,".'.d(P: - Higher Education Commission

.3ASR S4!id 

$bi..t 

Milot Rcri'iolr i! tht Pr' D indn of Mt Zrhnb |(rno 

, -i,--.^r"-r N. 04{8) dd'd Augu406 20 lO msor cvisions tl$t d sggcsted_bl 

ffi f iTf; ,liiil"i";1il'i':ruli'?''" 7"r'ia" **i" ;"'"'pora'ed in $e rhess 

"" 

\r".4 

(Pot Dt Majid Munte) 

D@.inar 

of Chalisn! 

,".'.d(P:

BYATUATIOT OT DBDTBCXTIIT IY.PNODI'CTS AI{D OTHIN 

olctfrclDmlncoo*Tlltxrmlfl Dclxlocwarrn 

ot rlrLu otalm txmltaElltlD f,ltl,tf, rlsr 

Irt|r|lb{|.-dft.lh.ftfrhdofbttqofEdtut ibtF. 

d 

Ih*ofPuao*y 

ry 

taEDAll x a. llu 

n 

@d ofG.d{ty, thivdtftY of fstDhi 

Krdi' 75t0, Pddd 

2010

& 

ExtcrDd Exrnind: 

Chrlrpcr3on: 

D.putn ni ofchembty 

Univ.rlily of K{ff.hi 

Dcd Flnrlty ofscicncc: 

Udv.Btty ofKrnchi 

fti! th€i! i3 l,lilt d b 

ZAHIDA KARIM 

(Pr$, Dr. M.Ju llrtu ) 

(Ptui,ID. zehtd' T. Mt$ood) 

(ProI. Drshdtan U.ooJ K.a i)

Dedicated to 

My Family

ACTf,OXI.sDEl|EtrIS 

Fn$ ed forendt, arl pnis ed glory to ALMIGIITY ALLAH. *ho giles oe sri.ngih 

in every dimcnh nom6t of my life sd whose blcasings * always with re. 

My hean-fel graiitude to ny Eedch supcFisr Prcfdor D., Mtjid Mtnlu for his 

$hol6dc guidme and 6@@senflt trcudout my l!.€eh- -Ite €xp€nence vhicb I 

gor und.. his snpenision is a valu.bl€ &t for m, a.addic md prcfe$iooal ccr 

I m Sntefrrl 1o Pmf.gr Dr, Z!!i.1. T, M.q!ood, ChaiDeM& D€prtne ol 

Ch.mnq. Univesiry of (!ahi for hd tr.m.ndos sutpon My sincft lhdks to 

Prcf.lror Di Simj lddir Niz.Di for providine i$trM€ntal facilides at lNtrur.nt.l 

Relourcc l$ontory, It prrtndl of Ch.Entry, UdveBity of (,r.chi, SFcial 

tnels to Alsiirlrt Profe$or Mr, Shcili Moniuddi! for giving me his plecio$ dne 

dd vdluble sus8€stio$, wheoeve.l n.eded. 

I wdt to trtnowledg€ the ilsimenrll feilides povid.d by EfJ R6qrch Inirirut oa 

Ch.nirtr!, U.iv€rity of Xrncbi ud PCSIR LrboRtori$ CoDpler Krdchi. I d 

hidtly obliSed lo Dr Friior Bi &d Mi ADlmt Ali fd rheir @{peradon dd suppon. 

I have lor of Especrs dd .dmiFtio6 lor Bshir Bh.i Ino al'ars i6piEs ed 

I als owe sFcial tho*s to Mr. Arh. Yr. Khu for his cr!@rion dd prcviding b. 

tullsuppofi duing working oD O6pbir. i@ac. Atomic Absrlrion Specrmhcl!. 

Mdy thdts ed appEciatio.s ro Trb. K.Ert for h€r itmeN suooon and 

co-op€larion duine ny eseech wolk 

I m Slad lo acknowledg. ny fri.nds for th.ir noiivalion dd norat suppon Esp.ciatly, 

I m indebt€d to Dr, Sun.yyr Sri.d for h.! 6sist&ce in editing ny thesis writjng. 

Frm the botlon ofny h.an ed soul, I wei io thanks my p.rctrts, brcrheB, silter md 

tulbr.d for th€n b!e, p6y€s ed dc.Fsr conccn in my spiraliotr and .cnievendrs. 

In the I$1. I oFer ny cgdd5 !o all tho* ehon I did not di$uss€d bul they suppon.d h. 

ir my FsF.t duins lhe compldiotr of my E*Nn wort. 

ZAHIDA MRIM

TIaT TCT 

Ih. qudity of eGr @duncd by rh. i.h!bit$$ of th. K@hi city w esd for 

d8ei. &d ircr$aic @ltamiMrs. otsrdc Mnbimts iftludc chlodDt d 

disinf*tion by-prcducB elE@ oo'8&ic otrmiMts @mpd$ of dififfil n.lals 

3Eh a Nict l (Ni), copFr (cu), chronim (cr). trld (Pb), cob.lt (co), Mmsare 

(M!) ed I&! C.). H.![b rist to lh.6idal! of Kehi d@ !o thc p|!sa. of lhe 

orgui. ud inorgui. @nllDiuls w dlo ilBlig.td, 

Tdhdom$lG (IHlls) i, rip eltq spl€s *@ lDlrz.d by LLE-C€-ECD n.rhod 

fh. @l@t!!io. of THM @hpoun& *@ obr.i*d ir t ordq 

cHclPCHClrBr>cHClBh. Bremfod (CHB$) B not d.t cad. Ite ov.6ll Eulrr of 

THM3 in tlt MLr sdtrpld of K,fuhi \N@ foud b.lo* rlr. WHO gui&linc valu6. Th. 

lifctitu 6er n* .d hurd ld.i of THM sD.cics wcE us€d ro 6rimtc th. h.drh 

rbt tln TIIM qposr ttNue! onl insestion .!d d.nnd .h.or?tion. Expo!@ !o 

.hl@fm (CHClt .irlH lhrcWh i!g6ri@ or d!@l @nra.r s fourd ro b. dE ndr 

ioFlianl pltlmy for c!|E rist! ton rHM!. ft M .l!o ..ublihcil rh.r lhc Bid.nts 

of (,fuhi t t! | bislq rilt of crrE tbrcush oFI iDgerid dD rrlllugh rlF dmar 

rh6orptior Thc lltd hr2lrd ildq v.l@ ofTobl niirlon.rh!rc3 GIHMS) dhos! oEt 

iiS6rion ard dcdnat .b$Uiotr qfr cdolir.d ro b. E.E4xlOi {d 4.39ilor 

ctndvdy. Th. culB of h.zd in&x wE obhin d lowr rh6 6iry, which did aot 

iidi€r. th. Ntr-*.d .fr.cls of THM3. 

Th. 6n orrlrion of rle turrls b wt r sd6 (elre mr.r B Etl s in nD {d 

goud*r&r) rw dd.mitud Nirg gnphirc fill)l@ .tonic &$rDrion 3FcEoncuy 

(GFAAS). Th. ErulE sc @mpaEd wirt rh. wHO wt* qudity g,jd;tiB. Th. 

Elialili.y of rh. d.rho4 c.liborid dgq r.c@y.nd pFi3id of rlt. edFb wF 

de esled. CoFl|tioB .nong rhc dir.mr rctd @m6ndioi! vw crtcut.l.d. 

Multivdid. slrdni.ll rcchniqre ircldins cllsrd &.ly3is (cA) &d FiNiFl 

@Dpondt edFb (PCA) wG .ls .ppli.d fd rh. b.nd iDrct?rcrlrid or t!. d.t! 

otrritud for th. e.ly3i3 of red.. Rb& !!sc.@nr s condBr.d for.xDosw !o tre 

mclab vi. &inting wlta ilgdtioi p.rhmy on rh. bdis of USEPA mod.t, H!2!rd

q6d.d 0|A) fflc c.lcub.d ro cvd'4 6. rcc{liEtFri, ri!!t dE to tE ord 

@rluptio! ofplt r @deiEted {ith E&. @r!ls. H!u.d quotic!6 of.ll thc m.lds 

94 ftld loE rDd oiry rb Flt Uy es tuI reclEcr drq!. h..llh.tr{n 

Gcochi..l E F of THM!.d i!!.c mdrlr i! dnrlin8 wlt r of K.ehi city qr!I! 

P!!&..d h.sd d g.oEqbicd hfoturioo rI!r@ (CIS) Lc.hnolo$,. Inacr!. d,l|I|e! 

ili|blr @nD w'Dd tu+drl hE?ddc

L ct,f -r. ( lr - LtrL,!,rt lvi I J4 /,1! L )t L +,)tt-t4 LpgL 4tr 

- LpL ,!s1 ivt / rj "l; -.-,t6 L L, tt 

4 -+11 \i a3sdd & * L L" ri +,i Lr. j s.f./,td. 't-' t t'*..) o { 

r +Ll .v' i) { -\o } ttt llf 6 - Sa I ,t -,.,! L/ (P L idq tlEatd 

-L Lt id et)t e)b/ J. LlHtt 

,y' / ,',a I a ( uL n, U(q6 Ere, i.p *rr.nd cmn*ztat {,u: 3 L i!9 

,J ,7L.t-t..itJu/l,o,J'r1.- ,r, ,' { { } +n L (tg -{ Qte 6n} f. tu/ 

3 +{V d,r' ( t" &-"9 'th 't,( a} L -{ { ',v 'f -ru- 

-r. { \6 -:- 4. e a\L itt L0", 

. jb, Lt do ,t ,!t - ,:/ L.)tv, +,t Lpc ,t c Ji \JF j!,f Mu$"a,bre 

Jtu-L'h&I Lolb4-,/( 4L\)t

THMs 

LLE 

GC 

ECD 

wHo 

USEIA 

HQ 

OIs 

MDPE 

TCE 

MTBE 

DDI 

PCBs 

GAC 

UV 

vts 

HKs 

llANs 

DCAA 

TCAA 

CH 

DCAN 

DBAN 

DNA 

CBPs 

NOM 

ADCM 

DBCM 

TOC 

MF 

UF 

DOM 

NF 

RO 

TDS 

usT of rrBns$rnof,s 

El€cuon captu€ deledor 

Voild Health Oredianon 

GBphirc nDEe aronic .bslpt'oo sFcl$n'Ev 

PrinciDal @nDondl andt$s 

unirca Sble Envirom.niat Pbtarion A8'ncv 

CeogEphical bfomaion SYslen 

M.dim densit DolyethYlene 

DichloodiphmyldcNo@tI6. 

Polyc$onnaGd biPhdyls 

Gwuld acdvated wbon 

CnbriMdon by-FoducB 

Bromodi.Norcm€oEe 

Dibonochloomerhd 

Powd!!.d eriEt€d cdbon 

Diselved oreanic naua

BoD BioloSic.l oxy86 demdd 

COD Ch.dcal oxyga dmd 

TOX Tord orgdic halide 

THMFP Trihalomethseforurionpote.iial 

TLC Thin layq.hrcm&ognphy 

lR Inft_.rcd sFcttospy 

NMR Nuclur magnelic re$Mc. sFctlo$opy 

MIMS M€nbm€ inroduction is spe.rrcnety 

cc-Ms G6cltromloeaphy-ndssp€.nometry 

T-IIIM Toaltrindohethde 

P&T-CC-MS Purge-dd-trapgDchromatography-msssPecrometrv 

HS-CC-MS H$dspace-ga.ttromabgaPhy-mdssp{mn€q 

SPME Solid-phemico.nr.clio. 

ESI-MSMS El@bspnyioni24ion-&nd.btusp.ciromelry 

PACI Polyaluinm cblorid. 

vCHCs Vol.lilechlorin.ledhydrMbos 

PTI-CC-MS Puge-ad- Eap injetion ga chronatogFPhv-m$ sperom.tl 

DLLME DisF6iveliquidiiquidnj.@xtrfltion 

PLS P!.rirl le6t squdes 

.4-{S Atonic ab$rytion sp€droneq- 

ETAAS Elecrorhemal donic ab$prion sFcuon€E} 

CVAAS Cold vapor atonic lb6orplio. sperrem€E, 

!.ICAAS Hydride s€neration atomic db$rption sp€cromeuv 

IAAS FlMc atonic absorplion sp.ctronedy 

PAN Poly&ryldiFil. 

AIDC Amodmprmlidinedithi@db@le 

SQT-AT Slofted quanz tube alon trap 

DAT-IA-AS Detivaive atod tzpping nme atomic aberprion spectonetry 

ZDEC Zinc di€lhyl dithi(qb@t 

TCA Abgsten coil atonia 

DDTC Dielhyldilhiocdb@te 

HMDTC Hexm€thyleneaiddcdbmale 

IDAEC Ininodi&edc.cid.thylc.Uuloe 

PTIE Polticl,zflnoo.fiyld€ 

MIBK M.thyl isobulyl kctone 

PGF Pyrolydc Erphite forked 

PCN Pyrcltli€ gEphilc

sA Skin{d*..@ 

DO Dislv.d oxY36 

rc Pcm@bihy @mciot 

ET Eiposw dm. 

C! CooveBion factoi 

RID Rcfcmce dos 

FnR Fouid !@fm il8arcd tp.cuorcLy 

sRM Sl.rid.rd Ef.Mce Eal.i.l 

NIST Nadonal l6titutc ofst&dlrds &d T*hnologv 

Ec El.drical condrctivity 

HS Hmic slbcl'rcd 

DOC Dislv€d orytnic clrbon 

DBPs Dbinfetionby-pDducis 

EA Hmic acids 

FAr Fdvic &ids 

MCL Mainu @nttulitEt lsl 

MMT M.thylctclopdr.di6ylMng&dEicatolyl 

PCs Piin ipal compo!.lts 

SF Slope Ector 

IRIS Intcgrd€d tusk hfomadd S'gd 

ASTM Andi@ scicty foiTddng &d Mt .dd3 

IARC Int Mti@rl Ag.rcy fd Rdqach on Ce@ 

PTFE PoltleLrlluoto.lhyl€n€ 

IHSS Inr.mational HuBc Sub3nca Sai€tv 

KW&SB K,fuhi wat r ed S*o8. Boatd 

HI H@rd Ind.x 

cls C6Sraphic.l info@tion syslcD 

IDW Inv@ disree weieht d

tlsT oF TlgLgs 

The 6ults otrh. ptytic*h{icrl tudi6 on Kajhs L*e Epon'd duna dtt @nt }srr 

Elen.nlol conposnion of Hlmic acid isolttd frcm soil of Keenjhar L'ke and li6mbE vtlucs 

D.sfiipliv. stalistica for THM it tap r.cr 

lnDur plliMcd fd dFs@ 'ssncd of THMe tfioel o/l '4ts'id 

Inpur param.t s for exposuE .sssn nlof THMS tl]ouS! &maiu'Jl'@' 

Pot rcy fador (PD o. noF facbr (SF) olTfiMs for ftk calculari'n 

R.fdc. d@ GrD) for THM! rd /d/ s?6q' 

tadd Indcx of THMS though oEl rcure in tap wocr enpler of Krmchi 

H@rd lnd.r ofTHMs thrcugn demll conb' in [p *arer edpl's of K@hi 

D$ditrivc 36ri$cs fd n.6ls in Ep YtGr spl'3 

D.$npdt. sbthrios fo! s.lals in 8ou'dwrb sdpl's 

P.dsn'3 coreldions t.M..n dre coic'nbtids oi mebls in toundwtrtr 

P6Fnt c@lsd@ b.l}6 rh. co@ndio! of ndsls in op sdd 

Pnncipal Conpone analysis for m.&ls in tap r d enpre3 

Priocipd Comp.n nr An.l)6is l* f,els in Sioundw'Gr sNtl's 

Inps p:r.rd.6 lo .rFs@ asssn"r of m'bk drclgh ina'nto p6o*rv 

RErwnoe do* and sloDc l&!oN olootuh meB 

Stu.ry of $. hshh risk 4sm'nr {udv of m'lll'3 rhroush oal rour' 

OpiDum OFAAS op.6ting mndirids for rhe d'r'diMtio' or Ni 

Optidum CFAAS opcriling conditions lor fie dtt'minarion of ctr 

optitum GFAAS oFotins condnioN for the dd'minnion ofcr 

Opdmun GFAAS oFding andnions fq dE d'r'didiion or Pb 

Optinum GFAAS op@ing sndidons lor tie d't'minltion of co 

OFirum CFAAS oP.nting condirio* for th€ da'dintno' ot Mn 

Oprimum GFAAS o?.6litg ondiriotrs fd lh' ddmidion or F

4.2 

4.1 

4.5 

4.8 

4.t0 

4.1I 

4.t2 

4,tl 

4.t5 

4.t1 

4.18 

4.19 

4.20 

4.2'l 

4.22 

4.21 

4.24 

4.25 

4.26 

4.27 

4.28 

L@aliotr ofKeojhd Lake 

IJST OF NdUBIS 

Sch€h. for the €xltrclion of soil hmic aubsidcs 

Lry pofil€ of hmic &ids 

FTIR sp.tu of hMic rcid 

Model siretue of hMic acid 

THM3 @pline l@.tioN 

CalibFion c@c for Trihalom.th@es 

cC-EcD chromioSrd of3t{dad 1 ppn THM 

cbrcmatoelds for thc detetuiMrior of THMS in l.p wa|tr @plc (!w-LQ) 

Cbrtulogtms fot the delemination of THMS in tap qdter smPle of (LW-La) 

Chrcmaroglus for fi. deteminadon of THMS in lap wsi€! sdple (LW_MOB) 

chrcn'rogllc for th€ delemidtion of fiMs in tap watd spL (Lw_cEJ) 

Tnhabnethdd @ncentraiio. (!pb) in tap water sdpl's of r@a'hi 

Corccntratiotr of TTHMS &coding to WHO guidelinc 

Corlladon bet9*n TTHMS &d cblorefod @n@tirior 

conc. ration of i6 chlorine Gsidual (tpn) in lap watc! smPles 

Pd.nl6gc of individul'rHM 3Fci6 

Efd of pH on TTHMS 

cdc{ nst froD THMS via oftl lode 

Cecd risk ftoo THMS via dcm.l €xPosw 

Av.mge cder risk for THMS in dif*d P.thuvs 

Comparisn of *at t qualitv of No najor e@4 of wat'r supplv to Kdchi 

Meral con@lration in rap 3nd Sroud*d€r spl's of K@hi cjlv 

CalibFrion cw. fot Ni 

calibhtion cdc io. Cr 

Calib6tion c@c for Pb 

CalibElion cN. for Co 

calibEtion cw. for Mn

fig.4,29 

Fig 4.10 

4ll 

4.32 

4.33 

4.14 

4.35 

4.17 

4.18 

4.19 

4.43 

4.45 

4.50 

4, 

Dcdrc8r@ esulring ftom $. hicrechic'l clunct Mlvsis for m€tals '' tap 

wsrd spl€s (SitrsL [.ras. CoGlarion Cefiici€nl Dislanc') 

DendrcEl@ $uldn8 fron the hierehical cluld ealvss ror nerar '! 

goudwr.r spl€s (SingL li*ag' Corclation C@Ificidt Disbcc) 

S.ce plol gnph for pnnopal conlo@ts wirh itl eie'nlt1u6 for lap w'ret spl's 

Sc€e plot gaph for principal coEpoienls with ns eigenvalu* for grou'dwatd sples 

HQ for didd netats in uP Mld $mugh inecsr'on p6lhwar 

HQ for diffr€ metah in greun l*ater lhrcugh ingesliof, 9a$wav 

Co6pdbon of Tobl HQ of netals 

IDw rup of chlorefom in t8P saLr 

IDW bap of blomodichlorcd€lhm in tap wai€r 

IDW map of dibonochloometh@ n nP wat€t 

lDw map of Ni h tap Et4 

lDw hap ofc! in l4P {at r 

IDWdaPofctint P wai" 

IDW nap of Pb in sP vaLr 

tDW map ofCo in taP watr 

IDW bap ofMr in t P wtlct 

IDW mp of F. in i!! Mrd 

IDW nap ofNi in $oudwatet 

IDw nap of Cu in grcudwter 

IDW rup of Cr in ground*arc' 

IDw iap of Pb in gloudwter 

IDW n P of Co in grcud€d 

IDW oaP ofMn in Itonndwad 

IDW nap of F€ in goud*aier

CIIA.PIDR:l 

1.2.1 

t.2.2 

|.2.3 

1.2.4 

1,3.1 

1,1.3 

1,1.4 

L3,5 

1.t.6 

|.7.7 

l.4l 

1.4.2 

1,4-l 

Ll 

1,2 

1.3 

l5 

t,7 

l3 

1.9 

Il0 

i lI 

|,12 

|.13 

I14 

l.r5 

I l5.l 

L15.2 

Ll5.l 

1.15.4 

TNIRODUCNON 

TTBI.g OFOOtrTKIE 

Driddng-waG. @ntatraNts 

Micobiologicat @ltanimrs 

R diolocicd cdl.niMll 

Water lEalrnat pbds.s 

Coasdltion .nd flo@hnon 

Cnbftltion By-Poducls 

TrihrlorclhtB (THM' 

Halosldehydcs, EalokeloEs tnd Halo&eronitril.s 

Othd cblodnalion by-PN.d@E 

F&toB atranins .hldir.rion hy'pNdwls f@tion 

PH 

Ten|FntN tnd scen 

Conc.nlralion ed popdlies ofNoM (Olgdic Pddsot 

I 

2 

2 

5 

1 

7 

I 

8 

8 

8 

9 

IO 

l0 

t2 

l3 

l5 

t1 

17 

t8 

t8 

l9 

l9 

20 

20 

20 

2A

l I t.5 Conenlralion of chlorinc dd cidurl chbnn' 

I 15.6 Conentiaiion of Bmhide (lnotgadc precusor) 

Ll6 Mechdiso of lhc fomalion of THMS 

l.l7 H.5lth €flets of Trihatonetnds in dtinking wder 

I 18 smregi$ for THMS @ntrol 

CIIAPTER:2 LITERATTTII.ER.EVIEW 

2.1 Tihalohcthd€s in watet 

2.2 Tt@ det ls a&lysis bv FAAS ud ETAAS 

2.3 Ains &d obj6dlesoflhe pt€snl i'v€stigalion 

CqAPIER:3 E)OERIMENTAL 

Lr S.htioh ot smllina elc! 

r'2 Sdpl€@ll*m;and PGePariob lorl@chlonmdd THM 

ealys,s 

l.l Physico{henical study oftap warer d'l grcu'dwarer sdPrs 

1.4 CNorine alalyds 

I \ Re.cenls nd shdardi for IHMS dalvsrr 

1.6 Seple Pepdaion lot THM datY$s 

3.? lstrMenl2lion md dtllricsl conditions lor THM Mlvsis 

3.8 Risk alssor of TI IMs in dii'king wtler 

3.a thjsi.o_cheftra prcpc('e'oitalewaler 

s.lo Fm"tioMl'on dd;hdEiatrcnof erlhmrc &id fom 

Kenjh& Lak€ 

Lll Ree€ s dd stsldards for lr@ melak malvs's 

] l2 Supl€ ollston ed p@sdalion ror 1r@ mclar mrvsrs 

3 13 ltulmc ation md d.l!4ical eonditions for lne neials 

mlrs's 

3.lq Non;a@inosenh rist assesshcnt oftee met'h in dtiDlins 

3 I J OIS study oiTHMs md te n.tals in drinking watr 

2l 

2l 

2l 

22-2\ 

24- 2S 

26-i6 

t6,41 

42 43 

4l-M 

.16 

47 

48

CHAPIER:4 

1.r.t 

4rL 

4.6.1 

4 6.2 

4.6.3 

4.6.5 

4.6.1 

4.9.2 

4.9.3 

4,1 

4.5 

4.7 

a.a 

49 

CSAPTER:5 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

Physiochmic.l checLrisliG of Kenjhd r*e 

Fr;ctionalion md chdacreriatio. of$il bmic eid ton K€enjhe 

Physioch€hi.al study ot tap wet ! md $oundwaler sdples 

lrinabncthaB in ra! wder spl6 of Kmchi cnv 

rbdth dsk assessnent of THMS io drioling {ai.t 

Lif.rine @@r rtuts for THMS thrcqh diff€Ent expow 

\onca(mogdic nJls lot IHMS lhrough difTeFl erPorue 

TEce n€6ls in tap walel ed Coundwaler 

Mples of Kdachi citv 

Slatistrcsl data Mlysis for th€ trsfte of aace metals tap Mt'r 

'n 

a halh dsk assndt frcn expcN lo tme nelals vi! ing*lion 

oft p war.r s wll6 gloud{aicr 

G€oe&rbical infom!tron 3yskn (GlS) srudv of TEMS 

IDW oalrsis of uae nelds in 1aP wter 

IDw dalysis oftace dculs in grcudwa&! 

Concluions dd R.@tuendatoB 

TABLES 

RIFERENCES 

49-51 

52 56 

56-57 

5741 

6a-70 

70-72 

1316 

16-19 

79 80 

80 

30-81 

3t-82 

82 8J 

83 

8l-84 

8493 

93,98 

99-\02 

103,109 

I t0,t l6 

l1?-l l9 

t20-149

CIIAPTER: 1 

INTRODUCTTON

valer is mong the mosl bdic cquitenenrs for butM swivsl Adequre supplv of 

cled ed safc drinking sal€t is a lsduflulngllt ofall nman beings Hoqever' n 

is rlso a &cl that nillioN of Foplc all ovd th. *orld @ depnved of g'tting sarer 

whos. qulity h alpropnarc lor b!n@ uliliation dd for all dodestic ue' Imdequale 

suppty ofi6lorls ro the @ ofEw qater ol tor micrcbiologi@l quliq conhinarnB 

wirh v&ious ino€mic $d oigdic conlMinmls. dd possiblv contaihing signincet 

Sufacc *are. &d goulds €r @ 0E nxo mjor ssca of drinkins Mtd Sun&' 

warer i.cludcs rive6, lal6 md Esedois wh€Fd gound*ater is a esuce found under 

Gme.lwarer is pdp€d fron w€lls that @ ddll€d into aquife6, which ongimtc ir 

Binfall dd when srcw b.h.e dd pcrcol.ks doMwrdltough lhe eil from lhc lmd 

surfac. o! rh. bottoft of Mr* bodies to become 8toud wat ' lBovd' 2000l lr hales 

up 0.6% ofd. world s tolal *ater supply lB.lrd ttrd Cmr! 20051 

Surfa€e *a|c! &€ rcver @mPlelcly pw dhcr nor€.lsilv be@n' co d'oaEd 

becans. surfac. watet syst€ns re exposed to &id !sin, $om worer runotf, asticullural 

@ofr @ntainilg Fslicides, cblodnded hydtodbor *istd 6om cimical ind!$i's 

&1d heavy bei.l contaninatiotr jiom del6l pl6ting oPerations 

UMlly, gEu.dMer is $pposed lo be a comPmliv.lv pristine source of wars which i3 

cled.r and b.nr prcbcted thd surface ealer slppli$ lt is trorrct€d iom pollulion 

mosily by th. Ftml Puifting aclion oflh. soil and othd gslogical fomarions lhough 

which water Dun infilFar. b @h uddsrcund aquife6 lBovd' 200{l Howeler' 

exoundwarg in lmy aquifcts is contani@ted tlrcugh vdious secs also Sofr€ 

erewd*qter Mtnally co !i6 dishtd dm€nrs such s @nic (A5), boo' (B) 

seloium (sO, o! ndon (Rn) Unpoces*d or inprcperlv fteated muicipal sewdge is a 

tuin $lE of surf&e sltd ed grcsdsate! poll ion' NitEle conbminalion of 

lloudwaler roy b. cawd bv cxcesite ue of f€nilim GrcwdMter b als 

susept'ble lo be conbninal.d by P.sticidcs, which @ mobile in lhe $il Othe! so@s

of grou.l*at€r conMin {on @ l.!tag. of sd.reloud sloEgc tanls ed Plpine 

improp.r disposal or storage oftrast€s md ch€mical spills 

12 Drirkilg-wrl.. conltDmrlr. 

The contaainalion of wat€! h ! direcl indication of the lclel of polludon of rhe 

envircnmoi Airbome pollutan$ after flushine fron dte skies, FiNalF ln'EIIY wshes 

ovei the *tolc hud lardsPc be lorc Iding i o $e aquifer' $rem, riv'6 dd laLt 

th2r d. the euces ol drinlog_qater supplies lMooiq 19951' 

Wa|ei ca b. conrMinated al nwb.r of plecs duitg iB disttibudon dd befot' 

@hi.g lo tE @Nm.t. In .Hnr.ing ml.i- $hc polmdallv haados chenicah e 

orisiMte.t fron eithq th. lr€atnent chenicals o! coGtdciion mat'riah used in warer 

supply systens. Pip.s s.d h waEr supplv sv$ems w be calegonzd either having high 

@rivily, swh d ulrin d iNs or low Fstivitv, for exdpL polwi'vl chloride (Pvc) 

or nedim-dcNiiy polyerityld. (MDPE) ITmdi!'tr d rL' 2008; Ii'll'n 'r d ' 20021 

Brcleria ed oreei. m.ner nav tls li.quendv coat lh€ iFide of pip's viihln lhc 

disEibution tsls. Tn E is also a posibilil-! of the otrdne of tun_pollble *at" frcn 

th€ suouding .nvionne itto th€ diiribution svnen lT'nnircr 'l !l' 2008; 

Gulli.k er tL, 20041 lttrough lealage poinls fauhv sals and joinb etc 

lTrDEiftn .t .t , zlxt8i Krn.l.r .r .1.' 20011 

Drinling saGr cof,tsni@ts the€foR, is d emersing b$xh thle.| dd fts d'mdds 

serios atefiion e.t c@tu1 aci

danag€. reprcducrive disorde6 md bifih defecls. Codmonlv delNcd volltlle orgdrc 

coqrudr in dnfing *atd include ti€hlocthvlcrc (C:HCL) dicNoDmcrbme 

(cHrcll), benzene (C6H6), MTBE etc Trichlorcelhvlene (TcE) k usdd nainlv in drv 

clding ed d a elre for Bint fail, qd6 oil rubbq. painl &d v&nsh6 fld * 

& innalation dalgesic and ersihelic. Dichloon€thde t usuallv found in in*ctici'les 

painre. dcgEsing anl cl@ine nuidx d.l oder Pntducls 

oredr compound hdt is cd s u addntre in Petol 

B'Mene h ale a voladl€ 

ro incEM thc ocbe nnbs 

Amosph€ic dePosirion, sPills of p.troleM poducts sd ch€nical plant 'filu€n|s re the 

nojor &Lres oi beEenc i. watct. ContaniEtion of drinkinS qard rilh ivlTBE is atso a 

relativelv Ecent com€d. MTBE b ued 6 a 8a$line altdiive lcmhdn et ' 200t1' 

I roduclion of MTBE inlo sufM Mter $ou8! dischesFs o' frcm boals md oiher 

Êt 

wlddll &d into groundwater drcugh leaki'e ddereloud geline+lorage trn{s re 

a@utlble for do{Mmtol 6le dd o

studies also indicate thar PCBS d€ 6s@iared wilh cocs of the liver dd biliary 

i. hmN lN*nisni.rd snk.arrlu, l9ll. 

1.2.2 Inorgrnic.otrtrbirs.tt 

T@. oebls e tho* common polludts thal e g.rebllt distribul€d in the 

etrvnoment {ith souc6 nostly noh $. w.alheri.s of oioerals dd soih. It the past 

decades, humd iopu$ and aclivities lead lo i@ense incease in the lcvel of traoe netals 

in th. dvircmcnt. Heavy mdab cd otcr a water supply by i.dusti.l &d consmer 

s6L, malerials u€d d plmbing syst€h dd &om midic Bin bealdne dom soil ed 

elcasing healy melals ilto slreds, laLs, rivers dd groundwater Healy netrls tcnd to 

bio&cuula,Ie dd ale €u* s.io6 heahh etr€cL ilcluding r€duced 8m$1h &d 

development, orgd ddasq n.ruou systcm danase. cdcr dd in sere css dal 

caups dealh. Most oflhen.ho have a great affinny fot sultur ed attack sultur bolds in 

erzlmes, thd imnobilitng the.nz.mes. Polein ceboxylic acid GCO:rD od dino {_ 

NH, sroups e ale chedicauy boud by heaia hetah. The m4jor isks to hume 

health fron heavy melals re linlcd wilh exposue to codmim (Cd), lead (Pb), m.rcury 

(Hs) dd senjc (At F!rup, 20031. cadmiu (cd), lead (Pb), @ppd (cu) md mercur, 

(Hd io6 bind lo ell nembdcs md hird.r tne l'dspon Foccas.s $rcugh tlE ell 

wall. Heavy n.lds my also pEcipiiat€ phosphate bioconpou.ds or cahlyzc ther 

Som. of the mcialloids d€ abo signifi@l walr polluldls lik€ d.nic (A9. slenim 

(Se) md etimony (Sb) As.lic b introduced inlo uler through lhe ahosFhenc 

d.posnion, dis$lurion of minerals dd oes &d non indutrid .muenb 

EpidcFiological $udies har. suggest€d that 6enic in dinking waicr poPs substlntial 

risksof l$g,bladdcr,skinedkidney cmcer{Bofieit.. Nyberg. 2003l. 

C-vdides (CN) e ocGiomlly foud in dri.thne wr.t bul its prc*nce is m indicaror of 

a s.rios pouulion pobl€n. which h plineily 6 a conscquence of indusdal 

Hi8n€r concmtrarioN of nuodde (F) e t€quddy @iat d with und.rgrcund 

surces. Fluondes may ?nso eot ! a dver 6 a rcsult of indusrial di$harges Fluoide is

Me$ary for protection againt d.nal c&i€s ed w.ak€ling of the bon*. Howev€r, at 

bish co.@i6rion it c& hqve d ldv€F .ffsl on hMd lEalrh lt is ale eYidat thal 

fluorid.tion increses thc inciden . ol cd€r, hip fiaciurcs ed joi poblem Fluoosh 

al$ dr@s€s both r.dh and bon s 0(.nfi!$, 21,051 

N."irEte (NOi) is used m.inly in inorgmic LttilizeB, which is Eken up bv pldls dunn8 

rn n grc$1b bur the exc.s dmt readilt noY€s wirh grcundwt€t Us of anincial 

fenilirG dd lhe disposol of st s de th.!.fo!€ the most inporla.l facio6 ecounlable 

for rhc iocss in nilrat levels in goundwatr suPplies Th. concenfation ol niftle in 

s!rf4. $ater cN incPes d a esult of Etu* dmp tu_on asricultu l run-ofr or 

conrmimtion wi$ hlmd or eind {6i.s Tn€ bxicilv of dtrate to hu@s is 

excluilcty du. b irs cdrcrion lo dmle Oq} *hich rhu involv€s in the oxidation of 

nomal hsnoglobin to m.lhemoblobin, which t not calabl. oftrtusPoldng oxvS€n lo 

th€ tisEs Motovd, e Miatior b.tw! .xpo!@ to niuaE ed risk of bladd€t 

cscer is biologically plausible IZegeB el d., 20061 

PflhloEre dion (Clo.) in wr* suppli6 ha bdn shoM ro distupr dvoid a€riviq 

1.23 Microbiologi.tl cont Di.rtrrs 

Hwe ed dinal w6te conlaiG difieFn loms oi viral dd proroz@ PalhoSens lf 

hmd fecal maLrial dtc6 Mt i, ihe dsk of die$e spead drough drinldng wller is 

sEstly increded IB.yd, 20001. Micrcbidl contanimtion or watn cives nse b 

easfo.nhins. drsrcry. fasl dianhd. tlPhoid f.vd or hepltiF Mico6Dl 

conroi.mts aho have cdcinogenic polential Thercfore, parhogcs e usuollv 

66id.Ed a highd belth dst thd chemicris lAlbbolf, 200ri DffiD .t .1.' l99l 

The nosl abud&t of $e f*al indicator beteria n lhe colifom gbup Colifon 

b&re.ia DTificd by trcrer,.rla .o/t fI: @Iil dd Lcd sli.flecci m excEicd in me 

fees of hme ed otbd Mft-blooded dimals. t coli h th€ most specific md 

appopnat€ bq.t.rioloeical indicalor of aecal pollntion The @curen€e of a doli in a 

dnding water supplt rcquiEs immediale renedialaclion. I1Edololerafi coliloms de 

cobparatively l€s Eliabl. indicators of f*al pollulio! $r' t "1i but $€it ulili? tioh

fo. *dr qlrlity .xaoidrion is de @nsid.Ed &c'P!able' vat't q!2liiv bed o' a 

st nddd of hs lhe on€ colifom ter loonl n *adstic'llv safe for hmd consuPdon 

l\uro,19961. 

AlSaI tosi6 @ 8*!allv caLgorized 6 lr@toxbs or hePatoloxins lhar d podlced 

flom dinoflogellates, diarom. or cvmobad'rja (blue sten alsde) IRicbddon' 20031 

Btm6 of cyeobscldia m gcn allv ioud h lalcs dd Esfloi6 6ed fo! potabl' 

w1d supply. Cydotdcr€dal loxis cD atfect hul1r6 dtrough drinldng wter 

1.2,.1 R.d iologic,l .ont Eimrr! 

Radioacive subsances c @lv foud in dritling aaler' NaluEl occudence or 

@!M (U) in grcundMrer n dsiar€d with saitic @ks 4d orhd oin'dl depdis 

It is a kidney toxin [r!*.[ . l Nieu'€trhuile!, 2003t Radon (Rr) is a ddioedve gd 

fom d. tsult of mhlal btcar.toh (dli@ctiv' &c6v) of BdiutrL rdich b ilself a 

d{ay prcducl ofurdium. Radon is @inog'nic &d rh'rc is a @nvincing 'vid"e thal 

ndon caues lug cscs The sociaton b€Neen ddon dd clildh@d dalisrdcies i3 

ale Eponed in svdal sludid lKohli .l {' 20001 

t3 Todc .tf.ci of D.ld3 

Mecls e most litel, rhe old.sl roxins knM b hMes Toxi'ilv is det'mi"d bt do* 

a! the celluld level as well as factos such 6 lalenc' state and ligmd binding' lor 

ermplq rhe lival€nr +ei$ of chromiM e 'sctrtbl @e 'len€nl wh€r@ tn' 

hdavaLnt cbrohiu h hiSl v toxic Ligdd birding is possiblv th€ mosr tuldmenbl 

prce$ in Bd.l roxi.iiv md in celLule dcfense against nelals' The diol lismds of 

deDllothio!.in avidlv biffl a nubd of !oxi' retals 6 p'rt of a d'fe6' svst'm k'd 

anaches lo thiol ligsds on edlm€s iNolvcd in hem' sv hesi3' ufuiu to pho$hat' 

groups on glncose tansponert md triwlsl @nic to lhe thiol goups of dlpha lipoic 

eit! .ll lh* nclal lieand inl@tios udcdving loxic &riotr lKl.sc'' 201'll Mos 

mebls af€ci nultiple olge svst ns al higho do*s but al the lowest dos' etch nelal 

t nd. to .ILcr a sFcific orAe or risw otlv'

The nosl important latual solft of chonim enlrv inb rh€ walei bdies is the 

l*hing fton topeil md @ks. ChrcniM d$ erne6 sutfe' Baln ftod drhrepog'ni' 

euces slch s .ltrtroplaling faclori€s. l.xtil' mmufetuing indudes ed learh" 

l.m{ies. In Lp wster d. concentadon of cbtodiw ddv incre du' !o plmbing 

@dials. chromi$ in trivalol ad h'ravol€ fod is ol biolosical signi6cdc' 

lnrematio$l Ag.n€v foi R.*eh on cDcd oARC) h6 dssift€d chtomiun (vl) in 

cioup I (carcinogenic to hrns) md chrEiw 0ll) in clouP I (not clt$inable as ro 

their cNinog.nicity b hmet ChtoniM (VI) conpouds ce be cdcinosenic foi ln' 

b@ Gpnabry uacr. An 's$iaiion be$dn dposw to chrcnim (vl) ed cmcd 

of the sinonssal cautv G ds r@oned in flw studies lFlon' 

chrcmim also l€a& to tubul4 detosis IW.d*! ! Qim' 1911 

l.!,t :tictcl (Nt 

2000l AcuL cxlosE lo 

DnnhnS *ater contais !.rv snall domts of nickel Co'ce'tatio' of Ni in dnnling 

watd ruy P6sibly b€ incc@d if aw wacF e pollutcd bt 6tur5l ot indusinal nickel 

d.posirs or if l@hing tom nicldthroniw Plarcd llps dd finiry ttt' PIa6 '{RC 

hs cldsiii.d nickel (lI) comPouds 6 hde dciloss (GrcuP 1) dd mehllic dck'l 

6 posibly cdcinogenic to hunms (GouP 28) ls'lnikor rnd zhitkdl'b' 2003l Toxic 

.fecls of nickel it tu e relarcd 1o de@al lug and ngl slns 6c€s 

lAbdunr[i d rl '20081- 

1.33 Cobt! (Co) 

Coball' in th€ fom of @baldia is e.senlial @nPon' of Yihin Btr r€quEd for 

the produdion of red bloo

l3.a copp.r (cu) 

Copp.r is a lulriliomlly csdtial elhdi lt is t djnor cotutiln nl ofmtudl qateE bur 

the con@ lation of copp.i in the wat€r dblribudon svsten nav €xceed due to fi€ 

corcsion of coppq piFs. Intate of dritking water wi1h.l.vat d copFi conc'nrations 

@ induc. cpieatic pdin. MUse4 vonidng ed dish.a lPizrre 't il' l99l 

Epidemiologic sdies havc nol foud my Fhtior ben*en coPps exposw dd c&cer' 

rJ.5 Iron (Fe) 

k6 is a vnd .bndt it hum trutrition Cst ioq slel ard galv&iad ion PiPe e 

th€ princip.l so@6 of imn i. dinking ward diributid svst ms. Iron in drinling slEr 

promotcs lhe gov"Ih of ircn bactqia dd sulfatc_Edrcing b&lena. Concetuation of ircn 

in exc.ss of 0,2-0.3 ng L L my caue nuience, althousn tu Prc*nce do6 not affecr the 

try3iflic quatiry of mrer lM.ri.ri 

13.6zitrc(z!) 

.t rL, 2ll09l 

zinc is also & esential cl.nent involved io nerabolic tunctions in hm&s ln nannal 

sufe. w|e! n is foud in lace mous bul lhe concenlralio. ofzinc in tap Mter hay 

inc@s baase ot the l.4hing of tnc loh pipiry ad finings Zinc hd ben fomd b 

have low toxicny to mm but prolohced cotsuFPlion of lrge doses of zn cau's fstisue 

dizjnc$, dd !.ntroFnis IAbd hni et .1.' 2008i Atofolu .t .l ' 20051 

Lead conc.lt61ion in oaiural sud&e wats is gencrallv snall bul lhe conc.ntBtion @t 

inclles ar ln€ consm4\ lap Th* de nMber of fadore rcsFonsible lor the incresed 

oMtrario. of l€ad in raP war.r ituludiDa lachrng of lead ion PvC piFs wh@ il is 

e-it s st bilid or lttough the co@sion of Plmbing 

haienals ontaining lead 

ll-evin .t .1., 200S1. Lead loxicit hd a .ffcct on th€ henalologic. leEl md neuologic 

systems. Chrcnic, lo*-l.vel l*d expdue plodues glon'ruldr ad obuloi eulit'al 

chans* dat leads ro Clycosuio, ptureinuia, hvFiension 'nd 

chrcnic enal lailue The 

rmroxic .ffrc6 of lead e pelhtp6 itE h.si lnon dd studi.d lsatrbon d 'l ' 2002,'

The rARC h6 @ncludcd dat t[e evid.nc for th€ cldnoe'ocnv of lead dd dorgdic 

l.ad @mlouds in hMs is insumcid lcidld' 20041 

l 4 wrr.r trcddenl Proc.s3B 

Tbe application of watq teahrmt t chnoloSv is no1 a nodem idovation Th' u' oi 

cheool filtes, stliniug d*t qposw lo sotighl lo inPrcve rh' &srh€fcd quah' o' 

dn*ing *or€r ha ben p@dced for a vcry long dme lAnboft"' 20041 

TIE nhdaaenlsl obj.ctive of Mler tr€aft.nt is io nale w1e' efct 10 lhe @nsMetr bv 

remoins palhogcns dd inpuities that miSl b€ hmtul to the hwm healtb ln 

conleolioml waler teatnenl svst€ds coagulation, flocculation dd edimendion' 

foUo$rd by filffition e uFd fo. rn cmoval of color ad paniculale nand including 

pmro@ vills, bdlclia ard oihd mic@tga.ntu M6smse ion' 6t6 and odo6 

6ay als be enov.d Eon rhe vater bv lhs$ pffiess 

1.4-r Coagulrtion .td floc.ultlio. 

NaMl *atd co.hins sal ldticulat*, which de sspend'd in MEr fom'ne a 

colloirl. Th* pdicl.s catv the se chsg6, cotrsqE lv EPulsion pElo6 uBm 

froD mnbilirg i o ldg€. Particdates A .oagutel is ih'efoE 'ddcd b neu6ltc the 

ch&s€s on pdticles Alusinim sdiat (slun) is ! co@on @agulet which @cts *irh 

water to fom floca of alwi ud hvdrcxid. ton_b$ed coasulmts likc feric chlodde or 

fedc sulf.F nat al$ be used d coagulanh Coagulaion Poc'ss cd al$ b€ Nd lo 

@nol dtuat orgeic @ner (NOM) in w e' Fedic oaertdts e'oeallv pdomd 

bcner tbd dM .t low.r PE for ihe EFoval of disinfdtion bv'ptod@t preu@B 

luy* 'ld loo4 20071 

In 1he flocculadon prccess Patticl.s fo@ed dunng the coaguladon stlge dc 

sgelon rated into ldger padicl€s lo foft enlable ed /or nlt.Eble fla patlicles 

Flodulols ft ehPlov.d 10 inc€e lh. si2c, strengrn md setl€abilirv ol flocs SEch 

&d o'nriply chlgc

S€fil€able locs @ allowed 10 

dr. concentation of sNP€nd.d 

be depositd during th€ edinentation pro@s' lt edoc's 

solids th3i nusr b. r€norcd by fillN lwHO' 19961 

Sed nltaton b ue

v) Ir should nor c@e the water to becoDe toxic or upalalabl' 

vi) A disini*tanl should tunction within $e t nperatue dngc of lbe wat€r 

vn) lt should b€ 6y b detemin. iB concentr.ton 'n oe waEr 

vni) A disinJacrdt shodd Prcvid. Esidual Pdt'dior aeninsl teontdt@lon 

Th. disinl€r.nt mosr @@onlv ud is chbnne Albhariv' disin'dla s re $e 

chflicar subsifc.s cllorine dioxide, chlo@ite &d oDne sd lhe 'on_chenicar 

disinf{tion qith Uv i@diatio. 

1.5 Cblo.in. dioiid. (Clo1) 

in gdm6 fom lof bactenal 

Chlorire dioxidc is d etr€ctive disinf.cta.t" @d 

dm ani$don lMd.ghil er rl,2008l clq @ be ge@€cd by th€ @dion of 

chlorile s6 sith elid edi@ hwG otjt o'Iaclq) 

!r is hishly watd eluble ClOr is a $ong oxidindg asent Th' oxidizing md 

disinfslio6 pbFnis of ClOr G k Pl *ithin a wide pH mse (4 to l0) lM'!'ghh el 

.L 20081. h is 6.d aor lhe ontrol of ion neeane ed llavor dd odor cNins 

@mpouds lM.n.gbb.t rL,2008; vsh.tli €t.l' 2005l ClO: is also Eed lbt 

@ovd of biolilms in pi!€ sysrem (Lcsionclla Pobl@) IB'rsh'rn '!d Koptnlr 

2005t. 

clo, is about th..quivddt of fte chloijn in ttc h}?ochlooc did (HoCl) fon bui 

nuch noa .mcian thd $e bypochlorit. fod of 6ee cnbrinc lAth d rL 19821 

owine t') thc gFdter oxidadve capenv ofclG th,! chlonoe (cl:), it is a noE etretive 

oxiddl in lowr conenlnlioG ClO: also mainlai4 fl &tive Esid@l in Potable *Eter 

looeer 0M chloriG do* lchercbiti.oft 

p@UMrs ro foft lrihalomethdes 

lNoClOr + Clr - 2ClOr + 2NaCl 

2002l h ale doe' nor Eacr wid orcar:c 

D€@nposidon of CIO: tak€s place ud* ultlaviolel lidl ClO: eho iods ilorgm'c bv- 

Diod@s (chloEte dd cNonte) upon i|s Gaction with $ah coNtnknts lvolk 'r rl'

20o2i 8.omr d rL, l99rl. ctonre (Clql is fom.d a . 

reduction podud ir oxirlrtive l@tioE in {hich CIO: lake pdns 

ClOt + e'* CIO! 

lcoun dd.i l9E!1. 

CltoFr. (Clorl fodltioi occE minly by. dhproponiomdon @ctio! ofclo: $at is 

cablyzed by uliravioLt light, thN Srving tie one nol€cule ofclor-@d one nol*ule of 

CIO' p.rlwo 6oleul6 ofCIQ lcolri.l ,19621. 

So@ contu bave b.a Bis.d ov{ po$ibl. h€lth ef[4c of th* Djn d.gtadtnon 

by-pod@r. chlorile (ClO,) dd chloFt (clorl io4. IrE bxicological cf!.cis iiom 

exposw to ClOi ftr. linl.d with th. hmopoietic sysl.n. Low leveh of ClOi mv 

c.@ ha.nollaic a@nia ileug! oxid.tiv€ ddugc to tne €d bl@d ell n.mb!@. A1 

hietrd ldcli ft @ ee d inc@ in b.lhmoSlobin ClOi c& al$ ind@ .ffecis u 

lhe nflo6 syslems in inldls add youg children [v6.t.tti .t .L, 2005l fot lhe 

elinihatio. of CIO? thc ue of sdn!-b6.d r.ducing ae.nts, gr&uld acdvat.d cdbon 

(cAc). ed fe@u ioos rc invesrisatd. Howvd, f€tuus iotr hav. b

Mo@hloFnin. dd dichlot@ine & gencdllv poduc'd in the pH m8e of 4 5 to 8 i' 

Mon6hlodin Eually disrt alorc, al pH above 85 Howver' belov pH 4d 

uichlordine is gmdted Nittose. trichloridc 6av be deltidcnlal to bum&s 4d rt nav 

also inpan . disagreeahle lastc 6d odor to the water' 

Cnbdi.6 e fieqEnrly uted s $ondary disinlect2ds lor dnnking wat'r beas 

dEy providc ! residul fd porccrion of thc distriblrion svsEm Thcv eliminal€ 

unplesdt t&nes sd odor condftions ass@iatd *i1h chlorine Tle halflife of 

c orein s in water is 8r..te! thm thal of chlorin€ b'cau3e fEe chlori'e b hidlv 

dimBibL lP.E-Gtrcn dd Rodirsud'B.nlte, r99l ll ttlo rcdues rn' fomation or 

o€aic chlorinaBl onpourds suc! 6 urhatonethG lP'Ecarcir 'd Rodnqla- 

Bcnila,19991. 

CI ()@in6 tak€ longcr lime thfr chlorin. for eff*dve dtinfrclion lt is ale less 

efre.tive rhd chlorine in d.4rilaring viNs bacreria ad Oiardia 

Ozone (Ot is e unsrable 8s, which h fom.d bv passing dry air ttrongh 6 svsten oI 

hieh votra8. cletrod€. h is paniatlv eluble in waier- Th' 6lie$ s of Or ws D 

Fruce, in 1866, when dc Mdiem @nllmtrl tbat dilut' ozonized sir could sl'riliz 

pollut€d wder. 'fte fist ddnring walet lt.ahenl plel to use Or qs constndea n 

Oudshom, Holtmd in l89l lch.noitinoc 20{21 or was 6ed for dtinfeclio' bul 

tab it' appli€atios hnvc ctp4ded ro induc' Movd of bstc odor alstc color and 

or ds as. powe!tul oxidizins agdt ed disinf€ctins asent lBo{'cquttl2006l or is 

very effcctive i! inacti!6ting dtltospoiidia {Boucqlilri' 20061 Or is caPdble of 

rducitrg $e odor ird@d fron *tuclluld ptudsls contajning in algae htdmg€n 

sulnde, sd aldehyd€s ed phenols in dri.king wter' Th' bdcLn€idal 4rion olor is 

Elatively wllerd by chdgcs in PH while chbnne efiicacv is stonglv dePend"t on tne 

pH of the war€t [Che..6i!i.oll, 20021. lt hG ben SeGtsllv &d for th' co'uol of 

EilDlon thrles dd orhd disidetiotr bv_Prc

T!. c6t of o@Gtion is compdativ.lv highr ths chlorinadon The disinf'dion Pow'r 

ofo3 b,lso limit.d by il3 rlstiv.ly lo* solubinv in eat.r [M'n'bt!' l93l O] dpidlv 

d.srads to oxygo &d Mlr ii tEat d ddiling wal( dd tnw povides oo ldtog 

dBinfect&t rcsidugl lB.k r.t .1, 20021, thdeioe po$chbnnaion hav bc equ'rcd 

M6y ino4di. sd oi8&ic ozomtion by'poducls have tko b€en idcntified ozon' 

ela&d by-poducts conskt ofcdbodv 4ids .poxid$, pdoxid6, aldehvd6' kdon*' 

qlinon, ph.nols dd bonimt d otgdics IH{.l.1., 1999i J!r!'lo 'r 'l' l'891 

Oadrion of brcmid.{onbining watds c& oxidi& rha bronid' ion (Bi) lo bonat' 

G'o5) Foor.q !ti, 200.6l Bfor' is clsitied 6 a srcuP 28 Pobable hme 

cdircsd lRo.bl .l .1.,1)021. Und.r hiSncr pH @ndidon o@6tion Podu@s high* 

Brq- @ncocarioB. It lh. pEeicc of Bi 6d mhdt o4r.ic mtd (NOM), ozo@tion 

@ lad to $. fodnnion of bomofom (CHBrt) ed oth.. btuninal.d bv'Prcduts 

Icr.rrsh d .1., 19921. lod.t 0orl is s inPondt bv-produci fom'd duog 

o&dion of iodid*onilinin8 *ar6 lodarc is lresfomed bact( to iodidc 0) 

.ndostricdly. th.€fot n is ao1 odidctld Preblcnaic 

duins @natios pbcs Chlod. it onlv fodcd if a P@xidrltion 

cnbrine diorid€ hB bcd cdi.d oul lG!...!, 20031. 

2 Or+ CIO - 

2 O:+ ClOr 

Chlodd€ clNt bt oxidiz'd 

b, chbnne d(yo! 

Ultaviotet (W) disinfeion is n@h moE clEctiv. thd chbnnarion ror $me 

Flhogc6 (CryprcPoddim, .nt ovi@t lA.Lboltr t4; Mog.nd Gcrbr' 19951 

A faidy lov do* of Uv lirh @ kill 99 p€cnr of $e colifom md fdal 

'€l 

sn.pr@dcs lch.rEililofi, 200?1. ll L efl,.4v to w, sd fte ofch'hi@ls ll also 

das nor orcdue t ste tnd odor. UV dilinf.clioo does noi pFd@ disinfelion bv' 

Drodkls. Simultad@G lFdhcnt of w{er *ith Uv md oane $ulls in higber 

micoorssftm ldus tho in&Fn.t nl traimmt wit bo$ uv dd oane A @mbinaion 

of ulraviolct lighl md ozon d.strcys DOT, fr.lathio! dd oih.. pesticidcs

The main disadvdt.ge ofUV u.aheni h lh.ldk ofresidualdisinfectio! lt us@llv hd 

lo be used in.osbinotion with a econtt&v disinfedmt, eg chbnne' or 

monochlordine, in ord.! to prcl! t lhe dishibution svsten dd to prcved ECrcqd of 

nicoorgdisN. The eilicidcy of UV trearhe.t cs aho b. educed in the pEsence of 

hish levels of suspended solids, tu$idny, color, ot solublc olgeic naner n *are! 

The chlorimdon ofdlinldng watc! hs b.en cff*tiv.lv used lor the conl.{l of walerbom€ 

infeciios dise* for n.&ly a c.otury lBull .l r[' r95l Thc introd@don of Mter 

chlorimtion s a standard ftah.nr @hniqu€ hd undoubEdlv contibured ro lhe 

Educton of ttphoid fever nonalily lscho.n.& 2002l Chlorind is the mosr conEon 

disi.iectanl becaue it is lhc ledt .xFtuive of all th. .nemical disinf(unt! chbnne 

ued for &rer dbinf.cdon B available in thE€ lod3 i.., s a liqrcfi€d compcsed 86a 

c,lciu hr!@bbnt in e6uld dd bbl.l foms aod 6 chlo.ic bl@h eluljon 

Sodiu hrochbnt€ it comonly Ef.dcd !o 3 liquid chbnre bbch 

Who chloiin€ is added lo wrd. il Epidly hydtolvz.s ecotding io lhe r€actron 

H}?ochloNN dd (HOCI), 

CI?+ 2H:O- HrO +Cl + HOCI 

lh. hydblt5is prcduct of chonne, 

HOCI +HrOr HrO' +OCr' 

'Irr€* two ch.mical sPeci6 fom.d by chlonn. 

s free available chlorine lMm.hn, 19931. 

(!ii) 

(,iii) 

The addition of sodiM hrTochbnle $lution to wtd r.sults in thc fomorion ol HOCI, 

NaOCI + H,O + HOCI + Na'+ OH' 

The addition ofcalcim hypo.hlorit€ to wal.I also le.ds to the fomation ofHOCl 

lt5

Ca(OCl! conlaiG aPPrcxinatel! ?O percd available chlonne wh'l6 NaOCI contains 

5 per6r ro l s Frceot .vailable chbnne (Ch.rebhitoft' 20021' 

chloriE is ! tu4 oxidizins ag.ni trd U.€foF t @d h tb' Emoval of iro' md 

nsSoesc fron wat€! h is also uerl for the deslruclion of usle dd odoFca6in3 

Th. mount of chlodn added to the svs.h is Elted t'l"i" dose Tn' momt of 

cblou€ vhich is cosumed in lh. pocess of oxidizinS inPuiti$ in the *at€r is rfeftd 

n 6 chto/itu denlnd Chlorire r4il,al is rhe mosl of chlorin' Eminiog af'd lh' 

demdd is sadsi€d Ispe[n'r,2007] world E€ahh orgeiation (wHo) scl the fre 

chlor$ Biduat in ddnlDs vald should b. Nund 0 2{ l n&rl ior l0 ninules conEcl 

dde lslrb.tly .d Kritnmi.n, 2n07l Conbitud tutid&t i $e onbin'lion of irce 

chlorine with.itroe€n compounds Conbi..d esiduals e also called chlordines The 

matheoaricdl combinadon of fte and @ftbin€d esiduars is leoed I totol chlorin' 

/ddral [SP.flba!, 200?f Bredlqoin chlorinatioi is rh' ren applied 10 lhe pMess in 

vhich ooug! chbnne nust be ldded to lh. qtld !o prcdrc' t point at sbrch n'e 

conplete oxidalion of otogen codFutrds is Fs'hed i'e dv r€sidwl b€vond 

brcakpoint is g€netally fiee chlorine !.*.hlorine h$ the hidtst disinfectiog poe'! 

Hovever, high does ofchloiine aPplied during disinfection mav esult in esidMls $al 

e .stheically objstionabt.. Thccfoc io mi niz' th€ eff@ts of frce ldd conbincd 

chlorine rsiduals. lt.rlri.dto, is perfoded' It dav be @ied our bv th' Eacdon of 

Fsiduat chbnne witn a duing agent or bv the ad$4rion on od reeioh willl 

erivated cdbon CohPouds seh d .di! diondc (SOt)' ediun hsulfil€ (Na[SOr) 

and sodium ihiosulfare NarSzOt e cohmodv us'd for dechlolination Puaose For 

.ranple wh.n SOr is added to w.ler, sulfms a€id h fomea shich disiales to fod 

hydrcg€n $lfi1e (HSOrl, viticn in nm Eets wilh ft4 od ohbined chlorine 6idul 

to fom chlonde ald sulfa& io6. Sq ed also remov's non@hlordinq dichlomine 

ed otrog.n liicbbndc 

cdocl), + 2ilro r 2Hocl+ ca:'+ zoH

FE. chlorif €d @ct *ith NOM to gendl. toxic halogdaEd drsinfdllon bv_pmducrs 

lvolt.r tL, t0o2i Rook, r9?Tl Thde chloi'at\ed dbinfection bv_Piodrcls iDduce 

geroroxic / Futreenic eileds lcNtavino et .L 2005; M'ler et al' 1986i Agafld 'nd 

N.ro!, 1989i woo.trrf .r !L, 20011. The se ol chbn@t€d dnnkiry water is tbund ro 

b. Fsialed wilh in@ed risk of tne @cer of th€ uitsv md sdlrci csrinal Flc 

IMonrrc! cl rl.,2004; ctblor' 1997i Koiv6tlo et 199?l Th' rclddon belwn 

'l' 

dBinfKtion by-Poducts in dnnlinC mlfr dd spo $eou abonion &d olhn 

Fpoduclive dd developn€ al edes is 'le irresliS'@d in fc$ eDideniologi$l 

studi.s lNi€uwenhuijs.n et rl ' 20001 

l.l0 Cblori!.rioo Ey-Produca (CBP!) 

Disinfeclion wi$ chlonne is co$idedd inpondl o prvent micmbiological pathog'6 

fron .dendg .lrinLing warc! However, in l9?4 R@k r'poned the fomltion of a wide 

mg. of po€mially h.allh 3ig.ifi@l disi.f.ction bv-Podncb s a Gslh of cl onBtion 

of drinti4 Pdle. ltuct.tdon' 2003; Roolq 19?4l ldentificalion of c orimted 

disinfation by-Foducts md pot€ ial h.al$ h@ds ss@ided {irh th'm raied a major 

con d or the bsldcinS of th. bxicodvnmi6 of lh' chenical sP'ci's 4d risk lom 

padogenic microbes in the dlinling ster supplies lcop't et tl ' 

z00Tl Trihalonelhles 

(THM' dd haloac€tic acids (nAAs) N rhe two najr clases o' disidection bv_ 

pod@s Guatly fourd in sares disinf4t€d with cNonne Oth'r cliesonca of 

chlonMrion by_Podlcis @ haloaldchvdcs, halok€tones {HKt halo4etonnrihs 

(HAN', ciloopicin, chlorcPh.nols dd MX 

l lI Tri!,loD.lh$$ (ltlMt 

THMS weE th. ii6t category ofdisinfection bv_poducts identified in waler lNikol'ou €l 

rl., 20021 THMS e halogcn{nbsdturcd sinsl€

omide concentradon od consiitutes aPProxi@relv 90e, of lhe THM conc'nrarion 

Isrdiq.l .1,,2()l,21. HoEv€t, wft ebatcd bronide concenlation, tbe brchinared 

tihalon.thdes roy be fmcd .r lels conFEble |o or excedinS thlt of chlorcfom' 

1.12 E.lo.celic ocldr (EAA!) 

nAAr b€lorg to lhc non-vol.tilc fractioN of chlorimtion bv-prcducls dd de g'nedllv 

rhe seconl pcdoninst grouP of disinfdtion bv_prcducls in chlonnat'd drinling waler 

HAA posss nron8 eidic od hydrophilic ch@rer' Tne conc' raion of HAAr in 

dnnbng wld nay enetinet dcad tho* ofTHMs. de!€ndine on PH, dd al$ on the 

Mt@ of oieoic mattc! oflh. watet. Monochloroac€tic acid (MCAA) otacks skin eves 

&d Espirltory syscn lNikol.ou .i rL, lg99l Dichloro&etic ocid (DCAA) &d 

ricbloroeetic ocid (TCAA), thc doniml n.mbes ot HAAi @ nepa$minogenic in 

rcdents lNchoo d.1., 20011. 

1.13 g.lo.ldelryd6, Erlok io!.t (EKt). t gtlosetoritrilg (HANt 

Haloaldehydes. haloketores ed haloeetonilriles de groups of volalil' chlodnatcd bv_ 

po

acids IE y4 er .L 1986l DCAN h6 bfrn Gvealed to be nuils€nic in bact'rial dsavs 

wh.r.6 rrichloro.cetoniitile athcks ev6 Md skin lNikol$u tt l99l HANS ha!€ 

'l ' 

ale ben found lo d.trEgc DNA ofiice lNikolrou.t.l.' r99' 

r.14 Orb€rcltlorinrtioo by-produc$ 

Otha cblorin iion bt_prodwls irclld. b,loniirob.th'n* haloniuiles, h'lophflols dd 

halofudo@s. chloropicrin oi $ichloNnittnethde b€longiog lo halonilrohetlanes' is 

dothd cohpoud belongine lo voldilc CBPS *bich is sudlv d'ie'r€d in chloMidted 

qtc6, bu als e\sE 'n chlomatd $ats Like haloaldehvdes hdloi'bnet ad 

haloaceronih.es, chloopdns k tl$ Ep:db iomed 6 son aq $' Lar'r is 

ctdori@t rt. then eilher dqv tluc to hvdmlvsh dd caclioG with Gsidul chbnne' or 

th€v co6isl int @edialc @npou& $at de finallv conven€d b THMS or HAAS 

tl,okk$,2(x)31. Chlorcpicin anacl$ rsPnatory sysid,ldgs, tves and skin lNikolror 

.t rL, 19991. The haloniuil6 cydoscn cbloridc ed bremide w€E obsfl'd b fom wnh 

a great .xtenl in chlormioated waler supPlies 1nd chlorinaled wateN Fom 

chlorooh.noh, 2,4-dichlooph.nol ed 2,4,6-iichlotoPbdol re th' mosl ondon 

sFci6 n cblodEd dt'nln8 was llerb$ 2lDJl Tlc hvdorlfwotr' compoud 

rchlorc-4.(dlchloomebvllthvdroxv'2_(5H)-n'4one colled "MX" h foud in 

chloii@led drinlhg *ald with much loffi conenFatioN thD othct bv-Pnnuds of 

poi.ndal co@h. Tbe ftjor pecuMd of MX se hmic acids ed dino acids pcsdt 

in nrtuEl waler lAldu.j.t.ki ud NMrucki' 2003l MX is classilied as s diecl ectDg 

n agd lN.trji6. .r .1.,20051 

1.15 F.ctor afi.cri4 chlorin.liotr bv-pmduc& fomttiotr 

Thc fotudon of THlvts, HAAS &d ofid.lisinfdnon bv'prcduds (DBPt i! drinrihg 

wter supplier de aff.c'ed b' s.veral febb ududing PH conk time warer 

renpeBturc bd sc&n conc.nuanon dd ProFnres ofrhe orgd( pr'eMr nakndls 

(NOM), @n@tadon or €hlodne &d etidld cblotire' dnd conenfation ol bomide 

tNlloho! .t 'L r999l

l.l5.l pH 

THMS fomarion inc@s wilh irciEainS PH. 

mqinized at low wat€! pH. At hien pF valn€s, 

hydlolysis lNikol.ou 

€t a[' 19991 

whscs &€ lonadon of HA-{s is 

HANS sd ltKs decal s a rcsult of 

Higher conce raiion of THMS dd tldAs occu with m increasing Eaclion nne' 

Motov4, HANS dd HKs hav. b*n found lo ddav virh @tion tim' 6 a Esuh or 

htdolytis ed rcrciio6 qith rctidual chbnn' Nikolro{ 't 'L r99l' 

1.15.3 T.nperrtur. dd lesotr 

Tlr @ncdtEdon of chloDmGd disinfe'tio! bv'pmducs (CDBPS) d 'tpeteo ro @ 

bghn in ,Um.r thd ir winb betw *hen MPedF 'uo's cacrcn5 m f6h 

ed a hisld cbloin€ dose is requircd {NiLoltou €t d l999l Ho*ever' erevacd 

tenpedrw also resulb in fder deconposition of Eibrcmoeelic aci4 HANS and HKs 

Th@ n de a s@nsn vDation in $c THM fomadon ln sumner and fall du' ro noE 

oErnic Mffi ie g l.*6 dd oth'r veeehon) m surfee wtEr $eR Gn'15 o be moR 

rsittu.l olgsic Mncr in the drinldng sar'! wni'h'when r€dct wilh clnoti'e'lcads to tne 

fomaLion of THvs For lhe sme rcs'on chlorination ol8rcud uat'r prcdue! verv 

lor or u

1.15.5 Concntntiotr ol cblotir. .rd didrd cbloo.. 

IncdinS r!€ cblonre d@ and bi8! asidul chlorire in sater' ince$s the 

'omauon 

of THM3 ad HAAS lltr€fo!., tE fottDlion of DBP dav ale Gdu€e bv lorenng lhe 

cl orine dosag.. Horeve!, limi€d fonation of som€ olhd DBPS cootinues du€ lo 

hydolysis E*tiof lNikol.ou 

Cl rl.,19991 

l.15.6 Cohetrimtior olBtuoid. (Irorg.ni. prc'u6or) 

Bohide is @6idered b be a 6Dd.oe al inorgoic pecusor for DBPS MoE 

brcnidar.d dd nix€d chloo'bDno d.riluives e io@e

io lom kero dboxvtic eids. dearboxiation cl oridri'n 6f tbe 'nol lbd of tne 

rsulling ketone ed beqt'lvz'd hvdretvsis of th€ tricttlotoncthvl keton' Th' lai 

two s€Ps ofrlE s.qence @ Ffdcd to alhe halofofr rc'cdon The nechm'sF or 

rh€ @tion k complicared dd nuhipL chlorofom path*avs de posible lobon et 'L' 

20011. Howd, 6uhs ol rrc labeling snldi$ hav' showed rhar sll of $e halofom 

@bon oligrnat€s frod ihe etilaled C2 cdbon of th' l'lditvdsxvben2ene lolsoo 'r 

!l- 2001i Boyce .nd Eor!'9,19831 

c! , 2H1O+ llocl +Hro- + c () 

tncr,coccr :orccrtco,x _:!9+ 

ixcrpoccr:cucncq 

cr,:coccr :cucHch 

incrrcoccr :ctlccttcota 

1.1? I|.!tb .fiecG of TrihtloDetitnts in drirkiry w'lel 

;;';.;;,;;" -. **t.*'ar studies have supPoncd th' hvtoihesis oi ! Pos'lve 

.1"*"i"L,""." t"t' t"*u in ddnling wdcr dd @ccr ocu@ne lcttro '!d 

*",,rt. ,rao, "-*. 

ixct,coco :ctcuc" 

o" t i".r, c:HcHc:ccrto: 

t tnt bla

sMies lcritor €t .1., 199; cmto. et rl., l98i llild4b.in ei il., 19981. It 

's 

preFnred n\at lherc may be d aPproximai.ly 10 to 40% .xcess rist oflhe cahc€u olthe 

bladdd dd color€clm due to the hieh€t cxposud to THMS in dtinkins qaler lDovle et 

d., r997i Morris .t .1.! 19921. 

ExposuE to THMS is al$ found !o b. assciated wnh adv.lse reproductrve ourcon€s 

IBieloeier d al.,20041. Waller el al. epon.d lbat incrca.d sponbn€ous abonio. rates 

e rlated wilh high THMS level e75 Ag L') and daily consumption ofat leasl five 

glds* ofcold lap water lBieln.ier c(.1.,200.1; Wrller et tl., l99a]. Neutal lube 

defects. lo{ tem bir.hweish, uterine groMh r.bdation, ed alleration ih me.stual 

crcl€ e also fosd to hale a linl wilh THMS lBi.lh.ier.l.L,2004i Aschergmu el 

.L r93i Bov..t rl,,1995i Dodd!.nd King,200l; Grlkgher et.l,,1998i looe cDd 

Py..h, l99i Knn.r .r .1., 1992; WidhrE .t .1,, 20031. Vdou stdics have al$ 

sugecsied d ssi ion bcts.6 THM expGw md thc risr of birtn d€f6rs including 

lhe nsk of uiuta t.cl, EspiBro.y synco, &d major qdiac dei46 lHwrg .t .1., 

2002; tu.nmgnu .t .L, 1993i aov..r.l,1995; Kloe tld PyNh,199; M.9u3.l 

.L, 1991. Magns et al sudi.d $c ElatioNhip betw... wter chloiinarion dd ad!.N 

pEgmcy oubomes in NoNay and found & ,ssiarion b€rwe.n THM qPosure dd 

rcural tube dd uinary tr&t def.d5 in ftwbons lHwtrS.l .t,2002; Mqrut .. rL, 

19991. 

On the bsis of sumci.nr didencc of cd€imgc.iciry in .xpe.imenlal simals bul linited 

didence of cdcinogmicny in hmes, CHCIr G cl&sin.d 6 possibly cminog.nic lo 

nme (Grcup 82} Most of the .pid.miological studies slgg6led thar long erposue ro 

CHCIr lo@ed in dri .ing watq s a esuh of chlodetion, nay case a sligh .isk of 

bladde!, .olon, ed Ecral cacer lEbbortrE/, 

$e heallh of fie f.tus becase tr&spls.nt l migdtion h6 ben shown (o occu in 

als 

20031. cHclr may ale hale m efed on 

hulMs lwright et d., 20031. Srcnodhhlorom.thme (BDCM) is also cldsified 6 a 

possible hme cdcinogen (82) INok6, 20031 Dibrcm@hlorch€tbee (DBCM) dd 

brcmofom (CHBrr) @ careeoiized in group 3 due to tbe inconclusive senoioxicny 

Ivirna .t .1., 20091, Receni sludi$ have proposed 1hat exposue ro bionimt€d 

fiihalomethu€s poses ! greate! health risl thh .xposuc to CHCb lcetef €t rl,, 20041

Mutagenic acrivrry h6 also be. idc ificd wih brominaled THMS loolfinopoulos, 

20031. 

l.l8 Stnt gi6 for Tril.lon lb!6 .olttol 

TlE ccuM of tinalom.lbG i! $!t!r 6 b. cortroled by eilhq Emoving ilc 

THMS prcUN6 or by rcoovilg tlc THMS oN. they e fom€d. 

Erneced @agdation leadr ro both tudidity ad NOM FDoval. Enhtucd coaguhtio! 

involv.s Fl..lion of the nosl appropliaa @gulf(r, niehd dosg6 of lhe coagulM$, 

dd pH adjusll.ot [ChildRr .r .l,t 199; KNrmusb, 1978i Ed*.r& r 

A6ifinrnjrL 1985; R.!dtt., 1988; Ch.rg.irl,, l95i CIrB.r.1,, 1995; D.nn.n 

.i.1.,l95i Kncmr.d ADy,1995i VrUcnho.k.t.l., t9981. Tnvabnr ions such as 

aludinium {lII) ad ircn (lll) &d a vdi.ty of orsanic polyelecrol},tes &e used in 

coqulation. conc€niralion of toirl orgdic cdbon (TOc) md altdinit} of waFr dffecl 

the eiI€rive!€s of this r€chniqrc lNikol.o! .t rL, 1991. Eydophobic olgeic cdbon 

h noE swplible lo oagulation tid hrdophilic orsuic cafton lNilol.ou .t .1., 

1991. Peipit lion of netal,hhic @bpl.x.r is fie donin rn mh&isB !r loEr 

coSuldr dos ard lower pH condirioc [childB .. tL r999j- Ar hid.r c@gul&l 

dos dd hiehs pH 6nditio6 adeQrion of hhics onto meiol hydroide Faipitit s is 

donimt [ChildN ct.L, l99i f,dw&dr ud AFirtnrnjrbrrgEi; Ch.og.i rt,, 

1995; Kr.!n.r ..d Any, 1995; D..!.tt .r .1.,19961. E.hdced coaguladon 

considetabl] Gduces NOM at conpaativ.ly snall .dditiooal cosr dd @y even obliate 

d. need for noE exp€Bive ed sophislicdled treatmdt pMesses [Frc6€ d d,, 20011, 

Acliwred cdbon is a wdlknoM nethod for rbc renoval ofNOM. Actilaled cobon is 

nosl comnonly wd in a powdered (PAC) or in . smul& lom (CAc). Use of GAc in 

fix.d-bed dderb€B is foud much nor.fncient tha PAC dosed inlo.lhe N er 

Gmlld dctivat€d cebon (CAC) hls & lbility to edove odor md .olor qsing 

conFmdt NOM, THMS dd othd roxic @mpoed5 [adi .t rL, 20031. In GAC 

ad.orFion dd[od @npouds ft adeocd inio rh. pors ofthe €rbon srNctE_ Ir is ! 

dl.tively dF6iv€ po6s. The aderpion €peity of CAC deEss due b rh.

adsption of conpounds into th€ porca oftbe caibon s$uctw. GAC theEfoe must be 

r.pl&ad or reprocesed to rdloe ils adsoibdt capeily. 

Mnbr&e filtnlion l*bnology owing ro ii5 small size, .Bir minle.dce, loRd en €y 

conswplion, .nviommtal fti.dliic$ ed sup.dor warq qualiry prcduc4d, h.v. 

d6q morc atotion in the @dt y.6 lzul.rLrD et , 20116l. Mmb@€ fili.ation 

p@s inrclving niftfilnation (MF) rd ulrdfilration (UF) e &d ro move 

p.nicle, turbidity, nicmrg&is dd dis$lv.d oreatuc mtrtr (DOM) in w.rcr 

lzlLri!.o .r.1, 2rx,6; K'b'c[-\aort!rdi.z, 20051. Nmfitmion (NF) dd cvc6c 

orndis (RO) e .lso appli€d !o rDovc b&tdia, vitls, nllidity, @lor, ror.l dis$lrcd 

solids (TDS). salinity, hddres, cydidca, fl@rid.s, nitrdes, dsedicj heavy m.tab, 

biologicol oxygen d€md (BOD), chehical oxyge. demmd (COD). tokl orgeh cdbon 

(TOC), tolal ore&ic bdlide (TOX) ed THMS ftom surfee s well 6 grcudwalet 

lM'llf d.1.,20071. How€ver. fouling is the dajor obstacle in membrme filiration 

cfficiercy. ft cases e inclle in hydlsulic rcsislances. op@tional ed naintendc. 

cost!, d.t€rioEtion of prc

gH&PTfl&z 2 

tITERATU&E 

RflVIEW

2.1 T.ihrloD.lb.a6 ir *rt . 

THMS e th. DBPS thar e fomcd duine th. cbbndtion of *arer. Tney sE 65t 

id€infied by R@k ll97.ll. Aner $e disov.ry of THMS in wat€r. extensive E*mh nas 

ben mad€ abour the m€chdish ofTHM fom.tion. lacto6 innuencing $e lomttion of 

THMS ed n€lhodr for th. Gooval ofTHMs et. 

Rook 119761 dbcu$ed the esh&isft of halofom fomlio. dd theit renoval by 

flion exchdge affs coagulaion, sdinenlaiion, &d fillratio., by air slripping, and by 

edve cdbon, ed th€ renoval of precuFo! tulvic mid (FA) by ozone (ot. Hams dd 

Looyenga [19?71 found thal CHCI3 fomcd in high cohcenllations at the point ol 

chbnnadon ed line addnion, It w6 also Gponcd $al the mecheism of ClICll 

fomadon is srongly pH dependent. An .valudon of GACS md s)nlhelic resitr fol 

led@ing th€ contenl of THM5 in drinting warci *6 madc by Snnn et al. 119??1. fte 

IHM plecls$ w@ enoved by d incr6.d dosagc of alm silholt p@hldi@lion 

by Lose ad Kawczynslii llr78l. Bh.n sd Ttusell U9761 di*us*d that lhe THM 

a be controlled b! NHr ed &tivEkd c&bon fikdtion dd lhc THM pEcmos dd $e 

TOC @ be Enov€d bv ozonialio.. TIE fomation of THM od its moval fron 

mui€ipel *ar6 l|@ ale inv€stbard by McBrid. IlE78l. Il *6 foud thar the 

p6!e( of rHM M hMic &id (HA) d oth.r mt@l orgsic mneG (NoMs), and 

TtlM *a fo@ed by chlolilation. Th. fomtion ofCHCb ii dv* warer bt ctndinarion 

wa studied by Tomit et al. Il9?91. It w6 als di$Nsd thlt th€ CHCIr com.nlration in 

{zter incrc*d vilb |he incE& of chanical oxy8.n delMd (COD), th€ addition of 

cblorirc, increde of leacion tihe, &d th. ris of tempmtw. Itowever, it d*Fsd 

with th€ incE$e of NHIN. b

dniring wal.i Ch&8ine lhe disinfso fom chlorine (Clr) lo chlorinc dioxide (ClO, 

or polassium p€l]rms@te (lCVnO, Ed@d rh. fiM concenttations bt 59_90% 

Adsorption by OAC c& Fd@ th. THM conccnltalions bv 2l{07o &d.pp.6 to be 

etrmlilc for a lonser Fnod. Pctes ct .1. U9E0l d6cnbed the Ea.don of humic md 

tulvic fdcdoG exlrad€d iof, the River Thmes with chlorue under contolled 

co.ditioN olpH ed t€npedtuie. The nol*uld weighl dtliibutioN oITHM prccuMs 

rse dcremined ursfiem ed dowlred of a r€seNon bt Veenslla dd Schnoor 

U9801. The ndjor 6-actioo had mol.culd wisht 700J000 (tulvic rid) Duing lare 

sulmd ed .dly falt, a sdl€r Aacion of moLclld wicl*

md *tding Dd fiItrldon tdecd THM .nd tcminal THM concentations Texas water 

suppli.s s@ sufreyed by Balchelor et al 1196ll lo deGmin€ then Fndeocv b fom 

fiM w!.n chbn@Ed. Bath ud con nuoE now sysrens 6ing aliMtsl tlminiun 

oxid€ (Alroj) adsrption siel|iflcddy Enolcd oternics. Uv-aberbame, dd 

rihalomefiae fomation Dokntial OHMFP) fron tlrinling w.tet According lo Kib md 

Kondo lr98rl lhe roral otgsic C l.v.l is diEctly poponioMl lo THM produdio. Cech 

.r al. Ir982l stldred fie spalial sd seenal spets of vEiadon oI THIVG in drinline 

watcr. The difrftnces in THM content of chloritut€d ed uchlorimted @let, d!. 

dilfeences in concentrations betwd sude. ed stuundwater suPpli€s, md tlarions of 

THM.oncenkation lo wat€r source ciMddisiics snch 6lhe dose of chlorine dpplied 

foi disihfection. o.gdic contenr, concenhlio. of B!r, water t€mpe61ure and pH was also 

ihvesrigaied. P€st ll982l Gport.d lhat th. THM fomatioo duing waler puifrcaron is 

ca@d by chlorimtion of orgeic subst&c.s in d. raw wsler dd vdies gEally wilh 

*&n. h w6 al$ suggesl€d thal postchloination subsdtially reduces THM fomalion 

Klronchenlo er al [19821 foud rhai ih. pH of rhe inirirl mtual Mler had a gMtcr 

cfcct on cHclr fomtion duing .lrioking w.t.r r€tJneni Ih& lhe cbbnne doe o. 

COD or @lor of ihe iniri.l rivd wt r. Miyrza*i ct al, Il9Ezl studied th€ efecl of ndtls 

on the fomation of THM ir wld. Th. ctrccl of Cu on CHCIr fomadon wa 

iNcsdealed by chlorine coNmption. h s @ncluded thnt Cu pronol€d Ttllvl 

prcdution bu1 rhe etret c& b. i.hibitcd by tne addilion of EDTA at :i I EDTA / Cu 

mole Etio. A c4 conlrol study ofdrinking walr lr.atn€ praclices md fenale cmcer 

monality wN Frfoned by K$rek sd Yolng ll982l. lt wd concluded tnal colo! 

cdc{ apped€d to be relared considerably to chlorinalion. The halosemton Facio! of 

I ,l-dihydrcxyarcnaiic conpouhds ed siFpk dethyl keton* in dilute aqueous solution 

Rele invesdcated by Boyce ed Homig 119831, in ods 10 eluci.iate lhe hgchmism of 

@loso6 toc**s involvinS @tuEU! occudins hmic 6ateri.l. The l,ldihydrcxyenatic 

nodel onpouds w.E nosr @tiv. *i$ mdinu yi€lds of cHclt 

4d cl,IB! n pH 8-10 with $bsFat @n@n@tions of lo-rM md ndoger co.cqtaions 

of loj ro lo'M The exp€ridn6l dara wft gcnerally co6isle *nh a doni@l 

h.lofom-tlF rcac.ion mohnim, bur em. d.t ib oflhe Esnts slrolsly suggc{cd

th.r edal @mp.ritivc paduys @ at$ invo!.d tE dd Chu lt983l i.v6ti8.t d 

th. .fr*ts of chloriraiioD tenpeia G, pH, COD of Fw *€t€r, and eoet of chlorine 

on ih. fodation ol cNinosenic THM in chbnngled driiking m1er' Th. adeQtion of 

THM by CAC Ms al$ exmined. 

The chlodnation ol lenlachlonEercirol (l) was studied bv De La! &d Eilcletr 

ll9E5l, in view of ils Fstllated ole s d int ln€diate in the chlonddo. of csorcinol 

ill). Chlodtutiod of I dd Il produc.d vdioE iddtical prcdrcts. but the la.e. diffcmc.s 

b @tion dtc, CHch podudio., ed Foducts fome4 point !o a milor ol. of I Mc 

v.igh cr al, Il985j suee.sled clo,, a pr€tduncnr oxidmi/disinfeunt for dhEibution 

w!|er {hich .ff$tively Moved I1iM ptctmB beforc chloridtion dd rh$ lowcEd 

THM lomadon in the di$ribdion sysl.m. Low capiBl @sr and eae of opmtion ndd€ 

CIO: d attractive alrmative 10 oLtt r THM Gmoval technologies such s Or ed GAC- 

Bishop cr al. 119851 corcluded that THM fofrEtion in water h contoll.d hoE 

elficiently &d moE cost cffe.tiv.ly by air dripping lttd by OAC or by ozotulion ltou 

er !1. 11986l dbcsed rhai the Uv absorbdce m a noE .railabl. ildicatot fo. THM 

prcBo6 in solnd dd dva wG6 thm COD or color. My6 .t al. ll9E6l '.porred 

thar pr@xid.tion with Clq md posi{ijnfstion with clq i. @mbnadon with Cl or 

chlo@in6 povided er€rive ra{...d o

cl orination l@tion ws id€nriti.d bv g6 cbrcmatogapht-mss spectoneq' Foui( 

tufomlR md Fouier trdsfom-NMR It ws also food thsl coagulation *ilh alm 

w6 oor .frtrtive l!& aderptio. wnh &dvalcd C for th. rcmoval ol ltA Alekseva 

dd (nrcochenko ll9E8l found t t i! purincadon or dnikins warr bv coaguraron' 

tocculatioq th€ tlTe @d doe of th. flodulant afccled de fomalio' ofCgcli during 

chbnnad.n. h *d also noted thal monium 0jHi salt3 o'hish noleculd *ei8ht 

Dolyeleclrolyte, etrectively innibitd CHCI3 fomation when lsed in chlonnat'oo 

Coonbs ed Recklow Il9S9l elaluo!€d a rapid THMFP lest A metbod for the Fsling ol 

THMFP in waler is based on high chlorine dose ed elelated reaclion lenperanE to 

sp€ed up the fomarion of THMs. Th. THM3 produccd ar€ quntilied Rlh a prctot'"e 

pqgeable orgdic halid€/ halofom ealtar' Ten aqualic hufric &d tulic acjds were 

islar€d md stndied *i$ G5p€ci to lheL Elction wnn chloane. bv R4ldow el al' 

llqq0l a swrsicrl me$od w4 proposcd for act'lar.d mmarrc conr€nr osd o0 rac 

NMR od be tiFaioo dab. Thd val@s .sEblilhcd frcn this model *ere seU corelar€d 

*ith cbrorire cocmptio.. Sp.ci6c by.ptldkt lod.lion wd rclated to Lv aberbece' 

N mtrrenr ot lhe &:ivated @@ric contcnt a conPche6iv. studv K uden'ka bv 

Tal€uhld al. U99ll !o c|&iry tu m.$od of Fdu.ing THM 4d irs Fe'UNB hon 

rivd ud Lk wt€r it d.i.Iing waler pDficarion. Adin cl al ll9ll etort€d tEl 

aquaric hmic ed turvic {ids e thc mosr inponat THM pecsos Th€ plor ofTHM 

concmFdlion agaid HS lelels b . conv.x 13hap., Pc*ntinC 

thal a nulti_nep FelDn 

o,cb. Orcdo!hlome rntem.diat.s e Poduced in lhe liBt slep *h''h e lon red 

ro THM in lhe second slep. Urd.t contrcll.d PH dd tenp€Flm condidoN, a 

nsheblic nodel rhat was baed on thc c&tion of C with model compouds is Nd lo 

denve kin€tic €qutions fo! THM fodadon 4 a tuncdon of rhe pr.c6o! dd chbnft 

concenkations. P.lnstrcn €t al. Ir992l sugscsred rhat waledhed resource prcterion dav 

provide e additiooal n€ds of @ntrolling thc Dte of eutrcphication, ed bence th€ 

fomaiion of THM ov* lhe lo.e lem A series of dthticallv_based models ws 

developed by Choqdhury el al 119921, fot pEdicring the fodation of individual THM 

sp*ies uder vdious Rddon conditions H.lftich €t al l1992l conPded the 

efectilcnes of feoc chbnde (t.Ch) ed alM coaguladon lot sulface $arer smple' It

s6 ioud ihll Feclr coasulation cosis|entlv poduc€d vater with lorer TOC md THM 

in€e6e

tlA by adding chbnn an€t tlF Or dd rctivat d cdbon 6b€t tFalDetB ltA *d 

desraded by Or ro pold ed &idic orgDic comPodds bv l,rtc addnion of b}locbbtue 

Tle mour of CHCIr Dlodu.d d*rc6.d wi$ irc@in8 ozonizarion dne &d 

incFa.d wnh iacrcsing F€tN Lmp€tauG The addidon of&rivated csboo nhe6 

ane! ozonizalion also low.t d tle fodition ol CHCls Singd lr99l tlared lhe 

fomarion ol DBPS s@h $ THMS ed HAA5, to the eomatic carbn conlent of the 

water. HS in wald t€nd 10 h5!c high.t Nmatic cebon cont€ md a hiel$ sp6ific UV 

absorbalce thm non-hudic substeccs, th.lefolc th€y Podlced greater levels of DBPS 

Pedom$ce of powdered actilat d c.rbon (PAC) dd potassiun pemdcenate in 

Educing THM concenuadoB w studi.d by Q.isi a.d Alzoubi [2000l Menbtue 

introduclion mss spectron.ty {MIMS) wds used fot the studv of CHCIr fomation 

duing the cbloinadon ofsioplc ory4ic nolcculcs nodcling HS, such s phehol ed di 

dd trihiroxyb€E€res, by Ri6.i al. 120001. Ar ualtliol nethod bsed on mmbl"m 

intodetion and fan gd chto@iognphy-tus sp.clron trv (CC_MS} rc dryeloped bv 

Chdg and Hd 120{,01 for lh. oD-lirc nonnorirg of THMS in chlorimted &inking wter' 

Difedt PAC d(M in the Da*@ &d ab*n@ of KMIO. reE sMied PAc 

€ffecrjvely nininiz.d THM *hcn lhc do* wa >10 ppm rnd ihar KMnO4 had 

dod€€r€ €ffeci in Eduing prcl@6 ud€t dp.rim.nrat @ndilioc. TIE Plwne of 

atse in a drinkjng signincmdy imP&I ueah.nt of that ear.r' 

Monitoring of THMFP ol ur.. of . wll nv€t it . @l agricultuttr cabhm€nl @a ws 

cMied ou by Meyam cr al. 120{11. ro 4ccnai. th€ chadcirisrics ed *sonal 

€hmg€s in TH,\,IIP. A study ws conduct d by Ozbclee l200rl in shich re$rcinol * a 

nod€l ttA, is cblorinar€d with ediw hypochloriG in aqums nediun. Tn€ etrecl of 

idial corcebdaLions ofrc$rinoldd chlorin., as s.ll a $cn rat os. r.mp€Ek titr 

dd rH on CHclr fomation e also studied. Th. rcle of bromide ih the fonation ed 

spsiation of DBPS dui.g chlorinatioo vas invcsiigat.d by chang et al l2001l Ihe 

nols ratio of applied chlotjnc io btomide is an impodml factor in the fomdon md 

sDeciation of halogemedc lcids &d THMS lt was sugsested bv Sulci dd Eroglu 

[20011 that by d*Esing ihc post-chloriMtion dos.s the lev.l of lotal THM (TTHM) 

@uld be ontlolled. Atc! th. iniliaiion of pG-ozoniatio. p@ess. Pre{hlorimtion re

lmiM|.d .nd a id&n fltl in THM val6 in rh. emod of th' drinking wtt'r plolt 

w6 obeN.d. A @ninuoE flos Pur8c'.nd_lJaP gd chreMlogFph)_ 

''N 

sD..mm.Ey (P&T4C-MS) 3vst4 w d.vcloFd bv ch'n sd Hd [20011 ror rh' onlrc 

Fmiroring ofTHMs in qr6. Ol$n.t.l l2lDll Pc*ntd th' ttrucbdl fdtu6 of 

NOM d[l @ tlDusht to 8iv. rie ro THMS. Bv cocid.ring lh' $udi'd 

'xt'Niv'tv 

hdoscEri@ n4h.dsd fot I no

fodd thar rhe tli$ane Aom rratncnl tldi had @GlatioD ei$ fomation of THM, 

howcrcr oihd i&tos such s tubidity, lcmF atue. @onia dd 6idud chlorine hd 

no coftladon wiLh THM folmtion. An el*rosplav ioniatioh-tddem m6s 

s!.domelly (ESl-MsMs) nethod was usd bv zhans er al {20041 for idcttifvils 

cn.onnakd dnnlins *ater DBPS fh. a:scialion berw..r fHM' e\posuE ftr)ugh 

multiple paurways dd lifetime ceer risks was e!.luat€d bv Lee er al . 120041 h ws 

fosd that peopl€ had a hig!€r dsk of cancer thrcudr 06l ing$tion Noncarcinogent 

risk esm..r ror THMS w6 also conducrcd by thm. Ria et al l2lx,5l eqlut d the 

.fratirctu$ of the polyalminim chlond. (PAC!) @np'r€d to Al sulrd' (dm) ed 

Feclr to c6ovc II{M p6w6 ed rducc THM fo@tion lot€ntial PACI qa tound 

ro b. tne mdi cff4dve coa€ulmt ro removc lubidilt, however. n did not Ed@ NOM 

$ .flecdvely s Feclr d{t alun. Uyar dd Torcz t20051 6sessed the coaSulation 

perfomances of iwo diifdenl coagulds, aluddm sd non salil at diferent pH 

valu.s. Th. .ff€cdlen.ss of €nnaced cosgulation for the renoval of DBPS ssogate 

pamci.rs of TOC, UV aberb.nce (Uv,4 m), dd THM fomtion potdrial wgs also 

detmin€d. Puryrddrra! inj€clion systn couPled to 8$ chrcn'toeEphv wnh mds 

sDcfiometic derfrrion Cn CC_MS) ws opriFi*d bv zoccolillo et al' 120{51 rot t'e 

or.lvsis ot volarile chloriMr€.! hvdrcdbotu (vcHct dd nIMs in *ater' Modined 

PTI-GC-MS ov@e the LLECC.ECD\ lidibrions dd als lo*etd ibe d'tcction 

lioiis of clssic PTI.GC-MS. The pDpos.d ncdpd allosed dalvsis of 3dples *ithin a 

concftkEtion r6ge of J4 Lr to ng Li. Th. developn€nl ed compds. of sone 

anal)4icol nethods for the qumlitation of THMS io dtinlins water was dad' bv 

culca .r al. 120051. The t(hriqu€s lsed to, $c ddemination or DBPS in drinlins {ard 

includc wald exi&tion pcedu€ such s LLE, P&T or headrpac€. fouowed b) GC 

Fodrion ud Ms det{rion. Uy.k 12006l ,*s*d the lifedne @cer risk od rhe 

haa.d indcx of THMS tbrlr! dif4nt dposw PathMvs in l$anbul d'i'king qra 

suppli.s &tt foud that 6idml5 had a hi8tr r ceer tisk rhmusl oal ing'sion $4 

thrclgh demal aberPtion md inlalation Dbpe6ive liqud- liquid mico'xract'on 

(DLLME) @hnique ws sd for the pleconc.nltadon ofTHMs in drink'ng waler bv 

Kozmi.t al. 120071. sedso md Galleso [20071 p!€sert€d a merhod fo! th. Gpid

detemin tion of TTHM9 iidex in dri.ki.g wate! bv us'ne a h€adspacc_mlss 

sp.ctrcn€uy (HS-MS) sFteft dd panial l.d sq@s (PLS) nuhiv&iate regFssion 

appoach. The liferine cecer lisk of th. fou THvl speci* fon difr@nl o!t's of 

expor@ *@ ale esrima&

Ddemimtioi of Face metals in Mter ehplcs bv IAAS md ETAAS afler usins 

diff@t pE@ncenuarior tdh'iqc @ rn€ n.i' objativc of rhis lir€dure Evit* 

Solid phN ext@!io. hs ben .xleNivelv appli€d for tbe dekdinadon of melars in 

ruluEl !ate! smples includine ddhhing wale6 lsovhk et 'l t 2002; Qui i' €t al' 

l00ll ln slid phe exMion analtle iotu e adsol5Pd on 4 dMft'nr surh 4 

acri\€ted carhoq siti€ eel, s.Phiotrr€ dd Atbctlire XAD csic etc ed dFn dsrbed 

witb a suihbl. eluenl solid_phde exmdiotr rccnniq@ n incedinglv ecoS zed 

b{aue of ils hish edicbnenl faclor. hpid phtse sepeation' Ios cost high ftcorery' 

lov @sMotio. of orsdic $lvdts dd $' abilitv of combination {nh dilt'r€nl 

.leredion tcchniqud in thc fom ol of_lin or odine nod' lt-iu "d Li'ng 2008!' 

Bss er al. U9991 detemined Cu, cd dd Zn in *!rer bv FAAS atier pieconcentdr'on Dv 

the adstbot sacch@nvc.s ceEvisie inmobili4d o' FPioliE Hu d al l1999t 

.t Elop3l r m.thod lor $e f AAS ddediDsrion of mce coPPt' ion rn dlnomflul 

waler smplq aier pre@nc. r.tio. sing PAN tixed sili'a 8cl colunn Cu Co- Cd Mn' 

Ni. Pb ed Cr in wat€r smples were $rbcd s pvrocalechol violel complexes on 

riiva!.d cdbon colum bv Nen et al [2000l 

And elution nerals vee analv&d bt 

FAAS- T@. douts of Cu c @md[al'd noo wt* bv Ju el sl 

'nvircmental 

120001 6i.8 dfthirne $pPon.d on silic. 8cl FAAS F tlbd @ lhen s'd fot lhe 

d€tedilaion of elded Cu Solid_ph$ extraclion procedurc basd on lhe d'|emtmnon 

of lead (lt) in Mte wat€t bv A-As 6ing edve cdbon load€d wi$ p-aNgallol Ed is 

sudled by Ensof! €r al l20o:1. Tal.bi ed s'fsloli 1200?l dcvelo!'d rhe 

Dreconcentalion method bed on soli{i Ph6' extracdon tot the delemimlion of @e 

mort of Pb D 

bJ |AAS ln ln6 me$od Po trr' teekd vith 

amodd pJdolidBedrrhidabam€ TAPDCT' Th' compl'r $d' fom'd @ $o 

p@oncemEtcd in a collm P@ked *ilh a suflcMl{@led alumina EMli.ed Shiro 

l200sl ued activatd cdbon loaded {ilh xvlenol otu8c fo! the highl} slective 

$petion dd prsoncedntion of lad (II), which s rhen d€t€nined bv IAAS A 

spdrio/pFotusrradon pocdE uine elid phs cxtution *s us'd bv Tuen er 

al. l2o09l lor itc FAAS d.ldnimlion of Cu sd Ni ai h' lerel in wlf ed food 

mples PcEz'Quinranilla d al [2009] peifomed Peconcentadon of zh {ll) in up &d

niheral war.! @ples uine a n.w hybrid SBA_Is-bsd mareial prior ro ils 

MenblMe nlmion is ale s iaporrlnt edichhent t chnique for iJrce beaq mcral ions 

A ndhod ror *pantion'p@ncentration oacr (Ill), Pb 0D, Ni (ll), Cu (lI). dd Cd (ll) 

iod by n mbtue filhation w6 ddeloped by Dirikli €t al l2(x)?l Th€ melhod ws 

bed on th. coustio. of &al}te bclal ions on a c.llulo$ nirare n.mbde lih€r ud 

Aton- frppine atonic aberPtiot sFctlom.tr! allows the detsiion of dal)tt al the ng 

L r Lvcl. Sloned quanz tub. aton rap {sQT- AT) ed quanz or n€rdr |fals ee mo$rv 

uled with IAAS in order ro.onae th. ssitivitv lAtrdtr, 10{81' Watling i lduccd 

ue sloned quse tub. isQT) in 197? dd then appli.d it for d. d€t€dioalion of se sb 

Hg. ZG Pb. Cd, co, Bi, M., Ag 6d As [19?7; 1977; l9?8l sM ei al lt997l 

m\.srigakd l.ad dees rn w.rer and lqueut mpl.s 6dg denarve abh @pping 

flde alomic absoQlion sp.drom.lry (DAT-FAAS) with & improved waleFcool'd 

sbinle$ nel uappine equiphe in d an-dtvltr fl@e 

Jin dd Chen lr99?l rcPorted the del.mimlion of Pb in wtes .lier online no* injecrion 

cop@ipitation win 2irc di.thi di$i@dbanare (ZDECI T}c P@rP'ta|es $de 

collected io a lnotkd Hcror, elued od the! saltzed bv FAAS Chen d al 11971 

appti.d FAAS sith cvce now injation atiaclion svsten 16r rne d€t'mimtion of M€ 

Fe. cu. Pb md Mn in wts Amoniu pvEolidinvl dithi@trbahate and 

dierhyldnhi@dbanarc {DDTC) 1r@ Ls€d d ch€la,tins .sert ald n'thvl isbutvl kebn' 

(MIBK) 4 exlledng agent 

EIAAS is a tdhdqE rb,r is di@tlv .pPli.d for lhe d'r€miMrion ol debls al pg L r 

leveh,Il G th.lefore no€ sensitire l.chnique s comPared to coh!€nlional FAAS Since 

1961. .xrensiv. lls.sh hs b€e. co.ddcd lo d€vclop €frcicnr backgrcund.€orelon 

dev($ Lke Zeman bs.Lgromd condrcn. deLtcnum bac\8rodd coftcuon ad 

Snith-Hiefrje b&kgoud cortclion, drd ro prcmotc lutomlion in all slePs of lhe 

mlysis jion s@ple prepsaiion io dita nr@eene Xu ed Lieg 119981 dereloped a 

me$od tor the drrct deiemrMtion of @. Pb In late 4d dlin|ng sakr bv bine 

ETAAS *ilh platfom atomizlion dd a cohbined nodin'r ofNi NthH'PO4 md

NaOH. How€ver, @iou $pdadon 4d preco.c€ talion stnteids lor both on dd of- 

linc pdessing of envnom€nlal @telials for ulFatree dalvsh {'re aho pEs'nled 

including tiqui+liqrid ext@tiot! cloud poid .xrraction elid_phse erhcion' 

cop@ipitliion dd electchmical deposition vds et al [1993! ued flo$_'nFcton 

$ni odine pdconc..tration nedod for the deledination 'f ultratee oodt of Cd 

and cu in s{arer bv ETAAS cT colmn loldcd with Nt didhvldiftiddbMBte 

{sodiun-DDq ws ed lo stdcl Cu and Cd 6od ea*tret 6 DDC ch'lar6 Aliei 

mpl€ ple-treaitnent, Brulu el al tr96l atplied ETA_AS technique vilb u!8slen @r 

atoniz* (TCA) for the del@'nalion oflo{ levek of Cd, Ct Co Ni MnsdPbin 

drini.ing wat E. ETAAS with a tungslen iub' atomid ws aho us'd for tn€ 

detedin.tion ofNi in river waler aft€r Peconcentatioo on a lug$€n ioil bt Oht! et al 

I199S1, Ite tung$en foil preco.co[ation m'thod Ms ioud sensitiv€ sinpl' md 

Ion flotation with diph€nvl €dbeid€ Bd Fopoed bv Li e1al ll99?l for tiE ETAAS 

deremiMtion of cr (Ul) and Cr (vl) in Btudl watei Kaddjova 119991 detmined r&e 

md lhtl4e dounls of diff@m nebls in nt@l wal6 bv ETAAS 

'ner 

pdoncentration by colmD slid_phd extredon using silica gcl oodified witn sod'm 

dierhyldirhiddbmate (Na_DDTC) &d mdoniud hemerhllene_dilhrocdbmale 

{HMDTC)- T@s of hcd!'v mculs in sawater s@ FPdred dd pFonenmted 

el(Eo.henicallv al a co tolLd Potedial on lhe gFphir' rids' prob' bv Kotuk an'l 

Holy t19991. Aner lhe elecblvsis, deposiled nelal {as atonized bv insn'ne m 

.lecs.de'prcbc in lh€ crphit€ tumace. Bei](n€dda 'l al l2o0ol 

utilized a nos itrj{lion 

stslen *ilh on-line pr€concentralion bv ion_Pajr a&oQlio' in a koon'd a&tor' ior the 

det€din.tion of Co in biological &d Ftural watcs bv ETAAS An onloe 

p@onc.ltration stst.n coupled 10 ETAAS E als dcvelop'd bv Zih-P'6vi 't al 

I2000t for th€ detdi@tion of Co, v dd Pb in nediciml ninedl {at" sdpl6 4d Ni 

in sea walq s@pl*. A niniatue colLro pack€d with ininodimetic acid E cellulo* 

(IDAEC) $d sed for this purpoe' A novel method for lhe sepmrion ed 

p@ncoGtion of Cr (vl) / c' (lll) bv el'ctiv' 'bsorPtion on L'mo ninot dd 

Mlysis by slunv atoBiation ETAAS ss ddcloped bv Zhu dd Li I2001l The

tcchsqE w6 spplicd for $e d€tcFniMtion of Cr sFcies in wt" spls A *qu€n|]al 

inj.ction onlin. pEconcentElion svsten wd desisncd bv wdg dd Hmsi l200ll lor 

Lhe rudy of Ni in inddtnal qat. sakr'ample b] rrng a R'e*ohl' mtrrc'olnn 

load€d wilh SP S@h.dex C-25 sdon.xchange Rsin beads Tne elui€d dal!1e $s 

tNponed ino the gtaphit lub€ for the delection bv E iAAS Anlhemidis et al' 120021 

used Doheaafluorcerhylen (PTIE) tMines as stbent nalaial for rhc deteftimtion or 

co ir *alf. The sple @ mixql oFline sith AIDC &d the neutal Co (ll)-PDc 

codDl€x elained on rhe hvdroPhobic PTFE luni'$ werc wilh MIBK The eluenl 

'luied 

wN inuoduced into lhe ctaPhile tube for the ETAAS analvsn Son'Aum d al l20o2l 

ulrlized a paclcd colmn Ftur ombrned qih EI AAS lor the peonccn'mhon Md 

ddeminadon oi cr (vl) at ns Lr in mtMl wa€rs Tbe conptx romed ber*en 

Crrvl,and APDC wa'$rb+d onb lhe parl'd P'l I E beads lh'elLled( rtra'malvzed 

b\ EIAAS Cflnr.t al l2003ld.veloP€d s online pGconc'nFatron metd 6ifg a 

minicolumn rscked with .cdvated csbon for the ETAAS detminaion of Co in 

odnhrn! *ar.r An .M-hn.rr lactor oi loo_fold uith d ocre'r'on l|oit or 5 rg I we-e 

obrdned b-v th. merho.l Pb in *asatd w6 detemined bv Nakajioa et al [20031bv 

flo{-inj€clion odift p@onccnFadon'cl*ttolhemtl atonic absorption 3p€dron€r-v 

sier coDrccipit6tiod with ion (lll) hvdroxid' The me$od uas fodd applicable for the 

d.lysis of l.ad ar lh€ ng Kg' lev'l bv EIAAS CiI d al [2006] 

ePon'd rnc 

deminario. of Ct (lll) t Ct (vr) in drinkins wlter @pl's bv coupling of on_line 

sorplioo on activaled cdbon lo ETAAS vere{ta el al 12006l inuoduced a dethod for $e 

on-lire pt.concentJalion of Pb bv using seltrtile solid ptl€ exrr4lion A ch'lalina 6r 

comisdng ol fl,tbis(2-pvridvl!]_sdPhoph€trvt methvl*l thisdboooh'vdrsd€ 

immobilied on minopropvl-coorolled tnr 8l6s ws usd For lhe ETAAS 

ddeminalio. of Pb i. edMler, ihe pdoncedraled Pb (tl) was elu€d and direcdv 

dcpo"n.d rn a locit n Rh cded snphir' Nb' 

Moftno el al (20011 ealvrcd Cr in Mter spl's bv ETAAS 6ing two atomrzatun 

rechniques i.e. plrol)tic graphit forked (PGF) Platfoft ed Pvolvlic graPhne_coaied 

noEhed Detilion CCII) tub€s. N@m'ter rihiw dioxid' imobilized on silica 3'l w6 

ued bJ Lid md Lidg 120081 tor the preconcens'ton oftre Pb m $akr sples Pnor

to ill d.teminadon by ETAAS. This proposed solid pne exlraclion n€thod bnsed 

i@obiliz.d neon€Li TiO, showd €nough Fnsitivilv fo. th€ ItG Pb del€minaton 

vdious i]!es of smples, The accuacy dd Pecision werc al$ foud salnfaclory' 

2.3 AiE .!d objdrivc o, th. prdtrl inv6tig.lioD 

Tihalonerhdcs @ L\c Dajor cit€8ory of disinf{tron bv_poducrs lowd in chlori'ared 

dlinling vder Th€rc is grcsing @ncem over $e efIdts ofTHMs on hund h'alth' Blt 

de !o lact of aw,rtGs fi@ciat @stBi s dd lek of qulilied md tFinot humd 

resource, lhere is no sYs14 dvailable fot the moniloring of THMS in drinting sater of 

Kmchi c't) fnis slud) F $dlor. desrsned b aalvz fHMs in kp wdr sMplcs ol 

K@c!i cny by liquid-liquid dlriction gd cltrotslogra$v. to ohPe lhe lqcl of 

THMS with lhe WHO guidelino v.lud md lo sludv the faclos inilu€ncing Lhe fonation 

ofTHMs. H€alth nsk ftom THMS w6 ale €Etuled bv ctlculating $e life lin' cdcer 

risk ed ih€ haad indcx ofTHMs tjtrough difiercnt €xposu€ pslhwavs 

Ano&er obieclile of rhe p&scnl study k to invdligat€ lhe @nenttaioD of tace Delals 

(Ni, Cu, cr, Pb, Co, Mn dd Fe) in t p $!ter dd soodsaLr mpl's @llded fon 

difiqent tocations of lh€ cily by gdphite fume alosic absorplion spectrchetrv Th€ 

Dsdrs ** @DDoEd with lhe WHO wtl€I qu.litv guidelines ttealth risk ss@iared 

with the pGd.e of lh.s d.ce ne(lls in drinkin8 wal6 wd atso iw*tigaled'

CIH&PTfl&:8 

UXPflBIMUNTEt

3.1 S.l*tion oa 3tdpling 3il.s 

Ra* walei fton Ke.njhe |:ke ed Hub dd e rdt€d at lhe trealmdl pldts on 

"flocculadon-s.nd filtrarion

populaled d6 in oider to .valnale which Pan of ihe cilv is suficring moE fon 

@nsmin8 wtq @nraoim|.d wilh THMS Deterioaiion in thc qualitv ol wrer t,als 

place s ii leav6 lhc wate! he6itrent plmr due lo the decrcse in the con@hhlion ol 

eiduat chlorire or @1ion of chlorift with piF walls and NOM rmaini4 ali* 

r@lnol etc. W.i€t sples ww th€t€for colledcd Aon vdious l@alions away fom 

the healrn.nl pldtl to check &e $ality of lap water dd to srudv th€ influnce of 

Gidual chlodne on THM fomtion. 

lnorgmic conlasiffils thal &c focusql in the study de tee molals including Nickcl 

(Ni), coppd (cu), chrcnim (cr), r@d (Pb), cobdt (co), Mosd* (Mn) Md ro' 

(Fe). ftsc nelals dc $l€cled b€cauF loDS't€m, Iow levcl cxposues lo th'e detls 

via drinling sat r may cNe h@dous h.alih elf€cls |o rhe ucB walet mpl's fron 

K€njhe Lrke ed Hub .l,n w.rc maly&d for Eoe merals o anidion b€@B bot) 

$c edces @ cxpected 10 b. poll ed wnh kace nelals frod ldious mtunl an'l 

dthepo8dic eurct In lhe {.t r lteal,hot ploG @agultlion dd tllration pltrl* is 

cnployed !o remolc ih. rEce netals Ho{ever, duing suPplv lo the consmq's lap n 

n.y b. conraninal.d du 10 inl.Ml @ft3ion or le.kage of lh. pipelit6 'tc Tap {at'r 

fom dillcdl l@tions of tlte crty e th.cfoe splcd to checl the quohv orwtd al 

the @nsunefs €nd dd to siudy the h4llh rist sssociated with lhe ingestion ofth'se 

ftGls T.p waler spl6 liom sidential 6 vell s indurrial d6 wcr €llscd to 

cval@te the possiblc sourd of @htasi.atio. of |aP wdtei GosdMlcr smples w'rc 

also colleded nom difiqent e5 of th. cnv ro 4ses rhc l'vel of coitamimtion 

pEEili.s in ihce da sdPling sites onsist of esidcdial indutial a *ll d highlv 

polluted &e$ of Ae c'ly. 

3,2 S.npl. @llecriotr tod pft!.rtoor for fE chloritr. dd THM ttrlvsis 

Ambei glss bottl.s, exFacdon vials drl Poittetrafluorcethvl'ne (PTfE) se!15 wqe 

wrsh€d with detcrgdt,.i.ed with t p td.r,

Thc bonl.s wi6 Tenon @atcd rubbs *pra ww lhd sal€d and sroEd al 4 "C belorc 

oalysis Acoording to the rNohDendarios of EPA Mclhod 5OI 2 for the mlvsh of 

THMS in drinling water, all atlet€d sepls ue a&lvz€d vilbin 14 davs alt'r 

3J Pltrichcdh.l.tdy of t p r.t r.trd gtoudi.r.r 3t6prd 

ftc ph/si@-chmical pa@dcE such s pH md el4Eical conductivnv of the oualcd 

wab. smples w€rc m€dwd by Bing C 200 Mulrip&dete! Ion Specinc Met'r bv 

FE chtorine 6nl6t of raP wotd wplcs w6 delemined @lotim'tricallv 6irg a C 200 

MlldpeMeter B€nch Photonet4 by HANNA insimenl According lo the adaptation 

oi EPA DPD metho

shrl€n for I dnut Aid having ben len udisruhed lor 2 mirutes l lrl of the erhcr 

phse ws inject€d into lh€ ss ctlonaloglaph 

3,7 INtruD. tiion .!d . lvtlc.l cord ioc for TIIM rndvtir 

A P€lkin Elner Clds 500 C$ Cho6atograph equiPped wilh & eledton captule 

&lebr (EcD) and aulo@Pld m @d for fie d'l€dimlion of THM' The gd 

chromalographic sepadlion ws &hieled on 

' capillary colllm (10 m lenst i 0 51 nn 

LD. dd 1.5 !n film 6ictnes, The dalvtical ondniod for LLE_cc-EcD nerhod 

Y@: Nirogd dd HeliM gs (99 99//' PW) we ed with con$4r flo$ of 14 Fr 

Th€ o!€n lempeBlu@ ws kePl ai 80 r ior 6 ninutes The rempqatuE of th' injector 

md dercctor *eE sd.r:00.c sd 2ro'c GsF.rrelv sdpre blsnl tradnalJ'edon 

dlilv bssis bv sins orgalc_frc. *ol€t 6 a sple 

3J Rilk .,3$rmt of lgMs i. d.ilkiog w'r'r 

The cecct risks thrcugh ingestion mutc dd demtl co'dl e 

ll-e .l d, 2004i W$g er al.' 20071: 

Cd@ nsk for THMS of Olal rcule = CDI oml x PF onl 

cDl odl (chronic dailv inbke) = (cw x IR x EF r ED) / (Bw x Ar) 

Cee! rist for THM! lbrough dcd!.j conbct = CDI de@al x PF demal 

CDI d.rul= (CW x SAxF xPC xETxEF xEDxCF)/(BWx AT) 

Foi tne .oNNinogenic risk Gesneni the hdnt 

exposur. roules N also calcul ed Tn€ h@d indexca 

alerPrio. @ elculaEd d follows ILc 'r 'l ' 20041: 

(xvii) 

(xviii) 

inddes of THVS in difierenl 

for ing*tion oule dd demal 

Hdzrd ild€x for THMS oforal ro(e - CDI oral / RlDfr* (xx'l 

Ha"rrd indq fot THMS of&nnar ou|e = cDI demal / RfD rrM. (aii)

Cfler pd ycd is calculaled 6 [R@. .r .L' l95l: 

c{@6 / yr = popul'rion (million) x (No. ofc:lrrs/ l06)x(l /70Ydsag4 (xxiii) 

3.9 Phyticcch€nictl pmp.iiB of LtL. w.ter 

Itue spling b@rjoN we seleted !o @vq rhe Iwimu Lake ag posiblc wald 

smpl6 uere olle.Ld fion the Nodi slaliol! b@ting spol &d tlsling spol 

Tenpenture of the Mter spls ws nc6Lrred with a mercury demonelet pH oflbe 

Ml€r smples wo €h€ck.d al the sPlirg sil€s bt using C 200 Multipdmeler Ion 

Speific Mcrer by HANNA iNt rh€nt Dislvql oxtScn cotrdtration io wal6 sples 

w6 aialyz.d by m @id. modifi€d Winkld nednod, 6 ddaplaliotr of the Slandad 

Me$ods fo. th€ Exdinaiion of wat r dd wosleqalq (l8d edilioh) ftc @ciioh 

b€tw€cn diselved oxyScn dd the di$olved oxvs€n reagenl (A B md C) cauqt a 

yeuos tinl i! rh€ mpl. Dislved oxtg.n @ndtrstion wd lhcn dct'dined bv a 

C 2OO Muliipm€ld Bcnch ?hoton ter bv HANNA immmenl al 470 m 

Conductility of lhe smple wa delemined M$ a Multip@etet lon Specific Meter bv 

3.10 idctlomtio. tbd ch.ncrerizrtion olloil blbic t'id lrcm Kebjhrt L*' 

The p@.due Ned for thc sepdation of hmic acid wd bt*d od th€ detbod deetibed 

by lhe tnt@ational Hsic SubsrarcB socierv (lHsS) U'not' 20{3l Ext&lion schemc 

is gircn i! Fisurc 41 20 8td of Kenjhe Like $il sPle @ tr dricd dd siev€d 

smpl€ ws ftate,l wilh o l M HCI (tton RiedelneHaeD) io Enole calcium Md odrer 

polrral.nt cauons dd lo .nndce lhc .xr@rion efnciencv of oreeic natler wrh 

attslin. EagdG. 40 hL of 0 l M NaOU ls d!6 art(l€d inlo lh' mple ed arbw€d to 

sirnd for 24 hoN on a shaking ucr bdh al 30 "C' Sdpl' wd enlritugcd 10 *tdale 

lhe hmin ftetion. Tn sup@t nl w$ the. &idified lo pH I wilh HCI a'd kcpt for 48 

hous. BoM colored FEipilales of nmic dcid lhu ob|6i'ed were fic'zt dried ed

Thc @bon, hydrcso, dliogen ed s Phs codtent of lhe hudic acid frdtion w€e 

d.t mincd with a CHN anallzr, Cdlo Erb4 Mo{tel I106 al the HEJ R€s.4h Institur' 

of Chemistry, Univ€lsitt of Kdacli Tbe oxygen co enl wa cahulaled bt diiIftn@ 

Ulraviolel &d yisibl. (UVTVIS) sFcuospic d.lysis M p€rfoded bv disslving 

abour 4 Dg of tlE hhic rcid fftcrio. in 100 nL of0.05 M NaHCor shion. Uv/vls 

$srplion sp@lru was E@rded on s shimdzu UV{60A sFcttoPhobnei.!. Infra(d 

sFctrm s n4u.d in fi. tug. of ,100G500 cd' on a Shimda mR Pesriee-2! 

specrrophotodeter by uing KBr disc melhod. 

3,ll Rqge r ..d 3t !d$& for tmcc n.ttb.mlytit 

Slanded solurio$ of urde6nldy denst! vee pEPded bv de dilulion 

cenified slddad $lulios of @Glondin3 neld ioN that wE 

MERCK. 

A standnl cfeh@ mardi.l (SRD l643d GEce El@ats in vatet fbm Nadon.l 

Insiitule of Sundards md T4brology 0!lST), Csilhdbug, MDi ws 6€d to evalude 

$e ed&y of m6urenot by SIaPhiG fm&. Elonic ab$tptron speclromdry 

(GFAAS). 

!.l2 Srbpl. @ldlioo .nd p|wr.tior for rna d.t.L .uvtit 

For th€ deledinalion of belals, tipliqtc waler sdpl.s wee @llccled botveo Julv 

200? sd May, 2l]O8 fton q€h sdplins location in pollTopvl.le boftlcs To ptevcnt 

th. smplc conlanimtion *irh lrM melats, $. smPlc bonls ad aU rhe od.r gl6we 

wcF treated {ith dilur. .itric acid md ritucd with ulra_pu€ water' The s.mples wN 

filrerd droug! 045 Fh nflbtm fillq. T!. pH of tnc filtratc wd s.l al I wirh lh. 

addilion ofa few drcps of65% nitric &id supra pw Fot Ue deLmimdon of dissolv€d 

m.ral @ enL, wat€r smpl6 *e Mlrzcd diEcdy ,ithoul ev pf.ireahenr 

3.13 lftrnm.ltrrioo $d .mlytiol co itioni fo. tr.ce nctllr .n.lv!it 

A^nalysr ?00 PdkiFElnd aromic ab$rytion sp.ctrodet€r equipted $ith gaphilc 

tuna* dd deuterim b&ksouod odeotor wd sed for tlle deteminarjoD of tee

tul'k in mr.r {epLs Sdpl€. Nrc injetd i o lbe st thile fitu sirg Pe*in 

Elnd AS-EoO dro€eplq. Pdt .M s n .tu!d 3 & aloric .berption 5i8nd 

3.la Rll ur..E.lr of !8. D.a.lt ln driddrg w.ld 

No@inogcnic iisk assiat d {ith th. iDgcstron of sota mnLining fl& tn lals ws 

als 6tnnd.n by c.lculating tho hdzlrd qrcticnts for .ath net ' 

3.15 G.og.pDhd irlom.io!.trt D (GIS) rhdy oITHM..nd ln.. rd.! 

spdirl .DrlFi! w @i.d ol{ witb a G€orrtphi..l infmation systaD (GIS) GIS v6 

N.d il lhtu inrdy lo lo.aie lh. lmpling l@rioE in tLe snrdy lM tnl io g.@tc 

gochqnic{ Erys sho$dng @IMlnlion of THMS ed t e€ n t b in scr spl* 

@llet d ftom diff.u smplins l@.liod of th. city. Invese disttne wighling (lDw) 

is a spaiidl int aolaho!t€chniqn p.domed by ui!8 ArcGIs 91.

CITAPTER:4 

RESULTS AND 

DISCUSSION

.l.l Phrlidcndh.l .b.n Lddq ol X.dir.. r.k 

Kdjhr Irle n ore of thc lsgcll p.mial lst t in P.ti$4. Hbtorictlly, il w 

fom.d by Ftrvidiry t [.r b.rcn r& dlml l.te _KdjW dd "Suhcri" 

rsjh.r i|d Sdhai E! tm $ala d.?Bio.., ehich 16 joincd in 1958 bv 

dynmiring th. eFnting hillr ro n.te onc lat.. rhe 'Kalri ldc" lKor.i' 

et' .L' 2mq 

In 192, it B cd.d s "Kdjhsr L*e-. ft. hre @4' 54'N .nd 6E 04'E) is 

3itiddd.dilriEof.holt 19 rn tuih ed rdlh-6$ of fie TlM Thb Lt i5 

2?.35 kn lois. lnld $l@ of Kdjh@ kke k . cdd c.ll.d "Kti Bhtgga l€€d./' 

odsindins tm Gndu Molt@nd B!"e., RiE Indu! IKonl'.i .l- 20001. Its 

|einu d.Fn i. 26 fta od r}e t ail !r. of tt l.t. is 4rqird.l,9842 L& |ln 

locaLd dnod 120 lr tob K|shi city (Fig, dI). K@ih,r b&c b t!. @ir $Fc of 

rda flryly io (,ehi ud Fr$ of Tha!. disni.t. 

F.tT 4t r,6it rof |(aibrlrr. 

wdd od6 @ll6cr.d nw Kajtd L.L. dui.8 6c .ntiE tsdl qqt M! 

rn lyz.d b.lh fo. plttlic.l .trd ci@i€l F!El4 Fcw F dc6 iEllning 

t.tupdnll€, ps, ilielrcd oxygd (Do) dd eieltiql codl.tivily (Ec) 9@ r.ab.zd

in lh. field in order io avoid sv ch&ge in rhe pdmctcr during Prc*ry'lion md 

TenFralw in1lEner pbvsical. ch.nical, dd biologi€l pioeses in mtlal aqutic 

sy$ans. As the rqlpede inc@s lhc oxvgd $lubililv det€4s Chenical 

conpouds als l€nd io b@re moE slubl. al higher lmpdat6' Tehperarue is 

cootollsd primeily by climlic @ddilio.s, bul hmm acliviiv cm olso innuene 

cmF a|ue. In lhe prs..t studv, 6 h. spling w6 nostlv donc in thc monlh or 

Ddnbd thftlorc, tcmp.BtrE of th! suf@ wter li€ in thc @ge of l9_22'C 

The pH of lake ealq it a significdt indiqlor of wt4 quditv ChaBe in PH d be 

eued by ataosphcric deposilion, acid di!, Mouding rcct weathcrinS' d'1 

reEwter dishdgcs Veialion in pH ce alIol $' solubililv of mov nelal 

compouds. pH of th. l.L qrer vG lound in th€ tuB€ of ?-? 6 shich * e@rdi4 10 

lhe Prldsu! water Qualily guidelin6 sd VHo sknd{ds' 

Th. @icedEtion ot dis$lved oxvgen in nanlal w'let rosouces depends upon lbe 

phrsical, ch€mical od biologicrl activhi.s prcvailing in lh' vster bodv Disolved 

ory8.n @l)mtrdion of wllet fl@r@t s wilh hF alu' Il nav also tary with lhe 

depth or d€ lake. Dislved oxtgd @n@nt tion of lhe surf@ wter of K*njhd r4e 

v6 r@ile

t 

6 

21. 

6E 

;IE 

:t 

E 

8E 

^! 

EE 

j 

:E 

.: 

I .? 

;g Et 

I 

3 

+ 3 

H€S E H:P E

t.2 Fn aioudoD rld .t d.&riztioo of.oil [urh ..id fEe Ketrjt'r Ldc 

Hmic slbsGnG (Hs) @ tomcd 6 a 6ul1 or chdiql ed biolosical dcsFd'tion of 

pldt dd eiml Bidm. Il .onsritut* l,tre najor ft&tion of sil orgeic mtq 

lJrdo.,2ol,!t f@sportal'on of erl Hs lo taw mld nav klc plae t[rcugh a nmbd 

ofpaihways in luding soil surfM MoIl, htetal leaching clc ll,i .l rl ' 20031 

HS @ be f@1ioMl€d on lhe bsis of thcir solobilirv i o HA' FA3 and hunin HAs 

@nprise high nolduld @s orysnc subsrN6 thar d isolublc ar Pq < 2 bul solublc 

in akalinc oedia. fAs re noddaie nolecule nds substo€s Lh.t re slubl' at all pll 

@ndirions whe@ h@in is i@luble ar ev pH rul@- 

In lhe brscnt r€sedch work e atieipt ha! ben made io ielate thc lIS from lhe soil ol 

K@njhe Lake. Il may prcvid€ infomation about rhc .nvireM€nt ol K@tjhd Ltle ed 

th€ potdiial of foming THMS duils $. disif@tion of latc w'ter' Clsicd alkali- 

extrslion pro@dlrc w6 ued fo! tE isolaiion of HS Schme for the extetion of soil 

HS is pF$DLd in Fig. a2- 

Soil 

Soil 

0.lMN.OH 

M HCI 

Fig 4: Scn6. fot th. errrdior of $il tudi. rrb3l:!'6

S$dy oI FA taction n€eds .dditiolal pudfication of the sup.mldt b, xAD esin, 

rh@foE HA i!.ti@ s only ed fo. th. tunha s1!dv of irt.ldcnb! dd fdcrioMl 

@nDosnion 6 well 4 ils slenal prcpeni.s tla w obbin d a a boM pdipiute 

from alk litu .xsat of soil on rcidiryidg it 

Th. €l€mdd mpositior of HA is dolg th. lan mbieuoN avedge pFperti6, sd 

8ives d .simre of lh. min sttutldl &atws of HA lY.Druchi .i .1, 200'll The 

cirbo!, hydbe€& nitlo8€tr, sul6r a.d oxt8c! cdtdi5 of rh' sil tlA a foud it dE 

!r.el study wer 47.95, 3.45, 2.98, l.l3 and 44 49 c/o Esp.cdrelv. 

I!. p@ntag. of c, H, N, S and o e foud *ilhin the tug' tvpical lor rrA of eil 

odsin l^nd.ltdic .t .t , 20011, s n€trtion d in l.bL 4.2 

rrbb 42: Eldor.l oEpqilio! ol hdh rid ioLt d froo lil o( K4!jnr' Ltk' 

.rd lbe lir.r.turc v.lr.! 

c 41.95 17.16{4.10 

H 3.45 L64-E.00 

N 2_9E 0.5G?.00 

s Ltl 0.14.EE 

o 

27.1.51.98 

' p.l6lrec .f o,ygo it dm&d N lh. drfr.Etuc tsm 

Th. Uv prefilc of HAs lik€ rh. pEvios 3nrdics sho\r€d 0E .xporentit! .tu|€4 of 

.bsotbm. at d.cEaing Mlel.iguts with d saU platcau mund 250 nn 6 shown in 

Flg.43.

I 

h -il 

-11 rt 

'.t I 

il 

4\ 

"l i 

I 

*l* I 

-:r.r|r-+.p- 

rnr}s- 

n!. {t WInd..f rEbd 

TL .!.o@lid a 250 m cod.4ollt lo tu.s.idd of cL'd!! Ioa Fi! uudlv 

owt.l (o-r') !d dtF b altrd. c{ cdd !.cl||.. of.-"'tdtldol! $t'th&d 

bG@ d Dolyphdb Llddrd..i d, !l)li tuuott " tl' 20061 

FT-IR r!..nun ln lhc rcgioi of 4000 to t00 6nn obid!€d !v KBr lcll't i! shown in 

'l!l.t. 

Poqp | 5a

It 

I 

I 

fig.4.4 

ITIR s!.clroE of buoic..id 

Th. Fr-lR sleEu wG tuinlv dmitutcd bv ab$Ptio! beds drc !o en'lic 

ahoharir, dboxyl'c dd hydoxvlr grcuP A $onC bsrt @ud 1400_lb0o m is a 

The absoation bands d 

chddte.islic of oH-grcrps of alcohol, ph€nols &d N_H 8tolps 

2923 mn dd 2854 cm I d caus.d bv c'H slr.lching of aliphatic hrdbg'tr dd abolc 

1000 cnr showd lhe pt t ncc of dondtic C_E sr€tching Beds thlt d showd al 

l?25 od 1652 c6r d€ d@ to the s[etchiiS frcq@cics of C=O bo'd5 ofcebonvl and 

atrd o{ing lo C{ vibrdion of mtulic dd aliphdic molauld sils 

cdtoxyl srups 

conjueatd wirh c{ lArd.lkovic 

d .l.t 20011 

Fuctioml goups thal e appe@d in the FT'IR spectrun of the HA ti&ion isolatcd 

tom lhe $il of Kdjhd L.r. e in ecorde@ vith th' 

srouPs uat e 

^Dcriotul 

EDrenled in th. ht"ofteticsl sEutlr of rL\ lslw.osotr' 19821, 6 shom ir Fig 4 5

fk.,l5 

cocH cco] 

ta-o 

Mod.l 3tn t!.. ol hudi. lcid 

c@l 

cooN 

Ths. tw sd Fr-lR spectro$oPic ealvsn of the i$l'led HA fraciion nlve confhed 

ths p6nc€ of phdolic, dboxvlic md @bonvl ibctiohal sroups A rcviev of $s 

lir.Etw ildi.ares lhal a vdi.rv of hudc frnctionnt grcuF' includitrs phflols' enc 

kelones dd cdboxvlic dids hav€ aho been coNid'ted 4 precues of THMS on 

chlorina$on of lhe* hmic cohPounds lFrirDcl '!d J'brel' 2003i Obot 't 'l' 

200rt. 

The pesenc. of cdboxylic aid ard carbontl hrcdontl Souts in the slrucluE ol HA d€ 

(he Nntial biffline siks for n ill io6 lor d@pl€ iren' copper' anc sd ndgde 

aJ Pbysio(h.Biel ltudv ot r.D trte. .!d Smrodi 't'r s'4p16 

DH is d. nosl imFnbt pameter for rcsti.g th€ *alcr quatitv h also hd e efecl o' 

the deerce ofcoEosion ofnelak in th€ wt r dttribution svstem' It is reconncn'led that 

dr edd shluld be pcfealtv at!.lir in otd'r to prcGd the waE drslnbdion p'pes dd 

nerall.( nurngq liod conosEn lRortvolllor ei 'l' 20081 lh' PH of hP wrFr dd 

grcDdwatd mplca !* found fton n utal to sligndv alkslioe Howct'L il *a 

qithln thc \\tlo comended vat@s of 6 t'8 5 

I 

d 

i* 

EC h o indiEcl ncaut ollol.l disslv.d solid concentdion lhe EC lalEs were 

gdenlly fourl !o b. hieler th& wHO p€misibl' l€v'l (400 ls cn r) wtich ell{13 

o'

the pE*nce ofhiCl nineEl contc in raP wat€r md groudMtc! samples Th€ lngh$t 

EC rdlk (13020 lr3 cn:5 s fomd in dE la9 waEr spl' fton Lvari A ldge 

!&iadon in the electlical conduclivili€s of$e eround 

waier smples tuv rcnect tbe loctl 

hyddgeolorical condition which rhu leadi to th. diselution of ninerals in tnd 

4,4 TrinrbE.tntmr i! trp wtr.r ltBpld of Kt.t.hi cilv 

(echi n o!€ of6c most E9idlv grcwins megacidc it rhe devcloping qo d lRrhi'! 

and Lce, 199?1. Rapid ubmizslion has lriggeEd e!'ral problems io a cnv Shonage ol 

var.r $pPly that is fit aor hlllM coMplion is ale ! najor iss!' (dachi wabr dd 

Sew.Egc bodd (KW&SB) is th. chief olgmization esponsible for $c cnv's *acr 

supply. Cblodne is ued $ a drioLing {ater disinte't&t ih dilieEhr w 'r lr€ament 

pl&rs b rcdu€e $e checes oa ni.rcbial cont mimtion dd to imPrcv€ fie qdnv of 

uarer supPli.d fton tiver Inds ed ltub d@ Basic pdmele6 ofwah qualit) aft al$ 

mooitorcd rccordiry ro lhe UltO guideliG ad srantt"& for qualitv dritling Etet in 

PEkisl'n Chlorine is usd 10 dbinfdt the water suPPlics b'ca6' hish nsl of nicobial 

co minadon ofdtinking walc is expect d 6 a €suh of lo* chlonne doege On t]le 

ods IErd, if high do* ofchloDre is appli.d in wald $PPlics NOMnav@rw n 

chlolne lo fom DBPS mainlY THMS. 

Ditre€nr techrqEi e .mplov.d for $. 'letmiMtior of THMS in dtinting $otef 

including edple Pdteatm.nl with hea&pG liquid'liquid dtudon (LLE) dosd 

loop strippihS appdarus or puge ed r.p follow€d bY gd chrodatographic sepdahon 

uins eithd el.cron capr@ .let crot (ECD) or .6s sp€ctr'nd" detdor' ECD 'le1e or 

h gendally coNideFd ro be noe setuidve for lhe d'iemimtion ol halogenated organic 

comFsds tle Ils sp€tromctic .ladion tNiiol'ou el ' 10021 LLE ne$od fot 

lhe 96 chi@rogdphic @lttis of lllMs ulilied t-p'nlanc. '-hexe o' diethvl'hld 

Il is Epon d tbat LLE with MTBE is tn onlv atoclion n€thod with aPpoxinai'lv 

| 00e/" dovcry [Lod, 20{,]t. 

lo the pF*nl research work, gas clnodabgaphic sudv of THM in dnnkine Mter was 

p€rfomed wilh LLE uing MIBE Fig 4.6 Pcsnls 

cny Gom *hde the rap $ster @pl€s d collst'd for THMS dolvsis 

lh' locdion of diflerent ded of the 

Poge | 5/

n8.4.6 tlM! mdra h.rl'trt 

ft. trdias.f f.it ddt d ldE a t b6.lb &r ro ikt* @i(a dd .i* rn md 

$on ll. bmri6 of THM! . . crh of clrorildir .d b disiBl re,llg in gffii 

Flblic.ho!rt idFd ofbls iaE.4c!r lo TIOi{ vi i.gtdion rl!n4! &bfidg rdE 

Th. Fbtidtip t iw6lh. olmtrti@ of TIIM! !d p-l ag 6Fe w ffii..d bv 

th. c.librdm om Ddnod. Th. c.libndd c|& ru ot ttid tt tlorhg rb 16 @&i tio 

rdb of@h !6d!rd TqM $tutin.gridt th.ir coic.dli@ (Ft 4.7) 

rqols8

: e 

na,a.t 

CffidnLltl.bf,h. 

Tb .ortldi.o codd..n (t) r.h.. s! lb r.d b d'd b litrb tdra t' 

cdio ot'InMr od 6.it Ft |r lqda !c 'd idivild TqM ?'ci' I i$'8 

b.!rrridbt-Ftd(rdtffi 6.cocdid!dFrGnrc lh'ttb'of 

r in s of .tlo.!&.! t . o 9t' b t'@di'5lo6o& r' 0'99t' br 

di.6.dlo.!o.ltr.5 O9rt .d tt t|loo.ft.d _ O9t6 

cc-rcDdlde,r[of 'trdrdLrt d.i$o i!r9" 

fta.a, GGtOt.lt -ar-r.a..5lr*tlf, 

rt lt9

THMS h 1aD wat t sepl.s w ex$ad.d bv . nodiicaiion of EPA ndhod 551'l 

lNikohor .t rl., 20021. chrcnaiocrms for de detemination of THMs in tap wle! 

spl6of t1EdifT.rcnt{.sof lhecitvaaPrc3€nlcd inFig {9to4 12 

Fi&4,9 Clrcs.to8nn for tn d.i.ruin.tior ofTlIM! id t.p t'i'r nbPl' 

(Lw'LQ) 

Fig.4r0 Clrcr.tolnd for t!. d.a.oir.lior olTBM! i! t p r't't 3'rple 

(LW'Lr)

i!,(lt: CrFotr.tr.. errld&abt.li.fTfltl L a.p tdt..4L 

(LW.ff E) 

Ltl 

IL;{ljt Ctlutoarulttlt d.nrfi{oo otrSMt i r.p r ..-4r. 

c,v4E ) 

CoNl.diid oridiiirlrt rHM rp.ci6 i! !p y,e tql6 it d.pictd i! fti (l3. 

Pola | 6l

Fk.4r3 

E 

Trble 43 shos th. de$riplive stitislics 

sFci6 6 wsll 6 cotumF.tion of TTHMS in 

(ppb) i! lrp r...1 r.Epl6 of K.nchi 

lt*riptiv. tr.atrri6 aor THM ir bp rrrd 

fo. the @nmtation of individal THM 

SD RSD 

CHCIr 16950 10.40 15.02 Lt5 

BrCl,CH 5.50 L68 l.6l 

Br'ctcH 0.00 0.09 0.17 l.3l 

CHBrt 000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

rUIM 0.64 170.l0 31.54 J4.62 l.l0 

The Esulls of th€ sludy @nnm€d lhe p@tue of r HMs in all wtcr sd€s However. 

th€ c@cent{ion ws vei€d fiom @ io d4 fhe nain@ c@timinltl level (MCL) 

ofTHMs in dri.Iirs *ar€r s $t by the USEPA is 80 pp!. WHO 8ud€lin v.lB for 

cNotufom bodo

I00 ard 100 trg L' EFcrivcly lNlkolto! .l .1, zx)21. wHO eri&liF. on THMS 

stalcs $at su ofth€ ntio oflhe concedrition ofTHM to ils Bp€dre guftlelire vsle 

should rct ex@ed unity- In the prelent slldy th. 3M of tb€ ratio of tle .oMtrstion of 

4h THM to its rcsFctire suidelitu v.lw *B fos.d below I, 6 pmted in Fi& 4.14. 

,= 

ll,,l, 

I 

,ll 

Fi& 4.14 coedb.tid olTTHMr.@rdhg ro wEo guidolim 

ChloDf@ B lt€ only s.ci6 li.l w fourd ir . @ai&!ble a@udl in dl lt en t 

spLs. Tt sods {xrelalio t t*g rh. colf,dE tid of chlorefm .xl 

ffiFdid of TTHMS is reFsrad i! Fic. art 

, 

ca.ddd.lTrllMr (r{6) 

fh. 415 Combrior hv-! TTHM. .!d cilorefom o4@antior

Ilns behalior qs !o b€ sp€cled d .hlorotbrm msk6 up hosl of tne TTHM lelel 

The cml.rions b€twn BDCM and DBCM with TTHM *w de caimcd IrE 

6ulls ot U. @rel.du a&lysis ildi€r.d s vrl drdarion bet@n TTHM &d 

DBCM bul no indicar'on oforelltio b.Nd TTHM ed BDCM. 

Vdildon in lh. @@nlrati6 oI THM is h.inly drc io thc difrwrce in llc.hloretirm 

lev€I. Concdtr.lion of chloofom is moe lil€ly 10 be infl@@d by lh. @idence line 

ed chlorioe $idual in 1n€ disiribution systr lwbit ker .t .1., 2lx)3l. Moe fie 

6id€ne dm of *ater in the disuibution 3ysr€r! th€ posibility of th. fo@tnon oI 

cblmfom d@ ro uE @1i@ of 6id!d dlorirc with NoM ale irc|!.s. Coealy 

lov mrdion of THM in ia' wrd mples my b. dE io rh. lor lcvcl of chloriE 

6idu.l. h i! 4essy ro 16re ad.{uc cblorim Bidual in .!.ry pon or the 

disEibution stscm e s |o mjn|ain lh. c,lEnical .nd microbial qudity of rhe dislribded 

wate! IT.oDir.tr .t .1., 2008i veco!.dd .t rl, 1997i Mun.v.l[ .!d Kur.' 

20031. WHO let rhe IiE chlorine residud in a dishibotiod retuort should b€ eoud 

0-2 - 0.3 na L' lsirtrdy !d Krinr.i.l, 2007i Tunho .r .1, 20001. 

The m€naido. of te ctlqift in llp sr.r spld 6[.cr.d nm dififfil ld.liti6 

of rlE Klrhi cny is dc?ici.d in Fi!: al6, 

l'lJL-LLIll.t'1,.r 

SDDlina r.. 

ll,hr,rtl 

Fig- 416 Cotre.rndor of lG .tlori!. Eidrtl (pprl ir ||p r.r.r {dpLr

The concedrarion ot fPc chloine esidul in alhosi aU th. wat€t smples is dete€ted 

Con*nlradon of chlorine i. *aler di$libution systcn d.cEa*s wiih line because of ils 

consmption IAI-Jas€., 200?l Reaction of chlorine wilh Nater constiiuens including 

corcsio. by.products lAl-Jsr.r, 2007i zbrng .r .1., l92i Kiere et .1., 1998i 

Dicirno .nd Zhrng,2005l, nicroorSanisns lw.bl..l.l, l99ll, orgdic ibpurities 

monia compomds, ion dd ndrdes iohs lead to ils cohsumption Fc chloflne ca 

al$ be ued up by leadioft with bionhs fom.d on lhe Pipe walls ed reacrion of 

100?i wtbl. .t .1.' 1991; zh.og 

chlorine wirn the pip€ qall mariial ik.ll IAI-Jt$.n 

€t rl,. 1992i Kiene et rl., 1998i l.bEin.n .l rL,200Ei Ft.t or.r rl, 19991 The mh 

caue for thc lo$ of lie chlori@ asidul within di$ributio! netwo*s t a e&tion of 

c onne on rhe scal.s c@dng thc im€t piF surf&cs lDicir.o .trd zb.!& 200s1 

Maul et al. tt985l di*6ed th* thc conccnttadon ofbo6 ft4 ed bral chbnne esidnal 

darcos in tbc dbtribulion srsLh s lh. 6id4..1ih. incrcdcs whil. frvelling ftoo 

lhe wrd tr.atnenr Dldr. Th. fr€. ctlorin. co.c.nhlion of *!ts aho tduces vheh 

evmEliotr of ct orine incEes al . lgn0.6@ ol eund 25J5 'C l$.b.tlv r.d 

(rnb..i.t, 20.0?j. Th. sllbilrtt of hypchloEt€ ale d*rcses bv phobrlegBdanon 

p@s in fie pr€ffic of sEong tulight ls.rbrlly .!d Klnhtrir!,2lxti Nowell.rd 

I|otr., t991. h h th.EfoEjustificd thar f@ chbnne co.tcd orthe tnarol ut ! when 

n l€v€s thc disribufon sysLh high bc withi! the WHO tu8c, but duing its 

dislribudon lo rhe l(mhi city thbugh . n $ort of prinary disr.ibutio. miN, pMping 

sraioro, 6efloi6 dd *ondary dhttibution pipelirc, thc concenhtion of ftee chlorin€ 

Esidul endually d€crcsd. This in nh lcads !o .ith.t v.ry low or no chlonn€ Esidutrs 

h lhe fanhest pans oi tre distribution systcm which nay also tssulls in high n* of 

bacrdial cont nidtioo ofdnil(ih8 warer. 

The pr€sence of indilidul sp{i.r of THMS is 

CHCIr>CHClrBr>CHClBr:, 6 shoM in Fi!, 4. | ?.

Fl& 4.17 

BDCM DBCV 

P.rc.trt i. oli.dlvtlu.l THM ipeid 

Shih in th€ fomlion ftom chloFlon lo bbnodidnobn€ihmc io 

dibom@nlomnetne. b bmDofom tat6 Dlrce du€ 10 rhe inclte ir the oon drFdon 

of b&nid. ion in th€ chloriM&d srd lwhla.k r .a .1., 2(x)3i Kruo.. .r .1, l99al, 

tbmtio. of brcmiMr€d trihloh.lhrn. b sbjclcd to the pte*@ of bonid. ion in 

Mt r. Bmmofom is rheEfore" the domiMl THM srei6 dwing chldifdon of hign 

bonidc wte6. In rhe pjlgt s$dy m bomofon va fou ir th.l,! *ald splcs. 

Thb is preb{bly de to dF pffi of v.ry low @n@tdion of brobjdc im in *.1d. 

Howd. fomation of broDodichloDdrrDde w found me th& t8l of 

pH i! .l$ a vdiable rhai innren@s in fomltion of THMS, t is Fported that th. 

corcorration of THMS ircFses 6r hiehcr pH lwbibker .t rl., 200!i cn.D .nd 

W.b.l, l98l b rhft is also $De indiclrioo rhd ih€ dsrJibulion of THM sFci€s is 

alnosl ind.Ftrd€nl of pH {Nokq, 200!; I.hlb$bl .t .1, t991. pH of aU th. Mtd 

spl€s l4ft t@rd€d h tbe drs! of 6.?.8,2, No 3igfica inlllre. of pH on THM 

l.rcl s ob*ded (Fig. 4. rD.

plI 

As @ vs.ion in 9E .i

4.5 lt€.lrh rist.rse$n. offiblloD.tt.tr6 (IlIMt i. dnnkingw!r.r 

Th. heahh dsk dsialed wilh THMS .xpos &om ra! *aiq in tr.3fuhi m 6timaled. 

on the b6h of lhe THM5 d.ta collected duiiS the studv. TaP w$r is nol onlv coNm'd 

for ddnking purpos bur tl$ for bathing, clceins md orhc &tjliris th6 tso dposE 

path@ys wer€ t6td into co6idendon. The lifetinc cec.r rist md th. ha2.d index of 

THMS troush onl i.gesdon dd demal abeQtion w'r' usd ro esim't fic 

@ims.nic and nonceinog.nic etrccl of THMS- C&q of rh. bladds. stoMh lag. 

inrestine. sd eclM d€ 6sdiaied {irh t\. cdcinogenic eltecls of TgMs. Non_cscer 

eds include jludice, subjedv. centnl newou svtlern efr.d, ftwbehavioml 

er'f*l5. ad eddSed liv.r lvin. dt .1., 2009; USEPA' 20061. 

Th. chronic dlily inlal€ md cmcr stope fado! were s.d lo detemine lh' lifetin' 

cal@ rtk. Th. inpul p6@.t€u &d then latu€s for .ltculating the CDI thrcu8h oral 

ingestion &d demal absoDion re mentioncd in T.ble 4.4 !!d 4.5 rcsp4ttvelv 

l.pnt FnE.t B fot .!Po!!r. ssD.nt ol TqMs ttolgh o.., 

inz6tion 

ll€e.r rr.,20041 

2 lustPA, 199?l 

E\posuG &equcn(y (EF) t65 ll,e.t rl., 20041 

?0 

K8 70 lL(.r rL 2ll04l 

lr,c.ftL 20041

Trbl€ 4.5i llput ptdneler! fo. cxpdurc .s!€!sn.!l of TUM! tbrouSh l4adl 

tbtumti44 

(PC) 

Fdcion ofskin in conlact 

rdL 

00089(cHcl3) 

0.0058(cHc12Br) 

0.0019(CHCIBr2) 

0.0026 (clrBrr) 

OE 

lusEPA, r97l 

lRArs,2005l 

18.9 lLG. €i d.'20021 

Erposuc frequncYGF) IL..etrl,t2002t 

19 [L€. d d.,20021 

l0' 

Kg ?0 lL.. d .1.. 20041 

Tne porcncy or sloF frctor of tE fou THM codpouds tal is assiald wiln lifelinc 

cmcer rbk is shoM io T.ble{.6. 

r.bb 4.6: Por.ncv &cror Gn or tlop. 6.to. (sn orTgM! ro' ntk ohttltor 

----3iiFrrfi t toga,Eo.Yl' 

Onl 

IUSEPAJ99T Le .r .1, I lw.rt .. tL' 20071 

2004i wr4 et !1., 200?l 

6.10*lo" 

tos'lo' 

BbmodichloloneLhde (CHCI:Br) orlol 6.33x10-' 

DibDlMhlorcm.thd (CHClBr:) 8.40x10' 

-90*lo" 

I l2rl0/

of t clitu do* {RJD' lbr ibc liN IHM 6bFurd3 c lisred in 

&t''lt,|:@ d* (RlD) fo TllMr lor o..l apaw 

B.omodichlooo€th@ tCHCl,Br) 

DbDnK om$ae(CHctBr,) 

RrD ths/t g/d.U I 

2xl0-_ 

2il0 

45.1 Lia.tiDe .u..r ri!k! for TtlM. rhDrab ditliut .4ourc p.rbw.y. 

ThG lif.ri@ cM ri* 6rinEtion dE b r!. .rDGs ro THM! is b6€d @ USEPA 

slid.lind lvi.u 

et .l- 2009i I- .. l|- l00al. The 6dts of @c{ tul dmugh t*o 

ditreml qpGW parhwys e Dl€sled in fig a.l9 srd 420 

ll 

Iil 

trl[ lLL, lLll 

L, 

F+ 4.r9 C.|6 ill tod TIIMt vi. ord nrr.

I | .l 

t ti ,lill 

lll, ttrl. lllL 

Ft rlo Cocr rbl rom THM. ti. ddD|l dDcrn 

;, 

gl 

TIE aveEg. litdinc c.j@ dsts ton CHClr. BDCM .d DBCM lhFugh ing6lion 

ronle wm calculated s 5.29xlo'. l.85xl0{ ard 2.24x10" cFctively. As bDmofon 

m .oi toud in th€ drinling qder md6 lhmfot val@s for th. brcmofom llft nol 

crlcular.d. Il 9s rcval€d tnd rb. .rc€s. lif€tim. caM filn CHCIr adt BDCM via 

Ingdior bule is e\c*ded tbn lhe genedt guid&ce n* vdc ol I 0oxl06 l$ug.r 

.1, tllnl. The !v€6se c.Mr n* tor blal trjhd@eib!ft tbrcud 06l ingstioi *a 

7,37x l0a, which vs de hjghd rbe lhe EPA &aplau. risk by about 7,37 

The pcnctratio of fiMs '.lo th. body my &te ple *bd skin cm6 i o @t!ci 

with @nkBiot€d *d6 dui.g showins" bathin& siming ad wr$irg luy.rq 

2006i l*.r d., zma; W.iol.trd Jo, 19961. TIF avrlg€ lifeline 6@ rbk Aom 

CHClr, BDCM .trd DBCM rhbug! d€rDl @i.cr w ftud to b. l.33xlo{, 6.3oxl0{ 

&d 8.34x10'€sFciively. The av.ngE lif.line @cq dsk &on

cnlEr $tuustr ine6do! or dedEl coniacr it th€ dost inpotul plrhwv lor caEr risLs 

fion THM! follo{td by BDCM &d DBCM. Ft 4ll dbplayed the s.tr 

r.00tu6 

3.00Ei6 

1o0Ei6 

l0oEi6 

(ll(1. BDCM DBCM (HB$ 

r CLal 

Fic.,Lll ar.rs. oe. roL lor TUM' i! dill.rul p.dt.t. 

If it is assm.d thlr rol.l 18 millid p@ple in K'dhi hav. a ?0_y@ lifcstan drd all e 

exposed !o THMs th@ug! or.l tuui€ dd d€m.l conL.! th.t ovcr a ?Gy.d p€rio

{.51 Nobc.rciuogdic rillt! for TEMs dttuugh difi.r.lt .!PGor. p.lnsrvs 

Nor@inog.nic risk sssmdt for THMS rc ale cond@td Tne h3ad index's e 

c.lculared for oral ine.stion &d dmal abelprion bv taling the ratio of rh' CDI ro th' 

RID fot e individu.l THM sPecies. 

Tne Hl of THMS thJough oral roule is depicted in Table t1.8. The r of CHCI3 lhrcush 

ool oute rugerl frcn l E4xloj lo 484xl0r wh.Es, for BDCM ad DBCM il *a 

foud in bctwan o to ?.86xlo_r and 0 ro lxlor 6}.ctivelv- This it in &conbnce ro 

then concentratjon foud in the iap wld spl€s Th. brono_THMs weG pr€eff in 

low( concenhations the CHCL CHB!] {s hol tlet€cled The ave!5ge ofrhe lobl HI 

for ttr fou THMS lhrcueh oral ingestion Ms 8.84x I o r. 

'nt HI of TllMs itroush dmal absotplion is GpE*med in Ttbl' 4 9 The Hl of 

CHCL Uroush dc@,1 conraci v&ied iioo gxlor b 2 42xloi For BDCM &dDBCM' 

the EI ws foud in the @g. of 0 to 2.6x LO! dd 0 to 2 2x 10" respetiv'lv 

The .ve!ag. of the lolal HI for the THMs in cse of d.nal tbso'flion w6 fomd lo be 

4.l9rlo ' lt qb noticed rhat fie Hl ol tHVs tlrough d'mal qa: lowcr Lhe 

'bsorprcn

Trbl..l* gord t!d.!ofTItM'ihrelshorn o ' iI bP s'hr e!,16 olxrnchi 

cscl BDCM DBCM CHBrr TTIIMs 

I 0.t6l4l 0.000t4 0 ND 0.16158 

2 0 0 ND 0.rN457 

l 0.05.286 0.00041 0.00041 ND 0.0s172 

4 017657 0.00041 0.00028 ND 

5 0.02114 0 ND 

0.04057 0 ND 004057 

'I 0.14829 0 000.28 0.00014 \D 01.1872 

0.l09l,l 0.00014 ND 0.10928 

0.02E29 0 0 ND 0.02829 

l0 0.06914 0.00014 0.00014 ND 

0.0?886 0.00014 0 ND 0.0?900 

t2 0.10114 0.00057 000014 ND 0.10185 

ll 0.ll?7t 0.00085 0.00043 ND 0.tlE99 

0.1)829 0 ND 0.128:9 

It 012686 0.00043 0.00023 ND 0.t2151 

l6 0 L7ll4 0.00028 0 ND 0.t1]42 

t7 I 0.0!@ 0 ND 0.01600 

ta 0.21629 0.000?.2 0.00057 ND 0 27151 

0.0lll4 0 ND 00Dl4 

20 0.22019 0.00100 0.00072 ND 0.22200 

2l 0.,'E429 0.00057 0.00028 IND 

22 0 00897 0.00216 

.21 002.2t7 0.00786 0 ND 

24 0.00457 000100 ND 0.00557 

25 0.0tl4l 0.00586 O IND 0.01928 

26 0.04849 0.00026 O LND 0.04875 

27 0.001E4 0 0 ND 0 00t E4 

0.01529 0006?r 0 ND 0.02100 

29 0.02300 0.00626 0 ND 0.02928 

l0 0.02400 0 00586 ND 0.02985 

ll 0.01829 0.005:8 ND 0.021t7 

l2 0.00886 0 00028 ND 0.00914 

ll 0.024 0.00228 0 ND 0.02628

Tlble ,t 9, g@.d ld.r olTHMr lhblgh d.rErl .oDl.l lr tap '!r.r linpld of Krnchi 

cHcb BDCM DBCM CHBn TfHMr 

0.00807 4.7E-06 0 ND 0.00807 

2 0.0022J 0 ND 0.00223 

3 0.@264 0.0000t5 0.0000t ND 0.00267 

0.00881 0.000015 0.000006 ND 0.00885 

5 0.00116 0 ND 0.001t6 

6 0.00201 0 ND 0 00201 

1 0.007,1I 0.00001 t.10E-06 ND 0-007,12 

0.00546 4.7E-06 ND 0.00546 

9 0_00141 0 ND 0.00t4t 

l0 0.00]46 4.7E-06 0 000001t ND 0.00147 

0.0039,1 4.7t-06 ND 0.00J94 

t2 0.00516 0.00002 0.000001I ND 0.00518 

l3 0.00689 0.00001 0.00001 ND 0.00691 

l4 0.00641 ND 0.0064 | 

It 0.00614 0 00002 0.0000062 ND 0.006i6 

l5 0.00866 0.0000t 0 ND 0 0086? 

t7 0.00t 80 0 ND 00018 

IE 0.0138t 0.0000.2 0.000012 ND 001185 

l9 0.00166 0 N'D 0.00166 

20 0.0ll0l 0.00004 0.000016 ND 0,01106 

2l 0.02421 0-00002 0.0000062 ND 0.02424 

22 0.00045 0.00008 0 ND 0.00052 

2t 0.00113 0.00025 0 ND 0_00|]8 

24 0.000.21 0 0.000022 ND 0,00025 

25 0_00067 0 00020 0 ND 0.00086 

0.00242 0 00001 N'D 0.00241 

71 0.00009 0 ND 0 00009 

28 0.0008r 0.00022 0 ND 0.00103 

29 0.001t5 0.00020 0 ND 000l.lt 

l0 0.00t20 0.00019 0 ND 0_00l]9 

3l 0.00091 0.00017 0 ND 0,00108 

.]2 0 00044 0.00001 0 ND 0.000,15 

tl 0.00120 0.000075 0 ND 0.00128

TlE greater the vrlue of CDVPJD above unitt. the gi€srer ih. lelel of concm 

Ulry. d .[, 19951. Bur in lhc ped study, 0E brll t'll for rhe THM ampoudr 

trcustr onl loule wd aboul t n rimcs low€r the uity, thich did @t indicat non- 

The asull5 of lh. health rist as..M..i liln expot@ ro THMS e fomd in agddml 

wirh the plevios studi.s. On lhe bdis of th€ study aboul cecer risks ad HI of THM 

rbrcu$ diff.F *pos@ Dul6 fot laP water in Hone Kohg, Lce el tl l200'll 

@tuludcd tlEr *pos lbeusb ohl in86tio. h.d hirlq dsk thd $rcu8)t d.mal 

aberption. To*mak et al. [20041 ale conc]ud€d in a study r,\at ntc high€sfuisl {6 fom 

the .xDosw to chlorcfom tbrcu$ obl ins.stio. Iwros .t rL' 20071. 

4.6 Tnce neiolc in l.p q.rer .d grounds.ts ltEpl.t of Krnchi citv 

Ttuc havy ncl,ls ft viial nicro-nulri.nls which e involv€d in a vdielv of 

biGhcnical fiDctioN it aI liling orerniss [T@n .t .1.' 20{9l Detemiiation of 

netlh by FA-AS b a !.lativ€ly simple ed connonlv available technique, bul lhe 

convennon l delemimrios of ctmcnts.r |lg L-r mg. bv FAAS liequenn! d nol 

Dosibl.. Horevet. GFAAS ir a l€ hniqe thar plovid.s exc.llal *snivitv for dE 

dekmrnarion olMce mehls rn \ &ioB envircmental mtuices 

In th. pe*d study, ihc dsslv.d n t l @lterf in thc *ard mpl6 ton difiFrt 

ew6 of *aLr supply lo K@hi cily 6 sll s tap war.r sd 8roudmtd stl.s c 

.n lyzed. Th. min objdive of this !tudy is to *aluG the po$iblc sowcs of qrer 

@nhination, lo chak $e complioa of tta .l.menrs lw.l in *aE qith lhe l@al 

dd inrermrioml sidldtds for dniling wal.r od lo s.$ Lh. b,ads a$ciaEd wilh 

fi6e me6ls via thcir oral int ke. Tde nc@ls elv&d bv GFAAS wde Nickel (Ni)' 

copp.r (cu), chtumim (Cr), L.!d (Pb), cobqlt (co), Md8alF (Mn) 4d lon (F.) 

tuv€r Ind6 is lhe soNe of bdt mler supply to K@.ni citv The tuver Indu prcvides 

wld io the Ksjhs L.lG lbhueh Kah Basnd (KA) Feeder' 'I1te sou'ce of lDdD wale' 

siich oigiMt€s ftom lhe tjr. Mds.IM &d cndr !t IndB dclla P6ss lhrcu8)l a 

sdies of ch.!g€s. The i o&lion belwM IndN water dd dre rocks 6d eil of vevidg 

conposition &cone a eFc of addins inolg4ic conslitu€nts into the *aler Th€

popuhdon &o indutiB dcteiopqi on ei$q sidc oi dF nlct tuiher pou elhmpogd,c 

dd inddnar @16 inlo the nver. 

iiub dm is a l.rg€ wrer sbEac lwNot {inch is Gr by |he ilub tuvd ad nou@n 

spnngs. Hub Rivd g@gnphic.lly li€s in dF provinc of &ldhislar. Ih. mthmdt 

e! of the nvd @nprisd oi veeds oi $dircnEv rccks, oPbiohs dd @leses 

D@ lo $. vcry fiin populdio. i. rhe @t!6me @ md .o inddriainldon oi dv 

signitic€M, n is expoded thar lhe quaiity of srer muld be dilicmr ii@ K*njhtr 

wal€r sples lon both th€ $wd w@ dalyzld ior delemining lhe con4nrltion ot 

m€Els. Thc m€4 @nenrranon of m€bls in woter spt6 n$n bolh fi€ sou@s N 

Cr ?b Co !,6 a. 

|l::ffi* 

!t&.L22 comprn , of *.&r qu.liry oafto ujoi mrE olw.Lt 'upplv io lkdnl 

h ws foud thrr rhe @nqtrlrion ofNi, Cu. Cr, Pb' Mn ad f'e *@ wilhin the \vtlo 

I1rc qudity of wd€r uonltbm coNid@bly fton solre to ihe hosehold l,g Allholgh 

0E qurlig of el@ watcr tind! sdisl&iory. n m.v ddeno* in rhe *zt€r disribunon 

s'sLn. I1E ratdnls onPrising pipes, pmpe, srdlgc llenoB .rc nav @l!w

$tough cotrllcl*ift walq or say l€&h @nsti[enis in walet or"t tinc Cr Zn [' ed 

Pb e the metals thal ce b. intlodnced in to the wat€! tom the cooosion of tnes' 

Duc lo lhe sceity of nuicipal *atd supPlt gloudwar€r is aho ulilized fot drinking 

ad oiner dom.sic Purpos in 6iou pdrs oftn citv. In a iltml s|ale, Cround*a16 s 

lEe &om pa$ogeB b&ten. md tn*s Ir hd 8fldarl\ ld lo"er lon\cnrnhnr ot 

orlanic Mner also. Tte pesence of netal ios in Sroudwler depends on lhe local 

geology. geocbenical cbm.l.risrics ofde aquif€t mlclials ed bvdrolog Apan flon 

th. natuttl pceseq dnthrcpogmic euces also havc ! t'nddo6 ionE ce oo ihe 

grcud{ater gdh.nisll} ln 8effia] han1 mebls di*h&g'd o soil c ch@ldized 

by lone tBidcne tins lt.br .t .l., t009l M.lals ce b' &cunula|d in th' uppd laver 

of rhe eit or oen.tale i! diffeEnl loms iito suface sater llrhr €t |L' 2009i Keller 

rtrd DoD€rguc r96i Cned .l rl, 2003i L.p.ne 200t1 Metal mobilialion 

'l 'l ' 

e.nerally dependr on th. conceniolion of6' pd' ndal in rbe eil $lurion which in 

M d.Fnds on rh€ eoiion dd cEntion of the sme n€lal in soil llr!' et tL' 2009i 

Ster.k on .l .1.,200{1. PH, tetp€Br@ $il tt?e. vtdo* dd plneaic enes fe &d 

Mn oxides md hvdroxides. nelat cdbona&3 vdios bioloeical and chemical p@c€s*s 

l'le biodesEdar'on Rdox Racnon sd d{1} LLrns pl&e 'n 'o I oo g-o 'nd*dter al$ 

mdirulat€ th€ gtouf,dwatc! ctenisq lJ.lgronk'4 

2008; Irh er tl' 2009i 

Bndl,2004; v.$ et.1,20061 U!8.\ 200s1 wald disFed oltoida! P'niclcs 

tivcllins tholgh eil nampoffi dd 6dl$ @ als co6itlc6blv enh@ hetal 

hobility, €usins r.Mkable incede in tdsport'd n't'l load dd nigdlion dBl'm's 

lKrrarhMsis, 199; Milb cr rl,l99l; Puk td Po*'ll,1992; Ouvtns ei 3l' 196; 

Ryr! .nd Elincl.ch, t996l Soil PoPeni's dd conposition usuallv changcs Nith 

deDth. th.!€fore rhe chd4ctnslics of subeil could be diffRir hon those of the 3urfac' 

lay.r. The subsoil layer hd b€.! Eveal.d b b' e inpoianl 8€Ghemical bdaier asansl 

th. misralion of m€tals in $e soil svstem includine Pe@ttolion into the groudMler 

Llrb. et !1..2000: Elliott el rl l986i Hoodr rnd Allosrvr lqqEr St'r'k'D!tr 'r rl ' 

20001 Tm:por of soudwarer corhrndl s much nore conpq Phmomenon r\d 

surf4. @ier Groundwatet flos, g.ologic.l beckgto@d, lhe processs of dat@El

mspon atu oe dcgradaton dc the f&los lJEt driucnce rhe nss ttanspon 'n 

ercundwEr IJ.lrro!1,1, 200E1. 

t@ ncrds 'n up rer dd greudwd.r @Prcs d 

!ig, a.23 M.t l or.otntion ir r4 od gnu it.tct !Dpl6 ol ioEcnl cttv 

'lhe md cd@ nrion ol Ni in *ar€l sple tun Kdjhu Like a.d Hub {'dm e 

rbud ei$in th€ p€missible lihils of ue w Ho stsnd.rds Id wto qu.lirv i-e 20 pg L 

" 

tlowva. the @ncdltllion of Ni in rap w|er spl6 @U@l€d fDo dirTd l@tios 

of f.,@hi ciy e fou in lhe tugeolI J-l57 Fs L'" A oNid@bl' wiallon in llc 

coft.ntrstio oi Ni is dp4led 6qn rap !o Lp lrd de loh rire !o tm' lb 

@.@nllsid in wold my imr€M d@ to l@hing li6n nickelchrcmiM Plgldl raps 

dd fitlinss, Wat r lei sr{dine for. lons dn in sucb Plmbing dsings mav ds shos 

incFs€d colMtalion of Ni in wEls. Ir!. nieh6l c@8fiation of N' wa obdlcd 

'n 

Et eale. @pl. lM K(fuer reidentral !@ As th. .@ li4 in clN Fotidtv !o llE 

Kotugi Industri.l .M th6fot. $d.r suppli€s @v sdilr liom indNlrial eltlEds std 

missiod 6nt ining loxic merals

Colc.nEriion of Ni in the grculdwt r sstnpl.s tuscs b.twm 4.40 !o 81.01 llg Li 

Tlis @iarid i! .oft.nfrdon d.D.nd! on lhe tuE of soil' PH dd de h of th. 

smpling. Emulnt3 .nd imprepd elid wic disPdd fioD Ponti pilm.nq 

.tcEop&'titr& tri.k kldhiM b.ndics, .ulodotivc Frts, @atings &d.ldtricr! {idng 

aid .ltoys Muf@nring itdEti6 my de bdns @ntamisliotr to tlE un

er€epdonal 6suli from Ledhi industial !r€.. Contanination of Mt.r rlPplics ftoD 

indultial .mu.rtt o aining Cr ed its !.lts citha fom lcatho Lming industris, 

r€xlilc neufacrwirg indEFi.s, Pdtu !d Pi8mcnE,..@ic ed 8l6s indsry, chrcDe 

alloy &d cbrcn. plariry indslri.s nighl bc GpoGibl. for this .lming sndion 

ps.ilils i! lhir @4 wct &d drr dcpolition of C. F.$t 6 @bsl in th. atncPh.t 

tuy livc rie to i@@ing Cr cor.orFtion up io I 13,2 trg L r. 

Cmudutd @nt$iEtioo by Cr is a major Plobl.d in ind6Eial4a. Tte ind61ri.s 

di.po$ thcir wl6 .id!.r inlo th. $w!9. systcm or e dmp€d inlo Mdlir ot Lydi 

tuvcr dir..dy fto6 the lg pL4 $iich ultih.tcly dmps i o th. ec AlthouSl $eE 

& lcw smdl a..io@t pl&rs for itrduitrial wld. but $., e lbelut€ly inad.qute 

lH.q .t .1, 2l)l)91. Con@larion of Cr i. goutdwtq of KoMsi indGrri.l d. .lso 

enccls rhc @nLdictio. ol grcudwrcr $ppli.s *ith chremim, Cr c@enidriotr in 

gre@dwater of Non! Neimbad ale folrds @ci&Ebly ligh.r. lt my bc dw !o ihc 

fet dEr NonI Nei@bad k l[. '@ dtst li6 oq a pluSing synclirc, b thc pas! in 

cat h pans of thc aF sreud*ltd E .@uta!d .r d.Pths loe $tn 2t or 30 

n t E- Most of this wlld @ bElish &dE rct @Eid.rd r f6ibL elc of ABh 

ut r, but mw the wt r rrble i$ gcently.ncouard .t lcs thm 2 or 3 mdas d.pth 

!.d rhc wltq qudity is "s*r.I". Th. ptldoniMt ee6 of th. Fchagc consirl ofln. 

sMsc tom dE swds. slbd.ll 4d ldr!3c filn thc wrq liffi |nrnmtr .t tL, 

\9911. 

Diselution of Pb Aom @nual $|cs a3!lt! in thc pEs.nc. of Pb in e@ @cr, Pb is 

ale d.p6it d &on th. .ttrcph.F diFdy .ithd by dry or w.r Path*ay3 or ro th. ur.r 

s!rf&6. Md Pb @monltio! in wr.r mpl. of Kddhe Ll|(. ed Hub .!.n e 

found !o be 1.664 dd 0.84? fg r! FsFctiv.ly, Concdttarion of Pb in tap war.r 

splcs @ found hiehd the it! @ncdunior in $w. w.t6. lt indic.t s dut *alel in 

the disaibudon syncm mirhr b. coftmiMi.d filF Pb .ith.r tteueh k&hiig of Pb 

conpouldi ftom PvC pipcs or lioh diselulion of Pb frod the hou*hold pllnbing 

sFt m. Iltc disolutior of Pb ftom thc plumbinS syst.i d.pcnds on scvcdl facloB,

icludins the pFsrce of chbnde. DO, tcFF atu€, pH, st1er hardms ed emding 

rine ofvatd Son ad acidic waEr being $e dd hiSltlv plmboelved' Th€ age of Pb 

pip6 is ale crilical in tefts of lhe moul of Pb leehed. In oos of the ma of 

(mhi, concent'adon ol Pb in tlp walq sMpl.s e foud within tne \[HO p'mnsible 

level of ?b i.e., lO Fg LI Waler sdple ftoh Kee@i is foud lo be highlv 

Analysis of Pb in gitoMdwate! sples Ev.al.d $at h some of fie goundtr?ler sdples 

?b mncentdlion w6 exceeding th. WHO guidelin€ value for drinkins vaier' 

Conlalinalion of Pb in Cioudweter otigiMtes fiom the dissoludon of Pb ftoh soil md 

eafth cNst. Due to the mobility of Pb i. soil, il ulimalel) moles doqnward into rhe 

etoudwa€r 

Th€ hisl Pb cohtenr in Mt r mav be ahospheric in odein owing ro tne 

bming of leaded edolin lRrhd.n .t .1., 19971 or eni$ioh ofPb paniculate ftod lead 

trlErs md bariery pldls €tc lnpopftdisposal ofsolid *6le cohtainins sd batteri€s 

dd other bdardous chenic.ls oay .le b. thc c.se ol Pb conunination of 

gtuudwabr O*ing 10 th. Iong tcaidcnc. dnc of grcudw.t r in $e invisible slbGutfrc€ 

.nyiromenq theetrecB ofpollution @ *n onlv Ltr ofves lad U.tC,o tr,20061 

I$pi!€ ofsne pdtic rEeGof Pb @ntmi@tion of g.udw!l6 n is efrctivelv 

imob zed in rhe bP laye6 of eil dd hcB. linle witl b€ cded doM into tn€ 

Co 6 nol deEcred in the saler sdplcs from Kccnjhe Lake od Hub dae' In cp walq 

mples als Co sd eithd fou.d .b3cnt or prcse.l at a lo$ concentralion up to 

5.95 tg LL. co Ms also found undn4ted in nost of$e grcundwaler smples wdn u 

exception of Nonn Naidabad md Kordgi indusfial ea lt eveah lhat *ald smples 

ee geneEllr nol conlmimted wilh co o! ifco is Pesent,lheh irs conce ration is belov 

tne delection limib ofGFAAS. Co h a relativ€ly mobil. m€ul in sih conpared ro mosl 

netals lHuihor, r99.ll thsefor, peeohtio. of indctrial eftluents i o SDudwar* 

souces roy be the rc6on of contmioalion of goundwater of Koregi indutial ea 

Co is Ned 6 a piCm.nt in PainE, ccrmi€s, 8lds, s a caLlvst for tE petolem industrv

dd in bandies. It is als used in *veml g?cs of.llovs including nagnelrc alo)s. hiel_ 

llnler,rE slcl atloys ad ab6ioni.sii4t h8d-a!.ing aUots lHtnillo4 199'll- 

Mn is natuuy fobd in both sufa@ dd grcundwai.. sources, owing to ftathering md 

solubilizalion of Mn from soil dd b.d6k ll-juig .nd Vrht.n 2007l The $lubilnv of 

Mn in sil is €xlr€nely snsirive to changcs in soil redox colditions lcreen d .1,' 20031 

Mn oxides ae nlneEble lo reduclive dissolution u..ler sliehl to moderate soil rcduction 

Icr€er 

et a1,,20031 Mn oxid6 aho .&o!b tlace hetals including Zn, Pb, Ni, ed Cu 

by n€ms of specilic surfme adsrptio., TEc€ hclals e aho knoM to be dsocialed 

with Mn oxides by substitution ed co-pFcipit tioi lcre6 .t .1, 20031 ed lhetfd€ 

give rise o thet in€Eded solubility in $il M. .d al$ b€ Fleed 10 wter or tui bv 

dischage lion alloy- steel md ion production indsin.s dry{ell baft€nes electical 

coils, {€lding mds, malch6, gl6s, c@ics. dyes, Pai s &d drving industries. Mn ce 

b. Ele6ed into lh. ahosphee b.c.u* of the u* of org@meElli. conFmd VMT 

(m€thylcycloFnEdimyl inn8&.k lric&bo.yl) 6 d dtiln6h addnive in uleaded 

CotretrFation of Mn detftkd in lh. wl* spl.s fron K.enjhdr Lale md Hub daft e 

33.42 anl4l.3l pg L' 6petiv.ly, wHO prsni.d a h€ald!_bsd 8lideline 

vtlue of 

,tO0 pg L' of Mn in &inldts qlci in lhe yce 2006 ll-julg .rd vdt.r' 2007] 

Conentratioo of Mn in tap utcr sspl.e @ found wilhin the WHO guidcline value 

The major conc€6 due lo Mt in d.inling Mi.r @ ils abilirv to $aln plmbing dd 

laudry 6 qell d poducilg objecdombl. l3$e Mn @v fom a moling on piFs in rhe 

distribdion system qen at conc.nlraiion of 6 low 6 200 Fg Lr ed thu case 

d.s.olontion of$e qarer at Lhe lap 

Fe h e obj€cdonable costituent of a drinlins wat€! IMlrj'ni et rl.' 2009l Ie 

oncennation of 0.2{.3 ng L-r do.s nol have d .ff.cl on lhe nveienic dd aesthetic 

quality ofwater, but 0.3-LO ms LLm.y case ainiry dd obFctionable tdt€ Excessiv€ 

concerFadon of!€ inparls a bin ! chdctcnstic, m.lallic ta5l€ dd sle caE oxidizd 

Poge I 83

precipilate in eatq lMdj$l .l .1, 2009l Conc. tation of Fe i. rhc wat ! sples 

llon Kecnjbd L.le dd Hub dm aF found ro b€ 53 6 sd 54 13 l1g L ' Bpecliv.lv 

TIE Fe conc.ntration in rap w.t r spl.s e found lowd lhd th. WHO guid€lire value 

of 0.3 mg L'1 (i..., 300 tg L r). The vdiation in coM.tuarion of F. nav be dua 10 

difer.nt Ea!o6. Fc may cnlft into th. wtlr wh.rcv.. cst iton, stal and galvdized 

ircn pip6 a ued for qard dtuibutiot. 

F. is on€ of th. m61 lbundat minc6l! in fic .qtht car th.tfoG it is comnonlv 

fow.l id gowdwal.r. Conc.ntr.tion of Fe in goudwt r sdPlca also loud withi! the 

The rt*nc. ol F. is a vdy @mhon w .t qulity preblcm h.rce. edtion or ch€ni'al 

oxidadon followcd by 6pid sd lilt!"rion is s.ndllv u..d for rhc Gmotal of Fc Fc in 

f.tuc 6e'?) narc b elubl. in wr4. th@foE s.latinoB fl@s e podu'd qhd ire! 

cherps to f.nic (F.r) slatc. Th. 0@3 ths fom.d @ mov.d bv p.ssirs rbc ur'r 

,{? sr.rirtic.l d.b r!.lF! fo. rh. p|e!4 oa tda D.t b h np '!br .id aFudrrhr 

Thc cGnt of li@ity bcr*.n Fk @ ed |r8 L-r@n6rrarion of merals @ 

@nd.d by th. value of @fllcicnr of dd.mi. ion (l) ed 6 ate &pict'd in Fi& 

4,24ro 4.24. 

a 

Fi& 4.24 

C.llbnriotr c!n. fo. Nl

l. a.r5 

a 

0.4 

0.al 

0.3 

05 

02 

0.ai 

0-l 

0.6 

?lD'jX 

Cd.ddo6r/l-) 

n& {27 C.Ibdlo. oru tr 6 

0-:(' 

OJ 

o5 

:!J 

-t na 

30" 

-0t5 

!.1 

06 0 

6A 

ll9 4:t C.Ubntlo! cuw. tor Mr 

r:0.@7r-o.qt 

Ff.0.9tr 

y=0.0@( +O@ 

'It e@.r d Frcni@ of |n. o..s@td tt CFAAS E .s.d b ultzint 

|li SRM !d.ryilg tr ttEl tld coo.ddo vd€ of lt dlt rilb qd6.d 

Pog€ | 86

valres ofthc sRM l64ld. IrE 6dt5 @ found o be in good.ge.n.nr wiih rhe 

certined values, wiih the percenl ec@cy of 96'98% {d a p€rcent elative s€nddd 

'IlE dMipriv. d€r.diMnon of rhe n.ral @nc.ntilios in tlp mrcr dd srcurdQa|s 

@pls of Kifuhi ciry e gi@ in T.bl. ,l l0 atrd a.l I Especriv.lv. 

Tablc 4.10: D6.ripriv. st tirtict tor o.trl! i! trp wtt r !.Epld 

SD RSD 

Ni t_49 157. t0 t7.tl 36.32 0.97 

46.90 l0l_79 11.70 64.20 0.51 

Cr 2.94 Il].20 tl.93 t9.11 |.66 

Pb 0.00 44.12 5.05 8.14 1.34 

0,00 2.24 2.21 0.99 

Mn 23.19 140.t0 8l.00 57.90 0 7l 

55 53 )26.50 106.38 t8.14 0,16 

D*irrirc rhrliid lot D.t lt h 3Eudnl.r {dPr6 

Ni 81.01 20.16 t9.15 

SD RSD 

Cu 54.65 u7.80 80.81 18.58 0.t3 

Cr 0.00 50.54 7_62 12_14 t.62 

0.00 20.n 1,24 6.51 0_89 

000 4.73 0.96 2.64 2.76 

Mn 25.t4 180,40 76,40 41.80 0.57 

37.80 178.60 87.t0 43,30 0.50

Pe6on s corcl.tion @efiicient for Ni, Cu, Cr, Pb, Co. Mn dd Fe in grouDdwater dd 

taD wde' d m.ntioned in Trbl.,l.l2 ed,l l3 rspedively 

T.b|.,1.12: PaFr'! oFlrdolt b.!trd! lL co..e!rndo!! oa ndL i! 8ou.ds...r 

Ni Cr 

Cu 0.119 

Cr 0.159 0.094 

Pb 0.581 0.497 0.)54 

0.371 0,071 0.722 0.191 

0.214 0.03i 0.]]3 -0.072 0 l4l 

0_682 0.698 O.3EE 0.52t 0.123 0_192 

Trbls a,l3: P..@.'t.orEl.ilou bers*n lh. ole.tEriod of Eetalr ir LF *ol.r 

Ni Cr 

C! 0.t01 

Cr -0.068 -0,104 

Pb .0082 0.094 4.069 

Co 0 017 0.12t -0.160 -0.19 

0.065 0.198 0.0t9 -0.065 .0.354 

r. 0.194 0.280 -0.220 0t08 -0,082 0.469 

Ttt @Rlation @fficientr of Ni wnh Cr. Ni with Pb, Ni wilh Fe C! wirh Pb Cu with 

F., C! with Co md Pb witn Fc in eromdwd* mpl6 h.v. shou signific&t positivc 

coftlatioc. A 3ignificdt positivc coftlation w6 als fo@d betwen Mn ed Fe i! laP 

Multivside 6dt!h of n hl concedFtion in drinking watr of Karebi c'l-v M 

conduted drcuSh cluler &alysis (CA) &d Pincipal comPonent dalvsis (PCA) Tbe 

CA ed PcA e capsbl€ of idcDbryins Stoups od sets of vdiabl. with sinild 

pdpenis lLi .t tl., 200?1. 

Th. obiectivc of CA is to grcup obje€ls inb cl$i.re such fiai objets within oe clultr 

shde noc in codnon with on. eoth€r thd lh€v do with th. objsts of othq dnste6 

lYcrirosh .nd EE!, 20081. tn bjc@hicat clGrqins n€do4 th. obj*ts e 

Poqe | 88

.geFgatd ecolding to then distdce of similadtv in Nc€nding otder' For CA' si'gle 

lidoge n.lhod wd usd. Singl. linklg! is ln. lggE8nion nedod used for comb'n'ns rxe 

cluse6. ln $G m.thod dE shdd di$ne tdvm d'e cl@6 is complEn lx'llt" 'I rl' 

2m.{. 

D€nddgm dulting fi!6 th€ hterehi€l clur.. tdlvsG fd the 7 m'bk in tp *trd shos 

dd conc.nMrion (ps L r) drcr, co, Ni md c!, Dd coneDhrion oi P\ Mn 'nd Fe !R 8rouped 

50 s5 

67 30 

8l65 

100 00 

h(dL 

Fi&4.29 D..drcgnm Brliirg frcD lh. hi.rtrchicrl ctulcr rdlYrb 

ir l.p rrt r r.EDls (Siogl. li!log., Con.ltlio. Co.Ili.idt 

In ca of grudwtlc! in ondFalton 

G srcuped r.p66t ly (Fi& 4J0) 

ofN', Cr ed Co, Cu 4d Fe. ed Pb ed Mn 

l8e

89 59 

n73 

89 86 

1m.00 

Fi&4J0 

D..dqEm Euldbe tren rb. hi.nrhictl cl6r.r rn.lvth lor 6't'h It 

treud;.?r sphr lSl4l. ll!Lrg.. CorFl'rio! CGmcl'!r Dilbde) 

The ?c is a ordiddor tecbriqw rhrt cat€s lilr @nbinarions of vdiabl* ro 

onsfld Ndlald velos (PCs) dut d.$nb€ thc dobindr pat!'d of wiae in 

the dala lcood.ll, l95.li Ginrd€l dtl L.h toor; Li .t tl,10{?l Thn nelhod is valid 

for idertiryiog which vdiables explain th. nolt veioce, md thcforc' conlan the dost 

infomio\ esp.cislly fot dala s€ts winh a l&sc nubtt of vdiabl's lTb€B' d rL' 

2001j sidorov. .t .1., 2003; sDiab ..d W.cbob' 2006i Li .t .l ' 200?l' 

IE BdG of th. PCA ba..d on .ietulFis of th. oElarion tuFix for melals in itp 

wrer dd greudw.lr @pl6 e Penr.d 

in T.ble 4.14 ed 4 15 Esp4livelv'

T.bl.4.14: PrinclD.l Cobpor.or A!.lyri! for b.t b t pr.l.tlrrpl5 

PCI PC2 PCJ PC4 PC5 PC6 PC7 

Ni 4,291 0.J77 -0.319 {.J71 0.fl6 -0 207 0.180 

4.417 0.168 { l.ll 4ll5 -0..t41 0.58,1 4.t51 

C. 0.t92 .0.189 4-425 4_597 -0.t?5 .0.160 

.0.249 4. t9l 0.705 0 00E -0.051 O.4IE 

0.202 0658 0.075 0.0E6 -0.,145 0.150 

-0.489 -0.I7 -0.359 0.172 4.201 -0.014 0.593 

-0.603 -0 002 0165 0.145 4.ll2 -051s -0.539 

r.E92l |.,1136 I l5l7 0.9091 0.7525 0.5950 02858 

0.210 0 202 0.165 0,130 0.107 0.085 0.041 

0.2r0 0.472 0.637 0.161 0.414 0.919 1.000 

T.ble4.1s: Prtnclp.l Cobpo.€trr Advtk for b€rth itr groundw,rer $npl.! 

PCt PC2 PC3 PC4 PC5 PC6 PC7 

Ni {.4E9 0.0,14 4.07E 0.422 -0.415 

4-t28 {.5)0 0_029 .0.60! -0.106 -0.497 4 001 

Cr -0.428 0.'160 .0.10E 0.121 -0. t6l -0.121 0.671 

Pb -0.180 -0,298 .0_362 0.115 0.732 0.004 0.025 

-0.291 0.5r1 -0 298 .0 t86 0.175 0.105 -a 297 

.0.195 0.256 0.816 0.014 0407 -0,191 -0.166 

-0.451 -0.301 0.]t0 .0.021 -0.204 0.?06 0.t61 

1.1046 t.485t t.0654 0.5512 0.1662 0.14t8 0.0798 

0.412 0.212 0.15.2 0.080 0.052 0.010 0.011 

0472 0.68,r 0.816 0.916 0.968 0.989 l 000 

ft. €ig6valE-o.e cnterion t ba*d on $e fact that tne avedgc cigclvalre of aulo 

slcd dlta ir iut on - Only eiClnvdc 8;ttEr 0@ I e cocid@d inportar ' 

ac@rding ro tnis ditdion the eigortlG oflhc ta! wt r dd lroudwaer srcal l 

significor Fincipal @hpondls i.e., Ni, Cu, Cr The fisi ihFe codPonen6 accout for 

6vei 63.7 md 83.68 % of ihe vriec€ in the &ta *t. for tlp .nd goudvnd

Bperivciy. The S@ Diols g.ph lbr pdicipol c@Fmt3 eilir il5 ei8.nwi6 ior |'p 

*!t€r ud soudwEr sdpl.s (Fis. ajt ..d a32) wtc rh.Efoe ued to idoiry tbe 

nub.r of PCa ro be Etain d lo udd€rsrldd th. unddlyine dala stutue 

fl. ajr 

c.4.dNllfr 

Stc plot to. rlp rri.r oDr.. 

fl&412 S.e plot ao. smundt.Er mpl6 

A @M lint b.rv6 tb. r{e@ of E-! metals lik Ni, Ctr Cr, Pb dd Fc in llt 

wat€r h the @@sion ir qths lne wte. disFibuton syst€n or in fie plwbile sysi@ 

Tn ios fomFd s a mult of otusion of n tr! pipd roy be el€as.d into lhe drinking 

wd.t e a @r6on podEl. BtN fiflinsr rnd @ on6 .od.d *ilt ! clmom-nicr€l 

Pose | 92

conpouds e al$ the majo! euces ofcu. Zn, Pb, Ni md Cr in the t2p ul€r. Th€ 

phenon€non of corosion md thus the conc.ntEdon of netals ih the dtinling Raler 

d€pend on ndy feto* suh d pip€ dnteiial, PH. 

preence of chloiidc .nd slfales. 

cotuefiraiior of DO. lenp@n@ dd the Bideme rim€ of w.t r i. the watd 

disoibntion piFlincs dd in d. plubing .y$etu 

A sienjficdt cl.don b€n{een difreMt m.bls i. grcund*atr nav be dG lo dE 

qealherins od lcaching of the €lcmenb ftom soil dd b.drock ot due 10 the 

conaoinalion of goudwater fron ethDpogenic souEs EmuenB fron veious 

i.dun'is fulrc involved in el*topladng dd Mufactuing allov3, pain6, pigmenls, 

baftn€s, elecuiQl wirings €rc., p€rcolat6 ilto the eil dd uhimal.lv give ri* ro th€ 

@nMii,tion of ercudw.d el|c wilh Ni, C!, Cu, Pb dd orhq hetals 

;1.8 A be.tth rirk urdsD.nt tnD erto!!r. to h.ce mel.k vio ing6tion of lap {trer 

.s v.ll s groud{ .r 

Ceitain elemens like Co, C! III, Cu, Fe, Mn .nd Zn @ nuirilionallv .ss.ntial for hmms 

at specific concertEtions. Hoever, vhm concdFarion imEss sone loaic etre.is 

@y also obwc. log6rio! of drinldne wald containing @sidedbl. mounts o{ metals 

My sw adv* h.ali! etrets trging fom shortnes of bcarh to Fv@! i}"es of 

cdcs lKrvc.r .l .1., 20091. Shon-tcm, hiSh lcvel €xposue lo m.tals bv hsestion 

palhway ney giv. ris to acule loxi.iiy syndrcdes. generally involving the 

gdtroi esinal tracl initially dd possibly, seco.rkilt involving $e cddiov4dlrd, 

Enal, ffioE or h.ndrop@tic sy$dns lF.irlmlb.r .t .L, 2007l Longrm, loB lerel 

qtclE fmm inSesion of ne.,rs in food od valer ev.nnElly o6c d acmulalion 

in krger orgds lFri.bott.r .t .l-, 20071. 

I{u.d risk ssessment hs been employ.d !o dercmine if exposw to a cheoical, al mv 

dose, nieht carse o inclee id tbe incid.nce of sdve$e ef|ects to hunan healfi ll-ce 

.d Puli, 20021. Rbk 4*sneol wd compri*s of calcnlalions of carcioogehic md 

nor{&inogmic nsk lor ineestion of @ld, D€mal oure of dposu€ wd nor ulen inlo 

6Nide6tion b..as a possibility of netal .bsoPtion tlrolgn tn€ stin is lioit d. As a

naner of l6ct that hmd sl(il is mt very pemcabl., it Polides a gmd ba'i.r against 

dmalabsorldon of nctal dd bel,l @mpou&. 

cecd risk rlated with in8$tion exposw wd calculaLd uing the followiog .quation: 

tusl= CDI xSF 

wheE "Risk" is a uitles pobabihy of d.velopine cdcs ove! a life dme, SF h the 

sloF f&to! (n8/K8ld)-r dd is Bd to d*s d upDe.boud probabilitv ofm individual 

developing scer b.ae of a lifeifte .xpos@ io a pdicul& level of a potcntal 

6cinog.n. The values of ih. slope lactoN nay b. obEined fon rhe USEPA IRIS 

(lntesated Risk bfofrEdon Sy$en) data b8e. chtonic daily inrare (ms/K8/d) is 

calcutat d sing ihe folloMng cql,ljon [L.. .t rL, 2005]. 

CDll,@-r_ C. x IR x tD x Ef / BW x AT x l6t 

where Cr is the concmt.lion of &inking watcr conlanimt (m8 Lr) lR is lh. ingesrion 

nte Fr uit titr, ED is thc .xpc@ dddon (y.m), EF is lhc dposG fEq!.!ry 

(days/ y.u), Bw is th. dy Reis}t of r|tc ec.plor (kg), od AT is th€ aledging time 

(y.dt..qual to th€ lif. expecldcy, md 36t is the convesion faclor ftom v.d to davs 

'DEse pincipal exposu€ faclos ae th.n sed 10 carry out the n* ascasenl 

€rcularions (Lbl. 4.16). 

Trble4.l5t hput p!.rd.l.B for .xpotur rs63n.nt of n.ttk tbrough ln8.stiotr 

Prlhw.y 

IR 2Ud^! 

ED 

EF 

BW 

70k8

H.zrd qutist (HQ) is N€d to ass non@cinosenic hedth .tr(rs HQ is €lculated 

by uing the lollowing .qutiot: 

HQ=CDr/ tuD 

wh.E RID is lhe cf.rcnc. do$ (ng/Kg/d). Th. RID is dtc daily doe8. that allons lhc 

.xmsd individul ro susLin l[is lev.l of.xpo3@ over 4 cxtend.d timc Fiod 

Ttbl. a.8: SoDo..r of A. [dlrl .hL r!gD..( xldt ol n nb lhrugn o..l rert 

CDI rIQ CDI HQ 

Ni 0.000.14 0.02204 0.00024 0.0|l96 

0.00007 0.05073 0.00008 0.06107 

0.@r6? 0.04492 0 00095 0,025t8 

0_00001 0.00001 

Cr 0.00014 0.0t671 0.00009 0.02984 

Mn 0.00092 0.04590 0.00084 0.04222 

0.00125 0.00416 0.00102 0.00141 

sith no 

hmtut €fects ll-c .t.l-, 20051- TIE RID valu.s wte adoptcd ftom USIPA IRIS dd 

N oentioned in T.bl. {.u lwu €t tl., 2009i L.. er rl., 20051. 

tbL 4.l7: Rcf.rm. d6..trd SloD. SloF L.roB of...&i! E.ltk 

Rllt Onl ..rer !loD. f.clot 

Cr 0 001 

Cu 0.0171 

0.1 

0.00t4 

0.o2 

Ni 0.02 

'nE n@ CDI ed HQ values bed on the onl consuflion of mp sats add 

grcudwalr by lhe eideots of Kaehi @ lumndized in T.bl€ ,1 18.

IIE cDt !alu6 of net l in @ of {trr'lsMins tlp wLr fd drinling Purpos c found 

in tne od.r of Cu>Fc>Mn>NDCr>Pb>co. Fot greundwI€r, th. orda of m.bl in ce 

of mnsid.ring their CDI vrlB @ foud 6 CD Mr>N> leC.>PFCo Thc qcd 

nsk dE to th. cxpGE to th€e m€tals thbugh ingeslion pafiway wN nol cvarule'j 

b€csu€ valu* oflh€ slope feloB werc not found in lhe lirc€tw or liom th. lRlS data 

bos. h my b. due lo lhe flct rhat th* mclah re eithd not clNified 6 hm& 

cNimsm or |he dab abo den @im8.nicity lo hum e not $mcicit Som. of 

ihe mei.ts lil. cd cr (vl), As, Be e|d Ni c onsidered hum mimss io on tdm 

d Nrhc d in poniculd oute of expos@ lr.irboln.l .t tl- 2007t. Th. M-@er 

.ist fm Ni. Pb, Cq Cr. Mn and Fe in tap std and greu.dw&r wf .s!m!L4 6 

shoM in Fit" r$ od 414. 

o.o3 

00: 

INi 

ll 

Fig.:133 HQ tordiF@r r.r.L i! trp r.ls ahbrgl ir!66on p.lht.y 

I

z 

0.07 

0.06 

o05 

0.0a 

0.03 

0.02 

0.01 

0 

8lr. a3l HQ tor .ttftr.ot n i.& b trolndr.tF tLbrgb irrrtht Frhr.y 

HQ 6r co 'r! dt olod.cd bcqe of rL fr.. rta RID rdE of @hlr ir trt 

.nlblisH by us EP " TtE iolrl IIQ for ltl llG ddr vi. dd inSc.riod ofbp w.ta 

&d ercundwer e obi.icd io b. 02145 rld 0.174t BpetiEly (rt, 435) 

0.25 

0.2 

0_15 

o.l 

0_05 

0 

ll& lJ5 cobp&ld otTor.l EQ otD.t b 

F.

As th. oveEu HQ values i! both tbe ces @ foud lesc rnm I whi'h indicol6 m 

ulik.ly potential for ddv.e heatth €frdl5 d6 ro the pe*n* o'these oerals Howv* 

r w ob*nd tlEl tlF med HQ or Pb u lound b be highd tte all $e ofis n'rals 

Tne mes HQ for .ll ihe derals it c& oi olal insestion of tap walq de fomd in th€ 

ord4 of Pb>CFMn>CDN>Fe r het€6 n.o HQ valud of metols in cse of odi 

i at. of e'oudwst€t could b€ a]mged 6 P$ MPCi> cDNi>Fe 

Pb is a ndli-|atgdetl toxi@! mcing ctr@s in th' henalopoietc sFr6 

g6lroi.lc$iml tl4t. clrdiovNul& svstcs @tal 4d FripheEl nfloa s'scns' 

kidrcF, reprcdlclive sy$.n anl imu. svsrcn lctutic tod Ch'riui' 200El Mn 

s produce a lsi€ty of elious toxic esPonses o! prolong exposue io el'v'ted 

corcenlralioN. Ite c.nual .wous svst.h is the plimsv tlrge! whiie dre initial 

symptohs @ hcadach., di.iv, letbtgv, iMmnis" dird'nradon &d n€borv ro$ 

The symptoms prcgrcs wiih onst&l .xtosre sd ulli@tlv include dolor 

dislurb@s. difiicultv in walkins dd tr.no$. svnproms thal trc sidild to lhos' wirh 

Pdhnsonis Lcndic .nd Chari..l, 20081 \r' Pb md Cr comPo@ds ue enrrenched 

cosrad alle4ru lf.i.btulb.r €t .1 , 200?l Olher neuls such a Cu ed co shs @ 

al$ cil€d 6 coDr!6 aucr8tu 

On th. bdis of th. study of fie a* m€rals b drinling $a14 ed lhen ds@iated hcalth 

rbk !o lhe rcsideds of Kadchi crtv, il ws found th't netals P 

rhar ro! be dr rleb !o prodlce do\e6e heahh elTeis Hoqeler' In some locariotu lh'R 

night be eo. speilic Ren for lhe pasc. ol artain metals at a high co'Entntio' 

Th.E is a @d to d.rcloP s!!tcei$ to conuol ed nodtor rh' @ncenFation of nctials ir 

.lrjnld.s *a€r becaG. Prclooe.d .xPos@ to .ven lo{ cdncnlrllion ol n't'ls vio 

ing.stion Eay ca6e d accudalion in ldgel org$s dd rhus cduld be hmdous for the 

hcalth ofthe innabilants o|Kdachi

4.9 Ceoghpti..l ibformdion svlt.n (GIS) ltudv of THMr trd tnce nelrls 

cogirathical itfomaion svsr€d (OIs) is ' svst€n capable of m'nagins ndipularjng' 

Mltzing md displating e.ogE hicallv Eltt'd i'fomatio! i e &u id€nliii'd 4@!ding 

10 (hcn l@ioc [Li .t tl.' 2mal OIS Prs' s hfomarion in iDovanv' ald dqe 

wals for d€cision-motinS Becas. ofnigh cosl dd limiGd r€$uNes dak collecdon is 

gcrcEll}' condwl€d o.lv in . limiEd !wb'r oi sleclcd poi ldarioB th'reforc CIS 

nak. se of sPaiial inleQolalion to esdmarc values at the unlnom poins Tte esnlB ol 

th. id€ryolation dalysis cd d'n b' w'l for dalvses Lh't cover the wiole dea dd for 

modcUing. Inv@ tlisl ne EiSliine oD\v) is a t'chni$€ in *hich ihc poD$ d 

wiSlted dui!8 i e+olalion such thlt the in0uence of one Doint Fladve lo solner N a 

turction of inv* disrsG. i-e., ne&!v poi ! ee morc qloelv relatd to d' valE at lhe 

inteqolal€ locaion 6 coEpdred to t\e dl$anl Poids lNtoun 'nd Tdnb' 20041' 

Thc luin puPose ofth. GIS studv of I1lMs dd sa' neds in lhe waler smples liom 

v&ios l4arioE of rh. r@chi citv is lo uilirc IDW s d i'GQolalim tcchrq* ro 

drmate vatu.s d1 fie uknoM points and lo Pioduce 

geoch€mical maps of the diferent 

fiM sF.i.s dd tr&. rctds in od" to idertit the hot'spob of eler't'd 

coDce.trations ofTHM spccid dd tr&e n'tals 

4.9.1 lDW.!rlysi! of TllMs 

IDW nsps of chlorcfor!! bomo'lichloronethde ed dibronocNolonedee e 

pE*trted EsF.dvetv in r'gsr. 4J6 to 43t'

!F 

]l1'. IDW r.r d.L.taofr - b? t.r, 

q.$ra Fvak 6a d. bt!.e @{id orcddlliE E ob.arEd in tL sddi .E 

Fde odE hol-€rolr ll/!l! obrnEd in Lrdbi TovD, M.0nood!br4 Litq!.trbid.!d 

"*' 

N 

Poge I l@

F'e.3l 

Fig. ,137 d.picB vcry low @EnF.rion 

IDw D.D of tIrcM b b! e.Lr 

../._ 

oI BDCM !6 lbund ir wh spld of mn 

s

l@E'* 

l6*...- 

-.-.r.r 

fu..Jt 

IDW up of DICM h trp nte 

tt r DBCM N .irh6 tornd .bdt n s D|E!a i! . wry low 

.lnod.ll ofrh. n4r.i sd6 @[ed ad difraan lo.di6 of6. 

I

49.2 lDw ulyli! ol lne DCt b in r.Dr.t r 

TIE IDV m@s of Ni. Cq c( Pb, Co. Mn dd f. in lap w16 sspl6 e sboM ir lir. 

I3ffi jolorr 

I,5@'6'666" 

I'6@2.{!$s3 

IsssG'.r?6d? 

!116466f'rDd 

I6rri^6.1cdD, 

IGon?.1ze8s 

Etz64r€se 

I€s@.i$a,5 

ll.. tL!9 IDW rD ol I\r D s i.r. 

'Iltc hisl61@IME rid of Ni E indicr|d il l(omsi cidcDtid a@ HMvr ir 

moel orrhe ,@ ol ilr. cig @n entalion of Ni in tap mrs Mpl* v6 roud wilhin 

ih. WHO ali.leline !.lks. 

Poge I lO3

I$r'dr,,sa6 

I'53'e'1s'6n 

f6n6@'d@' 

I-'sr.(4cc 

I..F-ee' 

IrFE,aa 

Iqa-Dtuo. 

n& 4:10 

||rW[DofcrDlrDnt t 

Oomlrdi@ of Crr iD Dod oI rb. Ep !t.E !@Dlca w 

roideliE dE. tlowE qccgliEly nir! M!li@ 

(d@i Gn&di.l laad X!*. 

"+' 

s

i l,96@3.Gr*r 

Is,**,,a,85 

36.'4n' 

-" Is!!,as.56,G3 

I's5&.smmr 

Is,,,ca 6ad$ 

IGr6r 

ooE@! 

ll.rw DrD ol Cr h t pr .. 

li is Ev€aled by l.i& 4.al dLt onc..tnlion or chDnim in nost of th. tap *ar€r 

smpl6 lE tbud qrrem€ly low. lin hiddi dcsE of Cr @ntani@ti@ *a ob6€Fed 

in b *€16r smde ol tedhi itn6dal @4,

-!!i!d3,rE!-3 

I,,ifu.+, 

iq*sr? 

I3?s,s:.!6de 

Ia?&r6,.$De6.5 

"o 

I D\l dro of Pb In tilt .8td 

lf-' 

vdvin,r cucenuano. ol l'h in taD *dd ent'15 coll{tcd ltom dtlc(nr Nas ot rhc 

cny is rcp.c$nrc! in r'i!.:1.42 (.!mri F lhe dea in which 60 krd is round b h{ 

hishb contdinat.d snh lcad. ( onccnrdrdn ofPb in laD $dcr ol sdddar is als bund 

hiFh.rrhd$cwll()rudclincv'lucor l0tttl.

tgem 

o61aa'a - oa'a9,6tr 

- I o@e92617 - 16srmo5 

116$3606-2.4t6't€92 

L l247r67se$-3365263 

iJ 33o35?s8i 4 

'?,s?353 

fI ! r2s6B6s -! e562fl056 

5 I!95s21ror 7sro5.7r3 

- l5]31c5aTaa-6.6643a3r 

Fb a.4! 

6.60SS4C - 7rQ7a2i 19 

It 

IDW DD of Co r .D tri.t 

Fk a.1it dbs rh.l Co I cithd nol P'wnt or my bc 

c.)Ixbtiidon in tap $dcr sd6 of (mhi city. 

',-t-E 

s 

I r07

I o!o!!.!. rn*rar 

I37 mr5.r. tl5str.s 

I a5a7gta. lrtjaea 

I11x3au}r6.106,' 

I1a.10@-rrto11 

I rrorofir- 2a3|,ar 

I:r.!.r!5.2r|.|c 

I r.rr0. larar. 

ldrsa.racr|' 

na,a{ IDWr-d r bnprh' 

Vrrios Mdd of rrh x,! olsvld i! n9 trc t@pL. or Xe:rhi oitv. 

HNE,.oo..dd of lth i!.U tb qL E f rd wi6iD ([ |lau'. 

**' 

Pog€ | 108

hgand 

-:l56d'3?a.'Ls'e 

E l ar"de,r .oa?r 

-^3t?',.a12m 

Ii1,.1m,,n.m|5 

It'ao6,'{an!. 

Ii4ixciam 

Iri.e.'o.l.e 

r1'.i.@-?6111l,l 

Ie.4r'r-Ean. 

8l9 a.a5 IDW up ot f. |! l|p srbt 

*$. 

s 

It Mr obw€d in Fig. a,l(l lh.l llF vlrlirg c4at ti@ of F€ @ p!!$t in t p eEtq 

3dde ol€cted di&Ea ,|w of U. city.

ar3 IW r.ti dr.c....l b lrEtu 

Ib [!lf rydN! Ot,C., PbCa Mnd r. hgodq'G..AL.r! d.pld.d i! 

[p+{b/Lt 

l,l}4.,. 

IDWrydl[bttr*d 

s@d h{6ofE iBoddd oaM i.!od'eG i.Ld!.d h lltliL. 

8l8i.d @i6 of N vnr obelrcd ln ft. tmordee of lldo NoiEd.d ,E 

Cnouldurd!. of r,{!& Kdrboctl Onido. J!lh. L$li ed sd& !! d|o b|bd 

ro h..odd qi& Ni. 

**' 

N 

6 

Pogp I rr0

t4+47 

IDw Dp d Co b rfld!'.r.r 

c*-,-$F of ot h godsra of 

btld hisld a oryed lo dE EiL r!h.lh, U..ld*.d dd S.lnb GoO g(rl 

d Or i! g|uDdedla .tr.lilFcln ftG of lll 

**' 

N 

Pog. I III

.**:i: 

,i.dlj 

Fb. {48 IDW uD of Cr itr rnr!@.t . 

ctrnmlrlrion of Cr in ereundw.t r splc3 M g€nenlly foud low Eoqevd, 

oMtarim of Cr in greud*.rq of Nonh N@inrb.d .d Kotugi hdusrrial sE kr 

foDd exeFionatly hieh.

l. {.9 lDw rT ol It h rdr.lrd.r 

Li{udD.4 Norlh N@idt 4 S.dd.r .d Gdid.F ,hdE e tt .|4 ir rlijd 

hitlt coicc!|lniE of Pt i! gotrdw'l.i 6 otcnEd. 

Poge I ll3

g. 4$ IDll D.pof Co b !reD.lr.t r 

co s g*6lly not foud ir thc groundw.t rof K@hi, wit[ D daplion of KoMgi 

indudrial .M ed s.dd.r.

t, 4.51 IltW !.! of Mr ir ltfirdrrtd 

a l.r8€ wi.tid in rb codc@lnti@ of M! i! tlc 

lr15

Ft aJ2 IDW !.D of F. E trluotrE 

"*' s 

A lfr. Ei.li@ i! rbe co.g|dt o of F. i! grod mla of Xn ii city i! ds 

rdi..d, a Fs.fi.d h Fr. 4,52. 

Pog€ | | 16

Co!cb!io... ReoDDcodrtiod 

THM8 wcrc detec&d in atl lap warcr sdples Th€ olerall rcsulb fot Oc THMS 

@n@okation in ta! m1er smplcs w.!€ foud below the wHO Suid.lin values 

Chlooform w6 the doninml THM species, followed bv BDCM md DBCM 

Brohofom ws @1foEd in dy suPle. Thc fDdings of the studv ds su83€srcd a 

slong aftlation b€l|@ the TTHM5 cotc@Lation {ith lhe conc.nuation of 

TIE rist( ecia&d witb fi. tong-tem qposw to THM lbmu8! ing6tion of tal watet 

m lhrougl d@.1 onrlcl *s ,l5o inwstiSald lt @ mncluded thd |n. didd$ or 

K@chi h.ve a highd nsk of ss thtoud 06l ilgestior of THMS ltt& tltrougl the 

denal @ acl. The lifetine acn rbk lhrcu8l otol ineeslion of cHclr ed BDCM 

we@ higha $d rhe ge.eral guidd@ rist value of l0 6. The lifeime @n@r risk fioo 

dcrmal exposurc to CHCIr alrc exceeded lrom loi bul BDCM md DBCM showed le'st 

cmcer !isk. Thc tolal mcer risk als indi€l.d lhat @h yd aPprcxinatclv 2 oul of llt 

miuion Kd&hi lesid€nb @uld gcl cdcd tom &e dailv i ake of urt Non- 

c@inoSdic nsk alsmol for fiMs sho$ld that tbe calcdat d h@d ildex.s 

lhrcugh both th€ sposw rcut6 rcrc foud low tbd uilv, *hjch did nol indiote lhe 

Con@nilalion of Fu n€t ls (Ni, Cu, Ct, Pb, Co, Mn dd Fe) in sourc. w.let lap wler 

&d goedwaler smpl6 EI€cls difleicni level of coltamimtion On ti. bash of thr 

study ofr@ metals i. &inliing *ater md theh dsocialed h€llLh tisk to ft residcDls of 

Km€hi .ity, il m i.v€aled that lh. nclals Pesot 

unlikdly to prcduce adv€re h.dtn el|cts, 

in a concentration thal ha, b€ 

As a na|lcr of facl, polotrC€d €xpos@ 1o cv.n low con@nlration ot THMS ed ldcc 

mlrlr nay ca@ hedou hcald clI@G b lhc sidcnts of K4&hi Th. findines of 

diis srudy thcEfoE denmd s iDncdiac .ndrion of lhe @Illmed auuonries o 

dcv.lop siralegid in orda b oonnor ed o.rol ihde @nlaniME in drinting qaler 

slpplics. TheE h a usot ned lo pDvide ndiem prol4tion against nicrcbial 

contamimtio. while nininizing the fomation ol THMS md other DBPS Slraleges

shoul.l dt$ b€ desiStrcd lo Ebov€ THtr. lnd olhd DBPS ai.r th.v @ foded during

GHAPTER:5 

TABI,fis

T.bL 5.l: OpriDun GFAAS op.r iry @ndition! for tne d€rerDiMtion of Nl 

2J2_0 

Sh(M) 0.2 

Arflowd.(n[nb l) 250 (stopFd duing arooarne) 

20 

100'C (R$p t s, Hold 2051 

1400.C(RmD l0 s. Hold 20 t 

2500.C (Raop 0 s, Hold 5 s) 

2600.C (RmD I s, Hold ls) 

T.bI.5.2. OptinuD GFAAS op.nlirg conditio$ for the dcleaimtiotr ofCu 

l0 

124,4 

0.? 

Arflow6E(bLmb_l) 250 (stopFd dEine alomirng) 

20 

100.C (Rmp t s, Hold -'0 t 

1000 "C (Rrnp l0r Hold 20t 

2300.crRrnp0tHoldjs) 

2600 .C (R np I s. Hold ls) 

TobL 5.3: OpliEun GFAAS ope..tili cotrdiiion! for tne det€miMtiotr ol Cr 

.t0 

!51.9 

0.1 

Ar flow EE (mL hin-l) 250 (sropped duinB .iomizin3) 

20 

100.C (R mp5 r Hold 20 t 

1650 .C( Rmp l0 s, Hold 20 s) 

2500 .C tRdD 0 s, Hold 5 t 

2600.C tR4mD I s, Hold ls)

TrbL 5.l: ODiiBuD GFA S op.nling Mdirio.i lor lh. detemi lto! ol Pb 

l0 

2E1.3 

Sln(m) 0.7 

2t0 Gtopped duing aronizins) 

20 

Dryinc I00 .C {IlamD 5 s. Hold 20 t 

700 'CtRmp l0tHold20s) 

I E00 4 (Pffp 0 s, Hold 5 s) 

2000 { (Rmp I s, Hold It 

TrbL 5,5: ODtlnuE GFA-aS op.daila @ldiaioa loi tL. d.r.mir io! ofco 

Ai nov .are (nL min- I ) 

30 

244.7 

0.2 

250 (stopp.d duine dtohizing) 

N 

100 { (Rep 5 s, Eold 20 t 

1400.C(&mp l0 i Hold 20 t 

2500.C{R4nD0'.Hold5s) 

2600 'C lR.mp I s, Hold ls) 

Tobl.5.6: Opdnuo GFAAS oDehtil8 coodltio!! for rb€ dctemidtion olMn 

l0 

219.5 

0.2 

Ar now 'ate (dI dir- l) 250 (sropped duing alodrng) 

20 

I00.C (RMp 5 s, Hold 20 d 

1400.C(Rmp l0s, Hold 20t 

2200 .C (Rmp 0 s, Eold 5 t 

2600.C aRmp I s, Hold ls)

f.bL 5.7: OpliDrE GFA S opoailt coadl.loE ior tb. &a.ri!.dotr olF. 

3o 

24E.1 

sh(@) 0.2 

Ar now 6t (mL nirl) 2t0 (sropped dubS domizins) 

20 

100.C (RdD 5 s, Hold 20 t 

1400 .C (Rmp l0 3, Hold 20 t 

2400 .C (Rap 0 s, Hold 5 sl 

2600 'C (Rdo I l Hold 3t

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Conqntive stud, of 'onato6 an , onions tron ivisdted Jmla"dr 

Chaq@a Kano, NlAeris.lAr. !. Envircn, Rcs,,2008,2 (l)r 65-?0. 

on the bnt of Ri|er 

Abduffah, Md, P,, Yq, C, H., Bin. R, 6d Mob@ad, S., Fornation, nodeline ahll 

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