaventura Bay (f igure Z-U). ffe iort<br />
of Buenaventura has l00rm0 inhabitants and a sewerage system serving 50% of the<br />
population. The domestic wastes do not receive treetment.<br />
Industrial activity in this area is very limited and there is little information about the<br />
drainege of indurtrid waltcr. Rodriguez (1981), offers the following information about the<br />
number and kind of industries loeated in Buenaventura:<br />
Fisheries<br />
Detergents<br />
Metalworking<br />
Wmd<br />
Crtstruction<br />
Shipyards<br />
TOTAL<br />
I I<br />
J<br />
t7 4<br />
4<br />
-T<br />
The sources of oil pollution ere the port activities and the oil pipeline of the Pacific<br />
(Cali€uenaventura) which transports clean products and fuels (gasoline, diesel, kerosene,<br />
bunker 5 and 6). Tlnre are no trpasurements of the volume of spilled hydrocarbans or of the<br />
frequeney of qerational accidents. Buenaventura does not have rneans for oil spill control.<br />
Vergara and Pizarro (198I) mention the case of a coastal vessel which transports fuels<br />
,<br />
from Cartagena and Santa Marta (in the Caribbean) to Buenaventura. After unloading, it<br />
takes m ballast and steers to Turnaeo (the terminal of the Trane-Andean oit pipeline which<br />
transports crude oil from Orito) to load crude oil. Because of the short distance between<br />
Buenaventura and Tumaco (240 km)r the ship washes badly or does not wash its tanks,<br />
dumping dirty ballast in the harbour.<br />
Tfe mly recorded case of an important accidental spill while transporting oil is the<br />
sinking of the tanker rtSaint Peier" in 1976 off the border between Ecuador and Colombia<br />
with ))r(I}0 tone of crude, affecting coastal ereas.<br />
The general characteristics of pollution in Buenaventura Bay are:<br />
- Discharge of r.ntreeted dqnestic and industrial wastesl<br />
- Biological pollutionr shown by the presence of faecal colif orms and pathogenic<br />
micro-oganismsl<br />
- Presence of tannins and wastes from the wood industry; and<br />
- Pollution by hydrocarbms from durnping in the port.<br />
The Bay of Buenaventura is very narrow, with an averege width of 2 km and a length<br />
of rmre than 8 km; ils maximum depth of l0 m is maintained by frequent dredging.<br />
Gulf of Guayaquil (Ecuador)<br />
The estimate for the whole coast of Ecuador (10 coastal cities and 9 main river basins),<br />
indicetes an organic load from domertic westes of 48,800 tons BOD/year (Tabte l), which<br />
corresponds to 20'000 tons BOD/year in the Gulf of Guayaqujl (Figure 2c), mainly in the<br />
estuary of the Guayas River, wl-rich drains a basin ot 551245 km'.<br />
The major volume of domestic wastes comes from the city of Guayaquil (1rt00rm0<br />
inhabitants)r which dains its effluents into the Guayas river and into a bay named Estero<br />
Salado. Since 58.18% of the populalion of Guayaquil has sewerage service, the organic load<br />
of its domestic westes would be equivalent to 16,000 tons BOD/year. Of this, about 10,000<br />
tons drein into tJre Estero Salado, an arca with major pollution problems. In addition,<br />
Solorzano (f981) states that eight cities (I57,ffiO inhabitants) located along the tributaries of<br />
the Guayas river have sewerage service; therefore these cities add )1900 tons BOD/year of<br />
organic load. Note thet discharges of domeslic wastes by several small coastal eities located<br />
by the Gulf have not been included.
- 267<br />
Studies dme between 1974 end 1978 in El Estero del Muerto (a branch of Ed,ero<br />
Salado) sfrowed bacteriological eounts of 5,fl)0 to 49),fi)0 coliforms/I00 ml, and low oxygen<br />
levels of about 0.6 ml/l (Valencia et g{.r L979). According to Solorzano (198I), de Guzman<br />
found between 680 and 2,400 faecaiAo-ilforms MPN/100 ml in fgZ:.<br />
In the survey by Solorzano (1981), deta were obtained for 80 indurtricr which discharge<br />
wastes into the Gulf of Guayaquil, 62 of them located in Guayaquil. Only 27 industries do<br />
some type of treatment (Tabb 4). This information is incomplete because the city Potable<br />
Water Departmenl registered a total of 856 industries (1978) for Guayaquil and its<br />
surroundings. In general, they discharge their wastes into the two sewerage systems: one for<br />
rain water and other for sanitary wastes. The lack of information ebout the pollution<br />
problems caused by industrial wastes is even more noticeable than in the case of pollution by<br />
dornestic wastes.<br />
Tabb 4 : Industries discharging into the Gutf of Guayaquil<br />
(Solorzano, l98l)<br />
Lmation Industry Number Treatment Effluent disposal<br />
Guayaquil<br />
Pt. Bolivar<br />
Machala<br />
Anconcito<br />
Pcorja<br />
Chanduy<br />
Fisheries<br />
Fruits, vegetables<br />
Oils, fats<br />
Brewery<br />
Others (food)<br />
Milk<br />
Metalworking<br />
Textiles<br />
Tannery<br />
Cement<br />
Plesties<br />
Batteries<br />
Others<br />
Fisheriee<br />
F isheries<br />
F isheries<br />
Fiaheries<br />
25<br />
I<br />
2<br />
t<br />
10<br />
I I<br />
4<br />
4<br />
4<br />
2<br />
6<br />
6<br />
?<br />
?<br />
2 Skimmers<br />
Oxidation pond<br />
I Septic tank<br />
2 Skimmers<br />
I Decantation<br />
) Septic tanks<br />
5 Septic tanks<br />
I Sedimentation<br />
t?<br />
I Neutralization and<br />
sedimentation<br />
I Stabilizetion pond<br />
Stabilizer sediment.<br />
?<br />
I Septic tank<br />
2 Deposit<br />
I Nme<br />
2 Primary<br />
T?<br />
2 Septic tank<br />
?<br />
?<br />
?<br />
.)<br />
Direct to river or rpwer<br />
?<br />
Storm drain<br />
Individual collector<br />
Storm drain<br />
Sanitary sewer<br />
7 Storm drain<br />
J?<br />
Storm drain<br />
Storm drain<br />
Storm drain<br />
Storm dain<br />
I Sanitary lnwer<br />
2?<br />
Storm drain<br />
2<br />
In reference to oil pollutiur, the main sources include the loading and unloading<br />
qerations in the ssaporl (Estero Salado) in Guayaquil, s well as in Puerto Bolivar (El Oro<br />
province), Duran (Rio Guayas)r el Salitral (Estero Salado), and places where the fishing fleet<br />
operates (Anconcito, Chanduy, Pcorja). A probable aource of oil pollution ie the exploratory<br />
drilling m the Continental Shelf of the Gutf.<br />
In errnrnary, marine pollution in the Gulf of Guayaquil is concentrated in the estuary of<br />
the Guayas River, especially in the Estero Salado. This body of water hes a very slow<br />
turnover that depends on tidal flushing; the retention time for pollutants has been estimated<br />
at 45 to 90 days. The most important problems are:<br />
i) discharge of domestic and industrial wastes, practically without treatmenq<br />
ii) biological pollution, especially in the Estero Salado;<br />
iii) dunping of oil, lLbricants and fuels from the city of Guayaquil and its port; and<br />
iv) a possible drainage of agro-chemical zubstances from farming and animal husbandry<br />
activities in the Guayas River basin.<br />
?<br />
?<br />
?
Lima-Callao erea (Peru)<br />
- 268<br />
From deta given by Guillen (1981), the total donrertic dircharger into the littoral of<br />
Peru (2,854 km of coast) contein an organic load of more than 100,m0 tons BO/year from<br />
the main coastal cilies and the indirect discharges of 16 river basins (Table l). The major<br />
input ie from Lima and Callao (together with 5,5)6rttr0 inhabitants in 1980) (Figure 2d), with<br />
dqnestic wErtes containing an organic loed of 87,500 tons BOD/year (volurrp of the effluents<br />
I,0]8,800 m' lday).<br />
A rwerage system erves 6).2% of the populalion of Lima and Callao; it discharges<br />
directly to the sea through two drainage ditches without treatment of the dornestic waetes.<br />
Guillen (1981) indicetes one case of the presence of Vibrio parahaemoliticue bacteria on<br />
"Arena Amattilla" Beach in Callao, and negative effects-ffillm;Emestic wasteg trr<br />
the fishing resources (anchovy, pejerrey, lisa, etc.).<br />
68% of the indntrier in Peru me located in the Lima-Callao area (Guillen, 1981). Table<br />
5 gives information m 622 industries (with a minimum of 5 persons) considered in the survey.<br />
The Rimac River, v.rhiq| flows through the northern part. of Callao, also r€ceives the treated<br />
residues (16102018/rl m-lyeac) of 5 mining industries.<br />
Table 5 : Industries discharging in the Lima-Callao area<br />
(from Guillen, 198I, Tables 6, 7, and 8)<br />
Industry Number Pollutants and other data<br />
Fisheries<br />
Sugar<br />
MiIK<br />
Cured rneat, slaughterhouse<br />
Fruits, vegetables<br />
Oils, fats<br />
Breweries, distilleries<br />
Mills (rugar, coffee)<br />
Other food industries<br />
Paper, paper pulp<br />
Fert ilizers<br />
Pharmaceutical, chemicals<br />
Metallurgy<br />
Shipyards<br />
Textiles<br />
Tanneries<br />
Detergents<br />
Cement<br />
Painbs, varnishes<br />
Plastics, rubber<br />
Batteries<br />
Woodworking<br />
Petrochemistry<br />
Other chemical industries<br />
L7<br />
2<br />
15<br />
7<br />
5<br />
4<br />
I'<br />
t2<br />
28<br />
84<br />
I<br />
79<br />
l7<br />
ll<br />
49<br />
26<br />
I8<br />
2<br />
l9<br />
59<br />
T2<br />
9<br />
I02<br />
Organic matter, fat, fish spraps (no treatment)<br />
Sugar residues, hypochlorite<br />
Organic matter, Na, Ca, P, fats<br />
Organic matter, alkaline residues, heat<br />
Organic matter, peel and seed residues<br />
Oleaginous seed residues, oils, detergents<br />
Musts, fermented barley residres, alcohols<br />
Skin residues, solids<br />
Organic rnatier, pH<br />
Fibres, suspended organic matter and solids,<br />
zulfale liguors, heat (I industry discharges<br />
17,000 6'lyear)<br />
Wastes, heat, pH, organiq rnatter (I industry<br />
discharges 1,809,m0 m' lyear)<br />
Organic & inorganic substances, hea{<br />
(l industry discharges I,729,080 ni''lyear)<br />
Acids, organic & inonganic residues, heat<br />
Metallic residues, wood, resins, paints<br />
Acids, heat, dyes, pH, chemicals, detergents<br />
Tannins, fibres, dyes, alkaline residues,<br />
chrome salts<br />
Organic maLter, fats, detergents, pH, sutfates,<br />
sodas<br />
Dissolved and zuspended solids<br />
Pignrents, chemicals, rqiins, feat (l industry<br />
discharges ztt rlt0D m' / year)<br />
Chemicals, heat<br />
Aeids, lead, ball tars<br />
Wmd residues<br />
I8 5 Oils, fats, hexavalent chrome, pheqols, heat<br />
(1 industry discharges ztt,ltDO 6'f year)<br />
Lime, dyes<br />
Chemical residues, heat, pH
- 269<br />
Guillen end Aquino (f978) and Guillen et q!. (f978) identified anoxic wgters in Callao<br />
Bay (samplings in May-June, 1977) right in froTtTf the mouth of the Rimac River. They also<br />
found very low values for dissolved oxygen along the Bay (Muelle de Pescadores and Base<br />
Naval), due to high concentretions of organic matter, and a high concentralion of hydrogen<br />
sulf ide, up to 3.n pg-at/I. In areas close to the SIMA shipyard they f ound high<br />
coneentrations of copper (l7.5 ppb) and iron, a a consequence of paints and residues coming<br />
from the shipyard.<br />
In November 1978, low values for dissolved oxygen were again found at the sea surfsce<br />
(to O.Ur ml/l) and at the bottom (ro O.tS ml/t) in the same areas (Guillen et aL, 1978). The<br />
highest values of hydrogen slfide (I.26 pq-at/l) were found at the mouth of the Rimec River,<br />
assoeiated with the lowest quantities of oxygen and a high concentration of rutrients.<br />
Pollution by nntals was quantified e follows:<br />
Sea water Sediments<br />
(sr.rrf ace) (average)<br />
Fe (total soluble) 7.7 - 27.O ppb I,571.4 ppm<br />
Cu (total soluble) 2.3 - 27.O ppb 9).8 ppm<br />
Pb (total soluble) 0.0 - 68.0 ppb 75.5 ppm<br />
The sources of oil pollutian include loading and unloading in the port of Callao and the<br />
Refinery of La Lanpilla (Callao).<br />
Pollution in this area is considered to be rrheavy'r, especially in Callao Bay, because of<br />
the following:<br />
- Direct discharges to the sea of organic wastes from the fishing industry;<br />
- Discharge of untreated industrial wastes, mainly from the SIMA sfripyard;<br />
- Discharge of the Rimac River, containing dornestic and industrial westes, mainly untreated;<br />
- Observations of effects on organisms (fish kills);<br />
- Damage to the recreational beaches;<br />
- Occasional oil spills and dischanges of wastes in port qerations;<br />
- Observations of anoxic areas or areas wi[h very low levels of oxygen in Callao Bay, as a<br />
eonsequence of domestic and industrial discharges; and<br />
- Metal pollution (Fe, Cu, Pb) in Callao Bay, especially at the mouth of the Rimac River.<br />
Bay of Concepcion-San Vicenle Bay area (Chile: Region VII).<br />
This area (Figure 2e) is considered Ers dre of the most affected in Chile, especially<br />
because of the combination of pollutants from domestic wastes and industries. Tlt organic<br />
load of domeatic waatea, discharged directly or indirectly, emounts to 6,500 tons BOD/year<br />
(Table l), according to data given by Castilla (198f ). He also states that mly areas near the<br />
sources of ef f luents in the Bay of Cmcepcion are affected by biological pollutants,<br />
indicating counts of E. coli of 1,100/100 ml off the beaches of Lirquen, Penco and Tome.<br />
With reference to pollution by induatrial residuee, Castilla (f981) gives information for<br />
44industnies(Table6)'mtin9theeliminationofacrabspecies@in<br />
the area and damage to the seaweed 9racilaria sp. In San Vicente Bay, Cabrera (1979)<br />
indicates mencury amounting to I.2 kg/day in the discharges of industries located in the<br />
Estero Lenga, and coneentrations of 50 to ZrttrO ppm of active chlorine.<br />
Referring to pedicide pollutian, Cstilla (1981) lists the following concentrations found<br />
by the Department of Oceanology of the University of Cmcepcion:<br />
Sea water Aulaeomya ater<br />
(ppb)<br />
i) Cmcepcion Bay<br />
DDT<br />
DDE<br />
O.'<br />
0.15<br />
14.'<br />
5.1<br />
ii) San Vicente Bay<br />
-hpb)-<br />
DDT 0.7 9.4<br />
DDE O.2 2,9
Lcation<br />
(Discharge point)<br />
B*ria-Cmcepcion<br />
(Trn6-Telcahuano)<br />
Bahia-Cmcepcion<br />
(San Vicente)<br />
Chiguayante<br />
(Bio-Bio River)<br />
San Pedro<br />
(Bio-Bio River)<br />
Tmr6<br />
Araueo<br />
San Vicente Bay<br />
Bio-Bio River<br />
i) In San Vicente<br />
rneinly due to:<br />
- 270<br />
Table 6 : Pollution by industrial wastes in the VII Region of Chile<br />
(from Castilla, l98l)<br />
Industry Trcatment Discharge Pollutents<br />
vo{ume and other data<br />
m- lday<br />
19 Fishenies<br />
) Shipyerds<br />
I Mining<br />
2 Petrochemicel<br />
I Textile<br />
) Pup and paper<br />
I Textile<br />
2 F isheries<br />
I Pulp and paper<br />
2 Mining<br />
2 Wmd<br />
I Pharmac.c*remical<br />
I Metallurgy<br />
I Cernent<br />
I Plastics<br />
I Tannery<br />
Nme<br />
1,5u0<br />
Nane<br />
Sedimentation 195,610<br />
neutralization<br />
Neutralization& r8rl00<br />
separation of solids<br />
Nme 700<br />
Foam reLainer L7I,37L<br />
sieves<br />
Nste<br />
Nme<br />
Nme<br />
None<br />
?<br />
Decant. neutreliz.<br />
?<br />
?<br />
?<br />
?<br />
4,m0<br />
?<br />
90,000<br />
?<br />
?<br />
2,5OO<br />
?<br />
?<br />
?<br />
?<br />
Organic matter<br />
Various pollutants<br />
Imn reaidues, ammonia,<br />
oils, phenols<br />
Acidity, poseibly Hg<br />
Alkalinity, anilines,<br />
resins<br />
Dissolved solids, fibres,<br />
organic rnatter, dyes,<br />
chlorolignins, sodium<br />
lignate<br />
Analines<br />
Organic rnetter<br />
Dissolved solids, fibres,<br />
organic matter<br />
(lnfiltretion ponds)<br />
(Direct emitter)<br />
Sulfides, phenols, oils<br />
?<br />
(Direct emitter)<br />
(Direct emitter)<br />
?<br />
Pasible sources of oil pollutim ere the refinery and the two oil terminels located in<br />
San Vicente.<br />
The pollution problems in this area can be grmmarized s follows:<br />
Bay and the Bio-Bio Estuary, there are 'rsevere'r pollution problems,<br />
- toxicity from active cfilorine and nplallic rnercuryi<br />
- pollution by heavy nctals;<br />
- pub and paper mill westee, an oil refinery and other industriee;<br />
- leck of treatment of industrial and dqnestic westes;<br />
- harmful effects observed m organisms (crab and seaweeds);<br />
- coastel salt rnershes (Egtero Lenga) and migratory birdg affected by levels of active<br />
chlorine, mercury end cadmium.<br />
. - ii) In the Bay of Cmcepcion-Lc Reyes lelends area, there are also ,eriou8f, pollution<br />
problems due to:<br />
- eutrophication;<br />
- coastal salt rnarshes polluted with residueg of fiehing industriea;<br />
- untreeted dsneetic diacherges (Andalien river), eryecially from Concepcion;<br />
- presence of biological pollutants in leetricted areae reai the effluent dischargee in tfie bay.
Other areas with important pollution problems<br />
- 271<br />
Additionat areas of the region with important pollution problems or zones at risk such<br />
as oil pipelines, terminals and refineries are shown in Figure l.<br />
On lhe Pacific coast of Panama, Armuelleg Port (Chiriqui Gulf) is a risk area. Here<br />
crude oil from Alaska is transferred to smaller tankers for transporting through the Panama<br />
Canal. About 15,m0r000 barrels of oil pass through the Panama Canal per year (Kwiecinsky'<br />
f98l). Cqper may eventually be mined in Cerro Colorado, Chiriqui province.<br />
On the Pacific coast of Colombia, the port of Tumaco has hydrocarbon pollution<br />
resulting from the dumping of air[-ballast (Vergara and Pizarro, I98l) and a risk of pollution<br />
by crude oil from the Trans-Andean pipeline terminal (Orito-Tumaco).<br />
On the coast of Ecuedor, the following aress have risks of oil pollution or have<br />
pollution problems:<br />
- Ertuary of the EsmGrddaa River, as a result of effluents from the oil refinery;<br />
- Bglao Arae (Esmeraldas), pipeline terminal for crude oil coming from the Oriental Region;<br />
- La Libartad Port and nearby areas m the Peninsula of Santa Ebna, oil terminalr refinery<br />
and oil wells very close to the shore;<br />
- Mante Bay, port for coastal vessels and much of lhe fishing fleet of Ecuador, dunping by<br />
fishing industries.<br />
In Peru, the following areas with significant pollution problems must be considered<br />
(Guillen, l98t):<br />
- Tel,era Bay and nearby areas, oil wells m the continental shelf and close to the shore,<br />
effluents from the oil refineryn terminal for loading and unloading both crude and<br />
refined produets, d.rnrping of ballas!, natural oil seeps;<br />
- Bayovar Bay, pipeline terminal for crude oil;<br />
- Chimbote Bay, discharge of dqnestic and indusLrial wastes, espeeially by fishing industries;<br />
dunping of oil and by-products; pollution described as "grave"l reports of acasional<br />
signa of eutrophication;<br />
- Pctr of Supa, Pirco and llo, mainly due to direct discharges from the fishing industries;<br />
- Ita Bey, tailings from the copper mines of Toquepala and Cuajone; pollution considered<br />
Itsriou8ill neports of the absence of fish and other marine organisms and of damage to<br />
the beaches.<br />
In Chile, Cstilla (f981) mentions the followinq areas:<br />
- lq.lique Bay, domestic and fishing industry wastes;<br />
- Taqilla-Crlct6 Jvlingftilla, copper concentrating plant with pollution by iron, copper, acids,<br />
and inert rnaterial end the absence of animal and plan! life m parts of the eoast where<br />
the untreated washings are discharged;<br />
- Chanaral, concentrating plant for copper and rnolybdenite, tailings from El Salvador copper<br />
mines producing "svererr pollution and the disappearance of benthic organisms;<br />
- Husco-Chepaco Bay, iron pelletizing plant and deposits of clay materials;<br />
- Coquimbo Bey, dornestic wasteg producing biological pollution affecting bivalve nnlluscs and<br />
beaches; copper concentreting plant; "grave" pollution;<br />
- Valparairo-Vina dcl Mar, port activity, industrial discharges, and an organie load of<br />
dqnestic westes estimeted at 10,400 tons BOD/year;<br />
- Cm Cm Ertuery of tha Acancagua River, oil refinery, discharges from the Aconcagua<br />
basin, rcports of organic decomposition, toxicity and oxygen depletion;<br />
- Ccltitucicr, c=llulose factory producing oxygen deficiency, toxicity, organic solids, fibres;<br />
- Ertractp dc Megatlence, high pollution at localized points, oil exploitation, route of<br />
nrpertankers;<br />
- Mdpo Rivcr (Metropolitan Region) with me tributary (M+ocho River) which croslies<br />
city of Santiago; the eatimated organic loed from domestic wasles rcceived by<br />
Msipo river is 56r4fJ,O tone B@/year.<br />
It ie clear from the above listing of eignificantly polluted areas in the South-East<br />
Prific ttret rruch rcrnains to be done in the framework of the Action Plian for the Pr-otection<br />
of the Marine Environrnent and Coestal Arees of the Sorth-East Pscific to preyent further<br />
degradation of the environnpnt and to correct existing probbms.<br />
the<br />
the
- ?72<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Arriagar L 1975. Contaminaction en el Oceano Pacifico Suroriental (Ecr.rador-Peru-Chile).<br />
Rev. Corn. Perm. Pacifico Sur 5:f-62.<br />
Cabrera, l{. 1979. Cmtaminacion marina en Chile. Rev. Com. Perm. Pacifico Sur l0:l1l-145.<br />
Castilla' IC. 1981. Fuentes, niveles y effectos de la eontaminacion marina en Chile. CPPS,<br />
Senie Seminarios y Estudios 2:I-50.<br />
Guillen' O. 1981. Fuentes, niveles y effectos de Ia contaminaeion marina en el Peru. CppS,<br />
Senie Seminarios y Estudios 2:51-116.<br />
Guillen' O. and R. Aquino. 1978. Contaminacion en los Puertos de Callao y Chimbote y s1<br />
efecto en la productividad Inst. Mar Peru, lnf. No. 61.<br />
Guillenr O.r R. Aquino' B. Valdivia and R. Calienes. 1978. Contaminacion en el Puerto de<br />
Calleo. Irst. Mar Peru, lnf. No. 52.<br />
Kwiecinsky, Bogdan. 1981. Cmtaminacion marins del Pacifico de Panama. CPPS, Serie<br />
Serninerim y Ed,udios 2:ll7-171.<br />
Rodriguez, Francisco. 1981. Contribucion al conocimien[o de la contaminacion y su<br />
Problemetica en el Pacifico Colombiano. CPPS, Serie Seminarios y Estudios 2z?4J-287.<br />
Solorzano, Lucia. 198I. Fuentea, niveles y efectos de la eontaminacion marina en Ecuador.<br />
C?PS, Senie Seminarios y Estudios 2t173-24L.<br />
Valenciat lvtr et al. 1979. Contaminacion marine en Ecuador. Rev. Comision Permanente del<br />
Pacif ico Sur l0z245-?f,2.<br />
Vergara, I. and F. Pizarro. 1981. Diagnostico sobre la conteminaeion merina por hidrocarburos<br />
en el Pmifico Sudeste. CPPS, Serie Seminarios y Eatudioe 22289-J68.
- 27t<br />
OIL POLLUTIOII IN TFE SOUTH{AST PACIFIC:<br />
REGIOIIAL CO-PERATION AND CO{TItlcEt{CY PLANS<br />
Franciaco Pizano A.<br />
Jefe Division Asuntos Internacionales (lMO), Armada de Chile<br />
Errazuriz 5)7, Valparaiso, Chile<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
As in many other regions of the world, the South-East Pacific region has<br />
been affected by oil pollution due to rnarine Lransportation activities, offshore<br />
platforms, and tanker and oLher shipping accidents.<br />
With the support of UNEP and the co-qeration of the other specialized<br />
agencies of the UN system, lhe countries of the GPPS (colombia, Ecuador, peru<br />
and Chile) and Panama are implemenling an Action Plan for the Proteetion of the<br />
Marine Environment and Coastal Areas of the South-East Prcific.<br />
Special emphasis is being given lo regional co-qeration, considering the<br />
magnitude an oil spill could have in some extrerne circumstances and the Fesponse<br />
capabilities of these countries to deal with a rnajor spill.<br />
A diplomatic cwrference held in Lima, Peru in lg8l approved an Agneement<br />
on regional co-qeration in case of serious spills of oil or other harmful<br />
substances, as well as a Protocol on qerational matters.<br />
Various meetings have been held with the active participation of<br />
representaLives of all the countries involved. Ttese meetings have covered tegal<br />
(national and international) and technical aspecls, including modern techniques ind<br />
equipment for combating oil pollution at sea.<br />
Ore of the npst important topics<br />
National Cmtingency Plans, since prior<br />
a rapid nesponse.<br />
Introduction<br />
included in the Plan is the formulation of<br />
planning and organization are essential to<br />
Marine pollution is unavoidable, it ie part of the price mankind mr.rst pay for the<br />
development of an industriel society. Man must learn to live with this probbm and try to<br />
rnanage it. He must elso learn that marine pollution rnay affect everyone equally, thet it has<br />
no frontiersr that it can extend to all rcgions of the world, and that it may affect both<br />
developed and developing countries. He has to learn that it is a global and interdisciplinary<br />
problem which involvee ecological, technical, political and bgal apects. He has to hain that<br />
it is a problem concerning the whole world.<br />
Annng the many types of water pollution, oil and its productg have been the rmst<br />
wideapread contaminants in the seal according to the rnost qtimistic calculations rnade by<br />
the Intergovernnental Maritime Organizaiion (lMO) in 1982, rnore than I million tons ri<br />
discharged into the see every year. Oil gills dle to rccidents ae pectacuhr because of the<br />
localized darnage they cause. However, the greatest quantity of oil discharged into t}1e gea<br />
comes from routine ship qerations such aa indiscriminate discharges -ot oily ballast,<br />
contaminated weter from tank washing end bilge water discharges, s well s the qeration<br />
of off-ehore terminals, off-shore drilling, refineriee, etc.
- 274<br />
There is a reasonable underslanding of the effects thal oil may have on ecology,<br />
tourism, fisheries, recreation, human health, coast.al industries, scientific research, etc. These<br />
may include the elimination or changes in behaviour of marine species, particularly larvae and<br />
juvenile fish; the disturbence of food chains; sea bird morLality; beach pollution; a decrease<br />
in catch of or demand for sea products; the possibility of carcinogenic effects on human<br />
health; the impossibility of using polluted water for cooling, desalting or washing operations;<br />
restrict,ions on scientific researchl etc,, all of which finally have economic and social costs<br />
that affect everyone.<br />
As in many other regions of the world, the South-East Pacific region has been affected<br />
by oil pollution due to marine transport activities, offshore platforms, and tanker and other<br />
shipping accidents. Although this pollution mey not be extremely serious, it has an<br />
extraordinary importance because of the value of the resources lhreatened.<br />
Oil pollution problems in the South-East Pacific<br />
Off-shore oil aetivity<br />
Along the South-East Pacific Coast, Chile and Peru are the only two countries with<br />
off-shore oil produclion. In Chile these off-shore oilfields are located in Lhe Magellan Straits,<br />
and in Peru, in the northern part of the country. Off-shore production in Chile exceeded 2.5<br />
million cubic netres in 1982.<br />
There are also exploration and drilling activities in other zones within the region, such<br />
as those in the Gulf of Panama, southern Colombia, the Santa Elena Basin in Ecuador, the<br />
eentral-north basin in Peru, and off the Pacific west coasl of panama (chiriqui). Furthermore<br />
Chile and Ecuador have activities related to off-shore gas production.<br />
In general, except for one incident on a platform in the north of Peru in Oetober 1982,<br />
no incidents of great proportions are known in off-shore production within the region, glch ae<br />
the one that affected the IXTOC I well in Mexico, Tfe minor spillages that have occurred<br />
have been regarded as a routine part of normal exploraLion and production operations.<br />
Oil refinerieg<br />
At present, there are 9 coastal refineries in the region: J in Eeuadorr 2 in Peru, and 4<br />
in Chile. Tlt total refining capacity exceeds 20 thousand cubic metres per day.<br />
Many of these nefineries are equipped with API separators for the 'treatment of oily<br />
water resulting from normal refining qerations and, in general, the oil content of these<br />
effluents is within internationally accepted Iimits. Recently, the Refineria de Concon, Chile,<br />
has installed a novel recycling system for eooling the waters employed in the refining<br />
processr avoiding oil pollution as well as the thermal pollution of the Aconcagua River.<br />
Loadirg and discharge terminalo<br />
Along the South-East Pacif ic Coast there are 17 terminals for the loading and<br />
discharge of crude oil. In addition, rmst commercial ports have terminals for the dischaige of<br />
oil products involved in coastal trade.<br />
Mct of these ports have facilities for the reception of oily ballast (except in<br />
Colombia), although their capacity may be inadequate, since often weather conditions on the<br />
sttipping routes require tankers to take m more ballast than the terminale are capable of<br />
receiving. Although Ineasures are taken to drain mly the water that has already separeted, e<br />
certain degree of pollution is always caused.<br />
Generally, oil pollution in ierminals during the loading and discharge of crude oil ie<br />
comparatively small; it is mainly due to human errors in connecting or disconnecting flexible<br />
hoses or in rermving the pipelines when the discharge is completed. Almost all the terminals<br />
carry out regular preventive maintenance and periodic surveys, both m submarine pipelines<br />
and m nnoring buoys, which are also srbject to overhauls and changes of worn out parts or<br />
fittings. However, some spills have have ccurred dre to failures in submarine pipelines, urch<br />
as the breakage of the submarine pipeline leading to the multibuoy terminal at Ouintero, in<br />
February 1977, which caused a ryill of rnore then 800 cubic netreg.
Oil traneport in the region<br />
- 275<br />
Alrnost 99% of the foreign trade in Latin America is carried out by sea, and [his is<br />
particularly true in the South-East Pacific. On a world scale, oil transport represents 55% of<br />
the total seaborne lrade. In Latin America, the proportion is 45%. Oil lransport in the region<br />
depends m foreign trade and m the needs of domestic coastal trade.<br />
The total regional trade can be estimated at slightly over f0 million cubic rnetres per<br />
yearr with some countries such as Ecuador and Peru being exporters, and [he others<br />
imporLets, sr:ch as Chile. Panama is a special case since an iirporiant p"rt of the Alaskan<br />
production carried in VLCC's is discharged at Port Armuelles on the pacific Coast. Until<br />
October 1982' this oil was carried in rtPanamanian" type tankers through the panama Canal,<br />
although now it is purnped through an oil pipeline to'the Atlantic. If this volume of oil is<br />
added to the region's own volume, nearly 60 million cubic metres of oil is capied yearly in<br />
the region.<br />
There is no doubt that this movement of oil in the region generates routine pollution<br />
from Lankers because facilities for the reception of oity balla-st, tank washings, sludge<br />
drainage, etc. are absent or are of insufficienl capacity. For instance, the only tanker owned<br />
by Colombia carries crude oil from the pacific Coast (Tumaco) to reiineries in the Aflantic<br />
(Santa Marta), crossing the Panama Canal. After discharging its cargo, the ship goes to sea<br />
f9r !an! washing and then returns to port to load producls that are immediately carried to<br />
the Pacif ic (Buenaventura).<br />
In addition, the total capacity of the regionrs tanker fleet is insufficient for the<br />
volurne of oil transported. It thus becomes necessary to eharter tankers that do not always<br />
neet the standards of the international provisions in force (Cow, IG, SgT, CgT, etc.). Since<br />
such tankers ate not allowed to trade with countries with very ""u"r" regulations (USA,<br />
J4an)' they are Qera[ed in this region because they are cheaper, and becaud stendards for<br />
the prevention of oil pollution are noL fully implemented in ine region and monitoring and<br />
control systems are not very effective and complete.<br />
Marine incidentr end caeraltieo in the region<br />
In general, the South-East Pacific has not been affected by major marine casualties<br />
except in Chiler where because of weather conditions and irregular ge'ography a number of<br />
incidents have rccumed causing majgr pollution. In the other countries-, lhe oniy rrious case<br />
registered is the I'Seint Peter" which sank off the coast between iolombia and Ecuador,<br />
polluting the coast and a wide zme of mangrove swemps and causing prawn mortality thai<br />
resulted in economic effects of nearly I million dollars.<br />
. Given the high volune of traffic in countries such as Panama, Eanador end peru, the<br />
region has been lucky not to heve rnore incidents.<br />
The cese of Chile is different. ln l97l the Greek tanker "Npie1* carrying some )0,fl)0<br />
tons of crude oil from Bolivia strended off Guambtin Island in the southern part of the<br />
eounlry. The effects of this oil pollution could rever be quantified, since the ship was burned<br />
from the air.<br />
-<br />
ln 1974' the VLCC rrMetularr stranded in the Megellan Sbaits ryilling some 52,500 tona<br />
of oil' which et that tirne wes considered the seco-nd largest oil spill-after the<br />
Canyonrr. Tlc 'rTonrcy<br />
I'Metule" ceused major pollution that gtill eontinuee to affect the gfioree end<br />
inlets of the area.<br />
Another serioug cese wa8 the Chilean tanker 'rCabo Tsmar,r that gtranded in the Bay of<br />
san Vicente in 1978 and apilled about .12,fi)0 tone, ceusing mejor pollution of the neirby<br />
beaches and bays. No gneat ecological damage wae ceuged, -ho*everr'because of the oil epili<br />
control and rccovery carried out.
National contingency plans and orqanization<br />
?.<br />
t.<br />
4.<br />
5.<br />
5.<br />
7.<br />
Contents of a ccttingency plan<br />
- 276<br />
A contingency plan defines in advance what measures are to be taken in the event of<br />
an oil spill, who is responsibh for carrying them out, and what kinds of resources are<br />
available.<br />
Armng other things, a contingency plan should include:<br />
l. A list of the persons and organizations that must be notified immediately in the event<br />
of an oil spill.<br />
A list of duties, in order of prioriLy, that mus! be performed whenever a spill @curs.<br />
The designation of the responsible authority, with the chain of command and the<br />
assignnnnt of qualified personnel to specific duties in response to an oil spill.<br />
A communications link to ensure adequate co-ondination and an effective response.<br />
Reference material, such as maps of sensitive areac and other technical dala, that<br />
eould be usef ul to people responsible for control measures.<br />
Statistics identifying possible oil rnovements under different weather conditions.<br />
An inventory of the type and location of the r,esponse equipnrent available.<br />
Cmtirqoncy plem in the regim<br />
Chile and Ecuador have the most comprehensive contingency plans, both aL the national<br />
and loeal levels. Peru is quite advanced in tie development of its nalional contingency plan.<br />
Colombia has a contingency plan at the level of the. oil company ECOPEIROL. Panama is<br />
also developing its national contingency plan, although it has well implemented local plans at<br />
Balboa, Colon and the Canal Ztrre.<br />
Orgenizatict<br />
Tle organization of the countries in lhe region to deal wiLh oil spill emergencies<br />
differs from me country to another. While Chile with the financial support of UNDP and the<br />
assistance of IMO has established a well organized framework, ihe other counLries have not<br />
yet reached so advanced a state of development. Panama has adequate equipnrent and trained<br />
peraonnel for oil spill control. Colombia has a minimum of equipment to deal with spills and<br />
few trained personnel. Ecrador has a certain amount of equipment in the maritime terminals<br />
and some experts that are developing training coufttes.<br />
Peru is the country that needs a major effort to implement control rrpasures since it<br />
lacke equiprnent and has very few trained personnel. Honever, with the co-qeration of IMO,<br />
Peru is developing an ambitious improvernent plan covering both maritime saf ety and<br />
pollution.<br />
In Chile, the ebove-rnentioned project has permitted the training of more than 200<br />
people in: oil control techniques, the managernent of an emergency, qeration of equipment,<br />
oil tanker salvage, contingency plans, and oll pollution control at off-shore platforms. The<br />
euthority rcsponsible for pollution control in the country has allowed personnel from lhe oil<br />
industries and shipping companies to participate in the training activities carried out. This<br />
has permitted the Enrpresa Nacional del Petroleo and bhe oil distribution companies to become<br />
involved in the problems of oil pollution, and they have just formed a kind of co-operative<br />
for the acquisition of equipment. In addition to the equipment the Authority has assigned to<br />
the control c?nters, Chile will soon hsve equipment amounting to US$ 1.5 million, as well s<br />
highly trained personnel. Furthermore, wiLh the co-qeration of the Universidad de<br />
Velparaiso, a laboratory was developed in Chile to carry out dispersant toxicity tests, a<br />
pre-condition to getting permission to use dispersants within the country.
- 277<br />
Co-operstion protocols in the event of emerqencies<br />
Actian Pbn for tho Sdrth{st pacific<br />
With the support of the United Nations Environnrent pmgramme (UNEp) ans the<br />
ssistance of other agencies of the United Nations system sjch ss ?RO, IoC and IMO, the<br />
countries of the region have developed an Action Phn for the protection of the Marine<br />
Environrnent and Coestal Areas in the South-Eest Pacific, to promote the health and preserve<br />
the welfare of present and future generations<br />
Agrcamcnt cr ragicral co.qeraticr<br />
A Diploqatic Cmference held at Lima, Peru in 1981, approved not only the Action<br />
Plan' but also 8n "Agreement on regional co-qeration in combating pollution of the<br />
South-East Pacific by hydrocarbms and other harmful substances in ca-ses of emergency,r,<br />
which was prepared wiih lhe co-qeration of IMO.<br />
The Agneement requires all parties to co-aperate in taking the measures needed in the<br />
event of severe and imminent dangers to the marine environirent, the coest, and related<br />
interesLs of me or rnore parties, because of ihe presence of gneat iuentities of oil or other<br />
harmf ul substances that threaten to contaminate or are contaminating the South-East pacific<br />
up to the 200 mile zones of maritime jurisdiction of the contracting parties, and in the high<br />
seas to the extent that the contaminants spilled present a pollution ?"ng"r.<br />
ttRelated intereststr ref ers to resources and activities in coastel waters, port$ and<br />
estuaries, including fisheries, historic or !ourist amenities, neutical sports and recreation, the<br />
health of coastal populations, and the preservation of living resources.<br />
This co-qeration among the parties will include, in particular, the equipment, ships,<br />
aircraft, trained personnel and manual labour required for the operations in ti"re event of an<br />
emergency.<br />
In addition, the Agreement covers aspects of monitoring and eontrol, the exehange of<br />
information at the level both of national authorit.ies and of s6ip masters and airerafr pilots,<br />
and the co-ordination needed for the rapid and effective use of ihis info.mation.<br />
This type of collaboration among countries is the o-rly way to deal successfully with<br />
these emergencies, whieh otherwise would be almost impossible to cope with eparately, given<br />
that this would require an economic effort beyond the rneans of developing colntries ,such as<br />
those in the region.<br />
Compbmentary protocol<br />
The above-rnentioned Agreement on co-eeration establishes a general framework for<br />
mutual assistance between the states of the region in special pollutiJn circumstances. The<br />
emergency siLuations considered will require the rapio impiementation of co-qerative<br />
nechanisms according to the rneans available in the respective countries.<br />
To speed the establishment of concrete mechanisms in the event of spills, and to<br />
determine the shares to be assurned by the countries of the region, a Complennntary protocol<br />
has been prepared under the Agreement. This Protoeol, which was in the final draft stage in<br />
November, 1982' is intended to negulate in some detaii the measures to be adopted by the<br />
countries so as to rationalize the employmenL of equipment and experts, and to keep<br />
enforcement from becoming an economic burden. tt esiaLtistres the rn"nn", in which each<br />
country will ask for or provide assistance, either in equipment or experts; the estimated cosL<br />
of the assistance; methods of payment; and arrangements'allowing for the'temporary entry of<br />
equipment and materials into the country requesting the assistance. It also ineludes a<br />
description of the National Contingency Plans'referiecJ to in the Agreement m Regional<br />
Co-qeration, specifying sorne of lhe aspects that should be included slch as the assignment<br />
of institutional and individual responsibilities for the managernent and performance of cleanup<br />
and control operations, the delermination of sensitive areas, the provision of financial<br />
resources, etc.
Ragional co-qeration<br />
- 278<br />
The Action Plan for the South-East Pacific alpported by UNEP es part of ite Reqional<br />
Seas Programme includes provision for seminars and lraining courses.<br />
An 'lnternational CourEe m Oil Spill Cmtrol'r was held at Vina del Mar in April l98lt<br />
with the attendance of rcpresentatives from all the countries of the region. The couree<br />
included techniques for the control of spitls and prectice in the use of the equpncnt<br />
available in Chile for these purposes.<br />
A rrseminar m Marine Pollution Legislation" in the different countries of the region<br />
was also held at Bogota, Colombia in May 1981.<br />
In October 1982, a Seminar m "salvage of Oil Tankers, National Contingency Planst<br />
and Pollution from Off-shore Oil Platformsrr was held at Vine del Mar, c pert of the tJ'lDP<br />
project in Chile, and representatives from all t}re cotntries of the region were invited to<br />
participate.<br />
The Action Plan includes a number of other activitieg that will implenrent closer<br />
regional co-ryeration at every level, including scientific, technicel and legal aspects.<br />
Conclusions<br />
Off-shore oil activity is becoming impor[ant in the region and will con[inue to gow in<br />
the near future. ln addition there is growing activity in oil transport in the rcgion.<br />
The resources threatened by eventual oil spills ere abundant and valuabler justifying<br />
protective rneasures. Even though the major oil pills to dale hgve occurred in Chiler this<br />
does not exclude the rest of the countries from the possibility of elffering a serious incident'<br />
particularly given the greal nnvement of oil in the region.<br />
The countries have *rown great interest in this problem at a regional level and within<br />
the Perrnenent Cmrmission for the South Pacific, and with the support of UNEP and the<br />
technical asistance of IMO, FAO and IOC, lhey are developing a Regional Co-qeration<br />
Action Plan. The many Conventions, Agreements and Protocols ryproved and in preparation<br />
demonstrate the resolve of governnents to protect themselves from oil pollution' and will<br />
certainly lead to the future formuletion of a Regional Cmtingency Plan.
'279a<br />
GEAN CIRCUI.ATIOII IN TI.E EASTERN PACIFIC AhD EL NTNO<br />
Pablo Lagc<br />
Inetituto Geofigico del peru<br />
Lima, Peru<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Recent atmospherie and oceanographic studies show that sea slrface<br />
temperature (SST) anomalies in the tropical Pacific plays an imporiant mle in the<br />
global etmospheric circulation and climate. The SST- anomaliee, in turn, are a<br />
consequence of anomalous fluetuations of surface winds that drive the circulation<br />
in the tropicel Pacific. When the SST is anomalously large along the coast of<br />
Ecuador and Peru as far south as 12 degrees, the name "El -Nino plienomenon,, has<br />
been given. Tfp causes of El Nino sre not fully understood. However, the paper<br />
will describe the recent scientific idees rclated to the warming of watere off<br />
western South America based m observations and nunericel rnodel resulte.<br />
Normally the climale m the coasL of Peru is cool end foggy, unlike the hot and humid<br />
climate of the east cosst of South Arnerica at the same latituOe-.--frris is due to the presence<br />
of cold water derived partly from the Peru current, which flows from south to north parallel<br />
to the coast bringing water from the Antarctic, and partly from the upweliing of<br />
low-temperature sr.rbsurface water from a depth of r-00 nretres or more, resulting from- ttre<br />
action of the winds along the coast. The biological effect of the upwelling is extremely<br />
important. The constant renewal of the nutrientJ enabbs the phytoplankton a-nO zooplankton<br />
to develop as part of a food cfiain crrlminating in lhe anchovy. As a result, anchovy catches<br />
are abundant. In 1970, Peru u.rpplied over me-fifth of the worldrs fish protein. During t5e<br />
sljlTuner months, the climate alters slightly as a result of Lhe presence of warmer tropical<br />
waier.<br />
"El Nino" ig an atmosphere-regulated ceanographic phenomenon which sppears ffy1re or<br />
less periodically in the form of very warm water oir lne Plruvian coast and torrential rain in<br />
northern Peru, eausing the deaths of millions of anchovies and guano-producing birds. TIE<br />
presence of warm water alters the climate along the coast of Peri md ihr;;ghout the world.<br />
The clear skies typical of summer last an extralew months. In lhe United StJtes and Europe,<br />
the winter is colder. . In India, the monsoon is less pronounced. In the pecific, rainfall<br />
increases and abnormal hurricanes develop. During tha last 25 years, this phenomenon has<br />
occurred in 1957-58, 1965, 1972-71 and 1976, the last period Uut onl navi'nl the greateet<br />
intensity.<br />
Theories Reqardino El Nino<br />
The ceuses of the El Nino phenomenon are still not entirely ctear. The most recent<br />
theories link the presence of werm water off the coasts of Ecuador and peru to atmospheric<br />
events lhousands of kilometres to Ehe west, in the lropical central pacific. Dr. Klaus Wyrtki,<br />
oceanographer et the University of Hawaii, maintains that El Nino is *re result of the action<br />
of easterly and south-easterly winds in .the cenbral equatorial region of the pacific Ocean<br />
(wyrtki, .\975; ivyrtki and Meyers, Lg76). wind flucruations generate a disturtance in the<br />
Tgan which spreads eastwards in the form of a wave. As the i"u" gr""d"; 6" thermocline<br />
sinks' The thermocline is the layer separeting the warmer and less dense zurface water from<br />
the colder and denser deep water. when the thermocline lies deep, the votunre of warmer<br />
water increeses. Dr. Wyrtki has docunented his observations of lne winds, sea tevel and<br />
thermocline depth throughout the tropical Pacifie for the period 1950-1978. On the basis of
- 280<br />
these data he expleins that El Nino originates d.ring the transition from one system of<br />
atmoepheric circuletion to another. In the first circulation system, the easterly and<br />
sduth-eagterly winds in the equatorial region of the Pecific becomes stronger, as does the<br />
South Eq.ratorial Cument which flows east-west to the south of the equator (Figure I). The<br />
reautt of these conditions is an accumulation of warm water, the sinking of the thermoeline<br />
and a rise in the level of the western Pacific, while the tenperature of the eastern Pacific,<br />
particularly along the coast of Peru, remaing low. This situetion in the atmosphere and the<br />
ocean develops slowly and may last for several years (Figure 2 A). In the second circulation<br />
system, the eaeterly and south-easterly winds are light, the South Equatorial Current is slow,<br />
the therrnoeline in the eastern Pacific einks and the sea tenperature is high. This situation is<br />
typical of the El Nino periods (Figure 2 B).<br />
'{utrf Ao"<br />
Figure I : The ocean cument system in the Pacific<br />
(adapted from Rand McNally Atlas of the Oceans)<br />
brr-i \<br />
. o4i)<br />
gh%,<br />
( fsot(<br />
')o<br />
coriente. Ecu.gtorhl<br />
o: )-<br />
lg<br />
!$<br />
(\<br />
' l.O qlconfi.o'ienfeEoroffira€ I \<br />
Ti+<br />
? Pr G\ S<br />
+""2<br />
Corr ienle Circumpolor Anf ortico =+ -_.-----><br />
ty,<br />
El Nino originates during a sharp change from the first circulation system to the<br />
second, i.e., urhen the easterly and south-easterly winds suddenly lighten or die after being<br />
abnormally strong. This abrupt change, which occurs mainly in the equatorial central Pacific,<br />
generates a disturbence in the oeean in the form of a wave, known as a Kelvin Equatorial<br />
Wave, which takes approximaLely three months to reach the eas[ coast. When this wave<br />
reaches the South Anprican coast, the thermocline is at a greater depth and warm water<br />
aecumulates off the coast. The presence of this warm water (at least 2oC above normal) off<br />
the coast of Ecuador and Peru for more than f our months is known as the El Nino<br />
phenomenon.
Weetern Pacific<br />
(Coast of Irdonesia)<br />
- 281<br />
Figure 2 : Diagram of ocean circulation patterns in the tropical P*ific<br />
before and d:rring El Nino, ehowing the variation in the thermocline<br />
(A) BEFffi,E EL NII{O<br />
Winda from the east<br />
Further Outlook<br />
- 282<br />
Can El Nino occur without a preparatory phase, i.e., an El Nino completely different<br />
from those which heve occurred over the last )0 years? There is as yet no definitive snswer.<br />
Recent observations in the equatorial Pacific, from August to Novemberr 1982r euggest that<br />
El Nino ffray even now be occurring. The Climate Analysis Center of the National Oceanic<br />
and Atmospheric Administration in Washington, D.C. has just issued a gecial climate<br />
diagnosis (NOAA, 1982) in which r€ference is made to an abnormal rise in temperature in the<br />
equatorial region of the eastern Pacif ic (Figure ,. This docurnent notes that dlring<br />
September and October of tfris year, global climatic variations were somewhat abnormal. East<br />
and south-east winds in the equatorial Central Pacific heve not only diminishedr but are<br />
bbwing from west to east, i.e., they have changed direction by l80or a phenomenon never<br />
before observed. The sea sJrface Lemperature in the equatorial eastern Pacific has already<br />
reached alarming levels over an area extending nearly to the coasts of Ecuadon end northern<br />
Peru. In addition, two United States scientific vessels, Conrad and Researcher carried out<br />
observations in this area, Conrad in the equatorial central and eastern Pacific from west to<br />
east during Sep[ember and October I98? (Toole, in press), and Researcher in the eastern<br />
Pacific from north to south in November (Hayes, f982). Both vessels rne! with abnormally<br />
warm water along their routes, and found the thermocline at previously unrecorded depthe.<br />
Tlese conditions are without question identical to those which occur during the periods in<br />
which El Nino occurs. ln this circumstance, the answer to our question above would be in the<br />
affirmative, in which case it would be possible to fonecast the non-occurrence of El Nino not<br />
one or two years in advance, but only three to four months in advance, as with forecasts of<br />
its occurrence. The behavior of the winds in the equatorial Pacific during the southern<br />
hemisphere winter should be monitored in order to predict the occurrence or otherwise of EI<br />
Nino.<br />
A definitive answer, however, will have to await lhe results submitted by two Peruvian<br />
scientific vessels, Humboldt and Unanue, currently off the southern and norlhern Peruvian<br />
coast respectively.-tne nforma[i.on provided by scientific and merchant vessels in the<br />
equatorial Pacific, fixed stations along the coasls of Ecuador and Peru, the fixed stations on<br />
the Pacific islands and instrument-carrying buoys in the equatorial region of the eastern<br />
Pacific will also be requ'tred.<br />
Figure ): Anomalies in the surface temperature of the sea in October 1982<br />
(courtesy of ltlOAA)<br />
t20f r00c<br />
) 40 warmer El t-o' warmer
- 28t<br />
Obgervation of winds the key to forecastinq El Nino<br />
El Nino is the oceenrs reaction to the decrease in the eguatorial winds in the<br />
equatorial central Pacific. This has been observed in the past and ig being observed at<br />
present. It has also been confirmed by mathematicel rmdels simulating t}te phenomenon.<br />
Basically, these models do no more than show whether, given the wind system in the tropicel<br />
Pacific before and during the occurrence of El Nino, it is possible to reproduce the ocesnic<br />
observations obtained during thb ccurrence of El Nino. Numerical simulation etudiee cerries<br />
out recently (O'Brien et e!.r 1980) have shown that many of the oceenic cheracteriatics<br />
observed during El Nino may be reproduced (Figure 4). This urggesLs that it is the winds<br />
which in fact provide the key to forecasting the occurrence or otherwige of El Nino.<br />
Cmseguently, it is important to concentrate all possible efforts on obtaining data concerning<br />
the winds without further delay. These data come from weather satellites, scientifie and<br />
rnerchant vessels and fixed weether gtations.<br />
Figure 4 : Diagram of the disturtance of the thermocline<br />
(besed m results of rumerical simulation by O'Brien et aL, 1980)<br />
Note the spread of the disturbance eastwards in the form of Kelvin's Wave and ite r€flection<br />
in the form of Rcsbyrs Wave.<br />
rSll<br />
t5x<br />
PRIMER<br />
SEGUNDO<br />
CUARTO MES<br />
ra ot t60f taow r20r to0f
For the Future<br />
- 284<br />
Although the cesnrs r€sponse to the decrease in the equatorial winds is well-knownt<br />
the reasons for this change in wind petterns is tnknown. This question will have to be<br />
answered if a forecest of El Nino is to be rnade several rmnlhs in advance. TNs will require<br />
further obsarvation of the ocean-atmosphere system and the mechanisms which govern it.<br />
Research progremrnes efe now being set up at the national and international levels for this<br />
pur?ose. The results of this effort will provide us with a better understanding of the<br />
npchanism which causes the decrease in the equatorial winds.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />
I wish to thank Dr. Alberto Giesecke and Dr. Rmald Woodman, whose valuable<br />
comments have clarified tie substance of lhis pePer.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Hayes, S.P. 1982. Cruise Report NOAA Ship Researcher (EP4-82-RS). 18 October-I5<br />
November 1982.<br />
NOAA. 1982. A ma.ior warm episode in the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean. Diagnostics<br />
Branch Climate Analysis Center, NMC, NWS, Na[ional Oceanographic and Atmospheric<br />
Administration, Washington, D. C. November I0' 1982.<br />
O'Brien, J. J., A. Busalacchi and J. Kindle. 1980. Ocean models of El Nino' p. L59-2I2. In M.<br />
Fl" Glantz [ed.], Resource Inanagement and environrnental uncertainty. Wiley' New York.<br />
Toole, I N4. In press. Preliminary Observations of the Equatorial Pacif ic: Fall L982.<br />
November 4, L982. (srbmitted to Trop. Ocean-Atmos. Newsletter).<br />
Wyrtki, K. 1975. El Nino - the dynamic of the equatorial Pacific Ocean to atmospheric<br />
forcing. .t Phys. Oceanogr. 52572-584.<br />
Wyrtki, K. and G. Meyers. 1976. The trade wind field over the Pacific Ocean. ,1 Appl.<br />
Meteor. 15:698-704.
- 285<br />
INTER.REGIOT.IAL CO.FER ATIOT.I
287<br />
INTER.REGTOT.IAL CO.OPERATIO.ft SUMMARY tr DISCUS$O{S<br />
Arthur LYm Dahl' RaPPorteur<br />
B.P. 1146' Nournea, New Caledmia<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
As part of the UNEP-gonsored session on Regional Cooperation on the<br />
Protection of the Environnent at the Pacific Science Congress, the participanls<br />
in the different Regional Seas Programme action plans in the Pacific held e round<br />
tebb discussion on inter-regional co-qeration. The discussion highlighted the<br />
need for inter-regional co-qeration in monitoring and in managing common<br />
environrnents or ecosystems such a8 mangroves or coral reefs. There is a reed for<br />
more communication between regions on common problems, techniques and resultst<br />
and m legislation, as well as between specialisLs with common interests. TfE<br />
regional seas approach balances inter-regional standards and co-ordination with<br />
local solutions to local problems.<br />
After viewing each ac[ion plan area separately in Lhe previous sessions (see the<br />
sections above), it was natural to ask how the three separate programmes in one ocean should<br />
co-eerate for their common benefit. A round table discussion was organized under the<br />
chaiimanship of Dr. Stjepan Keckes, Director of' the UNEP Regional Seas Proqramme<br />
Activity Centre, with Dr. Luis Arriaga M., co-ordinator of the South-Eat Pacific Action<br />
PIan, Dr. Kasem Snidvongs, co-ordinator of the East Asian Seas Action Plan, and Dr. Arthur<br />
Dehl and Dr. Jeremy Carew-Reid, respectively the former and newly-4pointed co-ordinators<br />
of the South Pacific Regional Environrnent Programme. The following topics were raised in<br />
the discussion.<br />
Monitorino<br />
Tfe United Nations Environment Programme UNEP) has a mandate to monitor pollution<br />
at the globel level (including the Pacific) through the Global Environmental Mmitorinq<br />
System (CEUS). TNs requires uniform methodologies and costly facilities such tr the<br />
beckground reference station now being planned for the Pacific.<br />
The South Pacific does not have major regional marine pollution problems, but it does<br />
have local pnoblems needing monitoring. Ignorance of the problems will prove more expensive<br />
then monitoring; disease from polluted beaches hurLs tourism, and export products must be<br />
npnitored to verif y that they do not have contamination above importing country<br />
requirennnts. Deciding what has to be monitored or researched is a regional decision' which<br />
may well be different from gtobal priorities. Tfere is alreedy much material published by<br />
developed countries m the Pacific. The South Pacific Regional Environrnent Proqramme<br />
(SPREP), for instance, is compiling the information m redioactivity in a usef ul fonm.<br />
Tlp infrastructure for pollution rnonitoring and the interpretation Jt tn" resulte is very<br />
weak, eapecially in lhe South Pacific. ln the Caribbean, UNEP had to create a regional<br />
mnitoring centre m St. Lucia. The South-Eest Pacific has been abb to build monitorinq on<br />
their exiiting oceanographic and meteorological infrastructure. In the South Pacif ic,<br />
developing a npnitoring capability for such a large area will take time and rnoney. It rnay be<br />
nece$ary-to look at po$ibb intermediate steps and simpler techniques. A belance is required<br />
between immediate needs for monitoring, srJch s in ereas of coastal pollution or where there<br />
are fears of pesticide contamination, and the rned for educetion and public information so<br />
that the rned for rmnitoring will be more clearly tnderstood. Tfe results of npnitoring can
(2S11<br />
PUBLICATIONS IN THE UNEP REGIONAL SEAS REPORTS AND STUDIES SERIES<br />
No. 1 UNEP: Aehievements and planned developmenL of UNEP's Regional Seas<br />
Programme and cornparable proBralnmes sponsored by other bodies. (f982)<br />
No. 2 UNIDO/UNEP: Survey of marine polluLants from industrial sources in the<br />
West and CenLral African region. (1982)<br />
No. 3 UNESCO/UI|EP: River inputs Lo the West and Central African marine<br />
environmenL. (f982)<br />
No. 4 IHCO/UNEP: The sLatus of oiI polluLion and oil pollution control in<br />
Lhe West and Central African region. (L982)<br />
No. 5 IAEA/UNEP: Survey of tar, oil, chlorinated hydrocarbons and trace<br />
metal pollution in coasLal waters of the Sultanate of Oman. (f982)<br />
No. 6 UN/UNESCO/UNEP: l{arine and coastal area development in the East<br />
African region. ( f982)<br />
Uo, 7 UNIDO/UUEP: Industrial sources of marine and coasLal pollution in the<br />
Hast African re6,ion. (f982)<br />
No. 8 FAO/UNEP: Harine pollution in the East Afcican region. (f982)<br />
No. 9 }JHO/UNEP: Public health problems in lhe coasLal zone of Lhe East<br />
African region. (1982)<br />
No. 10 IHO/UNEP: oiI polluLion control in the East African region. (1982)<br />
No. 1l IUCIiI/UNCP:Conservation of coastal and marine ecosysLems and living<br />
resources of the East African region. (1982)<br />
No. 12 UNEP: EnvironmenLal problems of the EasL African region. (1982)<br />
No. 13 UNEP: Pollubion and Lhe marine environmenL in the Indian Ocean. (f982)<br />
No. 14 UNEP/CEPAL: Development and environmenL in Lhe Wider Caribbean<br />
region: A Synthesis. (f982)<br />
No. 15 UNEP: Guidelines and principles for the preparation and inplementaLion<br />
of comprehensive action plans for Lhe protection and development of<br />
marine and coastal areas of regional seas. (1982)<br />
No. 16 cESAltP: The health of the oceans. (1982)<br />
No. l7 UNF:P: Regional Seas Programme: Legislative authority. (f985)<br />
No. 18 UNEP: Regional Seas Programrne: t'/orkplan . ( 1982 )<br />
No. 19 Rev. 2. UIfEP: Ul,lEP Oceans Programme: Cornpendium of projects. (f985)<br />
No. 20 CPPS/UNEP: AcLion Plan for [he proLection of thc marine environmenf<br />
and coastal areas of the South- l.iasL Pac i f ic . ( f 983 )
(252)<br />
No.2l CPPS/UNEP:Sources, levels and effecLs of marine pollution in the<br />
South-East Pacific. (1983) (In Spanish only)<br />
No. 22 Rev. 2, UNEP: Regional Seas Programme in Latin America and Uider<br />
Caribbean. (1985)<br />
No. 23 FAO/UNESCO/IOC/WHO/WtlO/IAEA/UNEP: Co-ordinabed llediterranean<br />
Pollution Uonitoring and Research Programme (HED POL) - Phase I:<br />
Programme Description. (1983)<br />
No. 24 UNEP: Action PIan for the protecLion and development of Lhe marine<br />
and coastal arees of the EasL Asian region. (1983)<br />
No. 25 UIIEP: l{arine pollution. (1983)<br />
No. 26 UNEP: Action Plan for the Caribbean environment protramme. (1983)<br />
No.27 UNEP: Action Plan for Lhe protecLion and development of Lhe marine<br />
environmenL and coastal areas of the ldest and Central African region.<br />
( 1983 )<br />
No- 28 UNEP: Long-terrn prograrnme for pollution monitoring and research in<br />
the lledit.erranean (t{ED POL) - Phase II. (1983)<br />
No. 29 SPC/SPEC/ESCAP/UNEP: AcLion Plan for mana6ing the natural resources<br />
and environment of the South Pacific region. (1.983)<br />
No. 30 UNDIESA/UNEP: Ocean enerty potential of the l'lest and Gentral African<br />
region. (1983)<br />
No.31 A. L. DAHL and I. L. BAUUGART: The state of the environmenL in the<br />
South Pacific. (1983)<br />
No.32 UI|EP/ECE/UIIIDO/FAO/UNESCO/WHO/IAEA: Pollutants from land-based<br />
sources in the Hediterranean. (1984)<br />
No.33 UNDIESA/UiIEP: Onshore irnpact of offshore oil and natural Bas<br />
development in Lhe West and Central African region. (1984)<br />
No. 34 UIEP: Action PLan for the probecLion of the Hediterranean. (1984)<br />
No. 35 UNEP: Action PIan for Lhe protecLion of the marine environment and<br />
the coastal areas of Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, KuwaiL, Oman, Qatar, Saudi<br />
Arabia and the Unibed Arab Emirates. (f983)<br />
No. 36 UIIEP/ECLAC: The sLaLe of marine pollution in bhe Wider Caribbean<br />
region. ( 1984 )<br />
No.3l UNDIESA/UNtsP: Environmental manatement problems in resource<br />
ut.iliza[ion and survey of resources in the WesL and Central African<br />
region. (1984 )<br />
No. 38 FAO/UUEP: Legal aspects of proLecLing and managing thc marine and<br />
coastal environmenL of Lhe East African region. (1983)<br />
No. 39 IUCN/UIEP: Harine and coastal conservaLion in the EasL African<br />
region. ( 1984 )
TZUJJ<br />
No. 40 SpC/SPEC/ESCAP/UUEP: Radioacbivity in the South Peclflc. (1984)<br />
No.41 UNEP: Socio-economie activities that may have an inrpacL on the marine<br />
and coastal environment of the East Afriean region. (1984)<br />
No. 42 6ESAHP: Principles for developing coastal water quality criteria.<br />
( 1984 )<br />
No. 43 CPPS/UUEP: Contintency plan to combaL oil pollution in the South-East<br />
Pacific in cases of emergency. (f984)<br />
No. 44 I;O/ROPIIE/UIIEP: Combating oi1 pollution in the Kuwait Action Plen<br />
region. (1984)<br />
No. 45 GESAIIP: Therrnal discharges in the marine environment. (1984)<br />
No. 46 UUEP: The marine and coasbal environment of the Uest and Central<br />
African region and its state of pollution. (1984)<br />
No. 17 UI|EP: Prospects for global ocean pollution monitoring. (1984)<br />
No. 48 SPC/SPEC/ESCAP/UIIEP: Hazardous waste storage and disposal in the<br />
South Pacific. (1984)<br />
llo. 481 Appendices SPC/SPEC/ESCAP/UIIBP: Hazardous waste storage and<br />
disposal in the South Pacific. (1984)<br />
No. 49 FAO/UI|EP: Legal aspects of protectint and managing the marine and<br />
coastal environment of Lhe East African region: Uational Reports.<br />
( 1984 )<br />
lro. 50 IUCU/Uf,EP: Harine and coastal conservation in the East African<br />
region: f,ationel Reports. (1984)<br />
llo. 51 UIIEP: Socio-economic activities that may have an irpact on f-he marine<br />
and coastal environnent of the East African region: Dlational<br />
Reports. (1984)<br />
llo. 52 UIIEP: Arab co-operation for the protection and development of the<br />
marine environnent end coastal ereaa resources of the llediterrsneen.<br />
( 1984 )<br />
No. 53 UUEP: UUEP Regional Seas Programme: the Eastern African E:rperience.<br />
( 1e84 )<br />
r llo. 54 Uf,IDO/UUEP: Contingency planning for emergencies asaociated with<br />
lndustrlal lnstallations in the t{est and Central Afrlcen region.<br />
( 1985 )<br />
lo. 55 FAO/UIEP: llarine mamnals: global plan of action. (f985)<br />
Ito.55l Annex FAO/IUCU/IWC/UIIEP: llarine marnmal.s: global plan of<br />
action. (1985)<br />
Xo. 56 GESAI{P: Cadmium, lesd and tin in the urarine environment. (1985)<br />
Uo. 5, IllO/Uf,EP: Oil spills and shoreline clean-up on the coasbs of the<br />
Eastern African region. (1985)<br />
llo. 58 UIIEP: Co-operative pcogrenmea sponeored by UXEP for tbe protection of<br />
Lhe merine and coastal environment in the yider Indian Ocean region.<br />
( 1985 )
1294)<br />
No. 59 UNEP: EnvironmenLal problems of the marine snd coestal ares of India:<br />
National RePort. (f985)<br />
lfo. 60 IUCiI/UNEP: HanagemenL and conservaLlon of renesable marine r€sources<br />
in the Indian Ocesn region: Overvierr. (1985)<br />
No. 6l UNEp: Action Plan for the protection, manatemenL and development of<br />
Lhe msrine and coestal environmenL of the Eastern African region.<br />
( 198s )<br />
No. 62 IUCII/UIIEP: HanagemenL and conservation of renewable marine resources ,<br />
in the South Asian Seas region. (1985)<br />
llo. 63 IUCN/UUEP: ]lanagement and conservation of renewable marine resources<br />
in the Kuwait Action Plan region. (f985)<br />
No. 64 IUCI/UNEP: llanagement and conservation of renewable marine resources<br />
in the Red Sea and GuIf of Aden region- (1985)<br />
No. 65 fUCU/UUBP: l{anagement and conservation of renesable marine resources<br />
in the Easb Asian Seas region. (1985)<br />
No. 66 IUCU/UUBP: l{anagement and conservation of renevable marine resources<br />
in the EasLern African region. (1985)<br />
No. 67 UU/UIIEP: Coastal erosion in West and Central Africa. (1985)<br />
IrIo. 68 GESAHP: ALmospheric transport of contaminants into the t{editerranean<br />
region. (1985)<br />
No. 69 UtrEP: Environment and resources in the Pacific. (1985)<br />
lto.7O UUESCO/ROPIIE/UPII/UIIEP: Proceedings of the Symposiun/l{orkshop on<br />
oc€anoBraphic modelling of the Kusait Action PIan (l(AP) retion. (1985)<br />
No. 7l IUCII/ROPI{E/UIIEP: An ecological sLudy of the rocky shores on the<br />
southern coast of Oman. (f985)<br />
No. 72 fUCf,/ROPlfB/UffEP: An ecological study of sites on the coast of<br />
Bahrain. (1985)<br />
No. 73 SPC/SPEC/ESCAP/UUEP: Ecological interacbions between bropical coastal<br />
ecosystems. (1985)<br />
t
tZ^A\<br />
\IIl<br />
Issued and printed by:<br />
Programme Actlvity Centre for Oceans and Coastal Areas<br />
United Nations Environment Progranme<br />
Additlonal copies of thls and other publications issued by<br />
the Progranme Activity Centre for Oceans and Coastal Areas<br />
can be obtained from:<br />
Prograrnme Activity Centre for Oceans and Coastal Areas<br />
Unlted Nations Environment Progranrne<br />
P.0. Box 30552<br />
Nairobi<br />
Kenya