RFD Easy Solution

Syllabus
Subject Code Subject Name Teaching Scheme (Hrs.) Credits Assigned
Theory Practical| Tutorial Theory

Practical Tutorial| Total
ECC801 04 04
RF Design 04
Subject Subject Examination scheme

Code Name
Theory Marks Term PracticalOral Total
Work &Oral
Internal assessment End Sem.
Exam
Test Test Avg. of Test 1 and
1 2 Test 2
ECC801 RF Design 20 20 20 80 - - | 100
Prerequisites
Electromagnetic Engineering
Antenna & Radio Wave Propagation
Communication Engineering
Microwave Engineering
Course objectives:
T o learn RF circuit fundamentals for designing various circuit building blocks in a typical RF transceiver
To learn importance of EMI/EMC
Course outcomes:
After successful completion of the course student will be able to
Design impedance matching networks and passive RF filters.
Design and appraise RFamplifiers and oscillators.
Analyze EMI and EMC in RF circuits.
Course Contents
Module Unit Topies Hrs.

No. No.
L.O RF Filter Design 10

1.1 Image parameter method
1.2 Insertion loss method: Maximally flat low pass prototype, Equal ripple low pass prototype,|
Filter transformation and filter implementation (Refer Chapter 1) |
2.0 Amplifier Design 08
2.1 Two-port power gain stability
2.2 Single stage amplifier design: Design for maximum gain, design for specified gain, low noise
amplifier design
Power amplifier design.: Characteristics of power amplifier and classes of amplifiers, design
2.3
of class A power amplifier. (Refer Chapter 2)
Module Unit
Topics Hrs.
No. No.
3.0
Frequency Generation &Mixer 08
3.1 One-port and two-port microwave oscillator design.
3.2 Analysis of phase noise in oscillators.
3.3 Mixers: Characteristics, Various types of Mixers: Single ended diode mixers, FET mixers,
Balanced mixers, Image reject mixers and other
types of mixers. (Refer Chapter 3)
4.0 Frequency Synthesizers 06
4.1 Direct Frequency Synthesis, Frequency Synthesis by Phase Lock, Effects of Reference
Frequency on Loop Performance,
4.2 Variable: Modulus Dividers, Down Conversion, Methods for Reducing Switching Time,|
Direct Digital Synthesis, Synthesizer Design.
4.3 Phase Noise A Model for Oscillator Phase Noise, Phase Noise
in Phase-Locked Loops, |
Effect of Frequency Division and Multiplication on Phase Noise. (Refer Chapter 4)
5.0 Electromagnetic Interference in RF circuits 08
5.1 Introduction. Natural and Nuclear Sources of EMI, EMI From Apparatus and Circuits.
Quantification of Communication System EMI
5.2 Elements of Interference, Including Antennas, Transmitters, Receivers And Propagation.
Electronic Equipmentand System EMI Concepts. Examples of EMI Coupling Modes
5.3 Equipment Emissions and Susceptibilities Types of coupling: Common-Mode
Coupling: Common Mode Coupling Mechanisms Including Field to Cable, Ground
Impedance, Ground Loop and Coupling Reduction Techniques.
Differential-Mode Coupling: Differential-Mode Coupling Mechanisms Including Field to
Cable, Cable to Cable and Coupling Reduction Techniques.
5.4 Other Coupling mechanisms: Power Supplies And Victim Amplifiers (Refer Chapter 5)
6.0 ElectromagneticCompatibility 04
6.1 The Importance Of Grounding For Achieving EMC. Grounding, Including The Reasons
(L.E, Safety, Lightning Control, EMC, Grounding Schemes (Single Point, Multi-Point And
Hybrid), Shicld Grounding And Bonding. Shielding Effectiveness, Shielding Considerations
(Reflective And Absorptive), Shielding Compromises (LE., Apertures, Gaskets, Waveguide
Beyond Cut-Off)
6.2 EMI Diagnostics And Fixes: Techniques Used In EMI Diagnostics and Fixes
6.3 EMC Specifications, Standards And Measurements. A Discussion ofThe Genesis of EMC|
Documentation Including A Historical Summary, The Rationale, And A Review of MIL-Stds,
FCC and CISPR Requirements. (Refer Chapter 6)
Index
Module
Chapter 1 RF Filter Design ... ...1-1 to 1-74|
Module 2
Chapter 2 Amplifier Design... ...2-1 to 2-82|
Module 3
Chapter 3: Frequency Generation and Mixer.. ..3-1 to 3-46
Module 4
Chapter 4 Frequency Synthesizers.. *****°*** .4-1 to 4-24
Module 5
Chapter 5: Electromagnetic Interference in RF Circuits. ..5-1 to 5-40
Module 6
Chapter 6: Electromagnetic Compatibility. .....6-1 to 6-40
CHAPTE
RF Filter Design
2Modale
Syllabus:
Image parameter method, Insertion loss method-
Filter transfomation and filter
Maximally flat low pass prototype, Equal ripple low pass prototype,
implementation.
1.1
Introduction..
*****************************************************************.*************.**********************************"**
***************a**************************************************"*******************************e****** -5
1.2 Overview of Basic Terms...
********************"*********************************************** ********************************* -5
1.3 Filter Design..
*********e***********°************************************************
1-7
1.3.1 Filter Design by Image Parameter Method.. *********.*****°*****************°°***°°° ..... 1-7
GO. 1.3.1 Explain synthesis of filter using image parameter methods.
OR Obtain the expression for image impedances and transfer function of two port network.
Exam. Hint: Equations 1.3.4, 1.3.15 and 1.3.16...********e******************************************************************
1-7
GQ. 1.3.2 Obtain the expression for the image impedance of n network shown in Fig. 1.3.4.
Exam Hint: Z ****************************************************************°*.*************************.********* .1-10
GQ. 1.3.3 Obtain the expression of propagation constant of r network given in Fig. 1.3.4.
ExamHint: e"= 1 +2Z,+ *************n**a**********

************ ses. ]-10
GQ. 1.3.4 Derive the expression for image impedance of T network in terms of series and shunt
am impedances shown in Fig. 1.3.6.
Exam Hint:Z= Z **************************************o**osessneo U

RF Filter Design
RF Design (MU-8h Sem.-E&TTC) (1-2)
GQ. 1.3.5 Obtain the expression for propagation constant of t network.
**
********** ****..
.1-11
ExamHint:e"=1+2~~ '
***°**********
*************
network shown in
GQ. 1.3.65 Ompute the image impedances and propagation factor for the
Fig. 1.3.9 using ABCD parameters.
1-12
EXam Hint: coshy=AD =1-2oLC ***************°************************°******* *************°**********°
1-6
1.3.2
****************°******°***°°*****°°****** 14
Constant Kor Prototype Filter Section. ***********.***°**************
GQ. 1.3.7 What is constant K filters ? OR What is prototype section ? .**************

.
*********************°******
.1-14
****************** .. 1-14
1.4 Constant K Low Pass Fiter Design by Using Image Parameter Method. ******
********°****°°**°*°*°********** 1-14
Ga. 1.4.1 What is constant-K-ow pass filter ?...*****************a********°°******"**
1.4.1 .1-14
Analysis of Constant K Low Pass Filter.. ***************************************************°°****°°************ ***************
GQ. 1.4.22 Design a constant K low pass T section fiter to be teminated in R, 2 having cut of a, rad/sec. .1-14
1.4.2 Reactance Curve and Expression for Cut off frequency f *************************************°°****************
1.4.3 Expression for Propagation Factor.. *************.***********************************°**°* .. 1-16
1.4.4 Analysis of attenuation (a) and phase shift (B) characteristic of constant KLPF. .. 1-16
*****e*****.
1.4.5 Design Steps and Equations of Constant K-LPF.***************************************************************************** 1-18
1.5 Constant K HPF.. ************"" *******a******************************************************

******** .. 1-19
GQ. 1.5.1 Design constant K-HPF... ************************************************ *************n*********** 1-19
1.5.1 Attenuation (a) and Phase Constant (B) Characteristic of Constant K HPF...
********°*************************** 1-20
1.5.2 Summary of Design Equations of Constant K HPF. nosenseeene**"******" 1-21

**********************o****
GQ. 1.5.2 The nominal characteristic impedance of T section of LPF is Ro. Find Z at 0.9 fc..
**************************** 1-22
1.6 m-Derived Filter...........a....s**e*a*********e*********************************************a*******o****e ssee.

****************e*********. 1-22
GQ. 1.6.1 How m -
derived filters are

superior than constant K -
filter ? OR How m- derived filters

can be obtained from constant ?...
1-22
GQ. 1.6.2 How T section of m -
derived filter is obtained from constant- k- T section ?.

***********a************a********* 1-23
1.6.1 m- Derived Low Pass Filter. .

* . T-24
Analyze m - derived T and n sections of LPF.

GQ. 1.6.3 ************ ****°*
******************. *
*******°**° .
.1-24
Analysis of Attenuation (a) Versus Frequency characteristic of LPF

1.6.2 m - Derived Section ... 1-25
*******.******
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1-26
1.6.3 Cascading of m -
Derived T-Half Sections... ****************************°*.************************************************
M-derived High Pass Filter..**********************************as**bs****************************************************** 1-28

1.6.4
GQ. 1.6.4 Draw and explain m-derived T and n section of HPF. Explain graphical representation of cut off
. . 1-28
frequency.. **********°***********°***************n*******************.******so*************************************************
**********************************u*s******** ********************************************°*********
.1-30
1.7 Impedance Matching Using Half Sections...
GQ. 1.7.1 Why half section is used for terminating section in filter. ?.****** ***************** *********°"*** **** 1-30
1-30
GQ. 1.7.2 Explain the need of using half sections.. ***********************************************************
*********** ********
... 1-30
m-Derived Half Sections for Low Pass Filter.***********************************************************°****°***********
1.7.1
M-Derived Half Sections for High P a s s F i t e r .*****************************************************°"****** .. 1-31

1.7.2 **********
Ga. 1.7.3 Write a note no teminated m-derived half section for HPF.. 1-31
1-32
1.8 Composite Filter. ******************************o******************************************************°**
Ga. 1.8.11 e******** 1-32

Draw and explain block diagram of composite filter. Write advantage of composite filters...
1-38
1.9 Filter Design by Insertion Loss Method..
Ga. 1.9.1 What is perfect filter ?. ************°*********°**** .1-38
*******************es**********. ***°*******°****
1.9.1 Characterization by Power Loss Ratio (PLR) .1-38

***********************************
Ga. 1.9.2 Explain the concept of insertion Ioss method.. ***** *************
************ 1-38
1.9.2 Types of Filter...a***uso**** e****. ***************a********************

****° 1-38
GQ. 1.9.3 Explain different types of low pass filter. ****************** ***e************.**********°****** 1-38
1.9.3 Process of Fiter Design by Insertion Loss Method. *************************************************** 1-40
GQ. 1.9.4 Explain design process of fiter by insertion loss method.. **** 1-40
1.9.4 Maximally Flat Low Pass Filter Prototype. ****** "*********** 1-41
Ga. 1.9.5 Derive expression for the values of L and C for second order low pass filter and maximally
flat low passfilter..********* *****e*************e*****« **** ************** 1-41
GQ. 1.9.6 Explain ladder circuits for maximally low pass fiter and element definition...
*********""°*** ********* 1-42
1.9.5 Equal Ripple or Chebyshev Low Pass Filter Design. ******* *******.******************
**. 1-44
GQ. 1.9.7 Explain chebysheve low pass filter synthesis process.. **************************** 1-44
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*************************************************************e***************************** 1-48
1.10 Scaling of Low Pass Prototype Filters.
****************°******************* 148
GQ. 1.10.1 Explain two types of scaling. ****************************************************************
*****************************************.************************************************************* 1-49
1.11 Filter Transfomation..
********************************************************************°*************************
** l49
GQ. 1.11.11 Write a note on filter transfomation.
*°°****°° .1-49
1.11.1 Low Pass to High Pass Fiter..
***********'*********************************************************************
GQ. 1.11.2 ********************************************************************** .1-49

Explain low pass to high pass filter trans ation. *
Low Pass Filter to Band Pass Filte.

********************.**********************s************************************************* .1-52
1.11.2
GQ. 1.11.3 Explain and obtain the expression of capacitorand inductor..****************** ****°*********°°*********** 1-52
********** 1-56
1.11.3 Low Pass Filter to Band Stop Filter . *****************************************************************************
Ga. 1.11.4 Obtain the expression for inductor and capacitor of band stop filter using low pass
filter prototype.. **********e**********************************.

**************************************************
1-56
1.12 Fiter Implementation.. 1-59

ssseeeansnsns* **a .snoa...s*ssssssnnanssnssnsosanessesnnessen****************************
GO. 1.12.1 What is redundant and non-redundant filter synthesis ? *********o**** ********o9************* 1-59
1.12.1 Richard's Transformation. *********s*ssesesesnessranassese***esonsrsnsssosopnsse************ ****************osee***** 1-59
Ga. 1.12.2 How Richard's Transformation is usetul in RF fiter designing ?.
GQ. 1.12.3 Why does fiter response using Richard's Transfomation match with filter design using
lumped element ?...e***********************sass***************************s*********************.*********************.**************.*****1-60
1.12.2 Kuroda's ldentities..*********************************°°**********°e*************a*********°******.****°°************°****e ****a** 1-61
Ga. 1.12.4 Explain how Kuroda's ldentities are useful in RF fiter desig...
******a**********°°************************* **********. 1-61
Ga. 1.12.5 Prove the Kuroda's 1 identity. ****************************************************a** 1-62
1.12.3 Impedance and Admittance Inverters. ****

*************************°.*****. 1-66
1.13 Mixed Solved Problems.. ****************************************************°*********** **

***************************** 1-67
Chapter Ends. ************

************************************************e**********
************************************************************ 1-74
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1.1 INTRODUCTION 5. Stop band: The range offrequencies where signals are
stopped or suppressed called as 'stop band' or
The "Short wavelength" feature of microwave region attenuation band.

has made the microwave signals to travel over long 6. Cut off frequency : The frequency which discriminate
distances under most sevenre weather conditions which the pass band and stop band is known as cut off
includes both civilian and military and wireless
frequency.
applications. Usually it is denoted as f .
As microwave frequency spectrum (1 GHz to
1007, There may be two cut off frequencies in the complete
GHz) is a finite resource, filters play vital role in order
operation of filters.
to treat this spectrum with cared and respect. They are as : f> lower cut off frequency;
Radio filters are very crucial component of different
electronic systems including radar, satellite and cellular
faupper cutofffrequency
communication.
8. Classification of filters
These are two types of filters
In these systems, RF filters differentiates between
wanted and unwanted frequencies. Classflcatlon
of filters
The design of filters include network synthesis with
which it becomes easy to transform designed filters into
microwave networks including waveguides, TEM (i) Depending on
) Depending on relation
transmission lines and dielectric resonators. So this unit between series arm frequency response
begins with the basic revision of some terms and impedances and of filters
shunt arm impedance
properties of filters.
(a) constantfiter F (a) Low Pass Filter (LPH)
H 1.2 oVERVIEW OF BASIC TERMS or prototype filter F(b) High Pass Fiter (HPF)
(b) m derivedfiters F(c) Band Pass Filter(BPF)
1. Filters: filters are electrical circuit which passes signal ( ) Band Stop Filter or
within a specified frequency range. Band Elimination Fiter
(a) Table 1.2.1 shows the classification filters with their
2 Network analysis: It is the method offinding out the
Response when network and Excitations are known. In pass band and stop band specification
network analysis each problem has got the unique Table 1.2.1
solution.
Consider a two port network Nameof fiter Pass band (Hz) Stop band(Hz)
|Low Pass O to f to o
Excitation High Pass f.tooo 1 to f

o Network Response
Energy source
Band Pass fato f Oto fa f to o
MATaFig. 1.2.1
Band Stop Oto fofa to f to fa
3. Network synthesis : It is the method of finding out the 9. Attenuation and its units:
network when Response and Excitations are known. In Attenuation is loss of power in electric network or
network synthesis there may be multiple solutions toa transmission lines. It is expressed in Nepers and
given problem. (Refer Fig. 1.2.1) decibels.
4. Pass band : The range of frequencies where signal
passes is called pass band.
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10. Image impedances (Z) 1. Insertion loss
Two-port network is shown in Fig. 1.2.1(a). When a network is inserted between source and load as
Z Z Z Z3 shown in Figs. 1.2.2(a) and 1.2.2(b), the power
1o 2
TW2 delivered to the load decreases as load current
decreases.
The loss in power delivered from source to load is due
1'o o2' to insertion of network is known as insertion loss and it
is expressed in decibel or Neper.
(141)Fig. 1.2.1(a) : Two port network (1A2)Fig. 1.2.1(b)
The image impedances are denoted as Z at 1-11
terminal and Z2 at 2-2 terminal as shown in
Fig. 1.2.1(b).
When
then the
port 2 i.e. 2-2' terminal is terminated with
Z, v
impedance measured at port 1 i.e. 1-1
terminals, will be the image impedance of port 1 as (145Fig. (a) : Without network
shown in Fig. 1.2.1(c).
E.g.
Z1
Rs Network
R
(1A6Fig. b): With network
Fig. 1.2.2: Insertion loss and two port network

(1A)Fig. 1.2.1(c)
Let 1, be the current flowing through R;, when network
Z Z +(Z, 1(Z, +Z) is inserted between source and-load. The insertion loss
Z, (Z+Z is given by,
.Z 4*Z,+Z,+Z
Similarly, if port 1 is terminated with image impedance Insertion loss(a)=InNeper
of Z then the impedance measured at port 2 will be the
image impedance of port 2. i.e. Zn as shown in Insertion loss(a)=201ogo Decibel

Fig. 1.2.1(d).
The insertion loss in terms of power ratio can be
Z1 expressed as follows:
-
The P is the power delivered to load when there is no
insertion of network (as Fig. 1.2.2(a)) P2 is the power
Zn
delivered to load when there is insertion of network (as
1 2 Fig. 1.2.2(b)).
(1A4Fig. 1.2.1(d) Insertion loss ()nNeperr(N)
Za Z, + (Z, +Z) 1Z)
2(Z+Zy) Insertion loss ()=10log decibel (dB)
= Zy+Z,+Z,+Zu
2. Return loss: The part of input power that is lost due to
impedances the when
In short, image impedances are reflection at its input port is called return loss and it is
one of port is
terminated with impedance then the other
is seen at the other port. expressed in dB. RL = 20 log

impedance
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1.3 FILTER DESIGN
i) Expression for image impedances and transfer
function of two port network
Filters can be
designed using active devices such as
transistors and operational amplifiers and V, and V, are the terminal voltages at port I and port 2
passive respectively. It is noted that I, is current entering into
elements such as inductors and
capacitors. port I whereas 1, is current leaving port 2. Z and Z2
However, the filters designed with passive elements are
less expensive then the filters designed with active are known as
as follows
image impedances and they are defined
devices. Image impedance at port1 when port 2 is terminated

Also passive filters operate with Z
fairly well at microwave
frequencies. Z2 Image impedance at port 2 when port 1 is terminated
Therefore this with Zr
chapter presents the design procedure of
passive filters only. Further Zn is the input impedance at port 1 when port 2
is terminated with
Filters can be designed by two methods
(i)
Zp
Similarly Z, is output
Image impedances at port 2 when input port is terminated with
Parameter Method (ii) Insertion Loss Method.
Zi.
The transmission or ABCD parameters of two port
1.3.1 Filter Design by Image network 1 can be written as
Parameter Method V, = AV2+BI, ...(1.3.1)
and 1 = CV2 + DI ..(1.3.2)
GO. 1.3.1 Explain synthesis of filter using inmage Therefore, the input impedance Zzn using Equations
parameter methods. OR (1.3.1) and (1.3.2) when port 2 is terminated with Zi2
can be obtained as
Obtain the expression for image
impedances and transfer function of V, AV+
Zn CV,+ D1, ...(1.3.3)
two port network Dividing by h on right side of Equation (1.3.3)
Exam. Hint: Equations 1.3.4, 1.3.15 and 1.3.16
This method (Image Parameter method) of filter design
can pass or stop a certain frequency band for a cascade of
two port network.
Disadvantage : This is simple method but unable to shape 01

it's frequency response characteristics.
) Schematic Diagram: Fig. 1.3.1 shows two port
network with its ABCD parameters.
Port 1 Port 2 (1AB)Fig. 1.3.2
Apply KVL to output side
V,-Zh = 0 ...from Fig. 1.3.2
V Zal
(1.3.4)
Solving Equations (1.3.1) and (1.3.2) for Vz 1, we get,
AV = V1- Blh
Lin o
(1A7Fig. 1.3.1: Two port network terminated with image
impedances Zy and Zu A -BL (13.5)
Dh = 1-CV,
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Now dividing by 1, and we get
C
D (1.3.6)
D +B
Putting Equation (1.3.6) into Equation (1.3.5) ...(1.3.11)
V B-CV
AD -C+A
becomes
V,D V, = - Z , Equation (1.3.11)
AD B-CV,)
From Fig. 1.3.3,
V2 AD 2 D+B
..(1.3.12)
V,
Va V,D-B-CV) ZZC+A
AD As it is seen that from Fig. 1.3.3,
V B1+BCV, Zn Z and Z, = Z2
AD So Equation (1.3.4) and Equation (1.3.12) represents

two equations for image impedances as
v,AD AD Z
AZ+B
CZ+D and ZZC+A
Z D+B
vAD-BQ ,D-BI
AD AD 1.3.7) From Fig. 1.3.3,
By knowing the condition of reciprocity is,

AD-BC 1,
TWO
Equation (1.3.7) becomes port
V, = V,D-BI,
Similarly using Equation (1.3.5) in Equation (1.3.6)

(1.3.8)
2
IA10) Fig. 13.3
h AD BI)
AD AZ+B
Here, Z CZ+D
Al CV,+BCh
AD AD
Putting CZ+Ain above equation
CV
1-AD= AD AD ACZ+A+B
DZ+B
4 Z TDZ* D
AD C). Aj-cy,
AD cz D
..1.3.9) ADZ + AB + BCZ + AB

Z CDZ +BC+CDZ +AD
Then output impedance Z, at port 2 when port 1 is
CDZ+BC+CDZ+ADA =ADA +AB +BC +AB
terminated with Z can be obtained as
2CDZ2AB
.(1.3.10)
CD
[Negative sign indicates that current I, is leaving the port 2] Taking square root on both sides
Using Equations (1.3.8) and (1.3.9) in Equation (1.3.10), ...(1.3.13)

z DB)-VD-BI,
Z A-Cv -CV+Al If network is
becomes
symmetric A =
D, so Equation (1.3.13)
.Z
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Similarly for Z2
V D-BCD
DZ +B V D- AB
=
Za CzZ+A
AZ+B
DA-yBCD
Putting CZ+D in above equation VA
DAZ2 +BB - VAD-V ..(1.3.15)
LD+B
Now, consider Equation (1.3.9), the current ratio is
AZ+B 1 Al-Cv,
LC+DJ*A Dividing I on both sides
ADZ+BD +BCZ +BD
2
ACZ +BC+ ACZ+ AD A-C
AC+Z BC+ACZ+ ADZ = ADZ +BD +BCZ
A-Cz,
+BD 2z AC=2 BD
AC from Fig. 1.3.3, Z Ignoring minus sign
. Za BD AB
=
NAC ...(1.3.14) From Equation (1.3.13), Z4 CD

Expressing Z in tems of Z as follows
From Equation (1.3.14), divide and multiply by AD A-C
AB
CD
Z ABD
ACD = A ABCA-1
Equations (1.3.13) and (1.3.14) are the expressions for
image impedances in terms of ABCD parameters. If = A- .Divide and multiply D
network is symmetric, then A = D and Z Z as
expected.
AvD-ABCE .1.3.16)
VD
Expression for voltage and current transfer Using Equations (1.3.15) and (1.3.16)
function of two port network terminated with
its image impedances. - AD-V) ..(1.3.16(a))
Consider Equation (1:3.8) as: Expressions for propagation constant

V2 DV -BI In Equations (1.3.15) and (1.3.16) factor
As
both sides of Equation (1.3.8), the
Dividing by V2 on
present in reciprocal form and hence can be considered
voltage ratio is as transformer turns ratio. Apart from this a
propagation factor for the network is defined as
D-B = AD-VBC .(1.3.17)
where,y a+jß
1.3.3 from Equation (1.3.17)
(Tgnoring minus sign) From Fig.
AD+BC
D-2 (WAD-BC) WAD+VBC)
NAD+BC
Using Equation (1.3.13) AD-BC = 1
(AD-BC).
D-BAB e = AD+VBC ..(1.3.18)
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Also, coshy t ,here, cosh 27.42+2,Z+2Z,Z]

y=vAD
=
22 +Z2
(1.3.18a)) [ 2Z, Z +Z, Z2 +27,Z,2]
GO. 1.3.2 Obtain the
expression for the image 27,+ 27 +Z
pedance of network shown
Fig. 1.3.4.
T in 4ZZ+222z, +2Z, Z2 Za +Z, Z+ 27, 2,
4Z, Z,+2Z, Z, Za+ 4Z,Z
Exam Hint: Z 4Z,Z +Z Z = 4Z, Z2
4Z, Z,
Z
Z +4Z2
Multiplying numerator and denominator by factor
22 272 z .(1.3.19)
(1A11)Fig. 13.4 : T- network Taking Z,Z, common

Terminate the given network with Z at terminal 2-2.
1 l2
A
42,Z+1)
272 V2Zi2 . Z
..(1.3.20)
1 422
(1A12)Fig. 1.3.4(a)
Z
GO. 1.3.3 Obtain the expression of propagation
1 ww constant of T network given in
Za l| 2Z2 Fig.1.3.4.
in 222
11o Exam Hint: e 1+
Zn222 lI (Z,+Z2 l| 2Z2)
--+-
(1A13)Fig. 1.3.4(b) Terminate the network with
t
Zi2 =
Z, Z1=
on both
sides as shown below and apply V
The network is symmetrical, So Z, Zo =Z2 voltage.
Is R
The image impedance of symmetrical n network is w
given by, Z
Zin Z=2Z,|I|[Z, +(2Z, Z
Vo 272
Za 22"22+Zn
Z+27, 2
(1A14)Fig. 1.3.5 : T network is correctly terminated with Z
Z (27,+Z)+2,Z2 The above network is
symmetrical t network, so by the
Za 27" =
22+2 definition of propagation constant.
27,+Z2 e
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RF Design (MU-8 sem.-E&TC) (1-11) RF Filter Design
By applying potential divider nule to left side of Z,/2 Z,/2
Fig. 1.3.5
(27, Z,) 1
27,Z
V 2Z+7
Z, +(2Z, 17,)J 27,
Z 2Z+7 (1415Fig. 1.3.6: Symmetrical T network
V 22, 2,
z z,+2)+2,7,J
Terminate the given symmetrical T network with
ZZ=Zo
4+22,Z,+Z,2,] Z/2 Z/2 2
27,7 1
Z
1Z27 1'o
Rearranging the terms
2
Z (1A16)Fig. 1.3.7: Symmetrical T network terminated with Z
1+27 .(1.3.21)
As network is symmetrical, image impedance Z of
Using Equations (1.3.19) and (1.3.20) such network terminated with Z2 = Zo at other port is equal
Z, Z ..(1.3.22)
to Z
Z=Zo=Z2
Use Equation (1.3.22) into Equation (1.3.21)
,7(4-z)]
Z
122 Z
Z2+2.
Z
zzz2z5+z,).,zz
+2,2
1+2Z Z 2224,222
= 122*47
ZT- +Z,Z
1+2z .(1.3.23) Z
...(1.3.24)
GQ. 1.3.4Derive the expression, for image
impedanceof T network in terms of G2.1.3.5 Obtain the expression for propagation
series and shunt arm impedances constant of t network
shownin Fig. 1.3.6
Exam Hint: e 1+
Exam Hint:Z +Z Z2
To obtain propagation constant of T network, terminate
the T network correctly as shown in Fig. 1.3.8.
24Z 14Z,
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RE Design (MU-8h Sem.-E&TC) (1-12)
Filter Design
Z,/2 2
-
s-IR Loop 2 Port 1 Port 2
Loop1
c
(IA17Fig. 1.3.8: Correctly terminated T network (IA19)Fig. 1.3.9
L
Applying KVL to loop in clockwise direction
1 m
V
c
'o -o2
(1I419)Fig. 1.3.10
The transmission ABCD parameters of Fig. 1.3.10 are

defined as
V,= AV, +Bl, .(1.3.27)
= CV2+DI, .(1.3.28)
Z
...(1.3.25) Let I 0 i.e. output part is open circuited, then
Equation (1.3.27) and (1.3.28) reduces to
V = AV2
But from Equation (1.3.24), z, = and
CV
putting Z in Equation (1.3.25). Assuming loop current as shown in Fig. 1.3.10 and
applyingKVL to loop 1-A-B-1'- 1.
1.Vizz V-1 (joL)-(jolL + ) 0
V-4(jolL)-, (joL)-1,
1*2Z*\N V-1 joL+ joL +
jwC,
= o
1 V,-,2joL+
4Z
13NE12) .(1.3.26)
the image impedances and 2 jLjoC

GQ. 1.3.6 Compute
propagation factor for the network
shown in Fig. 1.3.9 using ABCD .V
2ito'LC+1
parameters. joC
jwC
hAD / 2jo'LC+1
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Applying KVL to 1-2-2-1-1

1-2Lc ..(1.3.29)
V,-(joL) = 0
But
V = (j»lL) 1
foLC+1 Here I l
Where Z joL + JOC
jC
B = joL ...(1.3.35)
JwC alv,=0
V = joC
LC .(1.3.30)
As, I = lh
Using Equation (1.3.29) into Equation (1.3.30)

D v,=0 ..(1.3.36)
v, =(-'LC oC
The ABCD matrix for network given in Fig. 1.3.9 using
..(1.3.31) Equation (1.3.32), (1.3.34), (1.3.35) and (1.3.36)
Rearanging Equation (1.3.31) 1-200LC joL
1 -o'LC
1-oLC AB ..(1.3.37)
1=0 1-20Lc) Lc D joC
1-LC
V=0 (1-20 .1.3.32)
"1-oLC(13.32)
From Equation (1.3.13), Z =VC
From Equation (1.3.32), we can write as:
V, = (-20'LC .(1.3.33)
(1-20 LC. ioL
(1-o'LC) JoL
joL
Using Equation (1.3.33) into Equation (1.3.29)
(1 o LC)'
4 (joc .v,
1-26 LCT-oLCV sL1-20 LC)
jac
1-oLC
Z V1-2w 10) .(1.3.38)
C: .(1.3.34)
BD
Now, using Equation (1.3.12) Z42 =\W AC
Let V2 = 0 i.e. output part is short circuited as shown in
Fig. 1.3.11. (joL) (1)

Zg
L WE20LC(joC)
L
1- 2 10 2 1-o LC 1-o'LC)
6L) -o'LC
2 Z V1-20o' LOSC
2 1'o
1'o-
Z (1-oLOc-2oLC.13.39)
(1A20) (1421) From Equation (1.3.18(a))
Fig. 1.3.11
coshy = VAD
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RF Design (MU-8h Sem-E&TC) (1-14)
CONSTANT K LOW PASS
1.4
FILTER DESIGN
BY USING
coshy 1-oLC IMAGE PARAMETER
..using Equation (1.3.37) ..(1.3.40)
METHOD
Table 1.3.1: Image parametersfor T- and t-Network
What is
constant-K-low pass filter ?
T-Network T-Network GQ. 1.4.1
and t section of
Refer Fig. 1.3.6 Refer Fig. 1.3.4 and (b) presents T
Figs. 1.4.1(a) filter is
constant K low pass
filter. Constant K low pass
ABCD parameters ABCD parameters which passes certain
band of
defined as a filter
attenuate all
off frequency and
A=1+2Z A=l+27 frequencies upto cut
other frequencies above the
cut off frequency as shown
B Z
in Fig. 1.4.1(c).
B Z+4Z of series arm impedances and shunt
Also the product 2
Z2 R,. It is simplest
C- impedances is equal to Z
=
arm
Z
D 1*2Z type of filter.
D1*2Z U2 U2 Z
Imageimpedance: Image impedance
2Z2 222
(1A22) (a)T section (1A23)(b) T section
Propagation Constant:
Propagation constant: ***
-1+2
*
=1+2Z Stop
Pass
Dand band
*****ww**venwvvenn
*********************
1.3.2 Constant K or Prototype fHz)

Filter Section (1A24)(c) LPF attenuation Vs frequency characteristics
-----
Fig. 1.4.1: Constant K low pass filter

GQ.1.3.7 What is constant K filters ? OR What
is prototype section ?
1.4.1 Analysis of Constant K Low
In constant K filter, the product of series arm Pass Filter
npedances Z, and shunt arm impedances Z, satisfy the
Ga. 1.4.2 Design a constant K low pass T
ndition as Z Z, = Rwhere R, is a nominal
section filter to be
haracteristic impedance and do not depend on frequency. terminated in R
2 having cut of o, rad/sec.
Types of constant K filter (1) Constant K Low Pass
Filter (2) Constant K High Pass Filter Constant K-low pass T section filter is shown in
Fig. 14.1(a). In low pass filter, series arm
consist of inductor and shunt arm
impedances
consist ofimpedance
capacitor.
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Expression of nominal characteristic In Equation (1.4.5) Z is characteristic impedance of T
section of low pass filter. The reactance curve characteristic
impedance Ro
of T section low pass filter is shown in Fig. 1.4.2.
From Fig. 1.4.1(a),
Total series arm impedance
.(1.4.1)
X oL
2r
Total shunt arm impedance
ZioC .(1.4.2)
characteristics of
DC (1A25)Fig. 14.2: Reactance Vs frequency
constant K LPF
Multiplying Equations (1.4.1) and (1.4.2)
2,joa) Putting the value of Z Z and from Equations

C
(1.4.1), (1.4.2) and (1.4.4) respectively, into Equation (1.4.5)
.-1 becomes:
i s being real magnitude]
R, .(1.4.3)
a1.4.2 Reactance Curve and

Expression for Cut off
=R 1 oLC
frequency f
From Fig. 1.4.1(a),
Z = joL
Ro (14.6)
X, = oL
2
Z LC
4
. o LC .(1.4.7)
joL joL joC Zor Ro

4
jC where LC
-oLC 1.4.4)
4
But
...(1.4.8)
Z 7=Zg=\
Taking Z, Z, common
From Equation (1.4.8) it is clear that
G)Z R,foro = 0
.(14.5) V
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i) . L C real. :1+5 2
cä) 1 Zq =R,\1-is imaginary.

Gv) Z becomes characteristic impedance of pass band =1- 20'LC +V fo (0j1C+4)
whena Z is real
) Z becomes characteristic impedance of stop band 1 2 + oLojc-4)
when
oL >1 as ZT becomes imaginary.
(vi) It cans
that the cut off frequency will be at particular
.LC
condition when oLC1 1 4(LC
i.e.
Hence constant K LPF has a cut off frequency

expressed as.
.(1.4.9)
LC or fLC
+LC
It is also clear fromEquation (1.4.8) that, when f < f
ZTis real in pass band. When f> f, Zis imaginary in
the stop band. 1-22L V 1
So the cut off frequency of constant K LPF can be
expressed in Equation (1.4.9).
-1 (1.4.11)
section.Z, - Rg .(1.4.10)
a 14.4 Analysis of attenuation («)
and phase shift (8)
a 1.4.3 Expression for Propagation
characteristic of constant
Factor K LPF
From Equation (1.3.26), he, propagation factor for
T-section constant K-LPFis given as FromEquation(1.4.11), coshy=1-4
4
Putting
With reference to Fig. 14.1(a), here, Z, =joL and Z, = k coshy= 1-4 LC

2
Putting the values of Z and Z, into Equation (1.3.26) 1-LC sincey a+jB
or cosh ( +jB) =
=
jOL
1+2 joC
OR cosh a cos B+ jsinh a sin B= 1 - 2 ..(1.4.12)
joL
Equating real and imaginary part of Equation (14.12),
joL) we get
Cjoc joc cosha cos B = 1-LC

..(1.4,13)
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sinh a sin B = 0 ..(1.4.14) ie. sin
Since imaginary part is zero. In order to fulfill Equation
(1.4.14) either a =0 or B = nm, n is being integer. Taking square root on both sides
For pass band
The attenuation 'a' is zero in pass band i.e. a = 0 sin
From Equation (1.4.12)
=sin
cos B=1- 2
i.e B 2 sin" radian ..(1.4.17)
Since cosh a = 1 .(1.4.15)
The value of cos ß varies from + 1 and - 1 F o r stop band
In stop band attenuation 'a' is not equal to zero (a # 0)
Hence cosB= 1-0LC
2 as from Equation (1.4.15) B =nm.
From Equation (1.4.13), for n = 1,
-cosh a =l-29
L2 o i.e. o= 0is the lower cut off
Since CoS Tt - 1 ...(1.4.18)
frequency of filter operation.
This proves that lower cut off frequency of filter is a =cosh 1 Neper ..(1.4.19)
Zero.
Now, cos ß= - 1 gives higher cut off frequency of Also -cosh a =1-2 cosh
filter
From Equation (1.4.18),
. 1-LC =
1 1-2cosh =1-20
-2 which gives
2 -2 cosh a 20
oLC =4
2 cosh a =
LC
Taking square root on both sides
VLC Biving i, cosh a=
Now in Equation (1.4.15) substituting@
= cost"Neper
cosB= 1L1_20
d = 2 cosh"()
B = coSs
radian ..(1.4.16)
2 2cosh .(1.4.20)
The attenuation (o) and phase shift (B) characteristics
Also, cos 1-2sin=1-=12
of LPF have been shown in Fig. 1.4.3.
2ai
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a (Nep) Pass CT Ro ..(1.4.22)

Stop
B(rad) band band
Table 1.4.l:: Design parameters of Constant-K LPF
B 2sin (Hz)/B Parameters Value
a - 2c0osh
Ro
Slow attenuation rate
a 0
nVLC
f(GHz)
Ra
(1A26)Fig. 1.4.3:a and Bcharacteristics of constant K-LPF Tfe
C
a 1.4.5 Design Steps and Equations Tt Roe
of Constant K-LPF
ZT
Selection of elements like nominal characteristic
impedance and cut off frequency, inductance capacitance
plays very important while designing the filter. Ro
These are expressed as follows
(Equation (14.3) )
Ex. 1.4.1
f TLC (Equation (1.4.9)) Design constant K LPF for the following specifications
Cut off frequency f = 2.5 kHz ; Nominal characteristic
Tf impedance R, = 700 2
) Find image impedance Z and Z

LC Gi) Also find the frequency at which this filter produces
attenuation of 19.1 dB.
.LRrc
The inductance and capacitance are expressed using
ii) Find phase constant ß at pass band and stop or
attenuation band.
above two Equations as follows, Soln.
asR-y Given: f 2.5 kHz =2500 Hz, R= 700 2
Attenuation, a' =
19.1 dB =
6RG= 2.199 Neper
Ro . R LC
To find the values of L and C
L =R VLC The design equation of inductor and capacitor for
L yLC constant K LPF are
expressed in Equations (L4.21) and
(14.22).
So using Equation (1.4.21)
.L T 14.21)
700
L = T t T X 2500 89.126 mH
Similarly for C:
Using Equation (1.4.22)
RV C
Tt
R fe Tx 700 x 2500
C R 7t
C = 181.89 nF
Ro
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RF Design (MU-8" Sem.-E&TC) (1-19) RF Filter Design
() The image impedance ZqT of T section and Z of n
Ex. 1.4.2
section of LPF is given as:
AT section constant K-LPF has series inductance 80 mH
and shunt capacitance 0.022 uF.
ZR1-(E). (i) Determine the cut off frequency ii) nominal
R characteristic impedance 'R'. Also design an equivalent
V-CE
But in this case, f > f. therefore the image impedance
T section.
Soln.
ZT is imaginary. Given: L=80 mH and C = 0.022 F
(ii) Attenuation in stop band of constant K LPF is given

)The cut offfrequency f, is given as
as
a = 2 cosh Neper
Where f is frequency at which this filter produces
attenuation 19.1 dB or 2.199 Neper TV80 x 10x0.022 x 10
From above Equation.
f 7.587 kHz
Gi) The nominal characteristic impedance is expressed
as
2500 coah 80 x10

f
f =
=2500 x 1.66785
4.169 kHz
R 0.022 x 10
R 1.906 kHz
(ii) The phase constant ß in pass band is given as
The required T and t section of constant K LPF shown
B 2 sinE in Fig. P. 1.4.2(a) and (b).
2 sin(4170 U2 40mH U2 40mH L 80mH

25 radians.
In pass band As f>f, ß in pass band is also C/2 0.011uF

C 0.022uF c/2=0.011uF=
imaginary.
In stop band: The phase constant ß in stop band is
given as p=T radians. (1A29)(a) (1A30) (b)
(iv) Desigm of constant K-LPF Fig. P. 14.2: Constant K-LPF with T and n section
The T and n section constant K LPF along with its
elements is shown in Fig. P. 1.4.1. H1.5 CONSTANT K HPF
U2 U2 44.56mH
89.126mH =44.56mHA GO. 1.5.1 Design constant K-HPF

2 C 181.89nF
Fig. 1.5.1 presents T and n sections of constant K-HPF.
2C 2C
(IAZT(a)
L 89.126mH
3 2
CI2 90.94nF C/2 90.94nF
(1A31(a) T section (1A32)(b) t section

(1A28) (b) Fig. 1.5.1: Constant K-HPF
Fig. P. 14.1: T-type section of constant K-LPF T section
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RE Design (MU-8 Sem.-E&TC) (1-20)
In T and T sections, a series impedance and shunt

ZinZon=
impedance are given as
ZiCC ..(1.5.1) v ...fort section..(1.5.7)

Z = jo»L ..(1.5.2) represent the image
Equations (1.5.6) and (1.5.7)
The image impedance which is equal to characteristic section of HPE.
impedance of T and T
impedance of T section HPF is given as
Attenuation (a) and Phase
1.5.1
Constant (6) Characteristic
Using Equations (1.5.1) and (1.5.2) of Constant K HPF

44 jcjol ==R ..(1.5.3)
For T section, the propagation constant yis given as:
Where in Equation (1.5.3) R, is nominal characteristic
(1.5.8)
impedance. cosh Y T2z
By using Equations (1.5.1) and (1.5.3), ZT of HPF can
be expressed as
By using Equations (1.5.1) and (1.5.2)
1/joC
1+2 1+ 2jol.
ZT LC
1o2jo
(1.5.9)
Z ...For T section.(1.5.4)
120LC
But y 2+jB ...(1.5.10)
From above equation, two conclusions can be drawn: Comparing real and imaginary parts in Equations
(1) If 4 LC > 1, Z is real and filter operate in pass (1.5.9) and (1.5.10)
band.
sinh a sin ß = 0 ..(1.5.11)
(2) If 4 wLC < 1, ZT is imaginary and filter operate in
or cosh a cos B= 1- .(1.5.12)
stop band. C
Hence the cut offfrequency is expressed as To fulfill Equation (1.5.12), either o = 0 or B = nt
4 oLC = 1
where n is integer.
1 Pass band: Attenuation
.Oc2 LC constant B exist with cos ß =1 -
a =0 in pass band. Whereas
when a =0 in
phase
..(1.5.5) 2 LC
fc4TLC Equation (1.5.12).
The value of cos ß varies from+ 1 to - 1.
Also Z7 R
cos B = 1-
2 wLC
..utilizing O 4LC
...(1.5.6)
1-20c 2 0LC
1
0 2LC
For n section, image impedance Z Znis given as:
=
R OxLC*
=
ZonZT
This is higher cut off frequency.
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For cos B= - 1, from Equation (1.5.12) 1

cosh O =
20LC
COS T=-1|
1
-1 20LC
cosha = -
2
20LC
20LC
cosh a = - 1+2-
LC
Hence = cosh| .(1.5.17)
oLc =
and
stop band a is given by Equation (1.5.17)
In
4LCC phase constant is given as B =
. 2 LC .(1.5.13) Stop Pass em.ww.ienweedaennwrihoranoodiooeeetaorni
a(N) band band
From Equation (1.5.13) gives a value of o when cos B1
B-1 acosh 2 B= (rad)
Therefore, the lower cut off frequency is expressed
aS
p- 2sin
Oc2LC 1.5.14) **** *m*.gaanrme**********;*
t=0
******
1- .(1.5.15)
fc 4T LC
(1A33)Fig. 1.5.2: a and ß characteristics of HPF
Also from B
cos
1-2LC
=
a 1.5.2 Summary of Design

2 C2
Equations of Constant K HPF
cosB =1- .4LC
Nominal characteristics impedance "R' and cut off
. B = cos
frequency fe if both are being known, then the values of L
and C of filter can be easily obtained by using following
Again cos B = 1-2sin' =1 expression.
Ro (Using Equation (1.4.3))
-2si- 7-2%
(Using Equation (1.5.15))
2
fe4Tt LC
Solving above two equations the expressions for L and
2 C obtained as
RLC
sin R,LiLC
sia R VLC =L
4Tt RVLC = L
B 2sin' .(1.5.16) 4T
F o r stop band L Ro
4tfc ..(1.5.18)
As B=m in stop band, Equation (1.5.12) reduces to
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RF Design (MU-8 Sem.-E&TC) (1-22
of constant K
-
filter are
Similarly for C Two disadvantages
as
follows
Ro (a) does not increase in stop band
(1) The attenuation
C VLC 47 LC so it is not sharp.

Ro 41t Ro There is wide variation
in the value of
(2)
characteristic impedance in pass band from
C 4T Ric ..(1.5.19)
desired value.
Table 1.5.1: Design parameters of Constant- K HPF
(3) Non constant image impedance.
Parameters Value The m -
derived filter removes these two disadvantages
Ro of constant K or prototype filters.
Here the m -
derived filter is designed from constant K
filter which has same image impedance throughout
4T VLC
pass band and stop band.
L
R Also in, m -
derived. filter, it ispossible to get fast
47T fc attenuation rise in stop band and beyond the cut off
C frequency. Figs. 1.6.1 (a) and 1.6.1 (b) shows prototype

and m - derived T and T sections.
4T R fc
ZT
4 o'Lc R
222
Ro (1A35)
(1434)
mz,/2 mZ/2
: GQ. 1.5.2 The nominal characteristic impedance
of T section of LPF is R Find Z at
09 fc (1A36): T section of constant m - derived
Given: 0.9
Using Equation (1.4.10), Z

=
R m m
1 (f
Ro (1A37):T Section of prototype and m-derived filter
Zn 1-(0.9) 2.3 Ro Fig. 1.6.1:Tand n sections of prototype and m - derived filters
Zi 2.3 R
1 . 6 M-DERIVED FILTER Here, Z and ZZ
Using Equation (1.3.24),
: GO. 1.6.1 How m derived filters are superior:
For constant K T
than constant k filter ? OR How -
section,
m - derived filters can be obtained
from constant ?
ZT ..(1.6.1)
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Form- derived T section
..(1.6.2)
272
By equating above two equations,
mz (1A39)(a) : t Section of constant K filter
Squaring on both sides,
22
Z,7 4 +m Z Z m
mZ,z a-m)+z,z (1A40)(b) : n Section m - derived filter
m -derived filters.
- z m
Fig. 1.6.3 :Constant K and
For T section of constant - K filter,
term should be positive to calculate Z Using Equation (1.3.20)

physically. i.e. 0 < m< 1.
Z, is an impedance which is consist of two series
impedances as Z, and both of these

142
For T section of m - derived filter
impedances can be calculated if i s positive. Here, Z = Z and Z,m
i.e. 0<m<1.
Thus in m - derived T section
Z = mZ, .(1.6.3)
amd - )z,+ 1+4

..(1.6.4) m
Fig. 1.6.2 presents the m -

derived T section obtained
-
Equating above two equations,

from constant K filter by having modified series and shunt
impedances shown in Equations (1.6.3) and (1.6.4).
mZ/2 mZ/2
132
m 1+4Z
(1A38 Fig. 1.6.2: m -
derived T section filter
-
GQ. 1.6.2 How n section of m-derived filter is
obtained from constant k

section P
The T section of constant k filter n section of m

derived filter is shown in Figs. 1.6.3(a) and 1.6.3(b).
. m 4m
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(1-24)
Figs. 1.6.6(a) and 1.6.6(b) presents general m derived T
4ZZ, +m Z, Z = 4Z Z,+Z Zm and T filter.
mZ
mZ,/2 mz,/2
m
4m
4m 4m
Z Z2
Z2m 4m
(1A42(a): T-section
(1A43(b) t section
T and n section of LPF

Fig. 1.6.6:General m derived
Z, Z
the shunt
particular frequency
-m)+A 4m
For Fig.
branch of T section
1.6.6,
or
at a
series branch of T section will be in
Multiplyingg and dividing by 4m2

t o Numerator and resonance making short circuit to the input of T - section
- m) and open circuit for n section, therefore causing infinite
Denominaor attenuation.
-4m With reference to Equations (1.4.1) and (1.4.2)
ZZ2 (1-m)
Z 42, m Z joL and Z,o c
m+ m (1 m))
At resonance frequency,
m 4m
1-
moC
..(1.6.5)
4
mZ,+Tm -m) LC
From Equation (1.6.5), it is clear that, Z, is an
impedance of n section of m derived filter which is a-m)Lc
consisted of two parallel impedances as m Z, and
1-m TTLC(1-m)
Thus, T section of m - derived filter is shown in
Fig. 1.6.5.
mLC 1-m
mZ m-derived Tsection:
For low pass filtler,
1-r
m
m
1-m
(1A41)Fig. 1.6.5 : Filter General m

-
derived n section -
a 1.6.1 m -
Derived Low Pass Filter 1-m
Analyze m derived T and n sections

GQ. 1.6.3
of LPF
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1.6.2 Analysis of Attenuation (a)

m Vi-4/-1- Versus Frequency
The m- derived T section of LPF is shown in characteristic of LPF
Fig. 1.6.7(a. m - Derived Section
The propagation constant of m - derived LPF is
expressed
mC
(1a43a)Fig. 1.6.7(a) : m- derived T section LPF

For low pass m derived filter, by referring Fig. 1.6.7(a)
m-derived n 8ection Z = jolLm
Similarly, for m - derived n section, inductance and
and mjoL
jøCm
4m j o L
capacitance in series branch make a resonant circuit.

joLm
1joL (1-m)
4m
j»Cm
m L = 4m Lm
(1-m) o,c 4m +joL (1- m) jøCm
jCmx 4m
4
(1-m) LC joLm joCm 4m_
4m+jwLCm (1 - m)
, - m ) LC
ion-mLC
41m-wLCm (1 - mn)
TVLC(1-m -ommLC
4m-oLCm (1 - m)
LCmLC V1-m) o'm LC

For low pass filter 41 oLC(1-m|
4
TVLC - (20wm/@)
:
1-(1 m)' (o/ o
Where GThen,
mL
1-(w/o
142 1-1-m)( a
From above equation, e'becomes real if m is 0< m< 1
( c m and e > 1 for »> o. Hence stop band starts at

@ = 0 , like constant K - section.
For = where = * e becomes infinity,

(1a430)Fig. 1.6.7(b) : m -
derived 7 section low pass filter
producing infinite attenuation.
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, mZ/2 mZ,/2 mZ,/2
From . 1-m it is clear that o > O. SoO mZ/2
infinite attenuation
produces after the cut off frequency
a s shown in Fig. 1.6.8. Steep of a decreases after
0>is not desirable. This can be solved by
cascading constant K section to give composite filter. (1A45)(a)
a (Neper) mz
m-derived ***** 222.

attenuation **
*****
wwww
ConstantK
attenuation
www.w
211-m)2
4m
***************** *g*****
(1A46)(b)
Fig. 1.6.9:m-derivedn section

**********
. .
(1A4Fig. 1.6.8: Attenuation Vs frequency characteristics

is
comparison of m - derived and constant K fiter The image impedance of Fig. 1.6.9b), expressed as
a 1.6.3 Cascading of m - Derived

T-Half Sections
From Fig. 1.6.8, it is clear that a very sharp cut off

frequency response received. However its attenuation
decreases for o > o As it is always expected that to
have infinite attenuation as o, then m - derived But 2T
section can be cascaded with constant K - section to
provide the composite attenuation response as shown in . Zn ZT

Fig. 1.6.8.
In order to match the image impedance of m - derived- Z
T section with image impedance of constant
Using Equation (1.4.8), ZqT =
Ro\ and
K (independent of m) section. Them - derivedIT
section was designed. However, still there is problem Using Equations (1.6.3) and (1.6.4),
of non constant image impedance.
z mZ,
The image impedance of n section will depend on m
and this can be used to get an optimum matching
section. (mZ , | ( m ) ,
Figs. 1.6.9(a) and (b) shows an infinite cascade of m -
derived T- sections. It is considered that the n section

is a piece of infinite cascade of m - derived T sections.
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RF Design (MU-8 Sem-E&TC) (1-27)
z ,mZ,
R1- Pass
band m1
Stop
band
-7,4 4
m 0.6
R- m 0.3
Z, Z, + Z1-m)
4
Z .(1.6.6)
(147)Fig. 1.6.10: Z Vs frequency in pass band of LPF for
different values of 'm'
Using Equation (1.4.3) i.e. Z, Z, ==R,as Z, =jol | Ex. 1.6.1

Design m -
derived T section of LPF having cut off
5 KHz and nominal characteristic impedance of
frequency
times
600 2. The frequency of infinite attenuation is 1.25
4C the cut off frequency.
-LC4LR Soln.
4C Given: f. =5 kHz, R = 600 2,
W,
1.25 5 kHz 6.25 kHz
-0L C.4:L 1.25 xf, = x =
4C 4C
(1) Design of L and C
For low pass filter, the cut off frequency
So Equation (1.6.6) becomes andR

Hence, using design Equations are found as :
4 LL = 600
x x 10 38.19 mH.
Z RRo1-() TI Ttx 5x10
C
1
TR fTx 600x5x 10
C 106.10nF
R,V1-(o/o
For m-derived LPF,
Z (-n)(0/o R, (1.6.7)
V1-(o/ o m
As Equation (1.6.7) is dependent on value of 'm' the

chosen value of 'm will minimize the variation of Zm m = Sx10
6.25 x 1 0 ) 0.6
=0.6
=
in pass band of filter. The actual values m - derived T - section of LPF, are
Fig. 1.6.10 shows the variation of Z with respect to given as follows
frequency for various values of 'm'. It is found that mL
2
0.6 38.19x
2
10-- 11459 mH
m=0.6, gives the bestresultfor Z
mC = 0.6 x 106.10 x 10"= 63.66 nF
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RF Design (MU-8" Sem.-E&T .(1.6.9)
m 4m Z
(mL (1-(0.6Ix38.19 x10 and (1.6.9), Z1 and Z, are
the
(1.6.8)
In Equations shunt branch of
of
of the
series and the
L = 10.184 mH impedances
constant K-HPF.
T section HPF ie
11.459mH m=11.459mH The shunt
arm of m-derived
at the frequency of its seriees
impedance
offers zero
consisted of series combination of 1
resonance (as Z, is
E 10.1m
and C).
frequency f. infinite
denoted as
mC 63.66nF At this resonant inductive reactance X.
and
attenuation is produced
becomes equal to
capacitive
reactance
(X
Fig. P. 1.6.1: complete designedm- derived T section of LPF
Hence,
a 1.6.4 M-derived High Pass Filteer
m
4 . C
GQ. 1.6.4 Draw and explain m-derived T and n 1-
m
Solving above Equation
section of HPF Explain graphical
representation of cut off frequency ..(1.6.10)
4LC
The m-derived T and n section of HPF are shown in
-m
Fig. 1.6.11(a) and (b). 2 VLC
mz
mZ/2 mz,/2 -m ..(1.6.11)
Or f 4mLC
But cut off frequency of constant K-HPF, is expressed
(4m22
1- m as
f 41LC Hz
(1A48(a) (1A49)(b)
OR c 2LC
Fig. 1.6.11: Tand n section of m-derived HPPF
Therefore using w Equation (1.6.10),
The shunt branch of T-section of HPF, is consisted of
series combination of capacitance

-4m c
1-m2 or f = (V1-m).f
Thus m for m-derived HPF is obtained as
ie ( z,)andindutanee
The shunt impedance Z is expressed as m
mj+
joc ..(1.6.12)
For T-section of Fig. 1.6.12(b), it is observed series

= mZ .(1.6.8)
branch that is consisted of parallel LC circuit which
Likewise, total seríes impedance Zi is given as produces infinite impedance at it's resonant frequeney
of parallel LC circuit.
1- 4m
m
jOC At this resonant frequency infinite
produced so, transmission through filter is zero.

attenuation s
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Also at resonating frequency inductive reactance ) With reference to analysis of m-derived HPF
Xbecomes equal to capacitive reactance Xc
Thus,
4mL = m
1-m C
m
-m
m
V-4x 10
2VLC .(1.6.13) m = 0.436
Or f .(1.6.14) using Equation f. mTGand R, =V

4T VLC 4TV
From Equations (1.6.13) and (1.6.14) it is observed that The series arm capacitance and shunt am inductance
the expression for f. for both T and n section of m- are calculated as follows
derived HPF is same.
Therefore, the value m of T section is applicable for t CTRaf. 4 xTx 4x 10 x 600
section. = 0.0334 F
The circuit resentation of T and n section of m- Ro
and L 4Tf
600 = 11.94 mH
derived HPF is shown below in Fig. 1.6.11(c) and (d).
47x4 x 10
In T-section of m-derived HPF, the values of series
and shunt arm elements are calculated as
2C2X =0.151 F
11.94
0.436 27.39 mH
z (4mc-m
4m 4X0.456 x0033 x 10
1-m 1-(0.436)
(1A50 C) = 0.071 uF
In m-derived n section of HPF, the values of series

and shunt arm elements are as calculated as follows
mZ 2 2x11.94x 10 54.78 mH
0.436
mZ
0.033x0.43610 0.076 uF
m m
(IA51 d) 1-
s 4x0456 x 11.94 x 10
1-(0.436)
Fig. 1.6.11
25.704 mH
Ex. 1.6.2
2m 2
m
Design T and n section of m-derived HPF having cut off
frequency 4kHz, design impedance 600 and infinite
0.151 F 0.151uF
attenuation at 3.6 kHz.
27.39 mH
Soln.
Given fe= 4 kHz 4mc=0.071F
Ro = 600 2
f 3.6 kHz (IA52(a)

Fig. P. 1.6.2(Contd...)
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Sections for
R F Design (MU-8 Sem.-E&TC) m-Derived
a 1.7.1
Low P a s s Filter
= 0.076uF
terminating
half sections is
filter with
A low pass
25.704mH shown in Fig.
1.7.2(a).
mZ/2
mZ,/2
(4mL m
-
1-m 54.78mH 2Z2
54.78mH Low m
22 pass R
filter
R (T-ype)
(1A53Kb)
Fig. P. 1.6.2: Complex T-section T and
msections ofm-derived -
HPF
4T
1.7 IMPEDANCE MATCHING sections for T-types LPF
Terminating half
(IA55Fig. 1.7.2(a) :
uSING HALF SECTIONS and
Z, =
joL
With reference to theory of LPF,
Ga. 1.7.1 Why half section is used for j

terminating section in filter P values of Z and Z2, actual components
By using above
Ga. 1.7.2 Explain the need of using half in the terminating half sections with 'm'
can be found
sections
out as
i) Since a filter is being consisted of cascading
of sections, it is necessary that the impedance
at each
of number
. ntie-je()
junction is to be correctdy matched.
sections do not match
2
(i) The image impedances of T or t m m
with each other.

Section.
(iii) Therefore T section cannot be connected to n
of t and
Civ) When it is required to design a filter consisting Hence terminating half sections with actual elements
T sections, a half section should be used for impedance
are shown in Fig. 1.7.20b).
matching between T and n Sections.
(v) Such half impedance matching half

section is m
constructed either from T section or t Section.
Half Section has two different image impedances at mC/2 mC/2

(vi) Low
port I and port 2. R pass
fiter
Fig. 1.7.1 shows constant K half section
z/2
w- T GT
Z1 2 Z224 (1A56) Fig. 1.7.2(b): Terminating half sections for T-types LPF
(ASA) Fig. 1.7.1: Half section used to match Z, to Z

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20 2C 44.33nF
1.7.2 M-Derived Half Sections for m m
High Pass Filter

2Um 2/m15.9mH
GQ. 1.7.3 Write a note no terminated m-
derived half section for HPE 24.93nF c
With reference to Fig. 1.7.1, instead of considering T-
T
type LPF, now consider T-4ype high pass filter. (1458Ka) (b)
For high pass filter, m-derived half section of HPF
Fig. P. 1.7.1: Terminating
Z and Z =joL 2 2x4.77x 103 = 15.9 mH
Then the actual components in terminating half 0.6
sections with 'm' can be found out as follows 2C 2x 0.0135 X1U--44.33 nF
0.6
(2m.c (2x0x0.0133x 10 =
1-(0.6)
24.93 nF
22 2io-jo( m Ex. 1.7.2

7 kHz and
(1 m2 Design aLPF filter with cut off frequency
e
-
-T section and
R 500 SQ which will consist of constant
m-derived two terminating halfsections. (Use m =0.6).
The terminating half section, with actual components
are as shown in Fig. 1.7.3. Soln.
Given f 7 kHz, Ro 5002
2C terminating
Required filter = Constant T section and two
half sections
2/m
Low
2Um 1. Design of T section of constant K low pass filter.
.R pass R
2 filter
4TVLCndR, =/
The actual components are calculated as:
ZT Ro 500
for T-types
L TTX7x 10 22.73 mH
(1A57)Fig. 1.7.3 : Terminating half sections
m-
derived high pass filter

C E = 90.94 nF
Ex. 1.7.1
nf Ro
Thus T section of constant K LPF is shown
4.77 mH and
pass filter with L
=
A constant K-high Fig. P. 1.7.2(a).
C 0.0133 uF operates with cut off frequency of 10 kHz.
The nominal characteristic impedance of filter is
600 2. In LI2= 11.365mH L/2 22=11.365mH
section with
order to cascade, determine terminating half
m 0.6 without disturbing cut off frequency.
C 90.94nF
Soln.:
L = 4.77 mH, C 0.0133 uF
Given
R = 600o2
f= 10kHz, (a)T section constant k LPF
The terminating m derived half sections of high pass (1A60)Fig. P. 1.7.2: Composite LPF
filter is shown in Fig. P. 1.7.1.
RF Filter Design
2. Design two terminating m-derived half sections.

Fig. P. 1.7.26) shows two terminating half section.
m/2
m/2
(1A61)Fig. P. 1.7.2 (b): m-derived terminating two half section
Thus, the actual components are calculated as follows

0.6x22.73 x 10 6.82 mH
2
m 06x90,94 x10 = 27.28 nF

2
(mL- ( x 2.73x 10 =12.12 mH

The complete composite LPF is shown in Fig. P. 1.7.2 (c).
6.82mH 11.365mH 11.365mHH 6.82mH
Rs 27.28nF 27.28nF
R
90.94nF 5002
12.12mH 12.12mH
Teminating half Constant K-T section of LPF Terminating half

section using section using
m=0.6 m =0.6
(1A83C) Composite low pass filter
Fig. P: 1.7.2d) represents with combining elements.

18.18mH 18.18mH
27.28nF 27.28nF:
90.94nF
12.12mH 12.12mH
(IABFig. P. 1.7.2 (d): Design ofcomplete composite low pass filer
1 . 8 COMPOSITE FILTER
GQ.1.8.1 Draw and explain block diagram of composite filter. Wirite advantage of compositefilters
The attenuation Vs frequency characteristic of prototype (constant-K) filter in stop band does not provide sharp cut off
and increases slowly from zero.
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Whereas in m-derived filter attenuation provides sharp cut off but achieves very high value at a frequency for very close
to cut off frequency.
a
(Neper Pass Stop
band band Compositeflter
m-derived
Constant k
(AGAFig. 1.8.1a): Attenuation Vs frequency characteristicsofcomposite frilter

However from Fig. 1.8.1(a) it is observed that, in stop band of in low pass filter, attenuation reduces drastically after t
and reduces drastically before f. in stop band of high pass filte.

These drawbacks can be overcome by connecting number of filters including prototype filters and m-derived filters with
is termed
terminating half sections. Such combinations of different filters together along with terminating half sections
as 'composite-filter'.
Fig. 1.8.1b) shows the block diagram of composite filter.
Oned One or Terminating

Terminating more more half section
Ro halfsection
for impedance
Constant
K filter
m-derived
and
for R
impedance
matching forhigh filters for matching
Cutof sharp cutoff
4T
(IA6 Fig. 1.8.1(b): Composite filter with four stages
the conmposite filter, one or more constant K flters provide high attenuation into stop band at specifñc cut off
In
frequency and hence make possible transition from pass band to stop band at specified frequency.
The m-derived filters provide on infinite and sharp attenuation in stop band at a frequency close to cut offfrequency
c) Further, terminating half sections atthe source and load end of the composite flter provides the impedance matching
between source and load impedance 'R,' and intemal image impedance Z of constant K and m-derived filters.
Ex. 1.8.1
Explain attenuation (a) Vs frequency characteristics of composite filter.

Soln.
Fig. 1.8.1) presents attenuation Vs frequency characteristics of constant K filter, m-derived filter and composite
filler. Each individual filter including constant-K and m-derived does not meet expected attenuation Vs frequency
characteristic. But the combination of constant K and m-derived filters form composite filter which provides desirable
attenuation Vs frequency characteristics from Fig. 1.8.1(a). It is visualized that the attenuation rises very fast with frequency
in stop band (G, to f) and falls only marginally with frequency.
The composite filter is designed from three parameters
) Cut off frequency (ü) impedance (ii) infinite attenuation frequency 0 or m.
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Ex. 1.8.2
Design low pass composite filter with following specifications:
() Cut off frequency 2 MHz
i) Characteristic impedance 75 2
(ii) Provides infinite attenuation at 2.05 MHz.
Soln.
Given: f 2MHz
R 75Q
f. = 2.05 MHz
It is assumed that the design of composite low pass filter consist of all T sections.
1. Design at T section of constant K low pass filter
For constant - K LPF
LCnd and R=1/
L2 5.96uH L/2 5.96uH

Using above twoequations, actual components are as follows:
L 75 = 11.93 uH
Ttte x 2x 10 C 2.122nF
= 2.122 nF
RTX2x Tx2x 10'x 75
K LPF
(1A66)Fig. P. 1.8.2(a): Tsection of constant
-
The T section of constant K-LPF is shown in Fig. P. 1.8.2(a).

2. Design of T section of m-derived LPF: The frequency of infinite attenuation i.e. f =2.05 MHz.
m V-E
. m -1-(205-0219
The components of series and shunt branch of T section of m=1.306uH =1.306uH
m-derived filter are calculated as follows
mC 464.71pF
. 0219x 11.93x10 = 1.306 mH
2
(L- (1-(0.219x11.93 x10=12.96 H

4m 4x0.219
mL-129h
mC = 0.219x 2.122 x 10 =464.71 pF
The m-derived T section of LPF is shown in Fig. P. 1.8.2(b). (1467)Fig. P. 1.8.2(b): T section of m-derived LPF
3. Design of m-derived half sections:

The half sections are designed for m = 0.6.
The series and shunt arms of terminating half sections are calculated as follows
m 0.6)x(11.93 x10)-3,579 uH 2
mC (0.6) x(2.122x 10) 636.6 pF
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( 2m
L- ( 2x0.6
x I1.93 x10 =6.362 uH
The terminating m-derived half sections are shown in Fig. P. 1.8.2c).
mL/2 = 3.579uH mL/2 3.579uH
To
To
Source
-6362u4 2m Load
Filter
m-6366pF Filter mC 636.6pF
O
(1A68)Fig. P. 1.8.2(c) : Matching sections
4. The complete composite filter is shown in Fig. P. 1.8.2(d).
3.579uH 5.96uH 5.96uH 1.306uH 1.306uH 3.579uH
j464.71pF: 6.362uH
Rs
6.362uH R
752 2.122nF: 752
12.96uH 636.6pF
:636.6pF
T section of section of Matching

Matching
half section constant K m-derived half section
LPF LPF
(IA69Fig. P. 1.8.2(d) : Low pass filter of composite
Ex. 1.8.3
for the following specifications.
Design a composite low pass filter by image parameter method
f= 50 2, f. 50 MHz, f 52 MHz
= =
Soln.
f 50 MHz
Given =
50 2
f = 52 MHz
It is assumed that all sections are T type.
1. Design of Tsection of constant KLPF.

For low pass filter
and R=
follows LI2 =0.159uH L/2 0.159uH

Using above two Equations, the actual components
are as
-
L x 50100.318 uH
50x
TfTx 50x 10 C 127.32pF
C 1 = 127. 32 pF
R x 50x 10°x 50
constant K-LPF
Design of T section of constant K-LPF is shown in Fig. P. 1.8.3(a). (1470)Fig. P. 1.8.3(a) : T-section of
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RF Design (MU-8" Sem.-E&TC) (1-36)
is f. = 52 MHz.
2. attenuation
Design of T section of m-derived LPF. The frequency ofinfinite
The
m
-y-)- v-.7
components of series and shunt branch of T section ofm-derived filter
are
calculated as tollows
m0.0429uH 0.0429,H
m027x0.318 x10 = 0.0429 uH
(L-( 4x0.27 |.0.318x 10'=0.272 uH

mC 34.37pF
mC =
0.27 x 127.32 x 10 =
34.37 pF 027,0.27pH
The m-derived T section of LPF is shown in Fig. P. 1.8.3(6).
(IA7)Fig. P. 1.8.3b):
T-section ofm-derived LPp
3. Design of m-derived half section for matching
The half sections are
designed for m = 0.6
m
2 0.6x0.318x10 95.4 nH
mL0.6x127.32
2
x10 38.196 pF
(L- (1-(0.6x0-318
The half sections fot
x 10= 169.6 nM
matching are shown in Fig. P. 1.8.3(¢).
mL/2 95.4nH mL/2 95.4nH
L= 169.6nH
(1-L169.6H Loae
Filter
Filter
.TT*38.19pF m=38.19pF
(1A72Fig. P. 18.3(e) : m-derived half section for matching impedances
4. Design of composite low pass filter is shown in Fig. P, 1.8.3(d).

95.4nH 0.159uH 0.159uH, 0.0429uH 0.0429uH 95.4nH
169.6nH 34.37pF 169.6nH

127.32pF
38.19pF 0.27uH R
38.19pF
Half section T section T section of
Half section
for constant K m-derived for
Matching LPF LPF
Matching
(IA73Fig. P. 1.8.3(d): Composite LPF step-wise design of composite filter

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RF Filter Design
(1-37)
RF Design (MU-g Sem-E&TC)
Ex. 1.8.4 n = -(-020
Design a composite high pass filter by
the image parameter and shunt branch of m
The components of series
method with the following specifications derived Tsections
as follow
are calculated
=50 MHz, f. =48 MHz. x21.22x 10
R, 75 2, f
= 2 51.57 pF
0.280
Soln.:
50 MHz, f. 48 MHz L 119.36 XI -426.28 nH
R =7592, f, = =
Given: 0.280
Design of T section ofconstant K high pass filter: 4x0.280 12

.
For constant K high pass filter (1- m C1-020 x21.22 x 10
= 25.78 pF
R and
fan yLC Thus, m derived T section of
HPF is shown in
. The expressions for L and C components are Fig. P. 1.8.4(b).
obtained as follows: 2C
m
151.57pF 151.57pF
L 4=119.36nH H
426.28nH
C4TR.f 21.22 pF
4mc
m
25.78pF
HPF is
Hence a prototype i.e. T section of constant K -
shown in Fig. P. 1.8.4(a) m-derived T section of HPF

(IA74) Fig. P. 1.8.4(b) :
2C 4244pF 2C 42.44pF with m = 0.6. The
3. Designof terminating half section
shunt branch of half sections
components of series and
SL 119.36nH
arecalculated as follows:
2C 2x2122
0.6
x10 -70.7 pF
filter
(IA73) Fig. P. 1.8.4 (a) T-section of constant high pass
K
=
2x119.36x
0.6
10 - 397.86 nH
filter.
2. Design of m-derived T section and high pass
The value of m for HPF is
(C-0 X 21.22x
m
39.78 pF
Thus m - derived half sections are shown in Fig. P. 1.8.4(c).
70.7pF 2C 70.7pF
m
397.86nH Fiter iter 2397.86nH

m
Load
Ro
Source
+2C38.re T1-m
(1A75) (1A76)
Fig. P. 1.84 (c) m-derived half sections for impedance matching
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RF Filter Design
shown in Fig. P. 1.8.4(d).
4. Design of composite high pass filter is
151.57pF 151.57pF 70.7pF
70.7pF 42.44pF 42.44pF
397.86nH 119.36nH426.28nH 3 397.86nH

Load
Ro
Source 39.78pF
39.78pF 25.78pF
m-derived Terminating
Terminating Constant K T section half section
half section T section of HPF
for m = 0.6
for m = 0.6
fHPF
(d)Composite high pass filter

1.8.4: Step wise design of composite high pass filter
Fig. P.
1.9 FILTER DESIGN BY Pnc ...(1.9.1)

INSERTION LOSS METHOD Pload 1-IT(0)r
is matched with source
When load impedance
impedance, then PLR = IS
Go. 1.9.1 What is perfect filter ?
**
The insertion loss (L) in dB is expressed as
The characteristies of perfectly designed filters are IL = 10 log PLR ..(1.9.2)
) Zero insertion loss in pass band Due to causal properties of passive network, IT (»)r is
(ii) Infinite attenuation in stop band even function of w it can be expressed as polynomial in
an
(ii) And a linear phase response in pass band in order
to avoid signal distortion in passband. M (w) ...(1.9.3)
T(o)F = M()+N (b
However, practically it won't be possible to have such
filter which will meet all the characteristics at a time. Where M and N are real polynomials in o.
So compromise must be made depending upon the Substituting Equation (1.9.3) into Equation (1.9.1)
requirements. Though design of filter by the image
power loss ratio, PLR can be expressed as:
parameter methods is simple it has restricted freedomn
to design the filter so that it will meet above PLR
M(0
characteristics.
The filter design by insertion loss method uses network
M(o)+N (o)
synthesis technique so that it provides high degree
control to shape the characteristics in pass band and M(0)+N (0)-M (0)
M (0)+N (0)
stop band.
M(+N(o)
1.9.1 Characterization by Power N(w)
Loss Ratio (PLR PLR1+M(o)
.(1.9.4)
N(o)
GQ. 1.9.2 Explain the concept of insertion loss Thus, for filter to be physically realizable its power loss
method ratio must be the form in Equation (1.9.4)
In filter design by insertion loss methods, power loss 1.9.2 Types of Filter
ratio (PLR) or insertion loss are defined as
Power available from source GQ. 1.9.3 Explain different types of low pass
PLR Power delivered to load filter.
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RF Design(MU-8 Sem-E&TC) |-39) RF Filter Design
Based on Equation (1.9.4), there are four types of low 2. Equal Ripple or Chebyshev filter:
pass filter. A chebyshev polynomial is used to represent the
Maximally flat Butterworth or Binomial filer insertion loss at N order low pass filter as
It can satisfy requirement for sharpest cut off region.
This type of filter provides the flattest possible
passband response for a given filter order. P 1+K T, ..(1.9.8)
For low pass filter, PLa is expressed as, Where Ty x) is the chebyshev polynomial. Generally,
2N
Nis chosen to be odd integer when source and load
an
Px1+K' .(1.9.5)
impedance are matched. This type of filter provide the
sharpest cut off, with ripples in the pass band. The

In Equation (1.9.5), N is order of filter, o, is cut off
magnitude ofripple is 1+ K" as shown in Fig. 1.9.1(b).
frequency. The PiR versus frequency characteristics is
shown in Fig. 1.9.1(a). PLR
In pass band from o = 0 to o = 0, at the band edge,
1+K
PLR1+ K', o =0.
PLR Flat wnipunwrew
Pass O.5 1.0 Stop o/@c

************
band band
1/2 Pass Stop (1A79Fig. 1.9.1(b) : PLR Vs frequency characteristics of

band band
equiripple LPF
**** wwfa. w w Since Ty(x) varies from - 1 to +1 for Ix l 1. Thus, K

(1A78)Fig. 1.9.1(a) PLz VS frequency characteristics decides the amplitude of ripple.
of maximally flat LPF
For large X Tu ()= 2x", for o>> o, the
If K = l then PuR = 2 for w =0 which is 3 dB
insertion loss from Equation (1.9.8) is expressed as:
frequency. 2N
1.9.9)
For > o,, the attenuation increase monotonically
with frequency. For very large 0 i.e. 0 >> o and with From Fig. 1.9.1b), insertion loss increases fastly in
K= 1, then stop band as compared to binomial. Also insertion loss.
24
Pa K -( (1.9.6) of chebyshev filter is greater than binomial filter
for any frequency where >> @c-
From above the insertion loss IL is defined as:
L = 10 log (PR) ..(1.9.7) For N 3, log1o () = 12.0 dB
Which increases at the rate of 20 N dB / decade. The N=5 log -24.1d

first (2 N - 1) derivatives of Equation (1.9.6) are zero
It is also concluded that both maximally flat and equal
at = 0.
ripple responses both have monotonically increasing
This type of filter meet the need of minimum insertion
attenuation in stop band.
loss by providing flattest pass band response.
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RFFilter Design
(1-40)
R F Design (MU-8" Sem.-E&TO)
"faster" roll off than
band. It has
3.
Elliptic function band and stop
response in both pass
filter has equiripple
This type of low pass 1.9. 1(c).
chebyshev filter.
It is shown in Fig. and minimum attenuation
maximally flat and attenuation Anax in the pass band
the maximum
of low pass filter is specified by
This type
Amin in the stop Band.
PLR
Amin
Better Adequate
Amax cut off rate attenuation
1.0 2.0
**
characteristics
function low pass filter
(1A80)Fig. 1.9.1(c) : Elliptic
4. Linear phase Low pass filter linear phase response in pass

band.
distortion in pass band, it is necessary to have
signal sharp cut off
In order to avoid
systems. At the cost of filter
for communication
Such linear phase filters are used as multiplexing filters
can be achieved with the following
response
characteristics a linear phase
wo)= Ao +P
of filter and P is constant.
Where o(w) is phase of voltage transfer function
Group delay t, is expressed as
..(1.9.10)
do
do -1+P(/2N+1»)|
From Equation (1.9.10), group delay for linear phase
filter is maximally flat function.
Loss Method
1.9.3 Process of Filter Design by Insertion
GQ. 1.9.4 Explain design process of filter by insertion loss method.
-----*.- --****~********
The Fig. 1.9.2 shows the block diagram of process of filter design by insertion loss method.
Filter
Low pass Scaling
prototype & Implementation
specification design conversion
(AB)Fig. 1.9.2: Block diagram of process ofiter design by insertion loss methods
The general procedure for designing a filter using the insertion loss method can be summarized in three steps:
1 Filter specifications: The first step include cut offfrequency stop band attenuation, insertion loss in pass band and
frequency response of filter in pass band etc.
2. Design of low pass prototype or constant K circuit : In 'this step the design of low pass prototype include
R=12 and o, = 1 rad/sec. Filtertables are used for this step.
3. Scale and conversion: Finally the filter is scaled to the proper impedance level and if desired to a high pass, band pass
or band stop topology.
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1.9.4 Maximally Flat Low Pass PLR

Filter Prototype
-+152+
GO. 1.9.5 Derive expression for the values of L
PLR
and C for second order low passfilter Z2--2+1
and maximally flat low pass filter Z Z+, +Z,+1
Fig. 1.9.3 shows low pass filter prototype for N=2. FLa +Z+Z+1-2,Z+Z, +Z-
L Zi n +2n +Z+1
,+2,+1
PLR 2Z+ 22n
(Zi +1) (2+)
in
22+2
GA8DFig. 1.93: Low pass filter prototype for N =2 PLR Z+1
2Z+Zi ...(1.9.12)
From Fig. 1.9.3, From Equation (1.9.11)

+Z RI-Rioc) R1)
Inputimpedance Z= joL+ R
1+R'C) 1+o'RC
i.e. imaginary part is zero
Zin Since ZR+0j
r
Power loss ratio from Equation (1.9.1)
Z+ Zin (1+0RC) ...(1.9.13)
PLR 1-
OCR
oL 1+oR'
Now Z = jol+
R
So, we have,
jac oCR
R Pa .R')a1.RC)J
joC
joL+1+RiøC 4R (R+2R+ 1 +R'Co+ol'+o'L'cR
JOC
-2 LCR)
R
joL+1+RjøC 1+R I(1-R)+(R C+L'-2LCR)of
Multiplying 2d term by complex conjugate of. +LCRo .(1.9.14)
(1+ Rjoc) to (1 -Rjoc) to numeratorand denominator
If low pass filter of Equation (1.9.5) is second order
R(1-Rjoc) filter, N 2 , and is normalized (Z, 12 and a@, = 1), then
Z joL + PLR Ofsuch filter is expressed as:
(1+Rjoc)(1-RjoC)
R(1-RjoC) PLR 1+.. K=1 .(1.9.15)
joL+-oRC As at = O, IL = 10 log (1 + K)=3 dB
R(1-Rjo 3 = 10 log (1 + K)
jolL+ 14+0 RC) 0.3= log (1 +K)
.(1.9.11)
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AF Filter Design
(1-42) flat low pass
filta
RF Design (MU-8" Sem.-E&TC) values for
maximally
Element for the

resistance
Taking antilog on both sides Generator in Fig. 1.9,4(a)
ladder
network shown
for the
10 1+K Generator
resistance
shown in Fig. 1.9.4(b)

1.999 =K* ladder network
0.99=K? 1 L2 9 2
R, 90 ----
K = 0.9976 1 Generator TUn.
Thus K 1 C3 9N 1 Load
impedance
resistance
From Equation (1.9.15) PLR = 1 at o = 0, substituting C 91

this in Equation (1.9.14), gives
I = 1 R a-R)N in
shunt element
Ladder circuit
begins with
R (1A83Ma):
4R L 93
L 91
9N
. R R =1
R 1
series element
From Equation (1.9.15), coefficient of w is 0, equating begins with
circuit
(LA84(b): ladder
flat low pass filter
this coefficient in Equation (1.9.14), with R = 1, 1.9.4: Ladder
circuits for maximally
Fig.
R (RC+L-2LCR)=0 & 2sin )I
C+L-2 LC =0 K= 1,2,...N ..(1.9.15a))

(C-L) =0 Thus C=L Inductance for series inductors
Similarly the coefficient of o in Equation (1.9.15) is 1, 8,k=1 to N) =

Capacitance for shunt capacitors
is shunt capacitor
equating this to Equation (1.9.14), with R = 1 gives
SLoad resistance if g a
EN»1 \Load conductance if gy is a series inductor

c) Sample calculations are shown below, and (calculator
L = 4 mode should be on radian mode).
Thus L = C=y2 For N = 1, number of elements =2
For higher order of N filter, this method of finding the . From Equation (1.9.15(a))
values of L and C are impractical.
.
81 2 2 sin
Ga 1.9.6 Explain ladder circuits for maximally 82 1
low pass filter and element definition
For N 2, number of elements =3.
The normalized low pass filter with two ladder
prototypes
impedance
are In these two types of ladder source
designed.
is 1 2 and cut frequency o = 1. The elements
81 2 sin ]-14142
values are numbered from g, at the generator impedancee to
with N elements.
2s J-14142
8N1 at load impedance offilter and 83 1
However the element values for ladder type circuits are Table 1.9.1 shows element ('L' and C') values for
calculated as follows and are shown in Table 1.9.1 for normalized (g= 1 and o, 1)
maximally flat (Butterworth)
=
N= 1 to 10. Elements are alternate between series and shunt low pass filter prototype.
connections.
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RF Filter Design
RF Design (MU-8h sem.-E&TC) (1-43)
Table 1.9.1: Element values for maximally flat low-pass filter prototypes (e= 1, o, =1, N=1 to l0
N & 6 8 810 B11
12.0000 1.0000
2 1.4142 1.4142 1.0000
3 1.0000 2.0000 1.0000 1.000
0.7654 1.8478 1.8478 0.7654 1.0000

0.6180 1.6180 2.0000 1.6180 0.6180 1.0000
6 0.5176 1.4142 1.9318 1.9318 14142 1.5176 1.000

7 0.4450 1.2470 1.8019 2.0000 1.8019 1.2470 04450 1.0000
8 0.3902 1.1111 1.6629 1.9615 1.9615 1.6629 1.11110.3902 1.0000
9 0.3473 1.0000 1.5321 1.8794 2.0000 1.8794 1.5321 1.0000 0.3473 1.0000
10 0.3129 0.9080 1.4142 1.7820 1.9754 1.9754 1.7820 1.4142 0.9080 0.3129 1.0000
The Figs. 1.9.4 (a) and(b) are dualof each otherandboth willproduce samefrequencycharacteristics
Taking log on both sides
Ex. 1.9.1
Design a maximally flat low pass filter with cut off log 30.62 = 2N log
frequency of 2 GHz, impedance of 50 2 and at least 15 dB

1.4860 2Nlog
insertion loss at 3 GHz.
(a) Find the order 'N' of filter. 1.4860
0.1760= 2N
(b) Find unscaled values of the filter reactive elements.
. 2N = 8.4431
Soln. N = 4.2215
Given:f=3 GHz, f =2 GHz IL 15 dB N = 5
(a) The order of filter 'N" is calculated as:
Thus required number of elements for maximally flat
LdB) = 10 log Pr! low pass filter are 5.
15 = 10 log PLR!
Thus, the order offilter N =5.
1.5 =
log IPL (b) Unscaled values of reactive elements of filter
are obtained either from Table 1.9.1 or
Taking antilog on both sides
calculated as follows:
10 P
PLR 31.62 8 2sin
Power loss ratio with K = 1 is : for N = 5 and K=1 to 5
2N
PR1+K(
81 2 sin o=0.6180=C
2N
31.62 1 & 2 sin|1=1.6180 =L
31.62-1- ( 8, 2 sin 2-C,

2N
30.62 = 8 2 sin10 1.6180 =L4
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RF Design (MU-8 Sem.-E&TC) (1-44)
Taking log on both sides,
& 2 sin =0.6180 =C Log 99 = 2N log (1.375)
and & 1.9956
. 2N 0.1383
The filter circuits with five reactive elements are shown
in Figs. P. 1.9.1(a) and P. 1.9.1b). 2N = 14.42
1.6180H 1.6180H N = 7.2147 8
2 92 4 94 Thus N = 8
98 The required number of elements to design maximally
C 91 3 93 Cs 95
0.6180F
2F 0.6180F flat low pass filter are N= 8,
(1A85Fig. P. 1.9.1(a) : Ladder circuit begins with shunt element 21.9.55 Equal Ripple or Chebyshev
L 91 93 L5 95 Low Pass Filter Design
G 90 502
Ga. 1.9.7 Explain chebysheve low pass filter
C4 94 96-13
synthesis process.
The power loss ratio "PLR' for an equal ripple low pass
(1A86Fig. P. 1.9.1(b): Ladder circuit begins with series element filter with cut-off frequency o =
1, from Equation (1.9.1) is
expressed as
Ex. 1.9.2
A maximally flat low pass filter is to be designed with a cut
PLR1+kT (o) ..(1.9.16)
Where 1+k'=ripple amplitude in pass band.
off frequency of 8 GHz and minimum attenuation of 20 dB
at 11 GHz. How many filter elements are required ? But Chebyshev polynomials have the property that:
JO for N odd
Soln.: Ty(0) 1for Neven
Given f = 8 GHz
Also, the chebyshev filter provides a sharp transition
L = 20 dB
from pass band to stop band. So, in this case Chebyshev
f = 11 GHz polynomials are used to find insertion loss mathematically
In order to design maximally flat low pass filter,
as follows:
required number of elements 'N' are calculated as follows
ILI
L (dB) = 10 log PLR
VI+eTy ()
20dB 1 0 log PLR
where N= 1,2,3... (1.9.17)
2 logPLa In above Equation (1.9.17), Eis constant, o' normalized
Taking antilog on both sides,
frequency and Ty (0) is chebyshev polynomial of degree
10 PR N.
PLR = 100
Where, T,(o) = o'
Power loss with K = 1
2N Ta(o) 20"-1 =
PR 1+K| T (w) 40"-3 =
100 =1+( K=1 T (0) =80-8o+1

The insertion loss of chebyshev filter is defined as:
- ( IL =-20 log1o
99 - ()
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RF Design (MU-8h Sem.-E&TC) (1-45) RFFilter Design
The design steps for equal ripple or chebyshev low
= -
20 log1o pass filter are described as follows:
For chebyshev low pass filter
IL =
10log1o1+ T .(1.9.18)
...(1.9.21)
Where, 1 ifN is odd Number
BN+1 ...(1.9.22)
G, = 10 log (e + 1)
coshifNis even number
G
10 log (e +1) ..(1.9.23)
Taking antilog 4a-) ay. k= 2,3... N

and Bk .(1.9.24)
b-1) Bk- 1)
'
1010= e+ where,
G
E = 100 - 1 = 101 xG - 1 ..(1.9.19) ..(1.9.25)
Where G, is ripple amplitude in dB.
X = sinh2N ...(1.9.26)
The order N' or number of required elements of
chebyshev low pass filter is calculated as a =sin ] (1.9.27)
N =
cosh 10-1 b x+sin' ( (1.9.28)
.(1.9.20)
cosh
The sample calculation of values of elements for
chebyshev low pass filter are shown below and based on
Where L is required insertion loss in dB at frequency ' ' . these calculations Table 1.9.2 and 1.9.3 are given for
reference.
Table 1.9.2: Element values for Equal-Ripple Low-pass filter prototypes g, = 1, ac= 1, N=1 to 10, 0.5 dB ripple
0.5 dB Ripple
N 2 54 55 59 S10 B11
1 0.6986 1.0000
2 1.4029 0.7071 1.9841
3 1.5963 1.0967 1.5963 1.0000
4 1.6703|1.1926 2.3661 0.8419 1.9841
5 1.7058 1.2296 2.5408 1.2296 1.7058 1.0000

6 1.7254 1.2479 2.6064 1.3137 22.4758 0.8696 1.9841
7 1.7372 1.2583 2.6381 1.3444 2.6381 1.2583 1.7372 1.0000
8 1.7451 1.2647 2.6564 1.3590 2.6964 1.3389 2.5093 0.8796 1.9841
991.75041.2690 22.6678 1.3673 2.7239 1.36732.6678 1.2690 1.7504 1.0000

10 1.7543. |1.2721 26754 1.37252.7392 1.3806 2.7231 1.3485 2.5239 0.8842 1.9841
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RF Design (MU-8 sSem.-E&TC)
1, N=1 to 10, 3.0 dB ripple
Table 1.9.3: Element values for Equal-Ripple Low-passfilter prototypes g,
=
1,oc =
3.0 dB Ripple
&10
N
1.9953 1.0000
2 3.1013 0.5339 5.8095
3 3.3487 0.7117 3.3487 1.0000
4 3.43890.7483 4.3471 0.5920 5.8095
5 3.4817 0.7618 4.5381 0.7618 3.4817 1.0000
3.5045 0.7685 4.6061 0.7929 4.4641 0.6033 5.8095
6
3.5182 0.7723 4.6386 | 0.8039 4.6386 0.7723 3.5182 | 1.0000
7
8 3.5277 0.7745 4.6575 0.8089 4.6990 0.8018 4.4990 0.6073 5.8095
0.8118 4.66920.7760 3.5340 1.0000

93.5340 0.7760 4.6692 0.8118 4.7272
10 3.5284 0.7771 4.6768 0.8136 4.7425 0.8164 4.7260 0.8051 4.5142

0.6091 5.8095
For N 2, 8=1, o, =1, G, =0.5 dB ripple amplitude
From Equation (1.9.27), for k = 1, Using Equation (1.9.24),
To calculate a 4 xa Xa
S2
b, xS1
sin 0.7071
Now using Equation (1.9.27),
2x0.7071 sin
X = 0.7071
So to calculate X, use Equation (1.9.25) and Equation

Using Equation (1.9.28),
(1.9.26)
b X+sin
tncoh(1737 b 1.0160 +1=2.016
Using trigonometry: 4x0.7071 x0.7071
coth x tanh = 1 2.016x 1.4029
82 0.7071
.coth tan h
. coth =
0.5 Now g3 = cosh
tanh 17.37
coth = 34.7495 = cosh 3.54
= In [34.7495] = 3.5481 83 1.4198
Using quation (1.9.26), Tables 1.9.2 and 1.9.3 exist for designing equal ripple
low pass filters with normalized source impedance and cut
X sinh22=1.0080o
off frequency o= 1. These elements can be used for
2x0.7071 1.4029 designing ladder circuits shown in Fig. 1.9.4(a) and 1.9.4(b).
1.0080
81 1.4029
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RF Design(MU-g" Sem.E&TC) (1-47)
coth )
Ex. 1.9.3 =5.8476
3
tan h 17.31
Design 3-dB equi-ripple low pass filter with a cut-off
frequency of 2 GHz, 1 Q impedance level and at least 15 dB E n [5.8476] = 1.7660
insertion loss at 3 GHz.
X = sinh 1.7660 0.2986
Soln. 6
Given G 3 dB
f 2 GHz b (0.2986) sin(
+
G &o 502 = 0.0891+ (0.8660)

L 15 dB
= 0.0891 +0.7499
f 3 GHz
b = 0.839
Design of equal ripple low pass filter
G, 3
b (0.2986) + sin?
e = 100-1=100 - 1= 10-1
e = 0.9952 1
= 0.0891 + (0.8660)
= 0.0891 +0.7499
) The order of filter is calculated as follows:
b,= 0.8390
10
cosh1 0 - 1
1
N b =(0.2986 +sin'
cosh( 0.0891+0
cosh.
101x151 b, 0.0891
V 10013
N
The 'g' values for the filter can now be found by
cosh ...As N is odd
Eo 84=1
N= 2.4913
(ii) The element values are S1 2x0. 3.3489
0.2986
&o= 50
As N = 3,
82 4x0.5XL-0.7118
3.3489 x 0.839
... as Nis odd
83
4x1x0.5 3.3489
Using Equations (1.9.23) to (1.9.28), x 0.8390
.7118
Thus, a =sin =05 The 'g' values are listed in Table 1.9.2 for N =3.
The designed equal ripple low pass filter is shown in
sin=1 Fig. P. 1.9.3.
,
=
sin 05 R 90 12 L2 92
Now,
e =ineothT73) C91 9 R=1
tanh
ann 17.37 = 0.17101 .tan x cot 6 = 1
L
(1A87Fig. P. 1.9.3: Equal ripple low passfilter
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=
1 . 1 0 SCALING OF LOW PASS The L, C and R are the values of original prototype
PROTOTYPE FILTERS filter
2. Frequency scaling
GQ. 1.10.1 Explain two types of scaling.
Since the cut off frequency w, of prototype filler is 1,
The designs of low pass filter
prototype by insertion so to change it from unity to different low pass cut off
loss method have a normalized source impedance of frequency values, frequency of filter is scaled by the
Rs= 12 and cut off frequency of o,= 1.
However it is
factorwhich is achieved as
possible to scales and transform low pass
prototype filter design into low pass, high pass band
pass and stop band filters for any impedance ...(1.10.5)
(Rs =
R)
value and for any cut off frequency value.
By applying Equation (1.10.5), the inductive and
There are two types of scaling: capacitive reactance are found as
1. Impedance scaling
2. Frequency scaling
L = oL
1. Impedance scaling
L= L
It is seen that, with reference to Equation (1.9.22),
equal ripple filters have non unity, load resistance value L= L
.(1.10.6))
for an even 'N' order of filter. Whereas in
prototype
filter design, source and load resistances are unity.
Since filter is linear circuit, it is possible to multiply all
impedances including terminating resistances of
prototype filter design by some factor without .C
disturbing transfer function of the filter. .c
Thus, input and output impedances will change. Let
prime denote impedance scaled quantities. If required
load and source impedances are equal to Ro.
Then, .(1.10.7)
X = R,XL
By applying both
impedance and frequency scaling,
L'@ = R, oL Equations (1.10.1) to (1.10.7) becomes as
. L =
R,L ...(1.10.1)
.(1.10.8)
...(1.10.9)
R
R= R ...(1:10.10)
Therefore C = ..(1.10.2)
Ro R= R,R ..(1.10.11)
R R1 =R ...(1.10.3) Fig. 1.10.1 shows the scaling for low pass filter
prototype response for @= 1.
R= R R;= R, RL .(1.10.4)

RF Design (MU-8 sem.-E&TC) (1-49) RF Filter Design
PLR The order of filter is 1.

Now,
a sin
Thus, &= (05

n| coth17.37)J
1 1 E = 3.5481
3.5481
(1A8 a) Low pass filter prototype for @. = 1 X sinh2
X = 2.8625
PLR
2x1
81 2.8625
81 0.6986
Now,
R8 50 x0.6986
2 Tx 100 x 10
(1A8 b) Frequency scaling for low pass filter prototype

L= 5.69 nH
R=R s 0 a
Fig. 1.10.1 Frequency scalingfor low pass filters
L
Ex. 1.10.1 w
A chebyshev low pass filter is to be designed in such way s RL
that it should maximum ripple level 0.5 dB in its pass band.
The filter must operate in the frequency range of upto
100 MHz and attenuate the signal at 400 MHz by 5 dB. The (1A90)Fig. P. 1.10.1
load and source resistance of 50 S2 each.
Soln. M 1.11 FILTER TRANSFORMATION

Given G, = 0.5 dB
f = 100 MHz GQ.1.11.1 Write a note on filter transformation

f 400 MHz As discussed previously filter transformation is used to
IL = 5 dB design new filters including low pass, high pass, band pass
R= Rs = 502 and band stop filters.
A chebyshev low pass is designed as follows: The following are the filter transformation techniques.
The order offiltered is calculated as follows

1.11.1 Low Pass to High Pass
cosh Filter
N
cosh (4) GQ.1.11.2 Explain low pass to high pass ilter
10015
cosh transformation.
N
VioTR
cosh (4)
A high pass filter is designed by transforming low pass
filterprototype. This is shown in Fig. 1.11.1.
2.1622
N
cosh
cosh O.12201
(4)
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R, Lx .(1.11.6)
HP
R ...(1.11.7)
Cand L are capacitor and inductor of high pass
filter respectively.
C
(IA9TKa) (1A92 b) HE ---IF
RsRo
Fig. 1.11.1:Low pas to high pass transformation
E L4 R
An ideal low pass filter passes all signals upto
normalized cut off frequency with almost zero insertion
loss in pass band and attenuates signals above cut off (1A93)Fig. 1.11.2: High pass filter obtained from low pass
frequency. prototype
On the other hand, high pass filter passes all signals
above the cut off frequency o, and attenuate the signals Ex. 1.11.1
those are below the cut off frequency Design a high pass chebyshev filter with pass band ripple
Therefore, following frequency transformation will be magnitude not more than 0.01 dB with cut off frequency 100
used to transform a low pass filter to a high pass filter. MHz. The filter exhibit at least 5 dB attenuation at 400
MHz. The load and source resistances are 75 2 each. Also
...(1.11.1) design scaled low pass chebyshev filter.
1. Thus, applying Equation (1.11.1), inductors wil
replace the shunt capacitor of low pass filter and
Soln.:
capacitors will be connected in series in place of
Given G, = 0.01 dB
IL = 5 dB
inductors.
f 100 MHz
X = jo L = - i k f = 400 MHz
R R = 75 2
(1.11.2) Design of chebyshev low pass filter*
jo Ck
) The order of filter is calculated as:
jBx jo Ck =
-j Cx
cosh
HP ...(1.11.3) V100
jo L N =
cosh (4)
Equation (1.11.2) indicates that series inductor Lx is
replaced by capacitor CK cosh 2.1622
0.0023
N = 4.1158
Thus, L .(1.11.4) cosh (4) 2.063
N = 1.99 2
2. Similarly, shunt capacitors C is replaced by inductors
But in order to meet symmetrical characteristics 75 2
L, thus Equation (1.11.3) reduces to each side order of filter can
be increased to N=3 (odd)
..(1.11.5) So we consider order of filter

N = 3
By applying impedance scaling using Equation
(1.11.4), Equation (1.1 1.5) becomes,
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RF FilterDesign
RE Design(MU-8h sSem.-E&TC) (1-51)
82 0.9664 =C
Element values: For K =
1, K= 2 and K = 3
(i)
and 8s
4 x a Xa
b X B2
i.e. a= sin 2N 4x 1x0.5 = L3
83 3.315 x 0.9664
a sin =0.5 83 0.62425
a sin 1 (vii) By applying scaling rule as follows:
and a sin =0.5

L=L - L 5x0.62425
2Tx 100x 10
ii) e n coth17.37)J L=L 74.51 nH

C 0.9664
tanh 17.3 = s.7570 C R, 2tx 100x 10° x 75
using tan 0 x cot 6 = 1 C2 20.50 pF
in
cot 6 = (vii) The low pass chebyshev filter is shown
tan
Fig. P. 1.11.1.
coth 9.0117.37 O.01 1737.00

R Rs L = 74.51nH Ly 74.51nH
tan 17.37,
E = In [1737.00] = 7.4599 7.5
C2 RL 756n
iv) X = sinh 20.5 pF
X = sinh 1.601 (1A93())Fig-P. 1.11.1: Scaled low pass chebyshev filter
ix) To design highpass chebyshev filter, with

(v)
impedance scaling as:
b (1.6019)+sin() C =c=
= 2.5660+ (0.8660) R,
= 2.5660+0.7499
2Tx 75x 100 x 10° x0.62425
b= 3.315
C = C = 33.99 = 34 pF
b (1.6019 +sin?( R
and L = 75
2.5660+(0.8660) = 2.5660 +0.7499 27t x 100x 10" x 0.9664
C2
b2= 3.315 HP
. L= 123.5 mH
(vi) Thus, g1 x)The resulting chebyshev high pass filter is shown in
Fig. P. 1.11.1(a).
2x0.3
1.6019 0.62425 L
=
4b-18x-1
(a1 RRs c34 pF c34 pF
ie. Ex
752
4xaXa2 R RL
82 b,X 81 123.5nH 3 752
82
4x0.5x 1
3.315 x 0.62425
(1AB4)Fig. P. 1.11.1(a) :Scaled chebyshev high pass filter
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1.11.2 Low Pass Filter to Band Pass and 4 .(1.11.10)
Filter
Also from Fig. 1.11.3(a), shunt capacitor of low pass
GQ. 1.11.3 Explain and obtain the expression of filter prototype transforms into parallel combination of
capacitorand inductor. inductor as Land capacitor as C in band pass
A low pass filter
filter. These elements are obtained as
prototype can be transferred into band
pass filter as shown in Figs. 1.11.3(a) and (b). BP
L, 1.11.11)
RgR C
and .(1.11.12)
v 2
BP 2-0
Further, these elements are scaled by as required by
source and load impedances expressed as follows
(1A95 a): Band pass filter circuit
C
- .(1.11.13)
R, L
and .(1.11.14)
O 1
**********************-**
@2
.***********************
L R,(-0,) ..(1.11.15)
(1A96) (1A97)
(b) Low pass filter prototype to Bandpass filter C
and
Fig. 1.11.3: Band pass filter ...(1.11.16)
R2-o)
The perfect low pass filter passes all
frequency signals Ex. 1.11.2
with zero insertion loss in pass band upto normalized
cut off
frequency o 1 and completely stops signals
=
Design a bandpass chebyshev
filter with maximum ripple
those have higher frequency than level 0.5 dB with N 3. The centre frequency is 1 GHz and
=
In band pass filter, all signals with frequencies between bandwidth is 10% and impedance is 50 2.
and 02 passes and stops passing outside this Soin.:
frequency range. Given: N=3, fo= 1 GHz,
Hence the following frequency substitution transform a
2-@1
low pass filter prototype to a band pass filter. i.e. 10% 0.1,
= =
G, =0.5 dB
( (I1.8) (1.11.8) ) To design bandpass filter, first equal ripple low pass filter prototype is designed as follows:
Where, in Equation (1.l1.8), . o,=V o x 2
1. Above frequency substitution replaces the series ie. asin Dz]|
inductor of low pass filter prototype to inductor BP
L
and capacitor C which are connected in series as
shown in Fig. 1.11.3(a).
sin()o5
These elements are obtained as follows sin(
and s i n ( - 0 5
..(1.11.9)
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RF Design(MU-9 Sem-E&TC) (1-53) RF Fiter Design
ie.e Thus, the element values of chebyshev equal ripple low

(i) =
n| coth 17.37 pass filter prototype of Figs. 1.9.4(a) and 1.9.4(b) are shown
below
tanh( 17.37 =002877
81 1.5963 =L,
coth 17.37 34.7495 8 1.09681 =C
B 1.5963 =Ly
. Using tan e.cot = 1
= in [ 34.7495] 841.00 =R,
Above values are also verified from Table 1.9.3.
E 3.5481
elements of bandpass filter are found
X = sinh (vii) The scaled
ii) follows
X =sin h
R,x x , xL
= 0.62642
0.1
(iv) x'+ sinN ...Putting
0.1
b (0.62642) +sin() 50x 2T x 1x 10'x 1.5963
(0.392440)+ (0.8660 C 0.199 pF

0.39240+0.74995
R,XL
b= 1.14235
-
b =
(0.62642+ sin
= 0.39240+(0.8660)
= 0.39240+0.74995 .Putting 0.1
b=1.1423
50x 1.5963
27x 1x 10
() 0.1
2x0.5 1.5963 50x1.5963
81 0.62642 * 27x 1x 10x0.1
4 xaX L
BP
127.02 mH
(vi)
Now, L R, -)
4xaXa
4x0.5x1 R,(-0
&2 1.1423x1.5963 x Cx
821.09681 50x 0.1
4x a Xa 2mx1x 10x 1.09681
.Putting 0.1
4x1 x0.5
83 1.1423x1.09681 BP
L 0.726nH
83 = 1.5963
R(o -o)
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RF Design (MU-8h Sem-E&TC) (1-54) RF Filter Design
R,O 01)
1.09681 .Putting =0.1

50 x0.1 x 2 x 1x 10
c2 34.91 pF
Now, R,XL
BP R,XLg
L
50x1.5963
O.1 x 2tx 1x 10 =0.1
L 127.02 mH
C
R,x ,X O,XL3
0.1
S0 x 2 Tx 1x 10x 1.5963
BP
0.199 pF
R,XRL 502
(vii) The resulting band pass filter is showm in Fig. P. 1.11.2.
Rs R50 LBP 127.02mH
c0.199pF C0.199pF
L127.02mH
0.726mH2 c=34.19pF 502
(1A98)Fig. P. 1.11.2: Scaled equal ripple band pass filter

Ex. 1.11.3 ) Design of bandpass Chebyshev filter
Design band pass chebyshev filter that exhibits with N 3,
no more them 0.01 dB in pass band. It passes signals
ripple
40 x 10°x 10x 10°
from 10 MHz to 40 MHz with zero insertion loss. Load and
f 20x 10' Hz = 20 MHz
source resistance are of 752 each.
i) Design, equal ripple chebyshev low pass filter
Soln. prototype for N = 3
Given = 40 MHz
f= 10 MHz sin sin2NJ
G, = 0.01 dB, N=3
a sin =05
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RF Design(MU-9h Sem-E&TC) (1-55) RFFilter Design
4 sin(=1 820.9664 =C2
83 0.62425 =Ly
a sin '84 R=1.00

(vi) Further, the scaled elements of equal ripple band
ii) n coth pass filter are calculated as follows:
0.01 02-@1
tanh 17.37 =5.7570
R,xoXL
Using tan 8 cot 6= 1 27tx 10°(40 10)
coth137 0.01 1737.00 75x (2 x 10°x 20) x0.62425
E i n [ 1737.00] = 7.4599 = 7.5 C 254.95 pF 255 pF

X sinhN R,XL
L 27tx 10° (,-f)
x sin)-1.6019 75 x 0.62425
21x 10° (40- 10)

(v) x+ sin L= BP 248.38 nH
b, = (1.6019)+ sin (tw3)

= 2.5660+(0.8660) L
BP R, (-0)
= 2.5660+0.7499
oxC
75 x 27x 10°(40 10)
b = 3.315
(2tx 20 x 10°) x0.9664
ba = (1.6019) + sin? . L = 926.37 nH
b= 2.5660+(0.8660 (ix) Thus the scaled elements of chebyshev bandpass
b2 = 2.5660 +0.7499
filters are:
b2 = 3.315
=
L 248.38 nH
(vi) S1 Ca =
C=255 pF
2x0.5 926.37 nH
81 1.6019 0.62425
C
4xa-Xa C Ro(-O)
-X8-1 0.9664
82 4x0.5x 1 75 x 2Tx 10" ( 40-10)

3.315 x 0.62425
C 68.35 pF
= 0.9664
4x1x0.5 68.35 pF,

83 3.315 x 0.9664 R =R = R," =RLx 75 =75 2
83 0.62425 The resulting chebyshev equal ripple band pass filter is
shown in Fig. P. 1.11.3.
(vi) Thus, the element values of equal ripple chebyshev
low pass filter are as follows:
81 0.62425 =L
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RF Fiter Design
RF Design(MU-8 Sem.-E&TC)_ (1-56)
R 752 c 255pF La 248.38mH c68.35pF
o-
L248.38mH RL752
926.37mHSLP
c68.35pF
filter
(1A9)Fig. P. 1.11.3: Chebyshev equal ripple band pass
a1.11.3 Low Pass Filter to Band Stop Filter
GO. 1.114 Obtain the expression for inductor and capacitor of band stop filter using low pass fiiter
prototype.
By transforming low pass filter prototype as shown in Fig. 1.11.4(a), a band pass filter can be obtained.
A perfect ideal low pass filter prototype passes all the signals upto cut off frequency = 1 in pass band and stops all
frequency signals having frequency greater than cut off frequency.

The stop band filter attenuate and signals having frequency range of o, and o, and passes the signal out side this
frequency range.
Therefore, the frequency response of stop band filter is completely opposite to that of band pass filter. Thus, the
following frequency substitution transform then low pass filter to stop band filter.
.(1.11.17)
www.weveereeviparoro
02
-facdoise iu ***** *ddnrh*******
(14100) Fig. 1.1144a) : Transformation of low pass filter into stop band filter
This frequency substitution replaces the series inductor of low pass filter prototype with parallel combination of
inductor as L and capacitor C
BS
The series combination of capacitor Cq and the inductorL, are place in the placed of shunt capacitor of low pass filter
prototype
The element values of band stop filter are as follows
...(1.11.18)
BS
(o-0)4 ...(1.11.19))
(02-0) CG .(1.11.20)
1
.(1.11.21)
(o-0,)G
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Further these elements sealed as follows
R0-)L .(1.11.22)
(
..(1.11.23)
R, (02-0)L
...(1.11.24)
R,
R ..(1.11.25)
(o-0,)CG
The resulting band stop filter is shown in Fig. 1.11.4(b).
LS
RsRo
-
HH
R
v
(IA102Fig. 1.114b): Equal ripple chebyshev stopband fiter
The filter transformation of low pass to high pass, band pass and stop band filter is summarised in Table 1.11.1.
Table 1.11.1: Low pass filter prototype
Fiter transformation without scaling electrical circuit elementrealized afterfrequency mapping

Sr. Components Low passHighpass frequency Bandpass Bandstop
No. prototype mapping0
Series circuit
component
9k 1
(2-0
(1A103) (14104) (1A105)

(1A106)
2. Shunt circuit
E
component
1
2-)C
T (2-)
(1A107) (1A108)
(1A109)
(1A110)
ADOve elements are unscaled
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Ex. 1.11.4 82 2=C,

Design maximally flat band-stop filter with N = 3. It stops
signal with frequency ranges from 10 MHz to 40 MHz and (ii) Now the elements of band stop filters are calculated
passes the rest of frequencies. Assume load and source
resistances are of 752 each. asfollows
BS 0-00,) L, xR,
Soln. L
Given N=3 75
LS X 10 (40- 10) x
f= 10 MHz , f^= 40 MHz
(2 x 20 x10°)
) Design of maximally flat band stop filter L 0.895 uH
fo = V 10x10°x40x 10 R, (0 - ) L,
=C
*s
= 20 MHz
75 x 2Tx 10° (40-10)
(i) First we will design maximaly flat low pass filter
= 70.73 pF
design for N=3 as follows
R
& 2sin (-) C
75
8o &=l 27T x 10° ( 40 10) x2
8 2 2 sin L= 0.198 uH 0.2uH
-0) C
2 sin)-2 R
8 2 sin 2 x10°(40-10)x2
75x (2 x 20 x 10°)
The element values of maximally flat low pass filter are
= 318.3 pF
Bo&Rs =RL=1
81 1 Ly
iv) The resulting Band-stop filter is shown in Fig. P. 1.11.4.
LS=0.895uH LS 0.895uH
Rs R
752
v S=0.2H c=70.73pF RL 752Q

318.3pF
(1A111)Fig. P. 1.114: Scaled maximally Mat bandstop filter
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RF Design (MU-9 Sem-E&TC) (1-59) RF Filter Design
1.12 FILTER IMPLEMENTATION Whereas input impedance of open circuited stub shown
inFig. 1.12.1(b) is given as

(0)
GQ. 1.12.1 What is redundant and non- Zi -jZ,cot (B/) ..(1.12.2)
redundant filter synthesis ? However, the reactance of inductor and capacitor are
exprssed as
The filters designed by using lumped elements, though
..(1.12.3)
they are simple to design, works well at only lower
frequency. ...(1.12.4)
c
The working of such filters rises two problemsat
But from Equations (1.12.2), (1.12.3) and (1.12.4) it is
higherfrequency seen that impedance of stub and lumped elements such
()The lumped elements such as inductors and
as inductor and capacitor are different function with
capacitors generally have only limited range of
respect to frequency.
values and are difficult to use at microwave
frequencies i.e. use frequencies greater them 500 Thus, Z Z and Z+Z (1.12.5)
MHz. In order to satisfy Equation (1.12.5), let's us assum
(i) Secondly the gap between filter components can that at frequency ' c
not be neglected at microwave frequency. In order z Z and Zjn +Z¢
to solve the above problems, Richard's The frequency c is the frequency at which the
transformation is used to replace inductors and functions of lumped element L and C) and
capacitors by transmission line. transmissionline stubs (Z, B) are equal.
Whereas Kuroda's identities are used to separate filter Thus, replacing @ to Oc in Equations (1.12.3) and
elements by using transmission line sections without
(1.12.4)
affecting filter response. This type of design is called joL = j Z ,tan BI
redundant filter synthesis.
In non-redundant filter synthesis, microwave filters can and = jZ, tan (1.12.6)
P
be designed by using both Richard's transformation
and Kuroda's identties in oder to improve the filter Similarly, = -jZ,cotB
response. The non-redundant filter synthesis does not
include inductors and capacitors. -i2, c o , ) (1.12.7)
1.12.1 Richard's Transformation Where V, phase velocity of signal propagating on the
line. Let's set the length of transmission line stub to

; Ga. 1.12.2 How Richard's Transformation is
, where
usefulin RFfilter designing?
**
The input impedance of short circuited stub shown in (1.12.8)

Fig. 1.12.1(a) is given as: Thus Equation (1.12.7) reduces to
Z jZ, tan (B ..(1.12.1)
jagL = jz,tan
Where s is denoted for short circuited stub.

jocL = j Z ,tan xRx
8xB
(1A112 a) (1A113(b) jocL = jZ tan(A.x4

Fig. 1.12.1a): Short circuited stub and open cireuited stub
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Above two results are Richard's Transformation
joL =jZ,tan () results.
elements inductors
jaL = jz, ..(1.12.9) It is summarized that, the lumped
can be replaced by short
and capacitors of filter design
Similarly for Equations (1.12.6) and (1.12.7) transmission stub
circuited and open circuited
as shown in Figs. 1.12.2(a)
and (b).
respectively
-iZg co
GO. 1.12.3 Why does filter response using
match with
-j,cox Richard's Transformation
Fiterdesign using lumped element ?
-j2,ca(Ax The Taylor series approximation for tan o and cot o,
when o is small, is expressed as:
.(1.12.10)
tan o= and cot
Thus from Equations (1.12.9) and (1.12.10) it can be .(1.12.11)
for<«l,
concluded that an inductor can be replaced by short Where is in radian.
cireuited transmission stub of length 1 The Richard's Transformation of shorted stub at
frequency o' has input impedance expressed as :
frequency with characteristic impedance
Zo L. It is shownin Fig. 1.12.2(a).
jZtan(p) ..(1.12.12)
S.C. But A
Z c (Short
circuited)
in jZ,tan
I= aJ8
(1A114a) (1A115b)
Fig. 1.12.2: Short circuited stub
=
jZ%lan. 46
Likewise a capacitor can be replaced with an open Thus using Pe
circuited stub with same characteristic impedance of
capacitor C' i.e. Zo = Thus, the characteristic
impedance of open circuited transmission stub is z jZo tan

Zo=Z and it is shown in Fig. 1.12.206). The When <<a,Z can be approximated as
length of transmission open circuited stub is I at = jo-L) tan c
frequency jo,L )
O.C.
Z drcut)
(Open z =
joLwheno<<o, .1.12.13)
8 Comparing this with impedance of inductor,
Z joL .(1.12.14)
(IA116 Open circuited (IA117Kd) Richard's Thus, from Equations (1.12.13) and
transmission stub Transformation Stub (1.12.14)
Fig. 1.12.2 z =
Z, where1
i.e. Relatively close to 1.
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It is found that Richard's Transformation of shorted 1.12.2 Kuroda's Identities
stub has nearly same input impedance to that of
inductor for all frequencies less than o, (i.e. all
Ga. 1.124 Explain how Kuroda's ldentities are
frequencies less than o of low pass filter pass band)
usefal in RF filter design
Similarly Richard's transformation of open circuited
stub has an input impedance as Kuroda's identities are very useful for implementing
Richard's transformation. These identities provide an
() equivalent circuit for two port network, where they
have closely the same S-parameters, Z-parameters, Y-
parameters and ABCD or transmission parameters.
It means that Kuroda's identities replace a two port
...UsingEquation (1.12.11)| network with its equivalent circuit without changing
Z (H) it's scattering matrix.
When <<O .(1.12.15) Kuroda's identities are useful to :
When Equation (1.12.15) compared with input Separate transmission line stubs physically.
impedance ofcapacitor impedance as: (i) Replace series stubs into shunt stub or vice versa.
(ii) Provide characteristics into more impedance
.(1.12.16)
realizable ones.
From Equations (1.12.15) and (1.12.16), it is found that
(iv) Faciliate the design of distributed elements.
both Equations have approximately same impedance
Fig. 1.12.3 presents four Kuroda's identities which are
for all frequencies @ < < o, in pass band of low pass
used for transformation of networks. These transformed
filter.
network use Unit Elements (UE) having a length of a
Thus, the filter designed using Richard's
Transformation has same frequency response as filter transmission line stub a cut off frequency with
designed using lumped elements.
specified characteristic impedance.
n Z1
U
U.E. U.E
Z1 uE nz
(1A118) (1A119) (1A120) (1A121)
(a) (b)
1:n2
n:1
H
2 nz
(1A12) (1A123) (1A124) (1A125)
(c) (d)
Fig.112.3:FourKuroda'sldentities=14
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-***n*^***--
(1-62)
GO. 1.12.5 Prove the Kuroda's 1st identity

The Kuroda's 1s identity is
(1A126) (a) (1A127) (b)
Z n-1
O.C.
Shunt
stub
Unit element Unit element
(IA120)(©) (1A129) (d)

Fig. 1.12.4 : Equivalent two part networks using Kuroda's identity
(1) The above two identities can be redraw by using

The ABCD parameters of Fig. 1.12.5(a) are expressed
as
Richard's transformation ie. capacitor is replaced by
open circuited shunt stub and inductor is replaced by
short circuited series stub and shown in Fig. 1.12.4.

A V,=0 BTv,=0 ..(1.12.17)
The equivalent of two port networks shown in
C = D =
Fig. 1.12.4 can be shown equivalent to each other by

A voltage source of V, is connected at port 1 and port 2
matching ABCD parameter matrices of both sides.
is short circuited. Let V is incident voltage at portl,
Here ABCD matrix of transmission line of length '
then at port 2, it will be Vine. Since reflection
with characteristic impedance Z is obtained as
coefficient of short circuited terminal is- 1, so
follows: It is shown in Fig. 1.12.5(a). reflected voltage at this port will be 180° out of phase.
-2y
Hence reflected voltage arriving at port 2 is -Vine
Thus V= Vin-Vine
V2 = 0
V Z.Y V2
Unit element
and I
(IA130)Fig. 1.12.5(a): Unit element of ' transmission length line
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From Equation (1.12.17), Thus, transmission matrix of transmission line having
length T' is obtained as follows:
B 21-*) cosh (y Z sinh(y)1
cosh (y
Ze-e")
2e As transmission line is assumed as to be lossless, thus
Z sinh (YD Y jB bence above matrix becomes:

Using cosh jx = cos x and sinh jx =j sin x, tanh jx =j
and D tan x, coth jx = -j cotx
-uV,=0 :osh Z sin B!
cos B
D
2 in iz, Sin 7
D +e) le sin
L Z cos B
1
D + 1 jZ tan BI
=
cos ZtanB 1
D cosh (Y4)
Now substituting tan Bl and using
Now, port 2 is open cireuited and voltage source V, is
still connected at port 1. When Vi, is incident voltage at cos 8-
port 1, then Vin e is arriving at port 2. As reflection
coefficient of open cireuit port is + 1, reflected voltage .(1.12.18)
at port 2is equal to incident voltage Vine
Thus, Now, the ABCD parameters of open circuited shunt
V,= Vin +Vi e stub as
shown in first circuit and using Equation
= Vin (1 +e") (1.12.2), has characteristic impedance-jZ, cot B
As ABCD matrix of Fig. 1.12.5(6) is obtained as
V =2V
follows:
-1-*) Here Vis connected to port 1 and port 2 is short
circuited.
and
V2
A
VL-2"
and C (1A13())Fig. 1.12.5(b)
1,=0 2Ze" ThusL=- and V, =0 V
Using Equation (1.12.17).
2Ze
and B - 02
sinh (y)

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and
D v,=0 .(1.12.21)
while V, is still
Now, consider port 2 is open circuited Now, ABCD parameters of short circuited series stub
connected at port 1.
as obtained as follows whose impedancetan B
Thus, V, = V, and I, =
(using Equation 1.12.2)
A V=0 = 1 m-3
4 2
(2)Fig. 1.12.5(c)
C
V L=0 As shown in Fig. 1.12.5(c), V, is connected at port
and port 2 is short circuited.
Thus I=-h and V, =I Z volt

Substituting 2 = tan BI
B = Z2
le
and -
0 1
2 is open circuited and V is still
..(1.12.19) Similarly port
connected to port 1. So that I, = 0, V, = V1 and I =0.
From left hand side of Fig. 1.12.4, these two elements Thus, using Equation (1.12.17),
are cascade. Thus using Equation (1.12.18) and
(1.12.19). A Vl0
nd c VlL,-0 = 0
1 j2Z
..(1.12.22)
As these two elements are cascaded and using
j2Z Equations (1.12.21) and (1.12.22).
VI-ia() 1 - | fA B7 1
n
..(1.12.20)) 1
Similarly from second part of Fig. 1.12.4, the ABCD
matrix of unit element is obtained as by considering

1
transmission line of length "'.
L 0
:1a-
...(1.12.23)
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RF Design(MU-g Sem-E&TC) (1-65)
b = 0.839
By using n=I+7 the Equation (1.12.23)
1 j2Z, (0.2986+sin(
..(1.12.24) = 0.0891 + (0.8660)
( ) 1-#2 b , = 0.8390
So from Equations (1.12.20) and (1.12.24), Kuroda's 2a 2x0. 3.3489
g = 0.2986
first identity is proved. (v
Bz
4x0.5 X=0.7118
Ex. 1.12.1 3.3489 x 0.839
Design a low pass f+lter to fabricate using microstrip lines 4x1x0.5 3489
for following specifications:
83 0.7118 +0.8390
4 The normalized equal ripple low pass filter prototype
GHz, N=3, R,=R,=50,
elementvalues are:
Equal ripple =3dB
81 3.3489 =L
Soln.: 82 0.7118 = C
Given f=4 GHz, N=3 (Order offilter),
R = 12
R 50 2, G, =3 dB
83 3.3489 =L
T o design equal ripple low pass filter prototype
following design equations are used: Fig. P. 1.12.1 presents normalized equal ripple low pass
filter prototype with lumped element.
1Le. a - sin I L3.3489 Lg 3.3489

2NJ Ro 12
o-
= sin(=05
C2 =0.7118 12
si(
and , sin(05s (IA131)Fig. P.1.12.1:Low pass prototype with lumped element
(2) Apply Richard's Transformation to Fig. P. 1.12.1 ie.

(ü) ln coth1737)J replace inductor by short circuit series stub and replace
capacitor by open circuit shunt stub.
tanh17-37=0.17101
Z0 3.3489 Z 3.3489
coth(3
17.37 0.17101
5.8476
coth 17.37, =
12
I n [5.8476] =1.7660
I N8 at o=1
X
= 2N)sinh
Z 07118B 1.405
X =sinh o=0.20R6
(IA132)Fig. P. 1.12.1(a): Low passfilter prototype with
iv) Richard's transformation to replace inductor with short

circuited series stub and capacitor with open circuited shunt
stub
b, 0.2986+sin(
= 0.0891+ (0.8660)
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(3) Since Fig. P. 1.12.1(a) cannot be fabricated so unit 1 Z 4.3500 Z 4.350
elements are added. After adding unit elements at ends
of filter.
o 3.3489
Z0 3.3489 Upitelement
1 1.405
Z 1.299 Z Z 1.299
12 (IA13Fig. P. 1.12.1(e): Appling second Kuroda's identity
Unit elenment Z1 (5) Apply frequency and impedance scaling. All

Z1.405 normalized characteristic impedances multiplied by
(1A133)Fig. P. 1.12.10b) : Adding unit element at ends of filter 50 2 and stub lengths are selected as / = at
50 Zo 50x 4.350 Z0 50x 4.350
(4) In order to convert Fig. P. 1.12.1(b) into open circuited w
217.5 217.5
shunt stub, we apply Kuroda's second identity to
convert series stub into shunt stub. 500
From Fig. P. 1.12.1b) and Kuroda's 2nd identity.
Z= 3.3489 Z 1.299 x 50
Z 1.299 x 50 Z 1.405 x 50
= 70.252
64.92
64.92
(IA135Fig. P. 1.12.1(d) : After impedance and frequency scaling
Now,
(6) Microstrip fabrication of Fig. P. 1.12.1(d).
n 1+}=1+3.3489
=
502 502
n .299 217.52 217.52
From nd column Kuroda's
of identity
(Refer Fig. 1.12.3)
64.92 70.32 64.92
Value of capacitor
(IA136
Fig. 1.12.1(e) : Microstrip fabrication of final filter.
1.299 x1 1.12.3 Impedance and Admittance

But it has to act Inverters
Open circuited shunt stub so the suceptance of shunt
It is always easy to fabricate a filter either with series
stub =(n Z) = 1.299
or shunt stub of transmission line.
The characteristic impedance of unit element is nZ Along with Kuroda's identity, impedance (K) or
= 1.299x 3.3489
admittance () inverters are also used for conversion of
4.350 series to shunt stub or vice versa.
Second element is already open circuited shunt stub so Impedance (K) or admittance ) inverters are used for
no need to convert. band pass or band stop filters with small (< 10%)
Now for third element i.e. short circuit series stub, this bandwidths.
will be converted into open circuited shunt stub as above.
Thus Fig. P. 1.12.1(¢) presents the low pass filters
prototype using only open circuited shunt stub.
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1.13 MIXED SOLVED PROBLEMS 3. The element in series and shunt arms of m-derived
T section of low pass filter are given as:
Ex. 1.13.1
0.274 x318.30 x10=43.60 nH
Design composite low pass filter by image parameter
method with R,=5 02 f,= 50 MHz and f. = 52 MHz mC = 0.274 x 127.32 x 10
Soln. mC = 34.88 p.F.
Given R=5 5 02 f, = 50 MHz and f=52 MHz
To design composite low pass filter following design
equations are used.
(L- (1-(0.214L \x 318.30x 10
4x0.274
268.61 nH
1. Design of constant -KT section oflow passfilter
The m-derived T-section of low pass filter is shown in
L 50 Fig. P. 1.13.1(a).
TX 50 x 10
m43.60nH 43.60nH
L = 318.30 nH thus= 159.15 nH
C = mC 34.88pF
50x 10"x50
C = 127.32 pF
The constant K-T section low pass filter is shown in
( L 268.61nH
4m
Fig. P. 1.13.1.
I2 159.15nH U2 = 159.15nH (1A138)Fig. P. 1.13.1(a): m-derive low pass filter

Design of matching sections
The -matching sections are designed for m = 0.6 for
C 127.32pF
designing terminating half sections.
The series and shunt arms of terminating half sections
(1A137)Fig. P. 1.13.1: Constant K-T section of LPF areas follows:
mL 0.6) x 318.30 x 10 = 95.49 nH
2. Design ofm-derived T-section LPF as follows:
The frequency of infinite attenuation is f. = 52 MHz 0.6 x 127.32 x 10
38.19 pF
m--()-y-9 1-0.6Lx 318.30x 10

m = 0.274
= 169.76 nH 170 nH
The terminating m-derived half sections are shown in Fig. P. 1.13.1(b).
95.49nH m=95.49nH
To L=170nH filter
To Flr 17 To
Load
source
m38.1pF 2 38.1pF
(1A139) (14140)
Fig. P. 1.13.1(b) : m-derived matching sections
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5. Design of composite filter
The composite filter is shown in Fig. P. 1.13.1(c).

159.15nH 159.15nH 43.60nH 43.60nH, 95.9nH
95.94nH
Rs 34.88pF 170nH
502
170nH
127.32pF: R 502
Vs 38.1pF 268.61nH 38.1pF
Terminating T section m-derived Terminating9
half section constant K T section halfat msection
= 0.6
at m =0.6 section
(IA141)Fig. P. 1.13.1(c)
The simplified composite filter is shown in Fig. P. 1.13.1(d).

225nH 202nH 139nH
Ro 170nH 34pF 170nH

127pF
502
38.1 268nH
38pF
(1A142) Fig.P. 1.13.1(d)
Ex.1.13.2 2C 42.4pF 2C=42.4pF

A composite high pass filter is to be designed with
R, 75 2, f = 50 MHz and f. = 48 MHz.
L 119.3nH
Soln.:
Given Ro= 752 f50 MHz
and f 48 MHz (1A149)Fig. P. 1.13.2: Tsection of constant K high pass filter
A composite high pass is designed by using following 2. Design of m-derived high pass filter.
design equations.
1. Design of constant - K-T section of high pass filter. m
75
L
4Tx 50x 10
19.36 nH Thus the eleme
-y-( = 0.28
of series of shunt arms of m-derived
C
T section of high pass filter are given as follows:
4 7 T f,R 4Tx 50 x 10° x 75 2x21.2x10- = 151.4 pF
0.28
21.2 pF
2C = 42.4 pF L 119.36x10 426.2 nH
m 0.28
Thus T-section of constant K of High pass filter is
(1-m*C (-028.x21.2 x10
shown in Fig. P. 1.13.2.
= 25.76 pF
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Thus, m-derived high pass filter of T section is shown 3. Design ofm-derived matching sections with m =0.6.
in Fig. P. 1.13.2(a).
The elements of series and shunt arms of matching
2C sections are obtained as follows
151.4pF 2151.4pF
= 70.66 pF
Um 426.2nH 2x119.36X 1--397.8 nH

0.6
1 m
mC25.76pF
(20c
1-m (-2-0.6x21.2x
x (0.6)
x21.2x 10 10!12
(A14Fig. P. 1.13.2a): m-derived high pass filter (T-types) = 39.8 pF
Thus, m-derived terminating half sections are shown in P.

Fig. 1.13.2(6).
20 151.4pF 2C 151.4pF
m
397.8nh 397.8nH
+c39.8pF m
ZOT OTtm
(14145)Fig. P. 1.13.2(b) :m-derived matching section
Hence the composite high pass filter (T-section) is shown in Fig. P. 1.13.2(0)
2C/m 2C 2c 2C/m 2C/m 2C/m
70.66pF 42.4pF 42.4pF 151.4pF 151.4pF 70.66pF
2Um Um 2Um
397.8nH 426.2nH3 397.6nH
39.8pF 119.3nH 25.76pF 39.8pF
1-m |1Amc
m
Matching Constant K m-derived Matching
section T section T section section
(1A146Fig. P. 1.13.2(¢): Complete composite high pass filter
The simplified composite filter is shown in Fig. P. 1.13,2(d). Here 2C

capacitors and 2C are in series, so simplified
value is
2C 2C
2C
m
1514x 424-33.12
151.4 +42.4
pF
33.12 pF
m+2C
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25pF 33.12pF 48.17pF
R
750 397.8nH 119.3nH 426nH397.8nH R 750
25.76pF 39.8pF
39.6pF
(1A147) Fig.P.1.13.2/d) Simplified composite high passfilter (T-section)

:
Ex. 1.13.3 2sin io=0.618

Design a low pass maximally flat filter with pass band range
0 to 3 GHz and an attenuation 20 dB at 5 GHz. The & 2 sin0=1.618
characteristic impedance is 752.
Soln.: 8 2sin 10)=2
Given: f=3 GHz, f 5 MHz, PLR=20 dB g42 sin 1.618
) Design of maximally flat low pass filter

Filter order can be calculate as
2 si(10)-06018
ii) The unscaled elements of maximally flat low pass
PLR10logto1+K filterare as follows:
As N=5, first element is capacitor
20
10log10 1+ .K=1
BoBR, =R;
2 log1 ) 81 0.618 = C,
Taking antilog on both sides 82 1.618 =L2

2N
8 2 C
2N 84 1.618 = L
99 = 8s 0.618 = Cs
Taking log on both sides
iv) Applying the impedance and frequency scaling the
loB099 2Nlog elements of maximally flat low pass filter are:
1.9956 =2N (0.2218)
C Ra 7 5 x0.618
21x3x 10 0.437 pF
2N 1.9956
0.2218
2N = 8.9972
RB275x1.618
1096.45nH
2Tx3x
N = 4.498 5
B 2 1.41 pF
Here order of filter is 5. R, 75 x 2n x 3x 10
(i) For maximally lat low pass filter, element values L4 R, 75x 1.618_.= 6.44 nH
are calculated using Equation 2mx3x 10
&s 0.618
B=2 sin 2N R , 75 x21 x3x 10
BoB=1 0.437 pF
RL = R=Rs = 75 2
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(v)The low pass filter maximally flat with scaled elements is shown in Fig. P. 1.13.3.
L6.43nH L4=6.44nH
750
C 0.437pFC 1.41pF Cs 0.437pF R;=752
(14148) Fig. P. 1.13.3 : Maximally flat low pass filter with scaled element
Ex.1.13.4 X = 0.1775
Design high pass filter with 5 lumped elements with a 3 dB b, =x +sin

iv)
equal ripple response cut off frequency of 1 GHz and
impedance of S0 2. What is resulting attenuation at 0.6 GHz b,= (0.1775)+sin
=
()
0.0315 +(0.5877)* = 0.0315 +0.3453
Soln. b = 0.3768
Given N=5, f= 1 GHz,

f=0.6 GHz, G,=3 dB
b (0.1775)+ sin?(
= 0.0315+ (0.9510) = 0.0315 +0.9044
) To design high pass Chebyshev equal ripple filter, b2=0.9359
first low pass equal ripple prototype is designed as
follows: b,(0.1775+sin' (
For, N= 5, 0.0315+ (0.9510) = 0.0315 +0.9044
bg.0.9359
sin I
b = (0.1775)+sin?(:
asin1=0.3090 0.0315+ (0.5877)
=
=0.0315 +0.3453
b=0.3768
az sin = 0.8090
a3 sin
(v) 81= 2a 2x0.3090
0.1775
81 3.4816
4 ax 4xaxa
a4 = s i n 0 ) =0.8090 (vi)
Dx-1 Bx-1
sin (=0.3090 g =
XO.3090x 0.809
0.3768 x 3.4816
e G,
In coth1737)
(i) 82 0.7621
4x ax a3
Now, tanh1737 = 0.1710 S3 4x0.8090x1
0.9359 x0.7621
83 4.5375
coth
17.37) =
0.1710=5.8479 4x aX a4
e = In [5.8479]= 1.766 84
(ii) X = sinh2N) B4
4x1x0.8090
0.9359 x 4.5375
X = sinh766 B4 0.7620
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8s
4 x aX as Ex. 1.13.5
A band stop three lumped element filter has 0.5 dB equal
centered at 3 GHz and
4x0.8090 x 0.3090 ripple response a band width of 10%
0.3768 x 0.7620 filter of 3 lumped
impedance of 752. Design a band stop
& 3.4825 elements.
(vii) Thus element values of low pass prototype equal Soln.
ripple filter are: Given N=3, Ro 752, G, =0.5,
81 3.4816 =L
f 3 GHz and (2 -0.1
82 0.7621 = C2
8s4.5375 =Ly ) In order to design band stop filter with 0.5 equal
ripple, first low pass filter prototype is designed by
84 0.7620 =C4
85 3.4825 =L_ using following equations:
Ro = R=Rs = 1 Design of low pass filter prototype:
(viii) Now converting low pass prototype into equal =sin2N
ripple high pass filter as follows:
By applying impedance and frequency scaling the sin=05
elements of high pass filter are obtained as follows:
1 sin(-1
Ro 50 x2x1x10'x3.4816
= 0.914 pF sin )=05
L Rg 50
C 2t x 1x 10x0.76211
LHP 10.44 nH First, tanh 0.5
17.37 0.02877
HP
3 R,oL 50 x 2nx 1 x 10 x 4.5375 coth7.37=34.7495
C=0.7015 pF using cot 6 tan 0=1
50 E 3.5481
L C2 21x 1x10x0.7620
,HP i) X = sinhN
= 10.44 nH
L
C Ros 50x27x 1x 10x 3.4825 X =
sinh( =0.62642
HP=0.914 pF (iv) b X+sin'(
ix) The equal ripple chebyshev high pass filter is shown
in Fig. P. 1.13.4.
b, (0.62642ý+ sin' ()
= 0.39240+ (0.8660
HP
RsR 502 C C3 C = 0.31240 +0.74995
0.914pF 0.7015pF 0.914pF b 1.1423

RL 502
[ 10.44nH 10.44nH b = (0.62642)+ sin?
= 0.39240+ (0.8660
(1A149) Fig. P. 1.13.4
ba1.1423
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BS 5X0.1 x 1.5963
() 21n x 3x 10
81
2x0.5
0.62642 1.5963 = 0.635 nH
(vi) 8 4xaX RoC0-0) L, o,x Rl(0-0) x L

b-1 X &%-1
82
4 xax a 27tx 3x 10 x 75 x 0.5 x 1.5963
c= 0.88 pF
82
4x0.5x 1
1.1423 x 1.5963
82 1.09681
c 0.1x 1.09681
3
4XaXa 75 x 2 x 3x 10
4x1x0.5
C= 0.077 pF
83 RX
1.1423 x 1.09681 Ro
(0-0,) C2 (-o,) xo,xC
83 1.5963
75
Thus element values of low pass filter prototype with 0.1 x 27t x 3x 10x 1.09681
0.5 equal ripple filter arc
L 36.27 nH
8 1.5963 =L
BS (-0,)La75 x0.1x1.5963
82= 1.09681 =C2 2Tx 3x 10
83 1.5963 =L BS =
nH
0.635
&41.00=R.=Ro
C (0)Ca
Ro(0-) L R,
(vi) =
C C1
(vii) The resulting band stop filter is shown in Fig. P.1.13.5.
LS =0.635nH L 0.635nH
R 752
36.27nH C8S=0.88pF RL
v c=0.88pF 750
-0.07pF
(1A150)Fig. P. 1.13.5: Band stop filter with equal ripple 0.5 dB
(1) To design maximally flat low pass filter of 3 order

Ex. 1.13.6
using series stubs following design equations are used.
Design a low pass third order maximally fiat filter using For maximally flat low pass filter the element values
series stub. The cut off frequency is 6 GHz and
only are as follows,
impedance is 50 2.
& 2 sin K)E
ZN
Soln.
f=6 GHz, Ro= 50 Bo 841
Given N=3,
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RF Filter Design
R F Design (MU-8h Sem.-E&TC) (1-74)
(4) Since Fig. P. 1.13.6(a) can not be fabricated without
2 sin=1 unit elements. So unit elements are added at both ends,
8 2 sin -2 Zo1
8 2 sin Ro 1
1
(2) Thus element of maximally flat low pass filter arc as
follows
1
&o &4R =R, =
81 1=C, (1A159) Fig. P. 1.13.6(b) : Richard

transformation
82 2L2 To convert open circuited shunt stub, to series stub

(5)
83 1=C Kuroda's 1s identity is used two times.
Thus maximally flat low pass filter is shown in Here

Fig. P. 1.13.6. Z 1
L22
Z2 1
v C1 Cg1 12 117
n = 2
identify two times
(6) Apply first Kuroda's
1A151) Fig. P. 1.13.6: Maximally lat low pass filter
(3) Applying Richard's transformation to Fig. P. 1.13.6
i.e. replace inductor by short circuit series stub and Ro
1 1/2 1/2 10
replace capacitor by open circuited shunt stub. It is
shown in Fig. P. 1.13.6(a).
Ro Fig.P. 1.13.6(c): Applying Kuroda's

2 (7) Scaling to 50 2
v 1
502 250 | 1002 2
252 252 500

1
(1A152) Fig. P. 1.13.6(a) : Applying Richard's transformation
Fig. P. 1.13.6(d)
Chapter Ends..
O00
APTER
2 Amplifier Design
Module 2
syllabus:
Two port power gain stability.
Single stage amplifier design low noise amplifier design.

Design for maximum gain, design for specified gain,
Power amplifier design: characteristics of power amplifier and classes of amplifiers, design of class A power
amplifier.
2.1 Introduction... ********* ***** *****.

*************°°*********°°*************
*********. 2-3
Two Port Power 2-3

2.2 Gains..
GQ. 2.2.1 Derive the expression for power gain, available power and transducer power gain in terms of
S-parameters of two port network. ...************** 2-3
2.2.1 Power Gain G. ****

************************************************************°°*******************************
2.2.2 Available Gain 'G ae*******e****.** **** u******sso*ds************* ******

****.. 2-5
2.2.3 Transducer Power Gain G'. ***************°******************°°*******°****°****°°**********°******

**************°*** 2 - 6
2.2.4 Unilateral Power Gain GTU.******e*********°°*****°****°°************°*******e**********°e******************** ******* 2-6
2.2.5 Maximized Gain G.. **************************************************e******e*************************

. ************.4
.2-6
2.3 Single Stage Microwave Transistor Amplifier. **************e************°******°*******°°e*********************************************°******** 2-9

GQ. 2.3.1 Explain the single stage general transistor amplifier.. *****.4 2-9
GQ. 2.3.2 Obtain the expression for gain of transistor using S-parameters. 2 9
2.4 Stability Consideration...

****************a************°°*****************a*****°***********************************************a***a******* ******* ..2-10
GQ. 2.4.1 What are necessary conditions for network to be unconditionaly stable ?...
******°****°°e******i***********.
*.2-10
2.4.1 Unconditional Stability.. ************************************************************************. 2-10
2.4.2 Potentially Unstable of Conditionaly Stable.. 2-10

2.5 Stability Circles. . 2-11
GQ. 2.5.1 Define stability circles and obtain the expression for center and radius for output and input
stability circles. .. 2-11
2.5.1 rValues for lral = 1 (Output Stability Circle ) and ra Values for |r.l = 1 (lnput Stability Circle)..2-11
GO. 2.5.22 Draw and explain output and input'stability circles.... 2-11
2.5.2 Testing for Unconditional Stability. ******************************.***. ***********************.*n*r* 2-14
GQ. 2.5.33 Explain unconditional stability concept on Tand I's plane. . .
**************"*°************************************ 2-14
GQ. 2.5.4 What are suficient and necessary tests for network to be unconditionally stable ?. *****°°°*****°********* .2-14
LRF Design (MU-8 Sem-E&TC) (2-2) Amplifier Design
2.5.2(A) Sufficient and Necessary Tests for Unconditional Stability. e*************n****************
2-14
2.6 Single Stage Amplifier Design..
************o**********************************************************°°"*******"*******"*****°"*******esessdea...
2-19
Ga. 2.6.1 Design maximum single stage amplifier for maximum gain.. . s**s****e***************e***********************s****....
....2-19
Bilateral Case.. ************°******..
.2-19
2.6.1 Design for Maximum Gain (Simultaneous Conjugate Matching)-
Obtain the expression for maximum transducer power gain if the transistor is unconditionally
GQ. 2.6.2
2
stable.... *********"********sssonooe*
*********.******ee****************e******************************************.......
.2-22
What is maximum stable gain (Gmsa)? and what is its importance ?*****************°****.
. *********.2-28
GQ. 2.6.33
GQ. 2.6.4 How Gmeg Can be achieved ? . . ***********************************aa***********************
***
*************4
.2-28
2.6.2 Unilateral Case... ******************e**** io****s*o**** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ° * * * * * * * * * ******o*i*********************aa*****.

.2-32
unilateral transducer
GQ. 2.6.5 Explain with block diagram and obtain the expression of maximum
power gain. ****************************.*******.*s********e*******e********************************°**********************°********a****.. .2-32
GQ. 2.6.6 How GTU max is obtained ? .
************°**********°°****°*******
. ************°******************************°********* ne*d.
.2-32
2.7 Constant Gain Circles - Unilateral Case.
******************************o*******************o**************************°*****************a****. .2-34
GQ. 2.7.1 Write short note on constant gain circle.. *****o********************************************************************e*****.

2-34
2.7.1 Unconditionaly Stable Case when ISl<1.. *eeooorooe*****.**********************************************************. .2-34
GQ. 2.7.2 Show that the normalized gain factors represent constant gain circles in Is or TL plane. Obtain the
expression for gs and gu Obtain the expression for center and radius of constant gain circle... . 2-34
2.7.1(A) Procedure for Drawing Constant Gain Circles in Z-smith Chart...***e****eee***ee****°*°**°*e**°°°e*********** .2-35
2.7.2 Potentialy Unstable Case When ISl> 1. ****.**o**** * *************** .2-41
GQ. 2.7.3 Explain Potentialy Unstable Case When 1S,I> 1.. °********°************°*o°7 **°°ao°O**°°*°********°*°***°* 2-41
2.7.3 Unilateral Figure of Merit. ******************************************************************************************* .2-44

GQ. 2.7.4 Obtain the expression of 'U. eese*************o******s***************e***********************o*********************e***************e*.2-44
2.8 Low Noise Amplifier Design. **e*****anes***********o******.*******o**o**********************oo**************************ao************es************e***.2-46
GQ. 2.8.1 Obtain the expression for center and radus of constant noise figure circles ?... .2-46
GQ. 2.8.2 What is the use of constant noise figure circles ?. ********
.2-46
**e******
2.9 Power Amplifiers...

*se**s***********ena***********************e*******e*****************************************e**** .2-51
2.9.1 Characteristics of Power Amplifiers. *****
**********°°°****°***a*****°*°***°****°.******e*******°**.***°°. .2-51
****e************
GQ. 2.9.1 Explain the characteristics of power amplifiers.

**********a***aoeo***aeeane*****°e******e*****ae*** .2-51
2.9.2 Overview of Power Amplifiers.. * **
GQ. 2.9.2 Write

********e*****e*****°*****oe***********ea******************************************** 2-52
comparison note on different types of power amplifiers.....
******a****s********* ****aoae*********a*****.2-52
2.10 Large Signal Characterization of Transistors . a*es***sse****e*s**** *********************e*********ee****e*****e*************** .2-53
GQ. 2.10.1 Explain the two ways to characterize the
large signal of transistor. *e********
.2-53
2.11 Design of Class A Power Amplifier...

*******os******e***************************************eo*a*a*******a*****a*****ao*sn*s* ° * a * * * * * * *.*2 - 5 5
GQ. 2.11.1 Explain design of class A power amplifiers.

***°*.**°*******°°*****°*****°°°******** **°****** *****************
..2-55
2.12 Mixed Problems..

. 2 - 5 7
Chapter Ends. ************************°*°e**************************.

°**°°°°°******°****°****°*******°*°.**** 2-82
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RF Design (MU-8 Sem.-E&TC) (2-3) Amplifier Design
2.2 TWO PORT POWER GAINS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers the some basic principles required GQ. 2.2.1 Derive the expression for power gain,
in the analysis and design of microwave transistor available power transducer
and
amplifier.
power gain in terms of S-parameters
The R-F microwave transistor designs differ from the
design of conventional low frequency transistor
of two port network
amplifier. To start amplifier design it is necessary to know the
This chapter develops a systematic design procedure definitions related to power relations.
based on 'S" parameters for designing microwave Consider two port network with its S-parameters
connected to source impedance Zs and load impedance
amplifiers.
The conventional microwave amplifiers were made up Z. It is shown in Fig. 2.2.1.
of klytrons and travelling wave tubes whereas solid Zs
state amplifiers made up of tunnel or varactor diode
v wTwo port w V2
which operates on characteristic of negative resistance network
of these devices. (Z
Due to improvement in solid state technology today's
microwave amplifiers use solid state transistor
s Tin Tout TL
including Si or SiGe BITs, GaAs HBTs, GaAs or InP,
FETs and GaAsHE MTs. (1BIFig. 2.2.1 Two port network with source and load
Thus some of the advantages of these microwave impedances
amplifiers are (i) Low cost (i) easily integrated in Three types of power gain in terms of S-parameters of
both hybrid and monolithic integrated circuitry. two port network and reflection coefficients I's and TL are
(ii) Reliable. defined as follows
The transistor amplifiers can be used in such
applications which works in greater than 100 GHz 2.2.1 Power Gain G
requiring small size, wide bandwidth, Iow noise figure
(NF) and low to medium power capacity. Power gain 'G' is defined as it is the ratio of power
dissipated in the load Z to the power delivered to the
Since, the improvement and design of microwave
input of the two port network.
transistor amplifiers slowly replaces the microwave
Mathematically it is expressed as
tubes which are still required for very high power and
P
G
high frequency applications.
Thus the most important design parameters of Power dissipated in loadZ
microwave transistor amplifiers are as follows Power delivered to the input of the two port network
) Stability (ü) Power gain (i) bandwidth (iv) noise 2.2.1)
figure in dB (v) dc requirenments (vi) input and output From Fig. 2.2.1, reflection coefficient rL looking
reflection coefficient i.e. VSWR.
towards load is expressed as
This chapter starts with definition of two-port power .(2.2.2)

gain which are required for amplifier design. This
Similarly, reflection coefficient rs looking towards
chapter also describes design procedures for unilateral
source is expressed as,
and bilateral transistors based on stability and gain
2.2.3)
requirement.
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RF Design (MU-8 Sem.-E&TC) (2-4) Amplifier Design
In Equations 2.2.2 and
2.2.3, Z, is the characteristics Thus Equation (2.2.5) becomes
impedance of two port network.
The input reflection cocfficient
V, ST V,+S V
T and output reflection V(1-S1
, = S\ V
cocfficient Tou can be determined by following
S-parameter analysis: SV
With reference to definition of the S-parameters
...(2.2.12)
v = rV (2.2.4) But from definition of output reflection coefficient
The S-parameters of two port network can be written as
ou
V = SV+S1, V ..(2.2.5)
So, divide by V, to Equation (2.2.7)
Using Equation 2.2.4 in Equation 2.2.5
V,= S V+S V, 2.2.6) Thus, ...(2.2.12(a))
V, SaV+S,v .(2.2.7)
. Putting V=rs V, in Equation 2.2.12(a),
Using Equation 2.2.4 in Equation 2.2.7
V = Sa V +S LV2
..(2.2.8)
But from Equation (2.2.12),
2.2.9)
SaT:S V +S
Thus V can be obtained from Equation (2.2.8) as vV-S, rs)
follows:
out
V,(1-ST) =S V
Thus, V= - S ,
r) STsS2 S22 .2.2.13)
...(2.2.10) 1-Ss
S21
Substituting Equation (2.2.10) into Equation (2.2.9) From Fig. 2.2.1, applying voltage division rule,
S2 TLV V,V7V+V,
V(-Sap
S21 = V(1+T
..(2.2.14)
- Sy1-ST SS From Equation (2.2.11(a)
Tin (Z+Z%) = Za-Z

Thus input reflection coefficient Tin is obtained as,
2.2.11) Z in+1)= Zm(1-n)

ZZ,+)
...(2.2.11(a))
and from Equation (2.2.3)
In Equation (2.2.11(a), Zn is impedance seen into the
port I of terminated two port network. Ts (Z+Z) = Zs-Z

Likewise, to obtain, output reflection coefficient Tou sZs+Is2% = Zs-Z%
with reference to S-parameters,
V Ts V, can be used
Z, 's+1) Zs (1-rs
RF Design (MU-g"h Sem.-E&TC) (2-5) Amplifier Design
Zs z +
1-r5) Using Equations (2.2.16) and (2.2.17)
Equation 2.2.1, powergain G is expressed as:
in

,2 ..(2.2.18)
v
V, - 14T:) Z+Z G P(1-ISl1-ST
(1+n) Zs+Zqn
Using the values of Zn and Zs
2.2.2 Available Gain 'G
Z,in+1) Available gain "G^' is defined as: It is the ratio of the
(1-Ti)
V,(+) z Ta-T
Ts+1) n+1) power available from two port network to
available from the source.
the power
Vs Mathematically, it is expressed as
(1-Ts)(1 Power available from two port network
V(17 B-rsTnt1-P+-rsT»+1-P G Power available from the source
vv= 2-2rsln
V1-T
G avn
P
avs
..(2.2.19)
Vs(1-T The power available from source i.e. Pavs is nothing but
Thus
v2(1-rsT
For all peak values of voltages,
.(2.2.15)
the average power

maximum power that can be delivered to the network,
when input impedances of source and load of
delivered to network is terminated network are complex conjugately matched.
Thus, from Equation (2.2.16)

P VT(1-Ir)
.Pa 1- (1-Ir.i) PPT, =r
(1-Ts) IV -r
IV lsl ..(2.2.20)
P8 8Z (1-Ir,)
Pa37 1-rsfia T1-I,) ..2.2.16) Similarly, the power available from network Pavm is the
The power delivered to load is, maximum power that can be delivered to load if input
impedance of network and load of terminated two' port
220
network is complex conjugately matched ( Z =
Z
V, can be solved from Equation (2.2.8)
or
ifreflection coefficient T; =r
Thus from Equation (2.2.17)
Thus V, (1-S2TL) = S V
Pavn
. V 1-STL
Using Equation (2.2.15) for V

Ivf1s,T (1-Ir)l-r
(1-Is) 82|1-Srfi-r,r.rl=
(1-Tsa)(1-S,TD 2.2.21)
In Equation (2.2.21), for a Iin must be solved for
Thus,
=r then
IV S, (1-Ir,P)l1-r
87 |1-Sr |1-rsrar I1-, =1-TST-ST)
2.2.17)
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: - r r i = 1 - r S - ) + 5 ,S | a 2.2.4 Unilateral Power Gain G
1-S The GTu is special case of transducer power gain.
The unilateral power gain ignores the feedback effect

1-S a2
of amplifier (S = 0). Thus, from Equation. (2.2.25)
putting S2 = 0 and from Equation (2.2.11), T'n =S
1-r-S Tsl(1-1r when S 2 0Equation (2.2.25) reduces to:
T1-S 1sT(1-1 r,f)(1-Ir,P)

Using above in Equation (2.2.21), Equation (2.2.21) GTU 2.2.27)
becomes:
1-Sr,r'I1-sr_
a 2.2.5 Maximized Gain GG
P avD
IVs Is1-r,
82 2.2.22)
1-S, r, (1-Ir) When the source impedance and load impedance of two
From port terminated network are conjugately matched then the

Equation (2.2.20) and (2.2.22), available gain
G is expressed as: gain is maximized. Thus
Is(1-Ir, G G=G ..2.2.28)

GA P|1-S,ra(1-I) 2.2.23) Table 2.2.l: Power gain formulas
Name ot Formula
a 2.2.3 Transducer Power Gain G ain
The transducer power gain Gg is the ratio of power 1. Power gain Is(1-I,P)
delivered to the load to the power available from the
source.
G-P(1-1r.hli-s,r,
Mathematically G is expressed as 2. lAvailable gain G= avn
p
a avs
G
Power deliveredto the load
Power available from the source GA 1(1-Ir)
G
avs
.(2.2.24) I1-S, (1-Irr)
Using Equation (2.2.17) and (2.2.20) in Equation 3. Transducer G
(2.2.24). power gain
G P
= avs GT-
1-rs|1-S,r
avs
IS(1-IT P)(1-IrË) ...2.2.25)

Maximized GG=G
I1-rsr|1-Sr.f gain G
When both input and output impedances are 5. Unilateral

conjugately matched for zero reflection coefficient, that power gain |GTU=
IS (1-Ir,)(1-Ir,)|
is I=Is =0, then transducer gain reduces to 1-S,gÍI1-Sr
2.2.26)
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RF Design (MU-gh Sem.-E&Tc Amplifier Design
(2-7)
Ex. 2.2.1 9398 5.94
0.8353 x0.7938
A microwave transistor has the following S-parameters at is
2. The available power gain from Equation (2.2.23)
10 GHz, with 50 Q source and reference impedance
calculated as follows
S 0.452150°
S12 0.012-10° IS,(1-Ir,)
S2=2.05L 10° I1-S,, rs (1-1ITout1)
S2 0.40 2-150° (2.05) [1 -(0428)]
Theload impedance is Z;= 30 2 find out I1-(0.452 150°) (-0.428) I [1-(0.408)]
) power gain (ii) available gain (ii) transducer power gain. (4.2025) (0.8168)
Soin.
G 0.8387 1 (0.8335)
GA = 5.85
Using Equations 2.2.2 and 2.2.3.
is
3. The transducer gain by using Equation (2.2.25)
rs s -20-s0
20+50-0.428 calculated as follows
30-50 IS(1-irsP)(1-Ir)
0
30+ s-0.25 G
Using Equations (2.2.11) and (2.2.13) input and output
reflection coefficients of terminated two port network are (2.05)[1-(0.428)][1-(0.25 ]
GT
obtained as,
1--0.428) (0.4542 150) P|1-(0.40 2-150)-0.25)
TnS +S 4.2025) (0.8168) (0.9375)
=S1-S22L G= 0.8373 10.9147 1
+ 0 4 1 0 2 0 5 2 10°) (-0.25) G= 5.486
T0.45 L2 130
Tn=0.45 150°
1-(0.40 4-150°) (-0.25) Ex. 2.2.22
Tn=0.45 L150° + (.60 x 10 2-176.86)
ARF amplifier has the following S-parameters:
Tin 0.454 2 150
S =0.3 - 7 0 °
rou S2*1-S Ts S21 3.5285°
(0.01-10°) (2.05210°) (-0.428) Su=0.2 L-10°

ru=0.40L- 150° + S22 0 . 4 L-45°
1-(0.45 150)(-0.428)
(8.79 x 102180° Input side of amplifier is connected to Vs = 5V 2 0° and
Tout 0.402-150° +* (0.8383 2 6.61°) source impedance Zs = 4052. The output of an amplifier can
out 0.40 2- 150°+0.0102 173.39 drive load impedance of Z = 732. By assuming
rout= 0.408 2- 150° S-parameters of an amplifier are measured with reference to

1. The power gain G' is calculated from Z 502 as characteristic impedance
Equation (2.2.18) Find the following quantities:
G
Is1-I.) (a) Operating power gain G
(b) Available power gain Ga
(1-I r.)I1-s2rL
(c)Transducergain Gr
(2.05 [1-0.25)*]
I1-(0.404-150) (-0.25) F[1-(0.454)?] a)Unilateral transducer gain Gu
(e) Power delivered to load PL
3.9398
0.914 (0.7938) ( Available power Pa and
(g) Incident power to the amplifier Pine
RF Design (MU-8" Sem.-E&TC) Amplifier Design
(2-8)
Soln. G = 13.73 OR G (dB)
= 10 log G
Given: Su =0.3 2-70°: 11.38 dB
10 logo 13.73
=
S213.5 2 85°
S2 =0.22- 10°; S22 0.42-45°
(b) Available power gain G
Zo -502 Z 4092 be calculated from
can
Z =732; The available power gain G
Vs = 520°v
First we will calculate the reflection Equation (2.2.23) as follows
coefficient looking
towards source and looking towards load. s(1-1 s)
Thus using Equations 2.2.2 and 2.2.3. GA
(1-1 a)I-S, rs
40-500
40+5090
(3-5[1-(0.1u]
Ts -0.1111 A(1-(0.445 ? ) | 1-(0.3 2- 70°) (-0.111) F
(12.25) (0.9876)
GA (0.8019)I 1.0118 F
L = 0.1869 GA 14.73 or
10 log1o 14.73 11.68 dB
By using Equations (2.2.11) and (2.2.13), input GA (GB) = =
and
output reflection coefficients of terminated two port network
(c) Transducer gain G
are obtained as
Transducer power gain 'G can be calculated from
S S2L
S t 1-SL Equation (2.2.25) as follows
Tn
85 ) (0.1869)
0.32-70° +4410)(3.5 2
1-(0.4 2-45°) (0.1869) G
(1-1.)Is,(1-1r)
11- r, rfl1-Sa L
Tn =(0.1379 271.80) +(0.3 2-70)
= 0.209 L-46° 1-(0.1869 P] 13.5 1-(0.11 P
S S2s 11-(-0.111) (0.209 -46)P|1-(042-45)(0.1869)DF
routS2 1-Ss GT
(0.9650)(12.25) (0.9876)
I1.0162 10.9486 F
out (0.4 2-45°)
(0.2 2-10°)(3.5 2 85°) (-0.1111) 11.6746 12.56
* 1-(0.3 2-70°) -0.1111) Gr0.9292
OR
ou(0.42-45) +(0.0767 2-103.22°) G (dB) = 10 logio (12.56) = 10.98 dB
out 0.445 2-53.420
(a) Operating power gain 'G

(d)Unilateral transducer gain GTu
The unilateral transducer gain Gru be calculate
By substituting the above obtained values with S
can
by
using Equation (2.2.27)
parameters and using Equation (2.2.18), the operating power
gain 'G' is calculated as follows (1-I r)ISf(1-Ir,)
Gru
1S1-1rI) 1- r ST|1-S Ts
G =
(1-Ir.)|1-s, r,f [1-(0.1860 P135 [1-(011
(3.5(1-10.1869 ) T11-(0.1869) (0.4-45) P|1-(0.3 2-70) (-0.111)P
(1-10.209 ) I1-(0.42-45°)0.1869) F (0.9650) (12.25) (0.9876)
UTU
10.9486 I1 1.0118
G
(12.25)(0.9650)
(0.9563)10.9486 GTu 11.6746
0.9212
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RF Design (MU-8 Sem.-E&TC) Amplifier Design
(2-9)
GTU 12.67 OR Fig. 2.3.l shows the model circuit of single stage a
GTU (dB) = 10 logi0 (12.67) = 11.02 dB microwave transistor amplifier. In this circuit, matching
circuits are used on both source and load end.
(e) Power delivered to load and output
This matching circuit transform the input
The power delivered to load can be calculated by using impedance Zo to source impedance Zs and load
useful gain
Equation (2.2.17) impedance Z. Transistor gain is very
parameter for amplifier design.
Iv1ST(1-Ir)n-r,
PL 8Zo 11-S2 | 1 - rsin Thus from Equation (2.2.25), the overall transducer
gain G is
GT = Gs Go G ..(2.3.1)
15 13.5P[1-(0.1869 ]|1-(-0.111)P
8x50 |1-(0.4 2-45°) (0.1869) Fl1--0.111) (0.209 -46) Where in Equation (2.3. 1),
25 (12.25 (0.9650)I1.11112 1-Irs

PL
P, =
400 ...(2.3.1(a))
10.9486 'I 1.0162 Gs 11-rrs
364.7804 ...(2.3.1(b))
PL 371.693 Go IS
PL = 981.4 mW
1-Ir
GL [1-Sz TL ...(2.3.1(c))
The power delivered to load can be expressed in dBm
aS Gs is gain of source matching network.
10
Go is the gain of transistor and
P (dBm)= log1oT mW G is the gain of output load matching circuit.
981.4x 1037 The effective gains Gs and GL are due to impedance
P (dBm) = 10
10g1o1x 10 matching of source and load.
PL(dBm)= 29.91 dBm n Zout
( Available power Pa i.e. Pavs Input Output

matching Transistor matching9
The available power from source can be calculated by circuit Go circuit
Gs
using Equation (2.2.20) i.e.
out L
(1B2)Fig. 2.3.1 : Single stage general transistor amplifier circuit
Pae 8Z, (1-rs)
15 11-(-0.111) Special case
Pavs 8x50 [1 -(0.111)] In Fig. 2.3.1, if transistor is unilateral then S2 = 0.
25 x (1.111) Thus from Equations (2.2.11) and (2.2.13)

Pavs 400 x (0.9876) in S and o =S22 and
Pavs 70.30 mW
Unilateral transducer gain reduces to:
2.3 SINGLE STAGE MICROWAVE GTU Gs Go G ...(2.3.2)
TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER Where in above equation,
1-Ir
Ga. 2.3.1 Explain the single stage general Gs 1-SIs (2.3.2(a))
transistor amplifier.
Obtain the expression: for gain of
G IS2 (2.3.2(b))
Ga. 2.3.2 1-Ir
transistor using S-parameters.
**** G 1-S2TL ..(2.3.2(e)
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2 . 4 STABILITY CONSIDERATION 2.4.1 Unconditional Stability
GQ. 2.4.1 What shown in Fig. 2.4.1 is

ae
necessary conditions for The two port network
if the
network to be unconditionally stable at a specified frequency
unconditionally greater than zero for all
stable ? real parts of Zin and Zou are
and source impedances.

passive load and impedances
A good amplifier always remain stable in the
range of frequency. The stability of an
operating The conditions for port network is to be
a two
essential parameter in a amplifier is an

unconditionally stable, following inequalities
must hold
design and can be obtained 2.4.1(a))
form: Irsl<
) S-Parameter. (i) Matching network 2.4.1(b))
(ii) Termination SS <1 24.1)
<1 24.1c))
Thus a two port terminated network is shown in
Ir S+1-S
Fig. 2.4.1.
I=S*-S <1 (24.1d))
out
In above Equation (2.4.1), all reflection coefficients are
normalized to the same characteristic impedance Z.
Two
port
network a 2.4.2 Potentially Unstable of
Conditionally Stable
Zn out
A two-port -1 network is said to be potentially unstable
(1B4)Fig. 2.4.1: A two port terminated network with voltage
source and load impedance
if two port network is unconditionally stable.
Zz
It means that the network is conditionally stable.
A source voltage Vs with source, impedance Zs is -
That is some passive load and source terminations can

connected at its input
port, while port 2 is terminated generate input and output impedances of negative real
with load impedance Zq port. i.e. ITn<1 and |Tut< 1.
From Fig. 2.4.1,
Equations 2.4.1(a) and 2.4.1(b) shows that source and
Ts Reflection coefficient of source. load passive whereas Equations 2.4.1(c) and
are
in Reflection coefficient at input port. 2.4.1(d) shows that input and output impedances must
out Reflection coefficient at output port. also be passive.
L = Reflection coefficient of load. That is real parts of
impedances does not have negative
A two port network oscillates if either input port or resistances.
output port produces a negative resistance. The Equation (2.4.1) state the required and necessary
This
is possible when | l>1 orI Toul>1. conditions for two-port network to be
stable.
unconditionally
The oscillations in unilateral device can take place if
IS,l>1 or IS,> 1. If S2 =0, from Equation (2.2.11) As matching circuits are
frequency dependent, the
and (2.2.13) stability conditions of an
amplifier circuit is also
Tin IS1l and rout = IS2l. It means that a transistor frequency dependent.
produce negative resistance at input port ifIS,I> I and Therefore amplifier is stable at its
but
designed frequency,
negative resistance at output portif IS22> 1. unstable at other
frequencies.
Amplifier Design
RF Design (MU-8h Sem.-E&TC) (2-11) =
IS22 1 ..(2.5.1(d)
2.5 STABILITY CIRCLES
sufficient for
Equations (2.5.1(¢)) and (2.5. 1(d))
are
Ga. 2.5.1 Define stability circles and obtain the unconditional stability.
and
expression for center and radius for On the other hand from Equations (2.5.1(a))
values for I's and rL where
output and input stability circles. (2.5.1(b)) determine the
amplifier will be stable.
The regions where values of
T; and I's produce Tin=1 The range of values of I's and IL
can be obtained by
and out1 are determined. stability

usingsmith chart and plotting input and output
Thus from Equation (2.4.1(c)) and (2.4.1 (d) by setting
circles.
the magnitude equal to 1, it can be obtained that
Definition of stability circles
Ir=|S-S < 1 2.5.1) The stability circles are defined as the loci in the rL o r
also
They
Isplane for which 1 Tn!= 1 (or | Tut=1).
Io S+-S,, <125.10)) define the boundaries between stable
unstable regions of Is and I .
and potentially
If device is unilateral, then substituting S12 = 0 in above

be on smith chart
equations, equations reduces to simply: Is and TL must
.(2.5.1(c)) (Irs< 1, IrLl<1) for passive matching networks.
a 2.5.1 TValues for |Tm = 1 (Output Stability Circle) and Is Values for
|Tout1 (Input Stability Circe)

:GQ. 2.55.2 Draw and explain output and input stability circles
Equation (2.5.1(a) is used to express the condition that |T=1 as
.2.5.2)
Rearranging above equation,

OR IS(1-S2 ID+S,2 Sz Tl = l1-S2 l
Now defining determinant 'A' of scattering matrix as follows:
A =S Sn-S12 S21 .(2.5.3)
Thus, IS -S22 S TL +S12 S2 TLl = l1-sz r l
|1 -S,n ll
IS-TL Su Sa-S\a Sa1)l
=
IS-AT l1-Sa T .(2.5.4)

Squaring on both sides and simplify to obtain.
1s,,f-12 s,, Arl +la'iri ur-2 srl+1r 1s, r,=
Is,+1a ri -(a-r, s,+arSu) = 1+1S r -(sr+s r.) (IS,P-1a'1) r,r;
-( Sa-AS) L-(S-a" S,1)ri =1s,-1

Dividing (1 S,f-1a) on both sides.
rr*_Oa*aSjr
(-A S)ri 1s,f-1
Thus, .(2.5.5)
IS-1AP S22-1Ar
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Completing the square by adding S-As to both sides.

(IS-IAR
(S2-AS S-1Sn-AS,
IS-1A s-1A(s,-1ar
S-AS Sz S 2.5.6)
IS-1AP
Similarly the expression for Tsby
Is-1ar
replacing S,, and S, is obtained as,
S
-S Sy, Sp_ .2.5.7)
Is,-1a
The radii and centres of the circles where = Is,f-1a
1 and Tout 1 in the Ts plane and Is plane respectively, are obtained
from Equations (2.5.6) and (2.5.7).

n complex I' plane, ITcl = R presents a circle with centre as C' and a radius as 'R'. A centre C" of circle is a
complex number whereas radius 'R' is a real number.
Thus Equation (2.5.6) defines the output stability circle witha centre CL and radius K
C S-As)
C= 2 (Center)
(2.5.8(a))
IS,- A
= SS .2.5.8(b))
RLIS-A (Radius)
Thus the expression for input stability circle with as centre Cs and radius Rs is expresses as,
(S-A S)
Cs I,,F-aCenter) .(2.5.9(a))
.2.5.9b))
Rs1S,- Lar| (Radius)
The expressions in Equations (2.5.8) and (2.5.9) can be solved for S-parameters of two port device of one frequeney.
These expressions can be plotted on smith chart where set of values of I and I,can be easily observed. The setof
values of and Fs produce IT,l = 1 and IT = 1. Fig. 2.5.1 shows the output and input stability circles where
T =1 and | Tou= 1.
L inl1 oul 1 Ts
T 1 R sl= 1
Rs s /
R
L
(185) (a) Output stability circle (1B6) (b) Input stability circle
Fig. 2.5.1:Stability circle |T, =1in T, planeand stability cirele | Tal= l in complexplane
iunovation
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n c n irom Equation (2.2.11). |r.J= Is..I. Thus two cases need to be differentiated depending on Diilki
or| S,l> 1.
Case 1:1S, l <1
For this, the point or origin T, 0 is port of the stable region shown in
=
as Fig. 2.5.243).
Case 2:1Snl>1
For this case, matching condition that is I, 0 results in T. =| s,, l> 1, it means that origin is part of unstabie
=
og
As shown in ig. 2.5.2(6), stable region is shaded between and the 1
output stability circle ri= 1 11= Cr
Unstable in 1 Tin 11
Stable
T 1
RL
Iink 1
inl>1
Stable Unstable
ITinl>1
(137(a) Shaded region is stable since | S,l <1 (1B9b) Stable regjonexcludesthe origin T,= 0, since 1S,>1
Fig. 2.5.2:Output stability circle showing stable and unstable regions in r,plane
Fig. (2.5.3) shows two stabilitydomainsthatis |S<1and|S,|>1forthe input stability circle.
For | S2<1, the centre I,=0mustbe stable.
For S22>1, the centre Is=0 becomes unstable.
Ts T's
oul1
Unstable Stable
Rs
c
Toulk 1
Tounl>1 Unstable
outl>1
sl 1 ITsl= 1
oul= S22l for Ts =0
(189)(a)S l <1 (1B10)b)1 S2l>1

(189)Fig. 2.5.3: Input stability circles showing stable and unstable regions in Isplane
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a 2.5.2 Testing for Unconditional
Stability
Tounl 1
GQ.2.5.3 Explain unconditional stability

concept on rL and rs plane.
GO. 2.5.4 What are sufficient and necessary
tests for network to be
unconditionally stable? S22l1
Unconditional stability means the two port terminated
device examines stable
throughout the entire domain of (1B12b) Ts Plane
smith chart at one
frequency and bias conditions. (1811)Fig. 2.5.4: Conditions for unconditional stability
For unconditional
stability, any passive load or source ICI-RI>l For IS<12.5.10(a))
in the network must and IC-R_ I>1 For IS<1 (2.5.10(b))
produce stable conditions and for
S<1 and | S221< 1, it is expected
that the stability Ifeither 1S,|> 1 or IS2l> 1, then the two port
circles shown in Fig. 2.5.2(a) and network cannot be unconditionally stable because the
2.5.3(b) respectively termination IL= 0 or s = 0 will make, I Tn> 1 or
should lie completely outside the smith chart. The
ITou 1. The same can also be observed from
conditions in which the stability circles lie completely Fig. 2.5.2 and 2.5.3.
outside the smith chart is shown in Fig. 2.5.4.
Thus the conditions for unconditional stability for all

2.5.2(A) Sufficient and Necessary
Tests for Unconditional
passive load or sources can be expressed as
Stability
Tounl= 1
The stability circles are used to find out regions for Is
and I where amplifier circuit will be conditionally
stable. However, these are simpler tests can be used to
determined unconditional stability.
The necessary and sufficient tests for determining
unconditional stability of on amplifier are as follows
(i) K-4 test

This is one of the test which can show that a device will
be unconditionally stable if Rollet's condition meet the
following condition.
S41l1
K> 1
2.5.11(a))
1-IS-IS+1a?
(1811) (a) T plane Where K=
Fig. 2.5.4 (Contd..)
2IS S
1-1S,>S S, .2.5.11(b))
1-IS IS S ..(2.5.11( )
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() Auxiliary test
The auxiliary test is expresses as,

1Al +IS, 5,> s,,-1arT
IS S-Sy Sl<1 2.5.12) Thus,
Above conditions K>
two 1 and lAl < I must be
simultaneously satisfied. 2 S-SAlS, 5,<|S-Sa
These two conditions are
+IS S- s,f-1atT ..(2.5.15)
necessary and sufficient for
unconditionally stability of an amplifier. be re-
The tem S -S,Ain Equation (2.5.15),
can
If anamplifier with S-parameter do not pass K- A test,
then an amplifier will not be expressed as
unconditionally stable.
The stability circles are used to determine the Is-sa =Is,,S,f+(1-15H(S,T-141)
conditional stability of an amplifier if the values of Is terms
and T are available. Squaring Equation (2.5.15) again and rearranging
gives
0
(i) Test
(S,-ar{0-Is)-(S-ar)-4IS, S}>
The K A test of Equations (2.5.11(a),
-
.(2.5.16)
2.5.11(b) and
2.5.12) is mathematically lengthy and difficult The terms inside curly brackets are nothing but stability
condition for unconditional stability and at also it is not
factor.
suitable to compare the stability more than two devices
Thus stability factor K is,
as it includes constraints on two individual
parameters. 1-IS,-1S + 1af
Thus a third test that includes a single parameter test K
that is ' ' and is expressed as follows:
2IS IS
1-1S 2.5.13)
Ex. 2.5.2
IS-4s1+IS,S, Determine stability region of HP HFET 102 GaAs FET
0 given follows
Thusif > 1, an amplifier is unconditionally stable. It GHz with
at 2 a bias voltage V = are as
is also said that as greater the values of p, the greater (Z,= 50 2)

stability. S 0.894 L-60.6°
Ex. 2.5.1 S 3.122 L123.6°
Derive the stability factor K(Rollett factor) from Equation|S=0.0202 62.4
(2.5.10(a) and 2.5.10b)) S0.781 4-27.6°
Soln. Soln.:
Equation (2.5.10(a) and 2.5.10(b) is written as, Given: HP HFET-102 GaAs FET
IC-RI>1 and |IC-Rsl>1 f 2 GHz
Substituting Equations (2.5.9%a)) and (2.5.96)) into S1 0.894 2-60.6
Equation (2.5.106) S1 3.122 2 123.6°
S-AS-S, S S12 0.020 2 62.4
S2 = 0.7812-27.6
IS,-1
The stability of circle is determined by using K-A test.
Is- a-1S,S .2.5.14) Thus
Is,-1AP
KK f-sf+u
Squaring and rearranging Equation (2.5.14), 2 S12 S2
S-S A-1S, S> But,
IS,-1A 14l IS Sn-Sa Sp
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AI =
I(0.894 2- 60.6°) (0.781 2-27.6°) Thus,
-
(0.020 2 62.4°) (3.122 2 123.6°) 1 (0.18742-55.84)*

1Al =
0.696 2- 83.06 C 0.125545
A = 0.696 <1 = (0.170 2-46.86)*
Now, K 1-10.894-10.781f+ (0.696 C

0.170 2-47
210.020262.4°) (3.122 2 123.6°)1 0.125545
R 0.075219
210.06244 -174 Here 0.170 L-470, So (0.170 2-470)*
= (0.170247°)
0.17047
K 0.075219 0.075219 Thus, C 0.125545
210.06244 0.12488
K = 0.602 C 1.354 247
We have 1Al 0.696 1 but K
=
< =
0.602 << 1, So an R IS-1
amplifier is not
unconditionally stable, thus
KO.020 262.4) (3.122 123.6°)|
an
amplifier is potentially unstable.
R 10.781 -10.696 r
The stability of device is also evaluated by using u test.
Therefore, by using Equation (2.5.13), 0.06244-174
R 0.125545
1-IS,F 0.06244
>1 RL0.125545
S2 AS|+1S, S2
R = 0.49 = 0.50
Here, S= 0.894 2-60.6°, So S,, =0.894 260.6°
The center and radius of input stability circles are
1-10.894 obtained by using Equations (2.5.9(a) and 2.5.9(b),

I(0.7812-27.6 ) - (0.696 2-83°) (0.894 260.6°) I
+1 (0.020 L62.4°) (3.122 2 123.6°)|
Cs
S-
0.200764 IS,-14P
10.170 2-46.861+10.06244 - 174°1 ._I(0.8944-60.6°)-(0.696 83 ) (0.781 -27.6)1
0.200764 0.8941 10.6961
10.1701+10.06244 1 Here S 0.781 2-27.6°, soS, = 0.781 2 27.6°
0.200764
0.170+0.06244 0.86 C.I0.894-60.6)-(0.696 483)(0.781427.6)
0.314680
Here = 0.86< 1 also indicate that device is C 03560 -68.5*

0.314680
potentially unstable.
Thus going through K - A and u test it is clear that the
Cs 0.3560 2 68.55
0.314680
device is not unconditionally stable. So stability circles
Cs = 1.131 268.55°
are used to determine the conditional stability of
The radius of input stability circle is obtained
device. by using
The centres and radii of the output and input stability Equation 2.5.9(6).
circles are obtained by using Equations (2.5.8(a)) and
Rs
ISSa
(2.5.8(b)). IS,-1a
(Sa-A s) Rs (0.020 62.4) (3.122 4123.6°) |
CL 10.894 -10.696
ISf-1aR
60.6°)] Rs I0.06244 -174I0.062441
.781 2-27.6)-0696 -80)(0.894 0.314680 0.314680
CC 0.781 P-10.696 Rs 0.198
60.6
Here, S= 0.894 2-60.6°, So S,, = 0.894 2
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n e vaues o7 centers and radii of output stability circles and input stability circles are used to plot the stability circles.
For output stability circle

C= 1.135 247 (Center), RL = 0.50 (Radius)
For input stability circle
Cs1.131 268°, Rs 0.198
The output stability circle and input stability circle are plotted on smith chart of Fig. P. 2.5.2.
From given S-parameters and Fig. P. 2.5.2, IS,,I< 1 and IS,1 < 1, the central part une able
of smith chart presenis
operating region for I'y and I. The unstable regions are shown by shaded area in Fig. P. 2.5.2.
sa
Input
stability
circle
Rs
0.37
042
Output
Unstable stability
region circle
H
iANGE CDPONENT (GWe
FLII
TTTT
RADALLY SCALED PARAMETERS
TOWARDS LOAD
- TOWARDS GENERATOR
CENTER
ORIGIN
(1B52)Fig. P. 2.5.2
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stability circle
and input
Ex. 2.5.3 Thus center radii of output
follows:
are determined
as
S-parameters of a properly biased transistor are found at stability circle
stability circle are
radius for output
2 GHz as follows with S0 Q reference The center and
impedance.
S 0.894 2-60.6° obtained as
S2 0.02 L62.4° (SAS (center)
S21 3.1222123.6
IS-1al
2-83) (0.894 2 60.6)1*
Sg2 0.781 2-27.6°
2-27.6)-(0.6964
Determine it's and plot the stability circles i f _ 0 . 7 8 1
stability
transistor is potentially unstable.
0.781f-10.6964 r
Soln.: Here, S =
0.894 2-60.6
Given: So, S = 0.8942 60.6
Zy 502
S1 0.894 2-60.6°, 0.17058 -47)
C 0.1249
Si20.02262.4*
S21 3.122 2 123.6; C -
0.17058 24
0.12498
136 247
S2 = 0.781 2-27.6°;
To determine the stability of transistor K - A test is R

Si Sa (Radius)
performed as follows s,,-1a
Thus, (0.02262.4)(3.122 2 123.6 |
R .
| I0.894 -I0.6964
K =Sl-IS,Í+la
21S S2 0.06244 -174
R = l0.19868 2-174 0.31426
1-10.894-10.781 +1Af 0.198 = 0.2

2 (0.02 2 62.4°) (3.122 2 123.6) | R =
The center and radius for input stability circle are

and1Al I1S,, S22-Sa S2l <1
calculated as follows
Thus
The center of input stability circle is
1Al = 0.894 2-60.6 ) (0.781 2-27.6°)
- (0.02 262.4°) (3.122 L123.6°|
1Al = l0.6964 2-83.06 Cs Su-AS)

IS,-1ar
Therefore,
(0.894 4-60.6)-(0.6964L-83) (0.781 227.6)]
K
1-10.8941- 10.781+l0.69641 10.894r-I0.69641*
2(0.02 L62.4°)(3.122 2 123.6°)| Here S220.7812-27.6
0.07577
K
210.06244 - 174° So S 0.781 227.6°
K
0.07577 Cs J0.35570.3142
4-68.56]
2x |0.06244
Cs 0.3557 268.56
K = 0.6067 '
0.31420
Since K test (K = 0.6067 is not greater than 1) for Cs= 1.132 L68.5°
stability has not passed so this transistor is potentially Similarly the radius of input stability circle is
unstable.)
Thus stability circles are drawn to determine the R SyS
S-IaI
stability regions.
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-19) Amplifier Design
R, O.02 262.4) (3.122 2123.6)| However most of the transistors have large I S,, l and
0.894-0.69641 that producing impedance mismatch between
Rs 0.06244 -174 IS2 so
0.31426 amplifier source or load and transistor. Thus the
Rs 10.1986 2-174° frequency versus gain response of such transistors have
Rs 0.1986 0.2 narrowband response.

Thus this section presents the design of transistor for
The values of center and
radius for output and
input less than maximum gain along with improvement in
stabilitycircles are:
bandwidth.
C 1.36 L47
The maximum transfer power gain from input matching
R 0.2 network to transistor takes place when
Cs = 1.132 68.5°
.(2.6.1)
Rs= 0.2
Whereas maximum power from transistor to the output
Since 1S22=0.781, i.e. 1 S2l< 1, matching network will take place when
it means that Is= 0|
presents a stable source impedance point. This point lie ...(2.6.2)
outside the stability circle and thus all This is shown in Fig. (2.6.1) and Equations (2.6. 1) and
points outside
this circle are stable. (2.6.2) are the conditions required to get maximum
Then output and transducer power gain.
input stability circles are
plotted on
smith chart. By assuming input and output matching networks are

lossless, Equations (2.6.1) and (2.6.2) will maximize
2.6 SINGLE STAGE AMPLIFIER the transducer power gain.
DESIGN As G is expressed as:
GQ. 2.6.1 Design maximum Single stage GPa
amplifier for maximum gain
IS-(1-Ir)(1-Ird)2
a 2.6.1 Design for Maximum Gain
By putting Equations (2.6.1) and (2.6.2) in above
(Simultaneous Conjugate Equation the maximum transducer gain is expressed as:
Matching)- Bilateral Case
1S (1-Ir)(1-rd)
After determining stability of transistor and after
plotting the stable regions of I, and rL on smith chart,
GTimax|1-Is fs 1-S rs
the input matching network and output matching :(1-1) 263)
network can be designed. (1-Ir ) |1-S .
As Go = IS lis unchangeable, fortransistor, the total
transducer gain of amplifier will dependent on gains Input
matching Transistor
Output
namely Gs and G of matching networks. An amplifier network matching
network
can provide maximum gain, if these matching networks

s out
provide conjugate match between amplifiers source or (1813)Fig. 2.6.1: Bilateral transistor with input
and output
load and transistor. matching networks
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Simultaneous match exist when
Ti =T and
Mathematically, using Equations (2.6.1) and
2.6.2)
, SS
r S1-STL ..(2.6.4)
and using Equation (2.6.2)
S1-S
OviIng Equations (2.6.4)
and
.(2.6.5)
conjugate match. Carrying these values(2.6.5) simultaneously, gives the values of rs and r. required for a Sludtus

as
Ts and ITas
..(2.6.6)

S22 (1-Sii rs )+S12 S21 TS
1-S11 S
S-SS +S Sls
1-Ss
Thus, r SSa-S,S,)r
1-S,,T's
Ss ...(2.6.7)
Where in Equation (2.6.7), A S,, S22-S12 S Substituting Equation (2.6.7) in Equation (2.6.6), have
=
we
S1-Ss
ss(S-4)
r,
sS.
1-S,s-S2(Sa-r, )
SS (S-ts4)
sS(S2-Is A)
sS 1-S,r -IS2+A Ss
. SS(Sa-T, A)
rsS 1-Is,f-rs (S1-A S)
. S-Sf-T,(S-4s,]+s,s(Sa-r,
1-1S-rs S-aS,)
rs[1-Is-r, S-As)] = s(1-Is,)-r, 5, (Su-AS)+s$ (s.-T, 4)
r(1-IS)-r, S-4s) = s(1-S)-I, 57 (S-As)+s;s,(s,-T,)
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RF Design (MU-8" Sem.-E&TC)
(2-21) Amplifier Design
r(-S)+",(as-S1n) s,(1-1s,)-r, s, s,+r, ass+SSS-SSsA
=
Taking T' common and putting S S,, =IS,

r-Is)+r,(a s-S,) r:(as,s-1S,-AsS)+s(1-1s )+s,s
=
S»
Using (S S2-S S)= ar allows
A us to write as aquadratic equation for Irs as follows.
r,-1S)+r,(asa-S,«) =
r(as, s,-Is,-as,s)+s-sS+S, S S
Using IS,= S,, S
(1-Is)+r,(a s,-S,) r{as, s-Is,-As,S)+S-s, S,S,+sSS2

r-)+r (AS-S,) r(as,s,-1, -4s,5)+S-S (ss,) =
Now using =Sq S22 -S1, S. So a*

=S S-SS
Thus,
r,-Is)+r,(as-s,) = r(as,s-1S,-as,)+s-a*S
-S)+(1ar-s,>+IS,-1)r, +(s,-a°s) =0 2.6.8)

Equation (2.6.8) is a quadratic equation in I's and its solution can be found as
B, t B-41C
2C .(2.6.9)
Where in Equation (2.6.9)
1+IS-IS-1F ...(2.6.10)
and C S-AS .(2.6.11)
Similarly a quadratic equation can be formed and its solution can be found as
. BVB-41G
2C2 ..(2.6.12)
Where in Equation (2.6.12)
B = 1+S,-Is,f- 1a .(2.6.13)
and
S2AS (2.6.14)
In first case i >1 and B >0 in equation (2.6.9), then the solution with minus sign produces ITs l<1 and with
positive sign produces | rs I>1.
In second case if 1 with B <0 in equation (2.6.9), the solution with plus sign produces|rs I< 1 and the
solution with a minus sign produces | Ts >1.

Similarly these two cases are also applicable to Equation (2.6.12) as well.
From Equations (2.6.9), (2.6.12) it is clear that, solutions of Equations (2.6.10), (2.6.11) and (2.6.13) and (2.6.14) are
possibleifthe term inside square root is positive and it can be showa that it is equivalent to K> I which is required for
the device to be unconditionally stable.
Thus unconditionally stable devices can always be conjugatey matched for maximum gain. The conditionally stable
potentially unstable) devices can be conjugately matched if K> I and lAl< 1.
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RF Design (MU-8 Sem.-E&TC) Amplifier Design
-
(2-22)
GQ. 2.6.2 Obtain the expression for maximum transducer power gain if the transistor is unconditionally
stable.
The transistor is
unconditionally stable means K>1. Starting from Equation (2.0.3) ua
UTmax 1-Ir,)
(1-Irs)" |1-S,r,lT
Ts in terms of T is expressed as follows:
1-SlL.
1-S22L
= S SaT +S,S,
1-SzL
*
.Using A=S S2-Sya Si

Now,
1-Ir 1- S
-Sa-1Sar[Í .(2.6.15)
1-S2
Substituting Equation (2.6.15) in Equation (2.6.3), as follows
Grma Is (1-Ir)
1-S,,T-S-Ar,L (11-S,)
I1-ST
fmax
IS,'(1-I)_
1-S-Is-Ar
-1)
(1-F1-)-(6-ar)(s-s'r)
IS(1-Irt)
GTma
1--s,r,+1'ir]-[s,-Sy "-s,ar, +1arirs]
GTma
s,'(1-I) ..(2.6.16)
1-IS+Iri(1s,-1ar)-2Re(TL C)
In Equation (2.6.16), C, =S-4
Now, all terms in Equation (2.6.16) are expressed in terms of K.
So forthis:
I f =IS-As l =(Sa-AS)(S%-a*S,)=I5-Sa"s -As; s+lafIs,f
Is-IS Sal +S1Sn SS-S S»l+S SS,S +las, .2.6.17)
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RF Design (MU-8 Sem-E&TC) (2-23) Amplifier Design
Sinece la = (S1Sa-S, Sa) (s,s-5;$)
...(2.6. 18)
Puting Equation (2.6.18) into Equation (2.6.17)
Icf 1S-laf+15,5-15, S,+larIs,

Ic = IS S, HS+(1-IS,,)-1af (1-IS,)
..(2.6.19)
ISy S+(1-15,1)(IS,-1ar)
From Equation (2.6.13) the tem 1-IS l can be expressedas
1-IS B,-ISl+lAr
..2.6.20)
1-IS B,-(15-1ar)
1-ISl canbe expressed as
K
2IS,S2l
2KISS = 1-Is,,|'-IS+lat
Thus1-/S,= 2K|S\, S,,+(ISl-1ar) .(2.6.21)
Now adding Equation (2.6.20) and Equation (2.6.21),

2(1-IS) = 2KIS\ S»l+B,
Dividing by 2 on both sides of above Equation
1-IS,, KIS, S,|l+ .(2.6.22)
Now subtracting Equation (2.6.21) from Equation (2.6.20) gives us:
1-1 =B,-(IS1+1a)
-(1-1,) =2KIS S2l+ (IS1+1ar)
So, 0 B-2 K|S, S2l-2(IS+1a)
Thus, 2 (IS-1a) =B, -2KIS,S21
Dividing by 2 on both sides of Equations
5-1af -KISS ..(2.6.23)
Substituting Equation (2.6.22) and Equation (2.6.23) into Equation (2.6.19)
I - IS,,fa-x)+2 ..(2.6.24)
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RF Design(MU-g Sem-E&TC) (2-49) Amplifier Design
) For G 1.0 dB (0.891)(0.6 2 60°)
Gs (dB) = 10 logo Gs
1-(1-0.891)(0.6)
1 1 0 log810
Cs 0.556 260°
Gs
1-0.891 (1-(0.6)
0.1 log10 Gs Rs 1-(1-0.891) (0.6)
Taking antilog on both sides, Rs = 0.219
Gs 10 = 1.258 (ii) For Gs= 1.7 dB

Gs
Thus 8s GSmas 1.258 1.58480.812
G, (B) 10 log1o Gs
1.7 10log1o Gs
8s S
Cs1-(1-g)IS 0.17 log10 Gs
Here S1 0.62-60° , so S,, = 0.6 260° Taking antilog on both sides
(0.812) (0.6260°) G = 10"= 1.479
Cs 1-(1-0.812) (0.6)
G
Gs 1.5848
0.933
Smax
Cs= 0.522 260° 0.933) (0.6 2 60°)
Cs -(1-0.933) (0.6)
Rs V1-s(1-1S,
1-(1-8s)1S Cs 0.573 2 60°
V1-0.812 (-(0.6) -0.933) (1 -(o.6)

Rs 1-(1-0.812)(0.6) Re
1-(1-0.933)(0.6)
Rs = 0.29 = 0.30 Rs 0.169
(ti) For Gs 1.5 dB Table P. 2.8.1 summrise the parameters for drawing
G (dB) = 10 log1o G constant gain circles:
1.5 = 10log10 Gs Table P. 28.1
0.15 = lo810 Gs
G, dB) Gs R
Taking antilog on both sides, 1.0 0.812 0.522 2 60° 0.300
Gs = 10=1.4125
1.5 0.891 0.556 260° 0.219
Thus &s Gs14 -0.891 1.7 0.933 0.573 260° 0.169
Gsma I.3848
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These circles are plotted in Fig. P. 2.8.1(@). Il is seen that G,= 1.7 dB constant gain that intersets the noise figure circle
F=2 dB. Higher gain circle result in a worse noise figure.
E = 1.8 dB
Noise figure /Ts 0.33L75°

cirde 0,14
Gain circle
G 1.0 dB
G 1.5 dEB
X G 1.7 dB
STEteL
O0 ENdaopWEYI
RADALLY 8CALED PARAMETERS

TARDS LOAD TOWARDS GENERATOR WPEAR(CST5
2,14,14, 4 , 12,1
, 4, ,1..
CENEX
(1B51)Fig. P. 2.8.1(a) : Smith chart
From smith chart I's= 0.53 2 75° giving G, = 1.7 dB Transistor gain is :
and F 2.0 dB G IS = 3.61=5.58 dB
For output section IL = S2 = 0.5 2 60° has been Overall transducer gain is:
selected for maximum value of G GTU Gs +Go+ GL
= 1.7 dB+5.58 dB+1.25 dB
G 1-1s,,P *1.33
= 8.53 dB
1.25 dB
GL (dB)= 10log1o 1.33 =
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AC amplifier circuit for amplifier using open circuited level and the fact is it greatly complicates the design of
shunt stubs in the matching sections. It is shown in power amplifiers.
Fig. P. 2.8.1(b). still used for designing class
Though S-parameters can
0.25 A, these are unsuitable for class AB, B or C amplifiers
502 0.226A 502 operate in saturation region.

50 0.136
500
2.9.1 Characteristics of Power
502
0.1442 Amplifiers
(1B822)Fig. P. 2.8.1(b): AC RF amplifier Explain the characteristics of power
GO. 2.9.1
amplifiers
2.9 POWER AMPLIFIERS
The characteristics of power amplifier are as follows:
The final stage of radar and radio transistor uses power Amplifier efficiency is one of the important
)
amplifier to enhance the radiated power level. consideration of high power amplifier because the
Generally power level of 100 mW to 500 mW is power amplifier is the primary consumer of DC power
required for mobile voice or data communication in most hand held wireless devices.
systems, whereas 1 to 100 W power level is required Amplifier efficiency is the ratio of RF output power to
for radar or fixed point radio system. DC input power.
The important parameters while designing RF and Mathematically it is expressed as
microwave power amplifiers are:
POut ..(2.9.1)
)Efficiency Ppc
(i) Gain This efficiency does not consider RF power delivered
(ii) Inter-modulation distortion and at the input to the amplifier. As the most of amplifiers
Civ) Thermal effects. have comparatively small gains, the eficiency defined
Single transistor can produce output powers of 10W to

in Equation (2.9.1) over rates the actual efficiency.
(i) Second characteristic of high power
100 W at Ultra High Frequency (UHF). amplifier
However, devices are limited to output power less than overcome the drawbacks ofamplifier efficiency
defined in Equation (2.9.1) by measuring the input
1oW at microwave frequency.
power called Power Added Efficiency (PAE). It is
To get higher output powers, several power combining
defined as
techniques can be used along with multiple transistor.
Small signal approximation where input signal power is PAE PAE =
small enough, is usually not valid because transistor
works in a non-linear region. PautPin 2.9.2)
The devices which operates linearly have well defined PDc
S-parameters and these S-parameters does not depend Where in Equation (2.9.2)
G is the power gain of the
on the input power level or load impedance of output. amplifier. For example Silicon transistor amplifiers in
the cellular telephone of
So it simplifies the design of fixed gain and low noise frequency band 800 MHz to
900 MHz have PAE of 80%, but
amplifiers. efficiency
falls
For high input powers of level ldB compression point
quickly with increasing frequency. However, power
amplifiers are always designed to give the best
or third order intercept point, the transistors do not
efficiency, even if it means that the resulting gain is
operate linearly. less than the maximum possible
In such case, impedances looking at the input and
gain.
output of the transistor will depend on the input power
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ii) Third important characteristics of high power (iv) Another important characteristic of an amplifier is it's
amplifier is gain compression. Fig. 2.9.1 shows the dynamic range 'd^'. Dynamic range is defined as it is
relationship between input and output power on a log a range where amplifier has a linear power gain. As it is
scale. shown in Fig. 2.9.1, it is restricted at low power levels
by the noise level. The dynamic range dgR is defined as
Pout dBmi the difference between output power Pout. ldB at I dB
compression point and output power of the minimum
POut 1dB
detectable signal Pout, mds
The input signal P, mds is detectable if value of it's
(Dynamic output power level Po, mds is greater than the noise
range power level. The thermal output noise power level PNo
Pout.Mds
of two port network with noise figure 'F" is expressed
as
Pin. Mds Pin 1dB Pin(dBm))
PNo=KTBG, F ...(2.9.5)
(182)Fig. 2.9.1 : Output power as function of input power and PNO (dBm) = 10 log1o (KT) + 10 log1o (B)
dynamic range of nmicrowave amplifiers
+Go (dB) +F(dB) .(2.9.6)
From Fig. 2.9.1, it is seen that as input signal closes to In Equation (2.9.6), by knowing 10 log1o (KT)
saturation region, the gain start to drop off or to - 173.8 dBm at T = 300°K and B is bandwidth.
compress. It is assumed that minimum detectable input signal is
The output power is proportional to input power at low X decibles above thermal noise and typical value of X (dB)
drive levels. is 3 dB.
As the power increases above a certain point, the gain Thus,
of the transistor falls off and finally the output power
reaches saturation.
P;i,mds -
174 dBm + 10 log B +F (dB) + X (dB)

2.9.7)
So I dB gain compression point is defined as "The
and
point where the gain of the amplifier deviates from the
linear or small signal gain by 1 dB", is called 1 dB Pomds 174 dBm+10 log B+ F (dB) + X (dB) +G, (dB)
compression point. (2.9.8)

It is used to know the power handling capabilities of
the amplifier.
2.9.2 Overview of Power
The gain at 1 dB compression point is called G, dB and Amplifiers ****
it is expressed as
G, dB G, (dB) - 1
GQ. 2.9.2 Write comparison note on different
.(2.9.3) types of power amplifiers.
Where in Equation (2.9.3), G, is small signal gain.
The relation between the output power Pout, IldB and It is known that non linearities of transistor can produce
input power, Pin.I dB at the I dB compression point in (dBm) fake frequencies and inter modulation distortion. This
is expressed as is very serious issue in wireless transmitters, especially
PouI, IdB (dBm) = Cd8 (dB) + Pin, 1dH (dBm) in multicarrier system, where fake frequencies may
G, (dB) - 1 dB + Pin, 14s (dBm) come in adjacent channels.
Po. 1da (dBm) - P.a. 14B (dBm) = G ,(dB) - 1 ...(2.9.4) Linearity is also important for non-constant envelop
From Equation (2.9.4), I dB compression point is also

modulations such as amplitude shift keyipg and higher
defined as the point at which the output power minus input quadrature amplitude modulations.
power in dBm is equal to small signal power gain G, (dB) Class A amplifiers are linear circuits in which the
minus 1. transistor is biased to operate for complete input signal
cycle.
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RF Design(MU-8" Sem.-E&TC) (2-53) Amplifier Design
Due to this, theoretically, maximum frequency biasing
A amplifier is 50%.
efficiency of class impedance of termination and
conditions and temperature.

The low noise amplifiers and most of the small Therefore S-parameters of large signals are not
signal
amplifiers operate as class A amplifier circuits. uniquely defined and do not meet linearity and cannot
be used in place of S-parameters of small signal.
In class B amplifier, the transistor is biased
to operate can be used
only during one-half of the signal. However, S-parameters of small signal
device.
with good results for calculating the stability of
Normally, two
complementary transistors in class B To characterize the transistor of large signal operating
push-pull amplifier are
operated for
complete input conditions, a more useful way is to measure
the gain
cycle to provide amplification with theoretically and output power which is function of source and load
efficiency of 78%.
impedances.
In class C amplifiers, transistors are biased to operate One way to achieve this is to find reflection
near cut-off region for more than half of the input and load
coefficients Tsp and TLp of large signal source
signal cycle. respectively.

Generally class C Tsp and maximize the power gain for a particular
amplifiers
resonant circuit
use a
in
the output stage to get the fundamentals. output power versus frequency.
The efficiency of class C amplifier is near about 100%. Table 2.10.1 shows reflection coefficients of large
signal source and load for NPN silicon bipolar power
The class C amplifiers can be used only with constant
transistor and S-parameters of small signal.
envelope modulations.
Table 2.10.1: Small signal S-parameters and large signal
The higher classes amplifier such as class D, class E, reflection coefficients (NPN silicon bipolar power transistor)
Class F and Class S, use the transistor as switch to
pump a highly resonant tank circuit and may achieve Sn S2 S T' T
very high efficiencies. (MHz dB)
The communication transistors operating at UHF 800 0.76 4.10 0.065 0.35 0.856 0.455 13.5
frequencies or above dependent on class A, class AB or 4176 76° L49°
2-163 167 4129°
class B power amplifiers'because of the need for low 900 0.76 3.42 0.073 0.35 0.747 0.478 12.0
distortion products. 4172 720 L52 4-167 -177 L161
1000 0.76 3.08 0.079 0.36 0.797 0.491 10.0
2.10 LARGE SIGNAL 2169 269 453 4-169-187
CHARACTERIZATION OF 185
Another way to characterize the large signal operation
TRANSISTORS
ofa transistor is to
plot contours of constant power
output on a smith chart as a function of load reflection
Ga. 2.10.1 Explain the two ways to characterize coefficient FLp» with input and output sections of
transistor.
the large signal of transistor matched conjugately.
its These are called load pull contours. The load
A transistor operateslinearly for signal if power pull
point, 'Pi'. contours can be obtained
level is well below the 1 dB compression using an automated
measurement set up with computer controlled
should not depend
Thus S-parameters of small signal
the terminating
electromechanical stub tuners.
power level
or on
on either the input The set of load pull contours is shown in Fig. 2.10.1 on
impedance. the smith chart.
or equal to P,,
For power level signals greater than
and the measured
ransistor operate non-linearly
level and on
-parameter will depend on input power
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S g n
0.39 36 0.16
,
0.36 016
0.34
042
16 dBm M5 dBm
, 1
04
18dB
X
HOB
RADALLY 8CALED PARAMETERS wuoss

coER
,4 12,1 ToWARDLOAD TOWARDS GENERATOR SWPEAKICORSTP)
R.coemA 114 1 1 71 i
cEMER
oRIGN
(1B40Fig. 2.10.1 Constant output power contours versus load impedance for typical power FET
From Fig. 2.10.1 it is observed thatthese are not perfect constant circles due to non-linearities of the device.
This set of load pull of contours is similar in function to the constant gain contours.
The third way is an equivalent circuit model can also be developed and used to analyse large signal performance of
FETs and BJTs.
The main parameters of microwave FET are Cg gm Cad and Rq
A fact in modelling large signal transistors is that most of the parameters are dependent on which increases
temperature
with output power.
Equivalent circuit models are very useful when used with computer aided design software.
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Amplifier Design
2.11 DESIGN OF CLASS A POWER The advantage of internally matched chip

transistors is
AMPLIFIER reducing the effect of parasitic package

reactance,
bandwidth.
therefore helps to improve efficiency and
GQ. 2.11.1 Explain design of class A
power Ex. 2.11.1
amplifiers. NPN silicoon
The output power of Motorola MPF858S
A class A power amplifier can be designed by using at 900 MHz
bipolar transistor is 3W. Design an amplifier
large signal parameters. As class A amplifiers are using above transistor.
ideally linear, it is possible to design class A amplifier sections for an
by using small signal S-parameters. Design input and output impedance matching
amplifier.
But better results can be obtained by using large signal Find required input power and also compute the power
S-parameters.
added efficiency.
To design class A amplifier by using
small signal
to calculate source and load
S-parameters, first step to check the stability of the Use given S-parameters
reflection coefficients for conjugate matching and compare
device.
to the actual large signal values of I'se and I'_p
Since instability start at low level signals, small signal
The small signal S-parameters of the MRF858S transistor at
S-parameters can be used for this case.
Stability is important parameters for power amplifiers 900 MHz are:
because high power oscillations can easily damage S =0.940 2164°, S2 0.031 L59°,
active devices and related circuitry. S22 0.570 2-165°.
Depending on frequency range and output power, the For VCE 24V and k= 0.5A, the output power at 1 dB
transistor should be chosen. compression point is 3.6W and the power gain is 12 dB. The
Ideally the output power level is decided by assuming source and load impedances are Zin = (1.2 +j 3.5) and
20% more power capacity than required by the design.
Zou (9.0+j 14.5) 2.
Silicon bipolar transistors are cheaper than GaAs FET
at frequencies upto few GHz.
Soln.
Given: Transistor MRF 8585
Silicon bipolar transistors also have higher power
F 900 MHz
outputs than GaAs FET.
The small signal S-parameters are
An amplifier which produces output power more than a
few tenths of watt, it is important to have a good SI0.9402164,
S12 = 0.031 L59°,
thermal contact of transistor package to a heat sink.
Input matching
networks are designed to be S21 1.222 243,
conjugately matched and to transfer
maximum output S22 0.570 -165°.
networks are designed Vce 24 V
power, whereas output matching
and obtained from
to get maximum output power
are
Ic 0.5A
Pout ldB (dB) = 3.6 W
and load
The values of reflection coefficients of source
signal
Zin(1.2+j 3.5) Q2
are different from those obtained
from small
defined as Zout(9.0+j14.5)Q
S-parameters First by using small signal
B,tyB-4IC) S-parameters we will do
. B , B - 4IC stability test as follows
2C2
2C IS-IsP+ 1a
important in the K
Low loss matching networks are
2121 Sa S21
where currents are high
Output stage of power amplifier
to achieve good efficiency.
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RF Design (MU-8h Sem.-E&T) (2-56) Amplifier Design
Where 1.2166
1.2608 166°0.964 2-166°
A
1S S-S S,l<1 Similarly,
So, A = I(0.940) (164 ) (0.570 2-165°)
- (0.031 59°) (1.222 243°)| r =
B,tyB-4IG
20
A = 10.5457 2-4.871
A = 0.545< 1 Here B= 1+1S2-IS,f-IAP
K =(0,940)- (0.570)+(0.545) 1+(0.570) -(0.940)-(0.545)

2 (0.031 L59°) (1.222 243°) = 0.1442
K = 0.088525=1,1694
0.0757 >1
1.1694 > 1
C S2-AS
From the values of K >1and A <1, it is clear that the
Here S= 0.940 2 164°, So, S,, =0.940 -164
device is unconditionally stable. Thus
Now the large signal input and output

C= (0.570 L-165°) - (0.545 -4.87) (0.940 - 164)
converting
impedances to reflection coefficient Tin and Tout 8ives as C=0.06827-134°
follows 0.1442 +Vo.1442)-4 (0.6827)
Here Z0 502
2 (0.068274-134°)
Thus r=1442-0.04637
Za 2+i3.5-50 lL2O.06827)-134°
in
Z+Z1.2+j3.5 +50 rL 0.716 2 134
-48.8+j3.5
n 51.2 +1=0953 2172° The values of Is and r; satisfies the relationship
Tin and rour
Similarly, out 9.0+j9.0+j 14550 Thus I's= and = b u t not exactly because the
Zout tZo 14.5 + 50 out
S-parameters are used to calculate Is and IL

out = 59+145=0.715 2147
The S-parameters cannot be applied to measure, for
Using the small signal S-parameters to find source of large power levels. Thus for large level power signals, we
load reflection coefficients for conjugate matching gives: should use the given large signal reflection coefficients, so
B,tyB-4IC Ts==0.9532-172
2 C TL = = 0.715 -147
Where B,= 1+1S,-1S2-1Ar The complete AC amplifier circuit is shown in
B, = 1+ (0.940) - (0.570) - (0.545)*
Fig. P. 2.11.1.
B= 1.2616
0.110A
C =S A S2
502 0.037 500
Here Sz = 0.5702-165°, So S2 = 0.570 2165°
500
C = (0.940 Z160°) -(0.545 -4.87) (0.570 2165°)
0.176
C = 0.6304 2166°
27
_ 1.2616 ty1.2616)-4 (0.6304)
2 0.6304 2166°)
r, = 26l6t0.04492 (I824Fig. P. 2.11.1: Complete AC amplifier circuit

1.2608 2166°
For output power 3W, the required input power is
1.2616-0.04492
1.2608 Z166° Pin (dBm)= Paut (dBm) -G, (dB)
= 10 log1o (3000) -12 = 22.77 dBm
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P (dBm)= 10 log1o Pin
22.77 dBm = 10 log1o Pi For7 5092, T = Tn =0, Is 74Z Zs-Z =0 and Iou
2dBm = logo Pn )To compute available power gain,

10
2.277 log1o Pin
The available power gain Gy is
Pin 102277
Pa 189 mW =0.189 W IS-Ir
The power added efficiency PAE can be found
GA11-s,,r, I(1-Ir
as:
10.7071 (1-0) 0.707)
PAE =
GA (11-0)(1 -0) (1) (1)
Dc = 0.499 =0.5
Here Ppc = VDc lc = (24) (0.5) = 12W
(ii) The transducer power gain is expressed as
PAE
3.0-0.189
0.2342 ISC1-I, H1-Ir
12
G =
I1-Ts rin I'I1 -Szal

23.42%
PAE 23.42% (0.707 ()0
(1) (1)
= 0.499 = 0.5
2.12 MIXED PROBLEMS (ii) The actual of microwave amplifier is expressed as:
Ex. 2.12.1 G
F
A microwave network is shown below in Fig. P. 2.12.1(a)
I1-I I1
-S2 TL
compute available power gain, transducer power gain and (0.707) ()0.5
(1) (1)
actual power gain (b) How do these change if load is
(b) For load changed to 252, So Z; = 252
changed to 252. (¢) How do these gains change if the source
impedance is changed to 252? :-1/3
Zs5002 rs =
o0, T,= S1+SS
1-3,
Attenuator r =
0+ T0.707-13)
3dB Z 5002, 250 1-0
502 in (0.707) (0.707) (-1/3)
(1825)Fig. P. 2.12.1
E--
Now for load Zs= 25 2
Soln. is
G) The available power is
P. 2.12.1, a microwave network

From given Fig. GA
and 50S2
Consisted of 3-dB, 502 attenuator, 50S2 source
I1-S,s(1-iIr)
load. 0.707) (1-0)
GA1-0r(-0 (1-0) (0.707)
So the S-matrix of 3-dB, 502 attenuator is expressed
as
= 0,499 0 . 5
[ o 0.707]
S]Lo.707 0J ii) The transducer power gain is expressed as
=0.707
So, S = 0, S12
G.ST (1-1 )-In)
S210.707and S2
=0
I1-r a |1-S
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0.707) (1-0)(1-(1/31 Gr 0.707) (1-(1/3 (1=-0)
I1-0r(1-0) 1-01(1 -0)
GT = (0.707) (1 - (1/9))
G = (0.707(1-)a
G, -4G)-5=044
(ii) The actual gain is expressed as G
(ii) The actual power gain G is expressed as
G S - I f 0707)*(1- G: IS(1-1T,D_070 0.5

1-Irn 1-0
-( (1-Irn
G
0.7071-) Ex. 2.12.2
The S-parameters of transistor (Z= 50 2) are

1-1/36
S =0.61 4-170°, S12 =0.06 L70°, S2 =2.32 80°,
G = S22 0.72 L-25°
1- 1/36
The input of transistor is connected to source of
8 v. = 2V(peak), Z, 25 2 and output of transistor is
18
G 36-1 50.457 connected load of Z = 100 2 (a) Find power gain
36 available gain, transducer power gain and unilateral
(c) If the source impedance Zs = 25 2 transducer power gain (b) compute available power from
Z = 502 source and power delivered to load.
L Tn =0, Is
50 Soln.
=
=Z.+2=25+50-1/3 S-parameters of given transistor are
S 0.61 -170°,
S20.06 L70°,
0.707)
0+ (0.707) (-1/3) Sa2.3280°,
S220.72 L25°,Z = 25,
ut -13)=-
(-1/3)=- Z= 100 2, Z,= 502, Vs =2V
(i) The available gain is From given S-parameters
GA
IS1-1rb
11-S,Is(1-Irou 1 rinS +SaSa
1-STL
O.707- (1-(1/3)) Z-Z 100-50 50
GA
(1)(1-(1/6)) Z+z100+50 150 3
0.707) (1-1/9) Z7092.3 4 80° 13
Tin (0.612-170°) + 61-0.72 (-25°) (1/3)
1-36 Tn= 0.650 L-174°
GA 36-1
36
).(G)- r
r Sz2+ 1-S,,'s
- --13
G 50.457 out 0.72 2-25°)
(ii) The transducer gain Gy is expressed as 0.06 L70)(2.3 80°) -1/3)
G, = IS(1-Ir,H1-ir 1-(0.61 (-170°)(- 1/3))
GT T1-rs ra I1 -S22l* rou0.7772-25°
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Now, the power gain 'G' is
(a)1)
G. 1S (1-Ir,D1-ir)
G 1S(1-Ind I1-S,,rsT 1-Srl
(1-IT,H1 -S2r
2.3 |1-(1/B e(-(3-(3)
1-(0.650) ] [1-(0.72 2-25°) (1/3)1 GTu
4.7022 1-062-170(3)|1-072-25()
G
0.3595 L 14.77 4.1719
G l0.4022 29.811
G 13.07 2-14.77 13.07
4.1719
G (dB) 10 log1 (13.07) =
11.16 da 0.4022
GiyThe available gain is calculated as GTu=10.37
G, Sr(1-Ir,)_ GTydB) = 10 log10 GTu
GA1-S,rsf(1-1T.o GpudB) = 10 log10 (10.37)
a (1-0)) GTuldB) = 10.15 dB
(b) The power available from source Pavs is maximum

A1-(0.61 -170°) (-1/3)T(1-(0.777))
power transfer to the load for fixed source impedance
A
4.70222
(0.6626 2-11.07) (0.396271) Thus the power available from the source is
G = 17.91 = 18 250
GdB) = 10 log1o Ga
250
G(dB)12.55 d
i ) The transducer power gain G, is calculated as:
(1B25A)Fig. P. 2.12.2
G, S1-Ir,D1-ird
1-TT |1-Sr, PAVS
G
P(-()(-) 4x 25
1-3(050 4-1741-872 2- () PAvs=0.02 W
4.1797 4.1797 Now the power delivered to load is calculated as
l0.3834 11.461 0.3834
10.90
G PANS
(iv) GTudB) = 10 log10 Gu PL =
Gy Pavs= (10.90) (0.02)
PL = 0.218 W
GrudB) = 10 log10 (10.90)
GTdB) = 10.37 d
Unilateral transducerpower gain is calculated as:
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Ex. 2.12.3
The stability circles are shown in Fig. P. 2.12.3. Determine location for stable source reflection coefficient.
Iounl1
Stable
Toutl 1
Stable
K<1, S1>1, S2l< 1

K<1,S1,IS2<1
(1B26A)(a) (b)
Stable
- Taunl= 1
Toutl 1
ICl
Stable
(
K1, 1A1, IS11l< 1. S2>1 K>1, 1A<1, IS11l< 1, IS22<1
(1B27(A)Xc) (d)
Tounl 1 outl1
Stable
Stable
C
K>1,Ja1, IS11l< 1, S22l> 1 K1, 1A> 1. IS1> 1. IS22l>1

(e)
(1828(A)»Fig. P. 2.12:3
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Soln.:
Toutl 1
Stable
ounl= 1
Stable- C
K<1. IS111>1, S221 1 K1, IS1>1. IS22l1
(1B26 (a) (b)

Stable Tout 1
Toul 1
Stable
--
K>1 141, IS,1l<1,S22l>1 K1, 1a1, IS111<1, ISz21
s1B27Kc) (d)
out 1
Tounl1
Stable
Stable
K>1, 1A1, S111> 1, S2211

K1, 1A1,IS1l< 1. S2l1
(
(1828(e)
Fig. P. 2.12.3KA)
I's013 a Stadie pointWhen S2<1. The "stable region" is shown hy

When Ts=0, T. = S,. Thus, the origin thatis
"shaded area".
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n
Ex. 2.12.4
i g P. 2.12.4 shows the output stability circles. Determine the stable region for load reflection coefficient.
l=1
Stable
U=1
Finl1 IC Stable-
TL Plane
LPlane Iin=1
IS411.S22l> 1
S1111.1S2zl1
(1B29(A) Fig. P. 2.12.4
Soln.
1
Stable
Iinl= 1 =1
Stable-
rL= Plane
LPlane inl1
IS1.1S22>1
S111>1, 1S221
(1829a) (6)
Fig. P. 2.12.4(A)
Itis known that T, =S, when T=0. Thus, the origin that is r=0is a stable point when IS,,l<1.
The "shaded" part is the "stable region".
Ex. 2.12.5
Design microwave amplifer using GaAsFET to operate f= 6 GHz with maximum transducer power gain. The S-parameters
at the linear bias point,
Vps =4 V and Ips =0.5ps are
S =0.641 L-171.30°
Sy2 0.057 L 16.3°
S 2.058 228.5°
S =0.5722-95.70
Soln.
To determine the stability of microwave amplifier, we will conduct the K-A test for deciding the stability.
Thus,
K-1Sf-IS,+lai
21SS
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Where A S S2n-S12 S2nl<1
Thus,
A =
I(0.641 2-171.30°) (0.572 L-95.7°
A = 0.3014 2 109.86
)-(0.057 2 16.3°) (2.058 L28. )
1Al = 0.3014<1
Thus,
_
K 1-(0.641-(0.572 (0.3014 0.3527
2 I(
0.057
L 16.3°) 2 (2.058 28.5°) l 210.1173 244.8
K 0.3527
2x0.11731.504> 11
Since K> 1 and IAl< 1, the GaAsFET is
The reflection coefficients for a simultaneous conjugate match are calculated as
Ts
B,2B-41c
2 C
Where B, = 1+1s,-IS,-1aP
B, 1+(0.641)-(0.572) -(0.3014
B,= 0.9928
C= (0.641 2-171.3)-(0.3014 2 109.86°) (0.572 295.7°)

Here S22 0.572 2-95.7°,
So S2 0.572 295.7°
Thus, C= 0.4783 2- 177.2°
0.9928 t 0.9928)-4 (0.4783)09928-0.2656

0.9566 2 177.2°
2(0.4783 L-177.2)
0.7272
7.20.7602 177
's0.9566Z
B,t B-41Cf
Now, rL 2C
Where = 1+IS-IS,,f-1ar
B 1+(0.572)' -(0.641) -(0.3014
B 0.8254
Here S = 0.641 2-171.3°,

So S= 0.641 2 171.3°
Sa-4S,
(0.572 2-95.7°)- (0.3014 2 109.86) (0.641
2 171.3°)
C =
C2 0.3911 2 - 103.9°
So, r,= 0.8254t N0.8254)-4 (0.3911) 0.8254-V(0.8254)-4 (0.3911) 0.8254-0.2635

2 (0.3911 L-103.9°) 2 (0.3911 L-103.9) 0.7822 2- 103.9
0.5619
L0.7822 2-103.9
TL = 0.7182 103.9
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The maximum transducer power gain is
GT.mar a(K-VR-1)
IS,
GT.ma 21.s04-V(1.504)-1)
GT.max 36.1052 x 0.38060 = 13.74
GT.ma(dB) = 10 lo810 GTmax
= 10 log1o (13.74)
11.37 dB
GT.max
circuited
Lengthstub 0.185.
o fopen
3 AG
34
o.16 916
0.3 032
L 0.31
H
H HH
UCTANCE COMPON
o +
L
0.6
T
T TT T
-
VO
RADIALLY SCALED PARAMETERS

TOWARDS OENERATORR
TOWARDS LOAD
,1 12
CENTER
ORG*
(1B42)Fig. P. 2.12.5(a): Design ofinput matching network

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Amplifier Design
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Lengtho fopen
uited
stub0.176
0.33
0AT_
O40
0.36
, 042
120
XXX
H Lengthofseries v69
O.18 0
/ euj
dunsanIu
2 12 1. 1s
TOWARDS LOAD , ToWARDS GENERATOR
, 1
CENTER
ululu
ORIGN
(1B41)Fig. P. 2.12.5(b) : Design of output matching network

Fig. P. 2.12.5(c) Show the matching network using microstrip lines, shown on smith chart from Fig. P. 2.10.5(a) and
(6), The admittances associated with Is and I; are as
Y, 50 =(144-j 24.6)x10 S
and
Y = 0.414-i1.19_
50
=(8.28-j 23.8)x 10°s
The input matching network is designed by using open shunt stub of length 0.185 A and series transmission line of
length 0.0615
The output matching network is designed using open shunt stub of length 0.176 and series transmission line of length
0.169 .
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The complete AC amplifier is shown Fig. 2.12.5(¢).
(0.865 -95)-(0.503 -110.39) (0.8L35))
0.169 (0.65P-(0.503)2
502 0.0615
5003 C .3027 -122)
0.1762 0.1694
v Cs
0.3027 122 1.78 2122°
0.1694
0.185
(1B90)Fig. P. 2.12.5(c): Complete ACamplifier circuit The Radius is
Rs
S Sp
Ex. 2.12.6 ISIs-1Al
The S-parameters of F = 800 MHz are
(0.03540°) (5115°2
S 0.652-95° (0.65)-(0.503)
S120.035 240 | 0.175155°
0.16949
S21 54115° 0.175
Sz0.82-35° 0.16949
Determine stability and show how resistive loading can 1.03
stabilize the transistor.
For output stability circles.
Soln.: The center is
First we determine the stability of transistor.
A = S S22-Si2 S21
A = (0.65 2-95°) (0.8 2-35°)

IS2-1AI
-
(0.035 2 40°) (0.8 L-35°) ((O.8 2-35°)-(0.503-110.39)(0.65 95)

A = 0.5032-110.390 (0.8)-(0.503)
AI = 0.503
CL
0.5041 48°)
0.3869
K = S,I-18,f+lal
21 S2 S2 0.5041-48°'
C =
0.3869
1.30
K (0.65)-(0.8+(0.503
210.035 x 5| The radius is
K = 0.544 R=SS|
Since K < 1 the transistor is potentially unstable at

|IS-1A
f= 800 MHz. R |(0.035 40°)(5115
(0.8)- (0.503)
The input and output stability circles are plotted on the
smith chart in Fig. P. 2.12.6.(smith chart) R 0.1752155
0.3869
Thus, the center and radius of input and output stability
0.175
circles are calculated as: RL 0.3869 0 . 4 5
F o r input stability clrcle.

The center is
Cs
(S-a)
IS,-1s
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Fig. P. 2.12.6, shows the plot of the stability circles showing with stability region.
Input stability Output stability

cirde cirde
out1
+
13
1.04 35
9.4
130 120
0.45
APONENT (RZo) or CcONDUCTANCE COMPONE
2 mS
HO.15 (50) = 920.58 (50)
or 5002.
= 292 FHHER
HH
T T O
o CI'O
RADIALLY 8CALED PARAMETERS
TOWARDS LOAD ToWARDS OENERATOR
CEER
ORION
(1B49Fig. P. 2.12.6: Smith Chart
For input stability circle, the smith chart presents Is plane and for the output stability circle smith chart presents I.
plane.
From Fig. 2.12.6 it is seen that series resister of 9 s2 assures the stability at input side if a series resistance of 9 2
produces an impedance Zs = Z,+92. It is shown in Fig. P. 2.12.6(a)
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s 90 T's
Zs Zs+9
(1831)Fig. P. 2.12.6(a) : Series resistive loading of the transistor at input part
92 292
-
5002
71.52
(b) (c) (d) (e)
(1832)Fig. P. 2.12.6: Types of resistive loading to improve stability
For any passive termination termination, Zs the real Soln.:

part of Z will be large than 9 2. Thus the associated Given: S-parameters of transistor
reflection coefficient Is will always be stable region in SII = 0.34 2 - 170°
Fig. P. 2.12.6.
S21 0.43 2 80°
With shunt resistor with i/p impedance of = 14 mS S12 0.06 2 70°
1 S2 produces stability input side. For S22 0.45 -25°
14 x 10= 715 on
The stability will be determined by applying K and A

output stability circle eithera series resistor of around 29 2
as shown in Fig. P. 2.12.6(d) or shunt resistor of test
approximately 5002 at the output keeps the stability Thus,

Fig. P. 2.12.6 (b, c, d and e) shows four types of resistive
loading. Stability of one port of transistor results in
A =
S S22-S,2S21
A = (0.34 2-170°) (0.45 2 5 ° )
unconditionally stability of the device.
Figs. P. 2.12.6 (b, c, d and e) affects the gain - (0.06 2 70°) (4.3 80°)
performance of an amplifier Practically resistive loading at A = 0.117 2-50°
input side Fig. P. 2.12.6(b) and Fig. P. 2.12.6(c) is not
suitable due to production in deterioration in the noise
Thus 1Al= 0.117
performance of an amplifier. For potentially unstable
K = 1-1S-IS,,+1A
devices. 2ISS2
Fig. P. 2.12.6(e) produces a trade-off between gain and
ability which is acceptable. This results in stable two part
K = 1-(0.34)-045)+0.117
2 (0.06 70°) (4.3 L 80°)
with sufficient gain for wide bandwidth.
K:
0.6955
Ex. 2.12.7
2x0.258 2 1501
S- parameters of transistor are: K= 0.6955= 1.35

2x0.2581.35
S = 0.342- 170°, Sa1 = 4.3 2 80°, S12 = 0.06 70 and Since K > 1 and 1AI < 1, so the device is
S22 0.45 2 - 25°. Determine stability and plot stability
circles if the device potentially unstable.
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The center and radius of input and
circles are
output stability Soln.
The test is expressed as:
For output stability circle
The centeris 1-IS
IS-AS+Is, S
CL S-As*
IS- AI For device A
0.4525°-(0.1174-50 )(0.341170) ) K-A test

(0.45)-(0.117) A =S S22-Siz S21
CL (0.4831-28)
0.1888
0.483128 A= (0.34 -170°) (0.452-25°)-(0.06 70°) (4.3Z80°)
0.1888
CL = 2.55 L28° A =0.665 L-1.7°
The radius of output stability circle is 1-1S-1s,+1ar
K
(0.0670) (4.3 80°) 2IS2 Sa1
R IS-1A (045)-(0.117) K = 1.36> 1
Since A < l and K > 1, device A is unconditionally
0.258150
R 0.1888 stable.
RL 0.258 1.37
0.1888 i) -test
For input stability circle 1-(0.34
NOW(O.452-25) (0.665 2-1.7) (0.34 2 170°) 1
The centeris
1.94
Cs (S-AS
1S,- 1A
Since u>1 and 1Al <l
So the device A is unconditionally stable.
C. 0,342-170)-(0.1172-50°) (0.45/25°)
(0.34) - (0.117)
For device B
C=5843-174°)* ) K-Atest
0.1019
A S S2-S21 Si2
Cs 0.3843174
0.1019
3,77 L174° A = 1.366 2 - 14.5°
Al = 1.36>1
The radius for input stability circle is
-IS
R IS S, +|S\ S,l
O.06 270 4.3280) 0.283
(0.34) -(0.117) Since 1Al >1, device is potentially stable. No need to
R = 5 8150° 0.258 determine K test.
Rs .1019 0.1019 F o r device C
Ex. 2.12.8 ) K-Atest

devices
Use test to determine. Which of the following are
unconditionally stable and of those which has the greatest

A
S Sn-Su S2
A = 0.393< 164.95
stability IAl =
0.39 <1
Device S S12 S
0.34-170 0.06 270°|4.3 280° 0.45 -25° K = 1-ISF-ISf+1af
A 2IS12 S21
70° 5.0 290° 0.51 260 K = 1.24>1
8 3 0.75 2-60° 0.2
60° 2.4 50 0.70 2-65 Since IAl<1, K>1
device unconditionally stable.
C 0.65 L-140° 0.04 2
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(i) For H-test
1-1S
S S,,A+S S,l
1.056
Since A <1, K>1 and u>

So the device C is unconditionally stable.
Above u test summrise the results in table as,
Device S S2 S S Stability
0.34 2-170° 0.06 70°|4.3 280 0.45 2-25°|1.194 unconditionally Stability
B 0.752-60° 0.270° 5.090° 0.5 290° Potentially Stability
C 0.65 2-140° 0.04260° |2.42 50° 2.4 2501.056 unconditionally Stability|
From above values of it can be said that greater the values of u indicates that the device has greater
degree of stability
So the device A has best stability
Ex. 2.12.9 Ex. 2.12.10
Prove that for S12 = 0 (unilateral device), u test implies that Design an amplifier for maximum gain at 5.0 GHz with a
IS,<1 and I S< Ifor unconditional stability GaAs FET having following S-parameters (Z% 502 );
S 0.65 4-140°, S21 = 2.4 2 50°, S =0.04 L60°,
Soln.: S 0.70 2 - 65°. Design matching sections using open
The test is expressed as
circuited shunt stubs
1-IS
IS-sal+IS1IS2 Sid Soln.
IfS12= 0, as unilateral then A reduces to Given GaAs FET transistor
A = S1S2n-S,2S21 S 0.65 2-140°
A = SSn . . .
S21 2.4 2 50°
S120
1-1IS S20.04 260

So IS2-Sa S22 0.70 2-65°
1-1S () Stability test

IS-S S,SS
First we will determine the stability of transistor using
Putting S S1S and A=S,S22
K and A test
1-IS
IS-Is, S A
SS22 - S1S21
Since the denominator is positive due to mod sign, so A = (0.65 2-140)° (0.70 2-65°)
s
positive, then the numerator must be also positive thus -
(0.04 260°) (2.4 2 50°

IS<1. Then the above u reduces to
A = 0.393 2 165
Sso lAl = 0.393
So IS< 1 Now K = S-S,+1A

Hence it is proved that u implies IS,<1 and IS,< for
2 ISS2
unconditionally stable devices K = 0.65)-(0.70)+(0.3932

2 1(0.04 60°) (2.4 L 50°)N
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RF Design (MU-g" sem-E&TC) (2-71) Amplifier Design
0.2419 0.2419
K=
2 I0.096 2 1101 2x0.096
C Sz2-AS
140°
K = 1.25 here SI= 0.65 -
Since K> 1 and lAl < 1, the given transistor is 0.65 2 140°
So, S =
unconditionally stable at 5 GHz. C = (0.70 2-65)
(1) Design of an amplifier - (0.393 L 165°) (0.65 2 140°)
C2 = 0.450 2-71°
For designing of an amplifier for maximum gain,
reflection coefficients for source and load are calculated as Thus
0.9130-o9130)-4 (0.450)
r= 8tyB-4CF r =
2 (0.450 L-71°)
2C
0.9130-0.15350.7595_
Where rL 0.92-71
B, 1+1s,-Is-A TL = 0.84371
+(0.65)-(0.70)-(0.393 For maximum gain, the input and output matching

B 0.7780 networks should be conjugately matched. Thus
C = S-AS Ts r= 0.826 2 147
here S 0.70 2-65, TL =
=0.850 2 71°
Out
So, S 0.70L65°
(ii) Findings of gain
C = (0.65 - 140°)
The gain can be calculated as
- (0.393 2 165°) (0.70 265)
C = 0.3820 2- 147 Gs 1-r
= 3.14
Thus Gs1-(0.826)
0.7780-1N0.7780)-4 (0.3820) Go ISf= (2.4)* = 5.76
2x (0.3820 2-147°)
T = 780-0.1469 1-IT
T's 0.764 - 147 GL11-Sr1
*S 0.6311 =0.826 2 147
0.7642-147 1-0.843)
11-(0.70 2-65°) (0.843 L71°NF
0.2893
Similarly TL GL10.1744 2-16.98°
r = tVB-4IC
0.2893
2C2 GL 0.1744 1.65
Where So overall transducer gain is GTmax=Gs Go GL

B, = 1+IS-Is,- Iar =
(3.14) x (5.76) (1.65) = 29.7
B, 1+ (0.70)* - (0.65) - (0.393
GTma(dB)= 10 log, (29.7)
B2 = 0.9130 GTma(dB) = 14.7 dB
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The matching network can be determined from smith chart shown in Fig. P. 2.12.10(a).
circuited
Lengths tof
open
ub 0.198A
036
4016
60 0.33
130 03 031
TAE
ea
Stub
H
H LDHH
NEN
TT T
800
0.250 TT
PEKEORTE
17AO TOWARDSLOAD TOWAROS GENERATOR
uiuiuiu i iuiuiuinuiuiuiui tuuiu iS

ORIGN
(189(4)Fig. P. 2.12.10(a) : Smith Chart
For input matching network firstTs is plotted. Zg is represented by Is by looking into the matching section towards the
source impedance, Zg
As a microwave amplifier is to be designed by using open circuited shunt stub of length line.
We will convert to the normalized admittance Y, and to find that a line of length 0.098 A will bring us to the
1+jbcircle.
Then required stub admittancc is j 2.5 for open circuited stub of length 0.198 A.
A similar procedure given a line length of O.250 A and a stub length of 0.98 Aa.
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RF Design (MU-gh Sem.-E&TC) (2-73) Amplifier Design
0.98
0.098
0.250
0.1982
(1833) Fig. P. 2.12.100b): AC microwave amplifier circuit with length of stub

Ex. 2.12.11
Design an amplifier with GTUma using the transistor with the following S- parameters (Z,= 50 2) at 6.0 GHZ.
S=0.61 2-170°, S2 =2.24 2 32°, S,, =0, S,, =0.722-83°. Design L- section matching using lumped elements
Soln.
Given S 0.61 2-170
S2 0o
Sa1 2.24 4 32
S22 0.72 2-83
()Stabillty test:
First we determine the stability of the device using K and A test
So A =
S,S2-S\S21
As 0 so A
S12 =SS2
A =
(0.61 2-170°) (0.72 2-83°)
A = 0.4392 2 107
AI = 0.4392
- I S , + IA?
Now K =
2 IS12921
As S2 0, K=*
Since K= o that is > 1 and lAl < 1, so the transistor is unconditionally stable, since S2 = 0, the transistor is unilateral,
SO
Ts S = 0.6 2 170
and TL =S2 =0.722 83°
The maximum unilateral transducer gain
1
GTu.mar T-Is,7S 1-IS
GrU
GTuma 1-(0.61) (2.24) 1-(0.72)
TUmax = 16.59
GrUma (dB)= 10logo 16.59 12.19 dB
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RF Design (MU-8 Sem-E&TC) (2-74) Amplifier Design
HH
0.38 0.37 3/6
0.34
042
120
E 33
H4 A
oMPONENT(RZo)or CoNDUCTANCECOMPONEN GNo
H
H
H
TT
90'0
800 S O
08
ToWARDS LOAD TOWARDS GENERATOR
cEER
ORIGN
(1B4Fig. P. 2.12.11: Smith Chart
The matching circuit using smith chart is shown below

X 0.59
X-0.365
b-1.35
3b=-1.75
(1834)Fig. P. 2.12.11(a) : AC amplifier circuit
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RF Design (MU-8" Sem.-E&TC) Amplifier Design
(2-75)
Now using following equations the values
are found at 6 GHz as : of L and C = Sy1-I
1-IS
C 2TfxZo
IS
-1 (1+IS,
2Tx6x 10 x (-0.365) x 50
C 1-S,=(1-IS,)(1+IS,)
C So the equation of constant gain circles becomes

2Tx6x 10 x0.365x 50
= 1.45 pF IS
L =27tfb 50
Solution to above equation occur for Is = 0. So the
27Tx6x 10 x(-1.75)
circle must pass through the center of the smith chart
L = 50
27t x 6x 10 x 1.750.75 nH
Ex. 2.12.13
Now L 0.59x 50
22x 6x 100.78 nH Design an amplifier to have a gain of 10 dB at 6.0 GHHz,
using transistor with the following S - parameters
L = 50
27tfb 27x6x 10 x(-1.35) (Z 50 2)
L 50 S 0.61 L-170°
27t x 6 x 10x1.350.98 nH S21 2.24 L32°
The modified AC amplifier is
S2 0
0.75nH
S22 0.72 L-83°
1.45pF olp
Plot constant gain circles for Gs = 1 dB, G = 2 dB. Use
0.98nH matching sections with open circuited shunt stubs.
0.75nH soln.
First we will conduct stability test using K and A
A SS2-S12S21
(13344)Fig. P. 2.12.11b): AC amplifier circuit Since Sa = 0
Ex. 2.12.12
A SS22
Show that 0 dB gain circle for Gs = 1 will pass through the
(0.61 2-170°)(0.722-83°)
A = 0,4392 L107
center of the smith chart
Al = 0.4392
Soln. 1-15,-IS+ 1a?
The normalized gain factor for Gs = 1 is defined as
2 S Sa
& Osmax
=1-IS K 0.61)-(0.72)' +(0.4392?
2 I(0) (2.24 (32))|
1-8, = IS, So K = co
Thus equations of center and radius of constant gain
Since K= and IAl< 1 the transistor is
unconditionally
oo
circle reduces to stable
Cs
1-ISS_S
1-IS
Thus,
Gamas 1-1s,1- (0.61 1.59

IS(1-Is,
Rs 1-IS, Gmax (dB) = 10 log1o 1.59 = 2.0 dB
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RE Design (MU-8h Sem-E&TC) (2-76) Amplifier Design
1-IS 1-(0.72= 2.07
Here S22=0.72 -83, S =0.72 L83°
max
(0.763) (0.72 283)

GLmax (dB) = 10 log1o 2.87 = 4.57 dB 1-(1 -0.763) (0.12)
Now for Gs = 1 dB C = 0.626 2 83°
Gs (dB) = 10 log1, Gs
Similarly,
1 =
10 log10 Gs -&(1-15
R 1(1- B)S»
0.1 =
log Gs
. V1-0.763 (1-(0.72)
Taking antilog on both sides, R 1-(1-0.763) (0.72)
Gs= 10=1.26 R = 0.269
Thus,&, 2=0.792 smax

Since G IS
Now for G = 2 dB G =
(2.24) = 5.01
G, (dB) =
10log10 5.01 = 7.00 dB
G (dB) = 10 log G
Thus overall gain of transistor for given s-parameters is
2 = 10 log10 G
0.2 = log G
GTUmax Gs(dB) +G(dB) +G,(dB)
= 1+7+2
Taking antilog
G = 1.58
TUmax 10 dB
Table P. 2.12.13 : Summarise the parameters for plotting
B= 0.763
2.07
constant gain circles
The center and radius for constant gain circles are R

calculated as 2 dB or 1.26 0.792 0.523 2 170° 0.310
For input constant gain circle for Gs=1 dB
Cs
B
1-(1-gs) S, 2 dB or 1.58 0.763 0.626 2 83 0.269
Here S =0614-170°, soS, =0.61 170° These circles are plotted on smith chart choosing
0.792) (0.61 2170°) Ts 0,215L 170° and r =0.361 83°to reduce the
Thus Cs -(1-0.792) (0.61) magnitude of these values. After matching the complete AC
Cs 0.523 2170 amplifier is shown in Fig. P. 2.12.13(a).
0.040
Rs
-8(1-15,
1-(1-8,) IS, 0.121
Rs - -0792
R, (1-0.61
1-(1-0.792) (0.61)
0.394
Rs 0.310
0.067
For output constant gain circle for G, = 2dB (1835)Fig. P. 2.12.13(a): Complete AC amplifier circuit
C 1(1- &)S,
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RF DOsign (MU-8h Sem-E&TC) (2-77) Amplifier Design
Y,
Tar 03
OL
RAÖIALLY SCALED PARAMETERS

ToARDS LOAD
, TOWARDs GENERAToR
,?
i u uLuululul u ulL luu ,,2.,
CNER
ORIGIN
(1839) Fig. P. 2.12.13(b)
Ex. 2.12.14
Soln.:
The microwave transistor has following S-parameters as
For given
S 0.342 170°
S-parameters, the unilateral figure of meritis
S24.3 280°
U = IS IS IS,, IS2
S12 0.06 L70° (1 IS,(1- IS2)
S22 0.45 4-25° U = 0.06) (4.3 (0.34) (0.45)
(1 (0.34)) (1-(0.45))
Compute unilateral figure of merit of transistor. What is the U = 0.056
maximum error in the transducer gain if an amplifier is
designed assuming the device is unilateral1?
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A SACHIN SHAH Veature
Now, by using following equation the error in G/GTU
T-(0.8-70) +0020) (3.5 60°)(0.7 120°
is calculated as 1-(0.7 L-110)(0.7 L120°)
TL =
(0.8 2-70+0.09344 - 110)
T = (0.8732-74°)
G TL= 0.873 2 74°

0.897 1.122 (iv) So the noise figure will be
F 2.5 dB and gain will be calculated as
In dB =
Fmin =
10 log 0.897<G, (dB) -Gru (B) < 10log 1.222

G 111-S Is S11-Sr
" |1-SaTLr
- 0.47 dB<G, (dB) Gu (dB) < -
0.5 dB
1-(0.7 5
Ex. 2.12.15 T ( 1 -(0.7-11) (0.72120)).)
A GaAs FET has the following S-parameters and noise 1-0.8
parameters at 8 GHz (Z, = 50 2) (1-(0.8 L-70°) (0.873 2 74) "
S 0.7 -110° G = (1.85) (12,25) (3.81)
Si2=0.02 2 60° G = 86.3
S21 3.5 L 60° G(dB) = 10 log1086.3 = 19.36 dB
S220.8 L-70° (v) For plotting constant gain circles:

mrin2.5 dB Gs =
G= OdB
For input gain circle
Topt0.702120°
Here Gs= OdB
R 152 Gs (dB) = 10log Gs
and
Design an with minimum noise
amplifier figure .Gs = 10°=1
maximumn possible gain. Open circuited shunt stubs in the
matching sections.
Gsma iS
1-IS
=1.96
-0.7.96
1-(0.7)
Soln.:
(i) Fist we determine the stability by using K and A test
Bs = =T=0.510
Here Gsmax
The center of input constant gain circle is
A = SS22-S2S21
A = (0.72-110) (0.8 2-70°)

Cs
- (0.02 2 60°) (3.5 2 60°)
1-(1-8 IS,,
A = 0.528 2-173.41° (0.51) (0.7 2110°)
Thus Al = 0.528 Cs
1-(1-0.51) (0.7)
1-IS-1S,+1a? Cs 0.46 2110°
K
2 IS2S21
The radius of constant gain circle is
1-(0.7)(0.8)+(0.528)
K 2(0.02 60) (3.5 2 60)I
Rs
1-s 1-1S
K = 1.06 (1-8IS,F
Since K > 1 and lAl< 1 the device is unconditionally
Rs
V-0.51 (1-(0.7)
stable 1-(1-0.51) (0.7
minimum noise figure can occur for
(ii) It is known that Rs 0.46
Ts =
To =0.70 2 120°. F o r output galn clrcle
(iii) Then maximum gain is possible by having conjugate
matching in output circuits. GLmax 1-IS,1-(0.8)
Lmax 2.77
Thus T 1-STs
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Here G (dB) = 0
CL = 0.48 270°
G (dB) = 10 log G The radius of constant gain circle is
G = 10° = 1
V1-8L (1-1S )
R
=0.36
GLmax
1-(1-8 IS2
VI-0.36 (1 -(0.8)5
The center for output constant gain circle is: RL 1-(1-0.36)(0.8)*
RL = 0.48
C 1-(1- 8)1Sa
0.36 (0.8 L70°)
CL
1-(1 -0.36) (0.8)
(vi) Plotting on smith chart
GS0
dBB
120
39 G 0 dB
04
03 1
t
T +8F
PONENT (RZo) or OONDUCTANCE O
H
X XX XXX
TT
+
TOWARDS LOD , TOWARD8 GBERATOR

T 3 T T TT
luuuuluuluuuululuuluoifu.
ORIGN
(1B45Fig. P. 2.12.15(a) :Smith Chart
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RF Design (MU-sh Sem.-E&TC) (2-80) Amplifier Design
The final shown Fnin (dB) = 10 log1o Fmin
amplifier circuit is in
Fig. P. 2.12.15(b). 0.108 2.0 = 10 log1o Fmin
0.0212 0.2 log10 min

0.2942 Taking antilog on both sides
Fmin 10=1.58
0.326 F-min1 +To

N =4RNZ1+To
(1836)Fig. P. 2.12.15(b): Complete AC amplifier circuit N= 1.58-1.581+0.62 L 100°1

4x20
50
Ex. 2.12.16
N = 0
GaAs FET has following S-parameters and noise parameters
The center of constant noise Figure
at 6 GHz (Z=50 2)
C = 0.62100
S=0.6-60° CF N+1 04 0.622100°
S22.0L81° The radius of constant noise figure is
S20
S22 0.7 2-60° R VN (N +1-i
+1 N
Fmin2.0 dB For F = 2.05 dB
Topt0.62100°, R = 20 2
F (dB) = 10 logoF
Design an amplifier to have again of 6 dB and minimuum 2.05 =10log1oF

noise figure possible with this gain. Use open circuited
shunt stubs in the matching sections
0.205 logio
Soln. F = 10= 1.60
From given S -parameters since S12 = 0 and
IS,1l <1 and IS2l <1, the device is unconditionally stable N 1.60-158H+
4x20
(0.62 L100°)1
and device is unilateral. The overall unilateral transducer 50
gain is GTu =
Gs G, G, where N = 0.0125 [1.1690 2 68.76]
Go = IS2= (2.0)=4 N 0.0125 x 1.1690 = 0.0146
G, (dB) 10 log (S21) = 10 logo 4 = 6 dB

The radius is calculated as follows
As amplifier has to design for maximum gain of 6 dB 2
GTUmax Gs (dB) + G,(dB) + G,(dB) RF

N (N+1-ITa
N+1
GrUmax= 6 (dB) +0 dB +0 dB
GTUmax 6dB RF V0.0146 (0.0146+ 1-0.62))
0.0146 +1
It means that G_(dB) +G; (dB) =0 dB R 0.094
Now plotting noise figure circle for F 2.0, 2.05, 2.2
C pu0.62 100
and 3.0 dB C N+10.0146 +1
For F = 2.0 dB
= 0.61 L100
F (B) = 10 log1o F
For F = 2.2 dB
2.0 10 logi0 F
F (dB) = 10 log1oF
0.2 = log1o F
2.2 10log,oF
F 10"=1.58 0.22 logioF
Here, 2.0 dB
F min
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RF Design (MU-8 Sem.-E&Tc) Amplifier Design
(2-81)
The center of input constant gain circle is
F 10" = 1.65
Bs S
N =0=1.58
4 x 20 + (0.62 2 100°)* Cs1-(1 -B) IS,
50 0.6410.66460°)
s
N =
0.04375 x 1.1690
1(1 - 0.641) (0.6)
=
0.0511
0.44 60°
The center of constant noise
figure, The radius of constant gain circle is:
10
C
CF N+10.624 -B1-1S,h
=
0.0511 +1 Rs
= 0.589L100° (1-gs)IS,
V0.0511 (0.0511+ 1-(0.62)) Rs V1-0.641 1-0.6
R
0.0511 +1
1-(1 -0.641) (0.6)
Rs= 0.44
Rp=0.17
For F = 3.0 dB Now
1
Lmax 1-IS,1-(0.7 1.9
F (B) = 10 logF Here G(dB) = 0
3.0 10 log1oF G(dB) = 10 log1o GS
0.3 log1oF 0 10
logi0 GL
Taking antilog on both sides 0 log1o GL
F = 1.99
N 1.99-1.581+
4x20
(0.62 2100° G=10= 1
50
L G
G 9 6 = 0.510
N = 0.256 x 1.1690 = 0.30 PLmax
SS22
C Topl 0.62
N+11 10-0.476
0.30+1 0.47622 100
100 CL
1-(1 -
B) S,a
V0.30 (0.30+1-10.621) (0.510) (0.7260°)
Rp 0.30+1
C 1-(1 -0.510) (0.7)
CL = 0.469 2 60
Rp = 0.40
Table P. 2.12.16 : Summarise the parameters for econstant R = 1-g(1-IS

noise figure 1-(1-8)IS,
N C Re V1-0.510(1 -(0.7))
Fmin F
1-(1 0.510) (0.7
2.0 dB or 1.58 2.0 dB or 1.58 0 0.62100 0 RL = 0.47
0.0146 0.61100 0.014 Table P. 2.12.16(a) : Summarise the parameters for plotting
2.0dB or 1.58 2.05 dB or 1.60
0.511 0.589 2 100° 0.17 constant gain circles
|2.0 dB or 1.58 2.2 dB or 1.65 -
2.0dB or 1.58 3.0 dB or 1.99 0.30 0.476 2100° 0.40 G Bs Cs Rs

Now plot constant gain circles for O dB or 1 | 0.641 0.44 60° 0.44
Gs G=0 dB G B C R
Gs = 10°=|
Here G =0 dB, 0 = 10 log Gs .
O dB or 1 | 0.51|0.469 2 60° 0.47
I-1S,, -(0.67 1.56
Gsma
Ss GSmax
50.641
innovalion
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These two circles for Gg =0 dB and G, = 0 dB are close together near the F=2 dB point soT =0.66 2 105° I, =062
105 are chosen. Then F= 2.04 dB. The complete AC amplifer cirecuit using open circuited shunt stub is shown below
Fig. P. 2.12.16(a).
0.35
0.34
o4
13
03
NCE COMPONENT (RIZo) or CONDUCTANCE COMPON

L
Joe
H
E TT
0 SL LFO
TD
LL 0
0 T TIT
SEo

TOWARDS LOAD TONARDS GENERATOR
.coe
ORIGN
(1838)Fig. P. 2.12.16
0.031
0.0362
0.343
0.332
(LB37)Fig. P. 2.12.16(a)' : Complete AC amplifier circuit
Chapter Ends..
O00
HAPTER
(3 Frequency Generation and Mixer
Module 33
syllabus:
One port and two port microwave oscillator design.
Analysis of phase noise in oscillators.

Mixers: Characteristics, various types of mixers Single ended diode mixers, FET mixers, Balanced mixers, Image
reject mixers and other types of mixers.
3-4
Introduction..
*************************************************.*****
3.1
What important consideration includes for oscillators used in RF and microwave systems ? . on****** 3-4
GQ. 3.1.1
stability requirement and phase noise requirements of microwave

GQ. 3.1.2 Define practical range of
*a*****o*************a******e*****************.*********. *°°°*°°°°°'°°°°**********°
3-4
. . .
oscillator. ...
3-4
3.2 RF Oscillators..
3-4
GQ. 3.2.1 Explain Barkhausen criteria with block diagram....
using Transistor.. .3-5

3.2.1 General Analysis of Oscillator
matrix representation of the transistor oscillator.... 3-5

GQ. 3.2.2 Derive the admittance ****e*****ae*oa************oo***"******a**a*
One Port Microwave Oscillator Design. .................... i***n***************************************o********o*n*******************.3-6

3.3
oscillator show that rLIin 1for steady state oscillation.. . . . .3-6
For one port negative resistance
=
GQ. 3.3.1
Determine the values of Rin that make the circuit in Fig. GO. 3.3.2(a) given below unstable.
GQ. 3.3.2(a)
L= 1H and C= 1F. . a*****e********a**a*a************°* ************a***
.3-8
For simplicity select,
(b)Detemine ifstable oscillation is possible
if Rn (A) is given by Rn (A) =- R, (1-A)... 3-8
with Ro 452 and Am 1 Ampere.

given by above equation
= =
Assume that Rin (A) is

(c)
R; for maximum oscillator power.... .3-8
Determine the value of
.
for One Port Negative Resistance Oscillator... 3-99

3.3.1 Parallel Circuit Model
resistance model for one port negative resistance oscillator.. ************°°****°*a* 3-9
GQ. 3.3.3 Explain the parallel
RF Design (MU-8"h Sem.-E&TC) (3-2) Frequency Generation and Mixer
GQ. 3.3.4 (a) Find value of G that make the Fig. GQ. 3.3.4(a) unstable. For simplicity, L =1 Hand C= 1F..3-10
(b) Find stable oscillations if possible if GA) is given by,
G,(4)-G.1- ****************"***'""'*'"**"***************************e******************************************e********** 3-10
(c)Forabove GnA) G = 45 mS and Am=1. Determine the value of G; for maximum

oscillator power. 3-10
3.4 Two-port Negative Resistance Oscillator. *'*°********************" Des *********************°************"*".**n****.*** 3-12
GQ. 3.4.1 Show that both ports of two port negative resistance oscllator oscillate. ... *****°*****°*********".*n******L .3-12
3.4.1 Design Procedure for Two Port Network...
*******************i*********************""******""*****'*"***"****'a*sssstts*******
***.-12
GQ. 3.4.2 Explain the design procedure of two port network oscillator.. ansee!onrrontsa*******sa**a*********aan*************
3-12
3.5 Dielectrical Resonator Oscillator..

******************""*******" "*******"******s*************eas* **** ************a*****************""******************** 3-19
GQ. 3.5.1 Explain the coupling of DR to microstrip line.. sssss**usnes** **snssn*a****s*** ***iooa*s******snnan 3-19
3.5.1 Coupling of Dielectric Resonatorto a Microstrip Line. -19
GQ. 3.5.2 Explain the coupling of DR to a microstrip line with diagram. . . ...J-19
3.5.2 Practical Configuration for Dielectric Resonator Oscillators (DROs).. ******************e**********************i .3-21
GQ. 3.5.3 Explain series feedback DRO using BJT and FET... ****3-21
***********"'**************"**********************e******"****assa**e**
GQ. 3.5.4 Explain the DRO configurations. *************"*""****'"aBb********"***"**********seass*********

. ensessesa*aneses******.3-21
GQ. 3.5.5 Explain paralel feedback DRO. ****************************"******************************************* ssesunnarsossseas. .3-22
3.5.3 Tuning Methods of DROs.. .3-22
3.5.3.1 Mechanical Tuning of DRO.. * 3-22
GQ. 3.5.6 Explain a mechanical tuning of DRO.*aen************o*********** ******** * ********** ********* **** T-22
3.5.3.2 Varactor Tuning DROs.. .3-22
Ga. 3.5.7 Explain väractor tuned DRO..

************************e.****'"*************"s******.**'°°"*********************'***'"**.3-22 . .
3.6 Oscillator Phase Noise .. . 3-26
3.6.1 Representation of Phase Noise..

****** * * da***************°* ******'****°" ****°"*****.***********°'*********** . . 3-26
3.6.2 Lesson's Model for Oscillator Phase Noise...

*******'****'.t****'" ***************e****a* ****s*
3-27
GO.3.6.1 Explain the process of down conversion of signal nearby the desired signal frequency. 3-29
3.7 Mixers.
************************.*saras******.*******************************wessosaausas.ssnpsesnase .. 3-30
GQ. 3.7.1 What is mixer or frequency conversion ? . 3-30
3.7.1 Mixer Characteristics.. 3-30
GO. 3.7.2 Explain the mixer characteristics. 3-30
3.7.1.1 Frequency up Conversion ea***a*****************°*************************'°***'*** ***' ********'*°*°***********°'*

..3-31
GQ. 3.7.3 Explain frequency up conversion.. * * * * * * * * * " ***********"*******************************.** ***************'****°°************

3-31
3.7.1.2 Frequency Down Conversion...

T ******sneld********''""e"s************'***********s"*r .******""***'""***
..3-31
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GQ. 3.7.4 Explain process of frequency down conversion. **************** *******a******e*********************o*********************
3-31
...
3.7.1.3 Image Frequency... ***************°**********°*****ee****

**°**********
*****°°*°
3-31
* * * *
GQ. 3.7.5 Explain image frequency characteristics of mixer. *****************n***e************* *************************"***

3-31
.
3.7.1.4 Conversion Loss... *************°*****************°***°*****°

3-32
GQ. 3.7.65 Define conversion loss of .3-32
mixer.. *******°*****°'°****°*****
3.7.1.5 Noise Figure. ***************n******ar "**********°*****************************************************"****°

..3-33
GQ. 3.7.77 Show that the noise 3-33

figure of SSB signal is twice that of DSB case. OR.. **********a**********e*a***e**°*°*°
GQ. 3.7.8 Explain noise figure characteristics of mixer. ***********°****e************** ********°.***°*********

3-33
3.7.1.6 Other Mixer Characteristics. 3-33
GQ. 3.7.9 Explain other characteristics of mixer.

*.************ ************°.********a** °*°**°*°°°*°**°******oa . 3-33
3.8 Single Ended Diode Mixer..

***************"*****************.** .s s sne .**********************************"**************
3-344
GQ. 3.8.1 Explain the operation of single ended diode mixer for down converter application OR Prove that the
spectrum of single ended mixer is similar to that of idealized mixer. eeo******************o*******************

.3-34
3.9 Single Ended FET Mixer.. *************************"***** ***".***************** . 3-365
. 3.9. Explain the operation of single ended FET mixer..************.***************nese*a*******sas**o*******°*******"****""°*****°* 3-36
3.10 Balanced Mixer... *e****°*. 3-37
GQ.3.10.1 Explain balanced mixer with 90° hybrid junction. .*******************************. **************o*******************.v 3-37
3.10.1 Single Balanced Mixer using 90° Hybrid Coupler..***°****°°**°**°**** a****°*°°°°***** a9ao**°°°at°***°°° 3-38
3.10.2 Single Balanced mixer using 180° Hybrid Coupler.. ******************************************************************

3-39
3.11 Image Reject Mixer.. *******e*************************************************** 3-40
GQ. 3.11.1 Obtain the expressions for the V,() and V2() of image reject mixer...e******eae*** ************* saeo* 3-40
3.12 Other mixers *****°***********°.

*******a**********
-41
3.12.1 Double Balanced Diode Mixers..

.sao*r* ee****************°°*************e*****************e************.***** 3-41
GQ. 3.12.1 Explain double balanced diode mixer..

******a*en********* essanaee**e******a******* 3-41
3.12.2 Differential FET Mixer.. .3-42
FET mixer with diagram.

Explain differential
. .
GQ. 3.12.2 ************a*oasoe********hbs°**********°°°°°°********* ***°a**°*3 - 4 2 2
3.12.3 Parallel Diode Mixer. ******a *******a*****************

**********************************°°°°°***°******aa*********. * 3-42
3.13 Solved Examples.. *************************************************************** ...

3-43
Chapter Ends... ****°******

.
*********anee** ************ 3-46
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RF Design (MU-9 Sem-E&TC) (3-4) Frequency Generation and Mixer
3.1 INTRODUCTION (4) Harmonics (defined in dBc below carrier)
RF and microwave oscillators are used in radar and GQ3.1.2 Define practical range of stability
wireless communication system to act as signal requirement and phase nOis
sources
for frequency conversion and carrier generation. renuirewMents of Microwave oscillator
Solid state oscillator uses diode or transistor as an The range of frequency stability requirement can span
active non linear device with passive circuit to convert from 2 PPM°IC to 0.5 PPM°/C, whereas the phase noise
DC to AC RF signal. requirements may change from 80 dBe/Hz to - 110D
At low frequencies, transistor oscillator with crystal 10 kHz offset from the carrier.
dBe/Hz at a
resonators can be used to
provide improved frequency
stability and low noise performance. 3.2 RF OSCILLATORS
At higher frequencies, diodes or transistors are biased
to a negative resistance operating point. GQ 3.21 Explain Barkhaiusen criterid
Such biased transistors or diodes can be used with blockdiagram.
cavity, transmission line or dielectric resonatorsto
Generally oscillators are defined as a circuit which is
create fundamental frequency oscillations up to
non linear that converts DC power to an AC power
100 GHz.
waveform.
Frequency multipliers can be used to produce power at
Most of the RF oscillators produce sinusoidal outputs.
millimetre wave frequencies.
This sinusoidal output reduces undesired harmonics
An accurate analysis and design of oscillator circuits is
and side bands of noise.
very difficult and always caried out CAD tools.
Fig. 3.2.1 shows the block diagram of sinusoidal
This unit consider oscillators for use at microwave
oscillator. This conceptual operational block diagram
frequencies, which are different from the oscillators at
of oscillator consists of an amplifier with a frequency
lowerfrequencies due to:
dependent feedback path..
() Difference in transistor characteristics
i) An ability to make practical use of negative
V)
resistance devices.
(i) High Q-microwave resonators.
This unit also discusses about oscillator phase noise. Ho)
Single ended mixers usingg both diodes and FETs are
(1C1a)Fig. 3.2.1: Block diagram of an oscillator
also discussed along with some specialized mixer
circuits. The operation of oscillator can be described with the
GQ 3.1 What iwportant consSideration linear feedback circuit as shown in Fig.

3.2.1
It is seen that an amplifier has voltage gain 'A' and
includesfor oscilatorsusedinRF and output voltage Vo. This voltage V,' transfers through a
microwave systemS
w**wwwuw feedback network with a frequency dependent transfer
The important considerations for oscillators used in RF function of feedback network is H() and then it get
and microwave system includethe following: added the input voltage V, of the circuit.
(1) Tuning range (defined in MHz / V for voltage tuned Thus, output voltage 'V,' can be expressed as,
oscillators) V, (o)= A V, (0)+H (0) AV, (0)..(3.2.1)
(2) Frequency stability (defined in PPM°/C)
By solving Equation (3.2.1) to express the output
3) Amplitude Modulation (AM) and Frequency voltage in terms ofinput voltage as
Modulation (FM) noise (defined in dBc/Hz below V, (o)- H (o) A V, (0) = AV, (0)
carrier offset from carrier)
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V.(1-H («o) A) =
AV, () The circuit in Fig.3.2.2 can be used for
common emitter
A (CE) / Common Source (CS) or

Common Collector
V 1-AH(0) ) (3.2.2) byy
(CC) and Common Drain (CD) configurations
At specific frequency, if the denominator of grounding either V2. V, or V4 respectively.
Equation (3.2.2) becomes zero, then it is
possible to Feedback is provided by connecting node voltages V3
achieve a non-zero output voltage for a zero
input to V4
voltage, thus producing oscillations by the transistor is
forming For simplicity, it is assumed that
oscillator. This is known as Nyquist criteria or the real input
unilateral. The analysis is simplified by using
Barkhausen criteria. 'G,' and
admittance as 'G;, real output admittance as
Unlike the design of an amplifier, where the transistor transconductance '8m
of design
an amplifier is made to achieve maximum stability, the The feedback network of Fig. 3.2.2 is made by three
design of oscillator depends on an unstable circuit.
admittances forming bridged T configuration.
The RF oscillator circuit shown in
Fig. 3.2.1, is helpful Usually bridged T network is made up of reactive
for the design of practical oscillator
using transistor. elements (capacitor inductors) to provide frequency
selective transfer function with high quality factor Q'.
3.2.1 General Analysis of
By making V2 = 0, Common Emitter (CE)/Common
Oscillator using Transistor Source (CS) configuration is obtained.
0, Common Base (CB)/ Common
By making V, =
GQ 3.2.2 Derive the admittance matrx Gate (CG), and by V4 = 0 a Common Collector (CC)
representation ofthetransistor Common Drain (CD) configuration can be obtained.
oscillator Feedback path in Fig. 3.2.2, can be achieved by
There are large numbers of possible RF. oscillator connecting node V, to node V4-
circuits using Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) or Redrawing the Fig. 3.2.2 with current notations and
Field Effect Transistor (FET) in either Common writing nodal analysis at node Vi, V2, V, and V4 we
Emitter (CE) / Common Source (CS), Common Base can get as,
(CB)/ Common Gate (CG) or Common Collector (CC) V L5aselgate Collector/drain

V4
I common drain (CD) configurations. 2 4
The well known feedback networks are Hartley,
Y3 V2
a-V) oV,
Colpitts, Clapp and pierce oscillator circuits. Y2
Emitter/source Emitter/source
All these various oscillators can be analysed by using

general oscillator shown in Fig. 3.2.2.
Base/gate Collector/drain (1c2Fig. 3.2.3 : Redrawing Fig.3.2.2 to apply nodal analysis

V4 At node V1, currents coming towards node treated as
positive and moving away from the node are treated as
V2 negative
Emitter/source Emitter/source
BJT or FET
(V-V) Y3-(V1- V)Y,-(V -V) G =0
Feedback Simplifying above nodal equations,
network
Y, V,-V, Y,-V, Y, +V, Y, -V, G, +V, G=0
oscillator circuit
(Cilig. 3.2.2: Equivalent circuit of general Multiply H sign on both sides we get,
using transistor
V, Y+VY, +V, G-V2 Y- V2 G,-Y, V =0
bipolar or field V, (Y,+ Y, +G)- V, (Y, +G,)-V,
in Fig. 3.2.2, transistor can be either a
Y, =0...(3.2.3(a))
effect.
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RF Design (MU-8t Sem.-E&TC) (3-6) Frequency Generation and Mixer
At node V2,
-I++8m V-V2)+I =0
-V,) Y-(V-V,) Y2 +(V -V,)G,+E (V-V+(V4-V) G=0
V,Y-V Y, -V, ¥,+ V, Y, +V, G,-V, G, + 8 V1-Bm V2 + V, Vo-V,G,=0
V, +G+9m)-V2 Y, +Y, +G +Gt9m)+V, Y + V, G=0 .3.2.3(b))
At node V3
Is-I = 0
(V-V3) Y2 - (V,-V) Y, = 0
Y V2-V Y2-V, Y+ V, Y, =0
V,Y3+Y2 Va-Vs (Y2+ Y) =0
Multiply (H sign on both sides
-V, Y-Y, V, +V, (¥2+ Y) = 0 3.2.3(c))
At node V
&(V-V,)-1, = 0
&mV-V) +L = 0
&V-V)+(V.-V,)Go = 0
Sm VBm V2+G,V-G, V2=0

BmV-V2 (Em+Go) +G, V ..(3.2.3(d))
obtained as
By using Equations (3.2.3(a)), (3.2.3(b)), (3.2.3(c)) and (3.2.3(d)), matrix is
(Y+Y +G) -(Y +G) - Y3
V
- (Y+G,++8) (Y+Y, +G +G+8) - Y2 Go V2
= 0 (3.2.4)
- Y3 -Y2 (Y2+Y) V3
- (Go+Bm G JL v.
This matrix agrees with Equations (3.2.3(a)), (3.2.3(b)and (3.2.3(c))and (3.2.3(d))
From the theory of circuit analysis, if the i node of the circuit is grounded, that is V, = 0, in matrix Equation (3.2.4), i"
rOw and column will be reduced resulting in minimizing the rank of order of matrix by 1. Moreover, if two nodes are
connected together, the matrix is modified by adding the corresponding rows and columns.
3.3 ONE PORT MICROWAVE Negative

OSCILLATOR DESIGN resistance
device
XL( inA, o)
GQ 3.3.1 For one port negative resistance V(t)
oscillator show that TL Tn 1 for RL(o) R n A , o)
steady state oscillation.
The oscillator in terms of negative resistance devices i Tin

(Z()) (ZinA, o))
useful for microwave frequencies.
(1caFig. 3.3.1: Circuit diagram for one port negative resistance
3.3.1 shows the circuit diagram for one port
Fig. oscillators
negative resistance oscillators.
Zin (A, o) = Rin (A, o) +j Kn (A, o) .(3.3.1)
The amplitude and frequency dependent impedance
device. Where in Equation (3.3.1), A is amplitude of i(t) and
represent the negative resistance
Rin (A, o) <0.
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The oscillator is built
by connecting the device to time because the loop
a The oscillation will last for long
assive load impedance called as
resistance is negative required by Equation (3.3.10).
as
Z ()= R; (0) +j X (o) of current finally reach

a steady state
.(3.3.2) The magnitude
The one port network shown in value at A = A, and o = 0%
Fig. 3.3.1 is stable if
R, (Z(A, o) +Z (0)] > o resistance is zero. To satisfy,
This occurs when loop
condition defined in
The network will oscillate at the
amplitude A =A^ and the beginning of oscillation
frequency 0= 0 oscillations defined in
Equation (3.3. 10), the build-up
conditions defined in
When Equation (3.3.7) and oscillation and
Equation (3.3.8), Zzn A, w) must be amplitude
..(3.3.3) As a result the frequency of
The notation used in Equation (3.3.2) are the frequency dependent.
and (3.3.8)
dependence of in (A, o) on the current amplitude and Oscillations determined by Equations (3.3.7)
may not be stable.
frequency find another condition to ensure
Thus it is important to
Since,
a stable oscillation.
Zin (A, ,)-Z, For small change in , frequency dependence of Zin
(A ) Z (A,,)+Z% ..(3.3.4)
Then stable oscillations can be
(A, ) is neglected.
And obtained when oscillation condition defined in
Equations (3.3.7) and (3.3.8) are satisfied and along
Z ()-Z
z ®)+Z, (3.3.5) with following condition satisfied as:
By substinuting Equations (3.3.4) and (3.3.5) into dX ( dn (A)

(3.3.3), it can be expressed as, dA A=A do 0 = @g OA A=A
Zn (A, ) +Z; (®) = 0 3.3.6)
Applying KVL, 0 ..(3.3.11)
Z+Z)I=0, as I +0,Z+Z; =0,Z-Z
In many cases,
Now by substituting Equation (3.3.1) and Equation

dRdo() 0
and equating real parts, the
(3.3.2) into Equation (3.3.6) Where R is constant and Equation (3.3.11) gets
Oscillation conditions expressed as simplified accordingly.
0 .(3.3.7)
Ri (A o)+R;(0) =
Also R is constant; the term
R (0%) in Equation
and X, (A, ,)+X,(0) = 0 3.3.8) (3.3.7) is changed to constant R. Practically R; is
The frequency range for which the device is unstable, designed by selecting the value of R; for maximum
oscillator power. If the value of negative resistance is
defined as linearly reduced as a function of A, then Ri (A) is
t 0 a o, if Rn (A, o) <0.
The one port network is
is expressed as:
unstable for lol if the net resistance of the network
negative, it is defined as, R(A) R,(1 .(3.3.12)
.3.3.9) In Equation (3.3.12) R, is equal to
R (A,)> R; (0) A 0.
-
value of Rin (A) at
From Fig. 3.3.1, i(t) through

will flow the circuit under Apm is maximum value of A.
Poper conditions. At the beginning of oscillations, when In Fig. 3.3.1 the power transferred
,
to
Rby Rn for
must be satisfied. A<Am is expressed as :
plitude A' is small, Equation (3.3.9)
This is expressed as:
IR (0, o)I> R; (o) ...(3.3.10) P=RIV"]=ufR, (AN
Equation (3.3.10) is start of oscillation condition.
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To get the maximum power differentiate above (a) The location of rin and I can be selected randomly.
Equation with respect to A. For the circuit shown in the Fig. 3.3.2(a), the input and
load reflection coefficients were seBlected at the location
R 2A- shown in the Fig. 3.3.2(b).
Giving required value of A shown by Aamax which
maximizes the power,
Ao.max
AtAmax the value Ri, (A.max) is
1 = 0
RinAo.ma R ILo
Hence the value of R which maximizes the oscillator C
power is,
R-50
R 3.3.13)
RL+50
Thus selection of R according to Equation (3.3.13),
(iCsFig. 3.3.20b): Barkhausen plot ofr,, Gjo) r, jo) OR
gives god results. It is also observed that
Nyquist plot
Equation (3.3.13) is valid when the negative input
resistance varies linearly with amplitude. From given Fig. 3.3.2(a),
GQ. 3.3.2(a) Determine the values of R that
make the circuit in Fig. 3.3.2(a)
S+1+R S
.
Z S) =
given below unstable. For simplicity S
select, L LH and Where S =
jø. For 50 2 system,
C 1F.
a-50
Ta S) =
R+ 50C
() Determine if stable oscillation
possible if R (A) is given by R (A)
and Z (S)-50 s'+SR-50)+1
T S) =
Z S)+50 s+s (R +50) +1
(3.3.14)
The selection of Zi make
(c) Assume that Rin (A) is given by
=
Rin Tin (S) =
constant,
which is shown by C.
above equation with Ro = 452 and
From Nyquist test,
A 1 Ampere. Determine the Tn jo) TL gjo) = 1
value of R for maxímum oscillator
TL (Go) =
power. TL Go)
By putting =jo and using Equation (3.3.14),
S
SL
TLGo) (1-+jo (R;-50) C
(1-o)+jø R;+ 50) ...(3.3.15)
Ran RL Fig. 3.3.2(b) shows the Nyquist plot of above
Equation (3.3.15), for positive values of C. The plot for
negative values of C, is similar to the plot of positive values
S=jo of C. So it is not shown.
Tino)
By applying Nyquist test to Equation (3.3.15) shows
(1cAFig. 3.3.2(a): Circuit for GQ. 3.3.2 that the circuit is unstable when the number
of encirclements
of the point 1/C, is non-zero.
RF Design (MU-8 Sem.-E&TC) Generation and Mixer
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(3-9)
Fig. 3.3.2(b) shows the circle is unstable when, Parallel Circuit
Model for
3.3.1
R-50 One Port Negative
R+50C Resistance Oscillator
Since C>I so < 1, therefore the circuit is resistance model

the parallel
unstable when GQ. 3.3.3 Explain resistance
R-50 for one port negative
n+50
RL+50R-50 oscillator.
Since Ri0, the inequality is expressed as the one-port negative
resistance
t1s easy to present
shown in Fig. 3.3.3.
The
(R-50) (Rn 50) > (R, +50) (R +50) Oscillator using parallel model
admittance.
which simplifies to, negative resistance device is shown by the
..3.3.16)
R+Rin < 0 Y (A'.o) =
G, (A.o)+jB,, (A',0)
Or simply R,n - R
This is required for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.3.2(b) to
be unstable.
(b) From Equation (3.3.7) and 3.3.8), oscillations are

possible when R,, + R = 0 and Kn 0. The frequency
V() GL(o)
BinA', o B(o)
of oscillation is expressed as X, jo) =j@,+
Where, O 1 rad/second
In order to keep stable oscillation at o = 1 rad/s, the
condition defined in Equation (3.3.11) must be satisfied. Yin(A', o) YL(o)
(1c6Fig. 3.3.3 Parallel circuit model for one port negative
R(A) resistance oscillator
OA Am
ORi (A) In Equation (3.3.16), A' is amplitude of v() and G
As R>0 we have- > 0
OA (A'.)<0
Also with jX=j (0- 1/o). The circuit shown in Fig. 3.3.3, will oscillate at the
amplitude A' = A and frequency w = 0, when,
dX 1
r.(A.,) (o)= I (3.3.17)
Ri (A dX (o 0 Wbere, (A,.a) a(A,,o)
Thus,aA AAo do = 0
This shows that the oscillations are stable.

Y+YiA ,)
1 (3.3.18)
(C) From Equation (3.3.12), with R =452 and A
ampere and T ( Y-Y
Y+Y ( 3.3.19)
R (A) =-45 (1 - A)
Where in above Equations Y, is
For good results, and using Equation (3.3.13), normalized
admittance.
45
R g:150 By substituting Equations (3.3.18) and (3.3.19) into
And amplitude of A is Equation (3.3.17). Equation (3.3.17) reduces to:
Y.(A,a.)+Y,(0) = 0
AAoma A-)=anpere
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Above equation in terms of the real and imaginary parts
of the admittance is expressed as
GA,.)+G,(0,) = 0 3.3.20)
Gyn sc
and B.(A, a.)+B, (o) = 0 .(3.3.21)
The condition for start up of oscillator is expressed as Tinlj) L(o)
G 1(0,o)1>G, (0) ..3.3.22) (1cnFig. 3.3.4(a): Circuit for above problem
In order to get stable oscillations Equation (3.3.11)

must be satisfied.
In terms of Fig. 3.3.3, the condition is expressed as:
dBy (o
BA' A =A. doa,A-A 1
= 0
RaILCo)
dG,( >0 ..(3.3.23)
do = 0,
If the magnitude of Gn (A') reduces linearly with G-(1/50)

amplitude G (A) canbe expressed as GL+(1/50)
G(4)-G,1- 3.3.24)
(1caFig. 3.3.4(b) : Nyquist plot ofTi. (jo)T, (jo)
(a) The input and load reflection coefficients were chosen

In Equation (3.3.24), -G, is the value of G, (A) at A
at the location shown in the Fig. 3.3.4b).
= 0 and A is the maximum value of A . Thus for
maximum oscillation power, G is expressed as : Y Gj

and Y(S) = S+g+G
3 3.3.25)
GQ. 3.3.4 (a) Find value of Gn that make the

S+GS+C
3.3.4(a) unstable. For
Fig Where S = jo. Then 50 Q system,
Simplicity, L 1 H ana
C 1F. T. (S) = G-50 -C

(b) Find stable oscillations if possible if 50
GA) is given by,
and T (S) = Y(S)-50
a(4)- Y05)+50
(e) For above Gn (A') G, = 45 mS and
ss-(|
A 1. Determine the value of GL
ss[G (5)].
Where C is constant
for maximum oscillator power.
By applying Nyquist test,
Tin (jo )TL (jo) = 1
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Or
1-o)+j G-0 Also with jB, = j(0-then
(1-)+joG,+( 3.3.26)
dBy ( 1
The Nyquist plot for positive values of C is shown in do
Fig. 3.3.4(b). Thus,
The Nyquist test applied to dB,()
Equation (3.3.26), shows G (A >0
that the circle is unstable when the number of BA' A=A, do = 0,
encirclements
ofthe pointis non zero.
This shows that oscillations are stable for given circuit
shown in Fig. 3.3.4(a).

From Fig. 3.3.4(b), the circuit is unstable, (c) From Equation (3.3.25), with G, = 45mS and A 1 ,
When
G A) =-45 (1-A) mS
G-50 Then using Equation (3.3.25), the value of G that
maximizes the oscillator. power is
45x310 15 mS
Since 1C1>l it shows <1, thus C
circuit is unstable
Ex. 3.3.1
when
A one port oscillator uses a negative resistance diode having
T = 1.25 40° (Z, = 50 2) at its desired operating point
for f 6 GHz. Design load matching network for a 50 2
load impedance.
Since G, 0, an in equality is expressed as:
Soln.
(o-(6) (-6)-(G.-(H)-G) By putting the mode of calculator on complex mode
and using Tin= 1.25 240°,
After simplifying,
We can get,
G-GL
ZZ
This is the condition for the circuit of Fig. 3.3.4(a) is to Z 1-rS+125440)
-125 240)
unstable.
Zin 43.44+ 124.11 j) 2
() By using Equations (3.3.20) and (3.3.21), oscillations
can occur when G + G = 0 and B = 0. The
frequency of oscillation is expressed as:

BL(jo)= jo,+ j0
i-)=0
Where lrad/seconds L Tin

stable
For circuit shown in Fig. 3.3.4(a) to maintain a (1C9aFig. P. 3.3.1
mentioned in
oSCillation at o, 1 rad/sec, the condition,
=
Equation (3.3.23), must be satisfied. With G mentioned in

R 43.33
equation (3.3.25), = 14.48 2
G A)G X, = -Xi =-124.11j

OA .
R =
14.48-j 124.11
Thus, as G,>0, So a G (A)/8 A'>0.
innovalion A
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The load impedance must be, port negative resistance device with input impedance
Z -Z=-(-43.44 +124.11j) 2 Zin as shown in Fig. 3.3.1.

The conditions for oscillations are mentioned in
Z =
(43.44 -j 124.11) 2
Equations (3.3.7), (3.3.8) and (3.3.11). To begin the
3 . 4 TWO-PORT NEGATIVE oscillations, according to Equation (3.3.13), the R; is
RESISTANCE OSCILLATOR selected as R, =
When input port starts to oscillate, the terminating port
GQ. 3.441 Show that both ports of two port also starts to oscillate. It means that both input and
negative resistance oseillator oscillate start to oscillate and this can be
terminating ports
The general block diagram of two port negative proved as follows
resistance oscillator is shown in Figs. 3.4.1(a) and The input port is oscillating when,
3.4.1(b). TinL = 1 ..(3.4.1)
VP Teminating9
Port port And From Equation (3.4.1) and Iin S1t]-S, =
Load Transistor Teminating

network S network TL TS-Ar,
Where, I S1-ArL (3.4.2)
Lin -out ZT
(Tout (TT)
Also using, Fout
S STs 3.4.3)
(109(a)
2*1-SIs
And from Equations (3.4.2) and (3.4.3),
Terminating /P
port TouTT1
This shows that terminating port is also oscillating.
Terminating Transistoor Load
network [S] network 3.4.1 Design Procedure for Two
Port Network
out
outd Tin Ga 342 Explain the design procedure of two
(1C10b)
Fig. 3.4.1: Two port negative resistance oscillator
port network oscillator.
The design steps for two port oscillator are as follows
The S-parameters are used to characterize the transistor
device. Z is impedance of terminating network. Z is 1. Use a potentially unstable transistor at the frequency of
impedance of load. oscillation "o'

By observing the notationsin Fig. 3.4.1(a) and 3.4.1(b)| 2 Design terminating network to make I Ti,l>1. Series
carefully, it is seen that in an oscillator either port of or shunt feedback can be used to increasel Iin
the transistor can be used as terminating port. After 3. Design the load network to oscillate at Z and to meet
selecting the terminating port, other port is treatedas the start of oscillation condition in defined in
the input port. The load matching network is connected
to the input port. With same notations which have been Equation (3.3.13) that is R, =
used in one port negative resistance oscillator as shown
Let,
in Fig. 3.3.1.
X ( = -Xn ( ) .3.4.4)
When the two port is potentially unstable, the
impedance Z7 allows the two port to be acted as one and R
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(3-13)
Or in general, R = 0,)
3 3.4.5)
A = 0.6742-62°
A = 0.674
This design method gives high rate of
success. 1-(0.98)-(0.465)+ (0.674)
However the frequency oscillation will change from its Now, K 2 - 161)I
designed value at o. 2 (0.39 -54°) (0.675
K = 0.527
Thus happen
due to raise in
oscillation power until the unstable at 8
negative resistance is equal to the load resistance and Since K < 1, the transistor is potentially
X varies as a function of A that is as a function of GHz and input stability circle is drawn on smith chart
is
oscillator power. This method does not assure that Thus center and radius of input stability circle
oscillator is providing optimum power. calculated as follows
Ex. 3.4.1 C
Cs
Su-A S
IS-1AP
Design 8-GHz GaAs FET oscillator using the reverse
channel configuration shown in Fig. P.3.4.1(a). The ((0.98 2163) - (0.674 2-62) (0.465 - 120))
S-parameter of the
transistor in reverse channel Cs (0.98)- (0.674)
configuration at 8 GHz are
(1.35 2 156°)*
Tin12.84-16.6 C s = 1.35 L-156°
Rs S S
|Is,,f-1AP
Load (0.39-54°) (0.675 2-161) |
Teminating network
network
(0.98)-(o.674)
Rs 10.52 2 145° I=0.5200
As shown in Fig. P. 3.4.1(b) on smith chart, any IT in
shaded
IT 14-163 TL region produces >1 that is negative
resistance at the input port. Choosing IT at point A that
(1cnFig. P3.4.1(a) : Oscillator configuration is I =1 L-163°, the impedance associated with this
Z-j7.52.
S 0.98 L163° This reactance is presented open circuited 50 2 line
of
S=0.6752-161° length. 0.226 A. With Z connected the input reflection
S2 0.39 L-54° coefficient is obtained as rin = 12.8 - 16.6° and
Sp2 0.4652 120° associated impedance is,
Soln. Zin 2,(1+Tn)
First we do the stability test by using K and A test. (1-Ti)
1-IS-1S,f+1af S0(1+12.8 -16.6
K (1- 12.82- 16.65°)
21 S2 S21
Zin 58-j2.6 2
Where, A = Si1 S2- Si2 S21
A = (0.98 2163°) (0.465 120
- (0.39 2-54°) (0.465 2120°)
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110
, 0.34
032 +9
/ LI4 HE
3.0
HHT
COMPONENT RZO) or CONDUCTANCE COMP
H LL 90 20 9
Sto
Terminating9 R0.520
port stability circle
RADALLY BCALED PARAMETERS
Cg 1.352156
2 TOWARDS LOAD TOWARDS GENERATOR
2 1
cE
ORDGIN
Fig. P.3.4.10b): Smith Chart

The load matching network is designed as
Z -q
2 --58-j2.6 2)
Z = 58+j2.6 2
Now using, R =
R -19
and KL -Kn-(-j 2.6 )
K j2.62
Z = 19+j2.6 2 at f, =8 GHz
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Ex. 3.4.2
Design transistor oscillator at 4 GHz using GaAs FET in a common gate configuration, with a 5 nH inductor in series witn
the gate to increase in instability. Choose a terminating network to match a 50 Q load and appropriate tuning network.
The S-parameters of the transistor in common source configuration are (Z,. = 50 2).
S =0.72 L-116°;
S2 2.60 L76°
S=0.03 L57°;
S =0.73 L-54°
Soln.:
By converting common source (CS) S-parameters to S-parameters of common gate (CG) configuration are
S 2.18-35°
S 2.75 296°
1.2618°
S2 0.524155°
2.18235° 1.26 2 18°
S 2.7596° 0.52 155°J
As s,>1S, 1, it shows that Fig.P. 3.4.2(a)is moreunstable than CS configuration
0.262 S 0.319
90 5nH 502
0.346 Load
T
(ZT)
(nc12]Fig. P. 3.4./a): Design of oscillator
To plot output stability circle in IT plane,

For output stability circle,
C S-'S.= 1.08 2 33
Is,P-1sf Center and radius per stability
R
S-S 0.665
circle
| sP-1aP
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Let's draw output stability circle on Smith chart.
Unstable
region
Stable
130
region
1H
o 0TANCE COMP
HHHHH TL
X
XA
T Te
NOnD A
LALOLTT
T
EET
o*o Ci'O
TOWARDS GENERATOR
. ...............
uuluuluuluulu ..4,..
uL ., .
LLLLLLLLIL o suuL
CENIER
ORIGN
Fig. P. 3.4.2(b): Smith chart
Since SI= 2.18 >1, stable region is inside the S0(1+3.964-2.4)

circle. To make I , large, select Ir = 0.59 L - 104°. Then
.z, z, 1-(3.96 L-2.4)
Or Zin 83.71
after designing single stub matching to change 50 Q load to -
1.89 j (-84 j 1.9) N,

=
Z =50 (0.4-j0.7) 20-j35 .

=
Then,
For given value of T, I, is calculated as: Z = -Z--84-ji.9) 2
Z 84+j1.9
r. =s,+ i I _ 3.962--24
1-Sr
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Then load teminating resistance is,
j-28 28 2
and X = -Xn =j 1.9
Therefore Z = 28 +j1.9
feedback to increase
Using Rn3 ensure enough stability for startup (1C124)Fig. P. 3.4.3 (a) : BJT to external
instability region
oscillation.
The easiest way to implement the impedance Z is The inductor gives series feedback and its effect is to
90 2 load with short length of line. and I S22 1. These values
produce large values of IS,|
Ex. 3.4.3 are obtained from 50 2 terminations.
Design a 2.75 GHz oscillator using BTT in common base at

Varying L from 0.5 nH to 15 nH gives instability
configuration. The S-parameters at 2.75 GHz are
and output is optimized with L = 145 nH. Thus
S =0.94 150° input
S21 1.72-80° with L = 1.45 nH, maximum values of S1 and S22 are
S=0.07 2 120 obtained. The resulting S-parameters for Fig. P.3.4.3(a)

S 1.08 L-56°
are,
Soln. S=1.724100°
First we determine the stability of test of the transistor
using K and D.
S= 2.08 2-136°
K S-ISf+la? S 0.712 294°
21SnS2 S= 1.162-102°
where A= Si1 S22-S12 S21
Either input port or output port can be used as
A = (0.92 150) (1.88 2-56°)
- (0.07 120°) (1.72-80°) terminating port.
A = 0.907 2 100° For this design, emitter to ground port was chosen for
AI = 0.907 load matching and collector to ground port is selected

1-(0.9-(1.08)+(0.907) for terminating network. The terminating port stability
K
21(0.07 120°)(1.72-80°)
circle is shown in Fig. P. 3.4.3(6) (Smith chart) with
K = 0.646
following center and radius.
Since K< 1 the transistor potentially unstable. The area
of instability in the Smith chart can be increased using By observing on Smith chart, the center of the Smith
external feedback. For common base configuration,
chart, is unstable. Thus 50 Q impedance at terminating
inductor from base to ground as shown in
portensure that | Tin l> 1. However to associated value
Fig.P.3.4.3(a).
of T is difficult to implement for oscillator.

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Terminating port
stability cirde with
Cs 5.53L23
R4.91
Unstable S7
region
OA2
0.34
L
0.0
T HHU LUL
TT
RADUALLY SCALED PARAMETERS

TWARDS LOAD
TOWAROS GENERATORR
uco6
cETER
Fig. P.3.4.3(b)
The values of rT and rin are given as,
Fig. P.3.4.3() shows the value of Fn as I r is variced in unstable region. The magnitude rT set at 0.25, 0.s, 0.75 and 1
and angle of Iy changed from 90° to 270
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DR work upto
The value of rT is selected 0.5 L 162°. So, Truely microwave oscillator using can
at lower frequencies
in 2.31 L117.6° (Z= - 25.6 + j242). Impedance 100 GHz. The disadvantage of DR
However DRs
of load matching network is, is the large dimensions of resonator.
Z = -Z coaxial tabular shape are used for practical

having a
applications upto 500 MHz.

7in = +n50 (1+2.3117.6°)
(1-Tn (1-2.31 2117.6°) Coupling o f Dielectric
3.5.1
= --25.6 + j24) 2
Resonator to a Microstrip
= (25.6-j24) 2
Line
The impedance of load matching network is,
- 8.433 GQ. 3.5.2 Explain the coupling of DR to a

microstrip line with diagram
and X = Xin =j 24
Thus Z = 8,5 + j24 Dielectric resonator uses especially TE%18 in

TE mode
cylindrical resonator TEoi8 mode can be easily coupled
Tin 2.32117.6°
to a microstrip line.Fig. 3.5.1 shows the coupling of
-25.6+j242
l 0.108 dielectric resonator (DR) to a microstrip line. Fig. 3.5.1
shows the field distribution of TEo1s mode including
509 electric field lines and magnetic field lines.
o
Load
network
L 1.45nH
0.135 s0 From Fig. 3.5.1, it is seen that electric field lines are
concentric circles around the Z-axis without having Z-
component of electric field. The magnetic field lines

are also shown in Fig. 3.5.1.
Z 8.5-j242 IT 0.5162
(1c13)Fig. P.3.4.3(c) : AC design of 2.75 GHz oscillator using E
BJT-CB configuration
3.5 DIELECTRICAL RESONATOR

OSCILLATOR
GQ. 3.5.1 Explain the coupling of DR to

microstrip line.
. .
(1C14Fig. 3.5.1 ; Field distribution of TE1
Dielectrical Resonator Oscillator (DRO) is suitable for
Fig. 3.5.2 shows dielectric resonator coupled to
microwave frequencies.
many practical applications at microstrip line where DR is placed on the top of the
This DRO has high quality factor "Q" and stable for
GaAs
substrate at a distance d from the microstrip line. The
either B.JTs or
temperature. Transistor DRO uses
coupling will be determined by distance d and DR
FETs.
characteristics.
The maximum frequency of DRO osçillator can be upto
The metallic enclosure covering housing minimizes the
35 GHz with typical power levels of 10 to 15 dBm.
radiation losses and resulting in increasing in high
MostlyDielectric Resonators (DR) are constructed with
quality factor Q TE18 is fed in DR by the
having constants between 20 and 80
many compounds
electromagnetic field produced by microstrip line. It
are used.
means that DR reflects RF energy at its resonating
DRs having solid cylindrical shape can be used for
frequency, producing high quality Q resonator.
microwave transistor oscillator working for the
40 GHz.
frequeney range of about 1 GHz to
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RF Design (MU-8h Sem-E&TC) Frequency Generaton
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is expressed as
The resonating frequency
Metal ...3.5.2)
endosure O LC
°BW' is expressed as
The bandwidth
BW 2aRC
(3.5.1) can be expressed as :
Putting S=j» Equation
Substrate Microstrip DR
Z .3.5.3)
o-)
(IC1Fig. 3.5.2: Coupling of DR to microstrip line
Fig. 3.5.3(a) shows the coupling of DR to microstrip Where, Q, is unloaded quality

factor of tuned circuit,
line with characteristic and
terminated impedances. Z0 Thus Q, is expressed as
usually Z = 50 2 has been considered.
The
Q, 2 RC .by putting 2a RC
equivalent circuit of DR coupled to microstrip line L
is shown in Fig. 3.5.3b). An equivalent circuit (EC) of .(3.5.4)
Fig. 3.5.3(b), consist of parallel tuned circuit placed in As frequency of operation is near above to
series a
position XX° along with transmission lines. og Ci.e. +a, =20)
By approximating Equation (3.5.3),
R
Z 1+12Q,8 .(3.5.5)
where 6 =
0 0 At reference
X
plane XX, input impedance is expressed
Y
as,
E Zx Z+Z
(Uc1]Fig. 3.5.3(a): DR coupled to microstrip lines
Or Zx .3.5.6)
1+j2Q,8*
L
A coupling efficiency Bis defined as,
..(3.5.7)
In terms of P, Equation (3.5.6) is expressed as,
2B
+j2 Q.8+1
It is
observed that at o =
0 or 8
=0, Zx 28 + 1,
then theexpression for reflection coefficient at @gr =
Txox at XX reference
plane is expressed as :
(1C17Fig3.5.30b) : Equivalent circuit at XX plane
The values of R, L, C of tuned circuit of DR dependent .3.5.8)

on distanced and DR characteristic
Generally T3x at XX plane is
S 1
SRC (3.5.1)
Z+1 B+1+j2Q, 8
RF Design (MU-" Sem.-E&TC) (3-21) Frequency Generation and Mixer
Thus reflection coefticient seen at the input of the line,
is expressed as
S21(d8)
i(20+ tan B+1
ß+ 1+(20,8 QuBW
3.5.9) L(dB) BW
At resonating frequency, o = and 8 = 0,
Equation (3.5.9) simplified as, L(dB)
Ty ) Tx ()e"=ATC..(3.5.10) **:******
ww.voira.vaicatorassi
From Equation (3.5.10), it follows that if B is constant

and length transmission line is changed from 0 = 0° to (Ic18)Fig. 3.5.4 : A typical plot of SqndB)
360, yy lie on circle in the Smith chart.
Thus proper selection of
Q is obtained dividing resonating frequency a, by BW
B, the T can use any passive where insertion loss is L.
impedance. Equation (3.5.10) is used to choose the
desired coupling and electrical length of 0' of 3.5.2 Practical Configuration for
transmission line for specific input impedance. Dielectric Resonator
From above discussion, it is clear that, the parameters Oscillators (DRODs)
B,o and Q, describe the operation of DR. B, o, and
GQ. 3.5.3 Explain series feedback DRO using
Qcan be obtained either by measuring or from
BJT and FET.
manufacturer of DR.
The values of R, L and C of tuned circuit of GQ. 3.5.4 Explain the DRO configurations
Fig. 3.5.3(6) can be obtained in terms of B, o, and Qur The possible combinations of DROs are shown in
The value of R is calculated from Equation (3.5.7) and Fig. 3.5.5.
the values of L and C are obtained from Equation
(3.5.4).
From Fig. 3.5.3(b), S-parameters of tuned circuit at
resonating frequency w, are expressed as: o
Matching
network
B+1 B+1
S (o)] (3.5.11)
(1C19)Fig. 3.5.5(a): Series feedback oscillator using BJT

From Equation (3.5.11), B can be expressed in terms
In Fig. 3.5.5(a) and 3.5.5(b), DR behaves as a series
S (o) and S2 (o,) as,
feedback component, producing stable oscillation.
S (o) 1-S ()2
1-S, ( S21()
The value of B lies in between 2 to 20 for close
coupling resonator.
o Matching Zo
network
The insertion loss L, is expressed as,
L,( dB) = - 20log S (,)
and insertion loss L, is given as ,
(dB) =L, (dB) -3 + 10 log (1+ 10-0.1 L)
It is shown in Fig. 3.5.4. (1c20)Fig. 3.5.5(b) : Series feedback DRO using GaAs FET
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maintain the high Q of DR,
order to
From Figs. 3.5.5(a) and 3.5.5(b), it follows that DR is In than 0.5
times the
resonator height
must be larger
connected the of O.1% to
1% of the resonaant
to
terminating port. Tuning
bandwidths
The negative resistance load terminal is be possible.

at
provided by frequency can Tuning
DR and transistor. The series feedback screw
configurations
are easy DROs using BJTs have less noise than those
using GaAs FET.
GQ. 3.5.5 Explain parallel feedback DRO.

The parallel feedback configuration of DRO is shown
in Fig. 3.5.5(¢).
Substrate Microstrip DR
DR (1c2)Fig. 3.5.6: A mechanical

tuning arrangement for DROs
3.5.3.2 Varactor Tuning DROs
Matching GQ. 3.5.7 Explain varactor tuned DRO.

network
Matching - - - -
network The electrical tuning of DRO is also possible. A

varactor diode tuned DRO is shown in Fig. 3.5.7.
DC bias
(1c21)Fig. 3.5.5(c): Parallel feedback DRO
circuit
In Fig. 3.5.5(c), DR acts as parallel feedback

component. The insertion loss of DR is compensated
by the forward gain of the transistor.
ODR h
As DR is high Q tuned cireuit, So oscillations will Matching
network
produce when Barkhausen criteria is satisfied.
The parallel feedback DROs are difficult to construct as
compared to series feedback DRO due to the coupling
of two transmission lines.
a 3.5.3 Tuning Methods of DROS (IC2)Fig. 3.5.7: Varactor tuned DRO

The varactor diode is
There are two methods to tune DROs (i) mechanical
two
coupled to DR thus producing
tuning and ü) varactor diode tuning. coupled circuits. The proper dc bias voltage will
change the varactor's capacitance value and this in turn
will change the resonant
a 3.5.3.1 Mechanical Tuning of DRO frequency of DR.
The varactor
tuning of DRO can provide a tunea
GQ 3.5.6 Explain a mechanical tuning of DRO. resonant frequency of 1%.
*******
The unit
DRO can be tuned for lower range of frequencies using temperature stability of DR is ppm/°C (paris
per million per degree
metallic shield with a tuning screw. It is shown in
The
centigrade).
Fig. 3.5.6. temperature coefficient range of available DRS arc
in the
range of- 10 ppm/C to 10
The resonating frequency of DR can be increased by
8 GHz DR0 has ppm/°C. For example
the increasing the depth of the tuning screw. frequency stability of 500 ppm over a
temperature range of -50°C to 80°C.
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Ex. 3.5.1
Design 10 GHz DRO using GaAs FET whose S-parameters in common source configuration are,
S =0.63 L 130°, S 0.15 L6°

S 2.04 44 , S2 0.19 L 134°
The transistor power at1 dB compression point is P dB = 15 dBm
Soln.
First we determine the stability test by using K and A.
K 1-1S-1S,+1a
21S12 S21
A
Where =
S S22-Si2 S21
Thus A (0.63 2 130°) (0.19 2 134°) - (0.15 26°) (2.04 24°)
A = 0.358 2-151.3°
Thus TAl 0.358

K = 1-(0.63'-(0.19+(0.358
210.15 26° (2.04 2 4°)I
K = 1.135
Since K = 1.135 > 1 and IAl = 0.358<1, GaAs FET has passed K and A test.
Thus GaAs FET is uncónditionally stable. Using series feedback capacitor of series impedance ofZ =-j 120 2 (It is
implemented as open circuited shunt stub as shown in Fig. P. 3.5.1(a).
j1202
0.063A
(1c24) Fig. P. 3.5.1(a)
This result in potentially unstable configuration with following S-parameters.

S1 = 3.68 2 - 175.1° S12 3.86 2-38.26°
S21 = 4L30.07° S22 2.772176.17
Here gate to ground port is selected as the terminating port. The stability circle on smith chart is drawn in
Fig. P. 3.5.1(b). By selecting ß = 10, from Equation (3.5.7).
R 10 2x 50) = 1000 2
and using Equation (3.5.10),
10-2j
11e
IT = 0.909 e j28

033 0.37 A
TO0
LLJ.
O 1 3 0 1
0.39 03
031
. -
Unstable stable
region g i o n
NESFAACECOUPORENT )EoNducTANCE cb!
600OL
OJO
T
SiO
LL'O
GO
RADALY SCALED PARAMETERS

TOWARDS LOAD TOWARDS GENERATOR
CENTER
ORIGIN
Fig. P. 3.5.1(b)
The length l, of transmission line is selected to place Ty in unstable region. By selecting - ie. 0 =
0.909 2 - 180° at point A. For this value of Ir the value of Tin = 3.32 -24.57
=
Zo(1+3.32 -24.57)
Or Zin (1 3.322-24.57)
Zin 83.75-j23.12
Thus z Z2 =
83 and X =-X
Z =
(27.9 +j 23.1)
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DRO is shown in Fig. P. 3.5.1(¢). ris selected as to give large value of o
The expected output power of the oscillator will be few
dBs lower than power at So ro Sat1-SL
I
- dB compression point.
MoD It is observed that,
RD
ou iS maximum by making 1 S,, L»0
-
VGG Thus T=0.6 2- 130°

SRFC
CB By putting in Iour
RFC
OR Ce To 10.7 4L132
The associated impedance is calculated as:
-h Load
502
5 5002 Matching
network
Zout 1+aiL
o 1-Tout
0.063 RFC
1+(10.72 132)
Zou50-(10.72132°)
Zout -43.7 +j 6.1) 2
Tin
(1c25)Fig. P. 3.5.1(c) : DRO circuit By using start up condition for oscillations,
Ex. 3.5.2
A WLANS application requires a local oscillator operating and X =
-Xout X=-j 6.1
at 2.4 GHz. Design DRO using series feedback circuit with Z = (14.5 -j 6.1) Q
Thus,
BJT having S-parameters as (Z, = 502),
The terminating matching network is designed by using
S1 1.8 2 130°, S2 0.4 2 45°
smith chart
S21=3.8236°, S22 =0.7 2-63
The shortest transmision line length for matching ZT
Determine the required coupling coefficient for DRO and to the load impedance Z, is l = 0.481 A and open
microstrip matching network for the termination network. circuit stub length, =0.307 .
The termination network should include output load Now we have matched I to resonator network. It is
1000.
impedance assume, Q, =
known that the equivalent impedance of resonator seen
by micro strip line is read at the resonant frequency, so
Soln.:
The DRO circuit is shown in Fig. P. 3.5.2 DR is kept
the phase angle of reflection coefficient at this point I
must be zero or 180. For uncoupled parallel RLC
from open end of microstrip line, of length 4, can be tuned circuit, R <Z, so the phase will be 180°.
The
changed to match the phase of required value I.
of This is achieved by transformation through the length
Output load impedance is part of the terminating
network. The value ofreflection coefficient is not changed, so
we have
DR T= TeP=(0.62-130°)e
= 0.6 2 180°
This gives , = 0.431 A. The equivalent impedance of
o
resonatorat resonance is then:
z Zo1+T:
= 50 0.62180°)
Tout TT (1 -0.6 2 180°).
= 12.5 2
problem
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eeh-Neo Publications. here Authors inspire
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The coupling coefticient can be found out as : 3.6.1 Representation of Phasse
The variation
NR1=0.25 Noise
of oscillator is written
of |Iout with frequency gives indication Generally, output voltage
as :
of frequency stability.
V.() =V, [1 +A (t]cos [»,t +0 ()]...(3.6.1)
is amplitude of output signal.
In Equation (3.6.1), A ()
3.65 OSCILLATOR PHASE NOISE of the output waveform. The
6 () is phase variation
be controlled and have less
The noise produced amplitude variations can
by oscillator may damage the influence on system performance. Because of
performance of communication
a
receiver system. phase
harmonics
deterministic, take mixer products
or
Along with adding to the noise level of the receiver, a
noisy local oscillator will force to down conversion of variations may be discrete in
nature or random in
thermal or other random noise
undesired nearby signals, hence restricting the nature because of
selectivity of the receiver. sources.
Phase noisedenotes to the short term random From Equation (3.6.1) it is noticed that phase variation
fluctuation in the frequency or phase of oscillator cannot be distinguished from changes in frequency.
signal. Phase noise also presents uncertainty through Small variations in the oscillator frequency may
be
the detection of digitally modulated described as a frequency modulation of the carrier by:
signals.
The frequency spectrum of ideal oscillator has a signal
Af
delta function at its operating frequency. The practical e )=sin t=0,sin@, t (3.6.2)
oscillator has a frequency spectrum similar to shown in
Fig. 3.6.1. In Equation (3.6.2), fm = is the modulating
***************************************:****************************;
frequency. 6, is peak phase deviation =

Random phase variation.
modulation index.
6 is also called as
By putting Equation (3.6.2) into (3.6.1) and expanding

Discrete take signal
****
gives,
V,(0=V. [ coso,tcos (0, sin o )
***** *******:****************************
**i********* **********
weenrowwmepswmn nrnnoonoimoo
sin , t sin (0, sin » )1 ...(3.6.3)
In Equation (3.6.3), A () is considered to be zero
*********
because amplitude variations are ignored that is
A () =0 and 0, << 1 by considering small phase
(1C52)Fig. 3.6.1: Output spectrum of RF oscillator
deviations. Likewise sin x= X and cos X=1 are used
Fake signals because of oscillator harmonics or
to simplify Equation (3.6.3).
intermodulation products seen as discrete spikes in the
V.() =
V,[ cos o,t-6, sin ot sin », t]
random fluctuations
spectrum. Phase noise because of
produced by thermal and other noise sources looks as a =
V. cos o,t-cos(0,- o,)t- cos (o, +) t ]
broad continuous distribution. The continuous
distribution contains information about the output .(3.6.4)
The Equation (3.6.4) indicates that small phase or
signal.
frequency deviations in the output of oscillator gives
Phase noise is expressed as the ratio of power in one
modulation sidebands at t placed on either side
phase modulation sideband to the total signal power per
of the carrier signal at o,.
unit bandwidth (1 Hz) at a specific offset, fm from
as Lf) and expressed in The output spectrum of oscillator will be the form of
signal frequency. It is shown
decibels corresponding to carrier power per Hz of Fig. 3.6.1, If the deviations are because of random
bandwidth (dBc/Hz). changes in temperature or device noise.
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As phase noise is expressed as the ratio of noise ower Since the input and output power spectral densities are
in a single sideband to the carier power, the waveform related by the square of the magnitude of voltage
of equation log according to phase noise has a phase transfer function by using Equations (3.6.7) and (3.6.8).
noise of
s,(o) = -H(O)S)
3.6.5) 1+4QAo lo
7S()
4Q Ao
D.
In Equation (3.6.5), ms=is the rms value of phase
y2 1+o
1+ 4 A0) S)
deviation. The two sided power spectral density linked
with phase noise have power in both sidebands.
-1 Sa() (3.6.9)
S,)=2 (J==0 ..(3.6.6) Where Sol) is input power spectral density and S,(0)
is output power spectral density. In Equation (3.6.3)
3.6.2 Lesson's Model for Oscillator
20 is defined as the half power (3dB) bandwidth
Phase Noise
of the resonator.
This model is used to characterize the power spectral Fig. 3.6.3 shows noise spectrum of transistor amplifier
density of oscillator phase noise. Fig. 3.6.2 is modeled with sinusoidal signal at f Apart from KTB thermal
as an amplifier with feedback path. noise, transistor generate extra noise which changes 1/f
at frequencies below the frequencyf
Noise free amplifier
Vo) V.to) This 1/f or flicker noise is produced by random
Spfo) A 1 fluctuations of the carrier density in the active device.
Due to the nonlinearity of the transistor, the 1/f noise
will modulate the signal at f,.and appear as 1/f noise
side band around fo
H(a)
******************************** *****.******
(icanFig. 3.6.2: Amplifer withfeedback path for ************* e**..*..*
characterizing oscillator phase noise 1f noise

****
1/fNoise at carrier.
After including the votage gain of amplifier in
feedback transfer function then, the voltage transfer **********
Thermal
function for oscillator circuit is noise
Volo) 1- H(0) ...(3.6.7)

The oscillators having high Q resonant circuit in the a 'o
feedback loop such as Colpits, Hartley, Clapp and (Ic28pFig. 3.6.3: Noise power Vs frequeney for an amplifier
similar oscillators, then H(0) can be represented as the with input signal
voltage transfer function of parallel RLC resonator. As 1/f noise element dominates phase noise power at
1 frequencies closer to the carrier, it is important to
H(o) ..(3.6.8)
1+j0 1+ consider it in model.
Thus input power spectral density shown in Fig. 3.6.4
Where, , is the resonant frequency of the oscillator
is considered. Here K/Af presents the input noise
and A = - 0, is the frequency offset relative to the
component around the carrier and K T, F/ P, presents
resonant frequency.
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thermal noise. Thus the
power density of input of
oscillator can
be expressed as, S(o)
So)= TE www. www
A ..(3.6.10) f
Where K is constant for 1/f noise

a
component and **********************
= 2 Tf, is
frequency of 1/f noise. The a
corner ******
1/f **********:****************
KTFIP
depends on type of transistor
used in oscillator. Silicon ********* *******
junction FETs have corner

from 50 Hz frequencies to
: * ****************:***************** :
100 Hz.
o************ **- *******p* *************************
Whereas GaAs FET have ..
from 2 MHz to 10 MHz.

corner frequencies of ranging (Ica)(b) Response for f,<f (high Q)
Bipolar transistors have corner Fig. 3.6.5 : Power spectral density of phase noise at output
frequencies of range from 5 kHz to 50 kHz.
of oscillator
By using Equation( 3.6.10) into (3.6.9) gives the power
spectral density of the output phase noise as If the resonator has comparatively low Q, So that its
3 dB bandwidth is f,> f. then for frequencies between
KOa f and f the noise power falls as 1/f or - 12 dB /
4Q Ao Aw
octave. Ifresonator has high Q, so that fh <f then the
KT K,. 2
KOe 1...(3.6.11) noise power falls as 1/f or - 6dB/octave for the
A0 Ao
Aw frequencies between fh and far
This result is shown in Fig. 3.6.5 For higher frequencies the noise is thermal and constant
******es**ga*wrmsv sexsassoon
Splm) with frequency and proportional to noise figure

********* ereww******* ***e*******
****
of amplifier. An amplifier without noise that is
****
F = 1 (0 dB) provide minimum noise floor of
KJAf KT, = - 174 dBm/Hz. With reference to Fig. 3.6.6(a),
noise power is largest at frequencies nearest to the

***********************************
KTF/P carrier frequency.
************w
**
************************
****** Random phase variation.,
wwww..
(1c29Fig. 3.6.4: idealized power spectral density of Discrete spurious signal
amplifier noise including 1/f and thermal components
***** **********v v***V**ewv*,
Based on middle terms, there are two cases. In either ************* *****s
case, the noise power reduces as 1/f or -

18 dB/octave for ******
frequencies near to the carrier at fo. *******
*******:******
*** ****************io *************************************
So) * **** *****02***?*****A**?

(1c31a)Fig. 3.6.6(a) : Output spectrum of RF oscillator
w.
However, from Equation (3.6.11),

* ***************;****** 1/f component is
proportional to 1/Q, due to this better phase noise
characteristic nearer to the carrier are obtained with
1f large Q resonator.
KTFIP Lastly from Equation (3.6.6), single sideband
noise will be % of the
phase
power spectral density of
Equation (3.6.11). Above results presents a good model
h for oscillator phase noise and also
noise
explain the roll off of
(1ca0) Fig. 3.6.5(a) : Responsefor f,>f(low Q) power with frequency offset from the carrier.
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RF Design (MU-gh Sem.-E&TC) (3-29) Frequency Generation and Mixer
GQ. 3.6.1 Explain the process of down conversion of signal nearby the desired signal frequency
- - . .-
The phase noise in a receiver degrades the signal to noise ratio or bit error rate and selectivity. Of these the impact on
is the most serious. The phase noise disturbs
selectivity always
signals located nearby the desired signal frequency.
selectivity of receiver of producing down conversion of
The signal dovwn conversion process is shown in Fig. 3.6.6b). A local oscillator at frequency 1, is used to down convert
desired to an intermediate frequency (F)
asdown signal signal. Because of phase noise adjacent undesired signal
converted to the same. F frequency because of phase noise spectrum of the local osillator.
can be
The phase noise which converts this is located at an offset from carrier equal to IF frequency from undesired signal.
This process is known as reciprocal mixing.
From this diagram it is easy to see that the maximum allowable phase noise is order to get an adjacent channel rejection
or selectivity of S dB (S20) is expressed as,
L,) = C(dBm) - S(B) -I (dBm) - 10 log (B), (dBc/H2) ..(3.6.12)
Where, Cis desired level of signal in (iBm)
I is the undesired (interference) signal level (dBm)
B is the bandwidth of the IF filter (Hz).
* ***********Y*********y***********************************************¥**********************************Y*********;*********?*****************
nohpav wwwwww ww.w

wwwwromammoneninareonoonromoonoioroanmn mwwww.iw*n
Desired LO
Unwanted Desired
signal SIgnal
ww.o* ******* ************** Phase
**** **2****
Noise
****A ww
Noisy LOC..
eww..homww.ienwwn
*********?*****************
O IF *
w***ww***M*******w*****w*w*w**w**
(1c32)Fig. 3.6.6(b): Showing how local oscillator phase noise can get undesired signals adjacent to the desired signal
9 9 dBm-9 dB - I (dBm) - 10 log (2 x 10)

Ex. 3.6.1
GSM standard needs 9 dB of rejection of interfering signal The following table presents the local oscillator (LO)
levels of-23 dBm at 0.6 MHz from the carrier, for carrier noise as computed from above expression:
level of- 99 dBm. Determine the required local oscillator requencCy Interfering signal leve L (fm) dB
phase noise at these carier frequency offsets. The channel offset (dBm) Hz
bandwidth is 200 kHz. fm (MHz
3.0
Soln.: 23 - 138
C (dBm)= -99 dBm 1.6 -33 - 128

Given
0.6 - 43 - 118
S (dB) = 9 dB
I (dBm) = ? This level of phase noise needs a phase locked
B = 200 kHz synthesizer. Bit errors in GSM systems are usually

dominated by reciprocal mixing effect, while errors because
By using Equation (3.6.12),
of thermal antenna and receiver noise are generally ignored.
L) = C (dBm) -S (dB) - I (dBm) - 10 log (B)
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3.7 MIXERSS
GQ. 3.7.1 What is mixer or frequency conversion ?
Frequency conversion
conversion. ldeally mixer
frequency
A mixer is a three port device. It uses a nonlinear or time varying element to get m x e r s works
RF and microwave
EVS an Output consisting of sum and difference of its two innut signals. Practically
on
nonlinearity provided by either a diode or transistor. SO
of input frequencies, Tiltering
A nonlineanty of device can produce a wide varietv of harmonics and other products
is necessary to select the desired
frequency components. convers1on and down
functions of frequency upP
aerowave system uses many mixers and filters to do the
*
conversion between baseband signal frequencies and RF carrier frequencies.
3.7.1 Mixer Characteristics
GQ. 3.7.2 Explain the mixer characteristics

The some of the important mixer characteristics are:
(i) Image frequency, (ii) Conversion loss
(ii) Noise effects (iv) Intermodulation distortion
indicates that the output is
Fig. 3.7.1 presents symbols and functional diagram for a mixer. The symbol of mixer
proportional to the product of the two input signals. eee*eo*****
wewww.vw**w ***************** *************
Mixer
FRE FLOt FiF ******
Local *******************
***
ww. ********************
oscillator *** ***** ******

***********i*******:*******************
(LO) IF
oscillator
.*****
IF
* * * * *
LOIE
****
LOFLo+IF ********
********
***
****
(1C33)Fig. (a) Up conversion
*******************w*t ****** ************

Mixer
FiF FRF FLo ********;
i********** ****- ... . *.***.******
RF
Oscillator ************** ***Z""************
FLo *** ****;******************** *****************.

*************2******** **********************2
Local
oscillator O FRFFLo LoFRE FRF+FLo
(1c34)Fig. (b) Down conversion
Fig. 3.7.1: Frequency conversion using a mixer

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3.7.1.1 Frequency Up Conversion The RF input signal is expressed as,

VRF () = cos 2n FR ...(3.7.5)
GQ. 3.7.3 Explain frequency up conversion and is applied to the input of mixer with local oscillator
signal expressed in Equation (3.7.1). The output of mixer is

Fig. 3.7.1 (a) explains the operation of frequency up
conversion that takes place in a transmitter. A local expressea as
Vp ()= K Vgr() Vio ()= K cos 2n Fa cos 2n FLot
oscillator (L0) signal at comparatively high frequency
FLo is attached to one of the input port of the mixer.
lcos 2n (FR-Fo)+cos 2 (Fap +FLo) ).(3.7.6)
The local oscillator signal is expressed as:
From Equation (3.7.6) mixer output consist of sum and
VLo) = cos 27 FLo ..(3.7.1) difference of input signal frequencies. The spectrum of
A signal of lower frequency or intermediate frequency these signal is presented in Fig. 3.7.1(b).
(1F) is applied to other input of mixer. This signal LO
Practically, the RF and frequencies are
carries the information or data to be sent. This signal comparatively close together and sum frequency nearly
for output purpose is expressed as, equal to twice the RF frequency.
V= () = oos 2 t Fpt ..(3.7.2) The difference frequency is much smaller than FRF The
The output of ideal mixer is expressed as the product IF output in a receiver is the difference frequency,
LO and IF signals.
VRF ()= K VLo () V»()=Kcos 2n Fot cos 27t Ft
FRE-FLO
This difference frequency is easily selected by low pass
filtering
cos 2n (FLo-Fp)t+cos2 (FLo+Fp) Fi Far-FLo .(3.7.7)
.(3.7.3)
It is noted that frequency down conversion considers
where K is a constant considered for the voltage
only the sum and difference outputs as produced by
conversion loss of mixer. The RF output consist of sum
multiplication of input signals.
and differences of the input signal frequencies.
In mixer many products will be produced because of
FuE FotF .3.7.4)
more ccomplicated nonlinear behaviour of devices such
The spectra of the input and output signals are shown in as diode or transistor. These products can be eliminated
Fig. 3.7.1 (a), where mixer has effect of modulating LO by using filtering and are usually undesirable.
signal with IF signal.
The sum and difference frequencies at FLo t Fe are 3.7.1.3 Image Frequency
caused sidebands of the carrier frequency Fuo with
Fio+Fy as Upper Sideband (USB) and FLo - Fp as GQ 3.7.5 Explain imagefreguency
lower sideband (LSB). characteristics of mixer

******** -
A double sideband (DSB) signal carries both upper and
At frequency FRF, in a receiver the RF input signal is
lower sidebands, as expressed in Equation (3.7.3).
normally coming from the antenna. The antenna may
A Single Sideband (SSB) can be expressed by filtering
get RF signals across wide band of frequencies.
or by using a single sideband mixer.
A receiver having a local oscillator frequency FLo and
3.7.1.2 Frequency Down intermediate frequency FiF expressed in Equation
Conversion (3.7.7), produces the RF input frequency. This RF input
frequeney will be down converted to the IF frequency
GQ 3.74 Explain process of freguency down as below.
conversio FRF FLo +FF .(3.7.8)

By putting Equation (3.7.8) into Equation (3.7.7) gives
Fig. 3.7.1b) explain the process of down conversion
FiF i.e. after low pass filtering.
used in receiver.
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It is considered the RF and their harmonics are

input frequency is expressed as: fact that many frequencies
FiMFLo-F (3.7.9) involved.

By putting Equation (3.7.9) into Equation (3.7.7) gives each mixer part would be matched at its
Ideally,
-
FIF i.e. after low pass filtering. IF an frequency

unwanted
particular RF, LO
or
Mathematically, - FF is similar to FIE
vanished with resistive loads or
Due to Fourier spectrum of any real products would be
signal is symmetric blocked with reactive
terminations. Resistive loads
about zero frequency and hence
containing negative as where as reactive loads can
well as positive frequencies. increase mixer losses
The RF frequency expressed in of frequency 1.e. they are very
Equation (3.7.9) is change with the change
called image response. The image
response is essential sensitive to frequency.
for receiver design because reached RF at the signal Additionally there are
inherent losses in the frequency
image frequency of Equation (3.7.9) is not of unwanted
distinguishable at the IF stage from the desired RRF conversion process due to production
signal of frequency of Equation (3.7.9), unless steps are harmonics and other frequency products.
taken in the RF stages of the receiver to preselect is important Figure of merit for
Thus conversion loss
signals only within the desired RF frequency band. mixer. It is defined as the ratio of available RF input
The selection of which RF frequency defined in
IF output power, it is expressed
power to the available
Equations (3.7.8) and (3.7.9) is the desired and which
the image response is arbitrary is decided on whether in dB as follows. The conversion loss is denoted as
LO frequency is greater or below the desired RF LC

frequency. It is also noted that the another way of Available RF input power
Lc (dB) = 10
1ogAvailable IF output power
knowing this difference in Equations (3.7.8) and
(3.7.9). FF may be negative. Lc (dB) 2 0 dB ..(3.7.11)
From Equations (3.7.8) and (3.7.9), it is noted that the The conversion loss occurs for resistive losses in a
desired and image frequencies are distinguished by mixer as well as due to loss in the frequency conversion
FF process from RF to IF ports. Conversion loss is
Another indication of Equation (3.7.7) and fact is that
applicab to both up and down conversions. As RF
FIFis negative, is that there are two local oscillator
stages of receiver requires lower power levels to
frequencies can be used for given RF and IF.
operate than the transmitters, thus minimum conversion
Thus. FLo FRrtFF .(3.7.10)
loss is more critical for receivers due to the importance
Since taking difference frequency of FRF With these two
of reducing losses in RF stages to maximize receiver
LO frequencies given t Fp
noise figure.
These two LO frequencies corresponds to the upper and
Practically diode mixers have conversion losses
lower sidebands when mixer is operated
as an up
the receivers use local between 4 and 7 dB in frequency range of1 GHz to l10
converter. Practically, most of
a
oscillator withcorresponding frequency FLo FRE+ FIF GHz. Mixers consisting transistors have lower
as this needs a
smaller LO tuning ratio when the conversion loss and have conversion gain of few dB.
across given frequency
receiver must chose RF signals
Factors affecting conversion loss are
bands.
(i) The local oscillator power level
3.7.1.4 Conversion Loss
(ii) Minimum conversion loss of 0 and 10 dB occur
for LO powers. This power level is enough as
GQ. 3.7.6 Define conversion loss of mixer
characterization of mixer often needs nonlinear
matching ports. at three
Mixer design needs impedance analysis.
be complicated by the
This impedance matching may

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RF Design (MU-8th Sem.-E&TC) (3-33) Frequency Generation and Mixer
The definition of noise figure gives the DSB noise
3.7.1.5 Noise Figure
figure of the mixer as follows:
:Ga. 3.7.7 Show that the noise figure of sSB
.(3.7.14)
signal is twice that of pSB case. OR FpsSHSN,
for the SSB case starts with
GQ. 3.7.8 Explain noise figure characteristiess of The corresponding analysis
mixer.
a SSB inputsignal as:
**************-**-*
VSB () A cos (0Lo-p)t ...(3.7.15)

The impotant elements to generate noise in mixer are After mixing a with LO signal cos Lo t and low pass
diode or transistor and thermal sources because of
resistive losses. Practically noise figure of mixer varies filtering, the down converted IF signal is:
from 1-5 dB. Generally, mixers with diode have lower V () = cos( .(3.7.16)
noise figures than mixers with transistors.
The power of SSB input signal expressed in Equation
The noise figure of mixer depends on whether its input
is a single sideband signal or a double sideband signal (3.7.15),
because of down conversion of noise by mixer at both
sideband frequencies. (Since these side bands have
S and output power ofthe IF signal is expressed as :
same IF frequencies). However, the power level of a
SSB signal is one half of that of a DSB signal for the 8
same amplitude level. As, the input and output noise power are same as foor
To obtain the relation between SSB and DSB and noise DSB, the noise figure for SSB input signal is expressed as:
N
figure, consider DSB input signal as:
FsBSN .8.7.17
VpSB ()= A [cos ( o ) t +cos (Lo +Op))
...(3.7.12) By comparing Equation (3.7.14), the noise figure of
After mixing with LO frequency signal cos @ot and SSB case is twice that of the DSB case.
low pass filtering, the down converted IF signal is FsSB 2 FpSB .(3.7.18)
expressed as:
AK ()+cos(-o) AK 3.7.1.6 Other Mixer Characteristics
VIF () =cos
AK cos t ...(3.7.13) GQ 3.7.4 Explain other characteristics of mixer.
where K is constant, occurred due to conversion loss
)The inter modulation products will be produced due to
for each sideband. non linearity of mixer. For mixers, value of P, ranges
The power of the DSB input signal of Equation (3.7.12) from 15-30 dBm.
is expressed as: () Second important characteristics of mixer is the
S +2=A' and isolation between RF and LO ports. Ideally, RF and LO

ports are decoupled, but due to impedance mismatches
Power of the output IF signal is expressed as : and limitations of coupler results in coupling of LO
power with RF port. Mostly this happens in receivers
S that drive RF port directly from the antenna. As such
For noise figure, input noise power is defíned as

signals will interface with other services or users, FCC
B is the IF
N, =
KT,B, where To 290 K and sets the limits on power radiated by receivers. This
bandwidth. The output noise power is equal to input bandpass filter
problem can be solved by using a
divided by the conversion loss. between antenna and mixer or by using RF amplifier in
noise + Nadded
The
Nadded is the noise power added by the mixer. front of mixer. Isolation between LO and RF ports is
output noise power 'N,' is written as: dependent on type of coupler used for duplexing these
two inputs. Isolation between two ports varies from
(KTB+Nded
Lc 20dB to 40dB.
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(3-34)
Ex. 3.7.1 956 to 981 MHz
7 8 2 to 807 MHzZ
The IS-54 digital cellular telephone system uses a receive For 956 MHz to 981 MHz, local oscillator (LO)
frequency band of 869 MHz to 894
Mz, with a first. If IF frequency as,
frequency of 87 MHz and a channel frequency using Equation (3.7.7) gives
between of 30 kHz. to 98) 87 MHz
F=FRs- FLo (869 to 894) (956
-
= -
=
What are two
possible ranges for the LO frequency ? If the
upper LO frequency range is used From Equation (3.7.9), RF image frequency range is,
determine the image 87
frequency range. Does the image frequency fall within the FIM FLo- Fi =(956 to 981) +
= (1043 to 1068) MHz

receive passband ?
passband of receiver.
Soln.: This is outside the
that the output was
Mixers are idealized by assumption
FRF= 869 to 894 MHz,
thus giving only
87 MHz
proportional to the product of input signals,
sum and difference frequencies.
In below sections mixers
By using Equation (3.7.10), FLo =
FRE t FF are realized by showing that the output contains a term
FLo (869 to 894) t 87) proportional to the product of the higher
order.
(869 + 87 to 894 +87
869 87 to 894-87
3.8 SINGLE ENDED DIODE MIXERR
GQ. 3.8.1 Explain the operation of single ended diode mixer for down converter application OR Prove
that the spectrum of single ended mixer is similar to that of idealized mixer
.
A basic diode mixer circuit is shown in Fig. 3.8.1(a). This type of mixer is known as single ended mixer because it uses
only one diode device.
+DC
Diploxing bias
coupler Low pasS
DC RF filter
RF block chock
Input
ip()
IF output
VRF) Diode
DC
block
LO
Input
TVLo)
(1c35)Fig. 3.8.1 (a) : Single ended diode mixer
V Y
VLo)
(Ic6)Fig. 3.8.1 (b) : Idealized equivalent circuit
In dinlexcr. the RF inputs and LO inputs

are combined. The diplexer superimposes the two input voltages to drive the
diode.
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The diplexer can be implemented using a directional coupler or hybrid junction to provide combining and isolating two
inputs.
The diode is biased with DC bias voltage which must be decoupled from the RF signal paths. This can be achieved by
AC
using DC blocking capacitors on either side of the diode and RF chock betwcen diode of bias voltage source. Then
used for
output of diode is sent through a low pass filter to produce required IF output voltage. The same mixer can be
up conversion as every port may be used interchangeably as input or output port.
Fig. 3.8.16) shows the equivalent circuit model of single ended diode mixer. In Fig. 3.8.146), the RF and LO input
voltages are shown by two series connected voltage sources.
RF input voltage may be a cosine wave of frequency oR and is expressed as,
VRr ()= VRECOs Ogr t ..(3.8.1)

The LO input voltage is also a cosine wave offrequency Lo and is expressedas,
VLo ()=VLocos o t ...3.8.2)

Using small signal approximation, the total diode current is,
i() = lo+G, [VRF () +VLo ()]
.(3.8.3)
The first term in Equation (3.8.3) is DC bias current. This current will be blocked from IF output by DC blocking
LO input signals, and this is filtered by low pass filter. The third
capacitors. The second term is application of RF and
termis written as
i Gd
Ves cOs + Vio cos o
vcosogp l+ 2 Vgr Vio cOs(get cosot+V cosot]
V(l +cos 2g t)+Vj(1+cos2ho)+2 Vr Vocos (Oa-o)t

(1+ cos 2 0g)+V1 +cos 2 0)+2 VgeVuocos (h-ot+2 V Vuo cos (ge + o )
Above Equation contains many new signal components, only one of component generates required IF difference
will e
products. The two DC terms again will be blocked by blocking capacitors
and terms 2
Op 2@o and ope t o
blocked by the low pass filter.
produce the IF output current is expressed

as:
This
i ( Vap Vio cos p t ..3.8.4)
where F = ORE-00 is IF frequency

Therefore the spectrum of the down converting single ended mixer is similar to that of idealized mixer shown in
Fig. 3.8.1b).
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3.9 SINGLE ENDED FET MIXER near pinch off and also used to provide a positive bias
for the drain of FET.

GQ. 3.9.1 Explain the operation of single A bypass capacitor used at the drain terminal provides
ended
FET mixer a return path for the LO signal and low pass filter
The
produces a final IF output signal.
non linear characteristic of FET can be used for The equivalent circuit mode is shown in Fig. 3.9.3 and
mixer. The main parameter of FET that
produces non is modelled on the basis of unilateral equivalent circuit
linearity is transconductance
gm when FET works in
Common Source (Cs) configuration with of FET.
bias voltage. Fig. 3.9.1 shows
negative gate
VRF g
graph of Em versus gate
bias voltage for typical FET.
R
9mms)
***
************************************
Pinch
wwww.n
*
***************************
*****:
*****
-
-
off **************; ****
*******anann- **************mesan
(1CA3Fig.3.9.3 Equivalent circuit for FET Mixer of Fig. 3.9.2
4 The RF and LO inputs are expressed in Equations

*****************************-s**** gs
(3.8.1) and (3.8.2)
Let
(1C37Fig. 3.9.1: FET transconductance Vs V Z R, + j X, is the Theviníns equivalent
=
impedance for the RF input port and Z; = Rz +j X; is

When gate bias voltage is near to pinch off voltage, Bm the Thevinin's equivalent impedance at the IF
output
becomes equal to zero. A small positive change in gate port. These impedance are complex conjugate to allow
voltage can make the large. aconjugate matching at the input and output ports for
Change in transconductance 'Bn value producing maximum transfer of power. LO
port has a real
nonlinear response of FET. Thus LO voltage is applied generator impedance of Z.
to the gate of the FET to force the transconductance to As FET ransconductance is driven
by LO signal its
time variation is
switch the FET between high and low transconductance expressed as Fourier series in terms of
states, hence providing the required mixing function. harmonics of the LO.
Fig. 3.9.2 shows a single ended FET mixer.

DC
g0)= 8+2 2 8 cos no,t ..(3.9.1)
SRF chokeo Bias n=1
As the desired down
conversion result is only for
RF RFLO FET
term of Fourier series, so we need n=l|
diplexer Low
g, coefficient.
and LO
Measurement gives a value in the
LO P
matchingESchock
R T Bypass pass
filter
81.
range of 10 mS for
The conversion
DC gain of FET mixer can be obtained
bias as,
(1CA2)Fig. 3.9.2 :Single ended FET mixer circuit. PIE-avail
IvR
4RRL .3.9.2)
As shown in diploxing coupler is used to
Fig. 3.9.2,
terminal of the
a
4 R
GcPRF- vail Z ..(3.9.2)
mix the RF and LO signals at the gate

network at input and Where VD is IF drain
FET. An impedance matching voltage and impedances Z, ana
low input impedance. RF Z are selected for
output sides presents very maximum power transfer at RF and F
sed to bias the gate at a negative voltage| ports. The RE frequency component
of the phasor voltage
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across gate to source capacitance is expressed in terms at The elements g. R Ri and C are all belongs to FET.
voltage divider between Z. R, and Cgs Practical mixer circuit use matching circuits to
transform the FET impedance to 50 2 for RF, LO and
v VRE
IF ports.
j C ( R +Z)-
Ex. 3.9.1
VRE (3.9.3)
1+j gF Cg (R; +Z A single ended FET mixer is to be designed for a wireless
local area network receiver operating at 2.4 GHz. The
Multiplying the transconductance of equation (3.9.1) by
parameters of FET are R = 300 2, R, = 10 2, C = 0.3 pF
ve ()=Vc cos
t given as:
and g = 10 mS. Calculate maximum possible conversion
8(0 Ve =8,Ve cos agt
+2 g1 V cos aRF t COS OLo t+
gain.
..(3.9.4) Soln.:
By using conversion gain Gc formula,
The down converted IF frequency component can be
obtained from second term of Equation (3.9.3) using
Gc
R
trignometric formula, 4 RC
Sm() Vc () = RF cos t
g Vc
IF
(3.9.5) (10x 10(300) 30.6
Where F @RF op. The IF component
-
of drain 4(27)° (2.4 x 10 (10)(0.3x 1012=

voltage is expressed in phasor form as : Gc = 15.6 dB
This Gc does not include losses due to necessary

v--gV RZ)1j gr CgR+ z impedance matching networks.
.(3.9.6)
a 3.10 Balanced Mixer
Where Equation (3.9.3) used in Equation (3.9.6), Using
Equation (3.9.6), Equation (3.9.2) gives the conversion gate mixer with 90
GQS.10.1 Explain balanced
before conjugate matching) asS: hybridhybrid junction.
Cnot matches The main disadvantage of single diode mixer is poor
R isolation between RF and LO ports which results in

narrow bandwidth, poor noise suppression and high
R,+R+(x,- [R+R+x] conversion loss. Without using some form of balun or
matched to hybrid structure, this problem becomes more difficult.
The RF and IF ports are now conjugatly
maximize the conversion gain. Thus R, = R$, X, = 1/ oRF There is only way to overeome above difficulty and
that solution is to use some isolating device between
CpR R, and X =0. LO and RF ports.
Then after putting all these values, the conversion gain
The use of balanced mixer helps to improve RF input
Gc is reduces to,
2. matching and RF-LO port isolation. The balanced
8, R ...(3.9.7) mixer consists of two single ended mixers combined
Gc 4 4
oRC R with hybrid junction.
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3.10.1 Single Balanced
Mixer using 90° Hybrid Coupler
8 5.10.1 shows the basic configuration of balance mixer with either 90° bybrid or 180° hybrid junction.
RF
VRE input o V
IF
output
LO K Low
input pass filteer
3 dB 90°
hybrid
(1C44a) Using a 90° hybrid
RF
RF input O Through
Port Port
X5,
LO O 90o Low
IF
output
Port
Coupled
Port 3
input V2 pass filter
-
3 dB 180
hybrid
(iCA5(b) Using 180° hybrid (ICA5)c) Hybrid coupled port coupler
Fig. 3.10.1: Balanced mixer circuits
A balanced mixer using 90°

hybrid junction will
perfectly match the RF port across wide frequency Ío o
range where as balanced mixer with the use of 180° S] = ...(3.10.3)
hybrid junction will perfectly isolate the port RF and
port LO across a wide frequency range.
0 1 i o
Where the ports are numbered as shown in
Additionally balanced mixers will reject all even order
intermodulation products.
Fig. 3.10.1(a).
From above matriX,
As shown in Fig. 3.10.1(c), no phase shift between port
(1) and (2) so no isolation between them. There is V,) = Sa1 and S4= 3.10.4)
either 180° or 90° phase shift between port (1) and (4).
Thus an isolation between port (1) and (4) can be
V,= -JRF VLO
obtained. v2
By using small signal model, the performance of
V,(0) S1 and
Su
=
balanced mixer is analyzed.

The small signal model was used for the analysis of
single ended diode mixer.
Here balanced mixer with 90° hybrid is considered for The total RF and LO voltages applied to two diodes are
the analysis shown in Fig. 3.10.1 (a), expressed as
Let RF input and LO input voltages be defined as By using Equations (3.10.1) and (3.10.2),
VRF(1)= VR COS OREt .(3.10.1) V,0 IVay cos ( r t-90°)
And VLo) = VLo cos Lot ..(3.10.2) +VLo COs (0Lot- 180°)]
The S-matrix of 90° hybrid junction is expressed as,
RF Sin oRrt-VLo cos ot]
.(3.10.5(a))
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RF Design(MU-9 Sem-E&TC) (3-39)
V,0) h r cos (ge t 180)
+Vio cos (ot-90°)] 3.10.10(a))
-Va cos Ogrt+ VLo sin o t jlva

3.10.5b)) .3.10.10(b))
Using only the quadratic term from the small signal This, it is seen that the phase characteristics of 90
diode approximation gives the diode currents as, RF
hybrid give perfect cancellation of reflections at
and LO ports is
i0=kV port. Though isolation between RF
difficult
dependent on matching of diodes, it is
to
sin oet-2 VaF Vo sin p COS Lot+Vocos o
maintain across reasonable frequency range.
.(3.10.6(a))
i()=-kV,
Advantage of balanced mixer
1. No unwanted signals at the output.
cos aaet-2 Var COS g sin got+Visin t
Good dynamic range.
.(3.10.6(b) 3. Bandwidth operation is increased.
Negative sign of- i, indicates that the polarity of diode 4. Good noise rejection is obtained due to hybrid device.
are reversed and k is constant for the quadratic term of
the diode response. 3.10.2 Single Balanced mixer using9
By adding these two curents at the input of low parts
180 Hybrid Coupler
filter gives,
i,()+00 [ V cos20+2 VgVo sina t-Vi, cos 20 Ex. 3.10.1

Usual trigonometric identities have been used and Design single balanced mixer using 180° hybrid coupler.
OORE-o is the IF frequency.
Soln.
It is noted that DC components of the diode currents The S-parameters of 180° hybrid coupler is expressed as
cancel upon combining.
After low pass filtering IF output is,
1 0 0 -1
i ()=-k VRE VLo sin ont ...(3.10.7)
as required. L0 -1 1 0
After low pass filtering, the IF output is defined as
i () =-kVRF VLo sin e t 3.10.8) Thevoltage applied to two diodes are:
V ) = S21 +S24
It is also possibleto calculate the input match at the RF
port and coupling between the RF and LO ports. It is
assumed that the diodes are matched and each produce
V,05-VR+Vo (1)
V , () = S1 + S4
a voltage reflection coefficient T at the RF frequency,
the phasor expression for the reflected RF voltages at
VarVo ..(2)
the diodes are expressed as,
By using Equations (3.10.1) and (3.10.2), into
.3.10.9(a)| Equations (1) and (2).
V,(0 VR COs (gg t-90)
And V = .(3.10.9(b))
v2 +VLo cOs (Lot +90°)} (3)
These reflected voltages comes at ports 2 and 3 of the
hybrid junction respectively and mix to form the V,(0) =I VRrCOs (grt-90)
following outputs at the RF and LO ports. +VLo Cos (ot-90) (4)
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The diode currents are expressed as:
i, ()+iz () = i()
Thus, i, ) =
KV,() and i, (0) =K V, ()
i ()+i, (t) = -
KVRF VLO Sin ot

romSparameters for 180° hybrid coupler, VsWR at RF and LO port found to be very poor which indicates
reflections at the
corresponding ports. This gives excellent isolation between them.
nus nere t 1S concluded that a single balanced diode mixer uses two diodes. Either LO or RF signal is balanced means
applied in antiphase.
his results in rejection at IF port. The level of rejection depends on amplitude and phase balance of hybrid devices as
well as it also depends on
matching between two diodes.
M 3.11 IMAGE REJECT MIXER
GQ. 3.11.1 Obtain the expressions for the Vi(t) and V2(t) of image reject mIXer
We know that two different RF
input signals at frequencies wpE =0 t o will down convert to the same F Irequency
when combined with
Lo
, These two frequencies are upper and lower sidebands of a double sideband signal.
By assuming a positive IF frequency, the required can be chosen as either LSB (0Lo-F) the USB
response or
(0o+
F)
Fig. 3.11.1 shows the image reject mixer.
Low
pass filter
VIF
A
LSB
RF
input LO
input
VUs
-RF 90° F
hybrid
90° RF
hybrid
Low
pass filter
(1C46)Fig. 3.11.1: Circuit for image reject mixer
It is used to isolate these two LSB and USB response The

image reject mixer is analyzed by using small
into separate output signals. signal approximation.
Fig. 3.11.1l is also used for up conversion and it is Let RF input
signal is expressed as,
usually called a single sideband modulator. VRF (1)= Vy cos (Lo+) t+
In this, the IF input signal is passed to either the LSB or
VL cos (o- @p)t
the USB port of the IF hybrid and coresponding single ..(3.11.1)
Where, Vy and VL present the
sideband signal is generated at the RF port of the and lower sidebands amplitudes of the upper
mixer.
respectively.
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Using S-matrix of 90° hybrid expressed in Equation
V2(1) =
KVLoV Sin p t ..(3.11.6(b))
(3.10.3) gives the RF voltages at the diodes as,
Equations (3.11.6(a)) and (3.11.6(b)) clearly shows the
VA() IVu cos (ot +@rt-90) presence of 90° Phase shift between two sidebands.
+VL cos (Lot-Ft-90°)] It is also noted that image rejection mixer does not
produce any additional losses rather than conversion
V sin (o +p)+V sin (o20-@) t losses of the single rejection mixer.
...(3.11.2(a)) Practically fabrication of image rejection mixers is
difficult due to fabrication of a good hybrid at
V(9 iV cos (ot+o-180) comparatively low IF frequency.
+VL cos (0Lot t- 180°] Losses and noise figure are greater than for a simpler
Vu cos (o+ )t+VL cos ( 0 o ) t mixer.
After combining with LO signal of Equation (3.10.2)

..3.11.2(b) 3.12 OTHER MIXERS
and low pass filtering, the IF inputs to the IF hybrid are 3 . 1 2 . 1 Double Balanced Diode
expressed as follows Mixers
V ()= KV - V ) sin o...(3.11.3(a))
22 GQ 3.121 Explain double balanced diode mixer.
V)= 22 +V) coso There are number of mixer circuits that offer many
advantages like bandwidth, harmonic generation and
..(3.11.3b))
intermodulation products. Fig. 3.12.1 shows the double
Where K is mixer constant for the squared tem of the
balanced mixer.
diode response. The phasor presentation of the F signals of
Equation (3.11.3) is expressed as :
RF
input
v ...(3.11.4(a))
22 (u+ VD (3.11.4b))
3dB F
180 output
By mixing these voltages in the IF hybrid gives the hybrid
Low
following outputs as: pass filter
LO
nput
..(3.11.5(a)) (1C47)Fig. 3.12.1: Double balanced mixer circuit
V i aY (uSB) This mixer uses two hybrid junctions or transformers

and generates good isolation between all three ports
...(3.11.5(b)) and rejects all even harmonics of RF and LO signals.
Equations (3.11.5(a)) and (3.11.5(b)) are the separate
This gives very good conversion loss but less than ideal
sidebands of the down converted input signal of
input matching at the RF port.
Equation (3.10.9). The double balanced mixer also produce a higher third
These output are expressed in time domain form as
order intercept point than either a single ended mixer or
follows: a balanced mixer.
V,t) = KVLocOs
2
COs OF (3.11.6(a))
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(3-42)
SAdvantage of each LO cycle. Thus one of the upper FET is always
lower FET wil operate in
1. All ports conducting and the
are isolated from each other.
2. saturation.
Improved linearity. The RF and LO ports need impedance matching and IF
3. Improved suppression of unwanted produced. return path to ground for the
output circuits produce a
Disadvantages LO signal
1. IF output
Require a higher level of LO drive.
2 Requires two matching networks.
Balun
3.12.2 Differential FET
Mixer
LO LO
GQ.3.12.2 Explain differential FET mixer with input Balun
diagram.
The mixer shown in
Fig. 3.12.2 uses two FETs in
differential amplifier configuration. RF
input
The balun (balanced to
unbalanced) networks on the
LO and RF ports produce a switch between a two wire
(1C48)Fig.3.12.2: Differential FET mixer
line that is balanced with respect to ground and a
single
line that is unbalanced.
a3.12.3 Parallel Diode Mixer
Baluns are used with center tapped transformers or with
180° hybrid junctions alternating switch with LO Fig. 3.12.3 shows anti parallel diode mixer circuit.
tuning the top two FETs on and off with different half It is always used for sub harmonically pumped
cycles ofthe LO. millimetre wave conversion.
These FETs are biased just above pinch off voltage, so
every FET will be operating forslightly morethan half
The back to back diodes work as a frequency doubler hence needing LO frequency of one half the usual value.
Low pasS
ter
RF
F output.
input
Band Low passS LO input

filter for LO
pass and IF
filter
for RF
(1C49)Fig. 3.12.3: Sub-harmonically pumped mixer using antiparallel diode pair
The diode nonlinearity works as a resistive frequency multiplier to produce the second harmonic of the LO to mix with
RF input to generate the required output frequency.
The anti parallel diode pair has symmetric I - V characteristics that stops the fundamental mixing product of RF and LO
conversion loss.
input signals giving better
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RF Design(MU-g Sem-E&TC) (3-43)
Table 3.12.1 gives the characteristics of many of the mixers as follows:
Table 3.12.1 : Mixer characteristics
Mixer type number ofdiodes RFinput match RFLO isolation Conversion 3 order
Single ended 1 Poor Fair Good Fair
Balanced (90°) 2 Good Poor Good Fair
Balanced (180°) 2 Fair Excellent Good Fair
Double balanced 4 Poor Excellent Excellent Excellent
Image reject 2 or 4 Good Good Good Good
M 3.13 SOLVED EXAMPLES Ex. 3.13.2
Design a transistor oscillator at 6 GHz using FET in

Ex. 3.13.1 common source configuration driving 50 2 load on drain
Prove that standard smith chart can be used for negative side. The S-parameter are (Z = 50 2), S1 = 0.9 2 - 150°,
resistances by plotting 1/ T* instead of r. Then the S = 2.6 2 50°, S = 0.2 2 - 15°, S2 = 0.52 - 105.
resistance circle values are read as negative while the Calculate and plet output stability circle and chose ryfor
reactance circles are unchanged.
ITn> 1. Designloadterminating network.
Soln. Soln.
Let Z = R+jX where, R>0
indicates that it is positive resistance value.
502
Then normalize impedance is expressed as:
=r+jx, r > 0
TL Tn
Now reflection coefficient I is expressed as
1_((+ix-) (1C38) Fig. P. 3.13.2(a)
T Z+1(+jx+1)
S1 0.94-150°, S2 2.6250°
..1
(T+1)+jx S2 = 0.2L-15°,
S2 0.5 4-105
Now let Z = -R+jX for R>0 From above S-parameters, output stability circle
Indicates that it is for negative resistance. Then the T plane) is,
normalized impedance is defined as :
A-r+jx
= 1 for r>0 Here S-parameters are given for designing transistor in
Then defining reflection coefficient as common source configuration.
r
r tix-1
+1=-r+jx*l| Thus
S SS =SS, =S, and S =S1
Here A S Sn-S12 S
A = (0.9 - 150°) (0.5 L-105)
- (0.2 2-15') (2.6 2 50°)
So +)tix 2)
(r+ 1)+jx A = 0.559 2 165°
From Equation (2), T has same form as expressed in A = A'=0.559 2 165°
Equation (1), for positive resistance. So we can read the
Thus,
resistance circles as negative and interpret the "reflection
0.5-105)-(0.559 2 165°) (0.9 2 150°)*
coefficient" read from the smith chart as (0.5)-(0.559
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(3-44)
Here S 0.92-150°, so S" =0.9 2150° Ex. 3.13.3
Thus, C= 8.027 2-15° oscillator using GaAs FET
Design dielectric resonator
RT = S-S having S-parameters as:

S 20.22 120°
Is-l&'P S= 1.2 2 150°,
1.3 4 - 670
0.22-15°) (2.6 2 50°) Sa=3.72-72. S2
RT
(0.5)-(0.559) Soln.:
RT 18.322 - 145° Itisknownthat, maximum|To by selecting S,, TL=1
RT = 8.322
Since,
NoW, SaSal
ToutSt1-S IL
Select
TnS+1-Sa
T so |T,|<1
that and
Thus, T = 0.82-150°,
Tin
is large. By trial and Then
eror, TT is selected as Ir= 0.92130°. Then Z120913.7Z-72)(0.84-150
Tou=(1.3 -67),
o=(1.3 2-67") +1-(1.22150°) (0.8 2-150)
Tin =(0.9 L- 150°) +UZ4-1512.6 250)(0,94130°) Tout 15.88 2-99.3° and
1-(0.5 2- 105) (0.9 L 130°)
Tn= 1.60 2-162.36 Zou 1+a
o1-It out
To obtain matching network, ZpM50+(15.88-99.3)
From direct calcujation, ou 01-(15.88 L-99.3°).
1+T) -7.6+j 1.92
Zia (1-Ta)
Then Z - u = 2.53-j 1.9
in
(1+1.61 -162)_0,282 L- 148°
(1-1.61 2-162°)
Now Z 2.53
50 19i
Zi -0.239-0.1495j 50
Z = (0.0506-0.038) 2
Zn 50(-0.239-0.1495 j)
Zn -12-7.5j Matching Z, to the load impedance gives , =0.031 A
with a required stub susceptance of +j4. Thus
ls 0.21 . =
So = =4 and
X -X, =
7.5j At the dielectric resonator,
Z 4+j 7.5 T e=(0.8 -150° ) e= 0.8 2 180
17.5 Thus ,= 04583
Z Z, (0.08 +0.15 j)
1-
The final AC circuitis shown in Fig.P.3.13.2(b).
Z
4 50+08
1-0.82 180
1805.55 S2
0.284 Ex. 3.13.4

An oscillator uses an
0.0242 amplifier with a noise figure of 6 dB
and a resonator
having Q of 500 and produces a
0.289% 50 100 MHz output at a
power level of 10 dBm. f the
measured f is 50 kHz, plot the
42 spectral density of the output
noise power and determine the
phase noise (in dBc/ Hz) at
the following frequencies
(a) 1 MHz from the carrier
(1c39)Fig.P.3.13.20b)
b) at 10 kHz from the
carier (assume K= 1)
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Soln. Ex. 3.13.5
Given F 6 dB, f,=100 MHz, Derive

Q 500.K =1,f = 50kHz , L ()= C (dBm) -
S (dB) -
I (dBm) -
10 log (B) (dBc/ Hz)
100 100 10
x500100 Giving the required phase noise for a specified receiver
20 2x KHz
selectivity.
Af = f-f
F (dB) = 10 log1o F, P.= 10 dBm

Soln.:
IfC is defined as desired signal level and I is defined as
6 10 logjoF undesired signal level. S is defined as rejection ratio, Z ()
0.6 log0 F, the phase noise and B is defined as the filter bandwidth then,
Taking antilog on both sides, C
F = 10=3.9810 =4
S TBZ)
The power spectral density of the output phase noise as In dB,
L) =
C(dBm) -I (dBm)-S (dB)- 10 log (B)
s,() P Ao A0 Ao
Ex. 3.13.6
Here Po = 10 dBmn Find the necessary local oscillator phase noise specification
10
Po if 860 MHz cellular receiver with 30 kHz channel spacing is
P (dBm) =
log1o 10 w required to have an adjacent channel rejection of 80 dB,
10= 10log10 P assuming the interfering channel is at the same level as
the
10 w desired channel. The final Ip noise bandwidth is 12 kHz.
1 l0810 10 Soln.
Taking antilog on both sides, Given
B = 12 kHz, S = 80 dB, C = I, fm= 30 kHz
10 107w Using the following equation,
Po 10x 10 W= 10 mW Lf)= C (dBm)- I (dBm)- S (dB)- 10 log (B)
By putting in above equation As C = I
(a) Af = 1 MHz, S,=-178 dBm L (30 kHz) = -S (dB)- 10 log (B)

Z(1 MHz) = - 181 dBc/ Hz -80 dB-10log (12 x 10)
(b) Af 10 kHz, S,=-150 dBm = - 120.79 dBm
Z(10 kHz) = -
153 dBc/ Hz -121 dBm
www. Ex. 3.13.7

-110
A double sideband signal of the form VRE (0) =
VRF [COs (o ) t+cos (o + )t] is applied to a

w*ngwwwweeN*9*0*vw**ywww.w*****
mixer with LO voltage given by,

***
VLo= VLo cos Lo t. Derive the output of the mixer after

low pass filtering.
-180
-190
***?*********2***
Soln.:
1000 Offset from center frequency(HZ) Given
(1CA0)Fig. P.3.13.4 VRF (= VRF [cos (o-p)t+cos (oLo+)) and

VLo VLo cos o
Teeh-Neo Publications..Where Authors inspire iniovation
RF Design (MU-8h Sem-E&TC) Frequency Generation and Mixer
(3-46)
After mixing and low =820 MHz is
pass filtering, The image frequency for L
740 MHz.
FIM FLo-FF = 820 MHz -80 MHz =
cos t+ cos t
=
KVRF Vo cos Ot Ex. 3.13.9
which shows that both sideband convert
to same IF. If the noise power N, = KTB is applied at the RF input port
F (DSB) and conversion loss
Ex. 3.13.8
of mixer having noise figure
noise power at the IF port ?
RF
Le, what is the available output
input signal 900 MHz is down converted in a mixer to
at
IF
Assume mixer is at a physical temperao
frequency of 80 MHz. What are the two
possible LO
frequencies and corresponding image frequencies? soln. f,Lc
Soln.
No
Given: FRF900MHz N-KTB
FIF 80MH2
Two possible local oscillator frequencies,
Fio FuF (1C41)Fig.P.3.139
FLo FRF+ Fp= 900 MHz +80 MHz =980 MHz
KT B KTB(F-1) KT,BF
FLO FRF-Fp =900 MHz -80 MHz = 820 MHz N Lc Lc Lc
The image frequency for Fio 980 MHz is
Input Noise Mixer Noise
FM FLo+F=980 MHz +80 MHz =1060MHz
Chapter Ends...
O00
PTER (
Frequency Synthesizers
Module 4
Sylabus
Frequancy Synthosis, Fraquancy Synthesis by Phase Lock, Efocts of Reference Froquency on Loop
a6rmanco, Variable-Modulus Dviders, Down Coversion, Methods for
Partxmance, Reducing Switching Time, Direct Digtal
Synthesis, Synthesizer Desigr
hase Nolse: A Model for Oscillator Phase Noise, Phase Noise in Phase-Locked Loops, Etfect of Frequency Division
and
Mutiplication on Phase Noise.
Introduction. ********************************************** ****e*********** 4-3

GQ. 4.1.1 Define frequency synthesizers.. 4-3
********* ********
2 Drect Frequency Synthesis. ******* ************************************** 4-3

GO.4.2.1 What is direct frequency synthesis?. 3
42.1 Two Decade Direct Frequency Synthesizer. ************************** ***************4***************ae*s***e******a 4-3

GO.4.2.2 Explain two decade direct frequency synthesizer.. 4-3
*sessssss******** ***************************************4**e*****s
422 A Double Mix Divide Module.. **************************************************************.
GO. 4.2.3 What is double mix divide module 7. ********************** ********** **************"*** *********** .44
42.3
Comments on Dlrect Frequency Synthesizer.****** ******. *******
************* 45
rdrect Frequency Synthesis by
Phase Lock.... *****"** *** *'***7 ************* 4-5
.4.3.1 Explaln indirect frequency synthesis by phase lock loop. ** * *** *** ********
43.1
Efocts of Reference Frequency on Loop Perfomance.. ************* ****46
G0.4.3.2 of PLL.
Explain the effects of reference frequency on the lo0p performance
Explal
32 Varlablo Modulus Dividers. es*rse******************"******************* **************44seasens*n

7
G0.4.33 obtalning good frøquency resolution.
Explain variable modulus proscallng approach for
Ex ***********bmavtsa 4-7
433
PLL Froquoncy 4a*********************************. a****i******usss*ss************i**s4sie*nr
Syntheslzor
09.4.3.4
Gvo the namos of PLL Froquency synthosizor lCS.
Gvo the ..n
.4.3.5 ls hopped over a bandwidith B. Each hop in qency
In
in spread
sproad spoctrum tochnlque tho carrlor froquency
spoctrum tecnn
In ordor to froquoncy iron 180.4 MHE to 185.6 MH2 with at
3 locatod
at a prodotorminod froquency bln.
Doslgn a PLL roquency 6ynthosizor circut that win
l0ast 20 kHz botwoon hops and at loaot 60 bins.
************aisasns
inieispad******************************s
mplomont these roqulroments. #**4**4**"******tseprte******* sisi
Frequency Syntnesizers
RE Design (MU-8 Sem.-E&TC) (4-2)
4.3.4 Down Conversion Synthesizer. ********
***************** ********************-*4-11
some or tne disadvantages.

Ga.43.6 Explain down conversion frequency synthesizer with block diagram. List 11
4.3.5 Methods for Reducing Switching Time and/or Widening the Loop Bancwidth..******************************** 4-12
GQ.4.3.7 Explain the methods to reduce switching time of synthesizer. ******** 412
Design a frequency synthesizer to cover the frequency range trom 35.40 MHZ to 40.00 MHz in 1
GG.4.3.8 k
increments..
LS....********** ******
**
****
********* 4+12
** ****************
4.4 Fractional Looop * ***********

4-14
GQ. 4.4.1 Draw and explain a method of implementing fractional division method.. * **** 414
4.4.1 A Phase Accumulator used for Fractional Division. *********************** ********************** 4-14
GO. 4.4.2 Explain phase accumulates used for fractional division with timing diagram. 414
4.4.2 Fractional N-Frequency Synthesizer. ************** 4-15
GQ. 4.4.3 Explain fractional N-frequency synthesizer ** ******************* ********************************************************* T

4.5 Direct Digital Synthesis (DDFS). *"********
GQ. 4.5.1 Draw and explain direct digital symthesis (DDFS).. ****** +16
4.5.1 Disadvantages of Direct Digital Synthesis (DDFS).. ********************** .4-18

..
****
GQ. 4.5.2 List the disadvantages of DDFS.. 4-18

****************** ******v a****aussra
4.5.2 Advantages of Direct Digital Synthesis (DDFS). ****

4-18
********"******************************* ************* **
GQ. 4.5.3 List the advantage of DDFS.. 4-18

******************************************
GQ.4.5.4 Design DDFS to cover frequency range 0 kHz to 10 kHz with a
frequency resolution of at least 0.001
The spectral parity is to be at least 40
dB.. 4-18
***********vene
GQ. 4.5.5 What word length ill be needed in a DDFS f the output spectral parity 4-19
is to be at least 80 dB?... ********
4.6 Phase Noise

*********** *********************************************************** 4-19
********************************" *.
4.6.1 Model for Oscillator Phase Noise.. 4-19

*********************** *
* ************** *********
GQ. 4.6.1 Develop a relaton beween observed power spectral
density function and e(t).
4.6.2 Phase Noise in Phase Locked Loops..
**************************
*******
TY
***** *s***********************
4.6.2 Explain Type and l power spectrum because V
GQ. l of noise..... *********.*****
4-22
**************"*
4.6.3 Effect of Frequency Division and Multiplication
on Phase Noise. ************
**********************+*********
GO. 4.6.3 The indirect frequency synthesizer is signas
used to produce 5GHz. (5 10)
achieved from 5 MHz refaerence. Oscillator x signal. A 1 kHz releren
(M = 5000)
which is specified to
of-140 dB/Hz at frequency separation of kHz have a signal so
0.5 from operating
frequency of oscillaorwhat
wilbe t
single sideband noise power due to
the input noise at
this frequency?.. *****"***
Chapter Ends. ******************************************************************** **********************
*****"************** *******
Tech-Neo Publieations here Authors inpure innovation

Design(MU-8 Sem.-E&TC)
RF (4-3)
Frequencyyntheslzers
M
4.1 INNTRODUCTION This method needs highly selective
filters. Fig, 4.2.1
Can be used to produce 17 MHz
as shown in Fig. 4.2.2.
Define frequency synthesizers.
G0.4.1.1
. From Fig. 4.2.2 direct frequency synthesizer consistsof
Frequency synthesizer produces sinusoidal signals aSsortnent of frequency multipliers, dividers, mixers
having high stability with high accuracy from a single and Band Pass Filter (BPFs).
reference frequency. In order to produce 17 MHz,
the band pass iller is
Froquency synthesizers and synthesized function, tuned to centre frequcncy of 3 MHz, so the output
function/signal generators are used to generate test
Irequcncy will be produced as 3 MHz as the mixer
signals for characterization of devices, subsystems and
produces both sum and difference components,
systems.
Some of the disadvantages of this method are as
4.2 DIRECT FREQUENCY follows

SYNTHESIS . This technique requires highly hardware and
hence expensive.
G0. 421 What is direct frequeney synthesis?
2. There is loss of phase continuity while switching
The earlier synthesis method described by finder is frequcncies as a result this technique is not
called as direcet frequency synthesis. It uses frequency favourable for designers.
multaipliers, dividers and bandpass filters.
Reference
BPF
-Drect synthesis has been replaced by indirect synthesis osclator Mixer
(17MHz)
MHz)
n all applications. The indirect (coberent) synthesis
(10
es either analog phases locked loop or digital phase
locked loop.
The
modern Direct Digital Frequency 1MHz
ytbesis (DDFS) uses a digital computer and digital to -2 MHz
aleg (D/A) converter to produce the signals

of 3 MHz
synthesis is the oldest method
irect frequency
synthesis. Itsynthesizes a specilied

Trequency
cquency
from one or more reference frequencies from
Flters combination of
iers, multipliers,
dividers,mixers and synthestzer architecture direct
(DFig.422: Frequency
harmonic frequency synthesis
generators.
4.2.1 frequency Direct
shows block diagram of direct
a 4.2.1 Two Decade
generator is Frequency Synthesizer
Synthesizer
in which a method of barmonic
sed. A
filter is tuned frequency in
utput
to desire
GO.422 Explain two decade direct frequtney
T to get desired
frequency smthesizer
Relerence
Band pass of producing 99 iscrete
Harmonic Fig 4.2.3
sbows the method
fiter
generator (BPF crystal oscillators.
frequencies from 18
Fig. 4.21:A directifrequency athesizers

ASACHLY SHH Fentare
APblürations-
ons Fbere dathars ingire iaoai
LRF Design (MU-8h Sem-E&TC) (4-4)
FrequencySynthesizens
One switch selects one of the nine oscillators that cover

the frequency range 1
kHz to 9 kHz in step of 10 kiz Band pass
and other switch covers the frequency range 10 kHz to
90 kHz in step of 10 kHz.
Then two signals are then mixed in frequency mixer f2+
and the band pass filter chooses the higher of the two (aD4Fig. 4.24:A Double Mix Divide Module
mixer output frequencies.
Fig. 4.2.4 shows a type of direct synthesis module
usually used in direct frequency synthesizers.
his
method is known as double mix divide.
Nine Nine
oscillators
oscllators
From Fig. 4.2.4 an input frequency fi is mixed witha
1to 9 kHz 10 to 90 kH frequency f. The upper frequency f+ f is chosenby
the bandpass filter. This frequency is then conbined
with a switch selectable frequency f,+ f
Band pass Here f* is referred as any one of 10 switch selectable
filiter frequencies. Frequency fa+ is obtained with one af
the method shown in Fig: 4.2.1 and 4.2.2.
(LD3)Fig. 4.2.3: Two decade direct frequency synthesizer
The output frequency of second mixer comprises of
The new frequency f, is obtained from f, by using rwo frequencies 6+f
++f and f, +f,-,-P.
divide by 3 circuit, a mixer and a band pass filter. In However, only the higher frequency appears at the
output of the bandpass filter. If frequencies f, f and f
this case f, is synthesized by working directly on f
are chosen in such way that 10 f =
f+ f +, then the
One of the most considered design of direct frequency at the output of the divide by the 10 module
synthesizers is the mixing ratio as expressed below is expressed as
..(4.2.1) .4.22)
where In double mix divide module, the input frequency is

f and f2 are the two input frequencies to the
mixer. increased by the switch selectable frequency increment
If the mixing ratio is too big or too smal, the two 10. A frequency synthesizer can be formed by
output frequencies will be too close together and it will cascading double mix divide modules with any degr*
be difficult to remove one of the signals with filtering. of resolution.
For example: The advantage of double mix divide modular approuu
If
the input mixer frequencies are m
100 MHz, and 1 MHz, then from Equation (4.2.1),
1S that the frequencies
f, f, and f, can be the same
r= 100, then mixer output frequencies will be 99 MHz every module so that all modules can have simila
and 101 MHz. components.
put
The removal of one of these frequencies would need owever, in double mix divide module, the oU
very complex filter. requency f+f/10 can be realized by using one m
and bandpass filter.
4.2.2 A Double Mix Divide Module The advantages of double mix divide moaue
SAIME
allows better mixing ratios and allows for
GQ. 4.2.3 What is double imix divide module ? bandpass filters in every
stage.
For example: A direct thee
The filter requirements can be minimized by using an frequency synthesizer
offset frequency. This approach is used in the next
digits of resolution is achieved by using three ble
mix divide modules. Each ses
direct synthesis method described in Fig. 4.2.4. decade switch cho0
of 10 frequencies
f,+fP.
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. here Authors inspire innovation
SACHINSHAHT»
A
(4-5) Frequency Synthesizers
er2pe opt of thrd rule is considered

4.2.3 Comments on Direct
divider. In is eesy to produce the
e decade Frequency Synthesizer
10 MHz and 19.99 MHz. in step
is between provide fast
kHz using the three module synthesizer|
10 kH. 1. The direct frequen synthesizer can
iereert of frequency switching will fine frequency
resolution low
y cosing: =
MHz, f,=3 MHz, f, 6 MHz phase noise and highest frequency of
operation of any
1
of the methods.
more hardware
2. The direct frequency synthesizer needs
+11+% = 10 .4.2.3) filter than any
hke oscillators, mixers and bandpass
division by 10 will
tie ongt fregency beiore the læt other two synthesizer techniques.
synthesiZer
3. The hardware requirement of frequency
construct.
result in being larger and more expensive to
101+1,+T0T 4.2.4) unwanted
4. In direct frequency synthesis method,
Asf MHz increases, f, /100 will produce
1e-slts in
1
frequencies can appear at the output.
The output operates for wider
te desired 10 kHz frequency increments. 5. As the direct frequency synthesizer
eayency tefore the last decade divider because this appear
frequency range, the spurious components will
sepercy gererates a sine wave outpu in the output
Tte onput of divider is a square waveform.
For
These disadvantages are considered
against the
72ple in order to get frequency of 14.36
MHz, f, will versatility, speed and flexibility of direct synthesis.
MHz, f, will be 8 MHz and f, will be 4 MHz.
6 INDIRECT FREQUENCY
could be removed,
H 4.3
117xeically, either f or f SYNTHESIS BY PHASE LOCK
.4.2.5) Explain indirect freguency synthesis

needed to
GQ 431
ratically additional frequency is byphase toek loop
frequency separation at the mixer
aditional frequency separation results in
dropping The disadvantages of direct trequency synthesizer
are
This
d pass overcome by indirect frequency synthesizer using a
filter requirements.
10 or Phase Locked Loop (PLL).
Tersoved, f, + {, should be equal to
frequency synthesis.
or st Often it is referred as indirect
MHz. If f, of 1
MHz is chosen, the output simple PLL circuit, it is stated that
MHz and Fig. 4.3.1 shows a
aIe will prise of the two frequen 9
when the PLL is working
properly, the two phase
frequencie
MHz.
The lower of these nearly spaced detector input frequencies
are equal.
tr eliminated by the filter. That is:
complex to
uired band pass ter would be very signal,
.4.3.1)
xch velectivity. If 2 is chosen as 5 MHz
two frequencies
**1+{ = 10 MHz, then the expressed as Phase
VoltageE
2 Controlled
1tp of first mixer will be Detector Filter
Oscillator
=5
MHz and MHz.
+,6 (DP) VCO)
Ta, lrequencies of mixer for f, =
PH
1 MHz, will
pass filter,
and 11 MHz. Here by using band
The Eparate these two
equencies.
selected n
N
Aitiona
Irequencies f, and f, can be irequency synthesizer
frequed0cy DSFlg 43.1: Indirect
sign after considering all possible
the mixer output A SACHIN SHAH Venture
Aathors inspire uaDor

here
RF Design (MU-8" Sem.-E&TC)
(4-6) Frequency Syntresizer
The frequency
f' is realized by dividing the output 4.3.1 Effects of Reference
frequency of voltage controlled oscillator N.
by Frequency on Loop
Mathematically it is expressed as: Performance
4.3.2) :GQ.4.3.2 Explain the effectsof referra
Thus the output frequency f, is an integer frequency on the loop pertonmaree
multiple of
the reference frequency, PLL
Nf, The output frequency expressed in Equation (4.3.3)

(4.3.3)
shows that in order to get fine frequency resoluticn the
Thus, PLL with a frequency divider in the reference frequency must be small. This leads to
loop
produces a method for achieving a large number conflict.
of
frequencies from a single reference frequency. One problem is that in order to operate in broai
frequency range it needs a large variation in N. To
If divide ratio N is achieved by using a programmable compensate the variations in loop dynamics that ocr
divider, it is easy to change the output frequency in for broadly varying values of N, some method normaly
be needed which also cover the hardware
increments of f. The PLL with programmable divider problems
The linearized loop transfer function is expressed as,
produces a simple method of synthesizing a large
number of frequencies, all of which are an integer
,) ,() k, F(sVs
(6) 6,()1+, F$V(Ns)*..43.5)
multiple of the reference frequency.
where F(s) is the transfer function
of Low Pass Fiter
From Equation (4.3.3), it is noted that the frequency (LPF).
resolution is equal to f. lt means that the output IfN values are varies from I to 1000,
then there wil E
frequency can be changed in increments as small as fr. a 60 dB variation
in the open loop gain and
correspondingly wide variation
However this is in struggle with the need of a short in the loop dynams
unless some technique
time interval for changing frequencies. By according such as use of programmu
to amplifier is used to change
rule of thumb, the switching time is expressed as the loop gain for van
values of N.
A Second problem associated with a low refer
4.3.4)
trequency is that the
loop bandwidth should be k
It takes near about 25 reference periods to than or equal to
switch the reference frequency as l
frequencies. The frequency resolution is inversely filter has to filter
out the reference frequency
proportional to the switching speed. associated harmonics
present at the output or
For cxample, the satellite communication system detector.
uses
frequency hopping with frequency resolution is Hence the filter
equal bandwidth has to be less
reference frequency.
to 10 Hz. and switching time is less than 10us. Tt is known om the PLL stability
analysis that the loop the
Since from Equation (4.3.4). it is clear that bandwidth is always less n
the bandwidth of filter
switching time is of 2.5s. It is clear that the simple for enough stability
PLL Thus, a low reference
frequency synthesizer cannot meet both specifications. frequency results in a
synthesizer that will *
The sclection of reference Irequency controls be slow to change frequen
loop Third problem
performance. associated witha low referene
frequency is the
effect on noise produced in the VCU
Fig. 4.3.2 shows
the linear model of P
noise sources.
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Veat
SACHIYSHAT
A
fionf 1TO) 4) Frogysty yresiio
0-0-3HC OT
(lg 4.3,21 A PIA, ayntheeher Inedudhng three noe vnres
to t, is seduced
frequency Ae, the output reie due
the nose on refcrcuce slgnal
u is
by Ixp bandwidth as wide as ponsible.
in the phasc detector snaller
the nolse produced Sinultareowsly the top bandwidth stxnuld be
s effect of 94
output nolse produced by Vco than the reference freqvency to reduwe the
is which is conirolled by unwanited
freguency components
delector noise components ase at the
main plu4se harmonics.
1he at the reference freguency and its
rquency of eference and
harmonics of this rclerence frequency I,
Thus, the wnsth to have a low reference
is the output nole produced by he
r, the
rcquency.
fine frequency resolution is offset by
4.3,3 shows the frequency »pectrum of Vco
et minisnizz the
VCO. Pig. requirenent to yet 1, larye in order to
produced
olse ettling time of lup and tw reduce the noise
cncrgy contcnt of VCO noise is closer
to
Most of tlic by the VCO.
oscillator frequency. In PlL model this energy can
the
3 4.3.2 Varíable Modulus

Dividers
be trcated as a low frcqucncy noisc,
he total
# VCO is denoted ,
noise of the closed loop systen at
the output
and is cxpressed as follows
u) k, P(a/s
:
aa. 433 Explain variable modulus prescoling
APproach for obtaininggood
( fregueney resolution.
1+k,Pa(NS) *
14k, P(8) N,
...4.3.6)
wwwww wwinwIi vvvw frequency
G(s) asociuted with indirect
problern
Gi(s) (o + 9ya) + i The
synthesizer shown in Fig 4.34, is that the marimum
ce l(o) is low pass transfer function or unity. G(s)paso
1s
slorwer than
G() is a high working speed of prograrnmable dividers is
lo transfer function and
communicatúon systems.
transfer function. that needed in several
divider achicved
The maximum limit of progrannable
from Transistor Logic
(TTL) family is nearly about
Complementary Symmetry
25 MHz whereas from
(CMOS) logic is atbout
Metal Oxide Semiconductors
4 MHz.
2 10 Hz frequency synthesízer for
Thus for building
sone oher techniques must
1€0 stellite commuoications,
180 be used.
many ways to solve thís problem.
However thete are
10 10
1010101
4.3.3:
Fint the problem
of comparatively low operaaing speed
imlg, specirum
VCO nole programmable dividers is
discussed.
TheP1.A.
phase noise rising are slower than fiz
athe works as tow pass filter fordetector and PlLL
Programmable dividers fixed modulos
k ce signal and phase

phase noise dividers (prescalers),
Prescalers are available in GHz
woducdalighh Pass Filer (HP) for
low frequency range.
n the VcO,
As the VCO noe ASACHIN STLAH Venture
APalsload
here Aothon ingplee ionorso
Frequency Synthesizes
RF Design (MU-8 Sem-E&TC) (4-8)
a dual modulus
Fig. 4.3.4 shows the indirect frequency synthesizer From Equation (4.3.9) it is clear that
by P for
including both a prescaler and programmable divider in counter that divides by P +Q for A cycles and
implement the function.
the loop. N-A cycles could be used to
shown in
The dual modulus prescaler system is
The prescaler whose operating frequency is GHz range
Fig. 4.3.5. It has prescaler that divides by the modulus
first minimizes the output frequency by the factor P
P+Qwhen the modulus control is high and divides by
before it is provided to the programmable divider.
P when the modular control is low.
When the loop is in lock mode,
Simulaneously the output of variable modular
, prescaler drives the two programmable dividers and
1
=
P Or
f, =N (PE)...(4.3.7)
2. The programmable dividers work at the input clock
Though, the prescaler allows the loop to work with frequency f divided by P or P +Q. The divide cycle
higher output frequencies, the output frequency is starts with counter 1 preset to A, counter 2 preset to N
changed only in step increments of Pf, and modulus control becomes high so that the two
As the spacing betuween channels is equal to the modulus prescaler output frequency is equal to the
reference frequency to achieve the same resolution, the frequency divided by P+Q.
refcrence frequency f, must be reduced by the prescaler The prescaler will get divided by P + Q until the
factor P. counter A becomes 0. At the same time the vane of
divide by N counter becomes equal to
N Preset)-A (Preset). Counter A pulses the prescale
vco modulus control to low to change to the divide by P
mode. The prescaler then divides by P, (N- A) times,
until counter N becomes equal to 0.
Lastly the divide cycle is again begin by reloading the
counters with their preset values and resetting thbe
(IDs)Fig. 4.34: A PLL including a prescaler modulus control signal. The number of input cycles in
one complete divide cycle is expressed
as:
The other approach for achieving good frequency
resolution when operating at high output frequencies
D = (P+)A+P(0N-A)
= AQ+PN
uses a technique known as variable modular prescaling. 4.3.10)
By reconsidering Equation (4.3.7), it is seen that the
Prescaler
output frequency resolution can be improved when the
WP
P
value of N was an integer plus a fraction. For example
P+0)
N N, +where A and Q are integers. Then he Modulus
control
output frequency is expressed as:
,PN,+ P) A -oP
= PN,f, + AQf, .4.3.8) Counter 1
Countar 2
(Programmable)
(Progremmable)
and the resolution can be retrieved the Equation (4.3.8)
is not casy to implement but if + AP is added the result (1Flg. 435: A programmable divider achieved
with dual-
is cxpressed as, modulus
It is noted that N
F, (N, P+ AQ- AP+ AP), must be larger than
A for the dua
modulus to work.
P
(N,- A) + (P+ Q) A]f, If
ratlo can be provided
Q= 1, though D= PN, divide
(4.3.9) in unit steps. Usually divide ratio
is P 10 and P
+Q 11.
HUCre Aulhos ingplre
invovatio
Tech-Neo Publications i A SACHIN SHAH Yenture
Sem.-E&TC)
Deslgn (MU-8 (4-9)
DF
Frequency Synthesizers
becomes
Equation (4.3.10)
Then
10N+A 4.3.3 PLL Frequency Synthesizer
D ..4.3.11)
shows that 10/11 prescaler is ICS
Equation (4.3.11)
The
vided to get
ided N> A. As Amas
provided
,
division ratios with increments of 1,
N should be at least
Ga:4.34 Give the names of PLL
synthesizer lCS
Freauency9
is 100. The small divide ratio is not always

aproblem in frequency
synthesizer design.
There are many types of PLL frequency synthesizer
frequency synthesizer is to be designed to cover integrated circuits are available in the market. Many of
fa
quency range from 100M to 109 MHz in 1 MHz
them have digital phase detectors and presentable
increments a reference frequency of
1
MHz is suitable
MHz is very fast for programmable counters for the feedback divide. Several advanced
for design. As 100
10 chips are designed with control logic and counters
divider, a 1 variable modulus prescaler is considered. essential for an external dual modules prescaler.
Now change from 0 to 9, so the value of
counter A will
Such chips can be preset either serially or parallely.
N should be at least 10. The minimum of Dmin by using
10 One such chip is Motorola MC145152-2. This chip is

prescaler is expressed as
parallel input PLL frequency synthesizer caries many
100 x 10 100 useful features.
mia '=
10
Ga. 4.3.5 In spread spectnm technigue the
which will produce (f) min = 100 MHz. Hence the
10
eamier frequency is hoppea rove
desired ratio is obtained by using a variable bandwidth E! Each hopin freauency
modulus prescaler together with programmable divider. islocated at a
predetermine
frequeney bins Iny order to freguency
Oher variable
modulus division ratios like Si6, 819,
323, 40/41, 64/65, 100/101 and 128/129 are also from 280.4 MHz to 135.6 MHE with
uSed. at least 20kz betweenhops and at
east 50 bins Design a PEL frequeney
frequency synthesizer is to be designed to cover the SUnthesizcCircuitthat wilt
quency interval from 100 MHz to 100.99 MHz in
implement these reguirements
increments, a maximum reference frequency ot
Z will be required and minimum divide ratio will
are necessary to design a PLL
teexpressed as The following circuitry
frequency synthesizer
Dmin 100x 1010'=
10
min o 2 MHz
crystal oscillator
Sinc
PN, so MC145152-2
Am99 and Nnin is 100. Also D = AQ+ o
or ROM
kHz. e equal for frequency resoluion
to 1 o 27x 16 bit
and 10
Then it is possible to select P loglc
10. Howev
wever it is better to choose P = 100
and EAddition digltal control
100 4maximum
as maxXimu frequency to the
two
To start
with hopping bin channel required channel
mmable dividers will then be 1.009 MHz. This is
logic for 20 kHz, 2 MEz crystal is attached to
for the
use of low noise CMOS spacing is at least
gammable
dividers. MC14512-2 with the reference address inputs pins
the
Ls 100/101 variable useful for connected such that the crystal is divided by
64
tis desig nodulus divider is 4,5, 6
maximum
Sign. If
P = 10 is chosen, the RAl =0, RA0 = 1.
that is RA2 =0,
Tiequency
would be
19AA
0 rammable dividers
the progra
99NE
MHz
Pahieations
Wlhere Authors inspire ianOTatou

FrecuenGy Synineszers
RE Desgn (R Sem-ERTO) (410)
N = 92
Ts xonas a mdbrece îmqurny of 31.25 ktlz and
N = 90
A 51
A = 12
Rr i6 MNz, the vahs of N and A ae iound as
64
P
P 64
185, 593, 750Hz
PNA f
180, 406, 250Hz
6 RHz f
Thus N H 185.6x 10
125 3125x 10 With these values 166 hops are possible. As only
5939,2 5930 50 hops ar needed and need a 16-bit Read Only
N S9395930 Memory (ROMD (10 bits for N counter and 6 bits for A
92 counter) to store these digital values.
Now frN 92, the vale of A is found as
It is better to use 128 hops and 27 x 16 bit ROM.
A NP= 5939- (9D (64) = 51 The new divider counter values are as follows:
N = 92
In siniar way 1804 MHe the vahue of N and A are
found as tdlows: N= 90
A = 133
Assuming A 0 for 1804 MHz
A = l12
PN+A =
P 64
x 10
PN
ISO4 NAH2
31.25 KHz
804 P 64
31.25x10
= 5772.8= $772 F= 184, 406, 2S0 Hz
Then S72 F 180, 406, 250 Hz

N = 90.18 =90
A Low Pass Filter
(LPF) and VCO can
Thus for N = 90 be designeo
with leamed techniques.
Along with this a timer circut
A - PN = 5772-(6-4) (90) = 12
is needed to clock
which hop is in a
the ROM. Dwell
time is the time for
frequency bin.
lt is noted that the decimal values are ounded to For this application,
the dwell time should be at least
integer part. The decimal comes because the output long as the longest
setuling time
frequeney choice is ultiple of the reference frequency. diagram of this of the PLL A blocE
implementation
The divider counter values are summarized as : is shown in Fig **.3.6
.
Teeh-Nco l'ublications hem duthors inspirr innovatiea
A AAHINMAH Yentu
(MU-8hSem.-E&
Design (4-11)
RF Frequency Synthesizers
GND
2MHz
OSCout RA2 RA1 RAO LD
oSCn FR
LPF Out
MC
VpD N NA
+V HHMC1207
VSS 05 0 64/65
Prescaler
2x 16 bit ROM
Address control
Timer kogic
of PLL frequency synthesizer using MC145152-2

(1D10)Fig. 4.3.6: Implementation
4.3.4 Down Conversion

Synthesizer
Phase
PerecoJ
Low pass
fiter vco
-
43.6 Explain dowm conversion
5ynthesizer with block
frequency
diagram. List L(IDI)Fig. 43.7: PLL
fo- Low pass
fter
frequency synthesizer
some of the disadvantages disadvantages of

conversion some of the
With down
dividers are highly are as follows
wn that the programmable this method
approached is increased.
quency limited. another Complexity and size are
To avoid this, the (i)
toshift the output freque down by mixing possibility of unwanted
components being
) The
output
frequency with local oscillator
frequency. mixer is increased.
generated by the
synthesizerris the feedback
A conversion lag of the flter used in
le frequency down with The phase
shown
pass filter along ) reduce the loop
performance.
in Fig. 4.3.7. The low oul can
path
higher mixer
sed to filter out the 15
ency fo + frequency of divider
The output
Apressed
as
.(43.12)
so
ff+Nt,
ASACHIY.SIAH Ventu
7i Agtbars inspire inoora

Frequency Synthesizera
RF Design (MU-8" Sem-E&TC (4-12)
output frequency is achieved by
From Fig. 4.3.9, the
4.3.5 Methods for Reducing dividing the VCO output
frequency by M. That is
Switching Time and/or Nf 4.3.13)
Widening the Loop Bandwidth
expressed as
GQ. 4.3.7 Explain methods to reduce
the The frequency resolution is
Switching time of synthesizer f= 4.3.14)

M
There are many methods available to avoid the fight ensuring that M is
Thus fine resolution is achieved by
between the need for tine frequency resolution and the need as large as possible. The
drawback of this method is
to quickly change frequencies. large.
that the loop frequency may become too
to cover
(A) Coarse steering signal For example to design a frequency synthesizer
A method to reduce the response time includes a coarse the frequency range from 10 MHz
to 10.1 MHz with
steering signal. When the frequency is changed by 1
kHz resolution from 100 kHz reference
frequency
changing the divide ratio 'N' a steering signal can be
oscillator it is required that the VCO output frequency
produced and applied immediately to direct the VCO to
should be divided by 100. The output frequency
of
new frequency. It is shown in Fig. 4.3.8. The steering
at
signal is obtained from a lookup table. 10 MHz will need that the VCO should be operating
1GHz.
Low pass
filter Though adding of a post divider concept does find
practical application in multiple loop synthesizer
generally it is not good solution. A multiple loop
thee
Course synthesizer uses more than one.loops to achieve
steering
fine frequency resolution and mixes the outputs of
(1D12)Fig,. 43.8: Course steering can be used to reduce PLL
these loops with that of another loop which produces
switching time
the high frequency components of the desired output
digital to
The look up table is stored in memory with frequency
analog converter. The digital to analog converter is
used to produce the analog steering signal. GQ.438 Design a rquendy syrthesiuer it
The second method is to use multiple phase
locked cover the frequencyj range tro
loops in the synthesizer. 3540 MHE to 4o0o MHE in kR3
(B) Multiple phase locked loop frequency incremen,
synthesizer
To design frequency synthesizer to cover frequeney
Fig. 4.3.9 shows a method to obtain the fine
frequency range from 35.40 MHz to 40.00 MHz in 1 kHz
resolution with a high reference frequency. increments in a single loop synthesizer a referenee
frequency of 1 kHz will be needed with a response
Phase
Detector
vco
of near about 25 ms, together with the divide raio
N. 35.40 x 10's Ns40.00x 10
divider
Irequency syntheslzer with a post
(ID1)Fig. 4.39: PLL frequeney resolution
for inereased
innovation
Hbenre Aulborsiaspire SACHLN SHAH Veaure
Publications
Teeh-Neo
Bem-E&TC)
Deslgn (MU- 4:15)
Frequeny Synthesizers
design is shown ln Iig, d.3,
10,
amnlc
Alen
100k2 Phaee Filer
Delaotor
Loop A
NA Phiese Loop
Dolecor
Loop G
Bendpass
vco
-
fiter
Phase Fitor
PILer vcoB
Dotoctor
Mixer
Loop
No
(1D14)lg. 4.3.10: Three loop fregueney synlheslzer
The frequcncy Pa nhould be chosen as to change

As shown in Fig. 4.3.10, synthesizer has threo PLLs.
bctwen 0 and 99 kiz in kHz increments but
I
PLL A and PLL B both uso the 100 kllz rolerence frequency ncts as the reference frequency for loop C.
frequency
f
For example iff= klz, this will need that the loop C
I
Lnop
Clocks the divided output of loop A (G) to the be comparatively slow loop and will determine total
diference betwcen tho output frequcncy fo und the, rcsponse time of the nynthesizer.
ulput of loop B To minimlze the response time of loop C, f is
(). That is
.4.3.15) maximized by 300 kHz so that
4.3.16) 300kHz S ths 399 kHz

Phase Thus, 3.0x 10
, 3.99x 10
and
locked loof C acts asa mixcr and silter for f 300 N,S399
and
1f &, and
fyare dircetly mixcd in a mixer, the sum
and differen
frequcn wil be too close together
so Since f= -a frequency fy is minimized by 300 kHz
CnOugh sepurated with a bandpass filler. s0that

Them
frequency
35.40-0.3 Sh S40-0.3 MHz
Di. usir a phase locked loop for
d of USing and 351 S N^ S397
Ing docs nchicve good separation.
As the The response
time of the frequency synthesizer is
refer frcqucncy of loop A is 100
klHz l's loops A and B
CC determined by the respanse times of
frequency 100 kHz
cun bo changcd in
therement f having reference
frequency of 100 kHz.
and near about
total response time will be
Hencc the
though kilz frequcney
increments are
..(4.3,17)
1
10o
25x 25 x 10
10 ms,
Ehange
I0 N,x achloved. Frequency
resolutlon down to 10 Hz can be
in 1 gonerate IKf mixing loop A with another loop and
and klz
Z Increments. Loop A achioved by first
increments outpufrequency andloopB
kzchange divide by
100 clreult
(needking two additional loops)
30alcs of
oulput in
tequency ge of 0.1 Hz and
1 Mlz
ASACHIN SnAH Venture
Slbcaou
here Authors inspiro Innovo
RF Design(MU-8 Sem.-E&TC)
4.4 FRACTIONAL LoOPS and average output frequency per cycle of the M
")
counter is expressed of (fo)av=f, (N+ M 4.4.3)
:GO.4.4.1 Draw and explain a method
of The average frequency at the divider output is the
implementing fractional division output frequency divided by N + M so
a form of
method fractional division has been achieved. Fig. 4.4.1 shows

a simple method of fractional N division it will work as
Another technique to decrease loop response time is to
long as M is an integer, but it will not be.
make N as fractionàl values. The output frequency can
A more general method of fractional division is
be converted in fractional increments of the reference
obtained by using a phase accumulator.
frequency.
Though a digital divider is not able to produce aExample
fractional division ratio, the technique was called as
Generate 455 kHz by using a fractional N loop with a
digiphase and commercially referred as fractional N.
100 kHz reference frequency, the integer part of the
Usually output frequency is divided by N +1 every M division is N = 4 and the fractional part is M' = 0.55
cycles and is divided by N for the rest of time. The or M 1.8. It is clear that M is not integer and output
effective division ratio is then defined as N + M'and
ofVCO is to be divided by 5(N +1) every 1.8 cycles or
average frequency output frequency is expressed as 55 time every 100 cycles.
.4.4.1) Though M is not an integer, the fractional division can
Equation (4.4.1) shows that fo can be changed in be easily used by adding the number 0.55 M to the
fractional increments of the reference frequency by contents of an accumulator every output cycle.
changing M. Fig. 4.4.1 shows the simple method for Each time the accumulator overflows, the divider
producing the fractional division. divides by 5 rather than by 4. Only the fractional value
The divider divides the input frequency by N and of the addition is remained in the phase accumulatpr.
counter counts the number of cycles of waveform
output. 4.4.1 A Phase Accumulator used
As every time counter achieves a count of M - 1, the for Fractional Division
counter output goes low for one input cycle and one
input cycle does not achieve the divider. Thus the GQ.4.4.2 Eplain phase accumulates used for
divider needs N+1 input cycles to change state. fractionaldivision with timng
The number of output cycles during one complete cycle diagram
of M counter is expressed as.
Fig. 4.4.2 shows a phase accumulator realization or
fofN(M- 1)+f,N+1) fractional division. Fine
frequency resoluton
fa(NM +1) .(4.4.2) obtained by increasing the
length of the phase
accumulator. For 100 kHz
reference frequency
resolution of 10/10= 1
Hzcould be achieved by using
five stage Binary Coded Decimal
1/M Accumulator (BCD) accumulator.
d
M
Cary
method of implementing fractional

M
Counter
(ID1Fig. 4.4.1: Simple division (1D16)Fig.44.2: Phase accumnlator
Inhiblt
used for fractional diviso
inaovalion
Tech-Neo Publieations
PDere Aulhors inspire A SACHIN.SHAH Ventur
(MU-O Som.-E&TC)
esn (4-10) Frocuoney Synthesizers
RE
to in
increment the output froquency of As shown in timing diagrnan of Fig. 44.3, if output
unle to
etanle
R synthesizer by 1000 llz, the referenee frequency of divider is lightty fanter than the reference
AIlI
Atuny ing 10 klla. (N+M"')
requency, the output of phase detector will have pulses
Since, f of increaslng width. The de values of these pulse are
e increased to 1.001 x 10° Hz, then shown in Fig. 4.4.4.
100, if is 10'
That is at every l0 referenco cycles i.c. This voltago will produce change in the outpeit
10 cyees, the output frequency is divided by 101. frequency if the frequency is not taken away frorn the
d
average output frequeney is then 100. I
x 10' Hz. VCO output.
e frequency. As long as the reference
the desired
his is
cgal puses through one period, the VCO signal goes 4.4.2 Fractional N-Frequency
nugh 100.1 cycles and output of the divider (+ 100) Syntheslzer
through 1.001 eycles. lts phasc to the refcrenco
es
toquency increases by 0.001 x 27 rnd each reference Go. 443 Explain fraetional N-fregusrcy
cycks synthesizer.
After the 10 reference cycles, the divider referenee
Fig. 4.4.5 shows a simplified diagram of fractionalN
cuput increases the reference signal by 0.01 x 2n rad.
synthesizer that removes predetermined noise
A this time one VCO cycle is climinated. The stopping
producing at the phase detector output by ackding an
d ooe VCO cycle delays the output of divider by cqual magnitude and opposite sign signal to
001 x 2n rad, which is exactly how much the divider
predeternined voltage present at tho detector output.
curput had increased in phase.
The fraction register, adder and phase register decide
h above cxample, though the average output frequcncy
how often a pulse is to be taken away from the VCO
1.001 Mtlz the instantaneous output frequcncy
output.
ctanges with every reference cycle because
of the The phase register has the fractional portion of the
TEsing phase diffcrence between the divider output
nd the reference
divisor. This fructionnl portion of the divisor is changed
signal.
to analog signal in the D/A converter. Then, the analog
signal used to minimize the phase noise,
Another feature of this analog noise cancelling signal is
that it relies on both M and N. If a frequency
of
2.001 MHz is to be synthesized, then M is to be 10
and
PO o/p
after cvery 10 reference cycles, the output frequency is
di'vided by 201.
At the time of every reference cycle, the VCO goes

443 through 200.I cyeles.
Tlming waveform In Pll, requency
nbestzer using fractlonal divislon Thus, the output of divider phase camparable to
the
reference frequeney idVanees by x 2n raxd
01. cash
reference cycle. This hae rise in one half
of what
occurs for an output trequency of 1.001
Mlz
Generally the anplitncle of these step« u
invorsely
proportlonal to frequeney.
Thus p/A output ampituue mast be ehanged by a

progremmatble gain anmptiner This
galn is koversely
ntoportional to N. The analky signal
6
Reference
7 19. the phase leteetor output to movkla
i suduncted (nnn
a kow nolue
detector
eycles eform of average valué of VCO
llleatlonma eutput of fractlonal N ayathestser control aignal.
SACHYSMAN Feature
here Authors insplre inndratou
FrequencYS
Synthesizer
(4-16)
RF Design (MU-g Sem.-E&TC)
VcO
Carry
Pulse
M remover
Low pass
Fraction Phase + N
flter
register register
DIA
Phase
detector
Summing
Referenca
amplifier
Programmable
N
amplifier
(1D19)Fig. 44.5: Complete fractional N frequency synthesizer
4.5 DIRECT DIGITAL SYNTHESIS For these two reasons, the direct table look-up method
(DDFS) is very useful. The direct table lookup method emits the
same points for every cycle of the sine wave and
GQ. 4.5.1 praw ard explain direct digital changes the output frequency by controlling the data
synthesis (DDFS) rate

Though it is difficult to get the fine frequency
Direct Digital frequency Synthesis (DDFS) is realized resolution with this method a modified lookup table
by solving a digital recursion relationship using a method is used to get the fine frequency resolution.
gencral purposc computer or microcomputer or by The basic idea is to store N uniformly spaced sampls
storing the sine wave values in a look up table. of sine wave in memory and release these samples ara
Due to recent advances in microclectronics, practically unique data rate to D/A converter.
becomes possible to operate DDFS at frequencies upto Digital to Analog (D/A) converter the digital ulses
150 MHz. Further, the use of pipeline phase
nto analog signal. The output frequency of low
accumulator and use of parallel architecture D/A
value will have N distinct points. Then wave
converters may allow the frequencies upto 500 MHz.
baving twice frequency can be produccd by using s
The synthcsizers small and low power can produce data output rate by releasing every other value store
very fine frequency resolution of less than 1Hz along memory.
with virtually instantancous, phase coherent switching leasing
A wavefom of k times as fast is achieved by
of frcquencies. Additionally, these synthesizers have every k" point at frequency
very fast setting time of nanoseconds; minimal drift the same ate. The
here is
and generate very little phase noise.
resolution is same as the lowest frequency
: **
the
However, there are two problems with the method of t on upper frequency which is decided
number of points stored memory
solving a linear recursion relationship to produce sine in
samplesof
Theoretically it is only
wave. The noise can raise till a nonlinear oscillation essential to emit rwo with
the sine wave and
occurs. Also the fine word length utilized for to get fundamental frequen analog
analog filtering on
presenting the coeicients puIS a limitation on the the output of aig
converter.
frequency resolution.
inspire innovation
Teeh-Neo Publications
ereAuthors ASACEIY.ZUH Ve
Sem-E&TC
#Design (lU-E
simple need he analog filter, at the For the period T of the highest output frequency.
et points are used in highest
four or more
, Dormally Fig. 4.5.1
4.5.1 shows the complete Tz =PTOr
signal.
cy DDFS. The main elements are phase
of
hitect
D/A converter and
a low pass filter. PT
..(4.5.3)
nlator,
is mixcd after
each reference cycle to the Where T is clock period of reference frequency. Thus,
valoe I
to produce the lowest the highest possible achievable output frequency is
umulator in order
signal. Then the next value in look up table decided by the fastest sampling rate. The speed of DIA
bgoency
frequency
emited as
output. converter is the simple factor that limits high
Toemit the output
irequency which is k times as fast as performance of direct frequency synthesizer.
frequency the value k is added to
the phase as
krnest This also introduces noise and harmonic distortion
every time and the corresponding
value of
mulator well as limits the maximum output frequency
is released.
rn the look up table synthesizer. If the frequency synthesizer designed
with
Ta decide the frequency
resolution of DDFS system, 2" decided by
microprocessor, upper frequency limit is
taphase accumulator, reference clock as fcx are tobe
number of computer clock cycles.
sidered. This phase accumulator can locate upto 2 to do the phase
if it is increased The computer clock cycles are needed
amples various ROM Jocations and new
accumulation and memory look up transfer. For
atl
every clock edge then all 2 samples are

y1 on
integrated circuits,
high speed digital signal processing
this time can be less than 20 ns. In
this method, there is
Te frequency resolution by assuming all the samples The limit on
frequency.
E yaique is expressed as: no limit on the lowest output
simply increasing
lower frequency can be increased by
..(4.5.1)
the size of the phase accumulator.
DDFS, the memory size and
xanple accumulator and 10-MHz
vwith 32 bit For complete design of
length (number of bits) of every word must
be decided.
pt be frequency resolution is using
Word length is
decided by the system noise
quaion (4.5.1).
Tequirements.
1OMHz10%=2.33 MHz The output samples of
DIA converter are an exact
2 predetermined noise because of
at the sinusoid pollnted with
mples are used to resent the waveform
teAoutput frequency length of the digital
truncation produced by finite
fa, then number of bits
N° 1s
words
1
bit as the sign
N = 4.5.2) Ifa+1) bit world length including
min power comparative to signal because of
*pie3 bit, the noise
ac used in lowest quency waveform. approximately expressed as:
truncation will be
isrestricted by the amount of availab
6 = (2or 6=-6n dB 4.5.4)
dp that is larger than 2 is decided by the
pas filtering requiremenis.
o/p
DIA Low pass
Spocifled converter iter
Memory
froquency ccumulato
synthestzer (DDFS)
freqoency
Architecture of direct digital
baa)Flg, 4.5.1:Ar
ASACHIN.SHAH Venture
w
here Authors iaspire innoral
Frequonoy Bynlhoplzarn
(it:)
hequeneles he consingption of
ajveetrut3 Addittomlly nt htgter
Ht akded to tthe wot lensth the very ltje.
e HOWer ean le
noistor thntt ttlher two
nuethods,
DDIS Is RJettully
ontput sumplex, the nlse of puR enRC of pliane
At the higthent nequoNy tur T'he apoctml patt
d
now CW
varles WIli eneHy
eeuolation trunontion(ilterlug necda very lntd,
(4.3.3) Value. NMakina tlhe low
N4 (4.3,3), tlhe nmngnltvdo of nolke
6. 1nally nom quatlon hlt ronolutlon
W'Tere N tWhe
umber or potats ln the oNeNt NuEN at the ontput te dlieotly atlTeeted by
conventor (1DAC).
thequeney Nowever N wonds t ney
sinmusotut. of the D t0 A
au storins the dtata. 'Tthe nnt of
would be enongh
neay siee can le ohed notkeeadly as? 4.5.2 Advantagas of Dlract Digltal
( Ttte nenry slee is only necesury to store the v'alues Synthesls (DDFS
fr tthe tiust quadrant (0 to 0") of the ntne ware
because tthe values ot tthe otier three quadrants ean to aa, 4.8.3 Lst the advantagd of DDES
obtained diretly dum tthese vahes. So maxinmm disudvantges, DDIS luns somo
A part hm albovo
emory points arv wqured.
advantageN as followsN:
wlth convontlonal
DDIS systes aro cusy to co8trtuot
reducocd by using
() Secodly the mcmary' siro can also Ie
produco fnst sotling
ue monwmultipliens, But nmultiplication is conponeuts and thesO arv floxiblo
botwoen frequency
cmparatively slow with mienopnwessor and meory times, nmaintain plhnNO colieronco
resolutdon.
is suall and inexpensivo. So aultiplleation is not steps and possess vory good froquoncy
digital
usually used to mininire the mewry equirements, DDIS systens aro ulso usolul for casy
modulation as: by using on-oft koyed modulators und
ii) Tte amount of nemory sire still can bo mindmired
thom tlhe Bquatiou (4.5.3) wlheu the syeetral purity
FM at aceumulator phuse botwcon tho nceumulotor nnd
ROM and AM betwecn tho ROM and D/A convertor.
nceds are tnot too and.
have 3 The phase lincurity is sinilar to the reforenco clock's
At upper tiequency l. the output waveforn will
progression lHneurly.
only 4 saples. So it will not appoar as sinc wavo
system is clock divider. Making tho phaso noise
unless the harnmonics of the tundamental frequeney
arw
4DDFS of the system less thun that of clock (low phase cloek
climinated by a low p:ss filter.
crystal).
lightly
This low pass filter should have a bandwidth
outsicde the Many vendors in market like Harris. Somiconductor
largerthan f, and has stecp attenmuation rate
and Analog dovices procduces intograted circuit versions
NASS bund of the DDFS system.
Though the filtering of harmony is not as great for For example : tha Analog dovices AD98 s 28 pin
wavoctorms have
lower frequeney wavelorms these DDFS with 10 bit DAC and 32 bit phase nccumulatao
arc in less
more sanplc points and thus harmonics
content. ao.45.4 DesignDDFS to cover frAucnts
4.5.1 Disadvantages of Direct

range
to o
RH wtk a
requeney resolution af at tcast
Digital Synthesis (DDFS) o001 H2 Thespectral paritg isto
GQ. 4.5.2 List the cdisadvantages of DDFS atlcast4o dB
The use of 8 bit words with sign bit, will give spee
1. DDFS is restricted to comparatively low frequencies. parity of 42 dB (6 x 7).
This also fulfills the
noiso
is limited by the specification. Since it
2. In DDFS the upper frequency f,
maximum possiblc clock frcqucncy und settling time off
D/A converter. N 4 4x 104x 10' <2
0.001
Teeh-Nco Publieations here Authars inspirr innovation
SACHIN SHAH Venure
Sem.-E&TC)
RF Dosign
(MU-8 (4-19) FrequenCy Synthesizers
Specified
frequency
26-bit
AcCumulator
128-word
Memory
H DIA
converter
Low passs
filter
o/p
40kHz
Clock signa
(ID21)Fig. 4.5.2: Design of DDFS
as at first
APpears observation that maximum amount of As from Equation (4.5.4) the noise power is 6n dB.
memory is needed. Only 2 = 256 various words can So, n must be at least 14. One more bit is required for the
achieved by using 8 bit words, so 256 memory
he
Sign, thus, the minimum word length is required to be
locations should suftice. Though 4 x 10 various
15 bits for 80 dB signal to noisc ratio.
memory points are specitied, the phase increments
30=WT are so small that 2 +2=2" increments are
required before a change is noticed in 8 bit word. H 4.6 PHASE NOISE
- A26 bit word would be needed to present all 2" words.
The shown in Fig. 4.5.2. If 4 samples
whole design is
In last sections, it is known that output noise is an
are useful to present the maximum frequency of essential design consideration for frequency
10
klz, then 40 kHz clock is needed. For frequency synthesizer. The spurious components at the reference
Tesolution of MHz, a 26 bit phase accumulator is frequency, its harmonics due to the phase detector
Deeded by using Equation (4.5.1).
noise producing in VCO are the main sources of output
However only 8 bits are required to locate the ROM noise in PLL synthesizers.
and the remainder of the phase accumulator bits are not This noise produces a theoretical noise floor. This noise
in use.
floor is less as compared to actual systems. For
Ihis is known as phase accumulator truncation and example the phase noise for a DDFS is actually less
mxes noise
spurs to the output spectrum. The worst than that of the reference clock.
Cse magnitude of spur is expressed as
2sin[n(FCW,
FCw2)2
2) /2'1
4.5.6) 4.6.1 Model for Oscillator Phase
Noise
Dere T is the number is the
of truncated bits, N
of
cncy
phase accumulator bits, FCW is the
control word i.e. the amount that the phase
| Go.4:5.1 Develop a relationbetween observed
power spectral density function and
mulator is increased and (FCW, 2') presents the
largest
common divisor (GCD)
of FCW and 2 with
modification, the FCW is prime to 2 and Power spectral density IS nothing but power as a
ini
the expression. (FCW,2") to unity. function of frequency. Power spectral density is
Here
orst case spur amplitude dBc for measured at the output of an oscillator. Instead of all
13
dits
is 48.2
of tnuncation and still meting the design the powers being collected at the oscillator frequency
Tequireme
It is noted that the greater frequency some of the power is distributed in frequency bands on
both sides of oscillator frequency.
On can be achieved by raising the number of
Se accumulator
These unwanted frequency components are known as
se spur
bits, i larger magnitude
cost of
oscillator noise. Oscillator noise affects the system
performance based on the type of application.
What word
ength will be neided ina
The noise of a synthesizer normally used in a
DDFS
if the output spectral
to be at
par transnitter and it is passed on frequencies above and
lcast 80 dB? below the required trequency of transmission. A similar
method takes place in a receiver.
Biaines SACHINSELAH
A Ventare
bere Aathors inspire innovabe
RF Design (MU-8" Sem.-E&TC) Frequency Synthesizers
(4-20)
advancement has presented that a signal
of
The phase noise of local oscillator can mix with -This
constant amplitude having frequency f
is phase
spurious signal to produce an unwanted signal to
modulated with a signal at constant frequency
fn and
produce an unwanted in the Intermediate
sidebands at the
Frequency (F) pass band. This process is known as peak phase deviation ends in frequency
reciprocal mixing. frequency fot fm
The phase noise is helps in deciding how closely The ratio of the peak side band voltage V, to the peak
Spaced two communication channels in frequency carrier voltage V is expressed as :
domain. It is not easy to measure the noise
characteristics of signal with spectrum analyzer unless
the spectrum analyzer oscillators have mainly less And the power ratio is expressed as,
noise than the signal to be measured.
To develop a relation between the observed power .4.6.5)
spectral density function and 6(0, the oscillator output
This result is usually helpful to the interpretation of
s() is expressed as
power spectral density of a constant amplitude signal.
s()=v() cos [ogt+ 0()] ..4.6.1) The normalized power spectral density plot is shown in
Where v() is amplitude variation as a function of time Fig. 4.6.1. If the normalized power spectral density
and e(t) is the phase variation and referred as phase Po) is nearly constant over a unit bandwidth, then the
noise. Perfect designed oscillator is very amplitude power in the bandwidth S is expressed as
stable and v() is assumed as constant. For constant
amplitude signal all oscillator noise is because of 6(t).
A carrier signal having amplitude V and frequency f is
s) = Pp ( d, =P, (f)...4.6.6)
m-1/2
frequency modulated by a sine wave of frequency
fm and it is represented as:
Since Pg () is symmetric at the carrier frequency fo, thee
power both side band is expressed as
s() = V cos (w,t +sin w,)...(4.6.2) S,F)2 PoCf
(4.6.7)
Where Af is the peak frequency deviation and 6,

is the maximum phase deviation known as modulation
index B. By expanding Equation (4.6.2) as follows:
s(t) = V[cos (o ) cos (0, sin a,0)
sin (0, 1) sin (6, sin o).4.6.3)
If the maximum phase deviation is very less than
(6,<< 1), then cos (6, sin o,t)=
1
1
and (1D22) Fig. 4.6.1: Nolse power

spectral density of osclilator
sin(0, sin a) 0, sin ot The noise power because
of phase modulating bise at
For 6,<< 1, the signal s(t) is nearly cqual to
the frequency fmis explained
s() = V[cos wt-sin w,t (0, sin o,t as
= V {cos ogt cos(0g+ t cos (M-)]) .4.6.4) 4.6.8)

maximum devintion is
Equation 4.5.3) shows that if where ,is the maximum valuc of phase modulauoi
ends in frequency
small the phase deviation Then So () is the ratio
of power over unit width
carrier of amplitude
components on every side of the located at f, to the
noise carrier power. So w this
Cxplanation of noise
power spectral density, u noise
can be expressed
in torms of origins.
inapinc innovation
Phe Autlhor Veatu
Tech-Neo P'alblicalion ma A SACIHIN SHAII
Design
(MU-8" Sem.-E&TC) (4-21) Frequency Synthes/zoro
RF thatithe oscillator is made of an amplifier feedback and
assumed that For the circuit of Fig. 4.6.3 with positive
I'is A and high Q resonant circuit as shown in transfer functon
in A Or 1, the closed loop steady stale
with Fig. 4.6.2. as.
block
diagram of in between amplifier input and output is expressed
gain of the resonant circuit is normalized to Ci) 4.6.10)
resonant frequency lo. the amplifier gain A
unity at the
circuít to oscillate.
Sjo)={l-HGw)T'
1or the
hould also be unity .4.6.11)
present the amplilier noise power spectral Where Hgjo)=
So present
Let S.
referenced to the amplifier input. The
density As Hjo) filter. As it is interested in finding
is a high Q
Aainable white noise N power per unit bandwidth at the centre
the noise power distribution near about
theamplifier input is
expressed as low pass
Irequency g, H(j») is replaced by its
N = N+ N, = FKT ..(4.6.9) cquivalent as:
.Where F is the amplitier

noise figurc. Thus, the ratio of
bandwidth to signal power
H0o)-1 4.6.12)
white noise power per unit
P,is FKTP, component of Sg. where ...(4.6.13)

20
is cquivalent bandwidth. The noise power
spectral
density S, (0) at the output of a filer with a voltage
transfer function G(») in terms of spectral density
S, of the input noise is cxpressed as
()
Slo)= So)I G(»)f 4.6.14)
Thus, the ratio of the equivalent phase noise to signal
power S, of the closed loop system measured at the
output of the unity gain amplifier is expressed as
iDanFlg,4.62 :A model used to characterize oscillator nokse
s, = 5,1- H(o) rT"
An amplifier produce an additional "licker" or If
paase noise, near about the caricr frequency and 1-(1+ jo/a) I[I -(1 -jara)'i
Sumed probably to be because of camicr density
naton in the transistor. Plot of Sg spectrum is shown
in Fig. 4.6.3.
which can be written as by using Equations (4.6.5)

(4.6.9) and (4.6.13).
S,(co) S() 4.6.15)
This cxpression is used for describing the noise at the

output of an oscillator. The output phase noise
FKTP
spectrum S, is shown in Fig. 4.6.4(a) for Sg as shown in
Fig. 4.6.3, provided the filter bandwidth is larger than
the f of the amplifier. At the frequencies nearer to
carier frequency lo he noise power reduces with
3: Amplifer noise power spectral density
orf 1/f-18 d per octave) slope where as between fa and
less than f, S, contain /f spectrum. A the Power Spectral Density (PSD) reduces as
CIsIrequencies, and equal to f(-12 dB per octave) and for frequencies larger
the pectrum is fat
P,.
contains
The frequency below which the spectrum
f than the filter bandwdth the output phase noise is
the
axh Shape based on the characteristic of white
amplifier.
A SACHIN SHAH
Veature
here Autbors inpire innorabher

Froquoncy Synthoslzors
RF Design (MU-8 Som.-E&TC) (4-22)
It the filter bandwidth fis less than the noise PSD is 4.6.2 Phase Nolse in Phase Locked
a shown in Fig. 4.6.4(b). In this case, PSD reduce as Loops
/f (-6 dB per octave) for frequencies between f and GQ. 4.6.2 Explain Typa and power spectum
l
f and is not dependent of frequency for frequencies because of VCO noise
larger than fa Equation (4.6.15) compares noise
performance of an oscillator to a theoretical minimum The output noise of synthesizer because of noisc
based on the amplifier's noise figure and f produced in the VCO can be deternined by using
Equations (4.6.14) and (4.6.15) by assuming a linear
model as
Sofo)+ (4Q»)]
So II+K, Fjw) Njo)
S.(o)
FKT/P
Il+K, Fjo)/ (» N
FKT/{P, (1+@ /o) [l +(4Q o N}
1+K, Fjw)/Gjo N)F
(ID25) (a) Output noise of oscillator with low Q resonator
The denominator can be approximately as : For inside
the loop bandwidth.
1+GgoriT' -[IGjo) rj" for G(j») I>>1

1
kf
For frequencies larger than the loop bandwidth:
U1+GGorj'= 1 for1Gjo)I<<l
FKTIPs
The frequency at which the two approximations co-
exist is the open loop crossover
frequency which is
(ID2 (b) Output noise of an oscillator nearly about the closed loop
bandwidth.
Fig. 4.6.4
Thus, the frequencies larger
than the open loopP
At high frequencies, noise floor of an oscillator is crossover frequency the
closed loop noise because of
proportional to the noise figure of amplifier used in VCO noise Spo is near about
the same as the Vco noie
achieving the oscillator. As the minimum noise figure or
is 1, the minimum noise floor is KT or - 174 dB/Hz.
So S,() > (4.6.16)
At lower frequencies nearer to the oscillating frequency
and for lower frequencies
the noise increases, but Equation (4.6.15) shows that
the amplitude is inversely proportional to
resonator. So the higher the Q. the smaller will be the
Q of the SoS KNFGo (4.617)
If a type I loop is used
phase noise close to the oscillating frequency. with filter bandwidth larger tban
and the Vco output phase
noise spectrum is as shown
in Fig. 46.4(a),
then the output noise
spectrim o
Tech-Neo Publications here Authors inpire ianevstioa
ASICHY SHAA Vesture
(AMUdem.ATO)
Daalgn (4-23) Frequency Synthesizers
RE
alhssise heeause of Voy nolse wll ho as shown in
ie 4.5. The open loop notse power spectum reuuce

d
r Ntavo, Ul ne otSed loop noise power 12
alN
redhwes at a ralo of -
6li per octave unit the 24 FKT/P
Nt
ueney , hen the nolse power spectauna remaln
with fîrqueney umttl the PLI. ilter frequeney

tant z
is achieved,
The naiso power densty then rises at + 12 dD octave

Hatil the open kop erossover freqnency o, is achioved,
At higher frequencles, theo power spectral denslty plot
avepts the same shape as S
(1029)/lg. 4.6.6; Output nolse power spectrum of type II PLL
Ar a type ll loop, tho operation loop transler function because of VCO nolse
iscxpressedas: a 4.6.3 Effect of Frequency Division

NGjo)
.(4.6.18) and Multiplication on Phase
Noise
s0 the elosed loop noise spectrum because of VCO
nose will riso per octavo at low Equation (4.6.4) that is :
with a rate of + 6«dB
irquencies. 'The shape of normalised closed loop nolse

s(t) V cos (t+sin o)
pwer spectrum because
of VCO noise only is shown in
Fig. 4.6.6.
States that the instantaneous phase6,t) of a carrier
frequency modulated by a sine wave of frequency is
C slope rises from + 6 to + 12 dB per octave at f
expressed as,
4to+ 24 dB per octave at 0, then recluces to
per octave at o, and accepts the same shape a 0,(0= t+sin t

1Or frequencies above
d. The type ll system
An instantaneous frequency is defined as the time rate
CS
the loop
mainly more filtering of VCO noise wInn
bandwidth. of change of phase or
do
dt
gt A
F,COS tS d+ Ao
+24 (4.6.19)
FKTIP
If this sigaal is transmitted hrough a frequency divider
that divldes the frequency by N, the output frequency
wwill be expressed as :
Pg46.5:Output
Cos t and the utput
nolse power xpectrum of a type I PLls

put nof phase is expressed as
becauso of VCO nolse
sin
@0 N *N (4.6.20)
ledulicallans
hern Authars laspíro inuovaltion

RF Dosign(MU-8 Som.-E&TC)
(4-24) Froquony yntheatzere
The divider then minimizes the
carier frequcncy by carrier frequcney wll nof bo mlanlved by low pass
N and keep the frequency
of modulating signal
unchanged. The peak phuse devintion is
minimized by
ilcring of the 1.
the divide ratio N. As it is shown that The loop tranafor functien Is exprcsscd as
tho ratio of noise
power to carrier power is expressed as:
MoMSN)
o14k,
46.21)
Frequency division by N minimizes thhe noise power by Por refercnce froquencies less then loop bandwidth of
N.
GO. 4.6.3The indirect fregueney synthesizer 1s I kllz. Though divide M minimizes the Input nodse
power, the net effcct is that of output noise pruer is the
used to produce saH (5 x 10 refercnce oscillator noise power multiplied by (Nimy'.
signal A 1 kHz reference signal 1s So N should be equal to 5 10' tw yet the output
achieved from 5 MHz reference.
frequency of 5 x 10' Hz and the output noise power
Oscillator (M Sooo) whích is because of reference oscillator is thus expressed as
specified to have a signal sideband
dB/Atz + 10 log
power of
140 dB/Hz at fregueney Ng140 1
Separation of O.5 kHz from operating
- 80 dB/Hz at frequency offset of 0.5 kiz.
frequency of oseillator what will be
the single sideband noise power due
to the input noise at this frequency?
If loop bandwidth is assumed to be 1 kHz, then the
noise from the reference oscillator 0.5 kHz from the
Chapter Ends..
PTER
5 ElectromagnetiC
nterference
SModule 5 in RF Circuits
abus
Natural and Nuclear
nrcton. Natur Sources of EMI, EMI
from Apparatus
ysem EMI. and Circuits. Quantfication
of
Eements Interierence, Including
Antennas, Transmitters,
Comi cation
ystem. EMIConcepts. Examples Receivers
of EMI Coupling and Propagation. Electronic
Modes. Equlpment era
Equipment Emissions
ns and Susceptiblities
Types
of coupllng Common-Mo
a Mechanisms Including Freld to Cable, : -Mode Coupfing: Common-Mode
Ground Impedance,
rential-Mode Coupling: Differendal-Mode Ground Loop and
Coupling Roduction Technicues
Coupling Mechanisms
Coupling Reduction Techniques. Including Field to
Cable, Cable to Cable ae
other Coupllng mechanlsms: Power Supplies
and Victim Amplifiers.
1Introduction to Electromagnetic Interference...

******************
****s***** *
5.1.1 Effects of Electromagnetic Interference
e************************** .55
(EMI)...
*****************************************************"*******************"**
5.1.2 Electromagnetic Interference Coupling 55
Modes.. **********************************************************************
GO.5.1.1 Explain EMI coupling modes.
******e*************************************************************************
2 Concepts of EMI ****

and EMC and Definition.a****
*******************************************************************.**
GQ.5.2.1 aausnasavmse
Explain the concepts of EMI and EMC..
**sa49*****************************************************************
3 Natural ***** 5-5
and Nuclear Sources of EMI.
sessoses***** ***********************************************************************ana4ai
G0.5.3.1 5-7
Explain natural and nuclear Sources of EMI.
53.1
Celestlal Electromagnetic
Noise. erenade44aaebt4e*********************************************"**********4a
4ave 5-6
5.3.2
Lightning Discharge... i 44440**itsesba**********laese**************
************s***1***4>ia4a4
GQ.5.3.2
Explain lightening dlischarge.
5-8
5.3.2A)
Cloud to Ground Dlscharge. 5-9
GQ.5.3.3
Explain cloud to ground dlscharge. . 4442#isndsie444 4****s**** ****
*********"*****t+4 isesaess
5.3.2B)
Cloud to Cloud Discharge...
-9
RF Design (MU-8th Sem.-E&TG)_
Electromagnetic Interference in RF Cireuits
(6-2)
Ga.5.3.4 Explain cloud to cloud
dischargo.. *****************************0s ************************************"""******************* .5-9
5.3.2(C) EM Flelds Produced by
Lightning.
*********************** ******************************************"***************** 5-10
GQ. 5.3.5 Write a short note on: EM Fields
Produced by Lightning. *********************"**** ********************************** 5-10
5.3.2(D) Time Dependent Electric
Dipole.. ****************************4******************************°*******" ************s* 5-10
GQ.5.3.6 Explain time dependent electric
dipole... ******************************************************************""******************** .*5-10
5.3.2(E) Lightning Discharge... *****************************************************************"****""************** 5-11
GQ.5.3.7 Explain lightning discharge
shortly. ************************************************************ ******"*************** 5-11
5.3.3 Electrostatic Discharge...
**********************************esen*** sssssssnensesssennesen***************************** 5-11
GO.5.3.8 Write a note on: Electrostatic
Discharge (ESD). "*********************************************************************** ******* -11|
5.3.4 Electromagnetic Pulse..
*******************************i***e******* ************************** 5-12
GQ.5.3.9 Explain Electromagnetic pulse..
***************************s********** *******************"****************************** 5-12
5.4 EMI from Apparatus
and Circuits.. *****************************ss***e*******u
******** **********ss******************************************* 5-12
GQ. 5.4.1 Write a note on: EMI from Apparatus
and Circuits. ****************************************************************************5-12
5.4.1 Electromagnetic Emission...
***********************************************************************************************
***** 5-12
5.4.2 Systems..
.5-12
GQ.5.4.2 Explain EMI emission by systems.
*******************************************************************************************************
***. 5-12
5.5 Elements of Electromagnetic Interference Including Wave Propagation
and Reception... 5-13
Ga.5.5.1 Write a short note on: Elements of Electromagnetic
Interference Including Wave Propagation
and Reception. ...
13
5.5.1 Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) *****************************"***************************************************
******S-14
*****
GQ.5.5.2 Explain Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN)..
********** ***********e*************************************************
..5-14
5.5.2 Thermal Noise .. s nsnndansa *********************************************************************************a************
14, ***
GQ.5.5.3 What is Thermal Noise ?..**********************************a***e************************a*sa***********************************a*********

*** ******* °14
5.5.3 Shot Noise..
5-144
GQ. 5.5.4 What is shot noise ?...
-14
5.5.4 Flicker (1/ ) Noise.
5-15
Ga.5.5.5 What is flicker noise ?..
5-15
5.5.5 Burst Noise. ede*4>*0*an*s4 a*********************
****** Y7"***************** *4** * 5-15
GQ. 5.5.6 What is burst Nolse ? ... ts*****************a***************"*******"**************************t*****a******s*******s*********
5-15
5.5.6 Noise Spectral Density.r *ssd**************************
** *7*************.***************************** 5-15
5.5.7 Effective Input Noise Temperature. neetssssos *************************************s*

** s+******sss *********** 5-15
Tech-Neo Publications here Authors inspire innovation SACHIN SHAH Venture
A
(MU4
Sem-E&TC)
(MU-8th
n
Desgn
ctnegrete tntertersrice in RF Crctu
RE hat is eftectve inpt nokse temperature?
657 S15
Intet
dorance Including Antenna tránamitters
EeTesof ard Recekvars.
aduiijelaaa.ac
5-15
Colain EMI by antenna ransmitteérs
and recetvers 515
7..
commorcial Radio and Tolephone
Communicatsions. 5-15
s61 Broadcast Systom..a*se****************"**********vt***********
s****
Cell Phone and Pagor Networks.
61(8) .
***********ss4esaacaveso
teee#
Cell Phono Notworks *****4**********************apas**ee**********
sa(C)
581/D)
Pager Network.. *****************************************e*************** S19
Private Networks...
***************************.********* 5-19
56E)
1ectronic Equipment and System EMI Concep S20
Explain electronic øquipment and system EMi concepts.. 5-20
GO. 5.7.1 ********s*+ 4
Examples of EMI...
******"****°*******************+*******s+
5-20
S.7.1 ***4*t*s***a** **********
5.7.1(A)
Transmission Lines.. **************************************************************** 5-20
Mains Power Supply. ********************************************** ************ ***a*****

5-20
5.7.1(8)
Switches and Relays. .5-21

5.7.1(C) ****************** ********** ****
5.7.1(D) Telephone Equipment.. * *****************************

521
5-21
5.7.1(E) Radio Astronomy.. **************************************************** **a********************
5521
5.7.1(F) Aircraft Navigation.. *************************°.
**********************************.******a************************e*****
S-21
5.7.1(G) Military Equipment .. **************** *** ** **"******* ********************
***************anas5-22
5.7.1(H) Secure Communication..
******************************************************************** **
Examples of EMI Coupling Modes

. **** *** ****** ******* ************************* ** ** *
5-22
********************************************* ** 5-22
***
GQ.5.8.1 What is EMIl coupling?..
******************************** ivs=swia 5-2
iEquipment Emission of Susceptibilites.
**********************e*******"*************
44*************************************************a*****4*
and receptor.
G0.5.9.1 Explain coupling between emitter
*********4*****a************************************"es*a***********************************"********ss*****t*****seqnai nseisuiesss 5-22
1 Types of Coupling.
GO.5.9.2 Explaln radiated and conducted

EMI coupling modes. . +************** *****************4******1
i49d444********eas*a*******"*******************4********ta4itiatrs44* 5-22
59.10A)
Radlatlon Coupling #*466499
****"****s944
5.9.1(B) **"****"****
Conductlon Coupllng *****************
5-23
Common Mode Coupling Mechanlsm . 4444
A**4*******************************
*****iuss 5-23
coupling
mechanlam.
9.5.10.1 Explain common mode
eo Publications
here Authors inspinre innovaton
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Electromagnetic Interference in RF
RF Design (MU-$th Sem-E&TC) (5-4)
***********************************"************
************** ..5-25
es
i
5.11 Common Mode Coupling Mechaism including Field to Cable

**************************************************
************************ O- 5-26
5.12 Common Mode Mechanism inctuding Ground Impedance...
****************"**** S-26
Explain common mode mechanism including Ground Impedance.
*********
GQ.5.12.1
*************************************************************************************
5.13 Common Mode Mechanism incduding Ground Loops.
******************************************************* 5-27
GQ. 5.13.1 Explain common mode mechanism including ground loops.
******************************************************.5-28
5.13.1 Breaking Techniques of Ground Loops.. ****************** * *
* ********** ****
* **** .5-29
5.14 Coupling Reduction Techniques.. *****************************°*****************
*************************** .5-29
GQ. 5.14.1 Explain in detail: Coupling Reduction Techniques in detail.*****************************
***
.
****"************ 5-30
****************************************
5.14.1 Common Mode Voltage... ***********************
*"**********************************************************************************************.5-31
5.14.2 Cable Filtering and Shielding..
******************
5.14.3 Separate VO Grounds and or Cable Filter Capacitors. ***** ***
************************
5.15 Diferential Mode Coupling. *************************************************************************************************************************
**********..-36
5.15.1 Differential Mode Coupling Including Field To Cable. ************************* **
5.15.2 Differential Mode Coupling Mechanism Including Cable to Cable. ********************************** ..5-36
5.16 Differential Mode Coupling Reduction Technique. ******************************** **************** **** ********..b-37
5.16.1 Board Layout. ******************************************* *********************************************************************°**

*537
5.16.2 Cancelling Loops. *****************************************************************************************************************a**********. -37
5.17 Other Coupling Mechanism Including Power Supplies. ********************************************************************

38
5.17.1 Common Mode Emission.. ******************************************************asssosssere. **********S-38
Ga. 5.17.1 Explain common mode emission in power supply...

*************"*** ***************ee**************s*see 5-38
5.17.2 Differential-Mode Emissions.. 5-39

*********ea****************************************************s**********************s*********
GQ.5.17.2 Explain differential mode in power supply..***************************************************************o***************.5-39
Chapter Ends.s ********a************************************************************************************************************************** .... 540

(MU-8th Sem.-E&TC)
Design
n
RE (5-5)
INTRODUCTION TO
ectromagnetic Interference in RF Circuits
5.FLECTROMAGNETIC It is better
INTERFERENCE to follow good EMC engineering practice at
ne
aun aim should
of device design
and development phases. 1
e electromagnetic environment which working in
be to produce device capable ot
wel i specified electromag
part of the world. The various devices Oes not interfere
environment and
integra
communicnication ansmitters, television such as with
pollute the environment.other equipment or excessively
dio broadcast
and other rada
radar and navigational
stations equipment
electromagnet ener into the environment. 5.1.2 Electromagnetic
emit Interference
the time
of eir normal operation many devices Coupling Modes
At atomobile ignition systems and industrial
ch as auto G
used in daily life also radiate 5.11 Explain EMI. coupling
control quipment an
modes.
tromagnetic energy nough these emissions are A SOurce of emission, path
for coupling of the emisSion
essenti. part of normal operation.
an and a circuit, unit or system sensitive to the receivea
omagnetic energy radiated by
The ele these noise are responsible for existence of EMI.
inal and
ntentional and unintentional devices or sources, when
interfere with the operation Figs. 5.1.1, 5.1.2, and 5.1.3 shows that two modes of
nough strong, of several
Mactrical and electronics equipment and coupling: radiated and conducted are existed. In the
elec systems.
near field, the radiated coupling may be either mainly
5.1.1 Effects of Electromagnetic magnetic (H) field coupling or electric (E) field
coupling.
Interference (EMI)
In far field, the coupling will be through
The effects of
electromagnetic interference (EMI) are clectromagnetic waves presenting a fixed ratio of the E
extremely variable in character and magnitude, varying
to H field strengths.
from simple annoyance to
catastrophe.
An exact definition of near field is in close nearness to
examples of potential effects of EMI are as
a source and the far field is above some decided
Some
follows:
distance from the source.
(1) Interference to television and radio reception.
transmission Coupling or crosstalk is considered for circuits and
(2) Loss of data in digital systems or in
conductors in close nearness to be via mutual
of data. one of
such as inductance and inter circuit capacitance though
) Failure of medical electronic equipment
heart pacemaker, neonatal monitor. these mode usually dominates.
contro clock and data lines or
Failure of automotive
microprocessor The power lines, single lines,
systems such as breaking or truck
antijack knife connections may be the source
current carrying ground
conducted path may be resistive or
have
system. of noise. The
or it is always combination
0) Failure of navigation equipment. inductance or capacitance
functions Ior
0Falure of critical process control of resistor,
inductor and capacitor.
Cxample. Oil or chemical industry. components like inductor and
capacitor
The reactive
Unplanned explosion of explosive devices. resonances with their associated
representing always result in the resonant
Delays in TOduction of equipmentEML increase or decrease in current at
intra unit, subsystem or system level EM
that take frequencies.
tis usually expensive to right EMI problems
Pcein
place production and it
in designed cquipment and in
h
esuhts negatively affect
in program delays, which may
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RE Design (MU-8th Sem-E&TC) Electromagnetlc Interference in RFCrcuns
Cite
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CONCEPTS OF 1EMI AND EMC
9//
Lightning
5.2 AND DEFINITION
Receiver
GQ. 5.2.1 EXplain the concepts oF EMI

and
EMC
. ****
Ignition noise An clectromagnetic disturbance is any electromagnetic
occurrence which may disgrace the performance of a
device or an cquipment or a system. The
Conducted interference
Radiated interference electromagnetic disturbance can be in the kind of an
(1E1Fig. 5.1.1: Sources of atomospheric electromagnetic noise or an unwanted signal orTa
noise and how they are
coupled into a receiver change in the propagation path itself.
Electromagnetic interference (EM1) is defined as it is
degradation in the performance of a device, orn
equipment or system produced by an electromagnetic
ACline disturbances.
The terms EMI and radiofrequency interference (RF)
UNIT SUNIT UNIT are different. RFI is the degradation in the reception of
wanted signal produced by radio frequency
disturbance, which is an electromagnetic disturbance
containing components in the radio frequency range.
Fig. 5.2.1 shows the diferent ways in which
7777777I77777777N7TNn
electromagnetic interference can move from its source
UNIT to the receiver. A receiver may be a deyice or
Interface cable
equipment or a system. A term receptor is used to
Conducted interference inform that it accepts the electromagnetic interíerence.
Radiated interference
(1E2)Fig. 5.1.2: Possible interference coupling modes within a
system Source Recepior
c.m.noiseuppy
Power HOsC
L
signal
Analog
Sgnal
Digital (1EMFig.
-
5.2.1: Ways of EMI travelling from source to receiver
L RTN RTN
From Fig. 5.2.1 it is seen that
) A direct radiation from source to receptor deroted as
"path 1.
(i) Direct radiation from source gained by the elecnt
power cables or the signal / control cables connected o
Chassis
Conducted interference ne receptor which arives the receptor throug
Radiated interference conduction denoted as "path 2".
Common Impedance
(ii) EMI emitted by the electrical power signal or co
equipment (unit) coupling cables of the source denoted as "path 3
(1ES)Fig. 5.13: A few of the intra
modes
SHAH Yentu
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-ah Sem-ATO)
aeompanied tmn
sommon olectrionl
thugh peowor
thnvig mon signal Aontml nupply
lon
oublesdenotod S.3 NATURAL
AND NUCLEAR
uth4 SOURCES
OF EMI
ariodtobthodilferent
unvtt
N pHover /
souno whleh
signnl/ contwl
gets ldentlenl
cublon . AAMAMtMAALALRAAsmaARAARAAnenn
Explaln
natural and nuclear
wwer/signa / contavl bles of
the recoptor to tho of BMI ioure
cahle contnmls av mlled. Suelh espeelnlly
lntertooneo Tho koureo8
iirs th
eeptor thmugh comhuetlon of BMI Ineude
both natural
/signal/ control cables thowgh 4 Atn and atats, lightning rCes Bn
do not present NChnrgo ns thunderstorms, olectroslald
well ms pienomenn
thebasic way by
ich BMI tmvels und human sch as atunat)end
fronm lua mnclo seurces,
eceptor and radiation
and eonduetlon. Tho IMI Is also
EMI so accompanied|fvom its soureo The produced at the
time of practical use of
mrptor can hamper tho perfor
or sourees
to tho ifferent of clectrical,
slectronic
of tho clectromeclvanleal
receptor. A apparntus. Thia EMI
eptor hecomes dend when the intensity producecd
by different
interferencs
eyond a tolemble limit,
of BMI IN cquipment and applisnces
known us human
made, s
The capacity receiver, a device or ig. 5.3.1 mentlons
n equipment or lst of many sources
m
System t0 work suitably in its u
electromagnetle
clectroagnetle Interferencc.
Though clectromagnctc
o
environment without yet introducing pulscs (EMP) produced
unbearable by nuclcar cxplosions can
electromagnetic
disturbances to any
bo delined to be
a naturul phenomenon
no
other device clectromngnetic disturtbancen thc natuse of
auipment / system in produced by an EMP are
that environment is similur to
electromagnetic conpatibility called disturbances produced
(EMC). atmosplierlc plhenomena by natural
orm. in their severe und cxlrcne
Thus it is better for analysis
purpOse to treat elcctromagnetie
electrostatic. pulsc along with
natural phenomenon like lightning
snd
Electromagnotle Nolso
Equipment Noise
(EMI In circuíts Natural Noiso
& system)
Terrestrlal Colosttal
System communlcatilon/- Atmospheric Cosmic/
Circults &Components Lightning
Radar Galactlc
cal oscllator Eloctrostatlc Nolso
Navigation equlpment Switches Dlschargo
Fluorescent Soler
Motors Noiso
tube lights Flters
Automobile lgnitlon Relays
Industrial equipment Non linear circults
Such as arc welders,
heaters etc elements
Electrictraction Circuit breakers,
Appliances such as Magnetc armatures
microwave ovens mlxers, Latching contactors
vacuum cleaners, Loglc and digltal clrcults
electric shavers Arclng due to Improper contacts
corona
Rusty contacts
(1E5)Fig. 5.3.1: Sources of Electromagnetle Interference (EMI)
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Supcrimposed on this background noise, intense pint

a5.3.1 Celestial Electromagnetic
sources also take place in almost all directions of th
Noise
cosmos. These point sources may be or may not be
The celestial bodies such as the sun stars and galaxy are linked with optically visble points sources or starts
at a very high temperature. The electuromagnetic Such point sources are known as radio starts.
radiation coming out from these celestial bodies can be Further, electromagnetic radiation at specific discrete
added to the arbitrary motion of charged ions.
frequencies has also been found to radiate from
This results in thcrmal ionization at very high different parts of the sky with changing intensities.
temperatures. The process of burning has settled in
Mainly the radiation from neutral hydrogen clouds
cclestial bodies like planets and moon. However for
which cover all part of the sky.
some time, one side of these bodies is revealed
to the
sun and gets heated to very high temperatures because
it seizes thermal radiation from the sun. -180
These heated parts of the celestial bodies radiate
190
thermal noisc. The characteristics of such radiations Galactc equator
depend upon the temperature achieved by these bodies. 200
The sources of extraterrestrial radiations are continuous Galactie pole
as well as discrete distribution. The sun, moon and Jupiter
Jupiter are the main sources of discrete emission. These Qulet sun
sources radiates broadband as well as narrowband -Z30
clectromagnetic noise.
240
Emission coming out from the sun changes excessively 10 10 10 10 10
at the time of solar flares and sunspot activity FrequencY, Hz
Normally, continuous sources like the galaxy radiate (E6)Fig. 5.3.2: Spectral distribution
of celestial electromagnetic
broadband electromagnetic noise. Fig. 5.3.2 shows a noise
spectrum of power distribution of celestial This radiation occurs at a frequency
clectromagnetic noise. of 1420 MHz. One
more interesting source of
radiation is the class of point
The level of electromagnetic noise radiated by a cosmic sources expressed as pulsar. These emit
source does not change visibly with time, unless the electromagnetic noise in pulses
with very constant
source itsclf experience a change which gives in repetition frequency.
corresponding variation in the radiated electromagnetic When working with
highly sensitive low norse
noise reccivers using high gain
antennas at UHF, VHF and
Nevertheless, the cosmic noise reccived at a given higher frequencies, the
contribution of electromagnetic
point on carth changes with the time of the day as carth noise from extraterrestrial
moves around the sun and also rotatc around its own sources becomes quite
considerable.
axis.
The broad spectrum noisc cxtcnding from mcter a 5.3.2 Lightning Discharge
wavclengths to centimctre and lower wavclengths was
initially connected with our own galaxy. It was GQ 5.3.2 Explain lightening
discharge.
consequently discovcred to radiate from all directions
in the cosmos.
Atmospheric eleetromagnctic
noisc is produced
clectric discharges in
Hence initially it was described as galactic noisc, later atmospheres. This can be either
localized or an
area phenomenon.
it was renamed to cosmic noise. The strength of noisc
The lightning and clectrostatic
emitting from various parts of the sky varies.
sources of atmospheric discharges are tne main
noise. Lightning happens as a
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AF ie discharge in the atmosphere Electromagnetic Interference in RF Circuits
electric from a
-cult of
suh bearing cloud. Cloud atains charges from the leader channel discharge when a ground potenua
kuge aa accumulati result of charge
nosphere As wave moves up
the ionized leader path. This is know
clouds achieve iciently high
umulato, potential as Teum
stroke and has an upward velocity of about
ground
respectto one third the velocity
gith strength in a charged cloud of light.
the ield omes he transit time from
breakdown level the result will ground to the top of a channel i5
an be an
Tn
electric
discharge. 04S. At the bottom most point,
the maximum current
1s nearly 30 kA. This maximum
occur froma clou to the ground as well current is achieved in a
Thisdisc Iew microseconds and drops
another.
one cloud to to one half of its peak
fom
s value
in nearly 50 us. The sudden increase
3.2(A) Cloud to Ground temperature to a very high
value because of emission of
Discharge energy results in the
production of a high pressure
Channel and a shock produces the
wave. This process
a
EXplain cloud to ground discharge. thunder.
******-*.
******
lash is a total discharge between a cloud and the a5.3.2(B) Cloud to Cloud Discharge.
round. A flash lasts about 0.5 seconds. The flash or
discharge components has a series of high cument

GQ.S34 Explain cloud to.cloud discharge
ralses called strokes. Each stroke stays about 1 ms and **
the time interval between strokes is nearly 40 ms to The cloud to cloud discharge refers to all discharges
30 ms. that do not touch the ground. Static charges achieved
A introductory breakdown in the cloud sets the stages by a cloud generate a static field. The value of electric
for negative charge (electrons) to be channelled field intensity can be obtained from a knowledge of the
towards the ground in a series of short vivid steps. This charge distribution and distance from the ground.
js called stepped leader. The leader steps are normally The effect of the ground is considered in calculating the
of 1
js duration and tens of meters in length with a electric field intensity by assuming the presence of
break time between steps of about 50 us. image charges. The transients of electric and magnetic
A complete
developed stepped leader produces a down field are produced by lightning processes. The duration
ard movement of about 5 coulombs of negative of such fields can be typically of an order of a fraction
charge cloud with an average velocity of about
of a microsecond. The currents that produce these
x 10 m/s. The values of pulse currents are of an
fields also have same duration of time.
rder of 1 kA.
The correlated electric and magnetic
These sub microsecond ficlds and currents can present
G pulses have width
of 1 us or less and rise time or resonances in an aircraft which can put a serious hazard
01 ps or
less.
Thenegative to aireraft in which non-metallic structural materials are
eharge stored in the cloud is spent as a
Tesult used. These kinds of materials are always used in
or breakdown.
generate
These effects add together io modem military aircraft for achieving low reflectivity
a changein the electric field with duration of a
iew and minimized radar cross section.
hundred
ms.
theleader Practically these materials also supply a reduced level
offers tip with a negative potential of 10 volts
ne ground, of electromagnetic shielding for the interior of the
the maxim electric field lower
up aircraft. The digital electronic circuits of low voltage
The
results in an upward-moving discharge
placed inside an aircrait are sensitive to damage
uOn between upward moving and produced by cloud to cloud dischärgè.
ward
moving discharges tens of meters above the
eCtS the leader tip to the ground potential.
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2 5.3.2(C) EM Fields Produced byy

Lightning
P0.x)
GQ 5.3.5 Write a short note on EM Fields
Produced by Lightning.
Ground screen
****
It is very complex to get an cvaluation of the exact ficld

intensity due to lightning discharge. As there is no Image
control on the nature of EMI waveform produced by dipole
natural sources like lightning. The existing models are

based on approximations (1E7)Fig. 5.3.3: Radiation from a current dipole
These models arc not suitablc for exact quantitative
P is the obscrvation point P is the current source point
evaluation of the effects produced. However, some idea
about the kind of the waveforms and their spatial
and D IP- Flis the separation between these two
points. Let p as the charge distribution,
distribution are useful in analysing the nature of linked
EMI and to some extent in evolving the laboratory test
c
is the velocity of light and Egis free space
procedures and waveforms to check their influences on permittivity and 4 is the free space permeability.
receiver equipment. The vector and scalar potentials satisfy the following
conditions as follows.
Some models are explained based on EM ficlds
generated by lightning. v.R = 0 7 5.3.3)
5.3.2(DD) Time Dependent

Dipole
Electric Or
.0-v. (F*)ar
Cylindrical co-ordinate system considered and the
GQ. 5.3.6 Explain time dependent electric
dipole source placed at a distance above a perfect
dipole
******
ground screen.
A time dependent current dipole is considered as a For current dipole model the EM fields are checked by
natural source of EMI. For such source EM ficlds are first getting the value of A.and then using Equations
related to the scalar and vector potentials.
potentials. (5.3.1) to (5.3.3), the achieve values for E and H fields.
4
E Or Thus,
Thus if and A are scalar and vector potential, the E
and H ficlds are expréssed as:
E(Fa) -vo- (5.3.1)
(5.3.2)
5.3.4)
Here both o and A are dependent on P and time H(P)-U,
t.
D (5.3.5)
With reference to Fig. 5.3.3, dl is length of a current dipole Where
and is started along the X-axis.
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HIE
- Ji-
0
dr w(5.3.6) (3) Mcldintetnlty cstimatlon
due to lightning discharge
npontant in entlmatlng the translent voltugca in powe
+D})/2
D' (5.3.7) C Whici comes from Hghting dlacharge. Thus,
are thc unit vectors 4uation (5.3.4) and kjuation (5.3.5) arc an ensentin
.hamd U, in eylindrical Or 41 ipproxinutc cquantitntive evaluation of EMI
systcm, systems
valinale
tihat D°
noled that
> D as x > 0, it means (hat the
D' >
his placed near totheground screen 5.3.3 Electrostatlc Discharge
dipoleis
3.2(E) LIgntning Discharge

5.3.2(E) GQ. 5.3.8 Write a note on Electrostatie
Discharge (ESP)
Explain lightning discharge shortly.
Electrostatic discharge (1ESD) is natural phenomenon in
to ground lightning discharge is considered which stored static clectric charges ure discharged,
The clou
rtical column of
currer for the model purposc, resulting in production of clectromagnctic interference
discharge etween tw clouds is considered as a Static electricity is produced when two materials of
The
straightihorizontal
column of current. In both cases, the various diclectric constants such ns wool and glass, rub
the current column is treated to be very with cach other. Charging of a material body may also
cross section of
calculating the ficld intensity. come from heating or through contact with chargcd
small for simplicity in
far-zone (D > > d) all terms in body.

() Thus in the
(5.3.4) can be ignored except last term, so This static charge is discharged to another material ot
Eauation
becomes as lower resistance to the ground. The cffccts of such a
Equation (5.3.4)
discharge, which results in clectromagnetic interference
B(P,) -U, 2 5.3.8) (EMI), could change from noise and disturbances in
audio or measuring instruments to unpleasant clectrical
Thus, in far zone, field intensity of lightning discharge shocks to the cquipment or person involved.
is inversely proportional to the distance as 1/D of the
The material which presents ESD are listed in
point of observation from the location of lightning
Table 5.3.1. These are known as tribo clectric series of
discharge. In this far zone, electric component is materials. The material listed at the top of table is the
parallel to the direction of the column of current. positively charged with respect to the material listed at
The of this electric field is proportional to the
intensity the lower end of table.
ale of change of magnitude of current with time. The
Table 5.3.1 materials that shows the electrostatic
magnetic field is in a plane perpendicular to the column discharge (ESD).
ofCurrent. From Equation (5.3.4) and Equation (5.3.5),. Table 5.3.1: Material that exhibit electrostatic
discharge
to
eonly last terms in this equation is considered
zone. Acctate
the field intensity that is the EMI in far
tecalculating in the near zone,
Asbestos
Human Hair
0 the field intensity Glass
tne D> dl is not met, the total effect of all the Nylon
Wool
Equation (5.3.4) and Equation (5.3.5) are
in both Fur
Lead
Sidered.
For small value of D, terms in
more considerable Aluminum
than last term, have Silk
Oner
the field intensity. Thus, nearerfield
intensity, Polyurethane
Paper
is proportional to the strength of the current and Wood
he negligible Cotton
Cnange of current magnitude has Sealing Wax
ect on the field Steel
tensity in the near zone.
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Hard ubber the plant operation, the levels ofele ctric and magnetic
Mylar
fields intensities are higher than those levels mentioned
Epoxy Glass Nickel, Copper, Silver in Table 54.1. These field intensities form EMI
Brass, Stainless steel Synthetic Rubber The beginning of EMI starts in equipment apparatus or
Acrylic Polystyrene Foam systems. This is human produced EMI. This EMI is
Polyurethane Foam different from the EMI produced due to natural
Polyester
sources.
Saran Polyethylene
Table 5.4.1 Tntensity of Electric field levels in different
Polypropylene PVC (Vinyl) rooms of American Home.
Teflon Silicon Rubber Table 54.1 Intensity of Electric Field levels in various
rooms of a Typical American home
5.3.4 Electromagnetic Pulse
Oca Electric field intensity
GQ. 5.3.9 Explain Electromagnetic pulse Volts per meter)
**************~*- Laundry room 0.8
An electromagnetic pulse is produced through a nuclear
explosion. This pulse is highly intense as compared to Dining room 0.9
any natural source. It is said that "It is more intense Bathroom 1.2-1.5
than one thousand lightning". Nuclear electromagnetic
Kitchen 2.6
pulse (NEMP) leads to the production of EMI in its
most severe form. Bedroom 2.4-7.8
Two broad phenomenon of EMI generation are linked Living room 3.3
with nuclear explosions. When equipment or a system Hallway 13.0
is placed nearer to nuclear burst, the weapon's X-rays
or y-rays interact with various material of system and 5.4.1 Electromagnetic Emission
results in uncontrolled emission of electrons.
Motion of these electrons produces electromagnetic The electromagnetic energy is emitted by different
fields, which may produce upset or burmout of system clectrical, electromechanical and electronic apparatus during
electronics. This is the system generatedtheir nomal operation such emission of electromagnetic
enérgy is due to:
electromagnetic pulse (SGEMP).
() Intentionally emitted signals
5.4 EMI FROM APPARATus AND i) Unintentional electromagnetic emission at the time of
CIRCUITS working of an equipment.
GQ 5.41 Write a note on EMI from a5.4.2 Systems

ApparatuS and Circurts.
-- GQ 5.4.2 Explain EMI emission by systems
The clectromagnetic noise or interference produced in
****
- - -- -
-- -----. --.
electrical clectromechanical and electronics apparatus The radars, television and radio broadcast transmittes,
is due to clectromagnetic interactions inside such communication equipment and transmitters used for
circuits and systems. navigational aids are the practical examples of systems
Table 5.4.I gives the data about clectric field intensities that emits strong electromagnetic signals at the time or
in various rooms of American home. their working operation. Fig. 5.4.1 shows the several of
In industry due heavy machine operation or due to these sources.
heavy electrical load switching takes place as part of
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Circ
tnterferoncein RF
Som-E&TC) (5-13) EKCtromagnetic
(MU-th
ightning
Clouds and
Nrcran navigation end

Comimunication oquipnert
Power lines
Radar
Communication
8ystem
Mobile
transmitter
communication and
Ship
navigation equipment
Radio and talevision

transmitter
electromagnetic pollution
(1E8)Fig. 5.4.1: Sources of
radiation are
intentiona
coherent
Normally, sources of frequency
radiated
electromagnetic equipment at a certain
sources intentionally radiations from some radiate
These normal operation, such cquipment may also
doing their However
While unintended and of working. same or some
radiations.
produce certain radiation near about the
always unintentional
equipment also
electromagnetic emissions. other frequency.. are main
undesired
the operation of
other non-coherent radiations
interfere with Both coherent and
Such radiation
may
the desired eclectromagnetic interference.
electronics apparatus. Further, sources of
sensitive with the
transmitter could interfere ELEMENTS OF
signals radiated by a equipment. This will
operation of other
electronics
or
5.5 ELECTROMAGNET1C
MCLUDING
planning is not done
appen if the proper
frequency INTERFERENCE INCLUDING
PROPAGATION AND
implemented.
designed to WAVE
transmitters are
scillators, amplifiers and designatea RECEPTION
electromagnetic energy at an
produce range or note on
Elements
Practically they radiate energy for Write a short
irequency. GQ. 5.5.1 Interference
desired frequency. Electromagnetic
equencies centered around the of
referred as noise
the
Including Wave
Propagation and
CTrally this radiated cnergy radiale
transmitter also Reception
y of carrier. The
subharmonics of the
harmonics and in some cases to the presencc of
communication link contnbute noise.
Each It anses itsclf as
nlended frequency of emission. clectromagnctic interference. the application.
nonlincarities in
The modulators transmitters and degrades the quality of
in the This noise ratio is used to prove
onsible for signal to noise (S/N)
clive deviccs are significantly Generally communication in analog
radiations. The quality of thc
production unintentional the
of such
an EM
noise communication system.
of modulation is naturally
SACHIN SHAH Venture
producing
phenomenon.
aNeo
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Hhere Authors
(5-14) Electromagnetic Interference in RF Circuit
In each case, the level of signal
must be greater than the Receher
noise for communication to be possible. S(t)-
How much the
level of signal above the noise
depends on the quality
of the receiver used. In digital
system, using spread
spectrum, the ratio S/N is not
enough parameter to
check link quality, because signal is (IE9Fig. 5.5.1: AWGN communication channel model
almost buried in
the noise.
-From Fig. 5.5.1, a signal S() is introduced in
But it does not mean that the communication communication channel. S() will be added by additiye
will not
be possible. In such digital system white Gaussian noise n(t) as follows:
other parameters
such as the energy of the bit compared
to the noise r() = S() + n() (5.5.1)
spectral density (EyN) are much better
to evaluate the The signal r(t) is received at the reception. There, in the
quality of the communication.
process of detection, the decision about the value of the
Any signal whether it may intentional
and useful is signal will be made.
treated as noise to other signals in the same
channel or This model can be used only in deep space
frequency band. Thus careful planning
and good communication that is between satellite. In satellite
frequency assignment is necessary. In somne cases,
even communication only degradation in the channel
neighbouring countries must work together,
because produced by the thermal noise in electronic devices.
electromagnetic signals are not bound
to national Practically, multipath, fading dispersion and other
borders.
factors should be included.
There are many types of interference or noise
including
man-made or natural. Natural interference includes
5.5.2 Thermal Noise
such as electrostatic discharge (ESD) or lightning
sunspot activity, atmosphere effects and reflections
GQ. 5.5.3 What is Thermal Noise ?
from rough earth surface.
Man-made interference includes from both commercial Conductor resistivity used for the passing of electrons
and military communications such as radar, radio depends on temperature. Hence temperature will
affect
television and cell phone communication. Industry noise in communication channel. The thermal
also noise,
contribute to interference. All this interference is ten kTB
term 5.5.2)
unintentional along with intentional interference Where, k is the Boltzmann's constant =
1.38x 10 33
especially at the time of war. Tis temperature in [K] and B is frequency
bandwidth
in Hz. Thermal noise presents
in each communication
5.5.1 Additive White Gaussian system and cannot be avoided.
Noise (AwGN)
a5.5.3 Shot Noise
GQ. 5.5.2 Explain Additive White Gaussian
Noise (AwGN) GQ 5.5.4 What
- .---
is shot noise
---.--. ?
**
Additive white Gaussian Noise (AWGN) is a reliably Shot noise present in electrical
circuits where direct
random noise in the wide frequency range with current (dc) flows. This
noise presents small variations
of the current and independent
constant spectral density. AWGN come from several on temperature. "Tne
noise current I, is expressed
sources such as thermal noise, shot noise, noise from as
sun radiation and others. 24pc B
.(5.5.3)
Where q is charge of
AWGN is a background noise in the communication the
pc is DC bias current in electron of 1.6 x 10 "C,
channel. Fig. 5.5.1 shows the AWGN communication the electric circuit and B is
frequency bandwidth
in Hz.
channel model.
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d SACHIN SHAH Venture
(MU-8thS
(MU-8th Sem.-E&TC)
DeSign
AF
Flic 5-15)
Flicker (/ T) Noise
5.3.4 Elactromagnetic Interference
x output
of two
n RF cuits
What is Flicker noise port network or
55 expressed
as, an amplifier. It is
noise
se proportiona to the
is
Fticker trequency.
bias current T. 290(NF -
with and Where, 1) ..(5.5.6)
Creases NF is the
noise
rdensityis proportional to 1/f and This
his parameter
factor at 290 K.
drops by is useful for satel
per ecade. Flicke noise nearly wnere antennas atellite communication
dB som is not strong above are pointed
0 kilohetz and times is also known temperature to the cold sky ana
pany as pink of 290 K is not applicable.
DOLSe.
5.6 ELEMENTS OF
INTERFERENCE
5.5.5 Burst Noise INCLUDING ANTENNA
TRANSMITTERS ANDD
What is burst Noise RECEIVERS
5565.6
**********.
oise
Burst 101.
present in semiconductors
and is also GQ. 5.6.1 Explain EMI by antenna
known as
popcorn noise. transmitters
and receivers.
hisproduced
pre by defect in manufacturing
process like
Intentional or unintentional
-----
beavy metal ion contamination signals are the manmade
or surface SOurces of electromagnetic
contamination. The noise increases interference. Intentional
with the bias interference is useful
curentlevel and is proportional to 1/f. when one user wants to disturb
the communication capability
of other user by sending
an interfering signal
5.5.6 in the same frequency band with a
Noise Spectral Density higher power than what is
used by the second user.
Noise spectral density is denoted However most manmade
by No and it is the sources of EMI unintentional.
noise in the frequency range It arises from improper planning
of 1 Hz. of mobile telephony,
improper reuse of frequencies
intermodulation products
N, = =KT or other services using the same
..(5.5.4) band of frequencies
and industrial sources though they
h digital system energy per bit, E, is always used with are not useful for
communication at
noise spectral
density for checking data error rate all, interfere with useful
communications.
performance. It is
obtained by using signal to noise
ratioby
All communications that are not planned
for a specific
use are considered interference, nevertheless,
the fact
. (5.5.5) that it is useful communication for some other party.
If interference is in the same communication channel, it
Oere R is the data rate and B is the frequency
bandwridth. will raise the noise in the system. It is an essential
to
know all the possible sources of interference to
55.7 Effective Input calculate the parameters of the communication link.
Noise
Temperature a
, s5.7 What
5.6.1 Commercial Radio and
Telephone Communications
is effective
veinput noise
*** temperature? Telephone communications and commercial radio are
-- broadly used communication systems. Radio and Tv
tfective
etemperatureinput noise temperature Te, is definedto be
as
broadcasting are very old and can be found in rural
cated at which the input impedance has areas as well as undeveloped countries. Cell phone
produce the observed noise power at u
atablications ASACHIN SHAH Venture
ons Where Authors inspire innovation
-"
RF Design (MU-8th Sem.-E&TC)
(5-16)
Elecromagreic Iterererce in PF Crons
communications are also become more noticeable in 26.1 MHz This frequency band is above the MW tali
these places. stations. They do not broadcast 24 irs a day, zd dso
Pager networks and private communications mostly change the frequency during a day to balerce tor te
available in developed countries and are not so broadly drop of receptioa condítions.
used. The distance is not as large as with 4W a
Table 5.6.2 shows the frequency bends fo
a5.6.1(A) Broadcast System broadcasting.
Broadcast system contains TV, satellite and any other Table 5.6.2:SW Radio frequency bands
transmission of audio or video signal to a broad audience. Name Freguency (MEa
aRadio Broadcasting 120m 2.3-2.495
This broadcasting is divided into frequency modulation 90 m 3.2-3.4
(FM) and amplitude modulation (AM). AM is suitable 75 m 3.9-4.0
for larger distances and is not enough to provide audio
60 m 4.75-5.06
quality as FM radio stations. The digital radio has
highest quality signal. 49m 5.9-6.2
AM radio is divided into long wave (LW), medium 7.1-7.35
41m
wave (MW) and short wave (SW). 31 m 9.4.-9.9
LW operates in the frequency band ranging from | 25 m1.16-1.21
148.5 kHz to 283 kHz. The spacing between channels 21m 13.57-13.87
is 9 kHz.
MW .operates in frequency band ranging from

19m15.1- 15.8
526.5 kHz to 1.705 kHz. These frequency bands are
16 m 17.48 17.9
13 m 21.45-21.85
|
used for AM radio. There are 117 carrier frequencies in

10 kHz spaced apart.
11 m 25.6-26.1
Each carrier frequency should not differ than t 20 Hz The signal quality and transmission will be influenced
from the assigned frequency. Modulation frequencies by weather conditions and whether the station works
range from 50 Hz to 5 kHz. If modulation frequency day or night
exceeds 5 kHz, the radio frequency bandwidth will The power of transmitting stations will
be form 1W
become greater than 10 kHz and therefore interfere (or less) to 500 kW. FM radio stations use the
with adjacent channel. Table 5.6.1 shows the classes of frequency band ranging from 88MHz
to 108 MHz.
MW radio stations. These FM stations are of higher
quality thaa AM radio
Table 5.6.1 :MW Radio stations. stations. FM stations can only
be broadcast and heard
upto nearly 100 km from the
Class Power Frequency (KHz) stations unlike to AM
radio stations which can be
(kW) heard very large rang
(several hundred km).
A 10- 50 535 1605
If there is no other transmitter
in the closeness O
B 0.25-50 1605- 1,705 transmitting station at the
same or very near and tne
C 0.25-1 1,230, 1240, 1340, 1400, 1450, is clear frequency and
if the FM radio is kept high on a
1490 mountain, FM distance may
be ever larger a
535 1605, 1605-1705 100 km.
D0.25- 50|
SW uses the frequency bands ranging from 2.3 MHz to The frequency band
of 20 MHz is divided inu
. here Authors inspire innovation
A SACHIY SHAH Ventan
(MU-0h,Som.-E&TC)
an(MU-Buh -17)
DOSN ElOctromagnotio tntorferonco in RF Circuits
AF cluncls with
uith 200 kllz. in width and placed
* TV
carier Broadcastlng
The frequeney diffcrence whould not be
0 upart. The
kIz 1575 kllz whercus tic slability of the
20 a7 1 brodcasting or digital. Many
is either analog,
Countrics in the world arc switchíng to digital sysucu
realer hett
be 2 klHz. Table 5.6.3 shows the
must Old TV receivers are still used with DVB-T receiver
arier poWersoftra
transnitter classes.
of T'able 5.64 to 5.6.6 shows
naximum he analog channels.
5.6.3: FM Radlo statlons
Table Table 5.44: VHP-1 TV Channels
Class Powers(kW) Channel Fregueney MHZ)|

2 54-60
A 60-66
B 25 3
B 50 66-72
5 76-82
25
6 82-88
50
Table 5.6.5 : VHF-3 TV Channels
C 00
Channel Frequency MHz)|
D 100
I74- 180
Though there arc digital radio technologies including 8 180- 186
oth satcllite
and terrestrial, this technology is still 186- 192
cvolving and not a single onc has received acceptance. 10 192- 198
Many prefer to listen to radio stations

users are still
198-204
with their old and very cheap

reccivers. 12 204-210
13 210-216
Table 5.6.6 :UHP TV Channels

Frequency Channel Frequency
Frequeney Channel
Channel Frequency Channel CMEHz)
(MH) (MH2)
(MIHz) 686-692 68 794 800
578-584 50
4 470-476 32 800- 806
692-698 69
15 33 584-590
476-482 698-704 70 806-812
52
34 590-596
6 482-488
53
704-710 812-818
17 596-602
488-494 35 710-716 72 818-824
18 602-608 54 824 830
494- 500 36
608-614
55 716-722 73
19
500-506 37 722-728 74 830-836
506-512 38
614 620 56 728-734 75 836 842
57
620-626 76 842-848B
512-518B 39 734-740
58
626-632 77 848-854
518-524 40 740-746
59
23 632-638 746-752 78 854-860
524-530 41 60
638-644 752-758 79 860-866
530-536 42 61
536-542 43
644-650 A SACIIN SIHAH Ventur
aPuhliealions
." ra Authara inspire innovaion
Electromagnetic Intererence in PF Cros
RF Design (MU-8th Sem.-E&TC)
(5-18)
Channel FrequencY Channel Frequeney
Frequency Channel Frequency Channel
(MHz) (MH) CMHz) MHz
26 542-548 44 650-656 62 758- 764 0 6-872
764-770 81 872-878
27 548-554 45 656 662 63
28 554 560 46 662 668 64 770-776 82 878-334
29 560- 566 47 668-674 65 776-782 83 824-80
30 566-572 48 674-680 66 782 788
31 572-578 49 680 686 67 788-794

TV stundards are not the same in all countries. United frequencies between 2.5 GHz and to 27 GHz in crder to
states, Canada. Central America uses National avoid interference with Line of Sight (LOS) erestriad
Television system committed (NTSC) standard. NTSc communications.
has 525 horizontal lines. China and westem Europe
Uses phase Alteration each line (PAL). a 5.6.1(B) Cell Phone and Pager
PAL has 625 horizontal lines. Some Eastern European
Networks
countries France, Russia uses Sequential colour 'avec Cellular phones are becoming part of everybody's kfe.
memory (SECAM). It also has 625 horizontal lines. It is so great that some people cary more than ooe
The maximum effective radiated power (ERP) for mobile phone. Base stations (BSs) are everywhere
VHF-I transmitters is 100 KW, whereas VHF-3 and around us.
UHF transmitters radiate ERP 316 kW and 5 MW Broadcast transmitters are comparatively less, whereas
respectively.
mobile BSs are much more preseat may be on
When some analog TV systems stop to work, new highways or inside offices.
digital system come into market. High definition
television provides much higher quality than analog 5.6.1(C)Cell Phone Networks
television. TV channels used for digital TV are
Global system for mobile communication (GSM)
complete VHF-1 and VHF-3 frequency bands and a
widely used cell phone in world. GSM operates
part of VHF (14-36, 38-S1) frequency bands.
450 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz and 850 MH2
Satellite broadcasting operated in the L band of frequency bands.
frequency range 1452 MHz to 1492 MHz, S-band
The first three frequency bands are used Europe, Asia
(2310 2360. 2520- 2655) MHz, Ku band
and Africa and latter two frequency bands are used m
(11.7 12.7 GHz), K - band (17.3 - 17.8 GHz
North and South America
21.4-22 GHz) and K, band (40.5 GHz to 42.5 GHz).
Code division multiple access (CDMA) techoology s
The Ku frequency band ranging from 11.7 GHz to
used in Japan.
12.2 GHz is used for fixed satellite services.
The maximum pawer flux density on Earth's surface

should not be greater than 137 dB for m
Tedb-Neo Publicatíoes. Wherr Authers inspire innovation SACHIVSHUI Votr

-4
ath so
DOSnIMU-ath Sem.-E&TC) (5-19)
ElOctromagnetic Interference in AF CirGu
GSM bands,
S.
RE shows the
6.7 Table 5.6.7 :GSM
Tible3 Networks
400
GSM 900 1800 850 1900
450.4-457-6 | 890-915
Uplink 1710-1785 824-849 1850 1920
(MHz) 460.4-467.6
Frequency
Downlink 478.8-486 925(935)v960 1805 1880
869-894 1930- 1990
Frequency(MHz) 478.8-486
spectrum 7 MHz 35 (25) MHz
Frequency 75 MHz 25 MHz 70 MHz
separation 10 MHz 45 MHz
Duplex 95 MHz 45 MHz 80 MHz
200 kHz 200 kHz
Carrier spacing 200kHz200 kHz 200 kHz
regulations and local country regulations Table 5.6.8: Paging îrequencies
emational
defined the power of the transmitters.

hvede Region Frequency (MHz)
channel of transmitter is allowe in
of500 W per
pofr
ERP United States 35-36, 43-44, 152-159,
the cases, only 100 W per
reas. Many of 454-460, 929, 931
Uioan
used.
channel is European Union 47.0-47.25, 440-470
are 21 channels per sector, with three
0en there apan 280
having total number of channels 63 per base
dors Australia 148
gation.
The maximum power of transmitters for 152 MHz to
withan omni directional antenna, maximum number of
153 MHz, 153 MHz to 159 MHz, 454 MHz to
be the
cdunnels 96 are possible. Thus 48 KW would 455 MHz and for 459 MHz to 460 MHz is 1.4 kW,
tal maximum power when all the channels are 150 W, 3.5 kW and 150 W respectively.
geraing which happen very rarely. The power density
ils very fastly with respect to distance from the a 5.6.1(E) Private Networks
Menna.
Private nefwórks are. diferent from public networkss
because private networks are open only to users of the
S.6.1(D)Pager Network network.
These networks are used by corporate networks which
S networks works in simplex communication mode.
are not connected to global internet networks for
US Snort messages to user. It is actually warning or
security reasons.
tce for further communications.
Private networks can be set through an Intermet
IeIvers are usually simple and inexpensive. But connection or broadband satellite. The intemet can also
wireless on 2.4 GHz or 5.5 GHz. There is a lot of
* transmitter not
stem used for large distances is be
Bluetooth,
other devices like
le andcheap. interference from
license free
smitters microwave oven, Zig Bee working in this
are usually high în power (KW) for broad frequency 2.4 GHz band.
ng sYstems
whereas if smitters are operating operating in Ka band allows broadband
Scal system The satellite
e.g, office, they operate at 2.4 GHz and services with up to
16-Mbps connectivity rate.
kiates
the power
of mW.
3 requencies are
shown in Table 5.6.8:
SACHIN SHAH Venture
ions A
here Authorsinspire inaoration
Electromagnetic Intererence in RF Circuita
LRF Design (MU-8th Sem.-E&TO) (5-20)
can produce unintentional
Such high intensity fields
5.7 ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT activation or explosion of
clectro-explosive devices
AND SYSTEM EMI CONCEPTS hazards of humans.
inspite of producing radiation
GQ. 5.7.1 Explain electronic cquipment and EkVIm

System EMI concepts.
The greater use of different types of equipments

produces an EMI than the case of fifty years ago. The
variety and number of equipments are ever increasing
These equipments, appliances and systems are also the
victims of EMI. The mass of deployment of these
cquipments has improved during this time. -20 0 20 40 60
-6040
Also the use of semiconductor devices and very large Lateral intenslty from center line (m)
scale integrated (VLSI) technologies have allowed us
(ESaFig. 5.7.1: Electrie field intensity at ground level under
to design and operate circuits and systems using low 525 kV power transmission line
power levels and very low signal levels.
Table 5.7.1 clectric field intensities at mid-span under
These devices and circuits have much tolerance levels
high voltage electric power transmission line
to EMI. Also these devices and circuits are being
movable to failure or burnout. The EMI is System voltage (KV) Fletricfield, KVha
accomplished in several new ways and situations. 123 2
245 2-3
a 5.7.1 Examples of EMI
420 5- 6
5.7.1(A) Transmission Lines 800 10- 12
Electric power transmission lines of high voltage are a 1200 15- 17
source of electric and magnetic fields in their
immediate vicinity. Such power transmission lines a 5.7.1(B) Mains Power Supply
always generate voltages greater than 100 kV with
If the electric power transmission lines are open, they
more than 100 A current. Fig. 5.7.1 shows an electric
can casily pick up electromagnetic noises from
field at ground level under 525 kV power transmission
lightning and thunderstorms.
line placed approximately at 10 m above the ground.
It is observed that high electric field intensities present Mains power supply lines in industrial and home
not only directly below the power lines but also at some environment also possess transients coming from
distance away from the centre line (mid-span). switches, circuit breakers, heavy load switching and so
Table 5.7.I shows the electric field intensities at mid- forth.
span under electric power transmission line with These disturbances are sufficient
to disturd the
various voitages. operation of computers and several information
An ciectric and magnetic fields of high intensity also technology products. Extreme cares
should be taken in
present in an immediate closeness of suface to designing and instailing
power supplies for computer
subnarine extremely low frequency (ELF installations several published recommended practices
communication stations and radio or television and standards are available
transmitters. for this purpose.
Terb-Nea Pablications Where Aatbars inspire innovatina

ASACHIN SHAB Yntar
(MU-8ths
(MU-8th Sem.-E&TC)
DeSIgn
ian
AF (5-21)
Switches and Relays
Elertrrag
netic
It in very necemary Interterencsin RFCireauits
clectricaldischarges linked with the
yxeraiion or
an electrical switch or relay
make or
in
break , layout of
ary to have
carcfol desip
of vntrol
control instrumentalion can telcphone for computers cables and ires, sperial enciknizres
incuits or produce
EM. and ripherals,
rip
cal life proble in telephone
Csgning prwer special care while
real upplies and distritntirn
Thisis a copes and other high circuits
and in Pwer and the sectíon of
sensitivity
control The EMI of placement of antenra.ekrzra
circuits,
circuits, where ultra low and in Arecibo radio
lcomm and level signals
are Puises coming dio telewop is
produce by
ALndled from arc-welding
ue antenna of a structure close to
resulted in over
receivers. loading the easiive
(D) Telephone Equipment
electric
: ield strength close to telephone 5.7.1(E) Aircraft Navigation
The device
placed in a telephone
as that
Sach central office is Kecently gross
of navigational errors
mdue
cYNcem to such systems, generally need in Omega navigation have been ciserved
ant field strengths to be restricted the instruments of passenger
ambient which was on a flight air plane
to 1 V from network to Saint Maarton.
lm
(120 dB uV/ m). The readings of instruments
were not matched wth
US has shown that the
study in
in each other and were
.
A percentage of not consistent in time and beading
ephone central offices which accomplish the with last known position
field ofthe plane.
strength levels in excess of this threshold Succeeding investigation
are pointed to the source of error
significant. producing EMI because
a portable television set being
watched by a passenger.
Similar problems were accomplished in India in
two
decades ago, where telephone lines The working of laptop computer
and equipment by a user was fond to
were found to pick up transmissions from
seriousty interfere with the navigational
nearby device of the
television stations. aircraft during take off and landing.
.Special designed
device and
telephone line filters are integrated in a 5.7.1(G) Military Equipment
the telephone instruments at specific
locations to solve the problem. In aerospace military system of missile or rocket launch
Broadcast AM/FM/TV transmitters, radar and vehicle assemblies gives electromagnetic compatibiliry
navigation aids, mobile radio and television heavy of the same of importance as reliability.
engineering industrial plants and many more are the Different components such as circuits or device
Soroes of electromagnetic interference. The intensity subsystems and systems are exposed to complete EMC
of the EMI depends on operating frequency output testing before the system is assembled and installed.
power EMI sources including lightning, electro-static
levels. EMI limiting measures are used in the
discharge (ESD) and occurmence of transients are also
E51gn, installation and operation of this device.
measured at the time of design and assembly phases
5.7.1(E) Radio Astronomy and mitigation techniques used to overcome these.
Now-a-days, aerospace systems make an area in which
ladislant radi
Stronomy, weak signals from pulsars and all EMI mitigation techniques play
a key role in
galaxies are not easy to sense on their own. certifying mission success.
Ihe EMI important techniques and
in radio telescope begins from sources such In military applications,
planning and allocation,
methods including frequency
digital clock pulses, power supplies or noise shiclding, filtering
burstsf bonding. grounding cable
and other
electric Operation of relays, switches harnessing and building of
circuits to avoid-pulsed
could occur
Oact gaps in which arcing mode interfercnces
static clectricity build up ánd
8 with usual sources radar intermodulation or
such as radio, television, intermodulation such as passive
er
eo
high power transmissions.
Publications
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Electromagnetic Interference in RF Clrcuits
RF Design (MU-8th Sem-E&TC (5-22)
signal lines or
rusty bolt effcct especially on warships produced by the The noise sources include power lines,
presence of several radio frequency sources, receivers current carrying ground connections.
and antennas. The conducted path may be resistive or caTy
inductance or capacitance, intentional or otherwise and
5.7.1(H) Secure Communication it is always a mixing of these.
Secure communications and data processing are The reactive path always results in resonances with
their associated increase or decrease in current at the
important in many military and national Security
applications
resonant frequencies.
The radiation or conduction of an intelligence bearing

5.9 EQUIPMENT EMISSION OF
signal produce an unintentional electromagnetic SusCEPTIBILITES
emissions could disclose classified information when it
intercepted and analysed by special sensors.
GQ. 5.9.1 Explain coupling betwcen emitter
Such inteceptions take place at the time of
transmission reception or handling and processing of
receptor.
data by information processing device.
An electromagnetic interference (EMI) is produced
Due to this, in critical applications, the levels of when there is undesired unintentional coupling of
emissions through radiation and conduction are electromagnetic energy from one device known as
controlled by strictly specification controls. These are emitter to another device known as receptor.
known as TEMPEST specifications. The different methods of EMI coupling between an
The word TEMPEST is used to define a whole set of emitter and receptor are shown in Tig. 5.9.1.
highly sensitive specifications and special measurement
procedures for certifying compliance with these
specifications.
The standard lays down permissible levels for Emitter Receptor
- PT
unwanted electromagnetic energy radiations in military
communications, radar, avionics, navigational aids
computational device, printers, video display units and
cabfe ssenmblies and so on in data handling or
communication system emit low levels of unwanted
electromagnetic fields.
- Signal or control panel
Though such electromagnetic fields are not strong,
these signals could still be taken up and ready by
FOwer line
sensitive surveillance devices.
(1E10)Fig.5.9.1: EMl coupling between
emitter and receptor
5.8 EXAMPLES OF EMI
COUPLING MODES 5.9.1 Types of Coupling
GQ. 5.8.1 What is EMI coupling? GQ 5.9.2 Explain radiated and conducted EMI
------------------- --------- coupling modes.
For circuit and conductor very close t each other, the --. --
coupling or crosstalk through mutual inductance and
2 5.9.1(A) Radiation Coupling
inter circuit capacitance is to be considered though one
of either inductive or capacitive coupling mode The radiation coupling between an
emitter and receptor
predominates. occur from transfer of electromagnetic energy using a4
radiation path.
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of radiation coupling are: tromagnotilo Intorforonco In RF Crcuits
bpes s of
piferent natural and similar clectromagnetic POWer lines and
CouplinS of the same power
come into an other device attached to
ironment to the receptor such as power line. supply lines.
envion transmissio
power ransmission line serve as receiving ractically this is known
The receptor may also get electromagnetic as conducted clectromagnetuc
interference
(conducted EMI).
sptene
interierence Or electromagnetic environment noise
onnected connectors or connections LIKewise signal
and control cables also serve as carriers
through and of conducted EMJ.
nnected signal or other lines in the device
irom
circuit. Measurement
or of such conducted EMI nceds ambicnt
Coupling of electromagnetic energy from closely powcr ine noise to
be separated from that radiated by
through direct radiation. the device under
evice Test (DVT).
Conduction Coupling DIs ensures the comect
true measurement from DVi
B) operation.
coupling between an
cOnduction itter and a Well designed networks
place through a direct conduction path for generating such clean
takes
ptor power to the DVT,
receptor. are utilized conducted
at the time of
the emiter and
MIen interference measurements.
are as follows:
samples of coupling
Tt is also necessary to know the
Taterference is carried by power supply lines if
nature of electrical
transients and other interfcrences
same powe on the mains power
emitter and receptor work from the
Supply and techniques to separate
sUpply. For example, common mains power them from DVT
power supply.
supply is often source of conducted interference.
Thus the clectromagnetic interfercnce carried
nterferences are also passed from emitter to by
receptor by signal or control lines which are clectrical power supply lines are divided
into two
connected between two. types
) Common mode currents/ vollages
5.10 COMMON MODE COUPLING i) Differential modc (or normal mode) currents
MECHANISM voltages.
The Common Mode (CM) interfercnces are nothing but

S10:1 Explain common mode coupling
the unwanted clectrical potential differences between
Mechanism.
any or all current passing conductors and the reference
li2electrical signal of pure sinusoidal waveforms of ground.
teectic power transmission and distribution lines Therefore with reference to Fig. 5.10.1, which shows
often damaged by different electrical transients and three conductor lincs, the common mode voltage Vc is
sthet
disturbances.
expressed as
Tse transients
or disturbances come from natural Vc 5.10.1)
SUch as lightning and thunderstorms and from
Where Vpg is voltage betwcen phase and ground wires
PTalion of different and Vya is the voltage belwcen neutral and ground
clectrical and electronics
Ppanent.
wircs.
Tese
disturbanc
ances or radiations are passed over The CM interference current present from the sourcc
a
through the phase and neutral conductors and comes
*ance from the originating source conductor.
win back from the load through the ground
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Frequently, such coupling is because of distributed

Po-
capacitance between the primary and secondary
No windings that is electrostatic coupling.
VNG
Ground currents from other device can also scatter
G
common mode interferences (C) into the ground
(a) conductor.
A third example of common mode interference (D) is
generated by the signal control cables attached
between the device and another peripheral equipment
VP OP or supporting instrument working from a separate
power supply.
The last example provides an additional ground loop
and produced interference depends on the complete
(b) system configuration and the impedance of the
grounding system.
In computer installation, it is very difficult to get an
UP
equilization of the ground voltages practically because
Output
of board frequency bands and complex wiring
resonances are included.
These systems needs careful engineering solutions such
"No surge as surge protection, proper grounding of cables and use
of fiber optic data and signal links.
(c) Measurng Instrument
Separate
Or penpheral device
power
(1E1)F1g. 5.10.1: Common and differential mode interferences Supply
Further to explain the concept, Fig. 5.10.1(b) shows a

balanced circuit in which sender and receiver Composite
kne voltage
transformer windings have a grounded center tap.
No metallic conductor is utilized to attach the two
grounded terminals.
If an interference voltage is simultaneously coupled to
the two conductors, the voltmeter V, will not be
measured as voltage difference whereas the voltmeter
G RL
CM disturbance
V will read as voltage difference. This is commonly
known as common mode interference. Common mode (a)
interferences are produced by various mechanisms.
This is helpful in both measurements and in devising
solutions to overcome clectromagnetic interference
problems.
DM disturbance
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 5.10.2.
The disturbing common mode interferences (A)
transported by power supply line ideally are stopped by
the isolation transformer. But, the electromagnetic field
generated by this interferences or a strong field from
some other source may scatter electrically or
magneticaly and produce a Common Mode (CM) Composite
fne voi2g
interference (B) on secondary windings of an isolation (b)
transformer or the input port. (IE1ZFig. 5.10.2: Examples of (a)CM
and (b) DM Interference
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$.11 MECHANIS INCLUDING tectromagnede
inchuding Interterence
FIELD TO CABLE the field in RF Ciui
NOen curment
pass in one
shielding is useful for protecting nd cinuit, a cinuit generates
a thut in a
Catke the wires cinruits mutual
indetanee
a7mtktons). I and 2is definod M eiNeen
conductors
nductors carmes information as,
wires or
The orare used M
spoWer lines with an outer proteetive layer.
Te
protectsthe wire from
shield electrictfield.
Where
ais tlux in cireuit
S.11.3)
2 due to eumrent cinvuit
l,
tem cable coupling shows that the coupling is the voltage
pmdond in
T*
ekrioma eticsignal into a cabie,
the coupling
of to magnetie
field of tux
coed loop of areca A due
the outer coupling from out of density and is expressed as
one cable
to
ndher.
cable coupling coaxial cables are shown A
5114)
in model.
nally un-twisted and twisted
two wire lines
where A
and B are vectors
It is shown in
lin are If the cosed
nsidered. Fig. 5.11.1, loop is fixed
Sinusoidally and flux density
ehanging with is
over the area time but remain constant
S of the loop, then
reducesto Equation
Ntomagnenc eld (5.ll)
tom an antenna
plane wave Vjo BAcos 8
5.11.5)
As shown in Fig.
5.11.2,A is the closed
ms alue B isloop area,
flux density
of frequency o radians
Second; and Vy
is ms value
per
Us of voltage produced in
Usö2 circuit.
E:SFig. 5.11.l: Model of the field to cable
coupling
V oBACoso
From Fig.
5.11.1, it is clear that field
from an extemal
sorce couplesinto an interface cable
and generates
wanted interference
signals at the device inputs and
utputs
NDen a NE14Fig. 5.112:
cument I passes through Interference depends on area enclased
a conductor, it by
nerates a magnetic distributed circuit
flux o.
I magnetic flux o is proportional to the current. Equations (5.11.3), (5.11.4) and
(5.1.5) are combined
tisexpressed
as, to define the induced voltage in' temms
of mutual
inductance in between two cireuits because BAcos
LI .(5.11.1) presents the total magnetic îhux (91:) coupled to
0
the
TELis inductance
constant. and it is proportionany receptor.
is total magnetic flux The mutual inductance M between two cineuits is a

lux and I is the curent producing expressed as
di
heself jo MI, = M
ductance
of a conductor is expressedias, V 5.11.6)
Fig. 5.11.3 shows coupling between two cireuits
L
(5.11.2) described by Equation (5.11.6)
value
roat ofinductance is based on the geometry of the
and
t magnetic
properties of the media and
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- R
R2
M
V
Vw= JoMI Lw
R
R
Physical Equivalent circuit
representation
(1E15Fig. 5.113 : Coupling between two circuits
M 5.12 COMMON MODE The ground current 1 and ground current 2 both passes
through the common ground impedance as shown in
MECHANISM INCLUDING Fig. 5.12.1.
GROUND IMPEDANCE
The ground potential of circuit 1 modulated by ground
current 2 passing in the common ground impedance.
GQ 5.121 Explain common mode mechanism
Thus some noise is coupled from cireuit 2 to 1 circuit
including Ground impedance and vice versa through the common ground impedance.
Common mode coupling including ground impedance Fig. 5.12.2 shows the another example of this kind of
occurs when currents from two various circuits pass coupling in the power distribution circuit.
through common impedance.
The voltage drop across the impedance experienced by
i+l2
each cireuit is influenced by the other circuit. This type Power
Common
of coupling is very popular in the power and/or ground supply line Circuit 1
system.
Fig. 5.12.1 shows the classic example of this type of
-
impedancee
coupling.
Source
Circuit 2 impedance Circuit 2
Circuit 1
Ground Ground
voltage voltage (1E17Fig.5.12.2: When two circuits use
circuit 1 circuit 2 a common power
Ground Ground supply current drawn by
circuit 1 affects the voltage at the
Curent 1 curent 2 other circuit
Common Any variation in power current
ground needed by circuit 2 will
influence the voltage
mpedance at the terminals of circuit 1
(1E16)Fig.
5.12.1: When circuit (1) and circuit (2) uses a because of the common
impedances of the power
common ground, the ground voltage of every circuit supply lines and intermal
is affected source impedance of the
by the ground current of the other circuit power supply.
Sem-E&T
5-27) Circuits
an(MU-Bth EIectromagnetic Interference in RF
inproved signifca
by connecting the
ved 2. Any stron magnetic fields can produce a noise
can e directly to the power supply output
cicuit2 voltage into the 0op made by the signal
pis by passing the common line
kendsof
nence conductors and the ground which is callet as
inals
ernin "ground loop" as shown in Fig. 5.13.1.
ingeaiance
Coupling through the power supply
some
ise The signal current has many retum paths and
remain these in circuit.
impedance will
unpedance v
low frequency curent may pass througn
l
intemal
COMMON MODE ground connection not come back on the signal
return conductor.
sMECHANISM INCLUDING
5,13
The 3" problem rarely occur at high frequency becaus
GROUND LOOPS larger loop linked with the ground return path will have
nuch more inductance than a smaller loop if current
ENg in
common mode mechanism retums on signal return conductor.
1S33.1
including ground loops nus, the high frequency signal current will come back
on the signal returm conductor not in the ground.
loopiis
source of noise and
simultaneousiY, ground
is true when many ground points are
The value of the noise voltage compared with signa
jterference.This
level in the circuit is important.
maximum distan and are attached to the
solatedby a
groundor when low level analog circuits are If the signal to noise ratio in circuit operation gets
power
r affected then these must be some solution to solve this.
cases, it is important to generate some formm of A designer should not get fearful about the presence of
t uch
diceriminati or separation agains the path of ground ground loops, as all ground loops are not bad.
Many ground loops are friendly.
DOISC
Fa. 5.13.1 showS a system is grounded at two various A ground loop problem takes place at low frequency of
100 kiz and they are usually linked with analog circuit
pounts.
like audio or instrumentation systems

Fie.5.13.1 shows two different ground symbols to
iythe fact that two physicaly isolated ground The ezample of this is 50/60 Hz hum coupling into
points are likely to be at various voltages value. audio system.
Ground loops rarely a problem at high frequency
greater than 100 kHz or in digital logic circuits.
Circuit Circuit
1
Some ground loops are useful in cable shield begin
grounded at both ends to supply magnetic field
shielding.
Ground Loop
There are three ways to solve the ground loop problem
as follows:
VG
1. Ground loops can be avoided by using single point
or hybrid grounds. This method is effective at only
ig.5.13.1:A ground loop between two circuits
low frequencies and always it makes more
s configuration
has following three problems:
problematic when used at high frequency.
A variation in groun potential Vg between the
A 2. Ground loops should be tolerated by reducing
Ogrounds may couple a noise ground impedance (for e.g. by using ZSRP) or by
voltage. V into
enhancing the circuit noise margin (e.g.
by
cuit
ventüal
as shown in Fig. 5.13.1. The grounda
enhancing value signal voltage level or by
is due to the usinga
litrough other curents passing balanced circuit.
the ground impedances.
3. Ground loops should be broken by using one
of
techniques discussed below.
hadons
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5.13.1 Breaking Techniques of Consumer audio device uses inexpensive unbalanced

Ground Loops interface.
An unbalanced more susceptible to
interface is
The ground loops shown in Fig. 5.13.1 can be broken
one of the following method: common impedance coupling produced due to any
ground loops that may be made by inter connecting
1. Transformer
different parts of device or equipment.
2. Common mode chocker
3. Optical couplers Isolation transformers are always used in the
interconnecting signals leads to reduce or break the
1.. Transformers ground loop.
Fig. 5.13.2 shows circuits 1

and circuit 2 separated with Fig. 5.13.3 shows a dual high quality audio isolation
a transformer. transformer that can be used to reduce hum and buzz
The ground noise voltage come between the primary produced by ground loops in audio applications.
and secondary windings of transformer and not at the

input to the circuit.
N
Circuit Circuit
(1E20Fig. 5.13.3: Dual

channel, audio isolation transformer unit
used to remove hum produced by ground loop in audio system
The module shown in Fig. 5.13.3 uses RCA phono

plugs and is dual unit for stereo inter connections.
Vs
The transformers have many external shields to
(1E19)Fig. 5.13.2 Breaking of ground loop using transformer minimize magnetic field pick up and Faraday shields
between two circuits
between the primary ad secondary windings to
The rest of noise coupling if any, is now mainly a minimize the interwinding capacitance.
function of parasitic capacitance between windings of The module operates in the frequency range of 10 Hz to
transformer and it can be minimized even more by 10 MHz with an insertion loss of less than 0.5 dB and
putting faraday shield between the transformer common mode (noise) rejection ratio (CMRR) of
windings.
120 dB at 60 Hz and 70 dB at 20 kHz.
However some of the disadvantages of transformer
are: large, have limited operating frequency provide no Common mode chocker
dc continuity and costy. Breaking Ground Loop using common mode choke
Moreover, if more signals are connected between the Fig. 5.13.4 shows the two circuits that are separated
circuits, then many transformers are needed. with transformer connected as a common mode choke
that will send dc and differential mode signals while
Well designed and professional audio equipment uses a
rejecting common mode ac signals.
balanced interface to reduce susceptibility to
Basically, this is a transformer rotated 90° and placed
interference and ground loops.
in series with the signal conductors.
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mode noise voltage nov come across the
AFcommonmode
trans. e the common noise voltage and differential mouo
sformer (choke) and not at the
e or the
windings circuit.
NN
signal voltage.
the
nput1o
Circuit
Circuit Circult
Clicuit 2 1 2
1
- VG
used to break the

In balanced circuits,
(1E3T)Eig. 5.13.6
'the common mode voltage

134: Common mode choke
5.13.4 balanced
produces equal currents in both halves of the
ground loop between two circuits
circuit balanced receiver responds only to the
choke has no effect on the difference between the two inputs.
common mode
As
Hrential mode signal being sent, more signal leads The better balance gives larger amount of common
wOund on the same core without crosstalk. mode rejection.
an be
For higher and higher frequency, it becomes more and
Breaking of ground loop using optical more difficult to attain a high degree of balance.
coupling
When the common mode noise voltages are at a
Fe. 5.13.5 shows optical couplers which are useful in frequency different from the desired signal, frequency
digital circuits. selective hybrid grounding can always be used to break
useful in analog circuits as linearity ground loop at the troublesome frequency.

They àre not as
hrough the coupler is not always satisfactory. But
analog circuits using optical feedback techniques are
5.14 COUPLING REDUCTION
TECHNIQUES
designed to compensate for the inherent non linearity of
the coupler.
514.1 Explain in detail: Coupling Reduction
Isolation amplifiers with internal transformer or optical
Technigues in detail
coupling are also available for use in sensitive analog
Circuits.
The common mode radiated emission is proportional to
frequency, length of cable and common mode current
in the cable.
********
Practically length of cable is determined by the distance
Circuit
Circult
between the components or
equipment being
interconnected and it is not under the control of EMC
designer.
Additionally when the length of cable is quarter wave
long, the emission will not continue to increase with
cable length and due to the presence of out of phase
m Ve currents. As the common mode radiation is expressed
*
as
Baand Breaking of ground loop between two circuits
12.6x 10 (fl Im)
circuits as shown in Fig. 5.13.6, helps to E =
Tease the .(5.14.1)
noise immunity of the circuit as they cann
eo Publications
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avoiding slots in the ground
Which shows radiation is proportional to the frequency, Also, the importance of
planes cannot bo
amplilied ecaua thoso can
length of the cable and value of common mode current. inpelanco,
consideably raise the ground
Thus from Equation (5.14.1), only the common mode and how the cireuit gound
current parameter is under the control of designer. The right choico of whero
togetlhor la als0 an essential
and enclosure aro attached
The common mode current can be "control knob" on voltago accessiblo to nun
in deciding the common mode
the radiated emission. tlho cablos.
common mode current out on
No common mode current is needed for nornmal system circuit to chassls ground
operation. The further away that tho
connection is from thhe point wlhero tho cnbles end on
The common mode current on a cable can be controlled it is that thero ls a maximum
the board, the moro likely
by followings method: thho polnts,
noise voltage between
1. Reducing the common mode source voltage, or return plano for
The enclosure is the reference
normally the ground potential. cublos,
common mode currents on the external
2. Supplying a large common mode impedance
This is shown in Fig. 5,14. 1.
(choke) in series with the cable.
3. Shunting the current off the cable Cable
4 Shielding the cable.
5. Separating the cable from the PCB ground for
example with a transformer or optical coupler. m
The common mode suppression techniques should not
affect the functionally required differential mode
signals on the cable whereas they should affect the
common mode current usually the clock harmonics. Vem -Shlolded anclosurea
Previously, the frequency of most VO signals is lower
than the clock frequency so making it easy to achieve
The effects of cnble shleld termlnatlon on tho
(1E23)Fig. 5,14.1:
common mode source suppression.
common mode cable current Ienm and henco on the radlated
Now-a-days, several types of IO signals are at emlsslon on the cable
frequencies as high as or in some cases actually higher
than the clock frequency for example : universal serial Thus, the circuit ground in the I/O area of the PCB
bus (USB) or Ethernet. should be at the similar voltage as the enclosure,
Thus making complicating the requirement that the To do this, the two grounds must be connected togcther
common mode suppression technique do not interfere in this area.
with the desired signal To make it moro effective, tho inductive impedanco of
this connection should be very low across the wholo
5.14.1 Common Mode Voltage
frequency range of operation which always necds
The minimization of common mode voltage that drives multiple connections.
the antenna (cable) is the first step in controlling the Though the ground voltage is reduced, it is always not
common mode coupling.
enough to reduce the common mode radiated omission.
This often includes the minimization of the ground
voltage. It only needs a few millivolts or less of ground voltage
It means that the minimizing the ground impedance. to run 5 uA of common mode current on a cablc. Thus,
To do so, the use of ground planes or ground grids is a additional common mode radiation control techniques
very useful way. are always also needed.
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FDesgn l0ctromagnetic Interference in RF Clrcuits
Filte
Filtering and shielding
Cab/
aDle
ble
14.2
515comnon mod
current is not get minimized sufficiently
by controlling
cept off the cable by some form of filtering
the ground voltage, then the commo
nust b
mus or the emission from the cable shoula De d by
fhenoise cable.
mode
shiclding
the o
how the cable shield termination affec
hou
he example of Se shiclding effectivencss of a
cable is shown
AnS14.2
Fit
Cable Shielded
Cable Cable
Shield
cm
cm
C
Shlelded FPCB
enciosure Point
A Vem
Unshielded Proper 360 No Pigtal Shield
cable shleld shleld shleld connection
connection connection connection to PCB ground
() (b) (c) (d) ()
ot, 514.2: The affeet of cable shield termination on the common mode cable current, and hence on the radiated emission
from the cable
Fig.5.14.2(a) shows a product in a shielded enclosure The common mode noise voltage Vem still runsa
stere a cable without shielding is leaving the curent Iem Out on the center conductor of the cable
taxlosure. The common mode voltage Vem is always which is similar to Fig. 5.14.2(a). But in this case, the
shield stops the parasitic capacitance between the
grOund noise runs a common mode current em Out on
be unshielded center conductor and enclosure. Thus, the current
cable.
passes through parasitic capacitance between the center
ais curent is not coming back on the cable rather it is
conductor and the shicld, coming back on the inner
ng back to the source through the parasitic surface of the shield.
tance C' between the cable and the enclosure. As the shield has a good 360° clectrical connection to
0s uncontrolled
current passing through parasitic
apacitance the enclosure, the current comes back to the source
presents coupling.
through the enclosure. The net common mode current
neasured
commo mode current on the cable will be
on the cable in this case is zero and there is no cable
En
Equation
the radiated emission will be decided by
radiation.
(5.14.1).
lLke It is noted that in Fig. 5.14.2(6), the shield do not stop
to
5.14.2(a), only difference in Fig. 5.14.20) the radiation just by its presence, willingly it works by
corTectly
shield terminated shielded cable is used with bringing back the current that would otherwise passes
f ming a 360° connection the enclosure. through a very small loop directly to the source.
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If there is no current on shicld,
it will not be effective
in stopping the radiation. Since Then the radiated emission can be decided by putting
the shield must deliver
the return curent to be effective, I, into Equation (5.14.1). The longer the pigtail, the
the way by which the
shield is ended is critical to the performance higher its impedance will be and the larger will be he
of the
shield. current I and thus the coupling.
Fig. 5.14.2(c) is similar to Fig.
5.14.2(b), only The length of the pigtail is a rheostat. Rheostat can be
difference is that the field is not ended to
the enclosure used to change the. radiated emission from this
at all. The common mode voltage Vem
still runs configuration. As for any cable shield. ended with a
current of out on the center conductor
of the cable, pigtail, a current division will take place at point A, it is
and the presence of the shield stops the
parasitic
capacitance between the center conductor concluded that any shield ended with a pigtail must
and the
enclosure. radiate and but question of how much ? is remained.
The curTent therefore pass through It is noted from Fig. 5.14.2(d), that the curent route
the parasitic
capacitance between center conductor and
the shield including the outside of the shield is capacitive, while
and down the inside surface of the shield
to the bottom the current route including the pigtail is inductive.
on the cable. Upto this points, the configurations
shown
in Fig. 5.14.2(b) and 5.14.2(c) works Thus if the common mode current on the cable
exactly the same. is a
But as in Fig. 5.14.2(c) the shield is not square wave instead of since wave, the higher
ended, the
current is not able to flow back on the frequency harmonics will select the path that includes
enclosure to the
source. Thus, the current rotates around and the outside surface of the ficld and they will radiate,
flows up
the outside of the shield, through the parasitic whereas the lower frequency harmonics will select the
capacitance C between the outside surface of the shield path that includes the pigtail and will not radiate.
and the enclosure, through the enclosure back Fig. 5.14.2(e) shows a case where the shield is ended
to the to
Source. PCB circuit ground rather than the enclosure. II
must be
If one want to measure common mode current on kept in mind that the shield on a shielded cable is
the not
cable, it would be Iem and the radiated emission will be shielded. Thus, the common mode noise voltage Vem
decided by Equation (5.14.1). Thus, the configuration provokes the shield and runs a common mode current
of Fig. 5.14.1(c) has similar radiation as the em Out onto the shield.
configuration shown in Fig. 5.14.1 (a), even with the
Then the shield radiates just like the case of unshielded'
presence of the shicld.
cable configuration shown in Fig. 5.14.2(a). In
In Fig. 5.14.2(d), the shield is ended to the enclosure
configuration shown in Fig. 5.14.2(e),
with a pigtail. The investigation of the common mode no center
current course is similar to that of Fig. 5.14.2(c), upto conductor is required as the shield has become the
the point where the current reaches at the bottom of the problem. If one want to measure the common mode
inside surface of the shield (point A in Fig. 5.14.2(d). current on cable it would be Iem with or without center
At point "'A' as there is current division take place, the conductor present.
current I2 flowing up the outside of the shicld as and Though cable shields should be ended to the enclosure
I
through the parasitic capacitance between the outside as shown in Fig. 5.14.2(b) not to the PCB as shown in
of the shicld and he enclosure and the remaining Fig. 5.14.2(c), it is always economically advantageous
current passing on the pigtail coming back to the to mount positive I/O connectors on the
PCB, rather
enclosure. than on the enclosure. To make it more effective, the
The current I, on the center.conductor and the current I2 connector backshell must still make a 360° contact to
on the inner surface of the shicld will be equal in the enclosuro.
magnitudc and opposite in direction so will cancel,
which leaved the current I, on outside surface of the.
shield as the total common mode current on the cable.
Tech-Neo Publications . bere Authors inspire innovation

(MU-8thSem.-E&TC)
(MU-8ths
Design 5-33)
RF o this, Contiguration is
do
way o shown
in Thi
EIectromagnotic Intorferonco
in RF Circults
One ground should produce
Connection a low impedance
to the enclosure.
The UO ground planetn
Ye more connections
to the cnclosure
EMI
gasket uctance and supply a low impcdancc to reduce its
t this
conneclion.
connecto connection between
-PCB mounted enclosure ground is
the VO ground and the
CB
not formed or if it does not provide
a low impedance
at the operating frequencies,
ground plane will the Vo
Standof Encdosure not be useful and the radiation from
the cables may
enhance with this design.
5.14.3: PCB mounted connector back shells must t this designed
contact with the enclosure correctly, the paths that pass
make 360° the Vo
ground slot will
not be a problem. Low frequency
5.14 the connector
mounted on the PCB.
is Signal of less
Fig. than 5 to 10 MHz must be connected
PCB is kept in the enclosure, the
vhen the between the driver
buti IC and the connector using two
backshell is canned to the enclosure with the paths such as signal path
cone electromagnetic interference (EMI) gasket and a companion reurn patn
or as shown in Fig.
fingers thus form a 360° contact. 5.14.4.
ring
Thus, the signal retum
ad of the, VO cables can be achieved by
mixing a current is in the companion pan
and not in the ground plane.
FC impedance such as common mode choke or ferite Thc companion return patn
high only attaches to the VO
series with the common mode noise or by
series connector pins and not to thec
ore in I/O ground plane.
a low impedance shunt capacitor to change High frequency signals
ommon mode noise to "ground". These shunt of larger than 5 MHz to
10 MHz can be passed
should be connected to a "clean" ground as a single signal path adjacent
to the ground plane until the path is
enclosure and not to the "dirty" logic ground. passed across a
Such as bridge as shown in Fig. 5.144.
The
connectors are inexpensive
1O to mount these /O This way provides an uninterrupted route
PCB. under the
cable capacitors on the trace for the combing back curent. This method is
similar to mixed signal PCB layout. The bridge must be
15.14.3 Separate I/0 Grounds and wide sufficient to accommodate the required number of
traces plus 20 times the height of the path above the
or Cable Filter Capacitors
ground plane on each side. This will form the bride
F VO connectors are to be placed on the PCB, then broad to accommodate 97 % of the return current.
access is required to the enclosure ground on the PCB. -The use of bridge in spite of a companion return trace
li the consideration is not given to this early in the for high frequency signals is to minimisc the inductive
design, such ground will not be accessible when and impedance of the return path. As ground plane has an
sbere it is required. inductance of two orders of magnitude less than that of
trace of 0.15 nH/in for a plane versus 15 nH/ in fora
Tdis
be achieved by putting all of the I10
access can
onecters in one part of the board and this part is
trace.
The IO ground mustbe an extension of the enclosure.
pied with a separate "/O ground plane" that has a the reference or retun plane for the
The enclosure is
DWimpedance connection to the enclosure and
common mode currents on extermal cabals as shown in
ineets to digital logic ground at only one point. By
Fig. 5.14.2(a). The enclosurc can bc through of as high
is none of the noisy digital logic group current frequency reference for the product.
pass through the "clean" 1O ground and violate it. Another way to clear this method if the
is PCB ended
terminates and the connectors
4.4 shows the possible implementation of this where the logic ground
wires, then capacitors ure
P To avoid violating
the 1O ground plane, the hang off the board on short
and the cnclosure to
attached betwcen every signal wire
hponents connected to it should be V0 cable noise from the cables.
Capacitors and I/O connector back shunt high frequency
shells.
SACHIN SHAH Venture
A
lons Fhere Authors inspire innovalion
RF Design (MU-8th Sem.-E&TC) Electromagnetic Interference in HF Circuits
(5-34)
really installed
istead ot hanging on a wire connected to the board, the capacitors and connectors are for convenience,
on the PCB and connected to the I/O ground plane which is really on the PCB and connected to the vo ground plane
which is really an extension of the enclosure.

ne Key to make this method efficient is to have a low inductance connection between I/O ground and the enclosure
he power plane of PCB should not be permitted to go beyond into the VO ground area. The power plane always
COntain high frequency logic noise area, if increased into the VO can couple this noise to l0 signal and ground
conductors.
1s Deter to print two VO ground planes in this area, one on the PCB ground plane layer and other on the PCB power
plane layer of the board. Ground plane should not have slots or splits because any single ended traces passing the slot
will carry an interrupted return current path.
However the digital ground plane is a solid uninturrepted plane and vo plane is an actualy extension of the enclosure
that just results to be printed on the PCB. As shown in Fig. 5.14.4, the two wires are tied together at one point, at the
"bridge".
The bridge should be as broad as necessary to route the required number of high frequency signal across.
UO Connectors
Low-frequency I/O signal
and returm trace
DIRTY
LOGIC GND
CLEAN
High-frequency VO GND
1O signal trace
(Retum in
ground place)
LBsridge
Connected to
encdosurea VO Cable filter
capacitor
(1E26Fig. 5.14.4
Digital PCB with a separate "clean'" VO ground plane that contains I/O
cable filter capacitors and comnectors
This concept is suitable in any system confguration even in large multi board
systems. The main point is that there
should be clean 1/O ground that is connected to the chassis. All unshielded cables
should not be coupled to this ground
before leaving the system.
In large systems, the VO ground should be isoláted PCB place at the
cable entrance and having only connectors and VO
cable filter capacitors. When noise is eliminated from the cables, their
routing should be controlled carefully to stop
coupling noise back into the cables. Thus, the clean Vo ground should
be placed at the point where the cables
leave/enter the system.
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A SACHIN SHH Feature
(MU-8th Som.-E&TC)
IMU-8th
DOs/gn 6-35)
the 1/O cable filter capacitors Elactromagnetio Interforonco
F usefilness of
In AF Circults
co mmon mode sourc impedance
the of the
on
enscircuits ometimes, the mbination of
using a Sourca Signal
davng or, ferrite or
cir ctor or instead of the
cable race Load
resis gives
enies better results. Loop area
capacitor
connectors
Ars with build in shunt capacitors
gher and
tive elements act similarly and can also
Filerpininductive
senies (1E25)Fig.
or 5.15.2: Modeling of RF energy
eused.
When signal passes
5DIFFERENTIAL MODE from source to load, a retum
Curent must be available
5.15 COUPLING in the return system. A
Sn
loop is one whose
value is smaller than twentieth or
wavelength
The
ficld can be coupled
electric field by using either
coupling differential mode coupling.
at certain frequency of interest
lightened by RF current
ommonmode passing its structure.
commo mode
upling the currents in the cable This is linear length
of transmission line. For many
In same direction whereas in differential PCB's having transmission
ows in the lines, trace lengths have
modecooupling, the currents flow in opposite directions. dimensions that links to frequencies up to gigahertz
are
Bothare
shown in Figs. 5.15. 1(a) and 5.15.1(b). (GHz) range.
The largest loop area that will not
go beyond a certain
specification level is expressed as with areas.
A =r, where r is radius of the circle and is defined by
circumference as
Common mode
(b) Differential mode coupling
A
=30TE 5.15.2)
(1E27)Fig. 5.15.1
The maximum field strength produced from a closed
niferential mode radiation is due to the normal loop boundary area is expressed as,
working of the circuit and differential mode takes place
Af'L
dae current flowing around loops made by the
the E = 380r (5.15.3)
conductors of the circuit.
Differentialmode is produced because of passing of RF

Where, Eis radiation limit
current loops within a system.
ris distance between loop and measuring antenna (m)
For a receiving antenna operating in a field
small loop
aove a ground plane, the RF energy is expressed as,
fis frequency (MH)
is current in mA
E 263 x 10«*AL) (E) (5.15.1) A is loop area in cm
Where, In free space, radiated energy drops off inversely
Ais loop
area (m') proportional to distance wise between source and
fis frequency antenna.
in Hz
The perimeter of the loop made by a specific current
is source current (A)
component within the PCB should be known.
s distance in
'm' from radiating element to receiver Equations (5.15.2) and (5.15.3) describe the total area
antenna.
of loop between trace and return path of current.
many of the circuit, RF energy is produced irom
Jpassing between assemblies and within power
a0V reference
antenna
structure. It is modelled as a small loop
having RF currents It is shown in Fig. 5.15.2.
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Clrcuits
Electromagnetic Interforence in RF
(5-36)
RF Design (MU-8th Sem-E&TC)
clectric flux coupling
Mutual capacitance presents the
5.15.1 Differential Mode Coupling between two circuits. The noise
current produced in the
Including Field To Cable sensitive circuits is approximately expressed
as:
Electric field coupling controls in high impedancee

circuits and is equal part to magnetic field coupling
Ic(a ..(5.15.5)
and
Where, C is capacitance between sections
Magnetic field coupling is produced by inductive in is thec
nature where as electric field coupling is capacitive in trace.

nature. time rate of change of voltage in the
is dependent
An electric field is produced when a voltage potential Mutual capacitance between two circuits
within the
difference present between two conductors. This field on the level of voltage instead of current
will produce a voltage in an adjacent transmission line. transmission line.
The field is described as follows The factors like separation distance of area of overlap
dV ...(5.15.4) between the two wires affect the capacitance.
Vin CmZ dt Moreover, the diclectric material between the two lines
Where, and the presence of the other clectric ficld shielding
near the circuits can affect the magnitude of capacitive
Vin is induced voltage on circuit, Cm is mutual
coupling.
capacitance between transmission lines.
The capacitive coupling is larger between bigger
Z is impedance of receiver.
objects than between smaller ones because area of
V, is interfering of negligible source
voltage
overlap or adjacency axis exists.
impedance. dt is time period of an event E field
This is always not a concern because larger circuits do
coupling appears as current source with current
division dependent on the source and load impedance not carry high levels of d
of the circuit. The effect of the load impedance in the
circuit on the current in load is now secondary effect. For cases, where high levels of dvare present, such as
The voltage produced in the circuit will be dependent in switch mode power supply converter, capacitive
on the impedance of device. The device having high coupling can become a serious threat for EMC.
impedance are very sensitive to capacitive coupling.
Thus both source and load must be reference together. 5.15.2 Differential Mode Coupling
Coupling effects are smaller than coupling Mechanism Including Cablee
mechanisms. As shown in Fig. 5.15.3, there is mutual
to Cable
capacitance if z, having high impedance is coming in
parallel with Z Cables and transmission lines work closely with the
electromagnetic environment. Electromagnetic fields
Zs
are created around the cables and in nearby region
because of the transmitted power and signals.
The produced fields are only zero in the ideal a
Voltage
sOurce completely symmetrical coaxial case cable with a solid
shield. Cables also absorb signals from the environment
and lead them to the device inputs.
Cable coupling defines the coupling
of an
electromagnetic signal into a cable, the coupling out of
(1529)Fig. 5.15.3: Electric field coupling a cable and also outer coupling from one cable to
another.
Capacitive coupling results when a part of the electric In cable to cable coupling model,
flux produced by one circuit ends on the conductors the desired signal and
of its harmonics in an interconnecting
another circuit. cable creates an
electromagnctic field.
hereAuthors inspire innovation A SACHIN SHAH Venture
MU-8h Sem.-E&TC)
AAlJ-8th
5-37)
AFDOSIIN
Electromagnetic Interference in
couples to a second non RF Circuits
electromagne field
netic
Conned by this cable.
involved cable
creating interference
s curcunisS signals
nals at the inputs and outputs
coup model is shown
efthe able in Fig. 5.15.4.
predefine Both cables
se
.1D411is en that the parameters are
labelled.
are considered as
type oI KO CU. In
F 10 m-
h=10
cm 50n 20 cm
r 1.75 mm
10 ks2
102
uft)
7777 77777
50 k
(1E30Fig. 502
5.15.4: Model for cable
to cable coupling
MODE
16 DIFFERENTIAL
REDUCTION
Past 5 or 10 years, clock frequencies
have maximized
coUPLING seriously by a factor of 10 or more. PCB technology
TECHNIQUE which decides the ability to print smaller
loops, has
improved by very small in the same time by a factor
of 2.
5.16.1 Board Layout
Thus radiation problem has maximized 100 fold and
The layout of the printed circuit board is cost effective ability to deal with it by printing smaller loops has
ud place to begin controlling differential mode maximized by most two of old.
aupling. Hence to control differential mode coupling, we must
Men laying out a printed circuit board (PCB) to come up with unconventional approaches including
ontrol coupling, one must reduce the loop area made cancelling loops and spread spectrum clocks.
by he traces of the signal.
lo control the area
of the loops made by all the signals
5.16.2 Cancelling Loops
ad transient power supply
currents can be territying
If it is not possible to print small loops, is it possible to
ph.However, it is not an essential to control
each loop
eparately.
find a way to print two loops that cancel each other ?
Be
Consider a Fig. 5.16.1, where the casea clock trace and
crtical loops
must be separately analyzed; but non
mical loops
its ground returm path are shown.
can be handled by using good PCB design
ayout
practices. The emission from this loop will be function of the area
e which operates at
the highest frequency and
of the loop and current in the loop.
esignal is periodic are called critical loops. If this shows the closest that one can print traces due to
The
periodic
signal has same waveshape during the PCB technology, then it is not possible to reduce the
ratingfrequency. emission beyond this point, short of shielding the PCB.
A layout shown in Fig. 5.16.1(b), a
clock trace with
rential mode coupling is proportional
ncy on every side, Thus there
squared and
is controlled by reducing the two ground return traces, one
area. same area as the
The loop
area is mainly function of PCB are two loops, each of which has the
5.16.1(a).
loop shown in Fig.
aPudieations
*
Where Authors inspire innovauO
Electromagnatic Interferenca in RF Ctcs
(5-38)
RF Design (MU-8th Sem-ESTC)
emission path in the circuit of
Fig. 5.17.1. Ne that to
If the two etum ground traces are syTnmctrically the LISN impedance lonks
placed with respect to the clock trace, then the retun
current will divide tetween the two paths. Thus,
the like 25 ,
the common-mode current,
the two 50-0a, resisters in
parallei.
be simpiified evea more
lower loop shown in Fig. 5.16.1(b) will have only half The circuit of Fig. 5.17.1 can
as much current as the loop in Fig. 5.16.1(a) and will switching transistor as a square
by representing the
couple cnly onc half as much or 6 db less. a peak amplitode equal
wave voltage generator having
Thc other alf of the coupling is in the upper loop of the fiter capacitor CF.
to the dc voltage across
Fig. 5.16.1(6). It is noticed that the curent in the upper equivalent circzuit of the
lower This simplified common-mode
loop is antickkckwisc. whereas the current in the SMPS is shown in Fig. 5.17.2.
From Fig. 5.172 we
loop is clockwise. Thus the coupling from the top loop has a high source
can determine that the power supply
does not mix to the radiation from the bottom loop magnitude of the
impedance, which is equal to the
rather than it cancel it.
capacitive reactance of CP.
The cancellation will not be perfect, but it is ery good.
Thus the layout if Fig. 5.16.1(b) will radiate 20+ dB LISN
-- Hot Switching
less than that of Fig. 5.16.1(a).
MOSFEA
The traces shown in Fig. 5.16.1 are considered as being SAID
printed on the same layer of PCB or different layers. Neutral GN Parasitic
The latter case would then show a clock printed on a 500 Caçactarce
PCB layer placed between two ground plane layers.
50n
Ground "CM
CCW --*Ground
Heat Sink
Clock Clock
CW (1E:12Fig5.17.1: Common-mode equivalent circuit ofa

Ground Ground switched-mode power supply
(a) b)
(TEMFig. 5.16.1: Clock trace (a) with a single ground return 25

trace (b)with two return ground traces. LISN CpParasitic
Capactance
5.17 OTHER COUPLING common-mode equivalent circuit of
(E3) Fig.5.17.2: Simplifed
MECHANISM INCLUDING switched-mode power suppty
POWER SUPPLIES
The common-mode current, and therefore the LISN
Today's Switched Mode Power Supplies (SMPS) work voltage, are determined by the magnitude of this
at efficiencies of 85% or larger and are only a fraction
parasitic capacitance. Typical vaues for Cp range from
of the sizc and weight of relative lincar supplies. about 50 pF to as much as 500 pF. From the circuit of
Fig. 5.17.2. we can calculate the magnitude of the
The switched mode power supplies are sources both
common-mode voltage V across the LISN resistance
conducted and radiated emission. They carry larger
as
noise currents both common mode and differential
VM50rfC, V (0 (5.17.1)
mode
where V( is the magnitude of the voltage sourve Vp at
a 5.17.1 Common Mode Emission the frequency f Because the voltage source is a square
wave, the Fourier spectnum can be used to determine
GQ. 5.17.1 Explain common wmode tmision in the harmonic content of the voltage V(O.
power supply It is know that for a square wave, the envelope ot th
Fouricr spectnum decreases at a rate of 20 dB per
After adding Line Impedance Stabilization Network
(LISN), it is shown the common-mode conducted decade up toa frequency ofwhere, is the rise/fall
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8om.
(M-Uth 8sm-E&TC)
MU-8th
Doslgn (5-35)
jtching transistor, and beyond EBecaromagetc Interference
that it falls
thesof 40 dB per decade, in RF Cirauits
os FTOTn
Fig. 5.17.3,
olld arale
hequcnicy 1efm in Equation (5.17.1) represents E FIS time of the
we also observe that slowing
down
a switching transistor, which
te nplitwde of 20 dB per decade. Theresore, the uDdesirable
effect of inceasing
has the
isinga its power dissipaton.
ding Egvation (5.17.1) and the Pourier des not reduce
the maximum amplitude
of oi e
rsul VI)
4pectrunn
is is that the cominon-tnode conducted CommOT-mode
conducaed emission.
The only efect
that slowing down
voltage Vn is slat up to a frequency of the rise time will have is to move
tbe breakpoim
to a lower frequency.
This will decTease
decreaCS,at a ratc of 20 dB/decade above Tbe mgh frequency
ndit own in Fig. 5.17.3. The curve
th emission at the
emission but not the maximum
quency as lower frequencies.
conducted cmission; of
1.3 bounds the however,
emissions only ezist at harmonics
actual
5.17.2 Differential-Mode
of the
te
fopdanental
frcqucncy F
Emissions
VçM
GQ 5.17.2 Explain differential mode in power
100VpCpFo suPply
20 dB/Decade The normal operation
of the power supply consists of
tbe switching transistor
driving a curent at the
SWitching frequency around
logf the loop that consists of the
1/nt Switching transistor, the transformer,
and the filter
capacitor CF. As long as the switching current
flows
euPie5.17.3 : Envelope of the common-mode conducted through this loop, internal to the power supply. will
it
emlssion versus frequency produce no differential-mode emission. The
primary
purpose of the capacitor CF, however, is to filter
of the
Because the cmission is flat up to a frequency full-wave rectified ac line voltage.
T,
and off at a ratc of 20 dB/decade, we only
tben falls The filter capacitor is therefore a large-value, high
ced to calculate the emission at a single point, for voltage capacitor (typicaly 250 to 1000 mF with a
eample the fundamental frequency, to plot the voltage rating of 250 V or more), and it is far from an
complcte ideal capacitor. It typically has a significant equivalent
cnvclope,
series inductance (ESL) LF and equivalent series
ks known that anamplitude of the fundamental Tesistance (ESR) R
Irequency is 0.64 VP.
Substituting the fundamental
rqency F for f and 0.64 V, for VD in As a result of these parasitic impedances, not all the
switching cuTent will flow through the capacitor CF.
Laquation(S.17.1)
gives the following expression for the Rather, a current division will occar at the capacitor
nplitude of the common-mode conducted emission at
terminals, with some of the switching current flowing
te fundamental frequency :
through the capacitor and the remainder fowing
VCM100 V, F, Cp ..5.17.2) through the full-wave bridge Rectifier out onto the
power line as shown in Fig. 5.174.
arisc timc of 100 ns, the breakpoint of the plot in
"g. 5.17.3 is
at 3.18 MHz. Realizing that V, is fixed The switching current flowing out onto the power line
by the
power line is a differential-mode noise current that flows through
volt It can be conciuded from differential-mode current,
Eauatic the LISN. Note that to the
5.17.2) that once a fundamental frequency
the LISN Iooks like
100 Nthe two 50-2 resistors in
the
switching
power supply is selected, the only simplified
temaining series). The circuit of Fig. 5.17.4 can be
paramcter under the designer's control, to even more by replacing the switching
transistor with a
teduce
current generator P and eliminating the bridge
ParasiticCOmmon-mode conducted emission, is the
capacitance rectifier.
Cp
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laere Authors inpireinnovalion

Circuits
Eloctromagnetic Intartererca in RE
RE Desgn ( Sem-EaTC) (540)
m
HOT
Current
division
DH
soa DC
Output
son
Total Switching Current
Neutral PWN .-- Current Through C
Current Through LISN
occurs a
Note that, a current civision
E S.17A:Switched-mode power suppy, showing the differential mode current path.
the terminals of capacitor C,
differcntial-mode conducted emission curent
This simplified differential mode equivalent circuit, which shows only the
path, is sbown in Fig. 5.17.5.
power supply has a low differential-mode source impedance, which
Frorn the circuit of Fig. 5.17.5, we obscrve that the
diffcrential-mode current, and therefore the
results from the large value of the input ripple filter capacitance Cp The
filter capacitance C ImproperT
LISN voltage, are both determined by the parasitics (L, and Rp) and the mounting of the
mounting will add additional inductance in series with the capacitor.
From thec circuit of Fig. 5.17.5. we can calculate the LISN
*****
differential-mode voltage VDM across tbe LISN resistance.

Capacitor C, was chosen to bea low impedance at twice the
50 3VCM
porwer line frequency (100 or 120 Hz): it can therefore be
assumed that the capacitive reactance at the conducted emission
freguencies, which are three or more orders of magnitude 50cu
higter, will be cloe to zero. For cxample, the capacitive
reactance of an ideal 250-mP capacitor at 50 kHz is 0.01
.
Therefore, the parasitics Ly and R, will be the dominant
(E50Fi5.17.5: Smpied differential-amode
impedances at the switching frequency
equivalent circuit of switched-mode power
Chapter Ends..
HAPTER(
Electromagnetic Compatibility
6
Module
ylabus
lmportance Of of Grounding For Achleving EMC Grounding,
The Groun Including the Reasons (l.E., Safoty, LIghtning
EMC, unding Schemes (Single Point, Multi-Point
nto
ontrol, and Hybrid), Shield Grounding and
Shielding
ectiveness,
Efectiveness, Shielding Considerations
(Reflective and Absorptlve),
nd Bonding.
skets, Waveguide Beyond Cut-0f). Shielding Comprompss|
E Apertures,
EM nstics And Flxes:
Dlagnostics Fixes: Techniques Used in EMI Diagnostics and
Fixes.
acifications,
Specift Standards And Measurements: A Discussion of
the
Sunmary, the Rationale, and a Review of MIL-Stds, FCC and Genesis of EMC Documentation Including
EMC
CiSPR Requirements.
Electromagnetic Compatibility ****************************************snnosntns**srneneorsonenenreressoonnepuumn********esssss0tt*****

Introduction to
&-3
The Importance
of Grounding for Achieving EMC..
********************************************s*sso*ds#ns*00*ro0bpeto***************"*****"***
6-3
6.2.1 Grounding.. **************************"**********************************************e*0#00e****************e**********************"********
*... 8-3
Ga.6.2.1 What are the objectives of grounding ?..
****************************stssesusn*******s*nnuu*enasnneasonneaus m*s*n*osts**soeee 6-3
Go.6.2.2 Descrbe three important purposes of grounding...******************************s*ssstssseso*soppeto******************e*******
9 6-4
Go.6.2.3 Wite a note on safety grounding. **************************************************************************************************"******
6-4
GO.6.24 Explain lightning protection system (LPS) grounding..
*******************e******************************9*osssssnsnsnsneronvens 6-5
GQ. 6.2.5 What do you mean by "EMI control"? Explain EMC grounding in
detail..***************e*************************0t000 66
62.2 Grounding Schemes.. *************************************************************** ************************************690000*********0020o#*
6-7
GQ.6.2.6 Give three basic objectives of signal grounding.
a*********sees***s*********s*********************************************o0*to*otoos -7
GQ.6.2.7 Give the equation for
impedance of a ground conductor. *********************************************s*******s******ne** C6-7
cO.6.28 Give two ways to minimize the ground noise voltage
GQ. 6.2.9
V..0'**********************************************so*nenenrass*noones 6-7
O°T
Name the types of signal ground.. *******************************************************************osessoosssostoseas*nresres 6-7
G0.6.2.10 Explain
single-point ground system... -7
Q. 6.2.11 What
is NEC mandated ac power system *********************
?.. ** ***** ************* *
***********e*sssoaneos6-8
.5.2.12 Why is single point ground system undesirable at high frequency?.

d. 6,2.13 Give two
subclasses of single point ground.. sesoseosse*ssenssne******************** *******e******************r*as*eeeese**** .6-9
.6.2.14 Explain multi point ground systems. nossnseonntan************************************************** *********************** .6-9
Q.6.2.15
Why does grour system problem occur ******************************"** *""******************* 6-10
GQ.6.2.16 ?.
When doescommon impedance coupling becomes a problem ?... 6-110
*********************************
GO.6.2.17
HowiIS Common impedance coupling problem overcomd ?..
e*********************************"************************r******* ..6-10
0.
623.18 Explain hybrid grounding system. *************************************"*******************************************ser*osess veuos
******. 6-10
Shield Grounding.
**************************************************** *
*******s****************************s***s. -11
.6.2.19 Explain cable shield grounding *****************ess
*. 6-11
624 ?... a*4******************"*********
Bonding. *******e****************************************************************noroneau.o.. 6-12
.6220 Define bonding. **************************** *****
EMI perfomance of the bondíng..
-12
.6221 the factors which infiuence the
DOnding. Give tne
Name the different can ***************************************************t******. 6-12
methods by which bonding be made... O-
eRF Design (MU-8h Sem-E&TTC) (6-2)
**************************************************************************************** .6-12
Ga. 6.2.22 Explain shape and material for bond strap.
3
*********************************************************************************************** b-13
GQ. 6.2.23 Explain different shapes of conductors.
DC resistance and the inductive
reactance vaiue
GG. 5.2.24 Give the typical values of copper strap
**********************************************************************************************. 6-13
of different lengths and frequencies.
**************************************************************|6-13
GQ.6.2.25
6.2.5 .
Give guidelines which must be followed for good bonds.
Shielding Effectiveness *****************************
********************************************************. 014
********************************************************************************* ************* 6-14

GQ. 6.2.26 What is a shield ? Explain in detail.
*************************************************************************************************. 0.6-14
Ga. 6.2.27 Write a note on shielding effectiveness..
**********************************************. 0|
GQ. 6.2.28 Obtain exact solution for shielding effectiveness of a metallic barmer.. . 0I7 7
******************************************.********.*******************************************
6.2.6 Shielding Considerations.
GQ. 6.2.29 Write a note on absorption loss ? Explain its effect on the frequency and shield
thickness.
*********. 6-17
***********************************************************************************************
Define skin depth...
Ga. 6.2.30 What is reflaction loss ? Explain reflection loss and obtain its expression...*************************** ****e*sn 6-19
******************************************************************************************************* b-20
6.2.7 Shielding Compromises
***************************************************************************************************************** -21
GQ.6.2.31 Write a note on Apertures..
6-21
GQ.6.2.32 Write note on a ***
********************************************************************************************************************
**************************************************************************************************** 6-22
O.
GQ. 6.2.33 What are Waveguides beyond cut-off?...
*************************************ensuun****** 23
0°%0
6.3 EMI Diagnostics and Fixes.**************"*************************************************************
******************************************************************************************************** 6-23
GQ. 6.3.1 What is EMI diagnostic and Fixes?
***************************************"***************************************************************no 6-23 0
6.3.1 Proposed Diagnosis and
6-23
6.3.2 Techniques Used In EMI Diagnostics and Fixes.. *************************************************************************************
23
GQ.6.3.2 Explain the techniques used in EMI Diagnostics and Fixes..
6-227
GQ. Explain Conducted emission test method..
6.3.3 ***.. CE
************************************************************************************easssss
GQ. 6.3.4 Explain LISN method with voltage and current probe method... ***nnena*ne*******************************************6-29
6.4 EMC Specifications, Standards and Measurements.
. ************************************************************
.******** 6-30
Ga.6.4.1 What are EMC Standards? **********************************************************************************************************6-30
Why do we need EMC Standards?
.. 6-30
GQ. 6.4.2
GQ. 6.4.3 Name the tests that are essential to measure the electromagnetic interference levels and
6-30
compatibility.
GQ. 6.4.4 What are the Types of EMC Standards?. *********ssseurness*********nsenseasee*************** ***** ******sssss 6-30
..
GQ. 6.4.5 Explain MIL-STD 461 and 462 standards? ************************"******************************************************************
6-31
GQ. 6.4.6 Give the Limits for conducted emission under MIL-STD-461D.. 6-32
*****************************"********************************
Go. 6.4.7 Give the specifications for susceptibilityimmunity to conducted emissions under MIL-STD-461D.632
Ga.6.4.8 Give the limits for radiated emission under MIL-STD461D?... 6-33
Ga. 6.4.9 Give specifications for susceptibility and immunity to radiated emissions under MIL-STD-461.633
6-34
Ga. 6.4.10 ive the requirement of Emission and Susceptibility for MIL-STD-461E. s**** ***************************************"
GQ. 6.4.11 Give the requirement of Emission and Susceptibility for MML-STD-461G... 6-34
**nanennas**************************
.. 6-35
6.5 FCC Regulations..
6-35
Ga. 6.5.1 Write a note on FCC Regulations..***************************************************************************************************
Explain FcC Part 15, Subpart B.. 6-36
6.6
GQ.6.5.2
. ********************************************************************sssassnnse ssssassan***********
CISPR Requirements ....********s*************************"*******s**s****a***************************************************************************************** 6-38 *
GQ.6.6.1 Explain requirement for CiSPR standard.. ** *******************ss*************************

****banse**********s
6-38
Ga.6.6.2 Compare Radiated Emission limits of FCC and CISPR.***************************************"eensis********************* ..6-39
Chapter Ends...asenaaansn. se********************************************************************************************************************* ... 640
(MUgh,Sem.-E&TC)
MU-8 3
Electromagnotlc Compatiblity
AEDOSGN
NTRODUCTiON TO
GCsigned in
6ELECTROMAGNETIC such a way that the interfcrence s
minimized. The
cOMPATIBILITY significance will be on digilal
clectronics.
An clectronic
electronic equipments results system which functions properly with
predominant us of olher electronic system
without generating any no1Se Or
circuits to work close vicinity to cach interferencec
1he known as
cause interference or noise in these electromagnetically
may cause compatible with its environment.
ang
other
The aim is to leam, how
cicuis sources to design an clectronic system
urces of electromagnetic emission like for electromagnetic compatibility
Severatother (EMC). If a system
ral motors, lightning and relay also produce
elect
fulils the following three conditions, then it is
electromagnetic
de
which consist of spectral
electromagnetically compatible with
the environment
mayresult interference. (1) It should not interfere
contentand with other system.
Sources of
electromagnetic emissions consist of () t should not be sensitive to emissions from other
frequencies. High voltage
narrow band of systems.
oaly produce electromagnetic emission (3)
tansmission lines at I should not interfere with itself.
Hz in India.
fequencyof50
lt is not only important to design equipment for EMC,
her important source or electromagnetic emissions for achieving functional performance but also to meet
computers and digital electronie
lated with digital
related
legal requirement of countries before it can be sold.
isments.
me Pulse signals are used by digital equipment
EMC design has become an important part of electronic
numbers 0 (OFF) and 1 (ON). design.
dicate a binary
oindica
transition time from 0 to I and vice-versa is the
The
in identifying the spectral content of the

6.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF
ain factor
2in
time generates a wide range of
GROUNDING FOR
mlse. Short transition
fequencies as compared to longer transition time.
ACHIEVING EMC
The spectral content of digital equipments normally
tolds a wide range of frequencies and may lead to
6.2.1 Grounding
interference in electronic and electrical equipments.
GQ. 6.21 are
What objectves
In AM radio the noise is generated by nearby lightning
grOunding ?
discharges. The lightning discharge has large number
of frequency components, few of, which transmit Electronic circuits and systems normally have common
through the input filter of radio. metallic structural member, which also act as power
This may result in noise to be superimposed on the return, a path for lightning stroke discharge, a path for
eSred signal. Although, a radio is not tuned to a signal return and reference for electrical signalling.
Specific
transmitter frequency, the transmission is The same is also applicable to vehicular mountings like
Ceived, which
results in reception of unintentional ships, aircrafts and even satellites, where the structure
Signal.
of these vehicles acts as a ground, similar to the
UESe are the
cases of interference generated in functions fulfilled by the earth for fixed terrestrial
iuntentional installations.
receivers. Similarly, interference
SuCTaled in
unintentional receivers are also important. Generaly, a single ground structure can achieve several
lathis
strong transmission from a TV station objectives with different rules applied to one another.
nay
be collected The successful installation design needs knowledge of
Computer by a«digital computer, which the
may consider
asiinformation causing wrong the characteristics related with every grounding
tinctioning
of the computer. applications and the interconnection between them in
system implementation.
.
ne electronic equipments should be

leo Publications
Electromagnetic Compatiblity
RF Design (MU-g Sem-E&TC) (6-4)
signals
It also acts as a current returm path for
The word "ground" is generally related with the is also rclated with
referenced to it. Signal grounding
principle of a zero impedance equipment surface. the highest signalling
frequencics starting from DC to
Conductors have little correlated impedance either
reactive or resistive. frequency anticipated.
A voltage drop is introduced when current flows (3) Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) controf
through such conductors, opposing the concept of grounding
equivalent surface. Super conductors which shows achieve satisfactory
The aim of EMI grounding is to
approximately zero resistance will also introduce little performance of
EMC of the system, basically for better
inductance, which demonstrates non-zero impedance to
filters,transient and surge suppressors and terminal
non-DC signals.
protection instruments.
The system performance, specifically the impedance of
These instruments may be installed
to avoid
a ground reference structure, is one of the important susceptibility
unwarranted emission of or to
aspect related to specifc objectives of the systems
performance. electromagnetic energy.
For applications related to low frequencies, the concept GQ. 6.2.3 Write a note on Sarety grounaiy
for zero impedance surface can be valid. However for
The basic concern related with safety grounding is,the
high frequency applications, significant impedance,
protection from hazards related with high
generally because of inductance of conductors, breaks
curent/voltage, which can be dangerous to life or can
this concept and a trnue zero equivalent surface cannot
result in damage to instruments, installations and
be considered.
facilities. Safety grounding is related with 3 aspects
GQ.6.22 Describe three important purposes of
(1) To restrict voltage because of lightning, line
groundin9
surge or unintentional contact with high
The important purposes of grounding can be voltage lines: The three sources of hazardous
categorized into three important types of follows overvoltage conditions are given with a separate
path near the electrical system at home, orat
(1) Safety grounding
offices, by connecting the syste to the earth.
It is related to prevention of clectrical mishaps like
(2) To stabilize voltage : There are several sources of
retraction of electrical shock, risk of fire or damage to
instruments. Safety concerns remains in normal as well clectricity. Each transformer is viewed as a
as faulty operating conditions inside the instrument or separate source. Due to common reference point
the distribution network or because of the effect of for all the voltage sources, it is possible to
induced voltage and current for example: by lightning. calculate the relationship with one another. The
Basically, safety grounding is related with significantly earth is the 'most common conductive surface;
low frequency applications. which was accepted as a universal standard for all
(2) Slgnal grounding electric systems.
It is related to providing acceptable reference for (3) To define a path for
facilitating the operation of
circuits and systems, in order to ensure proper over current devices: This grounding purpose is
instrument and system performance. Proper signal most important to understand with respect to
grounding prevent unwarranted functional distortion or
safety grounding. Therefore, safety groundingg
instrument malfunction and the risk of component is
failure. intended to protect from danger related with
clectric power faults and with lightning
strikes.
Tech-Neo Publications Where Authors inspire innovation

Sem.-E&TC)
MU-8
(MU-E
DOSIgN =-5 Electromagnetlc Compatiblity
RE lightning protection sust
Explain signal or power conductor are
Ga624 (LPS) E
grounding. or grounded, transit
not properly designed
energy may enter the facility via
the ground connectors.
usually carry very large currents. The Current surges flowing via grounding
Lightning
sUges
ischarge
urrent which is generally related to
rike is 200 kA; its median
grid increasSes
earth potential if the ground system impedance not
is
u
ightnin, return
peak 1ahtning low to prevent potential differences
which can be
severe and maximum current gradient (di/dt)
kA present.
Is.30A/sec. Such high current can damage
(506) 10 Such earth potential can also be dangerous to the
and structures and
carry an electric shock personal who is standing on the ground in the ambit of
andd
ystems the striking point.
haZard
some kind of lightning protection. A Fig. 6.2.1 shows the curent and potential distribution
Therefo t needs
tion system should consist of
protectio in ground reference structure because of lightning
ightning
impedance path for the energy related strike. From the Fig. 6.2.1 it can be observed that even
olled low
L lightning strike to disperse to the earth with a well-grounded facility, ground currents and
with the
subsystem. Down conductors carries the high potential may cause safety concerns.
electrode
from
htning
discharge current, flecting them away Ungrounded cable s0A
SuSceptible elements in the facility
and restricted penetraton Into the
facility- 50 KV
high currents to safe Control Center
vollage
gradients developed by the Fuel Tank
Surge propagation
evels into on data lines
Lightning discharge current should not flow SAAAAAAMAAN,
electrical circuits to
cause damage. Ground potential Extemal ghnlng Good groundtng
above Good groundiog protecion system
differences in the ambit
of the strike can be
10kV.
(1F2)Fig. 6.2.2: Improper grounding of cable a
penetrating a
facility caused a spark-over in a fuel tank
an ungrounded cable
Fig. 6.2.2 shows a case wherè
penetrating a fuel tank,
coming from a control centre,
difference between the
results in a voltage potential
structure.
cable and the facility's
because of this strike. A proper
The fuel tank exploded
the ungrounded cable and
protection device between
hazard.
would have avoided this
the facility's structure
current enters a
facilities power or
If lightning surge to
ungrounded conductors, side flashes via the air
other because of
grounded conductors can take place
next emerge on those
potentials, which will eventually
high
Step distanceH
conductors.
explosion of
potential may cause
Therefore, high
spectral content
parts or result in fire. The
Curent structural
and subsequent
Distribution
the lightning strike current
sol related with change
in
gradient or rate of
because of very short
field,
current waveform, is
lightning discharge
****
of
1 MHZ. Grounding
of lightning
approximately
attained through a low
system should be
protection
Distance
in,6.2.1 lightning-induced impedance path.
SHAH Ventare
Otage Hazards caused by ASACHIW
votage gradients in the earth
aPublieations-
ons here Authors inspire innori
RF Design (MU-8h Sem.-E&TC)
(6-6) Electromagnetic Compatibility
interactions
The high frequency high-gradient/ high-current Generally, the radiated and conducted EMl
currents. Therefore, the
behaviour of the lightning waveform needs the are related with common mode
shunting
resistance R and inductance L of the grounding system effective suppression of such situation needs
Reference Structure
to be reduced. of the EM energy to the Signal
is applied and is
(SRS). Here, the term 'grounding'
:GQ.6.2.5 What do you mean b9 "EMI control"?
considered as electrical connection of the protective
Explain EMC grounding in detail signal
*******.-~*.
device between the protected lines to the
The term "EMI control" means the control of incorrect reference structure.
surge suppression
or irregular nature of electronic circuits resulted by the This is also applicable to filters and
electromagnetic coupling into the circuit. devices, required to provide CM suppression.
Therefore, the "ground" provides a controlled low
EMI control covers every aspect of emission and
impedance path for the flow of CM EMI electrostatic
susceptibility interactions. It contains radiated ficlds
discharge (ESD) and surge currents.
and conducted currents and also contains induction and
Therefore, high-quality low impedance "ground" paths
coupling of electromagnetic situations like
gives an altermate path for EMI, ESD and surge
electromagnetic pulse from lightning (L-EMP), nuclear
currents and diverts them away from sensitive circuits.
(N-EMP) sources and electrostatic discharge (ESD).
Generally, line-line capacitors or filters will have small
To understand the role of grounding structures for EMI effect an emission because of common-mode currents
control, it should be observed that a circuit fully but also suppresses differential mode interference.
enclosed in a perfectly constructed, six-sided metallic An alternate way for controlling radiated field and
enclosure will not radiate and will also not be cable interactions is using shields placed on the cables.
susceptible to external incident radiated Cable shields minimizes EM field coupling.
electromagnetic field. Performance of cable shield and grounding gives a
However, apertures in the shielded enclosure, controlled path for shunting common-mode EMI
specifically cable entering through shield, will affect current induced on the cable shield into a reference
shielding performance if not controlled carefully. system.
This is because, the interaction of conducted and For both, the protective devices and cable shield, the
term "ground" is misleading and no connection to
radiated electromagnetic energy with circuits and
ground is needed. In fact, the term ground should be
systems, takes place through conductors connected to
considered as "shield termination" or connection to the
the circuit, entering the shielded enclosure.
signal reference structure or enclosure and should not
Measures for EMI control are interference suppression be used.
and cable shielding, the performance of which is based The EMI ground is needed to manage currents related
on proper implementation of grounding structure as with EMI, ESD and lightning surge currents, ranging in
shown in Fig. 6.2.3. amplitudes from microamperes to tens and even
-Lne-Case Capactors contro hundreds of amperes respectively, and in frequency
Metallic Endosure
cc CM EMI Curents
EMI on Cable condtuctors

from DC to daylight.
ine-ine Capacitors contro For achieving an acceptable EMI ground, sufficiently

DM EMI auTents
low impedance to a ground reference is needed for
proper connection to filters, cabinets and cable shields.
Oscilnto EM cuents on cable shield Because of the high frequency behaviour of EM
Cable shlekd contros Emisslons
rom any noise source phenomena, inductance consists of basic consideration
in grounding system design for EMI control.
(1FpFig. 6.23:Grounding applications for EMI control
SACHIN SHAH Ventare

Tech-Neo Publications bere Aatbars inspire innoratioa A
(MU-8Sem.-c&
(MU-8"
Design (6-7)
AF
Grounding schemes Electromagnetic Compatibility
Normally they
2.2 are used till
100 kHz, but sometimes
y Gie three
asic objectives
of signal
they are used
for frequency
as high as 1 MHz. In
point grounding, single
626 grouraing.
Ttnat
the ground topology
the ground current is controlled, so
-******* will flow ,wherever we
grounding are: to flow. wantit
ahiectives of Signal
From Equation
interfere with the retum path of the ground.
(6.2.2) it is understood
the value of. that decreasing
I, decreases the voitage drop in
ent through the smallest loop possible.
current portion of the that
s the
and the possible common impedance
understand grounding may
ground. Additionally,
be used to prevent ground
single point
loops.
To ground.
upling in the Circuit
the eguation for impedance of
Give Circuit Circuit
627
grouna conductor
-
e impedance or a ground
conductor is
2 R+jaL (6.2.1)
(1F4)Fig. 6.2.4:
Common or daisy chain, single point ground
ohove equation
shows the effect that frequency has ystem is a series ground connection and is undesirable
from a
round impedance. At low frequency the inductance noise standpoint, but it has an advantage of simple wiring
on
I will be the dominant at higher frequency. Fig. 6.2.4 shows the common or daisy chain single-
The inductance L will be the dominant impedance, point ground system. This system is a series connection
of every specific circuit grounds.
At frequencies above 13 kHz á straight length of 24-
Z1,Z2, Zg are the impedance of the ground conductors
gauge wire, 1
in above a ground plane, has more and I, h and I, are the ground currents of circuit 1, 2
inductive reactance than resistance. and 3 respectively.
GQ.6.2.8 qive two Waus toMInIWIZe Point A is at a potential of
qround noise volTAge V VA +h+1)Z ..(6.2.3)
The noise voltage V, is given by Whereas, point C is at a potential of
..(6.2.2)
Ve +h+14) Z +%+1,) Z+ 1Zs
(6.2.4)
V are single
:be two ways to minimize the ground noise voltage Even though this circuit is the least desirable
due to its
Minimize the ground impedance Zg point grounding system, it may be used
non-critical
simplicity. It can be a good choice for
by forcing the ground current to flow via a
Ce
ferent
applications.
path.
should not be used between circuits
The configuration
.2.9 Name the tupes of signal grounuas substantially different current levels,
which operate at
stages will affect the low level
because the high current
e taree types
of signal ground are ground impedance.
circuit via the common
may
Single-point
grounds. () Multi-point grounds system, the most critical circuit
While using this
Hybrid ground point. It can be
ground closest to the primary
be the one lower
in Fig. 6.2.4 is at a
82:10 observed that point A
EXplain single-point grouna systa potential than point B or C.
Siagle
po
point ground is frequency
ormally used at low
aTing from
dc upto 20 kHz. SACIHINSHAH Venture
A
bucalions
here Authors inspire innovatron
LRE Doslgn (MU-8 Som.-E&TC) (6-8)
power
GQ. 6.2.11 What is NEC mandated ac
system ?
Circuit Circuit Circuit "***.
ground system is
2
The NEC mandated ac power
a series and parallel
basically a combination of
a branch circuit
connected single point ground. In
(connected to one circuit breaker), the grounds are
w- connected in series whereas different
branch circuit
2 grounds are connected in parallel.
As shown in Fig. 6.2.6, the single
or star point is at the
3 ac power
service entrance panel for a single point
:
6.2.5 Separate or parallel, single point ground system,
(1FS)Fig. ground as per the NEC.
is a parallel ground conncetion and provides good low LOAD 1 LOAD 2 LOAD 3 LOAD 4
frequency grounding, but it may be nechanically cumbersonme
in some large systems
A more desirable single-point ground system is the Service

Entrancee Branch Circuit A Ground (Green Wire)
separate or parallel ground system as shown in Panel
LOAD 5 LOAD 6 LOAD 7 LOAD 8
Fig. 6.2.5. The system is more desirable one because no
cross coupling takes place between ground currents
from various circuits. The potential at point A and C
aregiven as: Branch Circuit B Ground (Green Wire)
VA 1,Z 6.2.5)
LOAD 9 LOAD 10 LOAD 11 LOAD 12
Vc Z (6.2.6)
From the above equations it can be noted that the
ground potential of a circuit is a function of impedance
and ground current of that circuit only. This system can Earth Branch Circuit C Ground (Green Wire)
Ground
be mechanically complicated because, in a large system
an undesirable number of ground conductors may be (1F6)Fig. 6.2.6: A single point ac power ground, as per the NEC
required.
Go. 6.2.12 Why is single point ground system
Generally, the most practical single point ground mdesirable at high trequency
systems are combination of series and parallel
connection. The single-point ground system is undersiable at high
frequency because the inductance of the ground
This is a compromise between the requirement to meet
conductors increase the ground impedance.
the electrical noise condition and the goal of avoiding
At even higher frequencies, the impedance of the
more wiring complexity than actually required. ground conductor, may be very high, if the length
To successfully balance these factors, the ground leads coincides with odd multiples ofa quarter wavelength.
should be grouped selectively. This helps the circuit of These grounds will have high impedance and also will
widely varying power and noise levels to not share the act as antennas and radiate, and also will pick-up
same ground return wire. Therefore, many low-level energy effectively.
circuits can share a common ground return, whereas In order to maintain low impedance and to reduce
other high level circuits may share another ground radiation and pickup, the ground leads must be shorter
than one twentieth of a wavelength.
return conductor.
Tech-Neo Publications.
(MU-8hSem.-E&TC)
IMU-8 (6-9)
DOSIgN
AF Circuit Circuit
GO.6.2.14
2 3 Explain multi point
ground systems:
Multi point grounds
are nomally used at
Irequency above hign
Stray 100 kHz and in digital circuitry
Capacitance muitipoint ground
systems reduces the ground noise
vollage V in Equation
(6.2.2), by reducing the ground
impedance Z
Single Point Ground From Equation (6.2.1)
it can be seen that at high
Trequency, the ground
frequency, single point grounds inductance can be minimized by
come using ground planes
627:4At high because or grids.
of stray capacitance
s multipo To reduce the inductance,
multiple connections
what happens, when a single-point between the circuits and the plane
6.2.7 shows should be used.
contiguration done at high frequency. Circuit Circuit Circuit
The
und
conductor shows high impedance due i
2 3
inductance.
their R R2
the impedance of stray
But a high frequency
acitance
capacita between the circuit and ground is less.
Ground plane
nerefore, the
Inere
ground Current pass through the low
inpedance of stray capacitance and not
through the (1F)Fig, 6.2.9 : Multipoint grounding system. It is a good choice
at frequency above about 100kHz. Impedance R-R, and Lly
highimpedance, which results from the inductance of
must be minimized at frequency of Interest.
long ground
conductors.
Fig. 6.2.9 shows the multipoint ground system. In this
.
The outcome is a multpoint ground at high frequency.
system the circuits are connected to the nearest
G0.6.213 Give two subclasses of single point
available low-impedance ground plane.
ground
The low ground impedance is basically because of the
******
The two subclasses of single point grounds aree low inductance of the ground plane. The connections
(0) with series connection between several circuit and ground plane should be
(2) with parallel connection placed as short as possible in order to reduce their
impedance.
In several high-frequency circuits, the length of these

ground leads should be placed at a small fraction of an
inch.
Series Connection
Parallel Connection When the thickness of the ground
plane is incresed it
frequency impedance as
g,6.2.8:Two types
s of single point grounding connections has no effect on its high
determined by the inductance
Figng (1) The impedance is
6.2.8 shows
the two types of single point and not the resistance.
gounding
connections. The series connection is known currents flow on the surface of the
(2) High frequency
effect.
COmnon or daisy chain whereas the parallel plane due to the skin
PCB
ground is important as any
cDnnection
is known as separate or star ground system. A low-inductance
frequency or digital logic
which consists of high
circuits.
A SACHIN SHAH Ventue
e Publieations.
RE Design (MU-8h Sem.-E&TC)_ Electromagnetic Compatibility
(6-10)
The ground may be a ground plane or on a double sided co.6.216 Wnen doescommon ance
board i.e. a ground grid. The ground plane provides a
coupling becomes a problem
low-inductance returm for signal currents and permits
a problem
using constant impcdance transmission lines for signal Common impedance coupling becomes
common ground and
interconnections. when two or more circuits share a
one or more of the following
conditions takes place
Even though the ground on a digital logic board is a
frequency, this
multipoint it does not imply that the power provided to 1. A high-impedance ground [At high
the board should also be multipoint grounded. is because of very high inductance,
whereas at low
The high frequency digital logic current should be frequency it is because of very high resistance].
restricted to the board and should not flow through the 2. A large ground current.
power supply conductor which feed the board. As the 3. A very sensitive, low noise margin circuit, which
power is dc, it may be wired as a single point ground is connected to the ground,
even through the logic board ground is multipoint.
GO. 6.2.17How S Common impedance coupling
GQ. 6.2.15 Whydoes ground system problem problem overconmea?
OCcur
Single point grounds overcome the problem of
common impedance coupling by separating ground
current which interfere with each other and by forcing
them to flow on different conductors, effectively
controlling I, in Equation (6.2.2).
Vs2
s This method is effective at low frequency however, the
signal current paths and long lead lengths related with
Ground single point grounds increase the inductance, which is
Ze
detrimental at high frequency.
(IF10)Fig. 6.2.10 An Example of common impedance coupling
Multipoint grounds overcome these problems by
Ground system, problem takes place because of generating a very low ground impedance, effectively
common impedance coupling. Fig. 6.2.10 shows an controlling the L, term in Equation (6.2.1).
example of common impedance coupling. The Generally, at frequency below 100 kHz, a single point
Fig. 6.2.10 shows two cireuits which share the same ground. system is preferable above 100 kHz a
ground return. The voltage V across the load multipoint ground system is the best.
impedance Rz, of the circuit

V =Vs +2G,
1
,
is given as
+1) 6.2.7)
GO. 6.2.18 Explain hybrid grounding system
A hybrid ground is a solution when the signal
Here, Zg is the common ground impedance and I, and
frequency covers a wide range both above and below
L, are signal currents in circuit 1 and 2 respectively.
100 kHz. For example : A video signal, where the
It is observed that, the signal voltage. across the load signal frequency is in the range of 30 Hz to tens of
RLI of circuit 1
is no longer a function of just the megahertz.
curent in circuit 1, but is also a function of the current
in circuit in circuit 2.
The tern I in Equation (6.2.7), is an intracircuit
Z
noise voltage and the term I, Zg is on intercircuit noise
voltage. (1F11)Fig.
6.2.11 : A hybrid ground connection that acts as a
single point ground at low îrequency and a multipoint ground
at high frequency
Tech-Neo Publications. here Authors inspire innovation ASACHIN SHAH Venture

(MU-ghss
Sem.-E&TC)
MU-8
DOSION 611)
RF one in whi the system grounding Electromagnetic Compatibility
und is ground wire will
ybrid, behar
behaves differently at different give a low impedance
anliguralion and provide a at 50/60 Hz,
4 high impedance
eguencies, frequencies. at higher noise
shows common type of hybrid ground
6.2.11
ig. 6 as a
single point ground at low frequency
6.2.3 Shield Grounding
nhich multipoint ground at high frequency.
GO. 6.2.19 Explain cable shield
grounding2
When a shielded cable is
used between two subsystems
or systems, the shield
should be connected to a single
ground reference at both ends.
For avoiding leakage of
electromagnetic energy through
the shield, the outer
a ybrid grounded cable shield surface of the shield has to be grounded as
6.2.12: Example of shown in
pfig Fig. 6.2.14.
62.12 shows a pracucal

application of this The effectiveness of grounding is based on the
5.2
ole in the
7nciple cable hielding configuration. At low electromagnetic coupling mode and the electrical
uency, the
capacitor 'C is high impedance and the length of the cable (/A) used for interconnection.
single-point grounded at the load end.
hile shield is a Electromagnetic
capacitance C is the low Equipment Equipment
higher frequency the
disturbance
AM shield Outer shield
inpedance and the cable shield is effectively grounded Inner conductor
conductor
a both ends.
-Ground connections
77777777777777777777777777rEarh
Surface
Below ground
(1F14,Fig. 6.2.14: Cable grounding

RFig, 6.2.13:A hybrid ground connection that acts as a
alipoint at low frequency and a single point ground at high The electromagnetic coupling in a cable has two basic
frequency modes,
1. Electric field coupling: Here the incident wave is
ig. 6.2.13 shows a diffcrent type of hybrid ground. polarized parallel to the conductor length.
Athough, this hybrid ground plane is not common, it is
2. Magnetic field coupling: Here the incident wave
u USed when several equipment enclosures should
polarized normal to the loop formed by the cable and
grounded to power system ground, "but it s
the ground plane.
ECconended to have a single point signal ground 1or
EMI voltage pick-up in the
thecircuitry It can be observed that the
As the frequency
cable increases with frequency.
iground inductors provide a low impedance safety phenomena generated
Aind
increases, the resonance
at 50/60 Hz and ground isolation at higher cable of length I such
frequer maximum induced voltage for a
Another application is when the equipment
that
ing a noise current out on the ground grounded + H-field excitation no
Conduc (a) Both ends
There
tor, which
results the power cable to radiate. resonance
by failing electromagnetic
regulatory + E-field excitation
mpatibility b) Both ends grounded
(EMC) requirements.
> resonance l= k
for
nd conductor is clears
noved, the product
but it results or
oke in safety violation. An inductor
eg. 10 the SACHINSHAH Venture
dbtcaions to 25 uH) added in series with A
Hhere
e******* Authors inspire innovation
Electromagnetic Compaibility
RF Design (MU-g Sem.-E&TC (6-12)
resonance of
(c) One end grounded +H- ficld cxcitation 3. Adverse impedance response due to
inductance and residual capacitance of the bond
resonance for = (2k+ 1) strap.
(d) One end grounded+E - ficld excitation GQ. 6.2.21 Name the different methods by
resonance for = (2k + which bonding can be made
l 1)
-----.-.
For a cable, at low frequency both ends grounded The different methods by which bonding
can be made
configuration is more efficient for E-field excitation
whereas for H-field excitation one end grounded is
1. A bond is attained by joining two
metallic items or
more efficient as this neglects the formation of a
brazing.
current loop by the cable and ground plane. However, surfaces through the process of welding or
both ends grounded configuration neglects resonance at 2. A bond is achieved by metallic interfaces through
high frequencies for both E-field and H-field fastness or by direct metal to metal contact.
- -
excitations. 3. A bond is obtained by bridging two metallic surfaces

To neglect the ground loops, one ground connection at with a metallic bond strap.
source end is preferred. At low frequency, for short GQ. 6.2.22 Explain shape and materialfor bond
cables, the EMI induced voltages at both ends of the
Strap
coaxial cable is almost equal, also one end grounding is
required for both H-field and E-field excitations. AC and DC resistances of a bond conductor are
inversely proportional to the crass-sectional area and
6.2.4 Bonding
the perimeter of the conductor. One way to decrease the
GQ.6.2.20 Define bonding. Give the factor RF impedance of a conductor is to incréase its
which influence the EMI performance periphery because RF current flows through the surface
of the bonding of the conductor as a result of skin effect.
**********
An economic solution would be to use conductor straps

Bonding IS a process in which components of
equipment or an assembly are, electrically connected of flat shape, for which the periphery is very large than
using low impedance conductor. Basically, the the rectangular bar or circular rod for the same cross-
interconnections.should be done so that the electrical sectional area.
and mechanical properties of the current path are found The total impedance of a bond conductor whose length
by the connected members and not by the joints.
is less as compared to the wavelength of operation is
The electrical and mechanical properties of the joint
should be entered over a period of time. The intention Z R+jo (L+Lin
is to make the structure homogencous with respect to Where,
the flow of RF currents.
R AC or DC resistance of the conductor
Several factors which influence the performancc of
Leai exlernal self inductance
bonding are
1. Generation of intermodulation products because of Lint internal inductance caused by the magnetic
non lincar effects at contacts between similar and ficld perpectration inside the metal.
dissimilar metals.
Lint is normally neglected in the above impedance
2 Development of potential differences clue to AC
and DC resistances and inductance of a given calculation except for very low frequency except at
length of a bond strap. very low frequency.
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MU-8° Sem.-E&TC)
(MU-g"s
IREDesgn (6-13)
Explain dilterent shapes of
Electromagnetic
conductors GO. 6.2.24 Compatbii
Give the typical
****- shapes, conductors are as follows: strap DCresistancevalues of copper
diterent
The conductor reactance values and the inductive
airular of different tengthe
C resista
DC resistance of circular conductors andfrequencies.
AC and are:
pe The typical
Rpc PA numerical
resistance values of copper
and inductive strap D
and frequencies reactance values
are as follows
for different lenggh
RaC Table 6.2.1:
Typical copper
strap resistance/ reactance
0 50 mm,t=3
Where, mm
p = resistivity Frequency50 Hz
1kkz 100ktz1MHz MHz
100
I = length 10 m
Roc-1.15 m2
A Cross-section area |04 m2 08 mQ80 Q 08k80
Reactance k2
d diameter
=50 m
8 skin depth Hoc5.7m225.3
conducto above heigh h from the ground plane Reactance m|052502 0.5k2 |50k2
for a
a Conductor pair Tar Irom a ground plane and

T
GQ.62.25 Give guidelines
separated by a distance D. which must be
followed for good boind
02 tn4 micro Henry/m for h el (or D
<2 The guidelines which must be followed
for good bonds
02 In 4micro Henry forh>I (or D > 2 are
1. All bonds surfaces should be smooth and clean and
Rectangular flat strap no
nonconductive finishes should be given at the contact.
Ibhe AC and DC resistance and inductance of a 2. The fastening technique should exert enough pressure
rctangular flat strap are, to hold the surfaces in the contact.
10001 3. To neglect corrosion and inter modulation generation,
Rpc
bonding must be done with similar metals.
RAC =
663 k/Vf 10-10 4. Replaceable washers should be used when joining with
2(0 +t) nuts and bolts.
Shoulder jints mus be nelecied a
L00021
Where,
Inl+0.5+0.2235 5. enough mechanical strength.
6. Protective finishes should be given to protect the bond
causes.
t strap thickness from moisture and other corrosion
as replacement for direct
When jumpers are used
strap width kept short and the ratio of
bonds, the length must be
I = less than 5:1 for maintaining
strap length length to width should be
low values.
Conductivity of the materina resistance and inductance to
higher in the
must be selected
t frequency in Hz 8. The jumpers members but should
electrochemical series than bonded
k= function of o/t effects of corrosion.
nearer to neglect the adverse
be
biations A SACHIYSHAH Yenture
-here Authors inspire innovauou

(6-14)
RF Dosign (MU-gh Som.F&TC)
However, in certain conditions the
source should be
9. Self tapping screws are neglected because screw of particular
permittcd. to radiate and the shielding
threads are not as good as a primary means of bonding.
receptor is important.
6.2.5 Shielding Effectiveness GQ. 6.2.27 Writea ote onshielding
effectiveness.
Ga.6.2.26 What is a shield ? Explaín in detail.
Shicld is a rmetallie partition which is kept in between
two regions of space. It is used to control the Opposing
propagation of electromagnetic fields from one region field
to another. Shield is used to contain electromagnetic

fields if the shield confines the noise sources as shown Incident Induced current
magnetic in conductor
in Fig. 6.2.15. field
This configuration gives protection to each and every (1F17Fig.6.2.17: Nonmagnetic material can provide magnetic
susceptible instrument placed outside the shield. As shielding. The incident magnetic field induces currents in the
shown in Fig. 6.2.16, the shield can also be used to conductor, which produces an opposing field to cancel the
keep electromagnetic radiation out of a region. incident field in the region of space enclosed by the shield.
Shield
Shielding effectiveness can be realized in several ways.
Fig. 6.2.17 shows the cireuit method. In this method,
the incident fields induce current in the shield which in
No External Noise- turn produce additional fields which cancel the original
field SOurce
field in some regions of space.
Another approach known as Schelkunoff's approach
cean be used which treats shielding as a transmission
(1F15)Fig. 6.2.15: Shield application where the noise source is
line problem with. both loss and reflection components.
shielded, which prevents noise coupling to equipment outside
The loss is the result of heat generated inside the shield
the shield
whereas the reflection is the result of the difference in
impedance between the incident wave and the shield
impedance.
Shielding can be defined in terms of the reduction in
Shield
magnetic and electric feld strength resulted by the
Noise No
source
shield. This shielding effectiveness can be expressed in
internal
field
unit of decibeis (dB).
Use of decibels allow the shielding generated by
different effects to be added to obtain the total
shielding. Shielding effectiveness () is defined for
electric fields as:
(1F16)Fig. 6.2.16 : Shield application where the receptor is
shielded, which prevents noise infiltration S = 20 log dB 6.2.8)
This method provides protection only for a particular
and for magnetic field as,
instrument contained within the shield. If complete
system is considered then shielding the noise is more
S
Ho
20 log H dB ...(6.2.9)
important than shielding the receptor.
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A
(MU-g Sem.-E&TC)
(MU-8"
Desg (615)
RE Ove E (H is the incident field
Eerrmayretc
H) is the field strength All the atve Compattlity
and E of the terme
Sangun wave
ave as it
emerges from the shied. muhiple at expreswd
facr B is ngesedecitrs. Tur
In the reflein is
ansaiied shielded enclosure there are Joss A is
two pnme
(B) can
retes hun 9 dB. sivrin
Prealy, stierisn ts
nzsiderations als e ezeses ox
waves. tieric friu a
The
elding effectiveness of the shield material
shiela
GO 822 a
) ixelfand Obtain
shiela fectiveness
resulting írom ct solitn for
civetirnnt a metoe in4
)Ihe ontinuities and apertures in the shield borrizr
For obtzining
shieldie
Firstly,the
hielding effectiveness of a solid shield
with effectiveress e1act istioe
of a merzlic
tarin, za
r sieking
holes is determined and then the effect of ig 62.15 is soived.
A
ciae g
codacing tie f
aunus and holes is considered. At high-
isontinuous 1, conductivity
G, perininivity = hickes
e E, d priy
it it is the shielding effectiveness of the has an incideat
anisorm place wave
pencies,
which determines the
complete shielding
leftmost srface. incideat
ns
The medim on any
enesS of a shield, not-the intrinsic shielding, side ofthe siieid is
efactive
material be free space fcr
pracical ass.
cusieio
Tctiveness of the shield coordinate sysiem A agris
is used to defne the pootiem
Snielding effcctiveness differs with frequency, the let surface wu
ying in
Z=0 and ngi sariace located az
e zue
enety of shield, position within the shield where the =i.Fri a
type ot field being attenuated angle backward trzveling wzves
feld is measured of 2 preea e ë
medium and in the
iridence and polarization. Shielding can also be sieid
According to basic
sovided by a plane sheet of conducting material. This roperies of he sirie i
Maxwel's equztions. Ozy a forwzi
geonetry provides basic shielding concepts and shows zveling z s
present in the medium o the rigt
cf e shieid s
which material property identify shielding is no additiomzl barier to eaerzte
arisced Sela Tie
effectiveness. basic forms of these ields ae
tdoes not contain the effects resulted due to geometry

of the shield. The outcomes 62102)
of plane sheet calculations
ze important for calculating the relative shielding
cffecdveness of different materials. 62.10D))
Eectromagnetic wave encounter two types of loss
wisich
strike a metallic surface. The wave is partially
ciecied from the surface 62.10))
and transmitted part of the
ave is attenuated
when it passes through the shield
s effect known as 6.2.10)
absorption are penetration loss, 15
aDe in near
or far field and also for electric or
C of fields. However, reflection loss is based on
pe 62.10)
field and
the wave impedance.
The
total shielding
swith ctiveness of a solid material
.(62.100)
no pertures
A)plhus is equal to the sum of absorption loss H
reflection
to account loss (R) plus a correction factor (B)
Tuereid for ultiple reflection in thin shields.
Tefore,
the shielding (62.10g)
effectiveness can be given as
S A+R+B dB
0ns
here Authors inspire innovabon
RF Design (MU-8 Som-E&TC)
(6-16) Eloctromasgrtc Cnpettiay
6.2.15(a))
H ...(6.2.10(h))
6.2.150b))
= E,e (6.2.1(i))
6.2.15(c)
(6.2.100G))
lo
Where the phase constant and intrinsic impedance in ..6.2.15(d))
free space region are Tlo
.6.2.11(a)) Solving these equations gives the ratio of the incident

and transmitted waves as
7,V
and the propagation constant and intrinsic impedance
...6.2.11(b))
(+n)
of the shield are
41,
1 Viou(G +joE) 20/62 J#g (6.2.16)
=a+j B .(6.2.12(a)) L
no-n
Equation (6.2.16) is the exact expression for the ratio of
n jop
+joe the electric ficld that is incident on the boundary and
the electric field that is transmitted through the
...(6.2.12(b))
boundary. We have substituted the relation y +a + jßB
The magnitude of the incident ficld E, is considered to from Equation (6.2.12(a)) and also a= 1/6 (considering
be known. In order to find the remaining amplítudes that the barrier material is a good conductor) where 8 is
AAA A
E, E, E2 and E, we require four equations. These are
the skin depth for the barrier material at the frequency
of the incident wave:
found by enforcing, the boundary conditions on the
field vectors at the two boundaries, z = andz = t.
0
Continuity of the tangential components of the clectric
6.2.17)
field at the two interfaces gives However, to do some reasonable approximations to

decrease this to a result derived by approximate means.
This will simplify the result and also demonstrate that
E +E, lemo = E ho+E L«o ..6.2.13(a))
the same result can be found by approximate methods
without any significant loss in accuracy.
.6.2.13(b) To simplify Equation (6.2.16), we will assume that the
Continuity of the tangential componcnts of the barrier is constructed from a "good conductor", so that
magnetic sield at the two interfaces provides the intrinsic impedance of the conductor is much lesS
.A
A A A than that of free space: n.< < no Therefore we may
H -0 +H, |,-o = H,l-o+, I,-o .(6.2.14(a)) approximate
A
...(6.2.14(b))
...(6.2.18)
Substituting the forms given in Equation (6.2.10) gives
no+n
the needed four equations as follows:
Tech-Neo Publications - .Where Authors inspire innovalion
m.-E&TC) (6-17)
Eloctromagnetic Compatibility
skin depth ð is much less than
the sk
thatthe and H, = H,e
2Sune ness i.t.
thickness
The
Therefore,
Where, E is the wave
intensity at a distance t
.6.2.23)
the shicld as shown within
Aarier
in Fig. 6.2.18. The distance
needed
= e"e iß for the wave to be
attenuatcd to l/e or 37% of its
<<1 fort>> 8...(6.2.19) original value is defined
as the skin depth, which is
the exact resulr
sult given in equal to
these into
usatin(6.2.16) and taking the absolute value of the
ad
atin
2 m ..6.2.24)
+n) e Incident field

strength, Distance Kemainin9
4, n E from edge field strength
E
...(6.2.20) Permeability
conductivity
|4|
Medium
this result in order to express the
of
effectiveness (SE) in dB, we get
shielding
20log10
+20
A
log,o +MaB..(6.2.21(a)) .37E0
4
AdB Distance from edge, t
KaB
(1F1Fig. 6.2.18 Electromagnetic wave passing through an

absorbing material is attenuated exponentially
Substituting numerical values for and o in
2/62t
Mg
20 log10
1- no+ Equation (6.2.24) and changing units, so that skin depth
is in inches we get
206ej26 ..(6.2.21(b))
20 logol1-e 8 = 2.6
in ...(6.2.25)
the exact result into a component
The separation of
ercause of reflection, a component because of Where , = relative permeability of shield material
asarption and a component because of

multiple o, = relative conductivity of shield material
rlections is evident in (6.2.21(a)). for relative permeability and
relative
Values
6.2.2.
conductivity of different materials are given in Table
6.2.6
Shielding Considerations Table 6.2.2:Relative Conductivity and
Permeability of
*******
Various Materials
8229 Writea note on absorpion loS Relative Relative
Explain its cffect on the frequency Materials
permeaiity
and shietd thicknessDeringkI
Conducyy r
1.05
depth. Silver
Copper-annealed 1.00
When
an
electromagnetic wave passes through a
m, there 0.7
is an exponential decrease in its Gold
anplitode
as
shown in Fig. 6.2.18. This decay takes 0.664
Pace Chromium
cause
aniclosses Currents induced in the shield generate Aluminum (soft) |
0.61
and heating of the material. Therefore, 0.4
Aluminum
E= E,e6 ..(6.2.22)
Pubbatuons SACHIN SHAH Veature
A
Eloctromagnotlo Compatibllty
RF Design (MU-S Som-E&TC) (6-18)
log(o) dB 6.2.27)
Materias Relative Relatlvo A 20
conduciVIY O| pernieahillty (6.2.28)
A 8.69JaB
(tempere)
it can bo observed that he
Zinc 0.32 From abovo cquntion
onc skin-depth thick is
Berylliumn 0.28 absorption loss in a shicld
thickness of the shicld
approximately 9 dB. f the
Brass 0.26 doubles the loss in decibels.
doubles then the shicld
Cadmiunm 0.23 loss in decibel versus the ratio
The plot of absorption
Nickel 0.20 100
Bronze 0.18 is shown in Fig. 6.2.19.
108 10
Platinum 0.18
magnesium alloy 0.17
80 8
Tin 0.15
Steel (SAE 1045) 0.10 1000
0 6
Lead 0.08
| Monel 0.04
0 4
Conetic (1 kHz) 0.03 25,000
Mumetal (1 kHz)|0.03 25,000
20 2
Stainless steel 0.02 500 *****
CType 304)9
o
0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Few representative skin depth for copper, aluminum
1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10
steel and mu metal are given in Table 6.2.3. Ratio of thickness, t To skin depth, 8
Table 6.2.3: Skin Depths of Various Materials
(1F19F1g. 6.2.19:
Absorption loss Is proportlonal to the
Frequency Copper Aluminum Steel Mumetal thickness and inversely proportional to the skin depth of the
in) (in) in) shield material. This plot can be used for electric Melds,
in) magnetic ficlds, or plane waves
60 Hz 0.335 0.429 0.034 0.014
0.260 0.333 0.026 0.011 The curve obtained is applicable to plane waves,
100100Hz
1
kHz 0.082 0.105 0.008 0.003 electric fields or magnetic fields.
10 kHz 0.026 0.033 0.003 Substituting Equation (6.2.25) in Equation (6.2.27), the
100 kHz 0.008 0.011 0.0008 general expression for absorption loss is obtained as
1
MHz 0.003 0.003 0.0003 A 3.34ty0%o, dB .(6.2.29)
10 MHz 0.0008 0.001 0.0001 Here, t= thickncss of shicld in inches.
100 MHz 0.00026 0.0003 0.00008 Above cquation shows that the absorption loss (in dB)
0.00004 is proportional to the square root
of tho product of the
1000 MHz | 0.00008 0.0001
permeability times the conductivity of the shicld
Therefore, absorption loss through a shicld can now be
material.
written as:
Equation (6.2.29) is plottcd in Fig. 6.2.20 which is a
E-20
A = 20 log log " .(6.2.26) universal absorption loss curve.
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A
MU-8Sem.-t
(MU-g"3
6-18
DeSIgn
AF omagnatic Compatibilit
It also shows
the advantage
providing absorption of steel over coppet
loss. When in
shect should using a steel, a thick
be uscd to provide
below 1000 Hz. gsod absorption lons
Ga.6.2.30 What reflection

is los Eplain
relection
Cxpression
los and obtam
The reflection loss at the ww..ou

interface between two media
is related to the difference
in characteristics
impedances between the media as shown in
6.2.22. Fig.
Medlum 1
K Medium 2
10 100 1000
Universal absorpti loss curve

(FrREig. 6.2.20: E,F-E
A in decibels versus
a plot
of the absorption loss
parametert tyf,o,, where t is the shield thickness
teinches, f is frequency in hertz,
ia
material Impedance Z Impedanca Z2
relative permeability of shield
L = trom,
conductivity of shield material. (122)Fig. 6.2.22: An incident wave is partially relected
o, = between two
loss versus and partially transmitted through, an interface
Fz. 6.2.21
shows the plot of absorption media. The transmitted wave is E, and the
reflected wave is E,
From
fiequency for two
thickness of copper and steel. wave from a medium
The intensity of the transmitted
observed that a thin (0.02 in) sheet of with impedance 2, is
he plot it can be with impedance Z, to a medium
absorption loss (66dB) at
copper provides significant
MHz but virtually no loss
at frequency below .(6.2.30)
1
1000Hz.
E Z+2
2Z .6.2.31)
and
HZ+4*
intensity of the incident
wave and
and Ho is the
Steel
Copper
0.125n thick
E is the intensity of transmitted
wave.
0.125-in thick E, and H, encounters two
parses through a shield, it
When a wave
Fig. 6.2.23.
boundaries as shown in
Impedance Z
Impedance Z2
Impedance 2Z
Copper
Stee 0.020-In thick
0.020-In thick
Electric Eo
field
Et
H, Z
Mognoo Ho
fleld
10 10
Frequency(Hz)
10 Shled
rellection and
transmission
occurat
frequency and 6.2.23: Partial shleld

Oig,6.2.21 boundaries of a
: Absorption loss increases with
(1F23)Flg.
both ASACHIWSHAHVeature
ithshield loss than
thickness;steel offers mo absorption
copper of same thickness
hNes
Publicatiou
lions . Where Authors inspire
innovation
RF Doalgn.(MU-8 Som.-E&TC)
(6-20 Electromagnetic Compatibility
The secondary boundury is between
a medium with Substituting the wave impedance Z for Z, and the
impedance Z2 und a medium with
impedance Z. The shicld impedance Z, for Z2 the reflectúon loss,
transmittcd wavc E, (H,) through this neglecting multiple refiection, for either the E or H
boundary is
given by field can be written as
E, Z+Z, ...(6.2.32)
R = 20 log
E =20 loE
4Z
2 20 log
Z dB ..(6.2.38)
and H, Z+ZH, 6.2.33)
=
417
If a shicld is not thick comparcd to skin depth, Where,
multiple
reflection takes placc between two boundaries because Z = impedance of wave prior to entering the shield
the absorption loss in the shield is small, but if a Z, = impedance of shield
shield
is thick, then thc total transmitted wave These reflection loss equations are for a plane wave
intensity is
found by substituting Equations (6.2.30) and (6.2.31) approaching the shield at normal incidence.
into Equations (6.2.32) and (6.2.33) respectively. If the wave approaches.
This neglects the absorption loss and therefore for a At other than normal incidence, then the reflection loss
increases with angle of incidence.
thick shicld the total transmitted wave is,
The results also apply to a carved inter face, providedd
the radius of curvature is much greater than the skin
E, (Z+Z ...(6.2.34) depth.
and H 4212
+Z ...6.2.35) a 6.2.7 Shielding Compromises
(Z
Even though, thc, clectric and magnctic fields are Once a proper shieldingg material is selected, there is a
bigger challenge of maintaining the Shielding
reflected differently.at each boundary, the net effect Effectiveness (SE) over various openings in the
across both boundaries is the same for both fields. shielding structure.
If the shield is metallic and the surrounding area an This is because the shield for typical equipment is
insulator, then Z, >> Z2 never uniform.
There are different penetrations and apertures i.e.
Under these conditions the largest reflection (smallest openings that have to be provided for cable entries,
transmitted wave) takes place when wave enters the ventilation, display windows and for keypads and
shield (first boundary) for the case of electric field and switches.
Also, there are various seams i.e. discontinuities in the
when the wave leaves the shicld (second boundary) for
shield structure like those at access doors, panel
the case of magnetic fields. openings, joints etc.
As the primary reflection takes place at first surface in
case of clectric ficlds, even very thin materials provide
good reflection loss.
However,in case of magnctic fields, the primary
reflection takes place at second surface.
Multiple rcflections within the shicld can significantlyFanel door Display window
reduce the shiclding effectivencss when Z, >> Zz Opening for

Oponing for switches
Equations (6.2.34) and (6.2.35) reduces to forced air
oollng Keypad opening
Cable entryy-
E Eo .(6.2.36)
Ventilation slots for Un-welded scam

and H ZH, (6.2.37) convection cooling
(1F24) Fig. 6.2.24: Shielding Compromises Techniques
Tech-Neo Publications here Authors inspire innovation A SACHIN SHAH Veature

Sem.-E&TC) (6-21)
MU-8
On
Apertures. If adequate computing resources
and skilled modeling
te a not
hrte
*****---.
staff are available, some shielding
problems can be
shielding effectiveness (SE) successfully modeled by numerical methods
6231 Shows how and
aperture dimension.
frequency and
fiea significant work has been done into improving these.
Wthth approximat let through
FgO
eriorales are wil
aperture will Results have yet to be made available in useable form
a
mn mm one. to wider industry applications. This leaves us with
100 than a 10
more needed for ventilation, control and some general guidelines and a few simplistic equations.
eeded
ae an indicator. Seams, The most widely used equation is
Apetuiresaccess,.and for viewing
ss. between individual
discontinuities at
itertace the joints SE = 20 log (U21) dB (below resonance)
apertures.
also act as
members, also
members,
it, ve
nductive
Where, 2= wavelength,
L = maximum aperture dimension

Electric field
The above equation suggests that the shielding
effectiveness (SE) degrades proportionally to frequency
size until the
and is inversely proportional to aperture
Plane wave which point
,
aperture size is a half wavelength, at
general
Z 3772 shielding is zero. This highlights the
aperture; i.e., the
dependence on frequency and size of
is its effect and the
larger the aperture, the greater
the available shielding.
higher the frequency, the less is
Magnetic field predicting actual shielding
But as a means of
FARfield inaccurate, since SE
Near field effectiveness the equation is quite
dimensions of the enclosure and
0.5 1.0 also depends on the
0.1 is measured.
frequency the point at which SE
Shielding effectiveness vs rule of thumb
F9Fig. 6.2.25: lambda by twenty (/20) is a good
The For aperture(s)
quantify the general maximum aperture size.
has been made in trying to for establishing shielding
dimension of W20, the
Efort
discontinuities in shielding. with the longest
fect of apertures and Considering
sphere, a simple reduce by 20 dB.
effectiveness (SE) will
part from the special case of
screws,
field between fastening
the fundamental situation, the distance
3alytical expression based on
this
leaving us until should be less than /20.
=quations has been unobtainable,
apertures, holes, etc.
numerical computer anote on gaskets
2
ently with recourse either to
GQ 6.2.32 Wrte
situation, or to various points gives
better control of
GEIng of a particular fixing
mpirical rules Closer spacing of higher powers,
although if
of thumb. frequencies and/or easier to
compound the higher required it may be
PSIDle numbers of variables that bonds are
more frequent material between
lioulties are given below: suitable EMC gasket gaskets
slip a length of
a parameters with
apertures
number of The main
Sape, size, position and between the the mating
surfaces:
The relative and distancesS
sitions are:
fieldssource, the apertures in compliance
the shield barrie and Mechanical
It, and
the victim resistance ineffective
Corrosion becoming
before
of the shielding ençlosure
0e geometry Operation rate/day
Thefreque the field Environmental sealing,
etc.
and source impedance of
the model,
All
ofthes
ven
have to be taken into account by
in the
when
considering the possible variations
penies Venture
of the shielding material elf. SACHINSHAH
A
Publication
minenie innpvation
Eloctromagnotic Compatibility
RE Design (MU-8 Som.-E&TC) (6-22)
and Maln Box:
Mantain aGood Electrlc Continulty Botwoon Panols/ Covors
With Straps-Place Straps Far From Loast
Sensitive ltems - Uso at Least One
Expensiv
Minimum
Strap Every:/10 Belng the Incident EMI Performance
Wavelength)
Gasket Flattenin9)
With EMI Gasket and Conductlve Palnt or Plating (Beware of
Metal Mash on Extruslon
Elastomer Core Mounting
Conductive Neoprene
Extrusion (Hollow Tube)
Strip
Metal Mesh Rubber Gasket and
(Monel, Copper Adhesive Backing
or Aluminum)
With Finger-stocks-Partially or 100% Requlre Adequate Retentlon, Flattening
(5 to 1.5mm) and Hinge Adjustment Most
Expensive
Best
Performance
Medium Pressure
Low Pressure (25 to 250g/cm)
(1F26) Fig. 6.2.26: Gasketting and sealing
The pressure of the fixings should be sufficient to using honeycomb panels, in which the honeycomb
squeeze the gasket over the entire distance between the pattern functions as a waveguide below cut-off.
fixings with a pressure in excess of its minimum Fig. 6.2.27 shows the dimensions of a waveguide.
specification. Where the metalwork is less than sturdy, Fig. 6.2.28 shows the graph of Shielding Effectiveness
the pressure of the gasket material may make it bow (SE) vs Frequency. Waveguides have better shielding
between the fixing and look untidy. effectiveness (below the cut-off frequency) than two
Worse than this, the metal may be bowed so much that dimensional apertures.
a gap is opened up and the purpose of the gasket SE (dB) Aperture diagonals
defeated. Additional strengthening plates may be found 60
necessary to prevent this bowing, or else a lower
mm
pressure gasket material could be used. 40 10 mm
A very wide variety of gasket materials and products 100 mm

are now available, some of them at low cost, and some 20 1000 mm
with additional chemical or environmental properties.
To achieve good contact without excessive pressure,
10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 MHz
Beryllium-copper or stainless steel spring fingers may
be used instead of foam or mesh type gaskets. (IF27) Fig. 6.2.27: Dimenslons of waveguides
Care must be taken to ensure that the gasket materials
are compatible with the metal types being bonded,
taking account of the environment (condensation,
spray, corrosive gases, etc.) to ensure that the electrical
bonds last the life of the installation. d
GG. 6.2.33 What are Waveguides begond cut-off2
Ifnecessary, improved shielding of vents can be
obtained at the expense of thickness and weight by
(IF28) Fig. 6.2.28: Shielding effectiveness vs frequency
Tech-Neo Publications - Where Authors inspire innovation ASACEHIN SHAH Venture
(MU-gh
Design
AU-8" Se.-E& (6-23)
RF
DIAGNOST AND Eloctromagnotic Compatibility
EMI 2. Incorrect or no
FIXES bonding of metallic
to the chassis assembly connector housing
3. Signal wire traveling
diagnosti and Fikes? too far inside the system
What is EMI filtering i.e.. pigtail) before
*
4. Missing or improper
system.failure occur due to a transient surge, a
******
use of cable shield connection
a
uld redesgn is required. Surge isolation and
Shoulo (braid, foil, drain wires)
or devices can beiused to prevent damage. Incorrect placement, mounting,
t
prolection line filter
or selection of a power
cannot protect a system from
stection devices
6. Lack of proper common-mode
Surgeffects of lightning. The magnitude of the filter capacitors
dinect 7. Incorrect
the massive nple semiconductor or application and mounting
is too of ilter
Tent
components are unabl
nable to withstand this level components
e 3. Poor PCB layout
sunge.
ofbecome mandatory to correctly design and route
installation a 6.3.2 Techniques Used In EMI
well as provide for
t the of high
cables as Diagnostics and Fixes
components and filters. To protect
cuTent rating
lightning, expense for special
additional
gains
can be significant. GG. 6.3.2 Explain the techniques used in EMI
mponents. sometimes
Diagnostics and Fixes.
sPD that is affixed to a routed
Ror
example, a typical
not protect against a side Emission and immunity tests should be performed on a
Aata cable
in a building will
conductor and may not even
be step-by-step basis. It is assumed that users are already
Hash from a down
magnetic induction acquainted with a basic knowledge of instrumentation,
surdy.cnough to protect against equipment,
down conductor or external test setups, transducers, auxiliary support
from a
nearby testing.
for terrestrial and other areas related to EMC
communication line such as used
is classified as ITE
telecommunication purposes. For emissions testing. information
Equipment) and ISM
should not be fitted where Information Technology
European
Surge protection devices special (Industrial, Scientific, and Medical). The
explosion, unless are EN
there is a risk of fire or describe emission requirements
Refer to standards that
precautions are taken to prevent
this hazard. 50081-2. The primary
difference
50081-1and EN
vendor data sheets and application
notes on installation standards is that
ENS0081-1 targets
between these two
against fire or and residential
of SPDs requirements for protection
and (including commercial
light industrial 50081-2 is for the
heavy
electrical shock. environments)and EN
and systems
Solation involves separation of circuits industrial sector. material is on EN
grounded to earth; each the focus of the
ay trom each other, properly testing,
For immunity EN61000-6-2, where again the primary
wilh individual protection. The
difference between industrial
on 61000-6-1 and standards is light
and isolation is minimal, with more reliance difference between
these
DS before it
energy charge away from devices versus heavy
industrial.
g the
the system, whereas isolation
becomes the next
S of protection.
Ievel (A)
Emisslon Testing
Preparations
person should
63.1 Proposed Diagnosis and Fixes Pretest
and support
of the system, a
software, and
With the aid hardware,
system
Test result analyzed carefuly. makeup of the
interconnected as
follows:
must be recorded and know the
The primary subassemblies are
Concern are operational failures. all
how
of failure SACHINYSHAH Ventuure
include the following
Ungrov A
metallic connector housings
RF Design (MU-8h Sem.-E&TC)_ (6-24)
Define Equipment under Test (EUT) system|Limits: Class A or B, as defined in the
boundaries. Record the type, make, model, and serial standardbeing referenced
Equipment Used to Perform Test:

numbers of devices or subsystems that define the unit
to be tested. Include all support equipment and
Loop antenna: 0.15-30 MHz
instrumentation used to perform the test. Antennas:
Biconical antenna: 30-200/
2. Determine which devices and subsystems can be turned
300 MHz
on and off during testing without requiring extensive
Log-periodie untenna'
preparation or boot-up time. Turning devices on and off
200/300-1000 MHz
helps to quickly locate emission sources or any
requirement of further investigation. Horn antenna: 1-40 GHz
Make a list of RF-generating sources in the EUT.
TheEMC analyzer 9 kHz to highest frequency
list should include location and operating frequencies required with quasi-peak
for the following: detector and optional tracking
All printed circuit boards [central processing unit generator
(CPU), video, network controllers, communication
Preamplifier 0.1 MHz to highest frequency
systems, intentional transmitters, and other digital
circuits and control logic that use a clock signal, required, 25 dB gain typical
regardless of edge rate transitions or frequency; flat response
many 2-MHz oscillators have been known to Cables 502 coaxial cable, with a
cause EMI failures at 300 MHz] minimum length used between
All power supply internal switching frequencies (9 antenna and EMC analyzer
kHz and higher)
Probes: 1- and 2-cm-diameter loop
Ethernet. or other networking/communications
antenna, 5-cm rod antenna, or
controllers, their interface specification, and
frequency of data rate transfer closed field probe (for
diagnostic or debug purposes)
4. Diagram the EUT system, indicating location ofal
devices and support equipment relative to one another. Miscellaneous tripod, measuring tape, coaxial
Indicate placement, type, and routing of Antenna cable connector adapters
AC power lines Test location Open-area| TEMIGTEM cell or anechoic
VO cables testsite (OATS): chamber (full or semi-
Transducer cables anechoic). Use of shield rooms
Alarm cables is not recommended due to
The test engineer will use the information given above reflections off walls, floor, and
ceiling.
when trying to determine worst-case positioning of devices,
cables, and support equipment for emissions testing or for Pretest Equipment Check and Calibration
troubleshooting problem areas. Procedures
Table 6.3.1 . Spectrum Analyzer
Standard Used as Guide CISPR 11 EN 55011) and G) Tune the analyzer to the unit's calibration frequency as
toTesting CISPR 22 (EN 55022) indicated on the CAL-OUT connector, such as 100
Frequency Range : 0.15 MHz to the highest MHz. Set amplitude units to dBm. This determines that
trequency required per the the measured power level is within calibration limits.
standard, generally 1 GHz
Tecb-Neo Publications herrAuthors inspire innovatioa A SACLN SHI Veature

(MUa"
MU-8" s.
Som,-E&TC)
(6-25)
REDesgn Electromagnetic
cour cable between the analyzcr input Transmit antonna Compatibility
sIort
(ncctnandecalibratcd
the signal's output conncctor Recevo antenna
cor 13
d
or 10 metero
EMC Analyzor (Location depondent) Proamp
(Optüonal)
OIn
RF gonerator O Out
EMC analyzer
LL OOOO
Out
(1F30)Fig.
|
EMC generator
RF in
O
6.3.2:Measurementsystem
input check
Cal out RF
Table 6.3.2
Antenna Test Generator Received Level
Frequency Output
MHz) (dBuv)
Spectrum:analyzer check dBm)
29)Fig. 6.3.1 :
Biconical 50 10 AS measured on
Setthe analyzer
controls as follows: the analyzer
a 150
frequency
Center Defined by the vendor's - 10 As measured on
) the analyzer
CALL-OUT frequency value.
250 - 10 As measured on
SPAN: 10 MHz.
the analyzer
A
Anplitude Reference :
Level 0 dBm (107 dBuV). Log 400 - 10 As measured on
Hit peak search or stop the scan with the
periodic the analyzer
a)
maximum value stored on the screen. 600 - 10 As measured on
e)The marker on the display should be the value the analyzer
specified by the manufacturer. If the display 800 - 10 As measured on
shows a different value, refer to the spectrum
the analyzer
analyzer manual for additional' calibration Performing Radiated Emission Tests
procedures or have the unit repaired.
Both EN 55011 and EN 55022 cal for measurement
Measurement System Check
equipment. It meet the requirements of CISPR-16. The
0 Arange EMC analyzer, signal generator (or
spectrum analyzers are preferred because of their
ntemal tracking generator of the analyzer),
eceive antenna, and transmit antenna as shown in portability and versatility and the large amounts of
ig. 6.3.2. This test requires two identical information that can be displayed quickly.
antennas, usually the same ones used to performm
site attenuation. The minor differences between spectrum analyzer
amplitude accuracy and peak amplitude of EMC test
ake data at a minimum
of six test frequencies. enough to
ake into consideration receivers are not considered significant
the receive antenna's loss
testing. If the
Ctor, the loss within
the coax, and amplifier preclude their use for most types of
gain
when calculating quasi-peak levels, the.
energy actual received level of RF measured peak signal is below
This test validates
if the antennas are
working
and if there are any problems in the test EUT is deemed compliant
setup.
aPublicaions
A SACHIN SIAII Venture
here Authors inspire innovalion

(6-26)
amplitude on the
1. Place the desired antenna at a test location 6. To dctermine the frequency and
specified by the regulatory standard or procedure display, activate the marker function on the
being used to perform the test. analyzer. Using the cursor dial knob, move the
2. Connect the preamplifier, spectrum analyzer, and cursor to the emission signal in question to the
antenna togcther. For both biconical and log- peak level of the signal. Read the frequency and
periodic antenna, select a particular polarity: amplitude displayed on the analyzer's screen.
horizontal or vertical. For a loop antenna, set the The current display will show 30-50 MHz with 40
antenna parallcl or perpendicular to the EUT. MHz as center frequency and a span of 20 MHz
After the first round of testing, the polarity is to be To view emissions in the next 20 MHz of the
changed. The distance d is the distancc between spectrum, press CENTER FREQUENCY and then
antenna and EUT. The distance d is to be such that the STEP UP arrow or cquivalent function key.
all other systems other than the EUT be more than The center frequency should now change to 60
3 times d from the receive antenna. In practice, d MHz. Use the STEP arrows to investigate
typically ends up being on the order of I or 3 m, cmissions up to 1000 MHz or desired eod
and sometimes 10 m. frequency.
Enter the following spectrum analyzer settings: . Record the frequency and amplitude for cach
Center frequency MH signal mcasured from the EUT, These are peak
40
reading measurements. If the emission level at a
SPAN 20 MHz
given frequency is within 3 dB of the specification
Resolution bandwidth (BW)| 100 kHz
limit, repeat the measurements using the quasi
Vidco BWV 100 ktiz
peak detctor. The quasi-peak meæsurement
Sweep AUTO procedure is as follows:
Amplitude Reference Level 0 dBm (107 dBuV)| (a) Place the marker over the peak of the emission.
Amplitude Attenuation AUTO 6) Tura on the quasi-peak (QP) detector of the EMC
Scale Log analyzet.
(c) The QP level will be dispayed on the screen after
4 Deterumine the source of any emissions detected by
turning devices on and off where possible, and by a few seconds of setup time.
referring to the list of known RF sources (d) Record the QP reading.
previously identificd. To aid in determining if the (c) Return to the peak mode by turning off the QP.
signal is an ambient, move the antenna with detector.
respect to the EUT while monitoring emission 8. Change antenna polarity (opposite from previous
levels.
configuration) and determine whether the
Usually, signal strength will increase when the emission measured from the EUT is higher in
antenna is moved coser to the souree and will amplitude. Technically. the FCC requires only the
decrease when the antenna is moved further away highest six emissions to be recorded in the test
from the EUT. Also, rotating the EUT will cause a report. If a signal is present at both polarities and
variation in the received signal if it is emanating one polarity is higher than the other, only the
from the EUT.
. If the spectrum analyzer has a demodulator and
highest amplitude and its respective polarity oeed
to be recorded in the test report
audio output, use these features to determine 9. Repeat above steps for each antenna and both
which emissions are from TV and radio stations, polarities hroughout the frequency spectrum.
nwo way business radios, pagers, cell phones, and
based on the frequency range of operation for the
so on. antenna.
Terb-Nes Pablications Fhere Aatbors inspire innovatio ASICAIY SHUAVat

IMU-8" Sem.-E&TC)
Design
Electromagnetic
FF Forin situ testing or 'whe
when the EUT cannot
be(B) Conducted Emisslons
Compatibity
a turntable, physically move the
a otated . alternate locations around the test GO, 6.3.3
(Input AC Power
Por)
tenna Explain Conducted
with sufficient confidence level so that all Cmission
test
sample method
radiated emissions from the EUT can be
angle of
investigated.
Table 6.3.3
maximum acceptable measured limit. at
The Standard Used as Guide
the specific frequency range is to CISPR 11 (EN 55011)
distance d for
1. lesting: and
using the
equation. CISPR 22 (EN 55022)
determined
Frequency Range:
L3om+ De-Af-CL+ Amp 0.15-30 MHz (or any other|
L
maximum allowable spectrum frequency range desired)
Where, La
analyzer reading at measurement
Limits:
Class A or B, as defined in
distance d (set the display line for the standard being
this dB uV level) referenced
maximum allowable field strength limit at Equipment Used to Perform Tests
=
frequency range as noted in standard. EMC analyzer: Spectrumn analyzer or
= distance correction factor, which is 20 log Teceiver, 9 kHz to >30 MHz
D Internal tracking generator is
(30m/d)
desired
Af = antenna factor for particular frequency range
being tested (refer to antenna manufacturer's ||Signal generator Optional in lieu of tracking
calibration chart) generator
cable loss (refer to cable loss chart) Cables |Appropriate length of 502
L
used. coaxial cable
Amp gain in decibels for preamplifier, if
(optional) Accept screen
Preamplifier|Plotter
Check for Spectrum Analyzer or print data from EMC
Overload
analyzer
Strong signals may overload preamplifier
or spectrum
Impedance Stabilization 50/50 pH
z2alyzer inputs. Strong signals must be checked forLine
a
known-valueNetwork (LISN ):
vrload conditions by placing 15002 circuit
receive antenna cable. Voltage probe:
ziennator in series with the
: S0 output, 0.150-30 MHz
dróp the Current probe
measured reading on the analyzer should frequency response, or other
interest
amount as the attenuator level. If the change frequency range of
in
by a
Teading is greater than the attenuator value
more), tnen Equipment Check and Calibration:
uncant amount (i.e., by a factor of 2 or Pretest
environment, and other
a EUT, test
kely the measurement system is overloaded Depending on the test, one of
three
performing this
that frequency.
factors related to When performing
actual tests,
used.
transducers may be one that will be
surements should be taken with the preamplifier appropriate is the
the
transducer most
Temoved
from the circuit whenever ssible. provided, is used to
Used. generator, if
A necessary 1uG tracking both voltage and
eamplifier may not be The built-in pretesting
pectrum analyzer than 20 dB signal for which is
noise floor is more produce a test a LISN is used,
below frequencies belng (Fig. 6.3.3). If test,
calibration
the ission limit for the current probe transducer for this
measured. common
the most SHAH
Tentuzre
ASACHIA
uhlis
Eloctromagnotic Compatibility
RE Despo(MU a Sam-EATO) (6-20)
to he spectrum
ds e
veritied once er
ycar with results bare wire. Connect the voltage probe
n short length of 50 n
nad t the venor's calibration ehart andthe analyzer's input connector using
wwwform apecifivation detailet in tthe test standard. coaxial cable.
generator to producc
Only the yetest quipment eheck and ealibration 3. Tum on the signal/tracking
analyzer should read
AYedre for the wtage and eunrent probeare -10 dBm at 7 MHz. The spectrum
approximately 40 dBm (signal lcvel plus probe
loss,
ewid
venmkor
Use the test pnwelue povided by the LISN
which is typically 30 dB across the operating
frequency
EAKCANay EAC Aneyret of the probe).
a Curront Probe Mothod
LLL LLLLEE
This method is shown in Fig. 6.3.4. The steps are as
Oo DODa follows:
. Create the same calibration fixture used for the voltage
calbvwtkwm crcut probe calibration procedure.
2. Place the current probe over the wire loop so that the
eishy
CuTwnt prod 50 om 50 resistor is in the center of thc opening, with a short
resistor
length of 500 coax connected between probe and
(I Fig 63: Calibrating votage and current probes analyzer input.
Set the signal generator to produce 50 mV at MHz.
1
(a) Adjust the amplitude of the tracking 3.

signal
gencrator by selecting AMPLITUDE UNITS. Set The spectrum analyzer reading should be within 2 dB
the reference level to 0 dBm (107 dBuv). of 60 dB V +CF, where CF is the correction factor
(b) Tum the generator's output ON. This is sometimes of the probe at MHz.
1
btnga prob
identiticd as "sourve power" for certain vendor
systens.
/
EMC Am
(c) Adjust the tracking generator output level to
$7 dBm
(d) Select START FREQUENCY: 150 kHz.
LLL
KUT
(e) Select STOP FREQ: 30 MHz.
( Connect onc end of the coaxial cable to the EMC
analyzer's input and the other end of the coax to
the tracking generator's output connector. A signal
should appear at 87 dBuV, 0.5 dB. DMC Ah
Voltago Probe Method

EUT Amiliary
This method is shown in Fig. 6.3.4. The steps are as
folows Curent probe
1. Using a S0M resistor (or teminator), make a bare-wire
loop antenna (no jacket insulation; solid wire works AC iopot
best). Connect one side of the resistor to the center
conductor of the coax connected to the tracking
AC terminal block
generator's output. Connect the other end of the wire (IF3 Fig. 6.34: Conducted emission test setup using voltage
loop to the returm (shield) of the coax.
and eurret probes
2. Place the voltage probe directly onto the wire loop
antenna, ensuring thc probe makes connection with the
Teh-Nee Publieations Wbere Authers inspirr innovatoa
A SACBIN SAUA Vaare
Som.-E&TC) (6-29)
(MU-8 S
(MU" ElectromagneicCompatbility
RE
Desn
kan
.CENTER FREQUENCY to
alyzer
1
MHz (8) Be sure to
turn off the DEMODULATOR
AN to
200 kHz For a typical current probe completed with this when
cofmection factor at
MHz, the level of1 measurement.
tion 6. Record the conducted
dB emissions on each AC
uth-4 Should read the value published by the
hould read phase and
neutral. Use of a digital
analyzer probe, dBuV 2 dB (dBuV camera or plotter/printer
rer
panufactun for the
re:ading +
comecti factor of the probe)
record data is an acceptable
means of displaying
to
measured results.
lyzer
tabillzatlon Network (LISN) 7. Standards EN 55011 and
mpea
dance EN 55022 specify both quasi-
Lhe peak and average emissions
MEthoo
limits. Any emissions
measured in the peak mode that
are below the quasi-
EXpia
LISN meUhoa WtA V
peak and average limits are considered
to meet the
current probe method
ana requirements, and no further testing
is required at these
frequencies. If, however, peak measurements
EUT power cord to the LISN's output indicate
Connect the an emission is over the average limit
SN's input to the AC mains and/ar the
Connect the
cle. quasipeak limit, additional measurements will
facility be
ntptacle ofthe required using the quasi-peak and/or the average
coaxial connectors on the LISN,
e ae two or three detector functions of the analyzer:
for each
line of theAC mains (Ll and L2, (a) Adjust the analyzer so that the emission to be
e
sametimes L3). Place
.
502 terminator on the unused measured is at the center of the analyzer display.
BNC connector
port(s) of the LISN.
(b) Set the SPAN to 50 kHz
Connect a coax between the
LISN and EMC analyzer.
(c) Activate the quasi-peak detector function of the
Autiliary equipment and support equipment remote to analyzer. Record results in the test data sheet.
te EUT should be provided with filtered AC
mains
(d) Disable the quasi-peak detector and activate the
power connected to a separate LISN (not the
or be average detector function of the analyzer. Recond
sme LISN as the EUT). result in the test data sheet
Determine source of any emissions detected by turning If the recorded data in items 6 and 7 are below the
derices on and off where possible and by referring to quasi-peak and AVERAGE limits, respectively, the RF
the lst of known RF sources previously identified. signal meets the limits requirement of EN 5501l and
Enissions in the 530-1705-kHz band can be checked EN 55022.lf using a voltage probe, with reference to
ganst operating frequencies of known AM broadcast Fig. 6.3.4, probe insertion losses and a 10-dB attenuator
analyzer's
Saions in the anrea
or the audio output of the analyzer can be accounted for by using the spectrum
10
anbe used to listen to
the AM broadcast stations. If REF LEVEL OFFSET function. The offset will be
decibels).
e EMC analyzer has the ability to detect AM and FM dB +probe comection factor (in
gnals, use this
he votaqa probe comecion S d3 the olal
detector to verify existence of audio SO
ithin this frequeney
range dB WhBn USitg an
Center
IERAEI OR SET WHD8 0
the signal being investigated on the screen Xlay oa8 aie
display
wish reference to Fig. 634
9furn on the DEMODULATOR Using a Curnent Probe
line,
function. voltage on each AC mains
e) Select To determine the RF
AM or FM detector. reading obtained when using a
eurent
from the cument
fum the speaker on, if provided. probe, add the current
probe comection to the reading
4)Change frquency, then add 34
dB
the SPAN to Hz. obtained at that
TheAM station 0
Speaker
output should be heard from the 20 log(50 9)JE V+CF(dB) +34 dB]
if the signal is indeed from a local radio (dBu V) = resding (dBu
station. RF mains voltage
bladons
bere Authors inspire innoRRLD
Elactromagnotio Compatiblity
RF Design (MU-8 Sem.-E&TC
(6-30)
6.4 EMC SPECIFICATIONS, Susceptibility to conducted emission (CS)
STANDARDS ANDD 3. Radiated Emission (RE)
MEASUREMENTS 4. Susceptibility to Radiated emission (RS)
GO. 6.4.4What are theTYPes of EMC
GO.641 What are EMC Standards? Standards?
-iv----~.-
EMC standards and norms define terms, rules and test
methods Generally, EMC standards are of two types:
for EMC. Furthermore, they
specify limits and minimum test levels for clectric and 1. Military EMC Standards : Military EMC standards
clectromagnetic emissions and immunity of are made inorder to ensure system to system
electromechanical and electronic products. compatibility in real time Military Applicatlons.
EMC standards aim to set reasonable and rational limit Military Standards are more stringent than civilian
for clectromagnetic emission levels by different standards. Some of the Military Standard are given in
cquipments. the Table 6.4.1.
GQ. 6.4.2 Why do we need EMC Standards? Table 6.4.1: Differentl litary EMC Stnndards
We need EMC standards due to MIL-STD461 EMC requirement for clectricnl,

EMC standards help make electronic and electro-mechanical
measurements comparable and repeatable by cquipments
defining the test methods, the test equipment and MIL-STD-462 EMC requirement for clectrical,
the test environment.
electronic and electro-mechanical
2 The EMC standards are required for trouble free
cquipments
operation and free co-existence and to ensure
satisfactory operation. MIL-STD-463 Definitions and Systems of Units,
EMIVEMC Technology
3. They are required to provide compatibility
between electrical, electronics, computer, control MIL-STD-6051 EMC Requirements Systems
and other systems. MIL-STD-1541 EMC Requirements for Space
4. Standards are needed because manufacturers-user
Systems
communication and users knowledge on EMI are
limited. MIL-STD-1542 EMC and Grounding Requirement
5 EMC standards are also needed for bringing for Space Facilities
harmonization to EMC testing, in order to reduce MIL-STD-1818 Electromagnetic Effects,
international trade barriers and to improve product
Requirements of a System
reliability and life of the product.
2 Civilian EMC Standards The civilian EMC
Ga.6.43 Name the tests that are esential to standards are applicable for equipments used for
measure the electromagnetic commercial, industrial and domestic applications. The
interterence levels and compatibility emission standards are specified to protect tie
--. -----.- . -.
broadcast services from interference. The most
The tests that are to measure. the
essential commonly used EMC standards for a consumer
electromagnetic interference levels and compatibility are electronic product are shown in Fig. 6.4.1 and
1. Conducted Emission (CE) Table 6.4.2.
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Design(MU-8"
AF 61000-4.3 EM far field
61000-4.39 RF near field
61000-4.8 magnetic
61000-4.2
Radiated ESD 61000-4.6 RF

immunity 61000-4.4 Burst (EF 61000-4.11 AC Dips
61000-4.6 RF 61000-4.5 surge
61000-4.4 Burst(EPT)
AC voltage dips,
Conducted immunity aops, interuptions
Conducted immunity (RE,Burst (EFT), Surge) AC malns
(RF, Bursy(EFT) if cable>3m)
Product E
Equipment port
O port under test Conducted emmisio7n Hamonics,
(Telecommunication) (RF)
Conducted Emission (EUT) Flicker
(RF)
Radiated 61000-3.2 harmonics
emission CISPR 11/32(EU)
CISPR 11/32 (EU) FCC 15/18(US)" 61000-3.3 flicker
CISPR 11/32 (EU)

FCC 15/18 (US)
Consumer Electronic Product
(IF33) Fig. 6.4.1: Commonly used EMC standards for
EMC standards
consolidated the multitude of different
Table 6.4.2: Common civilian EMC Standards
the service into two
from the various branches of
STANDARDDETATLS universally applicable standards.
ARENA
be met,
Commercial ANSI C63.4 Methods of measurement MIL-STD-461 specified the limits that had to
the test methods and
SM equipment EN
55011 and MIL-STD-462 specified
Commercial| CISPR 11 in MIL-STD-
Methods of measurement procedures for making the tests contained
CommercialCISPR 16 the FCC
461. These standards are more stringent than
Commercial CISPR 22 TTE cquipment EN 55022 as
regulations, and they cover immunity as well
Commercial| FCC Part 15B ITE equipment emissions in the frequency range of 30 Hz to 40
GHz.
Commercial IEC 61000-3-2 | Harmonics Over the years, these standards have gone through
CommcrClal IEC 61000-3-3 Flicker revisions that ranged from MIL-STD-461A in 1968 to
Commercial IEC 61000-4-2Electrostatic Discharge, MIL-STD 461E in 1999. In 1999, MIL-STD-461D
ESD (Limits) and MIL-STD-462D (Test Procedures) were
Commercial | IEC 61000-4-3 Radiated immunity merged into one standard MIL-STD-461E that covered
Commercial JEC 61000-4-4 Electrically Fast Transient both limits and test procedures. A latest revision known
Commercial EC 61000-4-5 | Surge (lightning) as MIL-STD-461G was released in 2015.
Commercial| IEC 61000-4-6 Conducted immunity Unlike commercial standards, MlL-STDs are not legal
requirements; rather, they are contractual requirements.
Commercial IEC 61000-4-8 Magnetic immunity
As such, test limits can be negotiated and waivers are
Commercial| IEC 61000-4-| Voltage dips, interrupts and possible.
variations
Earlier versions are still applicable to current products
Ga.6.4.5 Explain MIL-STD 461 and 462 because the requirements are contractual, not legal.
standards? Normally whatever version the original procurement
contract specified is still applicable.
MIL-STD 461 and 462 are EMC requirement for
defence clectrical, clectronic and clectro-mechanical The test procedures specified in the military standards
equipments. In 1968, the Department of Defense are often different than those specified by commercial
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(6-32)
EMC standards, which makes a direct comparisonof Table 6.4.3: Limits of Conducted emission under MILSTD.
461D
the limits difficult. For radiated emissions the military
standard specifies enclosed chamber (shielded room) Specifications frequency Applicability
testing, whereas the FCC and the EU rules require Range
open-area testing. CE101 30 Hz to 10 Power leads (including
For conducted emission testing. the military standards kHz returns) that obtain power
originally measured current, whereas the commercial from sources which are not
part of the EUT.
standards measure voltage. As more was learned about
EMC testing and its accuracy, the military standard has CE102 10 kHz to Power leads (including
10 MHz returns) that obtain power
come under some criticism for some of its test
from sources which are not
procedures.
part of the EUT.
As a result, the mnilitary has adopted some of the
CE106 10 kHz to Antenna terminals of
commercial test procedures. For example,MIL-STD-
40 GHz trartsmitters and receivers.
461E specifies the use of a LISN and the measurement
of voltage rather than current for conducted emission Ga.6.4.7 Give the speeificotionsfor
testing. susceptibility/immunity to conducted
Cmissions under MMLSTD461D
Also MIL-STD-461Erequires that some absorber
material must be used on the walls of chambers used The specification for susceptibility and immunity is
for emission and immunity testing to make the chamber listed in Table 6.4.4. The objectives of these
at least partially anechoic. The military standards are specifications are to ensure that equipment performance
application specific, often with different limits for is not degraded because of distortions present in the
different environments (such as Armny, Navy. voltage waveforms in the mains power supply.
aerospace, etc.). The objective of Cs103/104/105 is to provide
Give the Limits or conducted reasonable assurance that any variations in the response
emission under MiL-STD 461D of receivers and other sub-systems, connected to the
antenna, to in-band signals are within the permissible
The limits for conducted emission under MIL-STD-
limits. The objective of CS109 is to ensure that the
461D are enlisted in below Table 6.4.3. The objective
equipment performance is not affected by the magnetic
of imposing limits on the conducted emission in lower fields caused by any currents flowing in the platform
frequency range is to ensure that the connection of
structure.
Equipment under test (EUT) to the main power supply
The objective of CS114/115/116 is to ensure immunity
does not corrupt the power quality or introduce
of the equipmeht for any current and voltage
distortions in the voltage waveforms on the power
waveforms or electromagnetic ficlds which may be
mains beyond allowable limits.
generated on the platform.
The purpose on imposing limit of conducted emission
on higher frequency range is to protect the receivers
which are connected to antenna terminals against
degradation resulted due to radiated interference from
power cables related with EUT.
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AF= (e-3)
hle 644 :Specificatios for susceptbility and Immunityto Spedificattens Vregueney
conducted emission under MIL-STD-461D
ang
Specifications Frequency Applicability CS114 uterertasg
Range MHz for calies, ixrKkag
CSiO 30 Hz to 50 kHz 30 MHz to 4
Equipment and
(Lf the EUT is MHz for
subsystem input
DC operated) szpcáik syteris
power leads (AC
second and DC), but not
harmonic of returns CS115 (impulse Airtzt ad syace
EUT power excitation
supply izsezreioz
frequency to 50
kHz (if EUT is
AC operated) CS116 (damped 10kHz to i00 IrdercosiZ
CS103 15 kHz to 10 Receiver front
simnsoidal MHz cables, iscxing
MHz ends, such as transients) pomr c&es and
Intermodulation
communication
izdiidrlpowa
at antenna port)
receivers, RF eas
amplifiers,
transceivers, radar Ga 643 Gre the liits for radiated trio
receivers, and rder MILSTDA6AD?
electronic warfare
The radiztion emission linit enliosed in Töe 645, ze
receivers.
intended to control he electric ad magnesic field
CSI04 (undesired 30 kHz to 20 Receiver front
emissions from an EUT and its zss0cizted cabes
signals and GHz ends, such as
antenna port) communication Table 645: Limits for Radiated Emiesicns under MIL-STD
receivers, RF 461D.
amplifiers,
Specifications Freguen Applicabilty
transceivers, radar
receivers, and Range
electronic warfare RE101(magnetic 30 Hz to 100 Equipert zad
receivers. field) KHz subsysiem encoszr,
Front endssof and all interconnectin
CS105 (cTOSS 30 kHz to 20 cables (specific
modulation at GHz receivers that
normally process ezclusion ezis)
antenna port)
amplitude RE102 (electric 10kHz to 18 Equipnent and
modulated RF field) GHz subsystem eaclosres,
signals. and all intercooling
Specialized cables (specifíc
CS109 (structure 60 Hz to 100 excinsoS eAIt)
kHz Tequirement for
current) This testis an atenate
equipment for RE103 (antenna 120 kHz to
equipment and spurious and 40 GHz for CE 105
subsystemns harmonic
whose operating outputs)
frequency range
is 100 kHz or
less, and whose GQ 649 Cive SpecicationS or susecpioliy
operating and immLarity to radiated tmccions
sensitivity is 1uV underMiL-stD 461D
or less.
ASACHIN SHAH Ventre

Autbors inpire inooration
ech-eo Pabieations here
Eloctromagnetic Compasibility
RF Design (MU-8 Som.-ES TC) (6-34)
Descriptlon
The limits for susceptibility and immunity of an BUTRequirement
in the presence of radiated cmissions, which are Conducted Susceptibility, Antenna Port,
CS104
spocifiod under dificrent requirements in Table 6.4.6 Rejcction of Undesired signals, 30 kHz to
are intended to ensure that the cquipment will operate 20 GHz
without degradation in the prescnce of different CS105 Conductcd Susceptibility. Antenna Port,
magnetic, cloctrie and clectromagnetic ficlds as Cross -modulation., 30 kHz to 20 GHz
specificd under RS101/102/103. CS109 Conducted Susceptibility. Structure
Current, 60 kHz to 100 GHz
Table 64.6: Specifications for susceptibility and immunity to
Radiatrd emissions under MIL-STD-461D. CS114 Conducted Susceptibility, Bulk Current
Injection, 10 kHz to 40 GHz
Specifications Frequency Applicability
CSI15 Conducted Susceptibility, Bulk Current
Range Injection. Impulse Excitation
RS101(magnetic 30 Hz to 100 Equipment and
ficld) CS116 Conducted Susceptibility, Damped
kHz subsystem enclosures, Sinusoidal Transient, Cables and Power
and all interconnecting
Leads, 10 kHz to 100 MHz
cables (specific
exclusion exist) RE101 Radiated Emission, Magnetic field, 30 Hz
to 100 kHHz
RSI03 (eiectric 10 kHz to 40 Equipment and
field) GHz subsystem enclosures, RE102 Radiated Emission, Electric field, 10 kHz to
and all intercooling 18 GHz
cables (specific
RE103 Radiated Emission, Antenna Spurious and
exclusions exist) Harmonic Outputs, 10 kHz to 40 GHz
RS105 Equipment and
(transient RS101 Radiated Susceptibility, Magnctic Field, 30
subsystem enclosures,
clectromagnetic Hz to 100 kHz
when the equipment or
ficld) subsystem is located RS103 Radiated Susceptibility, Electric Field, 10
outside a shielded kHz to 40 GHz
facility. RS105 Radiated Susceptibility, Transient
Ga. 64.10 Give the reguirement of Emission and Electromagnetic Field
Susceptibility for MIL-STD 461E GQ. 6.4.11 Give therequirement of Emission and
The Emission and Susceptibility requirement for
Susceptibility for MIL-STD 462
MIL-STD-461E is given in Table 6.4.7. The Emission and Susceptibility requirement for ML
Table 64.7: Emission and Susceptibility requirement for STD-461G is given in Table 6.4.8
MII-STD-461E Table 6.4.8: Emission and Susceptibility requirement for
Requirement Description MIL-STD-461G
CEI0I Conducted Emission, Power Leads, 30 Hz Requirement
10 kHz
Description Frequency
to CEI01 Conducted Emissions,
CE102 Conducted Emission, Power Lcads, 10 Hz 30Hz to 10kHz
to 10 MHz Audio Frequency
CE106 Conducted Emission, Antenna Terminals, | Currents, Power Lends
10 kHz to 40 GHz CEI02 Conducted Emissions, 10kHz to 1OMHz
CS101 Conducted Susceptibility, Power Lcuds, 30 Rndio Frequency
Hz to 50 kHz Potentials, Power Leads
CS103 Conducted Susceptibility, Antcnna Port, CEI06 Conducted Emissions, 10kHz to 40GHz
Inter-modulation, 15 kHz to 10 GHz
Antenna Port

Sem.-E&TC
Design (MU-8" (6-35) Electromagnetic Compatibility
RF requenc
Description Requirement Description
Requirement Frequency
CS101
Conducted Susceptibility, |30Hz to 150kHz RS101 Radiated Susceptibility, 30 Hz-100 kHz
Power Leads Magnetic ield
Conducted Susceptibility, |15kHz to 10GHz RS103 Radiated Susceptibility,
CSI03 2 MHz-40 GHz
Antenna Port, Electric Field
Intermodulation RS105 Radiated Susceptibility,
Transient
CS104 Conducted Susceptibility, |30Hz to 20GHz
Electromagnetic Field
Antenna Port, Rejection
of Undesired Signals H 6.5 FCC REGULATIONSs
CS105 Conducted Susceptibility. 30Hz to 20GHz
Antenna Port, Cross- GO.6.5.1 Writca note on FCC Regulationst
Modulation In the United States, the Federal Communications
CS109 Conducted Susceptibility, 60Hz to 100kHz Commission (FCC) regulates the use of radio and wire
Structure Current communications.

Part of its responsibility concerns the control of
CS114 Conducted Susceptibility, |10kHz to
interference.
Bulk Cable Injection 200MHz have
Three sections of the FCC Rules and Regulations
CS115 Conducted Susceptibility requirements that are applicable to non-licensed
Bulk Cable Injection, electronic equipment.
Impulse Excitation These requirements are contained in:
CS116 Conducted Susceptibility. 10kHz to Part 15 for radio frequency devices;

medical
Damped Sinusoidal 10OMHz Part 18 for industrial, scientific, and
Transients, Cables and (ISM) equipment; and
to the
Power Leads Part 68 for terminal equipment connected
telephone network.
CS117 Conducted Susceptibility, forth
Part 15 of the FCC Rules and Regulations sets
Lightning Induced for
technical standards and operational requirements
Transients, Cables and
radio frequency devices.
Power Leads radio-frequency device is any device that in
its
A
Conducted Susceptibility. radio-frequency energy
CS118 operation is capable of emitting
means.
Personnel Borne by radiation, conduction, or other
Electrostatic Discharge energy may be emitted
The radio-frequency
Radiated Emissions, 30 Hz-100 kHz intentionally or unintentionally.
RE101
Radio-frequency (rf) energy is defned by the FCC
as
Magnetic Field
frequency range of
10 kHz-18 GHz any electromagnetic energy in the
RE102 Radiated Emissions,
9 kHz to 3000 GHz.
Electric Field
Radiated Emissions, 10 kHz-40 GHz
RE103
|Antenna Spurious and
Harmonic Outputs SACHINSHAH Venture
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inspire innovalion
ch-Neo Publications here Authors
RF Design (MU-8" Sem-E&TC)
(6-96)
Electromagnetia Congattulty
The Part l5 regulations have Telephone Company billng equipnent, and

a twofold pupaso i
(1) To provide for the degradation of service to persons other than the uger af
operation of low-power
transmitters without a radio station license and the terminal equipunent, his ealling or called party.
2) To control interference
to authorized raclio la December 2002, the FC oleaSexd a Ropoa ad
communications services that may be caused by Onder (Docket 99-216) privatizing n0st of Paut 6e
equipment that emits radio-frequency energy or
with the exception of the equirements en hearing ai
noise as a by-product to its operation. Digital
compatibility.
electronics fall into the latter category.
Part 15 is organized into six parts: Section 6S.602 af the c mlas authorizexd the
Telecommunications mcdustry Assocdation (TiA)
Subpart A-General,
establish the Adtministrative Counct fr Teminat
Subpart B-Unintentional Radiators,
Attachments (ACTA) with the esponsihitity oft
Subpart C-Intentional Radiators,
defining and publishing technical criteria for terninat
Subpart D-Unlicensed Personal Communications
equipnent connected to the U.s. public telephoe
Devices,
netwark.
Subpart E-Unlicensed National Information These equirenents now lefined in
Infrastructure Devices, and
TIA-968.
Subpart F-Ultra-Wideband Operation.
The legal equirenment for all teminal cquipuent to
Subpart B contains the EMC Regulations for electronic comply with the technical standands, however, remains
devices that are not intentional radiators. within Part 68 of the FCC nules.
Part 18 of the FCC Rules and Regulations sets forth Part 68 equires that terminal equipnent connected
technical standards and operational conditions for ISM directly to the public switched telephone network meet
equipment both the criteria of Part 68 and the technical cnteria
ISM equipment is defined as any device that uses radio published by ACTA.
waves for industrial, scientific, medical, or other Two approval processes are availadle to the
purposes (including the transfer of energy by radio) and manufacturer of telecommunications terminal
that is neither used nor intended to be used for radio
equipment,as follows
communications.
(1) The manufacturer can provide a Declaration of
Included are medical diathermy equipment, industrial Conformity and submit it to ACTA, or
heating cquipment, rf welders, rf lighting devices,
(2) The manufacturer can have the equipnrn
devices that use radio waves to produce physical
changes in mater, and other similar non cernified by a Telecommunications Certifyings
communications devices. Body (TCB) designated by the Commnission. The*
Part 68 of the FCC Rules and Regulations provides TCB must be accrecdited by the National Instiu
uniform standards for the protection of the telephone ofStandards and Techaology (NIST)
nerwork from harm caused by connection of terminal GO. 6.5.2 Explain FCC Pare 15 Stbar B
equipment [including private branch exchange (PBX)
systems] and its wiring, and for the compatibility of The FCC nule with the most general applicability ts
hearing aids and telephones to ensure that persons with Part 15, Subpart B because it applies to virtualy a
hearing aids have reasonable access to the telephone digital clectronics.
network. In September 1979, the FCC adopted egulations
Harm to the telephone network includes electrical control the interference potential of digital electnaas
hazards to telephone company workers, damage to (at that time called "computing devioes").
telephone company equipment, malfunction of These regulations Standands
"Technical
Tech-Neo Publications- -Hhere Authors inspire innovatioa
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Design (MU-8" Eloctromagnetie Competbility
6-37
RF
puting Equipment" (Docket 20780); amended Part Table 6.5.2 lists the limits for a Class B product when
the FCC rules relating to restricted radiation mensured at a distance of 3 in.
I5 of
devices Table 6.5.1 FCC Class A Radlated Emlssdon Limits Measured
are now contained in Part 15, Subpart at 10 m
The regulations
B of Tile
47 of the Code of Federal Regulations.
Trequency Field Strength Fleld Strength
were placed on the maximum
Under these rules, limits (ABLV/m)
allowable radiated emission and on the maximum
(MHz) V/m)
30-88 0 39.0
allowable conducted emission on the alternating current
43.5
(ac) power line. 88-216 150
These regulations
were the result of increasing 210 46.5
216-960
complaints to the FCC about interference to radio and 49.5
960 300
television reception where digital electronics were
Measured
identified as the source of the interference. Table 6.5.2: FCC Class B Radiated Emission Limits
at 3n
which are
Computer terminals and peripherals,
intended to be connected to a computer, are also Frequency Field StrengthFleld Strength ddB
considered to be digital devices. (V/m) AVim)

MH2)
This definition was intentionally broad to include
as
-
30-88 100 40.0
many products as possible. 43.5
88-216 150
has a clock
Thus, if a product uses digital circuitry and 200 46.0
216-960
under the
greater than 9 kHz, then it is a digital device 54.0
> 960 500
FCC definition.
and Class B limits
electronics in A comparison between the Class A
This definition covers most digital
must be done at the same measuring distance.
existence today.
extrapolated to a
definition are divided Therefore, if the Class B limits are
Digital devices covered by this 1/d extrapolation),
10-m measuring distance (using a
into the following two classes: as shown in
the two sets of limits can be compared
marketed for use in a
Class A: A digital device that is
Table 6.5.3.
commercial, industrial, or business environment.
B limits are more
As can be observed, the Cass
marketed for use in a
Class B: A digital device that is restrictive by about 10 dB below 960 MHz
and 5 dB
in
residential environment, notwithstanding use
environments. above 960 MHz.
commercial, business, and industrial B Radiated Emission
Table 6.5.3:FCC Class A and Class
are more likely to be
Because Class B digital devices Limits Measured at 10 m
radio and television
located in closer proximity to
these devices are Class A Limlt Class B Limit (dB
receivers, the emission limits for Frequency
restrictive than those for Class A (MHz) 4V/m) Vm)
about 10 dB more
devices. 39.0 29.5
30-88
Part 15 EMC
Radiated Emission: The FCC 88-216 43.5 33.0
radiated emission in
Regulations, limit the maximum 35.5
MHz to 40 GHz. 216-960 46.5
the frequency range of 30
emission limits for a 49.5 43.5
Table 6.5.1 lists the FCC radiated 960
10 m.
measured at a distance of
Class A product when A SACHIN SHAH Venture
ech-Neo Publications
. here Authors inspire
innovation
RF Design(MU- Sem-EATC Eecomapeic Copefotty
Conducted Emission: The FCC Part Table 654: FCCCIPR CEss A coadncted Emisim Ls
mits
15 EIC Mezsurtd at 10 m
Regulations limit the maximum allowable
coodicted
emission, on the ac power line in the range 0.150 to Frequency Quasi- peak (dB Aveag (dB
of
30 MHz
Conducted emission limits exist becanse 79

regulztors 0.15-05 65
believes that at frequencies below 30 MHz, the primary
cause of interference with radio communications occurs 05-30 73 60
by conducting radio-frequency energy onto the a Tabie 6.5.5:FCCICIPR Class B codncted Emission Limnits
power line and subsequently radiating it from the
Freguency Quasi-peak (dB Aerage d
power line.
(AHz)
Therefore, conducted emissioa limits are really radiated
emission limits in disguise. 0.15-05 66-56 5646
Tables 6.5.4 and 6.5.5 shows the Class A and Class BB
56
05-5 46
conducted emission limits, respectively.
5-30 60 50
These voltages are measured common-mode (hot to
ground and neutral to ground) on the ac power line 6.6 CISPR REQUIREMENTS
using a 50-O/50-mH Line Impedance Stabilization
Network (LISN) as specified in the measurement GO. 6.6.1 Explainrcquirement for CiSPR
procedures. standard -
A comparison between Tables 6.5.4 and 6.5.5 shows CISPR standards cover product emission and immumity
that the Class B quasi-peak conducted emission limits requirements as well as defining test methods md
are from 13 dB to 23 dB more stringent than the Class equipment CISPR is the acronym of Committe
A limits. International Special des Perturbations Radio or the
Note also that both peak and average measure ments are International Special Committee for Radio Protection.
required. Although CISPR writes standards, they are Do

mandatory.
The peak measurements are representative of noise
from narrowband sources such as clocks, whereas the However, most international countries adopt the
recommendations.
Cr
average measurements are representative of broadband
The most widely used
noise sources. standard is CISPR 22 that ses
imits on the radiated and conducted emissions
The Class B average conducted emission limits are information technology equipment (TTE), w
from 10 to 20 dB more restrictive than the Class A basically includes digital devices in the simiar
meaning as for the FCC.
average limits.
The limits are divided
into Class A and C
equipment, and their meaning essentially the
is sain
the FCC definitions.
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Som.-E&TO) (0-39) Eloctromagnetic Compatibility
Dealgn (MU-8
RE 1
The
CISPR 22 conducted nission limits are given in aa. 6.6.2 Compare Radiated Emision limits of
FCC and CisPR
Tables 6.6.I and 6.6.2. They ure tlhe same as thhe FCC
limits.
conductcd cmission
The FCC and CISPR 22 radiated emission limits are
CISPR 22 conducted Emlsslon Lhnits for Class B
Tuble 6.6.1:
shle o
comparcd in Fig. 6.6.1. Since the FCC and CISPR 22
Digltal Devlces
limits for Class A cquipment are both to be measured at
Frcquency MH2)|PVQP(AV) dB uV QP (AV)| 10 m, no scaling is required.
1995 (631) 66 (56) However, the FCC Class B emissions are to be

0.15
measured at a distance of 3 m. In order to scale these to
0.5
631 (199.5) 56 (46) the CISPR 22 Class B measurement distance of 10 m
using the inverse distance rule, we subtract 20 logio
0.5-5 631 (199.5)56 (46)
(10/3)= 10.46 dB from the FCC Class B limits at3 m.
5-30 1000 (316) 60 (50) B
Or we could add 10.46 dB to the CISPR 22 Class
A
Table6.6.2: CISPR 22 conducted Emission Limits for Class limits at 10m to scale to the FCC Class B limits at 3 m.
Digital Devices
We have selected to scale the FCC Class B limits at
3 m to a distance of 10m by subtracting 10.46 dB.
Frequency (MHz) VQP (AV)dB PV QP(AV)
CISPR 22 currently does not have a requirement on
O.15-0.5 8912.5(1995) 79(66)
radiated emissions above GHz. With clock speeds of
1
0.5-30 4467(1000) 73 (60) personal computers currently in the GHz range, this
will no doubt change.
The CISPR 22 radiated emission limits are tabulated in
From this comparison we see that the CISPR 22 Class
Table 6.6.I for Class B ITE cquipment and in
B limits are somewhat more restrictive than the FCC
Table 6.6.2 for Class A ITE equipmecnt.
Class B limits in the frequency range of 88-230 MHz.
The Class B emissions arc to be measured at a distance From 88 to 216 MHz the CISPR 22 limits are 3 dB
of 10 m, as arc the Class A levcls. Like the FCC more restrictive, and from 216 to 230 MHz they are 5.5
radiated emission limits, these are to be measured with dB more restrictive.
a CISPR 22receiver having a quasi-pcak detector
(QP).
B
From 230. to 960 MHz the FCC limits are more
Table 6.6.3: CISPR 22 Radiatcd Emission Limits for Class
ITE Equipment (10 m) restrictive by about 1.5 dB. Again we see that the
CISPR 22 limits for Class A digital devices are more
Frequency (MH2V/mdB V/m restrictive than the FCC limits in the frequency range
30-230 31.6 30 of 88-216 MHz by some 4 dB and 6 dB in the range of
230-1000 70.8 37 216-230 MHz. From 230o 960 MHz he CISPR 22
limits are less restrictive than the FCC limits by about
Table 6.6.4: CISPR 22 Radinted Emission Limits for Class A
ITE Equipment (10 m) 1
dB.
Frequency (MHZAV/m dB V/m

30-230 100 40
230-1000 224 47
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Electromagnetic
Compatibility
Measurement distance 10 m
43.
37
35.5
FCC
33 -~-------------
L9.0 CISPR 22
30 MHz 88 MHz 960

216 MHz MHz2
230 MHz 1
GHz
(a)
Measurement distance 10 mn
49.5
47
46.4
43.5
4U
-e--
CISPR 22
30 MHz 88 MHz 216 MHz 960 MHz
230 MHz 1 GHz

(b)
(IF34) Fig. 6.6.1: The CISPR 22 radiated emission
limits compared to the FCC radiated emission
limits: (a) Class B (b) ClassA
Chapter Ends..

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Syllabus

Subject Code Subject Name Teaching Scheme (Hrs.) Credits Assigned

Theory Practical| Tutorial Theory

Subject Subject Examination scheme

Module Unit Topies Hrs.

L.O RF Filter Design 10

2.1 Two-port power gain stability

GO. 1.3.1 Explain synthesis of filter using image parameter methods.

Exam Hint: Z ****************************************************************°*.*************************.********* .1-10

ExamHint: e"= 1 +2Z,+ *************n**a**********

am impedances shown in Fig. 1.3.6.

Exam Hint:Z= Z **************************************o**osessneo U

GQ. 1.3.7 What is constant K filters ? OR What is prototype section ? .**************

1.4.3 Expression for Propagation Factor.. *************.***********************************°**°* .. 1-16

1.4.5 Design Steps and Equations of Constant K-LPF.***************************************************************************** 1-18

1.5 Constant K HPF.. ************"" *******a******************************************************

GQ. 1.5.1 Design constant K-HPF... ************************************************ *************n*********** 1-19

1.5.2 Summary of Design Equations of Constant K HPF. nosenseeene**"******" 1-21

1.6 m-Derived Filter...........a....s**e*a*********e*********************************************a*******o****e ssee.

GQ. 1.6.1 How m -

derived filters are

filter ? OR How m- derived filters

derived filter is obtained from constant- k- T section ?.

1.6.1 m- Derived Low Pass Filter. .

Analyze m - derived T and n sections of LPF.

Analysis of Attenuation (a) Versus Frequency characteristic of LPF

Tech-Neo Publications . here Authors inspire innovation

M-derived High Pass Filter..**********************************as**bs****************************************************** 1-28

M-Derived Half Sections for High P a s s F i t e r .*****************************************************°"****** .. 1-31

Ga. 1.8.11 e******** 1-32

1.9.1 Characterization by Power Loss Ratio (PLR) .1-38

1.9.2 Types of Filter...a***uso**** e****. ***************a********************

1.9.3 Process of Fiter Design by Insertion Loss Method. *************************************************** 1-40

flat low passfilter..********* *****e*************e*****« **** ************** 1-41

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GQ. 1.11.2 ********************************************************************** .1-49

Low Pass Filter to Band Pass Filte.

filter prototype.. **********e**********************************.

1.12 Fiter Implementation.. 1-59

1.12.1 Richard's Transformation. *********s*ssesesesnessranassese***esonsrsnsssosopnsse************ ****************osee***** 1-59

Ga. 1.12.2 How Richard's Transformation is usetul in RF fiter designing ?.

1.12.2 Kuroda's ldentities..*********************************°°**********°e*************a*********°******.****°°************°****e ****a** 1-61

Ga. 1.12.5 Prove the Kuroda's 1 identity. ****************************************************a** 1-62

1.12.3 Impedance and Admittance Inverters. ****

1.13 Mixed Solved Problems.. ****************************************************°*********** **

Chapter Ends. ************

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The "Short wavelength" feature of microwave region attenuation band.

Excitation High Pass f.tooo 1 to f

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(1A6Fig. b): With network

Fig. 1.2.2: Insertion loss and two port network

image impedance of port 2. i.e. Zn as shown in Insertion loss(a)=201ogo Decibel

is seen at the other port. expressed in dB. RL = 20 log

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devices. Image impedance at port1 when port 2 is terminated

Disadvantage : This is simple method but unable to shape 01

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AD So Equation (1.3.4) and Equation (1.3.12) represents

By knowing the condition of reciprocity is,

Similarly using Equation (1.3.5) in Equation (1.3.6)

..1.3.9) ADZ + AB + BCZ + AB

Using Equations (1.3.8) and (1.3.9) in Equation (1.3.10), ...(1.3.13)

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Exam Hint: Z ****************************************************************°*.*****************.* .1-10

ExamHint: e"= 1 +2Z,+ *na

Exam Hint:Z= Z ************************************oosessneo U

1.4.3 Expression for Propagation Factor.. *.*********************°°* .. 1-16

1.5 Constant K HPF.. ********"" *a****************************************************

GQ. 1.5.1 Design constant K-HPF... ****************************************** *n***** 1-19

1.5.2 Summary of Design Equations of Constant K HPF. nosenseeene"****" 1-21

1.6 m-Derived Filter...........a....s**eae*********************************a*o**e ssee.

M-derived High Pass Filter..asbs********************** 1-28

M-Derived Half Sections for High P a s s F i t e r .***********************************************°" .. 1-31

1.9.2 Types of Filter...auso e. a********

flat low passfilter..******* *e*********e*« ************ 1-41

filter prototype.. e************************.

1.12.1 Richard's Transformation. *********sssesesesnessranasseseesonsrsnsssosopnsse **osee* 1-59

1.12.2 Kuroda's ldentities..***********************°°°ea°.°°********°e a 1-61

Ga. 1.12.5 Prove the Kuroda's 1 identity. **************************************************a 1-62

1.13 Mixed Solved Problems.. ********************************************°*