Confucianism

Confucius is not just one of the leading thinkers in China but in the whole of Asia.

Module 10: Confucianism

Module Duration: Week 13

About this Module: There has always been a debate whether Confucianism should be regarded
as a religion or a philosophy. Those who argue that Confucianism is a philosophy assert that
when Kung Fuzi founded Confucianism, he never meant to establish a new religion; he merely
wanted to interpret and revive the ancient religion of the Zhou dynasty. On the other hand,
Confucianism is considered a religion because its ideals were inspirational, not in the
supernatural sense but in the sense of aiming for excellence in one’s relationships with others.
This module will have readings on Confucianism's historical background, scriptures, and beliefs.

Module Objectives:

After this module, the learners are expected to:

 describe the five basic relationships (king to subject, father to son, husband to wife, elder
brother to younger brother and friend to friend) (HUMSS_WRB12-II/IVe-12.1);
 give examples of acts showing filial piety in the family, community, and society
(HUMSS_WRB12-II/IVe-12.2);
 explain that the core teaching of Confucianism is to be a “gentleman” by following the
moral way consisting of the virtues of love, righteousness, wisdom, propriety, and loyalty
in order to promote harmony in society (HUMSS_WRB12-II/IVe-12.3); and
 present a character sketch of a person who personifies the Confucian virtues
(HUMSS_WRB12-II/IVe-12.4).
Module Topics:

 Historical Background and the Life of Confucius

 Symbols and Sacred Scriptures
 Confucian Beliefs and Observances
 Selected Issues

Pre-assessment
Identify whether the statement is true or false.

1. The Chinese philosophers of this era were primarily focused on the individual rather than
societal solutions to restore order guiding values and social order.
2. The proliferation of Chinese classical thought happened as a result of several factors such as
technological and economic advancement, stronger political units, political and social
improvement, and even military development.
3. Confucius is often considered as the first person to devote his whole life to learning and
teaching for the purpose of social transformation and improvement.
4. In Confucianism, fire is considered as the source of life, valued for its significance in the
natural world and for sustaining life. 
5. Women in Confucianism are expected to demonstrate obedience (to their father, husband, and
sons) before all other virtues and are not expected to act as independent beings.
 I. Historical Background and the Life of Confucius

A map depicting the Zhou dynasty states during that period of war and turmoil.

Historical Background

The proliferation of Chinese classical thought happened within the reign of the Zhou dynasty, the
second historical dynasty in China. It was the result of several factors such as technological and
economic advancement, stronger political units, political and social improvement, and even
military development. Advances in the said realms led to the emergence of competing dynasties
who wanted to establish supremacy over other dynasties, hence the period was marked by social
upheaval and chaos. This led to the search for political and social stability through the birth of
philosophies and religions which attempted to restore social harmony in China.

During the Zhou period, technological growth led to trading development, which led to a
remarkable increase in wealth. This growth of production coincided with a rapid growth in trade
and, as a consequence, a new class of wealthy merchants emerged. Accordingly, this became a
threat to the nobility, which led them to propagate a theory that society is composed of four (4)
classes in this order: the warrior-administrator, the peasants, the artisans, and the merchants.

Alongside technological and economic growth was the development of stronger political units,
which led to the emergence of four vassal states that competed against each other for political
supremacy. These vassal states were Qin in the west, Jin in the north, Yan in the northeast, and
Qi in the east. The struggle for supremacy among these vassal states characterized the Warring
States period in Chinese history. Their political stability was enhanced by military development.
The use of chariots, iron weapons, and the use of cavalry all contributed to the newfound power
of the vassal states who tried to overpower each other through the use of warfare.

Amidst the development and chaos, China was faced with a dilemma: the failure of old authority
made it necessary for new guiding values to restore social order. It was in this very crucial time
that philosophers would try to find solutions to the social problems being faced by society.
Incidentally, interest was focused primarily on society and not on the individual. Because of this,
these philosophers have often been classified as practical politicians because they were products
of the proliferation of literacy and part of the new bureaucracy. They went to different states to
offer their services whenever needed. One of them was Confucius.

Among the four rival states which competed for supremacy, the Qin dynasty would emerge as
the victor and would establish the first empire of China in the third century BCE. The name
China would come from the Ch’in, the first to create an imperial Chinese identity.

The Life of Confucius

Confucius is the Latinized version of Kongzi and the honorific Kung Fuzi both meaning “Master
Kung.” He was born on September 28 on 551 BCE. Hence, it is considered a day of celebration
in East Asia—an official holiday in Taiwan (Teacher’s Day), and a day of cultural celebration in
mainland China, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Confucius was born in the small feudal state of Lu
(now Shantung province) in Qufu. His personal name was Qiu and his family name was Kong.
He came from a noble family, but by the time of his birth, they had already lost much of their
wealth. His first teacher was his mother, and at the age of 15 he set his heart upon learning, thus
love of learning became one of the highest virtues in Confucian ethics. He married at the age of
19 and had a son at the age of 20. At this point in his life he had already served in minor
government posts and had already gained a reputation as an all-around scholar. 

When he was in his 30s he had already started a brilliant teaching career because of his mastery
of the arts of ritual, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and arithmetic. He was also
familiar with classical tradition, particularly in poetry and history. He is often considered as the
first person to devote his whole life to learning and teaching for the purpose of social
transformation and improvement. He held several government positions including as arbiter,
assistant minister of public works, and minister of justice in the state of Lu. Frustrated that his
ideals and policies were brushed off by his superiors, he soon left Lu. For 13 years, he wandered
from state to state, trying to put his theories to practice. At 67, he returned home to teach (where
he gained more disciples) and to preserve his classical traditions by writing and editing. He died
in 479 BCE at the age of 73 and he left around 3,000 followers who preserved and put his other
teachings to writing.
 II. Symbols and Sacred Scriptures

The Analects is not just a sacred scripture but a philosophy rooted in Confucius’ teachings.

Symbols

Two symbols which are important to Confucianism are the symbols for scholar and water. The
scholar, the Chinese symbol ru, is an important symbol in Confucianism. It contains the symbol
of a person, as well as the character for need or desire. The foremost need of people is
nourishment, then education. When combined, it means “the need of a human being.” Water is
one of the five important elements in Chinese philosophy, alongside wood, fire, earth, and metal.
Water is considered as the source of life, valued for its significance in the natural world and for
sustaining life.

Sacred Scriptures

The Five Classics are a group of books which was regarded as early Confucianism’s basic texts.
This includes the Book of Changes, the Book of History, the Book of Poetry, the Classic of
Rites, and the Spring and Autumn Annals. The Analects is also considered an important source
of Confucian teachings since it contains a record of his conversations with his disciples.

Confucius has often been considered as the author or editor of the Classics, but contemporary
scholarship has shown that even though many of these texts can be traced back to Confucius,
they have undergone a long period of development. Moreover, these Classics were burned during
the reign of the Qin dynasty and was restored only during the Han dynasty. It was Confucius’
followers who exerted effort in writing and collating his teachings and philosophies. 

Book of Changes

Also known as the I-Ching, the Book of Changes is believed to have existed at the time of
Confucius and is the oldest of the Classics. It focuses on short predictions following a type of
divination called cleromancy wherein six random numbers are picked and arranged under 64
hexagrams. A hexagram is any of a set of 64 figures made up of six parallel or broken lines.
Later on, commentaries were added to the predictions, the longest of which was the Hsi-tz’u or
Appended Remarks, which discusses early cosmological and metaphysical assumptions in an
obscure language.

Book of History

Also known as the Book of Documents or Shangshu, the Book of History is conventionally
attributed to Confucius by early scholars. It is composed of speeches (or prose) of royalty and
ministers mainly from the Shang and Zhou dynasties. It also consists of chronological accounts
of imperial achievements and rules of government.

Book of Poetry

The Book of Poetry, also known as the Book of Songs/Odes/Shijing, is a collection of three
hundred and five songs compiled around 600 BCE that includes four sections of various themes
such as love, courtship, abandonment, and dances. It also includes feast songs or state chants. It
was supposedly compiled by Confucius from an ancient repertory of three thousand, and is
considered as the oldest existing compilation of Chinese poetry.

Classic of Rites

Originally the Three Li/Three Rites/San Li, the Classic of Rites is a compilation of ceremonial
rituals, administration, and social forms of the Zhou Dynasty. It is considered as a complete body
of work which includes the Ceremonials (I-li/Yili), an early manual of protocol for the nobility,
describing such occasions as marriages and funerals, sacrifices and even archery competitions. It
also includes the Book of Rites (Li-chi/Liji) which is composed of 49 sections of ritual and
government guidelines, as well as essays on education, the rites, music, and philosophy. Also
included is the Institutes of Chou (Chou-li/Zhou Li) which is supposedly an ultimate depiction of
government offices in early Zhou times. These texts were supposedly compiled in the early first
century BCE based on earlier materials.

Analects

The Analects, or Lunyu (“conversations” or “sayings”), is also known as the Analects of

Confucius. It is a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to the Chinese philosopher Confucius
and his contemporaries, traditionally believed to have been written by Confucius' followers. It is
believed to have been written during the Warring States period (475 BCE–221 BCE) and
finalized during the middle of the Han dynasty. At first it was considered as merely a
commentary on the Five Classics, but later on acquired tremendous significance that it has been
classified as one of the Four Books along with Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean, and Book
of Mencius. Among other important Confucian works, it has become an influential canonical
resource in Chinese and East Asian philosophy.
 III. Confucian Beliefs

An ancient painting depicting filial piety among Confucian practitioners.

Perhaps Confucius is more often celebrated for his Golden Rule: “Do not do unto others what
you would not have them do unto you.” Found in the Analects, this saying teaches the ethics of
mutuality and reciprocity. Thus, it requires people to treat others equal to themselves and in
equally the same manner as they would have wanted to be treated. Some of the most important
Confucian doctrines include the idea of Tian or heaven, human nature, rectification of names, the
five constants, filial piety, and ancestor worship.

Belief in Tian

“When you have offended against Heaven, there is nowhere you can turn to in your prayers.”
(Analects 3.13) This is one of the passages in the Analects which shows Kung Fuzi’s idea of
Tian or heaven. Although Confucius is well-known to be a practical philosopher who was not
much interested in the superhuman realm, he believed in Tian or “heaven,” an all-encompassing
god. Tian may also refer to that which is beyond human control. He believed that Tian is
analogous with moral order but dependent upon human intervention to bring its will into action.
For him, the li or ritual propriety is the way through which the family, the state, and the world
may become parallel with Tian’s moral order. He believed that only by performing the ancient
rituals, which was done by earlier kings, could harmony between heaven and Earth be revived.

Rectification of Names

Confucius believed that to return to the ancient Dao, people must play their assigned roles in
society. This was later called the rectification of names, or zhengming. The Five Relationships
include: 1) ruler-subject; 2) father-son; 3) husband-wife; 4) elder and younger brother; and 5)
friend and friend. The responsibilities originating from these relationships are shared and
reciprocal. For example, a minister owes loyalty to his ruler, and a child owes filial respect to the
parent. In return, rulers must care for their subjects, and parents must care for their children. The
Five Relationships emphasize the upright sense of hierarchy. Among friends, for example,
seniority of age requires a certain deference. Zhengming helps bring social order for it advocates
the idea that every person has a particular role at a particular time in life, and that by abiding to
this particular role, one is able to fulfill one’s social duties and responsibilities, thus creating
social harmony.

Human Nature as Originally Good or Evil

Confucius himself was silent on the concept of human nature, but there were two philosophers
who had different interpretations on the subject of human nature based on the Analects. They
were Mengzi or Mencius and Xunzi (Hsun tzu). Their views on human nature were opposed to
one another. For Mencius, renxing or human nature is naturally disposed toward ren, or virtue of
the superior man. Mengzi believed that all human beings are born with innate goodness which,
on one hand, can be cultivated through proper education and self-discipline (li); or be thrown
away through neglect and bad influence, on the other. However, it needs cultivation through li
(ritual propriety) as well as obedience to one’s qi (vital energy). Human nature may be impeded
through negligence or an unfavorable environment naturally organized toward ren. On the other
hand, Xunzi believed that human nature is basically evil but can be improved through self-
cultivation. Like Mencius, Xunzi considers the li as the key to the cultivation of human nature.

The Five Constants

The Five Constants, also known as the Five Classical Virtues, or Wuchang, are the five most
important Confucian ethics mentioned in the Analects and the Book of Mencius. These include
the following: ren or benevolence; yi or righteousness; li or propriety; zhi or knowledge/wisdom;
and xin or fidelity.

Ren, or benevolence, can be achieved by returning to li, or the traditional Chinese rituals. It
means following the social hierarchy patterned after family relationships. Ren can also be
achieved by extending one’s filial love for parents and siblings to fellow human beings. It can
also be achieved by avoiding envy or harm. Yi, or righteousness, can be achieved by having the
moral disposition to do good, which can only be possible after recognizing what is right and
good. It can also be achieved through the ability to feel what is the right thing to do. Li, or
propriety, which is considered as the concrete guide to human action and social order, can be
achieved by following the guide to human relationships (rectification of names, doctrine of the
mean, The Five Relationships); it can also be achieved by following the norms of ren, or
righteousness. Zhi, or knowledge/wisdom, can be achieved by knowing what is right and what is
wrong, which is innate in people who are basically good according to Mencius. Lastly, xin, or
fidelity can be achieved by keeping one’s word and being faithful, for Kung Fuzi believed that
only people who are faithful can be trusted with important tasks. Fidelity is also seen as the key
to nation-building.
Filial Piety as an Important Virtue

For Confucius, family relations provide a model for social behavior. Respect for elders, whether
your own or others, is emphasized, as well as kindness to your own children and juniors,
including those of others. These were said to be instructed by Mencius and have provided
inspiration for generations of Confucians. Filial piety is said to have provided China with a
strong sense of solidarity not only in the Chinese family, but also in Confucian social
organizations and even among Chinese communities in different parts of the world.

Ancestor worship is a manifestation of filial piety, or respect for one’s parents, which is directed
toward older relatives and ancestors. The idea of ancestor worship is based on the key Confucian
idea that it is expected of children to respect and obey their parents in life, and to continue
remembering them after they have died through the proper observance of rituals. One way to
remember them is by worshipping ancestral tablets which can be kept at home. These ancestral
tablets contain the information regarding the place where the family originated and the names of
the ancestors. Another way to remember ancestors is to worship them in their graves. People
occasionally visit the graves of their loved ones, clean the graves, and offer food and wine. The
ancestors were believed to have tasted the food before the whole family eats the meal being
offered. Ancestor worship is an expression of a union between the living and the loved one,
clearly a manifestation of filial piety.

The concept of hun-po or soul is important in Chinese cosmology and early concept of dualism.
Accordingly, the human being is made up of two souls: an upper or intellectual soul (hun) which
becomes the spirit (shen) and climbs to the world above; and a lower soul (po), which becomes
the ghost and goes down with the body into the grave. Thus, ancestor worship is important
because of the belief that even the bodies of the dead ancestors possess souls which need to be
worshipped and revered.

The Book of Rites

The Book of Rites recorded the rituals practiced by the Chinese for many centuries. Some of
these rituals have been classified under Family Rituals, also known as the “Four Rites,” which
are rituals or ceremonies that characterize a person’s growth and maturity, namely: coming of
age rites, marriage ceremonies, mourning rites, and sacrificial rituals. Many of these rituals are
no longer observed, but they offer functional proof of the religious nature of Confucianism.
 IV. Selected Issues

One pertinent issue in Confucianism is how women are bound to male hierarchy and leadership,
leading the females powerless in their religion.

Female Subordination

It is often said that a woman’s life under Confucianism can be summed up in three periods, also
known as the “Three Obediences:” obedience to her father while at home; obedience to her
husband when married; and obedience to her son when widowed. Women, being at the bottom of
the Confucian hierarchy, are expected to display ideal behavior and accommodation. They are
expected to demonstrate obedience before all other virtues and are not expected to act as
independent beings.

Women lived separately from men by custom. Women were also assigned the role of providing a
male heir to ensure the continuation of the tradition that male children should perform the
ancestral rites. This also excuses the husband to take on secondary wives if the first wife failed to
provide him with a son, while women were not allowed to see other men other than their
husbands and close male relatives. In the “Five Relationships,” it is very clear that the
relationship between husband and wife should be based on male supremacy. In the Book of
Changes, the male-female relationship is represented in terms of the superiority of heaven over
inferior earth.

The patriarchal nature of Confucianism is manifested in certain beliefs like preference for male
children. Men are expected to inherit the family names and property, and are responsible for the
care of their parents, that is why having male children is preferred. For one, women are the ones
expected to give dowry to the family of their groom when they get married, and among poor
families, having female children has become a burden rather than a blessing. This also paved the
way for more cases of female infanticide and abortion every year (although abortion is prohibited
in Confucianism except in cases when the life of the mother is at risk). Implementation of the
one-child policy by the Chinese government in the 1970s and the 1980s made it even worse for
women. Some would say that despite the elevation of the status of women in China during the
time of communist rule, the one-child policy paved the way for the return of Confucian values
and made it once again “trendy” not to have girls. If the parents have a daughter for a first born,
they would often try to have a son. If the first three children were girls, it is not unusual to keep
the first girl, give away the second girl, and abort the third girl. For critics, it is obvious that the
more Confucian the society became, the less freedom the women enjoyed.

Authoritarianism

Authoritarianism is another challenge that Confucianism still faces at present. Because

Confucianism stresses the hierarchy between relationships, this has reinforced top-down values
and hierarchical systems by encouraging deference to one’s superiors—ruler, father, teacher, or
anyone older. When Confucian values are used to suppress opposition, thwart fresh ideas to
surface, or to protect apathy, then Confucianism poses a serious threat to the development of
society and the flourishing of democracy.

Confucianism has been criticized on the issue of father-son relationship, especially on the aspect
of allowing the bad behavior of a father and requiring the son to accept it when this occurs. After
all, Confucianism teaches that a father must be respected at all costs and a son must obey his
father no matter what. This suggests that children must not question the authority of their parents
and simply accept their subordinate status. When they become parents, the son will become a
father hence that is the time that he will enjoy a superior status over his son. Meanwhile, the
daughter, when she becomes a mother, will continue to be in an inferior position, this time to her
husband. The following passage explains the nature of father-son relationship: The Master said,
“In serving your mother and father, remonstrate with them gently. On seeing that they do not
heed your suggestions, remain respectful and do not act contrary. Although concerned, voice no
resentment” (Analects 44:18).

While Confucianism has been considered as the key to the success of East Asian societies, it has
also been seen as the source of mediocrity. In companies and even government offices,
Confucian emphasis on authoritarianism might drag everyone down, so to speak. Organizations
steadily become comfortable with the least effort from their employees. One does not have to
strive hard to rise to the top or to propose new ideas for the growth of the organization, for as
long as the employees’ behavior does not endanger the system, the organization would survive,
thereby promoting laziness and incompetence.

Environmental Ethics

One more issue that Confucianism faces today is that of environmentalism. While it is true that
Confucianism advocates respect for the environment, its acceptance of people’s dominance of
nature poses a threat to the issue. The Analects mentioned the subordination of animals to social
interests. Some experts also say that when faced with the dilemma between maintaining social
duties and the environment, Confucianism would lead one to choose the former than the latter.
Confucian logic would give priority to the defence of social duties over environmental
protection. In general, critics noticed that Confucianism has not provided anything to promote an
environmentally sound philosophy. Since Confucianism values economic prosperity and family
success, it faces a greater challenge than other Eastern philosophies when it comes to weighing
between economic concerns and environmental sustainability.

Assessment
Enumerate the terms being asked of each item.

1. Two important symbols in Confucianism

2. The Five Classics or the Sacred Scriptures

References

Jose, Mary Dorothy dL., and Jerome A Ong. Introduction to World Religions and Belief Systems.
Quezon City: Vibal Group Inc., 2020.

Photo credits

Boiarskii, Adolf-Nikolay Erazmovich. "Chinese Family including Female Members, a Rare

Scene as Strict Confucian Families Did Not Allow Women to be in the Company of Guests or
Out of Their Homes. China, 1874-75." Wikimedia Commons,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese_Family_including_Female_Members,_a_Rar
e_Scene_as_Strict_Confucian_Families_Did_Not_Allow_Women_to_be_in_the_Company_of_G
uests_or_Out_of_Their_Homes._China,_1874-75_WDL1914.png.

Confucius and his disciples/Fukutaro. "Analects vol.2 Hachi-itsu." Wikimedia Commons,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rongo_Analects_02.jpg.

ErikaWittlieb. "Confucius Statue. Chinese Sculpture." Pixabay,

https://pixabay.com/photos/confucius-statue-chinese-sculpture-547152/.

SY. "Map showing major principalities (vassal states) of Eastern Zhou dynasty." Wikimedia
Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:States_of_Zhou_Dynasty.png.

Unknown artist(s) from the Song dynasty/National Palace Museum. "This painting depicts
Confucius at his residence giving a lecture and Zengzi kneeling before him to ask about filial
piety." Wikimedia Commons, 

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Classic_of_Filial_Piety_(%E9%96%8B%E5%AE
%97%E6%98%8E%E7%BE%A9%E7%AB%A0_%E7%95%AB).jpg.