Application of Fracture Mechanics to Composite Materials

edited by K. Friedrich
© Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1989

Chapter 1

Fracture Mechanics of Anisotropic Materials

J.G. WILLIAMS
Mechanical Engineering Department, Imperial College, London, UK

Contents

Abstract 3
1. Introduction 4
2. Basic considerations 5
3. G determinations 9
3.1. Method of analysis 10
3.2. Double cantilever beam ( D C B ) tests 12
3.3. A variable-ratio mixed-mode test 15
3.4. Large displacements in D C B tests 15
3.5. Transverse splitting from notches 18
3.6. Buckling under compression 20
4. Stability 22
5. Cracks in anisotropic sheets 25
5.1. Basic method 25
5.2. The crack problem 29
5.3. The calculation of G 32
5.4. The calculation of Κ 33
6. Damage zones 35
7. Conclusions 36
List of symbols 37
References 38

Abstract

A r e v i e w o f t h e b a s i c e n e r g y r e l e a s e r a t e , G, a n a l y s i s for l i n e a r b u t a n i s o t r o p i c
e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l s is g i v e n i n c l u d i n g t h e d e f i n i t i o n in t e r m s o f c o n t o u r s . F o r m a n y
c o m p o s i t e s it is n o t e d t h a t c r a c k g r o w t h is s e l f - s i m i l a r b e c a u s e o f d e l a m i n a t i o n a n d
t h i s l e a d s t o a r a t h e r s i m p l e g e n e r a l s c h e m e o f d e t e r m i n i n g G via l o c a l m o m e n t s
a n d f o r c e s . I n a d d i t i o n , it is p o s s i b l e t o p a r t i t i o n t h i s G v a l u e i n t o m o d e s I a n d II
in a s i m p l e b u t r i g o r o u s m a n n e r . S e v e r a l s o l u t i o n s a r e g i v e n for t e s t s p e c i m e n s
which give v a r i o u s forms of m i x e d - m o d e l o a d i n g , i n c l u d i n g c o n s t a n t a n d variable
r a t i o s . S o m e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r a t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d c a s e of G for b u c k l e d l a m i n a t e s

3
4 J.G. Williams

u n d e r c o m p r e s s i o n is a l s o g i v e n . F o r c r a c k e d p l a t e s it is n e c e s s a r y t o r e s o r t t o t h e
stress i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r , K, s o l u t i o n s v i a c o m p l e x - f u n c t i o n a n a l y s i s a n d t h i s is
d e v e l o p e d in s o m e d e t a i l t o r e n d e r it a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e g e n e r a l r e a d e r a n d t h e
relationships b e t w e e n G a n d Κ for t h e a n i s o t r o p i c case are derived. T h e very
i m p o r t a n t r e s u l t t h a t Κ is a l m o s t t h e s a m e for a n i s o t r o p i c a n d i s o t r o p i c m a t e r i a l s
is d e r i v e d a n d d e m o n s t r a t e d v i a n u m e r i c a l r e s u l t s . S o m e d i s c u s s i o n o f d a m a g e z o n e
sizes is a l s o g i v e n .

1. Introduction

Conventional fracture mechanics deals with h o m o g e n e o u s , isotropic materials

a n d has b e e n highly successful b e c a u s e so m a n y practically useful materials are
r e a s o n a b l e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s t o t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s . T h e s a m e is t r u e , o f c o u r s e , for
stress a n a l y s i s in g e n e r a l , a n d m o s t e l a s t i c i t y t e x t s c o n t a i n o n l y a p a s s i n g r e f e r e n c e
t o a n i s o t r o p y . T h e n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n s t o t h i s h a v e b e e n w o r k g e n e r a t e d as a r e s u l t
of efforts t o d e s i g n l o a d b e a r i n g s t r u c t u r e s in w o o d [ 1 ] . I n p a r t i c u l a r e a r l y a i r c r a f t
s t r u c t u r e s e m p l o y e d w o o d a n d t h e r e w a s m u c h i n t e r e s t in c a l c u l a t i n g s t r e s s c o n ­
c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s a r o u n d h o l e s [ 2 , 3 ] . T h e u s e o f fibre c o m p o s i t e s t o m a k e l a m i n a t e s
a n d a l s o t h e d e s i g n of p l y w o o d h a s p r o d u c e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e l i t e r a t u r e a n d in
p a r t i c u l a r t h e t e x t b y L e k h n i t s k i i [ 4 , 5 ] w h i c h e m p l o y e d a d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e
w e l l - k n o w n M u s k h e l i s h v i l i [ 6 ] c o m p l e x - n u m b e r f o r m of s t r e s s f u n c t i o n a n a l y s i s t o
p r o d u c e a w i d e r a n g e of s o l u t i o n s t o p r o b l e m s o f p r a c t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e . In m o r e
r e c e n t t i m e s , m a n y c o m p u t e r c o d e s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d e m p l o y i n g finite e l e m e n t s
a n d b o u n d a r y i n t e g r a l s w h i c h will give s o l u t i o n s for a n i s o t r o p i c m a t e r i a l s .
F r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s h a s b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d in s o m e d e t a i l for w o o d [ 7 - 9 ] a n d
f o u n d t o b e a v e r y u s e f u l t o o l for d e s i g n p u r p o s e s . It is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t
m a t e r i a l v a r i a b i l i t y is l a r g e for w o o d , e v e n b y c o m p o s i t e s s t a n d a r d s , a n d yet t h e
m e t h o d p r o v e d u s e f u l . I n s p i t e o f t h i s , t h e u s e o f f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c a n a l y s i s for
composites has been rather limited. This w o u l d a p p e a r to stem from a suspicion
that conventional analysis could not c o p e with the anisotropy a n d i n h o m o g e n e i t y
of c o m p o s i t e s a n d t h a t s o m e o t h e r s c h e m e w a s n e c e s s a r y . A n i s o t r o p y c a n b e i n c l u d e d
in t h e a n a l y s i s b y e m p l o y i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m e t h o d s a n d , a l t h o u g h i n h o m o g e n e i t y
is a l w a y s a p r o b l e m , it c a n b e d e a l t w i t h via size p a r a m e t e r s . F r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s
is a macro t h e o r y a n d d e f i n e s p a r a m e t e r s w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e f a i l u r e o v e r r e g i m e s
of k n o w n size. T h e p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m o f c o m p o s i t e s is t h a t t h e sizes m a y b e l a r g e
a n d r a t h e r c a r e f u l d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e m e t h o d s is n e c e s s a r y . T h u s w h a t is r e q u i r e d
is t h e development of t h e b a s i c m e t h o d s a n d n o t t h e i r a b a n d o n m e n t . T h i s h a s b e e n
r e c o g n i z e d in a g r o w i n g i n t e r e s t a n d l i t e r a t u r e in r e c e n t y e a r s , a n d is reflected in
this v o l u m e .
W h i l e m u c h r e m a i n s t o b e d o n e in t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t t h e r e is a l a r g e b o d y of
useful analysis available via a n i s o t r o p i c elasticity a n d fracture m e c h a n i c s analysis.
M a n y rather daunting p r o b l e m s lead to surprisingly simple solutions, a n d provide
a w i d e b a s e f r o m w h i c h t o t a c k l e t h o s e e s p e c i a l l y difficult p r o b l e m s , such as
i n h o m o g e n e i t y , i n h e r e n t in c o m p o s i t e s . T h i s c h a p t e r will give a r e v i e w of t h e s e
 Fracture mechanics of anisotropic materials 5

a v a i l a b l e r e s u l t s a n d m e t h o d s . M o s t of t h e a n a l y s i s will a s s u m e l i n e a r , e l a s t i c a n d
h o m o g e n e o u s b e h a v i o u r s o t h a t t h e r e s u l t s m a y b e d e s c r i b e d as l i n e a r e l a s t i c f r a c t u r e
m e c h a n i c s ( L E F M ) b u t for a n i s o t r o p i c m a t e r i a l s . T h e f r a c t u r e s a n a l y z e d a r e t h u s
b r i t t l e in c h a r a c t e r h a v i n g s m a l l d a m a g e z o n e s in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s
in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h L E F M . A s in L E F M , s o m e c o n s i d e r a t i o n will b e g i v e n t o c r a c k
tip z o n e sizes.

2. Basic considerations

W e s h a l l e m p l o y t h e s c h e m e for d e v e l o p i n g f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s d e s c r i b e d in
ref. [ 1 0 ] in w h i c h t w o a s s u m p t i o n s a r e m a d e :
(1) All b o d i e s c o n t a i n c r a c k s o r flaws, a n d f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s is c o n c e r n e d w i t h
a n a l y s i n g t h e g r o w t h of s u c h c r a c k s ; a n d
(2) T h e c r a c k g r o w t h m a y b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d in t e r m s of t h e e n e r g y p e r u n i t a r e a
n e c e s s a r y t o c r e a t e n e w s u r f a c e a r e a , t h e c r a c k r e s i s t a n c e R.
T h e first a s s u m p t i o n p r e c l u d e s all d i s c u s s i o n of c r e a t i n g flaws in o t h e r w i s e p e r f e c t
b o d i e s w h i c h is n o t a s e r i o u s r e s t r i c t i o n in c o m p o s i t e s a n d is a r g u a b l y n o r e s t r i c t i o n
at all for r e a l m a t e r i a l s . T h e s e c o n d a s s u m p t i o n d o e s n o t i m p l y t h a t R is a c o n s t a n t
b u t m a y v a r y w i t h a n y n u m b e r of v a r i a b l e s . F o r s i m p l i c i t y of p r e s e n t a t i o n w e s h a l l
c o n s i d e r a c r a c k of l e n g t h α in a s h e e t of u n i f o r m t h i c k n e s s Β u n d e r g o i n g s e l f - s i m i l a r
p r o p a g a t i o n s o t h a t t h e c h a n g e of c r a c k a r e a is g i v e n b y

dA = Bda.

T h e a n a l y s i s is b a s e d u p o n t h e e n e r g y b a l a n c e d u r i n g a t i m e i n t e r v a l at for a c r a c k
m o v i n g at v e l o c i t y à fo r w h i c h w e c a n w r i t e

U =U +U +U +BRa
c d s k 9 (1)

where U i s th e externa l wor k performed , U th e energ y dissipation , U th e store d

e d s

e l a s t i c e n e r g y a n d U t h e k i n e t i c e n e r g y . S u c h a r e l a t i o n s h i p e n a b l e s al l s i t u a t i o n s
k

to b e analyze d includin g thos e involvin g visco-elasti c dissipatio n ( U ) a n d high-rat e d

p r o c e s s e s (U ). H e r e w e s h a l l a d o p t t h e u s u a l s t a t i c L E F M a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t al l
k

d i s s i p a t i o n i s e m b o d i e d i n R, a n d a l s o i g n o r e k i n e t i c e n e r g y . W e s h a l l t h e n defin e
the paramete r "energ y releas e rate " G whic h i s writte n a s

(2)

a n d m a y b e regarde d a s th e crac k drivin g forc e sinc e w e m a y write , a t fracture ,

f r o m e q . (1 )

BGa= Ù -Ù = BRa, c s i.e. , G = R.

It i s u s u a l t o d e r i v e G s e p a r a t e l y a n d t h e n d e f i n e G = R a s f r a c t u r e b u t t h e n t o
n o t e t h a t i f G> R t h e s y s t e m i s u n s t a b l e s i n c e U wil l i n c r e a s e . E n e r g y b a l a n c e is ,
k

of c o u r s e , a l w a y s m a i n t a i n e d vi a eq . ( 1 ) . G m a y b e d e r i v e d fo r a g e n e r a l b o d y
c o n t a i n i n g a c r a c k o f l e n g t h a a s s h o w n i n fig. 1 w h i c h h a s a l o a d Ρ a p p l i e d g i v i n g
a d e f l e c t i o n u. T h e l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n d i a g r a m , s h o w n in fig. 2, for t h e c r a c k l e n g t h a
is O A a n d n e e d n o t b e l i n e a r , e v e n for l i n e a r e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l s , s i n c e l a r g e d i s p l a c e ­
m e n t s m a y o c c u r . If w e n o w s t a t e t h a t at A t h e c r a c k i n c r e a s e s b y da s o t h a t b o t h
t h e l o a d a n d t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t c h a n g e g i v i n g p o i n t A'. S i n c e t h e b o d y is e l a s t i c , t h e
u n l o a d i n g l i n e for a + da is O A ' . N o w f r o m e q . ( 2 ) ,

BGda = dU -dU ,
e s

a n d f r o m fig. 2,

d(7 = O A ' B ' - O A B

s and dU e = BAA'B', i.e.,

BG da = ( O A B + Β Α Α ' Β ' ) - O A ' B ' ,

w h i c h is t h e s h a d e d a r e a in fig. 2. T h i s is a n i m p o r t a n t r e s u l t p r a c t i c a l l y s i n c e G
c a n b e f o u n d g r a p h i c a l l y if s u c h a d i a g r a m is m e a s u r e d . T h e r e s u l t m a y b e w r i t t e n

Fig. 2. The load-deflection curve.

 Fracture mechanics of anisotropic materials 7

as

iu d f Γ
BG = P — Pau, and U = s Ρ du. (3)
\a da J J
T w o o t h e r f o r m s of t h i s e q u a t i o n a r e a l s o o f v a l u e ,

dU^
BG = — (4)
da

a n d s i n c e U = \u c d P , the c o m p l e m e n t a r y energy, we m a y write

dU c

U =Pu-U ,
c s i.e., BG = +— 1

da

a n d n o t e t h a t for a linear system U = U , c s giving

BG = +- (5)
dda
l/
P const.
T h e loads Ρ on the b o u n d a r y , m a y be t r a n s p o s e d to a n y c o n t o u r Γ a r o u n d the
c r a c k t i p , a s s h o w n in fig. 3 , s i n c e t h e i n t e r v e n i n g m a t e r i a l is a s i m p l e e l a s t i c ,
n o n - s i n g u l a r , s t r e s s s y s t e m . T h u s , for t h e c o n t o u r l e n g t h Γ w e m a y w r i t e

1 dU e l du dw \
s

Β da

w h e r e σ , a, u , w are, respectively, the n o r m a l a n d shear stresses a n d d i s p l a c e m e n t s

η s n s

o n t h e b o u n d a r y . U m a y b e w r i t t e n in t e r m s of t h e s t r a i n e n e r g y d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n
s

W, s and

1 dl/ s d
WLdA
Β da da J r

N o w if w e l o c a t e a c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m at t h e c r a c k t i p as s h o w n in fig. 3 , t h e n at

Fig. 3. General crack tip contour.

8 J.G. Williams

Fig. 4. Circular contour.

c r a c k g r o w t h for a n y p o i n t ; dx = -da, a n d dA = dx dy = -da dy, a n d w e h a v e t h e

f o l l o w i n g e x p r e s s i o n for G,

(6)

T h i s is t h e w e l l - k n o w n c o n t o u r i n t e g r a l e x p r e s s i o n for [ 1 1 ] a n d is t r u e for a n y
elastic system. T w o i m p o r t a n t results arise directly from this expression w h e n we
a n a l y z e t h e l o c a l c r a c k t i p s t r e s s e s . If w e u s e t h e p o l a r c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m s h o w n in
fig. 4, t h e n t h e s i n g u l a r s t r e s s field at t h e c r a c k t i p is

σ*Γ-"/(0).

N o w for a l i n e a r e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l b o t h W a n d σ d w / d r t a r e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o σ
s
1
and
t h u s t o r~ ". 2
If w e n o w c o n s i d e r a c i r c u l a r c o n t o u r as s h o w n in fig. 4 , t h e n
dy = r c o s θ dd a n d ds = r dd, a n d e q . (6) t a k e s t h e f o r m

N o w G c a n n o t d e p e n d o n t h e v a l u e o f r c h o s e n , i.e., b e p a t h d e p e n d e n t , s i n c e G
m u s t b e s i n g l e v a l u e d , a n d h e n c e (1 —2n) = 0 a n d

Η(θ)άθ

m u s t b e finite. T h u s η = \ for l i n e a r l y e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l s , i n c l u d i n g a n i s o t r o p i c o n e s .
T h e c o m p u t a t i o n o f G f r o m a l o c a l field is g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e d b y c o l l a p s i n g t h e
c o n t o u r o n t o t h e c r a c k m o v e m e n t as s h o w n in fig. 5, dy = 0, a n d s o t h e r e is n o
s t o r e d - e n e r g y c o n t r i b u t i o n , b u t t h e r e a r e l a r g e c h a n g e s i n , for e x a m p l e , cr a n d
n u.
n

I n i t i a l l y , for s o m e p o i n t a d i s t a n c e S f r o m the e n d of the g r o w t h , the stress

o- (r,e)
n = a (ka-S,0)
n w i t h u = 0, b u t
n finally cr = 0 a n d u = u (S,
n n n π). Since the
m a t e r i a l is l i n e a r , t h e w o r k d o n e is \σ (Δα
η - S, 0) u (S, n π) a n d w e m a y w r i t e e q . (6)
 Fracture mechanics of anisotropic materials 9

as

\[a (Aa
n - S, 0) w ( S , ττ) + σ ( Δ α - 5 , 0) w ( S , ττ)] d &
n 5 s

Δα

T h i s is e q u i v a l e n t t o c o n s i d e r i n g t h e m o v e d c r a c k profile a n d a p p l y i n g t h e initial
s t r e s s e s t o r e s t o r e t h e g r o w t h ; o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o a s c r a c k c l o s u r e f o r c e s . N o w for a
linear system we have

so we m a y write
1/2
G = dS [/n(0) g n ( ^ ) + / ( 0 )
s g (7T)],
s

. Δid Jo
α Jo \ Δ α\Aa-S

a n d u s i n g ξ = S/Δα t h e first t e r m b e c o m e s
"I / r \ 1/2

T h e s e c o n d t e r m c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d as m a d e u p of t h e o p e n i n g , or m o d e - I , p a r t
a n d s l i d i n g , o r m o d e - I I , p a r t a n d w e h a v e finally,

G = G, + G „ ,

G, = k / n ( 0 ) g (ir),
n (7)

It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t e q s . (6) a n d (7) a s s u m e c o l l i n e a r c r a c k e x t e n s i o n u n d e r
general l o a d i n g . F o r h o m o g e n e o u s materials this d o e s n o t often occur, b u t for highly
a n i s o t r o p i c f r a c t u r e b e h a v i o u r , a s in l a m i n a t e s , it u s u a l l y d o e s , l e a d i n g t o c o n s i d e r ­
able simplification of t h e analysis.

3. G determinations

S i n c e a b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n o f f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s is t h a t t o u g h n e s s is d e f i n e d b y R
a n d t h a t f r a c t u r e o c c u r s w h e n G = R, it is i m p o r t a n t t o h a v e c o n v e n i e n t s c h e m e s
10 J.G. Williams

Fig. 6. Delamination.

for t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f G I n s o m e c a s e s it is p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e G w i t h o u t
r e c o u r s e t o t h e l o c a l s t r e s s field a n d o n l y r e m o t e f o r c e s n e e d b e c o n s i d e r e d . M o s t
l o a d i n g s o n d e l a m i n a t i o n s in t h i n s h e e t s a r e o f t h i s f o r m a n d it is p o s s i b l e t o d e r i v e
a g e n e r a l r e s u l t for all f o r m s o f l o a d i n g , w h i c h is u s e f u l in b o t h t e s t i n g a n d p r o d u c t
design [12].

3.1. Method of analysis

F i g u r e 6 s h o w s s u c h a d e l a m i n a t i o n in a s h e e t o f t h i c k n e s s 2h w h i c h is l o c a t e d
a d i s t a n c e h f r o m o n e s u r f a c e a n d h f r o m t h e o t h e r . It will b e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e
x 2

p r o p a g a t i o n of t h e d e l a m i n a t i o n will b e s e l f - s i m i l a r a n d t h u s c o n s i d e r a b l e s i m ­
p l i f i c a t i o n is p o s s i b l e . W e will a l s o l i m i t o u r a t t e n t i o n t o a u n i f o r m d e l a m i n a t i o n
of w i d t h Β s o t h a t all p o s s i b l e l o a d i n g s a r e s h o w n in fig. 7 w h e r e t h e u n c r a c k e d
p o r t i o n h a s a b e n d i n g m o m e n t M + M , a n a x i a l f o r c e P +P * a n d a s h e a r f o r c e
x 2 x 2

Q + Q . In the cracked portion, these b e c o m e M

x 2 P a n d Q o n t h e u p p e r (h ) 1 ? x x x

s e c t i o n a n d M , P a n d Q o n t h e l o w e r (h ). C o n s i d e r i n g first t h e m o m e n t s a l o n e
2 2 2 2

w e c o n s i d e r t h e c o n t o u r A B C D at t h e t i p o f t h e c r a c k Ο w h i c h m o v e s da t o C V
F o r a n y b e a m w i t h a n a x i a l m o d u l u s E a n d a s e c o n d m o m e n t of a r e a I , t h e e n e r g y
x x

p e r u n i t l e n g t h of b e a m is

1 M 2

2 EI
X X

F o r t h e m a t e r i a l w i t h i n t h e c o n t o u r w e m a y t h u s c a l c u l a t e t h e c h a n g e in s t o r e d
e n e r g y w h e n t h e c r a c k m o v e s , as

M M\ (Mx + M) 2
2

dU = da.
_2E l xx x 2E I XX 2 2E I XX 0

W e m a y n o w u s e e q . (5) d i r e c t l y s i n c e t h i s is a l i n e a r s y s t e m , a n d w r i t e

~ 1 dU axx \M 2
X M\
(8)
Β da I M const.

* P, + P is applied at h ( = h + [PJ(P, + P )]hi)

2 l 2
t 0
gi y e z e r o
moments, arising from axial loads. For
general loads, there are interactions of Ρ and M.
 Fracture mechanics of anisotropic materials 11

C Β

Fig. 7. Loadings on a delamination.

where

I = hB(2hf
0 = $1, 1 = ±Bh\ I = &Bh\ = f
x /, I =hBh\
2 = {\-ξγΐ

N o t e t h a t a l t h o u g h t h i s is a n a n i s o t r o p i c m a t e r i a l , t h e s i m p l e stress s t a t e o n l y r e q u i r e s
the modulus along the crack direction E = α n η
λ
( s e e sect. 5.1). A s i m i l a r a n a l y s i s
for t h e f o r c e s gives

•(ΡΛΡ2) 2
(9)

w h e r e A = Bh.
T h e s h e a r f o r c e s r e q u i r e t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e s h e a r s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d
s i n c e t h e s e u s u a l l y a r i s e f r o m t h e m o m e n t g r a d i e n t s , i.e.,

dM
da

we can use a p a r a b o l i c distribution, giving

3 q 6 6 ri/dMA 2
1 /dM \ 2
2
/dM, dM \ l
2
2

G =
105 Α [ ξ \ ά α ) (1-ξ)\άα) \âa d a ) ] 9 1 j

w h e r e a is t h e s h e a r c o m p l i a n c e ( s e e sect. 5.1).
66

A l t h o u g h R is t a k e n a s t h e b a s i c c r i t e r i o n o f f r a c t u r e , h e r e t h e r e is e v i d e n c e t h a t
it is different u n d e r m o d e - I a n d m o d e - I I l o a d i n g . It is t h u s i m p o r t a n t t o s e p a r a t e
o r p a r t i t i o n G i n t o t h e t w o c o m p o n e n t s . I n i s o t r o p i c m a t e r i a l s t h i s is m u c h less
i m p o r t a n t s i n c e a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n m o d e - I is r a r e l y c o l l i n e a r . I n b e n d i n g , p u r e
m o d e II o n l y o c c u r s w h e n t h e t w o a r m s h a v e t h e s a m e r a d i u s o f c u r v a t u r e in t h e
s a m e d i r e c t i o n . N o w t h e r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e of a b e a m ρ is g i v e n b y ( M / £ J ) so
- 1

if w e h a v e a m o m e n t M „ o n t h e u p p e r a r m , w e h a v e

_ Ε , Iχ _
λ EI
U 2
12 J.G. Williams

w h e r e ψΜ η is t h e m o m e n t o n t h e l o w e r a r m for t h i s e q u a l i t y , i.e.,
3
ψ-
ί (V)
M o d e I is m a d e u p of e q u a l m o m e n t s in o p p o s i t e s e n s e s o n t h e t w o a r m s , s o w e h a v e
M = M-
] u Mj and M 2 = ψΜ λΧ +M \ x i.e.,

Μ -ψΜ 2 χ M +M
2 x

Mi = and M„ = . (11)

If w e s u b s t i t u t e t h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s for M x and M 2 in e q s . (8) w e h a v e

165/L ξ 3
(l-ξ) J
On expanding, the cross-product term becomes

M,M„ 1 2 ψ
= 0,
1(1- •ξΥ ξ
as r e q u i r e d b y p a r t i t i o n i n g , a n d

_a M\
u l +ψ _a„ {Μζ-ψΜ,) 2

' β/ 16(l-£) 3
β / 16(1-^) (1 + ^ ) ' 3

o X 3 1-f a„ 3 ( l - g ) ( M + M , ) 2
2

° " ™ Κ 7 ( 1 +
* ) =
Λ? 16^(1 + ^) · ( 1 2 )

with G = G + G . x u

F o r a x i a l l o a d s , p a r t i t i o n i n g is effected b y

P = P +P
X U X and p = p 2 n +

f r o m w h i c h G = 0, a n d G is f o u n d d i r e c t l y f r o m e q . ( 9 ) . F o r s h e a r f o r c e s , G „ = 0
x n

a n d Gi is f o u n d d i r e c t l y f r o m e q . ( 1 0 ) * .
These results are of particular i m p o r t a n c e since they enable G to be d e t e r m i n e d
s o l e l y f r o m t h e l o c a l m o m e n t s a n d l o a d s at t h e c r a c k e d s e c t i o n . T h u s o n l y a
c o n v e n t i o n a l - b e a m t y p e o f a n a l y s i s is r e q u i r e d t o find t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s a n d n o
r e c o u r s e t o e n e r g i e s is n e c e s s a r y . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e m e t h o d will n o w b e
i l l u s t r a t e d b y a n u m b e r of e x a m p l e s .

3.2. Double cantilever beam (DCB) tests

T h e d o u b l e c a n t i l e v e r b e a m m e t h o d t e s t c o n f i g u r a t i o n s h o w n in fig. 8 is t h e m o s t
c o m m o n l y u s e d for m o d e - I t e s t s w h e n s y m m e t r i c a l l o a d s a r e a p p l i e d , as in fig. 8a.
We thus have
M 2 = -M x = Pa,

* Global partitioning can give non-symmetric deformations which are not compatible with local solutions.
 Fracture mechanics of anisotropic materials 13

a) mode I b) mode II

c) mixed mode ^

Fig. 8. The double cantilever beam (DCB) test.

a n d h e n c e f r o m e q s . (12)

1 + tft
G„ = 0 and G, ^P'a 2

BI 16(1 ~ξ)3

i.e., p u r e m o d e I for all v a l u e s of ξ. F o r t h e u s u a l c a s e of ξ = \, ψ = 1, t h i s b e c o m e s

the well-known result

c
p 2
« 2

(13)
1
ΒΕ Γ η

T h e shear correction m a y be found, since

dM 2 dM,
£ = = ρ

da da

a n d f r o m e q . (10) w e h a v e

~ l3O α^ f ( l -Pf ) '

6 6
2

a n d for ξ = \ w e h a v e a t o t a l G v a l u e g i v e n b y T

12PV
14- (14)
BEhl
2
u
3
10
loUii/U/ -
It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h i s r e s u l t is t r u e for a n y profile of b e a m , a n d n o t j u s t t h e
p a r a l l e l v e r s i o n s h o w n , s i n c e it is t h e local v a l u e s of B, E a n d h w h i c h a r e r e q u i r e d .
u
14 J.G. Williams

If parallel beams are used and the total deflection at the load point, 8, is measured
then from simple beam theory,
Pa 3
18---
2 -3E 11 / '

and Ell/can be found from the slope of the loading diagram prior to fracture,
P / 8. This may be used in G calculations, so no separate modulus measurements
are needed. Alternatively, eq. (13) may be written as
3 P8
G I =="2 Ba·
(15)

Corrections are needed for end rotations by adding J a 66 / 11 all h to the crack
lengths [13]. Both this and the shear correction are sometimes approximated by
using an empirical compliance oc an, n < 3. Even for slender beams the effects of
these corrections can be significant, particularly on apparent modulus values.
Figure 8b shows the same specimen in pure mode-II loading since

for g ==! and from eqs. (12),

9 p 2a2
G I == 0 and Gil =4 B2E ll
h3 ° (16)

Note that this test is always in pure mode II, whatever the value of g, since
1
M ==Pa-- and M ==Pa~· and
1 1+l/J 2 1 + l/J'

M 2 -l/JM1 == 0 giving G I == o.
This is self-evident since the common boundary conditions for each arm lead to
equal curvatures and GIl is given by the total moment M 1 + M 2 • Care must be taken
in the test to ensure free sliding at the load-point interface by using a lubricant or
small roller.
A mixed-mode version of the DCB test is shown in fig. 8c in which an off-centre
crack is used but with an unloaded upper arm so that,

M 1 == 0 and M 2 == Pa,

and from eqs. (12)

2 2
G __ p _
a 11_ a - - -1- - -
(17)
1- B/ 16(I-g)3(1+l/J)'

giving a fixed-ratio test in which,

GIl == 3(1- g)4

(18)
GI g2
 Fracture mechanics of anisotropic materials 15

P(l-1/L)

Pl/L

Fig. 9. Variable-ratio mixed-mode test.

A similar test m a y be d e s i g n e d using e n d - n o t c h e d t h r e e - p o i n t b e n d s p e c i m e n s to

which a similar analysis can be applied.
A s a f o o t n o t e it is w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t c o r r e c t i o n s for r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s c a n b e m a d e
via t h e s e m e t h o d s b y o b s e r v i n g a n y i n i t i a l d i s p l a c e m e n t s o r c u r v a t u r e i n c r a c k e d
s e c t i o n s , c a l c u l a t i n g t h e m o m e n t s c a u s i n g t h e m , a n d t h e n i n c l u d i n g t h e m in t h e G
calculations.

3.3. A variable-ratio mixed-mode test

Figure 9 s h o w s a testing configuration w h i c h gives a c o n t i n u o u s l y varying ratio

of G / u G , f o r / < a < L. F o r 0<a<l t h e t e s t is p u r e m o d e I I , b u t t h e r e a f t e r t h e r e
a r e different m o m e n t s o n t h e u p p e r a n d l o w e r a r m s . If w e c a l c u l a t e t h e f o r c e P x

b e t w e e n t h e t w o b e a m s at t h e r i g h t h a n d , w e h a v e

_2 a 2\a) LJ '

giving the b e n d i n g m o m e n t s

M, = P/(l-f)-P,a, M =P,a,
2

a n d , from eqs. (12),

Pl2 2
3Γ (l\ V 2
^ Pl2 2
9Γ /a\1 2

T h u s , t h e t e s t c o n d i t i o n s c h a n g e f r o m p u r e m o d e II w h e n a = I t o p u r e m o d e I
w h e n a = L.

3.4. Large displacements in DCB tests

In t e s t i n g t h i n l a m i n a t e s w i t h t o u g h m a t r i c e s , t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t s s o m e t i m e s b e c o m e
l a r g e in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h a, as s h o w n in fig. 10, w h i c h c a n g i v e rise t o n o n - l i n e a r
16 J.G. Williams

Fig. 10. Large displacements in the mode-I DCB test.

l o a d - d i s p l a c e m e n t d i a g r a m s o f t h e f o r m s h o w n in fig. 2. T h e a n a l y s i s m a y b e
c o n d u c t e d in t e r m s o f local m o m e n t s a g a i n , a n d G , is g i v e n e x a c t l y b y e q . (13) b u t
i n s t e a d of a w e h a v e x, t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e c r a c k t i p t o t h e l i n e of a c t i o n of P, i.e.,

ϋ λ = - ^ - . (20)
1
BE I U

A s δ i n c r e a s e s , χ < a, a n d s o Ρ m u s t i n c r e a s e t o give t h e s a m e G a n d h e n c e t h e
u p w a r d c u r v a t u r e of t h e l i n e , χ c a n b e m e a s u r e d d i r e c t l y d u r i n g t h e t e s t , o r t h e
i n c r e m e n t a l a r e a m e t h o d m a y b e u s e d t o find G b u t n e i t h e r m e t h o d is p a r t i c u l a r l y
{

e a s y . I n p r a c t i c e , it is e a s i e r t o m e a s u r e 8 a n d a a n d h e n c e c a l c u l a t e x. T h i s m a y
be done using a finite-displacement a n a l y s i s for b e a m s u s i n g t h e a n g l e s o f r o t a t i o n
[ 1 4 ] in t e r m s of t h a t a t t h e l o a d p o i n t a , as s h o w n in fig. 10, s u c h t h a t ,

= -J u χ =——-sin a,
2a V 3E I U

where

f a
άφ [a
sin</>d</> ( Ί Λ λ
Ιι= ι . . = and I=
2 - = = = = = . (21)
Jo V s i n a - sin φ Jo vsina-sin</>

F o r s m a l l a , l =2a x
1
and 7 2
=
3 a
» giving

δ ? Pa
= and χ = a,
2fl J
3£„7
 Fracture mechanics of anisotropic materials 17

TABLE 1

a (rad) hi h *Ί cos a 2

0.1 0.066 0.994 0.990

0.2 0.133 0.977 0.961
0.3 0.198 0.953 0.913
0.4 0.263 0.914 0.848
0.5 0.326 0.869 0.770
0.6 0.387 0.815 0.681
0.7 0.446 0.755 0.585
0.8 0.504 0.688 0.485
0.9 0.558 0.617 0.386
1.0 0.610 0.542 0.292
1.1 0.660 0.464 0.206
1.2 0.707 0.385 0.131
1.3 0.752 0.304 0.072

the usual result. F o r large a, I a n d I m u s t b e evaluated numerically (or via elliptic

x 2

integral tables) a n d we m a y express the result as a correction factor o n the small-

d i s p l a c e m e n t v a l u e , i.e.,
?2 2
Gi 4 suna
in a / P V \ 8 I2

T a b l e 1 g i v e s t h e s e f u n c t i o n s for a r a n g e o f a v a l u e s s o t h a t if 8/2a is m e a s u r e d
in a t e s t , F x may be found and hence G x d e t e r m i n e d . E n d b l o c k s c a n affect t h e s e
c o r r e c t i o n s a n d c a n b e i n c l u d e d [ 1 4 ] . A u s e f u l a p p r o x i m a t i o n for m o d e r a t e 8/a
(8/a < 1) v a l u e s is,

F =x \ - U 8 / a ) \

I n m o d e I I , t h e a n a l y s i s is s o m e w h a t m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d b e c a u s e o f t h e c h a n g e in
J at t h e c r a c k e d s e c t i o n , a s s h o w n in fig. 1 1 . H e r e w e m u s t i n c l u d e t h e a n g l e a x at
this point, a n d the results are [16]

αφ
{ Vsin a - sin φ

^ - Ι ^ Γ ' . 4 ά φ
. , and
^ h Jo ν sin a Η- 3 s i n a —4 s i n φ x

8_]_[ C a
sin(/>d</> { ( a
4 sin φ άφ
a J L J «, V s i n a — s i n φ
3 J 0 Vsin a + 3 sin a — 4 sin φ x

a n d t h e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r is

G„ 4(sina-sina ) ï ^ ^ 3 P a
2 2

gT 71 - F l
" °·"Ϊ6Ϊ3Ε^7· ( 2 3 )

T h i s is a r a t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d p r o c e d u r e s i n c e a x must be found; however, a good

18 J.G. Williams

γ
/
V
/
δ •L-
V

_t

Fig. 11. Large displacements in mode II.

a p p r o x i m a t i o n m a y b e f o u n d if a x is s m a l l , w h i c h is t r u e a s a/L^> 1 [ 1 5 ] , in w h i c h
case,

(24)

As a / 0 , F u -» c o s a ( s h o w n in t a b l e 1) a n d t h i s s h o u l d b e u s e d if t h e a p p r o x i m a t e
2

computed F u < cos 2

a.

3.5. Transverse splitting from notches

The general m e t h o d developed here may be applied to the situation illustrated

in fig. 12 in w h i c h a s p e c i m e n w i t h a n o t c h l e n g t h α in a w i d t h w fails s u c h t h a t a
c r a c k C r u n s n o r m a l t o t h e n o t c h . S u c h f a i l u r e s o c c u r in c o m p o s i t e s w h e n t h e r e
a r e n o t c h e s n o r m a l t o t h e fibre d i r e c t i o n . If w e a s s u m e t h a t t h e s p l i t C is o u t s i d e
t h e l o c a l s t r e s s field o f t h e n o t c h t h e n w e m a y u s e t h e l a m i n a t e a n a l y s i s a n d w r i t e

a = h, } w = 2/ï , w-a = h .
2

F o r t h e t e n s i o n c a s e , s h o w n i n fig. 12a , w e h a v e P = 0 a n d P = Ρ a n d if w e a s s u m e
x 2

parallel grips with n o i n d u c e d m o m e n t s then, from eq. (9),

w i t h ξ= a/w. T h i s m a y b e w r i t t e n in t e r m s o f t h e n o r m a l f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s f o r m ,

E G=
XX U Υ σ α,
2 2

w h e r e cr = P/2hB is t h e g r o s s s t r e s s a n d Y (a/w) 2
is a c a l i b r a t i o n f a c t o r . ( N o t e t h a t
 Fracture mechanics of anisotropic materials 19

2h

ι
—w

κ hi
h

Ρ/2 Ρ/2

b) Three point bending

a) Tension

Fig. 12. Transverse splitting from notches.

E u is t h e m o d u l u s in t h e c r a c k d i r e c t i o n a n d n o t in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e n o t c h . )
Thus we have

1
EG n u = Υ σ α,
2
η
2
(25)
2(1-a/w)'

R e f e r e n c e [ 1 6 ] gives a s o l u t i o n for t h i s c a s e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e s h e a r l a g m o d e l w h i c h
i n c l u d e s a c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e l o c a l s t r e s s field effects, a n d t e n d s t o e q . (25) for
l a r g e C.
For pin loading on the central axis, m o m e n t s are i n d u c e d o n h giving Μ , = 0 2

a n d M = Ρηξ a n d w e n o w h a v e a m o d e - I c o m p o n e n t a s w e l l a s a m o d e - I I
2

c o m p o n e n t . W e can n o w write

EGU U = Υ σ α,
2
ητ
2

where

Y2 _(
3 a
/ w
y g
/ w
d

I T
2\\-a/w) (a/w) + ( l - a / w ) '
3 3
™

2 1 Γ 3(l-a/w)(a/w)
(26)
I I T
2 ( 1 - a/w) L (a/w) 3
+ (l-a/w)

F o r t h r e e - p o i n t b e n d i n g , s h o w n in fig. 1 2 b , w e h a v e n o a x i a l l o a d s a n d M x = 0 with
M = P/4(L-
2 C). If w e n o w u s e t h e l o c a l b e n d i n g s t r e s s ,

3 P(L-C)
σ = -
8 BW{\-a/wY
 20 J.G. Williams

TABLE 2
Calibration factors for transverse splitting, EG X = Υ 2
ησ α.
2

a/w Y2
Y 2
Y 2

^11 Β
1
II τ
0.0 0.500 0.0 0.500 0.0 0.500
0.1 0.555 0.0 0.761 0.003 0.616
0.2 0.625 0.009 1.202 0.025 0.769
0.3 0.714 0.096 1.931 0.118 0.946
0.4 0.833 0.635 2.976 0.441 1.071
0.5 1.000 3.0 4.000 1.333 1.000
0.6 1.250 10.84 4.464 3.348 0.714
0.7 1.667 36.05 4.505 8.175 0.405
0.8 2.500 147.7 4.808 25.64 0.192
0.9 5.000 1348.0 6.849 184.9 0.069

then

1 (a/w) 2

6 (\ -a/w)\(a/wf + (\ -a/wfY
(27)
1 l — a/w
Y 2

1
II Β "2 (a/w) 3
+ (l-a/w) ' 3

T h e s e c a l i b r a t i o n f a c t o r s a r e g i v e n in t a b l e 2.

3.6. Buckling under compression

F i g u r e 13 s h o w s a c r a c k e d s e c t i o n u n d e r c o m p r e s s i o n a n d s e r v e s as a useful
v e h i c l e for i n d i c a t i n g h o w t h e G a n a l y s i s m a y b e useful in d e s i g n . If w e c o n s i d e r
t h e c a s e o f a d e l a m i n a t i o n v e r y c l o s e t o t h e s u r f a c e s o t h a t ξ = h /2h < 1, t h e n w e x

m a y c o n s i d e r t w o p o s s i b l e f o r m s of b u c k l i n g b e h a v i o u r : g l o b a l a n d l o c a l (as s h o w n ) .
T h e r e is a l s o a t h i r d p o s s i b i l i t y of a l o c a l b u c k l i n g s u p e r i m p o s e d o n t h e c o m p r e s s i o n
s i d e . T h i s is s i m p l y t h e s t r u c t u r a l b e h a v i o u r w h i c h m a y b e a n a l y z e d v i a t h e u s u a l

Local Buckling

It-
S ^ .r-'
$
S v
v

S -χ L
• ...
L... I
• X Global Buckling

Fig. 13. Laminate under compression.

 Fracture mechanics of anisotropic materials 21

E u l e r s t r u t t h e o r y . S i n c e / is a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n s t a n t a l o n g t h e s e c t i o n (ξ < 1), t h e
g l o b a l b u c k l i n g l o a d for t h i s b u i l t - i n e n d c a s e is

. 2TT 2
E Bh n
3

(28)
c
3 L 2

w h i l s t for l o c a l b u c k l i n g

p ^ E ^ __ 1 ( 2 9 )

6 a 1

T h u s , for l o c a l b u c k l i n g t o p r e c e d e g l o b a l b u c k l i n g w e h a v e

P <F C C and £= ^ < f (30)

2h L

P r i o r t o b u c k l i n g t h e r e is n o e n e r g y r e l e a s e s i n c e t h e r e is u n i f o r m s t r e s s i n g b u t in
the b u c k l e d states G exists. F o r simple global buckling we m u s t c o m p u t e the m o m e n t
at t h e c r a c k e n d s . If M 0 is t h e m o m e n t at t h e b e a m e n d , t h e n t h e b e a m e q u a t i o n
for t h i s c a s e is

ά ν 2
M -P v
0 c

dx " 2
E SIU '

w h e r e ν is t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t of t h e b e a m ( s e e fig. 13) a n d t h e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s
are
df
ν -= — = 0 at χ = 0 and
dx

du ^
— = 0 at χ = L,
dx
giving a m o m e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n of

M = M 0 c o s ax.
Eu%I

A l s o , w e h a v e sin aL = 0 g i v i n g a l o w e s t b u c k l i n g m o d e o f aL=n and thus the

s o l u t i o n for P in e q . ( 2 8 ) . T h e m o m e n t at t h e c r a c k e n d is g i v e n w h e n x = ( L - a ) ,
c

i.e., M = M COS π ( 1 - a/L) = - M c o s πα/L.

a 0 M is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e d i s p l a c e ­
0 0

m e n t after b u c k l i n g , δ , a n d m a y b e f o u n d via energy, since Β

, . M 2
LM 2
0

8 P=2 = 2 [ - — dx = -
L 0
n

Jo 2 Efilt u E 16I
U

F o r ξ<1, e q s . (12) g i v e s ^ = 0, a n d
22 J.G. Williams

This may be rewritten as,

G„ = G „ ( | - l ) , (31)

where

n 2ττ _ 4
(h h \
x
A

8 c
~ 3 L

F o r l o c a l b u c k l i n g t h e r e is a m o d e - I c o n t r i b u t i o n f r o m b e n d i n g t h a t m a y b e c o m p u t e d
as in t h e p r e v i o u s c a s e a n d a l s o a m o d e - I I c o n t r i b u t i o n f r o m t h e m i s m a t c h of a x i a l
l o a d s s i n c e t h a t in t h e b u c k l e d s e c t i o n r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t w h i l e t h a t in t h e t h i c k e r
section rises. T h e results are

G^G l 0 J
~ y ( \ - a / L )
Or
and
(32)

4- nil
G = G ^\j-y(l-a/L)
where
u 0

Va 2 f t /

T h u s for γ < 1 , l o c a l b u c k l i n g will p r e c e d e g l o b a l b u c k l i n g , a n d G a n d G x u will

rise u n t i l 8/8 = 1. At t h i s p o i n t g l o b a l b u c k l i n g will t a k e o v e r a n d e q . (31) p e r t a i n s ,
C

g i v i n g a l i n e a r i n c r e a s e in G w i t h δ, b u t r e s t a r t i n g a t z e r o for 8/8 = 1. If t h e l o c a l
u c

b u c k l i n g p e r s i s t s o n t h e c o m p r e s s i o n s i d e o f t h e g l o b a l d e f o r m a t i o n t h e n its c o n t r i b u ­
t i o n t o G r e m a i n s at t h e 8/8 =l c value. T h e n a t u r e of b o t h l o a d a n d total G
b e h a v i o u r for t h e s e t h r e e c a s e s is i l l u s t r a t e d in fig. 14 a n d s e r v e s t o e m p h a s i z e t h a t
t h e b e h a v i o u r o f s u c h a s t r u c t u r e is q u i t e c o m p l i c a t e d , e v e n for t h i s v e r y s i m p l e
s y s t e m . T h e b u c k l i n g c o n t r o l s t h e c h a n g e s in G a n d t h i s in t u r n is d e t e r m i n e d b y
t h e g e o m e t r y of t h e s y s t e m . A x i a l s p l i t t i n g o c c u r s w h e n G r e a c h e s s o m e critical
c o n d i t i o n a n d t h i s c a n b e in a n y of t h r e e m o d e s of b u c k l i n g .

4. Stability

T h e s t a b i l i t y o f a c r a c k is i m p o r t a n t in b o t h t e s t i n g a n d d e s i g n , s i n c e c r a c k s w h i c h
" j u m p " a r e u n d e s i r a b l e in b o t h c a s e s . A s m e n t i o n e d in sect. 2, w e s h a l l d e f i n e
u n s t a b l e h e r e as t h e c o n d i t i o n w h e n G > R s o t h a t t h e k i n e t i c e n e r g y o f t h e s y s t e m
i n c r e a s e s v i a a n i n c r e a s e in c r a c k s p e e d . T h e i n s t a b i l i t y c o n d i t i o n m a y b e w r i t t e n
as [ 1 2 ]

dG dR
Tda" >
T "da- ( 3 3 )

If R is c o n s t a n t t h e n dR/da = 0, b u t w h e n R i n c r e a s e s w i t h c r a c k g r o w t h , t h e
" i n c u r v e effect", t h e n t h e s y s t e m is m o r e likely t o b e s t a b l e . I n a n y r e a l s i t u a t i o n ,
 Fracture mechanics of anisotropic materials 23

p r e d i c t i o n c a n o n l y b e m a d e p r e c i s e l y if R(a) a n d G(a) a r e k n o w n ; h o w e v e r , a
useful p r a c t i c a l g u i d e t o c r a c k b e h a v i o u r c a n b e o b t a i n e d q u i t e s i m p l y b y c o n s i d e r i n g
t h e l i m i t i n g c a s e of dR/da =0 a n d d e f i n i n g G u n d e r c o n s t a n t d i s p l a c e m e n t c o n d i ­
t i o n s . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e r e is n o e x t e r n a l w o r k p e r f o r m e d s o it is a b e s t c a s e in t h a t
o t h e r l o a d i n g s y s t e m s a r e l i k e l y t o b e m o r e u n s t a b l e . I n t e s t i n g w i t h stiff m a c h i n e s ,
c r a c k g r o w t h is effectively a t fixed d i s p l a c e m e n t s o t h e c o n d i t i o n is h e l p f u l in
d e s c r i b i n g s u c h t e s t s . W e s h a l l t h u s d e f i n e a s y s t e m a s stable w h e n ,

dG
^0, (34)
da u const.

b u t r e c o g n i z e t h a t c h a n g e s o f l o a d i n g o r R(a) m a y c h a n g e this condition.

24 J.G. Williams

T h e a n a l y s i s is b e s t c o n d u c t e d in t e r m s o f t h e c o m p l i a n c e C o f t h e b o d y

C(a) = u/P, (35)

w h e r e w e a s s u m e l i n e a r l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n b e h a v i o u r (i.e., i g n o r i n g l a r g e - d i s p l a c e m e n t
effects). If w e r e t u r n t o e q . ( 3 ) w e h a v e

du d Γ
BG = P- — P du,
da da J

a n d on substituting for Ρ w e have

_ u du d u u dC
BG = —-—--—
C da da J C 2C da

T h e stability c o n d i t i o n , eq. (3), m a y n o w b e written as

dG u( 2
C" 2C' 2
B'C
da ~ 2 \BC 2
BC 3
BC
2

w h e r e t h e p r i m e s d e n o t e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o a. T h i s c o n d i t i o n m a y b e
written as

^ C (C" B'\ , x

C(a) m a y b e f o u n d f r o m t h e u s u a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e g e o m e t r y u s e d , b u t it is o f t e n
m o r e c o n v e n i e n t t o p r o c e e d f r o m t h e G s o l u t i o n . If w e r e t u r n t o e q . (36) a n d
s u b s t i t u t e f o r u in t e r m s o f Ρ w e h a v e

P 2
dC
BG = ,
2 da'

and, hence,

[ 2BG
a

C= —T-da + C 0

where C 0 is t h e c o m p l i a n c e f o r α = 0.
If w e c o n s i d e r t h e D C B i n m o d e - I l o a d i n g , t h e n f r o m e q . ( 1 3 ) w e h a v e

Pa 2 2

G\ —
ΒΕ Ι' η

a n d , h e n c e , for c o n s t a n t Β a n d h values,

2a 3
8a 3

~3E I~ U E Bhu
39

s i n c e C = 0 for t h i s c a s e . T h u s ,
o
 Fracture mechanics of anisotropic materials 25

i.e., s t a b l e b e h a v i o u r . F o r t h e c a s e of t h e p r o f i l e d s e c t i o n w i t h Β c o n s t a n t and
hoca , 2/3
C is c o n s t a n t a n d B' = C " = 0, g i v i n g Γ = 0 a n d s t a b l e b e h a v i o u r ( d G / d a
is z e r o for fixed l o a d in t h i s c a s e ) . If h is c o n s t a n t a n d B oc α a s u s e d in s o m e
l a m i n a t e t e s t s , t h e n B'/ Β = C"/ C = 1/ a a n d Γ = 0 a g a i n , a n d d G / d a = 0 for c o n s t a n t
load.
F o r t h e m o d e - I I t e s t , e q . (16) gives
2BG U 9a2

C
' P 2
~2E Bh ' u
3

and, hence,

C _ 3 a 3
+ L 3

24EI

for a u n i f o r m s e c t i o n , g i v i n g

a n d h e n c e for

0<a/L<0.55, unstable, Γ>1;

0.55<a/L<l, stable, Γ<1.

F o r t h e t a p e r e d c a s e , Boca, G „ is c o n s t a n t at c o n s t a n t l o a d a s in m o d e I, a n d a g a i n
Γ = 0, i n d i c a t i n g s t a b l e b e h a v i o u r .

5. Cracks in anisotropic sheets

C e r t a i n configurations of cracks a n d l o a d i n g s d o n o t l e n d t h e m s e l v e s to analysis

via t h e m e t h o d s d i s c u s s e d p r e v i o u s l y a n d it is m o r e c o n v e n i e n t t o p r o c e e d via l o c a l
stress fields at t h e c r a c k t i p . T h i s is, of c o u r s e , t r u e for i s o t r o p i c m a t e r i a l s a l s o a n d
l e a d s t o t h e stress i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r a n a l y s i s . I n o r d e r t o p r o c e e d w i t h t h i s a p p r o a c h
h e r e w e m u s t b e a b l e t o s o l v e stress-field p r o b l e m s in a n i s o t r o p i c m e d i a a n d t h e s e
c a n b e v e r y difficult. T h e o n l y v i a b l e m e t h o d is u s i n g c o m p l e x a n a l y t i c f u n c t i o n
t h e o r y , w h i c h is d i s c u s s e d i n g r e a t d e t a i l b y L e k h n i t s k i i [ 4 ] . H e r e , w e will c o n f i n e
o u r s e l v e s t o j u s t t h o s e p a r t s n e e d e d for t h e c r a c k p r o b l e m a n d d e r i v e t h e r e s u l t s
g i v e n b y S i h et al. [ 1 7 , 1 8 ] .

5.1. Basic method

C o n s i d e r first a s t a t e o f p l a n e stress d e s c r i b e d w i t h c a r t e s i a n c o o r d i n a t e s c o m ­
p o n e n t s σ , σ a n d τ . In the a b s e n c e of b o d y forces the e q u i l i b r i u m r e l a t i o n s h i p s
χ ν χν

are
 26 J.G. Williams

T h e s e m a y b e satisfied in t h e u s u a l w a y b y u s i n g t h e A i r y s t r e s s f u n c t i o n ψ(χ, y),

defined such that

dx dx dy

The strains e , e a n d y a r e d e f i n e d in t e r m s o f t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t s in t h e χ a n d y
x y xy

o f d i r e c t i o n s , u a n d v, r e s p e c t i v e l y ,

du dv du dV

Θλ: 3_y dy dx

E l i m i n a t i o n of the d i s p l a c e m e n t s leads to the compatibility c o n d i t i o n ,

8 ^ + 3 ^ = a ^ (41)
dy dx dx dy

H o o k e ' s l a w for a general isotropic material may be written in t e r m s of

compliances,

e = a a
x u x + a (rl2 y + ar,
l6 xy

e = ασ
y 2ι χ + α σ,22 } + ατ, 26 χν (42)

Jxy = «61 ^ + «62^ + α Τ . 66 χν

S y m m e t r y r e q u i r e s t h a t a = « 2 1 a n d α = α , s o t h e r e a r e six i n d e p e n d e n t c o n s t a n t s .
1 2 1 6 6 2

A n i m p o r t a n t p r a c t i c a l c a s e is t h a t of o r t h o t r o p y in w h i c h t h e p r i n c i p a l e l a s t i c
d i r e c t i o n s a r e o r t h o g o n a l , a n d if t h e y c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e c o o r d i n a t e d i r e c t o r s , t h e n
« 1 6 « 2 6 0, a n d t h e r e is n o i n t e r a c t i o n o f s h e a r a n d t e n s i o n w i t h o n l y four c o n s t a n t s .
= =

T h e six c o n s t a n t s for a n o r t h o t r o p i c m a t e r i a l in a c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m r o t a t e d t h r o u g h
a n a n g l e 0 m a y b e e x p r e s s e d as

C 1 1 = a 1 1 + Zl(l-cos20) + r(l-cos40),

C 2 2 = «22-4(l-cos20)+ r(l-cos40),

C =a66 66 -4r(l-cos40),
(43)
Cl2 = a l2 - r(l-cos40),

C 1 6 = 4 sin 2 0 +2rsin40,

C= 26 4 sin 2 0 +2rsin40,

where

Δ =\{a -a ) 22 u and Γ = |(2α 1 2 + a 6 6 -a 2 2 -a ).

u

T h e o r t h o t r o p i c coefficients a r e o f t e n e x p r e s s e d a s m o d u l i a n d P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o s ,
 Fracture mechanics of anisotropic materials 27

F o r t h e i s o t r o p i c c a s e , t h e n u m b e r of c o n s t a n t s r e d u c e s t o t w o , s i n c e

a n =
a
22 = — , a66 = 2—^r- and a l 2 = - — . (45)

I n t h e s u b s e q u e n t a n a l y s i s w e u s e t h e p a r a m e t e r s for a n o r t h o t r o p i c m a t e r i a l

,2 a
22 , 2012+066
λ = — and χ =—- , (46)

w h i c h m a y b e c a l c u l a t e d d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e v a l u e s o f a, o r v i a a 2 a n d a , a n d t h e 2 u

c o m p l i a n c e a t ±\ττ is

Cu(W) =
C (\n),
22

since, from eq. (43),

C (W)n = C (W) 22 =\(a l λ +α 22 + 2α 1 2 + α ), 6 6 i.e.,

4 — = l + À + 2^. 2

«11
T h e s o l u t i o n for t h e g e n e r a l c a s e m a y b e d e d u c e d b y s u b s t i t u t i n g e q s . ( 4 2 ) i n t o
e q . (41) a n d t h e n r e p l a c i n g t h e s t r e s s e s b y t h e e x p r e s s i o n s in t e r m s o f φ from
eqs. (39), giving

aV aV , x aV aV aV , x
0ii—z~2a —-, h(2a + a ) — 52 — 2 - 2 a ^+0 2—z = 0. (47)
a/ax ay ax ay ax ax
1 6 1 2 6 6 2 2 6 3 2 4
3 /

For the isotropic case, this reduces to

— Α +2 2
Ψ
2 + - ^ = 0, i.e., V V = 0,
a/ ay ax 2 2
ax 4

the b i h a r m o n i c e q u a t i o n of c o n v e n t i o n a l elasticity t h e o r y . S o l u t i o n s of eq. (47) c a n

b e c o n v e n i e n t l y e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of f u n c t i o n s o f t h e c o m p l e x v a r i a b l e

ζ = χ + μγ,

w h e r e μ = a + i/3, a a n d β a r e r e a l c o n s t a n t s a n d i = >/ T.
=

T h i s c a n b e s e e n b y r e c o u c h i n g t h e v a r i o u s d e r i v a t i v e s , i.e.,

aψ 4
dV 4.1V _
τ—4 = μ τ 4 4 -
— m <A , e t c . ,
ay az
a n d eq. (47) b e c o m e s

ψ 1 ν
[α μ -2α η
4
1 6 μ 3
+ (2α 12 + α )μ -2α μ
66
2
26 + α] 22 = 0. (48)

T h u s t h e s o l u t i o n m a y b e e x p r e s s e d a s any f u n c t i o n o f ζ for w h i c h μ t a k e s t h e
f o u r r o o t s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n in b r a c k e t s in e q . ( 4 8 ) . It h a s b e e n s h o w n
in ref. [ 4 ] t h a t t h e s e r o o t s a r e e i t h e r c o m p l e x o r p u r e l y i m a g i n a r y a n d o c c u r as t w o
conjugate pairs,

ζ = α + \β
Χ λ ΐ9 ζ = α -\β
Χ Χ λ > ζ = α + \β ,
2 2 2 ζ = 2 α -[β,
2
 28 J.G. Williams

a n d t h e s o l u t i o n is

ψ = ψ (ζ ) λ γ + ψ (ζ ) χ χ + φ (ζ ) 2 2 + ψ (ζ ).
2 2

N o w it c a n b e s h o w n b y c o n s i d e r i n g a n y p o l y n o m i a l f u n c t i o n of ζ t h a t for a n
a n a l y t i c f u n c t i o n (i.e., a f u n c t i o n of w h i c h all d e r i v a t i v e s exist) w e h a v e t h a t

^(z ) + ^(z ) = 2 R e ^ ( z ) ,
I 1 1

so the solution r e d u c e s to

ψ = 2Κε[ψ (ζ ) χ χ + ψ (ζ )1 2 2 (49)

w h e r e R e m e a n s t h e r e a l p a r t of.
For the special case of isotropy there are equal roots, μ χ = μ = i, a n d w e h a v e a
2

specific f o r m of eq. ( 4 9 ) ,

ψ = 2Κ^[ζψ\(ζ) + φ (ζ)],
2

w h i c h is t h e b a s i c r e s u l t u s e d b y M u s k h e l i s h v i l i [ 6 ] .
T h e e x p r e s s i o n s for s t r e s s e s in e q s . (39) m a y n o w b e r e w r i t t e n , e.g.,

d \b
2

ο- =- χ
1
2 = 2Κε[μ ψ';(ζ ) 2
χ χ + μ\φ' \ζ )\ 2 2

dy

a n d t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t s f r o m e q . (40) b e c o m e , e.g.,

du du dz du
•a a xx x +aa x2 y + ar,
X6 xy

dx dz dx dz

and on substituting and integrating we have

w-2Re[(^ a 2
n + a -^ a )iA (z ) + (^^a
1 2 1 1 6
,
1 1 u + a 1 2 -/x a
2 1 6 )^ (z )],
2 2

ignoring rigid-body rotations.

It is c o n v e n t i o n a l t o r e p l a c e ψ'(ζ) w i t h φ(ζ), s o w e h a v e t h e final e x p r e s s i o n s
σ= χ 2Κε[μ φ[(ζ )
2
χ χ + μ φ' (ζ )1
2
2 2 2

a = y 2Κϊ[φ' (ζ ) χ χ + φ' {ζ )1 2 2

rxy = -2 Κ^[μ φί(ζ ) ι ι + μ φ (ζ )] 2 2 2 9 (50)

u = 2 Κε[ρ φ (ζ )+ χ χ χ ρ φ (ζ )]
2 2 2 9

ν= 2 Re[g,0 (z ) + g 0 (z )], 1 1 2 2 2

where

Pl,2 = Μ 1,2^11 + ^ 1 2 - ^ 1 , 2 ^ 1 6 ,

«1,2 = Μΐ,2«12 + « 2 2 / Μ 1,2 ~ «26 ·

T h e f o r m s of φ c a n b e d e d u c e d b y v a r i o u s m e t h o d s , a n d a w i d e v a r i e t y of s o l u t i o n s
a r e g i v e n in ref. [ 4 ] ( a l t h o u g h n o t for t h e c r a c k p r o b l e m ) . E v a l u a t i n g t h e c o m p l e x
e x p r e s s i o n c a n b e q u i t e l e n g t h y s i n c e , in g e n e r a l , t h e c o m p l e x v a l u e s of μ m u s t b e
 Fracture mechanics of anisotropic materials 29

f o u n d . T h i s p r o c e s s is c o n s i d e r a b l y e a s e d b y t h e u s e o f c o m p l e x - n u m b e r facilities
in s o m e c o m p u t e r c o d e s . T h e i m p o r t a n t o r t h o t r o p i c c a s e is m o r e t r a c t a b l e s i n c e
eq. (48) b e c o m e s

μ
4
+ 2 * μ + λ = 0. 2 2
(51)

Thus

μι,2 = ^ = [ ( ^ + λ ) 1 / 2
±( τ-λ) Λ
1 / 2
] = ω , ί, 1 2 χ>λ, and
(52)

Mi,2 = ^ U - ^ ) 1 / 2
+ i(^+ A) 1 / 2
], *<λ.

For both conditions,

Mi + / * 2 =
i>/2(* + λ ) 1 / 2
and μμι 2 = -λ.

5.2. The crack problem

C o n s i d e r a t i o n s of p a t h i n d e p e n d e n c e of G for linear elastic materials, including

the general a n i s o t r o p i c case, r e q u i r e (see sect. 2) t h a t in t h e region of t h e crack t i p
t h e s t r e s s field will h a v e t h e f o r m r - 1 / 2
w h e r e r is t h e r a d i a l d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e c r a c k
tip. Since t h e c o m p l e x variable h a s t h e form

ζ = x + μγ,

w e c a n w r i t e t h i s i n t e r m s o f p o l a r c o o r d i n a t e s , s e e fig. 4 , a s

ζ = r ( c o s θ + μ s i n Θ),

so that w e w o u l d expect a stress function of t h e form

φ'(ζ) = Αζ' ι /
\

w h e r e Λ is a c o m p l e x c o n s t a n t . If w e w r i t e

F l i 2 = (cos θ + μ ι α sin 0 ) ~ 1 / 2
,

then t h e stresses b e c o m e

v r

a =-^Re[A F
v i l + AF] 2 2 9

2
r x v = - - = Re[/X! A x F, + /x i4 F ]. 2 2 2

Vr
T h e constants a r e defined b y t h e stress-free crack face c o n d i t i o n s ,

0 = ±7f, σ> = τ χ > ; = 0, F 1 2 = -i,

30 J.G. Williams

a n d t h e stress i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r s a r e d e f i n e d a s in t h e i s o t r o p i c c a s e , i.e.,

0 = 0, K { = a yj27rr y and Κ χι = r xy \ 2πτ,

/
Fx2 = 1,

giving the conditions

0 = Im04, + A ), 2

0 = Im( μΑ χ χ + μ Α ),
2 2

K /2V2^
X = Re(A x + A) = A + 2 x A, 2

-K /2\Î2tt
u = R e ( μ A + μ A ) = μΑ 1 1 2 2 χ χ + μΑ,
2 2

w h e r e I m m e a n s i m a g i n a r y p a r t of. T h u s ,

-^2
Α =
2V27r(^ -/x ) ( K , + W / * ) ,
λ 1
2
l 2

A 2 = (Κ, + Χ , , / μ ι ) ,
2V2TT(^ -/X ) 1 2

(note that Α are complex).

1 > 2

T h e s t r e s s e s m a y t h e n b e d i v i d e d i n t o s y m m e t r i c (K ) x and skew symmetric (K )

u

parts,

(μ Ρ -μ Ρ )
χ 2 2 χ

.μι - μ 2
1
(μ Ρ -μ Ρ )
χ 2 2 χ

.μι - μ 2

μιμ2
(F,-F ) 2
and
.μι - μ 2
(53)
1
(
μι - μ 2
1
(
μ ι -μι
1
(μχΡχ-μιΡι)

y/Znr Ιμ\~μι

T h e d i s p l a c e m e n t s a r e in t e r m s of φ(ζ) = 2Az 1 / 2
s o t h a t , e.g.,

u=:4V~rRe[p (A /F ) x x x + p (A /F )l
2 2 2

a n d a g a i n w e m a y w r i t e t h e s e in t w o p a r t s
1 />ι/>2 μ Ρι\
Re 2

^ λ / ^ τ γ γ „ J . μ ι l- μ \/ μ ιPi
/? μF2/>Γ /, 2
2
x
 Fracture mechanics of anisotropic materials 31

Γ , and
77
(54)
λ\ίϊτη

^1

7Γ

T h e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s a r e , of c o u r s e , m e t b y t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I n m o d e I,
e.g., at 0 = 0, F = F = 1, a n d { 2

Κε(-μ μ ), ι 2 rxy = 0,

a n d at 0 = π, F = F = - i , x 2

Κ,
^ = - ^ = R e ( - i ) = 0, σ =~ϊ=Κφμ μ ),
χ ι 2 rxy = 0,

i.e., s t r e s s - f r e e c r a c k f a c e s .
T h e f o r m o f t h e s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n m a y b e w r i t t e n in r e a l f u n c t i o n s for t h e
o r t h o t o p i c c a s e (χ> λ ) , e q . ( 5 2 ) , s i n c e

^ / . . Λ ν _ 1 / 2 (cos θ-ϊω sin 0) 1 / 2

F = (cos 0 + ιω sin 0) 7
= - 52 9 . 7—-rrr,
(cos 0 4 - ω sin 2 2
0) 1 / 2
'

a n d if ( c o s 0 - ί ω sin 0 ) 1 / 2
= a + i6, t h e n

a = - ^ [ c o s 0 + Vcos 0 + w s i n 2 2 2
0] 1 / 2
,

1
6=-^[-cos 0Wcos 2
0 + w sin 2 2
0],

a n d h e n c e w e h a v e , for e x a m p l e ,

Κ λ 1 [^(cos 0+ // ) 2
1 / 2
c u ( c o s 0 + H ) /2'
2 1
1

ay
~V2^? ν 2(ω -ω )ί
/
1 2 H 2 ~ //,
where

// 1 2 = (cos 0 + ω , sin
2 2
2
2
0) 1 / 2
.

F o r a slightly a n i s o t r o p i c material we c a n write

ω ~\λ — δ, ω = 1 + δ,
2

and

Η -> 1 - δ s i n 0,
λ
2
Η ^ 1 + δ s i n 0,
2
2
32 J.G. Williams

and we have

K, / l + c o s îy
0\ 1 / 2
Γ 1 sin 0 2

1+ s i i r 0
ΓίττΛ 2 2 1 + co s 0

κ,
c o s ( | 0 ) [ l + s i n 0 - s i n Q 0 ) ]=
2 2
cos 50[ 1+ sin(§0 ) - s i n ( £ 0 ) ] ,
" V 2OT

the isotropi c solution .

5.3. 77i e calculation of G

G m a y b e f o u n d u s i n g e q . (7 ) a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s fo r / a n d g f r o m e q s . (53 )
a n d ( 5 4 ) . F o r m o d e I , fo r e x a m p l e , <x = a a n d u = ν a n d , h e n c e , n y n

/ (0) = Κ,/ν^τ",
n

and

/2τγ
J g . I m ^ - ^ + J g n l m f - ^ - ) '
\ μ>\-μ2 ) \μι-μ2/.
a n d , s i m i l a r l y , for m o d e II

/ (0)
s = K„/V2T7,

and

/2TT|

π L \ μ\~μ2 I \μ\-μ2/
O n s u b s t i t u t i n g for ρ a n d g w e h a v e

2TT Ι" Κι(/*ι

^ ι ( μ + μ ) + Κι
^ιι" 1 2

α 2 1 niι L —J,
gn(^)=
2 I μι^2
77
fïïr
gsW = + a u Im [ Κ„(μ,, + μ ) + Ki/Xi/x ]- 2 2

77

F r o m e q . (7) w e h a v e

Ο = -α ΚΑΐΑ
λ 22
Κλ{μΧ + μ 2 ) + Κ η
\
L MlM2 J

and

G „ = + a X n \\m[K ( n u μ + μ ) + Κ μ
χ 2 λ λ μ ].
2

F o r t h e o r t h o t r o p i c c a s e w e m a y u s e e q s . (52)

A t i + A t = iV2 ( * + λ )
2
1 / 2
and μμ
ι 2 = -λ, (55)
1/2'
"(^ + A)' _j /2
and G „ = /£„<!,,
/2λ
 Fracture mechanics of anisotropic materials 33

5.4. The calculation of Κ

Reference [4] gives t h e stress function for a n e l l i p t i c a l h o l e in a n infinite

a n i s o t r o p i c plate l o a d e d with a uniform p r e s s u r e ρ a n d a s h e a r stress t within the
h o l e b u t n o t l o a d e d at t h e b o u n d a r y . If w e t a k e t h e l i m i t i n g c a s e o f a c r a c k ( m i n o r
axis zero) t h e n these b e c o m e

2(μ, -M2)'
(56)
- ( ' - •μι ρ)
Φ2(Ζ ) 2 = fi,
2(μ·ι

where

zVz - a 2 2

/=-! + ζ = χ + μγ,
z - a 2 2
'

w h e r e χ a n d y a r e m e a s u r e d f r o m t h e c e n t r e o f t h e c r a c k ( t h e c r a c k t i p is at χ = a).
N o t e t h a t o n t h e b o u n d a r i e s ζ > a a n d / - » 0, g i v i n g z e r o s t r e s s e s a n d , a l o n g t h e
c r a c k l i n e , y = 0 a n d ζ = χ. W i t h i n t h e c r a c k χ < a, s o R e [ / ] = - 1 a n d , e.g.,

ί-μ Ρ + μιΡ\^
2
ay = 2Re[cj>' (z ) l l + <f>' (x )] = Re 2 2 i.e.,
Λ μι-μι I .
cj-, = /? R e [ / ] = -p.

T h u s a u n i f o r m t e n s i o n σ at t h e b o u n d a r y a n d z e r o p r e s s u r e in t h e c r a c k c a n b e
modelled by a d d i n g this uniform tension σ to the σ ν c o m p o n e n t a n d p u t t i n g ρ = σ,
g i v i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g e x p r e s s i o n s for t h e s t r e s s e s ,

( - μ ι Α + μιίτ)
Ιμ\-

Γ 1
- ( - Μ 2 / 1 + Μ1/2) + cr, (57)
σ = σ Re
Ιμ\-
a K S j ^ { _ f x + f i )

ίμχ-μι J

A l o n g t h e c r a c k l i n e , y = 0, w e h a v e ,

xVx - 2

f = Â = f 2 = -i + 2 » and
χ —a

cr = σ- R e [ - / X ! / x / ] ,
x 2 σ\, - ( J R e [ / ] + σ,

F o r χ < a, w i t h i n t h e c r a c k ; σ = τ ν χν = 0, a s r e q u i r e d a n d for t h e o r t h o t r o p i c c a s e ,
σχ = -λσ. C l o s e t o a n d o u t s i d e t h e c r a c k t i p w e c a n w r i t e χ = a + r, r < a, g i v i n g

f=-l+Vâ/2r
34 J.G. Williams

TABLE 3
C N plate, Y/yf^ for L/W = 2 [19].

a/W χ = 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 1.0 (iso) small (shear lag [15])

λ = 0.1
2
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.0 0.0

0.2 1.05 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.025 1.04

0.4 1.19 1.14 1.12 1.12 1.11 1.10 1.08
0.6 1.41 1.34 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.30 1.21
0.8 1.85 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 - 1.57

and

σ = a^/a/2r,
ν σχ = λσ( — 1 + V a / 2 r ) , rxy = 0.

T h u s , K = σ \/2πΓ
l γ = σ\ίπα, e x a c t l y a s i n t h e i s o t r o p i c c a s e , b u t σ -> Α σ ν ' a / 2 r =
χ λσ , γ

i.e., σ /σχ γ = A a n d λ = 1 for isotropy. A similar derivation gives the s a m e K u a s in

the isotropic case.
T h i s r e s u l t ( a s p o i n t e d o u t b y Sih et a l . [ 1 7 ] ) is r a t h e r s u r p r i s i n g , b u t is a n
i m p o r t a n t s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s i n c e for s m a l l c r a c k l e n g t h s in p l a t e s (a/w< 1), w e w o u l d
e x p e c t t h e i s o t r o p i c r e s u l t . F o r a finite p l a t e w e w r i t e

K= 2
Y (a/w)
2
σ α, 2

a n d m o s t o f t h e i n c r e a s e in Y 2
a b o v e π is d u e t o t h e e l e v a t i o n of t h e n e t s e c t i o n
stress a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f e q u i l i b r i u m a n d s t r e s s - c o n t r o l l e d b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s
[10]. Thus one would expect Y 2
n o t t o differ g r e a t l y f r o m t h e i s o t r o p i c v a l u e s , e v e n
for finite a/w.
O n e a d d i t i o n a l effect in Y , 2
h o w e v e r , w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d t o give s o m e d i f f e r e n c e
in t h e a n i s o t r o p i c c a s e . T h i s is t h e c h a n g e in t h e infinite p l a t e Κ w h i c h r e s u l t s f r o m
the stress-free edges. T h e s e arise from t h e relaxation of σ χ along the edges, and σ χ

is a f u n c t i o n o f t h e e l a s t i c c o n s t a n t s . A t t h e c r a c k c e n t r e a = - A C T , a n d for y> y a,
d e c a y s in t h e f o r m a/2(a/y) , 2
i.e., i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e e l a s t i c c o n s t a n t s .
T a b l e 3 gives n u m e r i c a l results b y B o w i e a n d Freese [19] u s i n g c o m p l e x stress
f u n c t i o n s a n d b o u n d a r y c o l l o c a t i o n for t h e c e n t r e - n o t c h e d p l a t e . T h e y p o i n t o u t
t h a t t h i s is a v e r y efficient n u m e r i c a l s c h e m e , e v e n for t h e i s o t r o p i c c a s e . T h e r a t h e r
limited r a n g e of λ 2
v a l u e s u s e d is f r o m 0.1 t o 0.5 a n d o f χ f r o m 0.5 t o 0.75, a n d
t h e r e is little v a r i a t i o n f r o m t h e i s o t r o p i c c a s e . H e r e t h e free e d g e s a r e r e m o t e f r o m
t h e c r a c k s o t h e s m a l l effect is n o t s u r p r i s i n g . A l s o g i v e n is t h e r e s u l t f r o m a s h e a r
l a g m o d e l [ 1 6 ] w h i c h is effectively λ = 0 , a n d χ s m a l l . A g a i n t h e i s o t r o p i c r e s u l t is
r e p r o d u c e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y . T a b l e s 4 a n d 5 a r e d a t a t a k e n f r o m a m e t h o d g i v e n in
ref. [ 2 0 ] w h i c h a r e c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g a finite-element solution a n d a c o n t o u r integral
t o give G f r o m w h i c h Κ is d e d u c e d u s i n g e q . ( 5 5 ) . F o r t h e d o u b l e - e d g e n o t c h e d
p l a t e t h e r e s u l t s d o n o t differ g r e a t l y f r o m t h e i s o t r o p i c v a l u e s b u t t h e r e is s o m e
decrease for t h e h i g h e r λ v a l u e s . F o r t h e s i n g l e - e d g e n o t c h e d p l a t e ( t a b l e 5) t h e r e
a r e d a t a for a m u c h l a r g e r r a n g e o f χ a n d λ 2
values. For high λ 2
v a l u e s , t h e r e is
v e r y little d e p a r t u r e f r o m t h e i s o t r o p i c c a s e , e v e n for χ u p t o 4 0 0 , b u t for l o w λ , 2
 Fracture mechanics of anisotropic materials 35

TABLE 4
D E N plate, Y/sJ^r [20].

a/W * = 1.5 25.0 1.0 (iso)

λ = 0.2
2
4.0 1.0

0.4 1.14 1.04 1.13

0.5 1.20 1.07 1.16
0.6 1.28 1.15 1.22

TABLE 5
SEN plate, Y/y/lf [20].

a/W λ = 20
2
λ = 0.05
2
λ =1
2

* = o.o 10.0 100.0 400.0 χ = 0.0 5.0 20.0 * = 1.0 (iso)

0.0 1.17 1.08 1.02 1.01 1.18 1.02 1.01 1.12

0.05 1.11 1.10 - - - - - 1.13
0.2 - 1.34 - - - - - 1.37
0.3 1.62 1.63 1.87 1.78 1.89 2.38 3.10 1.66
0.4 2.18 2.07 2.38 2.24 2.34 3.00 3.87 2.11
0.5 3.16 2.77 3.15 2.89 3.04 3.79 5.05 2.89
0.6 4.86 3.94 4.40 3.90 4.27 4.89 6.28 4.03

i.e., w i t h t h e stiff d i r e c t i o n n o r m a l t o t h e c r a c k , t h e r e a r e h i g h e r v a l u e s for t h e l a r g e r

χ v a l u e s . T h e s e e x t r e m e c a s e s d o p r e s e n t c o m p u t a t i o n a l difficulties, a n d t h e r e is
s o m e d o u b t a b o u t t h e a c c u r a c y . ( T h e v a l u e s g i v e n in t a b l e s 4 a n d 5 a r e c o r r e c t e d
v e r s i o n s o f t h o s e in ref. [ 2 0 ] k i n d l y s u p p l i e d b y t h e a u t h o r . ) O v e r a l l , it w o u l d a p p e a r
t h a t t h e i s o t r o p i c finite-width c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s a r e a d e q u a t e e x c e p t w h e r e e x t r e m e
a n i s o t r o p y is i n v o l v e d w h e n it m a y b e u s e f u l t o c o m p u t e Y f a c t o r s .
2

6. D a m a g e z o n e s

T h e n o t i o n of a c r a c k t i p z o n e is of p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e in c o n v e n t i o n a l f r a c t u r e
m e c h a n i c s b e c a u s e its s i z e c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e c r a c k e d b o d y
d e t e r m i n e s t h e stress s t a t e w i t h i n t h e z o n e a n d t h u s t h e v a l u e of e n e r g y a b s o r b e d
in f r a c t u r e . H o w far s u c h i d e a s c a n b e t r a n s f e r r e d t o c o m p o s i t e s w h e r e t h e u s u a l
plastic deformation processes are replaced by m o r e general d a m a g e , including
m i c r o c r a c k i n g , h a s n o t b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d . F i r s t , it is n e c e s s a r y t o h a v e a d a m a g e
criterion a n d while this m a y b e e x p e c t e d to b e s o m e form of critical stress criteria
for a n a n i s o t r o p i c c o m p o s i t e , it c o u l d b e a f u n c t i o n o f d i r e c t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e
f o r m of s t r e s s d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e d a m a g e p r o c e s s w o u l d a l s o b e n e e d e d if t h e size
a n d s h a p e o f t h e d a m a g e z o n e a t t h e c r a c k t i p is t o b e d e t e r m i n e d . T h e l o c a l s t r e s s
field a r o u n d t h e c r a c k t i p is d e f i n e d in e q . ( 5 3 ) s o if s u c h a c r i t e r i o n is k n o w n t h e n ,
in p r i n c i p l e , t h e d a m a g e z o n e c a n b e d e f i n e d in t e r m s of t h e Κ v a l u e s .
 36 J. G. Williams

S i n c e s u c h c r i t e r i a a r e n o t e s t a b l i s h e d t h e y will n o t b e p u r s u e d h e r e , b u t r e c o u r s e
will b e m a d e t o t h e v e r y s i m p l e n o t i o n t h a t a test m a y b e p e r f o r m e d in s i m p l e
t e n s i o n in a g i v e n d i r e c t i o n a n d a d a m a g e s t r e s s σ m e a s u r e d . If a n o t c h is t h e n
ά

m a d e n o r m a l t o t h a t d i r e c t i o n a n d t h e test r e p e a t e d t h e n t h e e x t e n t o f t h e d a m a g e
z o n e m a y b e e s t i m a t e d f r o m t h e e x p r e s s i o n for σ v i a t h e d e f i n i t i o n of K
ν l9 i.e.,

(58)

-(-V.
a n d a s i m i l a r e x p r e s s i o n for s h e a r u s i n g K a n d a s h e a r d a m a g e s t r e s s . T h e s t r e s s
u

s t a t e is n o t s i m p l e t e n s i o n , o f c o u r s e , b u t t h i s is i g n o r e d h e r e . I n t h e i s o t r o p i c c a s e ,
t h e w h o l e f r a c t u r e a n a l y s i s m a y b e c o n d u c t e d in e i t h e r G ox Κ t e r m s , b u t for
c o m p o s i t e s G seems to b e m o r e physically m e a n i n g f u l as a criterion of failure so
t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l z o n e size at f r a c t u r e s h o u l d b e w r i t t e n in t e r m s of G l cin t h i s c a s e
via e q s . ( 5 5 ) , i.e.,

G - K > a (* +
*)1/2

giving,

1 G l c V2 λ
(59)
2π σα
ά 22 {χ + λ)

S i m i l a r l y , o n e m a y v i s u a l i z e a c r a c k - t i p o p e n i n g d i s p l a c e m e n t in t h e d a m a g e z o n e ,
given by

£ic= O /a .
lc d (60)

7. Conclusions

T h e m e t h o d s outlined here s h o w that the use of L E F M to define the energy release

r a t e for a n i s o t r o p i c m a t e r i a l s a r e sufficiently d e v e l o p e d t o p r o v i d e t h e b a s i s of a
w o r k i n g analysis. Simplifications, such as self-similar crack g r o w t h , r e n d e r m a n y
c a s e s s u r p r i s i n g l y s i m p l e a n d t h e n o t i o n s o f s o l u t i o n s f r o m b e a m t h e o r y in t e r m s
of local m o m e n t s l e a d t o u s e f u l g e n e r a l m e t h o d s o f a n a l y s i s . T h e p a r t i t i o n i n g o f
m o d e s o f l o a d i n g s e e m s t o b e n e c e s s a r y a n d a g a i n c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t in s i m p l e
t e r m s . It is c o n s i d e r e d b a s i c t h a t t h e r e a l c r i t e r i o n o f f r a c t u r e is t h e e n e r g y r e l e a s e
r a t e . F o r c r a c k e d p l a t e s it is n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s i d e r l o c a l fields, b u t t h e r a t h e r
c o m p l i c a t e d analysis leads to the result t h a t t h e stress intensity factors are a l m o s t
the s a m e as the isotropic case a n d can b e easily c o n v e r t e d to the energy release
r a t e . C l e a r l y , t h e r e is m u c h still t o b e d o n e , b u t t h e r e is a s o u n d b a s i s h e r e o f
t r a c t a b l e a n a l y s i s o n w h i c h t o b a s e t h i s effort.
 Fracture mechanics of anisotropic materials 37

List of s y m b o l s

a crack length; compliance, when subscripted; complex constant

Λ crack area
Β plate thickness
C c r a c k l e n g t h in t r a n s v e r s e s p l i t t i n g ; c o m p l i a n c e
e direct strain
Ε modulus
/ f u n c t i o n of θ
F f u n c t i o n o f 0; F c a l i b r a t i o n f a c t o r for l a r g e d i s p l a c e m e n t s
x

g f u n c t i o n of θ
G e n e r g y r e l e a s e r a t e , s e p a r a t e d in G , for m o d e I, G n for m o d e I I
h thickness of l a m i n a t e
H f u n c t i o n of θ
i V-i
J s e c o n d m o m e n t o f a r e a ; i n t e g r a l s for l a r g e d i s p l a c e m e n t s
Κ stress intensity factor
/ d i s t a n c e in b e a m t e s t ; v a r i a b l e r a t i o
L d i s t a n c e in b e a m t e s t ; v a r i a b l e r a t i o
M bending moment
ρ f u n c t i o n o f μ a n d a; p r e s s u r e
Ρ load
q f u n c t i o n of μ a n d a
Q shear force
r r a d i u s ; d i s t a n c e f r o m c r a c k t i p ; w h e n s u b s c r i p t e d , z o n e size
R crack resistance
S d i s t a n c e in l i n e z o n e
t s h e a r stress
u displacement
U energy
υ displacement
W energy density; width
x, y cartesian coordinates
Y finite-width correction factor
ζ c o m p l e x v a r i a b l e , z = x + μγ

a s l o p e o f b e a m at l o a d p o i n t
y d i m e n s i o n l e s s l o a d in s t r u t s ; s h e a r s t r a i n
Γ stability p a r a m e t e r ; c o m p l i a n c e function
δ d i s p l a c e m e n t at l o a d p o i n t ; d i s p l a c e m e n t a t c r a c k t i p
Δ c o m p l i a n c e f u n c t i o n ; l e n g t h of c r a c k e x t e n s i o n
θ angle from crack line
λ compliance ratio >/α /α
22 η

μ c o m p l e x n u m b e r , μ = a + \b
ν Poisson's ratio
38 J.G. Williams

ξ t h i c k n e s s r a t i o in l a m i n a t e s ; d i m e n s i o n l e s s l e n g t h
σ n o r m a l stress
r s h e a r stress
φ slope of b e a m ; c o m p l e x stress function
χ c o m p l i a n c e r a t i o , (2a l2 + a )/2a
66 u

Φ [ ( 1 ζ)Ιζ] , s t r e s s f u n c t i o n
- 3

ω function of θ

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[4] S.G. Lekhnitskii, Theory of Elasticity of an Anisotropic Elastic Body, Trans. P. Fern (Holden Day,
San Francisco, CA, 1963).
[5] S.G. Lekhnitskii, English Translation (2nd Ed.) of Revised 1977 Russian Edition (MIR Publishers,
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[8] J.A. Johnson, Wood Science 6(2) (1972) 151.
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