Mathscape8 (2004)

STAGE 4
8
Wo r k i n g M a t h e m a t i c a l l y
Clive Meyers
Lloyd Dawe
Graham Barnsley
S e r i es Edit o r :
L i n ds ay G r imiso n
First published 2003 by
MACMILLAN EDUCATION AUSTRALIA PTY LTD
627 Chapel Street, South Yarra 3141
Reprinted 2004
Visit our website at www.macmillan.com.au
Associated companies and representatives throughout the world.
Copyright © Clive Meyers, Graham Barnsley, Lloyd Dawe, Lindsay Grimison 2003
All rights reserved.

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National Library of Australia

cataloguing in publication data
Meyers, Clive.
Mathscape.
For secondary students.
ISBN 0 7329 8083 6 (Year 8).
1. Mathematics - Textbooks. I. Barnsley, Graham J.
II. Dawe, Lloyd. III. Grimison, Lindsay. IV. Title.
510
Project editor: Mandy Naylor

Editor: Marta Veroni
Illustrator: Stephen Francis and Sun Photoset Pty Ltd
Cover and text designer: Dimitrios Frangoulis
Typeset in 11pt Times by Sun Photoset Pty Ltd
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Printed in Malaysia
Acknowledgements to contributors
Steve Perry, Ming Yan, Steven Windsor, Reema Hozeiran, Young Kwon, Esther Choi, Roslyn Shailer, Shaun Lambden, Angela
Andrews, Tracy Chang, Dan Duong, A. Robert Emmett
Acknowledgements for copyright material

The authors and publishers would like to gratefully credit the following for permission to reproduce copyright material:
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it is acknowledged that Australia Post will not be held responsible for the accuracy of the table due to changes in time and services,
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a product of State Rail NSW — for the page from a Countrylink train/bus timetable for travel from Melbourne, kindly supplied,
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Contents
Light orange indicates material is exclusively Stage 3. Dark orange indicates material is
exclusively Stage 5.1. All other material is Stage 4.
Preface vi 2.10 Adding and subtracting

algebraic fractions 67
How to use this book vii 2.11 Multiplying and dividing
algebraic fractions 69
Chapter 1 Percentages 1 Focus on working mathematically:
1.1 The meaning of percentage 2 Algebra as a tool for exploring patterns 72
1.2 Converting between fractions and Problem solving 74
percentages 4 Language link with Macquarie 75
1.3 Converting between decimals and Chapter review 76
percentages 8
1.4 Common conversions 10 Chapter 3 Pythagoras’
Try this: Archery winner 13 Theorem 78
1.5 Percentage of a quantity 13 3.1 Pythagoras’ Theorem 81
1.6 Expressing one quantity as a Try this: How long is a tile? 84
percentage of another 17 3.2 Finding the length of the
Try this: Pure juice 20 hypotenuse 85
1.7 Percentage increase and decrease 20 3.3 Finding a short side 89
1.8 The unitary method 24 Try this: Demonstrating
Try this: Percentage rebound 27 Pythagoras’ Theorem 94
1.9 Commission 27 3.4 Solving problems by using
1.10 Discounts 29 Pythagoras’ Theorem 95
1.11 Profit and loss 33 Focus on working mathematically:
Focus on working mathematically: Secret societies, mathematics and magic 99
Australia’s Indigenous population 35 Problem solving 101
Problem solving 37 Language link with Macquarie 102
Language link with Macquarie 39 Chapter review 103
Chapter review 39
Chapter 4 Data
Chapter 2 Algebra 42 representation 105
2.1 Adding and subtracting like terms 43 4.1 Classifying data 106
Try this: Dot pentagons 45 4.2 Reading and interpreting graphs 108
2.2 Further addition and subtraction 4.3 Drawing graphs 119
of like terms 46 4.4 Step graphs 125
Try this: Magic square 48 4.5 Travel graphs 130
2.3 Multiplying algebraic terms 48 Try this: Runners 135
2.4 Dividing algebraic terms 50 4.6 Reading tables 135
2.5 The four operations with algebraic 4.7 Scatter diagrams 142
expressions 52 Try this: The Top 40 149
Try this: Guess my rule 54 4.8 Organising data 149
2.6 The index laws 55 4.9 Stem-and-leaf plots 157
2.7 The Distributive Law 59 Try this: Let’s jump 161
2.8 The Distributive Law and directed 4.10 The misuse of graphs 161
numbers 62 Focus on working mathematically:
2.9 Factorising: The highest common Championship tennis 166
factor 64 Problem solving 168
iv Mathscape 8
Language link with Macquarie 169 Try this: A packing problem 263
Chapter review 169 7.5 Volume of a prism 263
Try this: Volume through liquid
Chapter 5 Angles and displacement 272
geometric figures 175 7.6 Volume and capacity 272
5.1 Adjacent angles 176 7.7 Mass 275
Try this: Rotating pencil 180 Focus on working mathematically:
5.2 Angles at a point and vertically Torrential rain in Sydney 278
opposite angles 180 Problem solving 280
Try this: Angles 184 Language link with Macquarie 281
5.3 Parallel lines 184 Chapter review 282
5.4 Angle sum of a triangle 190
5.5 Isosceles and equilateral triangles 193 Chapter 8 Equations,
5.6 Exterior angle of a triangle 197 inequations and formulae 285
5.7 Angle sum of a quadrilateral 200 8.1 Modelling equations 286
5.8 The special quadrilaterals 205 8.2 Inverse operations 291
Try this: Quadrilateral diagram 209 8.3 Solving equations 294
Focus on working mathematically: Try this: Car colours 297
Logos 210 8.4 Solving two-step equations 297
Problem solving 211 8.5 Equations with pronumerals
Language link with Macquarie 212 on both sides 300
Chapter review 213 Try this: Braking distance 302
8.6 Equations with grouping symbols 302
Chapter 6 Geometric 8.7 Solving number problems 304
constructions 217 8.8 Measurement and geometry
6.1 Constructing regular polygons problems 308
in a circle 218 8.9 Evaluating the subject of a
6.2 Constructing triangles 219 formula 312
6.3 Constructing quadrilaterals 222 8.10 Equations arising from
Try this: Triangle and rhombus substitution 315
construction 226 8.11 Inequations 318
6.4 Bisecting angles and intervals 226 Focus on working mathematically:
6.5 Constructing parallel and What is a 12-m yacht? 321
perpendicular lines 230 Problem solving 323
Try this: Orthocentre and incentre 235 Language link with Macquarie 324
Focus on working mathematically: Chapter review 324
Finding south in the night sky 235
Problem solving 239 Chapter 9 Ratios and rates 327
Language link with Macquarie 240 9.1 The definition of a ratio 328
Chapter review 241 Try this: Cartoons 331
9.2 Equivalent ratios 331
Chapter 7 Area and volume 243 Try this: Scale factors and areas 333
7.1 Area of squares, rectangles and 9.3 Simplifying ratios 334
triangles 244 9.4 Dividing of a quantity in a
Try this: Square area 250 given ratio 337
7.2 Area of the special quadrilaterals 250 9.5 Miscellaneous problems 339
Try this: Biggest area 256 Try this: Biscuits 342
7.3 Surface area 256 9.6 Rates 342
7.4 Definition of volume 261 Try this: Heart rates 344
Contents v
9.7 Solving problems that involve Chapter 12 Data analysis

rates 344 and probability 429
9.8 Speed, distance and time 347
Try this: How far away is 12.1 Collecting data 430
lightning? 351 12.2 Bias in sampling 432
9.9 Scale drawing 351 12.3 Questioning and observation 436
Focus on working mathematically: 12.4 Generating random numbers 441
The comparative size of a nuclear 12.5 Sampling techniques 445
submarine 358 Try this: Sampling bottle 450
Problem solving 359 12.6 The mean 450
Language link with Macquarie 360 12.7 The median 456
Chapter review 361 12.8 The mode and the range 460
Try this: Mr and Mrs Average 463
Chapter 10 Circles and 12.9 Comparing two data sets 463
cylinders 363 12.10 Choosing the best average 467
Try this: Mean versus median 470
10.1 Parts of the circle 364 12.11 The language of probability 472
Try this: How Eratosthenes 12.12 Theoretical probability 475
measured the circumference Try this: I win, you lose 480
of the Earth 369 12.13 Complementary events 480
10.2 Circumference of a circle 370 Focus on working mathematically:
Try this: Roping logs 374 Health risks of smoking 483
10.3 Applications of circumference 375 Problem solving 486
Try this: Stained panes 379 Language link with Macquarie 487
10.4 Area of a circle 379 Chapter review 487
10.5 Applications of area 383
10.6 Volume of a cylinder 387 Chapter 13 Congruence and
Focus on working mathematically: similarity 491
International one-day cricket 392
Problem solving 393 13.1 Transformations 492
Language link with Macquarie 394 Try this: Escher tessellations 496
Chapter review 395 13.2 Congruent figures 497
Try this: Houses 501
Chapter 11 Linear 13.3 Congruent triangles 501
relationships 398 13.4 Enlargement 506
13.5 Similar figures 510
11.1 Reading maps 399 Try this: Similar rectangles 516
11.2 The number plane 403 13.6 Similar triangles 516
11.3 Straight line graphs 408 13.7 Solving similarity problems 521
11.4 Linear and non-linear equations 413 Focus on working mathematically:
11.5 Horizontal and vertical lines 417 Geometry in art: The work of Piet
11.6 Intersection of lines 421 Mondrian 528
Focus on working mathematically: Problem solving 530
Dreams, imagination and mathematical Language link with Macquarie 531
ideas 423 Chapter review 532
Problem solving 425
Language link with Macquarie 426 Answers 535
Chapter review 426
M
Maa tt h
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caap
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Preface
Mathscape 8 is a comprehensive teaching and learning resource that has been written to address the new
Stage 4 Mathematics syllabus in NSW. Our aim was to write a book that would allow students of all abilities
to grow in confidence, to improve their understanding of Mathematics and to develop a genuine appreciation
of its inherent beauty. Teachers who wish to inspire their students will find this an exciting and yet very
practical resource. The text encourages a deeper exploration of mathematical ideas through substantial, well-
graded exercises that consolidate students’ knowledge, understanding and skills. It also provides opportunities
for students to explore the history of Mathematics and to address many practical applications in contexts that
are both familiar and relevant.
From a teaching perspective, we sought to produce a book that would adhere as strictly as possible to both the
content and spirit of the new syllabus. Together with Mathscape 7, this book allows teachers to confidently
teach the Stage 4 course knowing that they are covering all of the mandatory outcomes. Mathscape 8 provides
teachers with an extensive number of well-graded exercises designed to cater for students of all abilities.
Content from Stage 3 has been included in each chapter, where appropriate. This will allow teachers to
diagnose significant misconceptions and identify any content gaps. For those students who have achieved the
relevant Stage 3 outcomes, this material could be used as a review to introduce the Stage 4 topic, or to revise
important concepts when they occur. However, for those students who have not achieved these outcomes by
the start of Year 7, this material will be new work. All content is clearly listed as either Stage 3 or Stage 4 in
the contents section at the front of the book. A detailed syllabus correlation grid has been provided for teachers
on the Mathscape 8 School CD-ROM.
Mathscape 8 has embedded cross-curriculum content, which will support students in achieving the broad
learning outcomes defined by the Board of Studies. The content also addresses the important Key
Competencies of the Curriculum Framework, which require students to collect, analyse and organise
information; to communicate mathematical ideas; to plan and organise activities; to work with others in
groups; to use mathematical ideas and techniques; to solve problems; and to use technology.
A feature of each chapter which teachers will find both challenging and interesting for their students is the
‘Focus on working mathematically’ section. Although the processes of working mathematically are embedded
throughout the book, these activities are specifically designed to provoke curiosity and deepen mathematical
insight. Most begin with a motivating real-life context, such as sport, newspapers, the sun’s rays, or maps, but
on occasion they begin with a purely mathematical question. These activities can be used for these purposes.
In our view, there are many legitimate, time-proven ways to teach Mathematics successfully. However, if
students are to develop a deep appreciation of the subject, they will need more than traditional methods. We
believe that all students should be given the opportunity to appreciate Mathematics as an essential and relevant
part of life. They need to be given the opportunity to begin a mathematical exploration from a real-life context
that is meaningful to them. To show interest and enjoyment in enquiry and the pursuit of mathematical
knowledge, students need activities where they can work with others and listen to their arguments, as well as
work individually. To demonstrate confidence in applying their mathematical knowledge and skills to the
solution of everyday problems, they will need experience of this in the classroom. If they are to learn to
persevere with difficult and challenging problems, they will need to experience these sorts of problems as well.
Finally, to recognise that Mathematics has been developed in many cultures in response to human needs,
students will need experiences of what other cultures have achieved mathematically.
We have tried to address these values and attitudes in this series of books. Our best wishes to all teachers and
students who are part of this great endeavour.
Clive Meyers
Lloyd Dawe
Graham Barnsley
Lindsay Grimison
How to use this book
Mathscape 8 is a practical resource that can be used by teachers to supplement their teaching program. The
exercises in this book and the companion text Mathscape 7 provide a complete and thorough coverage of all
content and skills in the Stage 4 course. The great number and variety of questions allow for the effective
teaching of students of all abilities. The incorporation of a large amount of Stage 3 material means that this
book is also suitable for those students who have not achieved all of the Stage 3 outcomes by the start of
Year 7. Each chapter contains:
• a set of chapter outcomes directed to the student
• all relevant theory and explanations, with important definitions and formulae boxed and coloured
• step-by-step instructions for standard questions
• a large number of fully worked examples preceding each exercise
• extensive, thorough and well-graded exercises that cover each concept in detail
• chapter-related, problem-solving activities called ‘Try this’ integrated throughout
• a language skills section linked to the Macquarie Learners’ Dictionary
• a mixed problem-solving section
• novel learning activities focussing on the process of working mathematically
• a thorough chapter review.
Explanations and examples

The content and skills required to complete each exercise have been introduced in a manner and at a level that
is appropriate to the students in this course. Important definitions and formulae have been boxed and coloured
for easy reference. For those techniques that require a number of steps, the steps have been listed in point form,
boxed and coloured. Each exercise is preceded by several fully worked examples. This should enable the
average students to independently complete the majority of relevant exercises if necessary.
The exercises
The exercises have been carefully graded into three distinct sections:
• Introduction. The questions in this section are designed to introduce students to the most basic concepts
and skills associated with the outcome(s) being covered in the exercise. Students need to have mastered
these ideas before attempting the questions in the next section.
• Consolidation. This is a major part of the exercise. It allows students to consolidate their understanding of
the basic ideas and apply them in a variety of situations. Students may need to use content learned or skills
acquired in previous exercises or topics to answer some of these questions. The average students should
be able to complete most of the questions in this section, although the last few questions may be a little
more difficult.
• Further applications. Some questions presented in this section will be accessible to the average student;
however, the majority of questions are difficult. They might require a reverse procedure, the use of algebra,
more sophisticated techniques, a proof, or simply time-consuming research. The questions can be open-
ended, requiring an answer with a justification. They may also involve extension or off-syllabus material.
In some questions, alternative techniques and methods of solution other than the standard method(s) may
be introduced, which will only confuse the average student.
Teachers need to be selective in the questions they choose for their students. Some students may not need to
complete all of the questions in the Introduction or Consolidations sections of each exercise, while only the
most able students should usually be expected to attempt the questions in the Further applications section.
Those questions not completed in class might be set as homework at the teacher’s discretion. It is not intended
that any student would attempt to answer every possible question in each exercise.
viii Mathscape 8
Focus on working mathematically

The Working Mathematically strand of the syllabus requires a deeper understanding of Mathematics than do
the other strands. As such, it will be the most challenging strand for students to engage
with and for teachers to assess. The Working Mathematically outcomes listed in the syllabus have been
carefully integrated into each chapter of the book; however, we also decided to include a learning activity in
each chapter that will enable teachers to focus sharply on the processes of working mathematically. Each
activity begins with a real-life context and the Mathematics emerges naturally. Teachers are advised to work
through them before using them in class. Answers have not been provided, but notes for teachers have been
included on the Mathscape 8 School CD-ROM, with suggested web links. Teachers may wish to select and use
the Learning activities in ‘Focus on working mathematically’ for purposes of assessment.. This too is
encouraged. The Extension activities will test the brightest students. Suggestions are also provided to assess
the outcomes regarding Communication and Reflection.
Problem solving
Each chapter contains a number of small, chapter-related, problem-solving activities called ‘Try this’. They
may be of some historical significance, or require an area outside the classroom, or require students to conduct
research, or involve the use of algebra, while others relate the chapter content to real-life context. A series of
10 mixed problems are also included at the end of each chapter under the heading ‘Problem solving’. Again,
teachers are advised to work through these exercises before using them in class.
Technology
The use of technology is a clear emphasis in the new syllabus. It is expected that all students will have access
to a scientific calculator in Year 8. The clear intention is that it should be used to reinforce mathematical
understanding, rather than as an aid in day-to-day computation at this stage. A symbol has therefore been
inserted next to those questions where the use of a calculator is required or is deemed appropriate.
Innovative technology for supporting the growth of understanding of mathematical ideas is provided on the
Mathscape 8 School CD-ROM, which is fully networkable and comes free of charge to schools adopting
Mathscape 8 for student use. Key features of the CD-ROM include:
• spreadsheet activities
• dynamic geometry
• animations
• original interactive maths programs
• student worksheets
• web links.
Language
The consistent use of correct mathematical terms, symbols and conventions is emphasised strongly in this
book, while being mindful of the students’ average reading age. Students will only learn to use and spell
correct mathematical terms if they are required to use them frequently in appropriate contexts. A language
section has also been included at the end of each chapter titled ‘Language link with Macquarie’, where students
can demonstrate their understanding of important mathematical terms. This might, for example, include
explaining the difference between the mathematical meaning and the everyday meaning of a word. Most
chapters include a large number of worded problems. Students are challenged to read and interpret the
problems, translate them into mathematical language and symbols, solve the problems, then give the answers
in an appropriate context.
Syllabus correlation
A syllabus correlation grid and teaching notes are offered on the Mathscape 8 School CD-ROM.
Clive Meyers
Lloyd Dawe
Graham Barnsley
Lindsay Grimison
Percentages
1
This chapter at a glance
Stage 4
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
explain the meaning of a percentage
convert between fractions and percentages
convert between decimals and percentages
calculate a percentage of a quantity
express one quantity as a percentage of another
state and use common conversions for fractions, decimals and percentages
increase and decrease a quantity by a percentage
calculate the percentage increase and decrease in a quantity
Percentages
interpret the meaning of a percentage increase greater than 100%
use the unitary method to find the whole quantity
calculate the commission earned on sales
solve percentage problems involving commission
calculate the discount and sale price on items
solve percentage problems involving discounts
solve percentage problems involving profit and loss.
1
2 Mathscape 8
1.1 The meaning of percentage

The term per cent means ‘per hundred’ or ‘out of one hundred’. The symbol for per cent is %,
7
which is a distortion of the 1 and two 0s in the number 100. For example, 7% means --------
100
- or
‘seven out of one hundred’.
A percentage is a fraction of 100.
Example 1
EG In the diagram shown, what percentage of the figure is:
+S
a shaded?
b unshaded?
Solutions
a 60 out of 100 squares are shaded,
i.e. 60% of the figure is shaded.
b 40 out of 100 squares are unshaded,
i.e. 40% of the figure is unshaded.
Example 2
EG If 72% of the crowd at a soccer match barrack for the home team, what percentage of the
+S crowd barrack for the away team?
Solution
If 72% of the crowd barrack for the home team, then (100 − 72)%, i.e. 28%, barrack for the
away team.
Exercise 1.1
1 Each of the following squares has been divided into 100 smaller squares. State the
percentage of each figure that is: i shaded ii unshaded
a b c
Chapter 1: Percentages 3
d e f
g h i
■ Consolidation
2 Place each of these percentages on the number line.
a 10% b 50% c 60% d 90%
e 5% f 25% g 75% h 85%
0% 100%
3 Draw a number line 10 cm long and mark the end points as 0% and 100%. Use your ruler
to accurately show the positions of each of the following percentages.
a 70% b 35% c 8% d 83%
4 What is the meaning of the following percentages?

a 100% b 50% c 200% d 150%
5 Can you score more than 100% on a Maths test? Explain your answer.
6 a The inflation rate in a certain country is quoted as being 100%.

i What does this mean?
ii If a pen cost $1.50 last year, how much would you expect it to cost this year?
b The inflation rate in another country is quoted as being 200%.
i What does this mean?
ii If a ruler cost $0.40 last year, how much would you expect it to cost this year?
7 a If 10% of the students in Year 8 are absent, what percentage are present?
b If a man lost 70% of his money while gambling at the casino, what percentage of his
money does he have left?
4 Mathscape 8
c If 25% of the people in a crowd are children, what percentage are adults?
d If a coin shows tails on 47% of tosses, on what percentage of tosses does it show heads?
e A tennis player won 84% of his matches last month. What percentage of his matches
did he lose?
f Charlie got 68% of the words correct on a spelling test. What percentage of the words
did he spell incorrectly?
g All boys at a certain high school play soccer, rugby union or football. If 33% play
soccer, and 41% play rugby union, find the percentage of boys who play football.
h At a school reunion, 15% of the ex-students are single, 49% are married and the others
are divorced. What percentage of the ex-students are divorced?
8 What percentage is:
a 18 cm of 1 m? b 4 years of 1 century? c $0.37 of $1?
■ Further applications
9 a Find 7% of:
i $1 ii $2 iii $3 iv $10
b Find 4% of:
i $1 ii $2 iii $5 iv $9
c Find 6% of:
i $1 ii $3 iii $7 iv $11
1.2 Converting between

fractions and percentages
To convert a percentage to a fraction:

write the number in front of the percentage sign as the numerator and 100 as the
denominator
simplify if possible.
To convert a fraction to a percentage, use one of the following methods.

Method 1
If the denominator is a factor of 10, 100, 1000 etc.:
convert the fraction to one with a denominator of 100
write the numerator followed by a percentage sign.
Method 2
If the denominator is not a factor of 10, 100, 1000 etc.:
multiply the fraction by 100
--------- %.
1
Example 1
EG Express each of these percentages as a fraction in simplest form.
+S
a 9% b 30% c 55% d 124%
Solutions
a 9% b 30% c 55% d 124%
11
= --------
100
9
- = --------
30
100
- = --------
55
100
- = 124
---------
100
20
6
= 3
------
10
= 11
------
20
= 1 --------
24
100
-
25
= 6
1 -----
25
-
Example 2
EG Convert each of these fractions to a percentage using method 1.
+S 17 9 8 28
a ---------
100
b ------
10
c ------
25
d ---------
200
e 2 f 3 21
------
50
Solutions
17 9 × 10 8 ×4 28 14 ×2
a --------
100
- b ------
10 × 10
c ------
25 × 4
d ---------
200 100
e 2 f 3 21
------
50 × 2
2 × 100
= 17% = 90
---------
100
= 32
---------
100
= 14
---------
100
= ---
1 × 100
= 3 --------
42
100
-
= 90% = 32% = 14% = 200

---------
100
= 342
---------
100
= 200% = 342%
Example 3
EG Convert each of these fractions to a percentage using method 2.
+S 1 4
a ---
3
b ---
7
c 2 5--8-
Solutions
a 1--3- × 100
--------- %
1
b 4
---
7
× 100
--------- %
1
c 2 5--8-
= 100
--------- %
3
= 400
--------- %
7
= 21
------
8
× 100
--------- %
1
= 33 1--3- % = 57 1--7- % = 2100

------------ %
8
= 262 1--2- %
Example 4
EG Express each of these percentages as a fraction in simplest form.
+S
a 4.5% b 5 1--3- % c 18 3--4- %
6 Mathscape 8
Solutions
a 4.5% b 5 1--3- % c 18 3--4- %
4.5 × 10 5 1--3- × 3 18 3--- × 4

= ---------
100 × 10
= --------
100 × 3
- = --------4-
100 × 4
45 9 16 4 3
= ------------
1000
= ---------
300
= --------
75
400
-
200 75 16
= 9
---------
200
= 4
------
75
= 3
------
16
Example 5
EG Express each of these fractions as a percentage.
+S 183 9 103
a ------------
1000
b ---------
250
c ---------
200
Solutions
183 ÷ 10 9 ×4 103 × 5
a -----------
1000 ÷ 10
- b ---------
250 × 4
c ---------
200 × 5
36 ÷ 10 515 ÷ 10
= 18.3
----------
100
= ------------
1000 ÷ 10
= ------------
1000 ÷ 10
= 18.3% = 3.6
---------
100
= 51.5
----------
100
= 3.6% = 51.5%
Exercise 1.2
1 Express each of these percentages as a fraction.

a 1% b 13% c 47% d 89%
2 Express each of these fractions as a percentage.

3 19 31 67
a --------
100
- b --------
100
- c ---------
100
d ---------
100
3 Convert each of these percentages to a fraction in its simplest form.

a 2% b 10% c 15% d 18% e 24%
f 25% g 32% h 35% i 36% j 40%
k 44% l 46% m 50% n 75% o 85%
4 Convert each of these fractions to a percentage.

1 7 3 1 7
a -----
20
- b -----
50
- c -----
10
- d ---
5
e ------
25
1 21 9 12 1
f ---
2
g ------
50
h ------
10
i ------
25
j ---
4
11 4 4 7 39
k ------
20
l ---
5
m ------
25
n ------
10
o ------
50
3 47 13 18 3
p ---
5
q ------
50
r ------
20
s ------
25
t ---
4
■ Consolidation
5 Express each as a fraction with a denominator of 100 then convert it to a percentage.
12 9 35 26
a --------
200
- b --------
300
- c --------
500
- d --------
200
-
144 123 205 306

e ---------
400
f ---------
300
g ---------
500
h ---------
900
6 Express each integer as a percentage.

a 1 b 2 c 4 d 7 e 9
7 Express each percentage as an integer.

a 300% b 500% c 600% d 800% e 1000%
8 Convert these percentages to mixed numerals.

a 130% b 106% c 112% d 135%
e 150% f 205% g 245% h 320%
i 415% j 540% k 622% l 816%
9 Convert these mixed numerals to percentages.

7 2 9
a 1 -----
10
- b 1 -----
25
- c 1 -----
20
- d 1 2--5-
e 1 23
------
50
f 2 11
------
20
g 3
2 -----
10
- h 3 4--5-
i 4 17
------
50
j 10
9
5 -----
- k 6 1--2- l 8 24
------
25
10 Convert each of these fractions to a percentage by multiplying by 100

--------- %.
1
1 1 1
a --3- b --6- c --9- d 1--7-
1 1 2 4
e ------
11
f ------
12
g ---
3
h ---
9
2 5 7 3
i ---
7
j ------
11
k ------
12
l ------
13
m 2 5--9- n 1 3--7- o 3 5--6- p 5 2--3-
11 Insert <, > or = to make a true statement.

9 6
a 1 100% b -----
-
20
48% c 25% ------
25
2
d 38% ---
5
e 1 3--4- 175% f 5
---
6
87%
12 Arrange each set of numbers in ascending order.

a 40%, 1, 75%, 1--2- b 7 4
------ , 60%, --- , 65%
10 5
8
c ------ ,
25
27 1--2- %, 3
------ ,
10
29% d 1 1--2- , 155%, 1, 120%
8 Mathscape 8
13 Express each of these fractions as a percentage.
27 43 169 317
a -----------
1000
- b -----------
1000
- c ------------
1000
d ------------
1000
9 11 7 33
e ---------
500
f ---------
200
g ---------
250
h ---------
500
19 23 41 13
i ---------
250
j ---------
200
k ---------
500
l ---------
250
107 203 427 31
m ---------
200
n ---------
250
o ---------
500
p ---------
125
14 Convert each percentage to a fraction in its simplest form.

a 1.3% b 2.9% c 0.7% d 5.1%
e 3.4% f 4.8% g 6.5% h 2.5%
i 15.5% j 28.2% k 72.4% l 87.5%
15 Convert each percentage to a fraction in its simplest form.

a 2 1--3- % b 3 1--4- % c 7 3--4- % d 5 2--3- %
e 1 3--5- % f 2 1--2- % g 2 2--3- % h 3 3--4- %
i 6 2--3- % j 8 4--5- % k 8 1--3- % l 17 1--2- %
m 11 1--4- % n 33 1--3- % o 12 1--2- % p 16 2--3- %
q 22 2--9- % r 41 2--3- % s 66 2--3- % t 57 1--7- %
1.3 Converting between

decimals and percentages
To convert a percentage to a decimal:
convert the percentage to a fraction with a denominator of 100
divide the numerator by 100 by moving the decimal point two places to the left.
To convert a decimal to a percentage:

convert the decimal to a fraction with a denominator of 100
write the numerator followed by a percentage sign.
Example 1
EG Convert each of these percentages to a decimal.
+S
a 18% b 4% c 60% d 132% e 300% f 19.8%
Solutions
a 18% b 4% c 60% d 132% e 300% f 19.8%
= --------
18
100
- = --------
100
4
- = --------
60
100
- = 132
---------
100
= 300
---------
100
= 19.8
----------
100
= 0.18 = 0.04 = 6
------
10
= 1.32 =3 = 0.198
= 0.6 = 3.0
Example 2
EG Convert each of these decimals to a percentage.
+S
a 0.29 b 0.4 c 2.61 d 0.475
Solutions
a 0.29 b 0.4 c 2.61 d 0.475
29 4 × 10 61 475 ÷ 10
= --------
100
- = -----
-
10 × 10
= 2 --------
100
- = -----------
1000 ÷ 10
-
40 261 47.5
= 29% = ---------
400
= ---------
100
= ----------
100
= 40% = 261% = 47.5%
Exercise 1.3
1 Express each of these percentages as a decimal.

a 1% b 9% c 15% d 24%
e 35% f 51% g 64% h 82%
2 Express each of these decimals as a percentage.

a 0.04 b 0.07 c 0.17 d 0.26
e 0.48 f 0.56 g 0.74 h 0.93
■ Consolidation
3 Convert each percentage to a decimal.
a 10% b 30% c 40% d 70% e 90%
4 Convert each decimal to a percentage.

a 0.1 b 0.2 c 0.5 d 0.6 e 0.8
5 Express each percentage as a decimal.

a 105% b 112% c 118% d 125%
e 201% f 315% g 364% h 482%
i 140% j 270% k 510% l 690%
6 Express each decimal as a percentage.

a 1.06 b 1.17 c 1.36 d 1.95
e 2.14 f 2.83 g 3.75 h 4.21
i 1.2 j 1.8 k 2.5 l 3.4
7 Insert <, > or = to make a true statement.

a 5% 0.5 b 0.2 17 1--2- % c 0.09 9%
d 2.1 205% e 130% 1.3 f 8 1--2- % 8.5
10 Mathscape 8
8 Arrange each set of numbers in ascending order.

a 0.44, 2--5- , 41%, 37 1--2- % b 33%, 0.3, 1--3- , 7
------
20
3 1
c 0.06, ------ ,
20
5%, 0.1 d 1 -----
10
- , 109%, 1.12, 0.999
a 15.8% b 19.2% c 28.3% d 37.4%
e 50.6% f 59.5% g 73.2% h 81.8%
i 0.4% j 0.9% k 102.3% l 216.1%

a 0.007 b 0.012 c 0.037 d 0.085
e 0.109 f 0.136 g 0.292 h 0.437
i 0.558 j 0.675 k 0.704 l 0.999
m 1.041 n 2.365 o 9.578 p 15.216

a 6 1--2- % 1
b 7 -----
10
-% c 18 1--4- % d 31 1--5- %
e 36 3--4- % f 41 1--2- % g 3
52 -----
10
-% h 66 1--4- %
9
i 70 -----
10
-% j 74 4--5- % k 81 1--4- % l 95 3--4- %
1.4 Common conversions

The following conversions between fractions (F), decimals (D) and percentages (P) should be
memorised for use in later problems. They will prove particularly useful when answering
non-calculator problems.
F D P F D P
1 1
------
10
0.1 10% ---
5
0.2 20%
1
---
8
0.125 12 1--2- % 2
---
5
0.4 40%
1 3
---
4
0.25 25% ---
5
0.6 60%
1
---
3
0.3̇ 33 1--3- % 4
---
5
0.8 80%
1
---
2
0.5 50%
2
---
3
0.6̇ 66 2--3- %
3
---
4
0.75 75%
Example 1
EG Express each of the following as a percentage, without the use of a calculator.
+S 8 7
a ------
32
b 1 -----
21
- c 4.6̇
Solutions
8 7
a -----
32
- b 1 -----
21
- c 4.6̇
= 1
---
4
= 1 1--3- = 4 2--3-
= 25% = 100% + 33 1--3- % = 400% + 66 2--3- %
= 133 1--3- % = 466 2--3- %
Example 2
EG Express each of these percentages as a mixed numeral in simplest form.
+S
a 150% b 212 1--2- %
Solutions
a 150% b 212 1--2- %
= 100% + 50% = 200% + 12 1--2- %
=1+ 1
---
2
=2+ 1
---
8
= 1 1--2- = 2 1--8-
Example 3
EG Express each of these percentages as a decimal, without the use of a calculator.
+S
a 120% b 433 1--3- %
Solutions
a 120% b 433 1--3- %
= 100% + 20% = 400% + 33 1--3- %
= 1 + 0.2 = 4 + 0.3̇
= 1.2 = 4.3̇
12 Mathscape 8
Exercise 1.4
1 Complete these common conversions.

F D P F D P
a 0.1 g 75%
1 1
b ---
8
h ---
5
c 0.25 i 40%
d 33 1--3- % j 0.6
1
e ---
2
k 80%
2
f ---
3
■ Consolidation
2 Simplify each fraction, then use the tables of common conversions to write the fraction as
a percentage.
a 3--6- 2
b -----
10
- c 2--8- 4
d -----
12
- e 15 ------
20
8 10 3 5 12
f ------
20
g ------
15
h ------
24
i ------
50
j ------
15
11 13 8 18 24
k ------
44
l ------
26
m ------
40
n ------
24
o ------
36
9 21 9 20 9
p ------
27
q ------
35
r ------
90
s ------
25
t ------
72
3 Convert to percentages.
a 1 --41- b 1 1--2- c 1 2--3- d 1 2--5- e 1 1--8-
1
f 2 -----
10
- g 2 3--4- h 2 3--5- i 3 1--4- j 4 1--3-
k 4 1--2- l 1
5 -----
10
- m 5 2--3- n 6 1--8- o 7 4--5-
4 Convert to mixed numerals.

a 110% b 120% c 133 1--3- % d 160%
e 175% f 225% g 250% h 266 2--3- %
i 312 1--2- % j 340% k 410% l 433 1--3- %
m 520% n 675% o 725% p 812 1--2- %


a 1.1 b 1.2 c 1.25 d 1.5
e 1.8 f 2.125 g 2.3̇ h 2.4
i 3.1 j 3.6̇ k 3.75 l 4.125
m 4.5 n 5.3̇ o 6.25 p 8.6̇
6 Convert to decimals.
a 112 1--2- % b 133 1--3- % c 140% d 160%
e 175% f 210% g 225% h 266 2--3- %
i 320% j 350% k 433 1--3- % l 475%
m 550% n 560% o 666 2--3- % p 712 1--2- %
7 Many fractions can be converted to percentages as follows.
i Express the fraction as the sum of two or more fractions from the table of common
conversions.
ii Express these fractions as percentages, then find their sum.
Use the method above to convert the fraction on the LHS to a percentage.
a 3--4- = 1--2- + 1--4- b 3--5- = -----
10
1
- + ---
1
2
9
- = --- +
c -----
20
1
4
1
---
5
--- = --- + --- --- = --- + --- = ------ + ---
5 1 1 3 1 1 13 1 1
d 6 3 2
e 8 8 4
f ------
30 10 3
------ = --- + --- ------ = --- + --- = --- + ---
11 2 1 11 2 1 29 3 1
g 15 5 3
h 12 3 4
i ------
40 5 8
TRY THIS Archery winner

Peter, Paul and Mary are competing in an archery contest. Currently they have
21 bullseyes out of 32 shots, 36 out of 52 shots and 41 out of 64 shots,
respectively. Who is winning? If they each have 100 shots, how many bullseyes
will each of them have altogether?
1.5 Percentage of a quantity
To find a percentage of a quantity:

convert the percentage to a fraction or a decimal
multiply this value by the quantity.
14 Mathscape 8
Example 1
EG Use the tables of common conversions to evaluate each of the following, changing the units
+S where necessary.
a 25% of $28 b 33 1--3- % of 4 hours c 60% of 2 km
Solutions
a 25% of $28 b 33 1--3- % of 4 hours c 60% of 2 km
= 1
---
4
× $28 = 1
---
3
× 240 min = 3
---
5
× 2000 m
= $7 = 80 min = 1200 m
Example 2
EG Use your calculator to evaluate each of the following. [There is no need to change the units.]
+S
a 37% of $130 b 180% of 15 m c 16.4% of 70 kg
Solutions
a 37% of $130 b 180% of 15 m c 16.4% of 70 kg
= 37 ÷ 100 × $130 = 180 ÷ 100 × 15 m = 16.4 ÷ 100 × 70 kg
= 0.37 × $130 = 1.8 × 15 m = 0.164 × 70 kg
= $48.10 = 27 m = 11.48 kg
Exercise 1.5
1 Use the common conversions to evaluate:

a 10% of 60 b 50% of 8 c 25% of 12
d 33 1--3- % of 15 e 20% of 55 f 12 1--2- % of 32
g 75% of 16 h 66 2--3- % of 21 i 40% of 40
j 50% of 42 k 33 1--3- % of 27 l 12 1--2- % of 48
2 In each of the following, convert the percentage to a fraction, then evaluate it without the
use of a calculator.
a 7% of 400 mL b 30% of 510 g c 16% of 3000 L
d 40% of 25 min e 27% of 600 kg f 15% of 80 h
g 31% of 2000 mg h 28% of 125 s i 55% of 140 cm
j 70% of 350 t k 51% of 700 m l 8% of 225 ha
3 In each of the following, convert the percentage to a decimal, then evaluate it with the use
of your calculator.
a 6% of 550 g b 13% of 250 mm c 43% of 7500 mL
d 29% of 860 t e 36% of 190 min f 8% of 17 kg
g 57% of 3010 cm h 11% of 8200 km i 24% of 33 s
j 104% of 950 m k 135% of 780 mL l 219% of 420 years
■ Consolidation
4 Evaluate each of these with the use of a calculator.
a 7.2% of 1500 g b 19.5% of 840 L c 0.4% of 30 000 cm
d 12.8% of 960 t e 21.95% of 2240 min f 105.2% of 344 kg
g 125.7% of $4000 h 212.8% of 50 ha i 4 1--2- % of 600 mL
j 9 1--4- % of 840 mm k 12 3--4- % of 280 days l 15 2--3- % of $960
5 A newspaper reporter was paid a 5% bonus on his annual salary of $38 500. How much was
his bonus?
6 Lisa scored 85% on her Maths exam, which was marked out of 120. What was Lisa’s exam
mark?
7 In a survey of 250 university students, 64% said that there was not enough on-campus
parking. How many students is this?
8 After winning $500 000 in a lottery, a family agreed to donate 15% of the money to a
charity. How much money did they donate?
9 An aeroplane took off with 280 passengers on board. If 30% of the passengers flew first
class, find the number of first class passengers on the plane.
10 When tickets for an Australia vs West Indies test cricket match went on sale, 72% of the
tickets for day 1 were sold within 24 hours. If the ground capacity is 42 000 people, how
many tickets were sold on the first day?
11 A large crane lifted 18.5% of the scrap metal in a wrecking yard in one day. If there were
820 tonnes of metal in the yard, what mass of metal was removed by the crane?
12 By how much would a ferry fare go up if the fare was increased by 5.7% from $3.60? Give
your answer correct to the nearest 5c.
13 If 17.25% of the 400 sheep in a paddock were shorn on Monday, find the number of sheep
that were shorn.
14 A local council found that 22.5% of the material that it collects for recycling is made up of
either cans or bottles. If on a given day the council collects 53 tonnes of material for
recycling, find the weight of the recycled cans and bottles.
15 A travel agent charges a cancellation fee of 4.5% to those people who cancel their holiday
booking after 15 August. Find the fee that would be charged to a couple who had to cancel
their $5100 holiday to Italy on 20 August.
16 Last year, Hilary was levied $190 each quarter for council rates. At the end of the year the
council announced that the rates would increase by 7%. By how much will Hilary’s rates
increase over the next year?
16 Mathscape 8
17 Approximately 80% of the human body is made up of water. How much water would there
be in a family where the father’s mass is 92 kg, the mother’s mass is 76 kg and the masses
of the children are 53 kg, 47 kg and 65 kg?
18 A frozen apple pie weighing 475 g is advertised as being 92% fat free. How many grams of
fat are there in the pie?
19 An author had 36 000 copies of his autobiography published. If 43% of the books were sold
in the first year, how many books remained unsold?
20 The number of members in a golf club fell by 18% during the winter months. If there were
450 members at the start of winter, how many members were there at the end of winter?
21 The number of houses sold at auction fell by 24% during May, the first month of an
economic recession. If 1300 houses were sold each month just prior to the recession, find
the number of houses that were sold in May.
22 Keren scored 78% on her accountancy exam, which was marked out of 200. How many
more marks did she need in order to score the pass mark of 85%?
23 Honest Abe has 250 vehicles for sale in his car yard. If 42% of the vehicles are new cars,
36% are used cars and the rest are motorbikes, find the number of motorbikes for sale.
24 A group of 5000 people were surveyed to determine their favourite style of music. Of these,
17.3% favoured Classical, 28.6% favoured Rock’n’roll, 32.7% favoured Pop and the rest
favoured ‘Other styles of music’. How many people favoured ‘Other styles of music’?
25 A telephone poll of 3000 men and 3000 women was conducted to determine the number of
people who intended to vote for the Liberal party during an upcoming federal election. The
results showed that 47.3% of the men and 41.9% of the women indicated their intention to
vote Liberal. How many more men than women is this?
26 After a stock market crash, Mr Lee’s technology shares lost 21% of their value. Calculate
Mr Lee’s loss if he had 2.16 million shares with a pre-crash value of $13.25 per share.
27 The population of the world recently passed 6 billion people. Find the population of the
United States, if it makes up approximately 4.5% of the world’s population.
1.6 Expressing one quantity as

a percentage of another
To express one quantity as a percentage of another:
rewrite the question, if necessary, in the form ‘What percentage is x of y?’
express the quantities in the same units
first quantity ( x) 100
write -------------------------------------------------- × --------- % and evaluate.
second quantity ( y) 1
Example 1
EG a What percentage is 192 mL of 400 mL? b What percentage of $60 is $39?
+S
Solutions
first quantity 100
a ------------------------------------- × --------- %
second quantity 1
b Rearrange the question into the form
‘What percentage is $39 of $60?’
192 100
= --------- × --------- % first quantity 100
------------------------------------- × --------- %
400 1 second quantity 1
= 48% 39 100
= ------ × --------- %
60 1
= 65%
Example 2
EG Answer the following questions using the tables of common conversions.
+S
a What percentage is 21 g of 28 g? b What percentage is 28 min of 12 min?
Solutions
first quantity first quantity
a -------------------------------------
second quantity
b -------------------------------------
second quantity
= 21
------ = 28 ------
12
28
= 3
--- = 2 1--3-
4
= 75% = 200% + 33 1--3- %
= 233 1--3- %
Example 3
EG What percentage is 345 m of 1.5 km?
+S
Solution
Convert 1.5 km to m.
first quantity 100
1.5 km = 1500 m i.e. ------------------------------------- × --------- %
second quantity 1
345 100
= ------------ × --------- %
1500 1
= 23%
18 Mathscape 8
Exercise 1.6
1 Evaluate each of the following using the common conversions. What percentage:
a is 4 of 8? b is 3 of 12? c is 5 of 50?
d of 21 is 7? e of 30 is 6? f of 6 is 2?
g is 12 of 16? h of 15 is 10? i is 8 of 20?
2 What percentage:
a i is 5 of 10? ii is 10 of 5?
b i of 28 is 7? ii of 7 is 28?
3 What percentage:
a is 22 g of 40 g? b is 9 m of 60 m? c is 32 min of 160 min?
d of 70 mL is 49 mL? e of 80 cm is 28 cm? f of 125 t is 40 t?
g is 18 kg of 72 kg? h of 120 L is 78 L? i is 45 mm of 75 mm?
j of 720 ha is 162 ha? k of 240 m2 is 150 m2? l is 15 h of 40 h?
m is 30 s of 24 s? n of 15 mg is 21 mg? o is 39 km of 12 km?
■ Consolidation
4 In each of the following, express the first quantity as a percentage of the second.
a 12 mins, 1 h b 28c, $2 c 60 cm, 4 m
d 25 mm, 2 cm e 18 h, 1 day f 27 s, 1 min
g $3.20, $4 h 1650 kg, 3 t i 1360 m, 2 km
j 900 g, 1.2 kg k 4.8 L, 3200 mL l 18 mm, 60 mm
m 126 s, 2 min n 168 m, 0.8 km o 50 min, 2 1--2- h
5 The Flying Ferrets rugby league team won 21 of its 24 games last season. What percentage
of its games did the team win?
6 There are 20 boys and 12 girls in a class.
a What percentage of the class is boys? b What percentage of the class is girls?
7 A real-estate agent was paid a commission of $7200 on the sale of a house valued at
$240 000. What percentage of the sale price did the agent charge as commission?
8 Lionel scored 63 out of 90 on his Geography exam. What was his mark as a percentage?
9 Mr and Mrs Hadlee paid $28 as a deposit on a bicycle for their son Daniel’s birthday.
If they still owe $112 on the bicycle, what percentage of the retail price was paid as a
deposit?
10 If 72 people applied for a job and 9 were interviewed, what percentage of applicants were
interviewed?
11 In a limited-overs cricket match, Adam Gilchrist scored 54 runs in the Australian total of
226 runs. Find, correct to 1 decimal place, the percentage of runs scored by Adam Gilchrist.
12 A 475 g tin of corn kernels contains 105 g of carbohydrate. What percentage of the contents
is carbohydrate? Give your answer correct to the nearest whole percentage.
13 From her weekly pay of $480, Betty banks $225, pays $183 in rent and spends the rest.
What percentage of her weekly pay does Betty spend?
14 After a hailstorm, 18 of the 40 houses in a street were found to have suffered severe hail
damage while 13 houses had only moderate damage. The other houses had no hail damage.
What percentage of the houses in the street were not damaged in the hailstorm?
15 On the last day of term, 210 of the 875 students at a local high school were absent. What
percentage of the students were present?
16 Of the 140 students in Year 8, 24 students received an academic award at the end of the
school year. What percentage of the students did not receive an award, correct to 1 decimal
place?
17 Deek entered a marathon that was to be run over a distance of 42 km. What percentage of
the distance does he still have to complete after having run 15.6 km? Answer correct to
1 decimal place.
18 On a particular day, the 000 telephone emergency operators took 568 calls for assistance.
If 23 of these calls were hoaxes, what percentage of the calls were genuine calls for help?
Answer correct to the nearest whole percentage.
19 A food critic visited 45 restaurants last month and gave a negative review of 12 of them.
What percentage of the reviews were positive, correct to 1 decimal place?
20 On a certain property the wheat crop covers 328 ha and the corn crop covers half of the
remaining area. If the total size of the property is 660 ha, what percentage of the property
is used to grow corn? Give your answer to the nearest whole per cent.
21 The regular fare for an aeroplane trip from Sydney to Brisbane was advertised as $180.
If the fare was reduced to $139.50, by what percentage was the regular fare discounted?
22 A box of fruit contains 12 apples, 7 oranges and 6 pears. Find the percentage composition
of the box.
23 Mrs Grant purchased 18 roses, 12 carnations and 10 ferns for her front garden. Find the
percentage composition of her garden.
24 What percentage is:
a 1--2- of 2? b 1
---
4
of 1 1--4- ? c 2 1--2- of 1--2- ?
d 1 1--2- of 4 1--2- ? e 1
---
2
of 1--6- ? f 3
---
8
of 1 1--4- ?
20 Mathscape 8
25 In a triathlon, Terri ran for 2 1--4- hours, cycled for 1 1--2- hours and then swam for 1 1--4- hours.
What percentage of the total time did Terri spend on each leg of the triathlon?
26 Karly scored 80% on Part A of her History exam, which was marked out of 120, and 75%
on Part B, which was marked out of 80. What was her overall percentage for this exam?
TRY THIS Pure juice

Three containers of fruit juice have volumes of 1500 mL, 1000 mL and 1900 mL.
They contain, respectively, 10%, 11.5% and 15% of pure fruit juice. What is the
percentage of pure fruit juice in the mixture formed by pouring the contents of the
three containers into one large container?
1.7 Percentage increase and

decrease
There are two methods by which we can increase or decrease a quantity by a given percentage.
Method 1
To increase a quantity Q by x%, find Q + (x% × Q).
To decrease a quantity Q by x%, find Q − (x% × Q).
Method 2
To increase a quantity Q by x%, find (100 + x)% × Q.
To decrease a quantity Q by x%, find (100 − x)% × Q.
In much of the later work on percentages, the second method will prove to be the more useful
technique, particularly when a quantity has already been increased or decreased and we need to
find its original value.
Example 1
EG Using method 1:
+S
a increase $60 by 20% b decrease $70 by 13%
Solutions
a i 20% × $60 ii $60 + $12 b i 13% × $70 ii $70 − $9.10
= 0.2 × $60 = $72 = 0.13 × $70 = $60.90
= $12 = $9.10
Example 2
EG Using method 2:
+S
Solutions
a To increase $40 by 15%, b To decrease $200 by 7%,
find (100 + 15)% of $40. find (100 − 7)% of $200.
115% × $40 93% × $200

= 1.15 × $40 = 0.93 × $200
= $46 = $186
Exercise 1.7
1 Using method 1 and the common conversions, increase:

a $20 by 10% b $12 by 25% c $80 by 50%
d $35 by 20% e $24 by 33 1--3- % f $32 by 12 1--2- %
2 Using method 1 and the common conversions, decrease:

a $45 by 20% b $28 by 25% c $90 by 10%
1
d $36 by 33 --3- % e $24 by 75% f $15 by 66 2--3- %
3 By what percentage should a quantity be multiplied in order to increase it by the following

amounts?
a 5% b 8% c 13% d 20%
1
e 5.7% f 32.4% g 7 --2- % h 26 1--4- %
4 By what percentage should a quantity be multiplied in order to decrease it by the following

amounts?
a 3% b 5% c 9% d 12%
1
e 3.5% f 11.3% g 2 --2- % h 15 1--3- %
5 Using method 2, increase:
a $30 by 6% b $50 by 3% c $120 by 7%
d $85 by 4% e $99 by 12% f $230 by 15%
g $521 by 17% h $956 by 23% i $1240 by 36%
6 Using method 2, decrease:

a $40 by 5% b $20 by 8% c $170 by 3%
d $68 by 4% e $125 by 9% f $182 by 14%
g $310 by 15% h $595 by 20% i $1020 by 34%
22 Mathscape 8
■ Consolidation
7 Use your preferred method to answer each of these.
c decrease $190 by 5% d increase $284 by 7%
e increase $602 by 9% f decrease $439 by 17%
g decrease $1450 by 6.5% h increase $2330 by 7.9%
i increase $2775 by 16.4% j decrease $510 by 4 1--2- %
k decrease $795 by 6 1--4- % l increase $1884 by 9 3--4- %
8 Express each quantity in terms of the bracketed units, then increase or decrease the quantity
as required.
a increase 2.5 L by 10% [mL] b decrease 7 kg by 8% [g]
c decrease 3.65 m by 5% [cm] d increase 4 ha by 16% [m2]
1 1
e decrease 3 --2- min by 40% [s] f increase 2 days by 33 --3- % [h]
g increase 2.7 t by 150% [kg] h decrease 17.6 cm by 25% [mm]
i increase 1.6 kL by 7.5% [L] j decrease 1.25 m by 35.6% [cm]
k decrease 5.62 kg by 6 1--4- % [g] l increase 2 2--3- hrs by 37 1--2- % [min]
9 What does it mean if a quantity is increased by 100%?
10 a Increase $20 by:
i 100% ii 200% iii 300%
b Increase 8 m by:
i 100% ii 150% iii 250%
11 Calculate the percentage increase for each of these, if a quantity is increased from:
a 10 cm to 13 cm b 6 kg to 9 kg c 15 mm to 20 mm
d $40 to $46 e 300 m to 375 m f 840 g to 1218 g
g 4200 mL to 4641 mL h 25c to 50c i 70 kW to 210 kW
j 1.5 m to 204 cm k $5 to $6.10 l 40 min to 1.5 h
12 Calculate the percentage decrease for each of these, if a quantity is decreased from:
a 100 g to 80 g b 12 L to 9 L c 21 kg to 14 kg
d 50 mm to 42 mm e 25 min to 15 min f 80 s to 52 s
g 700 cm to 588 cm h 224 t to 210 t i $360 to $153
j 1.8 kg to 1575 g k 1.25 h to 45 min l 12.5 ha to 8500 m2
13 A woman weighed herself in January and noted her weight as 90 kg. Over the next 6 months
she lost 15% of this weight.
a How much weight did she lose? b What is her new weight?
14 Find the new cost of a stereo if the advertised price of $350 is marked up by 12%.
15 Scott’s employer has decided to award him a 7% pay rise. Calculate Scott’s new salary if
his present salary is $39 500.
16 Find the retail price of a $24 leather wallet if a 20% discount is given.
17 A salesman sold 150 sets of encyclopaedias in 2001. In 2002 he increased his annual sales
by 22%. How many sets of encyclopaedias did he sell in 2002?
18 A teacher’s annual salary was $52 500 before she received pay increases of 4% on 1 June
and 3% on 1 December. Calculate her salary at the end of the year.
19 Stan bought a new sports car for $38 000 and sold it four years later at an overall loss of
65%. At what price was the car sold?
20 Carrie purchased a house in 1980 for $325 000. By 1990, the value of the house had
increased by 43%.
a Find the value of the house in 1990.
b By how much had its value increased since 1980?
21 Renee ran the 100-m time trials at a local athletics meet in 14.8 seconds. Her coach told
her that she needs to reduce this time by at least 10% in order to qualify for the state
championships. What is the qualifying time that Renee needs to run?
22 Mikhael’s annual car insurance costs $850 plus 10% GST. If Mikhael pays his car
insurance monthly, how much should he pay each month?
23 Mr Anderson’s cotton crop measures 2500 m by 800 m in area. During a bushfire, 20% of
the crop was destroyed and three weeks later 15% of the remaining crop was washed away
in a flood. Find the area of the crop that remains, in hectares.
24 Increase $40 by 10%, then decrease the result by 10%. Is this the answer you expected?
Why?
25 Carol’s car is depreciating (i.e. losing value) at the rate of 16% each year. Find the value of
the car in 2 years’ time if its present value is $18 000. Give your answer to the nearest
hundred dollars.
26 A painting was purchased for $2100 and sold 5 years later for $2730. By what percentage
has the value increased?
27 A cricket bat was bought for $315 and sold 2 years later for $105. By what percentage has
the value decreased?
28 Prior to the introduction of the GST, a tube of toothpaste cost $2.50, which included 22%
sales tax. Find the cost today of this tube of toothpaste if the sales tax has been removed and
a 10% GST added.
29 Find the number which when:
a increased by 10% gives 220 b increased by 25% gives 35
c decreased by 10% gives 450 d decreased by 33 1--3- % gives 12
30 Find at least 5 examples in newspapers or magazines that involve percentage change.
Explain how each percentage or quantity was calculated. Is each statement reasonable?
24 Mathscape 8
1.8 The unitary method

The unitary method can be used to find the size of a quantity when only a fraction (or in this
case a percentage) of its value is known.
To find the whole quantity by using the unitary method:

find 1% of the quantity
find 100% of the quantity.
Example 1
EG Find the number if 8% of its value is 472.
+S
Solution
If 8% of the number is 472,
then 1% of the number is 59 (dividing 472 by 8)
so 100% of the number is 5900 (multiplying 59 by 100).
∴ the number is 5900.
Example 2
EG Jo received a pay rise of $24, which represented a 6% increase of her regular weekly pay.
+S Calculate Jo’s weekly pay before the increase.
Solution
If 6% of the weekly pay is $24,
then 1% of the weekly pay is $4 (dividing $24 by 6)
so 100% of the weekly pay is $400 (multiplying $4 by 100).
∴ Jo’s weekly pay before the increase was $400.
Example 3
EG A factory worker agreed to take a 12% pay cut in return for an extra day off each fortnight.
+S If his new fortnightly wage is $572, what was his wage before accepting the pay cut?
Solution
If the worker took a pay cut of 12%, then his new wage represents only 88% of his original
wage.
If 88% represents $572,
then 1% represents $6.50 (dividing $572 by 88)
so 100% represents $650 (multiplying $6.50 by 100).
∴ the worker’s original wage was $650 per fortnight, before taking the pay cut.
Note: You cannot increase $572 by 12% to calculate the original wage, since the 12% pay cut
was calculated on $650, not on the new wage of $572.
Exercise 1.8
1 Find the number if:

a 1--2- of the number is 10 b 1
---
4
of the number is 3 c 1
--- of the number is 6
3
1 1 1
d ---
5
of the number is 7 e ---
7
of the number is 8 f ------ of the number is 13
10
2 Use the common conversions to find the number if:

a 1% of the number is 7 b 10% of the number is 8 c 50% of the number is 14
d 20% of the number is 6 e 25% of the number is 14 f 5% of the number is 3
3 Find the number if:

a 3% of the number is 12 b 8% of the number is 24
c 9% of the number is 45 d 6% of the number is 48
e 4% of the number is 28 f 7% of the number is 42
g 8% of the number is 20 h 4% of the number is 34
i 6% of the number is 75 j 11% of the number is 39.6
k 12% of the number is 88.8 l 15% of the number is 7.2
■ Consolidation
4 a If 7% of a number is 35, find 11% of the number.
b If 4% of a number is 36, find 17% of the number.
c If 13% of a number is 78, find 21% of the number.
5 A high-fibre breakfast cereal contains 5.55 mg of niacin, which is 25% of the recommended
daily intake. What is the recommended daily intake of niacin?
6 There were 12 girls at Ned’s birthday party, which represented 40% of all children present.
How many children were at the party?
7 A secretary received a pay rise of $22.80 per week. If this pay rise represented a 6%
increase, how much was she paid before the increase?
8 Lina was charged interest of $24.50 on her credit card debt for the month of December.
If a monthly interest rate of 2% is charged on the balance owing, calculate the amount
owing on Lina’s card.
9 Thao paid a deposit of $72 on a printer for her computer. If this deposit represents 15% of
the sale price, find:
a the cost of the printer b the balance owing
10 In a box of light bulbs, 5% are faulty. If there are 20 faulty bulbs, find:
a the total number of bulbs in the box b the number of bulbs that work
11 Cable TV has been connected to 75% of the houses in Elm St. How many houses are there
in the street if 57 houses have cable TV connected?
26 Mathscape 8
12 A coin was tossed repeatedly and the results recorded. Find the number of times the coin
was tossed if 45% of the tosses showed tails and the other 88 tosses showed heads.
13 At a local motor registry, 36% of learner drivers passed the practical driving test on their
first attempt, while the other 544 drivers failed. How many drivers attempted the test?
14 A junior basketball player scored goals with 62% of her shots and missed with the other
133 attempts.
a How many shots did she attempt altogether?
b How many shots were successful?
15 A survey was conducted to determine whether people were connected to the internet at
home. If 72% of those surveyed said they were connected and the other 252 people said they
were not connected, find the number of people who took part in the survey.
16 After spending 30% of his money on groceries, a man had $49 left. How much did the
groceries cost?
17 When a farmer’s produce of peaches reaches the market, it is found that 89.6 kg of the
peaches have been spoiled. If 86% of the peaches have not been spoiled, find the total
weight of peaches that were sent to market.
18 The ore from three different mines was sent by ship from Port Kembla to Whyalla. If 18%
of the ore was tin, 45% of the ore was zinc and the remaining 185 tonnes was iron ore, find:
a the total mass of ore sent to Whyalla b the mass of zinc ore sent to Whyalla
19 A rare book is sold for $180, which is 150% of the original price of the book. Find the
original price of the book.
20 The retail price of a pearl necklace was discounted by 10% and sold for $304. Find the
original price of the necklace.
21 The sale price of an item including a 10% GST is $253. Find the cost of the item excluding
GST.
22 The price of an antique watch was marked up by 5% and sold for $441. Find the cost of the
watch before the mark-up was applied.
23 After a pay rise of 7.5%, Leanne’s weekly pay is $586.95. What was her weekly pay before
the pay rise?
24 Robert’s car depreciates on average by 15% each year. If his car is worth $17 340 after
2 years, find the original value of the car.
TRY THIS Percentage rebound

You will need a tennis ball and a brick wall. Drop the ball from a height of 2 metres.
Mark on the wall the height to which it rebounds. Measure this height. Now drop the
ball from this new height and again mark the rebound height. Keep repeating this
process. Draw a graph of the heights. Calculate the percentage rebound of the
original height for each bounce.
1.9 Commission
A commission is a method by which employees are paid for the work that they do. It is
usually expressed as a percentage of the value of goods sold. The more goods the employee
sells, the higher is their pay for that week. A small retainer, or basic weekly wage, may also
be paid in some circumstances. This is paid to help make up for those weeks when few or no
sales are made.
Example
EG Gloria has a part-time job selling make-up products door-to-door. She is paid a weekly
+S retainer of $80 plus a commission of 16% on the value of her sales. Find her total pay for
a week in which her sales totalled $1700.
Solution
Total pay = $80 + (16% of $1700)
= $80 + (0.16 × $1700)
= $80 + $272
= $352
Exercise 1.9
1 Find the following commissions.

a 3% on sales of $12 400 b 9 1--2- % on sales of $4750 c 7.8% on sales of $6630
2 Judy works part-time selling cosmetics and is paid a commission of 7% on her weekly sales.
Calculate Judy’s commission for a week when her sales totalled $2285.
3 A sales assistant is paid a commission of 11% on her weekly sales. Find her commission
for a week in which she sells products to the value of $4350.
28 Mathscape 8
■ Consolidation
4 Bob and Charles are casual employees at a shoe store. Bob is paid a commission of 16% on
his weekly sales while Charles is paid a weekly salary of $370. In a week in which Bob sold
shoes to the value of $2100, who received the greater pay and by how much?
5 Natalia and Elise are employed by different companies to sell computers.
Their commissions on weekly sales are 3.5% and 4%, respectively. By how much does
Elise’s pay exceed Natalia’s in a week when they each sell $18 200 worth of computers?
6 Elizabeth is a beautician who works in a large department store in the city. She is paid a
weekly retainer of $275 as well as 7% commission on her sales. Calculate her total pay for
a week in which she sells beauty products with a total value of $2462.
7 A tele-sales consultant sells gym equipment over the telephone. His fortnightly pay consists
of a 10 1--2- % commission on the value of his sales plus a retainer of $180. Find his total pay
for a fortnight in which he sells gym equipment to the value of $4345.
8 Andrew is a salesman in a store that sells electrical goods. He is paid a weekly retainer of
$155 plus a commission of 6.2% on his total weekly sales. His sales for last week were as
follows:
Day Daily sales
Monday $980 a Calculate Andrew’s total sales for the week.
Tuesday $1528 b Find the total commission payable on these sales.
c How much did Andrew earn altogether last week?
Wednesday $1045
Thursday $3710
Friday $1062
Saturday $4776
9 A saleswoman is paid a retainer plus a commission of 15% on her weekly sales. Her pay
was $509 for a week in which she sold goods to the value of $2460.
a How much did she receive in commission for that week?
b How much is her weekly retainer?
10 A senior sales position is advertised by a company that manufactures vertical blinds.
It offers an annual salary of $38 500 plus an 8.2% commission on sales. Based on the
annual sales records of previous employees, it is expected that this person would have
sales totalling around $210 000 in the following year. Calculate the expected:
a total annual pay b average weekly pay
11 An experienced salesperson is required by a major car manufacturer to sell prestige vehicles

to car dealerships. The salary package offers a sales commission of 3 1--2- % plus an annual
salary of $35 900. Find the average monthly pay for a salesperson whose annual sales total
$420 000.
12 This is part of an advertisement that appeared in the

SALESPERSON WANTED
employment section of a weekend newspaper. Find A reliable, hard-working and highly
the total annual pay for a person whose sales for the motivated salesperson is required
year totalled $132 400. to sell pest-control products.
SALARY
$29 800 p.a. plus a commission of
14% on the total value of sales
after the minimum $50 000.
13 A real-estate agent charges a commission of 3.4% on the first $150 000 of the value of a
property and 2% on the remaining value. Find the total commission payable on the sale of
a home unit for $260 000.
14 A woman is paid a commission of 6% on her weekly sales. If her total pay for a week was
$384, find the value of her sales for that week.
15 Last week a book salesman earned $575, which included a weekly retainer of $110 plus a
15% commission on his sales. Calculate the value of his sales for that week.
16 David is a cable TV sales representative. He is paid a weekly retainer of $84.50 plus a
commission based on the value of contracts to new customers. In a week in which David’s
new customers sign contracts to the value of $4250, he is paid $467. Find his rate of
commission as a percentage.
1.10 Discounts
A discount is a reduction in the price of an item. It is usually expressed as a percentage of the
marked price. Retailers sometimes offer goods at discounted prices in order to clear out the
remaining stock to make room for new stock and to encourage shoppers to come into the store
and perhaps purchase other goods at the same time.
Some stores also offer discounts to customers who pay cash rather than use a credit card. If an
item is to be discounted twice, the discounts must be calculated separately. You cannot add the
two percentages together and perform a single calculation. Such discounts are called
consecutive discounts.
Example 1
EG A bag of fertiliser with a marked price of $14 is discounted by 20%.
+S
a Calculate the discount. b Find the new retail price.
Solutions
a Discount = 20% of $14 b New retail price = marked price − discount
= 0.2 × $14 = $14 − $2.80
= $2.80 = $11.20
30 Mathscape 8
Example 2
EG A tablecloth has a marked price of $27. Find the sale price if a discount of 12% is allowed.
+S
Solution
If the price is discounted by 12%, then the tablecloth is to be sold for 88% of the marked price.
Sales price = 88% of $27
= 0.88 × $27
= $23.76
Note: We could instead have found 12% of $27 and subtracted this answer from $27.
Example 3
EG Damian paid $112 for a cassette tape deck after a 30% discount was allowed. Find the marked
+S price of the tape deck before the discount.
Solution
The unitary method is used to find the original price of a discounted item. Since the price has
been reduced by 30%, the purchase price must be 70% of the original or marked price.
70% of the original price = $112
÷ 70 ÷ 70
$112
∴ 1% of the original price = ------------
70
× 100 × 100
$112
∴ 100% of the original price = ------------ × 100
70
= $160
∴ The marked price of the tape deck was $160 before the discount.
Exercise 1.10
1 Calculate the discount and the sale price for:

a a $900 refrigerator, discounted by 20%
b a $465 outdoor setting, discounted by 30%
c a $725 DVD player, discounted by 15%
d a $24 table lamp, discounted by 5%
e a $789 desk, discounted by 16%
f a $595 bed, discounted by 22%
2 Complete this table.

Item Marked price Percentage Saving ($) Sale price
discount
Bicycle $245 12%
Persian rug $189 30%
Reclining chair $1060 16%
Pair of shoes $120 23%
Bathroom towel $38 7.5%
3 Lance paid $164 after receiving a $28 discount on the cost of a new pair of glasses.
a How much did the glasses cost before the discount?
b What percentage discount was given?
■ Consolidation
4 A jewellery store is holding a sale and offering discounts of 20% on all watches, 15% on
all necklaces and 35% on all rings. Find the sale price for each of the following items.
a b c
5 A jet ski was advertised for sale at $2450. Find the retail price of the jet ski when a 14%
discount is applied.
6 An air conditioning company charges $2140 for its top selling split system air conditioner
and $280 for installation. Find the total cost of purchasing and installing the system if a
discount of 15% is given on the cost of the air conditioner and the cost of installation is
reduced by 20%.
7 Mr Antenna advertised fully installed TV antennas from $135. Due to the poor reception in
the area, a customer decided to purchase an additional booster box with a regular retail price
of $78 to improve the reception. Calculate the total cost if a 5% discount is allowed on the
aerial, and the booster box is discounted by 8%. Answer correct to the nearest dollar.
8 A bookshop offers a 12 1--2- % discount on all books purchased in May. Find the total saving
on the purchase of two cookbooks each priced at $14 and a gardening book priced at $26.
9 Find the sale price on a wetsuit which normally costs $276, but is being reduced by 33 1--3- %
in order to make room for new stock.
32 Mathscape 8
10 The marked price of a set of timber bookshelves is $170 with a 20% discount at Discount
Furniture while the store next door, Furniture World, has the same set of shelves for sale at
$190 with a 30% discount. Which store offers the lower price and by how much?
11 Marion bought a doll’s house for her 3-year-old niece. At the time of purchase, the toy store
was offering a 10% discount on dolls’ houses and a further 5% discount for paying by cash.
a If Marion paid by cash, how much did she pay for the doll’s house if the original marked
price was $120?
b Would she have paid the same amount if the store had offered a flat 15% discount?
Explain your answer.
12 The regular retail price of a car battery was $105. If this price was discounted by $21,
calculate the percentage discount.
13 A hardware store advertised side fences for sale at $600, fully installed, with a discount for
customers who pay cash. Mr Reed paid cash for a side fence and was charged $552. Find
the percentage discount.
14 What is the percentage discount on a three-bar radiator that has been reduced from $72 to
$63 at a clearance sale?
15 A holiday resort in Tasmania reduced its overnight rates from $125 to $105. Find the
percentage discount.
16 A car was discounted by 15% and sold for $11 220. How much did the car cost before the
discount?
17 A landscaper reduced his fee by 28% for work completed on the garden of an elderly
pensioner and charged her $663. Find the cost of the landscaping without the discount.
18 A local sports store discounted its softball bats by 5% during its annual mid-year sale.
A customer noticed a small chip on the handle of a bat and was given a further 5% discount
on the reduced price. Find the cost of a bat before the discounts were applied if the bat was
sold for $144.40.
19 Find at least 5 examples in the media of discounts involving percentages. Explain clearly
the discount that is being offered in each case. Show all necessary calculations.
1.11 Profit and loss

The terms ‘profit’ and ‘loss’ both refer to the difference between the selling price and the cost
price of an item. This difference is referred to as a profit if the selling price is greater than the
cost price. The difference is referred to as a loss if the selling price is less than the cost price.
We can also think of a loss as a negative profit.
Profit = selling price − cost price and Loss = cost price − selling price
Retailers purchase their goods from a wholesaler. They then mark up the cost of the goods by
a percentage of the price paid and put the goods on sale in their store.
To express the profit or loss as a percentage of the cost or selling price:

calculate the profit or loss
divide the profit or loss by the cost price or selling price
multiply by 100
--------- %.
1
Note: Percentage profit or loss is calculated on the cost price, unless otherwise stated.
Example 1
EG Laiyee bought a crystal ball for $60 to sell in her shop. She marked up the price by 25%, then
+S sold the crystal ball to a customer.
a Calculate the profit. b What was the retail price?
Solutions
a Profit = 25% of $60 b Retail price = wholesale price + profit
= 0.25 × $60 = $60 + $15
= $15 = $75
Example 2
EG A man bought a new car for $19 000 and sold it 8 years later for $6500. Find the percentage
+S loss, correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution
loss 100
Loss = $19 000 − $6500 Percentage loss = ----------------------- × --------- %
cost price 1
= $12 500
12 500 100
= ----------------- × --------- %
19 000 1
= 65.8% (1 decimal place)
34 Mathscape 8
Exercise 1.11
1 Find the profit or loss on an item that was:

a bought for $300 and sold for $220 b bought for $390 and sold for $450
2 Find the selling price of an item which was initially purchased for $600 and later sold at:
a a profit of $50 b a loss of $40 c a profit of $85 d a loss of $22
3 Find the cost price of an item which was sold for $450, making:
a a loss of $120 b a profit of $30 c a loss of $65 d a profit of $119
4 The owner of a small bookshop marked up the wholesale prices of the books as follows.
Calculate the retail price for each item.
Item Wholesale Percentage Retail
price profit price
Atlases $18 35%
Dictionaries $12 25%
Diaries $7 20%
Novels $15 30%
5 An electrical goods store is closing down and the owner is under instructions to sell
everything within two weeks, at a loss if necessary. Some of the items on which he will take
a loss are listed in the following table. Calculate the retail price.
Item Wholesale Percentage Retail
price loss price
Range $740 30%
Dishwasher $590 20%
Clothes dryer $345 15%
Television $924 35%
■ Consolidation
6 A retailer purchased leather jackets for $140 from a wholesaler, then put them on sale at a
price that would allow for a profit of 25% per jacket.
a How much profit will be made per jacket?
b Find the retail price of the jackets.
7 Heath bought a bicycle for his son for $320. He sold it four years later at a loss of 45% on
the purchase price.
a Find the loss. b Find the selling price of the bicycle.
8 A stationer bought 40 boxes of pens at $5 per box. He sold all of the pens and made a profit
of 30%.
a Calculate his total profit. b What was the retail price of each box of pens?
9 The owner of a toy store purchased a toy for $32 and sold it for $40. Express the profit as
a percentage of:
a the wholesale price b the retail price
10 Fred bought a snooker table for $3200 and later sold it for $2700. Express the loss as a
percentage of:
a the cost price b the selling price
11 Cordelia sold her car for $13 000, having paid $20 000 for it. Find the percentage loss.
12 A stockbroker bought 500 shares at $22.50 per share and later sold the shares for a total of
$15 750. Calculate the percentage profit.
13 A jeweller paid $750 for a gold watch. Later that month he sold the watch to a customer and
made a profit of 16% on the cost price. Express the profit as a percentage of the selling
price, correct to 1 decimal place.
14 A washing machine was sold for $936, making a profit of 30% on the cost price. Find the
cost price of the washing machine.
15 Find the wholesale price of a garden hose that was marked up by 18% and sold for $29.50.
16 A man sold his lawnmower for $268.60, making a loss of 21% on the cost price. How much
did he pay for the lawnmower?
Australia’s Indigenous population

36 Mathscape 8
Introduction
Various estimates have been made about how many Aboriginal people were living in Australia
prior to European settlement in 1788. Recent archaeological finds suggest a population of
750 000. This represented 100% of the population of Australia. Today the Indigenous
population is about 2% of Australia’s total population. Whatever the size of the Indigenous
population prior to 1788, it declined dramatically under the impact of new diseases, harsh
treatment, dispossession, social and cultural disruption and disintegration. This decline
continued well into the 20th century.
In recent years changing social and political attitudes, improved statistical coverage, and a
broader definition of Indigenous origin have all contributed to the increased likelihood of
people identifying as being of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander origin. These increases
are in addition to natural growth in the Indigenous population.
In this exercise percentages will be used to highlight the changing estimates of Australia’s
Indigenous population.
Focus question
Is the number of Indigenous Australians, expressed as a percentage of the Australian
population, increasing? What is the evidence?
2L EARNING ACTIVITIES
Study the following table. With the exception of the data prior to 1788, the information is taken
from the Australian Bureau of Statistics’ published tables of population statistics for 1996 and
2001. (Figures are to the nearest 1000.)
Estimates of the Indigenous population of Australia 1901–2001

Before 1788 1901 1991 1996 2001
750 000 93 000 283 000 386 000 427 000
1 Estimate the percentage decline in the Indigenous population from 1788 to 1901. Why do
you think this happened?
2 Estimate the percentage increase in the Indigenous population from 1991 to 1996. Why do
you think this happened?
3 If the total population of Australia was 16.6 million in 1991, calculate the percentage
Indigenous population at that time.
4 If the total population of Australia was 18.3 million in 1996, calculate the percentage
5 If the total population of Australia was 19 million in 2001, calculate the percentage
6 Use the data you have gathered to answer the focus question.
8E XTENSION ACTIVITIES
1 Assuming no change in people’s wish to identify as Indigenous, the Australian Bureau of

Statistics has estimated that the Indigenous population of Australia in 2006 will be 469 000.
What would be the percentage increase since 1996? 2001?
2 The age distribution of the Indigenous population is very young compared to the total
population of Australia. In 1996, 40% of Indigenous people were under 15 and 3% were
over 65. How many people were in each age group (nearest whole number)?
3 Draw a suitable graph to show the trends in the Indigenous population of Australia from
1788 to 2001.
E L ET’S COMMUNICATE
Write a summary of what you have learned about Australia’s Indigenous population from 1788
through to 1996. Use percentages to help you convey the information.
%R EFLECTING
Think about the widely different contexts in which percentages are used in everyday life. Make
a list. Watch the news on TV, or read a newspaper to see how often percentages are used to
convey information.
B P ROBLEM SOLVING
Some of these are trick questions. Be careful!

1 In a hardware store a customer asked, ‘How much will one cost?’
‘One dollar,’ was the reply.
‘How much will ten cost?’ she continued.
‘Two dollars.’
‘How much will one hundred cost?’
‘Three dollars.’
What was the customer purchasing?
A
2 In this cube, what are the angles at the vertices
of triangle ABC? B
C
38 Mathscape 8
3 Cross out five of the following letters to reveal a very important word trick:
FMIAVTHEELMATEITCSTERS
4 A girl bought eight doughnuts, and ate all but three. How many were left?
5 A carpenter has to cut a wooden cube into 64 cubes.
Can he do it in less than nine cuts? He may rearrange
the pieces after each cut.
6 In this quarter circle of radius 12 cm, what is the length of

B
diagonal AC of the rectangle ABCD? A
D 6 cm C 6 cm
7 There are five errors in the statements in this question. What are they?
i 19 + 99 = 118 ii 10 ÷ 1--2- = 5 iii 1 × 1 = 2
iv -3(4 − 4) = -3 v 6×0=6 vi 2 1--2- × 2 1--2- = 4 1--4-
8 If three thousand three hundred and three is written as 3303, how do you write eleven
thousand eleven hundred and eleven?
9 On a 4 × 4 chess board every square is occupied
by a knight. Can all knights move simultaneously
so that all squares are still occupied?
Note: A knight’s move is two squares in one
direction, then one square left or right.
10 Place the digits 1 to 8 in the circles above so that no number has one of its ‘mates’ in
another circle connected to it. For example, 5 cannot have 4 or 6 in a connected circle.
1 Explain the term percentage. profit noun 1. money made from selling something at
2 What does it mean to increase a quantity a higher price than you paid for it. 2. (uncount)
by 200%? advantage or benefit: There is no profit in regretting the
3 What does a discount of 8% mean? past. –verb 3. to gain advantage or use: We profited
4 What does a commission of 8% mean? from his advice. 4. to make money: The company
profited from its new product.
5 Read the Macquarie Learners’ Dictionary ❒ Word Family: profitable adjective
entry for profit:
Which of the 4 meanings listed above is
closest to the mathematical meaning of the
word profit?
1 Bryson scored 75% in the driving theory 7 Convert each decimal to a percentage.
CHAPTER REVIEW
test. What percentage of the test did he a 0.09 b 0.38 c 0.8
get wrong? d 1.04 e 1.52 f 3.7
2 Convert each percentage to a fraction in 8 Convert each fraction or mixed numeral
its simplest form. to a percentage.
a 97% b 40% c 35% d 36% a 1--6- b 5--8- 7
c -----
-
12
3 Convert each fraction to a percentage.
1 9 d 1 3--7- e 2 5--6- f 3 4--9-
a --------
100
- b -----
20
- c 3--5- d 17------
25
4 Convert each percentage to either a 9 Convert each percentage to a fraction in
mixed numeral or an integer. its simplest form.
a 200% b 140% a 5 1--2- % b 3 3--5- %
c 325% d 244%
5 Convert each mixed numeral or integer to c 11 1--4- % d 87 1--2- %
a percentage.
a 3 b 1 1--2- 7
c 2 -----
10
- d 4 23------
50 a 14.2% b 37.5%
6 Convert each percentage to a decimal. c 6.4% d 18.25%
a 7% b 64% c 30%
d 105% e 149% f 260%
CHAPTER REVIEW
40 Mathscape 8
CHAPTER RE
11 Copy and complete this table of common 15 Increase:

conversions. a $960 by 5%
Fraction Decimal Percentage b 54 cm by 16%
c 36 g by 33 1--3- %
1%
d 1200 mL by 7.5%
0.1
16 Decrease:
1
---
8
a 600 kg by 7% b 240 t by 28%
20% c 40 h by 12 1--2- % d $850 by 6.1%
1 17 Increase $40 by:
---
4
a 100% b 200%
0.3̇ c 150% d 225%
2
--- 18 Find the number if:
5
50% a 6% of the number is 18
b 15% of the number is 114
0.6 c 8.3% of the number is 581
VIEW
75% 19 Find the 7% bonus paid to a salesman on

3
--- a sale of $410 000.
4
20 Calculate the 4.5% cancellation fee on
80%
two theatre tickets that cost $95 each.
12 Arrange these numbers in ascending 21 Bernice must score at least 87% on her
order. final exam in order to pass a course at
9 2
------ , 42.6%, --- , 0.46 university. If her mark was 79 out of 90,
20 5
determine whether she passed the course.
13 Find:
a 50% of $12 b 33 1--3- % of 150 cm 22 Of the 16 newly released films, 6 are
rated M. What percentage of new releases
c 16% of 520 g d 9% of 4 L have an M rating?
e 105% of 140 m f 416% of 8 t 23 There are 210 Year 8 students in a school
g 17 1--2- % of $2.40 h 27.3% of 30 kg with 875 students. What percentage of the
14 What percentage: students are not in Year 8?
a is $3 of $12? 24 Increase $500 by 10% then decrease the
b is 10 g of 15 g? result by 10%.
c of 28 m is 21 m? 25 The cost of a coffee table was marked up
d of 32 h is 20 h? from $160 to $184. Find the percentage
e is $0.87 of $3? mark-up.
f of 2 min is 24 s? 26 A stereo was purchased for $900 and later
g of 5 km is 3600 m? sold for $720. Find the percentage loss.
h is 219 cm of 6 m?
CHAPTER REVIEW
27 A worker with an annual salary of 31 A salesman receives a retainer plus a
VIEW
$39 780 receives a 4% pay rise. commission of 12% on all sales. Last
a Calculate his new annual salary. week his sales totalled $3400 and he was
b How much extra will he receive each paid $485.
fortnight? a How much commission was he paid?
28 The price of a convertible sports car was b How much does he receive as a
increased by 15% and the car was then weekly retainer?
CHAPTER RE
sold for $41 400. Find the cost of the car 32 The retail price of a pair of shoes marked
before the increase. for sale at $95 is to be discounted by 20%.
29 At a children’s party, 36% of the children a Calculate the discount.
present were boys. If there were 32 girls b Find the new retail price of the shoes.
at the party, how many children were at 33 A television set is reduced by 35% and
the party? sold for $260. Find the marked price of
30 Mavis has a part-time job selling mobile the television before the discount.
phones door to door. She is paid a weekly
retainer of $110 plus a commission of
17% on her sales. Find Mavis’ total pay
for a week in which her sales totalled
$2300.
CHAPTER REVIEW
2 Algebra

Stage 4
simplify algebraic expressions by adding and subtracting like terms
add and subtract like terms that involve directed numbers
multiply and divide algebraic expressions
simplify algebraic expressions, using the order of operations
remove grouping symbols, using the Distributive Law
factorise algebraic expressions by removing the highest common factor
add and subtract algebraic fractions
multiply and divide algebraic fractions.
Stage 5
simplify algebraic expressions using the index laws for multiplication,
division and further powers.
Algebra
42
Chapter 2: Algebra 43
2.1 Adding and subtracting

like terms
Algebraic terms with identical pronumerals are called like terms. Examples of like terms are
4a and 3a, −5n2 and 2n2, 7xy and 9xy. Examples of unlike terms are 3c and 3d, pq and qr, 6u2
and 4u.
Only like terms can be added or subtracted.
To collect the like terms in an algebraic expression:

add or subtract the co-efficients
keep the same pronumeral(s).
Example 1
EG Simplify each of the following.
+S
a 5b + 2b b 12m − m c 9c2 + 8c2
d 8pq − 3pq e 6ab − 5ba f 7y + 5y − 9y
Solutions
a 5b + 2b b 12m − m c 9c2 + 8c2
= 7b = 12m − 1m = 17c2
= 11m
d 8pq − 3pq e 6ab − 5ba f 7y + 5y − 9y
= 5pq = 6ab − 5ab = 12y − 9y
= ab = 3y
Example 2
EG Simplify each expression by collecting the like terms.
+S
a 5a + 4a + 2b + 3b b 7 + 2k + 5 + 9k
c 3x2 + 10x + 4x2 + x d 5m + 13n − 2m + 4n
Solutions
a 5a + 4a + 2b + 3b b 7 + 2k + 5 + 9k
= 9a + 5b = 2k + 9k + 7 + 5
= 11k + 12
c 3x2 + 10x + 4x2 + x d 5m + 13n − 2m + 4n
= 3x2 + 4x2 + 10x + x = 5m − 2m + 13n + 4n
= 7x2 + 11x = 3m + 17n
44 Mathscape 8
Exercise 2.1
1 State whether each pair of expressions are like or unlike terms.

a 2m, 3m b 5x, 2y c a, 3a d 2p, 2q
e 4e, 4 f 6, 9 g xy, yz h 7ab, 3ba
i pqr, qrs j 3a2, 11a k 5c, 5c2 l 6, 6d 2
2 Simplify:
a 5x + 2x b 8a − 3a c 3k + k d 9n − 7n
e u+u f 10b − 9b g 8t − 8t h 5e + 11e
i 17g − 8g j 14p − 13p k q + 3q l 12s − s
m 2a2 + 4a2 n 5k2 − 3k2 o 2c2 − c2 p 7w2 − 6w2
■ Consolidation
3 Simplify each of the following.
a 3y + 4y + 2y b 6p + 5p + 3p c 8x + 3x − 6x
d 12u − 3u − 7u e 5c + c − 2c f 9t − t − t
g a+a+a h 2r + 5r − 7r i 13b − 9b − 3b
j 4s + 2s + 3s + 6s k 7h − 3h + h − 4h l 9z − 7z + z + 4z
4 Simplify each of these.

a 3mn + 4mn b 6ab − 2ab c 8qr + 5qr
d 10cd − 9cd e 7pq + pq f 12ef − ef
g 7xy + 5yx h 14gh − 5hg i 3rs − 3sr
j 16uv + 5uv − 3uv k 8wz − 5zw + zw l 6jk − 5jk + 8kj
5 Copy and complete each of these.

a 5n ___ = 8n b 10c ___ = 4c c ___ − 6t = t
d ___ − w = w e 4g ___ = 0 f ___ + 2k2 = 7k2
g ___ − a = 3a
2 2
h 6pq ___ = 9pq i ___ − ab = ba
6 Simplify each expression by collecting the like terms.

a 5x + 3x + 2y + 4y b 7p + p + 3q + 2q
c 4w + 3z + 8z + 3w d 6c + 4d + 7c + d
e 10a + 5b + 6a + 5b f 8s + 6t + 3t + s
g 2e + 7 + 3e + 4 h 9 + 3m + 1 + 9m
i 10b + 12 + 7b + 13 j 15 + 9k + 7k + 8
k 5a + 3a + 4a + 2a
2 2
l 6z2 + 4z + z + z2
m 3p + 8p + 9p + p
2 2
n 10c2 + 5c + 3c2 + 6c
o 4d2 + 16 + 7d2 + 14 p 20a2 + 6b2 + 5a2 + 8b2
7 Simplify:
a 5p + 9p + 7q − 4q b 10c − 3c + 11 − 5
c 8w + 10v − 2w − 4v d 18e + 15f − 6e + f
e 16 + 13a − 8 − 4a f 17g + 21h + 5g − 9h
g 12k + 11 − 3k + 6 h 23c + 19d − 7c − 9d
i 4a2 + 17a − a2 + 9a j 6u2 + 18u − 5u2 − 12u
k 20j + 24j2 + 7j2 − 5j l 12c2 + 20 − 9 − 5c2
m 10m2 + 13 − 4m2 − 13 n 2s2 + 5 − 2s2 + 12
o 8v + 2v2 − 7v − v2 p 4b2 + 6b − 3b2 − 6b
8 Collect the like terms in each expression.

a 5p + 2q + 3r + 4p + 7q + 8r b 8a + 6b + c − 4b + 9c − 3a
c 4x2 + 7x + 12 + 3x2 − 4 − 4x d f + 5 + 4f 2 − 4 + f − f 2
e pq + p + qr + 11p + 3pq − qr f 14mn + 22n + 8km − 9mn − 7km − n
g 10r + 6rs − 7r + 11 − 2rs + 11 h 18ab + 8ac + 4bc − 7ca + 6ba − 4cb
TRY THIS Dot pentagons

5, 10 and 15 are examples of dot pentagon numbers.
1 How many dots are there on each side
of these pentagons?
15 2 How many dots are there on each side of

10 the pentagon representing the number
5
30?
3 Can you work out a rule or formula for
finding the number of dots per side for
each pentagon number?
46 Mathscape 8
2.2 Further addition and

subtraction of like terms
Example 1
EG Simplify each of the following.
+S
a 2n − 5n b -8tu − 6tu c -4x2 + 10x2
d 5k − 8k − 2k e 12a + (-2a) f 6m − (-3m)
Solutions
a 2n − 5n b -8tu − 6tu c -4x2 + 10x2
= -3n = -14tu = 6x2
d 5k − 8k − 2k e 12a + (-2a) f 6m − (-3m)
= -3k − 2k = 12a − 2a = 6m + 3m
= -5k = 10a = 9m
Example 2
EG Simplify each expression by collecting the like terms.
+S
a 3c + 2d + c − 7d b 4x2 − 10x − 6x2 + 5x
Solutions
a 3c + 2d + c − 7d b 4x2 − 10x − 6x2 + 5x
= 3c + c + 2d − 7d = 4x2 − 6x2 − 10x + 5x
= 4c − 5d = -2x2 − 5x
Exercise 2.2

a 3p − 5p b -7n + 2n c -4e − 6e d -2q + 4q
e -9d + 5d f -8t − t g m − 4m h -a + 2a
i -b + b j 2y − 3y k -8w − 5w l -12s + 4s
m -10c + 3c n -9h − 8h o 4r − 10r p -6k + 11k
q -3a2 + 7a2 r 2c2 − 8c2 s -4e2 − 5e2 t -9p2 + p2
2 Simplify:
a -8mn + 4mn b -6pq + 11pq c 3xy − 5xy
d -7uv − 6uv e -5cd − cd f -12jk + 9jk
g ef − 3ef h -14gh + 21gh i -22bc − 15bc
j 10rs − 25sr k -30tu + 12ut l -21yz + 22zy
3 Express each of the following in simplest form.

a 3t + (-7t) b 4x − (-6x) c 5n − (+4n)
d -6q − (-9q) e -2b − (+2b) f -12g − (-8g)
g 7bc − (+11bc) h -3yz − (-9yz) i -jk + (-2jk)
j 5v2 − (-13v2) k -2f 2 − (-7f 2) l 10c2 + (-10c2)
■ Consolidation
4 Simplify these expressions.
a 2m − 5m − 4m b 3p − 8p + p c -11t + 3t + 5t
d -7w − w − w e -2b + 6b + 2b f a−a−a
g -k + k − k h -6h + 5h + h i z − 7z − 8z
j 15d − 9d − 9d k 8g − 13g + 17g l -6s − 4s + 20s
5 Simplify each of the following by collecting the like terms.

a 4a − 7a + 2b b -5c + 10c − 3d c 9 − 3p + 8p
d 5x + 2y − 9x e -4g − 8 − 3g f 3 + 6q − 4
g -5b + 11 + 5b h -6w + 3x + 4w i a − 4a − 3b
j -2t − 4u + 9u k -3n − 5 − 2n l 11y − 12y + 13z
m -4a2 + 6a2 + 7a n -10c − c2 − 8c2 o 6k2 + 9k − 14k2
p -4pq − 7p + 8pq q 9gh − 17 − 20gh r -3ef + 4 + 18fe
6 Simplify:
a 4a + 2a + 3b − 7b b 5m − 8m + 9n + 6n
c 5j + 11k − 8j − 2k d 10b + 2 − 7b − 5
e 9 + 5u + 4 − 6u f 6h − 3 + 2h − 1
g 2k + 3 − k − 5 h -4q − 8 + 11q + 2
i 3r − 10s + r + 12s j 5n − 4p − 7n − p
k 6a + 4b − 8b − 3a l -10c + d − 2d + 3c
m -2u − 3v − 2u − 5v n 4m + 2n − 4m + 2n
o 3d − 2 − 7 + 9d p -8e − 3f + 6e + 13f
q x−y−x−y r s − 5t − 2s + 2t
s 3a2 − 5a + 2a2 + 11a t -7b2 − 4b − b + b2
u -2p2 − p − 4p2 + 3p v 6xy + 5 − 4xy − 7xy
w -2pq + 4 + 5pq − 9pq x -uv − 6uv + 2vw + 3uv
7 Copy and complete:
a -4a ___ = 2a b -3n ___ = -7n c 2b ___ = -b
d ___ − 2c = -9c e ___ + 9q = 5q f ___ + 2m = -m
g -6e ___ = -11e h 0 ___ = -4x i ___ − 8i = -5i
j k ___ = -10k k -7t ___ = 0 l ___ + 7g = -9g
m ___ − 2s = -3s n ___ − 10f = -6f o -14z ___ = 7z
48 Mathscape 8
8 Copy and complete each of the following.

a 4n ___ + 3n = -2n b ___ + 2a + 3a = -5a
c ___ − 6p − 2p = -7p d 4u ___ + 3v ___ = 6u − 3v
e ___ + 5f − 2g ___ = f − 8g f ___ − 3x ___ + 12y = -7x + 2y
TRY THIS Magic square

Find the numbers A to L using the values x = 2, y = 3
and z = -1 A B C D
A = 2(y + 1) B = x2 − z,
E F G H
C = 3(x + y) + z D = -3z,
E = 3(x + y) F = 6z + 4x, I J K L
G = y2 H = 2z + 2y,
I = z2 J = y2 + x − z, M N O P
K = y2 + 2z L = y2 + z2
Now find numbers M, N, O, P to make a magic square in which all rows, columns and
diagonals add to the same number.
2.3 Multiplying algebraic

terms
To multiply algebraic terms:

multiply the co-efficients, then
multiply the pronumerals.
Note: Algebraic terms do not have to be like terms in order to be multiplied.
Examples
EG Simplify:
+S
a m×7 b 4a × 3b c 1
× 21n
---
3
d 3p × 5p e 6cd × 4de f (-8u) × (-3v)
Solutions
7
a m×7 b 4a × 3b c --- ×
1
31
21n
= 7m = 12ab = 7n
d 3p × 5p e 6cd × 4de f (-8u) × (-3v)
= 15p2 = 24cd2e = 24uv
Exercise 2.3

a 4×a b k×3 c 6×m d y×2
e m×n f p×q g g×h h u×v
i 2×a×b j y×7×z k s×t×8 l e×3×f
2 Express each of these in its simplest form.

a p×3×q×4 b 5×a×2×b c e×7×6×f
d y×z×5×8 e 3×u×v×9 f m × 12 × n × 5
3 Simplify:
a 5 × 3y b 6x × 4 c 7p × 2 d 3 × 8a
e 6 × 5t f 9c × 7 g 12e × 4 h 2 × 11r
i 5g × 9 j 10 × 3k k 4q × 7 l 6u × 6
m 1--2- × 6d n 20b × 1--4- o 1--3- × 18w p 50y × -----
1
10
-
■ Consolidation
a 3a × 2b × c b 4m × n × 6p c 2x × 5y × 4z
d 3r × 7s × 2t e 5u × 4v × 5w f 7e × 6f × 2g

a m×m b k×k c 3p × p
d y × 7y e 4g × 2g f 5n × 6n
g 7x × 3x h 8u × 5u i 12a × 4a
j 5p × 2 × 8p k 9c × c × 6 l 6w × 5 × 4w
6 Express each of these in its simplest form.

a pq × p b m × mn c ab × ac
d 4e × ef e 5u × tu f xy × yz
g 2b × bc h 6k × jk i 8e × ef
j 3mn × 5np k 4cd × 5ce l 8gh × 4hk
m 4yz × 11xz n 9ab × 5bc o 6uv × 7uw
p ef × fg × eg q ab × ac × b r p × pq × r
s 3xy × 2yz × x t 4t × 3tu × 5uv u 7ab × 3ac × 2cd
7 Simplify these products.

a (-2a) × 5 b 6 × (-3c) c (-4m) × (-3)
d 7p × (-4) e (-5) × (-9u) f (-6b) × (-7)
g p × (-q) h (-m) × (-n) i (-x) × 2y
j 3g × (-5h) k (-8r) × (-2s) l (-4b) × (-4c)
m (-7t) × 2t n (-3x) × (-9x) o 5g × (-8g)
p (-6k) × (-8k) q (-7u) × 4u r 9c × (-12c)
s (-2a) × 5 × (-3b) t 4 × (-2e) × 3f u (-3m) × (-2n) × (-5m)
50 Mathscape 8
8 Find the missing terms.
a 2k × = 10k b × 3y = 21y c × 4 = 12p
d 9y × = 27yz e × 5u = 20tu f 8p × = 32pq
g n × = n2 h × b = b2 i 4g × = 28g2
j × 2d = 26d2 k 6e × = 54e2 l × 9j = 72j 2
m pq × = p2q n ef × = ef 2g o × 3xy = 21x2yz
2.4 Dividing algebraic terms
To divide algebraic terms:

express the division in fraction form
divide the co-efficients
divide the pronumerals.
Note: Algebraic terms do not have to be like terms in order to be divided.
Example 1
EG Simplify:
+S
20a 24mn 21k 2 -30uv
a --------- b -------------- c ----------- d --------------
4a 6m 3k 5u
Solutions
5 4 7 -6
20a 24mn 21k 2 -30uv
a --------- b -------------- c ----------- d --------------
1 4a 1 6m 1 3k 15u
=5 = 4n = 7k = -6v
Example 2
EG Simplify:
+S
a 42k ÷ 6k b 35abc ÷ 7ac c 36u2 ÷ 9u
Solutions
a 42k ÷ 6k b 35abc ÷ 7ac c 36u2 ÷ 9u
7 5 4
42k 35abc 36u 2
= --------- = --------------- = -----------
16k 1 7ac 19u
=7 = 5b = 4u
Exercise 2.4
1 Simplify each of these algebraic fractions.

4a 3e 6w mn
a ------ b ------ c ------- d -------
4 e 6 n
2cd 9xy 5uv fgh
e --------- f --------- g --------- h ---------
2c 9y uv fh
2 Simplify:
6n 10h 18c 28k
a ------ b --------- c --------- d ---------
2 5 3 4
7r 10s 5z 8t
e ------ f -------- g ------ h ------
21 40 45 64
■ Consolidation
12d 20m 14v 50y
a --------- b ---------- c --------- d ---------
4d 5m 7v 10y
30bc 35yz 42ef 40 pq
e ------------ f ----------- g ----------- h -------------
6c 5y 7e 5q
36abc 32xyz 22rst 56uvw
i --------------- j -------------- k ------------- l ----------------
9ab 4yz 2rt 8uw
4 Simplify each of these divisions.

a 5x ÷ 5 b 7b ÷ b c pq ÷ q d gh ÷ g
e 10e ÷ 2 f 15y ÷ 3 g 21r ÷ 7 h 48t ÷ 12
i 9a ÷ 3a j 20p ÷ 4p k 70d ÷ 10d l 55k ÷ 5k
m 16def ÷ 4de n 24xyz ÷ 3xz o 36mnp ÷ 6np p 63abc ÷ 7ab

n2 a2 4k 2 10q 2
a ----- b ----- c -------- d -----------
n a k q
7m 2 2z 2 12s 2 15b 2
e ---------- f -------- g ----------- h -----------
7m 2z 3s 5b
21h 2 42x 2 60d 2 39v 2
i ----------- j ----------- k ----------- l -----------
7h 6x 12d 3v
m g2 ÷ g n 3c2 ÷ c o 8p2 ÷ 8p p 35u2 ÷ 5u
q 18h2 ÷ 6h r 24n2 ÷ 3n s 54k2 ÷ 6k t 72z2 ÷ 9z
52 Mathscape 8
6 Simplify:
-6b 20x -12u -28n
a -------- b --------- c ----------- d -----------
3 -5 -6 -n
-8t -35c 45z -44a
e ------- f ----------- g -------- h -----------
2t -5c -9z -11a
30ef -56st -abc - pqr
i ----------- j ------------- k ----------- l -----------
-6e -7t -ac pr
-3m 2 -18k 2 27y 2 -132e 2
m ------------ n ------------- o ----------- p ----------------
-3m 9k -3y -12e
q -16p ÷ (-2) r 32w ÷ (-8) s -11t ÷ t
t -jk ÷ (-k) u 49h2 ÷ (-7h) v -70p2 ÷ 10p
w -36ab ÷ 4a x -25cd ÷ (-5d) y -60xy ÷ (-5x)
7 Find the missing term in each of these.
a 2p ÷ = 2 b 5h ÷ = h c 27a ÷ = 9a
d 28q ÷ = 4 e ÷4=y f ÷m=8
g ÷ 3t = 1 h 12ef ÷ = 3e i n2 ÷ = n
j ÷ x = 7x k ÷ 2a = 12b l ÷ 8d = 7d
8 Simplify:
a a2b ÷ ab2 b pq2 ÷ p2q c x2yz ÷ xyz2
d 15mn2 ÷ 5m2n e 32u2w ÷ 8uvw f 96ef 2g ÷ 8efg2
2.5 The four operations with

algebraic expressions
When simplifying expressions which contain several terms, follow the order of operations.
The order of operations is:

simplify any expressions inside grouping symbols
simplify any multiplications and divisions, working from left to right
simplify any additions and subtractions, working from left to right.
Example 1
EG Simplify each of the following expressions.
+S
a 24mn ÷ 3m × 5n b 7t + (5 × 2t) − t
10 × 6km
c ----------------------- d [20p − (7p + p)] ÷ 2p
7k + 5k
Solutions
a 24mn ÷ 3m × 5n b 7t + (5 × 2t) − t
8
24mn = 7t + 10t − t
= -------------- × 5n
1 3m = 17t − t
= 8n × 5n = 16t
= 40n2
10 × 6km
c ----------------------- d [20p − (7p + p)] ÷ 2p
7k + 5k
5 = (20p − 8p) ÷ 2p
60km
= ------------- 6
12 p
112k
= ---------
12 p
= 5m
=6
Example 2
EG Simplify 5 × 10y − 30y ÷ 6 using the order of operations.
+S
Solution
(5 × 10y) − (30y ÷ 6)
= 50y − 5y
= 45y
Exercise 2.5
1 Simplify each expression by working from left to right.

a 3 × 2a × 4b b 5m × 4n × 6p c 3 × 2c × 5c
d 5m × 4n ÷ 2 e 8k × 2 ÷ 4k f 12e ÷ 3 × 5f
g 21t ÷ 3t × 6u h 18y ÷ 6y × 5y i 24n ÷ 4n ÷ 3
j 36uv ÷ 3u ÷ 4v k 45a2 ÷ 5a ÷ 3 l 8c × 5d ÷ 4c
m 3z × 8z ÷ 2 n 4pq × 6q ÷ 12p o 6r × rs × st
p 35xy ÷ 7x × 3y q 72cd ÷ 9d × 4c r 60gh ÷ 12g ÷ 5h

a (2a + 3a) × 10 b (8m − 5m) × 7 c (7n − 3n) ÷ 4
d 8 × (4y + y) e 11 × (19h − 10h) f 20p ÷ (7p − 2p)
g 4 × (5c + 2c) h 35x ÷ (10x − 3x) i 10y × (6y − 6y)
j (8n + 2n) × 10 k (14c − 6c) × 5c l (32pq − 8pq) ÷ 6p
■ Consolidation
a (12w ÷ 4) − 2w b 6k + (5 × 8k) c 3h + (4 × 2h) + h
d 7t + (18t ÷ 3) − 4t e 40n − (7n × 4) − n f (5 × 10q) + (8 × 4q)
g (28c ÷ 7) + (32c ÷ 4) h (6 × 9e) − (36e ÷ 3) i (36mn ÷ 4m) + 6n
j 10d − (4d × 3) k -14f + (8f × 3) l (-2z × 13) − (4z + 2z)
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4 Simplify the following algebraic fractions.

4a + 8a 27m – 7m 24 × 2y
a ------------------- b ------------------------ c ------------------
3a × 2 6m + 4m 3y × 4
48x ÷ 8 49a 2 ÷ 7a 80e – 8e
d -----------------------
- e ------------------------ f --------------------------
14x 2 ÷ 7x a + 6a 66e 2 ÷ 11e
12a × 5b 9n × 4n 5r – 20r
g ---------------------------- h ------------------
- i --------------------
10ab – 4ab ( 3n ) 2 2r + 3r
5 Simplify each expression by removing the innermost grouping symbols first.

a [8u + (6 × 5u)] + 4u b [16j − (40j ÷ 8)] − 2j
c [50r − (12r × 4)] × 9 d 5k + [7k − (8k − 4k)]
e 20y − [12y + (10y − 7y)] f 28t − [(21t ÷ 7) + 14t]
g [(10b + 14b) ÷ 3] × 2 h [5 × (12m − 7m)] − 8m
i [100x ÷ (13x + 7x)] + 3 j [13w + (5 × 10w)] ÷ 7w
k [8 × (3g + 6g)] ÷ 12g l [29n − (13n + n)] ÷ 5n
m -30s + [2 × (6s + 7s)] n -9d − [13d − (42d ÷ 6)]
6 Insert grouping symbols in each expression using the order of operations, then simplify.
a 3b + 4 × 2b b 10y + 15y ÷ 5 c 16k ÷ 4 − 3k
d 6n × 5 + 14n e 18w − 6w × 3 f 40p − 60p ÷ 5
g 7e + 4e × 2 + 5e h 25q − 5q × 4 + 8q i 60x − 7 × 6x − 11x
j 4 × 8a + 5 × 2a k 36c ÷ 9 + 48c ÷ 4 l 90s ÷ 9 − 4 × 2s
m 3a × 2a + 8a2 n 19k2 − 4k × 4k o 52z2 − 6z × 7z
p 13e + 6e × 2e + 4e
2 2
q 9y + 21y ÷ 7 − 4y
2 2 2
r 25v2 − 6v × 3v − 6v2
s 5a × 2b + 12ab t 27pq ÷ 3p − 4q u 6uv + 14u2v ÷ 7u
v 8ab × 3a − 7a2b w 28rs2 − 7rs × 3s x 9f + 32ef 2 ÷ 4ef
7 Insert grouping symbols in each of these to make a true statement.
a 3 × 5t + 6t = 33t b 60gh ÷ 35gh − 15gh = 3
c 7ab − 3a × 2b = ab d 12p2 − 2p2 ÷ 2p = 5p
e 2 × 15a + 10a × 2 = 100a f 6h × 7 ÷ 2h + 4h = 7
TRY THIS Guess my rule

You will need a partner for this activity.
Think of a rule, e.g. y = 2x + 1.
Your partner tells you the x value, then, in your head, you calculate the y value and
tell them.
You keep doing this until your partner has worked out the rule.
You then swap roles.
2.6 The index laws

■ The index law for multiplication
22 × 2 4 a3 × a2 4a2 × 5a
= (2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2 × 2) = (a × a × a) × (a × a) = (4 × a × a) × (5 × a)
= 26 = a5 = 20a3
The examples above suggest the following index law for multiplying expressions.
To multiply expressions that contain indices:

multiply any co-efficients
keep the same base and add the indices.
■ The index law for division

54 ÷ 5 a6 ÷ a 4 12a5 ÷ 3a2
5×5×5×5 a×a×a×a×a×a 412 × a × a × a × a × a
= ------------------------------ = ------------------------------------------------- = ----------------------------------------------------
5 a×a×a×a 13 × a × a
= 53 = a2 = 4a3
The examples above suggest the following index law for dividing expressions.
To divide expressions that contain indices:

divide any co-efficients
keep the same base and subtract the indices.
■ The index law for further powers

3 4 3
( 24 ) ( a5 ) ( 2a 7 )
= 24 × 24 × 24 = a5 × a5 × a5 × a5 = 2a7 × 2a7 × 2a7
= 212 = a20 = 8a21
The examples above suggest the following index law for further powers.
To simplify expressions that contain further powers:

raise any co-efficients to the power outside the grouping symbols
keep the same base and multiply the indices.
The index laws can be summarised as follows:

1 am × an = am + n
2 am ÷ an = am − n
3 (am)n = amn
56 Mathscape 8
Example 1
EG Simplify these expressions using the index law for multiplication.
+S
a 32 × 3 5 b k3 × k9 c 6y4 × 5y d 3a3b5 × 4a2b8
Solutions
a 32 × 3 5 = 3 2 + 5 b k3 × k9 = k3 + 9
= 37 = k12
c 6y4 × 5y = 30y4 + 1 d 3a3b5 × 4a2b8 = 12a3 + 2b5 + 8
= 30y5 = 12a5b13
Example 2
EG Simplify these expressions using the index law for division.
+S
a 56 ÷ 5 4 b p9 ÷ p4 c 21c10 ÷ 7c6 d 10g8h7 ÷ 2gh5
Solutions
a 56 ÷ 5 4 = 5 6 – 4 b p9 ÷ p4 = p9 – 4
= 52 = p5
c 21c ÷ 7c6 = 3c10 – 6
10
d 10g h ÷ 2gh5 = 5g8 – 1h7 – 5
8 7
= 3c4 = 5g7h2
Example 3
EG Simplify these expressions using the index law for further powers.
+S 3 4 2 3
a ( 25 ) b ( b6 ) c ( 5x 7 ) d ( 2w 4 )
Solutions
a ( 2 5 ) = 25 × 3
3
( b 6 ) = b6 × 4
4
( 5x 7 ) = 52x7 × 2
2
( 2w 4 ) = 23w4 × 3
3
b c d
= 215 = b24 = 25x14 = 8w12
Exercise 2.6
1 Express each term in the expanded form, then simplify, giving the answers in simplest
index form.
a 23 × 2 2 b 32 × 3 4 c 74 × 7 3 d 53 × 5
2 Look at your answers to Q1, then write down a rule that could be used to quickly multiply
terms in index form.
index form.
a 54 ÷ 5 2 b 36 ÷ 3 2 c 25 ÷ 2 3 d 74 ÷ 7
4 Look at your answers to Q3, then write down a rule that could be used to quickly divide
terms in index form.
index form.
a (32)2 b (53)3 c (24)2 d (72)3
6 Look at your answers to Q5, then write down a rule that could be used to quickly raise terms
in index form to a further power.
7 Simplify each expression by adding the indices.
a n2 × n3 b a5 × a4 c y6 × y2
d t ×t
3
e e4 × e6 f x2 × x5
g m × m8 h d5 × d5 i p7 × p6
j r ×r
3 5
k b9 × b l z8 × z4
m c ×c ×c
4 2 4
n k5 × k7 × k3 o w2 × w × w8
8 Simplify each expression by subtracting the indices.

a p5 ÷ p2 b x7 ÷ x3 c q4 ÷ q2
d y9 ÷ y e t 10 ÷ t 3 f b6 ÷ b4
g n ÷n
8 5
h m11 ÷ m10 i f 13 ÷ f 7
j z15 ÷ z3 k u9 ÷ u8 l s12 ÷ s5
m r ÷r ÷r
9 3 2
n d11 ÷ d7 ÷ d o j 13 ÷ j 6 ÷ j 5
9 Simplify each expression by multiplying the indices.
a (a3)2 b (p4)2 c (x5)3 d (b3)4
e (m3)3 f (y5)4 g (t 6)3 h (n8)2
2 11 4 7
i (q ) j (z ) k (c5)5 l (u3)10
m (d4)6 n (h3)9 o (s6)7 p (w5)8
■ Consolidation
a 3a4 × a2 b n3 × 2n5 c 8e2 × e3
d 2k 6 × 9k e 4y3 × 2y4 f 3c6 × 5c2
g 2z4 × 6z h 5t 7 × 4t 2 i 8d × 3d9
j 6n7 × 5n4 k 4u8 × 8u4 l 7h5 × 6h8
m 9d 3 × 5d 7 n 5v6 × 8v o 12g7 × 7g9
p 2n3 × 3n2 × n4 q 3p4 × 4p5 × 3p r 7z3 × 3z4 × 2z10
11 Simplify:
a a2b3 × a2 b x3 × x4y2 c pq3 × p5
d m4n2 × m8n e j 2k 3 × j 3k 4 f y3z5 × y5z2
g b4c × b6c2 h e5f 3 × ef i g2h4 × gh8
j 3ab2 × 4a2b k 5mn3 × 2m2n5 l 4u3v6 × 6u3v3
m 7r 5s × 3rs5 n 4w2x2 × 9w4x9 o 6c5d9 × 5c8d
p 8fh8 × 4f 5h9 q 12s7t9 × 5s4t 7 r 7i 5j 4 × 8i 4j 12
58 Mathscape 8

a 2n6 ÷ n2 b 3b5 ÷ b3 c 8t 7 ÷ t 6
d 6c4 ÷ c e 10m4 ÷ 2m2 f 8y9 ÷ 4y3
g 12e7 ÷ 3e2 h 20w10 ÷ 4w5 i 21k10 ÷ 7k4
j 30z6 ÷ 5z k 24p12 ÷ 3p4 l 22x8 ÷ 2x6
m 36q11 ÷ 6q7 n 32a15 ÷ 8a9 o 27g13 ÷ 9g4
p 40m10 ÷ 5m3 ÷ 2m2 q 32s12 ÷ 2s3 ÷ 4s r 60e14 ÷ 5e2 ÷ 3e4
13 Simplify:
a7 d8 n6 k 10
a ----4- b ----2- c ----5- d ------3-
a d n k
2e 9 10m 2 18u 5 15h 10
e -------
- f ------------- g ----------2- h -------------
e2 2m 3u 5h 6
24s 7 16c 8 28w 11 90z 12
i ----------
- j ----------
- k -------------- l ------------
-
6s 5 4c 5 7w 3 9z 5
49r 9 54 f 16 64b 13 44v 14
m ----------
- n -------------
- o ------------- p ------------2-
7r 8 6 f 10 8b 8 11v

a a5b6 ÷ a3b2 b m6n9 ÷ m4n2 c g7h10 ÷ g3h
d x y ÷ xy
4 8 3
e u7v3 ÷ u4v f c8d5 ÷ c6d 3
g e9f 9 ÷ e7f 3 h b10c12 ÷ b7c5 i p14q19 ÷ p8q4
j 18y z ÷ 9yz
6 11 4
k 21a5b2 ÷ 7a4b l 32i 10j 5 ÷ 4i 3j 2
m 35m8n6 ÷ 5m7n2 n 48c6d 13 ÷ 8cd 9 o 33p10q7 ÷ 3p3q4
p 45e f ÷ 9e f
11 14 5 8
q 42x4y10 ÷ 6xy6 r 72b12c15 ÷ 6b7c10

a (4a3)2 b (3m5)2 c (6g4)2 d (2k9)2
e (2n5)3 f (3e4)3 g (2q7)4 h (7y6)2
4 3
i (10b ) j (2w8)5 k (5g6)3 l (10x5)4
m (4c10)3 n (3f)4 o (2v)6 p (6s7)3
16 Simplify:
a (x2y4)2 b (p5q3)2 c (cd 4)3
d (u2v3)4 e (r4s3)5 f (a8b)4
g (j 5k7)5 h (e6f 8)3 i (y4z6)5
j (5m3n4)2 k (9s2t 6)2 l (2c6d3)3
m (2yz5)4 n (3p4q9)3 o (10v8w7)3
p (2g11h4)5 q (5q12r)3 r (2x5y2)6
17 Simplify these expressions using the index laws.

a n4 × n5 × n2 b p8 ÷ p3 × p5 c y13 ÷ y4 ÷ y2
d y5 × y7 ÷ y3 e (a4)2 × a3 f x10 ÷ (x2)3
g (n6)5 ÷ n10 h e7 × (e4)3 i (h4)7 ÷ (h2)9
m5 × m4 v 15 ( b7 )3
j ------------------
- k ---------------
- l -----------
-
m2 v3 × v4 b5
18 Simplify fully:
a (e5 × e4)2 b (v 9 ÷ v 2)3 c (m4 × m3 ÷ m)5
d8 2 n6 3 ( a5 )3
d ⎛ ----3-⎞ e ⎛ ----2-⎞ f ------------
⎝d ⎠ ⎝n ⎠ ( a6 )2
g 2g4 × g7 × 5g2 h 30t 12 ÷ 2t 2 ÷ 3t 6 i 8r5 ÷ 2r3 × 5r9
j (5m4)2 × 4m7 k 40w16 ÷ (2w3)3 l (3a6)2 × (2a4)3
5b 4 × 9b 10 12c 7 × 5c 11 ( 8u 13 ) 2
m ------------------------- n ---------------------------
- o -----------------
-
3b 5 10c 4 × 3c 6 ( 2u 5 ) 4
19 Simplify:
( m6 )3 × m4 ( t 8 )5 × ( t 2 )3 c 30
a --------------------------
- b ----------------------------
- c ----------------------
-
m7 t 10 ( c2 )4 × c6
s 15 × ( s 4 ) 4 k4 7 h 11⎞ 3 h 5
d ------------------------
- e ( k 9 ) 5 ÷ ⎛ -----⎞ f ⎛ ------- × ----3-
( s4 )3 × s7 ⎝ k⎠ ⎝ h3 ⎠ h
20 Simplify:
( 3u 4 ) 2 × 6u 10 10 ( pq ) 2 × 20 p 20 q 14
a --------------------------------------
- b ------------------------------------------------
u 4 × ( 3u 2 ) 3 × u 2 ( 2 p6q3 )2 × 5 p5q
2.7 The Distributive Law

In Year 7 you learnt to expand algebraic expressions using the Distributive Law.
To expand an expression containing grouping symbols:

multiply each term inside by the term outside.
a(b + c) = ab + ac and a(b − c) = ab − ac
Example 1
EG Expand:
+S
a 4(m + 2) b 3(w − 7) c 5(4a + 3b)
d p(q − 3) e x(x + 9) f 2e(5e − 6f)
60 Mathscape 8
Solutions
a 4(m + 2) b 3(w − 7) c 5(4a + 3b)
= (4 × m) + (4 × 2) = (3 × w) − (3 × 7) = (5 × 4a) + (5 × 3b)
= 4m + 8 = 3w − 21 = 20a + 15b
d p(q − 3) e x(x + 9) f 2e(5e − 6f)
= (p × q) − (p × 3) = (x × x) + (x × 9) = (2e × 5e) − (2e × 6f)
= pq − 3p = x2 + 9x = 10e2 − 12ef
Example 2
EG Expand and simplify:
+S
a 8 + 3(s + 4) b 21 + 5(n − 3) − 2n
c 4a(7 + 2a) + a2 d 6(x + 7) + 4(2x − 3)
Solutions
a 8 + 3(s + 4) b 21 + 5(n − 3) − 2n
= 8 + 3s + 12 = 21 + 5n − 15 − 2n
= 3s + 20 = 5n − 2n + 21 − 15
= 3n + 6
c 4a(7 + 2a) + a2 d 6(x + 7) + 4(2x − 3)
= 28a + 8a2 + a2 = 6x + 42 + 8x − 12
= 28a + 9a2 = 6x + 8x + 42 − 12
= 14x + 30
Exercise 2.7
1 Expand each of the following.

a 2(x + 3) b 3(m − 2) c 5(6 + k) d 4(3 − n)
e 6(y + 4) f 7(p − 5) g 8(z − 1) h 9(7 + v)
i 10(3 + a) j 11(n − 2) k 4(w + 9) l 9(b − 5)
m 4(x + y) n 12(g + h) o 7(c − d) p 6(r − s)
2 Expand each of these.

a p(q + 3) b a(b − 5) c u(6 + v) d m(2 − n)
e g(h + 9) f y(1 − z) g k(j − 4) h f(e + 7)
i a(b + c) j c(d − e) k x(y + z) l t(v − u)
m x(x + 8) n n(n − 3) o y(y + 7) p t(t − 8)
q b(4 + b) r c(1 − c) s j(j + k) t n(m − n)
3 Expand:
a (p + 2)3 b (w − 5)2 c (x − 4)4 d (g + 11)5
e (y + 9)z f (c − 3)d g (p + q)r h (e − f)g
i (a + b)a j (u − v)v k (c − d)c l (m + n)n
■ Consolidation
4 Expand these expressions.
a 2(3n + 4) b 3(5t − 2) c 6(2y + 5)
d 4(3 − 4b) e 8(3m + 1) f 7(2 − 3k)
g 5(4d + 2) h 6(7e − 3) i 10(4 + 9y)
j 8(8u + 5) k 9(1 − 6z) l 11(5c + 7)
m 12(2a − 3) n 7(7f − 4) o 6(8w − 9)
5 Expand:
a 2x(y + 5) b 3m(n − 4) c 5c(3 + d)
d 4g(6 − h) e 3t(2u + 7) f 4y(5z − 2)
g 5r(6s − 3) h 7b(3 − 2c) i 2j(7k + 9)
j 4e(8f + 11) k 3p(9 − 10q) l 6d(11e − 6)
m 2a(3a + 2) n 4m(2m − 5) o 5t(4t − 7)
p 3k(10k + 5) q 7g(3g − 4h) r 12n(5p − 7n)
6 Expand and simplify each of these.

a 5(a + 3) + 4 b 3(x + 10) − 7 c 2(p + 4) + 3p
d 6(e − 3) + 2e e 4(f − 5) − f f 7(h − 4) − 6h
g 3(5y + 4) + 8 h 6(4t − 5) + 10t i 9(2c + 8) − 5c
j 10(3q + 7) − 15 k 8(4x − 9) + 4x l 12(3 + 5z) − 20
m a(b + 4) + 2a n p(q − 3) + 4pq o x(9 + x) + 6x
p e(3e + 5) − e2 q 4d(2d − 7) + 3d2 r 7k(5k + 8) − 35k
7 Expand and simplify:

a 4 + 3(n + 2) b 5 + 2(x + 7) c 12 + 4(1 + y)
d 20 + 5(m − 3) e 29 + 3(z − 6) f 30 + 9(q − 2)
g 4c + c(d + 7) h 18j + j(k − 5) i 8f + f(6 + f)
j 6b2 + 3b(b + 8) k 50u2 + 12u(3 − 4u) l 17w2 + 11w(w + 2)
m 14 + 7(g + 5) + 6g n 18 + 3(v + 9) − 20 o 12s + 5(s − 5) − 9s
p 40 + 4(6a + 7) + 12a q 33k + 8(k + 4) − 32 r 6n2 + 3n(6 + 11n) − 9n

a 2(a + 4) + 3(a + 2) b 5(m + 3) + 4(m + 1)
c 8(y + 3) + 5(y + 2) d 7(k + 2) + 2(k − 3)
e 4(t + 4) + 6(t − 2) f 8(w + 3) + 6(w − 4)
g 3(2n + 3) + 5(3n + 2) h 4(5t + 3) + 9(2t − 1)
i 7(3e − 4) + 2(e − 10) j 6(5z + 2) + 3(2 − 7z)
k 8(4 + h) + 4(3 − 2h) l 10(4p − 7) + 5(1 − 6p)
m a(b + 5) + a(b + 3) n 3x(y + 4) + 2x(5 − y)
o y(y + 4) + 7(y + 6) p m(m − 8) + 3(2 − m)
62 Mathscape 8
a a2(a5 + 3) b c3(c2 + 2) c k5(k4 − 7)
d w4(w3 + w2) e m5(m6 − m3) f t 2(t − t 8)
g 3e2(4e + 5e2) h 2y4(6y3 − 7y2) i 5u6(4u3 + 9u7)
j a2b3(a4b2 + a3b4) k x3y4(x2y − xy2) l 2c2d5(4cd3 − 11c5d)
2.8 The Distributive Law and

directed numbers
Particular care must be taken when expanding an expression that is preceded by a negative
number or term.
-a(b + c) = -ab − ac and -a(b − c) = -ab + ac
Example 1
EG Expand:
+S
a -3(n + 6) b -4(y − 5) c -k(k + 7) d -8g(2g − 5h)
Solutions
a -3(n + 6) b -4(y − 5) c -k(k + 7) d -8g(2g − 5h)
= -3n − 18 = -4y + 20 = -k2 − 7k = -16g2 + 40gh
Example 2
EG Expand and simplify:
+S
a 5 − 3(h + 4) b 7(2v − 5) − 4(3v − 10)
Solutions
a 5 − 3(h + 4) b 7(2v − 5) − 4(3v − 10)
= 5 − 3h − 12 = 14v − 35 − 12v + 40
= -3h + 5 − 12 = 14v − 12v − 35 + 40
= -3h − 7 = 2v + 5
Exercise 2.8

a -2(x + 3) b -5(a − 1) c -3(m − 4) d -7(y − 2)
e -6(b + 4) f -9(t + 3) g -8(3 − d) h -10(2 − w)
i -4(7 + k) j -6(e − 6) k -11(c + 5) l -8(8 − p)
m -5(v + 12) n -9(w − 7) o -7(6 − r) p -12(9 + f)

a -(x − 1) b -(y + 2) c -(b − 3) d -(k + 2)
e -(4n − 7) f -(3u + 4) g -(2 − 5a) h -(1 + 9t)
3 Expand:
a -a(b + 2) b -m(n − 5) c -j(k − 4) d -y(z + 7)
e -p(6 + q) f -u(1 − v) g -e(8 + f) h -x(2 − y)
i -a(b − c) j -p(q + r) k -h(f + g) l -x(y − z)
m -p(p + 4) n -n(n − 9) o -v(3 − v) p -d(12 + d)
■ Consolidation
a -2(6k + 1) b -3(2p − 3) c -5(4g + 2)
d -3(6y − 5) e -4(4n − 7) f -6(3v + 10)
g -7(2u − 1) h -9(5b + 7) i -8(6m + 2)
j -10(4z − 3) k -3(9 + 8e) l -7(10 + 7f)

a -3m(2n + 5) b -4c(5d − 2) c -5a(2b − 3)
d -10x(3y + 5) e -6p(4 + 3q) f -7q(6 − 5h)
g -2r(1 − 8s) h -9e(2 + 3f) i -4u(3v + 9)
j -3m(7n − 3p) k -8a(3b − 5c) l -9i(6j + 11k)
m -2q(7q + 9) n -5s(5 − 7s) o -11w(11 + 8w)

a 3(y + 2) − 8 b 5(n − 2) + 13 c 4(p + 5) − 6p
d 7h + 12(4 − h) e 20 + 8(t − 3) f -10 + 6(x − 4)
g 8 − 2(a − 4) h 22 − 5(b + 3) i 15d − 4(5 − d)
j 6 + 4(m − 5) + 3m k 30 − 2(e − 9) − 15 l 12k − 5(k + 6) + 9
m 14z − 3(8 − z) + 4 n 7(s − 6) − 8s + 32 o 5w + 40 − 4(w + 7)
7 Expand and simplify these expressions.

a 4(a + 2) − 2(a + 1) b 5(n + 6) − 4(n + 3) c 7(y + 5) − 3(y − 2)
d 8(t + 2) − 3(t − 6) e 9(e + 3) − 4(e + 10) f 6(p − 2) − 5(p − 2)
g 11(c + 6) − 8(c + 5) h 9(g − 1) − 2(g + 4) i 10(b + 5) − 4(b − 7)
j 12(w − 2) − 3(1 − w) k 8(6 − k) − 4(k − 12) l 10(4 + s) − 7(s + 5)
8 Expand and simplify each of the following.
a 2(x + 6) + 3(x + 5) − 4(x + 3) b 6(n + 4) − 2(n − 3) − 3(n − 5)
c 3(4a + 2) + 2(5a − 2) − 7(2a + 1) d m(m + 8) − 3(m − 7) + m(m + 4)
e 10(p − q) + 4(3p + 2q) − 6(4p + q) f 8w(2w − 3) − 2w(5 − w) + w(6w + 7)
64 Mathscape 8
2.9 Factorising: The highest

common factor
In the Number Theory topic studied in Year 7, the highest common factor (HCF) of two or
more numbers was defined as the largest number that would divide into both numbers. For
example, the factors of 8 are 1, 2, 4, 8 and the factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12. The largest
number common to both sets of factors is 4. That is, 4 is the HCF of 8 and 12.
To factorise an algebraic expression, we must reverse or undo the expansion process. That is,
to factorise an expression means to write it as a multiplication. Factorising is the opposite of
expanding.
Expanding
a(b + c) = ab + ac
Factorising
There are many techniques that can be used to factorise algebraic expressions. In Year 8, we
will study the simplest method—factorisation by highest common factor.
To factorise an algebraic expression:

write the HCF of the terms outside grouping symbols
divide each term in the expression by the HCF to find the terms inside the grouping
symbols.
If the first term of an expression is negative, then by convention the HCF is also negative.
ab + ac = a(b + c) and ab − ac = a(b − c)
Example 1
EG Factorise:
+S
a 5x + 15 b 7a − 14 c 12m + 21
d ax − a e c2 + 6c f 8u2 − 20uv
Solutions
a 5x + 15 b 7a − 14 c 12m + 21
= (5 × x) + (5 × 3) = (7 × a) − (7 × 2) = (3 × 4m) + (3 + 7)
= 5(x + 3) = 7(a − 2) = 3(4m + 7)
d ax − a e c2 + 6c f 8u2 − 20uv
= (a × x) − (a × 1) = (c × c) + (c × 6) = (4u × 2u) − (4u × 5v)
= a(x − 1) = c(c + 6) = 4u(2u − 5v)
Example 2
EG Factorise:
+S
a 5p + 10q − 35r b a2b + ab2 + ab
Solutions
a 5p + 10q − 35r b a2b + ab2 + ab
= (5 × p) + (5 × 2q) − (5 × 7r) = (ab × a) + (ab × b) + (ab × 1)
= 5(p + 2q − 7r) = ab(a + b + 1)
Example 3
EG Factorise:
+S
a -3n − 9 b -7q + 28
Solutions
a -3n − 9 b -7q + 28
= -3(n + 3) = -7(q − 4)
Exercise 2.9
1 Complete each of these factorisations.

a 2x + 6 = ____ (x + 3) b 3n + 15 = ____ (n + 5)
c 5a + 10 = ____ (a + 2) d 4e − 12 = ____ (e − 3)
e 2y − 14 = ____ (y − 7) f 6p − 24 = ____ (p − 4)
g 4h + 6 = ____ (2h + 3) h 6t − 15 = ____ (2t − 5)
i 21 − 14m = ____ (3 − 2m) j xy + xz = ____ (y + z)
k pq + qr = ____ (p + r) l uv − u = ____ (v − 1)
m x2 + xy = ____ (x + y) n a2 − ab = ____ (a − b)
o 3gh + 9g = ____ (h + 3) p 10e2 + 15ef = ____ (2e + 3f)
2 Complete each of these factorisations.

a 5a + 20 = 5( ) b 7t − 21 = 7( )
c 4c + 24 = 4( ) d 3n − 33 = 3( )
e 6b − 12 = 6( ) f 9g + 9 = 9( )
g 6y + 9 = 3( ) h 4d − 10 = 2( )
i 21r + 28 = 7( ) j jk + km = k( )
k ab − ac = a( ) l st + t = t( )
m e2 + de = e( ) n mn − n = n(
2
)
o 5bc + 25c = 5c( ) p 12wx − 20x2 = 4x( )
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■ Consolidation
3 Factorise each of these by taking out the highest common factor (HCF).
a 3m + 12 b 2n + 14 c 5p + 15
d 10e + 20 e 4t − 12 f 7a − 35
g 6g + 18 h 8y − 48 i 5c + 45
j 9d + 27 k 11b − 88 l 7r + 42
m 10j − 40 n 9w − 81 o 12f + 72
4 Factorise by taking out the HCF.

a 4a + 6 b 9y + 12 c 10t + 15
d 10p − 14 e 6s − 15 f 20b − 35
g 18n + 12 h 21k + 18 i 20e − 12
j 25k + 30 k 14v − 49 l 30q + 40
m 16x + 24 n 45h − 63 o 35z − 42
p 18 − 30e q 56 + 64d r 99 − 44i
5 Factorise:
a ab + ac b pq + qr c xy − xz
d km − kn e 4g + gh f 2u − uv
g mn − 7m h bc + 9c i x2 + xy
j k2 − jk k e2 − e l wx + x2
6 Factorise fully each of these expressions.

a 3ab + 6bc b 5pq − 25pr c 4ef + 16fg
d 21yz − 7xy e 6rs − 9st f 12uv + 16uw
g 28jk − 35km h 45cd + 20ce i 5x2 + 10x
j 12y2 − 24y k 49a − 7a2 l 24p2 + 8p
m 8g + 12g
2
n 20w2 − 24w o 48c + 30c2
p 99q − 22q 2
q 15h2 + 35h r 28x − 49x2
s 12abc + 32bcd t 18x2y − 24xyz u 35pq2 − 40p2q
7 Factorise:
a 2a + 2b + 2c b ax + ay + az c 5e − 5f + 5g
d pq − pr − ps e 4k + 6m + 10n f 6x − 9y + 15z
g 28a − 14b + 21c h 18t + 24u − 30v i x2 + xy + xz
j 3m2 − 12mn + 15m k 10fg − 25gh + 20g2 l ab2 + a2b + ab
8 Factorise by taking out the greatest negative common factor.

a -2m − 4 b -3t − 12 c -4c − 20 d -5k − 30
e -7p + 14 f -6y + 18 g -5k + 25 h -11b + 44
i -8a + 20 j -10z − 35 k -18h + 20 l -28d − 21
m -ab − bc n -pq − pr o -x2 + 2x p -mn + m2
q -5a2 + 10a r -8r2 − 12 s -15p − 18p2 t -20ef + 24fg
9 Explain why each of these expressions has not been correctly or completely factorised, then
factorise correctly.
a 8x + 20 = 2(4x + 10) b m2 + m = m(m + 0)
c pqr + pqs = p(qr + qs) d 3xy + 6x = 3x(y + 6x)
e 2u + 2v + 12 = 2(u + v) + 12 f -4x − 10 = -2(2x − 5)
10 Factorise by taking out the binomial common factor.
a a(b + c) + 3(b + c) b x(y − 1) + 2(y − 1)
c p(q + 4) + 7(q + 4) d 5(u − v) + w(u − v)
e 5n(n − 3) + 4(n − 3) f e(f + 12) + 2f(f + 12)
g b(b + 2) + (b + 2) h (k + m) − n(k + m)
i 2c(c + d) − (c + d) j (a − 7) + a(a − 7)
11 Factorise by taking out the HCF.
a a2 + a3 b p5 + p2 c x3 − x5 d n2 − n6
e k + 2k
4 7
f 3t 3 − t 8 g 5u10 + 3u6 h 4g3 − 5g4
i 2y8 + 6y5 j 4v6 − 8v3 k 8m5 + 12m7 l 15s11 − 25s4
2.10 Adding and subtracting

algebraic fractions
To add or subtract algebraic fractions:
express the fractions with a common denominator
add or subtract the numerators
simplify if possible.
Example 1
EG Simplify:
+S
4a 3a 8t 5t 11k 5k 9e 7e
a ------ + ------ b ------ – ------ c --------- – ------ d ------ + ------
9 9 13 13 12 12 10 10
Solutions
4a 3a 8t 5t 11k 5k 9e 7e
a ------ + ------ b ------ – ------ c
--------- – ------ d ------ + ------
9 9 13 13 12 12 10 10
4a + 3a 8t – 5t 11k – 5k 9e + 7e
= ------------------- = ---------------- = --------------------- = ------------------
9 13 12 10
1 8
7a 3t 6k 16e
= ------ = ------ = ------ = ---------
9 13 212 510
k 8e
= --- = ------
2 5
8e
Note: In example 1d we write ------ , not 1 3--5- e, by convention.
5
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Example 2
EG Simplify:
+S
2h h 5w 3w 17u u
a ------ + --- b ------- – ------- c --------- – ---
3 9 6 4 20 4
Solutions
2h h 5w 3w 17u u
a ------ + --- b ------- – ------- c --------- – ---
3 9 6 4 20 4
2h × 3 h 5w × 2 3w × 3 17u u × 5
= ------ + --- = ------- − ------- = --------- – ---
3 ×3 9 6 ×2 4 ×3 20 4 × 5
6h h 10w 9w 17u 5u
= ------ + --- = ---------- – ------- = --------- – ------
9 9 12 12 20 20
3
7h w 12u
= ------ = ------ = ---------
9 12 5 20
3u
= ------
5
Exercise 2.10
1 Simplify:
x x n n 4k k 5a 3a
a --- + --- b --- + --- c ------ + --- d ------ + ------
5 5 3 3 9 9 11 11
3m m 4t 2t 5r 4r 11s 3s
e ------- – ---- f ----- – ----- g ----- – ----- h -------- – ------
7 7 5 5 6 6 13 13
12b 6b 19e 8e 13c 8c 7x 7x
i --------- + ------ j --------- + ------ k --------- + ------ l ------ – ------
17 17 20 20 19 19 10 10
■ Consolidation
2 Simplify:
2n n 5u u 7t 3t 7m 8m
a ------ + --- b ------ + --- c ----- + ----- d ------- + -------
3 3 6 6 5 5 3 3
a a 11c 7c 13r 8r 5k k
e --- + --- f --------- – ------ g -------- – ------ h ------ + ------
4 4 20 20 15 15 12 12
4x 2x 7h 3h 4b 8b 11m m
i ------ + ------ j ------ – ------ k ------ + ------ l ---------- – ------
9 9 10 10 15 15 12 12
10c 4c 5w 5w 13z z 25v 9v
m --------- + ------ n ------- + ------- o -------- – ------ p --------- – ------
21 21 18 18 16 16 22 22
3 Express these fractions with a common denominator, then simplify.

m m n n 3k k 2a 3a
a ---- + ---- b ------ + --- c ------ + --- d ------ + ------
2 4 10 5 16 4 3 15
x x t t w 2w 7b 3b
e --- + --- f --- + --- g ---- – ------- h ------ – ------
3 2 4 5 3 7 8 5
5u u 5c 2c 3s 5s 4z 7z
i ------ + --- j ------ – ------ k ----- + ----- l ----- – ------
12 8 6 9 4 6 5 12

3d d 2h 2h 7u u 11n n
a ------ + ------ b ------ + ------ c ------ – --- d --------- – ---
4 20 15 3 10 5 12 4
3z 7z 19x x 5a a 8b 11b
e ----- + ------ f --------- – --- g ------ – --- h ------ + ---------
5 30 20 4 3 6 9 18
4w 11w 5k 7k 11c 2c 3e 7e
i ------- – ---------- j ------ – ------ k --------- – ------ l ------ + ------
3 15 12 24 14 7 4 12
5 Simplify:
a+2 a+3 m+2 m+5 x+3 x+1
a ------------ + ------------ b ------------- + ------------- c ------------ + ------------
4 2 3 4 7 5
b+4 b–3 n–1 n+2 c–4 c–6
d ------------ + ------------ e ------------ + ------------ f ----------- + -----------
2 6 6 5 3 8
2x + 3 x + 2 3x – 4 x + 6 5d – 2 2d – 5
g --------------- + ------------ h --------------- + ------------ i --------------- + ---------------
12 3 5 8 3 7
2.11 Multiplying and dividing

algebraic fractions
To multiply algebraic fractions:
cancel any common factors between the numerators and denominators
multiply the numerators
multiply the denominators.
To divide algebraic fractions:

take the reciprocal of the fraction that is written after the division sign
change the division sign to multiplication
proceed as above for multiplying fractions.
Note: Any fractions can be multiplied or divided. They need not have a common denominator.
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Example 1
EG Simplify:
+S
x y 2a 4c 4m 25 pq 3a 2 10bc
a --- × --- b ------ × ------ c --------- × ------------- d -------2- × ------------
2 7 3b 5d 35 p 12m 5b 9ac
Solutions
1 5
x y 2a 4c 4m 25 pq 3a 2 10bc
a --- × --- b ------ × ------ c --------- × ------------- d -------2- × ------------
2 7 3b 5d 7 35 p 3 12m 5b 9ac
xy 8ac 5q 13aa 210bc
= ------ = ------------ = ------ = --------- × ------------
14 15bd 21 5bb 9ac
1 3
2a
= ------
3b
Example 2
EG Simplify:
+S
d 5 2m 3 pq qr
a --- ÷ --- b ------- ÷ --------- c -------- ÷ ------
9 e 7 11k 35r 45
Solutions
d 5 2m 3 pq qr
a --- ÷ --- b ------- ÷ --------- c -------- ÷ ------
9 e 7 11k 35r 45
d e 2m 11k pq 45 9
= --- × --- = ------- × --------- = -------- × ------
9 5 7 3 7
35r qr
de 22km 9p
= ------ = ------------- = -------2-
45 21 7r
Exercise 2.11
1 Simplify by multiplying the numerators and multiplying the denominators.

a b x y m 3 4 3
a --- × --- b --- × --- c ---- × --- d --- × ---
2 4 3 5 n 4 c d
m m k k 2 9 a a
e ---- × ---- f --- × --- g --- × --- h --- × ---
5 2 4 5 y y b c
3b c h 5i 3e 5g 7w 5w
i ------ × --- j --- × ----- k ------ × ------ l ------- × -------
7 2 3 8 4 f 7h 3x 9y
2 Simplify each of these by taking the reciprocal of the second fraction, then multiplying.
m 6 x 4 e 2 6 v
a ---- ÷ --- b --- ÷ --- c --- ÷ --- d --- ÷ ---
2 n 5 y f 3 u 7
h 5 w 3 4 z r s
e --- ÷ --- f ---- ÷ ---- g --- ÷ --- h -÷-
6 h 7 w z 8 s t
2a 3 3m 2 3c 4e 4t 5v
i ------ ÷ --- j ------- ÷ ------ k ------ ÷ ------ l ------ ÷ --------
5 b 7 5n 8d 7 f 9u 11t
■ Consolidation
3 Cancel any common factors, then multiply.
a 2 x 4 p 15 6 m
a --- × --- b --- × --- c --- × ------ d ---- × ----
7 a 2 y 5 p m 9
y 15 c 7c 3m 4n 4e 15
e ------ × ------ f ------ × ------ g ------- × ------ h ------ × ------
20 z 14 d n m 3c 8e
14 ab ab ac xz 20 m pq
i ------ × ------ j ------ × ------ k ------ × ------ l ------ × -------
a 18 c b 12 yz np mr
6u 10u 12c 25d 18m 20k 27a 35bc
m ------ × --------- n --------- × --------- o ---------- × --------- p ------------ × ------------
5v 21v 35e 18c 55k 45 50bd 36a

n n a b k k 12 15
a --- ÷ --- b --- ÷ ------ c --- ÷ ------ d ------ ÷ ------
7 3 3 12 2 10 w w
r s y x 2t u 5e 25
e ------ ÷ ------ f ------ ÷ --------- g ----- ÷ ----- h ------ ÷ ---------
24 28 18 27y u 9t 8 f 16 f
15b 27b pq p vw uv x xw
i --------- ÷ --------- j ------ ÷ ----- k ------- ÷ ------ l ----- ÷ -------
d c r qr 21 49 yz vy
24ac 4d gh hi 22mn 33km 24rs 36st
m ------------ ÷ ------ n -------- ÷ ------ o -------------- ÷ ------------- p ----------- ÷ ----------
35bc 7b 25i 40 21 p 18k 45r 35u
5 Simplify:
a 2 bc x 3y m m2
a ----- × ------ b ----2- × ------ c ------ ÷ -----2-
b a y 4x np n
6r 9r 2 40a 36a 2 c 2 d 28 fg
d -------- ÷ -------- e --------- ÷ ----------2- f ----------- × -----------
-
49s 7st 77b 35b 48ef cd 2
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6 Simplify:
5a 9d 4c 8e 24g 55g
a --------- × --------- ÷ --------- b ------ ÷ --------2- × ---------
27b 10a 16b 35 7 f 14e
7 Factorise each expression where possible, then simplify.

2a + 10 9 x–3 12 2m + 10 4m + 12
a ------------------ × ------------ b ----------- × ------------------ c -------------------- × --------------------
3 a+5 4 5x – 15 m+3 8m + 40
3k + 6 5k + 10 x 2 + 4x xy + 4y 11e + 33 12e – 24
d --------------- ÷ ------------------ e ----------------- ÷ ------------------ f --------------------- ÷ ---------------------
14 7 12 9 5e + 15 5e – 10
Algebra as a tool for exploring patterns
Introduction
Because widely different cultures around the world have found numbers so fascinating, for
example European and Asian, Arab and African, the Americas and Islands of the South Pacific,
the history of mathematics abounds with recorded examples of number patterns. The above
reproduction of an Islamic magic square is an interesting example, showing the importance of
religion and culture within the context of mathematics.
Here, however, we will explore a problem with numbers and investigate how algebra can help
reveal the underlying pattern. The focus question below is a good example. It was taken from
the junior division of the Australian Mathematics Competition, school years 7 and 8, 1998. It
was originally asked in multiple choice format but has been adapted here for another purpose.
Focus question
How many positive integers less than 900 are multiples of 7 and end with 2?
This is best done as a collaborative activity in pairs or small groups. Teachers may wish to
allocate different methods to different groups, or simply leave it open ended.
Method 1: A counting strategy from a pattern

1 Begin any way you wish with the problem. See what you can come up with. Share your
ideas with your neighbour. Use any tools of arithmetic or algebra that you wish.
Be prepared to talk about your thinking.
2 If you have not got an answer yet, or are not sure you are right, try finding just one number
that works, say the smallest multiple of 7 that ends in 2.
3 Now try to get the next highest number. You can make a list of the 7 times table if you wish.
The idea here is to actually find some of the possible numbers and go from there.
4 See if you can find a pattern in the numbers you have found. Count these numbers and write
down your answer.
Method 2: A reasoning strategy using algebra as a tool

1 The numbers we require are even and are also divisible by 7. Therefore they can be written
in the form 14k where k is a positive integer.
2 A specific case that works is k = 3, giving 42. This is the smallest number which fits the
criteria. The problem is then to find out how many possible values of k will work.
3 Can you see that k must end in 3 or 8 to enable the product to end with 2?
4 The largest value of k must be such that 14k is less than 900. So, dividing 900 by 14
(check this by calculator) we find that the largest value of k which will work is 63.
5 Complete the argument from step 1 in writing.
8E XTENSION ACTIVITY
The original question in the competition was multiple choice. The answers to choose from were
(A) 13 (B) 12 (C) 11 (D) 10 (E) 14.
See if you can reason from these possible choices to eliminate the ones for which it could not
be true. Write your reasons down.
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Write an account of your thinking in working through this problem. Include any mistakes or
misunderstandings you had. Explain what you have learned about problem solving with a
neighbour or a small group. Is collaboration with others useful for learning?
%R EFLECTING
Compare the strengths and weaknesses of the various solutions that came up in class. Discuss
these with your teacher.
B P ROBLEM SOLVING
1 If A × B = 8, C × D = 9, then A × B × C × D = . . .
2 Said a fellow while walking with me:
‘My age when multiplied by 3
Is a square,
But my age I must state ⎡Note: 2 cubed = 23 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8 ⎤
Is a cube you must appreciate. ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 5 squared = 52 = 5 × 5 = 25 ⎦
So what is my age?’
3 The following five rings are connected to each other by being linked over and under
each other.
Can you connect these five rings but Hint: These two can be joined
without any rings being linked? You should by a third without linking,
cut some rings from paper to help you. but perhaps bending a little.
4 A large ball and a small ball lie between two boards.

If we push them to the right (no slipping), does A go A
ahead of B, or B ahead of A, or do they stay in the same
positions? B
5 How many triangles can be found in this star?

How many parallelograms are there?
6 Draw eight straight lines to form 2 squares and 4 triangles.

7 Arrange four 8s using any mathematical operations so that they equal 1.
8 How much is 1000 per cent of a cent?
9 There is a pattern to these multiplications. 7 × 15 873 =
Complete the first one to discover the pattern, 14 × 15 873 = 222 222
then write down the answers to the others. 21 × 15 873 =
28 × 15 873 =
35 × 15 873 =
10 The sportsmaster explained to the headmaster that 3 baseballs and 1 cricket ball
weighed as much as 14 tennis balls and that 1 baseball and 6 tennis balls exactly
balanced 1 cricket ball. ‘That is interesting,’ said the headmaster, ‘and how many
tennis balls weigh as much as 1 cricket ball?’ he asked. What was the sportsmaster’s
answer?
1 Explain the difference between reciprocal adjective relating to two people or groups
co-efficients and pronumerals. who feel the same way about each other or who
2 To e_________ an expression containing agree to act in a way that gives each other help:
grouping symbols multiply each term reciprocal love | The two countries made an agreement
inside by the term outside. on reciprocal aid.
❒ Word Family: reciprocally adverb
3 Explain what ‘factorise an expression’ Similar: mutual
means in your own words.
4 Define algebra for a new Maths How is the mathematical use of this term
Dictionary. different from this?
5 Read the Macquarie Learners’ Dictionary
entry for reciprocal:
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CHAPTER RE
1 Simplify: 10 Simplify:
a 27h − 9h b 5t + 4t + 6t + 9t 18w 64h
a ---------- b ---------
c 9g + 7g − 5g d 9rt + 8tr -6 -8h
-abc
2 Simplify: c ----------- d -45wz ÷ (-5z)
a 6y + 4y + 3z + 5z ac
11 Simplify:
b 6p2 + 4p + 5p2 + 9p a 112wb ÷ 7w ÷ 8b
c 26f + 17g − 8e + g b 60a2 ÷ 5a ÷ 4
d 8u2 + 14u − 5u2 − 9u c 12 × (18h − 10h)
3 Simplify: d (15v − 9v) × 6v
a -5k − 8k b 7y − 8y e (36d ÷ 9) + (42d ÷ 7)
c -14t + 6t d -2r2 + 9r2 f (-4z × 2) − (5z + 3z)
e -8fg + 13fg f -14cd + 28cd 12 Simplify:
g 8m − (+4m) h -13h − (-9h) 42 p – 7 p 4w × 5w
4 Simplify: a ---------------------- b --------------------
-
2p + 3p ( 2w ) 2
a -8x + 5y + 7x b -3r2 + 9r2 + 7r
c [(16f + 26f) ÷ 4] × 2
c -2r − r2 − 6r2 d -6gh − 8g + 9gh
d 30y + 25y ÷ 5
VIEW
5 Simplify: e 14e × 2e + 12e2+ 4e

a -4e − 6g − 5e − 8g f 8f + 42ef 2 ÷ 7ef
b 5p + 3q − 5p + 3q
13 Expand the following:
c -6t 2 − 5t − t + t 2
a 9(m − 7) b p(r − 6)
d -fg − 7fg + 3gh + 4fg
c c(e − f ) d (w − 9)5
6 Simplify: e 3m(4m − 5) f 8b(2 − 3c)
a 4×t×w×7 b 7x × 5
c 30b × 1--6- d 3x × 7y × 2z
a 9(4x − 7) + 3x
e 6p × 2q × 3r f 8w × 3 × 4w
b 32j + j(k − 7)
7 Express in simplest form: c a(b + 2) + a(b + 4)
a 9d × dw b fg × gk d 3x(z + 5) + 2x(4 − z)
c 6mn × 7ml d 2jk × 8kl e 6p2 + 4p(2p + 7) − 8p
e 6r × 5rs × 7sw f (-6z) × 4
15 Expand:
g (-7) × (-9w) h (-4x) × (-8x)
a -9(f − 8) b -(z + 5)
8 Simplify: c -w(5 − w) d -3(7y − 4)
24 p 12ab vwt e -7b(4a − 5c) f -8q(9q + 7)
a --------- b ------------ c ---------
8 4a vt
42n 15rs 3k 16 Expand and simplify:
d ---------
6n
e -----------
5r
f ------
12 a 16d − 5(4 − 2d)
b 5(a + 3) − 3(a + 2)
9 Simplify:
c 8(e − 4) − 2(e + 7)
a 12w ÷ 4 b 50bc ÷ 5c
c 27p2 ÷ 9p d 30a2b ÷ 6ab
CHAPTER REVIEW
17 Factorise: Extension
VIEW
a rt + rw b b2 + bz 20 Express in simplest index form:
c 9g − 36 d 6ad + 42d
a 25 × 2 8 b a4 × a3
e 7f + 21 f 30b − 35
c c ×c ×c
6 3 2
d p2q6 × p3q
g pq − pr h b2 − b
i 48c + 36c2 j 12a + 16b + 8c e 38 ÷ 3 2 f m12 ÷ m5
k -3n − 12np l -12c − 18c2 w9
g ------ h t 6m12 ÷ t4m
CHAPTER RE
18 Simplify: w
7 5
n 3n 6a a i ( 54 ) j (k3)
a --- + ------ b ------ + --- k ( ab )
4
l ( p2q5 )
6
8 8 7 7
9c 3c 14k 7k 21 Simplify:
c ------ – ------ d --------- + ------
10 10 15 15 a 5u4 × 4u2 b 3y5 × 7y11
u u x x 45e 8
e --- + --- f --- + --- c 24r10 ÷ 4r3 d -----------
8 4 5 3 9e
11b 3b 7m 5m e ( 3x 4 )
3
f ( 2 p8q4 )
5
g --------- – ------ h ------- – -------
12 4 6 9
22 Simplify:
19 Simplify: w 16
a p12 ÷ p5 × p6 b ------------------
-
a 5b e 3e w2 × w6
a --- × ------ b --- ÷ ------ 8 4
3 9 f 4g c ⎛ n-----⎞ d 56v18 ÷ ( 2v 3 )
3
35a 45be ab ac ⎝ n 3⎠
c ------------ × ------------ d --------- ÷ ------
30bd 7af 30c 55
CHAPTER REVIEW
3 Pythagoras’
Theorem
Pythagoras’ Theorem

Stage 4
locate and name the hypotenuse in a right-angled triangle
establish Pythagoras’ Theorem by using practical methods
state Pythagoras’ Theorem for a given triangle using both side and angle
notation
determine whether a set of three numbers is a Pythagorean triad
use the converse of Pythagoras’ Theorem to determine whether a triangle
is right-angled
find the length of the hypotenuse in a right-angled triangle using
find the length of one of the short sides in a right-angled triangle, using
give non-integral side lengths as both decimals and surds
solve problems by using Pythagoras’ Theorem.
78
Chapter 3: Pythagoras’ Theorem 79
Investigation
1 Find the area of the square that has been drawn on each side of the triangle.
Does A3 = A1 + A2?
4 cm
A3
4 cm
5c
m A2
5c
m
3 cm
A1 3 cm
2 Measure the lengths of the sides of the triangle

in mm. Hence, show that A3 = A1 + A2.
A3
A1
A2
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3 The following diagrams have

a a2 b b2 c c2 b 2 + c2
been drawn on 1 mm grid paper.
Copy and complete this table, a
then state the relationship that b
exists between the sides a, b
c
and c in each triangle.
d
a b
c b b c
c d
c c b
a
4 a Measure the lengths of the sides in these triangles in mm.

i ii iii
b Does the relationship that you wrote in Q3 still hold for these triangles?
c In what way are these triangles different from those in Q3?
5 State briefly what you have learned from this activity.

3.1 Pythagoras’ Theorem

The longest side in a right-angled triangle is called the hypotenuse.
There is a relationship between the length of the hypotenuse and that of the shorter sides in a
right-angled triangle. It is known as Pythagoras’ Theorem. The previous investigation was
designed to help you understand this relationship.
In any right-angled triangle, the square on the hypotenuse

is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides. c
a
This can be written as: c =a +b
2 2 2
The theorem is named after the famous Greek mathematician Pythagoras, but it is doubtful
whether he was really the first person to prove the general result.
A Pythagorean triad is a set of three positive integers (whole numbers), a, b and c, such that
c2 = a2 + b2. For example, 3, 4, 5 is a Pythagorean triad because 52 = 32 + 42 (i.e. 25 = 9 + 16).
This triad was known to the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians who used it to construct
accurate right angles while building the pyramids and other projects. However, they were
unable to explain why these numbers always gave a right angle.
■ The converse of Pythagoras’ Theorem

The converse of Pythagoras’ Theorem is used to determine whether or not a triangle is
right-angled, given the lengths of its sides. It states that:
If the square on one side of a triangle is equal to the sum of the squares on the other
two sides, then the angle between the two short sides is a right angle.
Example 1 P
EG Write down Pythagoras’ Theorem for this triangle using:
+S
i side notation ii angle notation
q
Solutions r
i q2 = p2 + r 2 ii PR2 = PQ2 + QR2
Q p R
Example 2
EG Determine whether each of these triangles is right-angled.
+S
a 30 b Y
A B
18 24 7 9
C X Z
11
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Solutions
The converse of Pythagoras’ Theorem can be used to determine whether or not a triangle is
right-angled.
a 302 = 182 + 242 b 112 = 72 + 92
900 = 324 + 576 121 = 49 + 81
900 = 900 121 = 130
which is true, which is not true,
∴ ∆ABC is right-angled. ∴ ∆XYZ is not right-angled.
Exercise 3.1
1 Evaluate:
a 32 b 52 c 112 d 72 e 102
f 2.72 g 4.92 h 9.12 i 12.32 j 15.42
2 Evaluate, correct to 1 decimal place where necessary:

a 4 b 36 c 81 d 64 e 144
f 13 g 28 h 51 i 89 j 135
3 Write down Pythagoras’ Theorem for each triangle, using i side notation ii angle notation.
a b b B c B
A C
a
a c c a
c
A C A C
B b b
d X z e Q f E
Y f
r g
p
y G
x P e
q R F
h T i l
Z J K
u k
g j
L m v
N V L
n
l t
M
U
j R k H l d B
C
s g
t f c
b
S r T F G D
h
■ Consolidation
4 Which of these statements are true for the given triangle? P
(There may be more than one correct answer.)
a PQ2 = PR2 + RQ2 b PR2 = PQ2 + RQ2
c QP = RP + RQ
2 2 2
d RQ2 = PR2 + PQ2
e RP2 = PQ2 + RQ2 f QP2 = QR2 + PR2 R Q
5 Match each of these statements to one of the triangles below.
Note: ∠U is opposite side u, etc.
A TU2 = TV 2 + UV 2 B VT 2 = UV 2 + TU2 C UV 2 = UT2 + TV 2
a v b c
v t v u
u t
u t
6 B Write true (T) or false (F) for each of these.

a AB2 = BD2 + AD2 b AB2 = AC2 + BC2
c BD = AC + AB
2 2 2
d CB2 = BD2 + CD2
e AC2 = AB2 + BC2 f DB2 = BA2 + DC2
g BC = DC + BD
2 2 2
h CA2 = BD2 + DC2
A C
D
7 Draw a right-angled triangle that satisfies each of the following conditions.

a LN2 = LM2 + MN2 b FG2 + GH2 = FH2 c CD2 = CE2 + DE2
8 In each of the following diagrams, which are not drawn to scale, determine whether or not
the triangle is right-angled. If so, name the hypotenuse.
a M b 4 c 5
P Q T U
4 3
2 3 12
13
L N
5 R S
d E e B 8 f W
C
3
5 8 6
D 1 9
2 U V
C A 10
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g Y h H i 15
J L
8 6 15 17 9
12
X Z F G K
7 8
9 State whether each of these is a Pythagorean triad.
a 20, 21, 29 b 4, 6, 8 c 7, 24, 25
d 15, 20, 25 e 7, 8, 11 f 13, 16, 17
g 18, 24, 30 h 11, 60, 61 i 12, 15, 18
10 Copy and complete each of these statements.
a If c2 = a2 + b2, then a2 = _______ and b2 = _______.
b If p2 = q2 + r 2, then q2 = _______ and r 2 = _______.
c If AC2 = AB2 + BC2, then AB2 = _______ and BC2 = ______.
d If QR2 = RS2 + QS2, then QS2 = _______ and RS2 = _______.
11 If 3, 4, 5 is a Pythagorean triad, which of the following could be the side lengths of a right-
angled triangle?
a 1--3- , 1--4- , 1--5- b 3--7- , 4--7- , 5--7- c 0.3, 0.4, 0.5
d 32, 42, 52 e 3, 4, 5 f 3 + 2, 4 + 2, 5 + 2
12 a Show that 3, 4, 5 is a Pythagorean triad.
b If the sides are doubled, would the result be a triad?
c If the sides are multiplied by 7, would the result be a triad?
d Prove that any three numbers that are multiples of 3, 4, 5 will also be a triad.
TRY THIS How long is a tile?
The diagram is of a section of floor in the Smith’s
family room. The floor is composed of triangular tiles.
Craig, being in Year 7 and very observant, noticed
that the sum of the two squares (4 + 4 tiles) on
the sides of a double triangle is equal to the
square (8 tiles) on the longest side of the triangle,
as shown by the shading in the diagram.
Brett, being rather smart and in Year 8, said,
‘Oh yes, that is according to Pythagoras’ Theorem:
22 + 22 = hypotenuse2.’
‘Oh!’ said Craig. ‘How long is the hypotenuse then?’
Brett replied ‘Er-er. The square root of 8!’
‘What a silly answer!’ said Craig.
Question: How long is the longest side of a tile if the shorter sides are each 10 cm?
3.2 Finding the length of the

hypotenuse
Pythagoras’ Theorem can be used to find the length of the hypotenuse in a right-angled triangle
when the lengths of the two shorter sides are known. To find the exact length of a side, give the
answer as a surd, i.e. in the form n .
Example 1
EG Find the length of the hypotenuse in each of these, correct to 1 decimal place, where necessary.
+S
a b 6 cm
20 cm x cm
y cm 13 cm
15 cm
Solutions
a x2 = 152 + 202 b y2 = 62 + 132
= 225 + 400 = 36 + 169
= 625 = 205
∴ x = 625 ∴ y = 205
= 25 = 14.3 (to 1 decimal place)
∴ The length of the hypotenuse is 25 cm. ∴ The length of the hypotenuse is 14.3 cm.
Example 2
EG Find the value of x in this trapezium. A 9 cm B
+S Give your answer as a surd.
7 cm x cm
D E C
15 cm
Solution
We need to find the lengths BE and EC in order to find x.
BE = 7 cm and x2 = 7 2 + 6 2
EC = 15 cm − 9 cm = 49 + 36
= 6 cm = 85
∴ x = 85
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Exercise 3.2
1 Find the length of the hypotenuse in each of these triangles. (All measurements are in cm.)
a b 5 c t
4 c
8
15
y 12
3
d e f 10
p 9 12
6
24 k
8 a
g 9 h 12
i
20
h x w
40 35
21
2 Find as a surd the exact length of the hypotenuse in each triangle. (All measurements are
in mm.)
a 4 b c
5 4
2
n g 7
b
3
d q e f 7
11 u 6
6 9 z
8
g h i
4 5 12 14
e
w
10 d
5
3 Find correct to 1 decimal place the length of the hypotenuse in a right-angled triangle whose
perpendicular sides have lengths:
a 4.8 m, 6.2 m b 9.1 cm, 10.3 cm c 12.6 mm, 17.5 mm
■ Consolidation
4 Use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the length of the diagonal, correct to 1 decimal place
where necessary.
a b c
15 mm
30 mm 7 mm
20 mm
13 mm
5 Find values for x and y in each of these.

a b
x cm
x cm y cm 5 cm
8 cm
6 cm 14 cm 12 cm
21 cm
y cm
6 D Calculate the perimeter of ∆ABC if AC = 56 mm,

A C BD = 15 mm and AD = 20 mm.
7 The rectangle shown has a length of 24 cm and a

perimeter of 62 cm. Find:
a the width
b the length of the diagonal
24 cm
8 a In ∆XYZ, ∠Z = 90°, XZ = 6 cm and YZ = 11 cm. Find the length of XY, correct to

1 decimal place.
b In ∆PQR, ∠P = 90°, PQ = 7 mm and PR = 15 mm. Find the length of QR, correct to
1 decimal place.
c In ∆LMN, ∠L = 90°, m = 16 cm and n = 22 cm. Find the length of MN, correct to
2 decimal places.
d In ∆FGH, ∠G = 90°, f = 4 m and h = 10 m. Find the length of FH, correct to the nearest
metre.
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9 ABC is an isosceles triangle with a base of length 144 cm B

and perpendicular height of 21 cm. Find the length of the
equal sides.
21 cm
A D C
144 cm
10 Find values for x and y, correct to 1 decimal place where

70 mm necessary.
y mm
xm
36 mm
m
15 mm
11 Find the value of each pronumeral.

a 8m b 14 m c 72 m
km 12 m
9m 16 m
60 m sm
48 m vm 9m
12 Find the value of y in this isosceles trapezium, 6 cm

then calculate the perimeter.
y cm
9 cm
30 cm
13 a Find values for a and b in this kite.

a cm
1.2 cm b Calculate the perimeter.
4 cm
b cm
1.8 cm
14 The area of a rectangle is 27 cm2 and its length is 6 cm. find:

a the width b the length of a diagonal
15 F EFGH is a square and JGIH is a rectangle.

Calculate the perimeter of EFGH.
J G
20 cm
H 21 cm I
16 Find, correct to 1 decimal place, the length of the interval joining the points (1, 3) and
(4, 8) on a number plane.
17 A rhombus PQRS has diagonals of length 12 cm and 16 cm.

a Find the side length of the rhombus.
b Calculate the perimeter.
3.3 Finding a short side

Pythagoras’ Theorem can be used to find the length of one of the short sides when the lengths
of the hypotenuse and the other side are known.
Example 1
EG Find the length of the side marked with the pronumeral in each of these, correct to 1 decimal
+S place where necessary.
a b
13 cm 11 cm
5 cm k cm
p cm 20 cm
Solutions
a p2 + 52 = 132 b k2 + 112 = 202
p2 + 25 = 169 k2 + 121 = 400
− 25 −25 −121 −121
p2 = 144 k2 = 279
∴ p = 144 ∴ k = 279
= 12 = 16.7 (to 1 decimal place)
∴ The length of the side is 12 cm. ∴ The length of the side is 16.7 cm.
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Example 2 B
EG a Find values for x and y.
+S b Hence, calculate the perimeter of ∆ABC.
24.7 m 28.5 m
xm
A D C
9.5 m ym
Solutions
a i In ∆ABD: ii In ∆BCD:
x + 9.5 = 24.7
2 2 2
y2 + 22.82 = 28.52
x + 90.25 = 610.09
2
y + 519.84 = 812.25
2
− 90.25 −90.25 −519.84 −519.84

x = 519.84
2
y2 = 292.41
∴ x = 519.84 ∴ y = 292.41
= 22.8 = 17.1
b Perimeter of ∆ABC = AB + BC + AC
= 24.7 m + 28.5 m + (9.5 m + 17.1 m)
= 79.8 m
Exercise 3.3
1 In each of these triangles find the length of the side marked with the pronumeral.
(All measurements are in m.)
a 4 b c
12 a
10
p
x
5 13
6
d e 25 f s
17
e
7 k 36
39
8
g h i
45 24 w 11
r 61
74 y
27
2 Find as a surd the exact length of the side marked with the pronumeral in each triangle.
(All measurements are in cm.)
a d b c
z 10 19
7
6 11 14
f
d 23 e f j
35
h
4 s 18
50
27
g h 24 i
b
16
w 60
21 12
38
t
3 Find the length of the third side of a triangle, correct to one decimal place, if the lengths of
the hypotenuse and a shorter side are:
a 9.4 cm, 6.6 cm b 11.9 m, 2.3 m c 20.5 mm, 18.8 mm
■ Consolidation
4 Use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the value of x in each of these, correct to 1 decimal place
where necessary.
a b x cm c
34
x cm cm 8
cm
c m
30 cm 16 cm
42
x cm
5 Find values for p and q in each of these.

a b
52 mm
q mm
29 mm 25 mm
20 mm p mm
p mm q mm 55 mm
73 mm
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6 X Calculate the perimeter of ∆XYZ if XY = 90 km, YZ = 97 km

and WY = 72 km.
90 km
72 km
W Y
97 km
7 The rectangle shown has a length of 35 cm and diagonal of

cm length 37 cm. Find:
37
a the width
35 cm b the perimeter of the rectangle
8 a In ∆JKL, ∠K = 90°, KL = 8 cm and JL = 18 cm. Find the length of JK, correct to

1 decimal place.
b In ∆EFG, ∠E = 90°, EF = 13 m and FG = 22 m. Find the length of EG, correct to
2 decimal places.
c In ∆XYZ, ∠Z = 90°, x = 23 cm and z = 36 cm. Find the length of XZ, correct to
1 decimal place.
d In ∆UVW, ∠V = 90°, u = 37 m and V = 45 m. Find the length of UV, correct to the
nearest metre.
9 PQR is an isosceles triangle with a perimeter of 162 cm and 56 cm

a base of 56 cm. Find the length of: P
S
R
a QR b QS
10 63 m Find values for u and v, correct to 1 decimal place,

vm where necessary.
16 m um
77 m
11 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of these.

a 7 cm b c 52 cm
h cm 85 cm 85 cm
41 cm 9 cm
k cm
20 cm y cm
22 cm
77 cm
12 T In the diagram shown, TU = 45 cm, TV = 53 cm, TW = 75 cm.

Find the length of:
a UV b UW c VW
U V W
13 K In the kite shown, JL = 16 cm, LM = 17 cm and KM = 21 cm.

Find the length of:
a LN b MN c KN d KL
J L
N
14 If WY = 25 mm and XZ = 26 mm, find the length of: Z

a XY b YZ
W
7 mm
X Y
15 A B In the diagram, AB = 96 cm, BC = 28 cm, CD = 10 cm,

EF = 20 cm and AF = 9 cm. Find the length of:
F a AC b FC c DE
C
E D
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16 1m 1m Find values for g and h.
hm
gm
0.5 m
1.3 m
17 W X WXYZ is a rhombus with perimeter 232 cm.

If XZ = 84 cm, find the length of WY.
Z Y
18 B An isosceles triangle ABC has been inscribed in a circle with

centre O. The heights BD and OD are 32 cm and 7 cm,
respectively.
O a Find the length of the radius.
b Calculate the length of the chord AC.
A D C
TRY THIS Demonstrating Pythagoras’ Theorem

This construction is easier if done on graph paper.
Accurate work is necessary so a good ruler and
set square or protractor are required.
Step 1 Accurately construct a right-angled triangle
—the larger the better! Accurately construct e
the squares on the three sides. d
Step 2 Carefully extend the sides of the largest square
b
into the other squares as shown by the dotted lines.
Step 3 The two small squares are now divided into 5 areas a
c
marked a, b, c, d, e. Cut out these 5 areas.
Problem
Try to place these five areas so that they completely cover the square on the
hypotenuse. (It is not easy, but it can be done. Keep rearranging!)
Question
Does this construction prove Pythagoras’ Theorem (that is, the square on the
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides)?
3.4 Solving problems by using

The questions in this exercise involve finding either the length of the hypotenuse or the length
of a short side. In some questions you will need to draw a diagram and clearly label it with all
of the given information.
Example 1
EG The foot of a ladder is 2.5 m away from the base of a wall. If the ladder reaches 7 m up the
+S wall, find the length of the ladder.
Solution
x2 = 72 + 2.52
= 49 + 6.25
7m xm = 55.25
∴ x = 55.25
= 7.4 (to 1 decimal place)
2.5 m
∴ The length of the ladder is 7.4 m.
Example 2
EG B In the diagram shown, AB = 37.5 m, BD = 25.5 m and
+S CD = 12 m. Find the length of:
37.5 m a BC b AC c AD
25.5 m
A
D 12 m C
Solutions
a In ∆BCD: b In ∆ABC: c AD = AC − DC
BC2 + DC2 = BD2 AC2 + BC2 = AB2 = 30 m − 12 m
BC2 + 122 = 25.52 AC2 + 22.52 = 37.52 = 18 m
BC2 + 144 = 650.25 AC2 + 506.25 = 1406.25
− 144 − 144 − 506.25 − 506.25
BC2 = 506.25 AC2 = 900
∴ BC = 506.25 ∴ AC = 900
= 22.5 m = 30 m
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Exercise 3.4
1 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of these, correct to 1 decimal place where
necessary.
a b 14 c 15
k
5
x
8 36
7 w
d e f
17 80 6 3
64
18
e
m
q
g 26 h i
19 21
r
g 45
32
j 72
■ Consolidation
2 A ladder of length 9 m reaches 7 m up the side of a wall. How far is the foot of the ladder
from the base of the wall, correct to 1 decimal place?
3 The foot of a ladder is 3 m from the base of a wall. If the ladder reaches 14 m up the wall,
find, correct to 2 decimal places, the length of the ladder.
4 Gary drove 22 km due north, then turned and drove 120 km due east. How far is he from
his starting point?
5 A woman left home and drove 61 km due south, 77 km due west, then 25 km due north.
How far is the woman from home?
6 The size of a television screen is given by the length of its diagonals. Find the size of a
television screen of length 55 cm and width 48 cm.
7 E In ∆EFG, FH is drawn perpendicular to EG,
EF = 15 mm, FH = 12 mm and FG = 20 mm.
H a Find the length of
i EH ii HG iii EG
b Show that ∆EFG is right-angled.
F G
8 An aeroplane takes off and flies 200 km due south, then turns and flies due east until it is
260 km away from the airport where it took off. How far east did the plane fly, correct to
the nearest km?
9 3x m Use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the value of x in this triangle.
30 m 4x m
10 Find the total perimeter of this triangle, correct to 1 decimal place. 18 cm
25 cm
11 Find values for x and y.

y
18 30
x 56
12 B ∆ABC has been inscribed in a circle centre O with radius

6 cm 5 cm and diameter AC. The chord AB has length 6 cm and
∠ABC = 90°.
A C a Find the length of the diameter AC.
O
b Calculate the length of the chord BC.
13 The diagram shows a cone with a slant height of 1.13 m

and a perpendicular height of 1.12 m. Find the length of
1.13 m the diameter of the base of the cone.
1.12 m
14 ABCDE is a rectangular pyramid. The point F E

marks the centre of the base. If EF = 2 m,
AD = 3 m and CD = 12 m, find the length of: 2m
a FG b EG c DG d DE
B C
F G 12 m
A 3m D
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15 C A construction worker must climb a ladder from

A to B, then climb a second ladder from B to C
in order to reach the second floor of a building
20 m
under construction. Find the total length of the
B D ladders if AE = 20 m, CE = 20 m, BF = 8 m and
BD = 5 m.
A E
F
20 m
16 Two buildings of different heights stand on opposite sides

10.4 m
of a street. The tops of the buildings are joined by a cable
of length 10.4 m. If the taller building is 11 m high and the
distance between the buildings is 6.9 m, find the height of 11 m
the shorter building, correct to the nearest tenth of a metre. hm
6.9 m
17 22 m A farmer wishes to construct a fence around a

paddock with the given dimensions.
xm a Find the value of x.
70 m b Calculate the perimeter of the paddock.
15 m c Determine the cost of fencing the paddock if
fencing materials cost $35 per metre.
70 m
18 N Peter and Robert left home at 2 pm. Peter drove due
north at 50 km/h while Robert drove due east at
Peter 80 km/h.
a How far has each person travelled by 4.30 pm?
b Find the distance between the men at 4.30 pm,
E correct to the nearest km.
Home Robert
19 A pencil case in the shape of a rectangular prism has

8 cm dimensions 12 cm, 9 cm and 8 cm.
a Find the length of the longest pencil that will fit
9 cm completely within the pencil case.
12 cm b If instead, the dimensions of the pencil case are
a cm, b cm and c cm, show that the length L cm
of the longest pencil that will fit inside the pencil
case is given by L = a 2 + b 2 + c 2 .
Secret societies, mathematics

and magic
Introduction
Pythagoras is most famous for the theorem that bears his name and which you have studied in
this chapter. There is historical evidence, however, which indicates that the theorem was known
by the Chinese and the Babylonians centuries earlier. The wider contribution of Pythagoras to
the development of mathematics in the ancient world was very important, and included the
mathematics of musical notes. Pythagoras was born on the Greek island of Samos in about
580 BC. He must have come from a respected family for he had time to study under a famous
teacher, Thales, and visit far-off places such as Egypt and Babylon to study the mathematics
and learning of those civilisations.
Eventually he settled in the (then) Greek city of Crotona in southern Italy. He gathered around
him a society of young nobles to study and listen to his teachings. Among them was a beautiful
girl called Theano who captured his heart and became his wife. The Society was very influential
although its teachings were a mixture of mathematics
and magic. For example, Pythagoras believed that
different types of numbers had magical properties.
The Society was later forced to meet in secret as the
Greek authorities became alarmed at its teachings. Area
The Society had a secret symbol in the shape of a A
five pointed star known as a pentagram. Eventually
the Society was forced to disband, but such was Area
Pythagoras’ reputation that it lasted for 50 years after B
his death.
Geometric representation of Pythagoras’ Theorem
If squares are drawn on the sides of a right-angled Area
C
triangle, as shown, and their areas are measured, it is
found that:
Area A = Area B + Area C
Using algebra, we can write this equation as a2 + b2 = c2. We can work with the lengths of the
sides to calculate one side given the other two, as you have seen in this chapter.
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Focus question
Does the theorem work for other shapes? What if A, B and C were rectangles or other shapes?
Would Area A still equal Area B + Area C?
1 On dot or squared paper, copy these diagrams and R

P Q
find the area of Q and R. The unit of area is the square
marked P. When finding the area of a shape it is often
a useful strategy to bound the figure by a rectangle and
subtract the areas you don’t want.
2 Investigate whether the area of the rectangle drawn on the
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the area of the rectangles
on the other two sides. Copy and complete the diagram. A
C
3 Investigate whether the area of the trapezium drawn on the

hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the area of the trapezia on
A
the other two sides. Copy and complete the diagram. C
4 Investigate whether the octagon drawn on the

hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the octagons on the
other two sides. Copy and complete the diagram. A C
5 Answer the focus question, noting that you have only tested the theorem for a few shapes.
6 All the shapes you have looked at in this exercise were deliberately drawn so that they were
similar. Discuss with your teacher the restriction this places on the result.
1 Try an equilateral triangle instead of an octagon. Again use a formula to calculate the areas,
or draw it on isometric graph paper and count the squares. Does the theorem still work?
2 Complete the following statement in your own words:
‘If similar figures are constructed on the sides of a right triangle, then the area of the figure
on the hypotenuse is . . .’
3 Note that what you have discovered has not been proved, we have merely looked at specific
cases. And it does not make the calculation of the sides of the triangle easier! The square is
the simplest shape which does it for us, hence the importance of Pythagoras’ Theorem.
Discuss with your neighbour what you have learned from your investigations. What important
new knowledge you have gained?
%R EFLECTING
As is often the case in mathematics, all is not what it seems. There is more to Pythagoras’
Theorem than meets the eye. This is part of the mystery and attraction of learning this subject.
Secret societies still exist in the world, but mathematics is open to all, and it is not magic!
B P ROBLEM SOLVING
1 The numbers 1, 2, 3, . . . , 11, 12 are arranged in three columns, each of four numbers,
so that the sum of each column is the same. Find the sum.
2 In the Kingdom of Untruths, the statement ‘All citizens have two ears’ is untrue.
Which of the following statements must be true?
a No citizen has two ears. b Not all citizens have two ears.
c Some citizens have two ears. d Some citizens do not have two ears.
e All citizens have more than two ears.
3 How many squares are there in each of these figures?
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4 In a tennis match, Mrs Green, Mrs Black, and Mrs Brown were wearing green, black,
and brown jumpers. However, none of them was wearing a jumper which matched
their name. What colour of jumper could each player have been wearing?
5 The Ancient Greek mathematician Pythagoras, about whom you have already read,
called numbers that were equal to the sum of their factors (e.g. 6 = 1 + 2 + 3)
‘perfect numbers’. Can you find the next perfect number after 6?
6 This box shape (not drawn to scale) has a volume of 2 cm3 and the
length of the square top is 2 cm. What is the height of the shape?
V = 2 cm3
7 How many different line segments can be drawn joining any of these 4 points, which
are in a straight line?
• • • •
8 How many different line segments can be drawn joining any of these 4 points?
•
•
• •
9 One quarter of a length of rope is cut off and used. Later on, two-thirds of the
remainder is cut off and used. It is found that only 15 m remains. How long was the
original rope?
10 You have 2 parents, 4 grandparents, etc. Go back 8 generations (about 200 years!),
how many ancestors did you have in that generation?
1 In any right-angled triangle the s_______ converse1 verb Formal to have a talk: We conversed
on the h_______ is equal to the s_______ about music.
of the squares on the other two sides.
The more usual word is talk.
2 Explain hypotenuse in a right-angled
triangle. converse2 /‘k nv s/ adjective 1. turned about or
ε a
opposite: to go in a converse direction
3 Explain what is meant by a Pythagorean –noun (uncount) 2. the opposite: He says it is possible
triad in your own words. but the converse is true.
4 Define theorem for a new Maths How is this word used in Mathematics?
Dictionary.
entry for converse:
1 Which two of the following statements 5 In ∆ABC, ∠C = 90°, AC = 4.9 cm and
VIEW
are true for this triangle? BC = 16.8 cm. Find the length of AB.
A A AB2 = BC2 + CA2 6 Find the value of the pronumeral in each
B AC2 = BC2 + AB2 of these, correct to 1 decimal place where
C BC2 = AB2 + CA2 necessary.
D a 2 = b 2 + c2 a
E b 2 = a 2 + c2
B C
CHAPTER RE
F c2 = a 2 + b 2 35 m qm
2 Which two of these are Pythagorean
triads?
28 m
A 5, 12, 14 B 30, 40, 50
C 6, 8, 11 D 14, 48, 50 b
16 m
3 Find the value of the pronumeral in each
of these. Give the answers for c and d as
surds. dm
65 m
a 8 cm
15 cm c
k cm
sm
17 m
b
22 m
11 cm
a cm d
60 cm 58 m
41 m
c
nm
x cm
4 cm
7 Find the width of a rectangle with length
18.2 cm and diagonals of length 21.4 cm.
7 cm Answer correct to 1 decimal place.
d e cm 8 In ∆UVW, ∠V = 90°, UW = 11.7 cm and
UV = 4.5 cm. Find the length of VW.
3 cm 9 Find values for x
11 cm 13
and y. All lengths x
are in cm. 12
4 Find the length of the diagonal in a 3.5
rectangle with length 8.5 cm and width y
4.7 cm. Answer correct to 1 decimal
place.
CHAPTER REVIEW
104 Mathscape 8
CHAPTER RE
10 Find the value of each pronumeral. 12 EFGH is a rhombus of side length

Answer correct to 1 decimal place where 12.2 cm. If the longer diagonal EG is
necessary. 24 cm, find the length of the shorter
a 12 m diagonal FH.
13 A ladder 15 m long is leaning against a
km
12 m wall and the foot of the ladder is 3 m from
the base of the wall. Find how far up the
wall the ladder reaches, correct to the
21 m
nearest cm.
b 12 cm
14 Sue-Lin drove 19 km south, then turned
y cm and drove 11 km due east. How far is she
8 cm
then from her starting point? Answer to
the nearest tenth of a kilometre.
32 cm
15 Mary walks due west away from school at
11 a Find the height a speed of 3 km/h. Her friend Margaret
h cm of this 10 cm walks due north from the school at a
VIEW
isosceles h cm speed of 4 km/h. How far apart are the

triangle. two girls after 90 minutes?
16 cm 16 An isosceles triangle R
b In the isosceles A PQR is inscribed in a
triangle ABC, circle with centre O.
AB = BC = 58 cm The altitudes OC and O
and BD = 40 cm. D B RC are 12 mm and
Find the length 49 mm respectively. P C Q
of AC. Find the length of PQ.
C
CHAPTER REVIEW
Data
representation
4
Data representation
Stage 3
draw and interpret picture graphs.
Stage 4
classify data as either quantitative or categorical
classify quantitative data as either discrete or continuous
draw and interpret sector graphs, conversion graphs,
divided bar graphs, line graphs and step graphs
use a spreadsheet program to draw a variety of graphs
draw and interpret travel graphs
read and interpret charts and tables
read, interpret and make predictions from scatter diagrams
organise data into a frequency distribution table
draw and interpret a frequency histogram, a frequency
polygon and a dot plot
identify clusters and outliers in dot plots
draw and interpret stem-and-leaf plots
identify and explain any misleading features of a graph.
105
106 Mathscape 8
4.1 Classifying data

Variables are particular characteristics of people or objects. They may vary or change from
person to person or object to object, but can be grouped in some general way under a single
name. Some examples of variables are height, weight, age, gender and languages spoken.
The diagram on the right shows how Data
variables may be classified as either
categorical or quantitative. Quantitative
variables can then be further classified
Categorical Quantitative
as either discrete or continuous.
• A categorical variable is a variable
that describes a category or group of Discrete Continuous
things. It cannot be counted or
measured. For example, nationality,
occupation, sport and method of communication are categorical variables.
• A quantitative variable is a variable that has a numerical value. It can either be counted or
measured. For example, length, age, capacity and number of keys on a computer keyboard
are quantitative variables.
• A discrete variable is a quantitative variable that has an exact value and usually arises after
counting has occurred. For example, exam results, hat size and number of people in a room
are discrete variables.
• A continuous variable is a quantitative variable that can assume any value between certain
limits and usually arises after measuring has occurred. For example, height, weight and
speed are continuous variables.
Example 1
EG Classify the following data as either categorical, discrete quantitative or continuous
+S quantitative.
a the number of classrooms in a school b eye colour c the height of a plant
Solutions
a The number of classrooms in a school is found by counting and has an exact value,
therefore it is discrete quantitative data.
b The colour of a person’s eyes belongs to a category or group and cannot be counted or
measured, therefore it is categorical data.
c The height of a plant is found by measuring, and the accuracy of the measurement depends
on the precision of the measuring instrument being used, therefore it is continuous
quantitative data.
Chapter 4: Data representation 107
Exercise 4.1
1 Explain the difference between:

a categorical data and quantitative data b discrete and continuous data.
2 Classify the following data as either quantitative (Q) or categorical (C).

a height of a child b hair colour
c shoe size d number of leaves on a tree
e ice-cream flavours f age of a woman
g occupations of a group of people h styles of music
i radio stations j points scored by a football team
k sports l mass
m IQ n school subjects
o waist size p the area of parkland in a suburb
■ Consolidation
3 State whether the following quantitative data is discrete (D) or continuous (C).
a number of sets won in a tennis match b noise level on a busy street
c number of rooms in a unit d weekly income of a salesman
e number of children on a school bus f electricity usage in a house
g number of teachers at a school h points scored by a netballer
i capacity of a swimming pool j time taken to run 400 m
k jogging speed of an athlete l number of letters in a name
m age of an ancient artifact n number of wheels on a car
o height of Mt Kosciuszko p number of hairs on a human head
q number of words in a newspaper r circumference of a bicycle wheel
s distance between two towns t litres of petrol in a car
4 State whether the following data is categorical (C), discrete quantitative (DQ) or continuous
quantitative (CQ).
a number of planets in the solar system b flavours of potato chips
c pulse rates of joggers in a park d temperature at the North Pole
e types of plants f height of a small tree
g number of principals at your school h train fares to and from work
i speed of an aeroplane j sports that you have played
k number of fish in the ocean l number of people who live in your street
m distance between the Earth and the Sun n score on your last Maths test
o Academy-award winning movies p types of animals in Taronga Zoo
q boys names beginning with G r reaction times of drivers
s number of telephone numbers in the t number of hydrogen atoms in one
Yellow Pages molecule of water
108 Mathscape 8
5 Explain why it is not appropriate to represent:
a continuous data in a sector graph b discrete data in a line graph
6 Give 3 examples of variables other than those already mentioned in this exercise that are:
a categorical b discrete quantitative c continuous quantitative
4.2 Reading and interpreting

graphs
Data can be organised into a graph in order to make it easier to understand and analyse.
In particular, when the data is presented in the form of a graph, trends can be more easily seen
than when the data is left unordered.
There are many different graphs that can be drawn to represent data. Some of the more common
graphs are the column graph, line graph, sector graph, bar graph, divided bar graph and picture
graph.
Every graph should have a title, the axes should be clearly labelled and the values shown on
each axis must have a consistent scale.
■ Column graph
Quarterly book sales
In a column graph: 250
200
Books sold
• the data is represented by a number of

vertical columns 150
• the data is shown on the horizontal axis 100
• the number of times each piece of data
50
occurs is shown on the vertical axis
• multiple columns and stacked columns can 0
1 2 3 4
be used to compare several data sets directly. Quarter
■ Bar graph
Favourite movie In a bar graph:
Notting Hill • the data is represented by a number of
Bridget horizontal bars
Jones' Diary • the data is shown on the vertical axis
Movie
The Bodyguard • the number of times each piece of data

Star Wars
occurs is shown on the horizontal axis
• multiple bars and stacked bars can be
The Lion King used to compare several data sets
0 10 20 30 40 directly.
Number of people
■ Line graph Ned's Electronics

bi-monthly profits
In a line graph: 50
Profit (× $1000)
• a number of points are plotted then joined by lines 40
or curves
• trends or relationships between two variables can 30
be shown 20
• the data are usually obtained by measuring rather
than counting, e.g. mass, weight or temperature 10
• it may be appropriate to determine values between
0
or beyond those that were plotted. 2 4 6 8 10
Months after opening
■ Divided bar graph

In a divided bar graph:
Book Teaching • a rectangle or bar is divided into smaller

sales salary rectangles or sections
• the length of each section is in proportion
to the value of the data that it represents
Tutoring • the value of the data in each section is
found by measuring the length of the
section then comparing it to the length
of the whole rectangle
• a scale may sometimes be given.
■ Picture graph Cliff's clocks

Jan.
In a picture graph:
Feb.
• easily recognisable pictures or symbols are used to Mar.
represent the data Apr.
• a key is included to explain the value of the symbol
• accuracy and detail are often sacrificed in favour of May
visual appeal. Key: = 200 clocks manufactured
■ Sector graph
Real estate sales 2003 In a sector graph or pie chart:
Glenhaven • a circle is divided into sectors
Castle Hill
• the angle at the centre of each sector is in
proportion to the value of the data it represents
Pennant Hills • the value of the data in each sector is found by
dividing the angle at the centre of the sector by
360° then multiplying that fraction by the total
Dural Cherrybrook value of the data.
110 Mathscape 8
Example 1 Daily flower deliveries

EG This picture graph shows the Day Number for sale
+S number of bunches of cut flowers
that are delivered to a city market Monday
each day.
Tuesday
a On which day were the
fewest bunches delivered? Wednesday
b How many bunches of
flowers were delivered on Thursday
Saturday?
Friday
c On which day were 4000
bunches of flowers delivered? Saturday
d In what part of the week are
most flowers on sale? represents 1000 bunches
Why do you think this is?
Solutions
a Monday
b 5500 bunches
c Tuesday
d Thursday, Friday and Saturday. Couples often go out on Friday and Saturday nights,
people are at home on weekends and can enjoy the flowers. Workers are usually paid on
Thursday and Friday and have money to spend on flowers.
Example 2
EG This divided bar graph shows the proportions of each type of vegetable planted in a home
+S garden.
Vegetables in home garden
O Ca
n r
Tomatoes Sweet corn Beans io r Beetroot
n o
s t
s
a Which vegetable occupies the largest section of the garden?
b What fraction of the bed is devoted to tomatoes?
c What percentage of the bed is used for beans?
d If the vegetable garden has an area of 50 m2, what area is occupied by carrots?
Solutions
20 1 15 12
a Sweet corn b --------- = --- c --------- = 15% d --------- × 50 m 2 = 6 m 2
100 5 100 100
Example 3 Sydney pollution readings

EG 40
Pollution index
This column graph shows the pollution readings 35
+S in Sydney for 1 week. 30
25
a On which days were the highest and lowest 20
pollution readings recorded? 15
10
b During what part of the week was the pollution 5
reading highest? Why do you think this is? M T W T F S S
Day
Solutions
a The lowest reading occurred on Monday (10) while the highest reading occurred on Friday
(35).
b The readings are highest just before the weekend. The reading decreases over the weekend
because fewer people are travelling to and from work. It takes a couple of days for the
pollution to accumulate again during the week.
Example 4 Monthly sales

EG This line graph shows the monthly sales of a 72
+S company from January to June. 70
Sales (× $1000)
a What were the monthly sales in April?
b During which month did sales fall? 68
c By how much have sales increased over 66
the first 6 months of the year?
64
Solutions
62
a $65 000 b April c $10 000
60
J F M A M J
Month
Example 5 Girls sports

EG This sector graph shows the school sport chosen
+S Netball
by girls at a particular secondary school. Hockey
a Do more girls play netball or softball?
b What fraction of the girls play hockey? 100° 80°
c If there are 540 girls at the school, how 66°
many play tennis? 40° 44°
Soccer Softball
d If 45 girls play soccer, what angle should
be at the centre of that sector?
Tennis
Basketball
Solutions
a More girls play netball because the angle in the netball sector is 80° while the angle in the
softball sector is 66°.
100 5 40 45
b --------- = ------ c --------- × 540 = 60 girls d --------- × 360° = 30°
360 18 360 540
112 Mathscape 8
Exercise 4.2
1 A local council conducted an investigation Causes of road accidents

into the causes of all road accidents within 40
its boundary over a 12-month period. 36
Number of accidents
The results are shown in this column graph. 32
a How many accidents occurred due to: 28
i mechanical failure? ii speed? 24
b How many more accidents involved 20
alcohol than pedestrian error? 16
c How many accidents occurred altogether 12
during this 12-month period? 8
d What fraction of the accidents could be 4
blamed on the condition of the road? 0 t
ep d e e d
e ee rfac ilur late faul
g asl p
S su l f a re an
llin o ad nica ohol estri
Fa R ha c
Al Pe
d
ec
M
Accident cause
Number of bedrooms 2 The graph shows the number of bedrooms in

in recent property sales each property sold by a real-estate agent over
a period of 1 month.
4
a What type of graph is this?
Bedrooms
3 b How many properties had 3 bedrooms?

c What was the maximum number of
2
bedrooms in any of these properties?
1 d If the average sale price for a 1-bedroom
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 unit was $276 000, find the total value of
Properties sold the sales of 1-bedroom units.
e What percentage of the properties had
4 bedrooms?
3 a What type of graph is this? Blood donors

b How many people gave blood in:
Feb.
i February? ii April?
Mar.
c In which month did 140 people give blood?
d In which month(s) did the greatest fall in Apr.
donations occur? May
e Draw the next step in the graph if 130 people Jun.
gave blood in July.
Key: represents 40 blood donors
Northern Mining gold production 4 The graph shows the amount of gold mined
1996–2002 each year by the Northern Mining gold
162 mining company since it came into operation.
Gold production (× 1000 t)
159 a In which year did the company begin

156 mining gold?
b How much gold was mined in 1998?
153
c What is the greatest amount of gold that
150 has been mined in a single year? In which
147 year was this?
144 d In which year was 154 000 t of gold
141 mined?
e In which year did the greatest fall in
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
production occur?
Year
5 This conversion graph can be used to convert Mark converter

a mark out of 40 to a mark out of 50 and vice-versa. 50
a Convert a test mark of 24/40 to a mark
out of 50. 40
b Convert a mark of 35/50 to a mark
Mark out of 50
out of 40.
30
c Ryan scored 80% on his English
assignment. Express this result as a
mark out of 40. 20
d Gina’s test result of 16/40 was increased
to 20/40. By how much would her result 10
increase if these marks were converted to
marks out of 50? 0
10 20 30 40
Mark out of 40
6 Thursday meat sales at Jim’s Butchery

Chicken Pork Veal Lamb Beef
This graph shows the Thursday meat sales at Jim’s Butchery.
a What type of graph is this?
b Complete the scale for the graph if 14 kg of chicken was sold. Answer in the form
1 mm represents . . . kg.
c How many kilograms of pork were sold?
d What fraction of the total meat sales was beef?
e How much more lamb was sold than veal?
114 Mathscape 8
■ Consolidation Electricity usage 2002–2003

7 This column graph shows the electricity 3000
usage in a household over a 2-year period.
The usage is measured each quarter in
Electricity used in kWh

kilowatt hours (kWh). The first quarter
is January–March. 2000
a In which quarter was the usage
highest?
b How many kilowatt hours of power
1000
were used in the first quarter, 2003?
c Was the usage for the July–September
quarter higher in 2002 or 2003?
d Which quarters tend to have 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
higher electricity usage? 2002 2003
Why do you think this might be? Quarter and year
KLM annual salaries 8 This side-by-side column graph shows the

14 number of men and women in each salary
Men
No. of employees
12 range at KLM Communications.

Women
10 a How many men earn between $30 001 and
8 $35 000?
6
b How many women earn between $35 001
4
and $45 000?
2
c Of those employees who are paid $40 001
0
0 0 0 0 0 1+ or more, what percentage are women?
00 00 00 00 00 00
$ 30 $ 35 $40 $45 $50 50 d KLM claims to be an equal opportunity
1– 1– 1– 1– 1– $
employer because it employs equal
00 00 00 00 00
$ 25 $ 30 $35 $ 40
$ 45 numbers of men and women. Is this
Annual salary statement valid? Explain your answer.
9 This stacked column graph shows the LG Holdings investment strategy

50
Percentage investment
percentage of company funds that were 2000

45
invested by LG Holdings in 1985 and 2000. 40 1985
a What percentage of company funds 35
30
were invested in publishing in 25
i 1985? ii 2000? 20
15
b By what percentage did the company 10
increase its investment in the medical/ 5
0
pharmaceutical area between 1985 in
g
ing i ng ter
s
ical on
s
in pp ish pu ut ti
and 2000? M Shi bl m ace ica
c Which area saw the greatest increase Pu Co rm un
a m
in the overall percentage investment? l/ph c om
ca le
d Comment on the overall change in the edi Te
M
investment strategy of the company. Area of investment
Quarterly car production 10 The production of cars in a manufacturing

plant is shown in this picture graph.
Quarter Production
a In which quarter were most cars produced?
1 b Approximately how many vehicles were
2 produced in the 4th quarter of the year?
3 c In which quarter were 3816 cars produced?
d What factors might cause some quarters to
4
be more productive than others?
represents 1000 vehicles
11 A city’s water supply comes from a large City water supply

reservoir and this graph shows the level of
water throughout a year. Contents are 40
Depth of water (m)

36
estimated by measuring the depth of water 32
at the reservoir wall. Twenty metres is 28
considered the danger level and water restrictions 24
are introduced when this level is reached. 20
16
a What was the depth of the water at the end 12
of January? 8
b What was the water depth at the beginning 4
of October? J F MA M J J A S O N D
c In which month was there high rainfall, Month
which raised the water level considerably?
d By what amount did the water level drop in November?
e At approximately what date were water restrictions introduced?
Kelly's petrol consumption 12 Kelly left home at 9:00 am to visit her parents
who live in Wagga. The graph shows the
36 volume of petrol in the petrol tank of her
32 car throughout the trip.
Petrol in tank (L)
a How much petrol was in the tank when

28 she left home?
b What happened at 10:00 am?
24
c How much petrol was left in the tank at
20 noon?
d How much petrol was used between
16 10:00 am and 12:30 pm?
12 e When did Kelly stop and for how long?
9:00 11:00 1:00 3:00 How is this indicated on the graph?
10:00 12:00 2:00 4:00
am noon pm
f How much petrol was used altogether on
this trip?
Time g What might be the capacity of the petrol
tank?
h When do you think Kelly was driving the
fastest? How do you know?
116 Mathscape 8
13 This graph allows for conversion between Temperature converter

temperatures in degrees Celsius (C°) and
degrees Fahrenheit (F°). 100
a What is the freezing temperature of 90
water in degrees Fahrenheit?
b Convert 20°C to degrees Fahrenheit. 80
Temperature (F°)
c Convert 77°F to degrees Celsius.
70
d The temperature of a pot of water
increased from 15°C to 30°C. 60
By how many degrees Fahrenheit
did the temperature rise? 50
40
30
0 10 20 30 40
Temperature (C°)
14 This graph shows the sale of 80 animals at Peta’s Pets.
Peta's Pet Store sales
Mice Cats Dogs Birds Fish
a Express the pet sales as percentages.

b How many cats were sold?
c How many more dogs were sold than mice?
d What is the scale for this graph? Answer in the form . . . mm represents 1 pet.
15 This divided bar graph shows some Household expenditure

of the household costs for one year.
a Which was the least expense? Council rates Water Electricity Gas Insurance
b Which was the greatest expense?
c The total expenditure for all 5 services was exactly $4000. How much was spent on:
i electricity? ii gas? iii insurance?
d What percentage of the total expenditure was spent on insurance?
Students' home suburbs 16 The Year 8 students at Kingscliffe High School

created a sector graph showing the percentage of the
Collaroy Narrabeen
10%
year group who live in each of the surrounding
14%
suburbs.
a In which suburb do most students live?
Dee Why b What percentage of the students live in Harbord?
Manly 6
24% 36%
c In which suburb do ------ of the students live?
25
d If there are 150 students in Year 8, find the number
of students who live in each suburb.
Harbord e What should be the size of the angle at the centre of
16% each sector? Give your answer to the nearest degree.
17 This sector graph shows the pattern of video rentals Saturday video rentals
on one Saturday night at a certain video store.
Comedy
a Measure the angle at the centre of the drama
Drama
sector. If 18 drama videos were rented, find the
Horror
total number of videos rented on Saturday night.
Action
b What fraction of the videos were action films?
Sport
c How many science-fiction videos were rented?
Sci-Fi
d What percentage of videos rented were comedies?
Give your answer to the nearest whole percentage.
Jewellery sales 18 This sector graph shows last week’s sales pattern
at the Jewel in the Crown jewellery store.
a If the angle at the centre of the necklaces
Earrings Necklaces sector is 54°, find the percentage of sales that
were necklaces.
b What percentage of sales were earrings?
Watches
c Which item generated the most sales?
23%
Rings d If 16 pairs of earrings were sold last week,
37% find the total number of sales for the week.
e How many bracelets were sold?
Bracelets
f How many more rings were sold than
17%
watches?
19 The Australian Government set up a task force of 45 Environment task force

parliamentarians to examine various environmental
National
issues such as soil salinity and air pollution. The
make-up of the task force is shown in this sector
graph. Democrats
Liberals
a Which party has the greatest representation? Greens
b Which two groups have the least representation?
Independents
c What fraction of the task force is made up of Labor
members of the National Party?
d How many members of the Labor Party are there
on the task force?
118 Mathscape 8
SYDNEY TODAY SYDNEY YESTERDAY 20 The graphs and tables shown

Dry, Cold earlier with frost in 40 provide information about the
TEMPERATURE 19.3 35
the west then cool to mild and Maximum at 2.16pm weather and tidal conditions in
30
mostly sunny conditions. Minimum at 6.52am 4.3
Liverpool 19-26 showers 25 Sydney. They were published
20
Richmond 18-27 showers
15
in the Sydney Morning Herald
10 on 13 July 2002.
TEMPERATURE 40 5
a What were the minimum and
0
19° 9am 3pm 7pm maximum temperatures on
30
today's 11 July?
forecast
RAINmm .0mm - 9am to3pm
20 24hrs to 9am
b From which directions is the
5° 991.0 681.6 0.0 98.9 wind predicted to blow on
Jan 1 Jan 1 July 1 July
10
to date to date to average
13 July?
2001 2002 July 12 c What is the reading on the
0
HUMIDITY %
pollution air quality index for
8 July - 13 July 100
12 July?
80
d What is the predicted UV
WIND N 60
exposure reading for 13 July?
40
e What were the minimum and
20
maximum temperatures
0
9am 3pm 7pm recorded on 12 July? At what
W E 100
Moderate to times did they occur?
fresh BAROMETER Hpascals
W/NW winds
1027 f How much more rain fell
1024
between 1 Jan and 13 July in
1018.7
1016.6
1018.3
1021
S 2001 than in 2002?
Yesterday: W winds 1018
Max speed 28 km/h at 8.37am g By what percentage did the
1015
9am 3pm 7pm
humidity rise between 3:00 pm
POLLUTION Today
air quality index MOON PLANETS and 7:00 pm on 12 July?
Yesterday
rises sets h Use the barometer to find the
SUN 6.59am 5.03pm
0 50 MOON 9.15am 8.02pm change in atmospheric
MERCURY 6.25am 4.17pm
low high
VENUS 9.22am 8.23pm
pressure between 9:00 am and
MARS 7.38am 5.42pm 3:00 pm on 12 July.
UV EXPOSURE UV index JUPITER 7.21am 5.24pm
i For how long will the sun be
SATURN 5.01am 3.00pm
FULL MOON
0 10
visible on 13 July?
low high JUL 17 JUL 24 AUG 1 AUG 9 j On what date is the next full
moon due?
k At what times are high and low
tides predicted on Saturday?
SYDNEY TIDES (
1.8 ) 1.8 l What is the difference, in
Saturday m Sunday 1.4 m 2m
1.4
m metres, between the depth of
m 10.36pm 11.27pm1.7
water at high tide and low tide
10.33am 11.25am 1.2 on Sunday?
0.2 0.4 0.2 0.5
m m 0.8
m m
0.5
4.31am 4.07pm 5.19am 5.02pm
0.0
Midn 6am noon 6pm Midn 6am noon 6pm Midn
21
50 Malaysian $NZ
ringgits (MYR)
40
Foreign currencies
30
Euro
20
10
0
10 20 30 40 50
Australian dollars ($A)
a Convert:
i $A20 to $NZ ii 15 euro to $A iii 36 MYR to $A
b Convert:
i 5 euro to $NZ ii 42 MYR to euro iii $NZ30 to MYR
c Which is greater in Australian dollars, 21 euro or $NZ48, and by how much?
d After visiting several countries, a tourist returned to Australia with 14 MYR, $NZ18
and 24 euro. How much is this altogether in Australian dollars?
22 Outline the strengths and weaknesses of the following graphs.

a column graph b line graph c sector graph d picture graph
4.3 Drawing graphs

When displaying data in the form of a graph it is important to:
choose the most appropriate type of graph
choose an appropriate scale for the axes
label the axes
draw the graph as accurately as possible
give the graph a title.
120 Mathscape 8
In general, it is best to draw:

a line graph for continuous quantitative data
a column graph or horizontal bar graph for discrete quantitative data
a sector graph, column graph, horizontal bar graph, divided bar graph,
or picture graph for categorical data.
Example 1
EG The data in the table below shows the daily share price for the Southern Mining Company over
+S a period of one week. Illustrate this data in the form of a line graph.
Day of week Mon. Tue. Wed. Thu. Fri.
Share price (cents) 35 38 34 36 41
Solution
Southern Mining share price

45
40
35
Share price (cents)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Mon. Tues. Wed. Thu. Fri.
Day
Example 2
EG The data in the table below shows the number of salespeople employed in each state by a
+S company. Illustrate this data in the form of:
a a sector graph b a column graph
State NSW QLD VIC WA SA TAS
Number of people 34 23 27 16 13 7
Solutions
a Total number of salespeople = 34 + 23 + 27 + 16 + 13 + 7
= 120
The angle needed to draw each sector is calculated as follows:
--------- × 360° = 102° × 360° = 69° × 360° = 81°
34 23 27
NSW: 120
QLD: ---------
120
VIC: ---------
120
--------- × 360° = 48° --------- × 360° = 39° × 360° = 21°
16 13 7
WA: 120
SA: 120
TAS: --------
120
-
Number of salespeople by state

TAS
SA
NSW
WA
QLD
VIC
b
Number of salespeople by state
40
Number of salespeople
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
NSW Qld Vic WA SA Tas
State
Example 3
EG The data in the table below shows the method of travel to school by the students at Mort St
+S High School. The figures have been rounded to the nearest 10 students. Illustrate the data in
the form of:
a a divided bar graph b a picture graph
Method of travel Bus Ferry Car Walk
Number of students 180 120 60 40
122 Mathscape 8
Solutions
Walk
a
Bus Ferry Car
Scale: 1 mm = 5 students
b
Bus
Ferry
Car
Walk
Key: = 20 students
Exercise 4.3
1 Draw a column graph to represent this data.

Dividends for the Super Rich Opal Mining Company
Quarter 1 2 3 4
Dividend in cents/share 14.2 14.8 15.3 14.5
2 The temperature at Rouse Hill was recorded over the course of a day between 9:00 am and
4:00 pm. Draw a line graph to illustrate these temperatures.
Time 9:00 am 10:00 am 11:00 am noon 1:00 pm 2:00 pm 3:00 pm 4:00 pm
Temperature (°C) 10°C 14°C 16°C 19°C 22°C 21°C 18°C 16°C
3 Construct a picture graph for this data.

Rainy days in a country town
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
5 6 3 0 4 4 8 7 6 2 7 10
4 A town has five takeaway food outlets and their percentages of the town’s trade are
provided in this table. Construct a bar graph for this data.
Shop Sports Jacque’s Cecily’s The Thai/
Club Chinese Take-away Chicken Indian
Take-away Shop Restaurant
% of trade 8 18 33 12 29
5 Seventy-two people were asked which free-to-air TV channel they watched most. Construct
an accurate sector graph, using your protractor, ruler and compass, to illustrate these results.
Channel 2 7 9 10 0
Number of viewers 12 19 18 13 10
■ Consolidation
6 The table below shows the number of bottles of wine produced by a winery between 1999
and 2003.
Year 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Number of bottles 3904 4877 3610 6948 7535
Draw a picture graph using = 1000 bottles. Use only whole bottles or half bottles in your
graph.
7 The table shows the chlorine levels in a swimming pool during one hot day. Regulations for
pool employees require that chlorine be added if the reading drops below 4.5. Construct a
line graph to represent this data.
Time 9:00 9:30 10:00 10:30 11:00 11:30 12:00 12:30 1:00 1:30 2:00 2:30 3:00 3:30 4:00
am pm
Chlorine
5.2 5.2 5.1 5.0 4.8 4.7 4.5 4.2 6.1 5.7 5.2 4.8 4.4 6.3 6.2
level
8 The Advanced and Intermediate Mathematics students in Year 9 were given a common test
on non-calculator arithmetic to assess their numeracy skills. Their results are shown in the
table below.
Mark range (%) 1–20 21–40 41–60 61–80 81–100
Advanced 2 5 7 10 8
Intermediate 5 12 21 8 4
Show this data in the form of:
a a side-by-side column graph with the Intermediate students in the left-hand column
b a stacked column graph with the Intermediate students in the bottom section of each
column.
9 Draw sector graphs using protractor, ruler and compass for each of the sets of data.
Be careful to choose a radius for your circle which is sufficient to allow clear labelling,
and accuracy of the graph. (Draw angles correct to the nearest degree.)
a A farm of 5400 ha is used for various purposes as shown.
Homestead, sheds, road etc. — 45 ha
Sheep — 2700 ha Wheat — 1800 ha Other crops — 255 ha Rested — 600 ha
b Travel between Australian capital cities was by:
Train 17% Air 38%
Bus 22% Private vehicle 23%
124 Mathscape 8
10 a Roll a die 50 times and record the number showing on the uppermost face.
b Present the results in the form of a column graph.
c Make up five questions that could be answered using your graph.
11 Explain why it would not be appropriate to represent:

a the sports played by all Year 8 students by using a line graph
b the tidal height during the day by using a sector graph.
12 Which of the graphs studied in this exercise would be appropriate to display:

a the number of students in each year group at a high school?
b the monthly weight readings of a child in its first 12 months?
c the types of vehicles that passed through an intersection over a 1-hour period?
d the annual sales of a football-jumper manufacturer over a 5-year period?
e the number of books sold each year by a publisher?
f the conversion between a percentage and a mark out of 40?
g the hourly temperature readings over a 24-hour period?
h the time spent on one evening by a student completing homework for each subject?
13 In a spreadsheet program such as Excel, the graphing function called Chart Wizard can be
used to draw many different types of graphs. The example below illustrates the steps that
should be followed to draw a column graph. Other graphs can be drawn using the same or
similar steps.
The data below shows the number of bicycles hired each month at a bicycle hire shop next
to a large suburban park.
A B
1 Day of week Number of
bicycles hired
2 Monday 12
3 Tuesday 14
4 Wednesday 11
5 Thursday 18
6 Friday 16
7 Saturday 25
8 Sunday 28
1 To highlight the data, click on cell A2. Press, hold and drag to cell B8, then release the
mouse button.
2 Click the Chart Wizard button on the toolbar. (It looks like a column graph.)
3 Use the Press and hold to view sample bar. This shows you what your graph will look
like.
4 Click on Next >. This gives you the choice of drawing a vertical column graph or a
horizontal bar graph.
5 Click on Next >. In the box titled Chart Title, type in a title for your graph, e.g. ‘Bicycles
hired at Tim’s bicycle shop’. In the box titled Category (X) axis, label the horizontal axis
as ‘Day of the week’. In the box titled Value (Y) axis, label the vertical axis as ‘Number
of bicycles hired’.
6 Click on Next >, then click on Finish.
You can adjust the size of your graph by clicking a point inside the chart area, then dragging
one of the small black squares. Other features of the graph can be adjusted by double
clicking.
7 To adjust the columns double click on any column. You can then change the colour,
pattern or column width.
8 To adjust the title double click on the title. You can then change its size or font.
9 To adjust the axes double click on an axis. You can then change the scale or the angle of
the values on the axes.
Your graph should look like this one. Bicycles hired at Tim's bicycle shop
Number of bicycles
Try drawing some of the other graphs in 30

this exercise using a spreadsheet program. 25
hired
Compare these to the graphs that you have 20

drawn. You might like to experiment by 15
trying some of the variations of these graphs 10
that are available in the spreadsheet program. 5
y y y y y y y
da da da da da da da
on ues dnes hurs Fri atur Sun
M T e T S
W
Day of the week
4.4 Step graphs

A step graph is a line graph which looks like a series of steps. Each new step begins directly
above where the previous line finishes. To avoid any confusion with the values on the vertical
axis, open and closed dots are used at the ends of the steps. An open dot indicates that the graph
does not exist at that point, whereas a closed dot indicates that the graph does exist there.
Step graphs are often used to represent situations that involve sudden jumps such as the cost
of postage, parking and long-distance telephone calls.
126 Mathscape 8
Example 1
EG This step graph shows the number of tins of
+S Number of tins of paint required
paint required to cover an area of wall.
Number of tins required

a How many tins of paint must be purchased 5
to cover an area of: i 40 m2? ii 36 m2?
4
b What is the maximum area that can be
3
painted with 2 tins of paint?
2
c How many square metres does each tin of
paint cover? 1
d Calculate the cost of painting two walls 0

12 24 36 48 60
that each measure 5 m by 3.4 m, if paint Area (m2)
costs $21.95 per tin.
Solutions
a i 4 tins ii 3 tins b 24 m2 c 12 m2
d i Area to be painted = 5 m × 3.4 m × 2 ii This area requires 3 tins of paint.
= 34 m2 Cost = $21.95 × 3
= $65.85
Exercise 4.4
1 This step graph shows parking charges.

Parking charges
12 a Find the cost of parking for:
i 1h ii 2 h iii 4 1--2- h
10
b How much would it cost to park for:
8
Cost ($)
i 30 min? ii 3 h 45 min?
6
c What is the longest time that a person can park at
4 the station for:
2 i $5? ii $4?
d Find the total cost of parking a car for the following
0 periods.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (hours) Mon: 3 h Tue: 5 h Wed: 30 min
1 1
Thu: 4 --2- h Fri: 1 --2- h Sat: 2 h 25 min
2 The graph shows the postal charges for letters Postal charges
mailed from within Australia to anywhere in the 6
Asia–Pacific region. 5
a Find the cost of sending a letter weighing:
4
Cost ($)
i 100 g ii 50 g iii 25 g
b Find the cost of mailing a letter that weighs 125 g. 3
c What is the heaviest letter than can be mailed for: 2
i $3? ii $1.50?
1
d How much more does it cost to mail 3 letters each
weighing 325 g than to mail 5 letters each 0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350
weighing 60 g and 7 letters each weighing 25 g?
Weight (g)
■ Consolidation
Mobile phone charges 3 A telephone company charges mobile

1.44 phone calls at the rates shown in the graph.
a How much will a 3 min 10 s call cost?
1.26
b What is the longest conversation a
1.08 caller can have for 90c?
c Helen speaks on her mobile phone for
Cost ($)
0.90
2 min 40 s. How much longer could she
0.72
have talked without any extra charge?
0.54 d Lindsay’s mobile phone dropped out
0.36 after 1 min 15 s. He called back and
0.18
spoke for another 2 min 10 s. How
much extra has the call cost because of
0 the dropout?
1 min 2 min 3 min 4 min
Call length
4 Chlorine for backyard swimming pools is available in 2-litre tins costing $17.50.
The amount of chlorine required is determined by the size of the pool.
Cost of chlorine
70.00
52.50
Cost ($)
35.00
17.50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Chlorine required (litres)
128 Mathscape 8
a If 5 litres of chlorine are required, how many tins will be needed?

b A customer has only $60. How much chlorine can he purchase?
c Chlorine is added to pools at the rate of 1 litre for every 10 000 litres of water. If a
swimming pool holds 35 000 litres of water, how much will it cost for chlorine?
d Another pool shop only sells chlorine in 1-litre containers costing $9.20. Which size
container would be cheaper for a customer who requires 7 litres of chlorine, and by
how much?
5 The cost of water in Sydney is approximately 90 cents per kilolitre. Draw a step graph
showing water costs for usages up to 5000 L.
6 A landscape supplier sells rolls of Queensland
Number of rolls Cost per roll
Couch turf. The cost is reduced for every
10 rolls purchased. Draw a step graph that 1–10 $9
shows the cost of purchasing up to 50 rolls 11–20 $8.50
of Queensland Couch.
21–30 $8
31–40 $7.50
41–50 $7
7 The total cost of sending a parcel by freight using a private courier service is determined by
adding the individual costs determined on two different scales. One scale calculates part of
the cost according to the mass of the parcel and the other scale calculates part of the cost
according to the distance that the parcel is to be sent.
Mass Cost
up to 25 kg $35
over 25 kg up to 50 kg $50
over 100 kg $100
Distance Cost
up to 100 km $15
over 100 km up to 200 km $25
over 200 km up to 500 km $35
over 500 km $50
a Draw separate step graphs for the costs shown in each of the tables.
b Calculate the cost of sending the following parcels.
i 18 kg to a depot 200 km away ii 57 kg to a depot 615 km away
8 Cost of tiles
2000
1500
Cost ($)
1000
500
0
10 20 30 40 50
Area (m2)
Serendipity Blue
Greek Goddess
Tiles are only sold in batches of 10 m2
a A builder needs 47 m2 of Serendipity Blue tiles and 23 m2 of Greek Goddess tiles for a
new house he is building. How much will the tiles cost?
b What is the price per 1 m2 for Serendipity Blue tiles?
c A builder wants to tile two areas with Greek Goddess tiles. One area measures 6 m by
3 m and the other measures 4.5 m by 6 m. Find the total cost of the tiles.
d A homeowner has three areas that he would like to tile: a rumpus room 4.5 m by 8 m,
a family room 3 m by 4 m and an entry foyer 3 m by 3 m. How can the owner tile the
three areas if he likes both tiles, but has decided to spend no more than $2200?
130 Mathscape 8
4.5 Travel graphs

A travel graph is a type of line graph. It is used to represent a journey and compares the
distance travelled with the time taken. Time is always shown on the horizontal axis and distance
is always shown on the vertical axis. The slope or steepness of the line is related to the speed
of the object.
The slope of the line indicates the speed at which the object is moving.
The steeper the line, the faster the speed. The flatter the line, the slower the speed.
A horizontal line indicates that the object is stationary, i.e. not moving.
The formulae for speed, distance and time will be used frequently in this exercise.
distance distance
Speed = --------------------- Distance = speed × time Time = ---------------------
time speed
Note: Travel graphs show the relationship between distance travelled and time taken. They do
not represent the physical nature of the journey uphill, downhill or around corners.
Example 1
EG The graph shows Mary’s distance from
+S home at various times throughout the day. 150
a How far from home is Mary at 11:30 am? 120

b At what times is she 120 km from home?
Distance (km)
c Between what times was she stationary? 90

d What is the furthest distance she reached
from home? 60
e At what time did she turn around and
begin travelling towards home? 30
f At what time did she return home?
0
g How far did she travel between 11 am
9 am
10 am
11 am
noon
1 pm
2 pm
3 pm
4 pm
and noon?
h What was her speed between 2 pm and Time
4 pm?
i Did her speed increase or decrease at 2 pm? How do you know?
j How far did she travel altogether?
k For how long was she driving?
l Calculate her average speed for the whole journey, excluding stops.
Solutions
a 120 km b 11:30 am and 2 pm c 10 am and 11 am d 150 km
e noon f 4 pm g 150 km – 90 km = 60 km
D
h S = ---- i The speed must have increased at 2 pm because the line became
T
steeper at that time.
120
= --------- j The distance travelled was 150 km away from home and 150 km
2
= 60 km/h towards home. Therefore, the total distance travelled was 300 km.
k Mary drove for 1 hour between 9 am and 10 am, was stationary for an hour, then drove for
5 hours between 11 am and 4 pm. Therefore, the total driving time was 6 hours.
D
l S = ----
T
300
= ---------
6
= 50 km/h
Exercise 4.5
5
1 The graph shows the distance of a boy from
home at different times during the day. Distance (km) 4
a When did the boy leave home?
b How far from home was he at 1:30 pm? 3
c At what time was he 3 km from home?
2
d Between what times was he stationary?
e What distance did he travel during the day?
1
0
9 am
10 am
11 am
noon
1 pm
2 pm
3 pm
Time
2 This travel graph shows the distance from
50 home of a cyclist during her daily training
routine.
40 a At what time did she begin training?
Distance (km)
b How far from home was she at noon?

30
c At what times was she 25 km from home?
d How far did she cycle before taking her
20
first rest?
10 e Between what times was she resting?
f For how long did she cycle altogether,
0 not including rests?
8 am
9 am
10 am
11 am
noon
1 pm
2 pm
3 pm
Time
132 Mathscape 8
■ Consolidation
3 The graph shows the distance of a man from
his office at various times during the day. 100
a How far did the man travel in the
80
first 2 hours?
Distance (km)
b Did his speed increase or decrease
60
at 11 am? How can you tell?
c When did he stop for lunch? 40
d What is the furthest distance he
travelled from his office? 20
e At what time did he start travelling
back to his office? 0
9 am
10 am
11 am
noon
1 pm
2 pm
3 pm
4 pm
f How long did the return trip take?
g How far did he travel altogether during
the day? Time
4 The travel graph shows the distance travelled
200 by a woman from her hotel while on holiday.
a How far did she drive before stopping for
160 lunch?
b Calculate her speed for each section of
Distance (km)
120 the journey.

c Between what times was she driving the
80 fastest?
d How far was she from the hotel at
40 12:45 pm?
e How far did she drive between:
0 i 10:30 am and noon?
10 am
11 am
noon
1 pm
2 pm
3 pm
4 pm
5 pm
ii 11 am and 1 pm?
f How far did she travel in the first hour?
Time
g How far had she travelled by 10:15 am?
5 The graph shows the distance of a man from
town T between 8 am and 3 pm. 20
a How far is the man from T when he
Distance from T (km)
leaves home? 16
b How far is he from home at 9:30 am?
c How long does it take him to travel 12
4 km?
8
d Between which times is his speed
greatest?
4
e How far did he travel between
11:30 am and 2 pm? 0 T
8 am
9 am
10 am
11 am
noon
1 pm
2 pm
3 pm
f How far did he travel altogether?

g Calculate his average speed for the whole
journey, correct to 1 decimal place. Time
6 The graph shows the journey of a woman

150 B from town B to town A.
a How far apart are the towns?
Distance from A (km)
120 b Without calculating the actual speeds,

write down the times between which her
90
speed was greatest.
c At what time did she pass the point
60
halfway between the towns?
30 d How far is she from each town at
10:45 am?
A e What fraction of the journey had been
0
6 am
7 am
8 am
9 am
10 am
11 am
noon
1 pm
completed when the woman stopped for
breakfast?
Time
7 Bill and Ben are two travelling salesmen.
120
The graph shows the distance of each
man from his home at various times
100
during the day. Be
n
Distance (km)
a How far apart do the two men live? 80
b At what times during the day did
they pass each other? 60
c How far apart are they at 2:30 pm?
d How far is Ben from home when 40
Bil
Bill has travelled 60 km?
l
e How far did each man travel altogether? 20
f Calculate each man’s average speed
during the day, correct to 1 decimal 0
9 am
10 am
11 am
noon
1 pm
2 pm
3 pm
4 pm
place.
Time
8 Maree and Justin are two sales
240
representatives who work in the same
building. The graph shows their distance
200
from the office at various times.
Jus
Distance (km)
tin
160
a At what time did each person leave the
office?
120 b Did Justin’s speed increase or decrease at
11 am?
80 c How far had Justin travelled when Maree
Mar
left the office?

ee
40 d How far apart were they when Justin

began driving back towards the office?
0 e Who arrived back at the office first?
9 am
10 am
11 am
noon
1 pm
2 pm
3 pm
4 pm
f How much further than Maree did Justin

travel?
Time
134 Mathscape 8
9 The distance between the towns L and M is

50 km. The graph shows the journeys of 50 M
John and Helen at different times during
Distance from L (km)

40
the day.
a How far apart were John and Helen
30
initially?
b What distance did Helen travel
20
He
altogether?
len
c Between what times was Helen 10 Joh
travelling towards town L? n
d How far apart were John and Helen 0 L
7 am
8 am
9 am
10 am
11 am
noon
1 pm
2 pm
at 8 am?
e How far was Helen from town L when
John had travelled 40 km? Time
f At what times was Helen 10 km from town M?
10 Kendall left home at 9 am and drove 60 km in the first hour. Once out of the city, she
increased her speed to 100 km/h and drove at this speed for the next hour. Between 11 am
and 12:30 pm she could cover a distance of only 40 km due to a major car accident. At 12:30
Kendall turned around and headed back towards home for 30 minutes at a speed of
80 km/h. She stopped for 1 hour at a roadside café to have lunch, then continued her journey
home, driving at 80 km/h for the next 2 hours.
a Draw a travel graph to show Kendall’s journey.
b How far had Kendall travelled when she turned around and headed home?
c Write down the times at which Kendall was 180 km from home.
d Calculate Kendall’s average driving speed for the journey, not including the lunch
break.
11 Write a short story that matches the information shown in each travel graph.
a b
8
Shinanne
240
Distance (km)
6
Distance (km)
180
4
120
Bruce
2
60
0
10 am
11 am
noon
1 pm
2 pm
3 pm
4 pm
0
8 am
9 am
10 am
11 am
noon
1 pm
Time
Time
TRY THIS Runners

Ann, Bronwyn and Carly jog at speeds of 3, 4 and 5 metres per second, respectively.
After 5 minutes of running, Bronwyn stops and waits for Ann. After another 5
minutes she leaves Ann and catches up to Carly. Then 5 minutes later she stops and
waits for Ann. She keeps doing this. What would a time–distance graph look like for
these joggers?
4.6 Reading tables

There are several reasons why raw unordered data is best organised into the form of a table.
• A great deal of information can be presented in a compact space.
• Specific information is made easier to find.
• Trends or relationships between variables can be seen by looking along the rows or down
the columns.
• Graphs are easier to draw using tabulated data than unordered data.
Example 1
EG The table below shows the distance between some of the major towns in NSW.
+S
Wollongong
Broken Hill
Newcastle
Tamworth
Goulburn
Canberra
Bathurst
Sydney
Albury
Dubbo
Albury 505 865 560 695 365 530 345 865 445 •
Bathurst 235 430 200 325 185 205 275 960 •
Broken Hill 1195 1025 1160 1130 1100 750 1080 •
Canberra 225 705 285 415 90 380 •
Dubbo 445 335 405 375 350 •
Goulburn 140 570 195 325 •
Newcastle 235 275 150 • a What is the distance between
Sydney 80 395 • Goulburn and Broken Hill?
Tamworth 475 • b Which town is 445 km from Albury?
Wollongong • c Which two towns are 335 km apart?
d At what average speed would a
motorist have to travel to drive from
Sydney to Canberra in 3 hours?
136 Mathscape 8
Solutions
distance
a 1100 km b Bathurst c Dubbo and Tamworth d Speed = -------------------
time
285
= ---------
3
= 95 km/h
Exercise 4.6
1 Name English Maths Science History Computing Music Art PE

Alia 81 60 51 91 70 71 85 73
Barry 57 66 72 71 65 75 63 85
Christine 71 75 70 82 75 59 68 74
Darag 75 69 68 77 80 66 59 72
Effie 83 87 85 79 81 74 72 78
Fieros 66 57 61 71 79 60 80 81
a What was Alia’s Music mark?

b Who scored highest in i PE? ii Science?
c What was the best subject for i Darag? ii Fieros?
d Which subject had the i highest mark? ii lowest mark?
e Who would you judge to be the strongest student overall?
2 The Countrylink timetable on the next page is for travel from Melbourne to Wollongong.
a At what time will the 8:30 am XPT from Melbourne reach Junee?
b A Melbourne business woman has an important meeting in Wollongong at 9:00 am on
Friday morning.
i At what time must she leave Melbourne?
ii Can she stay on the train all the way to Wollongong?
iii How much time will she have in Wollongong before her meeting starts?
iv If she decided to stay overnight in Wollongong to be fresh and rested for her
meeting, which train should she catch?
c A man who lives in Bowral is offered a very good position in Dapto. He would start
work at 9:00 am. Is public transport available to get him to work on time?
d How long is the XPT trip from Queanbeyan to Bundanoon on Sunday?
e The 6:50 am bus from Moss Vale to Wollongong takes 1 hour 40 minutes. How long
does the 5:55 pm bus take for this journey? How do you account for this difference?
f How many bus services are there from Moss Vale to Wollongong each day?
a Stops to pick up and set down

passengers only when required.
b Stops to set down only.
Light shading — rail service.
Dark shading — no local travel on
coaches between these stops.
■ Consolidation
3 The table shows the stock market report. The + or − column provides the rise or fall in price
from the previous day’s trading.
Company Closing + or − No. sold Day’s range ($) 52-week range ($)
price ($) (cents) in 1000s Low High Low High
BHP Billiton 11.30 +12 14 709 11.30 11.50 7.87 11.72
Rio Tinto 39.60 +129 2 557 39.25 39.76 28.50 39.76
Woodside 12.95 -20 4 769 12.87 13.19 12.29 16.45
National Bank 34.54 -6 5 364 34.54 34.81 23.80 35.13
Telstra 5.43 -6 17 655 5.43 5.52 4.62 7.07
AMP Insurance 19.15 -22 1 111 19.13 19.43 16.35 22.00
138 Mathscape 8
a What was this day’s closing price for Woodside Petroleum? What was its previous
day’s closing price?
b Which shares rose in price on this day? Which shares fell?
c Which company’s share last sold for $5.43? What was its highest selling price on this
day?
d Which three companies have a price that is near their highest price in the last year?
e Which companies finished this day’s trading at the lowest point for the day?
f Which company sold most shares on this day? How many shares were sold?
g What would be the value of 5000 Telstra shares?
h How many BHP Billiton shares could be purchased for $2500?
4 This type of table is often used for distances, by road, between towns. Distances are in
kilometres and are for routes that do not always follow major highways.
Armidale
Barraba 132
Bingara 161 60
Bundarra 88 67 73
Glen Innes 98 201 141 111
Inverell 130 114 74 44 67
Manilla 116 46 106 113 214 157
Tamworth 109 90 150 136 207 210 44
Uralla 23 121 153 80 121 124 93 86
Warialda 192 100 40 106 129 62 146 190 186
Glen Innes
Tamworth
Armidale
Bundarra
Barraba
Bingara
Manilla
Inverell
Uralla
a What is the distance from:
i Armidale to Tamworth? ii Barraba to Glen Innes?
b Which two towns are closest?
c Which towns are 124 km apart?
d What is the distance from:
i Glen Innes to Warialda? ii Warialda to Bingara? iii Glen Innes to Bingara?
e Why do the answers for i and ii in part d not add to give the answer to iii?
5 The table details the attendance at meetings of the directors of a company.

Director Board Special Committees
meetings meetings Audit Safety Remuneration Finance
A T A T A T A T A T A T
A. Brown (c) 12 12 6 7 4 5 6 6 5 6 5 6
C. Davies 11 12 7 7 — — 6 6 6 6 — —
E. Frank 12 12 7 7 4 5 — — 6 6 5 6
G. Handel 11 12 6 7 5 5 5 6 — — — —
I. Jones 7 12 4 7 — — — — 3 6 3 6
K. Lamb 12 12 7 7 — — 6 6 — — — —
M. Nabob 10 12 6 7 5 5 — — — — 6 6
A = number of meetings attended. (c) = chairman of the board.
T = total number of meetings. __ = not required to attend meeting.
a How many meetings did the chairman of the board attend?

b One director had a serious illness during the year. Who do you think this was?
c Which director had a perfect attendance record?
d At what percentage of meetings was G. Handel present? Consider only the meetings
that he was required to attend.
e Do we know if any Board meetings had full attendance? Explain your answer.
6 A couple owns four small businesses. Their takings and profit figures are presented here for
2000–2003.
Store 2000 2001 2002 2003
Takings Profit/ Takings Profit/ Takings Profit/ Takings Profit/
Loss Loss Loss Loss
A 289 30 302 33 275 11 308 38
B 301 9 388 43 370 41 461 107
C 521 93 492 52 463 -17 427 -62
D 457 37 401 -23 427 9 473 61
Total 1368 169 1583 105 1535 44 1669 144
All figures are in $1000s.
a How much profit did store A make in 2001?
b In which year did store D record a loss?
c Which store has had a poorer result each year?
d In which year did the owners make the least profit?
e Which store do you consider to be the most consistent performer?
140 Mathscape 8
7 The table shows the results of the Powerball

POWERBALL draw conducted on 11 July 2002.
OFFICIAL RESULTS a How many people won the division 2
Thursday 11 July 2002 Draw: 321
PRIZE WINNING NUMBERS POWERBALL
prize?
b What was the size of the prize pool in
20 26 27 34 41 26 division 6?
SUBSCRIPTIONS TO DRAW — $15,934,016.50
c How much did each person win in
Div Prize Pool Winners Prize Value
division 7?
1 $9,000,000.00 NO WINNER $0.00
2 $1,282,688.40 24 $53,445.35
d How much would you have received for
3 $586,370.40 132 $4,442.20
correctly choosing 4 numbers plus the
4 $458,114.40 4,509 $101.60
powerball?
5 $256,630.40 6,448 e The prize value for division 5 has been
6 $1,146,379.30 57,607 $19.90 left out of the table. Calculate the
7 $1,998,958.60 188,581 $10.60 division 5 prize.
DIVISION 1: 5 numbes plus the Powerball — NO WINNER f What was the division 1 prize pool the
DIVISION 2: 5 numbers
DIVISION 3:
DIVISION 4:
4 numbes plus the Powerball
3 numbes plus the Powerball
following week?
DIVISION 6: 2 numbers plus the Powerball
JACKPOTS TO $12 MILLION — 18 July
8 The ‘table’ shows all of the details regarding

TAB CODE
Race 6—the Goldbake Pies Handicap horse MLB/RACE MOONEE VALLEY
race to be run at Moonee Valley in Melbourne.
TRACK: DEAD
a What is the condition of the track on which LEGEND
the race is to be run? t - Won at track. c - Won here over this distance. d - Won this distance
b What is the total prize money available for on another course. m - Won on rain affected going. n - Won at night.
x - Spell of 12 weeks. b - Beaten favourite last start. h - Home track.
Q - Disqualified. F - Fell. P - Pulled up. L - Lost rider.
this race?
c How much money will be won by the first 6-3.25 Goldbake Pies Hcp 1600m
(Three-Year-Olds. Apprentices can claim)
place-getter? Of $40,000; 1st $26,000; 2nd $8,000; 3rd $3,600;
4th $1,600; 5th $800
d What percentage of the prize money will No Form Horse Jockey Wgt Price
be won by the third place-getter? 1 - 2320 ROCKYPOINT m (4) .. (a3) Ms Michelle Payne
2 - 1 x12 EVIL MASTER tmb (5) ....................... S Baster
58
57.5
12.0
2.8
e Which horse will be ridden by S. Baster? 3 - 3113 SILVER BIRCH db (2) ................ (a2) M Pegus 57 8.0
4 - 2112 KEPERO dm (9) ..................... (a1.5) B Fenech 56.5 5.5
f What weight will be carried by Powder Burn? 5 - 2747 TOSAMBA (6) ................................ S W Arnold 56.5 9.0
6 - x222 TWEAK (10) ..................................... K McEvoy 55.5 9.0
g What do the letters d and b after a horse’s 7 - 1841 TRUST FUND dm (12) ........................ J Patton 55 21.0
8 - 2131 POWDER BURN (7) .............. (a1.5) R McLeod 54.5 11.0
name mean? 9 - 6551 TON OF HOPE tm (14).....................P Mertens 54 11.0
10 - 4 x53 FLYING CHANCE db (13) .............. Scratched 53.5
h Which two horses have won previously on 11 - 5138 RAAMI ROMANCER d (1) ................ E Cassar 53.5 34.0
this track? 12 - 2096 RACER’S SUCCESS (8) .................. N Stanley

13 - 4241 SEEING’S BELIEVING m (11) . (a1.5) M Zahra
53.5 34.0
53.5 34.0
i Which horse has come second in its last EMERGENCIES
14 - 2242 ALUNARMIST b (15)..........................N Wilson 53.5 34.0
three races? 15 - x352 STRIKING LUCK (30 .................................. — 53.5 34.0
j What does a cross in the form section indicate?

k How old are the horses that will take part in this race?
l If Bob places a $6 bet on Kepero and the horse wins the race, how much will Bob win?
m Which of the first 13 listed horses will not take part in the race?
n Which horse will take its place?
o Which horse is the favourite? Why?
9 Parcel charges
Weight Air Economy Sea Destination Zone
Zone NZ
Up to 250 g $4.50 $4.00 — Argentina 5
Over 250 g up to 500 g $7.50 $6.50 — Canada 4
Over 500 g up to 750 g $10.00 $8.50 —
Over 750 g up to 1 kg $12.50 $10.50 — China 3
Over 1 kg up to 1.25 kg $15.00 $12.50 —
France 5
Over 1.25 kg up to 1.5 kg $17.50 $14.50 —
Over 1.5 kg up to 1.75 kg $20.00 $16.50 — Indonesia 2
Over 1.75 kg up to 2 kg $22.50 $18.50 —
Italy 4
Extra 500 g or part thereof $2.50 $2.00 —
Zone 1, 2 and 3 Japan 3
Up to 250 g $5.50 $5.00 — Malaysia 2
Over 250 g up to 500 g $9.50 $8.00 —
Over 500 g up to 750 g $13.00 $11.00 — Netherlands 5
Over 750 g up to 1 kg $16.50 $14.00 — New Caledonia 1
Over 1 kg up to 1.25 kg $20.00 $17.00 —
Over 1.25 kg up to 1.5 kg $23.50 $20.00 — New Zealand NZ
Over 1.5 kg up to 1.75 kg $27.00 $23.00 —
Papua New Guinea 1
Over 1.75 kg up to 2 kg $30.50 $26.00 —
Extra 500 g or part thereof $4.00 $3.00 — Saudi Arabia 4
Zone 4 South Africa 5
Up to 250 g $6.50 $5.50 $5.00
Over 250 g up to 500 g $11.50 $9.00 $8.00 United Kingdom 5
Over 500 g up to 750 g $16.00 $12.50 $11.00
Over 750 g up to 1 kg $20.50 $16.00 Find the cost of sending a parcel
$14.00 a
Over 1 kg up to 1.25 kg $25.00 $19.50 weighing 600 g to New Zealand
$17.00
Over 1.25 kg up to 1.5 kg $29.50 $23.00 $20.00 by air.
Over 1.5 kg up to 1.75 kg $34.00 $26.50 $23.00 b How much would it cost to send
Over 1.75 kg up to 2 kg $38.50 $30.00 $26.00
a 1.5-kg parcel by sea to South
Extra 500 g or part thereof $6.00 $4.00 $3.00
Africa?
Zone 5
c How many of the countries listed
Up to 250 g $7.50 $6.00 $5.00
Over 250 g up to 500 g $13.00 $10.00 $8.00
could receive parcels by sea?
Over 500 g up to 750 g $18.50 $14.00 $11.00
d Susan sent a parcel by economy
Over 750 g up to 1 kg $24.00 $18.00 $14.00 freight to Indonesia and paid $23.
Over 1 kg up to 1.25 kg $29.50 $22.00 $17.00 What was the maximum weight
Over 1.25 kg up to 1.5 kg $35.00 $26.00 $20.00 of her parcel?
Over 1.5 kg up to 1.75 kg $40.50 $30.00 $23.00 e How much more does it cost to
Over 1.75 kg up to 2 kg $46.00 $34.00 $26.00
send a 1.64-kg parcel to Argentina
Extra 500 g or part thereof $7.50 $5.00 $3.00
by air than by sea?
f Thomas sent a parcel weighing 1.35 kg by economy freight to his parents who live in
Papua New Guinea. He also sent two separate parcels weighing 1.75 kg each by air to his
brothers in Saudi Arabia. How much did Thomas pay altogether to send these parcels?
g Find the cost of sending a 5.2-kg parcel by economy freight to the United Kingdom.
142 Mathscape 8
4.7 Scatter diagrams

A scatter diagram is a graph made up of separate points plotted on a number plane. Each point
gives the values of two different variables, such as the height of a tree and its age. One value is
measured against the horizontal axis and the other value is measured against the vertical axis.
A scatter diagram is also called a scattergram, a scatterplot or a scatter graph. It is not always
necessary to have a scale on the axes, since the purpose of a scatter diagram is often simply to
compare two variables.
The points in the scatter diagram may approximate a straight line, or a curve, or neither. If the
points approximate a line, then the relationship is said to be linear. If the points approximate a
curve, then the relationship is said to be non-linear. If the points lie in small distinct groups,
then the relationship is said to be clustered.
Linear relationship Non-linear relationship Clustering No relationship
■ Correlation
The study of how strongly two variables are related to each other is called correlation. Some
variables may be strongly related to each other, some may be weakly related, while others may
not be related in any way at all. We might expect, for example, that there would be a very strong
correlation between a baby’s age and its weight gain. However, we would not expect there to
be any correlation between a person’s driving ability and the legibility of their handwriting.
The closer the points are together along a line or curve, the stronger the correlation between
the variables.
If a scatter diagram consists of points that trend upwards from left to right, then as one variable
increases the other variable also increases. We say that the variables have a positive
correlation.
If a scatter diagram consists of points that trend downwards from left to right, then as one
variable increases the other variable decreases. We say that the variables have a negative
correlation.
Positive correlation Negative correlation

Note: Although the data in a scatter diagram may suggest a strong relationship between two
variables, it does not automatically follow that one variable in some way affects or causes the
other.
For example, this scatter diagram shows the relationship
10
between the sizes of the left and right feet of a number of
Size of right foot

individuals. Clearly there is a strong correlation between
these two variables; however, the size of a person’s left 9
foot is not caused by the size of their right foot. Can you
think of another situation in which there may be a strong 8
correlation between two variables, yet one variable has
no direct effect on the other? 7
7 8 9 10
Size of left foot
Example 1
EG The scatter diagram shows the age of a car and the capacity
Size of petrol tank

+S of its petrol tank. Which car has the smallest petrol tank? B
Solution A
The horizontal axis measures the age of the car and the vertical C
axis measures the size of the petrol tank. The car that is furthest
to the right is lowest. Therefore, the oldest car, car C, has the
Age
smallest petrol tank.
Example 2
1.9
EG This scatter diagram shows the ages and heights Sasha
John
+S of a class of students. 1.8
Height (metres)
a What are John’s age and height?

b How many students are 1.68 m tall? 1.7
c How many students are 12 years 4 months old?
d How old is the tallest student? 1.6
e What is the age difference between Sasha and
John? 1.5
Solutions 1.4
a John’s age is 12 years 10 months and he is 11 y 12 y 12 y 13 y 13 y
6 mnth 6 mnth 6 mnth
1.76 m tall.
Age
b There are 4 students who are 1.68 m tall.
c There are 3 students who are 12 years 4 months old.
d The tallest student is 13 years 4 months old.
e Sasha is 12 years 2 months old. The difference between their ages
= 12 years 10 months − 12 years 2 months
= 8 months.
144 Mathscape 8
Exercise 4.7
1 Which television set is:

a the most expensive? b the least expensive?
Cost
cm
cm cm 72
48 64
A B C
Screen size
2 a Which plane is:

No. of structural
B
i the youngest?
ii the oldest?
faults
A b Which plane has had:

D
i the most structural faults?
C ii the fewest structural faults?
Age of plane
3 This scatter diagram shows the diameter and

height of 3 cones. Copy the diagram and
correctly label the points X, Y and Z.
Height
Z
X Y
Diameter of base
T
4 The scatter diagram shows the ages and heights of
5 people.
Q a Which 2 people are the same height?
Height
P S b Which 2 people are the same age?

R
Age
5 Draw and label 3 rectangles whose dimensions are R

represented by the points in this scatter diagram.
Width
Length
■ Consolidation
6 This scatter diagram shows the final ranking and total annual earnings for a group of
professional tennis players.
10
Ishmael
15
Ranking
Zonetti
20
25
30
0 1 2 3 4 5
Annual earnings ($million)
a What prize money was earned by the player ranked 20?

b What was the ranking of the player who earned $2 600 000?
c How many of these players earned more than $3 million?
d Two high-ranking players Ishmael and Zonetti both earned much less than they would
have expected. Can you suggest a reason why this might have occurred?
e The scale on the vertical axis representing the players’ ranking is marked in an unusual
way, with the larger numbers closer to the bottom of the graph. Why would this be the
case?
f What relationship can you see between the players’ final ranking and total prize money
earned?
7 The scatter diagram compares
a farm’s grain production, 20
(tonnes per hectare)
Grain production
in tonnes per hectare, to the

amount of rain that fell during 15
the growing season, in millimetres,
for the last 25 years. 10
a In how many years was the
5
rainfall more than 200 mm?
b What was the highest grain
return in this 25-year period? 0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350
c What was the lowest grain Rainfall (mm)
return? What do you think
may have caused this low return?
d What was the second lowest grain return? What do you think may have caused this
low return?
e Describe the relationship that this scatter diagram shows between the level of grain
production and rainfall.
146 Mathscape 8
8 The scatter diagram shows the age and

value of each car that is marked for sale 40
at a used car dealership.
Value ($1000)
a How old is the car that is valued at $28 000? 30
b What is the price difference between the
two 6-year old cars? 20
c Comment on the relationship between the
age of these cars and their value. 10
d Two cars are advertised for sale at $20 000,
however, one car is significantly older than 0
2 4 6 8 10
the other. Age (years)
i What is the age difference of these two cars?
ii Suggest a reason why they would be advertised for sale at the same price.
9 The table below shows the weekly income of a number of employees and the amount of
rent they pay each week.
Income ($) Rent ($) Income ($) Rent ($) Income ($) Rent ($)
500 210 850 420 550 190
580 250 510 260 770 360
790 370 720 340 640 280
600 280 630 300 670 300
660 310 520 250 700 320
a Draw a scatter diagram for the data in the table. Show the weekly income on the
horizontal axis and the weekly rent on the vertical axis.
b Is the relationship linear?
c Describe in words, the relationship between the weekly income and rent for these
employees.
10 The data in the table shows the number of boxes of cold tablets sold each month at a chemist
and the average daily temperature between 6 am and 6 pm during those months.
Month Average daily No. of boxes Month Average daily No. of boxes
temperature of cold temperature of cold
(C°) tablets sold (C°) tablets sold
Jan. 29 8 July 18 30
Feb. 28 10 Aug. 17 28
Mar. 26 11 Sep. 20 25
Apr. 23 16 Oct. 22 27
May 21 23 Nov. 25 24
June 15 32 Dec. 24 20
a Draw a scatter diagram for the data in the table. Show the average daily temperature on
the horizontal axis and the number of boxes of cold tablets sold on the vertical axis.
b Is the relationship linear?
c Describe in words, the relationship between the average daily temperature and the
number of boxes of cold tablets sold.
11 For each of the following, describe the relationship that exists between the variables as
linear, non-linear or clustered.
a b c
d e f
12 State whether each of the following scatter diagrams shows a positive correlation, a
negative correlation or no correlation between the variables.
a b c
d e f
13 Discuss the following correlations and give a reason for each.

a b
Drug usage
HSC mark
Driving efficiency Hours of study

148 Mathscape 8
c d
Hand–eye coordination
Height of an oak tree

Level of literacy Age of tree
e f
Driving efficiency
Running speed
Understanding of physical Age
principles of motion
14 The table below shows the level of air pollution and the incidence of asthma attacks on
certain days in a large city.
Day Pollution level Asthma attacks Day Pollution level Asthma attacks
1 86.7 2527 11 74.3 2220
2 88.5 2368 12 36.5 526
3 72.0 1795 13 38.7 311
4 65.8 1226 14 57.6 1007
5 43.9 947 15 66.9 1128
6 55.7 1117 16 64.9 1313
7 61.4 1427 17 75.4 1946
8 74.3 1285 18 72.3 1796
9 82.8 2137 19 81.7 2002
10 80.0 2312 20 65.6 1514
a Draw a scatter diagram for the data in the table by rounding off each entry to an
appropriate degree of accuracy. Show the pollution level along the horizontal axis and
the number of asthma attacks along the vertical axis.
b Does there appear to be a correlation between the variables? If so, is it positive or
negative?
c Describe in words the relationship between the pollution level and the number of
asthma attacks.
15 Choose a population of 20 to 30 individuals and collect data on two measures from each
person. For example, your population might be the students in your Science class and the
data might be i how much they like Science and ii how much they like Maths. These
preferences could be measured on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 indicating a strong liking
for the subject.
a Survey your population and present the data in the form of a table.
b Draw a scatter diagram to illustrate the data, being careful to choose a suitable scale for
each axis.
c Examine the diagram carefully to establish what relationship, if any, exists between the
two variables you have measured.
TRY THIS The Top 40

Have you ever wondered why some
40
hits reach the top of the chart
very quickly and then suddenly
disappear? However, some songs 35
stay in the chart for a very long
30
time, but never reach No. 1. In this
Position on chart
activity you need copies of chart

25
surveys for at least 6 weeks. You
can obtain these at record shops.
20
Alternatively, newspapers print the
Top 40 list every week. Now plot a
15
number of these songs onto graphs.
Can you predict what position the 10
song will be in next week?
Is there a pattern to the graph? 5
Do records which hit No. 1 follow
a particular pattern? 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Week
4.8 Organising data

It is often difficult to make sense of a large amount of data that has been collected. In order to
make judgements about the data it must first be organised in some meaningful way. By
arranging the data into a graph or table, we can instantly make out details such as the highest
and lowest scores and the score that occurs the most.
150 Mathscape 8
■ The frequency distribution table

The frequency distribution table is often Score Tally Frequency
the first step in organising a set of data.
It shows at a glance all of the scores and 1 || 2
the number of times that each score has 2 |||| 4
occurred, i.e. the frequency of the scores.
3 |||| 4
The data in this table and in the following 4 |||| | 6
graphs was obtained by rolling a die
20 times. 5 ||| 3
6 | 1
Total = 20
In a frequency distribution table:

The score column shows the possible scores.
The tally column is used to enter the scores into the table one at a time.
The frequency indicates the number of times each score occurs.
The total of the frequencies is sometimes written at the base of the frequency
column.
■ The frequency histogram

The frequency histogram is a type of column graph. Numbers rolled on a die
In a frequency histogram: 6
The graph has a title. 5
Frequency
The axes are labelled. 4

The scores are placed along the horizontal 3
axis and the frequencies are placed along the 2
vertical axis. 1
The columns straddle the scores and are 0
drawn next to each other. 1 2 3 4 5 6
There is a half-column space on the Score
horizontal axis before the first column.
■ The frequency polygon

The frequency polygon is a type of line graph.
Numbers rolled on a die
In a frequency polygon: 6
The graph has a title.
5
Frequency
The axes are labelled.
4
The scores are placed along the horizontal
3
axis and the frequencies are placed along the
2
vertical axis.
The polygon begins and ends on the 1
horizontal axis. 0
1 2 3 4 5 6
The first score is marked one full unit away Score
from the vertical axis.
Numbers rolled on a die

When a polygon and a histogram are drawn on the same
set of axes, the polygon joins the midpoints of the tops
6
of the columns. Interestingly, the area under the histogram
5
Frequency
is equal to the area under the polygon.
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Score
■ The dot plot Numbers rolled on a die
The dot plot is a simpler version of the histogram.

It is only useful for small numbers of scores since
each dot represents a single score. Clusters, or bunches
of scores, can be easily seen, as well as any outliers, 1 2 3 4 5 6
i.e. scores that are a long way from the other scores. Score
In a dot plot:
The graph has a title.
The horizontal axis is labelled.
The scores are placed along the horizontal axis.
One dot is placed above the score in a vertical line each time that score occurs.
152 Mathscape 8
Example
EG 16 boxes of toothpicks were opened and the contents counted. The number of toothpicks in
+S each box is shown below.
80 80 79 82 80 79 81 82
78 79 81 80 82 80 79 80
Organise this data into:

a a frequency distribution table b a frequency histogram c a frequency polygon
Solutions
a Score Tally Frequency

78 | 1
79 |||| 4
80 |||| | 6
81 || 2
82 ||| 3
Total = 16
b Number of toothpicks per box c Number of toothpicks per box
6 6
5 5
Frequency
Frequency
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
78 79 80 81 82 78 79 80 81 82
Number of toothpicks Number of toothpicks
Exercise 4.8
1 Complete each of these frequency distribution tables.

a Score Tally Frequency b Score Tally Frequency
1 || 15 |||
2 ||| 16 |||| ||
3 |||| 17 ||||
4 |||| || 18 |||| ||||
5 |||| 19 |||| |
6 | Total =
Total =
2 The owner of an ice-cream parlour noted the flavours of ice-cream sold on a particular day.
a Copy and complete this Flavour Tally Frequency
frequency distribution Vanilla |||| |||| |||
table showing the number
of each flavour sold. Chocolate |||| |||| ||||
Strawberry |||| ||||
Banana |||| ||
Peppermint |||| |
Total =
b Which flavour was the most popular?
c Which flavour was the least popular?
d How many strawberry ice-creams were sold?
e How many ice-creams were sold altogether?
3 As part of the quality-control process in a match factory, 30 boxes of matches were opened
and the contents counted. The number of matches in each box is given below.
48 50 53 51 49 52 50 51 51 49
49 53 50 48 51 50 49 53 52 50
51 49 52 51 50 52 51 48 53 51
a Organise this data into a frequency distribution table.
b How many boxes contained exactly 50 matches?
c What is the greatest number of matches in any box?
d How many boxes contained less than 50 matches?
154 Mathscape 8
■ Consolidation
4 Mrs Bronte made a dot plot to show the marks obtained by her Year 10 students on an
English essay. The essay was marked out of 20.
a How many students scored full marks?
Year 10 English marks
b What was the lowest mark?
c What mark was scored by exactly 5 students?
d How many students scored 80%?
e How many students are in the class?
f What fraction of the students scored 18 or more?
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Marks g Which score(s), if any, are outliers?
5 This dot plot shows the thickness in millimetres of lengths of pre-cut timber.
a To what thickness do you think the timber
should have been cut?
b Are there any clusters in the data?
c Are there any outliers?
d The timber will be rejected at the quality
8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5
Timber thickness (mm) control stage if its thickness is more than 1 mm
outside the ideal thickness (10 mm). How many
pieces of timber will be rejected?
6 A die was rolled 30 times and the results recorded were as follows.
5 2 1 3 4 3 6 1 5 2
4 2 3 3 6 5 1 3 2 5
6 6 4 2 3 2 5 1 5 3
a Organise the data into a frequency distribution table with score, tally and frequency
columns.
b How many times was a 2 rolled? c Which score was rolled the most?
d Which scores occurred 4 times? e How many more 3s were rolled than 6s?
f Show this information on a dot plot.
7 The histogram shows the ages of children attending a birthday party.

a What age was the youngest child at the party?
b How many 8 year olds were at the party?
Number of children
6
c What age were most of the children?
5
d How many children attended the party?
4
e Complete this frequency table for the data shown
3
in the histogram.
2
1 Age (in years) 7 8 9 10 11
0 Frequency
7 8 9 10 11
Age (years)
8 The students in 8-B were surveyed and asked Daily telephone calls made
how many telephone calls they made on average by students in 8-B
each day. The results are shown in the form a
frequency polygon. 8
Number of students
a How many students made 3 calls per day? 7
b What was the highest number of calls made 6
per day by any student? 5
c What was the most common number of calls 4
made per day? 3
d How many students averaged 4 or more calls 2
per day? 1
e How many more students made 2 calls per day 0
than those who made 5 calls? 0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of calls per day
f How many students are in the class?
g How many calls does the whole class make on average each day?
9 The ages of all new students enrolling at Isaac Newton High School after the start of the
year are:
14 13 11 17 13 12 15 12 13 13
15 16 14 14 12 11 13 16 12 15
a Organise the data into a frequency distribution table.
b Which age group had the largest number of new students?
c How old were the youngest and oldest enrolments?
d How many new students were enrolled?
e What fraction of the new students were 13 years old?
f Draw a frequency histogram and polygon on the same set of axes to illustrate this data.
10 This histogram shows the number of children aged Ages of children attending
between 10 and 15 years who attended a hospital casualty ward
casualty ward on a given day.
a How many 12 year olds were treated? 14
Number of children
b Which age group had exactly 6 children? 12

c How many more 10 year olds were treated 10
than 14 year olds? 8
d What was the most typical age of a child in 6
treatment? 4
e Draw a frequency polygon to represent this data. 2
0
10 11 12 13 14 15
Age (years)
156 Mathscape 8
11 Which one of the following diagrams does not represent the same data as the other three?
A B
Score Frequency
31 4
32 7
33 2 31 32 33 34 35
34 3 Score
35 5
C D
8 8
Frequency
Frequency
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
31 32 33 34 35 31 32 33 34 35
Score Score
12 Explain why each of these histograms has been drawn incorrectly.

a b
4 12
Frequency
Frequency
3 9
6
3
0 0
48 49 50 51 4 5 6 7
Score Score
13 Explain why each of these polygons has been drawn incorrectly.

a b
20 16
Frequency
Frequency
15 12
10 8
5 4
0 0
12 13 14 15 20 21 22 23 24
Score Score
Data can be grouped into small groups called classes when there is a large number of different
scores. This makes it easier to organise the data into a graph or table.
14 The heights of 50 students were measured and the following results, in centimetres, were
obtained.
138 135 140 138 136 143 149 156 141 139
137 152 143 164 138 152 157 144 132 131
146 148 150 161 155 158 133 147 135 152
160 155 149 162 150 136 156 138 134 130
142 138 159 148 149 134 153 130 164 160
a Copy and complete this grouped-data frequency-distribution table.
Class Class centre Tally Frequency
130–134 132
135–139 137
140–144
145–149
150–154
155–159
160–164
b How many students have a height between 150 cm and 154 cm?
c Do we know from the table the exact height of any student?
d Which class has the greatest frequency?
e How many students have a height of 145 cm or greater?
f What percentage of the students have heights in the 135–139 class?
4.9 Stem-and-leaf plots

A stem-and-leaf plot is similar to a histogram that has been drawn on its side, except that the
columns are made up of digits. The first part of each number in the data is called the stem and
the remaining part of the number is called the leaf.
For example, this stem-and-leaf plot shows the scores Stem Leaf
21, 24, 28, 30, 35, 37, 39, 41, 42, 46, 53, 55. 2 148
The main advantages of stem-and-leaf plots are that 3 0579
clusters of scores are easily seen, and large amounts 4 126
of data can be represented in the diagram. 5 35
158 Mathscape 8
When a large number of scores begin with the same digit or digits, the scores can be broken up
into class intervals of 5.
For example, this stem-and-leaf plot shows the scores Stem Leaf
60, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 67, 68, 69. Here, 6(0) refers
6(0) 0134
to the scores from 60 to 64 and 6(5) refers to the scores
from 65 to 69. 6(5) 567789
Example 1
EG This stem and leaf plot shows the exam scores for a group of
+S Stem Leaf
first year university mathematics students. 4 12579
a What was the highest mark? 5 0247
b How many students sat the exam? 6 22356
c How many students failed if the pass mark was 50? 7 0379
d Find the average exam score, correct to 1 decimal place. 8 148
Solutions
a The highest mark was 88. b 21 students sat the exam.
c The scores less than 50 were sum of the scores
41, 42, 45, 47 and 49, d Average = -----------------------------------------
number of scores
∴ 5 students failed the exam.
41 + 42 + 45 + . . . + 88
= --------------------------------------------------------
21
1307
= ------------
21
= 62.2 (1 decimal place)
Example 2
EG The number of points scored per game by a women’s basketball team are listed.
+S
76 77 79 80 83 83 84 85 86 88
88 88 90 91 92 94 95 96 97 99
a Show this information on a stem-and-leaf plot with class intervals of 5.
b In what percentage of games did the team score 90 points or more?
Solutions
8 100
a Stem Leaf b ------ × --------- %
20 1
7(5) 6 7 9 = 40%
8(0) 0 3 3 4
8(5) 5 6 8 8 8
9(0) 0 1 2 4
9(5) 5 6 7 9
Exercise 4.9
1 a Redraw this stem-and-leaf plot as an ordered Stem Leaf

stem-and-leaf plot. 3 57091
b How many scores are there?
4 2673514
c Write down the highest and lowest scores.
5 858923
6 41354692
2 a Redraw this stem-and-leaf plot with class Stem Leaf

intervals of 5. 1 233567899
b Find the difference between the highest and
2 012247778
lowest scores.
3 1344566889
■ Consolidation
3 The percentage results obtained by a Year 8 French class are given.
82 85 71 63 58 90 75 72
66 60 42 78 74 93 51 64
77 86 82 72 72 84 95 57
a Show these results in a stem-and-leaf plot.
b What were the highest and lowest test scores?
c How many students scored a mark of 75 or higher?
d How many students scored a mark less than 70?
4 The number of oranges on each tree in one section of an orchard are shown.
43 35 48 21 52 36 42 50 29 26
47 54 45 32 35 43 39 44 42 31
a Show these results on a stem-and-leaf plot.
b What is the maximum number of oranges on any tree?
c How many trees produced 35 oranges or less?
d On what fraction of the trees were there between 40 and 49 oranges?
5 This stem-and-leaf plot shows the ages of callers to a Stem Leaf

talkback radio program during one morning. 1 78
a How many people called the program?
2 134478
b What is the age range of the callers?
3 22356799
c Find the average age of these callers, correct to
1 decimal place. 4 01467
d How many callers were under 40 years of age? 5 358
e How many callers were over 50 years of age? 6 4669
7 58
160 Mathscape 8
6 This stem-and-leaf plot shows the scores for a group of golfers in the first round of a
tournament.
Stem Leaf a How many players took part in the tournament?
b The course is par 72, that is, players try to finish
6(5) 5 7 7 7 8 8 9 9
the round with a score of 72 or less. How many
7(0) 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 4 players managed to do this?
7(5) 5 5 6 8 8 8 8 c What fraction of the players were on or below par?
8(0) 1 1 2 3 3 4 d What was the most common score?
8(5) 6 6 7 7 7 9 e What was the leading score after the first round?
9(0) 0 1 2 2 3 f How many scores were between 80 and 95?
9(5) 7 8 9 9
7 Quentin is a travelling salesman. He drives long distances each day to see his clients and
sell products. Quentin recorded the number of kilometres he drove each day.
154 142 129 147 158 141 135
122 126 133 139 140 128 133
154 145 131 148 125 144 157
124 137 133 146 151 157 123
133 143 149 150 128 138 145
a Organise the data into a stem-and-leaf plot with class intervals of 5.
b What was the minimum distance travelled?
c On how many days did Quentin drive at least 140 km?
d What was the distance he travelled most often?
e What was the average daily distance travelled, correct to 1 decimal place?
f On what percentage of days did Quentin drive 150 km or more?
8 This back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot Males Females
shows the ages of male and female patients 98532 1 478
in a hospital ward.
87764312 2 025567
a What age is the oldest male patient?
976654443 3 1344789
b What age is the youngest female patient?
c What is the most common age for a 7554320 4 235666788
male patient? 976411 5 0011455778
d What is the age range of these patients? 5532 6 12356
e How many female patients are younger than 30 years?
f How many male patients are 45 years or older?
g Find the average ages of the male and the female patients (to the nearest year).
h What percentage of:
i males are under 30 years of age? ii females are under 30 years of age?
iii males are over 40 years of age? iv females are over 40 years of age?
i What conclusion can you draw about the ages of these male and female patients, from
this data?
TRY THIS Let’s jump

Stick a large sheet of cardboard on the classroom wall. Everyone in the class should
face the wall with a pen in their hand. They should then jump and mark the height of
the jump on the cardboard. Now measure the heights. Construct a stem-and-leaf
plot for this data.
4.10 The misuse of graphs

Graphs are used to present information factually and accurately in a way that is both quick and
easy to understand. When drawing a graph, decisions must be made such as what type of graph
would be the most appropriate and what scales to use on the axes. By making these choices, we
are deciding which features of the data should be given greater emphasis and which features
should receive less emphasis. This means that data can be graphed in a variety of ways and
these different graphs can give different impressions to the reader.
As a result, people drawing graphs will naturally choose the arrangement that they believe best
represents the data. This sometimes results in a biased representation of the data. Some people
may choose to deliberately draw a graph in a way that will mislead those reading it. It is
important to understand how graphs can be drawn in a misleading way so that we can avoid
being tricked by them.
The main reasons why graphs can be misleading are:

the scale on the vertical axis is missing
the scale on the vertical axis starts at a value other than zero
the scale on the vertical axis is inconsistent or broken
2D figures have been used to compare areas
3D figures have been used to compare volumes.
Example
EG Explain why each of these graphs is misleading.
+S
a Quiz results b Total fishing catch
Number of questions
2003
Fish caught (tonnes)
17
correct
16
15
14
13
12
11
Michael
Jessica
Gary
Alison
10
Tuna
Salmon
Sardines
162 Mathscape 8
c Casa Airlines ticket sales d Car production

23 000
Cars produced
1200
22 000 1000
21 000 800
20 000 600
400
200
12 000
11 000 Adelaide Sydney
10 000
Jan.–June
July–Dec.
Solutions
a The scale on the vertical axis is missing, so it is not possible to know how many questions
each person got correct. For example, the graph gives the impression that Gary got twice
as many questions correct as Michael. However, this may not be the case.
b The scale on the vertical axis does not start at zero. This graph gives the impression that
much more salmon was caught than tuna. However, the real difference between the
catches is only 3 tonnes.
c The scale on the vertical axis is broken. This graph gives the impression that the flight
ticket sales between July and December were still quite close to those between January
and June. The reality, however, is that the airline’s sales have fallen dramatically in the
second half of the year.
d In the second column, both the length and width have been doubled. The area of the
second column is 4 times that of the first, thus giving the impression that the Sydney plant
produces 4 times as many cars as the Adelaide plant. However, the heights of the figures
indicate that only twice as many cars are produced in Sydney.
Exercise 4.10
1 Explain why each of these graphs is misleading.

a Meat sales b Company profits
100 1997–2002
Profit ( × $10 000)
90
80
70
60
Veal
Lamb
Beef
97 98 99 00 01 02
Year
c Book sales d Restaurant customers

5000
Books sold
4000 40
3000 30
2000 20
1000 10
Jan. Feb. Mar. Take away Eat-in
e Bi-monthly customer f Vehicle sales – July

comparisons Station
wagons
1200 Company B
1100 Motor
Customers
1000 bikes
300 Sedans
200
100 Company A 1 symbol represents 100 vehicles sold.
J/F M/A M/J J/A S/O N/D
■ Consolidation
2 Go-Glass annual profits Go-Glass annual profits
1997–2002 1997–2002
200
200
Profit (× $1000)
190
Profit (× $1000)
150
180
100
170
50
160
0
150 97 98 99 00 01 02
97 98 99 00 01 02 Year
Year Graph B
Graph A
The graphs above show the annual profits of Go-Glass, a company that manufactures
industrial glass products.
a Which graph gives the stronger impression that sales are increasing?
b What technique has been used to achieve this effect?
c Which graph gives a more realistic impression of the sales period? Why?
164 Mathscape 8
3 An airline company used this graph to illustrate Passenger numbers

the increase in the number of passengers. soar!
a How many more passengers were there: 8000
Number of passengers
i in February than in January? 7500
ii in May than in January? 7000
b What was the percentage increase in
6500
passengers from January to May?
c Do these figures support the claim that 6000
‘Passenger numbers soar!’? 5500
d In what way has the graph been drawn 5000
to mislead the reader?
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.May
Month
4 A publisher wanted to start a new magazine for young women. A researcher asked
600 people which of four suggested titles they liked best. The following graphs represent
the same data. The researcher was not sure which graph to use in her report.
Popularity of titles Popularity of titles

170 160
Number of people
Number of people
165
160 140
155 120
150 100
145 80
40
140
an
a
irl
m
an
ea
eG
om
Di
Dr
a
irl
m
an
aw
an
ssi
ea
eG
om
Di
Au
Dr
're
aw
ssi
u
Au
Yo
Graph B
e
u'r
Yo
Graph A
a How many people voted for each of the suggested titles?

b Which graph is more convincing that Aussie Girl should be the chosen title?
c In what way has each graph been incorrectly drawn?
5 The graph shows the attendance figures Football attendance at home games
at a football stadium for five consecutive
home games. 40
Attendance (× 1000)
a How many people attended: 35
i match 1? ii match 5?
30
b What impression does this graph
give about the attendance at 25
match 5 compared to match 1? 20
c When was the attendance 25 000? 15
Explain why this graph has no
real meaning. Match Match Match Match Match
d Display this data correctly in a 1 2 3 4 5
different type of graph.
6 Give two reasons why this graph is misleading. Customer satisfaction
Level of customer
satisfaction Peter Mary Lindsay
Brown Nguyen Barton
7 State clearly the problem with each of these sector graphs.
a b
10% 8%
20% 30%
20%
35% 40% 10%
8 A student produced this graph comparing Year 8 Maths test results

the performance of the boys and girls in his
Number of students
who scored 75%+
Maths class on the last three class tests. Boys

40 Girls
a What kind of column graph is this? 36
b What does the first column of the graph 32
28
suggest about the relative performances 24
of the students? Is this correct? 20
c What does the second column suggest 1st 2nd 3rd
about the relative performance of the test test test
students? Is this correct?
d Why does this graph present a distorted view of the test performances of these students?
e Redraw the graph so that it represents the students’ test performances fairly.
166 Mathscape 8
9 This line graph shows the number of home Home break-ins

break-ins during the first 6 months of the year.
Number of break-ins
a Is the graph misleading? Why? 100
b Why would the graph have been drawn
this way? 200
c What can you really say about the overall 300
number of break-ins, from this data?
400
J F M A M J
Month
10 The table below shows the cattle sales on Harry’s cattle farm in the last 5 years, rounded to
the nearest 10 head of cattle.
Year 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Cattle sales (× 100) 74 78 8 780 840
a Draw a graph that represents the data honestly and fairly.
b Draw a graph that presents the data in a misleading fashion.
11 a Find at least five graphs from newspapers, magazines or brochures that you consider
may be misleading in some way.
b Explain the technique that has been used to distort the data in each graph.
Championship tennis
Introduction
The 2002 Australian Open Tennis Championships were a disappointment for Australian tennis
fans when all of the Australians, both men and women, were eliminated in the early rounds. The
men’s champion in 2000 and 2001, Andre Agassi, was interviewed on TV about his chances of
winning three times in a row. He said something like, ‘Well, I just have to go out there and beat
7 other guys’ and went on to elaborate his desire to win. He unexpectedly withdrew at the last
minute due to injury.
Focus question
Agassi needed to beat 7 opponents. Is this enough information to find the total number of
matches played in the men’s tournament?
Starting with the final, draw a diagram to Winner

show each round and the number of matches
to be played. This diagram will help you to
get started.
1 Continue the diagram for the 7 rounds.
It is a picture of the order of play and
so it is a graph of the information you
will need.
2 Draw up a table showing the rounds
Round No. of matches
and the number of matches played.
Start the table with the first round. 1
Copy and complete this table. 2
3 Answer the focus question. 3
4 What is a ‘seeded’ player? 4
Find out how seeded players
are allocated in the draw. 5 (quarterfinals)
6 (semifinals)
7 (final)
1 Suppose the focus question had asked you whether you could find the number of players in
the men’s tournament. What would your answer be?
2 Look carefully at the number pattern in the table for the total number of matches. What
would you predict to be the total number of matches for a tournament of 32 players?
168 Mathscape 8
3 Organise a tournament for 30 players, showing how you would arrange the draw. Think
about what you would do for the first round.
4 Would it be possible to write a general formula for the total number of matches given the
number of rounds? Draw up a table showing number of rounds and total number of
matches. See if you can find a pattern. Discuss this with your teacher.
Suppose you had not been given help to get started on the focus question. Would you have
started differently? Think it over and write down what you might have done. Do you think
graphs and tables are a useful aid in solving problems? Why?
%R EFLECTING
Think over what you have learned about using graphs and tables to help make sense of data and
to solve problems. They are very useful in searching for patterns and suggesting general rules.
Algebra is the tool we use to express these rules. Keep this in mind as your course progresses.
B P ROBLEM SOLVING
1 A block of flats has 10 storeys, with stairs linking each floor. How many times more is
a climb from the 1st floor to the 8th floor than from the 2nd floor to the 4th floor?
2 Jill had a bet with Anne that she would have a better bowling average after the first two
cricket matches. In the first match, Jill took 6 wickets for 24 runs (average 4) while Anne
took 6 wickets for 27 runs (average 4 1--2- ). Jill therefore beat Anne in the first match. In
the second match, Jill obtained 4 for 32 runs (average 8) and Anne 1 for 9 (average 9).
Once more Jill beat Anne. At the end of every two matches, the cricket club gives a
bowling award. Why was Anne given the award?
3 What is the largest value of coins you can have in your pocket yet not be able to give
change to any coin or note?
4 Give four numbers (not necessarily all different) which have a sum equal to their
product.
5 Can you find a number with 10 digits such that the first digit gives the number of zeros
in the number, the second digit gives the number of 1s in the number, and so on?
6 In a class of 25 students, everyone played sport. Only tennis and basketball were
available. If 16 students played tennis and 15 played basketball, how many students
played both?
7 Wicked Willy had been caught by King Crumpet trying to steal the Crown Jewels. The
king initially decided to have him executed. However, he said to Willy, ‘There are two
envelopes here. In one of them it says LIVE, and in the other DIE. You can take your
pick and hope that you are lucky.’ Wicked Willy knew that the king had written DIE for
both envelopes. How did he survive?
8 A man earns $100 per week. His salary is reduced by 5%. By what percentage would
his salary then have to be increased for him to once again earn $100 per week?
9 How do you write sixteen thousand, sixteen hundred and sixteen?
10 What is the largest number that you can write with two digits?
1 Explain the difference between a picture column noun 1. a long upright support or pillar
graph and a column graph. 2. anything with a similar shape to a column:
2 Sector graphs are also called p________ a column of smoke | The children formed two columns.
charts because of their appearance. 3. an upright row of numbers or of print going down
3 A t_________ graph is one which relates a page. 4. a piece of writing on a particular subject
that appears regularly in a newspaper or magazine:
distance travelled to time taken. I like reading the fashion column.
4 In a stem-and-leaf plot, what is meant by ❒ Word Family: columnist noun someone who
the terms ‘stem’ and ‘leaf’? writes a newspaper or magazine column
5 Read the Macquarie Learners’ Dictionary What is the connection between the everyday
entry for column: use and the mathematical use of column?
CHAPTER RE
1 The column graph shows Aaron’s Aaron's minimum monthly
minimum monthly bank balance. bank balance
Minimum balance ($)
50
a In which month was the minimum
balance least? 40
b What was the minimum balance in 30
December? 20
c In which month was the minimum 10
balance $20?
0
d By what percentage did the minimum July Aug. Sep. Oct Nov. Dec.
balance decrease between October Month
and November?
CHAPTER REVIEW
170 Mathscape 8
CHAPTER RE
2 The line graph shows the indoor a In which country will she spend the
temperature in Alari’s house for a period most time?
of 24 hours. b How many days will she spend in
Indoor temperature
France if the angle at the centre of that
20 sector is 70°?
c What should the angle be at the centre
of the Hong Kong sector if she
16
intends to spend 9 days there?
Temperature (C°)
d Measure the angle at the centre of the

12 In flight sector. For how many days
does she expect to be in the air?
8 4 A bus company charges fares on the basis
of distance travelled, using this step
4 graph.
Bus charges
0
VIEW
mid- 4 am 8 am noon 4 pm 8 pm mid-

night night 100
Time 80
Cost ($)
a
At what time was the maximum 60
temperature reached? 40
b What was the temperature at 2 pm?
20
c At what times was the temperature
13°C? 0
d How many degrees did the 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Distance (km)
temperature drop between noon and
6 pm? a What is the fare for a trip of:
3 The sector graph shows the holiday plans i 25 km?
of a student who intends to tour parts of ii 208 km?
Europe for 72 days after the HSC. iii 150 km?
b What is the maximum distance that
Overseas holiday can be travelled for:
In flight i $40? ii $90? iii $60?
Hong Kong Britain c How much more does it cost to travel
240 km than 105 km?
d Which is cheaper, a trip of 170 km or
two individual trips of 80 km and
Italy 90 km, and by how much?
France e If the graph continued to increase at
the same rate as the last few steps,
find the cost of a 500-km trip.
CHAPTER REVIEW
5 The travel graph shows the journeys of b The table shows how Rhiannon spent
VIEW
Herman and Lily from their homes in her 40-day summer vacation. Draw a
town A and town B, respectively. sector graph to represent this data.
Activity Home Shop- Work- Beach Movies
250
ping ing
Distance from A (km)
200 Number
14 7 6 9 4
CHAPTER RE
of days
150 ly
Li c The table shows the number of trees
100 cut down by a logging company
B
He
between April and August. Draw a
rm
50 picture graph to represent this data
an
using 1 = 40 trees.
0 A
8 am
9 am
10 am
11 am
noon
1 pm
2 pm
3 pm
Month Apr. May June July Aug.
Time Trees
243 224 181 165 208
a How far apart are the towns? logged
b At what times do their paths cross? d The table below shows the number of
c Whose speed was greater in the first students in each Year group who have
hour? travelled overseas. Draw a column
d How far had Herman driven when graph to represent this data.
Lily stopped to have a rest?
e How far apart are Lily and Herman at Year 7 8 9 10 11 12
11 am? Number of
23 18 22 27 30 35
f Who arrived back at town A first? students
g Calculate Lily’s speed between
12:30 pm and 2:30 pm. e The table shows the average number
h What was Lily’s average speed for of minutes that a class of sixth grade
the trip, not including the rest stop? students spends on English
homework each week. Draw a
6 a The table shows the daily share prices
divided bar graph to represent this
for Lorna’s mining shares for the last
data. Use a scale of 1 mm = 1 min.
week. Draw a line graph to represent
this data. Subject Reading Writing Grammar Spelling
Day Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Minutes 40 50 20 10
Share
1.35 1.37 1.33 1.37 1.40 1.45
price ($)
CHAPTER REVIEW
172 Mathscape 8
CHAPTER RE
7 This scatter diagram shows the average a How much money will Jack have if
monthly water pollution level for a river he invests $1000 for:
which passes through a large city, and the i 3 years at 4% p.a.?
number of fish dying per month in the ii 2 years at 4.5% p.a.?
river. b For how long would Jack need to
invest $1000 at 3% p.a. in order to
500 Mar. have $1159.27?
Number of dead fish
Oct. Dec. c How much interest will Jack earn

400
April Nov. Feb.
if he invests $1000 for 4 years at
300 July 5% p.a.?
Aug. Jan. d Jack invested $1000 for 2 years at
May
200 Sept. 3% p.a. and his sister Jill invested
June $1000 for 2 years at 4% p.a. How
100 much money will they have
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 altogether?
Average pollution level e How much extra interest is earned by
investing $1000 at 3.5% p.a. for
VIEW
a
Which month had the i highest
ii lowest average pollution level? 6 years rather than for 3 years?
b Which month had the i highest 9 State whether the following data is
ii lowest number of dead fish? quantitative or categorical.
c In which part of the year was the a shoe size
pollution level highest? Was this the b preferred style of music
same for fish fatalities? c favourite football team
d What relationship do you believe d cups of coffee drunk each day
exists between these two measures? 10 State whether the following data is
8 The table shows how much money will be discrete or continuous.
in Jack’s bank account if he invests $1000 a racing car speeds
for a given number of years at a given rate b number of letters in the Greek
of interest. Interest is extra money earned alphabet
on money deposited in institutions such c time needed to boil an egg
as banks. d score in a game of darts
Years 3% 3.5% 4% 4.5% 5% 11 In a board game in which a die was rolled
40 times the results were recorded as:
1 $1030.00 $1035.00 $1040.00 $1045.00 $1050.00 6, 5, 2, 5, 4, 6, 3, 5, 3, 3,
2 $1060.90 $1071.23 $1081.60 $1092.03 $1102.50 3, 4, 1, 2, 3, 5, 5, 4, 1, 2,
3 $1092.73 $1108.72 $1124.86 $1141.17 $1157.63 4, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6, 3, 4, 2, 4,
5, 1, 5, 2, 4, 5, 6, 1, 4, 5
4 $1125.51 $1147.52 $1169.86 $1192.52 $1215.51 a Organise the data into a frequency
5 $1159.27 $1187.69 $1216.65 $1246.18 $1276.28 distribution table with score, tally and
6 $1194.05 $1229.26 $1265.32 $1302.26 $1340.10 frequency columns.
CHAPTER REVIEW
b How many times was a 3 rolled? 13 A survey was taken to find the ages of
VIEW
c Which score was rolled most often? people who use the sports bar at a local
d Which score occurred 8 times? club. Their ages are:
e How many more 6s were rolled 18 19 21 23 32 35 40
than 2s? 19 27 54 40 37 37 22
f Draw a dot plot to illustrate the data. 34 47 60 55 43 57 59
12 The heights (in cm) of 40 police recruits 50 23 24 25 35 45 55
CHAPTER RE
were measured and recorded: 57 72 64 32 55 46 18
171 176 177 179 180 182 188 190 a Represent this information on a stem-
172 196 201 200 193 190 197 170 and-leaf plot.
187 179 190 202 200 180 190 175 b Find the average age of those
172 176 180 188 182 184 180 173 surveyed.
175 182 190 203 207 189 170 204 c How many people are under 25 years
a Copy and complete this grouped data of age?
frequency distribution table. d Which score(s) is an outlier? Why?
e What are the ages of the oldest and
Class Class Tally Frequency youngest people surveyed?
centre
14 This stem-and-leaf plot shows the IQ
170–174 scores of university students.
175–179 Stem Leaf
180–184 11(5) 677
185–189 12(0) 0134
12(5) 56899
190–194 13(0) 224445
195–199 13(5) 6678
200–204 14(0) 001
205–209 a How many students were tested?
b What are the highest and lowest IQ
b How many recruits have a height in scores?
the range 180–184 cm? c How many students have an IQ
c Which class has the highest greater than 130?
frequency? d Which IQ score occurred most often?
d How many recruits have a height of e What percentage of students have IQ
less than 195 cm? scores of less than 125?
f Show this data in a dot plot using
class intervals of 115–119,
120–124, etc.
CHAPTER REVIEW
174 Mathscape 8
CHAPTER RE
15 Explain why each of these graphs is

misleading.
a Car sales
2003
Cars sold
Haidatsu
Zamda
Bitsumishi
Manufacturer
b Company profits
Profit ($million)
2000–2003
123
VIEW
122
121
2000 2001 2002 2003

Year
CHAPTER REVIEW
Angles and
geometric
figures
5
Angles and geometric figures
Stage 4
state whether two angles are adjacent
use angle results for complementary angles and supplementary angles to find
unknown angles, giving reasons
use angle results for vertically opposite angles and angles at a point to find
unknown angles, giving reasons
classify angles in parallel lines as alternate, corresponding or co-interior
use angle results to determine whether two lines are parallel
find unknown angles in parallel lines, giving reasons
classify triangles according to their properties
use the angle sum of a triangle to find unknown angles, giving reasons
find interior and exterior angles in triangles by using the
exterior angle property, giving reasons
use triangle properties to find sides and angles in isosceles and
equilateral triangles, giving reasons
use the angle sum of a quadrilateral to find unknown angles, giving reasons
classify the special quadrilaterals according to their properties
use the properties of the special quadrilaterals to find unknown sides and
angles, giving reasons.
175
176 Mathscape 8
5.1 Adjacent angles

■ Adjacent angles
Two angles are adjacent if they:
have a common vertex, and
have a common ray, and
lie on opposite sides of this common ray.
X For example, ∠XYW is adjacent to ∠WYZ because:

i Y is a common vertex,
Y W ii YW is a common ray, and
iii the angles lie on opposite sides of YW.
Z
■ Complementary angles
Two adjacent angles are complementary if together they form a right angle. Each angle is said
to be the complement of the other. In general,
Two angles are complementary if they have a sum of 90°.
That is, α + β = 90°

α
β
■ Supplementary angles
Two adjacent angles are supplementary if together they form a straight angle. Each angle is
said to be the supplement of the other. In general,
Two angles are supplementary if they have a sum of 180°.
That is, α + β = 180°

α β
Chapter 5: Angles and geometric figures 177
Example 1
EG In each diagram, state whether the angles marked are adjacent.
+S
a C b T S
A B
P R
Q
D
Solutions
a B is a common vertex, AB is a common ray and the angles lie on opposite sides of this ray.
Therefore, ∠ABC is adjacent to ∠ABD.
b ∠PQT is not adjacent to ∠RQS because they do not share a common ray.
Example 2
EG Find the value of the pronumeral in each of these, giving reasons.
+S
a b
47°
x° y° 54°
Solutions
a x = 90 − 47 (adj. ∠s in a right angle) b y = 180 − 54 (adj. ∠s on a straight line)
x = 43 y = 126
Exercise 5.1
1 State whether the angles marked in each diagram are adjacent.

a b c d
e f g h
i j k l
178 Mathscape 8
2 Find the size of ∠XYZ in each of these.

a X b X Y c W
35° Z
W
20° 25° 70°
W 60°
X
50° Z Y
Y Z
d e f X
Z X W Y
77°
135° Z 39°
80° 82° Z
65° Y W
W Y
X
g X h Y i W Z
V 36°
18° Z
15° Z 33° 29° 51°
12° V 45°
Y W 37°
V W Y
X
X
j Y k V l Y
V X
40°
36° 10°
30° Z
W 78° Y 64° V 62°
X
Z 22° W
W
X Z
3 Find the complement of:
a 60° b 45° c 32° d 57°
4 Find the supplement of:

a 140° b 105° c 80° d 52°
■ Consolidation
a b c d
m°
30° 45° r° 55°
10° k°
t°
e f g h
67° 60°
16°
p° y°
13° 18° c° x°
32°
i j k d° l
73°
n° 44°
10° z°
51°
68°
g°
6 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following.
a b c 125° e°
150° b°
70°
w°
d e f
65° 27° k° 104°
f°
v°
g h c° i
45°
y° 15° 40°
70° 30° q°
j k l
58° 8°
s° 35° a°
72° j°
7 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of these, giving reasons.

a b c
m° k°
m° e°
k° k° e°
e°
d e f x°
d° a° a°a° x°
d° a° a° x°
d° x° x° x°
d°
8 Find:
a half the complement of 60°
b one-third of the supplement of 30°
c the complement of the supplement of 115°
d the supplement of the complement of 28°
180 Mathscape 8
9 Find values for all pronumerals in each of the following, giving reasons.
a b c
130° a° 140° p° 35°
f ° e°
b° 75° q° r°
d e f
24° v°
64°
x° 66° 85°
u° m°
y°
n°
TRY THIS Rotating pencil

Draw a large quadrilateral.
Place a pencil on one side.
Now rotate it so it is on the
second side. Keep doing this 1
until you are back at side 1.
4
Through what angle has the 2
pencil rotated? Try this method
on other polygons, each time 3
noting the angle through which
the pencil has rotated.
5.2 Angles at a point and

vertically opposite angles
■ Angles at a point
Angles that have a common vertex and form one complete revolution are referred to as angles
at a point. Since a revolution measures 360°, we can conclude that:
The sum of the angles drawn from a common point is 360°.
β
α γ That is, α + β + γ = 360°
■ Vertically opposite angles

When two straight lines intersect at a point, four angles are formed. Each pair of adjacent angles
on a straight line has a sum of 180°. Therefore, the four angles occur as two pairs of equal
supplementary angles. These equal angles lie opposite each other and are called vertically
opposite angles.
Vertically opposite angles are equal.
γ
α β
δ That is, α = β and γ = δ
Example 1
EG Find the value of the pronumeral in each of these, giving reasons.
+S
a b
a° k°
k° k°
70° k° k°
150° k°
Solutions
a a = 360 − 90 − 150 − 70 (angles at a point)
= 50
b k = 360 ÷ 6 (angles at a point)
= 60
Example 2
EG Find the value of the pronumeral in each of these.
+S
a b
p° 62° 50°
c°
80°
75°
Solutions
a p = 62 (vertically opposite angles are equal)
b c + 75 = 50 + 80 (vertically opposite angles are equal)
c + 75 = 130
∴ c = 130 − 75
= 55
182 Mathscape 8
Exercise 5.2

a b c
120° 138° d°
80° u°
x° 130° 62°
d e f
145° 63°
87° m° p° 55° 86° 72°
47°
50° 110° 81°
w°
2 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following.

a b c
a° 35° y°
120° 16°
k°
d e f
f°
j° 96°
115° v°
27°
■ Consolidation
a b c
t° k° 45°
75°
60° 40° z°
50°
18°
d e f
y° a° a° a°
x° a°
140° y° 129°
x° 160°
y°
g h i
62° 17° 3u°
r° 54°
s°
110° 132°
j k l
25° 10°
e°
50° 80°
e°
60° 62°
n° b° e°
85°
4 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of these. Give reasons for your answers.
a b c
f° v° v° c° c° c°
f° f° v° v° c° c°
v° c° c° c°
d e f
p° p°
80° g°
150° x° 60°
g°
x° 111° 80°
110° 80°
p°
5 Find values for all pronumerals in each of the following, giving reasons
a b c
130°
m° z° y°
n° 60° t°
73° x °
70° s° u°
70°
d e f
35° y° 144° n°
h° f ° z° x° k° m°
105°
115° g° 47°
184 Mathscape 8
TRY THIS Angles

Draw two parallel lines. Then draw a line that
intersects these lines. a° b°
c° d°
Cut out the angle a°. Find which angles are
equal to a° by moving it around and seeing e° f °
if it fits the other angles. g° h °
5.3 Parallel lines

Parallel lines are straight lines that have been drawn in the same plane and are equidistant.
That is, parallel lines always remain the same distance apart and thus they can never intersect.
The notation || means ‘is parallel to’. In the diagram below we could say that AB || CD, which
means ‘AB is parallel to CD’.
A third line that cuts the two parallel lines is called a E
transversal. When a transversal intersects a pair of parallel 1 2
lines, 8 angles are formed. These angles can be classified into A B
4 3
3 special pairs of angles: alternate angles, corresponding
angles and co-interior angles. 5 6
C D
8 7
F
■ Alternate angles
Alternate angles:
lie between the parallel lines and on opposite sides of the transversal
are equal in size
form a Z shape.
■ Corresponding angles
Corresponding angles:
lie on the same side of the parallel lines and on the same side of the transversal
are equal in size
form an F shape.
■ Co-interior angles
Co-interior angles:
lie between the parallel lines and on the same side of the transversal
are supplementary
form a C shape.
Note: In questions where reasons are required to be given, you must refer to the parallel lines
and name them if they are labelled. It is not sufficient to simply quote reasons such as
‘corresponding angles’.
Example 1
EG Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following, giving reasons.
+S
a b c
135°
q°
m° 37° v°
104°
Solutions
a m = 135 (corresponding angles on parallel lines).
b q = 37 (alternate angles on parallel lines).
c v = 76 (co-interior angles on parallel lines).
186 Mathscape 8
Example 2
EG Determine whether PQ || RS in each of these, giving reasons.
+S
a b Q
P Q 92°
105°
S
75° P 88°
R S
Solutions
a PQ || RS (co-interior angles are supplementary).
b PQ is not parallel to RS (corresponding angles are not equal).
Exercise 5.3
1 State whether the angles marked are alternate, corresponding or co-interior.

a b c
d e f
g h i
j k l
2 Complete the following statements.

a Alternate angles are ____________.
b Corresponding angles are ____________.
c Co-interior angles add up to ____________.
3 Find the value of a in each of these. Give reasons for your answers.
a b c
a° a°
60° 134°
25°
a°
4 Find the value of b in each of these. Give reasons for your answers.
a b c
b° 72° b°
40° b° 130°
5 Find the value of c in each of these. Give reasons for your answers.
a b c
40° c°
c° 155° c°
117°
■ Consolidation
6 Find the value of x in each of these, giving reasons.
a b c d
x° 20° x°
x° x°
40°
110°
135°
e f g h
x°
65°
x° 102° 159°
125°
x° x°
i j k l
x° 138° 84° x°
x° x°
112°
188 Mathscape 8
7 Find the values for all pronumerals in each of these, giving reasons.
a b c
y°
120°
105°
a° x°
40° e°
f°
b°
d e f
35° g°
u° 82°
k° j°
h°
v° 120°
8 Find the value of the pronumerals in each of these.

a b c
142°
a° 113°
x°
u° v° y°
b° 64° z°
c° t°
9 Find the value of the pronumerals in each of the following, giving reasons.
a b c
y° z° 118° 47° u°
t°
71°
s° v°
d e f
s°
q°
x° r°
w° 146° 101° p°
10 State whether AB || CD in each of these. Give a reason for your answer.

a b A B
c
A B A B
70° 62° 96°
70° D
D C 68° 96° D
C
d e f A
A B B
A 55° 110° 105°
B
112°
55° C
C D D 75° D
C
11 Find the value of each pronumeral, giving reasons.
a b c
y° q° 145°
38°
40° p°
g°
x° 75° h°
d e f
166° 117°
m° 125° d°
c° e°
n° 49° f°
g h i
u° 53°
78° t° p°
82°
v° 48° r° q°
s° 84°
67°
190 Mathscape 8
5.4 Angle sum of a triangle
The angle sum of a triangle is 180°.
β
That is, α + β + γ = 180°.
α γ
A formal proof of this result is given below.

Aim: To prove that α + β + γ = 180°.
Proof: • Construct the line XY through B, parallel to AC
B • ∠XBA = ∠BAC (alternate angles, XY || AC)

X Y ∴ ∠XBA = α
α β γ
• ∠YBC = ∠BCA (alternate angles, XY || AC)
α γ ∴ ∠YBC = γ
A C
• ∠XBA + ∠ABC + ∠YBC = 180° (angles on a st. line)
∴ α + β + γ = 180°
∴ the angle sum of a triangle is 180°.
Example 1
EG Find the value of the pronumeral, giving reasons for your answers. 75°
+S
Solution x° 50°
x = 180 − 50 − 75 (angle sum of a ∆ is 180°)
= 55
Example 2
EG Find the value of the pronumerals in each of these, giving reasons for your answers.
+S
a b
55°
31° q°
p° 30°
150° x ° 56°
y°
Solutions
a x = 180 − 31 − 56 (angle sum of a ∆ is 180°)
= 93
y = 360 − 93 − 150 (angles at a point)
= 117
b p = 55 (alternate angles on parallel lines)
q = 180 − 55 − 30 (angle sum of a ∆ is 180°)
= 95
Exercise 5.4
1 Find the value of the pronumeral in each triangle.

a b c
80° 35° q°
m°
60° 40° 10°
h°
d e f
50° 65°
43° z° t° 20° a°
75°
g h i
k°
y°
27° 34° 16°
w° 106° 95°
40°
■ Consolidation
2 Find the value of the pronumerals in each of these, giving reasons.
a b c
y° x° 75°
60° 120°
a°
50° p° q° 45°
b°
80°
d e 54°
f
g°
80° h° d°
60° 69°
m° n°
c°
27°
192 Mathscape 8

a b c
k° 45° v°
66°
u° r°
j°
100° s°
55° 64°
d e f
75° 26° 157°
100° 150° y° x° 48°
a° p°
125° q°
40° b° 77°

a b c
70° 71° u° 120°
d°
g° h°
43°
40°
80° c° v°
d e f
p° 81°
25° 57°
r°
q°
y°
105°
69° q° 80°
x°

a b c
g° t°
80° 63°
h° 72°
n° 88° m°
68°
50° 54°
36° u°
d e f
64° y°
64° 28° b°
q° 110°
41° a°
78°
15° 47° x°
p°

a b c
74° 65° p°
r° 56°
55°
a° z° y° x° 113°
38°
c° q°
b° 58°
d e° d°
e f
136°
75° t°
23° v° u°
e° f° g° 72°
c°
5.5 Isosceles and equilateral

triangles
An equilateral triangle has the following properties: 60°

3 sides equal in length
3 angles measure 60°
3 axes of symmetry.
60° 60°
An isosceles triangle has the following properties:

2 sides equal in length
2 angles equal in size
1 axis of symmetry.
Note: In an isosceles triangle, the two equal angles are called base angles and they are opposite
the equal sides. The remaining angle is called the apex angle.
194 Mathscape 8
Example 1
EG Find the value of the pronumeral in each triangle, giving reasons.
+S
a b
75°
6 cm 6 cm
k° 40° 75° e cm
11 cm
c d
x° 8 cm
8 cm
t cm
Solutions
a k = 40 (base angles of an isosceles ∆ are equal)
b e = 11 (equal sides of an isosceles ∆)
c x = 60 (angle in an equilateral ∆)
d t = 8 (sides of an equilateral ∆ are equal)
Example 2
EG Find the value of the pronumerals, giving reasons. b°
+S
Solution a°
50°
a = 50 (base angles of an isosceles ∆ are equal)
b = 180 − 50 − 50 (angle sum of a ∆ is 180°)
= 80
Example 3
EG Find the value of the pronumerals in each of the following, giving reasons.
+S
a b
e°
68° f°
a° b°
Solutions
a a = 22 (adjacent angles in a right angle)
b = 22 (base angles of an isosceles ∆ are equal)
b e = 60 (angle in an equilateral ∆)
f = 120 (co-interior angles on parallel lines)
Exercise 5.5
1 Classify each of these triangles as either isosceles or equilateral.

a b 5 c d 60° 60°
5
3 60°
5
70° 70° 5 3
2 Name the equal angles in each of these isosceles triangles.

a M b X c B
L N A
Y
C
3 Name the equal sides in each of these isosceles triangles.

a Q b E c T
P
V
R F G
U
4 Is an equilateral triangle isosceles? Explain.

a b 12 cm
c d
k° 3 cm 60°
7 cm 4 cm
7 cm 4 cm u cm
60°
x° p cm 12 cm 60°
7 cm 4 cm
6 Find the value of the pronumeral in each isosceles triangle, giving reasons.
a b 13 cm
c
z° 71°
50° 67°
9 cm
10 cm 10 cm
a° 67° t cm
9 cm
d e w cm
f 21 cm
25° 84° 48° 152° 14°
16 cm n cm
5 cm 14°
c°
48°
16 cm
196 Mathscape 8
■ Consolidation
7 Find values for both pronumerals in each triangle, giving reasons.
a b c
n° q° p°
b°
m°
65° a° 55° 22°

a b c
d°
b° a° 40° 70° c°
p° q°
77°
d e f
130°
a° m° g° h°
80° b°
n°
g f° h i
t° 145°
s°
e° v° u°
70°
61°
j t° 27° k l
u° 125° 70° 40°
x° w°
v°
y°

a W b M c A
Z L
y° Q
c°
82° P s° Q
49° x° 56° r°
O N
d° P B C
X AB = AC
Y
d P e D f V
37° S
T
b° q° H
G I W 105°
S a° R v°
p°
71° E F U
PQ = PR DE = EF u° X
Q
T
10 Find the value of x in each of these, giving reasons.
a A b Q c F
P S
38°
C T x°
R
59° x° H I
x° G
E 117°
B D
U V
K J
5.6 Exterior angle of a triangle
The exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two interior opposite angles.
β
That is, γ = α + β
α γ
A formal proof of this result is given below.

Aim: To prove that γ = α + β
Proof: • Extend AC to D and construct CE parallel to AB
• ∠ECD = ∠BAC (corresponding angles, CE || AB)
B E ∴ ∠ECD = α
β
• ∠BCE = ∠ABC (alternate angles, CE || AB)
γ ∴ ∠BCE = β
α βα
• ∠BCD = ∠ECD + ∠BCE (adjacent angles)
A D
C ∴γ=α+β
∴ the exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum
of the two interior opposite angles.
198 Mathscape 8
Example
EG Find the value of each pronumeral, giving reasons.
+S
a b
146°
70°
50° a° b°
84°
Solutions
a a = 50 + 70 (exterior angle of a ∆) b 146 = b + 84 (exterior angle of a ∆)
= 120 ∴ b = 146 − 84
= 62
Exercise 5.6
1 Find the value of the pronumeral by using the exterior angle property. Give a reason for
each answer.
a b c
55° p° m°
60°
45°
70° x°
41°
67°
d e f
g°
29° 31°
52° e° 18°
75° w°
2 Find the value of the pronumeral by using the exterior angle property. Give a reason for
each answer.
a c°
b c
50°
65° 163°
18°
h° 125° u°
85°
d e f
t° 59°
21° 24°
k°
17° 30° n°
3 Find the values of x and y in the following, giving reasons for your answers.
a 70° b c
85° 12° x°
x°
60°
40° y° y°
x° 75°
y°
d x°
e f
y° 112°
160° 71°
y°
43° x°
58° y° x° 147°
120°
g h i
82°
16° x° 65° 67°
y°
x°
y°
121° x° 48°
y°
4 Find the values of a, b and c in each of these, giving reasons for your answers.
a b c
c° a°
40°
c°
b°
b°
c° b° 40°
60° a° 10° 50°
a° 75°
d e f c° b°
c°
41°
25° b° a°
37° a° b° c° a° 31° 47°

48°
200 Mathscape 8
5 Find the value of all pronumerals, giving reasons for your answers.
a b
50°
t°
r° s°
q° s° r°
20° 10°
p° 110° t°
50° p° q° 40°
c d
t° p°
s° r°
72° q°
76°q° r°
p°
105°
133°
s° t°
5.7 Angle sum of a

quadrilateral
The angle sum of a quadrilateral is 360°.
β
That is, α + β + γ + δ = 360°
α
δ γ
A formal proof of this result is given on the next page.

Aim: To prove that ∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D = 360°

Proof: • Construct the diagonal AC
• u° + v° + w° = 180° (angle sum of ∆ABC is 180°)
B
v° • x° + y° + z° = 180° (angle sum of ∆CDA is 180°)
A u° Now, ∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D = (u° + z°) + v° + (w° + x°) + y°
z° = (u° + v° + w°) + (x° + y° + z°)
y° w° = 180° + 180°
x°
D C = 360°
∴ the angle sum of a quadrilateral is 360°.
Example 1
EG Find the value of the pronumeral, giving reasons. p°
+S 105°
Solution
p = 360 − 110 − 90 − 105 (angle sum of a quadrilateral is 360°) 110°
= 55
Example 2
EG Find the value of the pronumerals in each of the following, giving reasons.
+S
a 65°
b
164° g° 98°
h°
u°
38°
v° 140°
Solutions
a • g = 115 (angles on a straight line)
• h = 360 − 164 − 115 − 38 (angle sum of a quadrilateral is 360°)
= 43
b • u = 98 (vertically opposite angles are equal)
• v = 360 − 98 − 90 − 140 (angle sum of a quadrilateral is 360°)
= 32
202 Mathscape 8
Exercise 5.7

a b c
80° 110°
m° 55°
120° x°
100° 60° 140° h°

105°
d e f
125° 95° w°
p°
135° 210°
52°
85°
y° 45° 25°
g h i
83° 76° 133°
34° 142°
98°
a° 45°
75°
z°
f°
■ Consolidation
2 Find the values of all pronumerals, giving reasons.
a b c
s° 53°
80° k°
85°
140° j ° 105°
103° r°
100° a° b° 88°
65°
d e e° 135°
f
125° t° 73°
y° 12°
20° 105°
143°
80° f° u°
x°
g h i
80° 165°
75° d°
n° g° 110°
h°
85° m°
80° 163°
145°
72° c°
99°
j k l
83° 150° 100°
115° 105°
h° p°
u° 20° q°
g° 75° 127°
111° v°

a b c
60° 100° 48°
50° 50°
95° 135°
d°
c°
y° x° u° 23°
t°
d e f
m° 70° e° 130°
52°
n° 135° f° k°
j°
130° 31°
38°
g h i
140° 105° 45° 67°
100°
44°
150°
p°
a° b° 61°
50° h° g°
q°
204 Mathscape 8
4 Find the value of the pronumerals in each of the following, giving reasons.
a b
t° 125° b°
42° 60°
140°
a° 55° 38°
70°
155° x°
154°
c d 72°
s°
y°
f°
95°
64° e° 65°
e 80° f
x° 21° 30°
116°
110° 110° 160°
81°
p° y°
40°
q°
5 Find the value of the pronumerals in each of these. Give reasons for your answers.
a b
20° a° b° 125°
d° 117°
a°
60° 50°
b°
c° d°
c°
15°
c d
50° 79°
f°
b°
d° 75°
a° g° e°
144°
c° 114° h°
68°
5.8 The special quadrilaterals

The 6 special quadrilaterals are the square, the rectangle, the parallelogram, the rhombus, the
trapezium and the kite. At this stage we will not be concerned with the formal definitions of
these quadrilaterals. Rather, we will focus on recognising and naming the figures and using
their properties to answer simple problems. The properties of each figure are listed below.
In a square:
• the opposite sides are parallel
• all sides are equal
• all angles are right angles
• the diagonals are equal and bisect each other at right angles
• the diagonals bisect the angles at the vertices.
In a rectangle:
• the opposite sides are equal and parallel
• all angles are right angles
• the diagonals are equal and bisect each other.
In a parallelogram:
• the opposite sides are equal and parallel
• the opposite angles are equal
• the diagonals bisect each other.
In a rhombus:
• the opposite sides are parallel
• all sides are equal
• the opposite angles are equal
• the diagonals bisect each other at right
angles
• the diagonals bisect the angles at the vertices.
In a trapezium:
• one pair of opposite sides is parallel.
In a kite:
• two pairs of adjacent sides are equal
• one pair of opposite angles are equal
• one diagonal bisects the other at right angles
• one diagonal bisects the angles at the vertices.
206 Mathscape 8
Example
EG Find the value of the pronumeral in each figure, giving reasons for your answers.
+S
a y cm b E F c W 6 cm X
A B 8c
140° m j°
p°
k cm r cm
q°
x° 25°
D C H G Z Y
15 cm
ABCD is a parallelogram EFGH is a rectangle WXYZ is a rhombus
Solutions
a x = 140 (opposite angles in a parallelogram are equal)
y = 15 (opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal)
b j = 90 (angle in a rectangle)
k = 8 (diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other)
c p = 90 (diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular)
q = 25 (diagonals of a rhombus bisect the angles at the vertices)
r = 6 (sides of a rhombus are equal)
Exercise 5.8
1 Name each of these quadrilaterals.

a b c
d e f
2 How many axes of symmetry has each figure in Q1?

3 Copy and complete the following table to show the side, angle and diagonal properties of
each figure.
Parallelogram
Trapezium
Rectangle
Rhombus
Square
Kite
a All sides are equal
b Opposite sides are equal
c All angles are right angles
d Opposite angles are equal
e Opposite sides are parallel
f Equal diagonals
g Diagonals bisect each other
h Diagonals intersect at right angles
i Diagonals bisect the angles at the vertices
■ Consolidation
4 Find the values of the pronumerals in each of these, giving reasons.
a a cm b c 15 cm
e°
d cm 65° k°
b cm 5 cm
j cm
4 cm
9 cm
d e f
t° 18° p°
u cm v° q°
12 cm
w° 72°
5 Find the values of the pronumerals in each of these, giving reasons for your answers.
a b c
m° 120° 150° b° a°
x°
n° y°
c°
208 Mathscape 8
d c° e f
b° g°
36°
f° x°
y°
37° z°
e°
125°
105°
6 a What kind of quadrilateral is ABCD? Why? A B

m°
b Is AB || DC? Why?
c Find the value of m and give a reason for your answer.
34°
D C
P Q 7 a What kind of quadrilateral is PQRS? Why?

b If PT = 7 cm, find the lengths of TR and SQ, giving reasons
for your answers.
T
S R
8 a What kind of quadrilateral is EFGH? Why? E F

b What size is ∠EDF? Why?
c If EG = 12 cm, what is the length of ED? Why?
d If FH = 16 cm, what is the length of FD? Why? D
e Find the length of EF.
H G
I J 9 In the quadrilateral IJKL, LM = 5 cm and MK = h cm.

a What kind of quadrilateral is IJKL? Why?
M b Find the value of h and give a reason for your answer.
h
cm cm
5
L K
10 a What kind of quadrilateral is WXYZ? Why? W

b Do the diagonals bisect each other?
X
c If WV = 4 cm and VX = 7 cm, find the length of:
i VY ii WY iii VZ iv XZ V
Z
Y
11 In the rectangle TUVW, S is the point of intersection of the diagonals and ∠TSU = 110°.
Draw a diagram and show all of the given information. Find the size of:
a ∠TUV b ∠USV c ∠WSV d ∠SWV e ∠TWS f ∠WTV
12 In the rhombus ABCD, E is the point of intersection of the diagonals and ∠BAE = 52°. Draw
a diagram and show all of the given information. Find the size of:
a ∠AEB b ∠ABE c ∠DBC d ∠DAB e ∠ACD f ∠ADC
13 In the parallelogram GHIJ, K is the point of intersection of the diagonals, ∠GHK = 25° and
∠GJI = 65°. Draw a diagram and show all of the given information. Find the size of:
a ∠IJK b ∠GJK c ∠JHI d ∠GHI e ∠HIJ f ∠JGH
14 Write true (T) or false (F) for each of these.
a A square is a rectangle. b A rectangle is a square.
c A rectangle is a parallelogram. d A rhombus is a square.
e A parallelogram is a rhombus. f A rhombus is a parallelogram.
g A square is a rhombus. h A rhombus is a rectangle.
i A parallelogram is a square. j A square is a parallelogram.
k A rectangle is a rhombus. l A parallelogram is a rectangle.
15 Find the value of the pronumerals in each of these.

a E F b K L c G
q° 47°
p°
g° 20°
B F 54° C
D G a° c°
g° f °
e° f° H
134° N M b°
I d° e°
H D
A E
DEFG is a parallelogram KLMN is a rhombus ABCD is a parallelogram, CF = CD.
TRY THIS Quadrilateral diagram

You know that all squares are rectangles.
We could draw a diagram (called a Venn Diagram) Rectangles
as shown.
Can you draw a diagram that includes squares, Squares
rhombuses, rectangles, parallelograms, trapeziums
and quadrilaterals?
210 Mathscape 8
Logos
Introduction
Many companies and organisations have a logo for advertising purposes. The companies hope
that when people see the logo they will remember the product. The long-term objective is sales,
but keeping the company in the forefront of people’s minds through seeing the logo is a very
important part of the strategy.
A well-known car manufacturer has a red logo made up of three rhombuses, drawn inside an
equilateral triangle.
Construct an equilateral triangle of side 6 cm and then:
1 Make an accurate drawing of the logo using your observations about the whole design.
2 Name of the basic shape from which the logo is made.
3 Write down as many geometrical facts about the design as you can find, for example angle
sizes, axes of symmetry, or congruent figures.
4 Draw a circle to pass through each of the 3 corners of the design. Why is this possible?
Through how many degrees could you turn the logo about its centre so that it matched
perfectly?
5 If the base edge of each basic shape is 2 units, what is the area of the whole logo?
1 Examine the geometry of other logos, e.g. State Rail, Caltex, Mercedes Benz, ABC,
Channel 9. Cut out your favourite logos from a newspaper or magazine and write down all
you can about the geometry of the designs.
2 What makes a good logo? Does mathematics play a role in an appealing design?
For example, many logos are symmetrical in some way.
Mathematics can help in the design of an appealing logo. Make a poster of your favourite logos
to display in class.
%R EFLECTING
Think about the relationship of geometry to the world of advertising. Why are some logos more
easily remembered than others?
B P ROBLEM SOLVING
1 Here is a diagram of a cube which has a volume of 1 cm3. Its dimensions

are 1 cm by 1 cm by 1 cm. How much larger are the dimensions of a
cube that has 8 times the volume of this one?
2 What time does this clock show in a mirror?
3 Is it possible to draw this figure with one continuous line?

You cannot lift your pen or draw over a line.
4 John is twice Jane’s age. In 2 years’ time, John will be twice as old as Jill and she will be
twice as old as Jane’s age 2 years ago. How old are John, Jill and Jane?
212 Mathscape 8
5 This puzzle will keep you busy for a while!

Do it systematically and write down the results
of each count! How many squares can you
count in this figure?
6 A big bear and a little bear went hunting. The little bear was the big bear’s son, but
the big bear was not the little bear’s father. How was this possible?
7 A cook has only a 5-minute and an 11-minute sand timer.
How can he use them to measure 12 minutes?
8 A square and an equilateral triangle have equal perimeters. If a side of the triangle is
3 cm longer than a side of the square, how long is the square?
9 If a + b = 12, b + c = 17, and the sum of the three numbers is 22, find a, b and c.
10 In Foreland, only four digits 0, 1, 2 and 3 are used to write numbers. They have to
begin a second column for the number 4!
Us Foreland Us Foreland
1 1 6 12
2 2 7 13
3 3 8 20
4 10 9 21
5 11 10 22
Can you now write their numerals for the numbers from 11 to 20?
1 Explain the difference between a vertex parallel adjective 1. being the same distance from
and a ray. each other at every point: A railway track is made up
2 When two angles form a right angle they of two parallel lines.
are c________. –noun 2. a line parallel with another 3. a comparison
3 If two adjacent angles form a straight showing likeness: You can draw a parallel between his
actions and his father’s actions.
angle they are s________.
4 Explain what is meant by angles at a How is the mathematical use of this word
point. different from these?
entry for parallel:
1 State whether the angles marked are 4 Find the value of each pronumeral, giving
VIEW
adjacent. a reason for your answer.
a b a
110°
b°
c d
CHAPTER RE
b
r°
2 Find the value of each pronumeral, giving
a reason for your answer. 65°
a b
c
t° a° 65°
20° 122°
c d
123° k° m°
w° 140°
e f 5 Find the pronumerals.

x°
a
x°
x° e° e° e°
e° 40° 134°
a°
g h
b°
136° c°
c°
72° 137°
y°
c° 35°
b
3 Find: f°
a the complement of 40° e°
46°
b the supplement of 75°
c the supplement of the complement g°
of 32°.
CHAPTER REVIEW
214 Mathscape 8
CHAPTER RE
6 State whether PQ is parallel to RS in each 10 Find the value of all pronumerals, giving
of these. Give a reason for your answer. reasons for your answers.
a P Q a b 10 cm
61° 75° b°
y cm 60°
S 10 cm
139° 60° x° a°
R
11 cm
T
11 Find the value of all pronumerals, giving
b reasons for your answers.
Q
P a b
105° 70° 83°
a°
75° 135° k°
R S 105° 54°
T
VIEW
12 Find the value of all pronumerals, giving

7 Find the value of each pronumeral. Give reasons for your answers.
a reason for your answer. a
a b 13 cm
128°
74° q°
60° s° 62° p°
q cm
c d
83° p° b
z° 24°
u°
50° v° 7 cm
130° 105°
w cm
8 What kind of triangle has:
a 3 sides equal? 13 K L
b 2 sides equal? c°
c 0 sides equal?
9 a In ∆CDE, CE = DE. Which angles are N
51°
M
equal?
b In ∆XYZ, ∠ZXY = ∠ZYX. Which a What kind of quadrilateral is KLMN?
sides are equal? Why?
b Is KL || NM? Why?
c Find the value of c, giving a reason
for your answer.
CHAPTER REVIEW
14 A c
VIEW
B
140°
c° b°
E
f° 65° a°
D C
a What kind of quadrilateral is ABCD? d q°
Why? p°
CHAPTER RE
b Find the value of f, giving a reason for 51°
your answer.
c If AE = 6 cm, find EC and BD, giving
reasons for your answers. e
15 In the rectangle WXYZ, V is the point of
n° 102°
intersection of the diagonals and m°
∠XVY = 82°. Find the size of: 45°
a ∠WXY b ∠WVX c ∠WVZ
d ∠ZWV e ∠VWX f ∠WYZ
16 In the rhombus JKLM, N is the point of f
intersection of the diagonals and e°
∠KLN = 63°. Find the size of: d°
a ∠KNL b ∠LKN c ∠JKM 84°
d ∠KLM e ∠MJL f ∠JML 152°
c°
17 In which of the special quadrilaterals:
a are the diagonals equal? g
42°
b are the diagonals perpendicular? c°
c do the diagonals bisect each other?
d do the diagonals bisect the angles at
b° a°
the vertices?
18 Find the value of all pronumerals, giving h
reasons for your answers.
a f°
g°
143° u° 78° h°
v°
54°
b
z° x° y°
78°
CHAPTER REVIEW
216 Mathscape 8
CHAPTER RE
i k
g° 64°
h°
j° 149°
80° 165° 85°
k°
j l
108°
m°
x°
66° w°
n°
v° 52°
VIEW
CHAPTER REVIEW
Geometric
constructions
6
Geometric constructions
Stage 4
construct a regular polygon in a circle by using a ruler, protractor and
compasses
construct a variety of triangles by using a ruler and compasses
construct a variety of quadrilaterals by using a ruler, protractor and compasses
bisect an interval by using compasses
bisect an angle by using compasses
copy an angle by using compasses
use a ruler and compasses to construct angles of 30°, 45°, 60°, 90° and 120°
construct a line parallel to a given line
construct a perpendicular to a line through a point on the line
construct a perpendicular to a line through a point not on the line.
217
218 Mathscape 8
6.1 Constructing regular

polygons in a circle
A regular polygon has all its sides equal and all its angles equal. Regular polygons are named
according to the number of sides, e.g. regular octagon, regular hexagon, except for the special
cases the equilateral triangle and the square.
Example 1
EG Draw a circle then construct a regular pentagon that has all its vertices on the circle.
+S
Solution B
Since the pentagon is regular and all its sides are equal, C
all the angles ∠AOB etc. at the centre must be equal.
72°
Each angle, ∠AOB etc., will equal 360° ÷ 5 = 72°. A
O
We draw five angles of 72° at the centre using a protractor
and join A, B, C, D, E to form the regular pentagon. D
E
Exercise 6.1
1 a Draw a circle, centre O, with radius OA of 3 cm. A

b Use your protractor to construct OB and OC
so that ∠AOB = ∠AOC = 120°.
c Measure ∠BOC. Is it 120°? 120°
120°O B
d Join the points A, B, C to form ∆ABC.
e Measure the lengths of the sides of ∆ABC.
What kind of triangle is it? C
■ Consolidation
2 a Draw a circle with diameter DF. E
b Use a set square and ruler to construct EG, the perpendicular
bisector of DF. Does it pass through the centre O?
c Join D, E, F, G to form the quadrilateral.
d Measure the lengths of DE, EF, FG, GD and D F
O
all the angles of the quadrilateral.
What type of quadrilateral is DEFG?
G
Chapter 6: Geometric constructions 219
3 a Draw a circle, centre O. Without changing the radius of your

compasses mark 6 equally spaced points around the circle.
b Join the points to form a regular hexagon.
c Do the axes of symmetry pass through O?
4 a What size should the central angles be in this H

regular octagon? P I
b Construct the octagon HIJKLMNP.
O J
N
M K
L
5 Construct each of the following regular polygons in a circle of radius 4 cm.

a nonagon b decagon c dodecagon
6 Which regular polygon with fewer than ten sides would be difficult to construct accurately?
Why?
7 a Construct this pentagram using your compasses and protractor.

b Find the sum of the angles at the circumference.
6.2 Constructing triangles

Triangles can be constructed using a ruler, protractor and pair of compasses. In order to
construct a triangle, we need to be given some information about the lengths of the sides and
the sizes of the angles.
220 Mathscape 8
Example 1
EG Construct each of these triangles.
+S
a C b F c 4 cm
I H
40 mm 35 mm 3 cm
60° 6 cm
A 43 mm B D 4 cm E
G
Solutions
a Draw an interval of 43 mm for the base, AB. Use your compasses with centre A and
radius 40 mm to draw an arc above AB. Now draw an intersecting arc using B as centre
and 35 mm as radius. Join AC and BC.
b Draw the base DE with length 4 cm. Construct an angle of 60° at E. Measure 3 cm
along EF. Join F to D.
c Draw the base IH 4 cm long. Construct a right angle at I. Using your compasses with
radius 6 cm and centre H, draw an arc that cuts the perpendicular to I. Join G to H.
Exercise 6.2
1 Construct equilateral triangles with sides:

a 4 cm b 3 cm c 6 cm d 5 cm
2 Construct full-sized drawings of these isosceles triangles, using a ruler and compasses.
a b c
34 mm
4 cm 4 cm 3 cm 6 cm
5 cm 5 cm 34 mm
3 Construct full-sized drawings of these scalene triangles, using a ruler and compasses.
a 3 cm b c 36 mm
4 cm
5 cm
6 cm
7 cm
6 cm 48 mm
4 cm
4 a Construct a scalene triangle with sides 3 cm, 5 cm and 7 cm.

b Measure the obtuse angle with a protractor.
5 Construct a triangle with sides 6 cm, 4 cm and 7 cm. Is it an obtuse-angled triangle?

■ Consolidation
6 Construct full-sized drawings of these triangles, using a ruler and protractor.
a b c
4.6 cm
5 cm
120°
60° 2.5 cm
3 cm 3.2 cm
d e 4.5 cm f
70° 60°
4 cm 3.2 cm
50° 135°
5 cm
4.5 cm
7 a Construct a triangle with sides 3 cm, 3.5 cm and 4 cm.

b Measure the 3 angles.
c Is the largest angle opposite the longest side?
d Is the smallest angle opposite the shortest side?
8 a Construct an isosceles triangle JKL with a base of L

7 cm and equal sides of 5 cm.
b Find M the midpoint of the base JK using a ruler.
5 cm 5 cm
Draw in LM.
c Verify by measurement that:
i the base angles are equal (i.e. ∠J = ∠K) J
M
K
ii LM bisects the base JK 7 cm
iii LM bisects the apex angle, ∠JLK
iv LM ⊥ JK
d Is LM an axis of symmetry of ∆JLK?
e Are there any other axes of symmetry?
9 a Construct a triangle with sides 7.5 cm, 6 cm and 4.5 cm.

b Is the triangle right-angled?
10 a Construct ∆NOP with sides 3 cm, 4 cm and 5 cm. 4 cm

O P
What type of triangle is this?
b Join O to Q, the midpoint of NP.
c Measure QN, QO, QP. What property do you notice? 3 cm
Q
d Would this property also hold for a triangle with 5 cm
sides 6 cm, 8 cm and 10 cm?
N
222 Mathscape 8
11 a Show that it is not possible to construct triangles with sides:
i 3 cm, 4 cm, 8 cm ii 4 cm, 5 cm, 9 cm
b How would you determine whether the construction of a certain triangle was possible
given the lengths of its sides?
12 Is it possible to draw these triangles from the given information? Give reasons for your
answers. (If you are uncertain, try to draw the figure.)
a ∆ABC with AB = 7.2 cm, AC = 4 cm, ∠A = 57°
b ∆DEF with DE = 5.6 cm, EF = 6 cm, ∠F = 60°
c ∆GHI with ∠G = 72°, ∠H = 79°, ∠I = 30°
d ∆JKL with ∠J = 48°, ∠K = 100°, LK = 5 cm
6.3 Constructing quadrilaterals

Quadrilaterals, like triangles, can be constructed using a ruler, protractor and pair of compasses.
In order to construct a quadrilateral, we need to be given specific information about the lengths
of the sides and the sizes of the angles.
Example 1
EG Construct a square of side length 4 cm.
+S
Solution
Step 1: Draw a right angle using either a set square or a protractor.
Step 2: Open the compasses to a width of 4 cm. Using the vertex Q

of the right angle as the centre, mark off equal distances
on each ray. 4 cm
P 4 cm S
Step 3: Without changing the width of the compasses, use Q and S

Q R
as centres and make intersecting arcs.
P S
Step 4: Join QR and RS to form a square. Q R
4 cm
P 4 cm S
Example 2
Q R
EG Construct this parallelogram.
+S 2 cm
70°
P 4 cm S
Solution
Step 1: Draw a 70° angle using a protractor.
70°
P
Step 2: Use a ruler to mark the points Q and S

such that PQ = 2 cm and PS = 4 cm. Q
2 cm
70°
P
4 cm S
Step 3: Draw a line through Q, parallel to PS.

Q
70°
P
S
Step 4: Draw a line through S, parallel to PQ.

PQRS is a parallelogram. Q R
2 cm
70°
P
4 cm S
224 Mathscape 8
Exercise 6.3
1 Construct a square with sides of length:

a 3 cm b 6 cm c 4.5 cm
2 Construct a rectangle with sides of length:

a 3 cm, 5 cm b 4 cm, 6 cm c 3.5 cm, 5.5 cm
3 Construct full-sized drawings of these parallelograms using a ruler and protractor.

a b c
3 cm
3.5 cm 125°
6 cm
50° 6 cm
5 cm
110°
2 cm
4 Construct full-sized drawings of these rhombuses using a ruler, protractor and compasses.
a b c
130°
60°
4 cm
80° 3.5 cm
5 cm
5 Construct full-sized drawings of these trapeziums using a ruler and protractor.

a 3 cm b c 2.5 cm
4 cm
3 cm 70° 70° 3 cm
6 cm 60°
5 cm 5.5 cm
6 Construct full-sized drawings of these general quadrilaterals using a ruler and protractor.
a 5 cm b 25 mm c 49 mm
70°
3 cm 105°
4 cm 35 mm
63 mm 42 mm
7 cm 85°
42 mm
35 mm
■ Consolidation
7 Construct full-sized drawings of the figures below, then answer these questions for each
figure.
i Are the diagonals equal?
ii Do the diagonals bisect each other?
iii Are the diagonals perpendicular?
iv Do the diagonals bisect the angles at the vertices?
a b 8 cm
5 cm
4 cm
70°
7 cm
c d
5 cm
6 cm
40°
8 a Construct a rectangle with sides 6 cm and 8 cm.

b Find the length of the diagonals by using Pythagoras’ Theorem.
c Verify your answer by measurement.
9 Construct each of the following quadrilaterals by constructing two triangles. Begin each
construction by drawing the diagonal.
a b
6 cm
3 cm 7c
m
7 cm 3 cm
4 cm 4 cm 5 cm
10 How many different:
a rectangles can be drawn with sides 6 cm and 4 cm?
b parallelograms can be drawn with sides 6 cm and 4 cm?
11 Is it possible to draw these figures? Give reasons for your answers. (If you are not sure, then
try to draw the figure.)
a a quadrilateral MNOP with ∠M = 90°, ∠N = 80°, ∠O = 115°, OP = 4 cm
b a parallelogram QRST with angles of 70° and 130°
c a rectangle UVWX with the diagonal VX = 6 cm and ∠UVX = 30°
d a rhombus EFGH with one of the diagonals equal in length to the sides
226 Mathscape 8
TRY THIS Triangle and rhombus construction

1 Draw two circles which have the same radius C
with A and B being the centres of the circles.
Connect A, B and C to form a triangle.
What type of triangle is ABC? A B

Now connect A and B to D.
What type of shape is ACBD?
D
2 Can you construct the following rhombus
to form two parallel lines? The centres of
the three circles are E, F and G.
E F
6.4 Bisecting angles and

intervals
Bisecting something simply means cutting it into two equal halves.
Example 1 A
EG Bisect the angle.
+S
B C
Solution
There are several steps in the process.
Step 1: Place the point of your compasses at B and mark off A
equal distances on BA and BC.
B C
Step 2: Now use J and K as centres and draw two equal arcs A
that intersect at P.
J P
B C
K
Step 3: Join PB. This line bisects the angle ABC. A
P
B C
Example 2
EG Bisect the interval LM. L M
+S
Solution
There are several steps in the process.
Step 1: Open your compasses to a radius greater than half
the length of LM. Using L as the centre, draw arcs
above and below LM. L M
Step 2: Now repeat step 1 with M as centre.
L M
Step 3: Join XY. X
XY is perpendicular to LM and bisects LM. L M

XY is called the perpendicular bisector of LM.
Y
Exercise 6.4
1 Construct the perpendicular bisector of each interval. Check your construction using a ruler.
a b c
228 Mathscape 8
2 Copy or trace each angle, then bisect it using a ruler and compasses.
a b
c d
■ Consolidation
3 Rule an interval of length 6 cm. Use your compasses and ruler to find the midpoint of this
interval.
4 Draw an interval of length 8 cm. Using a ruler and compasses, divide the interval into
4 equal segments.
5 Use your ruler and compasses to copy ∆DEF. D
a What type of triangle is ∆DEF?
b Construct the perpendicular bisector of the base FE.
c Does it pass through the apex D? 6 cm
d What do you notice about the two angles formed at D? 6 cm
F
4 cm E
6 Construct this isosceles triangle by using compasses and a ruler. N

a Construct the angle bisector of the apex angle N.
b Does it bisect the base LM at right angles? 4 cm 4 cm
L M
5 cm
7 Draw a circle, centre O, and draw in any two chords P

PQ and RS. Construct the perpendicular bisector of
each chord. Where do they intersect?
O Q
S
R
8 Draw any pair of adjacent supplementary angles ∠CDE E

and ∠EDF as shown.
a Bisect ∠CDE.
b Bisect ∠EDF.
c What size is the angle formed by the bisectors? C F
D
9 Draw any obtuse angle ABC. Divide the angle into 4 equal angles, using only your
compasses and a ruler.
10 Find the midpoints of the sides in each of these quadrilaterals by constructing perpendicular
bisectors. Join the midpoints. What kind of quadrilateral is formed in each case?
a X b J L
30 mm 63 mm
K
W Y
30 mm M
63 mm
Z
11 Using a ruler and compasses draw any F G

rhombus EFGH of side length 4 cm.
a Bisect ∠E.
b Does the bisector of ∠E pass through G?
Does it bisect ∠G?
c What property of the rhombus have
you discovered?
E H
12 a Construct an angle of 60°.

b Bisect this angle to construct an angle of 30°.
c Use your diagram to draw an angle of 120°.
13 a Construct an angle of 90°.

b Bisect this angle to construct an angle of 45°.
230 Mathscape 8
Use a half page for Q 14 and Q 15.
14 a Draw any ∆PQR and bisect each of the sides.

b Label the point of intersection of the bisectors as O.
c Using O as the centre, draw a circle that passes through P, Q and R.
The circle is called the circumcircle and O is called the circumcentre.
15 a Draw any ∆LMN and bisect each of its angles.
b Label the point of intersection of the bisectors O.
c Using O as the centre, draw a circle that touches all three sides of ∆LMN.
The circle is called an incircle and O is called the incentre.
6.5 Constructing parallel and

perpendicular lines
Example 1
S T
EG Draw a lin e from D, perpendicular to ST. D
+S
Solution A P
Step 1. Place the compasses at D and make two arcs at A and B.
Step 2. Place the compasses at A and draw an arc above ST.
Step 3. Place the compasses at B and draw an intersecting arc. S T
A D B
Step 4. Join P to D.
Solution B
Step 1. Place the compasses at D and draw a long arc. S T
D
Step 2. Using the same radius and X then Y as centres,
draw arcs to cut the long arc. Y
Z
Step 3. Use Y and Z as centres to draw two more arcs X
S T
intersecting at E. D
Step 4. Join E and D. ED is perpendicular to ST. E
Y
Z
X
S T
D
Example 2 G
EG Draw a line through G, perpendicular to ST.
+S
Solution S T
Step 1. With G as centre draw arcs cutting ST at L and M. G
S T
L M
Step 2. With L and M as centres draw arcs intersecting at H. G
Step 3. Join G and H. GH ⊥ ST.

S T
L M
Example 3 D
EG Draw a line passing through D and parallel to EF. F
+S
E
Solution
Step 1. With F as centre and radius DF draw an arc passing
through D and intersecting EF at H. D
F
H
E
Step 2. Using the same radius and D then H as centres,

draw arcs intersecting at K. D
F
Step 3. Draw a line through D and K. DK || EF. K
H
E
Example 4 P
EG Construct an angle LMN equal to ∠PQR.
+S
M N Q R
232 Mathscape 8
Solution
Step 1. Draw an arc with centre Q cutting PQ and RQ P
at S and T, respectively. Then draw a similar
arc with centre M.
S
V T
M N Q R
Step 2. Using TS as radius and V as centre, draw an arc L

P
cutting the existing arc in W.
Step 3. Draw a line through M and W to L. ∠LMN = ∠PQR. W S

V T
M N Q R
Exercise 6.5
1 Construct a perpendicular to each line at the point P.

a P b c
P
P
2 Construct a perpendicular to each line from the point P.

a P b c
P P
3 Construct a line through P, parallel to AB.

a P b A P c B
A B P
A
■ Consolidation
4 a Draw any straight line AB.
b Using a compass, draw two semicircles. on AB with
A B
equal radii.
c Draw a common tangent to the circules as shown.
Are the lines parallel?
5 Construct a pair of parallel lines by constructing

two perpendicular lines by using a set square.
6 Construct full-sized drawings of the following triangles, using your ruler and compasses
only.
a b 1 cm 4 cm c
2 cm
3 cm 3 cm 3 cm
3 cm 2 cm
5 cm
7 Construct full-sized drawings of these quadrilaterals, using only a ruler and compasses.
a b c
3 m
3 cm cm 4c
m 3c
5 cm 4c m
4 cm
8 Construct full-sized drawings of these quadrilaterals.

a 35 mm b
5 mm
24 mm 25 mm
45 mm
10 mm 18 mm
30 mm
9 a Construct any pair of parallel lines.

b Construct another pair of parallel lines intersecting the lines in part a.
c What kind of quadrilateral has been formed?
234 Mathscape 8
10 a Construct a pair of parallel lines 4 cm apart. Q

b Construct a line parallel to the lines in a and
halfway between them.
c Draw any triangle with its base PR on the S T
lower line and its apex Q on the upper line.
d Measure the lengths of ST and PR.
What do you notice? P R
11 Construct full-sized drawings of each of the following quadrilaterals, using only a ruler and
compasses.
a b c 4 cm
120°
5 cm
4 cm 4 cm
60°
6 cm 7 cm
9 cm
12 Construct full-sized drawings of each of the following quadrilaterals, using only a ruler and
compasses.
a b 120°
5 cm
4 cm
60°
6 cm 7 cm
c 4 cm
4 cm
9 cm
TRY THIS Orthocentre and incentre

1 Draw an acute-angled triangle.
2 Construct a perpendicular for each side
so that it passes through the opposite Orthocentre
vertex. This line is called the altitude.
The point of intersection of the 3 altitudes is
called the orthocentre.
Now find the angle bisectors of the triangle.
The intersection of these 3 bisectors is called the incentre.
When are the circumcentre, orthocentre and incentre in the same location?
Finding south in the night sky
Introduction
The Australian flag has the constellation of stars known as the Southern Cross as its emblem.
If you look up in the night sky most months of the year the Southern Cross will be visible in the
south, provided there are no clouds. Two bright stars called Alpha (α) and Beta (β) Centauri
point to the top of the Cross (or Crux as it is known in Astronomy). Alpha and beta are the first
two letters of the Greek alphabet, corresponding to A and B in English. Alpha and Beta
Centauri are also known as the Pointers. They ‘point’ to the Southern Cross, but belong to the
constellation Centauri. It is interesting to note that the Cross can only be seen from latitudes
south of 27°N. Two thousand years ago it could be seen as far north as Jerusalem, 32°N.
236 Mathscape 8
To Aboriginal communities throughout Australia the Southern Cross represents many different
things. In Caledon Bay on the coast of East Arnhem Land it is taken to represent a shark being
chased by a stingray. To the Annangu people of Uluru (Ayers Rock) in the Northern Territory
the Cross is the footprint of a giant wedge-tailed eagle, the second biggest in the world, called
Warluwarru. The Coal Sack (a dark black nebula close by) is the eagle’s nest and the pointers
are the throwing stick used to hunt the eagle.
In this activity you will use the geometry you have learned in this chapter to answer a question
that explorers on land and navigators at sea have used over the centuries to find direction in the
southern hemisphere.
Focus question
How do you find south from the position of the Southern Cross in the night sky?
Materials: You will need compasses, protractor, ruler, pencil and a blank sheet of paper.
1 Carefully construct this diagram of the Pointers and the Cross at the top of your page.
Distances are in millimetres. For the purposes of this exercise, ABC is a straight line.
It is suggested you start with the line ABC and construct CX at 64° to it.
C Southern Cross
10 m
64° R
m
m mm
12 m 10
20 m
U
15°
14 mm
m
64 mm
X
B
Pointers Beta Centauri
23 mm
A
Alpha Centauri
2 Bisect AB and extend CX to meet C

the bisector at P. Let the midpoint R
of AB be M. Label your diagram
and give it the title ‘Finding south U
by using the Southern Cross’. X
B
The point P is called the South M
Celestial Pole. To find south you A
come directly down to the horizon
from P. This diagram gives you
the idea. It is not drawn to scale.
P
South
Celestial
Pole
Horizon
South
3 Try this out for yourself at night (get your parent’s/guardian’s permission). You will need
to ‘visualise’ the line bisecting the Pointers and the longer axis of the Cross to get a rough
position of P. Seeing in your ‘mind’s eye’ is an important skill in mathematics. You will
find you need to use it often in your course. You will notice that A, B and the star C at the
top of the Cross are not quite in a straight line. In this exercise we have assumed they are
to make it simpler.
4 Measure XP in your diagram and see if it is roughly 4 1--2- times CX. Some people use this as
another way of finding P. Try it out and compare the two methods.
5 What sort of triangle is PMC? What is the size of angle CPM?
238 Mathscape 8
1 Like all the stars in the southern sky,

the Cross appears to revolve about P
every 24 hours as the Earth spins.
The stars also appear to make a complete
clockwise revolution about P each year.
With centre P and radius 40 mm,
P
draw a circle. Construct this diagram.
South
2 The diagram shows the rough position of Celestial
the Pointers and the Cross at 8 pm on Pole
15 March above Sydney. Where will they
be at 8 pm on 15 June? Draw in the position
on your diagram. (Hint: Work out how many
degrees it will rotate in 3 months.)
Southern horizon
3 Mark in the position of the Pointers and the
Cross for the 15th day of each month. Notice that
in the summer months they are very low in the sky, which makes them difficult to see
because of Sydney’s skyline. Notice also that they appear to be upside down. If you live
outside Sydney in southern latitudes, you can expect that the position of the Cross in the
sky will be roughly the same.
4 You might like to check the position of the Cross on the next clear evening. Note the date
and time of your observation. Does it roughly fit with what you expect from your diagram?
Why does it appear to rotate clockwise, not anticlockwise?
It is suggested that as a class or as small groups you do a project on the Southern Cross using
the web and finding out more about Aboriginal astronomy. This is a good opportunity to
develop your use of the language of mathematics and science. An excellent book reference is
Explorers of the Southern Sky: A History of Australian Astronomy by Raymond Haynes,
Roslynn Haynes, David Malin and Richard McGee, Cambridge University Press, 1996.
%R EFLECTING
Think over what you learned from this exercise about the power of mathematics in
understanding the stars. Did you know that the closest visible star to Earth (besides our sun)
is Alpha Centuri, one of the pointers to the Cross? It is about 4 1--3- light years away. This is how
long it would take to get there if we could travel at the speed of light, 299 792 km/s! When we
study the stars we in fact are observing past events.
B P ROBLEM SOLVING
1 John, Alison, Wendy and Robert are to sit down at a circular table. J
In how many different ways can they sit at the table?
John could sit next to Wendy, or Robert . . . . . .?
Try some diagrams!
A W
R
2 Move two matches to form four squares.
3 In how many ways can this rectangle be cut in half?

rectangle
4 How do you pour petrol into a can so that the can is half full?
(There are no measurements on the can or pourer to help you!)
5 How many triangles are in this shape?
6 Miss Rascal, the estate agent, tried to sell this

block of land, but had no buyers. Why not? 34 m 87 m
121 m
7 A man leaves Sydney for Melbourne on a 100 km/h train. At the same time, a woman
leaves Melbourne for Sydney on a 300 km/h plane. Is the train or the plane further
from Sydney when the plane flies over the train?
8 When you have worked out the answer to Q7, try this: If the plane had been flying for
an hour and a half when they met, how far from Sydney were they?
240 Mathscape 8
9 In the game of chess, the knight is represented

by a horseman or a horse’s head. A knight moves
to its new position by going two squares in one
direction then one square at right angles. Copy
this diagram and mark with a cross each square
to which the knight can move. (There are 8!)
10 What is the minimum number of moves

required for the knight to move to the
shaded square?
1 A line that cuts a figure into halves construct verb to build: to construct a house | to
b________ it. construct a theory
2 P________ means at right angles. ❒ Word Family: constructional adjective
3 A r________ p________ has all sides and
How is the way the word construct is used in
all angles equal.
Mathematics different from its use in
4 Define polygon for a new Maths
everyday life?
Dictionary.
entry for construct:
1 Construct each of these polygons in a c a parallelogram with sides 6 cm and
VIEW
circle of radius 3 cm. 3 cm and one angle 120°
a regular pentagon d a rhombus of side 4.5 cm with one
b regular hexagon angle 70°
2 Construct full-sized drawings of these 5 Construct full-sized drawings of these
triangles, using a ruler and protractor. quadrilaterals by using a ruler and
a protractor.
CHAPTER RE
a 4 cm
4 cm 3.5 cm
65°
b 6 cm
b
3.5 cm 4 cm
5 cm 5 cm
6 cm
c
2 cm
6 a Draw an interval of length 6 cm.
3 cm b Bisect this interval by using a ruler
110° and compasses.
2.5 cm 7 a Draw a 70° angle.
d b Bisect this angle by using a ruler and
compasses.
8 a Construct a perpendicular to this line
at the point P by using a ruler and
55° 70°
4.5 cm
compasses.
3 Is it possible to construct a triangle with P

sides 3 cm, 5 cm and 9 cm? Explain your b Construct a perpendicular to this line
answer. through the point P using a ruler and
4 Construct the following quadrilaterals by compasses.
using a ruler and protractor. P
a a square of side 3 cm
b a rectangle with sides 5 cm and
3.5 cm
CHAPTER REVIEW
242 Mathscape 8
CHAPTER RE
9 a Draw a line and mark any point P not 11 a Construct a rhombus with diagonals
on this line. of length 6 cm and 8 cm by using a
ruler and compasses.
b Construct a line through P, parallel to
b Find, by measurement, the perimeter
the first line, by using a ruler and
of the rhombus.
compasses.
12 a Construct an isosceles triangle with
10 Construct the following angles by using sides 6 cm, 4 cm and 4 cm.
only a ruler and compasses. b Bisect the apex angles by using a
ruler and compasses. Does the angle
a 90° b 45° c 60° bisector bisect the base (6 cm) at right
d 30° e 120° angles?
VIEW
CHAPTER REVIEW
Area and
volume
7
Stage 3
find the volume of a rectangular prism by counting unit cubes.
Area and volume

Stage 4
find the area of squares, rectangles, triangles and parallelograms by using
area formulae
find the area of rhombuses, trapeziums and kites by dissection into rectangles
and triangles
find the area of simple composite figures by adding and subtracting areas
calculate the surface area of rectangular and triangular prisms
solve problems involving the surface area of rectangular and triangular prisms
calculate the cross-sectional area of a prism
calculate the volume of a prism given the perpendicular height and
cross-sectional area
calculate the volume of rectangular and triangular prisms
calculate the volume of prisms with cross-sections that are simple
composite figures
solve problems involving the volume of right prisms
calculate the surface area and volume of a solid given its net
convert between units of capacity
convert between units of volume and capacity
solve problems involving volume and capacity
convert between units of mass
solve problems involving mass.
243
244 Mathscape 8
7.1 Area of squares,

rectangles and triangles
Area is the space inside a plane or two-dimensional figure. It is measured in square units such
as mm2, cm2 and m2. In Year 7 the area of the rectangle was introduced by dividing the figure
into small squares, each with an area of 1 unit2. The number of squares inside the figure was
then counted in order to determine its area.
For example, the area of this rectangle 4 units
is 12 units2 because it contains
12 squares, each with an area of 1 unit2.
1
3 units
1 1
1 1 unit2
The formulae below were developed to find the area of squares, rectangles and triangles
without the need to count unit squares.
Square Rectangle Triangle
b h
s
l
b
s A = lb 1
A = 2 bh
A = s2
Example 1
EG Find the area of each figure.
+S
a b
7 cm 4.5 cm
12 cm
Solutions
a A = s2 b A = lb
= 72 = 12 × 4.5
= 49 cm2 = 54 cm2
Chapter 7: Area and volume 245
Example 2
EG Find the area of each triangle.
+S
a b 9.2 cm
c
7 cm 6 cm
8 cm 10 cm
5 cm
Solutions
a A = 1--2- bh b A = 1--2- bh c A = 1--2- bh
= 1--2- × 8 × 7 = 1--2- × 10 × 9.2 = 1--2- × 5 × 6
= 28 cm2 = 46 cm2 = 15 cm2
Example 3
EG 11 mm
Find the total area
+S of this figure.
9 mm A1
A2
16 mm
Solutions
i A1 = l × b ii A2 = 1--2- bh iii A = A1 + A2
= 11 mm × 9 mm = × 5 mm × 9 mm
1
---
2
= 99 mm2 + 22.5 mm2
= 99 mm2 = 22.5 mm2 = 121.5 mm2
Example 4
EG Find the shaded area 7 mm
+S in this figure. 8.4 mm
12 mm
15 mm
Solutions
Let A1 be the area of the rectangle and A2 be the area of the triangle.
i A1 = lb ii A2 = 1--2- bh iii A = A1 − A2
= 15 mm × 8.4 mm = 1
---
2
× 12 mm × 7 mm = 126 mm2 − 42 mm2
= 126 mm2 = 42 mm2 = 84 mm2
246 Mathscape 8
Exercise 7.1
1 Find each of these areas.

a b c
3 cm
5 cm 7 cm
8 cm
4 cm
d e f
5 cm
8 cm
9 cm
7 cm
2 Find the area of each triangle.

a b c
3 cm
7 cm 3 cm
5 cm
10 cm
4 cm
d e f
8 cm
4 cm
8 cm 5 cm 11 cm
6 cm
g h i
5 cm
4 cm 7 cm
10 cm 12 cm
9 cm
■ Consolidation
3 Use a calculator to find the area of:
a a rectangle whose length is 10.4 cm and width is 6.5 cm
b a square of side length 5.7 cm
c a triangle with a base of 12 cm and a height of 9.2 cm
d a rectangle with dimensions 9.1 cm and 8 cm
e a square of side length 6.6 cm
f a right-angled isosceles triangle with perpendicular sides of length 4.2 cm
4 The table below shows the area of a rectangle and one of its dimensions. Find the other
dimension.
Length Breadth Area
a 4 cm 28 cm2
b 9 mm 45 mm2
c 12.5 m 75 m2
d 8.3 km 131.97 km2
e 27.8 cm 403.1 cm2
f 14.6 mm 365 mm2
5 Find the side length of a square whose area is:

a 36 cm2 b 81 mm2 c 1.44 cm2 d 3.61 mm2
6 Find the area of a square whose perimeter is:

a 20 mm b 32 mm c 52 mm
7 Find the perimeter of a square whose area is:

a 9 cm2 b 49 cm2 c 100 cm2
8 a Find the perimeter and area of i 12.5 cm ii

each rectangle.
b Must rectangles with equal areas 4 cm
10 cm
have equal perimeters?
5 cm
9 Find the value of each pronumeral by considering the triangle as half of a rectangle.
a b c d
5 mm p mm
a mm y mm
9 mm
h mm
6 mm 8 mm
Area = 40 mm2 Area = 15 mm2 Area = 28 mm2 Area = 31.5 mm2
10 a Write down the dimensions of 3 rectangles each with an area of 60 cm 2.

b Write down the base and height of 3 triangles each with an area of 12 cm 2.
11 In each of the following, find the value of k and hence calculate the area of the rectangle.
a b c
13 cm 20 cm
17
5 cm 12 cm
c
k cm
m
k cm
k cm
8 cm
248 Mathscape 8
12 The width of this rectangle is 6 cm and the area is 48 cm2. x cm

a Find the length of the rectangle.
b Hence, calculate the length of the diagonal. y cm 6 cm
13 a Prove that ∆ABC is right-angled. A

12 cm
b Which angle is the right angle?
c Find the area of ∆ABC. B 35 cm
37 cm
C
14 Find the total area of each figure. All dimensions are in metres.
a b c 3
3
2.8
5.2
5.2 4 4
9 4
8
18.5
3
6.5 6
12.2
d e f
9
3 5
4
3 10
7 7
5
11.9 16 2
15 Find the shaded or remaining area in each figure. All dimensions are in mm.
a 9.8 b c 7.5
11
5.4 15.3
6 3.1 8
3
24
14.7
d e f 18
4 7
3 10 9.6 5
8.8 4 4
14.5 17.2
16 D
A 8m a Find the value of b.

b Calcualte the total area of the quadrilateral ABCD.
5m bm
B 12 m C
17 Find the cost of top-dressing a rectangular garden with dimensions 12 m by 8 m at

$15 per m2.
18 A rectangular park measures 140 m by 200 m. Find the area of the park, in hectares.
19 A painting measures 24 cm by 15 cm and is surrounded by

24 cm a wooden frame of width 4 cm. Calculate the wall space
15 cm that the painting will occupy when it is hung in an art
gallery.
20 A rectangular swimming pool measuring 25 m by 9 m is

surrounded by a pebble path with a uniform width of 1.5 m. 25 m
a Find the area of the path. 9m
b Calculate the cost of the path if the pebbles cost $24 per m2.
21 The figure shown has an area of 132 cm2. (x + 2) cm
Find the value of x.
3 cm
4 cm
6 cm
22 The formula A = s ( s – a ) ( s – b ) ( s – c ) is known as Heron’s Rule. It can be used to

a+b+c
calculate the area of a triangle with sides of length a, b and c, where s = --------------------- .
2
Use Heron’s Rule to find the area of a triangle with sides 5 cm, 6 cm and 7 cm.
Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
23 A F B ABCD and EFGH are squares. If AF = 2 × FB and
AF = BG = CH = DE, show that the area of EFGH
E is 5--9- the area of ABCD.
D H C
250 Mathscape 8
TRY THIS Square area

The following appeared on the cover of the
Scientific American in 1958. Find the areas of
the squares if C = 64 mm2 and D = 81 mm2. B
A
All squares have different areas.
Is the total shape a square?
H C
G
I
F
E D
7.2 Area of the special

quadrilaterals
■ Area of a parallelogram
The area of a parallelogram can be found by cutting off a triangle at one end of the figure and
moving it to the other end to form a rectangle as shown.
Area of parallelogram = area of rectangle
3 cm 3 cm = 7 cm × 3 cm
= 21 cm2
7 cm 7 cm
This method can be used to develop a formula for the area of a parallelogram.
Area of parallelogram = area of rectangle
h = bh
h
b b
The area of a parallelogram is given by:

A = bh h
b
■ Area of a trapezium
The area of a trapezium can be found by dividing the figure into two triangles and a rectangle
as shown.
8 cm
3 cm
3 cm 3 cm
12 cm 8 cm 4 cm
Area of trapezium = area of rectangle + area of triangle

= (8 cm × 3 cm) + ( 1--2- × 4 cm × 3 cm)
= 24 cm2 + 6 cm2
= 30 cm2
■ Area of a rhombus
The area of a rhombus 11 cm
can be found by dividing
the figure into two equal
4c
cm
m
triangles along one of cm 11
11
4c
the diagonals as shown.
m
8 cm
Area of rhombus = area of triangle1 + area of triangle2

= ( 1--2- × 11 cm × 4 cm) + ( 1--2- × 11 cm × 4 cm)
= 22 cm2 + 22 cm2
= 44 cm2
■ Area of a kite
The area of a kite can be found
by dividing the figure into
12 cm
12 cm
two equal triangles along one 12 cm 3 cm 3 cm

of the diagonals as shown.
6 cm
Area of kite = area of triangle1 + area of triangle2

= ( 1--2- × 12 cm × 3 cm) + ( 1--2- × 12 cm × 3 cm)
= 18 cm2 + 18 cm2
= 36 cm2
252 Mathscape 8
Example 1 Solution
EG Find the area of this parallelogram. A = bh
+S = 12 × 5
= 60 cm2
5 cm
12 cm
Example 2 5 cm
EG Find the total area of this figure.
+S 6 cm
3 cm
9 cm
Solution
i Area of rectangle = 6 × 5
6 cm
= 30 cm2
5 cm 4 cm ii Area of triangle = 1--2- × 4 × 6
= 12 cm2
3 cm iii Area of parallelogram = 9 × 3
9 cm = 27 cm2
iv Total area = 30 + 12 + 27
= 69 cm2
Exercise 7.2
1 Find the area of each parallelogram by translating a right-angled triangle and forming
a rectangle.
a 10 cm
b c 3 cm
7 cm 12 cm
4 cm
9 cm
2 Find the area of each parallelogram by dividing it into two triangles.

a b c
6 cm 3 cm
5 cm 7 cm
8 cm 14 cm
3 Find the area of each trapezium by dividing it into a rectangle and a right-angled triangle.
a b 7 cm c
5 cm 17 cm
4 cm 6 cm
14 cm 5 cm
11 cm 10 cm
■ Consolidation
4 A trapezium can be divided into a rectangle and a triangle as shown.
7 cm
4 cm
4 cm 4 cm
13 cm 7 cm 6 cm
Note:The base of the triangle = 13 cm − 7 cm

= 6 cm.
Use this method to find the area of each trapezium.
a b 10 cm c
6 cm
3 cm 6 cm
4 cm 12 cm 5 cm
9 cm 4 cm
d e 6 cm f
17 cm
9c
m
13 cm
8c 7 cm
m 11 cm
7 cm
10 cm
5 Find the area of each rhombus by dividing it into two triangles along one of the diagonals.
a b P c
A B N K
S Q
D C M L
R
AC = 8 cm, BD = 12 cm PR = 10 cm, QS = 15 cm KM = 11 cm, LN = 26 cm
254 Mathscape 8
6 Find the area of each kite by dividing it into two triangles along the longer diagonal.
a b E c
U Y
T V H F
X
G
W Z
W
TV = 8 cm, UW = 15 cm EG = 6 cm, FH = 9 cm XZ = 12 cm, WY = 22 cm
7 Find the area of each parallelogram by using the formula A = bh.

a b c
14 mm
8 mm 7.2
mm
15 mm 13.8 mm
4.5 mm
d e f
6.25 mm
5.3 mm
9 mm
19.1 mm 11.4 mm
17 mm
8 Find the area of a parallelogram in which:

a the base is 13.4 cm and the height is 5 cm
b a pair of opposite sides are 9.5 mm long and 6.1 mm apart
c one side measures 11.7 m and the height perpendicular to this side measures 4.8 m
9 This table shows either the base or height of a parallelogram and its area. Find the length of
the unknown side.
b h A
a 5.3 mm 37.1 mm2
b 8.15 cm 50.53 cm2
c 19.4 m 93.12 m2
d 26.5 km 333.9 km2
10 a Explain why a rhombus is also a parallelogram. 8 cm

b Hence, find the area of this rhombus by treating
it as a parallelogram.
cm
11 Find the value of h. 10.5
h cm
6 cm 4 cm
15 cm
12 Find the total area of each composite figure. (All measurements are in metres.)
a b 21 c
6 13.2
14 15.1
27
18.3 20.5
9.8
32
13 Find the shaded area in each of these. (All measurements are in mm.)
a b 13 c
8 11
9.5 15.1
7.3
5
4
12 22.3
3.1
16
14 Find the shaded area in each of these. (All measurements are in cm.)
a b
24
5
6 12
7 11 11 26
8 8
14 14
25
35
15 For this trapezium: 9 cm
a find the value of the pronumeral
b calculate the area of the trapezium 10 cm y cm
17 cm
256 Mathscape 8
16 Find, in simplest form, an algebraic expression (a – b) cm

for the area of this trapezium.
2b cm
(Hint: Divide the figure into two triangles.)
(a + b) cm
17 PQRS is a rhombus with a perimeter of 100 cm. 48 cm
The longer diagonal SQ has length 48 cm. P
a Write down the side length of the rhombus.
b Use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the length
of the shorter diagonal PR. S Q
c Hence, calculate the area of the rhombus.
R
18 A surveyor drew the following field sketch B
for a block of land. Find the total area of the
land in hectares, correct to 1 decimal place. 16 m
D
24 m
18 m
23 m
E
15 m
60 m
C
45 m
TRY THIS Biggest area

You will need 24 matches. First construct a square on 5 mm grid paper — clearly
your side length would be 6 matches. What is its area? Now do the same for a
triangle, a hexagon and an octagon. Find the area of each one; count squares for the
hexagon and the octagon. Which shape gives the largest area?
7.3 Surface area

The surface area of a solid with plane faces is the sum of the areas of these faces. In this
exercise we will only consider the surface area of solids with faces that are either squares,
rectangles or triangles.
Surface area is important in many trades such as painting, decorating and tiling. Tradespeople
need to calculate (or estimate) the total surface area involved in a job so that they can decide on
the quantity of materials that is needed and the fee that is to be charged.
The surface area of a solid with plane faces is the sum of the areas of its faces.
Note: The calculation of a surface area may be made easier by considering whether a number
of faces have the same area. It is also important to consider whether the figure is open or
closed, such as in the case of a swimming pool.
Example
EG Find the surface area of each prism.
+S
a b c
5 cm 4 cm
6 cm 3 cm
10 cm
3 cm
3 cm
4 cm
Solutions
a A cube has 6 sides that are equal in area.
i Area of a side = 32 ii Surface area = 6 × area of one face
= 9 cm 2
=6×9
= 54 cm2
b The opposite sides of a rectangular prism have the same area.
Surface area = (area of bottom face × 2) + (area of right face × 2) + (area of front face × 2)
= (4 × 3 × 2) + (3 × 6 × 2) + (4 × 6 × 2)
= 24 + 36 + 48
= 108 cm2
c The prism consists of 2 triangular faces with equal areas and 3 rectangles.
Surface area = (area of triangular face × 2) + (area of bottom face) + (area of back face)
+ (area of front face)
3×4
= ⎛ ------------ × 2⎞ + ( 10 × 3 ) + ( 10 × 4 ) + ( 10 × 5 )
⎝ 2 ⎠
= 12 + 30 + 40 + 50
= 132 cm2
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Exercise 7.3
1 a Find the area of one face of this cube.

b Hence, find the total surface area.
5 cm
2 Find the surface area of a cube with a side length of:

a 2 mm b 10 mm c 0.4 mm d 1.2 mm
3 The figure shown is a rectangular prism. Find:

a the total area of the top and bottom faces 5 cm
b the total area of the right and left faces
c the total area of the front and back faces 2 cm
d the total surface area of the prism 6 cm
4 Find the total surface area of each rectangular prism.

a b c
4 cm 4 cm
9 cm 6 cm
12 cm
3 cm
5 cm
2 cm
2 cm
d e f
2.5 cm
21 cm 3 cm
10 cm
8.2 cm
4 cm
11.5 cm 5 cm
6 cm
5 The figure shown is a triangular prism. 8 cm 3 cm

a How many faces are there?
b Find the total area of the triangular faces.
12 cm
c Find the total area of the rectangular faces.
d Hence, calculate the total surface area of the prism.
5 cm
■ Consolidation
6 Find the total surface area of each triangular prism. (All measurements are in mm.)
a b 8 c 6
10 8
4
6 9
12 15
17
5 5
2
7 The net shown is made up of 6 equal squares with a

side length of 7 cm.
a What solid would be formed by folding this net
7 cm
together?
b Find the surface area of the solid with this net.
8 The net shown is that of a rectangular prism. 14 cm

Find its surface area.
6.8 cm
1.5 cm
9 a What solid will be formed when this net is

13 folded together?
12
b Find the surface area of the solid with this net.
All measurements are in mm.
16
5
10 For each prism:

i find the value of x by using Pythagoras’ Theorem
ii hence, find the total surface area
a b
17 4.9 m xm 37.5 m
.5
m
60 m 20 m
6m
xm
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11 a Write down a formula for the surface area of this cube.

b Use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the value of x2.
c Hence, find the surface area of the cube. x cm cm
8
x cm
x cm
12 This rectangular-shaped cardboard box is open

at the top. Calculate the area of cardboard that
was used to make the box. 30 cm
20 cm
80 cm
13 A room in the shape of a rectangular prism is to have its walls and ceiling painted.
The dimensions of the room are: length 5.5 m, width 3.8 m, height 2.4 m.
a Find the total area of the walls and ceiling.
b The windows and doorway have a total area of 11.6 m2. Find, correct to the nearest
square metre, the area that is to be painted.
c Calculate the cost of painting the room at $4.50 per square metre.
14 Mandy put her Christmas presents in small boxes each measuring 15 cm × 10 cm × 8 cm

then wrapped the boxes using a 4 m2 roll of paper.
a Express 4 m2 in cm2.
b What area of paper is needed to wrap each box, allowing for an overlap of 100 cm 2?
c How many boxes could be covered with one roll of wrapping paper?
15 Find the side length of a cube whose surface area is:

a 96 cm2 b 294 cm2 c 726 cm2 d 1944 cm2
16 A rectangular prism has a surface area of 188 cm2. Find the length of the prism if it is 4 cm
wide and 6 cm high.
17 Determine the total surface area of each solid.
a 7 cm b 13 cm
3 cm
4 cm
13 cm 6 cm
8 cm
3 cm 12 cm
16 cm 25 cm
c d 4 cm
4 cm
7 cm
3 cm 17 cm
14 cm
7 cm
8 cm
20 cm
7.4 Definition of volume

Volume is a measure of the space inside a three dimensional or solid figure.
The volume of a solid is determined by dividing the figure into small cubes of side length
1 unit, then counting the cubes. If each small cube has side length 1 unit, then its volume is
1 unit3, read as ‘1 cubic unit’.
The rectangular prism shown has been divided into 24 cubes,
so its volume is 24 cubic units, i.e. 24 units3.
If the figure is divided into small cubes of side length 1 cm,
then the volume is given in cubic centimetres, i.e. cm3.
Example
EG Find the volume of this solid in cubic units.
+S
Solution
The solid is comprised of 11 cubes,
∴ its volume is 11 units3.
Exercise 7.4
1 Find the number of cubic units in each solid.

a b c d
e f g h
262 Mathscape 8
i j k l
■ Consolidation
2 Find the volume of each solid in cubic units.
a b c
d e f
g h
3 Find the volume of each of these solids. Each small cube has a side length of 1 cm.
a b c
d e f
4 Draw block diagrams on 1 cm grid paper that have a volume of:
a 6 cm3 b 10 cm3 c 13 cm3 d 18 cm3
5 Draw the solid that is represented by the views below, then find its volume in cubic units.
Front and back Left and right Top
TRY THIS A packing problem

You are operating a packing company and have received the following strange parcels.
These 6 parcels are to be assembled into a 3 × 3 × 3 cube that will fit into a box.
How can you do this? There are only two solutions, and hence this is a challenging
problem!
7.5 Volume of a prism

A prism is a solid that has a uniform cross-section. The two faces parallel to this cross-section
are called bases. If the solid is sliced several times parallel to a base, the resulting cross-sections
would all have the same size and shape.
For example:
264 Mathscape 8
Volume is the space inside a three-dimensional figure. It is measured in cubic units such as
mm3, cm3 and m3. In the previous exercise, the volume of a solid was found by counting unit
cubes. In the case of a rectangular prism, rather than counting all of the cubes in the solid, we
could count the number of cubes in one layer then multiply this by the number of layers.
For example, in this rectangular prism there are 1 unit3

5 × 3 = 15 unit cubes in each layer and there are 4 layers.
1
Therefore, the total number of unit cubes is 15 × 4 = 60.
1 1
That is, the prism has a volume of 60 units3.
This is equivalent to caclulating the cross-sectional area then multiplying that area by the height
of the prism. By considering the cross-sectional area as the number of cubes in each layer, we
can find the volume of any prism.
The volume V of a prism with cross-sectional area A and height h is given by the
formula:
V = Ah
Note: The height of a prism, h units, is the distance between the

two faces with areas equal to the cross-sectional area.
It may, for example, be the distance between the top and A
bottom faces, or the left and right faces or the front and back h
faces. That is, the height of the prism does not necessarily
have to be vertical.
Because they are used so often, the cube and rectangular prism have special volume formulae.
■ Volume of a rectangular prism

To find the volume of a rectangular prism, we could multiply together the number of cubes
along its length, breadth and height.
The volume of a rectangular prism with length l units, breadth b units and height
h units is given by the formula:
V=l×b×h
For example: V=l×b×h

3 cm =6×5×3
= 90 cm3
5 cm
6 cm
■ Volume of a cube
To find the volume of a cube, we could multiply together the number of cubes along its length,
breadth and height. That is, we could cube the number of cubes along one edge.
The volume of a cube with sides of length s units is given by the formula:
V = s3
For example: V = s3
5 cm
= 53
= 125 cm3
Example 1
EG Find the volume of this pentagonal prism.
+S
Solution
25 cm2
V = Ah 7 cm
= 25 × 7
= 175 cm3
Example 2
EG Find the cross-sectional area and hence find the volume of this
+S triangular prism.
9 cm
10 cm
Solutions
4 cm
A = 1--2- bh V = Ah
= 1--2- × 4 × 9 = 18 × 10
= 18 cm2 = 180 cm3
Example 3 Solutions
EG Find the value of the pronumeral of each of these. a V=l×b×h
+S 120 = 8 × 5 × n
a b
n cm
120 = 40 × n
ym
∴ n = 120 ÷ 40
5 cm =3
8 cm b V = y3
Volume = 8 m3
Volume = 120 cm3 8 = y3
∴y= 3 8
=2
266 Mathscape 8
Example 4
EG a Find the cross-sectional area of this prism.
+S b Hence, find the volume.
15 cm
2 cm
6 cm
9 cm 7 cm
12 cm
Solutions
a A = (15 × 2) + (12 × 7)
15 cm
30 cm2 2 cm = 30 + 84
= 114 cm2
84 cm2 7 cm b V = Ah
= 114 × 6
12 cm
= 684 cm3
Exercise 7.5
1 For each figure below:

i Copy the solid onto 5-mm grid paper.
ii Shade in the uniform cross-section (or base).
iii Name the solid according to the shape of its base.
a b c
d e f
2 Copy and complete each of the following prisms, using the given cross-sections.
3 Find the volume of each prism by using V = Ah.

a b c
2
A = 7 cm A = 11 cm2
5 cm
9 cm
8 cm
A = 12 cm2
d e f
A = 18 cm2 A = 25.4 cm2
A = 7.5 cm2 5 cm
20 cm
10 cm
4 Find the volume of each prism, in cubic units.

a b c
268 Mathscape 8
■ Consolidation
5 Find the volume of each rectangular prism, in cubic units.
a b c
6 Calculate the volume of each rectangular prism.

a b c
2 cm
3 cm 5 cm
4 cm 7 cm 3 cm
6 cm
2 cm
4 cm
d 5 cm e 8 cm f
5 cm 3 cm 11 cm
3 cm 4 cm
2 cm
7 Find the volume of a rectangular prism with these given dimensions.

a l = 8 m, b = 7 m, h = 4 m b l = 5 mm, b = 5 mm, h = 9 mm
c l = 10 cm, b = 4 cm, h = 6 cm d l = 6 m, b = 3 m, h = 7 m
8 Find the volume of a cube whose sides are:

9 Find the volume of each rectangular prism whose net is shown below.
a b
3 cm
4 cm
7 cm
11 cm
4 cm
10 Find the side length of a cube whose volume is:

a 27 mm b 125 mm3 c 64 mm3 d 1000 mm3
11 Copy and complete this table of dimensions for rectangular prisms.

l b h Volume
a 4 cm 3 cm 24 cm3
b 5 mm 2 mm 40 mm3
c 6m 2m 60 m3
d 4 mm 5 mm 100 mm3
e 9 cm 4 cm 180 cm3
f 7m 2m 84 m3
g 6 mm 3 mm 72 mm3
h 8 cm 3 cm 96 cm3
12 Find the volume of each triangular prism.

a b c
9m 3m
6m 4m 6m 13 m
7m
10 m
3m
d e f 10.2 m
6m
9m 6m
18 m 20 m 14.5 m
7.8 m
14.5 m
13 The net shown is that of a triangular prism. 3 mm

Find the volume of the prism formed when
this net is folded together. 8 mm
12.75 mm
270 Mathscape 8
14 Find the volume of each of the following prisms whose cross-section is a parallelogram.
a b c
7 cm
4 cm 30 cm
9 cm 9 cm
6.5 cm
15.4 cm
22.5 cm
18.2 cm
15 A rectangular prism has dimensions 6 cm × 4 cm × 10 cm. How many cubes of side length
2 cm will fit inside the prism?
16 a A prism has a cross-sectional area of 17.5 cm2 and a volume of 105 cm3. Find the height
of the prism.
b The volume of a prism is 280.5 mm3 and the height is 27.5 mm. Calculate the
cross-sectional area.
c Find the height of a pentagonal prism which has a volume of 207.1 m 3 and a
cross-sectional area of 21.8 m2.
d What would be the cross-sectional area of an octagonal prism with a volume of 621 cm 3
and a height of 34.5 cm?
17 Find the volume of each solid by either adding or subtracting volumes. (All measurements
are in cm.)
a 7 b 2 c 3
8
5 5
3 7 2
5 3
6
6 3
4
3 2
5
d e f
5
3 9
14 10
6 8
12 3
10
3 15
3
18 For each of these solids, find:

i the cross-sectional area ii the volume (All measurements are in metres.)
a 3 b 13 c
2
5 4
9 3
4 7 5 4
12 3
5
d 4 e f
4
10 7 4
8 5
15
6 17
9 8 7
g 5 h 27 i
5
11 18
25
14 9 5 8.2
3 18 15 20.1
25
4.5
19 For each of the following prisms:

i Find the value of the pronumeral by using Pythagoras’ Theorem.
ii Calculate the volume.
a b c
4.8 cm
29 cm y cm
15.6 cm k cm
h cm 26 cm
35 cm
14.4 cm
21 cm
12 cm
■ Further applications 10 cm
20 A cube of side 3 cm has square holes cut right through

from each side of the cube. If the square openings
measure 1 cm × 1 cm, find the remaining volume.
3 cm
272 Mathscape 8
21 If the side lengths of a rectangular prism are doubled, how many times greater is the
volume?
22 a If the volume of a cube is 343 cm3, find its surface area.
b If the surface area of a cube is 96 cm2, find its volume.
23 If two prisms are equal in volume, do they necessarily have equal surface areas?
Could they? Explain your answer.
TRY THIS Volume through liquid displacement

You will need to be in the laboratory to do this
experiment. Obtain a large container and place a
smaller container inside it. Completely fill the small
container with water. Now obtain some objects
which have a similar mass and which you wish to
compare by volume. Put one of these objects into
the water. The water displaced will spill into the
large container. Pour this water into a measuring
cylinder. You will then know the volume of your object.
7.6 Volume and capacity

Capacity refers to the amount of liquid that a container can hold. In the metric system, the base
unit for capacity is the litre (L). The common conversions for capacity are:
1000 mL = 1 L (i.e. 1000 millilitres = 1 litre)

1000 L = 1 kL (i.e. 1000 litres = 1 kilolitre)
To determine the capacity of a container it is necessary to convert between units of volume and
units of capacity.
1 cm3 = 1 mL 1000 cm3 = 1 L 1 m3 = 1000 L
Example 1
EG Convert each of the following.
+S
a 6 L to mL b 2500 mL to L c 9.4 kL to L d 700 L to kL
Solutions
a 6 L = (6 × 1000) mL b 2500 mL = (2500 ÷ 1000) L
= 6000 mL = 2.5 L
c 9.4 kL = (9.4 × 1000) L d 700 L = (700 ÷ 1000) kL
= 9400 L = 0.7 kL
Example 2
EG a Find, in litres, the capacity of a container that is in the shape of a rectangular prism and
+S has dimensions 60 cm, 70 cm and 20 cm.
b Calculate, in kilolitres, the capacity of a swimming pool that has a length of 25 m, width
of 10 m and depth of 2 m.
Solutions
a i Volume = 60 × 70 × 20 ii Capacity = 84 000 ÷ 1000 (since 1000 cm3 = 1 L)
= 84 000 = 84
∴ Volume = 84 000 cm3 ∴ Capacity = 84 L
b i Volume = 25 × 10 × 2 ii Capacity = 500 kL (since 1 m3 = 1 kL)
= 500
∴ Volume = 500 m3
Exercise 7.6
1 Convert each of the following.

a 3 L to mL b 2000 mL to L c 7 kL to L d 4000 L to kL
e 1.5 L to mL f 1200 mL to L g 3500 L to kL h 5.9 kL to L
i 4.25 L to mL j 1.06 kL to L k 3620 mL to L l 5841 L to kL
m 0.5 L to mL n 0.05 kL to L o 380 mL to L p 25 L to kL
q 6 mL to L r 0.002 L to mL s 410 L to mL t 111 000 L to kL
2 Simplify each of these, writing your answers in the next smallest unit.
1 1 3 1 1 7
a ---
2
L b ---
4
L c ---
4
kL d ------
10
kL e ---
5
L f ------
10
kL
g 1 1--2- L h 1 1--4- kL i 3
2 -----
10
- L j 5 3--4- kL k 3 2--5- kL l 9
12 -----
10
- L
■ Consolidation
3 Choose the most appropriate unit (mL, L, kL) that could be used to measure the capacity of:
a a glass of juice b a washing machine c a small country dam
d a fish tank e a swimming pool f a tea cup
g the kitchen sink h a teaspoon i a large pond
j a coffee cup k the petrol tank of a car l a rainwater tank
4 How many 200-mL glasses can be filled from a 3-L container of orange juice?
5 How many 250-mL cups of cola can be poured from a 1.25-L bottle?
6 Each boy in a junior cricket team drank 375 mL of lemonade after a match. Find, in litres,
the amount of lemonade they drank altogether. (There are 11 players in a cricket team).
7 The amount of water in a dam on a farm has fallen to 350 000 L during summer. How many
kilolitres is this?
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8 How many 150-mL glasses of water can be filled completely from a 2-L container?
9 Convert each of these, given that 1 cm3 = 1 mL.

a 5 mL to cm3 b 8 cm3 to mL c 20 mL to cm3 d 31 cm3 to mL
10 Convert each of these, given that 1000 cm3 = 1 L.

a 2 L to cm3 b 7000 cm3 to L c 3.5 L to cm3 d 8400 cm3 to L
e 1250 cm3 to L f 2.75 L to cm3 g 0.5 L to cm3 h 600 cm3 to L
3 3
i 0.034 L to cm j 21 cm to L k 0.005 L to cm3 l 9 cm3 to L
11 Convert each of these, given that 1 m3 = 1 kL.

a 3 m3 to kL b 9 kL to m3 c 1.2 m3 to kL d 4.1 kL to m3
12 Convert each of these, given that 1 m3 = 1000 L.

a 1 m3 to L b 6000 L to m3 c 25 m3 to L d 93 000 L to m3
e 7500 L to m3 f 1.4 m3 to L g 2.6 m3 to L h 8100 L to m3
3 3
i 500 L to m j 0.9 m to L k 4.27 m3 to L l 85 L to m3
13 Find the capacity, in litres, of each prism (1000 cm3 = 1 L).
a 2
b c
A = 80 cm A = 320 cm2
12 cm 16 cm
25 cm A = 450 cm2
14 Find the capacity, in litres, of each prism.

a b c 12 cm 25 cm
30 cm
20 cm 40 cm
25 cm 15 cm
15 Find, in litres, the capacity of a container in the shape of a rectangular prism with
dimensions 25 cm, 8 cm and 11 cm.
16 A cubic fish tank has a side length of 40 cm.
a Find the volume of the tank in cm3. b Find the capacity of the tank in litres.
17 A cookpot has a capacity of 4.75 L. What is the volume of the pot, in cm 3?
18 A cubic container has a capacity of 125 mL.

a What is the volume of the container? b Find the side length of the container.
19 The fish tank shown has a capacity of 48 L. Find the

height of the tank if the length is 60 cm and the width
is 20 cm.
20 cm
60 cm
20 How many millilitres of water would be needed to fill a tank whose volume is 1 m 3?
21 Anya’s swimming pool is 20 m long, 8 m wide and 2 m deep.

a Find the volume of the pool in cubic metres.
b How many kilolitres of water are in the pool if at present it is three-quarters full?
22 A garden tap is dripping at the rate of 5 mL/min. How many litres of water will be lost in
one day?
23 The petrol tank of a small car holds 40 L. What might its dimensions be, assuming that the
tank is in the shape of a rectangular prism?
24 The surface area of a cube is the sum of the areas of its faces. Find the capacity, in litres, of
a cube whose surface area is 2400 cm2.
25 The pint (pt), quart (qt) and gallon (gal) are some of the more common units for capacity in
the Imperial System. In this system, 2 pints = 1 quart and 4 quarts = 1 gallon.
Complete each of these conversions.
a 3 qt = ________ pt b 5 gal = ________ qt c 10 pt = ________ qt
d 12 qt = ________ gal e 6 gal = ________ pt f 72 pt = ________ gal
7.7 Mass
Mass refers to the amount of matter that an object contains. This is not the same as weight. The
weight of an object is the force with which it is being attracted to the Earth due to gravity. When
you stand on the bathroom scales you are actually measuring your mass, not your weight. In
fact, the weight of an object on Earth is numerically 10 times greater than its mass (m kg),
although the units for weight are not kilograms, but newtons (N). Therefore, a person with a
mass of 60 kg actually weighs about 600 N on Earth. As the force of gravity on the moon is
approximately one-sixth of that here on Earth, that person would only weigh about 10 N on the
moon. The mass of the person remains the same, however, as no matter is lost simply by
travelling to the moon.
Although the relationship between mass and weight is of some interest, in this course we need
only concern ourselves with problems involving the mass of an object and the conversion
between metric units of mass. In the metric system, the base unit for mass is the kilogram (kg).
276 Mathscape 8
The common conversions for mass are:

1000 mg = 1 g (i.e. 1000 milligrams = 1 gram)
1000 g = 1 kg (i.e. 1000 grams = 1 kilograms)
1000 kg = 1 t (i.e. 1000 kilograms = 1 tonne)
Mass and capacity are related by this very important relationship.
1 L of water has a mass of 1 kg
Example 1
EG Convert each of the following.
+S
a 3 kg to g b 7000 g to kg c 1.5 g to mg
d 2900 mg to g e 4.25 t to kg f 40 kg to t
Solutions
a 3 kg = (3 × 1000) g b 7000 g = (7000 ÷ 1000) kg
= 3000 g = 7 kg
c 1.5 g = (1.5 × 1000) mg d 2900 mg = (2900 ÷ 1000) g
= 1500 mg = 2.9 g
e 4.25 t = (4.25 × 1000) kg f 40 kg = (40 ÷ 1000) t
= 4250 kg = 0.04 t
Example 2
EG The mass of a tin of pineapple slices is 225 g. Find in kg, the total mass of a box of 20 tins of
+S pineapple slices.
Solutions
Mass in grams = 225 × 20 4500 g = (4500 ÷ 1000) kg
= 4500 g = 4.5 kg
Example 3
EG If 6 crates of equal mass have a total mass of 1.5 t, what will be the mass, in grams, of
+S 11 crates?
Solutions
1.5 t = (1.5 × 1000) kg
= 1500 kg
Using the unitary method, 6 crates have a mass of 1500 kg

∴ 1 crate has a mass of 250 kg (i.e. 1500 kg ÷ 6)
∴ 11 crates have a mass of 2750 kg (i.e. 250 kg × 11)
Exercise 7.7
1 Convert:
a 2 kg to g b 4000 g to kg c 9 t to kg d 6000 kg to t
e 5 g to mg f 3000 mg to g g 2.5 kg to g h 1600 g to kg
i 4.8 t to kg j 4500 kg to t k 8100 mg to g l 7.2 g to mg
m 5.75 kg to g n 2.04 t to kg o 4890 g to kg p 9.31 g to mg
q 3716 kg to t r 1470 mg to g s 0.5 kg to g t 0.04 t to kg
u 700 mg to g v 820 g to kg w 3 kg to t x 0.002 g to mg
2 Simplify each of these, writing your answers in the next smallest unit:
a 1--2- kg b 1--4- t c 3--4- kg 1
d -----
- g
10
e 1--5- t f 3
------
10
kg
g 1 1--2- g h 1 1--4- kg i 3
4 -----
10
- g j 2 1--5- t 7
k 9 -----
10
- g l 6 4--5- t
■ Consolidation
3 Choose the most appropriate unit (mg, g, kg, t) that could be used to measure the mass of:
a a person b a bus c an apple
d a clump of hair e a sandwich f a video recorder
g a truck h a postage stamp i a box of pens
j a television set k an eyelash l a cargo container
4 Find, in kg, the total mass of 12 cans of tuna, if each can has a mass of 250 g.
5 If 20 tins of soup have a mass of 9 kg, find the mass of 3 tins, in grams.
6 If 16 bags of flour have a mass of 3.2 kg, what is the mass of 7 bags, in grams?
7 A carton containing 10 small boxes has a mass of 1.04 kg. If each box has a mass of 84 g,
find the mass of the carton without the boxes.
8 The mass of an apple is 30 g and the mass of a pear is 25 g. Will the total mass of 15 apples
and 20 pears be more than 1 kg?
9 A dump truck can carry away 600 kg of dirt and rock from a quarry with each trip. How
many trips will be necessary to carry away 5.4 tonnes of dirt and rock?
10 The nutrition information on a box of breakfast cereal states that there is 120 mg of sodium
in every 100 g of the cereal. How many grams of sodium would there be in a 2 kg box of
cereal?
11 a A 200-g packet of potato chips contains 25 g of fat. What fraction of the contents is fat?
b The same packet of chips contains 63.6 g of carbohydrate and 560 mg of sodium. How
much more carbohydrate is there than sodium? Give your answer in grams.
278 Mathscape 8
12 A container in the shape of a rectangular prism measures 50 cm × 40 cm × 25 cm and has

a mass of 15 kg when empty.
a Calculate the volume of the container in cm3.
b What is the mass of the container when it is filled with water? (1 L of water has a mass
of 1 kg.)
13 A forklift truck lifts 30 boxes one at a time, each box having a mass of 280 kg. How many
tonnes does it lift?
14 The delivery charge for a parcel is quoted at ‘20 cents per kilogram plus a handling charge
of $4.50’. How much will it cost Lucija to send a parcel with a mass of 34 kg to her father?
15 The gross mass of a container refers to the mass of the container and its contents, while the
net mass refers to the contents only. If the gross mass of a crate is 7.2 t and the net mass is
6.85 t, find in kg, the mass of the empty crate.
16 The ounce (oz), pound (pd), stone (st) and ton (t) are some of the more common units of
mass in the old Imperial System. In this system, 16 ounces = 1 pound, 14 pounds = 1 stone
and 160 stone = 1 ton.
Complete each of these conversions.
a 2 pd = ______ oz b 2 st = ______ pd c 3 t = ______ st
d 48 oz = ______ pd e 140 pd = ______ st f 80 st = ______ t
g --4- pd = ______ oz
3
h 1 --2- st = ______ pd
1
i 1 1--4- t = ______ st
j 2 1--2- pd = ______ oz k 56 oz = ______ pd l 240 st = ______ t
Torrential rain in Sydney

Introduction
Following the terrible bushfires in January 2002, Sydney had a deluge of torrential rain in early
February. Much as the needed rain was welcomed, it caused flooding in many suburbs and
water found its way through leaking roofs, spilled out on roads with clogged gutters, and caused
the humidity to rise to 97% on many days to make life quite uncomfortable.
In this exercise we are going to think about the volume of a single drop of water and investigate
the long-term consequence of leaking roofs, taps and cisterns over a period of time.
Focus question
A roof is leaking at the rate of 1 drop per second. Before going to bed at 9 pm, Hannah places
a 1-litre jug underneath to collect the drips. Will the jug overflow before she gets up at 7 am?
Teacher note: This is a good practical activity which could be set up in the classroom.
The dripping water could be actually shown and an experiment carried out to investigate
the volume of water collected over a period of say 30 minutes.
1 Given that a drop of water is approximately 0.02 mL, calculate the volume of water
collected in 1 hour.
2 For how long did Hannah sleep?
3 Calculate the total volume of water collected in the jug and answer the focus question in
your own words. What assumptions did you have to make?
4 How long would it take for Hannah’s jug to fill?
5 Hannah pours the water she collected into a tall plastic container in the shape of a square
prism. The base is 50 mm square. How high will the water rise?
6 Write down a formula for the volume of water (V) leaking from a roof, dripping at a rate of
N drops per minute for T hours. Take the volume of a single drop to be 0.02 mL.
1 Suppose we reframe the focus question to ask ‘What is the approximate volume of a single
drop of water?’ Design an experiment to collect water from a drip set up in the classroom.
Discuss with the class how they would go about getting the necessary data. Compare the
result with the volume of 0.02 mL given in this activity. Why might it differ?
2 Do you have a dripping tap at home which is wasting water? Measure the volume overnight
and calculate the additional cost of this to the family’s water bill over a period of say
6 months. The cost is usually given on the water account in cents per kilolitre. What might
be the loss of water from homes across a whole suburb?
280 Mathscape 8
3 Make a rain gauge and discuss in class how the quantity of rain falling over 24 hours is
measured. Why is it measured in millimetres of height and not as you might expect by
volume?
Write a short account of what you have learned about the volume of water which can be
generated from single drips over a long period of time. Include any interesting information on
water wastage from your projects or experiments.
%R EFLECTING
Think about the way in which mathematics is closely related to the ‘scientific method’ of
investigating real-world problems. What do you think the scientific method is? Discuss this
with your Science and Mathematics teachers.
B P ROBLEM SOLVING
1 This shape is a cube. Z

What is the size of
X
the angle XYZ?
2 There are three containers of 3 litres, 7 litres and 10 litres. The 10-litre container is full,
the other two are empty. How can you divide the 10 litres into two 5-litre amounts?
3 If we cut slices from this cube along the dotted
lines, we will get square slices. How do we
change the angle of the cut to obtain:
i rectangular slices? ii hexagonal slices?
4 If 11 + 5 = 4, 8 + 6 = 2 and 6 + 7 = 1, what item could we be discussing?

5 Complete this magic square

which uses all the numbers 15 4 14 1
1 to 16.
6 9 7 12
6 Remove 6 matches 7 This time,

to leave 3 squares of move 6
the same size. matches to form
6 rhombuses
of the same size.
8 Using 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 cent coins, how many different ways are there of giving
change for 50 cents?
9 What is the sum of all the numbers from 1 to 10 000? You have 2 minutes!
10 Three adults and two children have to cross a river. The boat will hold two children or
one adult. How does everyone get across the river?
1 _______ refers to the space inside a plane kite noun 1. a light frame covered by a thin material,
or two dimensional figure. which is flown in the wind at the end of a long string.
2 Explain what is meant by a prism. 2. a medium-sized hawk with long wings and tail.
3 Explain how to find the area of a What is the connection between these
trapezium. meanings and that of a kite in mathematics?
4 Define rhombus for a new Maths
Dictionary.
entry for kite:
282 Mathscape 8
CHAPTER RE
1 Find the area of each figure. b

a b
11
7 cm
9 cm 14 16
8 cm
4 cm
c d 6 Find the shaded area in each figure.
All lengths are in mm.
12 cm a
10 cm
6 cm 3 cm 7
12
2 a Find the perimeter of a square whose
6
area is 49 cm2.
b Find the area of a square whose 9
perimeter is 48 cm.
c Find the area of a rectangle whose b 3
VIEW
length is 9 cm and perimeter is 28 cm. 2.5

d Find the perimeter of a rectangle
whose width is 7.5 cm and area is 5 3
90 cm2. 8
3 a Prove that P 4.5
the triangle
PQR is right- 65 cm 7 Find the cost of
angled. 60 cm laying a pebble
Q path around the Garden 9m
b Which angle is
the right angle? 25 cm garden shown,
c Find the area of if pebbles cost 16 m
R
the triangle. $13.50 per square metre and the path has
4 Find the value of a uniform width of 1.5 m.
34
k and hence find k cm cm
the area of this 8 18 m
rectangle. 30 cm
52 m
xm
5 Find the total area of each figure.
All lengths are in mm. 66 m
a
a Find the value of x.
b Find the area of the trapezium.
15
5
10.5
CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter 8: Geometry 283
9 15 Find the volume of each triangular prism.
VIEW
15 m
a
ym zm
9m 7 cm
xm 10 cm
This parallelogram has a perimeter of 6 cm
CHAPTER RE
50 m. Find:
a the values of x, y and z b 5 cm 12 cm
b the area of the parallelogram
10 Find the volume of each solid.
a 15 cm
A = 22 cm2
12 cm
16 Find the value of x. Hence, calculate the

b volume of the prism.
A = 20 cm2
29 cm 20 cm
18 cm x cm
50 cm
11 A triangular prism has a volume of 17 Find the volume of each figure.

126 mm3 and a height of 9 mm. Find the a 5 cm
cross-sectional area.
12 Find the volume of each figure.
a b 13 cm 6 cm
4 cm
4 cm
18 cm
3 cm
7.5 cm 4 cm b 12 cm
13 Find the width of a rectangular prism if

4 cm
the length is 8 cm, the height is 5 cm and 11 cm
the volume is 272 cm3.
14 Find the side length of a cube whose
2.5 cm
volume is 125 cm3.
CHAPTER REVIEW
284 Mathscape 8
CHAPTER RE
18 Find the surface area of: 23 Convert:

a a cube of side 7 cm a 6 L to mL b 3200 mL to L
b a rectangular prism with dimensions c 1.5 kL to L d 1370 L to kL
6 cm, 4.5 cm and 3 cm. e 95 mL to L f 0.08 kL to mL
19 Find the surface area of 25 24 Choose the most appropriate unit (mL, L,
this triangular prism. kL) that could be used to measure the
All lengths are in cm. capacity of:
30 a a bath tub b a glass of milk
c an Olympic swimming pool
25 How many 155-mL glasses of cordial
24 7 can be filled completely from a
2-L container?
20 a Find the surface area of a cube whose 26 Convert:
volume is 64 cm3. a 2 mL to cm3 b 5 m3 to kL
b Find the volume of a cube whose c 2400 cm to L d 8.52 L to cm3
3
surface area is 54 cm2. e 7.1 m3 to L f 900 L to m3
VIEW
21 A cardboard box is rectangular in shape 27 Find, in litres, the capacity of a tank in

and open at the top. Find the amount of the shape of a rectangular prism with
cardboard used to make the box. dimensions 35 cm × 12 cm × 9 cm.
28 Convert:
a 3 kg to g b 1700 g to kg
35 cm
c 1.2 g to mg d 4850 mg to g
e 5.8 t to kg f 74 kg to t
25 cm
85 cm 29 Choose the most appropriate unit (mg, g,
kg, t) that could be used to measure the
22 Determine the surface area of the solid mass of:
shown below. a an adult b a bus
8 cm c a piece of string
6 cm d a chocolate bar
30 If 9 identical boxes have a total mass of
6.3 kg, find the mass of 4 boxes, in grams.
31 A container in the shape of a rectangular
16 cm
prism measures 60 cm × 45 cm × 27 cm
and has a mass of 14.5 kg when empty.
Find the mass of the container when it is
filled with water to two-thirds of its
height.
CHAPTER REVIEW
Equations,
inequations
and formulae
8
Equations, inequations
Stage 4
model and solve equations by using cups and counters
determine by substitution whether the solution to an equation is correct
use a guess, check and improve strategy to solve equations
use a backtracking strategy to solve equations
use inverse operations to solve simple one-, two- and three-step equations
solve equations that involve a single denominator
solve equations that contain grouping symbols
and formulae
form and solve equations to solve worded number problems
form and solve equations to solve practical worded problems
use geometric properties of figures to form equations, then solve them
use equations to solve problems involving perimeter or area
evaluate the subject of a formula
solve equations that arise after substitution into a formula
write down the integer solution set for an inequality
graph an inequality on the number line
solve simple inequations.
285
286 Mathscape 8
8.1 Modelling equations

In Year 7, the meaning of a pronumeral was introduced using cups, counters and matchsticks.
The aim at that time was to show that pronumerals could be used to stand for numbers. Because
the pronumerals could stand for many different numbers, they were also called variables.
In this chapter, we will use a pronumeral to represent an unknown number in a number

sentence. A number sentence with one or more unknown terms is called an equation.
Consider the question ‘What number plus 3 equals 7?’ As pronumerals can be used to represent
numbers, we could use x, for example, to stand for the unknown number. The question could
then be rewritten as the equation x + 3 = 7. Clearly x stands for the number 4, as 4 + 3 = 7. That
is, 4 is the only value that could be given to the pronumeral x in order for x + 3 to be equal in
value to 7. If x was given any value other than 4, then the value of x + 3 would not be 7.
While it was quite obvious that the value of x was 4 in this example, consider the difficulty in
trying to find the value of x in the equation 5x + 2 = 3x + 10!
We will now use 2 models to assist you in understanding how to solve simple equations:
a a two-pan balance with ‘mystery packages’; and

b cups and counters.
■ The two-pan balance method

Your mathematics teacher can demonstrate this method to your class by borrowing a simple
plastic two-pan balance (maybe from the Science staffroom) and setting it up for the class as
described in each of the following 5 scenarios.
Scenario A
The pans are ‘balanced’ when they are horizontal;
both pans contain the same amount. In this case they
are both empty. Both sides however are equal.
Scenario B
Place 3 coins of the same denomination in each pan.
Again the pans are ‘balanced’ and each contains an ••• •••
equal number of coins.
Chapter 8: Equations, inequations and formulae 287
Scenario C
Now have your teacher wrap a given number of coins of the same denomination in some light
paper and place them in one pan. This is called the ‘mystery package’. Fill the other pan with
enough coins of the same denomination to bring it into balance. You will now know exactly
how many coins were in the mystery package. Check your answer by opening the package!
In this example the mystery package contains 5 coins.
If n (or any pronumeral) is used to represent the number of n •••••
coins (or objects), then n = 5 because the pans are ‘balanced’.
Scenario D
We can now extend on Scenario C by retaining the same mystery package (we know it contains
5 coins) and creating some new equations of our own. This is done by adding the same number
of unwrapped coins (of the same denomination) to each side to bring it into balance.
e.g.
In this diagram, n + 2 = 7 n • ••••• •
••
To find out how many coins are represented by n, remove
2 coins from each pan. The pans should still be in balance.
We had n + 2 = 7
Subtract 2 from each side n •••••
∴n=5
Scenario E
Your teacher could now create mystery packages for each of the following equations and you
could solve them by removing an equal number of objects from each pan. This is like doing the
same thing to both sides of the equation.
i 2x + 1 = 7 ii 3b + 2 = 5
iii 2k = k + 2 iv x + 3 = 2x
v 5a + 7 = 2a + 16
Write down exactly the steps that you followed to keep the scales in balance. For each example
don’t forget to check the contents of the mystery package.
■ The cups and counters method

So that you don’t always have to use a pan balance to model solving equations, we can also use
cups and counters to model the same thing. You will need a number of empty cups, some plastic
counters of the same size (colour doesn’t matter) and a piece of paper with a large ‘equals’ sign
in the middle of it. Again, you will need your teacher to set up the following equations. To
‘hide’ the correct number of coins in every cup that is used for a particular example, place one
cup inside another with the hidden coin(s) between the bottoms of the cups.
288 Mathscape 8
Scenario A
p =
p+2=5
Remove 2 counters from each side
p =
∴p=3
Check to see that there were 3 counters in the cup.
Scenario B
m m =
Each cup should contain 3 counters.
2m = 6 ∴m=3
Scenario C
x x x = x x
3x + 3 = 2x + 4
We need to change the equation so that the unknown is isolated on one side.
Remove 2 cups from each side:
x =
x+3=4
Remove 3 counters from each side:
x =
∴x=1
Using algebra to summarise what we have done:
3x + 3 = 2x + 4
Subtract 2x from both sides
x+3=4
Subtract 3 from both sides
∴x=1
Exercise 8.1
In the even-numbered questions, the total number of counters needed is shown in brackets.
Take turns with your partner in setting up the model for each question and solving it.
1 In each of the following, write down the equation that is being modelled and the solution.
Let the pronumeral on the cup represent the number of counters that are in the cup.
a b
x = p =
c d
a = y =
2 Set up the model for each equation and solve it by removing equal numbers of counters
from each side. Check that the solution is correct by counting the number of counters in the
cup and by substituting back into the equation.
a x + 2 = 5 [10] b y + 1 = 6 [12] c a + 3 = 7 [14] d e + 5 = 11 [22]
Let the pronumeral on the cups represent the number of counters that are in each cup.
a b
k k = c c =
c d
n n n e e
=
=
e e
4 Set up the model for each equation and solve it by distributing equal numbers of counters
from the RHS to each cup on the LHS. Check that the solution is correct by counting the
number of counters in each cup and by substituting back into the equation.
a 2n = 4 [8] b 2c = 10 [20] c 3k = 9 [18] d 4u = 8 [16]
a b
t t = b b =
c d
g g g = h h
=
h h
290 Mathscape 8
6 Set up the model for each equation and solve it by removing equal numbers of counters
from each side and then distributing equal numbers of counters from the RHS to each cup
on the LHS. Check that the solution is correct by counting the number of counters in each
cup and by substituting back into the equation.
a 2a + 1 = 7 [14] b 3h + 2 = 8 [16] c 3g + 5 = 17 [34] d 4q + 3 = 15 [30]
a b
w w = w q q q = q
c
s s s s = s s
d
j j j
= j j j
j j j j
8 Set up the model for each equation and solve it by removing equal numbers of cups from
each side. Check that the solution is correct by counting the number of counters in each cup
and by substituting back into the equation.
a 2x = x + 5 [20] b 2x = x + 4 [16] c 3x = 2x + 2 [12] d 4x = 3x + 1 [8]
a
r r r = r
b
d d d d = d
c
v v v v v = v v
d
m m m
= m m m
m m m
10 Set up the model for each equation and solve it by first removing equal numbers of cups
from each side, then removing equal numbers of counters from each side. Distribute the
remaining counters equally among the remaining cups. Write down the solution and check
that it is correct by counting the number of counters in each cup and by substituting the
solution back into the equation.
a 4d + 1 = d + 10 [26] b 3t + 4 = t + 14 [38]
c 5v + 2 = 2v + 8 [24] d 6b + 3 = 2b + 7 [18]
Each orange counter represents -1 and each black counter represents +1. Let the pronumeral
on the cups represent the number of counters that are in each cup.
a b
x n
= =
c
u u u u
=
d
k k
k k
=
k k
12 In this question set up the model for each equation and solve it by yourself. You will not be
able to put the correct counters in the cup this time—it’s a little too difficult. To remove
each orange counter (-1), add a black counter (+1). Write down the solution and verify that
it is correct by substituting the solution back into the equation.
a y−1=3 b s−4=5 c 2p − 5 = 7 d 4r − 1 = 3
e 3z − 2 = z + 6 f 5m − 8 = 2m + 13
8.2 Inverse operations

The opposite of a mathematical operation is referred to as its inverse. We say that the inverse
undoes the operation that has been performed. For example:
+3 −3
• the inverse of adding 3 is subtracting 3 because x + 3 − 3 = x. x→x+3→x
×2 ÷2
• the inverse of multiplying by 2 is dividing by 2 because x × 2 ÷ 2 = x. x → 2x → x
We can use arrow diagrams to show the steps that have been followed in building up an
algebraic expression. In each case, the operation that has resulted in the new expression is
written above the arrow.
292 Mathscape 8
Example 1
EG Insert the correct operations to show how each expression was obtained from the previous one.
+S m m
a a → 3a → 3a − 5 b m → ---- → ---- + 7 c y → y + 2 → 6(y + 2)
4 4
Solutions
×3 −5 ÷4 m+7 m +2 ×6
a a → 3a → 3a − 5 b m → ---- → ---- + 7 c y → y + 2 → 6(y + 2)
4 4
Example 2
EG Complete each of these arrow diagrams to show how to reduce each expression to a single
+S pronumeral.
n n
a 2k + 9 → 2k → k b --- − 1 → --- → n c 5(u − 8) → u − 8 → u
6 6
Solutions
−9 ÷2 n +1 n× 6 ÷5 +8
a 2k + 9 → 2k → k b --- − 1 → --- → n c 5(u − 8) → u − 8 → u
6 6
Exercise 8.2
1 Write down the operation which is the inverse of:

a adding 5 b multiplying by 4 c subtracting 2
d dividing by 3 e doubling f squaring
2 Insert the correct operation to show how the second expression was obtained from the
pronumeral.
a a→a+2 b k→k−5 c n → 3n
u
d u → --- e c → 7c f w→w−1
4
e
g y→y+6 h e → --- i h → -2h
9
■ Consolidation
3 Insert the correct operations to show how each expression was obtained from the one
before it.
f +1
a a → 2a → 2a + 3 b k → 3k → 3k − 7 c f → f + 1 → ------------
3
z–4 x x p p
d z → z − 4 → ----------- e x → --- → --- + 4 f p → --- → --- + 9
2 5 5 7 7
4c
g v → v − 6 → 5(v − 6) h b → b + 10 → 3(b + 10) i c → 4c → ------
9
2n m 2m d 6d
j n → -2n → - ------ k m → ---- → ------- l d → ------ → - ------
3 5 5 11 11
4 Complete these arrow diagrams to obtain only the pronumeral.
a x+2→x b n−3→n c 7p → p
s
d --- → s e 8e → e f g+9→g
5
f
g q−1→q h --- → f i -6t → t
3
j 1
--- z
2
→z k 1--3- c → c l 1
--- w
8
→w
5 Insert the correct operations to obtain a single pronumeral.

a 2k + 3 → 2k → k b 4m − 1 → 4m → m c 5u + 13 → 5u → u
c c x x
d 10r − 7 → 10r → r e --- + 2 → --- → c f --- − 3 → --- → x
5 5 4 4
n–2 h+8
g ------------ → n − 2 → n h ------------ → h + 8 → h i 3(p + 5) → p + 5 → p
6 11
9s 7t
j 4(g − 9) → g − 9 → g k ------ → 9s → s l - ----- → -7t → t
10 3
6 Find the missing terms in these arrow diagrams.
×5 +4 −3
a n → ____ b p → ____ c q → ____
÷2 −5 ×7
d y → ____ e r → ____ f c → ____
+6 ÷8 × (-3)
g t → ____ h z → ____ i b → ____
7 Copy and complete each arrow diagram to show how to obtain a single pronumeral.
−8 ÷3 +5 ÷6
a 3n + 8 → ____ → ____ b 6k − 5 → ____ → ____
−7 ÷2 a +1 ×4
c 7 + 2x → ____ → ____ d --- − 1 → ____ → ____
4
u −2 ×5 m− 12 ×3
e --- + 2 → ____ → ____ f 12 + ---- → ____ → ____
5 3
b–3×4 +3 e+8×7 −8
g ------------ → ____ → ____ h ------------ → ____ → ____
4 7
z – 6 × (-2) + 6 ÷4 +5
i ----------- → ____ → ____ j 4(y − 5) → ____ → ____
-2
÷ 10 −2 ÷ (-3) + 13
k 10(v + 2) → ____ → ____ l -3(t − 13) → ____ → ____
8 Draw arrow diagrams to show how each of these expressions was obtained from a single
pronumeral.
a
a 4k b c+5 c --- d z − 11
8
e 2u + 9 f 5t − 4 g 6 + 3g h 1 − 7w
d n r–3 j+7
i --- + 8 j --- – 2 k ----------- l -----------
2 5 4 10
m 3(b + 4) n 2(x − 5) o -(z − 3) p 6(1 − u)
294 Mathscape 8
9 Draw arrow diagrams that will return each expression to a single pronumeral.
3m + 4 9 + 2x 5n – 1
a ----------------- b --------------- c ---------------
5 3 9
4c 3z 2f
d ------ + 6 e ------ – 2 f 10 – ------
7 11 5
g 3(2v + 13) h 5(3t − 1) i -4(1 − 7p)
8.3 Solving equations

Concrete methods such as cups and counters and balance beams can be used to solve simple
equations when the solutions are small integers. However, many equations have solutions that
are fractions, decimals or large integers. We will now apply the concepts learned in the first two
exercises to develop more formal methods of solving equations.
To solve an equation:
isolate the pronumeral by performing inverse operations on both sides of the
equation.
Example 1
EG Solve each of these equations.
+S h
a x+5=9 b p − 3 = 13 c 7k = 21 d --- = 6
4
Solutions
h
a x+5=9 b p − 3 = 13 c 7k = 21 d --- = 6
4
−5 −5 +3 +3 ÷7 ÷7 ×4 ×4
∴x=4 ∴ p = 16 ∴k=3 ∴ h = 24
Example 2
EG Solve:
+S w
a t+8=2 b -3b = 12 c - ---- = -2
9
Solutions
w
a t+8=2 b -3b = 12 c - ---- = -2
9
−8 −8 ÷ (-3) ÷ (-3) × (-9) × (-9)
∴ t = -6 ∴ b = -4 ∴ w = 18
Example 3
EG Solve, giving the solutions in simplest fraction form.
+S
a 15e = 12 b -21v = 28
Solutions
a 15e = 12 b -21v = 28
÷ 15 ÷ 15 ÷ (-21) ÷ (-21)
12 4 28 4
e = ------ v = --------
15 5 -21 -3
∴e= 4
---
5
v = - 4--3-
∴ v = -1 1--3-
Exercise 8.3
1 Determine by substitution whether the given value of x is a solution to each equation.

a x + 8 = 15 [x = 7] b x − 7 = 2 [x = 5] c 4 + x = 11 [x = 8]
d 3x = 27 [x = 9] e 5x = 30 [x = 25] f 6x = 48 [x = 8]
x x x
g --- = 3 [x = 18] h --- = 16 [x = 20] i --- = 6 [x = 30]
6 4 5
j -3x = -12 [x = -4] k -5x = 40 [x = -8] l -2x = -10 [x = -8]
m 12 + x = 10 [x = -2] n 5 − x = 9 [x = -4] o 15 − x = 12 [x = -3]
x x x
p - --- = -7 [x = 14] q - --- = 3 [x = -11] r --- = -11 [x = 33]
2 8 3
2 Use a guess, check and improve strategy to solve each equation.

c
a m+5=8 b n−3=2 c 4w = 12 d --- = 9
2
a
e y + 17 = 60 f k − 23 = 39 g 7g = 91 h --- = 15
8
3 Use a backtracking strategy to solve each equation.
z
a k + 6 = 10 b p−2=7 c 5s = 30 d --- = 3
7
4 Solve each equation by performing an inverse operation.
a a + 2 = 11 b c + 4 = 10 c 3 + p = 20
d t−8=5 e z − 5 = 16 f g − 14 = 22
g 3p = 21 h 5h = 45 i 2n = 26
k w b
j --- = 3 k ---- = 5 l --- = 8
4 6 7
■ Consolidation
5 Solve:
m
a c + 9 = 24 b d − 7 = 12 c 8r = 32 d ---- = 7
6
z
e y − 13 = 15 f 11u = 55 g --- = 10 h 23 + p = 40
3
e
i --- = 4 j j + 13 = 65 k n − 16 = 28 l 12y = 96
7
v
m b + 25 = 60 n --- = 8 o 9k = 63 p y − 27 = 17
8
296 Mathscape 8
6 Solve each equation for x.

a x+9=4 b x + 2 = -1 c x − 10 = -3 d x − 6 = -9
e x + 8 = -2 f x − 2 = -7 g x + 12 = 3 h x − 7 = -5
i 3x = -9 j -6x = 24 k -7x = -49 l -5x = 30
m -8x = 16 n -9x = -45 o -4x = 32 p -12x = -60
x x x x
q --- = -2 r - --- = 4 s - --- = -2 t --- = -12
5 3 8 4
x x x x
u - --- = 3 v - --- = -6 w - ------ = 6 x - --- = -9
9 7 10 8
7 Solve for a:
a -a = -5 b -a = 4 c -a = -9 d -a = 7
e -a = 6 f -a = -11 g -a = -1 h -a = 13
8 Solve these equations, giving the solutions as proper fractions or mixed numerals in
simplest form.
a 2k = 1 b 4a = 3 c 5p = 9 d 6m = 7
e 8t = 4 f 12c = 4 g 15t = 3 h 35u = 5
i 12w = 9 j 10q = 6 k 15h = 10 l 30r = 18
m 15b = 24 n 12e = 18 o 9r = 21 p 8z = 20
q -30f = 25 r -9u = -24 s 36s = -27 t -42z = -54
9 Solve, giving all solutions in simplest form.
a x+ --- = 1
1
3
b p− 1
---
5
=1 c a+ 1
---
2
=2
d h − 1--4- = 3--4- e y+ 1
---
6
= 5
---
6
f m + ----- 5
12
- = ------
11
12
g t − 1 1--2- = 2 1--2- h c + 1 1--3- = 4 2--3- i w − 1 3--4- = 5 1--4-
j k + 1--4- = 1--2- k j+ 1
---
6
= 1
---
2
l f − 1--4- = 2--3-
10 Solve:
a x + 0.3 = 0.7 b a − 0.2 = 0.3 c y + 0.4 = 1
d m + 0.5 = 1.3 e e + 0.7 = 1.6 f n − 0.6 = 0.8
g 2p = 0.8 h 3t = 1.5 i 7s = 4.2
w b u
j ---- = 0.5 k --- = 0.4 l ------ = 0.9
2 3 10
11 Solve for n:
a 5−n=2 b -2 + n = 4 c -n − 1 = -9
d -3 + n = -4 e 6 − n = 10 f -9 − n = -4
g -4 + n = 7 h -n + 5 = -8 i -n − 2 = 13
j 1 − n = -5 k -3 − n = -12 l 8 − n = 20
TRY THIS Car colours

A girl saw 21 cars cross an intersection. They were
coloured red, white, blue, or green. She noticed that
there were 2 more red than white ones, 4 more white
than blue, and one more blue than green. y =
Her friend asked: ‘How many of each kind were there?’
‘I don’t know,’ she replied.
‘You can easily work it out!’ said her friend.
Can you?
8.4 Solving two-step

equations
To solve an equation, it is necessary to perform inverse operations on both sides such that each
following equation is simpler than the one before.
Example 1
EG Solve these equations.
+S
a 3m + 2 = 35 b 8a − 5 = 27 c 50 − 7c = 29
Solutions
a 3m + 2 = 35 b 8a − 5 = 27 c 50 − 7c = 29
−2 −2 +5 +5 − 50 − 50
3m = 33 8a = 32 -7c = -21
÷3 ÷3 ÷8 ÷8 ÷ (-7) ÷ (-7)
∴ m = 11 ∴a=4 ∴c=3
Example 2
EG Solve:
+S
d n+4 3w
a --- + 8 = 15 b ------------ = 3 c ------- = 12
4 6 5
Solutions
d n+4 3w
a --- + 8 = 15 b ------------ = 3 c ------- = 12
4 6 5
−8 −8 ×6 ×6 ×5 ×5
d
--- = 7 n + 4 = 18 3w = 60
4
×4 ×4 −4 −4 ÷3 ÷3
∴ d = 28 ∴ n = 14 ∴ w = 20
298 Mathscape 8
Exercise 8.4

a 2x + 5 = 17 [x = 6] b 3x − 4 = 25 [x = 7]
c 15 − 2x = 9 [x = -3] d 17 + 3x = 5 [x = -4]
x x
e --- + 5 = 8 [x = 9] f --- − 5 = 2 [x = 6]
3 2
x–1 x+2
g ----------- = 6 [x = 11] h ------------ = 5 [x = 13]
4 3
2x 3x
i ------ = 8 [x = 9] j ------ = 6 [x = 10]
8 5
m+3 e
a 2a + 5 = 11 b 3q − 4 = 17 c ------------- = 6 d --- + 7 = 10
5 4
a 4g + 1 = 25 b 5e − 3 = 42 c 3c + 11 = 35 d 7v − 5 = 23
d+6 m–5 u f
e ------------ = 2 f ------------- = 8 g --- – 8 = 3 h --- + 9 = 13
7 4 2 3
4 Solve each of these equations in two steps.

a 2n + 3 = 13 b 3p + 2 = 20 c 7a + 3 = 17
d 5q − 1 = 19 e 4t − 3 = 25 f 10c − 2 = 58
g 6e + 4 = 40 h 8b − 7 = 9 i 12m + 5 = 53
j 9v − 6 = 21 k 11s − 6 = 49 l 4f + 11 = 39
m 7h + 3 = 45 n 10z − 13 = 67 o 3g + 8 = 47
■ Consolidation
5 Solve the following equations.
a 2 + 3t = 17 b 5 + 2b = 21 c 9 + 4q = 13
d 41 + 5m = 6 e 57 + 7c = 1 f 26 + 8d = 10
g 11 − 2g = 15 h 10 − 3j = 22 i 19 − 7f = 40
j 17 − 7k = 10 k 30 − 4y = 6 l 57 − 5a = 32
6 Solve:
m a e
a ---- + 4 = 7 b --- – 2 = 5 c --- + 5 = 8
5 3 4
h d w
d --- – 3 = 1 e --- + 7 = 12 f ---- + 11 = 17
7 6 8
k n u
g --- – 4 = 4 h --- – 9 = 3 i ------ + 4 = 11
2 5 10
s c x
j --- + 5 = 14 k ------ – 1 = 5 l ------ – 6 = 2
9 12 11
7 Solve:
y v f
a --- + 7 = 2 b --- – 6 = -9 c --- – 8 = -3
3 8 7
m z d
d ---- + 1 = – 2 e --- – 11 = -3 f - --- + 3 = 12
3 4 5
w k b
g - ---- – 10 = -4 h --- + 7 = 4 i --- – 7 = -3
9 6 5
8 Solve these equations.
a+2 m–3 t–5 k+3
a ------------ = 4 b ------------- = 3 c ---------- = 7 d ------------ = 5
3 5 4 6
b+8 n–4 f – 20 z + 18
e ------------ = 5 f ------------ = 6 g --------------- = -3 h -------------- = 3
5 7 3 4
h+6 d – 15 p – 26 s + 42
i ------------ = -4 j --------------- = 7 k --------------- = -3 l -------------- = -4
11 -4 7 -5
9 Solve each equation for a.

2a 3a 5a 4a
a ------ = 4 b ------ = 6 c ------ = 15 d ------ = 12
3 2 3 7
3a 7a 3a 6a
e ------ = 6 f ------ = 21 g ------ = 9 h ------ = 12
8 2 5 7
5a 3a 9a 4a
i ------ = -30 j - ------ = 15 k - ------ = 18 l - ------ = -20
2 5 4 5
simplest form.
a 12x − 5 = 2 b 3 + 10y = 5 c 14n − 3 = 5
d 7 − 2p = 10 e -4 + 6h = 16 f 11 = 14 + 6k
g 17 + 4a = 7 h 14 = 5 − 6w i 7 − 20e = -8
11 Write down an equation similar to those in:
a Q4 which has a solution of x = 7.
b Q6 which has a solution of x = 24.
c Q8 which has a solution of x = 11.
d Q9 which has a solution of x = 6.
x
12 Change one number in the equation --- + 5 = 8 so that the solution is x = 20.
4
300 Mathscape 8
8.5 Equations with

pronumerals on both sides
Equations that have pronumerals on both sides are solved in the same way as those that have a
pronumeral on one side only.
To solve an equation that contains pronumerals on both sides:

perform inverse operations to take all pronumerals to one side and all numerals
to the other side.
Example 1
EG Solve these equations.
+S
a 8q = 3q + 45 b 5f = 14 − 2f
Solutions
a 8q = 3q + 45 b 5f = 14 − 2f
− 3q − 3q + 2f +2 f
5q = 45 7f = 14
÷5 ÷5 ÷7 ÷7
∴q=9 ∴f=2
Example 2
EG a 9k + 6 = 7k + 28 b 13s − 15 = 3s − 35
+S
Solutions
a 9k + 6 = 7k + 28 b 13s − 15 = 3s − 35
− 7k − 7k − 3s − 3s
2k + 6 = 28 10s − 15 = −35
−6 −6 + 15 + 15
2k = 22 10s = -20
÷2 ÷2 ÷ 10 ÷ 10
∴ k = 11 ∴ s = -2
Exercise 8.5

a 5x = 3x + 12 [x = 6] b 7x = 15 + 4x [x = 4]
c 2x + 7 = 3x [x = 8] d 9x − 20 = 5x [x = 5]
e 3x + 4 = x + 4 [x = 0] f 4x − 8 = 7x + 13 [x = -7]

a 2f = f + 7 b 5k = 3k + 12 c 7b − 10 = 4b + 26
3 Solve each of these equations by collecting the pronumerals to one side and the integers to
the other side.
a 3m = 2m + 8 b 5e = 10 + 3e c 4t = 30 − t
d 2h = 42 − 5h e 8n = 12 + 5n f 7c = 39 − 6c
g 2g + 63 = 11g h 64 − 7b = b i 11w + 45 = 16w
j 84 − 5a = 7a k 100 − 13p = 12p l 99 + 4s = 15s
■ Consolidation
4 Solve the following equations.
a 2n = 3n + 8 b 5p = 6p − 4 c 3y = 5y + 14
d 4c = 7c − 18 e -5a = 4a − 36 f -4t = 3t + 56
g 28 + 5b = b h 33 + 15w = 4w i -72 − 7u = 5u
5 Solve each of the following.

a 3x + 7 = 2x + 13 b 8y + 6 = 7y + 9 c 5m + 2 = 4m + 11
d 9t − 4 = 8t + 1 e 10u − 3 = 9u + 3 f 4c − 1 = 3c + 10
g 6a + 4 = 5a − 2 h 2n + 9 = n − 5 i 7e + 5 = 6e − 10
6 Solve:
a 3c + 2 = c + 12 b 5p + 3 = 2p + 15 c 9m + 8 = 4m + 38
d 10y − 4 = 3y + 17 e 9z − 11 = 5z + 21 f 13q − 18 = q + 6
g 16u + 15 = 5u + 70 h 11s − 14 = 5s + 22 i 14e − 17 = 4e + 13
7 Solve:
a 5x − 9 = 2x − 6 b 2n − 1 = 4n + 9 c 3a − 20 = 7a − 4
d 10u + 50 = 4u + 8 e 12f + 13 = 3f − 14 f 5g + 12 = 9g − 16
g 8d + 40 = 5d + 4 h 2z + 10 = 11z − 80 i r − 23 = 9r − 7
j 4y + 5 = 9y + 30 k 3f − 25 = 13f + 15 l 8v + 7 = 2v − 41
simplest form.
a 4n + 5 = n + 7 b 20x − 2 = 6x + 5 c 13u − 3 = 4u + 3
d 6b − 5 = 7 − 2b e 1 − 4s = 6s − 7 f 9 + 13z = -9 − 8z
g 5q + 16 = 17q − 12 h 9 − 10e = 2e − 6 i 11d − 13 = 29d + 11
9 Solve each of these equations by first collecting the like terms on each side.
a 11b + 10 + 5 = 3b + 6b + 7 b 12p − 13 − 7 = 3p − 6 + 2p
c m − 8 + 2m = -8m − 15 − 15 d 7a + 18 = -12 − a − 30 − 4a
e 3x + 4 + 5x + 6 = 2x + 46 f 4k + 13 + 2k − 4 = 3k
302 Mathscape 8
TRY THIS Braking distance

Here is a formula for calculating the braking distance of a car:
( speed ) 2
Braking distance (metres) = 0.7 × speed (km/h) + -----------------------
254f
where f is the coefficient of friction of the road surface.
40 km/h : f = 0.52 80 km/h : f = 0.43 120 km/h : f = 0.35
60 km/h : f = 0.47 100 km/h : f = 0.39
If a car’s speed doubles, what happens to its stopping distance? What time should
there be between a green light and a red light (i.e. amber)?
distance
[Hint: Speed = ---------------------- Watch the units!]
time
8.6 Equations with grouping

symbols
To solve an equation that contains grouping symbols:

expand the expressions in the grouping symbols
collect any like terms
solve the resulting equation by performing inverse operations on both sides.
Note: Some equations can be solved more easily by first dividing the expression on each side
by the number in front of the grouping symbols.
Example 1
EG Solve the equation 3(r + 8) = 39 by first:
+S
a expanding the expression on the left-hand side
b dividing both sides by the number in front of the grouping symbols
Solutions
a 3(r + 8) = 39 b 3(r + 8) = 39
3r + 24 = 39 ÷3 ÷3
− 24 − 24 r + 8 = 13
3r = 15 −8 −8
÷3 ÷3 ∴r=5
∴r=5
Example 2 Example 3
EG Solve 5(x − 7) = 4(x + 3) EG Solve 5(2p + 3) + 6(p − 2) = 11
+S +S
Solution Solution
5(x − 7) = 4(x + 3) 5(2p + 3) + 6(p − 2) = 11
5x − 35 = 4x + 12 10p + 15 + 6p − 12 = 11
− 4x − 4x 16p + 3 = 11
x − 35 = 12 −3=−3
+ 35 + 35 16p = 8
∴ x = 47 ÷ 16 = ÷ 16
81
p = ------
16 2
∴p= 1
---
2
Exercise 8.6

a 3(x + 2) = 24 b 5(2a + 3) = 65 c 7(h − 3) = 5(h + 1)

a 2(p − 3) = 14 b 4(y + 8) = 12 c 5(3r − 1) = 40
3 Solve each equation.
a 3(a + 2) = 9 b 5(m − 3) = 20 c 2(p + 6) = 18
d 6(t − 5) = 60 e 4(y + 1) = 32 f 7(n + 7) = 84
g 10(b − 8) = 50 h 3(15 + r) = 66 i 8(6 + k) = 88
j 11(2 − x) = 55 k 6(5 − v) = 54 l 12(3 − c) = 72
■ Consolidation
4 Solve each of these equations.
a 2(3m + 1) = 14 b 3(2p − 6) = 24 c 6(2a + 1) = 42
d 3(2e + 12) = 6 e 5(2n + 3) = 5 f 4(2c − 5) = 44
g 9(1 − 2j) = 45 h 5(4d − 3) = 45 i 7(2 − 3f) = 77
j 6(4 − 3a) = 60 k 7(3k + 7) = 70 l 3(3y + 14) = 6
simplest form.
a 2(m + 5) = 11 b 3(t + 2) = 8 c 5(q − 1) = 3
d 4(2n − 3) = 6 e 6(4a + 5) = 46 f 14(2e + 1) = 26
g 10(3k − 2) = 22 h 12(5w − 4) = 2 i 9(2m − 3) = 15
304 Mathscape 8
6 Solve:
a 6(m − 4) = m − 9 b 4(f + 2) = f + 11 c 6p − 26 = 2(p + 3)
d 9(k − 2) = 5k + 10 e 6(n − 3) = 4n + 2 f 8y − 7 = 5(y + 4)
g 7t − 5 = 2(3t + 2) h 3(2u + 5) = 8u + 3 i 5(4p − 7) = 11p − 8
7 Solve for x:
a 3(x + 2) = 2(x + 5) b 7(x + 3) = 4(x + 9) c 3(x + 5) = 4(x + 3)
d 7(x − 5) = 3(x + 3) e 5(x + 1) = 8(x − 5) f 6(x − 6) = 9(x − 11)
8 Solve:
a 2(7x + 11) = 10(x + 5) b 4(7c − 5) = 3(5c + 2) c 10(y − 1) = 2(4y + 3)
d 5(2a + 1) = 3(3a + 4) e 5(n + 3) = 2(n + 6) f 2(w − 1) = 4(w + 2)
g 12(2m + 1) = 6(5m − 1) h 5(2e + 6) = 6(3e + 1) i 7(k + 9) = 3(k + 5)
j 6(2b + 1) = 3(5b − 2) k 3(4 − h) = 6(5 − h) l 7(2z − 1) = 5(2z + 5)
m 5(3s − 7) = 10(s − 1) n 2(3d + 14) = 8(5 + d) o 3(q − 2) = 5(4q + 9)
9 Expand any expressions that contain grouping symbols, collect like terms, then solve the
resulting equation.
a 3(x + 2) + 2(x + 4) = 24 b 4(k − 1) + 3(k + 1) = 34
c 4(p + 3) + 2(p − 1) = 28 d 2(3y − 5) + 5 (y − 3) = 4y + 3
e 3(2n + 3) + 5(2n − 9) = 4(2n + 5) f 5(a − 3) + 15 = 10(a − 3)
g 4(h + 6) + 3h = 8(h + 2) h 5(z − 9) + 2(z + 6) = 17 + 3(z + 2)
i 7(u + 7) − 10u = 5(3 − 4u) j 10(w − 2) − 3(w + 2) = 3 − 4(w − 1)
k 4(c + 5) − 7(c + 1) = 6(1 − c) − 5 l 9(2 − s) − (5s + 1) = 5(3 − s) − 10s
8.7 Solving number problems

Many practical problems can be solved by the use of equations. To do this, the worded
statements are translated into mathematical statements using pronumerals and mathematical
operations.
To solve a worded number problem:

choose a pronumeral to represent the unknown number
express the worded problem in the form of an equation
solve the equation
use this solution to answer the problem in the form of a sentence.
Example 1
EG Form an equation for each of these number problems, then solve it to find the number.
+S
a 5 less than the product of a certain number and 3 is 16. What is the number?
b If 4 more than a certain number is divided by 5, the result is 2. What is the number?
c When a certain number is divided by 3 then increased by 7, the result is 8. What is the
number?
d 7 is subtracted from a certain number and this is then multiplied by 4. The result is 12.
What is the number?
Solutions
In each question, let the number be x.
a 3x − 5 = 16 x+4
b ------------ = 2
+5 +5 5
3x = 21 ×5=×5
÷3 ÷3 x + 4 = 10
∴x=7 −4=−4
∴ the number is 7 ∴x=6
∴ the number is 6
x
c --- + 7 = 8 d 4(x − 7) = 12
3
−7 −7 4x − 28 = 12
x + 28 = + 28
--- = 1
3 4x = 40
×3 ×3 ÷4=÷4
∴x=3 ∴ x = 10
∴ the number is 3 ∴ the number is 10
Example 2 Example 3
EG When 13 is subtracted from 4 times a EG The sum of 3 consecutive numbers is 30.
+S certain number, the result is equal to +S Find the numbers.
5 more than the number. Find the number.
Solution
Solution Let the numbers be x, x + 1, x + 2.
Let the number be x. x + x + 1 + x + 2 = 30
4x − 13 = x + 5 3x + 3 = 30
−x −x −3=−3
3x − 13 = 5 3x = 27
+ 13 + 13 ÷3=÷3
3x = 18 ∴x=9
÷3 ÷3 ∴ the numbers are 9, 10, 11
∴x=6
∴ the number is 6
306 Mathscape 8
Exercise 8.7
1 Form an equation for each of these number problems, then solve it to find the number.
(Let the number be n.)
a The sum of a certain number and 14 is 22. What is the number?
b 9 more than a certain number is 15. What is the number?
c The difference between a certain number and 7 is 6. What is the number?
d 8 less than a certain number is 12. What is the number?
e 31 minus a certain number is 9. What is the number?
f The product of 4 and a certain number is 52. What is the number?
g When a certain number is tripled, the result is 42. What is the number?
h When a certain number is divided by 3, the result is 5. What is the number?
i Half of a certain number is 4. What is the number?
(Let the number be x.)
a A certain number is multiplied by 4 and then 6 is added. The result is 34. Find the
number.
b A number is doubled then increased by 11. The result is 43. Find the number.
c 3 more than 5 times a certain number is 23. Find the number.
d A certain number is multiplied by 5 and then 3 is subtracted. The result is 47. Find the
number.
e The product of a certain number and 6 is decreased by 4. The result is 14. Find the
number.
f 1 less than 4 times a certain number is 31. Find the number.
g When the product of a certain number and 8 is subtracted from 40, the result is 16.
h A number is multiplied by 7 and this is then subtracted from 22. The result is 8.
■ Consolidation
(Let the number be a.)
a When 10 is added to a certain number and this is then divided by 2, the result is 9.
What is the number?
b When 7 is subtracted from a certain number and this is then divided by 3, the result
is 5. What is the number?
c When the sum of a certain number and 5 is divided by 2, the result is 11. What is the
number?
d When the difference between a certain number and 6 is divided by 4, the result is 5.
What is the number?
e If 3 more than a certain number is divided by 7, the result is 4. What is the number?
f If 1 less than a certain number is halved, the result is 6. What is the number?
(Let the number be t.)
a A certain number is divided by 3, then 4 is added. The result is 10. Find the number.
b Half of a number is decreased by 9. The result is 24. Find the number.
c The sum of 8 and a quarter of a certain number is 11. Find the number.
d The difference between one-third of a certain number and 6 is 5. Find the number.
(Let the number be p.)
a A certain number is multiplied by 3 then divided by 2. The result is 9. What is the
number?
b A certain number is divided by 4 then multiplied by 5. The result is 10. What is the
number?
c Two-thirds of a number is 8. What is the number?
d Three-quarters of a number is 18. What is the number?
(Let the number be b.)
a 5 is added to a certain number and this is then multiplied by 4. The result is 28.
Find the number.
b 3 is subtracted from a certain number and this is then multiplied by 2. The result is 16.
Find the number.
c A number is doubled, increased by 5, then multiplied by 3. The result is 39. Find the
number.
d A number is tripled, decreased by 1, then multiplied by 5. The result is 10. Find the
number.
(Let the number be m.)
a When a certain number is doubled and then decreased by 7, the result is equal to 3 more
than the number. What is the number?
b When 4 is subtracted from 5 times a certain number, the result is equal to 17 more than
twice the number. What is the number?
c 1 more than 4 times a certain number is equal to 11 less than 6 times the number.
What is the number?
d 7 less than 8 times a certain number is equal to 38 more than 3 times the number.
What is the number?
8 Form an equation for each of these number problems, then solve it to find the numbers.
(Let the smallest number be x.)
a The sum of 2 consecutive numbers is 35. What are the numbers?
b The sum of 3 consecutive numbers is 27. What are the numbers?
c The sum of 4 consecutive numbers is 50. What are the numbers?
308 Mathscape 8
d The sum of 3 consecutive even numbers is 24. What are the numbers?
e The sum of 3 consecutive odd numbers is 63. What are the numbers?
f The sum of 3 consecutive even numbers is equal to 18 more than the sum of the odd
numbers that lie between them. What are the even numbers?
9 Form an equation then solve it to answer each of the following problems.
a In a certain Year 8 Mathematics class there are 27 students. There are 9 more boys than
girls in the class. Find the number of boys and girls.
b Ken has $15 less than Peddar and together they have $73. Find how much money that
each person has.
c The perimeter of a rectangle is 58 cm and the width is 5 cm shorter than the length.
Find the dimensions of the rectangle.
d The total cost of movie tickets for three adults and four children is $67. If an adult’s
ticket costs $6 more than a child’s ticket, find the cost of each.
e Four hot dogs and three drinks cost $14.20. If a hot dog costs $1.10 more than a drink,
find the cost of each.
10 Form an equation then solve it to answer each of the following problems.
a Daniel is four times as old as Louise. In 12 years’ time, Daniel will only be twice as old
as Louise. Find their present ages.
b Percy is 47 years old and his son Zachary is 16 years old. In how many years’ time will
Percy be twice as old as his son?
8.8 Measurement and

geometry problems
Equations can be used to solve problems that involve measurement concepts and geometric
properties. The given perimeter or area, or a geometric property, can be used to form an
equation. This can then be solved to find the value of a pronumeral.
Example 1
EG Form an equation using the given perimeter or area, then solve it to find the value of the
+S pronumeral. (All measurements are in cm.)
a b
x+3 2y – 3
2x
9
3x + 2
Area = 63 cm2
Perimeter = 17 cm
Solutions
a Perimeter = the sum of the side lengths b Area of rectangle = length × breadth
∴ 3x + 2 + 2x + x + 3 = 17 ∴ 9(2y − 3) = 63
6x + 5 = 17 18y − 27 = 63
−5 −5 + 27 + 27
6x = 12 18y = 90
÷6 ÷6 ÷ 18 ÷ 18
∴x=2 ∴y=5
Example 2
EG Form an equation using a geometric property, then solve it to find the value of the pronumeral.
+S
a b (4m – 15)° c
2x° (5a – 3)°

(x + 15)° (m + 21)°
(2a + 13)° 3a°
Solutions
a Adjacent angles in a right b Alternate angles on c The angle sum of a
angle have a sum of 90°. parallel lines are equal. triangle is 180°.
∴ 2x + x + 15 = 90 ∴ 4m − 15 = m + 21 ∴ 5a − 3 + 2a + 13 + 3a = 180
3x + 15 = 90 −m −m 10a + 10 = 180
− 15 − 15 3m − 15 = 21 − 10 − 10
3x = 75 + 15 + 15 10a = 170
÷3 ÷3 3m = 36 ÷ 10 ÷ 10
∴ x = 25 ÷3 ÷3 ∴ a = 17
∴ m = 12
Exercise 8.8
1 Form an equation using the given dimensions and perimeter, then solve it to find the value
of the pronumeral. (All measurements are in cm.)
a b 4r + 9 c 3e + 8
2x
7
5e
Perimeter = 24 cm Perimeter = 49 cm
Perimeter = 72 cm
d e 4y + 15 f 3f
10
11q – 7 2f + 11
2y + 7 3y + 10
2f – 7
Perimeter = 75 cm
Perimeter = 59 cm 3f – 4 17
Perimeter = 97 cm
310 Mathscape 8
2 Form an equation using the given dimensions and area, then solve it to find the value of the
pronumeral. (All measurements are in cm.)
a b c
5 4 2h
3a
Area = 60 cm2 k+7
Area = 36 cm2 Area = 100 cm2
d e f
5 7 10
6n z+3 2u – 5
Area = 45 cm2 Area = 28 cm2 Area = 55 cm2
■ Consolidation
3 Form an equation using a geometric property involving an angle relationship. Solve the
equation to find the value of the pronumeral.
a b c
5w° 3t°
30° 50° (3x + 10)°
18°
d e f
220°
15°
4h° 5y°
12p° 7p°
3y°
68°
g h i
3q° 6b°
27° 8v° (6v + 42)° 85°
5b°
4q°
j k l
2e° (13y – 24)°
4k°
78°
(3e + 25)° (8y + 26)° 72°
11k°
4 Form an equation using a geometric property involving angles on parallel lines. Solve the
equation to find the value of the pronumeral.
a b c
102° 9n° (11a – 19)°
(7x – 3)° 6n° (7a + 13)°
5 Form an equation using a geometric property of triangles. Solve the equation to find the
value of the pronumeral.
a b c (5u – 17)°
3n°
(k + 10)° (2u + 13)°
d 2p° e f
3p°
3g°
60° 5y°
(y + 18)° 125° 77°
6 Form an equation using a geometric property of quadrilaterals. Solve the equation to find
the value of the pronumeral.
a b c
2q° (3x + 20)° 4x° (a + 60)°
142°
4a°
(x + 40)°
(q + 50)° 2x°
d (j + 3) cm e (c + 14) cm f (2z – 3) cm
A B 4 cm
7k cm (k + 24) cm
3c cm
36 cm ( –2y ) cm
(z + 10) cm
D C
AC = (2d – 7) cm
BD = 17 cm
312 Mathscape 8
7 Form an equation using the given measurements and perimeter or area. Solve the equation
to find the value of the pronumeral. (All measurements are in cm.)
a x+3 b
2x x
3x
4x + 9 2x
3x + 8
x+1
3x + 10 x+1
Perimeter = 68 cm Perimeter = 76 cm
c d
2
x 2x – 3
x+8
6 7
5
x+2
3x + 5
Area = 85 cm2 Shaded area = 89 cm2
8 The length of a rectangle is twice the width, and the area is 72 cm 2. Find:
a the dimensions of the rectangle b the perimeter
9 The length of a rectangle is 7 cm more than the width, and its perimeter is 34 cm. Find:
a the dimensions of the rectangle b the area c the length of the diagonals
10 The equal sides of an isosceles triangle are 6 cm shorter than the base. If the perimeter is
36 cm, find:
a the lengths of the sides b the perpendicular height c the area
11 The apex angle in an isosceles triangle is 30° more than each of the base angles. Find the
angles.
12 The angles in a quadrilateral are consecutive odd integers. Find the angles.
8.9 Evaluating the subject of a

formula
A formula is a special equation in that it contains more than one pronumeral. The single
pronumeral on the left-hand side is called the subject of the formula. For example, in the
formula A = 1--2- bh, A is the subject. To evaluate the subject of a formula we need to substitute
values for all of the other pronumerals.
Example 1
EG a If y = mx + b, find y when m = 2, x = 8 and b = −3.
+S b If v = u + at, find v when u = 10, a = 2 and t = 6.
Solutions
a y = mx + b b v = u + at
y = (2 × 8) − 3 v = 10 + (2 × 6)
= 16 − 3 = 10 + 12
= 13 = 22
Example 2
EG h
+S a If A = --- (a + b), find A when h = 10, a = 6 and b = 8.
2
b If E = 1--2- mv2, find E when m = 12 and v = 3.
Solutions
h
a A = --- (a + b) b E = 1--2- mv2
2
10
= ------ (6 + 8) = 1
--- × 12 × 32
2 2
= 5 × 14 = 1
---
2
× 12 × 9
= 70 = 54
Exercise 8.9
1 The formula for the perimeter of a square is P = 4s. Find the value of P if:
a s=3 b s=5 c s = 8.7
2 The formula for the area of a rectangle is A = l × b. Find the value of A if:
a l = 4, b = 3 b l = 5, b = 2 c l = 8.5, b = 5.2
D
3 The speed of a moving object is given by S = ---- . Find the value of S when:
T
a D = 15, T = 3 b D = 32, T = 4 c D = 106.8, T = 7.5
4 The perimeter of a rectangle is given by P = 2L + 2B. Find the value of P when:

a L = 3, B = 2 b L = 6, B = 4 c L = 7.2, B = 4.4
5 If y = mx + b, find the value of y when:

a m = 2, x = 3, b = 1 b m = 3, x = 8, b = -4 c m = -4, x = 2, b = 6
d m = -2, x = -6, b = -3 e m = 1--2- , x = 8, b = 5 f m = - 1--3- , x = 15, b = -2
314 Mathscape 8
6 Find the value of v in the formula v = u + at, if:

a u = 5, a = 4, t = 3 b u = 10, a = 2, t = 6
c u = 11, a = --4- , t = 20
1
d u = 14, a = 2--3- , t = 12
■ Consolidation
n
7 Given that S = --- ( a + l ) , find the value of S when:
2
a n = 10, a = 2, l = 3 b n = 14, a = 5, l = 6
c n = 4, a = 15, l = -7 d n = 3, a = -12, l = 4
8 Find the value of T in the formula T = a + (n − 1)d if:
a a = 9, n = 7, d = 2 b a = -10, n = 11, d = 3
c a = 6, n = 13, d = 1--4- d a = -5, n = 3, d = -4
9 If V = Q2L, find the value of V if:

a Q = 8, L = 2 b Q = 3, L = 0.5
c Q = 6, L = 1--3- d Q = 10, L = 1.5
10 Find the value of C if C = 5--9- (F − 32) and:

a F = 212 b F = 104 c F = 32 d F = -13
5K
11 a If M = ------- , find M when K = 36.
18
b If S = ut + 1--2- at 2, find S when u = 3, t = 2, a = 6.
360
c If A = 180 – --------- , find A when n = 5.
n
d If T = ar n − 1, find T when a = 10, r = 2, n = 4.
h
e If A = --- ( a + b ) , find A when h = 7, a = 6, b = 4.
2
v2
f If t = ----- , find t when v = -6, g = 10, r = 0.3.
gr
2Rn
g If E = ------------ , find E when R = 14, n = 6.
n+1
h If E = 1--2- mv2, find E when m = 22, v = 3.

9C
i If F = 32 + ------- , find F when C = 15.
5
PRT
j If I = ----------- , find I when P = 60, R = 7, T = 5.
100
12 Find, correct to 1 decimal place, the value of:

a c if c2 = a2 + b2; a = 3.4, b = 7.1
b C if C = 2πr; r = 8
c A if A = πrs; r = 9.2, s = 12
d A if A = πr2; r = 13
e V if V = πr2h; r = 4, h = 6.5
f v if v2 = u2 + 2as; u = 6, a = 3.2, s = 9.45 and v > 0
g v if v2 = grt; g = 9.8, r = 6, t = 15.9 and v > 0
b2
h e if e2 = 1 – ----2- ; b = 5, a = 8 and e > 0
a
n ( n + 1 ) ( 2n + 1 )
13 a If S = ----------------------------------------- , find the value of S when n = 2.5.
6
l
b If T = 2π --- , find the value of T when l = 1.5 and g = 9.8. Answer correct to
g
2 decimal places.
a
c If S = ----------- , find the value of S when a = 18 and r = 1--3- .
1–r
a(rn – 1)
d If S = ---------------------- , find the value of S when a = 3, r = 2 and n = 5.
r–1
8.10 Equations arising from

substitution
To evaluate a pronumeral in a formula other than the subject:
substitute the values of the known pronumerals
solve the resulting equation.
Example 1
EG a If P = 2L + 2B, find L when P = 32 and B = 7.
+S b If y = mx + b, find x when y = 21, m = 4 and b = -3.
Solutions
a P = 2L + 2B b y = mx + b
32 = 2L + (2 × 7) 21 = (4 × x) − 3
32 = 2L + 14 21 = 4x − 3
− 14 − 14 +3 +3
18 = 2L 24 = 4x
÷2 ÷2 ÷4 ÷4
∴L=9 ∴x=6
316 Mathscape 8
Example 2
EG 5K
+S a If M = ------- , find K when M = 10.
18
h
b If A = --- ( a + b ) , find a when A = 30, h = 6, b = 7.
2
Solutions
5K h
a M = ------- b A = --- ( a + b )
18 2
5K 6
10 = ------- 30 = --- ( a + 7 )
18 2
× 18 × 18 30 = 3(a + 7)
180 = 5K 30 = 3a + 21
÷5 ÷5 − 21 − 21
∴ K = 36 9 = 3a
÷3 ÷3
∴a=3
Exercise 8.10
1 The formula for the perimeter of a square is P = 4s. Find the value of s when:
a P=8 b P = 48 c P = 22
2 The formula for the area of a rectangle is A = l × b. Find the value of:
a l when A = 30, b = 5 b b when A = 21, l = 7 c l when A = 6, b = 0.5
D
3 The speed of a moving object is given by S = ---- . Find the value of D when:
T
a S = 8, T = 5 b S = 12, T = 7 c S = 16, T = 1.5
■ Consolidation
4 If y = mx + b, find the value of:
a b when y = 13, m = 3, x = 2 b b when y = 25, m = 4, x = 7
c m when y = 15, x = 2, b = 3 d m when y = 6, x = 3, b = -9
e x when y = 3, m = 9, b = 21 f x when y = 2, m = -4, b = -10
5 If v = u + at, find the value of:

a u when v = 48, a = 5, t = 9 b u when v = 17, a = 1 1--2- , t = 6
c t when v = 27, u = 12, a = 5 d t when v = 4, u = 18, a = −2
e a when v = 60, u = 16, t = 4 f a when v = 14, u = 30, t = 8
6 If P = 2L + 2B, find the value of:

a L when P = 22, B = 3 b L when P = 31, B = 2.5
c B when P = 25, L = 8 d B when P = 49, L = 18
7 If V = Q2L and Q > 0, find the value of:

a L when V = 50, Q = 5 b L when V = 45, Q = 3
c Q when V = 192, L = 3 d Q when V = 150, L = 1.5
8 If c2 = a2 + b2, and a > 0, b > 0, find the value of:

a a when c = 5, b = 3 b a when c = 17, b = 15
c b when c = 41, a = 40 d b when c = 2.5, a = 2
bh
9 If A = ------ , find the value of:
2
a b when A = 12, h = 8 b b when A = 30, h = 6
c h when A = 22, b = 11 d h when A = 10, b = 8
10 If E = 1--2- mv2 and v > 0, find the value of:

a m when E = 45, v = 3 b m when E = 40, v = 4
c v when E = 144, m = 2 d v when E = 150, m = 12
h
11 If A = --- ( a + b ) , find the value of:
2
a h when A = 40, a = 3, b = 7 b a when A = 84, h = 12, b = 9
c b when A = 72, h = 8, a = 7
12 If T = a + (n − 1)d, find the value of:

a a when T = 31, n = 5, d = 7 b d when T = 69, a = 9, n = 6
c n when T = 47, a = 5, d = 6
13 a If v2 = u2 + 2as, find the value of s when v = 5, u = 9, a = -4.

5K
b If M = ------- , find the value of K when M = 15.
18
a(rn – 1)
c If S = ---------------------- , find the value of a when S = 56, r = 3, n = 2.
r–1
d If R3 = T2, find the value of T when R = 4.
a–b
e If m = ------------ , find the value of a when m = 2, b = 4, c = 7, d = 3.
c–d
14 a If T = arn − 1, find the value of n when T = 32, a = 2 and r = 2.
b If C = 5--9- (F − 32), find the value of F when C = 35.
a
c If S = ----------- , find the value of r when S = 28 and a = 21.
1–r
1 1 1
d If --- = --- + --- , find the value of v when f = 6 and u = 8.
f u v
318 Mathscape 8
8.11 Inequations
An inequation is a number sentence
Inequality sign Meaning
which states that two quantities are not
equal. It is similar to an equation, except < less than
that it contains an inequality sign rather > greater than
than an equals sign. The most commonly
≤ less than or equal to
used inequality signs are shown in the
table to the right. ≥ greater than or equal to
Although the equations in this topic have only one solution, an inequation may have many
solutions. It may even have an infinite number of solutions.
For example, if x + 1 = 4, then the only solution is x = 3. However, if x + 1 > 4, then x can be
any number greater than 3. That is, the solution to the inequation would be x > 3. The solutions
do not have to be integers, they may also include values that are either fractions or decimals.
Some possible solutions for this inequation are x = 4, x = 5, x = 6, x = 100, x = 4.1 and x = 7 1--2- .
The integer solution set for x > 3 would be {4, 5, 6, . . .}, while the integer solution set for
x ≥ 3 would be {3, 4, 5, . . .}.
■ Graphing solutions on the number line

The solution to an inequation can be graphed on the number line. This allows us to see and
understand the solution very quickly.
To graph the solution to an inequation on a number line:

place the number that occurs in the solution in the centre of the number line
segment
draw a closed dot ● on this number if the inequality sign is ≤ or ≥
draw an open dot ● on this number line if the inequality sign is < or >
from the dot, draw an arrow along the number line in the direction indicated by
the inequality sign.
Note: The closed dot means that the number is one of the solutions. The open dot means that
the number is not one of the solutions.
■ Solving inequations
Inequations are solved in the same way as equations by performing inverse operations to both
sides. The pronumeral should always be written on the left-hand side in the solution. By doing
this, we can avoid any confusion about the direction of the arrow if the solution is to be graphed
on a number line. Why?
Example 1
EG Graph each of these inequalities on a number line.
+S a x≥2 b x≤7 c x > 11 d x < -3
Solutions
a b
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
c d
9 10 11 12 13 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
Example 2
EG Solve these inequations.
+S a
a y−5>8 b 6+h≥2 c 3n ≤ 18 d --- < 7
2
Solutions
a
a y−5>8 b 6+h≥2 c 3n ≤ 18 d --- < 7
2
+5 +5 −6 −6 ÷3 ÷3 ×2 ×2
∴ y > 13 ∴ h ≥ -4 ∴n≤6 ∴ a < 14
Example 3
EG p
a 5c + 4 < 19 b --- − 1 ≤ 4 c 2(2z + 5) ≥ 22
+S 7
Solutions
p
a 5c + 4 < 19 b --- − 1 ≤ 4 c 2(2z + 5) ≥ 22
7
−4 −4 +1 +1 4z + 10 ≥ 22
p
5c < 15 --- ≤ 5 − 10 − 10
7
÷5 ÷5 ×7 ×7 4z ≥ 12
∴c <3 ∴ p ≤ 35 ÷4 ÷4
∴z ≥3
Exercise 8.11
1 Write down the integer solution set for each inequality.

a x≥7 b x≤3 c x>2 d x<6 e x≤0 f x > -8
2 Write down the inequality that has been graphed on each number line. Use x as the
pronumeral.
a b
2 3 4 5 6 5 6 7 8 9
c d
0 1 2 3 4 -2 -1 0 1 2
e f
9 10 11 12 13 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4
320 Mathscape 8
3 Graph each of these inequalities on a number line.

a x>1 b x≤5 c x≥9 d x<8 e x ≤ -2 f x > -7
4 State whether each of the following values is a solution to the inequality a < 5.
a a=4 b a=6 c a=0 d a = -2 e a = -99 f a=5
5 State whether each of the following values is a solution to the inequality n + 2 ≥ 8.

a n=7 b n=5 c n=6 d n = -8 e n = 6.1 f n = 5 1--2-
6 Solve each of these inequalities.

a y+3>4 b k+2<9 c p + 4 ≤ 11 d m+1≥5
e q−2<1 f b−6≥7 g t−5>9 h c−7≤7
i 2e > 6 j 3w ≤ 15 k 5d ≥ 30 l 4u < 44
a r p z
m --- ≤ 4 n --- > 9 o --- < 3 p --- ≥ 6
3 2 7 6
■ Consolidation
7 Solve the following inequalities.
a x+5<2 b c − 1 ≥ -6 c v + 7 ≤ -2 d g − 4 > -2
e h − 3 ≤ -8 f 9+k>1 g b − 12 < -5 h 13 + y ≥ -4
8 Solve:
a 2x + 5 > 11 b 4n + 3 ≤ 23 c 3b − 2 < 10 d 5s − 8 ≥ 7
e 3f + 1 > 28 f 6c − 5 ≥ 37 g 9r + 4 ≤ 22 h 4a − 11 < 13
i 7h − 2 ≤ 68 j 3 + 8m > 51 k 6 + 10j < 46 l 12z − 7 ≥ 29
9 Solve:
n e j s
a --- − 1 ≥ 2 b --- + 5 < 9 c --- − 7 ≤ 1 d --- + 6 > 17
4 2 5 3
w t a c
e 2 + ---- ≤ 7 f --- − 3 > 4 g ------ − 4 ≥ 5 h 11 + --- < 11
6 7 10 4
10 Solve each of these inequalities by first expanding the expressions in grouping symbols.
a 2(p + 4) > 10 b 3(k − 3) ≤ 12 c 5(y + 1) ≥ 15 d 8(b − 6) < 32
e 4(7 + c) < 44 f 6(m − 2) ≥ 30 g 7(s − 1) > 21 h 11(9 + u) ≤ 11
i 3(k + 8) ≥ 9 j 4(z − 5) < -8 k 5(n − 3) ≤ -40 l 12(7 + q) > 24
11 Solve these inequations, giving the solutions as either fractions or mixed numerals in
simplest form.
a b + 1--4- > 1 b p − 1--2- ≥ 1 1--2- c r + 3--5- < 1 2--5-
d t− 2
---
3
> 1
---
4
e z+ 1
---
6
≤ 3
---
8
f 7
- + g < 3 ---
2 -----
10
3
4
g 2x ≥ 6--7- h 3e < 1 7--8- i 5r > 2 2--9-
v k 2n
j --- ≤ 3--8- 5
k --- > -----
- l ------ ≥ 6
2 4 12 3
What is a 12-m yacht?
Introduction
The America’s Cup is a famous yacht race in which yachts representing different countries
compete for a trophy. This trophy was first won by America in 1851 from England. America
held the Cup for 132 years (it was held in the New York Yacht Club from 1857) until 1983.
In that year Australia won the Cup. You can find the fascinating history of the race on the web.
This race was last held in Auckland, New Zealand, in February 2003.
For many years the yachts used for this race were ‘12-metre’ yachts. You may think this refers
to the length of the yacht, but it actually refers to satisfying a complex formula that takes into
account length, width, height, and sail area. If a yacht’s measurements did not satisfy the
formula, it was disqualified.
L + 2D – H S
----------------------------------- = 12
2.37
L = length of yacht measured 17.78 cm above the water line
D = width of yacht (measured in a complicated manner)
H = height above the water line
S = sail area
322 Mathscape 8
Focus question
Does the yacht in the diagram meet the ‘12 metre’
specifications of the America’s Cup?
Max. height = 25 m
0.75 mast height
18.75 m max. or
S = 160 m2
Length can vary Length can vary
H = 0.4 m
L = 16 m
D = 8.82 m
1 Using the measurements shown on the diagram, work out the left-hand side of the formula.
You may use a calculator.
2 Answer the focus question.
3 If the width D of the boat was 8.80 m instead of 8.84 m, how could the length L be changed
so that the yacht would still qualify? (Assume that H and S are unchanged.)
1 Apart from meeting the requirements of the formula, what is the maximum height of the
mast for a boat to qualify for the race? Are there any other restrictions? (Check the diagram.)
2 What variables other than L, D, H and S might affect speed and manoeuvrability during
ocean racing?
3 What would you say is the difference (if any) between an equation and a formula?
4 The efficiency of a sail to catch the wind is vital to success in yacht racing. Check out sail
making on the Internet to find out more.
Did you enjoy this activity? What did you like about it? Would you say that testing a formula
is different to solving an equation? Discuss this with your teacher.
%R EFLECTING
Reflect on the use of mathematics to ensure fairness in sporting contests that involve high
technology. Boat design in ocean racing is one. Can you think of others?
B P ROBLEM SOLVING
1 Two females both have slim figures. One female is 2 metres tall, and the other 1 metre
tall. Would the taller female be 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . times heavier than the other?
2 A watermelon has a diameter of 20 cm and costs $3. Another watermelon has a
diameter of 40 cm and costs $6. Which is the better buy? Why?
3 What is the shape of the largest area that you can enclose with 12 matches? Here is
one example.
4 A man has roughly 150 000 hairs on his head. He loses about 300 hairs a month.
How long does the average hair live?
5 At a rectangular table sit 6 people. Call them A, B, C, D, E and F.
How many different ways can they sit around the table?
6 This penny-farthing bicycle has rubber tyres. Which tyre will wear out first? Why?
7 Without using a protractor, find the angles formed by clock hands showing 9 o’clock
and 4 o’clock.
x x
8 If --- = 5 , what is the value of --- – 4 ?
4 5
324 Mathscape 8
9 A ship and a helicopter are both travelling due north toward Adelaide. The ship is
100 km away due south and travelling at a speed of 30 km/h. The helicopter is 150 km
away due south and travelling at a speed of 60 km/h. How far from Adelaide will they
meet?
10 A block of wood is 1 cubic metre. It is cut into very small cubes of 1 cubic millimetre.
If we stacked the cubes above one another, what would be the total height?
1 Explain the difference between an equation noun 1. a mathematical expression in

equation and a formula. which two quantities are said to be equal, such
2 The opposite of a mathematical operation as 12 ÷ 4 = 3. 2. the act of regarding two things
is called its i________. as equal or connected: the equation between
3 Write a definition of an inequation and unemployment and crime
give an example. How is the mathematical use of this term
4 The pronumeral on the left-hand side of a unique?
formula is the s________.
entry for equation:
1 Determine whether the given value of x is b 15e = 8e + 42

CHAPTER R
a solution to the equation. c 36 − 2b = 4b

a 7x = 56, x = 9 b 6 − x = 2, x = 4 d 7a = 63 − 2a
c -4x = 28, x = 7 d -9x = -63, x = 8 e 12y + 8 = 10y + 12
2 Solve each equation. f 8r − 20 = 7 + 5r
a a + 5 = 12 b z − 8 = 17 g 14q − 52 = 8q − 46
m h 11d − 13 = 29d + 23
c 3h = 42 d ---- = 12
3 i 8k + 5 − 2k + k = -9
x
e - --- = 12 f 15b = 36 4 Solve the following equations.
4
g 24t = −20 h -56y = -70 a 3(2m − 1) = 21
i 2p + 4 = 18 j 12t − 6 = 18 b 9(1 − 2h) = 81
c 5(2m + 3) = 11
k 4f + 9 = 37 l 50 + 4t = 66
m d 12(5 − 3k) = 20
m 16 − 2a = 12 n ---- + 4 = 12 e 8t − 5 = 3(2t + 3)
3
m+2
o ------------- = 5
u
p --- – 6 = 9 f 8y − 4 = 5(y + 7)
EVIE
3 4 g 3(2w + 9) = 7(5 + w)
3 Solve each equation. h 8(4s − 9) − 10s = 4
a 6m = 2m + 12 i 3(2x + 3) + 2(x + 2) = 31
CHAPTER REVIEW
5 If v = u + at, find the value of: h The sum of 3 consecutive odd
VIEW
a v when u = -4, a = 10, t = 3.5 numbers is 57. Find the numbers.
b u when v = 60, a = 7, t = 5
11 Form an equation for each of these, then
c a when v = 22, u = 40, t = 2
solve it to find the value of x.
h a
6 If A = --- ( a + b ) , find the value of:
2 3 cm
a A when h = 14, a = 5, b = 17
CHAPTER RE
b h when A = 45, a = 4, b = 6 (2x + 7) cm
c a when A = 104, h = 16, b = 5.5 Perimeter = 40 cm
7 If E = 1--2- mv2, find the value of: b
a E when m = 8, v = 3
(3x – 10) cm
b m when E = 75, v = 2.5
c v when E = 198, m = 11 and v > 0
(x + 9) cm
D Perimeter = 38 cm
8 If S = ---- , find the value of:
T
c
a S when D = 60, T = 12
7 cm
b D when S = 90, T = 6
c T when S = 26, D = 65
(2x – 3) cm
9C Area = 63 cm2
9 If F = 32 + ------- , find the value of:
5 d 12 cm
a F when C = 140
b C when F = 95
(x – 4) cm
10 a 7 less than twice a certain number is
19. Find the number.
b 10 more than one-third of a certain Area = 60 cm2
number is 22. Find the number.
c A number is increased by 13 and then 12 Form an equation using a geometric
divided by 4. The result is 5. Find the property, then solve it to find the value
number. of k.
d Three-quarters of a certain number is a
24. Find the number. (4k – 17)° (k + 16)°
e A number is decreased by 6 then
multiplied by 8. The result is 72. Find
the number. b
f 3 less than 4 times a certain number is 3k°
equal to 21 more than the number.
135° (2k + 15)°
Find the number.
g The sum of 2 consecutive numbers is
97. Find the numbers.
CHAPTER REVIEW
326 Mathscape 8
CHAPTER RE
c 13
42°
(2a – 9)
5 (3a – 10)
k
(––
4
+ 30)°
20
d The shaded area is 245 cm2. Find the
2k° value of a. All lengths are in cm.
14 Solve each inequality and graph the
(k + 8)° 46°
solution on a number line.
a 7 + q < 15 b 3w − 14 > 4
s
c --- + 8 ≥ 11 d 4(c − 9) ≤ -16
5
VIEW
CHAPTER REVIEW
Ratios and
rates
9
Stage 4
convert fractions, decimals and percentages to ratios
use ratios to compare like quantities
Ratios and rates

form equivalent ratios
express a ratio in simplest form
divide a quantity in a given ratio
use the unitary method to solve ratio problems
increase and decrease a quantity in a given ratio
express a rate in simplest form
solve problems that involve rates
calculate the speed, distance or time for a moving object
find the actual distance between two locations by using a scale drawing
find the map distance between two locations by using a scale drawing
find the scale that has been used on a scale drawing.
Stage 5
convert rates from one set of units to another.
327
328 Mathscape 8
9.1 The definition of a ratio

In Mathematics we often wish to compare two or more objects. To do this meaningfully, we
must compare the same properties of each object. For example, we may wish to compare:
• the weights of two students
• the number of males and females who were at a dance.
A ratio is a comparison of two or more like quantities. In writing a ratio, we use positive
integers separated by a colon. Ratios do not contain any units when they are written in simplest
form.
a a
A ratio can be written in the form a : b or as a fraction --- . The fraction --- is also called the value
b b
of the ratio. A ratio has to be stated in a particular order.
For example, if there are 35 males and 41 females at a dance, the ratio of males to females is
35 : 41 not 41 : 35.
A ratio is a comparison of two or more like quantities written in a specific order.
Example 1
EG Write each of these statements as a ratio.
+S
a There are three times as many girls as boys.
b Mary’s age is one-quarter of her mother’s age.
c Bill is two and a half times as tall as his brother.
Solutions
a For every boy there are 3 girls, therefore the ratio of girls to boys is 3 : 1.
b Mary’s mother is four times as old as Mary, so the ratio of Mary’s age to that of her mother
is 1 : 4.
c The heights are in the ratio 2 1--2- : 1, therefore, doubling both terms to make each term an
integer, the ratio is 5 : 2.
Example 2
EG Write each of the following as a ratio in the form a : b
+S
a 1 2--3- b 0.7 c 51%
Solutions
a 1 2--3- = 5--3- b 0.7 = 7
------
10
c 51% = 51
---------
100
= 5:3 = 7 : 10 = 51: 100
Chapter 9: Ratios and rates 329
Exercise 9.1
1 The ratio of girls to boys in the swimming club is 5 : 4.

a What does this mean?
b Do we know how many swimmers are boys?
2 For every two green cars, there were three white cars. What is the ratio of:
a white cars to green cars? b green cars to white cars?
3 The ratio of pens to pencils is 1 : 5. What is the ratio of pencils to pens?
4 Tom is 12 years old, Jane is 17 years old and Mary is 13 years old. Find the ratio of:
a Tom’s age to Mary’s age
b Mary’s age to Jane’s age
c Jane’s age to the sum of Tom’s and Mary’s ages
■ Consolidation
5 A length of ribbon 24 cm long has a 5-cm piece cut off. In what ratio is the length of:
a the piece cut off to the length of the original piece?
b the original piece to the length of the remaining piece?
6 4 cm 5 cm 2 cm
P Q R S
Find the ratios:
a PQ : QR b QR : RS c RS : PR
d QS : PS e PQ : QR : RS f PR : QS : PS
7 Write each of the following as a ratio.

a 1--3- b 4--5- c 4 d 5
---
4
e 2 1--3- f 3 1--2-
g 0.1 h 0.07 i 1.9 j 3% k 49% l 113%
8 Write each of the following ratios as a fraction, integer or mixed numeral.

a 1:5 b 5:9 c 6:1 d 9:4
9 a The ratio of cats to dogs is 4 : 5. What fraction of the animals are:

i dogs? ii cats?
b The ratio of petrol to oil is 25 : 1. What fraction of the mixture is:
i oil? ii petrol?
c The ratio of blue pins to green pins is 5 : 6. What fraction of the coloured pins is:
i green? ii blue?
10 Using the letters of the word NUMBERS, find the ratio of:
a vowels to consonants b letters to vowels c consonants to letters
330 Mathscape 8
11 A pencil case contains 5 green pencils, 4 red pencils and 7 yellow pencils. Find the ratio of:
a green to red b red to yellow
c green to total pencils d red to green to yellow
e green to not green f total pencils to not yellow
12 A group of 100 school students were waiting for a train at the railway station. Of those
students, 20 were from Year 7, 23 were from Year 9, 17 from Year 10 and the rest were
seniors. Write down the ratio of:
a Year 7 students to Year 9 students
b Year 10 students to senior students
c Year 9 students to the total number of Year 10 and senior students
13 A rectangle is 8 cm long and 3 cm wide. Write the ratio of:

a the length to the width b the width to the perimeter
c length to the width to the perimeter
14 What is the ratio of:

a any two adjacent sides in a square?
b the side length of a square to its perimeter?
15 Four answers are given for a multiple choice question, only one of which is correct. Find
the ratio of:
a correct answers to wrong answers b wrong answers to answers given
16 Of every 200 tyres manufactured, it is found that 17 are faulty.

a What fraction of the tyres are faulty?
b Write down the ratio of the number of faulty tyres to the number of tyres manufactured.
17 If 4 out of every 35 eggs are bad, find the ratio of the number of good eggs to the total
number of eggs.
18 In a pen jar there are 7 red pens and 10 blue pens. Two red pens and 3 blue pens do not
write. Find the ratio of:
a red pens to blue pens b blue pens to total number of pens
c faulty red pens to working blue pens d working pens to faulty pens
19 Arrange these ratios in ascending order.
3 : 7, 4 : 9, 2 : 5, 5 : 11
20 Express these percentages as ratios.
a 33 1--3- % b 66 2--3- % c 12 1--2- %
21 A sum of money was shared between Erin, Frances and Glenda in such a way that Erin
5
received -----
17
- of the money and Glenda received twice as much as Frances. In what ratio was
the money divided?
TRY THIS Cartoons

Enlarge this cartoon, using a scale factor of 2 : 1.
Because of the curved lines this may be difficult.
The grid should help you.
9.2 Equivalent ratios

Two ratios are equivalent if they have the same value when written as fractions. We say that
these ratios are in proportion. For example, the ratios 6 : 2 and 9 : 3 are equivalent ratios
because in each ratio, the first number has 3 times the value of the second number. This can be
clearly seen when the ratios are written as fractions.
6 9
6 : 2 = --- and 9 : 3 = ---
2 3
=3 =3
a c
The ratios a : b and c: d are equivalent if --- = --- .
b d
Equivalent ratios are formed when all of the terms in a ratio are multiplied or divided by the
same number. For example, multiplying each term in the ratio 2 : 3 by 5 produces the equivalent
ratio 10 : 15. Both ratios have a value of 2--3- when written as fractions.
If each term in the ratio a : b is multiplied by a constant k, then the ratios a : b and
ak : bk are equivalent.
Example 1
EG Find the value of the pronumeral in these equivalent ratios:
+S
a 8 : 9 = 24 : m b p : 20 = 3 : 5
332 Mathscape 8
Solutions
×3 ×4
a 8 : 9 = 24 : m b p : 20 = 3 : 5
×3 ×4
∴m=9×3 ∴p=3×4
= 27 = 12
Example 2 Example 3
EG Find as a decimal the value of t, EG The ratio of elephants to giraffes is 5 : 7.
+S t 3
+S If there are 28 giraffes, how many
if --- = --- . elephants are there?
7 5
Solution Solution
t 3 Let the number of elephants be e.
--- = --- ×4
7 5
×7 ×7 e : 28 = 5 : 7
21 ×4
∴ t = ------
5 ∴e=5×4
= 4.2
= 20
∴ there are 20 elephants
Exercise 9.2
1 Complete each of these equivalent ratios.

a 1:4 = 2: b 3:1 = :4 c 3 : 4 = : 20 d 2:7 = 4:
e :6 = 7:2 f 60 : = 10 : 3 g : 21 = 6 : 7 h 54 : = 9 : 11
i 12 : 5 = : 20 j : 48 = 5 : 6 k 40 : = 10 : 3 l 3 : 8 = 21:
2 Find the values of the pronumerals.
a 2 : 5 = x: 10 b a : 30 = 6 : 5 c 21 :e = 3 : 4 d 40 : 1 = 80 : p
e 36 : y = 3 : 4 f b : 26 = 3 : 2 g 3 : 11 = t : 44 h 35 : 12 = y : 24
i 9 : 11 = w : 44 j 5 : 8 = 40 : k k 49 : d = 7 : 8 l f:8 = 9:2
3 Find the value of each pronumeral as a decimal.
x 3 9 k 2 a p 5
a --- = --- b ------ = --- c --- = --- d --- = ---
3 2 10 3 5 8 3 4
■ Consolidation
4 The ratio of:
a prefects to senior students is 3 : 70. If there are 140 senior students, how many prefects
are there?
b pens to pencils is 3 : 11. If there are 55 pencils, how many pens are there?
c tyres to cars is 4 : 1. If there are 28 tyres, how many cars are there?
d windows to doors is 11 : 3. If there are 12 doors, how many windows are there?
5 The teacher places 6 puzzles around the room for his students to work on. He places a
puzzle on every fourth desk. How many desks are there in the room?
6 For every 7 rose bushes in a garden, there are 5 oleander shrubs. If there are 21 rose bushes,
how many oleander shrubs are there?
7 The ratio of the retail price to the wholesale price of a dishwasher is 8 : 5. If the wholesale
price is $450, find the retail price.
8 In a pet shop the ratio of birds to all other pets is 3 : 7. If there are 5 guinea pigs, 3 kittens,
2 pups, and 4 white mice, how many birds are there?
9 The ratio of length to width of a rectangle is 3 : 2. If the length of the rectangle is 18 cm,
find the perimeter.
10 The ratio of program time to commercial time on TV is 11 : 2. If there is 132 minutes of

program time, how many minutes are there of commercials?
11 Two numbers are in the ratio 5 : 9. If the larger number is 63, find the difference between
the numbers.
12 a The ratio of chickens to geese on a farm is 3 : 4, while the ratio of geese to ducks is 2 : 5.
What is the ratio of chickens to ducks?
b The ratio of lead to zinc in a mine is 5 :11, while the ratio of zinc to silver is 3 : 7. What
is the ratio of lead to silver?
c The ratio of students studying French to those studying Italian is 7: 4. The ratio students
studying Italian to those studying German is 6 :1. What is the ratio of students studying
French to those studying German?
13 a For every 6 blondes in a crowd there are 5 brunettes, and for every 3 brunettes there is
1 redhead. If there are 30 redheads, how many blondes are there?
b For every 5 tigers on a plain there are 12 deer, and for every 10 deer there are 3 lions.
If there are 100 tigers, how many lions are there?
TRY THIS Scale factors and areas

1 Draw a triangle ABC . A
2 Using a scale factor of 2 in the horizontal direction
and a scale factor of 3 in the vertical direction,
draw another triangle A′B ′C′. B C
3 Compare the areas of the two shapes. What can you
conclude?
4 Try some other shapes, then make some conclusions.
334 Mathscape 8
9.3 Simplifying ratios

In the previous exercise we formed equivalent ratios by multiplying each term in a ratio by a
number. Equivalent ratios can also be formed by dividing each term by a number. For example,
dividing each term in the ratio 12 : 4 by 2 produces the equivalent ratio 6 : 2. However, dividing
each term in the ratio 12 : 4 by their highest common factor (i.e. 4), produces not only the
equivalent ratio 3 : 1, but the simplest form of the ratio.
To simplify a ratio:
express each term in the same units
divide all terms by their highest common factor (HCF).
To simplify a ratio that contains fractions or decimals:

express any decimals as fractions
multiply each term by the lowest common denominator
simplify where possible.
Example 1
EG Simplify:
+S
a 15 : 5 b 28 : 21 c 12 : 8 : 16
Solutions
a 15 : 5 b 28 : 21 c 12 : 8 : 16
÷5 ÷5 ÷7 ÷7 ÷4 ÷4 ÷4
=3 : 1 =4 : 3 =3 : 2 : 4
Example 2
EG Simplify the following ratios.
+S
a 2 cm : 6 mm b $4 : $3.50
Solutions
a 2 cm : 6 mm b $4 : $3.50
= 20 mm : 6 mm = 400c : 350c
= 20 : 6 = 400 : 350
÷2 ÷2 ÷ 50 ÷ 50
= 10 : 3 = 8:7
Example 3
EG Simplify:
+S 9 5 7 3
a ------
13
: -----
13
- b 1 : -----
10
- c ---
4
: 5--6- d 1 3--4- : 2
Solutions
9 5 7 3
a ------ : ------
13 13
b 1 : -----
10
- c ---
4
: 5--6- d 1 3--4- : 2
× 13 × 13 × 10 × 10 × 12 × 12 ×4 ×4
= 9:5 = 10 : 7 = 9 : 10 = 7:8
Example 4
EG Simplify 0.6 : 0.24
+S
Solution
0.6 : 0.24 = 6
------
10
24
: --------
100
-
× 100 × 100
= 60 : 24
÷ 12 ÷ 12
= 5:2
Exercise 9.3
1 Simplify these ratios.

a 3:9 b 10 : 2 c 20 : 5 d 21 : 7
e 6:9 f 12 : 8 g 15 : 9 h 10 : 18
i 20 : 50 j 40 : 25 k 21 : 14 l 18 : 24
m 49 : 21 n 33 : 15 o 35 : 5 p 26 : 39
q 36 : 27 r 44 : 36 s 30 : 42 t 70 : 63
u 55 : 99 v 24 : 80 w 72 : 56 x 132 : 144
2 Use the fraction key on your calculator to simplify each of these ratios.
a 208 : 234 b 88 : 128 c 224 : 140 d 174 : 126
e 140 : 360 f 190 : 150 g 39 : 143 h 680 : 480
3 Simplify:
a 8 : 6 : 12 b 20 : 35 : 55 c 42 : 21 : 56 d 36 : 60 : 48
336 Mathscape 8
■ Consolidation
4 Express each term of these ratios in the same units, then simplify.
a 1 cm : 6 mm b 20 min : 1 h c 1 L : 800 mL
d 50c : $2 e 1.5 km : 600 m f 150 cm : 4 m
g 80c : $1.80 h 3 1--2- min : 50 s i 2.2 kg : 1600 g
1
j --2- h : 1 h 20 min k 4 weeks : 8 days l 3 years : 20 months
m 35 h : 2 1--2- days n 3.2 km : 2400 m o 4200 mL : 5 L
3
p 1.5 days : 36 h q 1 --4- min : 25 s r 1.5 ha : 9000 m2
5 The cost price of an article is $1.75 and its selling price is $4.20. Calculate the ratio of:
a the cost price to the selling price b the profit to the cost price
6 A soccer team won 14 of its 20 games and lost the others. Find the ratio of wins to losses.
7 Bill is 20 years old and his father is 30 years older. Bill’s grandmother is 95. In what ratio
are their ages, from youngest to oldest?
8 A square has sides of 12 cm and a rectangle has a length of 6 cm and a width of 4 cm. Find
the ratio of their areas.
9 A game show on TV has 120 000 viewers while its competitor has 95 000 viewers. Express
this as a ratio in simplest form.
10 Brian earns $40 per hour for a 25-hour week. His employer, Lee, receives $68 000 per year.
Find the ratio of their annual incomes, in simplest form.
11 Two farms, Allfarm and Bestplace, in western NSW run 2240 and 3600 head of cattle,
respectively. Allfarm sells the cattle at $25 each and Bestplace receives $18 for each of its
cattle. Calculate the ratio of income received by Allfarm to income received by Bestplace.
12 In PQR, ∠P = 40° and ∠R = 60°. Find the ratio of ∠P to ∠Q to ∠R, in simplest form.
a 3--5- : 4--5- b 9
------
17
: 15
------
17
c 1 : 1--3- d 3
---
8
:1
e 5 : 1--3- f 3
---
4
:5 g 3
---
5
:7 h 4 : 8--9-
1
i ---
5
: 1--4- j 3
---
5 15
4
: -----
- k 3
---
7
: 4--5- l 3
---
8
: 2--3-
10
m ------
12
: 4--5- n 4 1--2- : 5 o 3 2--5- : 1 4--5- p 1 3--8- : 2 3--4-

a 0.5 : 0.7 b 0.08 : 0.12 c 0.45 : 0.35 d 0.7 : 2.8
e 2.5 : 4 f 0.6 : 0.05 g 0.32 : 0.8 h 1.5 : 1.25
9.4 Dividing a quantity in a

given ratio
Suppose two friends Anita and Troy want to divide $27 between them in the ratio 5 : 4. That is,
the money is to be divided into 5 parts and 4 parts, respectively, making 9 parts altogether.
Anita receives 5 parts out of the 9, or 5--9- of the money. So her share is 5--9- × $27 = $15.
Troy receives 4 parts out of 9, or 4--9- of the money. So his share is 4--9- × $27 = $12.
The two shares, $15 and $12, must add up to the original $27.
To divide a quantity Q in the ratio a : b

find the fractions into which the quantity is to be divided
multiply each fraction by the quantity Q.
When a quantity Q is divided in the ratio a : b, the resulting amounts are:

a b
------------- × Q and ------------ × Q
a+b a+b
Example 1
EG Maryanne and Mitch divide their flower run earnings of $110 in the ratio 7 : 4. Find how much
+S each person receives.
Solution
The earnings are to be divided into 7 parts and 4 parts, making 11 parts in total. Maryanne
7
receives 7 parts out of the total or -----
11
- of the money and Mitch receives 4 parts out of the total
4
or -----
11
- of the money.
Therefore Maryanne’s share = 7

------
11
× $110 Mitch’s share = 4
------
11
× $110
= $70 = $40
Note: The total amount of money = $70 + $40
= $110
Example 2
EG A farmer on a grazing property decides to run both sheep and cattle. If the farmer decides to
+S run 2340 head of livestock altogether and the ratio of cattle to sheep is 5 : 13, find the numbers
of sheep and cattle on the property.
Solution
5 13
The cattle make up ------
18
of the total and the sheep make up the remaining ------ .
18
The number of cattle = 5
------
18
× 2340 The number of sheep = ------ ×
13
18
2340
= 650 = 1690
Note: The total number of livestock = 650 + 1690
= 2340
338 Mathscape 8
Exercise 9.4
1 Divide each quantity in the given ratio.

a $20; 3 : 1 b 24 cm; 1 : 7 c 50 L; 2 : 3 d 32 kg; 3 : 5
e 48 min; 5 : 1 f 35 t; 3 : 4 g 80 g; 3 : 7 h 88 min; 7 : 4
i 84 cm; 7 : 5 j 26 days; 5 : 8 k 125 mg; 7 : 18 l 280 s; 9 : 5
2 a Divide $27 in the ratio 7 : 8. b Divide $58 in the ratio 5 : 7.
3 a Divide $1300 in the ratio 2 : 3 : 8. b Divide 51 g in the ratio 5 : 9 : 3.
■ Consolidation
4 Convert each quantity into the next smallest unit, then divide it in the given ratio.
a 4.8 t; 3 : 5 b 4.5 g; 8 : 7 c $1.20; 5 : 1
d 4.5 min; 5 : 4 e 1 3--4- km; 9 : 16 f 1 1--4- ha; 11 : 14
g 5.2 kg; 3 : 7 h 3 h; 4 : 11 i 5 m; 7 : 13
5 Louise and Monique scored goals in their netball game in the ratio 2 : 3. If between them
they scored 15 goals, find the number of goals that each girl scored.
6 A certain metal alloy is made up of tin and zinc in the ratio 3 : 5. What mass of each metal
is needed to make 92 kg of this alloy?
7 At a dance where 72 people attended, the ratio of men to women was 4 : 5. Find the number
of men at the dance.
8 A house has an area of 310 square metres. If the ratio of living areas to bedrooms is 3 : 1,
find the amount of space devoted to the living areas.
9 Sam and Lily share a milk run. Sam delivers on three mornings and Lily on two mornings.
They earn $67 in total and share this in the ratio of mornings worked. How much does each
person receive?
10 A fertiliser mix contains 2 parts of potash, 2 parts of nitrogen and 3 parts of phosphate. How
many kilograms of phosphate are there in a 112 kg bag of fertiliser?
11 Bob and Ray wrote 96 invitations for their school reunion and divided the job in the ratio
5 : 7. How many invitations did each man write?
12 Two supplementary angles are in the ratio 23 : 13. Find the sizes of the angles.
13 The angles in a triangle are in the ratio 3 : 5 : 1. Find the sizes of the angles.
14 The perimeter of a triangle is 54 cm and the side lengths are in the ratio 4 : 3 : 2. Find the
length of the longest side.
15 A piece of timber 200 mm in length was cut in two so that the longer piece was 120 mm in
length. What is the ratio of the length of the longer piece to the length of the shorter piece?
16 Three friends Fran, Colin and Stefan decided to share the driving on a trip of 680 km.
If Fran drove for 160 km and Colin drove for 280 km, find:
a the distance that Stefan drove
b in simplest form, the ratio in which the driving was divided
17 At a party, 60 bottles of Cool Cola and Lemon Fizz were supplied for refreshment. The ratio
of bottles of Cool Cola to Lemon Fizz was 7 : 8. If 8 bottles of Cool Cola and 2 bottles of
Lemon Fizz were broken, what is the ratio of the remaining number of bottles of Cool Cola
to Lemon Fizz?
18 The length and width of a rectangle are in the ratio 12 : 5 and the perimeter is 170 cm. Find:
a the lengths of the sides b the length of the diagonals
19 Yvette, Ken and Sam contribute $4000, $5500 and $6500, respectively, towards setting up
a small business. After 1 year, they decide to share the annual profit of $48 000 in the same
ratio as their investment. How much should each person receive?
20 $z is shared between Simon and his sister Alyssa in the ratio x : y, where x > y. Find how
much each person receives.
9.5 Miscellaneous problems

■ Increasing and decreasing in a ratio
The fraction equivalent of a ratio can be used to increase or decrease a quantity.
To increase or decrease a quantity Q in the ratio a : b, multiply the quantity by the

value of the ratio.
When a quantity Q is increased or decreased in the ratio a : b, the new value is:
a
--- × Q .
b
a
Note: The quantity will increase if it is multiplied by --- , where a > b, and decrease if it is
b
a
multiplied by --- , where a < b.
b
■ The unitary method

The unitary method can be used to solve a wide variety of ratio problems.
To solve a problem using the unitary method:

find the value of 1 part
use this answer to find the value of the required number of parts.
340 Mathscape 8
Example 1
EG a Increase 14 cm in the ratio 3 : 2. b Decrease 16 kg in the ratio 5 : 8.
+S
Solutions
a 3
---
2
× 14 cm = 21 cm b 5
---
8
× 16 kg = 10 kg
Example 2
EG The ratio of width to length in a rectangle is 3 : 5. If the length is 75 cm, find the width.
+S
Solution
Now, 3 : 5 = x : 75, where x represents the width of the rectangle.
Using the unitary method, 5 parts represents 75
÷5 ÷5
1 part represents 15
×3 ×3
3 parts represents 45
∴ the width of the rectangle is 45 cm
Example 3
EG Dee, Ahn and Christian share a bag of toffees in the ratio 5 : 2 : 4. If Dee receives 9 more
+S toffees than Ahn, find the number of toffees that each person receives.
Solution
Dee receives 5 parts of the toffees and Ahn receives 2 parts. So Dee receives 3 parts more than
Ahn. However, we also know that Dee receives 9 more toffees than Ahn. Therefore, 3 parts
must represent 9 toffees.
Using the unitary method, 3 parts represents 9
÷3 ÷3
1 part represents 3
Dee’s share = 5 parts Ahn’s share = 2 parts Christian’s share = 4 parts
=5×3 =2×3 =4×3
= 15 toffees = 6 toffees = 12 toffees
Exercise 9.5
1 Increase:
a 8 in the ratio 3 : 2 b 10 in the ratio 8 : 5 c 12 in the ratio 5 : 3
d 24 in the ratio 7 : 6 e 27 in the ratio 11 : 9 f 28 in the ratio 9 : 4
2 Decrease:
a 15 in the ratio 2 : 3 b 16 in the ratio 3 : 4 c 12 in the ratio 5 : 6
d 30 in the ratio 3 : 5 e 35 in the ratio 4 : 7 f 72 in the ratio 7 : 12
3 Increase $40 in the ratio 9 : 8, then decrease the result in the ratio 4 : 5.
■ Consolidation
4 a In a local school, the ratio of teachers who can use a computer scanner to those who
cannot is 4 : 5. If 28 teachers know how to use a scanner, find the number of teachers
who do not know how to use one.
b The areas of a square and a rectangle are in the ratio 6 : 7. If the area of the rectangle is
35 cm2, find the area of the square.
c The win to loss ratio for a sporting team over a 10 year period is 7 : 5. If the team won
105 games during that time, how many games did they lose?
d The ratio of words spelt correctly to those spelt incorrectly on a Year 8 spelling quiz
was 21 : 4. If altogether the students made 52 spelling mistakes, find the number of
words that they spelt correctly.
e At a certain motor registry, the ratio of people who pass their first driving test to those
who fail is 3 : 7. If 51 people passed their first driving test last month, how many people
failed?
f The ratio of water to cordial in a certain fruit drink is 10 : 3. How much cordial should
be added to 1.5 L of water?
5 The sides of a triangle are in the ratio 3 : 4 : 5.
a Find the length of the shortest side if the longest side is 25 cm.
b Find the perimeter of the triangle.
6 Last week, Bert the butcher sold lamb, chicken, beef and veal by weight in the ratio
3 : 4 : 8 : 2. If he sold 130 kg of beef, find how much meat was sold altogether for the week.
7 a Sophie, Rhiannon and Jessica shared a bag of lollies in the ratio 4 : 5 : 2. If Rhiannon
had 9 more lollies than Jessica, find the number of lollies that each girl had.
b The ratio of men, women and children in a circus audience is 2 : 3 : 7. If there were 60
more children than women, find the number of men, women and children in the
audience.
c The ratio of farmland devoted to wheat, corn and cotton on a property is 9 : 4 : 6. If 45
more hectares is devoted to wheat than to corn, find the area of land that is covered by
each crop.
d The number of students who chose History, Geography or Design and Technology as
their first elective preference in Year 9 is in the ratio 6 : 3 : 7. If 32 more students chose
Design and Technology than Geography, find the number of students who chose each
subject as their first preference.
e Three angles are in the ratio 8 : 1 : 5. If the largest angle measures 49° more than the
smallest angle, find the sizes of the angles.
f In a fruit juice mixture, the amount of orange juice, apple juice and pineapple juice is
in the ratio 9 : 4 : 7. If there is 150 mL more orange juice than pineapple juice, find the
volume of each juice in the mixture.
342 Mathscape 8
8 a The ratio of apples to bananas is 2 : 3 and the ratio of bananas to plums is 9 : 5. If there
are 15 plums, find the number of apples.
b The ratio of cars to motor bikes in a car park is 8 : 3 and the ratio of motor bikes to vans
is 5 : 2. If there are 120 cars, find the total number of vehicles in the car park.
9 The width and diagonal length of a rectangle are in the ratio 5 : 13. If the diagonal has a
length of 78 mm, find the perimeter of the rectangle.
TRY THIS Biscuits

Recipes show the correct quantities needed to make certain foods. If more food is
required, the ingredients are increased in the same proportions.
Here is a recipe for Peanut Crispies (36 biscuits).
2 tablespoons golden syrup
60 g butter
1
---- cup brown sugar
3
125 g roasted peanuts
1
---- cup plain flour
2
2 teaspoons cinnamon
In what ratio must you increase the quantities in order to make 54 biscuits?
Calculate the necessary quantities in grams.
For your new quantities, convert all the measures to grams using the conversions
1 cup = 140 g, 1 tablespoon= 20 g, 1 teaspoon= 5 g.
9.6 Rates
A rate is a comparison of two unlike quantities. In particular, it is a measure of how one
quantity is changing with respect to another. Many rates, such as speed, indicate a change in a
quantity with respect to time. Unlike ratios, rates have units. To be in simplest form, a rate must
be expressed as a quantity per 1 unit of another quantity. For example, a rate of 80 km/h is in
simplest form because it represents a change in distance of 80 km for every 1 hour of time.
Example 1
EG Express each of these rates in simplest form.
+S a $120 in 4 h b 200 m in 25 s
Solutions
a $120 in 4 h b 200 m in 25 s
÷4 ÷4 ÷ 25 ÷ 25
= $30 in 1 h = 8 m in 1 s
= $30/h = 8 m/s
Example 2
EG Convert:
+S a 3.7 L/min to mL/min b 1.5 km/min to km/h c 0.12 km/h to m/min
Solutions
a 3.7 L in 1 min b 1.5 km in 1 min c 0.12 km in 1 h
= 3700 mL in 1 min × 60 × 60 = 120 m in 1 h
= 3700 mL/min = 90 km in 60 mins ÷ 60 ÷ 60
= 90 km in 1 h = 2 m in 1 min
= 90 km/h = 2 m/min
Exercise 9.6
1 Express each of these rates in simplest form.

a $15 in 3 h b 40 runs from 10 overs
c 24 m in 4 s d 12 degrees in 3 min
e 30 students for 5 computers f 60 g for 12 cm3
g $560 for 7 days h 16 people in 4 taxis
i 500 cattle on 4 ha j 45 km in 3 h
k 420 km on 60 L l 35 kg over 5 m2
m 200 garments in 8 days n $270 in 3 months
o 54 t in 6 h p 30 mL in 4 min
q 22 L in 5 s r 63 m on 60 mL
s 2.75 kL in 11 weeks t $8.80 for 5 1--2- min
u $35 for 0.5 ha
■ Consolidation
2 Convert:
a 3 m/s to m/min b 5 mL/min to mL/h c $2/s to $/h
d 4.5 kg/h to kg/day e $1.20/g to $/kg f 70 km/h to km/day
g 8 L/min to L/h h $7/kg to $/t i 0.06 kg/m2 to kg/ha
3 Convert:
a 2 cm/s to mm/s b $3/g to cents/g c 4.2 L/min to mL/min
d 9.25 t/day to kg/day e 2500 m/s to km/s f 750 mL/m2 to L/m2
g 14 cm/s to m/s h 45c/min to $/min i 1700 L/h to kL/h
4 Complete each of the following equivalent rates.
a 250 m/min = . . . km/h b 8 mm/s = . . . cm/min
c 50 kg/h = . . . t/day d 60 mL/s = . . . L/min
e 4c/g = $ . . . /kg f 45 g/m2 = . . . kg/ha
g 10 m/s = . . . km/h h 200 g/s = . . . t/h
i 0.05 g/mL = . . . kg/kL j 25 mL/min = . . . L/day
k 19 L/m2 = . . . kL/ha l 35 mm/s = . . . km/h
344 Mathscape 8
5 Complete each of these equivalent rates.

a 3 L/h = . . . mL/min b 0.15 km/min = . . . m/s
c 9.6 t/day = . . . kg/h d 8.4 km/L = . . . m/mL
e 6.1 L/ha = . . . mL/m2 f 18 m/h = . . . mm/s
g 2.4 kL/min = . . . L/s h 0.98 m/week = . . . mm/day
TRY THIS Heart rates

1 Guess your heart rate in beats per minute.
2 Using your watch, find your actual heart rate.
3 Go for a 2-minute run, and again find your pulse in beats per minute. How long
does it take for your pulse to return to normal?
9.7 Solving problems that

involve rates
Example 1
EG a The entry price to an amusement park is $7.50 per child. Find the total entry cost for a
+S group of 90 children.
b A farmer used 145 kg of superphosphate to cover an area of 5 ha. How many kilograms
were used per hectare?
Solutions
a The entry cost for 1 child = $7.50 b 145 kg covers an area of 5 ha
∴ the entry cost for 90 children ÷5 ÷5
= 90 × $7.50 ∴ 29 kg covers an area of 1 ha
= $675
Example 2 Solution
EG A car can travel 138 km on 15 L of petrol. Using the unitary method,
+S How far can it travel on 35 L? 138 km on 15 L
÷ 15 ÷ 15
= 9.2 km on 1 L
× 35 × 35
= 322 km on 35 L
∴ The car can travel 322 km on 35 L of petrol.
Exercise 9.7
1 a A secretary can type 50 words per minute. How long will it take her to type 150 words?
b Each relay team at a school carnival has 4 swimmers. How many swimmers will there
be in 7 relay teams?
c The adult price of a cinema ticket is $12. How much will 150 tickets cost?
d If petrol costs $0.92 per litre, how much will it cost to fill the tank in a car if the tank
holds 40 L?
e An iron mine is able to produce 1500 t of iron ore per hour. How many tonnes of ore
will be produced in 5 days, if the mine operates for 8 hours per day?
f A 5-L tin of paint will cover an area of 14 m2. What area will be covered by 30 L of this
paint?
g Human hair grows at the rate of about 15 cm per year. By how much would a person’s
hair grow in 6 years at this rate if it was not cut?
h A machine labels soup cans at the rate of 200 cans per minute. How many cans will be
labelled in 1 1--2- hours.
i At the peak of adolescence, girls grow at an average rate of 8.4 cm per year. By how
much would a girl grow in 3 years, at this rate?
j When at rest, a person takes 15 breaths per minute. How many breaths would be taken
in 1--2- hour?
■ Consolidation
2 a A mechanic’s gross weekly pay is $640 for a 40-hour week. How much is he paid per
hour?
b A farmer used 175 kg of fertiliser to cover an area of 7 ha. How many kilograms were
used per hectare?
c A woman climbed the 86 floors of the Empire State Building in New York in
11 minutes 28 seconds. How many seconds did she take, on average, to climb each
floor?
d Hugh blinks his eyes 36 times in 4 1--2- minutes. How many times does he blink each
minute?
e A cricket side scored 225 runs in 50 overs in a limited overs cricket match. How many
runs were scored per over, on average?
f Betty listens to the radio for 49 hours each fortnight. For how long, on average, does
she listen to the radio each day?
g Oil is leaking out through a valve in a tank at the constant rate of 13.2 L/h. How many
mL of oil are leaking out each minute?
h Lumberjacks can cut down 390 trees in a 5-hour working day. How many trees are
being cut down each minute, on average?
i The temperature rose by 6°C in 4 hours. By how many degrees, on average, did the
temperature rise each hour?
j An athlete ran 400 m in 41.2 seconds. Find the average distance run per second. Give
your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
346 Mathscape 8
3 Use the unitary method to answer each of the following problems.

a A car can travel 100 km on 6 L of petrol. How far will it travel on 9 L of petrol?
b If 15 cans of soft drink cost $13.50, find the cost of 11 cans.
c A battery of hens laid 800 eggs in 5 days. At this rate, how many eggs would they lay
in 12 days?
d A retailer sold 42 CDs in 3 hours. How many CDs would be sold in 8 hours, at the same
rate?
e If 350 g of mince costs $5.60, find the cost of 1 1--2- kg of mince.
f A parking inspector booked 15 cars in 6 hours. At this rate, how many cars would he
book in a 10-hour day?
g A team of fruit pickers can pick 460 kg of oranges in 4 hours. What mass of oranges
could they pick in 7 hours?
h Wesley drove 475 km in 5 hours. At the same average speed, how far would he drive
in 9 hours?
4 The petrol consumption of Mike’s car is 8.4 L/100 km. How much petrol would be used on
a trip of:
a 200 km? b 50 km? c 325 km? d 185 km?
5 The petrol consumption of Mia’s car is 9.6 L/100 km. How far could she drive on:
a 38.4 L? b 7.2 L? c 12 L? d 23.52 L?
6 Agnetha drives for 290 km from Yass to Albury. The petrol consumption of her car is
11.3 L/100 km and the price of petrol is 82.3c per litre.
a How much petrol would Agnetha use on this trip?
b Calculate the cost of the petrol for this trip.
7 George can drive 36 km on 3.75 L of petrol. Find the petrol consumption of his car in
L/100 km, correct to 1 decimal place.
8 The currency conversion table below shows the value of $1 Australian in several other
currencies.
Country/Continent Value Currency
United States 0.5173 $US
United Kingdom 0.3681 £UK
Europe 0.5911 Euro
New Zealand 1.264 $NZ
Japan 0.6452 Yen
Use the table above to convert:

a $A5 to $US b $A30 to yen c $A75 to euro d $A220 to $NZ
e 30 yen to $A f 40 euro to $A g $NZ150 to $A h £500 to $A
9 A farmer spreads fertiliser at the rate of 18 kg/ha.

a How much fertiliser will he use to cover an area of 25 000 m2?
b What area of farmland will be covered by 630 kg of fertiliser?
10 Wheat is being poured into a silo at the constant rate of 3.2 t/min.
a How much wheat will have been poured after 1--4- hour?
b How long will it take to pour 200 t of wheat?
11 Use the currency conversion table in Q8 to convert:
a 100 yen to $NZ b $US350 to euro c 420 euro to £UK
12 a It takes 3 men 8 hours to construct a wall. How long would it take 4 men to complete
the same wall?
b A team of 4 workers can plant a rice crop in 9 days. How long would it take 3 workers
to plant the same crop?
c If 6 people can clean graffiti off a wall in 8 hours, how long would it take if only
5 people were employed to do the job?
13 Martin and Graham are painters. Martin is an experienced painter and can paint the interior
of a house in 4 hours. Graham is only an apprentice, and it takes him 12 hours to paint the
same house. How long would it take both men working together to paint the house?
9.8 Speed, distance and time

Speed is defined as the rate of change of distance with respect to time. The following formulae
can be used to calculate the speed, distance or time of a moving object.
distance distance
Speed = ------------------- Distance = speed × time Time = -------------------
time speed
D D
S = ---- D=S×T T = ----
T S
There is an important distinction that needs to be made between average speed and
instantaneous speed. The formulae above are usually associated with average speed, since the
speed of the object may vary at different times throughout its journey. It may start moving
slowly, speed up at times and slow down or even stop at other times. If, however, a speed
camera had been used to measure the speed of the object at a single moment in time, then it
would have measured the instantaneous speed of the object. The instantaneous speed at any
particular moment may therefore differ from the average speed over the entire journey.
The degrees and minutes key on the calculator can be used to simplify the working in some
questions, particularly when the time is given in hours and minutes or minutes and seconds.
348 Mathscape 8
Example 1
EG a Jenny ran 600 metres in 80 seconds. What was her running speed?
+S b A man drove at an average speed of 60 km/h for 7 hours. How far did he drive?
c Shona’s average walking speed is 5 km/h. How long would it take her to walk 20 km?
Solutions
D D
a S = ---- b D=S×T c T = ----
T S
600 20
= --------- = 60 × 7 = ------
80 5
= 7.5 m/s = 420 km =4h
Example 2
EG A plane is flying at an average speed of 540 km/h. How far will it fly in:
+S
a 30 min? b 45 min? c 20 min?
Solutions
A speed of 540 km/h means the plane will fly 540 km in 1 hour.
a 30 min = 1
---
2
h b 45 min = 3
---
4
h
∴ Distance = 1
---
2
× 540 km ∴ Distance = 3
---
4
× 540 km
= 270 km = 405 km
c 20 min = 1
---
3
h
∴ Distance = 1
---
3
× 540 km
= 180 km
Example 3
EG A satellite travels 30 000 km in
+S 5 h 18 min. Calculate in km/h
the speed of the satellite, correct
to the nearest whole km/h.
Solution
Using the degrees and minutes key on the calculator,
D
S = ----
T Calculator steps:
30 000
= ------------------------- 30 000 ÷ 5 DMS 18 DMS =
5 h 18 min
= 5660 km/h (nearest 1 km/h)
Exercise 9.8
Complete the tables in Q1–4 by using the formulae for speed, distance and time.
1 S D T 2 S D T
a 20 km 4h a 10 km/h 3h
b 35 km 5s b 6 m/s 4s
c 12 km 4 min c 15 mm/min 10 min
d 32 m 8 min d 12 cm/s 5s
e 48 mm 6s e 9 mm/min 4 min
3 S D T 4 S D T
a 5 m/s 40 m a 18 km 3h
b 3 km/h 21 km b 20 m/s 100 m
c 10 m/min 50 m c 7 km/min 6 min
d 8 mm/s 72 mm d 80 cm 4s
e 7 cm/s 84 cm e 150 km/h 5h
f 5 mm/s 45 mm
5 a Tamsin ran 28 km in 4 hours. At what speed was she running?

b Nicholai ran at 12 km/h for 2 hours. How far did he run?
c Anh cycled at 10 km/h for 30 km. For how long was she cycling?
d A plane flew for 4 hours at 250 km/h. How far did the plane fly?
e How fast was Ken driving if he travelled 450 km in 5 hours?
f A racing-car driver completed one lap of a 600-m course at an average speed of
50 m/s. What was his lap time?
■ Consolidation
6 A car is travelling at 80 km/h. How far will it travel in:
a 1 h? b 30 min? c 15 min? d 45 min?
7 A train is travelling at 120 km/h. How far will it travel in:

a 1 h? b 30 min? c 20 min? d 40 min?
e 15 min? f 45 min? g 10 min? h 6 min?
8 a Chloe the cat can run at a speed of 12 m/s. How far would she run in 7 1--2- s?
b Alain drove 150 km to visit his mother. How long did the trip take, if his average speed
was 60 km/h?
c Sue walked 15 km in 4 hours. What was her average walking speed?
350 Mathscape 8
9 Katina decided to drive to the Central Coast for a holiday. The odometer readings in
Katina’s car when she left Sydney and when she arrived at the hotel on the coast are shown
below.
80 100 80 100
60 120 60 120
40 140 40 140
20 160 20 160
0 180 0 180
175606 175690
9.00 am 9.55 am
a Find the distance travelled. b What was her average speed?
10 Use the degrees and minutes key on your calculator to answer each of the following.
a Stacey drove 375 km from Goulburn to Albury in 3 h 34 min. Find her average speed,
correct to the nearest km/h.
b Heath flew from Sydney to Canberra by jet in 25 min at an average speed of 720 km/h.
Find the distance between these cities.
c Randall’s car broke down on a deserted road and he had to walk a distance of 14 km to
the nearest town. If his average walking speed was 5.2 km/h, find how long it took to
reach the town, in hours and minutes.
11 Sound travels at approximately 344 m/s and this speed is referred to as Mach 1. Twice the
speed of sound is referred to as Mach 2, and so on. How far, in km, would a jet plane flying
at Mach 2.5 travel in:
a 1 h? b 1 1--2- h? c 2 h 18 min?
12 In navigation, the nautical mile is used as a measure of distance and the knot is used as a
measure of speed, where 1 nautical mile = 1852 metres and 1 knot = 1 nautical mile per hour.
a A cruise ship is sailing at a speed of 50 knots. Find, in kilometres, the distance sailed
by the ship after 4 hours.
b A battleship is sailing at a speed of 40 knots. Find, in kilometres, the distance sailed by
the ship after 6.5 hours.
13 Find, in knots, the speed of a ship that sails:
a 120 km in 1 hour b 300 km in 4 hours c 864 km in 9 hours
14 Light travels at the approximate speed of 300 000 km/s. At its closest point, Mars is
approximately 204.7 million km from the Sun. Find in minutes and seconds the time taken
for light from the Sun to reach Mars.
15 At 11 am, two cars A and B begin driving towards each other along a straight stretch of the
Nullabor Plain. Car A is travelling at 60 km/h while car B is travelling at 80 km/h. Initially
the two cars were 735 km apart.
a At what time will the cars pass each other?
b How much further will car B then have to travel in order to reach the town where car A
began its journey?
16 Eliza leaves home in Newcastle at 9:00 am with a car full of family members and starts
driving to Brisbane to attend her daughter’s wedding. Samuel leaves from the same house
at 9:40 am with the remaining family members and drives towards Brisbane along the same
highway. Eliza drives at an average speed of 75 km/h while Samuel drives at 90 km/h.
At what time will Samuel pass Eliza along the highway?
TRY THIS How far away is lightning?

During a thunderstorm, you will see the lightning flash before you hear the clap of
thunder. Why is this?
The reason is that the lightning travels towards you at the speed of light while the
noise of the thunder travels to you at the speed of sound, which is much slower.
Do this arithmetic! Light travels at 2.997 × 108 metres per second. How many
kilometres per second is this?
The speed of light is so great that over short distances, say 10 kilometres, it is
instantaneous.
However, the speed of sound is a different matter.
It depends on the vibrating particles in the air and is approximately 1224 km per
hour. Convert this to km per second (. . .÷ 60 ÷ 60 = . . .).
Compare this figure with the one you calculated for the speed of light.
9.9 Scale drawing

In order to design a large object such as a building, a tunnel, a ship or a bridge, engineers and
architects need to draw an accurate plan. Clearly it is not possible to draw the plan the same
size as the actual object. In such cases, a scale drawing is used. The drawing is the same shape
as the object that is to be constructed, but much smaller. The actual lengths are all reduced in
the same ratio. The reduction factor between the real object and the drawing is called the scale.
map distance
Scale = --------------------------------------
actual distance
Map scales are usually given in the form 1 : n, where n is the scale factor. A scale of 1 : 100 000
means that a distance of 1 cm on a map represents an actual distance of 100 000 cm, or 1 km
in real life. This scale may also be given simply as 1 cm to 1 km.
352 Mathscape 8
To find the actual distance between two points:

multiply the map distance by the scale factor.
To find the map distance between two points:
divide the actual distance by the scale factor.
To find the scale on a map:
divide the map distance by the actual distance
give the scale in the form 1 : n.
■ House plans 10 680

House plans are a type of scale
drawing. Architects use scale drawings
to produce accurate plans for a house. BED 1 L/DRY KITCHEN DINING
Builders need to be able to read and Robe 3340 x 3780 2710 x 2740 2510 x 2810
interpret these plans when building

the house. All dimensions on house
plans are usually given in millimetres.
Br
LIVING
6140 x 3810
The internal dimensions of the rooms BATH Lin
are measured between the inside walls.
They do not include the walls. The first WC
measurement is the length of the room
and the second measurement is the
width of the room.
Robe
BED 2 BED 3
3340 x 3630 3210 x 3630
Robe
Example 1
EG Express each scale as a ratio in the form 1 : n.
+S
a 1 cm represents 5 m b 1 cm represents 3.6 km
Solutions
a 1 cm : 5 m b 1 cm : 3.6 km
= 1 cm : 500 cm = 1 cm : 3600 m
= 1 : 500 = 1 cm : 360 000 cm
= 1 : 360 000
Example 2
EG The scale on a map is 1 : 2500.
+S
a Find the actual distance between two points which are drawn 7 cm apart on the map.
b Find the map distance between two points which are 300 m apart in real life.
Solutions
a Actual distance = map distance × scale factor
= 7 cm × 2500
= 17 500 cm
= 175 m
b Map distance = actual distance ÷ scale factor
= 300 m ÷ 2500
= 0.12 m
= 12 cm
Example 3
EG Find the scale on a map if a map distance of 14 mm represents an actual distance of 70 m.
+S
Solution
map distance
70 m = 7000 cm scale = -----------------------------------
actual distance
14 mm
= 70 000 mm = ---------------------------
70 000 mm
1
= ------------
5000
= 1 : 5000
Example 4
EG Find, in metres, the dimensions of the laundry (L/dry) using the house plan on the previous
+S page.
Solution
Length internally = 10 680 mm
Bedroom 1 + Kitchen + Dining room = 3340 mm + 2710 mm + 2510 mm
= 8560 mm
Length of laundry = 10 680 mm − 8560 mm
= 2120 mm
Width of laundry = width of kitchen
= 2740 mm
∴ the dimensions of the laundry = 2120 mm × 2740 mm
= 2.12 m × 2.74 m
354 Mathscape 8
Exercise 9.9
1 Express each of these scales as a ratio in the form 1: n.

a 1 cm represents 100 cm b 1 cm represents 300 cm c 1 cm represents 1200 cm
2 Express each of these scales as a ratio in the form 1: n, if 1 cm represents an actual length
of:
a 1m b 2m c 5m d 10 m
e 0.5 m f 1.5 m g 2.4 m h 3.25 m
3 Express each of these scales as a ratio in the form 1: n, if 1 cm represents an actual length
of:
a 1 km b 4 km c 0.5 km d 2.5 km e 3.75 km
4 A map has been drawn to a scale of 1:1000. Find, in metres, the actual distance between
two points A and B if the distance AB on the map is:
a 2 cm b 7 cm c 0.4 cm d 9.5 cm e 13.6 cm
5 A map has been drawn to a scale of 1: 30 000. Find, in metres, the actual distance between
two points if the map distance between the points is:
a 8 mm b 15 mm c 0.5 mm d 4.2 mm e 21.9 mm
6 The scale on a map is 1: 25 000. How far apart on the map should two points be drawn if
the actual distance between the points is:
a 1 km b 6 km c 15 km d 0.75 km e 2.4 km
7 Find the map distances between two points if the scale is 1: 40 000 and the actual distances
are:
a 2 km b 14 km c 9.6 km d 7.3 km e 20.9 km
8 Find as a ratio the scale on a map if a map distance of:
a 2 cm represents an actual distance of 10 m
b 20 cm represents an actual distance of 7 km
c 15 mm represents an actual distance of 60 m
d 80 mm represents an actual distance of 2400 m
e 8.4 cm represents an actual distance of 14.7 km
f 65 mm represents an actual distance of 5.2 km
■ Consolidation
9 On a house plan that has been drawn to a scale of 1:100, the laundry is drawn to a length
of 45 mm. What is the actual length of the laundry?
10 A chimney stack is drawn 57 mm tall on a scale drawing where the scale used is 1:1000.
What is the actual height of the stack?
11 A road map has been drawn to a scale of 1 cm : 5 km. How far apart are two railway stations
if they are drawn 4 cm apart on the map?
12 A swimming pool measuring 10 m by 4 m is to be represented on a scale drawing with a

scale of 1: 50. Find the scale dimensions of the pool.
13 A student was asked to make a scale drawing of a room that measures 5.6 m by 3.8 m. If
the scale used was 1: 20, find, in centimetres, the dimensions of the room on the student’s
scale drawing.
14 A plan of the school building is to be made using a scale of 1 cm represents 1.2 metres.
What is this scale in simplest ratio form?
15 A model car that is an exact replica of a real sports car is 9 cm long. If the real car is 3.6 m
long, find the scale used in the model.
16 This elevation view of the front of a house

is drawn to a scale 1: 300.
a What is the actual width of the house? 25 mm
b What is the actual height of the house?
60 mm
17 On a map where 9 cm represents a distance of 58.5 km, find:

a the scale in the form 1: n
b the actual distance that would be represented on the map as 2.8 cm
c the map distance that would represent an actual distance of 32.5 km
18 The length of a jet is approximately 70 m and its wingspan is approximately 60 m. A model

of the jet is made to a scale of 1: 200. What is the length and wingspan of the model?
19 A scale drawing of a room has a length of 60 mm and a width of 40 mm. The actual length
of the room is measured and found to be 12 m. What is the width of the room?
356 Mathscape 8
20 Answer the following questions

using this map of greater Sydney.
a Write the scale for this map
in two different ways.
b Find, in km, the distance
between:
i Manly and Dee Why
ii Penrith and Liverpool
iii Heathcote and Windsor
21 Use the measurements

A
on the house plan to
answer the questions
below. Do not use a Bed 3 Bed 4
2800 x 3000 3600 x 3900
ruler.
a What are the
dimensions of the D
garage, in metres? ROBE
b Write down the Bed 2
dimensions A, B, 2800 x 3000
C, D and E in Family L/dry
5860 x 4000
millimetres. Kitchen
Ignore the 2420 x 4000
thickness of the E
walls. B
c Find the
dimensions of:
Living Garage
ROBE
i the laundry Bed 1 5860 x 4100 3000 x 5500

ii the bathroom 3720 x 3200
d Find, in square
metres, the area of:
i bedroom 1
ii the living room C
22 Use a scale of 1 cm represents 5 m to draw a plan of a front elevation and side elevation for
a rectangular assembly hall 30 metres long, 15 metres wide and 25 metres high.
23 Two people set out on a short bushwalk. They walk 750 m due west, 1.5 km north east, and
then 600 m due east before returning to their starting point. Make a scale drawing using the
scale 1 cm represents 150 m.
24 Use a scale of 1:100 to draw an accurate floor plan of the house in Q21.
The comparative size of a nuclear submarine
Introduction
In chapter 7 of the Year 7 book we saw how directed numbers could be used to describe the
depth of submarines. The Russian nuclear submarine Kursk sank in 107 m of water in the
Barents Sea in 2000 with the loss of 118 crew. The Kursk is a huge vessel. It is 154 m long.
To give you an idea of how big it is, the length of the Sydney Cricket Ground from north to
south is 160 m. It is interesting to make such comparisons by using ratios.
1 A bus is 14 m in length. A Boeing 747 jumbo jet is 70 m in length. A football field of play
is 100 m in length. The Kursk submarine is 154 m in length. Compare the length of the bus,
the jet, the football field and the submarine by using a ratio.
358 Mathscape 8
2 Show that the ratio is 1 : 5 : 7 : 11 to the nearest whole numbers.

3 How many buses could be placed end to end to match the length of the jet? the submarine?
How many buses could fit into a football field?
4 The ratio of the speed of the submarine on the surface to its speed when it is submerged
is 10 : 13. Calculate the speed on the surface if it travels at a speed of 26 knots when
submerged.
5 Speed at sea is measured in knots, the number of nautical miles travelled per hour. Given
that the ratio of knots : km/h is 6 : 11, calculate the equivalent of 20 knots in km/h.
8E XTENSION ACTIVITY
Using the ratio 1 : 5 : 7 : 11 for comparing the length of the bus : jumbo jet : football field :
submarine, make a scale drawing of them. Choose a suitable scale. You might like to include
another familiar object such as the Sydney Tower, which you can take as 308 m tall. (The actual
height is 320 m.)
Discuss the way in which ratios enable us to develop an understanding of the sizes of unfamiliar
objects such as submarines.
%R EFLECTING
Think of ratios that come up in your real-life experience. For example, you make a scale
drawing of your house, you exchange Australian dollars for US dollars on an overseas trip, you
make a model aeroplane from a kit. Note that each one has a different context but that ratios
are comparisons of pure numbers (that is, they do not have units of measurement). Discuss this
with your teacher.
B P ROBLEM SOLVING
4
1 ---
3
of a number is 40. What is the number?
2 A glass contains lemonade and flavouring in the ratio 8 : 2. Another glass of the same
size has the same contents in the ratio 9 : 1. The contents of the two glasses are poured
into a large container. What is the ratio of this mixture?
3 Water is pouring into your classroom at the rate of 10 litres per minute. When should
you start swimming? (Note: 1 cubic metre (1 m3) = 1000 litres.)
4 A friend chooses a number between 1 and 100. You ask questions (e.g. is it bigger than
50?) to find the number. Your friend answers either ‘Yes’ or ‘No’. What is the least
number of Yes/No questions that may be needed to find the number?
5 What is the maximum number of matchboxes that can be made to touch another
matchbox? (Do the experiment!)
1
---
3
6 Calculate 1 + ----------1-
1 + --3- 1
----------1-
1 + --3-
7 What is the next number in this sequence: 1, 2, 2, 4, 8, 32, 256?
8 Twenty-four cubes are put in 4 stacks. The first stack is twice the third, and the second
is one less than the first. The sum of the first and the third is equal to the sum of the
second and the fourth. What is the size of each stack?
9 A rectangle has dimensions 30 mm × 10 mm. 30 mm
If each dimension is increased by 10%, what is
the area of the new rectangle?
10 mm
10 In Q9, is the area of the new rectangle 10%, 20%, or 21% greater than the old
rectangle?
1 A r_______ is the comparison of two rate noun 1. speed: to work at a steady rate | The car
quantities of different kinds. was travelling at a rate of 100 kilometres an hour.
2 If ratios have the same value they are said 2. a charge or payment: The interest rate on the loan
to be equ_______. is 10 per cent per year. 3. rates, the tax paid to the
3 What is another word beginning with local council by people who own land
–verb 4. to set a value on, or consider as: The council
equ_______ that we use in Mathematics? rated the land at $20 000. | I rate him a very good
4 Explain the word scale as used for maps. friend.
5 Read the Macquarie Learners’ Dictionary –phrase 5. at any rate, in any case: We enjoyed
entry for rate: ourselves at any rate.
6. at this rate, if things go on like this: At this rate
we will soon run out of money.
How have you used this word other than in
Mathematics?
360 Mathscape 8
CHAPTER RE
1 Write a ratio to represent the following 9 Simplify:

statements. a 10 : 2 b 14 : 21
a Joe ate three times as much as Joanne. c 55 : 30 d 16 : 24 : 12
b Bryan can only swim half as far as 10 Simplify:
Megan. a $4 : $2.50 b 3 h : 20 min
c Fiona earns two-thirds as much as c 4.2 cm : 36 mm d 240 g : 1.2 kg
Maryanne.
11 Simplify:
2 The ratio of green pens to blue pens is
a 12 8
------ : ------ b 1 : 3--4- c 4
--- :3
5 : 9. Find the ratio of: 19 19 5
3 9
a blue pens to green pens d ---
4
: ------
20
e 3 1--2- :4 f 1 4--5- : 2 1--5-
b green pens to the total number of pens
12 Simplify:
3 In a picnic lunch there are salad a 0.6 : 1.2 b 0.5 : 0.55
sandwiches and meat sandwiches in c 1 : 0.72 d 0.42 : 0.6
the ratio 5 : 3. What fraction of the
sandwiches are salad? 13 Divide:
a $45 in the ratio 7 : 2
4 Write each of the following as a ratio.
VIEW
b 72 kg in the ratio 4 : 5
a 2--3- b 4 c 1 2--5- c 154 cm in the ratio 8 : 3
d 0.9 e 1.3 f 27% 14 a Increase 72 kg in the ratio 10 : 9.
5 Complete each of these equivalent ratios. b Increase $63 in the ratio 9 : 7.
a 5 : 8 = 15 : b :8 = 7:4 c Decrease 80 mL in the ratio 4 : 5.
c 3 : 7 = : 28 d 45 : = 9 : 11 d Decrease 99 t in the ratio 9 : 11.
6 Find as a decimal the value of each 15 Increase $50 in the ratio 13 : 10, then
pronumeral. decrease the result in the ratio 4 : 5.
x 7 a 5
a --- = --- b --- = --- 16 At the Grand Final, the ratio of Roosters
3 5 6 4
supporters to Warriors supporters is
7 At a meeting, the ratio of men to women 11 : 7. If there were 49 500 Roosters
was 4 : 7. supporters, find the number of Warriors
a Find the number of men, if there were supporters.
28 women at the meeting.
b Find the number of women, if there 17 The ratio of the width of a rectangle to its
were 32 men at the meeting. length is 5 : 8. If the perimeter of the
rectangle is 52 m, find the width.
8 a The ratio of bananas to apples is 3 : 4
and the ratio of apples to tomatoes is 18 Harry sells pies and earns $32 per hour
2 : 5. Find the ratio of bananas to for a 30-hour week. Tom sells vacuum
tomatoes. cleaners and earns $28 per hour for a
b Find the ratio of monkeys to 36-hour week. Find the ratio of Harry’s
elephants, if the ratio of monkeys to wage to Tom’s wage, in simplest form.
gorillas is 5 : 2 and the ratio of gorillas
to elephants is 3 : 4.
CHAPTER REVIEW
19 Luke and Kate contribute $14 000 and b The market value of 75 shares of a
VIEW
$12 000, respectively, to set up an particular stock is $1425. What is the
advertising business. After three years market value of 250 shares of the
they dissolve the partnership and share same stock at the same rate?
the profits of $130 000 in the ratio of their c A person earns $75 commission on
initial investment. Find how much they sales of $3000. At this rate, how
each received. much commission will they earn on
CHAPTER RE
20 a A canteen sells pies, pasties and sales totalling $5400?
sausage rolls in the ratio 16 : 10 : 25. d A factory can build 7 motor cruisers
If the manager of the canteen sells 18 in 12 working days. Find how many
more sausage rolls than pies, find the working days will be required to
sales of each food item. build 175 motor cruisers.
b Micha, Bertha and Charlotte share 25 A fruit picker can pick 480 oranges in
a lottery win in the ratio 8 : 7 : 5. 3 hours. At this rate, how long will the
If Bertha receives $160 more than fruit picker take to pick 100 oranges.
Charlotte, find the amount won by Give your answer in hours and minutes.
the three people. 26 a Jeremy walked 35 km in 5 hours.
21 Express each of these rates in simplest At what speed was he walking?
form. b Ursula drove at 60 km/h for 4 hours.
a 350 km on 50 L How far did she drive?
b 80 m in 5 s c A plane flew 3120 km at a speed of
c $60 for 1 1--2- h 520 km/h. How long was the flight?
22 Convert: 27 A cross-country train is travelling at a
a 7 m/s to m/min speed of 120 km/h. How far will it
b 2.5 t/h to t/day travel in:
c 3200 m/s to km/s a 30 minutes? b 45 minutes?
d 310 mL/m2 to L/m2 c 20 minutes? d 35 minutes?
23 a A machine fills and seals lemonade e 42 minutes? f 90 minutes?
cans at the rate of 150 cans per 28 Use the degrees and minutes key on your
minute. How many cans will be filled calculator to find:
and sealed in 1 h 20 min? a the speed of a car that travels 140 km
b A greenkeeper cuts 3 ha of lawn in 2 h 25 min
every hour. How many square metres b the time taken, in hours and minutes,
of lawn will be cut in 30 minutes? for a flight of 1750 km at 375 km/h
24 Use the unitary method to solve each of 29 a A map is drawn with a scale of
these problems. 1:1000. Find, in metres, the actual
a A car can travel 45 km on 5 L of distance between two buildings that
petrol. How far will it travel on 9 L? are 9.2 cm apart on the map.
CHAPTER REVIEW
362 Mathscape 8
Wingspan = 16 m
CHAPTER RE
b The scale on a road map is a

1: 250 000. Find, in kilometres, the
actual distance between two towns
that are 7 cm apart on the map.
c Find the map distance between two
lakes if the scale on the map is 1 cm
b Door width = 1300 mm
represents 2.5 km and the actual
distance between the lakes is 85 km.
d The scale on a map is 1: 300 000.
How far apart on the map should two
train stations be drawn if the actual
distance between the stations is
24 km.
30 Find the scale on a map, in the form 1: n, Extension
if a map distance of:
32 Convert:
a 24 mm represents an actual distance
a 90 km/h to m/s
VIEW
of 84 m
b 75 mL/min to L/day
b 6 cm represents an actual distance of
c 24 m/s to km/h
15 km
d 48 kg/ha to g/m2
31 In each of these scale drawings, measure
the relevant dimension and find the scale
used, as a ratio.
CHAPTER REVIEW
Circles and
cylinders
10
Circles and cylinders

Stage 3
name the parts of a circle.
Stage 4
calculate the circumference of a circle
find the length of the radius or diameter of a circle given the circumference
calculate the perimeter of a semicircle and quarter circle
calculate the perimeter of a composite figure
calculate the area of a circle
find the length of the radius or diameter of a circle given the area
calculate the area of a semicircle and quarter circle
calculate the area of a composite figure
calculate the volume of a cylinder
calculate the total volume of composite solids that are comprised of cylinders
and prisms.
363
364 Mathscape 8
10.1 Parts of the circle

The following table shows the various parts of a circle and lists their definitions.
Circumference: the boundary of a circle. Semicircle: half the boundary of a circle.
Arc: part of the circumference. The smaller Centre: the point inside a circle that is
arc is called the minor arc and the larger arc equidistant from all points on the
is called the major arc. circumference.
Chord: an interval that joins two points on Diameter: a chord that passes through
the circumference. the centre.
Radius: an interval that joins the centre to a Sector: the area bounded by an arc and two
point on the circumference. It is half the radii. The smaller sector is called the minor
length of the diameter. sector and the larger sector is called the
major sector.
Segment: the area bounded by an arc and a

chord. The smaller segment is called the Tangent: a line that touches a circle at
minor segment and the larger segment is one point.
called the major segment.
Chapter 10: Circles and cylinders 365
Concentric circles are two or more circles that have the

same centre. If two circles are concentric, then they are
always the same distance apart. •
Example 1 Solution
EG What fraction of a To find what fraction a sector occupies
+S θ
circle is this sector? 45° of a complete circle, we form the fraction ---------
360
then simplify.
θ 45
Now, --------- = ---------
360 360
1
= ---
8
∴ the sector is 1--8- of a circle.
Example 2
EG How far apart are
+S two concentric circles 10 cm ?
with diameters 22 cm
and 10 cm?
Solution 22 cm
The diameter of the larger circle is 22 cm, ∴ the radius is 11 cm.
The diameter of the smaller circle is 10 cm, ∴ the radius is 5 cm.
Distance between the circles = distance between the radii
= 11 cm − 5 cm
= 6 cm
∴ the circles are 6 cm apart.
Exercise 10.1
1 Name the parts of a circle shown on the diagrams below.

a b c d
O O
e f g h
O
366 Mathscape 8
i j k l
O
O
■ Consolidation
2 Name each of the following features shown on the diagram. R
a the interval PQ b the interval OR T V U
c the curved line RUQ d the region RUQ
e the line TPS f the interval RQ P Q
O
g the region PORV h the arc PWQ
S
B
W
3 Using the given diagram, name all: A
a radii b chords
O
C F
E
D
4 State the circle feature whose definition is given below.

a An interval that joins the centre of a circle to the circumference.
b Half the length of the circumference.
c A section of the circumference.
d The area bounded by two radii and the circumference.
e An interval that joins two points on the circumference.
f A line that touches a circle at one point only.
g The area bounded by a chord and the circumference.
h A chord that passes through the centre of a circle.
5 Which diagram shows the following A B C

circle features meeting at right angles?
a a tangent and a diameter
b a diameter and a chord
c two chords O
O
6 Which one of these features is

not shown on the diagram?
A tangent
B radius O
C chord
D diameter
7 The longest chord in a circle has length 10 cm. What length is the radius?
8 ∆XOY is drawn in a circle with centre O.

a Which sides in the triangle are equal? Why? O
b What kind of triangle is XOY?
c Which angles in the triangle are equal? Why?
X Y
9 FG is a diameter in this circle with centre O.
a What kind of triangle is EOF? Why? F
b Find the length of the chord EF if the length of 60°
the diameter is 14 cm. O
60°
60°
10 Two concentric circles
(i.e. circles that have the E G
12
same centre) have diameters O
cm
12 cm and 20 cm. How far
apart are the circles?
20 cm
11 What fraction of a circle is each sector?

a b c
120° 45°
d e f
60°
72° O
O
150°
12 Form an equation and solve it to find the value of x in each of these. (All lengths are in cm.)
a b c
(2
17)
x+
(9x
(3x + (2x + 5)
7)
15
–2
O
5)
O O
0)
(4x +
13 A chord AC has length 12 cm and is 8 cm from O,

the centre of the circle. Find the length of:
a the radius b the diameter O
A B C
368 Mathscape 8
14 A chord RT has length 10 cm and its distance OS from the

centre O is 12 cm. The area of the minor sector ROTU is
67 cm2. Find the shaded area. O
R S T
U
Investigation
It is not easy to find the perimeter of a circle because the boundary is not made up of straight
edges. The perimeter of a circle is called the circumference.
The problem of calculating the circumference of a circle has plagued mathematicians for
centuries. It was known, dating back to the time of the Ancient Egyptians, that the distance
around the boundary of a circle was directly related to the length of its diameter. We will
now examine this relationship in the following investigation.
1 Roll a 20 cent coin through one complete revolution along the edge of your ruler.
20
0 CM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
a How far was the coin rolled? This is the circumference of the coin.
b Measure the diameter of the coin using the ruler.
c Divide the circumference of the coin by its diameter, giving the answer correct to
1 decimal place.
2 The table below shows the circumference (C) and diameter (d) of 6 circles. Find, correct
C
to 1 decimal place, the value of the ratio ---- for each circle. What do you notice?
d
C
Circumference (C) Diameter (d) Ratio ----
d
9.4 cm 3 cm
12.6 cm 4 cm
28.3 cm 9 cm
31.4 cm 10 cm
39.9 cm 12.7 cm
48.4 cm 15.4 cm
3 a Use a compass to draw a circle with radius 2.5 cm. Find the circumference with the
aid of a piece of string, correct to 1 decimal place.
b Divide the circumference by the length of the diameter.
4 Use a piece of string to find the circumference of each of these circles, correct to
C
1 decimal place. What is the value of the ratio ---- in each circle?
d
a b c
TRY THIS How Eratosthenes measured the

circumference of the Earth
The sun’s rays come from such a great distance
that we may consider them to be parallel.
The diagram shows the sun’s rays (↓) striking B
stake
the cities of Alexandria (A) and Syene (S).
The distance AS was 5000 stadia. a°
A S
1
Eratosthenes measured ∠B as --------
50
of a
circle (7 1
---- °)
5
Now, ∠C = ∠B (alternate angles in parallel lines)
1
thus ∠C = --------
50
of a circle
1
and AS = --------
50
of the circumference
Thus circumference = 50 × 5000 stadia
= 250 000 stadia
= 46 234 kilometres
Note: The ancient measure of 1 stadium is
equal to approximately 185 metres. C
370 Mathscape 8
10.2 Circumference of a circle

■ The meaning of pi (π )
The previous investigation should have convinced you that the ratio
length of circumference ( C )
-------------------------------------------------------------------- = 3.1 for any circle. In fact, the decimal value of this ratio is
length of diameter ( d )
3.141 592 654 . . . , which continues forever without repetition. This number is used so often in
mathematics that it is given a special name, pi, and its symbol is π, a letter of the Greek
alphabet. It is important to note that π is an irrational number as it does not have an exact
fraction or decimal value. Over the centuries, mathematicians have used various
approximations for the value of π. In Ancient Greece, the great mathematician Archimedes
(c. 225 BC) stated that the value of π lay between 3 10 1
------ and 3 --- . The famous Chinese
71 7
mathematician Tsu Ch’ung-chih (c. 470) gave the value of π as 355 --------- , which is accurate to
113
6 decimal places. In all calculations, the value of π should be obtained by pressing the π key on
the calculator, unless otherwise indicated. The common approximations for π are 22 ------ as a
7
fraction and 3.14 as a decimal.
■ The formulae for circumference

As stated in the previous investigation, the perimeter of a circle is referred to as the
C
circumference. By rearranging the definition ---- = π , we have the formula C = πd.
d
That is, to calculate the circumference of a circle, we need only multiply the length of
the diameter by π.
This formula can be expressed in terms of the radius, r, as follows:
C = πd
= π × 2r (since d = 2r)
= 2πr
The circumference C of a circle is given by:
d r
C = πd C = 2πr
where d is the length of the diameter and r is the length of the radius.
Example 1
EG Calculate the circumference of each circle, correct to 1 decimal place.
+S
a b
m
15 cm 9c
Solutions
a C = πd b C = 2πr
= π × 15 =2×π×9
= 47.1 cm (to 1 decimal place) = 56.5 cm (to 1 decimal place)
Note: In these examples, the exact circumferences would be written as 15π cm and 18π cm.
Example 2
EG Find, correct to 2 decimal places, the diameter of a circle whose circumference is 75 mm.
+S
Solution
C = πd
75 = πd
75
∴ d = ------
π
= 23.87 mm (to 2 decimal places)
Exercise 10.2
1 Find the circumference of each circle, correct to 1 decimal place, using C = πd.
a b c d
10 cm cm 9 mm
6m
15
e f g h
22 30
.4 .8 m 41.3 mm
m cm 4.7
372 Mathscape 8
2 Find the circumference of each circle, correct to 1 decimal place, using C = 2πr.
a b 7 c d
m 18
m
8 cm mm
m
13
e f g h
1 cm 46
24. .5
m
32.4 m m 51.6 cm
■ Consolidation
3 Find, correct to 1 decimal place, the circumference of a circle whose:
a diameter is 18.5 mm b radius is 13.8 mm
4 Measure the length of the diameter, then calculate the circumference of each circle, correct
to 1 decimal place.
a b c
5 By taking π = 3, estimate the circumference of a circle with a diameter of:

6 By taking π = 3, estimate the circumference of a circle with a radius of:

a 3 cm b 7 cm c 2.5 cm d 6.5 cm
7 Find the approximate circumference of each circle, without using a calculator. [Take π = 22
------ ]
7
a b c d
49
cm
7 cm
cm
14
35
cm
8 Find in terms of π the exact circumference of a circle with:

a diameter 4 cm b diameter 13 cm c radius 8 cm d radius 10.5 cm
9 Write down the length of the diameter of a circle with circumference:

a 3π mm b 10π mm c 17π mm d 23π mm
10 Find the length of the radius of a circle with circumference:

11 Find the length of the diameter in a circle whose circumference is:

a 28.3 m b 47.1 m c 72.3 m d 106.8 m
12 Find the length of the radius in a circle whose circumference is:

a 15.7 mm b 50.3 mm c 69.1 mm d 144.5 mm
13 A 10 cent coin has a diameter of 2.3 cm. If the coin is rolled through 50 complete
revolutions, what distance will it travel? Answer correct to the nearest mm.
14 A test match cricket ball must be not less than 22.4 cm in circumference and not greater
than 22.9 cm. Could a cricket ball with radius 3.55 cm be used in a test match?
15 The wheel of a child’s bicycle has a radius of 18 cm. How far would a child cycle if the
wheels made 250 complete revolutions? Give your answer in metres, correct to 1 decimal
place.
16 The radius of the Earth is approximately 6400 km. Calculate the distance around the Earth
at the equator, correct to the nearest kilometre.
17 The diameter of the front wheel of a car is 0.5 m. How many complete revolutions will the
wheel make if the car travels a distance of 40 km?
18 A record has a diameter of 30 cm and is played at a speed of 33 1--3- revolutions per minute.
Through what total distance, in metres, will a point on the rim of the record travel if the
record takes 25 minutes to play?
19 B AB and BC are two perpendicular chords in a circle with
15 cm centre O. The line joining the chords passes through the
8 cm C centre of the circle. Calculate:
a the length of the diameter
O
A b the circumference of the circle, correct to 2 decimal
places
20 A satellite is orbiting the Earth at a height of h km above the

h km
Earth’s surface. In one complete orbit, the satellite travels a distance
of 41 469 km. Find the height of the satellite above the Earth.
[Take the radius of the Earth as 6400 km.] 6400
km
Earth
374 Mathscape 8
21 A regular hexagon has been inscribed in a circle of radius 1 cm.

a What size are the angles at the centre of the hexagon?
1 cm b Explain why the triangles shown are equilateral.
c Find the perimeter of the hexagon.
d Find the exact circumference of the circle, in term of π.
e Hence show that π > 3.
22 The circle shown has an exact circumference of 26π cm. T
a Find the length of the diameter. 24
b Find the length of the chord UV. cm
O U
23 The tip of the second hand of a watch travels 36.2 metres each day. Calculate:
a the number of rotations made by the hand
b the length of the hand, correct to the nearest mm.
24 The smallest of 3 concentric circles has a radius of r cm and the

radius of each successive circle increases by r cm. The total
circumference of the 3 circles is 60π cm. Find the value of r.
TRY THIS Roping logs

Six logs have been loaded on a truck. If each log has a diameter of
60 cm, what is the length of the rope that binds them?
10.3 Applications of
circumference
Many perimeter questions involve either a number of curved lines or a combination of straight
and curved lines. As with all questions involving perimeter, we must be careful to add together
only those lengths that actually form part of the boundary.
To find the total perimeter of a figure:

find the total length of the curved sections of the boundary
add the lengths of any straight sections of the boundary to the total curved length.
■ The length of an arc (Extension)

To find the length of an arc, we must first find what fraction it is of the circumference.
θ
If the angle in a sector is θ degrees, then the fraction of the circle occupied by the sector is --------- .
360
θ
Therefore, the length of an arc is equal to the circumference of a circle multiplied by --------- .
360
The length l of an arc is given by: l

θ
l = 2πr × ---------
360
where r is the length of the radius and θ is the angle at the centre r r
θ
(in degrees).
Example 1
EG Calculate the total perimeter of each figure, correct to 1 decimal place.
+S
a 8 cm b
14 cm
Solutions
a Perimeter = (πd × 1--2- ) + 8 b Perimeter = (2πr × 1--4- ) + (2 × 14)
= (π × 8 × 1--2- ) + 8 = (2 × π × 14 × 1--4- ) + (2 × 14)
= 20.6 cm (to 1 decimal place) = 50.0 cm (to 1 decimal place)

376 Mathscape 8
Example 2
EG Calculate the total perimeter of this sector, correct to 1 decimal place.
+S 7c
m
Solution
θ 30°
Perimeter = ⎛ 2πr × ---------⎞ + ( 2 × 7 )
⎝ 360⎠
= ⎛ 2 × π × 7 × ---------⎞ + 14
30
⎝ 360⎠
= 17.7 cm (to 1 decimal place)
Exercise 10.3
1 Find the total perimeter of each semicircle, correct to 1 decimal place.

a b 12 cm c
20 cm
10 cm
2 Find the total perimeter of each quadrant, correct to 2 decimal places.

a b c
4 mm
15.3 mm
9 mm
■ Consolidation
3 Find the perimeter of each figure, correct to 1 decimal place. (All curves are either
semicircles or quarter circles.)
a 25 cm b c 3 cm
15 cm
10 cm
d e 30 cm f 2 cm 2 cm
12 cm 9c
m
9c 11 cm
12 cm 12 cm m
18 cm
g h i
8.7 cm
O 3.3 cm
5.6 cm 3 cm 3 cm
22 cm
j k l
22.8 cm
16 cm 4.5 cm
20 cm 22.8 cm
4 Find in terms of π the exact perimeter of each figure.

a b c 3 mm
20 mm
m
5m 3 mm
13 mm
4 mm
7 mm
11 mm
5 A circular swimming pool of diameter 12 m is surrounded by a path of width 1 metre.

A childproof fence is to be constructed around the outer boundary of the path.
a Find, correct to the nearest metre, the length of fencing required.
b Calculate the cost of fencing the pool at $36 per metre.
6 The lead frame for a stained glass window is in the shape of a
semicircle with 5 inner lead strips.
a Find the amount of lead stripping required to make the
windowframe if the diameter is to be 54 cm. 54 cm
b Calculate the cost of the lead stripping at 75 cents per centimetre.
7 A rectangular sheet of metal of length 28 cm is 28 cm

rolled and joined to form an open cylinder as shown.
Find the length of the radius of the cylinder,
correct to 2 decimal places.
378 Mathscape 8
8 100 m The students at a primary school are holding their annual

walkathon at a nearby athletics track to raise money for
their school. Louise’s sponsors have promised to donate
$16.50 for each kilometre she walks. If Louise completes
20 laps of the track, find:
132 m a the total distance she walks, correct to the nearest km
b the amount of money that she will raise for the
school.
9 A gardener wants to plant 16 equally spaced ferns around the edge
of a garden bed, which is in the shape of a quarter circle with straight
edges of length 2.42 m.
a Find the curved length of the garden bed, correct to the nearest
centimetre.
b Find the total perimeter of the garden bed, correct to the nearest
centimetre.
c How far apart should the ferns be planted?
10 Calculate the total perimeter of each sector, correct to 2 decimal places.
a b m
c
m
6.5
120° 45°
7 mm 10 mm
72°
d e f
60° 8.1 mm
135°
13.8 mm 18 mm
11 In each of the following, find the value of x and hence determine the perimeter of the figure.
a b
25 6 cm
x cm cm
cm
x cm
20
24 cm
12 The curved distance on this figure is 8π cm.

a Find the length of the radius.
b Show that the exact perimeter of the figure is 8(π + 3) cm.
120
r cm
TRY THIS Stained panes

A stained glass window consists of 9 panes.
The area of each outer pane is the same as the area of the
inner circular pane, which has a diameter of 20 cm.
Find the exact length of metal used to construct this window.
10.4 Area of a circle

In about 250 BC, the famous Greek mathematician Archimedes stated that: ‘The area of a circle
is the same as the area of a triangle that has a base equal to the circumference of the circle and
height equal to the radius of the circle.’
mferen
rcu
ce
ci
r = r
circumference
This is how he argued it!

Divide the circle into Cut the circle along a radius
concentric rings. and open out the rings into
straight sections and you have
a step triangle.
If you make the rings as thin as possible, the area of the circle will become exactly equal to the
area of the triangle!
Area = 1--2- base × height
= 1--2- (circumference × radius)
= 1
---
2
× 2πr × r
= πr2
380 Mathscape 8
The area of a circle is given by:
r
A = r2
where r is the length of the radius.
Example 1
EG Calculate the area of each circle, correct to 1 decimal place.
+S
a b
6c
m cm
18
Solutions
a A = r2 b A = r2
= ⋅ 62 = ⋅ 92 (since r = 9)
= 113.1 cm2 (to 1 decimal place) = 254.5 cm2 (to 1 decimal place)
Example 2 Solution
EG Find, correct to 2 decimal places, A = r2
+S the length of the radius of a 80 = r2
circle whose area is 80 cm2. ⎟ ⎟
80
------ = r2
80
r= ------
= 5.05 cm (to 2 decimal places)

Exercise 10.4
1 Find the area of each circle, correct to 1 decimal place.

a b c d
3 cm 11 m 4m
m
7m
e f 15 g h
.2
12.8 cm mm 3m
22.7 34.
cm
2 Find the area of each circle, correct to 1 decimal place.

a b c d
16
10 mm
m
57.8
41
m
cm
■ Consolidation
3 Find, correct to 2 decimal places, the area of a circle with:
a radius 16 cm b radius 35 cm c diameter 20 cm d diameter 45 cm
4 Measure the length of the radius, then calculate the area of each circle in cm 2, correct to 1
decimal place.
a b c
5 By taking π = 3, estimate the area of a circle with:

22
6 Find the approximate area of each circle, without using a calculator. Take π = ------
7
a b c d
21
cm cm
7 cm 35
cm
14
7 Find in terms of π the exact area of a circle with:

8 Find the length of the radius in a circle whose area is:

9 Find the length of the radius of a circle whose area is:

a 254.5 mm2 b 615.8 mm2 c 1385.4 mm2 d 3421.2 mm2
10 A circular drinks coaster has a radius of 3.5 cm. Find the area of the coaster, correct to
1 decimal place.
382 Mathscape 8
11 A mobile phone tower can transmit and receive signals within an area of radius 4.2 km.
Calculate the reception area for the tower, correct to the nearest square kilometre.
12 What area of lawn will be watered by a sprinkler that rotates through an angle of 360° and
has a reach of 1.8 m? Give your answer correct to the nearest square metre.
13 A circular mirror has a surface area of 380 cm2. Calculate the diameter of the mirror.
14 A circular rug covers an area of 19.6 m2. Can this rug be laid in a lounge room that measures
4.5 m by 6 m? Explain your answer.
15 In the diagram, O is the centre of the circle and PQ is Q 21 cm
perpendicular to QR. 20 cm R
a Find the length of the diameter.
b Determine the area of the circle, correct to 2 decimal places. O
P
16 An inverted (i.e. upturned) cone has a slant height of 37 cm and

base area of 452.4 cm2.
h cm 37 cm a Find the length of the radius of the circular base, correct to the
nearest cm.
b Hence, calculate the perpendicular height of the cone.
r cm
17 Find in terms of π the exact area of a circle whose circumference is:
a 6π cm b 10π cm c 22π cm d 50π cm
18 Find in terms of π the exact circumference of a circle whose area is:

a 4π m2 b 64π m2 c 81π m2 d 289π m2
19 P and Q are the centres of two circles which touch at the

point R. The shaded circle lies on the diameter PQ. The circle
with centre P has an area of 9π cm2 and the circle with Q
centre Q has an area of 49π cm2. Find the exact area of R
the circle with diameter PQ. P
20 A circle of radius r cm is drawn inside a square as shown so that it

just touches the square on each side. Show that the circle takes up 11
------
14
r cm of the area of the square.
O 22
Take π = ------
7
10.5 Applications of area

Many composite area questions involve areas of semicircles or quadrants.
To find the total area of a figure:

find the areas of any semicircles or quadrants
find the areas of any polygons
add or subtract the areas as necessary to find the required area.
■ The area of a sector (Extension)

As with questions involving the length of an arc, to find the area of a sector, we must find what
fraction of a circle it is. If the angle in the sector is θ degrees, then the fraction of the circle
θ
occupied by the sector is --------- . Therefore, the area of a sector is equal to the area of a circle
360
θ
multiplied by --------- .
360
The area of a sector is given by:

θ
A = πr 2 × --------- r r
360
θ
where r is the length of the radius and θ is the angle at the centre.
Example 1
EG Calculate the area of each figure, correct to 1 decimal place.
+S
a b
10 cm
13 cm
Solutions
a A = πr2 × 1
---
2
b A = πr2 × 1
---
4
= π × 52 × 1
---
2
(since r = 5) = π × 132 × 1
---
4
384 Mathscape 8
Example 2 12 cm
EG Find the shaded area
+S in this figure, correct cm
9 cm 15
to 1 decimal place.
Solutions
i A1 = area of circle ii A2 = area of rectangle iii A = A 1 − A2
= πr2 =l×b = 176.7 − 108
= π × 7.52 = 9 × 12 = 68.7 cm2
= 176.7 cm2 (to 1 decimal place) = 108 cm2
Example 3
EG Calculate the area of the sector, correct to 1 decimal place.
+S
6 cm
45°
Solution
θ
A = πr2 × ---------
360
45
= π × 62 × ---------
360
= 14.1 cm2 (to 1 decimal place)
Exercise 10.5
1 Find the area of each semicircle, correct to 1 decimal place.

a b c
cm
12 cm 15
8 cm
2 Calculate the area of each quadrant, correct to 2 decimal places.

a 6 cm b c
19 cm
8 cm
■ Consolidation
3 Find the total area in each of these, correct to 1 decimal place.
a 16 cm b c
8 cm
5 cm
11 cm
13 cm
30 cm
d e f
9 cm
10 cm
30 cm 33 cm
4 The area between two concentric circles is called an annulus. Find the area of each annulus,
correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c
4 mm
4 mm
12 mm
5m
m
m
7m
18 mm
5 Find the remaining or shaded area in each of these, correct to 1 decimal place.
a 22 cm b c
4.
8
cm
7.6 cm
9c
m 20 cm 28 cm
4.
8
cm
d 2 10 cm e f 6c
cm m m
2c
3 cm 3 cm O
2
m cm
2c 42 cm
10 cm
386 Mathscape 8
6 a Find the length of the diameter AC. B

b Find the shaded area, correct to 36
15 mm mm
1 decimal place.
A C
7 a Find the value of r.

b Calculate the total area of this figure,
cm
24
r cm
7c
m
8 A circular cricket ground has a radius of 95 m. The wicket èsquareê at the centre of the
ground is rectangular in shape and measures 26 m by 50 m. The grass area not including
the wicket square is to be returfed.
a Find the area of the ground that is to be returfed, correct to the nearest m 2.
b Calculate the cost of the new turf at $30 per m2.
9 The window above a door is made up of a rectangle

and a semicircle as shown.
a Find the value of x. 60 cm
b Calculate the total area of the window, 20 cm
correct to the nearest cm2.
c Determine the cost of replacing this glass x cm
with stained glass at 10c per cm2.
10 9m The facade of this railway arch is to be repainted.
a Find the total area to be painted, correct to the nearest m2.
b How many tins of paint are needed if each tin will cover
5m
an area of 5 m2 ?
c Find the cost of the paint if each tin costs $12.50.
4m
2.5 m 2.5 m
11 A rose garden is made up of three sectors, each of radius 4.5 m.

a Determine the total area of the garden, correct to the
nearest m2. (Hint: Rearrange the sectors.) 60
b Fertiliser is sold in bags that cover an area of 8 m2. 60 60 4.5 m
How much will it cost to fertilise the garden if fertiliser
costs $9 per bag?
12 Calculate the area of each sector, correct to 2 decimal places.
a b e 5.4 cm
7 cm 45° 72°
120°
3 cm
d e f
60° 11.2 cm 23.7 cm
16.1 cm
240°
13 A dart board consists of four concentric circles, the smallest

of which has a radius of 1 cm. The distance between each
circle is 1 cm. Show that the shaded area is exactly 4π cm2.
14 Show that the exact area of this figure is

8(π + 15) cm2. 17
cm
m
4c
15 A national park is approximately circular in shape and has an area of 20 000 ha. Find,
correct to the nearest kilometre, the radius of the park.
10.6 Volume of a cylinder

A cylinder is not a prism, since not all of its edges are straight lines.
A
However, it does have a uniform circular cross-section and hence its
volume can still be found using the formula V = Ah, where A = πr2. h
If the cross-sectional area is calculated and then rounded, before it is
multiplied by the height, we lose accuracy in the answer. To avoid
this problem, the formula is written as V = πr2h.
388 Mathscape 8
r
The volume of a cylinder is given by the formula:
V = πr2h h
where r is the length of the radius and h is the height of the cylinder.
Example 1
EG Find the volume of each cylinder, correct to 1 decimal place.
+S
a 7 cm b 8.9 cm
20 cm 3 cm
Solutions
a V = πr2h b V = πr2h
= π × 7 × 20
2
= π × 1.52 × 8.9 (as r = 1.5)
Example 2 Solution
EG Find the volume of this figure, V = πr2h × 1
---
+S correct to the nearest cm3.
4
= π × 9.2 × 14 ×
2 1
---
4
= 931 cm3 (to the nearest cm3)
9.2 cm
14 cm
Exercise 10.6
1 Find the volume of each cylinder, correct to 1 decimal place.

a 6 cm b 3 cm c 2 cm
9 cm
15 cm 4 cm
d 5 cm e f
11 cm 7 cm
8 cm
10 cm
4 cm
g h 2.3 cm i
14.4 cm
5.8 cm 9.1 cm
13.15 cm
2.6 cm
■ Consolidation
2 Find the volume of a cylinder with:
a radius 17 mm and height 8.2 mm b diameter 12.4 cm and height 15.3 cm
c radius 3.7 cm and height 9.1 cm d diameter 19 mm and height 14.5 mm
3 Find the volume of each solid, correct to the nearest mm3.

a b c
20 mm 4 mm 11 mm
13.2 mm
6.4 mm
4 Calculate the total volume of each solid, correct to 1 decimal place. 8.5 mm
a 3 cm b 4 cm 4 cm
5 cm 5 cm 10 cm
8 cm
4 cm
d
9 cm
c
3.5 cm 12 cm
50 cm
16 cm
2 cm 18 cm
390 Mathscape 8
5 Calculate the remaining volume in each solid, correct to 1 decimal place. All measurements
are in cm.
a b 9 c
5.2
4.8
4 4
19
3 3 4 4
14
12
6 Tina and Steve’s wedding cake had three tiers each 9 cm high
with diameters 22 cm, 28 cm and 40 cm. Find the total volume
of the cake, correct to 1 decimal place.
7 A cylindrical flower pot is packed tightly into a box as shown.

a Find the volume of the flower pot, correct to 1 decimal place.
b Find the volume of the box.
c What percentage of the volume of the box is taken up by the 22 cm
flower pot? Answer correct to the nearest whole percentage.
8.4 cm
8 Four cylindrical tins of soup have been packed into

a box with dimensions as shown. Find the volume
of soup in the box, correct to the nearest cm3.
18 cm
9 For each cylinder:

i calculate the volume, correct to the nearest cm3
ii find the capacity in litres (1 L = 1000 cm3)
a b c
16 cm
25 cm
15 cm
20 cm
6.7 cm 24 cm
10 A can of fruit juice has a radius of 5 cm and a height of 15.9 cm.

a Calculate the volume correct to the nearest cm3.
b How many millilitres of fruit juice will the can hold,
correct to the nearest 10 mL?
11 A cylindrical water tank has a diameter of 3.8 m and a height of 4.5 m.

a Find the volume of the tank, correct to the nearest m3.
b Find the capacity of the cylinder, in kilolitres (1 m3 = 1000 L).
12 Find the volume of each solid, correct to the nearest mm3.
a b 15 mm c
120°
60°
2.4 mm
10 mm
8 mm 35°
9.5 mm
5.7 mm
13 A cylinder has an exact volume of 405π cm3 and a radius of 18 cm. Find the height of the
cylinder.
14 The exact volume of a cylinder is 96π cm3. If the height is 6 cm, find the length of the radius.
15 Find the diameter of a cylindrical saucepan whose volume is 2268.2 cm 3 and height is 8 cm.
Answer correct to the nearest mm.
16 A cylindrical fish tank has a diameter of 22 cm and can hold 13.7 L of water when full. Find:
a the volume of the tank in cm3
b the height of the tank, correct to the nearest cm
392 Mathscape 8
International one-day cricket
Introduction
Australia is one of the best in the game of cricket, for both women and men. Players such as
Belinda Clark, Karen Rolton, Steve Waugh, Shane Warne and many others are world famous.
The rules of one-day cricket in particular are designed to make the game fast and action packed.
Unlike test cricket, the two teams only have 50 overs in which to score the most runs. During
the first 15 overs, the bowling side is only allowed to have two fielders outside an inner ‘circle’
at the instant the ball is bowled. The area of this inner circle is precisely defined and marked
out clearly around the pitch. The rule allows batsmen a better chance to score runs early.
Further, for the remaining overs, only 5 fielders are permitted to be outside the inner circle at
the instant of delivery.
Focus question
What is the area and perimeter of the inner circle in one-day cricket?
1 Copy the diagram of the inner circle into your book. 27.5 m radius
It does not have to be drawn to scale. The two
semicircles have a radius of 27.5 m with the middle
stump as the centre. The length of the pitch (middle
27.5 m radius
stump to middle stump) is 20.12 m.
2 Calculate the area and perimeter of the inner circle
using a calculator. Give your answers to the nearest middle stump
m2 and m, respectively. to middle
stump 20.12 m
3 The field of play is bounded by a rope or line. Assuming the field of play is bounded by a
circle of diameter 150 m, calculate the area of the field of play to the nearest m 2.
4 If a ball reaches the boundary the batsman scores 4 runs. If it goes over the boundary on the
full the batsman scores 6. In Australia’s win over South Africa in Sydney on 22 January
2002, Mark Waugh top-scored with 55 not out. He hit 23 singles. Could he have scored
a six?
1 The actual shape of the boundary for one-day cricket at the Sydney Cricket Ground (SCG)
is an ellipse. Calculate the area of the field of play to the nearest m 2 using the formula:
Area of ellipse = πab
where a = 79 m and b = 73 m as shown in the diagram. b
What happens to the formula when a = b? a
What is the shape then?
2 Use the formula Perimeter = 2π ab to calculate the perimeter of the boundary to the
nearest metre. What happens to the formula when a = b?
Draw a diagram to show what you have learned about the geometry of the field of play in
one-day international cricket at the SCG. Include the shape of the inner ‘circle’ inside the field
of play, its area and perimeter.
%R EFLECTING
The geometry of the field of play and the fielding restrictions have an effect on the speed at
which runs are scored, batting and bowling averages, run rates and so on. Think about how
mathematics plays an important part in making one-day cricket a fast-moving and entertaining
game.
B P ROBLEM SOLVING
1 You were driving a bus with 20 passengers aboard. At the first stop, 6 people got off
and 4 got on. At the second stop, three got off and one got on. At the third stop, five
got on and eight got off. At the next stop, 6 got off and 3 got on. What is the name
of the bus driver? (Did you read the question carefully?)
2 A student rides his bike from home to school at 6 km/h and walks the bike home at
2 km/h. If the whole trip takes 2 hours, how far is it from his home to school?
394 Mathscape 8
3 Move just two of these 8 buckets so that the empty and full ones alternate.
E E E E F F F F
4 A pop singer has a Top Ten hit each year. After her fifth hit, the total of the dates of
the years was 9915. In which years did she have her hits?
5 What is the length of the square that has a perimeter in cm equal to its area in cm2?
6 In a system of 3 gear wheels, the first wheel has 4 teeth,
the second has 12 teeth, and the third has 8. How many
revolutions will the small wheel have to make before all 4 12 8
wheels are back in their starting positions?
7 Can you make 4 triangles with 6 matches? (Plasticine will help!)
8 You have 6 counters, 3 black and 3 white, and
seven spaces. The counters may move to an empty
adjacent space or may jump another counter to an
empty square. How many moves do you need to
exchange black and white pieces? (Keep a count!
Practise and you will improve!) What is the count for
other class members? What is the least number of
moves to exchange the black and white pieces?
9 Make 5 threes, using any operation signs (+, −, ÷, ×), equal 14.
10 I am sitting in a theatre. There are many rows of seats and each row has the same
number of seats. My seat is 20th from the front. There are 8 people to my left, and
three more than that to my right. There are no empty seats in my row. There are twice
as many seats behind me as in front of me. How many seats are there in the theatre?
1 The c_______ is the boundary of a circle. tangent 1. Specialised in geometry, a straight line
2 A s______________ is half the boundary which touches a curve 2. a sudden new direction:
of a circle. I find it hard to follow his conversation because he keeps
3 A c_______ is an interval that joins two flying off at a tangent.
points on a circle.
4 Define radius for a new Maths How is the mathematical use of this word
Dictionary. different from everyday life uses?
entry for tangent:
1 Sketch each of these parts of a circle. b 10 cm
VIEW
a a diameter b an arc
c a segment d a sector
e a tangent f a chord
g a radius h a semicircle
2 Draw a diagram to show a chord that is c 11 cm
perpendicular to a diameter, but parallel
CHAPTER RE
to a tangent.
3 A circle has radius of 9 cm. What is the 14 cm
length of the largest chord that can be
drawn in this circle? What is it called? d
4 What fraction of a circle is each sector:
a b
100° 24 cm
240°
9 The diameter of the Earth is
5 A chord PQ has length 12 cm and is 8 cm approximately 12 800 km. Calculate the
from O, the centre of the circle. Find: distance around the Earth, at the equator,
a the length of the diameter correct to the nearest km.
b the area of the ∆POQ 10 Find, correct to 1 decimal place:
6 Find, correct to 1 decimal place, the a the radius of a circle with a
circumference of a circle with: circumference of 48.5 cm
a radius 15 cm b radius 17.5 cm b the diameter of a circle with a
c diameter 12 cm d diameter 8.6 cm circumference of 120 cm
7 Find the total perimeter of each sector, 11 Find, correct to 1 decimal place, the area
correct to 1 decimal place. of a circle with:
a b a radius 9 cm
b radius 11.5 cm
c diameter 16 cm
18 mm d diameter 21.4 cm
5 mm 12 Find the area of each figure correct to
8 Find the total perimeter of each figure, 1 decimal place.
correct to 1 decimal place. All curves are a b
either semicircles or quarter circles.
a 50 cm
19 cm
13 cm
30 cm
CHAPTER REVIEW
396 Mathscape 8
CHAPTER RE
13 Find the total area of each figure, correct b

to 1 decimal place.
cm
a
34
26 cm
x cm
15 cm 30 cm
17 cm 16 A flat circular plate of radius 5 cm is to be

painted on both sides. Find, correct to the
nearest cm2, the area that is to be painted.
b 10 cm
17 A goat P 9m
grazing in a
13 cm
rectangular
field is tied 10 m
to a corner
post P by a
rope of length 7 m. Find the area in which
VIEW
14 Find the shaded area in each figure,

the goat cannot graze.
correct to the nearest cm2.
a 18 Find the length of the radius of a circle
whose:
a circumference is 18π cm
8 cm
b area is 49π cm2
19 a Find the exact circumference of a
circle whose area is 16π cm2.
18 cm
b Find the exact area of a circle whose
b circumference is 10π cm.
48 20 For each cylinder find:
cm
cm
i the volume, correct to the nearest cm3

36
ii the capacity, in litres

60 cm
a 4 cm
15 For each figure:
i find the value of x using Pythagoras’ 7 cm
Theorem
ii calculate the total area
a b
39
cm x cm
5 cm
36 cm 13 cm
CHAPTER REVIEW
c c
VIEW
8.1 cm
25.4 cm 2 cm
18 cm
CHAPTER RE
d d
8.2 cm
5 cm 17 cm
19.3 cm
21 Find the total volume of each figure,

correct to 1 decimal place. Extension
a
22 Find the total perimeter of each figure,
a b
40 cm 120° 72°
7.3 mm
22 cm
23.5 mm
b 9 cm
23 Find the total area of each figure, correct
to 1 decimal place.
a b
11 cm
135° 4.3 cm
15 cm 5.1 cm 110°
CHAPTER REVIEW
11 Linear
relationships

Stage 4
Linear relationships

read, plot and name ordered pairs on the number plane
relate the location of points on a number plane to maps, plans, street
directories, theatre seating and latitude and longitude
find the distance between two points that lie in the same vertical or
horizontal line
graph discrete and continuous linear relationships on the number plane by
plotting points from a table of values
recognise and graph equations of vertical and horizontal lines
determine by substitution whether a point lies on a line
determine the equation of the line that passes through a given set of
collinear points
determine whether a particular equation will have a graph similar to that
of another equation
determine whether a given equation represents a linear or non-linear
relationship
determine from its equation whether a line will increase or decrease from
left to right
find the point of intersection of two lines graphically.
398
Chapter 11: Linear relationships 399
11.1 Reading maps

■ Locating places in a street directory
The location of a building, park or other place of interest is usually given as a horizontal
reading (usually a letter) followed by a vertical reading (usually a number). For example, the
location of a feature may be given as K5 or A8.
■ Grid references
Six-figure grid references are used by geographers and military personnel to locate the
positions of features on a map. The intervals between the main readings can each be subdivided
further into 10 smaller intervals, however, these are not always shown on the map. In some
cases, the reader must estimate the number of tenths horizontally and vertically.
For example, the location of a feature on a grid map
may be given as 615273. This means that the feature 29
is five-tenths of the way between 61 and 62 on the
feature
horizontal scale and three-tenths of the way between 28
27 and 28 on the vertical scale.
27
26
59 60 61 62
■ Latitude and longitude

On a map of the world, the position of a town 10°E
or city is given by using latitude and longitude. Prime meridian
Latitude is a measure of the position north or 60°N 0° longitude
south of the equator. Longitude is a measure of 10°W
Equator
the position east or west of the prime meridian. 30°N
0° latitude
The equator has 0° latitude and the prime
meridian, which passes through Greenwich,
England, has 0° longitude. When reading the 30°S
position of a town or city, give the latitude
and then the longitude. 60°S
For example, using the world map on page 402, the co-ordinates of Washington DC in the USA
are 39°N 77°W.
400 Mathscape 8
Example 1
EG a What feature is located
+S at grid reference F14?
b Give the grid reference
for the intersection of
Victoria Ave and
Carrington Rd.
Solutions
a The feature located at
grid reference F14 is
Cockayne Reserve.
b The grid reference for
the intersection of
Victoria Ave and
Carrington Rd is C14.
Example 2
EG What feature is located at the grid reference 625339 on the grid map on page 402.
+S
Solution
The grid reference 625339 refers to a position that is five-tenths of the way between 62 and
63 on the horizontal axis and nine-tenths of the way between 33 and 34 on the vertical axis.
The feature located at this position is a mobile-phone tower.
Example 3
EG Name the city that is located at each of the following positions, using the world map on
+S page 402.
a 32°S 116°E b 12°S 77°W
Solutions
a Perth b Lima
Exercise 11.1 5 6
4 7
3 8
1 This diagram shows Eva Kim
2 9
the seating plan Tim 10
1 Ray
for a small Lou Ann
theatre. Each Dee I Pa E
seat number E Tom Bec an D
on
Ro
s m
D t Len D
consists of a Pa
C C
letter followed Liz
B Th B
by a number. STAGE u
A A
a Who is sitting
in seat:
i D3? ii E7? iii A10? iv B4?
b Write down the seat number for each person.
i Tim ii Don iii Liz iv Eva
c Who is sitting next to Tom?
d Who is sitting behind Dee?
e Which people are sitting in the front row?
f Who is sitting to the left of Ian?
g How many spare seats are there between Tom and Ros?
■ Consolidation
Questions 2, 3 and 4 refer to the street directory map on page 400.
2 What is the main feature located at each of these map references? (Do not refer to roads or
road intersections.)
a F11 b G8 c B5 d A14
e A11 f A6 g E10 h D12
i A12 j D1 k G12 l G16
m B8 n H6 o A16 p B15
3 Write down the map reference for each of the following.

a Castle Hill Sewage Treatment Plant b Castle Hill Caravan Park
c The Hills Centre d The Hills District Pony Club
e Castle Glen Reserve f BMX Track
4 Name the pair of roads that intersect at map reference:

a A12 b B6 c F11 d C14
e F1 f C3 g J6 h C12
402 Mathscape 8
Questions 5 and 6 refer to 38

this grid map.
Victory Hill
5 Name the feature that 37
Moreton station Boyd's
is situated at each grid Mine Sandy Point
reference. 36 Lookout
a 640330
b 633364 35
c 577342 Bert's Bridge
Ranger headquarters
d 635350
34 Mobile phone tower
Jefferson Fire station
33 k Falls
Cre e
C r o w 's Mt Green
32
Freeman's Gully
31
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66
6 Give the six-figure grid reference for each feature.

a Jefferson Falls b Moreton station c Victory Hill
d Mt Green e Freeman’s Gully f Boyd’s Mine
Questions 7 and 8 refer to the map below.
180° 150° 120° 90° 60° 30° 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°
75° 75°
Stockholm
60° 60°
Moscow
Ottawa London Rome
45° 45°
Washington Bejiing N
D.C. New York Tokyo
Los Angeles
30° New Delhi 30° O
R
Mexico City T
Kampala H
0° 0°
PRIME MERIDIAN
Lima Port S
Jakarta
Moresby O
30° Rio de Sydney 30° U
Janerio Perth T
Cape Town H
45° 45°
Wellington
60° 60°
180° 150° 120° 90° 60° 30° 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°
WEST EAST
7 Name the city that has the following latitude and longitude.
a 35°N 139°E b 42°N 12°E c 34°S 18°E d 19°N 99°W
e 51°N 0° f 55°N 37°E g 34°S 151°E h 35°N 116°E
i 34°N 118°W j 9°S 147°E k 45°N 75°W l 28°N 77°E
8 Give the latitude and longitude for each city.

a Rio de Janeiro b Wellington c Jakarta
d Kampala e New York f Stockholm
Use the map on page 400 to answer Q 9–11. The scale on the map is 1 cm represents 250 metres.
9 Find in metres the length of:

a McIntyre Place (K7) b Windarra Place (D6) c Rosebery Rd (B4)
10 Find the distance in km between the Sporting Complex (B8) and the Motor Registry (D12).
11 Find the total area in hectares of Castle Hill Cemetery (G8).
12 Estimate the latitude and longitude of each city with the use of an atlas.
a Canberra b Paris c Washington DC
d Seoul e Madrid f Dublin
g Beirut h Singapore i Athens
11.2 The number plane

The number plane is divided into four quadrants by y
two perpendicular lines called the x-axis and the y-axis. 4
The x-axis is the horizontal line and the y-axis is the 3
2nd 1st
vertical line. 2
1
The position of a point is given as an ordered pair
or pair of co-ordinates (x, y). In any ordered pair, -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x
the reading on the x-axis is given first followed by -1
the reading on the y-axis. The axes intersect at a point -2
called the origin, which has co-ordinates (0, 0). 3rd -3 4th
-4
The length of an interval in the number plane is given
in units. That is, distance is not measured in metric units
such as centimetres.
404 Mathscape 8
Example 1 y
EG Write down the co-ordinates of each point. 4
+S 3 A
a A b B c C
2
d D e E f F
B 1 G
g G h H F E
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x
Solutions -1
D -2
a A(2, 3) b B(-4, 1) c C(3, -4)
-3 H
d D(-1, -2) e E(4, 0) f F(-2, 0)
-4 C
g G(0, 1) h H(0, -3)
Example 2
EG In which quadrant does each point lie?
+S
a (-5, 3) b (2, -4) c (7, 1) d (-8, -6)
Solutions
a 2nd b 4th c 1st d 3rd
Example 3
EG a Find the points P(1, 5), Q(7, 5) and R(7, 2) and join them to form a triangle.
+S b Find the lengths of PQ and QR.
c Use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the length of PR, correct to 1 decimal place.
Solutions
a y b PQ = (7 − 1) units and QR = (5 − 2) units
6 = 6 units = 3 units.
6 units Q
5 P
4 c By Pythagoras’ Theorem
3 units PR2 = PQ2 + QR2
3
2 = 62 + 32
R
1 = 36 + 9
= 45
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8x
-1 ∴ PR = 45
= 6.7 units (to 1 decimal place)
Exercise 11.2
1 y Write down the letter that marks the position

J 4 G
B 3 N
of the point with co-ordinates:
a (3, 4) b (-3, 1)
2 A c (-2, -4) d (2, -3)
F 1 I
R O P
e (1, 2) f (0, 0)
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x
g (-2, 3) h (-3, -1)
-1 i (0, 3) j (-2, -2)
M H E
-2 Q D k (4, 0) l (-4, -4)
-3 L m (2, 1) n (1, -1)
K o (0, -2) p (4, -2)
C -4
q (-1, 0) r (-4, 4)
2 Write down the co-ordinates of each y

G
of these points. 6
I O
a A b B c C 5
d D e E f F 4 A
P
g G h H i I B 3
j J k K l L 2 E
m M n N o O L
1
p P q Q r R F
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-1 C
K N
-2
H J
-3
R
-4
M
D -5 Q
-6
3 Draw a number plane with values from -3 to 3 on each axis, then plot the following points.
a A(1 1--2- , 2) b B(-1, 2 1--2- ) c C(2 1--2- , -1 1--2- ) d D(- 1--2- , 0)
4 In which quadrant of the number plane does each point lie?

a (3, 2) b (1, -2) c (-2, 4) d (-3, -5)
e (3, -4) f (2, 5) g (-1, -6) h (-1, 3)
i (-4, -7) j (-8, 2) k (4, 6) l (5, -6)
m (7, 1) n (5, -1) o (-8, -3) p (-6, 3)
406 Mathscape 8
■ Consolidation
5 Which interval joins points in the following quadrants? y
a 1st and 3rd b 2nd and 4th A
B
c 3rd and 2nd d 4th and 1st
e 1st and 2nd f 3rd and 1st
0 x
C
D
6 P, Q, R, S are points in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th quadrants, respectively. What do the
following pairs of points have in common?
a P and Q b Q and R c R and S d S and P
7 Name the interval that joins P(3, 4) to: y

a (5, -2) b (2, 0) 5Q
4 P
c (0, 0) d (0, 5)
e (-3, 2) f (-1, 0) 3
R
g (-2, -4) h (0, -3) 2
1
S W
-3 -2 -1 T 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
X
-2
-3 V
U
-4
8 Find the distance between the points: y

a A and B b C and D 4 C
c E and F d G and H I 3 A B
e I and A f J and K 2
E F
g I and J h L and M 1
D
i F and H j C and M
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x
k B and N l A and K -1
L G M
-2
J -3 K
-4
H N
9 Write down the co-ordinates of the point that is:

a 3 units to the right of (1, 4) b 4 units to the left of (6, 3)
c 2 units above (5, 6) d 1 unit below (4, 2)
e 2 units to the left of (1, 3) f 3 units above (4, 0)
g 5 units below (3, 2) h 6 units to the right of (-4, 1)
i 4 units above (-3, -5) j 7 units to the left of (0, 2)
k 6 units below (-1, 1) l 9 units to the right of (-4, -5)
10 a Plot the points E(1, 2), F(1, 5), G(4, 5) and H(4, 2) on a number plane, then join the
points to form a quadrilateral.
b What kind of figure is EFGH?
c Calculate the perimeter.
11 a Plot the points W(-3, 4), X(1, 4), Y(1, -2) and Z(-3, -2) on a number plane, then join the
points to form a quadrilateral.
b What kind of figure is WXYZ?
c Calculate the area.
12 a Plot the points A(4, 5), B(1, 3) and C(6, 3) on a number plane, then join A to B and
B to C.
b Find the co-ordinates of point D such that ABCD is a parallelogram.
c Join the diagonals and write down the co-ordinates of their point of intersection.
13 a Plot the points L(-2, 3), M(-2, -1) and N(2, -1) on a number plane, then join the points
to form a triangle.
c Is the triangle isosceles?
d Find the area of this triangle.
14 a Plot the points T(-1, 1), U(3, 1) and V(3, -2) on a number plane, then join the points to
form a triangle.
c Use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the length of the hypotenuse TV.
d Calculate the perimeter of ∆TUV.
15 y a Find the height LJ of ∆IJK.
I (1, 7) b Find the length of the base IK.
J (6, 4) c Hence, calculate the area of ∆IJK.
L
0 x
K (1, -5)
16 Use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the length of the interval AB in each of these, correct to
1 decimal place where necessary.
a y b A (-5, 9) y c y
B (4, 7)
B (5, 4)
A (1, 3) 0 x
B (3, 3) A (-7, -1)
0 x 0 x
408 Mathscape 8
d A (-4, 2) y e y f y
A (-6, 5)
0 x
B (1,-1)
0
x
B (3, -2) 0 x A (-5, -4)
B (-2, -3)
11.3 Straight line graphs

■ Graphing discrete linear relationships
In Year 7 you learnt to write rules both in words and by using pronumerals to describe various
patterns such as those formed by matchsticks. The rules were used to form ordered pairs, which
were then plotted on a number grid.
For example, the matchstick pattern below could be described in words by the rule ‘The number
of matches = 4 × the step number’.
If we formed a table of values and used

the pronumeral x to stand for the step Step number (x) 1 2 3 4
number and y to stand for the number Number of matches (y) 4 8 12 16
of matches, then this rule could be
written more simply as y = 4x.
y The pairs of corresponding x and y values in the table
28 represent the points (1,4), (2,8), (3,12), (4,16). These points
24 can be plotted on a number grid and further points can be
20 found by extending the pattern. Data that is collected by
16 forming matchstick patterns is discrete data, as both the
12 step number and the number of matches must be integers.
8 Any graph drawn to represent this data must therefore
4 consist only of a series of points, where the points are not
joined together. That is, we should not draw a line through
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x the points because it is not sensible, for example, to try to
find the number of matches in step 2.5 or step 1 1--3- .
■ The graph of a linear equation

By convention, when given an equation to graph on a number plane, we assume that the
equation represents continuous data, unless we are told otherwise. The graph of an equation
may be either a straight line or a curve. A linear equation is an equation whose graph is a
straight line. Most of our work in this topic is only concerned with the study of linear equations
and straight line graphs.
To draw the graph of a straight line:

draw a table with at least three x values
substitute each x value from the table into the equation to find the corresponding
y value
plot the points on a number plane
draw a line through the points, with an arrow at each ‘end’
label the axes and the graph.
Note: 1 Although only two points are needed to graph a straight line, it is common to use at
least one more point as a check point.
2 A straight line continues indefinitely in both directions. The graph should be drawn a
little further than the first and last points at each ‘end’.
■ Points lying on a line

The equation of a line states the way in which the x and y values of every point on that line are
related. For example,
1 the equation y = 2x tells us that for every point on the line, the y value is equal to twice the
x value
2 the equation y = x + 5 tells us that for every point on the line, the y value is equal to 5 more
than the x value.
To determine whether a point lies on a given line:

substitute the co-ordinates of the point into the equation of the line
if the co-ordinates satisfy the equation, then the point lies on the line.
410 Mathscape 8
Example 1
EG Graph the line y = 3x + 1 on a number plane by first completing a table of values.
+S
Solution y
x -1 0 1 2 7
The y values in this table were found
1
by multiplying each x value by 3, y -2 1 4 7 6
3x +
then adding 1. 5
y=
4
3
2
1
-2 -1 0 1 2 x
-1
-2
-3
Example 2
EG Determine by substitution whether the point:
+S
a P(3, 5) lies on the line y = 4x − 7 b Q(-2, -1) lies on the line y = 3 − x
Solutions
a y = 4x − 7 b y=3−x
= (4 × 3) − 7 = 3 − (-2)
= 12 − 7 =3+2
=5 =5
≠ -1
Substituting (3, 5) into the equation Substituting (-2, -1) into the equation of
of the line gives a true statement. the line does not give a true statement.
That is, the co-ordinates of the point That is, the co-ordinates of the point do
satisfy the equation. Therefore, the not satisfy the equation. Therefore, the
point P does lie on the line. point Q does not lie on the line.
Exercise 11.3
1 Consider the following matchstick pattern.
a Copy and complete this table of values.

Step number (x) 1 2 3 4
Number of matches (y)
b Write in words a rule that describes the number of matches needed to form each step in
the pattern.
c Rewrite this rule using the pronumerals x and y.

d Plot the points from the table on a number grid and show their co-ordinates. Extend the
graph by plotting the next two points in the pattern.
e Would it make sense to join the dots? Explain your answer.
f How many matches would be needed to form the figure in step 10?
2 Answer the following questions for each matchstick pattern below.

i Copy and complete this table of values.
ii Write in words a rule that describes the number of matches needed to form each step in
the pattern.
iii Rewrite this rule using the pronumerals x and y.
iv Plot the points from the table on a number grid and show their co-ordinates. Extend the
graph by plotting the next two points in the pattern.
v How many matches would be needed to form the figure in step 20?
3 Copy and complete each table of values, then graph the equation on a number plane.
a y=x b y = 2x
x 0 1 2 3 4 x -1 0 1 2 3
y y
c y = 3x d y=x+2
x -2 -1 0 1 2 x -2 -1 0 1 2
y y
e y=x−1 f y = -x
x -1 0 1 2 3 x -2 -1 0 1 2
y y
412 Mathscape 8
x
g y=4−x h y = ---
2
x -1 0 1 2 3 x -4 -2 0 2 4
y y
i y = 2x + 1 j y = 3x − 1
x -1 0 1 2 3 x -2 -1 0 1 2
y y
k y = 2x + 4 l y = 1--2- x + 5
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 x -4 -2 0 2 4
y y
■ Consolidation
4 Use a table of values to draw the graph of each equation.
a y = 2x b y=x+1 c y=x−3 d y=2−x
e y = --3- x
1
f y = 2x + 3 g y = 3x − 4 h y = 5 − 2x
5 Determine by substitution whether each point lies on the given line.

a y = x − 1; (2, 1) b y = x + 4; (-2, -2) c y = -x; (-3, -3)
d y = 7x; (0, 0) e y = 3 − x; (-2, 5) f y = -4x; (-8, 12)
x 2x
g y = --- ; (5, 10) h y = ------ ; (6, 4) i y = 5x + 2; (0, 7)
2 3
j y = 3x − 7; (1, -4) k y = 3 − 2x; (8, -13) l 2x + 7y = 1; (-3, 1)
6 Which point(s) lie on the given line?

a y = 5x + 3; A (2, 13) B (1, 9) C (-2, -7)
b y = 3x − 2; A (4, 10) B (-1, -4) C (0, 1)
c y = 1 − 2x; A (0, -1) B (-5, 11) C (-3, 6)
d y = 4 − 6x; A (2, -4) B (-3, 22) C (1, -2)
7 Which line(s) pass through the given point?

a (3, 4); A y=x−1 B y = 2x − 2 C y = 5x − 9
x
b (-2, 6); A y=8−x B y = --- + 7 C y = 2 − 2x
2
c (-1, -3); A y = 3x B y=x+2 C x+y=4
d (0, 2); A y=x+2 B y = 3x − 1 C y = 2x
8 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following if:
a (3, k) lies on the line y = x + 4 b (p, 2) lies on the line y = x − 5
c (-4, m) lies on the line y = 1 − 2x d (u, -5) lies on the line y = 3x + 1
11.4 Linear and non-linear

equations
The equation of a straight line can often be found by inspection. It usually involves looking for
the relationship between the x and y values in a table.
To find the equation of a line given its graph:

form a table of x and y values using points that lie on the line
ask ‘what must be done to the x value in each pair to give the corresponding
y value?’
write this relationship in the form y = mx + b, where m and b are numbers.
There are several relationships between the numbers in a linear equation and the shape of the
corresponding graph. The following exercise is of a deductive nature. Therefore, a summary of
these important results is provided at the end of the exercise.
Example 1
EG Find the equation of the line that passes through the
+S given points. x 0 1 2 3 4
Solution y 2 5 8 11 14
By inspection, • 2 = (3 × 0) + 2
• 5 = (3 × 1) + 2
• 8 = (3 × 2) + 2
• 11 = (3 × 3) + 2
• 14 = (3 × 4) + 2
∴ The equation of the line is y = 3x + 2.
Exercise 11.4
1 Determine the equation of the line that passes through the points in each table.
a x -3 -1 0 2 5 b x -7 -4 1 3 6
y -3 -1 0 2 5 y 7 4 -1 -3 -6
c x 0 1 2 3 4 d x -2 -1 0 1 2
y -2 -1 0 1 2 y 3 4 5 6 7
e x -1 0 1 2 3 f x -8 -6 2 6 14
y -4 0 4 8 12 y -4 -3 1 3 7
g x 1 2 3 4 5 h x -2 -1 0 1 2
y 6 5 4 3 2 y 4 3 2 1 0
414 Mathscape 8
i x -1 0 1 2 3 j x 0 1 2 3 4
y 3 5 7 9 11 y -1 2 5 8 11
k x 0 2 4 6 8 l x 0 3 6 9 12
y 3 4 5 6 7 y -2 -1 0 1 2
■ Consolidation
2 Prepare a table of values for each of the following lines and use it to find the equation of
the line. What do you notice about the equations of those lines that slope to the left?
a y b y c y
10 8 4
6 3
5 4 2
2 1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x -2 -1 0 1 2 x
-2 -1
-5 -2
-3
-10 -4
d y e y
1 6
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x 5
-1 4
-2 3
-3 2
-4 1
-5
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x
-6 -1
-7
f y g y
2 8
1 6
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 x 4
-1 2
-2
-2 -1 0 1 2 x
-2
-4
-6
-8
h y i y
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x
-2 -2
-4
-6
-8
3 Look at the graphs in Q2 and at their equations.

a Which lines increase from left to right? What do their equations have in common?
b Which lines decrease from left to right? What do their equations have in common?
4 State whether the following lines increase or decrease from left to right.
a y = 3x b y = -2x c y = -x + 2 d y=x+5
e y = -4x + 6 f y = 2x − 7 g y=4−x h y = -x
x
i y = 5x + 3 j y=9−x k y = -1 + x l y = --- – 3
2
5 y The equations y = 2x, y = 2x + 3 and y = 2x − 4

6 have been graphed on the same number plane.
5
2x
a What do all of the equations have in

–4
y=
4 common?
2x
3
y=
b What do you notice about the graphs?

2 c What can you conclude from a and b?
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
+3
-3
2x
-4
y=
-5
-6
6 Which two lines are parallel in each of the following:

a A y = 2x B y = 2x + 3 C y=x+2
b A y=x+1 B y = 7x C y=x+7
c A y = -3x B y=x−3 C y=x+3
d A y = 3x + 2 B y = 2x + 3 C y = 3x − 1
e A y = 5x + 3 B y = 1 + 5x C y = 6 − 5x
f A y=x−2 B y = -2x + 1 C y = 8 − 2x
416 Mathscape 8
7 The equations y = x + 5, y = 2x + 5 and y

y = 3x + 5 have been graphed on the 9 5
same number plane. 8 x+
a What do all of the equations have 7 y=
in common? 6
b What do all of the graphs have 5
in common? y = 2x + 5 4
c What can you conclude from 3
a and b? y = 3x + 5
2
1
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
8 Which of the following equations represent lines that will cut the y-axis at 3?
A y=x+3 B y = 3x C y=x−3 D y = 3x + 1
x
E y=3−x F y = -3x G y = -2x + 3 H y = 3 + ---
2
9 Which of the following lines pass through the origin?
A y=x B y = 2x C y=x+1 D y = -x
x
E y=x−3 F y = 2x + 4 G y = -3x H y = ---
4
10 State the y-intercept of each line.
a y=x+4 b y = 2x + 3 c y=x−1 d y = 3x − 2
e y = 2x f y = -x + 5 g y=6−x h y = 2x − 4
x
i y = -1 − x j y = -x k y = --- + 8 l y = 7 − 1--3- x
2
11 Copy and complete each table of values. Plot the points on a number plane and join them.
Are the relationships linear?
a y = x2 b y = x3
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x -2 -1 - 1--2- 0 1
---
2
1 2
y y
c y = 2x d y = 9 – x2
x 0 1 2 3 4 x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y y
1
e y = ---
x
x -3 -2 -1 - 1--2- - 1--3- 0 1
---
3
1
---
2
1 2 3
y
12 How are the equations of linear relationships different from those in Q11?
13 State whether or not each equation represents a linear relationship.

a y = x2 b y = 2x c y = 3x d y = x3
e y = 2x − 4 f y = 5 − 3x g y = 3x 2
h y = 2x4
x
i y = 1--2- x j y = x2 + 2 k y = x3 − 3x + 1 l y = ---
4
14 Explain why the following equations do not represent linear relationships.
1
a y = --- b y = 2x c y= x d x2 + y2 = 4
x
Having completed the questions in this exercise, you should have discovered the
following facts.
If in a linear equation the co-efficient of x is positive, then the line increases from
left to right.
If in a linear equation the co-efficient of x is negative, then the line decreases from
left to right.
If in two linear equations the co-efficients of x are equal, then the lines are
parallel.
The constant term in a linear equation is the y-intercept of the line.
All linear relationships have an equation of the form y = mx + b, where m and b
are constants.
11.5 Horizontal and vertical

lines
The equation of a line shows the relationship that exists between all of the points on that line.
For example, the equation y = 2x tells us that for every point on the line, the y value is equal to
twice the x value. What then can be said about all of the points that lie on the graph whose
equation is of the form x = a or y = b, where a and b are constants?
Consider the graph whose equation is x = 1. There is no mention y
of y in the equation, therefore the only conclusion we can draw is 2
that all of the points on this line have an x value of 1. That is, the 1
line passes through the points (1, -2), (1, -1), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2)
-2 -1 0 1 2 x
and so on. When these points are plotted on the number plane, -1
we see that they all lie on the vertical line that cuts the x-axis -2
at x = 1.
x=1
418 Mathscape 8
Consider the graph whose equation is y = 3. As there is no y

mention of x in the equation, the only conclusion we can 3 y=3
draw is that all of the points on this line have a y value of 3. 2
That is, the line passes through the points (-2, 3), (-1, 3), 1
(0, 3), (1, 3), (2, 3) and so on. When these points are plotted
-2 -1 0 1 2 x
on the number plane, we see that they all lie on the horizontal -1
line that cuts the y-axis at y = 3. -2
x = a is the equation of a vertical line cutting the x-axis at a.

y = b is the equation of a horizontal line cutting the y-axis at b.
y y
0 a x 0 x
x=a y=b
Example
EG a Sketch the lines x = 2 and y = 4 on the same number plane.
+S b What is the point of intersection of these lines?
Solutions
a y b The point of intersection is (2, 4).
5
4 y=4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x
-1
-2
x=2
Exercise 11.5
1 Plot each set of points on a number plane then draw the line that passes through them.
Write down the equation of each line.
a x 2 2 2 2 2 b x -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
y -2 -1 0 1 2 y -1 0 1 2 3
c x -2 -1 0 1 2 d x 0 1 2 3 4
y 3 3 3 3 3 y -2 -2 -2 -2 -2
2 Write down the equation of each line.

a y b y
3 3
2 2
1 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
c y d y
3 3
2 2
1 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
e y f y
3 3
2 2
1 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
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■ Consolidation
3 Draw a number plane and label each axis from -6 to 6. Graph and clearly label each set of
4 lines on the same number plane.
a i x=4 ii y = 1 iii x = -3 iv y = -2
b i y=5 ii x = -6 iii x = 1 iv y = -4
4 a What do the points (-4, 0), (-1, 0), (2, 0), (3, 0) and (7, 0) all have in common?
b Where do these points lie on the number plane?
c What can you conclude from a and b?
5 a What do the points (0, -3), (0, -2), (0, 1), (0, 4) and (0, 6) all have in common?
b Where do these points lie on the number plane?
c What can you conclude from a and b?
6 Write down the point of intersection of the lines:

a x = 3 and y = 2 b x = -4 and y = 1 c y = 3 and x = -5
d y = -2 and x = -7 e x = 6 and y = 0 f y = 0 and x = -2
7 Find the equation of the line that passes through the point:
a (2, 3) and is parallel to the y-axis b (4, 7) and is parallel to the x-axis
c (-1, 5) and is parallel to the y-axis d (3, -2) and is parallel to the x-axis
e (-7, 4) and is parallel to the x-axis f (1, -6) and is parallel to the y-axis
g (-4, -9) and is parallel to the y-axis h (-2, -5) and is parallel to the x-axis
8 Find the equations of all vertical and horizontal lines that are 6 units away from (-2, -1).
9 The lines y = x − 3 and y = 5 intersect at the point P. y

a Graph these lines accurately on the same number y=5 P
5
plane and hence find the co-ordinates of P.
b How could you find the point of intersection
algebraically, i.e. without graphing the lines?
0 x
3
x–
y=
10 Three of the lines that enclose a square on a number plane have equations x = 6, x = 1 and
y = 2. What could the equation of the fourth line be?
11.6 Intersection of lines

If two straight lines are not parallel they will have exactly one point of intersection. As this
point lies on both lines, its co-ordinates must satisfy the equations of both lines.
To find the point of intersection of two lines:

graph the lines on the same number plane
read off the co-ordinates of their point of intersection.
Every point on the y-axis has an x value of 0. Similarly, every point on the x-axis has a y value of
0. These facts can be used to find the points of intersection of a line with the axes
(the intercepts) and then to graph the line.
To graph a line using the intercepts method:

substitute x = 0 into the equation to find the y-intercept
substitute y = 0 into the equation to find the x-intercept
draw a line through the two intercepts.
Example 1
EG a Graph the lines y = 2x and y = x + 3 on the same number plane.
+S b Write down the point of intersection of these lines.
Solutions y
2x
a y = 2x 9
y=
8
x -1 0 1 2 3 7
y -2 0 2 4 6 6 (3, 6)
5
y=x+3
4
x -1 0 1 2 3 3
3
y 2 3 4 5 6 2
x+
1
y=
b The point of intersection of the lines is (3, 6). -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x

-1
-2
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Example 2
EG Find the x- and y-intercepts of the line with equation y = 2x + 6, then sketch the line.
+S
Solution y
When x = 0: y = (2 × 0) + 6 8
∴y=6 7
∴ the y-intercept is (0, 6). 6
5
When y = 0: 0 = 2x + 6
6
4
2x = -6
+
3
2x
∴ x = -3
y=
2
∴ the x-intercept is (-3, 0).
1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
-1
-2
Exercise 11.6
1 Write down the co-ordinates of the point y

y=
y=6 3
of intersection of each pair of lines. 6 1_ x+
–x
a y = x and x = 3 5 y= 2
b x = -2 and y = 6 4
c y = x − 3 and y = -3 3
3
y=
d y = -x and y = 1--2- x + 3
x–
2
-x
y=
e y = 6 and y = 2 − x
–
1
5
f y = -x and x = 3
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
g x = -2 and y = x − 3 -1
h y = 2 − x and x = 3 -2
i y = x and y = 2 − x y = -3
-3
y=
j x = -2 and y = -x − 5 2
-4 –
x
k y = x and y = -x -5
l y = -x − 5 and y = x − 3
x
y=
-6
x = -2 x=3
■ Consolidation
2 Graph each pair of lines on the same number plane and hence determine their point of
intersection.
a x = -1 and y = 2 b x = 4 and y = x c y = x + 1 and y = 3
d y = x and y = 2 − x e y = 2x and y = x + 2 f y = x + 3 and y = 1 − x
g y = x and y = 2x − 1 h y = 5x − 3 and y = 3x − 1 i y = x − 1 and x + y = 5
3 a Show by substitution that (4, 13) lies on the line y = x + 9.
b Show by substitution that (4, 13) also lies on the line y = 2x + 5.
c What can you conclude about the lines y = x + 9 and y = 2x + 5 from the results in
a and b?
4 Show by substitution that the lines:

a y = 4x − 2 and y = 5 − 3x intersect at (1, 2)
b y = x − 4 and y = 3x + 2 intersect at (-3, -7)
c y = −4x and y = 6 − x intersect at (-2, 8)
5 Lines that all intersect at the same point are said to be concurrent. Show by substitution
that the lines y = 1--2- x − 7, y = 5 − x and 2x − 3y − 25 = 0 are concurrent.
6 a How many points of intersection can there be for two lines?
b How many lines can intersect at a particular point?
7 For each of the following lines:
i find the y-intercept by substituting x = 0 into the equation
ii find the x-intercept by substituting y = 0 into the equation
iii sketch the line using these intercepts with the axes
a y=x+3 b y=x−2 c y=5−x
d y = 2x − 8 e y = 6 − 3x f 6x + y = 18
g x − 3y = 9 h 3x + 4y = 12 i 5x − 2y = 20
Dreams, imagination and

mathematical ideas
Introduction
Have you ever dreamed about school? Most of us
have, sometimes of pleasant experiences and other
times unpleasant. But have you ever dreamed about
mathematics? In the history of mathematics and
science many people have had fascinating dreams
that led to important discoveries. René Descartes,
a gifted French philosopher and mathematician
(1596–1650), had a series of dreams that led to his
famous method of reason, which became a foundation
for building scientific knowledge. His method
included splitting difficult problems into simpler
ones, arguing from the simple to the complex, and
checking carefully when he had finished. Sound
advice which we still follow.
424 Mathscape 8
Descartes was the first to have the idea of locating a point in the number plane by an ordered
pair of numbers. You have been studying this idea in this chapter, and plotting points in the
same way he did. This then led him to find that lines and curves could be represented by specific
equations, and so for the first time algebra was linked to geometry. In his honour, the term
‘Cartesian plane’ is used to describe the number plane when it is used in this way.
1 Imagine a number plane. You have drawn them often so this should be easy. Now imagine
a straight line passing through the origin at 45° to the x-axis. Can you ‘see’ that at every
point on the line the x and y co-ordinates are equal? Use this fact to write down the equation
of the line. Check it out by plotting some points in the number plane, say (0, 0), (1, 1),
(3, 3) and points like (-3, -3) and (-1, -1).
2 This time start with the equation y = 2x. Look at it. What does it tell you about the
connection of y with x? Can you ‘see’ that it must go through the origin also? Can you see
that the point (1, 2) must lie on the line? What other points are on the line? Can you imagine
what it would look like as a graph?
3 This time imagine the graph of y = -2x. How does it compare with y = 2x? Describe the
difference in words.
4 Can you ‘see’ that all graphs of the type y = mx, where m is a number, must pass through
the origin?
5 a Now imagine the following relationships. Using a number plane, draw a rough sketch
of what you ‘see’.
i the shape of the path of water squirting from a hose (sketch height against distance)
ii the shape of the relationship between temperature and time as hot coffee cools in a
cup
iii the shape of the relationship between water depth and time between low and high
tides
iv the shape of the relationship between air temperature and time between 6:00 am and
6:00 pm in Sydney on a summer’s day
b What do all the above relationships have in common?
1 Imagine a point in space. The point is dragged to form a line. The line is dragged to form a
plane. The plane is dragged to form a space. Draw each stage of what you can see in your
mind’s eye.
2 You have visualised the three dimensions of space. Suppose the space is moved through
time. What then? Is time the fourth dimension? Check with your teacher!
3 Imagine the following sequence going on to infinity. What do you see? Try drawing what
you see. Discuss your drawing with your neighbour.
1 + 1--2- + 1--4- + 1--8- + -----
16
1
- + ...
It was Albert Einstein who wrote that ‘Imagination is more important than knowledge’.
If he was right, it is an aspect of mathematics you should try to develop. Being able to visualise
(see in your mind’s eye) is a powerful tool for learning mathematics and science. Discuss this
in class.
%R EFLECTING
Think over the role that imagination plays in your learning of mathematics. How important is
it for you in problem solving?
B P ROBLEM SOLVING
1 In this subtraction problem, each letter represents a number, F I V E

for example F = 3 and I = 8. Can you find the other numbers? O N E
F O U R
2 The number of years in Jack’s age is exactly divisible by four whole numbers (excluding
itself and one). List some possible ages for Jack, who is less than 50.
3 Look at the equilateral triangle. Suppose we bend
it along the lines to form a solid (tetrahedron) and 1
paint each of the four sides a different colour.
How many different patterned tetrahedrons could 3
we make with four colours? 2 4
4 Draw a four-square grid that is large enough to place two $2 coins

and one $1 coin as shown. What is the least number of moves needed $2
to pass the $1 coin to the empty square, moving one square per move? $1 $2
Diagonal moves are not allowed.
5 In the nine-square grid there is one $1 coin and seven $2 coins. $2 $2
Coins are moved by jumping over another coin to an empty space,
$2 $2 $2
either horizontally or vertically. How many moves are required to
pass the $1 coin to the opposite corner? $1 $2 $2
6 Mr Phillips is organising a round-robin tennis tournament for the club. In a round-robin

contest each player plays every other player. If there are six players in the tournament,
how many matches are to be played?
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7 Five different-sized square sheets of paper have been

placed on a table overlapping each other in some way.
The sheet marked X is shown completely because it is
on top. You are to number each layer from top to bottom!
8 Draw three straight lines to divide the rectangle into regions so that each cross is in a
different region.
9 Find the next two numbers in this sequence: 5, 10, 17, 26, 37, 50, . . ., . . .
10 I am sure that you have several possible answers to Q2 concerning Jack’s age!
Now we can tell you that in 2 years’ time Jack’s age will again be divisible by 4 whole
numbers (excluding itself and 1). With this extra information, can you find Jack’s age?
1 A position of a point in the number plane origin noun where something or someone comes
is given as an o________ p________. from: The origin of an idea | of Irish origin
2 Explain co-ordinates of a point. How is the mathematical use of this word
3 Explain what is meant by a linear unique?
equation.
4 Define number plane for a new Maths
Dictionary.
entry for origin:
CHAPT
1 In which quadrant of the number plane 2 a Plot the points A(-1, 4), B(5, 4),
does each point lie? C(5, -2), D(-1, -2) on a number plane
a (-4, 7) b (9, 12) and join them to form a quadrilateral.
c (2, -8) d (-4, -13) b What kind of quadrilateral is ABCD?
c Find the perimeter and area of ABCD.
CHAPTER REVIEW
3 Write down the co-ordinates of the point 7 Use a table of values to draw the graph of
VIEW
that is: each equation.
a 5 units to the left of (2, 4) a y = 2x b y=x−1
b 4 units above (3, -2) c y=6−x d y = 4x + 2
4 a Plot the points P(4, 6), Q(4, -2), 8 Determine by substitution whether each
R(-2, -2) on a number plane. point lies on the line y = 4x + 7.
b Find the co-ordinates of the point S a (3, 14) b (0, 7)
CHAPTER RE
such that PQRS is a rectangle. Join c (-2, -1) d ( 1--2- , 15)
P, Q, R, S.
9 Determine by substitution whether each
c Join the diagonals and write down
line passes through the point (-3, 5).
the co-ordinates of their point of
a y=2−x b y = 2x + 1
intersection.
10 Find the value of k if (k, 7) lies on the line
5 a Plot the points A(-1, 3) and B(-4, 7) on
y = 3x − 5.
a number plane, then form a right-
angled triangle with AB as the 11 Find the equation of the line which passes
hypotenuse. through the following points.
b Use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find the a x 0 1 2 3 4
length of the interval AB.
y 0 5 10 15 20
6 For each matchstick pattern below:
i Copy and complete this table of b x 0 1 2 3 4
values.
y -1 0 1 2 3
c x 0 1 2 3 4
y 7 6 5 4 3
ii Write a rule in words that describes
the number of matches needed to d x 0 1 2 3 4
form each step in the pattern. y 3 7 11 15 19
iii Rewrite the rule using the
pronumerals x and y. 12 State whether the following lines increase
iv Plot the points from the table on a or decrease from left to right.
number grid and show their a y = 4x b y = -2x + 1
co-ordinates. x
c y=5−x d y = --- – 3
v Find the number of matches that 2
would be needed to form the figure 13 Which line is parallel to y = 3x − 1?
in step 10. A y = 7x − 3 B y = 3x + 1
a C y = 7x − 1 D y=3
14 State the y-intercept of each line.
b a y=x+5 b y = 3x − 2
x
c y=8−x d y = --- + 4
3
CHAPTER REVIEW
428 Mathscape 8
CHAPTER RE
15 Which two lines pass through the origin? 19 Find the equation of the line that passes
A y = 6x B y=6 through the point:
x a (5, 2) and is parallel to the y-axis
C y = 6x + 1 D y = ---
6 b (-1, -3) and is parallel to the x-axis
16 State whether each equation represents a 20 Graph each pair of lines on the same
linear relationship. number plane and determine their point
a y = 4x − 9 b y = x2 of intersection.
c y=x d y = 2x3 a y = x + 1 and y = 4
1
e y = 1--4- x f y = --- b y = 2 − x and y = 2x − 4
x
17 Graph each of these lines on a number 21 a Show by substitution that B(3, 7) lies
grid. on both the lines y = 3x − 2 and
a y=3 b x=4 y = 4x − 5.
c y = -2 d x = -1 b What does this tell you about the
18 Write down the co-ordinates of the point lines?
of intersection of the lines y = 1 and
x = -2.
VIEW
CHAPTER REVIEW
Data
analysis
and
probability
12
Data analysis and probability
Stage 4
state whether a sample or a census should be used to collect information in
a given situation
detect bias in the selection of a sample
use spreadsheets to tabulate and graph data
generate a random sample by using a table of random numbers, a calculator
and a spreadsheet
use sampling techniques to generate a random sample
make predictions from a sample that may apply to the whole population
construct and critically analyse questionnaires
calculate the mean, median, mode and range of a small set of scores
calculate the mean of a set of scores by using a calculator
calculate the mean, median, mode and range of data presented in a frequency
distribution table, frequency histogram, frequency polygon, dot plot or
stem-and-leaf plot
solve simple problems involving the mean, median, mode and range
compare two sets of data by finding the mean, the median, the mode and
the range of both sets
choose the best average in a given situation
design and conduct a statistical investigation
use the language of probability to refer to the likelihood that an event will occur
list the sample space for a particular event
find the probability that an event will occur
identify the complement of an event and determine its probability
solve simple probability problems.
429
430 Mathscape 8
Statistics is a branch of mathematics concerned with the collection, organisation and analysis
of numerical information called data. Like much of mathematics, statistics enables us to
better understand events that are happening around us. Statistical analysis is used in many
industries to analyse past events and from this make predictions about future trends, such as
the demand for certain products. State governments and local councils use statistical data to
determine whether new roads, schools and hospitals need to be built in certain areas, and
whether there is sufficient public transport to cater for the needs of a community.
Insurance companies set their annual premiums according to the risk they are taking to insure
something or someone. For example, statistics show us that there is a much higher chance
of a driver 18–25 years of age being involved in an accident than an experienced driver.
Therefore, insurance companies charge young people more to insure their car because of the
greater risk that the insurer will have to pay out at some time in the future.
People in some occupations present facts in a way that is intended to mislead or to give a
false impression. We need a sound understanding of statistics in order to gauge the truth about
such events as they are reported to us.
12.1 Collecting data

The term population refers to the total number of people or objects in question. When we
need information for some purpose, the most accurate way to collect it is to conduct a census,
in which the required information is collected from every individual in the population.
In Australia, the Bureau of Statistics conducts a census every five years, gathering important
data from each person living in the country.
While a census provides the most complete collection of data possible, it also has
disadvantages. It is very costly, as every member of the population is included, and it takes a
long time to complete. For many purposes, a census is impractical because it takes so long to
complete that the information required is out of date before the data can be analysed and the
results published.
Also, in some cases, collecting the data may destroy the individual, e.g. testing a car for its
strength in a major collision. There is no point in destroying all the cars that are produced.
Where it is not practical to conduct a census, we are forced to compromise by surveying a
smaller number of the population called a sample. The idea is to gather information from a
small proportion of the population and hope that it is representative of the whole.
Although sampling overcomes the excessive costs and time problems, it does not provide the
detailed information that we get from a census and the results are usually not as accurate or
as reliable.
Chapter 12: Data analysis and probability 431
Example 1
EG State whether a census or a sample should be used to gather information about:
+S
a the yearly exam results of all Year 8 students at a school
b the average number of toothpicks in a box
Solutions
a The population of Year 8 is relatively small and the exam results of all students must be
recorded so that individual reports can then be issued. A census is needed in this situation.
b It is not practical to open every box of toothpicks and count the contents. A sample would
be chosen in this situation.
Exercise 12.1
1 State whether a census or sample has been used in each of the following situations.
a The items available for sale in a store were listed in a stocktake.
b Every student and teacher in a school voted for a new school captain and vice-captain.
c The exam marks for a group of Geography students were recorded for their reports.
d Every fifth person entering a night club was searched by a police sniffer dog.
e All bags were X-rayed at an airport to search for dangerous weapons.
f A woman bought 5 tickets in a $2 lottery.
g A group of teachers were selected to participate in an evaluation of the school’s
principal.
■ Consolidation
2 State whether a census or a sample should be used to determine:
a the average pulse rates of joggers in a large suburban park
b the weights of the forwards in a particular high school rugby scrum
c the reaction times of drivers in NSW
d the number of adults who have quit smoking in the last year
e the number of people who voted for each party in an election
f the number of Australian roads that have potholes
g the number of students at a particular school
h the average length of time that Sydney traffic lights show red
i the number of people who travel to work by public transport
j the average shoe size of Australian men and women
k the number of Australians who have spent time in gaol
l the number of parking spaces in a certain parking station
m the average number of M & Ms in a box
n the number of police officers in NSW
o the number of stars in the Milky Way
p the number of road accidents that have occurred at a particular intersection in the last
5 years
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3 State whether it would be more appropriate to gather information about each situation using
a sample or a census. Give reasons for your answers.
a the population of Kabul just after the defeat of the Taliban in late 2001
b the level of ultraviolet-ray protection offered by a particular line of T-shirts
c the number of books sold at a book store during the month of May
d the travel methods of all students in your school
e the IQ of every person in Australia
f the level of relief provided to asthma sufferers by a new drug
g the types of accidents occurring in NSW schools
h the total water usage by a particular household over a one-month period
i the level of allergic reaction to tick bite by residents of NSW
4 Name a situation in which the collection of all possible data in the form of a census would be:
a too expensive b physically impossible c too time-consuming
5 In general, statisticians believe that a sample should have at least n elements to be
representative of a well-defined population with n elements. This rule of thumb is best
applied only to large populations. The larger the population, the better the sample should
reflect its overall characteristics. Use this estimate of sample size to answer the following
questions.
a What is the minimum number of people who should be surveyed to gather information
from the following populations? Answer to the nearest 10 people.
i 900 ii 5000 iii 30 000 iv 100 000
b A sample of 140 people was selected at random from a local community. The people
were then surveyed to find the community’s views on the need to increase the number
of buses in the area. How many people probably live in the area being surveyed?
Answer to the nearest 1000 people.
c If the population of Australia is approximately 18 million, find the minimum number
of people who should be surveyed in order to predict the winner of an upcoming federal
election. Answer to the nearest 100 people.
12.2 Bias in sampling

For the information obtained from a sample to be of any use, the sample must have
characteristics similar to those of the population. It is important, therefore, that all elements
of the sample be chosen without prejudice. A sample is said to be biased if each and every
element in the sample does not have an equal chance of being chosen. We cannot make accurate
or reliable judgements about a population based on a biased sample.
There are many reasons why a sample may be biased. Some of these reasons are:
• the sample chosen was too small
• the sample was not chosen randomly
• the data collected was deliberately changed.
Consider, for example, what might happen if a large pharmaceutical company deliberately
changed the data gathered from experiments on a new drug. If they falsified their findings or
exaggerated the effectiveness of the drugs, then the lives of many people around the world
could be put in danger. It is very important that data is gathered honestly and accurately in a
census, and randomly when a sample is being used, so that any conclusions drawn are reliable.
Example 1
EG Comment on any possible bias in each of the following.
+S
a A survey is conducted at a large suburban bus stop between 7:00 am and 9:00 am to find
out whether people prefer to use public transport than drive in peak-hour traffic.
b A telephone poll is conducted between 10:00 am and 2:00 pm to determine whether more
men or women would attend a new gym if it were to open in the area.
Solutions
a The sample is biased towards people who already use public transport. Although some
members of the sample may not have a car, the majority are more likely to have made a
deliberate decision to use public transport.
b The sample is biased towards women, who are more likely than men to be at home during
these hours.
Example 2
EG A freeway extension is being planned that will pass through two residential suburbs. If you
+S wanted to show the government that people were not in favour of this proposal, who should
you choose as your survey sample? Why?
Solution
The people who live in the suburbs through which the road is to be built should be surveyed
because they are not likely to want the extra noise and pollution that comes with a freeway
extension.
Example 3
EG The school principal wants to determine whether the parents of the boys at his school would
+S be in favour of the school becoming co-educational in two years’ time by admitting girls in
Years 11 and 12. He sent a questionnaire to the parents of the 1000 students asking for their
opinion, but received only 10 replies. Of these, 8 parents were in favour of the proposal. Is it
appropriate that the principal base his decision on this response? Explain your answer.
Solution
No, the sample is far too small for the principal to base his decision on it. There is every
likelihood that it may be biased.
434 Mathscape 8
Exercise 12.2
1 The following techniques are used by various groups within the community to gather
information. State at least one problem with each of these methods.
a door to door interview b telephone poll c postal questionnaire
2 A group of students at a co-educational high school intend to conduct a survey among their
fellow students to determine the most popular school activity. Explain how each of the
following student samples may lead to a biased result.
a the students in your own friendship group
b the students in Year 8
c the girls
d the members of the debating club
3 A newspaper poll asked the question ‘Do you think that today’s teenagers have less respect
for adults than teenagers in previous generations?’ A telephone number was provided for
people to call and vote ‘Yes’ and another telephone number was provided for those who
wanted to vote ‘No’. Is this poll likely to lead to a biased outcome? Why?
■ Consolidation
4 In groups, discuss each of the following situations and comment on any bias that may occur.
a Senior students are asked whether they should be able to park inside the school.
b The police commissioner is interviewed about rising crime rates in the state.
c Year 8 students are asked to decide whether homework should be banned for all
students in the school.
d People are interviewed in a shopping centre about the impact of the GST on prices.
e Residents living next to a smoke stack on the M5 freeway are asked to comment on the
link between air pollution and health problems such as asthma.
f A survey is conducted in peak hour at the toll booths on the Sydney Harbour Bridge to
determine whether tolls on major roads are necessary to raise money for the state or
whether they should be removed.
g The leader of the federal opposition is asked to comment on the national unemployment rate.
5 Who would you choose as your sample if you were trying to ensure support for each of the
following causes?
a reduce the amount of logging in national forests
b prevent the building of a nuclear reactor
c end to medical experiments on animals
d ban smoking in restaurants
e remove STD rates on telephone calls in the outer suburbs of Sydney
f remove the GST on books
g increase pensions for the elderly
h increase the amount of backburning to help prevent bushfires
i stop the slaughter of whales
j stop bank closures in small country towns
6 Comment on any possible bias in each of the following advertising statements.

a ‘Vets recommend Kitty Kat cat food.’
b ‘9 out of 10 chemists recommend Tots baby shampoo.’
c ‘Syno television screens produce a 20% clearer picture.’
d ‘Three-quarters of those surveyed preferred Cool Cola.’
7 A die was rolled 200 times and the results were recorded. The average of these scores is 3.5
(1 decimal place).
62265 24425 33522 34451 24554 22242 33645 34341 25555 22412
33452 33555 44133 23354 66256 35343 63123 42356 54544 32553
35352 31452 32126 25413 32513 45622 36234 36332 22134 52251
32262 46433 14441 43644 44554 14254 62223 35135 55225 24443
a Is the data quantitative or categorical? Why?
b Find the average of:
i the first 5 scores ii the last 5 scores iii any set of 5 scores
c Find the average of:
i the first 15 scores ii the last 15 scores iii any set of 15 scores
d Select any group of 40 scores and find their average.
e Explain why it is likely that the average would vary from sample to sample.
8 The data below shows the gender of 150 Year 12 students as they filed into an auditorium
on graduation day.
fffmf mmfmf fffmf ffmff mmmff fmfmm
ffmff ffmmf mmmmf mmmfm ffmff ffmmf
fmfmf mmmff mfmff fmfmm fffff fffmf
ffmfm mfmfm mfffm mmffm ffmff fmffm
fffmf fmmfm fmfmf fffmf ffffm mfffm
a Does the data show a census or a sample? Why?
b Is the data quantitative or categorical?
c What percentage of all students are: i male? ii female?
d What percentage of:
i the first 5 students to enter are male? ii the second 5 students are male?
e Is a group of 5 students sufficient to show the male to female makeup of this year
group?
f Choose a sample of 30 students. Does it better reflect the overall balance of males and
females in the year group?
g Comment on the relationship between the size of the sample and its ability to reflect the
overall characteristics of the population.
9 Comment on any possible bias in each situation.
a In a telephone survey the interviewers ring the first person listed on every tenth page.
b Wanting to evaluate students’ opinion on an aspect of school performance, the Principal
sends a questionnaire to all of the previous year’s HSC candidates. The letters are sent
to the last known address, but only 32% of the questionnaires are returned.
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c A council alderman wishes to know opinions of residents in her ward. She selects five
streets that she knows and visits every tenth house in the street, asking five questions
of the person who answers the door. If there is no-one home she moves to the house
next door. She finished two shorter streets on Saturday morning and another on
Saturday afternoon. The other two streets were completed on Wednesday and Thursday
evenings.
d A TV interviewer stops passers-by in a busy shopping centre to ask their opinions on
the performance of the state government.
12.3 Questioning and

observation
It is vital that all information collected, either through the use of a census or a sample survey,
is totally accurate. Using observation requires that the observer pays close attention or an
important detail may be missed. It is also important that an observer not try to convince
themselves that something has happened when in fact it did not really occur.
When designing a questionnaire or set of interview questions, we must ensure that the subjects
(people being questioned) understand the question in the same way that we do. Each question
must be unambiguous (i.e. it must have one clear meaning) and relevant to the aim of the
questionnaire.
In both questioning and observation we must be completely objective. That is, we must not
allow our own feelings or opinions to influence the data that we are collecting. This is very
important when we are designing the questions themselves, as we may unintentionally ask a
question that encourages a person to respond in a particular way. We must be unbiased and
record all observations and responses fairly. It is not uncommon for researchers who are hoping
to notice a particular occurrence to interpret other behaviours as if they were the hoped for
behaviour. For this reason, in serious research projects the observer or questioner cannot be the
person who has designed the research project and prepared the questions.
In interview situations it can be difficult to ask each subject a question in exactly the same way.
If the questioner alters the way in which the question is asked, it may have an effect on the
answer given.
Clearly the collection of data is far from a simple matter. In fact, it could be reasonably claimed
that it is impossible to construct a perfect questionnaire, interview or observation situation. This
does not mean that all surveys are useless, but it does mean that we must be very careful in the
way we interpret the data collected.
■ Types of questions
These are commonly used types of questions.
a Selection of a response from a small number of possibilities. This may be true–false,
yes–no, or selection from a number of possibilities. These questions often ask the subject
to tick the box that is most appropriate and are very easy for the respondent to complete.
They are ideally suited to discrete data, e.g. My planned career is in:
Business Industry Education
Health Recreation Other
but can be used for continuous data with predetermined grouping, e.g. My age on 1 January
will be:
less than 10 10–19 20–29
30–39 40–49 50–59
b Indicating position on a scale. These questions allow respondents to respond on a
continuous scale, e.g. I enjoy French lessons.
• • • • •
Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly
disagree agree nor agree
disagree
While this type of question allows for responses on a continuous scale, i.e. on a very large
array of possible points, respondents are often encouraged to choose from the stated
feelings, e.g. I enjoy French lessons. Circle a number.
1 2 3 4 5
• • • • •
Strongly Strongly
disagree agree
c Open-ended questions allow the respondent to write an answer and they can interpret the
question and answer in many ways. These questions provide very clear data but are much
harder to interpret and categorise.
■ Types of observation
a Direct human observation may involve one or more people. They may observe openly or
be hidden from the view of the subjects, e.g. observing birds from a hide. This has the
advantage that the observer can intelligently modify the observation program as events are
noticed. It has the disadvantage that it can be very subjective, the viewer only sees what
they ‘want to see’, and very limited, as an observer can only watch one subject at a time.
b Indirect observation may make use of audio or video recordings, which allows repeated
viewing by the researchers later. It has technical difficulties, e.g. the position viewed is fixed.
438 Mathscape 8
c Mechanical data collection involves the use of devices to record physical data, e.g. a
thermometer attached to a computer could record a patient’s temperature on a continuous
basis. A major advantage is that the data is already on a computer ready to be processed,
and we can easily create tables, graphs, etc. to represent it.
Example
EG A researcher has chosen to include these questions in a questionnaire surveying part-time
+S work by secondary-school students.
Comment on the nature of each question and the suitability of the type of question.
a State your age in whole years. ____
b State your gender. Tick the box. female male
c Do you do part-time work? Yes No
d How many hours of part-time work do you do each week? ____
e When do you usually work? ___________________
f Where do you work? _____________________
g What hourly pay rate do you receive?
less than $10 $10–20 more than $20
h Do you prefer your work to school? Yes No
Solutions
One difficulty with questions such as these is that they are not specific about just what the
survey hopes to discover. The researcher may, or may not, be interested in the type of work,
the companies employing the respondents, when in the year they work, etc. This makes it
difficult to decide the relevance of some of the questions.
a This seems a straightforward question and is likely to be important information for the
survey. Some people might be unsure what is meant by ‘in whole years’ and take it to
mean to the nearest whole year.
b This is relevant and the tick-the-box format makes it easy for the respondent.
c This question seems appropriate until one sees question d. If one answers ‘No’ to c then
there is no need for d. The two questions involve repetition, and there are a number of
solutions to this problem. Perhaps the simplest is to omit c. If a respondent does not do
part-time work they can write ‘0’ in answer to d.
d There is considerable ambiguity with this question! Part-time workers often work
different numbers of hours from week to week, and the respondent may be unsure which
week to mention. Many secondary students would work much longer hours during the
school holidays, especially just before Christmas or at Easter. This question seems
relevant but needs to be expressed much more clearly.
e This question may not really be relevant. Part-time workers often work a large variety of
shifts and they would find it very difficult to answer.
f This question is ambiguous and responses might include ‘at a service station’, ‘not far
from home’, ‘at the XYZ department store’ and many others. It is difficult to imagine the
researchers being able to draw conclusions from the information they are likely to receive.
g The respondent simply has to tick a box, so it is surprising that there are not more
categories. $10–$20 is quite a large range and might have been subdivided into much
smaller groups.
h This question has very doubtful relevance. There are so many different grounds of
comparison that a yes–no response is far too limiting. Each respondent probably
appreciates school for the same reasons, e.g. gaining qualifications for the future,
socialising with friends, and work for others, e.g. employment experience, income.
Exercise 12.3
1 Consider the following survey questions:

• Is Foxtel a better pay-TV service than Optus Vision? Yes/No
• Should teenagers have more rights? Yes/No
• Should police have greater authority in the community? Yes/No
a Why are these poor survey questions generally?
b What other related issues might a person being interviewed need to discuss before
making a Yes/No decision for each of these survey questions?
2 a Would you expect to get honest, reliable answers if you conducted a face to face
interview with students and asked ‘do you smoke cigarettes?’ or ‘do you drink
alcohol?’ Why?
b What would be a good way to conduct such a survey?
3 Comment on the following survey question.

‘How happy are you with the local bus timetable?
Indicate your answer on this scale.’ 1 2 3 4 5
4 Explain what is wrong with this survey question, which is directed at a group of 12 year
olds. ‘In what ways will the GST have a detrimental effect on the business community and
on private citizens in the lower socio-economic bracket?’
■ Consolidation
5 In each of the following cases comment on the relevance of each question, and on its nature
and type.
a A survey is intended to assess the preparedness of households in dangerous areas to
withstand bushfires.
i Do you own a fire extinguisher? Yes/No
ii How many hoses do you have? ____
iii How far from your house is the nearest heavy bush?
less than 5 m 5–14 m 15–30 m more than 30 m
iv What penalties do you believe should be imposed for the deliberate lighting of
bushfires?
_________________________________________________________________
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v My house is well prepared. SD D A SA

All members of my family know
• • • • •
SD D A SA
what to do in the event of a fire. • • • • •
All our possessions are packed SD D A SA
ready to evacuate. • • • • •
b A motor-car manufacturer is planning to design a car that will appeal to young drivers.
As the development and marketing of the car will not be finished for 5 years, it is
decided to ask Year 9 students for their opinions.
i What type of car would you like to have when you have your licence?
Show order of preference.
sedan _____ station wagon _____ 4-wheel drive _____
utility _____ beach buggy _____ sports car _____
ii What colours do you prefer? __________
iii Would you expect your car to have:
a computer Y/N a telephone Y/N
a music system Y/N air-conditioning Y/N
computer-controlled navigation Y/N a refrigerator Y/N
a TV/video Y/N an emergency safety system Y/N
iv What other features would you require in your car? _______________________
v What is your expected price range? ____________
c A person considering setting up an Ice Creamery in a country town decides to interview
as many people as possible. Several interviewers question shoppers at random in the
main street on a Thursday between 12 noon and 2:00 pm.
i Do you think that our town deserves to have an Ice Creamery? Yes/No
ii Are your married? Yes/No
iii How many children do you have?
0 1 2 3 4 5+
iv Does your family like ice cream? Yes/No
v How often do you have ice cream as dessert?
every meal ____ every day ____ every second day ____ once a week ____
vi Do you think ice cream is affordable? Yes/No
vii What are your family’s favourite flavours? _____________________________
6 Which of the following survey questions are likely to result in a biased outcome due to an
inappropriate sample?
a ‘Should national service be reintroduced for unemployed people between the ages of
18 and 25 years?’
Sample: A group of ex-service men and women attending a reunion dinner.
b ‘Should police men and women receive a 10% pay rise?’
Sample: Every 25th adult leaving the front gate at the Royal Easter Show.
c ‘Should some prisoners be allowed to work at a part-time job during the day then return
to the prison each night?’
Sample: All NSW prisoners currently serving sentences of 5 years or less.
d ‘Should all guns be banned in NSW?’
Sample: Members of the NSW Shooters Association.
7 Which of the following survey questions are inappropriate due to the use of emotive
language?
a ‘Should greedy petrol companies be forced to stop raising the price of petrol?’
b ‘Should cruel and violent sports such as fox hunting and duck shooting be banned?’
c ‘Should banks be required by law to maintain at least one branch in every country
town?’
d ‘Should irresponsible parents who leave their children in hot cars while they gamble
away all their money at the casino face police charges?’
e ‘Should people who have been unemployed for at least 12 months be required to work
for their unemployment benefits?’
f ‘Should selfish people who smoke in restaurants and ruin other people’s meals be
banned?’
8 Form a small group and choose one of the following focus questions, or make up your own
question. Your task is to create a full questionnaire that would provide you with enough
information to draw a valid conclusion. You should concentrate on preparing high-quality
questions that do not suffer from the weaknesses that have been discussed in this exercise.
• Would a speciality take-away food shop offering high-quality, diet-conscious items
(low fat, low sugar, low salt), using only natural, unmodified ingredients be successful
in your local area?
• Are female drivers in the age range 18–21 years safer drivers than males in the same age
group?
• Are the majority of students in Years 11 and 12 well-informed about the entry
requirements for their chosen university courses?
• Do teenage surfers use sufficient sun-screen lotion at the beach?
• Would it be desirable to invent a new sport that incorporates many of the good features
of existing sports but few if any of the bad features?
• Do students at this school get too much homework/too many assignments?
12.4 Generating random

numbers
A great deal of work in data analysis involves the selection and use of random numbers, that
is, numbers that have been obtained without any bias or prejudice. Random numbers are used
to choose a sample, such as a group of 10 people from a list of 100 names. This may be done
by assigning a number to each name on the list, then generating 10 random numbers. The names
corresponding to these numbers are then chosen as the sample.
Random numbers can be generated by using the random number function on a calculator, by
using a spreadsheet on a computer, or by moving horizontally or vertically in a table of random
numbers.
442 Mathscape 8
■ Generating random numbers using a

calculator
To generate a random number using a calculator:
press the RAN or RAND key.
Note: The random number function on a calculator generates decimals with 3 decimal places.
These decimals can be multiplied by 1000 in order to obtain random integers.
■ Generating random numbers using a

spreadsheet
To generate a list of random numbers using a spreadsheet:
go to Format in the toolbar, click on Cells, then click on Number and set the cells
to 0 decimal places
type = RAND ( ) * 100 then select Fill Down to generate a list of 2-digit random
numbers, or
type = RAND ( ) * 1000 then select Fill Down to generate a list of 3-digit random
numbers, or
type = RAND ( ) * (b − a) + a then select Fill Down to generate a list of random
numbers between a and b.
Note: The Fill Right command can be used together with the Fill Down command to produce
a table of random numbers.
■ Random number tables

Here is a table of random numbers.
3820 2087 7425 3044 1132 7929 8295 6633
0133 6146 8202 2925 9622 8548 0967 7198
5497 8809 7339 5755 9865 9766 2897 6456
7227 4580 1481 7382 4270 0589 3918 6148
4509 4698 0211 0860 4829 6899 4101 6715
2384 0577 5020 4693 1297 7446 0791 7652
0091 0675 9566 2155 4605 4737 4507 0154
9573 6408 3951 4083 2248 7214 9612 7102
0921 3520 8186 1074 3967 4197 4791 7787
2508 8503 5216 5544 6704 6055 0353 9738
To create a list of random numbers from a table:

choose a starting position
count groups of digits in any direction.
Note: If the end of a row or column is reached, continue by moving to the next row or column.
Example 1
EG Use the table of random numbers above to write down 5 two-digit numbers. Begin with the 4
+S in row 6 column 13 then move:
a to the right b to the left c upward d downward
Solutions
a The numbers are 46, 93, 12, 97, 74. b The numbers are 46, 20, 50, 77, 84.
c The numbers are 46, 73, 57, 29, 30. d The numbers are 46, 21, 40, 10, 55.
Note: In b, 05 or 5 is not a two-digit number, and in c, 08 or 8 is not a two-digit number.
Example 2
EG Use the random number function on a calculator to create a list of 5 random two-digit
+S numbers.
Solution
Press the RAN or RAND key 5 times and take the last two digits in the display each time as
the numbers. For example, if the display shows 0.638, 0.124, 0.337, 0.965, 0.027, then the
random numbers would be 38, 24, 37, 65, 27.
Example 3
EG Show how a spreadsheet could be used to generate a list of 10 numbers between:
+S
a 1 and 60 b 30 and 50
Solutions
Go to Format in the toolbar, click on Cells, then click on Number, and set the cells to
0 decimal places.
a Type = RAND ( ) * 60 then select Fill Down and fill down 10 cells.
b Type = RAND ( ) * (50 − 30) + 30 then fill down 10 cells.
Exercise 12.4
Use the table of random numbers on page 442 to answer questions 1–5.
1 Beginning with the 5 in row 6, column 9, write down 5 one-digit numbers by moving:
2 Beginning with the 6 in row 5, column 21, write down 5 two-digit numbers by moving:
3 Beginning with the 1 in row 6, column 17, write down 5 three-digit numbers by moving:
4 Beginning with the 3 in row 4, column 25, write down 10 two-digit numbers by moving:
444 Mathscape 8
■ Consolidation
5 a Start at the 2 in row 1, column 5, then move to the right to find 10 two-digit numbers
that are less than 60.
b Start at the 7 in row 4, column 13, then move downward to find 10 three-digit numbers
that are greater than 400.
6 Use the random number key on your calculator to generate 5 random numbers that have:
a 1 digit b 2 digits c 3 digits
7 Using the random number function on your calculator, simulate the ages of 10 people
between 1 year and 50 years. Record the last two digits of any random numbers that fall in
the desired range.
8 Harriet has 85 friends she would like to invite to her wedding reception; however, she can
only afford to invite 25 people. To avoid offending anyone, she decided to choose the
names at random. Here is the method that Harriet used.
• Assign each person a number from 1 to 85.
• Use the random number function on a calculator to generate 25 random numbers.
• Multiply each number by 85, then round up to the nearest whole number.
• Invite the 25 people whose names correspond to these numbers.
Did each person on the list have an equal chance of being selected?
Use a spreadsheet to answer questions 9–12.

9 Create a list of 25 random:
a 1-digit numbers b 2-digit numbers c 3-digit numbers
10 Use the Fill Down and Fill Right commands to create a table of 5-digit numbers. Your
table should have 10 rows and 40 columns (i.e. 8 groups of 5-digit numbers).
11 Create a list of 30 numbers from:

a 0 to 10 b 0 to 50 c 20 to 50 d 50 to 90 e 75 to 120
12 Create a list of 25 numbers that are less than 100.
13 Of the 2000 students at a particular university, 8 were to be chosen at random to travel
overseas and attend an international forum on ways to increase worldwide access to
education. The vice-chancellor assigned each of the students a number from 1 to 2000,
then used the random number function on his calculator to generate random numbers,
multiplying each number by 2000. Does each student at the university have an equal chance
of being selected? Explain your answer.
12.5 Sampling techniques

There are many ways in which a sample can be chosen. We have already established that the
purpose in selecting a sample is so we can make judgements about a whole population. In order
to achieve this, the sample must be unbiased and as representative of the population as possible.
The basic principle that must be applied in choosing a sample is random selection. We say that
a sample has been chosen at random if every member of the population has exactly the same
chance of being selected.
To avoid bias we must not only use random selection but we must also take a sample that is of
sufficient size. Clearly if a sample consists of only 1 or 2 people, then their views will probably
not be representative of the population, even if the people were chosen randomly.
In this exercise we will study three sampling techniques.
1 A simple random sample is chosen so that each member of the population has the same
chance of selection, for example drawing names out of a hat, spinning a wheel or rolling
a die.
2 A systematic random sample (or systematic sample) is chosen by putting all of the
members in a random order, then randomly selecting a starting point and choosing members
at equally spaced intervals, for example lining 100 students up randomly and selecting
every tenth student in the line.
3 A stratified random sample (or stratified sample) is chosen by dividing the population
into strata, i.e. groups that have similar characteristics. Members of each group are then
selected at random, in the same proportion as they occur in the population. For example,
to choose 12 prefects in a school with 700 boys and 500 girls, we would choose 7 boys and
5 girls, that is, one student is chosen for every 100 students in each group.
Example 1
EG In each of the following, state whether the sample chosen is a simple random sample, a
+S stratified random sample or a systematic random sample.
a Every 50th bottle of cola produced in a drink factory is selected and tested for sweetness,
fizz and general taste.
b The principal knows that there are 411 girls at her school. She writes each girl’s name on
a separate piece of paper, places the names in a barrel, spins the barrel, and selects
20 names.
c From a group of 500 police officers, 300 fire fighters and 200 ambulance paramedics, a
committee is formed to enquire into the response times of emergency services personnel.
A committee of 10 police officers, 6 fire fighters and 4 ambulance paramedics are chosen
randomly from their respective services.
446 Mathscape 8
Solutions
a The sample is a systematic random sample because the bottles are chosen at equally
spaced intervals.
b The sample is a simple random sample because the names are chosen at random with each
girl having an equal chance of being selected.
c The sample is a stratified random sample because the members of the committee are in the
same proportion as those in the population. (1 person in every 50 has been chosen from
each group.)
Example 2
EG A senate committee of 20 politicians is to be formed from members of the Labor and Liberal
+S parties. The number of representatives from each party is to be in the same proportion as the
number of seats that each party holds in the senate. If Labor holds 64 seats and the Liberals
hold 44 seats, how many members of each party should be on the committee?
Solution
64 44
No. of Labor members = --------- × 20 No. of Liberal members = --------- × 20
108 108
= 11.9 (1 decimal place) = 8.1 (1 decimal place)
∴ The committee should consist of 12 Labor members and 8 Liberal members.
Exercise 12.5
1 Explain how a simple random sample of 2 people could be obtained from a group of
6 people by using a die.
2 At a school fete, 30 tickets are sold in a raffle. A wheel with the numbers from 1 to 30 is
then spun to determine the prize winner. What kind of sampling technique does this
illustrate?
3 Karen bought 5 tickets in a lottery in which 100 000 tickets are sold.
a What kind of sampling technique is used to determine lottery winners?
b What are Karen’s chances of winning first prize?
4 Gina won 6 concert tickets in a competition and decided to select at random 5 friends from
work to go along with her. To do this, Gina assigned each of her workmates a number from
1 to 42, then randomly selected a line of numbers from a table of random numbers.
Beginning at the first digit, Gina selected the numbers of the 5 people who would go to the
concert with her.
93702 78650 58027 91297 73438 75819 66753 41102 64473
a Find the numbers of the people who were selected.
b Was the procedure that she followed fair?
■ Consolidation
5 Owing to a significant fall in profits, the owner of a small business had to lay off 6 of his
36 employees. He decided that the 6 people would be chosen randomly by placing their
names in a grid as shown. A die would then be rolled twice to give a pair of co-ordinates.
The first number rolled gives the column number and the second number rolled gives the
row number. The employee whose name appears at those co-ordinates would be laid off.
6 Emma David Chris Jisun Wendy Bob
5 Chandra Kim Richard William Tarita Nigel
4 Elise Caitlyn Trent Navarre Lionel Jenna
3 Laurie Ursula Mikhael Len Roger Merv
2 Amber Taleisha Yee Ling Emille Yuri Patricia
1 Thierry Doug Celestine Perry Nicholle John
1 2 3 4 5 6
The numbers rolled in order were: 4 3 5 2 1 6 2 5 4 1 6 4.
a Write down the co-ordinates of the 6 employees.
b Which employees were laid off?
c Did each employee have an equal chance of being selected?
6 A factory produces 420 mouse traps every day. Find the number of traps tested if quality
control tests a systematic sample of 1 trap in every:
a 70 b 60 c 35 d 15
7 If 6000 computer chips are produced each day on a production line, find at what intervals
the manufacturer should test the chips in a systematic sample of:
a 120 b 75 c 50 d 15
8 Explain how we could choose a systematic sample of 25 people from a group of 350 people.
9 Every 25th light globe that passes along a production line is removed and its brightness
tested. If 4000 light globes are produced each day, find the number of globes that will be
tested.
10 The Student Representative Council at Pascal High has assigned each of the 120 Year 12
students at the school a number from 1 to 120. The Council wants to obtain a systematic
sample of 15 students from the year group in order to conduct a survey. Which students
would be selected if the first student selected is number 65?
11 Jan is a telesales consultant who wishes to choose a sample of 200 people from the
residential section of the Sydney White Pages telephone directory in order to conduct
a marketing survey.
a How could she choose the names in such a way that the sample is unbiased?
b How could she choose a biased sample?
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12 In a group of 1200 workers, 700 are male and 500 are female. A stratified sample of 60
workers is to be selected based on gender.
a How many males should be selected?
b How many females should be selected?
13 A primary school has 250 girls and 150 boys. How many boys and girls should be chosen
in a stratified sample of:
a 80 children? b 48 children? c 32 children?
14 Of the 132 employees at a building site, 110 are blue-collar workers and the rest are
white-collar workers. A survey is to be conducted among the workers to gather information
about safety conditions on the site. How many blue-collar and white-collar workers should
be chosen in a stratified sample of 24 workers?
15 The table below shows the number of people in each age group at a nursing home. A group
of 25 residents is to be chosen, using a stratified sample based on age group, to enquire into
the needs of the residents.
Age group (years) 70–74 75–79 80–84 85–89 90 +
Number of people 15 24 21 12 3
a How many people live in the nursing home?
b How many people from each age group should be chosen in the sample?
16 The table below shows the number of students in each group at Rocky Mountain High. The
assistant principal wants to conduct a survey into the use of technology in the school by
using a stratified sample of 100 students.
Year group 7 8 9 10 11 12
Students 155 172 167 143 130 109
a How many students attend the school?
b How many students from each year group should be chosen to participate in the survey?
17 Of the 1200 students at Kendall High School,

Uniform Number of
200 students were chosen at random and
students
shown three new uniforms. They were then
asked to vote for the uniform which they A 105
preferred. The number of students who chose B 65
each uniform is shown in the table. Using these
C 30
results, estimate the number of students in the
whole school who would most likely prefer
each uniform.
18 In a sports club raffle with 20 prizes, 250 red tickets, 150 blue tickets and 100 green tickets
were sold. How many prizes would you expect to be won by someone holding:
a a red ticket? b a blue ticket? c a green ticket?
19 A soft drink company produced 54 000 bottles of lemonade last month. Every 300th bottle
was removed from the production line and tested for taste, sweetness and fizz.
a How many bottles of lemonade were tested?
b If 3 bottles in the sample failed the quality assurance test, find the number of bottles
produced last month that were below standard.
20 Which sampling method would be appropriate for each situation?

a One student in a home room class is to be chosen to collect the morning announcements
from the office.
b A farmer needs to know whether a disease has infected any of the horses, cattle and
sheep on his property.
c A winemaker wants to know how many grapevines in the vineyard are likely to be
infected with a disease.
d A sample of car batteries is to be taken to check whether the batteries operate within the
correct voltage range.
e A sample of plates produced in a factory is to be inspected to check the quality of the
plate’s shape and colour.
f A school principal wants to take a sample of the students in her school to find out
whether they are satisfied with the level of library resources.
21 A bag contains 81 black marbles and a number of white marbles. Stuart chose 30 marbles
from the bag without replacement, of which 12 were white. How many marbles were
originally in the bag?
22 Comment on any bias in each of these simple random samples.
a The names of 20 people are written on separate pieces of paper, which are folded and
placed in a bag. Five names are drawn out.
b Twelve people are each assigned a number from 1 to 12. Two dice are then rolled to
determine the names of 3 people who are to move to a new air-conditioned office.
c A number from 1 to 99 is assigned to each person in a group. A coin is then tossed to
select the employees who will have to work on New Year’s day. If the coin shows
heads, then the odd-numbered employees will have to work. If the coin shows tails, then
the even-numbered employees will have to work.
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TRY THIS Sampling bottle

Obtain a bottle with a long neck. Fill it to half
way with marbles of 3 different colours.
Your partner must do the same thing. Cover
the bottom part of the bottle with a sheet of
paper so that you can’t see the marbles. Now take a sample of 6 marbles from your
partner’s bottle, noting how many of each colour you have. Then replace the marbles
into the bottle and shake the bottle. Do this 3 more times. Now estimate the
fraction for each colour of marbles which is in the bottle. Your partner can then tell
you if your estimate is close. If it isn’t, keep taking samples.
12.6 The mean

■ Definition of the mean
When analysing data we often look for a value that is in some way representative of the data as
a whole. Such values are called measures of location. There are three commonly used
measures of location and the first of these that we will study is the mean. The mean is what we
typically think of as the average. The mean is found by adding up all of the scores and then
dividing this total by the number of scores. The symbol for the mean is x .
sum of the scores

Mean = --------------------------------------------
number of scores
This definition of the mean can also be written using the Greek letter Σ (pronounced sigma),
where Σ means ‘the sum of’.
∑x
x = -------- where • x is the mean
n
• Σx is the sum of the scores
• n is the number of scores
The mean does not have to be one of the scores.
■ Finding the mean from a frequency

distribution table
To calculate the mean from a frequency distribution table, we need to introduce a new column
called the fx column. If x represents the scores and f represents the frequencies of these scores,
then fx is the product of each score and its frequency (i.e. fx = f × x). By adding the values in
the fx column we can calculate the sum of all the scores in a distribution.
The total Σf at the base of the frequency column represents the number of scores, while the total
Σfx at the base of the fx column represents the sum of the scores.
The mean of the data in a frequency distribution table is given by:

∑ fx
x = ----------- where • x is the mean
∑f • Σfx is the sum of the scores
• Σf is the number of scores
■ Finding the mean by using a calculator

The calculator can be used to enter multiple scores at the same time. This is particularly useful
when finding the mean of a large number of scores.
To find the mean by using a calculator:

• Set the calculator to statistics mode (SD).
• Clear the statistics memory by pressing shift AC .
• Enter multiple scores by entering the score × the frequency M+ .
• Repeat this until all the scores have been entered.
• Press the mean key.
Note: For some calculators, multiple scores are entered by pressing score 2ndF ’
frequency M+ .
Exercise 12.6
1 Find the mean of each set of scores, correct to 2 decimal place where necessary.
a 7, 3, 12, 9, 4 b 6, 12, 11, 4, 5, 10 c 14, 25, 32, 29
d 5, 18, 12, 41, 34 e 84, 37, 91, 66, 54 f 8, 1, 3, 2, 4, 3, 6, 5
g 4.3, 0.9, 6.2, 3.1, 5.7, 8.8 h 17.2, 15.9, 11.4, 3.6, 19.7 i -2, 6, -8, 1, -3, -12
2 a Copy and complete this frequency

Score Frequency fx
distribution table.
(x) (f )
b What does Σf measure?
c What does Σfx measure? 5 9
d Find the mean of the scores. 6 1
7 5
8 6
9 4
Σf = Σfx =
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■ Consolidation
3 Copy and complete each frequency distribution table, then find the mean, correct to
2 decimal places.
a Score Frequency fx b Score Frequency fx
(x) (f ) (x) (f )
1 4 15 3
2 1 16 4
3 6 17 7
4 2 18 5
5 7 19 2
Σf = Σfx = Σf = Σfx =
c Score Frequency fx d Score Frequency fx

(x) (f ) (x) (f )
7 3 40 9
8 6 41 2
9 5 42 5
10 8 43 11
11 4 44 10
12 10 45 14
Σf = Σfx = Σf = Σfx =
4 Use your calculator to find the mean of each data set, correct to 1 decimal place.
a Score 1 2 3 4 5 b Score 4 5 6 7 8
Frequency 12 15 10 19 22 Frequency 30 25 15 40 35
c Score 20 21 22 23 24 d Score 35 36 37 38 39
e Score 48 49 50 51 52 f Score 10 11 12 13 14
g Score Frequency h Score Frequency i Score Frequency

2 18 37 5 100 11
4 13 38 23 101 17
6 19 39 28 102 8
8 24 40 16 103 18
10 12 41 9 104 21
12 15 42 20 105 16
5 For each of these histograms and polygons find:

i the number of scores ii the sum of the scores iii the mean, correct to 2 decimal places.
a b
7 12
6 10
Frequency
Frequency
5 8
4 6
3 4
2 2
1 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 4 6 8 10 Score
Score
c d
7 16
Frequency
6 12
Frequency
5 8
4 4
3 0
2 5 10 15 20 25
Score
1
0
15 16 17 18 19 20
Score
6 Find the mean for this set of scores

40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
Score
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7 A lifestyle magazine conducted a survey to discover

Cuisine Number of
the most popular style of restaurant food enjoyed by
responses
its readers. Only a small number of people replied to
the survey. The results are shown in the table. Italian 14
a Is the data quantitative or categorical? Lebanese 8
b Is it appropriate to try to find the mean for this Chinese 25
data? Why? Thai 17
Mexican 9
Japanese 7
8 The weekly wages of four tradesmen are $580, $610, $595 and $615. Find their mean
weekly wage.
9 Last season a netball player scored the following number of goals per game before getting
injured. What was her goal average per game?
7 9 6 9 5 10 3
10 The carriages on an inter-city train were inspected for signs of vandalism. The number of
seats that were damaged in each carriage are listed below. Find the average number of
damaged seats per carriage.
4 3 5 0 10 8
11 a The sum of 25 scores is 600. Find the mean of the scores.

b Calculate the mean for a set of 17 scores whose sum is 227.8.
12 a A set of 35 scores has a mean of 8. Find the sum of the scores.

b Find the sum of 36 scores whose mean is 42.3.
13 a The mean of a set of scores is 15 and the sum of the scores is 270. Find the number of
scores.
b A set of scores has a mean of 58.2 and a sum of 1280.4. How many scores are there?
14 a The mean of 4 scores is 27. If three of the scores are 18, 29 and 43, find:
i the sum of the scores ii the 4th score
b The mean of 5 scores is 16. If four of the scores are 15, 19, 32 and 10, find:
i the sum of the scores ii the 5th score
15 a Expressed as percentages, Nikki’s science test results so far this year are 62, 78, 65, 71
and 66. What mark must she score on the final test in order to have an average of 70%
for the year?
b The daily profits for Monday to Thursday for a bookseller are $85, $92, $80 and $96.
What must his profit be on Friday in order to raise the daily profit average to $90 for
that week?
c At the start of a new cricket season, Jacques scored 42, 39, 75, 10 and 62 in his first five
innings. How many runs must he score in the next innings to raise his batting average
to 50 runs per innings?
16 The data below shows the mass in kilograms of 40 parcels that are to be sent by rail freight
to various destinations within NSW.
21 13 9 19 14 23 7 28 12 12
4 25 17 26 8 14 23 18 9 13
15 16 22 3 29 19 17 11 14 20
16 25 8 7 2 28 15 12 10 15
a Complete this frequency Class Class Tally Frequency fx
distribution table for the given centre (x) (f )
data.
b Why would it be inappropriate 1–5 3 ||| 3 9
to tabulate this data as individual 6–10 8
scores?
11–15
c What does Σfx represent in a
grouped data distribution table? 16–20
d How will this affect the 21–25
calculation of the mean?
26–30
e Find the approximate mean,
17 a The mean of a set of 7 scores is 15. Find the new mean when a score of 23 is added to
the set.
b The mean of a set of 36 scores is 17.5. Find the new mean when a score of 110 is added
to the set.
c The mean of a set of 21 scores is 12. Find the new mean, correct to 1 decimal place,
when a score of 42 is added to the set.
d The mean of a set of 15 scores is 7.8. Find the new mean, correct to 1 decimal place,
when a score of 26 is added to the set.
18 a The mean of a set of 11 scores is 27. After a new score is added, the mean falls to 25.
Find the score that was added.
b The mean of a set of 18 scores is 14. After one of the scores is taken out, the mean falls
to 12. Find the score that was taken out.
19 The mean of 4 consecutive scores is 18.5. Form an equation and solve it to find the scores.
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12.7 The median

If a set of scores have been arranged in ascending order, the median is the number in the
middle, such that the number of scores below it is equal to the number of scores above it.
The median is our second measure of location.
When a set of scores have been arranged in ascending order, the median is:
the middle score if there is an odd number of scores
the average of the two middle scores if there is an even number of scores.
The median is not difficult to find if the number of scores is small. However, to find the median
of a large number of scores, as might be the case in a frequency distribution table, histogram or
polygon, we use the following rules.
When a set of n scores have been arranged in ascending order, the median is:
the ⎛ ------------⎞ th score if n is odd
n+1
⎝ 2 ⎠
the average of the ⎛ ---⎞ th and ⎛ --- + 1⎞ th scores if n is even.
n n
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
Example 1
EG Find the median of each set of scores.
+S
a 3, 5, 8, 10, 17 b 2, 5, 7, 11, 12, 15
Solutions
a There is an odd number of scores and 8 is the middle score. Therefore, the median is 8.
b There is an even number of scores and the two middle scores are 7 and 11.
7 + 11
The median = ---------------
2
=9
Example 2
EG Where does the median lie in a set of:
+S
a 49 scores? b 110 scores?
Solutions
a The number of scores is odd, ∴ the median is the ⎛ ------------⎞ th score, where n = 49.
n+1
⎝ 2 ⎠
That is, the median is the ⎛ ---------------⎞ th, or 25th score.
49 + 1
⎝ 2 ⎠
b The number of scores is even, ∴ the median lies between the ⎛ ---⎞ th and ⎛ --- + 1⎞ th scores,
n n
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
where n = 110. That is, the median lies between the ⎛ ---------⎞ th and ⎛ --------- + 1⎞ th, or 55th
110 110
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
and 56th scores.
Example 3
Score Frequency
EG Find the median score in this frequency distribution table.
+S 1 12
Solution 2 9
There are 99 scores, which is odd. Therefore the median 3 23
lies in the ⎛ ---------------⎞ th position.
99 + 1
⎝ 2 ⎠ 4 40
That is, the median is the 50th score. To find which score 5 15
is the 50th, simply add the frequencies one at a time from Σf = 99
top to bottom as follows.
Score Frequency
The first 12 scores are 1s
1 12
2 9
) + → 12 + 9 = 21, ∴ the 21st score is a 2.
3 23
) + → 21 + 23 = 44, ∴ the 44th score is a 3.
4 40
) + → 44 + 40 = 84, ∴ the 84th score is a 4.
Now, the 44th, 45th, 46th, . . . 84th scores
5 15 are all 4s, including the 50th score.
Σf = 99 Therefore the median is 4.
Exercise 12.7
1 Find the median in each set of scores for which the number of scores is odd.
a 2, 5, 9, 10, 16 b 1, 2, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 c 3, 5, 5, 7, 8, 9, 9, 9, 14
2 Find the median in each set of scores for which the number of scores is even.
a 5, 6, 10, 13 b 3, 4, 4, 8, 9, 11, 11, 15 c 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 7, 7, 9, 9, 10
3 Arrange these scores in ascending order, then find the median. Each set has an odd number
of scores.
a 7, 4, 6, 1, 3 b 25, 21, 29, 26, 3
c 14, 18, 21, 24, 19, 16, 30 d 8, 13, 5, 19, 20, 7, 11
e 5.2, 7.6, 8.3, 0.9, 6.3 f 11.2, 19.5, 1.4, 16.6, 17.9
4 Arrange these scores in ascending order, then find the median. Each set has an even number
of scores.
a 8, 11, 3, 6 b 17, 14, 15, 10, 16, 19
c 23, 26, 18, 25, 28, 15 d 8, 2, 6, 1, 8, 3, 9, 4
e 37.5, 42.7, 24.9, 55.1 f 5.9, 3.1, 5.9, 8.2, 1.8, 9.5
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■ Consolidation
5 Find the position of the median in a set of:
a 13 scores b 27 scores c 45 scores
d 59 scores e 81 scores f 117 scores
6 Find the positions of the two middle scores in a set of:

a 10 scores b 18 scores c 34 scores
d 50 scores e 96 scores f 182 scores
7 How many scores are there in a distribution if the number of scores is odd and the median
lies in the:
a 10th position? b 26th position? c 47th position? d 93rd position?
8 How many scores are there in a distribution if the number of scores is even and the median
lies between the:
a 6th and 7th scores? b 15th and 16th scores?
c 34th and 35th scores? d 71st and 72nd scores?
9 Find the median in each of these frequency tables.

a Score (x) 17 18 19 20 21 b Score (x) 5 6 7 8 9
Frequency (f ) 3 5 2 6 1 Frequency (f ) 8 4 2 7 2
c Score (x) 30 31 32 33 34 d Score (x) 48 49 50 51 52

Frequency (f ) 6 1 5 8 7 Frequency (f ) 12 14 13 4 2
e x f f x f g x f h x f
1 3 10 3 41 16 94 13
2 5 11 8 42 9 95 17
3 1 12 7 43 5 96 20
4 4 13 6 44 8 97 21
5 5 14 5 45 10 98 16
6 2 15 7 46 2 99 9
10 Arrange these scores into a frequency distribution table, then find the median.
23 26 25 23 26 25 21 27 24 22
26 25 25 22 24 26 21 23 25 21
27 22 25 24 26 26 21 25 22 23
11 Determine the median score in each histogram.

a b
7 6
6 5
Frequency
Frequency
5 4
4 3
3 2
2 1
1 0
0 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
33 34 35 36 37 38 Score
Score
12 Determine the median score in each of these.

a b
12
10
Frequency
8
6
60 61 62 63 64 65 66
4
Score
2
0
25 26 27 28 29 30
Score
13 The column graph shows the sports played School Sports - Yr 8

by the girls in Year 8 at a certain high school.
a Is the data quantitative (numerical) or 45
41
categorical? 40
35
Number of girls
b Is it appropriate to try to find the median 35

for this data? Why? 30 28
25 23
20
16
15
10
5
0 l l
is al y al g
nn b ke ftb
in
Te et oc m
N H So im
Sw
Sport
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14 A real-estate agent sold 8 houses last week with the following values. Calculate the median
house price.
• $240 000 • $299 000 • $206 000 • $355 000
• $312 000 • $268 000 • $425 000 • $194 000
15 Students were asked to line up in ascending order of height for a sporting photograph.
Which of these students has the median height?
• Alex: 158 cm • Gary: 160 cm • Terry: 153 cm • Tran: 149 cm
• Mikhael: 156 cm • Demir: 162 cm • Timothy: 155 cm
16 Cathy’s times for recent 400 m runs are as follows: 51.2 s, 50.8 s, 52.3 s, 49.7 s, 50.0 s,
48.6 s. What was her median time?
17 The mean of 5 numbers is 14. If four of the numbers are 19, 10, 7 and 18, find the median.
18 Write down a set of 5 numbers in which the median is 9 and the mean is 11.
19 Write down a set of 6 numbers in which the median and the mean are equal in value.
12.8 The mode and the range

The mode is the score with the highest frequency. That is, it is the score that occurs the most.
The mode is easy to find in histograms and dot plots, as it is the score with the highest column.
If a distribution has two or more scores with the highest frequency, then there would be two or
more modes. If no score has a higher frequency than the other scores, then we say that there is
no mode. The mode is our third measure of location.
The range is the difference between the highest and lowest scores. The range is called a
measure of spread because it indicates the interval over which the scores are spread.
The mode is the score with the highest frequency.

The range is the difference between the highest and lowest scores.
Example 1
EG Find the mode for each set of scores, where possible.
+S
a 5, 7, 8, 8, 8, 11 b 3, 3, 5, 5, 7, 10, 16 c 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
Solutions
a The score of 8 occurs three times, which is more often than the other scores, which only
occur once. Therefore, the mode is 8.
b There are two 3s and two 5s, which is more often than the other scores, which only occur
once. Therefore, the modes are 3 and 5.
c Each score occurs once, so there is no score that occurs more than all the others. Therefore,
there is no mode.
Example 2 Solution
EG Find the range of 7, 15, 21, 33, 45, 60. Range = highest score − lowest score
+S = 60 − 7
= 53
Example 3
EG For the scores in this frequency distribution table, find:
+S
a the mode b the range
Score 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Frequency 6 9 10 14 12 11 4
Solutions
a The score with the highest frequency is 18, so 18 is the mode.
b Range = highest score − lowest score
= 21 − 15
=6
Exercise 12.8
1 Write down the mode(s) for each set of scores.

a 8, 4, 5, 4, 4 b 15, 12, 7, 15, 11 c 21, 26, 23, 21, 19, 21
d 9, 5, 3, 5, 9, 2 e 35, 30, 48, 30, 35 f 1, 3, 5, 3, 1, 6, 1, 3
g 4.2, 5.7, 4.2, 9.6, 0.8 h 10.3, 8.4, 8.4, 6.9, 0.4 i 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
2 Determine the range of each set of scores.

a 19, 25, 16, 37 b 24, 17, 46, 11, 33 c 52, 75, 98, 43, 35
d 87, 124, 69, 95, 115 e 2.4, 1.2, 6.7, 7.8, 5.4 f 0.45, 2.7, 0.9, 1.65, 2.58
■ Consolidation
3 a A set of scores has a range of 20 and the lowest score is 35. What is the highest score?
b A set of scores has a highest score of 72 and a range of 14. What is the lowest score?
4 Find the mode and range for each set of scores.

a Score Frequency b Score Frequency c Score Frequency
1 4 86 16 18 6
2 12 87 13 19 5
3 9 88 8 20 8
4 10 89 12 21 11
5 7 90 13 22 10
91 4 23 13
92 7
462 Mathscape 8
5 Write down the mode for each set of scores.

a b
50 20
Frequency
Frequency
40 16
30 12
20 8
10 4
0 0
2 4 6 8 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Score Score
6 On a given day, the sales assistants at Sam’s Shoe Store sold shoes of the following sizes.
8 12 8 10 11 9 8 10 9 12
12 11 8 8 10 9 9 8 11 7
10 8 7 9 12 10 7 8 11 8
7 8 11 10 12 8 8 9 10 8
a Organise the data into a frequency distribution table with score, tally and frequency
columns.
b Find the modal shoe size.
c Find the range of shoe sizes.
7 For one month Robyn recorded the number of hours she spent each weeknight doing
homework. The results are recorded below.
2 5 1 4 3 0 1 4
4 1 2 3 2 1 4 2
0 2 1 5 0 2 3 3
a Express the data in the form of a dot plot.
b Find the modal homework time.
c Determine the range of these homework times.
The score that lies halfway between the lowest score and the median is called the lower
quartile. Similarly, the score that lies halfway between the median and the highest score is
called the upper quartile. The difference between the upper quartile and the lower quartile
is called the inter-quartile range.
8 For each set of scores below:
i arrange the scores in ascending order ii find the median
iii find the upper and lower quartiles iv find the inter-quartile range
a 8, 12, 10, 14, 9 b 10, 7, 5, 22, 29, 21, 14, 19, 24
c 33, 26, 43, 22, 24, 29, 28, 27, 39 d 17, 20, 31, 23, 19, 27, 15
TRY THIS Mr and Mrs Average

What is an average family? Do a survey of your class, then compare the results with
your own family. You could investigate the number of pets, children, cars, televisions,
etc. Use your imagination. Use a computer spreadsheet program (e.g. Lotus, Excel) or
a statistical package to record your results. Now use these programs to calculate
the mean, median, mode and range and to plot graphs.
12.9 Comparing two data sets

A number of statistical graphs and charts can be used to compare two sets of data. If graphs
were used to compare the performances of two businesses, for example, then we could see quite
quickly which business was performing better. The graphs that best lend themselves to
comparisons of data sets are side-by-side column graphs, double bar graphs, area charts and
radar charts. The back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot is also useful for comparing two sets of data.
It has an advantage over the graphs in that it shows all of the scores for both sets. This makes
it relatively easy to calculate measures of location such as the mean, median and mode as well
as the range.
Example 1
EG Two Year 8 students are competing with each other to see who will represent the school
+S in a statewide Mathematics competition. The table below shows the test and exam scores
(as percentages) of each student throughout the year.
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Exam Test 4 Test 5 Test 6 Exam
Kate 92 89 96 82 90 95 82 86
Victoria 90 90 79 84 95 97 83 82
a Find the mean, median, mode and range of each student’s scores.
b Which student should be chosen to represent the school? Why?
Solutions
This table shows the mean, median, mode and range of each student’s scores.
Mean Median Mode Range
Kate 89 89.5 82 14
Victoria 87.5 87 90 18
b Kate has the higher mean and median scores. Victoria has the higher mode and the highest
score; however, she also has the lowest score. Kate’s results are more consistent overall,
so she should be chosen to represent the school.
464 Mathscape 8
Exercise 12.9
1 The table shows the test scores for two boys Dennis and Han over the past year.
Test 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Dennis 65 82 88 79 88 84 81
Han 83 74 66 76 83 93 64
a i Who scored the highest mark during the year?
ii Who scored the lowest mark?
b In how many tests did Dennis score a higher mark than Han?
c Which student has the higher total?
d For each student, find the:
i mean ii median iii mode
e Which student was the more consistent? Why?
2 The table shows the average maximum monthly temperatures (C°) in Hobart and Sydney.
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Hobart 21.9 21.5 20.1 17.4 14.4 12.1 11.8 13.0 15.2 16.8 18.3 20.1
Sydney 25.8 25.6 24.6 22.3 19.2 16.7 16.1 17.6 19.7 21.9 23.6 25.1
a Find the mean maximum temperature for each city.
b Find the median maximum temperature for each city.
c In which month are the maximum temperatures closest?
d Which city has the warmer climate overall?
■ Consolidation
3 The area chart shows both the annual profits and the costs of the CPC Pastry Company from
1994 to 2003.
Profit/cost margin at CPC Ltd
800
700
Profit/costs (× $1000)
600
500
Annual profit
400
Annual costs
300
200
100
0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Year
a Use the graph to estimate the company’s annual profit in i 1994 ii 2003.
b Use the graph to estimate the company’s annual costs in i 1994 ii 2003.
c Describe the company’s annual profit trend.

d Describe the company’s annual costs trend.
e What conclusion can you draw about the future of the company, based on these trends?
4 This bar graph shows the number of customers who visited some of the departments at the
Grace Jones and David Bros department stores on the first day of the mid-year sales period.
Department store customers
1054
Ladieswear
1125
Menswear 775
830
Department
Furniture 610
564
Electrical 362
goods 335
Grace Jones
243
Kitchenware 290 David Bros
Manchester 191
228
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Number of customers
a Which department in each store had the most customers?
b How many more customers visited the kitchenware section at David Bros than at
Grace Jones?
c Is it appropriate to try and find the mean or median departments visited? Why?
d Which store had the most customers in total and by what margin?
e What percentage of customers overall shopped at David Bros?
5 The side-by-side column graph shows the number of flights flown per day by Kangaroo
Airlines and Wombat Air.
Comparison of airline flights
20
16
Flights per day
12 Kangaroo Airlines
Wombat Air
8
0
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun
Day of the week
466 Mathscape 8
a Which airline and on which day does one company have 11 flights?
b Which airline has more flights on the weekend?
c What is the minimum number of flights that take place on any one day?
d On how many days does Kangaroo Airlines have more than 14 flights?
e How many more flights does Wombat Air have on Wednesday than Kangaroo Airlines?
f On which days does Wombat Air have more flights than Kangaroo Airlines?
g Calculate the mean number of flights per day for each airline.
6 This stem-and-leaf plot shows the end of year exam results for two Year 8 Mathematics
classes. There are 24 students in each class.
8 Green 8 Gold a Write down the highest and lowest scores for
each class.
8 4 79 b What is the range for each class?
630 5 12458 c Find the mean, median and mode for each class.
7521 6 356789 d Estimate the combined mean of the two classes.
964222 7 01446 e Calculate the combined mean if the exam scores
887432 8 4568 in 8 Green have a sum of 1793 and the scores in
6530 9 07 8 Gold have a sum of 1659.
f Which class performed better on the exam?
Why?
7 The ages of the men and women who took part in a radio music survey are shown in this
back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
a How many: Women
Men
i women were surveyed? (0)
ii men were surveyed? 10 2 122234
(5)
b Write down the age of the: 877 2 58899
(0)
i youngest woman ii youngest man 4332 3 01233
iii oldest woman iv oldest man (5)
986 3 6678
c Find the mode for each set of data. 3 2 2 0 4(0) 1 2 2 3 4
d What are the age ranges of these men and
8 8 8 7 6 5 5 4(5) 5 6 7 7
women?
e How many men are less than 40 years of age? 4 4 2 1 1 5(0) 1 3 4
f How many women are 50 years of age or more?
g Find the median ages of the men and the women.
h Calculate the mean ages of the men and the women.
8 The data below shows the waiting times per customer at two different banks between
11:00 am and 1:00 pm on Thursday.
Northpac Bank International Bank
14 7 12 11 7 8 9 11 12 10 9 12 12 7
11 6 21 13 3 10 7 10 12 13 15 22 9 6
12 13 11 6 8 11 9 5 14 14 9 8 7 9
11 8 12 9 14 9 13 11 9 12 15 12 11 9
10 7 5 13 20 7 8 11 13 9 13 7 13 14
a Draw a dot plot showing the waiting times at each bank.

b Find the mode for each set of waiting times.
c Identify any outliers in each set of waiting times.
d What is the median waiting time at each bank?
e The general manager at International Bank claims that the average waiting time
experienced by their customers is less than at Northpac. Is he correct?
Jan
9 This radar chart shows the average monthly Dec 160 Feb
rainfall in millimetres in Sydney and Brisbane. 120
a Which city experiences more rain in Nov 80 Mar
i summer? ii winter? 40
b During which 3 months do both cities Oct 0 Apr
experience about the same amount of
rainfall?
c Which city has the wettest month? Sep May
d Estimate the rainfall in:
i Sydney in April Aug Jun
Jul
ii Brisbane in June Sydney
e Approximately how much more rain falls in Brisbane
Brisbane than in Sydney during November?
12.10 Choosing the best average

The mean, median and mode are the three measures of location, and each can quite correctly be
referred to as the average in certain situations. It is sometimes difficult to tell whether or not a
number is a good measure of the average because there is no absolute condition relating to this.
In each case, we need to make a judgement based on the context in which the data occurs.
For example, if the owner of a shoe store was asked to state the average shoe size in recent sales,
she would most likely refer to the modal size rather than the mean or the median. The vice-
chancellor of a university, however, would probably refer to the mean when discussing a
student’s assessment average. Generally speaking, however, a score that occurs at either end of
a distribution should not be used as an average.
Example 1
EG Explain why the mode is not a good average for the scores 2, 4, 7, 11, 15, 17.
+S
Solution
Each score occurs once only, hence there is no clear mode.
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Example 2
EG Explain why the median is not a good average for the scores 12, 12, 12, 12, 14, 19, 21.
+S
Solution
The median is 12, which is one of the extreme or end scores. Therefore it is not a good average.
Example 3
EG Explain why the mean is not a good average for the scores 3, 18, 19, 21, 24, 26.
+S
Solution
The low score of 3, called an outlier, is so far from the other scores that it would have too great
an influence on the mean, which would then not be truly representative of the scores overall.
Exercise 12.10
1 In which of the following is the mean not a good average for each set of scores?
a 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 b 8, 8, 9, 12, 51 c 2, 23, 24, 24, 25, 27
d 17, 18, 20, 23, 25 e 45, 47, 48, 74 f 3.2, 3.3, 3.6, 3.6, 8.5
2 In which of the following is the median not a good measure of a typical score?
a 4, 4, 5, 7, 8 b 9, 9, 9, 9, 15, 17, 18 c 20, 21, 25, 27
d 3, 4, 4, 6, 6, 6, 6 e 12, 12, 12, 16 f 4.3, 4.4, 4.6, 4.6, 4.7, 4.9
3 In which of the following is the mode not a good measure of a typical score?
a 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 b 10, 11, 11, 11, 13, 15 c 2, 2, 2, 2, 4, 5, 5
d 40, 41, 42, 42, 46 e 32, 33, 34, 36, 38, 39 f 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.3, 7.3, 7.7
■ Consolidation
4 Each week, Tamiko’s maths teacher gives the class 15 quick questions for which the
students cannot use a calculator. Tamiko’s results so far this year are:
13 14 15 12 11 5 12 13
11 15 12 14 14 13 14 15
Which measure of location would be:
a the least appropriate? b the most appropriate?
5 During January, the MacMillan real-estate agency sold 8 houses at auction. The sale prices
were:
$225 000 $260 000 $260 000 $270 000
$282 000 $284 000 $297 000 $630 000
a Find the mean, median and modal auction prices.
b Which measure of location would be the fairest to use as the average house price?
c The agency advertised that its average sale price for the month was $313 500. Is this a
fair statement? Explain your answer.
6 This frequency table shows the

Dress size 6 8 10 12 14
number of dresses in each size
that were sold by the sales assistant Number of dresses sold 3 10 11 18 8
in a dress shop during the last month.
a Find the median dress size. b Write down the modal dress size.
c Which of these two measures would be of greater importance to the shop owner? Why?
7 While speaking to a group of parents who were considering enrolling their daughters in
the school, the principal stated that ‘the average number of students per class at this school
is 16.2’.
a Could this average be the mode? Explain your answer.
b Which measure of location do you think the principal chose to use? Why?
8 In an international diving competition, there are 7 people on the judging panel. Each person
gives the diver a score out of 10, correct to 1 decimal place. The highest and lowest scores
are removed and the remaining scores are averaged to calculate the actual score for the dive.
a How do we know that the median is not being used to calculate the diver’s score?
b Why would it be difficult to use the mode here?
c Why are the highest and lowest scores not used?
9 The students at a school were surveyed to

Region of Sydney Number of
find out in which part of Sydney they live.
students
a What was the modal region?
b Why would the mean and median Northern beaches 416
be inappropriate measures here? Northern suburbs 325
North west 64
Inner city 30
Eastern suburbs 12
10 A bank manager examined the data on the number of people who entered the bank in each
hourly time slot during the day. Would he be more concerned with the mean, the median or
the mode of this data? Why?
11 Which measure of location gives the fairest description for each of these distributions? Why?
a b
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
c d
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
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TRY THIS Mean versus median

Find the average height of the people in your class. Suppose a person of height
300 cm joins your class. Find the mean now. Is it appropriate to use the mean
to represent the typical height of people in your class? What measure would you
use now?
Conducting a Statistical Investigation
You will need to work in small groups of 3–5 students to complete this activity.
Having completed the topics on data representation, analysis and evaluation, you should
now be able to use the skills that you have learned to conduct a statistical investigation of
your own. You should try to follow the steps below when conducting your investigation.
1 Pose a key question that you want to investigate.
• Check that your question is clear, easy to understand and unambiguous.
• Define carefully all of the terms in the question that you consider are important or
relevant to the investigation.
• Make a list of any sources that you expect to use to obtain information. This will of
course be expanded as the investigation takes shape.
• Determine whether the key question needs to be refined in any way as a result of
your planning.
2 Decide on the methods or techniques that should be used to collect the data.
• Consider any possible difficulties in obtaining data from the entire population.
Would it be more appropriate to use a census or a sample?
• If a sample is to be chosen, decide on the sampling technique that should be used—
systematic, stratified or simple random sampling.
• Ensure that any sample is randomly chosen, of a suitable size and free from bias.
• Determine whether the data should be collected by the use of a pen and paper
questionnaire, a face-to-face interview, a tape recorder, a school Intranet survey
or observation.
• Should published data be used? If so, ensure that it is reliable and not out of date.
3 Organise and display the data.
• Look for any errors that may have occurred during the collection process.
• Decide on the most appropriate ways to display the data. This may involve tables,
graphs or scatter diagrams.
• Ensure that all tables and graphs are clearly labelled.
4 Analyse the data.
• Consider the effect of any outliers.
• Use measures of location (mean, median, mode) and the range, where appropriate,
to analyse the data.
5 Interpret the data and draw conclusions.

• Include any factors that made the collection of data difficult such as time involved,
cost and physical location of the data.
• Include any factors that may have resulted in some of the data being unreliable.
• Refer back to the key question and ensure that your conclusions relate to it specifically.
• Discuss any predictions that can be drawn from your findings.
• Include a complete list of the sources you used to gather or analyse the information.
This may include a bibliography for any books used, addresses of websites and the
names of any organisations you contacted or visited.
6 Follow up.
• Outline any ways in which the investigation could be extended.
• Discuss any practical uses that could be made from your findings, and who would
benefit from them.
Here is a list of possible topics for your investigation. You may either choose one of these,
or, in consultation with your teacher, you might pose a question of your own. In either case,
to ensure that it is suitable, it would be wise to discuss the question that you have chosen
with your teacher before you begin the investigation.
1. Do children today exercise less than they did 10 years ago?
2. The number of serious crimes occurring in NSW is increasing. Is this true?
3. Are hospital waiting times increasing in NSW?
4. Does a student’s level of numeracy decline once they have begun using a calculator
on a regular basis?
5. Is the quality of service that people receive at their local bank branch declining?
6. What are the main reasons why people buy home computers?
7. What are the main factors that influence people when they buy a car?
8. The number of families eating take-away meals at night has increased over the last
10 years. Do you agree?
9. Are women safer drivers than men?
10. Is there any relationship between students’ cultural backgrounds and their
mathematical ability?
11. Do girls perform better at English than boys?
12. Do boys perform better at Mathematics than girls?
13. Are right-handed people better at sport than left-handed people?
14. Which subjects are the most popular and the least popular amongst your year group?
15. Which foods would students at your school like to introduce at the canteen?
16. Should we change the Australian national anthem? If so, what should it be?
17. Does it rain on more days during winter than summer on the coastal areas of NSW?
18. To what degree are people’s shopping choices influenced by media advertising?
19. If the school day was to be extended by an extra hour in order to include two new
subjects, what should the subjects be?
20. Is a particular intersection near your home or school so dangerous that it should be
listed as an ‘accident black spot’?
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12.11 The language of probability

Probability is a measure of how likely it is that a particular event will occur. It is measured on
a scale between 0 and 1. If an event is impossible, then the probability that it will occur is 0.
If an event is a certainty, then the probability that it will occur is 1. All other probabilities lie
between these values. If two events are equally likely, then the probability that each event will
occur is 1--2- . Other terms are used to describe how close the event is to each end of the scale.
Impossible Even chance Certain

⎭
⎬
⎫
⎭
⎬
⎫
⎭
⎬
⎫
⎭
⎬
⎫
1
0 ---
2 1
Very unlikely Unlikely Likely Very likely
In this exercise we will use certain terms to describe the likelihood of a particular event
occurring. In the following exercise, numbers will be used in order to obtain a more precise
description of a probability.
Example 1
EG Describe the likelihood of each of the following events occurring. Solutions
+S
a scoring 101% on a Maths test a Impossible
b tossing a head with a coin b Even chance
c rolling a number from 1 to 6 on a die c Certain
d a music store will stock a Beatles CD d Very likely
e you will eventually become Prime Minister e Very unlikely
f at least half of your class will eventually get married f Likely
g a number greater than 4 is rolled on a die g Unlikely
Example 2
EG Comment on the following statements.
+S
a The first three children born in a family were boys. The next child is sure to be a girl.
b Only two people can play each other in a game of chess. Therefore, it is equally likely that
each person could win the game.
Solutions
a The statement is not correct. The probability that the child is male or female is not affected
by the sex of previous children. Therefore the next child born is just as likely to be a boy
as a girl.
b The statement is not correct. Chess is essentially a game of skill, not a game of luck. The
ability of both players must be taken into account when considering the likelihood that
either player will win.
Exercise 12.11
1 Describe the likelihood of each event occurring as either impossible (I), unlikely (U),
likely (L) or certain (C).
a Christmas Day will fall on December 25 this year.
b It will rain somewhere in Australia tomorrow.
c The sun will still be visible at midnight tonight in Sydney.
d An Australian golfer will win all 4 major championships this year.
e Every student in your class will score 100% on the next Maths test.
f A second moon of the same size will be discovered orbiting Earth.
g You will eventually buy your own house or home unit.
h A card is chosen from a regular pack of 52 playing cards and it is either red or black.
i The numbers 1 to 10 are written on separate pieces of paper, placed in a bag and the
number 11 is drawn out.
2 State 2 examples of:

a impossible events b certain events c even-chance events
■ Consolidation
3 Describe the chance of each of the following events occurring as either impossible (I), very
unlikely (VU), unlikely (U), even chance (E), likely (L), very likely (VL) or certain (C).
a It will rain on the moon today.
b At least 5 students will be absent from your school on the next school day.
c Every student in your class likes brussel sprouts.
d A Maths exam will be held in NSW this year.
e A coin is tossed and the result is a tail.
f It will rain in Sydney some time during the next month.
g Someone will win first prize in Lotto next week.
h An odd number is showing when a die is rolled.
i A single card drawn from a pack is a King.
j At least one person you know has a pet.
k A woman is selected at random from a group of 20 men and 20 women.
l A person in your class is selected at random and they have a brother or sister.
m Your post code contains 4 digits.
n You have a computer in your home.
o An animal other than a horse will win the Melbourne Cup this year.
4 A bag contains 10 red balls and 10 white balls. Describe the probability of drawing:
a a blue ball b a red ball c a ball that is either red or white
5 20 tickets were sold for each spin of the chocolate wheel at a school fete. Use the terms in
Q3 to describe the winning chances of a person who has purchased the following number
of tickets?
a 3 b 16 c 7 d 20 e 10 f 13 g 0
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6 Would you expect that the most likely outcome of an event would always occur? Explain
your answer.
7 Arrange the following events in order of probability, from the most likely to the least likely.
(Write A, B, C, . . .).
A the school principal will enter the classroom in the next minute
B the number 1, 2 or 3 will be spun on a spinner with the numbers 1 to 5 on it
C most students in your class are wearing a watch
D the next child born in Australia will be a boy
E your Maths teacher will not set homework for the next two school days
F in NSW, the sun will rise in the east tomorrow morning
G a green queen is chosen from a regular pack of 52 playing cards
8 Explain the meaning of the following statements using the language of probability.
a Lightning never strikes twice.
b A particular greyhound is ‘odds on’ to win a race.
c There is a 50–50 chance that my injury will heal by the end of the week.
d I have Buckley’s chance of finishing my English assignment by Friday.
e There is a better than even chance that a patient will recover completely.
f A particular horse was a certainty beaten.
g My Maths teacher is only away once in a blue moon.
9 Comment on the following statements.

a There are 26 letters in the English alphabet. Therefore, the chance that my name begins
with the letter X is 1 in 26.
b There are only 2 possible outcomes in a game of tennis—winning and losing.
Therefore, I have an even chance of winning a game.
c I have tossed four coins and each time the result has been heads. Therefore, it is almost
certain that the next toss will be a tail.
10 Find 5 statements in magazines or newspapers that use the language of probability. For each
statement, state whether the language of probability was used correctly.
12.12 Theoretical probability

Probability may be either experimental or theoretical. In either case, the probability of an event
is usually given as a fraction, however, it may also be given as a decimal or as a percentage.
The term sample space refers to the full list of possible outcomes for an event. For example,
when a die is rolled, the sample space is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. In a pack of playing cards, the sample
space is each of the 52 cards in the pack.
■ Experimental probability
In experimental probability, an experiment or a series of trials is conducted. The number of
times that each outcome occurs is recorded. These values are then divided by the total number
of possible outcomes to give the experimental probability for each outcome.
For example, a coin is tossed 100 times and shows heads on 53 occasions and tails on the other
47 occasions.
53 47
The experimental probabilities in this case are: P(head) = --------- and P(tail) = --------- .
100 100
These experimental probabilities may well be different if the coin was tossed another 100 times.
There is an element of chance in such experiments.
■ Theoretical probability
In theoretical probability, no trials are carried out. Instead, we theorise or think about the
probabilities that we would expect to find if such experiments were performed. For the same
example we would expect that the coin would show heads on exactly 50 occasions and tails on
the other 50 occasions. The theoretical probabilities in this case are:
50 50
P(head) = --------- and P(tail) = ---------
100 100
1 1
= --- = ---
2 2
If all outcomes are equally likely, then the theoretical probability that an event E
occurs is given by:
number of outcomes favourable to E
P ( E ) = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
total number of possible outcomes
Example 1
EG The numbers from 1 to 15 are written on separate pieces of paper, folded and placed in a bag.
+S One number is then drawn out at random. What is the probability that this number is:
a the number 13? b odd? c less than 12? d prime?
Solutions
The sample space is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15. It consists of 15 numbers
altogether.
a There is only one number 13. Therefore, P(13) = ----- 1
-.
15
b There are 8 odd numbers. Therefore, P(odd number) = ----- 8
-.
15
c There are 11 numbers less than 12. Therefore, P(number less than 12) = 11 ------ .
15
d A prime number has only 2 factors—itself and 1.
There are 6 prime numbers from 1 to 15. They are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 and 13.
Therefore, P(prime number) = -----6
15
-
= 2
---
5
476 Mathscape 8
Example 2
EG A regular pack of 52 playing cards is shuffled and one card is drawn at random. Find the
+S probability that the card is:
a the 5 of hearts b black c a club
d a picture card e a red ace f a blue jack
Solutions
a There is only one 5 of hearts. b There are 26 black cards.
∴ P(5 of hearts) = -----
52
1
- ∴ P(black card) = 26
------
52
= 1
---
2
c There are 13 clubs. d There are 12 picture cards

∴ P(club) = 13
------
52
(4 jacks, 4 queens, 4 kings).
= 1
---
4
∴ P(picture card) = 12
------
52
= 3
------
13
e There are 2 red aces. f There are no blue jacks.

∴ P(red ace) = -----
2
52
- ∴ P(blue jack) = 0
= 1
------
26
Exercise 12.12
1 Comment on the likelihood of an event occurring if it has a probability of:

a 0 b 1--4- c 1--2- d 3--4- e 1
2 10 000 tickets are sold in a lottery. What is the probability of winning a prize if you buy:
a 1 ticket? b 5 tickets? c 20 tickets? d 250 tickets?
3 A die is rolled. Find the probability that the number showing is:
a a6 b odd c a 2 or a 5
d less than 5 e more than 4 f greater than 6
4 A spinner for a child’s game has the numbers 1 to 9 written in sections of equal area.
Find the probability of spinning:
a the number 4 b an even number c an odd number
d a number less than 7 e a number not less than 3 f a two-digit number
5 A bag contains 5 red discs, 6 yellow discs and 4 green discs. One disc is drawn at random
from the bag. Find the probability that it is:
a red b green c yellow
d red or yellow e yellow or green f green or red
■ Consolidation
6 The letters of the word EQUILATERAL are placed in a bag and one letter is drawn out at
random. Find the probability of drawing:
a the letter T b the letter E c the letters A, Q or L
d a vowel e a consonant f a letter before R in the alphabet
7 Find, as a decimal, the probability that I will win first prize in a lottery in which 500 tickets
have been sold and I bought:
a 10 tickets b 25 tickets c 100 tickets d 120 tickets
8 In the last few days, a set of traffic lights at a particular intersection showed red on 130
occasions, green on 90 occasions and amber on 30 occasions. Using this data, find as a
percentage, the probability that the next car to reach this intersection will have:
a a red light b an amber light c a green light
9 A spinner in the shape of a regular hexagon is cut into sectors

as shown, with the red sector twice the size of the others.
Green Red
The other sectors are coloured orange, yellow, green and
blue. If the arrow is spun, what is the probability that it will
land in: Blue Orange
a the green sector? b the red sector?
Yellow
c either the green or the red sectors?
10 The 30 students in 8 Red were surveyed to find out which languages they could speak other
than English. The results were:
• Italian, 9 • Mandarin, 5 • Arabic, 12 • Korean, 4
No student was able to speak more than one of these languages. Find the probability that a
student chosen at random is able to speak:
a Arabic b Korean c Mandarin d Italian
e Italian or Mandarin f Korean or Arabic g Italian or Korean or Mandarin
11 Discs labelled with the numbers 1 to 40 are placed in a bag and one disc is drawn out at
random. Find the probability that the disc drawn shows:
a the number 23 b a number less than 20
c a number that ends in 9 d a number with two equal digits
e a square number f a number with a 2 in the tens place
g a single-digit number h a prime number
i a number that is divisible by 7 j a number between but not including 10 and 20
k a number that contains the digit 1 l a number that ends in a 6 and is a multiple of 3
12 A regular pack of 52 playing cards is shuffled and one card is then drawn at random. What
is the probability that the card is:
a red? b a diamond? c an ace?
d the 4 of clubs? e a picture card? f a number card (2–10)?
g a black queen? h a red picture card? i a red 5 or a black 9?
j either red or black? k both red and black? l a black number card?
478 Mathscape 8
13 In a box there are three times as many gold counters as silver counters. If one counter is
drawn from the box, what is the probability that it is:
a gold? b silver?
3
14 The probability that a computer chip is faulty is found to be ------ .
40
How many faulty chips
would you expect to find in a batch of 600 chips?
15 Based on experience, a dentist finds that the probability of a child needing a filling is 2--7- .
Last month 42 children visited the surgery. How many fillings would the dentist have
expected to fill?
16 A die is rolled and a coin is tossed at the same time.
a List the sample space.
b What is the probability of:
i rolling a 4 and tossing a head?
ii rolling a prime number and tossing a tail?
iii rolling a 1 or 2 and tossing a tail?
iv rolling a number less than 5 and tossing a head?
17 Two-digit numbers are to be formed using the digits 3, 5, 6 and 9. Each digit can only be
used once.
b If one number is selected at random, find the probability that the number:
i is 56 ii begins with a 9 iii contains the digit 3
iv is less than 69 v is greater than 53 vi is odd
vii is prime viii is a multiple of 9 ix is not divisible by 5
18 Two-digit numbers are to be formed using the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Each digit can be
used more than once.
b If one number is selected at random, find the probability that the number:
i is 41 ii is even iii ends in a 1
iv has two equal digits v is a multiple of 5 vi is a square number
vii contains the digit 2 viii has a digit sum of 7 ix is not a prime
19 Two students from the group Richard, Harrison, Joel, Merhan and Greig are to be chosen
to represent their year group on the Student Representative Council.
b Find the probability that:
i Joel is chosen
ii Merhan is not chosen
iii Richard and Harrison are both chosen
iv Merhan is chosen but Greig is not
v at least one of Harrison and Joel is chosen
vi neither Joel nor Greig is chosen
20 Two dice are rolled at the same time.

b Find the probability that:
i the numbers are 1 and 3
ii the total is 6
iii a double is rolled
iv only one of the numbers is a 4
v both numbers are even
vi one number is a 5 and the other is greater than 2
vii at least one of the numbers is a 1
viii neither of the numbers is a 2
21 A game is considered to be fair if all participants have an equal chance of winning. Decide
whether each of the following games is fair.
a Lily and Marlene toss two coins. Lily wins if the coins show the same on both faces.
Marlene wins if the coins show one of each face.
b A bag contains 99 counters individually numbered from 1 to 99. Gary and Richard take
turns to draw out counters, one at a time. Garry collects odd-numbered counters and
Richard collects even-numbered counters. The winner is the first player to collect
10 counters.
c On a roulette wheel, the numbers 0 to 36 are spaced equally around the edge. The
number 0 is coloured green. Of the remaining numbers, half are coloured red and the
others are coloured black. If when the wheel is spun and the ball lands on 0, the house
wins (unless a player has placed a bet on 0). If a player correctly bets that the ball will
come to rest on a red or a black number, then they will receive double their money back.
Maurice places a $20 bet that the ball will land on a red number.
d Lloyd and Ben are playing a game with two dice. Lloyd wins if a double is rolled by
either player. Ben wins if the sum of the numbers showing on the dice is 7.
e A bag contains only red, white and blue marbles. Half the marbles in the bag are red,
one-third are white and one-sixth are blue. Monique and Rochelle take turns to draw
one marble at a time from the bag. Monique wins if the marble drawn is red. Rochelle
wins if the marble is either white or blue.
f Craig and Melissa are playing a game with a regular pack of 52 playing cards. The pack
is divided into 4 suits with an equal number of cards: hearts, diamonds, spades and
clubs. There are 12 face cards in a pack: 4 kings, 4 queens and 4 jacks. The cards are
shuffled and placed face down on a table. One card at a time is then turned over and
placed face up. If this card is a heart, Melissa wins. If the card is a face card, Craig wins.
22 A 5 cent, a 10 cent and a 20 cent coin are tossed in the air at the same time.
b What is the probability that the coins show:
i 3 heads? ii 2 heads and a tail? iii 1 head and 2 tails? iv 3 tails?
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23 A card is chosen at random from a regular pack of 52 playing cards. Find the probability
that the card is:
a black b a jack c black or a jack
d a7 e a heart f a 7 or a heart
g a diamond h a picture card i a diamond or a picture card
TRY THIS I win, you lose

With a partner roll two dice. Now subtract the smaller number from the larger
number. If the difference is 0, 1 or 2, you win. If the difference is 3, 4 or 5, your
partner wins. Who should win? Why?
12.13 Complementary events

The sum of the probabilities in any situation must always add up to 1. For example, if the
3
probability of winning a particular game is ----- 10
- , then the probability of not winning the game is
1 − -----
10
3
- = ------ . The probability that the event does not occur is called the complement of that
10
7
event.
If the probability that an event E occurs is P(E), then the probability that the event
does not occur is P ( Ẽ ) , where:
P ( E ) + P ( Ẽ ) = 1 or P ( Ẽ ) = 1 – P ( E ) .
Example 1
EG State the complement of each event.
+S
a tossing a head with a coin
b spinning a number that is greater than 10 on a wheel
c choosing a heart or a club from a pack of cards
d not winning a game of hockey
Solutions
a tossing a tail with a coin
b spinning a number that is less than or equal to 10 on a wheel
c choosing a diamond or a spade from a pack of cards
d winning a game of hockey
Example 2
EG A bag contains 9 marbles, 5 of which are red. Let A represent the event ‘drawing a red marble’.
+S If one marble is drawn at random from the bag, find:
a P(A) b P Ã c P ( A ) + P ( Ã )
Solutions
a P(A) = P(red marble) b P ( Ã ) = P(not a red marble) c P ( A ) + P ( Ã )
= 5--9- = 1 − P(A) = 5--9- + 4--9-
= 1 − 5--9- =1
= 4--9-
Exercise 12.13
1 Write down the complement of each event.

a tossing a tail with a coin
b rolling an even number with a die
c spinning a number less than 7 on a wheel
d choosing a red card from a pack of cards
e selecting a club or a heart from a pack of cards
f a set of traffic lights showing green
g winning a tennis match
h not losing a horse race
1
2 The probability of winning a prize in a small lottery is ------ .
20
What is the probability of not
winning a prize?
3 The probability that a couple will have a child with blue eyes is 3--8- . What is the probability
that the child will not have blue eyes?
4 A bag contains 10 counters, of which 7 are black. Let E represent the event ‘drawing a black
counter’. If one counter is drawn at random from the bag, find:
a P(E) b P ( Ẽ ) c P ( E ) + P ( Ẽ )
5 The events E and F are complementary events. What is the value of P(E) + P(F)?
6 What can you say about the events A and B if P(A) + P(B) = 1?
■ Consolidation
7 A barrel contains 7 blue discs, 4 orange discs and 9 purple discs. Find, as a decimal, the
probability that a disc drawn at random from the barrel is:
a purple b blue c orange
d not purple e not blue f not orange
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8 If a bag contains only 5 red marbles, show that the probability of choosing:
a a red marble is 1 b a marble that is not red is 0
9 The letters in the word TRIANGLE are placed in a bag. A letter is then drawn at random.
Find the probability of:
a drawing the letter G b drawing the letter T or E
c drawing a vowel d not drawing the letter G
e not drawing the letter T or E f not drawing a vowel
10 The letters of the word PROBABILITY are placed in a bag. A letter is then drawn at
random. Find the probability of:
a i drawing the letter R, I or B ii not drawing the letter R, I or B
b i drawing a consonant ii not drawing a consonant
c i drawing a letter before S in the ii not drawing a letter before S in the
alphabet alphabet
11 The numbers from 1 to 25 are written on individual pieces of paper and placed in a box.
One piece of paper is then drawn out at random. Find the probability that the number is:
a 23 b not 23 c even
d not even e prime f not prime
g less than 12 h not less than 12 i divisible by 4
j not divisible by 4 k a 2-digit number l not a 2-digit number
12 The traffic lights at a certain intersection show red 45% of the time, amber 15% of the time
and green the rest of the time. If I drive through this intersection, what is the probability that
the lights will be:
a red? b not green? c green or amber? d neither red nor green?
13 In a box of chocolates, there are twice as many chocolates with soft centres as there are
with hard centres. One chocolate is selected at random. What is the probability that the
chocolate is:
a soft-centre? b hard-centred? c not soft-centred? d not hard-centred?
14 The ratio of pink to brown to orange balls in a barrel is 6 : 9 : 5. If one ball is drawn at
random, find the probability that it will be:
a brown b orange c pink
d orange or brown e not pink f neither orange nor pink
15 A card is drawn at random from a regular pack of playing cards. Find the probability that
this card is:
a the 5 of spades b not the 5 of spades c black
d not black e a diamond f not a diamond
g an ace h not an ace i a face card
j not a face card k a number card l not a number card
A Venn diagram consists of a number of intersecting or 45
non-intersecting circles. It may be used to help answer Bus Train
probability problems such as the one below. This Venn 15 10 20
diagram shows the number of students in Year 8 who
travel to school by bus or train or both. In this case,
25 students travel by bus, 30 students travel by train,
10 students travel by both bus and train and 45 students use neither form of transport.
16 In a class of 30 Year 8 students, 18 students study French, 15 students study Japanese and
4 students study neither language.
a Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate this data.
b How many students study both languages?
c A student from this class is selected at random. Find the probability that he/she:
i speaks French ii speaks Japanese
iii speaks both languages iv speaks neither language
v speaks French but not Japanese vi speaks Japanese but not French
vii does not speak French viii does not speak Japanese
ix does not speak both languages x speaks either French or Japanese or both
Health risks of smoking
Introduction
Each year 18 000 Australians—about 50 people per day—die prematurely from smoking.
Because it has such a devastating effect on health and consequently on economic and social
well-being, the advertising of cigarettes is forbidden and manufacturers must place a health
warning on the packet. Smoking has been banned by law in many public places and on public
transport, for example. About 140 people die each year from inhaling other people’s smoke.
484 Mathscape 8
Tobacco is an addictive substance. Smokers who also use marijuana, heroin, amphetamines or
other drugs rate tobacco as more addictive. Surveys have shown that up to 80% of smokers
would like to quit. In Australia more than 2.9 million people have succeeded in doing so, but
many others never do. In fact a quarter of smokers believe that smoking is not harmful. The
tobacco industry spends more than $70 million on cigarette advertising and promotion each
year. Much of this is directed at school children. The following data will help you to see that
many adults begin smoking at secondary school.
Focus question
What proportion of NSW secondary-school students aged 12–17 years smoke? Is there a
difference in smoking rates between boys and girls?
Teacher note: These activities are most suitable for collaborative group work. The focus
question and the data will stimulate a lot of discussion about the statistical evidence used by
governments to justify the prohibition of smoking in public places, and support the national
‘Quit for Life’ campaign. This can be followed up by exploring smoking and health data on the
web. The groups might discuss carrying out an anonymous class survey to get data of their own.
This survey data shows the percentage of NSW Percentage of NSW school children
secondary school children who reported smoking who smoked in the last week:
in the week prior to the survey in 1999. The sample 1999 Survey Data
size was 7475 students.
Age (years) Boys (%) Girls (%)
1 Choose a suitable way to represent the data
12 5 5
on a graph to show the trends as age increases.
Plot the data for boys and girls on the same 13 11 9
graph to enable comparison. 14 16 19
2 Compare the data for boys and girls. 15 21 23
What do you notice? 16 28 30
3 Between what ages does the biggest increase in 17 27 30
smoking occur for boys? for girls? Can you
give any reason for this?
4 Which of the following statistics do you feel are useful for summarising the data:
mode, mean, median, range? Can you say why?
5 Make an estimate of the answer to the focus question above. Write down any further
information you would have liked to make this estimate.
The Statistical Bulletin from the NSW Health Department from which the above data was
taken, concludes:
1 ‘Overall, 18% of males and 19% of females reported smoking in the past week.’
Does this confirm your estimate of the answer to the focus question?
2 ‘Based on the survey results, it is estimated that in 1999 approximately 85 000 NSW
secondary-school students aged 12–17 years had smoked in the last week (41 800 males
and 43 200 females) of whom approximately 30 100 were aged 12–14 years.’
How were these estimates of the total number of students in NSW aged 12–17 years
obtained when the sample size was only 7475 students? Discuss this with your teacher.
Can you make any other conclusions?
3 In Australia, $6763 billion or 47% of the total economic cost of drug abuse is attributable
to tobacco. This includes $609.6 million in direct healthcare costs and $6028.3 million in
indirect mortality costs. See if you can find out more details of the economic burden that
smoking places on the nation.
4 Australia has about 5.3 million smokers. They smoke an average 18 cigarettes per day.
If a packet contains 25 cigarettes and costs $9.40 estimate the money spent on cigarettes in
Australia each day. Each year? How much is recouped by the government in tax? See if you
can find out from the Internet. This revenue is used to offset the enormous health and death
costs involved.
Discuss in class what you have learned about the number of students who begin to smoke at
secondary school in NSW. Check out the Internet for further information about this serious
health risk for students.
%R EFLECTING
You have probably heard of the term ‘the information age’. Think over the importance of
gathering statistics to provide reliable information for the welfare of the community. Other than
the health effects of smoking, can you think of important areas in which governments have
sought information to make important policy decisions?
486 Mathscape 8
B P ROBLEM SOLVING
1 How many small cubes are in this solid? 2 Complete this magic square.
What is the sum of each row
and diagonal?
16 3 2
10 11 8
9 7
3 Can you find the next two elements 1
in this sequence?
a + b a + b + c a + b + c + d .........
a, ------------, ---------------------, -------------------------------, ---------------------
2 4 8 ..
4 If two dogs ate 6 cans of pet food in two days, how many cans of pet food would
3 dogs eat in 4 days, at this rate?
5 What number is less than 100, has two factors, its digits add up to 11, and the
difference between the digits is 3?
6 How far can a wombat travel into a forest?
7 In this problem you will need 4 black checkers
(draughtsmen) and five white ones. (Or four 5c coins
and five 10c coins.) The aim is to swap the positions of
black and white checkers in the least number of moves.
You may move a piece into an empty space next to it.
8 This problem is more difficult. The pieces are numbered

(you could number 6 small pieces of paper), and you have 1 2
to swap 1 with 4, 2 with 5, and 3 with 6. How many moves
4 3
must be made before you have completed the swap?
5 6
9 This is a trick used by magicians.

Do the impossible and tie a knot in the
middle of a length of rope tied to your
two hands, as in the diagram. You are not
allowed to remove the rope loops from
your wrists!
10 The magic square in Q2 has other hidden secrets. Total the corners! Total some of the
2 × 2 squares contained in it.
1 Numerical information is also called frequency noun (plural frequencies) 1. (uncount) the
d________. fact of happening often: He was annoyed by the
2 Explain the difference between frequency of her visits. 2. the rate at which something
experimental and theoretical probability. happens: the frequency of a pulse. 3. (uncount)
3 A survey of a population is called a Specialised the rate of cycles or vibrations of a wave
movement: His radio only picks up stations on a high
c________. frequency.
4 Define mean for a new Maths Dictionary.
5 Read the Macquarie Learners’ Dictionary How is the mathematical use of this word
entry for frequency: unique?
1 State whether a census or sample should 4 Comment on the bias in each of these
be used to gather information about the statements.
VIEW
number of: a Dentists recommend ‘Bright and
a minties in the average packet White’ toothpaste.
b patients that have been cured by a b 5 out of 6 parents recommend ‘Dry
new drug Baby’ disposable nappies.
c empty fire extinguishers in one c ‘Supa White’ gets whites 30% whiter
particular building and brighter.
CHAPTER RE
d colour-blind people in Australia 5 Explain why the following are poor
2 Explain why each of these survey survey questions.
methods may give a biased result. a ‘Do you own a car?’ in a survey about
a a talk-back radio telephone poll favourite pizza toppings.
b a door-to-door interview conducted b ‘Should stupid taxi drivers who don’t
between 9:00 am and 2:00 pm on know their way around the city lose
Monday their taxi licence?’
c a postal questionnaire c ‘How enjoyable was the movie?’
3 Who would you survey if you wanted to
gather support for: 1 2 3 4 5
a a late-night curfew on flights from an 6 How could you use the random number
airport? function on a calculator to choose
b an end to the logging of trees in old- 8 people from a list of 100 names so that
growth forests? each person has an equal chance of being
chosen?
CHAPTER REVIEW
488 Mathscape 8
CHAPTER RE
7 How could 5 people be chosen at random 15 The range of a set of scores is 23. Find:
from a group of 50 people by using a the highest score if the lowest score
systematic random sampling? is 18
8 A group of 18 students is to be chosen b the lowest score if the highest score
from a group of 40 boys and 50 girls by is 67
using stratified random sampling. How 16 Find the mean, median, mode and range
many boys and girls should be chosen? of the scores shown in this histogram.
9 a In a batch of 1500 calculators, every 6
20th calculator is to be checked for
Frequency
faults. How many calculators need to 4
be checked?
b If 1800 pens are produced each day 2
by a manufacturer, find at what
intervals the pens should be checked 0
in a systematic random sample of 9 10 11 12 13 14
40 pens. Score
VIEW
10 For each set of scores, find the: 17 a Draw a plot to represent the scores
i mean ii median iii mode iv range below.
a 21, 9, 30, 25, 9, 22, 10 5 7 6 5 4
b 56, 53, 85, 67, 72, 56, 61, 72 6 5 7 4 1
11 In which position is the median in a set of: 5 6 5 7 7
a 17 scores? b 83 scores? 8 4 7 5 6
12 Find the positions of the two middle b Which score(s), if any, are outliers?
scores in a set of: c Which score is the mode?
a 28 scores b 112 scores d Find the mean, correct to 1 decimal
13 How many scores are there in a place.
distribution if the median lies: 18 A group of 40 history students obtained
a in the 43rd position? the following results on a 12-question
b between the 29th and 30th scores? quiz.
14 Find the mean, median, mode and range 7 12 8 10 11 9 8 9
of each set of scores. Answer correct to 10 12 12 11 10 9 9 8
1 decimal place where necessary. 8 7 11 8 8 11 7 8
12 8 10 9 10 8 9 7
a Score 1 2 3 4 5
9 9 8 10 9 6 7 10
Frequency 11 9 7 4 6 a Organise the data into a frequency
distribution table with score (x), tally,
b Score 23 24 25 26 27
frequency (f ) and fx columns.
Frequency 4 6 7 15 22 b Find Σf and Σfx and hence calculate
the mean, correct to 1 decimal place.
CHAPTER REVIEW
c Which score is the mode? 22 The side-by-side column graph shows the
VIEW
d Find the range. number of goals scored each season by
e Which score occurred 5 times? two hockey teams from 2000 to 2004.
f What percentage of the scores are 7s? Hockey goals scored
g Draw a frequency histogram and 40
35
polygon for this data on the same set 30
Goals scored
of axes. 25
CHAPTER RE
Robins
19 a The sum of 15 scores is 120. Find the 20
Wrens
mean of the scores. 15
b A set of 22 scores has a mean of 7.5. 10
5
Find the sum of the scores. 0
c A set of scores has a mean of 14 and 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
a sum of 238. Find the number of Year
scores. a
Which team scored more goals in
20 Brent scored 14, 13, 16 and 13 out of 20 2003 and by what margin?
for his first four English essays. What b In which year did the teams score the
mark does he need to get on the next same number of goals?
essay to raise his average to 15 out c In which year did one team score the
of 20? greatest number of goals? How many?
21 This stem-and-leaf plot shows the results d Calculate the goal average for each
obtained by a group of Year 8 students on team over this 5-year period. Which
their statistics test, which was marked out team performed better?
of 40. 23 The data below shows the number of
patients treated in the emergency wards
Stem Leaf of two major hospitals over a period of
1(5) 7 9 9 20 days.
2(0) 0 1 1 2 3 St George Nepean
2(5) 5 6 8 8 8 9 9 32 40 34 41 56 37 35 28 24 43
3(0) 1 2 2 2 3 4 42 33 37 38 49 51 46 52 45 44
3(5) 6 6 7 9 85 29 43 49 51 33 35 29 36 38
a How many students sat for the test? 53 45 46 45 42 49 62 26 58 47
b Calculate the mean, correct to a Draw a back-to-back stem-and-leaf
2 decimal places. plot for this data.
c Find the median. b Find the range of the number of
d Write down the mode. patients treated at each hospital.
e Find the range. c A serious bus accident occurred near
f How many students scored less than one of these hospitals. Which
50%? hospital?
d Which hospital treated the greater
number of patients each day on
average?
CHAPTER REVIEW
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CHAPTER RE
24 Explain why 27 A bag contains 7 green discs, 8 red discs

a the mean is not a good average for the and 5 blue discs. If one disc is drawn at
scores 4, 11, 12, 14, 14, 16 random, find the probability that it is:
b the median is not a good average for a red b not red
the scores 23, 25, 26, 30, 30, 30, 30 c blue or green d neither blue nor
c the mode is not a good average for the green
scores 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 28 A regular pack of playing cards is
25 Describe the likelihood of each of the shuffled and one card is drawn at random.
following events occurring. Find the probability that this card is:
a You will live to 80 years of age. a a4
b You will score 12 out of 10 on a b a spade
Science quiz. c a picture card
c You will go to sleep some time in the d the 9 of diamonds
next 3 days. e a red king
d I will win a prize if I buy 35 out of the f an ace or a 2
100 tickets in a lottery. g neither red nor black
VIEW
e Everyone in your class will learn to h a red even number

speak a second language. 29 Two-digit numbers are to be formed
f You will eventually learn to drive a using the digits 1, 2, 5 and 7, with no digit
car. being used more than once per number.
g I toss a coin and it shows tails. a List the sample space.
26 Comment on the following statements. b If a number is selected at random,
a ‘I chose 5 cards at random from a find the probability that the number:
pack of 52 playing cards and they i begins with a 5
were black. The next card is certain to ii contains the digit 7
be red.’ iii is odd
b There are only two possible outcomes iv is less than 57
in a game of table tennis—winning or v is prime
losing. Therefore, I have an even vi is a multiple of 3
chance of winning my next game.
CHAPTER REVIEW
Congruence
and
similarity
13
Congruence and similarity
Stage 3
draw the image of a figure after it has been translated, rotated or reflected.
Stage 4
identify congruent figures by superimposing them through a combination of
translations, rotations and reflections
identify and name the matching sides and angles in congruent figures
state that two figures are congruent, giving the vertices in matching order
draw congruent figures by using geometrical instruments
enlarge or reduce a figure by using a given scale factor
identify and name the matching sides and angles in similar figures
state that two figures are similar, giving the vertices in matching order
determine the scale factor for a pair of similar figures
calculate the dimensions of similar figures by using the enlargement or
reduction factor
construct scale drawings
draw similar figures by using geometrical instruments
solve practical problems involving similar triangles.
491
492 Mathscape 8
13.1 Transformations
There are many words that begin with the prefix ‘trans’, such as transport, transfer, transcribe,
transact and transparent. They all relate to the movement of things such as people, objects,
money or written material. In geometry, the transformation of a figure is a change that may
affect its position, shape or size. In this exercise we will consider three transformations:
translation, rotation and reflection. These transformations will only result in a change in
position. They will not affect the size or shape of the figure.
A translation occurs when a figure slides a certain
distance in a particular direction. The figure could A
be translated up, down, left, right or diagonally.
A translation is also called a slide. A'
C
B
C'
B'
A rotation occurs when a figure turns about a

Q
fixed point through a certain angle. The figure
could be rotated clockwise or anticlockwise.
A rotation is also called a turn. P R
P'
S Q'
R'
A reflection occurs when a figure flips over a

fixed line and produces a mirror image of itself. P
E E'
The figure could be reflected in one of its sides D D'
or in a separate line. A reflection is also called
a flip.
H H'
G F' G'
F
Q
Chapter 13: Congruence and similarity 493
A translation is a slide in a particular direction.

A rotation is a turn about a fixed point.
A reflection is a flip in a fixed line.
The figure resulting from a transformation is referred to as the image of the figure. An image
is labelled by placing a dash or apostrophe above each vertex of the original figure. For
example, the image of ∆ABC is ∆A′B′C′.
Example 1 Solution
EG Translate the figure PQRS 7 units
+S to the right and 2 units down. P Q
P Q P' Q'
S R
S R S' R'
Example 2 Solution
EG Rotate the figure WXYZ about the
+S point Y through an angle of 180°. W
X
W
X
Z Y Z'
Z Y
X'
W'
Example 3 Solution
EG Reflect the figure JKLMNO
+S in the line PQ. P
J K K' J'
P
J K O L L' O'
O L N M M' N'
Q
N M
Q
494 Mathscape 8
Exercise 13.1
1 In each of the following, state whether the shaded figure has undergone a translation,
a rotation or a reflection. Consider single transformations only.
a b c
d f
e
g h
i
2 Would the size or shape of a figure be affected by:

a translation? b rotation? c reflection?
■ Consolidation
3 Translate each figure as directed and label the image.
a b c
P Q P Q P Q
S R R
4 units down
T S
S R
2 units right and
3 units right 1 unit down
4 Reflect each figure in the line AB and label the image.

a A b c
A C D B
C
D
C B
F E
E A
F
B
5 Rotate each figure about the point A in the direction indicated and label the image.
a C
b c
A B C D
A B D C A B E
90° clockwise Through an angle of 180° 90° anticlockwise
6 Z Rotate this figure anticlockwise about Y through an angle of
90°, then translate it 2 units to the right.
X Y
7 Reflect this C 8 Reflect this

figure in the line W X
figure in the
line PQ then A
B XY then rotate it V
translate it about the point
Y through an U
2 units to the E D T
right. angle of 180°.
P Q
Z Y
9 State 4 different ways to obtain the image A′B′C′ y

A
from the figure ABC. (You may use combinations 3
of transformations.) 2
1 B C
-4 -3 -2 B' 0 1 2 3 4 x
C' -1
-2
-3
A'
10 State 2 ways in which ∆ABC in Q9 could be mapped onto itself using a combination of
transformations.
496 Mathscape 8
TRY THIS Escher tessellations

M. C. Escher was an artist who did numerous drawings using tessellations.
Tessellations are the covering of the page by one or more shapes in a repeating
pattern with no overlapping of these shapes (or gaps). The basic idea in tessellation
is to take a regular polygon that tessellates (e.g. equilateral triangles, squares,
hexagons) and wherever you add a shape to the polygon, ‘subtract’ (or remove) that
shape from another side. Hence we are using transformations in the form of
translations to form new shapes. For example:
Add
Remove
Now it is time to get adventurous!

Try this, then do a complete
picture! (This idea comes from
Escher’s reptile drawing.)
Note how one piece is removed

from inside then added to the outside
13.2 Congruent figures

Congruent figures are figures that have the same size and shape. When we make a duplicate
of a photograph or photocopy an original copy, we are creating congruent figures. If two figures
are congruent, then they are identical in every respect. That is, one figure can be superimposed
on the other.
Congruent figures have exactly the same size and shape.
When a figure has been translated, rotated or reflected, the lengths and angles in the figure
remain the same. That is, the image is congruent to the original figure. We say that lengths and
angles are preserved under the transformations of translation, rotation and reflection. All pairs
of equal sides in the original figure and its image are called matching sides, because they
‘match up’. Similarly, all pairs of equal angles in the two figures are called matching angles.
Because they are equal, the matching sides and matching angles are both in the ratio 1:1.
C C' A A'
B' A' P
A A' C
B B'
B C C' B'
∆ABC has been translated Q
6 units to the right. A B
∆ABC has been reflected
∆ABC has been rotated in the line PQ.
180° about the point C.
In congruent figures matching sides are equal, matching angles are equal and the
areas are equal.
Example 1 A B E
EG These two figures are congruent.
+S F
Measure all of the sides and angles
in each figure. Name the matching
sides and matching angles.
D
C H G
498 Mathscape 8
Solutions
In ABCD, AB = 15 mm, BC = 34 mm, CD = 30 mm, DA, = 25 mm.
In EFGH, GH = 15 mm, HE = 34 mm, EF = 30 mm, FG = 25 mm.
∴ The matching sides are AB and GH, BC and HE, CD and EF, DA and FG.
In ABCD, ∠ABC = 115°, ∠BCD = 54°, ∠CDA = 101°, ∠DAB = 90°.
In EFGH, ∠GHE = 115°, ∠HEF = 54°, ∠EFG = 101°, ∠FGH = 90°.
∴ The matching angles are ∠ABC and ∠GHE, ∠BCD and ∠HEF, ∠CDA and ∠EFG,
∠DAB and ∠FGH.
Example 2
EG The figures shown are A 25 mm F
+S congruent, but not drawn 73°
B
140°
to scale. In EFGH: 20 mm E
a What is the matching D 66°
angle to ∠DAB? 30 mm G
What size is it?
35 mm 81°
b What is the matching
side to AD? C
What length is it? H
Solutions
a ∠FGH and ∠DAB are matching angles because the figures are congruent and they are the
largest angles in each figure. Therefore, ∠FGH = 140°.
b FG and DA are matching sides because the figures are congruent and they are the shortest
sides in each figure. Therefore, FG = 20 mm.
Exercise 13.2
1 Find all pairs of E

B C
congruent figures. A D
K
G J
F H I
L
M
N O P
R S
Q
T U
V W X
2 Name the congruent faces in each prism.

a D C b S V c E F
H
E W X G
F
A B
T U
Z Y J
I
3 a What is the condition required for two circles to be congruent?

b Would two circles be congruent if they were equal in:
i circumference? ii area?
Why?
■ Consolidation
4 ∆EFG has been reflected in the line FG to produce the F
image ∆E′FG.
a Do triangles EFG and E′FG have any common sides?
25 cm x cm
b Name the other matching sides and angles in triangles 7 cm
EFG and E′FG.
c Is ∆EFG congruent to ∆E′FG? E E'
24 cm G y cm
d What kind of triangle is EFE′? Why?
e What is the axis of symmetry in ∆EFE′?
f Find values for x and y.
g How long is EE′?
h Find the area of ∆EFG and ∆E′FG. Are they the same?
5 5 cm R The diagram shows a trapezium PQRS and its

Q
image P′Q′R′S after transformation.
7 cm 8 cm a Describe the transformation that was
S performed on PQRS.
P P'
12 cm b Are the figures congruent?
c Find the length of:
R' Q' i P′Q′ ii R′S
iii Q′R′ iv PP′
d Which angle in the trapezium P′Q′R′S is equal to:
i ∠PSR? ii ∠PQR? iii ∠QRS? iv ∠QPS?
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6 The diagram shows a rectangle WXYZ and its image W′X′Y′Z X W

after transformation.
a Describe the transformation that was performed on WXYZ.
b Are the two rectangles congruent?
c If XW = 13 cm and XY = 4 cm, find the length of: Y Z
W'
i X′Y′ ii W′X′ iii YW′ iv WY′
d Find the area of each rectangle. Are the areas the same?
X' Y'
7 Answer the following questions for each figure below.

i What kind of quadrilateral is ABCD?
ii Is BD an axis of symmetry?
iii If the figure is folded along the diagonal BD, will ∆BAD be superimposed on ∆DCB?
iv Is ∆BAD congruent to ∆DCB? (You may want to trace the figure, then cut along the
diagonal BD and try to superimpose the triangles.)
a A B b A B c A B
D C D C
D C
8 Draw any scalene triangle ABC in which AC is the longest side. Mark the point D on AC
such that AD = DC. Is ∆ABD congruent to ∆CBD?
9 a ABCDE is a square pyramid with the vertex E directly above E

the centre of the base ABCD. Name all congruent faces in the
pyramid.
D
C
A B
b V VWXYZ is a rectangular pyramid with vertex V directly

above the centre of the base WXYZ. Name all congruent
faces in the pyramid.
Z Y
W X
10 What is the minimum information that is needed to construct two congruent:
a squares? b rectangles? c parallelograms?
11 This question requires a little research, either in books or on the internet.
a What is a polyhedron?
b What are the Platonic solids?
c How many Platonic solids are there? What are their names?
d Describe the shape and number of faces in each solid. Are the faces congruent?
e What is Euler’s Polyhedron Theorem?
f Does the Theorem hold for the Platonic solids?
g Does it hold for all polyhedra?
TRY THIS Houses

Divide the square into four equal parts, each exactly
the same shape and with the same number of houses,
using only two straight lines.
13.3 Congruent triangles

Many geometric proofs require the use of congruent triangles. The properties of the special
quadrilaterals, for example, can be proven by matching the equal sides and angles of congruent
triangles. In this exercise all pairs of triangles given are congruent. In later years you may first
have to prove that the triangles are congruent.
In congruent triangles:
the matching sides are equal in length
the matching angles are equal
the matching sides lie opposite the equal angles.
In any triangle, the longest side is opposite the largest angle and the shortest side is opposite
the smallest angle. This property can be used to help find the matching sides and angles in a
pair of congruent triangles.
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The symbol for the phrase ‘is congruent to’ is ≡. U C

When naming congruent triangles, the vertices
must be given in matching order. For example,
to state that these triangles are congruent, we
could say ∆TUV ≡ ∆BCD because the matching T V B D
angles are T and B, U and C, V and D.
The symbol for ‘is congruent to’ is ≡.
Example 1 C H
EG a Find all pairs of matching sides in these 70°
+S congruent triangles. 70°
F 60°
b Name the congruent triangles, giving the 50°
vertices in matching order. 50° 60°
A B G
Solutions
a • BC and FH are matching sides (both sides are opposite the 50° angles).
• AC and GH are matching sides (both sides are opposite the 60° angles).
• AB and FG are matching sides (both sides are opposite the 70° angles).
b Now, ∠A = ∠G, ∠B = ∠F, ∠C = ∠H. Therefore, ∆ABC ≡ ∆GFH.
Example 2 I 15 cm
Y X
EG a Find all pairs of matching angles in these 17 cm
+S congruent triangles.
15 cm K 17 cm 18 cm
b Name the congruent triangles, giving the
vertices in matching order. 18 cm
J Z
Solutions
a • ∠JIK and ∠XYZ are matching angles (both angles are opposite the 18 cm sides).
• ∠IJK and ∠YXZ are matching angles (both angles are opposite the 17 cm sides).
• ∠JKI and ∠XZY are matching angles (both angles are opposite the 15 cm sides).
b Now, ∠I = ∠Y, ∠J = ∠X, ∠K = ∠Z. Therefore, ∆IJK ≡ ∆YXZ.
Example 3
EG The triangle shown are congruent. 35° 77°
x cm
+S 19 cm 15 cm
Find values for x, y and z. z cm 68°
68° 77° 35° y cm
Solution 12 cm
The triangles are congruent, so the matching angles are opposite the matching sides.
Therefore,
i x = 12 (both sides are opposite the 35° angles).
ii y = 19 (both sides are opposite the 77° angles).
iii z = 15 (both sides are opposite the 68° angles).
Exercise 13.3
1 Write an expression stating that each pair of triangles is congruent, giving the vertices in
matching order.
a F P b M Z
L Y
E G Q R
N X
c D E T d O R T
C V P Q S
U
e A X 4m f L I
V
9m 107° 48°
25° 7m 3m 4m
7m 37°
25° 9m 4m 5m
107° 48°
C 53° 37°
B 4m J K
W 53° 5m
M 3m N
g F U h Y C
14 m 6m
T 40° 85°
27°
11 m 85° 14 m 11 m 15 m 15°
138°
D
17 m 55° 10 m 15 m
55° 40°
G H 27° 138° 10 m
17 m V X 15°
6m Z
E
2 The triangles below are congruent. Find the value of all pronumerals. Triangles that appear
obtuse-angled are obtuse-angled. All side lengths are in cm.
a b 12
83° y° 37° x° y
4 5 4 5 12
9
15
56° x° z°
6 z 9
c 5 d
16
z
20°
26° 134° 65° 17 45°
7 y z x
11 45°
26° 134° 20° 65°
x y 13
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e y f x
13 z° 130°
77° 25°
18° z
78° 30
13 22 18°
78° x° y°
9
g h x°
27 z° 19°
41° y
30 x y° 20 11
z 31
62° 77° 30 62° 115°
19°
20
■ Consolidation
3 Copy each pair of triangles and use the congruence statement to mark all pairs of matching
angles and sides.
a B M b I P
N
O
K J Q
A C
L ∆IKJ ≡ ∆OPQ
∆ABC ≡ ∆MLN
c G X d U V F
Y
E
H F Z T
D
∆HGF ≡ ∆XYZ ∆UTV ≡ ∆DFE
4 Name the matching angles and sides in ∆FGH and ∆TUV given that ∆GFH ≡ ∆UVT.
5 For each of the following:
i Copy the diagram and mark on it all pairs of equal sides and equal angles using the
properties of the special quadrilaterals.
ii Identify a pair of congruent triangles and complete the given congruence statement.
a ABCD is a rectangle. b EFGH is a kite with FH as an axis of symmetry.
A B E
F H
D C
∆BCD ≡ ∆_____ G
∆FEH ≡ ∆_____
c KLMN is a parallelogram. d WXYZ is a rhombus.

K L W X
N M
Z Y
∆KLM ≡ ∆_____
∆WZX ≡ ∆_____
6 TUVW is a parallelogram. T U
a Mark all pairs of equal sides and equal angles in
triangles TXW and UXV. X
b Copy and complete the congruence statement
∆TXW ≡ ∆_____. W V
7 i Copy each diagram and mark on it all of the given information.
ii Mark all pairs of equal sides and angles in the given triangles.
iii Name the congruent triangles with the vertices in matching order.
a AC = DB b ∆LMN is an equilateral triangle.
AC // DB LK is an axis of symmetry.
AB and CD bisect each other at E. M
A D
E K
C B
L N
c O is the centre of the circle d ABCD is a rhombus

OR ⊥ PQ. DE bisects ∠AEC
P
AE = EC
∠EAD = ∠ECD
O R E
A C
B
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13.4 Enlargement
Similar shapes can be drawn by enlarging or reducing Q'
the size of a given figure. This is done by choosing a
fixed point O, called the centre of enlargement.
If all of the sides in the original figure are to be Q
doubled, then we say that the enlargement
factor is k = 2. The new figure resulting
from the enlargement is called the image. R R'
O
In the figure shown: P
OP′ = 2 × OP
OQ′ = 2 × OQ P'
OR′ = 2 × OR
When a figure PQR is enlarged by a factor of k, the resulting image is P′Q′R′.
To enlarge a figure by a factor of k:

choose a centre of enlargement, O
draw a line from O to each major point on the original figure
use the given enlargement factor to extend each line to k times its present length
join the image points to form a figure similar to the original.
If k > 1, then the figure will be enlarged. If 0 < k < 1, then the figure will be reduced. For
example, if k = 3, then the figure will be enlarged and all lengths on the image will be 3 times
the lengths on the original figure. If k = 1--3- , then the figure will be reduced and all lengths on the
image will be 1--3- of the lengths on the original figure.
Example 1 A B
EG Enlarge the rectangle ABCD using an enlargement factor of 2.
+S
Solutions D C
i Choose a point O as the centre of
enlargement. A' B'
ii Draw construction lines from O to
each of the vertices A, B, C, D. A B
iii Mark the points A′, B′, C′ and D′ O
so that OA′ = 2 × OA, OB′ = 2 × OB,
OC′ = 2 × OC and OD′ = 2 × OD. D C
iv Join the points A′, B′, C′ and D′ to D' C'
produce the image A′B′C′D′.
Example 2 Solution
EG Reduce ∆XYZ by a factor of 1--3- . i Choose a point O internally as the centre
+S Choose the centre of enlargement of enlargement (or reduction in this case).
inside the figure. ii Draw construction lines from O to each of
the vertices X, Y, Z.
Y iii Mark the points X′, Y′ and Z′ so that
OX′ = 1--3- × OX, OY′ = 1--3- × OY, and
OZ′ = 1--3- × OZ.
iv Join the points X′, Y′, and Z′ to produce
the image X′Y′Z′.
X Z
Y
Y'
O
X' Z'
X Z
Example 3 Solution
EG Enlarge this cartoon in the
+S ratio 2 :1.
Redraw the picture on 2-cm grid paper to double the

size. Copy the object ‘square by square’ onto the
2-cm grid.
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Exercise 13.4
1 Copy each shape, and mark a point O. Then construct an enlargement of the shape by a
factor of 2.
a b
B L M
C O
O
N
A
c d
P Q
A D
O R
O S
C
B
2 The centre of enlargement may be chosen inside the figure. Copy each figure, and mark a
point O inside it. Enlarge the figure by a factor of 3.
a b c
L M
B
O
A O C P Q
O
E N
D S R
3 a Copy this rectangle ABCD onto grid paper, A B

and mark the point O.
b Draw the construction lines OA, OB, OC and A'
OD as shown.
O
c Mark the midpoint of OA and the midpoints
of OB, OC and OD.
d Join these points to obtain the image of the
rectangle ABCD which has been reduced by
D C
a factor of 1--2- .
4 Copy each of these figures onto grid paper and draw its image using an enlargement factor
of 1--2- . Take O as the centre of enlargement.
a b P Q
A O
C O
B S R
5 a Copy this figure onto grid paper.
b Draw the image of this figure using an D E
enlargement factor of 1--3- . Take O as
the centre of enlargement.
O A
6 Each diagram below shows a shaded figure

and its enlargement. Trace each pair of figures
onto tracing paper, then find the centre of C B
enlargement and the enlargement factor.
a b
c d
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7 Copy the cartoon figure onto grid paper 8 Use 2-cm grid paper to produce an
to enlarge the character in the ratio 3 :1. image twice the size of the picture of the
train engine.
13.5 Similar figures

Similar figures are figures that have the same shape but not necessarily the same size. When
we enlarge a photograph or reduce an original copy on a photocopier, we are creating similar
figures. If two figures are similar, then one figure is an enlargement or reduction of the other.
Similar figures have the same shape but not necessarily the same size.
When a figure is enlarged or reduced, all of the sides increase or decrease in the same ratio.
That is, if one side is doubled in length, then all of the sides will be doubled. If one side is
reduced to a quarter of its original length, then all of the sides are reduced to a quarter of their
original length.
Angles are not affected by the enlargement transformation. E
Consider, for example, a triangle with sides 2 cm, 3 cm and 4 cm.
The angles in this triangle are approximately 29°, 47° and 104°. 29°
Now, the angle sum of any triangle is 180°, no matter what 8 cm C
size the triangle is. The angle sum cannot increase
29° 6 cm
or decrease, so the angles themselves cannot double. 4 cm
From the diagram, it follows that: 3 cm
• ∠ADE = ∠ABC (Corresponding angles
on parallel lines) 47° 104° 104°
A D
• ∠AED = ∠ACB (Corresponding angles B
2 cm
on parallel lines) 4 cm
• ∠A is a common angle.
That is, while the lengths of the sides have doubled, the sizes of the angles have not changed.
In similar figures, all pairs of matching sides are in the same ratio and all pairs of
matching angles are equal.
Example 1
EG These two figures are similar. Measure the sides and angles. What can you say about the
+S matching angles and matching sides?
L
N
A
C
B
E D
M
P O
Solution
∠A = 45° ∠B = 270° ∠C = 73° ∠D = 62° ∠E = 90°
∠L = 45° ∠M = 270° ∠N = 73° ∠O = 62° ∠P = 90°
The matching angles are equal.
AB = 2.5 cm, BC = 2 cm, CD = 1.8 cm, DE = 4 cm, EA = 2 cm, LM = 5 cm, MN = 4 cm,
NO = 3.6 cm, OP = 8 cm, PL = 4 cm.
The lengths of sides in the larger figure are all exactly double the lengths of the matching sides
in the smaller figure. That is, they are in the ratio 1: 2.
Example 2 B C B' C'

EG The figures shown are similar.
+S D
a If ∠CDE = 122°, what size F
A
is ∠C′D′E′? E D'
b Measure the length of BC and
B′C′. Hence, find the scale factor.
F'
c If AB = 1 cm, how long is A′B′? A' E'
Solutions
a The matching angles in similar b BC = 1.5 cm and B′C′ = 4.5 cm.
figures are equal, B'C'
∴ ∠C′D′E′ = ∠CDE Scale factor = ----------
BC
= 122° 4.5
= -------
c A′B′ = 3 × AB 1.5
= 3 × 1 cm =3
= 3 cm
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Exercise 13.5
1 These quadrilaterals are similar. A B E F

a Measure all angles in each
figure.
b Are the angles in ABCD equal H
to the matching angles in EFGH?
D G
2 These triangles are similar. J K M N

a Measure all the sides of each
triangle.
b What is the ratio MO : JL? L
c What is the ratio MN : JK?
O
3 Write down the pairs of figures that are similar.
C
A E
B
D
G H I
F
L M
K
J
R N
P Q
O
■ Consolidation
4 Write down all pairs of matching sides and angles in each pair of similar figures.
a A B
b M N
J
E F
I
D C
G L K
H P O
c A d L
X I
C G
H
B N
M
K
Z J
Y
5 Redraw each pair of similar figures in the same orientation, i.e. facing the same way.
a S b A E F
W X B
T
Z Y H
G
U D C
V
6 Are all equilateral triangles similar? Explain your answer.
7 A square has side length 5 cm and a rhombus has side length 10 cm.
a Are the matching sides in the same ratio?
b Are the figures similar? Explain your answer.
8 A square has side length 6 cm and a rectangle has dimensions 6 cm × 3 cm.

a Are the matching angles equal?
b Are the figures similar? Explain your answer.
9 Find the scale factor (i.e. enlargement factor) for each pair of similar figures. Use this scale
factor to find the value of the pronumeral. All measurements are in mm.
a 3 b 6 2
2 6 m
4 15 4
4 12
x 7
21
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c 4 4 d 2
3
1 4 6 9
5 16 9
20 6
3
w
y
e f 4 a
12 4
t 5
6 2 2 12.5
4 10
6 3 3 4
5 10
10 Find the scale factor for each pair of circles.
a b
16
18 cm cm
cm
12
6 cm
11 Are all circles similar? Explain your answer.

12 a Are all congruent figures similar?
b Are all similar figures congruent?
13 For each pair of rectangles, determine whether matching sides are in the same ratio. Hence
state whether the figures are similar. All measurements are in cm.
a 10 b c
7 6 6
4 3
21 4 9
2
5
6
d e f 35
12
15 15
16 14 20
10
25 8
12
20
14 For each of the following, determine whether the figures are similar. If they are similar find
the enlargement factor. All lengths are in cm.
a 5 5 b c 21
15 8 4
6 15
6 5 9 9
10
18 12
18
14
6 6
8
d e 4 f 8 24
12 6
14 2
8 15
18 6 17
9
20 3 45
51
12
15 Use geometrical instruments to construct each pair of similar figures. Verify by

measurement that all pairs of matching angles are equal and all pairs of matching sides are
in the same ratio.
a b
3m 4m 6m 8m 5m
3m 7.5 m
4.5 m
6m 12 m 4m
6m
c d
3m
6m 60°
60° 4m
8m 2m
3m
16 Find examples of similar and congruent figures embedded in designs from other cultures
and historical periods. You might include Aboriginal designs, tapa cloth, Indonesian ikat
designs, Islamic designs, designs used in Ancient Egypt and Persia, window lattices, woven
mats and baskets in your examples.
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TRY THIS Similar rectangles

How can you tell if the following rectangles are similar?
D
B
b d
A a
C c
Copy the first rectangle and cut it out. Now place it on the second rectangle so that
A is on C. Does AB lie on the line CD? If so, they are similar.
a c
Check by comparing the ratios of their side lengths, i.e. does - = - ?
b d
13.6 Similar triangles

Many practical problems involve the use of similar triangles. For example, similar triangles can
be used to find the height of a tall building or the distance across an inaccessible river or gorge.
In this exercise all pairs of triangles given are similar. In later years you may have to prove that
the triangles are similar.
In similar triangles:
the matching sides are in the same ratio
the matching angles are equal
the matching sides lie opposite the equal angles.
The symbol for the phrase ‘is similar to’ is |||. M

As with congruent triangles, the vertices must K
be given in matching order when naming
similar triangles. For example, to state that
these triangles are similar, we could say
I J
∆LMN ||| ∆IKJ because the matching angles L N
are L and I, M and K, N and J.
The symbol for ‘is similar to’ is |||.

Example 1 B P
EG a Find all pairs of matching sides in these 75°
+S similar triangles. 60° 60° R
b Name the similar triangles, giving the 45°
vertices in matching order.
45° 75° Q
A C
Solutions
a • BC and PR are matching sides (both sides are opposite the 45° angles).
• AC and PQ are matching sides (both sides are opposite the 60° angles).
• AB and QR are matching sides (both sides are opposite the 75° angles).
b ∠A = ∠Q, ∠B = ∠R and ∠C = ∠P. Therefore ∆ABC ||| ∆QRP.
Example 2 G
EG The triangles shown are similar.
+S 13 cm
a Show that all pairs of matching sides are in the 11 cm
same ratio and state the scale factor.
b Find all pairs of matching angles. E 8 cm F
c Name the similar triangles, giving the vertices
in matching order. L
16 cm
Solutions
22 cm N
16 22 26
a ------ = 2 , ------ = 2 and ------ = 2
8 11 13 26 cm
Therefore all pairs of matching sides are in M
the same ratio. The scale factor is 2.
b • ∠G and ∠M are matching angles (both angles are opposite the shortest sides).
• ∠F and ∠L are matching angles (both angles are opposite the longest sides).
• ∠E and ∠N are matching angles (both angles are opposite the middle-length sides).
c ∠E = ∠N, ∠F = ∠L and ∠G = ∠M. Therefore ∆EFG ||| ∆NLM.
Example 3 Y T
EG The triangles shown are similar. x cm
+S R
a Find the scale factor. 4 cm 7 cm 12 cm
b Hence, find the value of the pronumeral.
X Z
Solutions S
a The scale factor is found by dividing the lengths b x = 7 × scale factor
of a pair of matching sides. It is best to begin =7×3
with the triangle that contains the pronumeral. = 21
Scale factor = 12
------ (ST and XY are matching sides
4
because they are both opposite
= 3 the angles marked with x)
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Exercise 13.6
1 The triangles in each pair are similar. Write down all pairs of matching sides.
a F P b B U
60° Q A 52° 100°
55°
65° 28°
65° 28°
55° 60° 52° T
E G 100°
R S
C
c K X d E L
M
Y
I
J Z C
D
N
2 The triangles in each pair are similar. Write down all pairs of matching angles.
All measurements are in cm.
a 4 N b 3 B
P R I J 15
14
A
7 18 4 9
9 L 5
12
8 C
Q K
M
c 6 F I d T R
G 9
13 Q
9 11 9 6.5
44 36
4.5
U V
K 18 S
E 24
J
3 The triangles in each pair are similar. Show that all pairs of matching sides are in the same
ratio and state the scale factor.
a 5 b
36 8 16
7 20
12 39
13
15 10 14
c 3 d 4 9
30
25 6
6 5 6 8
12
15
e 3.5 f
12 15 25
11 12 10
5.5 6
6 20
7
g 28 h 12
35 11
16 49 8 6.4
20 8.8
15
28
■ Consolidation
4 The triangles in each pair are similar. Name the similar triangles, giving the matching
vertices in the correct order, then find the value of all pronumerals. All lengths are in
metres.
a B 14 b P G
X Y 3.5
x° y° 45°
F
79° p° 114°
6 5 12 10 28
z° 36
44° 57° 7 9
21°
A
7 C Z R r°
q°
14
Q E
c S M d J U
17 15
s° m° 28° u°
T I 51
109° 45
13 7.5 17
26 38° 15 8 k° 62° w°
n° V W
33° N 24
L 8.5 K
U
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5 Find the value of the pronumeral in each pair of similar triangles.

a b
5 cm
x cm 9 cm
7 cm 27 cm
4 cm
14 cm
y cm
c d 16 cm 20 cm
10 cm
h cm 15 cm t cm
6 cm 25 cm
e f
7 cm c cm
42 cm 12 cm
21 cm
9 cm
a cm 12 cm
g 22 cm h
p cm
15 cm
18 cm
36 cm
27 cm
e cm
24 cm
6 Find the value of the pronumeral in each pair of similar triangles.

a km b 5m
4m 5m
18 m
8m gm
15 m
c d
um 12 m 8m
20 m bm
22 m
11 m
16 m
e dm f 27 m
35 m ym 28 m
40 m
36 m
24 m
7 The triangles in each pair are similar. Name the similar triangles, giving the matching
vertices in the correct order. Use the scale factor to find the value of all pronumerals.
All lengths are in mm.
a 5 H V b X 15 7 E
G 54° 51° C 33°
100° Y 96°
96°
26°
22 c
9 11 u 27 33° x 5
26° 51°
54° 100°
v W
F U Z D
c P M d j S
K
18 I 56°
55° 83° t
7.5 80° 41°
q 45° Q 60
6.5 35
80° 15 L 45° 50 41° 56° R
m 55° 83°
R 28
N J T
13.7 Solving similarity problems

In some questions involving similar triangles, the triangles intersect or overlap each other.
These questions usually involve the properties of alternate or corresponding angles on parallel
lines. In such questions, it is a good idea to redraw the triangles separately with the same
orientation (i.e. facing the same way). This makes it easier to find the lengths of the matching
sides and the scale factor.
8 cm
A B
Example 1
EG The triangles shown are similar. a cm
+S C
a Find the scale factor.
15 cm
b Hence, find the value of the pronumeral.
D E
20 cm
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Solutions
a The triangles can be redrawn separately with the same orientation.
8 cm
A B C
a cm C
C ⇒ 15 cm a cm
15 cm B A
8 cm
D E
20 cm
D E
20 cm
Now, • ∠ACB = ∠DCE (vertically opposite angles are equal). Therefore, AB and DE
are matching sides.
• ∠BAC = ∠CED (alternate angles on parallel lines). Therefore, BC and CD are
matching sides.
8
Scale factor = ------ b a = 15 × scale factor
20
2
2 = 15 × ---
= --- 5
5 =6
Example 2 P
EG The triangles shown are similar.
+S 10 cm
a Find the scale factor. Q R
b Hence, find the value of the pronumeral. e cm 8 cm
S T
Solutions 27 cm
a The triangles can be redrawn separately with the same orientation.
P P
P
10 cm
Q R
⇒ 18 cm 10 cm
e cm
8 cm Q e cm R
S T S T
27 cm 27 cm
Now, • ∠PQR = ∠PST (corresponding angles on parallel lines). Therefore, PR and PT
are matching sides.
• ∠PRQ = ∠PTS (corresponding angles on parallel lines). Therefore, PQ and PS
are matching sides.
• ∠P is a common angle. Therefore, QR and ST are matching sides.
10
Scale factor = ------ b e = 27 × scale factor
18
5
5 = 27 × ---
= --- 9
9 = 15
Example 3
EG Peter is 1.5 m tall. When he is standing
+S out in the sun, his shadow is 2 m long.
At the same time, a tree casts a shadow
of 18 m. How tall is the tree?
1.5 m
18 m 2m
Solution
Let the height of the tree be x metres. The triangles shown will be similar because the sun’s
rays are parallel and hence the two pairs of corresponding angles are equal.
18
i Scale factor = ------ ii x = 1.5 × scale factor
2
=9 = 1.5 × 9
= 13.5 m
Exercise 13.7
1 a Copy and complete each statement, giving reasons. A B

• ∠BAC = ∠CED (________)
• ∠ABC = ∠____ (________) C
• ∠ACB = ∠____ (________)
b Copy the diagram and mark on it all pairs of equal angles.
c If ∆ABC ||| ∆EDC, write a statement that shows the equal D E
ratios of matching sides.
2 J The triangles in this figure are similar. Name the similar
triangles, giving the matching vertices in the correct order.
M
L
K
N
3 The triangles in this figure are similar. V

a Copy the diagram and mark on it all pairs of
equal angles.
b Name the similar triangles, giving the matching U
vertices in the correct order. S W
c Write a statement that shows the equal ratios of
matching sides. T
524 Mathscape 8
4 P a Copy and complete each statement, giving reasons.

• ∠PQR = ∠PST (________)
• ∠PRQ = ∠____ (________)
Q R • ∠P is a ________
b Copy the diagram and mark on it all pairs of equal angles.
S T c If ∆ABC ||| ∆EDC, write a statement that shows the equal
ratios of matching sides.
5 The triangles in this figure are similar. Name the similar triangles, E
giving the matching vertices in the correct order.
H
D G F
6 L The triangles in this figure are similar.

a Copy the diagram and mark on it all pairs of equal angles.
J b Name the similar triangles, giving the matching vertices in
the correct order.
c Write a statement that shows the equal ratios of matching
I sides.
K M
■ Consolidation
7 The triangles in each figure are similar. For each of the following figures:
i redraw the triangles separately showing the equal angles and any sides marked
ii use the scale factor to find the value of the pronumeral
a 15 m b c 6m
14 m
18 m 12 m
am pm
2m 9m
9m
km
5m
d e f
7m 8m
um 8m
xm
10 m
nm
6m
4m 13 m
10 m
5m
8 The triangles in each figure are similar. For each of the following figures:
i redraw the triangles separately showing the equal angles and any sides marked
ii use the scale factor to find the value of the pronumeral
All measurements are in millimetres.
a b c 8 12
6
8 m 14
4 e
3 3
a
15
d e 8 f
3 b
y
4 15 12 w
5 6
40
16
g h 8 i
7 3
m
11
f 16
14 3 7
9 z
9 Find the value of all pronumerals in these similar triangles. All measurements are in cm.
a 4 b c
m 20.8
6 3 6 x
8 n 6
b c 4 24
9 3.5 y
12
d e f
3 q v 18
p 4 12 27.5
42
u 25 4 12 e
20 f
20 17.5
526 Mathscape 8
10 Karab wishes to measure her height but

has no-one to help her, so she stands in
the sun and takes careful note of where
her shadow ends. She then places a stick Karab
vertically in the ground and measures its
height and the length of its shadow. 60 cm
The results of her measurements are
shown on the diagram. How tall is Karab? 180 cm 75 cm
11 A 4.8-m high flagpole casts a shadow of

3.2 m. At the same time, the shadow of a
nearby building falls at the same point (S).
The shadow cast by the building measures
12.8 m. How high is the building?
4.8 m
3.2 m S
12.8 m
12 A 4-m ladder has a strut 60 cm long placed 1.5 m from the top.
How far apart are the feet of the ladder.
1.5 m
4m 60 cm
13 Electricity workers are planning to construct

E pylons on either side of a gorge, but they
G or need to know how far it is across the gorge.
ge
Without crossing the gorge they make the
measurements shown in the diagram. How
A 18 m B 54 m C
wide is the gorge, EC?
64 m
D
14 Find the value of all pronumerals in these similar triangles. All measurements are in metres.
a a b c
7 15
10 m n
b 6 14 27
28
d
8 36
12 8
e 32
15 Rachael plays golf. At one tee

she is faced with a large dam 240 m
and has no idea how far it is Dam
Fairway
to the other side. She knows
38 m
that she will face a penalty if
she lands in the water so she 57 m
postpones her round until she
can measure the distances shown
in the diagram. How far is it to
the other side of the dam?
16 An invading battleship is seen from the shore and

measurements taken as shown. How far from the
S shore is the battleship?
A B
120 m Beach
400 m
D 130 m C
17 There is a tall tree in your backyard. You would like to know how high it is, but you are not
able to climb it. Explain how you could determine its height.
528 Mathscape 8
Geometry in art: The work of

Piet Mondrian
Introduction
Many people regard art as having little to do with
mathematics. This is probably because what we enjoy
in painting, drawing and sculpture, for example, appeals
directly to our senses. We don’t look at painting and
drawing from a mathematical point of view as this might
spoil the overall effect. However, we can often gain
deeper insight into what an artist has achieved by
GIR 173188
looking at the work from a mathematical viewpoint. MONDRIAN, Piet (1872–1944)
In doing so we find we can appreciate the art even more. Composition with Red, Yellow
and Blue, 1930 (oil on canvas)
There are several ways we can do this. For example we can
look at the effect of the shapes artists use to create their
work, the scale or proportion of the objects and figures to each other in the work, the use or
absence of perspective, and the symmetry or balance of the work.
In this activity we will look at the scientific use of rectangles and squares in modern art. There
are many artists to choose from, but we have chosen to study the work of the Dutch abstract
painter Piet Mondrian (1872–1944). Mondrian used vertical and horizontal lines to create
squares and rectangles. He generally painted in black, white (or grey/white) and the three
primary colours of intense red, yellow and blue. The painting above is just one example. It was
painted in 1930.
Focus question
What geometrical properties can you find in the Mondrian painting ‘Composition with Red,
Blue and Yellow’ (oil on canvas 1930)?
Teacher note: It will be very rewarding to look carefully through a good selection of
Mondrian’s paintings and learn something of his life to provide context for this activity.
Inviting a member of the art department to speak to the students beforehand, and exploring the
Internet will be well worth the effort. A coloured overhead of the painting downloaded from
the Internet will provide great visual effect.
Materials: You will need a set square, a ruler, a pencil, felt-tip pens and a full page of paper.
70 mm
White
4 mm
Red 70 mm
95 mm White
36 mm
2 mm
White rectangle
5 mm × 10 mm
Blue White
3 mm
Yellow rectangle
5 mm × 10 mm
2 mm 2 mm
95 mm
1 We will first make a drawing of the painting as shown above. Draw a square 95 mm by
95 mm on your page. Then divide the square by a vertical and a horizontal line as shown to
make the red square. It is exactly 70 mm × 70 mm.
2 Now draw the thick black lines which frame the red and the blue squares. The lines are
2 mm thick. These lines could be drawn and coloured with a fine black felt-tip pen.
3 Now measure 36 mm above the blue square and construct the white rectangles at the top
left. Note that the black horizontal line is 4 mm thick.
4 Now construct the small 5 mm × 10 mm yellow and white rectangles at the bottom right.
The black line which separates them is 3 mm.
5 Finally, colour the large square an intense red and the small square an intense blue.
6 Choose an intense bright yellow for the rectangle at the bottom right. Leave the remaining
rectangles white.
7 Can you find any congruent shapes in the painting? Are there any similar shapes? Answer
the focus question.
1 The Ancient Greeks used a ‘golden’ rectangle as a basis for their art and architecture, for
example in the famous Parthenon. In a golden rectangle the ratio of the length to the breadth
is approximately 1.6 :1. Are there any golden rectangles in Mondrian’s painting?
530 Mathscape 8
2 Find some examples of the use of the golden rectangle in painting and architecture using
the Internet and art books, for example the painting ‘The Wave’ by Gustave Courbet (1869)
and the Parthenon of Ancient Greece.
3 European formal gardens are a good example of the deliberate use of congruent and similar
shapes in symmetrical arrangements. Check out the formal gardens at the chateaux of the
Loire Valley in France, particularly Villandry. Use the Internet or library books for
information.
1 Is there any evidence that Mondrian deliberately used mathematics in the design of his
painting? Discuss with your neighbour and list any evidence you both find in your
notebooks.
2 How does mathematics differ from art? Perhaps it is an art? What do you think? Perhaps
your teacher could set up a debate.
%R EFLECTING
Think over what you have learnt about the use of mathematics in creating works of art, for
example shape, symmetry, balance and proportion. Colour and light cannot be examined in
quite the same way. The curious thing about this painting is that the white areas, combined with
blue and yellow, effectively balance the red square. This is exactly what the artist set out to
achieve.
Next time you are at an art gallery, or a library, take the opportunity to have a closer look at
Aboriginal art. Do the designs imply mathematical ideas? Note that the story the work tells is
more important than its design.
B P ROBLEM SOLVING
1 A pole is to be cut into 20 equal sections. If it takes 1 minute per cut, how long will it
take to cut a 20-metre pole?
2 These are the views of a rectangular
solid from two sides. Draw the view
of its top.
3 How many times can you fold a sheet of newspaper in half? The paper can be of
any size.
4 How many people will fit inside your classroom?
5 Can you cut this shape into two pieces and

put them together to form a 5 × 3 rectangle?
6 A 60 km/h train takes 6 seconds to pass a man standing on a station. How long is
the train?
7 What is the sum of all the digits in the numbers from 1 to 100?
8 John had a 1-L container. Sue had another 1-L container. Sue said that more cardboard
was needed to make her container. If both were made of the same thickness of
cardboard, could Sue be telling the truth?
9 My watch loses one minute every hour, while your watch gains one minute every hour.
If they both show 12 noon now, when will they again show the same time?
10 Jacko bought some floor tiles of one shape while Rex Jacko Rex
bought floor tiles of the other shape. Will either, or both
of them, be able to cover their floor with the tiles and
leave no gaps?
1 What are matching sides in relation to similar adjective having a general likeness: Their faces
similar figures? are similar. | His flat is similar to hers.
2 C________ figures are identical in every ❒ Word Family: similarity noun (plural
respect. (similarities) –similarly adverb
3 Explain translation, rotation and How is this word used in geometry?
reflection in your own words.
4 What is a scale factor?
entry for similar.
532 Mathscape 8
CHAPTER RE
1 Translate CDEFG: 7 The pairs of triangles shown are

a 6 units down D C congruent. Name the congruent triangles,
b 4 units to the left giving the vertices in matching order.
E
and 2 units up a S G
F G H
2 Reflect ABCDEF:
a in the line AF B A P R T
F
b in the line PQ
C b M
Y
D X
E F Q
3 Rotate JKLMNO: L N
a through an angle J K Z
of 180° about N 8 The pairs of triangles shown are
VIEW
M L
b anticlockwise congruent. Find the value of all
about K through pronumerals.
an angle of 90° O N a 9m
x° z°
4 Reflect 37° 15 m
X Q 11 m
∆XYZ in 11 m 15 m
the line PQ. 97° 46° y°
9m
Z
Y
b 13 m
P 10 m 54°
39° 87°
87° 16 m
5 A B cm em
54° 39°
dm
C
D 2 cm
E
9 a Draw a triangle with sides of any
F length. Choose a centre of
3 cm enlargement outside the triangle and
H 7 cm G enlarge the triangle by a factor of 2.
ABCDEFGH is a rectangular prism. b Draw a rectangle with sides of 8 cm
Name the congruent faces. and 6 cm. Choose an internal centre
of enlargement and reduce the figure
6 ABCD is a rhombus.
by a factor of 1--2- .
a Is AC an axis of symmetry?
b Which triangle is congruent to
∆ADC?
CHAPTER REVIEW
10 Determine whether or not the b
VIEW
C X 13.5 m Z
quadrilaterals in each pair are similar. 14 m
a 9m 18 m 21 m
9 cm D 12 m E
Y
12 cm
13 The triangles shown are similar.
6 cm 28 m
CHAPTER RE
12 m C S T
E 74° s° t°
9 cm 63°
b 24 m 43° 16 m 21 m 42 m
21 cm 12 cm u°
D U
20 cm a Name the similar triangles, giving the
vertices in matching order.
28 cm
b Find the value of all pronumerals.
14 Find the value of the pronumeral in each

11 Find the scale factor for these similar pair of similar triangles.
figures, then find the value of the a
pronumerals.
3 cm
28 mm 9 cm
35 mm 40 mm 8 cm
42 mm
k cm
10.5 mm b 35 cm 30 cm
a mm
60 mm
w cm
49 cm
b mm
12 For each pair of similar triangles:
i show that all pairs of matching sides
c 12 cm
are in the same ratio and state the
scale factor a cm
ii find all pairs of matching angles
iii name the similar triangles, giving the 21 cm
vertices in matching order 16 cm
a O 22 m d 25 cm
M L
24 m 18 m 16 m 4.5 cm
33 m
y cm 15 cm
N
P 27 m Q
CHAPTER REVIEW
534 Mathscape 8
CHAPTER RE
15 For each pair of similar triangles: d

20 m
i copy the diagram and mark in the
equal angles sm
ii redraw the triangles separately and in 50 m 40 m
the same orientation
iii find the value of the pronumerals rm
a 75 m
P
15 m S 16 30 cm ruler
bm 16 m
R
14 m 40 cm
am 12 m
Q Wall
T
b 39 m
L M The candle is 420 cm from the wall.
VIEW
How far is:

42 m gm a the ruler from the candle?
N b the ruler from the wall?
18 m hm
O P
13 m
c
30 m f m 48 m
42 m
10 m
em
CHAPTER REVIEW
Answers
1 Percentages
Exercise 1.1
1 shaded unshaded e a f b c g h d
a 40% 60% 2
b 20% 80% 0 100%
c 50% 50%
d 64% 36% c b a d
e 60% 40% 3
f 48% 52% 0% 8% 35% 70% 83% 100%
g 52% 48%
h 64% 36%
i 60% 40%
4 a 1, b 1--2- , c 2, d 1 1--2- 5 No 6 a i Prices have doubled. ii $3.00, b i Prices have tripled. ii $1.20
7 a 90%, b 30%, c 75%, d 53%, e 16%, f 32% g 26%, h 36% 8 a 18%, b 4%, c 37%
9 a i 7c, ii 14c, iii 21c, iv 70c, b i 4c, ii 8c, iii 20c, iv 36c, c i 6c, ii 18c, iii 42c, iv 66c
Exercise 1.2
1 13 47 89 1 1 3 9 6
1 a ---------
100
, b --------- ,
100
c--------- ,
100
d ---------
100
2 a 3%, b 19%, c 31%, d 67% 3 a ------
50
, b ------
10
, c ------
20
, d ------
50
, e ------
25
f 1--4- , g 8
------
25
,
7 9
h ------
20
, i ------
25
, j 2--5- , k 11
------ ,
25
l 23
------ ,
50
1
m , n , o
---
2
3
---
4
17
------
20
4 a 5%, b 14%, c 30%, d 20%, e 28%, f 50%, g 42%,
h 90%, i 48%, j 25%, k 55%, l 80%, m 16%, n 70%, o 78%, p 60%, q 94%, r 65%, s 72%, t 75%
5 a 6%, b 3%, c 7%, d 13%, e 36%, f 41%, g 41%, h 34% 6 a 100%, b 200%, c 400%, d 700%, e 900%
3 3 3 7 1 1 9 1 3 2 11
7 a 3, b 5, c 6, d 8, e 10 8 a 1 -----
10
- , b 1 ------ , c 1 ------ , d 1 ------ , e 1 --- , f 2 ------ , g 2 ------ , h 3 --- , i 4 ------ , j 5 --- , k 6 ------ ,
50 25 20 2 20 20 5 20 5 50
4
l 8 -----
25
- 9 a 170%, b 108%, c 145%, d 140%, e 146%, f 255%, g 230%, h 380%, i 434%, j 590%, k 650%, Answers
l 896% 10 a 33 1--3- %, b 16 2--3- %, c 11 1--9- %, d 14 2--7- %, e 9 -----
11
1 1 2 4 4 5
- %, f 8 --- %, g 66 --- %, h 44 --- %, i 28 --- %, j 45 ------ %,
3 3 9 7 11
k 58 1--3- %, l 23 -----
13
1 5
9
6
7
1
3
2
- %, m 255 --- %, n 142 --- %, o 383 --- %, p 566 --- %
3
11 a = , b < , c > , d < , e = , f <
12 a 40%, 1--2- , 75%, 1 b 60%, 65%, 7
------
10
, 4
---
5
c 27 1--2- %, 29%, 3
------
10
, 8
------
25
d 1, 120%, 1 1--2- , 155% 13 a 2.7%, b 4.3%,
c 16.9%, d 31.7%, e 1.8%, f 5.5%, g 2.8%, h 6.6%, i 7.6%, j 11.5%, k 8.2%, l 5.2%, m 53.5%, n 81.2%,
13 29 7 51 17 6 13 1 31 141 181 7
o 85.4%, p 24.8% 14 a -----------
1000
- , b ------------ , c ------------ , d ------------ , e --------- , f --------- , g --------- , h ------ , i --------- , j --------- , k --------- , l ---
1000 1000 1000 500 125 200 40 200 500 250 8
7 13 31 17 2 1 2 3 1 11 1 7 9
15 a --------- ,
300
b ---------
400
, c ---------
400
, d ---------
300
, e ---------
125
, f ------
40
, g ------
75
, h ------
80
, i ------
15
, j ---------
125
, k ------
12
, l ------
40
, m ------
80
, n 1--3- , o 1--8- , p 1--6- , q 2--9- ,
5
r ------
12
, s 2--3- , t 4
---
7
535
536 Mathscape 8
ANSWERS
Exercise 1.3
1 a 0.01, b 0.09, c 0.15, d 0.24, e 0.35, f 0.51, g 0.64, h 0.82 2 a 4%, b 7%, c 17%, d 26%, e 48%,
f 56%, g 74%, h 93% 3 a 0.1, b 0.3, c 0.4, d 0.7, e 0.9 4 a 10%, b 20%, c 50%, d 60%, e 80%
5 a 1.05, b 1.12, c 1.18, d 1.25, e 2.01, f 3.15, g 3.64, h 4.82, i 1.4, j 2.7, k 5.1, l 6.9
6 a 106%, b 117%, c 136%, d 195%, e 214%, f 283%, g 375%, h 421%, i 120%, j 180%, k 250%, l 340%
7 a <, b >, c =, d >, e =, f < 8 a 37 1--2- %, 2--5- , 41%, 0.44 b 0.3, 33%, 1--3- , -----
20
7
20
3
- c 5%, 0.06, 0.1, ------
1
d 0.999, 109%, 1 -----
10
- , 1.12 9 a 0.158, b 0.192, c 0.283, d 0.374, e 0.506, f 0.595, g 0.732, h 0.818, i 0.004,
j 0.009, k 1.023, l 2.161 10 a 0.7%, b 1.2%, c 3.7%, d 8.5%, e 10.9%, f 13.6%, g 29.2%, h 43.7%,
i 55.8%, j 67.5%, k 70.4%, l 99.9%, m 104.1%, n 236.5%, o 957.8%, p 1521.6% 11 a 0.065, b 0.071,
c 0.1825, d 0.312, e 0.3675, f 0.415, g 0.523, h 0.6625, i 0.709, j 0.748, k 0.8125, l 0.9575
Exercise 1.4
2 a 50%, b 20%, c 25%, d 33 --13- %, e 75% f 40%, g 66 --23- %,
1 F D P h 12 1--2- %, i 10%, j 80% k 25%, l 50%, m 20%, n 75%, o 66 2--3- %,
1
a ------ 0.1 10%
10 p 33 1--3- %, q 60%, r 10%, s 80%, t 12 1--2- %
1
b --- 0.125 12.5%
8 3 a 125%, b 150%, c 166 2--3- %, d 140%, e 112 1--2- %, f 210%,
1
c --- 0.25 25%
4 g 275%, h 260%, i 325%, j 433 --13- %, k 450%, l 510%, m 566 --23- %,
1
d --- 0.3̇ 33 1--3- %
3 n 612 1--2- %, o 780% 10
1
4 a 1 ----- 1 1 3 3 1
- , b 1 --- , c 1 --- , d 1 --- , e 1 --- , f 2 --- ,
5 3 5 4 4
1
e --- 0.5 50%
2 g 2 1--2- , h 2 2--3- , i 3 1--8- , j 3 2--5- , k 4 -----
10
1 1 1 3 1 1
- , l 4 --- , m 5 --- , n 6 --- , o 7 --- , p 8 ---
3 5 4 4 8
2
f ---
3
0.6̇ 66 2--3- % 5 a 110%, b 120%, c 125%, d 150% e 180%, f 212 1--2- %,
3
g ---
4
0.75 75% g 233 --13- %, h 240%, i 310%, j 366 --23- %, k 375%, l 412 --12- %,
1
h ---
5
0.2 20% m 450%, n 533 1--3- %, o 625%, p 866 2--3- %
2
i --- 0.4 40%
5 6 a 1.125, b 1.3̇ , c 1.4, d 1.6, e 1.75, f 2.1, g 2.25, h 2.6̇
3
j ---
5
0.6 60% i 3.2, j 3.5, k 4.3̇ , l 4.75, m 5.5, n 5.6, o 6.6̇ , p 7.125
k 4
--- 0.8 80% 7 a 75%, b 60%, c 45%, d 83 1--3- %, e 37 1--2- %, f 43 1--3- %, g 73 1--3- %,
5
h 91 2--3- %, i 72 1--2- %
Exercise 1.5
1 a 6, b 4, c 3, d 5, e 11, f 4, g 12, h 14, i 16, j 21, k 9, l 6 2 a 28 mL, b 153 g, c 480 L, d 10 min,
e 162 kg, f 12 h, g 620 mg, h 35 s, i 77 cm, j 245 t, k 357 m, l 18 ha 3 a 33 g, b 32.5 mm, c 3225 mL,
d 249.4 t, e 68.4 min, f 1.36 kg, g 1715.7 cm, h 902 km, i 7.92 s, j 988 m, k 1053 mL, l 919.8 years
4 a 108 g, b 163.8 L, c 120 cm, d 122.88 t, e 491.68 min, f 361.888 kg, g $5028, h 106.4 ha, i 27 mL,
j 77.7 mm, k 35.7 days, l $150.40 5 $1925 6 102 7 160 8 $75 000 9 84 10 30 240
11 151.7 t 12 20c 13 69 14 11.925 t 15 $229.50 16 $53.20 17 266.4 kg 18 38 g
19 20 520 20 369 21 988 22 14 23 55 24 1070 25 162 26 $6 010 200
27 270 000 000
Exercise 1.6
1 a 50%, b 25%, c 10%, d 33 1--3- %, e 20%, f 33 1--3- %, g 75%, h 66 2--3- %, i 40% 2 a i 50%, ii 200%,
b i 25%, b ii 400% 3 a 55%, b 15%, c 20%, d 70%, e 35%, f 32%, g 25%, h 65%, i 60%, j 22.5%,
k 62.5%, l 37.5%, m 125%, n 140%, o 325% 4 a 20%, b 14%, c 15%, d 125%, e 75%, f 45%, g 80%,
h 55%, i 68%, j 75%, k 150%, l 30%, m 105%, n 21%, o 33 1--3- % 5 87.5% 6 a 62.5%, b 37.5%
7 3% 8 70% 9 20% 10 12.5% 11 23.9% 12 22% 13 15% 14 22.5% 15 76%
16 82.9% 17 62.9% 18 96.0% 19 73.3% 20 25% 21 22.5% 22 Apples = 48%,
Oranges = 28%, Pears = 24% 23 Roses = 45%, Carnations = 30%, Ferns = 25% 24 a 25%, b 20%, c 500%,
d 33 1--3- %, e 300%, f 30% 25 Running = 45%, Cycling = 30%, Swimming = 25% 26 78%
Answers 537
ANSWERS
Exercise 1.7
1 a $22, b $15, c $120, d $42, e $32, f $36 2 a $36, b $21, c $81, d $24, e $6, f $5
3 a 105%, b 108%, c 113%, d 120%, e 105.7%, f 132.4%, g 107 1--2- %, h 126 1--4- % 4 a 97%, b 95%, c 91%,
d 88%, e 96.5%, f 88.7%, g 97 1--2- %, h 84 2--3- % 5 a $31.80, b $51.50, c $128.40, d $88.40, e $110.88,
f $264.50, g $609.57, h $1175.88, i $1686.40 6 a $38, b $18.40, c $164.90, d $65.28, e $113.75,
f $156.52, g $263.50, h $476, i $673.20 7 a $84.80, b $37.20, c $180.50, d $303.88, e $656.18, f $364.37,
g $1355.75, h $2514.07, i $3230.10, j $487.05, k $745.31, l $2067.69 8 a 2750 mL, b 6440 g,
c 346.75 cm, d 46 400 m2, e 126 s, f 64 h, g 6750 kg, h 132 mm, i 1720 L, j 80.5 cm, k 5268.75 g, l 220 min
9 The amount is doubled 10 a i $40, ii $60, iii $80, b i 16 m, ii 20 m, iii 28 m 11 a 30%, b 50%,
c 33 1--3- %, d 15%, e 25%, f 45%, g 10 1--2- %, h 100%, i 200%, j 36%, k 22%, l 125% 12 a 20%, b 25%,
c 33 1--3- %, d 16%, e 40%, f 35%, g 16%, h 6 1--4- %, i 57 1--2- %, j 12 1--2- %, k 40%, l 32% 13 a 13.5 kg,
b 76.5 kg 14 $392 15 $42 265 16 $19.20 17 183 18 $56 238 19 $13 300
20 a $464 750, b $139 750 21 13.32 s 22 $77.92 23 136 ha 24 $39.60 25 $12 700
26 30% 27 66 2--3- % 28 $2.25 29 a 200, b 28, c 500, d 18
Exercise 1.8
1 a 20, b 12, c 18, d 35, e 56, f 130 2 a 700, b 80, c 28, d 30, e 56, f 60 3 a 400, b 300, c 500, d 800,
e 700, f 600, g 250, h 850, i 1250, j 360, k 740, l 48 4 a 55, b 153, c 126 5 22.2 mg 6 30
7 $380 8 $1225 9 a $480, b $408 10 a 400, b 380 11 76 12 160 13 850
14 a 350, b 217 15 900 16 $21 17 640 kg 18 a 500 t, b 225 t 19 $120 20 $337.78
21 $230 22 $420 23 $546 24 $24 000
Exercise 1.9
1 a $372, b $451.25, c $517.14 2 $159.95 3 $478.50 4 Charles received $34 more 5 $91
6 $447.34 7 $636.23 8 a $13 101, b $812.26, c $967.26 9 a $369, b $140 10 a $55 720,
b $1071.54 11 $4216.67 12 $41 336 13 $7300 14 $6400 15 $3100 16 9%
Exercise 1.10
1 discount sale price 2 Saving Sale price
a $180 $720 Bicycle $29.40 $215.60
b $139.50 $325.50 Persian rug $56.70 $132.30
c $108.75 $616.25 Reclining chair $169.60 $890.40
d $1.20 $22.80 Pair of shoes $27.60 $92.40
e $126.24 $662.76 Bathroom towel $2.85 $35.15
f $130.90 $464.10
3 a $192, b 14.6% 4 a $236, b $551.85, c $1062.50 5 $2107 6 $2043 7 $200 8 $6.75
9 $184 10 $3 cheaper at Furniture World 11 a $102.60, b No 12 20% 13 8% 14 12.5%
15 16% 16 $13 200 17 $920.83 18 $160
Exercise 1.11
1 a loss $80, b profit $60 2 a $650, b $560, c $685, d $578 3 a $570, b $420, c $515, d $331
4 Item Retail price 5 Item Retail price
Atlases $24.30 Range $518
Dictionaries $15 Dishwasher $472
Diaries $8.40 Clothes dryer $293.25
Novels $19.50 Television $600.60
6 a $35, b $175 7 a $144, b $176 8 a $60, b $6.50 9 a 25%, b 20% 10 a 15.6%, b 18.5%
11 35% loss 12 40% profit 13 13.8% 14 $720 15 $25 16 $340
538 Mathscape 8
Chapter 1 Review
ANSWERS
97
1 25% 2 a ---------
100
, b 2--5- , c 7
------
20
, d 9
------
25
3 a 1%, b 45%, c 60%, d 68% 4 a 2, b 1 2--5- , c 3 1--4- , d 2 11
------
25
5 a 300%, b 150%, c 270%, d 446% 6 a 0.07, b 0.64, c 0.3, d 1.05, e 1.49, f 2.6 7 a 9%, b 38%,
c 80%, d 104%, e 152%, f 370% 8 a 16 2--3- %, b 62 1--2- %, c 58 1--3- %, d 142 6--7- %, e 283 1--3- %, f 344 4--9- %
11 9 9 7
9 a ---------
200
, b ---------
250
, c ------
80
, d ---
8
10 a 0.142, b 0.375, c 0.064, d 0.1825
11 F D P 12 a --25- , 42.6%, 9
------
20
, 0.46
1
--------- 0.01 1% 13 a $6, b 50 cm, c 83.2 g, d 0.36 L, e 147 m, f 33.28 t, g $0.42, h 8.19 kg
100
1 14 a 25%, b 66 2--3- %, c 75%, d 62 1--2- %, e 29%, f 20%, g 72%, h 36.5%
------ 0.1 10%
10
1
15 a $1008, b 62.64 cm, c 48 g, d 1290 mL
--- 0.125 12.5% 16 a 558 kg, b 172.8 t, c 35 h, d $798.15
8
1 17 a $80, b $120, c $100, d $130
--- 0.2 20% 18 a 300, b 760, c 7000
5
1
--- 0.25 25% 19 $28 700 20 $8.55
4
1 21 Yes 22 37 --12- %
--- 0.3̇ 33 1--- %
3 3
2
23 76% 24 $495
--- 0.4 40% 25 15% 26 20%
5
1 27 a $41 371.20, b $61.20
--- 0.5 50% 28 $36 000 29 50
2
3
--- 0.6 60% 30 $501 31 a $408, b $77
5 32 a $19, b $76 33 $400
2
--- 0.6̇ 66 --2- %
3 3
3
--- 0.75 75%
4
4
--- 0.8 80%
5
2 Algebra
Exercise 2.1
1 a Like, b Unlike, c Like, d Unlike, e Unlike, f Like, g Unlike, h Like, i Unlike, j Unlike, k Unlike,
l Unlike 2 a 7x, b 5a, c 4k, d 2n, e 2u, f b, g 0, h 16e, i 9g, j p, k 4q, l 11s, m 6a2, n 2k2, o c2, p w2
3 a 9y, b 14p, c 5x, d 2u, e 4c, f 7t, g 3a, h 0, i b, j 15s, k h, l 7z 4 a 7mn, b 4ab, c 13qr, d cd, e 8pq,
f 11ef, g 12xy, h 9gh, i 0, j 18uv, k 4wz, l 9jk 5 a + 3n, b − 6c, c 7t, d 2w, e − 4g, f 5k2, g 4a2, h + 3pq,
i 2ab 6 a 8x + 6y, b 8p + 5q, c 7w + 11z, d 13c + 5d, e 16a + 10b, f 9s + 9t, g 5e + 11, h 12m + 10,
i 17b + 25, j 16k + 23, k 9a2 + 5a, l 7z2 + 5z, m 9p2 + 12p, n 13c2 + 11c, o 11d2 + 30, p 25a2 + 14b2
7 a 14p + 3q, b 7c + 6, c 6v + 6w, d 12e + 16f, e 9a + 8, f 22g + 12h, g 9k + 17, h 16c + 10d, i 3a2 + 26a,
j u2 + 6u, k 31j2 + 15j, l 7c2 + 11, m 6m2, n 17, o v2 + v, p b2 8 a 9p + 9q + 11r, b 5a + 2b + 10c,
c 7x2 + 3x + 8, d 3f 2 + 2f + 1, e 12p + 4pq, f km + 5mn + 21n, g 3r + 4rs + 22, h 24ab + ac
Exercise 2.2
1 a -2p, b -5n, c -10e, d 2q, e -4d, f -9t, g -3m, h a, i 0, j -y, k -13w, l -8s, m -7c, n -17h, o -6r, p 5k,
q 4a2, r -6c2, s -9e2, t -8p2 2 a -4mn, b 5pq, c -2xy, d -13uv, e -6cd, f -3jk, g -2ef, h 7gh, i -37bc,
j -15rs, k -18tu, l yz 3 a -4t, b 10x, c n, d 3q, e -4b, f -4g, g -4bc, h 6yz, i -3jk, j 18v2, k 5f 2, l 0
4 a -7m, b -4p, c -3t, d -9w, e 6b, f -a, g -k, h 0, i -14z, j -3d, k 12g, l 10s 5 a -3a + 2b, b 5c − 3d,
c 5p + 9, d -4x + 2y, e -7g − 8, f 6q − 1, g 11, h -2w + 3x, i -3a − 3b, j -2t + 5u, k -5n − 5, l -y + 13z,
m 2a2 + 7a, n -9c2 − 10c, o -8k2 + 9k, p 4pq − 7p, q -11gh − 17, r 15ef + 4 6 a 6a − 4b, b -3m + 15n,
c -3j + 9k, d 3b − 3, e -u + 13, f 8h − 4, g k − 2, h 7q − 6, i 4r + 2s, j -2n − 5p, k 3a − 4b, l -7c − d,
m -4u − 8v, n 4n, o 12d − 9, p -2e + 10f, q -2y, r -s − 3t, s 5a2 + 6a, t -6b2 − 5b, u -6p2 + 2p, v -5xy + 5,
w -6pq + 4, x -4uv + 2vw 7 a + 6a, b − 4n, c − 3b, d -7c, e -4q, f -3m, g − 5e, h − 4x, i 3i, j − 11k,
k + 7t, l -16g, m -s, n 4f, o + 21z 8 a − 9n, b -10a, c p, d + 2u, − 6v, e -4f, − 6g, f -4x, − 10y
Answers 539
ANSWERS
Exercise 2.3
1 a 4a, b 3k, c 6m, d 2y, e mn, f pq, g gh, h uv, i 2ab, j 7yz, k 8st, l 3ef 2 a 12pq, b 10ab, c 42ef,
d 40yz, e 27uv, f 60mn 3 a 15y, b 24x, c 14p, d 24a, e 30t, f 63c, g 48e, h 22r, i 45g, j 30k, k 28q,
l 36u, m 3d, n 5b, o 6w, p 5y 4 a 6abc, b 24mnp, c 40xyz, d 42rst, e 100uvw, f 84efg 5 a m2, b k2,
c 3p2, d 7y2, e 8g2, f 30n2, g 21x2, h 40u2, i 48a2, j 80p2, k 54c2, l 120w2 6 a p2q, b m2n, c a2bc, d 4e2f,
e 5tu2, f xy2z, g 2b2c, h 6jk2, i 8e2f, j 15mn2p, k 20c2de, l 32gh2k, m 44xyz2, n 45ab2c, o 42u2vw, p e2f2g2,
q a2b2c, r p2qr, s 6x2y2z, t 60t2u2v, u 42a2bc2d 7 a -10a, b -18c, c 12m, d -28p, e 45u, f 42b, g -pq,
h mn, i -2xy, j -15gh, k 16rs, l 16bc, m −14t2, n 27x2, o -40g2, p 48k2, q -28u2, r -108c2, s 30ab, t -24ef,
u -30m2n 8 a 5, b 7, c 3p, d 3z, e 4t, f 4q, g n, h b, i 7g, j 13d, k 9e, l 8j, m p, n fg, o 7xz
Exercise 2.4
r s z t
1 a a, b 3, c w, d m, e d, f x, g 5, h g 2 a 3n, b 2h, c 6c, d 7k, e --- , f --- , g --- , h --- 3 a 3, b 4, c 2,
3 4 9 8
d 5, e 5b, f 7z, g 6f, h 8p, i 4c, j 8x, k 11s, l 7v 4 a x, b 7, c p, d h, e 5e, f 5y, g 3r, h 4t, i 3, j 5, k 7,
l 11, m 4f, n 8y, o 6m, p 9c 5 a n, b a, c 4k, d 10q, e m, f z, g 4s, h 3b, i 3h, j 7x, k 5d, l 13v, m g,
n 3c, o p, p 7u, q 3h, r 8n, s 9k, t 8z 6 a -2b, b -4x, c 2u, d 28, e -4, f 7, g -5, h 4, i -5f, j 8s, k b,
l -q, m m, n -2k, o -9y, p 11e, q 8p, r -4w, s -11, t j, u -7h, v -7p, w -9b, x 5c, y 12y 7 a p, b 5, c 3,
2 2 a q x 3n 4u 12 f
d 7q, e 4y, f 8m, g 3t, h 4f, i n, j 7x , k 24ab, l 56d 8 a --- , b --- , c -- , d ------ , e ------ , f ---------
b p z m v g
Exercise 2.5
1 a 24ab, b 120mnp, c 30c2, d 10mn, e 4, f 20ef, g 42u, h 15y, i 2, j 3, k 3a, l 10d, m 12z2, n 2q2, o 6r2s2t,
p 15y2, q 32c2, r 1 2 a 50a, b 21m, c n, d 40y, e 99h, f 4, g 28c, h 5, i 0, j 100n, k 40c2, l 4q
3 a w, b 46k, c 12h, d 9t, e 11n, f 82q, g 12c, h 42e, i 15n, j -2d, k 10f, l -32z 4 a 2, b 2, c 4, d 3, e 1,
f 12, g 10, h 4, i -3 5 a 42u, b 9j, c 18r, d 8k, e 5y, f 11t, g 16b, h 17m, i 8, j 9, k 6, l 3, m -4s, n -15d
6 a 11b, b 13y, c k, d 44n, e 0, f 28p, g 20e, h 13q, i 7x, j 42a, k 16c, l 2s, m 14a2, n 3k2, o 10z2, p 29e2,
q 8y2, r v2, s 22ab, t 5q, u 8uv, v 17a2b, w 7rs2, x 17f 7 a 3 × (5t + 6t) = 33t, b 60gh ÷ (35gh − 15gh) = 3,
c 7ab − (3a × 2b) = ab, d (12p2 − 2p2) ÷ 2p = 5p, e [2 × (15a + 10a)] × 2 = 100a, f (6h × 7) ÷ (2h + 4h) = 7
Exercise 2.6
1 a 25, b 36, c 77, d 54 3 a 52, b 34, c 22, d 73 5 a 34, b 59, c 28, d 76 7 a n5, b a9, c y8, d t4, e e10,
f x7, g m9, h d10, i p13, j r8, k b10, l z12, m c10, n k15, o w11 8 a p3, b x4, c q2, d y8, e t7, f b2, g n3, h m,
i f 6, j z12, k u, l s7, m r4, n d3, o j 2 9 a a6, b p8, c x15, d b12, e m9, f y20, g t18, h n16, i q22, j z28, k c25,
l u30, m d24, n h27, o s42, p w40 10 a 3a6, b 2n8, c 8e5, d 18k7, e 8y7, f 15c8, g 12z5, h 20t9, i 24d10,
j 30n11, k 32u12, l 42h13, m 45d10, n 40v7, o 84g16, p 6n9, q 36p10, r 42z17 11 a a4b3, b x7y2, c p6q3,
d m12n3, e j5k7, f y8z7, g b10c3, h e6f 4, i g3h12, j 12a3b3, k 10m3n8, l 24u6v9, m 21r6s6, n 36w6x11, o 30c13d10,
p 32f 6h17, q 60s11t16, r 56i9j16 12 a 2n4, b 3b2, c 8t, d 6c3, e 5m2, f 2y6, g 4e5, h 5w5, i 3k6, j 6z5, k 8p8,
l 11x2, m 6q4, n 4a6, o 3g9, p 4m5, q 4s8, r 4e8 13 a a3, b d6, c n, d k7, e 2e7, f 5m, g 6u3, h 3h4, i 4s2,
3 8 7 6 5
j 4c , k 4w , l 10z , m 7r, n 9f , o 8b , p 4v 12 14 a a2b4, b m2n7, c g4h9, d x3y5, e u3v2, f c2d2, g e 2f 6,
h b3c7, i p6q15, j 2y5z7, k 3ab, l 8i7j3, m 7mn4, n 6c5d4, o 11p7q3, p 5e6f 6, q 7x3y4, r 12b5c5 15 a 16a6,
b 9m10, c 36g8, d 4k18, e 8n15, f 27e12, g 16q28, h 49y12, i 1000b12, j 32w40, k 125g18, l 10 000x20, m 64c30,
n 81f 4, o 64v6, p 216s21 16 a x4y8, b p10q6, c c3d12, d u8v12, e r20s15, f a32b4, g j25k35, h e18f 24, i y20z30,
j 25m6n8, k 81s4t12, l 8c18d9, m 16y4z20, n 27p12q27, o 1000v24w21, p 32g55h20, q 125q36r3, r 64x30y12
17 a n11, b p10, c y7, d y9, e a11, f x4, g n20, h e19, i h10, j m7, k v8, l b16 18 a e18, b v21, c m30, d d10,
e n12, f a3, g 10g13, h 5t4, i 20r11, j 100m15, k 5w7, l 72a24, m 15b9, n 2c8, o 4u6 19 a m15, b t36, c c16,
d s12, e k24, f h26 20 a 2u6, b 10p5q9
Exercise 2.7
1 a 2x + 6, b 3m − 6, c 30 + 5k, d 12 − 4n, e 6y + 24, f 7p − 35, g 8z − 8, h 63 + 9v, i 30 + 10a, j 11n − 22,
k 4w + 36, l 9b − 45, m 4x + 4y, n 12g + 12h, o 7c − 7d, p 6r − 6s 2 a pq + 3p, b ab − 5a, c 6u + uv,
d 2m − mn, e gh + 9g, f y − yz, g jk − 4k, h ef + 7f, i ab + ac, j cd − ce, k xy + xz, l tv − tu, m x2 + 8x, n n2 − 3n,
o y2 + 7y, p t 2 − 8t, q 4b + b2, r c − c2, s j 2 + jk, t mn − n2 3 a 3p + 6, b 2w − 10, c 4x − 16, d 5g + 55,
e yz + 9z, f cd − 3d, g pr + qr, h eg − fg, i a2 + ab, j uv − v2, k c2 − cd, l mn + n2 4 a 6n + 8, b 15t − 6,
c 12y + 30, d 12 − 16b, e 24m + 8, f 14 − 21k, g 20d + 10, h 42e − 18, i 40 + 90y, j 64u + 40, k 9 − 54z,
540 Mathscape 8
l 55c + 77, m 24a − 36, n 49f − 28, o 48w − 54 5 a 2xy + 10x, b 3mn − 12m, c 15c + 5cd, d 24g − 4gh,
ANSWERS
e 6tu + 21t, f 20yz − 8y, g 30rs − 15r, h 21b − 14bc, i 14jk + 18j, j 32ef + 44e, k 27p − 30pq, l 66de − 36d,
m 6a2 + 4a, n 8m2 − 20m, o 20t 2 − 35t, p 30k2 + 15k, q 21g2 − 28gh, r 60np − 84n2 6 a 5a + 19, b 3x + 23,
c 5p + 8, d 8e − 18, e 3f − 20, f h − 28, g 15y + 20, h 34t − 30, i 13c + 72, j 30q + 55, k 36x − 72, l 16 + 60z,
m ab + 6a, n 5pq − 3p, o 15x + x2, p 2e2 + 5e, q 11d2 − 28d, r 35k2 + 21k 7 a 3n + 10, b 2x + 19, c 4y + 16,
d 5m + 5, e 3z + 11, f 9q + 12, g cd + 11c, h jk + 13j, i f 2 + 14f, j 9b2 + 24b, k 2u2 + 36u, l 28w2 + 22w,
m 13g + 49, n 3v + 25, o 8s − 25, p 36a + 68, q 41k, r 39n2 + 9n 8 a 5a + 14, b 9m + 19, c 13y + 34,
d 9k + 8, e 10t + 4, f 14w, g 21n + 19, h 38t + 3, i 23e − 48, j 9z + 18, k 44, l 10p − 65, m 2ab + 8a, n xy + 22x,
o y2 + 11y + 42, p m2 − 11m + 6 9 a a7 + 3a2, b c5 + 2c3, c k9 − 7k5, d w7 + w6, e m11 − m8, f t 3 − t 10,
g 12e3 + 15e4, h 12y7 − 14y6, i 20u9 + 45u13, j a6b5 + a5b7, k x5y5 − x4y6, l 8c3d8 − 22c7d6
Exercise 2.8
1 a -2x − 6, b -5a + 5, c -3m + 12, d -7y + 14, e -6b − 24, f -9t − 27, g -24 + 8d, h -20 + 10w, i -28 − 4k,
j -6e + 36, k -11c − 55, l -64 + 8p, m -5v − 60, n -9w + 63, o -42 + 7r, p -108 − 12f 2 a -x + 1, b -y − 2,
c -b + 3, d -k − 2, e -4n + 7, f -3u − 4, g -2 + 5a, h -1 − 9t 3 a -ab − 2a, b -mn + 5m, c -jk + 4j,
d -yz − 7y, e -6p − pq, f -u + uv, g -8e − ef, h -2x + xy, i -ab + ac, j -pq − pr, k -fh − gh, l -xy + xz, m -p2 − 4p,
n -n2 + 9n, o -3v + v2, p -12d − d2 4 a -12k − 2, b -6p + 9, c -20g − 10, d -18y + 15, e -16n + 28,
f -18v − 60, g -14u + 7, h -45b − 63, i -48m − 16, j -40z + 30, k -27 − 24e, l -70 − 49f 5 a -6mn − 15m,
b -20cd + 8c, c -10ab + 15a, d -30xy − 50x, e -24p − 18pq, f -42q + 35qh, g -2r + 16rs, h -18e − 27ef,
i -12uv − 36u, j -21mn + 9mp, k -24ab + 40ac, l -54ij − 99ik, m -14q2 − 18q, n -25s + 35s2, o -121w − 88w2
6 a 3y − 2, b 5n + 3, c -2p + 20, d -5h + 48, e 8t − 4, f 6x − 34, g -2a + 16, h -5b + 7, i 19d − 20, j 7m − 14,
k -2e + 33, l 7k − 21, m 17z − 20, n -s − 10, o w + 12 7 a 2a + 6, b n + 18, c 4y + 41, d 5t + 34, e 5e − 13,
f p − 2, g 3c + 26, h 7g − 17, i 6b + 78, j 15w − 27, k -12k + 96, l 3s + 5 8 a x + 15, b n + 45,
c 8a − 5, d 2m2 + 9m + 21, e -2p − 8q, f 24w2 − 27w
Exercise 2.9
1 a 2, b 3, c 5, d 4, e 2, f 6, g 2, h 3, i 7, j x, k q, l u, m x, n a, o 3g, p 5e 2 a a + 4, b t − 3, c c + 6,
d n − 11, e b − 2, f g + 1, g 2y + 3, h 2d − 5, i 3r + 4, j j + m, k b − c, l s + 1, m e + d, n m − n, o b + 5,
p 3w − 5x 3 a 3(m + 4), b 2(n + 7), c 5(p + 3), d 10(e + 2), e 4(t − 3), f 7(a − 5), g 6(g + 3), h 8(y − 6),
i 5(c + 9), j 9(d + 3), k 11(b − 8), l 7(r + 6), m 10(j − 4), n 9(w − 9), o 12(f + 6) 4 a 2(2a + 3), b 3(3y + 4),
c 5(2t + 3), d 2(5p − 7), e 3(2s − 5), f 5(4b − 7), g 6(3n + 2), h 3(7k + 6), i 4(5e − 3), j 5(5k + 6), k 7(2v − 7),
l 10(3q + 4), m 8(2x + 3), n 9(5h − 7), o 7(5z − 6), p 6(3 − 5e), q 8(7 + 8d), r 11(9 − 4i) 5 a a(b + c),
b q(p + r), c x(y − z), d k(m − n), e g(4 + h), f u(2 − v), g m(n − 7), h c(b + 9), i x(x + y), j k(k − j), k e(e − 1),
l x(w + x) 6 a 3b(a + 2c), b 5p(q − 5r), c 4f(e + 4g), d 7y(3z − x), e 3s(2r − 3t), f 4u(3v + 4w), g 7k(4j − 5m),
h 5c(9d + 4e), i 5x(x + 2), j 12y(y − 2), k 7a(7 − a), l 8p(3p + 1), m 4g(2g + 3), n 4w(5w − 6), o 6c(8 + 5c),
p 11q(9 − 2q), q 5h(3h + 7), r 7x(4 − 7x), s 4bc(3a + 8d), t 6xy(3x − 4z), u 5pq(7q − 8p) 7 a 2(a + b + c),
b a(x + y + z), c 5(e − f + g), d p(q − r − s), e 2(2k + 3m + 5n), f 3(2x − 3y + 5z), g 7(4a − 2b + 3c),
h 6(3t + 4u − 5v), i x(x + y + z), j 3m(m − 4n + 5), k 5g(2f − 5h + 4g), l ab(b + a + 1) 8 a -2(m + 2),
b -3(t + 4), c -4(c + 5), d -5(k + 6), e -7(p − 2), f -6(y − 3), g -5(k − 5), h -11(b − 4), i -4(2a − 5), j -5(2z + 7),
k -2(9h − 10), l -7(4d + 3), m -b(a + c), n -p(q + r), o -x(x − 2), p -m(n − m), q -5a(a − 2), r -4(2r2 + 3),
s -3p(5 + 6p), t -4f(5e − 6g) 9 a 4(2x + 5), b m(m + 1), c pq(r + s), d 3x(y + 2), e 2(u + v + 6), f -2(2x + 5)
10 a (b + c)(a + 3), b (y − 1)(x + 2), c (q + 4)(p + 7), d (u − v)(5 + w), e (n − 3)(5n + 4), f (f + 12)(e + 2f),
g (b + 2)(b + 1), h (k + m)(1 − n), i (c + d)(2c − 1), j (a − 7)(1 + a) 11 a a2(1 + a), b p2(p3 + 1), c x3(1 − x2),
d n (1 − n ), e k (1 + 2k ), f t (3 − t ), g u (5u + 3), h g (4 − 5g), i 2y5(y3 + 3), j 4v3(v3 − 2), k 4m5(2 + 3m2),
2 4 4 3 3 5 6 4 3
l 5s4(3s7 − 5)
Exercise 2.10
2x 2n 5k 8a 2m 2t r 8s 18b 27e 21c
1 a ------ , b ------ , c ------ , d ------ , e ------- , f ----- , g --- , h ------ , i --------- , j --------- , k --------- , l 0 2 a n, b u, c 2t, d 5m,
5 3 9 11 7 5 6 13 17 20 19
a c r k 2x 2h 4b 5m 2c 5w 3z 8v 3m 3n 7k 13a
e --- , f --- , g --- , h --- , i ------ , j ------ , k ------ , l ------- , m ------ , n ------- , o ----- , p ------ 3 a ------- , b ------ , c ------ , d --------- ,
2 5 3 2 3 5 5 6 3 9 4 11 4 10 16 15
5x 9t w 11b 13u 11c 19s 13z 4d 4h u 2n 5z 7x 3a
e ------ , f ------ , g ------ , h --------- , i --------- , j --------- , k -------- , l -------- 4 a ------ , b ------ , c --- , d ------ , e ----- , f ------ , g ------ ,
6 20 21 40 24 18 12 60 5 5 2 3 6 10 2
3b 3w k c 4e 3a + 8 7m + 23 12x + 22 4b + 9 11n + 7 11c – 50
h ------ , i ------- , j --- , k --- , l ------ 5 a --------------- , b -------------------- , c --------------------- , d --------------- , e ------------------ , f --------------------- ,
2 5 8 2 3 4 12 35 6 30 24
6x + 11 29x – 2 41d – 29
g ------------------ , h ------------------ , i ---------------------
12 40 21
Answers 541
ANSWERS
Exercise 2.11
ab xy 3m 12 m2 k2 18 a2 3bc 5hi 15eg 35w 2 mn xy
1 a ------ , b ------ , c ------- , d ------ , e ------ , f ------ , g -----2- , h ------ , i --------- , j -------- , k ------------ , l ------------ 2 a ------- , b ------ ,
8 15 4n cd 10 20 y bc 14 24 28 fh 27xy 12 20
3e 42 h2 w2 32 rt 2ab 15mn 21cf 44t 2 2x 3y
c ------ , d ------ , e ------ , f ------ , g -----2- , h ---2- , i --------- , j -------------- , k ------------ , l ------------ 3 a 2--7- , b ------ , c 3, d 2--3- , e ------ ,
2f uv 30 21 z s 15 14 32de 45uv y 4z
c2 5 7b 5x q 4u 2 10d 8m 21c 4a 7r
f ------ , g 12, h ------ , i ------ , j a2, k ------ , l ----- , m -------2- , n --------- , o ------- , p --------- 4 a 3--7- , b ------ , c 5, d 4--5- , e ----- ,
2d 2c 9 3y nr 7v 21e 55 40d b 6s
3y 2 18t 2 2e 5c 7w v 6a 8g 4n 14u 3 n
- , h ------ , i ------ , j q2, k ------- , l ------ , m ------ , n ------2- , o ------ , p ---------
f -------- , g --------- 5 a ac, b ------ , c ------- ,
2x u2 5 9d 3u wz 5d 5i 7p 27t 4y mp
2t 50b 7cg 2d 11 f 2 3x
d -------- , e --------- , f ------------ 6 a ------ , b ------------ 7 a 6, b 3--5- , c 1, d ----- 3 11
- , e ------ , f ------
21r 99a 12de 3c 42 10 4y 12
Chapter 2 Review
1 a 18h, b 24t, c 11g, d 17rt 2 a 10y + 8z, b 11p2 + 13p, c 26f + 18g − 8e, d 3u2 + 5u
3 a -13k, b -y, c -8t, d 7r2, e 5fg, f 14cd, g 4m, h -4h 4 a -x + 5y, b 6r2 + 7r, c -2r − 7r2, d 3gh − 8g
5 a -9e − 14g, b 6q, c -5t − 6t, d -4fg + 3gh
2 6 a 28tw, b 35x, c 5b, d 42xyz, e 36pqr, f 96w2 k
7 a 9d 2w, b fg2k, c 42lm2n, d 16jk2l, e 210r2s2w, f -24z, g 63w, h 32x2 8 a 3p, b 3b, c w, d 7, e 3s, f ---
9 a 3w, b 10b, c 3p, d 5a 10 a -3w, b -8, c -b, d 9w 11 a 2, b 3a, c 96h, d 36v2, e 10d, f -16z 4
12 a 7, b 5, c 21f, d 35y, e 40e2 + 4e, f 14f 13 a 9m − 63, b pr − 6p, c ce − cf, d 5w − 45, e 12m2 − 15m,
f 16b − 24bc 14 a 39x − 63, b 25j + jk, c 2ab + 6a, d xz + 23x, e 14p2 + 20p 15 a -9f + 72, b -z − 5,
c -5w + w2, d -21y + 12, e -28ab + 35bc, f -72q2 − 56q 16 a 26d − 20, b 2a + 9, c 6e − 46
17 a r(t + w), b b(b + z), c 9(g − 4), d 6d(a + 7), e 7(f + 3), f 5(6b − 7), g p(q − r), h b(b − 1), i 12c(4 + 3c),
n 3c 7k 3u 8x b 11m
j 4(3a + 4b + 2c), k -3n(1 + 4p), l -6c(2 + 3c) 18 a --- b a, c ------ , d ------ , e ------ , f ------ , g --- , h ----------
2 5 5 8 15 6 18
5ab 4g 15e 11b
19 a --------- , b ------ , c --------- , d --------2- 20 a 213, b a7, c c11, d p5q7, e 36, f m7, g w8, h t 2m11, i 528, j k15,
27 3f 2df 6c
k a4b4, l p12q30 21 a 20u6, b 21y16, c 6r7, d 5e7, e 27x12, f 32p40q20 22 a p13, b w8, c n20, d 7v9
3 Pythagoras’ Theorem
Exercise 3.1
1 a 9, b 25, c 121, d 49, e 100, f 7.29, g 24.01, h 82.81, i 151.29, j 237.16 2 a 2, b 6, c 9, d 8, e 12,
f 3.6, g 5.3, h 7.1, i 9.4, j 11.6, 3 a i c2 = a2 + b2, ii AB2 = BC2 + AC2, b i a2 = b2 + c2, ii BC2 = AB2 + AC2,
c i b2 = a2 + c2, ii AC 2 = AB2 + BC2, d i y2 = x2 + z2, ii XZ2 = XY2 + YZ2, e i r 2 = p2 + q2, ii PQ2 = PR2 + QR2,
f i e2 = f 2 + g2, ii FG2 = EF2 + EG2, g i m2 = l 2 + n2, ii LN2 = LM2 + MN2, h i v2 = u2 + t 2, ii TU2 = TV2 + UV2,
i i j 2 = k2 + l 2, ii KL2 = JK2 + JL2, j i s2 = r2 + t2, ii RT 2 = RS2 + ST2, k i h2 = f 2 + g2, ii FG2 = FH 2 + GH 2,
l i b2 = c2 + d 2, ii CD2 = BC2 + BD2 4 a, c, f 5 a C, b B, c A 6 a T, b F, c F, d T, e T, f F, g T, h F
8 a Yes, LN, b No, c Yes, TS, d No, e No, f Yes, UV, g No, h Yes, GH, i Yes, JL 9 a Yes, b No, c Yes,
d Yes, e No, f No, g Yes, h Yes, i No 10 a a2 = c2 − b2, b2 = c2 − a2, b q2 = p2 − r2, r2 = p2 − q2,
c AB2 = AC2 − BC2, BC2 = AC2 − AB2, d QS2 = QR2 − RS2, RS2 = QR2 − QS2 11 a No, b Yes, c Yes, d No,
e No, f No 12 b Yes, c Yes
Exercise 3.2
1 a 5 cm, b 13 cm, c 17 cm, d 10 cm, e 15 cm, f 26 cm, g 41 cm, h 37 cm, i 29 cm 2 a 20 mm,
b 41 mm, c 58 mm, d 117 mm, e 185 mm, f 85 mm, g 116 mm, h 50 mm, i 340 mm
3 a 7.8 m, b 13.7 cm, c 21.6 mm 4 a 25 mm, b 32.7 mm, c 9.9 mm 5 a x = 17, y = 10, b x = 13, y = 15
6 120 mm 7 a 7 cm, b 25 cm 8 a 12.5 cm, b 16.6 mm, c 27.20 cm, d 11 m 9 75 cm
10 x = 39, y = 80.1 11 a k = 41, b v = 50, c s = 65 12 y = 15, 66 cm 13 a a = 1.5, b = 4.1, b 11.2 cm
14 a 4.5 cm, b 7.5 cm 15 116 cm 16 5.8 units 17 a 10 cm, b 40 cm
542 Mathscape 8
ANSWERS
Exercise 3.3
1 a 3 m, b 8 m, c 5 m, d 15 m, e 24 m, f 15 m, g 36 m, h 70 m, i 60 m 2 a 85 cm, b 96 cm,
c 312 cm, d 513 cm, e 496 cm, f 2176 cm, g 185 cm, h 432 cm, i 2156 cm 3 a 6.7 cm,
b 11.7 m, c 8.2 mm 4 a x = 16, b x = 38.8, c x = 5.7 5 a p = 21, q = 15, b p = 48, q = 20 6 306 km
7 a 12 cm, b 94 cm 8 a 16.1 cm, b 17.75 m, c 27.7 cm, d 26 m 9 a 53 cm, b 45 cm
10 u = 65, v = 41.3 11 a h = 84, b k = 58, c y = 12 12 a 28 cm, b 60 cm, c 32 cm 13 a 8 cm,
b 15 cm, c 6 cm, d 10 cm 14 a 24 mm, b 10 mm 15 a 100 cm, b 91 cm, c 99 cm
16 g = 1.2, h = 0.8 17 80 cm 18 a 25 cm, b 48 cm
Exercise 3.4
1 a k = 8.6, b x = 11.5, c w = 39, d q = 5.9, e m = 48, f e = 6.7, g g = 18.7, h j = 40.8, i r = 75 2 5.7 m
3 14.32 m 4 122 km 5 85 km 6 73 cm 7 a i 9 mm, ii 16 mm, iii 25 mm 8 166 km 9 x=6
10 60.3 cm 11 x = 24, y = 82 12 a 10 cm, b 8 cm 13 0.3 m 14 a 1.5 m, b 2.5 m, c 6 m, d 6.5 m
15 30 m 16 3.2 m 17 a x = 73, b 250 m, c $8750 18 a Peter 125 km north; Robert 200 km east,
b 236 km 19 a 17 cm
Chapter 3 Review
1 B, E 2 B, D 3 a k = 17, b a = 61, c x = 65 , d e = 130 4 9.7 cm 5 17.5 cm 6 a q = 21,

b d = 63, c s = 14.0, d n = 41.0 7 11.3 cm 8 10.8 cm 9 x = 5, y = 12.5 10 a k = 15, b y = 12.8
11 a 6 cm, b 84 cm 12 4.4 cm 13 14.70 m 14 22.0 km 15 7.5 km 16 70 mm
4 Data representation
Exercise 4.1
2 a Q, b C, c Q, d Q, e C, f Q, g C, h C, i C, j Q, k C, l Q, m Q, n C, o Q, p Q
3 a D, b C, c D, d C, e D, f C, g D, h D, i C, j C, k C, l D, m C, n D, o C, p D, q D, r C, s C, t C
4 a DQ, b C, c DQ, d CQ, e C, f CQ, g DQ, h DQ, i CQ, j C, k DQ, l DQ, m CQ, n DQ, o C, p C, q C,
r CQ, s DQ, t DQ
Exercise 4.2
15
1 a i 8, ii 26, b 26, c 104, d ---------
104
2 a Bar graph, b 5, c 4, d $1 932 000, e 8% 3 a Picture graph,
b i 240, ii 180, c May, d March, May, e 4 a 1996, b 155 000 t, c 160 000 t in 1999, d 2000,
8
e 2000 5 a 30, b 28, c 32, d 5 6 a Divided bar graph, b 1 mm represents 0.5 kg, c 6 kg, d -----
25
- , e 4 kg
7 a 1st quarter 2002, b 2400 kWh, c 2003, d 1 and 3. It is summer in quarter 1, when air conditioners are used,
and winter in quarter 3, when heaters are used. 8 a 5, b 19, c 42.5%, d No, because the women have fewer of
the higher-paying positions and more of the lower-paying positions. 9 a i 25% , ii 20%, b 21%, c Computers,
d There was a decrease in investment in mining and shipping and an increase in investment in technological areas
such as computers and telecommunications. 10 a 3, b 3250, c 2 11 a 23 m, b 36 m, c May, d 4 m,
e 24th–25th December 12 a 20 L, b Kelly went to a petrol station and filled up her tank with petrol. c 30 L,
d 10 L, e At 12.30 for 1 hour, indicated by the horizontal line. f 26 L, g 38 L, h Between 1.30 pm and 2.30 pm,
indicated by the slope of the line being greatest. 13 a 32°F, b 68°F, c 25°C, d 27°F 14 a Mice 12.5%, cats
25%, dogs 17.5%, birds 30%, fish 15%, b 20, c 4, d 1.5 mm represents 1 pet 15 a Water, b Council rates,
c i $950, ii $500, iii $800, d 20% 16 a Manly, b 16%, c Dee Why, d Collaroy 21, Dee Why 36, Harbord 24,
Manly 54, Narrabeen 15, e Collaroy 50°, Dee Why 86°, Harboard 58°, Manly 130°, Narrabeen 36°
17 a 90°, 72 videos, b 1--6- , c 10, d 28% 18 a 15%, b 8%, c Rings, d 200, e 34, f 28
5
19 a Labor, b Greens and Independents, c ------
36
, d 18 20 a Minimum 7°C, Maximum 18°C, b W/NW,
c 23, d 2, e Minimum, 4.3°C at 6.52 am; Maximum, 19.3°C at 2.16 pm, f 309.4 mm, g 32%,
h Decrease of 2.1 Hpascals, i 10 h 4 min, j July 24, k High tide at 10.36 pm; Low tide at 4.31 am, l 1.6 m
21 a i $NZ24, ii $A31, iii $A18, b i $NZ12, ii 10 euro, iii 50 MYR, c 21 euro is greater by $A4, d $A72
Answers 543
ANSWERS
Exercise 4.3
1 Dividends for the Super Rich 2 Temperature at Rouse Hill
Opal Mining Company 24
16
14 20
Dividend in cents/share
12
16
10
Temperature (C°)
8
12
6
4 8
2
0 4
1 2 3 4
Quarter
9 am 10 am 11 am 12 1 pm 2 pm 3 pm 4 pm
noon
Time
3 Number of rainy days in a country town 4 Take-away food outlets in a town

January
Cecily's
February Take-away
March Thai/Indian
April Restaurant
May Jacque's
June Chinese
July The Chicken
Shop
August
September Sports Club
October Take-away
November 0 10 20 30 40
Percentage of trade
December
Key: = 1 rainy day

5 6 Wine bottled at a winery
Between 1999 and 2003
Channel Channel
0 2 1999
50° 60°
Channel 2000
10 65° 95°
2001
Channel
Channel 7 2002
9
2003
Key: = 1000 bottles

7 Chlorine levels in a swimming pool
8
7
6
Chlorine level
5
4
3
2
1
9 am 10 am 11 am 12 1 pm 2 pm 3 pm 4 pm
noon
Time
544 Mathscape 8
8 a b
ANSWERS
Year 9 Maths numeracy test results Year 9 Maths numeracy test results
24 Intermediate 28
Number of students
Number of students
Advanced
20 24
16 20
12 16
8 12
4 8
0 4
1-20 21-40 41-60 61-80 81-100
0
Mark range (%) 1-20 21-40 41-60 61-80 81-100
Mark range (%)
Intermediate
Advanced
9 a Other crops Homestead, b

(17°) sheds, roads, etc. Private Train
Rested (3°) vehicle
83° 61°
40° Sheep 79° 137°
Bus Air
120° 180°
Wheat
Exercise 4.4
1 a i $2, ii $2, iii $10, b i $2, ii $5, c i 4 hours, ii 2 hours, d $34 2 a i $2, ii $1, iii $1, b $2,
c i 250 g, ii 50 g, d $1 3 a $1.26, b 2 min 30 s, c 20s, d 18 c 4 a 3, b 6 L, c $35.00,
d The 1 L container size is cheaper by $5.60
5 Cost of water in Sydney 6 Cost of Queensland
Couch turf
5
Cost per roll ($)
9
4
8
3 7
Cost ($)
2 0
10 20 30 40 50
Number of rolls
1
0
1 2 3 4 5
Water usage (kL)
7 a Cost of parcel by mass Cost of parcel by distance b i $60, ii $115

100 50
80 40
Cost ($)
Cost ($)
60 30
40 20
20 10
0 0
25 50 75 100 100 200 300 400 500
Mass (kg) Distance (km)
8 a $2400, b $20, c $2100, d (1) Rumpus room Serendipity Blue, family room Greek Goddess, entry foyer
Serendipity Blue; (2) Rumpus room Serendipity Blue, family room Greek Goddess, entry foyer Greek Goddess;
(3) Rumpus room Serendipity Blue, family room Serendipity Blue, entry foyer Greek Goddess
Answers 545
ANSWERS
Exercise 4.5
1 a 9 am, b 4.5 km, c 10:30 am, d Between 11 am and 12:30 pm, e 5 km 2 a 8 am, b 40 km,
c 9 am and 1:45 pm, d 50 km, e Between 10 am and 11 am and between 1 pm and 1:30 pm, f 5 1--2- h
3 a 30 km, b Increase, c 12 noon, d 100 km, e 2:30 pm, f 1 1--2- h, g 200 km 4 a 280 km, b 100 km/h between
10 am and 12 noon; 80 km/h between 12 noon and 1 pm (0 km/h between 1 pm and 3 pm); 60 km/h between
3 pm and 5 pm, c Between 10 am and 12 noon, d 140 km, e i 150 km, ii 180 km, f 100 km, g 25 km
5 a 4 km, b 8 km, c 45 min, d Between 1 pm and 3 pm, e 14 km, f 36 km, g 5.1 km/h 6 a 150 km,
b Between 8 am and 8:30 am, c 8:15 am, d 45 km from A; 105 km from B, e 3--5- 7 a 20 km, b 9:30 am
and 11:30 am, c 50 km, d 20 km, e Ben 130 km; Bill 200 km, f Ben 18.6 km/h; Bill 28.6 km/h
8 a Justin 9 am; Maree 10 am, b Increased, c 30 km, d 60 km, e Justin, f 120 km 9 a 40 km, b 90 km,
c Between 9 am and 10:30 am and between 11:30 am and 2 pm, d 15 km, e 30 km, f 8:30 am and 9:45 am
10 a b 200 km, c 11:45 am and 12:45 pm, d 66 2--3- km/h
200
Distance from home (km)
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4
am noon pm
Time
Exercise 4.6
1 a 71, b i Barry, ii Effie, c i Computing, ii PE, d i History, ii Science, e Effie 2 a 1:16 pm, b i 7:45 pm,
ii No, iii 3 h, iv 8:30 am, c Yes, the 7 am train, d 2 h 6 min, e 1 h 25 min; it makes fewer stops, f 4
3 a $12.95; $13.15, b Rose — BHP Billiton, Rio Tinto; Fell — Woodside, National Bank, Telstra, AMP Insurance,
c Telstra, $5.52, d BHP Billiton, Rio Tinto, National Bank, e BHP Billiton, National Bank, Telstra, f Telstra,
17 655 000 g $27 150, h 221 shares 4 a i 109 km, ii 201 km, b Uralla and Armidale, c Uralla and Inverell,
d i 129 km, ii 40 km, iii 141 km, e Because to travel from Glen Innes to Bingarra it is possible to take a route that
doesn’t pass through Warialda 5 a 38, b I. Jones, c K. Lamb, d 90%, e No 6 a $33 000, b 2001, c C,
d 2002, e A 7 a 24, b $1 146 379.30, c $10.60, d $4442.20, e $39.80, f $12 million 8 a Dead,
b $40 000, c $26 000, d 9%, e Evil Master, f 54.5 kg, g d Means the horse has won at this distance on another
course; b Means the horse was a beaten favourite last start, h Evil Master and Ton of Hope, i Tweak,
j Spell of 12 weeks, k 3 years old, l $33, m Flying Chance, n Alunarmist, o Evil Master 9 a $10.00,
b $20.00, c 8, d 1.75 kg, e $17.50, f $88.00, g $69.00
Exercise 4.7
1 a B, b A 2 a i A, ii D, b i B, ii C 3 Y, Z, X from left to right 4 a P and S, b T and R
6 a $2.7 million, b 18th, c 7, d Played fewer games due to injury, e Because a higher ranking is indicated by a
lower number, f The prize money increases as the ranking increases. 7 a 15, b 19 t/ha, c 3 t/ha caused by very
low rainfall, d 4 t/ha caused by flooding, e Grain production increases with rainfall to a point and then declines as
rainfall increases further. 8 a 4 years, b $8000, c Value decreases as age increases. d i 4 years, ii Different
types of cars—the older car might be a prestige vehicle
546 Mathscape 8
9 a 10 a
ANSWERS
Number of boxes cold tablets sold

35
400
30
Rent ($)
300
25
200
20
100
15
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 10
Weekly income ($)
5
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
Average daily temperature (C°)
b Yes, b Yes,
c As weekly income increases, rent increases linearly. c More boxes of cold tablets are sold in months
when the average daily temperature is lower.
11 a Linear, b Non-linear, c Clustered, d Linear, e Clustered, f Non-linear
12 a Positive, b Negative, c None, d Negative, e None, f Positive
14 a b Yes, positive,
2500 c More asthma attacks occur when the pollution level is high.
2000
Number of asthma attacks
1500
1000
500
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Pollution level
Exercise 4.8
1 a Score Frequency b Score Frequency 2 a Flavour Frequency b Chocolate

c Peppermint
1 2 15 3 Vanilla 13 d9
2 3 16 7 Chocolate 15 e 50
3 5 17 4 Strawberry 9
4 7 18 10 Banana 7
5 4 19 6 Peppermint 6
6 1 30 50
22
Answers 547
ANSWERS
3 a Number of Tally Frequency b 6, c 53, d 8
matches 4 a 2, b 10, c 18, d 2, e 27, f 10
------ , g 10
27
48 ||| 3
5 a 10 mm, b Yes, from 9.5 mm to 10.5 mm, c No, d 3
6 a Score Tally Frequency b6
49 |||| 5 c3
50 |||| | 6 1 |||| 4 d 1, 6
e3
51 |||| ||| 8 2 |||| | 6 f
52 |||| 4 3 |||| || 7
53 |||| 4 4 ||| 3
Total = 30 5 |||| | 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
6 |||| 4 Score
Total = 30
7 a 7 years, b 1, c 10 years, d 15, e 8 a 7, b 5, c 1, d 3, e 5, f 26, g 54

Age (years) 7 8 9 10 11
Frequency 2 1 4 5 3
9 a Age Tally Frequency b 13, c 11 years and 17 years , d 20, e 1--4- ,

f New enrolments by age
11 || 2
12 |||| 4 5
Frequency
4
13 |||| 5 3
14 ||| 3 2
1
15 ||| 3 0
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
16 || 2 Age (years)
17 | 1
Total = 20
Ages of children attending
casualty ward
10 a 6, b 12 years, c 1, d 15 years, e 11 C
f
14
12 a The columns should touch.
b The columns should straddle the
12
scores, with a half-column gap at the
10
start.
8 13 a The graph should finish on the
6 horizontal axis.
4 b The polygon should join the
2 midpoints of the tops of the columns.
0
10 11 12 13 14 15
Age (years)
14 a Class Class centre Tally Frequency b 6, c No, d 135–139, e 26, f 22%

130–134 132 |||| || 7
135–139 137 |||| |||| | 11
140–144 142 |||| | 6
145–149 147 |||| || 7
150–154 152 |||| | 6
155–159 157 |||| || 7
160–164 162 |||| | 6
Total = 50
548 Mathscape 8
ANSWERS
Exercise 4.9
1 a Stem Leaf b 26, c 69; 30 2 a Stem Leaf b 27
3 01579 1(0) 233
4 1234567 1(5) 567899
5 235889 2(0) 01224
6 12344569 2(5) 7778
3(0) 1344
3(5) 566889
2
3 a Stem Leaf b 95; 42, c 11, d 8 4 a Stem Leaf b 54, c 7, d ---
5
4 2 2 169
5 178 3 125569
6 0346 4 22334578
7 12224578 5 024
8 22456
9 035
5 a 30, b 17–78, c 42.2 years, d 16, e 9 6 a 45, b 15, c 1--3- , d 78, e 65, f 17
7 a Stem Leaf b 122 km, c 18, d 133 km, e 139.7 km, f 20% 8 a 65 years, b 14 years,
c 34 years, d 12 years–66 years, e 9, f 13, g Male 38 years; Female 43 years,
12(0) 234
12(5) 56889
h i 33 1--3- %, ii 22.5%, iii 41%, iv 60%
13(0) 13333 i The female patients tend to be older than the male patients.
13(5) 5789
14(0) 01234
14(5) 556789
15(0) 0144
15(5) 778
Exercise 4.10
1 a The scale on the vertical axis does not start at zero. b The scale on the vertical axis is missing. c The width of
the February column has been doubled. d 3D figures have been used. e The scale on the vertical axis is broken.
f Different length symbols have been used. 2 a Graph A. b The scale on the vertical axis does not start at zero.
c Graph B, because it has been drawn with a consistent scale on the vertical axis and shows that there has been some
increase in sales, but not a dramatic increase. 3 a i 1000, ii 3000, b 60%, c No; there has been an increase but
not as dramatic as the graph suggests. d The scale on the vertical axis does not start at zero.
4 a ‘You’re a Woman’ = 150; ‘Diana’ = 140; ‘Aussie Girl’ = 160; ‘Dream’ = 150. b Graph A,
c Graph A — the scale on the vertical axis does not start at zero. Graph B — the scale on the vertical axis is
inconsistent. 5 a i 20 000, ii 40 000, b Attendances have tripled. c The crowd was never 25 000. Football
attendances are not continuous data, so a line graph is inappropriate.
d Football attendance at home games 6 • The scale on the vertical axis is missing.
• You cannot quantify/measure customer satisfaction.
Attendance (thousands)
40 7 a The percentages do not correspond to the angles and

they do not add to 100%
30
b The percentages do not correspond to the angles.
20 8 a Stacked column graph. b It suggests that about equal
10 numbers of boys and girls scored 75% or more. No.
0
c The number of boys who scored 75% or more was far
Match Match Match Match Match greater than the number of girls who scored 75% or more. No.
1 2 3 4 5
d The scale on the vertical axis does not start at zero.
Answers 549
e 9 a Yes. The values on the vertical axis are decreasing rather than increasing.
ANSWERS
Year 8 Maths test results
40 Girls b To give the impression that home break-ins were declining.
Boys c They are rapidly increasing.
36
Attendance (thousands)
32
28
24
20
16
12
8
4
0
1st 2nd 3rd
test test test
Chapter 4 Review
1 a August, b $25, c September, d 12.5% 2 a Noon, b 17°C, c 8 am, 6 pm, d 7°C

3 a Britain, b 14, c 45°, d 6 days 4 a i $20, ii $80, iii $55, b i 100 km, ii 300 km, iii 150 km,
c $25, d A trip of 170 km is cheaper by $10. e $130 5 a 100 km, b 9.30 am, 11.30 am, 1 pm,
c Herman’s, d 225 km, e 25 km, f Lily, g 100 km/h, h 60 km/h
6 a b Movies
Lorna's shares
1.46
1.44 36°
1.42 Home
Share price ($)
1.40 Beach
1.38 81° 126°
1.36 54° 63°
1.34 Working Shopping
1.32
1.30
1.28
1.26
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
Day
c Trees cut down d Number of students per year
40
April 35
Number of students
May 30
25
June 20
15
July
10
August 5
0
7 8 9 10 11 12
= 40 trees
e Time spent on English homework
Reading Writing Grammar Spelling
1 min = 1 mm
7 a i March, ii June, b i March, ii June, c March; yes d The number of dead fish increases as the pollution level
increases. 8 a i $1124.86, ii $1092.03, b 5 years, c $215.51, d $2142.50, e $120.54 9 a Quantitative,
b Categorical, c Categorical, d Quantitative 10 a Continuous, b Discrete, c Continuous, d Discrete
550 Mathscape 8
ANSWERS
11 a Score Tally Frequency b 6, c 5, d 4, e 2

f
1 |||| 4
2 |||| 5
3 |||| | 6
4 |||| ||| 8
1 2 3 4 5 6
5 |||| |||| 10 Score
6 |||| || 7
Total = 40
12 a Class Class centre Tally Frequency b 8, c 180–184 cm, d 31

170–174 172 |||| | 6
175–179 177 |||| || 7
180–184 182 |||| ||| 8
185–189 187 |||| 4
190–194 192 |||| | 6
195–199 197 || 2
200–204 202 |||| | 6
205–209 207 | 1
Total = 40
13 a Stem Leaf b 39.4 years (1 decimal place), c 9,
d 72 it is not close to any of the other scores but is an extreme at one end. e 72; 18
1 8899
2 1233457
14 a 25, b 141; 116, c 13, d 134, e 28%
3 2245577 f
4 003567
5 04555779
6 04
7 2 115–119 125–129 135–139
120–124 130–134 140–144
Class interval for IQ
15 a The scale on the vertical axis is missing. b The scale on the vertical axis does not start at zero.
5 Angles and geometric figures

Exercise 5.1
1 a Yes, b No, c Yes, d Yes, e No, f No, g Yes, h No, i Yes, j No, k No, l Yes 2 a 70°, b 60°, c 130°,
d 15°, e 53°, f 38°, g 33°, h 65°, i 133°, j 28°, k 56°, l 88° 3 a 30°, b 45°, c 58°, d 33° 4 a 40°,
b 75°, c 100°, d 128° 5 a t = 60, b m = 80, c k = 45, d r = 35, e p = 77, f y = 23, g c = 12, h x = 42,
i n = 36, j z = 39, k d = 17, l g = 22 6 a b = 30, b w = 110, c e = 55, d v = 115, e k = 153, f f = 76, g y = 80,
h c = 75, i q = 95, j s = 55, k a = 50, l j = 82 7 a m = 45, b k = 60, c e = 30, d d = 45, e a = 36, f x = 15
8 a 15°, b 50°, c 25°, d 118° 9 a a = 50, b = 40, b e = 40, f = 105, c p = 145, q = 125, r = 55,
d x = 66, y = 24, e u = 26, v = 90, f m = 29, n = 61
Exercise 5.2
1 a x = 280, b u = 110, c d = 70, d m = 78, e p = 132, f w = 74 2 a a = 120, b k = 35, c y = 16,
d j = 115, e v = 96, f f = 27 3 a t = 100, b k = 68, c z = 120, d x = 70, e y = 43, f a = 40, g r = 48,
h s = 37, i u = 14, j n = 30, k b = 30, l e = 24 4 a f = 120, b v = 72, c c = 45, d x = 50, e p = 33, f g = 60
5 a m = 70, n = 20, b x = 57, y = 50, z = 50, c s = 50, t = 50, u = 60, d f = 80, g = 65, h = 65, e x = 43, y = 43, z = 90,
f k = 36, m = 39, n = 36
Answers 551
ANSWERS
Exercise 5.3
1 a Corresponding, b Co-interior, c Alternate, d Corresponding, e Alternate, f Co-interior, g Alternate,
h Co-interior, i Corresponding, j Corresponding, k Alternate, l Co-interior 2 a Equal, b Equal, c 180°
3 a a = 25, b a = 60, c a = 134 4 a b = 40, b b = 72, c b = 130 5 a c = 140, b c = 25, c c = 63
6 a x = 110, b x = 20, c x = 140, d x = 135, e x = 115, f x = 102, g x = 21, h x = 125, i x = 90, j x = 138,
k x = 96, l x = 112 7 a a = 60, b = 60, b x = 40, y = 140, c e = 75, f = 75, d u = 120, v = 60, e g = 35, h = 35,
f j = 98, k = 82 8 a a = 38, b = 142, c = 142, b t = 116, u = 116, v = 116, c x = 67, y = 113, z = 113
9 a y = 71, z = 71, b s = 118, t = 62, c u = 133, v = 133, d w = 90, x = 90, e r = 146, s = 34, f p = 101, q = 101
10 a Yes, b No, c No, d Yes, e No, f Yes 11 a x = 50, y = 130, b p = 105, q = 110, c g = 38, h = 52,
d m = 69, n = 69, e c = 49, d = 131, f e = 63, f = 63, g u = 12, v = 12, h s = 146, t = 34, i p = 127, q = 113, r = 120
Exercise 5.4
1 a m = 80, b h = 65, c q = 80, d z = 47, e t = 110, f a = 40, g w = 47, h k = 130, i y = 45 2 a p = 70, q = 110,
b a = 60, b = 40, c x = 60, y = 120, d m = 30, n = 70, e g = 57, h = 33, f c = 63, d = 27 3 a j = 61, k = 61,
b u = 100, v = 35, c r = 90, s = 24, d a = 110, b = 30, e p = 79, q = 156, f x = 55, y = 148 4 a c = 70, d = 30,
b u = 66, v = 114, c g = 120, h = 20, d p = 75, q = 80, e x = 42, y = 42, f q = 69, r = 31 5 a g = 76, h = 24,
b t = 40, u = 104, c m = 29, n = 61, d p = 38, q = 50, e a = 26, b = 113, f x = 55, y = 78 6 a a = 55, b = 74, c = 51,
b p = 77, q = 77, r = 45, c x = 67, y = 57, z = 123, d c = 75, d = 15, e = 15, e e = 67, f = 23, g = 157,
f t = 44, u = 44, v = 64
Exercise 5.5
1 a Isosceles, b Equilateral, c Isosceles, d Equilateral 2 a L, N, b X, Y, c A, B 3 a QR, PR, b EF, FG,
c TU, TV 4 Yes 5 a x = 60, b p = 12, c k = 60, d u = 3 6 a a = 50, b t = 13, c z = 71, d c = 25,
e w = 5, f n = 21 7 a a = 65, b = 50, b m = 55, n = 70, c p = 22, q = 136 8 a a = 40, b = 140, b p = 20, q = 20,
c c = 77, d = 77, d a = 80, b = 150, e m = 60, n = 120, f g = 60, h = 30, g e = 61, f = 61, h s = 55, t = 55,
i u = 60, v = 60, j t = 27, u = 63, k x = 55, y = 55, l v = 60, w = 100 9 a c = 49, d = 49, b x = 82, y = 98,
c r = 56, s = 56, d a = 71, b = 71, e p = 37, q = 37, f u = 75, v = 75 10 a x = 149, b x = 104, c x = 54
Exercise 5.6
1 a x = 130, b p = 100, c m = 108, d g = 127, e w = 119, f e = 49 2 a c = 32, b h = 60, c u = 78, d t = 13,
e n = 69, f k = 35 3 a x = 70, y = 110, b x = 60, y = 145, c x = 78, y = 153, d x = 69, y = 111, e x = 62, y = 138,
f x = 76, y = 76, g x = 74, y = 156, h x = 56, y = 124, i x = 48, y = 115 4 a a = 100, b = 70, c = 20,
b a = 40, b = 115, c = 115, c a = 40, b = 40, c = 80, d a = 62, b = 62, c = 118, e a = 79, b = 79, c = 79,
f a = 88, b = 49, c = 43 5 a p = 70, q = 70, r = 50, s = 120, t = 120, b p = 70, q = 50, r = 60, s = 60, t = 120
c p = 122, q = 58, r = 58, s = 134, t = 46, d p = 72, q = 144, r = 54, s = 54, t = 54
Exercise 5.7
1 a x = 60, b m = 50, c h = 110, d y = 10, e p = 128, f w = 80, g a = 168, h z = 52, i f = 84 2 a a = 40, b = 140,
b r = 103, s = 114, c j = 122, k = 133, d x = 70, y = 120, e e = 45, f = 85, f t = 78, u = 66, g m = 145, n = 50,
h g = 85, h = 120, i c = 81, d = 44, j g = 65, h = 25, k u = 122, v = 65, l p = 90, q = 90 3 a x = 60, y = 115,
b c = 75, d = 75, c t = 48, u = 239, d m = 130, n = 70, e e = 50, f = 45, f j = 31, k = 239, g a = 40, b = 70,
h p = 160, q = 20, i g = 113, h = 142 4 a s = 23, t = 87, b a = 65, b = 132, c e = 64, f = 52, d x = 72, y = 128,
e p = 50, q = 120, f x = 142, y = 98 5 a a = 160, b = 55, c = 70, d = 75, b a = 63, b = 117, c = 75, d = 105,
c a = 50, b = 80, c = 112, d = 78 d e = 75, f = 79, g = 102, h = 104
552 Mathscape 8
ANSWERS
Exercise 5.8
1 a Rectangle, b Square, c Parallelogram, d Rhombus, e Trapezium, f Kite 2 a 2, b 4, c 0, d 2, e 0, f 1
3 Sq. Rect. Para. Rh. Trap. Kite 4 a a = 9, b = 5, b d = 4, e = 90, c j = 15, k = 65,

d t = 90, u = 12, e v = 90, w = 45, f p = 18, q = 72,
a ✓ ✓ 5 a m = 60, n = 60, b a = 90, b = 30, c = 60, c x = 45, y = 45,
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
d b = 37, c = 53, e e = 130, f = 130, g = 130,
b f x = 90, y = 54, z = 54 6 a Parallelogram, b Yes, c m = 34
c ✓ ✓ 7 a Rectangle, b TR = 7 cm, SQ = 14 cm
8 a Rhombus, b 90°, c 6 cm, d 8 cm, e 10 cm
d ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 9 a Square, b h = 5 10 a Parallelogram, b Yes,
c i 4 cm, ii 8 cm, iii 7 cm, iv 14 cm
e ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 11 a 90°, b 70°, c 110°, d 35°, e 55°, f 55°
f ✓ ✓ 12 a 90°, b 38°, c 38°, d 104°, e 52°, f 76°
13 a 25°, b 40°, c 40°, d 65°, e 115°, f 115°
g ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 14 a T, b F, c T, d F, e F, f T, g T, h F, i F, j T, k F, l F
15 a p = 68, q = 68, b e = 43, f = 117, g = 23,
h ✓ ✓ ✓ c a = 54, b = 54, c = 72, d = 72, e = 72, f = 36, g = 54
i ✓ ✓
Chapter 5 Review
1 a Yes, b No, c No, d Yes 2 a t = 70, b a = 115, c k = 123, d w = 130, e x = 30, f e = 35, g y = 64, h c = 49
3 a 50°, b 105°, c 122° 4 a b = 70, b r = 65, c m = 122 5 a a = 134, b = 46, c = 134, b e = 134, f = 46, g = 134
6 a No, b Yes 7 a s = 46, b q = 28, c p = 133, d z = 25 8 a Equilateral, b Isosceles, c Scalene
9 a ∠ECD, ∠CDE, b YZ, XZ 10 a x = 60, y = 11, b a = 75, b = 30 11 a a = 50, b k = 133
12 a p = 128, q = 13, b u = 24, v = 90, w = 7 13 a Parallelogram, b Yes, c c = 51 14 a Square, b f = 45,
c EC = 6 cm, BD = 12 cm 15 a 90°, b 98°, c 82°, d 49°, e 41°, f 41° 16 a 90°, b 27°, c 27°, d 126°,
e 63°, f 54° 17 a Square, Rectangle, b Square, Rhombus, Kite, c Square, Rectangle, Parallelogram, Rhombus,
d Square, Rhombus 18 a u = 37, v = 53, b x = 78, y = 102, z = 102, c a = 75, b = 40, c = 40, d p = 51, q = 39,
e m = 135, n = 123, f c = 28, d = 68, e = 68, g a = 42, b = 42, c = 96, h f = 36, g = 66, h = 114, i j = 60, k = 55,
j m = 66, n = 66, k g = 62, h = 28, l v = 72, w = 146, x = 34
6 Geometric constructions
Exercise 6.1
1 c Yes, e Equiltateral triangle 2 b Yes, d Square 3 c Yes 4 a 45°
6 A heptagon — there are 7 equal angles at the centre and 7 is not a factor of 360. 7 b 180°
Exercise 6.2
4 b 120° 5 No 7 b 47°, 58°, 75°, c Yes, d Yes 8 d Yes, e No 9 b Yes
10 a Right-angled, c Q is equidistant from the vertices N, O, P, d Yes
11 b The length of the longest side must be less than the sum of the lengths of the two shorter sides.
12 a Yes, b No, c No, d Yes
Exercise 6.3
7 a i No, ii Yes, iii No, iv No, b i Yes, ii Yes, iii No, iv No, c i Yes, ii Yes, iii Yes, iv Yes, d i No, ii Yes,
iii Yes, iv Yes 8 b 10 cm 10 a 1, b Infinitely many 11 a No, b No, c Yes, d Yes
Exercise 6.4
5 a Isosceles, c Yes, d The angles are equal 6 b Yes 7 O 8 c 90° 10 Parallelogram
11 b Yes, Yes, c The diagonals of a rhombus bisect the vertex angles.
Answers 553
ANSWERS
Exercise 6.5
4 c Yes 9 c Parallelogram 10 d ST is half the length of PR
Chapter 6 Review
3 No 11 b 40 cm 12 b Yes
7 Area and volume

Exercise 7.1
1 a 24 cm2, b 25 cm2, c 28 cm2, d 45 cm2, e 49 cm2, f 64 cm2 2 a 10 cm2, b 15 cm2, c 10.5 cm2, d 12 cm2,
e 32 cm2, f 27.5 cm2, g 20 cm2, h 30 cm2, i 31.5 cm2 3 a 67.6 cm2, b 32.49 cm2, c 55.2 cm2, d 72.8 cm2,
e 43.56 cm2, f 8.82 cm2 4 a 7 cm, b 5 mm, c 6 m, d 15.9 km, e 14.5 cm, f 25 mm 5 a 6 cm, b 9 mm,
c 1.2 cm, d 1.9 mm 6 a 25 mm2, b 64 mm2, c 169 mm2 7 a 12 cm, b 28 cm, c 40 cm
8 a i Perimeter = 33 cm, area = 50 cm2, ii Perimeter = 30 cm, area = 50 cm2, b No 9 a h = 16, b a = 5, c p = 7,
dy=7 10 a 10 cm by 6 cm, 5 cm by 12 cm, 30 cm by 2 cm, b 12 cm, 2 cm, 6 cm, 4 cm, 3 cm, 8 cm
11 a k = 12, area = 60 cm2, b k = 15, area = 120 cm2, c k = 16, area = 192 cm2 12 a 8 cm, b 10 cm
13 b ∠BAC, c 210 cm2 14 a 40.8 m2, b 95.5 m2, c 139.9 m2, d 101.15 m2, e 96 m2, f 94 m2
15 a 42.06 mm2, b 235.2 mm2, c 99.6 mm2, d 59.3 mm2, e 66.56 mm2, f 304 mm2 16 a b = 13, b 82 m2
17 $1440 18 2.8 ha 19 736 cm2 20 a 111 m2, b $2664 21 x = 10 22 14.7 cm2
Exercise 7.2
1 a 40 cm2, b 63 cm2, c 36 cm2 2 a 48 cm2, b 35 cm2, c 42 cm2 3 a 32 cm2, b 70 cm2, c 67.5 cm2
2 2 2 2 2
4 a 30 cm , b 21 cm , c 51 cm , d 80 cm , e 76.5 cm , f 94.5 cm 2 5 a 48 cm2, b 75 cm2, c 143 cm2
6 a 60 cm2, b 27 cm2, c 132 cm2 7 a 120 mm2, b 63 mm2, c 99.36 mm2, d 171.9 mm2, e 90.1 mm2,
f 71.25 mm2 8 a 67 cm2, b 57.95 mm2, c 56.16 m2 9 a 7 mm, b 6.2 cm, c 4.8 m, d 12. 6 km
10 b 84 cm2 11 h = 10 12 a 137.2 m2, b 384.3 m2, c 497.55 m2 13 a 92 mm2, b 75.1 mm2,
c 124.5 mm 2 2
14 a 70 cm , b 542 cm 2 15 a y = 6, b 78 cm 2 16 2ab 17 a 25 cm, b 14 cm,
c 336 cm2 18 a 0.4 ha
Exercise 7.3
1 a 25 cm2, b 150 cm2 2 a 24 mm2, b 600 mm2, c 0.96 mm2, d 8.64 mm2 3 a 24 cm2, b 20 cm2,
c 60 cm2, d 104 cm2 4 a 94 cm2, b 80 cm2, c 288 cm2, d 402 cm2, e 246 cm2, f 240.4 cm2 5 a 5,
b 24 cm2, c 216 cm2, d 240 cm2 6 a 336 mm2, b 200 mm2, c 168 mm2 7 a cube, b 294 cm2
8 252.8 cm2 9 a Triangular prism, b 540 mm2 10 a i x = 16.8, ii 425.04 m2, b i x = 42.5, ii 6750 m2
11 a A = 6x , b x = 32, c 192 cm
2 2 2 12 7600 cm 2 13 a 65.54 m2, b 53.94 m2, c $242.73
14 a 40 000 cm2, b 800 cm2, c 50 15 a 4 cm, b 7 cm, c 11 cm, d 18 cm 16 7 cm 17 a 500 cm2,
2 2
b 1172 cm , c 360 cm , d 1144 cm 2
Exercise 7.4
1 a 4, b 3, c 5, d 6, e 4, f 8, g 6, h 8, i 7, j 6, k 16, l 7 5 18 units3
2 a 18 units3, b 36 units3, c 20 units3, d 14 units3,
e 13 units3, f 18 units3, g 17 units3, h 19 units3
3 a 8 cm3, b 14 cm3, c 7 cm3, d 22 cm3, e 14 cm3, f 44 cm3
554 Mathscape 8
ANSWERS
Exercise 7.5
1 a iii Cube, b iii Rectangular prism, c iii Triangular prism, d iii Hexagonal prism, e iii Trapezoidal prism,
f iii Triangular prism 3 a 35 cm3, b 96 cm3, c 99 cm3, d 180 cm3, e 150 cm3, f 127 cm3 4 a 30 units3,
b 24 units3, c 48 units3 5 a 36 units3, b 32 units3, c 90 units3 6 a 24 cm3, b 56 cm3, c 90 cm3, d 75 cm3,
e 96 cm3, f 44 cm3 7 a 224 m3, b 225 mm3, c 240 cm3, d 126 m3 8 a 8 cm3, b 64 cm3, c 343 cm3,
d 512 cm3 9 a 132 cm3, b 112 cm3 10 a 3 mm, b 5 mm, c 4 mm, d 10 mm 11 a 2 cm, b 4 mm,
c 5 m, d 5 mm, e 5 cm, f 6 m, g 4 mm, h 4 cm 12 a 90 m3, b 108 m3, c 136.5 m3, d 783 m3, e 702 m3,
f 443.7 m3 13 153 mm3 14 a 252 cm3, b 12 285 cm3, c 900.9 cm3 15 30 16 a 6 cm, b 10.2 mm2,
c 9.5 m, d 18 cm2 17 a 141 cm3, b 296 cm3, c 385 cm3, d 306 cm3, e 1524 cm3, f 640 cm3 18 a i 63 m2,
ii 252 m3 b i 87 m2, ii 261 m3 c i 31 m2, ii 155 m3, d i 52 m2, ii 312 m3, e i 142 m2, ii 2130 m3 f i 56 m2,
ii 392 m3, g i 124 m2, ii 558 m3, h i 418.5 m2, ii 3431.7 m3, i i 177.5 m2, ii 3567.75 m3 19 a i k = 6,
ii 414.72 cm3, b i h = 20, ii 7350 cm3, c i y = 24, ii 2880 cm3 20 20 cm3 21 8 times 22 a 294 cm2,
b 64 cm3 23 The surface areas could be equal but are not necessarily equal.
Exercise 7.6
1 a 3000 mL, b 2 L, c 7000 L, d 4 kL, e 1500 mL, f 1.2 L, g 3.5 kL, h 5900 L, i 4250 mL, j 1060 L, k 3.62 L,
l 5.841 kL, m 500 mL, n 50 L, o 0.38 L, p 0.025 kL, q 0.006 L, r 2 mL, s 410 000 mL, t 111 kL
2 a 500 mL, b 250 mL, c 750 L, d 100 L, e 200 mL, f 700 L, g 1500 mL, h 1250 L, i 2300 mL, j 5750 L,
k 3400 L, l 12 900 mL 3 a mL, b L, c kL, d L, e kL, f mL, g L, h mL, i kL, j mL, k L, l kL
4 15 5 5 6 4.125 L 7 350 kL 8 13 9 a 5 cm3, b 8 mL, c 20 cm3, d 31 mL
10 a 2000 cm3, b 7 L, c 3500 cm3, d 8.4 L, e 1.25 L, f 2750 cm3, g 500 cm3, h 0.6 L, i 34 cm3, j 0.021 L,
k 5 cm3, l 0.009 L 11 a 3 kL, b 9 m3, c 1.2 kL, d 4.1 m3 12 a 1000 L, b 6 m3, c 25 000 L, d 93 m3,
e 7.5 m3, f 1400 L, g 2600 L, h 8.1 m3, i 0.5 m3, j 900 L, k 4270 L, l 0.085 m3 13 a 2 L, b 5.4 L, c 5.12 L
14 a 7.5 L, b 27 L, c 6 L 15 2.2 L 16 a 64 000 cm3, b 64 L 17 4750 cm3 18 a 125 cm3, b 5 cm
19 40 cm 20 1 000 000 mL 21 a 320 m3, b 240 kL 22 7.2 L 24 8 L 25 a 6 pt, b 20 qt, c 5 qt,
d 3 gal, e 48 pt, f 9 gal
Exercise 7.7
1 a 2000 g, b 4 kg, c 9000 kg, d 6 t, e 5000 mg, f 3 g, g 2500 g, h 1.6 kg, i 4800 kg, j 4.5 t, k 8.1 g,
l 7200 mg, m 5750 g, n 2040 kg, o 4.89 kg, p 9310 mg, q 3.716 t, r 1.47 g, s 500 g, t 40 kg, u 0.7 g, v 0.82 kg,
w 0.003 t, x 2 mg 2 a 500 g, b 250 kg, c 750 g, d 100 mg, e 200 kg, f 300 g, g 1500 mg, h 1250 g,
i 4300 mg, j 2200 kg, k 9700 mg, l 6800 kg 3 a kg, b t, c g, d mg, e g, f kg, g t, h mg, i g, j kg, k mg, l t
4 3 kg 5 1350 g 6 1400 g 7 200 g 8 No 9 9 10 2.4 g 11 a 1--8- , b 63.04 g
12 a 50 000 cm3, b 65 kg 13 8.4 t 14 $11.30 15 350 kg 16 a 32 oz, b 28 pd, c 480 st, d 3 pd,
e 10 st, f 0.5 t, g 12 oz, h 21 pd, i 200 st, j 40 oz, k 3.5 pd, l 1.5 t
Chapter 7 Review
1 a 36 cm2, b 56 cm2, c 30 cm2, d 18 cm2 2 a 28 cm, b 144 cm2, c 45 cm2, d 39 cm 3 b ∠PRQ = 90°,
c Area = 750 cm2 4 k = 16, Area = 480 cm2 5 a 105 mm2, b 112 mm2 6 a 87 mm2, b 83.25 mm2
7 $891 8 a x = 20, b 840 m2 9 a x = 6, y = 10, z = 8, b 120 m2 10 a 264 cm3, b 360 cm3 11 14 mm2
12 a 90 cm3, b 64 cm3 13 6.8 cm 14 5 cm 15 a 210 cm3, b 450 cm3 16 x = 21, V = 10 500 cm3
17 a 572 cm3, b 145 cm3 18 a 294 cm2, b 117 cm2 19 1848 cm2 20 a 96 cm2, b 27 cm3
21 9825 cm2 22 768 cm2 23 a 6000 mL, b 3.2 L, c 1500 L, d 1.37 kL, e 0.095 L, f 80 000 mL
24 a L, b mL, c kL 25 12 26 a 2 cm3, b 5 kL, c 2.4 L, d 8520 cm3, e 7100 L, f 0.9 m3 27 3.78 L
28 a 3000 g, b 1.7 kg, c 1200 mg, d 4.85 g, e 5800 kg, f 0.074 t 29 a kg, b t, c mg, d g
30 2800 g 31 63.1 kg
Answers 555
ANSWERS
8 Equations, inequations and
formulae
Exercise 8.1
1 a x + 1 = 4, x = 3, b p + 2 = 5, p = 3, c a + 5 = 7, a = 2, d y + 4 = 9, y = 5 3 a 2k = 6, k = 3, b 2c = 8, c = 4,
c 3n = 3, n = 1, d 4e = 12, e = 3 5 a 2t + 3 = 7, t = 2, b 2b + 4 = 14, b = 5, c 3g + 1 = 10, g = 3,
d 4h + 7 = 15, h = 2 7 a 2w = w + 3, w = 3, b 3q = q + 10, q = 5, c 4s = 2s + 8, s = 4, d 7j = 3j + 8, j = 2
9 a 3r + 4 = r + 12, r = 4, b 4d + 2 = d + 11, d = 3, c 5v = 2v + 3, v = 1, d 6m + 4 = 3m + 10, m = 2
11 a x − 1 = 2, x = 3, b n − 3 = -1, n = 2, c 3u − 3 = u + 5, u = 4, d 4k − 5 = 2k + 1, k = 3 12 a y = 4, b s = 9,
c p = 6, d r = 1, e z = 4, f m = 7
Exercise 8.2
1 a subtracting 5, b dividing by 4, c adding 2, d multiplying by 3, e halving, f square-rooting 2 a + 2, b -5,
c × 3, d ÷ 4, e × 7, f −1, g + 6, h ÷ 9, i × -2 3 a × 2, + 3, b × 3, −7, c + 1, ÷ 3, d −4, ÷ 2, e ÷ 5, + 4,
f ÷ 7, + 9, g −6, × 5, h + 10, × 3, i × 4, ÷ 9, j × -2, ÷ 3, k ÷ 5, × 2, l ÷ 11, × -6 4 a −2, b + 3, c ÷ 7, d × 5,
e ÷ 8, f − 9, g + 1, h × 3, i ÷ -6, j × 2, k × 3, l × 8 5 a − 3, ÷ 2, b + 1, ÷ 4, c − 13, ÷ 5, d + 7, ÷ 10,
e −2, × 5, f + 3, × 4, g × 6, + 2, h × 11, −8, i ÷ 3, −5, j ÷ 4, + 9, k × 10, ÷ 9, l × 3, ÷ -7 6 a 5n, b p + 4,
y z a u m
c q − 3, d --- , e r − 5, f 7c, g t + 6, h --- , i -3b 7 a 3n, n, b 6k, k, c 2x, x, d --- , a, e --- , u, f ---- , m, g b − 3, b,
2 8 4 5 3
×4 +5 ÷8 a − 11
h e + 8, e, i z − 6, z, j y − 5, y, k v + 2, v, l t − 13, t 8 ak 4k, b c c + 5, c a --- , d z z − 11,
8
×2 +9 ×5 −4 ×3 +6 × (-7) +1
eu 2u 2u + 9, f t 5t 5t − 4, g g 3g 6 + 3g, h w -7w 1 − 7w,
÷2 d +8 d ÷5 n −2 n −3 ÷4 r –3 +7 ÷ 10 j+7
id --- --- + 8 , j n --- --- – 2 , k r r−3 ----------- , l j j+7 ----------- ,
2 2 5 5 4 10
+4 ×3 −5 ×2 −3 × (-1)
mb b+4 3(b + 4), n x x−5 2(x − 5), o z z−3 -(z − 3),
× (-1) +1 ×6 3m + 4 × 5 −4 ÷3 9 + 2x × 3 −9 ÷2
pu -u 1−u 6(1 − u), 9 a ----------------- 3m + 4 3m m, b --------------- 9 + 2x 2x x,
5 3
5n – 1 × 9 +1 ÷5 4c − 6 4c × 7 ÷4 3z + 2 3z × 11 ÷3
c --------------- 5n − 1 5n n, d ------ + 6 ------ 4c c, e ------ – 2 ------ 3z z,
9 7 7 11 11
2 f − 10 2 f × (-5) ÷2 ÷3 − 13 ÷2 ÷5 +1 ÷3
f 10 – ------ - ------ 2f f, g 3(2v + 13) 2v + 13 2v v, h 5(3t − 1) 3t − 1 3t t,
5 5
÷ (-4) −1 ÷ (-7)
i -4(1 − 7p) 1 − 7p -7p p
Exercise 8.3
1 a Yes, b No, c No, d Yes, e No, f Yes, g Yes, h No, i Yes, j No, k Yes, l No, m Yes, n Yes, o No, p Yes,
q No, r No 2 a m = 3, b n = 5, c w = 3, d c = 18, e y = 43, f k = 62, g g = 13, h a = 120 3 a k = 4,
b p = 9, c s = 6, d z = 21 4 a a = 9, b c = 6, c p = 17, d t = 13, e z = 21, f g = 36, g p = 7, h h = 9, i n = 13,
j k = 12, k w = 30, l b = 56 5 a c = 15, b d = 19, c r = 4, d m = 42, e y = 28, f u = 5, g z = 30, h p = 17,
i e = 28, j j = 52, k n = 44, l y = 8, m b = 35, n v = 64, o k = 7, p y = 44 6 a x = -5, b x = -3, c x = 7,
d x = -3, e x = -10, f x = -5, g x = -9, h x = 2, i x = -3, j x = -4, k x = 7, l x = -6, m x = -2, n x = 5, o x = -8,
p x = 5, q x = -10, r x = -12, s x = 16, t x = -48, u x = -27, v x = 42, w x = -60, x x = 72 7 a a = 5, b a = -4,
c a = 9, d a = -7, e a = -6, f a = 11, g a = 1, h a = -13 8 a k = 1--2- , b a = 3--4- , c p = 1 4--5- , d m = 1 1--6- , e t = 1--2- ,
f c = 1--3- , g t = 1--5- , h u = 1--7- , i w = 3--4- , j q = 3--5- , k h = 2--3- , l r = 3--5- , m b = 1 3--5- , n e = 1 1--2- , o r = 2 1--3- , p z = 2 1--2- , q f = - 5--6- ,
r u = 2 2--3- , s s = - 3--4- , t z = 1 2--7- 9 a x = 2--3- , b p = 1 1--5- , c a = 1 1--2- , d h = 1, e y = 2--3- , f m = 1--2- , g t = 4, h c = 3 --31- , i w = 7,
j k = 1--4- , k j = 1--3- , l f = 11
------
12
10 a x = 0.4, b a = 0.5, c y = 0.6, d m = 0.8, e e = 0.9, f n = 1.4, g p = 0.4, h t = 0.5,
i s = 0.6, j w = 1, k b = 1.2, l u = 9 11 a n = 3, b n = 6, c n = 8, d n = -1, e n = -4, f n = -5, g n = 11,
h n = 13, i n = -15, j n = 6, k n = 9, l n = -12
556 Mathscape 8
ANSWERS
Exercise 8.4
1 a Yes, b No, c No, d Yes, e Yes, f No, g No, h Yes, i No, j Yes 2 a a = 3, b q = 7, c m = 27, d e = 12
3 a g = 6, b e = 9, c c = 8, d v = 4, e d = 8, f m = 37, g u = 22, h f = 12 4 a n = 5, b p = 6, c a = 2, d q = 4,
e t = 7, f c = 6, g e = 6, h b = 2, i m = 4, j v = 3, k s = 5, l f = 7, m h = 6, n z = 8, o g = 13 5 a t = 5,
b b = 8, c q = 1, d m = -7, e c = -8, f d = -2, g g = -2, h j = -4, i f = -3, j k = 1, k y = 6, l a = 5 6 a m = 15,
b a = 21, c e = 12, d h = 28, e d = 30, f w = 48, g k = 16, h n = 60, i u = 70, j s = 81, k c = 72, l x = 88
7 a y = -15, b v = -24, c f = 35, d m = -9, e z = 32, f d = -45, g w = -54, h k = -18, i b = 20 8 a a = 10,
b m = 18, c t = 33, d k = 27, e b = 17, f n = 46, g f = 11, h z = -6, i h = -50, j d = -13, k p = 5, l s = -22
9 a a = 6, b a = 4, c a = 9, d a = 21, e a = 16, f a = 6, g a = 15, h a = 14, i a = -12, j a = -25, k a = -8, l a = 25
x
10 a x = -----
7
12
- , b y = --- , c n = --- , d p = -1 --- , e h = 3 --- , f k = - --- , g a = -2 --- , h w = -1 --- , i e = ---
1
5
4
7
1
2
1
3
1
2
1
2
1
2
3
4
12 --- + 3 = 8
4
Exercise 8.5
1 a Yes, b No, c No, d Yes, e Yes, f Yes 2 a f = 7, b k = 6, c b = 12 3 a m = 8, b e = 5, c t = 6, d h = 6,
e n = 4, f c = 3, g g = 7, h b = 8, i w = 9, j a = 7, k p = 4, l s = 9 4 a n = -8, b p = 4, c y = −7, d c = 6,
e a = 4, f t = -8, g b = -7, h w = -3, i u = -6 5 a x = 6, b y = 3, c m = 9, d t = 5, e u = 6, f c = 11, g a = -6,
h n = -14, i e = -15 6 a c = 5, b p = 4, c m = 6, d y = 3, e z = 8, f q = 2, g u = 5, h s = 6, i e = 3 7 a x = 1,
b n = -5, c a = -4, d u = -7, e f = -3, f g = 7, g d = -12, h z = 10, i r = -2, j y = -5, k f = -4, l v = -8 8 a n = 2--3- ,
b x = 1--2- , c u = 2--3- , d b = 1 1--2- , e s = 4--5- , f z = - 6--7- , g q = 2 1--3- , h e = 1 1--4- , i d = -1 1--3- 9 a b = -4, b p = 2, c m = -2,
d a = -5, e x = 6, f k = -3
Exercise 8.6
1 a x = 6, b a = 5, c h = 13 2 a p = 10, b y = -5, c r = 3 3 a a = 1, b m = 7, c p = 3, d t = 15, e y = 7,
f n = 5, g b = 13, h r = 7, i k = 5, j x = -3, k v = -4, l c = -3 4 a m = 2, b p = 7, c a = 3, d e = -5, e n = -1,
f c = 8, g j = -2, h d = 3, i f = -3, j a = -2, k k = 1, l y = -4 5 a m = 1--2- , b t = 2--3- , c q = 1 3--5- , d n = 2 1--4- , e a = 2--3- ,
f e = 3--7- , g k = 1 2--5- , h w = 5--6- , i m = 2 1--3- 6 a m = 3, b f = 1, c p = 8, d k = 7, e n = 10, f y = 9, g t = 9, h u = 6,
ip=3 7 a x = 4, b x = 5, c x = 3, d x = 11, e x = 15, f x = 21 8 a x = 7, b c = 2, c y = 8, d a = 7, e n = -1,
f w = -5, g m = 3, h e = 3, i k = -12, j b = 4, k h = 6, l z = 8, m s = 5, n d = -6, o q = -3 9 a x = 2, b k = 5,
c p = 3, d y = 4, e n = 7, f a = 6, g h = 8, h z = 14, i u = -2, j w = 3, k c = -4, l s = -2
Exercise 8.7
1 a 8, b 6, c 13, d 20, e 22, f 13, g 14, h 15, i 8 2 a 7, b 16, c 4, d 10, e 3, f 8, g 3, h 2 3 a 8, b 22,
c 17, d 26, e 25, f 13 4 a 18, b 66, c 12, d 33 5 a 6, b 8, c 12, d 24 6 a 2, b 11, c 4, d 1
7 a 10, b 7, c 6, d 9 8 a 17, 18, b 8, 9, 10, c 11, 12, 13, 14, d 6, 8, 10, e 19, 21, 23, f 16, 18, 20
9 a 9 girls, 18 boys, b Ken has $29, Peddar has $44, c Length is 17 cm, Width is 12 cm, d An adult’s ticket costs
$13, a child’s ticket costs $7. e A drink costs $1.40, a hot dog costs $2.50. 10 a Louise is 6 years old and Daniel
is 24 years old. b 15 years
Exercise 8.8
1 a x = 3, b r = 5, c e = 3, d q = 2, e y = 3, f f = 7 2 a a = 4, b k = 2, c h = 5, d n = 3, e z = 5, f u = 8
3 a w = 6, b t = 24, c x = 40, d h = 35, e p = 3, f y = 14, g q = 9, h v = 21, i b = 25, j e = 13, k y = 10, l k = 14
4 a x = 15, b n = 12, c a = 8 5 a n = 20, b k = 50, c u = 10, d p = 24, e y = 12, f g = 16, 6 a q = 26,
b x = 30, c a = 20, d j = 33, k = 4, e c = 7, d = 12, f y = 8, z = 13 7 a x = 2, b x = 3, c x = 5, d x = 4
8 a Width = 6 cm, Length = 12 cm, b 36 cm 9 a Width = 5 cm, Length = 12 cm, b 60 cm2, c 13 cm
10 a 16 cm, 10 cm, 10 cm, b 6 cm, c 48 cm 2 11 80°, 50°, 50° 12 87°, 89°, 91°, 93°
Exercise 8.9
1 a 12, b 20, c 34.8 2 a 12, b 10, c 44.2 3 a 5, b 8, c 14.24 4 a 10, b 20, c 23.2 5 a 7, b 20,
c -2, d 9, e 9, f -7 6 a 17, b 22, c 16, d 22 7 a 25, b 77, c 16, d -12 8 a 21, b 20, c 9, d -13
9 a 128, b 4.5, c 12, d 150 10 a 100, b 40, c 0, d -25 11 a 10, b 18, c 108, d 80, e 35, f 12, g 24,
h 99, i 59, j 21 12 a 7.9, b 50.3, c 346.8, d 530.9, e 326.7, f 9.8, g 30.6, h 0.8 13 a 8.75, b 2.46,
c 27, d 93
Answers 557
ANSWERS
Exercise 8.10
1 a 2, b 12, c 5.5 2 a 6, b 3, c 12 3 a 40, b 84, c 24 4 a 7, b -3, c 6, d 5, e -2, f -3 5 a 3, b 8,
c 3, d 7, e 11, f -2 6 a 8, b 13, c 4.5, d 6.5 7 a 2, b 5, c 8, d 10 8 a 4, b 8, c 9, d 1.5 9 a 3,
b 10, c 4, d 2.5 10 a 10, b 5, c 12, d 5 11 a 8, b 5, c 11 12 a 3, b 12, c 8 13 a 7, b 54, c 14,
d 8, e 12 14 a 5, b 95, c 1--4- , d 24
Exercise 8.11
1 a {7, 8, 9 …}, b {3, 2, 1 …}, c {3, 4, 5 …}, d {5, 4, 3 …}, e {0, -1, -2 …}, f {-7, -6, -5 …}
2 a x ≥ 4, b x < 7, c x ≤ 2, d x > 0, e x < 11, f x ≥ -6 3 a –1 0 1 2 3 , b 3 4 5 6 7 ,
c 7 8 9 10 11
, d 6 7 8 9 10
, e -4 -3 -2 -1 0
, f -9 -8 -7 -6 -5
4 a Yes, b No, c Yes,
d Yes, e Yes, f No 5 a Yes, b No, c Yes, d No, e Yes, f No 6 a y > 1, b k < 7, c p ≤ 7, d m ≥ 4,
e q < 3, f b ≥ 13, g t > 14, h c ≤ 14, i e > 3, j w ≤ 5, k d ≥ 6, l u < 11, m a ≤ 12, n r > 18, o p < 21, p z ≥ 36
7 a x < -3, b c ≥ -5, c v ≤ -9, d g > 2, e h ≤ -5, f k > -8, g b < 7, h y ≥ -17 8 a x > 3, b n ≤ 5, c b < 4,
d s ≥ 3, e f > 9, f c ≥ 7, g r ≤ 2, h a < 6, i h ≤ 10, j m > 6, k j < 4, l z ≥ 3 9 a n ≥ 12, b e < 8, c j ≤ 40,
d s > 33, e w ≤ 30, f t > 49, g a ≥ 90, h c < 0 10 a p > 1, b k ≤ 7, c y ≥ 2, d b < 10, e c < 4, f m ≥ 7,
g s > 4, h u ≤ -8, i k ≥ -5, j z < 3, k n ≤ -5, l q > -5 11 a b > 3--4- , b p ≥ 2, c r < 4--5- , d t > 11
------ , e z ≤ ------ ,
12 24
5
f g < 1 -----
20
1
- , g x ≥ --- , h e < --- , i r > --- , j v ≤ --- , k k > 1 --- , l n ≥ 9
3
7
5
8
4
9
3
4
2
3
Chapter 8 Review
1 a No, b Yes, c No, d No 2 a a = 7, b z = 25, c h = 14, d m = 36, e x = -48, f b = 2 2--5- , g t = - 5--6- , h y = 1 1--4- ,
i p = 7, j t = 2, k f = 7, l t = 4, m a = 2, n m = 24, o m = 13, p u = 60 3 a m = 3, b e = 6, c b = 6, d a = 7,
e y = 2, f r = 9, g q = 1, h d = -2, i k = -2 4 a m = 4, b h = -4, c m = - 2--5- , d k = 1 1--9- , e t = 7, f y = 13,
g w = -8, h s = 3 -----
11
5
- , i x = 2 ---
1
4
5 a 31, b 25, c -9 6 a 154, b 9, c 7.5 7 a 36, b 24, c 6
8 a 5, b 540, c 2 1--2- 9 a 284, b 35 10 a 13, b 36, c 7, d 32, e 15, f 8, g 48 and 49, h 17, 19, 21
11 a x = 5, b x = 7, c x = 6, d x = 14 12 a k = 11, b k = 42, c k = 48, d k = 42 13 a = 8
14 a q < 8 6 7 8 9 10 , b w > 6 4 5 6 7 8
, c s ≥ 15 13 14 15 16 17 , d c ≤ 5 3 4 5 6 7
9 Ratios and rates

Exercise 9.1
1 a For every 5 girls there are 4 boys, b No 2 a 3 : 2, b 2 : 3 3 5:1 4 a 12 : 13, b 13 : 17, c 17 : 25
5 a 5 : 24, b 24 : 19 6 a 4 : 5, b 5 : 2, c 2 : 9, d 7 : 11, e 4 : 5 : 2, f 9 : 7 : 11 7 a 1 : 3, b 4 : 5, c 4 : 1, d 5 : 4,
e 7 : 3, f 7 : 2, g 1 : 10, h 7 : 100, i 19 : 10, j 3 : 100, k 49 : 100, l 113 : 100 8 a --15- , b --59- , c 6, d 2 --14-
5 4 1 25 6 5
9 a i , ii
---
9
---
9
, bi ------
26
, ii ------
26
, ci ------
11
, ii ------
11
10 a 2 : 5, b 7 : 2, c 5 : 7 11 a 5 : 4, b 4 : 7, c 5 : 16, d 4 : 5 : 7,
e 5 : 11, f 16 : 9 12 a 20 : 23, b 17 : 40, c 23 : 57 13 a 8 : 3, b 3 : 22, c 8 : 3 : 22 14 a 1 : 1, b 1 : 4
17
15 a 1 : 3, b 3 : 4 16 a 200 , b 17 : 200
--------
- 17 31 : 35 18 a 7 : 10, b 10 : 17, c 2 : 7, d 12 : 5
19 2 : 5, 3 : 7, 4 : 9, 5 : 11 20 a 1 : 3, b 2 : 3, c 1 : 8 21 Erin : Francis : Glenda = 5 : 4 : 8
Exercise 9.2
1 a 8, b 12, c 15, d 14, e 21, f 18, g 18, h 66, i 48, j 40, k 12, l 56 2 a x = 4, b a = 36, c e = 28, d p = 2,
e y = 48, f b = 39, g t = 12, h y = 70, i w = 36, j k = 64, k d = 56, l f = 36 3 a x = 4.5, b k = 2.7, c a = 3.2,
d p = 3.75 4 a 6, b 15, c 7, d 44 5 24 6 15 7 $720 8 6 9 60 cm 10 24 minutes
11 28 12 a 3 : 10, b 15 : 77, c 21 : 2 13 a 108, b 72
558 Mathscape 8
ANSWERS
Exercise 9.3
1 a 1 : 3, b 5 : 1, c 4 : 1, d 3 : 1, e 2 : 3, f 3 : 2, g 5 : 3, h 5 : 9, i 2 : 5, j 8 : 5, k 3 : 2, l 3 : 4, m 7 : 3, n 11 : 5,
o 7 : 1, p 2 : 3, q 4 : 3, r 11 : 9, s 5 : 7, t 10 : 9, u 5 : 9, v 3 : 10, w 9 : 7, x 11 : 12 2 a 8 : 9, b 11 : 16, c 8 : 5,
d 29 : 21, e 7 : 18, f 19 : 15, g 3 : 11, h 17 : 12 3 a 4 : 3 : 6, b 4 : 7 : 11, c 6 : 3 : 8, d 3 : 5 : 4 4 a 5 : 3,
b 1 : 3, c 5 : 4, d 1 : 4, e 5 : 2, f 3 : 8, g 4 : 9, h 21 : 5, i 11 : 8, j 3 : 8, k 7 : 2, l 9 : 5, m 7 : 12, n 4 : 3, o 21 : 25,
p 1 : 1, q 21 : 5, r 5 : 3 5 a 5 : 12, b 7 : 5 6 7:3 7 4 : 10 : 19 8 Square : Rectangle = 6 : 1
9 24 : 19 10 Brian : Lee = 13 : 17 11 70 : 81 12 2 : 4 : 3 13 a 3 : 4, b 3 : 5, c 3 : 1, d 3 : 8, e 15 : 1,
f 3 : 20, g 3 : 35, h 9 : 2, i 4 : 5, j 9 : 4, k 15 : 28, l 9 : 16, m 25 : 24, n 9 : 10, o 17 : 9, p 1 : 2 14 a 5 : 7, b 2 : 3,
c 9 : 7, d 1 : 4, e 5 : 8, f 12 : 1, g 2 : 5, h 6 : 5
Exercise 9.4
1 a $15, $5, b 3 cm, 21 cm, c 20 L, 30 L, d 12 kg, 20 kg, e 40 min, 8 min, f 15 t, 20 t, g 24 g, 56 g,
h 56 min, 32 min, i 49 cm, 35 cm, j 10 days, 16 days, k 35 mg, 90 mg, l 180 s, 100 s 2 a $12.60, $14.40,
b $24.17, $33.83 3 a $200, $300, $800, b 15 g, 27 g, 9 g 4 a 1800 kg, 3000 kg, b 2400 mg, 2100 mg,
c $1, 20c, d 150 s, 120 s, e 630 m, 1120 m, f 5500 m2, 7000 m2, g 1560 g, 3640 g, h 48 min, 132 min,
i 175 cm, 325 cm 5 Louise 6, Monique 9 6 34.5 kg of tin, 57.5 kg of zinc 7 32 men 8 232.5 m2
9 Sam, $40.20; Lily, $26.80 10 48 kg 11 Bob, 40; Ray, 56 12 115°, 65° 13 60°, 100°, 20°
14 24 cm 15 3 : 2 16 a 240 km, b Fran : Colin : Stefan = 4 : 7 : 6 17 2 : 3 18 a 60 cm, 25 cm,
xz yz
b 65 cm 19 Yvette, $12 000; Ken, $16 500; Sam, $19 500 20 Simon, $ ------------ ; Alyssa, $ ------------
x+y x+y
Exercise 9.5
1 a 12, b 16, c 20, d 28, e 33, f 63 2 a 10, b 12, c 10, d 18, e 20, f 42 3 a $36
4 a 35, b 30 cm2, c 75, d 273, e 119, f 450 mL 5 a 15 cm, b 60 cm 6 276.25 kg
7 a Sophie, 12; Rhiannon, 15; Jessica, 6, b Men, 30; Women, 45; Children, 105,
c Wheat, 81 ha; Corn, 36 ha; Cotton, 54 ha, d History, 48; Geography, 24; Design and Technology, 56,
e 56°, 7°, 35°, f Orange juice, 675 mL; Apple juice, 300 mL; Pineapple juice, 525 mL
8 a 18, b 183 9 204 mm
Exercise 9.6
1 a $5/h, b 4 runs/over, c 6 m/s, d 4 degrees/min, e 6 students/computer, f 5 g/cm3, g $80/day, h 4 people/taxi,
i 125 cattle/ha, j 15 km/h, k 7 km/L, l 7 kg/m2, m 25 garments/day, n $90/month, o 9 t/h, p 7.5 mL/min,
q 4.4 L/s, r 1.05 m/mL, s 0.25 kL/week, t $1.60/min, u $70/ha 2 a 180 m/min, b 300 mL/h, c $7200/h,
d 108 kg/day, e $1200/kg, f 1680 km/day, g 480 L/h, h $7000/t, i 600 kg/ha 3 a 20 mm/s, b 300 c/g,
c 4200 mL/min, d 9250 kg/day, e 2.5 km/s, f 0.75 L/m2, g 0.14 m/s, h $0.45/min, i 1.7 kL/h 4 a 15 km/h,
b 48 cm/min, c 1.2 t/day, d 3.6 L/min, e $40/kg, f 450 kg/ha, g 36 km/h, h 0.72 t/h, i 50 kg/kL, j 36 L/day,
k 190 kL/ha, l 0.126 km/h 5 a 50 mL/min, b 2.5 m/s, c 400 kg/h, d 8.4 m/mL, e 0.61 mL/m2, f 5 mm/s,
g 40 L/s, h 140 mm/day
Exercise 9.7
1 a 3 min, b 28, c $1800, d $36.80, e 60 000 t, f 84 m2, g 90 cm, h 18 000, i 25.2 cm, j 450 2 a $16,
b 25 kg, c 8 s, d 8 blinks, e 4.5 runs, f 3.5 h, g 220 mL, h 1.3 trees, i 1.5°C, j 9.7 m 3 a 150 km, b $9.90,
c 1920, d 112, e $24, f 25, g 805 kg, h 855 km 4 a 16.8 L, b 4.2 L, c 27.3 L, d 15.54 L 5 a 400 km,
b 75 km, c 125 km, d 245 km 6 a 32.77 L, b $26.97 7 10.4 L/100 km 8 a $US 2.59, b Yen 19.36,
c Euro 44.33, d $NZ278.08, e $A46.50, f $A67.67, g $A118.67, h $A1358.33 9 a 45 kg, b 35 ha
10 a 48 t, b 62.5 min 11 a $NZ195.91, b 399.93 euro, c £261.55 12 a 6 h, b 12 days, c 9.6 h 13 3 h
Exercise 9.8
1 a 5 km/h, b 7 km/s, c 3 km/min, d 4 m/min, e 8 mm/s 2 a 30 km, b 24 m, c 150 mm, d 60 cm, e 36 mm
3 a 8 s, b 7 h, c 5 min, d 9 s, e 12 s 4 a 6 km/h, b 5 s, c 42 km, d 20 cm/s, e 750 km, f 9 s 5 a 7 km/h,
b 24 km, c 3 h, d 1000 km, e 90 km/h, f 12 s 6 a 80 km, b 40 km, c 20 km, d 60 km 7 a 120 km,
b 60 km, c 40 km, d 80 km, e 30 km, f 90 km, g 20 km, h 12 km 8 a 90 m, b 2.5 h, c 3.75 km/h
9 a 84 km, b 91.6 km/h 10 a 105 km/h, b 300 km, c 2 h 42 min 11 a 3096 km, b 4644 km, c 7120.8 km
12 a 370.4 km, b 481.52 km 13 a 64.8 knots, b 40.5 knots, c 51.8 knots 14 11 min 22 s
15 a 4:15 pm, b 315 km 16 1 pm
Answers 559
ANSWERS
Exercise 9.9
1 a 1 : 100, b 1 : 300, c 1 : 1200 2 a 1 : 100, b 1 : 200, c 1 : 500, d 1 : 1000, e 1 : 50, f 1 : 150, g 1 : 240,
h 1 : 325 3 a 1 : 100 000, b 1 : 400 000, c 1 : 50 000, d 1 : 250 000, e 1 : 375 000 4 a 20 m, b 70 m, c 4 m,
d 95 m, e 136 m 5 a 240 m, b 450 m, c 15 m, d 126 m, e 657 m 6 a 4 cm, b 24 cm, c 60 cm, d 3 cm,
e 9.6 cm 7 a 5 cm, b 35 cm, c 24 cm, d 18.25 cm, e 52.25 cm 8 a 1 : 500, b 1 : 35 000, c 1 : 4000,
d 1 : 30 000, e 1 : 175 000, f 1 : 80 000 9 4.5 m 10 57 m 11 20 km 12 20 cm by 8 cm
13 28 cm by 19 cm 14 1 : 120 15 1 : 40 16 a 18 m, b 7.5 m 17 a 1 : 650 000, b 18.2 km, c 5 cm
18 Length = 35 cm; Wingspan = 30 cm 19 8 m 20 a 1 cm represents 10 km or 1 : 1 000 000, b i 8 km,
ii 28 km, iii 56 km 21 a 3 m × 5.5 m, b A = 6400 mm, B = 9500 mm, C = 12 580 mm, D = 6180 mm,
E = 2800 mm c i 1500 mm × 4000 mm, ii 2800 mm × 2800 mm, d i 11.904 m2, ii 24.026 m2
Chapter 9 Review
5
1 a 3 : 1, b 1 : 2, c 2 : 3 2 a 9 : 5, b 5 : 14 3 ---
8
4 a 2 : 3, b 4 : 1, c 7 : 5, d 9 : 10, e 13 : 10, f 27 : 100
5 a 24, b 14, c 12, d 55 6 a x = 4.2, b a = 7.5 7 a 16, b 56 8 a 3 : 10, b 15 : 8 9 a 5 : 1, b 2 : 3,
c 11 : 6, d 4 : 6 : 3 10 a 8 : 5, b 9 : 1, c 7 : 6, d 1 : 5 11 a 3 : 2, b 4 : 3, c 4 : 15, d 5 : 3, e 7 : 8, f 9 : 11
12 a 1 : 2, b 10 : 11, c 25 : 18, d 7 : 10 13 a $35, $10, b 32 kg, 40 kg, c 112 cm, 42 cm 14 a 80 kg, b $81,
c 64 mL, d 81 t 15 $52 16 31 500 17 10 m 18 20 : 21 19 Luke : $70 000; Kate : $60 000
20 a Pies = 32, Pasties = 20, Sausage rolls = 50, b Micha = $640, Bertha = $560, Charlotte = $400
21 a 7 km/L, b 16 m/s, c $40/h 22 a 420 m/min, b 60 t/day, c 3.2 km/s, d 0.31 L/m22
23 a 12 000, b 15 000 m2 24 a 81 km, b $4750, c $135, d 300 days 25 37.5 min
26 a 7 km/h, b 240 km, c 6 h 27 a 60 km, b 90 km, c 40 km, d 70 km, e 84 km, f 180 km
28 a 57.9 km/h, b 4 h 40 min 29 a 92 m, b 17.5 km, c 34 cm, d 8 cm 30 a 1 : 3500, b 1 : 250 000
31 a 1 : 400, b 1 : 65 32 a 25 m/s, b 108 L/day, c 86.4 km, d 4.8 g/m
10 Circles and cylinders

Exercise 10.1
1 a Diameter, b Radius, c Chord, d Circumference, e Semicircle, f Minor arc, g Major arc, h Minor segment,
i Major segment, j Minor sector, k Major sector, l Tangent 2 a Diameter, b Radius, c Minor arc,
d Minor segment, e Tangent, f Chord, g Minor sector, h Semicircle 3 a OB, OA, OD, b AB, CE, CD, DE,
4 a Radius, b Semicircle, c Arc, d Sector, e Chord, f Tangent, g Segment, h Diameter 5 a B, b C, c A
6 D 7 5 cm 8 a OX and OY, b Isosceles, c ∠OXY and ∠OYX 9 a Equilateral, b EF = 7 cm
10 4 cm 11 a --14- , b --13- , c --18- , d --15- , e -----
12
7 5
- , f ---
6
12 a x = 4, b x = 12, c x = 6 13 a 10 cm, b 20 cm
14 a 7 cm2
Exercise 10.2
1 a 31.4 cm, b 47.1 cm, c 18.8 m, d 28.3 mm, e 70.4 m, f 96.8 cm, g 14.8 m, h 129.7 mm 2 a 50.3 cm,
b 44.0 mm, c 81.7 m, d 113.1 mm, e 151.4 cm, f 203.6 m, g 292.2 mm, h 324.2 cm 3 a 58.1 mm,
b 86.7 mm 4 a 12.6 cm, b 7.5 cm, c 9.4 cm 5 a 6 cm, b 24 cm, c 33 cm, d 60 cm 6 a 18 cm,
b 42 cm, c 15 cm, d 39 cm 7 a 44 cm, b 88 cm, c 220 cm, d 308 cm 8 a 4π cm, b 13π cm, c 16π cm,
d 21π cm 9 a 3 mm, b 10 mm, c 17 mm, d 23 mm 10 a 4 mm, b 7 mm, c 5.5 mm, d 12.5 mm
11 a 9.0 m, b 15.0 m, c 23.0 m, d 34.0 m 12 a 2.5 mm, b 8.0 mm, c 11.0 mm, d 23.0 mm
13 3613 mm 14 No 15 282.7 m 16 40 212 km 17 25 464 18 785.4 m 19 a 17 cm,
b 53.41 cm 20 200 km 21 a 60°, b All angles are 60°, c 6 cm, d 2π cm 22 a 26 cm, b 10 cm
23 a 1440, b 4 mm 24 5 cm
Exercise 10.3
1 a 25.7 cm, b 30.8 cm, c 51.4 cm 2 a 14.28 mm, b 32.14 mm, c 54.63 mm 3 a 97.1 cm,
b 45.7 cm, c 15.4 cm, d 42.8 cm, e 116.5 cm, f 66.0 cm, g 32.0 cm, h 65.7 cm, i 37.7 cm, j 75.4 cm,
k 60.4 cm, l 71.6 cm 4 a 30π mm, b 6π mm, c (6π + 24) mm 5 a 44 m, b $1584
6 a 273.8 cm, b $205.37 7 4.46 cm 8 a 6 km, b $99 9 a 3.80 m, b 8.64 m, c 54 cm
10 a 28.66 mm, b 18.11 mm, c 32.57 mm, d 24.68 mm, e 60.12 mm, f 120.82 mm
11 a x = 7; perimeter = 66.0 cm, b x = 16; perimeter = 62.8 cm 12 a 12 cm
560 Mathscape 8
ANSWERS
Exercise 10.4
1 a 28.3 cm2, b 153.9 m2, c 380.1 mm2, d 50.3 m2, e 514.7 cm2, f 725.8 mm2, g 1618.8 cm2, h 3696.1 m2
2 a 78.5 mm2, b 201.1 cm2, c 1320.3 m2, d 2623.9 cm2 3 a 804.25 cm2, b 3848.45 cm2, c 314.16 cm2,
d 1590.43 cm2 4 a 7.1 cm2, b 12.6 cm2, c 4.5 cm2 5 a 12 cm2, b 27 cm2, c 75 cm2, d 300 cm2
6 a 154 cm2, b 1386 cm2, c 616 cm2, d 3850 cm2 7 a 64π cm2, b 121π cm2, c 9π cm2, d 49π cm2
8 a 4 mm, b 5 mm, c 9 mm, d 12 mm 9 a 9 mm, b 14 mm, c 21 mm, d 33 mm 10 38.5 cm2
11 55 km2 12 10 m2 13 22 cm 14 No 15 a 29 cm, b 660.52 cm2 16 a 12 cm, b 35 cm
17 a 9π cm2, b 25π cm2, c 121π cm2, d 625π cm2 18 a 4π m, b 16π m, c 18π m, d 34π m 19 25π cm2
Exercise 10.5
1 a 25.1 cm2, b 56.5 cm2, c 88.4 cm2 2 a 28.27 cm2, b 50.27 cm2, c 283.53 cm2 3 a 377.9 cm2,
b 38.1 cm2, c 39.6 cm2, d 401.7 cm2, e 262.2 cm2, f 285.6 cm2 4 a 103.7 mm2, b 141.4 mm2, c 175.9 mm2
5 a 185.5 cm2, b 196.4 cm2, c 16.5 cm2, d 85.4 cm2, e 692.7 cm2, f 123.6 cm2 6 a 39 mm, b 924.6 mm2
7 a 25, b 574.9 cm2 8 a 27 053 m2, b $811 586 9 a 80, b 4113 cm2, c $411.33 10 a 36 m2,
b 8, c $100 2
11 a 32 m , b $36 12 a 9.42 cm , b 19.24 cm , c 18.32 cm , d 65.68 cm2, e 610.75 cm2,
2 2 2
f 1176.40 cm2 15 8 km
Exercise 10.6
1 a 1696.5 cm3, b 113.1 cm3, c 113.1 cm3, d 251.3 cm3, e 138.2 cm3, f 549.8 cm3, g 76.5 cm3, h 96.4 cm3,
i 855.3 cm3 2 a 7444.9 mm3, b 1847.7 cm3, c 391.4 cm3, d 4111.2 mm3 3 a 322 mm3, b 166 mm3,
c 624 mm3 4 a 289.8 cm3, b 785.4 cm3, c 598.4 cm3, d 9826.5 cm3 5 a 175.9 cm3, b 537.2 cm3,
c 1124.8 cm3 6 20 272.7 cm3 7 a 1219.2 cm3, b 1552.3 cm3, c 79% 8 4580 cm3 9 a i 2115 cm3,
ii 2.115 L b i 7238 cm3, ii 7.238 L, c i 31 416 cm3, ii 31.416 L 10 a 1249 cm3, b 1250 mL 11 a 51 m3,
b 51 kL 12 a 340 mm3, b 283 mm3, c 186 mm3 13 1.25 cm 14 4 cm 15 190 mm
16 a 13 700 cm3, b 36 cm
Chapter 10 Review
1 a b c d e f
O O
5 1
g h 2 3 a 18 cm; diameter 4 a -----
18
- , b ---
3
5 a 20 cm, b 48 cm2
6 a 94.2 cm, b 110.0 cm, c 37.7 cm, d 27.0 cm
O 7 a 46.3 mm, b 17.9 mm 8 a 194.2 cm, b 35.7 cm,
c 32.7 cm, d 75.4 cm 9 40 212 km 10 a 7.7 cm,
b 38.2 cm 11 a 254.5 cm2, b 415.5 cm2, c 201.1 cm2,
d 359.7 cm2 12 a 141.8 cm2, b 132.7 cm2
13 a 615.4 cm2, b 119.3 cm2 14 a 204 cm2, b 550 cm2 15 a i 15 ii 628.4 cm2, b i 16, ii 946.9 cm2
16 157 cm2 17 121.5 m2 18 a 9 cm, b 7 cm 19 a 8π cm, b 25π cm2 20 a i 352 cm3 ii 0.352 L,
b i 1021 cm3, ii 1.021 L, c i 6464 cm3, ii 6.464 L, d i 1019 cm3, ii 1.019 L 21 a 7602.7 cm3, b 1244.1 cm3,
c 103.1 cm3, d 1001.4 cm3 22 a 29.9 mm, b 76.5 mm 23 a 30.6 cm2, b 40.3 cm2
Answers 561
ANSWERS
11 Linear relationships
Exercise 11.1
1 a i Lou, ii Kim, iii Thu, iv Bec, b i D5, ii B8, iii A2, iv E4, c Pat, d Ann, e Liz, Len, Thu, f Don, g 5
2 a Castle Hill Showground, b Castle Hill Cemetry, c William Clarke College, d Helipad, e Building Industry
Skills Centre, f District Centre Site, g Caterson Tennis Centre, h Motor Registry, i The College of Somatic
Studies, j Cattai Creek, k Council Office, l Coolong Reserve, m Sporting Complex, n Samuel Gilbert Primary
School, o Convent, p Roller Skating Rink 3 a E5, b E11, c F12, d F9, e H5, f E7 4 a Showground Road
and Windsor Road, b Green Road and Wrights Road, c Showground Road and Gilbert Road, d Carrington Road
and Victoria Avenue, e Mills Road and Carinda Drive, f Ballymena Place and Rosebery Road, g Gilbert Road and
Ridgecrop Drive, h Victoria Avenue and Anella Avenue 5 a Fire Station, b Sandy Point Lookout, c Ranger
Headquarters, d Berts Bridge 6 a 600336, b 585363, c 598372, d 612324, e 606318, f 622364
7 a Tokyo, b Rome, c Cape Town, d Mexico City, e London, f Moscow, g Sydney, h Bejing, i Los Angeles,
j Port Moresby, k Ottawa, l New Delhi 8 a 23°S 43°W, b 41°S 147°E, c 6°S 106°E,
d 0°N 33°E, e 40°N 74°W, f 59°N 20°E 9 a 200 m, b 325 m, c 750 m 10 1 km 11 10.3 ha
12 a 35°S 149°E, b 49°N 2°E, c 39°N 77°W, d 37°N 127°E, e 40°N 3°W, f 53°N 6°W, g 34°N 36°E,
h 1°N 104°E, i 38°N 23°E
Exercise 11.2
1 a G, b F, c C, d L, e A, f O, g B, h M, i N, j H, k P, l K, m I, n E, o Q, p D, q R, r J
2 a (2, 4), b (-5, 3), c (4, -1), d (-1, -5), e (0, 2), f (-3, 0), g (5, 6), h (-4, -3), i (-2, 5), j (5, -3),
k (-6, -2), l (4, 1), m (-5, -5), n (1, -2), o (3, 5), p (-1, 3), q (3, -6), r (0, -4)
3 y 4 a 1st, b 4th, c 2nd, d 3rd, e 4th, f 1st, g 3rd, h 2nd, i 3rd, j 2nd, k 1st, l 4th,
3 m 1st, n 4th, o 3rd, p 2nd 5 a BD, b AC, c AD, d BC, e AB, f BD
B A 6 a Both points have positive y values. b Both points have negative x values.
2
1 c Both points have negative y values. d Both points have positive x values.
D 7 a PX, b PW, c PT, d PQ, e PR, f PS, g PU, h PV 8 a 2 units, b 4 units,
-3 -2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 x c 1 unit, d 3 units, e 5 units, f 5 units, g 6 units, h 8 units, i 5 units, j 5 units,
-2
C k 7 units, l 6 units 9 a (4, 4), b (2, 3), c (5, 8), d (4, 1), e (-1, 3), f (4, 3),
g (3, -3), h (2, 1), i (-3, -1), j (-7, 2), k (-1, -5), l (5, -5)
-3
10 a y F G
b Square, c 12 units 11 a y b Rectangle, c 24 units2
W 4 X
5
4 3
3 2
2 1
E H
1
-3 -2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 x
0 1 2 3 4 5 x -2
Z Y
-3
12 a y A
b (9, 5), c (5, 4) 13 a y b Yes, c Yes, d 8 units2
5 4
L 3
4
C 2
3 B
2 1
1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9x M N
14 a y b Yes, c 5 units, d 12 units

3 15 a 5 units, b 12 units, c 30 units2
2 16 a 5 units, b 10 units, c 13 units, d 8.1 units, e 8.9 units, f 6.7 units
T U
1
-3 -2 -1-10 1 2 3 x
-2
V
-3
562 Mathscape 8
ANSWERS
Exercise 11.3
1 a b The number of matches = 3 × step number, c y = 3x
Step number (x) 1 2 3 4 d y e No, the step number must be an integer,
(6, 18)
Number of matches (y) 3 6 9 12 18 f 30
16
(5, 15)
14
12 (4, 12)
10
(3, 9)
8
6 (2, 6)
4
(1, 3)
2
0 2 4 6 8x
2 ai iv y v 24
Step number (x) 1 2 3 4 10 (6, 10)
Number of matches (y) 5 6 7 8 9 (5, 9)
8 (4, 8)
ii The number of matches = step number + 4. 7 (3, 7)
iii y = x + 4 6 (2, 6)
5 (1, 5)
4
3
2
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
bi iv y v 42
Step number (x) 1 2 3 4 14 (6, 14)
12 (5, 12)
Number of matches (y) 4 6 8 10
10 (4, 10)
ii The number of matches = (2 × step number) + 2. 8 (3, 8)
iii y = 2x + 2 6 (2, 6)
4 (1, 4)
2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
ci iv y v 62
Step number (x) 1 2 3 4 20 (6, 20)
Number of matches (y) 5 8 11 14 18
(5, 17)
16
ii The number of matches = (3 × step number) + 2. 14 (4, 14)
iii y = 3x + 2 12
(3, 11)
10
8 (2, 8)
6
(1, 5)
4
2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
3 a y b y
x 0 1 2 3 4 4 x -1 0 1 2 3 5
3 x 4
y 0 1 2 3 4 y= y -2 0 2 4 6
2x
2 3
y=
1 2
1
-1-1 0 1 2 3 4 x
-1-1 0 1 2 3 4 x
-2
Answers 563
c y d y
ANSWERS
x -2 -1 0 1 2 6 x -2 -1 0 1 2 5
2
x+
x
y=3
y -6 -3 0 3 6 5
y 0 1 2 3 4 4
y=
4 3
3 2
2 1
1
-2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 4 x
-3 -2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 x
-2
-2
-3
-4
-5
e y f y
x -1 0 1 2 3 5 x -2 -1 0 1 2 4
4 3
y -2 -1 0 1 2 y 2 1 0 -1 -2
3 2
2 1 1
x–
y=
1
-2 -1-10 1 2 3 4 x
y=
-2 -1-10 1 2 3 4 x -2 -x
-2
g y h y
x -1 0 1 2 3 5 x -4 -2 0 2 4 4
y 5 4 3 2 1 4 y -2 -1 0 1 2
3 x_
3 2 y= 2
y=
2 1
4
–
x
1
-4 -3 -2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 4 x
x
-2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -2
-2
i y j y
x -1 0 1 2 3 5 x -2 -1 0 1 2 5
+1
1
y -1 1 3 5 7 4 y -7 -4 -1 2 5 4 3x –
2x
3 3
y=
y=
2 2
1 1
-1-1 0 1 2 3 4 x -1-10 1 2 3 x
-2 -2
-3
-4
k y l y
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 6 x -4 -2 0 2 4 6 5
5 5 1_ x +
y -2 0 2 4 6 y 3 4 5 6 7 y = 2
4 4
3 3
+4
2 2
2x
y=
1 1
-4 -3 -2 -1-1 0 1 2 x -4 -3 -2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 4 x
-2
564 Mathscape 8
4 a y b y c y d y
ANSWERS
5 4 1 2 4
4 3 x+ 1 3
y=
2x
3 2 2
y=
-1-1 0 1 2 3 x
y=
2
2 1 1
–
3
x
1
x–
-2
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x -1-1 0 1 2 3 4 x
y=
-1 -3
-1-1 0 1 2 3 4 x
-4
-2
e y f y g y h y
4
3 5 3 5
+3
3x –
2 4 2 4
2x
1_ x
y=
1 y= 3 1
y=
y=
3 3
5–
2 2
-3 -2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 x -1-1 0 1 2 3 x
2x
1 1
-2
-2 -1-1 0 1 2 x -1-1 0 1 2 3 4 x
-3
-2 -4 -2
5 a Yes, b No, c No, d Yes, e Yes, f No, g No, h Yes, i No, j Yes, k Yes, l Yes
6 a A, C, b A, c B, d B, C 7 a B, b B, C, c A, d A 8 a k = 7, b p = 7, c m = 9, d u = -2
Exercise 11.4
1 a y = x, b y = -x, c y = x − 2, d y = x + 5, e y = 4x, f y = 1--2- x, g y = 7 − x, h y = 2 − x, i y = 2x + 5, j y = 3x − 1,
k y = 1--2- x + 3, l y = 1--3- x − 2
2 a b c
x -2 -1 0 1 2 x -1 0 1 2 3 x -2 -1 0 1 2
y -10 -5 0 5 10 y 2 3 4 5 6 y 4 2 0 -2 -4
y = 5x y=x+3 y = -2x
d e f
x -1 0 1 2 3 x 0 1 2 3 4 x -8 -4 0 4 8
y -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 y 6 5 4 3 2 y -2 -1 0 1 2
y=x−5 y=6−x y = --14- x
g h i
x -2 -1 0 1 2 x -3 -1 0 1 2 x -2 -1 0 1 2
y -4 -1 2 5 8 y -4 0 2 4 6 y 8 6 4 2 0
y = 3x + 2 y = 2x + 2 y = -2x + 4
3 a a, b, d, f, g, h. The co-efficient of x is positive. b c, e, i. The co-efficient of x is negative.
4 a Increase, b Decrease, c Decrease, d Increase, e Decrease, f Increase, g Decrease, h Decrease, i Increase,
j Decrease, k Increase, l Increase 5 a The co-efficient of x is the same (i.e. 2). b The lines are parallel.
c Two lines of the form y = mx + b are parallel if the co-efficients of x in their equations are equal. 6 a A, B,
b A, C, c B, C, d A, C, e A, B, f B, C 7 a The constant term in each equation is the same (i.e. 5).
b The lines cut the y-axis at 5. c The y-intercept of a line is given by the constant term in the equation y = mx + b.
8 A, E, G, H 9 A, B, D, G, H 10 a 4, b 3, c -1, d -2, e 0, f 5, g 6, h -4, i -1, j 0, k 8, l 7
Answers 565
11 a b c d
ANSWERS
y y y y
10 8 16 3
9 6 14 2
8 4 12 1
7 2 10
6 8 -3 -2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 x
5 -2 -1 -2
0 1 2 x 6
4 -4 4
3 -6 2
2 -8 0 x
1 1 2 3 4
-3 -2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 x
e y 12 Linear equations are of the form y = mx + b, where m and b are constants.

3 13 a No, b Yes, c Yes, d No, e Yes, f Yes, g No, h No, i Yes, j No,
2 k No, l Yes 14 a x is in the denominator, b x is an index,
1 c x is under a square root sign, d x is being squared (and y is being squared)
-3 -2 -1
0 x
-1 1 2 3
-2
-3
Exercise 11.5
1 a y b y c y y=3 d y
2 3 2
x=2 x = -1
1 2 2 1
1 1
-2 -1-1 0 1 2 x -2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 4 x
-2 -2 -1-1 0 1 2 x -2 -1-1 0 1 2 x -2
y = -2
-2
2 a x = 3, b y = 2, c x = -2, d y = -1, e y = -3, f x = 4

3 a y b x = -6 y x=1
6 6
x = -3 x=4
5 5
y=5
4 4
3 3
2 2
y=1
1 1
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-2 -2
y = -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
y = -4
-5 -5
-6 -6
4 a The points have a y co-ordinate of 0, b On the x-axis, c The equation of the x-axis is y = 0.
5 a The points have an x co-ordinate of 0, b On the y-axis, c The equation of the y-axis is x = 0.
6 a (3, 2), b (-4, 1), c (-5, 3), d (-7, -2), e (6, 0), f (-2, 0) 7 a x = 2, b y = 7, c x = -1, d y = -2, e y = 4,
f x = 1, g x = -4, h y = -5 8 x = -8, x = 4, y = -7, y = 5 9 a P(8, 5) 10 a y = 7 or y = -3
Exercise 11.6
1 a (3, 3), b (-2, 6), c (0, -3), d (-2, 2), e (-4, 6), f (3, -3), g (-2, -5), h (3, -1), i (1, 1), j (-2, -3), k (0, 0),
l (-1, -4) 2 a (-1, 2), b (4, 4), c (2, 3), d (1, 1), e (2, 4), f (-1, 2), g (1, 1), h (1, 2), i (3, 2)
3 c The lines intersect at P(4, 13). 6 a 0 or 1, b Infinitely many
566 Mathscape 8
7 a i y = 3, ii x = -3, iii b i y = -2, ii x = 2, iii

ANSWERS
y y
3
0 2 x
-3 0 x -2
c i y = 5, ii x = 5, iii y d i y = -8, ii x = 4, iii y e i y = 6, ii x = 2, iii y

5
6
0 4 x
0 x -8
5 x
0 2
f i y = 18, ii x = 3, iii y g i y = -3, ii x = 9, iii y
18
0 9 x
-3
0 3 x
h i y = 3, ii x = 4, iii y i i y = -10, ii x = 4, iii y

3
0 4 x
0 x
4
-10
Chapter 11 Review
1 a 2nd, b 1st, c 4th, d 3rd 2 a y

B b Square,
A 4 c Perimeter = 24 units, Area = 36 units2
3
2
1
-3 -2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
D -2 C
-3
3 a (-3, 4), b (3, 2), 4 a and b S

y
P c (1, 2)
6
5
4
3
2
1
-2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 4 x
R Q
-2
Answers 567
5 a y b 5 units 6 ai
ANSWERS
B 7 Step number (x) 1 2 3 4
6
Number of matches (y) 4 5 6 7
5
4 ii Number of matches = step number + 3
A
3 iii y = x + 3
2 iv y v 13
1 8
7 (4, 7)
-4 -3 -2 -1-1 0 1 x 6 (3, 6)
5 (2, 5)
4
(1, 4)
3
2
1
0 x
1 2 3 4
bi ii Number of matches = (2 × step number) − 1

Step number (x) 1 2 3 4 iii y = 2x − 1
Number of matches (y) 1 3 5 7 iv y v 19
8
7 (4, 7)
6
5 (3, 5)
4
3 (2, 3)
2
1 (1, 1)
0 x
1 2 3 4
7 a y b y c y d y
4 4 6 8
2x
3 3 5 7
y=
y=
1
2 2 4 6
x–
6
–
y=
1 1 3 5
x +2
x
2 4
y=4
-4 -3 -2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 4 x -4 -3 -2 -1-10 1 2 3 4 x 1 3
-2 -2 0 2
-3 -3 -1-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x 1
-4 -4
-2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 x
-2
8 a No, b Yes, c Yes, d No 9 a Yes, b No 10 k = 4 11 a y = 5x, b y = x − 1, c y = 7 − x, d y = 4x + 3

12 a Increase, b Decrease, c Decrease, d Increase 13 B 14 a 5, b -2, c 8, d 4 15 A, D
16 a Yes, b No, c Yes, d No, e Yes, f No
17 y 18 (-2, 1) 19 a x = 5, b y = -3
4 20 a y b y
y=3 y=4
3 4 4
–4
(3, 4)
2 3 3
2x
1 2 2
y=
1 1
-4 -3 -2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 4 x (2, 0)
y = -2
-2 -4 -3 -2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 4 x -4 -3 -2 -1-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
y=
1
x = -1
x=4
x+
-3 -2 -2 2
–
y=
-4 -3 -3 x
-4 -4
21 b The lines intersect at B(3, 7).

568 Mathscape 8
ANSWERS
12 Data analysis and probability

Exercise 12.1
1 a Census, b Census, c Census, d Sample, e Census, f Sample, g Sample 2 a Sample, b Census,
c Sample, d Sample, e Census, f Sample, g Census, h Sample, i Sample, j Sample, k Census, l Census,
m Sample, n Census, o Sample, p Census 3 a Sample, b Sample, c Census, d Sample, e Sample,
f Sample, g Sample, h Census, i Sample 5 a i 30, ii 70, iii 170, iv 320, b 20 000, c 4200
Exercise 12.2
7 a Quantitative, b i 4.2, ii 3.4, c i 3.53, ii 3.53 8 a Census, b Categorical, c i Male: 40%; Female: 60%,
d i 20%, ii 60%, e No, f Yes, g The larger the sample size, the better the sample reflects the overall characteristics
of the population.
Exercise 12.4
1 a 5, 0, 2, 4, 6, b 5, 7, 0, 4, 8, c 5, 0, 1, 7, 8, d 5, 9, 3, 8, 4 2 a 68, 99, 41, 67, 15, b 68, 29, 48, 60, 11,
c 68, 97, 85, 79, 55, d 68, 74, 47, 72, 41 3 a 129, 774, 460, 791, 765, b 129, 693, 204, 750, 384,
c 129, 482, 427, 986, 962, d 129, 460, 224, 396, 670 4 a 39, 18, 61, 48, 45, 46, 98, 11, 60, 29,
b 39, 89, 70, 42, 82, 73, 81, 14, 80, 45, c 39, 28, 82, 53, 91, 12, 18, 97, 67, 95, d 39, 41, 45, 96, 47, 95, 67, 97, 18, 91
5 a 20, 25, 30, 44, 11, 32, 29, 33, 46, 25, b 738, 469, 408, 554, 411, 596, 598, 546, 439, 467
8 a Yes 13 a No, those students with an odd number could not be chosen.
Exercise 12.5
1
2 Simple random sample 3 a Simple random sample, b ----------------
20 000
4 a 27, 2, 12, 19, 34,
b Yes 5 a (4, 3), (5, 2), (1, 6), (2, 5), (4, 1), (6, 4) b Len, Yuri, Emma, Kim, Perry, Jenna, c Yes
6 a 6, b 7, c 12, d 28 7 a 50, b 80, c 120, d 400 9 160
10 a 65, 73, 81, 89, 97, 105, 113, 1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 41, 49, 57 12 a 35, b 25 13 a 30 boys; 50 girls,
b 18 boys; 30 girls, c 12 boys; 20 girls 14 20 blue-collar workers and 4 white-collar workers
15 a 75, b 16 a 876, b
Age group Number of people selected Year group Students
70–74 5 7 18
75–79 8 8 20
80–84 7 9 19
85–89 4 10 16
90+ 1 11 15
12 12
17 A 630, B 390, C 180 18 a 10, b 6, c 4 19 a 180, b 900 20 a A simple random sample.
b A stratified random sample. c A systematic random sample. d A systematic random sample.
e A systematic random sample. f A stratified random sample. 21 135
Exercise 12.6
1 a 7, b 8, c 25, d 22, e 66.4, f 4, g 4.83, h 13.56, i -3
2 a b ∑f = total number of scores, c ∑fx = sum of the scores, d x = 6.8
Score (x) Frequency (f) fx
5 9 45
6 1 6
7 5 35
8 6 48
9 4 36
∑f = 25 ∑fx = 170
Answers 569
3 a b
ANSWERS
Score (x) Frequency (f) fx Score (x) Frequency (f) fx
1 4 4 15 3 45
2 1 2 16 4 64
3 6 18 17 7 119
4 2 8 18 5 90
5 7 35 19 2 38
∑f = 20 ∑fx = 67 ∑f = 21 ∑fx = 356
x = 3.35 x = 16.95
c d
Score (x) Frequency (f) fx Score (x) Frequency (f) fx
7 3 21 40 9 360
8 6 48 41 2 82
9 5 45 42 5 210
10 8 80 43 11 473
11 4 44 44 10 440
12 10 120 45 14 630
∑f = 36 ∑fx = 358 ∑f = 51 ∑fx = 2195
x = 9.94 x = 43.04
4 a 3.3, b 6.2, c 22.1, d 37.0, e 50.0, f 12.2, g 6.9, h 39.6, i 102.8

5 a i 20, ii 124, iii 6.20, b i 35, ii 138, iii 3.94, c i 23, ii 410, iii 17.83, d i 40, ii 630, iii 15.75
6 43.8 7 a Categorical, b No, the mean can only be calculated for numerical data. 8 $600 9 7
10 5 11 a 24, b 13.4 12 a 280, b 1522.8 13 a 18, b 22 14 a i 108, ii 18, b i 80 , ii 4
15 a 78, b $97, c 72 16 a
Class Class centre (x) Tally Frequency (f) fx
1–5 3 ||| 3 9
6–10 8 |||| || 7 56
11–15 13 |||| |||| || 12 156
16–20 18 |||| ||| 8 144
21–25 23 |||| | 6 138
26–30 28 |||| 4 112
40 615
c The approximate sum of the scores. d The mean will only be an approximation. e 15.4
17 a 16, b 20, c 13.4, d 8.9 18 a 3, b 48 19 a 17, 18, 19, 20
Exercise 12.7
1 a 9, b 4, c 8 2 a 8, b 8.5, c 5.5 3 a 4, b 25, c 19, d 11, e 6.3, f 16.6 4 a 7, b 15.5, c 24, d 5,
e 40.1, f 5.9 5 a 7th, b 14th, c 23rd, d 30th, e 41st, f 59th 6 a 5th, 6th, b 9th, 10th, c 17th, 18th,
d 25th, 26th, e 48th, 49th, f 91st, 92nd 7 a 19, b 51, c 93, d 185 8 a 12, b 30, c 68, d 142 9 a 19,
b 6, c 33, d 49, e 4, f 12.5, g 42.5, h 96 10 Median = 24.5 11 a 36, b 10.5 12 a 26.5, b 64
13 a Categorical, b No, the median can only be calculated for numerical data. 14 $283 500 15 Mikhael
16 50.4 s 17 16
570 Mathscape 8
ANSWERS
Exercise 12.8
1 a 4, b 15, c 21, d 5 and 9, e 30 and 35, f 1 and 3, g 4.2, h 8.4, i No mode 2 a 21, b 35, c 63, d 55, e 6.6,
f 2.25 3 a 55, b 58 4 a Mode = 2; Range = 4, b Mode = 86, Range = 6, c Mode = 23, Range = 5
5 a 2, b 2
6 a b 8, c 5 7 a b 2 hours, c 5 hours
Score Tally Frequency (f)
7 |||| 4
8 |||| |||| ||| 13 0 1 2 3 4 5
9 |||| | 6
10 |||| || 7
11 |||| 5
12 |||| 5
Total = 40
8 a ii 10, iii UQ = 12, LQ = 9, iv 3, b ii 19, iii UQ = 22, LQ = 10, iv 12, c ii 28, iii UQ = 33, LQ = 26, iv 7,
d ii 20, iii UQ = 25, LQ = 18, iv 7
Exercise 12.9
1 a i Han , ii Han, b 5, c Dennis, 2 a Hobart = 16.9°C, Sydney = 21.5°C
d b Hobart = 17.1°C, Sydney = 22.1°C
Mean Median Mode c January, d Sydney
Dennis 81 82 88
Han 77 76 83
e Dennis
3 a i $500 000, ii $200 000, b i $200 000, ii $300 000, c Annual profits are falling. d Annual costs are rising.
4 a Ladieswear in each store. b 47, c No, d David Bros by 137, e 51%
5 a Kangaroo airlines on Thursday, b Kangaroo airlines, c 23, d 2, e 3, f Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday,
g 6 a 8 Green: HS = 96, LS = 48; 8 Gold: HS = 97, LS = 47,
Airline Mean b 8 Green = 48; 8 Gold = 50, c 8 Green: Mean = 74.7, Median = 75, Mode = 72;
Kangaroo 14 8 Gold: Mean = 69.1, Median = 68.5, Mode = 74, e 71.9, f 8 Green
7 a i 32, ii 28, b i 21, ii 20, iii 54, iv 54, c Men = 48; Women = 22
Wombat 14 d Women = 33, Men = 34, e 12, f 3, g Men = 42; Women = 34.5,
h Men = 40.1; Women = 35.4 8 b Northpac = 7 min and 11 min;
International = 9 min, c Northpac = 20 and 21; International = 22, d Northpac = 10 min; International = 11 min,
e Northpac = 10.14 min; International = 11; No 9 a i Brisbane, ii Sydney, b January, March, October,
c Brisbane (Feb.), d i 130 mm, ii 70 mm, e 15 mm
Exercise 12.10
1 b, c, e, f 2 b, d, e 3 a, c, e 4 a Mean, b Median 5 a Mean = $313 500; Median = $276 000;
Mode = $260 000, b Median, c No. Most of the sale prices are below $300 000. 6 a 12, b 12, c Mode
7 a No, b Mean 9 a Northern beaches, b The data is categorical. 10 Mode 11 a Median, b Mean,
c Mode, d Mode
Exercise 12.11
1 a C, b L, c I, d U, e U, f I, g L, h C, i I
3 a I, b VL, c VU, d C, e E, f L, g VL, h E, i VU, j VL, k E, l L, m C, n L, o I
4 a Impossible, b Even chance, c Certain 5 a VU, b VL, c U, d C, e E, f L, g I
6 No 7 F, C, B, D, A, E, G
Answers 571
ANSWERS
Exercise 12.12
1 1 1 1
1 a Impossible, b Unlikely, c Even chance, d Likely, e Certain 2 a ---------------- ,
10 000
b ------------
2000
, c ---------
500
, d ------
40
3 a 1--6- , b 1--2- , c 1--3- , d 2--3- , e 1--3- , f 0 4 a 1--9- , b 4--9- , c 5--9- , d 2--3- , e 7--9- , f 0 5 a 1--3- , b 4
------ ,
15
c 2--5- , d 11
------
15
, e 2--3- , f 3
---
5
1 2 5 6 5 8
6 a ------ , b ------ , c ------ , d ------ , e ------ , f ------
11 11 11 11 11 11
7 a 0.02, b 0.05, c 0.2, d 0.24 8 a 52%, b 12%, c 36%
1 1 1 2 2 1 3 7 8 3 1 19 1 3 3 1
9 a --6- , b --3- , c --2- 10 a --5- , b ----- 15
- , c --- , d ------ , e ------ , f ------ , g ---
6 10 15 15 5
11 a ----- 40
- , b ------ , c ------ , d ------ , e ------ , f --- ,
40 10 40 20 4
9 3 1 9 13 1 1 1 1 1 3 9 1 3 1 9
g -----
40
- , h ------ , i --- , j ------ , k ------ , l ------
10 8 40 40 20
12 a --- , b --- , c ------ , d ------ , e ------ , f ------ , g ------ , h ------ , i ------ , j 1, k 0, l ------
2 4 13 52 13 13 26 26 13 26
13 a 3--4- , b 1--4- 14 45 15 12 16 a H,1 H,2 H,3 H,4 H,5 H, 6, T,1 T,2 T,3 T,4 T,5 T,6
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3
b i -----
12
- , ii --- , iii --- , iv ---
4 6 3
17 a 35, 36, 39, 53, 56, 59, 63, 65, 69, 93, 95, 96, b i ----- 12
- , ii --- , iii --- , iv --- , v --- , vi --- ,
4 2 3 3 4
vii 1--6- , viii 1--6- , ix 3--4- 18 a 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 23
45, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, b i ----- 30
- , ii --- , iii --- , iv --- , v --- , vi ------ , vii --- , viii ------ , ix ------
2 6 6 3 30 3 15 30
19 a (Richard, Harrison),
(Richard, Joel), (Richard, Merhan), (Richard, Greig), (Harrison, Joel), (Harrison, Merhan), (Harrison, Greig),
10
1
(Joel, Merhan), (Joel, Greig), (Merhan, Greig), b i 2--5- , ii 3--5- , iii ----- 3 7 3
- , iv ------ , v ------ , vi ------
10 10 10
1 5
20 a bi ------
18
, ii ------
36
, iii 1--6- , iv 5
------
18
, v 1--4- , vi 7
------
36
, vii 11
------
36
, viii 25
------
36
1 2 3 4 5 6
21 a Fair, b Not fair, c Not fair, d Fair, e Fair, f Not fair
1 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6
22 a (5T, 10T, 20T) (5T, 10T, 20H) (5T, 10H, 20T) (5T, 10H, 20H)
2 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6 (5H, 10T, 20T) (5H, 10T, 20H) (5H, 10H, 20T) (5H, 10H, 20H)
3 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5 3,6 b i 1--8- , ii 3--8- , iii 3--8- , iv 1--8- 23 a 1--2- , b -----
13
1 7 1 1
- , c ------ , d ------ , e --- ,
13 13 4
4
4 4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 4,5 4,6 f ------
13
, g 1--4- , h 3
------
13
, i 11
------
26
5 5,1 5,2 5,3 5,4 5,5 5,6
6 6,1 6,2 6,3 6,4 6,5 6,6
Exercise 12.13
1 a Tossing a head with a coin, b Rolling an odd number with a die, c Spinning a number greater than or equal to
7 on a wheel, d Choosing a black card from pack of cards, e Selecting a spade or a diamond from a pack of cards,
f A set of traffic lights showing red or amber, g Losing a tennis match, h Losing a horse race
2 19
------
20
3 5--8- 7
4 a -----
10 10
3
- , b ------ , c 1 5 1 6 A and B are complementary events.
--- = 1, b --- = 0
5 0
7 a 0.45, b 0.35, c 0.2, d 0.55, e 0.65, f 0.8 8 a5 5
9 a 1--8- , b 1--4- , c 3--8- , d 7--8- , e 3--4- , f 5--8-
5 6 7 4 9 2 1 24 12 13 9 16 11 14 6 19
10 a i ----- 11
- , ii ------ , b i ------ , ii ------ , c i ------ , ii ------
11 11 11 11 11
11 a -----25
- , b ------ , c ------ , d ------ , e ------ , f ------ , g ------ , h ------ , i ------ , j ------
25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
,
16 9 9 3 11 3 2 1 1 2 9 1 3 7 7 9
k -----
25
- , l ------
25
12 a -----
20
- , b --- , c ------ , d ------
5 20 20
13 a --3- , b --3- , c --3- , d --3- 14 a -----20
- , b --- , c ------ , d ------ , e ------ , f ------
4 10 10 10 20
1 51 1 1 1 3 1 12 3 10 9 4
15 a -----52
- , b ------ , c --- , d --- , e --- , f --- , g ------ , h ------ , i ------ , j ------ , k ------ , l ------
52 2 2 4 4 13 13 13 13 13 13
16 a b 7, c i 3--5- , ii 1--2- , iii -----

7
30
2 11 4 2 1 23
- , iv ------ , v ------ , vi ------ , vii --- , viii --- , ix ------ x ------
15 30 15 5 2 30
13
15
French Japanese
7
11 8
4
Chapter 12 Review
1 a Sample, b Sample, c Census, d Sample 8 8 boys, 10 girls 9 a 75, b Every 45th pen
10 a i Mean 18, ii Median 21, iii Mode 9, iv Range 21, b i Mean 65.25, ii Median 64, iii Mode 56, 72,
iv Range 32 11 a 9th, b 42nd 12 a 14th, 15th, b 56th, 57th 13 a 85, b 58
14 a i Mean 2.6, ii Median 2, iii Mode 1, iv Range 4, b i Mean 25.8, ii Median 26, iii Mode 27, iv Range 4
15 a 41, b 44 16 a Mean = 11.86, Median = 12.5, Mode = 13, Range = 5
572 Mathscape 8
ANSWERS
17 a b 1, c 5, d 5.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Score
18 a b ∑f = 40, ∑fx = 364, mean = 9.1, c 8, d 6, e 7, f 12.5%

Score Tally Freq. fx g 10
6 | 1 6 8
Frequency
7 |||| 5 35 6
8 |||| |||| 10 80 4
9 |||| |||| 9 81 2
10 |||| || 7 70
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
11 |||| 4 44 Score
12 |||| 4 48
40 364
19 a 8, b 165, c 17 20 19 21 a 25, b 27.88, c 28, d 28 and 32, e 22, f 3

22 a Wrens by 2, b 2001, c 2002 by Wrens; 34, d Robins = 29.2; Wrens = 29; Robins
23 a St George Nepean b St George = 56; Nepean = 38, c Near St George,
d St George (44.5 against 40.9) 24 a There is an outlier, 4,
9 2 4689 b The median 30 is the highest score and the mode, c no mode
87432 3 355678 25 a Likely, b Impossible, c Certain, d Unlikely, e Unlikely,
9965532210 4 345679 f Very likely, g Even chance 27 a 2--5- , b 3--5- , c 3--5- , d 2--5-
1
631 5 128 28 a ------
13
, b 1--4- , c 3
------
13
, d 1
------
52
, e 1
------
26
, f 2
------
13
, g 0, h 5
------
26
6 2
29 a {12, 15, 17, 21, 25, 27, 51, 52, 57, 71, 72, 75}
7
b i --14- , ii --12- , iii --34- , iv --23- , v --16- , vi --23-
5 8
13 Congruence and similarity

Exercise 13.1
1 a Translation, b Reflection, c Rotation, d Rotation, e Reflection, f Translation, g Rotation, h Translation,
i Reflection 2 a No, b No, c No
3 a Q P' Q
P Q' P Q P
P' Q'
S R R
R'
P' Q' T S
S R S' R' S'
T'
S' R'
4 a A b c
A C C D B
C'
D' D D'
C C'
B
F E
E' E A
F' F E'
B
F' C'
Answers 573
5 a b c
ANSWERS
C D' E'
C' D'
A B C D
A B B'
C' B'
D C A E
B
B' C'
6 Z 7 C 8
W X
A B
Y' V
X Y U
E D T
Z'
P E' Q D'
Z Y
A' B' T' U'

X'
C' V'
W' X'
Exercise 13.2
1 a A and I, B and L, C and Q, D and R, E and P, F and V, G and X, H and T, J and W, K and U, M and N, O and S
2 a ADE and BCF, b SVXW and TUYZ; SWZT and XVUY, c HGI and EFJ 3 a The circles have equal radii.
b i Yes, ii Yes 4 a Yes, FG, b EF and E′F; EG and E′G, ∠FEG and ∠FE′G, ∠EFG and ∠E′FG, ∠FGE and
∠FGE′, c Yes, d Isosceles because it has 2 equal sides, e FG, f x = 25, y = 24, g 48 cm, h 84 cm2; Yes
5 a Rotated 180° about S, b Yes, c i 7 cm, ii 8 cm, iii 5 cm, iv 24 cm, d i ∠P′SR′, ii ∠P′Q′R′, iii ∠Q′R′S,
iv ∠Q′P′S 6 a Rotated anticlockwise 90° about Z, b Yes, c i 4 cm, ii 13 cm, iii 9 cm, iv 17 cm, d 52 cm2; Yes
7 a i Square, ii Yes, iii Yes, iv Yes, b i Rectangle, ii No, iii No, iv Yes, c i Parallelogram, ii No, iii No, iv Yes
8 No 9 a ABE, BCE, CDE and ADE, b WXV and ZYV; WZV and XYV
Exercise 13.3
1 a ∆EFG ≡ ∆QPR, b ∆LMN ≡ ∆YZX, c ∆CDE ≡ ∆TUV, d ∆OPQ ≡ ∆TSR, e ∆ABC ≡ ∆WXV, f ∆LMN ≡ ∆KIJ,
g ∆FGH ≡ ∆UVT, h ∆XYZ ≡ ∆CED 2 a x = 56, y = 83, z = 6, b x = 37, y = 15, z = 53, c x = 5, y = 7, z = 11,
d x = 17, y = 16, z = 13, e x = 25, y = 30, z = 77 f x = 9, y = 130, z = 22, g x = 27, y = 41, z = 77, h x = 115, y = 11,
z = 31 3 a B b I c G
M
Q
O X
N
Y
A K H F
C J
L P Z
d U V 4 a ∠G = ∠U, ∠F = ∠V, ∠H = ∠T, GF = UV, FH = VT, GH = UT

F 5 ai A B bi E
F H
E
T D C
G
D
ii ∆BCD ≡ ∆DAB ii ∆FEH ≡ ∆FGH
ci K L d W X
6 aT U
X
N M Y W V
Z
ii ∆KLM ≡ ∆MNK ii ∆WZX ≡ ∆YZX b ∆TXW ≡ ∆VXU
574 Mathscape 8
7 a i and ii b i and ii c i and ii

ANSWERS
A M
D
P
E K
O R
C
B
iii ∆AEC ≡ ∆BED N
Q
d i and ii E L
iii ∆KML ≡ ∆KNL
iii ∆OPR ≡ ∆OQR
A C
B
iii ∆ADE ≡ ∆CDE
Exercise 13.4
3
6 a 3, b 2, c 2, d ---
2
Exercise 13.5
1 a ∠A = 90°, ∠B = 52°, ∠C = 96°, ∠D = 122°, ∠E = 90°, ∠F = 52°, ∠G = 96°, ∠H = 122°, b yes
2 a JL = 12 mm, LK = 18.5 mm, JK = 18 mm, MO = 24 mm, ON = 37 mm, MN = 36 mm, b 2 : 1, c 2 : 1
3 a A and I, D and O, B and H, E and R, C and L, F and Q, G and J, K and N, M and P
4 a AB and EF, BC and FG, CD and GH, AD and EH, ∠A and ∠E, ∠B and ∠F, ∠C and ∠G, ∠D and ∠H,
b JK and OP, KL and PM, LI and MN, IJ and NO, ∠J and ∠O, ∠K and ∠P, ∠L and ∠M, ∠I and ∠N,
c XY and CB, YZ and AB, XZ and AC, ∠X and ∠C, ∠Y and ∠B, ∠Z and ∠A, d GJ and LM, GH and MN, HI and NK,
IJ and KL, ∠G and ∠M, ∠H and ∠N, ∠I and ∠K, ∠J and ∠L
5 a S b A 6 Yes, because all their angles
are 60°.
B G
T Z H
7 a Yes, b No, because the
W
corresponding angles are
not equal.
F E 8 a Yes, b No, because the
D C corresponding sides are not
X
U in the same ratio.
Y 9 a Scale factor = 2, x = 8, b Scale factor = 1--3- , m = 5, c Scale factor = 4, y = 12,
V d Scale factor = 3--2- , w = 6, e Scale factor = 2--3- , t = 8, f Scale factor = 5--2- , a = 7 1--2-
10 a 3, b 3--4- 11 Yes 12 a Yes, b No 13 a Yes, b No, c Yes,
d Yes, e No, f Yes 14 a Yes; 3, b Yes; 1--2- , c Yes; 2--3- , d No, e Yes; 1 1--2- ,
f Yes; 3
Exercise 13.6
1 a EF and QR, FG and RP, EG and QP, b AB and TS, BC and SU, AC and TU, c JK and YZ, KI and ZX, IJ and XY,
d CD and MN, DE and NL, EC and LM 2 a ∠P and ∠L, ∠R and ∠M, ∠Q and ∠N, b ∠J and ∠C, ∠I and ∠B,
∠K and ∠A, c ∠G and ∠K, ∠F and ∠J, ∠E and ∠I, d ∠T and ∠S, ∠V and ∠R, ∠U and ∠Q
Answers 575
4 a ∆ABC ||| ∆XZY, x = 44, y = 57, z = 79, b ∆PQR ||| ∆EGF, p = 21,
ANSWERS
3 a 3, b 2, c --15- , d --32- , e --12- , f --53- , g --74- , h 4
---
5
q = 45, r = 114, c ∆STU ||| ∆LNM, s = 33, m = 38, n = 109, d ∆IJK ||| ∆WUV, k = 62, u = 28, w = 90
5 a x = 10, b y = 12, c h = 4, d t = 20, e c = 2, f a = 28, g p = 33, h e = 10 6 a k = 10, b g = 6, c u = 8,
d b = 30, e d = 21, f y = 21 7 a ∆FGH ||| ∆VWU, u = 18, v = 10, b ∆XYZ ||| ∆DCE, x = 21, c = 9,
c ∆PQR ||| ∆NLM, m = 9, q = 13, d ∆IJK ||| ∆TSR, j = 40, t = 42
Exercise 13.7
1 a ∠BAC = ∠CED (alternate angles in || lines), ∠ABC = ∠CDE (alternate angles in || lines),
∠ACB = ∠ECD (vertically opposite angles)
AB BC AC
b A B
c -------- = -------- = -------- 2 ∆JKL ||| ∆NML 3 a V
ED DC EC
C
S U
W
D E
ST SU TU T
b ∆STU ||| ∆WVU, c --------- = --------- = --------
WV WU VU
4 a ∠PQR = ∠PST (corresponding angles on || lines), ∠PRQ = ∠PTS (corresponding angles on || lines),
∠P is a common angle,
PS PT ST
b P c -------- = ------- = -------- 5 a ∆FGH ||| ∆FDE 6 a L
PQ PR QR
J
Q R
S T
I M
K
IL IM LM
b ∆IJK ||| ∆ILM, c ----- = ------- = --------- 7 a ii a = 6, b ii k = 7, c ii p = 8, d ii u = 7 1--2- , e ii x = 5 3--5- , f ii n = 16 1--4-
IJ IK JK
8 a ii a = 6, b ii m = 10, c ii e = 35, d ii y = 12, e ii b = 6 2--3- , f ii w = 32, g ii m = 4 1--2- , h ii f = 3 3--5- , i ii z = 11 1--5-
9 a b = 9, c = 18, b m = 6, n = 5 1--3- , c x = 14, y = 5.2, d p = 15, q = 2.4, e u = 35, v = 30, f e = 11, f = 7
10 144 cm 11 19.2 m 12 1.6 m 13 192 m 14 a a = 13.5, b = 15, b d = 11.2, e = 8,
c m = 24, n = 5 15 120 m 16 4800 m
Chapter 13 Review
1 a D C b C' 2 a A b A
D' B B' B P A' B'
E E' D C C C' C C'
F G F' E D D' D D'

G'
D' C' F G E E' Q
E F F' E'
F
E'
F' G'
576 Mathscape 8
ANSWERS
3 a J K b J K L' 4 X Q
M'
L L N' X'
M M Z
Y
N J' O'
O O' P Y'
O N
M'
L'
Z'
K' J'
5 AEHD and BFGC, ABCD and EFGH, DCGH and ABFE 6 a Yes, b ∆ABC 7 a ∆RST ≡ ∆GFH
b ∆LMN ≡ ∆ZYX 8 a x = 97, y = 37, z = 46, b c = 16, d = 13, e = 10 10 a No, b No
11 Scale factor = -----
10
7
- , a = 50, b = 15 12 a i --23- , ii ∠O = ∠L, ∠P = ∠N, ∠Q = ∠M, iii ∆OPQ ||| ∆LNM,
b i 1 1--2- , ii ∠C = ∠Z, ∠D = ∠X, ∠E = ∠Y, iii ∆CDE ||| ∆ZXY 13 a ∆DEC ||| ∆TUS, b s = 74, t = 43, u = 63
14 a k = 24, b w = 42, c a = 28, d y = 7.5 15 a iii a = 20, b = 17.5, b iii g = 54, h = 14, c iii e = 56, f = 36,
d iii r = 50, s = 75 16 a 315 cm, b 105 cm

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STAGE 4

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Project editor: Mandy Naylor

Acknowledgements for copyright material

Preface vi 2.10 Adding and subtracting

9.7 Solving problems that involve Chapter 12 Data analysis

Explanations and examples

Focus on working mathematically

1.1 The meaning of percentage

A percentage is a fraction of 100.

4 What is the meaning of the following percentages?

6 a The inflation rate in a certain country is quoted as being 100%.

1.2 Converting between

To convert a percentage to a fraction:

To convert a fraction to a percentage, use one of the following methods.

= 90% = 32% = 14% = 200

= 33 1--3- % = 57 1--7- % = 2100

4.5 × 10 5 1--3- × 3 18 3--- × 4

1 Express each of these percentages as a fraction.

2 Express each of these fractions as a percentage.

3 Convert each of these percentages to a fraction in its simplest form.

4 Convert each of these fractions to a percentage.

144 123 205 306

6 Express each integer as a percentage.

7 Express each percentage as an integer.

8 Convert these percentages to mixed numerals.

9 Convert these mixed numerals to percentages.

10 Convert each of these fractions to a percentage by multiplying by 100

11 Insert <, > or = to make a true statement.

12 Arrange each set of numbers in ascending order.

14 Convert each percentage to a fraction in its simplest form.

15 Convert each percentage to a fraction in its simplest form.

1.3 Converting between

To convert a decimal to a percentage:

1 Express each of these percentages as a decimal.

2 Express each of these decimals as a percentage.

4 Convert each decimal to a percentage.

5 Express each percentage as a decimal.

6 Express each decimal as a percentage.

7 Insert <, > or = to make a true statement.

8 Arrange each set of numbers in ascending order.

10 Convert each decimal to a percentage.

11 Convert each percentage to a decimal.

1.4 Common conversions

1 Complete these common conversions.

4 Convert to mixed numerals.

e 175% f 225% g 250% h 266 2--3- %

i 312 1--2- % j 340% k 410% l 433 1--3- %

m 520% n 675% o 725% p 812 1--2- %

5 Convert each decimal to a percentage.

TRY THIS Archery winner

1.5 Percentage of a quantity

To find a percentage of a quantity:

1 Use the common conversions to evaluate:

1.6 Expressing one quantity as

TRY THIS Pure juice

1.7 Percentage increase and

115% × $40 93% × $200

1 Using method 1 and the common conversions, increase:

2 Using method 1 and the common conversions, decrease: