Eclipse Engineering Guide
Eclipse Engineering Guide
Eclipse Engineering Guide
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<strong>Engineering</strong><br />
<strong>Guide</strong>
ECLIPSE<br />
COMBUSTION<br />
ENGINEERING<br />
GUIDE<br />
Published by<br />
<strong>Eclipse</strong>, Inc.
Copyright 1986<br />
by<br />
<strong>Eclipse</strong>, Inc.<br />
1665 Elmwood Road<br />
Rockford, Illlinois 61103<br />
All Rights Reserved.<br />
Eighth Edition<br />
EFE-825, 8/04<br />
Printed in the United States of America
CONTENTS<br />
1. Orifices & Flows<br />
Coefficients of Discharge for Various Types of Orifices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4<br />
Orifice Flow Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4<br />
Orifice Capacity Tables, Low Pressure Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5<br />
Orifice Capacity Tables, High Pressure Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9<br />
Piping Pressures Losses, Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12<br />
Piping Pressure Losses, Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13<br />
High Pressure (Compressible) Flow of Natural Gas in Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14<br />
Equivalent Lengths of Standard Pipe Fittings & Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14<br />
Simplified Selection of Air, Gas and Mixture Piping Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15<br />
Quick Method for Sizing Air Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15<br />
Sizing Branch Piping by the Equal Area Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16<br />
C v Flow Factor Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16<br />
Duct Velocity & Flow Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17<br />
2. Fan Laws & Blower Application <strong>Engineering</strong><br />
Theoretical Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18<br />
Fan Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19<br />
Blower Horsepower Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20<br />
Blowers Used as Suction Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20<br />
The Effect of Pressure on Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20<br />
The Effect of Altitude on Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20<br />
The Effect of Temperature on Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21<br />
3. Gas<br />
Physical Properties of Commercial Fuel Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22<br />
Combustion Properties of Commercial Fuel Gases<br />
Air/Gas Ratio, Flammability Limits, Ignition Temperature & Flame Velocity . . . 22<br />
Heating Value, Heat Release & Flame Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23<br />
Combustion Products & CO 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23<br />
Equivalent Propane/Air & Butane/Air Btu Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24<br />
Propane/Air & Butane/Air Mixture Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24<br />
4. Oil<br />
Fuel Oil Specifications Per ANSI/ASTM D 396-79 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25<br />
Typical Properities of Commercial Fuel Oils in the U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26<br />
Fuel Oil Viscosity Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26<br />
°API Vs. Oil Specific Gravity & Gross Heating Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27<br />
Oil Piping Pressure Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27<br />
Oil Temperature Drop in °F Per 100 Foot of Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29<br />
5. Steam & Water<br />
Boiler Terminology & Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30<br />
Properties of Saturated Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30<br />
Btu/Hr. Required to Generate One Boiler H.P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31<br />
Sizing Water Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31<br />
Sizing Steam Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31<br />
2
6. Electrical Data<br />
Electrical Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33<br />
Electrical Wire – Dimensions & Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33<br />
NEMA Size Starters for Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33<br />
NEMA Enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34<br />
Electric Motors – Full Load Current, Amperes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34<br />
7. Process Heating<br />
Heat Balances – Determining the Heat Needs of Furnaces and Ovens . . . . 35<br />
Thermal Properties of Various Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37<br />
Thermal Capacities of Metals & Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40<br />
Industrial Heating Operations – Temperature & Heat Requirements . . . . . . 41<br />
Crucibles for Metal Melting – Dimensions & Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43<br />
Radiant Tubes – Sizing & Input Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43<br />
Heat Losses, Heat Storage & Cold Face Temperatures – Refractory Walls . 44<br />
Air Heating & Fume Incineration Heat Requirements<br />
Using “Raw Gas” Burners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45<br />
Using Burners with Separate Combustion Air Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45<br />
Fume Incineration – Selection & Sizing <strong>Guide</strong>lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46<br />
Liquid Heating – Burner Sizing <strong>Guide</strong>lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47<br />
Black Body Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49<br />
Thermocouple Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49<br />
Orton Standard Pyrometric Cone Temperature Equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50<br />
8. Combustion Data<br />
Available Heat for Birmingham Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51<br />
Available Heat for Various Fuel Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51<br />
Flue Gas Analysis Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52<br />
Theoretical Flame Tip Temperature vs. Excess Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52<br />
Heat Transfer Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52<br />
Thermal Head & Cold Air Infiltration into Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53<br />
Furnace Flue Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53<br />
9. Mechanical Data<br />
Dimensional and Capacity Data – Schedule 40 Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54<br />
Dimensions of Malleable Iron Threaded Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55<br />
Sheet Metal Gauges & Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56<br />
Steel Wire Gauges & Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56<br />
Circumferences & Areas of Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57<br />
Drill Size Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59<br />
Tap Drill Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60<br />
Drilling Templates – Pipe Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60<br />
10. Abbreviations & Symbols<br />
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61<br />
Electrical Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62<br />
11. Conversion Factors<br />
General Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64<br />
Temperature Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68<br />
Pressure Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69<br />
Index . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72<br />
Tech Notes<br />
Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73<br />
3
Sharp Edge<br />
C d = 0.60<br />
The flow of air or gas through an orifice can be determined<br />
by the formula<br />
h<br />
Q = 1658.5 x Ax C g d<br />
where Q =flow, cfh<br />
A =area of the orifice, sq. in. (see Pages 57 & 58)<br />
Cd =discharge coefficient of the orifice<br />
(see above)<br />
h =pressure drop across the orifice,″ w.c.<br />
g =specific gravity of the gas, based on standard<br />
air at 1.0 (see Pages 19, 20, & 22 thru 24.)<br />
1. Sizing Orifice Plates<br />
To calculate the size of an orifice plate, this equation can<br />
be rearranged as follows:<br />
A= Q x<br />
g<br />
1658.5 x C h<br />
d<br />
2. Effect of Changes in Operating Conditions on<br />
Flow through an Orifice – General Relationship<br />
Q2 A2 Cd2 h2 g1 = x x x<br />
Q1 A1 Cd1 h g 1 2<br />
If any of the factors in this relationship remain constant<br />
from Condition 1 to Condition 2, they can be dropped out of<br />
the equation, yielding these simplified relationships. Each of<br />
them assumes only one factor has been changed.<br />
2a.Flow Change vs. Orifice Area Change<br />
Q2 A2 =<br />
Q1 A1 2b.Flow Change vs. Pressure Drop Change<br />
Q2 h2 =<br />
Q 1<br />
Reentrant<br />
0.72<br />
h 1<br />
This is the so-called “square root law.”<br />
2c.Flow Change vs. Specific Gravity Change<br />
Q2 g1 =<br />
Q g 1 2<br />
CHAPTER 1 – ORIFICES & FLOWS<br />
COEFFICIENTS OF DISCHARGE FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF ORIFICES<br />
Round Edge<br />
0.97<br />
Short Pipe<br />
0.82<br />
Converging<br />
depends on angle. See<br />
curve at right.<br />
Coefficient of Discharge (Cd )<br />
0.95<br />
4<br />
0.93<br />
0.91<br />
0.89<br />
0.87<br />
0.85<br />
ORIFICE FLOW FORMULAS<br />
3.Effect of Changes in Operating Conditions on Pressure<br />
Drop Across an Orifice–General Relationship:<br />
2 h2 Q2 = x A1 2<br />
x Cd1 2<br />
x g2 ( h1 Q ) ( ) ( )<br />
1 A2 Cd2 g1 Again, if any of the factors in this equation are unchanged<br />
from Condition 1 to Condtion 2, they can be dropped out to<br />
form simplified relationships:<br />
3a.Pressure Drop Change vs. Flow Change<br />
2 h2 Q2 =<br />
h 1<br />
Q 1<br />
This is the square root law, stated another way.<br />
3b.Pressure Drop Change vs. Orifice Area Change<br />
2 h2 A1 =<br />
h 1<br />
A 2<br />
3c.Pressure Drop Change vs. Specific Gravity Change<br />
h2 g2 =<br />
h 1<br />
Orifices and Nozzles Discharging from Plenum<br />
0.83<br />
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24<br />
Angle of Convergence in Degrees<br />
(<br />
(<br />
g 1<br />
)<br />
)<br />
This relationship may not apply where specific gravity has<br />
been changed by a change in gas temperature. See Page 25.<br />
4. Effect of Changes in Gas Temperature on Flow and<br />
Pressure Drop through an Orifice<br />
Raising a gas’s temperature has two effects – it increases<br />
the volume and decreases the specific gravity, both in proportion<br />
to the ratio of the absolute temperatures. If we are concerned<br />
with changes in mass flows (scfh), these relationships<br />
must be used:<br />
4a.Flow Change vs. Temperature Change<br />
Q2 Q1 =<br />
TADS1 TABB2 4b.Pressure Drop Change vs. Temperature Change<br />
h2 TABS2 h<br />
=<br />
1 TABS1 to maintain constant scfh<br />
NOTE: The loss is least at 13˚
Flows in these tables are based on an orifice pressure drop<br />
of 1″ w.c. and a coefficient of discharge (C d ) of 1.0.<br />
To determine flow through an orifice of a known diameter:<br />
1. Locate the orifice diameter in the left-hand column of the<br />
table.<br />
2. Read across to the column corresponding to the gas being<br />
measured. This is the uncorrected flow.<br />
3. Multiply this flow by the coefficient of discharge of the<br />
orifice. (see page 4)<br />
4. Correct this flow to the pressure drop actually measured,<br />
using the square root law (equation 2b, page 4).<br />
Example: What is the flow of natural gas through a 7/32"<br />
diameter sharp edge orifice at 6″ w.c. pressure drop?<br />
From the table, uncorrected natural gas flow through a<br />
7/32" orifice is 80.7 cfh at 1″ w.c.<br />
C d for a sharp edge orifice is 0.60 (page 1.1), so corrected<br />
flow is 80.7 x 0.60 = 48.4 cfh at 1" w.c. pressure drop.<br />
Per equation 2b, page 4,<br />
Q 2 = h 2 or Q2 = Q 1 x h 2<br />
Q 1 h 1 h 1<br />
Substituting the numbers for this case:<br />
Q 2 = 48.4 x<br />
6″ w.c. = 119 cfh<br />
1″ w.c.<br />
ORIFICE CAPACITY TABLES<br />
LOW PRESSURE GAS<br />
CAPACITY, CFH @ 1″ W.C. PRESSURE DROP<br />
AND COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF 1.0<br />
5<br />
To determine the orifice size to handle a known flow at a<br />
specified pressure drop, reverse the process:<br />
1. Correct the known flow to a pressure drop of 1″ w.c.,<br />
using the square root law.<br />
2. Divide the flow by the orifice coefficient.<br />
3. In the orifice table, locate the column for the gas under<br />
consideration. In this column, locate the flow closest to<br />
the corrected value found in step 2.<br />
4. Read to the left to find the corrected orifice size.<br />
Example: Size a gas jet for a mixer. Entrance to the jet orifice<br />
converges at a 15° included angle. Gas is propane. Required<br />
flow is 120 cfh at 30″ w.c. pressure drop.<br />
Per equation 2b, page 4,<br />
Q 2 = h 2 , or Q2 = Q1 x h 2<br />
Q 1 h 1 h 1<br />
Substituting the numbers for this case:<br />
Q2 = 120 x 1 = 22 cfh<br />
30<br />
From page 1.1, Cd for a 15° convergent nozzle is 0.94, so<br />
corrected flow is<br />
22 ÷ 0.94 = 23.4 cfh.<br />
Locate 23.4 cfh in the propane column of the orifice<br />
table and then read to the left to find a #26 drill size orifice.<br />
Natural Propane/<br />
Drill Dia. Gas Air Air Propane Butane<br />
Size In. Area 0.60 Sp. Gr. 1.0 Sp. Gr. 1.29 Sp. Gr. 1.5 Sp. Gr. 2.0 Sp. Gr.<br />
80 .0135 .000143 .308 .239 .210 .195 .169<br />
79 .0145 .000165 .355 .275 .242 .225 .195<br />
1/64 .0156 .00019 .409 .317 .279 .259 .224<br />
78 .016 .00020 .431 .334 .294 .272 .236<br />
77 .018 .00025 .538 .417 .367 .340 .295<br />
76 .020 .00031 .668 .517 .455 .422 .366<br />
75 .021 .00035 .754 .584 .514 .477 .413<br />
74 .0225 .00040 .861 .668 .587 .545 .472<br />
73 .024 .00045 .969 .751 .661 .613 .531<br />
72 .025 .00049 1.06 .817 .720 .667 .578<br />
71 .026 .00053 1.14 .884 .778 .722 .625<br />
70 .028 .00062 1.33 1.03 .910 .844 .731<br />
69 .0292 .00067 1.44 1.12 .984 .912 .790<br />
68 .030 .00075 1.61 1.25 1.10 1.02 .885<br />
1/32 .0312 .00076 1.64 1.27 1.12 1.04 .896<br />
67 .032 .00080 1.72 1.33 1.17 1.09 .944<br />
66 .033 .00086 1.85 1.43 1.26 1.17 1.01<br />
65 .035 .00092 2.07 1.60 1.41 1.31 1.13<br />
64 .036 .00102 2.20 1.70 1.50 1.39 1.20<br />
63 .037 .00108 2.33 1.80 1.59 1.47 1.27<br />
62 .038 .00113 2.43 1.88 1.66 1.54 1.33<br />
61 .039 .00119 2.56 1.98 1.75 1.62 1.40<br />
60 .040 .00126 2.71 2.10 1.85 1.72 1.49<br />
59 .041 .00132 2.84 2.20 1.94 1.8 1.56<br />
58 .042 .00138 2.97 2.30 2.03 1.88 1.63
CAPACITY, CFH @ 1″ W.C. PRESSURE DROP<br />
AND COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF 1.0<br />
Natural Propane/<br />
Drill Dia. Gas Air Air Propane Butane<br />
Size In. Area 0.60 Sp. Gr. 1.0 Sp. Gr. 1.29 Sp. Gr. 1.5 Sp. Gr. 2.0 Sp. Gr.<br />
57 .043 .00145 3.12 2.42 2.13 1.97 1.71<br />
56 .0465 .00170 3.66 2.84 2.5 2.32 2.01<br />
3/64 .0469 .00173 3.73 2.89 2.54 2.36 2.04<br />
55 .0520 .00210 4.52 3.50 3.08 2.86 2.48<br />
54 .0550 .0023 4.95 3.84 3.38 3.13 2.71<br />
53 .0595 .0028 6.03 4.67 4.11 3.81 3.30<br />
1/16 .0625 .0031 6.68 5.17 4.55 4.22 3.66<br />
52 .0635 .0032 6.89 5.34 4.7 4.36 3.77<br />
51 .0670 .0035 7.54 5.84 5.14 4.77 4.13<br />
50 .070 .0038 8.18 6.34 5.58 5.18 4.48<br />
49 .073 .0042 9.04 7.01 6.17 5.72 4.95<br />
48 .076 .0043 9.26 7.17 6.31 5.86 5.07<br />
5/64 .0781 .0048 10.3 8.01 7.05 6.54 5.66<br />
47 .0785 .0049 10.5 8.17 7.2 6.67 5.78<br />
46 .081 .0051 11. 8.51 7.49 6.95 6.02<br />
45 .082 .0053 11.4 8.84 7.78 7.22 6.25<br />
44 .086 .0058 12.5 9.67 8.52 7.9 6.84<br />
43 .089 .0062 13.4 10.3 9.11 8.44 7.31<br />
42 .0935 .00687 14.8 11.4 10. 9.36 8.1<br />
3/32 .0937 .0069 14.9 11.5 10.1 9.40 8.14<br />
41 .096 .0072 15.5 12. 10.6 9.81 8.49<br />
40 .098 .0075 16.2 12.5 11. 10.2 8.85<br />
39 .0995 .0078 16.8 13. 11.5 10.6 9.2<br />
38 .1015 .0081 17.4 13.5 11.9 11.0 9.55<br />
37 .104 .0085 18.3 14.2 12.5 11.6 10.<br />
36 .1065 .0090 19.4 15. 13.2 12.3 10.6<br />
7/64 .1093 .0094 20.2 15.7 13.8 12.8 11.1<br />
35 .110 .0095 20.5 15.8 14. 12.9 11.2<br />
34 .111 .0097 20.9 16.2 14.2 13.2 11.4<br />
33 .113 .0100 21.5 16.7 14.7 13.6 11.8<br />
32 .116 .0106 22.8 17.7 15.6 14.4 12.5<br />
31 .120 .0113 24.3 18.8 16.6 15.4 13.3<br />
1/8 .125 .0123 26.4 20.4 18. 16.7 14.5<br />
30 .1285 .0130 27.9 21.6 19. 17.6 15.3<br />
29 .136 .0145 31.1 24.1 21.2 19.7 17.<br />
28 .1405 .0155 33.3 25.8 22.7 21. 18.2<br />
9/64 .1406 .0156 33.5 25.9 22.8 21.2 18.3<br />
27 .144 .0163 35. 27.1 23.9 22.1 19.2<br />
26 .147 .0174 37.3 28.9 25.5 23.6 20.4<br />
25 .1495 .0175 37.5 29.1 25.6 23.7 20.6<br />
24 .152 .0181 38.8 30.1 26.5 24.6 21.3<br />
23 .154 .0186 39.9 30.9 27.2 25.2 21.9<br />
5/32 .1562 .0192 41.2 31.9 28.1 26.1 22.6<br />
22 .157 .0193 41.4 32.1 28.2 26.2 22.7<br />
21 .159 .0198 42.5 32.9 29. 26.9 23.3<br />
20 .161 .0203 43.6 33.7 29.7 27.5 23.9<br />
19 .166 .0216 46.3 35.9 31.6 29.3 25.4<br />
18 .1695 .0226 48.5 37.6 33.1 30.7 26.6<br />
11/64 .1719 .0232 49.8 38.6 33.9 31.5 27.3<br />
17 .175 .0235 50.4 39.1 34.4 31.9 27.6<br />
16 .177 .0246 52.8 40.9 36. 33.4 28.9<br />
15 .180 .0254 54.5 42.2 37.2 34.5 29.9<br />
14 .182 .0260 55.8 43.2 38. 35.3 30.6<br />
13 .185 .0269 57.7 44.7 39.4 36.5 31.6<br />
3/16 .1875 .0276 59.2 45.9 40.4 37.5 32.4<br />
6
CAPACITY, CFH @ 1″ W.C. PRESSURE DROP<br />
AND COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF 1.0<br />
Natural Propane/<br />
Drill Dia. Gas Air Air Propane Butane<br />
Size In. Area 0.60 Sp. Gr. 1.0 Sp. Gr. 1.29 Sp. Gr. 1.5 Sp. Gr. 2.0 Sp. Gr.<br />
12 .189 .02805 60.2 46.6 41. 38.1 33.<br />
11 .191 .02865 61.5 47.6 41.9 38.9 33.7<br />
10 .1935 .0294 63.1 48.9 43. 39.9 34.6<br />
9 .196 .0302 64.8 50.2 44.2 41. 35.5<br />
8 .199 .0311 66.7 51.7 45.5 42.2 36.5<br />
7 .201 .0316 67.8 52.5 46.2 42.9 37.1<br />
13/64 .2031 .0324 69.5 53.8 47.4 44. 38.1<br />
6 .204 .0327 70.2 54.3 47.8 44.4 38.4<br />
5 .2055 .0332 71.2 55.2 48.6 45.1 39.<br />
4 .209 .0343 73.6 57.0 50.2 46.5 40.3<br />
3 .213 .0356 76.4 59.2 52.1 48.3 41.8<br />
7/32 .2187 .0376 80.7 62.5 55. 51. 44.2<br />
2 .221 .0384 82.4 63.8 56.2 52.1 45.1<br />
1 .228 .0409 87.8 68. 59.8 55.5 48.1<br />
A .234 .0430 92.3 71.5 62.9 58.4 50.5<br />
15/64 .2343 .0431 92.5 71.6 63.1 58.5 50.7<br />
B .238 .0444 95.3 73.8 65. 60.3 52.2<br />
C .242 .0460 98.7 76.5 67.3 62.4 54.1<br />
D .246 .0475 102. 78.9 69.5 64.5 55.8<br />
1/4 .250 .0491 105. 81.6 71.8 66.6 57.7<br />
F .257 .0519 111. 86.3 75.9 70.4 61.<br />
G .261 .0535 115. 88.9 78.3 72.6 62.9<br />
17/64 .2656 .0554 119. 92.1 81.1 75.2 65.1<br />
H .266 .0556 119.3 92.4 81.4 75.4 65.3<br />
I .272 .0580 124. 96.4 84.9 78.7 68.2<br />
J .277 .0601 129. 99.9 87.9 81.6 70.6<br />
K .281 .0620 133. 103. 90.7 84.1 72.9<br />
9/32 .2812 .0621 133.2 103.2 90.9 84.3 73.<br />
L .290 .0660 142. 110. 96.6 89.6 77.6<br />
M .295 .0683 147. 113. 99.9 92.7 80.3<br />
19/64 .2968 .0692 148. 115. 101. 93.9 81.3<br />
N .302 .0716 154. 119. 105. 97.2 84.1<br />
5/16 .3125 .0767 165. 127. 112. 104. 90.1<br />
O .316 .0784 168. 130. 115. 106. 92.1<br />
P .323 .0820 176. 136. 120. 111. 96.4<br />
21/64 .3281 .0846 182. 141. 124. 115. 99.4<br />
Q .332 .0866 186. 144. 127. 118. 102.<br />
R .339 .0901 193. 150. 132. 122. 106.<br />
11/32 .3437 .0928 199. 154. 136. 126. 109.<br />
S .348 .0950 204. 158. 139. 129. 112.<br />
T .358 .1005 216. 167. 147. 136. 118.<br />
23/64 .3593 .1014 218. 169. 148. 138. 119.<br />
U .368 .1063 228. 177. 156. 144. 125.<br />
3/8 .375 .1104 237. 184. 162. 150. 130.<br />
V .377 .1116 239. 185. 163. 151. 131.<br />
W .386 .1170 251. 194. 171. 159. 137.<br />
25/64 .3906 .1198 257. 199. 175. 163. 141.<br />
X .397 .1236 265. 205. 181. 168. 145.<br />
Y .404 .1278 274. 212. 187. 173. 150.<br />
13/32 .4062 .1296 278. 215. 190. 176. 152.<br />
Z .413 .1340 288. 223. 196. 182. 157.<br />
27/64 .4219 .1398 300. 232. 205. 190. 164.<br />
7/16 .4375 .1503 322. 250. 220. 204. 177.<br />
29/64 .4531 .1613 346. 268. 236. 219. 190.<br />
15/32 .4687 .1726 370. 287. 253. 234. 203.<br />
7
CAPACITY, CFH @ 1″ W.C. PRESSURE DROP<br />
AND COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF 1.0<br />
Natural Propane/<br />
Drill Dia. Gas Air Air Propane Butane<br />
Size In. Area 0.60 Sp. Gr. 1.0 Sp. Gr. 1.29 Sp. Gr. 1.5 Sp. Gr. 2.0 Sp. Gr.<br />
31/64 .4843 .1843 395. 306. 270. 250. 217.<br />
1/2 .50 .1963 421. 326. 287. 266. 231.<br />
33/64 .5156 .2088 448. 347. 306. 283. 245.<br />
17/32 .5312 .2217 476. 368. 324. 301. 261.<br />
35/64 .5468 .2349 504. 390. 344. 319. 276.<br />
9/16 .5625 .2485 533. 413. 364. 337. 292.<br />
37/64 .5781 .2625 563. 436. 384. 356. 308.<br />
19/32 .5937 .2769 594. 460. 405. 376. 325.<br />
39/64 .6093 .2916 626. 485. 427. 396. 343.<br />
5/8 .625 .3068 658. 510. 449. 416. 361.<br />
41/64 .6406 .3223 691. 536. 472. 437. 379.<br />
21/32 .6562 .3382 725. 562. 495. 459. 397.<br />
43/64 .6718 .3545 760. 589. 519. 481. 417.<br />
11/16 .6875 .3712 796. 617. 543. 504. 436.<br />
45/64 .7031 .3883 833. 645. 568. 527. 456.<br />
23/32 .7187 .4057 870. 674. 594. 551. 477.<br />
47/64 .7343 .4236 909. 704. 620. 575. 498.<br />
3/4 .750 .44179 948. 734. 646. 599. 519.<br />
49/64 .7656 .46040 988. 765. 674. 625. 541.<br />
25/32 .7813 .47937 1029. 796. 701. 651. 563.<br />
51/64 .7969 .49873 1070. 829. 730. 677. 586.<br />
13/16 .8125 .51849 1112. 862. 759. 704. 609.<br />
53/64 .8281 .53862 1156. 895. 788. 731. 633.<br />
27/32 .8438 .55914 1200. 929. 818. 759. 657.<br />
55/64 .8594 .5800 1244. 964. 849. 787. 682.<br />
7/8 .8750 .60132 1290. 999. 880. 816. 707.<br />
29/32 .9062 .64504 1384. 1072. 944. 875. 758.<br />
15/16 .9375 .69029 1481. 1147. 1010. 937. 811.<br />
31/32 .9688 .73708 1581. 1225. 1079. 1000. 866.<br />
1 1.0 .7854 1685. 1305. 1149. 1066. 923.<br />
1-1/16 1.063 .88664 1902. 1474. 1297. 1203. 1042.<br />
1-1/8 1.125 .99402 2133. 1652. 1455. 1349. 1168.<br />
1-3/16 1.188 1.1075 2376. 1841. 1621. 1503. 1302.<br />
1-1/4 1.250 1.2272 2633. 2040. 1796. 1665. 1442.<br />
1-5/16 1.313 1.3530 2903. 2249. 1980. 1836. 1590.<br />
1-3/8 1.375 1.4849 3186. 2468. 2173. 2015. 1745.<br />
1-1/2 1.5 1.7671 3791. 2937. 2586. 2398. 2077.<br />
1-9/16 1.563 1.9174 4114. 3187. 2806. 2602. 2253.<br />
1-5/8 1.625 2.0739 4450. 3447. 3035. 2814. 2437.<br />
1-11/16 1.688 2.2365 4799. 3717. 3273. 3035. 2628.<br />
1-3/4 1.75 2.4053 5161. 3998. 3520. 3264. 2827.<br />
1-13/16 1.813 2.5802 5536. 4288. 3776. 3501. 3032.<br />
1-7/8 1.875 2.7612 5924. 4589. 4040. 3747. 3245.<br />
1-15/16 1.938 2.9498 6329. 4903. 4316. 4003. 3467.<br />
2 2.0 3.1416 6741. 5221. 4597. 4263. 3692.<br />
2-1/8 2.125 3.5466 7610. 5894. 5190. 4813. 4168.<br />
2-1/4 2.250 3.9761 8531. 6608. 5818. 5396. 4673.<br />
2-3/8 2.375 4.4301 9505. 7363. 6483. 6012. 5206.<br />
2-1/2 2.50 4.9087 10532. 8158. 7183. 6661. 5769.<br />
2-5/8 2.625 5.4119 11612. 8995. 7919. 7344. 6360.<br />
2-3/4 2.75 5.9396 12744. 9872. 8691. 8060. 6980.<br />
2-7/8 2.875 6.4918 13929. 10789. 9499. 8809. 7629.<br />
8
These tables list compressible flows of high pressure gases<br />
through orifices and spuds. They are based on an orifice pressure<br />
drop of 10 psi and a coefficient of discharge (C d) of 1.0.<br />
They also assume the gas is discharging to a region of atmospheric<br />
pressure.<br />
To determine flow through an orifice of a known diameter:<br />
1. Locate the orifice diameter in the left-hand column of the<br />
table.<br />
2. Read across to the column corresponding to the gas being<br />
measured. This is the uncorrected flow.<br />
3. Multiply this flow by the coefficient of discharge of the<br />
orifice. (see page 4)<br />
4. Correct this flow to the pressure actually measured ahead<br />
of the orifice (P) using the following relationship:<br />
Q p = Q 10<br />
ORIFICE CAPACITY TABLES FOR HIGH PRESSURE GASES<br />
P + 14.7<br />
24.7<br />
Where Q p is the unknown flow<br />
Q 10 is the flow at 10 psig from the table<br />
Example: What is the flow of propane – air mixture through a<br />
3/64" diameter jet with a 15° angle of convergence at 35 psig?<br />
From the table, uncorrected propane – air flow through a<br />
3/64" orifice is 41 scfh at 10 psig.<br />
C d for 15° convergent jet is 0.94 (page 4), so corrected flow<br />
is 41 x 0.94 = 38.5 scfh at 10 psig.<br />
Corrected flow for 35 psig pressure, per the equation above, is<br />
Q p = 38.5 35 + 14.7 = 77.5 scfh<br />
24.7<br />
9<br />
To determine the orifice size to handle a known flow at a<br />
specified pressure drop, reverse the process:<br />
1. Correct the known flow to a pressure drop of 10 psig, using<br />
the equation above.<br />
2. Divide the flow by the orifice coefficient.<br />
3. In the orifice table, locate the column for the gas under<br />
consideration. In this column, locate the flow closest to the<br />
corrected value found in step 2.<br />
4. Read to the left to find the corrected orifice size.<br />
Example: Size an airjet with a convergent inlet of 15°.<br />
Required flow is 450 scfh at 20 psig inlet pressure.<br />
Per the equation above,<br />
Qp = Q P + 14.7,<br />
10 or Q10 = Q 24.7<br />
p<br />
24.7 P + 14.7<br />
Substituting the numbers for this case:<br />
Q 10 = 450 24.7 = 320 scfh<br />
20 + 14.7<br />
From page 4, C d for a 15° convergent nozzle is 0.94, so corrected<br />
flow is<br />
320 ÷ 0.94 = 340 scfh.<br />
Locate 340 scfh in the air column of the orifice table. Closest<br />
value is 341 scfh, which requires a 1/8" diameter jet.<br />
CAPACITY, SCFH @ 10 PSI PRESSURE DROP, DISCHARGING TO ATMOSPHERE,<br />
WITH COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF 1.0<br />
Drill Area Natural Gas Air Propane/Air Propane Butane<br />
Size Sq. In. 0.60 Sp. Gr. 1.0 Sp. Gr. 1.29 Sp. Gr. 1.5 Sp. Gr. 2.0 Sp. Gr.<br />
80 .000143 4.9 3.8 3.3 3.1 2.7<br />
79 .000165 5.6 4.3 3.8 3.5 3.0<br />
1/64 — .00019 6.6 5.1 4.5 4.2 3.6<br />
78 .00020 7.0 5.4 4.8 4.4 3.8<br />
77 .00025 9.2 7.1 6.3 5.8 5.0<br />
76 .00031 10.8 8.4 7.4 6.9 5.9<br />
75 .00035 11.9 9.2 8.1 7.5 6.53<br />
74 .00040 13.6 10.5 9.2 8.6 7.4<br />
73 .00045 15.6 12.1 10.7 9.9 8.6<br />
72 .00049 17.0 13.2 11.6 10.8 9.3<br />
71 .00053 18.5 14.3 12.6 11.7 10.1<br />
70 .00062 21 16.4 14.4 13.4 11.6<br />
69 .00067 23 18.1 15.9 14.8 12.8<br />
68 .00075 26 20 17.6 16.3 14.1<br />
1/32 — .00076 27 21 18.5 17.1 14.8<br />
67 .00080 28 22 19.4 18.0 15.6<br />
66 .00086 30 23 20 18.8 16.3<br />
65 .00096 34 26 23 21 18.4<br />
64 .00102 35 27 24 22 19.1<br />
63 .00108 37 29 26 24 20<br />
62 .00113 40 31 27 25 22<br />
61 .00119 41 32 28 26 23<br />
60 .00126 44 34 30 28 24
CAPACITY, SCFH @ 10 PSI PRESSURE DROP, DISCHARGING TO<br />
ATMOSPHERE, WITH COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF 1.0 (Cont’d)<br />
Drill Area Natural Gas Air Propane/Air Propane Butane<br />
Size Sq. In. 0.60 Sp. Gr. 1.0 Sp. Gr. 1.29 Sp. Gr. 1.5 Sp. Gr. 2.0 Sp. Gr.<br />
59 .00132 45 35 31 29 25<br />
58 .00138 48 37 33 30 26<br />
57 .00145 52 40 35 33 28<br />
56 .00170 59 46 41 38 33<br />
3/64 — .00173 61 47 41 38 33<br />
55 .00210 75 58 51 47 41<br />
54 .00230 84 65 57 53 46<br />
53 .00280 98 76 67 62 54<br />
1/16 — .00310 108 84 74 69 59<br />
52 .00320 112 87 77 71 62<br />
51 .00350 124 96 85 78 68<br />
50 .00380 136 105 92 86 74<br />
49 .00420 147 114 100 93 81<br />
48 .00430 160 124 109 101 88<br />
5/64 — .00480 169 131 115 107 93<br />
47 .00490 172 133 117 109 94<br />
46 .00510 182 141 124 115 100<br />
45 .00530 187 145 128 118 103<br />
44 .00580 205 159 140 130 112<br />
43 .00620 219 170 150 139 120<br />
3/32 (42) .00690 243 188 166 154 133<br />
41 .00720 244 189 166 154 134<br />
40 .00750 266 206 181 168 146<br />
39 .00780 275 213 188 174 151<br />
38 .00810 285 221 195 180 156<br />
37 .00850 300 232 204 189 164<br />
36 .00900 315 244 215 199 173<br />
7/64 — .00940 332 257 226 210 182<br />
35 .00950 336 260 229 212 184<br />
34 .00970 342 265 233 216 187<br />
33 .01000 354 274 241 224 194<br />
32 .01060 374 290 255 237 205<br />
31 .01130 400 310 273 253 219<br />
1/8 — .01230 440 341 300 278 241<br />
30 .01300 458 355 313 290 251<br />
29 .01450 514 398 350 325 281<br />
28 .01550 550 426 375 348 301<br />
9/64 — .01560 553 428 377 349 303<br />
27 .01630 572 443 390 362 313<br />
26 .01740 599 464 409 379 328<br />
25 .01750 621 481 423 393 340<br />
24 .01810 642 497 437 406 351<br />
23 .01860 660 511 450 417 361<br />
5/32 — .01920 678 525 462 429 371<br />
22 .01930 684 530 467 433 375<br />
21 .01980 702 544 479 444 385<br />
20 .02030 728 564 497 461 399<br />
19 .02160 766 593 522 484 419<br />
18 .02260 800 620 546 506 438<br />
11/64 — .02320 822 637 561 520 450<br />
17 .02350 830 643 566 525 455<br />
16 .02460 871 675 594 551 477<br />
15 .02540 904 700 616 572 495<br />
14 .02600 920 713 628 582 503<br />
13 .02690 951 737 649 602 521<br />
3/16 — .02760 976 756 666 617 534<br />
12 .02805 993 769 677 628 544<br />
10
CAPACITY, SCFH @ 10 PSI PRESSURE DROP, DISCHARGING TO<br />
ATMOSPHERE, WITH COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF 1.0 (Cont’d)<br />
Drill Area Natural Gas Air Propane/Air Propane Butane<br />
Size Sq. In. 0.60 Sp. Gr. 1.0 Sp. Gr. 1.29 Sp. Gr. 1.5 Sp. Gr. 2.0 Sp. Gr.<br />
11 .02865 1015 786 692 642 556<br />
10 .02940 1041 806 710 658 570<br />
9 .03020 1066 826 727 674 584<br />
8 .03110 1100 852 750 696 602<br />
7 .03160 1122 869 765 710 614<br />
13/64 — .03240 1148 889 783 726 629<br />
6 .03270 1155 895 788 731 633<br />
5 .03320 1172 908 799 741 642<br />
4 .03430 1216 942 829 769 666<br />
3 .03560 1263 978 861 799 692<br />
7/32 — .03760 1327 1028 905 839 727<br />
2 .03840 1361 1054 928 861 745<br />
1 .04090 1447 1121 987 915 793<br />
A .04300 1523 1180 1039 963 834<br />
15/64 — .04310 1529 1184 1042 967 837<br />
B .04440 1571 1217 1072 994 861<br />
C .04600 1627 1260 1109 1029 891<br />
D .04750 1686 1306 1150 1066 923<br />
1/4 E .04910 1738 1346 1185 1099 952<br />
F .05190 1836 1422 1252 1161 1006<br />
G .05350 1891 1465 1290 1196 1036<br />
17/64 — .05540 1960 1518 1336 1239 1073<br />
H .05560 1969 1525 1343 1245 1078<br />
I .05800 2054 1591 1401 1299 1125<br />
J .06010 2128 1648 1451 1346 1165<br />
K .06200 2192 1698 1495 1386 1201<br />
9/32 — .06210 2200 1704 1500 1391 1205<br />
L .06600 2337 1810 1594 1478 1280<br />
M .06830 2418 1873 1649 1529 1324<br />
19/64 — .06920 2448 1896 1669 1548 1341<br />
N .07160 2534 1963 1728 1603 1388<br />
5/16 — .07670 2714 2102 1851 1716 1486<br />
O .07840 2782 2155 1897 1760 1524<br />
P .08200 2893 2241 1973 1830 1585<br />
21/64 — .08460 2996 2321 2044 1895 1641<br />
Q .08660 3065 2374 2090 1938 1679<br />
R .09010 3193 2473 2177 2019 1749<br />
11/32 — .09280 3283 2543 2239 2076 1798<br />
S .09500 3373 2613 2301 2134 1848<br />
T .10050 3553 2752 2423 2247 1946<br />
23/64 — .10140 3595 2785 2452 2274 1969<br />
U .10630 3775 2924 2574 2387 2068<br />
3/8 — .11040 3912 3030 2668 2474 2143<br />
V .11160 3959 3067 2700 2504 2169<br />
W .11700 4135 3203 2820 2615 2265<br />
25/64 — .11980 4237 3282 2890 2680 2321<br />
X .12360 4374 3388 2983 2766 2396<br />
Y .12780 4537 3514 3094 2869 2485<br />
13/32 — .12960 4580 3548 3124 2897 2509<br />
Z .13400 4751 3680 3240 3005 2602<br />
27/64 — .13980 4943 3829 3371 3126 2708<br />
7/16 — .15030 5307 4111 3620 3357 2907<br />
29/64 — .16130 5714 4426 3897 3614 3130<br />
15/32 — .17260 6121 4741 4452 3871 3352<br />
31/64 — .18430 6527 5056 4448 4128 3575<br />
1/2 — .19630 6977 5204 4758 4412 3821<br />
11
PIPING PRESSURE LOSSES FOR LOW PRESSURE AIR<br />
Inches w.c. per 100 ft. of Schedule 40 pipe<br />
Scfh<br />
Air 1/2" 3/4" 1" 1-1/4" 1-1/2 2" 2-1/2" 3<br />
40 0.3 — — — — — — —<br />
50 0.5 — — — — — — —<br />
100 2.1 0.5 — — — — — —<br />
200 8.4 1.9 0.5 — — — — —<br />
300 18.9 4.2 1.2 0.3 — — — —<br />
400 — 7.5 2.1 0.5 — — — —<br />
500 — 11.8 3.3 0.8 0.4 — — —<br />
600 — 16.9 4.7 1.1 0.5 — — —<br />
700 — — 6.4 1.5 0.7 — — —<br />
800 — — 8.3 2.0 0.9 — — —<br />
900 — — 10.5 2.5 1.1 0.3 — —<br />
1,000 — — 13.0 3.1 1.4 0.4 — —<br />
1,500 — — — 7.0 3.2 0.8 0.3 —<br />
2,000 — — — 12.4 5.6 1.4 0.6 —<br />
3,000 — — — — 12.6 3.2 1.3 0.4<br />
4,000 — — — — — 5.8 2.2 0.8<br />
5,000 — — — — — 9.0 3.5 1.2<br />
6,000 — — — — — 13.0 5.0 1.7<br />
7,000 — — — — — 17.6 6.9 2.3<br />
8,000 — — — — — — 9.0 3.0<br />
9,000 — — — — — — 11.3 3.8<br />
10,000 — — — — — — 14.0 4.7<br />
12,000 — — — — — — 20.2 6.8<br />
14,000 — — — — — — — 9.2<br />
16,000 — — — — — — — 12.0<br />
18,000 — — — — — — — 15.2<br />
20,000 — — — — — — — 18.8<br />
Scfh<br />
Air 4" 6" 8" 10" 12 14" 16" 18<br />
4,000 — — — — — — — —<br />
6,000 0.4 — — — — — — —<br />
8,000 0.7 — — — — — — —<br />
10,000 1.1 — — — — — — —<br />
12,000 1.6 — — — — — — —<br />
14,000 2.2 0.3 — — — — — —<br />
16,000 2.8 0.3 — — — — — —<br />
18,000 3.6 0.4 — — — — — —<br />
20,000 4.4 0.5 — — — — — —<br />
25,000 6.9 0.8 — — — — — —<br />
30,000 9.9 1.2 0.3 — — — — —<br />
35,000 13.5 1.6 0.4 — — — — —<br />
40,000 17.6 2.1 0.5 — — — — —<br />
50,000 — 3.3 0.7 — — — — —<br />
60,000 — 4.7 1.0 0.3 — — — —<br />
70,000 — 6.4 1.4 0.5 — — — —<br />
80,000 — 8.3 1.9 0.6 — — — —<br />
90,000 — 10.5 2.4 0.8 0.3 — — —<br />
100,000 — 13.0 2.9 0.9 0.4 — — —<br />
120,000 — 18.7 4.2 1.3 0.5 0.3 — —<br />
140,000 — — 5.7 1.8 0.7 0.4 — —<br />
160,000 — — 7.4 2.4 0.9 0.5 0.3 —<br />
180,000 — — 9.4 3.0 1.2 0.7 0.3 —<br />
200,000 — — 11.6 3.7 1.4 0.8 0.4 —<br />
250,000 — — 18.2 5.8 2.2 1.3 0.6 0.3<br />
300,000 — — — 8.4 3.2 1.9 0.9 0.5<br />
350,000 — — — 11.4 4.4 2.5 1.3 0.6<br />
400,000 — — — 14.9 5.7 3.3 1.6 0.8<br />
450,000 — — — 18.8 7.2 4.2 2.1 1.1<br />
500,000 — — — — 9.0 5.2 2.6 1.3<br />
550,000 — — — — 10.8 6.2 3.1 1.6<br />
600,000 — — — — 12.9 7.4 3.7 1.9<br />
650,000 — — — — 15.1 8.7 4.4 2.2<br />
700,000 — — — — 17.5 10.1 5.0 2.5<br />
800,000 — — — — — 13.2 6.6 3.3<br />
900,000 — — — — — 16.7 8.3 4.2<br />
1,000,000 — — — — — 20.6 10.3 5.2<br />
1,100,000 — — — — — — 12.5 6.3<br />
1,200,000 — — — — — — 14.8 7.5<br />
1,300,000 — — — — — — 17.4 8.8<br />
1,400,000 — — — — — — 20.2 10.2<br />
1,600,000 — — — — — — — 13.3<br />
1,800,000 — — — — — — — 16.8<br />
2,000,000 — — — — — — — 20.8<br />
12
PIPING PRESSURE LOSSES FOR LOW PRESSURE NATURAL GAS<br />
Inches w.c. per 100 ft. of Schedule 40 pipe<br />
Scfh<br />
Nat. Gas 3/8" 1/2" 3/4" 1" 1-1/4" 1-1/2" 2"<br />
25 0.3 — — — — — —<br />
50 1.1 0.3 — — — — —<br />
75 2.5 0.7 — — — — —<br />
100 4.4 1.2 0.3 — — — —<br />
125 6.9 1.9 0.4 — — — —<br />
150 9.9 2.8 0.6 — — — —<br />
175 13.5 3.8 0.9 — — — —<br />
200 17.6 5.0 1.1 0.3 — — —<br />
300 — 11.2 2.5 0.7 — — —<br />
400 — 19.8 4.5 1.2 0.3 — —<br />
500 — — 7.0 1.9 0.5 — —<br />
600 — — 10.1 2.8 0.7 0.3 —<br />
700 — — 13.8 3.8 0.9 0.4 —<br />
800 — — 18.0 4.9 1.2 0.5 —<br />
900 — — — 6.3 1.5 0.7 —<br />
1,000 — — — 7.7 1.9 0.8 —<br />
1,500 — — — 17.4 4.2 1.9 0.5<br />
2,000 — — — — 7.5 3.3 0.9<br />
2,500 — — — — 11.8 5.2 1.3<br />
3,000 — — — — 16.9 7.5 1.9<br />
4,000 — — — — — 13.2 3.4<br />
5,000 — — — — — 20.7 5.4<br />
6,000 — — — — — — 7.7<br />
7,000 — — — — — — 10.5<br />
8,000 — — — — — — 13.8<br />
9,000 — — — — — — 17.4<br />
PIPING PRESSURE LOSSES FOR LOW PRESSURE NATURAL GAS<br />
Inches w.c. per 100 ft. of Schedule 40 pipe<br />
Scfh<br />
Nat. Gas 2-1/2" 3" 4" 6" 8"<br />
2,000 0.3 — — — —<br />
2,500 0.5 — — — —<br />
3,000 0.8 0.3 — — —<br />
4,000 1.3 0.4 — — —<br />
5,000 2.1 0.7 — — —<br />
6,000 3.0 1.0 — — —<br />
7,000 4.1 1.4 0.3 — —<br />
8,000 5.4 1.8 0.4 — —<br />
9,000 6.8 2.3 0.6 — —<br />
10,000 8.4 2.8 0.7 — —<br />
12,000 12.1 4.0 1.0 — —<br />
14,000 16.4 5.5 1.4 — —<br />
16,000 — 7.2 1.8 — —<br />
18,000 — 9.1 2.2 0.3 —<br />
20,000 — 11.2 2.8 0.3 —<br />
22,000 — 13.6 3.3 0.4 —<br />
24,000 — 16.1 4.0 0.4 —<br />
26,000 — 18.9 4.7 0.5 —<br />
28,000 — — 5.4 0.6 —<br />
30,000 — — 6.2 0.7 —<br />
35,000 — — 8.5 1.0 —<br />
40,000 — — 11.0 1.2 0.3<br />
45,000 — — 14.0 1.6 0.3<br />
50,000 — — 17.3 2.0 0.4<br />
55,000 — — 20.9 2.4 0.5<br />
60,000 — — — 2.8 0.6<br />
70,000 — — — 3.8 0.8<br />
13<br />
Inches w.c.<br />
per 100 ft<br />
Scfh of Schedule 40 pipe<br />
Nat. Gas 6" 8"<br />
80,000 5.0 1.1<br />
90,000 6.3 1.4<br />
100,000 7.8 1.7<br />
110,000 9.4 2.1<br />
120,000 11.2 2.4<br />
130,000 13.2 2.9<br />
140,000 15.3 3.3<br />
150,000 17.6 3.8<br />
200,000 — 6.8<br />
250,000 — 10.6<br />
300,000 — 15.3
HIGH PRESSURE (COMPRESSIBLE) FLOW OF<br />
NATURAL GAS IN PIPES<br />
Flows in table are scfh of 0.6 sp. gr. natural gas<br />
Pipe Inlet Pressure Drop Per 100 Equivalent Feet of<br />
Size, Pressure, Pipe as a Percentage of Inlet Pressure<br />
Inches PSIG 2% 4% 6% 8% 10%<br />
2 340 480 590 680 760<br />
5 590 840 1030 1180 1320<br />
1 10 930 1320 1610 1850 2070<br />
20 1570 2210 2700 3110 3470<br />
50 3380 4770 5820 6690 7450<br />
2 710 1010 1230 1420 1590<br />
5 1230 1740 2130 2450 2740<br />
1-1/4 10 1950 2760 3370 3880 4330<br />
20 3260 4600 5620 6470 7210<br />
50 7040 9910 12,090 13,910 15,490<br />
2 1080 1530 1870 2160 2410<br />
5 1860 2630 3220 3710 4140<br />
1-1/2 10 2940 4160 5080 5850 6530<br />
20 4930 6960 8490 9780 10,900<br />
50 10,640 15,000 18,290 21,040 23,430<br />
2 2100 2980 3640 4200 4700<br />
5 3630 5120 6270 7230 8070<br />
2 10 5740 8090 9890 11,400 12,720<br />
20 9610 13,550 16,540 19,050 21,230<br />
50 20,720 29,190 35,610 40,960 45,610<br />
2 3390 4810 5880 6780 7580<br />
5 5850 8260 10,100 11,650 13,010<br />
2-1/2 10 9240 13,040 15,940 18,370 20,500<br />
20 15,480 21,840 26,660 30,700 34,220<br />
50 33,400 47,050 57,400 66,010 73,510<br />
2 6060 8590 10,500 12,120 13,540<br />
5 10,450 14,760 18,050 20,820 23,240<br />
3 10 16,510 23,290 28,480 32,810 36,610<br />
20 27,650 38,990 47,620 54,820 61,110<br />
50 59,640 84,010 102,500 117,880 131,270<br />
2 12,480 17,690 21,620 24,960 27,890<br />
5 21,520 30,400 37,180 42,890 47,880<br />
4 10 34,000 47,980 58,650 67,580 75,410<br />
20 56,960 80,320 98,090 112,930 125,880<br />
50 122,850 173,070 211,140 242,840 270,420<br />
2 37,250 52,800 64,560 74,510 83,270<br />
5 64,240 90,760 111,010 128,040 142,950<br />
6 10 101,520 143,260 175,120 201,780 225,150<br />
20 170,060 239,810 292,840 337,150 375,820<br />
50 366,770 516,680 630,360 724,970 807,320<br />
EQUIVALENT LENGTHS OF STANDARD PIPE FITTINGS & VALVES<br />
VALVES FULLY OPEN<br />
Pipe I.D. Swing 90° 45° 90° Tee, Flow 90° Tee, Flow<br />
Size Inches Gate Globe Angle Check Elbow Elbow Through Run Through Branch<br />
1/2" 0.622 0.35 18.6 9.3 4.3 1.6 0.78 1.0 3.1<br />
3/4" 0.824 0.44 23.1 11.5 5.3 2.1 0.97 1.4 4.1<br />
1" 1.049 0.56 29.4 14.7 6.8 2.6 1.23 1.8 5.3<br />
1-1/4" 1.380 0.74 38.6 19.3 8.9 3.5 1.6 2.3 6.9<br />
1-1/2" 1.610 0.86 45.2 22.6 10.4 4.0 1.9 2.7 8.0<br />
2" 2.067 1.10 58 29 13.4 5.2 2.4 3.5 10.4<br />
2-1/2" 2.469 1.32 69 35 15.9 6.2 2.9 4.1 12.4<br />
3" 3.068 1.60 86 43 19.8 7.7 3.6 5.1 15.3<br />
4" 4.026 2.1 112 56 26.8 10.1 5.4 6.7 20.1<br />
6" 6.065 2.6 140 70 40.4 15.2 8.1 10.1 30.3<br />
Equivalent lengths are for standard screwed fittings and for screwed, flanged, or welded valves relative to<br />
schedule 40 steel pipe.<br />
14
SIMPLIFIED SELECTION OF AIR, GAS AND MIXTURE PIPING SIZE<br />
Air, gas and mixture piping systems should be sized to<br />
deliver flow at a uniform pressure distribution and without<br />
excessive pressure losses in transit.<br />
Two factors cause air pressure loss and consequent pressure<br />
variations:<br />
1) Friction in piping and bends, and<br />
2) Velocity pressure losses due to changes in direction.<br />
In combustion work, piping runs are usually short (under<br />
50 ft.), but often have many bends. By assuming that all<br />
velocity pressure is lost or dissipated at each change of direction<br />
and by using a pipe size to give a very low velocity pressure,<br />
other losses can be disregarded. In general, a velocity<br />
pressure of 0.3 to 0.5″ w.c. satisfies this need. This is equivalent<br />
to air velocities of about 2200 to 2800 ft/minute. For<br />
other gases, this velocity is inversely proportional to their<br />
gravities; consequently, higher velocities can be tolerated<br />
with natural gas, but propane and butane piping should be<br />
sized for lower velocities than air.<br />
The accuracy of orifice meters is also sensitive to pipe<br />
velocity, so every effort should be made to keep velocity pressure<br />
below 0.3″ w.c. in metering runs.<br />
Pv, "wc<br />
Nat. Pro-<br />
Velocity<br />
Bu- Ft/Min<br />
Pipe Size<br />
2-1/2"<br />
1-1/2"<br />
Gas Air panetane x1000<br />
10<br />
1/4" 3/8" 1/2" 3/4" 1" 1-1/4" 2" 3"<br />
3.0 5.0<br />
4.0<br />
9<br />
8<br />
2.0<br />
1.5<br />
1.0<br />
3.0<br />
2.0<br />
1.5<br />
5.0<br />
4.0<br />
3.0<br />
2.0<br />
5.0<br />
4.0<br />
3.0<br />
7<br />
6<br />
5<br />
1.0 1.5<br />
2.0 4<br />
1.0<br />
1.5<br />
1.0<br />
3<br />
2.5<br />
0.5<br />
0.4<br />
0.3<br />
0.2<br />
0.15<br />
0.1<br />
0.5<br />
0.4<br />
0.3<br />
0.2<br />
0.15<br />
0.5<br />
0.4<br />
0.3<br />
0.2<br />
0.5<br />
0.4<br />
0.3<br />
0.1 0.15 0.2<br />
0.05<br />
0.1 0.15<br />
1<br />
Shaded Areas<br />
100<br />
Indicate Recommended<br />
Velocity Pressure<br />
Range<br />
2<br />
1.5<br />
2 3 4 6 8 1000<br />
If pipe sizing charts or tables aren’t available, you can<br />
quickly estimate the maximum air flow capacity of a pipe<br />
with these simple equations:<br />
Maximum cfh air = (Nominal pipe size) 2 x 1000<br />
The result will correspond to a velocity pressure of about 0.5″<br />
w.c., the maximum recommended for low pressure air systems.<br />
Optimum cfh air = (Nominal pipe size) 2 x 750<br />
QUICK METHOD FOR SIZING AIR PIPING<br />
15<br />
The graph below shows the relationship between velocity,<br />
velocity pressure and flow for various pipe sizes handling air,<br />
natural gas, propane, and butane. Because the specific gravity<br />
of most air-gas mixtures is close to that of air, mixture piping<br />
can be sized the same as air piping. The error will be<br />
insignificant.<br />
Example: A burner requires 10,000 cfh air at a static pressure<br />
of 13″ w.c. The blower supplying this burner develops 15″<br />
w.c. static pressure. Piping between the two will run 15 feet,<br />
including four 90° bends. What size piping is required?<br />
Solution: Total pressure available for piping losses is<br />
15″ w.c. - 13 ″ w.c. = 2″ w.c.<br />
This allows a velocity pressure loss of:<br />
2 ÷ 4 = 0.5″ w.c. for each of the four elbows.<br />
Under the “Air” column on the left-hand side of the Pv<br />
graph, locate 0.5″ w.c. velocity pressure. This is equivalent to<br />
about 2800 ft/minute air velocity. Locate the intersection of<br />
the 2800 ft/minute line and the 10,000 cfh line, then drop<br />
down to the first curve below this point, in this case, 4″ pipe.<br />
This is the pipe size that should be used.<br />
12" 14" 16"<br />
2 3 4 6 8 10,000 2 3 4 6 8 100,000 2 3 4 6 8<br />
Flow, cfh<br />
4"<br />
This will produce a flow rate equivalent to about 0.3″ w.c.<br />
velocity pressure.<br />
Example: What is the maximum air flow rate for 21 ⁄ 2" pipe?<br />
(21 ⁄ 2) 2 = 6.25<br />
6.25 x 1000 = 6,250 cfh air.<br />
6"<br />
8"<br />
10"<br />
18"<br />
10<br />
9<br />
8<br />
7<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2.5<br />
2<br />
1.5<br />
1
SIZING BRANCH PIPING BY THE EQUAL AREA METHOD<br />
The equal area method of sizing pipe manifolds is based on<br />
maintaining constant total cross-sectional area in all portions of<br />
a piping train, regardless of the number of branches in each portion.<br />
In the sketch below, the equal area method requires that:<br />
Area of X = 2 times area of Y = 6 times area of Z.<br />
X<br />
Y Y<br />
Z Z Z Z Z Z<br />
The advantage of this method is that once the size of the<br />
smallest branch has been determined, via velocity pressures or<br />
any other valid method, the remainder of the piping system<br />
can be correctly sized without any additional calculations.<br />
Remember, however, that if the calculation of the smallest<br />
branches is in error, the entire system will be incorrectly sized.<br />
Cv, flow factor, is defined as the full flow capacity of a<br />
valve expressed in gpm of 60°F water at 1 psi pressure drop.<br />
This rating is determined by actual flow test. To convert Cv to<br />
actual flow capacity for gases, use the graph below.<br />
Locate Cv at the left, read across to the appropriate curve and<br />
then down to obtain flow capacity at 1″ w.c. pressure drop.<br />
For drops other than 1″ w.c., multiply the flow by the square<br />
root of the pressure drop.<br />
C v Flow Factor<br />
1000<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
100<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
C v FLOW FACTOR CONVERSIONS<br />
16<br />
To use the table below, read across from the pipe size of the<br />
smallest branch in the manifold (Z in the sketch at left) and<br />
down from the number of these branches. At the intersection,<br />
find the recommended size pipe to feed these branches. For<br />
example, if Z is 3/4", Y should be 1 1 ⁄4" and X should be 2" pipe.<br />
Size of<br />
Branch<br />
Connection<br />
PROPANE 1.5 SP GR<br />
Flow, SCH @ 1" W.C. ∆P @ 14.7 PSIA & 60˚ F<br />
Number of Branch Connections<br />
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8<br />
1/4 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 3/4 1 1 1<br />
3/8 3/8 3/4 3/4 1 1-1/4 1-1/4 1-1/4 1-1/4<br />
1/2 1/2 3/4 1 1 1 1-1/4 1-1/2 2<br />
3/4 3/4 1-1/4 1-1/4 1-1/2 2 2 2 2-1/2<br />
1 1 1-1/4 2 2 2-1/2 2-1/2 3 3<br />
1-1/4 1-1/4 2 2-1/2 3 3 4 4 4<br />
1-1/2 1-1/2 2-1/2 3 3 4 4 4 6<br />
2 2 3 4 4 6 6 6 6<br />
2-1/2 2-1/2 4 4 6 6 6 6 6<br />
3 3 4 6 6 8 8 8 8<br />
4 4 6 8 8 10 10 10 12<br />
6 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 18<br />
8 8 12 14 16 18 20 20 or 24 24<br />
10 10 14 18 20 24 24 30 30<br />
For conditions other than 14.7 psia and 60°F, use this formula:<br />
Q = 1360Cv (P 1-P 2) P 2,<br />
GT<br />
where<br />
Q = SCFH<br />
P 1 = Inlet pressure, psia<br />
P 2 = Outlet pressure, psia<br />
T = Absolute flowing temperature (°F + 460)<br />
G = Specific gravity of gas<br />
BUTANE 2.0 SP GR<br />
AIR 1.0 SP GR<br />
NATURAL GAS 0.6 SP GR<br />
PROPANE - AIR<br />
1.29 SP GR<br />
1<br />
10 20 30 40 60 80 100 2 3 4 6 8 1000 2 3 4 6 8 10,000 2 3 4 6
The total pressure of an air stream flowing in a duct is the<br />
sum of the static or bursting pressure exerted upon the sidewalls<br />
of the duct and the impact or velocity pressure of the<br />
moving air. Through the use of a pitot tube connected differentially<br />
to a manometer, the velocity pressure alone is indicated<br />
and the corresponding air velocity determined.<br />
For accuracy of plus or minus 2%, as in laboratory applications,<br />
extreme care is required and the following precautions<br />
should be observed:<br />
1. Duct diameter 4" or greater.<br />
2. Make an accurate traverse per sketch below and average the<br />
readings.<br />
3. Provided smooth, straight duct sections 10 diameters in<br />
length both upstream and downstream from the pitot tube.<br />
4. Provide an egg crate type straightener upstream from the<br />
pitot tube.<br />
Air Velocity in Feet Per Minute<br />
13000<br />
12000<br />
11000<br />
10000<br />
9000<br />
8000<br />
7000<br />
6000<br />
5000<br />
4000<br />
3000<br />
2000<br />
1000<br />
0 0<br />
DUCT VELOCITY & FLOW MEASUREMENTS<br />
D<br />
.35D<br />
.60D<br />
.80D<br />
.92D<br />
17<br />
In making an air velocity check select a location as suggested<br />
above, connect tubing leads from both pitot tube connections to<br />
the manometer and insert in the duct with the tip directed into the<br />
air stream. If the manometer shows a minus indication reverse the<br />
tubes. With a direct reading manometer, air velocities will now be<br />
shown in feet per minute. In other types, the manometer will read<br />
velocity pressure in inches of water and the corresponding velocity<br />
will be found from the curves below. If circumstances do not<br />
permit an accurate traverse, center the pitot tube in the duct,<br />
determine the center velocity and multiply by a factor of .9 for the<br />
approximate average velocity. Field tests run in this manner<br />
should be accurate within plus or minus 5%.<br />
The velocity indicated is for dry air at 70°F., 29.9" Barometric<br />
Pressure and a resulting density of .075#/ cu. ft. For air at a temperature<br />
other than 70°F. refer to the curves below. For other<br />
variations from these conditions, corrections may be based<br />
upon the following data:<br />
Air Velocity = 1096.2 Pv<br />
D<br />
where Pv = velocity pressure in inches of water<br />
D = Air density in #/cu. ft.<br />
Air Density = 1.325 x PB<br />
T<br />
where PB= Barometric Pressure in inches of mercury<br />
T = Absolute Temperature (indicated temperature<br />
plus 460)<br />
Flow in cu. ft. per min. = Duct area in square feet x air<br />
velocity in ft. per min.<br />
1400°<br />
.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0<br />
1200°<br />
1000°<br />
Gage Reading with Pilot Tube (Velocity Pressure) in Inches of Water<br />
REPRINTED WITH PERMISSION OF F.W. DWYER MANUFACTURING CO., MICHIGAN CITY, INDIANA<br />
600°<br />
300°<br />
100°<br />
70°<br />
800°<br />
400°<br />
200°<br />
40°
CHAPTER 2 – FAN LAWS & BLOWER<br />
Combustion air blowers are normally rated in terms of standard<br />
cubic feet (scf) of air; that is, 70°F air at Sea Level<br />
(29.92" Hg) barometric pressure. Density of this air is 0.075<br />
lb/cu ft, and its specific gravity is 1.0.<br />
Although fuel/air ratios are usually stated in cubic feet of air<br />
per cubic foot or gallon of fuel, it’s the weight of air per<br />
weight of fuel that’s important. As long as air temperature and<br />
pressure are close to standard conditions, blower and burner<br />
sizing charts can be used without correction. However, if air<br />
temperature, gauge pressure or altitude change the density of<br />
air by any significant amount, blower ratings have to be corrected<br />
from actual cubic feet (acf) to standard cubic feet to<br />
insure the proper weight flow of air reaches the burner.<br />
Centrifugal fans are basically constant volume devices; at a<br />
given rotational speed, they will deliver the same volume of<br />
air regardless of its density.<br />
APPLICATION ENGINEERING<br />
18<br />
RPM<br />
"R"<br />
Volume<br />
"V"<br />
For blower wheel with eight segments, Theoretical Flow = 8 x V x R<br />
If, for example, a blower has a wheel made up of eight segments,<br />
each with a volume V, and the wheel is rotating at R<br />
rpm, the theoretical flow rating of the blower will be 8 x V x<br />
R, because each fan wheel segment fills with air and empties<br />
itself once each revolution.<br />
The actual volume delivered is strictly a function of the carrying<br />
capacity of the wheel and its speed. Cfm, whether it is<br />
standard (scfm) or actual (acfm) is the same. Consequently, if<br />
the density of air is reduced by temperature, pressure, or both,<br />
the blower will deliver a lower weight flow of air, even<br />
though the measured volume hasn’t changed.<br />
Air density also affects the pressure developed by the blower<br />
and its power consumption. Because air density is related to<br />
temperature, pressure, and altitude (barometric pressure) – see<br />
pages 20 and 21 – it is possible to relate blower performance to<br />
these factors with a set of realtionships known as fan laws.
1.Effect of Blower Speed on Flow, Pressure and Power<br />
Consumption<br />
a. Flow vs. Speed: The flow rate (V) changes in direct<br />
ratio to the speed (S)<br />
V2 = S2<br />
V1 S1<br />
Example:Ablower operating at 1750 rpm (S1) delivers<br />
1000 cfm (V1). How many cfm (V2) will it deliver<br />
if speed is increased to 3500 rpm (S2)?<br />
V2 =V1 x S2 = 1000 x 3500 = 2000 cfm<br />
S 1750<br />
1<br />
b. Pressure vs. Speed:The pressure (P) changes as the<br />
square of the speed ratio (S)<br />
( )<br />
P2 = S2<br />
P1 S1<br />
2<br />
Example:Ablower operating at 1750 rpm (S1) develops<br />
1 psig (P1) pressure. If speed is doubled to 3500<br />
rpm (S2), what is the new pressure (P2)?<br />
P2 =P1 x S2 2<br />
= 1 x<br />
3500 2<br />
( ) ( 1750 )<br />
S 1<br />
= 1 x (2) 2 =1 x 4 = 4 psig<br />
c. Horsepower vs. Speed:The horsepower (HP) consumedchanges<br />
as the cube of the speed ratio (S)<br />
HP2 S2<br />
= 3<br />
( )<br />
HP1 S1<br />
Example:Ablower operating at 1750 rpm (S1) requires<br />
a 5 hp (HP1) motor. How many horsepower (HP2) will<br />
be required to handle a speed increase to 3500 rpm (S2)?<br />
S 3<br />
2<br />
HP2 =HP1 = 5 x 3500 3<br />
( ) ( 1750 )<br />
S 1<br />
=5 x (2) 3 =5 x 8 = 40 hp<br />
Laws 1a, 1b and 1c are known as the 1-2-3 ruleof centrifugal<br />
blowers. Volume increases in direct ratio, pressure as the<br />
square, and horsepower as the cube, of the speed ratio.<br />
Re-rating blowers for nonstandard conditions<br />
As fan laws 2b, 2c, and 2d show, blower weight flow,<br />
pressure, and horsepower all change in direct proportion to<br />
air density or gravity. While these relationships are important<br />
to know, it’s usually more important to know how to<br />
select a blower to compensate for nonstandard conditions.<br />
The following example shows how it is done.<br />
Example:Aburner is rated a 1 million Btu/hr. at an air pressure<br />
of 20"w.c., including piping and control valve drops. If<br />
the burner is to be installed at 6000 feet altitude, select a<br />
blower that will permit the burner’s input rating to be maintained.<br />
Solution: Use the rule-of-thumb of 100 Btu per standard<br />
cubic foot of air to estimate blower flow requirements:<br />
1,000,000 Btu/hr ÷ 100 Btu/scf air = 10,000 scfh air.<br />
This is the blower’s standard (sea level) rating.<br />
At 6,000 feet, the specific gravity of air is 0.80 (see page 20).<br />
To maintain a weight flow of air through the burner<br />
equivalent to 10,000 scfh, the volume flow through the<br />
burner has to be increased to offset the air’s lower density.<br />
FAN LAWS<br />
19<br />
2.Effect of Air Density on Flow, Pressure, and Power<br />
Consumption.<br />
a. Volume Flow vs. Density<br />
Volume flow (cfm) remains constant regardless of density.<br />
b. Weight Flow vs. Density:Weight flow (W) changes<br />
in direct ratio to the density (D) or specific gravity (G)<br />
W2 D2 G2<br />
= =<br />
W1 D1 G1<br />
Example:Ablower delivers 1500 lb/hr (20,000 cu ft/hr)<br />
(W1) of air at standard conditions (density D1 =0.075<br />
lb/cu ft). What will be the weight flow delivered if the air<br />
temperature is 250°F?<br />
From page 21, air density (D 2) at 250°F is .056 lb/cu ft.<br />
W2 =W1 x D2 =1500 x .056 =1120 lb/hr.<br />
D1 .075<br />
c. Pressure vs. Density:Pressure (P) changes in direct<br />
proportion to density (D) or specific gravity (G).<br />
P2 = D2 = G2<br />
P1 D1 G1<br />
Example: At sea level conditions (G1 =1.0), a blower<br />
develops 28" w.c. pressure (P1). What pressure (P2) will it<br />
develop at 4000 ft. altitude?<br />
From page 20, air gravity (G 2) at 4000 ft is 0.86.<br />
P2 =P1 x G2 =28 x .86 =24.1" w.c.<br />
G1 1.0<br />
d. Horsepower vs. Density:Horsepower (HP) consumed<br />
changes in direct proportion to density (D) or specific<br />
gravity (G).<br />
HP2 = D2 = G2<br />
HP1 D1 G1<br />
Example: Astandard air (G1) blower requires a 10 hp<br />
(HP1) motor. What horsepower (HP2) is required if this<br />
blower is to handle a gas of 0.5 specific gravity (G2)?<br />
The gravity of standard air is 1.0, so<br />
HP2 =HP1 x G2 =10 x 0.5 =5 hp<br />
G1 1.0<br />
V2 = V1 x G1 = 10,000 cfh x 1.00 = 12,500 cfh<br />
G2<br />
0.80<br />
In other words, 12,500 cfh air at 6000 feet has the same<br />
weight as 10,000 cfh at sea level.<br />
The pressure required now will be adjusted for the new air<br />
flow, taking into account the lower density of the air.<br />
P2 = P1 x V2<br />
2 2<br />
V2<br />
( ) ( )<br />
= G1<br />
V1 V1 G2 P2 = P1 x G1 = 20"w.c. x 1.00 = 25"w.c.<br />
G2<br />
0.80<br />
Because the pressure generated by the blower decreases<br />
with air density, the sea level pressure rating has to be higher<br />
to compensate for the loss of outlet pressure at higher altitudes.<br />
P1 = P2 x G1 = 25"w.c. x 1.00 = 31.25"w.c.<br />
G2<br />
0.80<br />
Therefore, the blower must be capable of delivery at least<br />
12,500 cfh at 31.25"w.c. at sea level to satisfy the needs of<br />
the burner at 6000 feet altitude.
Blower horsepower requirements<br />
Blower horsepower increases with the air flow delivered<br />
and the pressure developed. The four equations below can be<br />
used to predict blower horsepower consumption. They differ<br />
only in the flow and pressure units used. The term “efficiency”<br />
is the overall blower efficiency – a composite of fan,<br />
motor and drive train efficiencies – expressed as a decimal.<br />
hp =<br />
scfm x "w.c.<br />
hp =<br />
scfm x osi<br />
6356 x efficiency 3670 x efficiency<br />
hp =<br />
scfh x "w.c.<br />
hp =<br />
scfh x osi<br />
381,360 x efficiency 220,200 x efficiency<br />
THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON AIR<br />
Basis: 70°F dry air at sea level<br />
(29.92" Hg) barometric pressure<br />
Gauge Absolute Specific<br />
Pressure, Pressure, Density Specific Volume<br />
PSIG PSIA Lb./Cu. Ft. Gravity Cu. Ft./Lb.<br />
0 14.7 0.07500 1.000 13.33<br />
1 15.7 0.08010 1.068 12.48<br />
2 16.7 0.08520 1.136 11.74<br />
3 17.7 0.09031 1.204 11.07<br />
4 18.7 0.09541 1.272 10.48<br />
5 19.7 0.10051 1.340 9.95<br />
10 24.7 0.12602 1.680 7.94<br />
15 29.7 0.15153 2.020 6.60<br />
20 34.7 0.17704 2.361 5.65<br />
25 39.7 0.20255 2.701 4.94<br />
30 44.7 0.22806 3.041 4.38<br />
35 49.7 0.25357 3.381 3.94<br />
40 54.7 0.27908 3.721 3.58<br />
45 59.7 0.30459 4.061 3.28<br />
50 64.7 0.33010 4.401 3.03<br />
60 74.7 0.38112 5.082 2.62<br />
70 84.7 0.43214 5.762 2.31<br />
80 94.7 0.48316 6.442 2.07<br />
90 104.7 0.53418 7.122 1.87<br />
100 114.7 0.58520 7.802 1.71<br />
125 139.7 0.71276 9.503 1.40<br />
150 164.7 0.84031 11.204 1.19<br />
175 189.7 0.96786 12.905 1.03<br />
200 214.7 1.09541 14.605 0.91<br />
250 264.7 1.35051 18.007 0.74<br />
300 314.7 1.60561 21.408 0.62<br />
400 414.7 2.11582 28.211 0.47<br />
500 514.7 2.62602 35.014 0.38<br />
20<br />
Blowers used as suction fans<br />
When a blower is used as a suction device discharging to<br />
atmosphere, the amount of suction or vacuum developed can<br />
be calculated from this relationship:<br />
( )<br />
V = P – P2 x 27.7, where<br />
B + P<br />
V = suction or vacuum, " w.c.<br />
P = Absolute atmospheric pressure, psia, at the location where<br />
the blower is operated<br />
B = Rated blower discharge pressure, psig (psig = " w.c. ÷ 27.7)<br />
Example: A blower with a catalog pressure rating of 21" w.c.<br />
is used as a suction fan on an installation at 1500 ft altitude.<br />
How much suction will it develop?<br />
P at 1500 ft = 13.9 psia (from table below)<br />
B = 21 ÷ 27.7 = .76 psig<br />
V = 13.9 - (13.9)2<br />
( ) x 27.7 = 20 "w.c.<br />
.76 + 13.9<br />
THE EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON AIR<br />
Basis: 70°F dry air at sea level<br />
(29.92" Hg) barometric pressure<br />
Specific<br />
Altitude Barometric Pressure, Density Specific Volume<br />
Ft. "Hg PSIA Lb./Cu. Ft. Gravity Cu. Ft./Lb.<br />
0 29.92 14.7 .07500 1.00 13.33<br />
500 29.38 14.4 .07365 .98 13.58<br />
1000 28.86 14.2 .07234 .96 13.82<br />
1500 28.33 13.9 .07101 .95 14.08<br />
2000 27.82 13.7 .06974 .93 14.34<br />
2500 27.31 13.4 .06846` .91 14.61<br />
3000 26.81 13.2 .06720 .90 14.88<br />
3500 26.32 12.9 .06598 .88 15.16<br />
4000 25.84 12.7 .06477 .86 15.44<br />
4500 25.36 12.5 .06357 .85 15.73<br />
5000 24.89 12.2 .06239 .83 16.03<br />
5500 24.43 12.0 .06124 .82 16.33<br />
6000 23.98 11.8 .06011 .80 16.64<br />
6500 23.53 11.6 .05898 .79 16.95<br />
7000 23.09 11.3 .05788 .77 17.28<br />
7500 22.65 11.1 .05678 .76 17.61<br />
8000 22.22 10.9 .05570 .74 17.95<br />
8500 21.80 10.7 .05465 .73 18.30<br />
9000 21.38 10.5 .05359 .71 18.66<br />
9500 20.98 10.3 .05259 .70 19.01<br />
10000 20.58 10.1 .05159 .69 19.38<br />
15000 16.88 8.29 .04231 .56 23.63<br />
20000 13.75 6.76 .03447 .46 29.01<br />
Helpful conversions:<br />
Altitude in meters x 3.28 = Altitutde in feet<br />
Barometric pressure in "Hg ÷ 2.036 = Barometric pressure<br />
in psia.
Absolute Specific<br />
Temp. Temp. Density Specific Volume<br />
°F Ratio Lb./Cu. Ft. Gravity Cu. Ft./Lb.<br />
-60 .7547 .09938 1.325 10.06<br />
-40 .7925 .09464 1.262 10.57<br />
-30 .8113 .09244 1.233 10.82<br />
-20 .8302 .09034 1.205 11.07<br />
-10 .8491 .08833 1.178 11.32<br />
0 .8679 .08641 1.152 11.57<br />
20 .9057 .08281 1.104 12.08<br />
40 1.019 .07361 .981 13.58<br />
60 .9811 .07644 1.019 13.08<br />
70 1.000 .07500 1.000 13.33<br />
80 .9434 .07361 1.060 12.58<br />
90 1.038 .07227 .964 13.84<br />
100 1.057 .07098 .946 14.09<br />
110 1.075 .06974 .930 14.34<br />
120 1.094 .06853 .914 14.59<br />
130 1.113 .06737 .898 14.84<br />
140 1.132 .06624 .883 15.09<br />
150 1.151 .06516 .869 15.35<br />
160 1.170 .06411 .855 15.60<br />
170 1.189 .06310 .841 15.85<br />
180 1.208 .06211 .828 16.10<br />
190 1.226 .06115 .815 16.35<br />
200 1.245 .06023 .803 16.60<br />
210 1.264 .05933 .791 16.86<br />
220 1.283 .05846 .779 17.11<br />
230 1.302 .05761 .768 17.36<br />
240 1.321 .05679 .757 17.61<br />
250 1.340 .05599 .747 17.86<br />
260 1.358 .05521 .736 18.11<br />
270 1.377 .05445 .726 18.36<br />
280 1.396 .05372 .716 18.62<br />
290 1.415 .05300 .707 18.87<br />
300 1.434 .05230 .697 19.12<br />
310 1.453 .05162 .688 19.37<br />
320 1.472 .05096 .679 19.62<br />
330 1.491 .05032 .671 19.87<br />
340 1.509 .04969 .663 20.13<br />
350 1.528 .04907 .654 20.38<br />
360 1.547 .04848 .646 20.63<br />
370 1.566 .04789 .639 20.88<br />
380 1.585 .04732 .631 21.13<br />
390 1.604 .04676 .623 21.38<br />
400 1.623 .04622 .616 21.64<br />
410 1.642 .04569 .609 21.89<br />
420 1.660 .04517 .602 22.14<br />
430 1.679 .04466 .595 22.39<br />
440 1.698 .04417 .589 22.64<br />
450 1.717 .04368 .582 22.89<br />
460 1.736 .04321 .576 23.14<br />
470 1.755 .04274 .570 23.40<br />
480 1.774 .04229 .564 23.65<br />
490 1.792 .04184 .558 23.90<br />
500 1.811 .04141 .552 24.15<br />
510 1.830 .04098 .546 24.40<br />
THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON AIR<br />
Basis: 70°F dry air at sea level (29.92" Hg) barometric pressure<br />
Explanation of terms:<br />
Absolute Temperature Ratio: Temperature, °F + 460<br />
530<br />
Specific Gravity: Density at stated temperature<br />
.07500<br />
Specific Volume: 1<br />
Density, lb/cu. ft.<br />
21<br />
Absolute Specific<br />
Temp. Temp. Density Specific Volume<br />
°F Ratio Lb./Cu. Ft. Gravity Cu. Ft./Lb.<br />
520 1.849 .04056 .541 24.65<br />
530 1.868 .04015 .535 24.91<br />
540 1.887 .03975 .530 25.16<br />
550 1.906 .03936 .525 25.41<br />
560 1.925 .03897 .520 25.66<br />
570 1.943 .03859 .515 25.91<br />
580 1.962 .03822 .510 26.16<br />
590 1.981 .03786 .505 26.42<br />
600 2.000 .03750 .500 26.67<br />
610 2.019 .03715 .495 26.92<br />
620 2.038 .03681 .491 27.17<br />
630 2.057 .03647 .486 27.42<br />
640 2.075 .03614 .482 27.67<br />
650 2.094 .03581 .477 27.92<br />
660 2.113 .03549 .473 28.18<br />
670 2.132 .03518 .469 28.43<br />
680 2.151 .03487 .465 28.68<br />
690 2.170 .03457 .461 28.93<br />
700 2.189 .03427 .457 29.18<br />
710 2.208 .03397 .453 29.43<br />
720 2.226 .03369 .449 29.69<br />
730 2.245 .03340 .445 29.94<br />
740 2.264 .03313 .442 30.19<br />
750 2.283 .03285 .438 30.44<br />
760 2.302 .03258 .434 30.69<br />
770 2.321 .03232 .431 30.94<br />
780 2.340 .03206 .427 31.19<br />
790 2.358 .03180 .424 31.45<br />
800 2.377 .03155 .421 31.70<br />
825 2.425 .03093 .412 32.33<br />
850 2.472 .03034 .405 32.96<br />
875 2.519 .02978 .397 33.58<br />
900 2.566 .02923 .390 34.21<br />
925 2.613 .02870 .383 34.84<br />
950 2.660 .02819 .376 35.47<br />
975 2.708 .02770 .369 36.10<br />
1000 2.755 .02723 .363 36.73<br />
1025 2.802 .02677 .357 37.36<br />
1050 2.849 .02623 .350 37.99<br />
1100 2.943 .02548 .340 39.25<br />
1150 3.033 .02469 .329 40.50<br />
1200 3.132 .02395 .319 41.76<br />
1250 3.226 .02325 .310 43.02<br />
1300 3.321 .02259 .301 44.28<br />
1350 3.415 .02196 .293 45.53<br />
1400 3.509 .02137 .285 46.79<br />
1500 3.698 .02028 .270 49.31<br />
1600 3.887 .01930 .257 51.81<br />
1700 4.075 .01840 .245 54.35<br />
1800 4.264 .01759 .235 56.85<br />
1900 4.453 .01684 .225 59.38<br />
2000 4.642 .01616 .215 61.88<br />
2100 4.830 .01553 .207 64.39<br />
2200 5.019 .01494 .199 66.93
CHAPTER 3 – GAS<br />
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL FUEL GASES<br />
Constituents – % by Volume Density, Specific<br />
Specific Lb per Volume<br />
No. Gas CH4 C2H6 C3H8 C4H10 CO H2 CO2 O2 N2 Gravity Cu Ft Cu Ft/Lb<br />
1<br />
2<br />
Acetylene<br />
Blast Furnace Gas<br />
–<br />
–<br />
–<br />
–<br />
–<br />
–<br />
(100% C2H2 )<br />
– 27.5 1<br />
–<br />
11.5<br />
–<br />
–<br />
–<br />
60<br />
0.91<br />
1.02<br />
.07<br />
.078<br />
14.4<br />
12.8<br />
3 Butane (natural gas) – – 7 93 – – – – – 1.95 .149 6.71<br />
4 Butylene (Butene) – – – (100% C4H8 ) – – – 1.94 .148 6.74<br />
5 Carbon Monoxide – – – – 100 – – – – 0.97 .074 13.5<br />
6<br />
7<br />
8<br />
Carburetted Water Gas<br />
Coke Oven Gas<br />
Digester (Sewage) Gas<br />
10.2<br />
32.1<br />
67<br />
(6.1% C2H4 , 2.8% C6H6 )<br />
(3.5% C2H4 , 0.5% C6H6 )<br />
– – (8% H2O) 34<br />
6.3<br />
40.5<br />
46.5<br />
–<br />
3<br />
2.2<br />
25<br />
0.5<br />
0.8<br />
–<br />
2.9<br />
8.1<br />
–<br />
0.63<br />
0.44<br />
0.80<br />
.048<br />
.034<br />
.062<br />
20.8<br />
29.7<br />
16.3<br />
9 Ethane – 100 – – – – – – – 1.05 .080 12.5<br />
10 Hydrogen – – – – – 100 – – – 0.07 .0054 186.9<br />
11 Methane 100 – – – – – – – – 0.55 .042 23.8<br />
12 Natural (Birmingham, AL) 90 5 – – – – – – 5 0.60 .046 21.8<br />
13 Natural (Pittsburgh, PA) 83.4 15.8 – – – – – – 0.8 0.61 .047 21.4<br />
14 Natural (Los Angeles, CA) 77.5 16.0 – – – – 6.5 – – 0.70 .054 18.7<br />
15 Natural (Kansas City, MO) 84.1 6.7 – – – – 0.8 – 8.4 0.63 .048 20.8<br />
16 Natural (Groningen,<br />
Netherlands)<br />
81.3 2.9 0.4 0.1 – – 0.9 – 14.4 0.64 .048 20.7<br />
17 Natural (Midlands Grid, U.K.) 91.8 3.5 0.8 0.3 – – 0.4 – 2.8 0.61 .046 21.8<br />
18 Producer (Wellman-Galusha) 2.3 – – – 25 14.5 4.7 – 52.7 0.84 .065 15.4<br />
19 Propane (natural gas) – – 100 – – – – – – 1.52 .116 8.61<br />
20<br />
21<br />
Propylene (Propene)<br />
Sasol (South Africa)<br />
–<br />
26<br />
–<br />
–<br />
– (100% C3H6 )<br />
– – 22 48<br />
–<br />
–<br />
–<br />
0.5<br />
–<br />
1<br />
1.45<br />
0.42<br />
.111<br />
.032<br />
9.02<br />
31.3<br />
22 Water Gas (bituminous) 4.6 (0.4% C2H4 , 0.3% C6H6 ) 28.2 32.5 5.5 0.9 27.6 0.71 .054 18.7<br />
COMBUSTION PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL FUEL GASES<br />
Air/Gas Ratio, Flammability Limits, Ignition Temperature & Flame Velocity<br />
Stoichiometric<br />
Limits of<br />
Flammability Minimum Maximum<br />
Air/Gas Ratio % Gas in Ignition Flame Velocity<br />
Cu Ft Air/ Lb Air/ Air/Gas Mixture Temperature in Air,<br />
No. Gas Cu Ft Gas Lb Gas Lean Rich in Air, °F Ft/Sec*<br />
1 Acetylene 11.91 13.26 2.5 80 581 9.4<br />
2 Blast Furnace Gas 0.68 0.67 45 72 – –<br />
3 Butane (natural gas) 30.47 15.63 1.86 8.41 826 2.8<br />
4 Butylene (Butene) 28.59 14.77 1.7 9 829 3.2<br />
5 Carbon Monoxide 2.38 2.46 12 74 1128 2.0<br />
6 Carburetted Water Gas 4.60 7.36 4.2 42.9 – –<br />
7 Coke Oven Gas 4.99 11.27 4.5 31.5 – –<br />
8 Digester (Sewage) Gas 6.41 7.97 8 17 – –<br />
9 Ethane 16.68 15.98 3.15 12.8 882 2.8<br />
10 Hydrogen 2.38 33.79 4 74.2 1065 16.0<br />
11 Methane 9.53 17.23 5 15 1170 2.2<br />
12 Natural (Birmingham, AL) 9.41 15.68 7.03 15.77 – –<br />
13 Natural (Pittsburgh, PA) 10.58 17.31 4.6 14.7 – –<br />
14 Natural (Los Angeles, CA) 10.05 14.26 4.9 15.6 – –<br />
15 Natural (Kansas City, MO) 9.13 14.59 5.4 16.3 – –<br />
16 Natural (Groningen,<br />
Netherlands)<br />
8.41 13.45 6.1 15 1238 1.18<br />
17 Natural (Midlands Grid, U.K.) 9.8 16.13 5 15 1300 0.98<br />
18 Producer (Wellman-Galusha) 1.30 1.56 16.4 69.4 – –<br />
19 Propane (natural gas) 23.82 15.73 2.37 9.50 898 2.7<br />
20 Propylene (Propene) 21.44 14.77 2 11.1 856 3.3<br />
21 Sasol (South Africa) 4.13 9.84 5.3 37.4 – –<br />
22 Water Gas (bituminous) 2.01 2.86 8.9 61 – –<br />
*Uniform flame speed in a 1" diameter tube. Flame speeds increase in larger diameter tubes.<br />
22
COMBUSTION PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL FUEL GASES<br />
Heating Value, Heat Release & Flame Temperature<br />
Heating Value Theoretical<br />
Heat release, Btu Flame<br />
Btu/cu ft Btu/lb Temperature<br />
No. Gas Gross Net Gross Net Per Cu Ft Air Per Lb Air °F<br />
1 Acetylene 1498 1447 21,569 20,837 125.8 1677 4250<br />
2 Blast Furnace Gas 92 92 1178 1178 135.3 1804 2650<br />
3 Butane (natural gas) 3225 2977 21,640 19,976 105.8 1411 3640<br />
4 Butylene (Butene) 3077 2876 20,780 19,420 107.6 1435 3810<br />
5 Carbon Monoxide 323 323 4368 4368 135.7 1809 3960<br />
6 Carburetted Water Gas 550 508 11,440 10,566 119.6 1595 3725<br />
7 Coke Oven Gas 574 514 17,048 15,266 115.0 1533 3610<br />
8 Digester (Sewage) Gas 690 621 11,316 10,184 107.6 1407 3550<br />
9 Ethane 1783 1630 22,198 20,295 106.9 1425 3710<br />
10 Hydrogen 325 275 61,084 51,628 136.6 1821 3960<br />
11 Methane 1011 910 23,811 21,433 106.1 1415 3640<br />
12 Natural (Birmingham, AL) 1002 904 21,844 19,707 106.5 1420 3565<br />
13 Natural (Pittsburgh, PA) 1129 1021 24,161 21,849 106.7 1423 3562<br />
14 Natural (Los Angeles, CA) 1073 971 20,065 18,158 106.8 1424 3550<br />
15 Natural (Kansas City, MO) 974 879 20,259 18,283 106.7 1423 3535<br />
16 Natural (Groningen,<br />
Netherlands)<br />
941 849 19,599 17,678 111.9 1492 3380<br />
17 Natural (Midlands Grid, U.K.) 1035 902 22,500 19,609 105.6 1408 3450<br />
18 Producer (Wellman-Galusha) 167 156 2650 2476 128.5 1713 3200<br />
19 Propane (natural gas) 2572 2365 21,500 19,770 108 1440 3660<br />
20 Propylene (Propene) 2322 2181 20,990 19,630 108.8 1451 3830<br />
21 Sasol (South Africa) 500 443 14,550 13,016 116.3 1551 3452<br />
22 Water Gas (bituminous) 261 239 4881 4469 129.9 1732 3510<br />
COMBUSTION PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL FUEL GASES<br />
Combustion Products & %CO 2<br />
Combustion Products, Cu Ft/Cu Ft Gas Combustion Products, Lb/Lb Gas Ultimate<br />
CO2 No. Gas CO2 H2O N2 Total CO2 H2O N2 Total %*<br />
1 Acetylene 2.00 1.00 9.41 12.41 3.38 0.69 10.19 14.26 17.5<br />
2 Blast Furnace Gas 0.39 0.02 1.14 1.54 .59 — 1.08 1.67 25.5<br />
3 Butane (natural gas) 3.93 4.93 24.07 32.93 3.09 1.59 11.95 16.63 14.0<br />
4 Butylene (Butene) 4.00 4.00 22.59 30.59 3.14 1.29 11.34 15.77 15.0<br />
5 Carbon Monoxide 1.00 — 1.88 2.88 1.57 — 1.89 3.46 34.7<br />
6 Carburetted Water Gas 0.76 0.87 3.66 5.29 1.85 0.87 5.64 8.36 17.2<br />
7 Coke Oven Gas 0.51 1.25 4.02 5.78 1.76 1.76 8.75 12.27 11.2<br />
8 Digester (Sewage) Gas 0.92 1.42 5.44 7.78 1.74 1.10 6.53 9.37 14.5<br />
9 Ethane 2.00 3.00 13.18 18.18 2.93 1.8 12.25 16.98 13.2|<br />
10 Hydrogen — 1.00 1.88 2.88 — 8.89 25.90 34.79 0<br />
11 Methane 1.00 2.00 7.53 10.53 2.75 2.25 13.23 18.23 11.7<br />
12 Natural (Birmingham, AL) 1.00 2.02 7.48 10.50 2.54 2.11 12.03 16.68 11.8<br />
13 Natural (Pittsburgh, PA) 1.15 2.22 8.37 11.73 2.86 2.27 13.18 18.31 12.1<br />
14 Natural (Los Angeles, CA) 1.16 2.10 7.94 11.20 2.51 1.87 10.88 15.26 12.7<br />
15 Natural (Kansas City, MO) 0.98 1.95 7.30 10.23 2.39 1.95 11.25 15.59 11.9<br />
16 Natural (Groningen,<br />
Netherlands)<br />
0.89 1.73 6.74 9.36 2.17 1.73 10.45 14.35 11.7<br />
17 Natural (Midlands Grid, U.K.) 1.05 2.19 7.94 11.78 2.67 2.29 12.84 17.80 11.7<br />
18 Producer (Wellman-Galusha) 0.34 0.17 1.59 2.11 0.61 0.13 1.82 2.56 17.6<br />
19 Propane (natural gas) 3.00 4.17 18.82 25.99 3.00 1.70 12.03 16.73 13.7<br />
20 Propylene (Propene) 3.00 3.00 16.94 22.94 3.14 1.29 11.34 15.77 15.0<br />
21 Sasol (South Africa) 0.48 1.00 3.28 4.76 1.76 1.50 7.63 10.89 12.8<br />
22 Water Gas (bituminous) 0.41 0.47 1.86 2.74 0.89 0.42 2.55 3.86 18.0<br />
*In dry flue gas sample<br />
23
PROPANE/AIR & BUTANE/AIR MIXTURES<br />
EQUIVALENT BTU TABLES<br />
PROPANE/AIR MIXTURE BUTANE/AIR MIXTURE<br />
B.t.u. Specific<br />
Equivalent<br />
Propane-<br />
Air<br />
Mixture Specific<br />
Kind of Gas Content Gravity B.t.u. Gravity<br />
Carbureted Water Gas . . . . . . . . . .517 .65 690 1.14<br />
Mixed Water and Coke Oven . . . . . .530 .46 855 1.17<br />
Coke Oven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .590 .42 1000 1.20<br />
Natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .900 .56 1100 1.23<br />
Natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1050 .60 1400 1.28<br />
Natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1140 .65 1560 1.32<br />
B.t.u. Specific<br />
Equivalent<br />
Butane-<br />
Air<br />
Mixture Specific<br />
Kind of Gas Content Gravity B.t.u. Gravity<br />
Carbureted Water Gas . . . . . . . . . .517 .65 708 1.20<br />
Mixed Water and Coke Oven . . . . . .530 .46 870 1.25<br />
Coke Oven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .590 .42 1058 1.31<br />
Natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .900 .56 1380 1.41<br />
Natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1050 .60 1550 1.46<br />
Natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1140 .65 1680 1.50<br />
NOTE: The B.t.u. content and specific gravity figures are representative figures and will vary according to area. Therefore, these tables should be used as a guide only.<br />
MIXTURE SPECIFICATIONS<br />
PROPANE/AIR MIXTURES BUTANE/AIR MIXTURES<br />
B.t.u. per Percentage Percentage Percentage Specific Percentage Percentage Percentage Specific<br />
Cubic Foot of Propane of Air by of Oxygen by Gravity of of Butane of Air by of Oxygen by Gravity of<br />
of MIxture by Volume Volume Volume (Orsat) the MIxture by Volume Volume Volume (Orsat) the Mixture<br />
3200 — — — — 100.00 0.00 0.000 1.950<br />
3150 — — — — 98.44 1.56 0.328 1.935<br />
3100 — — — — 96.88 3.12 0.656 1.920<br />
3050 — — — — 95.32 4.68 0.984 1.905<br />
3000 — — — — 93.75 6.25 1.312 1.891<br />
2950 — — — — 92.20 7.80 1.643 1.875<br />
2900 — — — — 90.62 9.38 1.967 1.861<br />
2850 — — — — 89.08 10.92 2.297 1.846<br />
2800 — — — — 87.51 12.49 2.625 1.831<br />
2750 — — — — 85.95 14.05 2.953 1.817<br />
2700 — — — — 84.38 15.62 3.280 1.802<br />
2650 — — — — 82.82 17.18 3.612 1.786<br />
2600 — — — — 81.25 18.75 3.935 1.771<br />
2550 100.00 0.00 0.000 1.523 79.70 20.30 4.268 1.755<br />
2500 98.04 1.96 0.409 1.513 78.18 21.82 4.590 1.744<br />
2450 96.08 3.92 0.819 1.502 76.58 23.42 4.921 1.728<br />
2400 94.12 5.88 1.288 1.492 75.00 25.00 5.249 1.712<br />
2350 92.16 7.84 1.639 1.482 73.44 26.56 5.576 1.698<br />
2300 90.19 9.81 2.050 1.472 71.86 28.14 5.899 1.683<br />
2250 88.24 11.76 2.458 1.461 70.30 29.70 6.238 1.668<br />
2200 86.27 13.73 2.869 1.451 68.79 31.21 6.561 1.653<br />
2150 84.31 15.69 3.279 1.441 67.20 32.80 6.889 1.638<br />
2100 82.35 17.65 3.688 1.431 65.63 34.37 7.219 1.623<br />
2050 80.39 19.61 4.098 1.420 64.09 35.91 7.548 1.608<br />
2000 78.43 21.56 4.506 1.410 62.52 37.48 7.869 1.593<br />
1950 76.47 23.53 4.918 1.400 60.96 39.04 8.200 1.579<br />
1900 74.51 25.49 5.317 1.390 59.38 40.62 8.542 1.564<br />
1850 72.55 27.45 5.737 1.379 57.87 42.13 8.868 1.550<br />
1800 70.58 29.42 6.149 1.369 56.25 43.75 9.162 1.535<br />
1750 68.62 31.38 6.558 1.359 54.69 45.31 9.500 1.520<br />
1700 66.67 33.33 6.964 1349 53.17 46.83 9.850 1.505<br />
1650 64.70 35.30 7.378 1.338 51.60 48.40 10.180 1.490<br />
1600 62.74 37.26 7.787 1.328 50.00 50.00 10.488 1.475<br />
1550 60.78 39.22 8.197 1.318 48.50 51.50 10.817 1.461<br />
1500 58.82 41.18 8.606 1.308 46.92 53.08 11.130 1.446<br />
1450 56.86 43.14 9.016 1.297 45.35 54.65 11.490 1.431<br />
1400 54.90 45.10 9.246 1.287 43.75 56.25 11.810 1.416<br />
1350 52.94 47.06 9.835 1.277 42.22 57.78 12.130 1.401<br />
1300 50.98 49.02 10.245 1.267 40.60 59.40 12.481 1.386<br />
1250 49.02 50.98 10.654 1.256 39.09 60.91 12.795 1.371<br />
1200 47.06 52.94 11.064 1246 37.50 62.50 13.137 1.356<br />
1150 45.09 54.91 11.476 1.236 35.92 64.08 13.462 1.340<br />
1100 43.13 56.87 11.886 1.226 34.38 65.62 13.787 1.326<br />
1050 41.17 58.83 12.295 1.215 32.80 67.21 14.100 1.312<br />
1000 39.21 60.79 12.705 1.205 31.25 68.75 14.412 1.296<br />
950 37.25 62.75 13.115 1.195 29.75 70.25 14.775 1.282<br />
900 35.29 64.71 13.524 1.185 28.20 71.80 15.100 1.266<br />
850 33.33 66.67 13.934 1.174 26.55 73.45 15.425 1.252<br />
800 31.37 68.63 14.344 1.164 25.00 75.00 15.712 1.237<br />
750 29.41 70.59 14.753 1.154 23.50 76.50 16.081 1.223<br />
700 27.45 72.55 15.163 1.114 21.88 78.12 16.400 1.206<br />
650 25.49 74.51 15.573 1.133 20.38 79.62 16.750 1.194<br />
600 23.53 76.47 15.982 1.123 18.75 81.25 17.081 1.178<br />
550 21.56 78.44 16.394 1.113 17.25 82.75 17.412 1.163<br />
500 19.61 80.39 16.892 1.103 15.63 84.37 17.712 1.148<br />
450 17.65 82.35 17.211 1.092 14.13 85.87 18.081 1.135<br />
400 15.69 84.31 17.621 1.082 12.50 87.50 18.375 1.120<br />
350 13.73 86.27 18.031 1.072 11.00 89.00 18.687 1.105<br />
300 11.76 88.24 18.442 1.062 9.38 90.62 19.031 1.089<br />
250 9.80 90.20 18.852 1.051 7.75 92.25 19.313 1.074<br />
200 7.84 92.16 19.261 1.041 6.25 93.75 19.687 1.059<br />
150 5.88 94.12 19.670 1.031 4.75 95.25 20.000 1.045<br />
100 3.92 96.08 20.081 1.021 3.13 96.87 20.342 1.029<br />
24
CHAPTER 4 – OIL<br />
FUEL OIL SPECIFICATIONS PER ANSI/ASTM D 396-79 A<br />
Water<br />
CarbonResidue<br />
on Distillation Specific Cop-<br />
Flash Pour and 10% Temperatures, Saybolt Viscosity, sD Kinematic Viscosity, cStD Gravity per<br />
Point, Point, Sedi- Bot- Ash, °C(°F) 60/60°F Strip Sul-<br />
°C °C ment, toms, weight 10% Universal at Furol at 50°C At 38°C At 40°C At 50°C (deg Corro- fur,<br />
Grade of (°F) (°F) vol % % % Point 90% Point 38°C(100°F) 122°F) (100°F) (104°F) (122°F) API) sion %<br />
Fuel Oil Min Max Max Max Max Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Max Max Max<br />
No. 1 38 -18C 0.05 0.15 – 215 — 288 — — — — 1.4 2.2 1.3 2.1 — — 0.8499 No. 3 0.5<br />
A distillate oil (100)<br />
intended for<br />
vaporizing pottype<br />
burners and<br />
other burners<br />
requiring this<br />
grade of fuel<br />
(0) (420) (550) (35 min)<br />
No. 2 38 -6C 0.05 0.35 — — 282C 338 (32.6) (37.9) — — 2.0C 3.6 1.9C 3.4 — — 0.8762 No. 3 0.5B A distillate oil for(100) (20)<br />
general purpose<br />
heating for use in<br />
burners not<br />
requiring No. 1<br />
fuel oil<br />
(540) (640) (30 min)<br />
No. 4 55 -6C 0.50 — 0.10 — — — (45) (125) — — 5.8 26.4F 5.5 24.0F — — — — —<br />
Preheating not(130)<br />
usually required<br />
for handling<br />
or burning<br />
(20)<br />
No. 5 (Light) 55 — 1.00 — 0.10 — — — (>125) (300) — — >26.4 65F >24.0 58F — — — — —<br />
Preheating may(130)<br />
be required<br />
depending on<br />
climate and<br />
equipment<br />
No. 5 (Heavy) 55 — 1.00 — 0.10 — — — (>300) (900) (23) (40) >65 194F >58 168F (42) (81) — — —<br />
Preheating may(130)<br />
be required<br />
for burning and,<br />
in cold climates,<br />
may be required<br />
for handling<br />
No. 6 60 G 2.00 E — — — — — (>900) (9000) (>45) (300) — — — — >92 638 F — — —<br />
Preheating (140)<br />
required for<br />
burning and<br />
handling<br />
A It is the intent of these classifications that failure to meet any requirement of a given grade does not automatically place an oil in the next lower<br />
grade unless in fact it meets all requirements of the lower grade.<br />
B In countries outside the United States other sulfur limits may apply.<br />
C Lower or higher pour points may be specified whenever required by conditions of storage or use. When pour point less than -18°C (0°F) is<br />
specified, the minimum viscosity for grade No. 2 shall be 1.7 cSt (31.5 SUS) and the minimum 90% point shall be waived.<br />
D Viscosity values in parentheses are for information only and not necessarily limiting.<br />
E The amount of water by distillation plus the sediment by extraction shall not exceed 2.00%. The amount of sediment by extraction shall not<br />
exceed 0.50%. A deduction in quanity shall be made for all water and sediment in excess of 1.0%.<br />
F Where low sulfur fuel oil is required, fuel oil failing in the viscosity range of a lower numbered grade down to and including No. 4 may be supplied<br />
by agreement between purchaser and supplier. The viscosity range of the initial shipment shall be identified and advance notice shall be<br />
required when changing from one viscosity range to another. This notice shall be in sufficient time to permit the user to make the necessary<br />
adjustments.<br />
G Where low sulfur fuel oil is required. Grade 6 fuel oil will be classified as low pour + 15°C (60°F) max or high pour (no max). Low pour fuel oil<br />
should be used unless all tanks and lines are heated.<br />
© COPYRIGHT ASTM • REPRINTED WITH PERMISSION<br />
25
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL FUEL OILS IN THE U.S.<br />
Grade of Carbon Residue,<br />
Fuel Oil Flash Point, °F Pour Point, °F Water, Vol. % Wt. % Ash, Wt. %<br />
1 106 to 174 -85 to -10 0.050 max. 0.200 max. –<br />
2 120 to 250 -60 to +35 0.060 max. 0.820 max. –<br />
4* 150 to 276 -40 to +80 0.3 max. 0.19 to 7.6 0.07 max.<br />
5 (Light)* 154 to 250 -15 to +55 0.08 to 0.6 2.10 to 13.6 0.001 to 0.08<br />
5 (Heavy)* 136 to 300+ -17 to +90 0.4 max. 1.55 to 9.6 0.001 to 0.16<br />
6 140 to 250 0 to +110 0.300 max. 1.02 to 15.80 0.001 to 0.630<br />
Grade of Viscosity, Specific Gravity Gross Heating<br />
Fuel Oil SSU @ 100°F 60/60°F Gravity, °API Sulfur, Wt % Value, Btu/gallon<br />
1 37 max. 0.79 to 0.85 47.9 to 34.8 0 to 0.47 131,100 to 138,700<br />
2 42 max. 0.80 to 0.92 45.3 to 21.9 0.04 to 0.5 132,600 to 147,400<br />
4* 35 to 160 0.85 to 0.99 34.6 to 12.1 0.18 to 1.81 140,400 to 151,700<br />
5 (Light)* 80 to 700 0.89 to 1.01 28.2 to 8.5 0.58 to 3.48 142,700 to 156,400<br />
5 (Heavy)* 240 to 1300 0.91 to 1.02 23.4 to 7.5 0.6 to 2.54 144,800 to 153,600<br />
6 240 to 6100 0.92 to 1.09 22.0 to -1.5 0.17 to 3.52 146,700 to 162,000<br />
The above data are summarized from Heating Oils, 1984, published by the American Petroleum Institute and U.S.<br />
Dept. of Energy. The ranges in the tables represent the extreme maximums and minimums for the oil samples<br />
included in the survey.<br />
*1975-1976 data. No data available for these grades in 1983-1984.<br />
Kinematic Viscosity, SSU @ 100°F, SSF @ 122°F, SR1 @ 140°F, or °E<br />
FUEL OIL VISCOSITY CONVERSIONS<br />
This chart converts four commonly-used fuel oil viscosity<br />
scales to a common base of centistokes<br />
ABBREVIATIONS: SSU = Saybolt Seconds Universal<br />
SSF = Saybolt Seconds Furol<br />
SRI = Seconds Redwood #1<br />
°E = Degrees Engler<br />
10,000<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1000<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
100<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
1 2 3 4 6 8 10 2 3 4 6 8 100 2 3 4 6 8 1000 2 3<br />
Kinematic Viscosity, Centistokes (CS)<br />
26<br />
SSU @ 100°F<br />
SR1 @ 140°F<br />
SSF @ 122°F<br />
°E
Specific Gravity @ 60°F<br />
1.1<br />
1.0<br />
0.9<br />
0.8<br />
To determine specific gravity of an oil, find °API at the bottom<br />
of the graph, read up to the curve, and left to the specific<br />
gravity.<br />
To find gross heating value of an oil, find °API at the bottom<br />
of the graph, read up to the curve, and right to the heating<br />
value.<br />
These charts show oil pressure drop per 100 equivalent<br />
feet of horizontal schedule 40 steel pipe. To determine total<br />
equivalent length, add equivalent lengths of fittings and<br />
valves (Page 16) to the actual linear feet of pipe.<br />
The charts for 1000 SSU and 10,000 SSU oils are<br />
accompanied by correction factors for oils of other viscosities.<br />
To find the pressure drop for an oil not on either of<br />
these charts, simply multiply the drop from the chart by the<br />
appropriate correction factor.<br />
If the entrance and exit ends of the oil line are at different<br />
elevations, the static head of the oil must be added to or<br />
subtracted from the calculated piping drop.<br />
Static head, psi = 0.433 x specific gravity of oil x elevation<br />
difference, ft.<br />
° API VS. OIL SPECIFIC GRAVITY<br />
& GROSS HEATING VALUE<br />
0.7<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50 60<br />
OIL PIPING PRESSURE LOSSES<br />
27<br />
° API<br />
For greater accuracy or for gravities not on this chart, use<br />
these equations:<br />
Specific gravity @ 60/60°F = 141.5<br />
°API + 131.5<br />
Gross Heating Value, Btu/lb<br />
= 17,887 + (57.5 x °API) - (102.2 x %S)<br />
where %S is weight % sulfur in the oil.<br />
Gross Heating Value, Btu/gal<br />
= g.h.v., Btu/lb x 8.335 x specific gravity<br />
Pressure Drop, psi per<br />
100 feet of equivalent<br />
pipe length<br />
10<br />
5<br />
1/2" 3/4"<br />
35 SSU Distillate Oil<br />
-160<br />
-155<br />
-150<br />
-145<br />
-140<br />
-135<br />
- 130<br />
1-1/4"<br />
Gr0ss Heating Value, Btu/Gallon x 1000<br />
0<br />
0 5 10<br />
Oil Flow, gpm<br />
15 20<br />
1"
Pressure Drop, psi per 100 feet<br />
of equivalent pipe length<br />
Pressure Drop, psi per 100 feet<br />
of equivalent pipe length<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
OIL PIPING PRESSURE LOSSES (Cont’d)<br />
Pressure Drop, psi per<br />
100 feet of equivalent<br />
pipe length<br />
10<br />
5<br />
100 SSU Intermediate Oil<br />
1/2" 3/4" 1"<br />
0<br />
0 5 10<br />
Oil Flow, gpm<br />
15 20<br />
0<br />
0 5 10<br />
Oil Flow, gpm<br />
15 20<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
1000 SSU Heavy Oil<br />
1" 1-1/4"<br />
10,000 SSU Heavy Oil<br />
2" 2-1/2"<br />
1-1/2"<br />
2"<br />
2-1/2"<br />
0<br />
0 5 10<br />
Oil Flow, gpm<br />
15 20<br />
28<br />
3"<br />
4"<br />
1-1/4"<br />
1-1/2"<br />
Pressure Drop<br />
Correction Factors<br />
for Other Viscosities<br />
Viscosity, Correction<br />
SSU Factor<br />
200 0.2<br />
300 0.3<br />
400 0.4<br />
500 0.5<br />
600 0.6<br />
700 0.7<br />
800 0.8<br />
900 0.9<br />
1200 1.2<br />
1500 1.5<br />
2000 2.0<br />
2500 2.5<br />
Pressure Drop<br />
Correction Factors<br />
for Other Viscosities<br />
Viscosity, Correction<br />
SSU Factor<br />
2000 0.2<br />
3000 0.3<br />
4000 0.4<br />
5000 0.5<br />
6000 0.6<br />
7000 0.7<br />
8000 0.8<br />
9000 0.9<br />
12000 1.2<br />
15000 1.5
OIL PIPING TEMPERATURE LOSSES<br />
This table lists the temperature drop of 220°F oil flowing through steel pipe insulated with 1" thick 85% magnesia pipe<br />
insulation. Ambient temperature is assumed to be 60°F. For oil temperatures other than 220°F, multiply the temperature loss by<br />
the appropriate correction factor.<br />
OIL TEMPERATURE DROP IN °F PER FOOT OF PIPE<br />
Oil Flow Nominal Pipe Size<br />
GPH 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/4 1-1/2 2 2-1/2 3<br />
.5 10.92 12.18 13.68 15.48 17.64 20.6 22.50 26.30 30.00 34.8<br />
1 5.46 6.09 6.84 7.74 8.82 10.3 11.25 13.15 15.00 17.4<br />
2 2.73 3.04 3.42 3.87 4.41 5.15 5.63 6.57 7.50 8.70<br />
3 1.82 2.03 2.28 2.58 2.94 3.43 3.75 4.38 5.00 5.75<br />
4 1.365 1.52 1.71 1.933 2.205 2.58 2.82 3.28 3.75 4.35<br />
5 1.09 1.218 1.368 1.548 1.764 2.06 2.25 2.63 3.00 3.48<br />
10 .546 .609 .684 .774 .882 1.03 1.125 1.315 1.50 1.74<br />
15 .364 .405 .455 .515 .588 .686 .750 .876 1.00 1.16<br />
20 .273 .304 .342 .387 .441 .515 .563 .657 .750 .870<br />
30 .182 .203 .228 .258 .294 .343 .375 .438 .500 .575<br />
40 .136 .152 .171 .193 .220 .258 .282 .328 .375 .435<br />
60 .091 .101 .114 .129 .147 .172 .187 .219 .250 .290<br />
80 .068 .076 .086 .097 .110 .129 .141 .164 .188 .218<br />
100 .055 .061 .068 .077 .088 .103 .113 .132 .150 .174<br />
200 .027 .030 .034 .039 .044 .052 .056 .066 .075 .087<br />
300 .018 .020 .023 .026 .029 .034 .038 .044 .050 .058<br />
OIL TEMPERATURE<br />
CORRECTION FACTORS<br />
Oil Oil<br />
Temperature, °F Factor Temperature, °F Factor<br />
130 0.44 190 0.81<br />
140 0.5 200 0.88<br />
150 0.56 210 0.94<br />
160 0.63 230 1.06<br />
170 0.69 240 1.13<br />
180 0.75 250 1.19<br />
Temperature losses from uninsulated pipe will vary with the<br />
pipe size. For 1/4" pipe, the losses are about 8 times the figures in<br />
the table. For 3" pipe, they are about 6 times the table values.<br />
29
CHAPTER 5 – STEAM & WATER<br />
BOILER TERMINOLOGY AND CONVERSION FACTORS<br />
Boiler horsepower – One boiler horsepower<br />
= 33,479 Btu/hr heat to steam<br />
= 34.5 lb/hr of water evaporated<br />
from and at 212°F<br />
= 9.8 Kilowatts<br />
Dry Steam – Steam which contains no liquid water.<br />
Enthalpy – Heat content, Btu/lb, of a liquid or vapor.<br />
Latent heat of vaporization – The heat required to convert a<br />
material from its liquid to its vapor phase without raising its<br />
temperature. The latent heat of vaporization of water at 1<br />
atmosphere pressure and 212°F is 970.3 Btu/lb.<br />
30<br />
Quality – In a mixture of steam and water, the weight percentage<br />
which is present as steam; in other words, the percent<br />
of complete vaporization which has taken place. The quality of<br />
saturated steam is 100%.<br />
Saturated Steam – Steam which is at the same temperature as<br />
the water from which it was evaporated.<br />
Wet Steam – Steam which contains liquid water. Its quality is<br />
less than 100%.<br />
PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM<br />
V g,<br />
Specific h f, h fg, h g,<br />
Volume of Heat Content Latent Heat, Heat Content<br />
Temperature, Pressure, psi Vapor of Liquid, of Vaporization, of Vapor<br />
°F Absolute Gauge cu ft/lb Btu/lb Btu/lb Btu/lb<br />
32 .089 – 3304.7 -0.018 1075.5 1075.5<br />
40 .121 – 2445.8 8.03 1071.0 1079.0<br />
50 .178 – 1704.8 18.05 1065.3 1083.4<br />
60 .256 – 1207.6 28.06 1059.7 1087.7<br />
70 .363 – 868.4 38.05 1054.0 1092.1<br />
80 .507 – 633.3 48.04 1048.4 1096.4<br />
90 .698 – 468.1 58.02 1042.7 1100.8<br />
100 .949 – 350.4 68.00 1037.1 1105.1<br />
110 1.28 – 265.4 77.98 1031.4 1109.3<br />
120 1.69 – 203.3 87.97 1025.6 1113.6<br />
130 2.22 – 157.3 97.96 1019.8 1117.8<br />
140 2.89 _ 123.0 107.95 1014.0 1122.0<br />
150 3.72 – 97.07 117.95 1008.2 1126.1<br />
160 4.74 – 77.29 127.96 1002.2 1130.2<br />
170 5.99 – 62.06 137.97 996.2 1134.2<br />
180 7.51 – 50.22 148.00 990.2 1138.2<br />
190 9.34 – 40.96 158.04 984.1 1142.1<br />
200 11.53 – 33.64 168.09 977.9 1146.0<br />
212 14.696 0 26.80 180.17 970.3 1150.5<br />
220 17.19 2.49 23.15 188.23 965.2 1153.4<br />
240 24.97 10.27 16.32 208.45 952.1 1160.6<br />
260 35.43 20.73 11.76 228.76 938.6 1167.4<br />
280 49.20 34.50 8.64 294.17 924.6 1173.8<br />
300 67.01 52.31 6.47 269.7 910.0 1179.7<br />
320 89.64 74.94 4.91 290.4 894.8 1185.2<br />
340 117.99 103.29 3.79 311.3 878.8 1190.1<br />
360 153.01 138.31 2.96 332.3 862.1 1194.4<br />
380 195.73 181.03 2.34 353.6 844.5 1198.0<br />
400 247.26 232.56 1.86 375.1 825.9 1201.0<br />
500 680.86 666.16 0.67 487.9 714.3 1202.2<br />
600 1543.2 1528.5 0.27 617.1 550.6 1167.7<br />
700 3094.3 3079.6 0.075 822.4 172.7 995.2<br />
705.47* 3208.2 3193.5 0.051 906.0 0 906.0<br />
*Critical Temperature
1000's of Btu/hr Burner<br />
Input Required to Generate<br />
One Boiler Horsepower<br />
BTU/HR REQUIRED TO GENERATE ONE BOILER H.P.<br />
50<br />
45<br />
40<br />
35<br />
70 75 80<br />
% Boiler Efficiency<br />
85 90<br />
Pressuer Drop, psi per 100 ft of pipe<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
.8<br />
.6<br />
.4<br />
.3<br />
.2<br />
.1<br />
.08<br />
.06<br />
.04<br />
.03<br />
.02<br />
SIZING WATER PIPING<br />
1/2" 3/4" 1" 1-1/4"1-1/2" 2" 2-1/2" 3" 4"<br />
.01<br />
1 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 500 1000<br />
Water Flow, Gallons Per Minute<br />
Pressure drops are for 60°F water flowing in horizontal Schedule 40 steel pipe.<br />
31<br />
6"<br />
8"
SIZING STEAM PIPING<br />
Pipe Size, Lb/hr steam for piping pressure drop of 1 psi/100ft Lb/hr steam for piping drop of 5 psi/100 ft<br />
Inches Steam Pressure, psig Steam Pressure, psig<br />
(Schedule 40) 5 10 25 50 100 150 10 25 50 100 150<br />
3/4 31 34 43 53 70 84 73 93 120 155 185<br />
1 61 68 86 110 140 170 145 185 235 315 375<br />
1-1/4 135 150 190 235 310 370 320 410 520 690 820<br />
1-1/2 210 230 290 370 485 570 500 640 810 1,050 1,300<br />
2 425 470 590 750 980 1,150 1,000 1,300 1,650 2,150 2,600<br />
2-1/2 700 780 980 1,250 1,600 1,900 1,650 2,150 2,700 3,600 4,250<br />
3 1,280 1,450 1,800 2,250 2,950 3,500 3,050 3,900 4,300 6,600 7,800<br />
4 2,700 3,000 3,800 4,750 6,200 7,400 6,500 8,200 10,500 14,000 16,500<br />
6 8,200 9,200 11,500 14,500 19,000 22,500 19,500 25,000 31,500 42,000 50,000<br />
8 17,000 19,000 24,000 30,000 39,500 47,000 41,000 52,000 66,000 88,000 105,000<br />
These flows were calculated from Babcock’s Equation,<br />
Pd D5 where W = steam flow, lb/minute<br />
P = pressure drop, psi<br />
W = 87 (1 + 3.6 ) L D = inside diameter of pipe, inches<br />
D d = density of steam, lb/cu ft<br />
L = length of pipe run, feet<br />
32
CHAPTER 6 – ELECRICAL DATA<br />
ELECTRICAL FORMULAS<br />
Ohm’s Law Motor Formulas D.C. Circuit Power Formulas<br />
Amperes = Volts/Ohms Torque (lb-ft) = 5250 x Horsepower Watts = Volts x Amperes<br />
Ohms = Volts/Amperes rpm Amperes = Watts/Volts<br />
Volts = Amperes x Ohms Synchronous rpm = Hertz x 120 Volts = Watts/Amperes<br />
Poles Horsepower = Volts x Amperes x Efficiency*<br />
746<br />
A.C. Circuit Power Formulas<br />
Single-Phase Three-Phase<br />
Watts = Volts x Amps x Power Factor* = 1.73 x Volts x Amps x Power Factor*<br />
Amperes = WattsVolts x Power Factor* = Watts/1.73 x Volts x Power Factor*<br />
= kVA x 1000/Volts = kVA x 1000/1.73 x Volts<br />
= Horsepower x 746 = Horsepower x 746<br />
Volts x Efficiency* x Power Factor* 1.73 x Volts x Effic.* x Power Factor*<br />
Kilowatts = Amps x Volts x Power Factor* = 1.73 x Amps x Volts x Power Factor*<br />
1000 1000<br />
kVA = Amps x Volts = 1.73 x Amps x Volts<br />
1000 1000<br />
Horsepower = Volts x Amps x Effic.* x Pwr. Factor* = 1.73 x Volts x Amps x Effic.* x Pwr. Fact.*<br />
746 746<br />
*Expressed as a decimal<br />
ELECTRICAL WIRE –<br />
DIMENSIONS & RATINGS<br />
All data for solid copper wire<br />
A.W.G. Resistance, Maximum Allowable<br />
Wire Diameter, Ohms per 1000 Ft Current Capacity per<br />
Gauge Inches @ 77˚F NFPA 70-1984*, Amps<br />
0 .3249 .100 125-170<br />
1 .2893 .126 110-150<br />
2 .2576 .159 95-130<br />
3 .2294 .201 85-110<br />
4 .2043 .253 70-95<br />
6 .1620 .403 55-75<br />
8 .1285 .641 40-55<br />
10 .1019 1.02 30-40<br />
12 .0808 1.62 20-30<br />
14 .0641 2.58 15-25<br />
16 .0508 4.09 18<br />
18 .0403 6.51 14<br />
*Maximum current capacity permitted by National Electrical Code,<br />
NFPA 70-1984, varies with type of insulation, ambient temperature,<br />
voltage carried, and other factors. Consult NFPA 70-1984 for<br />
specific information.<br />
33<br />
NEMA SIZE STARTERS FOR MOTORS<br />
Starter size for<br />
460/3/60<br />
Horsepower 115/1/60 230/1/60 230/3/60 380/3/60 575/3/60<br />
Up to 1/3 00 00 00 00 00<br />
1/2 to 1 0 00 00 00 00<br />
1-1/2 1 1 00 00 00<br />
2 1 1 0 0 00<br />
3 2 2 0 0 0<br />
5 3 2 1 0 0<br />
7-1/2 3 2 1 1 1<br />
10 – 3 2 1 1<br />
15 – – 2 2 2<br />
20-25 – – 3 2 2<br />
30 – – 3 3 3<br />
40-50 – – 4 3 3<br />
60-75 – – 5 4 4<br />
100 – – 5 5 4<br />
125-150 – – 6 5 5<br />
200 – – 6 6 5<br />
All sizes listed apply only to magnetic starters with fusible<br />
alloy overload relays.
NEMA ENCLOSURES<br />
NEMA 1. General Purpose – Indoor<br />
Sheet metal enclosures intended for indoor use. Primary purpose<br />
is to prevent accidental personnel contact with enclosed<br />
equipment, although they will also provide some protection<br />
against falling dirt.<br />
NEMA 2. Drip Proof – Indoor<br />
Indoor enclosure that protects contents against falling noncorrosive<br />
liquids and dirt. Must be equipped with a drain.<br />
NEMA 3. Dust Tight, Raintight & Sleet-Resistant (Ice-<br />
Resistant),<br />
NEMA 3R. Rainproof & Sleet-Resistant (Ice-Resistant).<br />
NEMA 3S. Dust Tight, Raintight & Sleet-Proof (Ice-Proof)<br />
Outdoor enclosures for protection against windblown dust, rain<br />
and sleet. All have provision for locking.<br />
NEMA 4. Water Tight & Dust Tight – Indoor & Outdoor<br />
Protect contents against splashing, seeping, falling, or hosedirected<br />
water and severe external condensation. Commonly used<br />
in food-processing plants where equipment hosedown is required.<br />
NEMA 6. Submersible, Watertight, Dust Tight and Sleet (Ice)-<br />
Resistant–Indoor & Outdoor<br />
Capable of being submerged up to 30 minutes in up to 6 feet of<br />
water without harm to the contents.<br />
NEMA 7. Hazardous Locations – Indoor – Air Break<br />
Equipment<br />
Enclosures for use in atmospheres containing explosive gases<br />
and vapors as defined in Class 1, Division I, Groups A, B, C or D<br />
of the National Electrical Code. Enclosure must contain an internal<br />
explosion without causing an external hazard. Construction<br />
details vary with the nature of the explosive gas or vapor.<br />
NEMA 8. Hazardous Locations – Indoor – Oil-Immersed<br />
Equipment<br />
Enclosures for oil-immersed circuit breakers in Class I,<br />
Division I, Group A, B, C or D hazardous atmospheres.<br />
NEMA 9. Hazardous Locations – Indoor – Air-Break<br />
Equipment<br />
Used in Class II, Division I, Group E, F, or G hazardous locations<br />
as defined by the National Electrical Code. Enclosures are<br />
designed to exclude combustible or explosive dusts.<br />
NEMA 10. Mine Atmospheres<br />
For use in mines containing methane or natural gas.<br />
NEMA 11. Corrosion-Resistant and Drip Proof – Indoor<br />
Indoor enclosures that protect contents from dripping, seepage<br />
and external condensation of corrosive liquids, as well as corrosive<br />
fumes.<br />
NEMA 12. Industrial Use – Dust Tight & Drip Tight – Indoor<br />
Protect enclosed equipment from lint, fibers, flyings, dust, dirt<br />
and light splashing, seepage, dripping and external condensation<br />
of noncorrosive liquids.<br />
NEMA 13. Oil Tight & Dust Tight – Indoor<br />
Protect enclosed equipment from lint, dust and seepage, external<br />
condensation and spraying of water, oil, or coolant. They have<br />
oil-resistant gaskets and must have provision for oiltight conduit<br />
entry.<br />
For more complete details on application and construction specifications<br />
for NEMA Enclosures, refer to NEMA Standards<br />
Publication No. ICS 6.<br />
34<br />
ELECTRIC MOTORS–<br />
FULL LOAD CURRENT, AMPERES<br />
Single<br />
Three-Phase AC Motors<br />
Induction Type –<br />
Phase Squirrel Cage &<br />
Horse AC Motors Wound-Rotor<br />
Power 115V 230V 115V 230V 460V 575V<br />
1/6 4.4 2.2 — — — —<br />
1/4 5.8 2.9 — — — —<br />
1/3 7.2 3.6 — — — —<br />
1/2 9.8 4.9 4 2 1 .8<br />
3/4 13.8 6.9 5.6 2.8 1.4 1.1<br />
1 16 8 7.2 3.6 1.8 1.4<br />
1-1/2 20 10 10.4 5.2 2.6 2.1<br />
2 24 12 13.6 6.8 3.4 2.7<br />
3 34 17 — 9.6 4.8 3.9<br />
5 56 28 — 15.2 7.6 6.1<br />
7-1/2 80 40 — 22 11 9<br />
10 100 50 — 28 14 11<br />
15 — — — 42 21 17<br />
20 — — — 54 27 22<br />
25 — — — 68 34 27<br />
30 — — — 80 40 32<br />
40 — — — 104 52 41<br />
50 — — — 130 65 52<br />
60 — — — 154 77 62<br />
75 — — — 192 96 77<br />
100 — — — 248 124 99<br />
125 — — — 312 156 125<br />
150 — — — 360 180 144<br />
200 — — — 480 240 192
CHAPTER 7 – PROCESS HEATING<br />
HEAT BALANCES–DETERMINIING THE HEAT NEEDS OF<br />
FURNACES AND OVENS<br />
Although rules of thumb are frequently used to size furnace<br />
and oven burners, they have to be used with care. All<br />
rules of thumb are based on certain assumptions about production<br />
rates, furnace dimensions, and insulation. If the system<br />
under consideration differs from these assumed conditions,<br />
using a rule of thumb can result in a significant error.<br />
Gross<br />
Input<br />
(Purchased<br />
Fuel)<br />
Available<br />
Heat<br />
Flue Gas Loss<br />
Stored<br />
Heat<br />
The terms used in heat balance calculations, and their definitions,<br />
are:<br />
Gross heat input – the total amount of heat used by the furnace.<br />
It equals the amount of fuel burned multiplied by its<br />
heating value.<br />
Available heat – heat that is available to the furnace and its<br />
workload. It equals gross input minus flue gas losses.<br />
Flue gas losses – heat contained in flue gases as they are<br />
exhausted from the furnace.<br />
Stored heat – heat absorbed by the insulation and structural<br />
components of the furnace or oven to raise them to operating<br />
temperature. This stored heat becomes a loss each time the furnace<br />
is cooled down, because it has to be replaced on the next<br />
startup. Heat storage can usually be ignored on continuous furnaces,<br />
because cooldowns and restarts don't occur often.<br />
Wall losses – heat conducted out through the walls, roof and<br />
floor of the furnace due to the temperature difference between<br />
35<br />
For out-of-the ordinary conditions, or where more accurate<br />
results are required, heat balance calculations are preferred. A<br />
heat balance consists of calculating load heat requirements<br />
and adding losses to them to determine the heat input.<br />
Below is a schematic representation of the heat balance in<br />
a fuel-fired heat processing device.<br />
Wall<br />
Loss<br />
General heat balance in a fuel-fired heat processing device.<br />
Radiation<br />
Loss<br />
Conveyor<br />
Loss<br />
Net Output<br />
(Heat To Load)<br />
the inside and outside. At a constant temperature, wall losses<br />
will remain constant regardless of production rate.<br />
Radiation losses – heat lost from the furnace as radiant energy<br />
escaping through openings in walls, doors, etc.<br />
Conveyor losses – heat which is stored in conveying devices<br />
such as furnace cars and conveyor belts and which is lost<br />
when the heated conveyor is removed from the furnace.<br />
Net output – this is the heat that ultimately reaches the product<br />
in the oven or furnace.<br />
On page 36 is a simplified worksheet for carrying out a<br />
heat balance. By following this format, you can determine the<br />
gross heat input required at maximum load and minimum<br />
load conditions, along with the furnace turndown and theoretical<br />
thermal efficiency.
HEAT BALANCE TABLE<br />
Maximum Load Minimum Load<br />
Heat Balance Conditions Conditions<br />
Component (Full Production Rate) (Empty and Idling)<br />
Heat to load __________Btu/hr ____0____Btu/hr<br />
+ Wall losses + __________Btu/hr + _________Btu/hr<br />
+ Radiation losses + __________Btu/hr + _________Btu/hr<br />
+ Conveyor losses + __________Btu/hr + ____0____Btu/hr<br />
= Available heat = __________Btu/hr = _________Btu/hr<br />
required<br />
÷ Available heat, ÷ __________ ÷ _________<br />
expessed as a<br />
decimal<br />
= Gross heat input = __________Btu/hr = _________Btu/hr<br />
Furnace turndown = Gross heat input, maximum load conditions = _________<br />
Gross heat input, minimum load conditions<br />
Theoretical Thermal efficiency, % =<br />
Supporting Calculations:<br />
Heat to Load<br />
Heat to load = lb per hour x specific heat x temperature rise.<br />
Specific heats for many materials are listed on pages 37-39.<br />
For most common metals and alloys, use the graphs on page 40.<br />
Simply multiply lb/hr production rate by the heat content<br />
picked from the graph.<br />
Enter the heat to load under Maximum Load Conditions.<br />
Heat to load is usually zero under Minimum Load Conditions<br />
because no material is being processed through the oven or<br />
furnace.<br />
Wall Losses:<br />
Wall loss = Wall Area (inside) x heat loss, Btu/sq ft/hr.<br />
Typical heat loss data are tabulated on page 44 .<br />
If the roof and floor of the furnace are insulated with different<br />
materials than the walls, calculate their losses separately.<br />
Add all the losses together and enter them in both the<br />
Maximum Load and Minimum Load columns above.<br />
Caution: If the furnace is to be idled at a temperature lower<br />
than its normal operating temperature, wall losses will be correspondingly<br />
lower. Calculate them on the basis of the actual<br />
idling temperature.<br />
Radiation Losses:<br />
Radiation Losses = Opening Area x Black Body Radiation<br />
Rate x Shape Factor. See page 49 for radiation rates. Assume<br />
a Shape Factor of 1.<br />
Conveyor Losses:<br />
Treat the conveyor as you would a furnace load.<br />
Conveyor Loss = Lb/hr of conveyor heated x specific heat x<br />
(Temperature leaving furnace – temperature entering furnace)<br />
At minimum load, conveyor losses are usually zero because<br />
no material is being processed through the furnace.<br />
Available Heat:<br />
Available heat = Heat to load + wall losses + radiation losses<br />
+ conveyor losses.<br />
Calculate available heat for both maximum and minimum<br />
load conditions.<br />
Heat to load, maximum load conditions<br />
x 100 = _________<br />
Gross heat input, maximum load conditions<br />
36<br />
Next, consult the available heat charts (page 51) to determine<br />
the percent available heat for the fuel, operating temperature,<br />
and fuel/air ratio conditions of this application.<br />
Enter this figure as a decimal on both sides above.<br />
Gross Input:<br />
Gross Input = Available heat (Btu/hr) ÷ Available heat<br />
(decimal).<br />
Figure this for both maximum and minimum load conditions.<br />
Gross input, maximum conditions, is the maximum heating<br />
input required of the combustion system you select.<br />
Furnace Turndown:<br />
Divide maximum load gross input by minimum load gross<br />
input. The result is the furnace or oven turndown. Your<br />
combustion system must provide at least this much turndown<br />
or the furnace will overshoot setpoint on idle.<br />
Theoretical Thermal Efficiency:<br />
% Efficiency = Heat to load, maximum load conditions x 100<br />
Gross heat input, maximum load conditions<br />
This is the maximum theoretical efficiency of the furnace,<br />
assuming it operates at 100% of rating with no production interruptions<br />
and with a properly adjusted combustion system.<br />
Heat Storage<br />
Heat Storage was left out of this analysis. Althought it is a<br />
factor in furnace efficiency, burner systems are rarely sized<br />
on the heat storage needs of the furnace.<br />
On continuous furnaces where cold startups occur infrequently,<br />
heat storage can usually be ignored without any<br />
major effect on efficiency calculations. On batch-type furnaces<br />
that cycle from hot to cold frequently, storage should be<br />
factored into efficiency calculations.<br />
Heat Storage = Inside refractory surface area, ft 2 x Heat<br />
Storage Capacity, Btu/ft 2<br />
Heat storage capacities for typical types of refractory construction<br />
are tabulated on Page 44.
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS<br />
Solid Latent Liquid Latent<br />
Density Specific Melting Heat of Specific Boiling Heat of<br />
Lb/Cu Ft Heat Point, Fusion, Heat, Point, Vaporization,<br />
Material @60°F Btu/Lb-°F °F Btu/Lb Btu/Lb-°F °F Btu/Lb<br />
Acetone – – -138 33.5 0.530 128-134 225.5<br />
Acetic Acid 65.8 0.540 62.6 44 0.462 244.4 152.8<br />
Air .0765 – – – 0.237 -311.0 91.7<br />
Alcohol-Ethyl 49.26 0.232 -173.2 44.8 0.648 172.4 369.0<br />
-Methyl 49.6 – -142.6 29.5 0.601 150.8 480.6<br />
Alumina 243.5 0.197 3722 – – – –<br />
Aluminum 166.7 0.248 1214 169.1 0.252 3272 –<br />
Ammonia 32° 45.6 0.502 -83.0 195 1.099 -37.3 543.2<br />
Andalusite 199.8 0.168 3290 – – – –<br />
Aniline 2.25 0.741 17.6 37.8 0.514 363 198<br />
Antimony 422 0.054 1166 70.0 0.054 2624 –<br />
Asbestos 124-174 0.195 – – – – –<br />
Asphalt-Trinidad 97 0.55 190 – 0.55 – –<br />
-Gilsonite 67.5 0.55 300 – 0.55 – –<br />
Arsenic 357.6 0.082 Sublimes – – – –<br />
Babbit 75 Pb 15 Sb 10 Sn – 0.039 462 26.2 0.038 – –<br />
84 Sn 8 Sb 8 Cu – 0.071 464 34.1 0.063 – –<br />
Bakelite – 0.30 – – – – –<br />
Beef Tallow 57-61 0.50 80-100 – – – –<br />
Beeswax 60 0.82 144 76.2 – – –<br />
Benzene-Benzol 55 0.299 41.8 55.6 0.423 176.3 169.4<br />
Beryllium 113.8 0.50 2345 621.9 0.425 5036 –<br />
Bismuth 615 0.033 518 18.5 0.035 2606 –<br />
Borax 105.5 0.238 1366 – – – –<br />
Brass 67 Cu 33 Zn 528 0.105 1688 71.0 0.123 – –<br />
85 Cu 15 Zn – 0.104 1877 84.4 0.116 – –<br />
90 Cu 10 Zn – 0.104 1952 86.6 0.115 – –<br />
Brick-Fireclay 137-150 0.240 – – – – –<br />
-Red 118 0.230 – – – – –<br />
-Silica 144-162 0.260 – – – – –<br />
Bronze 90 Cu 10 Al – 0.126 1922 98.6 0.125 – –<br />
90 Cu 10 Sn – 0.107 1850 84.2 0.106 – –<br />
80 Cu 10 Zn 10 Sn 534 0.095 1832 79.9 0.109 – –<br />
Cadmium 540 0.038 610 19.5 0.074 1412 409<br />
Calcium 96.6 0.170 1564 – – 2709 –<br />
Calcium Carbonate 175 0.210 Dec. 1517 – – – –<br />
Calcium Chloride 157 0.16 1422 97.7 – >2912 –<br />
Camphor 62.4 0.440 353 19.4 0.61 408 –<br />
Carbon, Amorphous 129 0.241 6300 – – 8721 –<br />
Carbon, Disulfide 79.2 – -166 – 0.24 115 150.8<br />
Carbon, Graphite 138.3 0.184 6300 – – 8721 –<br />
Castor Oil 59.6 – – – – – –<br />
Celotex – 0.40 – – – – –<br />
Celluloid – 0.36 – – – – –<br />
Cellulose 95 0.320 – – – – –<br />
Cement – 0.20 – – – – –<br />
Charcoal 18-38 0.165 – – – – –<br />
Chlorine 0.190 0.19 -151 41.3 – -30.3 121<br />
Chloroform 95.5 – -85 – 0.149 142.1 105.3<br />
Chromite 281 0.22 3956 – – – –<br />
Chromium 437 0.12 2822 57.1 – 4500 –<br />
Clay, Dry 112-162 0.224 3160 – – – –<br />
Coal (Anthracite) – 0.31 – – – – –<br />
Coal (Bituminous) – 0.30 – – – – –<br />
Coal Tar 76.7 0.413 196 – – 325 –<br />
Coal Tar Oil – – – – 0.34 390-910 136<br />
Cobalt 555 0.145 2723 – – 5252 –<br />
Coke – 0.2-0.38 – – – – –<br />
Concrete – 0.27 – – – – –<br />
Copper 558 0.104 1982 90.8 0.111 4703 –<br />
Cork – 0.48 – – – – –<br />
Corundum 250 0.304 3722 – – 6332 –<br />
Cotton – 0.32 – – – – –<br />
Cottonseed Oil 58 – 32 – 0.474 – –<br />
Cream – – – – 0.78 – –<br />
Cuprice Oxide 374-406 0.227 1944 – – – –<br />
T = Transformation Point Subl. = Sublimes Dec = Decomposes<br />
37
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS (Cont’d)<br />
Solid Latent Liquid Latent<br />
Density Specific Melting Heat of Specific Boiling Heat of<br />
Lb/Cu Ft Heat Point, Fusion, Heat, Point, Vaporization,<br />
Material @60°F Btu/Lb-°F °F Btu/Lb Btu/Lb-°F °F Btu/Lb<br />
Cyanite 225 0.227 3290 – – – –<br />
Diasporite 215 0.260 3722 – – – –<br />
Die Cast Metal: – – – – – – –<br />
87.3 Zn 8.1 Sn 4.1 Cu 0.5Al – 0.103 780 48.3 0.138 – –<br />
90 Sn 4.5 Cu 5.5 Sb – 0.070 450 30.3 0.062 – –<br />
80 Pb 10 Sn 10 Sb – 0.038 600 17.4 0.037 – –<br />
92 Al 8 Cu – 0.236 1150 163.1 0.241 – –<br />
Diphenyl 103 0.385 159 47 0.481 492 136.5<br />
Dolomite 181 0.222 – – – – –<br />
Dowtherm 58.8 0.53 180 – – 500 123<br />
Earth – 0.44 – – – – –<br />
Ebonite – 0.35 – – – – –<br />
Ether 45.9 – -180.4 – 0.529 94.3 159.1<br />
Fats – 0.46 – – – – –<br />
Fosterite 200 0.22 3470 – – – –<br />
Fuel Oil – – – – 0.45 – –<br />
Gasoline 42 – – – 0.514 176 128-146<br />
German Silver – 0.109 1850 86.2 0.123 – –<br />
Glass, Crown – 0.16 – – – – –<br />
Glass, Flint – 0.13 – – – – –<br />
Glass, Pyrex – 0.20 – – – – –<br />
Glass, Window (Soda Lime)160 0.19 2192 – – – –<br />
Glass Wool 1.5 0.16 – – – – –<br />
Glycerine 78.7 0.047 68 85.5 0.576 554 –<br />
Gold 1205 0.032 1945 28.5 0.034 5371 29<br />
Granite – – – – – – –<br />
Graphite 0.30-0.38 – Subl. 6606 – – – –<br />
Gypsum 145 0.259 2480 – – – –<br />
Hydrochloric Acid 75 – -12 – – – –<br />
Hydrogen .0053 – -434 27 – -423 194<br />
Hydrogen Sulfide – – -117 – – -79 –<br />
Iron 491 0.1162 2795 117 – 5430 –<br />
Iron, Gray Cast 443 0.119 2330 41.7 – – –<br />
Iron, White Cast 480 0.119 2000 59.5 – – –<br />
Kerosene – – – – 0.470 – 108<br />
Lead 711 0.032 621 9.9 0.032 3171 –<br />
Lead Oxide 575-593 0.049 1749 – – – –<br />
Leather – 0.36 – – – – –<br />
Lucite – 0.35 – – – – –<br />
Light Oil – – – – 0.5 600 145-150<br />
Linseed Oil 58 – -5 – 0.441 – –<br />
Lipowitz Metal – 0.041 140 17.2 0.041 – –<br />
Magnesite 187 0.200 Dec. 662 – – – –<br />
Magnesium 108.6 0.272 1204 83.7 0.266 – –<br />
Magnesium Oxide 223 0.23-0.30 5072 – – – –<br />
Manganese 500 0.171 2246 65.9 0.192 – –<br />
– – T = 1958 T = 43.5 – – –<br />
Marble – 0.21 – – – – –<br />
Mercury 885 0.033 -38 5.1 0.033 675 117<br />
Mica – 0.21 – – – – –<br />
Milk 63.4 – – – 0.847 – –<br />
Molasses 87.4 – – – 0.60 – –<br />
Molybdenum 636 0.065 4748 – – 8672 –<br />
Monel 550 0.129 2415 117.4 0.139 – –<br />
Mallite 188.8 – 3290 – 0.175 – –<br />
Naptha 41.2 – – – 0.493 306 184<br />
Napthalene 71.8 0.325 176 64.1 0.427 424.4 135.7<br />
Neats Foot Oil – – 32 – 0.457 – –<br />
Nickel 556 0.134 2646 131.4 0.124 – –<br />
Nichrome 517 – – – 0.111 – –<br />
Nitric Acid 96.1 – -43.6 – 0.445 186.8 207.2<br />
Nitrogen .0741 – -346 11.1 – -320 85.6<br />
Nylon – 0.55 – – – – _<br />
T = Transformation Point Subl. = Sublimes Dec = Decomposes<br />
38
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS (Cont’d)<br />
Solid Latent Liquid Latent<br />
Density Specific Melting Heat of Specific Boiling Heat of<br />
Lb/Cu Ft Heat Point, Fusion, Heat, Point, Vaporization,<br />
Material @60°F Btu/Lb-°F °F Btu/Lb Btu/Lb-°F °F Btu/Lb<br />
Olive Oil 57.4 – 40 – 0.471 572 –<br />
Oxygen .0847 0.336 -361 5.98 0.394 -297 91.6<br />
Paraffin 54-57 0.622 126 63 0.712 750<br />
Petroleum 48-55 – – – 0.511 – –<br />
Phosphorus 114 0.189 111 9.05 – 536 234<br />
Pitch, Coal Tar 62-81 0.45 86-300 – – – –<br />
Plaster of Paris 0.265 1.14 – – – – –<br />
Platinum 1335 0.036 3224 49 0.032 7933 –<br />
Porcelain 150 0.26 – – – – –<br />
Potassium Nitrate 129.2 0.19 646 88 – Dec. 752 –<br />
Quartz 165.5 0.23 – – – – –<br />
Resin-Phenolic 80-100 0.3-0.4 – – – – –<br />
-Copals 68.6 0.39 300-680 – – – –<br />
Rhodium 773 0.058 3571 – – – –<br />
Rockwool 6 0.198 – – – – –<br />
Rose’s Metal – 0.043 230 18.3 0.041 – –<br />
Rosin 68 0.5 170-212 – – – –<br />
Rubber 62-125 0.48 248 – – – –<br />
Salt-Rock 135 0.22 1495 – – 2575 –<br />
Sand 162 0.20 – – – – –<br />
Sandstone – 0.22 – – – –<br />
Sawdust – 0.5 – – – – –<br />
Shellac 75 0.40 170-180 – – – –<br />
Silica 180 – 3182 – 0.1910 4046 –<br />
Silicon 155 0.176 2600 – – 4149<br />
Silicon Carbide 199 0.23 4082 – – Subl. 3032 –<br />
Sillimanite 202 0.175 3290 – – – –<br />
Silk 84 0.33 – – – – –<br />
Silver 656 0.063 1761 46.8 0.070 3634 –<br />
Snow – 0.5 32 – – – –<br />
Sodium Carbonate 151.5 0.306 1566 – – Dec. –<br />
Sodium Nitrate 140.5 0.231 597 116.8 – 1716 –<br />
Sodium Oxide 142 0.231 Subl. 2327 – – – –<br />
Sodium Sulfate 168 0.21 – – – – –<br />
Solder - 50 Pb 50 Sn 580 0.051 450 23 0.046 – –<br />
- 63 Pb 37 Sn – 0.044 468 14.8 0.041<br />
Steel - 0.3% C 491 0.129 (70-1330°)* *Phase change between 1330 & 1500° requires<br />
0.166 (1500-2500°) additional 80 Btu/lb.<br />
Stone 168 0.20 – – – – –<br />
Sugar - Cane 102 0.30 320 _ – – –<br />
Sulfur 119-130 0.19 235 16.9 0.234 840 652<br />
Sulfuric Acid 115.9 0.239 50.0 – 0.370 – –<br />
Talc – 0.21 – – – –<br />
Tar-Coal 71-81 0.35 – – – – –<br />
Tin 460 0.069 450 25.9 0.0545 4118 –<br />
Titanium 281 0.14 3272 – – – –<br />
Toluene 53.7 – – – 0.40 230.5 150.3<br />
Tungsten 1204 0.034 6098 – – 10652 –<br />
Turpentine 53.7 – – – 0.411 318.8 133.3<br />
Type Metal-Linotype – 0.036 486 21.5 0.036 – –<br />
Type Metal-Stereotype 670 0.036 500 26.2 0.036 – –<br />
Uranium 370 0.028 2071 – – – –<br />
Vanadium 372 0.115 3110 – – 5432 –<br />
Varnish – – – – – 600 –<br />
Water 62.37 0.480 32 144 1.00 212 970.4<br />
Wood 19-56 0.33 – – – – –<br />
Wood’s Metal – 0.041 158 17.2 0.042 – –<br />
Wool 81 0.325 – – – –<br />
Xylene 54.3 – -18 – 0.411 288 147<br />
Zinc 443 0.107 786 47.9 0.146 1706 –<br />
Zinc Oxide 341 0.125 >3272 – – – –<br />
Zircon 293 0.132 4622 – – – –<br />
Zirconia 349 0.103 4919 – – – –<br />
Zirconium 399 0.067 3100 – – 9122 –<br />
T = Transformation Point Subl. = Sublimes Dec. = Decomposes<br />
39
Heat Content, Btu/lb<br />
Heat Content, Btu/lb<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
600<br />
500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
200<br />
100<br />
THERMAL CAPACITIES OF METALS & ALLOYS<br />
Solder<br />
50 Pb/50Sn<br />
40<br />
Babbit<br />
75 Pb/15Sb/10Sn<br />
Alloy 903 Die Cast Zinc<br />
Pure Zinc<br />
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900<br />
Temperature, °F<br />
Pure Aluminum<br />
Aluminum Die Cast Alloy 380.0<br />
Pure Magnesium<br />
Magnesium Casting Alloy AZ91A<br />
Titanium Alloy<br />
Ti-6AI-4V<br />
85-15 Red Brass<br />
Lead<br />
0.3% Carbon<br />
Steel<br />
Pure<br />
Copper<br />
65-35 Yellow Brass<br />
0<br />
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800<br />
Temperature, °F
INDUSTRIAL HEATING OPERATIONS–TEMPERATURE & HEAT REQUIREMENTS<br />
Approximate Heat Content of<br />
Material Operation Temperature, °F Material, Btu/lb*<br />
Aluminum Age 190-470 30-100<br />
Anneal 645-775 130-190<br />
Homogenize 850-1150 175-300<br />
Hot Work (Extrude,<br />
Roll, Forge) 500-950 100-240<br />
Melt 1175-1500 370-550<br />
Solution Heat Treat 820-1025 170-280<br />
Stabilize 435-655 80-160<br />
Stress Relieve 650-775 130-190<br />
Asphalt Melt 350-450 160-220<br />
Babbit Melt 600-1000 60-75<br />
Brass Anneal 800-1450 70-150<br />
Hot Work (Extrude,<br />
Roll, Forge) 1150-1650 100-150<br />
Melt 1930-2370 230-290<br />
Recrystallize 550-700 40-70<br />
Stress Relieve 475 30-40<br />
Bread Bake 300-500 –<br />
Bronze Anneal 800-1650 70-170<br />
Hot Work (Extrude,<br />
Roll, Forge) 1200-1750 100-160<br />
Melt 1600-2350 220-320<br />
Stress Relieve 375-550 30-50<br />
Brick, common Burn 1900-2000 800-950<br />
fireclay Burn 2100-2200 900-1050<br />
Cake Bake 300-350 –<br />
Candy Cook 225-300 –<br />
Cast Iron (Gray) Anneal 1300-1750 290-420<br />
Austenitize (Harden) 1450-1700 330-410<br />
Melt 2800-2900 720-750<br />
Normalize 1600-1700 380-410<br />
Stress Relieve 700-1250 110-280<br />
Temper (Draw) 300-1020 35-175<br />
Cast Iron, Ductile Anneal 1300-1650 290-390<br />
(Nodular Iron) Austenitize (Harden) 1550-1700 360-410<br />
Normalize 1600-1725 380-415<br />
Stress Relieve 950-1250 160-275<br />
Temper (Draw) 800-1300 120-290<br />
Cast Iron (Malleable) Anneal (Malleablize) 1650-1750 290-420<br />
Austenitize (Harden) 1550-1600 360-380<br />
Temper (Draw) 1100-1300 190-290<br />
Cement Calcine 2800-3000 –<br />
China Fire 1900-2650 450-600<br />
Glaze 1500-1900 350-450<br />
Coffee Roast 600-800 –<br />
Cookies Bake 375-450 –<br />
Copper Anneal 500-1200 50-120<br />
Hot Work (Extrude,<br />
Roll, Forge) 1300-1750 130-180<br />
Melt 1970-2100 290-310<br />
Enamel<br />
(Paint) Bake 250-450 –<br />
(Porcelain) Fire 1700-1800 –<br />
*Heat contained in material only. Does not include furnace or oven losses or available<br />
heat correction.<br />
41
INDUSTRIAL HEATING OPERATIONS–TEMPERATURE & HEAT REQUIREMENTS<br />
(Cont’d)<br />
Approximate Heat Content of<br />
Material Operation Temperature, °F Material, Btu/lb*<br />
Frit Smelt 2000-2400 400-550<br />
Glass Melt 2200-2900 400-650<br />
Anneal 1000-1200 –<br />
Gold Melt 2000-2370 125-145<br />
Lacquer Dry 150-200 –<br />
Lead Melt 620-700 18-32<br />
Lime Calcine 2000-2200 –<br />
Magnesium Age 265-625 70-140<br />
Homogenize 200-800 30-190<br />
Hot Work (Extrude,<br />
Roll, Forge) 550-850 110-200<br />
Melt 1150-1550 375-490<br />
Solution Heat Treat 665-1050 150-350<br />
Stress Relieve 300-800 50-200<br />
Meat Smoke 100-150 –<br />
Pie Bake 500 –<br />
Potato Chips Fry 350-400 –<br />
Sand Dry 350-500 60-90<br />
Sand Cores Bake 400-450 70-80<br />
Silver Melt 1800-1900 155-165<br />
Solder Melt 400-500 40-45<br />
Steel Anneal 1150-1650 150-270<br />
(Carbon & Alloy) Austenitize 1320-1650 180-270<br />
Carbonitride 1300-1650 180-270<br />
Carburize 1600-1800 260-300<br />
Cyanide 1400-1600 210-260<br />
Hot Work (Forge,<br />
Roll) 2200-2400 360-400<br />
Nitride 925-1050 110-140<br />
Normalize 1500-1700 240-280<br />
Stress Relieve 450-1350 50-210<br />
Steel (Stainless) Anneal 1150-2050 150-340<br />
Austenitize (Harden) 1700-1950 280-320<br />
Hot Work (Forge,<br />
Roll) 1600-2350 260-390<br />
Stress Relieve 400-2050 30-340<br />
Temper (Draw) 300-1200 25-160<br />
Tin Melt 500-650 70-80<br />
Titanium Age 900-1000 120-140<br />
Anneal 1100-1600 150-250<br />
Hot Work (Roll,<br />
Forge) 1300-1900 180-310<br />
Solution Heat Treat 1550-1750 240-280<br />
Stress Relieve 1000-1200 140-170<br />
Varnish Cook 500-750 –<br />
Zinc Galvanize 850-900 130-140<br />
Melt 800-900 130-150<br />
Hot Work (Extrusion,<br />
Rolling) 200-575 10-55<br />
*Heat contained in material only. Does not include furnace or oven losses or available<br />
heat correction.<br />
42
B<br />
A<br />
CRUCIBLES FOR METAL MELTING – DIMENSIONS & CAPACITIES<br />
C<br />
D<br />
Dimensions, inches Approximate Capacity, lb<br />
A, B, C,<br />
Size Top Bilge Bottom D, Red<br />
Number OD OD OD Height Aluminum Brass Copper Magnesium<br />
20 7 11 ⁄16 8 3 ⁄8 6 1 ⁄8 10 15 ⁄16 20 65 67 13<br />
25 8 3 ⁄16 8 7 ⁄8 6 1 ⁄2 10 15 ⁄16 25 81 84 16<br />
30 8 5 ⁄8 9 5 ⁄16 6 13 ⁄16 11 1 ⁄2 30 97 100 20<br />
35 9 9 3 ⁄4 7 1 ⁄8 12 35 113 117 23<br />
40 9 3 ⁄8 10 1 ⁄8 7 7 ⁄16 12 1 ⁄2 40 129 134 26<br />
45 9 7 ⁄8 10 11 ⁄16 7 13 ⁄16 13 3 ⁄16 45 146 151 29<br />
50 10 1 ⁄4 11 1 ⁄8 8 1 ⁄8 13 3 ⁄4 50 162 167 33<br />
60 10 13 ⁄16 11 11 ⁄16 8 9 ⁄16 14 7 ⁄16 60 194 201 39<br />
70 11 1 ⁄4 12 3 ⁄16 8 15 ⁄16 15 1 ⁄16 70 226 234 46<br />
80 11 11 ⁄16 12 11 ⁄16 9 1 ⁄4 15 5 ⁄8 80 259 268 52<br />
90 12 1 ⁄8 13 1 ⁄8 9 9 ⁄16 16 3 ⁄16 90 291 301 59<br />
100 12 1 ⁄2 13 1 ⁄2 9 7 ⁄8 16 11 ⁄16 100 323 335 65<br />
125 13 14 1 ⁄16 10 5 ⁄16 17 3 ⁄8 125 404 418 81<br />
150 13 3 ⁄4 14 7 ⁄8 10 7 ⁄8 18 3 ⁄8 150 485 502 98<br />
175 14 3 ⁄8 15 9 ⁄16 11 3 ⁄8 19 1 ⁄4 175 566 586 114<br />
200 15 16 1 ⁄4 11 7 ⁄8 20 200 657 669 130<br />
225 15 1 ⁄2 16 13 ⁄16 12 5 ⁄16 20 3 ⁄4 225 728 753 147<br />
250 16 17 5 ⁄16 12 11 ⁄16 21 3 ⁄8 250 808 837 163<br />
275 16 7 ⁄16 17 13 ⁄16 13 22 275 889 921 179<br />
300 16 7 ⁄8 18 1 ⁄4 13 3 ⁄8 22 1 ⁄2 300 970 1004 195<br />
400 18 3 ⁄16 19 11 ⁄16 14 7 ⁄16 24 5 ⁄16 400 1293 1339 261<br />
RADIANT TUBES – SIZING & INPUT DATA<br />
TUBE EXTERNAL SURFACE AREA DATA<br />
Straight Tube<br />
Tube Sq. In. 180° Short Radius Elbow 180° Long Radius Elbow<br />
OD, Per Foot<br />
Inches of Length CL to CL, in. sq. in. CL to CL, in. sq. in.<br />
3 113 6 89 9 133<br />
31 ⁄4 123 6 96 9 144<br />
31 ⁄2 132 6 104 9 155<br />
33 ⁄4 141 6 111 9 167<br />
4 151 8 158 12 237<br />
41 ⁄4 160 8 168 12 252<br />
41 ⁄2 170 8 178 12 267<br />
43 ⁄4 179 8 188 12 281<br />
5 188 10 247 15 370<br />
51 ⁄4 198 10 259 15 389<br />
51 ⁄2 207 10 271 15 407<br />
53 ⁄4 217 10 284 15 426<br />
6 226 12 355 18 533<br />
61 ⁄4 236 12 370 18 555<br />
61 ⁄2 245 12 385 18 577<br />
63 ⁄4 254 12 400 18 600<br />
8 302 16 632 24 947<br />
81 ⁄4 311 16 651 24 977<br />
81 ⁄2 320 16 671 24 1007<br />
Maximum Heat Transfer<br />
Rate, Btu/hr per sq. in. of<br />
External Tube Surface<br />
43<br />
70<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
Maximum Heat Transfer Rates<br />
For Good Service Life of Alloy Tubes<br />
Tube enclosed<br />
on 3 sides<br />
Tube free to radiate on 3 sides<br />
1500 1600 1700 1800 1900<br />
Furnace Temperature, °F
HEAT LOSSES, HEAT STORAGE & COLD FACE<br />
TEMPERATURES – REFRACTORY WALLS<br />
HL Hot Face Temperature, °F<br />
Wall HS<br />
Construction TC 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400<br />
HL 550 705 862 1030 1200 1375 1570 1768<br />
9" Hard Firebrick HS 12,500 15,400 18,400 21,500 24,700 27,950 31,200 34,500<br />
TC 282 320 355 387 418 447 477 505<br />
9" Hard Firebrick + HL 130 168 228 251 296 341 390 447<br />
4 1 ⁄2" 2300° Insulating F.B. HS 22,380 27,700 33,060 38,450 43,930 49,350 55,800 61,920<br />
TC 147 162 188 195 211 227 242 260<br />
9" Hard Firebrick + HL 111 128 155 185 209 244 282 325<br />
4 1 ⁄2" 2000° Insulating F.B. + HS 23,750 29,650 35,640 41,940 48,420 54,890 61,410 68,120<br />
2" Block Insulation TC 138 144 156 169 179 193 205 218<br />
HL 185 237 300 365 440 521 – –<br />
4 1 ⁄2" 2000° Insulating F.B. HS 1180 1450 1750 2075 2400 2720 – –<br />
TC 170 190 211 230 253 274 – –<br />
HL 95 124 159 189 225 266 – –<br />
9" 2000° Insulating F.B. HS 2260 2840 3420 4000 4620 5240 – –<br />
TC 132 146 160 172 187 200 – –<br />
HL 142 178 218 264 312 362 416 474<br />
9" 2800° Insulating F.B. HS 3170 3970 4790 5630 6480 7360 8230 9160<br />
TC 151 166 183 200 217 234 250 267<br />
9" 2800° Insulating F.B. + HL 115 140 167 197 232 272 307 347<br />
4 1 ⁄2" 2000° Insulating F.B. + HS 14,860 17,340 19,910 22,508 24,908 28,360 31,531 34,664<br />
TC 142 149 161 164 183 202 215 228<br />
9" 2800° Insulating F.B. + HL 71 91 112 134 154 184 204 230<br />
4 1 ⁄2" 2000° Insulating F.B. + HS 10,670 14,836 19,220 23,771 27,491 31,654 35,078 38,252<br />
2" Block Insulation TC 119 127 136 147 156 168 177 187<br />
9" 2800° Insulating F.B. + HL 114 142 172 201 232 264 298 333<br />
3" Block Insulation HS 7730 9765 11,760 13,810 15,880 17,973 20,084 22,209<br />
TC 139 150 163 175 188 200 212 224<br />
HL 575 730 897 1075 1300 1525 1775 2030<br />
4 1 ⁄2" Dense Castable HS 5270 9520 11,310 13,060 14,820 16,120 18,300 20,030<br />
TC 282 319 356 393 430 467 504 541<br />
HL 315 410 500 627 694 844 947 1134<br />
9" Dense Castable HS 13,120 16,240 19,960 23,673 26,355 29,212 32,019 35,861<br />
TC 218 248 280 305 321 352 377 406<br />
HL 390 490 610 730 860 1000 1155 1332<br />
9" Plastic HS 17,825 21,735 25,640 29,610 33,345 37,125 41,040 44,415<br />
TC 232 261 290 319 348 378 407 436<br />
8" Ceramic Fiber – HL 27 45 64 86 114 146 178 216<br />
Stacked Strips, 8 #/cu ft HS 850 1018 1190 1358 1528 1692 1823 2039<br />
Density TC 95 105 115 126 138 152 165 180<br />
10" Ceramic Fiber – HL 16 35 54 76 94 120 142 172<br />
Stacked Strips, 8 #/cu ft HS 1054 1262 1473 1683 1895 2098 2262 2528<br />
Density TC 92 101 110 119 129 140 151 163<br />
12" Ceramic Fiber – HL 13 27 43 60 79 98 118 143<br />
Stacked Strips, 8 #/cu ft HS 1265 1517 1775 2033 2276 2518 2714 3034<br />
Density TC 91 97 104 112 121 130 140 151<br />
9" Hard Firebrick + 3" HL 177 240 309 383 463 642 721 800<br />
Ceramic Fiber Veneer, HS 1920 3680 5430 7178 9219 11,200 12,503 14,891<br />
8 #/cu ft Density TC 170 191 214 235 259 305 320 341<br />
9" 2800° Insulating F.B. + HL 102 125 151 183 227 274 325 408<br />
3" Ceramic Fiber Veneer, HS 1150 2012 2910 3795 4576 5402 6272 7450<br />
8 #/cu ft Density TC 134 143 153 167 183 200 217 242<br />
9" Dense Castable + HL 170 221 273 329 381 487 559 635<br />
3" Ceramic Fiber Veneer, HS 1910 3603 5340 7083 8899 10,576 12,136 14,149<br />
8 #/cu ft Density TC 164 183 202 222 240 270 289 307<br />
HL = Heat Loss, Btu/hr – sq ft HS = Heat Storage, Btu/sq ft TC = Cold Face Temperature, °F<br />
Note:These values are typical for the materials listed and are sufficiently accurate for estimating<br />
purposes. Values for specific brands of refractories may differ.<br />
44
Btu/Hr Required Per SCFM of Process Stream<br />
Btu/Hr Required Per SCFM of Process Stream<br />
2000<br />
1500<br />
1000<br />
500<br />
3500<br />
3000<br />
2500<br />
2000<br />
1500<br />
1000<br />
AIR HEATING & FUME INCINERATION<br />
HEAT REQUIREMENTS USING “RAW GAS” BURNERS<br />
T2 = 1500°F Stream Outlet Temperature<br />
1300°F<br />
1200°F<br />
1100°F<br />
1000°F<br />
900°F<br />
700°F<br />
600°F<br />
800°F<br />
1400°F<br />
0<br />
0 200 400 600 800 1000<br />
500<br />
T1<br />
T 1 , Process Stream Inlet Temperature, °F<br />
700°F<br />
600°F<br />
0<br />
0 200 400 600 800 1000<br />
T1<br />
T2 = 1500°F Stream Outlet Temperature<br />
900°F<br />
800°F<br />
1100°F<br />
1000°F<br />
1300°F<br />
1200°F<br />
1400°F<br />
T 1 , Process Stream Inlet Temperature, °F<br />
T2<br />
T2<br />
45<br />
These curves show the heat input required per<br />
scfm of process air stream where the burner derives<br />
its combustion air from the stream. They can also be<br />
used to calculate heat requirements for direct-fired<br />
fume incinerators, provided:<br />
1. Oxygen content of the fume stream is at least 20%,<br />
and<br />
2. Combustible solvents in the fume stream make a<br />
negligible contribution to the heat input.<br />
The curves are calculated from the relationship.<br />
Btu/hr = scfm x 1.1 x (T 2-T 1)<br />
available heat, expressed as a decimal<br />
For high stream inlet and outlet temperatures, they<br />
produce more accurate results than the traditional relationship<br />
Btu/hr = scfm x 1.1 x (T 2-T 1),<br />
which does not take variations of available heat into<br />
account.<br />
If the application requires a burner with a separate<br />
combustion air source, use the curves below.<br />
AIR HEATING & FUME INCINERATION<br />
HEAT REQUIREMENTS USING BURNERS WITH SEPARATE<br />
COMBUSTION AIR SOURCES<br />
These curves show the heat input required per scfm<br />
of process air stream using a burner with a separate<br />
combustion air source. They are calculated from the<br />
relationship:<br />
Btu/hr = scfm x 1.1 x (T 2-T 1)<br />
available heat, expressed as a decimal<br />
See above for heat requirements of systems using a<br />
“raw gas” burner.
FUME INCERATION – SELECTION & SIZING GUIDELINES<br />
I. Process Information Required<br />
A. Fume stream flow rate, scfm or acfm. (If acfm,<br />
specify temperature at which flow is measured.)<br />
Maximum and minimum flow rates are required.<br />
B. Fume stream temperature at inlet to burner at<br />
maximum and minimum flow rates.<br />
C. Oxygen content of fume stream.<br />
D. Amount of particulates or other non-volatile<br />
matter in fume stream.<br />
E. Incineration temperature required, typically:<br />
600-900°F for catalytic incinerators<br />
1200-1500°F for thermal incinerators.<br />
F. Residence time required in combustion chamber,<br />
typically, 0.3 to 0.7 seconds.<br />
II. Burner Type Selection<br />
Two basic types of burners are used to fire fume incinerators:<br />
raw gas burners, which obtain their combustion<br />
air from the incoming fume stream, and fresh air burners,<br />
which obtain theirs from an external source.<br />
Raw gas burners permit higher fuel efficiency, but they<br />
can’t be used under as wide a variety of operating conditions.<br />
The table below provides some general guidelines<br />
for burner selection.<br />
Fresh Air<br />
Selection Factor Raw Gas Burner Burner<br />
Oxygen content of 18-21% ok ok<br />
fume stream 13-18% maybe–check mfr. ok<br />
below 13% no ok<br />
Fume stream Up to 1100°F Depends on burner– ok<br />
temperature check mfr.<br />
entering burner Over 1100°F no ok<br />
Particulates or None<br />
other non-vola- Low<br />
tiles in stream Heavy<br />
ok<br />
probably ok<br />
Depends on burner–<br />
ok<br />
ok<br />
ok<br />
check mfr.<br />
III. Calculating Burner Input<br />
A. For raw gas burners, use the chart on the top of page<br />
45.<br />
B. For fresh air burners use the chart on the bottom of<br />
page 45.<br />
These charts give Btu/hr required per scfm of<br />
fume stream. Multiply this figure by the fume<br />
stream flow rate, in scfm, to determine total burner<br />
heat input.<br />
C. If the burner will take part of its combustion air<br />
from the fume stream and the rest from an outside<br />
source, heat input can be closely estimated with<br />
this method:<br />
From page 45, deteremine Btu/hr required with<br />
a raw gas burner. Call this Br.<br />
From page 45, deteremine Btu/hr required with<br />
a 100% fresh air burner. Call this Bf.<br />
Btu/hr (partial fresh air) =<br />
Br + % fresh combustion air IV. Sizing Profile Plates<br />
If the burner is the type that is placed inside the<br />
fume duct, it has to be surrounded with a profile plate.<br />
Fumes are forced to pass through the gap between the<br />
profile plate and burner, ensuring that they mix completely<br />
with the burner flame.<br />
To size the profile gap, you need to know:<br />
1.Temperature of the fume stream passing over the<br />
burner,<br />
2.Fume stream pressure drop required across the profile<br />
gap (see burner manufacturer’s catalog data).<br />
Refer to the chart on page 17. Locate the required<br />
pressure drop at the bottom of the chart, then read up<br />
to the appropriate temperature curve and left to the<br />
stream velocity. Divide this velocity into the fume<br />
stream flow expressed in acfm:<br />
Profile gap, sq ft = Fume stream flow, acfm<br />
Fume stream velocity, ft/min<br />
For best results, the profile gap must be uniform<br />
width around the perimeter of the burner. Check manufacturer’s<br />
literature for specific recommendations on<br />
design and location of profile plates.<br />
{<br />
{<br />
V.<br />
NOTE: The air diffuser openings in some types of<br />
burners are considered part of the profile area. If so,<br />
deduct the area of these openings from the total profile<br />
area. The result will be the area of the gap around<br />
the burner.<br />
Sizing Downstream Combustion Chamber<br />
A. Chamber Cross-sectional area (A), Good practice<br />
requires no great than 30 ft/sec velocity in the com-<br />
{<br />
bustion chamber, so<br />
A, sq ft = acfm of heated fume stream<br />
1800<br />
B. Combustion chamber length (L) is dictated by<br />
(Bf–Br)<br />
100<br />
the required residence time.<br />
L, feet = Stream velocity x residence time.<br />
If, for example, velocity is 30 ft/sec, and residence<br />
time is 0.5 seconds, L is 15 feet.<br />
WARNING! Incineration of fume streams containing<br />
compounds of chlorine, fluorine, or sulfur will produce<br />
combustion products which may be toxic or corrosive, or<br />
both. Consult with environmental authorities before considering<br />
fume incineration.<br />
46
LIQUID HEATING – BURNER SIZING GUIDELINES<br />
I. Tank Heating<br />
To determine the immersion burner size for heating a<br />
liquid tank, conduct two heat balances–one for heatup<br />
requirements, the other for steady-state operating<br />
requirements. Use the larger of the two Btu inputs<br />
obtained from these calculations.<br />
A. Heat Balance – Heatup Requirements<br />
1.Heat to water<br />
Btu/hr = Lb water x temperature rise, °F<br />
heatup time required, hr<br />
or<br />
Btu/hr = 8.3 x gallons water x temperature rise, °F<br />
heatup time required, hr<br />
or<br />
Btu/hr = 62.4 x cu ft water x temperature rise, °F<br />
heatup time required, hr<br />
Common practice allows the following heatup<br />
times for various size tanks:<br />
Tank Capacity Heatup<br />
Gallons Cu Ft Time, hr<br />
0-375 0-50 2<br />
375-750 50-100 4<br />
750-1500 100-200 6<br />
Over 1500 Over 200 8<br />
2.Surface losses – evaporation & radiation<br />
Btu/hr = Exposed bath surface x heat loss<br />
from Table 1.<br />
3.Tank wall losses<br />
Btu/hr = Total sq ft of tank walls & bottom x wall<br />
loss from Table 1.<br />
4.Tank heat storage<br />
Btu/hr =<br />
Total sq ft, tank walls & bottom x storage, Table 1.<br />
heatup time required, hr<br />
5.Total heatup requirements<br />
Heat to water<br />
+ Surface losses<br />
+ Tank wall losses<br />
+ Tank heat storage<br />
= Total heatup requirement<br />
47<br />
B. Heat Balance – Steady State Heat Requirements<br />
1.Heat to workload<br />
Btu/hr =<br />
Lb of work processed x<br />
hr<br />
specific heat x temperature rise, °F<br />
(Work weight must include all baskets & fixtures)<br />
Specific heat of steel is 0.14 Btu/lb - °F.<br />
See pages 37 to 39 for other materials.<br />
2.Surface losses – evaporation & radiation<br />
Same as Step A.2.<br />
3.Tank wall losses<br />
Same as Step A.3.<br />
4.Heat to makeup water<br />
Btu/hr =<br />
makeup rate, gal/hr x 8.3 x temperature rise, °F<br />
5.Total steady state heat requirement<br />
Heat to workload<br />
+ Surface losses<br />
+ Tank wall losses<br />
+ Heat to makeup water<br />
= Total steady state requirement<br />
C. Compare the heat requirements calculated in<br />
Steps A.5 and B.5. Select the larger of the two .<br />
(This is the net hourly input to the tank.)<br />
D. Gross Heat Input (Burner Firing Rate)<br />
Gross Input, Btu/hr = Net Input from A.5 or B.5 x 100<br />
% Efficiency required<br />
Efficiency is a function of immersion tube<br />
length and burner firing rate. 70% is a commonly<br />
used efficiency rating.<br />
E. Immersion Tube Sizing<br />
See burner manufacturer’s product literature<br />
for tube sizing recommendations.<br />
Table 1. Tank losses & storage<br />
Surface Losses, Wall Losses, Btu/sq ft-hr Heat Storage,<br />
Liquid Btu/sq ft-hr Btu/sq ft<br />
Temperature, Evapor- Radia- Insulation Thickness Steel Thickness<br />
°F ation* tion Total* None 1" 2" 3" 1/8" 1/4"<br />
90 80 50 130 50 12 6 4 21 42<br />
100 160 70 230 70 15 8 6 28 56<br />
110 240 90 330 90 19 10 7 35 70<br />
120 360 110 470 110 23 12 9 42 84<br />
130 480 135 615 135 27 14 10 49 98<br />
140 660 160 820 160 31 16 12 56 112<br />
150 860 180 1040 180 34 18 13 63 126<br />
160 1100 210 1310 210 38 21 15 70 140<br />
170 1380 235 1615 235 42 23 16 77 154<br />
180 1740 260 2000 260 46 25 17 84 168<br />
190 2160 290 2450 290 50 27 19 91 182<br />
200 2680 320 3000 320 53 29 20 98 196<br />
210 3240 360 3590 360 57 31 22 105 210<br />
220 4000 420 4420 380 62 33 23 112 224<br />
250 — 510 — 510 70 40 25 133 266<br />
275 — 600 — 600 81 45 29 151 301<br />
300 — 705 — 705 92 51 33 168 336<br />
325 — 850 — 850 103 57 36 186 371<br />
350 — 990 — 990 114 63 40 203 406<br />
400 — 1335 — 1335 138 75 49 238 476<br />
*Water or water-based solutions only.
II. Spray Washers<br />
Three methods are presented for calculating spray<br />
washer heat requirements. The first is the most accurate,<br />
making use of detailed heat loss factors. The<br />
other two are rule-of-thumb methods. While not as<br />
accurate as method A, they are useful for quickly<br />
estimating burner inputs.<br />
A. Heat Loss Method<br />
1.Data required:<br />
Gpm capacity of spray nozzles<br />
Height & width of washer housing (hood)<br />
Height & width of opening through which<br />
work passes<br />
Liquid pressure head<br />
Liquid temperature<br />
Location of stage in washer<br />
2.Heat Loss factors<br />
From Table 2, find the heat loss factors for<br />
housing height opening width<br />
housing width liquid pressure<br />
opening height liquid temperature<br />
Add all these factors together to get the combined<br />
factor, f.<br />
3.Stage location multiplier, M<br />
Location Multiplier<br />
Entrance Stage 1.75<br />
Intermediate Stage 1.00<br />
After a Cold Rinse 1.25<br />
Exist Stage 1.50<br />
4.Calculation of Gross Burner Input<br />
Btu/hr = Gpm x 500 x f x M<br />
This method yields gross burner input because<br />
an immersion tube efficiency of 70% has<br />
already been assumed in the heat loss factors.<br />
Table 2. Spray Washer Heat Loss Factors<br />
Housing Opening Liquid<br />
Wide High Wide High Press. Temp.<br />
Ft. f Ft. f Ft. f Ft. f PSIG f °F f<br />
2 .7 1 .8 140 .4<br />
3 .8 1 .3 2 .9 1 .5 5 .4 145 .5<br />
4 .9 2 .4 3 1.0 2 .6 7.5 .5 150 .6<br />
5 1.0 3 .5 4 1.1 3 .7 10 .6 155 .7<br />
6 1.1 4 .6 5 1.2 4 .8 12.5 .7 160 .8<br />
7 1.2 5 .7 6 1.3 5 .9 15 .8 165 .9<br />
8 1.3 6 .8 7 1.4 6 1.0 17.5 .9 170 1.0<br />
9 1.4 7 .9 8 1.5 7 1.1 20 1.0 175 1.3<br />
10 1.5 8 1.0 9 1.6 8 1.3 22.5 1.2 180 1.6<br />
11 1.6 9 1.1 10 1.7 9 1.5 30 1.4 185 1.9<br />
12 1.7 10 1.2 11 1.8 10 1.7 32.5 1.6 190 2.2<br />
13 1.8 11 1.3 12 1.9 11 1.9 35 1.8<br />
14 1.9 12 1.4 13 2.0 12 2.1 37.5 2.0<br />
15 2.0 13 1.5 14 2.1 13 2.3 40 2.2<br />
16 2.1 14 1.6 15 2.2 14 2.5 50 2.6<br />
17 2.2 100 3.5<br />
48<br />
B. Temperature Drop Rule of Thumb<br />
1.Data required:<br />
Gpm capacity of spray nozzles<br />
Temperature of liquid<br />
Tube efficiency (usually 70%)<br />
2.Approximate temperature drop of water. Table<br />
3 lists the approximate loss in water temperature<br />
as it is sprayed onto the workload.<br />
Table 3. Water Temperature Drop<br />
Water Temperature<br />
Temperature, °F Drop, °F<br />
150 5<br />
160 6<br />
170 7<br />
180 8<br />
190 9<br />
200 10<br />
3.Calculation of gross burner input.<br />
Btu/hr = Gpm x 500 x Temp Drop x 100<br />
% Efficiency<br />
4.Tank sizing<br />
Tank capacity = 3 x Gpm spray capacity<br />
C. Quick Method Rule of Thumb<br />
Btu/hr gross burner input =<br />
4000 x Gpm sprayed @ 30 psi x 100<br />
% Efficiency<br />
Capacities of spray nozzles are listed in Table 4.<br />
Table 4. Capacities of Spray Nozzles<br />
PSI Ft. Hd.<br />
Gallons per minute of water through<br />
a nozzle diameter of:<br />
Press (Approx.) 1/4" 5/16" 3/8" 7/16" 1/2" 5/8" 3/4"<br />
5 11.5 3.3 5.2 7.4 10.2 13.3 20.8 30.0<br />
10 23.0 4.7 7.3 10.4 14.3 18.7 29.3 42.3<br />
15 35.0 5.8 9.1 12.9 17.7 23.2 36.2 52.3<br />
20 46.5 6.7 10.5 14.8 20.7 26.7 41.8 60.5<br />
25 57.5 7.4 11.7 16.6 22.7 29.7 46.8 67.0<br />
30 68.5 8.1 12.9 18.2 24.8 32.4 50.7 73.0<br />
35 81.0 8.8 13.8 19.7 27.0 35.2 55.1 79.5<br />
40 92.5 9.4 14.8 21.3 28.8 37.7 58.9 85.0<br />
45 104.0 10.0 15.7 22.4 30.6 39.9 65.1 90.0<br />
50 115.0 10.5 16.5 23.5 32.1 42.0 65.7 94.6<br />
55 126.5 11.0 17.3 24.7 33.7 44.1 68.9 99.5<br />
60 138.0 11.0 18.1 25.8 35.2 46.1 72.1 104.0<br />
65 150.0 12.0 18.8 26.9 36.7 48.0 75.0 108.2<br />
70 162.0 12.4 19.6 27.9 38.1 49.7 77.9 112.0<br />
75 172.0 12.9 20.2 28.9 39.4 51.5 80.6 116.0<br />
80 184.5 13.3 20.9 29.9 40.7 53.3 83.1 119.9<br />
85 195.0 13.7 21.5 30.7 41.8 54.7 85.5 123.5<br />
90 205.0 14.0 22.0 31.4 42.9 56.2 87.7 126.7<br />
95 214.5 14.4 22.6 32.1 43.9 57.5 89.8 129.5<br />
100 224.0 14.6 23.1 32.8 44.8 58.7 91.7 132.0<br />
Above values are based on an orifice discharge coefficient of .80<br />
ORIFICE FLOW EQUATION:<br />
Q = 19.65 C D 2 H<br />
WHERE:<br />
Q = Gallons per minute<br />
D = Diameter of orifice in inches<br />
H = Pressure drop across orifice in feet head<br />
C = Orifice discharge coefficient
Heat Transfer Rate, Btu/Sq Ft x 1000<br />
350<br />
300<br />
250<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
BLACK BODY RADIATION<br />
1000°F 60°F<br />
1500°F<br />
0<br />
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500<br />
Source (Hotter) Temperature, °F<br />
49<br />
Receiver (Colder) Temperature<br />
1800°F<br />
2000°F<br />
2200°F<br />
These curves are plotted from the relationship<br />
Q = AK (T1 4-T 4) 2 (page 8.2)<br />
1<br />
+<br />
1 - 1<br />
P 1<br />
P 2<br />
where P 1 & P 2 equal 1, that is, the heat source and receiver both<br />
have emissivities of 1.0, and they are arranged so there is no barrier<br />
to heat transfer between them.<br />
2400°F<br />
2600°F<br />
THERMOCOUPLE DATA<br />
ANSI Calibration Code B E J K R S T<br />
Useful Temp. Range, °F 1600-3100 32-1600 400-1400 700-2300 1800-2700 1800-2700 -300 + 700<br />
Positive Element Pt-30%Rh* Chromel** Iron Chromel** Pt-13%Rh* Pt-10%Rh* Copper<br />
Negative Element<br />
Color Coding<br />
Pt-6%Rh* Constantan Constantan Alumel** Pt* Pt* Constantan<br />
Positive Element Gray Purple White Yellow Black Black Blue<br />
Negative Element Red Red Red Red Red Red Red<br />
Outer Insulation on Purple or Black or Yellow or Blue or<br />
Duplex Wire Gray Brown/Purple Brown/Black Brown/Yellow Green Green Brown/Blue<br />
Plugs & Jacks<br />
*Pt = Platinum, Rh = Rhodium<br />
**Trademarks - Hoskins Mfg. Co.<br />
Gray Purple Black Yellow Green Green Blue<br />
How to Deteremine Thermocouple Polarity if Wire Identification is Missing:<br />
Types B, R, and S: Gently flex the ends of both wires. The stiffer wire is the positive element.<br />
Type K: Negative element is slightly magnetic.<br />
Type J: Positive element is magnetic.<br />
Type T: Positive element has characteristic pinkish-orange color of copper.<br />
2800°F<br />
3000°F<br />
3200°F
ORTON STANDARD PYROMETRIC CONES<br />
TEMPERATURE EQUIVALENTS<br />
Cone Type Self- Self- Cone Type<br />
Heating Rate Large Regular Large Iron Free Supporting Regular Supporting Iron Free Small Regular Small PCE Heating Rate<br />
Cone number 108°F/hr 270°F/hr 108°F/hr 270°F/hr 108°F/hr 270°F/hr 108°F/hr 270°F/hr 540°F/hr 270°F/hr Cone number<br />
022 1074 1092 1087 1094 1157 022<br />
021 1105 1132 1112 1143 1195 021<br />
020 1148 1173 1159 1180 1227 020<br />
019 1240 1265 1243 1267 1314 019<br />
018 1306 1337 1314 1341 1391 018<br />
017 1348 1386 1353 1391 1445 017<br />
016 1407 1443 1411 1445 1517* 016<br />
015 1449 1485 1452 1488 1549* 015<br />
014 1485 1528 1488 1531 1616 014<br />
013 1539 1578 1542 1582 1638 013<br />
012 1571 1587 1575 1591 1652 012<br />
011 1603 1623 1607 1627 1684 011<br />
010 1629* 1641* 1623 1656 1632 1645 1627 1659 1686* 010<br />
09 1679* 1693* 1683 1720 1683 1697 1686 1724 1751* 09<br />
08 1733* 1751* 1733 1773 1737 1755 1735 1774 1801* 08<br />
07 1783* 1803* 1778 1816 1787 1807 1780 1818 1846* 07<br />
06 1816* 1830* 1816 1843 1819 1834 1816 1845 1873* 06<br />
05 1/2 1852 1873 1852 1886 1855 1877 1854 1888 1908 05 1/2<br />
05 1888* 1915* 1890 1929 1891 1918 1899 1931 1944* 05<br />
04 1922* 1940* 1940 1967 1926 1944 1942 1969 2008* 04<br />
03 1987* 2014* 1989 2007 1990 2017 1990 2010 2068* 03<br />
02 2014* 2048* 2016 2050 2017 2052 2021 2052 2098* 02<br />
01 2043* 2079* 2052 2088 2046 2082 2053 2089 2152* 01<br />
1 2077* 2109* 2079 2111 2080 2113 2082 2115 2154* 1<br />
2 2088* 2124* Not Manufactured 2091 2127 Not Manufactured 2154* 2<br />
3 2106* 2134* 2104 2136 2109 2138 2109 2140 2185* 3<br />
4 2134* 2167* 2142 2169 2208* 4<br />
5 2151* 2185* 2165 2199 2230* 5<br />
6 2194* 2232* 2199 2232 2291* 6<br />
7 2219* 2264* 2228 2273 2307* 7<br />
8 2257* 2305* 2273 2314 2372* 8<br />
9 2300* 2336* 2300 2336 2403* 9<br />
10 2345* 2381* 2345 2381 2426* 10<br />
11 2361* 2399* 2361 2399 2437* 11<br />
12 2383* 2419* 2383 2419 2471* 2439* 12<br />
13 2410* 2455* 2428 2458 2460 2460* 13<br />
13 1/2 Not Manufactured 2466 2493 Not Manufactured 13 1/2<br />
14 2530* 2491* 2489 2523 2548 2548* 14<br />
14 1/2 Not Manufactured 2527 2568 Not Manufactured 14 1/2<br />
15 2595* 2608* 2583 2602 2606 2606* 15<br />
15 1/2 Not Manufactured 2617 2633 Not Manufactured 15 1/2<br />
16 2651* 2683* 2655 2687 2716 2716* 16<br />
17 2691* 2705* 2694 2709 2754 2754* 17<br />
18 2732* 2743* 2736 2746 2772 2772* 18<br />
19 2768* 2782* 2772 2786 2806 2806* 19<br />
20 2808* 2820* 2811 2824 2847 2847* 20<br />
21 2847* 2856* 2851 2860 2883* 21<br />
23 2887* 2894* 2890 2898 2921* 23<br />
26 2892* 2921* 2950* 26<br />
27 2937* 2961* 2984* 27<br />
28 2937* 2971* 2995* 28<br />
29 2955* 2993* 3018* 29<br />
30 2977* 3009* 3029* 30<br />
31 3022* 3054* 3061* 31<br />
31 1/2 ND ND 3090* 31 1/2<br />
32 3103* 3123* 3123* 32<br />
32 1/2 3124* 3146* 3135* 32 1/2<br />
33 3150* 3166* 3169* 33<br />
34 3195* 3198* 3205* 34<br />
35 3243* 3243* 3245* 35<br />
36 3268* 3265* 3279* 36<br />
37 ND ND 3308 37<br />
38 ND ND 3362 38<br />
39 ND ND 3389 39<br />
40 ND ND 3425 40<br />
41 ND ND 3578 41<br />
42 ND ND 3659 42<br />
The temperature equivalent tables are designed to be a guide for the selection of cones to use during firing. The temperature listed may only have a relative value to<br />
the user. However, the values do provide a good starting point and once the proper cones are determined for a particular firing condition, excellent firing control can<br />
be maintained. NOTES: ND = Not determined *Temperature equivalents as determined by the National Bureau of Standards by H.P. Beerman (See Journal of the<br />
American Ceramic Society Volume 39, 1956) Large cones at 2 inch mounting height, Small & PCE cones at 15/16 inch.<br />
1. The temperature equivalents in this table apply only to Orton Standard Pyrometric Cones, heated at the rate indicated in air atmosphere.<br />
2. The rates of heating shown at the head of each column of temperature equivalents were maintained during the last several hundred degrees of temperature rise.<br />
3. The temperature equivalents are not necessarily those at which cones will deform under firing conditions different from those under which the calibration determination<br />
were made.<br />
4. For reproducible results, care should be taken to insure that the cones are set in a plaque with the bending face at the correct angle of 8° from the vertical with the<br />
cone tips at a uniform height above the plaque.<br />
©1986 The Edward Orton Jr. Ceramic Foundation. Reprinted with permission.<br />
50
CHAPTER 8 – COMBUSTION DATA<br />
AVAILABLE HEAT CHARTS<br />
Available heat for Birmingham Natural Gas (1002 Btu/cu ft, 0.60 sp gr) vs. % Excess Air and Combustion Air Temperature<br />
(at 10% excess air).<br />
% Available Heat (Higher Heating Value)<br />
90<br />
80<br />
70<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
250% XS AIR<br />
300% XS AIR<br />
350% XS AIR<br />
60°F<br />
10% Excess Air (preheated)<br />
200% XS AIR<br />
150% XS AIR<br />
0<br />
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500<br />
Flue Gas Exit Temperature °F<br />
AVAILABLE HEAT FOR VARIOUS FUEL GASES<br />
These curves assume 0% excess air. The excess air curves above for Birmingham Natural Gas can be used for butane,<br />
propane, natural, mixed, coke oven, & carbureted water gas without more than 5% error in the available heat.<br />
BUTANE 3200 BTU<br />
PROPANE 2500 BTU<br />
NATURAL GAS 1232 BTU<br />
NATURAL GAS 1050 BTU<br />
NATURAL GAS 967 BTU<br />
MIXED GAS 800 BTU<br />
COKE OVEN GAS 600 BTU<br />
CARBURETED WATER GAS 534 BTU<br />
COKE OVEN GAS 490 BTU<br />
BLUE WATER GAS 310 BTU<br />
PRODUCER GAS 157 BTU<br />
PRODUCER GAS 116 BTU<br />
Copyright 1983, GTE Products Corp., Towanda, PA 18848 USA<br />
Used by Permission<br />
100% XS AIR<br />
51<br />
50% XS AIR<br />
1400°F<br />
1200°F<br />
1000°F<br />
800°F<br />
400°F<br />
0% XS AIR<br />
25% XS AIR<br />
200 600 1000 1400 1800 2200 2600 3000 3400 3800 0<br />
Flue Gas Temperature °F<br />
10% XS AIR<br />
2400<br />
2200<br />
2000<br />
1800<br />
1600<br />
1400<br />
1200<br />
1000<br />
800<br />
600<br />
400<br />
200<br />
Available Heat Btu/Cu. Ft.
% Flue Gas Constituent<br />
16<br />
14<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
% CO 2 - #6 OIL<br />
FLUE GAS ANALYSIS CHART<br />
% CO 2 - #2 OIL<br />
% CO 2 - PROPANE<br />
% O 2 - DRY SAMPLE<br />
52<br />
% O 2 - SATURATED SAMPLE<br />
% CO 2 - NATURAL GAS<br />
0<br />
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200<br />
Oxygen curves are plotted for 1002 Btu/cu ft Birmingham<br />
natural gas. These curves can be used for all common fuel<br />
gases and fuel oils with no more than 0.2% error in oxygen<br />
content.<br />
Use the “O 2 – dry sample” curve with flue gas analyzers<br />
that use dryers or condensers to remove water from the flue<br />
THEORETICAL FLAME TIP<br />
TEMPERATURE VS. EXCESS AIR<br />
The maximum theoretical temperature of combustion gases<br />
at the tip of a flame decreases with increasing amounts of<br />
excess air. The curve bleow shows this relationship for natural<br />
gas completely burned in 60°F combustion air, but is reaonsably<br />
accurate for most other common hydrocarbon fuels.<br />
Maximum Theoretical Temperature<br />
of Products of Combustion (°F)<br />
3200<br />
3000<br />
2500<br />
2000<br />
1500<br />
1000<br />
500<br />
% Excess Air<br />
0<br />
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800<br />
% Excess Air in Flue Gas<br />
gas sample. For analyzers which add water to produce a saturated<br />
sample, use the “O 2 – saturated sample” curve.<br />
% CO 2 curves are based on typical propane and fuel oil<br />
anlyses. If the fuel composition differs, actual CO 2 curves<br />
may vary slightly from those shown.<br />
HEAT TRANSFER RELATIONSHIPS<br />
Conduction<br />
Q = kA (t1-t2) L<br />
Convection<br />
Q = fA (t1-t2) Radiation<br />
Q = AK (T1 4-T 4) 2<br />
1 + 1 - 1<br />
P1 P2 Q =heat transferred, Btu/hr<br />
A =surface area across which heat is<br />
being transferred, sq. ft.<br />
t 1 =temperature of heat source, °F<br />
t 2 =temperature of heat receiver, °F<br />
L =thickness of object through which heat<br />
is conducted<br />
k =conductivity of material, Btu-ft<br />
hr-sq ft-°F<br />
f =convection film coefficient, Btu-ft<br />
hr-sq ft-°F<br />
K =Stefan-Boltzmann constant,<br />
=.1724 x 10 -8 Btu/sq ft-hr-(°R) 4<br />
P 1 =emissivity of heat source<br />
P 2 =emissivity of heat receiver<br />
T 1 =temperature of heat source, °R<br />
T 2 =temperature of heat receiver, °R<br />
(°R = °F + 460)
Furnacr Thermal Head or Draft, "wc<br />
Due to Gas Buoyancy<br />
.20<br />
.15<br />
.10<br />
.05<br />
THERMAL HEAD & COLD AIR INFILTRATION INTO FURNACES<br />
Furnace<br />
Height Above<br />
Hearth<br />
16'<br />
14'<br />
12'<br />
10'<br />
8'<br />
6'<br />
4'<br />
0<br />
0 500 1000 1500 2000 100 200 300 400 500<br />
Furnace<br />
Temperature °F<br />
Flue Cross-Sectional Area, Sq. In.<br />
Per 1000 SCFH of Flue Gases<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
Air Infiltration<br />
SCFH/ Sq. In.<br />
1<br />
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20 30 40 50<br />
These curves predict the flue area required per 1000 scfh of<br />
flue gases, based on the average temperature of those gases<br />
and the height of the furnace stack. Flue openings are assumed<br />
to be simple orifices with a discharge coefficient of 0.6, and<br />
all pressure drop across those orifices is provided by the thermal<br />
head of the flue gases.<br />
This method is conservative – it will produce generously<br />
sized flues.<br />
FURNACE FLUE SIZING<br />
Stack Height, Ft, Above Furnace Hearth<br />
53<br />
The natural buoyancy of heated gases causes them to rise<br />
and collect under the roof of a furnace or oven. This creates<br />
a natural pressure differential, called thermal head or draft,<br />
which tends to pull cold air in through furnace leaks on topflued<br />
furnaces. These leaks are most pronounced at low fire,<br />
when burner combustion gas flow is insufficient to replace<br />
furnace gases drawn out by thermal head.<br />
This graph can be used to predict thermal head and cold<br />
air infiltration.<br />
Example: Determine thermal head and cold air infiltration<br />
in a 10' tall furnace operating at 1600°F.<br />
Solution: Read up from 1600°F furnace temperature to the<br />
intersection of the 10' curve. Read to the left to find thermal<br />
head, 0.08" w.c. To determine air infiltration, read right to<br />
the infiltration curve and then down to the infiltration rate,<br />
280 scfh per square inch.<br />
2500°F<br />
1500°F<br />
500°F<br />
Average<br />
Flue Gas<br />
Temp.<br />
Refer to Page 23 for volumes of combustion products for<br />
various fuels. Remember that if the combustion system is to<br />
be operated with excess air, the volume of combustion products<br />
has to be adjusted accordingly.<br />
Average flue gas temperature will have to be estimated,<br />
taking into account the effect of stack heat losses and dilution<br />
air.
CHAPTER 9 – MECHANICAL DATA<br />
DIMENSIONAL AND CAPACITY DATA – SCHEDULE 40 PIPE<br />
Diameter, Inches Cross-Sectional Area Weight Per Foot, lb.<br />
Wall Sq. in. of of of<br />
Actual Actual Thickness, Pipe Water Pipe and<br />
Nominal Inside Outside Inches Outside Inside Metal Alone In Pipe Water<br />
1/8 0.269 0.405 0.068 0.129 0.057 0.072 0.25 0.028 0.278<br />
1/4 0.364 0.540 0.088 0.229 0.104 0.125 0.43 0.045 0.475<br />
3/8 0.493 0.675 0.091 0.358 0.191 0.167 0.57 0.083 0.653<br />
1/2 0.622 0.840 0.109 0.554 0.304 0.250 0.86 0.132 0.992<br />
3/4 0.824 1.050 0.113 0.866 0.533 0.333 1.14 0.232 1.372<br />
1 1.049 1.315 0.133 1.358 0.864 0.494 1.68 0.375 2.055<br />
1-1/4 1.380 1.660 0.140 2.164 1.495 0.669 2.28 0.649 2.929<br />
1-1/2 1.610 1.900 0.145 2.835 2.036 0.799 2.72 0.882 3.602<br />
2 2.067 2.375 0.154 4.431 3.356 1.075 3.66 1.454 5.114<br />
2-1/2 2.469 2.875 0.203 6.492 4.788 1.704 5.80 2.073 7.873<br />
3 3.068 3.500 0.216 9.621 7.393 2.228 7.58 3.201 10.781<br />
3-1/2 3.548 4.000 0.226 12.568 9.888 2.680 9.11 4.287 13.397<br />
4 4.026 4.500 0.237 15.903 12.730 3.173 10.80 5.516 16.316<br />
5 5.047 5.563 0.258 24.308 20.004 4.304 14.70 8.674 23.374<br />
6 6.065 6.625 0.280 34.474 28.890 5.584 19.00 12.52 31.52<br />
8 7.981 8.625 0.322 58.426 50.030 8.396 28.60 21.68 50.28<br />
10 10.020 10.750 0.365 90.79 78.85 11.90 40.50 34.16 74.66<br />
12 11.938 12.750 0.406 127.67 113.09 15.77 53.60 48.50 102.10<br />
14 13.126 14.000 0.437 153.94 135.33 18.61 63.30 58.64 121.94<br />
16 15.000 16.000 0.500 201.06 176.71 24.35 82.80 76.58 159.38<br />
18 16.876 18.000 0.562 254.47 223.68 30.79 105.00 96.93 201.93<br />
20 18.814 20.000 0.593 314.16 278.01 36.15 123.00 120.46 243.46<br />
Circumference, Sq. Ft. of Surface Contents of Pipe Lineal Feet To Contain<br />
Inches Per Lineal Foot Per Lineal Foot<br />
Nominal 1 LB.<br />
Dia. In. Outside Inside Outside Inside Cu. Ft. Gal. 1 Cu. Ft. 1 Gal. of Water<br />
1/8 1.27 0.84 0.106 0.070 0.0004 0.003 2533.775 338.74 35.714<br />
1/4 1.69 1.14 0.141 0.095 0.0007 0.005 1383.789 185.00 22.222<br />
3/8 2.12 1.55 0.177 0.129 0.0013 0.010 754.360 100.85 12.048<br />
1/2 2.65 1.95 0.221 0.167 0.0021 0.016 473.906 63.36 7.576<br />
3/4 3.29 2.58 0.275 0.215 0.0037 0.028 270.034 36.10 4.310<br />
1 4.13 3.29 0.344 0.274 0.0062 0.045 166.618 22.28 2.667<br />
1-1/4 5.21 4.33 0.435 0.361 0.0104 0.077 96.275 12.87 1.541<br />
1-1/2 5.96 5.06 0.497 0.422 0.0141 0.106 70.733 9.46 1.134<br />
2 7.46 6.49 0.622 0.540 0.0233 0.174 42.913 5.74 0.688<br />
2-1/2 9.03 7.75 0.753 0.654 0.0332 0.248 30.077 4.02 0.482<br />
3 10.96 9.63 0.916 0.803 0.0514 0.383 19.479 2.60 0.312<br />
3-1/2 12.56 11.14 1.047 0.928 0.0682 0.513 14.565 1.95 0.233<br />
4 14.13 12.64 1.178 1.052 0.0884 0.660 11.312 1.51 0.181<br />
5 17.47 15.84 1.456 1.319 0.1390 1.040 7.198 0.96 0.115<br />
6 20.81 19.05 1.734 1.585 0.2010 1.500 4.984 0.67 0.080<br />
8 27.09 26.07 2.258 2.090 0.3480 2.600 2.878 0.38 0.046<br />
10 33.77 31.47 2.814 2.622 0.5470 4.100 1.826 0.24 0.029<br />
12 40.05 37.70 3.370 3.140 0.7850 5.870 1.273 0.17 0.021<br />
14 47.12 44.76 3.930 3.722 1.0690 7.030 1.067 0.14 0.017<br />
16 53.41 51.52 4.440 4.310 1.3920 9.180 0.814 0.11 0.013<br />
18 56.55 53.00 4.712 4.420 1.5530 11.120 0.644 0.09 0.010<br />
20 62.83 59.09 5.236 4.920 1.9250 14.400 0.517 0.07 0.008<br />
54
B<br />
A<br />
A<br />
90° Elbow<br />
B<br />
DIMENSIONS OF MALLEABLE IRON THREADED FITTINGS<br />
per ANSI B 16.3-1977<br />
D<br />
E<br />
A<br />
C<br />
A C<br />
90° Street Elbow Street Tee<br />
(150 lb only)<br />
F G<br />
45° Elbow 45° Street Elbow 45° Y-Bend<br />
(150 lb only)<br />
A<br />
G<br />
CLASS 150 FITTINGS<br />
Thread<br />
Engage-<br />
M1 Close<br />
M2 Med.<br />
M3 Open<br />
Size ment A B C D E F G H J K Pattern Pattern Pattern<br />
1/8 0.25 0.69 – 1.00 – – – – 0.53 0.96 – – – –<br />
1/4 0.32 0.81 0.73 1.19 0.73 0.94 – – 0.63 1.06 1.00 – – –<br />
3/8 0.36 0.95 0.80 1.44 0.80 1.03 1.93 1.43 0.74 1.16 1.13 – – –<br />
1/2 0.43 1.12 0.88 1.63 0.88 1.15 2.32 1.71 0.87 1.34 1.25 1.00 1.25 1.50<br />
3/4 0.50 1.31 0.98 1.89 0.98 1.29 2.77 2.05 0.97 1.52 1.44 1.25 1.50 2.00<br />
1 0.58 1.50 1.12 2.14 1.12 1.47 3.28 2.43 1.16 1.67 1.69 1.50 1.87 2.50<br />
1-1/4 0.67 1.75 1.29 2.45 1.29 1.71 3.94 2.92 1.28 1.93 2.06 1.75 2.25 3.00<br />
1-1/2 0.70 1.94 1.43 2.69 1.43 1.88 4.38 3.28 1.33 2.15 2.31 2.19 2.50 3.50<br />
2 0.75 2.25 1.68 3.26 1.68 2.22 5.17 3.93 1.45 2.53 2.81 2.62 3.00 4.00<br />
2-1/2 0.92 2.70 1.95 3.86 1.95 2.57 6.25 4.73 1.70 2.88 3.25 – – 4.50<br />
3 0.98 3.08 2.17 4.51 2.17 3.00 7.26 5.55 1.80 3.18 3.69 – – 5.00<br />
3-1/2 1.03 3.42 2.39 – – – – – 1.90 – – – – –<br />
4 1.08 3.79 2.61 5.69 2.61 3.70 8.98 6.97 2.08 3.69 4.38 – – 6.00<br />
5 1.18 4.50 3.05 6.86 – – – – 2.32 – – – – –<br />
6 1.28 5.13 3.46 8.03 – – – – 2.55 – – – – –<br />
CLASS 300 FITTINGS<br />
Size<br />
Thread<br />
Engagement<br />
A B C D E H J K M1 M2 M3 1/4 0.43 0.94 0.81 1.44 – – 0.78 1.37 – – – –<br />
3/8 0.47 1.06 0.88 1.63 – – 0.83 1.62 1.44 – – –<br />
1/2 0.57 1.25 1.00 2.00 1.00 1.38 0.98 1.87 1.69 – – –<br />
3/4 0.64 1.44 1.13 2.19 1.13 1.56 1.08 2.12 1.75 – – –<br />
1 0.75 1.63 1.31 2.56 1.31 1.81 1.26 2.37 2.00 1.75 2.50 3.00<br />
1-1/4 0.84 1.94 1.50 2.88 1.50 2.13 1.38 2.87 2.38 2.25 2.50 3.00<br />
1-1/2 0.87 2.13 1.69 3.13 1.69 2.31 1.43 2.87 2.69 3.00 3.50 6.00<br />
2 1.00 2.50 2.00 3.69 2.00 2.69 1.68 3.62 3.19 4.00 6.00 8.00<br />
2-1/2 1.17 2.94 2.25 4.50 – – 2.06 4.12 3.69 – – –<br />
3 1.23 3.38 2.50 5.13 – – 2.17 4.12 4.06 – – –<br />
H<br />
55<br />
A<br />
A A<br />
Tee<br />
J K<br />
A<br />
A<br />
A A<br />
Cross<br />
M1<br />
M2<br />
M3<br />
Cap Coupling Reducer Return Bend
SHEET METAL GAUGES & WEIGHTS<br />
Carbon Steel Galvanized Steel Stainless (Cr-Ni) Steel<br />
Gauge Thickness, Thickness, Thickness,<br />
No. in. lb. per sq. ft. in. lb per sq. ft in. lb. per sq. ft.<br />
7 .1793 7.500 – – – –<br />
8 .1644 6.875 .1681 7.031 .165 6.930<br />
9 .1495 6.250 .1532 6.406 .1563 6.563<br />
10 .1345 5.625 .1382 5.781 .135 5.670<br />
11 .1196 5.000 .1233 5.156 .120 5.040<br />
12 .1096 4.375 .1084 4.531 .1054 4.427<br />
13 .0897 3.750 .0934 3.906 .090 3.780<br />
14 .0747 3.125 .0785 3.281 .0751 3.154<br />
15 .0673 2.812 .0710 2.969 .0703 2.953<br />
16 .0598 2.500 .0635 2.656 .0595 2.499<br />
17 .0538 2.250 .0575 2.406 .0563 2.363<br />
18 .0478 2.000 .0516 2.156 .048 2.016<br />
19 .0418 1.750 .0456 1.906 .042 1.764<br />
20 .0359 1.500 .0396 1.656 .0355 1.491<br />
21 .0329 1.375 .0366 1.531 .0344 1.444<br />
22 .0299 1.250 .0336 1.406 .0293 1.231<br />
23 .0269 1.125 .0306 1.281 .0281 1.181<br />
24 .0239 1.000 .0276 1.156 .0235 .987<br />
25 .0209 .875 .0247 1.031 .0219 .919<br />
26 .0179 .750 .0217 .906 .0178 .748<br />
27 .0164 .688 .0202 .844 .0172 .722<br />
28 .0149 .625 .0187 .781 .0151 .634<br />
29 .0135 .563 .0172 .719 – –<br />
30 .0120 .500 .0157 .656 – –<br />
SHEET WIRE GAUGES & WEIGHTS<br />
Diameter, inches Diameter, inches<br />
Steel Steel<br />
Gauge Wire Gauge Wire<br />
No. AWG 1 Gauge 2 BWG 3 No. AWG 1 Gauge 2 BWG 3<br />
0 .3249 .3065 .340 15 .0571 .0720 .072<br />
1 .2893 .2830 .300 16 .0508 .0625 .065<br />
2 .2576 .2625 .284 17 .0453 .0540 .058<br />
3 .2294 .2437 .259 18 .0403 .0475 .049<br />
4 .2043 .2253 .238 19 .0359 .0410 .042<br />
5 .1819 .2070 .220 20 .0320 .0348 .035<br />
6 .1620 .1920 .203 21 .0285 .0317 .032<br />
7 .1443 .1770 .180 22 .0253 .0286 .028<br />
8 .1285 .1620 .165 23 .0226 .0258 .025<br />
9 .1144 .1483 .148 24 .0201 .0230 .022<br />
10 .1019 .1350 .134 25 .0179 .0204 .020<br />
11 .0907 .1205 .120 26 .0159 .0181 .018<br />
12 .0808 .1055 .109 27 .0142 .0173 .016<br />
13 .0720 .0915 .095 28 .0126 .0162 .014<br />
14 .0641 .0800 .083 29 .0113 .0150 .013<br />
30 .0100 .0140 .012<br />
1 American Wire Gauge or Brown & Sharpe Gauge for<br />
non-ferrous wire, including electrical wire.<br />
2 Or Washburn & Moen Gauge.<br />
3 Birmingham Wire Gauge or Stubs Gauge.<br />
56
CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES<br />
In Inches<br />
Dia. Circum. Area Dia. Circum. Area Dia. Circum. Area<br />
1/64 .04909 .00019 3 9.4248 7.0686 8 25.133 50.265<br />
1/32 .09818 .00077 1/16 9.6211 7.3662 1/8 25.525 51.849<br />
3/64 .14726 .00173 1/8 9.8175 7.6699 1/4 25.918 53.456<br />
1/16 .19635 .00307 3/16 10.014 7.9798 3/8 26.311 55.088<br />
3/32 .29452 .00690 1/4 10.210 8.2958 1/2 26.704 56.745<br />
1/8 .39270 .01227 5/16 10.407 8.6179 5/8 27.096 58.426<br />
5/32 .49087 .01917 3/8 10.603 8.9462 3/4 27.489 60.132<br />
3/16 .58905 .02761 7/16 10.799 9.2806 7/8 27.882 61.862<br />
7/32 .68722 .03758 1/2 10.996 9.6211 9 28.274 63.617<br />
1/4 .78540 .04909 9/16 11.192 9.9678 1/8 28.667 65.397<br />
9/32 .88357 .06213 5/8 11.388 10.321 1/4 29.060 67.201<br />
5/16 .98175 .07670 11/16 11.585 10.680 3/8 29.452 69.029<br />
11/32 1.0799 .09281 3/4 11.781 11.045 1/2 29.845 70.882<br />
3/8 1.1781 .11045 13/16 11.977 11.416 5/8 30.238 72.760<br />
13/32 1.2763 .12962 7/8 12.174 11.793 3/4 30.631 74.662<br />
7/16 1.3744 .15033 15/16 12.370 12.177 7/8 31.023 76.589<br />
15/32 1.4726 .17257 4 12.566 12.566 10 31.416 78.540<br />
1/2 1.5708 .19635 1/16 12.763 12.962 1/8 31.809 80.516<br />
17/32 1.6690 .22166 1/8 12.959 13.364 1/4 32.201 82.516<br />
9/16 1.7671 .24850 3/16 13.155 13.772 3/8 32.594 84.541<br />
19/32 1.8653 .27688 1/4 13.352 14.186 1/2 32.987 86.590<br />
5/8 1.9635 .30680 5/16 13.548 14.607 5/8 33.379 88.664<br />
21/32 2.0617 .33824 3/8 13.744 15.033 3/4 33.772 90.763<br />
11/16 2.1598 .37122 7/16 13.941 15.466 7/8 34.165 92.886<br />
23/32 2.2580 .40574 1/2 14.137 15.904 11 34.558 95.033<br />
3/4 2.3562 .44179 9/16 14.334 16.349 1/8 34.950 97.205<br />
25/32 2.4544 .47937 5/8 14.530 16.800 1/4 35.343 99.402<br />
13/16 2.5525 .51849 11/16 14.726 17.257 3/8 35.736 101.62<br />
27/32 2.6507 .55914 3/4 14.923 17.721 1/2 36.128 103.87<br />
7/8 2.7489 .60132 13/16 15.119 18.190 5/8 36.521 106.14<br />
29/32 2.8471 .64504 7/8 15.315 18.665 3/4 36.914 108.43<br />
15/16 2.9452 .69029 15/16 15.512 19.147 7/8 37.306 110.75<br />
31/32 3.0434 .73708 5 15.708 19.635 12 37.699 113.10<br />
1 3.1416 .7854 1/16 15.904 20.129 1/8 38.092 115.47<br />
1/16 3.3379 .8866 1/8 16.101 20.629 1/4 38.485 117.86<br />
1/8 3.5343 .9940 3/16 16.297 21.135 3/8 38.877 120.28<br />
3/16 3.7306 1.1075 1/4 16.493 21.648 1/2 39.270 122.72<br />
1/4 3.9270 1.2272 5/16 16.690 22.166 5/8 39.663 125.19<br />
5/16 4.1233 1.3530 3/8 16.886 22.691 3/4 40.055 127.68<br />
3/8 4.3197 1.4849 7/16 17.082 23.221 7/8 40.448 130.19<br />
7/16 4.5160 1.6230 1/2 17.279 23.758 13 40.841 132.73<br />
1/2 4.7124 1.7671 9/16 17.475 24.301 1/8 41.233 135.30<br />
9/16 4.9087 1.9175 5/8 17.671 24.850 1/4 41.626 137.89<br />
5/8 5.1051 2.0739 11/16 17.868 25.406 3/8 42.019 140.50<br />
11/16 5.3014 2.2365 3/4 18.064 25.967 1/2 42.412 143.14<br />
3/4 5.4978 2.4053 13/16 18.261 26.535 5/8 42.804 145.80<br />
13/16 5.6941 2.5802 7/8 18.457 27.109 3/4 43.197 148.49<br />
7/8 5.8905 2.7612 15/16 18.653 27.688 7/8 43.590 151.20<br />
15/16 6.0868 2.9483 6 18.850 28.274 14 43.982 153.94<br />
2 6.2832 3.1416 1/8 19.242 29.465 1/8 44.374 156.70<br />
1/16 6.4795 3.3410 1/4 19.635 30.680 1/4 44.768 159.48<br />
1/8 6.6759 3.5466 3/8 20.028 31.919 3/8 45.160 162.30<br />
3/16 6.8722 3.7583 1/2 20.420 33.183 1/2 45.553 165.13<br />
1/4 7.0686 3.9761 5/8 20.813 34.472 5/8 45.946 167.99<br />
5/16 7.2649 4.2000 3/4 21.206 35.785 3/4 46.338 170.87<br />
3/8 7.4613 4.4301 7/8 21.598 37.122 7/8 46.731 173.78<br />
7/16 7.6576 4.6664 7 21.991 38.485 15 47.124 176.71<br />
1/2 7.8540 4.9087 1/8 22.384 39.871 1/8 47.517 179.67<br />
9/16 8.0503 5.1572 1/4 22.776 41.282 1/4 47.909 182.65<br />
5/8 8.2467 5.4119 3/8 23.169 42.718 3/8 48.302 185.66<br />
11/16 8.4430 5.6727 1/2 23.562 44.179 1/2 48.695 188.69<br />
3/4 8.6394 5.9396 5/8 23.955 45.664 5/8 49.087 191.75<br />
13/16 8.8357 6.2126 3/4 24.347 47.173 3/4 49.480 194.83<br />
7/8 9.0321 6.4918 7/8 24.740 48.707 7/8 49.873 197.93<br />
15/16 9.2284 6.7771<br />
57
CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES (Cont’d)<br />
In Inches<br />
Dia. Circum. Area Dia. Circum. Area Dia. Circum. Area<br />
16 50.265 201.06 24 75.398 452.39 39 122.522 1194.6<br />
1/8 50.658 204.22 1/8 75.791 457.11 40 125.664 1256.6<br />
1/4 51.051 207.39 1/4 76.184 461.86 41 128.805 1320.3<br />
3/8 51.444 210.60 3/8 76.576 466.64 42 131.947 1385.4<br />
1/2 51.836 213.82 1/2 76.969 471.44 43 135.088 1452.2<br />
5/8 52.229 217.08 5/8 77.362 476.26 44 138.230 1520.5<br />
3/4 52.622 220.35 3/4 77.754 481.11 45 141.372 1590.4<br />
7/8 53.014 223.65 7/8 78.147 485.98 46 144.513 1661.9<br />
17 53.407 226.98 25 78.540 490.87 47 147.655 1734.9<br />
1/8 53.800 230.33 1/8 78.933 495.79 48 150.796 1809.6<br />
1/4 54.192 233.71 1/4 79.325 500.74 49 153.939 1885.7<br />
3/8 54.585 237.10 3/8 79.718 505.71 50 157.080 1963.5<br />
1/2 54.978 240.53 1/2 80.111 510.71 51 160.221 2042.8<br />
5/8 55.371 243.98 5/8 80.503 515.72 52 163.363 2123.7<br />
3/4 55.763 247.45 3/4 80.896 520.77 53 166.504 2206.2<br />
7/8 56.156 250.95 7/8 81.289 525.84 54 169.646 2290.2<br />
18 56.549 254.47 26 81.681 530.93 55 172.788 2375.8<br />
1/8 56.941 258.02 1/8 82.074 536.05 56 175.929 2463.0<br />
1/4 57.334 261.59 1/4 82.467 541.19 57 179.071 2551.8<br />
3/8 57.727 265.18 3/8 82.860 546.35 58 182.212 2642.1<br />
1/2 58.119 268.80 1/2 83.252 551.55 59 185.354 2734.0<br />
5/8 58.512 272.45 5/8 83.645 556.76 60 188.496 2827.4<br />
3/4 58.905 276.12 3/4 84.038 562.00 61 191.637 2922.5<br />
7/8 59.298 279.81 7/8 84.430 567.27 62 194.779 3019.1<br />
19 59.690 283.53 27 84.823 572.56 63 197.920 3117.2<br />
1/8 60.083 287.27 1/8 85.216 577.87 64 201.062 3217.0<br />
1/4 60.476 291.04 1/4 85.608 583.21 65 204.204 3318.3<br />
3/8 60.868 294.83 3/8 86.001 588.57 66 207.345 3421.2<br />
1/2 61.261 298.65 1/2 86.394 593.96 67 210.487 3525.7<br />
5/8 61.654 302.49 5/8 86.786 599.37 68 213.628 3631.7<br />
3/4 62.046 306.35 3/4 87.179 604.81 69 216.770 3739.3<br />
7/8 62.439 310.24 7/8 85.572 610.27 70 219.911 3848.5<br />
20 62.832 314.16 28 87.965 615.75 71 223.053 3959.2<br />
1/8 63.225 318.10 1/8 88.357 621.26 72 226.195 4071.5<br />
1/4 63.617 322.06 1/4 88.750 626.80 73 229.336 4185.4<br />
3/8 64.010 326.05 3/8 89.143 632.36 74 232.478 4300.8<br />
1/2 64.403 330.06 1/2 89.535 637.94 75 235.619 4417.9<br />
5/8 64.795 334.10 5/8 89.928 643.55 76 238.761 4536.6<br />
3/4 65.188 338.16 3/4 90.321 649.18 77 241.903 4656.6<br />
7/8 65.581 342.25 7/8 90.713 654.84 78 245.044 4778.4<br />
21 65.973 346.36 29 91.106 660.52 79 248.186 4901.7<br />
1/8 66.366 350.50 1/8 91.499 666.23 80 251.327 5026.5<br />
1/4 66.759 354.66 1/4 91.892 671.96 81 254.469 5153.0<br />
3/8 67.152 358.84 3/8 92.284 677.71 82 257.611 5281.0<br />
1/2 67.544 363.05 1/2 92.677 683.49 83 260.752 5410.6<br />
5/8 67.937 367.28 5/8 93.070 689.30 84 263.894 5541.8<br />
3/4 68.330 371.54 3/4 93.462 695.13 85 267.035 5674.5<br />
7/8 68.722 375.83 7/8 93.855 700.98 86 270.177 5808.8<br />
22 69.115 380.13 30 94.248 706.86 87 273.319 5944.7<br />
1/8 69.508 384.46 1/8 94.640 712.76 88 276.460 6082.1<br />
1/4 69.900 388.82 1/4 95.033 718.69 89 279.602 6221.1<br />
3/8 70.293 393.20 3/8 95.426 724.64 90 282.743 6361.7<br />
1/2 70.686 397.61 1/2 95.819 730.62 91 285.885 6503.9<br />
5/8 71.079 402.04 5/8 96.211 736.62 92 289.027 6647.6<br />
3/4 71.471 406.49 3/4 96.604 742.64 93 292.168 6792.9<br />
7/8 71.864 410.97 7/8 96.997 748.69 94 295.310 6939.8<br />
23 72.257 415.48 31 97.389 754.77 95 298.451 7088.2<br />
1/8 72.649 420.00 32 100.531 804.25 96 301.593 7238.2<br />
1/4 73.042 424.56 33 103.673 855.30 97 304.734 7389.8<br />
3/8 73.435 429.13 34 106.814 907.92 98 307.876 7543.0<br />
1/2 73.827 433.74 35 109.956 962.11 99 311.018 7697.7<br />
5/8 74.220 438.36 36 113.097 1017.9 100 314.159 7854.0<br />
3/4 74.613 443.01 37 116.239 1075.2<br />
7/8 75.006 447.69 38 119.381 1134.1<br />
58
DRILL SIZE DATA<br />
Twist Dia. Area Twist Dia. Area Twist Dia. Area<br />
Drill Size In. Sq. In. Drill Size In. Sq. In. Drill Size In. Sq. In.<br />
– 80 .0135 .000143 – 32 .116 .0106 19/64 – .2968 .0692<br />
– 79 .0145 .000165 – 31 .120 .0113 – N .302 .0716<br />
1/64 – .0156 .00019 1/8 – .125 .0123 5/16 – .3125 .0767<br />
– 78 .016 .00020 – 30 .1285 .0130 – O .316 .0784<br />
– 77 .018 .00025 – 29 .136 .0145 – P .323 .0820<br />
– 76 .020 .00031 – 28 .1405 .0155 21/64 – .3281 .0846<br />
– 75 .021 .00035 9/64 – .1406 .0156 – Q .332 .0866<br />
– 74 .0225 .00040 – 27 .144 .0163 – R .339 .0901<br />
– 73 .024 .00045 – 26 .147 .0174 11/32 – .3437 .0928<br />
– 72 .025 .00049 – 25 .1495 .0175 – S .348 .0950<br />
– 71 .026 .00053 – 24 .152 .0181 – T .358 .1005<br />
– 70 .028 .00062 – 23 .154 .0186 23/64 – .3593 .1014<br />
– 69 .0292 .00067 5/32 – .1562 .0192 – U .368 .1063<br />
– 68 .030 .00075 – 22 .157 .0193 3/8 – .375 .1104<br />
1/32 – .0312 .00076 – 21 .159 .0198 – V .377 .1116<br />
– 67 .032 .00080 – 20 .161 .0203 – W .386 .1170<br />
– 66 .033 .00086 – 19 .166 .0216 25/64 – .3906 .1198<br />
– 65 .035 .00096 – 18 .1695 .0226 – X .397 .1236<br />
– 64 .036 .00102 11/64 – .1719 .0232 – Y .404 .1278<br />
– 63 .037 .00108 – 17 .175 .0235 13/32 – .4062 .1296<br />
– 62 .038 .00113 – 16 .177 .0246 – Z .413 .1340<br />
– 61 .039 .00119 – 15 .180 .0254 7/16 – .4375 .1503<br />
– 60 .040 .00126 – 14 .182 .0260 29/64 – .4531 .1613<br />
– 59 .041 .00132 – 13 .185 .0269 15/32 – .4687 .1726<br />
– 58 .042 .00138 3/16 – .1875 .0276 31/64 – .4843 .1843<br />
– 57 .043 .00145 – 12 .189 .02805 1/2 – .5000 .1963<br />
– 56 .0465 .00170 – 11 .191 .02865 33/64 – .5156 .2088<br />
3/64 – .0469 .00173 – 10 .1935 .0294 17/32 – .5312 .2217<br />
– 55 .0520 .00210 – 9 .196 .0302 35/64 – .5468 .2349<br />
– 54 .0550 .0023 – 8 .199 .0311 9/16 – .5625 .2485<br />
– 53 .0595 .0028 – 7 .201 .0316 37/64 – .5781 .2625<br />
1/16 – .0625 .0031 13/64 – .2031 .0324 19/32 – .5937 .2769<br />
– 52 .0635 .0032 – 6 .204 .0327 39/64 – .6093 .2916<br />
– 51 .0670 .0035 – 5 .2055 .0332 5/8 – .625 .3068<br />
– 50 .070 .0038 – 4 .209 .0343 41/64 – .6406 .3223<br />
– 49 .073 .0042 – 3 .213 .0356 21/32 – .6562 .3382<br />
– 48 .076 .0043 7/32 – .2187 .0376 43/64 – .6718 .3545<br />
5/64 – .0781 .0048 – 2 .221 .0384 11/16 – .6875 .3712<br />
– 47 .0785 .0049 – 1 .228 .0409 45/64 – .7031 .3883<br />
– 46 .081 .0051 – A .234 .0430 23/32 – .7187 .4057<br />
– 45 .082 .0053 15/64 – .2343 .0431 47/64 – .7343 .4236<br />
– 44 .086 .0058 – B .238 .0444 3/4 – .750 .4418<br />
– 43 .089 .0062 – C .242 .0460 49/64 – .7656 .4604<br />
– 42 .0935 .0069 – D .246 .0475 25/32 – .7812 .4794<br />
3/32 – .0937 .0069 1/4 E .250 .0491 51/64 – .7968 .4987<br />
– 41 .096 .0072 – F .257 .0519 13/16 – .8125 .5185<br />
– 40 .098 .0075 – G .261 .0535 53/64 – .8281 .5386<br />
– 39 .0995 .0078 17/64 – .2656 .0554 27/32 – .8337 .5591<br />
– 38 .1015 .0081 – H .266 .0556 55/64 – .8593 .5800<br />
– 37 .104 .0085 – I .272 .0580 7/8 – .875 .6013<br />
– 36 .1065 .0090 – J .277 .0601<br />
7/64 – .1093 .0094 – K .281 .0620<br />
– 35 .110 .0095 9/32 – .2812 .0621<br />
– 34 .111 .0097 – L .290 .0660<br />
– 33 .113 .0100 – M .295 .0683<br />
59
Taps for Machine Threads – Drill sizes for 75% of full<br />
thread<br />
Thread Tap Drill Thread Tap Drill<br />
Size Size Size Size<br />
6-32 NC 36 3/8-16 NC 5/16<br />
6-40 NF 34 3/8-24 NF Q<br />
8-32 NC 30 7/16-14 NC U<br />
8-36 NF 29 7/16-20 NF W<br />
10-24 NC 25 1/2-13 NC .425<br />
10-32 NF 21 1/2-20 NF 29/64<br />
12-24 NC 17 9/16-12 NC 31/64<br />
12-28 NF 15 9/16-18 NF .508<br />
1/4-20 NC 7 5/8-11 NC 17/32<br />
1/4-28 NF 3 5/8-18 NF .571<br />
5/16-18 NC F 3/4-10 NC 21/32<br />
5/16-24 NF I 3/4-16 NF 11/16<br />
7/8-9 NC 49/64<br />
7/8-14 NF .805<br />
1-8 NC 7/8<br />
See page 59 for diameters of numbered and lettered<br />
tap drills.<br />
TAP DRILL SIZES<br />
60<br />
Pipe Taps – American Standard and Dryseal Pipe<br />
Threads<br />
Pipe Threads Tap Pipe Threads Tap<br />
Size, Per Drill Size Per Drill<br />
Inches Inch Size Inches Inch Size<br />
1/8 27 11/32 2 11-1/2 2-7/32<br />
1/4 18 7/16 2-1/2 8 2-5/8<br />
3/8 18 9/16 3 8 3-1/4<br />
1/2 14 45/64 4 8 4-1/4<br />
3/4 14 29/32 5 8 5-5/16<br />
1 11-1/2 1-9/64 6 8 6-3/8<br />
1-1/4 11-1/2 1-31/64 8 8 8-3/8<br />
1-1/2 11-1/2 1-47/64<br />
DRILLING TEMPLATES – PIPE FLANGES<br />
Drilling template dimensions of Class 150 pipe flanges per<br />
ANSI B 16.5 – 1981.<br />
A - O.D.<br />
B - Bolt Circle<br />
Diameter<br />
C - Bolt Hole Diameter<br />
N - Number of Bolt Holes<br />
Nominal All dimensions in inches<br />
Pipe Bolt<br />
Size A B C N Diameter<br />
1/2 3.50 2.38 .62 4 1/2<br />
3/4 3.88 2.75 .62 4 1/2<br />
1 4.25 3.12 .62 4 1/2<br />
1-1/4 4.62 3.50 .62 4 1/2<br />
1-1/2 5.00 3.88 .62 4 1/2<br />
2 6.00 4.75 .75 4 5/8<br />
2-1/2 7.00 5.50 .75 4 5/8<br />
3 7.50 6.00 .75 4 5/8<br />
4 9.00 7.50 .75 8 5/8<br />
6 11.00 9.50 .88 8 3/4<br />
8 13.50 11.75 .88 8 3/4<br />
10 16.00 14.25 1.00 12 7/8<br />
12 19.00 17.00 1.00 12 7/8<br />
14 21.00 18.75 1.12 12 1<br />
16 23.50 21.25 1.12 16 1<br />
18 25.00 22.75 1.25 16 1-1/8<br />
20 27.50 25.00 1.25 20 1-1/8<br />
24 32.00 29.50 1.38 20 1-1/4
CHAPTER 10 – ABBREVIATIONS & SYMBOLS<br />
A – ampere(s), area<br />
A, C, or a-c – alternating current<br />
acfh – actual cubic feet per hour<br />
acfm – actual cubic feet per minute<br />
ANSI – American National Standards Institute<br />
API – American Petroleum Institute<br />
°API – degrees API (a measurement of fuel oil specific gravity)<br />
ASTM – American Society for Testing and Materials<br />
AWG – American Wire Gauge<br />
Btu – British thermal unit<br />
BWG – Birmginham Wire Gauge<br />
C or °C – degrees Celsius or Centigrade<br />
Cal – kilogram-calorie or kilo-calorie (equals 1000 calories)<br />
cal – calorie<br />
Cd – coefficient of discharge<br />
cfh – cubic feet per hour<br />
cfm – cubic feet per minute<br />
CL – centerline<br />
cm – centimeter(s)<br />
cs or cSt – centistoke(s)<br />
cu ft – cubic feet<br />
cu in – cubic inches<br />
cu m – cubic meters<br />
C v - flow coefficient or flow factor (for valve capacities)<br />
D or d – density, diameter<br />
D.C. or d-c – direct current<br />
deg – degree(s)<br />
dia – diameter<br />
e - emissivity<br />
°E – degrees Engler (a measurement of fuel oil viscosity)<br />
F or °F – degrees Fahrenheit<br />
f – convection film coefficient<br />
F.B. – firebrick<br />
fpm – feet per minute<br />
fps – feet per second<br />
ft – foot or feet<br />
G or g – gravity or specific gravity<br />
gal – gallon(s)<br />
gph – gallons per hour<br />
gpm – gallons per minute<br />
h - pressure drop<br />
h f – heat content of liquid (water & steam)<br />
h fg – latent heat of vaporization, water to steam<br />
h g – heat content of vapor (steam)<br />
"Hg – inches of mercury column<br />
HL – heat loss<br />
HP or hp – horsepower<br />
hr – hour(s)<br />
HS – heat storage<br />
Hz – Hertz (cycles per second in alternating current)<br />
ID or id – inside diameter<br />
I.F.B. – insulating firebrick<br />
in – inch(es)<br />
in 2 – square inch(es)<br />
ABBREVIATIONS<br />
61<br />
in 3 – cubic inch(es)<br />
JIC – Joint Industrial Council<br />
K – Stefan – Boltzmann constant<br />
k – thermal conductivity<br />
°K – degrees Kelvin<br />
kcal – kilogram-calorie or kilo-calorie (same as Cal)<br />
kPa – kiloPascal<br />
kVA – kilo volt – amperes<br />
L – length or thickness<br />
lb – pound(s)<br />
LPG – liquified petroleum gas<br />
mbar – millibar(s)<br />
mmHg – millimeters of mercury column<br />
mmw.c. – millimeters of water column<br />
N.C. – normally closed<br />
NEMA – National Electrical Manufacturers Association<br />
NFPA – National Fire Protection Association<br />
N.O. – normally open<br />
OD or od – outside diameter<br />
osi – ounces per square inch<br />
oz – ounce(s)<br />
P – pressure or pressure drop<br />
psi – pounds per square inch<br />
psia – pounds per square inch, absolute<br />
psig – pounds per square inch, gauge<br />
Pv – velocity pressure<br />
Q – flow (of gases, liquids, or heat)<br />
°R – degrees Rankine<br />
rpm – revolutions per minute<br />
scfh – standard cubic feet per hour<br />
scfm – standard cubic feet per minute<br />
sec – second<br />
S.G. or sg – specific gravity<br />
sp ht – specific heat<br />
sp gr – specific gravity<br />
sq ft – square feet<br />
sq in – square inch(es)<br />
SR1 – seconds Redwood #1 (a measurement of fuel oil viscosity)<br />
SSF – seconds Saybolt Furol (a measurement of fuel oil viscosity)<br />
SSU – seconds Saybolt Universal (a measurement of fuel oil<br />
viscosity)<br />
T or t – temperature<br />
T abs – absolute temperature<br />
TC – cold face temperature or thermocouple<br />
V – vacuum, volts, or volume<br />
V g – specific volume of water vapor<br />
W – flow rate<br />
"w.c. – inches of water column<br />
"w.g. – inches of water gauge (same as "w.c.)<br />
wt – weight
CR<br />
M<br />
CH<br />
ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS<br />
Shown below are graphic symbols commonly used in JICtype<br />
ladder diagrams for combustion control systems. For<br />
a complete list of symbols, refer to JIC Electrical Standard<br />
EMP-1.<br />
Description Symbol Description Symbol Description Symbol<br />
Coils<br />
–Relays (CR)<br />
–Timers (TR)<br />
– Motor Starters (M)<br />
– Contactors (CON)<br />
Coils<br />
–Solenoids<br />
Conductors<br />
–Not Connected<br />
–Connected<br />
Connections<br />
–Ground<br />
–Chassis or<br />
Frame (not<br />
necessarily<br />
grounded)<br />
–Plug and<br />
Receptacle<br />
Contacts<br />
–Time Delay<br />
After Coil<br />
Energized<br />
–N.O.<br />
–N.C.<br />
–Time Delay<br />
After Coil<br />
De-energized<br />
–N.O.<br />
–N.C.<br />
SOL<br />
GRD<br />
PL<br />
RECP<br />
TR<br />
TR<br />
TR<br />
TR<br />
TR<br />
CON<br />
Contacts<br />
– Relays (CR)<br />
– Motor Starters (M)<br />
– Contactors (CON)<br />
– N.O.<br />
– N.C.<br />
Contacts<br />
–Thermal Overload<br />
–Overload Relay<br />
(OL)<br />
–Instataneous<br />
Overload (IOL)<br />
Control Circuit<br />
Transformer<br />
Fuses – All<br />
Types<br />
Horn or Siren<br />
(Alarm)<br />
Meters<br />
–Volt<br />
–Amp<br />
Motors<br />
–3 Phase<br />
–D.C .<br />
Potentiometer<br />
62<br />
H1 H3 H2 H4<br />
X1 X2<br />
MTR<br />
CR M<br />
CON<br />
CR M<br />
CON<br />
OL<br />
IOL<br />
FU<br />
AH<br />
VM<br />
AM<br />
MTR<br />
A<br />
POT<br />
T<br />
Pilot Light<br />
(Letter denotes<br />
color)<br />
Pilot Light–<br />
Push to Test<br />
(Letter denotes<br />
color)<br />
Pushbutton<br />
–Single<br />
Circuit, N.O.<br />
–Single<br />
Circuit, N.C.<br />
–Double<br />
Circuit<br />
–Double<br />
Circuit,<br />
Mushroom<br />
Head<br />
–Maintained<br />
Contact<br />
Switches<br />
– Disconnect<br />
– Circuit<br />
Interruptor<br />
– Circuit<br />
Breaker<br />
LT<br />
CB<br />
PB<br />
LT<br />
R<br />
PB<br />
PB<br />
PB<br />
R<br />
PB<br />
DISC<br />
CI<br />
PB
ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS (Cont’d)<br />
Description Symbol Description Symbol Description Symbol<br />
Switch, Limit<br />
— N.O.<br />
— Held Closed<br />
— N.C.<br />
— Held Open<br />
— Neutral<br />
Position,<br />
— Neutral<br />
Position,<br />
Actuated<br />
Switch, Liquid<br />
Level<br />
— N.O.<br />
— N.C.<br />
NP<br />
NP<br />
LS<br />
LS<br />
LS<br />
LS<br />
LS<br />
LS<br />
FS<br />
FS<br />
Switch, Selector<br />
— 2 Position<br />
— 3 Position<br />
Switch,<br />
Temperature<br />
— N.O.<br />
— N.C.<br />
Switch,<br />
Toggle<br />
63<br />
SS<br />
1 2<br />
1<br />
SS<br />
2<br />
TAS<br />
TAS<br />
TGS<br />
3<br />
Switch, Vacuum<br />
or Pressure<br />
— N.O.<br />
— N.C.<br />
Thermal Overload<br />
Element<br />
— Overload (OL)<br />
— Instantaneous<br />
Overload (IOL)<br />
Thermocouple<br />
PS<br />
PS<br />
OL<br />
IOL<br />
T/C
CHAPTER 11 – CONVERSION FACTORS<br />
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN<br />
atmospheres . . . . . . . . .33.90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feet of H2O 29.92 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Inches of Hg<br />
14.70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Psi<br />
1013.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Millibars<br />
760.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .mm. of Hg<br />
1.058 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Tons/sq..ft<br />
1.033 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Kg./sq. cm.<br />
barrels (oil) . . . . . . . . . . . .42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Gallons (oil)<br />
bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..9869 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Atmospheres<br />
1020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg./sq. meter<br />
btu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .778.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-pounds<br />
252 . . . . . . . . . . . . .gram-calories<br />
.000393 . . . . . . . . . .horsepower-hours<br />
1055 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .joules<br />
.252 . . . . . . . . . . .kilogram-calories<br />
.000293 . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatt-hours<br />
btu/cu. ft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8.9 . . . . . . . . . .kilogram-calories/<br />
cu. meter<br />
btu/hr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..216 . . . . . . . . . . . . .ft.-pounds/sec.<br />
.007 . . . . . . . . . . . . .gram-cal./sec.<br />
.000393 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .horsepower<br />
.293 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .watts<br />
btu ft./hr. sq. ft. °F . . . . .14.88 . . . . . . . .Cal-cm/hr. sq. cm °C<br />
8890.0 . . . . . . . . . .Cal. gm/cu. meter<br />
btu/lb . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.556 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .calories/gm.<br />
btu/lb. °F . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . .calories/gm °C<br />
btu/sec. . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.055 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kW<br />
btu/sq. ft.-min . . . . . . . . . .122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .watts/sq. in.<br />
calories-gram . . . . . . ..00397 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Btu<br />
calorie-Kg . . . . . . . . . . . .3.97 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Btu<br />
calorie-Kg/cu. meter 0.1124 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Btu/cu. ft. @<br />
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .32°F 30" Hg<br />
calorie/hr. sq. cm. . . . . .3.687 . . . . . . . . . . . . .Btu/hr. sq. foot<br />
centiliters . . . . . . . . . . . ..001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters<br />
centimeters . . . . . . . . . ..0328 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet<br />
.0394 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .inches<br />
.00001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilometers<br />
.01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters<br />
.0000062 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles<br />
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .millimeters<br />
393.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .mils<br />
.0109 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .yards<br />
1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .microns<br />
centimeters of mercury ..0132 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres<br />
.446 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ft. of water<br />
136 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg./sq. meter<br />
27.85 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. ft.<br />
.193 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. in.<br />
centimeters/sec. . . . . . .1.969 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet/min.<br />
.0328 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet/sec.<br />
.036 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilometers/hr.<br />
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters/min.<br />
.0224 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/hr.<br />
.00373 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/min.<br />
centimeters/sec./sec. . ..0328 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ft./sec./sec.<br />
.036 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kms./hr.sec.<br />
.01 . . . . . . . . . . . .meters/sec.sec.<br />
.0224 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/hr.sec.<br />
centipoise . . . . . . . . . . . . ..01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gr.cm.-sec.<br />
.00067 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pound/ft.-sec.<br />
2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pound/ft.-hr.<br />
GENERAL CONVERSION FACTORS<br />
64<br />
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN<br />
circular mils . . . . . ..00000507 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq.cm.<br />
.785 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq.mils<br />
.000000785 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. inches<br />
cubic centimeters . ..0000353 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic ft.<br />
.061 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic in.<br />
.000001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic meters<br />
.00000131 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic yards<br />
.000264 . . . . . . . . .gallons (U.S. liquid)<br />
.001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters<br />
.00211 . . . . . . . . . . .pints (U.S. liquid)<br />
00106 . . . . . . . . . .quarts (U.S. liquid)<br />
cubic feet . . . . . . . . . . .28320 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms.<br />
1728 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches<br />
.028 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. meters<br />
.037 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. yards<br />
7.48 . . . . . . . . .gallons (U.S. liquid)<br />
28.32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters<br />
59.84 . . . . . . . . . . .pints (U.S. liquid)<br />
29.92 . . . . . . . . . .quarts (U.S. liquid)<br />
cubic feet/min. . . . . . . . . .472 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms./sec.<br />
.125 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gallons/sec.<br />
.472 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters/sec.<br />
62.43 . . . . . . . . . .pounds water/min.<br />
cubic inches . . . . . . . . .16.39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms.<br />
.000579 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft.<br />
.0000164 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. meters<br />
.0000214 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. yards<br />
.00433 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gallons<br />
.0164 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters<br />
.0346 . . . . . . . . . . .pints (U.S. liquid)<br />
.0173 . . . . . . . . . .quarts (U.S. liquid)<br />
cubic meters . . . . .1,000,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms.<br />
35.31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft.<br />
6102 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches<br />
1.308 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. yards<br />
264.2 . . . . . . . . .gallons (U.S. liquid)<br />
1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters<br />
2113 . . . . . . . . . . .pints (U.S. liuqid)<br />
1057 . . . . . . . . . .quarts (U.S. liquid)<br />
cubic yards . . . . . . . .764,600 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms.<br />
27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft.<br />
46656 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches<br />
.765 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. meters<br />
decigrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams<br />
deciliters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters<br />
decimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters<br />
degrees (angle) . . . . . . ..011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .quadrants<br />
.0175 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .radians<br />
3600 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .seconds<br />
degrees/sec. . . . . . . . . ..0175 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .radians/sec.<br />
.0167 . . . . . . . . . . . . .rvolutions/min.<br />
.00278 . . . . . . . . . . . .revolutions/sec.<br />
dekagrams . . . . . . . . . . . .10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams<br />
dekaliters . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters<br />
dekameters . . . . . . . . . . . .10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters<br />
dynes/sq. cm. . . ..000000987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres<br />
.0000295 . . . . . .in. of mercury (at 0°C.)<br />
.000402 . . . . . . . . .in. of water (at 4°C)<br />
.00001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .bars<br />
feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30.48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .centimeters<br />
.000305 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilometers<br />
.305 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters<br />
.000189 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles (stat.)<br />
304.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .millimeters
GENERAL CONVERSION FACTORS (Cont’d)<br />
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN<br />
feet of water . . . . . . . . ..0295 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres<br />
.883 . . . . . . . . . . . . .in. of mercury<br />
.0305 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./sq. cm.<br />
304.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./sq. meter<br />
62.43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. ft.<br />
.434 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. in.<br />
feet/min. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..508 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cms./sec.<br />
.0167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet/sec.<br />
.0183 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kms./hr.<br />
.305 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters/min.<br />
.0114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/hr.<br />
30.48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cms./sec.<br />
feet/sec. . . . . . . . . . . . .1.097 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kms./hr.<br />
18.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters/min.<br />
.682 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/hr.<br />
.0114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/min.<br />
feet/sec./sec. . . . . . . . .30.48 . . . . . . . . . . . . .cms./sec./sec.<br />
1.097 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kms./hr./sec.<br />
.305 . . . . . . . . . . .meters/sec./sec.<br />
foot-pounds . . . . . . . . ..00129 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu<br />
.324 . . . . . . . . . . . . .gram-calories<br />
.000000505 . . . . . . . . . . .horsepower-hrs.<br />
1.356 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .joules<br />
.000324 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-calories<br />
.138 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-meters<br />
.000000377 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatt-hrs.<br />
foot-pounds/sec. . . . . . . .4.63 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu/hr.<br />
.0772 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu/min.<br />
.00182 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .horsepower<br />
.00195 . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-calories/min.<br />
.00136 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatts<br />
.00001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilometers<br />
gallons . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3785 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms.<br />
.134 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. feet<br />
231 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches<br />
.00379 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. meters<br />
.00495 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. yards<br />
3.785 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters<br />
gallons (liq. Br. imp.) . . .1.201 . . . . . . . . .gallons (U.S. liuqid)<br />
gallons (U.S.) . . . . . . . . ..833 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gallons (imp.)<br />
gallons of water . . . . . . .8.34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gallons (imp.)<br />
gallons/min. . . . . . . . ..00223 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. feet/sec.<br />
.0631 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters/sec.<br />
8.021 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. feet/hr.<br />
grains (troy) . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .grains (avdp.)<br />
.0648 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams<br />
.00208 . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces (avdp.)<br />
grams . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15.43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grains (troy)<br />
.0000981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .joules/cm.<br />
.00981 . . . . . .joules/meter (newtons)<br />
.001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilograms<br />
1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .milligrams<br />
.0353 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces (troy)<br />
.00221 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds<br />
grams/cu. cm. . . . . . . . .62.43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/cu. ft.<br />
.0361 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/cu. in.<br />
grams/liter . . . . . . . . . . .58.42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grains/gal.<br />
8.345 . . . . . . . . . .pounds/1,000 gal.<br />
.0624 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/cu. ft.<br />
65<br />
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN<br />
grams/sq. cm. . . . . . . . .2.048 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. ft.<br />
gram-calories . . . . . . ..00397 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu<br />
3.086 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-pounds<br />
.00000156 . . . . . . . . . . .horsepower-hrs.<br />
.00000116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatt-hrs.<br />
.00116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .watt-hrs.<br />
gram-calories/sec. . . . .14.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu/hr.<br />
hectares . . . . . . . . . . . .2.471 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .acres<br />
10760 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. feet<br />
hectograms . . . . . . . . . . .100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams<br />
hectoliters . . . . . . . . . . . .100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters<br />
hectometers . . . . . . . . . . .100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters<br />
hectowatts . . . . . . . . . . . .100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .watts<br />
horsepower . . . . . . . . . .42.44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu/min.<br />
33000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-lbs./min.<br />
550 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-lbs./sec.<br />
horsepower (metric) . . . ..986 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .horsepower<br />
horsepower . . . . . . . . ..1.014 . . . . . . . .horsepower (metric)<br />
10.68 . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-calories/min.<br />
.746 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatts<br />
745.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .watts<br />
horsepower-hours . . . . ..2547 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu<br />
1,980,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-lbs.<br />
641,190 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gram-caloies<br />
2,684,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .joules<br />
641.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-calories<br />
273,700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-meters<br />
.746 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatt-hrs.<br />
hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..0417 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .days<br />
.00595 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .weeks<br />
25.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .millimeters<br />
1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .mils<br />
.0278 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .yards<br />
in. of mercury . . . . . . . ..0334 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres<br />
1.133 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet of water<br />
.0345 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./sq. cm.<br />
345.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./sq. meter<br />
70.73 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. ft<br />
.491 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. in.<br />
in. of water (at 4°C) . . ..00246 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres<br />
.0736 . . . . . . . . . .inches of mercury<br />
.00254 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./sq. cm.<br />
.578 . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces/sq. in.<br />
5.204 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. ft.<br />
.0361 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. in.<br />
joules . . . . . . . . . . . ..000949 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu<br />
.774 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-pounds<br />
.000239 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-calories<br />
.102 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-meters<br />
.000278 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .watt-hrs.<br />
kilograms . . . . . . . . . . . .1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams<br />
.0981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .joules/cm.<br />
9.807 . . . . . .joules/meter (newtons)<br />
2.205 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds<br />
.000984 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .tons (long)<br />
.00110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .tons (short)<br />
35.27 . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces (avdp.)
GENERAL CONVERSION FACTORS (Cont’d)<br />
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN<br />
kilograms/cu. meter . . . . ..001 . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams/cu. cm. meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .centimeters<br />
.0624 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/cu. ft<br />
3.281 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet<br />
.0000361 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/cu. in.<br />
39.37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .inches<br />
kilograms/sq. cm. . . . .980665 . . . . . . . . . . . . .dynes/sq. cm.<br />
.968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres<br />
32.81 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet of water<br />
28.96 . . . . . . . . . .inches of mercury<br />
2048 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. ft.<br />
14.22 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. in.<br />
kilograms/sq. meter ..0000968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres<br />
.0000981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .bars<br />
.00328 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet of water<br />
.0029 . . . . . . . . . .inches of mercury<br />
.205 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. ft.<br />
.00142 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. in.<br />
98.07 . . . . . . . . . . . . .dynes/sq. cm.<br />
kilograms/sq. mm . .1,000,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./sq. meter<br />
kilogram-calories . . . . . .3.968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu<br />
3086 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-pounds<br />
.00156 . . . . . . . . . . .horsepower-hrs.<br />
4183 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .joules<br />
1163 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatt-hrs.<br />
kilogram-meters . . . . . .7.233 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-pounds<br />
.001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilometers<br />
.00054 . . . . . . . . . . . .miles (nautical)<br />
.000621 . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles (statute)<br />
1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .millimeters<br />
1.094 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .yards<br />
meters/min. . . . . . . . . . .1.667 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cms./sec.<br />
3.281 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet/min.<br />
.0547 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet/sec.<br />
.06 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kms./hr.<br />
.0373 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/hr.<br />
meters/sec. . . . . . . . . . .196.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet/min.<br />
3.281 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet/sec.<br />
3.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilometers/hr.<br />
.06 . . . . . . . . . . . .kilometers/min.<br />
2.237 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/hr.<br />
.0373 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/min.<br />
meters/sec./sec. . . . . . . .100 . . . . . . . . . . . . .cms./sec./sec.<br />
3.281 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ft./sec./sec.<br />
3.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kms./hr.sec.<br />
9.807 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .joules<br />
2.237 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/hr./sec.<br />
.00234 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-calories micrograms . . . . . . . ..000001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams<br />
.00000272 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatt-hrs. micrograms/cu. ft. . . ..000001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams/cu. ft<br />
kiloliters . . . . . . . . . . . . .1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters<br />
.0000353 . . . . . . . . . . .grams/cu. meter<br />
kilometers . . . . . . . . .100,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .centimeters<br />
.00000022 . . . . . . . . . . . .lbs./1000 cu. ft.<br />
3281 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet<br />
35.314 . . . . . . .micrograms/cu. meter<br />
39,370 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .inches micrograms/cu. m. . . . .0.001 . . . . . . . . . . .milligrams/cu. m.<br />
1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters<br />
0.02832 . . . . . . . . . . .micrograms/cu. ft<br />
.621 . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles (statute)<br />
.54 . . . . . . . . . . . .miles (nautical)<br />
1,000,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .millimeters<br />
1093.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .yards<br />
kilometers/hr. . . . . . . . .27.78 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cms./sec.<br />
54.68 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet/min.<br />
.911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet/sec.<br />
kilowatts . . . . . . . . . . . . .3413 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu/hr<br />
44,260 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-lbs./min.<br />
737.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-lbs.sec.<br />
1.341 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .horsepower<br />
14.34 . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-calories/min.<br />
1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .watts<br />
kilowatt-hrs. . . . . . . . . . .3413 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu<br />
2,655,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-lbs.<br />
859,850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gram calories<br />
1.341 . . . . . . . . . .horsepower-hours<br />
3,600,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .joules<br />
860.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-calories<br />
367,100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-meters<br />
microhms . . . . . . . . ..000001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ohms<br />
microliters . . . . . . . . ..000001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters<br />
micromicrons ..000000000001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters<br />
microns . . . . . . . . . . ..000001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters<br />
miles (statute) . . . . . .160,900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .centimeters<br />
5280 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet<br />
63360 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .inches<br />
1.609 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilometers<br />
1609 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters<br />
.868 . . . . . . . . . . . .miles (nautical)<br />
1760 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .yards<br />
miles/hr. . . . . . . . . . . . .44.70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cms./sec.<br />
88 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ft./min.<br />
1.467 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ft./sec.<br />
1.609 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kms./hr.<br />
.0268 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kms./min.<br />
26.82 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters/min.<br />
.0167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/min.<br />
milligrams . . . . . . . . . . . ..001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams<br />
3.53 . .pounds of water evaporated milligrams/liter . . . . . . . . . .1.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .parts/million<br />
from and at 212°F milliters . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters<br />
22.75 . . . . . .pounds of water raised millimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .centimeters<br />
from 62° to 212°F.<br />
.00328 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet<br />
liters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cm.<br />
.0394 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .inches<br />
.0353 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft.<br />
.000001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilometers<br />
61.02 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches<br />
.001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters<br />
.001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. meters<br />
.000000621 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles<br />
.00131 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. yards<br />
.264 . . . . . . . . .gallons (U.S. liquid)<br />
2.113 . . . . . . . . . . .pints (U.S. liquid)<br />
1.057 . . . . . . . . . .quarts (U.S. liquid)<br />
liters/min. . . . . . . . . . ..00589 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft./sec.<br />
.0044 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gals./sec.<br />
39.37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .mils<br />
.00109 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .yards<br />
mils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..00254 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .centimeters<br />
.0000833 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet<br />
.001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .inches<br />
66
GENERAL CONVERSION FACTORS (Cont’d)<br />
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN<br />
minutes (angles) . . . . . ..0167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .degrees<br />
.000185 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .quadrants<br />
.000291 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .radians<br />
60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .seconds<br />
minutes (time) . . . . ..0000992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .weeks<br />
.000694 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .days<br />
.0167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .hours<br />
60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .seconds<br />
ounces . . . . . . . . . . . . .437.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grains<br />
28.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grains<br />
.0625 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds<br />
.912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces (troy)<br />
ounces (fluid) . . . . . . . .1.805 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches<br />
.0296 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters<br />
ounces (troy) . . . . . . . . . .480 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grains<br />
31.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams<br />
1.097 . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces (avdp.)<br />
ounce/sq. in. . . . . . . . . .4309 . . . . . . . . . . . . .dynes/sq. cm.<br />
.0625 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. in.<br />
1.732 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .inches w.c.<br />
parts/million . . . . . . . . ..0584 . . . . . . . . . . . .grains/U.S. gal.<br />
.0702 . . . . . . . . . . . .grains/imp. gal.<br />
8.345 . . . . . . . . . .pounds/million gal.<br />
ppm (volume) . . .385,100,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lb/ft 3<br />
0.02404 . . . . . . . . . .micrograms/cu. m.<br />
ppm (weight) . . . . . . . . .0012 . . . . . . . . . .micrograms/cu. m.<br />
pints (liquid) . . . . . . . . .473.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic cms.<br />
.0167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic ft.<br />
28.87 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic inches<br />
.000473 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic meters<br />
.000619 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic yards<br />
.125 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gallons<br />
.473 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters<br />
.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . .quarts (liquid)<br />
poise 1.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . .gram/cm.-sec.<br />
pounds 7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grains<br />
453.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams<br />
4.448 . . . . . .joules/meter (newtons)<br />
.454 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilograms<br />
16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces<br />
14.58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces (troy)<br />
.0005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .tons (short)<br />
pounds of water . . . . . . ..016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft.<br />
27.68 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches<br />
.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gallons<br />
pounds of water/min. .000267 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft/sec.<br />
pounds/cu. ft. . . . . . . . . ..016 . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams/cu. cm.<br />
16.02 . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./cu. meter<br />
133,700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ppm (weight)<br />
.000579 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/cu. in.<br />
pounds/cu. in. . . . . . . . .27.68 . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams/cu. cm.<br />
27680 . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./cu. meter<br />
1728 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/cu. ft<br />
pounds/ft. . . . . . . . . . . .1.488 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./meter<br />
pounds/in. . . . . . . . . . . .178.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams/cm.<br />
67<br />
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN<br />
pounds/sq. ft. . . . . . ..000473 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres<br />
.016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet of water<br />
.0141 . . . . . . . . . .inches of mercury<br />
.192 . . . . . . . . . . . .inches of water<br />
4.882 . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./sq. meter<br />
.111 . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces/sq. inch<br />
.00694 . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. inch<br />
pounds/sq. inc. . . . . . . . ..068 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres<br />
2.307 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet of water<br />
2.036 . . . . . . . . . .inches of mercury<br />
27.71 . . . . . . . . . . . .inches of water<br />
703.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./sq. meter<br />
16 . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces/sq. inch<br />
144 . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. foot<br />
quadrants (angle) . . . . . . .90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .degrees<br />
5400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .minutes<br />
1.571 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .radians<br />
324,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .seconds<br />
quarts (liquid) . . . . . . . .946.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms.<br />
.0334 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft.<br />
57.75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches<br />
.000946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. meters<br />
.00124 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. yards<br />
.25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gallons<br />
.946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters<br />
radians . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .degrees<br />
3438 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .minutes<br />
.637 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .quadrants<br />
206,300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .seconds<br />
radian/sec. . . . . . . . . . . .9.55 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .rpm<br />
rpm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.1047 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .rad./sec.<br />
seconds (angle) . . . ..000278 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .degrees<br />
.0167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .minutes<br />
square centimeters . .197,300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .circular mils<br />
.00108 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. feet<br />
.155 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. inches<br />
.0001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. meters<br />
100 . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. millimeters<br />
.00012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. yards<br />
square feet . . . . . . . . . . .929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. cms.<br />
144 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. inches<br />
.093 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. meters<br />
.0000000359 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. miles<br />
92900 . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. millimeters<br />
.111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. yards<br />
square inches . . . . . . . .6.452 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. cms.<br />
.00694 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. ft.<br />
645.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. millimeters<br />
1,000,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. mils<br />
.000772 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. yards<br />
square kilometers .10,760,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. ft.<br />
1,000,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. meters<br />
.386 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. miles
GENERAL CONVERSION FACTORS (Cont’d)<br />
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN<br />
square meters . . . . . . .10000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. cms.<br />
10.76 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. ft.<br />
1550 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. inches<br />
1,000,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. millimeters<br />
1,196 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. yards<br />
square miles . . . .27,880,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. ft.<br />
2.590 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. kms.<br />
2,590,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. meters<br />
3,098,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. yards<br />
square millimeters . . . . .1973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .circular mils<br />
.01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. cms.<br />
.0000108 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. ft.<br />
.00155 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. inches<br />
therms . . . . . . . . . . .100,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu<br />
tons (long) . . . . . . . . . . .1016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilograms<br />
2240 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds<br />
1.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .tons (short)<br />
tons (metric) . . . . . . . . .1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilograms<br />
2205 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds<br />
tons (short) . . . . . . . . . .907.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilograms<br />
32000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces<br />
2917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces (troy)<br />
2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds<br />
2430 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds (troy)<br />
.893 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .tons (long)<br />
.908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .tons (metric)<br />
68<br />
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN<br />
ton refrigeration (U.S.) .12,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu/hr<br />
83.33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lb. ice melted<br />
per hr. from and at 32°F<br />
watts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.413 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu/hr.<br />
.0569 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu/min.<br />
44.27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ft.-lbs./min.<br />
.738 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ft.-lbs./sec.<br />
.00134 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .horsepower<br />
.00136 . . . . . . . .horsepower (metric)<br />
.0143 . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-calories/min.<br />
.001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatts<br />
watt-hours . . . . . . . . . . .3.413 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu<br />
2656 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-lbs.<br />
860.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . .gram-calories<br />
.00134 . . . . . . . . . .horsepower-hours<br />
.861 . . . . . . . . . . .kilogram-calories<br />
367.2 . . . . . . . . . . .kologram-meters<br />
.001 . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatt-hours<br />
watt/sq.cm. . . . . . . . . .3170.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu/hr./sq. foot<br />
watt cm btu-ft<br />
sq. cm. °F . . . . . . . . . . .57.79 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hr. sq. ft. °F<br />
TEMPERATURE CONVERSIONS<br />
°Fahrenheit = 9/5°C + 32<br />
°Celsius = 5/9 (°F–32)<br />
°Rankine = °F absolute = °F + 459.69<br />
°Kelvin = °C absolute = °C + 273.16<br />
Fahrenheit to Celsius Celsius to Fahrenheit<br />
°F °C °F °C °C °F °C °F<br />
0 -17.78 950 510.0 0 32 850 1562<br />
20 -6.67 1000 537.8 10 50 900 1652<br />
40 4.44 1100 593.3 20 68 950 1742<br />
60 15.56 1200 648.9 30 86 1000 1832<br />
80 26.67 1300 704.4 40 104 1050 1922<br />
100 37.78 1400 760.0 50 122 1100 2012<br />
120 48.89 1500 815.6 60 140 1150 2102<br />
140 60.00 1600 871.1 70 158 1200 2192<br />
160 71.11 1700 926.7 80 176 1250 2282<br />
180 82.22 1800 982.2 90 194 1300 2372<br />
200 93.33 1900 1038 100 212 1350 2462<br />
250 121.1 2000 1093 150 302 1400 2552<br />
300 148.9 2100 1149 200 392 1450 2642<br />
350 176.7 2200 1204 250 482 1500 2732<br />
400 204.4 2300 1260 300 572 1550 2822<br />
450 232.2 2400 1316 350 662 1600 2912<br />
500 260.0 2500 1371 400 752 1650 3002<br />
550 287.8 2600 1427 450 842 1700 3092<br />
600 315.6 2700 1482 500 932 1750 3182<br />
650 343.3 2800 1538 550 1022 1800 3272<br />
700 371.1 2900 1593 600 1112 1850 3362<br />
750 398.9 3000 1649 650 1202 1900 3452<br />
800 426.7 3200 1760 700 1292 1950 3542<br />
850 454.4 3400 1871 750 1382 2000 3632<br />
900 482.2 3600 1982 800 1472 2050 3722
PRESSURE CONVERSIONS<br />
inches ounces/ inches kilograms/ millimeters kilowater<br />
sq in lb/sq in mercury millibars sq cm water pascals<br />
("w.c.) (osi) (psi) ("Hg) (mbar) (kg/cm 2 ) (mm H 2O) (kPa)<br />
.04 .023 .001 .003 .1 .0001 1 .01<br />
.1 .058 .004 .007 .25 .0003 2.54 .02<br />
.17 .1 .006 .013 .42 .0004 4.4 .04<br />
.2 .115 .007 .015 .5 .0005 5.08 .05<br />
.35 .2 .013 .026 .87 .0009 8.8 .09<br />
.39 .227 .014 .029 .97 .001 10 .1<br />
.40 .23 .015 .029 1 .0010 10.2 .1<br />
.5 .29 .018 .037 1.24 .0013 12.7 .12<br />
.787 .45 .028 .058 1.96 .002 20 .2<br />
.80 .46 .029 .059 2 .0020 20.4 .2<br />
.87 .5 .031 .064 2.16 .0022 22 .22<br />
1 .58 .036 .074 2.49 .0025 25.4 .25<br />
1.73 1 .063 .127 4.30 .0044 44 .43<br />
2 1.15 .072 .147 4.98 .0051 50.8 .5<br />
2.01 1.16 .073 .148 5 .0051 51 .5<br />
2.77 1.6 .1 .204 6.89 .0070 70.3 .69<br />
3 1.73 .108 .221 7.46 .0076 76.2 .75<br />
3.46 2 .125 .254 8.61 .0088 87.9 .86<br />
4 2.31 .144 .294 9.95 .010 101.6 1<br />
4.02 2.32 .145 .296 10 .010 102 1<br />
5 2.89 .181 .368 12.5 .013 127 1.25<br />
5.2 3 .188 .382 12.9 .013 131.9 1.29<br />
5.54 3.2 .2 .407 13.8 .014 140.7 1.38<br />
6 3.46 .216 .441 14.9 .015 152.4 1.49<br />
6.93 4 .25 .51 17.2 .018 175.8 1.72<br />
7 4.04 .253 .515 17.4 .018 177.8 1.74<br />
8 4.62 .289 .588 19.9 .020 203.2 1.99<br />
8.03 4.64 .29 .591 20 .020 204 2<br />
8.66 5 .313 .637 21.5 .022 219.8 2.15<br />
9 5.2 .325 .662 22.4 .023 228.6 2.24<br />
10 5.77 .361 .735 24.9 .025 254 2.49<br />
10.39 6 .375 .764 25.9 .026 263.8 2.59<br />
11 6.35 .397 .809 27.4 .028 279.4 2.74<br />
12 6.93 .433 .882 29.9 .030 304.8 2.99<br />
12.05 6.96 .435 .887 30 .031 306 3<br />
12.12 7 .438 .891 30.2 .031 307.7 3.02<br />
13 7.51 .469 .956 32.4 .033 330.2 3.24<br />
13.6 7.85 .491 1 33.8 .035 345.4 3.38<br />
13.86 8 .5 1.02 34.5 .035 351.6 3.45<br />
14 8.08 .505 1.03 34.9 .036 355.5 3.49<br />
15 8.66 .541 1.10 37.4 .038 381 3.74<br />
15.59 9 .563 1.15 38.8 .04 395.6 3.88<br />
16 9.24 .578 1.18 39.8 .041 406.4 3.98<br />
16.06 9.28 .58 1.18 40 .041 408 4<br />
17 9.82 .614 1.25 42.3 .043 431.8 4.23<br />
17.32 10 .625 1.27 43.1 .044 439.6 4.31<br />
18 10.39 .649 1.32 44.8 .046 457.2 4.48<br />
19 10.97 .686 1.4 47.3 .048 482.6 4.73<br />
19.05 11 .688 1.40 47.4 .048 483.6 4.74<br />
20 11.55 .722 1.47 49.8 .051 508 4.98<br />
69
PRESSURE CONVERSIONS (Cont’d)<br />
inches ounces/ inches kilograms/ millimeters kilowater<br />
sq in lb/sq in mercury millibars sq cm water pascals<br />
("w.c.) (osi) (psi) ("Hg) (mbar) (kg/cm 2 ) (mm H 2O) (kPa)<br />
20.1 11.6 .725 1.48 50 .051 510 5<br />
20.78 12 .75 1.53 51.7 .053 528 5.17<br />
21 12.12 .758 1.54 52.3 .053 533 5.23<br />
22 12.7 .794 1.62 54.8 .056 559 5.48<br />
22.52 13 .813 1.66 56.0 .057 572 5.60<br />
23 13.28 .83 1.69 57.3 .058 584 5.73<br />
24 13.86 .866 1.76 59.7 .061 610 5.98<br />
24.1 13.92 .87 1.77 60 .061 612 6<br />
24.25 14 .875 1.78 60.3 .062 615 6.03<br />
25 14.43 .902 1.84 62.3 .064 635 6.23<br />
25.98 15 .938 1.91 64.6 .066 659 6.46<br />
26 15.01 .938 1.91 64.7 .066 660 6.47<br />
27 15.59 .974 1.99 67.2 .069 686 6.72<br />
27.2 15.7 .982 2 67.7 .069 711 6.77<br />
27.71 16 1 2.04 68.9 .070 703 6.89<br />
28 16.17 1.01 2.06 69.7 .071 711 6.97<br />
28.11 16.24 1.02 2.07 70 .071 714 7<br />
29 16.74 1.05 2.13 72.2 .074 737 7.22<br />
29.44 17 1.06 2.16 73.3 .075 747 7.33<br />
30 17.32 1.08 2.21 74.7 .076 762 7.47<br />
31 17.9 1.12 2.28 77.2 .079 787 7.72<br />
31.18 18 1.13 2.29 77.6 .079 791 7.76<br />
32 18.48 1.16 2.35 79.7 .081 813 7.97<br />
32.13 18.56 1.16 2.36 80 .082 816 8<br />
32.91 19 1.19 2.42 81.9 .084 835 8.19<br />
33 19.05 1.19 2.43 82.2 .084 838 8.22<br />
34 19.63 1.23 2.5 84.7 .086 864 8.47<br />
34-64 20 1.25 2.55 86.2 .088 879 8.62<br />
35 20.21 1.26 2.57 87.2 .089 889 8.72<br />
36 20.79 1.3 2.65 89.6 .091 914 8.96<br />
36.14 20.88 1.31 2.66 90 .092 918 9<br />
36.37 21 1.31 2.67 90.5 .092 923 9.05<br />
37 21.36 1.34 2.72 92.1 .094 940 9.21<br />
38 21.94 1.37 2.79 94.6 .097 965 9.46<br />
38.1 22 1.38 2.80 94.8 .097 967 9.48<br />
39 22.52 1.41 2.87 97.1 .099 991 9.71<br />
39.37 22.73 1.42 2.89 98.0 .1 1000 9.80<br />
39.84 23 1.44 2.93 99.1 .101 1011 9.91<br />
40 23.09 1.44 2.94 99.6 .102 1016 9.96<br />
40.16 23.20 1.45 2.96 100 .102 1020 10<br />
40.8 23.56 1.47 3 101.5 .104 1036 10.2<br />
41 23.67 1.48 3.01 102.0 .104 1041 10.2<br />
41.57 24 1.5 3.06 103.4 .106 1055 10.3<br />
42 24.25 1.52 3.09 104.5 .107 1067 10.5<br />
43 24.83 1.55 3.16 107 .109 1092 10.7<br />
43.3 25 1.56 3.18 107.7 .11 1099 10.8<br />
44 25.4 1.59 3.24 109.5 .112 1118 11<br />
45 26 1.63 3.31 112 .114 1144 11.2<br />
46 26.56 1.66 3.38 114.5 .117 1168 11.5<br />
46.76 27 1.69 3.44 116.3 .118 1184 11.6<br />
70
PRESSURE CONVERSIONS<br />
inches ounces/ inches kilograms/ millimeters kilowater<br />
sq in lb/sq in mercury millibars sq cm water pascals<br />
("w.c.) (osi) (psi) ("Hg) (mbar) (kg/cm 2 ) (mm H 2O) (kPa)<br />
47 27.14 1.7 3.46 116.9 .119 1194 11.7<br />
48 27.71 1.73 3.53 119.4 .122 1219 12<br />
48.5 28 1.75 3.57 120.7 .123 1232 12.1<br />
49 28.29 1.77 3.60 121.9 .124 1245 12.2<br />
50 28.87 1.80 3.68 124.4 .127 1270 12.5<br />
50.23 29 1.81 3.69 125 .128 1276 12.5<br />
51 29.45 1.84 3.75 126.9 .13 1295 12.7<br />
51.96 30 1.88 3.82 129.3 .132 1320 12.9<br />
52 30.02 1.88 3.82 129.4 .132 1321 12.9<br />
53 30.6 1.91 3.9 131.9 .135 1346 13.2<br />
53.69 31 1.94 3.95 133.6 .136 1364 13.4<br />
54 31.18 1.95 3.97 134.4 .137 1372 13.4<br />
54.4 31.41 1.96 4 135.4 .138 1382 13.5<br />
55.4 32 2 4.07 137.8 .141 1408 13.8<br />
68 39.26 2.45 5 169.2 .173 1727 16.9<br />
78.7 45.46 2.84 5.79 195.8 .2 2000 19.6<br />
80.32 46.4 2.9 5.91 200 .204 2040 20<br />
81.6 47.11 2.94 6 203 .207 2072 20.3<br />
83.14 48 3 6.11 207 .211 2112 20.7<br />
95.2 55 3.44 7 237 .242 2418 23.7<br />
108.8 62.8 3.93 8 271 .276 2763 27.1<br />
110.8 64 4 8.15 276 .282 2816 27.6<br />
120.5 69.6 4.35 8.87 300 .306 3060 30<br />
138.6 80 5 10.2 345 .352 3517 34.5<br />
160.6 92.8 5.8 11.8 400 .408 4080 40<br />
166.3 96 6 12.2 414 .422 4223 41.4<br />
194 112 7 14.3 483 .493 4927 48.3<br />
196.9 113.7 7.1 14.5 490 .5 5000 49.0<br />
200.8 116 7.25 14.8 500 .510 5100 50<br />
221.7 128 8 16.3 552 .563 5631 55.2<br />
241 139 8.7 17.7 600 .612 6120 60<br />
249.4 144 9 18.3 621 .634 6335 62.1<br />
277.1 160 10 20.4 689 .703 7033 68.9<br />
281.1 162 10.15 20.7 700 .714 7140 70<br />
321.3 186 11.6 23.6 800 .816 8160 80<br />
361.4 209 13.05 26.6 900 .918 9180 90<br />
393.7 227 14.21 28.9 980 1 10,000 98.0<br />
401.6 232 14.5 29.6 1000 1.02 10,200 100<br />
415.7 240 15 30.6 1034 1.06 10,559 103.4<br />
554 320 20 40.7 1378 1.41 14,072 137.8<br />
693 400 25 51 1724 1.76 17,602 172.4<br />
831 480 30 61.1 2068 2.11 21,107 206.8<br />
970 560 35 71.3 2414 2.46 24,638 241.3<br />
1108 640 40 81.5 2757 2.81 28,143 275.8<br />
1386 800 50 101.9 3449 3.52 35,204 344.7<br />
1663 960 60 122.3 4138 4.22 42,240 413.7<br />
1940 1120 70 142.6 4827 4.93 49,276 482.6<br />
2217 1280 80 163.0 5516 5.63 56,312 551.6<br />
2494 1440 90 183.4 6206 6.33 63,348 620.5<br />
2771 1600 100 203.8 6895 7.04 70,383 689.5<br />
71
Abbreviations<br />
Air<br />
61<br />
effect of altitude 20<br />
effect of pressure 20<br />
effect of temp. 21<br />
infiltration<br />
pipe<br />
53<br />
sizing 16<br />
pressure losses<br />
Air Heating<br />
12<br />
heat requirements<br />
Alloys<br />
45<br />
thermal capacities<br />
Area<br />
40<br />
of circles<br />
Available Heat<br />
57, 58<br />
definition 35-36<br />
charts 51<br />
Black Body Radiation<br />
Blowers<br />
49<br />
as suction device 20<br />
fan laws 19<br />
horsepower 20<br />
ratings<br />
Boilers<br />
18, 19<br />
Btu/hr. & H.P. 31<br />
conversion factors 30<br />
sizing steam pipe<br />
Butane<br />
32<br />
butane/air mixtures 24<br />
properties 22, 23<br />
Cv Circles<br />
16<br />
areas 57, 58<br />
circumferences<br />
Circumference<br />
57, 58<br />
of circles 57, 58<br />
Coefficients of Discharge 4<br />
Cones, Pyrometric<br />
Conversions<br />
50<br />
boilers 30<br />
h.p. & Btu/hr. 31<br />
general 64 thru 68<br />
oil viscosity 26<br />
pressure 69<br />
temperature, °F & °C<br />
Crucibles<br />
69<br />
capacities & dimensions<br />
Drills<br />
43<br />
sizes 59<br />
tap drill sizes 60<br />
Duct Velocity 17<br />
Efficiency, Thermal<br />
Electrical<br />
36<br />
formulas 33<br />
motor current 34<br />
motor starters 33<br />
NEMA enclosures 34<br />
ohm’s law 33<br />
symbols 62, 63<br />
wire specs<br />
Equivalent Length<br />
33<br />
pipe 14<br />
valves 14<br />
Fan Laws<br />
Fans<br />
see blowers<br />
19<br />
INDEX<br />
Flame Tip Temp.<br />
Flow<br />
52<br />
and Cv 16<br />
and duct velocity 17<br />
orifices 4<br />
Flue Gas Analysis 52<br />
Flue Sizing<br />
Fume Incineration<br />
53<br />
heat requirements 45<br />
sizing<br />
Furnaces<br />
46<br />
cold air infiltration 53<br />
flue sizing 53<br />
thermal head 53<br />
turndown 36<br />
Gas/Air Mixtures<br />
Gases<br />
24<br />
available heat 51<br />
combustion products 23<br />
constituents 22<br />
density 22<br />
flame temp. 23<br />
flame velocity 22<br />
flammability limits 22<br />
heat release 23<br />
heating value 23<br />
ignition temp. 22<br />
mixtures 24<br />
pipe, sizing 16<br />
properties 22-24,37<br />
specific gravity 22<br />
specific volume 22<br />
stoichiometric ratio<br />
Heat<br />
22<br />
available 35-36<br />
balance<br />
losses<br />
35-36<br />
general 35-36<br />
refractory 44<br />
spray washers 48<br />
tank 47<br />
net output 35-36<br />
required for processes 41<br />
storage, refractory 44<br />
storage, tank 47<br />
transfer, equations<br />
Heating Operations<br />
52<br />
temp. & heat req’d.<br />
Liquid Heating<br />
41-42<br />
sizing, burner<br />
Metals<br />
47<br />
thermal capacities<br />
Motors<br />
40<br />
current 34<br />
formulas 33<br />
NEMA size starters 33<br />
Natural Gas, Properties 22-23<br />
Net Heat Output<br />
Nozzles<br />
35-36<br />
spray capacities 48<br />
Ohm’s Law<br />
Oil<br />
33<br />
ANSI specs 25<br />
heating value & °API 27<br />
piping pressure losses 27, 28<br />
piping temp. losses 29<br />
s.g. & °API 27<br />
typical properties 26<br />
viscosity conversions 26<br />
72<br />
Orifices<br />
capacities<br />
high pressure 9-11<br />
low pressure 5-8<br />
coefficients of discharge 4<br />
flow formulas 4<br />
Pipe<br />
capacities 54<br />
dimensions<br />
fittings<br />
54<br />
dimensions 55<br />
equivalent length 14<br />
flange templates<br />
pressure losses<br />
60<br />
air 12<br />
natural gas 13, 14<br />
oil<br />
sizing<br />
27, 28<br />
air, gas & mixture 15<br />
air, quick method 15<br />
branch 16<br />
steam 32<br />
water 31<br />
Pressure, Conversions<br />
Propane<br />
69-71<br />
propane/air mixtures 24<br />
properties<br />
see also Gases<br />
22, 23<br />
Pyrometric Cones 50<br />
Radiant Tubes 43<br />
Radiation, Black Body 49<br />
Refractory<br />
Sheet Metal<br />
44<br />
gauges 56<br />
weights<br />
Spray Washers<br />
56<br />
heat loss factors 48<br />
heat requirements 48<br />
nozzle capacities<br />
Steam<br />
48<br />
pipe sizing 32<br />
properties 30<br />
terminology<br />
Symbols<br />
30<br />
electrical<br />
Temperature<br />
62, 63<br />
°F & °C 68<br />
flame tip 52<br />
refractory face 44<br />
required, various processes<br />
Thermal<br />
41<br />
capacities, metals & alloys 40<br />
efficiency 36<br />
head, furnaces 53<br />
properties, materials<br />
Turndown<br />
37<br />
furnace<br />
Valves<br />
36<br />
Cv and flow 16<br />
equivalent pipe length 14<br />
Velocity, Duct<br />
Washers, spray<br />
17<br />
heat requirements<br />
Wire<br />
48<br />
gauges 56<br />
specifications 33<br />
weights 56
Tech Notes<br />
Section 1-<strong>Eclipse</strong> Equipment (numbers correspond to Bulletin numbers)<br />
656 Selecting TVT Mixing Tees (Page 74)<br />
810/812 Sizing Pilots, Blasts Tips & Pilot Mixers with Flow Charts (Page 76)<br />
Section 2-<strong>Engineering</strong> Data<br />
Part A- Combustion Data<br />
A-1 Flue Gas Analysis vs. Excess Air (Page 80)<br />
A-2 Flame Temperatures vs. Air Preheat & % Oxygen (Page 81)<br />
A-3 Available Heat vs. Oxygen Enrichment (Page 82)<br />
A-4 Available Heat-Extended Chart (Page 83)<br />
Part C- Control systems<br />
C-1 Summary of Fuel-Air Ratio Control Systems for Nozzle Mixing Burners (Page 84)<br />
C-2 Ratio Control Using Proportioning Fixed Port Valves for Nozzle Mixing Burners (Page 85)<br />
C-3 Ratio Control Using Proportioning (Adjustable Characteristic) Valves for Nozzle Mixing Burners (Page 87)<br />
C-4 Ratio Control Using Cross-Connected Proportionators for Nozzle Mixing Burners (Page 89)<br />
C-5 Ratio Control Using Cross-Connected Proportionator with Bleed Fitting for Nozzle Mixing Burners (Page 91)<br />
C-6 Ratio Control Using Electronic Controllers for Nozzle Mixing Burners (Page 92)<br />
C-7 Excess Air Operation by Controlling Fuel Only for Nozzle Mixing Burners (Page 94)<br />
C-8 Excess Air Operation with Biased Proportionator for Nozzle Mixing Burners (Page 95)<br />
C-9 Excess Air Operation with Throttled Impulse (Adjustable Bleed) to Proportionator for Nozzle Mixing<br />
Burners (Page 96)<br />
C-10 Backpressure Compensation System for Cross-Connected Nozzle Mix Burner Systems (Page 97)<br />
Part E- Emissions<br />
E-2 Conversion Factors for Emissions Calculations (Page 98)<br />
E-3 Correcting Emissions Readings to 3% O 2 or 11% O 2 Basis (Page 100)<br />
Part H- Heat Recovery<br />
H-1 Recuperator Efficiency: Fuel Savings & Effectiveness (Page 101)<br />
Part R- Regulations & Codes<br />
R-1 NFPA Requirements for Gas Burner Systems (Page 103)<br />
R-2 IRI Requirements for Gas Burner Systems (Page 105)<br />
Section 3-Application Data<br />
Part I- Incineration<br />
I-1 Heating Values of Flammable Liquids (Page 108)<br />
Part L- Liquid Heating<br />
L-1 Immersion Tube Sizing (Page 110)<br />
L-2 Submerged Combustion (Page 112)<br />
L-3 Immersion Tubes-What Will The Stack Temperature Be? (Page 116)<br />
Part O- Ovens<br />
O-1 Determining % O 2 in a Recirculating System (Page 117)<br />
73<br />
Table Of Contents
Tech Notes<br />
Selecting TVT Mixing Tees—Bulletin 656<br />
General Remarks:<br />
Selection Data Required:<br />
Selection Procedure:<br />
Series TVT two-valve mixing tees lack a tapered discharge sleeve, so they are not as<br />
efficient as LP Proportional Mixers. Their performance will also be strongly affected<br />
by downstream piping, so use them only where gas pressure available at the mixer<br />
connection exceeds mixture pressure by:<br />
3" w.c. for natural or LP gas (except 166-24-TVT, which requires 7" w.c.)<br />
6" w.c. for coke oven gas<br />
8" w.c. for digester gas<br />
For coke oven or digester gas, do not use the 84-16, 124-24 or 166-24; their gas inlets<br />
are too small. Also, do not use any of these mixers with producer gas. Producer gas<br />
flows far exceed the capacity of the gas orifices and inlet connections.<br />
1. CFH air flow through the mixer (if customer specifies Btu/hr, divide by 100 to<br />
get cfh air).<br />
2. Air pressure available at mixer inlet, "w.c.<br />
3. Mixture pressure desired, "w.c.<br />
Section I<br />
Sheet 656<br />
1. Refer to Table I, page 75. Select a mixer whose maximum air capacity is higher<br />
than the required air flow.<br />
2. To size the air jet, subtract the mixture pressure from the air pressure. This<br />
gives you the air pressure drop available across the mixer. Then refer to the<br />
graph. Locate the desired air flow on the horizontal axis and the air pressure<br />
drop on the vertical axis. Locate the point where they intersect and then move<br />
right to the next diagonal line. That line represents the optimum jet size.<br />
3. Cross-check the air jet size against Table I to be sure it is within the range of<br />
sizes available for the mixer. If it isn’t, select the next larger size of mixer to<br />
avoid taking a higher pressure drop.<br />
74
Air ∆P Through Mixer, "w.c.<br />
Table I - TVT Mixer Data<br />
Range of<br />
Mixer Maximum Jet Sizes<br />
Catalog Air Flow, Air Jet 1/32nds of Use Mixer With<br />
No. scfh Part No. an inch These Gases<br />
44-17-TVT 900 0217- 10 - 16 Natural, LP, Coke Oven, Digester<br />
64-16-TVT 2000 0255- 12 - 25 Natural, LP, Coke Oven, Digester<br />
66-24-TVT 2000 0255- 12 - 25 Natural, LP, Coke Oven, Digester<br />
84-16-TVT 3500 0225- 18 - 36 Natural, LP<br />
86-24-TVT 3500 0225- 18 - 36 Natural, LP, Coke Oven, Digester<br />
124-24-TVT 8000 0695- 32 - 56 Natural, LP<br />
126-24-TVT 8000 0695- 32 - 56 Natural, LP, Coke Oven, Digester<br />
166-24-TVT 15,000 0994- 36 - 80 Natural, LP<br />
168-30-TVT 15,000 0994- 36 - 80 Natural, LP, Coke Oven, Digester<br />
Figure I - Air Jet Sizing Chart<br />
Air Jet Size<br />
21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 42 46 50 54<br />
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 44 48 52 56<br />
30<br />
25<br />
58<br />
60<br />
20<br />
62<br />
64<br />
15<br />
66<br />
68<br />
70<br />
72<br />
10<br />
74<br />
9<br />
76<br />
8<br />
78<br />
7<br />
6<br />
80<br />
200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 8000 10,000 15,000<br />
Maximum<br />
For 44-17 TVT<br />
Maximum<br />
For 64-16<br />
& 66-24 TVT<br />
Max. For<br />
84-16 &<br />
86-24 TVT<br />
Air Flow Through Mixer, scfh<br />
75<br />
Maximum For<br />
124-24 &<br />
126-24 TVT<br />
Max. For<br />
166-24 &<br />
168-30 TVT
Tech Notes<br />
Sizing Pilots, Blast Tips & Pilot Mixers With Flow Charts<br />
Selection Factors<br />
Using The Charts Properly<br />
Air<br />
To select the right equipment, you need to know:<br />
1. Type and number of pilot or blast tips;<br />
2. Btu/hr. at which each tip will fire;<br />
3. Air pressure (P ) available at the mixer inlet.<br />
A<br />
1. From the tip capacity chart on page 77, find the required<br />
mixture pressure. Do not exceed 8" w.c. mixture pressure,<br />
unless you’ve chosen a Cumapart (CP) tip or blast tip.<br />
P A<br />
P M<br />
P P<br />
A- M = Mixture P<br />
Section I<br />
Sheet 810/812<br />
Desired Btu/hr.<br />
2. Subtract the mixture pressure (P M ) found in Step 1 from the air pressure<br />
(P A ) which is available at the mixer. The difference is the mixer<br />
pressure drop.<br />
3. Figure the total air flow through the mixer by the following equation:<br />
Btu/hr. per tip x number of tips<br />
cfh air = 100<br />
4. Next, refer to the mixer air capacity charts (page 78 for Series 121 mixers<br />
and page 79 for Series 131). To use the charts properly, follow the<br />
directions below:<br />
1 Locate the mixer<br />
pressure drop figure<br />
in Step 2, and read<br />
to the right.<br />
5. Do not use the Series 121 mixers above 300 scfh air or the Series 131<br />
mixers above 600 scfh air—otherwise pipe velocities are too high.<br />
76<br />
Pressure Drop<br />
Mixture Pressure<br />
ABC (1234)<br />
Air Flow<br />
2 Locate the air flow figured in Step 3<br />
and read up.<br />
3<br />
XXX<br />
Desired Tip<br />
YYY<br />
ZZZ<br />
From the point where<br />
these lines cross, move<br />
right to the nearest mixer<br />
flow curve. This curve is<br />
the proper size mixer to use.<br />
The air jet part number<br />
is in parentheses.
Mixture Pressure, "w.c.<br />
8<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
1 2 3 4 5 6<br />
1-K<br />
Capacities Of <strong>Eclipse</strong> Pilot & Blast Tips<br />
2-K<br />
1CP<br />
77<br />
1F<br />
3-K<br />
4-K<br />
2CP<br />
20-ST<br />
10 20 30 40 50 60 100<br />
Btu/hr. x 1000 @ 10:1 Air/Gas Ratio<br />
5-K<br />
3RAFI<br />
2-N<br />
2F<br />
3RAF<br />
6-K<br />
3CP<br />
3EP<br />
4RAFI<br />
3F<br />
4RAF<br />
4EP<br />
4F<br />
5RAFI<br />
5RAF
ΔP P Across Mixer, "w.c.<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
Series 121 Pilot Mixers<br />
Air Flow Capacity<br />
Mixer Catalog No. &<br />
(Air Jet Part No.)<br />
121-46 (14520-1)<br />
1<br />
10 15 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 150 200 300<br />
Combustion Air Flow Through Mixer, SCFH<br />
(Btu/hr. = SCFH Air x 100)<br />
78<br />
121-42 (14520-2)<br />
121-40 (14520-17)<br />
121-36 (14520-3)<br />
121-30 (14520-16)<br />
121-25 (14520-5)<br />
121-22 (14520-6)<br />
121-18 (14520-7)<br />
121-17 (14520-15)<br />
121-12 (14520-8)<br />
121-10 (14520-14)<br />
121-8 (14520-13)<br />
121-6 (14520-12)<br />
121-4 (14520-11)<br />
121-7/32 (14520-9)<br />
121-1 (14520-10)
ΔP P Across Mixer, "w.c.<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
20 30 40 50 60<br />
Series 131 Pilot Mixers<br />
Air Flow Capacity<br />
Mixer Catalog No. &<br />
(Air Jet Part No.)<br />
131-4 (10254-1)<br />
80 100 150 200 300<br />
Combustion Air Flow Through Mixer, SCFH<br />
(Btu/hr. = SCFH Air x 100)<br />
79<br />
131-5 (10254-2)<br />
131-6 (10254-3)<br />
131-11/64 (10254-14)<br />
131-13/64 (10254-8)<br />
400 500 600<br />
131-7 (10254-4)<br />
131-15/64 (10254-9)<br />
131-8 (10254-5)<br />
131-17/64 (10254-10)<br />
131-9 (10254-6)<br />
131-19/64 (10254-11)<br />
131-10 (10254-7)<br />
131-21/64 (10254-15)
Tech Notes<br />
Flue Gas Analysis vs. Excess Air<br />
Reference:<br />
Figure 1:<br />
Flue Gas Constituents<br />
vs. % Excess Air<br />
<strong>Eclipse</strong> Combustion <strong>Engineering</strong> <strong>Guide</strong>, p. 52<br />
Section 2<br />
Sheet A-1<br />
The graph below supplements the flue gas analysis chart on page 52 of the<br />
Combustion <strong>Engineering</strong> <strong>Guide</strong>, which extends to only 200% excess air.<br />
These curves are calculated for Birmingham Natural Gas, same as the<br />
<strong>Engineering</strong> <strong>Guide</strong>.<br />
% Flue Gas Constituent By Volume<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
% Oxygen—Dry Sample<br />
% Oxygen—Saturated Sample<br />
% Carbon Dioxide—Natural Gas<br />
0<br />
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000<br />
80<br />
% Excess Air
Tech Notes<br />
Flame Temperatures vs. Air Preheat & % Oxygen<br />
General Remarks:<br />
Figure 1:<br />
Theoretical Flame<br />
Temperature vs. Preheat<br />
Figure 2:<br />
Theoretical Flame<br />
Temperature vs. O 2 in Air<br />
Section 2<br />
Sheet A-2<br />
Both preheated air and oxygen enrichment increase the theoretical temperature<br />
of burner flames. The following graphs show their effect on the<br />
theoretical flame temperature of natural gas, which, with 60°F combustion<br />
air and 21% oxygen, would be about 3500 - 3550° F.<br />
Theoretical Flame Temp., °F<br />
Flame Temperature, °F<br />
4500<br />
4000<br />
3500<br />
0<br />
5200<br />
4800<br />
4400<br />
4000<br />
3600<br />
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600<br />
Combustion Air Temperature, °F<br />
20 40 60 80 100<br />
81<br />
% Oxygen In Air
Tech Notes<br />
Available Heat vs. Oxygen Enrichment<br />
Section 2<br />
Sheet A-3<br />
General Remarks: The graph below shows available heat as a function of flue gas temperature<br />
and percent oxygen in the combustion air stream. These curves were calculated<br />
for natural gas with combustion air at 60°F.<br />
Figure 1:<br />
Available Heat vs.<br />
Oxygen Enrichment<br />
% Available Heat<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
2000<br />
2200<br />
82<br />
2400<br />
2600<br />
Flue Gas Temperature, °F<br />
2800<br />
3000<br />
100% O 2<br />
35% O 2<br />
25% O 2<br />
20.9% O 2
Tech Notes<br />
Available Heat—Extended Chart<br />
Reference:<br />
Figure 1:<br />
Available Heat vs. Flue<br />
Gas Exit Temperature, °F<br />
<strong>Eclipse</strong> Combustion <strong>Engineering</strong> <strong>Guide</strong>, p. 51<br />
Section 2<br />
Sheet A-4<br />
Page 51 of the <strong>Eclipse</strong> Combustion <strong>Engineering</strong> <strong>Guide</strong> carries two available<br />
heat charts, but unfortunately, the more useful one of the two doesn’t cover<br />
flue gas temperatures below 1000°F. The chart below, calculated from the<br />
same conditions as the <strong>Engineering</strong> guide chart, extends these curves down<br />
to 300°F flue gas temperature.<br />
% Available Heat<br />
100<br />
90<br />
80<br />
70<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
350%<br />
400%<br />
500%<br />
600%<br />
800%<br />
1000%<br />
1200%<br />
Based On Birmingham Natural Gas (1002 Btu/Cu. ft., 0.6 Sp. Gr.)<br />
0%<br />
10%<br />
0<br />
0 200 600 1000 1400 1800 2200 2600 3000<br />
83<br />
250%<br />
300%<br />
200%<br />
150%<br />
% Excess Air<br />
100%<br />
Flue Gas Exit Temperature, °F<br />
50%<br />
25%
Tech Notes<br />
Summary of Fuel-Air Ratio Control Systems<br />
for Nozzle Mixing Burners<br />
Control System<br />
System<br />
Cost*<br />
Required<br />
Gas<br />
Pressure**<br />
Control Mode<br />
Hi-Low Modulating Firing Rate?<br />
* I=Inexpensive, M= Moderate, E=Expensive<br />
** L= Low, M=Moderate, H= High<br />
*** Depends on air and gas pressures at burner. See sheets for individual systems.<br />
† If bleeder vent is connected to combustion chamber.<br />
If backpressure<br />
fluctuates, does system<br />
maintain constant:<br />
Fuel-Air<br />
Ratio?<br />
On multiple burner<br />
zones, if one is<br />
shut off, do the<br />
others hold their<br />
ratio?<br />
On-ratio, linked valve<br />
On-ratio,<br />
I L • No *** No<br />
characterized valve<br />
On-ratio, cross connected<br />
M L to M • • No *** No<br />
proportionator<br />
On-ratio, cross connected<br />
M H • • No Yes Yes<br />
proportionator & bleeder M L to M • • No Yes Yes<br />
On-ratio, electronic<br />
Excess air,<br />
E M • • Yes Yes No<br />
fuel-only control<br />
Excess air,<br />
I M • • No *** No<br />
biased proportionator<br />
Excess air,<br />
M H • • No No Yes<br />
throttled impulse M H • • No Yes† Yes<br />
84<br />
Section 2<br />
Sheet C-1
Tech Notes<br />
Nozzle Mixing Burners<br />
Ratio Control Using Proportioning (Linked) Fixed Port Valves<br />
FUEL<br />
(continued on page 86)<br />
2<br />
1<br />
Section 2<br />
Sheet C-2<br />
Operating Principle Air and gas passages in the burner are the fixed resistances in the system.<br />
Control valves in the air and gas lines are the variable resistance. The two<br />
valves are connected by linkages to a common drive motor so that, in theory,<br />
they open and close in proportion, maintaining a fixed air-gas ratio over<br />
the system’s turndown range.<br />
Advantages<br />
• Valve operation can be readily understood—confidence builder for persons<br />
unfamiliar with control systems.<br />
• Working parts are visible—little chance that a hidden defect is present.<br />
• Can be used with low gas supply pressures. If a large enough gas valve is<br />
selected, the pressure required is only a little higher than the burner gas<br />
nozzle pressure (2 in above figure).<br />
• Inexpensive.<br />
85
Disadvantages<br />
• Differences in valve characteristic curves make it difficult or impossible<br />
to hold a fixed gas-air ratio across the entire turndown range. The system<br />
is best limited to high-low control.<br />
• Unless air and gas pressures at the burner (1 and 2 in the figure on page<br />
85) are equal, unforeseen changes in combustion chamber pressure will<br />
cause the burner to shift off-ratio according to the table below:<br />
If Air Pressure Is<br />
Goes More<br />
Positive (+), Then:<br />
And Chamber Pressure<br />
Stays The<br />
Same (o), Then:<br />
Goes More<br />
Negative (-), Then:<br />
Higher than gas pressure Burner goes leaner No change Burner goes richer<br />
Same as gas pressure No change No change No change<br />
Lower than gas pressure Burner goes richer No change Burner goes leaner<br />
If air pressure at the burner is higher than the gas pressure (this is usually<br />
the case), they can be made equal by installing a limiting orifice valve<br />
between the gas control valve and burner and adjusting it until pressure<br />
(2) equals pressure (1). However, this negates one of the advantages of<br />
linked valve systems—the low gas pressure requirement.<br />
• If the air supply becomes starved due to a dirty blower wheel or a plugged<br />
filter, the system will go rich. The gas valve responds only to the mechanical<br />
linkage, not to air flow changes.<br />
• If multiple burners are controlled by a single set of linked valves, and the<br />
fuel flow to one burner is throttled back manually or shut off entirely,<br />
that fuel will go to the other burners, forcing them to run rich. In addition<br />
to the safety hazard this presents, it makes multiple burners tedious to<br />
set up. Any gas adjustment made to one burner upsets the settings of the<br />
other burners in the zone.<br />
86
Tech Notes<br />
Nozzle Mixing Burners<br />
Ratio Control Using Proportioning (Adjustable Characteristic) Valves<br />
Section 2<br />
Sheet C-3<br />
Operating Principle Air and gas passages in the burner are the fixed resistances in the system.<br />
Control valves are the variable resistances and are connected in tandem to<br />
a common drive motor. Because it is practically impossible to get two fixed<br />
port valves to track together over their turndown range, at least one of the<br />
valves is fitted with an adjustable screw rack which makes the valve open<br />
faster or slower than the linkage calls for. This permits the valve’s flow<br />
curve to be adjusted to more closely match that of the fixed port valve.<br />
Advantages<br />
Disadvantages<br />
• Valve operation can be readily understood—confidence builder for persons<br />
unfamiliar with control systems.<br />
• Working parts are visible—little chance that a hidden defect is present.<br />
• Can be used with low gas supply pressures.<br />
• Can be used with proportioning or high-low control systems.<br />
• Adjustable characteristic valves are usually expensive.<br />
• Time consuming to set up. Most screw racks contain 8 to 12 adjustment<br />
points, which must be individually set when the burner is commissioned.<br />
• Unless air and gas pressures at the burner (1 and 2 in the figure below)<br />
are equal, unforeseen changes in combustion chamber pressure will cause<br />
the burner to shift off-ratio according to the table on page 88.<br />
FUEL<br />
87<br />
2<br />
1
Disadvantages (continued)<br />
If Air Pressure Is<br />
Goes More<br />
Positive (+), Then:<br />
And Chamber Pressure<br />
Stays The<br />
Same (o), Then:<br />
Goes More<br />
Negative (-), Then:<br />
Higher than gas pressure Burner goes leaner No change Burner goes richer<br />
Same as gas pressure No change No change No change<br />
Lower than gas pressure Burner goes richer No change Burner goes leaner<br />
If air pressure at the burner is higher than the gas pressure (this is usually<br />
the case), they can be made equal by installing a limiting orifice valve<br />
between the gas control valve and burner and adjusting it until pressure<br />
(2) equals pressure (1). However, this negates one of the advantages of<br />
linked valve systems—the low gas pressure requirement.<br />
• If the air supply becomes starved due to a dirty blower wheel or a plugged<br />
filter, the system will go rich. The gas valve responds only to the mechanical<br />
linkage, not to air flow changes.<br />
• If multiple burners are controlled by a single set of linked valves, and the<br />
fuel flow to one burner is throttled back manually or shut off entirely,<br />
that fuel will go to the other burners, forcing them to run rich. In addition<br />
to the safety hazard this presents, it makes multiple burners tedious to<br />
set up. Any gas adjustment made to one burner upsets the settings of the<br />
other burners in the zone.<br />
88
Tech Notes<br />
Nozzle Mixing Burners<br />
Ratio Control Using Cross-Connected Proportionators<br />
Section 2<br />
Sheet C-4<br />
Operating Principle Burner air passage is fixed resistance for air flow. Gas passages in the<br />
burner are usually too large to serve as the fixed resistance, so a limiting<br />
orifice valve is installed at the gas inlet . At setup, this valve is adjusted to<br />
provide the correct gas flow when gas pressure (2) is equal to air pressure<br />
(1). Low fire gas-air ratio is set with spring in Proportionator.<br />
Advantages<br />
FUEL<br />
• Easy to set up. Once high and low fire ratios are set, everything in between<br />
is taken care of.<br />
• Can be used with proportioning or high-low control systems.<br />
• No problem with mismatched valve flow curves. Proportionator is slave to<br />
air valve and automatically matches its characteristic curve.<br />
• Fuel-air ratio is unaffected by unforeseen changes in combustion chamber<br />
pressure.<br />
• Although air starvation due to a plugged filter or dirty blower wheel will<br />
cause a loss in firing capacity, it will not cause the system to go rich. The<br />
proportionator automatically reduces fuel flow as the air flow drops off.<br />
• On multiple burner systems fed from a single air control valve and<br />
proportionator, changing or shutting off the fuel flow to one burner will<br />
not upset the fuel flow to the others. This makes initial setup easier and<br />
eliminates the hazard of burners in a zone going rich because one of<br />
them has been misadjusted or shut off.<br />
• If proportionator permits, this system can be converted to an excess air<br />
system (see page 95) with a simple proportionator spring adjustment.<br />
89<br />
3<br />
Cross<br />
Connection<br />
Proportionator Limiting<br />
Orifice<br />
2<br />
1
Disadvantages<br />
• Requires higher gas pressures. Gas pressure at (3) in the figure on page<br />
89 must equal air pressure at (1) plus gas pressure drop through<br />
proportionator valve.<br />
• Operating principles of proportionator are poorly understood, especially<br />
in oven and air heating industry; operators don’t know how to set up<br />
systems.<br />
• Internal working of proportionator can’t be seen. Operators don’t know if<br />
it’s working correctly and, as a result, are afraid of it.<br />
90
Tech Notes<br />
Section 2<br />
Sheet C-5<br />
Nozzle Mixing Burners<br />
Ratio Control Using Cross-Connected Proportionator With Bleed Fitting<br />
Operating Principle Used where proportionator system is desired, but where gas pressure at (3)<br />
is insufficient to make a conventional proportionator system work (see page<br />
89). This set-up is also used where the loading pressure on the proportionator<br />
is equal to or higher than the maximum inlet gas pressure the proportionator<br />
can tolerate. An adjustable bleed fitting—basically a needle valve in a tee—<br />
reduces the loading pressure (4) on the proportionator to a pressure at<br />
least 2" w.c. lower than the inlet gas pressure (3). This permits the<br />
proportionator to respond to changes in air loading pressure (1) over the<br />
entire turndown range.<br />
Advantages<br />
Disadvantages<br />
FUEL<br />
Bleed Fitting<br />
3<br />
Cross<br />
Connection<br />
Proportionator Limiting<br />
Orifice<br />
4<br />
If, for example, high fire air pressure (1) is 20" w.c., but gas supply (3) is<br />
only 13" w.c., the bleeder could be set to bleed off 50% of the air loading<br />
pressure, producing a pressure of 10" w.c. at (4) and (2).<br />
Same as the conventional proportionator system (see page 89), except that<br />
combustion chamber pressure fluctuations will cause the system to go offratio.<br />
Can be compensated by connecting the vent of the bleed fitting to the<br />
combustion chamber.<br />
• Same as the conventional proportionator system (see page 89), except<br />
that high inlet gas pressure is no longer required.<br />
• Bleed fittings contain small orifices which are susceptible to plugging by<br />
dirt. Filtered combustion air will alleviate the problem, but bleeders will<br />
always require frequent maintenance attention and they are subject to<br />
unauthorized tampering.<br />
91<br />
2<br />
1
Tech Notes<br />
Nozzle Mixing Burners<br />
Ratio Control Using Electronic Controllers<br />
Section 2<br />
Sheet C-6<br />
Operating Principle For all of its sophistication, a variation of the linked valve system. In this<br />
case, the linkage is electronic instead of mechanical. This system is also<br />
known as a “mass flow” control system, although this a misnomer—the<br />
flow signals fed to the controller are related either to pressure differential<br />
or to flow velocity.<br />
Advantages<br />
FUEL<br />
Air Flow<br />
Meter<br />
Fuel Flow<br />
Meter<br />
Cross<br />
Connection<br />
Primary<br />
Valve<br />
Electronic<br />
Controller<br />
Slave Valve<br />
The air and fuel lines each contain a motor-driven control valve and a flow<br />
metering device (orifice plate & ΔP transmitter, turbine meter, vortex-shedding<br />
flowmeter, etc.) One of the control valves is the primary valve, driven<br />
by the temperature controller. The second valve is slaved to the first through<br />
the electronic ratio controller.<br />
Flow meters in the air and fuel lines feed signals proportional to flow to the<br />
controller. The controller compares the signals and, if they are out of ratio,<br />
sends a correcting signal to the slave valve, which then alters its flow to<br />
restore the desired air-fuel ratio.<br />
• Extremely high accuracy inherent to electronic systems.<br />
• Can be integrated with master computer to control burner, as well as<br />
provide fuel consumption data.<br />
• If controller can be reprogrammed, can be reconfigured as an excess air<br />
system.<br />
• Will not allow the burner to go rich if air starvation occurs.<br />
• Provided that air and fuel supply pressures are adequate, will maintain a<br />
predetermined firing rate regardless of combustion chamber backpressure<br />
fluctuations. This is the only system that will do so.<br />
92<br />
TC
Disadvantages<br />
• Most expensive of all the ratio control systems.<br />
• No matter how sophisticated the electronics, the accuracy of the system<br />
is no better than the flow-sensing elements. If orifice plates are used to<br />
measure flows, accuracy degrades rapidly at turndown ratios greater than<br />
4:1 unless systems are individually calibrated in the field.<br />
• On a multiple burner system, turning the fuel of one burner down or off<br />
will cause the others to run rich—this system will try to maintain a gas<br />
flow proportional to airflow, regardless of where the gas has to go.<br />
93
Tech Notes<br />
Nozzle Mixing Burners<br />
Excess Air Operation By Controlling Fuel Only<br />
FUEL<br />
Optional Manual<br />
Trimming Valve<br />
Section 2<br />
Sheet C-7<br />
Operating Principle This system is known as the “fuel only control”, “fixed air” or “wild air”<br />
system; it is the simplest of all excess air systems. A motor-driven valve is<br />
placed in the fuel line, while the air has no flow controller—a manual<br />
trimming valve might be installed for servicing or limiting the high fire<br />
flow.<br />
Advantages<br />
Disadvantage<br />
• Low cost.<br />
• Permits attainment of the maximum excess air capability of the burner.<br />
• Suitable for high-low or proportioning control.<br />
• If multiple burners are controlled from a single fuel valve, reducing or<br />
shutting off the fuel flow to one of them causes the others to go richer.<br />
94
Tech Notes<br />
Nozzle Mixing Burners<br />
Excess Air Operation With Biased Proportionator<br />
Section 2<br />
Sheet C-8<br />
Operating Principle System installation is identical to conventional proportionator system<br />
(see page 89), but requires a proportionator whose spring can be adjusted<br />
to produce a significant negative bias. System is customarily set<br />
up to operate near stoichiometric ratio at high fire. As air valve closes,<br />
the proportionator—with its negative spring bias—causes fuel flow to<br />
decrease even more rapidly, producing increasing amounts of excess<br />
air.<br />
Advantages<br />
Disadvantages<br />
FUEL<br />
3<br />
Cross<br />
Connection<br />
Proportionator Limiting<br />
Orifice<br />
• Better fuel economy than fuel-only control excess air system (see page<br />
94).<br />
• Suitable for high-low or proportioning control.<br />
• Unlike fuel-only control system, turning down or shutting off the gas<br />
flow to one burner in a multi-burner system will not cause the others<br />
to go rich.<br />
• Not capable of excess air rates as high as the fuel-only control system.<br />
• More expensive than fuel-only control system.<br />
95<br />
2<br />
1
Tech Notes<br />
Nozzle Mixing Burners<br />
Excess Air Operation With Throttled Impulse (Adjustable Bleed) To<br />
Proportionator<br />
Section 2<br />
Sheet C-9<br />
Operating Principle A variation on the cross-connected proportionator system (see page 89).<br />
There is no control valve in the combustion air line. Instead, the firing rate<br />
control valve is placed in the bleed leg of a tee in the impulse line to the<br />
proportionator, and the linkage is adjusted to make the bleed valve reverse-acting;<br />
i.e., the valve closes when the temperature controller calls<br />
for heat. The limiting orifice or needle valve in the loading line is closed<br />
partway to restrict air flow through the impulse line—this insures that the<br />
motor-driven bleed valve is able to control over its entire range.<br />
Advantage<br />
Disadvantages<br />
FUEL<br />
Cross<br />
Connection<br />
Small Limiting Orifice<br />
Or Needle Valve<br />
Tee<br />
Optional Manual<br />
Trimming Valve<br />
Proportionator Limiting<br />
Orifice<br />
Motor-Driven<br />
Bleed Valve<br />
• Of all the excess air control systems, this one probably has the best<br />
combination of sensitivity and a wide operating range.<br />
• Like fixed bleed orifice sytems, this control system can be upset by accumulations<br />
of airborne dirtand unauthorized tampering.<br />
• The only valve proven suitable as a motor-driven bleed valve is the North<br />
American 3/8" Adjustable Port Valve. Even 3/8" motorized oil valves—<br />
whether <strong>Eclipse</strong>’s, Hauck’s or North American’s—lack the sensitivity for<br />
this application.<br />
96
Tech Notes<br />
Backpressure Compensation System<br />
For Cross-Connected Nozzle Mix Burner Systems<br />
Purpose:<br />
Method:<br />
Example:<br />
To maintain a constant burner firing rate and fuel-air ratio regardless of<br />
random fluctuations in combustion chamber backpressure.<br />
Hold a constant differential pressure between point “B” (upstream of main<br />
air control valve) and point “D” (combustion chamber), even if pressure at<br />
point “D” varies. This is done by putting two air control valves in series, one<br />
responding to the temperature controller, the other to the differential pressure<br />
between points “B” and “D”.<br />
Blower<br />
Power<br />
Supply<br />
Pressure<br />
Controller<br />
A<br />
ΔP Transducer<br />
PC<br />
Assume backpressure will vary uncontrollably between 0 & 10" w.c.<br />
Assume burner ΔP is 10" w.c. @ high fire, 1" w.c. @ low fire.<br />
Main air control valve ΔP is 5" w.c. @ high fire.<br />
Blower develops 30" w.c. static pressure.<br />
B<br />
Section 2<br />
Sheet C-10<br />
Static Pressures, Differential Pressures, Must Be<br />
Firing Back "W.C. "W.C. Constant<br />
Rate Press A B C D A-B B-C C-D A-C A-D B-D<br />
0" w.c. 30 15 10 0 15 5 10 20 30 15<br />
High 5" w.c. 30 20 15 5 10 5 10 15 25 15<br />
10" w.c. 30 25 20 10 5 5 10 10 20 15<br />
0" w.c. 30 15 1 0 15 14 1 29 30 15<br />
Low 5" w.c. 30 20 6 5 10 14 1 24 25 15<br />
10" w.c. 30 25 11 10 5 14 1 19 20 15<br />
97<br />
Motorized<br />
Trim Valve<br />
TC<br />
Main Air<br />
Control Valve<br />
Chamber Pressure Impulse Line<br />
Temperature<br />
Controller<br />
C<br />
ABP ALO<br />
D
Tech Notes<br />
Conversion Factors For Emissions Calculations<br />
Preparing emissions estimates for environmental authorities can be difficult<br />
because they often ask for emissions expressed in units not available<br />
through existing data. Here are the conversion procedures for some<br />
of the more commonly-used measurement systems:<br />
1) ppm at 3% O (15% excess air) in dry flue gases to lb./million Btu<br />
2<br />
(ppm)(F3) = lb./million Btu<br />
Values of multiplier F3 for various fuels and emissions<br />
NOX Aldehydes, Unburned Hydrocarbons,<br />
Measured Measured As Measured As:<br />
Various Fuels As NO2 CO Formaldehyde Methane Propane CO2 SO2<br />
Birmingham Nat. Gas* .001187 .000722 .000781 .000416 .001147 .001147 .001672<br />
Propane .001185 .000721 .000780 .000415 .001146 .001146 .001669<br />
Butane .001212 .000735 .000798 .000424 .001172 .001172 .001707<br />
#2 Oil** .001317 .000801 .000867 .000461 .001273 .001273 .001854<br />
2) lb./million Btu to ppm at 3% O (15% excess air) in dry flue<br />
2<br />
gases<br />
(lb./million Btu)(f3) = ppm @ 3% O2, dry<br />
Values of multiplier f3 for various fuels and emissions<br />
NOX Aldehydes, Unburned Hydrocarbons,<br />
Measured Measured As Measured As:<br />
Various Fuels As NO2 CO Formaldehyde Methane Propane CO2 SO2<br />
Birmingham Nat. Gas* 842 1385 1280 2404 872 872 598<br />
Propane 844 1387 1282 2410 873 873 599<br />
Butane 825 1361 1253 2358 853 853 586<br />
#2 Oil** 759 1248 1153 2169 786 786 539<br />
3) ppm at 0% O in dry flue gases to lb./million Btu<br />
2<br />
(ppm)(F0) = lb./million Btu<br />
Values of multiplier F0 for various fuels and emissions<br />
NOX Aldehydes, Unburned Hydrocarbons,<br />
Measured Measured As Measured As:<br />
Various Fuels As NO2 CO Formaldehyde Methane Propane CO2 SO2<br />
Birmingham Nat. Gas* .001017 .000617 .00067 .000356 .000983 .000983 .001432<br />
Propane .001018 .000619 .00067 .000356 .000984 .000984 .001434<br />
Butane .001042 .000634 .000686 .000365 .001007 .001007 .001468<br />
#2 Oil** .001133 .00069 .000746 .000397 .001096 .001096 .001596<br />
* 1002 Gross Btu/cubic foot, 8.48 Cubic feet dry flue products at stoichiometric ratio.<br />
** Calculated as heptadecane, C 17 H 36 , 19,270 Gross Btu/lb.<br />
98<br />
(continued on page 99)<br />
Section 2<br />
Sheet E-2
4) lb./million Btu to ppm at 0% O2 in dry flue gases<br />
(lb./million Btu)(f0) = ppm @ 0% O2, dry<br />
Values of multiplier f0 for various fuels and emissions<br />
NOX Aldehydes, Unburned Hydrocarbons,<br />
Measured Measured As Measured As:<br />
Various Fuels As NO2 CO Formaldehyde Methane Propane CO2 SO2<br />
Birmingham Nat. Gas* 983 1621 1493 2809 1017 1017 698<br />
Propane 982 1616 1493 2809 1016 1016 697<br />
Butane 960 1577 1458 2740 983 983 681<br />
#2 Oil** 883 1449 1340 2519 912 912 627<br />
5) ppm at 3% O or 0% O in dry flue gases to lb./year<br />
2 2<br />
First, calculate lb./million Btu with Step 1 or 3 on the first page.<br />
Then convert to lbs./year with the following relationship:<br />
(lb./million Btu) (Maximum Burner Input, million Btu/hr.) (operating<br />
hrs./year) = lb./year<br />
6) lb/year to ppm at 3% O or 0% O in dry flue gases<br />
2 2<br />
lb./year ÷ operating hrs./year ÷ Maximum Burner Input, million<br />
Btu/hr. = lb./million Btu<br />
Convert lb./million Btu to ppm with Step 2 or 4.<br />
7) ppm at 3% O 2 or 0% O 2 in dry flue gases to gm/Nm 3<br />
(ppm)(G) = gm/Nm 3<br />
Values of multiplier G for various emissions<br />
NOX Aldehydes, Unburned Hydrocarbons,<br />
Measured Measured As Measured As:<br />
Emission As NO 2 CO Formaldehyde Methane Propane CO2 SO2<br />
G .002031 .001235 .001341 .000716 .001969 .001965 .002861<br />
8) gm/Nm3 to ppm at 3% O or 0% O in dry flue gases<br />
2 2<br />
(gm/Nm3 )(g) = ppm<br />
Values of multiplier g for various emissions<br />
NOX Aldehydes, Unburned Hydrocarbons,<br />
Measured Measured As Measured As:<br />
Emission As NO2 CO Formaldehyde Methane Propane CO2 SO2<br />
g 492.4 809.7 745.7 1396.6 507.9 508.9 349.5<br />
* 1002 Gross Btu/cubic foot, 8.48 Cubic feet dry flue products at stoichiometric ratio.<br />
** Calculated as heptadecane, C 17 H 36 , 19,270 Gross Btu/lb.<br />
99
Tech Notes<br />
Section 2<br />
Sheet E-3<br />
Correcting Emissions Readings to 3% O 2 or 11% O 2 Basis<br />
Many environmental authorities, including<br />
the U.S. EPA and several European agencies,<br />
require that gaseous pollutants, like<br />
NO and CO, be reported in ppm (parts per<br />
x<br />
million by volume) corrected to a based of<br />
3% excess O —or 15% excess air—in the flue<br />
2<br />
gases. Japan, on the other hand, customarily<br />
uses a base of 11% O . 2<br />
Emission readings taken at different oxygen<br />
levels can be easily converted to a standard<br />
base using a multiplier:<br />
ppm = ppm x multiplier<br />
corrected test<br />
The multiplier is calculated from the oxygen<br />
reading taken during the test and the<br />
base oxygen reading required by the regulation:<br />
21 - % O base<br />
2<br />
multiplier =<br />
21 - % O test 2<br />
For your convenience, a table of multipliers<br />
is presented to the right.<br />
100<br />
Multiplier For:<br />
%O2 3%O2 11%O2 0 .86 .48<br />
1 .9 .5<br />
2 .95 .53<br />
3 1 .56<br />
4 1.06 .59<br />
5 1.13 .63<br />
6 1.2 .67<br />
7 1.29 .71<br />
8 1.38 .77<br />
9 1.5 .83<br />
10 1.64 .91<br />
11 1.8 1<br />
12 2.0 1.11<br />
13 2.25 1.25<br />
14 2.57 1.43<br />
15 3.0 1.67<br />
16 3.6 2<br />
17 4.5 2.5<br />
18 6 3.33<br />
18.5 7.2 4<br />
19 9 5<br />
19.5 12 6.67<br />
20 18 10<br />
20.2 22.5 12.5<br />
20.4 30 16.67<br />
20.6 45 25<br />
20.8 90 50
Tech Notes<br />
Recuperator Efficiency: Fuel Savings & Effectiveness<br />
Percent Fuel Savings<br />
Percent Effectiveness<br />
Section 2<br />
Sheet H-1<br />
There are two commonly-used methods for figuring recuperator efficiency:<br />
percent fuel savings and percent effectiveness.<br />
Percent savings is calculated by this relationship:<br />
( )<br />
% Available Heat Less Recuperator<br />
% Savings= x100<br />
% Available Heat With Recuperator<br />
Because available heat figures vary with the composition of the fuel and<br />
the amount of excess air, one supplier’s fuel savings data may be different<br />
from another’s by one or two percentage points. More often than not, the<br />
tables will be based on natural gas at 10% excess air.<br />
Percent effectiveness measures the inherent heat transfer capabilities of<br />
the recuperator without regard to fuel composition or fuel/air ratio:<br />
(<br />
Combustion Air Temp Combustion Air Temp<br />
)<br />
Flue Gas Temp<br />
Entering Exchanger Entering Exchanger<br />
Leaving Exchanger - Entering Exchanger<br />
% Effectiveness= x100<br />
Combustion Air Temp<br />
-<br />
Basically, it compares the actual rise in combustion air temperature to the<br />
maximum that could possibly be achieved (combustion air preheated to<br />
the same temperature as the incoming flue gases). Since the maximum is<br />
unattainable, effectiveness is always less than 100%.<br />
The graph on page 102 relates combustion air temperature to flue gas temperature<br />
and recuperator effectiveness.<br />
To predict air preheat, read up from the flue gas temperature to the line<br />
representing the effectiveness of the exchanger, then left to air preheat.<br />
101
Figure 1:<br />
Heat Exchanger<br />
Effectiveness Curves<br />
Based on Combustion Air<br />
Entering at 60° F.<br />
Combustion Air Preheat, °F<br />
1500<br />
1000<br />
500<br />
0<br />
0<br />
500<br />
1000<br />
% Effectiveness<br />
90% 80% 70% 60% 50%<br />
1500 2000<br />
Flue Gas Temp. Entering Exchanger, °F<br />
102<br />
2500<br />
3000<br />
40%<br />
30%<br />
20%<br />
10%
TechNotes<br />
NFPA Requirements for Gas Burner Systems<br />
Reference: NFPA 86 – Ovens and Furnaces, 2003 Edition<br />
General Remarks:<br />
Section 2<br />
Sheet R-1<br />
The schematic and notes on the following page condense the gas burner system requirements of National Fire<br />
Protection Association (NFPA) 86 into an easy-to-use format. They should provide most of the engineering<br />
information required to lay out burner air and gas trains. Numbers in parentheses refer to the applicable<br />
paragraphs of the standard.<br />
In addition to the requirements shown on the schematic, NFPA 86 also requires that the combustion control<br />
system have the following features:<br />
1) All safety divices must be listed for their intended service (7.2.1), including purge and ignition timers<br />
(7.2.3).<br />
2) Safety control circuits must be single phase, one side grounded, with all breaking contacts in the<br />
“hot”, ungrounded, circuit protected line not exceeding 120V. (7.2.11)<br />
3) Prior to energizing spark or lighting pilot, a timed pre-purge of at least four standard cubic feet of air<br />
per cubic foot of heating chamber volume is required (7.4.1).<br />
a) Airflow must be proven & maintained during the purge.<br />
b) Safety shutoff valve must be closed and when the chamber input exceeds 400,000 Btu/hr<br />
(117 kW) it must be proved closed and interlocked. Proof of closure can be achieved by either a<br />
proof of closure switch on at least one valve or a valve proving system.<br />
4) Exceptions to a re-purge are allowed for momentary shutdowns if (any one): (7.4.1.5)<br />
a) Each burner is supervised, each has safety shutoff valves, and the fuel accumulation in the<br />
heating chamber can not exceed 25% of lower explosive limit.<br />
b) Each burner is supervised, each has safety shutoff valves, and at least one burner remains on in<br />
same chamber.<br />
c) The chamber temperature is more than 1400°F (760°C).<br />
5) Exception to the pre-purge is allowed for explosion resistant radiant tube systems. (7.4.1.4)<br />
6) All safety interlocks must be connected in series ahead of the safety shutoff valves. Interposing<br />
relays are allowed when the required load exceeds the rating of available safety contacts or where<br />
safety logic requires separate inputs, AND the contact goes to a safe state on loss of power, AND<br />
each relay serves only one interlock. (7.2.7)<br />
7) Any motor starters required for combustion must be interlocked into the safety circuit. (7.6.3)<br />
8) A listed manual reset excess temperature limit control is required except where the system design<br />
can not exceed the maximum safe temperature. (7.16)<br />
9) The user has the responsibility for establishing a program of inspection, testing, and maintenance<br />
with documentation performed at least annually. (7.2.5.2)<br />
The scope of NFPA 86 extends to all the factors involved in the safe operation of ovens and furnaces, and<br />
anyone designing or building them should be familiar with the entire standard. Copies can be purchased from:<br />
The National Fire Protection Association<br />
1 Batterymarch Park<br />
Quincy, MA 02269-9101<br />
800-344-3555 (508-895-8300 if outside U.S.)<br />
www.nfpa.org<br />
103
Gas<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
4<br />
Piping Schematic<br />
Item Description<br />
5<br />
6<br />
12<br />
7<br />
16<br />
10<br />
8<br />
9 9<br />
Air Flow<br />
Controls<br />
Gas Flow<br />
Controls<br />
Reference<br />
Paragraph<br />
6.2.5.3<br />
6.2.5.1<br />
6.2.5.3.3<br />
6.2.5.4<br />
6.2.5.4<br />
6.2.5.4.8<br />
7.7.1.8<br />
7.7.2.1<br />
7.7.1.9<br />
7.7.2.2<br />
7.7.2.3<br />
7.8.1<br />
7.8.2<br />
7.9.2<br />
7.9.2.1<br />
*Underwriters Laboratory (UL) listing is accepted throughout the United States. Listed products can be found in the UL Gas and Oil<br />
Equipment Directory, available from Underwriters Laboratory, Inc. Publications Stock, 333 Pfingsten Road, Northbrook, IL 60062-2096.<br />
Factory Mutual (FM) listed equipment is also acceptable in most jurisdictions and can be found in the FM Approval <strong>Guide</strong> available from<br />
Factory Mutual Research Corporation, 115 Boston-Providence Turnpike, Norwood, MA 02062.<br />
8<br />
11 11<br />
1 Facility to install drip leg or sediment trap for each fuel supply line. Must be a minimum of 3” long.<br />
2 Individual manual shutoff valve to each piece of equipment. 1/4 turn valves recommended.<br />
3 Filter or strainer to protect downstream safety shutoff valves.<br />
4 Pressure regulator required wherever plant supply pressure exceeds level required for proper burner function<br />
or is subject to excessive fluctuations.<br />
5 Regulator vent to safe location outside the building with water protection & bug screen.<br />
Vent piping not required for listed regulator/vent limiter combination. Vent piping not required for ratio<br />
regulator/zero governor.<br />
6 Gas pressure switches may be vented to regulator vent lines if backloading won’t occur.<br />
7 Over pressure protection required if gas pressure at regulator inlet exceeds rating of any downstream part.<br />
8 Two listed* safety shutoff valves required for each main and pilot gas burner system. A single valve can be<br />
used for explosion resistant radiant tube systems.<br />
9 Visual position indication required on safety shutoff valves to burners or pilots in excess of 150,000 Btu/hr<br />
(44 kW).<br />
10 Proof of closure switch or valve proving system required for capacities over 400,000 Btu/hr (117 kW).<br />
11 Permanent and ready means for checking leak tightness of safety shutoff valves.<br />
12 Listed* low gas pressure switch (normally open, makes on pressure rise).<br />
13 Listed* high gas pressure switch (normally closed, breaks on pressure rise).<br />
14 Flame Supervision:<br />
Piloted burners<br />
- Continuous pilot: Two flame sensors must be used, one for the pilot flame and one for the main burner flame.<br />
- Intermittent pilot: Can use a single flame sensor for self-piloted burners (from same port as main, or<br />
has a common flame base and has a common flame envelope with the main flame).<br />
- Interrupted pilot: A single flame sensor is allowed.<br />
Line, Pipe, Radiant burners<br />
- If the burners are adjacent and light safely and reliably from burner to burner, then a single sensor is<br />
allowed if it is located at the farthest end from the source of ignition.<br />
15 Spark Ignition:<br />
Except for explosion resistant radiant tube systems, direct spark igniters must be shut off after main burner<br />
trial-for-ignition.<br />
If a burner must be ignited at reduced input (forced low fire start), an ignition interlock must be provided to<br />
prove control valve position.<br />
Trial-for-ignition of the pilot or main must not exceed 15 seconds. An exception is allowed where fuel<br />
accumulation in the heating chamber can not exceed 25% of the lower explosive limit and the authority<br />
having jurisdiction approves a written request for extended time.<br />
16 Listed* combustion air flow or pressure proving switch (normally open, makes on pressure rise).<br />
10<br />
104<br />
11<br />
13<br />
15<br />
14<br />
7.9.2.2<br />
7.4.2.4<br />
7.15<br />
7.4.2<br />
7.6.2
Tech Notes<br />
IRI Requirements For Gas Burner Systems<br />
Reference: IM.4.2.0 & IM.4.2.1, June 1, 2000<br />
General Remarks:<br />
105<br />
Section 2<br />
Sheet R-2<br />
These schematic and notes condense the gas burner system requirements of GE Global Asset Protection<br />
Services - Industrial Risk Insurers (IRI) publications “IM.4.2.0 OVENS AND FURNACES - NFPA 86-1999” and<br />
“IM.4.2.1 HEAT TREAT FURNACES WITH INTERNAL QUENCH TANKS”. They should provide most of the<br />
engineering information required to lay out burner air and gas trains. IRI follows the requirements of NFPA 86 but<br />
makes additional clarifications and changes for increased safety.<br />
In addition to the requirements shown on the following schematic, IRI also requires that the combustion control<br />
system have the following features. Numbers in parenthesis reference the paragraphs in IM.4.2.0, IM.4.2.1, and<br />
NFPA 86.<br />
1) NFPA: Safety control circuits must be single phase, one side grounded, with all breaking contacts in the<br />
“hot”, ungrounded, circuit protected line and not exceed 120V. IRI: Any time delay used to avoid nuisance<br />
shutdowns from momentary power fluctuations cannot exceed 5 seconds and any timer must not be<br />
adjustable above this maximum. (5-2)<br />
2) NFPA: Prior to energizing spark or lighting pilot, a timed pre-purge of at least four standard cubic feet of<br />
air per cubic foot of heating chamber volume is required. IRI: Any adjustable purge timer must clearly<br />
show its setting, have limited access, and be periodically inspected. Any employee with access must be<br />
trained on its setting and consequences if not set properly. (5-4.1.2)<br />
a. NFPA: Airflow must be proven and maintained during the purge. IRI: The location of pressure<br />
switch sensing points must be analyzed against all other conditions (such as dirt accumulation<br />
and damper positions in the system) to assure it will truly prove the required airflow. (5-4.1.2.1)<br />
b. NFPA: Where the capacity exceeds 400,000 Btu/hr (117kW) at least one of the safety shutoff<br />
valves must be proved closed and interlocked to the purge. IRI: Both safety shutoff valves shall<br />
be proved closed and interlocked. (5-7.2.2)<br />
3) IRI: The trial for ignition for pilots or main burners must not exceed 10 seconds. (5-4.2.1, 5-4.2.2)<br />
Directly control the spark from a listed flame safeguard. (5-2.3)<br />
4) NFPA: All safety interlocks must be connected in series ahead of the safety shutoff valves. Interposing<br />
relays are allowed when the required load exceeds the rating of available safety contacts, or where the<br />
safety logic requires separate inputs, AND the contact goes to safe state on loss of power, AND each<br />
relay serves only one interlock. IRI: An interposing relay can be powered by more than one safety limit if<br />
the safety shutoff valves derive power in series through the limits. When one limit opens then the fuel is<br />
shutoff to all burners that use the interposing relay as a permissive. (5-2.7)<br />
5) NFPA: Any motor starters, circulation, and exhaust fans required for safe combustion or purge must be<br />
proven. (5-6.3) IRI: Use a rotation switch if pressure switches or sail switches are not suitable. (5-5.1)<br />
6) NFPA-IRI: A listed manual reset excess temperature limit control is required except where the system<br />
design cannot exceed the maximum safe temperature. (5-16)<br />
7) NFPA-IRI: Piping and electrical schematics of the proposed system must be submitted to the local IRI<br />
office in whose jurisdiction the system will be located. Drawings must include the various device settings,<br />
switch positions, configurations and notes on options. Stamped approval is required before construction<br />
begins. (1-4)<br />
8) NFPA-IRI: The user has the responsibility to establish a program of inspection, testing, and maintenance<br />
with documentation performed at least annually. (5-2.5.2)
1<br />
Gas<br />
2<br />
3<br />
Item Description<br />
4<br />
5<br />
6<br />
12<br />
Piping Schematic<br />
1 Facility to install drip leg or sediment trap for each fuel supply line. Must be a minimum of 3” long.<br />
7<br />
16<br />
2 Individual manual shutoff valve to each piece of equipment. 1/4 turn valves recommended. Must be in an<br />
accessible location near the floor.<br />
3 Filter or strainer to protect downstream safety shutoff valves.<br />
4 Pressure regulator required wherever plant supply pressure exceeds level required for proper burner function<br />
or is subject to excessive fluctuations.<br />
5 Regulator vent to safe location outside the building with water protection & bug screen.<br />
Vent piping can terminate inside the building when gas is lighter than air, vent contains restricted orifice,<br />
and there is sufficient building ventilation, where there are high clearances between the equipment and<br />
roof and there are no ignition sources.<br />
Vent piping not required for lighter than air gases at less than 1 psi, vent contains restricted orifice, and<br />
there is sufficient ventilation. Vent piping not required for ratio regulator.<br />
6 Gas pressure switches may be vented to regulator vent lines if backloading won’t occur. No vent line<br />
required if switch has no diaphragm.<br />
7 Relief valve required if gas pressure at regulator inlet exceeds rating of safety shutoff valve. Physical<br />
location can be upstream to meet application requirements.<br />
8 Two listed* safety shutoff valves required for each main and pilot gas burner system. Both safety shutoff<br />
valves must close after interruption of interlocks, combustion safeguard, or operating controls; no exceptions<br />
allowed for multiple burner systems. A single valve can be used for explosion resistant radiant tube systems.<br />
9 Position indication (not proof-of-closure) required on safety shutoff valves to burners or pilots in excess of<br />
150,000 Btu/hr (44 kW). Electrical indicators must not replace mechanical indicators.<br />
10 For capacities over 400,000 Btu/hr (117 kW) both safety shutoff valves must have a closed position switch to<br />
interlock with the pre-purge.<br />
11 Permanent and ready means for checking leak tightness of safety shutoff valves. Test in progressive<br />
intervals starting weekly, monthly, quarterly, then annually.<br />
12 Listed* low gas pressure switch (normally open, makes on pressure rise).<br />
13 Listed* high gas pressure switch (normally closed, breaks on pressure rise).<br />
14 Flame Supervision:<br />
Piloted burners<br />
- Continuous pilot: Two flame sensors must be used, one for the pilot flame and one for the main burner flame.<br />
- Intermittant pilot: Can use a single flame sensor for self-piloted burners (from same port as main, or<br />
has a common flame base and has a common flame envelope with the main flame).<br />
- Interrupted pilot: A single flame sensor is allowed.<br />
Line, Pipe, Radiant burners<br />
- If the burners are adjacent and light safely and reliably from burner to burner, then a single sensor is<br />
allowed if it is located at the farthest end from the source of ignition.<br />
Continuous (>24 hr) operation with UV scanners must use self checking style scanners (or use flame rods<br />
instead).<br />
10<br />
8<br />
9<br />
106<br />
17<br />
8<br />
10<br />
9<br />
Air Flow<br />
Controls<br />
11<br />
13<br />
Gas Flow<br />
Controls<br />
15<br />
14<br />
Reference<br />
Paragraph<br />
4-2.4.4<br />
4-2.4.1<br />
4-2.4.3<br />
4-2.4.5.1<br />
4-2.4.5.2<br />
4-2.4.5.5<br />
5-7.1.7<br />
5-7.2.1<br />
5-7.1.2<br />
5-7.1.8<br />
5-7.2.2<br />
5-7.2.3<br />
5-8.1<br />
5-8.2<br />
5-9<br />
5-9.2.1<br />
5-9.2.2<br />
5-9.2<br />
Continued on next page
Continued from previous page<br />
Item Description<br />
15 Spark Ignition:<br />
Except for explosion resistant radiant tube systems, direct spark igniters must be shut off after main<br />
burner trial-for-ignition.<br />
If a burner must be ignited at reduced input (forced low fire start), an ignition interlock must be provided to<br />
prove control valve position.<br />
Trial-for-ignition of the pilot or main must not exceed 10 seconds. An exception is allowed where fuel<br />
accumulation in the heating chamber can not exceed 25% of the lower explosive limit and the authority<br />
having jurisdiction approves a written request for extended time.<br />
Manual (pushbutton) ignition systems must be designed to prevent further spark after the trial-for-ignition<br />
until a full purge is first completed.<br />
16 Listed* combustion air flow or pressure proving switch (normally open, makes on pressure rise).<br />
17 A Listed* normally open (N.O.) vent valve with vent pipe run to a safe outside location is required when the line<br />
capacity exceeds 400,000Btu/hr (117kW). Do not manifold to other vent lines. Size the vent line according to the<br />
following table.<br />
Fuel Line Size Vent Line Size<br />
1½”<br />
2”<br />
2½”<br />
3½”<br />
4”<br />
5½”<br />
6½”<br />
8”<br />
*Underwriters Laboratory (UL) listing is accepted throughout the United States. Listed products can be found in the UL Gas and Oil<br />
Equipment Directory, available from Underwriters Laboratory, Inc. Publications Stock, 333 Pfingsten Road, Northbrook, IL 60062-2096.<br />
Factory Mutual (FM) listed equipment is also acceptable in most jurisdictions and can be found in the FM Approval <strong>Guide</strong> available from<br />
Factory Mutual Research Corporation, 115 Boston-Providence Turnpike, Norwood, MA 02062.<br />
107<br />
¾”<br />
1”<br />
1¼”<br />
1½”<br />
2”<br />
2½”<br />
3”<br />
3½”<br />
As an alternate to using a vent valve, use a valve tightness proving system that is automatically activated<br />
upon startup and shutdown<br />
More information can be obtained by contacting:<br />
Industrial Risk Insurers<br />
85 Woodland Street<br />
Hartford, CT 06102-5010<br />
860-520-7329<br />
860-520-7559 fax<br />
http://www.industrialrisk.com<br />
National Fire Protection Association<br />
1 Batterymarch Park<br />
Quincy, MA 02269-9101<br />
800-344-3555<br />
508-895-8300<br />
http://www.nfpa.org<br />
Reference<br />
Paragraph<br />
5-15.2<br />
5-15.1<br />
5-4.2.2<br />
5-15<br />
5-6.4<br />
5-7.2.1
Tech Notes<br />
Heating Values of Flammable Liquids<br />
General Remarks:<br />
Section 3<br />
Sheet I-1<br />
Designers of fume incinerators are sometimes concerned about the heating<br />
value of the solvents being incinerated. The table below lists approximate<br />
heating values of various commercial solvents and flammable liquids,<br />
calculated from the references at the bottom of page 109.<br />
Gross Heating Value<br />
Liquid Btu/U.S. Gallon Btu/lb.<br />
Acetone 87,360 13,040<br />
n-Amyl Acetate 105,670 14,410<br />
sec-Amyl Acetate 105,670 14,410<br />
Amyl Alcohol 110,290 16,220<br />
Benzene (Benzol) 132,150 18,100<br />
n-Butyl Acetate 97,480 13,250<br />
n-Butyl Alcohol 104,760 15,640<br />
sec-Butyl Alcohol 104,760 15,640<br />
Butyl Cellosolve (Glycol Monobutyl Ether) 105,630 14,040<br />
Butyl Propionate 106,060 14,130<br />
Camphor 143,010 17,150<br />
Carbon Disulfide 61,210 5,650<br />
Cellosolve (Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl) 91,960 11,790<br />
Cellosolve Acetate (Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl Ether Acetate)<br />
87,140 10,720<br />
Chlorobenzene-mono 105,420 11,490<br />
m- or p-Cresol 122,870 14,730<br />
Cyclohexane 130,300 20,050<br />
Cyclohexanone 117,900 15,710<br />
p-Cymene 146,000 19,450<br />
Denatured Alcohol 68,670 * 9,930 *<br />
Dibutyl Phthalate 109,630 13,150<br />
o-Dichlorobenzene 86,330 7,960<br />
N-Dimethyl Formamide 85,340 11,370<br />
p-Dioxane (Diethylene Dioxide) 89,380 10,720<br />
Ethyl Acetate 82,420 10,990<br />
Ethyl Alcohol 84,250 12,770<br />
Ethyl Ether 93,730 16,060<br />
(continued on page 109)<br />
* Approximate; liquid is a mixture whose composition may vary.<br />
108
References<br />
Gross Heating Value<br />
Liquid Btu/U.S. Gallon Btu/lb.<br />
Ethyl Lactate 78,990 9,470<br />
Ethyl Methyl Ether 86,700 14,850<br />
Ethyl Propionate 90,970 12,290<br />
Gasoline 129,000 * 21,050 *<br />
Hexane 113,850 20,700<br />
Kerosene (Fuel Oil #1) 131,000–137,000 * 19,700–19,900 *<br />
Methyl Acetate 71,610 9,300<br />
Methyl Alcohol 63,490 9,620<br />
Methyl Carbitol (Diethylene Glycol Methyl Ether) 89,650 10,340<br />
Methyl Cellosolve 81,190 10,080<br />
Methyl Cellosolve Acetate 79,530 9,470<br />
Methyl Ethyl Kerosene (2-Butanone) 97,710 14,580<br />
Methyl Lactate 80,160 8,810<br />
Nitrobenzene 90,170 9,010<br />
Nitroethane 50,190 5,470<br />
Nitromethane 17,010 1,850<br />
1-Nitropropane 66,290 7,950<br />
2-Nitropropane 65,760 7,950<br />
Propyl Acetate 85,770 11,430<br />
Propyl Alcohol 96,560 14,410<br />
iso-Propyl Alcohol 93,160 14,120<br />
n-Propyl Ether 109,280 17,470<br />
Pyridine 122,210 14,920<br />
Toluene 131,970 18,330<br />
Turpentine 163,500 * 20,000 *<br />
Vinyl Acetate 71,610 9,540<br />
o-Xylene 135,870 18,610<br />
* Approximate; liquid is a mixture whose composition may vary.<br />
NFPA 325M-1984, Fire Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases, and<br />
Volatile Solids.<br />
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 40th Edition, 1959.<br />
109
Tech Notes<br />
Immersion Tube Sizing<br />
General Remarks<br />
Section 3<br />
Sheet L-1<br />
In 1944, AGA Testing Laboratories published Research Bulletin No. 24, “Research<br />
in Fundamentals of Immersion Tube Heating With Gas”. This landmark<br />
paper established beyond a doubt that the thermal efficiency of immersion<br />
tubes was strictly a function of their length—tube diameter had<br />
no effect. From their tests, AGA also developed an empirical relationship<br />
between thermal efficiency, effective tube length and burner firing rate for<br />
immersion tubes in boiling water:<br />
E =20log L2<br />
R +71<br />
where E = thermal efficiency, %<br />
L = effective tube length, ft.<br />
R = burner input rate, 1000’s of Btu/hr<br />
Effective tube length is the total centerline length of the tube immersed in<br />
water, including elbows, plus 1.1 feet for each elbow or return bend.<br />
This equation is the basis of the tube sizing charts in <strong>Eclipse</strong> literature.<br />
The fact that tube diameter had no effect on efficiency came as a shock to<br />
many people, but it makes sense when you think about it. Increasing the<br />
tube diameter increases the heat transfer surface, but it also produces<br />
lower gas velocity inside the tube, thus promoting a thicker gas boundary<br />
layer along the inside walls of the tube. This leads to poorer heat transfer.<br />
AGA’s studies determined that the loss in convection heat transfer almost<br />
exactly offset the gain in transfer surface.<br />
Over 40 years have passed since this paper was published. Far more sophisticated<br />
heat transfer equations have been developed, and we now have<br />
computers to perform the calculations, yet no one has been able to make a<br />
significant improvement to the speed and accuracy of AGA’s equation.<br />
The curves in the graph on page 111 were calculated from the AGA equation.<br />
110
Figure 1:<br />
Immersion Tube<br />
Efficiency vs. Length<br />
Burner Design<br />
Figure 2:<br />
Burner Design vs.<br />
Firing Rate<br />
Effective Tube Length, In Feet<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
%<br />
Efficiency<br />
60<br />
65<br />
70<br />
75<br />
80<br />
Heat Transfered To Tank, Btu/hr. (In Million’s)<br />
If heat transfer requirements don’t determine immersion tube diameters,<br />
what does?<br />
Burner design does—more specifically, the burner’s ability to fire against<br />
the back pressure of the immersion tube.<br />
Atmospheric burners operate at very low mixture pressures and depend on<br />
natural draft to pull secondary air into the tube. Consequently, the firing<br />
rate has to be kept low to avoid hot gases backing out of the tube around<br />
the burner head.<br />
Sealed, forced draft burners operate at higher pressures, so they can be<br />
used to push tubes to higher firing rates. The operating pressures of the<br />
combustion system determine just how hard the tube can be fired. That’s<br />
why Immerso-Jet small bore burner systems, with their high operating<br />
pressures, can operate satisfactorily at higher inputs per sq. in. of tube<br />
cross-section than packaged IP burners. Figure 2 lists approximate maximum<br />
firing rates in Btu/sq. in. of tube cross-section for various types of<br />
burner systems.<br />
60%<br />
0 0 1 2 3 4 5<br />
70%<br />
65%<br />
75%<br />
Max. Firing rate,<br />
Btu/Sq. In. of<br />
Burner System Type Tube Cross-Section<br />
Atmospheric, natural draft, 7' high stack 7000 - 8000<br />
Atmospheric with eductor, 0.2" w.c. draft 15,000 - 18,000<br />
Atmospheric with eductor, 0.4" w.c. draft 21,000 - 25,000<br />
Packaged forced draft, low pressure fan 15,000 - 35,000<br />
Sealed nozzle-mix, high pressure blower 30,000 - 85,000<br />
Small bore nozzle-mix 80,000 - 180,000<br />
111<br />
Effective<br />
Length, ft.<br />
.47r<br />
.771r<br />
1.273r<br />
2.113r<br />
3.523r<br />
where r =<br />
heat<br />
transferred<br />
to the tank,<br />
Btu/hr X 1000<br />
80%<br />
Efficiency
Tech Notes<br />
Submerged Combustion<br />
Section 3<br />
Sheet L-2<br />
Process Description: Submerged combustion is the practice of heating liquids by bubbling a<br />
burner’s hot combustion products through them. The process, which originated<br />
over 100 years ago, was first used to generate low pressure steam,<br />
but later became popular as a way to concentrate chemical solutions by<br />
evaporation. It is also viewed as an efficient way to heat water solutions to<br />
moderate temperatures, although its success has been somewhat spotty in<br />
this application. It agitates the bath and causes the water to become more<br />
acidic as CO 2 in the combustion products dissolves in the bath. Depending<br />
on the process, these features can be either advantages or drawbacks.<br />
Combustor Description:<br />
System Efficiency:<br />
Over the years a variety of designs have evolved, but most modern units<br />
are some version of either the single-tube or manifold design.<br />
Single Tube<br />
Combustor Manifold Type Combustor<br />
Single-tube units have a relatively small coverage area, so their use is restricted<br />
to tanks with fairly confined dimensions. On the other hand, manifold-type<br />
combustors can be custom-designed to fit tanks of any reasonable<br />
dimensions without the need to locate the combustor near the center<br />
of the tank. This permits submerged combustors to be used on dip tanks<br />
and other jobs where the tank volume must be free of obstructions.<br />
Submerged combustion gets its reputation for high efficiency from the fact<br />
that the combustion gases come into direct contact with the liquid, creating<br />
excellent heat transfer. Below about 140° F, all the water vapor in the<br />
combustion products condenses into the bath, releasing its latent heat of<br />
vaporization and producing thermal efficiencies of 90-95%, based on the<br />
higher heating value of the fuel.<br />
112
Figure 1:<br />
Thermal Efficiency<br />
of a Submerged<br />
Combustion System<br />
Burning Natural Gas at Sea Level<br />
System Design:<br />
Tank Depth:<br />
Combustor Tube:<br />
Above 140° F water begins to vaporize, and the efficiency drops quickly.<br />
One unusual effect of bubbling combustion products through water is that<br />
it lowers the water’s boiling point. For natural gas burned at sea level, the<br />
boiling point is about 190° F; for propane, it is about 180° F. Higher altitudes<br />
will depress the boiling point even further. If the purpose of the system<br />
is to boil water away, this is an asset, but if its purpose is only heating<br />
water, process thermal efficiency is zero at the boiling point.<br />
From the efficiency curve below, you can see that at 165° F liquid temper–<br />
ature, a submerged combustion system has a thermal efficiency of 70%,<br />
equivalent to a conventional immersion tube system. At higher temperatures,<br />
it is less efficient. To compete with an 80% efficient immersion tube<br />
such as the IJ Small Bore system, a submerged combustion system would<br />
have to operate at 155° F or less.<br />
% Thermal Efficiency<br />
100<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
20<br />
0<br />
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200<br />
Water Temperature, °F<br />
Custom-built submerged combustion units are available, although many<br />
successful jobs have been done with standard burner equipment.<br />
The tank must be deep enough to provide at least 16-20" of bubble path<br />
through the liquid. Shallower tanks will not allow time for optimum heat<br />
transfer. Beyond 20", the improvement in heat transfer is negligible, but<br />
the tank may have to be deeper simply to accommodate the length of the<br />
combustion tube, which has to be large enough to allow completion of the<br />
flame.<br />
All portions of the tube immersed in the tank can be bare metal. Customary<br />
practice is to locate the burner mounting flange within a few inches of the<br />
liquid level so the entire tube can be left bare. Be sure to choose an alloy<br />
that won’t corrode in the solution.<br />
113
Distribution Tubes:<br />
Supply Pressures:<br />
Burner:<br />
Moisture Protection:<br />
Operating Sequence:<br />
Safety:<br />
Single-tube combustors are often provided with a perforated conical skirt<br />
on the bottom to aid in breaking up and distributing the flue gases. Manifold<br />
systems are subject to a lot of design variations, but a few general<br />
rules apply:<br />
• Large tanks will require distribution pipes to carry the combustion products<br />
throughout the tank. Don’t depend on a single combustor isolated<br />
in one corner to provide uniform tank heating.<br />
• Gas distribution openings in the pipe manifolds are most commonly<br />
single rows of drilled holes, although slot openings have also been used.<br />
There aren’t any universally accepted rules on hole sizing, but anything<br />
smaller than 1/4" diameter is probably a waste of effort.<br />
• The effect of hole location (facing up, down or sideways) on heat transfer<br />
is probably negligible. However, facing the holes downward aids draining<br />
the water out of the manifold when the system is started up. Be<br />
sure to provide a couple of inches clearance between the manifolds and<br />
the tank floor (more, if you expect sludge or debris to accumulate).<br />
• Total area of the distribution holes is, again, a matter of individual<br />
preference, but one square inch of opening for every 50-60,000 Btu/hr<br />
firing rate gives a good compromise between even distribution and low<br />
pressure drops.<br />
• Design the manifold so it is free to expand without constraint. Otherwise,<br />
broken welds and leaks are sure to result.<br />
• When filled with combustion gases, the distribution tube will become<br />
buoyant and try to float. Long, cantilevered tubes will vibrate and thrash<br />
around the tank. Be sure they’re properly anchored to the tank bottom.<br />
Remember that the head pressure of the liquid in the tank has to be added<br />
to all the normal air and gas supply pressures.<br />
Nozzle mix burners are strongly preferred; the flashback tendencies of premix<br />
burners can be aggravated by fluctuations in system back pressure.<br />
Flame length should be no more than 1/2 to 2/3 the length of the combustor<br />
tube, or the flame is apt to be quenched, forming CO and aldehydes.<br />
High levels of humidity are normal around tanks heated with submerged<br />
combustors. Condensation will tend to collect on spark igniters, flame rods<br />
and scanner cells. Provide them with air purging if this is expected to be a<br />
problem. Use weather-resistant boots on electrode connectors, and all electrical<br />
wiring and control boxes should be selected or situated to exclude<br />
moisture. Combustion air blowers should be located where they won’t draw<br />
in excessively humid air.<br />
This will be dictated in part by safety requirements, but all systems should<br />
have a prepurge to remove the water from the combustor tube and distribution<br />
manifold. Regardless of burner capacity, low fire lightoff is strongly<br />
recommended.<br />
Depending on the tank volume and the area over which the combustion<br />
gases are bubbled, the liquid surface will be agitated anywhere from a gentle<br />
rolling motion to a violent boil. Splashing and spilling over the sides of the<br />
tank can occur, and precaution should be taken to avoid exposing workers<br />
and equipment to hot and/or corrosive liquid.<br />
114
References:<br />
Thermal Manual of Submerged Combustion, Thermal Research & <strong>Engineering</strong><br />
Corp., Conshohocken, PA 1961.<br />
“Tank & Solution Heaters for the Chemical Industry” AGA Information letter<br />
No. 115, N.E. Keith, A.G.A., New York, 1960.<br />
115
Tech Notes<br />
Immersion Tubes–What Will The Stack Temperature Be?<br />
Reference:<br />
Figure 1:<br />
Available Heat vs. Flue<br />
Gas Exit Temperature, °F<br />
<strong>Eclipse</strong> Combustion <strong>Engineering</strong> <strong>Guide</strong>, p. 51<br />
Section 3<br />
Sheet L-3<br />
Customers laying out immersion tube systems frequently ask what stack<br />
temperatures they should expect. You can make a good approximation from<br />
the available heat chart below. The heat transferred through an immersion<br />
tube is the available heat in that system; everything else is flue gas loss, so<br />
it’s easy to calculate flue gas temperature by working backward on the<br />
available heat chart. All you need to know is the tube efficiency and the<br />
amount of excess air at high fire.<br />
For example, let’s say you had an immersion system operating at 70%<br />
thermal efficiency and 25% excess air at high fire. Starting at 70% available<br />
heat (with available heat equal to efficiency), read across until you hit<br />
the 25% excess air curve and then drop straight down to get the flue gas<br />
exit temperature, which, in this case, is 950°F.<br />
% Available Heat<br />
100<br />
90<br />
80<br />
70<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
350%<br />
400%<br />
500%<br />
600%<br />
800%<br />
1000%<br />
1200%<br />
Based On Birmingham Natural Gas (1002 Btu/Cu. ft., 0.6 Sp. Gr.)<br />
0%<br />
10%<br />
0<br />
0 200 600 1000 1400 1800 2200 2600 3000<br />
116<br />
250%<br />
300%<br />
200%<br />
150%<br />
% Excess Air<br />
100%<br />
Flue Gas Exit Temperature, °F<br />
50%<br />
25%
Tech Notes<br />
Determining % O 2 in a Recirculating System<br />
Data Needed:<br />
Fresh<br />
Makeup<br />
Air<br />
Q M<br />
Combustion<br />
Air<br />
Q A<br />
Burner<br />
Section 3<br />
Sheet O-1<br />
To determine O 2 content in a recirculating system, you need to know:<br />
Q X =oven exhaust volume, acfm<br />
T X =oven exhaust temperature<br />
Fuel<br />
Q F<br />
Oven<br />
Q F =maximum fuel flow to burner, scfm<br />
Exhaust, Q at Temperature,<br />
X<br />
TX R =stoichiometric air-fuel ratio (e.g., 10:1 for natural gas, 25:1 for propane,<br />
or whatever)<br />
117<br />
(continued on page 118)
Procedure: 1. Determine scfm of exhaust.<br />
Example<br />
Q E in scfm = Q X in acfm x<br />
520<br />
T X + 460<br />
The temperature correction factor,<br />
520<br />
TX + 460<br />
, equals the specific gravity<br />
of the exhaust at temperature T . X<br />
For simplicity’s sake, assume the exhaust has properties nearly equal<br />
to air. Then you can use the specific gravity figures on page 21 of the<br />
<strong>Eclipse</strong> Combustion <strong>Engineering</strong> <strong>Guide</strong>.<br />
2. For the oven to be balanced, the sum of fuel to the burner (Q F ), air to<br />
the burner (Q A ), and fresh makeup air (Q M ) must equal the exhaust<br />
volume:<br />
Q E =Q F+Q A +Q M<br />
3. Determine the portion of makeup and combustion air which is consumed<br />
in burning the fuel. This equals:<br />
RxQ F<br />
The remaining unconsumed fresh air determines the oxygen level in<br />
the oven. It equals:<br />
Q E –Q F– Rx Q F<br />
4. Calculate oxygen content in oven, assuming 20.8% oxygen in the fresh<br />
air stream.<br />
%O 2 = 20.8 x Q E –Q F– Rx Q F<br />
Q E<br />
or in its simplest form:<br />
%O 2 = 20.8 x Q E – 1+R Q F<br />
Q E<br />
For example, we have an oven exhausting 2000 acfm at 600° F. The<br />
burner is rated at 1.8 million Btu/hr on 1000 Btu/cu.ft. natural gas<br />
(10:1 stoichiometric ratio).<br />
At 600° F, the specific gravity of air is .500, so Q E = (2000) (.500) = 1000<br />
scfm<br />
Q F , the maximum fuel input, is 1,800,000 Btu/hr divided by 1000 Btu/<br />
cu.ft. = 1800 scfh. 1800 cfh divided by 60 minutes = 30 scfm<br />
R, the stoichiometric air-gas ratio, is given as 10:1, so:<br />
%O 2 = 20.8 x<br />
118<br />
1000 – 1 +10 30<br />
1000<br />
= 20.8 x<br />
670<br />
1000 = 13.94%O 2
Litho in U.S.A.