WELCOME

Class - 2020
GHULAM HASNAIN TARIQ
PhD Physics (December - 2014)
COMSATS University Islamabad & Cranfield University UK
“Synthesis and Characterization of Thin Film Materials for Photovoltaic Applications”
Materials studied: CdS, CdTe, SnS-Bi2S3, Cu-Sn-S, ZnTe

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Glass substrate
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Window layer
Absorbent layer
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 Advance
Classical Mechanics
(PHYS-6107)
FALL/WINTER - 2018

TEXT: Goldstein, “Classical Mechanics”, 3rd. Ed., Addison Wesley

Problem Session:

Check LMS for up-to-date Class activities such as; schedule, information,
lectures, assignments etc

Email: hasnain.tariq@kfueit.edu.pk

Phone number: Not available

Recommended Books:
1. John R Taylor “Classical Mechanics”, University Science
Books; null edition
2. Tai L. Chow “Classical Mechanics”, CRC Press; 2nd edition
WEDNESDAY – 5:00 to 6:15 pm 3. Goldstein, “Classical Mechanics”, 3rd. Ed., Addison Wesley,
2008
THURSDAY – 5:00 to 6:15 pm 4. Stephen T. Thornton , Jerry B. Mario, “Classical Dynamics
of Particles and Systems”, Cengage Learning; 5 edition
(July 7, 2003)
5. Fowles & Cassiday “Analytical Mechanics” 7th Edition,
(without any break) Thomson
6. T W. B. Kibble, F H. Berkshir, “Classical Mechanics” World
Scientific Publishing Company; 5th edition 2004
 Advanced Classical Mechanics
1. Survey of the elementary principles,
2. Variational principles and Lagranges’s equations,
6. Oscillations,
7. The classical mechanics of the special theory of relativity,
8. The Hamiltonian equations of motion,
SYLLABUS
9. Canonical transformations,
10. Hamilton-Jacobi theory and Action angle variable,
11. Classical Chaos ,
12. Canonical perturbation theory,
13. Introduction to the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formulations for continuous systems and fields,

Classical mechanics of liquids and deformable solids; stress, deformation and strain
flow.

Recommended Books:
1. Classical Mechanics by Landua & Lifshitz, (Butterworth-Heinemann, 3rd edition,1976).
2. Classical Mechanics by John R Taylor, (University Science Books
3. Classical Mechanics by Goldstein, (AddisonWesley, 3rd edition, 2008).
4. Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems by Stephen T. Thornton and Jerry B. Mario, (Cengage
Learning, 5th edition, 2003).
 GRADING POLICY:
Exams & Evaluation
• Sessional marks (Quizzes, Assignments, presentations,
class participation, ….): 20%

• Mid term exam/marks: 30% (3rd week - Dec 2018*)

• End semester exam/marks: 50% (last week - Feb 2019*)

Quizzes – Occasional (after lecture, surprise, announced . . . )

Assignments – Occasional - weightage (Deadline)
Homework- No weightage (practice work)

* Subject to change by Exam department

Lecture – 1

Survey of the elementary principles

Part - 1

7
 1.1 MECHANICS OF A PARTICLE

The linear momentum p of a particle is defined as the product of the particle mass and its velocity,
𝑷 = 𝑚𝒗 ………………….……. (1)
𝑑𝒓
Where , 𝒗= ………………………. (2)
𝑑𝑡
“𝒓” is the radius vector / position of particle from some origin.
the vector sum of all the forces exerted on the particle is the total force F;
𝑑𝑷
𝑭= = 𝑷 ………………………… (3)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(𝑚𝒗)
𝑭= …………………… (4)
𝑑𝑡

𝑚𝑑𝒗
𝑭=
𝑑𝑡

𝑭 = 𝑚𝒂 ……………………… (5)
𝒅𝟐 𝒓 ……………………… (6)
𝒂=
𝒅𝒕𝟐 8
Laws of conservation
(i) Conservation of linear momentum

If the total force F is zero then;

𝑷 =F=0 P = constant Linear momentum “P” is conserved/constant.

(ii) Conservation of angular momentum

The angular momentum “L” about a point “O” is;

𝑳 = 𝒓 x 𝑷 ……………………… (7)
“P” is linear momentum and “𝒓” is the radius vector from “O” to particle.
The moment of force or torque about “O” is
𝑵 = 𝒓 x 𝑭……………………… (8)

𝒅(𝑚𝒗)
𝑵=𝒓x ……………………… (9)
𝒅𝒕
𝒅 (𝒓 x 𝑚𝒗) 𝒅(𝒓) 𝒅(𝑚𝒗) 𝒅(𝑚𝒗) 𝒅(𝑚𝒗)
As, = x 𝑚𝒗 + 𝒓x = 𝒗 x 𝑚𝒗 + 𝒓 x =0+𝒓x = N ……….. (10) ⸫ 𝒗 x 𝑚𝒗 = 0
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

9
Laws of conservation
(i) Conservation of linear momentum

If the total force F is zero then;

𝑷=F=0
Linear momentum “P” is conserved/constant.

(ii) Conservation of angular momentum

The angular momentum “L” about a point “O” is;

𝑳 = 𝒓 x 𝑷 ……………………… (7)
“P” is linear momentum and “𝒓” is the radius vector from “O” to particle.
The moment of force or torque about “O” is
𝑵 = 𝒓 x 𝑭……………………… (8)

𝒅(𝑚𝒗)
𝑵=𝒓x ……………………… (9)
𝒅𝒕
𝒅 (𝒓 x 𝑚𝒗) 𝒅(𝒓) 𝒅(𝑚𝒗) 𝒅(𝑚𝒗) 𝒅(𝑚𝒗)
As, = x 𝑚𝒗 + 𝒓x = 𝒗 x 𝑚𝒗 + 𝒓 x =0+𝒓x = N ……….. (10) ⸫ 𝒗 x 𝑚𝒗 = 0
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅 (𝒓 x 𝑚𝒗) 𝒅 (𝑳)
N= == = 𝑳 …………………. (11)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
If the total torque “N” is zero then, 𝐋 = 0, the angular momentum “L” is conserved.
10
 (iii) Conservation of energy
If the forces acting on a particle are conservative, then the total energy of the particle, T + V, is conserved
2
a
Consider the work done by an external force F upon a particle in going from point 1 to point 2 is;
2
𝑊12 = 1
𝑭. 𝑑𝑠 ………………………………… (12) 1
b
In most cases for a particle under study mass is constant so the work done simplifies to;
2 𝑑(𝒗) 2 𝑑(𝒗) 2 𝑚 2 𝑚
𝑊12 = 𝑚 1 𝑑𝑡
. 𝒗. 𝑑𝑡 =𝑚 1
𝒗. 𝑑𝑡= 𝑚 1
𝒗. 𝑑(𝒗) = 𝑑 𝒗 2 = (𝒗22 − 𝒗12 ) ………….. (13)
𝑑𝑡 2 1 2
The negative sign shows that if the
𝑚𝒗2
𝑊12 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ……………………………………. (14) ⸫ = K.E. = T potential V increases with
2 increasing r, the force will tend to
The work is the change in kinetic energy. move it toward smaller r to
decrease the potential energy.
A force is considered conservative if the work is the same for any physically possible path.
Independence of 𝑊12 on the particular path implies that the work done around a closed circuit is zero, i.e.:
𝑭. 𝑑𝑠 = 0 …………………………………….. (15) (excludes friction, otherwise system can not be conservative)
As, 𝑭 = −∇V(r) …………………… (16) (V is the potential energy)
We can add to V any quantity constant to space, without affecting the results, hence the zero level of potential energy V is
arbitrary. 11
The capacity to do work that a body or system has by virtue of is POSITION is called its potential energy. To express work
in a way that is independent of the path taken, a change in a quantity that depends only on the positions of end points is
needed. This quantity is potential energy “V”, and a change in it is “-V”. so that for a differential path length we have;
𝑭. 𝑑𝑠 = -dV
For a conservation system the work done 𝑊12 for two potential energy levels 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 is;
𝑉2
𝑊12 = - 𝑉1
𝑑(V) = - (𝑉2 - 𝑉1 ) = 𝑉1 - 𝑉2 ……………………………… (17)

From equality of Equations 14 & 17, we have the result;

𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 𝑉1 - 𝑉2
𝑇1 + 𝑉1 = 𝑇2 + 𝑉2 …………………………………………… (18)
Hence total energy (T+V) is conserved.

12
 1.2 SYSTEMS OF MULTIPLE PARTICLES
Consider a system of “N” particles, the equation of motion (Newton’s 2 nd law);
(𝑒)
𝑷= 𝑗 𝑭𝑗𝑖 + 𝑭𝑖 ………………………………………………………… (19)
(𝑒)
Where, 𝑭𝑖 is the external force and 𝑭𝑗𝑖 is the internal force.
(𝑒)
Assume that the forces 𝑭𝑗𝑖 and 𝑭𝑖 obey Newton’s 3rd law (law of action and reaction), then the forces two particles exert on
each other are equal and opposite.

Now sum over all particles we have from eq. 19,

𝑑2 (𝑒)
𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝒓𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑭𝑖 + 𝑖,𝑗 𝑭𝑗𝑖 ……………………………………………………… (20)
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑖≠𝑗

The first sum on the right is simply the total external force 𝑭(𝑒) , while the second term will vanish since the law of action and
reaction states that sum of each pair 𝑭𝑗𝑖 + 𝑭𝑖𝑗 is zero. To reduce the left hand side we introduce the center of mass,

13
vector R is the average of the radii vectors of the particles (center of gravity), weighted in proportion to their mass:

𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖
R= == ………………………………… (21)
𝑚𝑖 M

“M” is the total mass of the particles, we get from equations 20 & 21.
𝑑2𝐑 (𝑒)
M = 𝑖 𝑭𝑖 = 𝑭(𝑒) ……………………………… (22)
𝑑𝑡 2

which states that the center of mass moves as if the total external force were
acting on the entire mass of the system concentrated at the center of mass.
Now the total linear momentum of the system;
𝑑𝒓𝑖 𝑑𝐑
P= 𝑖 𝑚𝑖 =M ………………………………… (23)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Thus total momentum is equal to total mass of system “M” times the
𝑑𝐑
velocity “ “ of the center of mass. The TOTAL LINEAR MOMENTUM “P” of the system is conserved if 𝑭(𝑒) = 0
𝑑𝑡
This states that the total linear momentum of the system is the same as if the entire mass were concentrated at the center
of mass and moving with it.

14
Total angular momentum and Torque:
L= 𝑖 𝒓𝒊 x 𝐏𝑖
(𝑒)
𝐋= 𝑖 𝒓𝒊 x 𝐏𝑖 ⸫𝑷= 𝑗 𝑭𝑗𝑖 + 𝑭𝑖
(𝑒)
𝐋= 𝑖 𝒓𝑖 x 𝑭𝑖 + 𝑖,𝑗 (𝒓𝑖 x 𝑭𝑗𝑖 ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (24)
𝑖≠𝑗
(𝑒) 1
𝐋= 𝑖 𝒓𝑖 x 𝑭𝑖 + 𝑖,𝑗 (𝒓𝑖 x 𝑭𝑗𝑖 +𝒓𝑗 x 𝑭𝑖𝑗 )
2
𝑖≠𝑗
(𝑒) 1
𝐋= 𝑖 𝒓𝑖 x 𝑭𝑖 + 𝑖,𝑗 (𝒓𝑖 x 𝑭𝑗𝑖 −𝒓𝑗 x 𝑭𝑗𝑖 ) ⸫ 𝑭𝑖𝑗 = − 𝑭𝑗𝑖
2
𝑖≠𝑗
(𝑒) 1
The vector 𝒓𝑖𝑗 between the ith and jth particle
𝐋= 𝑖 𝒓𝑖 x 𝑭𝑖 + 𝑖,𝑗 (𝒓𝑖 −𝒓𝑗 ) x 𝑭𝑗𝑖
2
𝑖≠𝑗
(𝑒) 1
𝐋= 𝑖 𝒓𝑖 x 𝑭𝑖 + 𝑖,𝑗 𝒓𝑖𝑗 x 𝑭𝑗𝑖 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 25 ⸫ 𝒓𝑖𝑗 = 𝒓𝑖 − 𝒓𝑗
2
𝑖≠𝑗

If the internal forces between ith and jth particle act along 𝐫ij , then all 𝐫ij 𝐱 𝐅ji = 0, and we get,

(e) d𝐋
𝐋= i 𝐫i x 𝐅i = 𝐍(e) , Hence, = 𝐍(e) …………………………………………… (26)
dt

The time derivative of the total angular momentum “𝐋” is thus equal to the moment of the external force about the given point.
Hence the Total ANGULAR MOMENTUM “𝐋” is conserved in time if the applied external torque “𝐍(e) ” is zero. 15
Total angular momentum
We know that with the origin 0 as reference point, the total angular momentum of the system is
L= 𝑖 𝒓𝒊 x 𝐏𝑖
Let R be the radius vector from 0 to the center of mass, and let ri be the radius
vector from the center of mass to the ith particle (see figure). Then we have;
𝒓𝑖 = 𝒓′𝑖 + 𝑹 …………………………………….. (27)
𝑑𝐑
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒗𝑖 = 𝒗′𝑖 + v ⸫v= is the velocity of center of mass relative to “O”.
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝒓′𝑖
and 𝒗′𝑖 = is the velocity of the ith particle relative to the center of mass of the system, then;
𝑑𝑡

L= 𝑖 𝒓𝒊 x 𝐏𝑖 = 𝑖 𝒓𝒊 x 𝑚𝑖 𝐯𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑹 + 𝒓′𝑖 x 𝑚𝑖 (𝒗 + 𝒗′𝑖 )
′ ′ ′ 𝒅
= 𝑖 𝑹 x 𝑚𝑖 𝒗 + 𝑖 𝒓𝑖 x 𝑚𝑖 𝒗𝑖 + ( 𝒊 𝑚𝑖 𝒓𝑖 ) x 𝒗 + 𝑹 x 𝒊 𝑚𝑖 𝒓′𝑖
𝒅𝒕
′
L=𝑹xMv+ 𝑖 𝒓𝑖 x 𝑷′𝑖 …………………………. (28)

⸫ 𝒊 𝑚𝑖 𝒓′𝑖 = 𝒊 𝑚𝑖 ( 𝒓𝑖 − 𝑹) = 𝒊 𝑚𝑖 𝒓𝑖 - 𝒊 𝑚𝑖 𝑹= 𝒊 𝑚𝑖 𝒓𝑖 - M R = 𝒊 𝑚𝑖 𝒓𝑖 - 𝒊 𝑚𝑖 𝒓𝑖 = 0 ⸫ Eq. 21 16
Thus the total angular momentum about a point O is (i) the angular momentum of motion concentrated at the center of mass
(CM term) , plus (ii) the angular momentum of motion about the center of mass (relative to CM term) (internal spin).
The eq. 28 emphasizes that in general L depends on the origin O, through the vector R. If the center of mass is at rest with
respect to O, then the angular momentum be independent of the point of reference. In this case, the first term in eq. 28 vanishes,
and L always reduces to the angular momentum taken about the center of mass.
What about Kinetic Energy?
The work done by all forces in moving the system from an initial configuration 1, to a final configuration 2 :

2 2 (𝑒) 2 (𝑒)
𝑊12 = 𝑖 1 𝑭𝑖 . 𝑑𝒔𝑖 = 𝑖 1 𝑭𝑖 . 𝑑𝒔𝑖 + 𝑖,𝑗 𝑭 . 𝑑𝒔𝑖
1 𝑗𝑖
… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (29) ⸫ 𝑭𝑖 == 𝑭𝑖 + 𝒋 𝑭𝑗𝑖
𝑖≠𝑗
Also using the equations of motion we obtain the work done;
2 2 2 1 2 1 2
𝑊12 = 𝑖 1 𝑭𝑖 . 𝑑𝒔𝑖 = 𝑖 1 𝑚𝑖 𝒗𝑖 . 𝒗𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑖 1 𝑑 2 𝑚𝑖 𝒗𝑖 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ⸫ 𝑇= 𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝒗𝑖 … … … … … (30)
2

Using the transformations to center of mass coordinates (eq. 27) , we can write the K.E. as;
1 1 ′ 1 1 1 ′2 𝒅
𝑇= 𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝒗𝑖
2 == 𝑖 𝑚𝑖 (𝒗𝑖 + v)2 = 𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝒗′𝑖 + v . 𝒗′𝑖 + v = 𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝐯
2 + 𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝒗𝑖 +v. ( 𝒊 𝑚𝑖 𝒓′𝑖 )
2 2 2 2 2 𝒅𝒕
1 1 ′ 2
𝑇= M 𝐯 2 + 𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝒗𝑖 ………………………………………. (31) ⸫ 𝒊 𝑚𝑖 𝒓′𝑖 = 𝟎 17
2 2
The kinetic energy, like the angular momentum, thus also consists of two parts, the kinetic energy obtained if all the mass were
concentrated at the center of mass (CM part), plus the kinetic energy of motion about the center of mass (relative to CM)
(internal K.E.).

What about Potential Energy?

Consider now the right-hand side of Eq. 29. In the special case that the external forces are derivable in terms of the gradient
of a potential, the first term can be written as;
2 (𝑒) 2 2
𝑖 1 𝑖𝐹 . 𝑑𝑠𝑖 = − 𝑖 1 ∇𝑖 𝑉𝑖 . 𝑑𝑠𝑖 = − 𝑖 𝑉𝑖 1

where the subscript i on the del operator indicates that 'the derivatives are with respect to the components of 𝒓𝑖 . If the
internal forces are also conservative, then the mutual forces between the ith and jth particles, 𝑭𝑖𝑗 and 𝑭𝑗𝑖 , can be obtained
from a potential function 𝑉𝑖𝑗 . To satisfy the strong law of action md reaction. 𝑉𝑖𝑗 can be a function only of the distance
between the particles; 𝑉𝑖𝑗 =𝑉𝑖𝑗 𝒓𝒊 − 𝒓𝒋 ………………………………. (32)
The two forces are then automatically equal and opposite,

𝐹𝑗𝑖 = − ∇𝑖 𝑉𝑖𝑗 = + ∇𝑗 𝑉𝑖𝑗 = - 𝐹𝑖𝑗 …………………. (33)

and lie along the line joining the two particles,

∇𝑉𝑖𝑗 𝑟𝑖 − 𝑟𝑗 = (𝑟𝑖 − 𝑟𝑗 ) f …………………. (34)

Where “ f ” is some scalar function.
18
When the forces are all conservative, the second term in Eq. 29 can be rewritten as a sum over pairs of particles, the terms for
each pair being of the form;
2
- 1 (𝛁𝑖 V𝑖𝑗 . 𝑑𝐬𝑖 + 𝛁𝑗 V𝑖𝑗 . 𝑑𝐬𝑗 )

If the difference vector 𝒓𝒊 − 𝒓𝒋 is denoted by 𝒓𝒊𝒋 , and if 𝛁𝒊𝒋 stands for the gradient with respect to 𝒓𝒊𝒋 , then;

𝛁𝑖 V𝑖𝑗 = 𝛁𝑖𝑗 V𝑖𝑗 = - 𝛁𝑗 V𝑖𝑗 ⸫ 𝒓𝑖𝑗 = 𝒓𝑖 − 𝒓𝑗

and,
𝑑𝐬𝑖 - 𝑑𝐬𝑗 = 𝑑𝐫𝑖 - 𝑑𝐫𝑗 = 𝑑𝐫𝑖𝑗
so that the term for the (i, j) pair has the form,
2 2 2 2
- 1
(𝛁𝑖 V𝑖𝑗 . 𝑑𝐬𝑖 + 𝛁𝑗 V𝑖𝑗 . 𝑑𝐬𝑗 ) = - 1 (𝛁𝑖𝑗 V𝑖𝑗 . 𝑑𝐬𝑖 - 𝛁𝑖𝑗 V𝑖𝑗 . 𝑑𝐬𝑗 ) = - 𝛁 V
1 𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗
. (𝑑𝐬𝑖 - 𝑑𝐬𝑗 ) = - 𝛁 V
1 𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗
. 𝑑𝐫𝑖𝑗
The total work arising from internal forces (second term in Eq. 29 ) then reduces to,
1 2 1 2
− 𝑖,𝑗 𝛁 V
1 𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗
. 𝑑𝒓𝑖𝑗 = − 𝑖,𝑗 V𝑖𝑗 .……………………….. (35)
2 2 1
𝑖≠𝑗 𝑖≠𝑗
1
The factor ( ) appears in Eq. (35) because in summing over both i and j each member of a given pair is included twice,
2
first in the i summation and then in the j summation. It is clear that if the external and internal forces are both derivable
from potentials it is possible to define a total potential energy V, of the system,

1
𝑉= 𝑖 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑖,𝑗 V𝑖𝑗 ……………………………………… (36)
2
𝑖≠𝑗

19
CONSTRAINTS
A limitation/restriction offered to the motion of a system, these limit the motion of particle, which can not move arbitrarily as;
• In a rigid body limitations (constraints) on the motions of the particles keep the distances 𝐫𝑖𝑗 unchanged.
• Also beads on a abacus are restricted (constrained) to one-dimensional motion along the supporting wire.
• Similarly, gas molecules in a container are restricted (constrained) by the walls to move only inside the container.
• Likewise, a particle placed on the surface of a solid sphere is constrained to move only on the surface or in the region
exterior to the sphere.
Classification of Constraints:
Constraints may be classified in various ways.
1. Holonomic constraints: Constraints on the position (configuration) of a system of particles.
A particle constrained to move along any curve or on a given surface. If the conditions of constraint can be expressed as
equations connecting the coordinates of the particles (and possibly the time) having the form;

𝑓 𝒓1 , 𝒓2 , 𝒓3 , … … … … … . . , 𝑡 = 0 …………………………….. (37)

then the constraints said to be holonomic. The simplest examples of holonomic constraints are;
• The rigid body, where the constraints are expressed by equations of the form;
2 2 2 2
𝒓𝒊 − 𝒓𝒋 = 𝑐𝑖𝑗 , ⟹ 𝒓𝒊 − 𝒓𝒋 - 𝑐𝑖𝑗 =0
• A particle constrained to move along any curve or on a given surface is another example of a holonomic constraint.20
2. Nonholonomic constraints: A particle placed on surface of a sphere because it will eventually slide down part of the way but
will fall off, not moving along the curve of the sphere. The constraints not expressible in this form of eq. 37 are called
nonholonomic constraints, i.e., 𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 ≥ 0
• The constraint involved in the example of a particle placed on the surface of a sphere is also nonholonomic, for it can be
expressed as an inequality ;
where a is the radius of the sphere, and 𝑟 is the position of the particle, this expression is not in the form of eq. 37.
• The walls of a gas container constitute a nonholonomic constraint.
Time dependence of constraint:
Constraints are further classified in to two types according to whether the equations of constraints contain the time as an explicit
variable or are not explicitly.
Rheonomic constraints: If the equations of constraint contain the time as an explicit variable then constraints are rheonomous
(moving).
Scleronomic constraints: If the equations of constraint do not contain the time as an explicit variable then constraints are
scleronomous.
A bead sliding an a rigid curved wire fixed in space is obviously subject to a scleronomous constraint, and if the wire is moving
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in some prescribed way, the constraint is rheonomous.
Difficulties introduced by constraints: The constraints introduce two types of difficulties in the solution of
mechanical problems.
• First, the coordinates 𝒓𝑖 are no longer all independent, since they are connected by the equations of constraint; hence the
(𝑒)
equations of motion (𝑷 = 𝑗 𝑭𝑗𝑖 + 𝑭𝑖 ) are not all independent.
• Second, the forces of constraint. e.g.. the force that the wire exerts on the bead (or the wall on the gas particle), are not
known beforehand, and must be obtained from solution.
They are among the unknowns of the problems and must be obtained from the solution we seek.

In the case of holonomic constraints, the first difficulty solved by the introduction of generalized coordinates.
A system of N particles, free from constraints, has 3N independent coordinates or degrees of freedom. If there exist holonomic
constraints expressed in k equations in the form (eq. 37), then we may use these equations to eliminate k of the 3N coordinates,
and we are left with (3N – k) independent coordinates, and the system is said to have 3N - k degrees of freedom.
Original independent coordinates can be expressed in terms of new independent coordinate by introducing new (3N – k)
independent variables 𝒒1 , 𝒒2 , 𝒒3 , … … … … … . . , 𝒒(3N − k) , in terms of which the original coordinates

𝒓1 , 𝒓2 , 𝒓3 , … … … … … . . , 𝒓𝑁 are expressed as; 22

𝒓1 = 𝒓1 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 , … … … … … . . , 𝑞(3N − k) , 𝑡 𝒓1
𝒓1 = 𝒍1 = constant
𝒓2 = 𝒓2 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 , … … … … … . . , 𝑞(3N − k) , 𝑡 𝒓2 = 𝒍2= constant
.. DOF: # 2 𝑚1
.. ………………. (38)
𝒓𝑁 = 𝒓𝑁 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 , … … … … … . . , 𝑞(3N − k) , 𝑡
𝒓2
These are transformation equations from the set of original coordinates (𝐫i ) to the new generalized
coordinates (qi ) set. 𝑚2
Usually the generalized coordinates, (qi ), unlike the Cartesian coordinates, will not divide into convenient groups of three that
can be associated together to form vectors.
• In the case of a particle constrained to move on the surface of a sphere, the two angles expressing position on the sphere, say
latitude and longitude, are obvious possible generalized coordinates.
• In the example of a double pendulum moving in a plane (two particles connected by an inextensible light rod and suspended
by a similar rod fastened to one of the particles). Satisfactory generalized coordinates are the two angles, θ1 , θ2 (see fig.).
Position of the particle 𝑚1 is (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) ⟹ 𝑥1 = 𝑟1cosθ1 = 𝑙1 cos θ1 , and 𝑦1= 𝑟1sin θ1 = 𝑙1 sin θ1
So, using transformation eqs; 38, we have, 𝒓1 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) =(𝑙1 cos θ1 , 𝑙1 sin θ1 ) = f (θ1 ) 23
• If the constraint is nonholonomic, the equations expressing the constraint cannot be used to eliminate the dependent
coordinates. For example for an object rolling on a rough surface without slipping. The coordinates used to describe the
system will generally involve angular coordinates to specify the orientation of the body, plus a set of coordinates describing
the location of the point of contact on the surface. The constraint of "rolling" connects these two sets of coordinates; they are
not independent. A change in the position of the point of contact means a change in its orientation.
Consider a disk rolling on the horizontal x y plane constrained to move so
that the plane of the disk is always vertical. The coordinates used to describe the
motion might be the x, y coordinates of the center of the disk, an angle of rotation ϕ
about the axis of the disk, and an angle θ between the axis of the disk and say, the
x axis (see fig.). The velocity of the center of the disk, v, is constrained and has a
Magnitude; 𝑣 = 𝑎ϕ , ‘a’ is the radius of disk and is perpendicular to
axis of the disk. The x, y coordinates of the center of the disk are,
𝑥 = v sinθ , 𝑦 = - v cosθ , Combining these conditions we have,
dx – a sinθ dϕ = 0 , and dy + a cosθ dϕ = 0 ……………………… (39)
We cannot find the integrating factor f (x, y, θ, ϕ). The constraints cannot be reduced to eq. 37 and are therefore nonholonomic
constraints. 24
 SUMMARY
Constraints
• Holonomic constraints: A rigid body, f(r1, r2, r3, ..., t) = 0, A particle constrained to move along any curve or on a given surface.
• Nonholonomic constraints: Walls of a gas container, a particle placed on surface of a sphere because it will eventually slide
down part of the way but will fall off, not moving along the curve of the sphere.
1. Rheonomous constraints: time is an explicit variable...example: bead on moving wire
2. Scleronomous constraints: equations of constraint are NOT explicitly dependent on time...example: bead on rigid curved wire
fixed in space

Difficulties with constraints:

1. Equations of motion are not all independent, because coordinates are no longer all independent
2. Forces are not known beforehand, and must be obtained from solution.

For holonomic constraints introduce generalized coordinates. Degrees of freedom are reduced. Use independent variables,
eliminate dependent coordinates. This is called a transformation, going from one set of dependent variables to another set of
independent variables. Examples of generalized coordinates:
1. Two angles expressing position on the sphere that a particle is constrained to move on.
2. Two angles for a double pendulum moving in a plane.

For nonholonomic constraints equations expressing the constraint cannot be used to eliminate the dependent coordinates.
Nonholonomic constraints are HARDER TO SOLVE.
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