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Prerequisites
Electromagnetic Engineering
Antenna & Radio Wave Propagation
Communication Engineering
Microwave Engineering
Course objectives:
T o learn RF circuit fundamentals for designing various circuit building blocks in a typical RF transceiver
To learn importance of EMI/EMC
Course outcomes:
After successful completion of the course student will be able to
Design impedance matching networks and passive RF filters.
Design and appraise RFamplifiers and oscillators.
Analyze EMI and EMC in RF circuits.
Course Contents
1.2 Insertion loss method: Maximally flat low pass prototype, Equal ripple low pass prototype,|
Filter transformation and filter implementation (Refer Chapter 1) |
2.0 Amplifier Design 08
2.2 Single stage amplifier design: Design for maximum gain, design for specified gain, low noise
amplifier design
Power amplifier design.: Characteristics of power amplifier and classes of amplifiers, design
2.3
of class A power amplifier. (Refer Chapter 2)
Module Unit
Topics Hrs.
No. No.
3.0
Frequency Generation &Mixer 08
3.1 One-port and two-port microwave oscillator design.
3.2 Analysis of phase noise in oscillators.
3.3 Mixers: Characteristics, Various types of Mixers: Single ended diode mixers, FET mixers,
Balanced mixers, Image reject mixers and other
types of mixers. (Refer Chapter 3)
4.0 Frequency Synthesizers 06
4.1 Direct Frequency Synthesis, Frequency Synthesis by Phase Lock, Effects of Reference
Frequency on Loop Performance,
4.2 Variable: Modulus Dividers, Down Conversion, Methods for Reducing Switching Time,|
Direct Digital Synthesis, Synthesizer Design.
4.3 Phase Noise A Model for Oscillator Phase Noise, Phase Noise
in Phase-Locked Loops, |
Effect of Frequency Division and Multiplication on Phase Noise. (Refer Chapter 4)
5.0 Electromagnetic Interference in RF circuits 08
5.1 Introduction. Natural and Nuclear Sources of EMI, EMI From Apparatus and Circuits.
Quantification of Communication System EMI
5.2 Elements of Interference, Including Antennas, Transmitters, Receivers And Propagation.
Electronic Equipmentand System EMI Concepts. Examples of EMI Coupling Modes
5.3 Equipment Emissions and Susceptibilities Types of coupling: Common-Mode
Coupling: Common Mode Coupling Mechanisms Including Field to Cable, Ground
Impedance, Ground Loop and Coupling Reduction Techniques.
Differential-Mode Coupling: Differential-Mode Coupling Mechanisms Including Field to
Cable, Cable to Cable and Coupling Reduction Techniques.
5.4 Other Coupling mechanisms: Power Supplies And Victim Amplifiers (Refer Chapter 5)
6.0 ElectromagneticCompatibility 04
6.1 The Importance Of Grounding For Achieving EMC. Grounding, Including The Reasons
(L.E, Safety, Lightning Control, EMC, Grounding Schemes (Single Point, Multi-Point And
Hybrid), Shicld Grounding And Bonding. Shielding Effectiveness, Shielding Considerations
(Reflective And Absorptive), Shielding Compromises (LE., Apertures, Gaskets, Waveguide
Beyond Cut-Off)
6.2 EMI Diagnostics And Fixes: Techniques Used In EMI Diagnostics and Fixes
6.3 EMC Specifications, Standards And Measurements. A Discussion ofThe Genesis of EMC|
Documentation Including A Historical Summary, The Rationale, And A Review of MIL-Stds,
FCC and CISPR Requirements. (Refer Chapter 6)
Index
Module
Chapter 1 RF Filter Design ... ...1-1 to 1-74|
Module 2
Chapter 2 Amplifier Design... ...2-1 to 2-82|
Module 3
Chapter 3: Frequency Generation and Mixer.. ..3-1 to 3-46
Module 4
Chapter 4 Frequency Synthesizers.. *****°*** .4-1 to 4-24
Module 5
Chapter 5: Electromagnetic Interference in RF Circuits. ..5-1 to 5-40
Module 6
Chapter 6: Electromagnetic Compatibility. .....6-1 to 6-40
CHAPTE
RF Filter Design
2Modale
Syllabus:
Image parameter method, Insertion loss method-
Filter transfomation and filter
Maximally flat low pass prototype, Equal ripple low pass prototype,
implementation.
1.1
Introduction..
*****************************************************************.*************.**********************************"**
***************a**************************************************"*******************************e****** -5
1.2 Overview of Basic Terms...
********************"*********************************************** ********************************* -5
1.3 Filter Design..
*********e***********°************************************************
1-7
1.3.1 Filter Design by Image Parameter Method.. *********.*****°*****************°°***°°° ..... 1-7
OR Obtain the expression for image impedances and transfer function of two port network.
Exam. Hint: Equations 1.3.4, 1.3.15 and 1.3.16...********e******************************************************************
1-7
GQ. 1.3.2 Obtain the expression for the image impedance of n network shown in Fig. 1.3.4.
GQ. 1.3.3 Obtain the expression of propagation constant of r network given in Fig. 1.3.4.
GQ. 1.3.4 Derive the expression for image impedance of T network in terms of series and shunt
**
********** ****..
.1-11
ExamHint:e"=1+2~~ '
***°**********
*************
network shown in
GQ. 1.3.65 Ompute the image impedances and propagation factor for the
Fig. 1.3.9 using ABCD parameters.
1-12
EXam Hint: coshy=AD =1-2oLC ***************°************************°******* *************°**********°
1-6
1.3.2
****************°******°***°°*****°°****** 14
Constant Kor Prototype Filter Section. ***********.***°**************
****************** .. 1-14
1.4 Constant K Low Pass Fiter Design by Using Image Parameter Method. ******
********°****°°**°*°*°********** 1-14
Ga. 1.4.1 What is constant-K-ow pass filter ?...*****************a********°°******"**
1.4.1 .1-14
Analysis of Constant K Low Pass Filter.. ***************************************************°°****°°************ ***************
GQ. 1.4.22 Design a constant K low pass T section fiter to be teminated in R, 2 having cut of a, rad/sec. .1-14
1.4.2 Reactance Curve and Expression for Cut off frequency f *************************************°°****************
1.4.4 Analysis of attenuation (a) and phase shift (B) characteristic of constant KLPF. .. 1-16
*****e*****.
1.5.1 Attenuation (a) and Phase Constant (B) Characteristic of Constant K HPF...
********°*************************** 1-20
GQ. 1.5.2 The nominal characteristic impedance of T section of LPF is Ro. Find Z at 0.9 fc..
**************************** 1-22
GQ. 1.6.4 Draw and explain m-derived T and n section of HPF. Explain graphical representation of cut off
. . 1-28
frequency.. **********°***********°***************n*******************.******so*************************************************
**********************************u*s******** ********************************************°*********
.1-30
1.7 Impedance Matching Using Half Sections...
GQ. 1.7.1 Why half section is used for terminating section in filter. ?.****** ***************** *********°"*** **** 1-30
1-30
GQ. 1.7.2 Explain the need of using half sections.. ***********************************************************
*********** ********
... 1-30
m-Derived Half Sections for Low Pass Filter.***********************************************************°****°***********
1.7.1
Ga. 1.7.3 Write a note no teminated m-derived half section for HPF.. 1-31
1-32
1.8 Composite Filter. ******************************o******************************************************°**
1-38
1.9 Filter Design by Insertion Loss Method..
Ga. 1.9.1 What is perfect filter ?. ************°*********°**** .1-38
*******************es**********. ***°*******°****
Ga. 1.9.2 Explain the concept of insertion Ioss method.. ***** *************
************ 1-38
GQ. 1.9.3 Explain different types of low pass filter. ****************** ***e************.**********°****** 1-38
GQ. 1.9.4 Explain design process of fiter by insertion loss method.. **** 1-40
1.9.4 Maximally Flat Low Pass Filter Prototype. ****** "*********** 1-41
Ga. 1.9.5 Derive expression for the values of L and C for second order low pass filter and maximally
GQ. 1.9.6 Explain ladder circuits for maximally low pass fiter and element definition...
*********""°*** ********* 1-42
1.9.5 Equal Ripple or Chebyshev Low Pass Filter Design. ******* *******.******************
**. 1-44
GQ. 1.9.7 Explain chebysheve low pass filter synthesis process.. **************************** 1-44
*****************************************.************************************************************* 1-49
1.11 Filter Transfomation..
********************************************************************°*************************
** l49
GQ. 1.11.11 Write a note on filter transfomation.
*°°****°° .1-49
1.11.1 Low Pass to High Pass Fiter..
***********'*********************************************************************
GQ. 1.11.3 Explain and obtain the expression of capacitorand inductor..****************** ****°*********°°*********** 1-52
********** 1-56
1.11.3 Low Pass Filter to Band Stop Filter . *****************************************************************************
Ga. 1.11.4 Obtain the expression for inductor and capacitor of band stop filter using low pass
GO. 1.12.1 What is redundant and non-redundant filter synthesis ? *********o**** ********o9************* 1-59
GQ. 1.12.3 Why does fiter response using Richard's Transfomation match with filter design using
lumped element ?...e***********************sass***************************s*********************.*********************.**************.*****1-60
Ga. 1.12.4 Explain how Kuroda's ldentities are useful in RF fiter desig...
******a**********°°************************* **********. 1-61
network analysis each problem has got the unique Table 1.2.1
solution.
Consider a two port network Nameof fiter Pass band (Hz) Stop band(Hz)
|Low Pass O to f to o
MATaFig. 1.2.1
Band Stop Oto fofa to f to fa
3. Network synthesis : It is the method of finding out the 9. Attenuation and its units:
network when Response and Excitations are known. In Attenuation is loss of power in electric network or
network synthesis there may be multiple solutions toa transmission lines. It is expressed in Nepers and
given problem. (Refer Fig. 1.2.1) decibels.
4. Pass band : The range of frequencies where signal
passes is called pass band.
decreases.
The loss in power delivered from source to load is due
1'o o2' to insertion of network is known as insertion loss and it
is expressed in decibel or Neper.
(141)Fig. 1.2.1(a) : Two port network (1A2)Fig. 1.2.1(b)
The image impedances are denoted as Z at 1-11
terminal and Z2 at 2-2 terminal as shown in
Fig. 1.2.1(b).
When
then the
port 2 i.e. 2-2' terminal is terminated with
Z, v
impedance measured at port 1 i.e. 1-1
terminals, will be the image impedance of port 1 as (145Fig. (a) : Without network
shown in Fig. 1.2.1(c).
E.g.
Z1
Rs Network
R
v,AD AD Z
AZ+B
CZ+D and ZZC+A
Z D+B
vAD-BQ ,D-BI
AD AD 1.3.7) From Fig. 1.3.3,
CV
1-AD= AD AD ACZ+A+B
DZ+B
4 Z TDZ* D
AD C). Aj-cy,
AD cz D
[Negative sign indicates that current I, is leaving the port 2] Taking square root on both sides
.Z
. Za BD AB
=
A SACHINSHAH Venture
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RE Design (MU-8h
Sem.-E&TC) (1-10) RF Filter Design
22 +Z2
(1.3.18a)) [ 2Z, Z +Z, Z2 +27,Z,2]
GO. 1.3.2 Obtain the
expression for the image 27,+ 27 +Z
pedance of network shown
Fig. 1.3.4.
T in 4ZZ+222z, +2Z, Z2 Za +Z, Z+ 27, 2,
4Z, Z,+2Z, Z, Za+ 4Z,Z
Exam Hint: Z 4Z,Z +Z Z = 4Z, Z2
4Z, Z,
Z
Z +4Z2
Multiplying numerator and denominator by factor
22 272 z .(1.3.19)
Za l| 2Z2 Fig.1.3.4.
in 222
11o Exam Hint: e 1+
Zn222 lI (Z,+Z2 l| 2Z2)
--+-
(1A13)Fig. 1.3.4(b) Terminate the network with
t
Zi2 =
Z, Z1=
on both
sides as shown below and apply V
The network is symmetrical, So Z, Zo =Z2 voltage.
Is R
The image impedance of symmetrical n network is w
given by, Z
Zin Z=2Z,|I|[Z, +(2Z, Z
Vo 272
Za 22"22+Zn
Z+27, 2
(1A14)Fig. 1.3.5 : T network is correctly terminated with Z
Z (27,+Z)+2,Z2 The above network is
symmetrical t network, so by the
Za 27" =
27,+Z2 e
(27, Z,) 1
27,Z
V 2Z+7
Z, +(2Z, 17,)J 27,
Z 2Z+7 (1415Fig. 1.3.6: Symmetrical T network
V 22, 2,
z z,+2)+2,7,J
Terminate the given symmetrical T network with
ZZ=Zo
4+22,Z,+Z,2,] Z/2 Z/2 2
27,7 1
Z
1Z27 1'o
Rearranging the terms
2
Z (1A16)Fig. 1.3.7: Symmetrical T network terminated with Z
1+27 .(1.3.21)
As network is symmetrical, image impedance Z of
Using Equations (1.3.19) and (1.3.20) such network terminated with Z2 = Zo at other port is equal
Z, Z ..(1.3.22)
to Z
Z=Zo=Z2
Use Equation (1.3.22) into Equation (1.3.21)
,7(4-z)]
Z
122 Z
Z2+2.
Z
zzz2z5+z,).,zz
+2,2
1+2Z Z 2224,222
= 122*47
ZT- +Z,Z
1+2z .(1.3.23) Z
...(1.3.24)
GQ. 1.3.4Derive the expression, for image
impedanceof T network in terms of G2.1.3.5 Obtain the expression for propagation
series and shunt arm impedances constant of t network
shownin Fig. 1.3.6
Exam Hint: e 1+
Exam Hint:Z +Z Z2
To obtain propagation constant of T network, terminate
the T network correctly as shown in Fig. 1.3.8.
24Z 14Z,
L
Applying KVL to loop in clockwise direction
1 m
V
c
'o -o2
(1I419)Fig. 1.3.10
V-4(jolL)-, (joL)-1,
1*2Z*\N V-1 joL+ joL +
jwC,
= o
1 V,-,2joL+
4Z
13NE12) .(1.3.26)
foLC+1 Here I l
Where Z joL + JOC
jC
B = joL ...(1.3.35)
JwC alv,=0
V = joC
LC .(1.3.30)
As, I = lh
v, =(-'LC oC
The ABCD matrix for network given in Fig. 1.3.9 using
..(1.3.31) Equation (1.3.32), (1.3.34), (1.3.35) and (1.3.36)
Rearanging Equation (1.3.31) 1-200LC joL
1 -o'LC
1-oLC AB ..(1.3.37)
1=0 1-20Lc) Lc D joC
1-LC
V=0 (1-20 .1.3.32)
"1-oLC(13.32)
From Equation (1.3.13), Z =VC
From Equation (1.3.32), we can write as:
V, = (-20'LC .(1.3.33)
(1-20 LC. ioL
(1-o'LC) JoL
joL
Using Equation (1.3.33) into Equation (1.3.29)
(1 o LC)'
4 (joc .v,
1-26 LCT-oLCV sL1-20 LC)
jac
1-oLC
Z V1-2w 10) .(1.3.38)
C: .(1.3.34)
BD
Now, using Equation (1.3.12) Z42 =\W AC
Let V2 = 0 i.e. output part is short circuited as shown in
What is
constant-K-low pass filter ?
T-Network T-Network GQ. 1.4.1
and t section of
Refer Fig. 1.3.6 Refer Fig. 1.3.4 and (b) presents T
Figs. 1.4.1(a) filter is
constant K low pass
filter. Constant K low pass
ABCD parameters ABCD parameters which passes certain
band of
defined as a filter
attenuate all
off frequency and
A=1+2Z A=l+27 frequencies upto cut
other frequencies above the
cut off frequency as shown
B Z
in Fig. 1.4.1(c).
B Z+4Z of series arm impedances and shunt
Also the product 2
Z2 R,. It is simplest
C- impedances is equal to Z
=
arm
Z
D 1*2Z type of filter.
D1*2Z U2 U2 Z
Imageimpedance: Image impedance
2Z2 222
Propagation Constant:
Propagation constant: ***
-1+2
*
=1+2Z Stop
Pass
Dand band
*****ww**venwvvenn
*********************
.(1.4.1)
X oL
2r
Total shunt arm impedance
ZioC .(1.4.2)
characteristics of
DC (1A25)Fig. 14.2: Reactance Vs frequency
constant K LPF
Multiplying Equations (1.4.1) and (1.4.2)
R, .(1.4.3)
X, = oL
2
Z LC
4
. o LC .(1.4.7)
But
...(1.4.8)
Z 7=Zg=\
Taking Z, Z, common
From Equation (1.4.8) it is clear that
G)Z R,foro = 0
.(14.5) V
.(1.4.9)
LC or fLC
+LC
It is also clear fromEquation (1.4.8) that, when f < f
ZTis real in pass band. When f> f, Zis imaginary in
the stop band. 1-22L V 1
So the cut off frequency of constant K LPF can be
expressed in Equation (1.4.9).
-1 (1.4.11)
section.Z, - Rg .(1.4.10)
a 14.4 Analysis of attenuation («)
and phase shift (8)
a 1.4.3 Expression for Propagation
characteristic of constant
Factor K LPF
From Equation (1.3.26), he, propagation factor for
T-section constant K-LPFis given as FromEquation(1.4.11), coshy=1-4
4
Putting
jOL
1+2 joC
OR cosh a cos B+ jsinh a sin B= 1 - 2 ..(1.4.12)
joL
Equating real and imaginary part of Equation (14.12),
joL) we get
-cosh a =l-29
L2 o i.e. o= 0is the lower cut off
Since CoS Tt - 1 ...(1.4.18)
frequency of filter operation.
This proves that lower cut off frequency of filter is a =cosh 1 Neper ..(1.4.19)
Zero.
Now, cos ß= - 1 gives higher cut off frequency of Also -cosh a =1-2 cosh
filter
From Equation (1.4.18),
. 1-LC =
1 1-2cosh =1-20
-2 which gives
2 -2 cosh a 20
oLC =4
2 cosh a =
LC
Taking square root on both sides
VLC Biving i, cosh a=
Now in Equation (1.4.15) substituting@
= cost"Neper
cosB= 1L1_20
d = 2 cosh"()
B = coSs
radian ..(1.4.16)
2 2cosh .(1.4.20)
The attenuation (o) and phase shift (B) characteristics
Also, cos 1-2sin=1-=12
of LPF have been shown in Fig. 1.4.3.
2ai
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RF Design (MU-8h Sem.-E&TC) (1-18)
RF FilterDesign
(Equation (14.3) )
Ex. 1.4.1
f TLC (Equation (1.4.9)) Design constant K LPF for the following specifications
Cut off frequency f = 2.5 kHz ; Nominal characteristic
Tf impedance R, = 700 2
Attenuation, a' =
19.1 dB =
6RG= 2.199 Neper
Ro . R LC
To find the values of L and C
L =R VLC The design equation of inductor and capacitor for
L yLC constant K LPF are
expressed in Equations (L4.21) and
(14.22).
So using Equation (1.4.21)
.L T 14.21)
700
L = T t T X 2500 89.126 mH
Similarly for C:
Using Equation (1.4.22)
RV C
Tt
R fe Tx 700 x 2500
C R 7t
C = 181.89 nF
Ro
V-CE
But in this case, f > f. therefore the image impedance
T section.
Soln.
ZT is imaginary. Given: L=80 mH and C = 0.022 F
a = 2 cosh Neper
Where f is frequency at which this filter produces
attenuation 19.1 dB or 2.199 Neper TV80 x 10x0.022 x 10
From above Equation.
f 7.587 kHz
Gi) The nominal characteristic impedance is expressed
as
Z ...For T section.(1.5.4)
120LC
But y 2+jB ...(1.5.10)
From above equation, two conclusions can be drawn: Comparing real and imaginary parts in Equations
(1) If 4 LC > 1, Z is real and filter operate in pass (1.5.9) and (1.5.10)
band.
sinh a sin ß = 0 ..(1.5.11)
(2) If 4 wLC < 1, ZT is imaginary and filter operate in
or cosh a cos B= 1- .(1.5.12)
stop band. C
Hence the cut offfrequency is expressed as To fulfill Equation (1.5.12), either o = 0 or B = nt
4 oLC = 1
where n is integer.
1 Pass band: Attenuation
.Oc2 LC constant B exist with cos ß =1 -
a =0 in pass band. Whereas
when a =0 in
phase
..(1.5.5) 2 LC
fc4TLC Equation (1.5.12).
The value of cos ß varies from+ 1 to - 1.
Also Z7 R
cos B = 1-
2 wLC
..utilizing O 4LC
...(1.5.6)
1-20c 2 0LC
1
0 2LC
For n section, image impedance Z Znis given as:
=
R OxLC*
=
ZonZT
This is higher cut off frequency.
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RF Design (MU-8" Sem-E&TC) (1-21) RF Filter Design
20LC
COS T=-1|
1
-1 20LC
cosha = -
2
20LC
20LC
cosh a = - 1+2-
LC
Hence = cosh| .(1.5.17)
oLc =
and
stop band a is given by Equation (1.5.17)
In
4LCC phase constant is given as B =
. 2 LC .(1.5.13) Stop Pass em.ww.ienweedaennwrihoranoodiooeeetaorni
a(N) band band
From Equation (1.5.13) gives a value of o when cos B1
B-1 acosh 2 B= (rad)
Therefore, the lower cut off frequency is expressed
aS
p- 2sin
Oc2LC 1.5.14) **** *m*.gaanrme**********;*
t=0
******
1- .(1.5.15)
fc 4T LC
(1A33)Fig. 1.5.2: a and ß characteristics of HPF
Also from B
cos
1-2LC
=
RLC
sin R,LiLC
sia R VLC =L
4Tt RVLC = L
B 2sin' .(1.5.16) 4T
F o r stop band L Ro
4tfc ..(1.5.18)
As B=m in stop band, Equation (1.5.12) reduces to
filter are
Similarly for C Two disadvantages
as
follows
Ro (a) does not increase in stop band
(1) The attenuation
ZT
4 o'Lc R
222
Ro (1A35)
(1434)
mz,/2 mZ/2
: GQ. 1.5.2 The nominal characteristic impedance
of T section of LPF is R Find Z at
09 fc (1A36): T section of constant m - derived
Given: 0.9
section,
m - derived filters can be obtained
from constant ?
ZT ..(1.6.1)
..(1.6.2)
272
By equating above two equations,
22
Z,7 4 +m Z Z m
m -derived filters.
- z m
Fig. 1.6.3 :Constant K and
i.e. 0<m<1.
Thus in m - derived T section
Z = mZ, .(1.6.3)
m 1+4Z
(1A38 Fig. 1.6.2: m -
derived T section filter
-
m
4m
4m 4m
Z Z2
Z2m 4m
(1A42(a): T-section
(1A43(b) t section
1-m TTLC(1-m)
Thus, T section of m - derived filter is shown in
Fig. 1.6.5.
mLC 1-m
mZ m-derived Tsection:
For low pass filtler,
1-r
m
m
1-m
expressed
mC
TVLC(1-m -ommLC
4m-oLCm (1 - m)
infinite attenuation
produces after the cut off frequency
a s shown in Fig. 1.6.8. Steep of a decreases after
0>is not desirable. This can be solved by
cascading constant K section to give composite filter. (1A45)(a)
a (Neper) mz
wwww
ConstantK
attenuation
www.w
211-m)2
4m
***************** *g*****
(1A46)(b)
z ,mZ,
R1- Pass
band m1
Stop
band
-7,4 4
m 0.6
R- m 0.3
Z, Z, + Z1-m)
4
Z .(1.6.6)
(147)Fig. 1.6.10: Z Vs frequency in pass band of LPF for
different values of 'm'
-LC4LR Soln.
4C Given: f. =5 kHz, R = 600 2,
W,
1.25 5 kHz 6.25 kHz
-0L C.4:L 1.25 xf, = x =
4C 4C
(1) Design of L and C
4 LL = 600
x x 10 38.19 mH.
Z RRo1-() TI Ttx 5x10
C
1
TR fTx 600x5x 10
C 106.10nF
R,V1-(o/o
For m-derived LPF,
Z (-n)(0/o R, (1.6.7)
V1-(o/ o m
in pass band of filter. The actual values m - derived T - section of LPF, are
Fig. 1.6.10 shows the variation of Z with respect to given as follows
frequency for various values of 'm'. It is found that mL
2
0.6 38.19x
2
10-- 11459 mH
m=0.6, gives the bestresultfor Z
mC = 0.6 x 106.10 x 10"= 63.66 nF
becomes equal to
capacitive
reactance
(X
Fig. P. 1.6.1: complete designedm- derived T section of LPF
Hence,
a 1.6.4 M-derived High Pass Filteer
m
4 . C
GQ. 1.6.4 Draw and explain m-derived T and n 1-
m
Solving above Equation
section of HPF Explain graphical
representation of cut off frequency ..(1.6.10)
4LC
The m-derived T and n section of HPF are shown in
-m
Fig. 1.6.11(a) and (b). 2 VLC
mz
mZ/2 mz,/2 -m ..(1.6.11)
Or f 4mLC
But cut off frequency of constant K-HPF, is expressed
(4m22
1- m as
f 41LC Hz
(1A48(a) (1A49)(b)
OR c 2LC
Fig. 1.6.11: Tand n section of m-derived HPPF
Therefore using w Equation (1.6.10),
The shunt branch of T-section of HPF, is consisted of
mj+
joc ..(1.6.12)
1- 4m
m
jOC At this resonant frequency infinite
Thus,
4mL = m
1-m C
m
-m
m
V-4x 10
2VLC .(1.6.13) m = 0.436
the expression for f. for both T and n section of m- are calculated as follows
derived HPF is same.
Therefore, the value m of T section is applicable for t CTRaf. 4 xTx 4x 10 x 600
section. = 0.0334 F
The circuit resentation of T and n section of m- Ro
and L 4Tf
600 = 11.94 mH
derived HPF is shown below in Fig. 1.6.11(c) and (d).
47x4 x 10
In T-section of m-derived HPF, the values of series
and shunt arm elements are calculated as
2C2X =0.151 F
11.94
0.436 27.39 mH
z (4mc-m
4m 4X0.456 x0033 x 10
1-m 1-(0.436)
(1A50 C) = 0.071 uF
(IA51 d) 1-
s 4x0456 x 11.94 x 10
1-(0.436)
Fig. 1.6.11
25.704 mH
Ex. 1.6.2
2m 2
m
Design T and n section of m-derived HPF having cut off
frequency 4kHz, design impedance 600 and infinite
0.151 F 0.151uF
attenuation at 3.6 kHz.
27.39 mH
Soln.
Given fe= 4 kHz 4mc=0.071F
Ro = 600 2
a 1.7.1
Low P a s s Filter
= 0.076uF
terminating
half sections is
filter with
A low pass
25.704mH shown in Fig.
1.7.2(a).
mZ/2
mZ,/2
(4mL m
-
1-m 54.78mH 2Z2
54.78mH Low m
22 pass R
filter
R (T-ype)
(1A53Kb)
Fig. P. 1.6.2: Complex T-section T and
msections ofm-derived -
HPF
4T
1.7 IMPEDANCE MATCHING sections for T-types LPF
Terminating half
(IA55Fig. 1.7.2(a) :
uSING HALF SECTIONS and
Z, =
joL
With reference to theory of LPF,
sections
out as
i) Since a filter is being consisted of cascading
of sections, it is necessary that the impedance
at each
of number
. ntie-je()
junction is to be correctdy matched.
sections do not match
2
(i) The image impedances of T or t m m
z/2
w- T GT
Z1 2 Z224 (1A56) Fig. 1.7.2(b): Terminating half sections for T-types LPF
(2m.c (2x0x0.0133x 10 =
1-(0.6)
24.93 nF
e
-
-T section and
R 500 SQ which will consist of constant
m-derived two terminating halfsections. (Use m =0.6).
The terminating half section, with actual components
are as shown in Fig. 1.7.3. Soln.
Given f 7 kHz, Ro 5002
2C terminating
Required filter = Constant T section and two
half sections
2/m
Low
2Um 1. Design of T section of constant K low pass filter.
.R pass R
2 filter
4TVLCndR, =/
The actual components are calculated as:
ZT Ro 500
for T-types
L TTX7x 10 22.73 mH
(1A57)Fig. 1.7.3 : Terminating half sections
m-
Rs 27.28nF 27.28nF
R
90.94nF 5002
12.12mH 12.12mH
27.28nF 27.28nF:
90.94nF
12.12mH 12.12mH
1 . 8 COMPOSITE FILTER
GQ.1.8.1 Draw and explain block diagram of composite filter. Wirite advantage of compositefilters
The attenuation Vs frequency characteristic of prototype (constant-K) filter in stop band does not provide sharp cut off
and increases slowly from zero.
a
(Neper Pass Stop
band band Compositeflter
m-derived
Constant k
4T
(IA6 Fig. 1.8.1(b): Composite filter with four stages
the conmposite filter, one or more constant K flters provide high attenuation into stop band at specifñc cut off
In
frequency and hence make possible transition from pass band to stop band at specified frequency.
The m-derived filters provide on infinite and sharp attenuation in stop band at a frequency close to cut offfrequency
c) Further, terminating half sections atthe source and load end of the composite flter provides the impedance matching
between source and load impedance 'R,' and intemal image impedance Z of constant K and m-derived filters.
Ex. 1.8.1
Ex. 1.8.2
Design low pass composite filter with following specifications:
() Cut off frequency 2 MHz
i) Characteristic impedance 75 2
(ii) Provides infinite attenuation at 2.05 MHz.
Soln.
Given: f 2MHz
R 75Q
f. = 2.05 MHz
It is assumed that the design of composite low pass filter consist of all T sections.
1. Design at T section of constant K low pass filter
For constant - K LPF
L 75 = 11.93 uH
Ttte x 2x 10 C 2.122nF
= 2.122 nF
RTX2x Tx2x 10'x 75
K LPF
(1A66)Fig. P. 1.8.2(a): Tsection of constant
-
m V-E
. m -1-(205-0219
The components of series and shunt branch of T section of m=1.306uH =1.306uH
m-derived filter are calculated as follows
mC 464.71pF
. 0219x 11.93x10 = 1.306 mH
2
The series and shunt arms of terminating half sections are calculated as follows
m 0.6)x(11.93 x10)-3,579 uH 2
To
To
Source
-6362u4 2m Load
Filter
m-6366pF Filter mC 636.6pF
O
j464.71pF: 6.362uH
Rs
6.362uH R
752 2.122nF: 752
12.96uH 636.6pF
:636.6pF
Ex. 1.8.3
for the following specifications.
Design a composite low pass filter by image parameter method
f= 50 2, f. 50 MHz, f 52 MHz
= =
Soln.
f 50 MHz
Given =
50 2
f = 52 MHz
and R=
The
m
-y-)- v-.7
components of series and shunt branch of T section ofm-derived filter
are
calculated as tollows
m0.0429uH 0.0429,H
m027x0.318 x10 = 0.0429 uH
mC =
0.27 x 127.32 x 10 =
34.37 pF 027,0.27pH
The m-derived T section of LPF is shown in Fig. P. 1.8.3(6).
(IA7)Fig. P. 1.8.3b):
T-section ofm-derived LPp
3. Design of m-derived half section for matching
The half sections are
designed for m = 0.6
m
2 0.6x0.318x10 95.4 nH
mL0.6x127.32
2
x10 38.196 pF
(L- (1-(0.6x0-318
The half sections fot
x 10= 169.6 nM
matching are shown in Fig. P. 1.8.3(¢).
mL/2 95.4nH mL/2 95.4nH
L= 169.6nH
(1-L169.6H Loae
Filter
Filter
.TT*38.19pF m=38.19pF
(1A72Fig. P. 18.3(e) : m-derived half section for matching impedances
= 25.78 pF
R and
fan yLC Thus, m derived T section of
HPF is shown in
obtained as follows: 2C
m
151.57pF 151.57pF
L 4=119.36nH H
426.28nH
C4TR.f 21.22 pF
4mc
m
25.78pF
HPF is
Hence a prototype i.e. T section of constant K -
70.7pF 2C 70.7pF
m
.(1.9.4)
N(o)
GQ. 1.9.2 Explain the concept of insertion loss Thus, for filter to be physically realizable its power loss
method ratio must be the form in Equation (1.9.4)
In filter design by insertion loss methods, power loss 1.9.2 Types of Filter
ratio (PLR) or insertion loss are defined as
Power available from source GQ. 1.9.3 Explain different types of low pass
PLR Power delivered to load filter.
Based on Equation (1.9.4), there are four types of low 2. Equal Ripple or Chebyshev filter:
pass filter. A chebyshev polynomial is used to represent the
Maximally flat Butterworth or Binomial filer insertion loss at N order low pass filter as
It can satisfy requirement for sharpest cut off region.
This type of filter provides the flattest possible
passband response for a given filter order. P 1+K T, ..(1.9.8)
For low pass filter, PLa is expressed as, Where Ty x) is the chebyshev polynomial. Generally,
2N
Nis chosen to be odd integer when source and load
an
Px1+K' .(1.9.5)
impedance are matched. This type of filter provide the
PLR
Amin
Better Adequate
Amax cut off rate attenuation
1.0 2.0
**
characteristics
function low pass filter
(1A80)Fig. 1.9.1(c) : Elliptic
wo)= Ao +P
of filter and P is constant.
Where o(w) is phase of voltage transfer function
Group delay t, is expressed as
..(1.9.10)
do
do -1+P(/2N+1»)|
From Equation (1.9.10), group delay for linear phase
filter is maximally flat function.
Loss Method
1.9.3 Process of Filter Design by Insertion
GQ. 1.9.4 Explain design process of filter by insertion loss method.
-----*.- --****~********
The Fig. 1.9.2 shows the block diagram of process of filter design by insertion loss method.
Filter
Low pass Scaling
prototype & Implementation
specification design conversion
(AB)Fig. 1.9.2: Block diagram of process ofiter design by insertion loss methods
The general procedure for designing a filter using the insertion loss method can be summarized in three steps:
1 Filter specifications: The first step include cut offfrequency stop band attenuation, insertion loss in pass band and
frequency response of filter in pass band etc.
2. Design of low pass prototype or constant K circuit : In 'this step the design of low pass prototype include
R=12 and o, = 1 rad/sec. Filtertables are used for this step.
3. Scale and conversion: Finally the filter is scaled to the proper impedance level and if desired to a high pass, band pass
or band stop topology.
PLR 1-
OCR
oL 1+oR'
Now Z = jol+
R
So, we have,
jac oCR
R Pa .R')a1.RC)J
joC
joL+1+RiøC 4R (R+2R+ 1 +R'Co+ol'+o'L'cR
JOC
-2 LCR)
R
joL+1+RjøC 1+R I(1-R)+(R C+L'-2LCR)of
Multiplying 2d term by complex conjugate of. +LCRo .(1.9.14)
(1+ Rjoc) to (1 -Rjoc) to numeratorand denominator
If low pass filter of Equation (1.9.5) is second order
R(1-Rjoc) filter, N 2 , and is normalized (Z, 12 and a@, = 1), then
Z joL + PLR Ofsuch filter is expressed as:
(1+Rjoc)(1-RjoC)
R(1-RjoC) PLR 1+.. K=1 .(1.9.15)
joL+-oRC As at = O, IL = 10 log (1 + K)=3 dB
R(1-Rjo 3 = 10 log (1 + K)
jolL+ 14+0 RC) 0.3= log (1 +K)
.(1.9.11)
Thus K 1 C3 9N 1 Load
impedance
resistance
9N
. R R =1
R 1
series element
From Equation (1.9.15), coefficient of w is 0, equating begins with
circuit
(LA84(b): ladder
flat low pass filter
this coefficient in Equation (1.9.14), with R = 1, 1.9.4: Ladder
circuits for maximally
Fig.
R (RC+L-2LCR)=0 & 2sin )I
prototypes
impedance
are In these two types of ladder source
designed.
is 1 2 and cut frequency o = 1. The elements
81 2 sin ]-14142
values are numbered from g, at the generator impedancee to
with N elements.
2s J-14142
8N1 at load impedance offilter and 83 1
However the element values for ladder type circuits are Table 1.9.1 shows element ('L' and C') values for
calculated as follows and are shown in Table 1.9.1 for normalized (g= 1 and o, 1)
maximally flat (Butterworth)
=
N= 1 to 10. Elements are alternate between series and shunt low pass filter prototype.
connections.
12.0000 1.0000
2 1.4142 1.4142 1.0000
3 1.0000 2.0000 1.0000 1.000
The Figs. 1.9.4 (a) and(b) are dualof each otherandboth willproduce samefrequencycharacteristics
Taking log on both sides
Ex. 1.9.1
Design a maximally flat low pass filter with cut off log 30.62 = 2N log
Soln. N = 4.2215
Given:f=3 GHz, f =2 GHz IL 15 dB N = 5
(a) The order of filter 'N" is calculated as:
Thus required number of elements for maximally flat
LdB) = 10 log Pr! low pass filter are 5.
15 = 10 log PLR!
Thus, the order offilter N =5.
1.5 =
log IPL (b) Unscaled values of reactive elements of filter
are obtained either from Table 1.9.1 or
Taking antilog on both sides
calculated as follows:
10 P
PLR 31.62 8 2sin
Power loss ratio with K = 1 is : for N = 5 and K=1 to 5
2N
PR1+K(
81 2 sin o=0.6180=C
2N
31.62 1 & 2 sin|1=1.6180 =L
2 92 4 94 Thus N = 8
98 The required number of elements to design maximally
C 91 3 93 Cs 95
0.6180F
2F 0.6180F flat low pass filter are N= 8,
(1A85Fig. P. 1.9.1(a) : Ladder circuit begins with shunt element 21.9.55 Equal Ripple or Chebyshev
L 91 93 L5 95 Low Pass Filter Design
G 90 502
Ga. 1.9.7 Explain chebysheve low pass filter
C4 94 96-13
synthesis process.
The power loss ratio "PLR' for an equal ripple low pass
(1A86Fig. P. 1.9.1(b): Ladder circuit begins with series element filter with cut-off frequency o =
1, from Equation (1.9.1) is
expressed as
Ex. 1.9.2
A maximally flat low pass filter is to be designed with a cut
PLR1+kT (o) ..(1.9.16)
Where 1+k'=ripple amplitude in pass band.
off frequency of 8 GHz and minimum attenuation of 20 dB
at 11 GHz. How many filter elements are required ? But Chebyshev polynomials have the property that:
JO for N odd
Soln.: Ty(0) 1for Neven
Given f = 8 GHz
Also, the chebyshev filter provides a sharp transition
L = 20 dB
from pass band to stop band. So, in this case Chebyshev
f = 11 GHz polynomials are used to find insertion loss mathematically
In order to design maximally flat low pass filter,
as follows:
required number of elements 'N' are calculated as follows
ILI
L (dB) = 10 log PLR
VI+eTy ()
20dB 1 0 log PLR
where N= 1,2,3... (1.9.17)
2 logPLa In above Equation (1.9.17), Eis constant, o' normalized
Taking antilog on both sides,
frequency and Ty (0) is chebyshev polynomial of degree
10 PR N.
PLR = 100
Where, T,(o) = o'
Power loss with K = 1
2N Ta(o) 20"-1 =
99 - ()
Teeh-Neo Publications..Where Authorsinspire innovation SACHIN SHAH Venture
RF Design (MU-8h Sem.-E&TC) (1-45) RFFilter Design
The design steps for equal ripple or chebyshev low
= -
20 log1o pass filter are described as follows:
For chebyshev low pass filter
IL =
10log1o1+ T .(1.9.18)
...(1.9.21)
Where, 1 ifN is odd Number
BN+1 ...(1.9.22)
G, = 10 log (e + 1)
coshifNis even number
G
10 log (e +1) ..(1.9.23)
1010= e+ where,
G
E = 100 - 1 = 101 xG - 1 ..(1.9.19) ..(1.9.25)
Where G, is ripple amplitude in dB.
X = sinh2N ...(1.9.26)
The order N' or number of required elements of
chebyshev low pass filter is calculated as a =sin ] (1.9.27)
N =
cosh 10-1 b x+sin' ( (1.9.28)
.(1.9.20)
cosh
The sample calculation of values of elements for
chebyshev low pass filter are shown below and based on
Where L is required insertion loss in dB at frequency ' ' . these calculations Table 1.9.2 and 1.9.3 are given for
reference.
Table 1.9.2: Element values for Equal-Ripple Low-pass filter prototypes g, = 1, ac= 1, N=1 to 10, 0.5 dB ripple
0.5 dB Ripple
N 2 54 55 59 S10 B11
1 0.6986 1.0000
3.0 dB Ripple
&10
N
1.9953 1.0000
2 3.1013 0.5339 5.8095
3 3.3487 0.7117 3.3487 1.0000
4 3.43890.7483 4.3471 0.5920 5.8095
5 3.4817 0.7618 4.5381 0.7618 3.4817 1.0000
3.5045 0.7685 4.6061 0.7929 4.4641 0.6033 5.8095
6
3.5182 0.7723 4.6386 | 0.8039 4.6386 0.7723 3.5182 | 1.0000
7
8 3.5277 0.7745 4.6575 0.8089 4.6990 0.8018 4.4990 0.6073 5.8095
Given G 3 dB
f 2 GHz b (0.2986) sin(
+
cosh.
101x151 b, 0.0891
V 10013
N
The 'g' values for the filter can now be found by
cosh ...As N is odd
Eo 84=1
N= 2.4913
(ii) The element values are S1 2x0. 3.3489
0.2986
&o= 50
As N = 3,
82 4x0.5XL-0.7118
3.3489 x 0.839
... as Nis odd
83
4x1x0.5 3.3489
Using Equations (1.9.23) to (1.9.28), x 0.8390
.7118
Thus, a =sin =05 The 'g' values are listed in Table 1.9.2 for N =3.
The designed equal ripple low pass filter is shown in
sin=1 Fig. P. 1.9.3.
,
=
sin 05 R 90 12 L2 92
Now,
e =ineothT73) C91 9 R=1
tanh
ann 17.37 = 0.17101 .tan x cot 6 = 1
L
(1A87Fig. P. 1.9.3: Equal ripple low passfilter
1 . 1 0 SCALING OF LOW PASS The L, C and R are the values of original prototype
PROTOTYPE FILTERS filter
2. Frequency scaling
GQ. 1.10.1 Explain two types of scaling.
Since the cut off frequency w, of prototype filler is 1,
The designs of low pass filter
prototype by insertion so to change it from unity to different low pass cut off
loss method have a normalized source impedance of frequency values, frequency of filter is scaled by the
Rs= 12 and cut off frequency of o,= 1.
However it is
factorwhich is achieved as
possible to scales and transform low pass
prototype filter design into low pass, high pass band
pass and stop band filters for any impedance ...(1.10.5)
(Rs =
R)
value and for any cut off frequency value.
By applying Equation (1.10.5), the inductive and
There are two types of scaling: capacitive reactance are found as
1. Impedance scaling
2. Frequency scaling
L = oL
1. Impedance scaling
L= L
It is seen that, with reference to Equation (1.9.22),
equal ripple filters have non unity, load resistance value L= L
.(1.10.6))
for an even 'N' order of filter. Whereas in
prototype
filter design, source and load resistances are unity.
Since filter is linear circuit, it is possible to multiply all
impedances including terminating resistances of
prototype filter design by some factor without .C
disturbing transfer function of the filter. .c
Thus, input and output impedances will change. Let
prime denote impedance scaled quantities. If required
load and source impedances are equal to Ro.
Then, .(1.10.7)
X = R,XL
By applying both
impedance and frequency scaling,
L'@ = R, oL Equations (1.10.1) to (1.10.7) becomes as
. L =
R,L ...(1.10.1)
.(1.10.8)
...(1.10.9)
R
R= R ...(1:10.10)
Therefore C = ..(1.10.2)
Ro R= R,R ..(1.10.11)
R R1 =R ...(1.10.3) Fig. 1.10.1 shows the scaling for low pass filter
prototype response for @= 1.
R= R R;= R, RL .(1.10.4)
a sin
3.5481
(1A8 a) Low pass filter prototype for @. = 1 X sinh2
X = 2.8625
PLR
2x1
81 2.8625
81 0.6986
Now,
R8 50 x0.6986
2 Tx 100 x 10
A chebyshev low pass is designed as follows: The following are the filter transformation techniques.
R, Lx .(1.11.6)
HP
R ...(1.11.7)
Cand L are capacitor and inductor of high pass
filter respectively.
C
(IA9TKa) (1A92 b) HE ---IF
RsRo
Fig. 1.11.1:Low pas to high pass transformation
E L4 R
An ideal low pass filter passes all signals upto
normalized cut off frequency with almost zero insertion
loss in pass band and attenuates signals above cut off (1A93)Fig. 1.11.2: High pass filter obtained from low pass
frequency. prototype
On the other hand, high pass filter passes all signals
above the cut off frequency o, and attenuate the signals Ex. 1.11.1
those are below the cut off frequency Design a high pass chebyshev filter with pass band ripple
Therefore, following frequency transformation will be magnitude not more than 0.01 dB with cut off frequency 100
used to transform a low pass filter to a high pass filter. MHz. The filter exhibit at least 5 dB attenuation at 400
MHz. The load and source resistances are 75 2 each. Also
...(1.11.1) design scaled low pass chebyshev filter.
1. Thus, applying Equation (1.11.1), inductors wil
replace the shunt capacitor of low pass filter and
Soln.:
capacitors will be connected in series in place of
Given G, = 0.01 dB
IL = 5 dB
inductors.
f 100 MHz
X = jo L = - i k f = 400 MHz
R R = 75 2
(1.11.2) Design of chebyshev low pass filter*
jo Ck
) The order of filter is calculated as:
jBx jo Ck =
-j Cx
cosh
HP ...(1.11.3) V100
jo L N =
cosh (4)
Equation (1.11.2) indicates that series inductor Lx is
replaced by capacitor CK cosh 2.1622
0.0023
N = 4.1158
Thus, L .(1.11.4) cosh (4) 2.063
N = 1.99 2
2. Similarly, shunt capacitors C is replaced by inductors
But in order to meet symmetrical characteristics 75 2
L, thus Equation (1.11.3) reduces to each side order of filter can
be increased to N=3 (odd)
b (1.6019)+sin() C =c=
= 2.5660+ (0.8660) R,
= 2.5660+0.7499
2Tx 75x 100 x 10° x0.62425
b= 3.315
C = C = 33.99 = 34 pF
b (1.6019 +sin?( R
and L = 75
2.5660+(0.8660) = 2.5660 +0.7499 27t x 100x 10" x 0.9664
C2
b2= 3.315 HP
. L= 123.5 mH
(vi) Thus, g1 x)The resulting chebyshev high pass filter is shown in
Fig. P. 1.11.1(a).
2x0.3
1.6019 0.62425 L
=
4b-18x-1
(a1 RRs c34 pF c34 pF
ie. Ex
752
4xaXa2 R RL
82 b,X 81 123.5nH 3 752
82
4x0.5x 1
3.315 x 0.62425
(1AB4)Fig. P. 1.11.1(a) :Scaled chebyshev high pass filter
O 1
**********************-**
@2
.***********************
L R,(-0,) ..(1.11.15)
(1A96) (1A97)
(b) Low pass filter prototype to Bandpass filter C
and
Fig. 1.11.3: Band pass filter ...(1.11.16)
R2-o)
The perfect low pass filter passes all
frequency signals Ex. 1.11.2
with zero insertion loss in pass band upto normalized
cut off
frequency o 1 and completely stops signals
=
Design a bandpass chebyshev
filter with maximum ripple
those have higher frequency than level 0.5 dB with N 3. The centre frequency is 1 GHz and
=
In band pass filter, all signals with frequencies between bandwidth is 10% and impedance is 50 2.
and 02 passes and stops passing outside this Soin.:
frequency range. Given: N=3, fo= 1 GHz,
Hence the following frequency substitution transform a
2-@1
low pass filter prototype to a band pass filter. i.e. 10% 0.1,
= =
G, =0.5 dB
( (I1.8) (1.11.8) ) To design bandpass filter, first equal ripple low pass filter prototype is designed as follows:
Where, in Equation (1.l1.8), . o,=V o x 2
1. Above frequency substitution replaces the series ie. asin Dz]|
inductor of low pass filter prototype to inductor BP
L
and capacitor C which are connected in series as
shown in Fig. 1.11.3(a).
sin()o5
These elements are obtained as follows sin(
and s i n ( - 0 5
..(1.11.9)
0.1
(iv) x'+ sinN ...Putting
0.1
b (0.62642) +sin() 50x 2T x 1x 10'x 1.5963
-
b =
(0.62642+ sin
= 0.39240+(0.8660)
= 0.39240+0.74995 .Putting 0.1
b=1.1423
50x 1.5963
27x 1x 10
() 0.1
2x0.5 1.5963 50x1.5963
81 0.62642 * 27x 1x 10x0.1
4 xaX L
BP
127.02 mH
(vi)
Now, L R, -)
4xaXa
4x0.5x1 R,(-0
&2 1.1423x1.5963 x Cx
821.09681 50x 0.1
4x a Xa 2mx1x 10x 1.09681
.Putting 0.1
4x1 x0.5
83 1.1423x1.09681 BP
L 0.726nH
83 = 1.5963
R(o -o)
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R,O 01)
50x1.5963
O.1 x 2tx 1x 10 =0.1
L 127.02 mH
C
R,x ,X O,XL3
0.1
S0 x 2 Tx 1x 10x 1.5963
BP
0.199 pF
R,XRL 502
(vii) The resulting band pass filter is showm in Fig. P. 1.11.2.
Rs R50 LBP 127.02mH
c0.199pF C0.199pF
L127.02mH
0.726mH2 c=34.19pF 502
0.01 02-@1
tanh 17.37 =5.7570
R,xoXL
Using tan 8 cot 6= 1 27tx 10°(40 10)
coth137 0.01 1737.00 75x (2 x 10°x 20) x0.62425
(vi) S1 Ca =
C=255 pF
2x0.5 926.37 nH
81 1.6019 0.62425
C
4xa-Xa C Ro(-O)
-X8-1 0.9664
81 0.62425 =L
L248.38mH RL752
926.37mHSLP
c68.35pF
filter
(1A9)Fig. P. 1.11.3: Chebyshev equal ripple band pass
a1.11.3 Low Pass Filter to Band Stop Filter
GO. 1.114 Obtain the expression for inductor and capacitor of band stop filter using low pass fiiter
prototype.
By transforming low pass filter prototype as shown in Fig. 1.11.4(a), a band pass filter can be obtained.
A perfect ideal low pass filter prototype passes all the signals upto cut off frequency = 1 in pass band and stops all
frequency range.
Therefore, the frequency response of stop band filter is completely opposite to that of band pass filter. Thus, the
following frequency substitution transform then low pass filter to stop band filter.
.(1.11.17)
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02
-facdoise iu ***** *ddnrh*******
(14100) Fig. 1.1144a) : Transformation of low pass filter into stop band filter
This frequency substitution replaces the series inductor of low pass filter prototype with parallel combination of
inductor as L and capacitor C
BS
The series combination of capacitor Cq and the inductorL, are place in the placed of shunt capacitor of low pass filter
prototype
The element values of band stop filter are as follows
...(1.11.18)
BS
(o-0)4 ...(1.11.19))
(02-0) CG .(1.11.20)
1
.(1.11.21)
(o-0,)G
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Further these elements sealed as follows
R0-)L .(1.11.22)
(
..(1.11.23)
R, (02-0)L
...(1.11.24)
R,
R ..(1.11.25)
(o-0,)CG
The resulting band stop filter is shown in Fig. 1.11.4(b).
LS
RsRo
-
HH
R
v
The filter transformation of low pass to high pass, band pass and stop band filter is summarised in Table 1.11.1.
Series circuit
component
9k 1
(2-0
2. Shunt circuit
E
component
1
2-)C
T (2-)
(1A107) (1A108)
(1A109)
(1A110)
= 20 MHz
75 x 2Tx 10° (40-10)
(i) First we will design maximaly flat low pass filter
= 70.73 pF
design for N=3 as follows
R
& 2sin (-) C
75
8o &=l 27T x 10° ( 40 10) x2
8 2 2 sin L= 0.198 uH 0.2uH
-0) C
2 sin)-2 R
8 2 sin 2 x10°(40-10)x2
75x (2 x 20 x 10°)
The element values of maximally flat low pass filter are
= 318.3 pF
Bo&Rs =RL=1
81 1 Ly
iv) The resulting Band-stop filter is shown in Fig. P. 1.11.4.
LS=0.895uH LS 0.895uH
Rs R
752
1.12 FILTER IMPLEMENTATION Whereas input impedance of open circuited stub shown
exprssed as
The filters designed by using lumped elements, though
..(1.12.3)
they are simple to design, works well at only lower
frequency. ...(1.12.4)
c
The working of such filters rises two problemsat
But from Equations (1.12.2), (1.12.3) and (1.12.4) it is
higherfrequency seen that impedance of stub and lumped elements such
()The lumped elements such as inductors and
as inductor and capacitor are different function with
capacitors generally have only limited range of
respect to frequency.
values and are difficult to use at microwave
frequencies i.e. use frequencies greater them 500 Thus, Z Z and Z+Z (1.12.5)
MHz. In order to satisfy Equation (1.12.5), let's us assum
(i) Secondly the gap between filter components can that at frequency ' c
not be neglected at microwave frequency. In order z Z and Zjn +Z¢
to solve the above problems, Richard's The frequency c is the frequency at which the
transformation is used to replace inductors and functions of lumped element L and C) and
capacitors by transmission line. transmissionline stubs (Z, B) are equal.
Whereas Kuroda's identities are used to separate filter Thus, replacing @ to Oc in Equations (1.12.3) and
elements by using transmission line sections without
(1.12.4)
affecting filter response. This type of design is called joL = j Z ,tan BI
redundant filter synthesis.
In non-redundant filter synthesis, microwave filters can and = jZ, tan (1.12.6)
P
be designed by using both Richard's transformation
and Kuroda's identties in oder to improve the filter Similarly, = -jZ,cotB
response. The non-redundant filter synthesis does not
include inductors and capacitors. -i2, c o , ) (1.12.7)
S.C. But A
Z c (Short
circuited)
in jZ,tan
I= aJ8
(1A114a) (1A115b)
Fig. 1.12.2: Short circuited stub
=
jZ%lan. 46
Likewise a capacitor can be replaced with an open Thus using Pe
circuited stub with same characteristic impedance of
capacitor C' i.e. Zo = Thus, the characteristic
frequency jo,L )
Using Equation (1.12.11)
O.C.
Z drcut)
(Open z =
joLwheno<<o, .1.12.13)
8 Comparing this with impedance of inductor,
Z joL .(1.12.14)
(IA116 Open circuited (IA117Kd) Richard's Thus, from Equations (1.12.13) and
transmission stub Transformation Stub (1.12.14)
Fig. 1.12.2 z =
Z, where1
i.e. Relatively close to 1.
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It is found that Richard's Transformation of shorted 1.12.2 Kuroda's Identities
stub has nearly same input impedance to that of
inductor for all frequencies less than o, (i.e. all
Ga. 1.124 Explain how Kuroda's ldentities are
frequencies less than o of low pass filter pass band)
usefal in RF filter design
Similarly Richard's transformation of open circuited
stub has an input impedance as Kuroda's identities are very useful for implementing
Richard's transformation. These identities provide an
() equivalent circuit for two port network, where they
have closely the same S-parameters, Z-parameters, Y-
parameters and ABCD or transmission parameters.
It means that Kuroda's identities replace a two port
...UsingEquation (1.12.11)| network with its equivalent circuit without changing
Z (H) it's scattering matrix.
When <<O .(1.12.15) Kuroda's identities are useful to :
When Equation (1.12.15) compared with input Separate transmission line stubs physically.
impedance ofcapacitor impedance as: (i) Replace series stubs into shunt stub or vice versa.
(ii) Provide characteristics into more impedance
.(1.12.16)
realizable ones.
From Equations (1.12.15) and (1.12.16), it is found that
(iv) Faciliate the design of distributed elements.
both Equations have approximately same impedance
Fig. 1.12.3 presents four Kuroda's identities which are
for all frequencies @ < < o, in pass band of low pass
used for transformation of networks. These transformed
filter.
network use Unit Elements (UE) having a length of a
Thus, the filter designed using Richard's
Transformation has same frequency response as filter transmission line stub a cut off frequency with
designed using lumped elements.
specified characteristic impedance.
n Z1
U
U.E. U.E
Z1 uE nz
(a) (b)
1:n2
n:1
H
2 nz
(c) (d)
Fig.112.3:FourKuroda'sldentities=14
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-***n*^***--
(1-62)
Z n-1
O.C.
Shunt
stub
Unit element Unit element
Unit element
and I
(IA130)Fig. 1.12.5(a): Unit element of ' transmission length line
cos B
D
2 in iz, Sin 7
D +e) le sin
L Z cos B
1
D + 1 jZ tan BI
=
cos ZtanB 1
D cosh (Y4)
Now substituting tan Bl and using
Now, port 2 is open cireuited and voltage source V, is
still connected at port 1. When Vi, is incident voltage at cos 8-
port 1, then Vin e is arriving at port 2. As reflection
coefficient of open cireuit port is + 1, reflected voltage .(1.12.18)
at port 2is equal to incident voltage Vine
Thus, Now, the ABCD parameters of open circuited shunt
V,= Vin +Vi e stub as
shown in first circuit and using Equation
= Vin (1 +e") (1.12.2), has characteristic impedance-jZ, cot B
As ABCD matrix of Fig. 1.12.5(6) is obtained as
V =2V
follows:
-1-*) Here Vis connected to port 1 and port 2 is short
circuited.
and
V2
A
VL-2"
and C (1A13())Fig. 1.12.5(b)
1,=0 2Ze" ThusL=- and V, =0 V
Using Equation (1.12.17).
2Ze
and B - 02
sinh (y)
A V=0 = 1 m-3
4 2
(2)Fig. 1.12.5(c)
C
V L=0 As shown in Fig. 1.12.5(c), V, is connected at port
and port 2 is short circuited.
B = Z2
le
and -
0 1
2 is open circuited and V is still
..(1.12.19) Similarly port
connected to port 1. So that I, = 0, V, = V1 and I =0.
From left hand side of Fig. 1.12.4, these two elements Thus, using Equation (1.12.17),
are cascade. Thus using Equation (1.12.18) and
(1.12.19). A Vl0
nd c VlL,-0 = 0
1 j2Z
..(1.12.22)
As these two elements are cascaded and using
j2Z Equations (1.12.21) and (1.12.22).
VI-ia() 1 - | fA B7 1
n
..(1.12.20)) 1
Bz
4x0.5 X=0.7118
Ex. 1.12.1 3.3489 x 0.839
Design a low pass f+lter to fabricate using microstrip lines 4x1x0.5 3489
for following specifications:
83 0.7118 +0.8390
4 The normalized equal ripple low pass filter prototype
GHz, N=3, R,=R,=50,
elementvalues are:
Equal ripple =3dB
81 3.3489 =L
Soln.: 82 0.7118 = C
Given f=4 GHz, N=3 (Order offilter),
R = 12
R 50 2, G, =3 dB
83 3.3489 =L
T o design equal ripple low pass filter prototype
following design equations are used: Fig. P. 1.12.1 presents normalized equal ripple low pass
filter prototype with lumped element.
I n [5.8476] =1.7660
I N8 at o=1
X
= 2N)sinh
Z 07118B 1.405
X =sinh o=0.20R6
(IA132)Fig. P. 1.12.1(a): Low passfilter prototype with
o 3.3489
Z0 3.3489 Upitelement
1 1.405
Z 1.299 Z Z 1.299
12 (IA13Fig. P. 1.12.1(e): Appling second Kuroda's identity
502 502
n .299 217.52 217.52
From nd column Kuroda's
of identity
(Refer Fig. 1.12.3)
64.92 70.32 64.92
Value of capacitor
(IA136
Fig. 1.12.1(e) : Microstrip fabrication of final filter.
1.13 MIXED SOLVED PROBLEMS 3. The element in series and shunt arms of m-derived
T section of low pass filter are given as:
Ex. 1.13.1
0.274 x318.30 x10=43.60 nH
Design composite low pass filter by image parameter
method with R,=5 02 f,= 50 MHz and f. = 52 MHz mC = 0.274 x 127.32 x 10
Soln. mC = 34.88 p.F.
Given R=5 5 02 f, = 50 MHz and f=52 MHz
To design composite low pass filter following design
equations are used.
(L- (1-(0.214L \x 318.30x 10
4x0.274
268.61 nH
1. Design of constant -KT section oflow passfilter
The m-derived T-section of low pass filter is shown in
L 50 Fig. P. 1.13.1(a).
TX 50 x 10
m43.60nH 43.60nH
L = 318.30 nH thus= 159.15 nH
C = mC 34.88pF
50x 10"x50
C = 127.32 pF
The constant K-T section low pass filter is shown in
( L 268.61nH
4m
Fig. P. 1.13.1.
95.49nH m=95.49nH
To L=170nH filter
To Flr 17 To
Load
source
m38.1pF 2 38.1pF
(1A139) (14140)
Fig. P. 1.13.1(b) : m-derived matching sections
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5. Design of composite filter
Rs 34.88pF 170nH
502
170nH
127.32pF: R 502
Vs 38.1pF 268.61nH 38.1pF
Terminating T section m-derived Terminating9
half section constant K T section halfat msection
= 0.6
at m =0.6 section
(IA141)Fig. P. 1.13.1(c)
A composite high pass is designed by using following 2. Design of m-derived high pass filter.
design equations.
1. Design of constant - K-T section of high pass filter. m
75
L
4Tx 50x 10
19.36 nH Thus the eleme
-y-( = 0.28
C
T section of high pass filter are given as follows:
4 7 T f,R 4Tx 50 x 10° x 75 2x21.2x10- = 151.4 pF
0.28
21.2 pF
2C = 42.4 pF L 119.36x10 426.2 nH
m 0.28
Thus T-section of constant K of High pass filter is
(1-m*C (-028.x21.2 x10
shown in Fig. P. 1.13.2.
= 25.76 pF
397.8nh 397.8nH
+c39.8pF m
ZOT OTtm
(14145)Fig. P. 1.13.2(b) :m-derived matching section
Hence the composite high pass filter (T-section) is shown in Fig. P. 1.13.2(0)
2C/m 2C 2c 2C/m 2C/m 2C/m
70.66pF 42.4pF 42.4pF 151.4pF 151.4pF 70.66pF
2Um Um 2Um
397.8nH 426.2nH3 397.6nH
1-m |1Amc
m
Matching Constant K m-derived Matching
section T section T section section
2C
m
1514x 424-33.12
151.4 +42.4
pF
33.12 pF
m+2C
R
750 397.8nH 119.3nH 426nH397.8nH R 750
25.76pF 39.8pF
39.6pF
99 = 8s 0.618 = Cs
Taking log on both sides
iv) Applying the impedance and frequency scaling the
loB099 2Nlog elements of maximally flat low pass filter are:
1.9956 =2N (0.2218)
C Ra 7 5 x0.618
21x3x 10 0.437 pF
2N 1.9956
0.2218
2N = 8.9972
RB275x1.618
1096.45nH
2Tx3x
N = 4.498 5
B 2 1.41 pF
Here order of filter is 5. R, 75 x 2n x 3x 10
(i) For maximally lat low pass filter, element values L4 R, 75x 1.618_.= 6.44 nH
are calculated using Equation 2mx3x 10
&s 0.618
B=2 sin 2N R , 75 x21 x3x 10
BoB=1 0.437 pF
RL = R=Rs = 75 2
L6.43nH L4=6.44nH
750
C 0.437pFC 1.41pF Cs 0.437pF R;=752
(14148) Fig. P. 1.13.3 : Maximally flat low pass filter with scaled element
Ex.1.13.4 X = 0.1775
(ii) X = sinh2N) B4
4x1x0.8090
0.9359 x 4.5375
X = sinh766 B4 0.7620
8s
4 x aX as Ex. 1.13.5
A band stop three lumped element filter has 0.5 dB equal
centered at 3 GHz and
4x0.8090 x 0.3090 ripple response a band width of 10%
0.3768 x 0.7620 filter of 3 lumped
impedance of 752. Design a band stop
& 3.4825 elements.
(vii) Thus element values of low pass prototype equal Soln.
ripple filter are: Given N=3, Ro 752, G, =0.5,
81 3.4816 =L
f 3 GHz and (2 -0.1
82 0.7621 = C2
8s4.5375 =Ly ) In order to design band stop filter with 0.5 equal
ripple, first low pass filter prototype is designed by
84 0.7620 =C4
85 3.4825 =L_ using following equations:
Ro = R=Rs = 1 Design of low pass filter prototype:
(viii) Now converting low pass prototype into equal =sin2N
ripple high pass filter as follows:
By applying impedance and frequency scaling the sin=05
elements of high pass filter are obtained as follows:
1 sin(-1
Ro 50 x2x1x10'x3.4816
= 0.914 pF sin )=05
L Rg 50
C 2t x 1x 10x0.76211
LHP 10.44 nH First, tanh 0.5
17.37 0.02877
HP
3 R,oL 50 x 2nx 1 x 10 x 4.5375 coth7.37=34.7495
C=0.7015 pF using cot 6 tan 0=1
50 E 3.5481
L C2 21x 1x10x0.7620
,HP i) X = sinhN
= 10.44 nH
L
C Ros 50x27x 1x 10x 3.4825 X =
sinh( =0.62642
HP=0.914 pF (iv) b X+sin'(
ix) The equal ripple chebyshev high pass filter is shown
in Fig. P. 1.13.4.
b, (0.62642ý+ sin' ()
= 0.39240+ (0.8660
HP
RsR 502 C C3 C = 0.31240 +0.74995
= 0.39240+ (0.8660
(1A149) Fig. P. 1.13.4
ba1.1423
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BS 5X0.1 x 1.5963
() 21n x 3x 10
81
2x0.5
0.62642 1.5963 = 0.635 nH
c= 0.88 pF
82
4x0.5x 1
1.1423 x 1.5963
82 1.09681
c 0.1x 1.09681
3
4XaXa 75 x 2 x 3x 10
4x1x0.5
C= 0.077 pF
83 RX
1.1423 x 1.09681 Ro
(0-0,) C2 (-o,) xo,xC
83 1.5963
75
Thus element values of low pass filter prototype with 0.1 x 27t x 3x 10x 1.09681
0.5 equal ripple filter arc
L 36.27 nH
8 1.5963 =L
BS (-0,)La75 x0.1x1.5963
82= 1.09681 =C2 2Tx 3x 10
83 1.5963 =L BS =
nH
0.635
&41.00=R.=Ro
C (0)Ca
Ro(0-) L R,
(vi) =
C C1
(vii) The resulting band stop filter is shown in Fig. P.1.13.5.
LS =0.635nH L 0.635nH
R 752
36.27nH C8S=0.88pF RL
v c=0.88pF 750
-0.07pF
8 2 sin -2 Zo1
8 2 sin Ro 1
1
(2) Thus element of maximally flat low pass filter arc as
follows
1
&o &4R =R, =
v 1
502 250 | 1002 2
Chapter Ends..
O00
APTER
2 Amplifier Design
Module 2
syllabus:
Two port power gain stability.
amplifier.
GQ. 2.3.2 Obtain the expression for gain of transistor using S-parameters. 2 9
GQ. 2.4.1 What are necessary conditions for network to be unconditionaly stable ?...
******°****°°e******i***********.
*.2-10
GQ. 2.5.1 Define stability circles and obtain the expression for center and radius for output and input
stability circles. .. 2-11
2.5.1 rValues for lral = 1 (Output Stability Circle ) and ra Values for |r.l = 1 (lnput Stability Circle)..2-11
GO. 2.5.22 Draw and explain output and input'stability circles.... 2-11
2.5.2 Testing for Unconditional Stability. ******************************.***. ***********************.*n*r* 2-14
GQ. 2.5.33 Explain unconditional stability concept on Tand I's plane. . .
**************"*°************************************ 2-14
GQ. 2.5.4 What are suficient and necessary tests for network to be unconditionally stable ?. *****°°°*****°********* .2-14
LRF Design (MU-8 Sem-E&TC) (2-2) Amplifier Design
2.5.2(A) Sufficient and Necessary Tests for Unconditional Stability. e*************n****************
2-14
2.6 Single Stage Amplifier Design..
************o**********************************************************°°"*******"*******"*****°"*******esessdea...
2-19
Ga. 2.6.1 Design maximum single stage amplifier for maximum gain.. . s**s****e***************e***********************s****....
....2-19
Bilateral Case.. ************°******..
.2-19
2.6.1 Design for Maximum Gain (Simultaneous Conjugate Matching)-
Obtain the expression for maximum transducer power gain if the transistor is unconditionally
GQ. 2.6.2
2
stable.... *********"********sssonooe*
*********.******ee****************e******************************************.......
.2-22
What is maximum stable gain (Gmsa)? and what is its importance ?*****************°****.
. *********.2-28
GQ. 2.6.33
GQ. 2.6.4 How Gmeg Can be achieved ? . . ***********************************aa***********************
***
*************4
.2-28
2.7.1(A) Procedure for Drawing Constant Gain Circles in Z-smith Chart...***e****eee***ee****°*°**°*e**°°°e*********** .2-35
2.7.2 Potentialy Unstable Case When ISl> 1. ****.**o**** * *************** .2-41
GQ. 2.7.3 Explain Potentialy Unstable Case When 1S,I> 1.. °********°************°*o°7 **°°ao°O**°°*°********°*°***°* 2-41
This chapter develops a systematic design procedure definitions related to power relations.
based on 'S" parameters for designing microwave Consider two port network with its S-parameters
connected to source impedance Zs and load impedance
amplifiers.
The conventional microwave amplifiers were made up Z. It is shown in Fig. 2.2.1.
of klytrons and travelling wave tubes whereas solid Zs
state amplifiers made up of tunnel or varactor diode
v wTwo port w V2
which operates on characteristic of negative resistance network
of these devices. (Z
Due to improvement in solid state technology today's
microwave amplifiers use solid state transistor
s Tin Tout TL
including Si or SiGe BITs, GaAs HBTs, GaAs or InP,
FETs and GaAsHE MTs. (1BIFig. 2.2.1 Two port network with source and load
Thus some of the advantages of these microwave impedances
amplifiers are (i) Low cost (i) easily integrated in Three types of power gain in terms of S-parameters of
both hybrid and monolithic integrated circuitry. two port network and reflection coefficients I's and TL are
(ii) Reliable. defined as follows
The transistor amplifiers can be used in such
applications which works in greater than 100 GHz 2.2.1 Power Gain G
requiring small size, wide bandwidth, Iow noise figure
(NF) and low to medium power capacity. Power gain 'G' is defined as it is the ratio of power
dissipated in the load Z to the power delivered to the
Since, the improvement and design of microwave
input of the two port network.
transistor amplifiers slowly replaces the microwave
Mathematically it is expressed as
tubes which are still required for very high power and
P
G
high frequency applications.
Thus the most important design parameters of Power dissipated in loadZ
microwave transistor amplifiers are as follows Power delivered to the input of the two port network
) Stability (ü) Power gain (i) bandwidth (iv) noise 2.2.1)
figure in dB (v) dc requirenments (vi) input and output From Fig. 2.2.1, reflection coefficient rL looking
reflection coefficient i.e. VSWR.
towards load is expressed as
ou
V = SV+S1, V ..(2.2.5)
So, divide by V, to Equation (2.2.7)
Using Equation 2.2.4 in Equation 2.2.5
V,= S V+S V, 2.2.6) Thus, ...(2.2.12(a))
V, SaV+S,v .(2.2.7)
. Putting V=rs V, in Equation 2.2.12(a),
Using Equation 2.2.4 in Equation 2.2.7
V = Sa V +S LV2
..(2.2.8)
From Equation (2.2.6)
But from Equation (2.2.12),
2.2.9)
SaT:S V +S
Thus V can be obtained from Equation (2.2.8) as vV-S, rs)
follows:
out
V,(1-ST) =S V
Thus, V= - S ,
r) STsS2 S22 .2.2.13)
...(2.2.10) 1-Ss
S21
Substituting Equation (2.2.10) into Equation (2.2.9) From Fig. 2.2.1, applying voltage division rule,
S2 TLV V,V7V+V,
V(-Sap
S21 = V(1+T
..(2.2.14)
V Ts V, can be used
Z, 's+1) Zs (1-rs
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RF Design (MU-g"h Sem.-E&TC) (2-5) Amplifier Design
Zs z +
1-r5) Using Equations (2.2.16) and (2.2.17)
Equation 2.2.1, powergain G is expressed as:
in
Vs Mathematically, it is expressed as
(1-Ts)(1 Power available from two port network
V(17 B-rsTnt1-P+-rsT»+1-P G Power available from the source
vv= 2-2rsln
V1-T
G avn
P
avs
..(2.2.19)
Vs(1-T The power available from source i.e. Pavs is nothing but
Thus
v2(1-rsT
For all peak values of voltages,
.(2.2.15)
220
network is complex conjugately matched ( Z =
Z
V, can be solved from Equation (2.2.8)
or
ifreflection coefficient T; =r
Thus from Equation (2.2.17)
Thus V, (1-S2TL) = S V
Pavn
. V 1-STL
IV S, (1-Ir,P)l1-r
87 |1-Sr |1-rsrar I1-, =1-TST-ST)
2.2.17)
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: - r r i = 1 - r S - ) + 5 ,S | a 2.2.4 Unilateral Power Gain G
1-S The GTu is special case of transducer power gain.
Name ot Formula
a 2.2.3 Transducer Power Gain G ain
The transducer power gain Gg is the ratio of power 1. Power gain Is(1-I,P)
delivered to the load to the power available from the
source.
G-P(1-1r.hli-s,r,
Mathematically G is expressed as 2. lAvailable gain G= avn
p
a avs
G
Power deliveredto the load
Power available from the source GA 1(1-Ir)
G
avs
.(2.2.24) I1-S, (1-Irr)
Using Equation (2.2.17) and (2.2.20) in Equation 3. Transducer G
(2.2.24). power gain
G P
= avs GT-
1-rs|1-S,r
avs
30-50 IS(1-irsP)(1-Ir)
0
30+ s-0.25 G
Using Equations (2.2.11) and (2.2.13) input and output
reflection coefficients of terminated two port network are (2.05)[1-(0.428)][1-(0.25 ]
GT
obtained as,
1--0.428) (0.4542 150) P|1-(0.40 2-150)-0.25)
TnS +S 4.2025) (0.8168) (0.9375)
=S1-S22L G= 0.8373 10.9147 1
+ 0 4 1 0 2 0 5 2 10°) (-0.25) G= 5.486
T0.45 L2 130
Tn=0.45 150°
1-(0.40 4-150°) (-0.25) Ex. 2.2.22
Tn=0.45 L150° + (.60 x 10 2-176.86)
ARF amplifier has the following S-parameters:
Tin 0.454 2 150
S =0.3 - 7 0 °
G
Is1-I.) (a) Operating power gain G
(b) Available power gain Ga
(1-I r.)I1-s2rL
(c)Transducergain Gr
(2.05 [1-0.25)*]
I1-(0.404-150) (-0.25) F[1-(0.454)?] a)Unilateral transducer gain Gu
(e) Power delivered to load PL
3.9398
0.914 (0.7938) ( Available power Pa and
(g) Incident power to the amplifier Pine
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(2-8)
Soln. G = 13.73 OR G (dB)
= 10 log G
Given: Su =0.3 2-70°: 11.38 dB
10 logo 13.73
=
S213.5 2 85°
S2 =0.22- 10°; S22 0.42-45°
(b) Available power gain G
Zo -502 Z 4092 be calculated from
can
Z =732; The available power gain G
Vs = 520°v
First we will calculate the reflection Equation (2.2.23) as follows
coefficient looking
towards source and looking towards load. s(1-1 s)
Thus using Equations 2.2.2 and 2.2.3. GA
(1-1 a)I-S, rs
40-500
40+5090
(3-5[1-(0.1u]
Ts -0.1111 A(1-(0.445 ? ) | 1-(0.3 2- 70°) (-0.111) F
(12.25) (0.9876)
GA (0.8019)I 1.0118 F
L = 0.1869 GA 14.73 or
10 log1o 14.73 11.68 dB
By using Equations (2.2.11) and (2.2.13), input GA (GB) = =
and
output reflection coefficients of terminated two port network
(c) Transducer gain G
are obtained as
Transducer power gain 'G can be calculated from
S S2L
S t 1-SL Equation (2.2.25) as follows
Tn
85 ) (0.1869)
0.32-70° +4410)(3.5 2
1-(0.4 2-45°) (0.1869) G
(1-1.)Is,(1-1r)
11- r, rfl1-Sa L
Tn =(0.1379 271.80) +(0.3 2-70)
= 0.209 L-46° 1-(0.1869 P] 13.5 1-(0.11 P
S S2s 11-(-0.111) (0.209 -46)P|1-(042-45)(0.1869)DF
routS2 1-Ss GT
(0.9650)(12.25) (0.9876)
I1.0162 10.9486 F
out (0.4 2-45°)
(0.2 2-10°)(3.5 2 85°) (-0.1111) 11.6746 12.56
* 1-(0.3 2-70°) -0.1111) Gr0.9292
OR
ou(0.42-45) +(0.0767 2-103.22°) G (dB) = 10 logio (12.56) = 10.98 dB
out 0.445 2-53.420
GTU (dB) = 10 logi0 (12.67) = 11.02 dB microwave transistor amplifier. In this circuit, matching
circuits are used on both source and load end.
(e) Power delivered to load and output
This matching circuit transform the input
The power delivered to load can be calculated by using impedance Zo to source impedance Zs and load
useful gain
Equation (2.2.17) impedance Z. Transistor gain is very
parameter for amplifier design.
Iv1ST(1-Ir)n-r,
PL 8Zo 11-S2 | 1 - rsin Thus from Equation (2.2.25), the overall transducer
gain G is
GT = Gs Go G ..(2.3.1)
15 13.5P[1-(0.1869 ]|1-(-0.111)P
8x50 |1-(0.4 2-45°) (0.1869) Fl1--0.111) (0.209 -46) Where in Equation (2.3. 1),
10
Go is the gain of transistor and
P (dBm)= log1oT mW G is the gain of output load matching circuit.
981.4x 1037 The effective gains Gs and GL are due to impedance
P (dBm) = 10
10g1o1x 10 matching of source and load.
Gs
using Equation (2.2.20) i.e.
out L
(1B2)Fig. 2.3.1 : Single stage general transistor amplifier circuit
Pae 8Z, (1-rs)
15 11-(-0.111) Special case
Pavs 8x50 [1 -(0.111)] In Fig. 2.3.1, if transistor is unilateral then S2 = 0.
IS22 1 ..(2.5.1(d)
2.5 STABILITY CIRCLES
sufficient for
Equations (2.5.1(¢)) and (2.5. 1(d))
are
Ga. 2.5.1 Define stability circles and obtain the unconditional stability.
and
expression for center and radius for On the other hand from Equations (2.5.1(a))
values for I's and rL where
output and input stability circles. (2.5.1(b)) determine the
amplifier will be stable.
The regions where values of
T; and I's produce Tin=1 The range of values of I's and IL
can be obtained by
Ir=|S-S < 1 2.5.1) The stability circles are defined as the loci in the rL o r
also
They
Isplane for which 1 Tn!= 1 (or | Tut=1).
Io S+-S,, <125.10)) define the boundaries between stable
unstable regions of Is and I .
and potentially
a 2.5.1 TValues for |Tm = 1 (Output Stability Circle) and Is Values for
.2.5.2)
rr*_Oa*aSjr
(-A S)ri 1s,f-1
Thus, .(2.5.5)
IS-1AP S22-1Ar
(S2-AS S-1Sn-AS,
IS-1A s-1A(s,-1ar
S-AS Sz S 2.5.6)
IS-1AP
Similarly the expression for Tsby
Is-1ar
replacing S,, and S, is obtained as,
S
-S Sy, Sp_ .2.5.7)
Is,-1a
The radii and centres of the circles where = Is,f-1a
1 and Tout 1 in the Ts plane and Is plane respectively, are obtained
C S-As)
C= 2 (Center)
(2.5.8(a))
IS,- A
= SS .2.5.8(b))
RLIS-A (Radius)
Thus the expression for input stability circle with as centre Cs and radius Rs is expresses as,
(S-A S)
Cs I,,F-aCenter) .(2.5.9(a))
.2.5.9b))
Rs1S,- Lar| (Radius)
The expressions in Equations (2.5.8) and (2.5.9) can be solved for S-parameters of two port device of one frequeney.
These expressions can be plotted on smith chart where set of values of I and I,can be easily observed. The setof
values of and Fs produce IT,l = 1 and IT = 1. Fig. 2.5.1 shows the output and input stability circles where
T =1 and | Tou= 1.
L inl1 oul 1 Ts
T 1 R sl= 1
Rs s /
R
L
(185) (a) Output stability circle (1B6) (b) Input stability circle
Fig. 2.5.1:Stability circle |T, =1in T, planeand stability cirele | Tal= l in complexplane
iunovation
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n c n irom Equation (2.2.11). |r.J= Is..I. Thus two cases need to be differentiated depending on Diilki
or| S,l> 1.
Case 1:1S, l <1
For this, the point or origin T, 0 is port of the stable region shown in
=
as Fig. 2.5.243).
Case 2:1Snl>1
For this case, matching condition that is I, 0 results in T. =| s,, l> 1, it means that origin is part of unstabie
=
og
As shown in ig. 2.5.2(6), stable region is shaded between and the 1
output stability circle ri= 1 11= Cr
Unstable in 1 Tin 11
Stable
T 1
RL
Iink 1
inl>1
Stable Unstable
ITinl>1
(137(a) Shaded region is stable since | S,l <1 (1B9b) Stable regjonexcludesthe origin T,= 0, since 1S,>1
Fig. 2.5.2:Output stability circle showing stable and unstable regions in r,plane
Fig. (2.5.3) shows two stabilitydomainsthatis |S<1and|S,|>1forthe input stability circle.
For | S2<1, the centre I,=0mustbe stable.
For S22>1, the centre Is=0 becomes unstable.
Ts T's
oul1
Unstable Stable
Rs
c
Toulk 1
Tounl>1 Unstable
outl>1
sl 1 ITsl= 1
oul= S22l for Ts =0
1-1S 2.5.13)
Ex. 2.5.2
IS-4s1+IS,S, Determine stability region of HP HFET 102 GaAs FET
0 given follows
Thusif > 1, an amplifier is unconditionally stable. It GHz with
at 2 a bias voltage V = are as
R 0.075219
210.06244 -174 Here 0.170 L-470, So (0.170 2-470)*
= (0.170247°)
0.17047
K 0.075219 0.075219 Thus, C 0.125545
210.06244 0.12488
K = 0.602 C 1.354 247
We have 1Al 0.696 1 but K
=
< =
0.602 << 1, So an R IS-1
amplifier is not
unconditionally stable, thus
KO.020 262.4) (3.122 123.6°)|
an
amplifier is potentially unstable.
R 10.781 -10.696 r
The stability of device is also evaluated by using u test.
Therefore, by using Equation (2.5.13), 0.06244-174
R 0.125545
1-IS,F 0.06244
>1 RL0.125545
S2 AS|+1S, S2
R = 0.49 = 0.50
Here, S= 0.894 2-60.6°, So S,, =0.894 260.6°
The center and radius of input stability circles are
0.200764
0.170+0.06244 0.86 C.I0.894-60.6)-(0.696 483)(0.781427.6)
0.314680
Input
stability
circle
Rs
0.37
042
Output
Unstable stability
region circle
H
iANGE CDPONENT (GWe
FLII
TTTT
TOWARDS LOAD
- TOWARDS GENERATOR
CENTER
ORIGIN
(1B52)Fig. P. 2.5.2
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RF Design (MU-8" Sem-E&TC) (2-18)
stability circle
and input
Ex. 2.5.3 Thus center radii of output
follows:
are determined
as
S-parameters of a properly biased transistor are found at stability circle
stability circle are
radius for output
2 GHz as follows with S0 Q reference The center and
impedance.
S 0.894 2-60.6° obtained as
S2 0.02 L62.4° (SAS (center)
S21 3.1222123.6
IS-1al
2-83) (0.894 2 60.6)1*
Sg2 0.781 2-27.6°
2-27.6)-(0.6964
Determine it's and plot the stability circles i f _ 0 . 7 8 1
stability
transistor is potentially unstable.
0.781f-10.6964 r
Soln.: Here, S =
0.894 2-60.6
Given: So, S = 0.8942 60.6
Zy 502
S1 0.894 2-60.6°, 0.17058 -47)
C 0.1249
Si20.02262.4*
S21 3.122 2 123.6; C -
0.17058 24
0.12498
136 247
S2 = 0.781 2-27.6°;
K
0.07577 Cs J0.35570.3142
4-68.56]
2x |0.06244
Cs 0.3557 268.56
K = 0.6067 '
0.31420
Since K test (K = 0.6067 is not greater than 1) for Cs= 1.132 L68.5°
stability has not passed so this transistor is potentially Similarly the radius of input stability circle is
calculated as follows:
unstable.)
Thus stability circles are drawn to determine the R SyS
S-IaI
stability regions.
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-19) Amplifier Design
R, O.02 262.4) (3.122 2123.6)| However most of the transistors have large I S,, l and
0.894-0.69641 that producing impedance mismatch between
Rs 0.06244 -174 IS2 so
S1-S
OviIng Equations (2.6.4)
and
.(2.6.5)
conjugate match. Carrying these values(2.6.5) simultaneously, gives the values of rs and r. required for a Sludtus
..(2.6.6)
S-SS +S Sls
1-Ss
Thus, r SSa-S,S,)r
1-S,,T's
Ss ...(2.6.7)
Where in Equation (2.6.7), A S,, S22-S12 S Substituting Equation (2.6.7) in Equation (2.6.6), have
=
we
S1-Ss
ss(S-4)
r,
sS.
1-S,s-S2(Sa-r, )
SS (S-ts4)
sS(S2-Is A)
sS 1-S,r -IS2+A Ss
. SS(Sa-T, A)
rsS 1-Is,f-rs (S1-A S)
. S-Sf-T,(S-4s,]+s,s(Sa-r,
1-1S-rs S-aS,)
rs[1-Is-r, S-As)] = s(1-Is,)-r, 5, (Su-AS)+s$ (s.-T, 4)
r(1-IS)-r, S-4s) = s(1-S)-I, 57 (S-As)+s;s,(s,-T,)
S»
Using (S S2-S S)= ar allows
A us to write as aquadratic equation for Irs as follows.
r,-1S)+r,(asa-S,«) =
r(as, s,-Is,-as,s)+s-sS+S, S S
Using IS,= S,, S
B, t B-41C
2C .(2.6.9)
Where in Equation (2.6.9)
1+IS-IS-1F ...(2.6.10)
and C S-AS .(2.6.11)
Similarly a quadratic equation can be formed and its solution can be found as
. BVB-41G
2C2 ..(2.6.12)
Where in Equation (2.6.12)
B = 1+S,-Is,f- 1a .(2.6.13)
and
S2AS (2.6.14)
In first case i >1 and B >0 in equation (2.6.9), then the solution with minus sign produces ITs l<1 and with
In second case if 1 with B <0 in equation (2.6.9), the solution with plus sign produces|rs I< 1 and the
1-SlL.
1-S22L
= S SaT +S,S,
1-SzL
*
1-Ir 1- S
-Sa-1Sar[Í .(2.6.15)
1-S2
Substituting Equation (2.6.15) in Equation (2.6.3), as follows
Grma Is (1-Ir)
1-S,,T-S-Ar,L (11-S,)
I1-ST
fmax
IS,'(1-I)_
1-S-Is-Ar
-1)
(1-F1-)-(6-ar)(s-s'r)
IS(1-Irt)
GTma
1--s,r,+1'ir]-[s,-Sy "-s,ar, +1arirs]
GTma
s,'(1-I) ..(2.6.16)
1-IS+Iri(1s,-1ar)-2Re(TL C)
In Equation (2.6.16), C, =S-4
Now, all terms in Equation (2.6.16) are expressed in terms of K.
So forthis:
I f =IS-As l =(Sa-AS)(S%-a*S,)=I5-Sa"s -As; s+lafIs,f
Is-IS Sal +S1Sn SS-S S»l+S SS,S +las, .2.6.17)
...(2.6. 18)
1-IS B,-ISl+lAr
..2.6.20)
1-IS B,-(15-1ar)
1-ISl canbe expressed as
K
2IS,S2l
2KISS = 1-Is,,|'-IS+lat
1-1 =B,-(IS1+1a)
-(1-1,) =2KIS S2l+ (IS1+1ar)
So, 0 B-2 K|S, S2l-2(IS+1a)
Thus, 2 (IS-1a) =B, -2KIS,S21
Dividing by 2 on both sides of Equations
I - IS,,fa-x)+2 ..(2.6.24)
(ti) For Gs 1.5 dB Table P. 2.8.1 summrise the parameters for drawing
G (dB) = 10 log1o G constant gain circles:
1.5 = 10log10 Gs Table P. 28.1
0.15 = lo810 Gs
G, dB) Gs R
Taking antilog on both sides, 1.0 0.812 0.522 2 60° 0.300
Gs = 10=1.4125
1.5 0.891 0.556 260° 0.219
Thus &s Gs14 -0.891 1.7 0.933 0.573 260° 0.169
Gsma I.3848
Gain circle
G 1.0 dB
G 1.5 dEB
X G 1.7 dB
STEteL
O0 ENdaopWEYI
CENEX
From smith chart I's= 0.53 2 75° giving G, = 1.7 dB Transistor gain is :
and F 2.0 dB G IS = 3.61=5.58 dB
For output section IL = S2 = 0.5 2 60° has been Overall transducer gain is:
selected for maximum value of G GTU Gs +Go+ GL
= 1.7 dB+5.58 dB+1.25 dB
G 1-1s,,P *1.33
= 8.53 dB
1.25 dB
GL (dB)= 10log1o 1.33 =
relationship between input and output power on a log a range where amplifier has a linear power gain. As it is
scale. shown in Fig. 2.9.1, it is restricted at low power levels
by the noise level. The dynamic range dgR is defined as
Pout dBmi the difference between output power Pout. ldB at I dB
compression point and output power of the minimum
POut 1dB
detectable signal Pout, mds
The input signal P, mds is detectable if value of it's
(Dynamic output power level Po, mds is greater than the noise
range power level. The thermal output noise power level PNo
Pout.Mds
of two port network with noise figure 'F" is expressed
as
Pin. Mds Pin 1dB Pin(dBm))
PNo=KTBG, F ...(2.9.5)
(182)Fig. 2.9.1 : Output power as function of input power and PNO (dBm) = 10 log1o (KT) + 10 log1o (B)
dynamic range of nmicrowave amplifiers
+Go (dB) +F(dB) .(2.9.6)
From Fig. 2.9.1, it is seen that as input signal closes to In Equation (2.9.6), by knowing 10 log1o (KT)
saturation region, the gain start to drop off or to - 173.8 dBm at T = 300°K and B is bandwidth.
compress. It is assumed that minimum detectable input signal is
The output power is proportional to input power at low X decibles above thermal noise and typical value of X (dB)
drive levels. is 3 dB.
As the power increases above a certain point, the gain Thus,
of the transistor falls off and finally the output power
reaches saturation.
P;i,mds -
it is expressed as
G, dB G, (dB) - 1
GQ. 2.9.2 Write comparison note on different
.(2.9.3) types of power amplifiers.
Where in Equation (2.9.3), G, is small signal gain.
The relation between the output power Pout, IldB and It is known that non linearities of transistor can produce
input power, Pin.I dB at the I dB compression point in (dBm) fake frequencies and inter modulation distortion. This
is expressed as is very serious issue in wireless transmitters, especially
PouI, IdB (dBm) = Cd8 (dB) + Pin, 1dH (dBm) in multicarrier system, where fake frequencies may
G, (dB) - 1 dB + Pin, 14s (dBm) come in adjacent channels.
Po. 1da (dBm) - P.a. 14B (dBm) = G ,(dB) - 1 ...(2.9.4) Linearity is also important for non-constant envelop
The efficiency of class C amplifier is near about 100%. Table 2.10.1 shows reflection coefficients of large
signal source and load for NPN silicon bipolar power
The class C amplifiers can be used only with constant
transistor and S-parameters of small signal.
envelope modulations.
Table 2.10.1: Small signal S-parameters and large signal
The higher classes amplifier such as class D, class E, reflection coefficients (NPN silicon bipolar power transistor)
Class F and Class S, use the transistor as switch to
pump a highly resonant tank circuit and may achieve Sn S2 S T' T
very high efficiencies. (MHz dB)
The communication transistors operating at UHF 800 0.76 4.10 0.065 0.35 0.856 0.455 13.5
frequencies or above dependent on class A, class AB or 4176 76° L49°
2-163 167 4129°
class B power amplifiers'because of the need for low 900 0.76 3.42 0.073 0.35 0.747 0.478 12.0
distortion products. 4172 720 L52 4-167 -177 L161
1000 0.76 3.08 0.079 0.36 0.797 0.491 10.0
2.10 LARGE SIGNAL 2169 269 453 4-169-187
CHARACTERIZATION OF 185
Another way to characterize the large signal operation
TRANSISTORS
ofa transistor is to
plot contours of constant power
output on a smith chart as a function of load reflection
Ga. 2.10.1 Explain the two ways to characterize coefficient FLp» with input and output sections of
transistor.
the large signal of transistor matched conjugately.
its These are called load pull contours. The load
A transistor operateslinearly for signal if power pull
point, 'Pi'. contours can be obtained
level is well below the 1 dB compression using an automated
measurement set up with computer controlled
should not depend
Thus S-parameters of small signal
the terminating
electromechanical stub tuners.
power level
or on
on either the input The set of load pull contours is shown in Fig. 2.10.1 on
impedance. the smith chart.
or equal to P,,
For power level signals greater than
and the measured
ransistor operate non-linearly
level and on
-parameter will depend on input power
0.39 36 0.16
,
0.36 016
0.34
042
16 dBm M5 dBm
, 1
04
18dB
X
HOB
R.coemA 114 1 1 71 i
cEMER
oRIGN
(1B40Fig. 2.10.1 Constant output power contours versus load impedance for typical power FET
From Fig. 2.10.1 it is observed thatthese are not perfect constant circles due to non-linearities of the device.
This set of load pull of contours is similar in function to the constant gain contours.
The third way is an equivalent circuit model can also be developed and used to analyse large signal performance of
FETs and BJTs.
The main parameters of microwave FET are Cg gm Cad and Rq
A fact in modelling large signal transistors is that most of the parameters are dependent on which increases
temperature
with output power.
Equivalent circuit models are very useful when used with computer aided design software.
bandwidth.
therefore helps to improve efficiency and
GQ. 2.11.1 Explain design of class A
power Ex. 2.11.1
amplifiers. NPN silicoon
The output power of Motorola MPF858S
A class A power amplifier can be designed by using at 900 MHz
bipolar transistor is 3W. Design an amplifier
large signal parameters. As class A amplifiers are using above transistor.
ideally linear, it is possible to design class A amplifier sections for an
by using small signal S-parameters. Design input and output impedance matching
amplifier.
But better results can be obtained by using large signal Find required input power and also compute the power
S-parameters.
added efficiency.
To design class A amplifier by using
small signal
to calculate source and load
S-parameters, first step to check the stability of the Use given S-parameters
reflection coefficients for conjugate matching and compare
device.
to the actual large signal values of I'se and I'_p
Since instability start at low level signals, small signal
The small signal S-parameters of the MRF858S transistor at
S-parameters can be used for this case.
Stability is important parameters for power amplifiers 900 MHz are:
because high power oscillations can easily damage S =0.940 2164°, S2 0.031 L59°,
active devices and related circuitry. S22 0.570 2-165°.
Depending on frequency range and output power, the For VCE 24V and k= 0.5A, the output power at 1 dB
transistor should be chosen. compression point is 3.6W and the power gain is 12 dB. The
Ideally the output power level is decided by assuming source and load impedances are Zin = (1.2 +j 3.5) and
20% more power capacity than required by the design.
Zou (9.0+j 14.5) 2.
Silicon bipolar transistors are cheaper than GaAs FET
at frequencies upto few GHz.
Soln.
Given: Transistor MRF 8585
Silicon bipolar transistors also have higher power
F 900 MHz
outputs than GaAs FET.
The small signal S-parameters are
An amplifier which produces output power more than a
few tenths of watt, it is important to have a good SI0.9402164,
S12 = 0.031 L59°,
thermal contact of transistor package to a heat sink.
Input matching
networks are designed to be S21 1.222 243,
conjugately matched and to transfer
maximum output S22 0.570 -165°.
networks are designed Vce 24 V
power, whereas output matching
and obtained from
to get maximum output power
are
Ic 0.5A
Pout ldB (dB) = 3.6 W
and load
The values of reflection coefficients of source
signal
Zin(1.2+j 3.5) Q2
are different from those obtained
from small
defined as Zout(9.0+j14.5)Q
S-parameters First by using small signal
B,tyB-4IC) S-parameters we will do
. B , B - 4IC stability test as follows
2C2
2C IS-IsP+ 1a
important in the K
Low loss matching networks are
2121 Sa S21
where currents are high
Output stage of power amplifier
to achieve good efficiency.
K = 0.088525=1,1694
0.0757 >1
1.1694 > 1
C S2-AS
From the values of K >1and A <1, it is clear that the
Here S= 0.940 2 164°, So, S,, =0.940 -164
device is unconditionally stable. Thus
Za 2+i3.5-50 lL2O.06827)-134°
in
Z+Z1.2+j3.5 +50 rL 0.716 2 134
-48.8+j3.5
n 51.2 +1=0953 2172° The values of Is and r; satisfies the relationship
Tin and rour
Similarly, out 9.0+j9.0+j 14550 Thus I's= and = b u t not exactly because the
Zout tZo 14.5 + 50 out
B,tyB-4IC Ts==0.9532-172
2 C TL = = 0.715 -147
Where B,= 1+1S,-1S2-1Ar The complete AC amplifier circuit is shown in
B, = 1+ (0.940) - (0.570) - (0.545)*
Fig. P. 2.11.1.
B= 1.2616
0.110A
C =S A S2
502 0.037 500
Here Sz = 0.5702-165°, So S2 = 0.570 2165°
500
C = (0.940 Z160°) -(0.545 -4.87) (0.570 2165°)
0.176
C = 0.6304 2166°
27
_ 1.2616 ty1.2616)-4 (0.6304)
2 0.6304 2166°)
PAE
3.0-0.189
0.2342 ISC1-I, H1-Ir
12
G =
Ex. 2.12.1 G
F
A microwave network is shown below in Fig. P. 2.12.1(a)
I1-I I1
-S2 TL
compute available power gain, transducer power gain and (0.707) ()0.5
(1) (1)
actual power gain (b) How do these change if load is
(b) For load changed to 252, So Z; = 252
changed to 252. (¢) How do these gains change if the source
impedance is changed to 252? :-1/3
Zs5002 rs =
o0, T,= S1+SS
1-3,
Attenuator r =
0+ T0.707-13)
3dB Z 5002, 250 1-0
502 in (0.707) (0.707) (-1/3)
(1825)Fig. P. 2.12.1
E--
Now for load Zs= 25 2
Soln. is
G) The available power is
= 0,499 0 . 5
[ o 0.707]
S]Lo.707 0J ii) The transducer power gain is expressed as
=0.707
So, S = 0, S12
G.ST (1-1 )-In)
S210.707and S2
=0
I1-r a |1-S
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0.707) (1-0)(1-(1/31 Gr 0.707) (1-(1/3 (1=-0)
I1-0r(1-0) 1-01(1 -0)
GT = (0.707) (1 - (1/9))
G = (0.707(1-)a
G, -4G)-5=044
(ii) The actual gain is expressed as G
(ii) The actual power gain G is expressed as
G
0.7071-) Ex. 2.12.2
L Tn =0, Is
50 Soln.
=
=Z.+2=25+50-1/3 S-parameters of given transistor are
S 0.61 -170°,
S20.06 L70°,
0.707)
0+ (0.707) (-1/3) Sa2.3280°,
S220.72 L25°,Z = 25,
ut -13)=-
(-1/3)=- Z= 100 2, Z,= 502, Vs =2V
GA
IS1-1rb
11-S,Is(1-Irou 1 rinS +SaSa
1-STL
O.707- (1-(1/3)) Z-Z 100-50 50
GA
(1)(1-(1/6)) Z+z100+50 150 3
0.707) (1-1/9) Z7092.3 4 80° 13
Tin (0.612-170°) + 61-0.72 (-25°) (1/3)
1-36 Tn= 0.650 L-174°
GA 36-1
36
).(G)- r
r Sz2+ 1-S,,'s
- --13
G 50.457 out 0.72 2-25°)
(ii) The transducer gain Gy is expressed as 0.06 L70)(2.3 80°) -1/3)
G, = IS(1-Ir,H1-ir 1-(0.61 (-170°)(- 1/3))
GT T1-rs ra I1 -S22l* rou0.7772-25°
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Now, the power gain 'G' is
(a)1)
G. 1S (1-Ir,D1-ir)
G 1S(1-Ind I1-S,,rsT 1-Srl
(1-IT,H1 -S2r
2.3 |1-(1/B e(-(3-(3)
1-(0.650) ] [1-(0.72 2-25°) (1/3)1 GTu
4.7022 1-062-170(3)|1-072-25()
G
0.3595 L 14.77 4.1719
G l0.4022 29.811
G 13.07 2-14.77 13.07
4.1719
G (dB) 10 log1 (13.07) =
11.16 da 0.4022
GiyThe available gain is calculated as GTu=10.37
G = 17.91 = 18 250
GdB) = 10 log1o Ga
250
G(dB)12.55 d
i ) The transducer power gain G, is calculated as:
(1B25A)Fig. P. 2.12.2
G, S1-Ir,D1-ird
1-TT |1-Sr, PAVS
G
P(-()(-) 4x 25
1-3(050 4-1741-872 2- () PAvs=0.02 W
4.1797 4.1797 Now the power delivered to load is calculated as
l0.3834 11.461 0.3834
10.90
G PANS
(iv) GTudB) = 10 log10 Gu PL =
Gy Pavs= (10.90) (0.02)
PL = 0.218 W
GrudB) = 10 log10 (10.90)
GTdB) = 10.37 d
Iounl1
Stable
Toutl 1
Stable
Stable
- Taunl= 1
Toutl 1
ICl
Stable
(
K1, 1A1, IS11l< 1. S2>1 K>1, 1A<1, IS11l< 1, IS22<1
(1B27(A)Xc) (d)
Tounl 1 outl1
Stable
Stable
C
(1828(A)»Fig. P. 2.12:3
Toutl 1
Stable
ounl= 1
Stable- C
Toul 1
Stable
--
K>1 141, IS,1l<1,S22l>1 K1, 1a1, IS111<1, ISz21
s1B27Kc) (d)
out 1
Tounl1
Stable
Stable
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Ex. 2.12.4
i g P. 2.12.4 shows the output stability circles. Determine the stable region for load reflection coefficient.
l=1
Stable
U=1
Finl1 IC Stable-
TL Plane
LPlane Iin=1
IS411.S22l> 1
S1111.1S2zl1
(1B29(A) Fig. P. 2.12.4
Soln.
1
Stable
Iinl= 1 =1
Stable-
rL= Plane
LPlane inl1
IS1.1S22>1
S111>1, 1S221
(1829a) (6)
Fig. P. 2.12.4(A)
Itis known that T, =S, when T=0. Thus, the origin that is r=0is a stable point when IS,,l<1.
The "shaded" part is the "stable region".
Ex. 2.12.5
Design microwave amplifer using GaAsFET to operate f= 6 GHz with maximum transducer power gain. The S-parameters
at the linear bias point,
Vps =4 V and Ips =0.5ps are
S =0.641 L-171.30°
Sy2 0.057 L 16.3°
S 2.058 228.5°
S =0.5722-95.70
Soln.
To determine the stability of microwave amplifier, we will conduct the K-A test for deciding the stability.
Thus,
K-1Sf-IS,+lai
21SS
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Where A S S2n-S12 S2nl<1
Thus,
A =
I(0.641 2-171.30°) (0.572 L-95.7°
A = 0.3014 2 109.86
)-(0.057 2 16.3°) (2.058 L28. )
1Al = 0.3014<1
Thus,
_
K 1-(0.641-(0.572 (0.3014 0.3527
2 I(
0.057
L 16.3°) 2 (2.058 28.5°) l 210.1173 244.8
K 0.3527
2x0.11731.504> 11
Since K> 1 and IAl< 1, the GaAsFET is
unconditionally stable.
The reflection coefficients for a simultaneous conjugate match are calculated as
Ts
B,2B-41c
2 C
Where B, = 1+1s,-IS,-1aP
B, 1+(0.641)-(0.572) -(0.3014
B,= 0.9928
C2 0.3911 2 - 103.9°
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The maximum transducer power gain is
GT.mar a(K-VR-1)
IS,
GT.ma 21.s04-V(1.504)-1)
GT.max 36.1052 x 0.38060 = 13.74
GT.ma(dB) = 10 lo810 GTmax
= 10 log1o (13.74)
11.37 dB
GT.max
circuited
Lengthstub 0.185.
o fopen
3 AG
34
o.16 916
0.3 032
L 0.31
H
H HH
UCTANCE COMPON
o +
L
0.6
T
T TT T
-
VO
,1 12
CENTER
ORG*
0.33
0AT_
O40
0.36
, 042
120
XXX
H Lengthofseries v69
O.18 0
/ euj
dunsanIu
RADALLY SCALED PARAMETERS
2 12 1. 1s
TOWARDS LOAD , ToWARDS GENERATOR
, 1
CENTER
ululu
ORIGN
Y, 50 =(144-j 24.6)x10 S
and
Y = 0.414-i1.19_
50
=(8.28-j 23.8)x 10°s
The input matching network is designed by using open shunt stub of length 0.185 A and series transmission line of
length 0.0615
The output matching network is designed using open shunt stub of length 0.176 and series transmission line of length
0.169 .
v Cs
0.3027 122 1.78 2122°
0.1694
0.185
(1B90)Fig. P. 2.12.5(c): Complete ACamplifier circuit The Radius is
Rs
S Sp
Ex. 2.12.6 ISIs-1Al
The S-parameters of F = 800 MHz are
(0.03540°) (5115°2
S 0.652-95° (0.65)-(0.503)
S120.035 240 | 0.175155°
0.16949
S21 54115° 0.175
Sz0.82-35° 0.16949
Determine stability and show how resistive loading can 1.03
stabilize the transistor.
For output stability circles.
Soln.: The center is
First we determine the stability of transistor.
A = S S22-Si2 S21
Cs
(S-a)
IS,-1s
1.04 35
9.4
130 120
0.45
2 mS
HO.15 (50) = 920.58 (50)
or 5002.
= 292 FHHER
HH
T T O
o CI'O
CEER
ORION
For input stability circle, the smith chart presents Is plane and for the output stability circle smith chart presents I.
plane.
From Fig. 2.12.6 it is seen that series resister of 9 s2 assures the stability at input side if a series resistance of 9 2
produces an impedance Zs = Z,+92. It is shown in Fig. P. 2.12.6(a)
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s 90 T's
Zs Zs+9
(1831)Fig. P. 2.12.6(a) : Series resistive loading of the transistor at input part
92 292
-
5002
71.52
S = 0.342- 170°, Sa1 = 4.3 2 80°, S12 = 0.06 70 and Since K > 1 and 1AI < 1, so the device is
S22 0.45 2 - 25°. Determine stability and plot stability
unconditionally stable.
circles if the device potentially unstable.
RL 0.258 1.37
0.1888 i) -test
For input stability circle 1-(0.34
NOW(O.452-25) (0.665 2-1.7) (0.34 2 170°) 1
The centeris
1.94
Cs (S-AS
1S,- 1A
Since u>1 and 1Al <l
So the device A is unconditionally stable.
C. 0,342-170)-(0.1172-50°) (0.45/25°)
(0.34) - (0.117)
For device B
C=5843-174°)* ) K-Atest
0.1019
A S S2-S21 Si2
Cs 0.3843174
0.1019
3,77 L174° A = 1.366 2 - 14.5°
Al = 1.36>1
The radius for input stability circle is
-IS
R IS S, +|S\ S,l
O.06 270 4.3280) 0.283
(0.34) -(0.117) Since 1Al >1, device is potentially stable. No need to
R = 5 8150° 0.258 determine K test.
Rs .1019 0.1019 F o r device C
1-1S
S S,,A+S S,l
1.056
Device S S2 S S Stability
0.34 2-170° 0.06 70°|4.3 280 0.45 2-25°|1.194 unconditionally Stability
B 0.752-60° 0.270° 5.090° 0.5 290° Potentially Stability
C 0.65 2-140° 0.04260° |2.42 50° 2.4 2501.056 unconditionally Stability|
From above values of it can be said that greater the values of u indicates that the device has greater
degree of stability
So the device A has best stability
Ex. 2.12.9 Ex. 2.12.10
Prove that for S12 = 0 (unilateral device), u test implies that Design an amplifier for maximum gain at 5.0 GHz with a
IS,<1 and I S< Ifor unconditional stability GaAs FET having following S-parameters (Z% 502 );
S 0.65 4-140°, S21 = 2.4 2 50°, S =0.04 L60°,
Soln.: S 0.70 2 - 65°. Design matching sections using open
The test is expressed as
circuited shunt stubs
1-IS
IS-sal+IS1IS2 Sid Soln.
IfS12= 0, as unilateral then A reduces to Given GaAs FET transistor
A = S1S2n-S,2S21 S 0.65 2-140°
A = SSn . . .
S21 2.4 2 50°
S120
C2 = 0.450 2-71°
For designing of an amplifier for maximum gain,
reflection coefficients for source and load are calculated as Thus
0.9130-o9130)-4 (0.450)
r= 8tyB-4CF r =
2 (0.450 L-71°)
2C
0.9130-0.15350.7595_
Where rL 0.92-71
B, 1+1s,-Is-A TL = 0.84371
So, S 0.70L65°
(ii) Findings of gain
C = (0.65 - 140°)
The gain can be calculated as
- (0.393 2 165°) (0.70 265)
C = 0.3820 2- 147 Gs 1-r
= 3.14
Thus Gs1-(0.826)
0.7780-1N0.7780)-4 (0.3820) Go ISf= (2.4)* = 5.76
2x (0.3820 2-147°)
T = 780-0.1469 1-IT
T's 0.764 - 147 GL11-Sr1
*S 0.6311 =0.826 2 147
0.7642-147 1-0.843)
11-(0.70 2-65°) (0.843 L71°NF
0.2893
Similarly TL GL10.1744 2-16.98°
r = tVB-4IC
0.2893
2C2 GL 0.1744 1.65
circuited
Lengths tof
open
ub 0.198A
036
4016
60 0.33
130 03 031
TAE
ea
Stub
H
H LDHH
NEN
TT T
800
0.250 TT
PEKEORTE
17AO TOWARDSLOAD TOWAROS GENERATOR
For input matching network firstTs is plotted. Zg is represented by Is by looking into the matching section towards the
source impedance, Zg
As a microwave amplifier is to be designed by using open circuited shunt stub of length line.
We will convert to the normalized admittance Y, and to find that a line of length 0.098 A will bring us to the
1+jbcircle.
Then required stub admittancc is j 2.5 for open circuited stub of length 0.198 A.
A similar procedure given a line length of O.250 A and a stub length of 0.98 Aa.
0.098
0.250
0.1982
Design an amplifier with GTUma using the transistor with the following S- parameters (Z,= 50 2) at 6.0 GHZ.
S=0.61 2-170°, S2 =2.24 2 32°, S,, =0, S,, =0.722-83°. Design L- section matching using lumped elements
Soln.
Given S 0.61 2-170
S2 0o
Sa1 2.24 4 32
S22 0.72 2-83
()Stabillty test:
First we determine the stability of the device using K and A test
So A =
S,S2-S\S21
As 0 so A
S12 =SS2
A =
(0.61 2-170°) (0.72 2-83°)
A = 0.4392 2 107
AI = 0.4392
- I S , + IA?
Now K =
2 IS12921
As S2 0, K=*
Since K= o that is > 1 and lAl < 1, so the transistor is unconditionally stable, since S2 = 0, the transistor is unilateral,
SO
Ts S = 0.6 2 170
and TL =S2 =0.722 83°
The maximum unilateral transducer gain
1
GTu.mar T-Is,7S 1-IS
GrU
GTuma 1-(0.61) (2.24) 1-(0.72)
TUmax = 16.59
HH
0.38 0.37 3/6
0.34
042
120
E 33
H4 A
H
H
H
TT
90'0
800 S O
08
cEER
ORIGN
X-0.365
b-1.35
3b=-1.75
L = 50
27tfb 27x6x 10 x(-1.35) (Z 50 2)
L 50 S 0.61 L-170°
27t x 6 x 10x1.350.98 nH S21 2.24 L32°
The modified AC amplifier is
S2 0
0.75nH
S22 0.72 L-83°
1.45pF olp
Plot constant gain circles for Gs = 1 dB, G = 2 dB. Use
0.75nH soln.
First we will conduct stability test using K and A
A SS2-S12S21
(13344)Fig. P. 2.12.11b): AC amplifier circuit Since Sa = 0
Ex. 2.12.12
A SS22
Show that 0 dB gain circle for Gs = 1 will pass through the
(0.61 2-170°)(0.722-83°)
A = 0,4392 L107
center of the smith chart
Al = 0.4392
Soln. 1-15,-IS+ 1a?
The normalized gain factor for Gs = 1 is defined as
2 S Sa
& Osmax
=1-IS K 0.61)-(0.72)' +(0.4392?
2 I(0) (2.24 (32))|
1-8, = IS, So K = co
Thus equations of center and radius of constant gain
Since K= and IAl< 1 the transistor is
unconditionally
oo
Cs
1-ISS_S
1-IS
Thus,
Gs (dB) = 10 log1, Gs
Similarly,
1 =
10 log10 Gs -&(1-15
R 1(1- B)S»
0.1 =
log Gs
. V1-0.763 (1-(0.72)
Taking antilog on both sides, R 1-(1-0.763) (0.72)
Gs= 10=1.26 R = 0.269
G, (dB) =
10log10 5.01 = 7.00 dB
G (dB) = 10 log G
Thus overall gain of transistor for given s-parameters is
2 = 10 log10 G
0.2 = log G
GTUmax Gs(dB) +G(dB) +G,(dB)
= 1+7+2
Taking antilog
G = 1.58
TUmax 10 dB
Table P. 2.12.13 : Summarise the parameters for plotting
B= 0.763
2.07
constant gain circles
Cs
B
1-(1-gs) S, 2 dB or 1.58 0.763 0.626 2 83 0.269
Here S =0614-170°, soS, =0.61 170° These circles are plotted on smith chart choosing
0.792) (0.61 2170°) Ts 0,215L 170° and r =0.361 83°to reduce the
Thus Cs -(1-0.792) (0.61) magnitude of these values. After matching the complete AC
Cs 0.523 2170 amplifier is shown in Fig. P. 2.12.13(a).
0.040
Rs
-8(1-15,
1-(1-8,) IS, 0.121
Rs - -0792
R, (1-0.61
1-(1-0.792) (0.61)
0.394
Rs 0.310
0.067
For output constant gain circle for G, = 2dB (1835)Fig. P. 2.12.13(a): Complete AC amplifier circuit
C 1(1- &)S,
Y,
Tar 03
OL
,?
i u uLuululul u ulL luu ,,2.,
CNER
ORIGIN
Ex. 2.12.14
Soln.:
The microwave transistor has following S-parameters as
For given
S 0.342 170°
S-parameters, the unilateral figure of meritis
calculated as follows:
S24.3 280°
U = IS IS IS,, IS2
S12 0.06 L70° (1 IS,(1- IS2)
S22 0.45 4-25° U = 0.06) (4.3 (0.34) (0.45)
(1 (0.34)) (1-(0.45))
Compute unilateral figure of merit of transistor. What is the U = 0.056
maximum error in the transducer gain if an amplifier is
designed assuming the device is unilateral1?
120
39 G 0 dB
04
03 1
t
T +8F
H
X XX XXX
TT
+
luuuuluuluuuululuuluoifu.
ORIGN
(1B45Fig. P. 2.12.15(a) :Smith Chart
IS,1l <1 and IS2l <1, the device is unconditionally stable N 1.60-158H+
4x20
(0.62 L100°)1
and device is unilateral. The overall unilateral transducer 50
gain is GTu =
Gs G, G, where N = 0.0125 [1.1690 2 68.76]
Go = IS2= (2.0)=4 N 0.0125 x 1.1690 = 0.0146
0.0511 +1 Rs
= 0.589L100° (1-gs)IS,
V0.0511 (0.0511+ 1-(0.62)) Rs V1-0.641 1-0.6
R
0.0511 +1
1-(1 -0.641) (0.6)
Rs= 0.44
Rp=0.17
For F = 3.0 dB Now
1
Lmax 1-IS,1-(0.7 1.9
F (B) = 10 logF Here G(dB) = 0
3.0 10 log1oF G(dB) = 10 log1o GS
0.3 log1oF 0 10
logi0 GL
Taking antilog on both sides 0 log1o GL
F = 1.99
Taking antilog on both sides,
N 1.99-1.581+
4x20
(0.62 2100° G=10= 1
50
L G
G 9 6 = 0.510
N = 0.256 x 1.1690 = 0.30 PLmax
SS22
C Topl 0.62
N+11 10-0.476
0.30+1 0.47622 100
100 CL
1-(1 -
B) S,a
V0.30 (0.30+1-10.621) (0.510) (0.7260°)
Rp 0.30+1
C 1-(1 -0.510) (0.7)
CL = 0.469 2 60
Rp = 0.40
0.0146 0.61100 0.014 Table P. 2.12.16(a) : Summarise the parameters for plotting
2.0dB or 1.58 2.05 dB or 1.60
0.511 0.589 2 100° 0.17 constant gain circles
|2.0 dB or 1.58 2.2 dB or 1.65 -
105 are chosen. Then F= 2.04 dB. The complete AC amplifer cirecuit using open circuited shunt stub is shown below
Fig. P. 2.12.16(a).
0.35
0.34
o4
13
03
Joe
H
E TT
0 SL LFO
TD
LL 0
0 T TIT
SEo
.coe
ORIGN
(1838)Fig. P. 2.12.16
0.031
0.0362
0.343
0.332
(LB37)Fig. P. 2.12.16(a)' : Complete AC amplifier circuit
Chapter Ends..
O00
HAPTER
(3 Frequency Generation and Mixer
Module 33
syllabus:
One port and two port microwave oscillator design.
3-4
Introduction..
*************************************************.*****
3.1
What important consideration includes for oscillators used in RF and microwave systems ? . on****** 3-4
GQ. 3.1.1
oscillator. ...
3-4
3.2 RF Oscillators..
3-4
GQ. 3.2.1 Explain Barkhausen criteria with block diagram....
GQ. 3.3.1
Determine the values of Rin that make the circuit in Fig. GO. 3.3.2(a) given below unstable.
GQ. 3.3.2(a)
L= 1H and C= 1F. . a*****e********a**a*a************°* ************a***
.3-8
For simplicity select,
(b)Detemine ifstable oscillation is possible
if Rn (A) is given by Rn (A) =- R, (1-A)... 3-8
resistance model for one port negative resistance oscillator.. ************°°****°*a* 3-9
GQ. 3.3.3 Explain the parallel
RF Design (MU-8"h Sem.-E&TC) (3-2) Frequency Generation and Mixer
GQ. 3.3.4 (a) Find value of G that make the Fig. GQ. 3.3.4(a) unstable. For simplicity, L =1 Hand C= 1F..3-10
(b) Find stable oscillations if possible if GA) is given by,
GQ. 3.4.1 Show that both ports of two port negative resistance oscllator oscillate. ... *****°*****°*********".*n******L .3-12
3.4.1 Design Procedure for Two Port Network...
*******************i*********************""******""*****'*"***"****'a*sssstts*******
***.-12
GQ. 3.4.2 Explain the design procedure of two port network oscillator.. ansee!onrrontsa*******sa**a*********aan*************
3-12
GQ. 3.5.1 Explain the coupling of DR to microstrip line.. sssss**usnes** **snssn*a****s*** ***iooa*s******snnan 3-19
3.5.1 Coupling of Dielectric Resonatorto a Microstrip Line. -19
GQ. 3.5.2 Explain the coupling of DR to a microstrip line with diagram. . . ...J-19
3.5.2 Practical Configuration for Dielectric Resonator Oscillators (DROs).. ******************e**********************i .3-21
GQ. 3.5.3 Explain series feedback DRO using BJT and FET... ****3-21
***********"'**************"**********************e******"****assa**e**
GQ. 3.5.6 Explain a mechanical tuning of DRO.*aen************o*********** ******** * ********** ********* **** T-22
GO.3.6.1 Explain the process of down conversion of signal nearby the desired signal frequency. 3-29
3.7 Mixers.
************************.*saras******.*******************************wessosaausas.ssnpsesnase .. 3-30
GQ. 3.7.1 What is mixer or frequency conversion ? . 3-30
mixer.. *******°*****°'°****°*****
GQ. 3.8.1 Explain the operation of single ended diode mixer for down converter application OR Prove that the
GQ.3.10.1 Explain balanced mixer with 90° hybrid junction. .*******************************. **************o*******************.v 3-37
3.10.1 Single Balanced Mixer using 90° Hybrid Coupler..***°****°°**°**°**** a****°*°°°°***** a9ao**°°°at°***°°° 3-38
GQ. 3.11.1 Obtain the expressions for the V,() and V2() of image reject mixer...e******eae*** ************* saeo* 3-40
RF and microwave oscillators are used in radar and GQ3.1.2 Define practical range of stability
wireless communication system to act as signal requirement and phase nOis
sources
for frequency conversion and carrier generation. renuirewMents of Microwave oscillator
Solid state oscillator uses diode or transistor as an The range of frequency stability requirement can span
active non linear device with passive circuit to convert from 2 PPM°IC to 0.5 PPM°/C, whereas the phase noise
DC to AC RF signal. requirements may change from 80 dBe/Hz to - 110D
At low frequencies, transistor oscillator with crystal 10 kHz offset from the carrier.
dBe/Hz at a
resonators can be used to
provide improved frequency
stability and low noise performance. 3.2 RF OSCILLATORS
At higher frequencies, diodes or transistors are biased
to a negative resistance operating point. GQ 3.21 Explain Barkhaiusen criterid
Such biased transistors or diodes can be used with blockdiagram.
cavity, transmission line or dielectric resonatorsto
Generally oscillators are defined as a circuit which is
create fundamental frequency oscillations up to
non linear that converts DC power to an AC power
100 GHz.
waveform.
Frequency multipliers can be used to produce power at
Most of the RF oscillators produce sinusoidal outputs.
millimetre wave frequencies.
This sinusoidal output reduces undesired harmonics
An accurate analysis and design of oscillator circuits is
and side bands of noise.
very difficult and always caried out CAD tools.
Fig. 3.2.1 shows the block diagram of sinusoidal
This unit consider oscillators for use at microwave
oscillator. This conceptual operational block diagram
frequencies, which are different from the oscillators at
of oscillator consists of an amplifier with a frequency
lowerfrequencies due to:
dependent feedback path..
() Difference in transistor characteristics
i) An ability to make practical use of negative
V)
resistance devices.
(i) High Q-microwave resonators.
This unit also discusses about oscillator phase noise. Ho)
Single ended mixers usingg both diodes and FETs are
(1C1a)Fig. 3.2.1: Block diagram of an oscillator
also discussed along with some specialized mixer
circuits. The operation of oscillator can be described with the
GQ 3.2.2 Derive the admittance matrx Gate (CG), and by V4 = 0 a Common Collector (CC)
representation ofthetransistor Common Drain (CD) configuration can be obtained.
oscillator Feedback path in Fig. 3.2.2, can be achieved by
There are large numbers of possible RF. oscillator connecting node V, to node V4-
circuits using Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) or Redrawing the Fig. 3.2.2 with current notations and
Field Effect Transistor (FET) in either Common writing nodal analysis at node Vi, V2, V, and V4 we
Emitter (CE) / Common Source (CS), Common Base can get as,
BJT or FET
(V-V) Y3-(V1- V)Y,-(V -V) G =0
Feedback Simplifying above nodal equations,
network
Y, V,-V, Y,-V, Y, +V, Y, -V, G, +V, G=0
oscillator circuit
(Cilig. 3.2.2: Equivalent circuit of general Multiply H sign on both sides we get,
using transistor
V, Y+VY, +V, G-V2 Y- V2 G,-Y, V =0
bipolar or field V, (Y,+ Y, +G)- V, (Y, +G,)-V,
in Fig. 3.2.2, transistor can be either a
Y, =0...(3.2.3(a))
effect.
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At node V2,
-I++8m V-V2)+I =0
-V,) Y-(V-V,) Y2 +(V -V,)G,+E (V-V+(V4-V) G=0
V,Y-V Y, -V, ¥,+ V, Y, +V, G,-V, G, + 8 V1-Bm V2 + V, Vo-V,G,=0
V, +G+9m)-V2 Y, +Y, +G +Gt9m)+V, Y + V, G=0 .3.2.3(b))
At node V3
Is-I = 0
(V-V3) Y2 - (V,-V) Y, = 0
Y V2-V Y2-V, Y+ V, Y, =0
V,Y3+Y2 Va-Vs (Y2+ Y) =0
Multiply (H sign on both sides
-V, Y-Y, V, +V, (¥2+ Y) = 0 3.2.3(c))
At node V
&(V-V,)-1, = 0
&mV-V) +L = 0
&V-V)+(V.-V,)Go = 0
Equation with respect to A. For the circuit shown in the Fig. 3.3.2(a), the input and
load reflection coefficients were seBlected at the location
R 2A- shown in the Fig. 3.3.2(b).
Giving required value of A shown by Aamax which
maximizes the power,
Ao.max
AtAmax the value Ri, (A.max) is
1 = 0
RinAo.ma R ILo
Hence the value of R which maximizes the oscillator C
power is,
R-50
R 3.3.13)
RL+50
Thus selection of R according to Equation (3.3.13),
(iCsFig. 3.3.20b): Barkhausen plot ofr,, Gjo) r, jo) OR
gives god results. It is also observed that
Nyquist plot
Equation (3.3.13) is valid when the negative input
resistance varies linearly with amplitude. From given Fig. 3.3.2(a),
GQ. 3.3.2(a) Determine the values of R that
make the circuit in Fig. 3.3.2(a)
S+1+R S
.
Z S) =
given below unstable. For simplicity S
select, L LH and Where S =
jø. For 50 2 system,
C 1F.
a-50
Ta S) =
R+ 50C
() Determine if stable oscillation
possible if R (A) is given by R (A)
and Z (S)-50 s'+SR-50)+1
T S) =
Z S)+50 s+s (R +50) +1
(3.3.14)
The selection of Zi make
(c) Assume that Rin (A) is given by
=
Rin Tin (S) =
constant,
which is shown by C.
above equation with Ro = 452 and
From Nyquist test,
A 1 Ampere. Determine the Tn jo) TL gjo) = 1
value of R for maxímum oscillator
TL (Go) =
power. TL Go)
By putting =jo and using Equation (3.3.14),
S
SL
TLGo) (1-+jo (R;-50) C
(1-o)+jø R;+ 50) ...(3.3.15)
Ran RL Fig. 3.3.2(b) shows the Nyquist plot of above
Equation (3.3.15), for positive values of C. The plot for
negative values of C, is similar to the plot of positive values
S=jo of C. So it is not shown.
Tino)
By applying Nyquist test to Equation (3.3.15) shows
(1cAFig. 3.3.2(a): Circuit for GQ. 3.3.2 that the circuit is unstable when the number
of encirclements
of the point 1/C, is non-zero.
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Fig. 3.3.2(b) shows the circle is unstable when, Parallel Circuit
Model for
3.3.1
R-50 One Port Negative
R+50C Resistance Oscillator
GA,.)+G,(0,) = 0 3.3.20)
Gyn sc
and B.(A, a.)+B, (o) = 0 .(3.3.21)
The condition for start up of oscillator is expressed as Tinlj) L(o)
dBy (o
BA' A =A. doa,A-A 1
= 0
RaILCo)
dG,( >0 ..(3.3.23)
do = 0,
Simplicity, L 1 H ana
Or
1-o)+j G-0 Also with jB, = j(0-then
(1-)+joG,+( 3.3.26)
dBy ( 1
The Nyquist plot for positive values of C is shown in do
Fig. 3.3.4(b). Thus,
The Nyquist test applied to dB,()
Equation (3.3.26), shows G (A >0
that the circle is unstable when the number of BA' A=A, do = 0,
encirclements
ofthe pointis non zero.
This shows that oscillations are stable for given circuit
45x310 15 mS
Since 1C1>l it shows <1, thus C
circuit is unstable
Ex. 3.3.1
when
A one port oscillator uses a negative resistance diode having
T = 1.25 40° (Z, = 50 2) at its desired operating point
for f 6 GHz. Design load matching network for a 50 2
load impedance.
Since G, 0, an in equality is expressed as:
Soln.
(o-(6) (-6)-(G.-(H)-G) By putting the mode of calculator on complex mode
and using Tin= 1.25 240°,
After simplifying,
We can get,
G-GL
ZZ
This is the condition for the circuit of Fig. 3.3.4(a) is to Z 1-rS+125440)
-125 240)
unstable.
Zin 43.44+ 124.11 j) 2
() By using Equations (3.3.20) and (3.3.21), oscillations
can occur when G + G = 0 and B = 0. The
The load impedance must be, port negative resistance device with input impedance
K = 0.527
Thus happen
due to raise in
oscillation power until the unstable at 8
negative resistance is equal to the load resistance and Since K < 1, the transistor is potentially
X varies as a function of A that is as a function of GHz and input stability circle is drawn on smith chart
is
oscillator power. This method does not assure that Thus center and radius of input stability circle
oscillator is providing optimum power. calculated as follows
Ex. 3.4.1 C
Cs
Su-A S
IS-1AP
Design 8-GHz GaAs FET oscillator using the reverse
channel configuration shown in Fig. P.3.4.1(a). The ((0.98 2163) - (0.674 2-62) (0.465 - 120))
S-parameter of the
transistor in reverse channel Cs (0.98)- (0.674)
configuration at 8 GHz are
(1.35 2 156°)*
Tin12.84-16.6 C s = 1.35 L-156°
Rs S S
|Is,,f-1AP
Load (0.39-54°) (0.675 2-161) |
Teminating network
network
(0.98)-(o.674)
Rs 10.52 2 145° I=0.5200
As shown in Fig. P. 3.4.1(b) on smith chart, any IT in
shaded
IT 14-163 TL region produces >1 that is negative
resistance at the input port. Choosing IT at point A that
(1cnFig. P3.4.1(a) : Oscillator configuration is I =1 L-163°, the impedance associated with this
Z-j7.52.
S 0.98 L163° This reactance is presented open circuited 50 2 line
of
S=0.6752-161° length. 0.226 A. With Z connected the input reflection
S2 0.39 L-54° coefficient is obtained as rin = 12.8 - 16.6° and
Sp2 0.4652 120° associated impedance is,
Soln. Zin 2,(1+Tn)
First we do the stability test by using K and A test. (1-Ti)
1-IS-1S,f+1af S0(1+12.8 -16.6
K (1- 12.82- 16.65°)
21 S2 S21
Zin 58-j2.6 2
Where, A = Si1 S2- Si2 S21
A = (0.98 2163°) (0.465 120
- (0.39 2-54°) (0.465 2120°)
110
, 0.34
032 +9
/ LI4 HE
3.0
HHT
H LL 90 20 9
Sto
Terminating9 R0.520
port stability circle
RADALLY BCALED PARAMETERS
Cg 1.352156
2 TOWARDS LOAD TOWARDS GENERATOR
2 1
cE
ORDGIN
Now using, R =
R -19
and KL -Kn-(-j 2.6 )
K j2.62
Z = 19+j2.6 2 at f, =8 GHz
the gate to increase in instability. Choose a terminating network to match a 50 Q load and appropriate tuning network.
The S-parameters of the transistor in common source configuration are (Z,. = 50 2).
S =0.72 L-116°;
S2 2.60 L76°
S=0.03 L57°;
S =0.73 L-54°
Soln.:
By converting common source (CS) S-parameters to S-parameters of common gate (CG) configuration are
S 2.18-35°
S 2.75 296°
1.2618°
S2 0.524155°
2.18235° 1.26 2 18°
S 2.7596° 0.52 155°J
As s,>1S, 1, it shows that Fig.P. 3.4.2(a)is moreunstable than CS configuration
0.262 S 0.319
90 5nH 502
0.346 Load
T
(ZT)
C S-'S.= 1.08 2 33
Is,P-1sf Center and radius per stability
R
S-S 0.665
circle
| sP-1aP
Unstable
region
Stable
130
region
1H
o 0TANCE COMP
HHHHH TL
X
XA
T Te
NOnD A
LALOLTT
T
EET
o*o Ci'O
TOWARDS GENERATOR
. ...............
uuluuluuluulu ..4,..
uL ., .
LLLLLLLLIL o suuL
CENIER
ORIGN
Z 84+j1.9
r. =s,+ i I _ 3.962--24
1-Sr
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j-28 28 2
Therefore Z = 28 +j1.9
feedback to increase
Using Rn3 ensure enough stability for startup (1C124)Fig. P. 3.4.3 (a) : BJT to external
instability region
oscillation.
The easiest way to implement the impedance Z is The inductor gives series feedback and its effect is to
90 2 load with short length of line. and I S22 1. These values
produce large values of IS,|
Ex. 3.4.3 are obtained from 50 2 terminations.
using K and D.
S= 2.08 2-136°
K S-ISf+la? S 0.712 294°
21SnS2 S= 1.162-102°
where A= Si1 S22-S12 S21
Either input port or output port can be used as
A = (0.92 150) (1.88 2-56°)
- (0.07 120°) (1.72-80°) terminating port.
A = 0.907 2 100° For this design, emitter to ground port was chosen for
Unstable S7
region
OA2
0.34
L
0.0
T HHU LUL
TT
uco6
cETER
Fig. P.3.4.3(b)
The values of rT and rin are given as,
Fig. P.3.4.3() shows the value of Fn as I r is variced in unstable region. The magnitude rT set at 0.25, 0.s, 0.75 and 1
and angle of Iy changed from 90° to 270
DR work upto
The value of rT is selected 0.5 L 162°. So, Truely microwave oscillator using can
at lower frequencies
in 2.31 L117.6° (Z= - 25.6 + j242). Impedance 100 GHz. The disadvantage of DR
However DRs
of load matching network is, is the large dimensions of resonator.
BW 2aRC
(3.5.1) can be expressed as :
Putting S=j» Equation
Substrate Microstrip DR
Z .3.5.3)
o-)
(IC1Fig. 3.5.2: Coupling of DR to microstrip line
The
Q, 2 RC .by putting 2a RC
equivalent circuit of DR coupled to microstrip line L
is shown in Fig. 3.5.3b). An equivalent circuit (EC) of .(3.5.4)
Fig. 3.5.3(b), consist of parallel tuned circuit placed in As frequency of operation is near above to
series a
position XX° along with transmission lines. og Ci.e. +a, =20)
By approximating Equation (3.5.3),
R
Z 1+12Q,8 .(3.5.5)
where 6 =
0 0 At reference
X
plane XX, input impedance is expressed
Y
as,
E Zx Z+Z
(Uc1]Fig. 3.5.3(a): DR coupled to microstrip lines
Or Zx .3.5.6)
1+j2Q,8*
L
A coupling efficiency Bis defined as,
..(3.5.7)
In terms of P, Equation (3.5.6) is expressed as,
2B
+j2 Q.8+1
It is
observed that at o =
0 or 8
=0, Zx 28 + 1,
then theexpression for reflection coefficient at @gr =
Txox at XX reference
plane is expressed as :
(1C17Fig3.5.30b) : Equivalent circuit at XX plane
Z+1 B+1+j2Q, 8
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Thus reflection coefticient seen at the input of the line,
is expressed as
S21(d8)
i(20+ tan B+1
ß+ 1+(20,8 QuBW
3.5.9) L(dB) BW
At resonating frequency, o = and 8 = 0,
Equation (3.5.9) simplified as, L(dB)
Ty ) Tx ()e"=ATC..(3.5.10) **:******
ww.voira.vaicatorassi
B+1 B+1
S (o)] (3.5.11)
It is shown in Fig. 3.5.4. (1c20)Fig. 3.5.5(b) : Series feedback DRO using GaAs FET
DC bias
(1c21)Fig. 3.5.5(c): Parallel feedback DRO
circuit
Design 10 GHz DRO using GaAs FET whose S-parameters in common source configuration are,
Soln.
First we determine the stability test by using K and A.
K 1-1S-1S,+1a
21S12 S21
A
Where =
S S22-Si2 S21
Thus A (0.63 2 130°) (0.19 2 134°) - (0.15 26°) (2.04 24°)
A = 0.358 2-151.3°
Since K = 1.135 > 1 and IAl = 0.358<1, GaAs FET has passed K and A test.
Thus GaAs FET is uncónditionally stable. Using series feedback capacitor of series impedance ofZ =-j 120 2 (It is
implemented as open circuited shunt stub as shown in Fig. P. 3.5.1(a).
j1202
0.063A
10-2j
11e
IT = 0.909 e j28
033 0.37 A
TO0
LLJ.
O 1 3 0 1
0.39 03
031
. -
Unstable stable
region g i o n
600OL
OJO
T
SiO
LL'O
GO
CENTER
ORIGIN
Fig. P. 3.5.1(b)
The length l, of transmission line is selected to place Ty in unstable region. By selecting - ie. 0 =
0.909 2 - 180° at point A. For this value of Ir the value of Tin = 3.32 -24.57
=
Zo(1+3.32 -24.57)
Or Zin (1 3.322-24.57)
Zin 83.75-j23.12
Thus z Z2 =
83 and X =-X
Z =
(27.9 +j 23.1)
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DRO is shown in Fig. P. 3.5.1(¢). ris selected as to give large value of o
The expected output power of the oscillator will be few
dBs lower than power at So ro Sat1-SL
I
- dB compression point.
MoD It is observed that,
RD
ou iS maximum by making 1 S,, L»0
-
Ex. 3.5.2
A WLANS application requires a local oscillator operating and X =
-Xout X=-j 6.1
at 2.4 GHz. Design DRO using series feedback circuit with Z = (14.5 -j 6.1) Q
Thus,
BJT having S-parameters as (Z, = 502),
The terminating matching network is designed by using
S1 1.8 2 130°, S2 0.4 2 45°
smith chart
S21=3.8236°, S22 =0.7 2-63
The shortest transmision line length for matching ZT
Determine the required coupling coefficient for DRO and to the load impedance Z, is l = 0.481 A and open
microstrip matching network for the termination network. circuit stub length, =0.307 .
The termination network should include output load Now we have matched I to resonator network. It is
1000.
impedance assume, Q, =
known that the equivalent impedance of resonator seen
by micro strip line is read at the resonant frequency, so
Soln.:
The DRO circuit is shown in Fig. P. 3.5.2 DR is kept
the phase angle of reflection coefficient at this point I
must be zero or 180. For uncoupled parallel RLC
from open end of microstrip line, of length 4, can be tuned circuit, R <Z, so the phase will be 180°.
The
changed to match the phase of required value I.
of This is achieved by transformation through the length
Output load impedance is part of the terminating
network. The value ofreflection coefficient is not changed, so
we have
DR T= TeP=(0.62-130°)e
= 0.6 2 180°
This gives , = 0.431 A. The equivalent impedance of
o
z Zo1+T:
= 50 0.62180°)
Tout TT (1 -0.6 2 180°).
= 12.5 2
problem
(IC26)Fig. P.3.5.2: DR0 for above A SACHINSHAH Venture
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The coupling coefticient can be found out as : 3.6.1 Representation of Phasse
The variation
NR1=0.25 Noise
of oscillator is written
of |Iout with frequency gives indication Generally, output voltage
as :
of frequency stability.
V.() =V, [1 +A (t]cos [»,t +0 ()]...(3.6.1)
is amplitude of output signal.
In Equation (3.6.1), A ()
3.65 OSCILLATOR PHASE NOISE of the output waveform. The
6 () is phase variation
be controlled and have less
The noise produced amplitude variations can
by oscillator may damage the influence on system performance. Because of
performance of communication
a
receiver system. phase
harmonics
deterministic, take mixer products
or
Along with adding to the noise level of the receiver, a
noisy local oscillator will force to down conversion of variations may be discrete in
nature or random in
thermal or other random noise
undesired nearby signals, hence restricting the nature because of
selectivity of the receiver. sources.
Phase noisedenotes to the short term random From Equation (3.6.1) it is noticed that phase variation
fluctuation in the frequency or phase of oscillator cannot be distinguished from changes in frequency.
signal. Phase noise also presents uncertainty through Small variations in the oscillator frequency may
be
the detection of digitally modulated described as a frequency modulation of the carrier by:
signals.
The frequency spectrum of ideal oscillator has a signal
Af
delta function at its operating frequency. The practical e )=sin t=0,sin@, t (3.6.2)
oscillator has a frequency spectrum similar to shown in
Fig. 3.6.1. In Equation (3.6.2), fm = is the modulating
***************************************:****************************;
**i********* **********
weenrowwmepswmn nrnnoonoimoo
sin , t sin (0, sin » )1 ...(3.6.3)
In Equation (3.6.3), A () is considered to be zero
*********
because amplitude variations are ignored that is
A () =0 and 0, << 1 by considering small phase
(1C52)Fig. 3.6.1: Output spectrum of RF oscillator
deviations. Likewise sin x= X and cos X=1 are used
Fake signals because of oscillator harmonics or
to simplify Equation (3.6.3).
intermodulation products seen as discrete spikes in the
V.() =
V,[ cos o,t-6, sin ot sin », t]
random fluctuations
spectrum. Phase noise because of
produced by thermal and other noise sources looks as a =
V. cos o,t-cos(0,- o,)t- cos (o, +) t ]
broad continuous distribution. The continuous
distribution contains information about the output .(3.6.4)
The Equation (3.6.4) indicates that small phase or
signal.
frequency deviations in the output of oscillator gives
Phase noise is expressed as the ratio of power in one
modulation sidebands at t placed on either side
phase modulation sideband to the total signal power per
of the carrier signal at o,.
unit bandwidth (1 Hz) at a specific offset, fm from
as Lf) and expressed in The output spectrum of oscillator will be the form of
signal frequency. It is shown
decibels corresponding to carrier power per Hz of Fig. 3.6.1, If the deviations are because of random
bandwidth (dBc/Hz). changes in temperature or device noise.
s,(o) = -H(O)S)
3.6.5) 1+4QAo lo
7S()
4Q Ao
D.
In Equation (3.6.5), ms=is the rms value of phase
y2 1+o
1+ 4 A0) S)
deviation. The two sided power spectral density linked
with phase noise have power in both sidebands.
-1 Sa() (3.6.9)
S,)=2 (J==0 ..(3.6.6) Where Sol) is input power spectral density and S,(0)
is output power spectral density. In Equation (3.6.3)
3.6.2 Lesson's Model for Oscillator
20 is defined as the half power (3dB) bandwidth
Phase Noise
of the resonator.
This model is used to characterize the power spectral Fig. 3.6.3 shows noise spectrum of transistor amplifier
density of oscillator phase noise. Fig. 3.6.2 is modeled with sinusoidal signal at f Apart from KTB thermal
as an amplifier with feedback path. noise, transistor generate extra noise which changes 1/f
at frequencies below the frequencyf
Noise free amplifier
Vo) V.to) This 1/f or flicker noise is produced by random
Spfo) A 1 fluctuations of the carrier density in the active device.
Due to the nonlinearity of the transistor, the 1/f noise
will modulate the signal at f,.and appear as 1/f noise
side band around fo
H(a)
******************************** *****.******
(icanFig. 3.6.2: Amplifer withfeedback path for ************* e**..*..*
1/fNoise at carrier.
After including the votage gain of amplifier in
feedback transfer function then, the voltage transfer **********
Thermal
function for oscillator circuit is noise
voltage transfer function of parallel RLC resonator. As 1/f noise element dominates phase noise power at
1 frequencies closer to the carrier, it is important to
H(o) ..(3.6.8)
1+j0 1+ consider it in model.
Thus input power spectral density shown in Fig. 3.6.4
Where, , is the resonant frequency of the oscillator
is considered. Here K/Af presents the input noise
and A = - 0, is the frequency offset relative to the
component around the carrier and K T, F/ P, presents
resonant frequency.
eeh-Neo Publications ...Where Autborsinspire iunovalion A SACHIN SHAH Venture
RF Design (MU-8h Sem.-E&TC) Frequency Generation and Mixer
(3-28)
thermal noise. Thus the
power density of input of
oscillator can
be expressed as, S(o)
So)= TE www. www
A ..(3.6.10) f
= 2 Tf, is
frequency of 1/f noise. The a
corner ******
1/f **********:****************
KTFIP
depends on type of transistor
used in oscillator. Silicon ********* *******
100 Hz.
o************ **- *******p* *************************
4Q Ao Aw
octave. Ifresonator has high Q, so that fh <f then the
KT K,. 2
KOe 1...(3.6.11) noise power falls as 1/f or - 6dB/octave for the
A0 Ao
Aw frequencies between fh and far
This result is shown in Fig. 3.6.5 For higher frequencies the noise is thermal and constant
******es**ga*wrmsv sexsassoon
****
of amplifier. An amplifier without noise that is
****
**
************************
wwww..
(1c29Fig. 3.6.4: idealized power spectral density of Discrete spurious signal
amplifier noise including 1/f and thermal components
***** **********v v***V**ewv*,
Based on middle terms, there are two cases. In either ************* *****s
*******:******
*** ****************io *************************************
GQ. 3.6.1 Explain the process of down conversion of signal nearby the desired signal frequency
- - . .-
The phase noise in a receiver degrades the signal to noise ratio or bit error rate and selectivity. Of these the impact on
is the most serious. The phase noise disturbs
selectivity always
signals located nearby the desired signal frequency.
selectivity of receiver of producing down conversion of
The signal dovwn conversion process is shown in Fig. 3.6.6b). A local oscillator at frequency 1, is used to down convert
desired to an intermediate frequency (F)
asdown signal signal. Because of phase noise adjacent undesired signal
converted to the same. F frequency because of phase noise spectrum of the local osillator.
can be
The phase noise which converts this is located at an offset from carrier equal to IF frequency from undesired signal.
This process is known as reciprocal mixing.
From this diagram it is easy to see that the maximum allowable phase noise is order to get an adjacent channel rejection
or selectivity of S dB (S20) is expressed as,
L,) = C(dBm) - S(B) -I (dBm) - 10 log (B), (dBc/H2) ..(3.6.12)
Where, Cis desired level of signal in (iBm)
I is the undesired (interference) signal level (dBm)
B is the bandwidth of the IF filter (Hz).
* ***********Y*********y***********************************************¥**********************************Y*********;*********?*****************
Desired LO
Unwanted Desired
signal SIgnal
ww.o* ******* ************** Phase
**** **2****
Noise
****A ww
Noisy LOC..
eww..homww.ienwwn
*********?*****************
O IF *
w***ww***M*******w*****w*w*w**w**
(1c32)Fig. 3.6.6(b): Showing how local oscillator phase noise can get undesired signals adjacent to the desired signal
levels of-23 dBm at 0.6 MHz from the carrier, for carrier noise as computed from above expression:
level of- 99 dBm. Determine the required local oscillator requencCy Interfering signal leve L (fm) dB
phase noise at these carier frequency offsets. The channel offset (dBm) Hz
bandwidth is 200 kHz. fm (MHz
3.0
Soln.: 23 - 138
Frequency conversion
conversion. ldeally mixer
frequency
A mixer is a three port device. It uses a nonlinear or time varying element to get m x e r s works
RF and microwave
EVS an Output consisting of sum and difference of its two innut signals. Practically
on
nonlinearity provided by either a diode or transistor. SO
of input frequencies, Tiltering
A nonlineanty of device can produce a wide varietv of harmonics and other products
is necessary to select the desired
frequency components. convers1on and down
functions of frequency upP
aerowave system uses many mixers and filters to do the
*
conversion between baseband signal frequencies and RF carrier frequencies.
Mixer
FRE FLOt FiF ******
Local *******************
***
ww. ********************
(LO) IF
oscillator
.*****
IF
* * * * *
LOIE
****
LOFLo+IF ********
********
***
****
(1C33)Fig. (a) Up conversion
RF
Oscillator ************** ***Z""************
Local
oscillator O FRFFLo LoFRE FRF+FLo
(1c34)Fig. (b) Down conversion
GQ. 3.7.3 Explain frequency up conversion and is applied to the input of mixer with local oscillator
oscillator withcorresponding frequency FLo FRE+ FIF GHz. Mixers consisting transistors have lower
as this needs a
smaller LO tuning ratio when the conversion loss and have conversion gain of few dB.
across given frequency
receiver must chose RF signals
Factors affecting conversion loss are
bands.
(i) The local oscillator power level
3.7.1.4 Conversion Loss
(ii) Minimum conversion loss of 0 and 10 dB occur
for LO powers. This power level is enough as
GQ. 3.7.6 Define conversion loss of mixer
characterization of mixer often needs nonlinear
matching ports. at three
Mixer design needs impedance analysis.
be complicated by the
This impedance matching may
To obtain the relation between SSB and DSB and noise DSB, the noise figure for SSB input signal is expressed as:
N
figure, consider DSB input signal as:
FsBSN .8.7.17
VpSB ()= A [cos ( o ) t +cos (Lo +Op))
...(3.7.12) By comparing Equation (3.7.14), the noise figure of
After mixing with LO frequency signal cos @ot and SSB case is twice that of the DSB case.
low pass filtering, the down converted IF signal is FsSB 2 FpSB .(3.7.18)
expressed as:
AK ()+cos(-o) AK 3.7.1.6 Other Mixer Characteristics
VIF () =cos
AK cos t ...(3.7.13) GQ 3.7.4 Explain other characteristics of mixer.
where K is constant, occurred due to conversion loss
)The inter modulation products will be produced due to
for each sideband. non linearity of mixer. For mixers, value of P, ranges
The power of the DSB input signal of Equation (3.7.12) from 15-30 dBm.
is expressed as: () Second important characteristics of mixer is the
divided by the conversion loss. between antenna and mixer or by using RF amplifier in
noise + Nadded
The
Nadded is the noise power added by the mixer. front of mixer. Isolation between LO and RF ports is
output noise power 'N,' is written as: dependent on type of coupler used for duplexing these
two inputs. Isolation between two ports varies from
(KTB+Nded
Lc 20dB to 40dB.
here Authors inspire innovation
A SACHIN SHAH Venture
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RF Design (MU-8h Sem.-E&TC) Frequency Generation and Mixer
(3-34)
Ex. 3.7.1 956 to 981 MHz
7 8 2 to 807 MHzZ
The IS-54 digital cellular telephone system uses a receive For 956 MHz to 981 MHz, local oscillator (LO)
frequency band of 869 MHz to 894
Mz, with a first. If IF frequency as,
frequency of 87 MHz and a channel frequency using Equation (3.7.7) gives
between of 30 kHz. to 98) 87 MHz
F=FRs- FLo (869 to 894) (956
-
= -
=
What are two
possible ranges for the LO frequency ? If the
upper LO frequency range is used From Equation (3.7.9), RF image frequency range is,
determine the image 87
frequency range. Does the image frequency fall within the FIM FLo- Fi =(956 to 981) +
GQ. 3.8.1 Explain the operation of single ended diode mixer for down converter application OR Prove
that the spectrum of single ended mixer is similar to that of idealized mixer
.
A basic diode mixer circuit is shown in Fig. 3.8.1(a). This type of mixer is known as single ended mixer because it uses
only one diode device.
+DC
Diploxing bias
coupler Low pasS
DC RF filter
RF block chock
Input
ip()
IF output
VRF) Diode
DC
block
LO
Input
TVLo)
V Y
VLo)
inputs.
The diode is biased with DC bias voltage which must be decoupled from the RF signal paths. This can be achieved by
AC
using DC blocking capacitors on either side of the diode and RF chock betwcen diode of bias voltage source. Then
used for
output of diode is sent through a low pass filter to produce required IF output voltage. The same mixer can be
up conversion as every port may be used interchangeably as input or output port.
Fig. 3.8.16) shows the equivalent circuit model of single ended diode mixer. In Fig. 3.8.146), the RF and LO input
voltages are shown by two series connected voltage sources.
RF input voltage may be a cosine wave of frequency oR and is expressed as,
.(3.8.3)
The first term in Equation (3.8.3) is DC bias current. This current will be blocked from IF output by DC blocking
LO input signals, and this is filtered by low pass filter. The third
capacitors. The second term is application of RF and
termis written as
i Gd
Ves cOs + Vio cos o
Above Equation contains many new signal components, only one of component generates required IF difference
will e
products. The two DC terms again will be blocked by blocking capacitors
and terms 2
Op 2@o and ope t o
blocked by the low pass filter.
Fig. 3.8.1b).
The
produces a final IF output signal.
non linear characteristic of FET can be used for The equivalent circuit mode is shown in Fig. 3.9.3 and
mixer. The main parameter of FET that
produces non is modelled on the basis of unilateral equivalent circuit
linearity is transconductance
gm when FET works in
Common Source (Cs) configuration with of FET.
bias voltage. Fig. 3.9.1 shows
negative gate
VRF g
graph of Em versus gate
bias voltage for typical FET.
R
9mms)
***
************************************
Pinch
wwww.n
*
***************************
*****:
*****
-
-
off **************; ****
*******anann- **************mesan
(1CA3Fig.3.9.3 Equivalent circuit for FET Mixer of Fig. 3.9.2
The conversion
DC gain of FET mixer can be obtained
bias as,
(1CA2)Fig. 3.9.2 :Single ended FET mixer circuit. PIE-avail
IvR
4RRL .3.9.2)
As shown in diploxing coupler is used to
Fig. 3.9.2,
terminal of the
a
4 R
GcPRF- vail Z ..(3.9.2)
..(3.9.4) Soln.:
By using conversion gain Gc formula,
The down converted IF frequency component can be
obtained from second term of Equation (3.9.3) using
Gc
R
trignometric formula, 4 RC
Sm() Vc () = RF cos t
g Vc
IF
(3.9.5) (10x 10(300) 30.6
Where F @RF op. The IF component
-
RF
VRE input o V
IF
output
LO K Low
input pass filteer
3 dB 90°
hybrid
(1C44a) Using a 90° hybrid
RF
RF input O Through
Port Port
X5,
LO O 90o Low
IF
output
Port
Coupled
Port 3
input V2 pass filter
-
3 dB 180
hybrid
(iCA5(b) Using 180° hybrid (ICA5)c) Hybrid coupled port coupler
Fig. 3.10.1: Balanced mixer circuits
hybrid junction respectively and mix to form the V,(0) =I VRrCOs (grt-90)
following outputs at the RF and LO ports. +VLo Cos (ot-90) (4)
A
LSB
RF
input LO
input
VUs
-RF 90° F
hybrid
90° RF
hybrid
Low
pass filter
22 (u+ VD (3.11.4b))
3dB F
180 output
By mixing these voltages in the IF hybrid gives the hybrid
Low
following outputs as: pass filter
LO
nput
Disadvantages LO signal
1. IF output
Require a higher level of LO drive.
2 Requires two matching networks.
Balun
3.12.2 Differential FET
Mixer
LO LO
GQ.3.12.2 Explain differential FET mixer with input Balun
diagram.
The mixer shown in
Fig. 3.12.2 uses two FETs in
differential amplifier configuration. RF
input
The balun (balanced to
unbalanced) networks on the
LO and RF ports produce a switch between a two wire
(1C48)Fig.3.12.2: Differential FET mixer
line that is balanced with respect to ground and a
single
line that is unbalanced.
a3.12.3 Parallel Diode Mixer
Baluns are used with center tapped transformers or with
180° hybrid junctions alternating switch with LO Fig. 3.12.3 shows anti parallel diode mixer circuit.
tuning the top two FETs on and off with different half It is always used for sub harmonically pumped
cycles ofthe LO. millimetre wave conversion.
These FETs are biased just above pinch off voltage, so
every FET will be operating forslightly morethan half
The back to back diodes work as a frequency doubler hence needing LO frequency of one half the usual value.
Low pasS
ter
RF
F output.
input
The diode nonlinearity works as a resistive frequency multiplier to produce the second harmonic of the LO to mix with
RF input to generate the required output frequency.
The anti parallel diode pair has symmetric I - V characteristics that stops the fundamental mixing product of RF and LO
conversion loss.
input signals giving better
Mixer type number ofdiodes RFinput match RFLO isolation Conversion 3 order
Single ended 1 Poor Fair Good Fair
Balanced (90°) 2 Good Poor Good Fair
=r+jx, r > 0
TL Tn
Now reflection coefficient I is expressed as
1_((+ix-) (1C38) Fig. P. 3.13.2(a)
T Z+1(+jx+1)
S1 0.94-150°, S2 2.6250°
..1
(T+1)+jx S2 = 0.2L-15°,
S2 0.5 4-105
Now let Z = -R+jX for R>0 From above S-parameters, output stability circle
Indicates that it is for negative resistance. Then the T plane) is,
normalized impedance is defined as :
A-r+jx
= 1 for r>0 Here S-parameters are given for designing transistor in
Then defining reflection coefficient as common source configuration.
r
r tix-1
+1=-r+jx*l| Thus
S SS =SS, =S, and S =S1
Here A S Sn-S12 S
A = (0.9 - 150°) (0.5 L-105)
- (0.2 2-15') (2.6 2 50°)
So +)tix 2)
(r+ 1)+jx A = 0.559 2 165°
From Equation (2), T has same form as expressed in A = A'=0.559 2 165°
Equation (1), for positive resistance. So we can read the
Thus,
resistance circles as negative and interpret the "reflection
0.5-105)-(0.559 2 165°) (0.9 2 150°)*
coefficient" read from the smith chart as (0.5)-(0.559
lech-Neo Publications..ww.Where Authorsinspire innovation .A SACHIN SHAH Venture
RF Design (MU-8h sem.-E&TC) Frequency Generation and Mixer
(3-44)
Here S 0.92-150°, so S" =0.9 2150° Ex. 3.13.3
Thus, C= 8.027 2-15° oscillator using GaAs FET
Design dielectric resonator
Tin
is large. By trial and Then
eror, TT is selected as Ir= 0.92130°. Then Z120913.7Z-72)(0.84-150
Tou=(1.3 -67),
o=(1.3 2-67") +1-(1.22150°) (0.8 2-150)
Tin =(0.9 L- 150°) +UZ4-1512.6 250)(0,94130°) Tout 15.88 2-99.3° and
1-(0.5 2- 105) (0.9 L 130°)
Tn= 1.60 2-162.36 Zou 1+a
o1-It out
To obtain matching network, ZpM50+(15.88-99.3)
From direct calcujation, ou 01-(15.88 L-99.3°).
1+T) -7.6+j 1.92
Zia (1-Ta)
Then Z - u = 2.53-j 1.9
in
(1+1.61 -162)_0,282 L- 148°
(1-1.61 2-162°)
Now Z 2.53
50 19i
Zi -0.239-0.1495j 50
Z = (0.0506-0.038) 2
Zn 50(-0.239-0.1495 j)
Zn -12-7.5j Matching Z, to the load impedance gives , =0.031 A
with a required stub susceptance of +j4. Thus
ls 0.21 . =
So = =4 and
X -X, =
7.5j At the dielectric resonator,
Z 4+j 7.5 T e=(0.8 -150° ) e= 0.8 2 180
17.5 Thus ,= 04583
Z Z, (0.08 +0.15 j)
1-
The final AC circuitis shown in Fig.P.3.13.2(b).
Z
4 50+08
1-0.82 180
1805.55 S2
100 100 10
x500100 Giving the required phase noise for a specified receiver
20 2x KHz
selectivity.
Af = f-f
10
Po if 860 MHz cellular receiver with 30 kHz channel spacing is
P (dBm) =
log1o 10 w required to have an adjacent channel rejection of 80 dB,
10= 10log10 P assuming the interfering channel is at the same level as
the
10 w desired channel. The final Ip noise bandwidth is 12 kHz.
1 l0810 10 Soln.
Taking antilog on both sides, Given
B = 12 kHz, S = 80 dB, C = I, fm= 30 kHz
10 107w Using the following equation,
Po 10x 10 W= 10 mW Lf)= C (dBm)- I (dBm)- S (dB)- 10 log (B)
By putting in above equation As C = I
Z(10 kHz) = -
153 dBc/ Hz -121 dBm
-180
-190
***?*********2***
Soln.:
1000 Offset from center frequency(HZ) Given
cos t+ cos t
=
KVRF Vo cos Ot Ex. 3.13.9
which shows that both sideband convert
to same IF. If the noise power N, = KTB is applied at the RF input port
F (DSB) and conversion loss
Ex. 3.13.8
of mixer having noise figure
noise power at the IF port ?
RF
Le, what is the available output
input signal 900 MHz is down converted in a mixer to
at
IF
Assume mixer is at a physical temperao
frequency of 80 MHz. What are the two
possible LO
frequencies and corresponding image frequencies? soln. f,Lc
Soln.
No
Given: FRF900MHz N-KTB
FIF 80MH2
Two possible local oscillator frequencies,
Fio FuF (1C41)Fig.P.3.139
FLo FRF+ Fp= 900 MHz +80 MHz =980 MHz
KT B KTB(F-1) KT,BF
FLO FRF-Fp =900 MHz -80 MHz = 820 MHz N Lc Lc Lc
The image frequency for Fio 980 MHz is
Input Noise Mixer Noise
FM FLo+F=980 MHz +80 MHz =1060MHz
Chapter Ends...
O00
PTER (
Frequency Synthesizers
Module 4
Sylabus
Frequancy Synthosis, Fraquancy Synthesis by Phase Lock, Efocts of Reference Froquency on Loop
a6rmanco, Variable-Modulus Dviders, Down Coversion, Methods for
Partxmance, Reducing Switching Time, Direct Digtal
Synthesis, Synthesizer Desigr
hase Nolse: A Model for Oscillator Phase Noise, Phase Noise in Phase-Locked Loops, Etfect of Frequency Division
and
Mutiplication on Phase Noise.
GO. 4.2.3 What is double mix divide module 7. ********************** ********** **************"*** *********** .44
42.3
Comments on Dlrect Frequency Synthesizer.****** ******. *******
************* 45
rdrect Frequency Synthesis by
Phase Lock.... *****"** *** *'***7 ************* 4-5
.4.3.1 Explaln indirect frequency synthesis by phase lock loop. ** * *** *** ********
43.1
Efocts of Reference Frequency on Loop Perfomance.. ************* ****46
G0.4.3.2 of PLL.
Explain the effects of reference frequency on the lo0p performance
Explal
4.3.5 Methods for Reducing Switching Time and/or Widening the Loop Bancwidth..******************************** 4-12
GQ.4.3.7 Explain the methods to reduce switching time of synthesizer. ******** 412
Design a frequency synthesizer to cover the frequency range trom 35.40 MHZ to 40.00 MHz in 1
GG.4.3.8 k
increments..
LS....********** ******
**
****
********* 4+12
** ****************
GQ. 4.4.1 Draw and explain a method of implementing fractional division method.. * **** 414
4.4.1 A Phase Accumulator used for Fractional Division. *********************** ********************** 4-14
GO. 4.4.2 Explain phase accumulates used for fractional division with timing diagram. 414
GQ. 4.5.1 Draw and explain direct digital symthesis (DDFS).. ****** +16
GQ. 4.5.5 What word length ill be needed in a DDFS f the output spectral parity 4-19
is to be at least 80 dB?... ********
*****"************** *******
M
4.1 INNTRODUCTION This method needs highly selective
filters. Fig, 4.2.1
Can be used to produce 17 MHz
as shown in Fig. 4.2.2.
Define frequency synthesizers.
G0.4.1.1
. From Fig. 4.2.2 direct frequency synthesizer consistsof
Frequency synthesizer produces sinusoidal signals aSsortnent of frequency multipliers, dividers, mixers
having high stability with high accuracy from a single and Band Pass Filter (BPFs).
reference frequency. In order to produce 17 MHz,
the band pass iller is
Froquency synthesizers and synthesized function, tuned to centre frequcncy of 3 MHz, so the output
function/signal generators are used to generate test
Irequcncy will be produced as 3 MHz as the mixer
signals for characterization of devices, subsystems and
produces both sum and difference components,
systems.
Some of the disadvantages of this method are as
The
modern Direct Digital Frequency 1MHz
ytbesis (DDFS) uses a digital computer and digital to -2 MHz
cquency
from one or more reference frequencies from
Flters combination of
iers, multipliers,
dividers,mixers and synthestzer architecture direct
(DFig.422: Frequency
harmonic frequency synthesis
generators.
4.2.1 frequency Direct
shows block diagram of direct
a 4.2.1 Two Decade
generator is Frequency Synthesizer
Synthesizer
in which a method of barmonic
sed. A
filter is tuned frequency in
utput
to desire
GO.422 Explain two decade direct frequtney
T to get desired
frequency smthesizer
Relerence
Band pass of producing 99 iscrete
Harmonic Fig 4.2.3
sbows the method
fiter
generator (BPF crystal oscillators.
frequencies from 18
..(4.2.1) .4.22)
0-0-3HC OT
(lg 4.3,21 A PIA, ayntheeher Inedudhng three noe vnres
to t, is seduced
frequency Ae, the output reie due
the nose on refcrcuce slgnal
u is
by Ixp bandwidth as wide as ponsible.
in the phasc detector snaller
the nolse produced Sinultareowsly the top bandwidth stxnuld be
s effect of 94
output nolse produced by Vco than the reference freqvency to reduwe the
is which is conirolled by unwanited
freguency components
delector noise components ase at the
main plu4se harmonics.
1he at the reference freguency and its
rquency of eference and
harmonics of this rclerence frequency I,
Thus, the wnsth to have a low reference
is the output nole produced by he
r, the
rcquency.
fine frequency resolution is offset by
4.3,3 shows the frequency »pectrum of Vco
et minisnizz the
VCO. Pig. requirenent to yet 1, larye in order to
produced
olse ettling time of lup and tw reduce the noise
cncrgy contcnt of VCO noise is closer
to
Most of tlic by the VCO.
oscillator frequency. In PlL model this energy can
the
he total
# VCO is denoted ,
noise of the closed loop systen at
the output
and is cxpressed as follows
u) k, P(a/s
:
aa. 433 Explain variable modulus prescoling
APproach for obtaininggood
( fregueney resolution.
1+k,Pa(NS) *
14k, P(8) N,
...4.3.6)
wwwww wwinwIi vvvw frequency
G(s) asociuted with indirect
problern
Gi(s) (o + 9ya) + i The
synthesizer shown in Fig 4.34, is that the marimum
ce l(o) is low pass transfer function or unity. G(s)paso
1s
slorwer than
G() is a high working speed of prograrnmable dividers is
lo transfer function and
communicatúon systems.
transfer function. that needed in several
divider achicved
The maximum limit of progrannable
from Transistor Logic
(TTL) family is nearly about
Complementary Symmetry
25 MHz whereas from
(CMOS) logic is atbout
Metal Oxide Semiconductors
4 MHz.
2 10 Hz frequency synthesízer for
Thus for building
sone oher techniques must
1€0 stellite commuoications,
180 be used.
many ways to solve thís problem.
However thete are
10 10
1010101
4.3.3:
Fint the problem
of comparatively low operaaing speed
imlg, specirum
VCO nole programmable dividers is
discussed.
TheP1.A.
phase noise rising are slower than fiz
athe works as tow pass filter fordetector and PlLL
Programmable dividers fixed modulos
,PN,+ P) A -oP
= PN,f, + AQf, .4.3.8) Counter 1
Countar 2
(Programmable)
(Progremmable)
and the resolution can be retrieved the Equation (4.3.8)
is not casy to implement but if + AP is added the result (1Flg. 435: A programmable divider achieved
with dual-
is cxpressed as, modulus
It is noted that N
F, (N, P+ AQ- AP+ AP), must be larger than
A for the dua
modulus to work.
P
(N,- A) + (P+ Q) A]f, If
ratlo can be provided
Q= 1, though D= PN, divide
(4.3.9) in unit steps. Usually divide ratio
is P 10 and P
+Q 11.
HUCre Aulhos ingplre
invovatio
Tech-Neo Publications i A SACHIN SHAH Yenture
Sem.-E&TC)
Deslgn (MU-8 (4-9)
DF
Frequency Synthesizers
becomes
Equation (4.3.10)
Then
10N+A 4.3.3 PLL Frequency Synthesizer
D ..4.3.11)
shows that 10/11 prescaler is ICS
Equation (4.3.11)
The
vided to get
ided N> A. As Amas
provided
,
division ratios with increments of 1,
N should be at least
Ga:4.34 Give the names of PLL
synthesizer lCS
Freauency9
A = 12
Rr i6 MNz, the vahs of N and A ae iound as
64
P
P 64
185, 593, 750Hz
PNA f
180, 406, 250Hz
6 RHz f
Thus N H 185.6x 10
125 3125x 10 With these values 166 hops are possible. As only
5939,2 5930 50 hops ar needed and need a 16-bit Read Only
N S9395930 Memory (ROMD (10 bits for N counter and 6 bits for A
92 counter) to store these digital values.
Now frN 92, the vale of A is found as
It is better to use 128 hops and 27 x 16 bit ROM.
A NP= 5939- (9D (64) = 51 The new divider counter values are as follows:
N = 92
In siniar way 1804 MHe the vahue of N and A are
found as tdlows: N= 90
A = 133
Assuming A 0 for 1804 MHz
A = l12
PN+A =
P 64
x 10
PN
ISO4 NAH2
31.25 KHz
804 P 64
31.25x10
= 5772.8= $772 F= 184, 406, 2S0 Hz
.
Teeh-Nco l'ublications hem duthors inspirr innovatiea
A AAHINMAH Yentu
(MU-8hSem.-E&
Design (4-11)
RF Frequency Synthesizers
GND
2MHz
OSCout RA2 RA1 RAO LD
oSCn FR
LPF Out
MC
VpD N NA
+V HHMC1207
VSS 05 0 64/65
Prescaler
2x 16 bit ROM
Address control
Timer kogic
.(43.12)
so
ff+Nt,
ASACHIY.SIAH Ventu
There are many methods available to avoid the fight ensuring that M is
Thus fine resolution is achieved by
between the need for tine frequency resolution and the need as large as possible. The
drawback of this method is
to quickly change frequencies. large.
that the loop frequency may become too
to cover
(A) Coarse steering signal For example to design a frequency synthesizer
A method to reduce the response time includes a coarse the frequency range from 10 MHz
to 10.1 MHz with
steering signal. When the frequency is changed by 1
kHz resolution from 100 kHz reference
frequency
changing the divide ratio 'N' a steering signal can be
oscillator it is required that the VCO output frequency
produced and applied immediately to direct the VCO to
should be divided by 100. The output frequency
of
new frequency. It is shown in Fig. 4.3.8. The steering
at
signal is obtained from a lookup table. 10 MHz will need that the VCO should be operating
1GHz.
Low pass
filter Though adding of a post divider concept does find
practical application in multiple loop synthesizer
generally it is not good solution. A multiple loop
thee
Course synthesizer uses more than one.loops to achieve
steering
fine frequency resolution and mixes the outputs of
(1D12)Fig,. 43.8: Course steering can be used to reduce PLL
these loops with that of another loop which produces
switching time
the high frequency components of the desired output
digital to
The look up table is stored in memory with frequency
analog converter. The digital to analog converter is
used to produce the analog steering signal. GQ.438 Design a rquendy syrthesiuer it
The second method is to use multiple phase
locked cover the frequencyj range tro
loops in the synthesizer. 3540 MHE to 4o0o MHE in kR3
(B) Multiple phase locked loop frequency incremen,
synthesizer
To design frequency synthesizer to cover frequeney
Fig. 4.3.9 shows a method to obtain the fine
frequency range from 35.40 MHz to 40.00 MHz in 1 kHz
resolution with a high reference frequency. increments in a single loop synthesizer a referenee
frequency of 1 kHz will be needed with a response
Phase
Detector
vco
of near about 25 ms, together with the divide raio
N. 35.40 x 10's Ns40.00x 10
divider
Irequency syntheslzer with a post
(ID1)Fig. 4.39: PLL frequeney resolution
for inereased
innovation
Hbenre Aulborsiaspire SACHLN SHAH Veaure
Publications
Teeh-Neo
Bem-E&TC)
Deslgn (MU- 4:15)
Frequeny Synthesizers
design is shown ln Iig, d.3,
10,
amnlc
Alen
100k2 Phaee Filer
Delaotor
Loop A
NA Phiese Loop
Dolecor
Loop G
Bendpass
vco
-
fiter
Phase Fitor
PILer vcoB
Dotoctor
Mixer
Loop
No
(1D14)lg. 4.3.10: Three loop fregueney synlheslzer
PLL A and PLL B both uso the 100 kllz rolerence frequency ncts as the reference frequency for loop C.
frequency
f
For example iff= klz, this will need that the loop C
I
Lnop
Clocks the divided output of loop A (G) to the be comparatively slow loop and will determine total
diference betwcen tho output frequcncy fo und the, rcsponse time of the nynthesizer.
ulput of loop B To minimlze the response time of loop C, f is
(). That is
.4.3.15) maximized by 300 kHz so that
10o
25x 25 x 10
10 ms,
Ehange
I0 N,x achloved. Frequency
resolutlon down to 10 Hz can be
in 1 gonerate IKf mixing loop A with another loop and
and klz
Z Increments. Loop A achioved by first
increments outpufrequency andloopB
kzchange divide by
100 clreult
(needking two additional loops)
30alcs of
oulput in
tequency ge of 0.1 Hz and
1 Mlz
ASACHIN SnAH Venture
Slbcaou
here Authors inspiro Innovo
RF Design(MU-8 Sem.-E&TC)
(4-14) Frequency Synthesizers
4.4 FRACTIONAL LoOPS and average output frequency per cycle of the M
")
counter is expressed of (fo)av=f, (N+ M 4.4.3)
:GO.4.4.1 Draw and explain a method
of The average frequency at the divider output is the
implementing fractional division output frequency divided by N + M so
a form of
M
Cary
cgal puses through one period, the VCO signal goes 4.4.2 Fractional N-Frequency
nugh 100.1 cycles and output of the divider (+ 100) Syntheslzer
through 1.001 eycles. lts phasc to the refcrenco
es
toquency increases by 0.001 x 27 rnd each reference Go. 443 Explain fraetional N-fregusrcy
cycks synthesizer.
After the 10 reference cycles, the divider referenee
Fig. 4.4.5 shows a simplified diagram of fractionalN
cuput increases the reference signal by 0.01 x 2n rad.
synthesizer that removes predetermined noise
A this time one VCO cycle is climinated. The stopping
producing at the phase detector output by ackding an
d ooe VCO cycle delays the output of divider by cqual magnitude and opposite sign signal to
001 x 2n rad, which is exactly how much the divider
predeternined voltage present at tho detector output.
curput had increased in phase.
The fraction register, adder and phase register decide
h above cxample, though the average output frequcncy
how often a pulse is to be taken away from the VCO
1.001 Mtlz the instantaneous output frequcncy
output.
ctanges with every reference cycle because
of the The phase register has the fractional portion of the
TEsing phase diffcrence between the divider output
nd the reference
divisor. This fructionnl portion of the divisor is changed
signal.
to analog signal in the D/A converter. Then, the analog
signal used to minimize the phase noise,
Another feature of this analog noise cancelling signal is
that it relies on both M and N. If a frequency
of
2.001 MHz is to be synthesized, then M is to be 10
and
PO o/p
after cvery 10 reference cycles, the output frequency is
di'vided by 201.
VcO
Carry
Pulse
M remover
Low pass
Fraction Phase + N
flter
register register
DIA
Phase
detector
Summing
Referenca
amplifier
Programmable
N
amplifier
4.5 DIRECT DIGITAL SYNTHESIS For these two reasons, the direct table look-up method
(DDFS) is very useful. The direct table lookup method emits the
same points for every cycle of the sine wave and
GQ. 4.5.1 praw ard explain direct digital changes the output frequency by controlling the data
simple need he analog filter, at the For the period T of the highest output frequency.
et points are used in highest
four or more
, Dormally Fig. 4.5.1
4.5.1 shows the complete Tz =PTOr
signal.
cy DDFS. The main elements are phase
of
hitect
D/A converter and
a low pass filter. PT
..(4.5.3)
nlator,
is mixcd after
each reference cycle to the Where T is clock period of reference frequency. Thus,
valoe I
to produce the lowest the highest possible achievable output frequency is
umulator in order
signal. Then the next value in look up table decided by the fastest sampling rate. The speed of DIA
bgoency
frequency
emited as
output. converter is the simple factor that limits high
Toemit the output
irequency which is k times as fast as performance of direct frequency synthesizer.
frequency the value k is added to
the phase as
krnest This also introduces noise and harmonic distortion
every time and the corresponding
value of
mulator well as limits the maximum output frequency
is released.
rn the look up table synthesizer. If the frequency synthesizer designed
with
Ta decide the frequency
resolution of DDFS system, 2" decided by
microprocessor, upper frequency limit is
taphase accumulator, reference clock as fcx are tobe
number of computer clock cycles.
sidered. This phase accumulator can locate upto 2 to do the phase
if it is increased The computer clock cycles are needed
amples various ROM Jocations and new
accumulation and memory look up transfer. For
atl
words
1
bit as the sign
N = 4.5.2) Ifa+1) bit world length including
min power comparative to signal because of
*pie3 bit, the noise
ac used in lowest quency waveform. approximately expressed as:
truncation will be
isrestricted by the amount of availab
6 = (2or 6=-6n dB 4.5.4)
dp that is larger than 2 is decided by the
pas filtering requiremenis.
o/p
DIA Low pass
Spocifled converter iter
Memory
froquency ccumulato
synthestzer (DDFS)
freqoency
Architecture of direct digital
baa)Flg, 4.5.1:Ar
ASACHIN.SHAH Venture
w
here Authors iaspire innoral
Frequonoy Bynlhoplzarn
(it:)
hequeneles he consingption of
ajveetrut3 Addittomlly nt htgter
Ht akded to tthe wot lensth the very ltje.
e HOWer ean le
noistor thntt ttlher two
nuethods,
DDIS Is RJettully
ontput sumplex, the nlse of puR enRC of pliane
At the higthent nequoNy tur T'he apoctml patt
d
now CW
varles WIli eneHy
eeuolation trunontion(ilterlug necda very lntd,
(4.3.3) Value. NMakina tlhe low
N4 (4.3,3), tlhe nmngnltvdo of nolke
6. 1nally nom quatlon hlt ronolutlon
W'Tere N tWhe
umber or potats ln the oNeNt NuEN at the ontput te dlieotly atlTeeted by
conventor (1DAC).
thequeney Nowever N wonds t ney
sinmusotut. of the D t0 A
au storins the dtata. 'Tthe nnt of
would be enongh
neay siee can le ohed notkeeadly as? 4.5.2 Advantagas of Dlract Digltal
( Ttte nenry slee is only necesury to store the v'alues Synthesls (DDFS
fr tthe tiust quadrant (0 to 0") of the ntne ware
because tthe values ot tthe otier three quadrants ean to aa, 4.8.3 Lst the advantagd of DDES
obtained diretly dum tthese vahes. So maxinmm disudvantges, DDIS luns somo
A part hm albovo
emory points arv wqured.
advantageN as followsN:
wlth convontlonal
DDIS systes aro cusy to co8trtuot
reducocd by using
() Secodly the mcmary' siro can also Ie
produco fnst sotling
ue monwmultipliens, But nmultiplication is conponeuts and thesO arv floxiblo
botwoen frequency
cmparatively slow with mienopnwessor and meory times, nmaintain plhnNO colieronco
resolutdon.
is suall and inexpensivo. So aultiplleation is not steps and possess vory good froquoncy
digital
usually used to mininire the mewry equirements, DDIS systens aro ulso usolul for casy
modulation as: by using on-oft koyed modulators und
ii) Tte amount of nemory sire still can bo mindmired
thom tlhe Bquatiou (4.5.3) wlheu the syeetral purity
FM at aceumulator phuse botwcon tho nceumulotor nnd
ROM and AM betwecn tho ROM and D/A convertor.
nceds are tnot too and.
have 3 The phase lincurity is sinilar to the reforenco clock's
At upper tiequency l. the output waveforn will
progression lHneurly.
only 4 saples. So it will not appoar as sinc wavo
system is clock divider. Making tho phaso noise
unless the harnmonics of the tundamental frequeney
arw
4DDFS of the system less thun that of clock (low phase cloek
climinated by a low p:ss filter.
crystal).
lightly
This low pass filter should have a bandwidth
outsicde the Many vendors in market like Harris. Somiconductor
largerthan f, and has stecp attenmuation rate
and Analog dovices procduces intograted circuit versions
NASS bund of the DDFS system.
Though the filtering of harmony is not as great for For example : tha Analog dovices AD98 s 28 pin
wavoctorms have
lower frequeney wavelorms these DDFS with 10 bit DAC and 32 bit phase nccumulatao
arc in less
more sanplc points and thus harmonics
content. ao.45.4 DesignDDFS to cover frAucnts
Specified
frequency
26-bit
AcCumulator
128-word
Memory
H DIA
converter
Low passs
filter
o/p
40kHz
Clock signa
as at first
APpears observation that maximum amount of As from Equation (4.5.4) the noise power is 6n dB.
memory is needed. Only 2 = 256 various words can So, n must be at least 14. One more bit is required for the
achieved by using 8 bit words, so 256 memory
he
Sign, thus, the minimum word length is required to be
locations should suftice. Though 4 x 10 various
15 bits for 80 dB signal to noisc ratio.
memory points are specitied, the phase increments
30=WT are so small that 2 +2=2" increments are
required before a change is noticed in 8 bit word. H 4.6 PHASE NOISE
- A26 bit word would be needed to present all 2" words.
The shown in Fig. 4.5.2. If 4 samples
whole design is
In last sections, it is known that output noise is an
are useful to present the maximum frequency of essential design consideration for frequency
10
klz, then 40 kHz clock is needed. For frequency synthesizer. The spurious components at the reference
Tesolution of MHz, a 26 bit phase accumulator is frequency, its harmonics due to the phase detector
Deeded by using Equation (4.5.1).
noise producing in VCO are the main sources of output
However only 8 bits are required to locate the ROM noise in PLL synthesizers.
and the remainder of the phase accumulator bits are not This noise produces a theoretical noise floor. This noise
in use.
floor is less as compared to actual systems. For
Ihis is known as phase accumulator truncation and example the phase noise for a DDFS is actually less
mxes noise
spurs to the output spectrum. The worst than that of the reference clock.
Cse magnitude of spur is expressed as
2sin[n(FCW,
FCw2)2
2) /2'1
4.5.6) 4.6.1 Model for Oscillator Phase
Noise
Dere T is the number is the
of truncated bits, N
of
cncy
phase accumulator bits, FCW is the
control word i.e. the amount that the phase
| Go.4:5.1 Develop a relationbetween observed
power spectral density function and
mulator is increased and (FCW, 2') presents the
largest
common divisor (GCD)
of FCW and 2 with
modification, the FCW is prime to 2 and Power spectral density IS nothing but power as a
ini
the expression. (FCW,2") to unity. function of frequency. Power spectral density is
Here
orst case spur amplitude dBc for measured at the output of an oscillator. Instead of all
13
dits
is 48.2
of tnuncation and still meting the design the powers being collected at the oscillator frequency
Tequireme
It is noted that the greater frequency some of the power is distributed in frequency bands on
both sides of oscillator frequency.
On can be achieved by raising the number of
Se accumulator
These unwanted frequency components are known as
se spur
bits, i larger magnitude
cost of
oscillator noise. Oscillator noise affects the system
performance based on the type of application.
What word
ength will be neided ina
The noise of a synthesizer normally used in a
DDFS
if the output spectral
to be at
par transnitter and it is passed on frequencies above and
lcast 80 dB? below the required trequency of transmission. A similar
method takes place in a receiver.
Biaines SACHINSELAH
A Ventare
bere Aathors inspire innovabe
RF Design (MU-8" Sem.-E&TC) Frequency Synthesizers
(4-20)
advancement has presented that a signal
of
The phase noise of local oscillator can mix with -This
constant amplitude having frequency f
is phase
spurious signal to produce an unwanted signal to
modulated with a signal at constant frequency
fn and
produce an unwanted in the Intermediate
sidebands at the
Frequency (F) pass band. This process is known as peak phase deviation ends in frequency
reciprocal mixing. frequency fot fm
The phase noise is helps in deciding how closely The ratio of the peak side band voltage V, to the peak
Spaced two communication channels in frequency carrier voltage V is expressed as :
domain. It is not easy to measure the noise
characteristics of signal with spectrum analyzer unless
the spectrum analyzer oscillators have mainly less And the power ratio is expressed as,
noise than the signal to be measured.
To develop a relation between the observed power .4.6.5)
spectral density function and 6(0, the oscillator output
This result is usually helpful to the interpretation of
s() is expressed as
power spectral density of a constant amplitude signal.
s()=v() cos [ogt+ 0()] ..4.6.1) The normalized power spectral density plot is shown in
Where v() is amplitude variation as a function of time Fig. 4.6.1. If the normalized power spectral density
and e(t) is the phase variation and referred as phase Po) is nearly constant over a unit bandwidth, then the
noise. Perfect designed oscillator is very amplitude power in the bandwidth S is expressed as
stable and v() is assumed as constant. For constant
amplitude signal all oscillator noise is because of 6(t).
A carrier signal having amplitude V and frequency f is
s) = Pp ( d, =P, (f)...4.6.6)
m-1/2
frequency modulated by a sine wave of frequency
fm and it is represented as:
Since Pg () is symmetric at the carrier frequency fo, thee
power both side band is expressed as
s() = V cos (w,t +sin w,)...(4.6.2) S,F)2 PoCf
(4.6.7)
A SACHIN SHAH
Veature
/f (-6 dB per octave) for frequencies between f and GQ. 4.6.2 Explain Typa and power spectum
l
f and is not dependent of frequency for frequencies because of VCO noise
larger than fa Equation (4.6.15) compares noise
performance of an oscillator to a theoretical minimum The output noise of synthesizer because of noisc
based on the amplifier's noise figure and f produced in the VCO can be deternined by using
Equations (4.6.14) and (4.6.15) by assuming a linear
model as
Sofo)+ (4Q»)]
So II+K, Fjw) Njo)
S.(o)
FKT/P
Il+K, Fjo)/ (» N
FKT/{P, (1+@ /o) [l +(4Q o N}
1+K, Fjw)/Gjo N)F
(ID25) (a) Output noise of oscillator with low Q resonator
The denominator can be approximately as : For inside
the loop bandwidth.
kf
For frequencies larger than the loop bandwidth:
U1+GGorj'= 1 for1Gjo)I<<l
FKTIPs
The frequency at which the two approximations co-
exist is the open loop crossover
frequency which is
(ID2 (b) Output noise of an oscillator nearly about the closed loop
bandwidth.
Fig. 4.6.4
Thus, the frequencies larger
than the open loopP
At high frequencies, noise floor of an oscillator is crossover frequency the
closed loop noise because of
proportional to the noise figure of amplifier used in VCO noise Spo is near about
the same as the Vco noie
achieving the oscillator. As the minimum noise figure or
is 1, the minimum noise floor is KT or - 174 dB/Hz.
So S,() > (4.6.16)
At lower frequencies nearer to the oscillating frequency
and for lower frequencies
the noise increases, but Equation (4.6.15) shows that
the amplitude is inversely proportional to
resonator. So the higher the Q. the smaller will be the
Q of the SoS KNFGo (4.617)
If a type I loop is used
phase noise close to the oscillating frequency. with filter bandwidth larger tban
and the Vco output phase
noise spectrum is as shown
in Fig. 46.4(a),
then the output noise
spectrim o
Tech-Neo Publications here Authors inpire ianevstioa
ASICHY SHAA Vesture
(AMUdem.ATO)
Daalgn (4-23) Frequency Synthesizers
RE
alhssise heeause of Voy nolse wll ho as shown in
gt A
F,COS tS d+ Ao
+24 (4.6.19)
FKTIP
If this sigaal is transmitted hrough a frequency divider
that divldes the frequency by N, the output frequency
wwill be expressed as :
Pg46.5:Output
Cos t and the utput
Chapter Ends..
PTER
5 ElectromagnetiC
nterference
SModule 5 in RF Circuits
abus
Natural and Nuclear
nrcton. Natur Sources of EMI, EMI
from Apparatus
ysem EMI. and Circuits. Quantfication
of
Eements Interierence, Including
Antennas, Transmitters,
Comi cation
ystem. EMIConcepts. Examples Receivers
of EMI Coupling and Propagation. Electronic
Modes. Equlpment era
Equipment Emissions
ns and Susceptiblities
Types
of coupllng Common-Mo
a Mechanisms Including Freld to Cable, : -Mode Coupfing: Common-Mode
Ground Impedance,
rential-Mode Coupling: Differendal-Mode Ground Loop and
Coupling Roduction Technicues
Coupling Mechanisms
Coupling Reduction Techniques. Including Field to
Cable, Cable to Cable ae
other Coupllng mechanlsms: Power Supplies
and Victim Amplifiers.
GQ.5.2.1 aausnasavmse
Explain the concepts of EMI and EMC..
**sa49*****************************************************************
3 Natural ***** 5-5
and Nuclear Sources of EMI.
sessoses***** ***********************************************************************ana4ai
G0.5.3.1 5-7
Explain natural and nuclear Sources of EMI.
53.1
Celestlal Electromagnetic
Noise. erenade44aaebt4e*********************************************"**********4a
4ave 5-6
5.3.2
Lightning Discharge... i 44440**itsesba**********laese**************
************s***1***4>ia4a4
GQ.5.3.2
Explain lightening dlischarge.
5-8
5.3.2A)
Cloud to Ground Dlscharge. 5-9
GQ.5.3.3
Explain cloud to ground dlscharge. . 4442#isndsie444 4****s**** ****
*********"*****t+4 isesaess
5.3.2B)
Cloud to Cloud Discharge...
-9
RF Design (MU-8th Sem.-E&TG)_
Electromagnetic Interference in RF Cireuits
(6-2)
Ga.5.3.4 Explain cloud to cloud
dischargo.. *****************************0s ************************************"""******************* .5-9
5.3.2(C) EM Flelds Produced by
Lightning.
*********************** ******************************************"***************** 5-10
GQ. 5.3.5 Write a short note on: EM Fields
Produced by Lightning. *********************"**** ********************************** 5-10
5.3.2(D) Time Dependent Electric
Dipole.. ****************************4******************************°*******" ************s* 5-10
GQ.5.3.6 Explain time dependent electric
dipole... ******************************************************************""******************** .*5-10
5.3.2(E) Lightning Discharge... *****************************************************************"****""************** 5-11
GQ.5.3.7 Explain lightning discharge
shortly. ************************************************************ ******"*************** 5-11
5.3.3 Electrostatic Discharge...
**********************************esen*** sssssssnensesssennesen***************************** 5-11
GO.5.3.8 Write a note on: Electrostatic
Discharge (ESD). "*********************************************************************** ******* -11|
5.3.4 Electromagnetic Pulse..
*******************************i***e******* ************************** 5-12
GQ.5.3.9 Explain Electromagnetic pulse..
***************************s********** *******************"****************************** 5-12
5.4 EMI from Apparatus
and Circuits.. *****************************ss***e*******u
******** **********ss******************************************* 5-12
GQ. 5.4.1 Write a note on: EMI from Apparatus
and Circuits. ****************************************************************************5-12
5.4.1 Electromagnetic Emission...
***********************************************************************************************
***** 5-12
5.4.2 Systems..
.5-12
GQ.5.4.2 Explain EMI emission by systems.
*******************************************************************************************************
***. 5-12
5.5 Elements of Electromagnetic Interference Including Wave Propagation
and Reception... 5-13
Ga.5.5.1 Write a short note on: Elements of Electromagnetic
Interference Including Wave Propagation
and Reception. ...
13
5.5.1 Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) *****************************"***************************************************
******S-14
*****
GQ.5.5.2 Explain Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN)..
********** ***********e*************************************************
..5-14
5.5.2 Thermal Noise .. s nsnndansa *********************************************************************************a************
14, ***
Examples of EMI...
******"****°*******************+*******s+
5-20
S.7.1 ***4*t*s***a** **********
5.7.1(A)
Transmission Lines.. **************************************************************** 5-20
5521
5.7.1(F) Aircraft Navigation.. *************************°.
**********************************.******a************************e*****
S-21
5.7.1(G) Military Equipment .. **************** *** ** **"******* ********************
***************anas5-22
5.7.1(H) Secure Communication..
******************************************************************** **
********************************************* ** 5-22
***
GQ.5.8.1 What is EMIl coupling?..
******************************** ivs=swia 5-2
iEquipment Emission of Susceptibilites.
**********************e*******"*************
44*************************************************a*****4*
and receptor.
G0.5.9.1 Explain coupling between emitter
*********4*****a************************************"es*a***********************************"********ss*****t*****seqnai nseisuiesss 5-22
1 Types of Coupling.
i49d444********eas*a*******"*******************4********ta4itiatrs44* 5-22
59.10A)
Radlatlon Coupling #*466499
****"****s944
5.9.1(B) **"****"****
Conductlon Coupllng *****************
5-23
Common Mode Coupling Mechanlsm . 4444
A**4*******************************
*****iuss 5-23
coupling
mechanlam.
9.5.10.1 Explain common mode
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Circuits
Electromagnetic Interference in RF
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***********************************"************
************** ..5-25
es
i
* ********** ****
* **** .5-29
5.14 Coupling Reduction Techniques.. *****************************°*****************
*************************** .5-29
GQ. 5.14.1 Explain in detail: Coupling Reduction Techniques in detail.*****************************
***
.
****"************ 5-30
****************************************
5.14.1 Common Mode Voltage... ***********************
*"**********************************************************************************************.5-31
5.14.2 Cable Filtering and Shielding..
******************
5.14.3 Separate VO Grounds and or Cable Filter Capacitors. ***** ***
************************
**********..-36
5.15.1 Differential Mode Coupling Including Field To Cable. ************************* **
5.15.2 Differential Mode Coupling Mechanism Including Cable to Cable. ********************************** ..5-36
5.16 Differential Mode Coupling Reduction Technique. ******************************** **************** **** ********..b-37
5.1.1 Effects of Electromagnetic magnetic (H) field coupling or electric (E) field
coupling.
Interference (EMI)
In far field, the coupling will be through
The effects of
electromagnetic interference (EMI) are clectromagnetic waves presenting a fixed ratio of the E
extremely variable in character and magnitude, varying
to H field strengths.
from simple annoyance to
catastrophe.
An exact definition of near field is in close nearness to
examples of potential effects of EMI are as
a source and the far field is above some decided
Some
follows:
distance from the source.
(1) Interference to television and radio reception.
transmission Coupling or crosstalk is considered for circuits and
(2) Loss of data in digital systems or in
conductors in close nearness to be via mutual
of data. one of
such as inductance and inter circuit capacitance though
) Failure of medical electronic equipment
heart pacemaker, neonatal monitor. these mode usually dominates.
contro clock and data lines or
Failure of automotive
microprocessor The power lines, single lines,
systems such as breaking or truck
antijack knife connections may be the source
current carrying ground
conducted path may be resistive or
have
system. of noise. The
or it is always combination
0) Failure of navigation equipment. inductance or capacitance
functions Ior
0Falure of critical process control of resistor,
inductor and capacitor.
Cxample. Oil or chemical industry. components like inductor and
capacitor
The reactive
Unplanned explosion of explosive devices. resonances with their associated
representing always result in the resonant
Delays in TOduction of equipmentEML increase or decrease in current at
intra unit, subsystem or system level EM
that take frequencies.
tis usually expensive to right EMI problems
Pcein
place production and it
in designed cquipment and in
h
esuhts negatively affect
in program delays, which may
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CONCEPTS OF 1EMI AND EMC
9//
Lightning
5.2 AND DEFINITION
Receiver
c.m.noiseuppy
Power HOsC
L
signal
Analog
Sgnal
Digital (1EMFig.
-
5.2.1: Ways of EMI travelling from source to receiver
L RTN RTN
From Fig. 5.2.1 it is seen that
) A direct radiation from source to receptor deroted as
"path 1.
(i) Direct radiation from source gained by the elecnt
power cables or the signal / control cables connected o
Chassis
Conducted interference ne receptor which arives the receptor throug
Radiated interference conduction denoted as "path 2".
Common Impedance
(ii) EMI emitted by the electrical power signal or co
equipment (unit) coupling cables of the source denoted as "path 3
(1ES)Fig. 5.13: A few of the intra
modes
SHAH Yentu
Equipment Noise
(EMI In circuíts Natural Noiso
& system)
Terrestrlal Colosttal
System communlcatilon/- Atmospheric Cosmic/
Circults &Components Lightning
Radar Galactlc
cal oscllator Eloctrostatlc Nolso
Navigation equlpment Switches Dlschargo
Fluorescent Soler
Motors Noiso
tube lights Flters
Automobile lgnitlon Relays
Industrial equipment Non linear circults
Such as arc welders,
heaters etc elements
Electrictraction Circuit breakers,
Appliances such as Magnetc armatures
microwave ovens mlxers, Latching contactors
vacuum cleaners, Loglc and digltal clrcults
electric shavers Arclng due to Improper contacts
corona
Rusty contacts
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Jupiter are the main sources of discrete emission. These Qulet sun
sources radiates broadband as well as narrowband -Z30
clectromagnetic noise.
240
Emission coming out from the sun changes excessively 10 10 10 10 10
at the time of solar flares and sunspot activity FrequencY, Hz
Normally, continuous sources like the galaxy radiate (E6)Fig. 5.3.2: Spectral distribution
of celestial electromagnetic
broadband electromagnetic noise. Fig. 5.3.2 shows a noise
spectrum of power distribution of celestial This radiation occurs at a frequency
clectromagnetic noise. of 1420 MHz. One
more interesting source of
radiation is the class of point
The level of electromagnetic noise radiated by a cosmic sources expressed as pulsar. These emit
source does not change visibly with time, unless the electromagnetic noise in pulses
with very constant
source itsclf experience a change which gives in repetition frequency.
corresponding variation in the radiated electromagnetic When working with
highly sensitive low norse
noise reccivers using high gain
antennas at UHF, VHF and
Nevertheless, the cosmic noise reccived at a given higher frequencies, the
contribution of electromagnetic
point on carth changes with the time of the day as carth noise from extraterrestrial
moves around the sun and also rotatc around its own sources becomes quite
considerable.
axis.
The broad spectrum noisc cxtcnding from mcter a 5.3.2 Lightning Discharge
wavclengths to centimctre and lower wavclengths was
initially connected with our own galaxy. It was GQ 5.3.2 Explain lightening
discharge.
consequently discovcred to radiate from all directions
in the cosmos.
Atmospheric eleetromagnctic
noisc is produced
clectric discharges in
Hence initially it was described as galactic noisc, later atmospheres. This can be either
localized or an
area phenomenon.
it was renamed to cosmic noise. The strength of noisc
The lightning and clectrostatic
emitting from various parts of the sky varies.
sources of atmospheric discharges are tne main
noise. Lightning happens as a
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AF ie discharge in the atmosphere Electromagnetic Interference in RF Circuits
electric from a
-cult of
suh bearing cloud. Cloud atains charges from the leader channel discharge when a ground potenua
kuge aa accumulati result of charge
nosphere As wave moves up
the ionized leader path. This is know
clouds achieve iciently high
umulato, potential as Teum
stroke and has an upward velocity of about
ground
respectto one third the velocity
gith strength in a charged cloud of light.
the ield omes he transit time from
breakdown level the result will ground to the top of a channel i5
an be an
Tn
electric
discharge. 04S. At the bottom most point,
the maximum current
1s nearly 30 kA. This maximum
occur froma clou to the ground as well current is achieved in a
Thisdisc Iew microseconds and drops
another.
one cloud to to one half of its peak
fom
s value
in nearly 50 us. The sudden increase
3.2(A) Cloud to Ground temperature to a very high
value because of emission of
Discharge energy results in the
production of a high pressure
Channel and a shock produces the
wave. This process
a
EXplain cloud to ground discharge. thunder.
******-*.
******
lash is a total discharge between a cloud and the a5.3.2(B) Cloud to Cloud Discharge.
round. A flash lasts about 0.5 seconds. The flash or
procedures and waveforms to check their influences on permittivity and 4 is the free space permeability.
receiver equipment. The vector and scalar potentials satisfy the following
conditions as follows.
Some models are explained based on EM ficlds
generated by lightning. v.R = 0 7 5.3.3)
E Or Thus,
Thus if and A are scalar and vector potential, the E
and H ficlds are expréssed as:
(5.3.2)
5.3.4)
Here both o and A are dependent on P and time H(P)-U,
t.
D (5.3.5)
With reference to Fig. 5.3.3, dl is length of a current dipole Where
and is started along the X-axis.
tne D> dl is not met, the total effect of all the Nylon
Wool
Equation (5.3.4) and Equation (5.3.5) are
in both Fur
Lead
Sidered.
For small value of D, terms in
more considerable Aluminum
than last term, have Silk
Oner
the field intensity. Thus, nearerfield
intensity, Polyurethane
Paper
is proportional to the strength of the current and Wood
he negligible Cotton
Cnange of current magnitude has Sealing Wax
ect on the field Steel
tensity in the near zone.
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Hard ubber the plant operation, the levels ofele ctric and magnetic
Mylar
fields intensities are higher than those levels mentioned
Epoxy Glass Nickel, Copper, Silver in Table 54.1. These field intensities form EMI
Brass, Stainless steel Synthetic Rubber The beginning of EMI starts in equipment apparatus or
Acrylic Polystyrene Foam systems. This is human produced EMI. This EMI is
Polyurethane Foam different from the EMI produced due to natural
Polyester
sources.
Saran Polyethylene
Table 5.4.1 Tntensity of Electric field levels in different
Polypropylene PVC (Vinyl) rooms of American Home.
Teflon Silicon Rubber Table 54.1 Intensity of Electric Field levels in various
rooms of a Typical American home
5.3.4 Electromagnetic Pulse
Oca Electric field intensity
GQ. 5.3.9 Explain Electromagnetic pulse Volts per meter)
**************~*- Laundry room 0.8
An electromagnetic pulse is produced through a nuclear
explosion. This pulse is highly intense as compared to Dining room 0.9
any natural source. It is said that "It is more intense Bathroom 1.2-1.5
than one thousand lightning". Nuclear electromagnetic
Kitchen 2.6
pulse (NEMP) leads to the production of EMI in its
most severe form. Bedroom 2.4-7.8
Two broad phenomenon of EMI generation are linked Living room 3.3
with nuclear explosions. When equipment or a system Hallway 13.0
is placed nearer to nuclear burst, the weapon's X-rays
or y-rays interact with various material of system and 5.4.1 Electromagnetic Emission
results in uncontrolled emission of electrons.
Motion of these electrons produces electromagnetic The electromagnetic energy is emitted by different
fields, which may produce upset or burmout of system clectrical, electromechanical and electronic apparatus during
electronics. This is the system generatedtheir nomal operation such emission of electromagnetic
enérgy is due to:
electromagnetic pulse (SGEMP).
() Intentionally emitted signals
5.4 EMI FROM APPARATus AND i) Unintentional electromagnetic emission at the time of
CIRCUITS working of an equipment.
electrical clectromechanical and electronics apparatus The radars, television and radio broadcast transmittes,
is due to clectromagnetic interactions inside such communication equipment and transmitters used for
circuits and systems. navigational aids are the practical examples of systems
Table 5.4.I gives the data about clectric field intensities that emits strong electromagnetic signals at the time or
in various rooms of American home. their working operation. Fig. 5.4.1 shows the several of
In industry due heavy machine operation or due to these sources.
heavy electrical load switching takes place as part of
ightning
Clouds and
Power lines
Radar
Communication
8ystem
Mobile
transmitter
communication and
Ship
navigation equipment
electromagnetic pollution
(1E8)Fig. 5.4.1: Sources of
radiation are
intentiona
coherent
Normally, sources of frequency
radiated
electromagnetic equipment at a certain
sources intentionally radiations from some radiate
These normal operation, such cquipment may also
doing their However
While unintended and of working. same or some
radiations.
produce certain radiation near about the
always unintentional
equipment also
electromagnetic emissions. other frequency.. are main
undesired
the operation of
other non-coherent radiations
interfere with Both coherent and
Such radiation
may
the desired eclectromagnetic interference.
electronics apparatus. Further, sources of
sensitive with the
transmitter could interfere ELEMENTS OF
signals radiated by a equipment. This will
operation of other
electronics
or
5.5 ELECTROMAGNET1C
MCLUDING
planning is not done
appen if the proper
frequency INTERFERENCE INCLUDING
PROPAGATION AND
implemented.
designed to WAVE
transmitters are
scillators, amplifiers and designatea RECEPTION
electromagnetic energy at an
produce range or note on
Elements
Practically they radiate energy for Write a short
irequency. GQ. 5.5.1 Interference
desired frequency. Electromagnetic
equencies centered around the of
referred as noise
the
Including Wave
Propagation and
CTrally this radiated cnergy radiale
transmitter also Reception
y of carrier. The
subharmonics of the
harmonics and in some cases to the presencc of
communication link contnbute noise.
Each It anses itsclf as
nlended frequency of emission. clectromagnctic interference. the application.
nonlincarities in
The modulators transmitters and degrades the quality of
in the This noise ratio is used to prove
onsible for signal to noise (S/N)
clive deviccs are significantly Generally communication in analog
radiations. The quality of thc
production unintentional the
of such
an EM
noise communication system.
of modulation is naturally
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In each case, the level of signal
must be greater than the Receher
noise for communication to be possible. S(t)-
How much the
level of signal above the noise
depends on the quality
of the receiver used. In digital
system, using spread
spectrum, the ratio S/N is not
enough parameter to
check link quality, because signal is (IE9Fig. 5.5.1: AWGN communication channel model
almost buried in
the noise.
-From Fig. 5.5.1, a signal S() is introduced in
But it does not mean that the communication communication channel. S() will be added by additiye
will not
be possible. In such digital system white Gaussian noise n(t) as follows:
other parameters
such as the energy of the bit compared
to the noise r() = S() + n() (5.5.1)
spectral density (EyN) are much better
to evaluate the The signal r(t) is received at the reception. There, in the
quality of the communication.
process of detection, the decision about the value of the
Any signal whether it may intentional
and useful is signal will be made.
treated as noise to other signals in the same
channel or This model can be used only in deep space
frequency band. Thus careful planning
and good communication that is between satellite. In satellite
frequency assignment is necessary. In somne cases,
even communication only degradation in the channel
neighbouring countries must work together,
because produced by the thermal noise in electronic devices.
electromagnetic signals are not bound
to national Practically, multipath, fading dispersion and other
borders.
factors should be included.
There are many types of interference or noise
including
man-made or natural. Natural interference includes
5.5.2 Thermal Noise
such as electrostatic discharge (ESD) or lightning
sunspot activity, atmosphere effects and reflections
GQ. 5.5.3 What is Thermal Noise ?
from rough earth surface.
Man-made interference includes from both commercial Conductor resistivity used for the passing of electrons
and military communications such as radar, radio depends on temperature. Hence temperature will
affect
television and cell phone communication. Industry noise in communication channel. The thermal
also noise,
contribute to interference. All this interference is ten kTB
term 5.5.2)
unintentional along with intentional interference Where, k is the Boltzmann's constant =
1.38x 10 33
especially at the time of war. Tis temperature in [K] and B is frequency
bandwidth
in Hz. Thermal noise presents
in each communication
5.5.1 Additive White Gaussian system and cannot be avoided.
Noise (AwGN)
a5.5.3 Shot Noise
GQ. 5.5.2 Explain Additive White Gaussian
Noise (AwGN) GQ 5.5.4 What
- .---
is shot noise
---.--. ?
**
Additive white Gaussian Noise (AWGN) is a reliably Shot noise present in electrical
circuits where direct
random noise in the wide frequency range with current (dc) flows. This
noise presents small variations
of the current and independent
constant spectral density. AWGN come from several on temperature. "Tne
noise current I, is expressed
sources such as thermal noise, shot noise, noise from as
sun radiation and others. 24pc B
.(5.5.3)
Where q is charge of
AWGN is a background noise in the communication the
pc is DC bias current in electron of 1.6 x 10 "C,
channel. Fig. 5.5.1 shows the AWGN communication the electric circuit and B is
frequency bandwidth
in Hz.
channel model.
communications are also become more noticeable in 26.1 MHz This frequency band is above the MW tali
these places. stations. They do not broadcast 24 irs a day, zd dso
Pager networks and private communications mostly change the frequency during a day to balerce tor te
available in developed countries and are not so broadly drop of receptioa condítions.
used. The distance is not as large as with 4W a
Table 5.6.2 shows the frequency bends fo
a5.6.1(A) Broadcast System broadcasting.
Broadcast system contains TV, satellite and any other Table 5.6.2:SW Radio frequency bands
transmission of audio or video signal to a broad audience. Name Freguency (MEa
aRadio Broadcasting 120m 2.3-2.495
This broadcasting is divided into frequency modulation 90 m 3.2-3.4
(FM) and amplitude modulation (AM). AM is suitable 75 m 3.9-4.0
for larger distances and is not enough to provide audio
60 m 4.75-5.06
quality as FM radio stations. The digital radio has
highest quality signal. 49m 5.9-6.2
AM radio is divided into long wave (LW), medium 7.1-7.35
41m
wave (MW) and short wave (SW). 31 m 9.4.-9.9
LW operates in the frequency band ranging from | 25 m1.16-1.21
148.5 kHz to 283 kHz. The spacing between channels 21m 13.57-13.87
is 9 kHz.
C 00
Channel Frequency MHz)|
D 100
I74- 180
oth satcllite
and terrestrial, this technology is still 186- 192
cvolving and not a single onc has received acceptance. 10 192- 198
506-512 38
614 620 56 728-734 75 836 842
57
620-626 76 842-848B
512-518B 39 734-740
58
626-632 77 848-854
518-524 40 740-746
59
23 632-638 746-752 78 854-860
524-530 41 60
638-644 752-758 79 860-866
530-536 42 61
536-542 43
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Channel FrequencY Channel Frequeney
Frequency Channel Frequency Channel
(MHz) (MH) CMHz) MHz
26 542-548 44 650-656 62 758- 764 0 6-872
764-770 81 872-878
27 548-554 45 656 662 63
28 554 560 46 662 668 64 770-776 82 878-334
29 560- 566 47 668-674 65 776-782 83 824-80
30 566-572 48 674-680 66 782 788
400
GSM 900 1800 850 1900
450.4-457-6 | 890-915
Uplink 1710-1785 824-849 1850 1920
(MHz) 460.4-467.6
Frequency
Downlink 478.8-486 925(935)v960 1805 1880
869-894 1930- 1990
Frequency(MHz) 478.8-486
spectrum 7 MHz 35 (25) MHz
Frequency 75 MHz 25 MHz 70 MHz
separation 10 MHz 45 MHz
Duplex 95 MHz 45 MHz 80 MHz
200 kHz 200 kHz
Carrier spacing 200kHz200 kHz 200 kHz
regulations and local country regulations Table 5.6.8: Paging îrequencies
emational
.Special designed
device and
telephone line filters are integrated in a 5.7.1(G) Military Equipment
the telephone instruments at specific
locations to solve the problem. In aerospace military system of missile or rocket launch
Broadcast AM/FM/TV transmitters, radar and vehicle assemblies gives electromagnetic compatibiliry
navigation aids, mobile radio and television heavy of the same of importance as reliability.
engineering industrial plants and many more are the Different components such as circuits or device
Soroes of electromagnetic interference. The intensity subsystems and systems are exposed to complete EMC
of the EMI depends on operating frequency output testing before the system is assembled and installed.
power EMI sources including lightning, electro-static
levels. EMI limiting measures are used in the
discharge (ESD) and occurmence of transients are also
E51gn, installation and operation of this device.
measured at the time of design and assembly phases
5.7.1(E) Radio Astronomy and mitigation techniques used to overcome these.
Now-a-days, aerospace systems make an area in which
ladislant radi
Stronomy, weak signals from pulsars and all EMI mitigation techniques play
a key role in
galaxies are not easy to sense on their own. certifying mission success.
Ihe EMI important techniques and
in radio telescope begins from sources such In military applications,
planning and allocation,
methods including frequency
digital clock pulses, power supplies or noise shiclding, filtering
burstsf bonding. grounding cable
and other
electric Operation of relays, switches harnessing and building of
circuits to avoid-pulsed
could occur
Oact gaps in which arcing mode interfercnces
static clectricity build up ánd
8 with usual sources radar intermodulation or
such as radio, television, intermodulation such as passive
er
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Secure communications and data processing are The reactive path always results in resonances with
their associated increase or decrease in current at the
important in many military and national Security
applications
resonant frequencies.
- PT
unwanted electromagnetic energy radiations in military
communications, radar, avionics, navigational aids
computational device, printers, video display units and
cabfe ssenmblies and so on in data handling or
communication system emit low levels of unwanted
electromagnetic fields.
- Signal or control panel
Though such electromagnetic fields are not strong,
these signals could still be taken up and ready by
FOwer line
sensitive surveillance devices.
(1E10)Fig.5.9.1: EMl coupling between
emitter and receptor
5.8 EXAMPLES OF EMI
COUPLING MODES 5.9.1 Types of Coupling
GQ. 5.8.1 What is EMI coupling? GQ 5.9.2 Explain radiated and conducted EMI
------------------- --------- coupling modes.
For circuit and conductor very close t each other, the --. --
coupling or crosstalk through mutual inductance and
2 5.9.1(A) Radiation Coupling
inter circuit capacitance is to be considered though one
of either inductive or capacitive coupling mode The radiation coupling between an
emitter and receptor
predominates. occur from transfer of electromagnetic energy using a4
radiation path.
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of radiation coupling are: tromagnotilo Intorforonco In RF Crcuits
bpes s of
piferent natural and similar clectromagnetic POWer lines and
CouplinS of the same power
come into an other device attached to
ironment to the receptor such as power line. supply lines.
envion transmissio
power ransmission line serve as receiving ractically this is known
The receptor may also get electromagnetic as conducted clectromagnetuc
interference
(conducted EMI).
sptene
interierence Or electromagnetic environment noise
onnected connectors or connections LIKewise signal
and control cables also serve as carriers
through and of conducted EMJ.
nnected signal or other lines in the device
irom
circuit. Measurement
or of such conducted EMI nceds ambicnt
Coupling of electromagnetic energy from closely powcr ine noise to
be separated from that radiated by
through direct radiation. the device under
evice Test (DVT).
Conduction Coupling DIs ensures the comect
true measurement from DVi
B) operation.
coupling between an
cOnduction itter and a Well designed networks
place through a direct conduction path for generating such clean
takes
ptor power to the DVT,
receptor. are utilized conducted
at the time of
the emiter and
MIen interference measurements.
are as follows:
samples of coupling
Tt is also necessary to know the
Taterference is carried by power supply lines if
nature of electrical
transients and other interfcrences
same powe on the mains power
emitter and receptor work from the
Supply and techniques to separate
sUpply. For example, common mains power them from DVT
power supply.
supply is often source of conducted interference.
Thus the clectromagnetic interfercnce carried
nterferences are also passed from emitter to by
receptor by signal or control lines which are clectrical power supply lines are divided
into two
connected between two. types
) Common mode currents/ vollages
5.10 COMMON MODE COUPLING i) Differential modc (or normal mode) currents
MECHANISM voltages.
teectic power transmission and distribution lines Therefore with reference to Fig. 5.10.1, which shows
often damaged by different electrical transients and three conductor lincs, the common mode voltage Vc is
sthet
disturbances.
expressed as
Tse transients
or disturbances come from natural Vc 5.10.1)
SUch as lightning and thunderstorms and from
Where Vpg is voltage betwcen phase and ground wires
PTalion of different and Vya is the voltage belwcen neutral and ground
clectrical and electronics
Ppanent.
wircs.
Tese
disturbanc
ances or radiations are passed over The CM interference current present from the sourcc
a
through the phase and neutral conductors and comes
*ance from the originating source conductor.
win back from the load through the ground
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Te
protectsthe wire from
shield electrictfield.
Where
ais tlux in cireuit
S.11.3)
2 due to eumrent cinvuit
l,
tem cable coupling shows that the coupling is the voltage
pmdond in
T*
ekrioma eticsignal into a cabie,
the coupling
of to magnetie
field of tux
coed loop of areca A due
the outer coupling from out of density and is expressed as
one cable
to
ndher.
cable coupling coaxial cables are shown A
5114)
in model.
nally un-twisted and twisted
two wire lines
where A
and B are vectors
It is shown in
lin are If the cosed
nsidered. Fig. 5.11.1, loop is fixed
Sinusoidally and flux density
ehanging with is
over the area time but remain constant
S of the loop, then
reducesto Equation
Ntomagnenc eld (5.ll)
tom an antenna
plane wave Vjo BAcos 8
5.11.5)
As shown in Fig.
5.11.2,A is the closed
ms alue B isloop area,
flux density
of frequency o radians
Second; and Vy
is ms value
per
Us of voltage produced in
Usö2 circuit.
E:SFig. 5.11.l: Model of the field to cable
coupling
V oBACoso
From Fig.
5.11.1, it is clear that field
from an extemal
sorce couplesinto an interface cable
and generates
wanted interference
signals at the device inputs and
utputs
NDen a NE14Fig. 5.112:
cument I passes through Interference depends on area enclased
a conductor, it by
nerates a magnetic distributed circuit
flux o.
I magnetic flux o is proportional to the current. Equations (5.11.3), (5.11.4) and
(5.1.5) are combined
tisexpressed
as, to define the induced voltage in' temms
of mutual
inductance in between two cireuits because BAcos
LI .(5.11.1) presents the total magnetic îhux (91:) coupled to
0
the
TELis inductance
constant. and it is proportionany receptor.
- R
R2
M
V
Vw= JoMI Lw
R
R
Physical Equivalent circuit
representation
M 5.12 COMMON MODE The ground current 1 and ground current 2 both passes
through the common ground impedance as shown in
MECHANISM INCLUDING Fig. 5.12.1.
GROUND IMPEDANCE
The ground potential of circuit 1 modulated by ground
current 2 passing in the common ground impedance.
GQ 5.121 Explain common mode mechanism
Thus some noise is coupled from cireuit 2 to 1 circuit
including Ground impedance and vice versa through the common ground impedance.
Common mode coupling including ground impedance Fig. 5.12.2 shows the another example of this kind of
occurs when currents from two various circuits pass coupling in the power distribution circuit.
through common impedance.
The voltage drop across the impedance experienced by
i+l2
each cireuit is influenced by the other circuit. This type Power
Common
of coupling is very popular in the power and/or ground supply line Circuit 1
system.
Fig. 5.12.1 shows the classic example of this type of
-
impedancee
coupling.
Source
Circuit 2 impedance Circuit 2
Circuit 1
Ground Ground
voltage voltage (1E17Fig.5.12.2: When two circuits use
circuit 1 circuit 2 a common power
Ground Ground supply current drawn by
circuit 1 affects the voltage at the
Curent 1 curent 2 other circuit
Common Any variation in power current
ground needed by circuit 2 will
influence the voltage
mpedance at the terminals of circuit 1
(1E16)Fig.
5.12.1: When circuit (1) and circuit (2) uses a because of the common
impedances of the power
common ground, the ground voltage of every circuit supply lines and intermal
is affected source impedance of the
by the ground current of the other circuit power supply.
Tech-Neo Publications . here Authors inspire innovation
A SACHIN SHAH Veature
Sem-E&T
5-27) Circuits
an(MU-Bth EIectromagnetic Interference in RF
inproved signifca
by connecting the
ved 2. Any stron magnetic fields can produce a noise
can e directly to the power supply output
cicuit2 voltage into the 0op made by the signal
pis by passing the common line
kendsof
nence conductors and the ground which is callet as
inals
ernin "ground loop" as shown in Fig. 5.13.1.
ingeaiance
Coupling through the power supply
some
ise The signal current has many retum paths and
remain these in circuit.
impedance will
unpedance v
low frequency curent may pass througn
l
intemal
COMMON MODE ground connection not come back on the signal
return conductor.
sMECHANISM INCLUDING
5,13
The 3" problem rarely occur at high frequency becaus
GROUND LOOPS larger loop linked with the ground return path will have
nuch more inductance than a smaller loop if current
ENg in
common mode mechanism retums on signal return conductor.
1S33.1
including ground loops nus, the high frequency signal current will come back
on the signal returm conductor not in the ground.
loopiis
source of noise and
simultaneousiY, ground
is true when many ground points are
The value of the noise voltage compared with signa
jterference.This
level in the circuit is important.
maximum distan and are attached to the
solatedby a
groundor when low level analog circuits are If the signal to noise ratio in circuit operation gets
power
r affected then these must be some solution to solve this.
cases, it is important to generate some formm of A designer should not get fearful about the presence of
t uch
diceriminati or separation agains the path of ground ground loops, as all ground loops are not bad.
Many ground loops are friendly.
DOISC
Fa. 5.13.1 showS a system is grounded at two various A ground loop problem takes place at low frequency of
100 kiz and they are usually linked with analog circuit
pounts.
Ogrounds may couple a noise ground impedance (for e.g. by using ZSRP) or by
voltage. V into
enhancing the circuit noise margin (e.g.
by
cuit
ventüal
as shown in Fig. 5.13.1. The grounda
enhancing value signal voltage level or by
is due to the usinga
litrough other curents passing balanced circuit.
the ground impedances.
3. Ground loops should be broken by using one
of
techniques discussed below.
hadons
ASACHIN
here Autbors inspire innovation SHAH Venture
RF Design(MU-8th Sem-E&TO)
(5-28) Electromagnetic Interference in RF Clrcults
The ground noise voltage come between the primary produced by ground loops in audio applications.
Circuit Circuit
the
nput1o
Circuit
Circuit Circult
Clicuit 2 1 2
1
- VG
Fe. 5.13.5 shows optical couplers which are useful in frequency different from the desired signal, frequency
digital circuits. selective hybrid grounding can always be used to break
*
as
Baand Breaking of ground loop between two circuits
12.6x 10 (fl Im)
circuits as shown in Fig. 5.13.6, helps to E =
Tease the .(5.14.1)
noise immunity of the circuit as they cann
eo Publications
ASACHINW SHAH Venture
bere Authors inspire innovation
Eloctromagnotla Intarforance in RE Clrouta
RF Design (MU-8th Sem-E&TO)_ (5-30)
avoiding slots in the ground
Which shows radiation is proportional to the frequency, Also, the importance of
planes cannot bo
amplilied ecaua thoso can
length of the cable and value of common mode current. inpelanco,
consideably raise the ground
Thus from Equation (5.14.1), only the common mode and how the cireuit gound
current parameter is under the control of designer. The right choico of whero
togetlhor la als0 an essential
and enclosure aro attached
The common mode current can be "control knob" on voltago accessiblo to nun
in deciding the common mode
the radiated emission. tlho cablos.
common mode current out on
No common mode current is needed for nornmal system circuit to chassls ground
operation. The further away that tho
connection is from thhe point wlhero tho cnbles end on
The common mode current on a cable can be controlled it is that thero ls a maximum
the board, the moro likely
by followings method: thho polnts,
noise voltage between
1. Reducing the common mode source voltage, or return plano for
The enclosure is the reference
normally the ground potential. cublos,
common mode currents on the external
2. Supplying a large common mode impedance
This is shown in Fig. 5,14. 1.
(choke) in series with the cable.
3. Shunting the current off the cable Cable
4 Shielding the cable.
5. Separating the cable from the PCB ground for
example with a transformer or optical coupler. m
The common mode suppression techniques should not
affect the functionally required differential mode
signals on the cable whereas they should affect the
common mode current usually the clock harmonics. Vem -Shlolded anclosurea
Previously, the frequency of most VO signals is lower
than the clock frequency so making it easy to achieve
The effects of cnble shleld termlnatlon on tho
(1E23)Fig. 5,14.1:
common mode source suppression.
common mode cable current Ienm and henco on the radlated
Now-a-days, several types of IO signals are at emlsslon on the cable
frequencies as high as or in some cases actually higher
than the clock frequency for example : universal serial Thus, the circuit ground in the I/O area of the PCB
bus (USB) or Ethernet. should be at the similar voltage as the enclosure,
Thus making complicating the requirement that the To do this, the two grounds must be connected togcther
common mode suppression technique do not interfere in this area.
with the desired signal To make it moro effective, tho inductive impedanco of
this connection should be very low across the wholo
5.14.1 Common Mode Voltage
frequency range of operation which always necds
The minimization of common mode voltage that drives multiple connections.
the antenna (cable) is the first step in controlling the Though the ground voltage is reduced, it is always not
common mode coupling.
enough to reduce the common mode radiated omission.
This often includes the minimization of the ground
voltage. It only needs a few millivolts or less of ground voltage
It means that the minimizing the ground impedance. to run 5 uA of common mode current on a cablc. Thus,
To do so, the use of ground planes or ground grids is a additional common mode radiation control techniques
very useful way. are always also needed.
Cable Shielded
Cable Cable
Shield
cm
cm
C
Shlelded FPCB
enciosure Point
A Vem
Unshielded Proper 360 No Pigtal Shield
cable shleld shleld shleld connection
connection connection connection to PCB ground
() (b) (c) (d) ()
ot, 514.2: The affeet of cable shield termination on the common mode cable current, and hence on the radiated emission
from the cable
Fig.5.14.2(a) shows a product in a shielded enclosure The common mode noise voltage Vem still runsa
stere a cable without shielding is leaving the curent Iem Out on the center conductor of the cable
taxlosure. The common mode voltage Vem is always which is similar to Fig. 5.14.2(a). But in this case, the
shield stops the parasitic capacitance between the
grOund noise runs a common mode current em Out on
be unshielded center conductor and enclosure. Thus, the current
cable.
passes through parasitic capacitance between the center
ais curent is not coming back on the cable rather it is
conductor and the shicld, coming back on the inner
ng back to the source through the parasitic surface of the shield.
tance C' between the cable and the enclosure. As the shield has a good 360° clectrical connection to
0s uncontrolled
current passing through parasitic
apacitance the enclosure, the current comes back to the source
presents coupling.
through the enclosure. The net common mode current
neasured
commo mode current on the cable will be
on the cable in this case is zero and there is no cable
En
Equation
the radiated emission will be decided by
radiation.
(5.14.1).
lLke It is noted that in Fig. 5.14.2(6), the shield do not stop
to
5.14.2(a), only difference in Fig. 5.14.20) the radiation just by its presence, willingly it works by
corTectly
shield terminated shielded cable is used with bringing back the current that would otherwise passes
f ming a 360° connection the enclosure. through a very small loop directly to the source.
ubürations- A SACHIN SHAH Venture
Wliere Authors inspire innovntio
RF Design (MU-Eth Sem.-E&TC)
(5-32) Eloctromagnetic Inteference in RF Circuts
If there is no current on shicld,
it will not be effective
in stopping the radiation. Since Then the radiated emission can be decided by putting
the shield must deliver
the return curent to be effective, I, into Equation (5.14.1). The longer the pigtail, the
the way by which the
shield is ended is critical to the performance higher its impedance will be and the larger will be he
of the
shield. current I and thus the coupling.
Fig. 5.14.2(c) is similar to Fig.
5.14.2(b), only The length of the pigtail is a rheostat. Rheostat can be
difference is that the field is not ended to
the enclosure used to change the. radiated emission from this
at all. The common mode voltage Vem
still runs configuration. As for any cable shield. ended with a
current of out on the center conductor
of the cable, pigtail, a current division will take place at point A, it is
and the presence of the shield stops the
parasitic
capacitance between the center conductor concluded that any shield ended with a pigtail must
and the
enclosure. radiate and but question of how much ? is remained.
The curTent therefore pass through It is noted from Fig. 5.14.2(d), that the curent route
the parasitic
capacitance between center conductor and
the shield including the outside of the shield is capacitive, while
and down the inside surface of the shield
to the bottom the current route including the pigtail is inductive.
on the cable. Upto this points, the configurations
shown
in Fig. 5.14.2(b) and 5.14.2(c) works Thus if the common mode current on the cable
exactly the same. is a
But as in Fig. 5.14.2(c) the shield is not square wave instead of since wave, the higher
ended, the
current is not able to flow back on the frequency harmonics will select the path that includes
enclosure to the
source. Thus, the current rotates around and the outside surface of the ficld and they will radiate,
flows up
the outside of the shield, through the parasitic whereas the lower frequency harmonics will select the
capacitance C between the outside surface of the shield path that includes the pigtail and will not radiate.
and the enclosure, through the enclosure back Fig. 5.14.2(e) shows a case where the shield is ended
to the to
Source. PCB circuit ground rather than the enclosure. II
must be
If one want to measure common mode current on kept in mind that the shield on a shielded cable is
the not
cable, it would be Iem and the radiated emission will be shielded. Thus, the common mode noise voltage Vem
decided by Equation (5.14.1). Thus, the configuration provokes the shield and runs a common mode current
of Fig. 5.14.1(c) has similar radiation as the em Out onto the shield.
configuration shown in Fig. 5.14.1 (a), even with the
Then the shield radiates just like the case of unshielded'
presence of the shicld.
cable configuration shown in Fig. 5.14.2(a). In
In Fig. 5.14.2(d), the shield is ended to the enclosure
configuration shown in Fig. 5.14.2(e),
with a pigtail. The investigation of the common mode no center
current course is similar to that of Fig. 5.14.2(c), upto conductor is required as the shield has become the
the point where the current reaches at the bottom of the problem. If one want to measure the common mode
inside surface of the shield (point A in Fig. 5.14.2(d). current on cable it would be Iem with or without center
At point "'A' as there is current division take place, the conductor present.
current I2 flowing up the outside of the shicld as and Though cable shields should be ended to the enclosure
I
through the parasitic capacitance between the outside as shown in Fig. 5.14.2(b) not to the PCB as shown in
of the shicld and he enclosure and the remaining Fig. 5.14.2(c), it is always economically advantageous
current passing on the pigtail coming back to the to mount positive I/O connectors on the
PCB, rather
enclosure. than on the enclosure. To make it more effective, the
The current I, on the center.conductor and the current I2 connector backshell must still make a 360° contact to
on the inner surface of the shicld will be equal in the enclosuro.
magnitudc and opposite in direction so will cancel,
which leaved the current I, on outside surface of the.
shield as the total common mode current on the cable.
UO Connectors
Low-frequency I/O signal
and returm trace
DIRTY
LOGIC GND
CLEAN
High-frequency VO GND
1O signal trace
(Retum in
ground place)
LBsridge
Connected to
encdosurea VO Cable filter
capacitor
(1E26Fig. 5.14.4
Digital PCB with a separate "clean'" VO ground plane that contains I/O
cable filter capacitors and comnectors
This concept is suitable in any system confguration even in large multi board
systems. The main point is that there
should be clean 1/O ground that is connected to the chassis. All unshielded cables
should not be coupled to this ground
before leaving the system.
In large systems, the VO ground should be isoláted PCB place at the
cable entrance and having only connectors and VO
cable filter capacitors. When noise is eliminated from the cables, their
routing should be controlled carefully to stop
coupling noise back into the cables. Thus, the clean Vo ground should
be placed at the point where the cables
leave/enter the system.
and
Where, C is capacitance between sections
Magnetic field coupling is produced by inductive in is thec
F 10 m-
h=10
cm 50n 20 cm
r 1.75 mm
10 ks2
102
uft)
7777 77777
50 k
(1E30Fig. 502
5.15.4: Model for cable
to cable coupling
MODE
16 DIFFERENTIAL
REDUCTION
Past 5 or 10 years, clock frequencies
have maximized
coUPLING seriously by a factor of 10 or more. PCB technology
TECHNIQUE which decides the ability to print smaller
loops, has
improved by very small in the same time by a factor
of 2.
5.16.1 Board Layout
Thus radiation problem has maximized 100 fold and
The layout of the printed circuit board is cost effective ability to deal with it by printing smaller loops has
ud place to begin controlling differential mode maximized by most two of old.
aupling. Hence to control differential mode coupling, we must
Men laying out a printed circuit board (PCB) to come up with unconventional approaches including
ontrol coupling, one must reduce the loop area made cancelling loops and spread spectrum clocks.
by he traces of the signal.
lo control the area
of the loops made by all the signals
5.16.2 Cancelling Loops
ad transient power supply
currents can be territying
If it is not possible to print small loops, is it possible to
ph.However, it is not an essential to control
each loop
eparately.
find a way to print two loops that cancel each other ?
Be
Consider a Fig. 5.16.1, where the casea clock trace and
crtical loops
must be separately analyzed; but non
mical loops
its ground returm path are shown.
can be handled by using good PCB design
ayout
practices. The emission from this loop will be function of the area
e which operates at
the highest frequency and
of the loop and current in the loop.
esignal is periodic are called critical loops. If this shows the closest that one can print traces due to
The
periodic
signal has same waveshape during the PCB technology, then it is not possible to reduce the
ratingfrequency. emission beyond this point, short of shielding the PCB.
A layout shown in Fig. 5.16.1(b), a
clock trace with
rential mode coupling is proportional
ncy on every side, Thus there
squared and
is controlled by reducing the two ground return traces, one
area. same area as the
The loop
area is mainly function of PCB are two loops, each of which has the
5.16.1(a).
loop shown in Fig.
aPudieations
A SACHIN SHAH Venture
*
Where Authors inspire innovauO
Electromagnatic Interferenca in RF Ctcs
(5-38)
RF Design (MU-8th Sem-ESTC)
emission path in the circuit of
Fig. 5.17.1. Ne that to
If the two etum ground traces are syTnmctrically the LISN impedance lonks
placed with respect to the clock trace, then the retun
current will divide tetween the two paths. Thus,
the like 25 ,
the common-mode current,
the two 50-0a, resisters in
parallei.
be simpiified evea more
lower loop shown in Fig. 5.16.1(b) will have only half The circuit of Fig. 5.17.1 can
as much current as the loop in Fig. 5.16.1(a) and will switching transistor as a square
by representing the
couple cnly onc half as much or 6 db less. a peak amplitode equal
wave voltage generator having
Thc other alf of the coupling is in the upper loop of the fiter capacitor CF.
to the dc voltage across
Fig. 5.16.1(6). It is noticed that the curent in the upper equivalent circzuit of the
lower This simplified common-mode
loop is antickkckwisc. whereas the current in the SMPS is shown in Fig. 5.17.2.
From Fig. 5.172 we
loop is clockwise. Thus the coupling from the top loop has a high source
can determine that the power supply
does not mix to the radiation from the bottom loop magnitude of the
impedance, which is equal to the
rather than it cancel it.
capacitive reactance of CP.
The cancellation will not be perfect, but it is ery good.
Thus the layout if Fig. 5.16.1(b) will radiate 20+ dB LISN
-- Hot Switching
less than that of Fig. 5.16.1(a).
MOSFEA
The traces shown in Fig. 5.16.1 are considered as being SAID
printed on the same layer of PCB or different layers. Neutral GN Parasitic
The latter case would then show a clock printed on a 500 Caçactarce
PCB layer placed between two ground plane layers.
50n
Ground "CM
CCW --*Ground
Heat Sink
Clock Clock
son
Total Switching Current
Neutral PWN .-- Current Through C
Current Through LISN
occurs a
Note that, a current civision
E S.17A:Switched-mode power suppy, showing the differential mode current path.
the terminals of capacitor C,
differcntial-mode conducted emission curent
This simplified differential mode equivalent circuit, which shows only the
path, is sbown in Fig. 5.17.5.
power supply has a low differential-mode source impedance, which
Frorn the circuit of Fig. 5.17.5, we obscrve that the
diffcrential-mode current, and therefore the
results from the large value of the input ripple filter capacitance Cp The
filter capacitance C ImproperT
LISN voltage, are both determined by the parasitics (L, and Rp) and the mounting of the
mounting will add additional inductance in series with the capacitor.
From thec circuit of Fig. 5.17.5. we can calculate the LISN
*****
Chapter Ends..
HAPTER(
Electromagnetic Compatibility
6
Module
ylabus
lmportance Of of Grounding For Achleving EMC Grounding,
The Groun Including the Reasons (l.E., Safoty, LIghtning
EMC, unding Schemes (Single Point, Multi-Point
nto
ontrol, and Hybrid), Shield Grounding and
Shielding
ectiveness,
Efectiveness, Shielding Considerations
(Reflective and Absorptlve),
nd Bonding.
skets, Waveguide Beyond Cut-0f). Shielding Comprompss|
E Apertures,
EM nstics And Flxes:
Dlagnostics Fixes: Techniques Used in EMI Diagnostics and
Fixes.
acifications,
Specift Standards And Measurements: A Discussion of
the
Sunmary, the Rationale, and a Review of MIL-Stds, FCC and Genesis of EMC Documentation Including
EMC
CiSPR Requirements.
**************************************************************************************************** 6-22
O.
GQ. 6.2.33 What are Waveguides beyond cut-off?...
*************************************ensuun****** 23
0°%0
6.3 EMI Diagnostics and Fixes.**************"*************************************************************
******************************************************************************************************** 6-23
GQ. 6.3.1 What is EMI diagnostic and Fixes?
***************************************"***************************************************************no 6-23 0
6.3.1 Proposed Diagnosis and
6-23
6.3.2 Techniques Used In EMI Diagnostics and Fixes.. *************************************************************************************
23
GQ.6.3.2 Explain the techniques used in EMI Diagnostics and Fixes..
6-227
GQ. Explain Conducted emission test method..
6.3.3 ***.. CE
************************************************************************************easssss
GQ. 6.3.4 Explain LISN method with voltage and current probe method... ***nnena*ne*******************************************6-29
6.4 EMC Specifications, Standards and Measurements.
. ************************************************************
.******** 6-30
Ga.6.4.1 What are EMC Standards? **********************************************************************************************************6-30
Why do we need EMC Standards?
.. 6-30
GQ. 6.4.2
GQ. 6.4.3 Name the tests that are essential to measure the electromagnetic interference levels and
6-30
compatibility.
GQ. 6.4.4 What are the Types of EMC Standards?. *********ssseurness*********nsenseasee*************** ***** ******sssss 6-30
..
GQ. 6.4.5 Explain MIL-STD 461 and 462 standards? ************************"******************************************************************
6-31
GQ. 6.4.6 Give the Limits for conducted emission under MIL-STD-461D.. 6-32
*****************************"********************************
Go. 6.4.7 Give the specifications for susceptibilityimmunity to conducted emissions under MIL-STD-461D.632
Ga.6.4.8 Give the limits for radiated emission under MIL-STD461D?... 6-33
Ga. 6.4.9 Give specifications for susceptibility and immunity to radiated emissions under MIL-STD-461.633
6-34
Ga. 6.4.10 ive the requirement of Emission and Susceptibility for MIL-STD-461E. s**** ***************************************"
GQ. 6.4.11 Give the requirement of Emission and Susceptibility for MML-STD-461G... 6-34
**nanennas**************************
.. 6-35
6.5 FCC Regulations..
6-35
Ga. 6.5.1 Write a note on FCC Regulations..***************************************************************************************************
Explain FcC Part 15, Subpart B.. 6-36
6.6
GQ.6.5.2
. ********************************************************************sssassnnse ssssassan***********
An clectronic
electronic equipments results system which functions properly with
predominant us of olher electronic system
without generating any no1Se Or
circuits to work close vicinity to cach interferencec
1he known as
cause interference or noise in these electromagnetically
may cause compatible with its environment.
ang
other
The aim is to leam, how
cicuis sources to design an clectronic system
urces of electromagnetic emission like for electromagnetic compatibility
Severatother (EMC). If a system
ral motors, lightning and relay also produce
elect
fulils the following three conditions, then it is
electromagnetic
de
which consist of spectral
electromagnetically compatible with
the environment
mayresult interference. (1) It should not interfere
contentand with other system.
Sources of
electromagnetic emissions consist of () t should not be sensitive to emissions from other
frequencies. High voltage
narrow band of systems.
oaly produce electromagnetic emission (3)
tansmission lines at I should not interfere with itself.
Hz in India.
fequencyof50
lt is not only important to design equipment for EMC,
her important source or electromagnetic emissions for achieving functional performance but also to meet
computers and digital electronie
lated with digital
related
legal requirement of countries before it can be sold.
isments.
me Pulse signals are used by digital equipment
EMC design has become an important part of electronic
numbers 0 (OFF) and 1 (ON). design.
dicate a binary
oindica
transition time from 0 to I and vice-versa is the
The
For applications related to low frequencies, the concept GQ. 6.2.3 Write a note on Sarety grounaiy
for zero impedance surface can be valid. However for
The basic concern related with safety grounding is,the
high frequency applications, significant impedance,
protection from hazards related with high
generally because of inductance of conductors, breaks
curent/voltage, which can be dangerous to life or can
this concept and a trnue zero equivalent surface cannot
result in damage to instruments, installations and
be considered.
facilities. Safety grounding is related with 3 aspects
GQ.6.22 Describe three important purposes of
(1) To restrict voltage because of lightning, line
groundin9
surge or unintentional contact with high
The important purposes of grounding can be voltage lines: The three sources of hazardous
categorized into three important types of follows overvoltage conditions are given with a separate
path near the electrical system at home, orat
(1) Safety grounding
offices, by connecting the syste to the earth.
It is related to prevention of clectrical mishaps like
(2) To stabilize voltage : There are several sources of
retraction of electrical shock, risk of fire or damage to
instruments. Safety concerns remains in normal as well clectricity. Each transformer is viewed as a
as faulty operating conditions inside the instrument or separate source. Due to common reference point
the distribution network or because of the effect of for all the voltage sources, it is possible to
induced voltage and current for example: by lightning. calculate the relationship with one another. The
Basically, safety grounding is related with significantly earth is the 'most common conductive surface;
low frequency applications. which was accepted as a universal standard for all
(2) Slgnal grounding electric systems.
It is related to providing acceptable reference for (3) To define a path for
facilitating the operation of
circuits and systems, in order to ensure proper over current devices: This grounding purpose is
instrument and system performance. Proper signal most important to understand with respect to
grounding prevent unwarranted functional distortion or
safety grounding. Therefore, safety groundingg
instrument malfunction and the risk of component is
failure. intended to protect from danger related with
clectric power faults and with lightning
strikes.
Surge propagation
evels into on data lines
Lightning discharge current should not flow SAAAAAAMAAN,
electrical circuits to
cause damage. Ground potential Extemal ghnlng Good groundtng
above Good groundiog protecion system
differences in the ambit
of the strike can be
10kV.
(1F2)Fig. 6.2.2: Improper grounding of cable a
penetrating a
facility caused a spark-over in a fuel tank
an ungrounded cable
Fig. 6.2.2 shows a case wherè
penetrating a fuel tank,
coming from a control centre,
difference between the
results in a voltage potential
structure.
cable and the facility's
because of this strike. A proper
The fuel tank exploded
the ungrounded cable and
protection device between
hazard.
would have avoided this
the facility's structure
current enters a
facilities power or
If lightning surge to
ungrounded conductors, side flashes via the air
other because of
grounded conductors can take place
next emerge on those
potentials, which will eventually
high
Step distanceH
conductors.
explosion of
potential may cause
Therefore, high
spectral content
parts or result in fire. The
Curent structural
and subsequent
Distribution
the lightning strike current
sol related with change
in
gradient or rate of
because of very short
field,
current waveform, is
lightning discharge
****
of
1 MHZ. Grounding
of lightning
approximately
attained through a low
system should be
protection
Distance
in,6.2.1 lightning-induced impedance path.
SHAH Ventare
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votage gradients in the earth
aPublieations-
ons here Authors inspire innori
RF Design (MU-8h Sem.-E&TC)
(6-6) Electromagnetic Compatibility
interactions
The high frequency high-gradient/ high-current Generally, the radiated and conducted EMl
currents. Therefore, the
behaviour of the lightning waveform needs the are related with common mode
shunting
resistance R and inductance L of the grounding system effective suppression of such situation needs
Reference Structure
to be reduced. of the EM energy to the Signal
is applied and is
(SRS). Here, the term 'grounding'
:GQ.6.2.5 What do you mean b9 "EMI control"?
considered as electrical connection of the protective
Explain EMC grounding in detail signal
*******.-~*.
device between the protected lines to the
The term "EMI control" means the control of incorrect reference structure.
surge suppression
or irregular nature of electronic circuits resulted by the This is also applicable to filters and
electromagnetic coupling into the circuit. devices, required to provide CM suppression.
Therefore, the "ground" provides a controlled low
EMI control covers every aspect of emission and
impedance path for the flow of CM EMI electrostatic
susceptibility interactions. It contains radiated ficlds
discharge (ESD) and surge currents.
and conducted currents and also contains induction and
Therefore, high-quality low impedance "ground" paths
coupling of electromagnetic situations like
gives an altermate path for EMI, ESD and surge
electromagnetic pulse from lightning (L-EMP), nuclear
currents and diverts them away from sensitive circuits.
(N-EMP) sources and electrostatic discharge (ESD).
Generally, line-line capacitors or filters will have small
To understand the role of grounding structures for EMI effect an emission because of common-mode currents
control, it should be observed that a circuit fully but also suppresses differential mode interference.
enclosed in a perfectly constructed, six-sided metallic An alternate way for controlling radiated field and
enclosure will not radiate and will also not be cable interactions is using shields placed on the cables.
susceptible to external incident radiated Cable shields minimizes EM field coupling.
electromagnetic field. Performance of cable shield and grounding gives a
However, apertures in the shielded enclosure, controlled path for shunting common-mode EMI
specifically cable entering through shield, will affect current induced on the cable shield into a reference
shielding performance if not controlled carefully. system.
This is because, the interaction of conducted and For both, the protective devices and cable shield, the
term "ground" is misleading and no connection to
radiated electromagnetic energy with circuits and
ground is needed. In fact, the term ground should be
systems, takes place through conductors connected to
considered as "shield termination" or connection to the
the circuit, entering the shielded enclosure.
signal reference structure or enclosure and should not
Measures for EMI control are interference suppression be used.
and cable shielding, the performance of which is based The EMI ground is needed to manage currents related
on proper implementation of grounding structure as with EMI, ESD and lightning surge currents, ranging in
shown in Fig. 6.2.3. amplitudes from microamperes to tens and even
-Lne-Case Capactors contro hundreds of amperes respectively, and in frequency
Metallic Endosure
cc CM EMI Curents
2 R+jaL (6.2.1)
(1F4)Fig. 6.2.4:
Common or daisy chain, single point ground
ohove equation
shows the effect that frequency has ystem is a series ground connection and is undesirable
from a
round impedance. At low frequency the inductance noise standpoint, but it has an advantage of simple wiring
on
I will be the dominant at higher frequency. Fig. 6.2.4 shows the common or daisy chain single-
The inductance L will be the dominant impedance, point ground system. This system is a series connection
of every specific circuit grounds.
At frequencies above 13 kHz á straight length of 24-
Z1,Z2, Zg are the impedance of the ground conductors
gauge wire, 1
in above a ground plane, has more and I, h and I, are the ground currents of circuit 1, 2
inductive reactance than resistance. and 3 respectively.
GQ.6.2.8 qive two Waus toMInIWIZe Point A is at a potential of
..(6.2.2)
Ve +h+14) Z +%+1,) Z+ 1Zs
(6.2.4)
V are single
:be two ways to minimize the ground noise voltage Even though this circuit is the least desirable
due to its
Minimize the ground impedance Zg point grounding system, it may be used
non-critical
simplicity. It can be a good choice for
by forcing the ground current to flow via a
Ce
ferent
applications.
path.
should not be used between circuits
The configuration
.2.9 Name the tupes of signal grounuas substantially different current levels,
which operate at
stages will affect the low level
because the high current
e taree types
of signal ground are ground impedance.
circuit via the common
may
Single-point
grounds. () Multi-point grounds system, the most critical circuit
While using this
Hybrid ground point. It can be
ground closest to the primary
be the one lower
in Fig. 6.2.4 is at a
82:10 observed that point A
EXplain single-point grouna systa potential than point B or C.
Siagle
po
point ground is frequency
ormally used at low
aTing from
dc upto 20 kHz. SACIHINSHAH Venture
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power
GQ. 6.2.11 What is NEC mandated ac
system ?
Circuit Circuit Circuit "***.
ground system is
2
The NEC mandated ac power
a series and parallel
basically a combination of
a branch circuit
connected single point ground. In
(connected to one circuit breaker), the grounds are
w- connected in series whereas different
branch circuit
2 grounds are connected in parallel.
As shown in Fig. 6.2.6, the single
or star point is at the
3 ac power
service entrance panel for a single point
:
6.2.5 Separate or parallel, single point ground system,
(1FS)Fig. ground as per the NEC.
is a parallel ground conncetion and provides good low LOAD 1 LOAD 2 LOAD 3 LOAD 4
frequency grounding, but it may be nechanically cumbersonme
in some large systems
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Electromagnetic Compatibility
AF Circuit Circuit
GO.6.2.14
2 3 Explain multi point
ground systems:
Multi point grounds
are nomally used at
Irequency above hign
Stray 100 kHz and in digital circuitry
Capacitance muitipoint ground
systems reduces the ground noise
vollage V in Equation
(6.2.2), by reducing the ground
impedance Z
Single Point Ground From Equation (6.2.1)
it can be seen that at high
Trequency, the ground
frequency, single point grounds inductance can be minimized by
come using ground planes
627:4At high because or grids.
of stray capacitance
s multipo To reduce the inductance,
multiple connections
what happens, when a single-point between the circuits and the plane
6.2.7 shows should be used.
contiguration done at high frequency. Circuit Circuit Circuit
The
und
conductor shows high impedance due i
2 3
inductance.
their R R2
the impedance of stray
But a high frequency
acitance
capacita between the circuit and ground is less.
Ground plane
nerefore, the
Inere
ground Current pass through the low
inpedance of stray capacitance and not
through the (1F)Fig, 6.2.9 : Multipoint grounding system. It is a good choice
at frequency above about 100kHz. Impedance R-R, and Lly
highimpedance, which results from the inductance of
must be minimized at frequency of Interest.
long ground
conductors.
Fig. 6.2.9 shows the multipoint ground system. In this
.
The outcome is a multpoint ground at high frequency.
system the circuits are connected to the nearest
G0.6.213 Give two subclasses of single point
available low-impedance ground plane.
ground
The low ground impedance is basically because of the
******
The two subclasses of single point grounds aree low inductance of the ground plane. The connections
(0) with series connection between several circuit and ground plane should be
(2) with parallel connection placed as short as possible in order to reduce their
impedance.
,
is given as
+1) 6.2.7)
GO. 6.2.18 Explain hybrid grounding system
A hybrid ground is a solution when the signal
Here, Zg is the common ground impedance and I, and
frequency covers a wide range both above and below
L, are signal currents in circuit 1 and 2 respectively.
100 kHz. For example : A video signal, where the
It is observed that, the signal voltage. across the load signal frequency is in the range of 30 Hz to tens of
RLI of circuit 1
is no longer a function of just the megahertz.
curent in circuit 1, but is also a function of the current
in circuit in circuit 2.
The tern I in Equation (6.2.7), is an intracircuit
Z
noise voltage and the term I, Zg is on intercircuit noise
voltage. (1F11)Fig.
6.2.11 : A hybrid ground connection that acts as a
single point ground at low îrequency and a multipoint ground
at high frequency
-Ground connections
77777777777777777777777777rEarh
Surface
Below ground
Hhere
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resonance of
(c) One end grounded +H- ficld cxcitation 3. Adverse impedance response due to
inductance and residual capacitance of the bond
resonance for = (2k+ 1) strap.
(d) One end grounded+E - ficld excitation GQ. 6.2.21 Name the different methods by
resonance for = (2k + which bonding can be made
l 1)
-----.-.
For a cable, at low frequency both ends grounded The different methods by which bonding
can be made
configuration is more efficient for E-field excitation
whereas for H-field excitation one end grounded is
1. A bond is attained by joining two
metallic items or
more efficient as this neglects the formation of a
brazing.
current loop by the cable and ground plane. However, surfaces through the process of welding or
both ends grounded configuration neglects resonance at 2. A bond is achieved by metallic interfaces through
high frequencies for both E-field and H-field fastness or by direct metal to metal contact.
- -
RAC =
663 k/Vf 10-10 4. Replaceable washers should be used when joining with
2(0 +t) nuts and bolts.
Shoulder jints mus be nelecied a
L00021
Where,
Inl+0.5+0.2235 5. enough mechanical strength.
6. Protective finishes should be given to protect the bond
causes.
t strap thickness from moisture and other corrosion
as replacement for direct
When jumpers are used
strap width kept short and the ratio of
bonds, the length must be
I = less than 5:1 for maintaining
strap length length to width should be
low values.
Conductivity of the materina resistance and inductance to
higher in the
must be selected
t frequency in Hz 8. The jumpers members but should
electrochemical series than bonded
k= function of o/t effects of corrosion.
nearer to neglect the adverse
be
6.2.15(a))
H ...(6.2.10(h))
6.2.150b))
= E,e (6.2.1(i))
6.2.15(c)
(6.2.100G))
lo
Where the phase constant and intrinsic impedance in ..6.2.15(d))
free space region are Tlo
...(6.2.14(b))
...(6.2.18)
Substituting the forms given in Equation (6.2.10) gives
no+n
the needed four equations as follows:
Tech-Neo Publications - .Where Authors inspire innovalion
A SACHIN SHAH Venture
m.-E&TC) (6-17)
Eloctromagnetic Compatibility
skin depth ð is much less than
the sk
thatthe and H, = H,e
2Sune ness i.t.
thickness
The
Therefore,
Where, E is the wave
intensity at a distance t
.6.2.23)
the shicld as shown within
Aarier
in Fig. 6.2.18. The distance
needed
= e"e iß for the wave to be
attenuatcd to l/e or 37% of its
<<1 fort>> 8...(6.2.19) original value is defined
as the skin depth, which is
the exact resulr
sult given in equal to
these into
usatin(6.2.16) and taking the absolute value of the
ad
atin
2 m ..6.2.24)
20log10
+20
A
log,o +MaB..(6.2.21(a)) .37E0
4
AdB Distance from edge, t
KaB
CType 304)9
o
0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Few representative skin depth for copper, aluminum
1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10
steel and mu metal are given in Table 6.2.3. Ratio of thickness, t To skin depth, 8
Table 6.2.3: Skin Depths of Various Materials
(1F19F1g. 6.2.19:
Absorption loss Is proportlonal to the
Frequency Copper Aluminum Steel Mumetal thickness and inversely proportional to the skin depth of the
in) (in) in) shield material. This plot can be used for electric Melds,
in) magnetic ficlds, or plane waves
60 Hz 0.335 0.429 0.034 0.014
0.260 0.333 0.026 0.011 The curve obtained is applicable to plane waves,
100100Hz
1
kHz 0.082 0.105 0.008 0.003 electric fields or magnetic fields.
10 kHz 0.026 0.033 0.003 Substituting Equation (6.2.25) in Equation (6.2.27), the
100 kHz 0.008 0.011 0.0008 general expression for absorption loss is obtained as
1
MHz 0.003 0.003 0.0003 A 3.34ty0%o, dB .(6.2.29)
10 MHz 0.0008 0.001 0.0001 Here, t= thickncss of shicld in inches.
100 MHz 0.00026 0.0003 0.00008 Above cquation shows that the absorption loss (in dB)
0.00004 is proportional to the square root
of tho product of the
1000 MHz | 0.00008 0.0001
permeability times the conductivity of the shicld
Therefore, absorption loss through a shicld can now be
material.
written as:
Equation (6.2.29) is plottcd in Fig. 6.2.20 which is a
E-20
A = 20 log log " .(6.2.26) universal absorption loss curve.
10 100 1000
1000Hz.
E Z+2
2Z .6.2.31)
and
HZ+4*
intensity of the incident
wave and
and Ho is the
Steel
Copper
0.125n thick
E is the intensity of transmitted
wave.
0.125-in thick E, and H, encounters two
parses through a shield, it
When a wave
Fig. 6.2.23.
boundaries as shown in
Impedance Z
Impedance Z2
Impedance 2Z
Copper
Stee 0.020-In thick
0.020-In thick
Electric Eo
field
Et
H, Z
Mognoo Ho
fleld
10 10
Frequency(Hz)
10 Shled
rellection and
transmission
occurat
E, Z+Z, ...(6.2.32)
R = 20 log
E =20 loE
4Z
2 20 log
Z dB ..(6.2.38)
and H, Z+ZH, 6.2.33)
=
417
If a shicld is not thick comparcd to skin depth, Where,
multiple
reflection takes placc between two boundaries because Z = impedance of wave prior to entering the shield
the absorption loss in the shield is small, but if a Z, = impedance of shield
shield
is thick, then thc total transmitted wave These reflection loss equations are for a plane wave
intensity is
found by substituting Equations (6.2.30) and (6.2.31) approaching the shield at normal incidence.
into Equations (6.2.32) and (6.2.33) respectively. If the wave approaches.
This neglects the absorption loss and therefore for a At other than normal incidence, then the reflection loss
increases with angle of incidence.
thick shicld the total transmitted wave is,
The results also apply to a carved inter face, providedd
the radius of curvature is much greater than the skin
E, (Z+Z ...(6.2.34) depth.
and H 4212
+Z ...6.2.35) a 6.2.7 Shielding Compromises
(Z
Even though, thc, clectric and magnctic fields are Once a proper shieldingg material is selected, there is a
bigger challenge of maintaining the Shielding
reflected differently.at each boundary, the net effect Effectiveness (SE) over various openings in the
across both boundaries is the same for both fields. shielding structure.
If the shield is metallic and the surrounding area an This is because the shield for typical equipment is
insulator, then Z, >> Z2 never uniform.
There are different penetrations and apertures i.e.
Under these conditions the largest reflection (smallest openings that have to be provided for cable entries,
transmitted wave) takes place when wave enters the ventilation, display windows and for keypads and
shield (first boundary) for the case of electric field and switches.
Also, there are various seams i.e. discontinuities in the
when the wave leaves the shicld (second boundary) for
shield structure like those at access doors, panel
the case of magnetic fields. openings, joints etc.
As the primary reflection takes place at first surface in
case of clectric ficlds, even very thin materials provide
good reflection loss.
However,in case of magnctic fields, the primary
reflection takes place at second surface.
Multiple rcflections within the shicld can significantlyFanel door Display window
On
Apertures. If adequate computing resources
and skilled modeling
te a not
hrte
*****---.
staff are available, some shielding
problems can be
shielding effectiveness (SE) successfully modeled by numerical methods
6231 Shows how and
aperture dimension.
frequency and
fiea significant work has been done into improving these.
Wthth approximat let through
FgO
eriorales are wil
aperture will Results have yet to be made available in useable form
a
mn mm one. to wider industry applications. This leaves us with
100 than a 10
more needed for ventilation, control and some general guidelines and a few simplistic equations.
eeded
ae an indicator. Seams, The most widely used equation is
Apetuiresaccess,.and for viewing
ss. between individual
discontinuities at
itertace the joints SE = 20 log (U21) dB (below resonance)
apertures.
also act as
members, also
members,
it, ve
nductive
Where, 2= wavelength,
Publication
minenie innpvation
Eloctromagnotic Compatibility
RE Design (MU-8 Som.-E&TC) (6-22)
and Maln Box:
Mantain aGood Electrlc Continulty Botwoon Panols/ Covors
With Straps-Place Straps Far From Loast
Sensitive ltems - Uso at Least One
Expensiv
Minimum
Strap Every:/10 Belng the Incident EMI Performance
Wavelength)
Gasket Flattenin9)
With EMI Gasket and Conductlve Palnt or Plating (Beware of
Metal Mash on Extruslon
Elastomer Core Mounting
Conductive Neoprene
Extrusion (Hollow Tube)
Strip
Metal Mesh Rubber Gasket and
(Monel, Copper Adhesive Backing
or Aluminum)
With Finger-stocks-Partially or 100% Requlre Adequate Retentlon, Flattening
(5 to 1.5mm) and Hinge Adjustment Most
Expensive
Best
Performance
Medium Pressure
Low Pressure (25 to 250g/cm)
The pressure of the fixings should be sufficient to using honeycomb panels, in which the honeycomb
squeeze the gasket over the entire distance between the pattern functions as a waveguide below cut-off.
fixings with a pressure in excess of its minimum Fig. 6.2.27 shows the dimensions of a waveguide.
specification. Where the metalwork is less than sturdy, Fig. 6.2.28 shows the graph of Shielding Effectiveness
the pressure of the gasket material may make it bow (SE) vs Frequency. Waveguides have better shielding
between the fixing and look untidy. effectiveness (below the cut-off frequency) than two
Worse than this, the metal may be bowed so much that dimensional apertures.
a gap is opened up and the purpose of the gasket SE (dB) Aperture diagonals
defeated. Additional strengthening plates may be found 60
necessary to prevent this bowing, or else a lower
mm
pressure gasket material could be used. 40 10 mm
The test engineer will use the information given above reflections off walls, floor, and
ceiling.
when trying to determine worst-case positioning of devices,
cables, and support equipment for emissions testing or for Pretest Equipment Check and Calibration
troubleshooting problem areas. Procedures
Table 6.3.1 . Spectrum Analyzer
Standard Used as Guide CISPR 11 EN 55011) and G) Tune the analyzer to the unit's calibration frequency as
toTesting CISPR 22 (EN 55022) indicated on the CAL-OUT connector, such as 100
Frequency Range : 0.15 MHz to the highest MHz. Set amplitude units to dBm. This determines that
trequency required per the the measured power level is within calibration limits.
standard, generally 1 GHz
cor 13
d
or 10 metero
EMC Analyzor (Location depondent) Proamp
(Optüonal)
OIn
RF gonerator O Out
EMC analyzer
LL OOOO
Out
(1F30)Fig.
|
EMC generator
RF in
O
6.3.2:Measurementsystem
input check
Cal out RF
Table 6.3.2
Antenna Test Generator Received Level
Frequency Output
MHz) (dBuv)
Spectrum:analyzer check dBm)
29)Fig. 6.3.1 :
Biconical 50 10 AS measured on
Setthe analyzer
controls as follows: the analyzer
a 150
frequency
Center Defined by the vendor's - 10 As measured on
) the analyzer
CALL-OUT frequency value.
250 - 10 As measured on
SPAN: 10 MHz.
the analyzer
A
Anplitude Reference :
Level 0 dBm (107 dBuV). Log 400 - 10 As measured on
Hit peak search or stop the scan with the
periodic the analyzer
a)
maximum value stored on the screen. 600 - 10 As measured on
e)The marker on the display should be the value the analyzer
specified by the manufacturer. If the display 800 - 10 As measured on
shows a different value, refer to the spectrum
the analyzer
analyzer manual for additional' calibration Performing Radiated Emission Tests
procedures or have the unit repaired.
Both EN 55011 and EN 55022 cal for measurement
Measurement System Check
equipment. It meet the requirements of CISPR-16. The
0 Arange EMC analyzer, signal generator (or
spectrum analyzers are preferred because of their
ntemal tracking generator of the analyzer),
eceive antenna, and transmit antenna as shown in portability and versatility and the large amounts of
ig. 6.3.2. This test requires two identical information that can be displayed quickly.
antennas, usually the same ones used to performm
site attenuation. The minor differences between spectrum analyzer
amplitude accuracy and peak amplitude of EMC test
ake data at a minimum
of six test frequencies. enough to
ake into consideration receivers are not considered significant
the receive antenna's loss
testing. If the
Ctor, the loss within
the coax, and amplifier preclude their use for most types of
gain
when calculating quasi-peak levels, the.
energy actual received level of RF measured peak signal is below
This test validates
if the antennas are
working
and if there are any problems in the test EUT is deemed compliant
setup.
aPublicaions
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cable loss (refer to cable loss chart) Cables |Appropriate length of 502
L
used. coaxial cable
Amp gain in decibels for preamplifier, if
(optional) Accept screen
Preamplifier|Plotter
Check for Spectrum Analyzer or print data from EMC
Overload
analyzer
Strong signals may overload preamplifier
or spectrum
Impedance Stabilization 50/50 pH
z2alyzer inputs. Strong signals must be checked forLine
a
known-valueNetwork (LISN ):
vrload conditions by placing 15002 circuit
receive antenna cable. Voltage probe:
ziennator in series with the
: S0 output, 0.150-30 MHz
dróp the Current probe
measured reading on the analyzer should frequency response, or other
interest
amount as the attenuator level. If the change frequency range of
in
by a
Teading is greater than the attenuator value
more), tnen Equipment Check and Calibration:
uncant amount (i.e., by a factor of 2 or Pretest
environment, and other
a EUT, test
kely the measurement system is overloaded Depending on the test, one of
three
performing this
that frequency.
factors related to When performing
actual tests,
used.
transducers may be one that will be
surements should be taken with the preamplifier appropriate is the
the
transducer most
Temoved
from the circuit whenever ssible. provided, is used to
Used. generator, if
A necessary 1uG tracking both voltage and
eamplifier may not be The built-in pretesting
pectrum analyzer than 20 dB signal for which is
noise floor is more produce a test a LISN is used,
below frequencies belng (Fig. 6.3.3). If test,
calibration
the ission limit for the current probe transducer for this
measured. common
the most SHAH
Tentuzre
ASACHIA
uhlis
Eloctromagnotic Compatibility
RE Despo(MU a Sam-EATO) (6-20)
to he spectrum
ds e
veritied once er
ycar with results bare wire. Connect the voltage probe
n short length of 50 n
nad t the venor's calibration ehart andthe analyzer's input connector using
wwwform apecifivation detailet in tthe test standard. coaxial cable.
generator to producc
Only the yetest quipment eheck and ealibration 3. Tum on the signal/tracking
analyzer should read
AYedre for the wtage and eunrent probeare -10 dBm at 7 MHz. The spectrum
approximately 40 dBm (signal lcvel plus probe
loss,
ewid
venmkor
Use the test pnwelue povided by the LISN
which is typically 30 dB across the operating
frequency
EAKCANay EAC Aneyret of the probe).
a Curront Probe Mothod
LLL LLLLEE
This method is shown in Fig. 6.3.4. The steps are as
Oo DODa follows:
. Create the same calibration fixture used for the voltage
calbvwtkwm crcut probe calibration procedure.
2. Place the current probe over the wire loop so that the
eishy
CuTwnt prod 50 om 50 resistor is in the center of thc opening, with a short
resistor
length of 500 coax connected between probe and
(I Fig 63: Calibrating votage and current probes analyzer input.
Set the signal generator to produce 50 mV at MHz.
1
btnga prob
identiticd as "sourve power" for certain vendor
systens.
/
EMC Am
(c) Adjust the tracking generator output level to
$7 dBm
(d) Select START FREQUENCY: 150 kHz.
LLL
KUT
(e) Select STOP FREQ: 30 MHz.
( Connect onc end of the coaxial cable to the EMC
analyzer's input and the other end of the coax to
the tracking generator's output connector. A signal
should appear at 87 dBuV, 0.5 dB. DMC Ah
bladons
bere Authors inspire innoRRLD
Elactromagnotio Compatiblity
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6.4 EMC SPECIFICATIONS, Susceptibility to conducted emission (CS)
STANDARDS ANDD 3. Radiated Emission (RE)
MEASUREMENTS 4. Susceptibility to Radiated emission (RS)
GO. 6.4.4What are theTYPes of EMC
GO.641 What are EMC Standards? Standards?
-iv----~.-
EMC standards and norms define terms, rules and test
methods Generally, EMC standards are of two types:
for EMC. Furthermore, they
specify limits and minimum test levels for clectric and 1. Military EMC Standards : Military EMC standards
clectromagnetic emissions and immunity of are made inorder to ensure system to system
electromechanical and electronic products. compatibility in real time Military Applicatlons.
EMC standards aim to set reasonable and rational limit Military Standards are more stringent than civilian
for clectromagnetic emission levels by different standards. Some of the Military Standard are given in
cquipments. the Table 6.4.1.
GQ. 6.4.2 Why do we need EMC Standards? Table 6.4.1: Differentl litary EMC Stnndards
5 EMC standards are also needed for bringing for Space Facilities
harmonization to EMC testing, in order to reduce MIL-STD-1818 Electromagnetic Effects,
international trade barriers and to improve product
Requirements of a System
reliability and life of the product.
2 Civilian EMC Standards The civilian EMC
Ga.6.43 Name the tests that are esential to standards are applicable for equipments used for
measure the electromagnetic commercial, industrial and domestic applications. The
interterence levels and compatibility emission standards are specified to protect tie
--. -----.- . -.
broadcast services from interference. The most
The tests that are to measure. the
essential commonly used EMC standards for a consumer
electromagnetic interference levels and compatibility are electronic product are shown in Fig. 6.4.1 and
1. Conducted Emission (CE) Table 6.4.2.
EMC standards
consolidated the multitude of different
Table 6.4.2: Common civilian EMC Standards
the service into two
from the various branches of
STANDARDDETATLS universally applicable standards.
ARENA
be met,
Commercial ANSI C63.4 Methods of measurement MIL-STD-461 specified the limits that had to
the test methods and
SM equipment EN
55011 and MIL-STD-462 specified
Commercial| CISPR 11 in MIL-STD-
Methods of measurement procedures for making the tests contained
CommercialCISPR 16 the FCC
461. These standards are more stringent than
Commercial CISPR 22 TTE cquipment EN 55022 as
regulations, and they cover immunity as well
Commercial| FCC Part 15B ITE equipment emissions in the frequency range of 30 Hz to 40
GHz.
Commercial IEC 61000-3-2 | Harmonics Over the years, these standards have gone through
CommcrClal IEC 61000-3-3 Flicker revisions that ranged from MIL-STD-461A in 1968 to
Commercial IEC 61000-4-2Electrostatic Discharge, MIL-STD 461E in 1999. In 1999, MIL-STD-461D
ESD (Limits) and MIL-STD-462D (Test Procedures) were
Commercial | IEC 61000-4-3 Radiated immunity merged into one standard MIL-STD-461E that covered
Commercial JEC 61000-4-4 Electrically Fast Transient both limits and test procedures. A latest revision known
Commercial EC 61000-4-5 | Surge (lightning) as MIL-STD-461G was released in 2015.
Commercial| IEC 61000-4-6 Conducted immunity Unlike commercial standards, MlL-STDs are not legal
requirements; rather, they are contractual requirements.
Commercial IEC 61000-4-8 Magnetic immunity
As such, test limits can be negotiated and waivers are
Commercial| IEC 61000-4-| Voltage dips, interrupts and possible.
variations
Earlier versions are still applicable to current products
Ga.6.4.5 Explain MIL-STD 461 and 462 because the requirements are contractual, not legal.
standards? Normally whatever version the original procurement
contract specified is still applicable.
MIL-STD 461 and 462 are EMC requirement for
defence clectrical, clectronic and clectro-mechanical The test procedures specified in the military standards
equipments. In 1968, the Department of Defense are often different than those specified by commercial
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EMC standards, which makes a direct comparisonof Table 6.4.3: Limits of Conducted emission under MILSTD.
461D
the limits difficult. For radiated emissions the military
standard specifies enclosed chamber (shielded room) Specifications frequency Applicability
testing, whereas the FCC and the EU rules require Range
open-area testing. CE101 30 Hz to 10 Power leads (including
For conducted emission testing. the military standards kHz returns) that obtain power
originally measured current, whereas the commercial from sources which are not
part of the EUT.
standards measure voltage. As more was learned about
EMC testing and its accuracy, the military standard has CE102 10 kHz to Power leads (including
10 MHz returns) that obtain power
come under some criticism for some of its test
from sources which are not
procedures.
part of the EUT.
As a result, the mnilitary has adopted some of the
CE106 10 kHz to Antenna terminals of
commercial test procedures. For example,MIL-STD-
40 GHz trartsmitters and receivers.
461E specifies the use of a LISN and the measurement
of voltage rather than current for conducted emission Ga.6.4.7 Give the speeificotionsfor
testing. susceptibility/immunity to conducted
Cmissions under MMLSTD461D
Also MIL-STD-461Erequires that some absorber
material must be used on the walls of chambers used The specification for susceptibility and immunity is
for emission and immunity testing to make the chamber listed in Table 6.4.4. The objectives of these
at least partially anechoic. The military standards are specifications are to ensure that equipment performance
application specific, often with different limits for is not degraded because of distortions present in the
different environments (such as Armny, Navy. voltage waveforms in the mains power supply.
aerospace, etc.). The objective of Cs103/104/105 is to provide
Give the Limits or conducted reasonable assurance that any variations in the response
emission under MiL-STD 461D of receivers and other sub-systems, connected to the
antenna, to in-band signals are within the permissible
The limits for conducted emission under MIL-STD-
limits. The objective of CS109 is to ensure that the
461D are enlisted in below Table 6.4.3. The objective
equipment performance is not affected by the magnetic
of imposing limits on the conducted emission in lower fields caused by any currents flowing in the platform
frequency range is to ensure that the connection of
structure.
Equipment under test (EUT) to the main power supply
The objective of CS114/115/116 is to ensure immunity
does not corrupt the power quality or introduce
of the equipmeht for any current and voltage
distortions in the voltage waveforms on the power
waveforms or electromagnetic ficlds which may be
mains beyond allowable limits.
generated on the platform.
The purpose on imposing limit of conducted emission
on higher frequency range is to protect the receivers
which are connected to antenna terminals against
degradation resulted due to radiated interference from
power cables related with EUT.
Part 68 of the FCC Rules and Regulations provides TCB must be accrecdited by the National Instiu
uniform standards for the protection of the telephone ofStandards and Techaology (NIST)
nerwork from harm caused by connection of terminal GO. 6.5.2 Explain FCC Pare 15 Stbar B
equipment [including private branch exchange (PBX)
systems] and its wiring, and for the compatibility of The FCC nule with the most general applicability ts
hearing aids and telephones to ensure that persons with Part 15, Subpart B because it applies to virtualy a
hearing aids have reasonable access to the telephone digital clectronics.
network. In September 1979, the FCC adopted egulations
Harm to the telephone network includes electrical control the interference potential of digital electnaas
hazards to telephone company workers, damage to (at that time called "computing devioes").
telephone company equipment, malfunction of These regulations Standands
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RF
puting Equipment" (Docket 20780); amended Part Table 6.5.2 lists the limits for a Class B product when
the FCC rules relating to restricted radiation mensured at a distance of 3 in.
I5 of
devices Table 6.5.1 FCC Class A Radlated Emlssdon Limits Measured
are now contained in Part 15, Subpart at 10 m
The regulations
B of Tile
47 of the Code of Federal Regulations.
Trequency Field Strength Fleld Strength
were placed on the maximum
Under these rules, limits (ABLV/m)
allowable radiated emission and on the maximum
(MHz) V/m)
30-88 0 39.0
allowable conducted emission on the alternating current
43.5
(ac) power line. 88-216 150
These regulations
were the result of increasing 210 46.5
216-960
complaints to the FCC about interference to radio and 49.5
960 300
television reception where digital electronics were
Measured
identified as the source of the interference. Table 6.5.2: FCC Class B Radiated Emission Limits
at 3n
which are
Computer terminals and peripherals,
intended to be connected to a computer, are also Frequency Field StrengthFleld Strength ddB
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Conducted Emission: The FCC Part Table 654: FCCCIPR CEss A coadncted Emisim Ls
mits
15 EIC Mezsurtd at 10 m
Regulations limit the maximum allowable
coodicted
emission, on the ac power line in the range 0.150 to Frequency Quasi- peak (dB Aveag (dB
of
30 MHz
Note also that both peak and average measure ments are International Special Committee for Radio Protection.
The
CISPR 22 conducted nission limits are given in aa. 6.6.2 Compare Radiated Emision limits of
FCC and CisPR
Tables 6.6.I and 6.6.2. They ure tlhe same as thhe FCC
limits.
conductcd cmission
The FCC and CISPR 22 radiated emission limits are
CISPR 22 conducted Emlsslon Lhnits for Class B
Tuble 6.6.1:
shle o
comparcd in Fig. 6.6.1. Since the FCC and CISPR 22
Digltal Devlces
limits for Class A cquipment are both to be measured at
Frcquency MH2)|PVQP(AV) dB uV QP (AV)| 10 m, no scaling is required.
0.5
631 (199.5) 56 (46) the CISPR 22 Class B measurement distance of 10 m
using the inverse distance rule, we subtract 20 logio
0.5-5 631 (199.5)56 (46)
(10/3)= 10.46 dB from the FCC Class B limits at3 m.
5-30 1000 (316) 60 (50) B
Or we could add 10.46 dB to the CISPR 22 Class
A
Table6.6.2: CISPR 22 conducted Emission Limits for Class limits at 10m to scale to the FCC Class B limits at 3 m.
Digital Devices
We have selected to scale the FCC Class B limits at
3 m to a distance of 10m by subtracting 10.46 dB.
Frequency (MHz) VQP (AV)dB PV QP(AV)
CISPR 22 currently does not have a requirement on
O.15-0.5 8912.5(1995) 79(66)
radiated emissions above GHz. With clock speeds of
1
0.5-30 4467(1000) 73 (60) personal computers currently in the GHz range, this
will no doubt change.
The CISPR 22 radiated emission limits are tabulated in
From this comparison we see that the CISPR 22 Class
Table 6.6.I for Class B ITE cquipment and in
B limits are somewhat more restrictive than the FCC
Table 6.6.2 for Class A ITE equipmecnt.
Class B limits in the frequency range of 88-230 MHz.
The Class B emissions arc to be measured at a distance From 88 to 216 MHz the CISPR 22 limits are 3 dB
of 10 m, as arc the Class A levcls. Like the FCC more restrictive, and from 216 to 230 MHz they are 5.5
radiated emission limits, these are to be measured with dB more restrictive.
a CISPR 22receiver having a quasi-pcak detector
(QP).
B
From 230. to 960 MHz the FCC limits are more
Table 6.6.3: CISPR 22 Radiatcd Emission Limits for Class
ITE Equipment (10 m) restrictive by about 1.5 dB. Again we see that the
CISPR 22 limits for Class A digital devices are more
Frequency (MH2V/mdB V/m restrictive than the FCC limits in the frequency range
30-230 31.6 30 of 88-216 MHz by some 4 dB and 6 dB in the range of
230-1000 70.8 37 216-230 MHz. From 230o 960 MHz he CISPR 22
limits are less restrictive than the FCC limits by about
Table 6.6.4: CISPR 22 Radinted Emission Limits for Class A
ITE Equipment (10 m) 1
dB.
230-1000 224 47
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Measurement distance 10 m
43.
37
35.5
FCC
33 -~-------------
L9.0 CISPR 22
230 MHz 1
GHz
(a)
Measurement distance 10 mn
49.5
47
46.4
43.5
4U
-e--
CISPR 22
Chapter Ends..