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It is a valuable and confidential business asset of Lafarge Canada Inc. and is not to be shown or
made available to any person outside the Lafarge Group without the express authorization of the
Vice-president of the Corporate Technical Services of Lafarge Canada Inc.
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING
VADE-MECUM
Foreword
“Vade-mecum” is a Latin expression that means “Something that goes with me”. The purpose of this
booklet is to provide process engineers with a tool to overcome technical problems. It is not intended to
deeply explain the theory behind the calculations.
The “Vade-mecum” is a support to make good process recommendations. It complements the “Process
Tools” (CTS Process Dept. spreadsheets and software), Cahiers Techniques (e.g. Lafarge Product
Platform) and the Best Practices already available in the network.
Joel Vanderstichelen produced the first issue in 1990. After 10 years, an update was required. Given
the success of this booklet, we decided to keep the same format while expanding sections such as
Statistics, Environment, Quality Control, etc…
The format of this “Vade-mecum” has been chosen so that it can easily be carried in a briefcase and
blank pages were incorporated for personal notes.
We would appreciate any comments, suggestions or corrections for the next edition. Send by fax or
e-mail to:
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING
VADE-MECUM
1- Mathematics
2- Statistics
3- Quality
4- Milling
5- Combustion & Fuels
6- Pyroprocessing
7- Environment
8- Fluid Flow
9- Process Control
10- Thermodynamics and Chemistry Data
11- Unit Conversion
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CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING
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1. MATHEMATICS
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CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 1 – MATHEMATICS
VADE-MECUM
Table of Contents
Index - i
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1. Algebra
a) Exponents a 2 − 2 ab + b 2 = (a − b )2
(a )∗ (a ) = a
m n m+n
(
a3 + b3 = (a + b ) a 2 − ab + b2 )
(a ) = a
m n mn
(
a3 − b3 = (a − b ) a 2 + ab + b 2 )
(am )∗ (bm ) = (a ∗ b)m e) Logarithms
am
= am−n log x + log y = log( xy )
an x
n log x − log y = log
an a y
=
bn b x * log y = log y x( )
a1 / k = k a 1
log n x = * log x
1
a −n = n
an log10 a = 0.4343 In a
am / n = am
n In a = 2.3026 log10 a
b) Fractions f) Determinants
a c a±c Simultaneous equations: ax + by + cz = d ,
± = ex + fy + gz = h , ix + jy + kz = l
b b b
a c a∗c If:
∗ = a b c d b c
b d b∗d
a c a∗d a d D = e f g D1 = h f g
÷ = = ∗
b d b∗c b c i j k l j k
a d c a b d
c) Radicals
(n a )n = a D2 = e
i
h
l
g
k
D1 = e
i
f
j
h
l
n n
a =a
n a * n b = n ab The solution is:
D1 dfk + bgl + cjh − ( cfl + gjd + khb )
n
a na x= =
= D afk + bgi + cje − ( cfi + gja + keb )
n b
b D 2 ahk + dgi + cie − ( chi + gla + ked )
y= =
d) Factoring D afk + bgi + cje − ( cfi + gja + keb )
ax + ay = a( x + y ) z=
D3 afl + bhi + dje − ( dfi + hja + leb )
=
D afk + bgi + cje − ( cfi + gja + keb )
a 2 − b 2 = (a + b )(a − b )
a 2 + 2 ab + b 2 = (a + b )2
1.1
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1.2
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Newton's formula
c a+b 3. Plane Geometry
=
C A− B a) Rectangle
sin cos
2 2
a Area: a * b
Tangents of half angles
b+c+d
If p =
2 b
( p − a )( p − b )( p − c )
2 b) Parallelogram
p
tan =
p−a Area: a * b
a
( p − a )( p − b )( p − c )
2
p
tan = b
p−b
( p − a )( p − b )( p − c ) c) Triangle
2
p
tan =
p−c a c Area: 0.5 * a * b
d
Area
S = 2 , p( p − a )( p − b )( p − c )
b
a 2 sin B sin C b+c+d
=
2 sin A If p =
2
2
b sin A sin C Area: p * ( p − b ) * ( p − c ) * ( p − d )
=
2 sin B
2
c sin A sin B d) Circle
=
2 sin C s
bc sin A h
=
2
c
r ß
ac sin B Circumference: = πD , = 2πr
=
2
ab sin C
D
=
2
= 0.25πD , = πr
d) Hyperbolic 2 2
Area:
x −x
sinh x = e + e 0.25c 2 + h 2
2 r =
2h
x −x β
cosh x = e + e c = 2 * h * ( D − h ) , = 2rsin
2 2
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i) Polygon
= r − r − 0.25c
2 2
h s
ß
s = πD , = 0.01745 rβ Area = 0.5*n*s*r
360 r
e) Circular Sector
s
Where:
n is the number of sides
r ß 180°
n Area = nr 2 tan
Area = 0.5 rs, = 0.008727 r2ß ( β in °)
n
5 1.7205 s2
6 2.5981 s2
f) Circular Segment
7 3.6339 s2
s 8 4.8284 s2
9 6.1818 s2
10
h
c j) Trapezoid
r ß
Area = 0.5 (rs - c*(r-h))
ß c* ( r − h ) h H
= πr
2
*
360 2
g) Circular Ring c b a
Area = 0.5 [b*(H+h) + ch + aH]
π 2 4. Solid Geometry
Area = ( D − d2 )
d 4 a) Cube
D
h) Ellipse
a
c
a
π b
Area = Aa Volume: = abc
A 4
Surface area: = 2(ab+bc+ca)
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b) Cylinder f) Sphere
π
h Volume = D3
D 6
D
Surface area = πD 2
π 2
Volume = D h
4
Surface area: = πDh (without end surface) g) Segment of a Sphere
= πD (0.5D + h) (with end surface)
h
c) Pyramid
c r
s
h c + 4h 2
h 2
Volume = π h2 −
8h 3
Volume
area of base
= h Sphere surface =
4
(c2 + 4h2 )
π
3
= (c + 8 rh )
perimeter of base π 2
s Total surf
Lateral area = 4
2
i) Torus
e) Frustum of a Cone
r d
h D
s h
R π2
Volume (compl ring) = D d2
4
π
Volume =
3
(
∗ r + rR + R ∗ h 2 2
) Surface ( " ) = π2 Dd
Surface area = πs ( R + r )
1.5
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2. STATISTICS
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CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 2 – STATISTICS
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Table of Contents
Index - i
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1. Descriptive Statistics
1.1 Definitions
• Statistics is the science of drawing conclusions about a population based on an analysis of sample data from
that population.
• Population: values that can be taken by a variable.
• Sample: drawing of n values of the variable taken from the population.
• Random Variable = X = ( xi ) .
• Probability Distribution = P ( xi ) . It describes the random variable probability of occurrence and is described
by its parameters. (Example: Normal distribution is described by µ and σ , see below).
• Statistic = Any function of the sample data.
• Estimator = An estimator of a parameter is a statistic, which corresponds to the parameter. For instance :
- The sample mean ( x ) is the estimator of the actual population mean µ
- The sample variance ( S 2 ) is the estimator of the actual population variance σ 2
• Interval Estimation: An interval estimation of a parameter is the interval between 2 statistics that includes the
true value of the parameter with a given probability (1- α ).
1.2 Basic
∑x ∑ (x − x)
n n
2
i i
i =1 i =1
• Arithmetical Mean = x = Standard Deviation = S X =
n n −1
• 2
Variance = S X
2 2 2 2 2 2
- SX +Y = S X + S Y and S aX = a ⋅ S X
- a : Coefficient, X = ( xi ) , Y = ( yi ) : two series of independent values.
∑ (x − x )* ( y − y)
i i
• Covariance = Average of the products of paired deviations: COV ( X ,Y ) = i =1
n
1.3 Normal Probability Distribution
• The most often used probability distribution is the Normal probability distribution:
2
1 x − x
(− )
dZ 1 2 σ
= e
dx σ 2π
Central Limit Theorem
• For a group of n independent sampling units drawn from a population of mean µ and variance σ 2 , the
∑
n
1 σ2
sampling distribution of x = x i is approximately Normal with mean µ and variance . Said:
n n
i =1
σ2
x → Ζ µ, .
n
2.1
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2.2
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2.2 Test for the Equality of Two Variances ( σ 1 ,σ 2 ) of two Normal Population of Random
Size, ( n1 , n 2 )
(Excel Function FTEST)
Test Description
• H o : σ 12 = σ 22 , H 1 : σ 12 ≠ σ 22
S 12
• We compute the statistic Fo = , where F = Fisher Distribution
S 22
• We reject H o if Fo > Fα or if Fo < F α
, n1−1, n2 −1 1− , n1 −1, n2 −1,
2 2
α
• Where Fα and F α
denote the upper and lower percentage points of the
, n1 −1, n2 −1 1− , n1 −1, n2 −1 2
2 2
F distribution with n1 − 1 and n2 − 1 degrees of freedom, respectively.
• As the table for the F table gives only the upper tail points of the F, so to find F α
we must
1− , n1 −1,n2 −1
2
1
use: F α
= (be careful about n1 and n2 , which are inverted).
1− , n1 −1, n2 −1 Fα
2 , n2 −1, n1 −1
2
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∑ (x − 4586 )
8
2
i
i =1
After computing: x1 = 4586 , x 2 = 4454 S12 = = 34796 , S 2 2 = 26598
8 −1
34796
• Fo = = 1.308 < F0.05 = 4.99
26598 ,8 −1,8 −1
2
−1
and F.975 ,7 ,7 = ( F0.025,7 ,7 ) = ( 4.99 ) −1 = 0.20 <1.308
The test yields not to reject H o : the measurements don’t allow us to conclude that #1 way of sampling is
significantly, with 5% confidence, different than #2 (even if S 1 > S 2 ). The excel function is FINV(0.025,7,7).
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∑ (y − y )
n
y 2
- SST = total sum of square of the variable of interest = i
x B1=y/x
i =1
Y
∑ (E )2
E=Y-YEst
n
YEst - SSE = sum of square of errors = i −E
Y
i=1
B0
- SSR = sum of square explained by the regression line: SST = SSR+SSE
X
• We want to optimize SSR/SSE. Thus we test the hypothesis that the slope B1 equals 0:
H o : B1 = 0 , H 1 : B1 ≠ 0 .
• Under H o , the ratio (SSR/p)/(SSE/(n-p-1)) follows a Fisher distribution with p and n-p-1 degrees of freedom
(excel function FINV (α, p, n-p-1)).
• If Fα is high, then H o is rejected and with a certain significance α , we assume the regression is significant.
Coefficient of Determination R2
• The coefficient of determination R2=SSR/SST gives the proportion of variation in the dependent variable
( Y : ( y i )i =1 ton ) explained by the regression line.
• The coefficient of correlation is defined by: r =sqrt (R2).
Example
H0: there is no correlation
n=5, p=1, SST=0.051+0.019, MSR=0.051/1=0.051, MSE=0.019/3=0.0063, F=0.051/0063=8.05,
.75
.7
.65
R2 = 0.051 / (0.051 + 0.019) = 0.73, r = 0.85
Critical F value (α = 0.025), F1,3,0.025 = 17.44 > 8.05
.6
SO3
.55
.5
The ratio belongs to the F distribution
.45
We cannot reject H0, the regression is not significant.
.4 Y = 2.077 - .032 * X; R^2 = .727
.35
42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52
CaO
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4.2 Variogram
a) Variogram Construction
• A variogram is a plot of the average difference of a selected variable (C3S for example) between pairs of units
selected as a function of time, where the pairs are chosen in whole-number multiples (e.g. every minute, 2
minutes, 1 meter, 2 meters, …).
2
∑ N with :
x j − x j+h
j =1 - j : numbering of the sample’s value
γ X (h ) =
- N: number of pairs of sample with a specific time or
2 ⋅( N − 1) spatial distance (=h) between values of a pair.
Example:
The C3S values of kiln feed samples are:
Sample# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00
C3S (%) 54.2 57.8 59.8 61.2 60.0 56.0 52.0 52.0 52.4 57.0
Then we can calculate the one-hour pair difference:
Pair# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Diff in pair 3.6 2 1.4 -1.2 -4 -4 0 0.4 4.6 Sum
Square diff 12.96 4 1.96 1.44 16 16 0 0.16 21.16 73.7
73.7
Then γ C 3 S ( 1 hour ) = = 4.6
2 ⋅( 9 − 1)
Two rules for variogram construction
• Collect enough units (N) to get a statistical population (at least 30 samples for a short term experiment and 60
samples for a long term); the short term intends to define very precisely the random heterogeneity term (nugget
effect, refer below).
• The number N should reach half the total amount of samples collected (N>n/2).
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b) Variogram Interpretation
X
Interpretation of the limit of variogram (h) when h increases
• Whatever the variable is, beyond a certain value of h, the variable ceases to be
correlated with itself. It is because the phenomenon taking place has no longer
any memory of a past long gone (see case 2 and case 3 where the variable level t
off at a sill generally equal to the variance of the variable). Signal is drifting
• This is true for all raw mix analyses, which are limited in terms of the values they γ X(h)
can take.
• However, over a short period of time (a few hours), the signal may well drift.
(See graph below). In such a case, the variogram will tend to increase instead of
stabilizing itself around σ x2 . h
X
The "Nugget Effect" γ x (h) 2 2
σ x = σ xn
• Many variables, especially those obtained from data
measured with a dispersive method (analytical, #1
Nugget effect
sampling errors, etc.), present a slight or marked
degree of strictly random variations from one value t h
to the next. X γ x (h) 2
σ
• As a rule, a variable presenting a "smooth" graph (# x
t h
Limitations in h value
• If N values of X are available, shifts of more than N/2 should not be considered.
Regionalization and prediction • The span of values of ho for which γx (h) is below σ x2 is
• A very frequent pattern of variogram is
called the "area of regionalization" or the range.
shown as below:
2 • The value of the signal at time t + ho is in fact dependent
γ X (h ) σx of all values taken by X between t and t + ho.
• If all values xb x i +1 , xi + h +1 are known, then xi + h can
2 be predicted much better than by saying that it is
σ xn
randomly distributed with a variance σ x .
2
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Pseudo-periodicity
X γ x (h)
• The periodic variations can be self-sustained (control
cycle, oscillator, etc.) or induced by a periodic 2
2 σx
phenomenon (buckets of elevator are unevenly distributed,
correction interval of raw meal).
h
• Even if the periodicity is blurred on the graph of the signal Pseudo Periodic signal t
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“Correctogram” is a simple statistics tool which can be used to determine whether over-control or under-control is
occuring in a control loop. For spot checking, a plot of the correctogram can be used.
=0 Perfectly tuned control. All off-target values for the control parameter are due to random
variations (materials, feeder accuracy, etc.)
1 > slope > 0 Undercontrolling. Multiply gain by (1 + slope).
=1 No control taking place.
>1 Divergent control: gain value has wrong sign.
0 > slope > -1 Overcontrolling. Divide gain by (1 – slope).
= -1 Overcontrolling is inducing a cycle with frequency = 2 x sampling interval. Divide gain by 2.
< -1 Divergent cycling due to severe overcontrolling. Divide gain by (1 – slope).
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5. Sampling
5.1 Golden Rules
• The MRW.
• The sampling method must allow every particle the same chance of being collected.
• C = fcl g with
- f = Particle shape factor. (= 0.5 usually, ranges between 0 and 1)
= 1 when cubic, = 0.2 when flat, = 0.5 when spheroidal
- l = liberation factor [0 to 1]
= 0 if homogeneous, = 1 if particles completely distinct, = .001 for homogeneous raw mix, = .2
medium, = .3-8 heterogeneous
- g = factor describing the particle size distribution
• If we call “size range” the ratio d M / d m of the upper size limit d M : (about 5% oversize) to the lower size
limit d m : (about 5% undersize):
- Large size range ( d M / d m > 4): g = 0.25, medium size range (4 to 2): g = 0.50, small size range (< 2): g
= 0.75, uniform size ( d M / d m = 1): g = 1.00
Usually we take ρ i = ρ ic
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Example:
Mix is crushed at 12.5 mm of 75% lime and 25% clay, CaO is the critical
Sample weight = 50 kg.
l = 0.3 f = 0.5
CaO lime content = 52%, CaO clay content = 24%
ρCaO = 2.7 g / cm 3 , ρ lime = 2.7 , ρ clay = 2.7, g = 0.25
1 − 0.52 1 − 0.24
c = 0.75 x x 2.7 + 0.25 x x 2.7 = 1.869 + 2.137 = 4.00 g / cm 3
0.52 0.24
(1.25 )3 x 0.15
And: σ (FE ) = = 2.4 .10 −3 is the fundamental error standard deviation.
50 ,000
Then the 95% probability confidence interval ± 2 σ ( FE ) is 0.0048 and then CaO content confidence interval is:
052.( 1 ± 2σ ( FE )) = 0.52 ± 0.048% CaO . (Considering that 1 − τ ≈ 1 )
3
C .d M 0.15 x 4 3
MRW = = = 6 kg
σ ( FE ) 2 (0.04 )2
5.4 Estimation of the Maximum Particle Size
• Assuming we want to sample a maximum of 5 kg sample with a tolerate standard deviation of σ = 0.04
3 Mσ 2 5000 x 0.04 2
Then: dM = d M =3 = 3.8 cm
C 0.15
a) Rule of Thumb:
Maximum Particle Size (mm) 10 20 30 40 50 60 75 90
Min sample Coal (ISO1988), kg 0.6 0.8 3
Min Sample Aggregate, ASTM D75, kg 10 25 60 80 100 120 150 175
ASTM for the aggregate industry is very safe.
2.11
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2.12
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2.13
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3. QUALITY
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CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 3 – QUALITY
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Table of Contents
Index - i
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100C
• KSt I ( Kuhl ) =
1. Chemical Characterization 2.8 S + 1.1 A + 0.7 F
• In the following formulas: where:
S = SiO2, M = MgO, A =Al2O3, K = K2O, - A includes ( TiO 2 + P2 O 5 )
F = Fe2O3, N = Na2O3, C = CaO
when not specified: % is in weight in the raw
100 * ( C + 0.75 M )
mix. • KSt III =
• Raw feed density: 2700g/l. 2.8 S + 1.18 A + 0.65 F
- It takes MgO into account (when MgO <
1.1 Ignition Loss 2%).
• Ignition loss = 0.786 * C + 1.092M + combined
H2O+ organic matter.
LSF vs C3S
• CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 120
y = 0.3367x + 71.6
44 110
- % CO2 = × %CaO R2 = 0.9485
56 100
LSF
1.2 Silica Ratio 90
S
(2.3 to 3.1)
80
• SR =
A+ F 70
- If SR high, hard to burn, low coating (wall 60
losses), poor clinker reactivity, higher SHC.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
1.3 Alumina-Iron Ratio C3S
• AR =
A
(1.3 to 2.0 ) ∆bc vs C3S
F 30
- If AR high with low F then lower liquid 25
phase, poor viscosity. 20 y = -0.2734x + 21.552
2
15 R = 0.9606
1.4 Lime Saturation
(On Raw Mix analyses, except C3S) 10
∆bc
0
- It is the potential C3S content of clinker -5 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
when the free lime is zero and calculation -10 C3S
LOI=0. -15
- It is the only lime saturation criterion -20
considered in the TYTP.
1.5 Total Alkalies as Na2O
• LSF =
100C • Total as Na 2 O eq = Na 2 O + 0.658 K 2 O
2.8 S + 1.18 A + 0.65 F
Rule of thumb
100 * ( 2.8 S + 1.65 A + 0.3 F − C ) • + 0.1% Total Alkalies in clinker : -0.5 to -1MPa
• ∆bc = at 28days.
S + A+ F + C
- It should range between –4 and +4
depending on ashes and quality target.
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If we accept that this reaction can occur only after 100 < K < 140: Very good burnability
6
difference (%)
-4
-6
0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0
-8 -40
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Lafarge K -80
+0.1 % +0.4 % +1 % +1.3 % +0.2 % +3 %
= k [C 2 S ]• [C ]
d[C ] fluor sol. Na2O Ex.SO3 Fe2O3 P2O5 quartz
• equiv. > 63 µ
dt
with:
Rules of thumb
- [C2S] is the C 2 S concentration at t
• K 2 SO4 improves the burnability;
- [C] is the lime concentration at t
- k is a constant (function of temp). • +1% SO3 lower the combination temperature
[C o ]− [C ] = [C 2 S o ]− [C 2 S ]
by 60C;
• +1% K2O increases the combination
•
56 172 temperature bu 35C;
with: • increase from 2 to 3% of silica reject at 63
- [C°] is the concentration of lime at tº microns lower the K1450 by 30 points (cf
graph);
- [C2S°] is the concentration of C2S at tº
• + 0.3% CaF2 addition in the raw mix (or 0.23F
[C ] + ∆c = [C2 S ]
in the clinker) improves the K1450 by 10 to 60
• points, lowering the burning temp by 30 to
56 172 130C. Unfortunately, it lengers the setting time
with: ∆c is the ∆ bc relative at 100% clinker: by 40min +/-20min (for+0.1%F in the clinker).
Impact of fineness
S + A+ F +C • Free Lime = [C ] − 1.89 + 0.48( LSF − 100 ) +
• ∆ = c
∆ bc.
100 − LOI 2.84 (SR − 1.8 ) + 0.27 Q45 + 0.12C125 + 0.12 Aq 45
• K=
1 [C ] + ∆ C
ln
c
.
o
[ ] where:
3.07 ∆c C o + ∆c [C ] - Q45 = % quartz >45 µm
with: - C125 = % calcite >125 µm
- [Co] = CaO - 1.87 SiO2 - Aq45 = % non quartz, acid insoluble >45
- [C] = The remaining free lime in a lab test µm (excluding dolomite)
in which the raw material is burned for 30
minutes at 1450ºC Rule of thumb:
• %(quartz>63µm)<2%, %(quartz>45µm)<2.5%
Rule of thumb
K < 30: Very bad burnability
30 < K < 45: Bad burnability
45 < K < 70: Medium burnability
70 < K < 100: Good burnability
3.3
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 3 – QUALITY
VADE-MECUM
% free CaO Effects of % 100 µm rejects % free CaO Effects of % 100 µm rejects
6 Quartz type raw mix 6 Marl type raw mix
5 25 % 5
4 4
3 3
2 10 % 2 25 %
1 1
10 %
5%
0 0
1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550
temperature °C temperature °C
Total Na2O Sol. Na2O Total K2O Sol. K2O Tot.Na2O eq Sol.Na2O eq Exc.SO3 Exc.SO3
% % % % % % /t. alk. % /s. alk. %
Minimum 0.06 0.01 0.25 0.11 0.27 0.08 -0.63 -0.16
Average 0.17 0.07 0.74 0.54 0.66 0.43 -0.01 0.29
Maximum 0.40 0.19 1.40 1.19 1.00 0.87 1.73 1.86
3.4
Rev. 2002
2. Particles Size Distribution
2.1 Rosin-Rammler Number
• The Rosin-Rammler curve mathematically approximates most powder particle size distributions:
or
Rules of thumb
• RR# for high efficiency separator cement: 1.1 - 1.2
- RR# for Sturtevant circuit (raw or cement): 0.9 - 1.0
- RR# for open circuit cement: 0.8 - 0.9,
• do = 12-36 mm
• + 0.15 point #RR increases the water demand by 2-3% (ref. Les Cahiers Techniques)
∑ R −R
16
6f j +1
SSA = j
• ρ d +d
j =0 j j +1
3. Grindability
3.1 BB10 Test
Idea:
• Correlate the number of revolutions of a lab mill for a given fineness with the industrial energy to obtain the
same fineness. The material is crushed to everything passing 3.15 mm. The number of mill revolutions is
measured to obtain a given fineness. Revolutions are converted to industrial power consumption.
Lab Mill Characteristics:
Diameter: 40 cm Material load: 1kg
Length: 12 cm Balls: 20-25 mm : 2.5 kg
Speed: 55 rpm 20-35 mm : 3 kg
Ball volume load: 14 % 50 mm : 4.5 kg
Ball weight: 10 kg
3.6
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 3 – QUALITY
VADE-MECUM
Lafarge Data
• 25 Canadian clinkers @ 3500 Blaine averaged 55.7 kWh/t and 35 French averaged 50.7 kWh/t. Typical
results are 48-60 kWh/t.
BB10 for 250 m2/kg for 300 m2/kg for 350 m2/kg for 400 m2/kg
kWh/t kWh/t kWh/t kWh/t kWh/t
Minimum 21 30 39 49
Average 29.2 39.8 51.8 65.3
Maximum 43 56 68 83
• Developed to predict energy requirements of 2.44m diameter, wet, closed circuit, ball mill at a fineness of
either 65 mesh (220 µm) or 100 mesh(150 µ m).
• Pre-crush feed to #6 (3.35 mm). Maintain 700g sample in test mill. Turn mill 100-150 rev.
• Remove undersize (dp100 – 65 or 100 mesh) and replace with fresh feed (300 – 400 g). 1st cycle is now
completed. Repeat procedure until steady state is reached. Typically 6-8 cycles so that 200 g are removed at
each cycle, which equals 250% circulating load or 30% of “P”.
3.7
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 3 – QUALITY
VADE-MECUM
4. Sulfate
4.1 Clinker Sulfates
• Possible forms of sulfates and alkalies:
- as alkali sulfates (small crystals of a few µm) inserted between the clinker phases
- as S and alkalies inserted in the crystal structures of silicate and aluminate phases
Clinker rich in alkalies and…
… poor in sulfates … rich in sulfates
• Little alkali sulfates • Much alkali sulfates
• Uncombined alkalies: • Little uncombined alkalies:
- N and K in orthorhombic C3A - Little K and N in cubic C3A
- K in C2S - Little K in C2S
• Inversed monoclinic C3S • Rhomboedric C3S
• Some sulfur in the uncombined alkalies
S in silicates
and
aluminates
alkali sulfates
N and K in Cubic C3A alkali alkali
orthorhombic sulfates sulfates
C3A orthorhombic
Cubic C 3A Cubic C3 A
C3A
Clinker sulfate content
Workability
problems, Increase of early-age Clinker harder
plastic strengths to grind
shrinkage
• On the basis of the content of sulfur with respect to alkalies, and the relative proportions of
sodium and potassium, alkali sulfates may be found under different forms:
- Thenardite : Na 2 SO4 . This sodium sulfate is rarely seen in clinker.
- Aphthitalite : Na 2 SO4 3 K 2 SO4 . Its composition may vary to (3 Na 2 SO4 K 2 SO4 ) .
- Arcanite : K 2 SO4 . It is observed when the SO3 / K 2 O molar ratio ranges between 1 and 2.
- Calcium langbeinite: 2 CaSO4 K 2 SO4 . This phase is encountered when the SO3 / sodium equivalent*
molar ratio is greater than 2 and the sodium percentage low vis-à-vis potassium.
- Anhydrite: CaSO4 . It shows up only when the SO3 / sodium equivalent* molar ratio is greater than 3.
3.8
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 3 – QUALITY
VADE-MECUM
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sulfate solubility
3.5
100
00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
% Dehydr. 60
1.5
40
1
20
0 0 0 0 0
0.
0
0
1 2. 6 1 2 3 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time - Minutes Temp. °C
• Dehydration in the milling process can be thought as beginning at about 80 °C. However, gypsum
dehydration is also a function of the time and % humidity of the surrounding atmosphere. Hemihydrate
reacts differently than gypsum or anhydrite when water is added to cement, due to the differences in
solubility. In the case of too much hemihydrate, which dissolves very quickly and in substantial quantities in
the mix water, false set will occur. While too much hemihydrate will cause false set, not having enough SO3
available in solution will cause much more serious flash set.
Available Hydration time Type
• The following table gives schematic diagrams of sulphate in of
the structure development of cement. The lattice solution 10 min 1 hour 3 hours set
work represents the ettringite crystallization, the Low Low Normal
platelets - tabular monosulphate and the rectangles C3A SO3 set
- secondary gypsum. workable workable set
3.9
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 3 – QUALITY
VADE-MECUM
Optimum sulfate
• S = 1.2(% sol Na 2 O equiv.) + 0.2 (% Al 2 O3 ) + 6.2 10 −3 ( BSS ) − 0.7 .
• The sulfate content roughly corresponds to the optimum for 3-day strengths.
4.3 Water Spray
• One method to control the mill temperature and thus gypsum dehydration is through the use of water spray.
For reasons of cement quality (C3S hydration), the water vapor dew-point temperature in the mill air must
not exceed about 70 °C. The decomposition enthalpy of crystalline water in gypsum is much less (628
kJ/kg) than the evaporation enthalpy of water (2257 kJ/kg).
• Thus theoretically one can:
- Reduce Preliminary Hydration - use anhydrite (no crystalline water) instead of gypsum and keep the
water spray constant. This will decrease the water content of the air. The mill outlet temperature will
increase in this case.
- Reduce The Mill Outlet Temperature - use anhydrite and increase the water spray, keeping the dew-point
constant. The preliminary hydration will remain the same because the water content of the air remains
constant.
- Reduce Temperature and Preliminary Hydration - use anhydrite and substitute some, but not all, of the
crystalline water for more water spray.
A variation of? Mpa 1-d fc 2-dfc 7-d fc 28-d fc Compressive strength (MPa)
Strength is produced by (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) 80
C3S
an increase of 1 point of: 70
60 C2S
Sol Na2Eq (%) 10 10
Tot Na2Eq (%) -10 50
3.10
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 3 – QUALITY
VADE-MECUM
5.3 Microscopy
a) Interpretation
Case Observations
1) Raw Mix
Raw mix fineness Siliceous rejects Belite ring around empty pores
Shaly rejects Belite ring around pores filled with celite
Calcareous rejects Tight-grain free lime patches
Raw Mix Heterogenous Wide patches of belite that can exceed 500 µm
Homogeneity Homogenous Alite and belite side by side, without belite patches
Lime saturation Overdosage High free lime content with no or little belite
Of raw mix Underdosage Little or no free lime, high belite content
Raw mix chemistry Alkalies Orthorhombic C3 A in needles if alkalies in crystal structure.
Cubic C3 A if alkalies in alkalie sulfate form.
2) Burning
Under burning Low Temperature High porosity (homogenous), much free lime dispensed, poorly
shaped minute alite crystals.
Rapid Zone Passage Heterogeneous porosity, belite separated from lime by a thin alite
streak.
Over burning High Temperature Low porosity, large alite and small pointe alite crystals,
ferroaluminate needles, amoeboid belite
Slow zone passage at Large fused alite crystals (cannibalism)
high To
Atmosphere Reduced Ferroaluminate inclusions in alite, and lime on pore edges.
3) Cooling
Cooling rate Very high (quenching) Aluminates and ferroaluminates highly intermingles, fissured
belite, and periclase in small crystals.
Slow Good separation between aluminates and ferroaluminates, belite
borders around alite.
Very slow Belite shredded, spongy and mono striated, belite and periclase
linkage even in clinker having less than 2% MgO.
0
+ 0,4% 1 -1%1 Norm1 al +1
1% +14%
Sol.Na O Exc SO 3 ./ hard Free CaO C 3A
2
Equiv. T ot. alk. burning
3.11
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 3 – QUALITY
VADE-MECUM
3.12
Rev. 2002
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∑ (C S − C S
N
• KFUI =
1
3 i 3 T )2 Target: Lafarge Corp < 10, Group < 14
N
i =1
∑ (C S − C S
N
• CUI .(clkC 3S ) =
1
N
3 i 3 average )2 Target < 16
i =1
σ SO3
• KSUI = × 100 Target < 10
1 + x SO3
σ fCaO
• fCaO.UI = Target < 1
0.1 + 0.2 × x fCaO3
- KFUI measures the ability to follow a raw mix C3S target. Clinker uniformity indicators measure the
variation from an average.
- Use first scheduled “grab” sample per day, with no calculation if there is less than 10 days production.
Exception: Lafarge Corp. recommends KFUI calculation based on all samples.
- Indicators are calculated on a monthly and annual (12-month rolling average) basis for kiln main product
only. The 12MRA KFUI is an average of the monthly results weighted by clinker tonnage, while clinker
12MRAs use 12-month variances and averages (C3S, SO3, f-CaO).
- Combining indices for an aggregate plant index is done by weighting clinker tonnage.
3.13
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 3 – QUALITY
VADE-MECUM
8. ASTM Standards
Comparison of Portland Cement Specifications
Updated - Nov. 21, 2000 NORMAL MODERATE (II/20) HIGH EARLY (III/30) LOW HEAT SULFATE RESISTAT
(I/10) (IV/40) (V/50)
CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS ASTM AASHTO CSA ASTM AASHTO CSA ASTM AASHTO CSA (a) ASTM AASHTO CSA ASTM AASHTO CSA
3.14
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3.15
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(a) CSA A5 recognizes the existence of an optimum carbonate addition for some Portland cements. Therefore, a maximum of 5% addition of
limestone is permitted for Type 10 and Type 30 cement.
(b) This optional limit may be specified when the cement is to be used in concrete with aggregates that may be deleteriously reactive.
(d) For C3A calculation, ASTM, AASHTO and CSA use Al2O3 only without TiO2 and P2O5.
(e) A loss on ignition of 3.5% is allowed for Type 10 and Type 30 Portland cements provided that such cements when tested in accordance with
the CSA Standard, but at a furnace temperature of 550oC, show a loss in mass of no more than 3.0%.
(f) The optional limit for heat of hydration shall not be requested when this optional limit is specified.
(g) Not applicable.
(h) Does not apply when the heat of hydration limit is specified.
(i) ASTM & AASHTO allow 16-22% air in Types IA, IIA, IIIA.
(j) Required if SO3 exceeds the table limits.
(k) Does not apply when the sulfate resistance limit is specified.
(n) Either of the two alternative fineness methods may be used at the option of the testing laboratory. However, in the case of ASTM, the
turbidimeter is the referee method; average value shall be determined on the last consecutive five samples from a source.
(o) The purchaser should specify the type of setting time test required. In case he does not so specify, the requirements of the Vicat test only
shall govern; CSA only specifies Vicat test.
(p) The optional limit for the sum of the C3S and C3A shall not be requested when this optional limit is requested. These strength requirements
apply when either heat of hydration or the sum of C3S and C3A requirements are requested.
(q) When heat of hydration limit is specified, it shall be instead of the limits of C3S, C2S and C3A.
(s) The requirement of either heat of hydration or sulfate resistance may be specified at the option of the purchaser.
(t) Optional, it shall be instead of the limits of C3A and C4AF+2C3A.
(v) This value indicates requirement to be specified at the option of the purchaser.
CTS - Products and Quality,
Nov. 21, 2000
3.16
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VADE-MECUM
3.17
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 3 – QUALITY
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3.18
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3.19
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3.20
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VADE-MECUM
4. MILLING
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 4 – MILLING
VADE-MECUM
Table of Contents
Index - i
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 4 – MILLING
VADE-MECUM
1. Mill
1.1 Ball Mill General
a) Mill design
General L/D ratio
• Raw mills: 1.5 < L/D < 3.2
• Finish / cement mills: 2.8 < L/D < 3.2
Length of first Compartments relative to total mill length
• Raw mills: First compartment length equals 35 – 45% of total mill effective length.
• Cement mill: First compartment length equals 30 – 35% of total mill effective length.
• When L/D>1.5, classifying liners might be used.
• The lower the L/D, the higher the circulating load needs to be (see below).
b) Percent loading of mill
2π
αr 2 − r sin α (h − r )
0.9
h/d
• % volume load = 360 0.8
πr 2
where: 0.7
- r is the radius
0.6
- h is the free height
h−r
- α = arccos 0.5 0 10 20 30 40 50%
r % volume load
- α in degrees π = 3.14
Rules of thumb
• % vol. Load = 111.87 – 123.98 (h/d), 25 – 50%: error max 0.6%.
• It is estimated that material increases the actual ball filling ratio by about 2%.
• Another method (quick but not as accurate) consists in counting the number of visible shell liner plates (n) and
to divide by the total number of shell liner plates per circumference (N): Angle α = n x 360 / N.
Values of angle h/d ratio in relation to the ball load (% filling degree)
Ball load (%) h/d n/N Ball load (%) h/d n/N
20 .7459 .667 31 .6516
21 .737 32 .6434 .590
22 .7281 .653 33 .6352
23 .7193 34 .627 .580
24 .7106 .639 35 .6189
25 .702 36 .6109 .569
26 .6926 .625 37 .6028
27 .685 38 .5948 .558
28 .6765 .611 39 .5868
29 .6682 40 .5789 .549
30 .6598 .601 41 .5709
42 .563 .539
4.1
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 4 – MILLING
VADE-MECUM
4.2
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 4 – MILLING
VADE-MECUM
B = 24 d 80
(Other formula exist that result in value differences
of ± 5%)
- B = ball dimension (mm)
- d 80 is the sieve with 80% passing
10
.1 1 10 100
Clinker Size d80
Rowland Formula
d 80 ρ . Wi
• B = 25.4 . d 80 is the sieve with 80% passing
K 100 . Ψ . 3.281 Du
4.3
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 4 – MILLING
VADE-MECUM
Quick calculation:
• Ball diameter (mm) = 3 250 P (P = weight in g)
785 2
• Specific surface of balls of diameter = m / mt (d = diameter in mm)
d
4.4
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 4 – MILLING
VADE-MECUM
Wear rates:
Ball diameter mm Wear GT ball Wear / Ball Wear ∂ diam
g/h.T g/100h mm/100h
100
90 12.9 38.6 0.4
80 14.4 30.4 0.4
70 16.7 23.6 0.4
60 19.3 17.2 0.4
50 23.1 11.9 0.4
40 28.9 7.6 0.4
30 38 4.22 0.4
25 46.5 2.98 0.4
20 58.5 1.92 0.4
17 68.2 1.38 0.4
Bulk density for ball load
(coarse to medium ball size distribution):
• In first compartment; 4.3 –4.5 metric tonnes per tonne of balls (3.0 to 2.0 inch balls would be fine).
• In second compartment; 4.5 – 4.65 metric tonnes per tonne of balls (2.0 to 0.75 inch balls would be considered
medium to fine).
• In single compartment: 4.5 – 4.55 metric tonnes per tonne of balls.
c) Others internals
Partitions
• Total slot area: 10 to 20 cm2/tph production:
Slot Size Central Part Discharge Part
FM 7 mm ± 1 mm 9 mm ± 1 mm Max: ½ min ball size
RM 10 mm ± 1 mm 12 mm ± 1 mm
Liners
• Liners must be changed when 60% of their effective lifting height has worn away:
- -8 to –10 % production
- reference points to measure lifting height are the lowest point on the liner to the highest release point
(contact points between grinding ball and liner plate)
• American Lorrain pattern: diameter (ft)*2=# bolt holes/row, 18.8” center to center.
• DIN pattern: diameter (m)*10== # bolt holes/row, 31.4 cm center to center.
• Classifying liners if L/D>1.5 and volume load<35%.
• Without classifying liners, keep a maximum of 3-4 ball sizes.
4.5
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 4 – MILLING
VADE-MECUM
1
The recommended volume loading for minimum kWh/t is based on an acceptable compromise with production. For minimum kWh/t
the volume loading can be as low as 22%.
4.6
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 4 – MILLING
VADE-MECUM
4.7
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 4 – MILLING
VADE-MECUM
4.8
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 4 – MILLING
VADE-MECUM
A limited amount of 5/8” balls should theoretically be added but the designer decided to use ¾” as the smallest ball size.
e) Fineness in Finish Mills:
In the first compartment before intermediate diaphragm
• 95% passing of 2.365 mm (2360 µ or 8 mesh) for the material leaving the first compartment 33% of energy.
• Particle size distribution recommended on other sieves:
- 86 – 92 % passing 1.0 mm (1000 µm or 18 mesh)
- 80 – 90 % passing 0.6 mm (595 µm or 30 mesh)
- 75 – 85 % passing 0.5 mm (500 µm or 35 mesh)
In the second compartment before discharge diaphragm
• 95% passing 0.5 mm (500 µm or 35 mesh)
• 70- 80 % passing 0.2 mm (212 µm or 70 mesh)
4.9
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 4 – MILLING
VADE-MECUM
1.27
rpm π
• P = L *
* J*K j* * Fr2.379 * d * C
Vcr 4
Simplified formula
RPM 100 Fr
• P =T * * *Kj * * 9.5
V cr 75 1.366
Kj Function of Volume Load
Volume load Kj
40% 0.9
30% 1
20% 1.1
Rules of Thumb
• One metric ton of balls increases the mill power draw by 10kW.
• Usually, 8 to 12 kWh/t is absorbed in the first compartment for clinker grinding.
b) Grinding Laws
General Law: Charles
• dW = cx −n dx
- If W = Comminution work, x = Size of
particles (initial, final)
Value of n
Energy Law Value of n: Applies well over range of:
Rittinger 2 10 – 1000 µm
Kick 1
Bond 1.5
4.10
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 4 – MILLING
VADE-MECUM
4.11
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 4 – MILLING
VADE-MECUM
2. Separator
2.1 Circulating Load
a) Junction with Three Streams
A • A, R, F are the feed, reject and fine of the separator
- ai , ri , f i are the cumulated % passing at a defined sieve(i).
- da, dr, df are the % retained corresponding to the sieve interval dx.
- A= R+F
- A da = Rdr + Fdf
R F
R df − da F dr − da
With: da = ai + 1 − ai , = , =
A df − dr A dr − df
b) Drawing c) CL calculation
• Plot ( f i − a ) vs ( f i − ri ) • Using the least square line calculations,
If the mill circuit is steady, the graph has to be a with α = 0
straight line:
( f − a) = α + β( f − r ) d) Quick CL calculation
- α should be close to 0 • With one set of results of sieving:
R R f −a
- β is the most probable value of =
A F a−r
R β
- The circulating load is defined as: =
F 1− β
∑ ( f − a )( f − r )
n
i i i i
R i =0
=
∑( f − r )
A n
2
i i
i =0
4.12
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 4 – MILLING
VADE-MECUM
b) Imperfection
• I = d75 − d 25
where:
2 * d 50 - d25 is the size of the particle which has 25 % chance of going to rejects
- d50 is the size of the particle which has 50 % chance of going to rejects
- d75 is the size of the particle which has 75 % chance of going to rejects
I= 0.4 -0.5 for a high efficiency separator
0.6 - 0.7 for a Sturtevant
0.45 - 0.6 for a Raymond separator
Imperfection vs Circulation Load
0.44
Imperfection
0.42
0.40
0.38
0.36
0 100 200 300 400
Circ. load (%)
c) Acuity Limit
• AL is the abscissa of the intersection of the two Tromp curve lines.
• It’s the size at which selection is initiated
Rule of thumb
• Cement mill = Acuity limit: 20-30 µm, Raw mill = Acuity limit: 30-60 µm
d) Bypass
Definition:
• By-pass is the ordinate of the intersection of the two Tromp curve lines.
• The bypass is the lowest percentage of feed that will go to the separator rejects.
Bypass vs. feed rate – Sturtevant Bypass vs. feed rate O’Sepa/Sturtevant
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
70
Sturtevant
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
60
80
Bypass (%)
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
50
Bypass (%)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
60 40
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
40 20
O-Sepa
10
20 0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
0 Qf/Qa (kg feed/m3 separator sweep)
50 100 150 200 250 300
Feedrate to Separator (t/h)
4.13
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 4 – MILLING
VADE-MECUM
00 00 00
QF/Qa vs. bypass
40
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
• If Qf is the separator feed rate (kg/h) and Qa the
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
30
Bypass (%)
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
separator ventilation (m3/h),
• Qf/Qa is an important ratio for the separator 20
efficiency.
Qf
10 00 00 00
0 0
− f1
Qa
• Bypass = 1 + e
0
- f1: coefficient for the separator 0 1 2 3 4
Qf/Qa (kg/m3)
4.14
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CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 4 – MILLING
VADE-MECUM
4.15
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4.16
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VADE-MECUM
b) Heat balance
Mill heat generation
• Kcal/h = kWh (power measured)*factor*860
- Factor = 0.75 for vertical mill and 0.9 for ball mill
Furnace wall losses
• About 5kcal/kg fuel
4.17
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 4 – MILLING
VADE-MECUM
4. Grinding Aid
Type of Products
• Surface active agents tend to saturate the free valence and inhibit the pack-set. Typical surface-active agents
are:
- ligno-sulphonates
- polyoils
- amines
- organic acids
• Polar compounds (water, ammonia) are known to have some action on such bonds through their polar moment.
However, their practical use as surface agents is limited by their other impacts on the cement properties.
• Other agents, particularly coal dust, have been used in the past.
• Commercial products available as grinding aids are essentially (60-800 g/t ck):
- Triethanolamine
- Polypropyleneglycols and polyethylene
• HEA2, DDA& and other products cause a definite reduction of pack-set but do not prevent agglomeration or
lump-formation problems that are caused by:
- Alkalis ( K 2 SO4 )
- Moisture
The effect of grinding aid on milling process:
- Enhances the flowability and prevents agglomeration
- Prevents coating on liners and grinding media- Decreases the "Blaine: Passing 325" ratio
- Is lLowers effect on coarser product (below 320 m2/kg)
- Reduces contraction
Example Bath
• HEA2 on the feeding belt, Range: 0.1-0.2 kg/t of kk
• Specific gravity: 1.195 kg/l, % active agent: 70%
0.15
• Price: 1.31 $/l, Cost: * 1.31 = 0.234 $/t kk
0.7 * 1.195
• At kWh/t cte, 200g/t of glycol: +80 SSB
• Production increase and pack set decrease. Mixed with water (3/1) and injected in #1 comp
HEA2 (Grace) HEA2/rm (Grace)
0.025% weight per weight of kk 0.078% weight per weight of kk
2.02$/kg 1.48$/kg
6% production increase for a higher setting time (20 min)
reduce cracks
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5. Sieve
Sieve Screen Micron Iso alter Screen Micron Iso alter
#400 37 38 #14 1400
#325 44 45 #12 1700
#270 53 53 #10 2000 2000
#230 63 63 #8 2360
#200 74 75 #7 2800
#170 88 90 #6 3350
#140 105 106 #5 4000
#120 125 125 #4 4750
#100 149 150 #3.5 5600
#80 177 180 1/4" 6350 6300
#70 210 212 5/16" 8000 8000
#60 250 250 3/8" 9510 9500
#50 297 300 7/16" 11200 11200
#45 354 355 1/2" 12700 12500
#40 420 425 5/8" 16000 16000
#35 500 500 3/4" 19000 19000
#30 595 600 7/8" 22600 22400
#25 707 710 1" 25400 25000
#20 850 1"1/4 32000 31500
#18 1000 1000 1"1/2 38100 38100
#16 1180 2" 50800 50000
4.19
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Table of Contents
Index - i
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1. Fuel Theory
a) Low Heating Value
• LHV is calculated from the Higher Heating Value (obtained by bomb calorimeter)
• Considering that :
- Water created by the combustion doesn’t condense
- The reaction takes place under constant pressure
LHV = HHV - 567W (at std. Temp = 25oC) in metric units
LHV = HHV – 1020W (std. Temp = 60oF) in english units
• The difference between the HHV and the LHV will vary with fuel type. The greater the proportion of
hydrogen in a fuel, the lower the resulting LHV:
Fuel %H HHV LHV LHV LHV as a
(Btu/lb) (Btu/lb) (kcal/kg) % of HHV
Coal 5 12,000 11,540 6410 96
Coke 4 14,000 13,630 7570 97
Waste Fuel 10 9,000 8,070 4480 90
Fuel oil 10 19,000 18,070 10040 95
Nat. gas 25 23,000 20,680 11490 90
Rule of thumb:
• One cubic foot of air (+stochiometric amount of NG or oil) releases 100 Btu of heat (for fuel), 1m3 air
releases about 900 kcal.
b) Volatile Matter
• Volatile matter is the loss in weight, corrected for moisture, of a sample heated to 950oC in the absence of
air.
Ignition
Temperature C
300
% VM
5.1
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c) Ash
• Ash is the inorganic residue remaining after burning coal heated to 750oC in an oxidizing atmosphere until
there is not weight change. It is composed chiefly (95-99%) of oxides of Si, Al, Fe, and Ca; Mg, Ti, S, Na,
K, and trace elements can also be present.
d) Fixed Carbon
• Fixed carbon is the residue left after the volatile matter is driven off and is calculated as:
F.C. = 100 – (% ash + % moisture + % volatile matter)
e) Flammability
Limit flammability in air Temp auto flame
Inf limit (%) Sup limit (%) in air (°C)
H2 4 75 570
CO 12.5 74 610
CH4 5 15 580
C2H6 3 12.5 490
C3H8 2.2 9.5 480
C4H10 1.7 8.5 420
2. Solid Fuel
2.1 Coal
a) Main Coal Characteristics
Approximate Analysis and bulk density for Various Coals
Group Fixed carbon (%) Volatile matter (%) Heat value (Btu/lb.) Kg/m3
≥ than < than > than < than ≥ than
Anthracite 800-930
Meta anthracite 98 2
Anthracite 92 98 2 8
Semi anthracite 86 92 8 14
Bituminous 670-910
Low-vol 78 86 14 22
Med volatile 69 78 22 31
High vol A 69 31
High vol B 13,000
High vol C 11,500
Subbituminous
A 10,500
B 9,500
C 8,300
Lignitic 640-860
A 6,300
B
5.2
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5.3
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2.2 Coke
• Coke is the solid, cellular, infusible material Delayed Coke Fluid Coke
remaining after carbonization of coal, pitch, LHV MJ/t 34,300 31,000
petroleum residue and other carbonaceous %C 88 – 90 87 – 88
materials. Thus, its oxydation takes more %H 3.9 – 4.5 2–3
C/H Ratio 21 35
time: 1 to 2 seconds.
%S 2–6 5–8
ASH content (%) 0.5 – 1.5 2–8
Volatile matter (%) 10 – 15 5 – 10
Granulometry (mm) 0 – 50 0–8
Moisture content (%) 7 – 10 5 – 10
Ignition Temperature 220 - 250 230 – 250
Hard Grove (HGI) 90 – 100 10 - 30
3. Fuel Oil
3.1 Main Characteristics
Comp Nº1 Nº2 Nº4 Nº6 FO Nº6
C 86.4 87.3 86.47 87.26 84.67
H 13.6 12.6 11.65 10.49 11.02
O 0.01 0.04 0.27 0.64 0.38
N 0.003 0.006 0.24 0.28 0.18
S 0.09 0.22 1.35 0.84 3.97
Ash <0.01 <0.01 0.02 0.04 0.02
C/H ratio 6.35 6.93 7.42 8.31 7.62
Specific Gravity 0.849 0.902 0.965
3.2 Viscosity
Theory
• The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. Viscosity is the opposite of fluidity.
- abs visc is absolute viscosity, µ measured in cp (centipoise);
- kin visc is kinematic viscosity, C measured in cs or cSt (centistokes)
- abs visc in cp = kin visc cs * specific gravity
1 poise = 100 cp = 1 dyne.s/cm2+ = 1 g/s*cm, 1 stoke = 100 cs = 0.000 1 m2/s
Viscosity - temperature information for selected fuel oils
• The far right-hand columns list temperatures required to reduce the oil viscosity to levels often required for
easy pumping (440cSt) and for atomization (20.7cSt).
• Required:
- Viscosity: 20-25cSt, filtration<125µm (abrasion and clogging: 3-stage filtration at 35, 60 and 120#)
- Variation at the pump should not be higher than 5cSt
5.4
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4. Waste Fuel
a) Waste Fuel Specification
Heat Content < 23 GJ/T (9900 Btu/lb) ASTM D-240-76 range 28-32 GJ/T (12000-13800
Btu/lb)
Ash content < 7%
Specific gravity < 1.2 kg/L
Suspended solids < 30% (after being screened through a 30 mesh sieve)
Water < 1% (as separated phase)
Total halogens < 2%
Sulphur < 3%
Nitrogen < 1%
Inorganic acids and bases Extractable pH of 4 of 11
Barium < 3000 ppm
Chromium < 300 ppm
Lead < 3000 ppm
Zinc < 3000 ppm
Vanadium < 200 ppm
PCB and PBB < 50 ppm
Benzene < 0.5%
Odor Characteristic of solvents as per ASTM 1296-69
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5. Natural Gas
a) Gas Characteristics
Typical example Content (%) LHV (Kcal/Nm3) Sp weight (kg/Nm3)
CH4 93.93 8,556 0.7143
C2H6 2.42 15,223 1.3393
C3H8 0.26 21,795 1.9643
C4H10 (ISO+N) 0.002 28,336 2.589
C5H10 (ISO+N) 0 32,123 3.2143
S 0
CO2 0.34 1.9643
N2 3.05 1.2500
H2 0 0.0893
He 0 0.1339
O2 0 1.4286
Total 8462 0.7533
b) Combustion
Combustion Equations for Natural Gas
• CH 4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H 2 O • C 5 H 12 + 8 O2 → 5 CO2 + 6 H 2 O
7 1
• C 2 H 6 + O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H 2 O • H 2 + O2 → H 2 O
2 2
• C 3 H 8 + 5 O2 → 3 CO2 + 4 H 2 O • S + O2 → SO2
13
• C 4 H 10 + O 2 → 4 CO2 + 5 H 2 O
2
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Rule of thumb
• 9.412 Nm3/Nm3gas (for the example)
Neutral Combustion Products for natural gas
Nm3/Nm3 gas kg/Nm3 gas % volume % weight
CO2 0.999 1.962 9.58% 15.25%
SO2 0.000 0.000 0.00% 0.00%
H2O 1.962 1.576 18.81% 12.25%
N2 7.466 9.332 71.60% 72.51%
Total: 10.426 12.871
Natural Gas Heat Value
• kcal / m 3 = 90.3 [CH 4 ] + 159.2 [C 2 H 6 ] + 229 [C 3 H 8 ] .
6. Flame Theory
6.1 Definition
• The oxidation reaction is an exothermic reaction, which can be developed either slowly or quickly: The fast
reaction leads to the flame.
6.2 Flame Speed
• In stable burner flames, the flame front appears to be stationary because the flame is moving toward the
burner at the same speed that the fuel air mixture is coming out of the burner.
• Thus risk of blow off if mixture speed>flame speed.
• Natural gas flame speed in air: 0.3m/s and in Oxygen: 4 to 5m/s.
6.3 Flame Radiation
• R = σ ε T4 - ε: flame intensity:
- σ = Boltsman constant ≈ 1 solid fuel
- T = Flame temperature ≈ 0.8 – 0.95 heavy oil
≈ 0.25 – 0.70 gas
6.4 Factors Influencing the Flame Temperature
( net heat value of the fuel ) − ( effect of disssociation )
• T=
( weight of comb product ) * ( specific heat of comb prodct )
• An increase of flame temperature can be obtained by:
- Increasing combustion air temperature (ex: air temp: (200, 500, 900F) gives flame temp (3510, 3630,
3800)
- Decreasing inerts:
⇒ Avoid high excess air
⇒ O2 enrichment (ex: % O2 (21, 25, 29) gives flame temp (3650, 3900, 4150) in case of coal, air
preheated at 510F)
5.7
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% 02preheat temperature, F
requires 4.6/2.3=2 times as much fuel
when preheat temp=500F as when
preheat is 1500F when flue gas
temperature is 3000F
7. Burner Pipes
• The flame should be centered along the kiln axis.
7.1 Number of Air Circuits
• For solid fuels, the number of air circuits determines the degree of control on the flame shape.
Single Circuit Burner Pipe
• Minimal control.
• The solid fuel has to be carried with the air.
• High velocities: Higher fan pressure requirement, higher wear in the circuit.
• Required burner tip velocity is of the order of 80 m/s.
Two-circuit Burner
• Swirl + high velocity transport air.
• Additional control due to swirl but the problems of high pressure fan and high wear rate remain.
Three-circuit Burner
• (swirl + high velocity axial + low velocity transport air).
• The most versatile one. The solid fuel does not have to be brought at a high velocity.
• Clearance of top guide vanes is critical since it will control eccentricity of flame.
7.2 Primary Air
Indirect System
• The primary air is usually controlled at below 12 % of the total combustion air.
Direct system
• No recirculation of mill exit air, the primary air can be as high as 30 to 35 % of total combustion air. All of
the air exiting the mill system enters the pyro-process.
5.8
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Semi-direct system
• Primary air quantity varies (usually 18 to 25 %), depending upon the incoming fuel moisture.
• To keep a constant flow (10 to 15 % of total combustion air), it is possible to send the "overflow" to the kiln
hood (for the direct or semi-direct system).
Primary air impact on heat consumption
Indirect Semi-direct Direct
Primary air 12% 20-25% 30-35%
kcal/kg 4-5 20-25 50
Tip velocity:
axial air swirl air transport air gas
80 to 250 m/s 50 to 250 m/s 20 to 40 m/s 200 m/s
Pressure drop within burner pipe:
For a three-circuit burner: Blower Design Pressure
• 700 to 1000 mm H2O for axial air; 3000 - 7000
• 150 to 600 mm H2O for swirl air; 200 - 2000
• 600 to 1000 mm H2O for transport air (up to 1200 mm 2000 - 3500
H2O for a modified three-circuit burner).
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7.5 Swirl
• Swirl is the ratio of the tangential component produced by the rotational air to the sum of the axial
components Ix produced by the various primary air and gas circuits.
• It improves the stability by forming toroidal recirculation zones that recirculate heat and species (when
Sw>0.3).
Rotational moment / axial moment ratio
where:
Vry
- I θr = I xr t g α
Rot. circ. velocity: Vr
- Iθ : tangential impulsion
Vrx
- I xr : rotational circuit axial impulsion
Iθ r r g α : swirl angle (usually between 20 and 35
rg SW = -
I x . De degree: smaller for long dry kiln)
where: I θ r = Qmr . Vry • The gyration radius defines, on the basis of the
Ix = Σ I respective radius of the rotational circuit at the
i xi
burner pipe tip.
- rg = 2/3 (re3 – ri3) / (re2 – ri2)
- re = external radius
- ri = internal radius
• The equivalent diameter of the flow is given by: where:
2Qm - Qm = The total mass flowrate of the air injected
De = Ιχ - ρ m = The average specific gravity of the air
Πρ mΙχ
- Ιχ = The total axial impulse
Rules of thumb
swirl Long Kilns Short Kilns
Fuel, coal, coke 0,02 to 0.08 0,12 to 0.15
Gas 0,05 0,05
7.6 Examples of Burner Tip
air gun
Pillard Standard
Axial
Transport axial air holes
Swirl
Gas Tip velocity 100 m/s rotational circuit
10% of primary air 2 expansion seals
5.10
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TIP CROSS SECTION AREAS Diameters : % cross section reduction Dext : 355.6
(mm) thk : 9.525
AXIAL AIR 320.7 2667 mmWG
Holes 1, Vanes 2 : 1 218 m/s 291.7 71.6% 23 m/s 2360 Nm³/h
3963 mm² Dext : 273.1
247.7 thk : 12.7
TRANSPORT AIR 36 m/s 223.1 31 m/s Dext : 219.1
9096 mm² thk : 8.179
196.7 2500 mmWG
SWIRL AIR 212 m/s 172.8 56.2% 26 m/s 1437 Nm³/h
2491 mm² Dext : 141.3
thk : 6.553
DETAILS OF THE TIP Swirler Number slots groove width radial gap radius
angle (o) of vanes width(mm) (mm) vanes(mm) raccord.
Swirl 35 20 12.0 9.800 0.5 1
Axial (if vanes) -
GENERAL DATA
Kiln TYPE : AS PRODUCTION (T CK /d ) : 2630.00
5.11
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80
Fuel Grindability (Hardgrove)
60
Combustion Temp.
= 900°C
Combustion Temp.
= 1500°C
.1
.01 .1 1
Diameter of coal particle (mm)
5.12
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 5 – COMBUSTION & FUELS
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8.3 Dosing
• Dosing should insure a regular and steady feeding of the burner. The targeted precision should be in the
range of 1% (see Les Cahiers Techniques Combustion). Coal concentration up to 7kg/m3 of air.
8.4 Safety Considerations
• Process has to deal with safety.
Recommendations
(to be adjusted plant by plant)
Sensor Threshold Sensor Threshold
Storage temperature, external, unpacted 50C Filter outlet temp (coke) 105C
Raw silo (lower base) 50C Temp difference (outlet-inlet) 10C
Raw silo (top) CO 1500 ppm Temp difference variation 10C
Grinding mill outlet temp (coke) 120C Filter outlet CO 2000ppm
Grinding mill outlet temp (Coal) 65C Filter hopper temp (coke) 85C
Mill inlet temp: (High VM : 40%) 200C Pulverized hopper CO 1000ppm
Mill inlet temp: (Low VM : 20%) 360C Pulverized hopper temp 85C
Filter outlet O2 (coke) 15% Fired fuel into the kiln (%H2O) 0.5-1.5%
Filter outlet (coal) 13% Transport air (non inert/inert) temp (Coal) 65/85C
(sources: PyroI, modified 2000, RdeB)
8.5 Fuel Grinders
• Feed size: 0-50mm, moisture content: 10-15%, exhaust gases dust load: 500-600g/m3.
• Hot gases temperature 250-400C, dew point: 20-70C, exhaust gases temperature: 80-100C.
• Moisture content in the blasted fuel below 1%.
Type of grinder Hammer mill Tube mill Roller mill Ring ball mill (Babcock)
kWh/t 20-30 25-30 10-13
Lifetime wear part 500-1000h Liners: 25-40000h 3-5000 h 9-12000h
Drying capacity 0-15% H2O 0-15% H2O 0-20% H2O
Tube mill Wear rate (g/t) Life (h) Rollermill Wear rate (g/t) Life (h)
Balls 80-200 Roller liners 5-20 4-9000
Liners 8-20 25-40000 Table liners 4-10 4-12000
Diaphragms 8-20 10-20000 Casting liners 3-5 2-12000
Rules of thumb:
• Mill sweep : 1.7 to 2.2 Nm3/kg fuel
• Drying efficiency : average 1200kcal/kgH2O for a residual moisture of 0.5 to 1.5%
5.13
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6. PYROPROCESSING
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Table of Contents
Index - i
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6.1
Rev. 2002
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6.2
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00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
80
%
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
100
60 Ca CO3 CaO
C33S 80
40
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 C2S
60
40
20
Quartz α Quartz β Cristob. 20
Clays Liqu.
0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 T °C
Fe2O3 C2(A,F) C12A7 C4AF C 3A
1 Each enthalpy of reaction is given @25°C, according to G.Seidel, H.Huckauf and J.Stark: “Technologie des Bindebaustoffe Brennprozess und Brennanlagen”
6.3
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4. Cyclone
4.1 Pressure Drop
• The Dp through a cyclone for a family of where:
similar cyclones: - Dp is the pressure drop through the cyclone
- r is the fluid density
Q2 - Q is the gas flow
Dp = cst ∗ r ∗
D4 - D is the diameter of the cyclone
6.4
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5. Chains
5.1 Guideline
Zone Target (wet) Dry kiln
Free zone length (ratio to kiln diameter) 1.0 to 1.5 1.0 to 1.5
Dust M2/m3 11.0 to 15.0 11.0 to 15.0
Chain length (% of kiln diameter) <75% <75%
Plastic zone length (ratio to kiln diameter) 1.0 to 4.0 N/A
M2/m3 5.0 to 8.0 N/A
Chain length (% of kiln diameter) 60% to 70% N/A
Preheat lower section zone length (ratio to kiln diameter) 0.5 to 2.5 0.5 to 2.5
M2/m3 7.0 to 10.0 7.0 to 10.0
Chain length (% of kiln diameter) 70% 70%
Preheat upper section zone length (ratio to kiln diameter) 0.5 to 2.5 0.5 to 2.5
M2/m3 6.0 to 8.5 6.0 to 8.5
Chain length (% of kiln diameter) 70% 70%
6.5
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CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 6 – PYROPROCESSING
VADE-MECUM
• Chain surface: 19m2/t for oval chains vs. 22-25 m2/t for round chains.
• For small kilns, ratios are always lower than for larger kilns.
• Ratios are higher for dry kiln compared to wet kiln.
• Chainless sections are applied along chain zone aiming to:
- equalize gas temperatures
- serve as a buffer area to equalize varying rates of material transportation
- precipitate kiln dust
- allow for installation of thermocouples
Other Rules of Thumb
• 1500 m of installed chains reduces the exit chain gas temperature by 100oC.
• A properly designed chain system can lower the SHC by 300 kcal/kg ck.
• heat exchange rate: 8.75 kcal/h/m2/C.
• pressure per one meter of chain: 1-2 mm H2O for curtain chain and 2-3 for Gartand chain (note: Garland
chains are abandoned due to practical considerations in maintaining hanging pattern).
• For Gartand chain, the thermal effect is 1.5 time higher than curtain chain.
• Wear rate: 80-120 g/t ck for wet kiln and 100-150 for dry kiln.
5.2 Lafarge Corp Data
Kiln Type Impact Chain densities
updated Feb 99 plates Specific Area Gross Area Area Ratio Specific Weight Gross Weight Weight Ratio
M.Brunelle (CTS) m2/m3 m2/m3 m2/mtpd kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/mtpd
C1-C2 C2 C1-C2 C2
(less FE void) (plus all voids) Nominal Prod. (less FE void) (pluss all voids) (Nominal Prod.)
BTH K1(1999) 1SPH 6.46 4.39 1.36 260.12 176.77 54.79
BTH K1(1998) 1SPH 6.44 4.38 1.17 260.26 176.77 47.14
JPA K2 (1998) 1SPH 6.33 4.93 2.57 242.82 189.32 98.46
Averages 6.39 4.65 1.87 251.54 183.05 72.80
6.6
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6.7
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6. Cooler
6.1 Compartments
Compartments number
<800 tpd: 4 compartments 2000-3000 tpd: 7 compartments
800-1200 tpd: 5 compartments 3000-4000 tpd: 8 compartments
1200-2000 tpd: 6 compartments >4000 tpd: 9 compartments
• To the middle of the cooling zone, the ratio between compartment area will be 1.4 (except for the #2).
Recuperation zone
Q
• I= .
1440 ∗ ρ ∗ H ∗ k ∗ N ∗ C
where:
- l: cooler width
- Q: clinker flow (t/day)
- ρ: Clinker apparent density (t/m3) generally 1.25
- H: bed depth (m)
- k: grate efficiency (0.70 for flat grates)
- N: number of stroke per minute (usually 10 to 14spm)
- c: the grate course (m)
• N has to be chosen to allow 1.6 * N in case of push.
• The length of the recuperation zone will be set with an air density between 1.45 Nm3/m2*s (Fuller) and 1.55
(IKN) and a heat consumption 800 kcal/kg and 0.85 Nm3/kgkk for the combustion air.
Cooling zone
• The cooler loading will be the factor determining the cooling zone length:
- 40 t/m2/day dry process (high pressure fans thick bed depth (60 cm))
- 35t/m2/day wet process (high pressure fans)
- 28 t/m2/day all processes (low pressure fans, thin bed depth (30 cm))
Rules of thumb
• Air velocity above clinker bed: 5 to 7m/s.
• 6 to 10 strokes per minute, cooler stroke length around 5”, clinker speed around 1 to 1.2 m/min.
• Clinker granulometry: passing 0.5mm:<15% , remaining at 25mm<10%.
• Void volume: about 0.4 to 0.5.
• Clinker bulk density: 89 to 120 lb/ft3.
• Grate cooler: 5-10 kWh/ t, target should be below 5 kWh/t w/o vent air fan.
6.2 Fans
Recuperation zone
• Maintain the flow during a kiln push: the fan maximum pressure has to be 30% higher than the nominal. At
constant flow, 15% of security to absorb the pressure variation. It is also a good security to keep 30% of flow
reserve between the peak of the curve and the nominal.
• In the kiln, minimum cooling rate between 1450 and 1300C: 20C/min.
6.8
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Cooling zone
• They should be able to go from 2.5 to 3 Nm3/kg during a push. Their curve should be flatter and their
maximum pressure 30% above the functioning point. 20% increase in flow has to keep 15% safety margin on
pressure. Minimum is 30 mbar for single-stage cooler.
Rules of thumb
• Grate plate resistance is directly related to the air flow and represents about 15% of total air resistance.
• Basic operating principles:
- Maintain a constant air to clinker ratio
- Maintain a constant bed depth
- Remove all excess cooling (vent) air
• The longer the air/clinker contact time, the cooler the clinker.
• The higher the velocity air, the colder the clinker surface, the higher the heat transfer rate from center to edge
of the clinker but the lower the between air and clinker edge.
• Average cooling air flow (Lafarge Corp): 3.7 kg/kg kk, 2.9Nm3/kg kk.
• Average grate loading: 30 mt/m2/d (the older the lower usually).
3250.( 347 − K )
• Secondary air temperature: T = .
SHC .n
where: K: heat loss of the cooler in kcal/kgck, SHC in kcal/kgck, n: excess air (ex:1.1)
• Airflow:
Chamber # 1 2 3 >=4
Nm3/(m2.s) 2.0-3.5 1.2-1.8 1 <1
• This efficiency depends highly on the quantity of air recovered by combustion. It is higher for wet kilns
(∼90%) than for dry kilns (∼70%).
b. Cooling Efficiency
heat lost by clinker hck,in - hck,out
• η= =
heat input in clinker hck,in
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d. Cooler Loss
• Cooler loss = all heat not recovered by combustion air.
• Cooler loss = heat content of clinker leaving cooler ( hck ,out ) :
+ heat content of vent air + heat content of coal mill air
+ heat content of raw mill air + wall heat losses
e. Typical Values
(Lafarge Corp data) min max Av. min max Av.
k 0.83 1.67 1.25 η 92% 97.2% 95%
Cooler loss (kcal/kgkk) 60 180 120 ρ 51% 85.7% 70%
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OUT
Secondary air 23016 0.22 0.28 29745 974 7540626 71.3
Tertiary air 71770 0.68 0.88 92751 874 20901034 197.7
Raw mill take-off
Coal mill take-off 16232 0.15 0.20 20978 317 1623430 15.4
Vent air 114652 1.08 1.40 148170 167 5976961 56.5
Cold clinker 1.00 105725 143 2916855 27.6
Wall loss 293680 2.8
Total 225671 2.13 3.76 397368 39252586 371.3
Clinker
105725 kg/h
1350°C
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60
α
55
50
v = 14 m/s wind
45
13
W/M2C 40 12
11
35 10
9
30 8
7
25 6
5
20
4
v =3 0 m/s (free convection)
15
2
1
10 Wind:0m/s S = 0.9
S
5 Ambient T° - 20°C
0
100 200 300 400 500 600
T - T° (C)
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b. Radiation
tp + 273 4 4
te + 273
• Loss =∈ *4.96 * − kcal / m2 h with: tp: wall temperature, te: external temp. (in C)
100 100
Emissivity: ∈
material ∈
bricks 0.8
steel 0.95
For oxidized steel ∈ =0.996-2.88*10-4.(tp-100)
For dusty kiln shell ∈ =0.96-5.2*10-4.(tp-100)
For silica bricks ∈ =0.81-6.08*10-4.(tp-200)
Other data tp ∈ tp ∈
Iron oxide 500C 0.78 Steel oxide 40C 0.94
Zinc galvanized sheet bright 28C 0.23 Steel oxide 370C 0.97
Iron polished 425C 0.144 Steel polished 770C 0.52
Steel dense shinny oxide layer 25C 0.82 Steel pipe 200 0.8
Emissivity Error measurement: Example
Read temperature=65C, emissivity choosen: 1 instead of actual: 0.4
True temperature= t = ( 273 + 65 ).4 1 / 0.4 = 425 K = 152C
Loss calculated with read temperature=290kcal/h/m2, Loss with true temperature=510 kcal/h/m2
c. Convection
• Loss = α * ( tp − te )1.25 kcal / m2 h
α : coef exchange
2.6 for vaults
2.2 vertical surfaces
7.3 Kiln Residence Time
Rules of thumb:
• Long kiln: 2-4 hours (Lafarge Corp. average: 155 min), short kiln:40 to 60 minutes.
• RPM from 1.5 to 2.5 (short kiln), Long Kiln: 1.2 to 1.8, Lafarge Corp. average: 1.34.
• Le Teil (1998): 1.5 to 2.3RPM improved clinker granulometry: Retained at 20mm: 7.2 to 13.5%, R10mm:
25to 37%
Perray with:
0.19 ∗ L - L Kiln length (m)
• T= - N Kiln speed (rpm)
N ∗d ∗S
- d kiln diameter (m)
- S Kiln slope (m/m)
Material speed
• Lafarge model in calcination zone: with:
Ts + Tf - Vm: the speed at m
Tm −
N ∗d ∗S 2
- Tm: mat temp at m
Vm = ∗ - Ts: temp where calcination begins
0.19 Tf − Ts - Tf: temp where calcination ends
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Temp Temp
heat in %mass kg/hr (°C) kcal/kg kcal/hr kcal/kg ck heat out %mass kg/hr (°C) kcal/kg kcal/hr kcal/kg ck
Air 99617 712 181.98 18127832 172.52 Tower Exit Gas 188391 358 100.84 18997182 180.80
Primary air 1 2.00% 1992 10 2.40 4788 0.05 O2 2.13% 4013 81.97 328920 3.13
Primary air 2 2.00% 1992 10 2.40 4788 0.05 CO2 45.82% 86313 83.08 7170647 68.24
Inleakage 1 10.00% 9962 10 2.40 23938 0.23 H2O 2.18% 4103 759.59 3116709 29.66
Inleakage 2 0.00% 0 10 2.40 0 0.00 SO2 0.18% 338 59.90 20229 0.19
Tertiary air 86.00% 85670 823 211.21 18094318 172.20 N2 48.87% 92067 90.06 8291338 78.91
Preheater feed 190500 61 11.84 2256252 21.47 Ar 0.83% 1558 44.51 69337 0.66
H2O 0.00% 0 61.04 0 0.00 Bypass Gas 21000 440 126.82 2663285 25.35
Kiln Dust 0 300 68.65 0 0.00 O2 2.00% 420 102.07 42869 0.41
Return Dust 0 350 81.80 0 0.00 CO2 32.14% 6749 104.95 708259 6.74
Coal/Coke 8334 60 16.57 138056 1.31 H2O 2.84% 596 800.12 476879 4.54
Combustion 7361.60 61349445 583.86 SO2 3.77% 791 75.39 59662 0.57
H2O 1.34% 112 60.04 6705 0.06 N2 58.27% 12237 111.49 1364285 12.98
Natural Gas 0 80 43.21 0 0.00 Ar 0.99% 207 54.74 11332 0.11
Combustion 0 0 0.00 Bypass Dust 3810 400 85.46 325607 3.10
H2O 0.00% 0 80.15 0 0.00 Kiln Feed 112921 850 197.04 22249876 211.75
WDF 0 80 44.98 0.00 0.00 Heat of Formation 412.02 46526066 442.79
Combustion 0.00 0.00 0.00 Tower Exit dust 22000 340 79.13 1740957 16.57
H2O 0.00% 0 80.15 0 0.00 Wall Losses 22.00 2484260 23.64
Kiln Gases 49672 904 258.36 12833217 122.13
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d. Kiln Summary
plant Davenport kiln Kiln 1 date 13/11/97
Temp Temp
heat in %mass kg/hr (°C) kcal/kg kcal/hr kcal/kg ck heat out %mass kg/hr (°C) kcal/kg kcal/hr kcal/kg ck
Air 38254 846 221.92 8489285 80.79 Total Gas 49672 904 258.36 12833217 122.13
Primary air 1 4.78% 1828 27 6.50 11884 0.11 O2 2.00% 993 221.81 220355 2.10
Primary air 2 6.21% 2374 25 6.01 14256 0.14 CO2 32.14% 15963 239.69 3826133 36.41
Inleakage 1 10.00% 3825 25 6.01 22974 0.22 H2O 2.84% 1410 1049.74 1479875 14.08
Inleakage 2 0.00% 0 25 6.01 0 0.00 SO2 3.77% 1872 168.70 315788 3.01
Secondary Air 79.01% 30226 1065 279.23 8440171 80.33 N2 58.27% 28944 239.63 6935970 66.01
Kiln Feed 112921 850 609.06 68775942 654.54 Ar 0.99% 490 112.52 55097 0.52
H2O 0.00% 0 0.00 0 0.00 Clinker 105075 1358 349.49 36723000 349.49
H2O Spray 0 10 9.97 0 0.00 Heat of Formation 420.00 44131394 420.00
Return Dust 0 300 68.65 0 0.00 Exit dust 0 400 95.32 0 0.00
Coal/Coke 3572 60 16.57 59167 0.56 Wall Losses 75.00 7880606 75.00
Combustion 7362 26292619 250.23
H2O 1.34% 48 60.04 2873 0.03
Natural Gas 0 15 7.70 0 0.00
Combustion 0 0 0.00
H2O 0.00% 0 14.97 0 0.00
WDF 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00
Combustion 0 0.00 0.00
H2O 0.00% 0 0.00 0 0.00
8. Volatile
8.1 Properties of Volatile Elements
a. Basic Volatile Properties
• The raw mix comes with some minor elements (potassium, sodium, sulphur and chlorides) called volatiles.
Element Compound Formula Molecular Melting Boiling Heat of Formation
Weight Point °C Point °C - ∆H°f kJ/mol
Oxide Na2O 62.0 820 d 416
HydroxideNaOH 40.0 322 1390 427
Na Carbonate
Na2CO3 106.0 851 d 1131
Sulfate 142.0 884 — 1385
Na2SO4
Chloride 58.4 801 1465 411
NaCl
Oxide K 2O 94.2 887 d 362
Hydroxide KOH 56.1 410 1327 426
K Carbonate K2CO3 138.2 891 d 1146
Sulfate 147.3 1069 1689 1434
K2SO4
Chloride 74.6 776 1410 1436
KCl
Oxide CaO 56.1 2580 2850 636
Hydroxide Ca (OH)2 74.1 d — 987
Ca Carbonate CaCO3 100.1 d — 288
Sulfate 136.1 d≈ 1280 (1450) — 1430
CaSO4
Chloride 111.0 772 1600 795
Fluoride CaC12 78.1 1380 — —
CaF2
d=Decomposes, s=Sublimates
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b. Eutectic
• In a multicomponent-system the melt formation is governed by eutectics. Eutectic is a mixture of two or more
substances that have a melting point lower than any of the substances of the mixture.
Eutectic Melting
System Concentration Melting point
(% mole) (°C)
Na2SO4 — CaSO4 52 — 48 900
K2SO4 — CaSO4 58 — 42 867
K2SO4 — Na2SO4 23 — 77 823
K2CO3 — CaCO3 60 — 40 750
K2CO3 — Na2CO3 42 — 58 710
K2SO4 — KCl 40 — 60 690
KCl — CaSO4 68 — 32 688
KCl — NaCl 50 — 50 640
NaCl — Na2SO4 65 — 35 630
KCl — CaCl2 25 — 75 600
NaCl — CaCl2 50 — 50 500
c. Vapor Pressure
Vapor Pressure for Volatile Compounds at Different Temperatures
mm Hg
760
NaOH
700 KCl
600 KOH
NaCl
500
Na 2CO3 Caution: This graphic is for trend indication only.
400 We have no indication of the precision of the
Na 2SO4
300 curves. Do not use for calculation.
Thus, for instance, K is more volatile than Na.
200 K2 CO3 K2 SO4
100
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6.19
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Rules of thumb
• Circulating kiln load : 1.7 to 2.1 kgload/kg clinker.
• Generated dust: Lafarge Corp average for LD kilns:0.6, from 0.2 to 1.34 (BFD).
• Generated dust: short kiln: 100 to 150g/kgck, Lepol Grate: 50g/kgck.
c. Volatile Cycle
t
• C=
1−v
- t is the time between the trapping and the
burning zone Chlorine: v = .99 5-6 days
- v is the volatilization coefficient SO3 : v = .6 5-7 hours
- C is the cycling time
8.3 SO2 - SO3
a. General
• Sulfur is found in:
- Clinker raw material (combined form of sulfur or sulfate).
- Combustibles (S in the form of organic components).
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Sulfur Behaviour
Sulfur Input Locations to Precalciner
% of total sulphur
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
equilibrium of sulfur species in a 10% excess 60
air flue gas. The principal product formed in
the burning zone will be SO2 . 40
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
20
Temperature (ºK)
500 0.4
0 0.2 1200°C
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 1000°C
0
Oxygen % 0 1.0 2.5 5.0 %O 2
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80
70 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
0 0 0 0 00 0 0 000 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 0 0 000 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0
60
50
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
40
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
00 00 00 00 00
d. Trapping
• SO2 is stable above 900ºC but starts to be Lab experience (H. Ritzmann, Neubeckum).
0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0
80
trapped by CaCO 3 and CaO at lower
0 0 0 0 0
20
0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Temperature (ºC)
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Flow SO2 Dust (dry) Dust SO3 Dust K2O Dust Na2O Dust Cl Loss of ign
kg/h kg/h % % % % % *
Stack 908.18 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Mass Balance
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K2O
Waste Dust 0.750 1.962 7.202 Combustible 0.173
= =
Stack = 0.000
Chlorine
Waste Dust 0.057 0.059 1.275 Combustible 0.018
= =
Stack = 0.000
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6.25
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1998 data
Kiln by plant Rated Capacity Thermal load Specific loading Cooler loading
Process Metric tonnes Gcal/hm2 MTPD/M3 MTPD/m2
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7. ENVIRONMENT
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 7 – ENVIRONMENT
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Table of Contents
Index - i
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VADE-MECUM
This section covers NOx, SOx, CO2, CKD, alternative materials, waste fuels and to some extent, PMx. SOx which
have been partially addressed in section 6.7.3 (SO2 / SO3). More and more plants are required to have CEMS
(Continuous Emission Monitoring System) which are different from the process analysers, especially for dilution
purpose. You may have to convert some results for standard conditions. Standards (as %O2) vary worldwide (see
section 7.4).
1. NOx
1.1 NOx Generalities
• Gross NOx emissions are typically in the range of 500 to 1,500 ppm being closely related to kiln combustion
conditions.
• In the cement industry normally, 95% of NOx formed is nitric oxide (NO). This gas is colourless and is readily
transformed into NO2 in air.
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a reddish-brown gas and is the principal component of smog. The toxic effects of
NO2 are not completely known, but an exposure to 15 ppm NO2 causes eye and nose irritations and 25 ppm
causes pulmonary discomfort.
• Nitrous Oxide (N2O) represents <1% (typically 10 - 20 ppm) of NOx produced in a cement kiln. It is very
stable and is considered to play a role in the destruction of ozone.
7.1
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• The following diagrams show the ratio between the different sources of NOx in a lab furnace. The lower curve
was measured in an atmosphere without nitrogen and shows the fuel source of nitrogen oxide.
400
Air
NO (ppm)
300
NO thermal Ar/O2
200
NO combustible
100
0
0 10 20 30 40
Excess air
Rule of thumb
• 0.2 to 2% N in fuel may yield 60 to 2100 ppm NO
c. What Affects the NOx Formation in the Kiln?
The Oxygen Level
• O2 level affects the formation of both fuel 1
Nox reduction in natural gas flame
NA combustion book, p164
and thermal NOx which is explained by the
fact that NOx formation requires a free 0.8
Nox/Nox ambient air
400
Thermal NOx
300
Ar/O2
200
100 Fuel NOx
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Excess air
• Comparison of this figure with the previous one shows that the preheated air is effective on thermal NOx but
not on the fuel NOx mechanism.
• In fact, the formation of thermal NOx is strongly dependent on the flame temperature and a few factors can
affect it.
Material temperature in the load
• The heat transfer in the flame area is dominated by radiation (flame – wall – material).
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( )
Q2 = K 2 * SKG * T f4 − Tm4 , with
- Q2: the quantity of heat exchanged - Tf: the gas temperature
- K2: the exchange coefficient gas/lining (≅ - Tm: the material temperature
-7
0.15*10 kcal/h ºC m2) - SKG: Boltzman constant
• This heat transfer equation shows that the higher the material temperature, the lower the exchange and that the
higher the flame temperature, the higher the thermal NO formation. Conversely when the load temperature is
low, flame temperatures will be cooler, resulting in less NO formed.
• This is one of the fundamental basis for kiln control. A “push” of under-prepared material into the burning
zone causes the NO formation rate to drop. NO formation is one of the leading indicators that describe the
onset of a change in the kiln’s burning zone – hot or cold.
Flame Shape
The hotter the flame, the higher the NOx emission so the burner pipe settings affecting the flame shape also
have an impact on the NOx emission: i.e. primary air, combustible fineness, volatiles content...
Nitrogen Fuel
• About 60% of the fuel nitrogen is converted into NOx in a PH/PC tower so the nitrogen content is also an
important factor in NOx generation (cf. Davenport Kiln audit 1997, 64%).
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2. SO2
(see also chapter Volatile in section pyroprocessing)
• 1% sulfur in heavy fuel oil yields 700 ppm SO2 in the dry stoichiometric product of combustion.
Best Available Control Technologies (BACT) for SO2 emissions
(see IPPC, Feb 2000, EC)
Technique Kiln Red effic. Reported Reported Operating Investment
syst emissions emissions cost in in MUS$
app mg/m3 kg/tck $/tck
Absorbant addition All 60-80% 400 0.8 0.1-0.4 0.2-0.3
(limestone or lime)
Dry scrubber Dry Up to 90% <400 <0.8 1.4-1.6 11
Wet scrubber All >90% <200 <0.4 0.5-1.0 6-10
Activated Carbon dry Up to 95% <50 <0.1
C4 lime reinjection
Fuller’s patent PH/PC 30% 0.2 0.2
7.5
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3. Dust
3.1 What Affects the Dust Production
• During the process into the kiln, the
material is moving toward the flame while
the gas is moving in the opposite direction
to the cold end carrying dust. The dust is
then captured by the dust collectors and
returned to the kiln or wasted. Design of
the kiln, PH/PC, design of the feeding, gas
velocity, speed of rotation, raw mix
composition, volatile, temperature and
other factors can affect the dust generation.
When the dust is wasted, it is called CKD
(Cement Kiln Dust). After the Dust
Collector, the dust still in the gas will go
out the stack and be part of PMx and
opacity.
• Dust generation within Lafarge Corp.
ranges between 0.2 to 1.34 kg dust/kgkk ,
averaging 0.6.
3.2 ESP
(Sources: Air Pollution Engineering manual, A.J. Buonicore, W.T.Davis)
a. Principles of operation
• The ESPs perform by applying proper electrical forces in the space between the high voltage system and
ground of each gas passage. These electrical inputs involve a voltage level based on gas passage spacing and
gas and particle characteristics. The flow of electric current through this space will depend on the resistance it
encounters before reaching ground potential, identified as the collecting surface or plate. The electron flow
through the gas passage is known as corona current and will impact a negative charge bias to the particles
carried in the flue gas causing these particles to migrate toward positive side.
Rules of thumb
• Operating voltage: 30 to 70 kV, dependent on design factors
• Operating current density: 5 to 50 mA/cm2
• Dust layer thickness: ½ to 1 in.
b. Load and particle size
• The higher the voltage, the better the collection. Usually, the first field will collect the biggest particles and
consequently, the finest will be found in the last field. Alkalis have a tendency to settle on fines and preferably
you want to waste your CKD from the last field.
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Rule of thumb: For a four field ESP with 80% collection efficiency, you will get an overall efficiency of 99.8%.
%
,
Y
C Typical curve showing efficiency as a
N
E
IC function of particle size for an ESP
IF collecting fly ash.
F
E (permission granted by APCA)
N
O
I
T
C
E
LL
O
C
0.5
c. Collection efficiency
Rules of thumb
• Gas velocity impacts treatment time and power density (range from 0.6 – 1.5 m/s).
• Specific collecting area (SCA) in ranges from .017 to .051 m2/Rm3/h (300 – 920 ft2/kCFM).
• Migration velocity W (Lafarge NA cement kilns) : 30 to 110 cm/s.
Collection Efficiency
• Eff. = 1 – (exp – {(A/Q)*W}0.5), where
where
- Q is the gas flow through precipitator, compute the migration velocity W,
- A is the Collection area and SCA is usually - 0.5 is an empirical factor
calculated to reach the efficiency problem to
Process Range of migration velocity Range of SCA*
(cm/s) m2/Rm3/h (ft2/kCFM)
Wet Kilns 30 – 80 .017 - .031 (300 – 560)
Dry Kilns 30 – 60 .022 - .051 (400 – 920)
PH/PC Kilns 45 – 110 .018 - .032 (320 – 590)
*To get units in m2/(m3/s), multiply by 3600. To get them in ft2/kCFM, multiply by 5.019 and then 3600. 100 ft2/kCFM is a small SCA, 400 is medium and
900 is considered large.
7.7
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CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 7 – ENVIRONMENT
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10
10
) )
m
c. m
c
M m
h
9
10
H
O
( O
(
Y yt
T iv
I it 8
10
V
I si
T
S
se
I R
S
ER 7
10 Resistivity Curve for Dust at
Inlet to Cement Precip.
(25% H2O and 4,000 volts)
3.3 Baghouse
(see Priority Study for more information)
a. Principles of operation
• Dust gas flows through a fiber filter media. Clean air gets out and dust is caught at the surface of the media as
a dust cake. This cake is then removed by cleaning the surface bag by either shaking, reversing the air flow or
sending a pulse jet that extend the filter media for a short period of time.
b. Filter media
• There are two types of filter media:
- Woven
- Felt
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CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 7 – ENVIRONMENT
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• Cloth type and weight are selected, based on temperature, moisture (because of hydrolysis) and resistance
(acid, alkali, oxydation and abrasion). Mostly used in cement industries are:
Generic name type Trade name type Max. temp. on Application Lifetime guarantee
continuous op. (years)
(ºC)
Polypropylene Herculon 125 General 2
Polyester Dacron 130 General, mills 2
Glass Fiberglass 260 Kiln, cooler 3
Polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) Teflon 250 Kiln, cement 4
Expanded PTFE Rastex, Gore-tex 250 Kiln 3–4
Expanded PTFE/Glass Superflex 250 Kiln 5–6
Aromatic Aramid Nomex 190 Kiln, cooler 2–3
Polymide P 84 240 Kiln 2–3
3.4 CKD
• CKD has to be wasted in NA for some plants (9 out of
15 plants). The drivers for wasting CKD are product Lafarge NA data
quality and process stability. In both cases, we waste (9 plants out of 15 waste CKD)
CKD in order to lower the alkalis or sulphur content into % Dust Wasting
the kiln that would either build up or be too high in the PLANT 1999 1998 1997
clinker otherwise. Since alkalis and sulphur compounds Alpena* 8.4% 12.3% 11.1%
attach to the dust particles, the amount will be reduced Bath* 2.9% 3.2% 4.7%
as they are extracted along with CKD. Brookfield* 16.8% 13.0% 12.6%
• We withdraw CKD from the dust collector (Dry or Wet
Davenport* 2.6% 3.9% 4.2%
Process) and from the by-pass for PH/PC. CKD is
Exshaw* 1.7% 2.6% 1.7%
considered reactive when it contains free-lime.
• Higher concentration of alkalis and sulphur are found in Fredonia* 11.7% 9.8% 8.6%
the finest particles where you have more surface area. Joppa 5.8% 4.7% 8.6%
This fact can be used in ESP where you have particle Paulding* 10.3% 15.3% 20.6%
segregation from bigger size in the first field to finest in Seattle 12.9%
the last. The baghouse doesn’t have such advantage.
7.9
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 7 – ENVIRONMENT
VADE-MECUM
4. CO2
• The greenhouse gases are becoming a major concern for the cement industry. CO2 comes from three sources:
1- Decarbonation 2- Combustion of the carbon content in the fuel and 3- Same as #2 but from the Power plant
which provide our power needs.
• Since 1990, Lafarge NA has emitted 1,0 tCO2/t kk for total emission (0,9 tCO22/t cement), which is : 0,5
tCO2/t kk coming from decarbonation, between 0,3 – 0,4 tCO2/t kk from fuel and between 0,0 – 0,2 tCO2/t
kk from power (indirect calculation, CO2 is generated at the Power plant).
5. Others
5.1 Correction to Standard Oxygen Conditions
5.4 Analysers
• Two types of analysers : CEMS (continuous emission monitoring system) for Environment and Process
analysers.
7.10
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 7 – ENVIRONMENT
VADE-MECUM
7.10
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 7 – ENVIRONMENT
VADE-MECUM
7.11
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING
VADE-MECUM
8. FLUID FLOW
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 8 – FLUID FLOW
VADE-MECUM
Table of Contents
Index - i
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 8 – FLUID FLOW
VADE-MECUM
8.1
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 8 – FLUID FLOW
VADE-MECUM
Reynolds Number
v ∗ D ρ * v* D
• Re = = unit: dimension less
ν µ
with:
- ν the kinematic viscosity (m2/s), v: Average fluid velocity (m/s)
- D the diameter of the pipe (for a rectangular pipe 2 * a * b )
a+b
- µ the absolute viscosity (Pa.s)
Roughness
• Roughness (E): the mean distance between high and low points of the surface, measured in meter (m).
• Galvanized iron duct: E# 0.005’.
Kinematic Viscosity of Air
ν ft2/s mm2/s *105
°C @ 1 atm @ 100 PSI @ 1 atm @ 100 PSI
-10 0.00013 0.000016 1.208 0.149
0 0.00014 0.000018 1.300 0.167
10 0.00015 0.000020 1.339 0.185
20 0.00016 0.000022 1.449 0.204
50 0.00018 0.000025 1.672 0.232
100 0.00025 0.000033 2.322 0.307
200 0.00037 0.000050 3.437 0.464
500 0.00080 0.000100 7.43 0.929
Average velocity in industrial design
Cold air (higher for larger size) 30 to 50 feet/s
Hot air 60 to 75 fps
NG 30 (3/4inch pipe) to 100fps (4 inch pipe)
Water 1/e ft of head per 100 ft pipe
Water general services 4 to 10 fps
Viscous oil 1 to 2 on pump suction and 3 to 5fps on discharge
Slurries 5 to 7 fps for 20 to 200 micron particles
b. Piping Pressure Losses
Piping pressure losses for oils in laminar flow
• ∆p = 0.00000454 * L * cS * spgr * gph / D4
where (see section combustion and fuel for data):
- L is the length of the pipe in feet, D the internal diameter in feet, cS the kinematic viscosity in centistokes,
spgr is the specific gravity of oil relative to water at 60F and gph is oil rate in gallon per hour.
Piping pressure losses for water at 60F per 100 feet of pipe
Water gpm 2 6 6 10 20 30 30 60 60 100 100 500
Pipe D in inch ½ ½ ¾ ¾ 1 1 2 2 4 2 4 4
∆P in PSI 2.3 18.5 4.3 10.5 11.1 23.9 0.8 2.96 0.11 7.51 .28 5.73
Water gpm 1000 500 1000 2000 1000 2000 3000
Pipe D in inch 4 6 6 6 8 8 8
∆P in PSI 21.9 .74 2.63 10.1 0.64 2.41 5.32
8.2
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 8 – FLUID FLOW
VADE-MECUM
Piping pressure losses for low pressure air (stp) per 100ft or 30m
Air m3/h 3 10 20 50 50 100 200 200 500 500 800
Pipe D in inch ½ ½ 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4 4
∆P in mmH2O 88 808 200 723 92 144 523 71 404 103 245
- Losses may be 3 to 8% higher for clean galvanized pipe, up to 30% higher for heavy riveted or refractory-lined pipe.
Restriction, elbow...
Length of straight pipe (of same size) that would produce the same pressure drop as the fitting, elbow… expressed
in L/D
Nominal pipe size (D) 1/2” 1” 2” 5”
90 elbow r/D=8 1.24 2.10 4.13 10.1
Nominal pipe size 1” 6” 14” 30”
90 elbow r/D=1 2.1 10.1 22.5 49
Mitered 45 ell 1.4 7.58 16.9 36.7
Pipe exit 3.8 33.7 86.5 213
Pipe entrance 3.04 27 69.2 170
Enlargement 0.5 2.13 18.9 48.5 119
Contraction 0.5 1.33 11.8 30.3 74.5
r= pipe radius, D=inside pipe diameter(see NA combustion hand book, p179)
Equivalent Orifice
v2 q v2
• ∆P = ξ * ρ * = ξ *ρ * = k qV2 1
2 2* S
Examples
• Airflow through a liquid pool: ∆p = cte ,
• Airflow through filter bag: ∆p = hv , v is the velocity
• Airflow through a fan system: ∆pP = hv 2 , airflow through a grain bin: ∆p = hv 1.5
2. Pitot Measurement
a. Formula
2.∆p where:
V =k - V = Gas velocity in m/s
ρ - k = Pitot tube correction factor (eg. “S” tube = 0.85)
- ∆p = Average velocity (dynamic) pressure in Pa
- ρ = density in kg/m3
b. Density Correction
Temperature and Pressure
273.15 101325 + Ps - Ps = Static pressure (Pa WG)
• ρ = ρo .
( )
273.15 + T C )o
.
101325 - ρ o (air ) = 1.293 kg.Nm −3
x 0.55 = 1.375kg .m −3
44 18 32 28
• ρ = x 0.2 + x 0.55 + x 0.15 +
22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4
8.3
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 8 – FLUID FLOW
VADE-MECUM
Dust
• The formula does work only for clean gas. Thus, for dusty gas, density in [kg/m3] of gas has to take into
account the amount of dust:
ρ = ρgas + dust concentration (in kg/m3)
• In the previous example dust concentration =0.3kg/m3, then ρ =1.375+0.3=1675 kg/m3 (assuming dust does
not take room in the airstream).
• In case of dusty gas, Straucheib tube is used instead of L-Tube (see coefficient correction below).
Effect of Elevation
−5
pressure elevation ( −1.6196 +10 x)
• = 10 where: x = elevation in feet
pressure sea level
c. Measurement Locations (See AMCA 203-90)
• The idea is to have the same surface area for each measurement. Methods include Centroid and Log-linear.
(Centroid method) Total traverse points per diameter
# point 4 6 8 10 12 14 20 22
#1 .062 .044 .033 .025 .021 .018 .013 .011
#2 .250 .147 .105 .082 .067 .057 .039 .035
#3 .750 .295 .194 .146 .118 .099 .067 .060
#4 .938 .705 .323 .226 .177 .146 .097 .087
#5 .853 .677 .342 .250 .201 .129 .116
#6 .956 .806 .658 .355 .269 .165 .146
#7 .895 .774 .645 .366 .204 .180
#8 .967 .854 .750 .634 .250 .218
#9 .918 .823 .731 .306 .261
#10 .975 .882 .799 .388 .315
#11 .933 .854 .612 .393
#12 .979 .901 .694 .607
#13 .943 .750 .685
#14 .982 .796 .739
#15 .835 .782
#16 .871 .820
#17 .903 .854
#18 .933 .884
#19 .961 .913
#20 .987 .940
#21 .965
#22 .989
Averaging the dynamic pressure:
2
∑(
pv )
N
• ∆p = where p v = traverse readings
N
Correction coefficient
• If any, the corrective coefficient for the pitot tube (for instance k=0.84) is applied directly on the velocity as
calculated.
8.4
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 8 – FLUID FLOW
VADE-MECUM
3. Fans
3.1 Power
a. Useful Power
Total
Pressure • Wu = ∆Pt * qv
- Wu: Useful power (Watt)
- ∆Pt : Total (Fan) pressures (Pascal)
∆Pt
- q v : Volume flow (m3/s)
Wu
qv Flow (m3/s)
Total
b. Power Efficiencies Pressure
• Fan power ∆Pt
- The actual power transmitted to the fluid and Turbine
power
the turbine power are different because of skin
friction, fluid turbulences... Wt
Wu ∆Pt * qv η
Pressure
= = h
Wt Wt ∆ Pt
Fan
efficiency
is the hydraulic efficiency of the fan at a given
point.
η
h
qv 3
Flow (m /s)
8.5
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 8 – FLUID FLOW
VADE-MECUM
• Straight radial fan: 60-75% efficiency (fan shaft) • Airfoil: up to 85% (clean gas).
max. • Cone condition: up to 3-4%, Inlet duct flow
• Curved radial: up to 82 % (for dusty gas). guide: up to 2%.
Fan
A ∆Pt efficiency
∆Pt = f(qv)
A
A' A'
η
A = η A'
qv Flow (m3/s)
Flow (m3/s)
8.6
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 8 – FLUID FLOW
VADE-MECUM
Equivalent orifice
b. Influence of the Fan Speed parabola cst
• Fan speed goes from N rpm to N1 rpm , air density ( ρ ) ∆Pt
∆Pt = h( qv ) → ∆Pt = g( qv )
N rpm
m3/s
qvA qvA'
qv
Operating point A → A1
qv A1 N1
• Volume is directly proportional to fan speed: = .
qv A N
2
∆Pt A1 N 1
• Pressure is proportional to the square of the fan speed: = .
∆Pt A N
8.7
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 8 – FLUID FLOW
VADE-MECUM
90
80
70
Inlet d am pe r
O utle t
60
% Power
d am pe r
Inle t va nes
50
40
30
V ariab le
20
sp ee d
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% F lo w
e. Others
Inleakage through round orifice
• For low pressure air and at 60F
Pressure drop (mmH2O) 2 2 2 2 2 10 10 10 10 10 50 50 50 50
Orifice dia. inch 1/4 1/2 1 2 5 1/4 1/2 1 2 5 1/4 1/2 1 2
cfm 2 7.5 31 115 750 4.5 17 70 260 1600 10 38 180 600
Sound pressure level
• Induced draft fan
- At 3 ft below the air cooler bundles
- dBa = 63 + 30logV + 10logHp+ 20logD
• Forced draft replace 63 with 66
8.8
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING
VADE-MECUM
9. PROCESS CONTROL
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 9 – PROCESS CONTROL
VADE-MECUM
Table of Contents
Index - i
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 9 – PROCESS CONTROL
VADE-MECUM
1. Process Characteristics
x1(t) y1(t)
1.1 Definitions x2(t) System y2(t)
• A process, a system can be considered as a x3(t) y3(t)
black box, which transforms manipulative Transfer function yp(t)
xn(t)
variables (input variables which can be
modified by the operator) into output
variables.
• The dynamics of a process is the time
p1(t) p2(t) pm(t)
dependent behavior of the process.
• Processes and their dynamics can be
characterized by different properties.
• Stable: variables converge to some steady state when disturbed.
• Unstable: disturbances cause the variables to go to infinity.
1.2 Order
• If the system is described by an ordinary differential equation (one input, one output) with derivatives of order
N, the system is called Nth order:
d n y( t ) d n −1 y( t ) dy( t )
x( t ) = a n + a n −1 + ... + a1 + a0 y( t )
n n −1 dt
dt dt
dy( t )
- First order system: x( t ) = T + y( t )
dt
d 2 y( t ) dy( t )
- Second order: x( t ) = T 2 + 2ξT + y( t )
dt 2 dt
• With such a mathematical description of the system, it is possible to assess the dynamic response of the
system.
9.1
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 9 – PROCESS CONTROL
VADE-MECUM
9.2
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 9 – PROCESS CONTROL
VADE-MECUM
Perturbations
Definitions:
• Overshoot: The amount of swing past the set point
• Rise time (speed of response): The time it takes the
Input Output process to come up from 10 to 90% the new set
Process
(to control)
(To be point.
controlled) • Decay ratio: the ratio of maximum amplitudes of
successive oscillations.
• Setting time: the time it takes the amplitude of the
Regulator
oscillation to decay to some fraction (0.05) of the
change in set point.
00 0
.9
.1 Rise time
0
0 10 20 30 40
Time
9.3
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 9 – PROCESS CONTROL
VADE-MECUM
P controller
• X the value to be controlled, S the set point, Y the new value for the process input, Kp is the gain and is
normally adjustable on the controller.
Measurement to be
controlled
X X-S +
+
- Kp + Y = Y0 + Yi
S ( X - S) * Kp = Yi Y0
Setpoint
• The X-Y values are NOT proportional: the proportional-only feedback controller changes its output signal in
direct proportion to the error signal.
• The gain of the controller can be positive or negative (switch on the controller or direction plate).
• The proportional-only controller is very rarely used. The output of such a controller changes only if the error
signal changes: they are not able to bring the variable to control back to the set point. They leave what is called
a steady state error: Offset.
b. Integral function
t2
• The integral action moves the controller based on the time integral ∫ x dt of input signal.
t1
x (%) 2 6
S1 = ∫ x dt = 10 %min, S2 = ∫ x dt = 20 %min
10 X 1 4
S1 S2
t (min)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
• The basic purpose of the integral action (reset action) is to drive the process back to its set point.
• The longer and the bigger the error, the bigger the action.
PI Controller
Kp
Y = Y0 ± K p ( X − S ) ± ∫ ( X − S ) dt
Ti
• The term Ti increases or decreases the influence of the integral. It is expressed in min and is called the integral
or reset time.
• Most controllers are calibrated in minutes/repeat, a term which comes from the time to ramp up the controller
output (gain taken into account) for a step change (1 unit) in set point.
• The PI controller is more commonly used in plants.
• The integral action eliminates the Offset and brings the system to its set point.
• The smaller the reset time ( Ti ), the faster the correction of error (if too small, the loop can give overshoot or
become unstable).
9.4
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 9 – PROCESS CONTROL
VADE-MECUM
c. Derivative function
• The derivative is the slope of the tangent of the curve (x vs. t). It occurs whenever the measurement signal
changes.A derivative-only controller would have the following definition:
dX
Y = Y0 + Td , Td is the rate action (min)
dt
• The purpose of the derivative action (rate X
action) is to try to anticipate the control S
action by looking at the time rate of the error
change (the derivative). Y
Y0
Time
PID controller
Kp
Y = Y0 ± K p ( X − S ) ± ( X − S ) dt ± K p Td dX
∫
Ti dt
• In theory, the derivative action should always X
000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
improve the system response. But, it is
necessary to give a particular attention to this S
term because there is not perfect derivative
action, and if the signal is very noisy, the 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
Derivative
action Yo
d. Sampled-data system
• In a sampled system, the signals are non-
continuous or discrete. The process variable is
sampled every scanning cycle and the value is
kept constant between two cycles. Sampled
• A typical example of this kind of system is the signal
Field
Direct Digital Control: all the control signal
calculations are done in a digital computer,
which directly commands the actuators in the
field. Sampler
• The control function of a DDC loop consists of
calculating the new value of the actuator Time
through an equation (algorithm) which
describes the three functions of the analogic
(continuous PID controller).
e. Continuous controller
9.5
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 9 – PROCESS CONTROL
VADE-MECUM
Kp d(X − W )
Y = Y0 ± K p ( X − W ) ± ∫ X dt ± K p Td
Ti dt
f. Incremental DDC controller
( X t +1 − W )* ∆t ± K p * Td ∆( ∆x )
Kp
Yt +1 = Yt ± K p [( X t +1 − Wt +1 ) − ( X t − Wt )] ±
Ti ∆t
3.3 Tuning
On-line trial error
• Proportional action:
- Set integral and derivative action at O action (maximum Ti , minimum Td ).
- Set K p at a low value (.5).
- Put the controller in auto.
- With a small change in set point, the controller reaction will be very sluggish.
- Double the proportional coefficient until the loop becomes oscillatory.
- After reaching this ultimate gain, set the K p half of the ultimate K p .
• Integral action:
- With the controller in auto and the proportional band fixed, start to reduce Ti by factor 2, with small
changes in set point after each step.
- Find the value of Ti that makes the system oscillatory, underdamped and set Ti double of that.
• Derivative action:
- Increase the derivative term until the system noise starts to appear on the controller output.
- Set the Td at half of this maximum value.
Ziegler-Nichols Method
• The basis of this method is to find the ultimate value of K p ( K u ) and to assess the corresponding period of
oscillation of the signal ( Tu ).
• The Ziegler-Nichols controller settings are given in the following table:
P PI PID
Kp Ku Ku Ku
2 2.2 1. 7
Ti Tu Tu
1. 2 2
Td Tu
8
• The Ziegler-Nichols coefficient should be considered as a reasonable first estimate of the controller coefficient,
which could have to be adjusted.
• Due to the similarity between the DDC algorithm and the continuous function, tuning procedures for DDC
loops are the same as for the continuous loops.
9.6
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 9 – PROCESS CONTROL
VADE-MECUM
9.7
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING
VADE MECUM
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 10 – THERMODYNAMICS AND
VADE-MECUM CHEMISTRY DATA
Table of Contents
Index - i
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 10 – THERMODYNAMICS AND
VADE-MECUM CHEMISTRY DATA
1. Thermodynamic Properties
1.1 Heat Capacity and Enthalpy
Heat capacity
• It is function of the system conditions:
∂H ∂U
At constant pressure: C p = At constant volume: Cv =
∂T p ∂T v
Enthalpy
• No absolute value, only changes in enthalpy can be calculated. Integrating over the temperature change:
T2
∆H = H ( T2 ) − H ( T1 ) = ∫ C p (T) dT
T1
Mean heat capacity Cp m
• It is the enthalpy change divided by the temperature difference:
T2
∫ Cp (T) dT
H 2 − H 1 T1
Cp m = = ,
T2 − T1 T2 − T1
• In the more familiar form used in heat and mass balances: Q = mCp m ∆T
1.2 Cp and Cpm and Approximation
• In the 1st table, the a, b, c, d values are given for different gases and materials at various temperature ranges
temperature. At a defined temperature (Kcal/kg.ºK):
Cp( T ) = a + b.T + c.T 2 + d .T −2 , Cp “point value”
• As previously given, the average or Cp mean between T and a reference T0:
T 2 − T02 T 3 − T03 1
a * (T − T0 ) + b * + c* − d * −
1
2 3 T T0
Cp m ( T ) =
(T − T0 )
- T0 = 273.15K (0 ºC)
• Similarly with 2nd table Cp m must be used within their temperature range limits. The table values use
T0 = 273.15K (0 ºC), as the reference value or bottom value of the range.
Btu cal kcal
• = =
lb.° F g.(°C ⋅ or ⋅ ° K ) kg .(°C ⋅ or ⋅ ° K )
10.1
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 10 – THERMODYNAMICS AND
VADE-MECUM CHEMISTRY DATA
Reaction Heat
C + ½ O2 → CO + 26.8 Kcal/mole
C + O2 → CO2 + 94.4 Kcal/mole
CO + 1/2/O2 → CO2 + 67.6 Kcal/mole
S + O2 → SO2 + 8.9 Kcal/mole
SO2 + ½ O2 → SO3 + 106 Kcal/mole
S + 3/2 O2 → SO3 + 91.8 Kcal/mole
H2 + ½ O2 → H2O + 57.7 Kcal/mole (LHV)
67.6 Kcal/mole (HHV)
CaO + CO2 → CaCO3 + 42.5 Kcal/mole
2. Data
Chemical Properties
ELEMENT SYMBOL ATOMIC ATOMIC WEIGHT VOLUMIC MASS FUSION EVAP. TEMP.
# (g) (g/cm3) TEMP.(C°) (°C)
Actinium Ac 89 (227) 10.0 1600 3200
Aluminum Al 13 26.9815 2.694 660.46 2467
Americium Am 95 (243) 11.7 1200 2607
Antimony Sb 51 121.75 6.7 630.75 1750
Argon Ar 18 39.948 17832e-3 -189.2 -185.7
Arsenic As 33 74.9225 5.73 815 (36 at) 613(sub)
Astatine At 85 (210)
Barium Ba 56 137.34 3.59 725 1640
Berkelium Bk 97 (247)
Beryllium Be 4 9.0122 1.84 1278+5 2970
Bismuth Bl 83 208.98 9.80 271.3 1560
Boron B 5 10.811 2.45 2300 2550 (sub)
Bromine Br 35 79.909 (Br2)3.119e-3 (Br2)-7.2 58.78
Cadmium Cd 48 112.4 8.64 320.9 765
Calcium Ca 20 40.08 1.55 839+2 1484
Californium Cf 98 (251)
Carbon C 6 12.01115 (grap) 2.25 3652-3697 4827
Cerium Ce 58 140.12 6.78 798 3257
Cesium Cs 55 132.905 1.87 28.4 678.4
Chlorine Cl 17 35.453 3.214 e-3 -100.98 -34.6
Chromium Cr 24 51.996 7.507 1857+20 2672
Cobalt Co 27 58.9332 8.7 1495 2870
Copper Cu 29 63.54 8.94 1083.4 2567
Curium Cm 96 (248)
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.5 8.56 1409 2335
Einsteinium Es 99 (254)
Erbium Er 68 167.26
Europium Eu 63 151.96 5.24 820 1700
Fermium Fm 100 (253)
Fluorine F 9 18.9984 (F2)1.696e-3 -219.62 -188.14
Francium Fr 87 (223)
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25 7.95 1313 3233
Gallium Ga 31 69.72 5.9 29.78 2403
Germanium Ge 32 72.59 5.46 937.4 2830
Gold Au 79 196.967 19.3 1064.43 2807
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49 13.08 2227 4602
Helium He 2 4.0026 1.785 e-4 -272.2 (26atm) -268.93
Holmium Ho 67 164.93
Hydrogen H 1 1.00797 (H2) 8.99 e-5 -259.14 252.87
Indium In 49 114.82 7.28 156.61 2080
Iodine I 53 126.9044 (I2)4.94 113.5 184.35
Iridium Ir 77 192.2 22.64 2410 4130
10.2
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 10 – THERMODYNAMICS AND
VADE-MECUM CHEMISTRY DATA
Chemical Properties
ELEMENT SYMBOL ATOMIC ATOMIC WEIGHT VOLUMIC MASS FUSION EVAP. TEMP.
# (g) (g/cm3) TEMP.(C°) (°C)
Iron Fe 26 55.847 7.9 1535 2750
Krypton Kr 36 83.8 3.708 e-3 -156.6 -152.31
Lanthanum La 57 138.91 6.16 920 3430
Lead Pb 82 207.19 11.343 327.5 1740
Lithium Li 3 6.939 .53 180.5 1347
Lutetium Lu 71 174.97
Magnesium Mg 12 24.312 1.74 648.8 1090
Manganese Mn 25 54.938 7.2 1244 1962
Mendelevium Md 101 (256)
Mercury Hg 80 200.59 13.594 -38.87 356.8
Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94 10.2 2617 4612
Neodymium Nd 60 144.24 7.07 1010 3127
Neon Ne 10 20.183 .9002 e-3 -248.6 -246.08
Neptunium Np 93 (237)
Nickel Ni 28 58.71 8.9 1453 2732
Niobium Nb 41 92.906 8.57 2468 4742
Nitrogen N 7 14.0067 (N2)1.2505e-3 -219.86 -193.8
Nobelium No 102 (254)
Osmium Os 76 190.2 22.48 3045 5027
Oxygen O 8 15.9994 (O2)1.429e-3 -218.4 -182.962
Palladium Pd 46 106.4 12.02 1552 3140
Phosphorus P 15 30.9738 2.34 590 (42 atm)
Platinum Pt 78 195.09 21.45 1772 3827
Plutonium Pu 94 (244) 19.74 639.5 3454
Polonium Po 84 (210)
Potassium K 19 39.102 .86 63.65 774
Praseodymium Pr 59 140.907 6.78 931 3212
Promethium Pm 61 (145)
Protactinium Pa 91 (231)
Radium Ra 88 (226) 5 700 1140
Radon Rn 86 (222) 9.73 e-3 -71 -62
Rhenium Re 75 186.2 20.5 3180 5630
Rhodium Rh 45 102.905 12.4 1966 3727
Rubidium Rb 37 85.4 1.532 39 6887
Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07 12.3 2310 3900
Samarium Sm 62 150.35 7.52 1077 1791
Scandium Sc 21 44.956 2.989 1539 2832
Selenium Se 34 78.96 4.81 217 685
Silicon Si 14 28.086 2.32-2.34 1410 2355
Silver Ag 47 107.87 10.49 961.93 2112
Sodium Na 11 22.9898 .97 97.8 882.9
Strontium Sr 38 87.62 2.6 769 1384
Sulphur S 16 32.064 2.07 112.8 444.67
Tantalum Ta 73 180.948 16.6 2996 5425
Technetium Tc 43 (99)
Tellurium Te 52 127.6 6.25 449.5 990
Terbium Tb 65 158.924 158.924
Thallium Tl 81 204.37 11.85 303.5 1457
Thorium Th 90 232.038 11.7 1750 4790
Thulium Tm 69 168.934
Tin Sn 50 118.69 7.18 231.96 2270
Titanium Ti 22 47.9 4.5 1660 3287
Tungsten W 74 183.85 19.35 3410 5660
Uranium U 92 238.03 19.05 1132.3 3818
Vanadium V 23 50.942 5.96 1890 3380
Xenon Xe 54 131.3 5.887e-3 -111.9 -107.1
Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04
Yttrium Y 39 88.905 4.469 1523 3337
Zinc Zn 30 65.37 7.14 419.58 907
Zirconium Zr 40 91.22 6.49 1852 4377
10.3
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 10 – THERMODYNAMICS AND
VADE-MECUM CHEMISTRY DATA
10.4
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 10 – THERMODYNAMICS AND
VADE-MECUM CHEMISTRY DATA
(0) = Calcium langebeinite will react with the atmosphere to form K 2 Ca (SO4 )2 .H 2 O .
10.5
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 10 – THERMODYNAMICS AND
VADE-MECUM CHEMISTRY DATA
10.6
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 10 – THERMODYNAMICS AND
VADE-MECUM CHEMISTRY DATA
10.7
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 10 – THERMODYNAMICS AND
VADE-MECUM CHEMISTRY DATA
kcal/kg°C 1100°C 1200°C 1300°C 1400°C 1500°C 1600°C 1700°K 1800°C 1900°C 2000°C
O2 0.2493 0.2511 0.2528 0.2545 0.2560 0.2574 0.2588 0.2602 0.2614 0.2627
N2 0.2694 0.2715 0.2735 0.2754 0.2772 0.2789 0.2805 0.2820 0.2834 0.2847
H2 3.5490 3.5685 3.5892 3.6107 3.6327 3.6549 3.6772 3.6994 3.7213 3.7430
CO2 0.2729 0.2764 0.2795 0.2825 0.2852 0.2876 0.2899 0.2920 0.2940 0.2958
CO 0.2927 0.2969 0.3011 0.3051 0.3091 0.3130 0.3170 0.3209 0.3249 0.3261
SO2 0.1906 0.1924 0.1939 0.1954 0.1967 0.1979 0.1900 0.2000 0.2010 0.2019
NO 0.2604 0.2623 0.2641 0.2668 0.2673 0.2687 0.2701 0.2713 0.2724 0.2735
H2O 0.5191 0.5269 0.5346 0.5420 0.5492 0.5562 0.5629 0.5694 0.5757 0.5817
Air 0.2647 0.2668 0.2687 0.2706 0.2723 0.2739 0.2755 0.2770 0.2783 0.2796
SiO2 0.2611 0.2634 0.2655 0.2673 0.2690 0.2706 0.2720 0.2605 0.2469 0.2348
Al2O3 0.2720 0.2749 0.2777 0.2802 0.2826 0.2847 0.2867 0.2886 0.2904 0.2921
Fe2O3 0.1597 0.1643 0.1682 0.1717 0.1748 0.1776 0.1801 0.1825 0.1847 0.1868
CaO 0.2197 0.2212 0.2227 0.2241 0.2254 0.2267 0.2279 0.2291 0.2303 0.2314
C3S 0.2375 0.2402 0.2428 0.2453 0.2478 0.2502 0.2525 0.2548 0.2570 0.2592
C2S 0.2377 0.2411 0.2444 0.2477 0.2565 0.2676 0.2779 0.2875 0.2966 0.3051
C3A 0.2331 0.2353 0.2373 0.2393 0.2413 0.2431 0.2449 0.2467 0.2485 0.2502
C4AF 0.2131 0.2150 0.2168 0.2186 0.2204 0.2222 0.2240 0.2258 0.2276 0.2294
Clinker 0.2412 0.2464 0.2529 0.2610 0.2711 0.2836 0.2987 0.3167 0.3382 0.3632
10.8
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING
VADE MECUM
11.UNIT CONVERSION
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 11 – UNIT CONVERSION
VADE-MECUM
Time:
The fundamental unit of time t is the second [s ] whose definition is based on an invariant property of cesium
133.
Mass:
International System of Unit ISU : [kg]. 1 kg is the mass of a cylinder of platinum alloy kept at Sèvres, France.
To Obtain
troy hundred sh hundred
Multiply By kg g t lb sht grain ounce
ounce weight weight
kg 1 1000 0.001 2.2046 1.102E-03 15432 32.151 35.274 0.0197 0.022
g 0.0001 1 1E-06 0.0022 1.1E-06 15.4323 0.0322 0.0353 1.97E-05 2.20E-05
t 1000 1E+06 1 2204.6 1.10231 1.5E+07 32151 3.5274 19.684 22.046
lb 0.4536 453.59 0.0005 1 0.0005 7000 14.583 16 0.0089 001
sht 907.19 907185 0.9072 2000 1 1.40E+07 29167 32000 17.857 20
grain 6.48E-05 0.0648 6E-08 0.0001 171E-08 1 0.0021 0.0023 1.28E-06 1.43E-06
troy ounce 0.0311 31.104 3E-05 0.0686 3.4E-05 480.00 1 1.0971 0.0006 0.0007
ounce 0.0283 28.35 3E-05 0.0625 3.1E-05 437.499 0.9115 1 0.0006 0.0006
hundred weight 50.802 50802 0.0508 112 0.056 783994 1633.3 1792 1 1.12
sh hundred weight 45.359 45359 0.0454 100 0.05 699996 1458.3 1600 0.8929 1
Length
(ISU : [m] ; 1 meter = wavelength of orange-red light)
To Obtain
miles miles
Multiply By m m km in ft yd
(stat) (naut)
m 1 100 0.001 39.37008 3.28084 1.093613 0.000621 0.00054
cm 0.01 1 0.00001 0.393701 0.032808 0.010936 6.21E-06 5.4E-06
km 1.00E+03 100000 1 39370.08 3280.84 1093.613 0.621371 0.539665
in 0.0254 2.54 2.54E-05 1 0.83333 0.027778 1.58E-05 1.37E-05
ft 0.3048 30.48 0.000305 12 1 0.333333 0.000189 0.000164
yd 0.9144 91.44 0.000914 36 3 1 0.000568 0.000493
miles (stat) 1609.344 160934.4 1.609344 63360 5280 1760 1 0.868507
miles (naut) 1853 185300 1.853 72952.76 6079.396 2026.465 1.151401 1
Area
(ISU : [m 2 ] )
To Obtain
Multiply By m2 cm2 km2 hectare in2 ft2 yd2 miles2 acre (US)
m2 1 10000 1E-06 0.0001 1550.003 10.7639 1.19603 3.86E-07 0.00025
cm2 0.0001 1 1E-10 1E-08 0.155 0.00108 0.00012 386E-11 2.47E-08
km2 1.00E+06 1.00E+10 1 100 1.55E+09 1.1E+07 1196029 0.3861 247.105
hectare 1.00E+04 1.00E+08 0.01 1 1.55E+07 107639 11960.3 0.00386 2.47105
in2 0.00065 6.4516 6.5E-10 6.5E-08 1 0.00694 0.00077 2.49E-10 1.59E-07
ft2 0.0929 929.03 9.3E-08 9.3E-06 143.9999 1 0.11111 3.59E-08 2.30E-05
yd2 0.8361 8361 8.4E-07 8.4E-05 1295.958 8.99971 1 3.23E-07 0.00021
miles2 2590000 2.59E+10 2.59 259 4.015E+09 2.79E+07 3097716 1 640.003
acre (US) 4046.85 4.05E+07 0.00405 0.40469 6272637 43560 4840 0/00156 1
11.1
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 11 – UNIT CONVERSION
VADE-MECUM
Volume
(ISU : [m 3 ] )
To Obtain
m3 cm3 inch3 ft3 US UK yd3 fION
Multiply By l US gallon barrel gallon
m3 1 1000000 1000 61024 35.3147 264.171 6.28978 219.974 1.30794 33783.8
cm3 1E-06 1 0.001 0.06102 3.53E-05 0.00026 6.29E-06 0.00022 1.31E-06 0.03378
l 0.001 1000 1 61.024 0.03531 0.26417 0.00629 0.21997 0.00131 33.7838
inch3 1.6E-05 16.387 0.01639 1 0.00058 0.00433 0.0001 0.0036 2.14E-05 0.55361
ft3 0.02832 28316.8 28.3168 1728 1 7.48047 0.17811 6.22895 0.03704 956.649
US gallon 0.00379 3785.43 3.78543 231.002 0.13368 1 0.02381 0.83269 0.00495 127.886
US barrel 0.15899 158988 158.988 9702.08 5.61462 42 1 34.9732 0.20795 5371.22
UK gallon 0.00455 4546 4.546 277.415 0.16054 1.20092 0.02859 1 0.00595 153.581
yd3 0.76456 764560 764.56 46656.5 27.0002 201.974 4.80892 168.183 1 25829.7
fION 2.96E-05 29.6 0.0296 1.80631 0.00105 0.00782 0.00019 0.00651 3.87E-05 1
Speeds
(ISU : [m 3 .s −1 ] )
To Obtain
Multiply By m/s m/s km/h ft/min miles/h knots ft/s
m/s 1 60 3.6 196.8504 2.237136 1.942795 3.2808
m/min 0.016667 1 0.06 3.28084 0.037286 0.03238 0.05468
km/h 0.277778 16.66667 1 54.68066 0.621427 0.539665 0.911333
ft/min 0.00508 0.3048 0.018288 1 0.011365 0.009869 0.016666
miles/h 0.447 26.82 1.6092 88 1 0.86843 1.466518
knots 0.514722 30.88333 1.853 101.3233 1.151504 1 1.688701
ft/s 0.304804 18.28822 1.097293 60.00073 0.681887 0.592171 1
Flow Rates
(ISU : [m 3 .s −1 ] )
To Obtain
Multiply By m3/s m3/min m3/h l/m ft3/s ft3/m gal US/min
m3/s 1 60 3600 60000 35.31472 2118.883 15850.25
m3/min 0.016667 1 60 1000 0.588579 35.31472 264.1708
3
m /h 0.000278 0.016667 1 16.66667 0.00981 0.588579 4.402846
l/m 1.67E-05 0.001 0.06 1 0.000589 0.035315 0.264171
ft3/s 0.028317 1.699008 101.9405 1699.008 1 60 448.8283
3
ft /m 0.000472 0.028317 1.699008 28.3168 0.016667 1 7.480471
gal US/min 6.31E-05 0.003785 0.227126 3.78543 0.002228 0.133681 1
European standard conditions: dry gas @ 273K, 101 kPa, 10%O2
11.2
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 11 – UNIT CONVERSION
VADE-MECUM
Concentration
(ISU : [kg .m −3 ] )
To Obtain
Multiply By kg/m3 g/cm3 g/m3 mg/l grain/UKgal grain/ft3 lb/ft3 lb/UKgal
kg/m3 1 0.001 1000 1000 0.07015673 436.9961 0.062428 0.010022
g/cm3 1000 1 1000000 1000028 70.15673 436996.09 62.42782 10.02241
g/m3 0.001 0.000001 1 1.000028 0.070157 0.4369961 6.24E-05 1E-05
mg/l 0.001 1E-06 0.999972 1 0.070155 0.4369839 6.24E-05 1E-05
grain/UKgal 14.254 0.0143 14.2538 14.2542 1 6.228855 8.9E-4 0.000143
grain/ft3 2.29E-3 2.29E-06 2.2884 2.2884 0.1605 1 1.43E-04 2.29E-05
lb/ft3 16.0185 0.016019 16018.5 16018.95 1123.806 7000.022 1 0.160544
lb/UKgal 99.7764 0.099776 99776.4 99779.19 6999.986 43601.90 6.228823 1
Pressure
(ISU : 1[Pa] = 1[N .m −2 ] )
To Obtain
mmHG
Multiply By kgf/cm2 mbar Pascal mmWG PSI hWG inHG ATA ATU
(torr)
kgf/cm2 1 980.66 98066 10000 735.56 14.223 393.7 28.959 0.96784 74.6269
mbar 0.001 1 100 10.197 0.7501 0.0145 0.4015 0.0295 0.00099 0.0761
Pascal 1.020E-05 0.01 1 0.102 0.0075 0.0001 0.004 0.0003 9.87E-06 0.00076
mmWG 1.00E-04 0.0981 9.8065 1 0.0736 0.0014 0.0394 0.0029 9.68E-05 0.00746
mmHG 0.0014 1.3332 133.32 13.595 1 0.0193 0.5352 0.0394 0.00132 0.10146
PSI 0.0703 68.947 6894.7 703.08 51.715 1 27.68 2.036 0.06805 5.24679
inWG 0.0025 2.4909 249.09 25.4 1.8683 0.0361 1 0.0736 0.00246 0.18955
inHG 0.0345 33.864 3386.4 345.32 25.4 0.4912 13.595 1 0.03342 2.57699
Atmosphere 1.0332 1013.2 101325 10332 760 14.696 406.78 29.921 1 77.1067
ATU 0.0134 13.141 1314.1 134 9.8566 0.1906 5.2756 0.3881 0.01297 1
1 Newton/m2 = .01 millibar = 10 A/cm2
1 Pieze = 10 millibar = 10000 dyne/cm2
1kgf/m2 = 1 mmWG
Heat, Work
(ISU : 1[J ] = 1[N .m]; 1 cal = 4 ,1868[J ]) used to be defined as the quantity of heat, which must be transferred
to one gram of water to raise its temperature one centrigrade).
To Obtain
Multiply By Joule Calorie kJ kcal BTU Thermie Therm kgfm ft-poundf kWh hph
Joule 1 0.2388 0.001 0.0002 0.0009 2.39E-07 9.48E-09 0.102 0.7376 2.78E-07 3.73E-07
Calorie 4.1868 1 0.0042 0.001 0.004 1.00E-06 3.97E-08 0.4269 3.088 1.16E-06 1.56E-06
kJ 1000 238.85 1 0.2388 0.9478 0.0002 948E-06 101.97 737.56 0.0003 0.0004
kcal 4186.8 1000 4.1868 1 3.9683 0.001 3.97E-05 426.93 3088 0.0012 0.0016
BTU 1055.1 252 1.0551 0.252 1 0.0003 1E-05 107.59 778.17 0.0003 0.0004
Thernie 419E+06 1.00E+06 4186.8 1000 3968.3 1 0.0397 426935 3.09E+06 1.163 1.5596
Therm 1.06E+08 2.52E+07 105506 25200 100000 25.2 1 1.08E+07 7.78E+07 29.307 39.302
kgfm 9.8067 2.3423 0.0098 0.0023 0.0093 2.34E-06 9.29E-08 1 7.233 2.72E-06 3.65E-06
ft-poundf 1.3558 0.3238 0.0014 0.0003 0.0013 3.24E-07 1.29E-08 0.1383 1 3.77E-07 5.05E-07
kWh 3.60E+06 859845 3600 859.85 3412.1 0.8598 0.0341 367098 2.66E+06 1 1.341
hph 2.68E+06 641187 2684.5 641.19 2544.4 0.6412 0.0254 273745 1.98E+06 0.7457 1
1 Joule = 1 Newton-metre
11.3
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 11 – UNIT CONVERSION
VADE-MECUM
11.4
Rev. 2002
CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING SECTION 11 – UNIT CONVERSION
VADE-MECUM
Force
[ ]
(ISU : kg .m.s − 2 = 1 [N ] Newton )
1 Newton is the force which when applied to a one-kilogram mass will produce an acceleration of one meter per
second).
Newton dyne gf sthene poundal poundforce
Newton 1 100000 101.9716 1.00E-03 7.233011 0.224809
dyne 0.00001 1 0.00102 1E-08 7.23E-05 2.25E-06
gf 0.009807 980.665 1 9.81E-06 0.070932 0.002205
sthene 1000 1E+08 101971.6 1 7233.011 224.809
poundal 0.138255 13825.5 14.09809 0.000138 1 0.031081
poundforce 4.44822 444822 453.5922 0.004448 32.17403 1
Temperature
• The Celsius scale is defined as the ice point (freezing point of water salined with air at standard atmospheric
pressure = 1 atm = 101 325 Pa) is 0oC and the steam point (boiling point of pure water at 1 atm = 101325 Pa)
= 100oC.
• Fahrenheit: (oF)=32+1.8*( oC).
• Kelvin: (oK)=( oC)+273.15.
• Rankine: (oR)=( oF)+459.67.
11.5
Rev. 2002