journal of renewable natural resources bhutan - Ministry of Agriculture

Journal of Renewable Natural Resources BhutanEDITOR IN CHIEFDorji Dhradhul, CRCO, CoRRB, Ministry ofAgriculture, Thimphu, Bhutan.ADVISORDr. Pema Choephyel, Director, Council for RNR Research of Bhutan, MoA, Thimphu.EDITORIALBOARDMr. Chencho Norbu, PD, NSSC, DoA, MoA, ThimphuDr. Lungten Norbu, PD, RNR RC,Yusipang, CoRRB,ThimphuDr. Tashi Dorji, SRO, RNR RC, Jakar, CoRRB, BumthangMr. Sangay Duba, PD, RNR RC, Bajo, WangdueMr. Tayan Raj Gurung, PD, RNR RC, Wengkhar, MongarPOLICIESThe Journal of Renewable Natural Resources Bhutan(Bhu.J.RNR) is an annual researchpublication published by Council for RNR Research of Bhutan(CoRRB), Ministry ofAgriculture. It is primarily mandated to present well researched articles on RNR and RNRallied themes in Bhutanese context, though the inclusion of articles on research done outsidethe country is not ruled out totally.The views expressed in the journal are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflectthose of the CoRRB, Ministry ofAgriculture.Articles may be quoted or reproduced with proper acknowledgement.EDITORIALCORRESPONDENCESThe Journal of Renewable Natural Resources Bhutan welcomes the submission of articles andpapers. Articles may be sent by post or email. When preparing a paper for publication, pleasefollow journal style and layout as closely as possible. Consult a recent copy of the journal,where in detailed guidelines are set out in the Guide toAuthors.Readers are encouraged to send comments on articles in this journal.ADDRESSEditor in ChiefJournal of Renewable Natural Resources BhutanCouncil for RNR Research of Bhutan,Ministry of Agriculture, Thimphu, Bhutan. Post Box119, Tel: 321097/322936/323514, Fax: 322504, Email: bhurnrjou@druknet.btSUBSCRIPTION RATES (one issue):Nu. 200.00 for IndividualNu. 100.00 for InstitutionUS $ 5.00 for SAARC countriesUS $ 10.00 for other countriesCOPYRIGHT: CoRRB, Ministry ofAgriculture.

DedicatedtoThe Most Glorious Reign (1974 – 2006) of His Majesty the KingJigme Singye Wangchuck,ththe 4 Druk GyalpoJOURNALofRENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCESBHUTANVolume 3 February 2007 Number 1COUNCIL FOR RNR RESEARCH OF BHUTANMINISTRY OF AGRICULTURETHIMPHU, BHUTAN

Livestock

Bhu.J.RNR.Vol 3.No.1, 1-10: 2007Fodder quality of Ficus auriculata in BhutaneseEnvironments1 2 3 4Kelzang Wangchuk , Karma Dorji ,Ugyen Lhendup and Tsering GyeltsenKEYWORDS:ABSTRACTFicus auriculata,a species of fig tree is widely used to augment winterfodder shortage in subtropical environments. Very limited studies werecarried out to establish its nutritional qualities in Bhutaneseenvironments. A study was conducted in 2004 with the objectives toquantify nutritional qualities and evaluate the effect of elevation andrainfall. 15 random samples were collected from 15 different sitesunder subtropical environment. Samples were collected fromhomogeneous trees in winter. Representative samples were analyzedfor crude protein, acid detergent fiber, neutral detergent fiber, and drymatter digestibility.The nutritional properties were diverse and varied between sites. Thenutritional quality was superior for trees at higher elevations and viceversa for the trees at lower elevations. It is concluded that there isdiverse nutritional quality amongst populations of Ficus auriculataalong environmental gradient.Ficus auriculata, nutritional quality, CP, NDF, ADF, elevation,rainfall.INTRODUCTIONTree fodders are an important fodder resource in the traditionalfarming system across the foothills of the Himalayas (Roder et al.2003). In subsistence livestock farming largely prevalent in Bhutan,1234RNR Research Center, Jakar, BumthangRNR Research Center, Jakar, BumthangRNR Research Center, Jakar, BumthangRNR Research Center, Yusipang, Thimphu1

the use of tree fodder is strongly favored by small land holdings, lowinput production system, and extreme topography (Roder et al. 2001).The advantages of growing fodder trees are described by Roder et al.(2003).Amongst fodder trees, Roxburgh's or the elephant ear fig ( Ficusauriculata) a species of fig tree is the most widely used species insubtropical environments. Ficus auriculata is one of about 800 speciesof figs. In Bhutan, this tree is found in areas within the elevation rangeof 400 to 2000m asl (Grierson and Long 1983). Due to its wide rangeof adaptation, strong farmers' preference and good productivity, it isemerging as the most important fodder tree species in subtropicalregions (Roder et al. 2003). Its fodder quality is superior to paddy straw,the main winter feeding in the rice growing regions of Himalayas(Roder et al. 2003).The only published evidence available on nutritional quality of Ficusauriculata in Bhutanese environments is provided by Tamang (1988).Tamang (1988) conducted an analytical work on Ficus auriculatasamples collected from western, central and eastern region in midsummer and early winter. However, his analysis does not encompassthe influence of environmental factors on nutritional qualities.Therefore, the knowledge on the nutritional quality of this tree speciesalong environmental gradient in Bhutanese environment is lacking.This paper examines the nutritional quality of Ficus auriculatasamples collected from 15 locations under 5 Districts representingsubtropical Bhutanese environments. The objectives are to quantifythe range of nutritional qualities of Ficus auriculata across Bhutaneseenvironments and evaluate the effect of elevation and rainfall on itsnutritional quality.MATERIALSAND METHODSKelzang Wangchuk et alDescription of sampling sites and sample collectionThe samples of Ficus auriculata were collected from 15 randomlyselected locations in 5 Districts that represented the major subtropicalclimatic zone (Table 1). The sampling sites were within the elevation2

ange of 500 to 1950m receiving an average annual rainfall rangingfrom 200 to 4500mm. The samples were collected from the farmers'fields as well as from the forest. Samples were collected in winterbecause Ficus auriculata is an important source to augment foddershortage in that particular season.Table 1: Description of sample collection sitesTreeNo.GPS Village/Geog Rainfall Altitude Sample sourceForest FarmTrongsa1 N27.42566,E090.618602 N27.35561,E090.56665Zhemgang3 N27.22364,E090.644784 N27.10024,E090.751255 N27.12531,E090.656226 N27.12531,E090.65622Chukha7 N27.04900,E089.565928 N27.04761,E089.576039 N26.92229,E089.5474410 N26.89190,089.4530311 N26.86142,089.41612Fodder quality of Ficus auriculata..........Chamge/DragtengBayling/Langthel1000-1500mm 1950m - 1000-1500mm 1196m - Pam/ Trong 1500-2000mm 1294m - Zurphey/TrongRanicamp/TrongRani camp/TrongWangkha/GabtshoWangkha/Gabtsho1500-2000mm 540m -1500-2000mm 1700m -1500-2000mm 1540m -1500-2000mm 1700m 1500-2000mm 1593m Rivana/Bongo 1500-2000mm 1548m Kamji/Galing 1500-2000mm 1463m Ramtey/P/ling 4000-4500mm 750m 3

Lhuenste12 N27.67585,E091.25453Mongar13 N27.26140,E091.2614914 N27.27538,E091.2373215 N27.27148,E091.20131Kelzang Wangchuk et alBaptong/Khoma500-600mm 1620mKilikhar 700-800mm 1886mMongar 700-800mm 1640mMongar 700-800mm 1196m -Tree selection, sampling and sample sizeIn order to maintain homogeneity amongst trees, trees with similarcharacteristics were selected. The selected trees were 15 to 17 years ofage with uniform height, disease and pest free and were not subjectedto lopping over the last one year.The leaves of different ages were randomly collected from each treeand mixed thoroughly. The final sample representing the tree wascollected for chemical analysis. 15 representative samples werecollected from 15 different sites in winter. Samples collected were cutinto 2 to 4 cm length for uniform drying. The cut samples were ovenodried for 24 hours at the temperature of 60 C. The dried samples werelater ground and subjected to nutrient analysis.Laboratory analysis for nutrient contentA total of 60 finely ground samples from 15 trees were subjected toanalysis for determining nitrogen (N %), Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF),Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF), and Dry Matter Digestibility (DMD%).a. NitrogenContent of Nitrogen (N%) was determined by the Kjeldhal method(AOAC 1990). The crude protein (CP%) was calculated as N%*6.25.4

.Acid detergent and neutral detergent fibers (ADFand NDF)Contents of Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) and Acid Detergent Fiber(ADF) of leaves were determined by the method of Van Soest et al.(1991).c. Dry matter digestibility (DMD %)The In Vitro DM Digestibility (IVDMD %) was determined followingthe procedures described by McLeod and Minson (1982).Statistical analysisThe entire dataset was analyzed using statistical software Minitabversion 14. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out tocompare the chemical composition and dry matter digestibilitybetween sites. Significant difference between individual means wasidentified using least significant difference (LSD) of means. Meandifferences were considered significant at P

Kelzang Wangchuk et alTable 2: Nutritonal qualities of Ficus auriculata between different sites.Site DMD % ADF% NDF% CP %Bongo 40.54 + 0.17 31.75 + 1.83 51.00 + 0.07 6.23 + 1.30Dragteng 48.99 + 397 36.00 + 0.38 39.19 + 2.15 10.39 + 1.57Gabtso 47.16 + 2.68 36.69 + 0.42 43.53 + 0.49 8.99 + 1.49Gabtso 47.16 + 4.59 36.69 + 0.44 43.53 + 0.73 8.99 + 1.49Galing 43.33 + 1.34 44.35 + 1.03 49.23 + 0.01 6.89 + 1.33Khoma 43.85 + 2.51 36.95 + 0.77 47.79 + 3.51 7.40 + 1.36Langthel 45.81 + 2.02 36.42 + 0.66 43.97 + 0.72 6.70 + 1.32Kilikhar 47.59 + 0.43 37.49 + 0.84 41.00 + 0.34 7.21 + 1.43Mongar 53.26 + 3.99 37.41+ 0.12 44.17 + 0.13 8.05 + 1.39Mongar 46.03 + 0.26 36.58 + 0.29 48.87+ 0.31 8.53 + 1.37Phuentsoling 42.08 + 2.76 46.17+ 0.15 52.89 + 0.49 5.36 + 0.95Pam 45.49 + 1.72 28.46+ 0.44 33.44 + 0.90 13.2 + 1.33Zurphay 45.91+ 1.91 39.65+ 2.78 46.74 + 1.19 6.11 + 1.03Rani camp 49.49 + 3.93 43.79 + 1.29 50.87+ 1.06 6.90 + 1.13Rani camp 46.99 + 0.27 30.84 + 0.36 42.62 + 1.67 6.98 + 1.13P value ns P

Fodder quality of Ficus auriculata..........Table 3: Effect of elevation and rainfall on nutritional quality of Ficus auriculata.Values in each cell represent the correlation coefficient of regression analysis.Quality parameter Elevation RainfallDMD % 0.26 0.30NDF % 0.25 0.39*ADF % -0.31* 0.33*CP % 0.62** 2.10* P

Kelzang Wangchuk et alDiscussionThe results of this study represent the nutritional qualities of Ficusauriculata trees within the age of 15 to 17 years in winter and thelocations within elevations of 540 to 1950m asl.There is huge variation in nutritional quality of Ficus auriculatabetween different sites. Rajhan (1977) studied the variation in nutritivevalue of tree leaves and concluded that nutritive value of tree leavesvary with months and season. Thus, a huge variation in nutritivequality between sites can be attributed to the variation in climatic andsoil conditions found at different elevations. This was expectedbecause there are different vegetation zones with different climaticconditions within the elevation range of 200 to 2000m asl. Theseattributes of Ficus auriculata support the finding of Thorne et al.(1999) who indicated that Ficus auriculata populations may haveconsiderable range of nutritional parameters such as CP, NDF andADFoffering scope for improvement through selection.The study results showed that elevation and rainfall are goodpredictors of nutritional quality of ficus auriculata. At higherelevations, leaves have lower fiber content and higher CP contentsuggesting that the nutritive quality of this tree resource is superior athigher elevation. The inferior nutritional quality at lower elevations isindicated by higher fiber and low CPcontent of the leaves.There is wide range of nutritive values of Ficus auriculata reported inthis study while the nutritive values in published information of otherauthors were within a small range. The wide range of nutritive values inthis study is attributable to large variations in nutritional qualitiesamong samples from different sites falling under different agroecologicalzones.CONCLUSIONSFicus auriculata is the most important fodder tree within elevation of200 to 2000m asl. The nutritive values of Ficus auriculata vary withelevations and the amount of annual rainfall and the nutritional qualityin terms of fiber and CP content is superior at higher elevations.However, this study has not covered soil and management factors8

Fodder quality of Ficus auriculata..........which are also the major determinants of nutritional quality.Since, thefarmers' management practices and soil properties vary with elevationsand locations, studies in immediate future need to quantify the effect ofthese factors on nutritional quality across regions. Accordingly, thefuture research should focus on optimizing fodder quality of this treeresource via development of location specific management strategies.REFERENCESAOAC (1990). Official Methods of Chemical Analysis 16th edition,Association of OfficialAgricultural Chemists, Washington DC.Amatya, D.B. (1991). Forest Development, Utilization andManagement, Background Paper to the NationalConservationStrategy for Nepal,Vol II, IUCN, Kathmandu, Nepal.Jackson, J.K. (1987). Manual of Afforestation in Nepal. Nepal/UK,Forestry Research Project, Kathmandu, Nepal.Mahato, S.N. and Subba, D.B. (1988). Nutrient Evaluation of Fodderat Pakhribas Agricultural Centre, Dhankuta, Paper Presented at theSecond Meeting of the Working Group on Fodder Trees, Forest Fodderand leaf litter, FRIC, Kathmandu, Nepal.McLeod, M.N., and Minson, J.D. (1982). Accuracy of predictingdigestibility by the cell&se technique; the effect of pretreatment offorage samples with neutral detergent or acid pepsin, Animal FeedScience Technology, 7: pp. 83-92Pearson, R.A. (1990). A Note on Live Weight and Intake andDigestibility of food by draught cattle after supplementation of ricestraw with the fodder tree Ficus auriculata, Animal Production, 51, pp.635-638.Rajhan, S.K. (1977). Animal Nutrition and Feeding Practices in India(2nd Edition), Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., Gaziabad, UttarPradesh, India, pp. 162.9

Kelzang Wangchuk et alRoder, W., Wangdi, K., Gyamtso, P. and Dorji, K. (2001). Feeding theHerds-Improving Fodder Resources in Bhutan, ICIMOD, Kathmandu,Nepal, pp. 124.Roder, W., Rinzin, and Gyaltsen, T. (2003). Ficus auriculata – ItsRelative Importance in Bhutan, Farmers' Preference and FodderQuality, Agroforestry Systems, 57, pp. 11-17.Shrestha, R.K. and Tiwari, B.N. (1991). Nutritive Value and TanninContent of Some Common Tree Fodder Species of the Western Hills ofNepal, LAC Seminar Paper 31/91, Lumle Agricultural Centre, Kaski,Nepal.Tamang, D.B. (1987). Nutrient Composition of Feed Resources inBhutan (Bulletin I and II), Bhutan Journal ofAnimal Husbandry, 10, pp.20-33.Thorne, P.J., Subba, D.B., Walker, D.H. Thapa, B, Wood, C.D. andSinclair, F.L. (1999). The basis of Indigeneous Knowledge of TreeFodder Quality and its Implications for Improving the Use of TeeFodder in Developing Countries, Animal Feed Science andTechnology, 81, pp. 119-131.Van Soest, P. J., Robertson, J. B. and Lewis, B. A. (1991). Methods fordietary fiber, neutral fiber and non-starch polysaccharides in relation toanimal nutrition, Journal of Dairy Science, 74: pp. 473–481.10

Bhu.J.RNR.Vol 3.No.1, 11-25: 2007Comparative Study of Broiler Feeds in BhutanKEYWORDS:INTRODUCTION1 2Karma Nidup and Pema WangchukABSTRACTThe trial to asses the quality of two broiler feed types: i) Feedmanufactured in Bhutan by Karma Feed Group (KFG) and ii) Feedimported from India manufactured by Samrat Feed Group (SFG), wasconducted by determining their nutrient content, growth rates ofbroiler birds, and feed efficiency. To conduct this experiment, day oldchicks (Vencobb strain) were divided into two groups, KFG 97 birdsand SFG 99 birds, reared in the two separate pens at the College ofNatural Resources poultry farm for 42 days. The live-weight gain,dressing %, and feed efficiency were better in SFG as compared to KFG.The feed conversion ratio for SFG and KFG broiler birds was 2.05 and2.65 respectively. The two-sample t-test suggests that there is asignificant difference (P

Karma Nidup & Pema Wangchukvery long time. It has always been family and village chicken farmingrather than at commercial scale. Besides the state owned central andregional poultry farms, there are only couples of commercial poultryfarms in Bhutan. The demand for eggs and chicken meat in Bhutan isenormous and it is on rise. The existing farms including the state ownedcentral farms cannot meet these demand. Because of these, Bhutanimports huge amount of meat and eggs from neighboring states of India.The Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) has been encouraging to establishcommercial poultry farms particularly broiler farmers in the potentialareas of Southern Bhutan where influence of religion does not restrictrearing of broiler chickens. The establishments of number of “smallscale”broiler farms (200-500 birds) in Tsirang district and by farmersin Samtse district during 2004 to mid 2006 are some encouragingactivities initiated by the Department of Livestock, MoA, to promotebroiler meat production in Bhutan. However, one of the bottlenecks inthis important initiative has been lack of good broiler feed sources. Theonly national feed mill in the country is located at Phuntsholing and thebroiler feed from this company has not been popular. Successfulprivate farms such as Wangchutaba broiler farm in Thimphu districtand Gurung broiler farm in Gelephu district have been importing feedsfrom India. It is not clear why the feed produced within the country isconsidered inferior or to what extent imported feed is superior. Like inmany countries (Acamovic, 2002), it has also not been possible to getthe details of the basis of nutrient standards feed companies have beenusing because of commercial confidentiality. For all these reasons, themain purpose of this experiment was:Assess nutrient content of broiler feeds produced in Bhutan (KFG)and imported from India (SFG)Determine growth rate of broiler birdsAssess the efficiency of two categories of broiler feeds12

MATERIALSAND METHODSComparative Study of Broiler in BhutanExperimentalArea and TreatmentThe experiment was conducted at the poultry farm of the College ofNatural Resources (CNR) for duration 42 days. One hundred ninety sixday old chicks (DOC) of terminal Vencobb strain were divided into twogroups and reared in two separate pens. The experimental unitconsisted of 97 birds for KFG and 99 birds for SFG, respectively. Bothgroups of chicks were fed ad libitum to ensure maximum growth rate.Initial weight and weighing at different intervals were taken usingelectrical weighing balance (Mettler – Toledo, type PJ 300, 5 kgcapacity, made in Switzerland).Housing Preparation and Stocking DensityPrior to the arrival of DOC, two brooding pens were washed andcleaned thoroughly with water and phenol. Brooding pens were airdried for two days after which sawdust was spread over the flooruniformly. A day before arrival of DOC, floor laid with sawdust werecovered with old newspapers and the brooder boxes were placed ineach brooding pen. The 100-watt electric bulbs (30 cm away from thefloor) were placed in brooding boxes. To confine the chicks around thesource of heat and to prevent draught, a brooder guard or chick guardswere erected around the brooder using plywood. The electricity wasput on for 48 hours so as to raise temperature of the floor of eachbrooding pen.All possible efforts were made to keep litter as dry aspossible throughout the experiment. The litter which was 3-5 inchesthick was stirred once in a week.The floor spacing was measured with measuring tape (Fibreglass tape30m Marker Fibrex). The stocking density, which is a measure of thenumber of birds placed in broiler house, was 2.98 sq ft per bird for KFGand 3.07 sq ft per bird for SFG. According to parkhurst and Mountney(1988), the space requirement per broiler bird is 0.7 sq ft but manystudies showed that provision of larger floor spacing increases weightper bird and improves feed conversion ratio (Bilgili & Hess, 1995;Johari & Hussain, 1996). There is little or negligible difference in13

stocking density (0.09 sq ft/bird) between two groups of birds.According to Dawkins et al. (2004), good housing conditions such asgood air quality and ventilation, and litter quality, are more importantto good physical health and minimization of mortality than stockingdensity itself. Both groups had good housing conditions includingideal stocking density to ensure the welfare of birds.FeedAnalysis andAflatoxin DeterminationFeeds were analyzed at Soil and Plant Analytical Laboratory (SPAL),Semtokha. The samples were divided into two parts, one for moisturecontent determination and other for analyzing nutrient content of feeds.The difference between initial and final weight of samples after havingdried in the hot oven for 24 hours provided moisture content. The otherpart was used for determining nutrient content using Near Infra Redsystem (SFOSS NIR System Model 5000-M SLno S/N7362).The feeds were also examined at the National Centre forAnimal Health(NCAH) laboratory, Serbithang, Thimphu, determine the presence ofaflatoxin, which is a metabolite of the fungus Aspergillus flavus.Feeding and Watering RegimeKarma Nidup & Pema WangchukThe birds in both categories of feed were fed ad libitum and clean waterwas made available throughout 24 hours. Cheeke (1999) has suggestedfeed starter diet for three weeks. However, in this study, starter diet wasfed for 24 days after which they were provided with mixture of starterththand finisher in a ratio of 75% to 25% on 25 day, 50% to 50% on 26ththDay, 25% to 75% on 27 Day, and 100% finisher by 28 Day. The ideabehind this approach was to minimize stress in growing chicks due tochange in feed and acclimatize them to finisher feed. Similar system offeeding regime is followed in Wangchuktaba broiler farm. The feedersused were combination of trough type aluminum line feeders andround hanging type feeders. The equipments used for watering wasplastic circular waterers and locally made earthen pot fountain drinkers.Care was taken to minimize the wastage of feeds.14

Slaughtering and DressingSlaughtering and dressing is the final step in the production of broilerchickens. Scientific literature recommends that feed is withdrawnfrom poultry prior to slaughter (Bilgili, 2002). Pre-slaughter fastingperiod not only minimize wastage of undigested feed that may bepresent in the gastrointestinal tract of broiler (Smidt et al., 1964) butalso reduce likelihood of ingesta and/or faecal contamination of thecarcass during evisceration (Bilgili, 1988). Therefore, birds wereexposed to pre-slaughter fasting, and their live-weight was taken justprior to slaughter.The most common slaughtering method used was severing of jugularvein with knife to drain blood. This resembles halal system of killing asfacilities for humane slaughtering methods (Raj & Gousi, 2000) is notavailable at CNR farm. The other method used was “stunning” birds byhitting on spinal region between the wings. The feathers were pluckedusing hard scald plucking method. This involves immersingslaughtered birds in 60 to 65°C water for 2-5 minutes. Feathers can beplucked without tearing or bruising the skin or breaking wing bones.Small incision in the abdomen region along a line from the end of thebreast bone to the vent was made. The internal organs including gullet,crop, gizzard, and intestine were removed. Dressed carcass here refersto internal organs removed, head and legs intact, and carcass washedthoroughly. The dressing percentage was calculated using the formulabelow:Dressing % = Dressed carcass weight/ live weight X 100The FCR was calculated as shown below:Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) = Total weight of feedconsumed/Actual live-weight gainDataAnalysisComparative Study of Broiler in BhutanData on feed consumption, growth rate, live weight, and carcassweight were recorded. MS Excel software was used to compile some15

part of the data while some are exported to Minitab (version 13) forsimple statistical analysis.RESULTAND DISCUSSIONNutrient Content andAflatoxinPoultry feed contains all nutrients needed to grow muscles, bones,internal organs, fat and feathers.About 65-75% of the total expenditureof commercial poultry farming goes to feeding, therefore success ofpoultry farming depends mainly on use of balanced but cost effectivefeeds. Proteins, which are metabolized and converted into variousamino acids, are essential for chickens.Nutrient analysis revealed that KF starter has not met recommended orstandard crude protein requirement (Cheeke, 1999; Coon, 2001) by1.31% while SF starter contain 1.07% CP higher than actualrequirement (Table 1). In other words, latter contains 2.38% CP higherthan former. It is also evident from Figure 4 that performance of SFGhas taken new turn from day 14 to day 20 as CP requirement is highestin the first 2-3 weeks (Lacy, 2001). However, both SF and KF containslightly higher CP than the standard requirement (Table 1). Whencompared among the two feeds, SF contains 0.34 % CPhigher than KF.Table : Comparison of nutrients in two feed samples (analyzed at SPAL) as comparedto standard nutrient recommendation (Cheeke, 1999; Coon, 2001)SamratStarterKarma Nidup & Pema WangchukSamratFinisherStandardNutrientRequirement(Starter)16StandardNutrientRequirement(Finisher)KarmaStarterKarmaFinisherCrude Protein 24.07% 20.93% 23.00% 20.00% 21.69% 20.59%Crude Fiber 5.67% 6.61% 2.5% 2.4% 6.38% 7.02%Either extract 4.00% 5.85% 3.81% 3.13%Dry matter 90.09 91.31% 90.26 90.27%%Calcium 1.03% .90% 1.00% 0.90% 0.86% 0.75%Phosphorus 0.52% 0.49% 0.45% 0.40% 0.58% 0.47%Potassium 1.85% 0.60% 0.40% 0.35% 1.02% 1.22%Magnesium 0.03% 0.18% 600mg 600mg 0.04% 0.09%NDF 20.69%ADF 19.77%

Poultry is highly susceptible to aflatoxin (McDonald, 1992), which is ametabolite of the fungus Aspergillus flavus. Toxic level of aflatoxin,causes decreased body weight and feed intakes, poor skin pigmentation,depletion of lymphoid organs such as thymus and bursa of fabricius andmicroscopic and histological lesions in the liver (Saxena, 1999).Aflatoxin productions in the feed are because of humidity in the storageand the storage temperature. The relative humidity of 80-85%,moisture concentration of 17%, and temperature of 24-35°C are theoptimum condition for aflatoxin production (Saxena, 1999).Laboratory test result from NCAH indicates negative to qualitativeaflatoxin suggesting both the feeds were technically safe for feedingbroiler birds. The test result is an indication of good quality feed storagesystem in Karma feed mill (Bhutan), Samrat feed mill (India), andWangchutaba broiler farm.Growth RateComparative Study of Broiler in BhutanThere are number of factors (nutrient content, particle size, palatabilityetc) influencing growth rate of broiler birds. Studies have shown thatbroiler gained more weight with increased energy level and hadsignificantly improved feed conversion. If there is protein deficiencyin the feed than it results in feed consumption and loss of body weightin adult birds (Coon, 2001). Broilers are normally fed pelleted feedthroughout the growing cycles (Lacy, 2001). Chicks are providedpelleted feed that has been crumbled so that it is in pieces small enoughfor the birds to consume easily. However, both SF and KF were in theform of crumbs and there was no trace of pellets. Physically, SFcontained more crumbs than KF which was mainly dominated by finesmall crumbs and powdery form. With better CP content andappropriate crumb size seen in SF, it is clear that growth rate is better inSFG birds as compared to KFG birds.According to Lacy (2001), birds reared up to 42 days grows rapidlyfrom first few weeks of life, peak at 6-7 weeks of age, and then declinesas they grow older (Figure 1). In contrary, this experiment showedgradual increase in weight gain and peaked at 4-6 weeks of age (Figure4).17

Karma Nidup & Pema WangchukFigure 1: Typical growth rate of broiler at different age. Source: Lacy, 2001The actual live-weight gain (final live-weight – initial live-weight) in41 days for each SFG bird is 2.41 kg with daily weight gain of 58.76 gm.On the other hand, actual live-weight gain of each bird in KFG is 2.14kg with daily gain of 52.28 gm. This may be the fact that CP content ofSF is better than KF. The growth curve generated is very much in linewith schematic representation of growth curves for broiler chickenssuggested by Lesson & Summers (1991) as depicted in Figure 2.Figure 2: Schematic representational growth curves of broiler chickens. Source:Leeson & Summer, 199118

Comparative Study of Broiler in BhutanGrowth rate of birds in both groups have taken a shape of line C (Figure3). Both groups had initially slow growth rate but accelerate at somepoint ( week 3) towards projected market weight of 2.0 kg in 42 days.Birds with growth rate of such trend are likely to exhibit a superior feedconversion since its maintenance requirement will be less (Leeson &Summers, 1991). The reason for this reduced maintenancerequirement is that at any specific age, prior to projected market weight,the birds had smaller body mass to maintain, and so will need less feednutrient for this purpose. However, such growth trend would meanincreased carcass fat composition, which was also true in thisexperiment.Figure 3: Growth curve of the KFG and SFG.The statistical analysis of Two-sample t-test for final market liveweightof KFG and SFG birds suggest that there is a significantdifference (P-Value = 0.000) between the groups at 95% confidenceinterval. In other words, SFG birds had significantly higher marketlive-weight than KFG birds. The box plot (Figure 4) generated below isan illustrative indication of the live-weight gain of KFG (KLWt) andSFG (SLWt).19

Karma Nidup & Pema WangchukFigure 4: Comparison of final live weight between KFG and SFG.In addition to this, the carcass-weight of both the categories of birdswas compared. The SFG birds had significantly higher (P

while KFG birds had eaten 2.65 kg of feed to gain 1 kg live-weight.This suggests that animals that have low FCR are considered efficientusers of feed. In fact, FCR was better than the standard value suggestedby Saxena (1999). The ideal environmental temperature, good housingconditions (air quality, litter management), and aflatoxin free feedsmay have been the reasons for good feed efficiency.Since two categories of feeds were used, FCR alone cannot reveal theefficiency of feed. It is also important to calculate the cost effectivenessof feed used. The total feed consumed in six weeks by 94 birds in SFGis 465.25 kg costing Nu. 6112.21. On other hand, total feed consumedby KFG was 532.99 kg of feed costing Nu. 6350.11. Both from thepoint of FCR and cost effectiveness of feed, SF has proven to be betterthan KF. Although, it is not clear how Vencobb broiler birds have beenbred, the genetic potential of this strain to convert feed into meat maybe another factor contributing to good feed efficiency. There has beensteady genetic progress in growth rate of broilers over the last twodecades (Nicholson, 1998).CONCLUSIONSComparative Study of Broiler in BhutanThe performance of broiler birds fed with imported feed was betterthan the feed manufactured in Bhutan. It was justifiable for privatebroilers farms or any other broiler farms in Bhutan to import feed fromIndia. However, this experiment does not indicate that KF is a poorquality feed. In fact, it has achieved 2.14 kg live-weight and this ishighly acceptable market live-weight at 42 days. To further improveKF, the study recommends following:There is a need to increase CP content of in-country broiler starterfeed (at least up to 23% CP).Physical form (particle size) of feed needs improvement if KF is toattract customers within and outside Bhutan. Studies have shownthat feeding pellets made into crumbs as starter diet, and pellets asfinisher diet significantly increases live-weight and improves feedefficiency (Yule, 1974; Saxena, 1999; Coon, 2001).To further substantiate this experiment, similar studies with21

adequate treatment and replicates either by the feed mill(s) of byrelevant institutions within Bhutan would be extremely useful.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTKarma Nidup & Pema WangchukWe would like thank the following organizations:o Wangchutaba broiler farm for providing broiler day old chicksand ex-country feedo Karma Feed, P/Ling, for supplying Karma feedo SPALfor analyzing nutrient content of the feedsWe would also like to thank members of the Faculty of AnimalHusbandry, College of Natural Resources, Royal University of Bhutan,for supporting this project and their invaluable comments on draftarticle.REFERENCESAcamovic, T. (2002). Nutrient requirements and standards for poultry.In Review Of Nutritional Standards For Livestock. Avian ScienceResearch Centre. UK.Bilgili, S.F. (1988). Research Note: effect of feed and waterwithdrawal on shear strength of broiler gastrointestinal tract. PoultryScience. 67: 846-847Bilgili, S.F. (2002). Slaughter quality as influenced by feed withdrawal.World's Poultry Science Journal. 58 (2): 123-130Biligili, S. F. & Hess, J. B. (1995). Placement density influences broilercarcass grade and meat yields. Journal of Applied Poultry Research.4:384-389.Cheeke, R.P. (1999). Applied animal nutrition: feeds and feeding.Second edition. New Jersey: Prentice HallCoon, C.N. (2001). Broiler nutrition. In Commercial chicken meat andegg production. Fifth edition, pp 243-266 (D.D.Bell; Jr. W. D. Weaver).USA: KluwerAcademic Publishers.22

Comparative Study of Broiler in BhutanDawkins, M.S., Donnelly, C.A. & Jones, T.A. (2004). Chicken welfareis influenced more by housing conditions than by stocking density.Nature. 427: 342-344.Deka, R. & Kalita, N. (2004). Rearing of broiler under semiscavengingsystem in rural areas of Assam, India. INFPD Newsletter.14 (2): 3-11. FAO Publication.Johari, C.D. & Hussain, K.Q. (1996). Commercial broiler production.International book distributing Co.Jull, A. M. (2001). Successful poultry management. Second edition.New Delhi.Lacy, M.P. (2001). Broiler Management. In Commercial chicken meatand egg production. Fifth edition, pp. 829-868 (D.D.Bell; Jr. W. D.Weaver). USA: KluwerAcademic Publishers.Leeson, S. & Summers, J.D. (1991). Commercial poultry nutrition.Department of animal and poultry science. University of Guelph,Ontario, Canada. International book distributing Co.McDonald, P., Edwards, R.A. & Greenhalgh, J.F.D. (1992). AnimalthNutrition. 4 Edition. Singapore: Longman Groups Ltd.Nicholson, D. (1998). Research: is it the broiler industry's partner intothe new millennium? Word's Poultry Science Journal. 54 (3): 271-278Nidup, K. (2003). Phylogenetic relationship of indigenous chickens ofBhutan as determined by mitochondrial DNA. MAgr Thesis. Faculty ofFood andAgriculture. University of Sydney.Nidup, K., Dorji, P. & Penjor (2005). A Review of PoultryDevelopment in Bhutan . INFPD Newsletter. 15 (1): 8-15. FAO, Rome.Parkhurst, R.C. & Mountney, G.J. (1997). Poultry meat and eggproduction. First edition. CBS publishers and Distributors.23

Karma Nidup & Pema WangchukRaj, M. & Gousi, A.T. (2000). Stunning methods for poultry. World'sPoultry Science Journal. 56 (4): 291-304Saxena HC (1999). Poultry feed technology. Feed formulation andmanufacturing. Second edition. International book distributionCompany. U.P.Smidt, M.J., Formica, S.D. & Fritz, J.C. (1964). Effect of fasting priorto slaughter on yield of broiler. Poultry Science. 43: 931-943Souri, B.N., Gopalakrishanan, C.A., Khan, M.D.H. & Rajan, T.N.(1972). Studies on dressing data and relationship of live-weight anddressed weigh in desi birds. Indian Veterinary Journal. 49 (9): 920-927Yule, W.J. (1974). Physical form and energy concentrations of broilerdiets. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and AnimalHusbandry. 14(67) : 141 - 14524

Bhu.J.RNR.Vol 3.No.1, 25-38: 2007Honey Bees In The Foot Hills Of Bhutan:An Untapped ResourceN B Tamang 1ABSTRACTFoothills in the sub-tropical belt of Bhutan are endemic to manyspecies of honey bees. Among them, Apis cerena species is mostcommonly hived for generations to produce honey.In order tounderstand the honey production potential of indigenous bees, data onthe existing beekeeping practices, honey production, consumption andsale, facilities available and gender involved were collected from fivevillages of Bhur block, Sarpang and two villages of Phuntsholingblock, Chukha.Results indicated that honey bees are mostly managed in traditionallog hives. Annual honey production per hive is about eight bottles(750ml/ bottle) in two harvests. Honey produced is consumed at homeand used in treating common ailments. About half (45%) of honeyproduced is sold helping farmers to generate some cash income.Income generated at the moment is not very significant but home use ofhoney is contributing to health and well-being of farm families.Honey bees have been an unfailing partner of rural folks. Apart fromimproved health and income it also helps to increase crop yieldthrough pollination services. However, available honey bee resourcesremained to be gainfully utilized for greater benefit of poor andlandless. Improved ways of beekeeping is largely unheard andbeekeeping method is still primitive. None the less, farmers with longtradition of beekeeping, have adequate experience on traditionalbeekeeping. Honey production thus can be improved by harnessingtraditional knowledge and amalgamating with modern beekeepingtechnologies.1RNR Research Center, Jakar, Bumthang25

Hindrances to enhance honey production are several. Lack of skills onimproved ways of beekeeping, periodic migration of bees due toseasonal temperature fluctuation, absconding due to food shortage,disturbance to colonies and pest attacks contribute negatively to honeyproduction. Action research needs to be carried out along with thebeekeepers to find ways to curtail migration/absconding and control ofpest while imparting them skills on modern beekeeping practices.KEYWORDS :Honey bees, Apis cerena, log hives, foothillsINTRODUCTIONN. B. TamangFoothills in the sub-tropical belt of Bhutan are home for many speciesof honey bees such as Apis dorsata, Apis florea, Apis cerena and Apismelipona. Among these species Apis cerena and Apis melipona issuccessful hived for generations to produce honey.Honey produced is mostly consumed by family member at home anduse it for medicinal purpose to cure common ailments. Only somehousehold sell a few bottles as and when there are cash needs at home.Therefore, economic benefit from commercial honey production is yetto be exploited and realized.Owing to little resources required for beekeeping, improvement oftraditional practices could increase honey production and it can be apotential economic activity for poor and landless people to generatecash income to alleviate rural poverty.Moreover, honey bees are increasingly recognized as an importantpollinating agent. Keeping bees is proven to increase yields and profitfrom crops substantially. For example, the economic value ofpollination services in US on the 100 most significant crops isestimated at US$ 1.6-9.0 billion and in Costa Rica there had been 7%increase in coffee production valued at $62,000(API, 2006). Further,Popa (1980) estimated that indirect contribution of honeybees toagricultural production is 10-15 times greater than direct contribution.26

However, very little or no efforts have been made to make honeyproduction with indigenous honey bee ( Apis cerena) a viableenterprise, largely due to unawareness of its importance. In order thatthe beekeepers learn improved beekeeping methods to increase honeyproduction; improve health and well-being of the farm families;generate of cash income and increase crops production, the livestockresearch program, Renewable Natural Resources Research Centre(RNRRC) Jakar in collaboration with International Centre forMountain Development (ICIMOD) initiated research anddemonstration on indigenous honey bees.One of the collaborative activities is to identify potential pocketswhere beekeeping activities have been a long tradition and selectbeekeepers interested to expand their activities to supplement farmincome. Subsequently, data on existing beekeeping practices,production and marketing of honey, constraints to enhance productionand beekeeping activities men and women carry out were collectedfrom the areas identified.The study had the following objectives:Collect data on social set-up and beekeeping facilities availableUnderstand the existing beekeeping practices, production andincomeIdentify constraints that hinders increased production of honeyAssess the gender situation among beekeepersMATERIALAND METHODSHoney Bees in the foot hill................Location of research sites Bhur block in Sarpang district ( Jhupreydara,Mongargaon,Ghalley goan, Dungkarling and Jaruwa villages) Phuntsholing block,Chukha district(Pachudara and Sadhumadhuvillages)Criteria for selection of sites Area farmers with long tradition of beekeeping At least 25 beekeepers are interested to expand their activities toenhance income27

Data collectionData were collected in multiple stages:Site visit and farmer/beekeepers' selectionPotential beekeepers in villages of Bhur and Jigmecholing block,Sarpang and villages of Phuntsholing block in Chukha were visited byresearchers and local extension agents. About 27 farmers from eachblock were selected in consultation with local extension agents andfield research staff.Group discussionsPre-selected farmers/beekeepers were invited to a meeting/discussionat a central location- RNR Sub Centre at Bhur and Chupen's (villageheadman) house at Sadhumadhu.Group discussions were held toassess gender situation among beekeeping households. Details onexisting beekeeping practices were also collected using standardformat.Informal discussionInformal discussion were also held with key informants to validateinformation on the present beekeeping practices: harvesting time,number of harvest per year, bee pasture/flora available, season andcause of migration/abounding of bees, constraints in beekeeping, useand marketing of honey.DataAnalysisN. B. TamangData from the individual interviews were entered in a spreadsheet. Theanswers to the questions were grouped into: numerical data that wereaveraged; Yes-No answers coded and “word” answers that fell intosimilar pattern were counted manually and when ever practicalconverted to a percentage. Observations and impressions weredescribed.28

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSocial structure and facilitiesBeekeepers in the study area consist of diverse ethnic groups such asRai, Mongar, Ghalley, Tamang and Subba. These groups exceptTamang follow Hinduism. The community is coherent as the peopleare permanent settler for a very long time. About 15 percent of thehouseholds are also headed by female and rest by males.The villages in Bhur block are within 30 minutes walk from the nearestroad head. The villages have electricity and rural water supply,telephones, two primary schools and an outreach clinic where hospitalstaff regularly conducts vaccination campaign. Pachudara andSadhumadhu villages however is about three hours walk from nearestroad head and there is no school and telephone connection.Farming systemsIn both the sites selected, farmers practice rice based farming system.Rice is cultivated in the irrigated terraced wetland. It is transplantedduring July-August and it is the most labor intensive among all thefarming activities. Rice is used mostly for subsistence.After harvest ofrice, mustard and buckwheat is cultivated in some portion of wetland.Maize is also cultivated as dryland crops but generally don't grow wellin Bhur but it is a main food crop in Pachudara as there is less areaunder wetland due to shortage of irrigation water. Millet is grown afterharvest of maize. Aracanut, citrus mandarin is the main cash crop.Varieties of vegetables, other fruits such as mango are also grown.Farmers rear livestock such as cattle, goats, sheep, chicken, ducks andbees. The villages have abundant tree/ plantation cover.Income sourcesHoney Bees in the foot hill................About 35 percent of the respondents sell citrus mandarin annually(Table 1). It is the main cash crop in the study areas. Farmers who hasfruit bearing mandarin orchards are better off than the rest. For 10percent of farmers, orchard combined with livestock such as goat and29

cattle contributes to the household cash. About 10 percent of farmfamilies sell aracanut. Some 13 percent of farmers, who don't havemandarin orchards or aracanut, engage in daily wage off-farmactivities to meet household income. Ginger and rice are sold by somefarmers for cash while 29 percent of the farmers don't have any readysource of income. They could be poorer than others in a community.BeekeepingBeekeeping tradition and use of honeyBeekeeping has been a long tradition in most of the households in thestudy area with 62 percent of the households keeping bees for honeyproduction. However, keeping honey bee is only a part-time job as onlyeffort made is to make hives, clean them before the arrival of migratingbee and harvest honey periodically.Table 1. Income sourcesN. B. TamangNo cash incomesource29%Mandarin &livestock10%Off farm13%Mandarinorchard35%Aracanut10%Ginger & Rice3%MandarinorchardAracanutGinger & RiceOff farmMandarin &livestockNo cashincome sourceHoney is long recognized by local people as medicine to cure sorethroat; chicken pox, stomach pain, foot and mouth disease of livestock,wound and so on. Some honey is always retained at home to treatcommon ailments. ICAR (1990) mentioned that Indian system ofmedicine belonging to both Ayurvedha and Sidha extensively usehoney as a vehicle for drugs. Further, Dorji and Tshering (1999)30

eported that oral drenching as well as application of mixture of honeyand molasses on lesion is a common method to treat foot and mouthdisease in villages.Bee floraThere is abundant bee flora in the natural vegetation that blooms duringdifferent seasons of the year. The seasonal crops such as maize, rice,wheat, buckwheat, vegetable and fruit trees provide nectar and pollento bees most of the year. Bees in turn help plants by providingpollination services essential for production of viable seeds forsustainable agriculture.Types of bees availableTwo types of bees reared in the villages: i) Apis cerena ii)Apismelipona. Apis cerena in turn is believed to be of two strains, one strainhas yellowish appearance and other type is black. Honey production isbelieved to be better with yellow ones. ICAR (1990) also mentionedabout three strains of Apis cerena indica F. One strain is found in thehills are bigger and dark grey, other two strains found in plains are lightgrey and reddish yellow. . Apis melipona a miniature dammar beelocally termed as putka are also kept in few households.Types of bee hivesHoney Bees in the foot hill................Log hives are predominant method of hiving bees and constitute about86 percent of total hives used. It is a piece of a hollow tree trunk, eithernatural or artificially made. The hollow is covered on both sides withpiece of wood and smeared with cow dung. Small hole is made in themiddle as a passage for worker bees. The hives are either spread aroundthe homestead if there are many or hung around the house.About sevenpercent of the respondents keep bees in wooden boxes and threepercent in wall hives. Improved hives is being used to keep Apis cerenain a few households at Tabji (Drala, Chukha).31

Honey productionAverage annual honey prouction when harvested twice is eight bottles(750ml/bottle). A colony/hive of indigenous bee produces maximumof seven bottles and minimum of one bottle or even less with anaverage of four bottles per harvest. This finding is close to earlierestimate of two to four bottles per harvest/ hive in mid-altitude areas ofTsirang and Dagana districts of Bhutan (Dorji, 2001). However, abeekeeper at Tabji reported that eight bottles of honey could beobtained in a single harvest for same bee species managed in improvedhive. Thus, use of improve hive is likely to double the yield. Apismelipona produce about one bottle honey per hive per year.Honey harvestingN. B. TamangBees are harvested using locally made knife. Usually smoke is createdinside the hive that drives away the bees and honey is then harvested.The honey once harvested is strained using double layer muslin cloth.Generally honey is harvested twice in a year, November-Decemberand February-March. Some farmers however harvest three times(February-March, June-July, November-December) some harvesteven four times while some harvest only once. Fortnightly harvestingof honey during late spring is also reported as there is sufficient honeyflow due to spring bloom. However, it is doubtful whether the maturedhoney could be harvested in this very short period.Seven bottles is reported to be obtained during spring harvest in Marchand low (1-2 bottles) in other seasons. Good harvest in March isattributed to flowering of buckwheat and mustard flower in winterwhich invariably is considered as best flora for bees. Less productionwhen harvested after monsoon is because bees are unable to go out tocollect nectars and pollen during rainy days and is the most food scarceperiod. Irregular and frequent harvesting also could have aggravatedthe situation.32

Honey sale, income and priceInterview with beekeepers (n =49) revealed that out of 368 bottles ofhoney estimated to have been produced only 168 bottles (45 percent)were sold in the previous year. Remaining 55% is retained for homeconsumption. Average income generated was Nu.773 per household.About 21 beekeepers (43 percent) did not sell honey at all as theirproduction is low while others who produce slightly more sell someand keep the rest for home use. At the moment income generated fromhoney is very negligible probably contributing less than five percent ofthe household income. However, honey being a natural product, ahighly nutritious food with remarkable dietetic and therapeuticproperties (Popa, 1980), home use of honey is contributing to betterhealth and well-being of farm families.Many farmers sell honey at their door steps because production is lowand demand for it is often high. Some sell them in open market innearest town or meet the demand if orders have been placed fromtowns. Sometimes few farmers take to Thimphu (Capital city) for sale.Price obtained varies from 100-150 per bottle in the locality. Apismelipona honey fetches Nu. 800-900 per bottle as it is highly valued forits medicinal property.Constraints to enhance honey productionBee migration/abscondingHoney Bees in the foot hill................Absconding is departure of all adult bees of a colony from their nestwhile migration is the regular seasonal movement of bees towardsdifferent blockraphical locations (Pratap, 1999). In low-altitude studyareas (< 1200 m asl), most colonies migrate in April-May when thelocal area becomes very warm. The migration is towards coolermountain side in the north. The downward migration takes place inAugust-September. But in mid-altitude areas (1200-1800 m asl) whendays are cold in winter, bees migrate towards warmer places in thesouth and return in spring (Dorji, 2001). It appears therefore thatmigration is periodic phenomenon for bees based on seasonal weatherconditions and it could be an inherited trait. However, provision of33

cooler places for bees to live in summer in low-altitude areas andcovering hives with jute sacks in winter in mid-altitude areas isreported to curtail migration of bees to some extent. Presence of sixcolonies of bees in five different households visited which reportedlyhave not migrated for many years support the opinions.Bees tend to abscond many a times. Besides human factors such asunskilled handling, disturbance to colonies results in absconding.Farmers attributed following reasons for absconding/migration ofbees:Heat stress due to lack of ventilation to keep cool in summerFood shortage due to complete harvesting before monsoon (June-July)Attack by predators such as cockroach, ant, bird, bear and hornetFrequent harvesting, unskilled handling and disturbance to hivesOver crowding of hivesNon removal of old colonies and dirt periodicallyDevelopment of new queen, division of colonies and in-fightingPredators and enemies of beesFarmers reported that ants, cockroaches, birds, bears and hornets are amajor threat to bees. Similar enemies of bees including Pine Marten,lice, and fleas have been reported from foothills of Nepal (Shukla,2000). But it is reported that Apis melipona miniature local bees haveinherent capacity to safeguard themselves forming a group and caneven kill enemies as big as hornet. High value of latter's products andcapacity to defend themselves from predators is positive attributes thatcould be capitalized.Other miscellaneous constraintsN. B. TamangFarmers still follow traditional crude beekeeping methodsTraditional hives have no provision for periodic inspection for pestand diseasesBeekeepers lack skills on modern beekeeping techniques (hivemaking, bee management, hygienic method of harvesting etc.)34

Honey Bees in the foot hill................Loss of production due to non availability of skilled honeyharvester in the neighborhoodBees are managed with little or no careLack of quality assurance due to irregular harvesting of honeyNo organized group to produce, process and market honeyFarmers have not recognized beekeeping as an income generatingactivityLivestock extension staff have no formal training on beekeepingGender involvement in beekeepingAssessment of gender situation revealed that there is no social andreligious taboo restricting women to carryout beekeeping activities.Men and women share the beekeeping workload equally. Work thatneeds physical strength such as hive making is usually carried out bymen. Similarly, catching and hiving bees and honey harvesting ismostly the responsibility of men.However, transfer of colonies, inspection and management is doneeither jointly or in turn depending whether adult male or femalemember of the family is available at home. After honey is harvested,simple processing techniques such as straining of honey and puttinginto the bottle, sale of products and utilization of money is the entrustedto female. Both male and female agreed that either sex can attend thetraining or study visit based on the interest and availability ofmanpower at home. There are also evidences that beekeeping activitiesin some households are mostly carried out by females. In the words ofMs. Indra Maya Daurali, who said, " I carry out all the beekeepingactivities as I am the head of the household and my children don't haveskills and interest" (Daurali, Pers. comm., 2006). Thus, it can bededuced that women have equal role as men in beekeeping and in factthey are the main purse-string holder for cash earned from sale ofhoney while males quietly do the work that needs strength and courage.35

CONCLUSIONSN. B. TamangHoney bees have been an unfailing partner of rural folks, supporting toimprove their health and well-being, generate some cash and also helpto improve crops yield through pollination services. However,available honey bee resources remained to be gainfully utilized forgreater benefit of poor and landless. Improved ways of beekeeping islargely unheard and beekeeping method is still primitive. General lackof skills and awareness on improved way of keeping bees is hindranceto rapid up-scaling of beekeeping activities. None the less, farmerswith long tradition of beekeeping have enough experience ontraditional beekeeping. Honey production can thus be improved byharnessing traditional knowledge, amalgamating with modernbeekeeping technologies. But full time beekeeping as a main incomegenerating activity will however depend on resources availability,interest of beekeepers and market opportunities for honey and byproducts.As there are no social and religious restrictions against women, theycan be encouraged to take an active role in promotion of honey beeactivities. Further, coherent society and similar ethnic groups in acommunity gives opportunities to form beekeepers self-help groups ina longer run.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTThe author thanks Mr. Ghem Tshering, Gyem Thinley, SamdaWangchuk, Santaman Rai and Krishna Rai for their assistance tocollect field data. I should remain grateful to Dr. Tashi Dorji, ProgramDirector, RNRRC Jakar for encouragement and support and also fortaking time to go through the manuscript. Guidelines and fund supportby ICIMOD to conduct the study is appreciated. The logistical supportof Officer In-charge(s) RNR Research Sub-Centre, Bhur and Drala isgratefully acknowledged.36

REFERENCESHoney Bees in the foot hill................African Pollinators Initiatives - API, (2006). Pollinators andPollination: A Resource Book for Policy and Practice. AfricanPollinators Initiatives, Pretoria, SouthAfrica.Dorji, T and Tshering, G. (1999). Ethno-veterinary practice inBumthang District. Journal of Renewable Natural Resources Bhutan,1:104-115.Dorji, T. (2001).Preliminary survey report on traditional beekeeping.RNRRC Bajo, WangdueICAR. (1990). A Handbook of Animal Husbandry. Indian Council ofAgricultural Research (ICAR), Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi.Popa, A. (1980). Beekeeping in Tunisia: Its impact on the otherdeveloping countries of Mediterranean basin. World animal review, aquarterly journal on animal health, production, and products 34: 29-34.Pratap, U. (1999). Pollination management of mountain crops throughbeekeeping. Trainer's Resource Book. ICIMOD, KathmanduShukla, A.N. (2000). Beekeeping Training Resource Book. ICIMOD.Kathmandu.37

Forestry

Bhu.J.RNR.Vol 3.No.1, 38-67: 2007Bamboo and Cane: Potential for Poverty Reductionand Forest Conservation1 2M.R. Moktan, L. Norbu, K. Dukpa, T. B. Rai, K. Dhendup and N. GyaltshenABSTRACTThis paper examines the resource availability of Neomicrocalamusandropogonifolius (Griffith) Stapleton and Calamus acanthospathus(Griffith), their roles in the household subsistence economy, traditionalknowledge, post-harvest practices and species' vulnerability tocommercialisation. The gross commercial bamboo growing stock is3estimated at 1,925m from the total growing area of 27.4ha. Based onthe artisans' knowledge, gross maximum commercial growing canestocks is estimated at 27 metric tonnes and minimum of 16 metrictonnes from 15.4ha. Annual supply and demand trends from 1995-2003illustrate diminishing resource supplies. Bamboo and cane enterprisecontribute 66% of the gross household incomes and providesemployment to 97% of the total households on a seasonal basis and iseconomically profitable even if the opportunity costs of collection aretaken into account. Specialization in the manufacture of high qualityfinished products is strategy overcome food insecurity and other severedevelopment constraints like access to road and market infrastructures.Middlemen transactions are important but exploit the poorest artisansby paying them lower prices. Bamboo and cane crafts are used for avariety of domestic, agricultural and commercial purposes. Driven bycommercialisation, traditional management is tilted towardsharvesting with insufficient attention on regeneration according to theprinciples of sustainability resulting into considerable impact on thesespecies. Elderly artisans say young generation are less skilful in themanufacture of high quality finished crafts tailored to touristpreference and desirability, and initiation of training schemes arenecessary to improve quality, standardised harvesting andregeneration and preserve this unique cultural heritage. Thevulnerability status of these two Non Wood Forest Products (NWFP)1RNR Research Center, Yusipang, Thimphu2RNR Research Center, Jakar, Bumthang38

was assessed at an overall rank of 22 and 32, indicating moderate andhigh vulnerability. Further studies and policy and managementdecisions are needed to conserve and utilize these resources andsustain the local enterprise ecologically and economically.KEYWORDS:Poverty reduction, Non-Wood Forest Products, TraditionalKnowledge, Forest Conservation, Vulnerability, Commercialisation,INTRODUCTIONM. R. Moktan et alLittle qualitative and virtually no quantitative information on thebamboo and cane resources is available including ecology andmanagement. MoA (1997) reports harvesting of bamboo, in particular,Neomicrocalamus andropogonifolius, taking place on a substantialscale fuelled by spiralling commercialisation thereby exertingconsiderable pressure on the supply side with significant impact on thespecies' and surrounding natural forest ecosystems around Bjoka,Zhemgang District. As a result, the National Women Association ofBhutan (NWAB) points out the irregular supplies of raw material as thecause for abrupt ending of the earlier Panbang based local enterprise.Aprecautionary principle needs to be exercised with an economicactivity based on only one species of bamboo. Flowering and fruitingbehaviour of the species and indigenous knowledge for properplanning, domestication and management are unknown. Withincreased commercialisation, domestication through rhizome andstem offshoots of this bamboo needs to be adapted. Stapleton (1994c)states this bamboo as a climber and requires shade and support of treesand grows in often dense clumps in limited localities characterised byhighly fertile soils and abundant rainfalls. This species thereforeappears highly vulnerable necessitating understanding of its ecologicalrequirements if domestication is to success. Local artisans reportedlytravel long distances in search of harvesting adequate quantities of thisbamboo, which indicates its likely vulnerable (MoA, 1997). However,conservation status of Neomicrocalamus andropogonifolius and thecane ( Calamus acanthospathus) used for bangchung-making hasnever been studied.39

Also, little is understood with regard to their roles of bamboo and canein the household subsistence economy and employment and harvestingand regeneration methods resulting insufficient recognition andaccommodation in community and private forestry rules. Becausebamboo and cane have been little recognized, the regulations onsustainable harvesting, regeneration and marketing remain largelyunclear. Knowing such roles can over-egg the “poverty image” andalso could spin-off positive influences on policy-makers to concentrateon prioritised NWFPthat holds greatest promises for local and nationaleconomies through income generation and concomitantly helpconserve forest ecosystems. Conversely, local craftsmen are not fullyaware of their crafts economic potential due to limited access tomarketing information. If existing areas of this bamboo in thegovernment forest are being managed sensibly, it could make sense totransfer such forest areas as community forestry status after theproduction of necessary management plan.This study attempts to assess the resource base sustainability of thebamboo ( Neomicrocalamus andropogonifolius)and cane ( Calamusacanthospathus), their roles in the household subsistence economy,traditional uses and knowledge, post-harvest practices and species'vulnerability to commercialisation in order to arrive at further studies,policy and management decisions required for sustainable utilizationand conservation of these two NWFPs.MATERIALSAND METHODSDescription of the study siteBamboo and Cane: Potential.............Bjoka lies in the Lower Kheng occuping a total geographical area of2195.66 Km and is bordered with Ngangla in the west, Bardoh to northand adjacent Mongar district in the east. Panbang and Tingtibi is thenearest accessible commercial towns requiring about 12 hours and 2-3days of walk respectively. Local language spoken is Khengkha and amixture of Sharchopkha and Khengkha depending on the origins.Bjoka is historically a resettlement village populated by migration ofpeoples from the eastern districts of Bhutan. Total population estimates1,714 from 139 households spread across 27 villages. Development40

M. R. Moktan et alinfrastructures comprised RNR (Renewable Natural Resource)extension centre, two rural clinics, one basic health unit, primaryschool and irrigation channel and ten rural water and sanitationschemes.Land use type constitutes wetland (12 ha) dry land (88 ha) tseri (760ha), mixed agriculture partly wetland and dry land (738 ha ) naturalpastures (454 ha) and forest types; broadleaf (16,960 ha) broadleafwith conifers (59ha) and scrub forest (11 ha) (MoA, 2002). Othersinclude; rocky outcrops (149 ha) water spreads (312 ha) andsettlements (7 ha). Economy is subsistence-oriented and depends onagriculture and livestock.Bjoka receives a total rainfall of 1503 mm/yr with a highest of 442mmin July and lowest of 10mm in January (Fig.1). The rainfall distributionpattern is skewed with most rainfalls occurring between the summermonths of April to September crucial for new growth and regenerationof vegetation including bamboo and canes.500Rainfall in mm4003002001000Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov DecFigure 1:Annual rainfall in BjokaBjoka falls in the warm broadleaf vegetation zone ( Table 1) and it ischaracterised by dominance of principal tree species such as Altingiaexcelsa, Betula alnoides , Castanopsis indica, Engelhardtia spicata,Maesia spp, Ostodes paniculata and Macaranga pustulata. Variousbamboo and cane species abound the forests along the moist shadycreeks and streams.41

Bamboo and Cane: Potential.............Table 1. Characteristics species of the warm broad leaf vegetation zone of BhutanForesttypeWarmBroadleaf ForestCharacteristic genera and speciesAlangium chinense, Alnus nepalensis, Altingia excelsa, Betulaalnoides, Bischofia javanica, Callicarpa arborea, Castanopsisindica, Cordia obliqua, Dendrocalamus hookeri, Dichroafebrifuga, Engelhardtia spicata, Entada pursaetha, Euodiafraxinifolia, Firmiana colorata, Helicia nilagrica, Lithocarpuselegans, L. pachyphyllus, L. fenestratus, L. dealbatus, L. listeri,Macaranga pustulata, Maclura cochinchinensis, Maesia spp.,Mussaenda roxburghii, Ostodes paniculata, Pouzolzia sanguinea,Rhaphidophora eximea, Schima wallichii, Stereospermumpersonatum, Trevesia palmata, Wendlandia puberulaSource: Grierson and Long (1984)Bamboos and canes-distribution and characteristics(a) Bamboo ( Neomicrocalamus andropogonifolius )Out of thirty bamboo species recorded in Bhutan, twenty-one speciesare found growing in the lower, middle and upper Kheng underZhemgang (Stapleton, 1994d). Out of the twenty-one species, elevenwere recorded in Lower and Middle Kheng. Neomicrocalamusandropogonifolius (Griffith) Stapleton locally named Yula inKhengkha, Ringshu in Dzongkha and Sharchopkha and Langma inLhotshamkha is the commercially important bamboo of lower Kheng.Stapleton (1994) describes distribution of N. andropogonifolius asoften scrambling from sub-tropical to warm temperate areas restrictingto the wetter eastern forests of Bhutan especially around 1,600-1,800mfound in conjunction with Ceplalostachyum latifolum andChimonobambusa callosa. N. andropogonifolius grows often in denseclumps but in limited localities characterized by highly fertile soils andabundant precipitation. These soils are deep brown with sandy clayeyto clayey loam texture. N. andropogonifolius is a climber that requiresthe shade and support of trees. Its association is broadleaf associate treespecies including Syzizium, Litsea, Ostodes paniculata, Myria42

M. R. Moktan et alesculanta, Castanposis indica, Merisenia semiserata, Maesia chisa,Macaranga postulata, Pentapanax fragrans, Quercus glauca,Engelhardtia spicata, Eurya acuminata, Nyssa javanica, Evodia,Ficus hispida, Altinga excelsa, Exbucklandia populanea, Betulaalnoides and Ardenia marcophylla.The morphological features of the above bamboo is described byStapleton (1994) and Noltie (2000). The rhizome grows to about 1mlong and one to several culms arises from single clump and reachesabout 12m in height. The culms are smooth, shiny and narrow with50cm long internodes that look glossy and green with typicalbranching from the nodes. Culms sheath are tough and smooth with itsapex very narrow and needle-shaped. Leaf sheaths are thin, broad andacuminate and triangular. The inflorescence appear similar to those ofsmall bamboo such as Arundinaria but they have six stamens instead ofthree indicating that they are related to genera Bambusa and mayrepresents an intermediate stage in bamboo evolution. The mid-culmbuds are tall and narrow. There may be up to eighteen similar branches,or the central branch may be strongly dominant and similar in size tothe culm(b) Cane ( Calamus acanthospathus )Canes (rattan) are found throughoutZhemgang with Lower Kheng as the richestrepository of canes in the district. Sixspecies of canes belonging to two generawere recorded from lower, middle and upperKheng of about ten species thought to occurin Bhutan (Noltie, 2000).Out of the six species, Calamusacanthospathus locally named Krath, Grenin Khengkha, Gauribet in Lhotsamgkha and Figure 1. C. acanthospathusMunzi in Sharchopkha is the commerciallyimportant used in conjunction with basket making from the bamboo. Itis a solitary stemmed cane with leaf sheaths armed and denselyarranged spines and a long spiny flagellum as specialised climbing43

organ, which helps to grow high into the forest canopy (Figure 1).Virtually no reliable information on climate and soil physical andchemical requirements of this cane is known within Bhutan andtherefore warrants investigation.DoF (2004) reports on the additional information on flowering inNovember-December and fruiting in April-June from Nepal. Acrossthe border, it is reportedly growing in the neighbouring Indian states ofArunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Sikkim, West Bengal (MoA,1997) and Nepal distributed from Terai upto 2000m elevations in semievergreen,evergreen and moist deciduous forests (DoF, 2004).However, in Nepal it is reported to grow well in moist grey and red claysoil and in well-drained loamy soil (Amatya, 1997) with associates likeDalbergia sisso,Acacia catechu, Trewia nudiflora, Toona ciliata,Bombax ceiba and Albizza species (DoF, 2004).Surveys and Data collectionBamboo and Cane: Potential.............In selecting target respondents for interviews, judgemental samplingwas adopted. This was necessary firstly to reduce the cost of a verywidely spread sample and secondly to avoid logistical difficultiesassociated with steep terrains and scattered farm houses. Seeking theassistance from the local administration, households that do not dwellon bamboo and cane handicrafts were excluded. Thus most householdsengaged in craft making were interviewed constituting 51% males and49% females. Demography, roles in the household subsistenceeconomy, traditional use and knowledge, post-harvest practices andmarketing information were gathered using semi-structuredquestionnaire. Information from farmers' interest group (producersand artisans) were solicited to consolidate household views on keytopics like locations, harvesting and regeneration technique, supplyand demand, post-harvest practices and species' vulnerability usingRapid Plant Vulnerability Assessment Scale and checklists andsustainability criteria derived from Watts (1998); Wild and Mutebi(1996); Messerschmidt et al., (2001). Clusters of bamboo from the2accessible growing areas were sampled by laying out 100m temporaryplots (Rai and Chauhan, 1998). In each plot, bamboo clumps andassociate trees =10cm dbh (diameter at breast height 1.30m) were44

tallied. Further from ¼ of the plot, culms per clump, diameter (cm),height (m) and culms quality were assessed. To determine therelationship between fresh and dry weight, culm diameter classes 0-18cm, 18-36cm and 36cm and above were selected. In each diameterclass, the utilizable culm length 30cm above ground measured and top,middle and bottom section cut-off, their length measured and freshweight taken. The weight of bamboo goes on decreasing aftercollection as they contain lots of moisture and difference between thefirst weight W1(fresh weight) and last weight W2(dry weight)calculated to show the amount of moisture loss. The standard weight ofbamboo was estimated using the formula W1+W 2/2 (Rai and Chauhan,1998).RESULTSAND DISCUSSIONM. R. Moktan et alBamboo and cane resources at BjokaBamboo ( N. andropogonifolius) and cane ( C. acanthospathus )growing localities, their approximate areas and time taken to reachthese various destinations at the outskirts of Bjoka are given Table 2and Table 3. Canes are also collected as far as from Khagparang andTala under Nala geog (sub-district) adjacent to Bjoka. Based on theartisans' knowledge, total bamboo and cane area is estimated at 27.4hectares and 15.4 hectares respectively. Artisans re-iterated thatbamboo and cane collection time increases every year indicatingdiminishing supplies. The area under Khagparang, Tala under Nalasub-district and Serthang within Bjoka district were unknown45

Bamboo and Cane: Potential.............Table 2. Bamboo ( yula) growing locations, areas and time taken to reach collectionpoints in these natural forestsLocation Approximate area 5(ha)Tsalati2.8Phagpakar1.2Tshakaling1.2Wagombrag2.0Wamlathang2.0Plam1.6Lungtarpong0.8Charsingpong1.2Gongchukhan2.8Phuborong0.8Senglengbrangsa0.6Tachung0.8Phungphungla6.0Kunchungbrogsar2.0Yeamong0.4Bogmo1.2Time(hours)223231.52.53.51.52.52.04.02.01.51.52.0takenTotal27.433.5Table 3. Cane growing locations, areas and time taken to reach collection points inthese natural forestsLocation Approximate area (ha) Time taken (hours )KhagparangTala Nala geog Not available 3-4Phatari 4.0 Not availableSenglengbrangsa 0.6 2.0Jatshaminplam 2.0 Not availableSerthang Not available Not availableGowalapo Thorcho 7.0 4.0Kila 1.8 4.0Total 15.4 13.55Estimates based on informants’ knowledge during the participatory resource mapping excercise46

M. R. Moktan et alPotential commercial growing stocks of( yula) and C. acanthospathus (krath)N. andropogonifoliusGross commercial growing volume of the bamboo is estimated at31,925m or 1,604 metric tonnes approximately from the total area of27.4ha (Table 4). The average number of clumps per hectare isestimated at 4,340 with a sampling error of 40% at 95% confidencelevel. The number of clumps/ha was multiplied with an averagenumber of 11 culms/clump to estimate the density of 47,740 culms/ha.Out of the average 11 culms/clump, 56% were green sound, 24% drysound, 11% green damaged, 5% decayed and 4% dry damaged (Table5). The average height of the highest culms in a clump estimates 14.3mof which, 12.5m or 87% are commercially utilizable (Table 5). Theutilizable length of the culm weighed about 2.19 kilograms on freshweight basis. These figures are used to estimate the approximatecommercial growing stocks in respective growing locations.Table 4. Estimates of gross commercial growing stock of N. andropogonifolous( yula)LocationArea(ha)Total Nosof culmsGross commercial& non-commercialstanding volume(MT)Grosscommercialstandingvolume 6(MetricGrosscommercialstandingvolume 7 (Cubicmeter)Tsalati 2.8 1,33,672 293 164 197Phagpakar 1.2 57,288 125 70 84Tshakaling 1.2 57,288 125 70 84Wagombrag 2.0 95,480 209 117 141Wamlathang 2.0 95,480 209 117 141Plam 1.6 76,384 167 94 112Lungtarpong 0.8 38,192 84 47 56Charsingpong 1.2 57,288 125 70 84Gongchukhan 2.8 1,33,672 293 164 197Phuborong 0.8 38,192 84 47 56Senglengbrangsa 0.6 28,644 63 35 42Tachung 0.8 38,192 84 47 56Phungphungla 6.0 2,86,440 627 351 422Kunchungbrogsar 2.0 95,480 209 117 141Yeamong 0.4 19,096 42 23 28Bogmo 1.2 57,288 125 70 84Total 27.4 13,08,076 2,865 1604 19256Based on estimate from sampling that only 56% of the gross number of culms are green sound and arecommercially utilizableAssuming that a tonne of this bamboo weighs 1.2m approximately7 347

Table 5. Number of clumps, culms/clump and culms quality observed in the sampleplotsSpeciesN.andropogonifoliusClumps/plotClums/clumpCulm qualityGreensoundFresh weight to dry weight ratio estimates 100:60. The 2-3 years oldcommercial green culms harbours lot of water and consequent lossseems reasonable. The figures on commercial growing stocks may betreated with a caution as the estimate is based on sampling from fewlocations where private households have domesticated this bamboo intheir tseri land and/or government forests and plantations have reachharvestable stage within a span of 7-8 years. Density of clumps perhectare may vary under natural conditions compared to man-madeplantations and sampling from naturally growing bamboo and caneforest locations was virtually constrained by torrential monsoon rainsand time constraints.According to the artisans' knowledge on harvestable cane (krath)quantities per person per acre basis, mean maximum harvestable stockis estimated at 1,745575 kg/ha and minimum of 1,024368 kg/ha. Usingthese figures the maximum harvestable growing stock is estimated at26,873 kg or 27 metric tonnes and a minimum of 15,761kg or 16 metrictonnes approximately depending on the availability (Table 6). Thesampling errors are relatively high indicating the growing stockestimates as not very reliable. These estimates also do not includegrowing stocks from Serthang, Khagparang and Tala.48GreendamagedDrysoundDrydamagedDecayHt(m)Plot1 28 18 8 2 7 0 1 6.56Plot2 45 17 9 4 3 0 1 18.50Plot3 30 06 5 0 0 0 1 16.30Plot4 55 08 5 0 3 0 0 15.96Plot5 59 06 4 0 0 2 0 14.47Average/plotBamboo and Cane: Potential.............43.4 11 6.2 1.2 2.6 0.4 0.6 14.3

Table 6. Estimates of gross maximum and minimum growing stocks of C.acanthospathus (krath)LocationM. R. Moktan et alArea(ha)Grosscommercial 10volume (kg)MaximumPhatari 4.0 6980 4096Senglengbrangsa 0.6 1047 614.4Jatshaminplam 2.0 3490 2048SerthangNot - -availableGowalapoThorcho 7.0 12215 7168Kila 1.8 3141 1843.2KhagparangNot - -availableTalaNot - -availableTotal 15.4 26873 15761Trends in supply and demand of yula and krathGross commerciavolume (kg)MinimumBamboo ( yula) supplies from 1995-2003 totalled 54 metric tonnesagainst the demand of 106 metric tonnes. It means that about 6 metrictonnes were supplied against an annual demand of 12 metric tonnes.Annual trends illustrates, as demand remain more or less constant,supply has fallen gradually (Fig.2). Several factors were attributed tothis decline; amount of rainfall, harvesting techniques and increasenumber of collectors.Artisans say that abundant rainfalls during heavymonsoons induce profuse regeneration of new bamboo shoots withconsequent increase in supplies and vice-versa. When new shoots donot arise artisans' defer collections for 1-2 years allowingmushrooming up of sufficient number of young shoots in theconsecutive years and then collection resumes. Elderly peoples pointsout increase in women and children collectors who lack sufficientknowledge and skills on appropriate harvesting and regenerationmethods and tends to cut more immature culms.10The utilizable length of cane stem is about 30m excluding 0.6m (about 2 feet) at the base and about4m from the top portion. The utilizable stem is then cut into 3m long stems obtaining about 10 piecesand weighs about 5 kilograms altogether.49

Bamboo and Cane: Potential.............Figure 2. Trends in supply and demand of N. andropogonifolius (yula)Quantity (mt)8 15610452001995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003SupplyDemandFigure 3. Trends in supply and demand of C. acanthospathus (krath)Quantity (mt)8 2.52.462.322.202.11995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003SupplyDemandCane (krath) supplies from 1995-2003 totalled 20.7 metric tonnesagainst demand of 21 metric tonnes. Supply exceeded demand in mostcases (Fig.3) exacerbated by commercialisation resulting intosignificant impact on the species and consequently on supplies.N. andropogonifolius ( yula) and C. acanthospathusvulnerability and impact of commercialisation(krath)Species' vulnerability is a measure of the increased risk of extinction asa result of unsustainable harvesting or any other perturbation(s). Thedefinition of sustainable forest management implies that “the processof managing forest to achieve one or more clearly specified objectivesof management with regard to the production of a continuous flow ofdesired forest products and services without undue reduction of itsinherent values and future productivity and without undue undesirableeffects on the physical and social environment” (ITTO 1992a, b, 1998;see also Mankin, 1998). While most definitions of “sustainability”emphasises harvesting associated actions can also lower sustainabilityand increase species' vulnerability. The sustainability of speciesimplies that the impact of anything that affects its natural condition isso low or minimal that the species is not threatened with extinction.50

M. R. Moktan et alThus, low vulnerability of species indicates that it is probablysustainable assuming that existing conditions remain in a relativelysteady state. For example, if the bamboo and cane of Bjoka isconsidered as low vulnerable to extinction, then they can be harvestedcontinuously (i.e. provided that the harvest rate is adjusted to result innegligible impact on the structure and dynamics of the plantpopulations being exploited or on the surrounding ecosystems (Peters,1994).Rapid vulnerability assessed the current conditions, trends andpractices concerning the commercial harvesting of N.andropogonifolius and C. acanthospathus from the natural forest. Arethese factors inconformity with the sustainability of the species or theresource pressurized to extinction? If the species are vulnerable toextinction, what management actions and/or policy initiatives arenecessary? In order to gather these information, farmer interest groupwere interviewed for tapping their vast field knowledge andexperience and evaluated according to the sustainability criteria andindicators derived from Watt (1998); Wild and Mutebi (1996) andMesserschmidt et al., (2001) from serial number 1 to 14.The results of the analysis are summarized in the 'Rapid PlantVulnerability Assessment Checklist' in the Tables 7 & 8. The checklistis based on a set of categories within, which specific threats arediscussed and scored (ranked). A score of 0 implies nil, 0-13 implieslow vulnerability and is no cause for alarm. A score of 14 to 26indicates moderate vulnerability and remedial actions to reverse thetrend may be necessary. A score of 27 to 39 reveals high vulnerabilityand a high probability of extinction unless immediate actions are takento halt or reverse the trend. To begin with the vulnerability rankingprocess, we defined and discussed 14 categories of potential threats.Note that there is partial overlap between some categories. The rankingof relative vulnerability is shown for each category in Tables 7 & 8.51

Table 7. Rapid Vulnerability Assessment Checklist for N. andropogonifolius (Foreach category, rate species' vulnerability by marking with ' v ' in the appropriatecolumn and then summed up columns for overall score)Column A B C DCategoryLow Moderate High0 1 2 3Natural conditions and effects on species’ lifeLife form and provenance(1) Reproduction and longevity (2) Habitat (3) Growth rate (4) Abundance and distribution Use and demand(5) Part used (6) Demand (7) Substitutes Social, cultural and economic effects on a speciesBasis of Management(8) Traditional management (9) Scientific management Commercial effects and other outside influences on aspeciesHarvesting and Commerce(10) Seasonality (11) Commercialization (12) Roads (13) Grazing (14) Other potential threats Column totals 0 3 16 3Grand totals (sum of A, B, C, D) 22Less than 13: Low vulnerability14 to 26: Moderate vulnerabilityMore than 27 high vulnerabilityBamboo and Cane: Potential.............Overall assessment of bamboovulnerability in Bjoka,Zhemgang: Moderate Using this ranking system, the vulnerability of N. andropogonifoliuswas assessed at an overall rank of 22: moderate (Table 7).52

Table 8. Rapid Vulnerability Assessment Checklist for C. acanthospathus (For eachcategory, rate species' vulnerability by marking with a check ' v ' in the appropriatecolumn and then summed up columns for overall score)Column A B C DCategoryNil Low Moderate0 1 2Natural conditions and effects on species’lifeLife form and provenance(1) Reproduction and longevity(2) Habitat (3) Growth rate (4) Abundance and distribution Use and demand(5) Part used (6) Demand (7) Substitutes Social, cultural and economic effects on aspeciesBasis of Management(8) Traditional managementUsing the ranking system, the vulnerability of C. acanthospathus wasassessed at an overall rank of 32: high (Table 8).Traditional uses and knowledge on resource managementLife without bamboo is almost unthinkable particularly for the poorerhouseholds of Bjoka. Most people live in simple houses built up ofbamboo splits and cane leaves. According to MoA (1997) a clearseparation can be made between the uses of bamboo for rural domestic53High3(9) Scientific management Commercial effects and other outsideinfluences on a speciesHarvesting and commerce(10) Seasonality (11) Commercialization (12) Roads (13) Grazing (14) Other potential threats Column totals 0 0 8 24Grand totals (sum of A, B, C, D) 32Overall assessment of the canevulnerability in Bjoka, Zhemgang: High Less than 13: Low vulnerability14 to 26: Moderate vulnerabilityMore than 27 high vulnerabilityM. R. Moktan et al

Bamboo and Cane: Potential.............and agricultural needs supporting the subsistence economy and theproduction of marketable items. Domestic uses are storing varioushousehold foods, beverages, stationeries, containers for arrows andsitting mats. Bjoka households use this bamboo more than any otherbamboos for weaving distinctive and attractive pattern traditionalitems used as host of food and beverage containers for commercialpurposes (Pradhan et al., 1996; MoA, 1997).Canes are yet another species used for a variety of purposes. They areused in house roof and fence construction and a range of tying andstitching purposes in combination with bamboo products. Because C.acanthospathus yields best quality flexible tying strips, it is highlypreferred for all kind of works such as making bridges, ropes, baskets,frames and even walking sticks (Pradhan et al., 1996). Edible succulentshoots are delicacy in Bhutanese cuisine that is increasingly becomingpopular these days on a commercial scale.Product Who collects Who uses Month of collection(v)(v)Bhutanese monthMale Female Male Female 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Bamboo Cane Firewood Fencing polesTimber Broom Flagpoles Mushrooms Fodder Cane shoot Damru Wild Yam Fern shoots aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaabanned during the season regular harvest on need basisFigure 4. Forest utilisation calendar of Bjokaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa54

thIt is important to note the 5, 6, 7 & 8 Bhutanese months are banned forharvesting of this bamboo. According to the artisans, these monthsconstitute main growing season for regenerating new shoots anddisturbance during these period is absolutely avoided (Fig.4). Besides,the bamboo forest also supplies other important household productslike firewood, fencing poles, house building timber, brooms, flagpoles,incense sticks, fodder for livestock and wildlife, edible cane shoots andvegetables like Damru ( Elastostema platyphyllum), wild yams andfern shoots.Bamboo harvesting is organised according to harvesting seasonsth thstarting from the 9 to 4 month of the Bhutanese calendar (Fig.4) inaccordance with defactoBox 1rules and norms. Over theIn-situ harvesting and regeneration technique ofyears through experiences, N. andropogonifoliusharvesters have developedsustainable harvestingmethod that ensuresregeneration, clump careand protection from fire andcattle (Box 1). During thebanned period, if anindividual deliberately or indeliberatelybreaches theM. R. Moktan et al-2-3 years quality culms are selected forharvesting- Culms are cut above 2-3 internodes or 100cmfrom base of the clump- NOT ALL culms are cut- Commercial culms are regularly harvested inorder to stimulate regeneration of new shootsduring the season and to prevent dying of wholeclump naturally usually after 12 yearsrules, fines are imposed at the rate of Nu.100 per person. The amount offines levied if substantial are used for public religious ceremonies andlighting butter lamps if relatively smaller amount in local monasteries.1 2Gup and Tshogpas either in presence or absence of forestry personnel3draw the informal agreement on community harvesting. A reesoop isusually appointed with a responsibility to watch over illegal activitiesespecially during the banned period.In response to diminishing raw material supplies, efforts are underwayby farmers in domesticating this bamboo in shifting cultivation land.123Elected head of the smallest geographical unit of administrationRepresentative of a village or a cluster of villagesVillage forest guard55

Bamboo and Cane: Potential.............Using experience they described on-farm domestication andcultivation technique (Box 2). Most farmers' own tseri land averaging1.2 ha per householdand they havenecessarily broughtthese lands underpermanent usethrough bambooplantations. Raisingplantations in tseriseems the best option,as this bamboorequires the shadeand support of warmevergreen broadleaftrees with highlyfertile soils andabundant rainfall.Unlike tseri withagricultural cropscharacterised by“boom and doom”production thesebamboo-based tseri lands are relatively undisturbed multi-storied andmulti-species sub-tropical broadleaf forests emulating “naturalagroforestry system” embedding ecological stability. Bamboo clumpsgrow profusely as perennial under story crop and yields harvestableculms annually provided climatic and biotic factors do notunnecessarily affect regeneration. Harvesting of 2-3 years commercialculms continues with matured culms uncut offering sufficient reservesfor inducing new shoots in the next season. Dense over story broadleaftrees and middle story shrubs provide shade and support vital forscrambling by this bamboo. The natural agroforestry system can bestbe compared as capital endowment, which ensures continue harvest ofcommercial culms as equivalent to interest in financial terms. Thesystem therefore caters both critical needs of farmers andconcomitantly conserves forests vital for sustaining the local enterprise56

M. R. Moktan et alecologically and economically. Recognising the economic importanceof this bamboo and over-harvesting as imperceptibly taking place,decentralised forestry programmes are encouraging expanding itscultivation and management under the community forest initiative.About 15 acres of unproductive tseri lands and 5 acres of communitylands have been set aside for plantations. Review of existingmanagement rules is planned and decentralise management under localcommunity user groups. Domestication and propagation of yula will beinitiated in five villages under private forestry schemes.Little is known about the in-situ and ex-situ harvesting andregeneration of C. acanthospathus. This cane is harvested as and whenrequired basis (Fig.4). Rattan stems are cut 5 feet above from the baseof the clump and only mature stems harvested. Red and green colourindicates maturity of culms.Artisans' reports that seedlings of this caneare rarely encountered inside natural forests and those few regeneratedones need virtual protection from browsing by cattle and other bioticdisturbances in initial stage. Its solitary habit meaning that each plantcomprises only one stem and harvesting necessarily kills the wholeplants unless immediate actions are taken to reverse this trend.Role of bamboo and cane in the household subsistence economyBamboo and cane productsaccounted for 66% of the grosshousehold incomes followed bysale of cash crops mainlyoranges and cardamom 29%and livestock products likecheese, butter and meat 5%(Fig.5). This apparentlyunderscores the importance ofthese crafts as the mainlivelihood source needingrecognition and support for resource base enterprise development inorder to successfully reduce the poverty and secure sustainablelivelihoods of these remotest marginalized communities.57

Specialization in the manufacture of high quality finished crafts bythese artisans is absolutely necessary to overcome food insecurity andother severe development problems such as access to roads and marketinfrastructures.Food insecurity is highly visible especially during the winter monthsfrom January to March (Fig.6). 49% of the total households of Bjokasuffer from acute food shortage and hunger (Table 9). To overcome theseasonal food shortage 53% of the households purchases food grainsfrom the nearest Food Corporation of BhutanTable 9 . Households' food grain shortage and coping strategies in BjokaGeogNo of %months with householdsno food with foodshortageBamboo and Cane: Potential.............Food grain shortage coping mechanismsby percentage of householdsBjoka Purchase BorrowfromneighbourFCB/Market NeighbourBarter withlivestockproductsTotal 1.3 49.1 53.5 16.1 14.3 12.5 3.6ExchangewithlabourSource: MoA (2000)Figure 6. Percentage of farm households by food scarcity month in Bjokastores and groceries at Panbang or Gomphu Praling, 16% from nearbyneighbours, 14% burrows from neighbours, 12% barters with livestockproducts like cheese and butter and 4% exchanges with labour (Table9). Cash income generated from the sale of bamboo and cane crafts isdirectly invested in purchasing basic livelihood necessities. Lack ofaccess roads and limited market outlets remain as main constraints toeffective marketing of any agricultural products from these remotestvillages.58

M. R. Moktan et alEconomic analysis of bamboo and cane craftsAbout 97% of the total households with 139 working class males and180 females are engaged in weaving handicrafts ( Phuntsho 2005).Beside older peoples and to a lesser extent children also weaves as parttime works either during days and/or even at nights. Six monthsstarting from December to May is the main working season.Taking into account the cost of production of regularly woven1Nyekayama and Tangkama bangchus , approximate net benefits arecalculated on a monthly and seasonal basis at the household level.Actual costs incurred are in buying kerosene for fuelling lamps duringweaving at nights. About five litres of kerosene are consumed per2month costing about Nu.70 . Other costs include buying of colours likered, yellow and green from nearby shops or across the border townscosting Nu.390 altogether sufficient to colour 20 pairs of bangchus(Nyekayama 13 and Tangkama 7 pairs). Nu.2 per pair is paid as royaltywhen bangchus are marketed outside the district. Most households selltheir products at doorsteps to middlemen and these individuals usuallypay royalties when marketing outsides. Cost of producing 20 pairs ofbangchus is estimated at Nu.500 excluding the opportunity costs forcollection on a monthly basis. Transportation costs are excluded asmost households sell their products at doorsteps to middlemen. Totalbenefit amount to Nu.1330 with a net benefit of Nu.830 per month perhousehold. Considering the working season of 6 months, net totalbenefits amount to Nu.4,980 per season per household. Besides, thesehouseholds also weaves numerous other items such as Lakchung, Bata,Baikor, Tshey zaim, which are not taken into account in the analysis asthese products are woven on demand basis. These products are alsorelatively expensive. For example, a household manufactures about30-40 pairs of Lakchung and 20 pairs of Bata earning Nu.3,432 perseason adding up the total income to Nu.8,412. From this simple costbenefitanalysis, it can be concluded that bangchu weaving iseconomically profitable even if the opportunity cost of collection aretaken into account.12Small baskets usually made out of N. andropogonifolius used as host of food and beverage containersNu. 44.25 is equal to 1 US$ (official exchange rate as on 2005)59

High quality finished bamboo products making requires special skillsand are acquired after much practice. Elderly people say younggeneration are less knowledgeable and skilful resulting dilution of richcultural image of rural Bhutan. In order to successfully preserve thisunique national heritage, initiation of training schemes on themanufacture of high quality-finished products including hands-onpracticeon standardizing sustainable harvesting and regenerationtechniques and business and entrepreneurship skills with necessarysupport from the concerned Government, NGOs and private agenciesshould receive priorityMarketing and pricing policyIn the earlier days, NWAB-led cooperative organised marketing incollaboration with local administration. Products manufactured werecollectively channelled to outside markets through Panbang as themain outlet. Artisans say that products fetched good prices as highquality-finished products were marketed mostly. Major shortfalls ofthis group were; few beneficiaries excluding women and childrentrained in the manufacture of high quality-finished products, financialvacuum after the ending of WWF support and inability to absorbinferior quality products. Since non-functioning of the cooperative,products are almost entirely channelled by middleman these days.Middlemen are crucial in the transaction of crafts from this remotestplace but appearing untimely is problematic at times.Artisans say bothhigh and low quality-finished products are on board for marketingthese days.Price varies according to the different types and sizes of bangchus andother numerous items manufactured. Figures 7, 8, 9 and 10 illustrate12 13 14the middlemen , artisan and finally the tourist price according totypes; Nyekayama, Lakchung, Baikors, Tangkama, Bata and Dagamaand sizes; large, medium and small. Other products like Tshey zemfetches even higher prices (Fig.10). Considering the middlemen price121314Bamboo and Cane: Potential.............Price household/individuals receive from middlemen at their doorsteps in BjokaPrices household/individuals receive after having transported the products by themselves and sell inThimpuPrice commercial agencies like handicraft emporium and private shops receive from visiting foreigntourists in Thimphu60

M. R. Moktan et alreceived at household doorsteps as baseline price, outside districtprices of most products are substantially higher. For example, thetourist prices are more than twice the price artisans receive after havingtransported their products to Thimphu even if the transportation costsare taken into account. By selling products at doorsteps, artisan losssubstantial profit margin, which goes into the pockets of middlemenand commercial dealers. Commercial handicraft dealers saymiddlemen often increase prices.Export price tags could potentially be increased further if simple valueaddingtasks such as finishing and labelling of products are performedin improving the quality of products.Figure 7. Price of Nyekayama and Lakchung bangchu according to large, mediumand small typesFigure 8. Price of baikor and tangkama bangchu according to large, medium andsmall types61

Bamboo and Cane: Potential.............Figure 9. Price of bata and dagama bangchu according to large, medium and smalltypesFigure 10. Price of tshey zem bangchu according to large, medium and small typesIt is apparent from above that the local artisans are grossly underpaidand amount earned do not commensurate with drudgery and poorliving standards faced by many artisans.Demand for bamboo and cane productsMarket survey unveils that 24% of bamboo and cane products arepurchased by the Japanese tourists and another 24% by theAmericans,14% by tourists originating from the United Kingdom and 10% eachfrom Germany and Switzerland, 5% each from Austria, France,Australia and Singapore (Fig.11). These products are exported assouvenirs to relatives and friends back home. Commercial dealers saytourists prefer buying smaller bangchus/other items that are culturallyrich than bigger ones for ease of packaging and showcasing culture.Tourists' back home, use these products as cultural exhibits, trays forsnacks, papers, and holders for stationeries like pens and pencils.62

M. R. Moktan et alFigure 11. Visiting foreign tourists buying bamboo and cane products according tothe country of origin.SingaporeFranceJapanGermanyUnited States of America0 5 10 15 20 25 30% of respondentsCONCLUSIONSIn view of the diminishing resource supplies, further studies and policyand management decisions are needed to conserve and utilize theseresources and sustain the local enterprise ecologically andeconomically.Plantation establishment trials of N. andropogonifolius possibly incombination with C. acanthospathus should be initiated in areas thatare characterised by highly fertile soils and abundant precipitation inimproving accessibility and supplies. These long-term studies shouldinclude flowering and fruiting, climate, soils and silviculturalrequirements and also incorporate genotypes conservation from otherlocations within the country to safeguard its genetic base in case if theZhemgang genotype flowers and dies. The current harvesting trendsand practices from the natural forest need to be regulated withoutunnecessarily impinging on the regenerative ability of these resourceswithin the framework of formal community organization andmanagement under the community forestry initiative or commonproperty resource management regimes after the production ofnecessary management plans. Notwithstanding domestication andcultivation under the private and community forestry programmes anduse of substitute like C. leptospadix in order to reduce the harvestingpressure on this solitary stemmed cane should be encouraged. Bamboogrowth under the “ natural agroforestry system” provides both criticalneeds combined with long-term conservation goals desired by farmers,foresters and policy-makers and can potentially reward in the63

advancement of community forestry programs in the local context.Encouraging this bamboo-based production system also reinforces thepolicy of permanent use of shifting cultivation land and diversificationof income sources for economically disadvantaged farmers.Bamboo and cane products contributes 66% of the gross householdincomes necessary for maintaining food security and mitigating othersevere development problems like access to roads and marketinfrastructures and is economically profitable even if the opportunitycost of collection are taken into account. This apparently underscoresthe potential of these resources to trigger off rural development byprioritising and promoting as income generating activities in the localforestry development programmes and plans providing rightincentives if forestry is to justify its pro-poor policy and contributeeffectively to overall poverty reduction goals. Initiation of trainingschemes for young peoples to learn the necessary skills formanufacturing high quality and culturally rich finished products,standardizing harvesting and regeneration practices, increasing valueaddedbenefits by developing processing technologies, productdiversification and improving market information through formalinstitutionalisation of the local enterprise is necessary in preservingthis unique cultural heritage, reducing poverty and securingsustainable livelihoods.REFERENCESBamboo and Cane: Potential.............Amatya, S. M (1997). The Rattans of Nepal. IUCN Nepal BiodiversityPublication Series: 2. IUCN, Kathmandu, Nepal.Department of Forest – DoF. (2004). Manual on Rattans of Nepal.Communty Forestry Component, Tree Improvement and Silviculture,HMG/N Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Department ofForest. Natural Resource management Sector Assistance Programme(NARMSAP) CFC-TIS Document Series No. 108Grierson,, A. J. C. and Long, D. G. (1984) Flora of Bhutan. Volume 1,Part 2. Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Page 187-462.64

M. R. Moktan et alInternational Tropical Timber Organization - ITTO (1992a). Criteriafor the measurement of Sustainable Tropical Forest Management.ITTO Policy Development Series 3. Yokohama (Japan):InternationalTropical Timber OrganizationInternational Tropical Timber Organization - ITTO (1992b).Guidelines for the Sustainable Management of Natural TropicalForests, ITTO Policy Development Series 1. Yokohama(Japan):International Tropical Timber OrganizationInternational Tropical Timber Organization - ITTO (1998). Criteriaand Indicators for Sustainable Management of Natural TropicalForests, ITTO Policy Development Series 7. Yokohama (Japan):International Tropical Timber OrganizationMankin, W. E (1998). Defining Sustainable Forest Management. InTropical Forest Update 8(3): 7Messerchmidt, D., Temphel, K. J., Davidson, J. and Incoll, W. D.(2001). Bamboo in the high forest of eastern Bhutan.Astudy of speciesvulnerability. International Centre for Integrated MountainDevelopment, Kathmandu, Nepal. Page 32.Ministry of Agriculture - MoA (1997). Bamboo and Cane Study ofZhemgang District, Ministry of Agriculture, Royal Government ofBhutan, Thimphu. Page 1-27.Ministry of Agriculture - MoA (2002). Renewable Natural ResourcesSelected Statistics. Ministry of Agriculture, Royal Government ofBhutan, Thimphu. Page 24Ministry of Agriculture - MoA (2002). Renewable Natural ResourcesthSector 9 FYP (2002-2007) Bjoka Geog, Zhemgang District. MinistryofAgriculture. Royal Government of Bhutan, Thimphu. Page 24Ministry of Agriculture - MoA (1995). Land use covers of District.Land Use and Planning Project, Ministry of Agriculture, RoyalGovernment of Bhutan.65

Bamboo and Cane: Potential.............Noltie, H.J (2000). Flora of Bhutan including a record of plants fromSikkim and Darjeeling Volume 3 Part 2 The Grasses of Bhutan. RoyalBotanic Garden Edinburgh and Royal Government of Bhutan,Thimphu Page 457-883.Peters, C. M. (1994). Sustainable harvest of non-timber plant resourcesin tropical moist forests.An Ecological Primer. Washington DC: WorldWildlife Fund, The Nature Conservancy and World Resources Instituteand Biodiversity Support Program/USAID.Pradhan, R. Rinchen and Benthang (1996). Preliminary Report onBamboo and Cane of Lower Kheng, Zhemgang District. Page 1-15Phuntsho, T (2005). A project proposal on bamboo and cane productdevelopment for poverty alleviation and forest conservationsustainableuse of natural resources. Zhemgang DistrictAdministration. Page 1-11.Rai, S. N and Chauhan, K.V.S (1998). Distribution and growing stockof bamboos in India. Forest Survey of India, Dehra Dun (U.P). TheIndian Forester 124 (2) 89-97Stapleton, C.M.A (1994). Bamboos of Bhutan-An illustrated Guide.Forestry Department, University of Aberdeen, Royal Botanic GardenEdinburgh and Kew in association with Forest Research Division,Forest Department, Royal Government of Bhutan Thimphu: 1-63.Stapleton, C.M.A (1994d). Bamboos of Bhutan. Royal BotanicGardens Kew for the Overseas Development Administration and theRoyal Government of Bhutan.Wild, R. G and Mutebi, J. (1996). Conservation Through CommunityUse of Plant Resources. People and Plants Working Paper 5. Paris,UNESCOWatt, A (1998). Evaluation and development of methods of rapidbiodiversity assessment in relation to the conservation of biodiversityin tropical moist forests. ITE, Edinburgh. Unpublished.66

M. R. Moktan et alWatts, J., Scott, P. & Mutebi, J (1996). Forest assessment andmonitoring for conservation and local use: Experience in threeUgandan National Parks. 212-243. In recent approaches toparticipatory forest resource assessment. Rural development forestrystudy guide 2. Carter, J . (ed). ODI. London. 32267

Bhu.J.RNR.Vol 3.No.1, 68-92: 2007Vegetation succession and soil recovery in theabandoned field at Tshokothangkha in Nahi, Wangude.1 2PemaWangda & Masahiko OhsawaABSTRACTVegetation succession and change in soil chemical properties in theabandoned fields were studied in Tshokothangkha village at Nahi,Wangdue. The sampling plots include a series of fields starting fromcurrent year cultivation to 20 years of fallow, with nearby climax forestused as a control. The floristic composition comprised of 37 woodyspecies (16 evergreen broad-leaved, 21 deciduous broad-leaved, andone pioneer conifer), and 107 herbaceous species. The vegetationsuccession starts from pioneer annual herbs in the early stages offallow (0-1 year) to perennial herbs (1-3 years) followed by seral trees(5-20 years) and to climax trees. Floristically, number of speciesincreased from 25 herb species in a current crop field to 45 in 1-yearfallow, then dropped to 15 in 20-year fallow, and further decreased to14 species in the nearby climax forest. On the other hand, number oftree species was high in the early seral forest with 17 species in six-yearfallow and decreased to seven species in 20-year fallow to increaseagain slightly to 13 species in the climax forest. After 20 years offallowing, maximum height, maximum diameter at breast height, andtotal basal area of tree-layer community attained, respectively, 13.2 m,214.5 cm, and 42.1 m /ha. These values are above 60 % of the maximafound in the climax forest. After burning dry biomass, soil aciditydecreased to pH 6.5, while available phosphorus increased to 40mg/kg. Total soil organic carbon and nitrogen started to recoverduring the seral-stage (1-8 years) and stabilized at almost initial levelafter ca. nine years of fallowing. Based on the recovery of floristiccomposition, aboveground biomass, and soil properties, it can beconcluded that abandoned field reached its normal state of more than60 % at an abandoned period of nine to 12 years.1RNR Research Center, Yusipang, Thimphu2Laboratory of Biosphere Functions, Institute of Environmental Studies, GraduateSchool of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Chiba,277-8653, Japan.68

KEYWORDS:Pema Wangda & Masahiko OhsawaAbandon period, Floristic composition, Succession, Soil conditionsINTRODUCTIONIn Bhutan, shifting cultivators normally are sedentary population withtheir own cultivated land. These farmers largely depend on shiftingcultivation due to steep topographical terrain, which is not suitable forpermanent cultivation. Usually farmers help each other from fieldpreparation to crop harvesting. The shifting cultivation cycle startswhen the trees attain ca. 6-20 m height in 9-12 years of fallow period.The trees and bushes are felled down during the months of January tothmid February coinciding with the 12 month of Bhutanese lunarcalendar before the noxious weeds and herbs invade the field(personnel communication with farmers of Yurung, Chungkhar ofPemagatsel 2003). Most of the trees are cut to the ground, while a fewmatured canopy trees are kept. The main stems of the felled trees areused in fences, firewood, and sometimes as timber, while branches andother residue parts form a fuel-bed for burning after letting them to drytwo to three months (Personnel communication with farmers 2003).Fuel breaks/fire lines are prepared beforehand to prevent escape of fireto the nearby forest. Burning of dried biomass starts in the months ofMarch to early April and usually lasts two-three days. Interestingly,burning is usually followed by spring rain, which helps to enrich thesoil. Some parts of residue biomass such as branches of hardwoods( Lithocarpus elegans, Castanopsis tribuloides, Schima wallichii) areused to prevent soil erosion by placing them along the steep gullies,particularly, by the farmers of Pemagatsel, eastern Bhutan, and said tobe effective in soil erosion controls (Personnel communication 2003).The present study was conducted to evaluate ecologically the practiceof shifting cultivation or abandonment of agricultural fields under thenatural condition of Bhutan. Specifically the study focuses toinvestigate vegetation succession and soil recovery under series offallow periods with climax forest as a control.69

MATERIALSAND METHODSStudy siteVegetation succession and soil...........The present study was conducted in Tshokothangkha, one of the fourvillages in Nahi block, Wangduephodrang district, west-centralBhutan (Fig. 1B). Topographically, the study area includes gentle tosteep slope within an altitudinal range from 1700 m to 2000 m a.s.l.facing south-east. Tshokothangkha village has only 11 householdswith an average family size of six members. Each family keeps certainnumber of cattle (ca. 8 cattle/household) for milking, plowing and forcow manure. The major land use type is mainly dry land cultivationincluding tseri/pangzing. Farmers also keep kitchen garden, a fewhousehold developed apple orchard, and mushroom cultivation. Theygrow maize, millet, barley, potato, chilly, oat and wheat crops. Besidesforest provides wide range of natural resources such as timber, prayerflagpoles, firewood, water, pasture for cattle grazing, litter for cattlebedding etc. Namgyel (1995) identified 107 wild plant species ofpopular use along with 22 species of edible mushrooms. Severalresearchers noted that forest is an integral part of villager's livelihoodin Nahi and were managed sustainably (Namgyel 1995; Pradhan 2002;Wangda et al. 2005).70

Mean total annual precipitation(mm)Figure 1. Map of Bhutan and study site; (A) location of map of Bhutan along theHimalayan range, (B) land-use map of the study area located in west-central Bhutanwith sampling plots in Tshokothangkha village. Weather station in Gaselo villagewas also shown in the map, which is located ca. 3 km from the present study site.ClimatePema Wangda & Masahiko OhsawaClimatic data (precipitation, air temperature, air relative humidity) ofGaselo village (1800 m a.s.l.) was used in the present study. It is thenearest village having weather station, which is located about two-hourwalk (ca. 3 km) to the present study site (Fig. 1B). The annual mean airootemperature is 14 C with a maximum mean air temperature of 21.6 C inoJuly and a mean minimum air temperature of 7.8 C in January. Theannual relative air humidity is 79 % ranging from 73.4 % in January to84.3 % in August. The mean total annual precipitation is 810.1 mm,and 60 % of it is received during the summer months of June, July andAugust while January, February, and December are the driest monthsgetting only ca. 3 % of the total precipitation. Walter's climate diagramclearly shows the contrasts between dry (Jan-Mar and Nov-Dec) andwet (Jun-Aug) periods in the climatic pattern of the study area (Fig.2)Annual mean temperature(°C)50 100403020100000J F M A M J J A S O N DMonths of the yearFigure 2. Walter's climate diagram of Gaselo village, which is the nearest weatherstation to the present study site under similar topography and vegetation types.Winter (Nov-Feb) and early spring (Mar) months are dry and summer monsoonmonths (Jun-Aug) are humid and wet while late spring (May) and early autumn(Sept.) months receive fairly good precipitation. (Data from 1986 to 2000, MinistryofAgriculture, Bhutan).711009080706050403020100mm

Environmental data: meteorology and soil moistureMeteorological data (precipitation, temperature, relative humidity)was collected from the meteorological section of the Ministry ofAgriculture, Thimphu, Royal Government of Bhutan. Additionally,instantaneous air and soil temperatures were also measured by digitalthermometer (DELTA SK-200 MC, Sato Keiryoki MFG. Co., Ltd.) during thefield survey. Soil moisture content was measured using Hydro-sense(CD 620 + CS 620) (Campbell Scientific Australia Pty. Ltd.) bearing12 cm and 20 cm probes.Field survey and plot lay outVegetation succession and soil...........With the help of local farmers, we estimated the age of fallow fields,which was then additionally confirmed by counting branch tiers andgrowth rings on available cut stumps. After site identification, 12sampling plots (quadrates of 10 m by 10 m) were established in thefield. The fallow age of the sampling plots ranged from current cropfields to 20-years of fallow with nearby climax forest as a control. Forsampling the herbaceous-stage, we set up a transect of 10 adjacentsquare plots with 1 m on a side. In each plot, herbaceous plants wereidentified, the maximum natural height (H, cm) measured, and thecoverage (%) estimated for calculating aboveground biomass, relativedominance and species richness.Tree inventory included measurements of all the tree individualsattaining a height of 1.3 m and above. Each individual tree wasidentified and diameter at breast height (DBH, cm) measured. We usedmeasuring pole (15 m) as well as digital hypsometer for measuring of:(1) total height (H, m), (2) height of the lowest living branch (HB, m),and (3) height of the lowest living foliage (HL, m). For regenerationsurvey, saplings (0.5 = H < 1.3 m) and seedlings (< 0.5 m) wererecorded and their age estimated by counting branch tiers and/or budscalescars.Nomenclature of plants followed Flora of Bhutan; Vol. I Part 1, 2, 3,Vol. II Part 1, 2, 3, Vol. III Part 1, 2 (Grierson, A.J.C. & Long, D.G.1983-2000), Flowers of the Himalaya (Polunin & Stainton 1984),72

Concise flowers of the Himalaya (Polunin & Stainton 1987), andFlowers of the Himalaya,Asupplement (Stainton 1988).DataAnalysesFor the herbaceous-stage, we used volume as a species abundancemeasure. Volume was calculated as the height of tallest individualmultiplied by the percent coverage of each species. Then we calculatedthe relative dominance of each species (RD %).For the forest-stage, tree inventory data were processed to obtain basal2area (BA cm /area) from DBH data. Then we calculated the relativeproportion of each species' basal area (RBA, %), which was used as anabundance measure. Dominant species in each plot were determinedby dominance analysis (Ohsawa 1984; Kikvidze and Ohsawa 2002).Species diversity index (H') was calculated by using Shannon &Wienner equation and species evenness (J') was calculated by Pielouequation (1969).The checklists of floristic composition were prepared using pivotaltables of MS Excel. The processed data was then analyzed for therelatedness of plots using cluster analysis and detrendedcorrespondence analysis (DCA) by PC-ORD version 4 computerbased software program.Soil and litter samplingPema Wangda & Masahiko OhsawaLitter and soil samples were collected from the forest floor from 0.5 mby 0.5 m plots. We distinguished litter, fermentation-humus and soilsurface A-layer. Litter and soil samples were measured for the freshoweights (FW) and oven dry weights (ODW) obtained at 85 C for 48hours. Samples were then analyzed at the Soils and Plant AnalyticalLaboratory (SPAL), Semtokha, Bhutan. Soil pH was measured insuspensions of 1 : 2 : 3 of the soil : distilled water : 1M KCL using aPHM 83 automatic pH meter. Total nitrogen (N) was extracted andconverted into ammonium form by micro-Kjeldahl digestion withH2SO4and a Se-based catalyst. Ammonium-N and nitrate-N areextracted by shaking with 0.01M CaCl for two hours. Organic carbon732

was measured by the Walkley-Black method of low temperatureoxidation with acidified K Cr O and titration of the excess dichromate.2 2 7RESULTSAND DISCUSSIONResultsVegetation succession and soil...........Vegetation succession along time series of abandonment fieldsWe started data analysis with examination of distribution patterns oflife forms and found that annual herbs dominated the early stage ofshifting cultivation but decreased gradually after development of treecanopy on fallow fields (Fig. 3A). The decreasing annuals weresubstituted by perennial herbs along increasing fallow period (Fig. 3B).In the tree-layer stage, seral trees revealed a humped-back distributionwith high numbers of individuals in the mid-fallow stages (10-20years), which decreased on both sides towards late and early fallowages of shifting cultivation (Fig. 3C). On the other hand, the shadetolerant climax tree individuals increased in number towards late stageof shifting cultivation indicating stabilization of forest communities(Fig. 3D). Based on the quantitative vegetation data, the floristiccomposition of the study area composed of 37 woody species of 16evergreen broad-leaved (five trees, 11 shrubs), 21 deciduous broadleaved(six trees, 15 shrubs), one pioneer conifer tree, and 107herbaceous species (43 annuals, 64 perennials) (Appendix 1, 2). On thebasis of standardized relative abundances of all the species (includingherbs and trees), four successional stages can be distinguished inshifting cultivation: (1) annual herb-stage (0-1 year), (2) perennialherb-stage (2-3 year), (3) tree seral-stage (>5 year), and (4) climaxforest-stage (Fig. 3B). The annual herb-stage was dominated byPersicaria nepalensis, Bidens pilosa, and Fagopyrum dibotrys. Theperennial herb-stage dominants were of Artemisia vulgaris, Anaphalis74

Pema Wangda & Masahiko Ohsawabusua, Prunella vulgaris and Rubia cordifolia. The pioneer and seraltree species that dominated between five to 20 years of fallowing wereViburnum cylindricum (evergreen), Swida oblongum, Indigoferadosua, Rhus chinensis with associated shrub species of Rubus ellipticus(evergreen), Rosa sericea, and Berberis aristata (evergreen).Sometimes even climax species appeared in the early stage of fallowfields when protected from grazing. For example, in six year fallowfield of the present study we found evergreen climax species ofQuercus lanata, and deciduous Quercus griffithii, mixed with broadleavedunderstory species. This particular field was protected fromgrazing and could experience successful sprouting and regeneration ofclimax species (Appendix 2). The nearby climax forest was dominatedby Castanopsis tribuloides, Q. griffithii, Q. lanata, Pinus roxburghiiwith evergreen understory shrubs of Symplocos dryophilla, Daphnebholua, Eurya acuminata and Myrsine semiserrata (Fig. 3E).75

Vegetation succession and soil...........30Pioneer30Pioneer20201010Number of0302010(A)Pioneer seral0UCAF1S1Y2Y3Y5Y6Y0302010(B)Climax(C)LIFE-FORM10Y12Y20YNFNF0UCAF1S1Y2Y3Y5Y6Y(D)FALLOW PERIOD (YEARS)10Y12Y20Y0-2 2-3 5-20CLIMAXNFNFPioneer annualsPioneer perennialsPersicaria,Bidens,Fagopyrum, GalinsogaArtemisia,PteridiumSeral tree-stageViburnum, Rubus, Myrsine, Berberis,Pyracantha, Desmodium, Rhus, Quercus,Lyonia, Benthamidia, Docynia,Climax tree-sageCastanopsis,Quercus, Pinus,Rhododendron(E)Figure 3. Floristic succession along increasing fallow period; (A-D) individualdistribution pattern of life-from along the time course of shifting cultivation, and (E)four successional stages of shifting cultivation with dominant species. (UC=undercultivation,AF=after fire,Y=year, S=season, NF=natural climax forest).Community structural developmentThe plant community height during the herbaceous community stagesof both annuals and perennials in the early stages of fallow (0-3 years)increased from 0.6 m of Pteridium aquilinum in the cultivated field toca. 3 m of Artemisia vulgaris in the 3-year fallow and further increased76

Pema Wangda & Masahiko Ohsawato 5 m ( A. vulgaris) under the seral trees. However, the height ofherbaceous species decreased to ca. 1.3 m ( Lespedeza sp.) in theclimax forest (Fig. 4A).At the tree-layer stage, the seral trees reached aheight of 3.5 m ( Viburnum cylindricum) after five years and steadilyincreased to 13.2 m of Rhus javanica after 20 years of abandonment,which is about 60 % of the tallest tree height recorded ( Quercusgriffithii 22.0 m) in the nearby climax forest (Fig. 4A). Similar to theheight, diameter at breast height also increased from 2.3 cm ofPyracantha crenulata at 5-year fallow plots to 14.5 cm of Rhusjavanica after 20 year of fallowing (Fig. 4B). Likewise, the total basal2area of trees also increased from 0.3 m /ha after 5-year fallowing to242.1 m /ha in 20-year fallow, which is 62.5 % of the maximum 67.42m /ha totaled in the nearby climax forest (Fig. 4C). The stem density(applicable only to the tree-layer stage) increased from 164000stems/ha in the 5-year fallow to 324000 stems/ha in 12-year fallow andthen decreased to 10600 stems/ha in 20-year fallow (mostly dominatedby seral trees). The density was smallest in the nearby climax forest(5900 stems/ha, Fig. 4D). Stem density and total basal area wereinversely related to the duration of fallowing thus indicating that thelate stage of fallows attain climax forest features with relatively lowstem density of large diameter class trees. The volume equivalent ofherbaceous biomass was relatively low after fire and sharply increasedin the current year due to crop biomass. The volume of herbaceousweeds indicated their high biomass in the early stages of shiftingcultivation (0-2 years), which then decreased after entering the treedominatedstages until the climax forest.77

Vegetation succession and soil...........askldjhklfhfoiuwpqieMax Ht (m)25201510(A)BA (m 2 /5010080604020Stem densityMax DBH604020(B)040000300002000010000000 5 10 15 20 25 300 5 10 15 20 25 30©NF(D)NFCultivationCultivationPioneer treeClimaxPioneer treeClimaxFigure 4. Fallowing dynamics of vegetation communities: (A) maximum height(note: = maximum height of tree community, and • = maximum height for the herbcommunity), (B) maximum diameter at breast height, (C) total basal area, and (D)stem density.Regeneration pattern under series of shifting cultivation fallowsBased on the quantitative analysis of seedling and sapling (density),the floristic composition of fallow regeneration consists of 44 treespecies belonging to 29 families (Appendix 3). The life-form spectrumconsisted of three evergreen broad-leaved trees, 11 understoryevergreen shrubs, eight deciduous broad-leaved trees, 28 deciduousshrubs, and two pioneer conifers. The life-form spectra of fallowregeneration accords with the life-form composition of tree layers (Fig.3C, D;Appendix 2, 3).After one year of abandonment, regeneration ofshrubs started with deciduous serals such as Indigofera dosua,Viburnum mullaha, Zanthoxylum armatum, and evergreen shrubs suchas Rubus ellipticus, Berberis arsitata (Appendix 3). Understory78

Pema Wangda & Masahiko Ohsawaevergreen broad-leaved shrubs ( Ligustrum indicum, Myrsinesemiserrata) and deciduous pioneer trees of Rhus javanica, Quercusgriffithii, Docynia indica, Callicarpa arborea started to appear in thesecond year fallow. Three to five years old fallow fields weredominated by evergreen understory species Viburnum cylindricum,and deciduous tree serals such as R. javanica, D. indica, Morus alba,Swida oblonga, Benthamidia capitata, Randia tetrasperma, Zizyphusincurva, Coriaria nepalensis, Elaeagnus parvifolia, and Erythrinaarborescens. Climax tree species of Quercus lanata, Acer oblongum,and Quercus griffithii seedlings started to appear after six years offallowing. Similar seedling and sapling composition was recorded alsoin the climax forest with additional seedlings of canopy speciesCastanopsis tribuloides and Rhododendron arboreum. Two pioneerconifers of Pinus roxburghii and P. wallichiana were also found both inthe fallow fields and under the canopy of climax trees.Species richness and floristic recoveryMeasurements of diversity found clear trends over fallowing years(Figure 5). The number of herb species increased from 25 (16 annuals,nine perennials) in the cultivated field to 30 (16 annuals, 14 perennials)in current year fallow and further increased to 45 (22 annuals, 23perennials) in one-year fallow (Fig. 5A). The dominating species wereannual herbs of Fygopyrum dibotrys, Bidens pilosa, and perennialherbs of Pouzolzia hirta, Solanum sp., Strobilianthus sp. and Pteridiumaquilinum (cf. Fig.3E). The number of herbaceous species started todecrease after three years of fallowing from 25 (12 annuals, 13perennials) to 15 (4 annuals, 11 perennials) in 20-year fallow plot andfurther decreased to 14 (2 annuals, 12 perennials) in the climax forest(Fig. 5A, E). The dominant herbs between three to 20 year fallowperiods were mainly perennial species of Artemisia vulgaris, Prunellavulgaris, Imperata cylindrica, Thalictrum sp., Carex nubigena,Anaphalis busua, Arundinaria sp., and Yushania microphylla under thecanopy of seral trees and climax trees (Appendix 1). For trees, highnumber of species was recorded during the early seral tree-stage: 16species after five years and 17 species after six years of fallowing,mostly deciduous pioneer species (Fig. 5B, Appendix 2). The speciesrichness decreased towards late fallow (10-20 years) to eight species79

Vegetation succession and soil...........after 12 years and to five species after 20 years of abandonment, butincreased again to 13 tree species in the nearby climax forest (Fig. 5B).Likewise, Shannon's diversity index for the herb layer showed itsmaximum in one-year fallow field (H'=4.7), decreased towards thepioneer tree seral stage (H'=3.4), and further decreased in the climaxforest (H' =2.8). Similarly, the diversity index for the tree layer, variedfrom 0.9 at early stage of shifting cultivation to 2.9 after six years and to2.3 in the climax forest.Looking at species accumulation curves, it becomes evident that therate of species accumulation is rather high (Fig. 5C,D). Herbaceousspecies accumulated much faster during the first decade of fallowing,and reached the number of 98 already in the 12-years fallow, which is a93.3 % of the total species number accumulated including the climaxforest (105 species, Fig. 5C). Then species accumulation slowed downsharply, with only two and five new species added to the 20-year fallowand the climax forest, respectively. The accumulation curve of shrubspecies reached near-maximum levels similarly fast (after 10 years offallowing), and leveled towards the climax forest (Fig. 5D). Severaldeciduous pioneer shrubs that were common early (5-10 years) such asDesmodium elegans, Lonicera ovovata, Zanthoxylum armatum,Docynia indica disappeared after 12 years contributing to fast speciesturnover (Fig. 5F). Tree species accumulation was also marked by asharp increase by reaching near-maximum values after 12 years offallowing, and then tapering towards the climax forest (Fig. 5D,F) .80

Pema Wangda & Masahiko OhsawaNumber of species5040302010Herbaceous species2010Tree speciesAccumulated speciesSpecies turnover (+ or -)01201008060402003020100-10-20-30-40(E)(A)0 5 10 15 20 25 30(C)NFUC AF 1S 1Y 2Y 3Y 5Y 6Y 10Y 12Y 20Y NFFallow age (years)Figure 5. Species richness and floristic recovery; (A, B) species richness, (C, D)accumulation curves, (E, F) species turnover of herbs and trees along the course ofshifting cultivation. (UC=under cultivation, AF=after fire, 1S=one season fallow,Y=year, NF=climax forest).Change in soil chemical properties along the series of fallow fieldsOne of the benefits of shifting cultivation is burning the dry biomassthat recharges the soil and facilitates growing of fallow vegetation aftercropping. The changes in soil properties were found closely related tothe time of abandonment. At the initial phase of shifting cultivation (0-3 years) soil was neutral (pH = 7), but decreased gradually during thefallowing years. The most acid soil was found in the nearby climaxforest (pH = 5; Fig. 6A). Similarly soil organic carbon (C %) was foundrelatively high after fire (ca. 10 %), but decreased during the earlyfallow stages (Fig. 6B). Yet it increased again with the increase inabove ground biomass of pioneer trees during 5-20 years of fallow8103020100840-4-8(F)(B)0 5 10 15 20 25 30(D)NFUC AF 1S 1Y 2Y 3Y 5Y 6Y 10Y 12Y 20Y NFFallow age (years)TotalShrubsTr ees

Vegetation succession and soil...........almost reaching its initial level. Total nitrogen showed a similar trend:it was relatively high (0.5 %) after fire, and subsequently decreased (to0.2%) during the early stages of shifting cultivation (Fig. 6C). Then itincreased again (to. 0.5 %) under pioneer tree serals in the 6-yearfallow plot, but was slightly less (ca. 0.4 %) in the climax forest (Fig.5C). Accordingly, high C/N ratio equal to 20.3 was observed after fire,which subsequently decreased to 13-14 during the cropping and earlystages of fallow. The reduced C/N ratio at the early stages of shiftingcultivation was recovered after six years, and was stable (16-19) after10 years of fallowing. C/N ratio after 20 years of fallowing was 19.3,which is close to the value 21.4 found in the nearby climax forest (Fig.6D). Available phosphorus increased sharply (ca. 48 mg/kg) after thefire and fluctuated between 9 to 40 mg/kg during the early stages ofshifting cultivation, then steadily decreased to about 10 mg/kg afterfive years of abandonment (Fig. 6E). Ca/Mg ratio, which is anindicator of leaching, was high (7.0 to 9.0) (Askew 1964, Hans 1994)during the cropping and early stages of shifting cultivation, and tendedto decrease steadily from 6.2 after 10 years of fallowing to as smallvalue as 2.0 found in the climax forest (Fig. 6F).82

Soil pH (H2O)(A)Total Nitrogen (%)864200.60.40.2Pema Wangda & Masahiko OhsawaaskldjhklfhfoiuwpqieOrganic carbon (%)(B)C/N ratio121086420302010(C)Available phosphorous0.0504030201000(E) 0 5 10 15 20 25 NF 30 (F) 0 5 10 15 20 25 NF 30CultivationClimax forest CultivationClimax forestPioneer tree seralsPioneer tree seralsFigure 6. Soil chemical properties along the fallow succession from cultivation toclimax forest; (A) soil pH (H2O), (B) soil organic carbon (%), (C) total nitrogen (%),(D) C/N ratio, (E) available phosphorous (Pmg/kg), and (F) Ca/Mg ratio.DiscussionFloristic recovery in the abandoned fields of different fallow ages(D)Ca-Mg ratioFarmers usually graze their cattle in the fallow fields dominated bypalatable annual herbs during the early stages of abandonment(farmers interview 2003). Droppings of the cattle fertilize the soil andprobably facilitate invasion of Artemisia vulgaris and Pteridiumaquilinum, which suppress the annual herbs after second year of830108642

Vegetation succession and soil...........fallowing. Probably the unpalatable herbs Pteridium aquilinum andArtemisia vulgaris further facilitate the establishment of pioneer treeseedlings in the older fallow fields. Accordingly, after five years offallowing, the height of pioneer trees exceeds 1.3 m and the seral treesstart to invade. Further the succession continues towards climax forest.After nine years, the maximum height of trees already exceeds 10 m,and the preparation for shifting cultivation can be started by fellingpioneers and sprouts of seral and climax trees. The felled wood servesas an alternative source for fencing, firewood and fuel-bed, whichotherwise would need to be extracted from the natural forest. The firstyear cultivation normally yields good harvest, but subsequently theyields decrease if cultivation is continuous. However, farmers as atraditional practice of rule, cultivate for one or two years only and thenmove to another site letting the fallow to rest nine to 12 years beforereturning to its cultivation (Personnel communication with Bulifarmers 2003). Hence, from the ecological as well as farmer'smanagement points of view, shifting cultivation is sustainable. It cancontinue if maintained within the critical fallow length of ca. 9-12years and if the population of the area stays below the critical density of210-20 persons per km (Whitmore 1998).Community structural traits along different stages of fallow fieldForest dimensions (maximum height, maximum diameter, total basalarea, stem density) revealed clear recovering processes from pioneertree to seral to climax trees along increasing fallow period. After ca. 20years of fallow period, the maximum height of Rhus javanica reached13.2 m, which is already over 60 % of the tallest tree recorded in thenearby climax forest ( Quercus griffthii). Similar trends were alsoreported from other shifting cultivation areas of Bhutan (Ohsawa et al.2002). In particular, the maximum tree height reached 35 m after 20years of fallowing, which is 78 % of the tallest tree (45 m) found in thenearby climax forest in Tali-Buli, Shemgang, Southern, Bhutan.Similarly, the maximum height after 20 years of fallowing reached 20m, which is 55.3 % of the recorded tallest tree (37 m) in the nearbyclimax forest in Chungkhar, eastern Bhutan, (Wangda et al. 2005).However, at our study site the forests grew less vigorously compared toother sites mentioned above, as judged from smaller increments in84

height and basal area of trees. These differences can be explained bysignificantly more humid conditions at other sites (higher soil moisturecontent, higher precipitation). Tali-Buli in Shemgang (1580-1860 ma.s.l.), and Chungkhar in Pemagatsel (1700-1900 m a.sl.) receive,respectively, 1563.4 mm and 1947.0 mm precipitation annually, whilstour site at Gaselo village near Nahi (1700-2000 m a.s.l.) gets only810.1 mm. Measurement of soil moisture content also revealeddifferences between these three sites. Soil moisture content rangesbetween 36.7 % in 6-year fallow field to 23.6 % in the climax forest ofShemgang (October 2002), and 34.4 % to 44.4 % in Chungkhar (June2003), whilst only 9.6 % to 12.5 % in Nahi (April 2004). Obviously,forest grows weaker under drier conditions. Similar results werereported by Lawrence & Foster (2002) from the Southern Yucatan,Mexico, where precipitation and soil characteristics contributed tovariation in vegetation structure such as woody basal area after 25years of fallowing.Soil propertiesPema Wangda & Masahiko OhsawaThe gradual decline in soil pH from neutrality to acidity may beexplained by the effect of burning. Probably, nutrient cations replaceproton ions due to intensive heating thereby raising the soil pH. In anycase, burning makes the soil phosphate more available for thecultivation (Nye & Greenland 1960). Although other elements wereless abundant in the soil compared to phosphorus, they accumulatedthrough the succession. Soil organic carbon was relatively low in theearly stages of fallow and gradually increased with fallow period andreached its highest level after ca. 16 years of fallowing. Moreimportantly, soil nitrogen also increased from the time of abandonmentapproaching its maximum level after 10 to 16 years, and then remainedsteady towards climax forest. On the other hand, available phosphoruswas high after fire during the current year of cultivation. Apparently,shifting cultivation helps to maintain a nutrient-rich soil, where thenutrients are distributed almost evenly to a depth of ca. 50 cm belowsoil surface, whilst in the nutrient poor soil, high amount of nutrientsand high concentration of roots are distributed superficially (Jordan1985).85

CONCLUSIONSVegetation succession and soil...........The study did not find any major impact on the vegetation in terms ofspecies structural traits (maximum height, diameter, basal area, speciesrichness, stem density), nor on soil chemical properties (pH, C %, N %,available phosphorous, Ca/Mg ratio). We conclude that this practice isecologically sustainable if the fallow periods are maintained for 9-12years. The vegetation succession shows a fast recovery from earlyherbaceous-stage (annuals, perennials) between 0 to 3 years, followedby seral tree-stage (5-20 years), and finally approaching to climaxforest (Fig. 7).FALLOW SUCCESSIONCropping stage Forest development stage Stabilization stageBiden pilosa,Pouzolzia hirtaArtemisia vulgarisPrunella vulgarisRubia cordifoliaAnaphalis sp. andCropsRhus chinensis, Quercus griffithii, Schima wallichii, Betula alnoides,Lithocarpus elegans, Benthamidia capitata, Indigofera dosuaSoil recovery stageCastanopsis tribuloidesLithocarpus elegansCinnamomum spExbucklandia popluneaAltingia excelsaSchima wallichiiStructural traits(Maximum height,Maximum diameter,Total basal area)Soil properties(C %, N %, C-N ratio)1 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 30 ClimaxFALLOW PERIOD (years)Figure 7. Thematic representation of the shifting cultivation system in Bhutan basedon vegetation succession and soil recovery along the time series of shiftingcultivation fields in Shemgang (southern), Pemagatsel (eastern) and, Nahi (westcentral)Bhutan.The vegetation requires about 12-20 years to recover more than 60 %of the climax forest features, and the soil recovers its properties for thefirst decade of abandonment. Whitmore (1998) also reported thatnutrients accumulate most rapidly for the first 8-10 years to reach its86

initial level in the tropical regions. The concentration of mineralnutrients in tree parts descends in the following order: leaves > twigs >branches > trunks. Most of the leaves and branches are restored in thefirst few years of fallow ages incorporating a larger part of mineralnutrients into the ecological cycle. Burning of the abovegroundbiomass makes these nutrients available to the crops, and althoughnitrogen and sulphur are volatilized in smoke, other nutrients remain inash and are available to crop plants after rain.REFERENCESPema Wangda & Masahiko OhsawaBautista-Cruz, A. & del Castillo, R.F. (2005). Soil Changes DuringSecondary Succession in a Tropical Monatne Cloud ForestArea. Soil Science Society ofAmerica Journal. 69: 906-914.Central Statistical Organization, Planning Commission (2002).Statistical yearbook of Bhutan. Royal Government of Bhutan,ThimphuGrierson, A.J.C. & Long, D.G. (1983-2000). Flora of Bhutan Vol. I.Part 1,2,3. Vol. II. Part 1,2,3 & Vol. III. Part 1,2. Edinburgh.Hocking, D., & Wangdi, J.(2000). Review of the literature in Bhutanon Agroforestry. Bhutan: Agroforestry Literature Review; HuntingTechnical Services Ltd. Hemel Hempstead, UK.Jordan, C.F. (1985). Nutrient cycling in tropical forest ecosystems:principles and their application in management and conservation. JohnWiley & sons, Chichester, NewYork, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore.Kikvidze Z. & Ohsawa M.:(2002). Measuring the number of codominantsin ecological communities. Ecological Research 17. 519-525.Lawrence, D. & Foster, D.(2002). Changes in forest biomass, litterdynamics and soils following shifting cultivation in southern Mexico:an overview. Interciencia. 27 (8): 400-408.87

Vegetation succession and soil...........Mertz, O. (2002). the relationship between length of fallow and cropyields in shifting cultivation: a rethinking. Agroforestry System. 55:149-159.Namgyel, P. (1996). Beyond Timber – What Value of the Forest? ARapid Rural Appraisal Study on Non-Timber Forest Products in theNahi Geog, Wangdue-phodrang, Western Bhutan; FRC/BG-IFMPOccasional Paper No.1. Bhutan-German Integrated ForestManagement Project, Ministry of Agriculture, Royal Government ofBhutan.Nakano, K.(1978). An ecological study of Swidden agriculture at avillage in Northern Thailand. Tonan Ajia Kenkyu (Southeast AsianStudies). 16 (3): 411-446.Nye, P.H. (1960). The soil under shifting cultivation. Reprinted inGreat Britain by Jarrold & Sons Ltd, Cowgate, Norwich.Ohsawa, M., Kitazawa, Wangda, P., Pradhan, R. & Wangdi, T. (2002).Secondary succession and soil development in tseri-farming system,Shemgang, southern Bhutan In. Life zone ecology of Bhutan HimalayaIII (ed. M. Ohsawa): 125-143 Published by The University of Tokyo.Ohtsuka, T. (1999). Early stages of secondary succession onabandoned cropland in north-east Borneo Island. Ecological Research.14: 281-290.Roder, W., Calvert, O., & Dorji, Y. (1992). Shifting cultivation systemspracticed in Bhutan.Agroforestry Systems. 19:149-158.Stainton, A. (1988). Flowers of the Himalaya. A supplement. OxfordUniv. Press. New Delhi.Wangda, P., Gyaltshen, D., Tshering, D., & Gurung P.B. (2005).Assessing fallow age and ecosystem recovery in tseri and pangzing.Renewable Natural Resources Research Centre Yusipang, CoRRB,MoA,YREP2005/01ndWhitmore, T.C. (1998). An introduction to tropical rain forests. 2 ed.Oxford University Press, Inc., NewYork.88

Pema Wangda & Masahiko OhsawaSPECIESFALLOW PERIOD (Years)UC AF 1S 1Y 2Y 3Y 5Y 6Y 10Y 12Y 20Y NFS NFS1ANNUALS RD RD RD RD RD RD RD RD RD RD RD RD RDFagopyrum dibotrys 24.3 6.3Persicaria nepalensis 16.3 6.3 1.1 4.8Biden pilosa 13.9 6.3 28.2 26.3 0.0 0.4Brassica juncea 11.0Galingsoga parviflora 5.8 6.3 0.0Oxalis corniculata 0.6 0.1 6.3 0.6 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0Amaranthus viridis 0.2 1.6 0.0 0.0Chenopodium album 0.1 3.1 0.1 0.1Physalis divaricata 0.1Canabis sativa 0.1 0.0Poa annua 0.0 0.6 3.1 0.0Euphorbia heterophylla 0.0Crassocephalum crepidioides 0.0 0.0 0.1Commelina benghalensis 3.4 4.7 1.7 0.4 0.1 0.1Malva parviflora 1.6Siegesbeckia orientalis 1.3 1.6 0.2 3.2Swertia bimaculata 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.0Coriandium sp. 0.2 0.0 0.1 3.5 0.1Vigna sp. 0.1Hordeum vulgare 3.1Ageratum conyzoides 1.6 0.1Cynoglossum furcatum 1.6 0.7 0.2 0.0 0.1Verbascum thapsus 1.6 0.1 0.0Strobilanthus sp. 1.0 3.6 6.0 1.2 73.5 11.2 42.9Galium aparine 0.6 0.4 1.0 1.0 0.0 2.6Sonchus sp. 0.5 0.0 0.0Veronica javanica 0.5 0.1Mazus delavayi 0.2 0.0Solanum nigrum 0.1Gnaphalium affine 0.0 0.0Digitaria ciliaris 0.0Solanum khasianum 0.1Kyllinga squamulata 0.1 1.2 0.0Tagetes sp. 0.4Vicia hirsuta 0.0Hydrocotyl 0.0Impatiens sp. 0.0 1.0Selinum sp. 0.0PERENNIALS 72.3 7.6 53.1 35.8 36.9 4.1 1.2 8.7 0.1 1.3 76.9 13.8 43.9Pteridium aquilinum 14.9 4.7 2.8 5.3Solanum (Potato) 11.8Carex nubigena 0.3 1.9 4.7 0.1 0.9 0.1 0.6 7.3 0.4 4.0 8.1 0.8 0.4Pouzolzia hirta 0.4 23.8 3.1 1.2 2.1 3.0 0.7 8.7 0.0 0.6Clematis buchananiana 0.1 1.2 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.4Prunella vulgaris 0.1 7.8 0.8 0.5 0.1 0.3 0.8 0.0Geranium nepalense 0.0 0.1 6.3 0.1 0.9 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.5Cynodon dactylon 0.0 1.6 0.0Paspalum distichum 0.0 1.6 0.3 1.0Gerardinia sp. 0.089

Vegetation succession and soil...........SPECIESFALLOW PERIOD (Years)UC AF 1S 1Y 2Y 3Y 5Y 6Y 10Y 12Y 20Y NFS NFS1PERENNIALS RD RD RD RD RD RD RD RD RD RD RD RD RDPhylanthus urinaria 0.0 0.9 0.0 0.0 7.0 27.8Artemisia parviflora 14.9 1.6 20.3 30.7 89.3 58.3 7.2 95.9 87.7Thalictrum foetidum 14.8 1.0 0.1 0.1Lespedeza sp. 8.2 1.7 7.0Salvia lanata 5.9 0.8 5.4 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 7.2 0.1Dioscorea sp. 4.1 1.6 0.0 0.6 3.5 0.0 0.3Elsholtzia sp. 3.9 1.6 0.1 2.3 0.6 4.0 0.1 0.7Polygonatum sp. 3.9 0.0 0.1 0.1Arisaema sp. 3.2 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.4Juncus sp. 2.6Utrica sp. 0.8 0.0Leucas ciliata 0.6 4.2 0.4 1.2 0.8Viola indica 1.2 1.6 1.1 1.4 0.0 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.1Potentilla sp. 0.3 1.6 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.1Fragaria nubicola 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.1 0.6 0.0Iris clarkei 0.0 0.3 6.7 0.6 4.9Anaphalis busua . 3.1 33.0 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.2Ranunculus chinensis 3.1 0.1Nepeta clarkei 1.6 0.0 1.5Rumex nepalense 1.6Cyperus cyperoides 0.2Oxytropis sp. 0.1 0.4 0.4Onosma sp. 0.1Hypoxis aurea 0.1 0.6 0.1Hedychium coccinecum 0.0 7.1Rubia cordifolia 13.8 0.1 0.2 0.9 0.0 0.6 0.3Eupatorium adenophorum 1.3 1.5 1.7 0.4 0.0 1.2Boenninghausenia albiflora 0.9Imperata cylindrica 0.7 0.6 28.7 1.0 11.7Ophiopogon planiscapus 0.1 2.7 2.1 11.3Aconitum sp. 0.0 2.7Asparagus racemosa 0.0 0.1 0.3Ajuga lobata 0.3Inula cappa 1.8 0.9 6.0Stachys sericea 0.9Ainsliaea latifolia 0.1 0.4 0.0 0.0 1.5 15.2Equisitum sp. 0.1Gentiana sp. 0.0Oplismenus sp. 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.1 0.9 3.3Arundinaria sp. 13.7Yushania microphylla 11.2Rubia himalaica 0.4Botrychium sp. 0.0Hedera helix 0.9 0.7Aconogonum molle 0.5Cymbopogon sp. 29.9Lepisorus sp. 2.8Dendrobium sp. 1.0Ligularia sp. 0.4Smilax sp. 7.7Polystichum sp. 4.9Pteris creatica 0.3Hypericum sp. 0.3Attyrium sp. 0.2TOTAL 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 10090

Pema Wangda & Masahiko OhsawaSPECIESFALLOW PERIOD (years)5Y 6Y 10Y 12Y 20Y NFS NFS1EVERGREEN BROAD-LEAVED TREE RBA RBA RBA RBA RBA RBA RBAQuercus lanata 13.0 13.5 24.1Rhododendron arboreum 23.0 12.9Castanopsis tribuloides 9.0Myrica esculenta 1.2Rhododendron barbetum 0.3EVERGREEN BROAD-LEAVED SHRUBViburnum cylindricum 55.6 0.4 97.2 31.7 51.6 0.2Pyracantha crenulata 21.6 0.5Rubus ellipticus 4.1 0.5 0.0 0.7Berberis aristata 1.0 4.0 0.7Myrsine semiserrata 1.9 1.0 0.1 2.1Berberis asiatica 0.2 1.4Daphne surel 0.5Meliosoma simplifolia 0.0Eurya acuminata 1.8Symplocos dryophila 0.3Daphne bholua 0.0DECIDUOUS BROAD-LEAVED TREERhus chinensis 8.6 0.2Rhus javanica 4.1 1.9 33.0Lyonia ovalifolia 5.9 4.9 4.3Quercus griffithii 3.1 35.3 43.2Docynia indica 1.2Carpinus viminii 0.4DECIDUOUS BROAD-LEAVED SHRUBIndigofera dosua 4.9 45.0 16.6 0.0Desmodium elegans 4.1Berberis aristata 1.0 4.0 0.7Rosa sericea 9.5 0.1Lespedeza sp 4.2 1.4 0.6Benthamidia capitata 2.3 0.4 13.1 13.4Lonicera ovovata 2.2Viburnum sp 2.1Zanthoxylum armatum 0.3Viburnum foetidum 0.5Swida oblonga 12.2Viburnum mullaha 5.8 1.4Colquhounia coccinea 0.8Phyllanthus urinaria 0.1CONIFEROUS TREEPinus roxburghii 13.7 23.3TOTAL 101 104 100 100 101 100 10091

Vegetation succession and soil...........FALLOW PERIOD (years)SPECIES1Y 2Y 3Y 5Y 6Y 10Y 12Y 20Y NFS NFS1EVERGREEN BROAD-LEAVED TREE RD RD RD RD RD RD RD RD RD RDQuercus lanata 2.2 44.8 3.3Acer oblongum 1.1 1.5Castanopsis tribuloides 0.7EVERGREEN BROAD-LEAVED SHRUBRubus ellipticus 27.8 22.6 0.9 1.4 1.1 1.0 1.5Berberis aristata 5.6 7.5 9.5 1.1 30.9 2.0Ligustrum indicum 7.5 0.5Myrsine semiserrata 1.9 1.3 23.9 18.1 65.0 77.9 23.1 62.1Viburnum cylindricum 61.1 37.8 1.1 4.9 3.5 0.8 1.3Pyracantha crenulata 0.5 2.7Osyris lanceolata 0.3 1.1 1.4Ilex crenata 3.3Daphne bholua 0.5 3.6 5.2Symplocos dryophila 1.5 3.9Gaultheria fragrantissima 1.4DECIDUOUS BROAD-LEAVED TREERhus javanica 28.3 0.8 12.2 13.0 1.0 1.9Quercus griffithii 7.5 8.7 2.9 23.1 21.6Docynia indica 1.9 3.1 13.5 1.1 7.8Callicarpa arborea 1.9Morus alba 0.2 1.1Prunus rufa 1.1 0.5 1.5Alangium sp 0.5Lyonia ovalifolia 0.7DECIDUOUS BROAD-LEAVED SHRUBIndigofera dosua 50.0 17.0 4.1 2.2 1.8 0.8Viburnum mullaha 11.1 1.1 4.8Zanthoxylum armatum 5.6 3.8 0.2 2.2 11.8Phylanthus urinaria 20.5 3.4Swida oblonga 5.5 1.4 0.5 8.6Benthamidia capitata 3.4 2.7 19.1 2.5Randia tetrasperma 0.8 13.0 0.5Viburnum sp 0.5Lespedeza sp 0.5 1.1 2.5 1.9Zizyphus incurva 0.2 6.5 1.5Coriaria nepalensis 5.4 0.5Chaenomeles sp 2.7Elaeagnus parvifolia 1.4 1.1 0.5 1.5Erythrina arborescens 1.4 1.5Lonicera obovata 10.9Desmodium elegans 1.1 1.0Toricellia tiliifolia 1.1Viburnum foetidum 5.4Rosa sericea 0.5 1.5Colquhounia coccinea 1.5Evergreen needle leaved coniferPinus roxburghii 0.3 4.1 2.8Pinus wallichiana 0.5 0.7TOTAL 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 10092

Field Crops

Bhu.J.RNR.Vol 3.No.1, 93-101: 2007The Effect of Height Reducing Genes (Rht1& Rht8) onEstablishment of WheatKEYWORDS:INTRODUCTIONWangda Dukpa 1ABSTRACTSThe study was conducted to determine the effect of height reducinggenes Rht1 and Rht8and sowing depth on seedling establishment ofwheat. Control, Rht1and Rht8were evaluated at 0 cm, 2 cm, 4 cm and 6cm sowing depths in a complete randomised design with threereplications. Interactions between varieties and sowing depth had nosignificant effect on all the parameters except on percentage seedlingemergence. Increasing sowing depth significantly increased the daysto first seedling emergence, duration of seedling emergence andseedling height. There was no significant difference between varietiesin the days to first seedling emergence, duration of emergence,percentage emergence and root length. Coleoptile length above thesoil, root length and shoot dry matter decreased significantly withincreasing sowing depth. Coleoptile length and shoot dry matter ofcontrol were significantly longer and higher than Rht1 and Rht8respectively.Height reducing genes, days to emergence, duration ofemergence, percentage emergence, coleoptile length, seedling height,root length, shoot dry matter, Triticum aestivum L.Plants with early vigour shade the soil more quickly decreasingevaporation and improving the ability of the plant to compete withweeds, increase water use and nitrogen uptake (Rebetzke et al., 2000).Dwarfing gene Rht1(Rht-B1b) reduces height and significantlyincreases yield (Pereira et al., 2002) but this gene produce short and1RNR Research Center, Jakar, Bumthang93

Wangda Dukpaweak coleoptiles, which are essential for successful emergence andearly plant vigour (Rebetzke et al., 2000). Genes that reduce heightwithout compromising seedling vigour or coleoptile length have greatpotential for wheat improvement (Ellis et al., 2004).The dwarfing gene Rht8does not reduce the length of coleoptile(Rebetzke et al., 2000), which therefore does not affect early growth.Sowing depth depends on the seed size and in general the smaller seedsare sown at a shallower depth. However, seeds are sown at variousdepths depending on the type of equipment used and cultural practicesbut with an ultimate aim to quickly establish a vigorous crop. Seedingdepth could be an important factor in establishing a crop. Seeding toodeep results delayed emergence and weak seedlings while seeding tooshallow may place the seeds in the soil that is very dry and result in poorgermination (Chapman, 2001). As sowing depth increases emergenceis less complete and duration of emergence (from first to last plantsemerged) also increases with sowing depth (Moes, n.d).Despite the importance of early crop vigour for higher yields, littleattempt has been made on the effect of height reducing genes andsowing depth to early crop establishment. This study attempts todetermine the effect of sowing depths and dwarfing genes on the earlygrowth characteristics of wheat.MATERIALSAND METHODSThe experiment was conducted in the glasshouse from 4 February to 11March, 2005 in the University of Reading. Three wheat ( Triticumaestivum L.) varieties; two dwarfing genotypes with height reducinggenes (Rht1and Rht8) and a control (landrace) were evaluated at sowingdepths of 0 cm, 2 cm, 4 cm, and 6 cm respectively on the compost soilfilled in a 10 cm x 10 cm plastic pots. Each treatment was replicatedthree times in a complete randomised design since all pots wereassumed uniform and no other factors vary in the experimental area.Ten seeds of each variety were placed at equidistant for each pot. Eachpot was considered as a replicate. The pots were irrigated weekly andthe soil moisture was maintained at field capacity.94

The experiment was monitored daily from the day of sowing andrecorded seedling emergence till the experiment was terminated. Thedays to first seedling emergence and the duration of emergence (fromfirst to last seedlings emerged) were recorded. The mean percentage ofseedling emergence was calculated at the end of the experiment. Thelength of coleoptiles above the soil for all seedlings of each pot wasmeasured after reaching the maximum length as indicated by theemergence of the primary leaf from the coleoptile tip. The stems werecut at soil level, placed in a paper envelope separately for each pot,0labelled and dried in the oven at 45 C for 66 hours and the weight of drymatter was recorded. Root lengths for all seedlings of each pot weremeasured and the average for each pot was calculated and recorded.The data was processed in Excel and analyses of variance for allparameters and interactions between variety and sowing depths werethperformed using GenStat (7 edition).RESULTSAND DISSCUSSIONDays to first seedling emergenceThe Effect of Height Reducing..................There was no significant (P=0.251) difference in the days to firstseedling emergence between varieties. Days to first seedlingemergence increased significantly (P < 0.001) with increasing sowingdepth in all the varieties (Figure 1; a, b, c). There was no significant(P=0.799) effect on the days to first seedling emergence due to theinteractions between varieties and sowing depths (Table 1).95

Rht 10 9.00 4.67 90 11.27 8.57 19.87 0.20Rht 80 9.00 4.33 83 10.97 7.34 19.07 0.17Wangda DukpaTable 1. Effects of varieties and sowing depths on days to first seedling emergence(DFE), duration of emergence (DE), % Emergence (% EM), Coleoptile length (CL),Plant height (PH), Root length (RL) and weight of shoot dry matter (DM).TreatmentsDFE(Days)DE(days)%EMCL(mm)PL(cm)RL(cm)DM(gm)ControlDepth (cm)0 9.00 3.67 100 13.23 8.40 18.67 0.232 13.00 4.00 100 5.13 9.20 17.13 0.204 15.67 4.67 93 2.07 10.13 17.00 0.176 19.67 7.67 93 0.87 9.67 15.67 0.122 14.00 4.00 100 4.03 8.90 17.60 0.174 17.00 4.67 83 0.87 10.30 16.40 0.146 19.33 9.00 93 0.43 9.13 15.97 0.112 14.00 2.67 97 3.87 8.30 17.30 0.184 17.00 6.00 100 1.03 9.10 16.73 0.156 20.33 7.67 90 0.73 8.20 15.40 0.10S.E.Ds forcomparisonsbetween:Sowing Depth means 0.515 0.689 3.040 0.389 0.216 0.5470.010Variety means 0.446 0.597 2.640 0.337 0.187 0.4730.009Duration of seedling emergenceDuration of seedling emergencesignificantly (P

The Effect of Height Reducing..................sowing depths (Table 1). In Rht1and Rht8shortest duration of seedlingemergence occurred at the sowing depth of 2 cm (Fig. 1, a, b, c). Therewas no significant (P=0.609) difference in duration of emergencebetween the varieties. Interactions between varieties and sowing depthhad no significant (P=0.591) effect on duration of seedling emergence.% emergence50403020Rht1-0Rht1-2Rht1-4Rht1-6% emergence807060504030Rht8-0Rht8-2Rht8-4Rht8-6102010b00 5 10 15 20 25 30c00 5 10 15 20 25 30DaysDaysFig. 1 (a, b, c). Days to first seedling emergence, duration of emergence andpercentage emergence of control, Rht and Rht wheat seeds.1 8Percentage seedling emergenceThe mean percentage seedling emergence for control was 96.67%,Rht1(91.67%) and Rht8(92.50%) respectively. There was someevidence in control that emergence percentage decreased withincreased sowing depths but no trend was observed in Rht1 and Rht8(Table 1). There was no significant difference of percentage seedlingemergence between sowing depths (P=0.066) and between varieties(P=0.149). However, interactions between varieties and sowing depthshad significant (P=0.030) effect on percentage seedling emergence.Coleoptile lengthColeoptile lengths above the soil in all the varieties decreasedsignificantly (P

depths. Interactions between varieties and sowing depths had nosignificant (P=0.504) effect on coleoptile length.Plant heightIn all the varieties plant heights increased with increasing sowingdepths, shortest at 0 cm and tallest at 4 cm but significantly (P

The Effect of Height Reducing..................Moes, n.d). As sowing depth increases temperature gets cooler thusdelay germination and emergence. Even if the seeds at different depthsgerminate at the same time, seedlings from the deeper depths will takelonger time to emerge as the seedlings grow through larger amount ofsoil. The evidence therefore indicates that uniformity or spontaneity ofseedling emergence decreases with increase in sowing depth. Theevidence also shows that control and genotype with height reducinggenes take almost same days to seedling emergence and duration ofemergence.The earlier studies show that seedling emergence is incomplete withincrease in sowing depth (Moes, n.d). However, in this study, there wasno significant difference in percentage seedling emergence at differentsowing depths as well as between the varieties. The difference inpercentage seedling emergence could be more pronounced if thedifferences of sowing depths are further increased. However, sowingseeds at the surface under field condition may be not practical as itwould be difficult to maintain soil moisture as in the glasshouse.Therefore, germination in many species is inhibited when seeds are onthe soil surface (Bewley and Black, 1994).The coleoptile length above the soil decreased with increasing sowingdepth and the coleoptile length of control were significantly longer atall depths than Rht1and Rht8.It is reported that height reducing genesRht1 reduces coleoptile length but Rht8does not reduce coleoptilelength (Ellis et al., 2004; Rebetzke et al., 2000). Conversely, theevidence shows that height reducing genes Rht8also reduces coleoptilelength. The difference could be because the past studies measured totalcoleoptile length while this study measured the length above the soil.The coleoptile plays an important role in seedling emergence as itencases the first leaf and pushes through the soil to the surface. Thecontrol with long coleoptile could be sown at more variable or greaterdepths than Rht andRht .1 8Seedling heights of all the varieties increased with increasing sowingdepth from 0 cm to 4 cm but reduced significantly at 6 cm which couldbe attributed due to delayed emergence. Control seedlings weresignificantly taller than Rht but not significant from Rht . The8 199

evidence indicates that Rht8reduces seedling height while Rht1doesnot reduce seedling height but effects later in development of the plantas previously reported (Ellis et al., 2004). These genes reduce plantheight by decreasing the sensitivity of reproductive and somatic tissuesto endogenous gibberellins (Sial et al., 2002).Root length decreased with increasing sowing depth but there was nosignificant difference between varieties. It is possible that the seeds at agreater depth utilise more food from the food reserves of the seed forshoot development as seeds at a greater depths require additionalhorsepower to pull the drill and reach the surface (Chapman, 2001).The evidence that increase in seedling height with increase in sowingdepth also supports that more food from the seed is utilised for shootdevelopment.Dry matter decreased significantly with increasing sowing depth anddry matter of control was significantly higher than Rht1 and Rht8butthere was no difference between Rht1and Rht8. Seeds at the shallowerdepth emerge early, expose to daylight and photosynthesis occurthereby increasing water use and nutrient uptake resulting higher drymatter accumulation (Rebetzke et al., 2000) as compared to seeds at agreater depths. Seedlings at 6 cm depth had yellow bands and wererelatively weak as in the past report (Chapman, 2001).CONCLUSIONSThis study was able to determine the effect of height reducing genesand sowing depths on shoot dry matter, which was not quantified in theprevious studies. Seeds sown at a shallower depth germinate, emergeand establishes earlier than seeds sown at greater depths. The heightreducing gene Rht8reduces seedling height but Rht1does not reduceseedling height thus Rht1favouring early crop establishment. Thecontrol with long coleoptile length above the soil can be sown atvariable or greater depths than height reducing genotypes (Rht1andRht ).8Wangda Dukpa100

REFERENCESThe Effect of Height Reducing..................Bewley, J.D and Black, M. (1994). Seeds: Physiology ofndDevelopment and Germination. (2 edn). Plenum Press, NewYork.Chapman, B. (2001). Wheat Crop Establishment: Seedling Rate andDepth and Row Sowing.Available from,http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/crop1284,(Accessed on 26 March 2005).Ellis, M.H., Rebetzke, G.J., Chandler, P., Bonnett, D., Spielmeyer,W. and Richards, R.A. (2004). The Effect of Different HeightReducing Genes on the Early Growth of Wheat. Functional PlantBiology. 31: 583-589.Moes, J. (n.d). How Deep is Shallow Enough: Seed Placement forQuick Emergence. Available from,http://www.mandakzerotill.org/book16/jack%20moes.htm,(Accessed on 26 March 2005).Pereira, M.J., Pfahler, P.L., Barnett, R.D., Blount,A.R., Wofford,D.S. and Littell, R.C. (2002). Coleoptile Length of Dwarf WheatIsolines: GibberellicAcid, Temperature, and Cultivar Interactions.Crop Science. 42:1483-1487.Rebetzke, G., Kirby, M. and Mele, P. (2000). Improving SeedEmergence.Available fromhttp://www.grdc.com.au/growers/as/seed_emergency.htm,(Accessed on 26 March 2005).Sial, M.A.,Arain, M.A., Javed, M.A. and Jamali, K.D. (2002).Genetic Impact of Dwarfing Genes (Rht1 and Rht2) for ImprovingGrainYield in Wheat. Asian Journal of Plant Sciences. 1:254-256.101

Bhu.J.RNR.Vol 3.No.1, 102-118: 2007KEYWORDS:Growing Rice in Bumthang:A Dream Realized by the Farmers1 2 3Wangda Dukpa , Deki Pem & Gyem LhamoABSTRACTRice (Oryza sativa) research in Bumthang started in 1998 with theobjectives to; identify suitable varieties, reclaim marshy areas,introduce rice cultivation technologies, diversify the farming systemsand enhance rice self-sufficiency. Twenty seven varieties have beenevaluated of which 'Jakar Ray-Naap' has been identified as the mostsuitable variety under Bumthang condition. Nursery can be raisedsuccessfully using semi dry-bed method. Wet-bed method of raisingnursery is seen as an alternative method. Nursery sowing dates andtransplantation dates has been identified. Number of farmers taking uprice cultivation and area under rice cultivation has been increasingsteadily and in 2006, 61 farmers are cultivating rice in 41.52 acres.Jakar Ray-Naap takes 230-235 days from seed to seed. The averageyield of Jakar Ray-Naap is 2406 Kg/acre. Considering 70% totalmilling recovery, Nu.40/Kg of milled rice, a farmer can generate a totalof Nu 67,368 from an acre of rice field. Low temperature affects cropgrowth and reduces tillering, in worst cases up to 6 tillers/hill.Echinochloa crus-galli, Digitaria ciliaris, Schoenoplectus juncoides,Alopecurus aequalis, Persicaria hydropiper and Drymaria cordataare the dominant weeds. This paper discusses the nursery raisingmethods, days to maturity, yield, effects of low temperature, ricecultivation trend and constraints.Jakar Ray-Naap, water temperature, yield, tillers, % sterility, nurserymethods, days to maturity, weeds, total milling recovery, outreachprogramme.123RNR Research Center, Jakar, BumthangRNR Research Center, Jakar, BumthangRNR Research Center, Jakar, Bumthang102

INTRODUCTIONWangda Dukpa et alFarmers in Bumthang cultivate buckwheat, barley, wheat, maize,mustard, legumes ( Phaseolus spp.), potato and vegetables. Buckwheat,barley and wheat are the principal cereals while potato is their maincash crop. Potato-buckwheat, potato-barley and potato-wheat are thedominant cropping patterns. Although chemical fertilizers andpesticides are heavily used for potato cultivation, cereals are generallycultivated with minimal chemical inputs. Soil fertility is primarilymaintained through application of animal manures. Rice cannot begrown in many areas either due to the cold climates, lack of irrigationor unsuitable topography. It was believed that rice cultivation is notpossible in Bumthang due to its cold climate (MoA, 2002), minimum0temperature required for rice growth is 7 C (Yoshida, 1977 as cited inNorman et al., 1995).Crop cultivation in Bumthang is limited by low temperatures in thewinter. On an average, there are only 274 days of vegetation period(Dorji, 1999) in Batpalathang (2650 masl). Due to the low temperature,only winter barley and winter wheat _which require vernalization can be grown in winter. Coldest month is0January with an average temperature of 4.2 C and hottest month is July0with an average temperature of 18.1 C (Fig.1). The lowest temperature0recorded since 1989 till 2002 in Chamkhar (2600 masl) is -14.5 C and0maximum temperature is 28 C (MoA, n.d). Frost occurs as late as May7 and as early as October 26 while snowfall can occur as late asApril 20(Personal diary). Bumthang receives a mono-modal pattern of rainfallwith an annual rainfall of 727.61 mm, maximum rainfall occurring inJuly andAugust (Fig. 1).103

Growing Rice in Bumthang.......Temperature (°C)20181614121086420Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecMonthRainfall (mm)160140120100806040200JanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugMonthSepOctNovDec0Figure 1. Average annual temperature ( C) annual rainfall (mm) of Chamkhar(average of 12 years)Results of the soil analysis from six different rice fields show that thesoils are sandy type with moderate to shallow depth. Soil pH rangesfrom 5.07-6.29, low to preferred range for most crops. However, soilacidity is not a problem for rice cultivation as the pH would increasewith flooding through dilution effect (NSSC, 2004). There is a widevariation in NPK content and the organic matter varies between2.75%-11.52%.It is believed that rice cultivation in Bumthang was tried in Garpangduring the reign of second King, His Majesty Jigme Wangchuck but thecrop could not reach maturity probably due to the lack of suitablevariety. Since then, rice cultivation have never been tried andBumthang remained a non rice-growing district despite manyagricultural lands located on flat to gentle slope and abundance ofwater. There are also marshy areas remaining as wastelands which canbe reclaimed and converted under paddy cultivation. Unlike in manyother parts of the country, land topography favour mechanizationwhich could help address the growing labour shortage problem.Farmers in Bumthang cultivate potato, sell their produce and buy ricewith that money which clearly indicates their preference for rice, achange in food habit through time.Therefore, rice research in Bumthang started in 1998 (RNR RC Jakar,1999) with the objectives to; a) identify suitable varieties forBumthang condition, b) reclaim marshy areas that are remaining aswastelands and convert under rice cultivation, c) generate ricecultivation technologies, d) diversify the farming systems and e)enhance rice self-sufficiency.104

MATERIALSAND METHODSGermplasm evaluationHigh altitude rice research in Bumthang started in 1998 inGongreythang (2600 masl). Later on, trials were also carried out inChamkhar (2600 masl) and Batpala (2650 masl). Since 1998 till date,the centre has evaluated 27 varieties, 5 indigenous varieties and 22exotic varieties. Of the 27 varieties, Paro-China that was introducedfrom China has been identified as the most suitable variety. It wasthreleased as 'Jakar Ray-Naap' by the 11 meeting of the Variety ReleaseCommittee. Further, the centre is planning to collect and evaluate morehigh altitude indigenous as well as exotic varieties.NurseryDuring the initial years, research was concentrated on identifyingsuitable nursery raising methods and on identifying suitable sowingdate. Research focus was on developing technologies that are simpleand cheap that can be adopted by the farmers. Farmers can raisenursery using semi dry-bed and wet-bed methods both underpolytunnel. Nursery can also be raised at low altitude areas such asLangthel in Trongsa (1200 masl) under normal condition andtransported to Bumthang. Details of nursery raising methods andmanagement practices are given in 'the guidelines for rice cultivationin Bumthang District' (Dukpa & Wangdi, 2006).Nursery using semi dry-bed method should be raised by the first weekof February so that seedlings are 60-70 days old and attain 3-5 leafstage during transplantation. Raising nursery by the first week ofMarch using wet-bed method can produce 32-42 days old and 2-4 leafstage seedlings. Studies on tray nursery for machine transplantation arebeing carried out to refine the technology and make it suitable underBumthang condition.Transplantation and weedingWangda Dukpa et alTransplantation dates were studied at the research stations and alsothrough multi-location trials at different altitude range.105

d thTransplantation should be carried out by 3 -4 week of April so thatthe crops reach maturity and harvested before the occurrence of frost.For manual weeding, seedlings can be transplanted at 20cm x 20cmspacing while for rotary weeding, seedlings should be transplanted at25cm x 25cm spacing for convenience in weeding. One-two seedlingsare transplanted per hill and 2-3 hand or rotary weeding is carried out atabout 30, 60 and 90 days after transplantation.IrrigationWater level is maintained at 2-3 cm during transplantation and until theseedlings recover.After the seedlings have fully recovered, water levelis gradually increased and maintained at 5-8 cm. In order to avoid thelow temperature effect, fields are irrigated in such a way that the waterflows from one terrace to the other and the water inlet and outlet of theterrace are at two opposite ends of the terrace. To maintain the watertemperature at night, fields are irrigated in the morning (9 am) and cutoff the water supply in the evening (4 pm). Irrigation is stopped and thefields are drained out 10-14 days prior to harvest to enhance ripening.Soil fertility managementIn line with the principle of producing and exporting Bumthang rice asorganic produce or as the product of natural farming, rice is cultivatedusing locally available Farm Yard Manure (FYM), without chemicalfertilizers and pesticides. It is practically difficult to level the terracesuniformly for the first year resulting uneven distribution of water andmanure. Therefore, to avoid too much manure in one side of the fields,which promote too much vegetative growth resulting high per centsterility, farmers are recommended not to apply FYM for the first year.In general, as per the recommendation from the National Soil ServiceCentre, 4000 Kg of FYM/acre is recommended (NSSC, 2004).HarvestingGrowing Rice in Bumthang.......In a population, there are some plants that mature earlier than others.Panicles of the early maturing plants were selected, bulked andmultiplied the seeds. This technique help reduce the number of days to106

nd rdmaturity. The crop should be harvested by 2 -3 week of October(when 85% of the upper portion of panicles turn straw coloured) toavoid damage from early frost. Seed selection and maintenance ofquality seeds are important to obtain and maintain a good crop yield.Yield assessmentGrain yields were assessed using the conventional method of crop cuts2(6 m ). Three random samples were taken from each field. Yields werealso assessed using yield component analysis. Crop was harvested2from 1 m , counted number of panicles, assessed grain yield and otheryield components (Yield (t/ha) = 1000 grain weight (g) x % filled2 -5spikelet x spikelet number/m x 10 ) from all the sites and the averageyield (Kg/acre) was calculated.Outreach programmeWangda Dukpa et alRice cultivation in Bumthang district (Tang and Chokor blocks) upscaledsince 2004 with the instructions from the Ministry ofAgriculture in collaboration with the DistrictAgriculture Sector. Sincerice cultivation is a new activity in Bumthang, incentives wereprovided to the farmers by the Ministry of Agriculture to encouragerice cultivation. The Central Machinery Unit under the Department ofAgriculture (DoA) provided earth moving machineries to the farmersin reclaiming the marshy areas and making drainage. The RuralEnterprise Development Project (REDP) and East Central RegionArea Development Project (ECRADP) provided irrigation pipes to thefarmers.RNR RC-Jakar provided seedlings free of cost to all the farmers whotook up rice cultivation for the first year. In the second year, farmerswere taught how to raise their own nursery through workshops,seminars and trainings. From third year onwards, the centre providedtechnical assistance through regular monitoring of the fields. RNRRC-Jakar also assisted the farmers in laying out terraces. Besides thetechnical assistance and training, farmers carried out activities such asfield preparation, weeding, irrigation and harvesting by themselves.107

RESULTSAND DISCUSSIONNursery raising methodsGrowing Rice in Bumthang.......Raising nursery by the first week of February using semi dry-bedmethod under polytunnel can produce seedlings of 60-70 days old andthat are 3-5 leaf stage, physiologically attaining optimum height andstage for transplantation. This method is widely adopted by the farmerssince the technology is simple and cost-effective. Studies at theresearch station for the last 3 years also show that raising nursery by thefirst week of March using wet-bed method under polytunnel canproduce 32-42 days old and 2-4 leaf stage seedlings. Wet-bed methodcan produce seedlings at a much shorter duration than the semi dry-bedmethod. Wet bed method requires pre-germination of seeds unlike thesemi dry-bed method which enhance seedling growth. Further,continuous standing water in the wet-bed method could maintainparticularly the night temperatures warm. Unlike in semi dry-bedmethod, continuous standing water in the wet-bed method reduces themoisture stress. However, unlike semi dry-bed method, wet-bedmethod requires well-leveled bed for even distribution of water foruniform seedling growth. Wet-bed method is seen as an option for thefarmers. Besides the nursery raising methods, growth of seedlings alsodepend on the seed rate, nutrient status of the soil and the managementpractices.Yield difference between different ages of two varieties (Jakar Ray-Naap and Chumro) of seedlings was studied using RCB design. Threemonths old seedlings raised using semi dry-bed method and one monthold seedlings raised using wet-bed method were used for theevaluation. No significant difference in grain yield between differentages of seedlings was observed in Jakar Ray-Naap but there was asignificant difference in Chumro (Table 1). The result show that theshort duration variety (Jakar Ray-Naap) germinate fast and theseedlings attain the required stage faster than the late maturatingvariety (Chumro). Therefore, nursery raising dates may varydepending on the durations of the crops.Grain yield (Jakar Ray-Naap) of the seedlings that were raised inBumthang and Trongsa was assessed. Seedlings raised in Bumthang108

performed better than the seedlings that were raised in Trongsa (Table2). The evidence show that the seedlings raised in Bumthang wereadapted to Bumthang condition while the seedlings that were raised inTrongsa when brought and transplanted in Bumthang did not performwell indicating that the seedlings suffered shock from sudden changein climatic conditions. Therefore, it is not advisable to raise nursery inthe warmer areas for cultivation in the higher altitude zones. Further,transportation could incur additional cost.Table 1. Yield comparison between different ages of two varieties of seedlingsVariety Yield (Kg/ac) MC (%)Jakar Ray-Naap (1 month) 2099.48 19.0Jakar Ray-Naap (3 months) 2098.54 19.1Chumro (1 month) 522.93 21.1Chumro (3 months) 943.03 19.3LSD (0.05) 290.90 2.3CV (%) 10.3 6.3Source: Dukpa, 2004Table 2. Grain yield (Kg/acre) of nursery raised in Trongsa and Bumthang atdifferent test locationsLocation (Yield Kg/acre)Variety KenchosuthangMesi-Pangzhing Jalkhar 1 Jalkhar 2 Gongrey BatpalathangJakar Ray- 1157 190 352 1000 421 801 668Naap-BJakar Ray- 797 271 16 635 174 607 405Naap-TNote: Jakar Ray-Naap-B=Nursery raised in Bumthang, Jakar Ray-Naap-T=Nurseryraised in Trongsa Source: RNRRC-Jakar, 2003Duration of the cropWangda Dukpa et alJakar Ray-Naap takes 110-115 days to 50% flowering fromtransplantation and 180-185 days from seed sowing. It takes 160-165days to mature from transplantation and 230-235 days from seed toseed (Table 3). Rice in Bumthang takes much longer to mature than therice in warmer areas such as in Gelephu (250 masl). In Gelephu, localpopular variety 'mama' takes 166 days and an improved variety 'BR109

VarietyDays tomaturityGrowing Rice in Bumthang.......153' 151 days respectively to mature from seed to seed. Crop maturityvary among different agro-ecological zones (AEZ) due to the variationin weather/climatic condition, warmer the temperature greater the rateof progress towards flowering (Roberts, 1991) and therefore takesshorter days to mature. Results also show that shorter duration has lowper cent sterility than the longer duration variety. Longer durationvariety taker longer days to flowering and thus flowering can occurduring the fall in temperature. Low temperature at flowering inhibitspanicle exertion from the flag leaf resulting high sterility (Mackill et al.,1996). It is also observed that shade affect crop maturation. Trees orstructures that shade the field in the morning hours delays vegetativegrowth, flowering and maturation resulting high sterility.Table 3.Agronomic traits of two rice varietiesPlantheight(cm)No. oftillers/hillPaniclelength(cm)Totalgrains/panicle%SterilityChumro 170-175 95.53 20 20.96 107 30.44Jakar Ray-Naap 160-165 91.71 25 17.74 111 12.34LSD 0.05 8.65 2.32 1.40 2.74 4.18CV (%) 4.2 5.3 3.3 3.2 3.80YieldAssessmentThe result show fluctuation of the grain yields during the initial yearsand gradually yield stabilized since 2003 (Fig. 2) particularly JakarRay-Naap. From 1998 to 2002, research was concentrated onidentifying suitable nursery sowing dates, transplantation dates andharvesting dates. Therefore, yield fluctuations during the initial yearscould be attributed to changes in the planting dates. Both varieties areexotic, Chumro was introduced from Nepal and Jakar Ray-Naap fromChina respectively. Crops take time to adapt to the new environment,which is why yields were low during the initial years but the yieldsincreased as the crops adapted to the local climatic conditions. Theaverage yield of 2004 was relatively lower than the yield of 2003 and2005. Low yield in 2004 could be due to the seeds brought from Parowhich were not adapted to Bumthang condition. Further, all fields were110

new and our observations show that the crops do not perform well innew terraces due to high percolation and uneven distribution of waterand nutrients.Figure 2. Rice grain yield (Kg/ac) in Bumthang from 1998-2005Uniform crop growth can be obtained by second or third year when theterraces are well-established. The yieldChumroJakar Ray-Naap3000of 2004 and 2005 are relatively lower2500than the yield of 2003. This was becausein the past chemical fertilizers were2000applied while rice cultivation in 20041500and 2005 was without fertilizers.Yield (Kg/ac)1000500Wangda Dukpa et al0Grain yields were assessed through1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005Yearconventional method of crop cuts from26 m and converted to yield/acre (Table4). Yield components were also assessed using Yoshida's formula torevalidate the crop cut data (Table 5). No substantial difference in yieldwas observed between yield that was assessed through crop cuts andthat evaluated using Yoshida's formula. The evidence, therefore,revalidates the crop cut data. The average yield of Jakar Ray-Naap forthe last three years is 2406 Kg/acre, higher than the national averagerice yield of 1166 Kg/ac (MoA, 2004). Duration of crop maturityincrease with increase in altitude and therefore duration of nutrientuptake increase with increase in altitude. Yield increase with increasein altitude could be attributed to higher nutrient uptake due to longercrop growth duration given other conditions remain favourable forcrop cultivation.Plant density varies from site to site depending on nutrient status of thesoil, irrigation source, aspect and altitude. Rice cultivation inBumthang ranges from 2530-2700 masl. There are on the average2481panicles or productive plants/1 m and 820 panicles or productive2plants/1 m in well managed fields.The average total milling recovery (Total milled rice (%) = weight of111

Growing Rice in Bumthang.......total milled rice/Total weight of rough rice x 100) of Jakar Ray-Naap is70% and weight of 1000 grains is 21g. Spikelet sterility was assessedtaking 10 panicles at random from each of the replicated plots.Spikelet sterility of Jakar Ray-Naap is 19%, significantly (p

Wangda Dukpa et alTable 5. Yield components and grain yield of Jakar Ray-Naap usingYoshida'smethod from different locations in Bumthang (2005)No. of No. of No. of Total % 1000 YieldLocation panicl grains unfilled no. of filled grain (Kg/acre)es (1 m 2 ) grains spikele grains weight(1m 2 )(1 m 2 ) ts (1(gm)m 2 )Nimalung 746 36340 15032 51372 74.84 22.72 3310Pralang 720 56608 25488 82096 68.95 21.16 4529Bepzur 270 8436 5988 14424 45 18.51 728(Rinchen)Bepzur 108 1812 6000 7812 23.20 17.72 130(Petheymo)Bepzur (group) 398.6 24624 8533 33157 74 21.87 2197Pangzhing 520 47820 7964 55784 85.72 23.04 4456Jalikhar 820 37260 12006 49266 76.9 23.57 3545Changwa 450 25708 8880 34588 74.02 22.7 2420Tsakorthang 460 12644 22916 35560 35.56 17.76 907(Machine)Tsakorthang 520 27916 9448 37364 74.71 20.16 2274(manual)Kenchosum 260 20400 2872 23272 87.66 23.05 1902Average 479 27233 11375 38609 65.5 21.1 2400Water temperatureWater temperature was monitored from transplantation to harvest in 10sites (Tang and Chokor) during the day to study the effect of watertemperature on crop production. The average temperature of0 0Chamkhar river (14 C) was found to be lower than the streams (18.2 C),0which are the sources of water for irrigation by about 3-4 C.Temperature of the sources of irrigation was lower than the air0 0temperature (19.1 C) by 0.9 C. Temperature of the sources of irrigationvaries depending on the location and vegetation cover. Lowest0temperature at the source recorded is 14 C.As the water moves through0the small channels to the field, temperature increases by 2.3 C when0the water reaches and enters the first terrace (20.5 C). Water spreads inthe field, temperature increases and within the first terrace, a0temperature difference of 2.3 C was observed. No difference intemperature was observed between the second and other terraces. Lowtemperature was found to affect the crop production. Cropperformance particularly at the first terrace where the cold water firstenters the field is affected more than other terraces. Low temperature113

delays crop growth, crops are weak, pale yellow in colour and reducetillering in worst cases by 6 tillers/hill. It is, therefore, recommendedto make a water collecting pond before entering the field to raise thewater temperature and thus to avoid cold temperature effectparticularly in the first terrace.Status of rice cultivationGrowing Rice in Bumthang.......In the beginning, farmers had some reservation to take up ricecultivation on large scale which is not surprising considering ricecultivation, a new culture which is alien to Bumthang farmers.However, farmers were convinced that rice can be grown successfullyin Bumthang after attending a field day in Kenchosum (plot size of 2482m ) in 2003. Since 2004, through the outreach programme, ricecultivation in Bumthang has been increasing steadily (Fig. 3) and thistrend will continue for some more years. About 27% of the total ricearea is a reclaimed marshy land.The number of farmers taking up rice cultivation and the area underrice itself is a clear indication that the farmers are satisfied with thereturn they earn from the crop. Farmer from Jambay Lhakhang,Ms.Yangdon said "I feel fresh and gain energy to work when I visit myrice field fully exhausted from other field works". Considering theaverage yield of 2406 Kg/ac, an average total milling recovery of 70%and a farm gate price of Nu.40/Kg for milled rice, a farmer can generatea total of Nu.67,368 from an acre of rice field. A detail economic studyon rice cultivation in Bumthang is under way. Farmers take up ricecultivation because they need less time to guard the field (from milkystage till harvest) against wild animals unlike in potato where they needto guard the field from day 1 till harvest. Further, rice is more stablefrom food security perspectives, they produce and consume whileincome from potato is dictated by market forces.114

Wangda Dukpa et alFigure 3. Rice cultivation trend in Bumthang from 2003-2005ConstraintsVariety optionsAt present, there is only one variety, Jakar Ray-Naap suitable forcultivation under Bumthang condition. Therefore, farmers havelimited choice of rice varieties. Jakar Ray-Naap is susceptible to Blast,a disease caused by the fungus Pyricularia grisea. Although JakarRay-Naap is susceptible to blast, no blast incidence was observed till2003 under Bumthang condition. Therefore, blast in 2004 could havebeen caused by the inoculum, which might have been introducedthrough infected seeds that were brought from Paro in 2004. Incidenceof sheath blight (2.5%), a disease caused by the fungus Rhizoctoniasolani was also recorded. Due to the limited choice of variety, there is adanger of crop failure if blast epidemic occur. Therefore, there is a needto identify and introduce early maturing, high yielding and blastresistant varieties.115

Physiological/nutrient disordersYellowing of older leaves occur at maximum tillering stage. Yellowingcould not be due to low temperature since yellowing does not occurduring the early tillering stage when the temperature is relatively lowerthan during the maximum tillering stage. The competition for theavailable nutrients and other resources is likely to increase as the cropgrows, competition would have reached maximum during themaximum tillering stage causing yellowing of leaves. Highest tillermortality due to competition for nutrients is also reported to occurbefore anthesis on barley (Garcia del Moral, 1995). Some incidence ofwhole rice plants turning yellow and dying of whole hill in sporadiclocations especially in the terrace borders was observed. Studies on thecause of the incidence are being carried out in collaboration with NSSCand NPPC, Simtokha.WeedsEchinochloa crus-galli and Digitaria ciliaris are the dominant weedsin nursery (semi dry-bed method) while Schoenoplectus juncoides,Alopecurus aequalis, Echinochloa crus-galli,Persicaria hydropiperand Drymaria cordata (Parker, 1992) occur in the transplanted field.The very noxious wetland weed Potamogeton distinctus is notrecorded till date. However, there is a risk of introducing this weedfrom other Districts and thus, there is a need to take necessaryprecautions. Besides weeds, there are occasional damages by rodentsand birds.CONCLUSIONSGrowing Rice in Bumthang.......Farmers in Bumthang could not grow rice in the past due to the lack ofsuitable technologies. The high altitude rice research in Bumthangidentified suitable variety and generated rice cultivation technologiesthat are now widely adopted by the farmers. Rice cultivationtechnology is now successfully introduced in Bumthang which is asignificant and historical research achievement. It is imperative forresearch to focus on screening and developing more varieties todiversify germplasm, reduce the risk of crop losses due to the pests and116

diseases and to offer more options to the farmers. Rice cultivation canalso diversify the potato-based farming systems. Introduction of ricecultivation technologies in Bumthang can enhance rice selfsufficiency,food security, address balanced development andcontribute to the achievement of our national development philosophy'Gross National Happiness'.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTH.E. Lyonpo Sangay Ngedup the Hon'ble Minister for Agriculture, forhis full support for rice research in Bumthang without whose supportrice cultivation and expansion in the farmers' field would not have beenmade possible. Mr. Kinzang Wangdi, former Programme Director,RNR RC-Jakar who helped start rice research in Bumthang and also forhis full support for the programme. Mr. Sangay Duba, ProgrammeDirector, RNR RC-Bajo for supporting the programme. Mr. SonamNorbu, Ms. Karma Dema and Mr. Khandu for initiating the riceresearch. Mr. Mahesh Ghimiray for his technical support and guidance.Mr. Legjay, Mr Kelzang Tshering, Mr. Karma and Mr. Giri for theiractive contribution. Mr. Jigme Dorji, DAO, Bumthang for his supportand cooperation. Authors also extend their deep appreciations to allwho contributed directly or indirectly in making rice research ofBumthang a success.REFERENCESWangda Dukpa, Deki Pem et alDorji, K. (1999). The Weather in Bumthang 1998. RNRRC-Jakar.Dukpa, W & Wangdi, K. (2006). Guidelines for Rice Cultivation inBumthang District. RNRRC-Jakar.Dukpa, W. (2004). Rice Research in Bumthang Valley. PaperthPresented in the 6 Field Crops Coordination Workshop, March 16-18, 2004 at RNRRC-Bajo.Garcia del Moral, M.B & Garcia del Moral, L.F. (1995). TillerProduction & Survival in Relation to Grain Yield in Winter and pringBarley. Field Crops Research. 44, 85-93.117

Growing Rice in Bumthang.......Mackill, D.J, Coffman, W.R and Garrity, D.P. (1996). RainfedLowland Rice Improvement. Philippines, IRRI.Ministry of Agriculture - MoA. (n.d). Weather data 1989-2002. MoA.Ministry ofAgriculture - MoA. (2002). RNR Statistics 2000. Thimphu.Ministry of Agriculture - MoA. (2002). Agricultural Statistics 2004.Thimphu.Norman, M.J.T., Pearson, C.J. & Searle, P.G.E. (1995). The Ecologyof Tropical Food Crops. Great Britain, Cambridge University Press.National Soil Service Center - NSSC. (2004). Organic FertilizerRecommendations for High Altitude Paddy Production in Bumthang.MoA, Thimphu.Parker, C. (1992). Weeds of Bhutan. UK, Sayce Publishing.RNR Research Center – RNRRC.(1999). Annual Report 1998-1999.RNR Research Center , Jakar, Bumthang, Ministry ofAgriculture.RNR Research Center – RNRRC.(2003). Annual Report 2002-2003.RNR Research Center , Jakar, Bumthang, Ministry ofAgriculture.Roberts, E. (1991). How Do Crops Know When to Flower?: TheImportance of Daylength and Temperature. Biological SciencesReview. n.v., 2-7.118

Bhu.J.RNR.Vol 3.No.1, 119-127: 2007Indigenous millet nursery raising in tseri: conservationconcerns and research options1 2 3 4 5 6T. B. Katwal ,T. Penjor , S. Wangdi , N.B. Adhikari , Domang and P.B ChhetriKEYWORDS:INTRODUCTIONABSTRACTMajority of farmers of Bumdelling Block are dependent on fingermillet for their food security. These farmers have indigenouslyinnovated and adapted millet nursery raising technique in which theyuse small tseri and pangshing registered under their ownership. Thekey features of the farmer's practices are the use of tseri land with afallow period of five to six years and controlled burning. TheBumdelling Park Management has found that farmer's nursery raisingpractice is detrimental to bio-diversity and has implications onconservation. RNR RC Wengkhar, studied the farmer's nursery raisingpractices and attempted to explore alternative options of raising milletnursery that are acceptable to farmers, ecologically friendly and proconservation.Controlled burning, indigenous innovation, food security, threat toconservation, alternative nursery raising optionsBumdelling block falls within the protected area of the BumdellingWildlife Sanctuary. It is the winter habitat for the black necked cranes (Grus nigricollis). Agriculture is the main stay of the people. Rice andfinger millet ( Eleusine corcana) are their principle crops. Amongst thecereals, finger millet is the most prominent crop covering 275 acres123456RNR Research Center, Wengkhar, MongarRNR Research Center, Wengkhar, MongarRNR Research Center, Wengkhar, MongarRNR Research Center, Wengkhar, MongarRNR Research Center, Wengkhar, MongarRNR Research Center, Wengkhar, Mongar119

T. B. Katwal et alfollowed by rice with a total cultivated area of 207 acres (MoA, 2000).Majority of the farmers depend on dryland for their livelihood. Withthe rapid rise in the frequency of seasonal monsoon floods, theexisting wetland is getting progressively reduced. In 2004 alone, themonsoon flood washed away 19 acres of wetland (MoA, 2004) makingthe farmers more dependent on their dryland. The Bumdelling ParkManagement has found that farmer's age old practice of raising milletin a controlled burning system is a threat to conservation. The ParkManagement therefore seeks to identify suitable millet nursery raisingoptions that is more benign to biodiversity and less detrimental toconservation. The nursery raising practices according to the farmersare their indigenous innovation and possesses many additional merits.The Renewable Natural Resources Research Centre (RNR RC)Wengkhar, conducted a study to understand the farmer's nurseryraising techniques and attempted to identify alternative options ofraising millet nursery that are acceptable to farmers, ecologicallyfriendly and pro conservation.MATERIALSAND METHODSThe first step was to understand the farmer's nursery raising practicesand its implications from the perspective of the farmer's and theofficials of the Bumdelling Wildlife Sanctuary. This was done bymaking reconnaissance visits to the block and field discussion. Thefirst visit was made in the second fortnight of January 2005 andpreliminary discussions were held with the Park Officials who outlinedthat the existing farmer's practice of burning was antagonistic and athreat to conservation. The second visit was made in Marchcoinciding with the farmer's field preparation time. During both thevisits informal discussions were held with farmers, extension staffsand block officials on various aspects of the farmer's nursery raisingsystem. These visits helped us to understand in detail the farmer'snursery raising practices.Farmer's Millet Nursery Raising Practices in Bumdelling BlockFarmers raise millet nursery in two ways.i. Nursery raising on a small tseri land through controlled burning120

This practice of raising nursery in the tseri is by far the mostpredominant practice.Tseri is a local term which is synonymously usedfor shifting cultivation. According to the Survey of Bhutan, a tseriland refers to a dryland generally un-terraced and steep, cultivatedonce every four to six years. Tseri is legally owned and registered intheir Thram (Land Registration Record). In Bumdelling, farmersestablish their nursery in these lands which are cultivated every fourto six years. The land is intentionally kept fallow for at least for four tosix years to maintain soil fertility. The bushes and shrubs are allowedto grow and these are cleared and burnt. Farmers, however, seek priorpermission from gup ( Head of a Block) and park officials to slash thebushes. The small trees and bushes are cut down and burnt during thedry season starting from February to March. After burning soil isturned over to incorporate the ashes and then millet seeds arebroadcasted. Most farmers seed their nursery in May. The seedlingsare almost ready in 30 to 40 days and the crop is transplanted in June.ii. Nursery raising on PangzshingIndigenous millet nursery........The survey of Bhutan defines Pangzshing as dryland which arefarmed every two to three years. In this practices, fresh uncultivateddryland kept fallow for two to three years is used. The growth of bushesis not as profuse as in tseri and minimum slashing is required. Farmer'sdig the fallow land, scrap and collect the plant debris and pieces ofwoods along with soils attached to the debris, and heap them. Once thedebris is dried they burn in the field. The soils collected in the heapsare also burnt. Then the soil from the heap is mixed with un-burnt soilin the field. The millet seeds are then broadcasted. Farmers find thatnursery raised in this method does not produce seedlings as vigorous asin the tseri system. This practice requires additional labour andweeding is cumbersome. This practice resembles to the potatocultivation practices followed by farmers in parts of BumthangDistrict.It was also observed that the area cleared for nursery is in the ratio of1:4 langdo (a langdo of dryland is equivalent to 1/3 of an acre).Seedlings from one langdo nursery is good for four langdos oftransplanted field. At the individual household level the area burnt is121

T. B. Katwal et alnot very large as the average land holdings of individual householdsare quite small. Bumdelling block has a wet and humid climate withcool broad leaf vegetation. Farmers do not recall incidences of forestfire as a result of fire escape from controlled burning.Evaluation ofAlternative Nursery Raising OptionAfter understanding farmer's nursery raising practices, the next stepwas to try and identify potential nursery raising options suitable tofarmers and less detrimental to biodiversity. We tried the possibility ofproducing millet seedlings on nursery beds established on permanentlycultivated dryland ( Kamshing). The main objective was to find out ifseedlings could be produced in nursery beds on dryland underBumdelling conditions. Nursery for one local variety and two2improved varieties were established in 10 m plots in the dryland atthree different sites. The seeds were sown in lines that were 20 cm apart.Sufficient amount of FYM and chemical fertilizer was applied at the-1 -1rate of 30:20:10 N:P:K kg ha . 15 kg ha nitrogen and the entireamount of phosphorous and potassium were applied at the time of-1sowing while the remaining 15 Kg ha nitrogen was top dressed twoweeks after seed germination. To compare the quality and quantity ofseedlings raised in dryland, nursery was also raised in the tseri exactlyin the same manner as done by farmers. The local variety used wasGhokhrel and the two improved varieties were Limithang Kongpu 1and Limithang Kongpu 2. The trial was replicated at three sites (Table1).Table 1. Co-operator farmers and trial sitesNo Farmers Name Trial Site (Village)1 Mr. Nawang Gyeltshen Singmar2 Mr. Tenzin Wangchuk Yangteng3 Mr.Tshewag Gyembo KamchadungThe seeds were sown in May in all the three sites and transplanted inJune at two sites only. In the third site at Kamchadung, the germinationof seeds raised in dryland was poor and therefore they could not betransplanted. Days to 50% germination was scored to find out the time122

taken for germination. Plant height of the uprooted seedlings wasmeasured by randomly selecting 20 seedlings from different plots.Seedling vigour/health was scored based on farmer's visualobservation. The quantity of seedlings was measured by making theminto bundles each containing 60 seedlings and counting the number ofbundles from each plot. Farmers were asked to uproot the seedlingsraised under different methods and they were asked to judge the ease to2uproot seedlings. The uprooted seedlings were transplanted in 30 mplots at two sites.RESULTSAND DISCUSSIONSIndigenous millet nursery........According to the farmers their practice of raising nursery throughcontrolled burning is their indigenous innovation and this practicehelps them produce most vigorous seedlings without application ofany external inputs like chemical fertilizers or manure. This practice isindeed an indigenous innovation for numerous reasons. Firstly, unlikein the olden days they do not slash huge areas of state forest for nurseryand cultivation. Secondly, with the government's policy to discourageshifting cultivation in view of its potential impact on environment,farmer's have started practicing on legally owned registered land.Thirdly, the area used for raising nursery is small and are normallyadjacent to the main crop and it serves as a buffer zone that helps themprotect their main crop. The wild animals do not immediately enterthe main field as there will be some crop in the nursery area. It is alsoevident that whatever adjustments made are truly indigenousinnovation of the farmers as research, extension and park managementnever provided any ideas to them. It cannot be, however, denied thatfarmer's system do not possess any elements of the shifting cultivation.The maintaining of fallow period for four to six years, field rotation,slashing of shrubs and bushes and subsequent burning confirm to theelements of shifting cultivation. Satapathy et. al. (2003), have definedshifting cultivation as an economy that involves rotation of fields,clearing by fire, absence of draught animals and manuring and use ofhuman labour as the main characteristics of shifting cultivation.From the alternative nursery option tried in dryland, transplantableseedlings could be obtained at least in two sites. The quality and123

T. B. Katwal et alquantity of seedlings obtained were compared based on differentparameters (Table 2 and 3). Farmers in Bumdelling transplant 40 daysold seedlings which could also be produced in the nursery beds indryland. At the two sites the time taken for 50 % germination indryland and tseri were all most the same. In the data in Table 2 and 3the days for 50% germination are reflected as the same because thescoring was done at the time of visit to the sites by the researchers. Ifday to day observation could have been taken there surely will be adifference. The average height of the seedlings of local varietyGhokhrel in both sites was 45 cm in dryland as compared to 50 cm intseri. Millet seedlings 25-30 cm tall are acceptable for transplanting.The average seedling height of improved varieties in both sites underdryland was 42 cm as compared to 53 cm in the tseri. Seedlingvigour/health scored visually and based on the farmer's judgement wasbetter for seedlings raised in tseri. The quantity of seedlings producedin tseri was higher at the both the sites. Weed pressure was higher indryland. However as the seeds were sown in line weeding was easier indryland. Farmers found that uprooting seedlings was easier in tsericompared to dryland. The soil in the dryland is relatively compact as aresult of continuous cultivation and limited organic matter andtherefore uprooting is difficult. The seedlings were uprooted and2transplanted in 30 m plots and seedlings from both the methodsmatured at the same time in both the sites. Yield was not measured, asthis was not the main objective. The improved varieties were slightlylate and do not seem suitable for Bumdeling condition.124

Table 2. Performance of nursery at Singmar villageParametersDryland Nursery(Alternative Option)Local L/thangvariety Kongpu 1GhokhrelL/thangKongpu 2Table 3. Performance of nursery atYangteng villageFarmers Method ( Tseri)LocalvarietyGhokhrelL/thangKongpu 1L/thangKongpu 2Date of 1 st May 1 st May 1 st May 1 st May 1 st May 1 st MayNurserysowing50% 12 12 12 12 12 12Germination(days)Seedlingvigour/healtMedium Medium VeryGoodVeryGoodMedium VeryGoodhSeedling 50 47 45 45 50 60height (cm)Date of 22 nd 22 nd 22 nd 22 nd 22 nd 22 ndtransplanting June June June June June JuneQuantity of 10 9 9 15 15 57seedlings(bundles) 1bundle=60seedlingsNote : Seedling vigour/health score based on a visual observation and farmer’sjudgementParametersDryland Nursery(Alternative Option)Local L/thangvariety KongpuGhokhrel 1Indigenous millet nursery........L/thangKongpu2Farmers Method ( Tseri)LocalvarietyGhokhrelL/thangKongpu1L/thangKongpu212 th MayDate of 12 th May 12 th May 12 th May 12 th May 12 thNurserysowingMay50%22 22 22 22 22 22Germination(days)Seedling Medium Poor Very Very Medium Veryvigour/healthGood GoodGoodSeedling 40 35 40 55 55 50height (cm)Date of 22 nd June 22 nd June 22 nd June 22 nd June 22 nd 22 ndtransplantingJune JuneQuantity of 15 6 13 15 15 22seedlings(bundles) 1bundle=60seedlingsNote : Seedling vigour/health score based on a visual observation and farmer’s judgement125

The results from the two sites indicate that transplantable seedlings ofmillet could be produced in nursery beds established on dryland underBumdelling conditions. In lower altitudes millet nurseries are raised ondryland. However, the main issue here is that farmers are not convincedwith the results. This is an indication of the fact that to immediatelychange their age old system will remain an uphill task. Darlong (2004),has reported that acceptance and utilization of sustainable alternativeinterventions developed and recommended to the communitiespracticing shifting cultivation is amazingly low. Farmer's practice ofraising nursery in the tseri has been their traditional practice, whichthey have innovated after long experiences. They are convinced by themerits of their method. The advantages of their method are that the soilin tseri is very fertile and millet yield is high. Farmers leave behind theextra and small seedlings after uprooting the required seedlings fortransplanting which gives them some extra production. More over asthe nursery area is adjacent to the main crop and it serves as a bufferzone that helps to protect the main crop. The result also confirmsfarmer's claims that seedlings produced in the tseri are better.CONCLUSIONST. B. Katwal et alAlthough our results indicate that it is possible to produce milletseedlings in the nursery beds in dryland under Bumdelling conditions,farmers should not be immediately interrupted from practicing theirage old indigenously innovated method. Immediate action to alter theestablished system of nursery raising could affect the millet productionand have implications on food security. Farmers need to be convincedon the quality of seedlings produced in dryland. Refining the techniqueand adapting it to their condition is essential. This will require furtherdemonstration, involvement of communities and positivecampaigning. The Park Management should try to concretise thepotential threats to conservation from the farmer's nursery raisingpractices. This will help to convince the communities on the ill effectsof their practice to biodiversity. This approach perhaps might be moreuseful in asking the communities to further adjust their nursery raisingpractice making it pro conservation. Diversifying the millet basedsystem is a long term way forward and RNRRC Wengkhar has initiatedwork in collaboration with District Extension on improving existing126

fruit plants and observation trials on upland rice does not requireburning.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTWe are grateful to Mr. Pushpalal Khatiwara, Agriculture ExtensionAgent of Bumdelling Block, Park Manager and other Officials of theBumdelling Wildlife Sanctuary and the farmers of Bumdelling fortheir valuable support and time.REFERENCESIndigenous millet nursery........Darlong, V.T. (2004). To Jhum or not to Jhum: Policy imperativeson Shifting cultivation. The Missing Link (TML). Society forEnvironment and Communication, India. 143 p.Ministry ofAgriculture – MoA. (2000). The RNR Statistics ofBhutan Vol II., Eastern Region, Ministry of Agriculture, ThimphuBhutan.Ministry of Agriculture – MoA, (2004). Report on the Assessment ofMonsoon Related Damages in the Six Eastern Districts. Ministry ofAgriculture, Thimphu, Bhutan.Satapathy, K.K., Sarma, B.K., Goswami, S.N and Verma, N.D.(2003).Developing LandsAffected by Shifting Cultivation.Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development,Government of India, New Delhi ( In: To Jhum or not to Jhum:Policy imperatives on Shifting cultivation. The Missing Link (TML).Society for Environment and Communication, India. 143 p).127

Bhu.J.RNR.Vol 3.No.1, 128-142: 2007Encouraging farmers to re cultivate fallow wetland -Are technology options enough?KEYWORDS:1 2Lhap Dorji and Tirtha Bdr. KatwalABSTRACTRice is the most preferred staple but ironically a high percentage ofwetlands are being left fallow. Farmers often attribute technicalreasons such as farm labour shortage, insufficient water, poor soilfertility, and increasing pests and diseases as the main causes for theincreasing percentage of fallow wetland. In order to encourage andrejuvenate farmers to cultivate fallow wetland, a multi dimensionalresearch outreach program was designed and implemented atWengkhar, under Mongar Block. The outreach program was multidimensional as it targeted the community, supported farmmechanisation by investing on essential infrastructures, providedbasket of technology options and facilitated community participation.The implementation of the outreach program was lead by RNR RC withextension staff, local leaders and farmers as the key partners. Theprimary objective of this program was to increase the area under riceby bringing the existing fallow wetland under cultivation.Despite an initial overwhelming response from the farmers, the keyobjective to rejuvenate farmers to cultivate the wetland being leftfallow could not be achieved. It was apparent that there are muchdeeper issues as to why the wetlands are being left fallow. This paperbrings out some learning points for consideration in designing futurerice commodity programs.Multi dimensional research outreach program, fallow wetland, socialissues, technology options1RNR Research Center, Wengkhar, Mongar2RNR Research Center, Wengkhar, Mongar128

INTRODUCTIONLhap Dorji & Tirtha Bdr. KatwalUntil 1997, Wengkhar used to be like any remote far flung villagesdespite its proximity to the burgeoning Mongar town and the nationalhigh way. In 1997, government approved the proposal to set up theregional Renewable Natural Resources Research Centre (RNR RC) atWengkhar.As a result of this decision, the Wengkhar communities firsthad the privilege of using the approach road which improved theiraccessibility. As the development of research farm in their vicinityprogressed, the community's access to improved technologies such asvegetable seeds and seedling of fruit trees was also enhanced.However, this was not the case in rice. Despite being central toBhutanese diet and tradition, it was quite unpleasant to see large areasof wetland adjacent to RNR technology hub being left fallow. It wasmore worrying to observe that more and more wetlands are leftuncultivated annually. This trend was indeed not very encouraging inview of the Ministry of Agricultures' (MoA) policy objectives ofhousehold food security and self sufficiency. For an institution likeRNR RC Wengkhar which is mandated to provide the lead indeveloping suitable technologies to support the farmers, there could benothing more embarrassing than to see the communities in the vicinityabandoning to grow their most preferred food grain. This situationsparked the idea of rejuvenating the farmers to encourage and revivethe cultivation of fallow wetland land. Our interactions with thefarmers brought to the conclusion that there were social and technicalfactors that led to the increasing fallow wetland.In order to address these issues, a multi-dimensional research outreachprogram was started in consultation with the communities, localleaders, district extension and JICA experts. The underlying objectiveof this research outreach program was to encourage and rejuvenatefarmers to cultivate the wetland left fallow through provision of varietyof support in the form of a multi dimensional research outreachprogram which covered provisions of technological options, variousforms of direct support services like inputs and communitymobilization.129

MATERIALSAND METHODSThis research outreach program adopted a two tier implementationmechanism. The immediate start was made through action research onparticipatory variety selection, community based pest control andorganisation of farmers into groups. This was more informal and hadmore research elements. As the communities became aware andstarted to appreciate our efforts, a more comprehensive package ofinterventions was designed. This package was formally presented tothe local leaders and the communities and a consensus was finallyreached on the proposed interventions, The field crops researcherscoordinated the implementation by drawing support from all theappropriate sectors in providing the technical options while, theresearchers in Research Communications sector facilitated theparticipation of farmers and extension staff in the program and alsolooked at addressing social issues through the organisation of farmersinto groups and facilitating them to farm together.Rice outreach programEncouraging farmers to re cultivate..............Key features of the research outreach programDespite the mismatch in Nark's research mandate, this outreachprogram was designed consciously to provide direct support to thefarmers. As the key objective was to rejuvenate the farmers it was feltthat initial provision of direct support would influence their activeparticipation. The direct support was provided in the forms of freeinputs, basic infrastructure and direct technical intervention byresearchers. Besides the direct support, unlimited access to improvedtechnologies, technical backstopping to organise the communities andcapacity building were provided by RNR RC. The researchinterventions were not limited to rice alone as it also attemptedintensification of the use of wetland through winter cropping withvegetables, potato and wheat.Understanding of causes of increasing fallow wetland andinterventionsTo establish and understand the critical factors influencing farmers to130

abandon the wetland cultivation, a series of consultative meetings wereheld with the communities lead by the research communications sector.These meetings were not organised solely for the identification ofcauses but in attempting to organise the communities into functionalgroups. The issues were then finally agreed on a plenary session at thetime of the presentation of the outreach program proposal. Thefollowing social and technical reasons were stated as the main factorsresponsible for declining interest on rice cultivation.Reasons influencing the abandoning of rice cultivation inWengkharThe reasons categorised into social and technical groups are discussedin the following sections.a) Social reasonsLhap Dorji & Tirtha Bdr. KatwalThe important social reasons that influenced the decline in wetlandcultivation included:i) Size of land holding and extent of fragmentationThe total wetland area at Wengkhar for this research is about 36acres. There are two contiguous blocks with the RNR Researchcentre in the middle. The size of wetland at Wengkhar is not veryhuge. What is very unique is that it is owned by farmers frommore than six different villages. This exemplifies the importanceof owning a wetland. The extent of land fragmentation isimmeasurable and there are over 40 households from sixdifferent villages who own the wetlands at Wengkhar. The size ofthe land holding ranges from just a single terrace to few acres.The land fragmentation has occurred as a result of familydisintegration and distribution of property to the children.ii) Distance to the rice field from their homesteadWith land owners scattered in different villages, the distancefrom their homestead to the rice fields varies from 10-15minutes to 2-3 hours walk. This imposes several difficulties inenabling to undertake sound farming practices. For instance the131

allocation of Farm Yard Manure(FYM) is often based on thedistance to the farm. Therefore wetlands being relatively far donot receive any FYM. The farm nearest to the house is also thesafest in terms of the risks of damage by wild pest. According tofarmers, the shortage of farm labour is a reality and strategicallyit is best to concentrate on the farms closest to the house.iii) Non resident ownersThe decision to cultivate or not to cultivate ones registered landlies with the owner. Any individual farmer would have his or herrightful justification to leave the land fallow. However, thisdecision has a serious implication on fellow farmers who toilhard and depend on their land. As more and more farmers opt todiscontinue cultivating their land, it encourages the build up ofpests, disease and wild animals. This has consequences on thefellow permanent farmers.iv) Traditional share cropping practicesFarmers have been dynamic in adjusting their strategies with thechange in time but surprisingly the traditional share croppingpractices have remained unchanged. At Wengkhar 50:50 is themost dominant system of share cropping. At the present contextof acute farm labour shortage, high incidences of pest anddiseases, social problems and the abundant availability ofimported rice, such a system of share cropping seems no longereconomically attractive.b) Technical reasonsEncouraging farmers to re cultivate..............Farmers cited three important technical reasons that influenced theabandoning of rice cultivation. The three reasons are increasingincidences of pest and diseases, low productivity as a result of poor soilfertility and water shortage and dependence on traditional varieties.i) Increasing incidences of pest and diseasesFarmers went on to list a number of pests and diseases damagingtheir rice crop. Of them Leaf folder also known as leaf roller -Cnaphalocrocis medinalis had become the most threatening132

Lhap Dorji & Tirtha Bdr. Katwalproblem. The magnitude of leaf roller attack seems to haveincreased over a period of time.ii)Low productivity as a result of gradual decline of soil fertilityBeing far from the house, the wetlands receive a step motherlytreatment as compared to other types of land. There is virtually noapplication of inputs of any forms in these lands. Landpreparation, transplanting and crop management practices aregrossly inadequate. No other options of soil nutrientmanagement are practiced and as a result of this production perunit area was on the decline. Although farmers mentionedirrigation as the key problem, it is not as acute as stated. The mainirrigation source is the Yakpugang stream which is sufficientlyrecharged by the monsoon. Delays in the monsoon, largeconveyance losses and inefficient water use practices are of someconcern.iii)Dependence on traditional rice varietiesThe entire area is cultivated to local varieties. These varietieshave an inherent low yield potential besides being highlysusceptible to lodging and pest attack. There choice is limited andfarmers grow only two local varieties namely Nakila andTongsarpa.Interventions under the Research Outreach ProgramThe interventions under this outreach program were designed toaddress the technical constraints and social issues. To address thetechnical constraints an attempt was made to replicate the stationsuccesses in the farmer's field. The technical interventions arediscussed below.a) Technical InterventionsTechnical interventions included those that directly helped to addressthe production constraints like pest problem, soil fertility and labourshortages.As one of the objectives was the rejuvenation of the farmers,the technical intervention also had some hardware elements like133

infrastructure developments.Encouraging farmers to re cultivate..............i) Control of Leaf FolderThis was the most immediate need of the hour.As was mentionedearlier this interventions began much ahead of the formalresearch out reach program. The pressure of leaf folder was firstreported from 2002 rice season. RNR RC respondedimmediately by initiating a joint control program with thecommunities. The chemicals, spray machines, fuel and technicalexpertise was provided by the researchers while the communitiescontributed the labour for spraying. It was continued for threeseasons.ii)iii)Improved crop managementAs the production per unit was low due to the marginalmanagement practices, free inputs (fertilizer and weedicide)were supplied by RNR RC. Recommended amount of chemicalfertilizers and weedicides were supplied free for two years.Researchers also demonstrated the use of inputs by workingalong side the farmers. Time and methods of input uses werepractically demonstrated. Hands on trainings were provided forseed selection and storage. For the supply of inputs alone, at leastup to Nu. 10,000.00 were invested annually and in 2005 season itwas increased to Nu. 25,000.00.Farm MechanizationMuch of the operations within the research farm are at least semimechanized.This was replicated in the farmer's field. The mainactivities under this scheme were the supply of power tillers forthree groups, construction of 2.5 km power tiller road traversingthe whole rice field, demonstration of labour saving deceivessuch as pedal thresher and training of three power tiller operators.Although RNRRC did not provide any direct monetary supportfor the purchase of power tiller, it assisted in the procurement ofthe power tiller in various ways. RNRRC negotiated for powertiller supply on behalf of the three farmers groups with theDepartment of Agriculture acting as a guarantor for the groupsfor which they received a grace period of six months to deposit134

Lhap Dorji & Tirtha Bdr. Katwalthe cost. We also helped in the training of three power tilleroperators at Agriculture Machinery Center at Paro. With theassistance of the JICA funded project 2.5 km power tiller tractwas built to facilitate farm mechanization. In addition cement,hume pipes and other materials were also supplied for improvingthe power tiller track.iii)iv)Participatory evaluation of high yielding varietiesMany farmers had started to appreciate the performance of newrice varieties grown at the research farm close to their field.Depending on their willingness, farmers were given two options.They were provided seeds for which they could raise nursery andplant on their own while others who preferred to take only theseedlings could do so by taking the seedlings from the researchfarm. Later seedlings were raised in the farmers field itself. Twonew varieties were tried in larger scale while other varieties wereevaluated as on farm trials.Land use intensificationThe basic aim under this activity was to increase wetland useintensity so that it gets adequate allocation of resources like FYMto improve its management. The present cropping sequencefollowed is rice-fallow and no inputs are used. By supporting thecultivation of winter crops like potato, vegetables and wheat itwas intended to improve the management of wetland.b) Social InterventionsThe social interventions comprised more of software elements throughwhich the production constraints could be better addressed. It focussedon group promotion, saving schemes and group farming. \i) Consolidation of farmers into GroupsOrganizing farmers into groups was pursued with the lead by theResearch Communication Sector. The main objective was toestablish viable farmer's groups that would make effectiveutilization of capital investments such as power tillers and powertiller tracks. Group formation primarily focussed on production135

and marketing to inject the idea of commercial agriculture. AGroup bye-law was developed and rigorous support wasprovided on developing power tiller sharing mechanism amongmembers, maximisation of its utilization as a group property togenerate group fund and record keeping. Three functional groupswere formed which started to function.ii) Group saving schemeLack of group funds has often been a serious bottleneck for groupsustainability. The idea of a group saving scheme was presentedand saving schemes were formally opened with the Bank ofBhutan.iii) Group farmingAn attempt was made to mould and integrate the communities towork together by pooling resources while still maintaining theindividual contribution through an internal mechanism.Availability of resources such as farm labour varies amonghouseholds. Some household are well off in labour force but lackfinancial resources. The idea of pooling resources was tested.Land pooling although not in its absolute terms of actual physicalpooling was done by bringing the groups to work on one parcel.Most farmers were very forth coming to pool resources forinfrastructure developments like the power tiller track.RESULTSAND DISCUSSIONEncouraging farmers to re cultivate..............The outreach program of this nature and scale in rice commodity wasthe first of its kind undertaken by RNR RC Wengkhar. It wasformidable for three main reasons. First it contradicted with theinstitutions research mandate as there were substantial developmentelements inbuilt in the outreach program. Secondly, it involvedworking with three different farmers groups and non group farmers.Thirdly it entailed social interventions which are not often asmechanical as technology evaluation.The ultimate objective of increasing the area under rice through recultivatingfallow land at Wengkhar could not be achieved and inessence the attempt through the outreach program was not successful.136

Lhap Dorji & Tirtha Bdr. KatwalThis in absolute assessment does negate the amount of resourcesinvested. However, a more careful analysis shows that there were othersubstantial benefits and learning points for the future. The successesand failures are discussed below.Successes and failures of technical interventionsThe different technical interventions made the intended difference.Three years of continuous community focussed leaf folder controlwas very effective and in 2005 season no spraying was required.Farmers were convinced with the increase on yield increaseobtained as a result of use of inputs. Weedicide, as an alternativelabour saving option was demonstrated and the yield comparisonbefore and after the outreach program shows a positive trend ( seeTable1).Table 1. Yield comparison before and after the interventionsVariety Yield t ha -1 in 2003Before the ProgramYield t ha -1 in 2005After the ProgramKhumal 6 2.91 4.89Nakila 2.11 3.58It was possible to replicate the station success in terms of newvariety and yield. With improved management practices, it waspossible to increase yield under farmers condition (see Table 2). Aparticipatory assessment of technologies was done and the newtechnical options have been appreciated by the farmers.137

Encouraging farmers to re cultivate..............Table 2: An estimation of replication of on station success in the farmers field in2004Varieties On station On farm % Achievement ofyield tha-1 yield tha-1 station Yield(A)(B)(B/A X 100)Khumal 4 4.15 3.39 82Khumal 6 4.52 2.91 64Khumal 6 4.52 4.46 99Yusiray maap 4.07 1.35 33Nakila 2.89 2.11 73Committed infrastructures (2.5 km power tiller track) were builtjointly and three power tillers have been purchased by the farmersgroups. Despite very small land holding farmers agreed to sacrificesome parts of their land for power tiller track development. Thishas facilitated farm mechanization and it is notable to see thatpower tillers are already being used for rice transplanting. Thegroups are also hiring out the power tiller to other farmers. Thepower tiller is also serving as an excellent means for transportationof farm products to the Mongar vegetable market.The objective to intensify the wetland use was demonstrated butthe uptake and continuity is poor. No indication of change in themanagement of wetland is evident as a result of introduction ofcommercial crops like potato.Farming technologies (new varieties, mechanisation, improvedmanagement) which many feel can encourage fallow landcultivation do not work. And therefore there had not been anydecline in the fallow wetlands of Wengkhar.Successes and failures of social interventionsAlthough it is difficult to exhibit the success and failures explicitly,there are evidences that social interventions were meaningful.Through our support three functional groups namely Bumpa,Dungkar and Khorlo have been made operational. The mostimportant benefit of organising farmers has been the ability topurchase three power tillers for each group. Individually, owning a138

Lhap Dorji & Tirtha Bdr. Katwalpower tiller would have remained a dream for them. Poolingresources was much easier when negotiated at the group level thanat the household. It was also convenient to organise trainings anddemonstration to the groups. However, the main failure was that allthe wetland owners could not be consolidated and linked with thegroups.The group saving scheme could be started along with activitiesgenerating group funds. Book keeping and power tiller sharingmechanism were also put in place. One of the problems has beenthat the groups have remained inactive.The idea to farm in a group was tested. Farmers contributedresources for the group and infrastructure. Farmers produced andsold products to increase group fund. The groups were also keen toventure into the cultivation of wetland of non resident owners but itcould not materialize in the absence of a sound benefit sharingmechanism between the absentee owners and groups. Lack of astrong legal framework and assurance was an area of concern forthe groups to invest their resources.Learning PointsThe following are some critical lessons learnt for consideration indeveloping future commodity programs.For FarmersRealizing the competition for scare resources -As farmer's demandfor support is increasing, it is time that the farmers realize thecompetition for scarce resources. If the communities do not makeuse of the opportunities resources can easily slip off to others.Farmers could derive more benefit by organising themselves intogroups rather than remaining as individual entities. What farmersmust understand is the magnitude of advantages against smallinconveniences in joining a group.For the researchers and extension personalsIt is clear that technology options alone are not adequate. In thiscase the main reason for not accomplishing of the target was due to139

Encouraging farmers to re cultivate..............the absentee owners who could not be drawn into the program.There was no designated representative who could take decisionson their behalf which at the end impeded the programs. Absenteeowners are an issue that requires careful consideration for thesuccess in future programs. The support of the DistrictAdminstration, Mongar, was sought but despite their effort nothingconcrete could be done in the absence of land owners.Research Outreach program of this scale and nature can be veryeffective to demonstrate impact rapidly if focussed in a potentialarea. Researchers, extension and local leaders can come in oneplatform to focus on an issue. The key merits are effective costsharing, implementation of a full package of interventions andquick results.An urgent attention is required on reviewing the traditional sharecropping mechanisms. Unlike in the past where owning andcultivating wetland used to be prestigious, it is no longer the case asoptions for buying rice are available. If a more economicallyadvantageous system is worked out and backed by legalenforcement, percentages of fallow land cultivation could beincreased through share cropping by willing farmers.Community approach to address common issues like pest control,community crop guarding; resource pooling can be a very effectivestrategy if pursued consistently through cost sharing and groupfarming concepts.CONCLUSIONSAlthough the ultimate target of increasing the percentage of wetlandcultivation could not be achieved, this research outreach program wasvery useful in understanding the social reasons behind increasingfallow wetland and helped us to understand that paddy research shouldalso try and look at the social aspects since technology in the form ofvariety, farm mechanisation and improved management etc is not theultimate answer for fallow wetland. We need to address the deepersocial issues attached with wetlands.It has also given some indication that group farming has a potential if itis carefully targeted. However, group farming in itself needs to be140

looked at with a focussed approach. It needs continuous support andfacilitation beyond the type and level of services provided by researchand extension currently.While the outreach concept has not been able to address the fallowwetland problems, the program was successful in promoting thetechnologies. Fertiliser application and pest and weed controlthorough chemical has been picked up. Two new rice varieties( Wengkhar ray kap and Khangma ray kap) have gained its popularityin the study area for those farmers who cultivate their land. Severalsuccesses discussed above also shows that an approach of this naturemerits scaling up in potential areas for promotion of researchtechnologies. This study also indicates that social research as a hugearea for RNR RCs to look at than just developing new varieties.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTLhap Dorji & Tirtha Bdr. KatwalThe authors are grateful to Dasho Karma Tashi (former ProgramDirector) for his support and guidance in the implementation of thisprogram. We are also highly grateful to Mr. Domang and Mr. N.BAdhikari for their active role in the implementation. We also appreciatethe support of the local leaders and extension staff of Mongar district.Finally, the technical guidance of JICAExperts and resources providedby AREP(RC Wengkhar- JICA) are very much appreciated.REFERENCESDomang (2004). Outcome of a meeting on power tiller operationalmodality development for farmers groups in Wengkhar RNR RCWengkhar, November 2004Katwal, T B (2003). Outreach research program to support rice farmersin the periphery of research station in Wengkhar-Aproposal submittedthas a note sheet which was approved on 15 May 2003. RNR RCWengkhar. Working Document.141

Encouraging farmers to re cultivate..............Katwal, T B (2004). Community Based Support to Rice farmers atWengkhar: an operational framework RNR RC Wengkhar. WorkingDocument.Katwal, T B (2005). Support to rice farmers in the periphery of theresearch station: a progress review RNR RC Wengkhar. WorkingDocument.142

Horticulture

Bhu.J.RNR.Vol 3.No.1, 143-148: 2007Top-working: The best method for walnut orcharddevelopment in Bhutan1 2 3G. Tshering , T. Lhendup and LungkiABSTRACTGraft success rate achieved has been as high as 90% in top-working inan altitude range of 1300masl to 2300masl. Plant growth was vigorousand fruiting commences after 2-3 years of top-working in this altituderange regardless of the age of the stock trees while nursery graftedtrees in the orchard are yet to fruit. Frame-working or grafting ofbranches was desirable compare to top-working for grown up trees.Top-working is an appropriate and easy method for the conversion oflocal wild walnut seedlings into production of commercial plants orinferior cultivars to improve ones or to provide pollenizer. The plantingof wild local walnut seedlings in the production field and latter top-Walnut – Juglans regia, industry in Bhutan is small and plantingmaterials are developed as of now from seeds resulting to a hugevariation in the orchard yields and nut quality. In this walnut topworkingobservation trial, local walnut seedlings are transplanted inthe production field along with the nursery grafted walnut trees as acheck. Local walnut seedling trees were then top-worked withimproved cultivars when they are about 2 to 3 years old. Farmers'walnut trees producing poor quality nuts were also top-worked in westcentralregion. The dormant scion wood was cut from parent tree muchoearlier, waxed and stored in refrigerator (4 C) after proper packing.Bark grafting was practiced both for top-working and frame-workingor grafting of branches by the late in the spring season (end of March toApril) or when new growth has taken place. Graft take, survival, plantgrowth vigor and precocity (earliness to fruit bearing) were observedboth for nursery grafted orchard trees and seedling orchards and thentop-worked trees.1RNR Research Center, Bajo, Wangdue2RNR Research Center, Bajo, Wangdue3RNR Research Center, Bajo, Wangdue143

working with desired scion cultivars is the best for walnut orcharddevelopment in majority of potential walnut production area in thecountry (area with elevation of 1300 to 2300masl). However, this sametechnique of walnut orchard development in the country cannot bepracticed in an area with elevation above 2300masl due to unsuitabletemperature for walnut grafting. In such areas, nursery grafted walnutseedlings should be used as the planting materials for walnut orcharddevelopment.KEYWORDS:Walnut, scion, rootstock, seedlings, top-working, frame-working, sapbleeding, orchard, graft, altitudes, elevation.INTRODUCTIONG. Tshering et alWalnut orchard development though small in Bhutan has gainedthmomentum with the commencement of 8 five year plan as it appearedas one of the priority commodities for the horticulture development inthe country. The walnut orchard is being developed as of now fromseeds that have resulted to a huge variation in the orchard yields, nutsize and quality. These seeds were probably imported from India, Tibet,European countries and America. The grafting techniques have beenstudied and successfully demonstrated for use by the Druk Seed Cooperationand Private Nursery Growers but there is no walnut motherplants established anywhere in the country to be used as a scion woodfor vegetative propagation (G. Tshering, personal communication,2004). In eastern and central Bhutan, private nursery operators arebeing promoted by Ministry of Agriculture and they are producing andsupplying soft-shell walnut seedlings through Districts to the farmersfor orchard establishment. But we need to discourage the supplying ofseedlings to the growers so as to avoid undesirable inherentcharacteristics of seedling plants (> 50% of soft shell seedling orchardproduces hard shell walnut) and to derive the benefit of uniformity,precocity and trueness to type of the grafted plants. If seedlings are tobe supplied to the farmers, it has to be done in large scale and developwalnut orchard in a concerted areas so that it will be easy to top-workthem with superior soft-shell walnut when they are 2-3 years old.144

Inadequate outstanding cultivar (mother plants) as the source of scionwood for mass grafting is the biggest constraints in the development ofwalnut industry in the country. However, recently horticulture researchprogramme had selected 17 good cultivars of soft shell walnut from theopen pollinated seedling trees or local diversity across different agroecologicalzones and two superior cultivars released for generalcultivation. This cultivars needs to be grafted and planted as a walnutmother plants for scion wood production. Therefore, it is important forthe research institute to look into the possibilities of identifying walnutproduction technology which is easy, quick and economical withoutloosing much time while the “National Walnut Mother Plants' for scionwood production are being established in research centre, DSC andprivate nursery growers. To this end, an observation trial on topworkingof existing and new seedlings walnut orchards was done.Top-working is a process when comparatively older rootstocks aregrafted or budded at the higher level (1m above the ground) in theproduction field. It is usually adopted for the conversion of wild largeseedlings into production of commercial plants or inferior cultivars toimproved ones or to provide pollenizers.MATERIALSAND METHODSTop-working: The best ...........The dormant scion wood of improved and released cultivars (Kanthelselection & Yusipang-2) was cut from parent tree quite in advance,owaxed and stored in the refrigerator at 4 C after proper packing till thetime of top-working in mid of March for lower elevation (1300-1899masl) and in second week of April in higher elevation (1900-2300masl). Varying age of 2 to 10 years old local walnut seedlings trees( J. regia) in the farmers' orchards which are of poor quality and hardshellwere top-worked with improved cultivars. The plants to be topworkedwere growing actively at the time of top-working. Topworkingwas done for younger trees while frame-working or graftingof branches was done for older trees. Three to five branches with wideangles and the projection in all the directions are retained and frameworked.The other branches on the tree were removed.Two approaches of walnut orchard improvement and development145

G. Tshering et alwere studied in the farmers' field. First, the existing local walnut orimproved seedling trees which have turn out to be hard-shelled weretop-worked. In the second approach, local hard-shell walnut ( J. regia)seedlings were transplanted in the orchard and top-worked when theyare 2 years old. Nursery grafted walnut trees were planted along theseedling trees so as to serve as control.Bark grafting was used as a technique for top-working and frameworking.After bark grafting, the open wounds were covered by thegrafting wax and in some cases re-waxing was done. The graft unionportions were wrapped with thick polyethylene plastic and stump werewhite washed to protect from the sun burn. The suckers or water shootfrom stock were removed as and when it appears. Staking of thesuccessful top-worked plants was done to avoid breakage by strongwind. The plastic covering the graft union were removed once theunion formation is complete and growth constriction is visible byreleasing the pressure of successful union by cutting the plastic fromone side.RESULTSAND DISCUSSIONThe frame working of walnut seedling trees resulted in 90% graft takewhile top-working particularly younger trees resulted to graft take of85-90% and of about 70-80% for older trees in altitudes of 1300mals to2300masl. Fruiting commences after 2-3 years of top-working inaltitude of 1300masl to 2300mals regardless of the age of the stocktrees. Frame-working or grafting of branches is desirable incomparison to top-working of grown up trees, for quicker healing ofwounds, higher graft take, earlier production and higher yields.Addedadvantages of top-working are, since the rootstock is already wellestablished, the scions make rapid growth and commences bearingearlier than the nursery grafted and transplanted trees. Low survivalrate and slow growth were observed for the nursery grafted walnutplants and then transplanted in the production field. Domestic animalsdamage was prominent on the top-worked trees prior to completion ofgraft union formation than the nursery grafted trees.Sap bleeding is a problem in walnut top-working especially when it isdone in early spring which can be avoided by heading back the stock146

efore two weeks of actual operation, complimented by withholdingirrigation. In severe cases the slanting cuts through bark into the woodcan be made on the rootstock just below the grafting point; if anybleeding in future, it occurs through these cuts after grafting.CONCLUSIONSSince a large number of young seedlings trees producing inferiorquality nuts are abundant in the farmers' field combined with lowsurvival rate and slow growth of nursery grafted or budded plants. Topworkingseems to be an appropriate and useful choice for reaching thenewly released superior cultivars to the farmers for improving the poorquality producing orchards and also for new walnut orcharddevelopment. Top-working is the best method for seedling treesbetween 2-5 years old and frame-working for seedling trees above 5years old, where wound healing is easier, higher percentage of grafttake, earlier production and higher yield were obtained compared tonursery grafted and transplanted trees.It is best to plant the wild local walnut seedlings in the production fieldand latter top-working with desired scion cultivar for walnut orcharddevelopment in majority of potential walnut production area in thecountry (area with elevation of 1300 to 2300masl). However, this sametechnique of walnut orchard development in the country cannot bepracticed in an area with elevation above 2300mmasl due to unsuitabletemperature for walnut grafting (top-working). In such areas, nurserygrafted walnut seedlings should be used as the planting materials forwalnut orchard development.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTTop-working: The best ...........Our sincere acknowledgement for this piece of work goes to SangayDuba, Programme Director, RNRRC-Bajo for his administrativesupports during the conduct of this observation trial.147

REFERENCESG. Tshering et alHartmann et. al. (1997). Plant Propagation-Principles and Practices.Prentice Hall International, USA1-527.Mitra et.al (1991). Temperate Fruits. Horticulture and AlliedPublishers, Kolkotta, India 377-414.148

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Bhu.J.RNR.Vol 3.No.1, 148-159: 2007Adjusting methodologies to improve the relevancy ofresearch – A case of technology evaluation anddemonstration in rice.KEYWORDS:INTRODUCTION1 2 3Tirtha Bdr Katwal , N.B Adhikar and Toyozo TanakaABSTRACTThe primary role of research in the Bhutanese context is to undertakeadaptive research and generate appropriate technologies andinformation that could be effectively utilized towards the enhancementof production and productivity of renewable natural resources. Ideallyit is expected that research system generates the technologies for theextension to disseminate and farmers are expected to adopt themultimately bringing about a change in the production and productivity.Experiences have shown that such a mechanism produces a muchlesser impact than anticipated. Inadequate involvement of researchclients in the technology generation process have been cited as the keyreason for poor adoption of technologies and there by its limitedimpact. Recognizing this bottleneck, RNR RC Wengkhar has attemptedto adjust its methodologies through a Focus Village Program thatbrings research and its clients in one platform. This paper attempts toexemplify the adjustment of methodologies through a case study onrice at Tangmachu, under Lhuentse District in eastern Bhutan.adaptive research, adjust approaches and methodologies, research,extension - farmer linkages, and focus village program, model Block,joint assessment and demonstration, optional strategyOne of the primary function of the Renewable Natural ResourcesResearch Centre (RNR RC ) Wengkhar is to undertake adaptive123RNR Research Center, Wengkhar, MongarRNR Research Center, Wengkhar, MongarAREP, JICA/ RNR Research Center, Wengkhar, Mongar149

Tirtha Bdr Katwal et alresearch. The research undertaken is expected to identify appropriatetechnologies and generate information that could be effectivelyutilized towards the enhancement of production and productivity ofRNR sector both regionally and nationally. Although, the stringentdefinition of research would restrict RNR RC's role to the evaluationof technologies alone yet for the identification of effectivetechnologies that are acceptable and useful to the clients extends thehorizon of its responsibility much further. Our past experiences inlimiting our roles solely to technology generation and leaving thedemonstration and dissemination of the technologies in the hands ofextension has been found to be produce much lesser impact thanexpected. Grobben (1999) has found that the transfer of skills andknowledge through participatory approaches to be more effective thanthe passing of ready to use technology as done in the conventionalpractice. It has often been stated that the usefulness and impact ofresearch at the farmers level is insignificant and the gaps betweenresearch and extension is widening.In keeping with these concerns, RNR RC Wengkhar has been earnestlyattempting to adjust its strategies and approaches to make researchmost relevant to its clients particularly the farmers. In 2004, theAgricultural Research and Extension Support Project in Mongar andLhuentse districts funded by JICA was started. This project essentiallysupports both research and extension activities in the two districts.Activities in horticulture and rice were identified as the main areas ofsupport. One of the approaches this project adopted was thedevelopment of model area for increased agriculture productionthrough evaluation and demonstration of improved productiontechnologies. The research activities were initially targeted in selectedblocks known as the model blocks. These model blocks are ultimatelyexpected to serve as the on-farm sites for technology evaluation andpractical disseminations involving research, extension and farmers.One of the key theme in this approach was to conduct research and atthe same time provide technical trainings, conduct demonstrations ofproven technologies without the need to make another demonstrationseparately as done in the past. We termed the new approach as theFocus Village Program (RNR RC, 2004). The Focus Village Programbasically attempted to focus its research and development activities in150

selected sites that presented the best chance for success of newtechnologies tested in terms of agro climatic conditions and otherrequired resources.Accordingly, Menbi block was identified as one of the model block andTangmachu village which has a good potential for increasing riceproduction was selected as the focus research site for evaluation anddemonstration of improved rice production technologies in the 2005cropping season. According to the RNR Statistic 2004, Menbi blockhas 128.62 acres under paddy and the average yield is 974 kg per acre.MATERIALSAND METHODSAdjusting methodologies................The first step was the discussion of the concept with the Extension staffof Lhuentse district. The district and block Extension staff werepresented the concept of Focus Village Program which entails testingof technologies, demonstrations of successful technologies andinnovations and at the same time their demonstration and promotion.With the concurrence of the cistrict Extension on the concept of FocusVillage Program, identification of the site and farmers were done. Thecritical criteria followed for selecting the trial site was its location.Since demonstration was a key objective the site selected had to be in acommanding area surrounded by other rice fields and easily visible toanyone passing through the village. Amanageable area approximatelymeasuring 2 ha cultivated by Mr. Namgay Dorji, Mrs. YeshiWangmo and Tangmachu Middle Secondary School was selected. Theselected site was leased in for one season. A formal agreement thatclearly outlined the responsibilities of RC Wengkhar and the farmerswere developed. The key feature of the agreement was that JICAProject and RNR RC Wengkhar as the lessee provided all the inputs,improved technologies and partially compensated for the labourcontributed by the farmers. The farmers as the lessor agreed to try thenew technologies and received the entire produce at the time of harvest.No separate lease fees were to be paid to the farmers as the entireamount of the final produce would go to the farmer. However, to assurethem of the potential risk entailed in evaluation of new technologies, aclause was included in the agreement which stated that RNR RCwould compensate them in the event of crop failure as a result of151

evaluating new technologies assuming that all other factors werestable. The details of new technologies tested and demonstrationconducted are described in detail below.Improved technologiesTirtha Bdr Katwal et alThe evaluation of improved technologies included evaluation of newrice varieties, techniques of nursery establishment, rate and time ofapplication of chemical fertilizer and scheduling of nitrogen fertilizer,line planting using marker and control of Sochum ( Potomegaton spp. )using new weedicideApritopA.i. Evaluation of improved rice varieties - Two new rice varietiestried were Khumal 2 and Khumal 6. Khumal 2 is provisionallyreleased for the eastern region but Khumal 6 is in the advancedstage of evaluation.ii.Improved nursery establishment- Farmers normally raise theirseedlings under upland conditions and the age of the seedlingsis normally over 45 days old. Seed rate and the duration ofnursery under the local techniques is normally high. In theimproved method, nursery was established on raised bed in therice terrace and seeds were sown in line at a spacing of 15- 20cm . Seed was sown at a depth of 3 cm at the rate of 100 gm/2m . Urea was applied between the lines at the rate of 0.5 kg/1002m.iii. Rate and time of application of chemical fertilizer andscheduling of nitrogen fertilizer application – except for somesmall amount urea, farmers do not apply other chemicalfertilizers. There is also little knowledge on the rate, time andmethod of fertilizer application. Under the improvedmanagement, the recommended rate of chemical fertilizer wasapplied at the rate of 70:40:20 N:P:K kg ha-1. The entireamount of phosphorous, potash and 60 kg nitrogen was appliedat transplanting while the remaining 40 kg nitrogen was split-1into two equal halves with 20 kg ha applied as first top152

Adjusting methodologies................dressing about one week before panicle initiation ( 30 days-1after transplanting) and the remaining 20 kg ha two weeksbefore flowering ( 60 days after transplanting).iv.Line planting using marker – line planting has beendemonstrated in the past but farmers feel that stretching a ropejust requires additional labour and the advantages of lineplanting are minimal. Improved transplanting technique usingmarkers was tested. The lines were marked with a woodenmarker which was locally fabricated. The marker is a simpledevice with wooden wheel that can be dragged on the puddledpaddies to mark lines on which seedlings can be transplanted.It can make 2 pairs of lines with the line to line spacing of 21cmand the distance between the pair is 36 cm. The mainadvantage of this marker is that one person can mark the lineswithout having to stretch ropes.v. Control of Shochum (Potomageton spp.) - Sochum (Potomegaton spp) is one of most serious weed in Tangmachuand to manage the problem of shochum one immediate and onelong term techniques were tried. The immediate technologytested was the use of weedicideApritopAimported form Japan.-1This weedicide was applied at a rate of 10 kg ha and the cost ofthe weedicide is Nu 1800 per kg. For the long term, Shochummanagement by direct seeding under upland conditions wasevaluated. This was tried because the growth conditionsrequired for Shochum is similar to rice and altering theconditions by direct seeding of rice under upland conditioncould possibly help reduce Shochum pressure.B. Trainings and DemonstrationsDemonstrations and trainings per se is not a primary research role.In the Focus Village Program aside from the research role, trainingand demonstration were also included as the key feature. Foraccomplishing the research and extension roles, a closecollaboration was kept between the research, the extensionprogram unit of RNR RC and the district extension. The details ofdemonstrations and training are discussed below.153

Tirtha Bdr Katwal et ali. Trainings – In total two farmers trainings were conductedin which about 30 farmers participated in each training. Thetrainings were coincided with the timing of the fieldactivities so that an actual demonstration of techniques waspossible. The first training was conducted on seeding andtransplanting and the second training included two topicsviz. rice field management and fertilization and ricequality, pest and disease management. The contents andfocus of each training is briefly highlighted below.a) Seeding to transplanting - this training coveredvariety selection, nursery bed preparation, seedpreparation, seed sowing and transplanting techniquesand outlined the advantages of improved methods.b) Rice field management and fertilizer application-During this training water management, weed controland rate and time of fertilizer application were the maintopics. Timing of fertilizer application especially thescheduling of nitrogen fertilizer was highlighted.c) Rice quality, pest and disease management- As RNRRC did not have the required expertise in this field,another JICAExpert was hired to study the rice pest anddiseases. This topic was dealt by Dr. Yoko in which hehighlighted the quality parameters of rice andmanagement tips to achieve these qualities. Under pestand disease management of blast disease, leaf folderand stem borer were covered.ii.DemonstrationsIt included demonstration of techniques as well as the tools andimplements such as rotary weeder and pedal thresher. Much ofthe demonstrations were in built within the training and actualdemonstrations were shown. During the time of harvest anelaborate exhibition was organized for 60 farmers including 10farmers from Minji block. During this field day, the final resultsand all aspects of cultivation technologies were once againdemonstrated through posters and live samples. Farmers were154

also asked to assess the difference in production as a result ofthe adoption of new technologies and compare with theneighbouring farmers field where cultivation were done in aconventional way.RESULTSAND DISCUSSIONAdjusting methodologies................The Focus Village Program had three main objectives viz. testing ofnew technologies, demonstration of technologies and techniques to theExtension staff and farmers through trainings and by actuallyworking along side the research team; and joint assessment orevaluation of technologies. The results are discussed in line to thesethree objectives..i) Research to evaluate improved rice production technologiesResearch included evaluation of new technologies validation andadaptation of existing technologies that are new to the site. Twonew rice varieties Khumal 2 and Khumal 6 were evaluated at thesite. Their yields were compared under different managementtechniques.Through the improved nursery raising technique the30 days old seedlings were transplanted as compared to the 45 daysold seedlings used by farmers. This has proven that nursery can beraised in the wetland and time for raising the seedlings can bereduced. The recommended rate and time of fertilizer applicationwas evaluated for that particular location and the tested rates cansubstantially help to increase the production. Shochum, waseffectively controlled using a new weedicide Apritop A. Exceptfor its availability and cost, Apritop A can be effective incontrolling Shochum. The long term effect of direct seeding onShochum needs further observation. The marker was tested underfarmers condition for making lines for transplanting. This devicecan be more effective and requires less labour for line planting ascompared to the use of ropes.To estimate the yield for comparison, random crops cuts were2taken from an area of 4 m from both improved and farmersmanaged practices. The highest yield was recorded for Khumal 6155

Tirtha Bdr Katwal et alfrom improved management practices followed by Khumal 2(Table 1). Results indicate that these two varieties can berecommended for farmers of Tangmachu. Based on itsperformance in Tangmachu and other locations Khumal 6 has beenproposed for release.Table 1:Yield comparison of different varietiesii)Demonstration of technologies and techniques to the extensionstaff and farmersAlthough demonstration and training are not the directresponsibilities of research, they were taken up in the package ofthe Focus Village Program. The lead in the organizing ofdemonstration and trainings were taken up by extension programunit of RNR RC while the technical part was handled by theresearch team. The extension staff of the block were fully engagedin the demonstration of techniques and farmers trainings. Theaccomplishment of this objective was done throughactualdemonstrations of improved technologies to themajority of the farmers of the block156

Adjusting methodologies................two farmers trainings were conductedfarmers field day cum exhibition was organiseddevelopment of training materials like charts and posters whichcould be used by the extension for such trainings in futureiii) Joint Assessment or evaluation of technologies by Research,Extension and farmersThe final part was the joint assessment of the entire program. This wasdone jointly by the research team, the extension expert , extensionprogram unit of RNR RC, district extension and the farmers. For thejoint evaluation a farmers' field cum exhibition was organized. The keyobjective of the field day cum exhibition were to demonstrate thesuccess of the activities to other farmers including representative fromMinji block, jointly assess the activities/technologies demonstratedat the site and disseminate the improved rice managementtechnologies to more farmers. Sixty farmers, heads of the two blocks,school agriculture teachers, and extension staff assessed the program.The summary of the assessments were as under:Initially the cooperator farmers felt that production will be lowdue to the large spacing between lines in the marker method ascompared to the farmers method of transplanting. They werehowever convinced when the crop developed and there wasprofuse tillering. The marker method of transplanting in lineswas found to be more labour saving than farmers method. Inthis method harvesting was much easierFarmers realized the higher yield potential of improvedvarietiesDistrict extension appreciated the concept of Focus VillageProgram which included research, training, demonstration andtechnology transferThe cooperator farmers made a yield comparison before andafter the adoption of new technologies ( Table 2)157

Table 2. Rice Production before and after the adoption of technologies –comparison by co-operator farmersName of Cooperator Production* in 2004(Before Adoption)Production in 2005(After Adoption)Namgay Dorji 310 Drey** or 465 kg 1080 drey or1620 kgYeshi Wangmo 180 Drey or 270 kg 1002 drey or 1503 kgTangmachu Middle 700 Drey or 1050 kg 2730 drey or 4095 kgSecondary School*Production reported is from the same area of 2004 and the area cultivatedwas equal in both years .**One Drey = 1.5 kg of PaddyCONCLUSIONSTirtha Bdr Katwal et alOur experience at Tangmachu indicates that the Focus Village Programcan serve as an effective optional strategy for adaptive research..As theapproach encompasses both the aspects of research and extension it iseffective in forging a stronger research, extension and farmer linkagesmainly by way of working together. It is also very effective in reducingthe time for technology dissemination without having to make aseparate demonstration as done in the conventional way whereresearch first releases the technology and extension then conducts thedemonstrations of released technologies and farmers are expected toadopt them. This approach allows the exposure of the extension staff tothe full package of the technologies which they can easily scale up andreplicate in new sites after having tested in a holistic manner at themodel sites. This approach also allows the effective transfer of skillsand knowledge to the clients. The skills of the extension staff can beenhanced by working in the field by working along side researchersand experts.The scare resources both physical and financial can also be effectivelyshared between research and extension. Ultimately such a joint effortis also more effective and can produce much larger impact of theprograms at the field level and can help convince farmers in adoptingnew technologies.158

REFERENCESAdjusting methodologies................Department ofAgriculture - DoA(2004). Agriculture Statistics,Vol. I. Department ofAgriculture, MoA, Thimphu, Bhutan.Grobben, P. (1999) Maize Research in Bhutan: the need to cater fordiversity. Journal of Renewable Natural Resources Bhutan. Vol. I.Issue I. Ministry ofAgriculture, Thimphu , Bhutan pp 47- 58.RNR Research Center – RNR RC (2004). The concept of FocusVillage Program in Model Block. RNR Research Center ,Wengkhar,Mongar. Unpublished.159

Guide to AuthorsStandard Structure of Manuscript for publication in the Journal of RNR BhutanA. Total length of the article: Maximum 5000 words. However the Editorial Boardcan make exception.B. Standard Structure of ManuscriptThe following is the standard sequence of the presentation1.Title:The first page of each manuscript starts with the title of the paper which should betyped in bold-faced print using both upper and lower case letters and set in the centerof the page. The title should be as brief as possible.Abbreviations are not permitted inthe title.2.Author(s) and agencyThe names of the author(s) should be written in full. Indications of titles, professorialranks or other professional titles should not be used.The address of the agency to which the author belong to shall be written as footnote.3.Abstract and key words:The abstract consisting of 150 – 200 words but no more than 200 words. The abstractshould summarize pertinent methods and results in a brief but understandable form.The abstract should start with a clear statement of the objectives of the experiment/research/ study and must conclude with one or two sentences that highlight importantconclusions. References are never cited in the abstract.At the end of the abstract, list up to six key words that best describe the nature of theresearch. The term "Key Words" is typed in bold-faced print followed by a colon. Thefirst letter of each key word is capitalized and key words are separated by commas.Key words should include the species, variables tested, and the major responsecriteria.4.IntroductionThe introduction starts on a new page/paragraph following the abstract. Theintroduction briefly justifies the research and specifies the hypotheses to be tested.Extensive discussion of relevant literature should be included in the discussion ofresults, not in the introduction. To minimize length and avoid redundancy, generallyno more than three references should be cited to support a specific concept.Mention of objectives of the study or research will be not done under separateheading. It should form a part o the itroduction if necessary as a separate paragraph.160

5. Materials and MethodsOther terminology such as methodology shall be not used in place of Method.General: A clear description or specific original reference is required for allbiological, analytical, and statistical procedures used in the experiment. Allmodifications of procedures must be explained. Diets, animals (breed, sex, age, bodyweight, and weighing conditions [i.e., with or without restriction of feed and (or)water]), surgical techniques, measurements, and statistical models should bedescribed clearly and fully.Statistics: Biology should be emphasized, but the use of incorrect or inadequatestatistical methods to analyze and interpret biological data is not acceptable.Consultation with a statistician is recommended. Statistical methods commonly usedin the animal sciences need not be described in detail, but adequate references shouldbe provided. The statistical model, classes, blocks, and experimental unit must bedesignated. Any restrictions used in estimating parameters should be defined.Reference to a statistical package without reporting the sources of variation (classes)and other salient features of the analysis, such as covariance or orthogonal contrasts,is not sufficient. A statement of the results of statistical analysis should justify theinterpretations and conclusions. When possible, results of similar experiments shouldbe pooled statistically. Do not report a number of similar experiments separately.6. Results and DiscussionResults (may be written under sub heading) should be presented in tabular form whenfeasible. The text should explain or elaborate on the tabular data, but numbers shouldnot be repeated extensively within the text. Sufficient data, all with some index ofvariation attached, should be presented to allow the reader to interpret the results ofthe experiment.Discussion (may be written under sub heading) should interpret the results clearlyand concisely in terms of biological mechanisms and should integrate literatureresults with the research findings to provide the reader with a broad base on which toaccept or reject the hypotheses tested.7. ConclusionThis section, consisting of no more than 500 words, follows the discussion and shouldexplain in lay terms, without abbreviations, acronyms, or citations, what the findingsof this research are. Though some speculation is permitted, this section should alsocaution the reader against over extrapolation of results. For manuscripts with directapplications, this section will consist of an interpretive summary.Recommendations will be not made under this section.8.Acknowledgement9. References161

C. TABLES:Tables are used to present numerical data in a self-explanatory manner. They shouldbe intelligible without consulting the text and should not duplicate data already givenin the text or in illustrations. Any abbreviation used in a table must be defined in thattable. All tables should be cited in the text.Arabic numerals are used to number tables.The table number (i.e. Table 4.) is typed in bold face followed by a period. The title ofthe table continues on the same line with only the first letter capitalized. Do not use aperiod at the end of the title. Column headings should have the first letter of each wordcapitalized while the names of variables are typed with only the first letter capitalized(i.e.Average daily gain).For numerals less than 1, insert a zero to the left of the decimal point (columns shouldbe set up so that decimal points are aligned if possible). If there are no data for aparticular entry, insert a dash. If an explanation is necessary, use an abbreviation in thebody of the table (e.g. ND) and explain clearly in footnotes what the abbreviationmeans.No lines, only boundary lines will be used, 8 point normal and no colorsD. FIGURES: Align the figures horizontally Put captions below the figures; 10 point bold Abbreviate figure to fig No color, but choose different shade that is appropriate for black/whiteprintingE. REFERENCES CITATION:The literature references should be arranged alphabetically, typed double spaced, andin the text referred to by author's name and year of publication enclosed in parenthesis,e.g. (Tenzin, 1995). With three or more authors, only the name of the first authors pluset al.. should be given.Verify the accuracy of cited references. Make sure that references cited in the text arelisted in the reference section and vice versa. Check that names and dates areconsistent in the text and references. Do not abbreviate journal titles.References to personal communication will be not accepted.References should contain: author's last name followed by author's initial(s) (withperiods), year, title of article (only first word and proper noun capitalised), journal (not underlined), volume number, and inclusive page numbers. Books and reportsmust include the name and location of the publisher.162

Examples1. GeneralAdeyjou, S.K. (1980). The future of tropical agro forestry systems. CommonwealthForestry Review 59(2): 155-159.Dukpa, N. (1997). Technical report of Chirata cultivation and collection in SingkharLauri. RNR Research Sub-Centre, MongarLUPP- Land Use Planning Project. (1994). District data sheets for Samdrup Jongkhar,Ministry ofAgriculture, Thimphu, Bhutan.MOA- Ministry ofAgriculture. (1997). Integrated Horticulture Development ProjectDocument. (BHU/97/003/A/01/99).RNR RC - Renewable Natural Resources Research Center. (1997). The Progress andAchievements of the Seventh Five Year Plan, July 1992 - June 1997. RNR RC East,Khangma, REID, Ministry ofAgriculture.2. Standard JournalArticles:Jensen, M. S., S. K. Jensen and K. Jakobsen. (1997). Development of digestiveenzymes in pigs with emphasis on lipolytic activity in the stomach and pancreas. J.Anim. Sci. 75:437-445.Jin, C. F., J. H. Kim, H. K. Moon, W. T. Cho, Y. K. Han and I. K. Han. (1998a). Effectsof various carbohydrate sources on the growth performance and nutrient utilization inpigs weaned at 21 days of age.Asian-Aust. J.Anim. Sci. 11:285-292.3. JournalArticle with a Subtitle :Ackerson, R. C. (1981). Osmoregulation in cotton in response to water stress: 1.Alterations in photosynthesis, translocation and ultrastructure. Plant Physiol. 67:484-488.4.Abstracts and Supplements :Mahan, D. C., E. M. Weaver and L. E. Russell. (1996). Improved postweaning pigperformance by adding NaCl or HCl to diets containing animal plasma. J. Anim. Sci.74(Suppl. 1):58(Abstr.).Smith, J. W., M. D. Tokach, R. D. Goodband, J. L. Nelssen, W. B. Nessmith, K. Q.Owen and B. T. Richert. (1995). The effect of increasing zinc oxide supplementationon starter pig growth performance. J.Anim. Sci. 73(Supp. 1):72(Abstr.).5. JournalArticleAccepted but not yet Published :Li, D. F., J. L. Nelssen, P. G. Reddy, F. Bleccha, R. D. Klemm, D. W. Giesting, J. D.Hancock, G. L. Allee and R. D. Goodband. (1999). Measuring suitability of soybeanproducts for early-weaned pigs with immunological criteria. J.Anim. Sci. (In press).163

6. Standard Book :National Research Council - NRC. (1998). Nutrient Requirements of Swine. 10th Ed.NationalAcademy Press, Washington, DC.Snedecor, G. W. and W. C. Cochran. (1989). Statistical Methods. 8th Ed. Iowa StateUniversity Press,Ames, Iowa.7. Chapter in an Edited Book :Cromwell, G. L. (1991). Antimicrobial agents. In: Swine Nutrition (Ed. E. R. Miller,D. E. Ullrey andA. J. Lewis). Butterworth-Heinemann, Stoneham, Massachusetts. pp.297-314.Mayes, P. A. (1990). Digestion and absorption. In: Harpers Biochemistry, 22nd Ed.(Ed. R. K. Murray, D. K. Granner, P.A. Mayes and V. W. Rodwell).Appleton & Lange,Norwalk, Conneticut. pp. 580-590.8. Thesis :Thacker, P.A. (1981). Effects of Dietary Propionate on Lipid Metabolism in GrowingSwine. Ph.D. Thesis, University ofAlberta, Edmonton,Alberta.Trottier, N. L. (1995). Protein Metabolism for the Lactating Sow. Ph.D. Thesis,University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.9. Conference Proceedings :Goodband, R. D., M. D. Tokach, S. S. Dritz and J. L. Nelssen. (1995). Practicalnutrition for the segregated early weaned pig. In: Proceedings of the 1995Saskatchewan Pork Industry Symposium, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. pp. 15-22.Shurson, J., L. Johnston, J. E. Pettigrew and J. Hawton. (1995). Nutrition and the earlyweaned pig. Proceedings of the Manitoba Swine Seminar. Vol. 9:21-32.10. Research Reports etc :Lutz, T. L. and T. S. Stahly. (1996). Dietary folic acid needs of high lean growth pigs.Iowa State University 1997 Swine Research Report. pp. 4-6.11. On line :Ota, T.(1993). Dispan: Genetic distance and phylogenetic analysis. PennslyvaniaState Unievrsity, University Park, PA, USA.http://www.bio.psu.edu/People/Faculty/Nei/Lab/Programs.html164

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